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UNIVERSAL 


Pronouncing  Dictionary 


OF 


BIOGRAPHY 


AND 


MYTHOLOGY. 


BY 

JOSEPH   THOMAS,    M.D.,  LL.D , 

AUTHOR    OF   THE   SYSTEM    OF    PRONUNCIATION    IN    "  LIPPINCOTT'S    PRONOUNCING   GAZETTEER    OF    THE   WORLD," 

OF     "A     COMPREHENSIVE     MEDICAL     DICTIONARY,"     AND     OF     VARIOUS     PRONOUNCING 

VOCABULARIES    OF    BIOGRAPHICAL    AND    GEOGRAPHICAL    NAMES. 


NEW  EDITION, 

THOROUGHLY      REVISED      AND      GREATLY      ENLARGED. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.   B.   LIPPINXOTT   COMPANY. 

LONDON:    10  HENRIETTA  STREET,  COVENT  GARDEN. 
1892. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S70,  by 

J.  B.   LIPPINCOTT   &    CO., 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


Copyright,  1885,  by  J.  B.  LiPPiNCOTT  COMPANY. 


HYPERMNES  TEA 


1341 


IBN-AL-ATSEER 


Hy-perm-nes'tra,  I  Gr.  'Ynep/itv^aTpa;  Fr.  Hyperm- 
NESTRE,  e'pSRni'nSstR',]  one  of  the  Danaides,  which 
see. 

Hjfp'sI-cliB,  [T^wcAvf,]  a  Greek  mathematician  of 
an  uncertain  epoch,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Alex- 
andria in  the  second  century.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Right  Ascension  of  the  Constellations  of  the 
Zodiac,"  which  is  extant.  He  is  regarded  by  some  as 
the  author  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  books  of  the 
"  Elements"  of  Euclid.  According  to  Delambre,  he 
lived  about  146  B.C. 

Hj^p-sip'y-le,  [Gr.  TipiTrvXt},]  a  queen  of  Lemnos, 
who,  according  to  tradition,  saved  the  life  of  her  father 
when  the  other  women  of  the  island  killed  their  husbands 
and  male  relations.  She  was  afterwards  sold  into  slavery 
by  the  Lemnian  women. 

See  Lemprihre's  "Classical  Dictionary." 

H3nrcan.    See  Hyrcanus. 

Hyr-ci'nus  [Gr.  'Tp/cavof ;  Fr.  Hyrcan,  feR'kfiN']  I, 
(John,)  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  was  the  son  of  Simon 
Maccabeus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  135  B.C.  After  the 
death  of  Antiochus  Sidetes,  130  B.C.,  he  conquered  the 
Idumeans  and  destroyed  the  city  of  Samaria.  Though 
educated  as  a  Pharisee,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
favoured  their  rivals  the  Sadducees.  He  died  in  the 
year  103,  leaving  his  office  to  his  son  Aristobu'lus. 

See  JosEPHUs,  "  History  of  the  Jews ;"  Apocryphal  Book  of 
Maccabees. 

Hyrcanus  II.,  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  succeeded  his 


father,  Alexander  Jannaeus,  in  76  B.C.  His  brother  Aristo- 
bu'lus having  usurped  the  regal  power,  Hyrcanus,  who 
was  a  weak  prince,  appealed  to  the  Roman  Pompey, 
who  restored  him  to  the  throne  and  priesthood.  An- 
tigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  with  the  aid  of  the  Parthians, 
deposed  Hyrcanus  about  38  B.C.,  and  was  soon  after 
supplanted  by  Herod,  who  married  Mariamne,  the  grand- 
daughter of  Hyrcanus,  and  put  the  latter  to  death,  30  B.C. 

Hyrtl,  hd^R't'l,  (Joseph,)  an  able  anatomist,  born  at 
Eisenstadt,  Hungary,  in  181 1.  He  became  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Vienna  in  1845.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Text-Book  of  Human  Anatomy,"  ("  Lehrbuch 
der  Anatomie  des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1847,)  which  has 
been  adopted  by  the  German  universities  as  a  standard 

Hys'lop,  or  His'lop,  (James,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born 
near  Sanquhar,  July  13,  1798.  He  became  a  school- 
master in  the  navy,  and  died  near  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands,  December  4,  1827.  He  is  still  remembered  for 
his  sweet  and  graceful  verses. 

Hystaspe.     See  Hystaspes. 

Hys-tas'pes,  [Gr.'Taraamis  ;  Fr.  Hystaspe,  4s' ttsp'; 
Persian,  GushtAsp,]  a  satrap  of  Persia,  and  the  father 
of  Darius  I.,  lived  about  550  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  introduced  into  Persia  the  learning 
of  the  Indian  Brahmans.  According  to  one  account,  he 
was  the  chief  of  the  Magians,  which  accords  with  the 
Persian  tradition  that  Gushtasp  patronized  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster.     (See  GushtAsp.) 

HywelL    See  Howell  the  Good. 


I. 


I-ac'€hus,  [Gr.  'Iokxoc,]  a  surname  or  synonym  of 
Bacchus,  which  see. 

I-ara'be,  [Gr.  'lafi^ri,]  a  servant-maid  of  Metanira, 
Queen  of  Eleusis,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Pan.  By 
her  jokes  or  tricks  she  amused  Ceres  when  the  latter 
was  in  distress.  Iambic  poetry  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  her. 

lamblichus.    See  Jamblichus. 

I-ap'e-tnis,  [Gr.  'lanerdg;  Fr.  Japet,  zhf  pi',]  in  classic 
mythology,  a  Titan,  and  a  son  of  Uranus.  He  was  the 
father  of  Atlas,  Prometheus,  Epimetheus,  and  Menoetius. 
He  is  by  some  considered  to  be  the  same  as  the  Japheth 
of  Scripture.  lapetus  was  regarded  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  as  the  ancestor  of  the  human  race,* 
and,  according  to  Scripture,  the  descendants  of  Japheth 
inhabited  the  "isles  of  the  Gentiles,"  (Genesis  x.  5,) 
which  would  seem  to  signify  the  numerous  islands  along 
the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  and  probably 
also  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  two  continents ;  in  other 
words,  all  that  part  of  the  world  with  which  the  early 
Greeks  were  acquainted. 

I-a'sI-on  [Gr.  'laaluv]  or  I-a'sI-us,  a  fabulous  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Electra,  (or  of  Minos  and  Corythus.)  He 
is  said  to  have  been  beloved  by  Ceres,  who  bore  him  a 
son,  Plutus,  the  god  of  riches. 

Ibarra,  e-Bdr'ri,  (Joaquin,)  a  Spanish  printer,  born  at 
Saragossa  in  1725,  carried  on  business  in  Madrid.  He 
was  distinguished  for  the  perfection  of  his  publications, 
especially  for  his  editions  of  "  Don  Quixote,"  (1780,)  and 
a  Spanish  version  of  Sallust,  (1772.)     Died  in  1785. 

I^baa,  a  S)rrian  priest  of  the  fifth  century,  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  disputes  about  Nestorianism.  He 
was  chosen  Bishop  of  Edessa  in  436  A.D.  At  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ephesus,  in  449,  he  was  deposed  on  the  charge  of 
favouring  the  Nestorians ;  but  he  was  reinstated  by  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon   in  451.     Died  in  457. 

Ib'bet-son,  (Mrs.  Agnes,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  London  in  1757.  She  investigated  the  structure  of 
plants,  and  wrote  botanical  papers  which  were  inserted 
in  Nicholson's  "Journal"  and  the  "Philosophical  Maga- 
zine," (1809-17.)     Died  in  1823. 

Ibbetson,  (Julius  Caesar,)  an  English  landscape- 

•  See  Horace,  lib.  i..  Carmen  3,  in  which  the  phrases  "Gens  Hu- 
mana" and  "  lapeti  genus"  are  used  almost  synonymously, 
t  See  note  on  page  35. 


painter,  born  at  Scarborough,  copied  and  imitated  with 
success  the  works  of  Berghem.  He  wrote  an  "  Accidence 
or  Gamut  of  Oil-Painting  for  Beginners."    Died  in  1817. 

Ib'bot,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  divine,  born  near 
Swaffliam,  in  Norfolk,  in  1680.  He  became  chaplain 
to  George  I.  in  1716,  and  prebendary  of  Westminster 
in  1724.  He  delivered  the  Boyle  lectures  in  17 13-14. 
Died  in  1725.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1726. 

See  Dr.  S.  Clarke,  "  Life  of  Benjamin  Ibbot." 

Iberville,  d',  de'bSR'vil',  (I.emoine  or  Lemoyne,) 
d  Canadian  navigator,  born  at  Montreal  in  1642,  distin- 
guished himself  in  many  actions  against  the  English. 
He  commanded  a  vessel  sent  by  the  French  government 
to  explore  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  which  he  dis- 
covered in  March,  1699.  He  ascended  the  river,  and 
built  a  fort  on  its  border.     Died  at  Havana  in  1706. 

Ibi,  ee'bee,  (Sinibaldo,)  an  Italian  painter,  a  pupil 
of  Perugino,  was  born  at  Perugia,  and  flourished  between 
1505  and  1528. 

IBNy  ib'n,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  "son,"  and 
forming  a  part  of  many  names  ;  as,  Ibn-Hanbal,  the 
"son  ofHanbal,"  etc.  It  is  often  written  Ben;  as,  Ali- 
BEN-ABt-TALiB,  for  Alee-Ibn-Abee  (-Ab!)  -Taub. 

Ibn-Abeet(-Abi)-Yakoob,(or  -Y'akfib.)  Ib'n  i'bee 
yS'koob'  (Abool-Faraj,  §'bool  (Ir'Sj,)  otherwise  called 
An-Nadeem  (-Nadim)-Mohammed-Ibn-Ishak,  5n- 
nil-deem'  mo-h^rn'med  Ib'n  is-hSk',  an  Arabian  writer, 
chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  a  valuable  catalogue  of 
books  in  the  Arabic  language,  with  brief  and  excellent 
notices  of  their  authors.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  wrote  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century. 

Ibn-Al-Atseer,  (-Atsyr,)  Ib'n  il  at-seeR',  (Abool- 
Hassan-Alee,  or  Aboul(-Ablil) -Hassan- Ali,  i'bool 
hds'san  i'lee,)  surnamed  Az-ed-Deen,  (Azzeddyn,)  {i.e. 
the  "  Splendour  of  Religion,")  an  Arabian  historian,  born 
in  Mesopotamia  about  1160,  became  a  citizen  of  Mosul. 
He  excelled  in  the  science  of  prophetic  traditions,  and 
had  great  knowledge  of  history,  as  apjiears  by  his 
Complete  Chronicle  from  the  origin  of  the  world  to 
his  own  time.     Died  in  1233. 

See  Haji-Khalfah,  "  Lexicon  Bibliographicum  ;"  VoN  Hammkr- 
PURGSTALL.,  "  LiteraturKeschichte  der  Araber." 

Ibn-Al-Ateeer  (or  -Al-Atsyr)-Nasr- Allah,  Ib'n  il- 
St-seeK'  nds'r  ^I'lJh,  written  also  Alatyr  and  Alatir,  an 
Arabian  writer,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 


•«as  k;  5  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, gjittural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  i n  this.     (fi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


IBN-BAJAH 


1342 


IBRAHEEM 


Jezeereh-Benee-Omar,  on  the  Tigris,  in  1162.  He  visited 
the  court  of  Saladin,  who  engaged  him  as  vizier  to  his 
son  and  heir,  Melik-Afdhal.  I  le  was  eminent  for  his  learn- 
ing,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Prosody,  and  other  works. 

See  Ibn-Khallikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Ibn-Bajah.     See  Avenpace. 

Ibn-Batuta.     See  Batootah. 

Ibn-Doreid,  Ib'n  do'rad',  (or  do'rTd',)  a  celebrated 
Arabian  poet,  born  at  Bassorah  in  838  A.D.  He  culti- 
vated various  kinds  of  poetry  with  distinguished  success. 
Died  at  Bagdad  in  933. 

Ibn-Hanbal,  Tb'n  hin'bil,  (Ahmed,  Sn'med,)  the 
founder  of  the  fourth  sect  of  orthodox  Mohammedans, 
was  born  at  Bagdad  (or,  as  some  say,  at  Meru)  in  the 
year  of  the  Hejrah  164.  He  attained  a  great  reputation 
for  virtue  and  knowledge  of  the  traditions  of  Mohammed. 
He  received  many  traditions  from  Shafei,  with  whom  he 
was  intimate.  For  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  the  Koran 
to  have  been  created,  he  was  scourged  and  imprisoned 
by  the  caliph  Motassem.  He  died  at  Bagdad  in  A.D. 
855.  The  sect  became  very  numerous  after  his  death. 
They  are  called  Hanbalites. 

Ibn-Haukal.     See  Haukal. 

Ibn-Ishak,  (or  -Ish&q,)  Tb'n  is-hik',  an  Arabian  his- 
torian, who,  at  the  request  of  the  caliph  Al-Mansoor, 
wrote  a  life  of  Mohammed  the  prophet.  He  is  an  elo- 
quent but  not  a  trustworthy  writer.     Died  in  768  A.D. 

See  Sprenger,  "Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  69  tt  seq. 

Ibu-Klhakan,  (or  -Khacan.)     See  .Al-Fath. 

Ibn-EZhaldoon,  (-Khaldoun  or  -Khaldfin,)  Ib'n 
K^l'doon'  (Walee-ed-Deen-  (or  Waly-Eddyn-) 
Aboo-Zeid-Abd-er-Rahman,  wi'lee  ed-deen'  3'b6o 
zid  §.bd-er-rdh'mdn,)  a  celebrated  Arabian  historian,  born 
at  Tunis  in  1332.  He  removed  to  Cairo,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  uprightness  as  a  judge,  and  was 
chosen  chief  of  the  Cadees  (Cadis)  of  the  sect  of  Malek- 
ites  in  1384.  Afterwards,  while  on  a  journey  to  Syria, 
he  was  made  prisoner  by  Taimoor,  (the  famous  Tamer- 
lane,) by  whom  he  was  treated  with  great  kindness  and 
respect.  His  principal  work  is  a  valuable  "  History  of 
the  Arabs,  Persians,  and  Berbers,  with  Preliminary 
Observations,'"  which  was  recently  published  in  France. 
"  We  cannot  but  conceive,  in  reading  this,"  says  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  "a  very  high  idea  of  his  judgment, 
sagacity,  and  erudition,  and  of  the  great  variety  of  his 
knowledge."     Died  in  1406. 

See  his  Autobiography,  published  in  the  "Journal  Asiatique"  of 
1844 :  SiLVESTRB  DE  .Sacy,  "  Chrestomathie  Arabe ;"  Casiri,  "  Bibli- 
otheca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Ibn-Khallikan,  Tb'n  K^rie-kSn',  written  also  Ebn- 
Khalican  or  -Khilcan,  (Shems-ed-Deen  (or-Eddin) 
Abool-  (Aboul-  or  Abul-)  Abbas-Ahmed,  sh§ms 
ed-deen'  i'bool  Sb'bSs'  in'med,)  a  celebrated  Arabian 
historian,  born  at  Arbela  in  121 1.  He  became  grand 
Cadee  (Cadi)  of  Damascus  about  1261.  His  chief  work 
is  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Famous  Moslems," 
which  contains  over  eight  hundred  articles.  An  English 
translation  of  it  was  begun  by  Mr.  Slane,  the  first  volume 
of  which  was  published  in  1841.     Died  in  1282. 

Ibn-Koteybah  or  Abdallah-Ibn-Koteybah,  ib- 
dil'lah  Tb'n  ko-ta'bah  or  ko-tl'bah,  written  also  Cotey- 
bah  and  Qotaytiah,  an  Arabian  historian  and  critic,  born 
at  Bagdad  in  828  a.d.  ;  died  in  889. 

See  Ibn-Khallikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Ibn-Maimoon,  (-Maimtin  or  -Maimoun.)  See 
Maimonides. 

Ibn-Rosched,  (or  -Roshd.)     See  Averroes. 

Ibn-Sina.     See  Avicenna. 

Ibn-Tofail,  (-Tofayl.)  See  Aboo-Bekr-Ibn-Tofail 

Ibuul-Abbar.     See  Kodhaee. 

Ibn-Yoonas,  (-Younas  or  -Yflnas,)  Ib'n  yoo'nas, 
sometimes  spelled  Ibn-Younis,  (Alee-  (or  All-)  Ibn- 
Abderxahman,  i'lee  Tb'n  dbd-er-rih'min,)  one  of  the 
most  eminent  Arabian  astronomers,  was  born  in  979  A.D. 
He  made  at  Cairo  a  series  of  observations,  the  results  of 
which  he  published  in  a  work  called  the  "Table  of  Ibn- 
Yoonas."     Died  in  1008. 

Ibn-Zohr.     See  Avenzoar. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  written  also  Ibrahym,  the 
Arabic  name  of  the  patriarch  Abraham,  which  see. 


Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,*)  ib-ri-heem',  thirteenth  caliph 
of  the  Omeyyad  dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Waleed  (Walid) 
I.  He  began  to  reign  in  Damascus  in  744  A.D.,  and  a 
few  months  after  was  deposed  by  Mervvan.  The  Arab 
historians  disagree  respecting  his  subsequent  fate. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  I,  (Aboo-Abdallah,  i'boQ 
ib-dil'lah,)  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Aglabides  in  Africa, 
was  the  son  of  Aglab,  and  a  native  of  Arabia,  About 
800  A.D.  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Africa  by  Haroun- 
al-Raschid.  After  the  death  of  the  latter,  (808,)  Ibraheem 
assumed  the  royal  power.     Died  about  813. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  I.,  a  Ti4rkish  Sultan,  brother 
of  Amurath  IV.,  was  proclaimed  in  1640,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three.  His  cruelty  and  other  vices  excited  against 
him  a  powerful  and  successful  cons])iracy,  by  which  he 
was  deposed  and  strangled  in  1648  or  1649.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Mahomet  IV. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  II.,  Emperor  of  Hindostan,  the 
son  of  Iskander,  began  to  reign  in  15 17,  being  the  third 
of  the  Afghan  dynasty.  He  was  a  very  unpopular  ruler. 
In  1526  the  Mogul  Baber  invaded  India,  a  battle  was 
fought  at  Panijjut,  where  Ibraheem  was  defeated  and 
killed,  and  the  Mogul  dynasty  was  established  in  India. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  a  favourite  of  Sultan  Solyman 
II.,  was  a  Genoese  by  birth,  and  was  taken  to  Constan- 
tinople by  pirates  in  his  infancy.  He  became  grand 
vizier  about  1523,  and  signalized  his  courage  in  the  war 
against  Hungary  in  1527.  He  was  put  to  death,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Sultana,  in  1535. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  born  at  Aleppo,  was  the  mosi 
eminent  among  the  Ottoman  jurists.  His  fame  rests  upon 
a  great  work  styled  the  "  Confluence  of  the  Seas,"  ("  Mul- 
teka  al-Abhar,")  which  is  a  complete  code  of  laws.  Died 
in  1549. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  Pasha  of  Egypt,  the  son  of 
Mehemet  Alee,  (Ali,)  was  born  in  Rumelia  in  1789.  He 
conquered  the  Wahabees,  in  Arabia,  about  1818.  In 
1824  he  commanded  an  army  and  fleet  which  Mehemet 
Alee  sent  against  the  Greeks.  Having  landed  in  the 
Morea  with  10,000  men  in  1825,  he  took  several  towns 
and  committed  many  atrocities.  The  success  of  the  allies 
at  Navarino  and  the  French  invasion  of  the  Morea  forced 
him  to  retire  to  Egypt  in  1828.  In  a  war  waged  between 
the  Viceroy  of  Egypt  and  the  Sultan,  Ibraheem  took 
Aleppo  and  defeated  the  Turks  in  a  great  battle  at 
Konieh,  in  Syria,  in  1832.  His  victorious  progress  was 
arrested  by  the  intervention  of  the  European  powers  in 
1833.     Died  in  1848. 

See  Labat,  "L'figypte,  ancienne  et  modeme." 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Bey,  a  famous  Mameluke 
chief,  born  in  Circassia  about  1735.  He  went  to  Egypt 
in  his  youth,  and  entered  the  service  of  Mohammed  Bey. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter, Ibraheem  shared  with  Moorad 
Bey  the  sovereignty  of  Egypt.  When  Bonaparte  invaded 
Egypt  in  1798  and  defeated  Moorad,  Ibraheem  retired 
to  Syria.  In  1800  he  took  part  against  the  French  at 
Cairo,  eta,  and,  after  they  evacuated  Egypt,  was  again 
Governor  of  Cairo,  until  supplanted  by  Mehemet  Alee. 
Died  in  1816. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  BfTendi,  (§f-f?n'deej  a  learned 
Turk,  who  was  born  about  1640,  and  filled  considerable 
offices  at  Constantinople.  He  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, was  baptized  in  1671,  retired  to  Venice,  and  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Paul  Antonio  Effendi.  He  translated 
several  books  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic     Died  in  1697. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Khan-Ogli,(o'glee,)  was  grand 
vizier  of  Turkey  when  Mahomet  I.  died,  in  1421.  He 
took  measures  to  secure  the  succession  of  Mahomet's 
son,  Amurath  II.,  who  was  then  absent  from  the  capital. 
To  reward  this  service,  Amurath  gave  him  the  title  of 
Khan,  with  hereditary  privileges  which  made  his  family 
the  first  in  the  empire. 


•  The  Arabic  texts  are  by  no  means  uniform  in  regard  to  the 
penuhima  of  this  name;  it  is  often  made  short,  but,  if  we  mistake 
not,  more  frequently  long,  as  given  above.  It  is  proper,  however,  to 
remark  that  a  single  instance  of  the  insertion  of  the  Alif  (the  sign  of 
the  long  vowel)  ought  to  outweigh  several  omissions,  as  the  latter 
might  mure  easily  be  the  result  of  neglect  or  haste.  The  frequent 
omission  of  the  long  vowel  in  the  manuscript  of  writers  who  are 
generally  correct,  merely  proves  that  the  insertion  is  not  deemed 
absolutely  indisjiensable.  Its  omission  may  be  compared  to  the 
neglecting  to  Hot  one's  ;s  in  writing  English, — a  fault,  undoubtedly,  but 
a  Mult  often  committed  by  writers  otherwise  remarkable  for  accuracy. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  Ti,  y,  sAori;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


IBRAHIM 


T34' 


IGNARRA 


Ibrahim.     See  Ibraheem. 

Ibrahym.     See  Ikraheem. 

Ibsen,  ib'sen,  (Henrik,)  a  Norwegian  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Skien,  March  20,  1828.  He  began 
life  as  an  apothecary.  His  "Catiline,"  {1850,)  a  drama, 
was  an  ill-written  production.  In  185 1  he  went  to  the 
University  of  Christiania,  and  afterwards  was  director 
of  theatres,  first  at  Bergen  and  then  at  Christiania. 
"Love's  Comedy"  (1863)  was  his  first  great  success. 
His  "Emperor  and  Galilaean"  is  full  of  power  and  in- 
terest, and  still  more  so  is  the  drama  of  "Julian's  Apos- 
tasy." Some  of  his  other  works,  in  spite  of  great  merits, 
are  dull  and  prosaic.  His  later  poems  are  often  laden 
with  polished  and  powerful  satire.  He  published  various 
historical  dramas  of  great  excellence,  and  has  taken  a 
recognized  place  among  the  leading  dramatists  of  recent 
years. 

Ib'y-oua,  ['Ifly/cof,]  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Rhe- 
gium,  in  Italy,  flourished  about  560  B.C.,  and  passed  part 
of  his  life  at  Samos.  His  poems,  which  were  chiefly 
love-songs,  are  lost,  except  a  few  fragments.  He  was 
the  fifth  lyric  poet  of  the  Alexandrian  canon,  and  had 
a  high  reputation.  He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
robbers.  His  death  has  furnished  the  subject  of  one 
of  the  finest  of  Schiller's  minor  poems,  "  Die  Kraniche 
des  Ibycus." 

19a.     See  ISA, 

Icard,  e'ktR',  (Charles,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister and  writer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1636.  He  was 
driven  into  exile  by  persecution  in  1682,  and  settled  at 
Bremen  in  1688. 

Icare.    See  Icarus. 

I-ca'rI-us,  [Gr.  'kapwf,]  also  called  Icarus,  an  Athe- 
nian, to  whom  Bacchus  is  said  to  have  taught  tlie  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine.  He  was  killed  by  some  shepherds,  to 
whom  he  had  given  wine  and  who  suspected  that  he  had 
poisoned  them.  The  legend  adds  that  he  was  changed 
into  the  constellation  Bootes. 

Icarius,  a  Lacedaemonian,  the  father  of  Penelope. 
He  urged  her  to  remain  at  Sparta  after  she  was  married 
to  Ulysses ;  but  she  preferred  to  follow  her  husband. 

Ic'a-rus,  [Gr.  "kapof;  Fr.  Icare,  e'ktR',]  son  of  Dae- 
dalus, with  whom,  according  to  the  Greek  mythology, 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Labyrinth  of  Crete.  Having 
attem]3ted  to  fly  by  means  of  artificial  wings  made  with 
wax,  they  were  melted  by  his  approaching  too  near  the 
sun,  and  he  fell  into  the  sea,  near  the  island  of  Samos, 
which  received  from  him  the  name  of  the  Icarian  Sea, 

Iccius,  ik'she^s,  a  Roman  philosopher,  lived  about 
30  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Horace,  who  addressed  to 
him  an  epistle  and  an  ode. 

Icher,  e'shaiR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and 
Hellenist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1658;  died  in  1713. 

I-cill-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  who  was  affi- 
anced to  the  celebrated  Virginia.  He  was  elected  tribune 
of  the  people  in  456  B.C.,  and  favoured  the  cause  of  the 
plebeians.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  successful 
revolt  against  the  Decemviri  about  450  B.C. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Ic-ti'nus,  ['I/cTtvof,]  a  celebrated  Grecian  architect, 
who  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  built  several  grand 
temples,  among  which  was  that  of  Apollo  Epicurius  in 
Arcadia.  The  most  memorable  monument  of  his  genius 
is  the  Parthenon  of  Athens,  built  by  order  of  Pericles. 
Callicrates  was  associated  with  Ictinus  as  architect  of 
this  edifice,  which  is  probably  the  most  perfect  speci- 
men of  Grecian  architecture  in  any  age.  Its  length  was 
227  feet  and  its  breadth  about  100.    (See  Callicrates.) 

See  Pausanias,  book  viii. 

Ic"wara.     See  Iswara. 

Fda,  [Fr.  Ide,  id,]  Countess  of  Boulogne,  born  about 
1040,  was  the  mother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  crusader 
and  King  of  Jerusalem.  She  was  eminent  for  wisdom 
and  piety.     Died  in  1 113. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Idace.     See  Idacius. 

Idacius,  e-da'she;^s,  [Fr.  Idace,  e'diss',]  a  Spanish 
chronicler,  born  at  tamego  about  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  He  became  Bishop  of  Chaves,  (Aquae  Flaviae,) 
in  Portugal.     He  was  author  of  a  "  Chronicon"  of  the 


period  from  379  to  468  a.d.,  which  was  printed  in  Paris 
by  Sirmond  in  1619. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Fdas,  [Gr.  'hJaf,]  a  son  of  Aphareus,  took  part  in  the 
Argonautic  expedition,  and  was  renowned  for  valour. 
Idas  and  his  brother  Lynceus  having  quarrelled  with 
the  Dioscu'ri,  Idas  killed  Castor,  and  was  in  turn  killed 
by  Pollux. 

Ide.     See  Ida. 

Ideler,  ee'deh-ler,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  a  Prussian 
astronomer  and  linguist,  born  near  Perleberg  in  1766. 
He  was  appointed  in  1816  tutor  to  the  princes  William 
Frederick  and  Charles,  and  in  182 1  became  professor  at 
the  Berlin  University.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical 
Researches  on  the  Astronomical  Observations  of  the 
Ancients,"  (1806,)  "On  the  Calendar  of  Ptolemy,"  and 
other  similar  treatises.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Institute,  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1846. 

Ideler,  (Julius  Ludwig,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1809.  He  published 
"  Meteorology  of  the  Ancient  Greeks  and  Romans," 
(1832,)  "  Hermapion,  or  Rudiments  of  the  Hieroglyphic 
Literature  of  Ancient  Egypt,"  (1841,)  and  other  anti- 
quarian treatises.     Died  in  1842. 

Ideler,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  Prussian  physician,  born 
in  1795,  lived  in  Berlin.  He  is  known  as  a  writer  on 
mental  maladies.     Died  at  Kumlosen,  July  29,  i860. 

Ides,  ee'dSs,  (Everard  Isbrantz,)  a  German  travel- 
ler, born  in  Holstein  about  1660.  He  was  sent  to  Pekin 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1692  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce, and  returned  in  1694.  A  narrative  of  his  journey, 
published  in  1704,  is  a  work  of  some  merit. 

Idman,  id'min,  (Nils,)  a  Swedish  philologist,  pub- 
lished in  1778  "Researches  on  the  Finnish  People,  and 
the  Relations  between  the  Finnish  Language  and  the 
Greek." 

Idomenee.    See  Idomeneus. 

I-dom'e-neus,  [Gr. 'I(5o//eveiif  ,•  Fr.  Idom6n6e,  e'do'- 
mi'ni',]  King  of  Crete,  a  semi-fabulous  Greek  hero,  said 
to  be  a  grandson  of  Minos.  According  to  Homer,  he 
fought  bravely  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Having  been  ex- 
pelled from  Crete  by  his  subjects,  he  went  to  Italy  and 
founded  a  city. 

Idomeneus,  [Gr.  'Wojifcvevf,]  a  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Lampsacus,  lived  about  300  B.C.  He  was  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Epicurus.     His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Graecis. " 

Iduna,  e-doo'nS,  or  Idun,  sometimes  written  Iduu 
na,  [etymology  doubtful,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  immortality,  who  keeps  a  casket  of  apples,  of 
which  if  the  gods  partake  they  never  grow  old.  (See 
Thiassi.)  Iduna  is  said  to  be  the  wife  of  Bragi,  the  god 
of  poetry,  who  in  one  sense  may  be  said  to  possess  the 
gift  of  immortality. 

lefremoff  or  lefremov.    See  Yefremof. 

lenichen.    See  Jenichen. 

lerraak.     See  Yermak. 

lezdedjerd.     See  Yezdejerd. 

Ifiland,  ifflSnt,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a  celebrated 
German  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1759. 
He  became  director  of  the  National  Theatre  at  Berlin  in 
1796,  and  in  1811  was  appointed  director-general  of  the 
royal  plays.  Among  his  most  popular  dramas  are  "  The 
Hunters,"  ("  Die  Jager,")  "  The  Advocates,"  and  "  The 
Old  Bachelors,"  ("Die  Hagestolzen.")  He  also  pub- 
lished several  treatises  on  the  dramatic  art.  "  It  is 
impossible,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "  to  have  more 
originality  than  Mand ;  and  he  is  as  superior  in  the 
theory  as  in  the  practice  of  his  art."     Died  in  1814. 

See  liis  "  Autobiograpliy"  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Dramas,  18 
vols.,  1 798-1 809 ;  J.  L.  KoRMEY.  "A.  W.  Iffland's  Krankheits- 
geschichte,"  1814  ;  KuNZ,  "  Aus  dem  Leben  zweier  Schauspieler  : 
Iffland's  uiid  Devrient's,"  1838. 

Igdrasil,  (Yggdrasil.)    See  Odin. 
Iglesias  de  la  Casa,  e-gla'se-is  di  li  k&'si,  (Jos6,l 
a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Salamanca  in  1753 ;  died  in  1 791. 
See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ignace.    See  Ignatius. 

Ignarra,  in-yir'ri,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  antiquat^ 


■€as;6;  9as  j;  %hard;  gas/;  G,  h,  v.,  guttural;  ti, nasal;  K,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in //4m.     ([J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IGNA  TIEFF 


1344 


IMA  D-  ED-  D  O  WLAH 


and  priest,  born  near  Naples  in  1728,  was  a  good  clas- 
sical scholar.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
Koyal  University  of  Naples  in  1771,  director  of  the  royal 
printing-office  in  1782,  and  precejHor  of  the  prince  Fran- 
cis de  Bourbon  in  1784.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  esteemed  commentary  "  De  Palaestra  Neapolitana  " 
(1770.)     Died  in  1808. 

See  Casta  1.DI,  "  Ignarrs  Vita,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Opuscoli,"  1807. 

Ignatieff,  ig-nS'te-Sf,  (Nikolai  Pavlovitch,)  a  Rus- 
sian general  and  diplomat,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
January  29,  1832.  He  entered  the  army,  was  rapidly 
promoted,  and  was  afterwards  sent  upon  various  im- 
portant diplomatic  errands.  In  1858  he  obtained  from 
China  the  cession  of  extensive  territories,  and  from  1859 
to  1863  he  was  full  ambassador  at  Peking.  He  was 
(1864-77)  Russian  envoy  to  Turkey,  and  in  1878  he 
negotiated  the  treaty  of  San  Stephano,  and  was  after- 
wards minister  of  the  interior. 

Ignatius,  ig-na'she-us,  [Gr.  'Ij-varwf;  Fr.  Ignace, 
en'yfe';  Ger.  Ignaz,  ig-niils';  It.  Ignazio,  in-yat'se-o,] 
surnamed  Theoph'orus,  one  of  the  earliest  Christian 
Fathers,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  among  the  imme- 
diate successors  of  the  apostles,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Syria.  About  67  a.d.  he  became  bishop 
or  minister  of  the  church  of  Antioch  by  the  appointment 
of  Saint  Peter,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  of  Saint 
John.  He  had  filled  this  station  acceptably  about  forty 
years,  when  the  emperor  Trajan  began  a  persecution 
of  the  Christians.  Ignatius  was  brought  before  Trajan 
at  Antioch,  and,  refusing  to  renounce  his  religion,  was 
condemned,  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  in  107, 
being  exposed  to  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre.  His 
epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Trallians,  Magnesians,  Romans, 
Philadelphians,  Smyrneans,  and  to  Polycarp  are  extant, 
and  are  regarded  by  many  able  critics  as  precious  memo- 
rials of  the  primitive  Church;  but  not  a  few  scholars 
reject  them  entirely.  There  are  eight  other  Ignatian 
epistles  which  are  generally  conceded  to  be  spurious. 
In  one  of  his  epistles  we  find  the  words,  "Now  I  begin 
to  be  a  disciple  ;  I  weigh  neither  visible  nor  invisible 
things,  that  I  may  win  Christ!" 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria ;"  Pearson,  "  Vindicise  Ignatianje," 
Cambridge,  1672;  W.  Cureton,  "Vindicije  Ign.itiaii3E,  or  the  Genu- 
ine Writings  of  Saint  Ignatius  vindicated  from  the  Charge  of  Heresy," 
8vo,  1846;  CottTLosQUET,  "  Vie  de  Saint-Ignace,  Eveqiie  d'Antioch," 
1857  ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  in  799 
A.D.,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Michael  Curopalates. 
When  the  latter  was  deposed,  Ignatius  entered  a  monas- 
tery, and  became  eminent  for  piety  and  wisdom.  In  846 
he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  patriarch.  Eleven  years 
after,  he  was  banished  and  cruelly  treated  for  his  opposi 
tion  to  Bardas,  an  uncle  of  Michael  HI.,  who  appointed 
in  his  place  the  ambitious  Photius.  The  schism  between 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches  began  while  Photius 
was  in  office,  and  has  continued  ever  since  that  time.  In 
867  the  emperor  Basilius  reinstated  Ignatius,  who  as- 
sembled in  869  an  oecumenical  council  at  Constantinople, 
which  condemned  Photius  and  his  party.     Died  in  877 

See  David  Nicetas,  "Vita  S.  Ignatii,"  1604. 

Ignatius  Loyola.     See  Loyola. 

Igor  (ee'gor)  I.,  third  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  a  son 
of  Rurik,  was  born  about  875,  and  succeeded  Oleg  ir 
912  A.D.  He  led  an  expedition  against  Constantinople  in 
941,  and  compelled  the  Greek  emperor  to  sue  for  peace, 
which  was  granted  by  a  treaty  in  945.  Igor  was  killed 
in  an  ambuscade  in  945.  After  his  death  his  widow  Olga 
was  converted  to  Christianity. 

See  Solovief,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Igor  IL,  or  Igor  Olgovitch,  Grand  Prince  of  Russia, 
began  to  reign  at  Kief  about  1145.  His  claim  was  con- 
tested by  Iziaslaf,  who  defeated  him  in  1146.  Igor  was 
confined  in  a  convent,  and  assassinated  in  1 147. 

See  Karamzin,  "Histoire  de  Russie." 

Ihre,  ee'reh,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  scholar,  eminent  in 
philology,  born  at  Lund  in  1707,  graduated  with  the 
iiighest  honour  at  Upsal  in  1730.  After  visiting  France, 
England,  etc.,  he  returned  to  Upsal  and  became  professor 
of  poetry  and  of  theology  in  the  university  of  that  place. 
In  1 738  he  obtained  the  chair  of  belles-lettres  and  political 


science,  which  he  occupied  about  forty  years,  acquiring 
great  celebrity  as  a  lecturer  and  author.  In  1769  he 
published  his  "  Swedish  Glossary,"  ("  Glossarium  Suio- 
gothicum,")  a  monument  of  his  immense  learning  and 
critical  sagacity,  containing  a  philosophic  treatise  on  the 
filiation  of  languages,  besides  remarks  on  the  origin 
and  afiinity  of  Swedish  words.  He  also  wrote  several 
hundred  excellent  academical  dissertations,  and  is  justly 
ranked  among  the  best  critics  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  1759  he  was  decorated  with  the  order  of  the  Polar 
Star.     Died  in  1780. 

See  Fi-ODi'.KUs,  "  Parentation  ofver  J.  Hire,"  1 781  ;  Grzelius, 
"  Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man  " 

Ihre,  (Thomas,)  a  Swedish  writer,  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Wisby  in  1659  ;  died  in  1720. 

See  T.  RuD^N,  "Trognas  Slrid  och  Seger,  Likpredikan  ofver  T. 
Ihre,"  1720. 

Iken,  ee'ken,  (Conrad,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Bremen  in  1689.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Bremen,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Antiquitates 
Hebraicse,"  (1730.)     Died  in  1753. 

Iken,  (Hei.nrich  Friedrich,)  a  German  religious 
writer,  born  at  Neuenkirchen  in  1791;  died  in  1820. 

Ildefonse.     See  Ildefonso. 

Il-de-fon'so,  [Lat.  Ildefon'sus;  Fr.  Ildefonse, 
il-deh-foNs',]  Saint,  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Toledo 
in  607  A.D.,  was  a  pupil  of  .Saint  Isidore.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  658.  He  wrote,  besides  several 
theological  treatises,  a  continuation  of  Saint  Isidore's 
work  "  De  Viris  illustribus."     Died  in  669. 

See  Cixila,  "Vita  Ildefonsi ;"  Gregorio  Mayans,  "  Vida  de  S. 
Ildefonso,"  1727. 

Ilepoosliin  or  Ilepouschin,  il-e-poo'shin,  a  Rus- 
sian poet  of  the  present  age,  lived  near  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  wrote  pastoral  poems. 

Ilgen,  il'gen,  (Karl  David,)  a  distinguished  philolo- 
gist, born  in  Prussian  Saxony  in  1763.  He  became  in 
1794  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at  Jena.  His 
principal  works  are  entitled  "  Hymni  Homerici,"  and 
"  Convivial  Songs  of  the  Greeks,"  ("  Scholia  sive  Car- 
mina  convivialia  Grsecorum.")     Died  in  1834. 

See  F.  C.  Krafft,  "Vita  C.  D.  Ilgeni,"  1837  ;  R.  Stern,  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  C.  D.  Ilgenio,"  1839  ;  "  Ilgeniana :  Ennnerungen  an  Dr.  C 
D.  Ilgen,"  Leipsic,  1X53. 

Ilia.     See  Rhka  Silvia. 

I-lith-y-i'a  or  Eileithyia,  [Gr.  EtAetflum,]  written 
also  Eleithyia  and  Eleutho,  a  Greek  goddess,  who 
presided  over  birth.  Though  originally  distinct  from 
Diana,  (Artemis,)  she  seems  later  to  have  become  identi- 
fied with  her.     (See  Lucina.) 

Hive,  I'liv,  ?  (Jacob,)  an  English  printer,  who  became 
noted  by  his  fictitious  "  Book  of  Jasher,"  (1751,)  which  he 
pretended  to  have  translated  from  Alcuin.  Died  in  1763. 

Illescas,  M-y^s'kSs,  (Gonsalvo,)  a  Spanish  monk, 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Popes,"  (1570.)     Died  in  1580. 

lUgen,  il'gen,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1786,  wrote  sev- 
eral works,  and  edited  a  journal  at  Leipsic.  Died  in  1844, 

niyricus.     See  Francowitz. 

Ilmoni,  il-mo'nee,  (Immanuel,)  a  Finnish  physician, 
born  in  1797,  wrote  "Contributions  to  the  History  of  the 
Nosology  of  the  North,"  (3  vols.,  1846-53.)  Died  in  1856. 

I'lus,  [Gr.  'lAof,]  the  founder  of  Ilium,  (Ilion,)  or  Troy, 
was  a  son  of  Tros,  (which  see.) 

Imad-ed-Deen,  (-Eddyn  or  -Eddin,)  e-m5d'  ed- 
deen^  {i.e.  the  "Pillar  of  Religion,")  (Mohammed, 
mo-hdm^mSd, )  surnamed  Al-Kateb,  was  born  at  Is- 
pahan in  1125  A.D.  He  went  in  1167  to  Damascus, 
where  he  became  the  secretary  of  Noor-ed-Deen.  After 
the  death  of  Noor-ed-Deen,  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
famous  Saladin,  whose  victories  he  celebrated  in  an  ode, 
and  whom  he  served  as  private  secretary  until  the  death 
of  that  prince.  Imad-ed-Deen  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin,"  and  "Memoirs  of 
the  Moslem  Poets  of  the  Sixth  Century  of  the  Hejrah." 
Died  in  1201. 

See  Ihn-Khallikan,  "  Biographical  Dictionar>'." 

Imad-ed-DovT-lah,  (or  -Eddaulah,)  e-mid'ed-dow'- 
lah,  {i.e.  "  Pillar  of  the  State, ")_(Alee- Abool-Hassan- 
Alee-Ibn-Booyah,  S'lee  S'bool  hJs'san  i'leelb'n  boo'- 
yah,)  King  of  Persia,  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  (111,  fit;  mit;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


TMBERDTS 


1345 


INCH  BALD 


r.ouides,  and  began  to  reign  in  933  A.n.  He  conquered 
the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  and  died  in  949,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  nephew,  Adhad-ed-Dowlah. 

See  Ibn-Khallikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  Weil,  "Ge- 
schichfe  des  Chalifen." 

Imberdis,  iN'b§R'diss',  (Andr6,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Ambert  about  1810,  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Religious  Wars  in  Auvergne  during  tiie  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (2  vols.,  1841.)     Died  in  1S7S. 

Imbert,  iN'baiR',  (Barth^lemy,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1747.  He  produced  at  the  age  of  twenty 
"The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  graceful  poem,  which  was 
much  admired.  The  plan  was  ingenious,  and  the  style 
natural  and  elegant.     Died  in  1790. 

See  QuArard,  "La  France  Littdraire." 

Imbert,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Limoges  about  1743  ;  died  at  Paris  in  1803. 

Inibert,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  La  Rochelle 
about  1522,  published  "Institutiones  Forenses,"  (1542,) 
often  reijrinted.     Died  about  1600. 

Imbert,  (Joseph  Gabriel,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  in  Marseilles  in  1654,  was  a  pupil  of  Le- 
brun  and  of  Van  der  Meulen.  At  the  age  of  thirty-four 
he  took  the  monastic  vows,  after  which  he  painted  only 
sacred  subjects.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Calvary."  Died 
in  1740. 

Imbouati,  fem-bo-na'tee,  (Carlo  Giuseppe,)  an  Ital- 
ian  bibliographer,  born  at  Milan,  wrote  "  Bibliotheca 
Latino-Hebraica,"  (2  vols.,  1696.)     Died  after  1696. 

Imhof  or  Imhoff,  im^hof,  (Gustav  Willem,)  born 
in  Amsterdam  in  1705,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Cey- 
lon in  1736.  Having  gained  general  confidence  by  his 
conduct  and  capacity,  he  became  about  1742  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.     Died  in  1750. 

Imhof,  von,  fon  im'hof,  (Jakob  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man genealogist,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1651.  He  was 
well  versed  in  the  history  of  the  royal  and  noble  families 
of  Europe,  and  wrote  many  works  on  genealogy,  among 
which  is  one  in  2  vols.,  (1684.)     Died  in  1728. 

See  KoELER,  "  Lebensgeschichte  Imhofs." 

Ira-ho-tep,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  supposed 
to  be  the  god  of  science,  and  chiefly  honoured  at  Mem- 
phis.    He  was  the  son  of  Ptah  and  Pakht. 

Imilcon.     See  Himilco. 

Im'i-sou,  (John,)  an  English  mechanician,  wrote  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "The  School  of  Arts,"  which 
passed  through  several  editions.  \n  1807  Professor  J. 
Webster  published  an  improved  edition,  with  the  title 
of  "Elements  of  Art  and  Science."     Died  in  1788. 

Im'lah,  (John,)  a  Scottish  song-writer,  born  at  Aber- 
deen, November  15,  1799.  He  published  "  May-Flow- 
ers," a  volume  of  lyrics,  (1827,)  and  "Poems,"  (1841.) 
Died  in  Jamaica,  January  9,  1846. 

Immermaun,  im'mer-mJn',  (Karl  Lebrecht,)  a 
German  dramatist  and  poet,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1796, 
was  the  author  of  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Princes  of 
Syracuse,"  (1821,)  "The  Valley  of  Ronceval,"  "King 
Periander,"  (1823,)  and  other  tragedies.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  number  of  tales  and  lyric  poems.  Died  in  1840. 
See  Karl  Immermann,  "Memorabilien,"  3  vols.,  1840-43;  F. 
Freiligrath,  "C.  Immermann,  Blatter  der  Erinnerung  an  ihn," 
1842  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1843. 

Imola.     See  Francuccl 

Imparato,  ^m-pa-ri'to,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian, 
whose  style  he  imitated  with  some  success.     Died  after 

1565- 

Imperiale,  ^m-pi-re-i'li,  (Francesco,)  born  at 
Genoa  about  1370,  went  to  Spain,  and  became  attached 
to  the  court  of  Henry  III.  of  Castile.  He  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  best  Spanish  poets  of  that  time. 

Imperiali,  fem-pi-re-S'lee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  physician  and  author,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1568, 
graduated  at  Padua,  and  practised  with  success  in  his 
native  city.  He  wrote  Latin  poems,  which  were  admired, 
also  a  collection  of  observations  entitled  "Exotericae 
Exercitationes."  (1603.)     Died  in  1623. 

His  son  Giovanni,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1602,  was  also 
a  physician,  and  wrote  "  Musasum  Historicum  et  Physi- 
cum,"  consisting  of  eulogies  and  memoirs  of  eminent 
literary  men.     Died  in  1670. 


Imperiali,  (Giovanni  Vi5jcente,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Genoa  about  1570,  served  the  state  as  a  diplo- 
matist, and  held  a  high  command  in  the  navy.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  poems,  "Lo  Stato  rustico,"  (161 1,)  which 
was  received  with  favour.     Died  about  1645. 

See  Soprani,  "Scrittori  Liguri." 

Imperiali,  (Giuseppe  Renato,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
distinguished  for  his  patronage  of  learning,  was  born  of 
a  noble  family  at  Genoa  in  1651.  It  is  said  he  would 
have  been  elected  pope  in  1730,  if  the  court  of  Spain 
had  not  interposed  against  him.  Many  learned  men  were 
recipients  of  his  bounty.  Died  in  1737.  He  left  a  noble 
library,  which,  by  his  will,  was  kept  open  to  the  public. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Imperiali-Lercari,  6m-pi-re-J'lee  l§R-kl'ree,  (Fran- 
cesco Mario,)  was  Doge  of  Genoa  when  that  city  was 
bombarded  by  the  fleet  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1684.  IIos 
tilities  having  been  suspended  by  the  mediation  of  the 
pope,  the  Doge  went  as  ambassador  to  Paris,  and  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  1685. 

Im'pey,  (Sir  Elijah,)  an  infamous  judge,  who  offi- 
ciated in  India  during  the  administration  of  Warren 
Hastings;  was  recalled,  1782;  impeached,  178S;  died 
in  1812. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Elijah  Impiey,"  by  E.  B.  Impey,  1846; 
Macaulav,  "Essay  on  Warren  Hastings." 

Impiccati,  degli,  a  surname  of  Andrea  del  Cas- 
tagno.     (See  Castagno.) 

I'na  or  I'nas,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  and  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Heptarchy,  succeeded  Ceadwalla  in  689 
A.D.  He  appears  to  have  possessed  superior  talents, 
and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal  legislators  among 
the  ancient  Anglo-Saxons.  He  waged  war  successfully 
against  the  people  of  Kent  and  the  Britons  about  710. 
In  728  he  resigned  his  crown,  and  died  at  Rome  tha 
same  year. 

See  William  of  Malmesbury,  "  Gesta  Regum  Anglorum." 

In'a-ehus,  [Gr.  'Ivaxog,]  a  mythical  personage,  the 
son  of  Oceanus,  and  father  of  lo,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  King  of  Argos.  Having  been  chosen  as  umpire 
by  Neptune  and  Juno  when  they  disputed  about  the 
possession  of  Argos,  he  decided  in  favour  of  Juno. 

Inca,  ing'ka,  (plural  Incas,)  a  Peruvian  or  Quichua 
word,  signifying  "  chief,"  and  applied  to  the  dynasty  reign- 
ing in  Peru  on  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  in  that  coun- 
try in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  the 
Peruvians  did  not  possess  the  art  of  writing,  we  have  no 
means  of  ascertaining,  or  even  forming  a  satisfactory 
conjecture  respecting,  the  earliest  date  of  their  power.  The 
Incas  claimed  to  be  the  descendants  of  Manco  Capac  and 
his  wife  Mama  Ocllo,  who  were  the  children  of  the  sun. 
(See  Manco  Capac.)  The  empire  of  the  Incas,  at  the 
period  of  their  greatest  power,  extended  through  nearly 
forty  degrees  of  longitude,  and  contained  an  area  of 
between  one  and  two  million  square  miles.  Their  sub 
jects,  though  unacquainted  with  letters,  had  in  many 
respects  advanced  to  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  They 
understood  the  working  of  the  precious  metals,  archi- 
tecture, and  many  other  arts,  and  were  especially  dis- 
tinguished for  the  general  liberality  and  wisdom  of  their 
state  policy  ;  though  some  of  their  laws  and  regulations 
were,  according  to  the  standard  of  Christian  civilization, 
both  unjust  and  inhuman. 

See  Prescott's  "  Conquest  of  Peru,"  book  i.  chap.  i. 

Inch'baid,  (Elizabeth,)  a  popular  English  actress, 
novelist,  and  dramatist,  born  at  Stanningfield  in  1753, 
was  the  daughter  of  a  farmer  named  Simpson.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  she  came  to  London  with  the  intention  of 
becoming  an  actress,  and  was  married  to  Mr.  Inchbald, 
who  had  obtained  some  success  on  the  stage.  After 
performing  with  her  husband  several  seasons  at  Edin- 
burgh and  other  towns,  she  made  her  debut  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1780,  and  was  very  successful.  Her  success 
is  ascribed  in  a  great  measure  to  her  personal  beauty 
and  virtuous  character.  In  1789  she  retired  from  the 
stage.  She  wrote  "Such  Things  Are,"  "Every  One 
has  his  Fault,"  "To  Marry  or  Not  to  Marry,"  and  many 
other  plays.  Her  greatest  productions  are  two  novels, 
"A  Simple  Story,"  (1791,)  and  "Nature  and  Art,"  (1796.) 
which  obtained  extensive  and  durable  popularity.  Her 
"'Nature  and  Art,' "says  Plazlitt,  "is  one  of  the  most 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asy;  o,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  i 

85 


th  as  in  this.     (S^^'^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


INCHIQUIN 


1346 


INGEN 


interesting  and  pathetic  stories  in  the  world."  The 
other  work  is  highly  commended  by  Miss  Edgeworth. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  her  Life,  by  Boadkn,  1833:  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of 
the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Last  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843. 

Inch'j-quin,  (Morrogh  O'Brien,)  Baron  of,  a 
famous  Irish  soldier,  born  about  1618.  He  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  civil  war,  fighting  alternately  for 
Charles  I.  and  against  him.  He  was  a  royalist  from  1640 
to  1645,  and  gained  several  victories.  About  1649  he 
entered  the  French  service,  with  the  rank  of  general. 
Died  in  1674. 

Inchofer,  ing'Ko'fer,  (Melchior,)  a  Jesuit,  born  in 
Vienna  in  1584,  lived  in  various  cities  of  Italy,  and  wrote 
several  learned  works,  among  which  is  the  "  Ecclesias- 
tical History  of  Hungary,"  (1644,  unfinished.)  He  had 
more  learning  than  critical  judgment.     Died  in  1648. 

See  Bavls,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

lucledon,  ink'el-dpn,  (Benjamin  Charles,)  an  Eng- 
lish vocalist,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1764,  served  several 
years  in  the  royal  navy.  He  first  appeared  in  a  London 
theatre  in  1790,  and  performed  many  years  with  success. 
Died  in  1826. 

Indaco,  1',  linM^-ko,  (Francesco,)  a  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  flourished  about  1530. 

Indaco,  1',  (Jacopo  da  Firenze,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a  pupil  of  Ghirlandaio, 
and  worked  at  Rome. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

India,  in^e-i,  (Tullio,  )  called  the  Elder,  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at  Verona,  and 
flourished  in  1545.  He  was  a  skilful  painter  in  fresco, 
and  an  excellent  copyist. 

His  son  Bernardino,  a  painter,  was  born  at  Verona. 
One  of  his  later  works  is  dated  1584. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

In-dib'I-Iis,  a  Spanish  chief,  who  flourished  during 
the  first  Punic  war,  in  which  he  fought  for  and  betrayed 
both  sides.  He  fought  for  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
battle  at  which  Publius  Scipio  was  killed,  in  213  B.C. 
His  army  was  defeated  by  the  younger  Scipio  in  207. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Romans  in  205  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.  and  xxv.-xxix. 

ludicopleustes.     See  Cosmas. 

Indra,  in'dRa,  [etymology  doubtful ;  possibly  related 
to  the  Latin  imber,  (Gr.  o/iiBpoi,)  a  "  shower"  or  "  rain- 
storm,"] the  regent  of  the  firmament,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  is  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Aditi.  As  the 
god  of  storms  and  thunder,  he  may  be  said  to  correspond 
very  nearly  to  the  Roman  Jupiter  and  Greek  Zeus.  In 
the  early  period  of  the  Hindoo  mythology  he  was  (like 
Jupiter)  regarded  as  the  most  powerful  of  the  gods ;  but, 
after  the  introduction  of  the  deities  of  the  Hindoo  triad, 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  Indra,  Varuna,  and  Agni 
were  deposed  from  tlieir  high  rank  and  made  to  occupy 
a  far  inferior  position.  Krishna,  an  avatar  of  Vishnu,  is 
represented,  while  still  an  infant,  as  baffling  with  the 
utmost  ease  the  mightiest  eff"orts  of  the  god  of  thunder. 
(See  Krishna.)  Indra  is  supposed  to  preside  over  all 
atmospheric  changes  ;  the  clouds  are  his  war-elephants, 
one  of  which,  represented  with  three  trunks  and  called 
Iravat,*  (I-r^vat,)  is  his  vahan,  (or  "vehicle,"!)  and  his 
most  terrible  weapon  is  his  vajra,  (pronounced  by  the 
modern  Hindoos  viij'ra  or  buj'ra,)  or  "adamantine  thun- 
derbolt."t  The  heaven  or  paradise  of  Indra  is  called 
Swarga  or  Swerga,  (pronounced  swur'ga.)  Here  dwell 
the  Apsaras,  the  beautiful  dancing-girls  of  his  court,  who 
may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the  Hoorees  (Houris)  of 
Mohammed's  paradise,  and  the  Gandharvas,  or  celestial 
minstrels.  The  consort  of  Indra  is  named  Indrani,  (in- 
dR5.'nee.)  His  capital  city  is  called  Amravati,  (lim-ra'- 
va-tee,)  or  the  "city  of  immortality." 

See  Moor's  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Coleman's  "Mythology  of  the 
Hindus;"  Sir  Wiluam  Jones's  Works,  vol.  xiii  (or  vol  vi  of 
another  edition  ;)  H.  H.  Wii.son's  "Translation  of  the  Rig- Veda,' 
and  "Essays  on  the  Religion  of  the  Hindus." 

*  IrSvat  signifies  "watery,"  "full  of  rain,"  (in  Latin, //MvwtMi.) 
t  See  note  under  Garuija. 

i  This  word  (vaj'ra)  signifies  both  "  thunderbolt"  and  "adamant,* 
or  "diamond." 


Induno,  in-doo'no,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  and^wr^,  born  at  Milan  in  1815.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1837.     He  died  in  1878. 

Indutiomare.     See  Indutiomarus. 

Indiitiomarus  or  Induciomarus,  in-du-she-om'a- 
rus,  |Fr.  Indutiomare,  ^N'dii'seVmtR',]  a  chief  of  the 
Treviri,  fought  against  Julius  Caesar,  and  was  killed  in 
54  R.c. 

liies  (in'ySs)  or  Inez  de  Castro,  fen'ySth  dk  kis'tRo, 
sometimes  Anglicised  as  Agnes  de  Castro,  a  beautiful 
Spanish  lady,  whose  tragical  fate  is  commemorated  by 
Camoens  in  the  "  Lusiacl,"  was  born  of  a  noble  family 
in  Castile  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Having  been  a 
maid  of  honour  at  the  court  of  Alphonso  IV.  of  Por- 
tugal, she  won  the  love  of  his  son  Don  Pedro,  who 
privately  married  her.  The  king,  on  learning  the  fact, 
was  violently  enraged,  and,  after  vain  efforts  to  dissolve 
their  union,  authorized  her  assassination  in  1355.  She 
was  eminent  for  virtue,  grace,  and  intelligence.  Her 
story  is  the  subject  of  numerous  dramas,  legends,  etc. 

See  Mrs.  Behn,  "The  History  of  Agnes  de  Castro;"  Lope  db 
Vega,  "  Donna  liiez  de  Castro ;"  J.  B.  Gomez,  Jr.,  "  Nova  Castro," 
Lisbon,  1S17. 

Infantado,  de,  di  in-fSn-ti'oo,  Duque,  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  in  1773,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
Prince  of  Asturias,  (Ferdinand  VII.)  In  1808  he  ac- 
companied that  prince  to  Bayonne,  and  signed  the  con- 
stitution which  Napoleon  imposed  on  Spain.  In  1809 
he  commanded  an  army  which  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Saint  Sebastian.  Ferdinand  VII.  appointed 
him  president  of  the  council  of  Castile  in  1814.  lie 
resigned  in  1820,  and  was  prime  minister  for  a  short 
time  in  1825.     Died  in  1841. 

Ingalls,  ing'galz,  (Rufus,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  about  1820,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  September,  1862.  He  served  as  chief 
quartermaster  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  1863-65. 

Ingeburga,  ing'eh-booR'gi,  sometimes  written  Ing- 
elburge  or  Ingerburga,  a  Danish  princess,  was  the 
sister  of  Canute  VI.  In  1192  she  became  the  wife  of 
Philip  Augustus  of  France,  who  soon  after  divorced 
her  without  good  reason.  She  appealed  to  the  pope, 
Innocent  III.,  who  decided  in  her  favour ;  and  after  the 
kingdom  of  Philip  had  been  laid  under  an  interdict, 
he  was  induced  to  reinstate  her.     Died  in  1236. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  universelle." 

Ingegneri,  in-j§n-ya'ree,  (Angiolo,)  an  Italian  /itte'' 
rateitr,  born  in  Venice  about  1550,  was  secretary  of  Car- 
dinal C.  Aldobrandini  at  Rome,  whose  service  he  quitted 
in  1598.  He  wrote  a  pastoral  called  "The  Dance  of 
Venus,"  ("  La  Danza  di  Venere,")  "  Buon  Segretario," 
and  a  few  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Tasso.     Died  in  1613. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  Littdraire  d'ltalie." 

Ingegno,  L'.    See  Luioi,  (Andrea.) 

In'ge-IovT',  (Jean,)  a  popular  English  poetess,  was 
born  at  Boston,  England,  in  1830.  Her  first  volume  of 
poems,  containing  "  Divided,"  "  Songs  of  Seven,"  "The 
High  Tide,"  etc.,  at  once  established  her  reputation. 
Among  her  other  publications  are  "  Studies  for  Stories," 
(1864,)  "Poor  Mat,"  (1866,)  "A  Story  of  Doom,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1867,)  "  A  Sister's  Bye-Hours,"  (1868.) 
"Mopsa  the  Fairy,"  (1869,)  "  Off  the  Skelligs,"  (1872,) 
"  Fated  to  be  Free,"  (1875,)  and  "  Don  John,"  (i88i.) 

Ingemaun,  ing'eh-mSn',  (Bernhard  Severin,)  a 
popular  Danish  poet  and  novelist,  was  born  in  the  island 
of  Falster,  May  28,  1789.  He  produced  a  volume  of 
lyric  poems  ("  Digte")  in  181 1,  and  an  epic  poem,  called 
"The  Black  Knights,"  ("  De  sorte  Riddere,")  in  1814. 
His  tragedies  "  Blanca"  and  "  Masaniello"  (1815)  were 
performed  with  great  success.  About  1820  he  published 
a  dramatic  poem,  called  "The  Deliverance  of  Tasso."  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  Danish  at  the  Academy  of  Soroe 
in  1822.  He  wrote  several  popular  historical  novels, 
among  which  are  "  Waldemar  the  Victor,"  (1826,)  and 
"  Prince  Otho  of  Denmark,"  (1835.)    Died  May  24,  1862. 

See  William  and  Mary  Howitt,  "The  Literatureand  Romance 
of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii.,  1832 ;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  Erslew,  "  Almindeligt  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  Moller, 
"Dansk  Pantheon;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1S3S. 

Ingen  or  Inghen,  van,  vtn  ing'g^n  or  ing'nen,  (WiL- 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


INGENHOUSZ 


1347 


INGLIS 


LEM,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  1651,  studied  under  C. 
Maratta  at  Rome.  He  worked  in  Venice  and  Naples, 
and  settled  in  Amsterdam.  His  works  have  considera- 
ble merit.     Died  about  1710. 

Ingenhousz,  ing'gen-hows',  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Breda  in  1730.  About 
1767  he  visited  London,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
Dr.  Pringle,  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  by  whose 
recommendation  he  became  physician  to  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa  in  1772.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
the  aulic  council  in  Vienna,  and  received  a  pension  for 
life.  After  remaining  in  Vienna  a  number  of  years,  he 
travelled  in  France,  Italy,  etc.,  pursuing  his  scientific 
studies  and  experiments,  and  at  last  settled  in  London, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  in- 
vented an  electrophorus,  and  discovered  that  growing 
plants  e.xposed  to  the  light  exhale  oxygen  gas,  (1779.) 
His  principal  works  (which  are  all  written  in  English) 
are  "  Experiments  on  Vegetables,  discovering  their  Power 
of  Purifying  the  Air,"  (1779,)  an  "  Essay  on  the  Food  of 
Plants,"  and  "  Experiments  and  Observations  on  Various 
Physical  Subjects."  The  invention  of  the  plate  electrical 
machine  is  attributed  to  him.     Died  in  1799. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Ingersoll,  ing'ger-sol,  (Charles  Jared,)  a  lawyer 
and  writer,  a  son  of  Jared,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  17S2.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1812,  and  was  appointed  district  attorney  for  Pennsyl- 
vania by  President  Madison  in  1S15.  He  was  chosen 
a  Democratic  member  of  Congress  in  1840,  1842,  and 
1844.  Among  his  works  are  "  Chioniara,"  a  poem, 
(1800,)  and  a  "Historical  Sketch  of  the  Second  War 
between  the  United  States  of  America  and  Great  Britain," 
(4  vols.,  1845-52.)     Died  in  1862. 

Ingersoll,  (Ernest,)  an  American  author,  born  at 
Monroe,  Michigan,  March  13,  1852,  studied  at  Oberlin 
and  Harvard  Colleges,  was  attached  to  United  States 
geological  surveys  as  a  naturalist,  1874-1877,  and  after- 
wards was  attached  to  the  United  States  fish  commission. 
In  1880  he  was  a  special  agent  of  the  tenth  census.  His 
principal  works  are  "A  Natural  History  Series"  for  the 
young,  "  Natural  History  of  Nests  and  Birds,"  (in  parts, 
1878  et  seq.,)  "  Friends  Worth  Knowing,"  "  Oyster  In- 
dustries of  the  United  States,"  (1881,)  "  Birds'-Nesting," 
(1882,)  "The  Ice  Queen,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Ingersoll,  (Jared,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1749.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1766, 
studied  law  at  the  Temple  in  London,  and  on  returning  to 
America  took  up  his  residence  in  Philadelphia.  Though 
the  son  of  a  royalist,  he  zealously  advocated  the  rights 
of  the  colonies  in  the  Revolution.  He  rose  to  great  dis- 
tinction in  his  profession,  was  twice  attorney-general  of 
Pennsylvania,  once  United  States  district  attorney,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  president-judge  of  the  district 
court  of  Philadelphia.  He  served  in  the  convention  that 
framed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787,  and  in  1812  was 
the  candidate  of  the  Federal  party  for  the  Vice-Presidency 
of  the  United  States.     Died  in  1822. 

Ingersoll,  (Joseph  Reed,)  D.C.L.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  14,  1786.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1808,  and  attained  to  a  high 
rank  in  the  legal  profession  in  his  native  city.  He  was  a 
representative  in  Congress  from  1S35  to  1837,  and  was 
re-elected  by  the  Whig  party  in  1841,  and  again  in  1843, 
1S45,  ^^^  1847.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates 
on  the  tariff,  and  was  for  some  time  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  the  judiciary.  He  was  appointed  minister 
to  England  by  President  Fillmore  in  1852.  Died  in  1868. 

Ingersoll,  (Robert  Green,)  an  American  lawyer, 
born  at  Dresden,  New  York,  August  11,  1833,  the  son 
of  a  Congregational  minister  of  broad  views.  The  young 
Ingersoll  became  a  lawyer,  was  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in 
the  Federal  army,  1S62-65,  was  appointed  attorney-gen- 
eral of  Illinois  in  1866,  and  afterwards  acquired  fame  as 
a  political  orator  and  successful  lawyer.  He  is  also  well 
known  by  his  books,  pamphlets,  and  speeches  directed 
against  religion. 

Ing'ham,  (Charles  C.,)  an  eminent  American  por- 
trait-painter, born  about  1797.  He  worked  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  where  he  died  in  December,  1863.  His 
pictures  are  remarkable  for  their  high  finish. 


Inghen.    See  Ingen. 

Inghirami,    6n-ge-rd'mee,    (Cavaliere    Francesco,) 

an  eminent  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Volterra  in  1772, 
devoted  many  years  to  researches  into  ancient  art,  and 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  writings.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  his  "Monumenti  Etruschi," 
(10  vols.,  1S21-27,)  which  is  the  most  complete  de- 
scription of  the  antiquities  of  Etruria.  He  wrote,  also, 
"Galleria  Omerica,"  (3  vols.,  1827-38,)  illustrative  of 
Homer's  poems,  and  "  Letters  on  Etruscan  Erudition, 
etc.,"  (1828.)     Died  in  1846. 

See  Ersch  und  Guubhr,  "Allgemelne  Encyklopaedie." 

Inghirami,  (Tommaso  Fedra,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  orator,  born  at  Volterra  in  1470,  settled  at 
Rome  in  early  youth,  and  obtained  high  preferments. 
He  acquired  the  fame  of  being  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
men  of  modern  Rome ;  and  Erasmus  informs  us  that  he 
was  styled  the  Cicero  of  his  age.  He  was  patronized 
by  Julius  II.,  who  appointed  him  keeper  of  the  Vatican 
Library.  He  left  in  manuscript  a  "  Commentary  on 
Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,"  "An  Abstract  of  Roman  His- 
tory," and  other  works.     Died  in  1516. 

See  Ersch  und  Grobbr,  "  .A.',lgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Tira- 
BOSCHt,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italians." 

In'gi-ald,  (almost  in'jald,)  King  of  Sweden,  surnamed 
Illraua,  ("the  Bad,")  reigned  in  the  seventh  century, 
and  was  the  last  of  his  dynasty.  In  consequence  of  his 
crimes,  some  of  his  subjects  revolted  with  success,  and 
he  destroyed  himself.  I  war.  Prince  of  Scania,  succeeded 
him. 

lugleby,  ing'gl-be,  (Clement  Mansfield,)  LL.D., 
an  English  critic,  born  at  Edgbaston,  near  Birmingham, 
October  29,  1823.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1847.  His  principal  works  are  "Theo- 
retical Logic,"  (1856,)  "The  Shakspere  Fabrications," 
(1859,)  '•  Shakspeare  Hermeneutics,  or  The  Still  Lion," 
(1867-74,)  "Was  Thomas  Lodge  an  Actor.?"  (1867,) 
"Revival  of  Philosophy  at  Cambridge,"  (1869,)  "  Shak- 
spere's  Centurie  of  Prayse,"  (1870,)  and  "  Shakspere, 
the  Man  and  the  Book,"  (1877.)     Died  in  1886. 

Ingles,  ing-glSs',  (Master  Jorge,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
was  eminent  in  history  and  portraits.  He  worked  at 
Granada  in  1455. 

Ingles,  (Don  Jos6,)  a  Spanish  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Valencia  in  1718;  died  in  1786. 

Inglis,  ing'glis,  (Henry  David,)  a  Scottish  writer  of 
travels,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1795.  He  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Europe,  and  published  excellent  books  of  travel, 
viz.,  "Solitary  Walks  through  Many  Lands,"  (3d  edition, 
1843,)  ^  "Journey  through  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark," (1829,)  "Tour  through  Switzerland,  the  South  of 
France,"  etc.,  (1830,)  "  Spain  in  1830,"  (from  which  Lord 
Aberdeen  said  he  had  derived  more  information  than 
from  all  the  state  documents  he  ever  perused,)  "  The 
Tyrol,  with  a  Glance  at  Bavaria,"  (1834,)  and  "  Rambles 
in  the  Footsteps  of  Don  Quixote."     Died  in  1835. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionao'  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Sjpplement.) 

Inglis  or  English,  (Sir  James,)  a  poet,  born  in  Scot- 
land in  the  reign  of  James  IV.,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  a  book  entitled  "The  Complaint  of  Scotland," 
published  at  Saint  Andrew's  in  1548,  said  to  be  the  most 
ancient  Scottish  prose  work  that  is  extant.    Died  in  1530. 

Inglis,  (John,)  D.D.,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1763, 
was  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Greyfriars'  Church  in 
that  city.  He  published  a  "  Vindication  of  the  Christian 
Faith,"  (1830,)  and  a  few  other  works.     Died  in  1834. 

Inglis,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  advocate,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1810.  He 
became  lord  advocate  in  May,  1852,  and  was  elected 
dean  of  the  faculty  in  the  same  year.  Having  retired 
from  office  with  the  Derby  ministry  in  December,  1852, 
he  was  restored  to  the  same  in  1858,  and  became  lord 
justice  clerk  in  the  same  year. 

In'glis,  (Sir  John  Eardley  Wilmot,)  a  British  gen- 
eral, born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  about  181 5,  was  a  son 
of  the  Bishop  of  Nova  Scotia.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  campaign  of  the  Punjab  in  1848-49,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  His  regiment  was  at 
Lucknow  when  that  place  was  besieged  by  the  Sepoys 
in  the  summer  of  1857,      On  the  death  of  Sir  Henry 


€as-4;  9asj;  gkard;  gas ;';  G,H,K,^Uura/;  U,  nasal;  R,iri//£a';  sass;  th  asin//«.f.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


INGLIS 


1348 


INNES 


Lawrence  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  garrison. 
He  received  the  brevet  of  major-general  for  his  heroic 
defence  of  Lucknow.  Died  at  Homburg,  Germany,  in 
September,  1S62. 

Inglis,  (Margaret  Maxwell,)  a  Scottish  poetess 
born  at  Sanquhar,  Scothmd,  in  1774,  published  a  "Mis- 
cellaneous Collection  of  Poems"  in  1838.    Died  in  1S43. 

Inglis,  (Sir  Rohekt  Harry,)  M.P.,  born  in  1786,  was 
the  only  son  of  Sir  Hugh  Inglis,  chairman  of  the  East 
India  Company.  He  was  first  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1824.  From  1829  to  1853  he  represented  the  University 
of  Oxford,  and  constantly  voted  with  the  Tories  against 
the  Reform  bill,  the  relief  of  the  Catholics,  etc.  Died 
in  1855. 

IngUs,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1762, 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Peninsular  war.  Died 
in  1835. 

Ingoldsby,  ing'gplz-be,  (Thomas,)  the  assumed  name 
of  Richard  H.  Barham.     (See  Barham.) 

Ing'on  I.,  surnamed  the  Good,  King  of  Sweden,  was 
the  son  and  successor  of  Stenkil,  and  began  to  reign 
about  1080.  He  favoured  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
among  his  subjects.     Died  in  in 2. 

Ingoii  n.,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  his 
successors,  and  shared  the  royal  power  with  his  brother 
Philip.  Slavery  was  gradually  abolished  in  his  reign. 
Died  in  1130. 

Ingoni,  ^n-go'nee,  (Giovanni  Bati'ista,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Modena  in  1528  ;  died  in  1608. 

Iiigoni,  (Matteo,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1587  ;  died  in  1631. 

Ingouf,  iN'goor,(FRANgois  Robert,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  engraved  "The 
Nativity,"  after  Raphael,  and  some  of  the  plates  for  the 
"Musee  Fran9ais."  Died  in  1812.  His  brother,  Pierre 
Charles,  born  in  Paris  in  1746,  was  also  a  successful 
engraver.     Died  in  1800. 

Ingraham,  ing'gra-am,  (Duncan  Nathaniel,)  a 
naval  commander,  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1802.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  spirited  conduct 
in  procuring  the  release  from  an  Austrian  war-vessel, 
at  Smyrna,  in  June,  1853,  of  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hungarian, 
who  had  legally  declared  his  intention  to  become  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1855,  but  resigned  in  1861,  and  entered  the 
Confederate  navy. 

Ingraham,  (Joseph  H.,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1809.  Besides  the  romances  of 
"  Lafitte,"  "  Captain  Kyd,"  and  "  The  Dancing  Feather," 
he  wrote  "The  Prince  of  the  House  of  David,"  "The 
Pillar  of  Fire,"  and  "The  Throne  of  David."  Died  in  1866. 

Ingram,  ing'gram,  (Herbert,)  an  English  printer, 
born  at  Boston  in  1811,  founded  the  "Illustrated  Lon- 
don News"  in  1842.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1856,  and  visited  the  United  States  in  i860.  In  Sep- 
tember of  that  year  he  was  drowned  in  Lake  Michigan, 
in  consequence  of  a  collision. 

Ingram,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Wiltshire  in  1774,  became  president  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  in  1824,  and  rector  of  Garsington.  He  published 
an  edition  of  the  "  Saxon  Chronicle,"  (1823,)  "  Memorials 
of  Oxford,"  (1834-37,)  which  was  favourably  received, 
and  several  other  works.     Died  in  1850. 

Ingram,  (John  H.,)  an  English  author,  born  in  Lon- 
don, November  16,  1849.  ^is  principal  books  have 
been  "  Poems  by  Dalton  Stone,"  (1863,)  "Flora  Sym- 
bolica,"  (1869,)  "Memoir  of  Poe,"  (1874,  prefixed  to  an 
edition  of  Poe's  works,)  "  Poe  Memorial,"  "  The  Haunted 
Houses  of  England,"  "  Life  of  Oliver  Madox  Brown," 
(1883,)  etc. 

Ingram,  (Robert,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Beverley,  Yorkshire,  in  1727.  He  became  vicar  of  Orston 
and  Boxted,  and  published,  besides  other  works,"  Isaiah's 
Vision,"  (1784,)  and  "The  Seventh  Plague,"  (1787.)  Died 
in  1804. 

Ingrassia,  in-gRSs'se-5,  written  also  Ingrassias, 
(Giovanni  Filippo,)  an  eminent  Sicilian  physician  and 
anatomist,  born  at  Palermo  about  15 10,  taught  anatomy 
at  Naples.  In  1563  he  was  chosen  by  Ph"ilip  II.  first 
physician  of  Sicily,  and  in  1575  he  checked  the  ravages 
of  the  plague  at  Palermo.     He  wrote  a  "Commentary 


on  the  Bones,"  and  other  able  treatises  on  anatomy. 
Died  in  1580. 

See  fc,LOV,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  M^decine." 

Ingres,  iNgR,  (Jean  Auguste  Dominique,)  a  cele- 
brated French  historical  painter,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1780  or  1781,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1801  for  a  picture  of  "Achilles  receiving  in  his 
Tent  the  Envoys  of  Agamemnon."  He  woiked  about 
twenty  years  (1804-24)  in  Rome  and  Florence,  choosing 
Raphael  as  his  model.  During  this  period  he  painted 
"  CEdipus  and  the  Sphinx,"  "  Raphael  and  La  Fornarina," 
and  "Odalisque,"  (1819.)  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1824, 
became  the  founder  of  a  school,  and  exhibited  "  The 
Vow  of  Louis  XIII.,"  one  of  his  best  works,  which 
opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  Institute  in  1825.  In 
1827  he  painted  on  the  ceiling  of  the  Louvre  "The 
Apotheosis  of  Homer,"  which  is  called  his  master-piece. 
At  the  Exposition  of  1855  ^  salon  was  reserved  exclu- 
sively for  his  works,  which  are  said  to  have  had  a  wide 
influence  on  the  style  of  French  and  foreign  artists.  He 
is  called  the  representative  of  correct  design  and  idea' 
composition.     Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiK,  "  M.  Ingres,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842; 
Fr6d6ric  Mercey,  "  Peintres  et  Sciilpteurs  modemes:  J.  Ingres," 
1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Ingiiimbert,  d'.diN'giN'baiR',  (Joseph  Dominique,) 
a  French  bishop,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1683,  assumed 
the  name  of  Dom  Malachie.  He  became  an  intimate 
counsellor  of  Pope  Clement  XII.,  who  appointed  him 
domestic  prelate,  and  in  1733  Bishop  of  Carpentras.  He 
built  a  hospital  in  that  town,  and  founded  a  large  public 
library  there.  He  wrote  and  translated  several  religious 
works.     Died  in  1757. 

See  ViTALis,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Malachie  d'Inguimbtrt,"  i8ia. 

Ingulf.     See  Ingulphus. 

In-gul'phus  or  In'gulf,  a  monk,  born  in  London 
about  1030,  became  secretary  and  favourite  of  William, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  in  105 1.  After  that  prince  had 
become  King  of  England,  Ingulphus  was  made  abbot  of 
the  monastery  of  Croyland.  He  died  in  1109.  He  was 
the  reputed  author  of  a  History  of  the  above  monastery, 
in  Latin,  containing  much  curious  and  important  infor- 
mation ;  but  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  has  proved  that  it  is  a 
forgery. 

In'i-go,  an  English  engraver,  whose  proper  name  wag 
John  Collet,  was  born  about  1725.  He  excelled  in 
the  same  line  as  Hogarth,  and  displayed  an  original 
genius  for  humorous  design.  He  left  but  few  works, 
among  which  is  a  "  Monkey  pointing  to  a  Very  Dark 
Picture  of  Moses  striking  the  Rock."     Died  in  1780. 

In'man,  (Henry,)  an  American  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Jarvis.  He 
worked  mostly  in  the  city  of  New  York.  During  a  visit 
to  England,  in  1844,  he  painted  portraits  of  the  poet 
Wordsworth,  Dr.  Chalmers,  and  T.  B.  Macaulay.  Among 
his  other  works  are  portraits  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall 
and  Bishop  White.  He  was  commissioned  by  Congress 
to  adorn  the  national  capitol  with  historical  paintings; 
but  before  he  had  finished  them  he  died,  in  1846. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America  ;"  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Inman,  (John,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Utica,  New  York,  in  1805,  was  an  associate  editor  of 
the  "  New  York  Mirror"  and  "  The  Commercial  Adver- 
tiser."    Died  in  1850. 

In'nes,  (Cosmo,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  historian,  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Durris  on  Deeside,  September  9, 
1798.  He  early  became  known  as  a  student  of  the 
ancient  records  of  Scottish  history.  He  was  made  an 
advocate  in  1822.  He  collated  and  edited  the  chaitu- 
laries  of  the  old  religious  houses  of  the  North,  was  em- 
ployed for  many  years  in  editing  and  publishing  the 
Scottish  statutes,  and  was  the  author  of  "  Scotland  in 
the  Middle  Ages,"  (i860,)  "Lectures  on  Scotch  Legal 
Antiquities,"  (1872,)  etc.  He  had  a  strong  leaning  to 
Catholicism,  though  he  never  gave  his  personal  alle- 
giance to  that  religion,  and  his  works  were  greatly  valued 
by  Montalembert  and  other  distinguished  Catholics.  He 
died  at  Killin,  July  31,  1874.  A  "Memoir  of  Cosmo 
Innes"  was  published  anonymously,  in  1874,  by  Mrs. 
John  Hill  Burton. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y, long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


INNE^ 


1349 


INNOCENT 


In'nes,  (Louis,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  of  a 
Scottish  family  about  1650.  He  became  secretary  to 
James  II.  after  he  was  deposed  from  the  English  throne. 
He  is  the  reputed  author  of  "  Memoirs  of  James  II.,"  part 
of  which  was  published  in  1816.  Died  in  Paris,  January 
23,  1738. 

Innes,  (Thomas,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1662,  studied  in  Paris,  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  suc- 
ceeded Louis  as  principal  of  the  Scottish  College.  He 
wrote  a  "Critical  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Inhabitants  of 
the  Northern  Parts  of  Britain,"  (1729,)  which  is  highly 
commended  for  sound  learning,  judicious,  criticism,  and 
valuable  information.     Died  in  1744. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

In'iiess,  (George,)  an  American  artist,  born  at  New- 
burgh,  New  York,  May  i,  1823.  He  studied  art  in  New 
York  and  in  the  European  capitals,  chronic  ill  health 
interfering  much  with  the  continuity  of  his  labours. 
U'aken  at  his  best,  Mr.  Inness  is  inferior  to  no  other 
American  landscapist.  His  work  is  so  informed  with 
high  spiritual  purpose  that  some  critics  have  classed  him, 
without  complete  justice,  with  the  "Impressionist"  school. 
His  son,  George  Inness,  Junior,  is  a  painter  of  much 
promise.  The  elder  Innes  is  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy. 

In'no-cent  [Lat.  Innocen'tius  ;  It.  Innocenzo,  hn- 
no-chen'zo;  Ger.  Innocenz,  in'no-ts§nts  ;  Span.  Ino- 
CENCio,  &-wo-thhn' tkQ-o\  I.,  a  native  of  Albano,  chosen 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  402  a.d.,  was  contemporary  with 
Augustine  and  Jerome.  During  his  pontificate,  Rome 
was  pillaged  by  Alaric  the  Goth.  Innocent  strenuously 
asserted  the  supremacy  of  the  see  of  Rome,  and  con- 
ciemned  the  doctrine  of  Pelagius,  He  succeeded  Anas- 
tasius  I.,  who,  according  to  Jerome,  was  the  father  of 
Innocent.    Died  in  417.    He  was  succeeded  by  Zosimus. 

See  Bruys,  "  Histoire  des  Papes,"  5  vols.,  1735. 

Innocent  II.,  Pope,  was  elected  in  1130  as  successor 
to  Honorius  II.  Another  party  elected  a  rival  pope, 
under  the  name  of  Anacletus  II.,  whose  partisans  drove 
Innocent  out  of  Rome.  The  latter  was  recognized  as  pope 
by  the  Kings  of  France,  England,  and  Germany,  and  his 
rival  was  supported  by  Roger  of  Sicily.  In  1138,  Inno- 
cent, assisted  by  Lotharius  of  Germany,  recovered  the 
papal  power,  and,  his  rival  having  died  in  the  same  year, 
the  unity  of  the  Church  was  restored.  In  1139  Arnaldo 
da  Brescia  was  banished  from  Rome  for  preaching  doc- 
trines that  were  deemed  unsound.  Innocent  died  in 
1143,  and  was  succeeded  by  Celestine  II. 

See  Platina,  "  Vite  de'  sumnii  Pontefici,"  1613  ;  Alletz,  "  His- 
Icire  des  Papes,"  1776;  J.  Hartmann,  "Vita  Innocentii  II.  Pon- 
ti^icis,"  1744;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pon- 
tifes,"  1847-49. 

Innocent  III.,  whose  proper  name  was  Lotharius, 

was  the  son  of  Trasimund,  a  Roman  count,  and  was  born 
in  Rome  in  1161.  He  was  unanimously  elected  pope  in 
January,  1198,  as  successor  to  Celestine  HI.  With  su- 
perior abilities,  improved  by  diligent  study,  he  combined 
great  resolution,  industry,  and  austerity  of  character,  and 
availed  himself  of  every  opportunity  to  magnify  his  office 
and  to  assert  the  supremacy  of  the  papal  power.  In  1199 
he  placed  the  kingdom  of  France  under  an  interdict  be- 
cause the  king,  Philip  Augustus,  had  repudiated  his  wife ; 
and  thus  he  compelled  him  to  reinstate  her.  About  1200 
he  instigated  the  fourth  crusade,  the  principal  result  of 
which  was  the  capture  of  Constantinople  from  the  Greeks 
by  the  crusaders.  In  121 2  he  excommunicated  and  de- 
posed Otho,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  crowned  Frede- 
rick of  Sicily  in  his  place.  A  memorable  quarrel  occurred 
between  this  pontiff  and  King  John  of  England,  respect- 
ing the  appointment  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
(1207,)  the  right  to  appoint  being  obstinately  asserted  by 
each.  England  was  laid  under  an  interdict,  which  lasted 
two  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which,  as  John  was  still 
refractory,  the  pope  declared  him  to  be  deposed,  and 
authorized  Philip  Augustus  of  France  to  execute  the 
decree.  While  the  latter  was  preparing  to  invade  Eng- 
land, John  submitted  to  the  pope,  in  12 13,  and  signed  a 
disgraceful  treaty,  in  which  he  consented  to  hold  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  as  fiefs  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to 
fay  an  annual  tribute  of  one  thousand  marks.  In  1214 
nnocent  raised  a  cruel  persecution  or  crusade  against 


the  Albigenses  for  heresy.  During  his  pontificate  the 
papal  power  attained  its  greatest  height.  He  was  perhaps 
the  most  learned  man  and  the  most  able  statesman  of 
his  age.  He  wrote  "  Letters,"  and  other  works,  which  are 
highly  commended.  Died  in  1216,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Honorius  HI. 

See  F.  HuRTER,  "Geschichte  Innocenz  III.,"  2  vols.,  1835,  (and 
French  version  of  the  same,  4  vols.,  1838-43  :)  D.  Lksrmann,  "  Pabst 
Innocenz  III.  und  Furst  Michael  Glinski,"  1830:  Jorry,  "Histoire 
da  Pape  Innocent  III,"  1852;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des 
souverains  Pontifes,"  1847-49  :  J-  H.  Gurnev,  "  Four  Ecclesiastical 
Biographies,"  London,  1864. 

Innocent  IV.,  (Sinibaldo  de'  Fieschi — di  fe-5s'- 
kee,)  a  native  of  Genoa,  was  elected  pope  as  successor  to 
Celestine  IV.  in  1243.  He  soon  found  himself  involved 
in  a  quarrel  with  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  (who  had 
been  excommunicated  by  Gregory  IX.,)  and  retired  for 
security  to  Lyons.  Here  he  summoned  a  council,  in 
1245,  and  renewed  the  excommunication  of  Frederick, 
who  was  also  formally  deposed.  The  emperor,  however, 
refused  to  submit  to  this  assumption,  and  waged  war 
against  the  pope  for  several  years,  until  his  death  in  1250. 
Innocent  then  returned  to  his  capital,  and  proclaimed  a 
crusade  against  Conrad,  the  son  of  Frederick ;  but  again 
his  malignity  was  bafHed.  He  died  in  1254,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Alexander  IV. 

See  J.  Hartmann,  "Vita  Innocentii  IV.,"  173S;  PaoIjO  Panza, 
"Vita  del  gran  Pontefice  Innocenzio  Quarto,"  1601. 

Innocent  V.,  (  Peter  of  Tarantasia,  )  born  at 
Moutier,  in  Savoy,  was  elected  in  1276  as  successor  to 
Gregory  X.  After  holding  office  a  few  months,  he  died 
in  the  same  year. 

Innocent  VI.,  (  Etienne  Anbert — o'baiR', )  a 
Frenchinan,  born  near  Pompadour,  was  elected  pope 
in  1352.  He  succeeded  Clement  VI.,  who  had  made 
him  a  cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Ostia.  His  court  was  kept 
at  Avignon  throughout  his  pontificate.  He  reformed 
some  abuses  in  the  Church,  and  appears  to  have  acted 
with  more  moderation  and  propriety  than  most  of  his 
predecessors.     Died  in  1362. 

See  Bruys,  "Histoire  des  Papes,"  1735;  Sismondi,  "Histoire 
des  Franfais." 

Innocent  VII.,  (Cardinal  Cosmo  Migliorati — mh\- 
yo-rS'tee,)  born  at  Sulmona  about  1338,  was  elected  pope 
in  1404,  as  successor  to  Boniface  IX.  At  that  time  there 
was  an  extensive  schism  in  the  Church,  and  Benedict 
XIII.  held  a  rival  court  at  Avignon.     Died  in  1406. 

See  Platina,  "Vite  de'  siimmi  Pontefici,"  1613. 

Innocent  VIII.,  (Giovanni  Battista  Cibo — chee'- 
bo,)  born  at  Genoa  in  1434,  was  elected  pope  in  1484,  as 
successor  to  Sixtus  IV.  He  laboured  without  success 
to  unite  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  against  the  Turks, 
and  was  himself  engaged  in  war  with  Ferdinand,  King 
of  Naples.  He  died  in  1491,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander  VI. 

See  F.  Serdonati,  "Vita  d'Innocenzo  VIII.,"  1829;  F.  M. 
Vialardo,  "  Istoria  della  Vita  d'Innocenzo  VIII.,"  1613. 

Innocent  IX.,  (Antonio  Facchinetti  —  fSk-ke- 
net'tee,)  born  at  Bologna,  succeeded  Gregory  XIV.  in 
October,  1591,  but  only  survived  two  months  after  his 
election.  He  left  a  good  reputation  for  virtue  and 
wisdom.     Clement  VIII.  was  his  successor. 

See  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes." 

Innocent  X.,  (Giovanni  Battista  PanfiU — pin- 
fee'lee,)  elected  in  place  of  Urban  VIII.  in  1644,  wa.s 
born  in  Rome  about  1570.  He  owed  his  promotion  to 
the  Barberini,  who  soon  became  his  enemies.  The  Jan- 
senist  controversy  having  made  a  great  commotion  in 
the  Church,  Innocent  appointed  a  commission  of  car- 
dinals to  settle  it,  and  in  1653  issued  a  bull  atm  occasione, 
in  which  he  condemned  the  five  propositions  of  Jansen. 
Historians  differ  widely  as  to  the  character  of  this  pontifi 
He  died  in  1655,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  VII, 

See  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes:"  Ciaconius,  "  Vitae  et  Res 
gests  Pontificiim  Ronianorum,"  4  vols.,  1677. 

Innocent  XI.,  (Cardinal  Benedict  OdescalcM — 
o-d§s-kSl'kee,)  born  at  Como  in  161 1,  succeeded  Clement 
X.  in  1676.  He  had  been  made  a  cardinal  in  1647,  and 
had  sustained  a  respectable  character.  He  soon  mani- 
fested his  zeal  to  reform  abuses  and  restore  strict  disci- 
pline, and  his  inflexible  resolution  to  maintain  the  papal 


€  as  k;  9  as  1 ,-  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


INNOCENT 


1350 


IPHIGENIA 


prerogatives.  His  pontificate  was  signalized  by  a  re- 
markable contest  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France  in  relation 
to  the  rigale  and  the  privileges  or  exemptions  of  foreign 
ambassadors  at  Rome.  The  pope  wished  to  abolish  the 
us.qge  which  rendered  the  ambassador's  palace,  with  the 
adjacent  premises,  an  asylum  for  malefactors,  etc.,  inac- 
cessible to  the  officers  of  justice.  Louis  XIV.  in  1687 
sent  his  ambassador  Lavardin  with  orders  to  maintain 
his  rights,  and  with  an  armed  retinue  of  eight  hundred 
men.  The  pope  persisted,  and  excommunicated  Lavar- 
din, who  returned  without  effecting  his  object ;  and  the 
quarrel  was  not  ended  until  after  the  death  of  Innocent, 
which  occurred  in  1689.  It  seems  that  his  enmity  to  Louis 
induced  this  pontiff  to  favour  the  English  in  resistance 
to  James  II. ;  and  some  one  remarked  that  the  peace  of 
Europe  would  be  promoted  if  James  would  become  a 
Protestant,  and  the  pope  a  Catholic. 

See  Ughelli,  "Italia  sacra,"  10  vols.,  1717-22;  Ranke,  "His- 
tory of  the  Popes;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Franfais;"  F. 
BuoNAMici,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Innocentii  XI.,"  1776. 

Innocent  XII.,  (Antonio  Piguatelli — pin-yS-teK- 
lee,)  born  in  Naples  in  161 5,  became  Cardinal  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Naples  during  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  XL, 
and  succeeded  Alexander  VIII.  as  pope  in  July,  1692. 
He  proposed  to  take  Innocent  XL  as  his  model,  and 
appears  to  deserve  credit  for  his  economy,  regular  habits, 
liberality,  and  works  of  utility.  In  his  pontificate  a  re- 
conciliation was  effected  with'the  French  court  by  mutual 
concession.  Quietism  also  received  its  quietus,  in  1699, 
by  a  papal  brief  condemning  Fenelon's  "  Maximes  des 
Saints."  He  died  in  1700,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clem- 
ent XL 

See  Ranke,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  Bruvs,  "Histoire  des 
Papes,"  1735. 

Innocent  XIII.,  (Michelangelo  Conti — kon'tee,) 
born  in  Rome  in  1655,  was  the  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Poli,  and  attained  the  dignity  of  cardinal  in  1706.  He 
succeeded  Clement  XL  as  pope  in  1721,  and  exercised 
his  power  so  prudently  that  his  subjects  regretted  the 
brevity  of  its  duration.  He  died  in  1724,  and  his  place 
was  supplied  by  Benedict  XIII. 

See  Bruvs,  "  Histoire  des  Papes,"  1735 ;  "  Leben  Pabst  Innocenz 
XIII.,"  Cologne,  1724. 

Innocentius.    See  Innocent. 

Innocenz.    See  Innocent. 

lunocenzo.    See  Innocent. 

I'no,  [Gr.  'Iv(j,]  a  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia, 
was  the  wife  of  Athamas,  King  of  Thebes.  According 
to  tradition,  she  incurred  the  enmity  of  Juno,  who  de- 
prived Athamas  of  his  reason.  In  a  fit  of  insanity  he 
killed  a  son  of  Ino,  who  threw  herself  into  the  sea  and 
was  changed  into  a  sea-goddess,  named  Leucothea.  Her 
story  was  dramatized  by  several  Greek  poets. 

Inocencio.    See  Innocent. 

lu'skip,  (foHN  S.,)  a  Methodist  preacher,  born  at 
Huntingdon,  England,  August  10,  1816,  was  brought  to 
the  United  States  when  five  years  old,  began  a  religious 
life  in  1832,  and  in  1835  commenced  to  preach.  He 
acquired  great  note  as  a  conductor  of  camp-meetings, 
and  became  editor  of  the  "  Christian  Standard."  Died 
at  Ocean  Grove,  New  Jersey,  March  7,  1884. 

Interiano  de  Ayala,  in-ti-re-d'no  di  i-i'lJ,  (Juan,) 
a  Spanish  author  and  monk,  born  in  1656,  became 
preacher  to  the  king.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
(mostly  in  Spanish,)  "Pictor  Christianus  Eruditus," 
(1730,)  in  which  he  exposes  the  prevalent  errors  of 
painters  who  treat  of  religious  subjects.  His  style  is 
pure  and  elegant.     Died  in  1730. 

•See  TiCKNOK.  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Mor^ri,  "Dic- 
tioniiaire  Historique." 

Inthiema,  in-te-a'mi,  (Hero,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  jurist, 
born  in  1576;  died  in  1623. 

Intieri,  in-te-a'ree,  (  Bartolommeo,  )  an  Italian 
economist  and  mechanician,  born  at  Pistoia  about  1674. 
He  founded  a  chair  of  political  economy  at  Naples,  and 
\»Tote  "On  the  Conservation  of  Grain."     Died  in  1757. 

Intorcetta,  fen-toR-chet'tS,  (Prospero,)  a  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary, born  in  Sicily  in  1625,  laboured  in  China,  and 
published  Latin  translations  of  some  works  of  Confu- 
cius.    Died  in  1696. 

Inveges,  6n-va'j5s,  (Augustin,)  a  Sicilian  historian 


and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Sciacca  in  1595,  published  a 
"History  of  Palermo,"  (3  vols.,  1649-51,)  which  was 
much  esteemed.     Died  in  1677. 

In'"wood,  (Charles  Frederick,)  son  of  William 
Inwood,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1798.  He  co-operated 
with  his  father  as  architect  of  Westminster  Hospital  and 
other  edifices.     Died  in  1840. 

Inwood,  (Henry  William,)  an  English  architect,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1794.  He  was 
associated  in  his  profession  with  his  father,  and  pub- 
lished "Studies  of  the  Architect  from  Nature,"  and  an 
illustrated  work  on  Athenian  architecture,  called  "The 
Erechtheion  at  Athens,"  (1S27.)  He  perished  by  ship- 
wreck in  1843,  while  making  a  voyage  to  Spain. 

Inwood,  (William,)  an  English  architect,  born  about 
1770,  was  employed  on  many  buildings  in  London,  and 
also  followed  the  profession  of  surveyor.  He  was  assisted 
in  his  architectural  labours  by  his  two  sons,  noticed 
above.  Saint  Pancras  Church,  London,  finished  in  1822, 
was  erected  by  him  and  his  son  Henry.  He  published 
"Tables  for  Purchasing  Estates,"  etc.     Died  in  1843. 

I'o,  [Gr.  'Iw,]  a  fabulous  personage,  whom  the  Greek 
poets  represent  as  a  daughter  of  Inachus  and  a  priestess 
of  Juno.  It  was  said  that,  having  been  transformed  by 
Jupiter  into  a  white  cow,  she  was  tormented  by  a  gadfly, 
(sent  by  Juno,)  to  escape  from  which  she  swam  across 
the  Ionian  Sea  and  wandered  through  various  parts  of 
the  world.  Her  story  is  related  by  iEschylus  in  his 
"  Suppliants." 

I-o-la'u8  [Gr.  'I6?iaof]  or  I'o-las,  [Gr.  'loXaCi]  a  per- 
sonage of  classic  mythology,  was  a  relative  and  faithful 
companion  of  Hercules,  whom  he  aided  in  his  contest 
against  the  Lernean  Hydra. 

I'o-le,  [Gr.  '\o7ai^  the  daughter  of  Eurytus,  King  of 
CEchalia,  who  promised  her  in  marriage  to  Hercules. 
But,  Eurytus  having  afterwards  refused  to  perform  his 
engagement,  lole  was  forcibly  carried  off  by  her  lover. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter,  caused  by  Dejanira's  jealousy, 
(see  Dejanira,)  lole  was  married  to  Hyllus,  the  son  of 
Hercules. 

Fon,  [Gr.  'I"v,]  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the  lonians, 
was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Creusa.  His 
story  was  dramatized  by  Euripides. 

Ion,  ['Iwv,]  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  who  was  born  at 
Chios,  (Scio,)  and  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  lived 
at  Athens,  where  he  became  a  friend  of  .(Eschylus  and 
gained  a  prize  for  one  of  his  tragedies.  He  composed, 
besides  tragedies,  elegies,  lyric  poems,  and  some  prose 
works,  all  of  which  are  lost.  He  was  included  in  the 
canon  of  the  five  Athenian  tragic  poets  by  the  Alexan- 
drian critics. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Kavser,  "  Historia  cri- 
tica  Tragicorum  Grscorum,"  184s;  Karl  Nieberding,  "  De  Ionia 
Chii  Vita,  Moribus  et  Studiis,"  1836. 

I'o-phon,  [Gr.  'Ioi;!>wv,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  a  son 
of  Sophocles  the  poet,  lived  about  420  B.C.  He  gained 
the  second  prize  in  429,  when  Euripides  received  the 
first  prize.  Among  the  titles  of  his  plays  are  "  Achilles," 
"  Actseon,"  and  "  Pentheus."  His  works  are  not  extant 
Died  after  405  B.C. 

See  Kavser,  "  Historia  critica  Tragicorum  Grscorum,"  1845 

louzef  or  louzaf.     See  YoosuF. 

Iphicrate.     See  Iphicrates. 

I-phic'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'I^«paT7?f ;  Fr.  Iphicr.vte,  e'rt 
kRtt',]  a  skilful  Athenian  general,  who  rose  from  a 
humble  rank  in  society  and  obtained  the  chief  command 
of  the  Athenian  army.  About  392  B.C.  he  defeated  the 
Spartans  near  Corinth,  and  afterwards  gained  applause 
by  his  defence  of  Corcyra  against  the  Spartans  and  Syra- 
cusans.  He  made  important  changes  in  the  armour  and 
tactics  of  his  troops,  by  exchanging  the  heavy  buckler 
for  a  light  target  and  increasing  the  length  of  the  speai 
and  the  sword.  He  was  associated  with  Timotheus  and 
Chares  in  the  command  of  an  expedition  against  Byzan- 
tium about  357  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Iphi- 
crates ;"  DioDORUS  SicuLUS,  books  xiv.,  xv.,  and  xvi.  ;  Xenophon, 
"  Hellenica,"  books  iv.  and  vi.  ;  Rehdantz,  "  Vitae  Iphicralis,  Cha- 
brias  et  Timothei,"  Berlin,  1845. 

Iph-I-le-ni'a  or  Iph-I-ge-nei'a,  [Gr.  '\(^iytvua;  Fr. 
Iphig6nie,  fe'fe'zhi'ne',J  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 


a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  loitg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


JPHIGENIE 


1351 


IRE  TON 


Clytemnestra.  The  ancient  poets  relate  that  Diana 
detained  the  Greek  fleet  at  Aulis  by  a  calm,  because 
Agamemnon  had  offended  her,  and  that  the  soothsayer 
Calchas  declared  Diana  could  be  appeased  only  by  the 
sacrifice  of  Iphigenia.  When  she  was  on  the  point  of 
being  immolated,  she  was  rescued,  it  is  said,  by  Diana, 
who  carried  her  to  Tauris,  where  she  became  a  priestess 
In  the  temple  of  the  goddess.  Her  story  is  the  subject 
of  two  of  the  dramas  of  Euripides. 

Iphigenie.    See  Iphigenia. 

Iph'i-tus,  [Gr.  'I^trof,]  a  king  of  Elis,  who  revived 
the  Olympic  games  about  884  B.C.,  four  hundred  and 
seventy  years  after  their  first  institution.  They  were 
celebrated  everv  fifth  year,  at  Olympia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Alpheus.  Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  lawgiver,  was 
associated  with  Iphitus  in  this  affair. 

Ipparco,  the  Italian  of  Hipparchus,  which  see. 

Ippocrate.    See  Hippocrates. 

Ippolito.    See  Hippolytus. 

Irailh,  e'rlK,  (Augustin  Simon,)  a  French  historical 
writer,  born  at  Puy-en-Velay  in  1 719,  became  canon 
of  Monistrol.  He  wrote  an  interesting  work  entitled 
"Literary  Quarrels,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Revolutions  in 
the  Republic  of  Letters  from  the  Time  of  Homer  to 
the  Present,"  (4  vols.,  1761,)  also  a  "History  of  the 
Reunion  of  Bretagne  with  France,"  (2  vols.,  1764.)  Died 
in  1794. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Irala  Yuso,  e-ri'ia  yoo'so,  (Matias  Antonio,)  a 
Spanish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Madrid  in  1680 ; 
died  in  1753. 

Ir'by,  (Charles  Leonard,)  an  English  officer  in  the 
royal  navy,  was  born  October  9,  1789.  In  conjunction 
with  James  Mangles,  he  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"  Travels  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land," 
(1823.)  Died  December  3,  1845.  (See  Mangles, 
Cafjain.) 

Irby,  (Frederick  Paul,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born 
in  1779,  commanded  the  Amelia  in  an  indecisive  action 
against  the  French  in  1813.     Died  in  1844. 

Ire'dell,  (Ir'del,)  (James,)  a  distinguished  jurist,  born 
in  England  in  1751,  settled  in  North  Carolina  in  1768. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1770,  and  in  1777  became 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  North  Carolina.  This 
position  he  resigned  in  1779.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  influential  members  of  the  convention  called 
in  1788  to  consider  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  from 
1790  till  his  death,  in  1799,  was  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.  He  published,  under  the 
authority  of  the  legislature,  the  "Laws  of  North  Caro- 
lina, 1715-1790,"  (1791.) 

See  G.  J.  McRee,  "Life  of  James  Iredell,"  1857. 

Iredell,  (James,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Edenton,  North  Carolina,  in  17S8.  He  was 
Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1827,  and  was  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  from  1828  to  1831.  He  was  sub- 
sequently reporter  to  the  supreme  court  of  his  native 
State,  and  published  thirteen  volumes  of  law  and  eight 
of  equity  reports.     Died  in  1853. 

Ire'land,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Ashburton  in  1761,  became  prebendary  of  Westminster 
in  1802,  and  Dean  of  Westminster  and  rector  of  Islip  in 
1 816.  He  founded  a  professorship  at  Oxford,  and  several 
scholarships.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  *'  London 
Quarterly  Review,"  and  the  author  of  several  approved 
works  of  divinity,  among  which  is  "  Paganism  and  Chris- 
tianity Compared."     Died  in  1842. 

Ireland,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Shrop- 
shire, removed  to  London,  where  he  became  a  con- 
noisseur of  art  and  a  dealer  in  pictures.  He  compiled 
"Memoirs  of  Henderson"  the  actor,  and  published 
"  Hogarth  Illustrated,"  which  was  favourably  received. 
Died  in  1808. 

Ireland,  (Samuel,)  born  in  London,  was  a  weaver 
of  Spitalfields  in  his  youth.  He  became  subsequently  a 
dealer  in  rare  prints,  curiosities,  etc.  Having  acquired 
some  skill  in  drawing  and  engraving,  he  employed  it 
in  illustrating  various  countries,  of  which  he  published 
"Picturesque  Tours."  He  was  the  author  of  "Graphic 
Illustrations  of  Hogarth,"  and  the  publisher  of  the  Shak- 
speare  Papers  forged  by  his  son.  (See  below.)  Died 
in  1800. 


Ireland,  (William  Henry,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1777.  He  acquired  notoriety 
in  1795  by  forging  legal  documents  under  the  seal  of 
Shakspeare,  and  by  practising  on  the  public  credulity  in 
relation  to  dramas  which  he  pretended  to  have  found  at 
Stratford.  One  of  these,  called  "  Vortigern,"  was  pur- 
chased by  Sheridan,  and  performed  at  Drury  Lane  before 
the  imposture  was  detected.  The  audience  were  ex- 
tremely disgusted  at  the  quality  of  the  play,  and  Ireland, 
being  required  to  explain  how  he  had  obtained  it,  con- 
fessed the  forgery  to  his  father,  and  afterwards  published 
a  written  confession,  which  displays  more  vanity  than 
penitence.     Died  in  1835. 

IrensBus,  e-ri-na'Qs,  (Falkovski,)  a  learned  Russian 
prelate  and  writer  on  theology,  born  in  1762;  died  in 
1823. 

Irenseus,  (Klementievski,)  a  Russian  theologian, 
born  in  1753,  became  Archbishop  of  Pskof.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  translated  from  the 
Greek  some  works  of  the  Fathers.     Died  in  1818. 

Ireneeus,!r-e-nee'us,  fGr.  EipTjvcuog;  Fr.  lR^N]feE,€'ri'- 
ni';  It.  Ireneo,  e-ri-na^o,]  Saint,  a  Christian  martyr, 
born  about  130  or  140  A.D.,  was  a  Greek  by  birth,  and 
was  probably  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  as  he  was  a  pupil 
of  the  eminent  Bishop  Polycarp  of  Smyrna.  About  177 
he  became  Bishop  of  Lyons,  (Lugdunum,)  in  France,  in 
place  of  Pothinus,  who  was  the  first  that  occupied  that 
see.  He  ministered  to  his  churches  with  wisdom  and 
general  acceptance.  To  counteract  the  errors  of  the 
Gnostics  and  others,  he  wrote  a  treatise  against  Heresies, 
which  is  still  extant,  (in  a  Latin  translation.)  He  also 
wrote  several  Letters,  and  other  works,  which  are  lost, 
except  some  fragments.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom  under  Septimus  Severus ;  but 
the  learned  are  not  agreed  whether  it  occurred  in  203 
or  208.  He  was  well  versed  in  ancient  philosophy,  as 
well  as  in  evangelical  doctrine.  His  book  on  Heresies 
is  highly  appreciated  as  a  historical  monument  and  a 
vindication  of  the  primitive  faith.  He  was  a  believer  in 
the  Millennium,  and  entertained  opinions  on  that  subject 
which  some  consider  extravagant. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "  De  Viris  illustribus ;"  Eusebius,  "  Historia 
Ecclesiastica ;"  Henry  Dodwell,  "  Dissertationes  in  Irenseum," 
1689  ;  Gervaisk,  "Vie  de  S.  Iren^e,  second  fiveque  de  Lyon,"  1723  ; 
J.  M.  Prat,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Irende,"  1843;  James  Beavbn, 
"  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Saint  Irenseus." 

I-re'ne,  [Gr.  Elpfivri ;  Fr.  Ir^ne,  e'rin',]  Empress  of 
Constantinople,  was  born  at  Athens  about  752,  of  very 
obscure  parentage,  and  in  769  a.d.  became  the  wife  of 
Leo  IV.,  Emperor  of  the  East.  At  his  death,  in  780,  he 
left  a  son  of  ten  years,  named  Constantine,  during  whose 
minority  Irene  acted  as  regent.  She  was  remarkable  for 
her  beauty,  energy,  and  talents.  In  order  to  decide  the 
quarrel  between  the  Iconoclasts  and  their  opponents,  to 
whom  she  was  partial,  she  assembled  a  council  in  787, 
which  formally  sanctioned  the  worship  of  images.  When 
her  son  attained  his  majority,  her  ambition  so  far  pre- 
vailed over  natural  affection  that  she  dethroned  him  and 
deprived  him  of  sight.  In  802  she  was  deposed  by  a 
conspiracy  of  her  subjects,  and  Nicephorus  was  chosen 
emperor.     She  died  in  exile  in  803. 

See  Lk  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Has- Empire;"  Vincent  Mignot, 
"Histoire  de  I'lmp^ratrice  Irene,"  1762;  Gibbon,  "History  of  the 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Ir^nee.    See  Iren^us. 

Ireneo.     See  Iren/eus. 

Ireton,  Ir'ton,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  repub- 
lican, born  in  1610.  He  was  a  student  of  law  when  the 
civil  war  began,  in  which  he  became  an  ardent  leader 
of  the  popular  cause.  Entering  the  army  as  captain  of 
cavalry,  he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and  became  highly 
distinguished  for  his  courage  and  capacity  both  in  the 
battle-field  and  the  council-chamber.  At  the  battle  of 
Naseby,  (1645,)  with  the  rank  of  commissary-general,  he 
commanded  the  left  wing,  and  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner  ;  but,  his  friends  having  gained  the  victory,  he 
recovered  his  liberty  the  same  day.  In  1646  he  married 
Bridget,  daughter  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  The  latter,  as 
Hume  remarks,  "  had  great  deference  for  the  counsels 
of  Ireton  ;"  and  the  republicans  generally  reposed  the 
highest  confidence  in  him,  as  a  statesman  of  incorruptible 
honour.  About  1646  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  where 


t:  as  A;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /';  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     { 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.J 


TRIARTE 


ns" 


IRVIXG 


he  projected  various  wise  legal  and  constitutional  re- 
forms and  was  eminent  for  his  skill  in  drafting  ordi- 
nances. While  Charles  I.  was  a  prisoner  at  Hampton 
Court,  he  had  conferences  with  Cromwell  and  Ireton, 
who,  it  is  said,  were  inclined  to  reinstate  him  in  a  limited 
royalty,  until  they  intercepted  one  of  his  letters  which 
convinced  them  of  his  iii.-incerity.  Ireton  was  a  member 
of  the  court  which  tried  the  king;  and  he  signed  the 
warrant  for  his  execution,  January,  1649.  In  reference 
to  this  affair,  Burnet  says,  "  Ireton  was  the  person  that 
drove  it  on  ;  for  Cromwell  was  all  the  while  in  some 
^uspense  about  it."  In  July,  1649,  he  went  to  Ireland 
as  second  in  command  under  Cromwell,  who,  returning 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months,  left  to  Ireton  the  chief 
command,  with  the  title  of  lord  deputy.  After  gaining 
several  victories  and  taking  Limerick,  he  died  there  of 
the  plague  in  1651.  Hume,  who  was  not  partial  to  his 
cause,  denominates  him  "a  memorable  personage,  much 
celebrated  for  his  vigilance,  industry,  capacity  even  for 
the  strict  execution  of  justice  in  that  unlimited  command 
which  he  possessed  in  Ireland.  It  was  believed  by  many 
that  he  was  animated  by  a  sincere  and  passionate  love 
of  liberty."    ("  History  of  England.") 

See,  also,  "  Biographia  Britaniiica ;"  GuizoT,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Revolution  d'Angieierrt;." 

Iriarte  or  Yriarte,  e-re-aR'ti,  (Bernardo,)  nephew 
of  Don  Juan  de  Iriarte,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Tene- 
riffe  about  1734.  He  became  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state,  and  held  other  important  offices  under  the 
Spanish  government     Died  in  1814. 

Iriarte,  (Domingo,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Teneriffe  in  1746,  was  sent  as  minister  plenipotentiary 
of  Spain  to  Poland,  and  employed  in  other  embassies. 
Died  in  1795. 

Iriarte,  (Francisco  Diego  de  Ainsay — In-sT',)  a 
Spanish  writer,  born  at  Huesca,  published  an  account 
of  his  native  city,  entitled  "Fundacion,  Eccelencias, 
Grandezas,  etc.  de  la  antiquisima  Ciudad  de  Huesca," 
(1619.) 

Inarfce,  (Ignacio,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Guipuscoa  in  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
elder  Herrera.  He  worked  in  Seville,  and  became  a 
friend  of  Murillo,  who  painted  the  figures  for  some  of  his 
landscapes.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy 
of  Seville.  Iriarte  was  regarded  as  the  best  landscape- 
painter  of  his  country  and  his  time.  Connoisseurs  admire 
in  his  works  the  lightness  of  the  foliage,  the  transparency 
of  the  sky,  the  limpidity  of  the  water,  and  the  mastery 
of  chiaroscuro.     Died  in  1685. 

See  Raphael  Mengs,  "  l^s  Obras,"  etc.,  1780;  Quilliet,  "Dic- 
lionnaire  des  Peintres  Kspagnols." 

Iriarte,  de,  di  e-re-aR'ti,  (Don  Juan,)  an  eminent 
linguist  and  scholar,  born  in  the  island  of  Teneriffe  in 
1702.  He  studied  in  Paris  at  the  College  of  Louis  le 
Grand,  and  subsequently  visited  London  and  Madrid, 
where  he  was  appointed  in  1732  one  of  the  librarians 
in  the  Royal  Library.  He  became  official  translator  to 
the  principal  secretary  of  state  in  1740,  and  in  1743  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  his 
\yorks  may  be  named  a  "  History  of  the  Canary  Islands," 
(in  manuscript,)  a  collection  of  Spanish  proverbs  in 
Latin  verse,  and  translations  from  Martial.  Iriarte  is 
said  to  have  added  two  thousand  manuscripts  and  more 
than  ten  thousand  printed  volumes  to  the  Royal  Library 
during  the  thirty-nine  years  in  which  he  officiated  as 
librarian.     Died  in  1771. 

Iriarte,  de,  (Tomas,)  youngest  brother  of  Bernardo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Teneriffe  about  1750.  He  be- 
came a  proficient  in  the  ancient  and  modern  languages 
under  the  tuition  of  his  uncle,  and  subsequently  became 
archivist  to  the  principal  secretary  of  state,  and  editor 
of  the  "Madrid  Mercury."  He  was  author  of  a  poem 
entitled  "LaMusica,"  (1779,)  which  was  received  with 
great  favour  and  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages,  and  "  Literary  Fables,"  ("  Fabulas  literarias.") 
The  latter  are  written  in  various  metres,  and  are  re- 
markable for  their  graceful  versification.  They  enjoyed 
great  popularity  at  the  time,  and  are  still  ranked  among 
the  classics  of  the  language.  An  English  version  of 
these  fables,  by  George  H.  Devereux,  appeared  in  1855. 
Iriarte  also  published  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Spoiled 


Child,"  ("El  Seiiorito  niimado,")  a  number  of  sonnets 
and  critical  essays,  and  a  metrical  translation  of  Horace's 
"Art  of  Poetry."     Died  about  1790. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Jolv,  no- 
tice of  tlie  Life  of  Tomas  de  Iriarte,  in  the  "  Repertoire  de  Littera- 
ture." 

Irico,  e-ree'ko,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Italian  priest 
and  savant,  born  at  Trino  in  1704.  He  wrote  several 
religious  and  antiquarian  works.     Died  in  1782. 

I'ris,  [Gr.  'Ip^f,]  in  Greek  mythology,  the  goddess  of 
the  rainbow,  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Thaumas,  and 
sometimes  called  Thaumantias.  Homer  represents  her 
as  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  employed  to  carry  mes- 
sages from  Ida  to  Olympus  and  from  gods  to  men.  She 
was  the  attendant  of  the  goddess  Hera,  or  Juno. 

Iiiand,  ^rOSn',  (Bonaventure,)  a  French  jurist,  of 
Scottish  descent,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1551  ;  died  in  1612. 

Irnerius,  ^R-na're-us,  sometimes  written  "Warnerius, 
a  celebrated  Italian  jurisconsult,  born  at  Bologna  in  the 
eleventh  century.  He  became  the  renovator  or  restorer 
of  the  Roman  law,  which  had  been  neglected,  and  on 
which  he  wrote  commentaries,  called  "  Glossae."  He 
o^btained  the  office  of  judge,  and  was  sent  by  the  emperor 
to  Rome  in  11 18  to  expedite  the  election  of  a  pope. 

See  B.  NiHUsius,  "Irnerius,"  Cologne,  1642;  Fantuzzi,  "  S*^'- 
tori  Bolognesi." 

Iron  Mask.     See  Masque  de  Fer. 

I'r9ns,  (William  Josiah,)  D.D.,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Hoddesdon,  Herts,  September  12,  1S12.  He 
graduated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  1833,  became 
a  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's  in  i860,  and  in  1870  rural 
dean,  rector  of  Wadingham,  and  Bampton  Lecturer. 
He  published  various  theological  and  philosophical 
works,  and  made  a  noted  translation  of  the  "  Dies  Iraj." 
Died  Tune  18,  1S83. 

Ir'vine,  (William,)  a  general,  born  near  Enniskillen, 
Ireland,  about  1742,  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania  in  •1763. 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1776,  and  a  brigadier-general 
in  1779.  From  1781  to  1783  he  commanded  the  troops 
stationed  at  Fort  Pitt  for  the  defence  of  the  western 
frontier.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1787, 
and  again  in  1793.     Died  in  1804. 

Ir'ving,  (David,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  biographer  and 
writer  on  law.  He  published  "  Lives  of  Scottish  Poets," 
{1804,)  "Lives  of  the  Scottish  Writers,"  (1839,)  and  "The 
'i"abie-Talk  of  John  Selden,"  (1S54.)  He  was  born  at 
Langholm,  December  5,  1778;  died  at  Edinburgh,  March 
ID,  1S60. 

Irving,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated  and  eloquent  Scottish 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Annan  in  1792,  was  a  graduate  of 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Having  been  employed 
as  rector  of  an  academy  at  Kirkaldy  about  seven  years, 
he  was  ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister.  From  1819  to 
1S22  he  was  engaged  as  assistant  in  the  pulpit  of  Dr. 
Chalmers,  Glasgow,  where  he  acquired  a  good  reputation. 
He  accepted  a  call  from  the  Scottish  Church,  Cross 
Street,  London,  in  1822,  and  soon  became  an  admired 
and  fashionable  preacher.  His  original  genius  and  his 
extraordinary  eloquence  attracted  crowded  audiences, 
among  whom  were  found  the  most  eminent  authors  and 
statesmen,  and  nobles  of  the  highest  rank.  In  1823  he 
published  a  series  of  discourses  entitled  "  For  the  Ora- 
cles of  God,  Four  Orations,"  etc.  In  1829  he  removed 
into  a  larger  church  built  for  him  in  Regent  Square.  A 
charge  of  heresy  having  been  preferred  against  him  in 
the  presbytery  of  London  in  1830,  he  was  condemned 
by  that  body,  and  ejected  from  the  church,  in  1S32. 
After  this  event  he  obtained  another  place,  and  attracted 
crowds  by  his  exhibition  of  the  gift  of  unknown  tongues, 
which  he  ascribed  to  divine  inspiration.  He  published 
"  Babylon  and  Infidelity  Foredoomed  of  God,"  and  other 
theological  treatises.  Died  at  Glasgow  in  December, 
1834.  "  He  was  unquestionably,"  says  De  Quincey,  "by 
many  degrees  the  greatest  orator  of  our  times."  It  is 
probable  that  his  devotion  was  sincere,  but  not  guided 
by  discretion,  and  that  in  the  latter  part  of  his  career 
his  mind  was  affected  with  insanity.  Carlyle,  who  was 
his  friend,  thinks  that  "bodily  and  spiritually,  j^erhaj^s, 
there  was  not  (in  that  November,  1822)  a  man  more  full 
of  genial,  energetic  life  in  these  islands."  He  left  three 
children.     The  collected  writings  of  Edward  Irving  have 


i,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


IRVING 


ISAAC 


been  published  under  the  editorship  of  his  nephew,  the 
Rev.  G.  Carlyle,  London,  1S64-65. 

See  "Life  of  Irving,"  by  Mrs.  Oliphant,  1862;  De  Quincey, 
'  Literary  Reiiiiniscences,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1S62;  "Edward  Irving,  an  Ecclesiastical  and  Literary  Biogra- 
phy," by  W.  WiLKs;  Ch.-\muers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Scotsmen,"  (Supplement;)  Michael  Hohl,  "  Bruchstiicke  aus 
dem  Lebenunddeii  Schrit'ten  E.  Irving's,"  1839;  Lehmann,  "  Ueber 
die  Irvingianer,"  1853;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1824; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1858,  and  June,  1862; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1835;  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1862. 

Irving,  (John  Henry  Brodkibb,)  an  English  actor, 
whose  family  name  is  Brodribb,  was  born  at  Keinton, 
in  Somersetshire,  February  6,  1838.  He  first  appeared 
on  the  stage  in  1S56,  and  rapidly  attained  distinction  as 
a  first-rate  comedian.  His  "'  Hamlet,"  first  played  in 
1874,  greatly  divided  public  opinion,  but  at  present  his 
high  rank  as  a  tragedian  is  very  generally  conceded.  In 
1883  and  in  1SS4-85  he  visited  the  United  States. 

Ir'ving,  (John  Treat,)  an  American  judge  and  writer, 
brother  of  Washington  Irving,  was  born  in  1778.  He 
was  a  popular  contributor,  (political,)  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  to  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  and  from  1821  till 
his  death,  in  1838,  was  presiding  judge  of  the  court 
of  comn.  m  pleas  in  New  York. 

Irving,  (John  Treat,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  resident  of  New  York,  is  au- 
thor of  a  volume  of  "  Indian  Sketches,"  (1835,)  and  two 
novels,  entitled  "  The  Attorney,"  and  "  Harry  Harson  ; 
or.  The  Benevolent  Bachelor,"  which  originally  appeared 
in  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine." 

Irving,  (foSEPH,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  at  Dumfries 
in  1830.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Dumbartonshire,"  a 
"  Book  of  Dumbartonshire,"  (3  vols.,  1879,)  "  Annals  of 
Our  Time,"  "Dictionary  of  Scotsmen,"  (1880,)  etc. 

Irving,  (Peter,)  an  American  journalist,  born  in  1771. 
He  became  in  1802  the  editor  ind  proprietor  of  the 
"  Morning  Chronicle,"  a  Democratic  journal  of  New 
York.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Washington,  he 
projected  "  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York."  He 
wrote  "Giovanni  Sbogarro,  a  Venetian  Tale,"  (1820.) 
Died  in  1838. 

Irving,  (Theodore,)  LL.D.,  an  American  author, 
and  minister  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1809.  He  spent  some  time  in 
Europe  with  his  uncle,  Washington  Irving,  was  professor 
of  history  and  belles-lettres  in  Geneva  College,  New 
York,  from  1836  to  1849,  ^nd  afterwards  filled  for  several 
years  the  chair  of  belles-lettres  in  the  New  York  Free 
Acadetny.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  1854.  He  wrote 
"The  Conquest  of  Florida  by  Hernando  de  Soto,"  in  2 
vols.,  (Philadelphia  and  London,  1835,)  and  "  The  Foun- 
tain of  Living  Waters,"  (1854.)    Died  December  20,  1S80. 

Irving,  (Washington,)  a  distinguished  American 
author  and  humourist,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
April  3,  1783,  was  a  son  of  William  Irving,  a  native  of 
Scotland.  About  1800  he  left  school  and  commenced 
the  study  of  the  law.  For  the  benefit  of  his  health,  he 
performed  in  1804  a  voyage  to  Europe,  visited  France, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  England,  and  returned  in  1806. 
Soon  after  his  return  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar ;  but 
he  preferred  to  devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
never  practised  law.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother 
William  and  with  James  K.  Paulding,  he  issued  in  1807 
a  humorous  and  satirical  magazine,  entitled  "  Salma- 
gundi, or  the  Whim-Whams  and  Opinions  of  Launcelot 
LangstafT,  Esq.,  and  others."  Of  this  amusing  and  popular 
work  only  twenty  numbers  were  issued.  He  published 
in  1809  another  humorous  work,  "The  History  of  New 
York,  by  Diedrich  Knickerbocker,"  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  brother  Peter.  It  was  very  favourably 
received.  "I  have  never,"  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  read 
anything  so  closely  resembling  the  style  of  Dean  Swift 
as  the  Annals  of  Diedrich  Knickerbocker."  (Letter  to 
Henry  Brevoort,  April  23,  1813.) 

In  1810  he  became  a  silent  partner  with  his  brothers 
in  an  extensive  commercial  house  in  New  York.  He 
sailed  in  181 5  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  many 
years,  and  in  1817  visited  Sir  Walter  Scott  at  Abbots- 
ford,  who  became  his  constant  friend.  He  was  reduced 
to  poverty  by  the  failure  of  the  firm  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  m  1817.     His  next  important  work  was  "The 


Sketch-Book,"  (1818,)  by  Geoffrey  Crayon,  which  was 
written  in  England.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity,  and 
raised  Irving  to  the  highest  rank  of  American  authors. 
Lord  Jeffrey,  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August, 
1820,  commended  "The  Sketch-Book"  as  "written 
throughout  with  the  greatest  care  and  accuracy,  and 
worked  up  to  great  purity  and  beauty  of  diction  on  the 
model  of  the  most  eleannt  and  polished  of  our  native 
writers."  He  published  in  London,  in  1822,  "Brace- 
bridge  Hall,  or  the  Humourists,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour  both  in  England  and  America.  Com- 
menting on  this  work,  Lord  Jeffrey  says,  "  We  happen 
t(i  be  very  intense  and  sensitive  admirers  of  those  soft 
harmonies  of  studied  speech  in  which  this  author  is  apt 
to  indulge  himself,  and  have  caught  ourselves  oftener 
than  we  shall  confess,  neglecting  his  excellent  matter  to 
lap  ourselves  in  the  liquid  music  of  his  periods."  ("Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  November,  1822.)  For  his  "Tales 
of  a  Traveller,"  (1824,)  Murray,  the  London  publisher, 
gave  him  £,\^CiO  before  he  saw  the  manuscript. 

Mr.  Irving  afterwards  spent  some  years  in  France  and 
Spain,  where  he  composed  his  "  Plistory  of  the  Life 
and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus,"  (4  vols.,  1828,) 
which  was  very  successful.  "This  is  one  of  those  works," 
says  Alexander  H.  Everett,  "which  are  at  the  same  time 
the  delight  of  readers  and  the  despair  of  critics.  It  is 
as  nearly  perfect  as  any  work  well  can  be."  ("North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1829.)  In  1829  he  pro- 
duced an  imaginative  and  romantic  work  entitled  "The 
Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  Granada,  from  the  Manu- 
scripts of  Fray  Antonio  Agapida."  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  legation  to  the  American  embassy  at  London 
in  1829,  and  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1832.  Among 
his  later  works  are  "  The  Alhambra,"  (1832  ;)  a  "Tour  on 
the  Prairies,"  (1835;)  "Astoria,"  (3  vols.,  1836;)  "The 
Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville,"  (2  vols.,  1837;) 
"Oliver  Goldsmith,  a  Biography,"  (1849;)  "Mahomet 
and  his  Successors,"  (1850;)  and  "The  Life  of  George 
Washington,"  (5  vols.,  1855-59.)  He  was  minister  to 
Spain  from  1842  to  1846.  He  pa.ssed  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  at  Sunnyside,  on  the  Hudson  River,  where  he 
died,  November  28,  1859.    He  was  never  married. 

For  an  easy  elegance  of  style,  Irving  has  no  superior, 
perhaps  no  equal,  among  the  prose  writers  of  .A.merica. 
If  Hawthorne  excels  him  in  variety,  in  earnestness,  and  in 
force,  he  is  perhaps  inferior  to  Irving  in  facility  and  grace  ; 
while  he  can  make  no  claim  to  that  genial,  lambent 
humour  which  beams  in  almost  every  page  of  "  Geoffrey 
Crayon." 

See  the  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Wa.shington  Irvine;,"  by  Pierre  M. 
Irving,  1S63;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  i.  ;  Gkiswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Prescott, 
"Miscellanies;"  "  Ediuburjh  Review"  for  August.  1820,  November 
1822,  and  September,  1828;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1821, 
March,  1823,  and  July.  1863;  "North  American  Review"  for  July, 
1S35,  and  January,  1837,  (both  by  Edward  P;verett,)  and  April 
1858  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1820  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine' 
for  October,  1835  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1S37  ;  Alli 
BONE,  "  Dictionai-y  of  Authors;"  Cleveland,  "Compendium  of 
American  Literature;"  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  November,  i860,  and 
June,  1864. 

Irving,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  wai 
born  in  New  York  in  1766.  He  married  a  sister  ol 
James  K.  Paulding  in  1793,  became  a  merchant  in  Nev, 
York,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  during  threr 
terms,  (1813-19.)  He  aided  his  brother  and  Mr.  Pauld' 
ing  in  the  "  Salmagundi,"  of  which  he  wrote  the  poetical 
parts.     Died  in  1821. 

Ir'vrin,  (Evles,)  a  poet,  born  in  Calcutta,  of  Irisl 
parents,  in  1748,  was  employed  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  East  India  Company.  He  wrote  several  odes  and 
eclogues,  and  "Adventures  during  a  Voyage  up  the  Red 
Sea,"  (1780.)     Died  in  1817. 

Ir-win,  Viscountess.     See  Howard,  (Anne.) 

Isa,  ee'sa,  written  also  Iga  and  Isha,  one  of  the  names 
of  SiVA,  which  see. 

Isaac,  I'zak,  [Heb.pn];''  or  pnty  ;  IL  Isacco,  e-sik'- 
ko;  Arabian,  IshAk, 'is'hSk',]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  the 
son  of  Abraham  and  Sarah,  was  born  about  1890  B.C.  He 
married  Rebecca,  and  became  the  father  of  Esau  and 
Jacob.  "  Of  all  the  patriarchs,"  says  Bishop  Hall,  "  none 
made  so  little  noise  in  the  world  as  Isaac."  He  removed 
to  Gerar,  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  acquired 


€as>4;  5asj;  gkard;  gas/;  G,  -^,¥1, guttural;  N,fiasat;  v.,trilled;  sasz;  thasinM/j.     (2i^="See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


ISAAC 


1354 


ISAIAH 


riches  as  a  planter.  He  died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty. 

Isaac  L,  or  Isaac  Com-ne'nus,  [Gr.  'laaaxwc  6 
Koiivrjvoc,]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  chosen  by 
the  army  as  successor  of  Michael  VI.  in  1057.  Two 
years  later,  in  consequence  of  a  malady  which  he  sup- 
posed mortal,  he  resigned  the  throne  to  Constantine 
Ducas,  and  entered  a  convent.     Died  in  1061. 

Isaac  IL,  or  Isaac  An'ge-lus,  [Gr.  'laawuoc  6  'kyye- 
/Of,]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  proclaimed  in 
1185  as  successor  to  Androni'cus,  who  was  dethroned 
by  a  popular  revolt.  He  rendered  himself  very  un- 
popular by  his  vices  and  misgovernment.  In  1195  his 
brother  Alexis  usurped  the  throne  and  imprisoned  Isaac, 
who  was  liberated  and  restored  in  1203  by  an  army  of 
crusaders.  In  1204  he  was  again  supplanted  by  Alexius 
Ducas,  and  died  or  was  killed  the  same  year.  Constan- 
tinople was  speedily  taken  by  the  crusaders,  who  elected 
Baldwin  emperor. 

Isaac,  ee'zik,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  musician,  whoir 
the  Italians  called  Arrigo  Tedesco,  (i.e.  the  "  Germar 
Henry,")  was  born  about  1440.  He  removed  to  Italj 
about  1475,  ^"^  ^'^s  patronized  by  Lxirenzo  de'  Medici 
He  composed  sacred  music. 

Isaacson,  T'zak-son,  (Henry,)  born  in  London  ir 
1581,  wrote  a  work  on  Chronology.     Died  in  1654. 

Isabel,  the  Spanish  of  Elizabeth,  which  see. 

Isabel  L    See  Isabella  of  Castile. 

Is'a-bel  [Sp.  pron.  e-s§.-b^l']  EC.,  (or,  more  fully, 
Maria  Isabel  Luisa,)  Queen  of  Spain,  born  at  Madrid 
in  October,  1830,  is  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII.  and 
Maria  Christina.  She  succeeded  her  father  on  the  29th 
of  September,  1833,  when  her  mother  became  regent. 
Her  claim  was  disputed  by  her  uncle,  Don  Carlos,  in  a 
civil  war,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Carlists  in 
1S40.  The  queen-regent  having  been  driven  from  power 
by  a  popular  revolt  in  October,  1840,  Espartero  became 
regent.  Isabel  was  declared  of  age  in  November,  1843, 
and  in  October,  1846,  was  married  to  her  cousin,  Fran- 
cisco de  Assis,  a  son  of  Francisco  de  Paula,  who  was  a 
brother  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Her  reign  was  agitated  by 
many  revolutions,  caups  d'etat,  and  changes  of  constitu- 
tion. In  September,  1868,  she  was  deposed  by  her 
revolted  subjects  almost  without  a  struggle.  Her  son, 
Alfonso  XII.,  became  king  in  1875. 

Isabella.     See  Elizabeth. 

Is-a-belTa  of  Austria,  (  Clara  Eugenia,  )  the 
daughter  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  Elizabeth  of  France, 
was  born  in  1566.  As  the  niece  of  Henry  III.  of  France, 
she  claimed  the  French  crown  at  his  death,  but  was 
excluded  by  the  Salic  law,  though  she  was  favoured  by 
the  chiefs  of  the  League.  In  1597  she  became  the  wife 
of  Archduke  Albert,  son  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Died  in  1633. 

Isabella  of  Bavaria,  daughter  of  Stephen,  second 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1371,  became  Queen  of  France 
in  1385  by  marriage  with  Charles  VI.  She  was  remark- 
able for  beauty  and  for  her  voluptuous  and  dissolute 
character.  When  her  imbecile  consort  became  incapable 
of  ruling,  she  aspired  to  royal  power,  and  made  a  coali- 
tion with  the  English  against  the  dauphin,  her  son.  Died 
in  1435. 

Isabella  [Span.  Isabel,  e-si-b§l';  Fr.  Isabelle,  e'zt'- 
hh\'\  OF  Castile,  daughter  of  John  1 1.,  King  of  Cas- 
tile, was  born  at  Madrigal  in  145 1.  The  malcontent 
subjects  of  her  brother,  Henry  IV.,  forced  him  to  ac- 
knowledge her  as  his  heir,  after  which  her  hand  was 
solicited  by  several  princes  of  Europe,  and  she  became 
the  wife  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  in  1469.  In  1474  she 
was  proclaimed  Queen  of  Castile  and  Leon,  the  sove- 
reignty of  which  she  did  not  resign  to  her  husband,  but 
kept  in  her  own  hands.  Historians  agree  in  applauding 
her  beauty,  virtue,  magnanimity,  piety,  learning,  and 
political  wisdom.  It  was  under  her  auspices  that  Co- 
lumbus discovered  America,  after  his  project  had  been 
treated  with  neglect  by  Ferdinand.  Died  in  1504.  (See 
Ferdinand  V.)  Isabella  had  blue  eyes  and  auburn  hair, 
and  possessed  great  beauty  of  features,  sweetness  of 
expression,  and  dignity  of  presence. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;"  Juan  dh 
Molina,  "  Sumario  de  la  Vida  y  Hechos  de  los  catolicos  Reyes  D. 


Femando  y  Dona  Isabel,"  1387:  Fernandez  de  Pulgar,  "Rerum 
a  Ferdinando  et  Elisabe  Hispanianim  Regibus  Gestarum  Decades 
II.,"  1545;  D.  Clemencin,  "  Elojio  de  la  Reina  catolica  Dona 
Isabel,"  1S21  ;  Geokge  Anita,  "Memoirs  of  Queen  Isabella  of 
Castile,"  London,  1850. 

Isabelle.     See  Isabella. 

Isabelle  of  France.     See  Elizabeth  of  France. 

Isabelle  (k'zt'hhV)  of  France,  Queen  of  England 
daughter  of  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of  France,  was  born 
in  1292,  and  was  married  to  Edward  II.  in  1308.  The 
issue  of  this  union  was  a  son,  who  became  Edward  HI. 
About  1324  she  went  to  Paris  to  negotiate  between  her 
consort  and  the  French  king,  where  she  formed  a  con- 
spiracy with  malcontent  nobles,  and  returned  to  England 
with  the  avowed  intention  to  remove  from  power  the 
king's  unworthy  favourite,  Sp)encer.  Entering  London 
without  resistance,  in  1326,  the  partisans  of  the  queen  de- 
posed Edward  II.  and  proclaimed  his  son  king.  Isabelle 
and  her  favourite,  Mortimer,  exercised  the  royal  power 
a  few  years  during  the  minority  of  her  son ;  and  there 
seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  they  contrived  the  murder 
of  Edward  II.  She  was  imprisoned  for  nearly  twenty 
years,  and  died  in  prison  in  1358.  She  was  surnamed, 
on  account  of  her  cruelly,  "the  she-wolf  of  France." 

IsabeUe  of  France,  Queen  of  England,  born  in 
1389,  was  a  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  She  was  married 
to  Richard  II.  of  England  in  1396.     Died  in  1409. 

Isabelle,  i'zt'b^K,  (Charles  Edouard,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Havre  in  1800,  wrote  "The  Circular 
Edifices  and  Domes  Classed,"  etc.,  (1843-56.) 

Isabelle  d'Angouleme,  e'zt'b^K  dfiN'goo'lfm',  a 
French  princess,  was  a  daughter  of  Aymar,  Count  of 
Angouleme.  She  was  married  to  John,  King  of  Eng- 
land, in  1201.     Died  in  1245. 

Isabey,  e'zt'bi',  (EucfeNE  Louis  Gabriel,)  an  emi- 
nent painter  of  marine  views,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He 
obtained  a  first-class  medal  in  1824,  and  produced 
"  The  Coast  of  Honfleur"  and  a  "  Tempest  near  Dieppe" 
in  1827,  the  "Battle  of  the  Texel,"  (1839,)  "The  De- 
parture of  Queen  Victoria,"  (1845,)  and  the  "Embarka- 
tion of  De  Ruyter,"  (1851.)  He  received  a  first-class 
medal  at  the  Exposition  of  1855.     Died  in  1S86. 

Isabey,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  celebrated  French  minia- 
ture-painter, born  at  Nancy  in  1767,  was  a  pupil  of 
David,  and  father  of  the  preceding.  About  1802  he 
became  the  most  fashionable  artist  of  Paris  in  his  depart- 
ment of  the  art.  He  was  liberally  patronized  by  the 
emperor  Napoleon,  who  had  been  his  friend  when  both 
were  obscure  citizens.  He  executed  many  admired 
portraits  of  the  Bonaparte  family  and  of  the  generals 
of  the  empire.  It  is  said  that  most  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe  have  been  the  subjects  of  his  pencil.  Among 
his  works  are  the  "Table  des  Marechaux,"  a  picture  on 
porcelain  of  Napoleon  and  his  marshals,  and  "  The 
Congress  of  Vienna,"  (1817.)     Died  in  1855. 

Isacs,  ee'ziks,  (Pieter,)  a  skilful  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Helzevor  in  1569;  died  about  1620. 

Isaeus,  i-see'us,  [Gr.  'loaZof  ;  Fr.  Is6e,  e'zk',]  a  famous 
Greek  orator,  who  flourished  about  400  B.C.,  was  a 
native  of  Chalcis,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of 
Athens.  Having  been  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  he  opened 
a  celebrated  school  in  Athens,  and  had  the  honour  of 
being  the  preceptor  of  Demosthenes.  Isaeus  is  one  of 
the  ten  Athenian  orators  of  the  Alexandrian  canon.  His 
style  is  at  once  elegant  and  vehement,  but  is  less  natural 
than  that  of  Lysias.  He  had  great  skill  in  dialectics 
and  in  the  distribution  of  his  arguments.  Only  eleven 
of  his  orations  are  now  extant ;  and  these  are  all  forensic. 
He  is  said  to  have  survived  the  accession  of  King  Philip 
of  Macedon,  348  B.C. 

See  J.  .\.  LiEiiMANN,  "  De  Isii  Vitaet  Scriptis,"  1831  ;  E.  Jenikh. 
"  Observationes  in  Isasiiin,"  183S. 

IsEeus,  a  Greek  sophist  and  orator,  born  in  Assyria, 
lived  in  the  first  century  after  Christ.  His  eloquence 
is  extolled  by  Pliny. 

Isaiah,  T-za'yah'or  e-zf'a,  [Heb.  irT;.'iy' ;  Gr.  'Uadta^; 
Lat.  Esai'as  ;  Fr.  Isaie,  e'zi'e',  or  fisAiE,  Wzift' ;  It. 
Isaia,  e-si-ee'S ;  Sp.  Isaias,  e-s3.-ee'ls,]  the  first  of  the 
great  Hebrew  prophets,  was  a  contemporarj*  of  Hosea, 
Joel,  Amos,  and  Micah.  He  prophesied  during  a  period 
of  about  fifty  years,  beginning  about  760  B.C.  He  lived 
at  Jerusalem,  and  exerted  great  influence  in  public  affairs. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  gdod;  moon; 


JSAIE 


1355 


ISIDORE 


Little  is  known  of  his  personal  history,  except  that  he 
had  a  wife,  who  is  called  a  prophetess,  and  two  sons. 
There  is  a  doubtful  tradition  that  Isaiah  suffered  death 
by  being  sawn  asunder,  at  the  command  of  King  Ma- 
nasseh.  As  a  writer  he  is  remarkable  for  versatility  of 
genius,  and  merits  the  first  rank  among  the  prophets  by 
the  majestic  simplicity  and  sublimity  of  his  compositions. 
He  declared  more  amply  and  clearly  than  any  other 
prophet  the  eternal  divinity,  vicarious  sufferings,  and 
glorious  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  and  hence  is  often 
called  the  evangelical  prophet.  No  other  prophet  is  so 
often  quoted  by  Christ  and  his  apostles.  (See  Matt.  i. 
22,  iii.  3,  viii.  17,  xii.  18-20,  xiii.  14;  Luke  iv.  17;  Acts 
xxviii.  25  ;  Rom.  ix.  27,  and  x.  16;  Phil.  ii.  10.)  In  our 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  he  is  always  called 
EsAiAS.  He  has  been  pronounced  by  some  critics  not 
inferior  to  Homer  in  poetical  genius  ;  and  all  agree  that 
his  book  is  a  master-piece  of  beauty  and  sublimity  both 
in  thought  and  style. 

Among  the  commentators  on  Isaiah  are  Saint  Jerome, 
Vitringa,  Lowth,  Calmet,  Eichhorn,  Doderlein,  Gesenius, 
Gataker,  Hitzig,  Rosenmiiller,  and  Henderson ;  and,  in  the 
United  States,  Dr.  Alexander  and  Mr.  Albert  Barnes. 

See,  also,  Kimchi,  "Lexicon  Rabbinicum  ;"  Ewald,  "Die  Pro- 
pheten  des  alten  Bundes,"  and  "Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  bi» 
Christus;"  Knobel,  "  Proph^tisme  des  H^breux." 

Isa'ie.    See  Isaiah. 

Isambert,  e'z5N'baiR',  (Emii.e,)  a  French  physician 
and  biographer,  a  son  of  Fran9ois  Andre,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Auteuil  in  1828.     Died  October  27,  1876. 

Isambert,  (FRANgois  Andr6,)  a  French  jurist  and 
Protestant,  born  at  Aunay  (Eure-et-Loire)  in  1792.  He 
distinguished  himself  about  1825  as  the  defender  of  the 
rights  of  the  free  people  of  colour  in  Martinique,  and 
"  performed  in  France,"  says  Taillandier,  "  a  service  like 
that  which  Clarkson  and  Wilberforce  rendered  in  Eng- 
land." In  1830  he  was  appointed  a  judge  ( coitseiller )  of 
the  court  of  cassation.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1848,  and  supported 
Cavaignac  and  the  cause  of  order  in  the  Assembly  of 
1848.  He  was  secretary  of  the  French  Society  for  the 
Abolition  of  Slavery,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  been 
the  founder.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Manual  for  the 
Publicist  and  Statesman,"  (4  vols.,  1826,)  and  a  "History 
of  Justinian,"  (1856.)  He  wrote  many  able  articles  for 
the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale."     Died  in  1S57. 

See  Taillandier,  article  in  the"  Nouvelle BiographieGi^n^rale." 

Isarn,  e'ztRn',  (Samuel,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Cas- 
tres  in  1637,  wrote  "The  Speaking  Pistole,"  ("  La  Pistole 
parlante,"  1660,)  which  had  great  success.    Died  in  1673. 

Isauricus.     See  Leo  III. 

Is-ca'ni-us  or  Is-ca'iius,  (Joseph,)  surnamed  also 
Devo'nius,  an  English  poet,  born  at  Exeter,  derived  his 
name  from  Isca,  the  place  of  his  education.  He  accom- 
panied Richard  I.  on  a  crusade  to  Palestine,  and  wrote 
a  Latin  poem  "  On  the  Trojan  War,"  and  another  en- 
titled "  Antiocheis."     Died  about  1224. 

Isee.     See  Is^Ars. 

Iselin,  fez'l^N',  (Isaac,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Bale 
in  1728.  He  was  assistant  secretary  of  state  from  1756 
to  his  death.  He  became  the  enlightened  advocate  of 
reform  in  morals,  education,  and  legislation,  on  which 
he  wrote  articles  for  the  journals.  His  chief  work  is 
entitled  "  On  the  History  of  Mankind,"  ("  Ueber  die 
Geschichte  der  Menschheit."  1764.)     Died  in  1782. 

See  J.  G.  ScHLOssER,  "Rede  auf  Iselin,"  1783;  S.  Hirzel, 
"Denkn1.1l  1.  Iselin  gewidmet,"  1782. 

Iselin,  [Lat.  Iseli'nus,]  (Jacques  Christophe,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  philologist  and  divine,  born  at  Bale  in 
i6Sl  He  spoke  Greek  with  facility,  and  excelled  in 
Oriental  languages.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Bale  in  1707,  and  was  promoted  to  the  chair  of  divinity 
in  171 L  He  wrote  an  admirable  Latin  poem  on  "The 
Gauls  Crossing  the  Rhine,"  (1696,)  a  treatise  on  the 
"Latin  Historians  of  the  Classic  Period,"  ("  De  Histo- 
ricis  Latinis  Melioris  ^vi,"  1697,)  a  treatise  "On  the 
iDomination  of  the  Magi  in  Persia,"  (1707,)  and  other 
minor  works.     Died  in  1737. 

See  I'.ECK,  "Vita  Iselini,"  in  the  3d  vol.  of  "Tempe  Helvetica;" 
J.  R.  Iselin.  "  Laudatio  funebris  consecrandx  Memoriae  Viri  incom- 
parabilis  J.  C.  Iselini,"  1739. 


Iselin,  (Jean  Rodolphe,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at 
Bale  in  1705,  wrote  "On  Eminent  Domain,"  ("De  Do- 
minio  Eminente,"  1726,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1779. 

Isembert  (e'z6N'baiR')  of  Xaintes,  a  French  archi- 
tect, lived  about  1200,  and  is  supposed  to  have  built  the 
old  London  Bridge. 

Isenburg,  ee'zen-booRc',  [Fr.  Isembourg,  c'zon'- 
booa',]  one  of  the  great  German  families  of  Protestant 
princes  and  counts.  It  included  the  branches  of  Isenburg- 
Birstein,  Isenburg-Philippseich,  Isenburg-Biidingen,  and 
others. 

Isendoorn,  van,  vtn  ee'zen-doRn',  or  Ysendoorn, 
(GljsBERT,)  a  Dutch  philosopher,  born  in  Gelderland  in 
i6oi,  published  "Effata  Philosophica,"  (1633,)  "  Ethica 
Peripatetica,"  (1659,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1657. 

IsfendiySr,  is-fln'dee-ySR',  or  AsfandiySr,  Ss-fSn'- 
dee-y^R',  one  of  the  most  celebrated  heroes  in  Persian 
history,  lived  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  B.C., 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  convert  to  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster,  in  which  he  was  followed  by  his  father 
Gushtasp  (Darius  Hystaspis)  and  the  whole  Persian 
empire.  This  change  of  religion  led  to  the  invasion  of 
Persia  by  Arjasp,  King  of  Turan,  in  which  Isfendiyar, 
hv  his  bravery  and  heroism,  not  only  saved  his  father's 
kingdom,  but  conquered  India,  Arabia,  and  the  West. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  celebrated  Roostum. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia;"  J.Atkinson,  "Abridg- 
ment of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdousi." 

Ish'mael,  [Heb.  Sxj^Ot^' ;  Arabic,  IsMAEELor  Ismail, 
is-ml-eeK;  Fr.  Ismael,  is'mt'&l',]  the  son  of  Abraham 
and  Hagar,  born  about  1900  B.C.,  was  the  ancestor  of 
the  Ishmaelites  or  Arabians.     (See  Genesis  xvi.,  xxi.) 

Ishwara.     See  Iswara. 

Isi,  ee'see,  written  also  Igi  and  Ishi,  (the  consort  of 
Isa  or  Siva,)  one  of  the  inany  names  of  Parvat!,  which 
see.  She  is  identified  by  some  writers,  including  Sir  W. 
Jones,  with  the  Isis  of  the  Egyptians.     (See  Isis.) 

Isiaslaf.     See  Iziaslaf. 

Is'i-dore  [Gr.  'Icrtciupof;  Lat.  Isido'rus  ;  Fr.  Isidore, 
e'ze'doR';  It.  IsiDORO,  e-se-do'ro]  OF  Charax,  a  Per- 
sian, who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  century 
of  our  era,  wrote  a  work  called  "  Parthian  Itinerary," 
which  contains  a  list  of  the  eighteen  provinces  of  Parthia 
and  of  the  chief  towns,  with  the  distances  of  the  towns 
from  each  other. 

Isidore  of  Moscow,  a  Russian  prelate,  was  chosen 
Primate  of  Russia  in  1437.  He  favoured  the  reunion  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  at  the  Council  of  Florence, 
(1437.)     Died  at  Rome  in  1463. 

Isidore,  Saint,  an  eminent  Spanish  scholar  and 
bishop,  born  at  Carthagena  about  570  a.d.,  was  a  brother 
of  Leander,  Archbishop  of  Seville.  He  understood 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Latin,  and  was  very  influential  in 
the  Spanish  Church.  About  600  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Seville.  The  Council  of  Toledo,  held  in  650, 
denominated  him  "the  glory  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age."  Among  his  most 
important  works  are,  in  Latin,  "A  Chronicle  from  the 
Origin  of  the  World  to  626  A.D.,"  and  "Twenty  Books 
of  Etymologies,"  which,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "is  one  of  the 
most  precious  monuments  for  the  history  of  human 
knowledge."     Died  in  636  a.d. 

See  Saint  Ildefonso,  "  E)e  Viris  illustribus  ;"  TritheIM,  "  De 
Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis ;"  Roesler,  "  Dissertatio ;  Isidori  His- 
toria  Gothorum,  Vandalorum,"  etc.,  1803. 

Isidore,  Saint,  of  Alexandria,  born  in  Egypt  about 
318  A.D.,  was  a  friend  of  Athanasius,  by  whom  he  was 
ordained  a  priest.     Died  in  404. 

Isidore,  Saint,  of  Pelusium,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  between  360  and  390  a.d.  He  lived  as  a 
hermit  in  Egypt,  and  had  a  high  reputation  for  piety  and 
wisdom.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  great  number  of  short 
letters,  of  which  more  than  two  thousand  are  now  ex- 
tant. They  are  said  to  contain  sound  doctrine  and  good 
instruction  in  morals.     Died  about  450  A.D. 

See  Hermann,  "Dissertatio  de  Isidoro  Pelusiota,"  1737;  NiE- 
MEVER.  "  Dissertatio  de  Isidoro  Pelusiota,"  1825. 

Is'i-dore  Mer-ca'tor  or  Peo-ca'tor,  the  supposed 
name  of  a  person  who  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century 
fabricated  a  famous  code  of  canon  law  or  collection  of 
decretals,  often  called  the  "  Collection  of  the  Pseudo-IsJ- 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  n,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23 


IS TD  OR  us 


1356 


ISOURD 


dore.  Sume  popes  availed  themselves  of  this  means 
to  extend  their  tenii)oral  power. 

Isidorus.     See  Isiduke. 

Is-i-d6'ru3  of  Mii.etus,  a  Greek  architect  of  the 
sixth  century,  who  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian to  build  the  magnificent  church  of  Saint  Sophia 
in  Constantinople,  which  is  now  used  as  a  mosque. 

I'sis,  [Gr.  'lotf,]  one  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  was  called  the  wife  of  Osiris  and  mother  of 
Horus.  She  was  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  fecun- 
dity, and  appears  to  have  represented  nature  or  the  earth. 
The  cow  was  sacred  to  Isis.  She  had  many  worshippers 
in  Greece  and  Rome.  There  were  famous  temples  of 
Isis  at  Memphis  and  Denderah.  She  has  been  identified 
with  the  fiindoo  Isi,  (which  see.) 

Isla,  is'la,  (Jos6  Francisco,)  a  witty  and  popular 
Spanish  author,  born  at  Segovia  in  1703.  He  became  a 
Jesuit  and  an  eminent  preacher.  He  effected  a  reform 
m  the  vicious  style  and  bad  taste  that  prevailed  among 
the  Spanish  priests,  which  he  ridiculed  in  his  famous 
satirical  romance  "The  Life  of  the  Popular  Preacher 
Fray  Gerundio  de  Campazas,"  (3  vols.,  1758,)  which 
is  called  the  best  picture  of  Spanish  manners  oi  the 
eighteenth  century.  This  work  was  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition.  He  made  a  Spanish  version  of  "Gil  Bias," 
under  this  title  :  "Adventures  of  Gil  Bias,  stolen  from 
Spain,  adopted  in  France  by  Le  Sage,  and  restored  to 
his  Native  Country  and  Language,"  (6  vols.,  1787.)  The 
Jesuits  having  been  expelled  from  .Spain  in  1767,  he 
retired  to  Bologna,  where  he  died  in  1781. 

See  J.  I.  DE  Salas,  "Vicia  de  Juan  de  Isla,"  1803;  Ticknor. 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Everett,  "Critical  and  Miscella- 
neous Essays." 

Isleif,  is'lTf,  an  Icelandic  historian,  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  Rome  about  1056,  and  returned  home.  He 
wrote  "  Annals  of  Iceland  and  of  Norway."  Died  about 
1080. 

Ismaeel  or  Ismail,  is-mS-eel',  a  Moslem  priest,  was 
Imam  of  the  Sheeites  in  the  second  century  of  the  Hejrah. 
At  his  death  a  division  occurred  among  the  Sheeites  in 
respect  to  the  succession.  Those  who  adhered  to  the 
son  of  Ismaeel  were  called  Ismaeelites  or  Ismaeelians, 
vnd  became  a  powerful  sect  in  Egypt  and  Persia. 

Ismaeel,  Ismail,  or  Ismail  Shah,  is-ml-eel'  shSh, 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  .Sofees  of  Persia,  was  born  in 
1487,  and  assumed  royal  power  about  the  age  of  four- 
teen. He  acquired  several  provinces  of  Persia  by  con- 
quest, and  died  in  1524,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Aboo-Modhaffer.  Ismaeel  is  venerated  by  the  Persians, 
who  call  him  King  of  the  Sheeites,  (a  religious  sect.) 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia  ;"  Von  Hakmer-Purgstall, 
"  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Ismaeel  (Ismail)  II.,  King  of  Persia,  the  son  of  Aboo- 
Modhaffer,  began  to  reign  in  1576,  and  made  himself  de- 
tested by  his  sanguinary  temper.  After  executing  many 
innocent  persons,  he  died  in  1577,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Mohammed  Meerza,  (Mirza.) 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Ismael,  the  French  for  Ishmael,  which  see. 

Ismail  Pasha,  is-mSeel'  pa'shi,  former  Khedive  of 
Egypt,  was  bora  in  Cairo  in  1S30.  His  uncle  Said,  the 
viceroy,  in  1862  made  him  commandant  of  the  army, 
and  in  1863  he  succeeded  as  viceroy.  His  lavish  ex- 
penditures not  only  greatly  encumbered  his  private  es- 
tates, but  embarrassed  all  the  people  of  Egypt.  In  1867 
he  acquired  from  the  Porte  the  title  of  Khedive.  He 
carried  on  extensive  wars  of  conquest  in  the  Soudan. 
In  1869  the  Suez  Canal  was  opened.  In  1879  the  press- 
ure of  the  foreign  creditors  became  so  great  that  the 
Sultan,  urged  by  the  representatives  of  the  European 
powers,  directed  Ismail  to  abdicate.  The  abdication 
took  effect  Jiuie  26,  1879,  and  Ismail  retired  to  Naples. 
His  son  Teweik  succeeded  as  khedive. 

Isnard,  6s'ntR',  (Achille  Nicolas,)  a  French  politi- 
cal economist  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  ;  died  about  1803. 

Isnard,  (Maximin,)  a  French  Girondist,  republican, 
and  orator,  born  at  Grasse,  in  Provence,  in  1751,  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  enthusiastic  partisans 
of  the  Revolution,  to  which  he  often  gave  a  new  impulse 
by  his  brilliant,  impetuous,  and  inflammatory  eloquence. 


He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  the  formation  of  which  he  first  proposed 
and  was  president  of  the  Convention  a  few  days  in  May, 
1793,  during  the  struggle  between  his  party  and  the  Ja- 
cobins. He  was  involved  in  the  fatal  proscription  of  the 
Girondists,  but  escaped  death  by  concealment.  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred. He  retired  from  political  life  when  Napoleon  be- 
came consul,  and  published  an  essay  on  the  "  Immortality 
of  the  Soul,"  (1801,)  in  which  he  professes  himself  a  con- 
vert to  revealed  religion.  He  maintained  a  fair  reputation 
for  honour  and  probitv,  and  died  about  1830.  Lamartine, 
who  calls  him  the  Danton  of  the  Gironcle,  says,  "  His 
speeches  were  magnificent  odes,  which  exalted  discussion 
into  lyric  enthusiasm."  ("  History  of  the  Girondists.") 
"  Isnard  was  the  man  of  the  Girondist  party,"  says 
Charles  Nodier,  "  who  possessed  in  the  highest  degree 
the  gift  of  those  vehement  inspirations  which  burst  like 
thunder  in  sudden  and  terrible  explosions." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^nerale  ;"  Thiers,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution." 

Isnardi,  ^s-nau'dee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  sa- 
vant, born  near  Nice  in  1749,  wrote  a  "Memoir  on  the 
Monuments  of  India  and  Egypt."     Died  in  1830. 

Isocrate.     See  Isocrates. 

I-soc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'laoKpurric;  Fr.  Isocrate,  e'zo'- 
kutt';  It.  Isocrate,  e-sok'rji-ti,]  one  of  the  ten  great 
Athenian  orators,  born  at  Athens  in  436  B.C.,  received 
lessons  from  Gorgias, '  Prodicus,  and  Theramenes,  and 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Plato.  He  soon  surpassed 
^hese  masters  in  the  rhetorical  art ;  but  his  insuperable 
constitutional  timidity  defeated  his  political  aspirations, 
and  disqualified  him  for  a  public  debater  or  an  oracle 
of  the  "fierce  democracy."  He  opened  a  school  of  elo- 
quence, which  numbered  among  its  pupils  many  eminent 
rhen,  such  as  Isasus,  Timotheus,  Xenophon,  and  Hyperi- 
des.  Cicero  compared  his  school  to  the  wooden  horse 
of  Troy,  from  which  issued  the  principal  Grecian  chiefs. 
He  composed  orations  and  forensic  arguments  for  clients 
or  others,  and  discourses  on  moral  and  political  questions. 
His  style  is  extremely  polished  and  harmonious,  but 
perhaps  too  artificial  and  diffuse.  His  character  was 
honourable,  his  political  principles  were  moderate  and 
sincerely  patriotic.  He  was  one  of  the  few  who  had  the 
courage  to  appear  in  mourning  for  the  death  of  Socra- 
tes. It  is  said  that  the  disastrous  battle  of  Chjeronea 
affected  him  so  deeply  that  he  refused  to  eat  afterwards, 
and  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight.  Twenty-one  of  his 
orations  are  extant. 

See  Plutarch,  "Vitas  Decern  Oratorum ;"  Bilmakk,  "De 
Isocrate  Oratore  Grsco,"  1798;  Pfund,  "  De  Isocratis  Vita  et 
Scriptis,"  1833:  LiCHTENAUER,  "  De  Isocrate,"  1843;  O.  Muller, 
"  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece  ;"  P.  Ekerman,  "  Iso- 
crates Patre  loquentire, "  1743. 

Isolani,  e-so-li'nee,  (IsiDORO,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Milan,  lived  between  1480  and  1550,  and  wrote 
many  works  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 

Isolani,  e-zo-lS'nee,  (Johann  Ludwig  Hector,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1586,  served  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war.  For  the  part  he  took  in  the 
betrayal  of  Wallenstein  he  received  the  title  of  count. 
Died  in  1640. 

Isore,  e'zo'ri',  (Jacques,)  a  French  politician,  born 
at  Cauvigny  in  1758,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  Died 
in  1839. 

Isouai'd,  6-soo-aRd',  or  Isoard,  §-so-aRd',  (Nicolo,) 
a  Maltese  musician  and  composer,  born  in  1775.  He 
is  usually  known  by  the  name  of  NiCOLO,  under  which 
he  gave  liis  compositions  to  the  world.  The  best-known 
of  these  are  his  comic  operas  of  "Joconde,"  (1813,)  and 
"Jeannot  and  Colin,"  (1814;)  but  he  produced  with  ex- 
traordinary facility,  and  was  the  author  of  a  large  number 
of  other  operas,  comic  and  serious,  of  masses,  cantatas, 
psalms,  etc. 

Isourd,  d',  de'zooR',  (Joachim  Jean  Xavier,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Aix  in  1766.  He  became  a 
cardinal  in  1827,  and  in  1829  was  made  a  peer  of  France, 
with  the  title  of  duke.  After  refusing  several  archbishop- 
rics, he  accepted  that  of  Lyons  in  1839  ;  but  he  died 
before  the  end  of,  that  year. 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ou^^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  \\,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ISRAEL 


1357 


IVERNOIS 


Is'rael,  [Heb.  '7N"liy';  Gr.  '\apa7]k,\  a  name  often  given 
by  the  inspired  writers  to  the  patriarch  Jacob,  whose 
descendants  are  called  Israelites.     (See  Jacob.) 

Israeli    See  Disraeli. 

Is'raels,  (Josek,)  a  Dutch  genre  painter  of  eminence, 
born  at  Groningen  in  1824.  His  brother,  Lehman 
Israels,  born  in  Groningen  in  1833,  became  a  journalist 
of  New  York,  and  was  for  some  years  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  New  York  "World." 

Is'selt,  van,  (Michael,)  a  Dutch  historian  and  Cath- 
olic priest,  born  at  Dokkum,  adhered  to  the  Spanish 
party  in  the  civil  war.  He  wrote  "  Historia  Belli  Colo- 
'niensis,"  (1584,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1597. 

Is'ter,  [Gr.  'larpof,]  a  Greek  historian  and  poet,  lived 
about  250  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  or  pupil  of  Callimachus. 
He  wrote  a  history  entitled  Arrwa,  and  other  works, 
none  of  which  are  extant. 

Isthvdnfi,  ?sht'vtn-fee,  [Lat.  Isthvan'fius,]  (Nicho- 
las,) a  Hungarian  noble,  born  about  1535,  was  rewarded 
for  his  services  by  the  office  of  Vice-Palatine  of  Hungary. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Hungary  from  1490  to 
r6o6,"  (1622.)     Died  in  1615. 

Isthvanfius.     See  IsthvAnfi. 

Istria,  Duke  of.     See  BESSiiRES. 

Isturiz,  de,  diis-too-rtth',  (Don  Francisco  Xavier,) 
a  Spanish  politician,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1790.  He  pro- 
moted the  revolution  of  January,  1820,  was  elected  to 
the  Cortes  in  1822,  and  became  a  leader  of  the  Liberal 
or  democratic  party.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
for  a  few  months  in  1836,  and  was  driven  into  exile  by 
an  etneute.  Having  returned  in  1837,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Cortes  in  1839.  He  negotiated  the 
marriage  of  the  queen  Isabel,  (1846,)  was  sent  as  minister 
to  England  in  1850,  and  to  Russia  in  1857.  He  became 
president  of  the  council  in  February,  1862.     Died  1871. 

Isvrara,  ees'wa-ra,  or  Ishw^ara,  eesh'wa-ra,  written 
also  l9'wara,  one  of  the  thousand  names  of  Siva,  though 
sometimes  applied  to  other  Hindoo  deities.  He  is  by 
some  writers  identified  with  the  Osiris  of  the  Egyptians. 

See  Mook's  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Itaborahy,  de,  dk  ee-ta-bo-rS-ee',  (Mangel  Jos^ 
Rodrigues  Torres,)  Viscount,  a  Brazilian  statesman, 
born  at  Porto  das  Caxias,  December  13,  1802.  He  grad- 
uated at  Coimbra  in  1825.  He  was  a  professor  in  the 
military  school  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  from  1S26  to  1833.  In 
1831  he  became  minister  of  marine,  and  in  1848  minister 
of  finance.  He  was  for  many  years  the  leader  of  the 
conservatives.     Died  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  January  8,  1873. 

Itale.     See  Italus. 

It'a-lus,  [Gr.  'IraAof;  Fr.  Itale,  e'ttK,]  an  ancient 
king  of  Italy,  from  whom  that  country  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  name.  He  married  Electra,  a  daughter  of 
Latinns.  He  is  considered  as  fabulous  by  some  authors. 

Itard,  e'tiR',  (Jean  Marie  Gaspard,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Oraison  in  1775,  removed  to  Paris  about 
1796,  and  practised  with  success.  In  1799  he  was  ap- 
pointed physician  to  the  Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes,  which 
position  he  filled  for  many  years.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  Diseases  of  the  Ear,"  (2  vols.,  1821.)     Died  in  1838. 

Ith'a-cus,  [Gr.  '\QaKoq ;  Fr.  Ithaque,  e'tSk',]  a  name 
of  Ulysses,  which  see. 

Ithaque.     See  Ithacus. 

Ittenbach,  it'ten-bdK',  (Franz,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Konigswinter  in  1813.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  and  was  chiefly  known  for  his 
religious  pictures. 

Ittig,  it'tiG,  [Lat.  Ittig'ius,]  (Thomas,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  1643  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became 
professor  of  divinity.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  among 
which  are  one  "On  the  Heresiarchs  of  the  Apostolic 
Age,"  (1690,)  and  "  Bibliotheca  Patrum  Apostolicorum 
Graeco-Latina,"  (2  vols.,  1699.)     Died  in  1710. 

See  F.  Kern,  "De  Vila  et  Scriptis  T.  Ittigii,"  1710;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "  AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Iturbide,  e-tooR'be-Di,  (Don  Augustin,)  Emperor 
of  Mexico,  born  at  Valladolid  (Mexico)  in  1784,  (one  ac- 
count says  1790.)  He  fought  against  the  insurgents  in  the 
war  of  independence  which  began  in  1810,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general.  About  the  end  of  1821  he  became 
the  master-spirit  of  a  successful  plot  for  the  liberation 
of  Mexico  from  the  Spanish  rule.     He  was  proclaimed 


emperor  in  May,  1822  ;  but  his  power  was  resisted  by  a 
large  party  in  the  Congress  and  by  many  generals,  who 
preferred  a  republic.  Finding  his  position  untenable, 
he  abdicated,  and  was  banished  in  May,  1823.  In  July, 
1824,  he  returned  almost  alone,  and,  just  after  he  landed, 
was  arrested  and  shot  as  a  traitor. 

See  M.  J.  QuiN,  "Memoirs  of  Iturbide,"  and  French  version  of 
the  same,  by  J.  T.  Parisot,  1824. 

lule.     See  lULUS. 

I-u'lus,  [Gr.  'loDAof;  Fr.  luLE,  e'lil',]  a  son  of  yEneas. 
(See  Ascanius.) 

Ivan  or  Iwan  (e-vin')  I.,  a  Russian  prince,  who  began 
to  reign  in  Moscow  at  the  death  of  his  brother  George, 
in  1328,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Tartars.  His  dominions 
consisted  of  Vladimir,  Moscow,  and  Novogorod.  His 
reign  was  peaceful,  and  lasted  twenty-two  years. 

His  grandson,  Ivan  II.,  son  of  Simeon,  born  in  1325, 
was  recognized  by  the  Tartars  as  heir  to  the  throne  in 
1353.  The  events  of  his  short  reign  were  unimportant. 
In  his  last  illness  he  took,  according  to  usage,  the  mon- 
astic vows,  and  died  in  1358. 

See  Kakamzin.  "Histoire  de  Russie." 

Ivan  m.,  (Vasilievitch,)  son  of  Basil  IV.,  ascended 
the  Russian  throne  in  1462,  and  is  sometimes  styled 
Ivan  I.,  Czar  of  Muscovy,  He  liberated  his  realm 
from  the  tribute  which  the  Tartars  had  exacted  by  right 
of  conquest  from  his  predecessors,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  empire.  About  1475  h^  defeated,  in 
several  actions,  the  Tartar  chief  Ahmed,  (or  Akhniet,) 
and  extended  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  various 
princes.  He  embellished  Moscow,  the  capital,  with  fine 
edifices,  and  patronized  the  industrial  arts.  In  i486  he 
assumed  the  title  of  "Sovereign  of  all  the  Russias."  He 
died  in  1505,  aged  sixty-six,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Basil. 

See  Heberstein,  "  Rerum  Moscoviticarum  Commentarii,"  1545. 

Ivan  IV.,  or  Ivan  Vasilievitch  II.,  surnamed  the 
Terrible,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  inherited  the 
throne  at  the  death  of  Basil,  his  father,  in  1533,  when 
he  was  four  years  of  age.  He  assumed  the  titles  of  Czar 
and  Autocrat  about  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  conquered 
Kazan  and  Astrachan  from  the  Tartars,  and  waged  wai 
against  Sweden  and  Poland  without  decisive  results. 
Siberia  was  discovered  and  partially  subdued  in  his 
reign.  About  1582  the  first  printing-press  was  estab- 
lished by  him  in  Russia.  He  displayed  energy  and 
ability  in  promoting  civilization,  but  is  charged  with 
excessive  cruelty  in  the  exercise  of  his  unrestrained 
power.     Died  in  1584. 

See  Odrrborn,  "Joannis  Basilidis  Vita,"  1600;  Heidenstein, 
"De  Bello  Moscovitico,"  1600;  S.  Ciampi,  "  Esame  critico  con 
Document!  inediti  della  Storia  di  Ivan  Wasiliewitsch,"  1S27. 

Ivan  v.,  (Alexievitch,)  born  in  1666,  was  the  heir 
of  the  Russian  crown  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Feodor 
III.  in  1682  ;  but  on  account  of  his  imbecility  his  younger 
brother  Peter  (the  Great)  was  proclaimed  in  his  stead. 
Ivan  was  permitted  to  retain  the  title  of  Czar,  but  had 
no  ambition  to  rule.     Died  in  1696. 

Ivan  VI.,  sometimes  styled  Ivan  IIL,  born  in  1740, 
was  the  son  of  Anthony  Ulric  of  Brunswick  and  Anne  of 
Russia,  (niece  of  the  empress  Anne.)  The  latter,  at  her 
death  in  1740,  appointed  the  infant  Ivan  her  successor; 
but  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  obtained 
the  imperial  power.  Ivan  was  confined  in  prison,  where, 
it  is  said,  he  was  killed  in  1764,  when  Mirovitch  made 
a  rash  attempt  to  raise  him  to  the  throne. 

See  E.  M  AUVILLON,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  du  Regne  d'lwan  VI," 
1766;  "Geschichte  von  dem  Leben  und  Regierung  Ivans  III.,  Kaiser 
von  Russland,"  1766;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ivanof,  e-vi'nof,  [written  in  German,  Iwanow,] 
(Feodor,)  a  Russian  dramatist,  born  in  1777,  served  in 
the  army,  and  wrote,  besides  several  successful  comedies, 
a  tragedy  called  "Martha,"     Died  in  1816. 

Ivara.     See  Juvara. 

Ivernois,  d',  de'vgR'nwS',  (Francois,)  a  Swiss  politi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1757,  represented  his  native 
city  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Geneva  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century^"  (3  vols.,  1791,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  g,  h,  ■&, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IVERSEN 


1358 


JABLONOWSKI 


Iversen,  ee'ver-sen,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  writer, 
b^rn  at  Copenliagen  in  1748,  published,  among  other 
woiks,  the  "Literary  Progress  of  Denmark,"  {4  vols., 
1781-89.)     Died  in  1827. 

Fver-spn,  (Alfred,)  a  Democratic  politician,  born 
in  Burke  county,  Georgia,  in  1798,  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1847,  succeeded  W.  C.  Dawson  as  United  States 
Senator  from  Georgia  in  1855,  and  was  a  prominent 
advocate  of  disunion.  He  became  a  Confederate  briga- 
dier in  1862.     Died  March  4,  1873. 

Ivea,  Ivz,  (Edward,)  an  English  surgeon,  who  went 
with  Admiral  Watson  to  the  East  Indies  in  1754,  and 
published  a  valuable  account  of  his  voyage  and  of  the 
operations  of  the  English  army  in  1755,  1756,  and  1757. 
Died  about  1780. 

Ives,  Ivz,  (Eli,)  an  American  physician,  born  at  New 
Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1779.  He  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Yale  College  about  twenty  years.     Died  in  1861. 

Ives,  (Juil.N,)  E.R.S.,  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Yarmouth  in  1751,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
published  "Remarks on  the  Garianonumofthe  Romans," 
and  other  antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1776. 

Ives,  (Levi  Silliman,)  a  theologian,  born  in  Meriden, 
Connecticut,  in  1797.  He  became  an  Episcopal  clergy- 
man about  1824,  and  Bishop  of  North  Carolina  in  183 1. 
\\\  1852  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
wrotf,  besides  other  works,  "The  Trials  of  a  Mind  in 
its  Progress  to  Catholicism,"  (1854.)   Died  Oct.  13,  1867. 

Ives  or  Yves,  [modern  Fr.  pron.  ^v,]  written  also 
I'vo,  (Saint,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  1035,  became 
Bishop  of  Chartres.     Died  in  11 15. 

Iveteaux.     See  Des  Yveteaux. 

Iv'i-mey,  (Joseph,)  an  English  Baptist  minister,  born 
at  Ringwood,  Hants,  May  22,  1773.  He  was  ordained 
in  1805.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Bunyan,"  and  a 
valued  "  History  of  the  English  Baptists."  Died  Feb- 
ruary 8,  1834. 

Ivo.    See  Ives,  Saint. 

I'vp-ry,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Dundee  in  1765.  After  he  left  college, 
he  engaged  in  teaching  and  other  pursuits.  In  1804  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  Military 
College,  Marlow,  which  he  retained  about  fifteen  years. 
He  contributed  numerous  able  papers  on  physical  as- 
tronomy and  mathematics  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
Institute  of  France  and  of  other  foreign  Academies.  In 
183 1  he  received  the  Guelphic  order  of  knighthood  and 
a  pension  oi  £Tpo.     Died  in  1842. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supplement.) 

Iwakura,  (Tomomi.)     See  Tomomi  Iwakura. 

Iwau.     See  Ivan. 

Ix-i'on,  [Gr.  'I|twv,]  a  fabulous  king  of  the  Lapithae. 
The  poets  feigned  that  after  he  had  committed  a  murder, 
Jupiter  purified  him  and  invited  him  to  his  table.  Ixion 
attempted  to  seduce  Juno,  but  embraced  a  cloud  instead 
of  that  goddess.  To  punish  him  for  this  crime,  he  was 
chained  to  a  fiery  wheel  which  revolved  perpetually. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  Centaurs. 

See  V1RGI1-,  "Georgica,"  book  iv.  484. 

Ixtlilxochitl,  ikst-lfel-Ho-cheetl',  ?  (Fernando  de 
Alva,)  a  Me.xican  historian,  born  at  Tezcuco  about  1568, 


was  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Tezcuco.  He 
wrote  "Historia  Chichimeca,"  and  other  chronicles  on 
Mexican  history.  The  first-named  work  has  been  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Ternaux-Compans.  Died  about 
1648. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Izaacke,  T'zak,  ?  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1624;  died  in  1700. 

Iz'ard,  (George,)  a  general,  born  in  South  Carolina 
in  177*7.  He  became  a  colonel  in  1812,  served  in  the 
war  that  ensued,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.     Died  in  1828. 

Izard,  (Ralph,)  a  Senator,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1742,  settled  in  London  in  1771.  Having  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1780,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  Con- 
giessin  1781,  and  was  a  United  States  Senator  (for  South 
Carolina)  from  1789  to  1795.  He  was  an  able  debater, 
and  a  constant  supporter  of  Washington's  administra- 
tion.    Died  in  1804. 

See  his  "  Life  and  Correspondence,"  by  his  daughter,  1844. 

Izdubar,  iz-doo-bar',  a  half-mythical,  or  perhaps  en- 
tirely mythical,  king  of  Babylonia,  the  hero  of  the 
"Twelve  Legends  of  Izdubar,"  translated  in  1872  by 
Mr.  George  Smith  from  the  cuneiform  records.  Mr. 
Smith  believed  Izdubar  to  be  a  historical  personage; 
others  think  him  purely  mythical.  He  appears  in  the 
legends  as  a  giant,  a  mighty  hunter,  and  a  great  con- 
queror. In  later  records  he  is  treated  as  one  of  the 
gods  of  the  country. 

Izdaslaf  or  Isiaslav  (e-ze-is-lif)  I.,  written  also 
Isiaslaw,  (Dmitri  or  Demetrius,)  Grand  Duke  of 
Russia,  succeeded  his  father,  Yaroslaf,  in  1054.  His 
reign  was  disturbed  by  wars  with  his  brothers  and  other 
princes,  among  whom  Russia  was  divided.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  1078,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  II.,  Grand  Prince  of  Russia,  was 
the  son  of  Mstislaf  He  began  to  reign  in  1146,  as  suc- 
cessor to  Igor  II.,  whom  he  defeated  in  battle.  He  was 
thrice  driven  from  his  throne,  but  as  often  recovered  it. 
He  died  in  1154. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  III.,  surnamed  Davidovitch, 
son  of  David,  became  Grand  Prince  of  Russia  in  1157. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  about  1 161, 

Iziocalt,  e-se-o-k3.lt'.  King  of  the  Mexicans,  ascended 
the  throne  in  1433,  and  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
Mexican  empire.  He  formed  a  code  of  laws,  which  was 
adopted  by  several  adjacent  nations.     Died  in  1445. 

Izmailof,  is-mi'e-lof,  (x\lexander,)  a  Russian  fabu- 
list, born  at  Moscow  in  1779.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  edited  several  reviews  or  journals. 
He  published  a  voluine  of  fables,  (1S04,)  which  are  highly 
commended.     Died  in  1831. 

See  Gretch,  "History  of  Russian  Literature,"  1S19-22. 

Izmailof,  (Vladimir  Vasilievitch,)  a  Russian  writer, 
born  at  Moscow  in  1773.  He  wrote  "Travels  in 
Southern  Russia,"  (1802,)  and  translated  some  works  of 
Rousseau  and  Chateaubriand. 

Izquierdo  de  Ribera,  ith-ke-5R'do  di  re-Ba'ri,  (Don 
Eugenio,)  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Saragossa. 
He  was  sent  to  Paris  as  plenipotentiary  in  1806,  and 
negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  partition  of  Portugal.  Died 
in  1813. 


J. 


Jaafar,  Jafar,  Djafar,  or  Giafar,  ji'a-far  or  jd'far 
surnamed  Sadik,  an  eminent  Mussulman'  doctor  of 
Medina;  died  in  764  a.D. 

Jaafar,  Jafar,  Jafer,  Djafar,  or  Giafar,  a  Barmecide, 
who  becaiTie  the  favourite  of  Haroun-al-Raschid,  and 
to  whom,  it  is  said,  the  Caliph  gave  his  own  sister  Ab- 
basa  in  marriage,  on  condition  that  the  intercourse  of  the 
married  pair  should  be  strictly  Platonic.  Abbasa  having 
borne  a  son  to  Jaafar,  Haroun,  in  his  rage,  mercilessly 
destroyed  both  father  and  son.     (See  Barmecides  ) 

Jaafar-Ibn-TofaU.    See  Aboo-Bekr-Ibn-Tofaiu 


Jabet,  zhS'bi',  (George,)  an  English  solicitor,  of  Bir- 
mingham. He  wrote  under  the  name  of  Eden  War- 
wick. He  published  "The  Poet's  Pleasaunce,"  (1847,* 
"Nosology,"  (184S;  reprinted  as  "Notes  on  Noses," 
1853,)  etc.     Died  at  Handsworth,  July  13,  1873. 

J ablono"wski,  yi-blo-nov'skee,  (  Stanislaus,  )  a 
Polish  general,  born  in  1631,  commanded  the  right  wing 
of  the  army  of  Sobieski  when  he  defeated  the  Turks  at 
Vienna  in  1683.  He  afterwards  had  the  chief  command 
during  the  illness  of  the  king.     Died  in  1702. 

See  De  Jonsac,  "  Histoire  de  Stanislas  Jablonowski." 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u.  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  %  short;  a,  e,  \,(),obscure;  flr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


JABLONOWSKI 


1359 


JACKSON 


Jablonowski,  von,  fon  yi-blo-nov'skee,  (Joseph 
Alexander,)  a  Polish  or  German  prince,  born  in  171 1, 
was  a  patron  of  science.  He  founded  at  Leipsic  a  sci- 
entific association  whicli  bears  his  name,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Museum  Polonicuni,"  (1752.) 
Died  in  1777. 

See  Ersch  und  Grubkr,  "Allgemeiue  Encyklopaedie." 

Jablonski,  yS-blon'skee,  (Daniel  Ernst,)  an  emi- 
nent German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1660.  He  became  pastor  at  Konigsberg  in  1690,  and 
preacher  or  chaplain  to  the  king  at  Berlin  in  1693.  He 
published  a  Hebrew  Bible,  with  notes  and  a  preface, 
(1699,)  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  He  la- 
boured to  effect  a  union  of  various  Protestant  sects. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1741. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgeinelne  Encyklopaedie." 

Jablonski  or  Jablonsky,  (Johann  Theodor,)  a 
brother  of  Daniel  Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Dantzic  about  1654.  He  published  a  "French-German 
and  German-French  Dictionary,"  (171 1.)    Died  in  1731. 

Jablonski,  (  Paul  Ernst,  )  an  eminent  Prussian 
scholar  and  divine,  a  son  of  Daniel  Ernst,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  Berlin  in  1693.  He  devoted  himself  par- 
ticularly to  the  study  of  the  Coptic  and  other  Oriental 
languages.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Pantheon 
Egyptiorum,"  (3  vols.,  1750-52,)  a  work  relating  to  the 
religion  of  the  Egyptians,  and  "  Of  the  Memnon  of  the 
Greeks  and  Egyptians."     Died  in  1757. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jablonsky,  yJ-b!on'skee,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  Prus- 
sian entomologist,  born  in  1756,  published  a  "System 
of  all  the  Known  Insects,  arranged  according  to  the 
Method  of  Linna:us."     Died  in  1787. 

Jacetius.     See  Cattani  da  Diacceto. 

Jachasus.     See  Jack. 

Jack,  [Lat.  Jach^'us,  |  (Gilbert,)  a  Scottish  meta- 
physician, born  at  Aberdeen  about  1578.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leyden  in  early  life.  He 
published  several  works,  among  which  is  "  Institutiones 
PhysicK,"  (1612.)     Died  in  1628. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Jack,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  minister  of  Eastwood, 
wrote  "Onomasticon  Poeticum,"  (1592.)     Died  in  1596. 

Jack,  (William,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  mathematician, 
born  at  Stewarton  in  1834.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Cambridge,  was  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  Owens  College,  Manchester, 
1866-70,  and  in  1879  became  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 

Jack'spn,  (Andrew,)  a  celebrated  American  genera) 
and  statesman,  born  in  the  Waxhaw  settlement,  North 
or  South  Carolina,  on  the  15th  of  March,  1767.  Parton 
states  that  he  was  born  in  Union  county.  North  Caro- 
lina, but  adds  that  "General  Jackson  always  supposed 
himself  to  be  a  native  of  South  Carolina,"  for  in  his 
proclamation  to  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina  he  thus 
addresses  them  :  "  Fellow-citizens  of  my  native  State." 
He  was  a  son  of  Andrew  Jackson,  an  Irishman,  who 
emigrated  to  America  in  1765  and  died  poor  in  1767. 
The  name  of  his  mother  was  Elizabeth  Hutchinson.  We 
have  little  definite  information  about  the  schools  that  he 
attended.  According  to  Parton,  "  he  learned  to  read,  to 
write,  and  cast  accounts  ; — little  more.  .  .  .  He  was  never 
a  well-informed  man."  Having  taken  arms  against  the 
British  in  1781,  he  was  captured,  and  afterwards  wounded 
by  an  officer  because  he  refused  to  clean  his  boots. 
About  1785  he  began  to  study  law  at  Salisbury,  Nortii 
Carolina.  He  was  addicted  in  his  youth  to  gambling, 
horse-racing,  and  other  sports.  He  was  an  excellent 
horseman,  "  a  capital  shot,"  was  very  dignified  in  man- 
ner, and  was  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  activity. 
His  stature  was  six  feet  and  one  inch  high. 

In  17S8  he  removed  to  Nashville,  Tennessee,  where 
he  began  to  practise  law.  He  speedily  obtained  a  large 
practice,  of  which  disputed  land-claims  formed  the  prin- 
cipal subject.  About  1792  he  married  Rachel  Robards, 
originally  Rachel  Donelson,  whose  first  husband  was 
living  and  had  taken  preliminary  measures  to  obtain 
a  divorce,  which  was  legally  completed  in  1793.  The 
marriage  ceremony  was  again  performed  in  1794.     Jack- 


son, following  a  custom  then  extremely  common  m  the 
South  and  West,  fought  a  number  of  duels  in  the  early 
part  of  his  life.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  Tennessee  in  1796,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  that  year  was  elected  representative  to 
Congress  by  the  people  of  Tennessee,  which  was  then 
entitled  to  only  one  member.  He  sujiported  Thomas 
Jefferson  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1796.  In  1797 
he  became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  Tennessee. 
He  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  in  1798,  "partly  be- 
cause he  felt  himself  out  of  place  in  so  slow  and  digni- 
fied a  body,  but  chiefly  for  pecuniary  reasons."  He  was 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee  from  1798  to 
1804.  In  1806  he  challenged  and  killed  Charles  Dick- 
inson in  a  duel  with  pistols,  receiving  himself  a  severe 
wound.  This  affair  impaired  for  many  years  his  popu- 
larity in  Tennessee  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

In  1807,  while  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  was  still  unde- 
termined, Jackson  "  harangued  the  crowd, [at  Richmond,] 
defending  Burr,  and  angrily  denouncing  Jefferson  as  a 
persecutor."  (Parton's  "  Life.")  After  war  had  been 
declared  against  Great  Britain,  General  Jackson  (who 
several  years  before  had  been  appointed  major-general 
of  militia)  offered  his  services,  and  those  of  2500  volun- 
teers, in  June,  1812.  He  was  ordered  to  New  Orleans, 
and  led  a  body  of  2070  men  in  that  direction ;  but  a* 
Natchez  he  received  an  order  dated  February  6,  1813,  by 
which  his  troops  were  dismissed  from  public  service.  In 
September,  1813,  he  had  an  affray  with  Colonel  Thomas 
H.  Benton  at  Nashville,  and  was  severely  wounded  by  his 
brother,  Jesse  Benton.  In  October  next  he  took  the  field 
against  the  Creek  Indians,  whom  he  defeated  at  Talla- 
dega in  November.  By  his  services  in  this  Creek  war, 
which  ended  in  1814,  he  acquired  great  popularity,  and 
in  May,  1814,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  the 
regular  army.  He  was  soon  after  ordered  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  to  oppose  an  expected  invasion  of  the  British. 
In  November  he  seized  Pensacola,  which  belonged  to 
Spain  but  was  used  by  the  British  as  a  base  of  operations. 
About  the  ist  of  December  he  moved  his  army  to  New 
Orleans,  which  was  then  ill  prepared  for  defence.  The 
British  fleet,  conveying  an  army  of  veterans  who  had 
fought  under  Wellington,  entered  Lake  Borgne  Decem- 
ber 13,  and  captured  several  gunboats.  General  Jackson 
proclaimed  martial  law  in  the  city  on  the  i6th.  On  the 
23d  the  enemy  advanced  to  a  point  about  nine  miles  l)e- 
low  the  city,  and  were  attacked  in  the  night  by  General 
Jackson,  who  had  about  21CO  men.  The  result  of  this 
action  was  favourable  to  the  defenders  of  the  city,  who 
gained  time  to  fortify  their  position.  On  the  25th  of 
December  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  arrived  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  invaders,  whose  number  was  about  12,000. 
Jackson,  who  had  a  much  smaller  army,  composed  partly 
of  the  unerring  marksmen  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky, 
repulsed  an  attack  on  the  ist  of  January,  181 5.  On  the 
8th  of  January  the  British  made  a  general  assault  on  the 
American  lines,  but  were  defeated  with  great  loss  by 
the  deadly  fire  of  the  riflemen  and  artillery.  Generals 
Pakenham  and  Gibbs  were  killed.  "  Seven  hundred 
killed,"  says  Parton,  "  fourteen  hundred  wounded,  and 
five  hundred  ]3risoners,  were  the  dread  result  of  that 
twenty-five  minutes'  work.  Jackson's  loss  was  eight 
killed  and  thirteen  wounded."  The  victory  of  New 
Orleans,  which  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  de- 
cisive ever  gained  by  an  American  army,  raised  Jackson's 
reputation  as  a  general  to  the  highest  point,  and  made 
him  the  idol  of  a  large  portion  of  the  American  people. 
This  was  the  last  battle  of  the  war,  a  treaty  of  peace 
having  been  signed  in  Europe  in  December,  1814. 

In  March,  1S15,  while  that  city  was  still  under  mar- 
tial law,  Judge  Hall,  of  New  Orleans,  granted  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  for  the  release  of  Mr.  Louaillier,  who  had 
been  arrested  by  order  of  Jackson,  for  exciting  discontent 
among  the  troops.  The  latter,  instead  of  obeying  the 
writ,  had  the  judge  arrested  and  kept  in  custody.  Peace 
having  been  formally  proclaimed.  Hall  was  set  at  liberty. 
General  Jackson  was  then  summoned  to  answer  for  con- 
tempt of  court.  He  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to 
pay  a  fine  of  one  thousand  dollars.  He  immediately 
paid  the  fine ;  but  it  was  afterwards  refunded  with  the 
interest  by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  February,  1844. 


eas  k;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as 2;  th  as  in  tkis.     (2:^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACKSON 


1360 


JACKSON 


In  1^^17-18  he  waged  a  successful  war  against  the 
Seminoles  in  Florida,  seized  Pcnsacola,  and  executed 
Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  two  British  subjects,  accused 
of  inciting  the  savages  to  hostile  acts  against  the  Ameri- 
cans. He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Florida  in  1821. 
Before  this  date  he  had  built,  near  Nashville,  a  mansion 
called  the  "  Hermitage,"  in  which  he  resided  many  years. 
In  1823  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States, 
and  nominated  as  candidate  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
legislature  of  Tennessee.  His  competitors  were  ]o\\\\ 
Quincy  Adams,  Henry  Clay,  and  William  H.  Crawford. 
Jackson  received  ninety-nine  electoral  votes,  Adams 
eighty-four,  Crawford  forty-one,  and  Clay  thirty-seven. 
As  no  candidate  had  a  majority,  the  election  devolved 
on  the  House  of  Representatives,  voting  by  States,  each 
State  having  one  vote.  Through  the  influence  of  Mr. 
Clay,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  elected,  by  the  vote  of 
thirteen  States.  General  Jackson,  who  received  the 
vote  of  seven  States,  became  the  implacable  enemy  of 
Mr.  Clay,  whom  he  stigmatized  as  "  this  Judas  of  the 
West."  He  habitually  attributed  the  conduct  of  his 
political  opponents  to  mean  or  im.proper  motives,  and, 
accordingly,  hated  Crawford,  Clay,  Adams,  and  Calhoun. 

In  1828  he  was  elected  President,  receiving  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight  electoral  votes,  while  Mr.  Adams 
received  eighty-three.  Calhoun  became  Vice-President. 
Martin  Van  Buren  was  appointed  secretary  of  state. 
Jackson  was  the  first  President  who  proscribed  public 
servants  for  political  opinions.  He  made  more  removals 
in  one  year  than  all  the  other  Presidents  in  forty  years 
before.  At  a  banquet  in  April,  1830,  the  President  gave 
this  famous  toast :  "  Our  Federal  Union :  it  must  be 
preserved."  In  April,  183 1,  he  reorganized  his  cabinet, 
appointing  Edward  Livingston  secretary  of  state,  Louis 
McLane  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Lewis  Cass  secretary 
of  war,  Levi  Woodbury  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  Roger 
B.  Taney  attorney-general. 

Among  the  principal  events  of  his  first  term  was  his 
veto  of  the  bill  which  granted  anew  charter  to  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States,  (July,  1832.)  This  subject  became 
the  chief  issue  between  the  partisans  of  Jackson  and  his 
opponents,  who  supported  Henry  Clay  in  the  Presiden- 
tial election  of  1832.  General  Jackson  was  re-elected, 
receiving  two  hundred  and  nineteen  electoral  votes  out 
of  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight,  which  was  the  whole 
number,  and  Martin  Van  Buren  succeeded  Calhoun  in 
the  Vice-Presidency.  In  November,  1832,  a  Convention 
in  South  Carolina  adopted  an  ordinance  of  nullification, 
by  which  they  ordained  that  the  tariff-law  of  1828  "is 
null  and  void."  The  President  electrified  the  country 
by  his  memorable  proclamation  against  the  nullifiers, 
December  11,  1832,  in  which  he  announced  his  resolu- 
tion to  crush  any  disunion  movement  with  the  strong 
hand.  He  was  censured  by  the  Senate  for  removing 
the  public  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  tlie  United  States, 
September,  1833. 

He  used  his  influence  to  procure  the  election  of  Mar- 
tin Van  Buren  to  the  Presidency  in  1836,  and  retired 
finally  from  public  life  March  4,  1837.  He  afterwards 
joined  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  his  last  illness  Dr. 
Edgar  asked  "what  he  would  have  done  with  Calhoun 
and  the  other  nullifiers  if  they  had  kept  on."  "  Hung 
them,  sir,  as  high  as  Haman,"  was  his  reply.  He 
died,  without  issue,  at  the  Hermitage,  on  the  8th  of 
June,  1845. 

See  Eaton,  "Life  of  Jackson,"  1824;  William  Cobbett,  "Life 
of  Andrew  Jackson,"  1834;  J.  S.  Jenkins,  "Life  of  General  An- 
drew Jackson,"  1850;  J.  T.  Headlev,  "  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson," 
1852;  AMOsKENDALL/'Lifeof  Andrew  Jackson,"  1844;  Alexander 
Walker,  "Jackson  and  New  Orleans,"  1S56;  James  Parton,  "  Life 
of  Andrew  Jackson,"  3  vols.,  1S60,  (by  far  the  most  complete  life  of 
the  Hero  of  New  Orleans  that  has  been  pubHshed  ;)  "  National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i. ;  "New  American 
Cyclopa;dia ;"  W.  G.  Sumner,  "Life  of  Jackson." 

Jack'spn,  (Arthur,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1593,  preached  at  Saint  Faith's,  Lon- 
don, until  1662,  when  he  was  ejected.  He  wrote  "An- 
notations on  the  Old  Testament,"  (1643-58.)  Died  in 
1666. 

Jackson,  (Charles,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
was  born  in  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1775.  ^^^ 
graduated  at  Harvard  with  the  highest  honours  of  his 
class  in  1793,  studied  law  with  Theophilus  Parsons,  and 


obtained  an  extensive  practice  in  his  native  town.  In 
1803  he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  practised  law  for 
many  years.  In  1813  he  was  made  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Massachusetts,  the  duties  of  which  he  discharged 
for  ten  years.  He  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  com- 
missioners appointed  by  the  State  in  1832  to  revise  her 
legislative  enactments.  Died  in  Boston  in  1855.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Pleadings  and  Practice  in 
Real  Actions,  with  Precedents,"  etc.,  (1828.) 

Jackson,  (Charles  Thomas,)  M.D.,  an  American 
chemist  and  geologist,  born  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts, 
in  June,  1805.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Harvard 
in  1829,  after  which  he  continued  his  studies  in  Paris, 
and  passed  several  years  in  visits  to  various  countries 
of  Europe.  In  conjunction  with  Francis  Alger,  he  pub- 
lished a  work  called  "Mineralogy  and  Geology  of  Nova 
Scotia,"  (1832.)  He  became  a  resident  of  Boston  about 
1833,  was  appointed  State  geologist  of  Maine  in  1836, 
and  produced  a  "  Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  State 
of  Maine,"  (1837.)  His  second  and  third  Reports  on 
the  same  subject  appeared  in  1838  and  1839.  He  was 
appointed  geologist  of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  in 
1840.  He  claimed  to  be  the  original  discoverer  of  anses- 
thetics,  and  was  involved  in  a  long  controversy  on  this 
subject.     Died  August  29,  1880. 

Jackson,  (Conrad  Feger,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Pennsylvania.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the 
Union  army  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  1862,  commanded 
a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  and 
was  killed  at  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862. 

Jackson,  (Cyril,)  Dr.,  a  noted  English  divine,  born 
at  Stamford  in  1742.  He  was  offered  the  primacy  of 
Ireland  and  an  English  bishopric,  both  of  which  he  de- 
clined. He  was  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  (George 
IV.)     Died  in  1819. 

Jackson,  (Helen  Hunt,)  an  American  poet  and 
author  of  much  merit,  was  born  in  Amherst,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1831.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Professor  N.  W. 
Fiske.  Her  first  husband  was  Mr.  Hunt,  an  officer  of 
the  United  States  engineers,  who  died  in  1863.  In  1875 
she  married  a  Mr.  Jackson.  Her  works  include  "  Verses 
by  H.  H.,"  (1871,)  "Bits  of  Travel,"  (1872,)  "Bits  of 
Talk,"  "A  Century  of  Dishonour,"  and  several  volumes 
of  tales  for  children.     Died  August  12,  18S5. 

Jackson,  (Henry  R.,)  was  born  in  Georgia  in  1S20. 
He  served  as  a  colonel  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was 
minister  to  Austria  from  1853  to  1858.  He  published  in 
1851  "Tallulah,  and  other  Poems."  He  was  a  general 
in  the  Confederate  service,  1861-65,  and  won  distinction 
as  a  lawyer.  He  was  appointed  United  States  minister 
to  Mexico  in  1885. 

Jackson,  (James,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Devonshire, 
England,  in  1757,  emigrated  to  America  in  1772.  He 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  British  in  Georgia 
in  1776-82,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1789,  and  was  a 
United  States  Senator  for  Georgia  from  1792  to  1795. 
In  1798  he  became  Governor  of  Georgia,  and  in  i8oi 
was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States.  Died 
in  Washington,  March  19,  1806. 

Jackson,  (Jame.s  S.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  gene- 
ral, born  in  Kentucky  about  1822.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  i86o  by  the  voters  of  the  second 
district  of  Kentucky,  but  he  resigned  his  seat  and  joined 
the  Union  army  in  i86l  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Perryville,  October  8,  1862. 

Jackson,  (John,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1686.  He  was  a 
zealous  advocate  of  the  Arian  doctrines,  which  prevented 
his  advancement  in  the  church.  Died  in  1763.  He  wrote 
a  valuable  work  entitled  "Chronological  Antiquities,' 
(3  vols.,  1752,)  and  numerous  controversial  treatises. 

See  Dr.  Sutton,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John 
Jackson,"  1754. 

Jackson,  (John,)  an  able  English  engraver  oil  wood, 
flourished  about  1725-45. 

Jackson,  (Iohn,)  an  eminent  English  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Lastingham,  Yorkshire,  in  1778,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  London  about  1797,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1817.  Among  his  best  works 
are  portraits  of  Canova  and  Flaxman.  Died  in  1831. 
See  Cunningham.  "Lives  of  British  Painters." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lofig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li, }?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JACKSON 


1361 


JACOB 


Jackson,  (John  Adams,)  an  American  sculptor,  born 
at  Bath,  Maine,  November  5,  1825.  He  learned  the  trade 
of  a  machinist.  He  afterwards  studied  portrait-paintuig 
and  crayon-work  with  success  under  D.  C.  Johnson,  \\\ 
Boston,  and  then  practised  sculpture  in  France  and  Italy. 
His  portrait-busts  and  medallions  are  often  excellent.^ 
Among  his  other  works  are  "  Eve  lifting  the  Dead  Abel," 
(1862,)  "  Peasant-Boy  and  Goat,"  "  Culprit  Fay,"  "  Read- 
ing-Girl," the  soldiers'  monument  at  Lynn,  Massachu- 
setts, and  "  Hylas,"  (1879.)  Died  at  Pracchia,  in  Tuscany, 
August  30,  1879. 

Jackson,  (Joseph,)  an  English  letter-founder,  born 
probably  in  London  in  1733  ;  died  in  1792. 

Jackson,  (Nathaniel  J.,)  born  in  New  England, 
became  brigadier-general  in  the  Federal  army  in  1S62. 

Jackson,  (Patrick  Tracy,)  a  merchant  and  manu- 
facturer, born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  17S0. 
He  organized  in  1821  the  Merrimac  Manufacturing 
Company,  and  founded  Lowell.     Died  in  1847. 

See  J.  A.  Lowell,  "  Life  of  P.  T.  Jackson,"  in  Hunt's  "  Lives 
of  American  Merchants,"  vol.  i.,  185S. 

Jackson,  (Rokert,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
1751.  He  served  as  surgeon  in  the  army,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Fevers  of 
Jamaica,"  (1791.)     Died  in  1827. 

Jackson,  (Samuel,)  a  distinguished  physician  and 
physiologist,  born  in  Philadelphia  March  22,  1787.  He 
was  elected  in  1835  to  the  chair  of  the  institutes  of  medi- 
cine in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  he  filled 
with  great  credit  to  himself  and  the  institution  for 
twenty-eight  years.  He  resigned  in  1863.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Principles  of  Medicine,"  (1832,) 
and  an  "  Introduction  to  Lehman's  Chemical  Phj'si- 
ology,"  (1856.)     Died  April  5,  1872. 

Jackson,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Durham  in  1579.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Com- 
mentary on  the  Apostles'  Creed,"  and  of  several  devo- 
tional treatises.  He  became  Dean  of  Peterborough  in 
1638.  His  works  are  highly  praised  by  Southey.  Died 
in  1640. 

See  E.  Vaughan,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Jackson,"  1673. 

Jackson,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  Methodist 
preacher,  born  at  Sancton,  Yorkshire,  December  12, 
1783.  He  was  the  author  of  a  large  number  of  religious 
and  biographical  works.     Died  at  Richmond,  March  11, 

1873- 

Jackson,  (Thomas  Jonathan,)  commonly  known  bj 
the  name  of  Stonewall  Jackson,  a  distinguished  Amer- 
ican general,  born  in  Lewis  county,  Virginia,  January  21, 
1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  standing  seven- 
teenth in  a  class  of  fifty-nine.  He  was  considered  at 
West  Point  to  be  rather  a  dull  and  slow  student.  In  the 
Mexican  war  (1846-47)  he  served  as  first  lieutenant  with 
distinction.  Having  resigned  his  commission  in  1852, 
he  became  a  professor  in  the  Military  Institute  at  Lex- 
ington, Virginia.  About  1853  he  married  Miss  Junkin, 
a  daughter  of  Dr.  Junkin,  of  Lexington,  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  colonel  of  the  Virginian  troops  in  April,  1861, 
and  commanded  the  force  that  was  attacked  by  the  Union 
army  at  Martinsburg,  July  2.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  following 
September.  It  has  been  currently  stated  that  he  received 
his  surname  from  the  fact  that  he  and  his  men  "  stood  like 
a  stone  wall"  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  but,  according  to 
one  of  his  biographers,  the  name  "  Stonewall"  was  first 
applied  to  his  brigade  because  it  was  recruited  in  a  stone- 
wall country, — the  counties  of  Jefferson,  Page,  Frederick, 
etc.  He  was  defeated  by  General  Shields  near  Win- 
chester, March  23,  1862,  and  retreated  up  the  valley  to 
Harrisonburg,  pursued  by  General  Banks.  Having  been 
reinforced,  he  resumed  the  offensive  with  about  twenty 
thousand  men,  attacked  General  Banks  near  Strasburg, 
May  23,  and  drove  him  back  to  the  Potomac.  On  the 
approach  of  General  Fremont  from  the  west,  General 
Jackson  moved  hastily  up  the  valley  to  Harrisonburg. 
His  army  was  overtaken  by  General  Fremont  at  Cross 
Keys,  where  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought  on  the  8th 
of  June.  Before  the  end  of  June  he  moved  his  army 
to  Richmond  and  joined  that  of  General  Lee.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June 


27,  and  at  that  of  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  On  the 
9th  of  August  he  defeated  a  small  army  under  General 
Banks  at  Cedar  Mountain,  Virginia.  He  captured 
Harper's  Ferry,  with  eleven  thousand  Union  prisoners, 
on  the  15th  of  September,  and  joined  General  Lee  in 
time  to  take  part  in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September 
17.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  1862,  for  which  service  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  remained  inactive 
for  several  months,  (January-April,  1863,)  employed 
partly  in  preparing  official  reports.  On  the  ist  of  May 
he  was  ordered  by  General  Lee  to  execute  a  flank  move- 
ment on  the  right  wing  of  General  Hooker's  army.  He 
surprised  and  routed  the  eleventh  corps,  near  Chancel - 
lorsville,  on  the  evening  of  the  2d  of  May.  As  he  was 
riding  with  his  staff  from  the  front  towards  the  rear 
during  that  battle,  he  received  a  volley  from  his  own 
men,  who  in  the  darkness  mistook  the  staff  for  a  party 
of  Federal  cavalry.  General  Jackson  received  three 
wounds,  of  which  he  died  at  Guinea's  Station  on  the 
loth  of  May,  1863.  "  His  loss,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "  was 
the  greatest  yet  sustained  by  either  party  in  the  fall  of  a 
single  man ;  though  Sidney  Johnston  had  probably  mili- 
tary talents  of  a  higher  order.  But  Jackson's  power  over 
his  men  was  unequalled;  and  it  was  justified  by  the 
soundness  of  his  judgment,  as  well  as  the  intrepidity  of 
his  character.  Contrary  to  the  vulgar  notion,  his  attacks 
were  all  well  considered,  and  based  on  a  careful  cal- 
culation of  forces ;  and  he  showed  as  high  qualities  in 
refusing  to  squander  his  men  at  Antietam,  and  again  at 
Fredericksburg,  as  he  did  in  his  most  brilliant  charges. 
.  .  .  It  is  doubtful  if  all  the  advantages,  including  pres- 
tige, which  the  rebels  gained  around  Chancellorsville, 
were  not  dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  Thomas  J. 
Jackson."  ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  359-60.) 
Stonewall  Jackson  was  a  man  of  deep  and  earnest  re- 
ligious convictions  ;  and  in  his  general  character,  as  well 
as  in  his  serene,  indomitable  courage  and  the  extraoi- 
dinary  influence  which  he  exerted  over  the  minds  of  his 
soldiers,  he  reminds  us  of  the  great  Puritan  leaders  who 
fought  under  Cromwell. 

See  Dabney,  "Life  of  General  T.  J.  Jackson,"  and  a  "Life  o» 
General  T.  J.  Jackson,"  in  "Southern  Generals,"  1865. 

Jackson,  (Thomas  K.,)  born  in  South  Carolina  about 
1829,  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army  in  1861. 

Jackson,  (\Villiam,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Ireland  about  1737.  In  1794  he  was 
detected  in  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  France, 
in  which  he  recommended  the  invasion  of  Ireland.  He 
was  tried  and  found  guilty  of  high  treason,  but  died 
from  the  effects  of  poison,  before  sentence  was  passed 
upon  him,  in  1795. 

Jackson,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  musician 
and  landscape-painter,  was  born  at  Exeter  in  1730. 
Among  his  musical  compositions  are  "  Twelve  Popular 
Songs,"  "  Six  Sonatas  for  the  Harpsichord,"  and  "  Twelve 
Canzonets  for  Two  Voices."  He  published  "Thirty 
Letters  upon  Various  Subjects,"  (1782,)  and  "The  Four 
Ages,"  (1798.)     Died  in  1803. 

Jackson,  (William,)  known  as  Jackson  ofMasham, 
from  his  native  place,  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  January  9,  1816.  He  composed  oratorios,  cantatas, 
anthems,  glees,  etc.     Died  April  15,  1866. 

Jackson,  (Dr.  William,)  Bishop  of  Oxford,  and 
brother  to  Dr.  Cj'ril  Jackson,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Stamford  in  1750.  He  published  several  sermons. 
Died  in  18 15. 

Jacme,  or  En  Jacme,  King  of  Aragon.     See  James  I. 

Ja'cob,  [Heb.  Up;;';  Gr.  'Ia«tj/?,]  a  celebrated  Hebrew 
patriarch,  a  son  of  Isaac,  and  the  great  progenitor  of  the 
Israelitish  nation.     He  was  also  called  Israel. 

See  Genesis  xxv.,  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxx. 

Ja'cob,  a  Hungarian  adventurer,  and  chief  of  the 
Pastoureaux.  About  1250  he  incited  the  common  people 
to  enlist  in  a  crusade  for  the  liberation  of  Saint  Louis, 
who  was  then  a  captive.  He  mustered  a  vast  multitude 
of  French  peasants,  who  massacred  priests  and  com- 
mitted other  outrages  in  France,  Jacob  was  killed,  and 
his  dupes  were  dispersed. 


€as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  y^, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

86 


(iJ^^^See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


JACOB 


1362 


JACOB  I 


Ja'cob,  (Edward,)  a  topographical  and  antiquarian 
writer  of  Kent,  England.     Died  in  1788. 

Jacob,  (Giles,)  an  English  author,  born  in  Hamp- 
shire in  1686.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Poetical 
Register,"  (1723,)  composed  of  memoirs  of  the  English 
dramatic  poets,  and  a  "Law  Dictionary,"  (1729,)  which 
has  passed  through  many  editions.     Died  in  1744. 

Jacob,  (Henry,)  an  English  Puritan  and  Independ- 
ent minister,  born  in  Kent  about  1562.  He  founded  in 
London  the  first  Independent  Congregational  church 
that  existed  in  England,  and  published  several  works. 
In  1624  he  removed  to  Virginia,  where  he  died  about 
1626. 

Jacob,  (Henry,)  a  philologist  an  3  Orientalist,  born 
in  1606  or  1607,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  published 
"Graeca  et  Latina  Poemata."     Died  in  1652. 

Ja'cob,  (Jehudah  Leon,)  a  Jew  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  born  in  Spain,  resided  in  Holland.  He  wrote 
a  "  Description  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,"  also  a 
description  of  the  Tabernacle,  and  an  "Exposition  of 
the  Psalms." 

Jacob,  (John,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1812  or 
1813.  He  distinguished  himself  in  India  in  1843  ^s 
<:ommander  of  the  Sinde  Horse.     Died  in  India  in  1858. 

Jacob,  (John,)  an  Armenian  carpenter,  lived  about 
1650.  He  is  distinguished  for  having  introduced  the  art 
of  printing  into  Persia. 

Jacob  OF  Edessa.     See  Barad^us. 

Jacob  or  James  [Gr.  'la/cwtof;  Lat.  Jaco'bus]  of 
NisiBis,  surnanied  the  Great,  a  Christian  bishop,  who 
was  regarded  as  a  prophet  and  was  distinguished  for  his 
ascetic  life.  He  became  Bishop  of  Nisibis,  and  attended, 
in  325  A.D.,  the  Council  of  Nice,  where  he  advocated  the 
orthodox  creed.  He  is  said  to  have  delivered  Nisibis 
from  the  besieging  Persians  by  his  prayers.  His  death 
is  variously  dated  from  about  340  to  350  a.d. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "De  Viris  illustribus;"  Fabricius,  "Bibli- 
•»theca  Grjeca;"  Cave,  "Historia  Literaria." 

Jacob  (or  James)  of  Vitry,  a  French  priest,  who 
in  121 7  became  Bishop  of  Acre  in  Syria,  where  he  con- 
verted many  Saracens.  In  1229  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Tusculum  and  a  cardinal.  He  left  a  valuable  "  History 
of  Jerusalem,"  or  "  Historia  Orientalis,"  as  well  as  "  His- 
toria Occidentalis,"  and  many  letters.  Died  at  Rome  in 
'230. 

Ja'cob  Ben  Ash'fr,  a  learned  Jew,  born  in  Ger- 
many, wrote  a  work  called  "Arba  Thourim."  Died  at 
Toledo  about  1340. 

Ja'cpb  Ben  Haj'im  or  Chajim,  a  Jewish  rabbi 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  distinguished  for  his  learning, 
was  born  at  Tunis.  He  edited  the  Masora  and  Hebrew 
Bible,  with  commentaries,  and  a  Chaldean  paraphrase, 
"  Biblia  Rabbinica  Bombergiana,"  (4  vols.,  1525.) 

Ja'cob  Ben  Napli'ta-li,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi  of 
the  fifth  century,  educated  at  Tiberias.  To  him  is  chiefly 
attributed  the  mvention  of  the  Masoretic  points  used  in 
distinguishing  the  Hebrew  vowels. 

Jacob  de  Saint-Charles,  zht'kob'  deh  s4n  shtnl, 
(Louis,)  a  French  author  and  bibliographer,  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1608.  He  became  a  monk  of  the 
order  of  Carmelites.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise 
upon  the  Finest  Libraries  of  the  World,"  (1644,)  "The 
Parisian  Library,"  and  "The  French  Universal  Library," 
(1646.)     Died  in  1670. 

Jacob-Kolb,  zht'kob'  kolb,  (G6rard,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Rheims  in  1775.  He  made  valuable 
collections  of  Greek  and  Roman  medals,  autographs, 
<tnd  books.  He  wrote  "  Historical  Researches  on  the 
Crusades  and  the  Templars."     Died  in  1830. 

Jacob  le  Bibliophile.    See  Lacroix,  (Paul.) 

Jacobaa  or  Jacobaea.     See  Jacqueline. 

Jacobaeus,  yi-ko-ba'us,  or  Jacobi,  yi-ko'bee,  (Oli- 
GER,)  a  distinguished  physician  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Aarhuus,  in  Jutland,  in  1650,  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Copenhagen.  He  wrote  several  works  on  natural 
history,  and  elegant  Latin  poems.     Died  in  1701. 

See  NiciRON,  "Mdmoires;"  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "  Litteratur- 
lexicon." 

Jacobazzi,  yS-ko-bit'see,   (Domenico,)   an   Italian 


cardinal,  born  at  Rome  al^out  1443,  wrote  a  "  Treatise 
on  Councils,"  (1538.)     Died  in  1527. 

Jacobi.    See  Jacobaeus. 

Ja-co'bi,  [Ger.  pron.  yd-ko'bee,]  (Abraham,)  M.D., 
a  distinguished  physician,  born,  of  a  Hebrew  family,  at 
Hartum,  in  Westphalia,  May  6,  1830.  He  studied  at 
Greifswalde  and  Gottingen,  and  graduated  at  Bonn  in 
1851.  In  1853  he  removed  to  New  York,  where  he 
gave  attention  chiefly  to  gynaecology  and  diseases  of 
children,  and  held  several  professorships.  His  principal 
works  are  "  Dentition  and  its  Derangements"  (1862) 
and  a  "  Treatise  on  Diphtheria,"  (1880.) 

Jacobi,  yd-ko'bee,  (Heinrich  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  writer  and  thinker,  born  at  Dus.seldorf  in 
1743.  His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  young  Jacobi 
was  destined  to  the  same  calling,  although  his  tastes  led 
him  to  other  pursuits.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
sent  to  school  at  Frankfort.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Geneva,  where  he  remained  three  years,  applying  him- 
self to  literary  studies.  During  this  period  he  acquired 
such  a  mastery  of  the  French  language  as  has  rarely 
been  equalled  by  any  of  his  countrymen.  On  returning 
to  Dusseldorf,  he  conducted  his  father's  business  for 
several  years,  without,  however,  abandoning  his  favourite 
pursuits.  Afterwards,  through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
and  patron  the  Count  of  Goltstein,  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment under  the  government,  and  was  thus  enabled 
to  devote  his  principal  attention  to  philosophy  and  lite- 
rature. About  this  time  he  married  Betty  von  Clermont, 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  a  lady  of  considerable  wealth  as  well 
as  of  great  accomplishments  and  personal  attractions. 
In  1779  Jacobi  was  invited  to  Munich,  where  he  became 
privy  councillor.  But,  having  exposed  the  abuses  of  the 
Bavarian  system  of  customs,  he  fell  into  disfavour  with 
the  government,  and  withdrew  to  his  estate  near  Dus- 
seldorf. In  1804  he  was  again  called  to  Munich,  to  aid 
in  the  establishment  of  the  new  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  that  city,  of  which  institution  he  became  president 
in  1807.  He  resigned  this  position  in  1813,  and  died 
in  1819. 

Among  the  works  of  Jacobi  may  be  named  "  Edward 
Allwill's  Correspondence,"  ("  Eduard  Allwill's  Brief- 
sammlung,"  1781,)  "On  the  Doctrine  of  Spinoza," 
("  Ueber  die  Lehre  des  Spinoza,"  1785,)  in  a  series  of 
letters  to  Mendelssohn,  "  David  Hume  on  Faith,  or 
Idealism  and  Realism,"  ("  David  Hume  Uber  den  Glau- 
ben,  oder  Idealismus  und  Realismus,"  1787,)  "  Wolde- 
mar,"  (2  vols.,  1799,)  and  "Of  Divine  Things  and  their 
Revelation,"  ("  Von  gottlichen  Dingen  und  ihrer  Offen- 
barung,"  181 1.) 

"As  a  writer  of  fiction,"  observes  Mrs.  Austin,  "Ja- 
cobi is  distinguished  for  vigorous  painting,  admirable 
delineation  of  nature  and  the  human  heart,  warmth  and 
depth  of  feeling,  and  a  lively,  bold,  yet  correct  turn  of 
expression.  As  a  philosopher,  he  is  admired  for  his 
rare  depth  of  thought,  for  the  fervour  of  his  religious 
feelings,  and  for  the  originality  and  beauty  of  his  style." 
Again  she  says,  "  His  character  is  rich  ni  all  that  can 
attract  the  wise  and  good."  "Jacobi  is  ranked,  and 
justly,"  says  Dr.  Hedge,  "  among  the  philosophers  of 
modern  Germany,  although  his  philosophy,  far  from 
shaping  itself  into  a  system,  denies, — and  that  denial 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  its  leading  characteristics, — 
on  philosophical  grounds,  the  possibility  of  a  system, 
and  maintains  that  any  system  of  philosophy,  carried  to 
its  legitimate  results,  must  lead  to  fanaticism.  He  vin- 
dicated the  '  affective'  part  of  man's  nature,  which  the 
Kantian  exaltation  of  pure  reason  had  seemed  to  dis- 
parage, at  least  to  neglect,  and  gave  to  feeling  its  due 
place  and  authority  as  a  medium  and  interpreter  of  truth. 
.  .  .  He  differed  from  contemporary  philosophers  in  being 
a  devout  believer  in  revelation, — in  the  Christian  revela- 
tion. The  gospel  was  to  him  the  test  and  criterion  of  all 
truth.  For  the  rest,  he  was  an  eclectic,  and  welcomed  light 
from  whatever  quarter  it  came.  In  philosophical  insight 
he  is  surpassed  by  none  ;  and,  though  his  fixed  idea  of 
the  impossibility  of  a  systematic  philosophy  may  have 
somewhat  vitiated  his  view  of  existing  philosophies,  his 
criticisms  on  some  of  them  are  among  the  best  that 
have  been  essayed." 

See  J.  KuHN,  "Jacobi  und  die  Philosophie  seiner  Zeit,"  1834; 


a.  e.  T.  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


JACOB  I 


136- 


JACQUARD 


F. 


^  H.  Jacobi,  nach  seinem  Leben,  Lehreii  und  Wirken,"  1819; 
F.  Herbst,  "J.  G.  Hamaiin;  F.  H.  Jacobi,"  1830;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gink- 
rale." 

Jacobi,  (JoHANN  Georg,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1740.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Halle,  and  in  1784 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Freiburg.  He  published 
a  collection  of  poems.     Died  in  1814. 

See  RoTTECK,  "Gedachtnissrede  auf  Jacobi,"  1814;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jacobi,  (Karl  Gustav  Jakob,)  an  eminent  German 
mathematician,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1804,  became  in  1829 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Konigsberg.  He  wrote 
"  Foundations  of  the  New  Theory  of  Elliptical  Func- 
tions," (1829,)  and  "Canon  Arithmeticus,"  and  contrib- 
uted a  number  of  able  treatises  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1851. 

Jacobi,  (Mary  Putnam,)  an  American  physician,  a 
daughter  of  G.  P.  Putnam,  of  New  York,  was  born  in 
London,  England,  in  1842.  She  was  educated  in  the 
Philadelphia  Woman's  Medical  College,  in  the  New 
York  College  of  Pharmacy,  and  in  the  ficole  de  Mede- 
cine,  Paris,  where  she  graduated  in  1871.  In  1873  she 
married  Dr.  A.  Jacobi.  She  became  professor  of  ma- 
teria medica  in  a  woman's  medical  college  in  New  York, 
and  published  many  professional  papers  of  high  value. 

Jacobi,  (M.aximilian,)  a  German  alienist,  a  son  of  H. 
F,  Jacobi,  already  noticed,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf,  April 
10,  1775.  He  studied  at  Jena,  Edinburgh,  Gottingen. 
Erfurt,  and  London,  taking  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1807. 
He  afterwards  had  charge  of  insane  asylums  at  Salzburg 
and  at  Siegburg.  His  writings  on  insanity  are  of  high 
importance.     Died  at  Siegburg,  May  18,  1858. 

Jacobi,  (MoRiTZ  Hermann,)  brother  of  K.  G.  J.  Jaco- 
bi, was  born  in  1801.  He  was  the  inventor  ofGalvano- 
plastic,  (1840,)  on  which  he  published  a  treatise,  and  of 
the  application  of  electro-magnetism  to  the  moving  of 
machinery.    Died  at  St.  Petersburg,  March  10,  1874. 

Jacobini,  yd-ko-bee'nee,  (LuDOVico,)  an  Italian  car- 
dinal, born  at  Genzano,  January  6,  1830.  He  became  a 
domestic  prelate  of  the  pope  in  1862,  and  held  various 
offices,  chiefly  connected  with  the  Propaganda.  In  1874 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica  and  nuncio  at 
Vienna.  In  1879  he  was  created  a  cardinal-priest,  and  in 
1880  was  appointed  papal  secretary  of  state,  administrator 
of  the  property  of  the  Holy  See,  and  prefect  of  the 
Lauretan  congregation.  Died  Feb.  28,  1S87.  His  rela- 
tive, Angelo  Jacobini,  born  in  Genzano,  April  25,  1825, 
was  in  1882  created  a  cardinal-deacon,  and  died  in  1886. 
Ja'cpbg,  [Ger,  pron.  ya'kops,](FRiEDRiCH  Christian 
WiLHELM,)  an  eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  born 
at  Gotha  in  1764.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  under  Heyne 
in  1784,  and  in  1807  became  a  teacher  of  ancient  literature 
in  the  Lyceum  at  Munich,  and  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  that  city.  In  1810  he  was  appointed 
chief 'librarian  and  director  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  at 
Gotha,  Among  his  numerous  critical  writings,  which 
are  distinguished  for  profound  learning  and  elegance  of 
style,  are  "Animadversions  on  Euripides,"  ("Animad- 
versiones  in  Euripidem,"  1790,)  "Critical  Emendations 
on  Ancient  Writers,"  ("  Emendationes  criticae  in  Scrip- 
tores  veteres,"  1796,)  and  "Emendations  on  Greek 
Anthology,"  ("  Emendationes  in  Anthologiam  Grascam,") 
He  also  prepared  editions  of  Achilles  Tatius,  Bion  and 
Moschus,  and  other  classics.  He  made  translations  from 
the  Orations  of  Demosthenes,  the  Greek  Anthology,  and 
Velleius,  and  contributed  a  number  of  excellent  treatises 
to  Wieland's  "Attic  Museum"  and  to  the  "Library  of 
Ancient  Literature  and  Art."  He  also  wrote  "Glean- 
ings from  the  Journal  of  the  Pastor  of  Mainau,"  (1823.) 
Died  in  1S47. 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Personalien,")  in  the  eighth  volume  of 
his  "  Vermischte  Scliriften,"  8  vols.,  1829-44;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Jacobs,  yi'kops,  (Jacobs,)  a  Belgian  painter,  whose 
true  name  was  Jacques  Albert  Michel  Jacobs,  He 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1812,  and  was  noted  for  his  land- 
scapes, sea-views,  and  town-pictures.  Died  at  Antwerp, 
December  9,  1879. 


Jacobs,  yi'kops,  (Jurien,)  a  distinguished  Swiss 
painter  of  animals  and  hunting-scenes,  born  in  1610;  died 
in  1664. 

Jacobs,  (Lucas.)     See  Lucas  van  Leyden. 

Jacobs,  (Paul  Emil,)  a  German  painter,  son  of 
Friedrich  Christian  Wilhelm,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  about  1800,     Died  January  6,  1866, 

Jacobs,  yi'kops,  (Simon,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  ai 
Gouda,  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Haarlem  in  1572. 

Jacobsen,  y&'kop-sen,  (Levin,)  a  Danish  surgeon, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1783.  He  invented  an  instru- 
ment called  the  "lithoclaste,"  and  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  H.  C.  Oersted,  "Tale  ved  Jacobsens  I.iigftrd." 

Jacobsen  or  Jacopsen,  yj'kop-sen,  (Michael,)  a 
naval  commander,  born  at  Dunkirk.  He  served  in  the 
famous  Simnish  Armada  sent  against  England  in  1588, 
and,  by  his  skilful  management,  saved  several  vessels. 
Died  in  1633. 

Jacobson,  yi'kop-son,  (Johann  Karl  Gottfried,) 
a  Prussian  technologist,  born  at  Elbingen  in  1726',  pub- 
lished a  "Technological  Dictionary  of  Useful  Trades, 
Arts,"  etc.     Died  in  1789. 

Ja-co'bus,  (Melancthon  Williams,)  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  Presbyterian  clergyman,  born  at  Newark, 
New  Jersey,  September  19,  1816.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1834,  and  at  the  theological  school 
in  Princeton  in  1838.  In  1851  he  became  professor  of 
Oriental  and  Biblical  literature  in  a  theological  seminary 
at  Allegheny  City,  Pennsylvania.  He  published  "  Notes" 
on  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  Genesis,  iit  six  volumes,  (1848 
-65.)     Died  October  28,  1876. 

Jacoby,  yS-ko'bee,  (Johann,)  a  German  democrat, 
born  at  Konigsberg,  May  i,  1805.  He  was  a  physician, 
when  in  184 1  a  political  pamphlet  ascribed  to  him  caused 
his  imprisonment.  In  1848  he  was  a  republican  leader 
and  a  member  of  the  Frankfort  Parliament  and  of  the 
National  Assembly,  He  was  later  tried  for  high  treason, 
but  got  clear  after  a  seven  weeks'  examination.  He  was 
i.i  later  years  often  imprisoned  as  a  socialist  agitator. 
Died  March  6,  1877. 

Jacometti,  yS-ko-met'tee,  (Pietro  Paulo,)  a  sculp- 
tor, founder,  and  painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  at 
Ricanati  in  1580;  died  in  1655. 

Jacomb,  jak'oin,  ?  (Thomas,)  an  English  dissentirg 
minister,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1622.  He  wrote  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Eighth  Chapter  of  Romans,"  a 
"  Treatise  of  Holy  Dedication,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1687. 

Jacopo  di  Pietro,  yS'ko-po  de  pe-a'tRO,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  in  Tuscany,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Or- 
cagna.     He  died  after  1368, 

Jacopo  Tedesco,  (architect.)     See  Lapo. 

Jacopone  da  Todi,  y3.-ko-po'ni  di  to'dee,  or  Ja- 
copo, yl'ko-po,  sometimes  called  Benedetto,  an  Italian 
monk  and  poet,  born  at  Todi.  He  wrote  poems  which 
were  approved  by  the  Academy  della  Crusca.  The 
"  Stabat  Mater  Dolorosa"  is  ascribed  to  him  by  some 
writers.     Died  in  1306. 

See  G.  MoDio,  "  Vita  di  Jacopone,"  1558 ;  GinguknA,  "  Histoire 
litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Jacopsen.    See  Jacobsen. 

Jacotin,  zht'ko'tiN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  officer  of 
engineers,  born  near  Langres  in  1765,  was  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  topography.  He  drew  a  map  of 
Egypt  and  Syria  which  was  taken  from  actual  survey. 
Died  in  1827. 

Jacotot,  zht'ko'to',  (Joseph,)  a  French  teacher,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1770.  Under  Napoleon  I.  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Chamber  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  earnest  efforts  in  the  cause  of  national 
education,  for  which  he  advocated  a  new  and  improved 
system  and  on  which  subject  he  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1840, 

See  A.  Guvard,  "Jacotot  et  sa  M^thode,"  1840;  C  F.  Wurm, 
"Hamilton  und  Jacotot,"  1831  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Jacquand,  zhS'kftN',  (Claudius,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1805,  settled  in  Paris  in  1833, 
and  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class.     Died  in  1878. 

Jacquard,  zht'kiR',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  Frenchman, 
celebrated  for  his  inventions  in  the  art  of  weaving,  was 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (iII^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACQUELIN 


1364 


JAGELLON 


born  in  Lyons,  July  7,  1752.  At  an  early  age,  being 
employed  as  a  type-founder,  and  afterwards  as  a  cutler, 
he  exhibited  an  uncommon  mechanical  genius.  In  1793 
he  assisted  in  the  defence  of  his  native  city  against  the 
army  of  the  Coavention.  He  subsequently  served  for  a 
short  period  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  1801  he  com- 
pleted his  great  invention  for  weaving  the  finest  and 
richest  kinds  of  figured  cloth.  This  apparatus,  which 
bears  his  name, — the  Jacquard  loom, — though  at  first 
strongly  opposed  by  the  weavers  of  France,  has  been 
brought  into  general  use  both  in  Europe  and  in  America, 
and,  instead  of  destroying  the  occupation  of  labourers,  it 
has  greatly  increased  the  number  of  operatives  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  figured  stuffs.  Jacquard  also  in- 
vented a  machine  for  weaving  nets.  For  this  invention 
he  received  a  gold  medal  in  1804  from  the  inspectors  of 
Paris.  While  in  that  city,  he  was  introduced  to  Napo- 
leon I.  Died  in  1834.  In  1840  a  public  statue  was 
raised  to  his  memory  by  the  citizens  of  Lyons. 

See  Db  Fortis,  "  filoge  historique  de  Jacquard,"  1838;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  Lamartine,  "Memoirs  of  Celebrated 
Characters,"  1856. 

Jacquelin,  zhtk'l^N',  (Jacques  Andr6,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1776;  died  in  1827. 

Jacqueline,  zhtk'l^n',  Jac-o-bae'a  or  Jac-o-ba'a, 
[Ger.  pron.  yJ-ko-ba'S,]  of  Bavaria,  Countess  of  Holland, 
and  heiress  of  William  VI.  of  Bavaria,  was  born  in  1400. 
She  was  married  successively  to  John  the  Dauphin  of 
France  and  son  of  Charles  VI.,  to  her  cousin  John  of 
Brabant,  and  to  Humphrey  Duke  of  Gloucester  and 
brother  of  flenry  V.  After  a  long  contest  with  her 
cousin  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy,  she  was  compelled 
to  give  up  to  him  her  possessions.     Died  in  1436. 

See  Petit,  "  Chroniqiie  ancienne  et  modeme  de  la  Hollande ;" 
A.  VAN  OvERSTRATEN,  "  Jacoba  van  Beijeren,  in  V.  Boeken,"  1790; 
MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Jacquelot  or  Jaquelot,  zhtk'lo',  (Isaac,)  a  learned 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Champagne,  France,  in 
1647.  He  wrote  "On  the  Existence  of  God,"  (1697,) 
a  "Dissertation  on  the  Messiah,"  (1699,)  and  on  "The 
Inspiration  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  (1715.) 
Died  in  BerUn  in  1708. 

See  David  Duranb,  "La  Vie  de  Jaquelot,"  1785;  Nic^ron, 
"  M^moires." 

Jacquemard,  zhtk'mtR',  (Btienne,)  a  grammarian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772,  wrote  a  valuable  "Elements  of 
French  Grammar."     Died  in  1830. 

Jacquemart,  zhtk'miK',  (Albert,)  a  French  author, 
born  in  Paris  in  1808.  His  most  important  works  are 
those  devoted  to  the  history  and  description  of  the  ceramic 
art.  Died  in  Paris,  October  14,  1875.  His  son,  Jules 
Ferdinand  Jacquemart,  born  at  Paris  in  1837,  won  a 
reputation  as  an  engineer,  and  also  as  a  designer,  but 
especially  as  an  engraver  and  etcher. 

Jacquemont,  zhSk'miN',  (Victor,)  a  distinguished 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  After  making  scientific 
excursions  through  France  and  Switzerland,  he  sailed 
in  1826  for  America,  and  visited  Canada,  the  United 
States,  and  Hayti.  He  returned  to  France  in  1827,  with 
a  choice  collection  of  plants  and  minerals.  In  1828  he 
went  to  the  East  Indies,  and  explored  the  greater  part  of 
Hindostan  and  Thibet.  He  was  author  of  a  "  Geological 
Treatise  on  the  Alps,"  "  Correspondence  of  Victor  Jacque- 
mont with  his  Family  and  many  of  his  Friends  during  his 
Journey  in  India,"  and  "Travels  in  India  from  the  Year 
1828  to  the  Year  1832."     Died  at  Bombay  in  1832. 

See  Sdouard  ds  Warren,  "  La  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  Jacque- 
mont," 1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdndrale ;"  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  February,  1834. 

Jacques,  zhtk,  (Am6d6e,)  born  in  Paris  in  1813, 
wrote  several  works  on  philosophy,  and  edited  the 
works  of  Leibnitz.     Died  in  Buenos  Ay  res  in  1865. 

Jacques,  Fr^re.     See  Baulot. 

Jacques,  (Mathieu  Joseph,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Lyons,  was  born  in  1736. 
He  wrote  "  Convincing  Proofs  of  the  Christian  Religion," 
and  other  theological  works.     Died  in  1821. 

Jacques,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  miniature-painter,  born 
near  Nancy  in  1780  ;  died  in  1844. 

Jacques  de  Chison,  zhtk  deh  she'z^N',  a  French 
poet,  who  lived  about  1250,  was  highly  esteemed  by  his 
contemporaries. 


Jacquet,  zh3'ki',  (Eugene  Vincent  Stanislas,)  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1811,  was 
particularly  skilled  in  the  Sanscrit.  In  1829  he  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris,  and 
soon  became  known  by  his  writings.     Died  in  1838. 

See  F^Lix  NfevE,  "M^moire  sur  la  Vie d'Eugfene  Jacquet,"  1856; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdndrale." 

Jacquet,  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1 732,  wrote  a  "  Parallel  between  the  Greek  and  French 
Tragic  Writers,"  and  a  prize  essay  upon  the  Discovery 
of  America.     Died  in  1794. 

Jacquier,  zht'l<e-i',  (  Francois,  )  a  distinguished 
French  mathematician,  born  at  Vitry-le-Fran9ais  in  171 1, 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Roman 
College  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  He  edited  the  "  Prin- 
cipia"  of  Newton,  and  wrote,  with  Le  Sueur,  a  "  Treatise 
on  Algebra,"  and  other  scientific  works.     Died  in  1788. 

Jacquin,  zht'kiN',  (Armand  Pierre,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1721  ;  died  about  1780. 

Jacquin,  zht'kiN',?( Joseph  Franz,)  a  German  bota- 
nist and  chemist,  son  of  Nikolaas  Joseph,  noticed  below, 
was  born  about  1766.  He  was  professor  in  the  University 
of  Vienna,  and  wrote  on  natural  history.    Died  in  1839. 

Jacquin,  (Nikolaas  Joseph,)  a  celebrated  botanist, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1727.  Having  removed  to  Vienna, 
he  was  sent  by  Francis  I.  to  the  West  Indies,  whence  he 
returned  at  the  end  of  six  years,  with  a  choice  collection 
of  plants.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  botany  in  the  University  of  Vienna, 
and  created  baron  and  councillor  of  mines  and  coinage. 
He  wrote  numerous  works  on  botany,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  his  magnificent"  Florae  Austriacse,"  which 
contained  five  hundred  coloured  engravings,  (1773-77.) 
Died  in  Vienna  in  1817. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Mbitsel, 
"Gelehrtes  Deutschland  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  Rai- 
MANN,  "Rede  zur  GedSchtnissfeier  des  N.  J.  Jacquin,"  i8i8. 

Jacquinot,  zhS'ke'no',  (Charles  Claude,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Melun  in  1772,  commanded  two  divisions 
of  cavalry  at  Waterloo.     Died  in  1848. 

Jacquinot- Pampelune,  zht'ke'no'  pfiMp'lidn', 
(Claude  Francois  Joseph,)  a  French  advocate  and 
politician,  born  at  Dijon  in  1771  ;  died  in  1835. 

Jacquot,  zht'ko',  (Georges,)  a  French  statuary,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1794,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1820,  and 
went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.      Died  Nov.  23,  1874. 

Jadassohn,  y^'di-son,  (Salomon,)  a  German  (Jew- 
ish) musical  composer,  born  at  Breslau,  August  13, 183 1. 
He  acquired  distinction  as  a  pianist,  composer,  and  in- 
structor, and  especially  by  his  "  Science  of  Pure  Compo- 
sition," ("Lehre  vom  reinen  Satze,"  3  vols.,  1883.) 

Jadelot,  zhtd'lo',  (Nicolas,)  a  learned  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Pont-k-Mousson  in  1738,  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Nancy.  He  wrote  nume- 
rous professional  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Treatise 
upon  the  Causes  of  the  Pulsation  of  the  Arteries,"  and 
a  "Complete  Course  of  Anatomy."     Died  in  1793. 

Jadin,  zht'diN',  (Louis  Emmanuel,)  a  French  com- 
poser of  dramatic  music,  born  at  Versailles  in  1768;  died 
in  1853. 

Jadin,  (Louis  Godefroy,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 

Jadwiga.     See  Hedwig. 

Jaeger.     See  Jager. 

Jaerta,  (Johan  or  Hans.)     See  Jarta. 

Jaffe,  yaf-fy,  (Philipp,)  a  German  (Jewish)  historian, 
born  near  Posen,  February  11,  i8i9._  He  was  educated 
at  Berlin.  His  "  History  of  Germany  under  Lothair  the 
Saxon,"  (1843,)  3"^  "  History  of  Germany  under  Conrad 
III.,"  (1845,)  were  followed  by  the  important  "  Regesta 
Pontificum  Romanorum,"  (185 1,)  a  standard  work.  He 
then  studied  medicine,  but  in  1862  he  was  appointed  a 
professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  His 
"  Bibliotheca  Rerum  Germanicarum"  (6  vols.,  1864-73) 
is  highly  esteemed.     Died  by  suicide,  April  3,  1870. 

Jagellon,  yi-gel'lon,  Duke  of  Lithuania,  born  about 
1354.  He  embraced  Christianity,  and  married  Hedwig, 
Queen  of  Poland,  thus  uniting  the  two  territories  under 
one  government.  He  also  caused  Christianity  to  be 
established  in  Lithuania.     Died  in  1434- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fitj  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JA  GEMANN 


1365 


JAMES 


Jagemann,  yl'geh-man',  (Christian  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Dingelstadt  in  1735,  spent  many 
years  in  Italy.  He  translated  several  Italian  works  into 
German.     Died  in  1804. 

Jager  or  Jaeger,  ya'ger,  (Gustav,)  a  German  histor- 
ical painter,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1808,  painted  some  frescos 
in  the  royal  palace  of  Munich,  and  various  oil-paintings, 
which  are  highly  commended.     Died  April  29,  1871. 

JSger  or  Jaeger,  (Johann  Wolfgang,)  a  German 
Lutheran  divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Stuttgart 
in  1647  ;  died  in  1720. 

Jag'gar,  (Thomas  Augustus,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York,  June  2,  1839.  He 
took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  held  rectorships  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and  in  1875  ^^^  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Southern  Ohio. 

Jagic,  yi'gitch,  (Vatroslav,  also  written  in  Latin 
Ignatius,  and  in  Russian  Ignatie  Vikf.ntievitch,)  an 
eminent  Croatian  philologist,  born  at  Warasdin,  July  6, 
1838.  He  was  educated  at  Agram  and  Vienna.  In  187 1 
he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Odessa  as  professor 
of  comparative  philology.  In  1874  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  Slavic  languages  at  Berlin,  and  in  1880  took  a 
similar  position  at  Saint  Petersburg.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  History  of  Croatian  and  Servian  Literature," 
(vol.  i.,  1867,)  "Critical  and  Palasographical  Essays," 
(1884,)  etc.  He  has  edited  many  Old  Croatian,  Glago- 
litic,  and  Old  Slovenian  writings. 

Ja'go,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1715.  Among  his  poems  may 
be  mentioned  an  "Elegy  on  the  Death  of  a  Blackbird," 
"Edgehill,"  and  "Labour  and  Genius."     Died  in  1781. 

JaSian-Geer  or  Jahanguire.     See  Jehan-Geer. 

Jalin,  y$n,  (Ferdinand  Hendrik,)  a  Danish  histo- 
rian, born  at  Neumiinster  in  1789.  He  wrote  on  Danish 
history.     Died  in  1828. 

Jahn,  yin,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Meiningen  in  1766;  died  in  1813. 

Jahn,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Lanz  in  1778,  published  several  treatises  on  gym- 
nastics, an  essay  "On  German  Nationality,"  (1810,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1852. 

Jahn,  (Johann,)  a  German  Orientalist  and  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  born  in  Moravia  in  1750.  He  was 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Vienna  from  1789  to 
1806.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Introduction 
to  the  Old  Testament,"  (1793,)  and  "  Biblical  Antiquities," 
(1805,)  both  of  which  were  censured  as  unsound  and  put 
in  the  "Index"  by  the  court  of  Rome.     Died  in  1816. 

Jahn,  (Orro,)  a  German  archaeologist,  born  at  Kiel 
in  1813.  He  became  professor  of  philology  at  Leipsic 
in  1847,  and  published  a  "Life  of  Mozart,"  (1856,)  and 
other  works.     Died  September  9,  1869. 

Jahns,  yans,  (P'rederick  Wilhelm,)  a  Prussian 
musician,  writer,  and  composer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1809. 
In  1871  he  published  an  excellent  "  Catalogue  of  Weber's 
Works."    Died  August  8,  1SS8. 

Jahr,  yiR,  (Georg  Heinrich  Gottlieb,)  a  distin- 
guished homoeopathist,  born  at  Gotha,  in  Germany, 
January  30,  1801.  He  studied  under  Hahnemann,  grad- 
uated as  doctor  of  philosophy  in  Germany,  and  as  doctor 
of  medicine  in  Paris,  (1840,)  in  which  city  he  thenceforth 
lived.  Most  of  his  numerous  books  (in  German  and 
French)  have  been  translated  into  English.  Died  at 
Bi  iissels  in  July,  1875. 

Jaillot,  zhS'yo',  (Charles  Hubert,)  a  French  geog- 
rapher and  engraver,  published  some  accurate  maps  of 
France.     Died  in  1712. 

Jaillot,  (Jean  Baptiste  Rendu,)  a  French  geogi.; 
pher,  published  "  Researches  in  the  City  of  Paris,"  (5 
vols.,  1772.)     Died  in  1780. 

Jaime.     See  James  I.  of  Aragon. 

Jaina  and  Jains.     See  Jina. 

Jakob,  von,  fon  yj'kop,  (Ludwig  Heinrich,)  a 
learned  German  writer,  born  at  Wettin  in  1759,  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Halle  in  1816.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  National  Economy,"  (1805,) 
and  other  esteemed  works.     Died  in  1827. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Jal,  zhil,  (AuGUSTE,)  a  French  littSrateur  and  archje- 
ologist,  was  born  at  Lyons  about  1795.     He  published, 


besides  criticisms  on  art,  "  De  Paris  i  Naples ;  Etudes 
de  Mffiurs,  de  Marine  et  d'Art,"  (2  vols.,  1835,)  and 
"  Archeologie  navale,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)  His  chief  work 
is  the  valuable  "  Dictionnaire  critique  de  Biographie," 
often  reprinted.     Died  April  5,  1873. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Jalabert,zht'lt'baiR',  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Ninies  about  1815,  obtained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Jalal-ed-Deen,  (or  -eddin.)     See  Jelal-ed-Deen. 

Jaley,  zht'li',  (Jean  Louis  Nicolas,)  a  skilful  French 
statuary,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  Among  his  works  are 
statues  of  "La  Pudeur"  and  "La  Priere."     Died  1866. 

Jallabert,  zht'lt'baiR',  (Etienne.)  a  French  natural 
philosopher  and  writer,  born  in  1658  ;  died  in  1724. 

Jallabert,  (Jean,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  m 
Geneva  in  1712,  filled  the  office  of  syndic  of  the  repub- 
lic. He  wrote  "Experiments  upon  Electricity,"  (1748,) 
and  several  other  scientific  works.     Died  in  1768. 

See  Desgenettes,  notice  in  the  "Biographie  M^dicale;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Gi5n^rale." 

Jam'bll-ehus,  a  native  of  Syria,  who  was  enslaved 
by  the  Romans  under  Trajan,  flourished  in  the  second 
century.  He  subsequently  obtained  his  liberty,  and 
wrote  a  romance,  in  Greek,  entitled  "Babylonics,  or 
the  Loves  of  Sinonis  and  Rhodanes." 

Jamblichus  or  Jamblicus,  a  Platonic  philosopher, 
and  native  of  Syria.  He  flourished  under  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Julian,  who  dedicated  numerous  epistles  to  him. 

Jam'bli-ehus  or  I-am'bli-ehus  -ehal-ci-de'nus, 
[Gr.  'IciftfiTuxoc;  Fr.  Jamblique,  zhSN'blik',]  an  eminent 
heathen  philosopher,  born  at  Chalcis,  in  Syria,  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  (306-37  a.d.)  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Porphyry,  and  was  attached  to  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school.  Many  of  the  Neo-Platonists  encouraged 
a  life  of  ascetic  meditation  and  a  belief  in  magic  and 
divination.  Their  system  was  built  on  the  doctrine 
of  emanation, — that  the  souls  of  all  beings,  after  the 
requisite  purification,  return  to  the  Source  from  which 
they  emanated.  Jamblichus  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Pythago- 
ras," a  treatise  on  the  "  Mysteries  of  the  Egyptians," 
and  several  other  works.  To  his  influence  is  ascribed 
the  prevalence  of  magic,  sacrifices,  and  superstition  in 
the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy. 

See  EuNAPius,  "  Vitae  Sophistarum  ;"  Rittkr,  "History  of  Phi- 
losophy;" Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Hebenstreit,  "Dis- 
sertatio  de  Jamblichi  Doctrina,"  1764. 

Jamblicus.    See  Jamblichus. 

Jamblique.    See  Jamblichus. 

J&mee,  J&mi,  or  Djami,  ji'mee,  (Moolla-Nooi 
ed-Deen-  (Nour-ed-Din-)  Abd-er-Rahman,  mooKia 
nooR-ed-deen'  ibd  eR-rin'man,)  written  also  Djamy 
and  Dschami,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  born  at  Jam,  (or 
Djam,)  in  Khorassan,  in  1414,  lived  at  Herat,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  bounty  of  the  Sultan  Aboo-Saeed,  (Abou- 
Said.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Chain 
of  Gold,"  (Sil'silet-zah'ab  or  -zeh'eb*,)  a  collection  of 
satires,  and  "  The  Loves  of  Joseph  and  Zuleika,  and  Mej- 
noon  and  Leila."  He  also  wrote  "  Beharistan,"  ("  Abode 
of  Spring,")  a  treatise  on  morality,  in  prose  and  verse, 
which  is  admired  for  its  graceful  style  as  well  as  for  its 
sentiments.  Jamee  has  sometimes  been  called  "  the  Per- 
sian Petrarch."  .He  was  devoted  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Soofees ;  and  many  of  his  poems  are  characterized  by 
the  spiritual  or  mystical  ideas  of  that  sect.  Died  in  1492. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale,"  article  "  Djami ;"  Ouselev, 
"  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian  Poets ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazii/e"  for 
November,  1856. 

Jameray-Duval.    See  Duval. 

James  [Sp.  Jaime,  Hl'mi]  I.,  King  of  Aragoii,  sur- 
named  the  Conqueror,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
12 13.  He  quelled  an  insurrection  formed  against  him 
by  his  nobles,  and  checked  the  encroachments  of  papal 
power.  Died  in  1276.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Pedro  III. 

See  T.  DE  Soto,  "  Vida  del  Rey  Don  Jairne  I.  de  Aragon,"  1622. 

James  II.,  King  of  Aragon,  surnamed  the  Just, 
son  of  Peter  III.,  was  born  in  1261.  He  ascended  the 
throne  in  1291.  He  annexed  Catalonia  and  Valencia  to 
his  territory,  and  carried  on  long  wars  against  Navarre 
and  the  Moors.  He  was  a  brave,  magnanimous,  and 
benevolent  prince.     Died  in  1327. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  AarJ;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( gt^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JAMES 


1366 


JAMES 


Jeunes  L  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland  was  bom  in 
the  Castle  of  Edinburgh  in  June,  1566.  He  was  the  only 
child  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  her  husband  Henry 
Lord  Darnley,  (called,  after  his  marriage,  King  Henry.) 
Both  Queen  Mary  and  Lord  Darnley  were  grandchildren 
of  Margaret  Tudor,  sister  of  Henry  VHI.  of  England. 
It  was  through  this  princess  that  James  claimed  the 
throne  of  England.  In  1567  Lord  Darnley  was  mur- 
dered, James  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Earl  of 
Mar,  and  Queen  Mary  married  Bothwell,  and  was  soon 
after  made  prisoner  by  the  insurgent  lords.  Mary  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  her  son,  who  was  crowned, 
as  James  VI.,  on  the  29th  of  July,  1567.  During  his 
minority  Scotland  was  fearfully  rent  by  contending 
factions  and  the  violent  disputes  of  the  Protestants  and 
Catholics.  The  regent  Morton  having  rendered  himself 
odious  by  his  tyrannical  acts,  a  successful  conspiracy 
was  formed  against  him  by  a  majority  of  the  Scottish 
nobles.  Morton,  however,  on  account  of  his  Protestant 
proclivities,  soon  regained  his  former  influence.  James 
from  the  commencement  of  his  reign  exhibited  a  weak 
and  frivolous  passion  for  favourites.  His  cousin  Esme 
Stuart,  Lord  D'Aubigny,  a  native  of  France,  obtained 
the  principal  ascendency  over  his  youthful  mind.  Cap- 
tain James  Stuart  held  The  second  place  in  the  king's 
esteem.  Lord  D'Aubigny  was  created  Duke  of  Lennox, 
and  Captain  Stuart  Earl  of  Arran.  Both  eagerly  plotted 
the  destruction  of  Morton,  who  was  put  to  death  in 
1581.  In  1582  a  company  of  nobles  seized  King  James, 
confined  him  in  the  castle  of  Ruthven,  in  Perthshire,  im- 
prisoned Arran,  and  forced  Lennox  to  retire  to  France. 
This  revolt  is  known  in  history  as  the  Raid  of  Ruthven. 
At  the  expiration  of  ten  months,  James  recovered  his 
liberty  and  reinstated  Arran  in  his  former  power.  In 
1585  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  English  and 
Scottish  sovereigns.  Elizabeth  conferred  upon  James 
an  annual  pension  of  five  thousand  pounds,  and  through 
her  influence  deprived  the  Earl  of  Arran  of  all  emolu- 
ments. In  1586  James  formed  another  treaty  with  Eng- 
land, off'ensive  and  defensive,  for  the  protection  of  the 
Protestant  religion.  In  1587  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was 
executed.  James  at  first  appeared  insulted  and  enraged  ; 
he  threatened  to  invade  the  dominions  of  Elizabeth ; 
but,  feeling  more  interested  for  the  inheritance  of  the 
crown  of  England  than  for  his  honour  or  for  filial  duty, 
he  was  soon  pacified.  In  1589  he  married  Anne,  daugh- 
ter of  the  King  of  Denmark.  In  1594  he  quelled  a 
rebellion  of  the  Catholic  lords.  Bothwell  also,  having 
taken  part  in  this  revolt,  was  obliged  to  fly  from  the 
country,  to  which  he  never  returned.  James  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  Episcopacy,  and  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  establish  it  in  his  dominions,  in  opposition  to 
the  wishes  of  the  people.  On  this  account  a  tumult 
was  raised  in  Edinburgh  in  1596,  from  which  his  life 
apj)eared  to  be  in  imminent  danger.  But  James,  ex- 
hibiting for  him  an  unusual  share  of  spirit  and  energy, 
dexterously  turne3  this  to  his  own  advantage.  In  1600 
he  was  decoyed  to  the  castle  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie, 
where  Ruthven,  brother  of  the  earl,  made  an  attempt 
on  the  king's  life,  on  which  occasion  both  the  noblemen 
were  slain.  The  Gowrie  Conspiracy  has  always  been 
veiled  in  mystery, — no  historian  having  yet  unravelled  it. 
On  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in  1603,  James  became 
King  of  England.  He  displeased  his  new  subjects  by 
the  prodigality  of  his  gifts  to  his  Scottish  favourites.  He 
continued  the  foreign  policy  of  Elizabeth  by  concluding 
a  treaty  with  Henry  IV.  of  France  for  assisting  Holland 
against  Spain.  In  1605,  chiefly  through  King  James's 
penetration,  the  Gunpowder  Plot  was  discovered.  (See 
Fawkes,  Guy.)  The  year  1612  was  marked  by  the  death 
of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  who  by  his  manly  and  noble 
qualities  had  been  far  more  successful  than  his  father  in 
winning  the  affections  of  the  English  people.  In  1613, 
James's  daughter,  the  princess  Elizabeth,  was  mariied 
to  Frederick,  the  Elector-Palatine.  Among  the  king's 
favourites  were  successively  Sir  George  Hume,  Philip 
Herbert,  Earl  of  Montgomery,  and  Robert  Carr  or 
Ker,  a  young  Scotchman  who  by  his  handsome  person 
monopolized  the  royal  favour.  He  was  created  Earl 
of  Somerset  In  1615  Carr  was  ried  and  convicted  on 
a  charge  of  poisoning  his  friend  Sir  Thomas  Overbury. 


This  made  room  for  a  new  favourite,  named  Villiers,  who 
was  created  Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  who  retained 
his  influence  over  the  king  during  the  remainder  of  the 
reign.  In  1617  James  visited  Scotland,  where  he  was 
very  zealous  in  introducing  episcopal  forms  into  the 
Established  Church.  In  1618  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
executed  on  the  pretended  charge  of  conspiracy,  but  in 
fact  to  conciliate  the  court  of  Spain.  The  public  con- 
tempt which  this  excited  against  James  was  increased 
by  his  behaviour  towards  the  Elector-Palatine,  whom 
the  Bohemians  had  chosen  as  their  king,  and  who  was 
attacked  by  the  united  forces  of  Austria  and  Spain. 
James  pusillanimously  refused  to  give  his  son-in-law 
any  assistance  or  encouragement.  Frederick  had  been 
the  Protestant  champion  of  Europe,  and  the  people  of 
Britain  hesitated  not  to  express  their  grief  and  rage. 
During  a  long  period  James  had  wished  to  form  a  Span- 
ish alliance  for  Prince  Charles ;  and  he  now  hastened 
the  negotiations.  This  alliance  was,  however,  broken 
off  through  the  rashness  and  insolence  of  Buckingham. 
Finally,  in  1624,  war  was  declared  against  Spain,  and 
an  army  was  fitted  out  to  assist  the  Elector.  Owing  to 
pestilence  and  mismanagement,  this  army  never  entered 
the  Palatinate,  which  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria.  James  died  in  March,  1625,  after  a 
reign  of  nearly  fifty-eight  years,  during  twenty-two  of 
which  he  sat  on  the  throne  of  England.  He  had  seven 
children  by  his  queen,  Anne  of  Denmark,  of  whom  only 
Prince  Charles  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth  survived  him. 

"No  prince,"  says  Hume,  "so  little  enterprising  and 
so  inoffensive,  was  ever  so  much  exposed  to  the  oi:)posite 
extremes  of  calumny  and  flattery,  of  satire  and  panegyric. 
.  .  .  Many  virtues,  it  must  be  owned,  he  was  possessed 
of;  but  scarce  any  of  them  pure  or  free  from  the  conta- 
gion of  the  neighbouring  vices.  His  generosity  bordered 
on  profusion,  his  learning  on  pedantry,  his  pacific  dis- 
position on  pusillanimity,  his  wisdom  on  cunning,  hia 
friendship  on  light  fancy  and  boyish  fondness."  (Hume's 
"  History  of  England,"  chapter  xlix.  Respecting  the 
character  of  James,  see,  also,  Gardiner's  "  History," 
referred  to  below,  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  pp.  55-57.)  James  was 
the  author  of  numerous  works,  which  displayed  con- 
siderable learning  and  no  little  pedantry ;  but  the  most 
important  of  his  labours  was  the  supervision  of  the 
present  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  will  remain  as  a 
lasting  monument  of  his  industry  and  munificence.  The 
translation  was  not  only  made  under  his  immediate 
superintendence,  but  the  excellent  rules  by  which  the 
translators  were  governed  were  drawn  up  by  James  him- 
self. Among  his  works  we  may  cite  "Basilicon  Doron, 
or  his  Majesties  Instructions  to  his  Dearest  Son,  Henry 
the  Prince,"  "The  Essays  of  a  Prentice  in  the  Divine 
Art  of  Poesy,"  "The  True  Law  of  Free  Monarchies," 
"  Daemonology,"  and  "A  Counterblast  to  Tobacco." 

See  ."Vrthur  Wilson,  "  Life  and  Reign  of  King  James  I.,"  1653, 
W.  Harris,  "  Lifeof  Jamesl.,"  1753;  Robertson,  "  History  of  Scut- 
land  ;"  "Secret  Histories  of  the  Court  of  James  I.,"  by  Osbok.ne, 
Weldon,  and  Sir  E.  Peyton,  with  notes  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  3 
vols.,  181 1  ;  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of 
James  1.  to  the  Disgrace  of  Chief-Justice  Coke,"  London,  1S63. 

James  II.  of  England  and  VII.  of  Scotland,  son  of 
Charles  I.,  and  younger  brother  of  Charles  II.,  was  born 
at  Saint  James's,  London,  in  1633,  and  soon  after  was 
created  Duke  of  York.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Parliamentarians  in  1646.  In  1648  he  escaped  to  Hol- 
land, and  went  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  nearly  four 
years.  Having  received  a  cominission  in  the  French 
army,  he  served  under  Marshal  Turenne  until  the  peace 
concluded  between  Cromwell  and  the  French  obliged 
him  to  leave  the  kingdom.  At  the  restoration,  in  1660, 
James  accompanied  his  brother  to  England,  where  he 
received  the  appointments  of  lord  high  admiral  and  lord 
warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  The  same  year  he  married 
Anne,  daughter  of'Chancellor  Hyde.  In  1664  the  Duke 
of  York  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  war  with  Hol- 
land. He  took  command  of  the  fleet,  and  in  June,  1665, 
gained  an  important  victory  over  the  Dutch.  In  1671 
the  Duchess  of  York  died,  and  James  avowed  himself  a 
Roman  Catholic  In  1672  war  was  renewed  against  Hol- 
land, and  James,  as  lord  admiral,  assumed  the  command 
of  the  navy.  In  1673  the  Test  Act  was  passed  against 
Catholics  and  dissenters.     By  it  the  Duke  of  York  was 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  lorn:  \  h  t\  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  fi,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JAMES 


1367 


JAMES 


compelled  to  resign  the  command  of  the  navy,  and  all 
other  offices  which  he  held  under  government.  The  same 
year  he  married  Maria  Beatrice  Eleonora,  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Modena.  In  1677,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  English  nation,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Vork,  was  married  to  her  cousin  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  was  a  Protestant. 

In  1679,  during  the  commotions  of  the  Oates  Popish 
Plot,  James  retired  to  the  continent.  In  his  absence 
a  bill  for  excluding  him  from  the  throne  was  brought 
before  the  Parliament.  It  was  passed  by  the  Commo'ns, 
but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords.  Upon  the  death  of  King 
Charles,  in  1685,  James  ascended  the  throne  unopposed, 
and  promised  to  maintain  and  defend  the  Established 
Church.  He  summoned  a  Parliament,  which  voted  him 
all  the  revenues  his  brother  had  enjoyed.  Having  de- 
clared his  intention  of  continuing  the  alliance  formed 
by  Charles  with  France,  he  received  from  Louis  XIV. 
500,000  livres.  Strong  suspicions  were  soon  excited 
against  the  king  by  his  arbitrary  measures.  It  became  too 
manifest  that  he  only  intended  to  keep  his  promises  until 
he  could  break  them  with  safety.  He  sent  an  agent  to 
Rome  to  promote  the  restoration  of  Roman  Catholicism 
in  England  ;  he  publicly  attended  the  illegal  celebration 
of  the  mass,  and  laboured  earnestly  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Test  Act.  The  blindness  of  his  zeal  was  so  apparent 
that  even  the  pope  advised  him  to  exercise  more  caution. 
In  June,  1685,  England  was  invaded  by  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  Monmouth 
was  totally  defeated  at  Sedgenioor  on  the  5th  of  July, 
was  captured  two  days  after,  and  executed.  James  now 
exhibited  his  true  character.  Colonel  Kirke  and  the  in- 
famous Judge  Jeffreys  were  sent  to  the  western  counties, 
which  had  been  the  principal  scene  of  Monmouth's  insur- 
rection, and,  by  the  king's  express  authority,  perpetrated 
a  series  of  butcheries.  Men  were  shot  and  hung  with- 
out the  form  of  trial,  and  women  were  burned  at  the 
stake  for  sheltering  fugitives.  In  opposition  to  law,  he 
admitted  Catholics  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army  and 
the  navy.  Protestants  holding  high  offices  of  state  were 
discharged,  and  a  court  resembling  that  of  the  high  com- 
mission under  Charles  I.  was  established.  Episcopal 
dioceses  were  given  to  professed  Catholics,  and  the  Prot- 
estant clergy  were  driven  from  the  colleges  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  to  make  room  for  foreign  priests.  In  June, 
1688,  the  queen  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  suspected 
to  be  spurious.  Previous  to  this  period,  Mary,  Princess 
of  Orange,  had  been  regarded  as  the  heir-apparent  to 
the  crown,  and  the  English  people  had  hoped  that  at 
length  they  would  again  be  governed  by  a  Protestant 
sovereign.  These  hopes  being  now  blighted,  they  ap- 
plied to  the  Prince  of  Orange  for  assistance  in  an  effort 
to  depose  the  king.  He  was  prepared  to  accept  the  in- 
vitation which  they  sent  him ;  and  in  November,  1688, 
he  landed  in  Devonshire,  with  about  fourteen  thousand 
men.  The  king,  deserted  by  the  nobility,  the  gentry, 
the  army,  his  friends,  and  his  servants,  quitted  the  island 
in  December,  and  fled  to  France,  where  he  was  kindly 
received  by  Louis  XIV.  Soon  after,  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Orange  were  crowned,  as  King  William  III. 
and  Queen  Mary.  In  1689  James  landed  in  Ireland  with 
a  small  force  given  him  by  Louis.  He  besieged  London- 
derry, which  he  was  unable  to  take.  On  the  ist  of  July, 
1690,  King  William,  who  commanded  in  person,  totally 
defeated  James's  army  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and 
firmly  established  his  own  power.  James  soon  returned 
to  France,  and  resided  at  Saint  Germain's  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  September,  1701.  As  a  king,  he  was 
brave,  determined,  energetic.  He  did  much  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  British  navy ;  he  was  industrious,  and 
frugal  of  the  public  money.  But  he  was  implacable  in 
revenge,  and  his  blind  bigotry  cost  him  three  kingdoms. 
James  had  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde,  eight  children, 
of  whom  only  Queen  Mary  and  the  Princess  Anne  sur- 
vived him.  By  his  second  wife,  Mary  of  Modena,  he 
had  six  children,  two  of  whom  outlived  him.  He  also 
had  four  children  by  Arabella  Churchill,  a  sister  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  and  one  by  Catherine  Sedley. 

See  David  Jones,  "Life  of  James  II.,"  1702:  J.  S.  Clarke, 
"  Life  of  James  II.,  King  of  England,"  2  vols.,  1S16;  Burnet,  "  His- 
tory of  his  Own  Times;"  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England;"  C. 
I.  Fo.x,  "  History  of  the  Early  Part  of  the  Reign  of  James  II.,"  iSoS. 


James  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  of  the  house  of  Stuart, 
and  son  of  Robert  III.,  was  born  about  1394.  In  1405 
his  father  sent  him  to  France,  in  order  that  he  might 
escape  the  intrigues  of  the  Duke  of  Albany  ;  but  he  was 
seized  by  a  British  fleet,  carried  as  prisoner  to  Lon- 
don, and  thrown  into  the  Tower,  whence,  after  remaining 
there  more  than  two  years,  he  was  taken  to  Windsor. 
In  141 7,  when  King  Henry  V.  invaded  France,  James  was 
obliged  to  accompany  him.  In  1424,  after  a  captivity  of 
nineteen  years,  he  was  released  and  restored  to  his  king- 
dom. While  the  young  king  was  in  England,  Henry  V. 
had  given  him  a  good  education  ;  and,  upon  his  acces- 
sion to  power,  James  commenced  with  energy  and  firm- 
ness to  reform  the  laws  and  customs  of  Scotland.  During 
his  captivity  Scotland  had  been  governed  successively  by 
the  two  Dukes  of  Albany  as  regents,  who  had  increased 
their  own  power  and  that  of  the  feudal  lords,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  royal  authority.  On  the  recovery  of  his 
kingdom  he  resolved  to  check  with  a  strong  hand  the 
arrogance  and  lawlessness  of  the  nobles.  He  seized  his 
cousin  Murdo,  Duke  of  Albany,  his  sons,  the  Earls  of 
Douglas,  Lennox,  Angus,  and  many  other  peers  and 
barons.  All  were  reconciled  to  the  king  except  the  Duke 
of  Albany,  his  sons,  and  the  Earl  of  Lennox,  who  were 
tried  and  executed.  This  blow  struck  terror  ijito  the  order 
of  nobles.  The  king  continued  to  conduct  his  reforms 
with  ability  and  prudence.  One  part  of  his  policy  was 
to  raise  the  ecclesiastical  power  in  order  to  balance  that 
of  the  barons.  James  had  married  Joanna  Beaufort,  a 
lady  of  the  blood-royal  of  England.  Although  the  earls 
at  first  received  the  innovations  of  the  king  in  a  spirit 
of  submission,  they  at  length,  perceiving  the  rapid  decline 
of  their  authority,  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  and 
assassinated  him  in  1437.  James  had  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  most  accomplished  princes  of  his  day. 
He  produced  several  poetical  pieces  and  songs,  which 
were  greatly  admired,  and  in  which  much  literary  taste 
was  displayed.  There  yet  remains  his  "  Kings  Quhair." 
Robertson  justly  remarks  that  "it  was  the  misfortune  of 
James  that  his  maxims  and  manners  were  too  refined  for 
the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Happy  had  he  reigned  in  a 
kingdom  more  civilized.  His  love  of  peace,  of  justice, 
and  of  elegance  would  have  rendered  his  schemes  suc- 
cessful ;  and,  instead  of  perishing  because  he  attempted 
too  much,  a  grateful  people  would  have  applauded  and 
seconded  his  efforts  to  reform  and  improve  them." 

See  Buchanan,  "Rerum  Scoticarum  Historia;"  Burton,  "  His- 
tory of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  .xxvii. ;  Robertson,  "History  of 
Scotland." 

James  IL,  son  and  successor  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1430.  He  had  for  his  adviser  an  able  man, 
named  Crichton,  who  during  his  minority  obtained  chief 
control  of  the  government.  Crichton  impressed  on  the 
mind  of  the  young  monarch  the  necessity  of  further  hum- 
bling the  nobility.  But  what  James  I.  had  attempted 
to  do  slowly  and  by  legal  means,  his  son  and  Crichton 
pursued  with  an  impetuosity  as  unscrupulous  as  it  was 
unwise.  William,  sixth  Earl  of  Douglas,  having  defied 
the  royal  authority,  was  decoyed  by  Crichton  to  an  in- 
terview in  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh,  where  both  he  and 
his  brother  were  murdered.  James  stabbed  with  his 
own  hand  William,  eighth  Earl  of  Douglas.  This  led 
to  a  revolt,  and  the  house  of  Stuart  appeared  to  be  in 
imminent  peril.  The  Earl  of  Douglas  commanded  the 
greater  number  and  more  warlike  followers  ;  but,  owing 
to  his  want  of  energy,  nearly  all  his  retainers  deserted 
him  before  a  battle  was  fought,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
fly  to  England.  James  would  in  all  probability  have 
succeeded  in  his  plans,  had  he  not  been  killed  in  1460 
by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon. 

See  Burton,  "History'  of  Scotland."  vol.  iii.  cliap.  xxviii. ; 
Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland." 

Jamies  III.,  the  son  and  successor  of  James  II.,  was 
born  in  1453.  During  his  minority  the  kingdom  was 
governed  successively  by  Bishop  Kennedy  and  Lord 
Boyd.  James  married  Margaret  of  Denmark  about 
1470.  He  had  respectable  abilities,  and  was  a  lover  of 
the  fine  arts  and  literature.  The  nobles  weie  offended 
because  he  neglected  them  and  chose  for  his  associates 
artists,  musicians,  and  other  persons  of  inferior  rank. 
The  king's  brothers,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  and  the  Earl 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JAMES 


1368 


JAMES 


of  Mar,  conspired  with  the  malcontent  nobles  againsi 
James,  who  was  defeated  by  them  in  battle  near  Ban- 
nockbuin  in  14S8,  and  was  murdered  as  he  fled  from 
the  field. 

See  Burton,  "  History  ol  Scoiland;"  Robertson,  'History  of 
Scotland." 

James  IV.,  King  of  Scotland,  succeeded  his  father, 
Tames  III.,  in  1488,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  gen- 
erous and  brave,  loved  magnificence,  delighted  in  war, 
and  was  eager  to  obtain  fame.  During  his  reign  the 
ancient  and  "hereditary  enmity  between  the  king  and  the 
nobles  appears  almost  entirely  to  have  ceased.  During 
the  revolt  which  had  cost  James  III.  his  life,  his  son 
had  been  compelled  or  persuaded  to  set  himself  at  the 
head  of  it,  and  was  openly  declared  king.  He  was  sub- 
sequently troubled  by  remorse  for  this  deed,  and,  not 
being  free  from  superstition,  he  received  from  the  pope, 
as  penance,  an  iron  belt  to  be  worn  without  cessation  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  also  performed  several  pil- 
grimages on  foot.  James  founded  (1497)  the  University 
of  Aberdeen,  and  he  also  created  the  order  of  Knights 
of  the  Thistle,  (or  of  Saint  Andrew.)  In  1513,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  advice  of  his  sagest  counsellors,  he  rashly 
invaded  England  with  one  of  the  most  loyal  and  gallant 
armies  that  ever  a  Scottish  king  had  commanded,  and 
was  defeated  at  the  famous  battle  of  Flodden,  where 
the  flower  of  the  Scottish  chivalry  perished.  The  king, 
with  twelve  earls,  thirteen  lords,  and  a  great  number  of 
barons,  died  upon  the  field,  in  September,  1513. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xxx. ;  Rob- 
ertson, "History  of  Scotland." 

James  V.,  a  son  of  James  IV.,  was  born  in  1512,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1513.  The  regency  was  conferred 
upon  his  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  a  man  of  enter- 
prise and  ability,  who  was  desirous  to  extend  the  royal 
authority;  but,  in  spite  of  all  his  exertions,  the  aris- 
tocracy retained  their  power,  and  the  duke  resigned  his 
authority  about  1525.  The  king  was  then  in  his  thir- 
teenth year,  and  the  nobles  agreed  that  he  should  assume 
the  government.  The  Earl  of  Angus,  however,  by  his 
intrigues,  obtained  the  chief  control  of  affairs,  and  kept 
the  young  king  as  a  prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  James, 
after  suffering  this  for  some  time,  escaped,  and  Angus  was 
obliged  to  fly  from  the  country.  Firmly  seated  upon  the 
throne,  James  continued  the  policy  of  his  predecessors 
in  humbling  the  nobility.  Commencing  very  cautiously, 
he  found  loyal  supporters  among  the  clergy,  the  prin- 
cipal of  whom  was  Cardinal  Beaton.  The  nobles  had 
received  too  severe  a  blow  at  Flodden  to  resist,  and 
James  pushed  forward  his  plans  in  an  unscrupulous 
and  arbitrary  manner.  He  married  Mary  of  Guise  in 
1538.  Henry  VIII.  of  England  declared  war  against 
him  in  1542,  and  he  was  obliged  to  seek  the  assistance 
of  those  nobles  whom  he  had  oppressed.  They  took 
up  arms  at  his  command,  were  led  by  him  against  the 
English,  and  were  at  first  successful ;  but,  owing  to  the 
lateness  of  the  season,  and  to  other  causes  of  discontent, 
they  refused  to  follow  up  their  good  fortune.  A  second 
expedition  across  the  border  was  still  less  successful : 
nearly  ten  thousand  Scots  were  taken  prisoners,  or,  as 
some  say,  went  deliberately  over  to  the  English.  This 
proved  too  great  a  blow  to  the  proud  and  ambitious 
monarch,  who  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  December, 
1542,  in  the  thirty-first  year  of  his  age,  leaving  the 
crown  to  his  only  legitimate  child,  the  unfortunate  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  He  had  several  natural  children,  one 
of  whom  was  the  famous  Regent  Murray. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chaps,  xxxi.-xxxiii. ; 
Froude,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xviii.  and  xix. ; 
Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland;"  Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

James  VI.  of  Scotland.  See  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land. 

James,  [Gr.  'la/cw6of;  Lat,  Jaco'bus  ;  Ger.  Jakob, 
yi'kob ;  Fr.  JACQUES,  zhtk ;  Sp.  Santiago,  s^n-te-i'go ; 
It.  GiACOMO,  ji'ko-mo,]  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
commonly  called  Saint  James,  son  of  Zebedee,  and 
brother  of  Saint  John.  He  was  one  of  the  three  apostles 
who  appeared  to  be  the  most  intimately  associated  with 
our  Saviour.  He  suffered  martyrdom  about  44  A. D.,  by 
the  order  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

See  Matthew  iv.  21,  x.  2,  xvii. ;  Luke  viii.  51. 


James,  called  the  Less,  was  one  of  the  twelve  apos- 
tles, and  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  brother 
of  our  Saviour,  and  the  author  of  the  Epistle  bearing 
that  name.  Josephus  states  that  he  was  put  to  death 
by  the  high-priest  Ananias  about  62  or  63  ajj. 

See  Matthew  x.  3,  xiii.  55,  xxvii.  56;  Mark  iii.  18,  vi.  3,  xv.  40; 
Luke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  i.  13. 

James,  (Charles  T.,)  an  American  Senator  and  in- 
ventor, born  in  West  Greenwich,  l<.hode  Island,  about 
1805.  In  185 1  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  six  years  by  the  legislature  of  Rhode  Island. 
He  invented  a  rifled  cannon,  and  was  killed  at  Sag  Har- 
bour, Long  Island,  in  October,  1862,  by  the  explosion  of 
a  shell  on  which  he  was  experimenting. 

James,  zhSm,  (  Constantin,  )  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1813.  He  edited  Magendie's 
"Lectures  on  Physiology,"  etc.,  (1837-39.) 

James,  (George  Payne  Rainsford,)  a  very  volu- 
minous novelist  and  historian,  born  in  London  in  1801. 
Before  attaining  the  age  of  seventeen  he  had  written  a 
series  of  Eastern  tales,  entitled  "The  String  of  Pearls." 
In  1825  he  published  "  Richelieu,"  which  had  previously 
received  the  commendation  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and 
Washington  Irving.  This  is  thought  to  be  his  best  pro- 
duction. In  1852  Mr.  James  was  chosen  British  consul 
at  Norfolk,  in  Virginia,  and  in  1858  received  the  same 
appointment  for  Venice.  His  works  amount  to  one 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  volumes.  Of  these  we  may 
mention  "Philip  Augustus,"  (1831,)  "  Adra,  or  the  Peru- 
vians, a  Poem,"  "Memoirs  of  Great  Commanders,"  (3 
vols.,  1832,)  "History  of  Charlemagne,"  (1832,)  "Lives 
of  Foreign  Statesmen,"  (5  vols.,  1832-38,)  and  "Came- 
ralzaman,"  a  dramatic  poem,  (1848.)     Died  in  i860. 

See  "  New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  by  R.  H.  Horne,  London,  1844  I 
.\llibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American  Review" 
for  April,  1844,  (by  E.  P.  Whipple.) 

James,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  general,  born  near 
Saint  Agnes,  Cornwall,  in  1S03.  He  was  educated  at 
Woolwich,  and  in  18:5  entered  the  royal  engineers.  He 
invented  photozincography,  and  executed  valuable  fac- 
simile plates  by  that  process.  He  published  accounts 
of  the  ordnance  surveys  of  the  three  kingdoms,  besides 
other  works  of  permanent  value.     Died  June  14,  1877. 

Jamies,  (Henry,)  an  able  and  original  writer  on  the- 
ology, born  at  Albany  in  1811.  About  1843  '''^  became 
acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Swedenborg,  whose 
leading  doctrines  he  appears  to  have  fully  embraced, 
without,  however,  joining  himself  to  the  ecclesiastical 
organization  of  Swedenborgians.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Moralism  and  Christianity,"  (1852,) 
"  Christianity  the  Logic  of  Creation,"  (1857,)  "  Substance 
and  Shadow,  etc.,"  (1863,)  and  "The  Secret  of  Sweden- 
borg, being  an  Elucidation  of  his  Doctrine  of  the  Divine 
Natural  Humanity,"  (1869.)     Died  December  18,  18S2. 

James,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  at 
Hereford,  October  30,  1828.  He  studied  at  Cheltenham 
College  and  at  the  Middle  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1852,  was  made  a  Queen's  counsel  in  1869,  and  a 
bencher  in  1870.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1869,  be- 
came solicitor-general  in  1873,  ^"'^  attorney-general  in 
the  same  year. 

James,  (Henry,)  an  American  novelist  and  critic,  a 
son  of  Henry  James,  (1811-1882,)  was  born  in  New 
York  city,  April  15,  1843.  He  was  educated  in  Paris, 
Geneva,  and  Bonn,  and  early  became  known  as  a  con- 
tributor to  American  journals.  His  principal  works  are 
"Roderick  Hudson,"  (1875,)  "The  American,"  (1876,) 
"The  Europeans,"  (1879,)  "The  Portrait  of  a  Lady," 
(i88x,)  "Portraits  of  Places,"  (1883,)  "Female  Poets 
and  Novelists,"  (1878,)  etc.  His  name  is  one  of  the 
'"oremost  in  recent  American  literature. 

James,  (John  Angell,)  an  eloquent  English  dissent- 
ing minister  and  popular  writer,  born  at  Blandford,  Dor- 
set, in  1785.  He  was  for  many  years  an  Independent 
minister  of  Birmingham,  and  acquired  great  influence  by 
his  oral  ministry  and  his  numerous  writings,  which  have 
had  an  immense  circulation.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Anxious  Inquirer,"  "Christian  Fellowship,"  (i ith 
edition,  1855,)  "  Family  Monitor,"  (9th  edition,  1S48,) 
"The  Church  in  Earnest,"  (4th  edition,  1851,)  and  "  Fe- 
male Piety,"  (4th  edition,  1855.)     Died  in  1S59. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JAMES 


1369 


JAMESONE 


James,  (John  Thomas,)  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  born  at 
Rugby  in  1786.  Upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Heber  he 
was  appointed  to  the  diocese  of  Calcutta,  and  sailed  for 
India  in  1827.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Tour  through 
Germany,  Sweden,  Russia,  and  Poland,"  (1816,)  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Italian,  French,  Dutch,  and  German  Schools 
of  Painting,"  (1822,)  and  "The  Semi-Sceptic,  or  the 
Common  Sense  of  Religion  considered."  Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Bishop  James,"  by  his  brother,  1830. 

James,  (Paul  Moon,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1780. 
His  short  lyric  "The  Beacon,"  often  attributed  to  Moore, 
is  all  that  rescues  him  from  oblivion.  He  was  a  banker 
in  Birmingham,  where  he  died  in  1854. 

James,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  linguist,  and 
traveller,  and  nephew  of  Thomas  James,  (1571-1629,) 
was  born  at  Newport,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1592. 
Among  his  works  are  manuscripts  upon  Russia,  and  a 
"  Poem  upon  the  Death  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton."  Died 
in  1638. 

James,  (Robert,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire in  1703.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  celebrated 
fever-powder  which  bore  his  name,  and  the  author  of  a 
"Medicinal  Dictionary,"  (1743-45,)  (in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,)  treatises  on  the  "  Prac- 
tice of  Physic"  and  "  On  Canine  Madness,"  and  a  "Dis- 
sertation on  Fevers,"  (1778.)     Died  in  1776. 

James,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  divine,  born  at  Newport, 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1571.  He  was  distinguished  as 
an  able  and  industrious  writer  against  the  Catholics. 
Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  are  "  A  Treat- 
ise of  the  Corruptions  of  the  Scriptures,  Councils,  and 
Fathers  by  the  Church  of  Rome,"  (1612,)  and  "The 
Jesuits'  Downfall."     Died  in  1629. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

James,  (Thomas,)  an  English  navigator,  who  sailed 
in  1631  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage.  He  made 
some  discoveries  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay,  and  to 
the  country  lying  west  of  it  he  gave  the  name  of  New 
Wales.  On  his  return  to  England  he  published  "The 
Strange  and  Dangerous  Voyage  of  Captain  Thomas 
James  for  the  Discovery  of  a  Northwest  Passage  to  the 
South  Sea." 

James,  (Thomas,)  an  English  teacher,  became  head- 
master of  Rugby  School  in  1776.  He  published  a  "  Com- 
pendium of  Geography."  He  was  the  father  of  Bishop 
John  T.  James,  noticed  above.     Died  in  1804. 

James,  (Thomas  C.,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  scholar,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1766.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1788,  and  followed 
his  profession  with  eminent  success  in  his  native  city. 
In  181 1  he  was  appointed  professor  of  midwifery  in  the 
above  institution.  Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1835.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  versed  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  French, 
and  German  languages,  and  to  have  possessed  some 
acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew.  He  contributed  several 
short  but  beautiful  poems  to  Dennie's  "  Portfolio." 

See  "Memoir  of  Thomas  Chalkley  James,"  by  J.R.Tyson, 
Philadelphia,  1S36;  Gross,  "American  ^Iedical  Biography;"  Car- 
son, "History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania." 

James,  (Thomas  Lemuel,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Utica,  New  Yoik,  March  29,  1831. 
He  learned  the  trade  of  a  printer,  was  engaged  in  jour- 
nalism, 1851-60,  held  positions  in  the  New  York  custom- 
house, 1860-73,  was  postmaster  of  New  York,  1873-81, 
postmaster-general  of  the  United  States,  1881-82,  and 
afterwards  was  a  bank-president  in  New  York  city. 

James,  (William,)  an  English  land-agent  and  sur- 
veyor, born  in  Warwickshire  in  1771.  He  was  the  first 
to  project  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway,  and  is 
generally  regarded  as  "the  father"  of  the  railway-system 
in  England.     Died  in  1837. 

Jam.es,  (William,)  an  Englishman,  known  as  the 
author  of  "  The  Naval  History  of  Great  Britain  from 
the  Declaration  of  War  by  France  in  1793  to  the  Ac- 
cession of  George  IV.  in  1820,"  (5  vols.,  1822,)  a  work 
evincing  great  research.     Died  in  1827, 

James,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  naval  officer  of 
high  rank,  born  at  Milford  Haven  about  1721.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  East  India  service  and  in  the 
American  war.     Died  in  1785. 


James  (or  Jacques,  zhSk)  de  Vitri,  (deh  ve'tRe',)  a 
distinguished  cardinal  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Vitri, 
near  Paris,  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  preached  against 
the  Albigenses,  and  about  1218  joined  the  crusade  against 
the  Saracens.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  East  and  West."     Died  in  1240. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnt$rale." 

James  (or  Giacomo,  ji'ko-mo)  de  Voragine,  (di 
vo-rS'je-ni,)  a  Romish  prelate,  born  at  Voraggio,  near 
Genoa,  about  1230.  In  1292  he  was  ordained  Archbishop 
of  Genoa.  Died  in  1298.  He  wrote  various  ecclesias- 
tical works,  and  a  famous  collection  of  the  lives  of  the 
saints,  entitled  the  "  Golden  Legend." 

James  Francis  Edv^ard,  called  the  first  Pretender, 
and  Chevalier  de  Saint  George,  born  in  1688,  was  the 
son  and  heir  of  James  II.  of  England.  He  was  educated 
in  France,  and  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  At  the  death 
of  his  father  he  was  recognized  as  King  of  England  by 
Louis  XIV.  He  entered  the  French  army,  and  charged 
at  the  head  of  the  cavalry  at  Malplaquet  in  1709.  Lord 
Bolingbroke  formed  a  design  to  secure  for  him  the  suc- 
cession to  the  throne,  but  was  defeated  by  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne.  In  1715  the  Scottish  Jacobites  took  arms 
to  assert  the  title  of  the  Pretender,  and,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  were  defeated  at  Sheriffmuir. 
.'\nother  army  of  his  partisans  surrendered  at  Preston. 
James  Francis  Edward  landed  in  Scotland  in  December, 
1715;  but,  finding  his  cause  in  a  desperate  state,  he 
returned  to  France  the  next  month.  Died  in  1758  on 765. 

See  Jes.se,  "Memoirs  of  the  Pretenders  and  their  Adherents." 
1845 

Ja'me-son,  (Anna,)  a  celebrated  writer,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1797,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr.  Murphy,  a 
painter.  She  married  in  1824  a  barrister  named  Jame- 
son, with  whom  she  went  to  live  in  Canada  ;  but,  vaiious 
circumstances  causing  a  separation,  Mrs.  Jameson  re- 
turned to  England,  to  employ  herself  in  literature  and 
the  fine  arts.  She  was  an  earnest  labourer  for  the  fuller 
development  of  the  usefulness  and  mental  culture  of  the 
women  of  England.  Her  productions  evince  great  dis- 
crimination, learning,  and  refinement.  Among  the  most 
important  of  these  we  may  mention  "The  Diary  of  an 
Ennuyee,"  (1826,)  afterwards  enlarged  and  published 
with  the  title  of  "Visits  and  Sketches  at  Home  and 
Abroad,"  (2  vols.,  1834,)  "Loves  of  the  Poets,"  (1829,) 
"  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Female  Sovereigns,"  (2  vols., 
1831,)  "The  Beauties  of  the  Court  of  Charles  II.," 
"Lives  of  the  Early  Italian  Painters,"  (2  vols.,  1845,) 
and  "  The  Poetry  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,"  (2 
vols.,  1848.)     Died  in  i860. 

See  Harriet  Martineau,  "Biographical  Sketches,"  Londor. 
1S69;  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  by  R.  H.  Horne;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1834,  ^nd  April,  1S49;  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  July,  1853  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1S49;  "Twelve 
Biographical  Sketches,"  by  B.  R.  Parkes,  London,  1866. 

Ja'me-son,  (Charles  Davis,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Gorham,  Maine,  in  1827.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  July,  1S61,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Fair 
Oaks,  May,  1862.  Died  at  Oldtown,  Maine,  in  Novem- 
ber,j  862. 

Ja'me-son,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  at  Leith  in  1774  or  1773.  He  published  "  Mineral- 
ogy of  the  Scottish  Isles,"  (2  vols.,  1800,)  "  A  System  of 
Mineralogy,"  (3  vols.,  1804-08,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of 
Edinljurgh  from  1804  until  1854.  In  1819  Professor 
Jameson  and  Sir  David  Brewster  founded  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Philosophical  Journal,"  which  the  former  edited 
many  years.  He  also  contributed  to  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica."  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  professor. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1S04,  and  April,  1805; 
"Annual  Register"  for  1854. 

Ja'me-sone,  (George,)  an  eminent  painter,  called 
"  the  Van  Dyck  of  Scotland,"  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in 
1586.  About  1616  he  went  to  Antwerp,  where,  with  Van 
Dyck,  he  studied  under  Rubens.  "  His  excellence,"  says 
Walpole,  "consisted  in  delicacy  and  softness,  with  a 
clear  and  beautiful  colouring."  It  is  said  that,  in  1633, 
when  Charles  I.  visited  Edinburgh,  the  magistrates  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


J  A  MET 


1370 


JANNEY 


that  city  employed  Jamesone  to  paint  the  portraits  of 
some  of  the  Scottish  monarchs.  Charles  was  so  much 
pleased  with  the  result  that  he  sat  for  his  own  portrait, 
and  presented  the  artist  with  a  diamond  ring  from  his 
finger.  Jameson  was  also  a  painter  of  historical  and 
landscape  scenes.     Died  in  1644. 

See  Allan  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British 
Painters,"  etc. ;  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting;"  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Jamet,  zht'nii',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  writer, 
born  near  Sens  in  1701.  Among  his  works  are  "Meta- 
physical Essays,"  (1732,)  "Letters  on  Taste  and  the  Doc- 
trine of  Bavle,"  (1740,)  and  "The  Mongol  Philosopher 
Dane-Che-Men-Kan,"  (1740.)     Died  about  1770. 

Jatni.     See  Jamee. 

Ja'mie-son,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  learned  divine,  born  in 
Glasgow  in  1759,  became  in  1797  pastor  of  a  church  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  The 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  College  of  New  Jersey.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Socinianisni  Unmasked,"  (17S8,)  "  The  Sorrows 
of  Slavery,"  a  poem,  "  The  Use  of  Sacred  History,"  (2 
vols.,  1802,)  an  "  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  Scottish 
Language,"  (2  vols.,  1809,)  which  is  highly  esteemed, 
and  "An  Historical  Account  of  the  Ancient  Culdees  of 
lona,"  (181 1.)     Died  in  1838. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  iSog,  and  May,  1828;  "Monthly 
Re\'iew"  for  September,  1810. 

Jamieson,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  scholar,  born  in 
Morayshire  in  1780.  For  many  years  he  was  in  the  civil 
service  in  Edinburgh.  Among  his  works  are  "Popular 
Ballads  and  Songs,"  (1806,)  partly  original.  Died  in 
London,  September  24,  1844. 

Jamin,  zht'miN',  (  Jean  Baptiste,  )  Vicomte,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1772 ;  died  in  1848. 

Jamin,  (Jules  C6lestin,)  a  French  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  in  1818.  He  became  professor  of  physics  in 
the  Polytechnic  School  at  Paris.  He  commenced  in  1858 
the  publication  of  an  important  work,  entitled  "  Cours 
de  Physique."     Died  in  1S86. 

Jamin  de  Bermuy,  zht'miN'  deh  b§R'mii-e',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Auguste  SIarie,)  one  of  the  best  French 
cavalry  officers  of  his  time,  was  born  in  Bretagne  in 
1773.  He  became  colonel  of  the  royal  guards  of  light 
cavalry  about  1807,  and  went  to  Spain,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Ocana  in  1809.  As 
general  of  brigade,  he  won  additional  honours  at  the 
battle  of  Vitoria,  in  1813.  For  his  various  services  he 
was  created  baron  of  the  empire  and  Marquis  de  Ber- 
muy.    He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  1815. 

Jamsheed.     See  Jemsheed. 

Jamshid.     See  Jemsheed. 

Jamyn,  zht'miN',  (Amadis,)  a  French  poet,  bom 
in  Champagne  about  1540.  His  productions  attracted 
the  attention  of  Ronsard,  who  became  a  warm  friend  and 
liberal  patron  of  Jamyn  and  procured  for  him  the  situa- 
tion of  secretary  and  reader  to  Charles  IX.  He  wrote 
poems  on  various  subjects,  and  made  translations  of  the 
last  three  books  of  the  "  Iliad"  and  the  first  three  of  the 
"Odyssey."     Died  in  1585. 

Janachen,  yin-a'ken,  {i.e.  Jan  (or  John)  Achen.) 
See  Ache.n. 

Janauschek,  yi'now-shSk',  (Francesca  Madelina 
Romance,  called  Fanny,)  a  tragic  actress  of  rare  talents, 
born  in  Prague,  Bohemia,  July  20,  1830.  She  appears 
in  both  English  and  German  plays,  but  her  principal 
successes  have  been  won  in  Germany. 

Jane  of  Navarre.     See  Joan. 

Janes,  janz,  (Edmund  S.,)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Sheffield,  Massachusetts, 
in  1807.  In  early  life  he  was  principal  of  an  academy 
in  New  Jersey.  About  1836  he  became  minister  of  a 
church  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1839  was  transferred  to 
Mulberry  Street  Church,  in  New  York.  He  was  chosen 
in  1 841  financial  secretary  of  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  travelled  through  most  of  the  States  in  plead- 
ing the  cause  of  the  Bible.  He  was  elected  a  bishop  in 
1844-     Died  September  18,  1S76. 

Janet,  a  French  painter.     See  Clouet. 


Janet,  zhS'ni',  or  Janet-Lange,  zht'ni'  16.\zh, 
(Ange  Louis,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Paris,  Novem- 
ber 19,  1818.  A  pupil  of  Ingres,  Collin,  and  Vernet,  he 
became  noted  for  his  military  pieces,  and  not  less  so  for 
those  on  religious  subjects.  Died  at  Paris,  November 
25,  1872. 

Janet,  (Paul,)  an  eminent  French  philosopher,  born 
at  Paris,  April  30,  1823.  He  held  professorships  of 
philosophy  at  Bourges  and  Strasburg,  and  later  at  the 
Sorbonne.  His  position  is  that  of  an  acceptor  of  science 
who  at  the  same  time  rejects  materialism  and  defends 
the  old  philosophy.  Ainong  his  numerous  works  are 
"Elements  de  Morale,"  (1869,)  and  "La  Philosophic 
fraii9aise  contemporaine,"  (1879.) 

Jane'^way,  (James,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1636.  He  was  a  preacher  of 
great  power,  and  was  very  actively  employed  at  the  time 
of  the  plague  both  in  the  pulpit  and  in  visiting  the  sick. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  John  Janeway,"  his  brother,  and 
"The  Saint's  Encouragement  to  Diligence,"  (1675.) 
Died  in  1674. 

Jani,  yS'nee,  (Christian  David,)  a  Gerinan  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Halle  in  1743.  He  published  a  good 
edition  of  Horace,  (2  vols.,  1778-82,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1790. 

Janigon,  zht'ne'sAN',  (Francois  Michel,)  a  noted 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1674.  Being  an  avowed 
Protestant,  he  went  to  receive  his  education  in  Holland, 
which  became  his  adopted  country.  In  early  life  he 
entered  the  army,  but  finally  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture. Among  his  works  are  "  Present  State  of  the 
Republic  of  the  United  Provinces  and  their  Dependen- 
cies," (1729,)  a  production  of  great  merit,  and  "Serious 
and  Satirical  Letters  upon  the  Works  of  the  Savants," 
(12  vols.,  1740  et  seq.)     Died  in  1730. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Nlc^RON,  "  Memoires." 

Janin.zhS'niN',  (Jules  Gabriel,)  a  celebrated  French 
critic  and  litterateur,  born  at  Saint-Etienne  in  1804.  He 
contributed  successively  to  the  "Figaro"  and  the  "Quo- 
tidienne,"  and  about  1830  became  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Journal  des  Debats,"  for  which  he  furnished  a 
number  of  brilliant  and  original  articles  on  politics  and 
literature.  He  was  for  a  long  time  the  dramatic  critic 
of  that  journal.  He  also  wrote  for  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  etc.  Among  his  other  productions  are  the 
romances  of  "  Barnave,"  (1831,)  "New  Literary  Tales," 
"Journey  in  Italy,"  (1839,)  and  "  The  Nun  of  Toulouse," 
(1850.)  He  also  wrote  an  abridgment  of  "  Clarissa  Har- 
lowe,"  and  a  "History  of  Dramatic  Literature,"  (4 
vols.,  1851-56.)  His  critiques  consist  mostly  of  literary 
gossip,  written  in  a  sparkling  and  polished  style.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1870.  Died 
June  20,  1874. 

See  SAlNTE-BEtJ\'B,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Janin  de  Combe -Blanche,  zht'n^N'  deh  kAN'- 
bl5Nsh',  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  surgeon  and  oculist,  bom 
in  Carcassonne,  France,  in  173 1.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Treatise  upon  the  Lachrymal  Fistula,"  and  seve- 
ral other  works  on  diseases  of  the  eye.  Died  about  1790. 

See  QuiRARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Janitius,  yi-n!t'se-Cis,  or  Janicki,  yi-nit'skee,  (Cle- 
ment,) a  learned  Polish  writer,  born  in  1516.  At  fifteen 
he  wrote  elegant  Latin  poetry.  Among  his  works  is 
"Lives  of  the  Kings  of  Poland."     Died  in  1543. 

Januabee  or  JannSbi,  Al,  il-jin-na'bee,  |Lat.  .A.L- 
Janna'bius,  or  simply  Janna'bius,]  (Aboo-Moham- 
med-Mustafa — mo6s't.\-fS,)  written  also  Djannaby 
and  Dschanuabi,  an  Arabian  historian,  of  whose  life 
scarcely  anything  is  known.  He  wrote  an  abridgment 
of  universal  history,  entitled  "  Bahar-al-Zokkar,"  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  down  to  his  own  time.  Died 
in  1581. 

Jannabi.     See  Jannabee. 

Jannabius.     See  Ja.nnabee. 

Jcuanequin,  zhtn'kiN',  (Claude,)  Sieurde  Rochefort, 
a  French  traveller,  sailed  for  Africa  in  1637,  and,  after 
his  return,  published  a  "  Voyage  to  Libya,  to  the  King- 
dom of  Senegal,  and  the  Banks  of  the  Niger,"  etc.,  (1643.) 

Januequin,  (Clement.)     See  Cl^.ment,  (Jacques.) 

Jan'ney,  (Samuel  M.,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  Q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good ;  moon ; 


JANNICKE 


1371 


JANSSENS 


Loudon  county,  Virginia,  January  11,  1801.  Both  his 
parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or 
Quakers  ;  and  his  mind  appears  to  have  been  at  an  early 
age  deeply  impressed  with  the  truth  and  high  importance 
of  the  religious  principles  in  which  he  was  educated. 
Besides  some  smaller  works,  he  wrote  "Conversations 
on  Religious  Subjects,"  (1835;)  "A  Teacher's  Gift, 
consisting  of  Essays  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  {1840 ;)  "An 
Historical  Sketch  of  the  Christian  Church  during  the 
Middle  Ages,"  (1847,)  and  two  valuable  biographies,  viz., 
a  "  Life  of  William  Fenn,"  (1S52,)  and  a  "  Life  of  George 
P'ox,"  (1855.)  His  last  and  most  important  publication 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Religious  Society  of  Friends  from 
its  Rise  to  the  Year  1828,"  (4  vols.,  1867.)  This  work 
treats,  among  other  subjects,  of  the  causes  and  events  of 
the  separation  which  occurred  in  the  Society  in  1827-28. 
The  writer  belonged  to  the  anti-orthodox  division  of  the 
Quakers ;  and,  though  not  professing  strict  impartiality, 
he  evinced,  in  his  treatment  of  this  delicate  and  difficult 
subject,  great  moderation,  a  scrupulous  regard  for  the 
facts  of  the  case,  and,  on  the  whole,  a  liberal  and  kindly 
spirit.  He  was  a  highly-esteemed  minister  of  the  So- 
ciety of  which  he  was  a  member.  Early  in  1869  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Grant  superintendent  of  Indian 
affairs  in  the  Northern  Superintendency.  Died  April  30, 
1880. 

Jannicke,  ySn'nik-keh,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man author,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  January  7, 
183 1.  He  became  a  prominent  railway  official.  He 
published  "  Hand-Book  of  Aquarelle-Painting,"  "  Hand- 
Book  of  Oil-Painting,"  "  Principles  of  Ceramic  Art," 
"Summary  of  the  Literature  of  Ceramics,"  and  other 
works,  partly  on  entomology. 

Janozki,  yS-nozh'kee,  or  Janotzki,  yi-nots'kee, 
sometimes  written  Janisck,  (John  Daniel,)  a  Polish 
or  Russian  author,  born  at  Viborg  in  1720.  He  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  Zaluski  Library  at 
Warsaw.  Among  his  works,  which  principally  relate 
to  the  literature  of  Poland,  are  "  Letters  on  Criticism," 
"A  Dictionary  of  the  Living  Authors  of  Poland,"  and 
"Polish  Literature  of  our.Tirae."     Died  in  1786. 

Jaiisemiu.    See  Jasmin. 

Jansen,  jan'sen  or  yan'sen,  or  Jan-se'ni-us,  [Dutch 
pron.  yan-sa'ne-iis,|  (CoRNELls,)  Bishop  of  Ypres,  cele- 
brated as  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Jansenists,  born  near 
Leerdam,  in  Holland,  in  October,  1585.  He  pursued  his 
studies  at  Paris,  and  in  1617  was  chosen  professor  of  di- 
vinity in  the  University  of  Louvain.  About  1634  he  bitterly 
attacked  the  French  government,  in  his  "  Mars  Gallicus," 
for  having  formed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Dutch  Prot- 
estants. This  provoked  the  enmity  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
but  obtained  the  favour  of  the  King  of  Spain,  who  raised 
Jansenius  to  the  see  of  Ypres  in  1635.  His  principal 
production  was  entitled  "  Augustinus,"  (Louvain,  1640,) 
in  which  he  advocated  the  doctrines  of  Saint  Augustine 
in  regard  to  the  atonement,  divine  grace,  free  will,  and 
predestination.  This  work  was  finished  a  short  time 
previous  to  his  death,  in  1638,  and  by  his  will  he  referred 
It  to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See  ;  but  his  executors 
published  the  book,  and  suppressed  that  part  of  the  will 
which  related  to  it.  The  opinions  which  he  advocated 
were  directly  opposed  to  those  advanced  by  the  Jesuits, 
who  made  great  efforts  to  obtain  a  decision  against  them 
by  the  pope.  Finally  the  bishops  of  France  reduced  the 
doctrines  of  Jansenius  to  five  propositions  for  condemna- 
tion,— viz. :  I.  That  there  are  divine  precepts  which  good 
men  are  unable  to  obey  for  want  of  God's  grace,  although 
desirous  to  do  so.  2.  That  no  person  can  resist  the  in- 
fluence of  divine  grace  when  bestowed.  3.  That  for 
human  actions  to  be  meritorious,  it  is  not  requisite  that 
they  should  be  exempt  from  necessity,  but  only  from 
constraint.  4.  That  the  Semi-Pelagiaas  err  grievously  in 
maintaining  that  the  human  will  is  endowed  with  power 
of  either  receiving  or  resisting  the  aids  and  influences 
of  preventive  grace.  5.  That  whoever  maintains  that 
Jesus  Christ  made  expiation  by  his  sufferings  and  death 
for  the  sins  oiall  mankind  is  a  Semi-Pelagian.  Innocent 
X.  condemned  the  first  four  of  these  propositions  as 
simply  heretical,  but  the  last  as  rash,  impious,  and  in- 
jurious to  the  Supreme  Being.  Many  bulls  were  also 
issued  by  the  succeeding  popes,  by  which  the  Jansenists, 


several  of  whom  were  among  the  most  learned  and  emi- 
nent ecclesiastics  of  France,  were  deprived  of  office  and 
declared  to  be  heretics.  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  instigation 
of  his  Jesuit  confessor,  ordered  them  to  be  persecuted 
and  their  monastery  at  Port-Royal  to  be  suppressed. 
Notwithstanding  these  attempts  to  crush  them,  the  Jan- 
senists continued  to  increase,  comprising  among  their 
champions  Pascal,  Arnauld,  Nicole,  and  many  other 
celebrated  men. 

See  Levdecker,  "  Historia  Jansenismi,"  1695;  Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Sainte-13euve,  "  Port- Royal,'' 
totiies  i.,  ii.  ;  Hesser,  "  Historisch  Verhaal  van  de  Geboorte,  Leven, 
etc.  van  C.  Jansenius,"  1727;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Jansen,  yin'sen,  (Hendrik,)  a  noted  writer  and  trans- 
lator, born  at  the  Hague  in  1741.  He  fixed  his  residence 
ill  Paris  about  1770,  where  he  became  librarian  to  Tal- 
leyrand. His  works  were  chiefly  of  a  historical  and 
philosophical  character.     Died  in  1812. 

Jansenius.     See  Jansen. 

Jansenius,  yin-sa'ne-us,  (Cornelis,)  a  learned  Flem- 
ish ecclesiastic,  born  at  Hulst  in  15 10.  In  1568  he  was 
ordained  first  Bishop  of  Ghent.  Of  his  works  we  may 
mention  "  Concord  of  the  Evangelists,"  and  a  "  Para- 
phrase on  the  Psalms."     Died  in  1576. 

Jansenius,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  born  at  Arr.. 
sterdam  in  1547,  became  in  1595  regius  professor  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  at  Louvain.  Among  his  works  are 
Expositions  of  the  Prophet  Job,  of  the  Psalms  of  David, 
and  of  the  Gospel  of  John.     Died  in  1625. 

Janson,  yin'sgn,  (Kkistoffer  Nagel,)  a  Norwegian 
poet,  born  at  Bergen,  May  5,  1841.  He  published  sev- 
eral volumes  of  poetry  and  novels,  including  "  Torgrim," 
(1862,)  "Fraa  Bygdom,"  (1865,)  "Han  og  ho,"  (1868,) 
and  "  Norske  Digt,"  (1867.)  He  wrote  "  Fra  Dansketidi," 
(1875,)  a  novel,  and  other  works,  including  the  strongly 
effective  drama  "A  Woman's  Fate,"  (1879.)  In  1882 
he  became  a  Unitarian  preacher.  In  18S4  he  removed 
to  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 

Janson  or  Jenson,  zh6N's6N',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
engraver,  printer,  and  type-founder,  settled  in  Venice 
about  1470.  He  produced  there  a  number  of  celebrated 
editions  between  1470  and  1480.  He  is  called  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Roman  type  now  generally  used.  Died 
about  1 48 1. 

See  G.  Sardini,  "Esanie  su  i  Principj  della  Francesa  ed  Jtaliana 
Tipografia,  ovvero  Storia  critica  di  N.  Jenson."  3  vols.,  1796-9S. 

Janssen,  yins'sen,  or  John'son,  (Cornelis,)  a  noted 
artist,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1590.  In  1618  he  visited 
England,  where  he  was  employed  by  James  I.  to  paint 
the  portraits  of  the  royal  family.  He  was  also  patronized 
by  the  nobility.  He  possessed  neither  the  freedom  nor  the 
grace  of  Van  Dyck,  but  in  other  respects  was  regarded  as 
his  equal,  and  in  finishing  was  considered  even  superior 
to  him.  His  carnations  have  been  particularly  admired ; 
and  his  pictures  yet  retain  their  original  lustre,  in  conse- 
quence perhaps  of  the  ultramarine  which  he  used.  Died 
.n  1665. 

Janssen,  yins'sen,  (Johannes,)  Monsignor,  a  Ger- 
man priest  and  historian,  born  at  Xanten,  April  10,  1829. 
He  was  educated  at  Louvain,  Bonn,  and  Berlin,  and  in 
iSSo  was  made  a  prothonotaiy  to  the  pope.  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  German  People," 
(1876;  3d  vol.,  1884,)  written  from  the  ultramontane 
stand-point. 

Janssen,  zh6N's5N',  (Pierre  Jules  C6sar,)  a  French 
astronomer  and  physicist,  born  in  Paris,  February  22, 
1824.  He  held  professorships  in  the  Lycee  Charlemagne 
and  the  ficole  speciale  d'Architecture,  and  in  1875  was 
appointed  director  of  the  observatory  at  Meudon.  He 
is  very  eminent  as  a  student  of  solar  physics. 

Janssens,ySns'sens,(ABRAHAM,)  a  celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1569.  His  designs  were  elegant  and 
spirited.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  a  rival  of  Rubens. 
He  excelled  in  painting  subjects  illuminated  by  torches, 
where  the  brilliant  light  and  deepest  shade  were  placed 
in  a  striking  contrast.  His  most  important  works  are 
the  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  and  a  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross."     Died  at  Antwerp  in  1631. 

Janssens,  (Erasmus,)  a  Dutch  Unitarian  theologian, 
born  about  1540,  preached  at  Clausemburg.  Died  after 
1595- 


c  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  ¥.,<pittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JANSSENS 


1372 


JARRIGE 


Jans'sens,  (Dutch  pron.  yins'sens,)  (Fuancis,)  D.D., 
a  Roman  Catholic  bisliop,  born  at  Tilburg,  Netherlands, 
October  17,  1843.  He  was  educated  at  the  American 
College,  Louvain,  was  ordained  a  Catholic  priest  in  1S67, 
came  to  America  in  186S,  and  was  appointed  vicar-general 
of  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1872,  and  Bishop  of  Natchez 
in  1881. 

Janssens,  (Jan  Willem,)  a  distinguished  Dutch 
general,  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1762.  In  1802  he  was 
appointed  governor  and  general-in-chief  of  the  colony  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  he  was  defeated  by  the 
English,  who  took  possession  of  that  country  in  1806. 
After  the  abdication  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  under  whom 
he  had  held  the  office  of  minister  of  war,  Napoleon  made 
him  Governor-General  of  Holland  and  the  East  Indies. 
In  this  capacity  he  bravely  defended  Batavia  against  the 
English  in  1811,  but  was  finally  obliged  to  surrender. 
Died  in  1835. 

Janssens,  (VicroR  Honorius,)  a  noted  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1664.  He  studied  in  Rome 
the  works  of  Raphael,  selected  Albano  for  his  model, 
and  excelled  all  his  contemporaries  in  that  style.  At 
the  expiration  of  eleven  years  he  returned  to  Brussels, 
where  he  painted  numerous  large  pictures  for  palaces 
and  churches.     Died  in  1739. 

Janszoon.    See  Koster. 

Januario.     See  Januarius. 

Jan-u-a'ri-us,  [Fr.  Janvier,  zhfiN've^,';  It.  Janua- 
rio, yS-noo-d're-o,]  Saint,  Bishop  of  Benevento,  was 
beheaded  during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  about 
305.  A  cathedral  was  erected  over  his  grave  at  Naples, 
where  it  is  believed  that  his  blood  exerts  great  power  in 
checking  the  eruptions  of  Vesuvius. 

Ja'nus,  an  ancient  Latin  deity,  represented  with  two 
faces.  He  was  regarded  as  the  opener  of  the  day  and 
as  having  charge  of  the  gates  of  heaven.*  He  seems  to 
have  presided  over  the  commencement  of  enterprises. 
The  word  Janua  ("gate")  is  said  by  some  to  have  been 
derived  from  him ;  also  the  name  of  the  month  January. 
The  temple  of  Janus  Quirinus  at  Rome  was  kept  open 
in  time  of  war  and  closed  during  peace.  It  has  been 
conjectured  by  some  scholars  that  the  name  and  attri- 
butes of  Janus  may  be  traced  to  Ganesa,  (or  Ganesha,) 
the  Hindoo  deity  of  prudence  and  circumspection,  who, 
amon^his  other  offices,  had  those  of  presiding  over  the 
commencement  of  undertakings,  guarding  gates  and 
doors,  etc 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  1' Antiquity,"  Paris,  1825-29,  vol. 
ii.  book  V.  sect.  2,  chap.  iii. ;  Keightley,  "Mythology." 

Janvier.     See  Januarius. 

Janvier,  zh6N've-i',  (Antide,)  an  ingenious  and  cele- 
brated horologist,  was  born  at  Saint-Claude,  in  France, 
in  1751.  He  invented  numerous  improvements  for 
watches  and  for  different  kinds  of  astronomical  appa- 
ratus. In  1784  he  became  watchmaker  to  the  king. 
Died  in  1835. 

Janvier,  (Dom  Ren£  Ambroise,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  in  1614.  He  made  a  Latin  translation  of 
the  "  Rabbi  David  Kimchi's  Hebrew  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms."     Died  in  1682. 

Japet.     See  Iapetus. 

Japetus.    See  Iapetus. 

Ja'pheth,  [Heb.  riiJ',]  a  patriarch,  one  of  the  three 
sons  of  Noah,  and  the  supposed  ancestor  of  the  Cauca- 
sian race.     (See  Iapetus.) 

See  Genesis  vi.,  vii.,  ix. 

Japix,  Japicx,  or  Japiks,  yi'piks,  (Gysbert,)  a 
celebrated  Frisian  poet,  born  at  Bolsward  in  1603.  But 
few  incidents  in  his  early  life  are  known.  Japix  was  the 
first,  and  in  fact  the  only,  writer  in  Frisian  of  any  note  of 
that  period.  In  1763,  at  Dr.  Johnson's  request.  Bos- 
well,  then  at  Utrecht,  sent  a  copy  of  Japix  as  a  specimen 
of  Frisian,  and  at  the  same  time  remarked  that  "it  was 
the  only  book  which  they  had  ;  that  there  were  no  treat- 
ises of  devotion,  ballads,  or  story-books  in  the  language." 
Japix  died  of  the  plague  in  1666. 

See  Hai.bertsma,  "  Hulde  aan  G.  Japiks,"  1827;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

*  Some  writers  suppose  Janus  to  be  a  corruption  oi  Dianvs,  (from 
Dies,  "  Day,")  because  he  was  the  opener  of  the  day. 


Japp,  jip,  (Alexander  Hay,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish 
author,  known  by  the  pseudonym  of  H.  A.  Page.  He 
was  born  at  Dun,  near  Montrose,  in  1839,  and  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  editor  of  the 
"  Sunday  Magazine."  His  works  include  "  Lives"  of 
Hawthorne,  (1S70,)  De  Quincey,  (1877,)  and  Thoreau, 
(1878,)  "Golden  Lives,"(i87i,)  "  Noble  Workers,"(i873,) 
"Out  and  About,"  (fables,  1874,)  "German  Life  and 
Literature,"  etc. 

Jaquelot.     See  Jacquelot. 

Jaquotot,  zht'ko'to',  (Marie  Victoire,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  on  porcelain,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  She 
copied  several  works  of  Raphael  on  porcelain,  and 
painted  the  dessert-service  presented  by  Napoleon  I.  to 
the  Czar  of  Russia  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit.   Died  in  1855. 

Jarchi,  zhtR'she',  (Solomon  Ben  Isaac,)  sometimes 
called  Raschi,  a  distinguished  Jewish  writer,  born  at 
Troyes,  in  France,  about  1040.  After  finishing  his  edu- 
cation at  the  Jewish  Academy  in  that  city,  he  travelled 
through  Egypt,  Western  Asia,  Greece,  Russia,  and  Ger- 
many. On  his  return  to  France  he  wrote  Annotations 
on  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  the  Mishna,  and  the  Gemara. 
These  works  obtained  a  high  reputation,  and  procured 
for  the  author  the  title  of  "  Prince  of  Commentators." 
Died  in  1105. 

Jardin  or  Jardyn.     See  Du  Jardin. 

Jar'dine,  (George,)  born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland, 
in  1742,  was  professor  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow from  1774  to  1824,  and  made  improvements  in  the 
mode  of  teaching.  He  published  "Outlines  of  Philo- 
sophical Education,"  (1818.)     Died  in  1827. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 
"Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1819. 

Jardine,  (Sir  William,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born 
in  Edinburgh  about  1800.  He  studied  botany,  orni 
thology,  etc.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Illus- 
trations of  Ornithology,"  (3  vols.,  1829-45.)  He  was 
one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Naturalist's  Library,"  (40 
vols.,  1833-43,)  and  joint  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh  Phi- 
losophical Journal."     Died  November  21,  1874. 

Jardinier,  zhtR'de'ne-i',  (Claude  DoNAT,)a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  Among  his  works  is  the 
"Virgin  and  the  Infant  Jesus,"  from  C.  Maratta.  Died 
in  1774. 

Jardins,  des,  di  zhtR'd^N',  (Marie  Catherine,) 
Madame  de  Villedieu,  a  talented  and  profligate  French 
authoress,  was  born  in  1640.  She  removed  to  Paris, 
where  she  supported  herself  by  writing  romances  and 
dramas.  Her  works  were  quite  successful,  and,  not- 
withstanding her  very  exceptionable  conduct,  she  was 
much  courted  by  persons  of  distinction.  Her  active 
and  vivid  imagination  produced  a  new  era  in  French 
romances,  changing  their  old  and  tedious  style  into  that 
of  the  modern  novel.     Died  in  1683. 

Jard-Panvillier,  zhtR'p6N've'ye-i',  (Louis  Alex- 
andre,) a  French  politician,  born  near  Niort  in  1757. 
In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Convention, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  bold  defence  of 
the  king.  Napoleon  created  him  baron  of  the  empire 
and  president  of  the  court  of  exchequer.     Died  in  1822. 

Jardyn  or  Jardin,  (Karel  de.)     See  Dujardin. 

Jarnac,  de,dehzhSR'ntk',  (Gui  Chabot,)  Seigneur, 
a  Frencn  soldier,  who  in  1547  killed  La  Chateigneraye 
in  a  duel  which  was  fought  in  the  presence  of  King  Henry 
II.     Died  about  1560. 

SeeTAVANNES,  "M^moires;"  Brant6me,  "M^moires,"  tomeiiL 

Jarncwich,  yaR'no-vik',  or  Giomovichi,  joR-no- 
vee'kee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  a  celebrated  and  eccentric 
violinist,  born  at  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  1745.  He  spent 
several  years  in  France,  Prussia,  and  England.  He  sub- 
sequently visited  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1804, 

Jaroslaf.    See  Yaroslaf. 

Jar'rett,  (Thomas,)  an  English  philologist  and  cler- 
gyman, born  in  1805,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1827. 
He  published  "A  New  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  "A  Sketch 
of  Sanscrit  Grammar,"  (1875,)  etc.    Died  March  7,  1882. 

Jarrige,  zht'rfezh',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Tulle  in  1605.  He  embraced  Protestantism,  and  wrote 
a  work  against  the  society  of  which  he  had  been  a  mem- 
ber, entitled  "The  Jesuits  upon  the  Scaffold;"  but  sub- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  \\,y;/o/i£-;ii,h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a.,e,\,6,x\,'^,sAori;  a,  e,  \,q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TARRY 


1373 


JAC/ COURT 


sequently  he  was  reconciled  to  them,  and  published  a 
refutation  of  his  previous  work.     Died  in  1660. 

Jarry,  zht're',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  calligraphist,  born 
in  Paris  about  1620,  was  famous  for  the  beauty  of  his 
penmanship. 

Jarry,  du,  dii  zht're',  (Laurent  Juilhard — zhii-e'- 
ytk',)  a  celebrated  ecclesiastic,  poet,  and  orator,  born 
near  Saintes,  in  France,  about  1658.  He  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Bossuet  and  the  Due  de 
Montausier.  In  17 14  he  gained  a  poetical  prize  at  the 
French  Academy  over  Voltaire  and  other  competitors. 
He  wrote  "The  Evangelical  Ministry,  or  Reflections 
upon  the  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit,"  (1726,)  "Poems, 
Christian,  Heroic,  and  Moral,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  MoRi^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Jars,  zhtR,  (Gabriel,)  a  distinguished  mineralogist, 
and  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  born 
at  Lyons,  in  France,  in  1732.  In  1757  he  was  sent  to  ex- 
amine the  mines  of  Germany  and  Hungary,  and  in  1765 
visited  England,  Scotland,  Norway,  and  Sweden  for  the 
same  purpose.  He  died  in  1769,  leaving  manuscripts  from 
which  his  brother  compiled  "Observations  upon  a  Great 
Number  of  Gold  and  Silver  Mines,"  (3  vols.,  1774-81.) 

See  QuiRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Jars,  de,  deh  zhlR,  (FRANgois  de  Rochecliouart — 
rosh'shoo-tR',)  Chevalier,  a  French  officer  and  cour- 
tier. He  was  arrested  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1632, 
because  he  refused  to  give  evidence  in  the  prosecution 
of  his  friend  Chateauneuf,  keeper  of  the  seals.  After 
an  imprisonment  of  eleven  months  in  the  Bastille,  and 
twenty-four  examinations,  during  which  nothing  could 
be  extorted  from  him  that  would  criminate  Chateauneuf, 
he  was  convicted  on  false  evidence  and  sentenced  to 
death.  A  reprieve,  however,  arrived  from  the  king  after 
Jars  had  placed  his  head  upon  the  block.  He  obtained 
his  liberty  after  a  long  imprisonment.     Died  in  1670. 

See  Richelieu,  "M^moires." 

Jar'ves,  (James  Jackson,)  a  writer  and  traveller,  born 
in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1818.  He  produced,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Hawaiian  or  Sandwich 
Islands,"  (1843,)  "  Scenes  and  Scenery  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,"  (1844,)  "Art  Hints,"  (1855,)  afterwards  enlarged 
ajid  republished  as  "  Art  Studies,"  "  The  Art  Idea,  Sculp- 
ture, Painting,  and  Architecture  in  America,"  (1865,) 
"Art  Thoughts,"  (1869,)  and  "Italian  Rambles,"  (1883.) 
Died  in  Switzerland  in  1888. 

Jar'vis,  (Abraham,)  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Norwalk,  in  Connecticut, 
'"  1739-  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1761,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Connecticut  in  1797.     Died  in  1813. 

Jarvis,  (Edward,)  M.D.,  an  American  statistician, 
born  at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  January  9,  1803.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1826,  and  took  his  pro- 
fessional degree  at  the  Massachusetts  Medical  School  in 
1830.  Among  his  works  are  "  Practical  Physiology," 
(1848,)  "Primary  Physiology,"  (1849,)  and  other  school- 
books  on  physiology  and  health,  besides  a  large  number 
of  reports,  memorials,  tables,  and  other  papers  regarding 
public  health,  mortality-rates,  education,  longevity,  in- 
crement of  population,  insanity,  and  other  matters  per- 
taining to  state  medicine. 

Jar'vis,  (John,)  an  artist,  born  in  Dublin  about  1749, 
had  a  great  reputation  for  his  paintings  on  glass  and  his 
exquisite  manner  of  finishing  single  subjects.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  the  west  window  of  New  College 
Chapel,  Oxford,  from  a  design  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 
Died  in  1804. 

Jarvis,  (John  Wesley,)  a  distinguished  artist,  born 
in  the  north  of  England  in  1780,  came  at  an  early  age  to 
New  York,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his 
portraits.  He  was  also  noted  for  his  eccentricities  and 
genial  humour.     Died  January  12,  1840. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Jarvis,  (Samuel  Farmer,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman  and  author,  son  of  Bishop  Jarvis,  was 
born  in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1786.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1805,  and  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
Oriental  literature  in  Washington  (now  Trinity)  College 


at  Hartford,  and  from  1837  to  1842  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church  in  his  native  town.  He  wrote  "A  Chronological 
Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Church,"  etc.,  (1845,) 
and  "  The  Church  of  the  Redeemed ;  or.  The  History 
of  the  Mediatorial  Kingdom,"  (1850.)     Died  in  1851. 

Jasikov  or  Jazikov.     See  Yazikof. 

Jasmin,  zhts'miw',  or  Jansemin,  zhSNSs'mJN', 
(Jacques  or  Jaquou,)  the  "Barber  Poet  of  Agen,"  born 
at  that  town  in  1798.  His  poems,  which  are  written 
in  the  Proven9al  patois,  enjoy  the  highest  popularity  in 
France,  and  display  great  powers  of  humour  and  pathos, 
with  a  charming  simplicity  of  diction.  Among  the  most 
admired  are  "The  Curl-Papers,"  ("Los  Papillotos,") 
and  "The  Blind  Girl  of  Castel-Cuille,"  ("L'Abuglo  de 
Castel-Cuille.")  The  latter  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Longfellow.     Died  in  1864. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Gen^rale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1849. 

Ja'son,  [Gr.  '\aauv,\  a  semi-fabulous  Greek  hero,  cele- 
brated as  the  leader  of  the  Argonautic  expedition,  which 
was  supposed  to  have  occurred  before  the  siege  of  Troy. 
The  Argonauts  went  to  Colchis  to  fetch  a  golden  fleece 
which  was  guarded  by  a  dragon.  Jason  succeeded  in 
this  enterprise  by  the  aid  of  Medea,  a  sorceress,  whom 
he  married.     (See  Medea.) 

Jason,  tyrant  of  Pherae,  and  chief  magistrate  of  Thes- 
saly,  was  ambitious  and  enterprising.  He  obtained 
control  of  Thessaly  in  374  B.C.,  and  aspired  to  be  master 
of  all  Greece.     He  was  assassinated  in  369  B.C. 

Jas'per,  (William,)  (known  in  history  as  Sergeant 
Jasper,)  a  brave  soldier  of  the  American  Revolution, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  1750.  When  the  American 
flag  was  shot  away  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Moultrie,  June 
28,  1776,  he  leaped  outside  the  walls  of  the  fort,  amidst 
a  perfect  storm  of  cannon-shot,  replaced  the  flag,  and 
returned  to  his  post  without  injury.  For  this  gallant 
service  Governor  Rutledge  presented  to  him  his  own 
sword.  He  afterwards  served  with  distinction  under 
Marion,  and  was  killed  at  Savannah  in  October,  1779. 

Jastro'w,  ySs'trov,  (Marcus  Mordecai,)  Ph.D.,  a 
Jewish  scholar,  born  at  Rogasen,  Prussian  Poland,  June 
5,  1829.  He  studied  at  Posen,  Berlin,  and  Halle,  grad- 
uating at  the  latter  university  in  1856,  was  preacher  at 
Warsaw,  1858-62,  and  rabbi  at  Mannheim,  Warsaw,  and 
Worms,  1862-66,  in  which  year  he  removed  to  the  United 
States  and  became  a  rabbi  in  Philadelphia.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  "Lectures,"  in  Polish,  (1862,)  "Jewish 
Laws,"  in  Polish,  (1859,)  "Four  Hundred  Years  of  Jew- 
ish History,"  (1865,)  "Episodes  of  Jewish  History,"  and 
a  "Complete  Talmudic  Dictionary,"  a  colossal  work, 
not  yet  finished. 

Jdszay,  yi'sl,  (Paul,  or  PAl,)  a  Hungarian  historian, 
born  at  Szanto  in  1809.  He  became  a  secretary  to  the 
Batthyanyi  ministry,  and  died  in  1852.  He  wrote  two 
valuable  histories, — "The  History  of  the  Hungarian 
People  after  the  Battle  of  Mohacs,"  (1846,  incomplete,) 
and  "  History  of  the  Hungarian  People  from  the  Oldest 
Times  to  the  Publication  of  the  Golden  Bull,"  (1855.) 

Jaubert,  zhS'baiR',  (Francois,)  Comte,  a  French 
lawyer,  born  at  Condom  in  1758.  In  1804  he  became 
president  of  the  Tribunate.  In  1806  he  was  appointed 
councillor  of  state.     Died  in  1822. 

Jaubert,  (Hippolyte  FRANgois,)  a  French  minister 
of  state,  and  naturalist,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  became  minister  of  public 
works  in  1840.  He  published  "  Illustrationes  Plantarum 
Orientalium,"  (2  vols.,  1842-46.)     Died  Dec.  5,  1874. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Jaubert,  (Pierre  Am6d^e£milien  Probe,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Provence  in  1779,  accompanied  Na- 
poleon to  Egypt  as  first  secretary-interpreter  in  1799. 
He  was  appointed,  after  his  return,  professor  of  Persian 
in  the  College  of  France,  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  1830,  and  made  a  peer  of  France  in 
1841.  He  contributed  to  the  "Journal  Asiatique,"  and 
wrote  a  number  of  learned  works.    Died  in  1847. 

See  E.  BiOT,  "Notice  biographique  sur  M.  Jaubert ;" QuiRARD, 
"La  France  Litteraire." 

Jaucourt,  de,  deh  zho'kooR',  (Arnail  Francois,) 
Marquis,  a  French  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1757, 
was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly 


p.3iSk;  casj;  %kard;  gas/;  Q,w.,Yi,  guttural;  ^,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sase;  th  as  in //«>.     (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


J  A  [/COURT 


1374 


JAY 


in  1791.  In  June,  1814,  he  acted  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  absence  of  Talleyrand.  He  founded  the 
Protestant  Bible  Society  of  Paris.     Died  in  1852. 

Jaucourt,  de,  (Louis,)  Chevalier,  an  accomplished 
French  writer  and  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He 
studied  at  Geneva,  Cambridge,  and  Leyden,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Boerhaave  in  medicine.  He  published  in  1734 
a  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Leibnitz,"  which 
is  much  admired.  He  wrote  many  articles  on  natural 
philosophy,  natural  history,  literature,  etc.  for  the  great 
French  Encyclopaedia  of  Diderot.  His  principles  were 
more  consistent  with  the  Christian  religion  than  those 
of  the  other  Encyclopasdists.  He  wrote  a  voluminous 
Medical  Lexicon,  but  lost  the  manuscript  at  se.i,  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  "  Bibliotheque  raisonnee  des 
Ouvrages  des  Savants  de  I'Europe,"  (172S-40.)  Died 
at  Compiegne  in  1779. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
protestante." 

Jauffret,  zho'fRi',  (Gaspard  Jean  Andk6  Joseph,) 
a  French  writer  on  theology,  born  in  Provence  in  1759, 
became  chaplain  to  Napoleon  about  1804,  Bishop  of  Metz 
in  1806,  and  Archbishop  of  Aix  in  181 1.     Died  in  1823. 

Jauffret,  (Louis  Francois,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1770.  He  was  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Marseilles,  and  wrote  several  valuable 
juvenile  books.     Died  about  1850. 

Jaugeon,  zho'zhiN',  (N.,)  an  able  French  mechani- 
cian, who  wrote  several  works  on  natural  history  and 
physiology.     Died  in  1725. 

Jault,  zho,  (AuGUSTiN  FRANgois,)  a  physician  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1700,  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  Syriac  in  the  Royal  College  at 
Paris.  He  translated  Ockley's  "  History  of  the  Sara- 
cens" (1748)  from  the  English,  and  several  medical  works 
from  the  Latin.     Died  in  1757. 

Jauregui  y  Aguilar,  de,  dk  How-ra'gee  e  S-ge-laR', 
(Juan,)  Chevalier  de  Calatrava,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
painter,  born  at  Toledo  about  1570.  In  1607  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  studied  Italian  and  improved  himself 
in  the  art  of  painting.  He  translated  into  his  native 
tongue  the  "Pharsalia"  of  Lucan  and  the  "Aminta"  of 
Tasso,  (1607.)  The  latter  is  an  excellent  version.  He 
introduced  a  superior  style  among  the  Spanish  painters. 
Died  in  1650,  or,  according  to  some,  in  1640. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Quillikt,  "  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Javello,  yi-vel'lo,  (Crisostomo,)  a  learned  philoso- 
pher and  theologian  of  the  Dominican  order,  was  born 
near  Milan  about  1471. 

Jav-o-le'nus,  (Priscus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Nerva  and  Hadrian.  He 
wrote  an  "  Epitome  of  the  Libri  Posteriores  of  Labeo," 
and  several  treatises  on  law. 

Jay,  zhk,  (Antoine,)  a  French  journalist  and  littera- 
teur, born  in  the  Gironde  in  1770.  He  was  for  many 
years  chief  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  a  daily  paper 
of  Paris,  and  the  "Minerve."  In  politics  he  was  liberal. 
He  spent  seven  years  in  the  United  States,  1 795-1 802. 
In  1832  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Ministry 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu,"  (1815,)  which  is  highly  praised 
by  Henri  Martin.     Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Jay,  (Harriett,)  an  English  novelist  and  actress, 
born  near  London,  September  22,  1857.  She  published 
"The  Queen  of  Connaught,"  (1875,)  "Dark  Colleen," 
(1876,)  "Two  Men  and  a  Maid,"  (1881,)  and  other 
works.  She  went  upon  the  stage  in  1881.  She  was  a 
sister-in-law  of  Robert  Buchanan,  and  became  his  second 
wife  in  1884. 

Jsy>  (John,)  an  illustrious  American  statesman,  first 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  New  York, 
December  12,  1745.  He  was  descended  on  his  father's 
side  from  Pierre  Jay,  a  Huguenot  merchant  of  La  Ro- 
chelle,  who  fled  to  England  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  Jay  graduated  at  King's  (now  Columbia) 
College  in  1764,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New 
York  in  1768.  At  this  period  he  combined  in  a  remark- 
able degree  the  dignity  and  gravity  of  manhood  with  the 
ardour  of  youth.     His  talents  soon  procured  for  him 


both  an  extensive  legal  practice  and  great  influence  in 
the  political  assemblies  called  to  consider  the  aggressive 
policy  of  the  British  government.  Elected  to  the  first 
Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia  in  1774,  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  all  its  proceedings,  and,  as  one  of  a 
committee  of  three,  drew  up  the  address  to  the  people 
of  Great  Britain,  which  at  once  procured  for  its  author 
the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  elo- 
quent writers  in  America.  He  also  prepared  the  address 
issued  by  Congress  in  1775  to  the  people  of  Canada.  In 
the  general  debates  he  took  strong  ground  in  favour  of 
the  central  authority  and  against  separate  colonial  action. 
Having  been  recalled  from  Philadelphia  in  May,  1776, 
to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  New  York  pro- 
vincial Congress,  his  name  does  not  appear  on  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  which,  however,  received 
his  cordial  support.  He  exerted  great  influence  in  the 
convention  which  met  in  August  of  the  same  year  to 
frame  a  State  government  for  New  York.  To  arouse 
the  people  from  the  despondency  occasioned  by  the 
disasters  to  our  arms,  he  prepared,  in  December,  an 
address  to  the  country,  which  was  issued  by  the  con- 
vention and  ordered  by  Congress  to  be  translated  into 
German.  He  also  reported  to  the  New  York  conven- 
tion, in  March,  1777,  a  bill  of  rights,  and  had  a  chief 
share  in  framing  the  Constitution.  Before  its  adjourn- 
ment, May,  1777,  the  convention  appointed  Jay  chief 
justice  of  New  York. 

In  December,  1778,  he  again  took  his  seat  in  Congress, 
and  a  few  days  after  was  chosen  its  president.  His  dig- 
nified and  impartial  discharge  of  the  duties  of  this  posi- 
tion won  the  esteem  of  all  parties.  In  September,  1779, 
he  resigned  the  offices  both  of  president  and  chief  justice, 
to  accept  the  appointment  of  minister  to  Spain  to  nego- 
tiate for  a  loan  of  $5,000,000  and  for  the  free  navigation 
of  the  Mississippi.  After  many  months  of  vexatious 
and  fruitless  labours  at  Madrid,  he  proceeded  to  Paris, 
and  took  part  with  Adams,  Franklin,  and  others  in  ne- 
gotiating the  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  signed  September  3,  1783.  Jay  re- 
turned to  New  York  in  July,  1784,  and,  learning  that 
Congress  had  already  appointed  him  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs,  then  probably  the  most  important  office  in  the 
government,  he  accepted  this  position  in  December 
following,  and  discharged  its  duties  until  the  election  of 
Washington  as  President  of  the  United  States  in  1789. 
To  answer  the  objections  of  the  opponents  to  the  Federal 
Constitution  as  it  came  from  the  General  Convention  of 
1787,  Jay  united  with  Hamilton  and  Madison  in  writing 
"The  Federalist."  "No  constitution  of  government," 
says  Chancellor  Kent,  "ever  received  a  more  masterly 
and  successful  vindication."  Jay  contributed  greatly 
towards  overcoming  the  majority  against  the  Constitution 
in  the  New  York  convention  called  to  adopt  or  reject- 
it  in  1788,  (at  first  the  vote  stood  only  eleven  for,  to 
forty-six  against  it ;  afterwards  thirty  for,  to  twenty-seven 
against,)  and  on  the  reorganization  of  the  government 
under  it  in  1789  he  was  offered  by  Washington,  it  is  said, 
the  choice  of  the  offices  in  his  gift.  He  accepted  that  of 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court.  "  His  general  learn- 
ing and  ability,"  says  Daniel  Webster,  "  and  especially 
the  prudence,  the  mildness,  and  the  firmness  of  his  char- 
acter, eminently  fitted  Mr.  Jay  to  be  at  the  head  of  such 
a  court."  In  1792  Jay  received  a  majority  of  the  votes 
for  Governor  of  New  York ;  but,  on  some  technical 
grounds,  George  Clinton,  the  Republican  candidate,  was 
declared  elected.  In  writing  of  this  result  to  his  wife,  he 
said,  "  A  few  years  will  put  us  all  in  the  dust ;  and  then 
it  will  be  of  more  importance  to  me  to  have  governed 
myself  than  to  have  governed  a  State."  In  1794  Jay 
accepted  with  reluctance  the  appointment  of  special 
minister  to  England  to  negotiate  a  settlement  of  the  dif- 
ficulties between  the  two  countries,  well  knowing  that 
in  the  state  of  public  feeling  no  adjustment  that  could  be 
effected  would  give  satisfaction  to  all  parties.  He  con- 
cluded a  treaty  on  the  19th  of  November  of  the  same  year. 
It  provided,  among  other  things,  that  pre-revolutionary 
debts  owed  to  British  subjects  should  be  paid  by  the 
United  States,  that  the  British  government  should  indem- 
nify Americans  for  losses  sustained  by  illegal  captures,  etc. 
(About  $10,000,000  were  afterwards  paid  on  this  account.) 


a,  e,  T ,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  4,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mit;  nSt;  good;  moon ; 


JAY 


1375 


JEANNE 


This  treaty  was  at  once  assailed  with  almost  unexampled 
violence  by  the  party  favourable  to  France.  Mobs  lighted 
bonfires  with  it  in  the  principal  cities,  and  in  Boston  Jay 
himself  was  burned  in  effigy.  On  the  other  hand,  Ham- 
ilton defended  the  treaty  with  an  ability  that  extorted 
the  admiration  even  of  its  opponents,  and  Fisher  Ames, 
in  one  of  the  greatest  efforts  of  American  eloquence, 
declared  that  the  "treaty  had  justly  raised  the  character 
of  the  nation."  It  was  finally  carried  into  effect  by  a 
vote  of  fifty-eight  to  fifty-one.  While  Jay  was  absent 
in  England,  he  was  elected,  without  his  knowledge  or 
consent,  Governor  of  New  York, — an  office  which  he 
held  for  six  years.  It  was  under  his  administration  that 
slavery  in  that  State  was  abolished.  In  writing  to  a 
friend,  in  1780,  he  had  declared,  "Till  America  comes 
into  this  measure,  [the  abolition  of  slavery,]  her  prayers 
to  Heaven  for  liberty  will  be  impious."  Five  years  later 
(1785)  he  was  made  president  of  a  society  in  New  York 
"to  promote  the  manumission  of  slaves."  Having  de- 
clined a  re-election  at  the  close  of  his  second  guberna- 
torial term.  Jay  was  nominated  and  confirmed  by  the 
Senate  to  succeed  Oliver  Ellsworth  in  his  former  office 
of  chief  justice  of  the  United  States;  but  this  honour  he 
also  declined,  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  resided 
on  his  estate  at  Bedford,  Westchester  county.  New  York. 
He  died  May  17,  1829.  "In  lofty  disinterestedness," 
says  Hildreth,  "  in  unyielding  integrity,  in  superiority 
to  the  illusions  of  passion,  no  one  of  the  great  men  of 
the  Revolution  approached  so  near  to  Washington," 
(as  Jay.)  Jay  was  a  member  of  the  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  a  man  of  deep  religious  as  well  as  earnest  moral 
convictions;  the  Bible  is  said  to  have  been  his  con- 
stant study.  In  stature  he  was  somewhat  less  than  six 
feet  in  height ;  he  was  well  formed,  but  rather  thin,  face 
colourless,  with  deep-blue  eyes,  and  aquiline  nose. 

See  a  "  Life  of"  John  Jay,  with  Selections  from  his  Writings,"  by 
his  son,  William  Jay,  2  vols.,  1833:  James  Renwick,  "Lives  o'" 
John  Jay  and  Alexander  Hamilton,"  1S40;  Henry  Flanders, 
"Lives  and  Times  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  the  United  States," 
1855;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol. 
ii. ;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1823,  and  October,  1833. 

Jay,  (John,)  an  eminent  lawyer,  a  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  son  of  Judge  William  Jay,  was  born  in 
New  York  in  181 7.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College 
in  1836,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  and 
was  counsel  for  several  fugitive  slaves  in  the  courts  of 
law.  In  April,  1869,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Aus- 
tria. He  was  thrice  chosen  president  of  the  Union  League 
of  New  York. 

Jay,  (William,)  a  popular  English  dissenting  minis- 
ter and  writer,  born  at  Tisbury,  Wiltshire,  in  1769.  He 
was  the  pupil  and  protege  of  the  Rev.  Cornelius  Winter. 
He  began  to  preach  about  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  be- 
came in  1 79 1  minister  of  Argyle  Chapel,  Bath,  where 
he  continued  to  preach  for  sixty-two  years.  He  was 
called  the  "prince  of  preachers"  by  the  eminent  John 
Foster.  Among  his  works  are  "  Morning  and  Evening 
Exercises,"  (1842,)  "Lectures  on  Female  Scripture 
Characters,"  (1854,)  a  "Life  of  Cornelius  Winter," 
"Mornings  with  Jesus,"  (1854,)  and  "Evenings  with 
Jesus,"  (1854.)     Died  in  December,  1853. 

See  his  Autobiography,  edited  bv  George  Redford  and  John 
Angell  James,  1854;  "Memoir  of  William  Jay,"  by  S.  S.  Wilson, 
1854. 

Jay,  (William,)  an  American  philanthropist,  second 
son  of  Chief-Justice  Jay,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1789. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1807,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1829,  succeeded  to  the  family  estate  at  Bsdford. 
He  had  previously,  in  1820,  been  appointed  first  judge 
of  Westchester  county,  in  which  office  he  was  continued 
till  superseded,  in  1842,  on  account  of  his  anti-slavery 
opinions.  He  early  entered  upon  his  philanthropic 
labours,  and  continued  to  exert  himself  in  behalf  of 
the  temperance  reform,  the  abolition  of  slavery,  educa- 
tional and  missionary  enterprises,  Sunday-schools,  tract 
and  Bible  societies,  etc.,  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  for  several  years  the  president  of  the  American 
Peace  Society,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.  His  principal  works  are  the 
"  Life  of  John  Jay,  with  Selections  from  his  Writings," 
(2  vols.,   1833,)   "An  Inquiry  into  the  Character   and 


Tendency  of  the  American  Colonization  and  American 
Anti-Slavery  Societies,"  (1835,)  "A  View  of  the  Action 
of  the  Federal  Government  in  Behalf  of  Slavery,"  (1839,) 
"  War  and  Peace,"  (1848,)  and  "  A  Review  of  the  Causes 
and  Consequences  of  the  Mexican  War,"  (1849.)  Died 
at  Bedford,  New  York,  in  185S. 

Jay,  le,  (Gui  Michkl.)     See  Le  Jay. 

Jayadeva  or  Djayadeva,  ji-a-da'va,  a  celebrated 
Hindu  poet,  known  as  the  author  of  the  "  Gita  Govinda," 
("  Song  of  Krishna,")  a  famous  Sanscrit  poem  in  honour 
of  Krishna.  The  time  and  circumstances  of  his  life  are 
unknown.  An  Oriental  critic  refers  to  Jayadeva  as  a 
poet  in  the  following  terms :  "  Whatever  is  delightful 
in  the  modes  of  music,  .  .  .  whatever  is  exquisite  in 
the  sweet  art  of  love,  whatever  is  graceful  in  the  strains 
of  poetry, — all  that  let  the  happy  and  wise  learn  from 
the  songs  of  Jayadeva." 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  "Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  iii. 
p.  207. 

Jazet,  zht'zV,  (Jean  Pierre  Marie,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  perfected  the  art  of 
engraving  in  aquatint,  and  reproduced  the  works  of 
Horace  Vernet  and  other  masters.     Died  in  1871. 

Jeacocke,  ja'kok,  ?  (Caleb,)  a  baker  of  London, 
known  as  the  author  of  the  "  Vindication  of  the  Moral 
Character  of  the  Apostle  Paul  against  the  Charges  of 
Hypocrisy  and  Insincerity  brought  by  Bolingbroke,  Mid- 
dleton,  and  Others,"  (1765.)     Died  in  1786. 

Jeaffreson,  jef'fer-sn,  (John  Cordy,)  an  English 
author,  born  at  Framlingham,  in  Suffolk,  January  14, 
1831.  He  was  educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1852.  In  1859  he  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple.  He  has  published 
"Crewe  Rise,"  (1S54,)  "The  Rapier  of  Regent's  Park," 
(1882,)  and  a  dozen  other  novels,  "Novels  and  Novel- 
ists," (1858,)  "  A  Book  about  Doctors,"  (1S60,)  "  A  Book 
about  Lawyers,"  (1866,)  "Life  of  Robert  Stephenson," 
(1864,)  "A  Book  about  the  Clergy,"  (1870,)  "The  Real 
Lord  Byron,"  (18S3,)  and  other  works. 

Jean  of  France.     See  John. 

Jean  Bon  Saint- Andre,  zhfiN  biN  siN'tSN'dRi', 
B.\RON,  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1749.  He  studied  theology,  and  became  a  Protestant 
minister.  He  was  chosen  deputy  to  the  National  Con- 
vention in  1792,  joined  the  Jacobins,  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king,  and  was  elected  one  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Mayence, 
(Mentz,)  where  he  won  great  esteem  by  the  firmness,  in 
tegrity,  and  wisdom  of  his  administration.     Died  in  1815. 

Jean  Jacques.     See  Rousseau. 

Jean  de  Matha.     See  John  of  Matha,  Saint. 

Jean  de  Paris,  zh6N  de  pt're',  a  French  Dominican, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Paris,  wrote  "  De  Regia 
Potestate  et  Papali,"  in  which  he  maintained  the  cause 
of  King  Philip  against  the  pope.     Died  in  1304. 

Jean  Paul.     See  Richter. 

Jeanes,  jeenz,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Allensay,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1611.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  "  Abstinence  from  Evil,"  one  entitled  "  The  Image 
Unbroken,"  (1651,)  in  defence  of  Charles  I.,  and  a  work 
in  reply  to  the  "  Iconoclastes"  of  Milton.    Died  in  1662. 

Jeanne  d'Albret,  zhtn  dtl'bRi',  or  Joan,  Queen  of 
Navarre,  born  in  1528,  was  the  only  child  of  Henri 
d'Albret,  Kmg  of  Navarre,  and  Marguerite,  sister  of  the 
French  monarch  Francis  I.  Her  earliest  suitor  was  Philip, 
the  son  of  Charles  V.  of  Germany ;  but  Francis  I.  opposed 
the  union,  and  gave  her  in  marriage  to  Antoine  de  Bour- 
bon, Duke  of  Vendome,  in  1548.  Through  her  husband's 
influence  she  embraced  the  Calvinistic  faith,  caused  it  to 
be  introduced  into  Navarre,  and  in  a  short  time  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  chief  supporters  of  Protestantism  in 
France.  On  the  13th  of  December,  1553,  she  gave  birth  to 
a  son,  afterwards  known  as  the  illustrious  Henry  IV.  In 
1555,  with  her  husband,  she  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty 
of  Navarre.  Two  years  later,  her  husband,  having  been 
appointed  lieutenant-general  of  France,  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Rouen.  Jeanne  died  at  Paris  in  1572.  She 
was  distinguished  for  her  talents,  virtues,  and  heroic 
qualities. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran?ais ;"  De  Thou,  "  Historia 
sui  Teraporis ;"  D'AuBiGNi,  "  M^moires." 


I?  zs.k;  9asj.-  ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  Yi, giitttiral ;  ^, nasal;  yl,  trilled;  sasz;  thasinMw.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JEANNE 


1376 


JEFFERSON 


Jeanne  d'Arc.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Jeanne  of  Naples.     See  Joan  of  Naples. 

Jeanne  of  Navarre.     See  Joan  of  Navarre. 

Jeannin,  zht'niN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  statesman  and 
diplomatist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Autun  in  1540. 
He  held  an  office  at  Dijon  in  1572,  when  a  royal  order 
came  for  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants.  Although  he 
svas  a  zealous  Catholic,  he  persuaded  the  local  authori- 
ties to  disobey  or  suspend  the  execution  of  the  order, 
which  in  a  few  days  was  countermanded.  He  afterwards 
became  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Dijon.  In  1594 
he  gave  his  adhesion  to  Henry  IV.,  who  employed  him 
on  important  foreign  missions.  He  gained  the  confidence 
of  the  king  in  a  high  degree.  After  the  death  of  Henry 
IV.,  (1610,)  the  queen,  Marie  de  M^dicis,  appointed 
Jeannin  controller  of  the  finances,  and  confided  to  him 
the  chief  direction  of  affairs.  He  died  in  1622,  leaving 
"Memoirs  of  his  Negotiations,"  (1656.) 

Jeanron,  zhdN'r6N',  (Philippe  Auguste.)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1809.     Died  1S77. 

Jeaurat,  zho'rt',  (Edme  S6bastien,)  a  French  as- 
tronomer, born  in  Paris  in  1724.  He  published  in  1750 
a  valuable  "Treatise  on  Perspective."  In  1753  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Military  School 
of  Paris,  where  he  caused  an  observatory  to  be  estab- 
lished. Among  his  works  is  "  Observations  on  the  Solai 
Eclipse  of  1793."  H^  became  a  member  of  the  Institute 
in  1796.     Died  in  1803. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Hiosra))hie  G^nerale." 

Jebb,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  celebrated  divine,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1736.  In  1768  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  Greek  Testament  at  Cambridge.  He  obtained 
the  living  of  Ovington,  in  Norfolk,  in  1764,  and  became 
chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Harborough.  Having  subse- 
quently embraced  Socinian  views,  he  resigned  all  his 
ecclesiastical  appointments  and  commenced  the  study 
of  medicine.  He  obtained  his  degree  at  Saint  Andrew's, 
and  practised  with  success.  He  was  much  engaged  in 
political  controversy,  and  earnestly  advocated  the  Amer- 
ican cause  during  the  Revolutionary  war.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Disney,  "Life  of  John  Jebb,"  1787. 

Jebb,  (John,)  an  Irish  Protestant  bishop  and  clas 
sical  scholar,  born  at  Drogheda  in  1775,  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  published,  in  1819  or 
1820,  an  important  work  on  "Sacred  Literature,"  which 
is  highly  praised  by  several  critics.  "  It  has  the  highest 
claims,"  says  T.  H.  Home,  "to  the  attention  of  every 
biblical  student."  In  1823  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Limerick.  Among  his  works  is  "  Practical  Theology," 
(2  vols.,  1830.)     Died  in  1833. 

See  Charles  Forster,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Jebb,"  2  vols.,  1837. 

Jebb,  (Sir  Richard,)  Bart.,  son  of  Dr.  Samuel  Jebb, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stratford,  in  Essex,  in  1729. 
He  studied  medicine  in  London,  and  afterwards  at  the 
University  of  Leyden,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of 
M.D.  He  became  physician-extraordinary  to  George 
III.  about  1777,  and  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  in  1780.     Died  in  1787. 

Jebb,  (Richard  Claverhouse,)  a  British  scholar, 
born  at  Dundee,  August  27,  1841.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Charterhouse,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  in  1862  and  received  a  Fellowship. 
In  1875  he  was  made  Greek  professor  in  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity. Among  his  works  are  "The  Attic  Orators,"  "  Mod- 
ern Greece,"  "  Primer  of  Greek  Literature,"  a  "  Life  of 
R.  Bentley,"and  important  editions  of  the  texts  of  various 
Greek  authors,  with  notes. 

Jebb,  (Samuel,)  M.D.,  a  noted  English  physician 
and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  was  an 
uncle  of  John  Jebb,  M.D.,  noticed  above.  He  embraced 
the  principles  of  the  nonjurors,  and  became  librarian  to 
the  celebrated  Jeremy  Collier.  He  edited  the  "  Dialogue 
of  J[ustin  Martyr  with  Trypho  the  Jew,  in  Greek  and 
Latin,"  the  "Opus  Majus"  of  Roger  Bacon,  and  several 
other  works.     Died  in  1772. 

Jee-jeeb-hoy',  (Sir  Jamsetjee,)  Bart.,  aParsee  mer- 
chant, born  in  Bombay,  July  15,  1783.  He  acquired  great 
wealth  as  a  merchant,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  re- 
markable benevolence  and  large  charities.  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1857,  and  died  April  15,  1859.     His  son,  of 


the  same  name  and  titles,  (born  1811,  died  July  11,  1877,) 
was  also  distinguished  for  his  charities  and  public  spirit. 
The  third  baronet  of  this  name  was  born  March  3,  1851, 
and  before  his  succession  to  the  title  bore  the  name  of 
Manockjee  Cursetjee. 

Jef'fer-spn,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  comedian,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  of  a  family  of  actors,  February  20,  1829. 
In  early  youth  he  went  upon  the  stage,  and  rapidly  rose 
to  a  very  high  rank  in  his  profession.  The  characters 
of  "Rip  Van  Winkle"  and  "Bob  Eccles"  are  those  in 
which  he  has  attained  the  greatest  celebrity. 

Jefferson,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
and  the  tliird  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born, 
April  2,  1743,  at  Shadwell,  Virginia,  near  the  spot  which 
afterwards  became  his  residence  with  the  name  of  Mon- 
ticello.  He  was  the  oldest  son  in  a  family  of  eight 
children.  His  father,  Peter  Jefferson,  was  a  man  of 
great  force  of  character  and  of  extraordinary  physical 
strength.  His  mother,  Jane  Randolph,  of  Goochland, 
was  descended  from  an  English  family  of  great  respecta- 
bility. Young  Jefferson  began  his  classical  studies  at 
the  age  of  nine,  and  at  seventeen  he  entered  an  advanced 
class  at  William  and  Mary  College.  On  his  way  thither 
he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Patrick  Henry,  who  was 
then  a  bankrupt  merchant,  but  who  afterwards  became 
the  great  orator  of  the  Revolution.  At  college  Jefferson 
was  distinguished  by  his  close  application,  and  devoted, 
it  is  said,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours  a  day  to  study. 
He  became  well  versed,  we  are  told,  in  Latin,  Greek, 
Italian,  French,  and  Spanish,  making  at  the  same  time 
a  respectable  proficiency  in  his  mathematical  studies. 
After  a  five  years'  course  of  law  under  Judge  Wythe, 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1767.  His  success  in  the 
legal  profession  was  remarkable ;  his  fees  for  the  first 
year  amounted  to  nearly  three  thousand  dollars.  In 
1769  Jefferson  commenced  his  public  career  as  a  member 
of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  in  which  he  had, 
while  a  student  of  law,  listened  to  Patrick  Henry's  great 
speech  on  the  Stamp  Act. 

In  1773  he  united  with  Patrick  Henry  and  other  p^ 
triots  in  devising  the  celebrated  committee  of  corre- 
spondence for  disseminating  intelligence  between  the 
colonies,  of  which  Jefferson  was  one  of  the  most  active 
and  influential  members.  Elected  the  next  year  to  a 
convention  to  choose  delegates  to  the  first  Continental 
Congress  at  Philadelphia,  he  drew  up  for  their  instruc- 
tion his  famous  "  Summary  View  of  the  Rights  of  British 
America,"  which,  though  rejected  by  the  convention  as 
being  too  radical,  was  subsequently  issued  by  the  House 
of  Burgesses,  and,  after  some  revision  by  Edmund  Burke, 
passed  through  several  editions  in  Great  Britain.  June 
I,  1775,  Jefferson  reported  to  the  Assembly  the  reply  of 
Virginia  to  Lord  North's  conciliatory  proposition,  and 
on  the  2 1st  of  the  same  month  took  his  seat  in  the 
Continental  Congress.  His  reputation  as  a  statesman 
and  accomplished  writer  at  once  placed  him  among  the 
leaders  of  that  renowned  body.  He  served  on  the  most 
important  committees,  and,  among  other  labours,  drew 
up  the  reply  of  Congress  to  the  above  proposal  of  Lord 
North,  and  assisted  John  Dickinson  in  preparing,  in  be- 
half of  the  Colonies,  a  declaration  of  the  cause  of  taking 
up  arms.  The  rejection  of  a  final  petition  to  the  king 
having  at  length  destroyed  all  hope  of  an  honourable 
reconciliation  with  the  mother-country,  Congress,  early 
in  the  session  of  1776,  appointed  a  committee  to  draw 
up  a  declaration  of  independence,  of  which  Jefferson  was 
made  chairman.  In  this  capacity  he  drafted,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  other  members  of  the  committee,  (Franklin, 
Adams,  Sherman,  and  R.  R.  Livingston,)  and  reported  to 
Congress,  June  28,  that  great  charter  of  freedom  known 
as  the  "  Declaration  of  American  Independence,"  which, 
on  July  4,  was  adopted  unanimously,  and  signed  by  every 
member  present  except  John  Dickinson  of  Pennsylvania. 
It  may  be  doubted  if  in  all  history  there  be  recorded  so 
important  an  event,  or  if  a  state  paper  has  ever  been 
framed  that  has  exerted,  or  is  destined  to  e.xert,  so  great 
an  influence  on  the  destinies  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
human  race.  The  Declaration  of  Independence,  says 
Edward  Everett,  "  is  equal  to  anything  ever  born  on 
parchment  or  expressed  in  the  visible  signs  of  thought." 
"The  heart  of  Jefferson  in  writing  it,"  adds  Bancroft, 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JEFFERSON 


1377 


JEFFERSON 


"and  of  Congress  in  adopting  it,  beat  for  all  humanity." 
In  October  following,  Jefferson  resigned  his  seat  in 
Congress,  and  also  the  appointment  of  commissioner  to 
F"rance,  to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Virginia 
Assembly.  A  State  Constitution  had  previously  been 
adopted,  to  which  he  had  furnished  the  preamble  ;  and 
he  now  applied  himself  to  a  radical  revision  of  the  laws 
of  the  commonwealth,  in  which  he  was  engaged  for  two 
years  and  a  half.  Among  other  reforms,  he  procured 
the  repeal  of  the  laws  of  entail,  the  abolition  of  pri- 
mogeniture, and  the  restoration  of  the  rights  of  con- 
science,— reforms  which,  he  believed,  would  eradicate 
"every  fibre  of  ancient  or  future  aristocracy."  He  also 
originated  a  complete  system  of  elementary  and  collegiate 
education  for  Virginia. 

In  June,  1779,  Jefferson  succeeded  Patrick  Henry  as 
Governor  of  Virginia,  and  held  the  office  during  the 
most  gloomy  period  of  the  Revolution.  He  declined 
a  re-election  in  1781,  assigning  as  a  reason  that  at  that 
critical  juncture  "the  public  would  have  more  confidence 
in  a  military  chief."  Two  days  after  retiring  from  office, 
his  estate  at  Elk  Hill  was  laid  waste,  and  he  and  his 
family  narrowly  escaped  caj^ture  by  the  enemy.  Jefferson 
was  twice  appointed,  in  conjunction  with  others,  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Eritain, — viz.,  in  June,  1781,  and  in  November,  1782, — 
but  was  prevented,  by  circumstances  beyond  his  control, 
from  action  in  either  instance.  Returned  to  Congress 
in  1783,  he  reported  to  that  body,  from  a  committee  of 
which  he  was  chairman,  the  definitive  treaty  of  peace, 
(concluded  at  Paris,  September  3,  1783,)  acknowledging 
the  independence  which  had  been  announced  in  the  De- 
claration of  July  4, 1776.  He  also  proposed,  and  carried 
through  Congress  at  its  next  session,  a  bill  establishing 
the  present  Federal  system  of  coinage,  which  took  the 
place  of  the  English  pounds,  shillings,  pence,  etc.,  and 
reported  a  plan  of  government  for  the  territory  of  the 
United  States.  In  May  following,  (1784,)  Congress  ap- 
pointed him  minister-plenipotentiary  to  act  with  Frank- 
lin and  Adams  in  negotiating  treaties  of  commerce  and 
amity  with  foreign  powers;  and  in  1785  he  succeeded 
Dr.  Franklin  as  resident  minister  at  Paris.  It  was  during 
this  sojourn  in  France,  which  was  one  of  the  happiest 
periods  of  Jefferson's  life,  that  he  formed  that  strong 
predilection  for  the  French  nation  over  the  English 
which  marked  so  conspicuously  his  subsequent  career. 
He  published,  while  abroad,  his  famous  "Notes  on  Vir- 
ginia," relating  to  politics,  commerce,  manufactures,  etc., 
(Paris,  1784,)  which  at  once  attracted  general  attention 
throughout  Europe.  Having  obtained  permission  to 
return  to  America,  he  left  Paris  in  September,  17S9,  and 
reached  Virginia  soon  after  the  election  of  Washington 
as  first  President  of  the  United  States.  The  Federal 
Constitution,  then  recently  adopted,  did  not  meet  with 
his  approval.  He  declared  that  he  did  not  know  whether 
the  good  or  the  bad  predominated.  Subsequently,  how- 
ever, he  thought  more  favourably  of  it.  In  organizing 
the  government,  Washington  offered  him  a  seat  in  his 
cabinet  as  secretary  of  state,  which  Jefferson  accepted. 

With  Washington's  administration  began  the  fierce 
struggles  between  the  two  great  political  parties  of  the 
country,  the  Republicans  and  Federalists, — the  former 
under  the  lead  of  Jefferson,  and  the  latter  under  that 
of  Alexander  Hamilton,  then  secretary  of  the  treasury. 
Jefferson  opposed  Hamilton's  funding  system,  his  United 
States  bank,  and  other  financial  measures  ;  and  when  the 
war  broke  out  between  England  and  France  he  was  in 
favour  of  aiding  the  latter  with  our  arms,  while  Hamilton 
advocated  the  observance  of  a  strict  neutrality.  These 
differences  between  the  two  rival  chiefs,  which  were  the 
occasion  of  many  stormy  discussions  in  the  cabinet  and 
of  an  almost  unexampled  political  excitement  throughout 
the  country,  culminated  shortly  after  the  dismissal  of  the 
French  minister  Genest,  (Genet,)  and  Jefferson  resigned 
his  office,  December  31,  1793,  and  retired  to  Monticello. 
At  the  close  of  Washington's  second  term  he  was  again 
called  into  public  life,  as  the  Presidential  candidate  of 
the  Republican  party,  John  Adams  being  the  nominee  of 
the  Federalists.  In  the  ensuing  election  Adams  received 
the  highest  number  of  votes,  and  was  declared  President ; 
and,  according  to  a  rule  then  in  force,  Jefferson,  being 


the  next  highest  candidate,  became  Vice-President.  By 
virtue  of  this  office  he  took  his  seat,  March  4,  1797, 
as  president  of  the  Senate.  The  disputes  with  France, 
and  other  difficult  questions,  rendered  the  administration 
one  of  extraordinary  turbulence.  At  its  close,  Jefferson 
and  Adams  were  again  the  respective  candidates  of  the 
Republican  and  Federal  parties.  In  this  election  the  Re- 
publicans triumphed,  but  cast  an  equal  number  of  votes 
for  fefferson  and  Aaron  Burr, — seventy-three :  Adams 
received  but  sixty-five.  As  it  was  necessary  that  the 
person  chosen  to  the  first  office  should  have  a  plurality 
of  votes,  the  election,  in  these  circumstances,  devolved 
upon  the  House  of  Representatives,  which,  on  its  thirty- 
sixth  ballot,  declared  Jefferson  President  and  Burr  Vice- 
President,  their  terms  of  office  to  commence  March  4, 
1801.  Jefferson  was  re-elected  in  1S04  by  an  electoral  vote 
of  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  to  twenty-eight,  and  in 
1809  retired  voluntarily  from  office,  after  a  prosperous  ad- 
ministration of  eight  years.  Among  the  important  events 
that  occurred  during'his  term  of  office  were  the  purchase 
of  Louisiana,  (1803,)  the  brilliant  victories  of  our  fleets  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  peace  with  Morocco  and  Tripoli, 
in  1803,  Lewis  and  Clark's  overland  exploring  expedi- 
tion to  the  Pacific,  sent  out  by  the  President  in  1804,  the 
arrest  and  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for  treason,  1807,  and  the 
attack,  the  same  year,  of  tlie  British  war-frigate  Leopard 
on  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  which  led  to  Jeffer- 
son's embargo  act  and  ultimately  to  the  second  war  with 
Great  Britain.  Washington  and  Adams  had  opened  Con- 
gress with  a  speech ;  but  Jefferson  preferred  a  written 
message,  as  being  more  democratic.  He  also  initiated 
the  policy  of  removing  incumbents  from  office  on  the 
grounds  of  a  difference  in  political  opinion.  After  par- 
ticipating in  the  inauguration  of  his  friend  and  successor, 
James  Madison,  Jefferson  retired  to  Monticello,  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  attending  to  his 
private  affairs,  receiving  the  numerous  calls  of  friends 
and  strangers,  and  in  the  exercise  of  a  most  liberal  hos- 
pitality. In  1819  he  took  the  chief  part  in  founding  the 
University  of  Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  near  Monti- 
cello, and'acted  asits  rector  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  the  same  day  with  that  of  John  Adams,  July  4,  1826, 
— the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. The  following  'epitaph,  written  by  himself,  is 
inscribed  on  his  tombstone,  a  small  granite  obelisk,  at 
Monticello  :  "  Here  was  buried  Thomas  Jefferson,  author 
of  the  Declaration  of  Indejjendence,  of  the  Statute  of 
Virginia  for  Religious  Freedom,  and  Father  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia."  As  the  author  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  the  founder  of  the  Republican  (Demo- 
cratic) party,  Jefferson  has  probably  exerted  a  greater 
influence  on  the  institutions  of  this  country  than  any  other 
American  except  Washington.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
very  embodiment  of  democracy.  All  titles  of  honour 
— even  that  of  Mr. — were  distasteful  to  him.  Dressed 
in  the  plainest  apparel,  he  was  as  accessible  to  the 
yeoman  in  his  e very-day  garments  as  to  a  foreign  dig- 
nitary of  state.  In  his  intercourse  with  others  he  was 
distMiguished  for  his  affability.  His  conversation  was 
fluent,  imaginative,  various,  and  eloquent.  "  In  Europe," 
wrote  the  Due  de  Liancourt,  "  he  would  hold  a  distin- 
guished rank  among  men  of  letters."  His  adroitness  in 
politics  and  in  the  management  of  men  has  rarely  been 
surpassed.  In  religion  he  was  what  is  denominated  a 
free-thinker.  "His  instincts,"  says  Bancroft,  " all  in- 
clinecl  him  to  trace  every  fact  to  a  general  law,  and  to 
put  faith  in  ideal  truth."  Slavery  he  considered  a  moral 
and  political  evil,  and  declared  in  reference  to  it  that  he 
"trembled  for  his  country  when  he  remembered  that 
God  is  just."  His  extreme  views  of  State  rights  in 
later  life  were  very  much  modified,  and  he  owned  that 
it  was  necessary  for  the  general  government  sometimes 
"to  show  its  teeth." 

In  his  prime,  Jefferson  was  six  feet  tw'o  and  a  half 
inches  in  height,  with  a  sinewy,  well-developed  frame, 
angular  face,  but  amiable  countenance,  and  ruddy  com- 
plexion delicately  fair.  He  had  deep-set,  light-hazel  eyes, 
and  hair  of  a  reddish  chestnut  colour,  very  fine.  He 
was  married  in  1772  to  Mrs.  Martha  Skelton,  daughter 
of  John  Wales,  a  distinguished  Virginia  lawyer.  She 
brought  him  a  large  dowry  in  lands  and  slaves,  about 


e  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  11,  Vi^pUtural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     i 

«7 


5ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JEFFERSON 


1378 


JEFFREYS 


equal  in  value  to  his  own  property ;  but  his  lil>eralit5 
and  generous  living  left  him  insolvent  at  his  death.  One 
daughter  and  ten  grandchildren  survived  him.  "The 
Memoirs,  Correspondence,  and  Private  Papers  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,"  in  4  vols.  8vo,  edited  by  his  grandson,  Thomas 
Jefferson  RandoI])h,  was  published  at  Charlottesville  in 
1829,  and  republislied  in  London  and  Boston  the  saine 
year,  and  in  New  York  in  1830.  In  184S  his  manuscripts 
were  purchased  by  Congress,  and  pubh'shed  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Writings  of  Thomas  Jefferson,"  in  9  vols. 
8vo,  1853-55.  His  "Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice" 
is  still  in  use  among  legislative  bodies  in  this  country. 

See,  in  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  Henry  S.  Ran- 
dall, "Life  of  T.  Jefferson,"  3  vols.,  1858  ;  George Tuckkr,  "Life 
of  Thomas  Jefferson,"  1836;  B.  L.  Ravnkr,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson," 1834;  Theodore  Dwigut,  "Character  of  T.  Jefferson," 
1839;  W.Linn,  "  Life  of  T.  Jefferson,"  1835;  Nicholas  Hiddle, 
"Eulogy  on  T.  Jefferson,"  1827;  Gkiswold,  "Prose  Writers  of 
America;"  Duvckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol.  i. ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1S30,  and  October,  1837, 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1830,  and  January,  1835; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1S30;  and  an  excellent  article 
on  Jefferson  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopa;dia,"  (by  John  E. 
Cooke.) 

Sei'fexy  or  Jeffrey,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Ipswich  in  1647.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  Kirton 
and  Falkenham,  in  Suffolk,  in  1687,  and  was  appointed 
Archdeacon  of  Norwich  in  .1694.  He  published  the 
religious  works  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne.  Dr.  Jeffrey  was 
strongly  opposed  to  religious  controversy.   Died  in  1720. 

See  "  Life  of  Jeffery,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Sermons." 

Jeflfery  or  Jeffrey,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dissent- 
ing minister,  born  at  E.xeter  about  the  year  1700.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  religious  works,  in  which  he 
displayed  great  ability.  Of  these  we  may  mention  "The 
True  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion," 
and  "The  Divinity  of  Christ  proved  from  Holy  Scrip- 
ture."    Died  about  1728. 

Jeffrey,  (Francis,)  Lord,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
critic  and  essayist,  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  23d  of  Oc- 
tober, 1773.  He  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Glasgow 
in  17S7,  and  removed  in  1791  to  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  remained  but  a  few  months.  In  1794  he 
was  admitted  an  advocate  to  the  Scottish  bar,  but  for 
several  years  obtained  scarcely  any  practice.  About 
this  time  he  became  a  member  of  the  Speculative  Soci- 
ety of  Edinburgh,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
several  young  men  afterwards  eminent  in  the  literary 
and  political  world.  Among  these  were  Sydney  Smith 
and  Henry  (afterwards  Lord)  Brougham,  with  whom  he 
projected  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  the  first  number 
of  which  was  issued  in  October,  1802.  Three  numbers 
were  edited  by  Smith ;  but  upon  his  removal  to  London 
the  entire  charge  devolved  upon  Jeffrey,  who  held  the 
position  of  editor  for  the  ensuing  twenty-six  years.  It 
was  successful  from  the  first,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
circulation  had  increased  to  about  nine  thousand,  and 
in  1813  it  considerably  exceeded  twelve  thousand.  As 
Jeffrey  himself  expressed  it,  "it  stood  on  two  legs,  the 
one  being  the  criticism  of  current  literature,  the  othei 
being  Whig  politics."  The  commencement  of  the  "  Ed- 
inburgh Review"  formed  a  new  era  in  English  literature, 
and  completely  changed  the  style  of  the  popular  maga- 
zines. Jeffrey  was  the  principal  contributor;  and  his 
articles  in  both  politics  and  criticism  attracted  great  atten- 
tion. Scott,  Byron,  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Moore,  and 
other  distinguished  poets  of  that  period  were  severely — 
sometimes  unjustly — criticised  ;  but  most  of  them  after- 
wards became  warm  friends  of  the  great  reviewer.  About 
1802  he  married  his  second-cousin,  Catherine  Wilson, 
who  died  in  1805.  In  1813  he  married  an  American  lady 
in  New  York,  named  Charlotte  Wilkes.  Though  Jeffrey 
devoted  so  much  of  his  time  to  editorial  labours,  his 
practice  as  a  lawyer  greatly  increased.  In  rapidity,  flu- 
ency, and  eloquence  he  had  no  equal  at  the  Scottish  bar. 
Once,  while  conducting  the  prosecution  of  a  libel-suit 
at  Glasgow,  he  poured  forth  such  a  torrent  of  words  that 
the  opposing  counsel  declared  "  that,  by  calculation  with 
his  watch,  that  man  had  actually  spoken  the  English 
language  twice  over  "in  three  hours."  In  1820  he  was 
elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Nine 
years  later  he  became  dean  of  the  faculty  of  advocates, 
and    thereupon    resigned    the    editorial    chair   of   the 


"Edinburgh  Review."  In  1830  he  was  elected  to  the 
first  Parliament  of  William  IV.  He  continued  in  Par- 
liament four  years,  and  held  the  office  of  lord  advocate 
of  Scotland  under  the  administration  of  Grey.  He  re- 
ceived the  appointment  to  a  Scottish  judgeship  in  1834, 
with  the  honorary  title  of  Lord.  As  a  judge  he  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  conscientiousness  and  his  busi- 
ness qualifications.  Lord  Jeffrey's  contributions  to  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  extend  over  a  period  of  nearly 
fifty  years,  and  amount  to  over  three  hundred  articles. 
The  greater  part  of  these  were  published,  in  4  vols.,  in 
1843.     Died  in  January,  1850. 

See  Lord  Cockburn,  "Life  of  Lord  Jeffrey,"  2  vols,  1852: 
Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1852;  "Blackwood's  M.igazine"  for  September  and  October,  1852: 
"  Kraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1S52;  "North  British  Review"  for 
May,  1850,  and  August,  1852.  F01  an  able,  though  somewhat  severe, 
review  of  Jeffrey's  character  as  a  critic,  see  article  entitled  "  British 
Critics,"  published  in  the  second  volujne  of  Whipple's  "Essays  and 
Reviews,"  New  York,  1849:  (it  first  appeared  in  the  "  North  Amer- 
ican Review"  for  October,  1845.) 

Jeffrey,  (Rosa  Vertner,)  an  American  novelist, 
born  at  Natchez,  Mississipj^i,  in  1828.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Griffith,  the  name  Vertner  being  that  of  an 
aunt  who  adopted  her.  When  seventeen  years  old,  she 
married  a  Mr.  Johnson,  of  Lexington,  Kentucky,  and 
after  his  death  married  Mr.  Alexander  Jeffrey.  Among 
her  works  are  "Poems,"  (1857,)  "Daisy  Dare,"  etc., 
(1871,)  "Crimson  Hand,  and  other  Poems,"  (18S1,)  and 
the  novels  "  Woodburn"  (1863)  and  "  Marah,"  (1884.) 

Jeffreys,  (Lord  George,)  Baron  Wem,  the  infamous 
minion  of  James  II.,  was  born  at  Acton,  in  Denbighshire, 
and  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple.  At  first  he  pro- 
fessed to  be  a  Roundhead,  and  was  chosen  recorder  of 
London,  and  city  judge.  During  his  practice  at  the  Old 
Bailey  bar  he  had  acquired  a  boundless  command  of  the 
language  in  which  the  depraved  express  hatred  and  con- 
tempt ;  and  on  the  bench  he  hesitated  not  to  pour  forth 
torrents  of  oaths,  curses,  and  vituperative  epithets  on 
attorneys,  jurymen,  witnesses,  and  prisoners.  Age  and 
merit  were  treated  in  the  same  manner  ;  for  when  Baxter 
was  brought  before  him,  on  a  charge  of  nonconformity, 
he  railed  in  such  a  manner  at  that  eininent  divine  and 
his  counsel  that  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  a  fair  trial. 
His  voice  and  manners  were  always  disagreeable  ;  but 
these,  which  he  considered  natural  advantages,  he  had 
improved  to  such  a  degree  that  in  his  paro.xysms  of  rage 
few  could  hear  him  unmoved.  His  eye  had  a  terrible 
fascination  for  the  prisoner  on  whom  it  was  fixed.  He 
appeared  to  delight  in  misery  merely  for  its  own  sake. 
Such  was  the  man  who  became  the  court  favourite  of 
James  and  chief  justice  of  England.  Jeffreys,  perceiving 
that  he  had  obtained  all  that  could  be  expected  from 
his  old  friends,  sought  the  favour  of  the  court.  He 
received  great  attention  from  the  Duke  of  York  ;  but 
tiie  king  regarded  him  with  contempt  and  disgust.  Not- 
withstanding these  views,  however,  Jeffreys  was  soon 
made  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench.  Upon  James's 
accession  to  the  throne  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Wem,  and  was  subsequently 
made  lord  high  chancellor  of  England.  He  gained  great 
notoriety  during  the  tr-als  of  those  who  had  participated 
in  the  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  Pen  can 
scarcely  portray  the  atrocities  committed  under  his  juris- 
diction. He  delighted  in  torturing,  burning,  hanging, 
and  beheading  men,  women,  and  children,  after  the 
merest  shams  of  trials.  All  these  actions  appeared  to 
give  great  satisfaction  to  his  sovereign.  Yet  his  decisions 
are  said  to  have  been  generally  just  and  impartial  where 
political  purposes  were  not  to  be  subserved.  When  the 
Prince  of  Orange  came  to  England,  the  lord  chancellor 
attempted  to  escape  to  the  continent ;  but  as  he  was 
in  a  beer-house  at  Wapping,  dressed  as  a  sailor,  he 
was  discovered  by  an  attorney  whom  he  had  formerly 
abused.  This  person  gave  the  information  to  the  popu- 
lace, wh.o  immediately  seized  JefiVeys  and  carried  him 
before  the  mayor,  from  whence  he  was  sent  to  the 
Lords.  By  them  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where 
he  died  in  1689,  from  the  effects  of  his  intemperance  and 
misfortunes. 

See  WooLKYCH,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  G.  Jeffreys,"  1827; 
Lord  Camphell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  1856;  KL^c- 
AULAY,  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  i.  and  ii. 


a.  e.  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fdll,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JEFFREYS 


1379 


JEMSHEED 


\ 


Jeffreys,  (George,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  North- 
amptonshire in  1678.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  never  practised.  Among 
his  productions  were  several  tragedies,  and  an  oratorio, 
entitled  "The  Triumph  of  Truth."     Died  in  1755. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Jeffreys,  (John  Gwyn,)  a  Welsh  naturalist,  born  at 
Swansea,  January  18,  1S09.  He  became  a  solicitor,  and 
in  1856  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  but  retired 
from  the  profession  in  i866.  tlis  principal  work  is 
"British  Conchology,"  (5  vols.,  1862-69.)  Died  in  1885. 

Jeffries,  jef  friz,  (John,)  IVI.D.,  an  American  physi- 
cian, born  in  Boston  in  1744.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1763,  and  took  his  medical  degree  at  Edinburgh.  In 
the  Revolution  he  sided  with  the  British,  and  became 
surgeon-major  to  the  royal  army  in  America.  In  1780 
he  resumed  his  profession  in  London.  While  making 
some  investigations  in  atmospheric  temperature,  in  1785, 
he  crossed  from  England  to  France  in  a  balloon.  This 
was  the  first  successful  experiment  in  aeronautics  on 
an  e.xtensive  scale.  He  returned  to  Boston  in  1780. 
and  died  in  1819. 

Jehan-Geer  or  Jah&ngir,  je-hSn'geer',  written  also 
Djahanguir,  Djehauguire,  DjaJian  Gliyr,  and 
Dschehangir,  {i.e.  the  "  Conqueror  of  the  World,") 
(jne  of  the  Mogul  emperors  of  Hindostan,  succeeded  his 
father,  the  great  Akbar,  in  1605.  Jehangeer  left  Memon-s 
of  his  own  life.  He  died  in  1627.  He  inherited  nothing 
of  the  ability  of  his  father.  It  was  during  the  reign  of 
this  emperor  that  the  celebrated  embassy  of  Sir  Thoma.s 
Roe  arrived  from  England  at  the  court  of  Delhi. 

See  Collin  de  Bar,  "  Histoire  de  Tliide;"  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  tor  March,  1834. 

Je-ho'a-haz,  [Heb.inxiH';  Fr.  Joach.\z,  zho't'kiz',] 
si.-n  of  Jehu,  ascended  the  throne  of  Israel  856  k.c,  and 
reigned  seventeen  years. 

See  II.  Kings  xiii.  i-io. 

Jehoahaz,  also  called  Sliallum,  succeeded  his  father 
Josiah  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  and  reigned  three  month* 
Died  about  610  B.C. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  1-4. 

Jehoash.     See  Joash. 

Je-hoi'a-^ni.  [Heb.  D'p'lTT  ;  Fr.  Joachim,  zho'S'- 
k  Jn  ',  ]  whose  name  was  changed  by  Pharaoh-Necho 
from  Eliakim,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Judah  60S  B.C., 
and  reigned  eleven  years. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  4-g. 

Je-hoi'a-kin  or  Jec-o-ni'ah  was  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, whom  he  succeeded  as  King  of  Judah  in  597  B.C., 
and  reigned  three  months. 

See  II.  Kings  xxiv.  ;  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  S-io. 

Je-ho'ram  or  Jo'ram,  [Heb.  D'liri',]  King  of  Israel, 
son  of  Ahab,  succeeded  to  the  throne  896  B.C.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  by  Jehu  in  884  B.C. 

See  II.  Kings  i.-x. 

Jehoram  or  Joram,  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Judah  893  or  892  B.C.    Died  in  S85  or  884. 

Sea  II.  Kings  viii.  15-25;  II.  Chronicles  xxi. 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  [Heb.  0£32/in';  Gr.  'Iwaa^dr;  Fr. 
JosAPHAT,  zho'zi'fit',]  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Asa,  was 
born  about  950  B.C.  He  began  to  reign  in  914,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  and  reigned 
twenty-five  years.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for  piety 
and  justice. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xvii.-xxii. 

Je'hu,  [Hsb.  Xin",]  King  of  Israel,  was  an  officer  in 
the  army  of  King  Jehoram,  when  he  was  anointed  king 
by  a  young  prophet  sent  by  Elisha  in  884  B.C.  He  killed 
Jehoram,  and  reigned  about  twenty-eight  years. 

See  II.  Kings  ix.  and  x. 

Jek'yll,  (Sir  Joseph,)  a  distinguished  lawyer  and 
statesman,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1664.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  Whig  party  during  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  and  was  knighted  upon  the  accession 
of  George  I.  He  was  afterwards  master  of  the  rolls,  and 
privy  councillor.     Died  in  1738. 

Jekyll,  (Joseph,)  M.P.,  a  witty  English  barrister, 
born  about  1752,  was  distinguished  by  his  talent  for 
epigram  and  repartee.  He  became  solicitor-general  to 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1805.     Died  in  1S37. 

Jeiai-ed-Deen  or  Djelal-Eddin,  jeh-lSl'  ed-deen', 


{i.e.  the  "  Splendour  (or  Glory)  of  Religion,")  written  also 
Jalal-ed-Deeu  and  Djalal-Eddin,  King  of  Khorasmia, 
w-ho  succeeded  his  father,  Ala-ed-Deen,  in  1218,  was  re- 
nowned for  ills  military  ability  and  enterprise.  He  fought 
numerous  battles  against  Jengis  Khan  with  various  suc- 
cess. It  is  said  that  he  afterwards  abandoned  himself  to 
indolence  and  pleasure,  and  when  a  Mongol  army  in- 
vaded his  capital  he  tied,  and  was  killed,  in  1231. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Jeiai-ed-Deen-Roomee,  (Jeiai-ed-Din-Rumi  or 
Djelal-ed-dyn-Roumy,)  jeh-lll'ed-deen-roo'mee,  one 
of  the  most  eminent  Persian  poets,  born  at  Hiiikh  or 
Balkh,  in  Khorassan,  about  1200.  His  father  was  a 
ai'ted  doctor  and  preacher  of  the  Soofee  sect,  who  set- 
tled at  Iconium,  (Konieh,)  in  Asia  Minor,  (called  in  Arabic 
and  Persian  Room,  because  it  was  part  of  the  empire 
of  Rome.)  At  his  death,  in  1233,  Jelal-ed-Deen  became 
the  chief  cf  the  Soofees.  His  "Mes'newee"  ("Mesnewi") 
or  "  Mesnevee,"  (i.e.  poem  with  rhyming  couplets,)  less 
correctly  written  "  Metsnewee"  or  "  Metsnevi,"  is  re- 
garded as  an  excellent  model  of  the  mystical  style. 
"This  precious  pearl  of  the  ocean  of  mysticism  departed 
from  this  fragile  world"  in  1272. 

Jelf,  (Richard  William,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man and  author,  born  in  London  in  1798.  He  graduated 
in  1S20  at  Oxford,  and  became  a  Fellow  of  Oriel  and  a 
tutor,  was  made  canon  of  Christ  Church  in  1831,  was 
Hampton  lecturer  in  1834,  and  in  that  year  became  prin- 
cipal of  King's  College,  London.  He  wrote  several 
dieological  works.    Died  at  O.xford,  September  19,  1S71. 

Jelf,  (William  Edward,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Gloucester  in  i8i  I.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  graduating  in 
1833.  His  "Greek  Grammar"  (1842-45)  added,  greatly 
to  his  fame.  He  also  edited  the  "Ethics"  of  Aristotle. 
Died  October  18,  1875. 

Jellachich  von  Buzim,  von,  fon  yel'lS-KiK'  fon 
bo6t's!m,  (Franz,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in 
1746,  fought  with  distinction  in  the  principal  campaign'; 
of  the  French  Revolution,  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant- 
field-marshal  in  1800.     Died  in  1810. 

Jellachich  von  Buzim,  von,  (Joseph,)  Ban  of  Cro- 
atia, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Peterwardein  in 
1801.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  appointed  Bar., 
or  commander-in-chief,  of  the  Croats,  and  had  the  prin- 
cipal share  in  the  victory  of  Schwechat,  near  Vienna, 
over  the  Hungarians.  He  gained  several  advantages 
over  General  Bem,  but  was  at  length  defeated,  (1849,)  and 
forced  to  retreat  with  considerable  loss.     Died  in  1S59. 

See  Ballevdier,  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  de  Hongrie." 

Jel'lett,  (John  Hewitt,)  an  Irish  mathematician, 
born  at  Cashel,  December  25,  1817.  He  graduated  at 
Dublin  University,  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
was  made  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College  in  1840,  a  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  1S48,  and  provost  of  the 
university  in  1S81.  He  jjublished  various  able  mathe- 
matical treatises.     Died  in  1S88. 

Jellinek,  yel'le-nek',  (Adoi.ph,)  a  German  philologist, 
of  Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Moravia  in  1821,  has  written 
on  the  Cabala  and  on  Oriental  philology. 

See  JosT,  "  Adolphc  Jellinek  et  la  Kabbale,"  1852. 

Jem  or  Djem,  jSm,  sometimes  called  Zizim,  a  Turkish 
prince,  born  in  1459,  was  a  son  of  Mahomet  II.,  and 
younger  brother  of  B.iyazeed,  (Bajazet.)  At  the  death  of 
his  father  he  aspired  to  sovereign  power,  but  was  de- 
feated in  battle  by  Bayazeed,  (14S1.)  Jem  becaine  an  exile, 
passed  some  years  iii  France,  and  died  in  Italy  in  1495. 

Jemlah  or  Djemlah,  jem'la,  [Hindoo  pron.  jiini'la,] 
(Mohammed,  mo-h.^m'med,)  called  Ameer  (or  EmIr) 
AL  Omr.'V,  {i.e.  "  Prince  of  the  Nobles,")  a  famous  states- 
man and  general,  born  near  Ispahan.  In  1652  he  entered 
the  service  of  Aurung-Zeb,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
first  vizier  of  the  Mogul  empire.  Having  been  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Bengal,  he  commanded  in  1659  an  expedition 
against  Assam,  in  which  he  displayed  great  talents  and 
prudence.     Died  in  1665. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jemsheed  or  Jemshid,  jJm-sheed',  written  also 
Djemchyd,  Dschemschid,  and  Jamshid,  an  ancient 
Peisian  king,  supposed  to  have  ascended  the  throne 
about  800  B.C.     He  greatly  improved  and  embellished 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  K,guttiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2!^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. } 


I 


JEMSHID 


13S0 


JENNER 


the  city  of  Istakhar,  or  Persepolis,  the  ruins  of  which  are 
now  known  by  the  name  of  Chilminar,  ("Forty  Pillars.") 
Tradition  ascribes  to  him  the  introduction  of  the  solar 
year  among  the  Persians,  and  the  invention  of  tents.  He 
was  dethroned  by  Zohuk,  an  Arabian. 

See  Atkinson,  "AbriilpmeiU  of  the  Sh5h  NSmeh  of  Firdausi;" 
D'Herbelot,  "  IJibliotlieque  Orieiitale." 

Jemshid  or  Jemschid.     See  Jemsheed. 

Jeiigis  Khan,  jen'gis  K5n,  (written  also  Djenguiz 
Khan,  Dschengis  Chan,  Tchenguyz  Khan,  Chingis 
Khan,  and  in  various  other  modes,*)  a  celebrated  Tartar 
conqueror,  born  in  1 164,  was  the  son  of  a  Mongolian  chief. 
Having  subdued  a  number  of  Mongol  and  Tartar  tribes, 
he  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  khan  of  the  nation, 
and  about  1210  invaded  China,  took  Peking,  (1215,)  and 
in  a  few  years  gained  possession  of  the  northern  prov- 
inces. In  1218  he  marched  against  Mohammed  Koteb- 
ed-Deen,  King  of  Khorasmia,  whom  he  defeated,  and 
afterwards  destroyed  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  and  other 
cities.  Having  subjected  the  whole  of  Persia,  he  gained 
a  victory  over  the  King  of  Tangoot,  and  was  proceeding 
towards  the  south  of  China,  when  he  died  in  1227,  leaving 
the  principal  part  of  his  empire  to  his  son  Oktai.  Jengis 
Khan  is  said  to  have  caused  the  destruction  of  five  mil- 
lions of  human  beings.  He  gave  a  code  of  laws,  which 
is  still  called  by  his  name. 

See  De  Guignes,  "Histoire  g(5ndrale  des  Huns,"  etc.  ;  Pdns 
DE  LA  Croix,  "Histoire  du  grand  Genghizcan;"  A.  R^mitsat, 
"Nouvelles  Melanges  Asiatiques ;"  VoN  Hammer-Purgstall, 
"Gescliichte  der  Goldenen  Horde  in  Kiptschak,"  1S40  ;  Antoinb 
Gavbii,  "Histoire  de  Gentchiscan,"  1739;  Aboolfeda,  "Annales 
Moslemici ;"  Karamzin,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Jenichen  or  lenichen,  ya'ne-Ken,  (Gottlob  Au- 
gust,) a  German  jurist  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1709  ;  died  in  1750. 

Jenisch,  von,  fon  ya'nish,  (Bernhard,)  Baron,  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1743,  became 
in  1772  keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library.  He  pub- 
lished "Persian  Anthology,"  ("Anthologia  Persica," 
1778,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Early  Kings  of  Persia 
after  the  Establishment  of  the  Mohammedan  Religion," 
("  Historia  priorum  Reguni  Persarum  post  firmatum  in 
Regno  Islamismum  ex  Mohamede  Mirkhond,"  1792.) 
Died  in  1807. 

Jenischius,  yi-nis'Ke-us,  (Paul,)  a  Dutch  or  Flemish 
writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1558.  He  published  "Thea- 
trum  Aniniarum."     Died  in  1647. 

Jenk'in,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  the 
isle  of  Thanet  in  1656.  He  was  educated  at  Can. bridge, 
and  received  several  preferments  ;  but,  refusing  to  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  he  was 
deprived  of  them  all.  He  wrote  "  The  Reasonableness 
of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1696,)  and  several  other 
works.     Died  in  1727. 

Jenkin  or  Jenk'yn,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  at  Sudbury  in  1612.  He  preached  many 
years  in  London,  and  published  an  "  Exposition  of  the 
Epistle  of  Jude,"  (1652,)  which  is  called  an  excellent 
work.  His  ministry  was  highly  commended  by  Baxter. 
He  died  in  Newgate  prison  in  1685. 

See  J.  Sherman,  "  Memoir  of  William  Jenkin,"  1839. 

Jenk'ins,  (Albert  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
m  Cabell  county,  Virginia,  about  1830.  He  represented 
a  district  of  Virginia  in  Congress,  1857-61.  He  served 
tinder  General  Lee  at  Gettysl.iurg,  July  1-3,  1S63,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  1864. 

Jenk'ins,  (David,)  a  Welsh  judge,  was  born  in  Gla- 
.iiorganshire  in  1586.  After  the  commencement  of  the 
civil  war  he  condemned  to  death  several  persons  who 
had  fought  against  the  king.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Parliamentary  forces,  and  confined  in  the  Tower,  in 
1645.  Having  been  brought  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  he  refused  to  kneel, 
and  called  the  House  "a  den  of  thieves."  He  was  fined 
;/]"iooo,  and  imprisoned  in  Newgate.  He  was  released 
about  1660.  He  wrote  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1667. 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Jenk'ins,  (Edward,)  an  English  author,  born  at 
Bangalore,  (Orissa,)  in  India,  in  1838.    He  was  educated 


*  This  name  is  written  in  more  tlian  twenty  different  modes,  not 
counting  such  forms  (like  Gentchiscan)  as  are  manifest  errors. 


at  McGill  College,  Montreal,  and  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
in  1864,  was  agent-general  for  Canada,  1874-76,  and  sat 
in  Parliament  as  an  "  Anti-Reiniblican  Liberal"  of  ad- 
vanced social  views,  1874-80.  Among  his  works  are 
"Ginx's  Baby,"  "  Lord  Bantam,"  "  Little  Hodge,"  "The 
Church  and  the  Law,"  "  A  Paladin  of  Romance,"  and 
several  other  books  and  pamphlets  treating  on  social, 
political,  and  colonial  questions, 

Jfenk'ins,  (Henry,)  an  Englishman,  celebrated  for 
his  longevity,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1501  ;  died  in  1670. 

Jenkins,  (Johx,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Maidstone  in  1592;  died  in  1678. 

Jenkins,  (John  S.,)  an  American  author,  born  al 
Albany,  New  York,  February  15,  i8i8.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Lives  of  the  Governors  of  the 
State  of  New  York,"  a  "Life  of  Silas  Wright,"  and  a 
"Life  of  Jackson,"  (1847.)     Died  September  20,  1S52, 

Jenkins,  (Sir  Leoline,)  a  British  civilian  and  states- 
man, born  in  Glamorganshire  in  1623.  He  fought  on  the 
king's  side  in  the  civil  war,  and  on  the  death  of  Charles 
became  tutor  to  several  families  in  Wales.  He  was  sub- 
sequently obliged  by  Parliament  to  leave  the  country. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  chosen  principal  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1665  he  was  appointed  judge 
in  the  court  of  admiralty,  and  in  1672  ambassador  to 
Holland.  On  his  return  he  becaine  secretary  of  state. 
He  was  twice  chosen  member  of  Parliament  for  the 
University  of  Oxford.  Plis  letters  and  manuscripts,  con- 
taining valuable  diplomatic  information,  were  published, 
in  2  vols.,  in  1724.     Died  in  1685. 

See  W^VNNR,  "  Life  of  Sir  L.  Jenkins,"  1724  ;  "  Biographia  Bri- 
tannica." 

Jenk'in-son,  (Anthony,)  an  Englishman,  travelled 
in  Russia  and  Persia  about  1560.  His  Adventures  were 
published  by  Hakluyt  and  Purchas. 

Jenkinson,  (Charles.)     See  Liverpool,  Earl  of. 

Jenkinson,  (Robert.)     See  Liverpool,  Earl  of. 

Jenks,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  religious  writer,  born 
in  1646,  was  curate  of  Kenley  and  Harley.  He  wrote 
"  Prayers  and  Offices  of  Devotion,"  (1697,)  and  "  Medi- 
tations on  Important  Subjects,"  (1701.)     Died  in  1724. 

Jen'nens,  (Charles,)  a  rich  and  vain  Englishman, 
called  "  Solyman  the  Magnificent."  He  composed  or 
selected  the  words  of  some  of  Handel's  oratorios,  and 
edited  several  plays  of  Shaksj^eare.     Died  in  1773. 

Jen'ner,  (Edward,)  M.D.,  celebrated  for  having  in- 
troduced the  practice  of  vaccination,  was  born  at  Berke- 
ley, in  Gloucestershire,  England,  in  1749.  He  studied 
surgery  at  Sodbury,  and  afterwards  went  to  London, 
where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  celebrated  John 
Hunter,  with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship. 
He  commenced  practice  at  Berkeley,  and  obtained  a 
high  reputation  for  skill.  His  attention  was  first  called 
to  the  subject  of  vaccination  by  hearing  a  countrywoman 
remark  that  she  could  not  take  the  snialljjox,  because  she 
had  had  the  cow-pox.  Upon  investigating  the  subject, 
he  ascertained  that  milkers  frequently  caught  a  disease 
from  an  eruption  on  the  cow's  udder,  and  that  to  such  per- 
sons it  was  impossible  to  communicate  the  smallpox  by 
inoculation.  Jenner  related  the  circumstance  to  several 
eminent  men  in  the  profession  ;  but  they  treated  it  with 
ridicule.  By  further  experiments  he  clearly  demonstrated 
the  fact  that  from  one  of  the  several  eruptions  to  which 
cows  were  subject,  the  true  cow-pox,  as  he  termed  it, 
could  be  propagated  to  the  human  body,  and  then  from 
one  person  to  another,  and  that  this  was  a  preventive  of 
the  sinailpox.  After  nearly  twenty  years  of  experiments, 
he  published  "An  Enquiry  into  the  Causes  and  Effects 
of  the  Variolas  Vaccina,"  (1798;)  and  soon  after  more 
than  seventy  physicians  and  surgeons  signed  a  declara- 
tion of  their  entire  confidence  in  the  truth  of  Jenner's 
theor)'.  He  was  rewarded  by  Parliament  for  his  dis- 
covery by  a  present  of  ;^  10,000  in  1802,  and  a  grant  of 
;^20,ooo  in  1807.  He  also  received  marks  of  distinction 
from  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  Dk.  John  Baron,  "Life  of  Dr.  Jenner,"  1S27;  Dr.  V\i.en- 
TIN,  "  Notice  historique  surle  Docleur  Jenner,"  Nancy,  iS24'  W»jj- 
LOP,  "Hulde  aan  L.  Jenner,"  Rotterdam,  1812;  J.  A.  DuPAU, 
"Notice  historique  sur  le  Dr.  E.  Jenner,"  1S24. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fitj  mStj  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TENNER 


1381 


JEROME 


Jeiiner,  (William,)  p-.R.S.,  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Chatham  in  1S15,  graduated  in  London  in  1844. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  in  University  College 
in  1848,  and  professor  of  clinical  medicine  there  in  1857. 
He  was  appointed  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  queen  in 
1862,  and  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Prince  of  Wales 
\\\  1S63. 

Jeu'nings,  (David,)  a  learned  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1691.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  an  Independent  church  in  Wapping,  where 
he  preached  about  forty  years.  He  wrote  "An  Appeal 
to  Reason  and  Common  Sense  for  the  Truth  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,"  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge 
of  Medals,"  (1763,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Jewish  Antiqui- 
ties," (1766,  often  reprinted.)     Died  in  1762. 

Jennings,  (Henry  Constantinf.,)  an  English  an- 
tiquary and  virtuoso,  born  at  Shiplake,  Oxfordshire,  in 
1731.  He  had  a  jjassion  for  the  collection  of  medals, 
antiquities,  and  works  of  art,  by  the  purchase  of  which 
he  ruined  his  fortune.     Died  in  1819. 

Jennings,  (Sarah.)     See  Marlborough,  Duchess 

OF. 

Jen'our,  (Alfred,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
was  rector  of  Kittisford,  in  Somersetshire.  He  pub- 
lished in  1830  a  "Translation  of  Isaiah,  with  Notes," 
(2  vols.) 

Jensen,  y^n'sen,  (Adolph,)  a  German  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1837.  He  was  especially 
distinguished  as  a  song-writer.     Died  in  1879. 

Jensen,  (Nicolas.)     See  Janson. 

Jen'yns,  (Soame,)  a  distinguished  writer  and  politi- 
cian, born  in  London  in  1704,  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. At  the  age  of  twenty  he  married  a  young  lady 
of  a  large  fortune,  from  whom  he  soon  after  separated. 
He  was  several  times  elected  to  Parliament,  and  in  1755 
was  made  a  lord  of  trade.  In  politics  he  was  a  Tory. 
His  writings  are  conspicuous  for  elegance  of  style,  wit, 
and  discrimination.  Among  them  we  may  mention  "A 
Free  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Origin  of  Evil,"  (1757,) 
"View  of  the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion," (1776,)  a  work  which  attracted  great  attention, 
and  several  poetical  productions.     Died  in  1787. 

See  C.  Nelson  Cole,  "Life  of  Soame  Jenyns,"  1790;  Johnson 
»nd  Chalmers,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  "Retrospective 
Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Jeph'son,  (Robert,)  a  dramatic  writer,  and  captain  in 
the  English  army,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1736.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  the  tragedies  of  "  Braganza,"  ( 1 775,) 
and  "The  Count  of  Narbonne,"  which  were  successful, 
and  a  poem  entitled  "Roman  Portraits,"  (1797.)  He 
was  master  of  the  horse  under  twelve  successive  viceroys 
of  Ireland.     Died  in  1803. 

Jeph'thah,  [Heb.  nn£3'.]  a  judge  of  Israel,  about 

1200  B.C. 

See  Judges  xi.  and  xii. 

Jequitinhonha,  de,  dk  zhi'ke-teen-yon'yi,  (Fran- 
cisco G6  ACAiBA  DE  Montesuma,  originally  named 
Francisco  Gomes  Brandao  Montesuma,)  Viscount, 
a  Brazilian  statesman,  born  at  Bahia,  March  23,  1794. 
In  1808  he  became  a  Franciscan  monk,  but  soon  aban- 
doned his  profession,  went  to  Coimbra,  studied  medicine 
and  law,  and  graduated  in  i8i6.  Banished  from  Brazil 
in  1823,  he  entered  the  Senate  in  1851.  He  was  a  fine 
orator,  but  singularly  inconstant  in  his  political  princi- 
ples.    Died  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1870. 

Jer'dan,  (William,)  a  writer  and  critic,  born  at 
Kelso,  in  Scotland,  in  1782.  He  formed  a  connection 
about  1805  with  a  newspaper  in  London  called  the 
"Aurora,"  and  in  1817  established  the  "Literary  Ga- 
zette," which  he  edited  in  an  able  manner  until  1850. 
At  this  time  he  was  granted  a  pension  by  government 
of  one  hundred  guineas  per  annum.  He  published  an 
interesting  work,  entitled  "Men  I  have  known,"  (1866.) 
Died  in  1869. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  4  vols.,  i8.!;2-S3. 

Jereer,  Jerir,  or  Djerir,  jeh-reen',  [in  German, 
Dscherir,]  or,  more  fully,  Jereer-Ibn-Ateeyali-At- 
temeemee,  (Attemimi,)  Tb'n  S'tee'yah  St-te-mee'mee, 
surnamed  Anoo-  (AnO-)  Hazrah,  (^'boo  haz'rS,)  a 
celebrated  Arabian  poet,  who  lived  at  Bassora,  (Basra,) 
whence  he   was  called  El-Basree,   (or  -Basry.)     He 


excelled  in  almost  every  kind  of  poetry,  in  panegyric, 
and  i)i  amatory  pieces,  but  was  most  distinguished  for 
his  wit  and  satiric  powers.  He  died  about  730  (or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  about  700)  a.D. 

Jer-e-mi'ah,  I  Heb.  TTOT  or  in'DI' ;  Lat.  Jeremi'as  ; 
Fr.  J6r6mie,  zha'ri'me';  Ger.  Jeremias,  yi-ri-mee'ds  ; 
It.  Geremia,  ji-ri-mee'i,]  a  prophet  of  Judah,  who 
lived  about  600  B.C.,  was  one  of  the  four  great  prophets 
of  the  Bible.  He  was  the  author  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  book  in  the  Old  Testament  which  bears  his  name, 
and  of  all  the  book  of  Lamentations.  He  is  called 
Jeremy  in  the  New  Testament.  (Matthew  xxvii.  9.) 
Died  about  580  B.C. 

Jeremiah  was  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1572. 
The  Lutherans  sent  him  a  copy  of  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  hoping  to  obtain  his  approval  of  it;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  he  condemned  it  in  many  of  his  writings. 

Jeremie.    See  Jeremiah. 

Jeremie,  jer'e-me,  (Sir  John,)  an  eloquent  lawyer, 
born  in  Guernsey  in  1795,  ^^  '^^  ■'^S^  of  twenty  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1824  he  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  Saint  Lucia,  in  the  West  Indies.  When  he  first 
went  to  that  island  he  was  opposed  to  the  abolitionists  ; 
but,  improving  the  opj^ortunities  which  he  possessecl 
of  investigating  the  subject  of  slavery,  he  formed  very 
different  views.  During  the  time  that  he  held  otifice  in 
Saint  Lucia  he  ably  enforced  the  laws  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  condition  of  the  slaves.  On  his  return  to 
England,  in  183 1,  he  published  "  Four  Essays  on  Colonial 
Slavery."  In  1836  he  became  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Ceylon,  and  four  years  later  Governor  and  Cap- 
tain-General of  Sierra  Leone,  where  he  died  in  1S41. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Letter  on  Negro  Emancipation 
and  African  Civilization." 

Jerichau,  y^R'i-Kow,  (Jens  Adolf,)  a  Danish  sculp- 
tor of  distinction,  was  born  at  Arsens,  April  17,  1816; 
died  at  Copenhagen,  July  25,  1883.  His  wife,  Eliza- 
beth Jerichau-Baumann,  was  born  at  Warsaw,  No- 
vember 19,  1819,  and  died  at  Copenhagen,  July  11,  iSSi. 
She  had  a  good  reputation  as  a  painter. 

Jerir.    See  Jereer. 

Jerningham,  jer'ning-am,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  1727.  Of  his  productions  we  may  cite  "The 
Rise  and  Fall  of  Scandinavian  Poetry,"  "  Essay  on  the 
Mild  Tenour  of  Christianity,"  and  "The  Shakspeare 
Gallery,"  which  was  praised  by  Edmund  Burke.  Died 
in  1812. 

Jer-o-bo'am  [Heb.  Dj.'ni"']  I.,  first  King  of  Israel, 
was  elected  king  by  the  ten  tribes  who  had  revolted 
from  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon,  975  B.C.  Died 
about  954  B.C. 

See  L  Kings  xi.  to  xv. ;  IL  Chronicles  ix.  to  xiv. 

Jeroboam  H.,  a  son  of  Joash,  became  King  of  Israei 
in  834  or  825  B.C.,  and  reigned  forty-one  years. 

See  IL  Kings  xii. 

Jerome,  je-rom' or  j^r'om,  [Lat.  Hieron'ymus;  Fr. 
Jerome,  zhi'rom';  Ger.  Hierom,  hee'rom  ;  It.  GiRO- 
LAMO,je-rol'i-mo  ;  Sp.  Geronimo,  Hi-ron'e-mo,|  Saint, 
or,  more  fully,  Eu-se'bx-us  Hi-er-ou'y-mus  So-pliro'- 
ni-us,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Latin  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  was  born  at  Stridon,  in  Dalmatia  or  in  Pan- 
nonia,  about  340  a.d.  After  receiving  his  education  at 
Rome,  he  visited  Gaul,  where  he  collected  a  valuable 
library.  He  next  travelled  through  Thrace,  Pontus,  and 
Cappadocia,  and  finally  fixed  his  residence  in  Syria.  He 
subsequently  went  to  Jerusalem  to  study  Hebrew.  About 
382  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  became  secretary  to  Pope 
Damasus.  Upon  the  death  of  that  pontiff  he  removed 
to  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem,  where  he  died  in  420  a.d. 
A  large  portion  of  his  writings  were  of  a  controversial 
character,  exhibiting  great  learning,  eloquence,  and  in- 
genuity, though  too  often  betraying  bigotry,  passion,  and 
bitternoss.  But  the  works  by  which  he  will  ever  be 
remembered  and  honoured  are  a  treatise  on  the  "Lives 
and  Writings  of  the  Elder  Christian  Fathers,"  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Prophetical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  and  several  of  the 
Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  and  a  translation  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  into  Latin,  known  in  the  Romisk 
Church  as  the  "  Vulgate." 

See  Erasmus,  "Vita  Doctoris  Hieronymi,"  Bale,  1519 ;  Schr5kh, 


€  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  gas/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  (rilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2!^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JEROME 


13S2 


JESSEY 


"  Kirchengeschichte,"  vol.  xi.  ;  M arti anay,  "  Vie  de  Saint-J^roine," 
1706;  F.  Z.  CoLLOMBET,  "  HIstoire  de  Saint-Jdrome,"  1844;  Josi 
DE  SiGUBNZA,  "  Vida  de  San  Geronimo,"  Madrid,  1505  ;  Sebastiano 
DOLCI,"  Maxiinus  Hieionymus  Vit^  siis  Scriptor,"  etc.,  1758  ;  Vili.h- 
MAiN,  "Tableau  de  I'Kloquence  chr^tienne  au  quatri^me  Siicle," 
1857;  ViNCENZO  RoMANi,  "Compeiidio  storico  della  Vita  e  degli 
Scritti  di  S.  Girolamo,"  2  vols.,  1844;  Ersch  und  Grubkr,  "Allge- 
lueine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jerome  of  Santa  F6,  (sSn'td  fi,)  a  learned  Spanish 

}ew,  who  lived  about  1420.  His  Hebrew  name  was 
OSHUA  Larchi.  After  making  a  careful  e.xamination 
of  the  prophecies  in  regard  to  the  Messiah,  he  was  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  the  errors  of  the  Jewish  faith,  and  another  against 
the  Talmud. 
Jerome  de  Cardie.  See  Hieronymus. 
Jeromeof  Prague,  [Lat.  Hieron'ymus  Pragen'sis,] 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  followers  of  John  Huss, 
was  born  in  the  city  from  which  he  took  his  surname.  He 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Paris,  Heidelberg,  and  Co- 
logne, each  of  which  conferred  upon  him  the  diploma  of 
D.D.  About  1400  he  became  acquainted  with  John  Huss, 
whose  doctrines  he  soon  after  began  to  preach  with  great 
effect  in  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Poland.  In  141 5,  when 
Huss  was  arrested,  Jerome  prepared  to  go  to  Constance 
to  defend  him.  Being  informed,  however,  of  the  great 
hostility  felt  there  towards  reputed  heretics,  he  retired 
to  Eberlingen,  and  afterwards  attempted  to  return  to 
Bohemia,  but  was  arrested,  and  placed  in  the  custody 
of  the  Prince  of  Salzburg,  who  sent  him  in  chains  to 
Constance,  where  he  was  tlirown  into  prison  and  treated 
with  great  cruelty.  On  a  third  e.xamination  before  the 
council,  he  signed  a  recantation  of  the  doctrines  of  Huss 
in  regard  to  transubstantiation  ;  but  a  few  months  after  he 
bitterly  repented  of  this,  and  declared  that  fear  of  a  cruel 
death  alone  induced  him  to  do  it.  He  was  thereupon 
condemned  as  a  heretic,  and  sentenced  to  be  burnt  on 
the  30th  of  May,  1416.  He  suffered  with  the  greatest 
firmness,  serenity,  and  Christian  heroism,  and  his  death 
excited  the  highest  admiration  even  in  his  enemies. 

See  "J.  Hussi  et  Hieronynii  Pragensis  Historia  et  Monunienta;" 
CoCHL^us,  "Historia  Hussitarum." 

Jer'ram,  (Charles,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
1770,  was  vicar  of  Chobham,   Surrey.      He   published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Conversations  on  Infant  Baptism," 
(2d  edition,  1826.)     Died  about  1S53. 
See  "  Memoirs  of  C.  Jerram,"  by  his  son,  1855. 

Jer'rpld,  (Douglas  William,)  celebrated  as  a  hu- 
mourist, a  journalist,  and  a  dramatical  and  satirical 
writer,  was  born  in  London  in  1S03.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  manager  of  Sheerness  Theatre,  where  he  imbibed 
his  taste  for  dramatic  literature.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  printer  in  London,  in  which  situation  he  diligently 
improved  his  leisure  hours  in  the  study  of  literature  and 
the  languages.  Shakspeare  was  his  favourite  book.  His 
first  production  was  an  essay  on  the  opera  of  "  Der  Frei- 
schiitz,"  which  he  enclosed  anonymously  to  the  editor 
by  whom  he  was  then  employed.  The  article  was  highly 
commended,  and  Jerrold  had  the  satisfaction  of  placing 
it  in  type.  Thus  encouraged,  he  wrote  "  Black-Eyed 
Susan,"  (about  1824,)  one  of  the  most  popular  dramas 
ever  acted  on  the  English  stage.  This  was  followed  by 
several  other  plays  of  great  merit.  He  afterwards  be- 
came a  contributor  to  "  Punch,"  the  popularity  of  which 
was  rapidly  increased  by  his  satirical  and  witty  produc- 
tions. He  also  edited  successively  "The  Heads  of  the 
People,"  "The  Illuminated  Magazine,"  "The  Shilling 
Magazine,"  and  "  Lloyd's  Weekly."  All  of  these  were 
very  successful,  and  the  last  had  an  immense  circulation. 
Many  of  his  writings  have  been  issued  in  volume  form, 
among  which  we  may  mention  "  Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain 
Lectures,"  (new  edition,  1846,)  "Chronicles  of  Clover- 
nook,"  (1846,)  "Saint  Giles  and  Saint  James,"  (1851,) 
"Prisoner  of  War,"  "Time  Works  Wondeis,"  (1S54,) 
and  the  "Bubbles  of  the  Day."     Died  in  1S57. 

Jerrold,  (William  Blanchard,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  London  in  1826.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "A  Brage-Beaker  with  the  Swedes, 
or  Notes  from  the  North,"  (1853,)  "Life  of  Douglas 
Jerrold,"  (1859,)  "  Chronicles  of  a  Crutch,"  (i860,)  "  Two 
Lives,"  (1865,)  "Up  and  Down  in  the  World,"  (1866,) 
"The  Children  of  Lutetia,"  "The  Gavroche  Party," 
(1870,)  "  London,  a  Pilgrimage,"  (1872,)  "Life  of  Napo- 


leon HI.,"  (1874,)  etc.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  editor 
of  "Lloyd's  Weekly  New.s."     Died  March  10,  1884. 

Jerusalem,  yi-roo'zS-lgm',  (Johann  Friedrich 
WiLHELM,)  a  celebrated  Protestant  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Osnabriick,  in  Germany,  in  1709.  He 
was  appointed  in  1740  court  preacher  to  Duke  Charles 
of  Brunswick,  and  soon  after  became  tutor  to  his  son. 
Prince  Charles  William.  Through  his  influence  the 
Caroline  College  was  established  at  Brunswick.  In  1771 
he  was  created  vice-president  of  the  consistory  at  Wol- 
fenbiittel.  He  published,  besides  sermons,  "Contem- 
plations on  the  Principal  Truths  of  Religion,"  (5  vols., 
1768-79.)  Died  in  1789.  The  suicide  of  his  son,  Karl 
Wilhelm,  suggested  to  Goethe  the  story  of  "  Werther." 

See  Jerusalem,  "  Entvvurf  einer  Se'.bstbiograpliie;"  "  Lebens 
geschiclite  des  seeligen  Jerusalem,"  1700. 

J^r'vas,  (Charles,)  a  portrait-painter,  and  native  01 
Ireland,  born  about  1675.  His  chief  excellence  lay  in 
copying.  He  gave  lessons  to  Pope  the  poet,  who  highly 
praises  him  in  the  "  Epistle  to  Jervas."     Died  in  1739. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Jer'vis,  (John,)  Earl  of  Saint  Vincent,  and  admiral  ot 
the  British  fleet,  born  at  Meaford,  in  Staffordshire,  in 
1734.  He  entered  the  navy  when  ten  years  old,  and  in 
1760  became  a  post-captain.  In  1778  he  commanded  an 
eighty-gun  ship  in  Keppel's  action  against  the  French, 
and  in  17S2  captured  the  Pegase,  of  seventy-four  guns. 
He  sat  in  Parliament  several  years  for  various  boroughs, 
until  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution,  when 
he  sailed  at  the  head  of  a  squadron  to  the  West  Indies, 
with  tlie  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  captured  Martinique, 
Guadeloupe,  and  Saint  Lucia.  In  1795  he  was  made 
admiral  of  the  blue,  and  commander  of  the  naval  force  in 
the  Mediterranean.  He  encountered  the  Spanish  fleet 
off  Cape  Saint  Vincent  in  February,  1797,  and,  though 
their  force  was  double  his  own,  he  gained  a  complete 
victory.  For  this  exploit  he  received  the  thanks  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament,  and  a  pension  of  ;^3000,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  titles  of  Earl  of  Saint  Vin- 
cent and  Baron  Jervis  of  Meaford.  He  was  appointed 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  i8oi,and  retired  from  that 
office  in  1804.  He  became  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1821. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  E.  P.  Brenton,  "Life  of  Earl  Saint  Vincent,"  2  vols.,  1838. 

Jesabel,  the  French  of  Jezebel,  which  see. 

Jesi,  ya'see,  (Samuele,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at 
Milan  about  1789,  executed  a  number  of  excellent  plates, 
after  Raphael.     Died  in  1853. 

Jesid.     See  Yezeed. 

Jes'se,  (Edward,)  an  English  naturalist  and  writer, 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Gleanings  in  Natural 
History,"  (3  vols.,  1832-35,)  and  "Scenes  and  Tales  of 
Country  Life,"  (1844.)     Died  in  1868. 

Jesse,  (George  Richard,)  an  English  author,  engi- 
neer, and  etcher,  born  at  Caen,  in  France,  in  1S20.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  British  Dog,"  (1866.) 
He  has  become  noted  as  an  anti-vivisectionist. 

Jesse,  (John  IIeneage,)  an  English  poet  and  his- 
torical writer  of  the  present  age.  Among  his  works  are 
"Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  England  during  the  Reign  of 
the  Stuarts,"  (4  vols.,  1839-40,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the 
Pretenders  and  their  Adherents,"  (1S45.)    Died  in  1874. 

Jes'sel,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  judge,  was  born  in 
London,  of  Jewish  parents,  in  1824.  He  was  educated 
at  University  College,  London,  and  in  1847  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1865  he  was  made  a  bencher 
and  Queen's  counsel,  was  sent  to  Parliament  in  1868  as 
a  Liberal,  became  solicitor-general  in  1871,  was  knighted 
in  1872,  and  in  1873  was  appointed  master  of  the  rolls 
and  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council.  He  was  regarded  as 
the  best  equity  lawyer  in  Great  Britain.  Died  March  21, 
1883. 

Jessenius,  yfs-sa'ne-is,  (Johann,)  a  phj'sician,  born 
in  Hungary  in  1566,  was  employed  by  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  In  1621  he  was  condemned  and  executed  for 
having  attempted  to  incite  his  countrymen  to  revolt 
against  the  house  of  Austria. 

Jes'sey,  (Henry,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1600.  He  was  ordained  after  the  Epis- 
copal forms,  and  obtained  a  living.  He  subsequently 
became  minister  of  a  Baptist  congregation.     He  coni- 


a,   C; 


,  1,  6  a,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


JESSUF 


1383 


JIRECEK 


menced  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  but,  from  the 
persecutions  which  he  suffered  for  his  religious  belief, 
was  unable  to  finisli  it.     He  died  in  prison  in  1663. 

Jes'sup,  (Thomas  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
1790  ;  died  in  i860. 

Je'sus  or  Jesh'u-a,  son  of  Sirach,  a  learned  Jew,  and 
the  author  of  the  apocryphal  book  of  Ecclesiasticus.  He 
was  a  native  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
about  200  B.C. 

Je'ter,  (Jeremiah  B.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine  and  author,  born  in  Bedford  county,  Virginia,  in 
1802,  became  pastor  in  Richmond.  He  published  several 
works.     Died  February  18,  1S80. 

Jeuffroy,  zhuh'fRwi',  (R.  V.,)  a  distinguished  French 
engraver  of  gems  and  medals,  born  at  Rouen  in  1749. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.     Died  in  1826. 

Jeuiie,  le,  leh  zhun,  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  French 
preacher,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1592;  died  in  1672. 
His  sermons  were  published  in  10  vols. 

Jevhery  or  Djevhery,  jev'hi-ree,  (Ismaeel-Ibn- 
Hana'mad,)  an  Arabian  lexicographer,  born  at  Farab. 
After  travelling  through  various  countries,  he  settled  at 
Nishapoor,  in  Persia,  where,  in  999,  he  published  one 
of  the  most  perfect  of  Arabian  dictionaries,  of  which 
Golius  made  extensive  use  in  his  "Lexicon  Arabicum." 
Died  about  1005. 

Jev'pn,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatic  writer  and 
actor,  who  died  in  1688,  aged  about  thirty-five. 

Jev'ons,  (William  Stanley,)  an  English  economist 
and  author,  born  at  Liverpool,  September  i,  1835.  He 
was  a  grandson  of  William  Koscoe,  the  historian.  He 
was  educated  at  University  College,  London,  and  grad- 
uated in  1862  as  M.  A.,  after  having  spent  five  years  as  an 
officer  of  the  mint  at  Sydney,  Australia.  He  was,  1866 
-76,  professor  of  logic  and  mental  and  moral  philosophy 
at  Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  in  1875  l^ecame  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  in  University  College,  London. 
Among  his  works  are  "Pure  Logic,"  (1864,)  "The  Coal 
Question, "(1865,)  "  Elementary  Lessons  in  Logic, "(1870,) 
"Theory  of  Political  Economy,"  (1871,)  "Logic  Primer," 
(1876,)  "Political  Economy  Primer,"  "  Studies  in  Deduc- 
tive Logic,"  (1880.)     He  was  drowned,  August  13,  1S82. 

Jew'ell  or  Jew'el,  (John,)  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  one 
of  the  earliest  champions  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  born 
at  Buden,  in  Devonshire,  in  1522.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
and  graduated  in  1540.  Under  the  reign  of  Edward  VL 
he  openly  avowed  the  Protestant  faith,  and  assisted  Peter 
Martyr  in  his  dispute  with  the  Catholic  theologians  at 
Oxford.  After  the  accession  of  Mary  he  fled  to  Ger- 
many, (1555,)  and  at  Strasburg  again  met  Martyr,  whom 
he  assisted  on  some  of  his  works.  When  Elizabeth 
ascended  the  throne,  Jewell  returned  to  England,  and 
was  ordained  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1559  or  1560.  In 
this  position  he  continued  to  labour  diligently  for  the 
advancement  of  the  Protestant  religion.  He  died  in 
1 571,  greatly  esteemed  for  his  eminent  piety  and  vast 
theological  knowledge.  His  writings  are  principally 
of  a  controversial  nature,  and  are  still  highly  valued. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  "  Apologia  Ecclesiae 
Anglicanas,"  ("Apology  for  the  Church  of  England," 
1562,)  written  in  elegant  Latin,  and  translated  into 
English  by  the  mother  of  Lord  Bacon.  Versions  were 
also  rendered  of  it  into  Dutch,  French,  German,  Greek, 
Italian,  and  Spanish  ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  done  more 
for  the  promotion  of  the  Reformation  than  any  other 
work.  Jewell  also  wrote  a  "Defence  of  the  Apology," 
(1567,)  in  answer  to  Harding,  a  Roman  Catholic,  who 
had  attacked  him. 

See  L.  HuMFREV,  "Life  of  Jewell,"  1573;  C.  W.  Le  Bas,  "Life 
of  Bishop  Jewell,"  1835  ;  Burnkt,  "History  of  the  Reformation  ;" 
"  Eiog;raphia  Britannica." 

Je'w'ett,  (Sarah  Orne,)  an  American  author,  born 
at  South  Berwick,  Maine,  September  3,  1849.  She  wrote 
"  Deephaven,"  (1877,)  "  Play-Days,"  (1878,)  "  Old  Friends 
and  New,"  (1879,)  "Country  Byways,"  (1880,)  "The 
Mate  of  the  Daylight,"  (1882,)  and  other  novels. 

Jew'itt,  (Llicwellyn,)  an  English  author,  born  at 
Kimbervvorth,  November  24,  1816.  Among  his  publica- 
tions are  "The  Ceramic  Art  of  Great  Britain,"  (2  vols., 
2000  engravings,)  "  The  Stately  Homes  of  England," 
(partly  by  S.  C.   Hall,)  "Mountain,    River,    Lake,  and 


Landscape  Scenery  of  Great  Britain,"  (4  vols,  folio,) 
"The  Wedgwoods,"  "Life  of  William  Hutton,"  "His- 
tory of  Plymouth,"  "Hand-Book  of  Englisn  Coins," 
"  History  of  the  County  of  Derby,"  etc.     Died  in  1886. 

Je"ws'bur-3^,  (Geraldine  Endsor,)  younger  sister 
A  Mrs.  Fletcher,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Manchester 
in  1821.  She  published  a  number  of  novels,  among 
which  may  be  named  "Zoe,  or  the  History  of  Two 
l-ives,"  (1845,)  "Marian  Withers,"  (1851,)  and  "The 
Sorrows  of  Gentility,"  (1856.)     Died  Sept.  22,  1880. 

Jewsbury,  (Maria  Jane,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  in  Warwickshire  about  1800.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "Phantasmagoria,  or  Sketches  of  Life  and 
Literature,"  (1825,)  "Lays  of  Leisure  Hours,"  (1829,) 
and  "Three  Histories."  Having  been  married  in  1S32 
or  1833  to  the  Rev.  William  Fletcher,  she  accompanied 
him  to  India,  where  she  died  in  1S33.  She  was  ani 
intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth,  who  has  eulogized  her 
character  and  talents.  He  said  he  considered  her 
"unrivalled  in  one  quality, — quickness  in  the  motions 
of  her  mind." 

Jex-Blake,  (Thomas  William,)  D.D.,  an  English 
educator,  born  in  London,  January  26,  1832.  He  was 
educated  at  Rugby,  and  at  University  College,  Oxford, 
graduating  in  1855.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Queen's 
College,  was  made  principal  of  Cheltenham  College  in 
1868,  and  head-master  of  Rugby  in  1S74.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Long  Vacation  in  Continental  Picture-Gal- 
leries,"  (185S,)  "Life  by  Faith,"  (1875,)  etc. 

Jez'e-bel,  [Heb.  ^3rX;  Fr.  J^sabel,  zhi'zt'bSl',]  a 
daughter  of  Ethbaal,  King  of  the  Zidonians,  and  wife  of 
Ahab,  King  of  Israel.  She  was  notorious  for  her  cruelty 
and  ill  faith.  She  was  killed  by  being  thrown  out  of  a 
window  by  the  order  of  Jehu, 

See  L  Kings  xvi. ;  IL  Kings  ix. 

Jezid  or  Jezed.    See  Yezeed. 

Jezzar  or  Djezzar  Ahmed,  jSz'zar  lu'm§d,  a  Pasha 
of  Acre  and  Sidon,  notorious  for  his  cruelty,  was  born 
in  Bosnia.  After  loeing  a  slave  of  AH  Bey  in  Egypt,  he 
became  governor  of  Cairo.  In  1775  he  was  appointed 
Pasha  of  Acre  and  Sidon,  and  about  1784  he  received 
the  Three  Tails.  In  1799  he  was  defeated  by  the  French, 
and  shut  himself  in  Saint-Jean-d'Acre,  which,  with  the 
aid  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  he  successfully  defended  against 
Bonaparte.     Died  in  1804. 

Jhering,  von,  fon  ya'ring,  (Rudolf,)  an  able  German 
jurist,  born  at  Aurich,  in  East  Friesland,  August  22,  1818. 
He  was  educated  at  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Gottingen. 
He  held  professorships  of  Roman  law  successively  at 
Basle,  Rostock,  Kiel,  Giessen,  Vienna,  and  Gottingen. 
He  published  the  celebrated  "  Spirit  of  the  Roman  Law," 
(3  vols.,  1852-65.)  One  of  his  popular  works,  "The  Strug- 
gle about  Law,"  ("  Der  Kampf  ums  Recht,"  1872,)  has 
been  translated  nineteen  times  into  foreign  languages. 

Jina,  jin'a,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "victorious,") 
one  of  the  many  names  applied  to  Vishnu :  also  the 
name  of  a  celebrated  sage,  (called  also  Jaina,  jT'na,) 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Jains  or  Jainas.  It  is  also  the 
title  of  each  of  the  saints  who  have  been  deified  by  the 
Jains.  As  the  Hindoos  have  no  trustworthy  annals,  it 
seems  impossible  to  determine  positively  the  historical 
character  of  the  Jains.  They  are  commonly  regarded  as 
a  division  or  offslioot  of  the  Booddhists.  Tiius  much  is 
certain,  that  in  some  of  their  tenets  and  customs  the 
Jains  closely  resemble  the  Booddhists.  They  have  a 
peculiar  sacred  language  (not  now  in  use)  called  the 
"  Jaina  Prakrit." 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  and  an  excellent  article  on  the 
Jains,  by  Mr.  Rhys  Davids,  in  the  "  Encyclopredia  Britannica." 

Jirecek,  yee'Ket-chek,  (Hermenegild,)  a  Bohemian 
(Czech)  jurist,  brother  of  Joseph  Jirecek,  was  born  at 
Hohenmauth,  April  13,  1827.  His  principal  works  are 
on  Bohemian  and  Moravian  law. 

Jirecek,  (Joseph,)  a  Bohemian  (Czech)  historian, 
born  at  Hohenmauth,  October  9,  1825.  He  became  con- 
nected with  the  Austrian  departments  of  ]3ublic  instruc- 
tion and  worship,  and  did  much  to  develop  the  recent 
renaissance  of  Slavic  literature  throughout  Austria- 
Hungary.  His  writings  have  sjiecial  reference  to  the 
literary  history  of  the  Slavs  of  Austria.     Died  in  1888. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  7;  G,  H,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JIRECEK 


1384 


JOAN 


Jirecek,  (Konstantin  Joseph,)  a  son  of  Joseph 
Jirecek,  was  born  at  Vienna,  July  24,  1854,  and  became 
general  secretary  of  the  15ulgarian  ministry  of  public 
instruction.  He  published  a  "Bibliography  o'f  Bulgarian 
Literature,"  (1872,)  a  •'  History  of  the  Bulgarians,"  (1876,) 
and  valuable  works  on  the  resources  and  trade  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  In  18S4  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  history  al  Prague. 

Jo'ab,  [Heb.  3Xr,]  chief  captain  of  the  armies  of 
Israel  tinder  King  David. 

See  II.  Samuel  iii.,  iv.,  x.,  xviii.,  xix.,  xx. ;  I.  Kings  ii. 
Jo'a-ehim,  [It.  Gioacchino,  jo-ak-kee'no,]  an  Italian 
monk,  founded  the  monastery  of  Flora,  in  Calabria.   He 
wrote  several   heretical   works,  in   which    he    advanced 
the  doctrines  of  tritheism.     Died  in  1202  or  1207. 
Joachim,  (George.)     See  Rheticus. 
Joacliim,  yo'a-Kim,  (JoHA.NN  Friedrich,)  a  German 
historian  and  medallist,  born  at  Halle  in  17 13.     He  was 
professor  of  history  and  law  at  Halle,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  history  and  numismatics.     Died  in  1667. 

Joacliim,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  Hungarian  (Jewish) 
violinist,  composer,  and  teacher,  born  at  Kittsee,  near 
Presburg,  June  28,  183 1.  He  made  his  first  public  ap- 
pearance when  only  seven  years  of  age.  He  has  visited 
London,  and  made  a  tour  of  the  principal  cities  in  Ger- 
many. Since  1868  he  has  resided  in  Berlin  as  head  of 
the  High  School  for  Musical  Execution,  attached  to  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts. 
Joacliim  Murat.  See  Murat. 
Joan  or  Jo-au'na  [Fr.  Jeanne,  zhtn ;  It.  Gio- 
VANNA,  jo-vin'nS]  L,  Queen  of  Naples,  a  daughter  of 
Charles,  Duke  of  Calabria,  was  born  in  1327.  She  was 
married  to  Andrew,  Prince  of  Hungary,  and  in  1343  suc- 
ceeded her  grandfather,  Robert,  King  of  Naples.  In  1345 
Andrew  was  murdered  by  conspirators,  probably  with 
the  connivance  of  Joan,  who  soon  after  married  Prince 
Louis  of  Tarentum.  To  avenge  the  death  of  Andrew, 
Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  invaded  Naples  and  expelled 
Joan  from  the  kingdom.  Having  gained  the  favour  of  the 
pope  by  ceding  Avignon  to  him,  she  was  restored  to  the 
throne  in  1352.  She  was  married  in  1376  to  her  fourth 
husband,  Otho  of  Brunswick,  but  continued  to  be  child- 
less. In  1381  Naples  was  invaded  by  Charles  Durazzo, 
who  captured  Joan  and  put  her  to  death  in  1382. 

See  "  Historical  Life  of  Joanna  of  Sicily,"  London,  2  vols.,  1824; 
GiANNONE,  "  Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli ;"  V.  Mignot,  "  His- 
toire de  Jeanne  L  Reinede  Naples,"  1764:  D.  Crivelli,  "Delia prima 
e  della  seconda  Giovanna,  Regine  di  Napoli,"  18^2 ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
gi-aphie  G^n^rale," (under  "Jeanne.") 

Joan  (or  Giovanna)  II.,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Durazzo,  succeeded  her  brother  Ladislaus  on  the  throne 
of  Naples  m  1414.  She  was  notorious  for  her  licentious 
conduct  and  the  number  of  her  favourites.  She  died  in 
1435,  leaving  the  kingdom  in  a  very  unsettled  state. 

See  D.  Crivelli,  "  Delia  prima  e  della  seconda  Giovanna,  Regine 
di  Napoli,"  1832;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Joan,  Pope,  supposed  by  most  authorities  to  be  a  fabu- 
lous character,  is  placed  by  several  writers  in  the  ninth 
century.  Having  assumed  male  attire,  she  went  to  Rome, 
and  became  so  celebrated  for  her  ecclesiastical  know- 
ledge that  upon  the  death  of  Leo  IV.  she  was  unani- 
mously elected  pope.  She  was,  however,  one  day  seized 
with  the  pains  of  childbirth  as  she  was  proceeding  to  the 
Lateran  Basilica,  and  died  in  the  street,  after  a  pontificate 
of  two  years,  five  months,  and  four  days.  She  was  buried 
without  honours.  Other  accounts  state  that  upon  the 
discovery  of  the  imposture  she  was  stoned  to  death  by  the 
populace.  David  Blondel,  a  Protestant  historian,  was 
the  first  to  show  this  story  to  be  a  fiction,  although  it  was 
in  circulation  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century. 

See  J.  Lenfant,  "  Histnire  de  la  Papesse  Jeanne,"  1730;  S. 
Baring-Gould,  "Curious  Myilis  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  1867  ;  DoL- 
LINGER,  "  Papst-Fabeln,"  1863. 

Joan,  Queen  of  Castile,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  the  Catholic,  was  married  in  1496  to  Philip, 
Archduke  of  Austria.  In  1500  she  gave  birth  to  Prince 
Carlos,  afterwards  Charles  V.  of  Germany.  She  soon 
after  lost  her  reason ;  and  when,  upon  the'death  of  Isa- 
bella, she  became  Queen  of  Castile,  it  was  necessary  that 
a  regent  should  be  appointed.     Died  in  1555. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella ;"  Mariana, 
"Historia  de  Espafia." 


Joan,  (Jeanne,)  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  I. 
of  Navarre,  and  queen  of  Philippe  le  Bel  of  France, 
was  born  in  1272.  Ui^on  her  marriage  with  the  French 
monarch  she  retained  authority  over  her  hereditary  do- 
minions of  Navarre  and  Champagne.  She  carried  on 
a  successful  war  against  the  Castilians  and  Aragonese, 
assisted  her  husband  in  the  councils  and  administration 
of  affairs  in  France,  established  a  college  in  Navarre, 
and  was  a  liberal  patroness  of  learning.  In  1297,  Count 
de  Bar  having  invaded  Champagne,  the  queen  marched 
against  him  at  the  head  of  her  troops,  cut  his  army  in 
pieces,  and  carried  him  prisoner  to  Paris.    Died  in  1305. 

Joan  d'Albret.     See  Jeanne  d'Alhret. 

Joan  of  Arc,  or  Jeanne  Dare,  zhtn  diRk,  surnamed 
the  Maid  of  Orleans,  [Fr.  La  Pucelle  d'Orl^ans, 
It  pii's^l'  doR'li'6N',]  the  most  illustrious  of  the  hero- 
ines of  history,  was  born  in  the  hamlet  of  Dom-Remy, 
in  Lorraine,  about  141 1.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
poor  and  religious  peasants,  who  implanted  in  her  heart 
at  an  early  age  the  seeds. of  that  exalted  enthusiasm 
which  subsequently  obtained  so  absolute  an  ascendency 
over  her  character.  At  this  time  the  rival  factions  of 
the  Orleanists  or  Armagnacs  and  the  Burgundians  deso- 
lated France  by  their  wars.  The  former  supported  the 
claims  of  Charles  VII. ;  while  the  latter  had  sworn  al- 
legiance to  Henry  V.  of  England.  Joan  from  infancy 
had  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  Orleanists,  by  whom 
she  was  surrounded.  Her  devotion  to  their  cause  was 
increased  by  the  cruelties  which  she  frequently  saw  the 
enemy  commit.  She  was  untiring  in  her  efforts  to  re- 
lieve the  sufferings  of  the  poor  around  her,  and  even  sold 
iier  bed  and  the  greater  part  of  her  clothing  in  order  to 
procure  them  supplies.  She  afterwards  stated  that  as 
early  as  the  age  of  thirteen  she  received  commands  from 
Heaven  to  go  and  liberate  France.  These  commands 
continued  to  be  repeated  ;  but  her  parents  endeavoured 
to  suppress  her  enthusiasin.  She.  however,  obtained 
the  assistance  of  an  uncle,  who  introduced  her  to  De 
Baudricourt,  the  commander  of  a  neighbouring  fortress, 
before  whom  her  voices,  as  she  termed  them,  had  or- 
dered her  to  lay  her  divine  commission.  That  officer  at 
first  treated  her  assertions  with  scorn  ;  but  finally,  on 
account  of  the  disasters  that  his  prince  had  suffered,  he 
gave  her  the  assistance  which  she  had  requested,  and 
jn  February,  1429,  with  a  guard  of  five  or  six  men,  she 
set  out  on  her  journey  for  Chinon,  where  Charles  then 
held  his  court.  At  this  time  his  cause  appeared  to  be 
almost  desperate.  Orleans,  which  was  the  only  place  of 
importance  that  remained  to  him,  was  closely  besieged 
by  the  English.  Joan  appeared  before  him,  and  declared 
that  her  mission  was  to  raise  the  siege  and  to  conduct 
him  to  Rheims  to  be  crowned.  At  this  period  she  had 
reached  her  eighteenth  year,  and  possessed  a  very  beau- 
tiful countenance  and  noble  torm.  Charles  was  convinced 
of  the  truthfulness  of  her  statements,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  opposition  of  his  ecclesiastics  and  courtiers, 
raised  her  to  the  rank  of  a  military  commander,  and 
placed  a  considerable  body  of  troops  at  her  disposal. 
She  entered  Orleans  about  the  last  of  April,  1429,  with 
a  convoy  of  provisions,  and  in  one  week  raised  the  siege. 
In  battle  Joan  displayed  great  personal  bravery.  She 
subsequently  gained  the  battles  of  Jargeau  and  Patay,  in 
the  latter  of  which  the  noted  Talbot  was  made  prisoner. 
Several  important  cities  surrendered  to  her  without  resist- 
ance ;  and  in  less  than  three  months  from  the  time  that  she 
received  her  military  command,  Charles  was  crowned  at 
Rheims,  in  the  cathedral  consecrated  to  the  coronation  of 
the  French  sovereigns.  She  then  petitioned  the  king  that 
she  might  be  permitted  to  return  home  ;  but  he  prevailed 
on  her  to  continue  in  the  army.  The  following  spring,  as 
she  was  making  a  sortie  against  the  Burgundians  near 
Compiegne,  she  was  captured  by  them  and  subsequently 
handed  over  to  the  English,  who,  with  the  Bishop  of 
Beauvais  and  the  University  of  Paris,  urgently  demanded 
her  execution  as  a  sorceress.  The  King  of  England 
granted  their  request,  and  Joan,  after  a  mock-trial  at 
Rouen,  was  condemned  to  be  burnt.  On  the  31st  of 
May,  1431,  she  was  dressed  in  the  garb  of  the  victims  of 
the  Inquisition,  and,  amidst  the  clamours  of  assembled 
thousands,  conducted  to  the  stake,  where,  in  a  short 
time,  her  body  was  consumed.     She  died  declaring  that 


a,  e,  I,  o.  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOAN 


1385 


JODE 


her  voices  had  not  deceived  her,  and  with  the  name  of 
Jesus  on  her  lips.  Many  of  those  who  had  most  eagerly 
sought  her  death  were  melted  to  tears  ;  and  even  the 
executioner  declared  that  he  had  committed  an  unpar- 
donable sin.  A  secretary  of  the  King  of  England  also 
said,  "We  are  lost!  we  have  burned  a  saint."  Thus 
perished  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  against  whom  not  the 
slightest  crime  could  be  proved.  If  the  inspiration  which 
she  received  came  not  from  the  source  to  which  she 
attributed  it,  it  was  at  least  the  offspring  of  bravery,  of 
generosity,  of  patriotism,  of  those  virtues  which  have 
raised  to  immortality  so  many  of  the  great  and  good. 
In  the  high-coloured  and  eulogistic  account  given  of 
her  by  Michelet,  he  remarks,  "She  had  the  goodness  of 
the  ancient  martyrs,  but  with  this  difference  :  the  early 
Christians  remained  pure  and  virtuous  only  in  retiring 
from  the  encounter  and  in  separating  themselves  from 
the  struggles  and  temptations  of  the  world,  while  she 
was  benign  in  the  fiercest  conflicts,  good  among  the  bad, 
gentle  even  in  war;  'into  war,  that  triumph  of  the  devil, 
she  carried  the  spirit  of  Heaven.'  This  tenderness  of 
heart  she  had  for  all  men.  She  wept  after  the  victories, 
and  relieved  the  sufferings  of  the  wounded  English." 
Her  death  stamped  indelible  infamy  on  all  the  parties 
connected  with  the  war, — on  the  Burgundians  for  de- 
livering her  to  her  inveterate  enemies,  on  the  English 
and  their  French  allies  for  their  inhuman  cruelty  and 
thirst  for  revenge,  and  on  her  own  prince  and  party  for 
not  making  a  powerful  attempt  to  save  her. 

See  Barth^iemy  de  Beauregard,  "  Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc," 
2  vols.,  1847  ;  Desjardins,  "Vie  de  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1S54  ;  Vallet 
DE  ViRiviLLE,  "  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  la  Famille,  etc.  de  Jeanne 
Dare,"  1854:  Lenglet-Dufresnov,  "Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc,'' 
1753;  Le  Brun  de  Charmettes.  "Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc," 
4  vols.,  1S17;  Alphonss  de  Lamartine,  "Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1852; 
Jules  Michelet,  "Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1853;  R.  M.  Evans,  "Story 
of  Joan  of  Arc,"  1847;  A.  M.  Meneghelli,  "  Giovanna  d'Arc," 
Padua,  1841 ;  Michelet,  "  History  of  France  ;"  Carl  Liebelt, 
"  Dziewica  Orleanska  ustep  dziejow  Francyi,"  Posen,  1847;  Guidc 
Goerres,  "Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,"  1834:  Harriet  Parr, 
"Life  and  Death  of  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1866;  Thomas  De  Quincev, 
"Miscellaneous  Essays." 

Joan  [Sp.  JuAN./v,  Hoo-5n'yi\]  Henriquez,  (6n-ree'- 
kSth,)  Queen  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  daughter  of  Fred- 
erick Henriquez,  of  the  blood-royal  of  Castile,  and 
admiral  of  that  kingdom.  In  1444  she  was  married  to 
John  II.  of  Aragon,  and  in  1452  gave  birth  to  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic.  She  was  a  princess  of  great  energy  of 
character  and  of  uncommon  mental  endowments ;  and 
to  her  advice  and  assistance  many  of  the  successes  of 
John  II.  are  to  be  attributed.     Died  in  1468. 

Joanes,  Ho-^'n§s,  or  Juanes,  Hoo-S'n&s,  (  Vincente,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  painter,  born  in  Valencia  in  1523, 
studied  at  Rome,  and  was  regarded  as  the  greatest  artist 
of  the  Valencian  school.  Died  in  1579.  Among  his 
most  important  works  may  be  mentioned  Christ  after 
death  borne  by  the  angels,  the  Saviour  with  the  two 
prophets,  and  a  Saint  Francis. 

Joannes.     See  John. 

Joannes  Comnenus.     See  Calo-Joan.nes. 

Joannes  Massiliensis.     See  Cassia.m,  (Johx.) 

Joannet,  zho't'ncV,  (Claude,)  a  French  Utteratmr, 
born  at  Dole  in  1716;  died  in  1789. 

Joanny,  zho't'ne',  the  assumed  name  of  Jean  Bah- 
TiSTE  Bernard  Brissebarre,  a  famous  French  tragic 
actor,  born  at  Dijon  in  1775,  and  who  is  said  to  have 
been  nearly  equal  to  Talma.     Died  in  1849. 

Joao  (or  Joam)  of  Portugal.     See  John. 

Joao  or  Juan,  surnamed  De  Dios  or  De  Dieu.    See 

DiEU. 

Jo'ash  [Heb.  lyxr]  or  Je-ho'ash,  King  of  Judah, 
and  son  of  Ahaziah.  He  ascended  the  throne  when 
seven  years  of  age,  and  reigned  virtuously  forty  years. 
He  was  assassinated  by  his  servants  in  838  B.C. 

See  n.  Chronicles  xxiii.  and  xxiv. ;  IL  Kings  xi.  and  xii. 

Joash  or  Jehoash,  King  of  Israel,  succeeded  his 
father,  Jehoahaz,  839  or  840  B.C.,  and  reigned  sixteen  years. 

See  IL  Kings  xiii. ;  IL  Chronicles  xxv.  17. 

Job,  [Heb.  3rX;  Gr.  'Itj/3;  Arabic,  AlYOOB,  (Aiyoub 
or  AiYUB,)  T'yoob';  Ger.  HioB,  hee'op ;  IL  Giobbe, 
job'bi,]  a  patriarch  of  Uz,  (a  country  which  is  believed 
by  many  to  be  the  same  as  Idumsa,)  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  a  very  remote  antiquity.  One  of  the  most 
sublime  books  of  the  Old  Testament  bears  his  name  and 


gives  an  account  of  his  life  and  virtues.  By  many  it  has 
been  thought  that  Job  was  an  allegorical  character  ;  but 
there  appears  to  be  little  reason  for  this  si1[)position. 
He  is  mentioned  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  (xv.  16,)  and 
by  Saint  James,  (v.  11,)  as  a  real  person.  Much  con- 
troversy has  arisen  about  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and 
the  author  of  the  book ;  but  both  these  points  remain 
unsettled.  This  work  was  written  in  Hebrew,  with  a 
mixture  of  Arabic. 

Job  or  Aiyoob,  i'yool/,  (Solomon,)  an  African 
prince,  son  of  a  king  of  Bondoo,  in  Senegambia.  In 
1730  he  was  sold  to  the  English,  who  carried  him  to 
Maryland,  where  he  became  a  slave.  His  story  interested 
General  Oglethorpe  and  others,  who  ransomed  him  a^ld 
sent  him  to  England  in  1733.  He  was  presented  at 
court,  and  attracted  much  attention.  He  produced  an 
interesting  geographical  account  of  his  native  country, 
and  wrote  from  inemory,  it  is  said,  three  copies  of  the 
Koran.     He  returned  to  Bondoo  about  1735. 

Jobard,  zho'bSi/,  (J.  B.  A.  M.,)  a  writer  on  social 
economy,  born  in  Haute-Marne,  France,  in  1792.  He 
lived  in  Belgium.     Died  in  1861. 

Jobbe-Duval,    zho'b^    dii'vtl',    (Armand    Marik 
Fl^i.iX,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Carhaix,  July  16,  1821 
He  went  to  Paris  in  1829,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Paul   De 
laroche.     He  is  best  known  by  his  refined  and  delicate 
religious  pictures  and  his  portraits.     Died  April  2,  1889. 

Jobert,  zho'baiR',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Paris  in  1637.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  professor  of  rhetoric  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards 
became  celebrated  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  treatises  on  medals.     Died  in  1719. 

Jobert  de  Lamballe,  zho'baiR'  deh  ISN'btl',  (An- 
TolNE  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French  surgeon,  born  at 
Lamballe  in  1799.  He  lectured  in  Paris,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Plastic  Surgery," 
("Traite  de  Chirurgie  plastique,"  2  vols.,  1849.)  He 
became  surgeon  to  the  emperor  in  1854.     Died  in  1S67. 

Jo-cas'ta  or  Jo-cas'te,  [Gr.  'lo/caarT? ;  Fr.  Jocaste, 
zho'ktst',]  sometimes  called  Epicaste,  the  wife  of  Laius, 
and  the  mother  of  OEdipus.  According  to  tradition,  she 
was  married  to  CEdipus  without  knowing  who  he  was, 
and  hung  herself  after  she  discovered  the  relationship 
l^etween  them. 

See  the  "  CEdipus"  of  Sophocles. 

Jocaste.     See  Jocasta. 

Jo9'e-Iyn,  (RoiiERT,)  Lord,  M.P.,  an  English  poh- 
tician,  born  in  1816,  visited  China  about  1840,  and  pub- 
lished "Six  Months  in  China."     Died  in  1S54. 

Jo-eha'nan  or  Jo-ha'nan  Ben  E-li-e'zer,  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  in  Palestine  about  184  a.d.  He  compiled 
the  "Jerusalem  Gemara,"  a  part  of  the  Talmud.  He  is 
said  to  have  died  in  279  a.d. 

Jocher  or  Joecher,  yo'Ker,  (Christian  Gottlieb,) 
an  eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1694.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  his- 
toiyat  Leipsic  about  1730.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Learned  Men,"  ("Allge- 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,"  4  vols.,  1750-51,)  which  i.s 
highly  esteemed.  Supplements  have  been  published  by 
Adelung  and  others.     Died  in  1758. 

See  Ernesti,  "  Memoria  C.  G.  Jocheri,"  1758;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Adelung's  Supplement  to 
Jocher. 

Jochmus,  yoK'miis,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  general, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1808.  About  1838  he  was  sent  by 
Lord  Palmerston  to  Constantinople  to  plan  a  campaigii 
in  Svria.  He  became  general-in-chief  of  the  allied 
arinies  of  England  and  Turkey  in  December,  1840.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  by  the  Archduke 
John,  Vicar  of  the  German  empire,  in  May,  1849,  and 
resigned  in  December  of  that  year.      Died  in  l88l. 

Jocundus.     See  Giocondo,  (Giovannl) 

Jode,  de,  deh  yo'deh,  (Arnold,)  son  of  Pieter,  Jr., 
noticed  below,  was  born  about  1636.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  inferior  to  his  grandfather  and  father  as  an 
engraver.  While  in  London,  in  1667,  he  engraved  for 
Charles  I.  "Mercury  Instructing  Cupid,"  by  Correggio, 
Among  his  other  works  is  "The  Infant  Jesus  embracing 
Saint  John." 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 


€  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  v^, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JODE 


13S6 


JOHN 


Jode,  de,  (Pietek  )  a  Flemisli  engraver,  boin  in  1570 ; 
died  in  1634.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  pm- 
ductions  may  be  mentioned  "The  Last  Judgment,"  by 
Cousin,  and  "Jesus  Christ  giving  the  Keys  to  Saint 
Peter,"  by  Rubens. 

Jode,  de,  (Pieter  or  Petkus,)  Jr.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Antwerp  ab(jut  1606.  He  engraved 
numerous  pictures  from  Rubens,  Van  Dyck,  Titian,  and 
other  artists.  Among  his  best  works  is  "Tlie  Visita- 
tion of  the  Virgin,"  after  Rubens.     Died  after  i66o. 

Jodelle,  zho'del',  (Etienne,)  Lord  of  Lymodin,  born 
at  Paris  in  1532.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  French  poets 
termed  the  "  Pleiades."  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  write  plays  in  the  French  language  and  to  introduce 
choruses  after  the  Greek  manner.  It  is  said  that  his 
fluency  of  composition  was  so  great  that  on  a  wager  he 
composed  in  one  night  five  hundred  Latin  verses  on  a 
given  subject.  He  died  poor  in  1573.  His  principal 
production  was  the  tragedy  of  "Cleopatra,"  {1552.) 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Bayle,  "  His 
torical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nicekon,  "Memoires;"  Saintp 
Beuve,  "Podsie  Fran^aise  au  seizifenie  Siecle." 

Jo-do'cus  (or  Jus'tus)  of  Ghent,  known  also  by 
the  Italian  name  of  Giusto  da  Guanto,  a  Flemish 
painter,  who  about  1465-74  painted  "The  Communion 
of  the  Apostles"  at  Urbino,  Very  little  is  known  about 
him. 

Jo'drell,  (Richard  Paul,)  an  English  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  1745.  He  produced  "A  Widow  and  no 
Widow,"  a  farce,  "The  Persian  Heroine,"  a  tragedy, 
(17S6,)  and  "  Philology  of  the  English  Language,"  (1S20.) 
Died  in  1831. 

Joecher.     See  Jocher. 

Jo'el,  [Heb.  7XV;  Gr.  'Iw^Pi,]  one  of  the  tw-elve  minor 
Hebrew  prophets,  is  sup]3osed  to  have  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Uzziah,  about  800-750  B.C.  A  passage  of  his  prophecy 
is  quoted  in  Acts  ii.  17. 

Joerdens.    See  Jordexs. 

Joflfredus.     See  Jouffroi. 

Jof  frid,  an  English  abbot  of  Lincolnshire,  lived  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Peter  de  Blois,  a  writer  of  the  time 
of  Henry  II.,  states  that  JufTrid  was  the  founder  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge. 

Jogues,  zhog,  (Isaac,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Or- 
leans in  1607,  s]ient  many  years  in  Canada  as  a  missionary. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Mohawks  in  1646. 

Jchann,  (]3rinces  of  Germany.)     See  John. 

Johanneau,  zho't'nS',  (Eloi,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  near  Blois  in  1770.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academic  Celtique.  In  18' I  he  became  imperial 
censor  of  books.  He  wrote  on  botany,  Celtic  monuments, 
and  other  subjects.     Died  in  1S51. 

Johannaeus,  (Finnus.)     See  Jonsson,  (Finn.) 

Johannes,  the  Latin  for  John,  which  see. 

Johannes  Antiochenus.     See  John  of  Antioch. 

Johannes  Climacus.     See  Climacus. 

Johannes  Secundus.    See  Everard,  (Johannes.) 

Johannot,  zho't'no',  (Charles,)  eldest  son  of  Fran- 
cois, noticed  below,  was  born  at  Frankfurt  about  1790. 
He  was  a  skilful  engraver,  and  produced  illustrations  of 
the  life  of  Saint  Genevieve  of  Brabant.     Died  in  1825. 

Johannot,  (Charles  Henri  Alfred,)  an  engraver 
and  painter,  second  son  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Offenbach  in  1801.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  for  his  vignette-designs  illustrating  the  French 
translations  of  Byron,  Scott,  and  Cooper.  Among  his 
best  paintings  are  "The  Entrance  of  Mademoiselle 
Montpensier  into  Orleans  during  the  Fronde.''  and  "  Mary 
Stuart  leaving  Scotland."     Died  in  1837. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Johannot,  (Fran<;ois,)  a  German  designer  and  en- 
graver, of  French  extraction,  was  born  in  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, and  lived  about  1790.  He  settled  at  Paris  with 
his  partner,  Charles  Andre. 

Johannot,  (Tony,)  a  painter  and  wood-engraver,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ofi"enbach  in  1S03. 
He  gained  a  wide  reputation  as  a  designer  and  engraver 
of  vignettes  for  books.  Among  the"  works  which  he 
illustrated  are  "  Werther,"  the  plays  of  Moliere,  "  Manon 
Lescaut,"  "Jerome  Paturot,"  and  "The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field."    Died  in  Paris  in  1S52. 


John  [Gr.  'lum^vT?;  ;  Lat.  Johan'nes  ;  Fr.  J  EAN,  zhftN  ; 
It.  Giovanni,  jo-vin'nee]  the  Divine,  commonly  called 
Saint  John  the  Evangelist,  with  his  brother  James, 
was  among  the  first  to  become  a  disciple  of  our  Saviour 
when  He  commenced  his  ministry.  John  was  made 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles  ;  and  his  gentle,  loving  sjjirit 
appears  to  have  especially  endeared  him  to  his  divine 
Master.  He  spoke  of  himself  as  "the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved."  He  was  with  his  Master  in  the  garden  (;f 
Gethsemane.  When  our  Saviour  was  nailed  to  the  cross, 
He  commended  his  mother  to  the  care  of  the  beloved 
disciple.  After  the  resurrection  and  ascension  of  Jesus, 
Saint  John  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the 
prop.igators  of  the  Christian  religion.  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  were  the  principal  scenes  of  his  labours.  We 
are  told  by  Tertullian  and  Saint  Jerome  that  under  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  by  the  order  of  a  Roman  proconsul, 
he  was  immersed  in  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  and  that  in 
this  terrible  ordeal  he  was  miraculously  preserved,  so 
that  he  sustained  not  the  slightest  injury.  After  this 
he  was  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  where  he  wrote 
the  Apocalypse,  or  Revelation.  He  also  wrote  three 
Epistles,  and  the  Gospel  according  to  Saint  John.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  Ephesus  in  99  A.D.,  at  the 
age  of  ninety-four. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  sharp  discussion  as  to 
the  authorship  of  Saint  John's  Gospel.  Orthodo.x  theolo- 
gians in  general,  with  many  Unitarians,  like  Ezra  Abbot 
and  E.  H.  Sears,  assert  that  Saint  John  was  its  author. 

Among  all  the  disciples  of  Christ,  John  appears  to 
have  most  fully  comprehended  the  character  and  spirit 
of  his  divine  Master.  He  first  announced  in  clear  and 
concise  terms  the  great  central  truth  of  Christianity, 
that  "God  is  love," — a  truth  which,  in  his  view,  finds 
its  fullest  proof  in  the  great  fact  that  God  gave  His 
Son  for  the  salvation  of  the  world.  (See  John  iii.  16, 
17;  and  I.  Epistle  iv.  8,  9,  10.)  The  soul  of  "the  be- 
loved disciple"  seems  ever  filled  with  the  one  theme. 
Love,  not  fear,  is  to  be  the  motive  of  obedience  : — "If  ye 
love  me,  keep  my  commandments."  The  love  to  which 
he  refers  is  not  a  mere  sentiment,  but  a  living  power: — 
"This  is  the  love  of  God,  that  we  keep  his  command- 
ments."    (See  John  xiv.  15,  21,  23;   I.  Epistle  iv.) 

See  F.  A.  Tholuck,  "Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  John,"  the 
7tli  edition  of  which  was  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  C.  P. 
Krauth,  Philadelphia,  1859;  Wegscheider,  "Introduction  to  the 
Gospel  of  Saint  John,"  Gbttingen,  1S06  ;  Abbot,  "The  Authorship 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel;"  E.  H.  Sears,  "The  Fourth  Gospel  the 
Heart  of  Christ,"  1S72. 

John  I., surnamed  ZiMis'CES,  [Gr.  Tfc.wa/c^f,]  became 
Emperor  of  the  East  in  969  a.d.  He  carried  on  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  the  Rossi,  or  Russians,  and  quelled 
serious  disturbances  in  his  eastern  provinces.  He  died 
of  poison,  as  he  was  returning  to  Constantinople,  in  975. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior  talents. 

John  III.,  of  the  family  of  Ducas,  surnamed  Vatat'- 
ZES,  born  in  Thrace  in  1193,  succeeded  his  father-in-law, 
Theodore  Lascaris,  in  1222,  as  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Constantinople  being  then  in  possession  of  the  Latins, 
John  fixed  his  capital  at  Nicaea,  in  Bithynia.  In  1235  he 
besieged  Constantinople,  but  was  repulsed.  He,  how- 
even,  reconquered  all  the  other  possessions  belonging  to 
the  Greek  Empire  which  had  been  taken  by  the  Latins. 
John  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  useful  arts,  and  did  much 
to  ])romote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.     Died  in  1255. 

John  IV.  (Las'caris)  succeeded  his  father  Theodore 
as  Emperor  of  the  East  in  1259,  when  he  was  aged  but 
six  years.  He  was  deprived  of  the  crown  in  1261  by 
Michael  Palaeologus,  who  put  out  his  eyes  and  im- 
prisoned him  during  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

John  v.     See  Cantacuzenus. 

John  VI.,  (Palasol'ogus,)  bom  in  1332,  was  a  son  of 
Andronicus,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  imperial  throne 
of  Coiistantinople  in  1341.  He  was  afterwards  impris- 
oned by  one  of  his  sons.  During  these  intestine  troubles 
the  Turks  attacked  the  capital,  and  forced  John  to  con- 
clude a  disgraceful  treaty.  He  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Manuel.     Died  in  1391. 

John  VII.  (Palaeologus)  succeeded  his  father  Man- 
uel on  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  1425.  Being 
unable  to  oppose  the  Turkish  invaders,  he  sought  the 
assistance  of  the    Latins  ;  and,  in   order  to  cement   the 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  )',lo>i^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  i\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  tit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOHN 


1387 


JOHN 


union,  he  formed  a  reconciliation  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches,  which,  however,  lasted  but  a 
short  period.  Died  in  144S.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Constantine  XIII. 

See  Lk  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire." 

Jolm  [Sp.  Juan,  Hoo-an']  I.,  son  of  Peter  (Fedro)  IV., 
was  born  in  1350,  and  ascended  tlie  throne  of  Aragon  in 
13S7.     Died  in  1395. 

John  (Juan)  11.,  King  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  born 
in  1397,  was  one  of  the  bravest  and  most  enterprising 
of  the  Spanish  sovereigns.  In  1425  he  ascended  the 
throne  of  Navarre,  as  the  hu.sband  of  Queen  Blanche, 
and  three  years  later  was  apjjointed  by  his  brother  Al- 
fonso V.  to  the  government  of  .-\ragon.  Blanche  died 
soon  after,  and  in  1447  he  married  Joan  Henriquez,  of 
the  blood-royal  of  Castile,  who  became  the  mother  of 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  He  became  King  of  Aragon  in 
1458.  He  carried  on  long  and  successful  wars  against 
Henry  IV.  of  Castile  and  Louis  XI.  of  France.  He  also 
suppressed  a  formidable  rebellion  of  the  Catalans.  Died 
in  1479. 

See  Pkescott,  "  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  chap.  ii. ;  Ersch  und 
Grubeu,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  (Juan)  I.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  was  bom 
in  1358.  He  succeeded  his  father  Henry  (Henrique)  II. 
in  1379.  He  subsequently  invaded  Portugal,  but  met 
with  a  total  defeat  at  Aljubarota  in  August,  1385.  Died 
in  1390. 

John  II.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  son  of  Henry 
(Henrique)  III.,  born  in  1404,  was  proclaimed  sovereign 
two  years  later.  He  carried  on  successful  wars  against 
the  Kings  of  Aragon  and  Navarre  and  the  Moors  of 
Granada.  By  his  first  wife,  Maria  of  Aragon,  he  left 
three  children,  one  of  whom  succeeded  him  as  Henry 
(Henrique)  IV.  By  his  second  queen,  Isabella,  he  had  a 
daughter,  afterwards  illustrious  as  Isabella  the  Catholic. 
Though  a  feeble  sovereign,  he  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
learning,  and  his  reign  was  distinguished  for  the  revival 
of  literature  in  Castile.     Died  in  1454. 

See  Pkescott,  "Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  chap.  i. ;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  (Hans,  hins)  I.  of  Denmark  and  II.  of 
Sweden,  son  of  Christian  I.,  of  the  house  of  Oldenburg, 
born  in  1455,  ascended  the  throne  in  1481.  About  the 
year  1500  the  Swedes  rebelled  against  him  because  he 
had  garrisoned  the  fortresses  with  Danish  and  German 
troops.  He  was  finally  obliged  to  resign  all  claims  to  the 
Swedish  crown.     Died  in  1513. 

John,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Sanstekre,("  Lack- 
land,") the  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.  by  his  queen,  Elea- 
nor of  Guienne,  was  born  at  Oxford  in  1166.  The  king 
at  first  created  him  Earl  of  Montague,  in  Normandy,  and 
in  1178  made  him  Lord  of  Ireland.  In  1189  he  married 
the  daughter  and  sole  heiress  of  William,  Earl  of  Glou- 
cester. The  same  year  he  was  a  confederate  in  the 
rebellion  of  his  brother  Richard.  On  the  accession  of 
the  latter  to  the  throne  he  gave  John  several  earldoms, 
including  about  one-third  of  the  kingdom.  Soon  after 
Richard's  departure  on  the  crusade  for  the  Holy  Land, 
John  formed  plans  to  obtain  the  crown  on  the  event  of 
the  king's  death,  in  opposition  to  the  rights  of  his  nephew 
Arthur,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  whom  Richard  had  recognized 
as  his  heir.  When  John  was  informed  of  his  brother's 
imprisonment  in  Germany,  he  immediately  attempted  to 
usurp  the  throne,  but  was  kept  in  check  by  the  loyalty 
of  the  nobles.  On  the  king's  return  to  England,  in 
1 194,  he  deprived  John  of  all  his  estates  and  compelled 
aim  to  make  a  humble  submission.  Richard  died  in 
France  in  1199,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  John,  who  was 
then  with  him.  That  prince  hastened  to  establish  his 
authority  in  Normandy  and  his  other  dominions,  and 
was  crowned  at  Westminster  in  May,  1199.  In  1201  he 
obtained  a  divorce  from  his  wife,  and  married  Isabella 
of  Angouleme.  Philip  Augustus  of  France  espoused 
-he  cause  of  Arthur,  who  commenced  hostilities  against 
John  and  gained  several  victories,  but  was  subsequently 
taken  prisoner  by  his  uncle  and  conveyed  to  Rouen. 
Nothing  further  was  heard  from  him  ;  but  the  probability 
is  that  he  was  murdered.  The  war  afterwards  went 
entirely  against  the  King  of  England,  who  in  the  course 
of  two  years   lost   the  greater  part  of  his  continental 


possessions.  During  this  period  he  drew  upon  himself 
the  hostility  of  the  Roman  pontiff  by  insisting  on  his 
right  to  appoint  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  that  see 
being  then  vacant.  The  pope  e.xcommunicated  him  and 
laid  the  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  (1208.)  John,  how- 
ever, paid  no  attention  to  the  thunders  of  the  Vatican, 
but  imprisoned  or  banished  the  bishops  and  clergy  who 
obeyed  the  pope's  orders.  Meanwhile  he  reduced  Lle- 
wellyn, a  Welsh  prince,  to  subjection,  and  suppressed  a 
rebellion  in  Ireland.  Finally  the  pope,  having  formally 
deposed  him  and  absolved  his  subjects  from  their  oaths 
of  allegiance,  instigated  the  French  king  to  invade  Eng- 
land. John,  perceiving  his  danger,  made  an  abject  sub- 
mission to  the  papal  legate,  and  resigned  to  him  the 
kingdoms  of  England  and  Ireland,  (1213.)  Philip  was 
then  forbidden  to  prosecute  his  eniterprise.  For  a  long 
time  John's  tyranny  had  excited  the  hatred  of  his  barons. 
This  was  increased  by  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who,  jjresenting  them  with  the  charter  of  Henry  I., 
exhorted  them  to  obtain  the  liberties  therein  granted.  A 
numerous  body  of  barons  solemnly  swore  to  regain  their 
rights  or  to  levy  an  unceasing  war  on  the  king.  King 
John,  being  sup])orted  by  the  pope,  scornfully  refused  to 
make  any  concessions  to  the  barons,  who  raised  a  power- 
ful force  and  marched  to  London,  where  the  citizens 
gladly  received  them.  On  the  15th  of  June,  1215,  John 
consented  to  grant  all  that  they  required,  and  signed  at 
Runnymede  the  famous  Magna  Charta.  Scarcely  had 
he  done  this  before  he  induced  the  pope  to  absolve  him 
from  these  obligations  and  to  excommunicate  several 
of  his  opponents.  He  also  brought  into  England  large 
bodies  of  foreign  troops,  and  gained  several  victories 
over  the  barons.  The  latter  then  chose  Louis,  Dauphin 
of  France,  as  their  king.  This  prince  landed  at  Sand- 
wich in  May,  1216.  John  would  probably  have  been 
successful,  (for  dissensions  were  already  breaking  out  in 
the  camp  of  Louis,)  had  he  not  been  carried  off  by  a 
fever  in  October  of  that  year.  John  has  left  one  of  the 
darkest  names  in  the  history  of  the  English  kings.  He 
was  extremely  cruel,  fickle,  and  licentious,  without  a 
redeeming  virtue.  He  had,  by  his  queen  Isabella,  five 
children,  the  eldest  of  whom  succeeded  him  as  Henry 
III.  The  second,  Richard,  was  elected  King  of  the 
Romans  in  1257. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Hali,.\m,  "Constitutional 
History  of  England;"  Joseph  Berington,  "  History  of  Henry  II. 
and  of  Richard  I.  and  John,  his  Sons,"  1790;  Lingard,  "History 
of  England." 

John  [Fr.  Jean,  zhftN]  I.,  a  posthumous  son  of  Louis 
X.,  King  of  France,  was  born  in  1316.  Though  he  lived 
but  eight  days,  he  is  recorded  among  the  French  mon- 
arch s. 

See  N.  DE  MoNMERQU^,  "Dissertation  historique  sur  Jean  I, 
Roi  de  France,"  1844. 

John  (Jean)  II.,  surnamed  LE  Bon,  ascended  the 
throne  of  France  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Philip 
of  Valois,  in  1350.  Charles,  King  of  Navarre,  having  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  to  meet  John  at  Rouen,  was  there 
imprisoned,  and  several  of  his  lords  put  to  death.  The 
people  of  Navarre  applied  to  England  for  assistance,  and 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  invaded  France  at  the  head  of  an 
army.  John  marched  against  him  with  60,000  men,  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  fought 
in  1356,  and  conducted  to  London,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  honour  by  Edward  HI.  While  he  remained 
in  England  a  civil  war  broke  out  in  France  with  the  peas- 
antry, known  in  history  by  the  name  of  "  La  Jacquerie." 
In  this  revolt  the  castles  of  the  nobility  were  plundered 
and  burnt  and  the  inmates  massacred.  These  ravages 
continued  for  two  years,  until  the  dauphin,  assisted  by 
several  powerful  lords,  defeated  the  peasants,  putting 
thousands  of  them  to  the  sword.  In  1360,  peace  having 
been  concluded  between  France  and  England,  John  re- 
turned to  his  capital  ;  but,  finding  much  opposition  inade 
by  the  nobles  to  the  conditions  of  the  treaty,  he  again 
visited  England,  to  confer  with  King  Edward.  He  wa« 
soon  after  taken  ill,  and  died  in  London  in  1364. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais;"  Froissart,  "Chroni- 
cles;" MicHELET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Henri  Martin,  "His- 
toire de  France." 

John  I.  OF  Navarre.  See  John  II.  of  France. 
John  IL  OF  Navarre.  See  John  II.  of  Aragon. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/-  G,  H,  Yi,gHttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     i2t^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN 


1388 


JOHN 


John  IIL  OF  Navarre,  or  Jean  d'Albret,  zIiSn 
Jil'bRi',  began  to  reign  in  1494.  In  1512  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  invaded  Navarre  and  drove  John  from  the 
throne.     Died  in  15 16. 

John  I.,  King  of  Poland,  a  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  was 
born  in  1459,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1492.  He 
waged  war  against  the  Tartars  and  Turks.    Died  in  1501. 

John  II.  OF  Poland.     See  Casimir  V. 

John  III.  OF  Poland.     See  Sobieskl 

John  [  Port.  Jo.\o  or  Joam,  zho-owN']  I., surnanied  thf 
Great,  King  of  Portugal,  the  natural  son  of  Peter  I., 
was  born  in  1357.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Ferdi- 
nand, in  13S5,  he  assumed  the  regal  power  in  opposition 
to  the  rights  of  Ferdinand's  daughter  Beatrix,  who  had 
married  John  I.,  King  of  Castile.  This  led  to  a  war  with 
Spain,  in  which  the  Portuguese  monarch  gained  several 
important  victories  and  firmly  established  his  power.  lie 
subsequently  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  the 
Moors  of  Africa.  During  his  reign  the  Portuguese  com- 
menced those  maritime  expeditions  which  soon  after 
rendered  them  so  celebrated.  Under  the  command  of 
his  son,  Prince  Henry,  they  discovered  Madeira,  the 
Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  several  places  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa.     Died  in  1433. 

See  La  Cl4ds,  "  Histoire  g^iii^rale  de  Portugal;"  Fernandc 
Lopez,  "Chronica  del  Rev  Joao  L,"  3  vols.,  1644;  RL^^noel  Mo.n- 
TEiRo,  "Joannes  Portugalis  Reges,"  1742. 

John  (Joao)  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  surnanied  the 
Perfect,  son  of  Alfonso  V.,  was  born  in  1455,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  148 1.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
years  he  fought  against  the  African  Moors  and  took  Ar- 
zile  and  Tangiers,  and  five  years  later  gained  the  battle 
of  Toro  over  the  Castilians.  Soon  after  his  coronation 
he  quelled  a  powerful  conspiracy  formed  against  him 
by  his  nobles.  He  encouraged  the  spirit  of  enterprise 
among  the  Portuguese,  and  fitted  out  a  squadron  destined 
for  the  East  Indies  and  the  Eastern  Seas.   Died  in  1495. 

See  Vasconcellos,  "  V'ida  y  Acciones  del  Rev  Don  Juan  IL," 
1639.  (translated  into  French,  1641  ;)  Damiao  db  Goes,  "Chronica 
do  Principe  Dom  Joao  Rey,"  etc.,  1567 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

John  (Joao)  III.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1502, 
succeeded  his  father,  Emanuel  the  Great,  in  1521.  In 
1524  he  married  Catherine  of  Austria,  to  whose  brother, 
Charles  V.,  he  gave  his  sister  Isabella  in  marriage.  He 
colonized  Brazil,  and  sent  to  the  Eastern  Seas  a  fleet, 
by  which  Japan  was  discovered.  He  established  the 
Inquisition  in  Portugal  and  its  colonies.  Died  in  1557. 
»  John  (Joao)  IV.,  surnamed  the  Fortunate,  chief 
of  the  dynasty  of  Braganza,  was  born  in  1604.  He  threw 
oflf  the  authority  of  Spain,  to  which  Portugal  had  been 
subjected  since  the  days  of  Philip  II.,  and  became  king 
in  1640.  He  enacted  many  wise  and  beneficial  law-s,  and 
died,  greatly  regretted  by  the  nation,  in  1656. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  des  Revolutions  de  Portugal,"  16S9. 

John  (Joao)  V.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  16S9,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Peter  IL,  in  1707.  He  joined  the  allies 
against  France  and  Spain  -about  1702.  After  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  (1713)  he  devoted  his  time  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  education  and  commerce.     Died  in  1750. 

See  "Vida,  Successes  e  Fallecimento  do  Rey  Joao  V.,"  Lisbon, 
1750;  Ferdinand  Denis,  "Portugal." 

John  (Joao)  VI.  of  Portugal,  was  born  in  1769,  and 
was  appointed  Regent  of  Portugal  in  1793  on  account  of 
the  derangement  of  his  mother,  Maria  I.,  who  was  then 
queen-regnant.  In  1807,  when  the  French  invaded 
Portugal,  he  sailed  to  Brazil,  where  he  received  the  title 
of  emperor.  He  returned  in  1821,  soon  after  which  the 
Brazilians  revolted  and  declared  themselves  independent. 
Died  in  1826. 

See  "  Histoire  de  Jean  VI,  Roi  de  Portugal,"  1827;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gdnerale." 

John,  King  of  Scotland.     See  Baliol. 

John  of  Russia.     See  Ivan. 

John  (Johan,  yo'hdn)  I,  King  of  Sweden,  the  last 
of  the  dynasty  of  Sverker,  succeeded  Eric  in  1216.  He 
was  very  active  in  establishing  Christianity.   Died  in  1222. 

John  II.  OF  Sweden.     See  John  I.  of  Denmark. 

John  III.,  King  of  Sweden, 'the  second  son  of  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa,  was  born  in  1537.  He  married  Catherine 
Jagellon,  daughter  of  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland.  In 
1560  he  visited  England,  to  negotiate  a  marriage  between 


lis  elder  brother  Eric  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  which  he 
was  unsuccessful.  In  1568  he  deposed  Eric  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  his  stead.  Influenced  by  his  queen,  he 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  Catholic  religion,  but  was 
eflectually  resisted  by  his  brother  Charles,  Duke  of 
Sudermania,  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants.  Died 
in  1592. 

John,  King,  or  Emperor,  of  Abyssinia,  was  known  as 
Prince  Kassai  or  Kasa,  (Lij  Kassa,)  and  was  Under- 
Governor  of  Adowa.  In  1867  the  Emperor  Theodore 
made  him  one  of  the  kings  of  Tigre.  In  1868  he  as- 
sisted the  English  in  their  march  against  Theodore,  after 
whose  fall  John  received  from  the  conquerors  large 
amounts  of  military  stores.  Civil  wars  followed,  but  in 
1872  John  was  crowned  at  Axoom.  In  1876  he  repelled 
an  Egyptian  invasion,  and  in  1879  he  received  the  alle- 
giance of  Menilek,  King  of  Shoa.  Died  March  12,  1889. 

John  (Jean)  I.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  was  born  in  121 7. 
Having  attempted  to  check  the  papal  encroachments, 
tlie  pope  excommunicated  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
go  to  Rome  to  obtain  absolution.     Died  in  1284. 

John  II.,  son  of  the  ]3receding,  was  born  in  1239.  He 
married  Beatrix,  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  England, 
from  whom  he  received  the  title  of  Count  of  Richemont. 
He  was  also  made  a  peer  of  France  by  Philippe  le  Bel. 
He  was  killed  at  the  ordination  of  Clement  V.  at  Lyons 
by  the  falling  of  a  wall. 

John  III.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  surnamed  the  Good, 
succeeded  his  father,  Arthur  II.,  in  1312.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  a  just  and  benevolent  prince.     Died  in 

1341- 

John  IV.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  known  as  Jean  de 
MoNTFORT,  half-brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1293.  John  (Jean)  HI.,  having  no  children,  willed  the 
dukedom  to  Charles  de  Blois  ;  but  Jean  de  Montfort,  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  legitimate  heir,  soon  reduced  all 
the  towns  and  provinces  to  his  subjection,  and  went  to 
England  to  render  homage  to  King  Edward  for  his  estates. 
On  his  return  he  was  summoned  before  the  court  of  peers 
to  prove  his  claims  to  Bretagne.  The  peers  decided 
against  him,  and  he  raised  an  army  to  defend  his  rights, 
but  was  shortly  after  taken  prisoner  by  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy and  confined  in  the  tower  of  Louvre  at  Paris. 
In  the  mean  time  the  war  was  carried  on  with  energy 
by  his  duchess,  Jeanne  of  Flanders.  At  the  expiration 
of  nearly  four  years,  John  escaped,  disguised  as  a  mei- 
chant.     He  died  soon  after,  in  1345. 

See  Daru,  "Histoire  de  Bretaj^ne." 

John  (Jean)  V.,  (or  John  IV.,  according  to  some 
authorities,)  Duke  of  Bretagne,  born  in  1338,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  married  Mary,  a  daughter 
of  Edward  III.  of  England.  By  a  decisive  victory  over 
his  competitor,  Charles  de  Blois,  at  Auray,  in  1364,  he 
obtained  possession  of  Bretagne.  He  afterwards  fought 
for  the  English  against  the  French,  who  drove  him  out 
of  Bretagne  about  1374 ;  but  he  was  soon  restored.  Died 
in  1399. 

See  SiSMONDl,  "  Histoire  des  Franfais." 

John  (Jean)  VI.,  son  of  the  preceding,  became  Duke 
of  Bretagne  in  1399,  when  he  was  ten  years  of  age.  He 
carried  on  a  war  against  the  Count  of  Penthievre  and 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  afterwards  joined  the  Eng- 
lish under  the  Duke  of  Bedford  against  France.  Died 
in  1443. 

John,  surnamed  the  Fearless,  [Fr.  Je.'vn  Sans  Peur, 
7;h6N  s6n  pUR,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1371,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  the  Bold.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-five  he  assisted  Sigismund,  King  of  Hungary, 
against  the  Turks,  by  whom  he  was  made  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Nicopolis.  When  taken  before  the  Sultan  Baya- 
zeed,  (Bajazet,)  he  evinced  so  much  courage  that  that 
sovereign  gave  him  his  liberty  and  the  surname  of  Sans 
Peur,  (the  "  Fearless.")  After  his  return  to  France  he 
was  engaged  in  fighting  the  English  and  in  political  in- 
trigues at  the  French  court.  He  was  appointed  guardian 
of  the  daujjhin  of  France  in  1406.  He  caused  the  assas- 
sination of  his  rival,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  1407,  and 
obtained  almost  unlimited  power  in  the  kingdom.  He 
was  murdered  in  1419,  at  the  instigation  of  the  dauphin, 
son  of  Charles  VI. 


a.  e.  T.  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  ii6t;  good;  moon; 


JOHN 


1389 


JOHN 


John,  IGer.  Johann,  yo'hin,]  surnamed  the  Con- 
stant, a  son  of  the  Elector  Ernest,  was  born  in  1467, 
and  became  Elector  of  Saxony  in  1525.  I  le  was  a  zealous 
defender  of  the  Protestant  faith,  and  in  1530  caused  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  Diet 
assembled  at  that  city.     Died  in  1532. 

See  Ersch  imd  Gruber,  "  Allj^enieine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  [Lat.  Johan'nes;  Er.  Jean,  zhdN ;  It.  Gio- 
vanni, jo-v3.n'neeJ  I.,  a  native  of  Tuscany,  was  raised  to 
the  Roman  see  upon  the  death  of  Ilormisdas,  in  523. 
He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Constantinople  by  King 
Theodoric  to  obtain  toleration  for  the  Arians  ;  and  on 
his  return,  having  displeased  that  monarch,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died  in  526. 

John  II.,  surnamed  Meucurius,  was  a  native  of 
Rome,  and  succeeded  Boniface  II.  in  532  or  533.     Died 

i»  535- 

John  III.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Pelagms  I. 
in  560.  Died  about  573,  and  was  succeeded  by  Bene- 
dict I. 

John  IV.,  a  Dalmatian,  succeeded  Severinus  in  640. 
He  condemned  the  doctrines  of  the  Monothelites  and  the 
edict  of  the  emperor  Heraclius,  called  "The  E.\position 
of  Faith,"  which  was  issued  in  their  defence.  Died  in 
642,  and  was  succeeded  by  Theodorus. 

John  v.,  a  native  of  Antioch,  in  Syria,  was  chosen 
pope  on  the  death  of  Benedict  II.,  in  6S5,  and  died  in 
687.     Conon  succeeded  him. 

John  VI.,  a  Greek,  succeeded  Sergius  I.  in  701.  During 
his  pontificate  Wilfred,  Archbishop  of  York,  was  tried 
and  acquitted  of  the  charges  preferred  by  the  English 
clergy.     Died  in  705. 

John  VII.,  a  native  of  Greece,  was  elected  successor 
to  the  preceding.  Died  in  707.  Sisinnius  succeeded 
him. 

John  VIII.,  (called  John  IX.  by  those  who  admit  the 
truth  of  Pope  Joan's  history,)  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and 
succeeded  Adrian  II.  in  872.  He  crowned  the  emperor 
Cliarles  the  Bald,  and  afterwards  Charles  le  Gros.  He 
confirmed  Phocius  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  87S 
the  Saracens  invaded  Italy  and  compelled  him  to  pay 
tribute.    Died  in  882.    He  was  succeeded  by  Martin  II. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

John  IX.,  an  Italian,  became  pope  in  898,  after  the 
death  of  Theodore  II.     Died  about  900. 

John  X.  was  elected  in  915,  through  the  influence  of  his 
mistress  Theodora,  as  successor  to  Lando.  He  crowned 
Berengarius  as  emperor.  Subsequently,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  this  sovereign,  he  marched  against  the  Saracens, 
who  had  invaded  Italy,  defeated  them,  and  drove  them 
from  the  country.  At  this  time  Guido,  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, with  his  wife,  the  infamous  Marozia,  possessed 
great  power  in  Rome.  John,  having  offended  them,  was 
seized  in  his  palace  by  their  soldiers  and  put  in  prison, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  been  killed  in  928. 

John  XL,  elected  pope  in  931,  was  the  son  of  Maro- 
/.ia,  as  some  suppose,  by  Pope  Sergius  III.  Alberico, 
another  son  of  Marozia,  raised  a  revolt  against  his 
mother,  whom  he  imprisoned  with  John  in  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo.  The  latter  died  about  936,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Leo  VII. 

John  XII.,  son  of  .'Mberico,  was  elected  successor  to 
Agapetus  II.  in  956,  when  he  was  but  eighteen  years  old. 
He  changed  his  name  from  Octavianus.  Four  years 
later  he  crowned  Otho  I.  Emperor  of  Germany  and 
King  of  Italy.  Subsequently  he  became  so  notorious  for 
his  oppression  and  licentiousness  that  Otho  returned  to 
Rome  in  963  and  caused  John  to  be  deposed  and  Leo 
VIII.  to  be  chosen  in  his  place.  But,  as  soon  as  Otho 
left  Italy,  John  entered  Rome  at  the  head  of  a  powerful 
part}',  drove  out  Leo,  and  committed  great  atrocities. 
He  died  in  964.  One  of  his  mistresses,  named  Joan, 
exercised  much  influence  at  Rome  during  his  pontificate  ; 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  may  have  given  rise 
to  the  story  of  "  Pope  Joan." 

See  Baronius,  "Annales." 

John  XIII.,  Bishop  of  Narni,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
see  in  965  by  the  influence  of  the  emperor  Otho  I.  The 
Romans,  however,  being  opposed  to  this  election,  im- 
prisoned John.  Otho  marched  to  Rome,  liberated  him, 
and  hanged  several  of  his  opponents.     John  crowned 


Otho  II.,  son  of  Otho  I.,  as  emperor.  Died  in  972,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Benedict  VI. 

John  XIV.,  Bishop  of  Pavi'a,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
see,  as  successor  to  Benedict  VII.,  about  984.  After  a 
pontificate  of  nine  months,  he  was  deposed  by  Boniface 
VII.  and  put  in  prison,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned  in  985. 

John  XV.,  elected  successor  to  John  XIV.,  died  a  few 
days  after.    By  some  he  is  left  out  of  the  order  of  pope.s. 

John  XVl.,  a  native  of  Rome,  became  pope  about 
986.  _  During  his  pontificate,  a  patrician,  named  Cres- 
centius,  caused  great  disturbances  and  drove  the  pope 
from  Rome.  He  was,  however,  reinstated  in  his  au- 
thority by  the  emperor  Otho.  Died  in  996,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  V. 

John  XVlI.,  whose  previous  name  was  Philaga- 
THius,  a  native  of  Calabria,  and  Bishop  of  Piacenza,  was 
chosen  pope  in  997  by  the  faction  of  Crescentius,  in  op- 
position to  Gregory  V.  Otho  HI.,  espousing  the  cause 
of  the  latter,  executed  Crescentius  with  his  adherents, 
and  imprisoned  John  after  having  horribly  mutilated  him. 

John  XVIII.  was  elected  successor  to  Sylvester  II. 
in  1003,  and  died  four  months  afterwards. 

John  XIX.,  elected  pope  in  1004.  He  sent  Saint 
Bruno  to  preach  Christianity  to  the  Russians,  and  healed 
the  schism  between  the  Churches  of  Rome  and  Constan- 
tinople.   Died  in  1009,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sergius  IV. 

John  XX.,  previously  named  Romanus,  was  the  son 
of  Count  Gregory  of  Tuscany,  and  brother  of  Benedict 
VIII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1024.  In  1027  he  crowned 
Conrad  as  emperor.  He  died  in  1033  or  1034,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Benedict  IX. 

John  XXI.,  born  in  Lisbon,  was  elected  successor  to 
Adrian  V.  about  1276.  He  died  after  a  pontificate  of  a 
few  months.     Nicholas  HI.  succeeded  him. 

John  XXII.,  a  native  of  Cahors,  in  France,  and  pre- 
viously known  as  Jacques  d'Euse,  or  James  of  Ossa, 
was  chosen  to  succeed  Clement  V.  in  13 16.  He  was 
consecrated  at  Lyons,  and  made  his  residence  at  Avignon. 
At  this  period  there  was  a  competition  for  the  throne  of 
Germany  between  Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederick  of 
Austria.  John,  who  declared  that  he  had  the  right  to 
appoint  the  emperor,  excommunicated  Louis  in  1324  or 
1327,  and  advanced  the  claims  of  Robert,  King  of  Naples. 
This  led  to  a  long  war  in  Italy  between  the  Guelphs, 
who  were  allies  of  Robert,  and  the  Ghibelines,  who  were 
assisted  by  the  troops  of  Louis.  At  first  the  Guelphs  had 
the  advantage  ;  but  their  opponents  soon  gained  ground, 
and  in  1327  Louis  visited  Italy  and  received  the  iron 
crown  of  Milan.  At  Rome  the  Bishops  of  Venice  and 
.'\leria  crowned  him  emperor,  after  which  he  deposed 
John  and  appointed  Peter  de  Corvara  in  his  place,  with 
the  name  of  Nicholas  V.  After  the  return  of  Louis  to 
Germany  the  Guelphs  began  to  obtain  the  ascendency. 
John  died  at  Avignon  in  1334.  He  possessed  extraor- 
dinary abilities,  was  devoted  to  study,  and  wrote  some 
medical  treatises.  His  avarice,  however,  was  the  most 
prominent  trait  in  his  character  ;  and  to  him  is  attributed 
the  introduction  of  the  Annates,  or  First-Fruits.  He  left, 
besides  his  jewels,  eighteen  millions  of  golden  florins  in 
his  coffers. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes;' 
Pi.ATiNA,  "  Historia  de  Vitis  Pontificuni  Romanorura  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

John  XXIII.,  (or  XXII.,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties,) (Cardinal  CossA,)  a  Neapolitan,  was  elected  as  suc- 
cessor to  Alexander  V.  in  1410,  during  a  schism  of  the 
Church.  His  title  was  disputed  by  two  rivals,  Benedict 
XIII.  and  Gregory  XII.  He  was  a  man  of  depraved 
morals  and  of  insatiable  cupidity.  A  quarrel  between 
John  and  Ladislaus  of  Naples  resulted  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  former  from  Rome.  John  applied  for  support 
to  the  emperor  Sigismund,  who  convoked  at  Constance 
in  1414  a  general  council.  This  council  (at  which  John 
was  present)  required  him  to  abdicate  the  popedom. 
He  pretended  to  comply,  but  left  Constance  disguised, 
and  fled  towards  Rome  with  the  intention  to  resist  the 
decree  of  the  council.  He  was  quickly  arrested  and 
brought  back  to  Constance,  where  he  was  convicted  of 
many  heinous  offences,  and  formally  deposed,  in  1415- 
He  was  confined  in  prison  about  three  years.  He  died 
at  Florence  in  1419. 


^as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,g-titti(ral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN 


1390 


JOHN 


John,  (Juan,)  Don,  of  Austria,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated military  and  naval  commanders  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
and  I:!arbara  Blomberg,  a  native  of  Germany.  He  was 
born  at  Ratisb(m  in  1546,  and  passed  as  the  son  of  n 
Spanish  nobleman  named  Quixada,  by  whom  he  was 
educated.  Ciiarles  V.  on  his  death-bed  recommended 
him  tcT  the  protection  of  Philip  II.,  who  soon  after  ac- 
knowledged John  as  his  brother  and  made  appropria- 
tions which  enabled  him  to  live  in  ])rincely  state.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  forces  sent  against  the  Moriscoes  of  Granada, 
whom  he  vanquished  in  several  battles  and  finally  re- 
duced to  complete  subjection.  In  1571,  war  having  been 
declared  between  Philip  11.  and  the  Sultan,  Don  John 
was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  combined  fleets  of 
Spain  and  Italy.  He  sailed  from  Messina  in  the  middle 
of  September  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  ships  of  war 
and  about  fifty  thousand  men,  and  on  the  7th  of  October 
encountered  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto, 
where  he  gained  one  of  the  greatest  naval  viclories  of 
which  history  makes  mention.  Soon  after  the  battle 
of  Lepanto  he  received  an  embassy  from  thf  Greeks  of 
Albania  and  Macedonia,  requesting  him  to  a"?sist  them 
against  the  Turks  and  to  receive  tiie  sovereignty  of  their 
countries.  Don  John  was  prevented  from  accepting  the 
offer  by  Philip,  who,  jealous  of  his  brother's  reputation, 
refused  the  assistance  necessary  for  the  enterprise.  Dor 
John,  in  a  subsequent  expedition  against  Africa,  took 
Tunis,  Biserta,  and  several  other  important  places.  Ik 
was  ap]5ointed  in  1576  Governor  of  the  Netherlands, 
which  were  then  in  a  state  of  rebellion.  He  at  first  used 
conciliatory  measures  ;  but  the  States,  suspecting  him 
of  duplicity,  declined  his  overtures  and  prepared  for  war 
Don  John  soon  after  took  Namur  by  stratagem,  and  on 
the  1st  of  January,  1578,  gained  the  decisive  victory  of 
Gemblours.  He  afterwards  reduced  Louvain,  Nivelle, 
and  other  towns  belonging  to  the  insurgents.  While 
thus  actively  engaged,  in  October,  1578,  he  was  seized 
with  an  illness  which  carried  him  to  the  grave.  Strong 
suspicions  were  entertained  by  many  that  he  was  poisoned. 

See  L.  VAN  der  Hammen,  "Vida  de  Don  Juan,"  1627;  Bri'si.^ 
DE  MoNTPLEiNCHAMP,  "  Vie  de  Don  Juan  d'Autriche,"  i6qo  ;  Alexis 
DuMESNiL,  "Vie  de  Don  Juan  d'Autriche,"  1S27;  Motley,  "Rise 
of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  iii.  part  v.  chaps,  i.-v.  ;  Pkescott, 
"  History  of  PliiHp  11.,"  vol.  ii. ;  J.  P.  Lvser,  "Erzherzog  Johann, 
der  Freund  des  Volkes,"  184S  ;  Schneidewind,  "  Leben  des  Erz- 
herzogs  Johann  von  Oesterreich,"  etc.,  1849. 

John,  yon,  (Eugenia,)  a  German  novelist,  best  known 
by  the  pseudonym  of  E.  Marlitt.  She  was  born  at 
Arnstadt,  December  5,  1825.  Adopted  by  the  Princess 
of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  she  was  trained  as  a 
singer  ;  but,  having  lost  the  sense  of  hearing,  she  became 
a  very  successful  and  prolific  writer  of  romances.  "The 
Twelve  Apostles,"  "Gold  Else,"  and  "The  Second 
Wife"  are  among  her  works.     Died  m  1887. 

John  or  Johann,  (Nepomuk  Maria  Joseph,)  born  in 
1801,  succeeded  his  brother  Frederick  Augustus  as  King 
ofSaxony  in  1854.  He  was  distinguished  for  great  virtues 
as  a  ruler,  and  for  his  literary  attainments.  He  trans- 
lated Dante's  "  Divine  Comedy."  He  was  an  ally  of  Aus- 
tria in  the  war  against  Prussia  in  1866.    Died  Oct.  29, 1873. 

John  of  Bayeux,  |Fr.  Jean  de  Bayeux,  zh6N  deh 
bt'yuh',1  a  haughty  and  violent  French  prelate.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1070.     Died  in  1079. 

John  OF  Brienne,  [Fr.  Jean  de  Brienne,  zhSw  deh 
bRe'Sn',]  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  Regent  of  Constanti 
nople,  was  born  in  France.  He  assisted  in  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem  in  1204,  and  in  1218,  at  the  head  of  a  Latin 
army,  he  took  Damietta.  In  1226  he  was  compelled  to 
resign  Jerusalem  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  Three 
years  later  he  was  elected,  by  the  French  barons  in  the 
East,  Regent  of  Constantinople,  which  he  bravely  de- 
fended against  the  Greek  emperor  John  Ducas.  Died 
in  1237. 

John  OF  Bruges.     See  Eyck,  (Jan  van.) 

John  OF  CAPrADOciA,  a  theologian,  became  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  about  518.  He  co-operated  with  the 
pope  Hormisdas  in  the  restoration  of  union  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches.     Died  in  52b. 

John  II.  OF  Cappadocia  became  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople about  582  a.d.     Died  in  596. 


John,  surnamed  Climacus  or  Climachus.  See 
Climacus. 

John  OF  Gis'cat.a  or  Gischala,  a  Jewish  captain, 
was  an  enemy  of  Josephus  the  historian.  He  was  the 
chief  of  one  of  the  factions  of  zealots  and  outlaws  that 
fought  against  each  other  and  against  the  Romans  in  Jv;- 
rusalein  while  that  city  was  besieged  by  Titus,  in  70  a.d. 
On  the  capture  of  the  city  he  was  imprisoned  for  life. 

John  OF  Luxemiujrg,  surnamed  the  Blind,  son  o( 
the  emperor  Henry  VII.,  was  born  in  1295.  In  1305 
he  was  elected  King  of  Bohemia,  and  in  1322  he  con- 
quered Silesia.  In  1331  he  formed  a  league  with  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  Emperor  of  Germany,  against  Pope  John 
XXII.,  and  entered  Italy.  The  pope  then  offered  to 
recognize  him  as  King  of  Italy.  The  emperor,  in  order 
to  prevent  this,  invaded  Bohemia.  John  left  the  com- 
mand of  his  army  in  Italy  to  his  son,  returned  to  Bo- 
hemia, and  drove  out  Louis.  He  was  soon  after  attacked 
with  a  disease  in  his  eyes,  which  produced  blindness, 
but  did  not  in  the  least  affect  his  spirit  of  enterprise. 
He  invaded  Poland,  reduced  it  to  subjection,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  Philip  of  France  against  the  English. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  in  1346, 
after  having  performed  great  feats  of  valour. 

See  Froissart,  "Chronicles ;"  Slsmondi,  "Histoire  des  Fr.in- 
;ais." 

John  OF  Ragusa,  a  learned  Romish  prelate,  was  in 
1426  sent  by  Martin  V.  to  the  Council  of  Bale,  over  which 
he  presided  in  1431.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
controversies  with  the  followers  of  Huss. 

John  OF  Salisbury,  a  learned  scholastic  philosopher 
and  writer,  born  at  Salisbury  about  1120.  He  entered 
the  service  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  became  his  secre- 
tary. In  1 176  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chartres. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  valuable  works,  "  Polycraticus 
de  Nugis  Curialium  et  Vestigiis  Philosophorum,"  which 
is  a  satire  on  the  follies  of  courtiers,  etc.,  and  a  "Life 
of  Thomas  a  Becket."  Died  in  1180.  His  works  were 
published  by  J.  A.  Giles,  Oxford,  (5  vols.,  1848.) 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana,"  tome  viii.  ;  B.  Haur^au,  "De  la  Philo- 
Sophie  scholastique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

John  OF  Seville  or  De  Luna,  a  learned  Jewish 
convert  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  translated  into  Span- 
ish many  valuable  Arabic  works. 

John  OF  SuABiA,  surnamed  the  Parricide,  born 
in  1289,  was  a  nephew  of  the  emperor  Albert  I.  The 
latter,  having  withheld  from  him  his  hereditary  domains, 
was  murdered  by  John  and  a  band  of  conspirators. 

See  BRANTOiME,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

John  OF  Udine.     See  Giovannl 

John  (Johann)  Baptist,  (Joseph  Fabian  Sebas- 
tian,) Archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  1782,  was  a  son  of 
Leopold  II.  He  succeeded  Kray  in  iSoo  as  commander 
of  the  Austrian  army,  and  was  defeated  by  General 
Moreau  at  Hohenlinden,  in  December  of  that  year.  In 
the  campaign  of  1809  he  directed  the  operations  in  the 
Tyrol,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  viceroy  Eugene.  In 
June,  1848,  he  was  elected  Vicar  of  the  German  empire 
by  the  Parliament  at  Frankfort.  He  resigned  that  office 
in  December,  1849.     Died  in  1859. 

John  Cas'i-mir,  [Ger.  Johann  Casimir,  yo'hSn 
kd'ze-m^R,]  Count  Palatine,  born  in  1543,  was  the  second 
son  of  the  Elector-Palatine  Frederick  III.  He  was  a 
zealous  Calvinist,  and  in  156S  raised  an  army  with  which 
he  invaded  Lorraine  to  aid  the  French  Huguenots.  In 
1575  he  again  entered  P'rance,  as  the  ally  of  the  Prince 
of  Conde.  His  court  at  Neustadt  became  the  centre 
of  the  Calvinist  ]3olicy.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
John  Casimir  was  the  political  chief  of  the  Reformers. 
Died  in  1592. 

See  Dp.  Thou,  "  Histoire  Universelle;"  Daniel  Parens,  "  His- 
toria  Pal.itina;"  F.  Junius,  "  Ecloga  in  Obitum  Joannis  Casimiri,' 
1^92;  "Nouvelle  liiographie  Gdndrale." 

John  Coninenus.     See  Cai.o-Joannf.s. 

John  Daniascenus.     See  Damascenus. 

John  de  Matha,  niS'thi,  (Saint,)  a  French  priest, 
born  in  Faucon,  in  Provence,  June  24,  1169.  Ilestiulied 
at  Aix  and  Paris,  and  became  the  associate  of  Saint 
Felix  of  Valois,  with  whom  he  founded  the  order  of 
Trinitarian   Brethren,  for  the   purpose  of  aiding  in   the 


a,  e,  1,  o, u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  ni&t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


JOHN 


1391 


JOHNSON 


work  of  ransoming  Christian  captives  from  among  the 
Moors.  He  several  times  visited  the  Moorish  countries. 
Died  December  21,  1273. 

John  Frederick  [Ger.  Tohann  Friedrich,  yo'h^in 
freed'riK]  I.  of  Saxony,  surnamed  THE  Magnanimous, 
was  a  son  of  the  Elector  John  the  Constant,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1532.  Having  joined  the  Protestant  League 
of  Schmalkalden,  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Miihlberg,  but  was  released  through  the  intervention  of 
his  cousin,  Maurice  of  Saxony.     Died  in  1554. 

See  Ersch  unci  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Caspar 
Sagittarius,  "Historia  Joannis  Eriderici  Electoris,"  etc.,  1678;  C. 
BuDER.  "  Nachricht  von  der  Kurfiirst  Johnnn  Friedrich's  zu  Sach- 
sen,"  1755. 

John  Frederick  II.,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1529.  He  began  to  reign 
in  1554.     Died  in  1595. 

John  George  [Ger.  Johann  Georg,  yo'hSn  ga'oRo] 
I.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  born  in  1585,  began  to  reign  in 
161 1.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  war  his  course  was 
vacillating,  alternately  favouring  the  cause  of  the  emperor 
and  01  the  Protestant  allies,  in  1635  he  made  a  disad- 
vantageous peace  with  Ferdinand  H.     Died  in  1656. 

See  Karl  August  Muller,  "  Kurfiirst  Johann  Georg  1.,  seine 
Familie,"  etc.,  1S3S  ;  Seeligmann,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  Joannis 
Georgii  I.,"  1676. 

John  George  II.,  Elector  of  Sa.xony,  born  in  1613, 
began  to  reign  in  1656,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a 
legislator.     Died  in  1680. 

See  Stockmann,  "  Progranima :  Elector  Joannes  Georgius  II. 
Saxonis  et  Lusatiae  Legislator,"  1789. 

John  of  Antioch,  or  John  the  Scholastic,  [Lat. 
Johan'nes  Antioche'nus,  or  Johan'nes  Scholas'ti- 
cus;  Fr.  Jean  d'Antiochp;,  zh6N  doN'te-osh',]  a  Greek 
canonist,  born  at  Antioch,  became  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople in  565  A.D.  He  published  a  collection  of  canons. 
Died  in  578.     (See  Malala.) 

John  of  Bologna.    See  Bologna. 

John  of  Damascus.     See  Damascenus. 

John  of  Gaunt  or  Ghent,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  a 
younger  son  of  Edward  HI.  King  of  England,  was  born 
in  1340.  His  birthplace,  Ghent,  in  Flanders,  then  called 
in  English  Gaunt,  (after  the  French  Gand,)  gave  him  the 
designation  by  which  he  is  generally  known.  He  served 
in  early  youth  under  his  eldest  brother  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  in  tiie  French  wars,  where  he  gained  great  dis- 
tinction for  his  skill  and  bravery.  He  married  Constance, 
a  natural  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel,  King  of  Castile 
and  Leon,  and,  on  the  death  of  that  monarch,  laid  claim 
to  tne  sovereignty  of  those  kingdoms,  but  was  defeated  by 
Henry  of  Trastamara.  Hesubsequentlygave  his  daughter 
in  marriage  to  the  heir-apparent  of  the  crowns  of  Castile 
and  Leon,  upon  which  he  resigned  his  own  claims.  His 
third  wife  was  a  sister-in-law  of  the  poet  Chaucer,  to 
whom  he  proved  a  liberal  patron.  Died  in  1399.  His 
son,  surnamed  Bolingbroke,  afterwards  ascended  the 
tlirune  of  England,  wnh  the  title  of  Henry  IV. 

John  of  God,  Salnt.     See  Dieu,  de,  (Jean.) 

John  of  Leyden,  sometimes  called  Johann  Bock- 
elson  or  Beccold,  a  notorious  fanatic,  born  at  Leyden 
in  1510.  Having  joined  the  Anabaj^tists,  he  associated 
hmiself  with  Matthys,  and  with  his  followers  took  pos- 
session of  the  city  of  Munster.  After  committing  the 
greatest  excesses  and  cruelties,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Bishop  of  Munster,  and  executed  in  1536. 

See  JocHMus,  "  Geschichte  der  Munsterschen  Wiedertaufer ;" 
Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  book  v. ;  C  A  Vulpius 
*' Joliaiin  von  Leyden,"  1793  ;  J.  C.  Wallmann,  "Johann  von  Ley- 
den,    i!544;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  the  Baptist,  [Fr.  Jean  Baptiste,  zIiSn  btp'- 
tSst';  It.  Giovanni  Battista,  jo-vin'nee  bit-tis'ta,] 
son  of  Zacharias,  a  Jewish  priest,  and  his  wife  Elisabeth. 
It  was  foretold  of  him  that  he  should  come  in  the  spirit 
and  power  of  Elias,  to  prepare  the  way  of  the  Lord. 
(Luke  i.  17.)  Our  Saviour  also  said  that  no  ]:>rophet 
was  greater  than  John  the  Baptist.  (Luke  vii.  28.)  He 
began  to  preach  and  to  bajitize  in  the  desert  country 
through  which  the  Jordan  flowed.  It  was  here  that 
Jesus  received  baptisin  and  was  proclaimed  by  him  as 
the  promised  Messiah.  He  was  subsequently  cast  into 
prison,  and  beheaded  by  the  order  of  Herod. 

See  Mark  vi.  16-30. 


Johnes,  j5nz,  ?  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar  and 
bibliomaniac,  born  at  Ludlow,  in  Shropshire,  in  1748. 
He  was  twice  elected  a  member  of  Parliament.  He 
translated  Froissart's  "Chronicle,"  and  other  literary 
works,  from  the  French.     Died  in  1816. 

Johns,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop,  born  in 
Newcastle,  Delaware,  July  10,  1796.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  181 5,  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  was  appointed  Assistant  Bishoj-)  of  Virginia  in 
1842,  and  in  1862  succeeded  Bishop  Meade  as  diocesan. 
He  was  for  some  time  president  of  William  and  Mary 
College,  and  of  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Virginia. 
Died  April  5,  1876. 

John'son,  (Alexander  B.,)  an  author  and  tanker, 
born  in  Gosport,  England,  in  1786.  He  settled  in  Utica, 
New  York,  in  1801,  and  engaged  in  banking  opeiations 
in  that  town.  He  devoted  his  leisure  to  the  study  of 
the  nature  of  hmnan  knowledge,  or  ideas  irrespective  of 
the  words  by  which  they  are  expressed.  I'he  results  of 
his  investigation  are  his  "  Philosophy  of  Human  Know- 
ledge, or  a  Treatise  on  Language,"  (1828,)  a  "  Treatise  on 
Language,  or  the  Relation  which  Words  bear  to  Things," 
(1836,)  and  other  publications  on  the  same  subject.  His 
"Physiology  of  the  Senses"  (1856)  was  highly  com- 
mended by  the  "  Westminster  Review."  He  also  pub 
lished  a  "Treatise  on  Banking."     Died  Sept.  9,  1867. 

John'son,  (Andrew,)  the  seventeenth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina, 
in  1808.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  tailor,  which  he  fol- 
lowed for  many  years  at  Greenville,  Tennessee.  He  was 
self-educated,  and,  it  is  said,  never  attended  any  school 
In  1S28  he  was  elected  alderman,  and  in  1830  mayor,  of 
Greerville.  After  he  had  served  several  terms  in  the 
legislature  of  Tennessee,  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  by  the  Democrats  in  1843,  '^"'^  continued  in 
that  body  for  ten  years.  He  was  chosen  Governor  of 
Tennessee  in  1853,  and  again  in  1855.  In  1857  he  was 
elected  a  United  States  Senator  for  six  years.  Having 
taken  a  decided  stand  against  the  disunion  movement  in 
i860  and  1S61,  he  was  appointed  Military  Governor  of 
Tennessee  by  President  Lincoln  in  1862.  He  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  by  the  Republicans 
in  November,  1864,  and,  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Lincoln, 
became  President  in  April,  1865.  On  his  accession  to 
office  he  displayed  at  first  a  spirit  of  great  severity 
against  the  rebels,  but  soon  afterwards  adopted  a  line  of 
policy  in  relation  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded 
States  which  was  very  favourable  to  them.  His  policy, 
ivliich  tended  to  restore  the  domination  of  the  secession- 
ists and  to  reduce  the  freedmen  again  to  many  of  the 
;vils  of  slavery,  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  Congress; 
ind  a  violent  contest  ensued  between  that  body  and  the 
President,  who  vetoed  numerous  acts  passed  by  Con- 
gress for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  States,  etc. 
llis  vetoes,  however,  were  overruled  by  a  majority  of 
two-thirds  in  each  House,  and  the  policy  of  Congress 
prevailed.  In  the  course  of  a  tour  from  Washington  to 
Chicago,  in  1866,  he  made  many  undignified  political 
speeches,  which  rendered  him  very  unpopular,  and  in 
the  next  elections  his  opponents,  the  Radicals,  obtained 
large  and  increased  majorities.  He  opposed  impartial 
suffrage,  reconmicnded  repudiation,  and  co-operated  with 
the  Democratic  party.  He  pardoned  a  large  number 
of  counterfeiters.  In  August,  1867,  he  suspended  Mr. 
Stanton,  secretary  of  war,  and  appointed  General  Grant 
secretary  ad  interim.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States 
reinstated  Mr.  Stanton  in  January,  1868,  and  President 
Johnson  quarrelled  with  General  Grant  because  he  gave 
up  the  war  office  to  Mr.  Stanton.  Great  excitement  was 
produced  by  the  attempt  of  the  President  to  remove  Mr. 
Stanton  in  February,  and  he  was  impeached  of  high 
crimes  and  inisdemeanotns  by  a  large  majority  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Among  the  crimes  charged 
against  him  was  the  violation  of  the  "Act  regulating 
the  Tmure  of  certain  Civil  Offices,"  by  the  removal  of 
Mr.  Stanton  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate  The 
trial  before  the  Senate  began  about  March  13,  and  ended. 
May  26,  in  his  acquittal.  Thirty-five  Senators  voted  that 
he  was  guilty,  and  nineteen  voted  not  guilty.  Among 
the  latter  were  seven  Republicans.  Died  July  31,  1875. 
See  "Life  of  Andrew  Johnson,"  New  York,  1S66. 


t  as-^,-  5  as  J,-  ghard;  gas/;  G,ll,K,^ieUural;  u,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sase;  \\\  as  in  l/iis.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHNSON 


1392 


JOHNSON 


Johnson,  (Ben.)     See  Jonson,  (Ben.) 

Johnson,  (Chapman,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1779.  lie  began  the  practice  of  law 
at  Staunton,  and  rose  to  the  first  rank  in  his  profession. 
He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  James  Brecken- 
ridge  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain.   Died  in  1849. 

John'spn,  (Charles,)  an  Engli.sh  dramatic  writer, 
born  in  1679,  is  mentioned  in  Pope's  "  Dunciad,"  particu- 
larly on  account  of  his  obesity.  The  comedy  of  the 
"Country  Lasses"  was  the  most  popular  of  his  plays. 
Died  in  1748. 

See  P.AKER,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Johnson,  (Cuthbert  W.,)  an  English  writer  on  agri- 
culture, born  at  Bromley,  Kent,  about  1800.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Farmer's  Encyclopaedia  and  Dictionary  of 
Rural  Affairs,"  (1842.)     Died  March  8,  1878. 

Johnson,  (Eastman,)  an  American  painter  of  por- 
traits and  genre,  born  at  Lovell,  Maine,  in  1824.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Old  Kentucky  Home,"  "Savoyard 
Boy,"  "The  Woodsman,"  "The  Chimney-Corner,"  and 
other  admirable  delineations  of  common  life. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  tlie  Artists." 

Johnson,  (Edward,)  one  of  the  earliest  historians  of 
New  England,  born  in  Kent,  England,  about  1600.  He 
emigrated  to  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1630.  Died 
in  1672.  His  valuable  "History  of  New  England  from 
the  English  Planting  in  1628  till  1652"  was  published  in 
London  in  1650,  and  afterwards  in  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Collections. 

Johnson,  (Edward,)  an  American  general,  born  ir 
Kentucky,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  com 
manded  a  division  of  Lee's  army  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3 
1S63,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Spottsylvania  Court 
House,  May  12,  1S64.     Died  Febniarv  22,  1873. 

Johnson,  (Gabriel.)     See  Joh.nston. 

Johnson,  (George,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Goudhurst,  Kent,  in  November,  1818.  He  was  educated 
at  King's  College,  London,  and  graduated  in  1S42  at  the 
London  University.  He  was  professor  of  materia  medica 
in  King's  College,  1857-63,  of  the  practice  of  medicine, 
1863-76,  and  in  1876  took  a  professorship  of  clinical 
medicine.  Among  his  works  are  "  On  Diseases  of  the 
Kidney,"  (1852,)  "The  Laryngoscope,"  (1S64,)  "Lec- 
tures on  Bright's  Disease,"  (1873,)  ^^'^• 

Johnson,  (Helen  Kendrick,)  an  American  author, 
daughter  of  Rev.  Dr.  A.  C.  Kendrick,  and  wife  of  Ros- 
siter  Johnson.  She  was  born  at  Hamilton,  New  York, 
January  4,  1843,  and  was  married  in  1869.  She  is  the 
author  of  "The  Roddy  Books,"  (3  vols.,  1874-76,)  and 
•'  Our  Familiar  Songs,  and  those  who  made  them," 
(18S1,)  and  has  edited  several  compilations. 

Johnson,(ISAAC,)  one  of  the  foundersof  Massachusetts 
colony,  came  from  England  with  Governor  Winthrop  in 
1630.  He  and  three  others  organized,  July  30,  the  church 
of  Boston  at  Charlestown ;  but,  for  the  want  of  good 
water,  they  removed  to  Shawmut,  now  Boston,  which 
was  settled  under  Johnson's  supervision.     Died  in  1630. 

Johnson,  (James,)  an  Irish  physician,  born  about 
1777,  practised  in  London.  He  published,  besides  other 
medical  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Influence  of  Tropical 
Climates  on  European  Constitutions,"  and  "  The  Econ- 
omy of  Health."     Died  in  1845. 

See  "  Life  of  Dr.  James  Johnson,"  by  his  son,  1S46. 

Johnson,  (John,)  a* learned  nonjuring  divine,  born 
in  Kent,  England,  in  1662.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Holy 
David  and  1ms  Old  English  Translation  Cleared,"  written 
in  answer  to  one  of  the  works  of  Baxter,  "The  Clergy- 
man's Vade-Mecum,"  (1708,)  and  several  other  works 
Died  in  1725. 

See  Thomas  Brett,  "Life  of  John  Jolinson,"  T748. 

Johnson,  (Sir  John,)  a  general,  son  of  Sir  William, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  1742.  He  was  a  royalist  in 
the  Revolution,  instigated  the  Indians  to  fight  for  the 
king,  and  conducted  several  raids  fnmi  Canada  against 
the  State  of  New  York.  Near  the  close  of  last  century 
he  was  ajjpointed  Governor  of  Upper  Canada.  Died  in 
1830.    See  his  "  Life,"  by  J.  W.  de  Peyster. 

Johnson,  (JosErii,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Judge  William 
Johnson,  was  born  in  Charleston  in  1776.  He  practised 
as  a  physician  in  his  native  city,  and  in  1807  was  chosen 


president  of  the  Medical  Society  of  South  Carolina.  He 
took  an  active  jjart  in  the  literary  and  political  move- 
ments of  Charleston,  was  long  mayor  of  the  city,  and  a 
prominent  leader  of  the  party  which  opi^osed  nullifica- 
tion in  1832-33.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Tra- 
ditions and  Reminiscences  of  the  Revolution,"  (1851.) 

Johnson,  (Manuel  John,)  an  English  astronomer, 
born  about  1805.  He  was  astronomer  of  the  Radclifie 
Observatory  of  Oxford,  and  published  "Astronomical 
Observations,"  (13  vols.,  1845-55.)     I^'ed  in  1859. 

Johnson,  (Martin,)  an  Elnglish  landscajie-jininter 
and  seal-engraver  of  the  time  of  Charles  II.  Died 
about  1685. 

Johnson,  (Maurice,)  an  English  lawyer  and  antiqua- 
rian, born  in  Lincolnshire.  He  founded  an  antiquarian 
society  at  Spalding,  and  wrote  several  commentaries. 
Died  in  1755. 

Johnson,  (Reverdy,)  an  American  lawyer,  son  of 
Judge  Johnson,  was  born  in  Annapolis,  Maryland,  May 
21,  1796.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1815,  and  followed  his  profession 
with  great  success  in  Baltimore.  He  was  also  extensively 
engaged  in  cases  before  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States.  In  1845  he  was  elected  by  the  Whigs  to  the 
United  States  Senate.  This  position  he  resigned  in  1849 
to  accept  the  attorney-generalship  of  the  United  States, 
tendered  him  by  President  Taylor.  On  the  death  of  Gen- 
eral Taylor,  in  July,  1850,  Mr.  Johnson  resumed  his  pro- 
fession in  Baltimore.  In  connection  with  Thomas  Harris, 
he  published  seven  volumes  of  reports  of  the  Maryland 
court  of  appeals,  (from  iSoo  to  1826.)  He  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  six  years,  (1863-69,) 
and  appointed  minister  to  England  in  June,  1868.  He 
negotiated  in  relation  to  the  Alabama  claims  a  conven- 
tion which  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  rejected  al- 
most unanimously.  He  was  recalled  early  in  1869.  Died 
February  10,  1876. 

Johnson,  (Richard,)  a  commentator  and  gramma- 
rian, born  in  England.  Among  his  works  are  "  Noctes 
Nottinghamica:,"  and  "Grammatical  Commentaries." 
Died  in  1721. 

Johnson,  (Richard  Mentor,)  ninth  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  near  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
in  1780.  He  studied  at  Transylvania  University,  and 
practised  law  with  success.  PLlected  a  representative 
to  Congress  in  1807,  he  zealously  supported  the  admin- 
istration of  President  Madison,  and  was  regularly  re- 
elected for  a  period  of  twelve  years.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  1812,  he  raised  and  commanded  a 
regiment  of  mounted  riflemen  on  the  Indian  frontier.  In 
1813  he  again  took  the  field,  and  contributed  greatly  to 
Harrison's  victory  of  the  Thames,  (October  5,  1813.) 
The  Indian  chief  Tecumseh,  who  fell  in  this  battle,  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  killed  by  Colonel  John- 
son, who  was  dangerously  wounded.  In  1819  he  was 
transferred  to  the  United  States  Senate,  of  which  he 
was  a  member  for  ten  years.  He  was  again  returned  to 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  1829,  and  was  regularly 
re-elected  till  chosen  Vice-President  in  1837,  Van  Buren 
being  the  President.  None  of  the  candidates  for  Vice- 
President  having  on  that  occasion  received  a  majority 
of  votes  in  the  electoral  college.  Colonel  Johnson  was 
elected  by  the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  again 
the  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  on  the  ticket  with 
Van  Buren  in  1840,  but  was  defeated.     Died  in  1850. 

Johnson,  (Richard  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1827,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1849.  11^  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862-January  2,  1863,  and  at  Chick 
amauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863.  He  served  under 
General  Sherman  in  Georgia  in  May,  1864- 

Johuson,  (Robert,)  an  English  composer  of  sacred 
music,  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Little  is  known  of  his  life  beyond  the  fact  that  he 
was  an  ecclesiastic.  There  was  another  Robert  Johnson, 
who  composed  music  for  the  London  theatres  from  about 
1610  to  1621. 

Johnson,  (Rossiter,)  an  American  author,  born  at 
Rochester,  New  York,  January  27,  1840,  graduated  at 
Rochester  University  in  1S63.  He  is  the  author  of 
"Phaeton    Rogers,"  (rS8i,)  "Idler  and    Poet,"  poems. 


a.e,  T,  o,  u,  y, /^;/5".i,  fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  j/zor/;  a,  e,  j,  9,  ^^jr«r<';  (3r,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ii5i;  good;  moon; 


JOHNSON 


1393 


JOHNSON 


(1882,)  "  History  of  the  War  of  1812,"  (1882,)  "  History 
of  the  Old  French  War,"  (1883,)  etc.,  and  editor  of 
various  books  and  series. 

John'spn,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine,  memorable 
for  his  undaunted  support  of  the  Protestant  cause,  was 
born  in  Staffordshire  in  1649.  Soon  after  he  had  taken 
orders  he  removed  to  London.  He  became  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  bill  of  exclusion  against  James,  Duke 
of  York,  and  published  a  tract  entitled  "Julian  the 
Apostate,"  (1682,)  in  which  he  refuted  the  arguments  in 
favour  of  passive  obedience.  For  writing  this  article  he 
was  tried  and  imprisoned  ;  but  during  his  confinement  he 
issued  several  treatises  against  popery.  In  16S6  he  wrote 
"An  Humble  and  Hearty  Address  to  all  the  English 
Protestants  in  the  Present  Army."  For  the  production 
of  tills  essay  he  was  sentenced  to  stand  three  times  in 
the  pillory,  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  hundred  marks,  and  to 
be  publicly  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn.  He  bore 
all  these  sufferings  with  great  firmness,  lie  subsequently 
wrote  in  favour  of  the  Revolution,  and  also  of  William 
of  Orange,  on  whose  accession  he  was  rewarded  with 
a  present  of  ;^  1000  and  an  annuity  of  ;^300.  Died  in 
1703. 

Johnson,  (Samuel,)  an  eccentric  English  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  Cheshire  about  1705.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  comedies,  "  Hurlothrumbo,  or  the  Supernatural." 
Died  in  1773. 

See  IjAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatic.!." 

Johnson,  (Samuel,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Eng- 
lish writers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  son  of  Michael 
Johnson,  a  bookseller,  was  born  at  Lichfield,  September 
18,  1709.  He  commenced  his  studies  in  his  native  town, 
and  subsequently  continued  them  at  a  school  in  Stour- 
bridge. In  1728  he  entered  Pembroke  College,  Oxford. 
From  boyhood  he  had  been  afflicted  with  the  scrofula, 
which  greatly  impaired  his  eyesight  and  weakened  his 
constitution.  To  this  may  be  attributed  the  natuial  in- 
dolence which  he  never  fully  succeeded  in  overcoming. 
Notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  he  acquired  such  stores 
•of  knowledge  that,  when  he  was  examined  at  Oxford, 
one  of  the  otificers  pronounced  him  to  be  the  best  pre- 
pared among  all  those  who  had  entered  since  his  re- 
membrance. Three  years  afterwards  he  was  under  the 
necessity  of  leaving  college,  on  account  of  the  narrowness 
of  his  resources.  The  same  year,  his  father  dying  under 
pecuniary  embarrassments,  he  obtained  employment  as 
usher  to  a  school  in  Market-Bosworth.  The  duties  of 
this  office,  however,  soon  became  so  irksome  that  he 
threw  it  up  and  removed  to  Birmingham,  where  he  had 
made  an  engagement  to  contribute  to  a  newspaper.  It 
was  there,  also,  that  he  produced  his  first  book,  an 
abridged  translation  from  the  French  of  "  Father  Lobos' 
Voyage  into  Abyssinia,"  for  which  he  received  the  small 
compensation  of  five  guineas.  In  1736  he  married  Mrs. 
Porter,  the  widow  of  a  mercer.  This  lady  is  described 
as  being  nearly  twice  his  age,  and  as  having  vulgar 
manners,  a  loud  voice,  and  florid  complexion.  Johnson 
said,  however,  that  it  was  a  love-match  on  both  sides. 

Not  long  after,  he  attempted  to  establish  an  academy  at 
Edial  Hall,  where  he  obtained  only  three  pupils,  one  of 
whom  was  David  Garrick.  In  1737  he  went  to  London, 
accompanied  by  Garrick.  In  a  short  time  he  produced, 
in  imitation  of  the  third  Satire  of  Juvenal,  a  poem  on 
London,  which  attracted  great  attention.  Pope  remarked 
"that  the  author,  whoever  he  was,  would  not  be  long 
concealed."  It  was  in  the  metropolis  that  Johnson 
formed  a  friendship  for  the  poet  Savage,  with  whom  he 
Teqaently  walked  the  streets  at  night  because  they  were 
too  poor  to  procure  lodgings.  In  1740  he  wrote  the 
parliaiiientarv  speeches  for  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,'" 
and  in  1744  published  the  "Life  of  Richard  Savage." 
Three  years  later  he  commenced  his  English  Dictionary, 
[n  March,  1749,  die  first  number  of  the  "  Rambler"  was 
issued.  Johnson  coi.tiiiued  this  periodical  until  his  wife's 
death,  in  1752,  which  affected  his  mind  so  deeply  that  he 
suspended  many  of  his  literary  labours.  In  1762  George 
III.  granted  him  a  pension  of  ;^300  per  annum;  and 
from  that  time  he  was  enabled  to  live  in  ease  and  inde- 
pendence. He  became  a  meuiber  of  the  famous  literary 
club  to  which  Burke,  Goldsmith,  Reynolds,  and  many 
other  celebrated  men  belonged.    He  received  the  degree 


of  LL.D.  in  1765  from  the  University  of  Dublin,  but  did 
not  assume  the  title  until  several  years  later,  when  the 
same  honour  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  University  of 
C>xford.  He  was  also  treated  with  marked  attention  by 
the  king,  to  whom  he  was  introduced  at  the  library  in 
Buckingham  House.  In  1773  he  made  an  excursion  to 
the  \Vestern  Islands  of  Scotland,  of  which  he  wrote 
an  account,  and  two  years  later  visited  Paris.  In  1781 
he  finished  the  "Lives  of  the  British  Poets,"  the  last  of 
his  literary  works.  He  died  in  1784,  from  the  effects 
of  dropsy  and  asthma. 

Johnson's  intellect  was  incisive,  comprehensive,  and 
profound  ;  and,  when  free  from  the  influence  of  prejudice 
or  passion,  his  judgments  are,  generally  speaking,  re- 
markably just.  He  seemed  to  seize,  instantaneously  and 
without  effort,  the  essential  features  of  the  subject  undei 
discussion,  and  his  decisions  are  often  expressed  with  a 
clearness  and  force  that  make  a  vivid  and  indelible  im- 
pression upon  the  minds  of  his  readers.  He  was  pre- 
eminently distinguished  for  his  conversational  powers  ; 
in  society  he  was  original,  pointed,  logical,  and  fond  of 
argument,  in  which  no  one  but  Burke  could  successfully 
encounter  him.  Much  of  the  intolerance  and  ill  temper 
which  he  too  often  betrayed  on  such  occasions  must  be 
ascribed  to  distressing  and  deep-rooted  bodily  infirmi- 
ties, which  powerfully  reacted  upon  his  mind.  If  his 
disposition  was  irritable,  his  heart  was  essentially  kind 
and  generous.  Few  persons,  with  means  so  limited  as 
his,  ever  spent  more  for  charitable  or  benevolent  pur- 
poses. "He  loved  the  poor,"  says  Mrs.  Thrale,  "as  I 
never  yet  saw  any  one  else  love  them.  .  ,  .  He  nursed 
whole  nests  of  people  in  his  house,  where  the  lame,  the 
blind,  the  sick,  and  the  sorrowful  found  a  sure  retreat." 
Francis  Barber,  the  servant  and  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
was  originally  a  Jamaica  slave.  It  is  related  that  John- 
son, on  making  his  will,  asked  his  physician  what  would 
be  a  sufficient  annuity  for  a  faithful  servant.  Being  told 
that  fifty  pounds  a  year  would  be  regarded  as  adequate 
in  the  case  of  a  nobleman,  "  Then,"  he  said,  "  I  shall 
be  nobilissiviiis;  for  I  mean  to  leave  Frank  seventy  pounds 
a  year."  "That,  with  all  his  coarseness  and  irrita- 
bility," says  Macaulay,  (who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of 
any  undue  partiality  to  Johnson,)  "  he  was  a  man  of 
sterling  benevolence,  has  long  been  acknowledged.  But 
how  gentle  and  endearing  his  deportment  could  be  was 
not  known  till  the  '  Recollections  of  Madame  D'Arblay  ' 
were  published."  Although  certainly  not  wanting  in  a 
proper  respect  for  dignities,  he  possessed  a  true  Saxon 
independence  of  character,  of  which  his  well-known  letter 
to  Lord  Chesterfield  furnishes  a  fine  illustration.  He 
was  a  sincere  and  humble  believer  in  the  great  truths 
of  Christianity,  which  he  ably  upheld  and  defended. 

Johnson  was  great  in  all  the  branches  of  literature  to 
vihich  he  devoted  his  attention.  Few  men  have  exerted 
so  great  an  influence  while  living, — an  influence  which 
\\\\\  probably  be  felt  kir  into  the  future.  His  poems, 
which  are  chiefly  descriptive  and  satirical,  h.ave  been 
L^reatly  admired  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  critics. 
"  I  have  had,"  said  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  more  pleasure 
in  reading  'London'  and  the  'Vanity  of  Human  Wishes' 
than  any  other  poetical  composition  that  I  can  mention." 
Of  the  latter  Byron  remarks,  "  'Tis  a  grand  poem,  all 
the  examples  and  mode  of  giving  them  sublime."  His 
romances  and  plays  attracted  less  attention.     He  was 

?iarticularly  unsuccessful  with  his  female  characters, 
iurke  aptly  remarked  that  among  his  dramatis  personae 
"all  the  ladies  introduced  were  Johnsons  in  petticoats." 
His  excellence  in  literary  criticism  lies  in  his  strength, 
perspicuity,  and  originality  of  thought.  His  critical 
observations  are  generally  extremely  just  (as  already 
intimated)  when  not  biased  by  prejudice.  He  had  not, 
however,  that  nice  discrimination  or  sensibility  requisite 
in  order  to  apjireciate  poetical  beauties  of  a  delicate  or 
subtle  kind.  His  most  important  critical  works  are  the 
"  Preface  and  Notes  to  Shakspeare,"  and  "  The  Lives 
of  the  British  Poets."  His  English  Dictionary,  upon 
which  he  bestowed  vast  labour  for  several  years,  is 
probably  the  most  remarkable  work  of  the  kind  ever 
produced  by  a  single  person.  His  style,  precise  and 
stately,  was  much  admired  and  imitated  during  his 
lifetime ;  but  at  present  the  prevailing  taste  in  literature 


cas/t,-  gas  J.-  ghiini:  g  asy" ;  G,  H,  K.  '^uft;i),d:  N,  uasdl;  u,  tri  led;  sas  z:  th  as  '\x\this.     (2l!^~'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

88 


JOHNS  O  A 


1394 


JOHNSTON 


has  pronounced  it  too  artificial  and  elaborate  to  be  ever 
used  as  a  model. 

See  lioswELl,  "  Life  of  Johnson  ;"  review  of  Crokbr's  edition 
of  Boswell's  "Life  of  Jolmsoii,"  in  Macaulay's  "Essays;" 
"Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Johnson,"  by  ^IADAMK  Piozzi,  ^MRs.  Thralh,) 
1786;  Anderson,  "Life  of  Johnson,"  1795;  Thomas  Carlylr, 
"Heroes  and  Hero- Worship ;"  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose 
Works;  Gary,  "Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke 
Wliite  ;"  "  Quarterly  Review"  lor  November,  18.31,  June,  1850,  April, 
1858,  and  January,  185(3 ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1S31 ; 
see,  also,  the  excellent  and  elaborate  article  in  Allibone's  "  Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Johnson,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  born  in  Guilford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1696,  graduated  at  Yale  in  17 14.  Having 
become  an  Episcopalian,  he  took  holy  orders  in  England 
in  1722,  and  on  his  return  settled  at  Stratford.  He  was 
chosen  president  of  King's  College  in  1754.  This  posi- 
tion he  resigned  in  1763.  Died  in  1772.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  System  of  Morality." 

Johnson,  (Samuel,)  an  American  author,  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  October  10,  1S22.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1842,  and  at  the  Cambridge  Di- 
vinity School  in  1S43.  He  became  a  ]5reacher  of  the 
Free  Religious  movement.  He  was  one  of  the  compilers 
of  two  collections  of  hytnns  for  advanced  Unitarian  con- 
gregations, and  was  himself  the  author  of  some  fine 
\ymns.  He  published  "The  Worship  of  Jesus,"  (iS68,) 
and  a  laborious  work  on  "Oriental  Religions,"  (1872 
et  seq.)  Me  was  an  able  orator  and  writer,  and  a  man  of 
pure  and  noble,  but  somewhat  eccentric,  life.  Died 
February  19,  1882. 

Johnson,  (Samuel  Frost,)  an  American  painter,  born 
in  New  York  city,  November  9,  1835.  He  studied  art 
in  New  York,  Dusseldorf,  (i860,)  and  Antwerp,  (1863.) 
After  his  return  to  New  York  he  became  a  professor  in 
the  art-schools  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum. 

Johnson,  (Samuel  William,)  an  American  chemist, 
born  at  Kingsborough,  New  York,  July  3,  1830,  was 
educated  in  the  scientific  school  at  New  Haven,  and  in 
the  German  universities.  In  1856  he  became  professor 
of  agricultural  chemistry  at  Yale  College.  Among  his 
flooks  are  "Essays  on  Manures,"  (1859,)  "Peat  and  its 
Uses,"  (1866,)  "  How  Crops  Grow,"  (1868,)  "  How  Crops 
P'eed,"  etc. 

Johnson,  (Thomas,)  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  royal 
army,  distinguished  as  a  botanist,  was  born  at  Selby, 
in  Yorkshire.  He  received  from  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford the  title  of  M.D.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
'he  siege  of  Basinghouse,  in  1644.  He  wrote  several 
botanical  works. 

Johnson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
O.xfordshire,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  in  1692 
he  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  He  edited  Sophocles, 
(1705,)  and  other  classical  works.     Died  about  1750. 

Johnson,  (Virginia  Wales,)  an  American  novelist, 
born  in  P)rook!yn,  New  York,  December  28,  1849.  Her 
principal  books  are"  Kettle  Club  Series,"  (1870,)  "Joseph 
the  Jew,"  (1873,)  "A  Sack  of  Gold,"  (1874,)  "The  Cal- 
derwood  Secret,"  "Miss  Nancy's  Pilgriinage,"  "The 
Catskill  Fairies,"  "A  Foreign  Marriage,"  "The  Nep- 
tune Vase,"  "The  English  Daisy  Miller,"  etc. 

Johnson,  (Walter  Rogers,)  an  American  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  in  Leominster,  Massachusetts,  about 
1794.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1819;  and,  while 
professor  of  mechanics,  natural  philosophy,  etc.  in  the 
Philadelphia  High  School,  he  contributed  largely  by 
lectures  and  essays  towards  introducing  an  improved 
system  of  common-school  education  in  Pennsylvania. 
He  afterwards  made  important  investigations  in  the 
geology  of  that  State,  particularly  the  coal  formations, 
filled  forfour  years  (1839-43)  the  chair  of  chemistry  in 
the  Medical  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1844 
published,  by  order  of  Congress,  his  "Report  on  the 
Different  Varieties  of  Coal."     Died  in  1852. 

Johnson,  (William,)  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1 77 1.  He  was  a  brother  of  Joseph,  noticed  above. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton,  with  the  highest  honours  of 
his  class,  in  1790,  rose  to  distinction  at  the  bar  of  his 
native  Slate,  and  was  appointed  judge  by  Jefferson  in 
1801.  He  died,  while  undergoing  a  surgical  operation, 
in  New  York,  in  1834.     He  published  "The  Life  and 


Correspondence  of  Major-General   Greene,"   (2  vols., 

1822.) 

Johnson,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  military  officer, 
born  about  1 71 5,  was  employed  in  North  America,  and 
had  great  intliience  over  the  Indians.  He  commanded 
an  exjiedition  sent  against  Crown  Point  in  1755,  and 
defeated  the  French  and  their  Indian  allies.  He  wrote 
a  short  work  "On  the  Customs  and  Languages  of  the 
American  Indians."     Died  in  New  York  in  1774. 

See  "Life  and  Times  of  Sir  W.  Johnson,"  by  W.  L.  Stone,  1865. 

Johnson,  (William  B.,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  near 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1782.  He  presided  over 
the  Baptist  Convention  of  South  Caiolina  for  twenty-five 
years  or  m<ire.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious 
works.     Died  in  1862. 

Johnson,  (William  Samuel,)  F.R.S.,  an  eloquent 
American  lawyer  and  scholar,  born  at  Stratford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1727,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1744.  Having 
been  sent  as  a  colonial  agent  to  England  in  1766,  he 
became  an  acquaintance  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Johnson, 
with  whom  he  corresponded  for  many  years.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1785,  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  formed  the  P'ederal  Constitution  in  1787, 
and  was  elected  a  United  States  Senator  for  Connecticut 
in  1789.  He  was  president  of  Columbia  College,  New 
York,  from  1791  until  1800.      Died  in  1S19. 

Johns'tpn,  (Aluert  Sydney,)  an  eminent  American 
general,  born  in  Mason  county,  Kentucky,  in  1803, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826.  Having  resigned  his 
commission  in  1834,  he  enlisted  as  a  jjrivate  soldier  in 
the  army  of  Texas  in  1836.  He  soon  became  C(;nimander- 
in-chief,  in  ])lace  of  F.  Houston,  with  whom  he  fought 
a  duel  about  1S37.  He  was  secretary  of  war  of  the 
republic  of  Texas,  1838-40,  and  served  as  colonel  of 
the  army  of  the  United  States  in  the  Mexican  war, 
(1846-47.)  In  1849  he  was  appointed  paymaster  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States.  Having  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  colonel,  he  commanded  the  expedition  sent  to 
Utah  against  the  Mormons  in  1857.  In  1S60  he  took 
command  of  the  department  of  the  Pacific.  He  offered 
his  services  to  the  secessionists  in  1861,  and  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  department  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee.  He  occupied  a  fortified  position  at 
Bowling  Green  in  the  autuinn  of  1861.  The  capture 
of  Fort  Donelson,  February  16,  1862,  having  rendered 
this  position  untenable,  he  moved  hastily  southward 
into  Tennessee,  and  formed  a  junction  with  the  army 
of  General  Beauregard  at  Corinth.  About  six  weeks 
were  spent  in  this  disastrous  retreat.  He  collected  a 
force  of  about  50,000  men  at  Corinth,  and  attacked  the 
army  of  General  Grant  at  Shihjh  on  the  6th  of  April, 
1862.  He  was  killed  about  two  p.m.  on  the  first  day 
of  this  battle,  by  a  ball,  which  cut  an  artery  of  his  leg. 
"A.  S.  Johnston,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "was  probably 
the  ablest  commander  at  any  time  engaged  in  the  rebel 
service."    ("American  Conflict.") 

See  Life  of  A.  S.  Johnston  in  "Southern  Generals,"  (anony- 
mous,) 1865;  Tenney,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebel- 
lion," :86s. 

Johns'tpn,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1S16.  His  works  mostly  represent  familiar 
scenes  of  Scottish  life,  or  events  in  Scottish  history. 

Johnston,  (Alexander,)  an  American  ]5ublicist,  born 
at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  April  29,  1S49.  He  graduated 
at  Rutgers  College  in  1870,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1876,  and  in  1883  was  appointed  professor  of  juris- 
prudence and  ])olitical  economy  in  Princeton  College. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  American  Politics," 
(1879,)  "The  Genesis  of  a  New  England  State:  Con- 
necticut," (18S3,)  and  a  small  "  History  of  the  United 
States,"  (1S84.)     Died  July  20,  i88q. 

Johnston,  (Alexander  Keith,)  an  eminent  geog- 
rapher, was  born  at  Kirkhill,  in  Scotland,  in  1S04.  In 
order  to  be  thoroughly  informed  upon  geography,  he 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  French,  Spanish, 
Italian,  and  German  languages.  His  first  important 
work,  the  "National  Atlas,"  was  issued  in  1S43.  In 
1848  he  published  a  valuable  "Physical  Atlas,"  which 
greatly  extended  the  celebrity  of  its  author.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Geographical  Societies  of  Ber- 
lin and  Paris,  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and 


a,  e,  T,  f).  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ti, y,  short;  gi,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fdt;  m^t;  n3t;  good;  moon; 


JOHNSTON 


1395 


JOHNSTONE 


the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  Of  the  other  works 
of  Mr.  Johnston  may  be  mentioned  "A  Dictionary  of 
Geography,"  (1850,)  and  an  "Atlas  of  the  Historical 
Geography  of  Europe."     He  died  July  9,  1871. 

See  "  BhicUwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849. 

Johnston,  (Dr.  Akthuk,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
poet,  eminent  for  his  classical  learning,  was  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire in  1587.  He  pursued  his  studies  mostly  on 
the  continent,  and  in  1610  received  the  degree  of  M.D. 
at  Padua.  He  afterwards  resided  at  Paris  several  years, 
and  on  his  return  to  England,  in  1632,  was  appointed 
physician-in-ordinary  to  Charles  I.  Died  in  1641.  He 
contributed  to  Sir  John  Scott's  collection  of  Latin 
poems,  and  composed,  in  Latin,  "  Poetical  Paraphrases 
of  the  Psalms  of  David,"  (1637.)  "I  am  inclined  to 
think,"  says  Hallam,  "that  Johnston's  Psalms  do  not 
fall  far  short  of  those  of  P)uchanan,  either  in  elegance 
of  style  or  in  correctness  of  Latinity." 

See  Irving,  "Lives  of  Scottish  Writers;"  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
eraphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnston,  (Ellen,)  a  Scottish  poetess,  born  at  Ham- 
ilton, the  daughter  of  a  mason,  was  a  factory-girl.  She 
published  "  Poems  and  Songs,''  (1S69,)  which  have  merit. 
She  died  young,  in  a  poor-house  at  Glasgow,  in  1873. 

Johnston,  (Gabriel,)  a  native  of  Scotland,  was  ap- 
pointed colonial  governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1734; 
died  in  1752. 

Johnston,  (George,)  a  distinguished  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Simprin  in  1789,  and  graduated  as  a  physician  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1819.  Among  his  inter- 
esting and  valuable  contributions  to  science  may  be  men- 
tioned "  History  of  British  Zoophytes,"  (1838,)  "History 
of  British  Sponges  and  Lithophytes,"  (1842,)  pajjers  on 
"  British  and  Irish  Annelides,"  a  work  on  Conchology, 
(1850,)  and  "  Botany  of  the  Eastern  Borders,"  (1854.) 
He  practised  medicine  at  Berwick-on-Tweed  for  many 
years.     Died  in  1855. 

See  a  notice  of  G.  Johnston  in  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine" 
for  Septeinber,  1855. 

Johnston,  (James  F.  W.,)  a  noted  agricultural  chem- 
ist, was  born  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland,  about  1796.  He 
studied  in  Sweden,  under  Berzelius.  In  1833  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Durham.  He  also  visited  America,  where  he  became 
distinguished  as  an  agricultural  chemist.  Among  his 
works  are  the  "  Eleinents  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and 
Geology,"  (1842,)  "  Catechism  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 
and  Geology,"  (1S44,)  a  work  which  has  been  translated 
into  nearly  every  European  language,  "Contributions 
to  Scientilic  Agriculture,"  (1849,)  "  Nf)tes  on  North 
America,"  (1851,)  and  "  Chemistry  of  Common  Life," 
(2  vols.,  1854-55.)  Died  in  1855. 

Johnston,  (Joh.\,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  scholar,  was 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  College  of  Saint  Andrew's. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "  Heroes  ex  Omni  His- 
toria  Scotica  Lectissiini,"  (1603.)     Died  in  1612. 

Johnston,  (John,)  an  eminent  physician  and  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  Poland  in  1603.  He  graduated  at 
the  Universities  of  Leyden  and  Cambridge.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  in  Latin,  the  "  Wonders  of  Nature, 
divided  into  Ten  Classes,"  which  was  a  natural  history 
of  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  and  insects.     Died  in  1675. 

Johnston,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scientist, 
born  at  Bristol,  Maine,  August  23,  1806.  He  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College  in  1832,  and  was  professor  of  natural 
science  in  Weslej-an  University,  1837-79.  He  wrote  a 
"Manual  of  Chemistry,"  (1840,)  "Natural  Philosophy," 
(1846,)  "  Primary  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1858,)  "  History 
of  Bristol  and  Bremen,  Maine,"  (1873,)  and  many  scien- 
tific papers.  Died  at  Clifton,  New  York,  December  2, 
1879. 

Johnston,  (Joseph  Eggleston,)  an  able  American 
general,  born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Va.,  February  3, 
1807.  His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Wood,  was 
a  niece  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1829,  gained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1846,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war,  1846-47.  In  June, 
i860,  he  was  appointed  quartermaster-general,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  resigned  his  commission 
in  April,  1861,  and  was  immediately  appointed  a  major- 
general,  or  gejieral,  by  Jefferson  Davis.     He  took  com- 


mand of  a  force  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  May,  1861,  anrl  was 
opposed  in  that  vicinity  by  General  Patterson.  Having 
eluded  Patterson,  he  moved  his  army  rapidly  to  Ma- 
nassas, and  effected  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Beau- 
regard on  the  20th  or  2ist  of  July.  General  Johnston 
was  superior  in  rank  to  Beauregard,  but  he  waived  his 
claim  to  precedence  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21. 
He  remained  inactive  at  Manassas  Junction  during  the 
autumn  of  1861  and  the  ensuing  winter.  About  the  8th 
of  March,  1862,  he  changed  his  base  and  retired  behind 
the  Rapidan.  He  soon  moved  his  army  to  the  peninsula 
to  oppose  McClellan,  and,  having  been  repulsed  at  Wil- 
liamsburg, May  5,  retreated  towards  Richmond.  On 
the  31st  of  May  he  attacked  a  part  of  the  Union  army  at 
Fair  fJaks,  or  Seven  Pines.  In  this  battle  he  received 
a  severe  wound,  which  disabled  him  for  several  months. 
In  November,  1862,  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 
a  dci^artment  comprising  Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  Mis- 
sissippi. He  reported  in  April,  1863,  that  he  was  still 
unfit  for  active  service  in  the  field.  After  General  Grant 
ajiproachcd  Yicksburg  from  the  south.  General  Johnston 
moved  a  small  army  to  relieve  that  place,  and  reached 
Jackson  on  the  13th  of  May.  He  was  defeated  on  the 
14th,  abandoned  Jackson,  and  retreated  to  Canton.  On 
the  29th  of  May  he  wrote  to  General  Pemberton,  "  I  am 
too  weak  to  save  Vicksburg.  Can  do  no  more  than 
attempt  to  save  you  and  your  garrison."  In  December 
1863,  he  took  command  in  person  of  the  army  which  had 
recently  been  defeated  by  General  Grant  near  Chatta- 
nooga, and  which  was  required  to  oppose  the  advance 
of  General  Sherman  towards  Atlanta.  He  began  this 
campaign  with  about  55,000  men,  occupying  a  strong 
and  fortified  position  at  Dalton,  Georgia.  This  position 
having  been  turned  by  the  Union  army,  Johnston  fell 
back  to  Resaca,  where  he  was  attacked  on  the  I5tli  of 
May.  After  a  severe  battle,  he  retreated  in  the  ensuing 
night,  closely  pursued,  and  reached  Cassville,  near  the 
Etowah  River,  on  the  19th.  Having  crossed  the  Etowah 
under  cover  of  the  night.  General  Johnston  made  another 
stand  in  the  strong  position  of  Allatoona  Pass,  to  dis- 
lodge him  from  which  General  Sherman  ordered  a  flank 
movement  to  Dallas.  General  Johnston  attacked  the 
Federals  at  Dallas  on  the  28th  of  May,  was  repulsed, 
and  on  the  4th  of  June  retreated  to  ICenesaw  Mountain. 
On  the  27th  of  Jmie,  General  .Sherman  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful assault  on  the  works  at  Kenesaw,  but  he  resorted 
again  to  a  flank  movement,  wliich  compelled  General 
fohnston  to  abandon  Kenesaw  on  the  2d  or  3d  of  July, 
and  to  retreat  across  the  Chattahoochee.  He  was  re- 
inoved  from  the  command  on  the  i8th  of  July,  1864. 
Before  this  date  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  general, 
the  highest  in  the  service.  He  obtained  command  of 
an  army  in  South  Carolina  about  February,  1S65,  and 
on  the  1 8th  of  March  attacked  the  advance  of  General 
Sherman's  army  at  Bentonville,  North  Carolina.  He 
retreated  to  Smithfield  on  the  21st  of  March,  and 
surrendered  his  army  to  General  Sherman  on  the  26th 
of  April,  1865,  on  the  same  terms  as  were  granted  to 
General  Lee.      Died  March  21,  1891. 

See  a  "  Life  of  General  J.  E.  Johnston"  in  "  Smitliern  Generals," 
(865,  and  Johnston's  own  "  Narrative  of  Military  Operations,"  1S74. 

Johnston,  (Keith,)  a  Scottish  geographer,  a  son  of 
A.  K.  Johnston,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  November  24, 
1844.  He  travelled  in  Paraguay,  published  various  maps 
and  geographical  papers,  edited  and  rewrote  a  work  on 
"Africa,"  (1878,)  and  one  on  general  geography.  In 
1S79  he  started  on  an  expedition  from  the  east  coast  of 
Africa  into  the  interior,  but  died  at  Berobero,  June  28, 
1879. 

Johnston,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  historical  writer,  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  (1642,  in 
Latin.)     Died  about  1636. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnstone  (jons'ton)  or  Johnston  of  Warriston, 
(Archibald,)  a  Scottish  statesman,  and  leader  of  the 
Presbyterians.  He  held  several  high  offices,  and  was 
an  adherent  of  the  Parliament  in  the  civil  war  which 
liegan  in  1642.  He  became  lord  advocate  in  1646,  and 
was  created  a  peer  by  Cromwell.  He  %vas  executed  as 
a  rebel  in  166.3, 


(;  as  f ;  g  hard;  g  asy',-  G,  H,  Y^.i^^iittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


^as/{-. 


JOHNSTONE 


^396 


JOLY 


Johnstone,  (Bryck,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine,  born 
in  Dumfriesshire  in  1747.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  which  in  1786  unanimously  conferred  ui)on 
him  the  degree  of  D.D.  Among  his  works  may  be  men- 
tioned "  Commentary  on  the  Revehition  of  Saint  John 
the  Divine,"  (1794,)  "Essay  on  the  Influence  of  Rehgion 
on  Civil  Society  and  Civil  Government,"  and  a  treatise 
on  agriculture.     Died  in  1805. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Bryce  Jolinslone,"  by  Ills  nephew,  John  John- 
stons, iSoS. 

Johnstone,  Johnson,  or  Johnston,  (Charles,)  an 
author,  born  in  Ireland  about  1720,  was  educated  for  the 
bar.  The  most  important  of  his  productions  was  a  po- 
litical romance,  entitled  "Chrysal,  or  the  Adventures  of 
a  Guinea,"  (1760,)  which  met  with  a  great  sale.  I'esidcs 
'ihis,  he  wrote  "The  Reverie,  or  a  Flight  to  the  Paradise 
of  Fools,"  (1762,)  "  Arsaces,  Prince  of  Beilis,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  Calcutta  in  iSoo. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works. 

Johnstone,  (Christian  Isohel,)  a  Scottish  author- 
ess, born  in  Fifeshire  in  17S1.  Her  second  husband  was 
a  Mr.  Johnstone,  whom  she  married  in  1812.  Her  prin- 
cipal works  are  the  novels  "Clan  Albyn"  (1815)  and 
"Elizabeth  de  Bruce,"  (1S27.)  She  also  wrote  "Diver- 
sions of  Ilolycott,"  "Nights  of  the  Round  Table,"  and 
many  tales.     Died  in  1857. 

Johnstone,  (George,)  a  diplomatist  and  post-captain 
in  the  royal  navy,  the  son  of  a  Scottish  baronet.  In  1763 
he  was  made  Governor  of  West  Florida.  During  the 
American  Revolution  he  was  appointed  (in  1778)  one  of 
the  commissioners  sent  with  Lord  Carlisle  to  the  United 
.States  to  treat  with  Congress.     Died  in  17S7. 

Johnstone,  (James,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  physi- 
cian, born  at  Annan  in  1730,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  Paris.  He  was  very  successful  in  malignant  fevers, 
on  which  he  wrote  a  treatise.  He  is  also  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  recommend  the  use  of  mineral  acids  in  those 
diseases.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned 
"  Medical  Essays  and  Observations,  with  Disquisitions 
relating  to  the  Nervous  System,"  (1795.)  ^^^  practised 
at  Worcester,  where  he  died  in  1802. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnstone,  (John,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1768,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  equally 
celebrated  as  a  skilful  physician  and  an  accomjilished 
scholar.  He  wrote  the  "Life  of  Dr.  Parr,"  (1828,)  with 
whom  he  was  very  intimate ;  also  several  medical  works. 
He  practised  in  Birmingham  about  forty  years.  Died 
in  1836. 

See  a  notice  of  J.  Johnstone  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for 
May,  1837. 

Johnstone,  (John  Henry,)  a  celebrated  comic  actor 
and  vocalist,  born  in  Ireland  in  1750;  died  in  1828. 

Johnstone,  jons'ton,  de,  Chevalier,  a  native  of 
Edinburgh,  entered  in  1745  the  army  of  the  Pretender,  to 
whom  he  soon  became  aide-de-camp.  He  served  at  the 
battle  of  Prestonpans  and  in  subsequent  engagements. 
After  the  battle  of  Culloden  he  escaped  to  Paris,  and  re- 
ceived an  appointment  in  the  French  army.  He  wrote, 
in  French,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Rebellion  in  1745  and  1746," 
which  was  translated  and  published  in  London  in  1820. 
Died  in  France  at  an  advanced  age. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1822. 

Joinville,zhw4N'vfeK,  (Edmond,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1801  ;  died  in  1849. 

Joinville,  de,  deh  join'vil  or  zhwdN'v^l',  (Francois 
P'erdinand  Piiilippe  Louis  Marie  d'0rl6ans, ) 
Prince,  the  third  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born 
in  1818.  He  served  in  the  navy,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  for  his  conduct  at  the  attack  on  Vera  Cruz  in 
1838.  In  1840  he  was  sent  to  Saint  Helena  to  bring  the 
remains  of  Napoleon  to  France.  He  commanded  the 
naval  division  which  bombarded  Tangier  in  1844,  and  gave 
an  impulse  to  the  construction  of  steam  ships  of  war  by 
his  "  Note  sur  les  Forces  navales  de  la  France,"  (1844.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Bingrapliie  G^n^rale." 

Joinville,  de,  (Jean  or  Jehan,)  Sire,  a  French  noble- 
man and  chronicler  of  high  reputation,  born  in  Ch.am- 
pagne  in  1224.  He  grew  up  at  the  court  of  Thibaut,  King 
(if  Navarre  and  Count  of  Champagne,  and  in  1248  raised 


several  Iiundred  armed  men  from  among  his  tenants  and 
accompanied  Louis  IX.  in  his  first  crusade  to  the  Holy 
Land.  He  soon  became  a  great  favourite  with  this 
monarch.  Joinville  distinguished  himself  for  bravery  at 
the  capture  of  Damietta  in  Egypt,  and  was  subsecjuently, 
with  Louis,  made  prisoner  at  Mansoorah.  He  returned 
to  France  with  the  king  in  1254.  He  wrote  a  very  in- 
teresting work  entitled  "History  of  .Saint  Louis  IX., 
King  of  France,  by  Jehan  Sire  de  Joinville."  "In  this 
history,"  says  Ambrose  Firmin  Didot,  "which  is  one  of 
the  most  jjrecious  monuments  of  ancient  or  modern 
times,  the  Christian,  the  man  of  the  world,  the  friend  of 
the  king,  and  the  /wi/" historian,  display  themselves  with 
such  naturalness,  simplicity,  and  candour  that  the  reader 
can  penetrate  the  inner  heart  of  the  author  by  the  simple 
recital  which  he  has  given  us.  .  .  .  His  natural  and 
easy  style  has  all  the  charm  of  conversation."  ("Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale.")  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1317. 

See  F.  P'eriel,  "  Notice  sur  Jean  de  Joinville,"  1S53 :  Chezjean, 
"Notice  historique  sur  Sire  de  Joinville,"  1853:  Saintk-Beuve, 
"Causeriesdu  Lundi." 

Jokai,  (Maurice,  or  Maurus,)  (in  Hungarian,  Jokai 
Mou,  yo'koi  moR,)  a  very  eminent  Hungarian  novelist 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Comorn,  February  19,  1825.  He 
for  many  years  was  prominent  in  political  journalism,  and 
has  often  been  elected  to  public  office.  In  the  best  of 
his  numerous  works  the  style  is  brilliant,  and  many  have 
been  translated  into  other  languages.  Among  his  best 
works  are  "The  Hungarian  Nabob,"  "The  White  Rose," 
and  "The  New  Landlord." 

Joliet,  zho'le-i',  (Louis,)  a  French  traveller,  was  one 
of  the  first  white  men  that  explored  the  Mississippi 
River.  He  had  resided  some  time  at  Quebec  before 
1673,  when  he  and  Marquette  were  sent  to  exj^lore  that 
river.  (See  Marquetfe.)  After  the  end  of  that  voyage 
it  appears  that  he  returned  to  Quebec.   Died  about  1730. 

Joliveau  de  Segrais,  zho'le'vo'  deh  seh'gRi',  (Ma- 
rie Madeleine  Nicole  Alexandrine,)  a  French 
poetess,  born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1756;  died  in  1830. 
She  wrote  "  New  Fables  in  Verse,"  etc. 

Jolivet,  de,  deh  zho'le'vi',  (Jean  Baffiste  Moyse,) 
Count,  a  French  advocate,  born  in  1754,  was  elected 
in  1791  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  l)oldly 
denounced  the  Jacobins.  On  the  accession  of  Napoleon 
he  was  created  councillor  of  state.  Died  in  1818.  He 
wrote  various  works  on  political  economy. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Jollivet,  zho'le'vi',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  politician, 
born  in  1799,  wrote  many  works  against  the  abolition  of 
slavery.  He  was  killed  in  Paris  during  the  revolution 
of  February,  1S48. 

Jollivet,  (Pierre  Jules,)  a  French  painter  of  history, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803,  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class 
in  1835.     Died  September  7,  1871. 

Jolloia,  zho'lwS',  (Jean  Baptiste  Prosper,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  engineer,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1776.  He 
was  chief  engineer  of  the  department  of  Seine,  (Paris.) 
He  published  many  works  on  French  antiquities.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  Alfred  Maury,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  B 
P.  JoUois,"  1846;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Joly,  zho'le',  (B^nigne,)  a  French  religious  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1644,  wrote  a  number  of  devotional 
works.     Died  in  1694. 

Joly,  (Claude,)  a  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1607,  wrote  "A  Collection  of  True  Maxims 
for  the  Education  of  a  King,  against  the  Pernicious 
Policy  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  (1652,)  a  copy  of  which 
was  burnt  by  the  common  executioner.  He  became  a 
canon  of  the  Church  of  Paris  in  1631.     Died  in  1700. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Joly,  (Claude,)  a  French  preacher,  born  in  Lorraine 
in  1610,  became  Bishop  of  Agen,  and  left  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  (1692-94.)     Died  in  1678. 

Joly  or  Jolly,  zho'le',  (Francois  Antoine,)  a  French 
comic  poet,  born-  in  Paris  in  1662.  He  wrote  several 
comedies,  and  published  accurate  editions  of  Moliere 
(6  vols.,  1734)  and  Corneille,  (5  vols.)     Died  in  1753. 

Joly,  (Gui,)  a  French  writer,  a  nephew  of  Claude  Joly, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  ilx,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOl.Y 


1397 


JONA  THAN 


iii>t:;cd  above,  became  confidential  secretary  to  Cardinal 
de  Retz.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  the  historical 
"  Memoirs"  from  1648  to  1665,  (1718.)  An  English  trans- 
lation of  this  work  was  published  in  1 755.  His  "  Memoirs" 
are  designed  to  explain  and  complete  those  of  De  Retz. 

Joly,  (Joseph  Rum  a  in,)  a  French  monk  and  writer, 
born  in  1715  ;  died  in  1805. 

Joly,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
1672,  wrote  "The  School  of  Lovers,"  and  "The  Jealous 
Wife."    Died  in  1753. 

Joly  or  Jolly,  (Marie  Elisabeth,)  a  noted  French 
actress,  born  at  Versailles  in  1761.  In  1793  she  was 
imprisoned  by  the  revolutionists,  but  regained  her  free- 
dom on  condition  that  she  should  perform  at  the  theatre 
of  the  Republic.     Died  in  1798. 

Joly,  (Philippe  Louis,)  a  learned  French  ecclesiastic 
and  philologist,  born  at  Dijon  about  1712.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Dictionary  of  Bayle," 
(1748,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  French  Versification,"  (1751.) 
Died  in  1782. 

See  Qu^KARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Joly  de  Bevy,  zho'le'  deh  bi've',  (Louis  Philippe 
Joseph,)  a  French  judge  and  religious  writer,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1736;  died  in  1S22. 

Joly-Clerc,  zho'le'  klaiR,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, wrote  a  number  of  works  on  botany.  Died  in  1817. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  zho'le'  deh  fluh're',  (Guillaume 
Francois,)  a  learned  and  eloquent  French  advocate  and 
magistrate,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  For  more  than 
twenty  years  he  was  attorney-general  in  the  Parliament  of 
Paris.    He  wrote  several  treatises  on  law.    Died  in  1756. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  financier, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1718.  He  succeeded 
Necker  as  minister  of  finances  in  1781,  and  resigned  in 
1783.     Died  in  1802. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  (Jean  Omer — o'maik',)  a  French 
priest,  nephew  of  Guillaume  Franfois,  noticed  above. 
Died  in  1755. 

Joly  de  Maizeroy.     See  Maizeroy. 

Jomard,  zho'mtR',  (Edme  FRANgois, )  a  French 
archaeologist  and  geographer,  born  at  Versailles  in  1777. 
He  accompanied  the  army  to  Egypt  in  1798,  returned 
in  1802,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Egyptian 
commission.  He  contributed  to  the  redaction  of  the 
great  "  Description  of  Egypt,"  and,  as  imperial  com- 
missary, directed  the  engraving  and  impression  of  the 
same  for  twenty  years,  (1807-26.)  The  portions  of  this 
work  written  by  Jomard  were  published  separately, 
with  the  title  of  "Observations  on  Ancient  and  Modern 
EgyjJt,  or  a  Historical  and  Picturesque  Description  of 
its  Monuments,"  (4  vols.,  1830.)  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute.     Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Jombert,  zhoN'baiK',  (Charles  Antoine,)  a  French 
writer  on  art,  born  in  Paris  in  1712;  died  in  1784. 

Jomelli,  yo-mel'lee,  (Niccol6,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Aversa,  near  Naples,  in  1714.  He 
studied  under  Feo,  Leo,  and  Martini.  His  first  opera, 
"  L'Errore  amoroso,"  produced  when  he  was  twenty- 
three  years  of  age,  rendered  him  so  famous  that  he  was 
soon  after  invited  to  Rome,  where  he  composed  two 
more  operas  and  was  patronized  by  the  Cardinal  of 
York.  In  1742  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  formed  an 
intimate  friendship  with  Metastasio  and  gave  instruc- 
tions in  music  to  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  was 
employed  as  musician  or  chapel-master  in  Saint  Peter's 
at  Rome  from  1749  to  1754.  The  Duke  of  Wurtemberg 
having  invited  him  to  enter  his  service  as  chapel-master 
to  the  court,  Jomelli  removed  to  Stuttgart,  where  he 
passed  about  seventeen  years,  ( 1 754-70.)  Died  at  Naples 
in  August,  1774.  Among  his  best  productions  are  operas 
entitled  "  Didone,"  ( 1 745,)  "  Eumene,"  ( 1 746,)  "  Merope," 
{1747,)  and  "Ezio,"  (1748,)  several  oratorios  and  masses, 
and  a  miserere  for  two  voices. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Pietro 
Alfieri,  "Notizie  biografiche  di  N.  Jomelli,"  1845;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  Choron  et  pAYOLLt,  "  Dictionnaire  des 
Musiciens." 

Jomini,  zho'me'ne',  (Henri,)  Baron,  an  able  general 
and  eminent  writer  on  strategy,  was  born  at  Payerne, 
in  the  Swiss  Canton  de  Vaud,  in  1779.     He  entered  the 


French  army,  became  aide-de-camp  to  Ney  about  1804, 
and  presented  to  Bonaparte  on  the  field  of  Austerlitz 
his  "  Treatise  on  the  Grand  Operations  of  War."  A 
few  days  after  this  event  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
stafi'  of  Ney.  He  received  the  title  of  baron  for  his 
conduct  at  Jena  in  1806,  and  was  employed  in  Spain  in 
1S08.  In  i8il  he  became  a  general  of  brigade,  and  in 
1812  French  governor  of  Wilna.  He  contributed  greatly 
to  the  victory  of  Bautzen  in  1813.  His  promotion  having 
been  obstructed  by  the  enmity  of  Berthier,  he  quitted 
the  French  service  in  1813,  and  entered  that  of  Russia, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  became  aide-de- 
camp to  the  emperor  Alexander.  Died  about  April  i, 
1869.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "Traite  des  grandes 
Operations  militaires,  ou  Histoire  critique  et  militaire  des 
Guerresde  Frederic  II  comparees  a  celles  de  la  Revolu- 
tion," (5  vols.,  1805,)  a  "Critical  and  Military  History  of 
the  Campaigns  of  the  Revolution  from  1792  to  1801," 
(15  vols.,  1819-24,)  and  "Precis  de  I'Art  de  la  Guerre," 
(5th  ed.,  2  vols.,  1S38.)  The  works  of  Jomini  aie  among 
the  best  that  have  ever  been  written  on  the  art  of  war. 

See  Pascal,  "Observations  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Baron 
Jomini;"  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
ohie  Generale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix.) 

Jon  Areson.    See  Areson,  (Jon.) 

Joii,  du,  (P'rancis.)     See  Junius. 

Jonee,  yo'ni,  (Peter,)  Bishop  of  Strengnas,  in  Swe- 
den, was  ])rofessor  of  theology  at  Upsal  when  John  HI. 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  Catholic  religion.  Jonae 
boldly  opposed  this  proceeding.     Died  in  1607. 

Jo'nah  or  Jo'nas,  [Heb.  XMV ;  Gr.  'Iwvaf;  Lat. 
Jonas,]  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew  j^rophets,  and  the 
subject  of  the  book  bearing  his  name,  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.,  about  Soo 
B.C.;  but  some  place  him  under  that  of  Jehu. 

See  IL  Kings  xiv.  25 ;  Matthew  xii.  39,  41  ;  Luke  xi.  29,  32. 

Jo'nah  of  Cor'dova,  known  also  as  Marinus,  or 
Merinos,  (in  Arabic,  Aboo-1  Waleed  Merwan  Iun 
Janah,)  an  eminent  Jewish  rabbi,  born  at  Cordova, 
Spain,  about  990  a.d.  He  was  a  very  able  Hebrew  lexi- 
cographer and  grammarian,  and  his  principal  work, 
"  Kitab  el  Tanki'h,"  or  "The  Book  of  Minute  Research," 
is  still  highly  valued. 

Jonas.     See  Jonah. 

Jonas,  yo'nis,  Jonee,  yo'ni,  or  Jonsson,  yon'son, 
(Arngrim,)  a  learned  historian,  antiquaiy,  and  divine, 
born  in  Iceland  about  1568,  is  said  to  have  studied 
astronomy  under  Tycho  Brahe.  Most  of  his  works 
relate  to  the  history  of  Iceland.     Died  in  1648. 

Jonas,  zho'nd',  (Emile,)  a  French  musical  composer, 
of  Jewish   origin,  born  March   5,   1827.     He   jiroduced 
"  Le  Duel  de  Benjamin,"  (1855,)  "  Le   Roi  boit,"  (1857,) 
"  Les  deux  Arlequins,"  (1865,)  "  Le  Canard  a  trois  Bees, 
(1869,)  and  other  ojjeras-bouffes. 

Jonas,  yo'nds,  (Justus,)  an  eminent  German  Re 
former  and  writer,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1493.  He 
became  in  1521  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg 
He  assisted  Luther  in  the  translation  of  the  Old  Tes 
tament,  accompanied  him  to  the  Diet  at  Worms  and  at 
Augsburg,  and  had  a  share  in  the  comi)osition  of  the 
so-called  Torgau  Articles.  He  also  translated  a  numbei 
of  Luther's  works,  and  Melanchthon's  "Defence  (Apol- 
ogy) of  the  Augsburg  Confession,"  from  the  Latin  into 
German.     Died  in  1555. 

See  P.  Ekerman,  "Vita  et  Acta  Dr.  J.  Jonas,"  Upsal,  1761  ;  G. 
C.  Knapp,  "  Narratio  de  Justo  Jona  Theologo,"  etc.,  1S17;  Ersch 
un.l  Gruber,  "  Allgenieine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale  ;"  L.  Reinhard,  "  Life  of  Justus  Jonas,"  (in  Latin,)  1731. 

Jonas  or  Jonae,  (Runolph,)  a  scholar  and  author, 
born  in  Iceland,  graduated  at  Copenhagen,  where  he 
fixed  his  residence  after  1649.  He  wrote  "  Elements 
of  the  Northern  Languages,"  and  "  Rudiments  of  the 
Icelandic  Granunar."     Died  in  1654. 

Jon'a-than,  [Heb.  |njin',]  son  of  King  Saul,  and  the 
most  intimate  friend  of  the  psalmist  David.  The  death 
of  this  ]jrince,  who  fell  with  his  father,  near  Mount  Gilboa, 
while  fighting  the  Philistines,  furnished  the  subject  of 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  David's  songs. 

See  I.  Samuel  xviii.,  xix.,  xx.  ;  II.  Samuel  i.  17-27. 

Jon'athan  Ap'phus,  (af'fus, )  a  celebrated  Jewish 
leader  and  high-priest,  succeeded  his  elder  brother,  Judas 


«  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  h.u-d:  g  asy,-  (',,  H,  Vi, pittural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JONATHAN 


139S 


JONES 


Maccabseus,  in  161  B.C.,  as  chief  ruler  of  bis  nation.  For 
seventeen  years  he  governed  with  wisdom  and  justice,  and 
carried  on  successful  wars  with  many  of  the  surrounding 
nations.  During  the  civil  dissensions  in  the  kingdom 
of  Syria  he  was  decoyed  into  the  city  of  Ptolemais  and 
massacred  with  his  entire  escort. 

Jonathan  Ben  Uz-zi'el  (or  uz'ze-el)  or  U-zi'el, 
a  Jewish  rabbi,  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary 
with  the  prophets  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  lie 
was  the  author  of  the  "Targum,"  a  Chaldaic  paraphrase 
of  most  of  the  Hebrew  prophetical  books. 

Jonckbloet,  yonk'bloot,  (Willem  Joseph  An- 
dreas,) a  Dutch  author,  born  at  the  Hague,  July  6,  1817. 
He  was  educated  at  Leyden,  and  held  professorships  of 
the  Dutch  language  and  literature  at  Groningen  and 
Leyden.  He  published  histories  of  poetry  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  of  Dutch  literature.     Died  in  1885. 

Joncourt,  de,  deh  zh6N'kooR',  (Elie,)  a  Dutch  writer, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1707.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  des  Sciences 
et  des  Arts,"  (50  vols.,  1754-S0,)  and  wrote  various 
works.     Died  about  1775. 

Joncty.s,  yonk'tis,  (Daniel,)  a  Dutch  litteratetcr  and 
physician,  born  at  Dort,  lived  many  years  at  Rotterdam. 
Among  his  works  was  an  able  treatise  against  torture. 
Died  in  1654. 

Jones,  jonz,  (Anson,)  an  American  physician,  Presi- 
dent of  the  reiJublic  of  Texas  at  the  time  of  its  annexation 
was  born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1798. 
He  settled  in  Brazoria,  Texas,  in  1833,  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  political  and  military  movements  which 
resulted  in  the  independence  of  that  republic,  was  min- 
ister to  the  United  States  in  1838,  and  afterwards  for 
three  years  secretary  of  state  under  President  Houston. 
In  1844  he  succeeded  Houston  as  President.  Died  by 
his  own  hand  in  1858. 

Jones,  (Charles  Colcock,)  Jr.,  an  American  author, 
born  at  Savannah,  Georgia,  October  28,  1831.  His 
father  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  C.  C.  Jones,  (1804-63,)  an  emi- 
nent Presbyterian  divine.  The  younger  Jones  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1852.  He  became  a  lawyer, 
was  an  officer  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  after  1865 
removed  to  New  York.  Among  his  works  are  "Ancient 
Tumuli  in  Georgia,"  (1869,)  and  "Antiquities  of  the 
Southern  Indians,"  (1S73.) 

Jones,  jonz,  (David,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  Caer- 
narvonshire, was  also  a  collector  of  Welsh  manuscripts. 
Died  about  1780. 

Jones,  (David  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1S27,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1846.  He  served  as  brigadier-general  in  the  army  of 
General  Lee  at  AiUietam,  September  17,  1862.  Died 
in  1863. 

Jones,  (Edward,)  a  Welsh  musician  and  bard,  born 
in  Merionethshire  ai)out  1750.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Musical  and  Poetical  Relics  of  the  French 
Bards,"  (1784.)     Died  in  1S21. 

Jones,  j5nz,  (Ernest,)  M.P.,  an  English  poet  and 
Chartist.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  Chartist  move- 
ment about  1846.  He  was  imprisoned  about  two  years 
for  his  radical  political  speeches,  (184S-49.)  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Wood  Spirit,"  (1841,)  and  "Chartis* 
Lyrics."  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  ir 
1869,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Jones,  (Griffith,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  Wales  in 
1684,  was  very  active  in  supporting  schools  and  in  cir- 
culating the  Bible  among  his  indigent  countrymen.  He 
wrote  several  educational  treatises  in  Welsh  and  English. 
Died  in  1761. 

Jones,  (Griffith,)  an  English  author,  born  in  1721. 
He  edited  at  different  times  several  ])eriodicals,  and  was 
connected  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  the  "  Literary  Magazine" 
and  with  Goldsmith  in  the  "British  Magazine."  Among 
his  works  are  "Great  Events  from  Little  Causes,"  and 
several  "Liliputian  Histories."     Died  in  1786. 

Jones,  jonz,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  poet  and  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Drogheda  about  1720,  was  by  trade  a 
bricklayer.  His  productions  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  then  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
who  took  him  to  England  and  procured  a  large  sub- 
scription for  his  poems.     Among  his  works  we  may  cite 


the  "Tragedy  of  the  Earl  of  Essex,"  (1753,)  and  "The 
Cave  of  Idra."     Died  in  1770. 

Jones,  (Henry  Bence,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician, 
writer,  and  lecturer  on  medical  subjects,  born  at  Lowes- 
toft in  1813.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1836,  and 
commenced  the  study  of  medicine.  In  1S46  he  was 
elected  j^hysician  to  Saint  George's  Hospital,  and  a  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society.  His  principal  works  were 
"Animal  Chemistry,"  "Lectures  on  Pathology  and 
Tiierapeutics,"  and  "The  Life  and  Letters  of  Faraday." 
Died  in  London,  April  20,  1873. 

Jones,  (Hugh  Bolton,)  an  American  artist,  born  at 
Baltimore,  October  20,  1848.  Among  his  best  i>ictures 
are  "  The  Poplars,"  "  Tangier,"  "  The  Wayside  Pool," 
"The  Return  of  the  Herd,"  "  October,"  "  On  Herring 
Run,"  and  "The  Ferry  Inn."  In  18S3  he  was  elected  to 
the  National  Academy  of  Design,  New  York. 

Jones,  (Inigo,)  a  distinguished  architect,  styled  "the 
English  Palladio,"  was  born  in  London  about  1572. 
Being  apprenticed  to  a  joiner,  his  talent  for  designing 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  who 
furnished  him  with  means  to  travel  through  E^uroi)e. 
While  in  Italy,  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  Christian 
IV.  to  visit  Denmark.  The  sister  of  that  monarch  was 
the  queen  of  James  I.  of  England  ;  and  thus  the  way 
was  paved  to  the  royal  patronage  when  he  reached  his 
native  land  in  1605.  In  a  short  time  he  was  appointed 
architect  to  the  queen  and  to  Prince  Henry,  in  which 
position  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Ben  Jonson.  They 
subsequently  quarrelled,  and  the  poet  ridiculed  him  in 
several  plays.  In  1612  he  visited  Italy  a  second  time; 
and  it  was  at  this  period  that  he  fully  adopted  the  classic 
style  of  architecture,  which  was  then  but  little  known  in 
England.  On  his  return  he  became  surveyor-general  of 
the  royal  buildings.  He  died  in  1653.  Of  the  edifices 
designed  and  constructed  by  him  may  be  mentioned  the 
palace  at  Whitehall,  and  the  west  front  of  Old  Saint 
Paul's.  He  was  an  accomplished  classical  scholar,  and 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "Stonhenge  Restored." 

See  Peter  Cunningham,  "  Life  of  Inigo  Jones,"  184S;  Camp- 
bell, "Vitiuvius  Britannicus,"  5  vols.,  1767;  Britton,  "Dictionary 
•if  Architecture,"  1830-3S. 

Jones,  (JacobJ  Commodore,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Kent  county,  Delaware,  in  1770.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  about  1801,  and  in  October,  1S12, 
commanded  the  sloop-of-war  Wasp,  with  which  he  cap- 
tured the  British  sloop  Frolic,  which  carried  more  guns 
than  the  Wasp.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  post- 
captain  in  1813,  and  obtained  command  of  the  frigate 
Macedonian.     Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1850. 

Jones,  (James  Chamberlain,)  a  United  States  Sen- 
ator, born  in  Davidson  county,  Tennessee,  in  1809.  In 
1 84 1  he  was  chosen  by  the  Whigs  Governor  of  the  State, 
James  K.  Polk  being  his  competitor.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1843,  when  Mr.  Polk  was  again  the  ojiposing  can- 
didate. In  the  National  Whig  Convention  of  1848 
Governor  Jones  strenuously  advocated  the  nomination 
of  Henry  Clay  ;  but  after  the  selection  of  General  Taylor 
as  the  choice  of  the  Convention  he  entered  the  canvass 
warmly  in  his  supjjort,  and  spoke  to  large  audiences 
in  different  States  of  the  Union.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1851,  and  served  the  full  term 
of  six  years.  He  supported  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
in  1S54,  and  thencet'orward  acted  principally  with  the 
Democratic  party.     Died  in  1859. 

Jones,  (Jeremiah,)  a  learned  and  eloquent  English 
dissenting  minister,  born  in  1693,  published  an  important 
work  entitled  a  "New  and  Full  Method  of  Settling  the 
Canonical  Authority  of  the  New  Testament,"  (2  vols., 
1726,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  best  English  work  on  the 
subject.     Died  in  1724. 

Jones,  (John,)  a  physician  and  medical  writer,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  born  in  Wales  about  1500.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  practised  at  Bath,  in  Eng- 
land. Among  his  works  was  "The  Art  and  Science  of 
Preserving  the  Body  and  Soul  in  Health,"  (1579.) 

Jones,  (John,)  a  Benedictine,  born  in  London  in 
1575.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he  roomed  with 
Laud,  afterwards  the  celebrated  archbishop.  Having 
become  a  Roman  Catholic,  he  went  to  Spain,  became  a 
monk,  and  continued  his  studies  at  Compostella.     He 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  k,  b,  6,  same,  less  |jrolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  f^U,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon 


JONES 


1399 


JONES 


I 


was  subsequently  ajjpointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
divinity  at  Douay.  He  was  the  author  of  several  theo- 
logical works.     Died  in  London  in  1636. 

Jones,  (John,)  a  Welsh  antiquary,  who  collected  and 
transcribed  numerous  old  manuscripts  in  his  native  lan- 
guage. P'ifty  large  volumes  of  these  are  yet  preserved, 
ile  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1600. 

Jones,  (John,)  the  author  of  "  Adrasta,  or  the 
Woman's  Spleen,"  (1635,)  and  other  dramatic  works, 
lived  in  England  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 

Jones,  (John,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, born  in  Wales  in  1700,  and  educated  at  Oxford. 
In  1751  he  became  rector  of  Boulne-Hurst,  and  in  1755 
vicar  of  Hitchin.  Four  years  later  he  was  chosen  by  Dr. 
Young,  the  poet,  to  be  his  curate.  He  wrote  "Catholic 
Faith  and  Practice,"  (1765,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  about  1770. 

Jones,  (John,)  LL.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Carmarthenshire  about  1765.  About  1795  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Plymouth  Dock,  and 
afterwards  at  Halifax,  in  Yorkshire.  He  subsequently 
removed  to  London.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
the  use  of  Greek-and-English  dictionaries.  Previous 
to  his  time  the  Greek  had  been  studied  entirely  with  the 
aid  of  books  written  in  Latin.  Of  his  numerous  works 
we  may  mention  "  Illustrations  of  the  Four  Gospels, 
founded  on  Circumstances  peculiar  to  our  Lord  and  the 
Evangelists,"  (1808,)  and  "A  Greek-and-English  Lexi 
con,"  (1823.)     Died  in  1827. 

Jones,  (John,)  a  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Carmar- 
thenshire in  1772,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1803. 
Among  his  works  are  "A  History  of  Wales,"  and 
"  Cyfamod  Newydd,"  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Greek  into  Welsh.     Died  in  1838. 

Jones,  (John  Gale,)  an  English  political  orator,  horn 
in  1771,  advocated  republican  or  radical  opinions.  He 
was  prosecuted  for  some  political  offence,  defended  l^y 
Romilly,  and  acqu  tted.     Died  in  1838. 

Jones,  (John  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia  about  1820,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1853,  and  resigned  his  commis- 
sion in  1861.  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
army  of  General  Lee,  and  was  killed  near  Spottsylvania, 
May  ID,  1864. 

Jones,  (Colonel  Leslie  Grove,)  an  English  political 
writer,  born  in  1779.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula  as 
aide-de-camp  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  con- 
tributed letters  to  the  "London  Times."     Died  in  1839. 

Jones,  (Noble  Wimberly,)  a  physician  and  patriot, 
born  in  Georgia  in  1725.  He  was  an  early  and  active 
promoter  of  the  Revolution,  was  a  delegate  to  Con- 
gress in  1775,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Charleston  in 
1780.  In  1 781  he  was  again  elected  to  Congress.  Died 
in  1805. 

Jones,  (Owen,)  an  antiquary,  born  in  Denbighshire, 
Wales,  in  1740.  He  published  a  large  collection  of 
ancient  Welsh  poetry,  and  the  "Archaeology  of  Wales," 
containing  several  historical  documents.     Died  in  1814. 

Jones,  (Owen,)  an  architect,  born  in  Wales  about 
1809.  In  1837  he  visited  Granada,  and  in  1S42  published 
"  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  the  Al- 
hambra,"  with  a  translation  of  the  Arabic  inscriptions, 
and  a  historical  account  of  the  sovereigns  of  Granada 
from  the  Spanish.  He  chiefly  devoted  his  attention  to 
ornamental  architecture,  in  which  he  soon  acquired 
distinction.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  "Director  of 
Decorations"  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  London.  He 
displayed  his  taste  and  artistic  knowledge  with  a  very 
happy  effect  in  arranging  and  ornamenting  the  various 
courts  of  that  building.  Among  his  writings  are  "De- 
signs for  Mosaic  and  Tessellated  Pavements,"  (1842,)  and 
the  "Grammar  of  Ornament,"  (1856.)     Died  in  1874. 

Jones,  (Paul  ;  originally  John  Paul,)  a  famous  naval 
officer,  born  at  Arbigland,  in  Scotland,  in  1747.  He  emi- 
grated to  Virginia,  entered  the  colonial  naval  service  in 
1775,  was  appointed  a  captain  in  August,  1776,  and  took 
command  of  the  Ranger,  a  vessel  of  eighteen  guns,  about 
June,  1777.  He  sailed  to  Europe  in  that  year,  cruised  on 
the  coast  of  Scotland,  and  made  a  bold  attack  on  White- 
haven, where  he  burnt  some  shijiping.  He  also  captured 
the  Drake,  a  sloop  of  war.     Early  in  1779  he  was  trans- 


ferred to  the  Bonhomme  Richard,  which  carried  about 
forty-five  guns.  Having  several  smaller  vessels  under 
his  command,  he  captured  or  destroyed  many  British 
vessels.  In  September  he  attacked  the  Serapis.  a  frigate 
of  forty-four  guns,  which  surrendered  after  a  long  battle. 
His  own  ship  was  so  much  damaged  in  this  action  that 
she  sank  a  few  hours  after.  Congress  voted  Captain 
Jones  a  gold  medal  for  this  victory.  He  entered  the 
Russian  service,  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  in  1788; 
but,  having  quarrelled  with  one  of  the  Russian  admirals, 
he  was  soon  removed  from  the  command.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  1792. 

See  J.  H.  Sherbourne,  "Life  of  J.  P.  Jones,"  2  vols.,  1835; 
James  Hamilton,  "  Life  of  Rear-Admiral  J.  P.  Jones,"  1S48;  A. 
S.  Mackenzie,  "Life  of  J.  P.  Jones,"  2  vols.,  1841 ;  "  Het  Leven 
van  J.  P.  Jones,"  Groningen,  1829;  W.  G.  Simms,  "Life  of  J.  P. 
Jones,"  1845;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  iii. ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1S25. 

Jones,  (Rice,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  1715.  He  pub- 
lished "Welsh  Anthology,"  (1770.)    Died  in  1801. 

Jones,  (Richard,)  a  Welshman,  published  about 
1654  "Gemma  Cambricum,"  a  work  of  great  ingenuity, 
in  which  all  the  books  and  chapters  of  the  Bible  were 
abbreviated  and  written  in  his  native  dialect. 

Jones,  (Roger,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia. He  fought  against  the  British  on  the  northeri 
frontier  in  1813  and  1814,  and  became  adjutant-general 
in  1825.     Died  in  1852. 

Jones,  (Sa.muel,)  an  American  major-general,  born 
in  Virginia,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  took 
arms  against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded  in 
Western  Virginia  in  1S62-63.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  1864. 

Jones,  (Stephen,)  bom  in  London  in  1763.  He  was 
the  editor  of  the  Whitehall  "Evening  Post,"  the  "Bio- 
graphia  Dramatica,"  and  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary," 
(2d  edition,  1796.)     Died  in  1827. 

Jones,  (Sir  Thomas,)  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas  during  the  reign  of  James  II.  He  openly  opposed 
the  encroachments  of  the  king  on  the  laws  of  England, 
and  was  dismissed  from  office  in  16S6. 

See  Macaulav,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi. 

Jones,  (Thomas  M.,)  born  in  Virginia  about  1835, 
became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army 
about  1862. 

Jones,  (Thomas  Rymer,)  an  English  physician  and 
surgeon,  distinguished  as  a  comparative  anatomist  and 
physiologist,  was  born  about  1810.  He  was  educated 
at  London  and  Paris.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  in  King's  College,  London,  and 
in  1840  became  FuUerian  professor  of  physiology  in 
the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.  In  1844  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Among  his 
works  may  be  mentioned  "  A  General  Outline  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom,"  (1841,)  and  "The  Natural  History 
of  Animals,"  (ist  vol.,  1844.)     Died  December  10,  1880. 

Jones,  (Thomas  Wharton,)  a  British  oculist  and  phy- 
siologist, born  at  Saint  Andrew's,  Scotland,  about  1808. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Tre.itise  on  Oph- 
thalmic Medicine  and  Surgery,"  and  became  professor 
of  ophthalmic  medicine  in  University  College,  London. 

Jones,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  judge  under  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.,  was  born  in  1566.  He  wrote  several 
legal  works,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  king's  bench  in 
1625.     Died  in  1640. 

Jones,  (William,)  an  able  mathematician,  born  in 
the  island  of  Anglesey  in  1680.  He  taught  mathematics 
for  several  years,  and  corresponded  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished scientific  men  of  that  age.  He  was  the  friend 
of  Newton  and  of  Halley,  and  tlie  father  of  the  emi- 
nent Orientalist  Sir  William  Jones.  He  held  the  office 
of  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1749. 
Among  his  productions  are  "A  Compendium  of  the  Art 
of  Navigation,"  (1702,)  and  several  works  in  defence 
of  the  theories  of  Newton. 

Jones  (William)  of  Nayland,  a  learned  Episcopal 
divine  and  multifarious  writer,  born  in  Northampton- 
shire, England,  in  1726,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1749. 
Of  his  productions  we  may  mention  "  Catholic  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  proved  from  Scripture,"  (1756,)  an  "Essay 
on  the  First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1762,) 
"A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Figurative  Language  of 


€  as  k:  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/.*  G,  H,  ifi, giutural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JONES 


1400 


JONSON 


the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (17S6,)  and  two  political  treatises 
against  tlie  French  Revolution,  entitled  "A  Letter  from 
Thomas  Bull  to  his  Brother  John,"  and  "The  Scholar 
armed  against  tlie  Errors  of  the  Times."  He  was  per- 
petual curate  of  Nayland.     Died  in  1800. 

See  William  Stevkns,  "  Life  of  W.  Jones  of  Nayland,"  1801. 

Jones,  [Lat.  Jonk'sius,]  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent 
Orientalist,  son  of  William  Jones,  noticed  above,  (1680- 
1749,^  was  born  in  London  September  28,  1746.  He 
lost  his  father  when  he  was  three  years  of  age  ;  but  his 
mother,  a  lady  remarkable  both  for  her  learning  and 
accomplisliments,  ably  suijerintended  his  education.  In 
1753  he  was  placed  at  the  Harrow  School,  of  which  Dr. 
Thackeray  was  preceptor.  Jones  early  distinguished 
himself  for  his  classical  acquirements,  and  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  entered  University  College,  Oxford,  with  more 
learning  than  many  good  scholars  have  carried  thence. 
The  following  year  he  left  Oxford,  to  become  tutor  to 
the  son  of  Earl  Spencer,  in  whose  family  he  continued 
to  reside  for  five  years.  During  this  period  he  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  the  acquirement  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  He  was  also  versed  in  nearly  all  the  Euro- 
pean tongues.  L>  1768,  at  the  request  of  the  King  of 
Denmark,  he  translated  the  "Life  of  Nadir  Shah"  from 
the  Persian  into  French.  The  year  following  he  issued 
a  valuable  Persian  Grammar.  In  1770  he  began  the 
study  of  law,  and  in  1774  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
In  March,  1783,  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  at  Fort  William,  in  Bengal,  and  re- 
ceived the  order  of  knighthood.  Soon  after  he  married 
Anna  Maria  Shipley,  a  daughter  of  the  Bisho])  of  Saint 
Asaph.  In  the  following  September  Sir  William  Jones 
reached  India,  where  he  continued  to  pursue  his  Oriental 
studies  with  unabated  zeal.  He  also  organized  (about 
17S5)  the  "  Asiatic  Society,"  for  the  ])urpose  of  obtaining 
further  information  relative  to  the  sciences,  antiquities, 
languages,  and  history  of  Asia.  He  died  at  Calcutta 
on  the  27th  of  April,  1794,  after  a  short  illness.  In  the 
branch  of  literature  to  which  he  devoted  his  attention 
he  undoubtedly  surpassed  all  other  Euroijeans.  He  is, 
however,  to  be  equally  esteemed  for  his  noble  qualities 
and  Christian  virtues  as  for  his  vast  erudition.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "  Commentaries  on  Asiatic 
Poetry,"  commenced  in  his  twenty-first  year,  and  contain- 
ing translations  from  the  most  distinguished  Hebrew, 
Persian,  Arabic,  and  Turkish  poets,  treatises  "  On  the 
Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  "  On  the  Second 
Classical  Book  of  the  Chinese,"  "  On  the  Musical  Modes 
of  the  Hindus,"  and  a  translation  of  the  "  Institutes 
of  Manu,"  and  a  prose  translation  of  Kalidasa's  cele- 
brated poem  "  Sacontala,"  ("  Sakoontala,")  both  from 
the  original  Sanscrit.  He  was  also  author  of  several 
works  on  the  laws  of  England  and  of  India. 

See  Lord  Teignmouth,  "  Life  of  Sir  William  Jones,"  1804 ; 
"Autobiography  of  William  Jones,"  published  by  his  son,  London, 
1846;  H.  A.  Hamakpr,  "  Oratio  de  Vita  et  Meritis  G.  Jonesii," 
Leyden,  1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  January,  1S05:  Carv,  "Lives  of  English  Poets  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  White."  \ 

Jones,  (William  Alfred,)  an  American  writer  and 
critic,  was  born  in  1817.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1836.  He  has  contributed  largely  to  various 
periodicals,  and  published  several  volumes  of  essays. 
His  "  Characters  and  Criticisms"  (2  vols.,  1857)  was 
highly  commended  by  Washington  Irving. 

Jones,  (William  Basil,)  D.D.,  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Cheltenham  in  1822.  He  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  in  1844,  was  a  Fellow  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege, 1848-51,  and  of  University  College,  1851-57,  and 
a  tutor,  1854-65.  In  1867  he  became  archdeacon  and 
canon  of  York.  In  1874  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Saint  David's.  Among  his  works  are  "Vestiges  of  the 
Gael  in  Gwynedd,"  (1S51,)  "History  of  Saint  David's," 
(1856,)  "Notes  on  the  CEdipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles," 
(1862,)  "New  Testament,  with  a  Plain  Commentary," 
(1S65,)  and  "The  Peace  of  Go*,"  (1869.) 

Jonesius.    See  Jones,  (Sir  William.) 

Jong,  de,  deh  yong,  (Ludolf,)  a  Flemish  painter 
of  battle-  and  hunting-scenes,  born  near  Rotterdam  in 
1616  ;  died  in  1697. 

Jongelingx,  yong'eh-links',  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  sculp- 


tor, born  at  Antwerp  in  1531.  Among  his  works  is  a 
monument  to  Charles  the  Bold  at  Bruges.   Died  in  1606. 

Jonin,  zho'n^N^,  (Gilukrt,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  poet, 
born  in  Auvergne  in  1596.  He  translated  into  Latin, 
with  many  modifications,  the  Odes  of  Anacreon,  which 
he  published  under  the  title  of  "  The  Christian  Anacreon." 
I  ie  wrote  several  Greek  and  Latin  odes.  Died  at  Touruon, 
March  9,  1638. 

Jonsius,  yon'se-us,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar,  born 
at  Fleiisburg  in  1624.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Scriptoribtis  Historia:  Philosophicas,"  (1659,)  which 
was  once  highly  prized.     Died  at  Leipsic  in  1659. 

Jon'spn  or  Johnson,  (Be.\,)  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated English  poets  and  dramatists,  was  born  at  West- 
minster in  1574.  His  father,  a  Protestant  clergyman, 
died  a  month  j^revious  to  his  birth.  Jonson's  m<jther 
subsequently  married  a  master-bricklayer,  who  sent  him 
to  Westminster,  then  under  the  charge  of  Camden,  to 
whom  he  afterwards  dedicated  the  drama  entitled  "  Every 
Man  in  his  Humour."  Jonson  regarded  his  preceptor 
through  life  with  esteem  and  affection.  In  his  sixteenth 
year  he  entered  the  University  of  Cambridge;  but,  on 
account  of  his  straitened  circumstances,  he  was  c)bliged 
to  leave  college  and  to  assist  his  step-father  as  a  mason. 
Becoming  disgusted  with  this  employment,  he  enlisted 
in  the  army  in  Flanders,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself 
by  his  bravery.  When  he  returned,  as  Gifibrd  observes, 
"he  brought  little  but  the  rejjutation  of  a  brave  man,  a 
smattering  of  Dutch,  and  an  empty  pirse."  He  soon 
afterwards  joined  a  company  of  actors  ;  but,  having  killed 
one  of  them  in  a  duel,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  During  his  confinement 
he  was  converted  by  a  priest  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  Subsequently,  after  a  careful  examination, 
he  renounced  his  adopted  faith,  and  was  again  received 
into  the  communion  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  1598 
he  produced  "  Every  Man  in  his  Humour,"  drama, 
which  at  once  brought  him  into  notice.  One  of  the 
characters  of  this  play  is  said  to  have  been  jDerformed 
by  Shakspeare.  It  was  followed  by  numerous  produc- 
tions, which  added  to  the  fame  he  had  already  acquired. 
About  1605  he  assisted  Chapman  and  Marston  in  \vi  itiiig 
"Eastward  Hoe."  This  was  regarded  as  a  libel  on  the 
Scots,  and  his  associates  were  thrown  into  prison,  whither 
he  voluntarily  accomjjanied  them.  The  three  poets  were 
condemned  to  lose  their  ears  and  noses;  but,  through 
Jonson's  influence  at  court,  they  escaped.  I  Ie  was  shortly 
afterwards  created  ])oet-laureate  by  James  I.,  with  an 
annual  pension  of  ^i^ioo  and  a  tierce  of  Spanish  wine. 
Jonson  died  in  1637.  On  his  death-bed  he  expressed 
the  deepest  penitence  for  the  profanity  that  he  had  intro- 
duced into  his  plays,  which,  with  this  exception,  are  far 
purer  in  morals  than  the  other  dramas  of  that  age.  Jon- 
son's convivial  habits  (j^erhaps  his  greatest  weakness) 
caused  him  to  suffer  from  poverty  in  his  declining  years. 
He  was  accustomed  to  meet  Shakspeare  and  other  dis- 
tinguished persons  at  the  drinking-houses  of  London. 
He  also  gave  costly  entertainments  at  his  own  residence. 
He  was  brave,  generous,  and  benevolent,  and  governed 
by  the  highest  principles  of  honour.  Towards  his  friends 
he  was  unwavering  in  his  attachment,  and  was  easily 
reconciled  to  those  who  had  injured  him.  As  a  jjoet  he 
exhibits  uncommon  classical  learning,  great  intellectual 
power,  and  acuteness  of  perception.  He  unquestionably 
deserves  much  praise  for  refining  English  poetry  and 
the  morals  of  the  English  stage.  "  I  think  him,"  says 
Dryden,  "the  most  learned  and  judicious  writer  which 
any  theatre  ever  had.  ...  If  I  would  comi;>are  him  with 
Shakspeare,  I  must  acknowledge  him  the  most  correct 
poet,  but  Shakspeare  the  greater  wit.  Shakspeare  was 
the  Homer  or  father  of  dramatic  poets.  Jonson  was  the 
Virgil,  the  pattern  of  elaborate  writing.  I  admire  him, 
but  I  love  Shakspeare."  Jonson  was  most  successful  in 
satirical  comedies,  the  style  of  which  he  obtained  from 
the  ancients.  To  the  refiiiement  and  thought  displayed 
in  his  writings  may  be  attributed  the  ill  success  which 
many  of  them  first  met  with  among  the  English  people, 
whose  taste  had  been  vitiated  by  the  low  wit  and  ob- 
scenity which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  hear  from 
the  stage.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  dramas 
are  "Cynthia's  Revels,"  (1600,)"  Sejanus,"  (1603,)  "Vol- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,/t;;/^;i,fe,('>,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,y,shoi-t;  a, e,  j,  q,obscitre;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  a6t;  good;  moon; 


JONSSON 


1401 


JORGENSON 


pone,"  (1605,)  "The  Alchemist,"  (1610,)  and  "Catiline's 
Conspiracy,"  (161 1.) 

See  Chetwood,  "Life  of  Den  Jonson,"  1756:  "Memoir  of  Ben 
Jonson,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works,  (q  vols.,  iSi6,)  by  W. 
Gifford;  I'aker,  "  Biographia  Dramalicn  :"  Von  P)AUdissin,  "  B. 
Jonson  und  seine  Sclnile,"  2  vols.,  1S36;  "  Lives  of  British  Drama- 
tists," by  Campbell,  Leigh  Hunt,  etc.  ;  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  i.,  1S20;  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1856. 

Jonsson,  (Arngkim.)     See  Jonas. 

Jonsson,  yons'son,  (Finn,)"  [Lat.  Fin'nus  Johan- 
N/t'us,]  a  clergyman  and  historical  writer  on  the  church 
and  literature  of  Iceland,  was  born  in  that  island  in 
1704.  After  receiving  his  education  at  the  University 
of  Copenhagen,  he  returned  to  Iceland.  Died  in  17^9. 
His  most  important  work  is  the  "Ecclesiastical  History 
of  Iceland,"  ("Historia  Ecclesiastica  Islandiae.") 

Jonston,  (Arthur.)     See  Johnston. 

Jordaens,  yoR'dins,  (Jakoh,)  a  distinguished  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1594.  He  studied  under  Van  Oort, 
but  was  indebted  for  the  most  of  his  artistic  knowledge 
to  Rubens,  by  whom  he  was  subsequently  employed.  He 
painted  with  rapidity  and  ease,  and  his  colouring  was 
rich  and  harmonious  ;  but  he  was  deficient  in  elegance 
and  loftiness  of  conception.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "Jesus  Christ  in  the  Midst  of  the  Doctors,"  (a  paint- 
ing which  has  been  frequently  attributed  to  Rubens,) 
"The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  "Saint  Peter  Cut- 
ting off  the  Ear  of  Malchus,"  and  "The  Satyr  and  the 
Man  who  Blew  Hot  and  Cold."     Died  in  1678. 

See  Descamhs,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.;  LouiE 
Alvin,  "  J.  Jordaens,"  1S44  ;  J.  Campc  Weverman,  "  De  Schiuder- 
konst  der  Nederlanders." 

Jordan,  zhoR'dfiN',  (Cariille,)  a  French  politician 
and  orator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1771.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  moderate  principles  during  the  Revolution,  and 
his  attachment  to  the  Catholic  religion,  which  he  bravely 
defended.  Having  been  proscribed  by  the  Directory,  he 
sought  an  asylum  in  Switzerland  in  1797,  and  afterwards 
in  Germany,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  other  men  of  note.  Jordan  returned  to 
France  about  1800.  During  Bonaparte's  administration 
he  led  a  private  life  ;  but  upon  the  accession  of  Louis 
XVIII.  he  was  ennobled,  and  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  He  wrote  several  works  of  a  political 
nature.     Died  in  1821. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  Pierre  Simon 
Ballanciie,  "  Elose  de  C.  Jordan,"  1823;  Thiers,  "History  cf 
the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,"  vol.  Ix.,  1S68. 

Jordan,  (Charles  Etienne,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1700.  He  was 
appointed  privy  councillor  by  Frederick  the  Great  in 
1740.  He  rendered  important  services  to  Berlin  by  the 
suppression  of  mendicity  and  the  promotion  of  educa- 
tion. Among  his  works  is  "Travels  in  France  and 
England,"  (1735.)     Died  in  1745. 

See  MAL  Haag,  "La  France  protestante. " 

Jor'dan,  (David  Starr,)  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  an  American 
zoologist,  was  born  at  Gainesville,  New  York,  January 
19,  1 85 1.  He  graduated  in  the  scientific  department  of 
Cornell  University  in  1872,  and  as  M.D.  at  Indiana  Uni- 
versity in  1875,  w-^s  ^  special  agent  of  the  United  States 
census  for  the  marine  industries  of  the  Pacific  coast  from 
1879  to  1 881,  was  professor  of  bit)logy  in  Butler  Univer- 
sity, Indianapolis,  from  1875  to  1879,  and  in  the  Indiana 
University  after  1879.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Manual 
of  Vertebrates,"  (1876,)  and  a  "  Synopsis  of  the  Fishes 
of  North  America,"  (1883,)  besides  a  great  number  of 
scientific  papers. 

Jor'dan,  (Dorothea,)  or  Dorothy  Bland,  a  cele 
brated  actress,  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  about  1762. 
In  1785  she  made  her  appearance  in  London  at  Drurj 
Lane  Theatre,  where  she  enjoyed  the  highest  popularity. 
She  subsequently  became  the  mistress  of  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  (afterwards  William  IV.,)  to  whom  she  bore 
ten  children.  This  connection  being  suddenly  broken 
off  by  the  duke  in  181 1,  Mrs.  Jordan  retired  to  France, 
where  she  died  in  1816  in  great  ])overty.  As  an  actress 
she  possessed  uncommon  versatility,  and  excelled  both 
in  comedy  and  tragedy. 

See  J.  Boaden,  "Life  of  D.  Jordan,"  2  vols.,  1831 ;  Oxberry, 
"Dramatic  Biography." 


Jordan,  H0R-d5n',  (Esteban,)  a  Spaniard,  born  at 
Valladolid  in  1543,  excelled  in  painting,  architecture, 
and  sculpture,  but  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  the 
last-named  art.  Philip  II.  appointed  him  his  first 
sculptor.  Among  his  most  admired  ]  roductions  are 
"Saint  Peter,"  "Saint  Paul,"  and  "The  Adoiation  of 
the  Kings."     Died  in  1605. 

Jordan,  yoR'ddn,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  noted  anti 
quary,  and  privy  councillor  to  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
was  the  author  of  annotations  on  Livy,  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus,  Polybius,  and  Diodorus  Siculus.  Died 
about  1740. 

Jordan,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  Germ.an  (Wendish) 
scholar,  born  at  Zischowitz,  Upper  Lusatia,  February 
15,  1 81 8.  He  studied  at  Prague.  His  works  include  a 
"  Wendish  Grammar,"  a  "  History  of  Bohemia,"  a 
Polish-German  and  two  Czech-German  dictionaries,  etc. 

Jordan,  (Sir  Joseph,)  an  English  admiral,  who  com- 
manded nt  the  victory  of  Solebay,  which  was  gained  over 
the  Dutch  in  1672. 

Jordan,  (Rudolf,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Berlin 
about  1810.  His  delineations  of  fisher-life  in  Helgoland 
are  greatly  admired  :  among  these  we  may  name  "The 
Shipwreck"  and  "The  Death  of  the  Pilot." 

Jordan,  (Sylvester,)  a  German  jurist  and  politician, 
born  near  Innspruck  in  1792.  He  was  imprisoned  about 
twelve  years  for  his  liberal  opinions,  and  was  released 
in  1845.     Died  in  1861. 

Jordan,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
lived  in  London  ;  died  about  1685. 

Jor'dan,  (Thomas,)  an  American  officer  in  the  Con- 
federate service,  born  in  Virginia  about  1821,  was  made 
a  brigadier-general  in  1862. 

Jordan,  yok'ddn,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  poet,  born 
at  Insterburg,  Prussia,  February  8,  1819.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Leii)sic,  Konigsberg,  and  other  universities,  and 
was  when  young  distinguished  as  a  republican  agitator 
and  orator.  Besides  a  "History  of  Hayti,"  (1846-49,) 
he  jiublished  a  large  number  of  volumes  of  verse,  in- 
cluding "  Demiourgos,"  (1852,)  a  bold  and  thoughtful 
attempt  at  a  poetical  theodicy.  He  also  published  several 
parts  of  a  new  "  Nibelungenlied,"  besides  translations 
of  Sophocles,  Homer,  and  Shakspeare. 

Jordane-s.     See  Jornandes. 

Jordano,  (Luca.)     See  Giordano. 

Jordano  Bruno.     See  Bruno. 

Jor'den,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician  and  scien- 
tific writer,  born  in  Kent  in  1569.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  the  University  of  Padua.     Died  in  1632.     • 

Jordens,  yoR'dens,  (Gkorg,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at 
Deventer  in  1718,  was  known  as  the  author  of  two  legal 
treatises, — one  in  defence  of  the  University  of  Utrecht, 
and  the  other  on  the  Mosaic,  Greek,  and  Roman  laws. 
Died  in  1771. 

Jordens  or  Joerdens,  yoR'dens,  (Karl  Heinrich,) 
a  German  jjhilologist  and  biographer,  born  in  the  county 
of  Mansfeld  in  1757.  He  was  rector  of  an  academy  ai 
Lauban.  His  chief  work  is  an  excellejit  "Dictionary  of 
German  Poets  and  Prose  Writers,"  (6  vols.,  1805-11.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  Er.sch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jordy,  zhoR'de',  (Nicolas  Louis,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Abreschvviller  in  1758;  died  in  1825. 

Jore,  zhoR,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French  printer, 
lived  abtjut  1750,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire,  for  whom 
he  published  several  works.  He  wrote  "Six  Letters  to 
Voltaire,"  and  some  other  productions. 

Jorgenson,  yoR'gen-son,  written  also  Jiirgensen, 
(Jokgen,)  a  Danish  adventurer,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1779.  Having  gone  to  England  in  early  youth,  he 
was  some  years  later  proinoted  to  the  command  of  an 
English  vessel,  and  during  the  war  between  England 
and  Denmark  sailed  for  Iceland.  On  the  25th  of  Jiine, 
1809,  he  landed  with  twelve  English  sailors  and  took 
the  governor.  Count  Tramjbe,  prisoner,  and  proclaimed 
that  Iceland  was  free  and  independent  of  Denmark. 
With  a  force  of  eight  Icelanders,  he  continued  to  exer- 
cise undisputed  sway  over  the  island  until  August,  when 
the  British  restored  it  to  its  former  government.  During 
this  revolution  not  a  gun  was  fired  nor  a  drop  of  blood 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  yi,g,'uttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^P'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


/ORJSSEN 


1402 


JOSEPHINE 


shed.  The  inhabitants  feared  to  resist,  as  their  capital 
lay  exposed  to  the  guns  of  Jorgenson's  vessel.  Soon 
after  his  return  to  England  he  became  very  dissipated, 
and  was  finally  convicted  and  transported  to  New  South 
Wales,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died.  While  in 
Newgate,  before  his  transportation,  he  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled "The  Religion  of  Christ  the  Religion  of  Nature." 

See  Sir  Wm.  Hookkr,  "Tour  in  Iceland;"  Skulason,  "J[.  Jiir- 
gensens  Usurpation!  Island,"  1832 ;  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Jorisseu,  yo'ifs-sen,  (Thomas  Tukodoke  Hkn- 
DKIK,)  a  Dutch  author,  born  at  Utrecht,  February  23, 
1S33.  In  1S65  he  became  professor  of  history  at  Am- 
sterdam. His  principal  writings  are  biographies,  chiefly 
written  in  a  historical  spirit.  He  also  wrote  useful  works 
on  literary  history. 

Jorisz,  yoK'is,  (Augustin,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Delft  in  1525  ;  died  in  1552. 

Jorisz,  (David.)     See  David  George. 

Jorjanee,  Joijani,  or  Djordjani,  jor-jd'nee,  (Saeed 
Sheieef  Zeiii-ed-Deen  Abool  Hassan,  or  Said 
Scherif  Zein-ed-Din  Abou'l  Hassan,  sd-eed'  sh§r- 
eef  zan  (or  zTn)  ed-deen'  i'bool  h3,s'san,)  a  renowned 
Arabian  writer,  born  in  Tagoo,  (Tagou,)  in  the  district 
of  Asterabad  and  the  region  called  Jorjan,  in  1339.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  among  which  per- 
haps the  most  important  is  an  extremely  valuable  dic- 
tionary, entitled  "  Tarafat,"  (i.e.  "  Dehnitions.")  Jorjanee 
enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  great  conqueror  Tamerlane. 
Died  in  1413. 

Jor-nan'des  or  Jor-da'nes,  a  distinguished  Gothic 
historian  of  the  sixth  century,  was  secretary  to  the  Gothic 
kings  of  Italy.  Having  embraced  Christianity,  he  was 
ordained  Bishop  of  Ravenna  in  552.  The  most  important 
of  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Goths"  until  the  reign 
of  Vitiges,  who  was  conquered  by  Belisarius,  ("  De  Ge- 
tarum  sive  Gothorum,  Origine  et  Rebus  gestis.")  It  was 
first  printed  at  Augsburg  in  1 51 5,  and  is  highly  prized. 
He  also  wrote  an  abridgment  of  universal  history,  en- 
titled "De  Regnorum  et  Temporum  Successione." 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis;"  Ersch  und  Gruher, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  D.  W.  Moller,  "  Disputatio  Circu- 
laris  de  Jornande,"  i6go. 

Jor'tin,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  critic, 
of  French  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1698.  Soon 
after  graduating  at  Cambridge  he  settled  in  his  native 
city,  where  he  gained  great  distinction  for  his  eloquence 
and  learning.  He  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  London 
in  1764.  Of  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a  volume  of 
"Latin  Poems,"  (1722,)  which  are  classed  among  the 
most  finislied  of  the  modern  productions  in  that  lan- 
guage, "Miscellaneous  Observations  on  Authors,  An- 
cient and  Modern,"  (2  vols.,  1732,)  "Remarks  upon 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  (5  vols.,  1751-73,)  and  the  "Life 
of  Erasmus,"  (1758.)  Died  in  1770.  "Jortin's  sermons," 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  are  very  elegant." 

See  John  Disney,  "  Life  of  Jortin,"  1792. 

Josaphat.     See  Jehoshaphat. 

Jo'seph,  [Ileb.  ^DV;  Gr.  'luarj^ ;  Lat.  Jose'phus  ; 
It.  Josef,  yo-s6f';  Sp.  Josef,  ho-s6F,]  one  of  the  twelve 
patriarchs,  and  the  favourite  son  of  Jacob,  was  born  in 
Mesopotamia  about  1900  B.C.  At  an  early  age,  on  ac- 
count of  their  jealousy,  he  was  sold  by  his  brothers  to 
some  Ishmaelitish  merchants,  v.ho  carried  him  as  a  slave 
into  Egypt,  over  which  kingdom  he  was  subsequently 
appointea  governor  by  Pharaoh.  The  descendants  of  his 
sons  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  formed  the  two  Ijalf-tribes, 
which  exerted  no  little  influence  in  the  Hebrew  nation. 

See  Genesis  xxxv.-l. 

Joseph  [Ger.  pron.  yo's^f]  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  son  of  Leopold  I.,  was 
born  in  1676.  In  1687  he  was  proclaimed  King  of  Hun- 
gary, and  in  1690  King  of  the  Romans.  At  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1705,  he  ascended  the  imperial  throne. 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Louis  XIV.,  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  England,  Holland,  and  Savoy. 
The  allied  armies  were  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene 
and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  Joseph  granted,  through 
the  influence  (it  is  said)  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  nume- 
rous privileges  to  his  Protestant  subjects.    Died  in  1711. 

See  G.  Lange,  "  Leben  undTliaten  des  Kaysers  Joseph  I.,"  171?; 
Franz  Wagner,  "  Historia  Joseph!  I.  Csesaris  Augusti,"    1745- 


Joseph  H.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  eldest  son  of 
Francis  of  Lorraine  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  was 
horn  in  Vienna  in  1741.  In  1764  he  was  elected  King 
of  the  Romans,  and  in  the  following  year  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  throne  of  Germany.  He  married  Isabella, 
a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  in  1760,  and  Maria 
Josepha,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Charles  VII.,  about 
1764.  In  1772  he  signed,  with  the  sovereigns  of  Russia 
and  Prussia,  the  treaty  by  which  Poland  was  divided 
between  them.  At  the  death  of  his  mother,  in  1780, 
he  came  into  possession  of  Hungary  and  all  the  other 
hereditary  dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria.  He 
united  with  Catherine  of  Russia,  six  years  later,  in  a 
Turkish  war,  in  which  his  general  Laudon  gained 
several  im])ortant  victories.  During  his  reign  he  intro- 
duced many  civil  and  ecclesiastical  reforms,  which  would 
probably  have  been  very  beneficial  to  his  subjects  had 
he  acted  with  more  calmness  and  deliberation.  He 
abolished  feudal  serfdom,  regulated  the  taxes,  allowed 
liberty  of  conscience  and  rights  of  citizenship  to  all 
denominations  of  Christians,  mitigated  the  condition  of 
the  Jews,  suppressed  several  convents,  greatly  abridged 
the  power  of  the  pope  and  clergy  in  his  dominions,  and 
encouraged  manufactures  and  industry.  Put  his  zeal  in 
correcting  the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Church  caused  an 
insurrection  in  Belgium  ;  while  his  attem])t  to  establish 
the  German  as  the  universal  language  in  his  dominions 
induced  the  Hungarians  to  revolt.  He  died,  without  issue, 
in  February,  1790,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Leopold  II. 

See  Paganel,  "  Hlstoire  de  Joseph  II,"  1843:  F.  X.  Huber, 
"  Geschichte  Kaiser  Joseph's  11.,"  2  vols.,  1792;  L.  A.  oe  Carac- 
C101.1,  "Vie  de  Josei^h  II,  Einpereur  d'AlIeniagne,"  1790;  Ignaz 
Cornova,  "Leben  Joseph  II.,  Roniischen  Kaisers,"  1802;  C.  T. 
Hevne,  "  Geschichte  Kaiser  Joseph's  1 1.,"  2  vols., 1848  ;  Ramshorn, 
"  Kaiser  Joseph  II.  nnd  seine  Zeit,"  1845. 

Joseph,  Father,  |It.  Fra  Giuseppe,!  an  Italian  mis- 
sionary, whose  family  name  was  Sebastiani.  He  went 
to  Persia,  and  obtained  no  little  influence  at  the  court  of 
the  Shah.  He  used  his  power  in  favour  of  the  English 
interests  and  against  those  of  the  French.  He  was 
acquainted  with  several  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
translated  the  works  of  the  Per.sian  poet  Hafiz  into 
Latin. 

Joseph,  zho'zef,  (Francois  Leclerc  du  Trem- 
blay — dii  tRfim'bli',)  called  Father  Joseph,  a  French 
monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1577,  became  the  agent  and 
confidant  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  employed  him  in 
negotiations  and  intrigues.     Died  in  1638. 

See  AnB^  Richard,  "Vie  du  Pere  Joseph,"  2  vols. ;  "Lev^n- 
table  Pere  Joseph,"  1704;  Richelieu,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Joseph  OF  Exeter.     See  Iscanius. 

Joseph  Al'bo,  a  Tew,  distinguished  for  his  learning, 
born  at  Sora,  in  Spam,  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  on  Jewish  faith,  entitled  "Se- 
pher  Ikkarim."     Died  in  1430. 

Joseph  Ben  Gorion.     See  Gorionides. 

Joseph  Emanuel,  [Port.  Joz6  Manoel,  zho-zi'  mi- 
no-Sl',]  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1714.  In  1750  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  John  V.  In  1755  his  kingdom  suffered 
from  a  great  earthquake,  which  destroyed  a  large  part 
of  Lisbon  and  killed  about  sixty  thousand  persons.  In 
1758  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him,  in  which 
he  was  severely  wounded.  He  discovered  that  the  Jesuits 
were  implicated  in  the  plot,  and  immediately  caused  all 
against  whom  any  evidence  was  brought  to  be  executed. 
He  also  issued  an  edict  by  which  all  the  Jesuits  in  Por- 
tugal were  declared  traitors.  In  1762  he  united  with 
England  in  a  war  against  France  and  Spain.  He  enacted 
several  laws  to  encourage  education  and  to  advance 
religious  toleration,  and  restricted  the  powers  of  the 
Inquisition.     Died  in  1777. 

See  "Leben  Joseph  Emmanuels  Konigs  von  Portugal,"  Nurem- 
berg, 1778. 

Joseph  Meir,  (mSR,)  a  French  Jew,  born  at  Avignon 
in  1496.  He  wrote  a  work,  in  Hebrew,  on  the  Kings  of 
France  and  the  Sultans  of  Turkey.     Died  in  1554. 

Josephe,  the  French  of  Josephus,  which  see. 

Josephine,  ji/ze-feei/,  [Fr.  pron.  zho'zi'fiii',|  origin- 
ally Marie  Joseph  Rose  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie, 
(tt'shi'  deh  It  ptzh're',)  wife  of  Napoleon  I.  of  France, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /!'«i,^■  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscttre;  far,  fill,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon 


JOSEPHSON 


1403 


JOSIKA 


was  born  in  1763  in  the  island  of  Martinique.  At  a 
very  early  age  she  attracted  attention  by  her  remark- 
able beauty  and  vivacity.  About  1778  siie  went  to 
reside  in  France  with  an  aunt  by  whom  she  had  been 
adopted,  and  thus  became  the  heiress  to  a  large  for- 
tune. Slie  was  soon  after  married  to  Viscount  de  Beau- 
hainais,  one  of  the  most  polished  noblemen  of  the  French 
court.  In  1780  she  gave  birth  to  Eugene,  who  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  Viceroy  of  Italy  by  Bonaparte,  and 
in  1783  to  Hortense,  afterwards  Queen  of  Holland,  and 
mother  of  Napoleon  III.  Jealousies  having  arisen  be- 
tween Beauharnais  and  his  wife,  the  former  sued  for  a 
divorce  before  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  The  case  was 
decided  in  favour  of  Josephine,  who  in  a  short  time 
sailed  for  Martinique  with  her  daughter.  At  this  period 
her  circumstances  were  so  straitened  that  she  was  glad 
to  accept  from  the  captain  of  the  vessel  a  pair  of  shoes 
for  Hortense.  At  the  expiration  of  three  years  she  re- 
turned to  France  and  was  reconciled  to  her  husband. 
During  the  French  Revolution  Beauharnais  boldly  op- 
posed the  measures  of  the  Jacobins,  by  whom  he  was 
executed  in  1794.  His  wife,  who  was  then  in  prison, 
escaped  the  same  fate  only  by  the  sudden  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre. Through  the  influence  of  Barras  and  Tallicn, 
she  regained  jjart  of  her  husband's  property,  which  had 
been  confiscated.  She  now  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  fashion.  Her  talents  and  personal  attractions  enabled 
her  also  to  exert  no  little  influence  in  the  politics  of  that 
period.  In  1796  she  was  married  to  Bonaiiarte,  who  had 
recently  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
in  Italy.  At  the  time  Josephine  was  thought  by  her 
friends  to  have  formed  a  mesalliance.  After  Bonaparte 
became  First  Consul,  she  exerted  all  her  influence  to  alle- 
viate the  sufferings  of  the  royalists,  and  even  endeavoured 
to  peisuade  him  to  restore  the  Bourbons.  While  Napo- 
leon was  in  Egypt,  she  had  bought  for  her  favourite  resort 
the  estate  of  Malmaison,  which  she  fitted  up  with  royal 
magnificence.  At  length  her  expenditures  for  this  and 
other  luxuries  became  so  enormous  as  to  occasion  the 
First  Consul  serious  embarrassment.  When  Napoleon 
was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  and  she  became  Empress 
of  France,  to  her  was  due  in  a  great  measure  the  honour  of 
having  imparted  to  the  court  of  the  Tuileries  the  s]3lendour 
and  taste  for  which  it  was  then  distinguished.  From  the 
time  of  her  coronation  her  influence  over  the  emperor 
rapidly  diminished ;  and,  as  there  was  no  longer  hope  of 
her  bringing  him  an  heir,  he  finally  resolved  to  divorce 
her.  The  announcement  of  this  decision  plunged  the 
empress  into  the  deepest  despair.  Napoleon  himself 
is  said  to  have  been  greatly  affected  ;  but  his  resolu- 
tion was  fixed,  and  the  bill  of  divorce  was  ]3assed  in  1809. 
Josephine,  still  retaining  her  former  dignities  and  titles, 
retired  to  Malmaison.  Napoleon  occasionally  visited 
her,  and  ajDpeared  to  cherish  a  sincere  affection  for  her. 
When  the  allied  armies  invaded  France,  she  was  treated 
with  the  greatest  resi:iect  by  the  emperor  Alexander. 
She  died  in  1814,  soon  after  the  abdication  of  Napoleon. 
The  character  of  Josephine  has  been  greatly  admired. 
The  cause  of  this  is  to  be  attributed  more  to  her  pleasing 
manners  than  to  any  exalted  virtue  which  she  possessed. 
It  is  said  that  there  was  a  fascination  in  her  countenance 
which  no  painter  could  transfer  to  canvas.  She  had  a 
very  remarkable  memory,  was  accomplished,  educated, 
and  witty  ;  but  vanity  seems  to  have  had  an  unlimited 
ascendency  over  her,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  she 
was  endowed  with  so  many  uncommon  qualities  as  several 
modern  writers  have  attributed  to  her.  (See  Bona- 
parte, Napoleon.) 

See  "Josephine,  "  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale,"  vol. 
xxxvii.  For  tlie  private  life  of  Josephine,  the  reader  may  consult 
Adbhnas'  "  Histoire  de  rini]i^ratrice  Josephine,"  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
'857-59  ;  also  the  letters  of  Napoleon  to  Josepliine,  and  of  Josephine 
to  Napoleon  and  to  lier  daughter.  For  a  very  curious  account  of 
the  empress  Josephine's  descendants,  see  "London  Review"  for 
June,  1S66;  Mahie  Anne  I,e  Norm.and,  "  M^moires  historiques 
et  secrets  de  Josephine,"  2  vols.,  1820,  (English  version  of  the  same, 
1S4S  ;)  P.  C.  Heaulev,  "Life  of  the  Empress  Josephine,"  1S52. 

Joseplison,  yo'sSf-son,  (Ludwig,)  a  Swedish  dram- 
atist, born  at  Stockholm,  of  Jewish  parents,  February 
20,  1830.  Among  his  pieces  are  "Kunstens  Vapen," 
"  Kapten  Gars,"  and  "  Thord  Hasle,"  (1881.)  He  also 
prepared  a  history  of  the  .Swedish  stage.  His  brother 
Jakob  (iSiS-80)  was  a  noted  composer  of  music 


Jo-se'phus,  [Fr.  JosfePHE,  zho'zSf;  It.  GioseffOj 
jo-sSf'fo,]  or,  more  fully,  Fla'vi-us  Jo-se'phu.s,  [Gr. 
4'/l(j;/^iof  'ltJ07/7rof,]  the  most  celebrated  of  Jewish  historians, 
was  born  at  Jerusalem  A.D.  37.  His  mother  was  of  the 
royal  house  of  the  Asmonaeans,  and  his  father  belonged  to 
the  sacerdotal  order  from  which  the  chief  pontiffs  were 
chosen.  He  pursued  his  studies  in  his  native  city  with 
such  assiduity  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  often 
consulted  on  abstruse  points  of  Jewish  law.  He  after- 
wards joined  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  and  passed  three 
years  with  a  hermit  in  the  desert.  At  the  age  of  nine- 
teen he  became  a  Pharisee.  In  the  year  63  he  visited 
Rome,  in  order  to  jjrocure  the  liberation  of  some  Jew- 
ish priests  whom  the  governor  Felix  had  sent  there  as 
prisoners.  He  was  favourably  received  at  the  imperial 
court,  and  succeeded  in  his  enterjjrise  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Poppsea,  the  wife  of  Nero.  On  his  return  to 
Judea  he  opposed  the  revolutionary  spirit  that  was  then 
gaining  ground  among  his  countrymen.  Perceiving  his 
efforts  to  be  of  no  avail,  he  accepted  the  government  of 
the  two  Galilees,  and  in  67  A.  D.  bravely  defended  for  forty- 
seven  days  the  city  of  Jotajiata  against  a  powerful  Roman 
army  under  Vespasian.  The  Romans  finally  triumphed, 
however,  and  of  the  Jewish  warriors  Josephus  alone  was 
saved,  on  account  of  his  predicting  that  Vespasian  would 
soon  receive  the  imperial  purple.  He  was  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  by  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  at  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  his  influence  procured  the 
liberatioii  of  his  brother  and  fifty  of  his  friends.  He 
afterwards  accompanied  Titus  to  Rome,  where  Vespasian 
granted  him  a  pension  and  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a 
Roman  citizen.  As  a  mark  of  gratitude  for  these  and 
other  favours,  Josejjhus  assumed  the  emperor's  family 
natne  of  Flavius.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown  ; 
but  some  writers  have  placed  it  a.d.  95.  The  most  im- 
portant works  of  Josephus  are  his  "  History  of  the  Jew- 
ish War,"  in  seven  books,  "  The  Antiquities  of  the  Jews," 
('Ioiit5ai/v/)  'Ap^aw/loym,)  in  twenty  books,  two  treatises 
'*  Against  Apion  of  Alexandria,"  a  "Discourse  on  the 
Martyrdoin  of  the  Maccabees,"  and  an  account  of  his 
own  life.  All  of  these  were  written  in  Greek,  with  the 
exception  of  the  first,  which  was  originally  composed  in 
Syro-Chaldaic  and  afterwards  translated  into  Greek  by 
himself.  On  account  of  the  beauty  of  his  style,  he  has 
been  called  "the  Grecian  Livy."  His  works  have  been 
translated  into  Latin  and  most  of  the  modern  languages 
of  Euro]ie. 

See  G.  R.  van  Hoevell,  "  F.  Joseph!  Vita,"  1S35:  J.  F.  Eck- 
HARD,  "  Eiographie  des  beriihmten  F.  Josephus,"  17S5  ;  Fabricius, 
"  Bibliotheca  Graeca  :"  Cave,  "  Scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum  Historia 
literaria  ;"  C  F.  Poehmekt,  "  Ueber  des  Flavius  Josephus  Zeugniss 
von  Christo,"  1823;  Philar^teChasles,  "  De  I'Autoritehistoiique 
de  F.  Jos^phe,"  1S41. 

Jos^pin.     See  Cesari,  (Giuseppe.) 

Josh'u-a,  [Meb.  ^'tyiri' ;  Gr.  '\naovq  ;  Fr.  Josui^,  zho'- 
zii'i',]  or  O'she-a,  the  son  of  Nun,  (Numbers  xiii.  16,) 
became  commander  of  the  Israelites  on  the  death  of 
Moses.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  bravery  and  mili- 
tary skill,  and  gained  numerous  important  victories  over 
the  different  Canaanite  princes.  Much  controversy  has 
arisen  in  regard  to  the  authorship  of  the  book  of  Joshua. 
Many  suppose  it  to  have  been  compiled  from  manuscripts 
written  by  himself;  others  attribute  it  to  Samuel.  Died 
about  1425  n.C. 

Jo-si'ah  [Heb.  IH'Ji'X' ;  Fr.  Josias,  zho'se'Ss']  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Amon  on  the  throne  of  Judah  641  K.C., 
at  the  age  of  eight  years.  He  was  an  able  and  pious 
prince,  and  during  his  reign  of  thirty-one  years  many 
wise  and  beneficial  laws  were  enacted:  idoJatry  was 
suppressed,  the  Temple  was  repaired,  and  the  true  forms 
of  worship  were  restored.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle 
against  Pharaoh-Necho,  King  of  Egypt,  about  610  B.C. 

See  IL  Kings  xiii.,  xxii. ;  IL  Chronicles  x.\xiv.,  xxxv. 

Josias.     See  Josiah. 

Josika,  yo'she-koh,  (Miklos,)  a  Hungarian  nobleman 
and  celebrated  novelist,  born  in  1796  at  Torda,  in  Tran- 
sylvania. His  first  and  most  successful  work,  "  Abati," 
a  historical  tale,  appeared  in  1836.  He  produced  about 
sixty  volumes  of  romances,  which  were  very  popular  with 
the  Hungarians.  In  1848,  as  a  member  of  the  upper 
house  of  nobles,  he  took  a  bold  stand  against  the  en- 
croachments of  Austria,  and  advocated  the  measures  of 


«;  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K.,p4l(ural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  2^  ' 


JOSQUIN 


1404 


JOUFFROY 


Kossuth.     After  the  defeat  of  the  Hungarians  in  Ib49  he 
lived  in  exile.     Died  in  1S65. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Josquiu  Desprez  or  Depres.     See  Despr^s. 

Josseliii  de  Courtenay,  zIios'liN'  deh  koout'ni',  a 
French  nobleman,  who  went  on  a  crusade  to  Palestine  in 
IIOI.  lie  was  created  Count  of  Edessa  by  the  King  of 
Jerusalem,  and  won  great  distinction  by  the  numerous 
victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Saracens.  Died  in  1 147. 

Jost,  yost,  (IsAAK  Marcus,)  a  learned  Jew,  born  at 
Bernburg,  in  Germany,  in  1793,  studied  philology  at 
Gottingen  and  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Israelites,"  (10  vols.,  1846.)  He  also  published  a 
translation  of  the  "  Mishna,"  with  a  text  and  commen- 
tary.    Died  in  1862. 

Josue.     See  Joshua. 

Jo'tham,  [Ileb.  QHV,]  King  of  Judah,  was  the  son 
of  Uzziah,  whom  he  succeeded  B.C.  757. 

See  II.  Kings  xv.  32,  38;  II.  Chronicles  xxvii. 

Jotun,  yo'tun,  in  the  plural  Jotuns,  [an  old  Norse 
word  signifying  "giant,"  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
an  ancient  form  of  the  verb  to  "  eat,"  (Anglo-Saxon 
euten,)  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  the  Jotun? 
being  their  prodigious  voracity.  (See  Thorpe's  "  North- 
ern Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  148,)]  in  the  Norse  mythology, 
the  name  applied  to  certain  mythical  beings  supposed 
to  be  hostile  to  men  and  to  the  beneficent  /Esir.  The 
Jotuns,  or  Giants,  are  types  of  the  disturbing,  untamable, 
or  destructive  forces  of  nature.  Hence  the  wolf  Fenrir, 
(supposed  to  typify  volcanic  fire,)  Midgard's  Serpent, 
(the  vast  untamable  ocean,)  and  Ilela  (the  goddess  of 
death)  are  all  rej^resented  as  of  Jotun  birth.  Loki  him- 
self is  considered  to  be  of  Jotun  origin,  and  is  the  father 
of  the  miglitiest  and  most  terrible  beings  belonging  to 
that  race.  Cold  or  frost,  being  one  of  the  principal  causes 
of  desolation  and  death,  is  represented  as  the  parent  of 
a  powerful  family  of  Jotuns,  termed  Frost-giants.  The 
abode  of  the  Jotuns  is  called  Jotunheim  or  Utgard, 
(oot'gird,  i.e.  "outer  ward,")  and  comprises  the  desert 
regions  on  the  outermost  boundary  of  the  world.  The 
Jotuns  (i.e.  the  elements  of  disorder  and  desolation)  are 
represented  as  being  always  at  war  with  the  /Esir,  the 
powers  presiding  over  life  and  order.  (See  ^siR.)  The 
opposition  is  eternal ;  they  are  never  reconciled,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Vanir  and  .^sir,  (see  Vanir,)  because  there 
can  be  no  reconciliation  between  order  and  confusion,  or 
between  life  and  death. 

See,  besides  the  work  above  referred  to,  Kevser,  "Reh'gion  of 
the  Northmen;"  Mallet,  "Northern  Antiquities;"  Petersen, 
"  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Jouannet,  zhoo'a'ni',  (Francois  Vatar,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  statistician,  born  in  1765  ;  died  in  1845. 

See  Lamothe,  "Jouannet,  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  1847. 

Jouannin,  zhoo't'niN',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1783  ;  died  in  1844. 

Joubeit,  zhoo'baik',  (Barth^lemy  Catheri.ne,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Pont-de-Vaux,  in  Bresse,  in 
1769.  In  1 791  he  enlisted  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
and  served  with  distinction  against  the  Austrians.  Two 
years  later  he  was  taken  jjrisoner  by  the  Sardinians.  He 
soon  after  regained  his  liberty  and  returned  to  France, 
where  he  boldly  opposed  the  Jacobins.  In  1794  he  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  adjutant-general,  and  in  1795, 
having  displayed  great  bravery  at  Loano,  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  brigadier-general  on  the  field  of  battle. 
He  subsequently  gained  distinguished  honours  at  several 
battles  in  Italy  and  in  the  Tyrol.  In  1799  he  was  ap- 
pointed general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  fell  at 
the  battle  of  Novi,  in  August  of  that  year.  "He  united 
with  great  military  talents,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale,"  "  all  the  virtues  of  a  citizen.  He  was 
admired  by  all  parties,  and  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
glory  and  happiness  of  his  country." 

See  D.  J.  Garat,  "  Eloge  de  B.  C  Joubert,"  1799;  J.  Laval- 
L^E,  "Eloge  de  Joubert,"  iSoo;  Guiluert,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de 
Joubert,"  etc.,  1799;  H.  Lesukur,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale  :"  J.  J.  Lk  Francois  de  Lalanue,  "  Sur  le  General  Jou- 
bert," 1799  ;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revohition." 

Joubert,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  priest  and  Jansenist, 
distinguished  for  his  learning,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1689.     On  account  of  his  principles,  he  was  persecuted 


by  the  Jesuits  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Apocalypse  and  on  a  number 
of  the  Hebrew  prophecies.     Died  in  1763. 

Joubert,  (Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Eyons, 
known  as  the  author  of  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  French 
and  Latin  Dictionary,  taken  from  the  Original  and  Clas- 
sical Authors  in  both  Languages."     Died  in  1719. 

Joubert,  (Joseph,)  a  French  inoralist,  born  at  Mon- 
tignac  (Perigord)  in  1754,  became  a  resident  of  Paris 
about  1778.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Fontanes,  by 
whose  influence  he  was  appointed  inspector-general  of 
the  University  of  Paris  in  1809.  He  died  in  1824,  leaving 
many  manuscripts,  a  part  of  which  Chateaubriand  edited, 
with  the  title  of  "Pensees."  A  more  complete  edition 
of  the  "Pensees,  Essais,"  etc.  appeared  in  2  vols.,  1842. 

See  "Notice  sur  J.  Joubert,"  by  his  brother  Arnaud,  1824; 
Sainte-Bruvk,  "  Portraits  Litt^raires,"  and  "  Causeries  du  Lundi," 
tome  i.  ;  Paul  Ravnal,  "Notice  sur  J.  Joubert,"  prefixed  to  his 
"Pensees,"  etc.,  1S42;  "Essays  in  Criticism,"  by  Matthew  Ar- 
nold, 1865. 

Joubert,  (Joseph  Antoine  Ren^,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Angers  in  1772.  He  served  with  distinction  at 
Hcliopolis,  Wagram,  (1S09,)  Smolensk,  (1812,)  and  Liit- 
zen,  (1S13.)     Died  in  1843. 

Joubert,  (Laurent,)  an  eminent  French  physician, 
born  at  Valence  in  1529.  He  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Montpellier,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  chosen 
chancellor.  He  was  also  appointed  first  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  Henry  HI.  He  wrote  "Popular  Errors  in 
regard  to  Medicine,"  (1578-79,)  which  was  often  re- 
printed, and  a  "Treatise  on  Laughter."     Died  in  1583. 

Joubert,  (L60,)  a  French  author,  born  December  13, 
1826.  He  very  early  won  distinction  as  a  critic  and  re- 
viewer. He  was  chief  editor  of  the  "  Moniteur  Univer- 
sel,"  (1S68-77,)  and  wrote  "  Leasna,"  a  romance,  (1869,) 
"La  Bataille  de  Sedan,"  (1873,)  '^'^'^  other  works. 

Joueiineaux.     See  Juvenal. 

Jouffroi,  de,  deh  zhoo'fRwi',  [  Lat.  Joffre'dus,  | 
(Jean,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at  Luxeuil  about  1412. 
lie  obtained  the  favour  of  Louis  XL,  who  procured  for 
him  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1461,  and  made  him  his  almoner. 
Died  in  1473. 

Jouffroy,  zhoo'fRwS',  (Francois,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1806.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1832,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  He  became 
a  meinber  of  the  Academic  des  Beaux- Arts  in  1857. 

Jouffroy,  (Theodore  Simon,)  a  P'rench  philosophical 
writer,  born  near  Mouthe  (Doubs)  in  1796,  was  a  pupil 
of  Victor  Cousin,  who  influenced  the  development  and 
direction  of  his  rnind.  He  was  appointed  a  tutor  of 
philosophy  (Hcne  repetiteiir)  in  the  Normal  School  in 
181 7.  This  school  having  been  suppressed  in  1822,  he 
began  to  write  for  several  journals  in  Paris.  In  1830  he 
became  a  professor  in  the  Normal  .School,  then  re-estab- 
lished. He  produced  a  version  of  the  complete  works 
of  Thomas  Reid,  (6  vols.,  1828-35.)  In  1S33  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  ]5hilosophy  in 
the  College  de  France.  He  exchanged  this  position  in 
1838  for  the  office  of  libiarian  to  the  University,  and 
succeeded  Laromiguiere  as  professor  of  philosophy  in 
1837.  Among  his  works  are  "  Melanges  philosophiques," 
(1833,)  and  "Cours  d'Esthetique,"  (1843.)  He  also 
produced  a  version  of  Dugald  Stewart's  "Essays  on 
Moral  Philosophy,"  (1826,)  to  which  he  wrote  a  valuable 
preface.     Died  in  1842. 

See  Mtgnet,  "Notice  sur  Jouffroy,"  1853;  Adolphe  Gar- 
NIF.R,  article  "Jouffroy"  in  tlie  "Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  philoso- 
phiques," tome  iii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jouffroy,  de,  deh  zhooTRw^',  (Claude  Franqois 
Dorothi5:e,)  Marquis,  an  ingenious  Frenchinan,  born 
in  Franche-Comtc,  about  1750.  He  studied  the  con- 
struction of  different  vessels,  and  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  ]3ropelling  boats  by  steam.  His 
first  vessel  of  this  kind  was  launched  in  1776.  Although 
this  attempt  was  far  from  being  successful,  Jouffroy  was 
convinced  that  his  object  was  attainable.  In  1783  he 
completed  another  steam-vesset,  one  hundred  and  forty 
feet  long,  with  which  he  ascended  the  Saone  several 
miles,  but,  on  account  of  his  limited  means,  was  unable 
to  carry  his  invention  to  a  higher  state  of  perfection. 
The  inventions  of  Jouffroy  were  highly  spoken  of  by 
Robert  P'ulton.     Died  in  1832. 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  J,  6,  Ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOUKOFSKI 


1405 


JOUY 


Joukofski,  (Vasili  Andreivitch.)    See  Zhookof- 

SKY. 

Joule,  jool,  ?  (James  P.,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  experi- 
mental philosopher,  born  at  Salford,  near  Manchester, 
in  1818.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Dalton.  He 
made  some  discoveries  in  electr<i-magnetism,  and  in  the 
theory  of  heat.  He  is  considered  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  theory  of  the  correlation  of  forces.     Died  in  1889. 

Jourdain,  zhooR'diN',  (A.mable  Louis  Marie  Mi- 
chel Brechillet — bui'she'yy,)  a  distinguished  French 
writer  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  "  Persia;  or,  A  Description  of  the 
History,  Government,  Religion,  and  Literature  of  that 
Empire,"  (5  vols.,  1814.)  He  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"Biographie  Universelle."     Died  in  1818. 

Jourdain,  (A.nsel.me  Louis  Ber.nakd  Brechillet,) 
an  eminent  surgeon-dentist,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
*as  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  invented  several  instru- 
ments used  by  dentists,  and  wrote  numerous  treatises  on 
dentistry.     Died  in  1816. 

See  J.  R.  Duval,  "  Notice  Iiistorique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Jourdain," 
1816. 

Jourdain,  (Charles  Marie  Gabriel  Brechillet,) 

a  philosopher,  a  son  of  Amable,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1817.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"La  Philosophic  de  Saint  Thomas  d'Aquin,"  (2  vols., 
1858.) 

Jourdain,  (Claude,)  a  French  Benedictine  and 
antiquarian  writer,  born  at  Poligny  in  1696;  died  in 
1782. 

Jourdan,  zhooR'dSw',  (Anuk6  Joseph,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  Provence.  In  1795  he  was  elected 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  where  he  opposed  the 
laws  against  the  emigrants.  For  this  reason,  in  1797  he 
was  obliged  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Spain.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Louis  XV HI.  Jourdan  was  chosen  councillor  of 
state.     Died  in  1831. 

Jourdan,  (Antoine  Jacques  Louis,)  born  in  Paris 
in  1788,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Terms  used  in  the 
Natural  Sciences,"  (2  vols.,  1834.)     Died  in  1848. 

Jourdan,  (Jean  Bafiistk,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  171 1  ;  died  in  1793. 

Jourdan,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  marshal  of  France,  born 
at  Limoges  in  1762,  was  the  son  of  a  poor  surgeon,  who 
paid  but  little  attention  to  his  education.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen  he  entered  the  French  army,  and  fought  for 
the  Americans  in  the  Revolutionary  war  until  1782, 
when  he  returned  home  on  account  of  ill  health.  In 
1791  he  again  entered  the  army,  and  soon  after  received 
the  command  of  a  battalion,  and  served  under  La  Fa- 
yette and  Dumouriez.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  general 
of  division.  Having  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Ilondschoote,  in  1793,  he  was  chosen  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  French  army.  He  then  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Wattignies,  near  Mau- 
beuge,  and  raised  the  siege  of  that  town.  He  was  sub- 
sequently called  to  Paris  by  the  committee  of  public 
safety  to  consult  u]5on  the  future  movements  of  the 
army.  He  was  at  first  received  with  great  enthusiasm ; 
but,  having  given  offence  by  the  candour  with  which 
he  expressed  his  sentiments,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
authority,  and  Pichegru  was  chosen  in  his  place.  In 
1794,  however,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
army  of  the  Moselle  against  the  Austrians,  over  whom, 
in  a  few  weeks,  he  won  the  important  battles  of  Arlon 
and  Fleurus.  He  also  captured  Charleroi  and  many 
Other  towns.  In  the  autumn  of  1794  he  gained  the 
victories  of  Ayvaile  and  Aldenhoven.  He  afterwards 
took  Luxemburg,  Dusseldorf,  Frankfort,  and  Wiirzburg, 
but  in  September,  1796,  was  signally  defeated  by  the 
Archduke  Charles  near  the  last-named  place.  Jourdan 
soon  after  resigned,  and,  having  returned  to  Paris,  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  of 
which  a  few  months  later  he  was  elected  president.  It 
1798  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  or 
the  Danube.  In  1799,  having  met  with  two  decisive 
defeats  from  the  Archduke  Charles,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Massena.  The  same  year  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  for  having  opposed  the  ambi- 
tious projects  of  Napoleon.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  Cisalpine  Republic  in  1800.     Though  created  a 


marshal  of  the  empire  in  1804,  no  military  command  of 
importance  was  given  to  him  until  he  accompanied  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte  to  Spain  as  major-general.  He  remained 
with  that  monarch  through  all  his  vicissitudes,  and  was 
the  nominal  commander  of  the  French  forces  when  lliey 
were  defeated  at  Vitoria  by  Wellington  in  1813.  In  1818 
Louis  XVIII.  created  Jourdan  a  peer  of  France.  Died 
in  1833.  He  was  the  author  of  two  works, — "  Operc 
tions  of  the  Army  of  the  Danube  under  the  Orders  of 
General  Jourdan,"  and  "  History  of  the  Campaign  of 
1796,  containing  the  Operations  of  the  Army  of  the 
Sambre-et-Meuse."  Napoleon,  at  Saint  Helena,  con- 
fessed that  he  had  ill-treated  Jourdan,  whom  he  charac- 
terized as  a  "  true  patriot." 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  rEmplre;"  De  Cour- 
CEt.i,KS,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gi^neraux  Fran9ais  ;"  Mien  add,  "  Noiicej 
liistoriques  sur  le  Mareclial  Jourdan,  les  Gerii?raux  Kalckreuth,  Kil- 
maiiie,"  etc.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jourdan,  (Mathieu  Jouve,)  surnamed  Coupe-T£te, 
koop'tit',  ("  cut-throat,")  a  French  revolutionist,  noto- 
rious for  his  inhumanity,  was  born  in  Vivarais  in  1749. 
He  was  executed  in  1794. 

Jourde,  zhooRd,  (Gilbert  Amable,)  a  French  law- 
yer, born  in  Auvergne  in  1757,  in  1795  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  Died  in 
1837- 

Jourdeuil,  zhooR'duI'  or  zhooR'duh'ye,  (Didier,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  was  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of  the 
massacre  in  September,  1792.     Died  about  1800. 

Jourgniac  Saint-Meard,  zhooRn'ye-tk'  s.^x  mi'tR^ 
(Chevalier  FraN(JOIS,)  a  French  satirical  writer  and 
royalist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1745.  In  1792  he  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  was  acquitted.  Died 
in  1827. 

Jousse,  zhooss,  (Daniel,)  an  eminent  jurist,  born 
at  Orleans,  in  France,  in  1704.  He  entered  a  college 
in  Paris,  where  he  gained  distinction  in  mathematics. 
He  subsequently  began  the  study  of  law.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "  Historical  Detail  of  the  City 
of  Orleans,"  and  "  New  Commentary  upon  the  Criminal 
Ordinance."     Died  in  1781. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Joussouf,  Joussef,  or  Joussof.     See  YoosuF. 

Jouvancy  or  Jouvency,  zhoo'v5N'se',  (Joseph,)  a 
celebrated  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Paris  in  1643.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  college  of  Louis 
le  Grand,  and  was  afterwards  called  by  his  superiors  to 
Rome  to  assist  in  writing  the  history  of  the  Jesuits.  His 
style  is  remarkable  for  its  purity  and  elegance.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Notes  upon  Juvenal,  Persius,  Terence, 
Horace,  Martial,  and  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,"  and 
the  fifth  volume  of  the  "  History  of  the  Jesuits"  from 
1591  to  1616.     Died  in  1719. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Qu^rard,  "  La  France 
Litteraire." 

Jouvency.    See  Jouvancy. 

Jouvenet,  zhoov'ni',  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  historical 
painter,  born  at  Rouen,  France,  about  1646.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  his  uncle,  Laurent  Jouvenet,  and  afterwards 
studied  in  Paris  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  was  subsequently  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  granted  him  a  pension  of  1700  livres.  Having 
lost  the  use  of  his  right  hand  by  a  paralytic  stroke,  he 
ascertained  that  he  could  use  his  left  with  equal  facility, 
and  soon  after  painted  one  of  his  best  pictures,  a  repre- 
sentation of  Innocence  followed  by  Falsehood  and  seek- 
ing protection  in  the  arms  ot  Justice.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Esther  before  Ahasuerus,"  "Jesus  Christ 
driving  the  Money-Changers  from  the  Temple,"  "The 
Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  and  the  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross." 

See  D'Argenville,  "  Vies  des  Peintres;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Jouvenneaux.     See  Juvenal. 

Joixy,  de,  deh  zhooV,  (Louis  Francois,)  a  French 
lawyer,  and  advocate  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  where 
he  was  born  in  1714  ;  died  in  1771. 

Jouy,  de,  (Victor  Joseph  Etienne,)  an  eminent 
French  writer,  born  at  Jouy,  near  Versailles,  in  1764  or 
1769.  He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1790 
favoured  the  Revolution ;  but  during  the  reign  of  terror 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  gkarci;  g  asy;  G,  H.  K.  ^ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJI^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOVE 


1406 


JOYNER 


he  fled  for  safety  to  Switzerland.  In  1794  he  returned  to 
France,  and,  after  serving  for  some  time  in  the  army,  which 
he  quitted  in  1797,  fixed  his  residence  in  Paris  and  turned 
his  attention  to  literary  pursuits.  Among  his  works  are 
the  operas  of  "The  Vestal"  (1807)  and  of  "The  Ama- 
zon," the  tragedy  of  "  Sylla,"  (1822,)  "Cecil,"  a  novel, 
{1827,)  and  a  series  of  essays  entitled  "The  Hermit  of 
'be  Chaussee  d'Antin,"  (5  vols.,  1812-14.)  The  last 
work,  which  somewhat  resembles  Addison's  "  Spec- 
tator," obtained  a  European  reputation.  He  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  181 5,  and  appointed  chief 
librarian  of  the  Louvre  in  1831.  IJesides  the  works 
above  named,  he  wrote  "The  Hermit  in  the  Province," 
("L'Hermite  en  Province,"  14  vols.,  1818  et  seq.,)  and 
"The  Hermits  in  Prison,"  ("  Les  Hermites  en  Prison," 
2  vols.,  1823,)  which  was  very  popular.     Died  in  1846. 

See  QiJ^RARD,  "  La  France  Littiraire  ;"  Charles  Nisard,  in  the 
"  Dictionnaire  de  la  Conversation  ;'"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale. 

Jove.    See  Jupiter. 

Jovellanos,  de,  di  Ho-vgl-yd'nis,  (Caspar  Mel- 
THIOR,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  author,  and  scholar,  born 
of  noble  parentage  at  Gijon,  in  Asturias,  in  1744.  He 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Oviedo,  Avila,  and  Alcala. 
In  1770  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Madrid,  and  was  soon  after  appointed  councillor  oi 
state  by  Charles  III.  In  1778  he  became  a  judge  of 
the  criminal  court  at  Madrid.  Afterwards,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Don  Manuel  Godoy,  Prince  of  Peace, 
he  was  banished  to  Majorca,  where  for  more  than  seven 
years  he  remained  a  prisoner.  He  returned  to  Spain 
m  1808,  and  in  a  short  time  became  a  member  of  the 
supreme  junta.  Among  his  works  are  several  valuable 
treatises  on  political  economy,  the  tragedy  of  "Pelayo," 
(1790,)  the  comedy  of  "The  Honourable  Delinquent," 
a  "  Dissertation  on  English  Architecture,"  and  an  ex- 
cellent "  Memoir  on  Law  applied  to  Agriculture,"  {"  In- 
forme  sobre  la  Ley  agraria.")     Died  in  181 1. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Cean  Ber- 
MUDEZ,  "  Memorias  para  la  Vida  del  Don  G.  Jovellanos,"  1814; 
Antillon,  "  Noticias  historicas  de  G.  M.  de  Jovellanos,"  1812; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830. 

Jo'vi-aii,  [Lat.  Jovia'nus  ;  Fr.  Jovien,  zho've-^N'; 
It.  GioviANO,  jo-ve-c1'no,]  or,  more  fully,  Jo-vi-a'nu3 
Fla'vi-us  Clau'di-us,  Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  in 
Pannonia,  331  A.D.  He  early  distinguished  hitnself  as 
a  commander  in  the  Roman  army,  and,  though  an  avowed 
Christian,  received  many  marks  of  distinction  from  Julian 
the  Apostate,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  unsuccessful 
expedition  into  Persia.  At  the  death  of  that  sovereign, 
in  363,  Jovian  was  elected  emperor  by  the  army.  The 
Roman  troops  were  at  that  time  in  imminent  danger, 
both  on  account  of  the  superior  Persian  forces  by  which 
they  were  hemmed  in,  and  the  great  scarcity  of  provi- 
sions. Jovian,  after  bravely  repelling  several  attacks  of 
the  enemy,  formed  a  treaty,  by  whicli  he  agreed  to  give 
up  the  Roman  conquests  west  of  the  Tigris.  Returning, 
he  spent  some  time  at  Antioch,  where  he  annulled 
Julian's  laws  against  the  Christians  and  re-established 
the  orthodox  religion.  He  died  in  364,  at  Dadastana, 
in  Galatia,  as  he  was  proceeding  to  Constantinople. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histnire  du  Ras-Enipire ;"  Tillemont,  "His- 
toire  des  Empereurs ;"  Schenkel,  "Historia  Joviani,"  1617;  La 
Bletterie,  "  Histoire  de  I'Empereur  Jovien,"  2  vols.,  1748. 

Jovianus.     See  Jovian. 

Jovien,  the  French  for  Jovian,  which  see. 

Jovin.     See  Tovinus. 

Jo-vin'i-an,  [Lat.  Jovinia'nus;  Fr.  Jovtnien,  zho'- 
ve'ne^N*', ]  an  Italian  monk,  distinguished  for  his  bold 
opposition  to  the  growing  superstition  and  encroachments 
of  the  Roman  Church.  He  particularly  censured  celi- 
bacy, fasting,  and  the  austerities  of  the  convent.  For 
the  propagation  of  these  principles  he  was  condemned 
for  heresy  by  the  Bishops  of  Rome  and  of  Milan,  and 
in  398,  by  the  orders  of  the  emperor  Ilonorius,  was 
scourged  and  banished.     Died  about  410  A.D. 

See  Saint  Jerome," Contra  Jovinianum  ;"  Barokiits,  "  Annales 
Ecclesiastici." 

Joviniauus.     See  Jovinian, 
Joviuien.     See  Jovinian. 

Jo-vJ'nus,  \Yx.  Jovin,  zIio'v^n',]  a  native  of  Rheims, 
was  created  a  Roman  consul  by  the  emperor  Valentinian 


in  367  A.D.  He  received  the  command  of  the  cavalry  m 
Gaul,  and  soon  after  cut  in  pieces  a  German  army  which 
had  invaded  that  country.  He  built  in  his  native  city  a 
church,  in  which  he  was  buried  in  370  A.D. 

Jovinus,  a  Roman  general,  who  in  41 1  a.d.,  under  the 
reign  of  Ilonorius,  assumed  the  imperial  title  and  pos- 
sessed himself  of  i)art  of  Gaul.  In  412  he  was  defeated 
by  Ataulphus,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  an  ally  of  Hono- 
rius.     He  was  soon  after  taken  and  executed. 

Jovius,  (Paul.)     See  Giovio,  (Paolo.) 

Jo'w'ett,  (Bknjamin,)  an  eminent  English  scholar, 
born  at  Camberwell,  near  London,  in  1S17.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  was  chosen  a  Fellow  in 
1838,  was  a  tutor  of  Balliol  College  from  1842  to  1870, 
and  afterwards  was  regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford. 
In  1870  he  was  elected  master  of  Balliol.  Among  his 
works  are  a  commentary  (1855)  on  some  of  the  Pauline 
Epistles,  "The  Dialogues  of  Plato,"  (a  translation,  in  4 
vols.,  1871,  one  of  the  best  ever  made,)  a  translation  of 
Thucydides,  (2  vols.,  1881,)  etc. 

Jovr'ett,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  missionary, 
born  about  1787.  He  published  "Christian  Researches 
in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,"  (1825,)  and  other  works. 
Died' in  1855. 

Joy,  Joye,  or  Gee,  (George,)  an  early  English  Re- 
former, born  in  Bedfordshire.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1 5 13.  Being  accused  of  heresy,  he  retired  to 
Germany,  where  he  remained  several  years.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  in  1553.  He  assisted  in  the  transla- 
tion of  Tyndale's  liible  which  was  printed  at  Antwerp  in 
1534,  and  wrote  several  religious  works,  among  which  is 
one  "On  the  Unity  and  Schism  of  the  Ancient  Church." 

See  Lewis,  "  History  of  the  Translations  of  the  Bible." 

Joyant,  zhwil'ySN',  (Jules  Romain,)  a  skilful  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  produced 
views  of  Venice,  which  were  much  admired.   Died  in  1854. 

Joyce,  jois,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  writer  and  Uni- 
tarian minister,  born  in  1764.  He  was  principal  editor 
of  the  "Cyclopaedia"  which  appeared  under  the  name 
of  \Villiam  Nicholson,  and  was  the  author  of  a  justly 
popular  work,  "  Scientific  Dialogues,"  "  Letters  on  Nat- 
ural Philosophy,"  and  other  productions  of  a  similar 
nature.  He  was  arrested  in  1794  with  Home  Tooke  and 
others  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  was  released  without 
trial  after  the  acquittal  of  Tooke.     Died  in  1816. 

Joyeuse,  de,  deh  zhw.Vyuz',  (Anne,)  Due,  a  French 
nobleman,  born  about  1561.  He  married  Margaret  of 
Lorraine,  sister  of  the  queen  of  Henry  III.  About  1586 
he  received  the  command  of  the  army  sent  against  the 
Huguenots.  He  at  first  gained  some  advantages,  and 
committed  great  cruelties  upon  the  Protestants,  but  in 
October,  1587,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of 
Coutras  by  Henry  of  Navarre. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Ftantais;"  D'Aubign^,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Joyeuse,  de,  (FRANqois,)  Cardinal,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1562.  He  was  the  confidential 
minister  of  Henry  III.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Louis  XIII.  In 
1614  he  became  clean  of  the  cardinals  of  Avignon.  Died 
in  161 5. 

See  AuBERV,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Joyeuse,"  etc.,  Paris,  165+. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (Guillaume,)  Viscount,  a  French 
military  commander,  born  about  1520.  He  was  made 
lieutenant-general  of  Languedoc,  and  in  1562  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  wars  against  the  French  Protest- 
ants.    In  1582  he  was  created  a  marshal.     Died  in  1592. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (Henri,)  Due,  born  in  France  in  1567. 
The  death  of  his  wife,  about  1587,  affected  him  so  deeply 
that  he  entered  the  order  of  the  Capuchins.  In  1592  he 
obtained  a  dis[)ensation  releasing  him  from  his  vows,  and 
received  the  command  of  the  army  in  Languedoc.  Henry 
IV.  created  him  marshal  of  France.  He  afterwards  be- 
came again  a  Capuchin.     Died  in  160S. 

See  Kroussk,  "  Vie  de  Henri,  Due  de  Joyeuse,"  Paris,  1621. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (Jean  Armand,)  Marquis,  a  French 
nobleman,  born  in  1631.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
Flanders  under  Turenne,  and  was  afterwards  created 
marshal  of  France.     Died  in  17 10. 

Joy'ner,  (William,)  sometimes  called  Lyde,  an 
English  Catholic  and  author,  born  near  Oxford  in  1622  ; 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,/otii^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  \i,y,s/ior/;  a,  e,  j,  q,  pl>sc7trc' ;  fdr,  fill,  fAt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOZE 


1407 


JUDAS 


died  in  1706.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Roman  Em- 
press," a  comedy,  and  several  English  and  Latin  poems. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Pramatica." 

Joz6,  zho-za',  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  Jew  and  cele- 
brated dramatist.  He  excelled  in  wit  and  saicasm,  which, 
in  one  of  his  comedies,  he  directed  against  some  of  the 
Catholic  ceremonies.  He  was  soon  after  seized  by  the 
ofificers  of  the  Inquisition,  tortured,  and  finally  burned  at 
an  auto-de-fe  in  1745.  Among  the  best  of  his  comedies 
are  "Esop"  and  "The  Enchantments  of  Medea." 

Joze  Manoel.    See  Joseph  Emanuel. 

Juan,  Don.     See  John,  Don,  of  Austria. 

Juan,  Hoo-Sn',  Don,  natural  son  of  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain  and  Maria  Calderona,  an  actress,  was  born  in 
Madrid  in  1629.  In  1647  he  received  the  command  of 
the  Spanish  army  in  Italy,  where  he  took  the  city  of 
Naples  and  gained  many  other  advantages.  Afterwards 
he  was  defeated  by  Turenne  in  the  Netherlands,  at  the 
battle  of  Dunes,  and  compelled  to  evacuate  the  country. 
His  brother,  Charles  II.,  subsequently  made  him  prime 
minister.     Died  in  1679. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Juan  de  Santa  Cruz.     See  Juan  de  Yepez. 

Juan  de  Yepez,  Hoo-dn'  di  ya'pSth,  or  Juan  de 
Santa  Cruz,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  calendar,  was  borfi 
in  Old  Castile  in  1542.  He,  with  Saint  Theresa,  estab- 
lished the  order  of  Barefooted  Carmelites.   Died  in  1591. 

Juan  y  Santacilia,  Hoo-3n'e  sSn-td-thee'le-a,(JoRGE,) 
Don,  a  celebrated  Spanish  mathematician  and  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  Orihuela,  in  Valencia,  in  1712.  He 
was  sent  about  1735,  with  several  Spanish  and  French 
servants,  to  measure  the  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the 
equator.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  naval  archi- 
tecture. He  wrote  "  Observations  on  Astronomy  and 
Physics  made  in  the  Kingdom  of  Peru,"  (5  vols.,  1748,) 
and  a  treatise  on  the  construction  of  vessels,  (2  vols., 
1761.)     Died  in  1774. 

See  La  Condamine,  "Journal  du Voyase  fait  i  I'Equateur,"  etc. 

Juaiia  of  Spain.     See  Joan. 

Juarez,  joo-S'r§z,  [Sp.  pron.  Hoo-i'r5th,]  (Benito,) 
a  Mexican  statesman,  born  in  Oajaca  in  1806,  and  saic 
to  be  of  pure  aboriginal  stock.  He  studied  law,  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1846,  and  was  Governor  of  Oa- 
jaca from  1848  to  1852.  In  1853  he  was  banished  by 
Santa  Ana.  He  joined  the  party  of  Alvarez,  who  became 
president  in  1855,  and  served  under  him  as  minister  of 
justice.  In  1857  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
Comonfort,  who  was  driven  from  power  in  January,  1858. 
Juarez  was  recognized  as  the  successor  of  Comonfort  by 
the  Liberals,  but  was  opposed  by  the  clerical  party  in  a 
long  civil  war.  He  was  elected  president  about  1861, 
soon  after  which  Mexico  was  invaded  by  a  French  army. 
Having  gained  several  victories,  the  French  took  the 
city  of  ^Iexico  in  June,  1863,  and  Maximilian  of  Austria 
assumed  the  imperial  power,  under  the  patronage  of 
Napoleon  III.  Juarez  was  reduced  to  a  critical  position, 
and  his  cause  seemed  desperate  ;  but  at  length  the  French 
army  was  withdrawn  in  1S66,  and  the  Liberals  quickly 
recovered  the  ascendency.  lie  was  elected  president 
again  in  October,  1867.     Died  July  iS,  1872. 

Ju'ba  [Or.  'luSaf]  I.  succeeded  his  father,  Hiempsal, 
on  the  throne  of  Numidia  about  50  B.C.  In  the  war 
between  Cassar  and  Pompey  he  supported  the  cause  of 
the  latter,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Curio,  a 
lieutenant  of  Cresar.  After  Pompey's  defeat  at  Phar- 
salia,  Juba  continued  to  support  his  cause  in  Africa,  and 
for  some  time  held  even  Caesar  in  check.  He  was,  how- 
ever, defeated  by  the  dictator  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus, 
and  soon  after  killed  himself,  42  B.C.,  in  preference  to 
gracing  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  His  kingdom 
was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  of  which  the  historian 
Sallust  was  appointed  the  first  governor. 

See  CiKSAR,  "  Bellum  Civile:"  Dion  Cassius,  "History'  of 
Rome;"  Appian,  "  Bellum  Ci\'ile." 

Juba  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  carried  to  Rome 
by  Caesar,  who  gave  him  a  liberal  education.  He  served 
in  the  army  of  Augustus,  from  whom  he  received  the 
kingdom  of  Mauritania  about  30  B.C.  He  married  Cle- 
opatra Selena,  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Cleopatra, 
Queen  of  Egypt,  by  Antony.     Juba  was  distinguished 


for  his  learning,  ability,  and  justice.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  works,  written  in  Greek,  upon  various  subjects. 
Pliny,  Plutarch,  Tacitus,  and  other  historians  mention  his 
writings  with  just  commendation.  He  died  about  20  B.C. 
See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Gn-ecis;"  Eckhel,  "  Doctrina  Nii- 
morum;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gendrale." 

Jub6,  zhii'bi',  (Auguste,)  a  French  historian  and 
general,  born  in  1765.  He  wrote  a  "Military  History 
of  the  Wars  of  France  from  1643  to  1815,"  (2  vols.,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1824. 

Jub6,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jansenist,  born  near  Paris 
in  1674;  died  in  1745. 

Jubinal,  zhii'be'nSl',  (Michel  Louis  Achille,)  a 
French  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1810;  died  in  1875. 

Juda,  zhii'dJt',  (L60N,)  a  French  Protestant,  born  in 
Alsace  in  1482,  was  the  natural  son  of  Jean  Juda,  a 
priest.  In  1 502,  having  formed  a  friendship  with  Zuin- 
glius,  he  was  led  to  embrace  the  principles  of  the  Re- 
formers, and  became  pastor  of  Saint  Peter's  Church  in 
Zurich.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in  promoting 
the  Reformation,  both  from  his  pulpit  and  by  his  pen. 
Died  in  1542.  He  commenced  a  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Latin,  which  was  finished  after  his  death, 
and  was  regarded  by  the  Protestants,  and  even  by  many 
Catholic  divines,  as  the  best  version  extant.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  religious  works. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vits  Theologoruin  Germanorum  ;"  Haag,  "  La 
France  protestante." 

Ju'dah,  [Heb.  miri'',]  fourth  son  of  Jacob,  and  one 
of  the  twelve  Hebrew  patriarchs,  was  born  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, B.C.  1755.  When  Joseph  was  thrown  into  the 
cave  by  his  brethren,  it  was  through  Judah's  influence 
that  they  sold  him  to  the  Ishmaelites,  instead  of  taking 
his  life  as  they  had  previously  intended.  (Genesis  xxxvii. 
26.)  Jacob,  on  his  death-bed,  foretold  that  Judah's  pos- 
terity would  become  the  principal  tribe  of  Israel,  and 
also  referred  to  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to 
be  his  lineal  descendant.     (Genesis  xlix.  8-12.) 

Ju'dah,  (Henry  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Snow  liiil,  Maryland,  about  182 1,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843,  ^"^  was  a  captain  before  the  civil  war 
began.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun- 
teers early  in  1862,  and  commanded  a  division  at  Resaca, 
Georgia,  May  15,  1864.     Died  January  14,  1866. 

Judah  or  Je-hu'dah  Hak'ka-dosh',  (or  Hakka- 
dosch.)  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  Galilee  about 
120  A.n.  He  is  believed  to  have  compiled,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Roman  emperor  Marcus  Antoninus,  the 
Mishna,  (Mischna,)  which  contains  the  various  Jewish 
laws  and  institutions  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament. 
In  a  short  time  the  Talmud  was  ranked  among  the 
sacred  books  of  the  nation,  and  it  has  since  received  ad- 
ditions from  several  learned  rabbis.     Died  in  190  a.d. 

See  Wolf,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica." 

Ju'dah  Hioog,  (or  Hioug,)  he-oog',  a  Jewish  rabbi 
and  physician,  who  gained  great  distinction  for  his  learn- 
ing and  skill,  was  born  at  Fez,  in  Africa,  and  lived  about 
1040.  He  wrote  several  works  (in  Arabic)  on  the  Hebrew 
language,  and  is  now  regarded  by  his  nation  as  their  first 
and  perhaps  their  greatest  grammarian.  His  name  is 
sometimes  written  Judah  Chiug. 

Judah  Rav  or  Rab.     See  Ashe. 

Ju'da.g  Is-car'i-ot,  one  of  the  tvvelve  apostles  chosen 
by  Jesus.  I  le  betrayed  his  Master  to  the  officers  of  the 
chief  priests  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver.  Afterwards,  being 
stung  with  remorse,  he  returned  the  money  to  the  priests 
and  "went  and  hanged  himself." 

See  Matthew  x.  4,  xxvi.  47-5°.  xxvii.  3-5  ;  Mark  xiv.  18-21,  43. 

Ju'das  Le-vi'ta  or  Hal'le-vi,  a  learned  Spanish  Jew 
and  poet,  born  in  1090  or  loSo,  wrote  a  work  in  Arabic 
in  defence  of  the  Jewish  religion,  entitled  "  Sepher  Hoc- 
cori,"  »vhich  was  translated  into  Hebrew,  Latin,  and 
Spanish.     Died  in  1140. 

Ju'das  Maccabse'us,  (mak-ka  bee'us,)  [Gr.  'loMaf  b 
)liaKKafi(uoq;  Fr.  Judas  Machab^e,  zhii'das'  mt'kt'bi',] 
of  the  royal  line  of  the  Asmona;ans,  became  leader  of  the 
Jews  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Mattathias,  B.C.  166. 
He  conquered  and  cut  in  pieces  several  Syrian  armies 
which  had  been  sent  against  him  by  Antiochus,  subdued 
the  Idumeans,  Ammonites,  and  other  neighbouring  na- 


€  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as;V  g,  h,  Vi,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilkd:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     ( ^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JUDD 


1408 


JUGURTHA 


rions,  and  restored  the  worship  of  the  true  God  in  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  afterwards  besieged  in 
that  city  by  Antiochus  Eupator,  who  was,  however,  soon 
obliged  to  return  to  Syria,  on  account  of  a  civil  war  which 
had  broken  out  in  his  kingdom.  Judas,  wishing  to  form 
an  independent  government  in  Judca,  and  being  unable 
to  contend  against  the  whole  power  of  Syria,  concluded 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Romans.  But,  before  any 
assistance  could  arrive,  a  large  army  of  Syrians  again 
invaded  Judea.  Judas  marched  against  them  with  a  body 
of  three  thousand  men,  which  was  soon  reduced  by  de- 
sertion to  eight  hundred,  lie  nevertheless  attacked  the 
enemy,  and,  after  a  severe  battle,  was  defeated  and  slain, 
160  B.C. 

Judd,  (John  Wesley,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  geologist, 
bom  at  Portsmouth,  February  18,  1840.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  Normal  College  and  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines.  In  1S67  he  went  upon  the  geological 
survey,  in  1876  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  in  1881  he  took  the 
geological  professorship  in  the  Normal  School  of  Science, 
London.  His  best-known  publication  is  "Volcanoes, 
What  they  Are,  and  What  they  Teach." 

Judd,  (Orange,)  an  American  author  and  publisher, 
born  near  Niagara  Falls,  New  York,  July  26,  1822.  He 
graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1847,  studied  chem- 
istry in  Yale  College,  1850-53,  and  edited  the  "Ameri- 
can Agriculturist,"  1853-81.  His  writings  are  chiefly  on 
agricultural  subjects.  He  liberally  aided  the  Wesleyan 
University. 

Judd,  (Sylvester,)  a  Unitarian  minister  and  writer, 
born  in  Westhampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1836,  studied  divinity  at  Harvard, 
and  from  1840  until  his  death,  in  1853,  was  pastor  of  the 
Unitarian  church  in  Augusta,  Maine.  His  principal 
work,  "  Margaret,  a  Tale  of  the  Real  and  Ideal,"  (1845,) 
is  pronounced  by  the  "North  American  Review"  "the 
most  emphatically  American  book  ever  written."  It  has 
since  been  beautifully  illustrated  by  Darley.  Among  his 
other  works  are  "  Philio,"  a  didactic  poem. 

See  "Life  and  Character  of  Sylvester  Judd,"  Boston,  1S54; 
DuvcKrNCK,  "  Cycliipsdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  kir  July,  1S67. 

Jude,  [Gr.  'lottSaf,]  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apos- 
tles. He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  the  book 
bearing  his  name.  He  was  surnamed  Lebbeus  and 
Thaddeus. 

See  Matthew  -a.  3  ;  Mark  iii.  18. 

Judic,  zhii'd^k',  (Madame  Anna  Damtens,)  a  French 
actress,  born  at  Seniur,  July  17,  1850.  Bred  a  shop-girl, 
her  strong  passion  for  the  stage  procured  her  a  place  in 
the  Conservatoire  of  Paris.  She  made  her  debut  at  the 
Gymnase  in  1867.  Her  best  roles  are  in  light  opera, 
where  her  grace  and  piquant  style  are  very  effective. 

Judicael,  ju'de-kal,  became  ruler  of  Bretagne  about 
632,  and  assumed  the  title  of  royalty.  After  a  reign  of 
six  years,  he  entered  a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Alain. 

Ju'dith,  [Heb.  nniTT  ;  It.  GiUDirrA,  joo-dfet'tS,]  a 
Jewish  heroine,  of  uncertain  epoch.  According  to  tradi- 
tion, she  lived  at  Bethulia  when  that  town  was  besieged 
by  Holofernes,  a  general  of  the  King  of  Assyria.  Having 
by  insidious  arts  gained  admission  to  his  tent  and  per- 
suaded liim  that  she  designed  to  betray  the  town  to  him, 
she  cut  off  his  head  and  carried  it  in  a  sack  to  Bethulia, 
which  was,  consequently,  saved  froin  capture. 

See  the  Apocryphal  Book  of  Judith ;  Alfonso  Niccolai,  "La 
IJiuditta;  Dissertazione,"  1765. 

Judith,  zhu'd6t'.  Mademoiselle,  the  stage  name 
of  Julie  Bernat,  afterwards  Madame  Bernard-De- 
ROSNE,  a  French  actress,  born  at  Paris,  of  a  Hebrew 
family,  January  29,  1827.  She  was  a  relative  of  Made- 
moiselle Rachel,  the  tragedienne,  and  went  upon  the 
stage  in  1842.  Her  beauty  and  native  talents,  however, 
failed  at  first  to  win  much  success  ;  but  in  later  years  her 
power  and  versatility  were  widely  recognized. 

Jud'spn,  (AnoNiRAM,)  an  eminent  Baptist  mission- 
ary, born  in  Maiden,  Massachusetts,  in  1788,  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1S07.  He  was  sent  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Burmah  in  1812,  founded  a  mission  at  Ran- 


goon, and  learned  the  Burmese  language.  In  1823  he 
printed  a  Burmese  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  was  thrown  into  prison  in  1824,  and  kept  in  close 
confinement  eighteen  months  or  more,  during  which  he 
and  his  companions  suffered  extremely-  He  completed 
a  Burmese  translation  of  the  Bible  in  1834.  He  married 
successively  Ann  Hasseltine,  Sarah  Hall  Boardman,  and 
Emily  Chubbuck,  each  of  whom  is  noticed  below.  Having 
visited  the  United  States  in  1845,  '^^  returned  to  Burmah 
in  1846,  and  resumed  his  labours  at  Maulmain.  He  died 
at  sea  in  April,  1850. 

See  Francis  Wayland,  "Memoir  of  the  Life  of  A.  Judson,"  2 
vols.,  1853;  James  Clement,  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  A.  Judsdu,"  1S50 : 
H.  C.  CoNANT,  "The  Earnest  Man  ■  a  Sketch  of  the  Character  and 
Labours  of  A.  Judson,"  1S56  ;  William  Hague,  "  Life  of  A.  Jud- 
son," 1851. 

Judson,  (Ann,)  (originally  Miss  Hasseltine,)  a 
missionary  to  India,  wife  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Adoniram 
Judson,  was  born  in  Bradford,  Massachusetts,  in  1789. 
(See  preceding  article.)  A  "Memoir  of  her  Life,"  by 
the  Rev.  J.  D.  Knowles,  appeared  soon  after  her  death 
in  1826. 

Judson,  (Emily,)  (originally  Miss  Chubbuck,)  an 
American  authoress,  known  by  the  710m  de  plume  of 
"  Fanny  Forester,"  was  born  at  Eaton,  in  New  York, 
in  1817.  She  wrote  for  the  "New  York  Mirror,"  and 
published  two  volumes  of  her  essays,  sketches,  and 
poems,  under  the  title  of  "  Alderbrook,"  (1846.)  She 
was  married  in  1846  to  Dr.  Judson,  and  immediately 
sailed  with  him  for  India.  While  in  Burmah,  she  com- 
posed some  of  her  best  poems.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband,  in  1850,  she  returned  to  America,  and  died  at 
Hamilton,  New  York,  in  1854.  (See  JUDSON,  Adoniram.) 

Judson,  (Sarah,)  (originally  Miss  Hall,)  a  missiou- 
ary  to  India,  born  in  Alstead,  New  Hampshire,  in  1803. 
In  1S25  she  was  married  to  the  Rev.  George  Dana 
Boa:  dman,  and  the  same  year  sailed  with  him  for  Bur- 
mah. They  established  the  Baptist  Mission  at  Maul- 
main, and  subsequently  at  Tavoy.  After  the  death  of 
her  husband,  in  1831,  she  continued  her  missionary 
labours  with  great  success.  In  1834  she  was  married  to 
Rev.  A.  Judson,  noticed  above.  Died  at  Saint  Helena 
in  1845. 

Juel,  yoo'el,  (J.,)  a  Danish  admiral,  was  a  brother 
of  Niels,  noticed  below,  with  whom  he  co-operated  in 
several  battles.  He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the 
treaty  of  Lund  in  1679.     Died  about  1700. 

See  N.  JoNGE,  "  Vice-Admiral  J.  Juels  Liv  og  Lcvnctsbeskri- 
velse,"  1755. 

Juel,  (Niels  or  Nicholas,)  a  celebrated  Danish  ad- 
miral, born  in  1629.  After  serving  in  the  Dutch  navy 
under  Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruyter,  he  entered  the  Danish 
service,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  several  im- 
portant victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Swedes.  The 
King  of  Denmark  created  him  an  admiral,  knighted  him, 
and  conferred  upon  him  other  honours.     Died  in  1697. 

Juengling,  yYng'Iing,  (Frederick,)  a  gifted  artist- 
engraver,  born  in  Leipsic  in  1846,  learned  wood-engraving 
in  his  native  city,  and  in  1866  came  to  New  York,  where, 
as  accessory  to  his  business  of  engraving,  he  studied  draw- 
ing, painting,  and  etching.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  American  Society  of  Wood-Engraveis.  In  1883 
one  of  his  pictures  was  awarded  a  second-class  medal  at 
Munich.  After  a  visit  to  Europe  in  search  of  health,  he 
died  in  New  York,  December  31,  1S89. 

Juenin,  zhu-i'niN',   (Gaspard,)    a    French    priest, 

writer,  and  professor  of  ])hilosophy  in  Paris,  born  at 
Varambon,  in  Bresse,  in  1650;  died  in  1713. 

Juglaris,  yoo-gl4'r6s,  (Aloisi-o,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
professor  of  rhetoric,  born  at  Nice  in  1607.  He  was  also 
employed  as  preceptor  to  Prince  Charles  Emanuel  of 
Savoy.  He  wrote  numerous  panegyrics  on  Louis  XI H. 
and  other  persons  of  distinctitm.     Died  in  1653. 

Jugleb,  yooc/lJ]),  or  Jugler,  yooc/ler,  (Johann 
Friedrich,)  a  German  writer,  born  near  Naumburg  in 
1718.  He  published  "Biographical  and  Critical  Notices 
of  Eminent  Jurists  and  Statesmen  of  Europe,"  (6  vols., 
1773-80,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1791. 

Ju-gur'tha,  [Gr.  'XovyovpQaq  or  'foppfJaf,]  an  African 
prince,  remarkable  for  his  criines  and  tragical  death,  was 
a  natural  son  of  Manastabal.    He  was  brought  up  at  the 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obsao-e;  far,  fdll,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon 


JUIGNE 


409 


JULIAN 


\ 


court  of  his  uncle,  Micipsa,  King  of  Numidia,  and  at  an 
early  age  served  under  Scipio  ^miliauus  in  the  Roman 
army.  During  the  war  with  Numantia  he  gained  great 
distinction,  and  at  its  conclusion  was  highly  commended 
to  his  uncle  by  Scipio.  Micipsa  soon  after  created  him 
joint  heir  with  his  own  sons  Adherbal  and  Hiempsal. 
Upon  the  death  of  that  monarch,  Jug^rtha  caused 
Hiempsal  to  be  murdered,  and  forced  Adherbal  to  seek 
protection  at  Rome.  Commissioners  were  sent  out  by 
the  Roman  senate  to  divide  the  kingdom  between  Ad- 
'lerbal  and  Jugurtha;  but  the  latter,  having  bribed  them, 
received  the  largest  portion  of  the  territory,  and  was 
declared  to  be  innocent  of  the  murder  of  Hiempsal. 
Resolving,  however,  to  obtain  the  entire  kingdom,  he 
captured  Adherbal  in  the  city  of  Cirta,  while  he  was  yet 
under  the  protection  of  the  Roman  senate,  and  put  him 
to  death  with  the  greatest  cruelty.  War  was  imme- 
diately declared  against  him  by  the  Romans ;  but  he 
succeeded  in  forming  an  advantageous  treaty  with  the 
consul  Calpurnius,  who  had  been  sent  to  reduce  him  to 
subjection.  The  senate  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  and 
summoned  Jugurtha  to  Rome  to  answer  the  charges 
brought  against  him.  He  obeyed  the  mandate;  but 
while  in  that  city  he  procured  the  assassination  of  his 
cousin  Massiva,  another  claimant  of  the  Numidian  crown. 
Upon  the  commission  of  this  outrage  he  was  commanded 
to  leave  Rome.  As  he  was  taking  his  last  view  of  the 
capital,  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  "  Mercenary  city, 
thou  waitest  only  for  a  purchaser  to  sell  thyself;  and 
thou  wilt  perish  if  one  is  found."  After  his  return  to 
Numidia  he  defeated  a  Roman  army  under  Aulus  Post- 
humius,  compelling  it  to  pass  under  the  yoke  and  to 
evacuate  the  country.  The  war  was  afterwards  con- 
tinued byMetellus;  and,  though  Jugurtha  was  one  of 
the  ablest  commanders  of  that  age,  he  was  unable  to 
resist  the  Roman  general,  whose  skill  and  prudence  made 
him  ever  victorious  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  whose 
stern  integrity  rendered  him  invincible  to  the  golden 
offers  of  the  Numidian  usurper.  Jugurtha,  having  been 
twice  defeated  by  Marius,  the  successor  of  Metellus,  was 
delivered  to  his  enemies  by  the  treachery  of  his  ally, 
Bocchus,  King  of  Mauritania.  He  was  carried  in  chains 
to  Rome,  where  he  graced  the  triumph  of  Marius.  He 
was  then  thrown  into  the  Mamertine  prison.  His  death, 
which  occurred  six  days  later,  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  caused  by  starvation.  The  Jugurthine  war, 
which  was  terminated  B.C.  io6,  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  histories  of  Sallust. 

See  Sallust,  "  Jugurtha  ;"  Plutarch,  "  Marius ;"  Livv,  "  Epi- 
tome," books  Ixii.,  Ixiv.,  Ixvii. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Juigne,  de,  deh  zhii-^n'yi',(  Antoine  El^onore  L'i^on 
Leclerc,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1728,  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  persecution  of  the  Jansenists. 
In  1781  he  became  Archbishop  of  Paris.     Died,in  181 1. 

See  Lambert,  "Vie  de  Messire  A.  E.  Leclerc  de  Juign^,"  1821. 

Juigne-Broissiniere,  de,  deh  zhii-^n'yi'  bRwi'se'- 
ne-aiR',  a  French  lawyer  and  compiler,  was  born  in 
Anjou,  and  lived  about  1650.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"Theological,  Historical,  Poetical,  and  Cosmographical 
Dictionary,"  (1644.) 

Juillard  or  Juilhard.     See  Jarry. 

Jukes,  juks,  (Joseph  Beete,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
geologist,  born  near  Birmingham  about  1812.  tie  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Popular  Physical  Geology," 
(1853.)    Died  July  29,  1869. 

Jules,  the  French  for  Julius,  which  see. 
.  Jiiig,  yiilG,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Ringelbach,  Baden,  August  20,  1825.  He  studied  at 
Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  and  held  professorships  of  clas- 
sical philology  in  the  Universities  of  Lemberg,  Cracow, 
and  Innspruck.  His  principal  original  investigations 
were  in  the  Mongolian  and  other  East- Asian  languages. 
He  published  several  volumes  of  "  Mongolian  Legends" 
with   German  translations.     Died  August  14,  18S6. 

Ju'li-a,  [Fr.  Julie,  zhii'le',]  a  Roman  lady,  remarka- 
ble for  her  beauty  and  virtues,  was  the  daughter  of  Julius 
Csesar.  She  first  married  Cornelius  Caepio,  but,  by  her 
father's  command,  procured  a  divorce  and  became  the 
wife  of  Pompey  the  Great.  She  died  53  B.C.,  before  the 
dissensions  arose  between  her  father  and  her  husband. 

Julia,  only  daughter  of  Augustus  Caesar,  born  about 


39  B.C.,  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  accomplish- 
ments, and  disgraceful  intrigues.  She  was  married  to 
Marcellus,  upon  whose  death  she  became  the  wife  of 
Agrippa,  by  whom  she  was  the  mother  of  five  children. 
After  the  death  of  her  second  husband  she  was  given  in 
marriage  to  Tiberius,  who  divorced  her,  and  afterwards 
caused  her  to  be  poisoned,  14  a.d. 

Julia,  a  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  about  18  B.C., 
was  married  to  L.  yEmilius  Paulus.  Her  character  is 
said  to  have  resembled  that  of  her  mother.  Some  writers 
identify  her  with  the  Corinna  of  Ovid.     Died  28  A.D. 

Julia,  a  daughter  of  Drusus  and  Livia,  born  about  5 
A.D.,  was  a  niece  of  Germanicus.  She  was  married  to 
Nero,  who  was  her  cousin-german. 

Julia,  daughter  of  Caesar  Germanicus,  was  born  17  a.d. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  was  married  to  a  Roman  sena- 
tor named  Vinucias.  She  was  soon  after  suspected  of 
conspiracy  and  banished  by  her  brother  Caligula,  but 
was  subsequently  recalled  by  Claudius.  She  was  put 
to  death  in  her  twenty-fourth  year,  at  the  instigation 
of  Messalina. 

Julia  de  Fontenelle,  zhii'le-t'  deh  f6N'teh-ngK, 
(Jean  S6bastien  Eugene,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at 
Narbonne  in  1790,  published  a  "Manual  for  Glass- 
makers,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1842. 

See  Henri  Julia  de  Fontenelle,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Julia  de  Fon- 
tenelle," 1S43. 

Ju'lJ-a  Dom'na,  wife  of  the  Roman  emperor  Septi- 
mius  Severus,  and  the  mother  of  Caracalla  and  Geta,  was 
born  in  Syria  about  170  a.d.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Bassianus,  a  priest  of  the  sun.  After  the  death  of  Seve- 
rus she  endeavoured  to  heal  the  dissensions  between  her 
sons,  but  in  vain  ;  Geta  was  murdered  in  her  presence 
in  212,  by  his  brother's  orders.  During  the  remainder  of 
Caracalla's  reign  she  exerted  great  influence  in  the  affairs 
of  government.     Died  in  217. 

Julia  Mammaea.     See  Mamm^a. 

Ju'li-an,  [Lat.  Julia'nus;  Fr.  Julien,  zhii'leJ^N',] 
or,  more  fully,  Ju-li-a'nus  Fla'vi-us  Clau'di-us,  sur- 
named  the  Apostate,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  in 
Constantinople  in  331  A.D.  He  was  the  son  of  Julius 
Constantius,  and  a  nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  soldiers,  in  order  to 
secure  the  succession  of  his  sons,  massacred  all  the  other 
members  of  the  Flavian  family  except  Julian  and  his 
elder  brother  Gallus.  The  jealousy  of  the  emperor 
Constantius  afterwards  banished  the  brothers  to  Cap- 
padocia,  where  they  were  educated  in  the  principles  of 
the  Christian  religion  and  officiated  as  lecturers  in  the 
church  of  Nicomedia.  In  351  Gallus  was  created  Caesar 
by  the  emperor,  and  Julian  was  permitted  to  return  to 
his  native  city,  but  in  a  short  time  was  again  exiled  to 
Nicomedia.  He  subsequently  embraced  the  philosophy 
of  the  Platonists,  and,  having  obtained  permission  to 
visit  Athens,  he  pursued  his  studies  in  that  city  and  was 
privately  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  the  religion  of 
Greece.  After  the  execution  of  his  brother,  in  355,  he 
was  recalled  to  Constantinople  through  the  influence  of 
the  empress  Eusebia.  Constantius  created  him  Caesar, 
and  gave  him  command  of  the  armies  in  Gaul.  Julian 
also  received  in  marriage  Helena,  sister  of  the  emperor. 
He  made  four  successful  campaigns  against  the  Germans, 
who  had  overrun  Gaul,  expelled  them  from  that  country, 
took  captive  Chnodomarius,  their  most  powerful  king, 
invaded  Germany,  and  gained  a  high  distinction  for 
military  skill  and  personal  bravery.  Constantius. 
envious  of  the  fame  of  Julian,  and  wishmg  to  destroy  his 
power,  commanded  him  to  send  his  best  troops  to 
the  East,  in  order  that  they  might  assist  in  the  Persian 
war.  The  soldiers,  who  had  become  greatly  attached  to 
Julian,  refused  to  obey,  and,  notwithstanding  his  remon- 
strances, proclaimed  him  Augustus.  It  is  even  stated 
that  they  threatened  him  with  death  if  he  refused  the 
purple.  He  then  sent  an  embassy  to  Constantius,  re- 
questing that  he  might  be  recognized  as  Augustus  in 
Gaul.  This  not  having  been  granted,  he  marched 
towards  Constantinople  ;  but  the  sudden  death  of  the 
emperor,  in  361,  enabled  Julian  to  ascend  the  imperial 
throne  unopposed.  Immediately  after  his  accession  he 
threw  off  the  hypocrisy  which  had  shielded  him  for 
so  long  a  time,  and,  renouncing  Christianity,  in  which 


•e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy  /  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 

89 


ee  Explaiiations,  p.  23.) 


JULIAN 


1410 


JULLIAN 


probably  he  was  never  a  true  believer,  declared  his  faith 
in  the  divinities  of  Greece  and  Rome.  He  proclaimed 
liberty  of  conscience  to  all,  commanded  the  pagan  tem- 
ples to  be  reopened,  and  even  attempted  to  restore  Ju- 
daism by  rebuilding  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  He  was 
prevented  from  completing  this  project  by  remarkable 
eruptions  of  fire,  which  rendered  it  impossible  for  the 
workmen  to  continue  their  labours.  In  the  spring  of 
363  he  set  out  from  Antioch,  at  the  head  of  65,000  well- 
disciplined  troops,  on  his  contemplated  invasion  of  Per- 
sia. He  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  gained 
several  important  victories  over  the  Persians ;  but  the 
oppressive  heat  and  the  scarcity  of  provisions  compelled 
him  to  retreat,  and  in  June  of  the  same  year,  as  he  was 
bravely  repelling  an  attack  of  the  enemy,  a  javelin 
wounded  him  fatally  in  the  side.  He  died  the  following 
evening,  while  he  was  calmly  conversing  with  his  friends 
on  philosophy.  Julian  was  the  author  of  an  account  of. 
his  Gallic  and  German  wars,  which  has  been  lost,  "The 
Caesars,"  "  Misopogon,"  a  satire  against  the  citizens 
of  Antioch,  whom  he  had  offended  by  his  philosophical 
austerity  and  his  slovenly  habits,  and  of  about  eighty 
letters  upon  various  subjects. 

See  August  Neander,  "  Ueber  Kaiser  Julian  und  sein  Zeital- 
ter,"  1812,  (translated  into  English  by  G.  V.  Cox,  1850;)  La  Blet- 
TERIK,  "Vie  de  rEnipereur  Julien,"  1735;  Jondot,  "  Histoire  de 
I'Empereur  Julien,"  2  vols.,  1817  ;  William  Warburton,  "  Julian, 
or  a  Discourse  concerning  the  Earthquake  and  Fierj'  Eruption  which 
defeated  that  Emperor's  Attempt  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem," 
1750;  Abel  Desjardins,  "  fitude  sur  I'Empereur  Julien,"  184s;  j. 
KoRNER,  "  Kaiser  Julian  der  Abtriinnige,"  etc.,  1830  ;  Gibbon,  "  His- 
tory of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Socrates, 
"  Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Milman,  "  History  of  Christianity." 

Julian.  Hoo-le-in',  Count,  Governor  of  Andalusia 
under  the  Gothic  kings  of  Spain.  After  King  Roderick 
had  ravished  the  daughter  of  Julian,  the  latter  formed  a 
treaty  with  the  Moslems  for  the  invasion  of  Spain,  and 
rendered  them  efficient  service  at  the  battle  of  Xeres, 
where  Roderick  was  defeated  in  711  a.d. 

See  Murphy,  "  History  of  the  Mahometan  Empire  in  Spsun;" 
SouTHEY,  "Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths." 

Ju'li-an,  [Lat.  Julia'nus;  Fr.  Julien,  zhii'le-iN'; 
It  GiULiANO,  joo-le-i'no,]  an  Italian  bishop,  distin- 
guished for  his  opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Saint  Au- 
srustine,  was  born  about  380,  and  studied  theology  under 
^elagius.  In  416  Innocent  I.  raised  him  to  the  see  of 
Eclanum  ;  but  about  420  he  was  banished  from  Italy  on 
account  of  his  Pelagian  doctrines.  Having  been  con- 
demned by  several  councils,  he  settled  in  Sicily.  Died 
about  455. 

Julian,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  calendar,  was  born  in  Spain,  of  Jewish  descent. 
He  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Toledo  in  680,  and  presided 
over  four  different  councils  held  in  that  city.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  work  on  death,  the  resurrection,  and  the 
final  judgment.     Died  in  690. 

Julian,  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  Governor  of 
Venetia,  who  in  285,  while  aspiring  to  the  imperial 
purple,  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Verona  by  Carinus. 

Julian  Cesarini.     See  Cesarini,  (Giuliano.) 

Ju-li-a'na,  a  woman  of  Portuguese  descent,  born  in 
Bengal  in  1658.  Plaving  gained  the  favour  of  Aurung- 
Zeb,  she  was  appointed  governess  to  his  son.  Shah  Alum, 
who  succeeded  to  the  crown  in  1707.  In  a  battle  between 
that  prince  and  his  brothers,  who  disputed  the  succession, 
she  rode  by  his  side  on  an  elephant  and  greatly  contrib- 
uted to  his  success.  Shah  Alum  raised  her  to  the  rank 
of  a  princess,  and  conferred  upon  her  many  other  honours. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle. " 

Julianus.    See  Julian. 

Ju-ll-a'nus  or  JuUan,  (Salvius,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
jurist,  and  great-grandfather  to  the  emperor  Didius,  was 
born  about  100  a.d.  He  was  twice  chosen  consul.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  Digesta,"  in  ninety  books, 
and  is  often  referred  to  by  writers  on  Roman  law. 

See  J.  G.  Heineccius,  "Prograrama  de  S.  Juliano,"  1733. 

Julie.    See  Julia. 

Julien,  the  French  for  Julian,  which  see. 

Julien,  zhii'le-iN',  (Pierre,)  a  celebrated  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Saint-Paulien  in  1731.  He  commenced 
his  studies  at  Lyons,  under  Perache,  whom  he  left  in 
1765  to  become  the  pupil  of  Coustou,  the  king's  sculp- 


tor, at  Paris.  In  1768  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  re- 
mained four  years,  to  perfect  himself  in  his  art.  In  1779 
his  statue  of  "  The  Dying  Warrior"  gained  his  admission 
to  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1804.  Among  his  most  admirable  productions 
are  "  La  Baigneuse,"  the  statues  of  La  Fontaine  and 
Poussin,  and  copies  of  Apollo  Belvedere  and  "The  Dying 
Gladiator,"  from  the  Italian. 

See  J.  Lebreton,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  P.  Julien,"  1805. 

Julien,  (Simon,)  or  Julien  of  Parma,  a  French  artist, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1736,  studied  in  Paris  under  Vanloo, 
resided  ten  years  at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He  was 
called  Julien  the  Apostate,  because  he  abandoned 
the  French  style.     Died  in  1800. 

Julien,  (Stanislas,)  an  eminent  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1799.  He  studied  under  Abel  Re- 
musat,  and  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  Chinese 
language.  He  succeeded  Abel  Remusat  as  professor  of 
Chinese  in  1832,  and  afterwards  became  administrator,  in 
the  College  of  France.  He  made  translations  from  Meng- 
tseu  (Mencius)  and  other  Chinese  authors,  and  pub- 
lished "Practical  Exercises  of  Chinese  Syntax  and  Lexi- 
cography," (1842.)  Julian's  reputation  is  that  of  one  of 
the  first  Chinese  scholars  of  his  time.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  of  the  principal 
learned  societies  of  Europe.  Among  his  works  is  one  of 
great  interest,  "  Voyages  des  Pelerins  Bouddhistes,"  (3 
vols.,  1853-58,)  translated  from  the  Chinese.  Died  at 
Paris,  February  13,  1873. 

Julio  Romano.     See  GiuLio  Romano. 

Julius  [Fr.  Jules,  zhiil ;  It.  Giulio,  joo'le-o]  I.,  a 
Roman  by  birth,  succeeded  Marcus  in  the  papal  see  in 
336.  In  340  he  convoked  a  council  at  Rome  to  settle 
the  dispute  between  Athanasius,  the  orthodox  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  and  the  Arians,  who  had  expelled  him 
from  his  office.  Athanasius  appeared  ;  but  his  enemies 
called  at  Antioch  a  council  which  condemned  him. 
Julius,  finding  his  interpositions  to  be  in  vain,  sum- 
moned the  General  Council  of  Sardica,  which  restored 
the  bishop  to  his  see  and  introduced  the  custom  of 
appealing  to  the  pope  in  all  ecclesiastical  disputes.  Died 
in  352  A.D. 

Julius  n.,  (Cardinal   Giuliano   della  Revere — 

del'lS  ro-va'ri,)  born  in  1441,  was  elected  to  the  see  of 
Rome  upon  the  death  of  Pius  III.,  in  1503.  Haughty 
and  warlike  in  his  disposition,  he  immediately  turned  his 
ambition  to  the  aggrandizement  of  the  papal  authority. 
He  drove  Cjesar  Borgia  from  the  Romagna,  and  attempted 
to  expel  the  Venetians  from  Ravenna,  Rimini,  and  other 
parts  of  his  dominions.  Failing  in  this,  he  formed  the 
League  of  Cambrai  with  the  King  of  France,  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Venetian  republic.  Julius,  soon  discovering,  how- 
ever, that  he  had  more  to  fear  from  the  French  than 
from  the  Venetians,  made  a  treaty  with  the  latter  in 
1 5 10,  and  took  the  field  in  person  against  the  French, 
over  whom  he  gained  some  slight  advantages.  In  15 12 
he  allied  himself  with  the  English,  Spaniards,  Swiss, 
and  Venetians,  and  finally  succeeded  in  expelling  the 
French  from  Italy.  But  liftle  was  gained  by  this  success , 
for  the  Swiss  and  Spaniards  gave  him  as  much  trouble 
as  the  French  had  previously  done.  He  died  before 
these  new  difficulties  were  adjusted,  in  1513.  Julius 
displayed  a  great  taste  for  the  fine  arts.  He  was  the 
first  to  commence  Saint  Peter's  Cathedral  at  Rome,  and. 
was  the  patron  of  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  other 
men  of  distinction.     Leo  X.  was  his  successor. 

See  Ranke,  "History  of  the  Popes:"  Bruys,  "Histoire  dea 
Papes,"  1732  ;  "  La  Viedu  Pape  Jules  11,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  1515. 

Julius  III.,  (Cardinal  Giocci — ^jot'chee,)  born  in  1487 
at  Arezzo,  succeeded  Paul  III.  in  February,  1550.  His 
pontificate  was  marked  by  quarrels  with  the  King  of 
France,  the  Venetians,  and  other  powers.     Died  in  1555. 

See  Aktaud  dh  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Jullian,  zhii'le-ftN',  (Pierre  Louis  Pascal,)  a  French 
historical  writer  and  politician,  born  at  Montpellier  about 
1769.  He  wrote  "Fragments  historiques,"  (1804,)  and 
"Souvenirs  de  ma  Vie,"  (1808.)     Died  about  1836. 


I 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  J,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nftt;  good;  moon . 


JULLIEN 


141 1 


JUNILIUS 


Jullien,  zhii'le^N',  (Andr^,)  a  writer  upon  the  culture 
of  the  vine,  born  at  Chilons-sur-Saone,  in  France,  in 
1766  ;  died  in  1832. 

Jullien,  (Louis,)  a  popular  French  composer  of  music 
and  director  of  concerts,  was  born  in  1812.  He  com- 
posed music  for  balls,  operas,  etc.,  and  performed  in 
Paris  and  London.     Died  in  i860. 

Jullien,  (Marcel  Bernard,)  a  French  grammarian 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Jullien  de  la  Drome,  zhii'le-^N'  deh  It  dR5m,  (Marc 
Antoine,)  a  French  Jacobin,  distinguished  for  his  vio- 
lence, was  born  in  Dauphine  in  1744;  died  in  1821. 

Jullien  de  Paris,  zhii'le-iN'  deh  pS're',  (Marc  An- 
toine,) a  politician  and  journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1775, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  During  the  Revolution  he 
was  a  Jacobin.  He  published  several  works  on  politics, 
education,  etc.,  and  founded  in  1818  the  "  Revue  Ency- 
clopedique."     Died  in  1848. 

SeeQui^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "  Nmivelle  Biographic 
G^nerale  :"  Boileau  d'Auxy,  *'  Biographic  de  M.  J.  de  Paris,"  1842 

Julus.     See  luLUS. 

Jumel,  zhii'nigl',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born  in  Paris  ;  died  in  1824. 

Jumelin,  zhiim'lIlN',  (Jean  Baptiste,  )  a  French 
savant,  physician,  and  writer,  born  in  1745,  visited  Greece, 
where  he  directed  his  attention  to  the  botany  as  well  as 
to  the  antiquities  of  that  country.     Died  in  1807. 

Jumilhac,  de,  deh  zhii'me  Itk',  (Antoine  Pierre 
Joseph  Chapelle,)  Marquis,  a  French  royalist,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  cavalry  otiiicer,  was  born  in  1764.  In 
1791  Louis  XVI.  appointed  him  lieutenant-colonel  of 
his  guard.     He  served  under  Napoleon.     Died  in  1826. 

Jumlah.     See  Jemlah. 

Jumonville,  de,  deh  zhii'miN'vfeK,  (Coulon,)  a 
French  officer,  born  about  1725,  signalized  his  bravery 
in  the  Canadian  wars.  He  is  said  to  have  been  treache- 
rously killed  in  1753  by  the  English,  to  whom  he  was 
bearing  a  message. 

Juncker,  yoonk'ker,  (Christian,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist and  historian,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1668.  He 
published  several  works  on  German  history,  and  a  "Life 
of  Luther,"  (1699.)     Died  at  Altenburg  in  1714. 

See  ScHADEN,  "  EhrengedSchtniss  Juiickers,"  1714;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopnedie  ;"  Gellius,  "  Epistola  ad  J. 
A.  Fabriciiim  de  C.  Junckero,"  1714. 

Juncker  or  Junker,  (Gottlop  Johann,)  a  German 
physician,  born  near  Giessen  in  1680.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1729,  and  maintained  the 
doctrines  of  Stahl.  He  wrote  numerous  medical  works. 
Died  at  Halle  in  1759. 

Juncker,  yoong'ker,  (Henry  Damian,)  a  bishop, 
born  at  Finstingen,  Lorraine,  in  18 10,  took  priest's  orders 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1834,  and  in  1857  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Alton,  Illinois.  Died  at  Alton, 
October  2,  1868. 

Juncosa,  Hoon-ko'si,  (Fra  Joaquin,)  a  skilful  Span- 
ish painter,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Tarragona  in  1631 ; 
died  near  Rome  in  1708. 

Junc-ti'nus,  the  Latin  name  of  Francesco  Giuntini, 
an  Italian  astrologer  and  monk,  born  at  Florence  in  1522. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  astrology,  etc.    Died  in  1590. 

Jung,  yoong,  or  Junge,  yoong^eh,  [Lat.  Jung'ius,] 
(Joachim,)  a  German  physician  and  botanist,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1587,  became  successively  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Giessen  and  Rostock.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
able  opponents  of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  for  his 
acuteness  was  compared  by  Leibnitz  to  Copernicus  and 
Galileo.  He  also,  it  is  said,  first  suggested,  in  his  "Isa- 
goge  Phytoscopica,"  (1678,)  the  classification  of  plants 
afterwards  developed  by  Linnjeus.  He  was  rector  of  a 
school  at  Hamburg  from  1629  until  his  death.  Died  at 
Hamburg  in  1657. 

See  Martin  Vogel,  "  Historia  Vitas  at  Mortis  J.  Jungii,"  1637; 
GuHRAUER,  "J.  Jungius  und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1850;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Jung,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  commonly  known  by  the 
pseudonym  of  Stilling,  an  original  German  writer, 
born  at  Im-Grund,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  in  1740. 
While  studying  medicine  at  Strasburg,  he  formed  an 
mtimacy  with  Goethe,  who  has  given  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  him  in  his  Autobiography.    In  1804  he  became 


professor  of  political  economy  at  Heidelberg.  He  pub- 
lished in  1777  "Henry  Stilling's  Youth,  Early  Years, and 
Wanderings,"  which  was  followed  soon  after  by  "  Henry 
Stilling's  Domestic  Life."  Among  his  fictitious  writings 
we  may  cite  "Theobald,  or  the  Enthusiast,"  "The  Chris- 
tian Philanthropist,"  and  "  Scenes  from  the  Spirit-Land." 
Stilling  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  earnestness 
as  well  as  simplicity  of  character,  with  a  strong  tendency 
to  religious  enthusiasm  and  mysticism.     Died  in  1817. 

See  J.  H.  Jung,  "  H.  Stilling's  Jiigend,  Jiinglingsjahre,  Wan- 
deischaft  und  hausliches  Leben,"  3  vols.,  1777-79:  enlarged  under 
the  title  of  "  Lebensbeschreibung  J.  H.  Jungs,"  5  vols.,  1806. 
ScHWARZ,  "  Jun^-Stillings  Alter,"  1S17  ;  John  Wright,  "  Life  of 
H.  Stilling,"  abridged  by  Samuel  Jackson,  1847  ;  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1838. 

Jung-Bahadoor,  (or  -Bahadur,)  jiing  (or  jiing)  ba- 
hS'door,  [i.e.  "brave  in  war,")  [from  the  Hindostanee 
jung,  "  battle,"  "  war,"  and /xi/idcfier  or  bahadoor,  "  brave,"] 
the  name,  or  rather  surname,  of  several  Indian  princes, 
among  whom  the  recent  minister  of  Nepaul  and  virtual 
sovereign  of  that  country  deserves  particular  mention. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Nepaulese  general,  was  born  about 
181 5,  and  by  his  unscrupulous  audacity,  combined  with 
rare  talents  for  intrigue,  he  soon  raised  himself  to  the 
highest  position  in  the  state.  About  1850  he  visited 
England  as  ambassador,  and  while  in  that  country  was 
the  object  of  much  attention.  In  1857  he  offered  the 
English  government  his  co-operation  in  suppressing  the 
mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  and,  with  about  9000  Goorkhas, 
(a  race  of  probable  Aryan  origin,)  took  part  in  the  ca|jiure 
of  Lucknow,  for  which,  and  other  services,  he  received 
the  grand  cross  of  the  Bath.     Died  February  25,  1877. 

Junger,  yoong'er,  (i^oiDius,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born 
at  Burtscheid,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  April  6,  1833.  ^^^ 
was  educated  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  at  Louvain,  and 
was  for  many  years  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  Wash- 
ington Territory.  In  1879  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Nesqually  in  that  Territory. 

Junger,  yoong'er,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
Utth-ateiir,  b(jrn  at  Leipsic  in  1759.  He  was  the  authoi 
of  numerous  popular  romances  and  dramatic  works. 
Among  his  novels  are  "  Vetter  Jakobs  Launen,"  (6  vols., 
1786-92,)  and  "  Der  Schein  triigt,"  (1787.)  Diedin  1797. 

Jungermann,  yo6ng'er-mSn',(GoTTFRiED,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "  Longi  Pas- 
toralia  Grsece  cum  Latina  Versione,"  (1605,)  and  other 
classical  works.     Died  in  1610. 

Jungermann,  (Ludwig,)  a  botanist,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1572,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  Altdorf.     Died  in  1653. 

Junglians,  yoong'h^ns,  (Sophie,)  a  German  novelist, 
born  at  Cassel,  December  3,  1845.  In  1877  she  married 
Professor  Joseph  Schumann,  but  retained  her  maiden 
name  for  her  literary  work.  Her  writings  include  "Kathe," 
(1876,)  "  Haus  Eckberg,"(  1878,)  and  other  novels,  marked 
by  masculine  force  in  style  and  in  characters. 

Junghuhn,  yoong'hoon,  (Franz  Wilhelm,)  a  Prus- 
sian naturalist,  born  at  Mansfeld  in  1812.  He  was  em- 
ployed as  army  physician  or  officer  of  health  in  India, 
and  explored  the  island  of  Java.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  an  account  of  the  topography,  botany,  and 
geology  of  Java,  ("Java,  seine  Gestalt,  Pflanzendecke 
und  innere  Bauart,"  3  vols.,  1852,)  which  is  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  that  subject.    Died  April  24,  1864. 

Jungius.    See  Jung. 

Jungmann,  ydong'mSn,  (Joseph  Jakob,)  a  learned 
Slavonian  philologist,  born  at  Hudlitz,  in  Bohemia,  in 
1773.  He  was  appointed  in  1815  professor  of  languages 
and  rhetoric  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Prague,  where  he  was 
afterwards  prefect.  I  lis  greatest  work  is  a  "  Bohemian- 
German  Dictionary,"  (5  vols.,  1835,)  which  gives  evi- 
dence of  immense  learning  and  industry.  He  also  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  Bohemian  Language  and  Literature," 
(1825,)  and  a  "Bohemian  Chrestomathy."  He  wrote 
other  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  and  made  a  number  of 
translations  from  eminent  English  and  French  writers. 
Jungmann  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  and 
efficient  promoters  of  Slavonian  literature.     Died  in  1847. 

See  L.  Celakovsky,  "Dodavky  ke  Slovniku  J.  Jungmanna," 
1850 ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828. 

Ju-nil1-us,  a  bishop  who  flourished  in  Africa  about 


t  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, gittttiral ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


JUNIUS 


1412 


JUNON 


550  A.D.  He  wrote  a  Latin  work  "On  Parts  of  the 
Divine  Law,"  which  was  printed  at  Bale  in  1545. 

Ju'ni-us,  the  assumed  name  of  a  political  writer  who 
in  January,  1769,  began  to  issue,  in  London,  a  series 
of  famous  letters,  which  first  appeared  in  Woodfall's 
"  Public  Advertiser."  Junius  opposed  the  ministry  then 
in  power,  and  denounced  several  eminent  persons  with 
great  severity  of  invective  and  pungency  of  sarcasm. 
His  style  is  eminently  pure,  terse,  and  vigorous.  These 
letters  had  a  great  popularity,  and  powerfully  promoted 
the  cause  of  civil  liberty.  "The  myrmidons  of  the  court," 
said  Burke,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  "have  been  long, 
and  are  still,  pursuing  him  in  vain.  They  will  not  spend 
their  time  upon  me,  or  you,  or  you.  No :  they  disdain 
such  vermin  when  the  mighty  boar  of  the  forest,  that 
has  broken  through  all  their  toils,  is  before  them.  .  .  . 
Kings,  Lords,  and  Commons  are  but  the  sport  of  his 
fury.  Were  he  a  member  of  this  House,  what  might 
not  be  expected  from  his  knowledge,  his  firmness  and 
integrity !"  Among  the  numerous  persons  to  whom 
these  letters  have  been  attributed  were  Sir  Philip  Fran- 
cis, Lord  Chatham,  Edmund  Burke,  Henry  Grattan, 
Colonel  Barre,  Gibbon  the  historian,  John  HorneTooke, 
Horace  Walpole,  John  Wilkes,  and  Wedderburn,  (after- 
wards Lord  Loughborough.)  The  publication  of  the 
Letters  of  Junius  continued  until  January,  1772.  In 
his  dedication  to  the  people  of  England,  he  said,  "I  am 
the  sole  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall  perish 
with  me." 

A  multitude  of  books  and  essays  have  been  written  in 
the  attempt  to  solve  this  mystery.  But  all  the  efforts 
in  that  direction  seemed  for  a  long  time  to  be  wholly 
unsuccessful ;  so  much  so  that  a  very  able  lawyer  and 
antiquary.  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  writing  in  1843,  declared 
his  conviction  that  all  the  Junius-seekers  had  completely 
failed  in  their  undertaking.  Macaulay,  however,  in  his 
essay  on  Warren  Hastings,  (1841,)  says  that  "the  evi- 
dence [against  Sir  P.  Francis]  would  support  a  verdict 
in  a  civil — nay,  in  a  criminal — proceeding."  At  the 
present  time  {18S5)  the  question  is  still  doubtful.  A 
great  number  of  circumstances  seem  to  point  to  Sir 
Philip  Francis  as  the  true  Junius.  Among  the  various 
incidental  proofs  bearing  on  this  question,  one  of  the 
most  curious  is  given  in  "  Lippincott's  Magazine"  for 
January,  1S70.  But  Abraham  Hayward  has  since  then 
adduced  strong  reasons  for  rejecting  the  Francis  theory. 

See  John  Taylor,  "The  Identity  of  Junius  with  a  Distinguished 
Living  Character  Established,"  1816;  John  Mason  Good,  "Essay 
on  Junius  and  his  Writings;"  Macaulay,  review  of  Gleig's  "Life 
of  Warren  Hastings;"  Lord  Brougham,  article  in  the  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  1817,  (vol.  xxix);  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  1851  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  Hayward, 
"  More  about  Junius,"  1S78. 

Ju'ni-us,  (Francis,)  [Fr.  Francois  du  Jon,  fr6N'- 
swi'  dii  zh6N,|  a  learned  Protestant  theologian,  was  born 
at  Bourges,  in  France,  May  i,  1545.  He  studied  at  Lyons 
and  Geneva,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  a  Walloon 
church  in  Antwerp  in  1565,  but  at  length  was  com- 
pelled to  fly  to  Germany  to  escape  the  tortures  of  the 
Inquisition.  In  1568  he  became  chaplain  to  the  army 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Five  years  later,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Elector-Palatine,  he  went  to  Heidelberg, 
where,  with  the  assistance  of  Tremellius,  he  translated 
the  Old  Testament  into  Latin,  (1575-79.)  This  work, 
which  established  his  reputation,  is  known  as  the  version 
of  Junius  and  Tremellius.  He  afterwards  filled  succes- 
sively the  chairs  of  theology  at  Neustadt,  Heidelberg, 
and  Leyden.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  divinity  and 
the  classics.     Died  at  Leyden  in  October,  1602. 

See  "Vita  F.  Junii  Biturigensis  ab  ipsomet  conscripta,"  1595; 
Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron,  "M6- 
moires;"  F.  Gomar,  "Oratio  funebris  in  Obitum  F.  Junii,"  1602. 

Junius,  (Francis  or  Franciscus,)  an  eminent  phi- 
lologist, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Heidelberg 
in  1 5891,  and  was  educated  at  Leyden.  He  passed  over 
to  England  about  1620,  and  became  librarian  to  Thomas 
Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel,  with  whom  he  remained  thirty 
years.  He  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  the  study  of 
the  Teutonic  languages.  He  published  a  rare  and  valu- 
able work, — a  translation  of  the  Gospels  into  the  ancient 
Gothic,  (made  by  Bishop  Ulphilas  about  360  a.d.,)  with 
a  Commentary,  (1665.)    Junius  was  the  author  of  a  work 


"On  the  Pamting  of  the  Ancients,"  ("De  Pictura 
Veterum,"  1637,)  and  of  an  Etymological  Dictionary, 
("  Etymologicum  Anglicanum,"  1743,)  in  which  he  ex- 
plains the  derivation  and  origin  of  numerous  English 
words.  He  left  his  choice  collection  of  manuscripts  to 
the  University  of  Oxford.     Died  at  Windsor  in  1677. 

See  Gr^evius,  "Life  of  Francis  Junius,"  in  the  2d  edition  of  his 
"De  Pictura  Veterum,"  1694;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary;" NiCEKON,  "  M^moires  ;"  Wood,  "Athena  Oxonienses." 

Junius,  de,  deh  yoo'ne-us,  or  Jonghe,  yong'eh, 
(Adriaa.m,)  a  learned  Dutch  physician,  was  born  at 
Hoorn,  in  Friesland,  in  15 12.  He  went  to  England 
near  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  became 
physician  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  After  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.  he  published  a  Greek-and-Latin  Lexi- 
con, which  he  dedicated  to  that  sovereign.  For  this  he 
was  severely  censured  by  the  Roman  pontiff.  He  wrote 
in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Queen  Mary  with  Philip 
of  Spain  a  Latin  poem  entitled  "  Philippeis."  About 
1564  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  King  of  Den- 
mark. Died  at  Middelburg  in  1575.  As  a  philologist 
and  linguist  his  contemporaries  regarded  him  as  second 
only  to  Erasmus.  In  addition  to  the  works  previously 
mentioned  are  his  "  Nomenclature  of  All  Things,"  a 
vocabulary  in  seven  different  languages,  several  Latin 
poems  and  epistles,  and  various  commentaries  on  the 
writings  of  the  ancient  authors. 

See  p.  Scheltema,  "Diatribe in  H.  Junii  Vitamingeniumet  Merita 
literaria,"  1836. 

Junker,  yoonk'er,  or  Juniker,  yoo'ne-ker,  (Gf.org 
Adam,)  a  teacher  and  translator,  born  at  Hanau  about 
1720.  He  translated  numerous  German  dramas,  etc. 
into  French.     Died  in  1805. 

Junker,  (Wilhelm  Johann,)  a  traveller,  born  at 
Moscow,  Russia,  April  6,  1840.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Gottingen,  Berlin,  and  Prague.  He  travelled  extensively 
in  Tunis,  (1874  <?/ j^^.,)  Egypt,  the  Upper  Nile  Valley,  and 
Central  Africa. 

Junkermann,  yoonk'er-min',  (August,)  a  very  pop- 
ular German  comic  actor,  born  at  Bielefeld,  Decembei 
15,  1832.  He  is  best  known  for  his  renderings  of  various 
characters  in  Fritz  Renter's  works,  which  have  been 
dramatized  for  him,  and,  in  part,  by  himself.  He  has 
played  chieflly  in  Treves  and  Stuttgart. 

Junk'in,  (George,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine,  born  at  New  Kingston,  Pennsylvania, 
November  i,  1790.  He  graduated  at  Jefferson  College 
(in  Western  Pennsylvania)  in  1813,  and  was  ordained  in 
1819,  was  made  president  of  Lafayette  College  in  1832, 
was  president  of  Miami  University  from  1841  to  1844, 
and  of  Washington  College,  Lexington,  Virginia,  from 
1848  to  1861.  In  his  numerous  published  works  he  was 
an  active  defender  of  the  Old  School  theology.  Died 
in  Philadelphia,  May  20,  1868. 

Ju'no,  [Fr.  Junon,  zhii'ndN' ;  It.  Giunone,  joo-no'- 
ni,]  a  goddess  of  the  Roman  mythology,  called  the  queen 
of  heaven  and  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Hera,  ("Hpa  or  "Hp??.)  She  was  regarded  as  the 
protecting  deity  of  the  female  sex,  and  as  the  patroness 
of  marriage  and  maternity.  She  was  surnamed  Matrona 
and  Regina,  and  was  worshipped  by  the  Roman  women 
at  an  annual  festival  called  Matronalia.  As  the  patroness 
of  marriage,  she  was  called  Pronuba,  Gamelia,  Jugalis  or 
Juga,  and  various  other  names.  Her  aid  was  implored 
by  women  in  childbirth  under  the  nameofLuciNA,  (which 
see.)  She  is  usually  represented  as  a  majestic  woman, 
crowned,  with  her  favourite  bird,  the  peacock,  near  her. 
The  name  Juno  is  in  all  probability  related  etymologically 
to  the  Sanscrit  word  Yonl,*  signifying  "matrix,"  and 
hence  denoting  maternity  and  femineity. 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology;"  Keightley,  "Mythology,"  article  "Hera;"  Gui- 
GNIAUT,  "Religions  del'Antiquit^,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii. 

Junon.    See  Juno. 


•  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  etymologist  how  nearly  m  is 
related  to  o:  in  Arabic  and  Persian  they  have  but  a  single  letter  to 
represent  both ;  in  Norwegian  and  Swedish  there  is  but  little  differ- 
ence in  the  pronunciation  of  the  two  vowels,  o  being  pronounced  pre- 
cisely like  the  Italian  or  German  «.  J  (i.e.,  /consonant)  in  the  Latin 
(as  It  does  in  many  of  the  modem  languages')  corresponded  to  our 
Y.  The  terminal  o  in  Juno  is  merely  the  feminine  termination  so 
common  iu  Greek  and  Latin  proper  names. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JUNOT 


1413 


JUSSIEU 


Junot,  zhii'no',  (Andoche,)  Due  d'Abrantes,  a  distin- 
guished French  general,  was  born  near  Senuir  in  1771. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  he  enlisted  as  a  common  soldier, 
but,  on  account  of  his  uncommon  bravery,  was  soon  made 
lieutenant.  While  serving  at  the  siege  of  Toulon,  he 
gained  the  approbation  of  Bonaparte,  who  made  him  his 
first  aide-de-camp,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  He  ac- 
companied that  general  on  his  Italian  campaigns,  and 
fought  with  his  accustomed  bravery  at  the  battles  of  Lodi. 
Areola,  Castiglione,  and  Lonato.  During  the  invasion  of 
Egypt  and  Syria  he  became  the  favourite  of  Bonaparte, 
and  gained  great  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Nazareth, 
where,  with  three  hundred  horsemen,  he  attacked  and 
held  in  check  a  body  of  three  thousand  Moslems.  After 
his  return  to  France  he  rendered  efficient  service  to 
Bonaparte  in  the  subversion  of  the  Directory.  In  1800 
he  was  appointed  commandant  of  Paris,  and  afterwards 
governor  of  that  city  and  colonel-general  of  hussars. 
He  also  received  the  decoration  of  the  grand  eagle  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Portugal.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  in 
1805.  In  1807  he  commanded  an  army  which  invaded 
Portugal  and  took  Lisbon.  He  was  soon  afterwards 
created  Due  d'Abrantes.  In  August,  1808,  he  was 
defeated  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  at  Vimiera,  and  com- 
pelled to  evacuate  Portugal.  The  emperor  then  deprived 
him  of  the  governorship  of  Paris,  but  appointed  him 
Captain-General  and  Governor  of  the  lUyrian  provinces. 
His  misfortunes  and  disgrace  shortly  after  affected  his 
mind  so  deeply  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  public 
life.     He  died  at  Montbard  in  July,  1813. 

See  Madame  o'ABRANTfes,  "  M^moires ;"  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du 
Consulatet  de  I'Empire;"  Napoleon,  "  Correspondance  ;"  Alison, 
"History  of  Europe;"  "  Nouvelle  Bingraphie  Geuerale." 

Junot,(LAURE  Permon,)Madame,  Duchesse  d'Abran- 
tes, was  born  in  Montpellier  in  1784,  and  was  married 
to  General  Junot  about  1800.  Her  family  was  related  to 
that  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom  her  mother  had  shown  great 
kindness  before  he  became  a  general.  At  her  marriage 
Mademoiselle  Permon  received  from  the  First  Consul 
one  hundred  thousand  francs  as  a  marriage-portion. 
In  1806  she  accompanied  her  husband  to  Lisbon,  and 
in  1807  became  Duchesse  d'Abrantes.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons  she  was  kindly  received  by  Louis 
XVIII.  She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Memoirs  or 
Historical  Souvenirs  of  Napoleon,  the  Revolution,  the 
Directory,  etc.,"  (18  vols.,  1831-34.)     Died  in  1838. 

See  A.  D.  Roosmalen,  "  Les  demiers  Moments  de  la  Duchesse 
d'Abrantes,"  Paris,  1838;  Ignazio  CANxt;,  "  Relazione  della  Du- 
chessa  d'Abrantes,"  1837;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Junquieres,  de,  deh  zhuN'ke-aiR^  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
a  French  poet  and  officer,  born  at  Paris  in  1713;  died 
in  1786. 

Junta  or  Junte,  (Filippo.)     See  Giunta. 

Junta,  (TOMMASO,)  a  Venetian  physician,  flourished 
about  1550.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Battles  of 
the  Ancients,"  which  displays  considerable  erudition. 

Junte.    See  Giunta. 

Junterbuck,  yoon'ter-book',  (James,)  a  Polish  writer, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Erfurt,  was  born  about  1385  ; 
died  in  1465.  He  wrote  various  works,  among  which  is 
a  "Tract  on  Mental  Apparitions." 

Ju'pi-ter  or  Jup'pi-ter,  [Fr.  pron.  zhii'pe'taiR';  It. 
GioVE,  jo'vi,  whence  the  English  Jove,*]  the  supreme 
deity  of  the  Roman  mythology,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Zeus,  and  represented  as  the  eldest  son  of  Saturn 
and  Rhea.  He  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  gods  of  the 
classic  mythology,  and  was  supposed  to  control  all  earthly 
and  human  affairs  and  to  foresee  futurity.  The  Romans 
ascribed  to  him  power  over  all  changes  in  the  sky,  and 
the  phenomena  of  rain  and  lightning,  and  hence  applied 
to  him  the  epithets  of"  Pluvius,"  ("rainy,"  or  "raining,") 
"Tonans,"("  thundering,")"  Fulminator,"("thunderer,") 
etc.  As  presiding  over  marriage,  he  is  sometimes  called 
Gamelius ;  and  as  the  protector  of  the  rights  of  hospi- 
tality, he  was  invoked  as  Jupiter  Hospitalis.  Pie  was 
sometimes  called  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  because  his  tem- 

•  Or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  both  the  Italian  and  English  ar"! 
derived  from  "Jovis,  the  Latin  genitive  case  of  Jupiter.  The  German, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese  names  for  Jupiter,  in  spelling  and  accen- 
tuation, are  the  same  as  the  Latin. 


pie  at  Rome  stood  on  the  Capitol.  He  was  the  father 
of  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Minerva,  Venus,  etc.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  mythology,  he  kept  his  court  on 
Olympus.  His  most  famous  Greek  temple  was  at 
Olympia,  in  Elis.  He  is  usually  represented  as  seated 
on  a  throne,  with  a  thunderbolt  m  his  right  hand,  in  his 
left  a  sceptre,  and  near  him  his  favourite  bird  the  eagle. 
The  name  Jupiter  (who  was  also  called  Diespiter)  is 
probably  Diu-pater,  (or  Diovis  pater,)  ("father  of  the 
heavens,"  or  "heavenly  father.")  Dium,  Diznim,  and 
Dies  originally  signified  the  same, — viz.,  the  "sky"  or 
"heaven."  The  Vedic  dyaus pitar,  and  the  Greek  Zeus 
Pater  or  Zeu  Pater,  {i.e.  "  father  Zeus,")  are  etymologieally 
the  same  as  Jupiter.  Respecting  the  probable  identity, 
or  close  parallelism,  between  Jupiter  (or  Zeus)  and  the 
Hindoo  god  Siva,  see  Siva. 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology;"  Guigniaut,  "  Religions  de  I'Antiquit^,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
i. ;   Keightlev,  "  Mythology." 

Juppin,  zhii'pAN',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Namur  in  1678.  He  studied  in 
Brussels,  and  afterwards  visited  Italy.  Among  his  works 
is  the  "  Crater  of  Vesuvius."     Died  in  1729. 

Juret,  zhii'ri',  (Francois,)  a  French  critic  and  poet, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1553,  became  canon  of  Langres.  He 
published  "  Senecae  ad  Lucilium  Epistolarum  Liber," 
(1602,)  and  "Panegyrici  Veteres  cum  Notis,"  (2  vols., 
1652.)     Died  in  1626. 

Jurieu,  zhii're-uh',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  theo- 
logian and  controversialist,  was  born  at  Mer,  in  Orleanais, 
in  1637.  He  became  pastor  of  a  Protestant  congregation 
in  Mer  after  he  had  studied  at  Saumur  and  Sedan.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  professor  of  theology  and 
Hebrew  at  Sedan.  On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  in  1685,  he  retired  to  Rotterdam,  where  h^was 
appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote  numerous 
religious  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  Cal- 
vinism and  Popery  compared,"  (1682,)  and  a  "Critical 
History  of  Doctrine  and  Worship,  Good  and  Bad," 
(1704,)  both  in  French.     Died  in  1713. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
General  e." 

Ju'rin,  (James,)  an  English  physician  and  philosopher, 
was  born  in  1684,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which 
he  became  secretary,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on 
philosophy  and  physiology.     Died  in  1750. 

Jurine,  zhii'r^n',  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Geneva  in  1 751,  resided  in  Paris.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  on  ascertaining  the 
salubrity  of  the  atmosphere.     Died  in  1819. 

Jussieu,  jiis-sii',  de,  [French  pron.  deh  zhii'se-uh',] 
(Adrien,)  a  celebrated  French  botanist,  son  of  Antoine 
Laurent,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris,  December  23, 
1797.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  the  competition  of 
1814,  and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history 
and  medicine.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of 
rural  botany  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  1826, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Institute  in  183 1.  He  published 
a  series  of  memoirs  and  monographs  which  have  placed 
him  in  the  first  rank  of  botanists.  Among  his  best  works 
are  a  "Monograph  of  the  Malpighiacese,"  (1843,)  and 
an  "  Elementary  Course  of  Botany,"  which  has  been 
translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  In  1845 
he  became  professor  of  vegetable  organography  to  thr 
Faculte  des  Sciences.     Died  in  June,  1853. 

Jussieu,  de,  (Ale.xis,)  a  French  journalist  and  ad- 
ministrator, born  in  1797,  was  a  nephew  of  the  great 
botanist  Antoine  Laurent.  He  was  prefect  of  Ain  and 
of  Vienne  in  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe.    Died  in  1865. 

Jussieu,  de,  (Antoine,)  professor  of  botany  in  the 
Royal  Garden  of  Paris,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1686.  He 
travelled  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  for  the  purpose 
of  making  botanical  explorations,  succeeded  Tournefort 
as  professor  of  botany  in  1708,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  treatises  on  that  science.  He  published  a  new 
edition  of  Tournefort's  "Institutions."     Died  in  1758. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Jussieu,  de,(ANTOiNE  Laurent,)  a  celebrated  French 
botanist,  born  at  Lyons  in  April,  1748,  was  the  most 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as//  g,  H,  Vi, guttural;  n,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^'Jsee  E.\planations,  p.  23.) 


JUSSIEU 


1414 


JUSTIN 


eminent  member  of  a  family  which  has  been  called  "the 
Botanical  Dynasty."  In  1765  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
medicine,  and  became  the  protege  and  pupil  of  his  uncle, 
Bernard  de  Jussieu,  who  lectured  on  botany  in  the  Jar- 
din  du  Roi,  and  was  meditating  a  natural  method  of 
classification,  near  the  close  of  a  life  memorable  in  the 
records  of  botanical  science.  This  uncle,  whose  advanced 
age  and  dimness  of  sight  indisposed  him  to  the  labours 
of  authorship,  freely  communicated  his  mature  reflections 
to  young  Jussieu,  who  zealously  enlisted  in  the  important 
enterprise.  In  1770,  having  just  graduated  as  M.D.,  he 
was  appointed  demonstrator  of  botany  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi,  as  the  substitute  of  Lemonnier,  chief  physician  to 
the  king.  His  first  production  was  an  excellent  mono- 
graph on  the  "  Ranunculaceas,"  (1774,)  which  opened  to 
him  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  determined  him  to 
apply  himself  almost  exclusively  to  botany. 

In  1774  the  arrangement  of  the  plants  in  the  Royal 
Garden,  which  was  conformed  to  the  system  of  Tourne- 
fort,  was  exchanged  for  one  proposed  by  Jussieu,  founded 
on  natural  affinities.  While  performing  his  duties  as 
professor,  he  continued  to  digest  and  perfect  his  new 
system,  until  17S8,  when  he  developed  the  same  in  his 
great  Latin  work,  "  Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Ordines 
naturales  disposita,"  "which,"  says  Cuvier,  "forms  in 
the  sciences  of  observation  an  epoch  perhaps  as  im- 
portant as  the  '  Chemistry'  of  Lavoisier  in  the  sciences 
of  experiment."  Although  the  success  of  his  book  was 
retarded  by  the  political  convulsions  of  France,  his  philo- 
sophical system  has  gradually  prevailed  and  superseded 
the  artificial  method  of  Linnaeus.  The  idea  of  such  a 
system  had  occurred  to  other  botanists  ;  but  Jussieu  is 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  laying  its  broad  and  impreg- 
nable foundations. 

In  1793  the  school  of  the  Royal  Garden  was  reor- 
ganized, under  the  title  of  "  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory," and  the  chair  of  botany  was  given  to  Jussieu,  who 
was  also  chosen  director  of  the  institution.  A  few  years 
later  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  in  1808 
was  appointed  a  councillor  of  the  Imperial  University. 
At  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  lost  the  office  last 
named,  but  retained  the  professorship  until  1826,  when 
he  resigned  it  in  favour  of  his  son.  Between  1800  and 
1820  he  wrote  many  botanical  treatises  on  natural  orders 
and  families,  which  were  inserted  in  the  records  of  the 
Institute  or  the  "Annales  du  Museum."  These  are 
characterized  by  the  same  merits  as  his  principal  work, 
— profound  knowledge,  patient  observation,  a  correct 
estimate  of  the  value  of  characters,  and  an  admirable 
sagacity  in  perceiving  affinities.     Died  in  1836. 

See  Flourens,  "  filoge  de  A.  L.  de  Jussieu,"  183S  :  A.  T.  Brono- 
NIART,  "  Notice  historique  sur  A.  L.  de  Jussieu,"  1837  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,  (Bernard,)  a  celebrated  botanist, 
brother  of  Antoine,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1699.  After  studying  in  his  native  city,  he  accompanied 
his  brother  on  several  scientific  tours.  On  returning 
to  France  he  entered  the  medical  course  at  Montpellier, 
where  he  graduated  in  1720.  Six  years  later  he  was 
chosen  Doctor  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Paris.  He 
was  the  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of  the  classification  of 
plants  according  to  their  affinities.  This  method  was  per- 
fected by  his  nephew,  the  celebrated  Antoine  Laurent  de 
Jussieu.  He  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  Louis  XV.,  to 
whom  he  gave  valuable  advice  upon  the  formation  of  the 
garden  at  Trianon.  Jussieu  visited  England,  and  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1777. 

See  CoNDORCET,  " Eloge  de  Jussieu;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,  (Joseph,)  brother  of  Antoine  and  Bernard 
de  Jussieu,  was  born  in  Lyons  in  1704.  In  1735  ^^  ^^' 
companied,  as  a  botanist,  the  French  and  Spanish  savants 
who  had  been  sent  by  their  respective  governments  to 
Peru.  He  remained  in  that  country  and  other  parts  of 
South  America  until  1771,  and  collected  valuable  infor- 
mation on  natural  history.     Died  at  Paris  in  1779. 

Jussieu,  de,  (Laurent  Pierre,)  a  French  moralist 
and  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1792,  was  a  brother  of 
Alexis,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  a  number  of  popular 
educational  works,  among  which  are  "  Simon  de  Nantua," 
(1818,)  and  "Antoine  et  Maurice,"  (1821.)     His  "Post- 


humous Works  of  Simon  de  Nantua"  (1829)  obtained 
the  Montyon  prize.     Died  February  23,  1866. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Jussow,  yoos'so,  (Heinrich  Christoph,)  a  German 
architect,  born  at  Cassel  in  1754.  He  designed  a  church 
at  Neustadt,  a  wing  of  the  royal  palace  of  Wilhelmshohe, 
and  the  Chinese  Gallery  at  Cassel.     Died  in  1825. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedle." 

Jussy,  zhii'se',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Besan9on  about  1716.  He  introduced  a 
new  and  successful  method  of  lithotomy.     Died  in  1798. 

Just,  Saint.    See  Saint-Just. 

Juste,  zhiist,  (Theodore,)  a  Belgian  historian,  born 
at  Brussels  in  i8i8.  He  published,  besides  other  works 
in  French,  a  "Popular  History  of  Belgium,"  (1838,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Belgian  Revolution  of  1790,"  (3  vols., 
1846,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (5  vols., 
1848.)    Died  in  1888. 

Justel,  zhiis'tSl',  (Christophe,)  a  French  Protestant 
statesman,  and  secretary  to  Henry  IV.,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1580.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  of  canon  law,  upon  which  he 
wrote  several  books.  He  also  wrote  some  historical 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  Family  of 
Turenne,"  (1645.)     Died  in  1649. 

See  Sax,  "Ouomasticon  ;"  Mor6ri,  "  Dicdonnaire  Hbtorique;" 
Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Justel,  (Henri,)  a  canonist,  born  in  Paris  in  1620. 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
secretary  to  the  king.  He  collected  an  extensive  library, 
especially  rich  in  manuscripts,  and  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  literary  men.  For  the  sake  of  religious  liberty  he 
emigrated  to  England  in  1681,  and  became  librarian  to 
Charles  II.  He  published  "  Bibliotheca  Juris  Canonici 
veteris,"  (2  vols.,  1661.)     Died  in  1693. 

See  Sax,  "Onomaslicon ;"  Haag,  "La  France  protestante;" 
"  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Justen.     See  Juusten. 

Justi,  yoos'tee,  (Johann  Heinrich  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  writer  on  political  economy  and  philosophy, 
born  in  Thuringia  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteentlr 
century.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "Treatise 
on  Manufactures  and  Fabrics,"  (3  vols.,  1758-61,)  and 
"Moral  and  Philosophical  Writings,"  (2  vols.,  1 760-61,) 
both  in  German.     Died  at  KUstrin  in  1771. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jus'tin,  [Lat.  Justi'nus,  or  Justi'nus  Fronti'nus,] 
a  Latin  historian  of  uncertain  period,  and  of  whose  life 
nothing  is  known.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Histo- 
riarum  Philippicarum  Libri  XLIV.,"  which,  as  he  informs 
the  reader  in  his  preface,  is  extracted  or  abridged  from 
the  History  of  the  World  written  by  Trogus  Pompeius. 
As  the  original  work  is  lost,  Justin's  history,  although 
it  has  no  great  intrinsic  merit  except  an  elegant  style, 
supplies  much  valuable  information  not  found  in  other 
histories.  The  most  ancient  writer  that  mentions  Justin 
is  Saint  Jerome  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  former  lived 
between  150  and  350  a.d. 

See  D.  W.  Moller,  "Disputatio  de  Justino,"  16S4;  ZkmBsch, 
"  Justinus  Trogi  Pompeii  Epitomator,"  1S04. 

Jus'tin  or  Justi'nus,  surnamed  the  Martyr,  one 

of  the  earliest  and  most  learned  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
was  born  of  Greek  parentage  at  Nea])olis,  in  Palestine, 
about  103  a.d.  He  was  educated  in  the  pagan  religion 
and  in  the  philosophy  of  Plato.  About  132  he  embraced 
Christianity.  He  afterwards  removed  to  Rome,  where 
he  wrote,  in  Greek,  his  first  apology  for  the  Christian 
religion.  It  was  addressed  to  the  emperor  Antoninus, 
from  whom  Justin  procured  some  concessions  for  the 
Christians.  His  other  apology  was  addressed  to  Marcus 
Aurelius.  He  also  wrote  an  account  of  his  discussions 
with  Trypho,  a  learned  Jew,  upon  the  Messiah.  He 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  under  Marcus  Aurelius, 
for  refusing  to  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  gods,  about  165. 
His  writings  are  considered  very  valuable. 

See  John  Kave,  "Life  of  Justin  Martyr,"  London,  1836;  Carl 
Semisch,  "Justin  der  Mart\Ter."  2  vols.,  1S40-42;  Volkmar. 
"  Ueber  Justin  den  MSrtyrer,"  etc.,  1853;  Junius,  "Dissertatio  de 
Justino  ^lartyre,"  1836;  Rittbr,  "History  of  Christian  Philoso- 
phy;" EusEBU'.s,  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  Neander,  "History  of 
the  Church  ;"  Fleurv,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 


\,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  (i,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsaire;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


JUSTIN 


1415 


JUVENAL 


Justin  or  Justinus  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  wi» 
born  a  peasant  in  Dacia  in  450  a.d.  At  an  early  age  he 
went  to  Constantinople,  where  he  enlisted  in  the  ini- 
perial  guards  of  Leo  I.  He  distinguished  himself  ty 
his  military  abilities,  and  rose  in  rank  until  he  was  su'> 
cessively  appointed  general  and  commander  of  th«- 
guards.  In  518,  on  the  death  of  the  emperor  Anasta 
sius,  Justin  was  proclaimed  his  successor  by  the  soldiers 
and  the  people.  Through  his  instrumentality  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches  were  reconciled.  He  is  generally 
regarded  as  a  just  prince.  Died  in  527,  soon  after  re- 
signing the  throne  to  his  nephew  Justinian. 

See  Lk  Beau,  "  Histoiredu  Bas-Empire;"  Zonaras,  "History." 

Justin  or  Justinus  II.  was  a  nephew  of  Justinian  I., 
whom  he  succeeded  as  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in 
565.  During  his  reign  the  Longobards  under  Alboin 
invaded  Italy,  the  northern  part  of  which  they  wrested 
from  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  the  Persians  made  several 
important  conquests  in  the  Asiatic  provinces.  In  574, 
perceiving  his  inability  to  govern,  he  resigned  in  favour 
of  Tiberius,  the  captain  of  his  guards.     Died  in  578. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoiie  du  Bas-Empire;"  Menander,  "  His- 
toriarum Libri  VIII.,"  Paris,  1609;  "  NouvelleBiographieG^nerale." 

Jus-ti'na,  [Fr.  Justine,  zhiis'tin',]  Saint,  a  Chris- 
tian martyr,  who  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  death 
under  Diocletian,  (a.d.  304.)  She  was  the  patroness  of 
Venice  and  of  Padua.  In  the  latter  town  a  church  was 
built  in  her  honour  in  the  fifth  century. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 
Jus-tin'i-an  or  Jus-tin-i-a'nus  [Fr.  Justinien, 
zhiis'te'ne-iN']  I.,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Em- 
perors of  the  East,  and  nephew  of  Justin  I.,  was  born  in 
Dardania,  May  11,  483  A.D.  Justin  at  his  coronation  in 
518  appointed  Justinian  his  colleague,  and  in  527  invested 
him  with  supreme  authority.  Soon  after  ascending 
the  throne,  Justinian  commenced  an  active  persecution 
against  the  Arians,  Jews,  and  Pagans.  About  532  se- 
rious revolts  occurred,  in  one  of  which  the  church  of  Saint 
Sophia  and  other  buildings  were  destroyed  by  fire.  This 
sedition,  in  which  thirty  thousand  insurgents  are  said  to 
have  fallen,  was  incited  by  the  factions  of  the  circus,  and 
was  only  quelled  by  the  prompt  resolution  of  Belisarius  at 
the  head  of  the  imperial  guards.  Justinian  showed  great 
clemency  to  those  of  his  rebellious  subjects  who  were 
made  prisoners.  He  immediately  began  to  repair  the 
damages  of  the  conflagration.  The  magnificent  church 
of  Saint  Sophia,  which  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
edifices  of  any  age  or  country,  was  rebuilt  upon  the  plan 
furnished  by  the  architect  Anthemius.  Justinian  also 
exhibited  his  liberality  and  architectural  skill  in  the  con- 
struction of  temples,  convents,  roads,  bridges,  aqueducts, 
and  fortifications  in  many  parts  of  his  vast  empire.  But 
by  far  the  greatest  work  of  his  reign  was  the  revision  of 
the  Roman  law  and  the  publication  of  the  Codes,  Pan- 
dects, and  Institutions  which  bear  his  name,  and  which 
were  compiled  under  his  supervision  by  the  eminent 
jurist  Tribonian.  The  "Codes,"  consisting  of  twelve 
books,  were  completed  in  534.  The  "  Digesta"  or  "  Pan- 
dectae,"  embracing  all  that  was  taken  from  the  decisions, 
arguments,  and  expositions  of  the  civilians  of  Rome,  were 
subsequently  issued  in  fifty  books.  The  "Institutiones" 
were  an  abridgment  of  the  first  principles  of  the  law  for 
the  use  of  students.  Justinian  also  composed  many  new 
laws,  mostly  in  Greek,  entitled  "  Constitutiones  No- 
velise." While  he  was  thus  rendering  such  eminent 
service  to  the  world  by  the  publication  of  his  Codes  and 
Pandects,  his  celebrated  generals  Belisarius  and  Narses 
carried  the  terror  of  his  arms  into  Persia,  Italy,  and 
Africa,  and  made  their  master  the  sovereign  of  nearly 
all  the  territory  over  which  the  first  Caesars  had  held 
dominion.  (See  Belisarius,  and  Narses.)  Justinian 
gave  liberal  encouragement  to  the  industrial  arts,  and 
was  the  first  to  introduce  silk-worms  and  the  manu- 
facture of  silken  goods  into  Europe.  He  died  in  565, 
after  a  re  gn  of  more  than  thirty-eight  years,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Justin  II.  Justinian,  although 
justly  censurable  for  his  occasional  intolerance,  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  general  justice  and  humanity,  as  well 
as  for  his  knowledge  of  theology,  philosophy,  law,  poetry, 
and  architecture,  for  his  administrative  powers,  and  for 
his  exceedingly  virtuous  and  temperate  life, — qualities 


which  would  have  placed  him  in  the  highest  rank  as  a 
monarch,  even  if  he  had  not  produced  those  Codes  which 
have  immortalized  his  name. 

See  Procopius,  "  HistoriasuiTemporis,"  (translated  into  English 
by  HoLCROFT,  1653;)  LuDEWiG,  "  Vita  Justiniani,"  1731  ;  Isamuert, 
"  Histoirede  Justinien,"  1856;  Corvinus  de  Kei.dern,  "  Iniperator 
Justinianus  Catholicus,"  1618:  G.  Pebrin,  "Vita  Justiniani,"  1576; 
Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Monte,squieu, 
"  Grandeur  et  Decadence  des  Romains,'"chap.  xx.  ;  H.  Vogrl,  "  Dis- 
sertatio  de  Justiniano,"  1672;  P.  Gaudenzio,  "Gloria  Justiniani 
Imperatoris  vindicata,"  1639;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendiale." 

Justinian  [Lat.  Justinia'nus]  II.,  son  of  Constan- 
tine  III.,  ascended  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  685. 
He  gained  important  advantages  over  the  Saracens,  and 
compelled  them  to  relinquish  some  of  their  conquests. 
Finally,  his  great  cruelties  to  his  subjects,  and  also,  it  is 
said,  his  intention  of  burning  Constantinople,  caused  his 
general  Leontius  to  depose  hiin,  to  cut  off  his  nose,  and 
to  banish  him  to  the  Crimea.  He  subsequently  escaped 
from  the  Crimea,  and  married  the  daughter  of  a  Turkir.h 
chief,  with  whose  assistance,  and  that  of  the  Bulgarians, 
he  regained  his  crown.  He  put  Leontius,  and  many 
others,  to  horrible  deaths.  He  was  preparing  to  execute 
furtner  cruelties,  when  he  was  killed  in  711  by  Philip- 
picus  Bardanes,  who  succeeded  him. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le  Beau, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Zonaras,  "  Histoi-y ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nerale." 

Justiniani.     See  Giustiniani. 

Justinianus.     See  Justinian. 

Justinien.    See  Justinian. 

Justinus.     See  Justin. 

Jus'tu-lus,  (yoos'too-lfts,)  (Pietro  Francesco,)  « 
Latin  poet,  and  secretary  to  Caesar  Borgia,  a  native  of 
Italy,  lived  about  1500.  His  poems  are  distinguished 
for  their  purity  and  elegance. 

Jusuf.     See  Yoosuf. 

Ju-tur'na,  [Fr.  Juturne,  zhii'tiiRn',]  a  nymph  or 
goddess  of  the  Roman  mythology,  was  said  to  be  beloved 
by  Jupiter.  According  to  Virgil,  she  was  a  sister  of 
Turnus.  The  water  which  the  Romans  used  in  sacrifices 
was  mostly  drawn  from  the  fountain  of  Juturna. 

Juturne.    See  Juturna. 

Juusten  or  Justen,  yoos'ten,  (Paul,)  Bishop  of  Abo, 
in  Finland,  was  born  at  Viborg.  He  was  sent  in  1569  by 
John  III.  of  Sweden  as  an  ambassador  to  Ivan,  Czar  of 
Russia.  That  monarch,  on  some  false  pretence  against 
John,  threw  Juusten  in  prison,  where  he  was  confined  for 
three  years.    Died  at  Abo  in  1575. 

Juvara,  yoo-v3.'ri,  or  Ivara,  e-vS'r3,  (FiLlPPO,)  first 
architect  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  was  born  at  Messina,  in 
Italy,  in  1685,  and  educated  at  Rome  under  Fontana. 
He  constructed  a  palace  at  Messina,  and  several  edifices 
in  Turin.  In  1724  he  went  to  Lisbon,  where  he  super- 
intended the  building  of  the  royal  palace  and  other  edi- 
fices, for  which  he  received  the  order  of  knighthood  and 
a  pension  of  about  three  thousand  dollars.  He  died  in 
1735,  at  Madrid.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  hunting- 
palace  of  Stupinigi,  and  the  Birago  di  Borgaro  palace, 
both  in  Turin. 

See  M11.IZIA,  "Memorie  degli  Architetti ;"  Quatrem^re  dk 
QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  Architectes  calibres;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gilndrale." 

Ju've-nal,  [Lat.  Juvena'lis  ;  Fr.  Juvenal,  zhii'vi'- 
nt!',]  or,  more  fully,  Deg'i-mus  Ju'ni-us  Ju-ve-na'- 
lis,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Latin  satirical  poets, 
is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  Aquinum,  a  Volscian 
town,  about  A.D.  40.  But  few  authentic  facts  have  been 
preserved  respecting  his  history:  it  is  said,  however,  that 
he  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  freedman,  and  that  he 
devoted  the  early  part  of  his  life  to  the  study  of  rhetoric 
and  declamation.  He  afterwards  became  a  pleader  in 
the  courts  of  law,  where  he  appears  to  have  been  suc- 
cessful. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  poet  Martial, 
who  mentions  him  in  two  of  his  epigrams.  None  of 
the  productions  of  Juvenal  were  given  to  the  public 
until  he  had  passed  the  age  of  sixty  years.  His  poems, 
which  he  then  recited,  gained  him  universal  admiration. 
One  of  his  earliest  satires  had  been  written  against  an 
actor  named  Paris,  who  was  a  great  favourite  with  the 
emperor  Domitian.  It  was  not  published  until  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  who,  imagining  that  it  reflected  on  one  of 
his  own  favourites,  sent  Juvenal  into  an  honourable  exile 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,giittu?-al;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (ffi^^See  Explanations,  jx  23. ) 


JUVENAL 


1416 


KAIANIAN 


by  making  him  the  prefect  of  a  legion  in  Egypt,  where 
he  is  said  to  have  died  about  a.d.  125.  Sixteen  of  his 
satires  have  been  preserved.  Several  translations  of 
them  have  been  made  into  English,  of  which  the  most 
prominent  are  those  of  Uryden  and  Gifford.  In  these 
satires  Juvenal  severely  lashes  the  prevailing  vices  of 
his  time ;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  his  vivid 
pictures  of  the  licentiousness  of  that  age  do  not  tend  to 
fan  those  very  passions  which  they  seem  intended  to 
restrain.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  force  of  intellect, 
his  flow  of  language,  and  his  never-failing  wit.  "Juvenal 
gives  me,"  says  Dryden,  "  as  much  pleasure  as  I  can 
bear.  He  fully  satisfies  expectation  ;  he  treats  his  sub- 
ject home.  .  .  .  When  he  gives  over,  'tis  a  sign  that  the 
subject  is  exhausted,  and  that  the  wit  of  man  can  carry 
it  no  further."  His  works,  differing  equally  from  the 
austere  moral  dialogues  of  Persius  and  the  genial  raillery 
of  Horace,  are  rhetorical  rather  than  poetical.  They  are 
brilliant  and  sonorous  declamations,  and  master-pieces 
of  denunciation, 

"Magnificent  versification,"  says  Macaulay,  "and  in- 
genious combinations  rarely  harmonize  with  the  expres- 
sion of  deep  feeling.  In  Juvenal  and  Dryden  alone  we 
have  the  sparkle  and  the  heat  together.  Those  great 
satirists  succeeded  in  communicating  the  fervour  of  their 
feelings  to  materials  the  most  incombustible,  and  kindled 
the  whole  mass  into  a  blaze  at  once  dazzling  and  destruc- 
tive." ("Essay  on  Dryden.")  Among  the  best  editions 
of  Juvenal  is  that  of  Ruperti,  (Leipsic,  2  vols.,  1801,)  to 
which  are  prefixed  all  the  ancient  documents  for  the 
biography  of  the  satirist. 

See  J.  V.  Francke,  "  Examen  crititum  D.  J.  Jiivenalis  Vitje," 
1820,  .and  "  Programma  de  Vita  D.  J.  Juvei.alis  Qiiestio  altera,"  1827  ; 
VoLKER,  "Juvenal,  Lebens-  mid  Charakterbild,"  1851:  Bauer, 
"  Kritische  Bemerkungen  iiber  einige  Nachrichten  aus  deni  Leben 
luvenals."  18^1 ;  Bahr,  "  Geschiclue  der  Romischen  Litteratur." 


Juvenal,  zhuv'ntl',  (Gui  Jouvenneaux,zhoo'vi'n6', 
or  Jouennaux,  zhoo'i'no',)  a  French  philoiogist  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  about  1460,  was  educated  at  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Comedies 
of  Terence,"  and  "  Monastic  Reformations  Vindicated." 
Died  in  1505. 

Juvenal  des  Ursins.     See  Ursins. 

Ju-ven'cus,  (Ca'ius  Vec'tius  (vgk'she-us)  Aquili'- 
Nus,)  one  of  the  earliest  Christian  poets,  was  born  in 
Spain  about  330  a.d.  His  principal  production  is  the 
"Life  of  Christ,"  written  in  Latin  poetry  and  taken  lite- 
rally from  the  four  Evangelists. 

See  A.  R.  Gkbser,  "  Dis<;ertatio  de  C.  V.  A.  Juvenci  Vita  et 
Scriptis,"  1827;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgenieine  Encyklopaedie." 

Juvenel,  zhiiv'nSK,  (F61.IX,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  at  Pezenas  in  1669,  published  "  Principles  of  His- 
tory."   Died  in  1760. 

Juvigny.     See  Rigoley  de  Juvigny. 

Jttx'on,  (William,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  born 
in  Chichester  in  1582,  graduated  at  Oxford.  In  1621  he 
was  appointed  president  of  Saint  John's  College,  and 
afterwards  received  various  offices  in  the  Church  through 
the  patronage  of  Archbishop  Laud.  In  1633  he  was 
successively  raised  to  the  sees  of  Hereford  and  London. 
Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  by  Charles  I.  lord 
high  treasurer  of  England.  For  about  six  years  he  ful- 
filled the  duties  of  this  station  with  so  much  justice  and 
ability  that,  although  great  hostility  was  excited  that  an 
ecclesiastic  should  be  chosen  to  that  office,  no  charges 
were  made  against  his  administration.  He  remained 
with  Charles  through  his  trial,  and  accompanied  him  to 
the  scaffold,  where  he  received  the  dying  injunctions  of 
that  monarch.  On  the  restoration  he  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Canterbury.  Died  in  1663.  (See  "Memoirs  of 
Juxon  and  his  Times,"  1869.) 


K. 


Kaab,  kS'ab,  a  distinguished  Arabian  poet,  who  flour- 
ished about  650  A.D.  He  was  at  first  a  bitter  enemy  of 
Mohammed ;  but  afterwards,  becoming  reconciled  to 
him,  he  wrote  a  poem,  which  is  regarded  as  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  eulogiums  addressed  to  the  founder  of 
the  Moslem  faith.  The  prophet  was  so  much  pleased 
that  he  gave  Kaab  his  green  mantle.  The  poem  was 
hung  up  in  the  Temple  of  Mecca.    Kaab  died  in  662  a.d. 

See  D'Herbelot,  "  Bibliothique  Orientale." 

Kaas,  k^s,  [Lat.  Kaa'sius,)  (Nikolaus,)  a  Danish 
statesman,  born  in  1535,  and  educated  in  Germany,  where 
he  studied  theology  under  Melanchthon.  In  1573  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  Denmark,  and  in  1588  be- 
came first  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority 
of  Christian  I.  He  performed  the  duties  of  that  office 
with  commendable  aljility  and  patriotism.  Died  in  1594. 
Kaas  actively  promoted  the  cause  of  education. 

See  HoFMANN,  "Portraits  historiciiies  des  Hommes  c^l^bres  du 
Danemarck  ;"  Folder,  "  Exegesis  Virtiitum  et  Rerum  gestarum  N. 
Kaasii,"  1580;  P.  J.  Winstrup,  "  Ligpraediken  over  N.  Kaas," 
'S94;  J-  Calundanus,  "Descriptio  Vita  N.  Kaasii,"  1637. 

Kaasius.     See  Kaas. 

Kaau-Boerhaave,  kow  booR'hd'v^h,  (Abram,)  a 
Dutch  physician,  and  nephew  of-  Herman  Boerhaave, 
was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1713,  and  educated  at  Leyden. 
In  1740  he  was  invited  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he 
became  councillor  of  state,  and  in  174^  first  physician  to 
the  imperial  court.     Died  at  Moscow  in  1753. 

Kabbete,  kab'b?h-teh,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter.  Some  of  his  pictures  were  engraved  by  Perelle* 
Died  in  1660. 

Kabel,  van  der,  vtn  der  k^'bel,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Risvvyck  in  163 1. 
His  designs  were  natural  and  vigorous.     Died  in  1695. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionai7  of  Painters." 

Kabir,  kd-beeR',  an  East  Indian  (Hindee)  writer,  of 
Benares,  who  probably  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century  of 
our  era.  He  was  of  the  weaver  caste,  and  of  the  Vaish- 
nava  sect,  though  bred  a  Mussulman.  A  very  great 
number  of  works  are  ascribed  to  him.     His  writings  are 


religious,  and  to  some  extent  philosophical,  teaching  a 
sort  of  pantheism. 

Kabus  or  Kabous.     See  Caboos. 

Kadlubek,  kid-loo'b§k,  (Vincent,)  sometimes  writ- 
ten Kodlubko  or  Kalubko,  a  Polish  historian  and 
prelate,  was  born  in  Galicia.  In  1208  he  was  raised  to 
the  see  of  Cracow.  Died  in  1223.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
and  accurate  history  of  Poland  to  the  year  1202. 

See  OssoLiNSKi,  "V.  Kadhibek,  ein  historisch-kritischer  Beitrag," 
etc.,  1822. 

Kaempfer.     See  Kampfer. 

Kaestner.     See  Kastner. 

Kager,  ka'ger,  (Johann  Matthias,)  a  German 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Munich  in  1566;  died  at 
Augsburg  in  1634. 

Kahle,  ka'leh,  (Ludwig  Martin,)  a  German  philos- 
opher and  jurist,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  17 12.  Among 
his  works  is  "The  Balance  of  Europe,"  ("De  Trutina 
Europae,"  1744.)     Died  in  1775. 

Kahler,  kd'ler,  (Johann,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Wolmar,  Hesse-Cassel,  in  1649,  was  a  Cartesian 
in  philosophy,  and  wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1727. 

ICahnis,  ki'nis,  (Karl  Friedrich  August,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Greitz  in  1814.  He  studied 
under  Tholuck,  and  became  professor  of  theology  at 
I.eipsic  in  1850.  He  published  a  valuable  work,  entitled 
"  Lutherische  Dogmatik,"  (2  vols.,  1861-68,)  also,  "  Chris- 
tenlhum  und  Philosophic,"  (1884,)  etc.      Died  in  18SS. 

Kaianian  or  Caianian,  ki-a'ne-an,  the  name  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  ancient  Persian  dynasties,  so 
called  from  its  founder,  Kai-Kobad,  who,  according  to 
the  Persian  legends,  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the 
famous  hero  and  conqueror  Roostum,  (or  Rustem.)  Of 
this  dynasty,  Cyrus  the  Great  (called  by  the  Persians 
Kai-Khosroo  or  Kai-Khosrau,  Kos-row')  was  the  chief 
ornament  and  glory.  (See  Cyrus.)  Darius  the  Younger, 
conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  was  the  last  of  the 
Kaianian  kings. 

See  Atkinson,  "Abridgment  ol"  the  Sliah  NSmeh  of  Firdausi," 
London,  1832;  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  Sir  W. 
Jones's  Works. 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KAI-KAOOS 


1417 


KA  LID  ASA 


Kai-Kaoos,  (-Kaua  or  -Kaous,)  ki  ki'dos',  an  an- 
cient king  of  Persia,  (or  Iran,)  was  the  son  of  Kai-Kobad. 
His  general,  the  famous  Roo.'.tum,  carried  on  successful 
wars  against  the  Kings  of  Tflran.  Sir  William  Jones 
places  the  date  of  this  prince's  accession  at  B.C.  610. 
Kai-Kaoos  is  said  to  have  founded  an  observatory  in 
Babylon.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Kai-Khos- 
roo,  (Cyrus  the  Great.) 

See  MiRKHOND,  "Raouset;"  Atkinson,  "Abridgment  of  the 
ShSh  Nameh." 

Kai-Kioos,  (-Kaiis  or  -Kaous,)  lu  ka'oos',  I., 
seventh  Sultan  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seljookides  of 
Anatolia,  succeeded  his  father,  Kai-Khosroo,  about  a.d. 
1 2  ID.  He  was  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Grecian  em- 
peror and  several  of  the  neighbouring  princes.  Died  in 
1219,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Kai-Kobad 
Ala-ed-Deen,  (Ala-eddin.) 

See  Ferishta,  "Histoiy." 

Kai-Kioos  (or  -Kafis)  II.,  Azzed-ed-Deen,  (Az- 
zed-Eddiu,)  Sz'zed  ed-deen',  succeeded  his  father, 
Kai-Khosroo  H.,  in  the  sovereignty  of  Anatolia,  about 
A.D.  1244.  His  reign  was  occupied  by  long  wars  with 
his  brother,  Kilij-Arslan,  and  with  the  Grand  Khan 
of  Tartary.     Died  in  1278. 

Kai-Khosroo.     See  Cyrus. 

Kai-Khosroo  (-Khosrou)  the  Elder.  See  Cyrus. 

Kai-Khos'roo''  I.,  sixth  Sultan  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Seljookides,  became  sovereign  of  Anatolia  a.d.  1192. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1210  by  Theodore  Lascaris, 
Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

Kai-Khosroo  II.  succeeded  his  father,  Kai-Kobad 
Ala-ed-Deen,  (Ala-eddin,)  on  the  throne  of  Anatolia  in 
1237.  In  1244  he  was  defeated  by  the  Tartars,  and  was 
compelled  to  become  a  tributary  to  their  grand  khan. 
He  died  the  same  year. 

Kai-Khosroo  III.,  twelfth  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Seljookides,  became  Sultan  about  1266.     Died  in  1283. 

KailSsa  or  Cailasa,  kl-lj'sa,  called  in  the  common 
dialect  Kailas,k!-lSs',  the  name  of  a  very  high  mountain- 
peak  near  the  northern  extremity  of  India,  supposed  to 
be  the  favourite  abode  of  Siva  and  Parvati.    (See  Siva.) 

Kain.     See  Le  Kain. 

Kain,  (John  Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  at  Martinsburg,  West  Virginia,  May  31,  1841.  He 
graduated  at  Saint  Charles  College,  Maryland,  in  1862, 
studied  at  Saint  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore,  was  or- 
dained a  Catholic  priest  in  1866,  and  in  1875  ^^'^^  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Wheeling. 

Kaiook,  Kaiuk,  or  Kaiouk,  kl-ook',  a  grandson 
of  Jengis  Khan,  was  proclaimed  Grand  Khan  of  Tartary 
in  1246.  This  prince  granted  numerous  privileges  to 
the  Christians  of  his  dominions.  He  died  in  1248,  as  he 
was  raising  an  immense  army  for  the  invasion  of  Europe. 

Kairis,  ka'ris,  (Theophilos,)  a  Greek  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  the  island  of  Andros  in  1780.  In  1839  he  was 
banished  h^  the  Synod  of  Athens  to  a  cloister  for  having 
taught  deism.  He  wrote  a  burlesque  on  the  prayers  of 
the  Christian  Church.  In  1852  he  was  sent  to  prison, 
where  he  died  in  1853. 

Kaiser,  (I'rederik,)  a  D'utch  astronomer,  born  at 
Amsterdam,  June  10,  1808.  He  puh!i-.hed  "The  Starry 
Heavens,"  ("  De  Sterrenhemel,"  1843,;  .iiid  other  works, 
and  became  a  professor  in  Leyden.     Died  July  28,  1872. 

Kaiser,  kl'zer,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1775,  worked  in  Vienna.     Died  in  1S19. 

Kaiser,  (Friedrich,)  an  Austrian  dramatist,  born  at 
Bibrach,  April  3,  1814;  died  November  7,  1874. 

Ka'kig  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  of  the  dynasty  of  Pagrat- 
ides,  succeeded  his  brother,  Sempad  II.,  in  989.  Kakig 
assumed  the  surname  Shahan-Shah,  ("  King  of  kings.") 
In  998  he  assisted  David,  a  Georgian  prince,  to  defeat  the 
Mohammedans  under  Maniloon  the  Ameer.  Died  in  1020. 

Kaia,  kil'la,  or  KSl,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  time," 
[from  Ml,*  to  "count"  or  "reckon,"]  and  forming  one  of 
the  many  names  of  the  destroying  god  Siva,  (which  see.) 

Kalakaua,  kara-kow'a,  (David,)  King  of  the  Ha- 
waiian   Islands,  was   born    at  Honolulu,  November   16, 

*  This  word  is  related  etymologically  to  the  middle  syllable  of  the 
Latin  "interca/aris."  denotiivj;  the  reckoning  uf  a  day  or  space  af 
time  between  other  days.  The  word  "  kalends"  is  not  improbablj 
from  the  same  root. 


1836.  On  the  failure  of  heirs  to  the  former  royal  house 
at  the  death  of  King  Lunalilo  in  1874,  he  was  elected 
to  the  succession,  his  claim  being  based  upon  a  remote 
descent,  through  the  female  line,  from  one  of  the  old 
royal  families  of  the  kingdom.  He  visited  the  United 
States  and  Europe  in  the  year  of  his  accession,  and  again 
in  later  years.     Died  January  20,  1891. 

Kaianaga.     See  Kai.iya.' 

Kalaun  or  Kalaoun.     See  KelAoon. 

Kalb,  de.     See  De  Kalj?. 

Kalbeck,  kil'bek,  (Max,)  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Breslau,  January  4,  1850.  He  became  a  journalist  and 
art-critic  in  Vienna.  He  has  published  several  volumes 
of  lyric  poems,  remarkable  for  delicacy  of  finish  and  for 
their  richly  musical  quality. 

Kalckreuth.von,  fon  kilk'roit',  (Friedrich  Adolf,) 
Count,  bom  at  Sangerhausen,  in  Prussia,  in  1737,  served 
in  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession,  and  afterwards 
in  the  campaigns  of  Holland  and  France.  For  his  gallant 
defence  of  Dantzic  against  the  French,  in  1807,  he  wa." 
made  field-marshal.  In  July,  1807,  he  concluded  with 
Talleyrand  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Prussia  and 
France.     Died  in  1818. 

See  L.  G.  Michaud,  "Notices  historiques  sur  le  Mar^chal  Jour- 
dan  et  les  Generaux  Kalckreuth  et  Kilmaine." 

Kaldi,  kSl'dee,  (George,)  a  learned  and  eloquent 
Hungarian  Jesuit,  born  in  Tirnau  about  1572,  was  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Olmiitz.  Died  at  Presburg  in  1634. 
He  translated  the  Bible  into  the  Hungarian  language. 

Kale.     See  Kalf. 

Kalee.     See  KalJ. 

Ka'ler,  (James  Otis,)  an  American  author,  born  ai 
Winterport,  Maine,  March  19,  1846,  for  some  years  was 
engaged  in  journalism  in  Boston  and  New  York.  He  is 
author  of  several  highly  successful  tales  for  the  young, 
including  "Toby  Tyler,"  "Mr.  Stubbs's  Brother,"  "Old 
Ben,"  "Tim  and  Tip,"  "Raising  the  Pearl,"  etc.,  pub- 
lished under  the  name  of  "James  Otis." 

Kalergis,  ki-16R'gis,  (Demetrius,)  a  Greek  general 
and  politician,  born  in  Taganrog  about  1802.  He  fought 
for  independence  against  the  Turks.  About  1843  ^^  t)e- 
came  a  general,  and  governor  of  Athens.  He  was  min- 
ister of  war  for  about  two  years,  (1854-56.)  Died  in  1867. 

Kalf,  kSlf,  written  also  Kale,  (Wilhelm,)  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  painter  of  still  life,  born  in  Amsterdam 
in  1630.  He  especially  excelled  in  painting  fruit,  gold 
and  silver  vessels,  gems,  crystals,  etc.     Died  in  1693. 

K^li  or  Kalee,  k^lee,  the  feminine  of  K^la,  (a  name 
of  Siva,)  forming  the  common  appellation  of  Siva's  con- 
sort in  her  destroying  character.  She  is  often  called 
Maha  Kali,  (ma-ha' kd'lee,)  or  the  "Great  Kali,"  and 
Bhadra  (b'hud'ra)  Kali,  (from  Bhadra,  one  of  the  many 
appellations  of  Siva,)  and  various  other  names.  She  is 
represented  sometimes  with  four  and  sometimes  with 
eight  hands,  and  her  person  is  decorated  with  a  necklace 
of  human  skulls.  Her  images  are  usually  painted  black 
or  of  a  dark  colour.  In  her  character  of  Maha  Kali  she 
sometimes  represents  eternity.  (See  Coleman's  "My- 
thology of  the  Hindoos,"  p.  91.)  As  active  or  militant 
virtue,  she  is  called  Durga ;  in  her  ordinary  and  more 
peaceful  character  she  is  known  as  Parvati,  {i.e.  the 
"mountain  goddess,"  in  allusion  to  her  dwelling  on  the 
inaccessible  heights  of  the  Himalayas,)  or  as  Devi,  (da'- 
vee,)  which  signifies  the  "  goddess"  par  excellence.  (See 
Durga,  and  ParvatT.) 

Kaildasa,  Caiidasa,  kS'lT-da'sa,  or  KaUdasas, 
called  "the  Shakspeare  of  India,"  the  most  illustrious 
of  Hindoo  poets,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  lived 
about  50  B.C.,  by  others  about  250  A.D.  or  even  later. 
Tradition  says  that  he  lived  under  the  magnificent  reign 
of  Vikramaditya  I.  He  was  the  author  of  several  dramas, 
of  which  the  most  celebrated,  "  Sakoontala,"  (or  "  Sakon- 
tala,")  was  first  made  known  to  the  nations  of  the  West 
through  the  prose  translation  of  Sir  William  Jones.  The 
appearance  of  this  remarkable  production  excited  a  deep 
interest  and  general  admiration  among  the  critics  of 
Europe.  Of  its  author,  Alexander  Humboldt  observes, 
"Tenderness  in  the  expression  of  feeling,  and  richness 
of  creative  fancy,  have  assigned  to  him  his  lofty  place 
among  the  poets  of  all  nations."  Goethe  expresses  his 
admiration  in  a  still  higher  strain  : 


€as-^;  fas  j;  '%hard;  gas/;  G,  H,  Vi,  gitttural ;  N,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin  this.     (^C^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KALISCH 


1418 


K A  MAD  EVA 


"  Willst  du  die  Bliithe  des  frulien,  die  Friichte  des  spateren  Jahres, 
Willst  du  was  reizt  und  entziickt,  willst  du  was  sattigt  und  nalirt, 
Willst  du  den  Himmel,  die  Erde,  mit  einem  Namen  begreifen  r 
Nenn'  ich  SakontalA  dich,  und  so  ist  alles  gesagt."* 
A  translation  of  the  Sakoontala,  by  Monier  Williams, 
the  Boden  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  Oxford,  was  pub- 
lished at  Hertford  in  1856.  In  this  version  the  metrical 
portions  of  the  original  play  were  for  the  first  time 
rendered  into  English  verse.  Besides  the  drama  already 
referred  to,  there  have  come  down  to  us  tw^o  others  by 
Kalidasa,  viz.,  "  Vikrama  and  Urvasi,"  which  abounds  in 
lyrical  beauties,  and  a  comedy  entitled  "Agnimitra  and 
Malavika."  His  two  epic  poems,  "  Raghuvansa"  and 
"Kumara-Sambhava,"  possess,  with  many  individual 
beauties,  comparatively  little  merit,  taken  as  a  whole. 
Among  his  lyrical  poems,  "  Megha-duta,"  or  the  "  Cloud- 
Messenger,"  is  remarkable  for  its  deep  feeling  and  grace- 
ful delineations  of  nature.  The  "  Nalodaya,"  a  sort  of 
poetical  romance,  which,  in  spite  of  much  that  would 
strike  a  European  reader  as  ridiculous  or  absurd,  has 
many  charming  passages,  is  also  commonly  ascribed  to 
Kalidasa. 

See  the  notice  of  Kalid5sa  prefixed  to  Professor  Williams's 
translation  of  "  Sakoontala,"  already  referred  to  ;  Wilson's  "  Indian 
Theatre,"  in  which  there  are  English  translations  of  the  "  Megha- 
duta"  and  an  analysis  of  "Agnimitra  and  Malavika;"  also  Brock- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon."  The  "  Nalodaya"  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  verse  by  the  Rev.  W.  Yates,  Calcutta,  1S44. 

Kalisch,  ka'lish,  (David,)  a  German  humorous  poet, 
of  Jewish  origin,  born  at  Breslau,  February  23,  1 820.  His 
verses,  plays,  and  couplets  are  extremely  popular  in  Ger- 
many. He  published  "  Berliner  Leierkasten,"  (1857-60,) 
and  "  Lustige  Werke,"  (1870.)  Died  at  Berlin,  August 
21,  1872. 

Kalisch,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  author,  born  at 
Polnisch-Lissa,  of  Jewish  parents,  September  7,  1814. 
He  was  educated  at  Heidelberg  and  Munich,  and  became 
noted  as  a  journalist  and  a  writer  of  humorous  ballads 
and  romances. 

Kalisch,  (Marcus  M.,)  a  Jewish  scholar,  born  at 
Treptow,  in  Pomerania,  May  16,  1828.  He  was  educated 
at  Berlin  and  Halle.  He  settled  in  England  in  1849. 
His  writings  include  "  A  Critical  Commentary"  on  the 
Old  Testament,  with  translation,  (vol.  i.,  1855  ;  vol.  iv., 
1872,)  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  "Bible  Studies,"  (1877,) 
"  Path  and  Goal,"  (1880,)  etc.     Died  in  1885. 

Kaiiya,  ki'li-ya,  [from  the  Sanscrit  kdld,  "black,"  and 
hence  "  terrible"  or  "  deadly,"]  called  also  Kaian^ga, 
(ki'la-ni'ga,)  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a 
terrible  serpent  destroyed  by  Krishna.  As  the  latter  is 
by  some  identified  with  the  Apollo  of  the  Greeks,  so 
Kaliya  is  supposed  to  be  the  Python  of  classic  mythology. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kalkar.     See  Calcar. 

Kalkar,  kil'ldr,  (Christian  Andreas  Herman,)  a 
Danish  theologian,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1802.  He  be- 
came first  minister  of  the  diocese  of  Seeland  in  1843. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of  Exegesis,"  (2  vols., 
1836-38.) 

Kalkbrenner,  kSlk'bRgn'ner,  (Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man musician  and  composer,  born  at  Minden  in  1755. 
He  composed  dramatic  and  instrumental  music,  and 
became  chapel-master  to  the  queen  at  Berlin  in  1788. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1806. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Kalkbrenner,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  musical  com- 
poser and  pianist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1788,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  visited  Vienna  in  1803,  where  he 
studied  under  Albrechtsberger.  He  settled  in  Paris  in 
1824,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Pleyel,  founded  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  piano-manufactories  of  that  city.  As  a 
musician  he  holds  the  first  rank,  and  his  numerous  com- 
positions for  the  piano  are  highly  esteemed.   Died  in  1 849. 

See  L.  BolviN,  "  Kalkbrenner,"  Paris,  1842;  F^Tis,  "Biographie 
Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kal'kl,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  kiil'ki ;  from  the  San- 

•  "  Wouldst  thou  the  blossoms  of  the  early,  the  fruits  of  the  later  year, 

Wouldst  thou  what  charms  and  enraptures,  what  satisfies  and  nour- 
ishes, [the  soul,] 

Wouldst  thou  comprehend  heaven  and  earth  [in  short]  under  one 
name .' 

When  I  name  thee,  O  Sakoontala,  then  everything  is  said." 


scrit  kdl,  to  "  count"  or  "  reckon,"]  the  only  one  of  the 
avatars  of  Vishnu  yet  to  come.  Vishnu,  mounted  on  a 
white  horse,  with  a  flaming  sword  in  his  hand,  will  bring 
the  present  (or  Kali)  age  to  an  end,  to  be  followed  by  an 
era  of  purity. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kail,  kai,  (Abraham,)  an  eminent  Danish  scholar, 
born  in  Jutland  in  1743,  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  where  in  1778  he  became  professor  of  the 
history  and  mythology  of  the  North.  In  1785  he  founded 
a  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  foreign  lite- 
rature, and  in  1808  was  appointed  historiographer  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Denmark  and  Norway.     Died  in  1821. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Kallay,  von,  fon  kdl'loi,  (Benjamin,)  a  Hungarian 
statesman,  born  December  22,  1839.  He  lived  for  some 
time  in  Servia,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Serbs,"  (2 
vols.,  1877-78.)  He  was  sent  as  an  envoy  to  tne  East 
Roumelian  commission  in  1878,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  reorganizing  the  affairs  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  In 
1882  he  was  made  finance-minister  for  Austria-Hungary. 

Kallgreen.     See  Kellgr6n. 

Kallias.     See  Callias. 

Kallicrates.     See  Callicrates. 

Kallicratidas.     See  Callicratidas. 

Kallimachus.     See  Cai,limachu.s. 

Kallinicus.     See  Callinicus. 

Kallinus.     See  Callinus. 

Kalliope.     See  Calliope. 

Kallippus.     See  Callippus. 

Kallisthenes.     See  Callisthenes. 

Kallistratus.     See  Callistratus. 

Kalliwoda,  kSKle-^o'd^,  (Johann  Wenzel.)  a  noted 
violinist  and  composer,  born  at  Prague  in  1800  ;  died  1866. 

Kalm,  kSlm,  (Pehr,)  a  Swedish  naturalist,  born  in 
1715.  In  1748,  under  the  direction  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Stockholm,  he  sailed  for  North  America, 
where  he  remained  about  three  years,  prosecuting  the 
study  of- natural  history.  On  his  return  to  Sweden  he 
published  an  account  of  his  travels,  under  the  title  of 
"A  Voyage  to  North  America,"  (1753-)  The  first  part 
of  this  valuable  work  relates  to  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
England.  He  was  afterwards  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm,  and  created  knight 
of  the  order  of  Vasa.  He  wrote  several  other  scientific 
works.  Died  in  1779.  The  genus  Kalmia  was  named 
in  honour  of  him. 

See  J.  L.  Odhelius,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  P.  Kalm,"  17S0. 
Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher's  "  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexi- 
kon." 

Kalnoky,  or  Kdlnoky  von  Koros-Patak,  kaK- 
no-ke  fon  ko'Ros-pot'ok,  (Gustav,)  Count,  an  Austrian 
statesman,  born  at  Lettovitz,  in  IVloravia,  December  29, 
1832.  He  early  entered  the  diplomatic  service,  and  in 
1881  was  made  prime-minister  of  Austria-Hungary. 

Kalo-Joannes.     See  Calo-Joannes. 

Kalraat,  van,  vtn  kSKrlt',  (Abram,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  sculptor,  born  at  Dort  in  1643.  His  paintings  are 
chiefly  of  flowers  and  fruits.     Died  in  1699. 

Kalraat,  van,  (Bernard  or  Barent,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1650,  studied  under  Albert  Cuyp. 
He  was  distinguished  for  the  elegant  finish  which  he 
gave  to  his  landscapes.  He  painted  scenes  on  the  Rhine. 
Died  in  1721. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kaltenbach,  kal'ten-baK',  (Geokg  Gottfried,)  u 
German  engraver  and  art-historian,  born  at  Graudenz, 
May  18,  1805  ;  died  at  Bamberg,  February  1,  1865. 

Kalubko.     See  Kadlubek. 

Kalypso.     See  Calypso. 

Kamadeva,  kS'ma-da'va,  or  Kamaddo,  ki'ma-da'o, 
[from  the  Sanscrit  kihiui,  "desire"  or  "love,"  and  dci-d, 
a  "god,"]  written  also  Caniadeva,  Camadeo,  and 
Canideo,  sometimes  called  simply  Kama  or  Cama, 
the  god  of  love  of  the  Hindoos,  is  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Maya,  ("  Illusion.)  He  is  represented  as  a  beautiful  youth, 
sometimes  as  riding  on  a  parrot,  and  sometimes  as  con- 
versing with  his  mother  Maya,  or  his  wife  Reti,  (or  Rati,) 
{i.e.  "  Affection.")  He  has  a  bow  made  of  sugar-cane,  (or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  of  flowers.)     The  points 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  I'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


KAMADHENU 


1410 


KANJATOO 


of  his  arrows  are  tipped  with  flowers.  Vasanta  (the 
"  Spring")  is  said  to  be  his  most  intimate  friend.  The 
most  remarkable  event  in  Kamadeva's  history  is  his 
encounter  with  Siva.  It  is  related  that  he  once  pre- 
sumed to  aim  one  of  his  arrows  at  the  destroying  deity, 
who  with  one  glance  of  his  eye  reduced  the  love-god  to 
ashes.  Since  that  catastrophe  Kamadeva  has  ceased  to 
possess  any  corporeal  form  ;  but  his  actual  power  seems 
thereby  to  have  been  increased  rather  than  diminished, 
(as  he  can  now  more  easily,  and  with  less  suspicion,  exert 
his  sway  over  the  minds  of  men. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Sir  William  Jones's  Works, 
vol.  vi.,  (or  vol.  xiii.  ol  another  edition.) 

Kimadheuu,  kJ'ma-d'ha'noo,  \i.e.  "  wish-cow,"  from 
the  Sanscrit  kdtnd,  "desire"  or  "wish,"  and  dkenu,  a 
"cow,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  won- 
derful cow,  produced  by  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  having 
power  to  grant  to  those  whom  she  favoured  whatever 
they  might  desire.  She  is  also  called  Surabhi,  (soo'- 
ra-b'hi,)  and  is  in  fact  a  goddess  of  no  mean  pretensions, 
and  would  appear  to  occupy  nearly  the  same  rank  as 
Vishnu's  consort  Lakshmi,  who  also  was  produced  from 
the  churning  of  the  ocean.  It  is  not  unusual  for  tlie 
Hindoos,  when  praying  for  prosperity  or  happiness,  to 
say,  "  May  Lakshmi,  who  resides  among  the  gods,  (or 
"who  reposes  on  the  bosom  of  Vishnu,")  become  a  boon- 
granting  cow  to  me."  (See  LakshmI,  and  KOrma.) 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kamal^  or  Kenial^,  (modern  Hindoo  pron.  kum'- 
a-li';  from  kdmdld,  the  "  lotus,"  which  is  in  its  turn 
derived  from  kdmd,  "beauty,"  "radiance,"]  one  of  the 
names  of  LakshmI,  (which  see.) 

Kambau,  kSm'bSn,  a  Tamil  (South  Indian)  poet,  of 
a  very  uncertain  date.  He  wrote  a  "  Ramayana"  in  the 
Tamil  tongue,  which  is  based  upon,  but  is  not  a  trans- 
lation of.  the  "  Ramayana"  of  Valmiki. 

Kambyses.     See  Cambyses. 

Kamehameha  (kS-ma-hil'ina-hS')  III.,  King  of 
Hawaii,  or  the  Sandwich  Islands,  was  born  about  181 7  ; 
died  in  1854. 

Kamehameha  IV.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1833,  was  educated  by  Protestant  missionaries.  He  vis- 
ited Europe  in  1852,  became  king  in  1854,  and  died  1863. 

Kamel.     See  Camelli. 

Kamenski,  k^-men'skee,  (Count  Michael  Fedoro- 
vrrcH,)  a  Russian,  born  about  1735,  vvas  created  field- 
marshal  by  the  emperor  Alexander  in  1802.  Four  years 
later  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
sent  against  the  French,  but  was  soon  after  succeeded 
by  Benningsen.     He  died,  or  was  killed,  in  1809. 

Karnes,  Lord.     See  Home,  (Henry.) 

Kam-Hi.     See  Khang-Hee. 

Kampen,  van,  (Jakob.)     See  Campen. 

Kampen,  van,  vSn  kSm'pen,  (Nicola as  Godfried,) 
a  Dutch  historian,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1776.  In  1829 
he  was  professor  of  Dutch  history  and  literature  in  Am- 
sterdam. Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Ascendency  in  Europe,"  (8  vols.,  1815 
-23,)  and  "  Geographical  and  Statistical  Account  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,"  (1827.)     Died  in  1839. 

See  MtJLLER,  "  Leven  van  N.  Kampen,"  1840;  Van  den  Brink, 
"  N.  G.  van  Kampen,"  etc.,  1839. 

Kampenhausen,  k^m'pen-how'zen,  (Balthasar,) 
Baron,  born  near  Riga,  in  Russia,  in  1772,  wrote  several 
political  and  topographical  works.     Died  in  1823. 

Kampfer  or  Kaempfer,  kSmp'fer,  (Engelbrecht,) 
an  eminent  German  botanist  and  traveller,  was  born  at 
Lemgo  in  1651.  He  studied  medicine  and  the  languages. 
In  1683  he  accompanied  the  Swedish  ambassador  to 
Persia.  Having  passed  into  the  service  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company  as  surgeon,  he  visited  Bengal, 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  Japan.  He  returned  to  Europe  in 
1693,  and  published  an  important  work  entitled  "Amoe- 
nitates  Exoticse,"  (1712,)  which  contains  the  results  of 
his  researches  in  Persia,  etc.  He  also  wrote  a  valuable 
"  History  of  Japan  and  Siam,"  which  was  published  by 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  in  English,  (1727.)  It  was  also  pub- 
lished in  German  in  1777.     Died  at  Lemgo  in  17 16. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  "Non- 
velle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Kamphuizen.    See  Camphu  ^sen. 


Kamptz,  von,  fon  kampts,  (Karl  Albrecht  Chris- 
TOPH  Heinrich,)  an  able  Prussian  statesman,  born  at 
Mecklenburg  in  1769,  was  successively  appointed  min- 
ister of  the  interior  and  of  the  police,  and  in  1830  min- 
ister of  justice.  Died  in  1849.  He  published  "Civil 
Law  of  the  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg,"  and  "  Contributions 
to  Public  and  International  Law." 

Kanada,  (the  name  of  a  sage.)     See  KAsyapa. 

Kanaris,  k^'ni-ris,  (Constantine,)  a  famous  naval 
hero  of  modern  Greece,  born  in  the  island  of  Ipsara 
about  1790.  In  1822  he  blew  up  the  Turkish  admiral's 
ship  in  the  channel  of  Chios,  and  in  1824  saved  the  island 
of  Samos  by  burning  a  large  Turkish  frigate  and  several 
transport-ships  which  were  destined  to  attack  it.  In 
1827  he  represented  Ipsara  in  the  Greek  National  Con- 
vention, and  in  1848  was  appointed  minister  of  the  marine 
and  president  of  the  cabinet.  He  resigned  in  1855. 
Died  September  14,  1877. 

Kandace.     See  Candace. 

Kandaules.     See  Candaules. 

Kandeh  Rao,  kin'deh  ri'o,  [perhaps  from  the  San- 
scrit Mndd,  a  "horse,"  and  rdo,  a  modern  Hindoo  word, 
signifying  "prince,"]  written  also  Kandarahu,  the 
name  of  an  avatar  of  Siva,  in  which  that  god  is  always 
represented  on  horseback.  (See  Siva.)  Kandeh  Rao 
is  worshipped  chiefly  among  the  Mahrattas. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kandjatou.     See  Kanjatoo. 

Kandler,  kint'ler,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  German 
artist  and  modeller  in  porcelain,  born  in  Saxony  in  1706. 
He  worked  at  Meissen.     Died  in  1776. 

Kane,  (Elisha  Kent,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can explorer,  born  in  Philadelphia  on  the  20th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1820.  He  was  the  son  of  Judge  John  K.  Kane. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  graduated  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1842,  on  which  occasion  he  wrote  an 
inaugural  thesis  on  "Kyestein."  In  1843  ^^  sailed  to 
China  with  Commodore  Parker,  as  surgeon  or  physician 
to  the  embassy.  He  visited  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Phil- 
ippine Isles,  and  was  impelled  by  his  adventurous  spirit 
into  several  perilous  enterprises.  In  1845  he  made  an 
excursion  to  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  ascended  the 
Nile  to  Nubia,  and  traversed  Greece  on  foot.  He  re- 
turned home  in  1846.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  in 
1847.  I"  May,  1850,  he  sailed  as  surgeon  to  the  expedi- 
tion which  Lieutenant  De  Haven  conducted  in  search  of 
Sir  John  Franklin.  He  published,  in  1854,  "The  United 
States  Grinnell  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin." He  commanded  a  second  expedition  sent  out  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  sailed  from  New  York  in  the 
Advance  in  May,  1853.  He  failed  to  find  any  traces  of 
Franklin,  returned  home  in  October,  1855,  and  related 
the  adventures  and  sufferings  of  his  party  in  his  "Arctic 
Explorations,"  (2  vols.,  1856.)  In  this  voyage  he  had 
discovered  the  existence  of  an  open  Polar  sea.  He  re- 
ceived a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
of  London.  To  recruit  his  failing  health,  he  made  a  voy- 
age to  England  in  October,  1856,  and  passed  thence  to  the 
West  Indies.     He  died  at  Havana  in  February,  1857. 

See  William  Elder,  "  Biography  of  Elisha  Kent  Kane,"  1858  ; 
SCHMUCKER,  "  Life  of  Elisha  Kent  Kane;"  "North  British  Review" 
for  February,  1857. 

Kane,  (Sir  Robert,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  chemist, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1810.  After  filling  professorships  in 
several  scientific  societies,  he  was  appointed  in  1849 
president  of  Queen's  College,  Cork.  He  had  previously 
been  knighted  by  the  lord  lieutenant.  He  wrote  various 
works  on  chemistry,  pharmacy,  etc.    Died  Feb.  16,  1890. 

Kane,  (Thomas  L.,)  a  general,  brother  of  Dr.  E.  K. 
Kane,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1822.  He  was  sent 
on  an  itnportant  mission  to  the  Mormon  insurgents  of 
Utah  in  1858.  He  was  wounded  in  a  battle  near  Har- 
risonburg, Virginia,  in  June,  1862.     Died  Dec.  26,  1883. 

Kanitz,  ki'nitz,  (August,)  a  Hungarian  botanist, 
born  at  Lugos,  April  25,  1843.  He  was  educated  at 
Vienna,  and  in  1872  became  professor  of  botany  in  the 
University  of  Clauseiiburg,  where  his  activity  as  a  scien- 
tific writer  has  been  very  remarkable. 

Kanjatoo,  Kandjatou,  or  Kanjatu,  k5n-jl-too', 
fifth  Mongol  sovereign  of  the  dynasty  of  Jengis  Khan, 
began  to  reign  over  Persia  a.d.  1291.     A  conspiracy 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  7;  G,  H,  K, giitttcral;  N.  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


jee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KANNE 


1420 


KA  0-TS  00-00  TEE 


having  been  formed  against  him  by  his  nobles,  lie  was 
killed  in  1295. 

Kanne,  kSn'neh,  (Johann  Arnold,)  a  learned  and 
eccentric  German  writer,  born  at  Detmold  in  1773, 
studied  philology  and  theology  at  Gottingen.  In  1818 
he  became  professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Erlangen, 
where  he  died  in  1824.  Among  his  various  works  we 
may  name  "Anthology  of  Greek  Epigrams,"  ("Florile- 
gium  Epigrammatum  Graecorum,")  "System  of  Indian 
Myths,"  and  "  Biblical  Researches." 

Kannegiesser,  kSn'neh-gees'ser,  (Goitlieb  IIein- 
Ricn,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Gotha  in  1712; 
died  at  Kiel  in  1792. 

Kannegiesser,  (Karl  Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar,  born  at  Wendemark  in  1781,  is  known  for 
his  numerous  and  excellent  translations  into  German. 
Among  these  are  the  dramas  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
Dante's  "Divine  Comedy,"  extracts  from  the  writings 
of  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael,  Mickiewicz,  and  other  cele- 
brated authors.  He  also  made  translations  from  Horace, 
Sappho,  and  Anacreon,  and  published  poems  and  several 
original  dramas,  among  them  two  entitled  "  Mirza"  and 
"Dorothea."     Died  at  Berlin,  September  14,  i85i. 

Kansa.     See  Krishna. 

Kant,  (Immanuel,)  one  of  the  profoundest  metaphy- 
sicians that  have  ever  lived,  the  founder  of  the  Critical 
(popularly  called  the  Transcendental)  school  of  philoso- 
phy in  Germany,  was  born  at  Konigsberg,  April  26,  1724. 
His  father  was  a  saddler,  and  is  said  to  have  been  of 
Scottish  extraction.  Both  his  parents  are  represented 
as  having  been  endued  with  a  severe  and  inflexible  vir- 
tue ;  and  to  the  influence  of  their  precept  and  example 
must  be  ascribed,  in  no  small  measure,  the  pure  moral 
character  and  that  profound  respect  for  moral  obliga- 
tion which  Kant  exhibited  through  the  whole  of  his 
life.  Having  gone  through  a  course  at  the  gymnasium, 
(the  Collegium  Fredericianum,)  he  entered  in  1740  the 
university  of  his  native  city.  Here  he  commenced  the 
study  of  theology,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for  other  pur- 
suits, and  devoted  his  attention  to  the  natural  sciences, 
mathematics,  and  philosophy.  On  leaving  the  -university 
he  maintained  himself  for  several  years  as  a  private  tutor. 
During  this  period  he  published  his  first  work,"  Thoughts 
on  the  True  Estimation  of  the  Living  Powers,"  ("  Ge- 
danken  von  der  wahren  Schatzung  der  lebendigen 
Krafte.")  About  1755  he  began  to  give  lectures  on 
logic,  physics,  metaphysics,  and  mathematics.  In  1762 
he  was  offered  the  professorship  of  poetry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Konigsberg  ;  but  he  declined  the  position,  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  not  the  proper  qualifications. 
He  had  already  established  his  reputation  as  an  original 
land  profound  thinker,  when  at  length,  in  1770,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
University  of  Konigsberg.  When  he  entered  upon  his 
professorship,  he  delivered  a  discourse  on  the  World  of 
the  Senses  and  that  of  the  Understanding,  ("  De  Mundi 
sensibilis  etintelligibilis  Forma  et  Principiis,")  containing 
the  germs  of  the  philosophical  system  which  he  after- 
wards developed  in  his  great  work  entitled  "Critique 
of  Pure  Reason,"  ("  Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft,")  first 
published  in  1781.  He  had  previously,  in  his  work  on 
"  Universal  Natural  History  and  Theory  of  the  Heavens," 
("Allgemeine  Naturgeschichte  und  Theorie  des  Him- 
mels,"  1755,)  in  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  anticipated 
the  discovery  of  the  planet  Uranus,  given  proof  of  his 
sagacity  in  questions  relating  to  physical  science.  Among 
his  various  other  works  may  be  named  "  Observations 
upon  the  Sentiment  of  the  Beautiful  and  Sublime," 
("  Beobachtungen  iiber  das  Gefuhl  des  Schonen  und  Er- 
habenen,"  1764,)  "Critique  of  Practical  Reason,"  ("  Kritik 
der  praktischen  Vernunft,"  1790,) — that  is,  reason  con- 
sidered in  its  anplication  to  our  moral  conduct, — "Cri- 
tique of  the  Faculty  of  Judging,"  ("Kritik  der  Urtheils- 
kraft,"  1793,)  and  his  essay  "  On  a  Plan  for  an  Everlasting 
Peace,"  ("xum  ewigen  Frieden,'" )  (1795.)  Kant  died 
February  12,  1804,  having  never,  it  is  said,  in  the  whole 
course  of  his  life  travelled  above  seven  miles  from  hid 
native  city.  Although  his  writings  embrace  a  great  va- 
riety of  subjects,  his  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his  achieve- 
ments as  a  metaphysician.    As  a  deep  and  close  thinker 


he  has  perhaps  never  been  equalle>...*  Our  limits  will 
not  permit  us  to  give  even  an  outline  of  the  Kantian 
system  of  philosophy,  which  could  only  be  rendered 
intelligible  in  an  extensive  treatise.  It  will  be  sufficient 
here  to  observe  that  Kant's  great  aim  was  to  determine 
the  laws  and  limits  of  the  intellect  of  man,  and  thus  to 
guard,  on  the  one  hand,  against  the  arrogant  dogmatism 
V)f  those  who  overestimate,  and,  on  the  other,  against 
the  absurd  skepticism  of  those  who  underestimate,  the 
powers  of  the  human  mind.  He  does  not  pretend  to 
have  made  any  important  discoveries  respecting  ques- 
tions which  belong  properly  to  religion,  (such,  for  ex- 
ample, as  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  moral  attributes 
of  the  Deity,  etc.,)  but  he  claims  that  the  great  points 
of  faith  are  not  only  undisturbed  by  his  system,  but  are 
rendered  more  secure  against  the  attacks  of  those  who 
use  their  reputation  for  philosophic  insight  to  give  weight 
to  arguments  against  religion,  in  questions  where,  from 
the  necessary  laws  of  the  human  intellect,  the  profoundest 
philosopher  can  know  no  more  than  the  great  mass  of 
mankind.  "  Only  by  this  means,"  (i.e.  by  a  critique 
determining  the  laws  and  limits  of  the  human  reason,) 
says  he,  "  can  the  roots  of  materialism,  fatalism,  atheism, 
.  .  .  be  cut  off;"  and  he  proposes  in  this  manner  "to 
make  an  end  for  all  future  time  of  all  objections  against 
morality  and  religion,  by  presenting  the  clearest  proofs 
of  the  ignorance  of  their  assailants."  It  is  claimed  by 
some  of  the  admirers  of  Kant  (indeed,  he  himself  sug- 
gested the  parallel)  that  he  performed  for  mental  phi- 
losophy a  service  similar  to  that  which  his  countryman 
Copernicus  performed  for  astronomy.  As  the  latter  may 
be  said  to  have  determined  the  relative  importance  as 
well  as  the  true  position  of  the  earth  in  the  solar  system, 
so  the  former  has  determined  the  proper  limits  and  true 
position  of  the  human  intellect  in  relation  to  the  objects 
of  knowledge  ;  and  as  Copernicus  has  demonstrated  that 
many  of  the  apparent  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
are  not  real,  but  caused  by  the  motion  of  the  earth,  (the 
standpoint  of  the  observer,)  so  Kant  has  shown  that 
many  mental  phenomena  are  to  be  explained,  not  by 
referring  them,  as  most  philosophers  have  done,  to  in- 
dependent external  causes,  but  to  those  essential  laws 
which  regulate  the  movements  of  the  mind  itself. 

For  an  excellent  popular  notice  of  the  influence  exerted 
by  Kant's  philosophy,  the  reader  is  referred  to  De  Quin- 
cey's  chapter  on  German  Literature  in  the  volume  of  his 
works  entitled  "Life  and  Manners."  He  will  also  find 
many  interesting  observations  on  Kant  and  his  writings 
in  Madame  de  Stael's  "Germany,"  Part  III.  chap.  vi. 

See,  also,  F.  Boutekwek,  "L  Kant,  eln  Denkmal,"  1804;  F. 
W.  Schubert,  "  I.  Kant's  Biographie,"  etc.,  1842;  Jachmann,  "I. 
Kant,  geschildert  in  Briefen,"  etc.,  1804;  Borowski,  "  Darstellung 
des  Lebens  und  Characters  I.  Kant's,"  1804;  F.  T.  Rinck,  "An- 
sichten  aiis  L  Kant's  Leben,"  1S05;  Amand  Saintes,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Vie  et  de  la  Philosophie  de  Kant,"  1844  ;  J.  Wii.lm,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Philosophie  Allemande  depuis  Kant  jusqii'a  Hegel,"  Paris, 
4  vols.,  1846  ;  M.  V.  Cousin,  "  KaiU  dans  les  derniferes  Anndes  de  sa 
Vie,"  1857;  Hasse,  "  Letzte  Aeussernngen  Kant's,"  1S04;  Wasi- 
anski,  "  Immannel  Kant,"  etc.,  1804;  F.  Hoefek,  article  in  th 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;''  Hedge,  "Prose  Writers  of  Ger 
many;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1827,  (by  De  QuiN- 
CEY,)  and  August,  1830;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1803. 

Kantacuzenus.     See  Cantacuzenus. 

Kantemir.     See  Cantemir. 

Kao-Tsoo  or  Kao-Tsou,  ki'o  tsoo,  the  name  of 
several  emperors  of  China,  of  whom  one  reigned  in  the 
seventh  and  two  others  in  the  tenth  century. 

Kao-Tsoong  or  Kao-Tsoung  (ki'o  tsoong)  I.,  of 
the  dynasty  of  Tang,  succeeded  his  father,  Thai-Tsoung, 
on  the  imperial  throne  of  China  about  648  a.d.  He  was 
a  wise  and  just  ruler,  and  enacted  many  good  laws. 
He  reduced  the  Khan  of  the  Turks  to  complete  subjec- 
tion.    Died  in  684. 

See  Mailla,  "Histoire  g^ni^rale  de  la  Chine;"  Pauthibr, 
"  Chine  ancienne." 

Kao-Tsoo-Ootee  or  Kao-Tsou-Outi,  ka'o-tsoo'oo'- 
tee,  called  also  Soong-Ootee  or  Soung-Outi,  soong- 
oo'te.  Emperor  of  China,  and  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 
Soong,  was  born  about  a.d.  355.     By  his  intrigues  and 

*  M.  Stapfer,  author  of  the  article  on  Kant  in  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  calls  him  "the  most  profoinid  thinker  with  whom  the 
history  of  the  human  mind  has  made  us  acquainted,"  ("  le  penseur 
le  plus  profond  que  nous  fasse  connaitre  I'histoire  de  I'esprit  hu- 
mam.") 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


KAPILA 


1421 


KARR 


military  skill  he  reduced  many  of  the  rival  chiefs  to 
subjection,  and,  after  putting  the  emperor  and  his  son 
to  death,  ascended  the  imperial  throne.     Died  in  422. 

Kap'i-la  or  Capila,  [Hindoo  pron.  kiip'i-la,]  an  In- 
dian philosopher,  regarded  as  an  avatar  of  Siva,  was 
thf!  founder  of  a  celebrated  sect  named  ^aakhya,  and  of 
a  philosophic  system  called  the  Sankhya  philosophy, 
supposed  to  have  been  the  germ  or  commencement  of 
Booddhism.  The  Sankhya  philosophy  was  a  system  of 
rationalism  pushed  to  the  borders  of  atheism.  (See 
Vasudeva.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale,"  under  "  Capila." 

Kapnist,  kJp'nist,  (Vasili  Vasilievitch,)  a  cele- 
brated lyric  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Russia  in  1756. 
His  translation  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  first  fixed  his 
reputation  as  a  man  of  letters.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  poet  Derzhavin,  and  a  member  of  the  Im- 
perial Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg.  Among  his  works 
are  the  comedy  of  "  labeda,"  and  an  "  Essay  upon  the 
Odyssey."     Died  in  1813. 

Kapodistria.    See  Capo  d'Istrias. 

Kapp,  kSp,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  author,  born  at 
Hamm,  in  Westphalia,  Ai:>ril  13,  1824.  He  became  a 
lawyer,  lived  in  New  York,  1850-70,  and  in  1872  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  German  Diet.  He  published, 
oartly  in  German,  "The  Slave  Question  in  the  United 
States,"  (1857,)  "  Life  of  Steuben,"  (1859,)  "  A  History  of 
Slavery  in  the  United  States,"  (i860,)  "A  History  of 
German  Migration  into  America,"  (1868,)  a  "  Life  of  John 
Kalb,"  (1870,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1884. 

Kara-George.     See  Czerni-George. 

Kara-Moustapha.     See  Cara-Mustafa. 

Kara-Yusuf.     See  Cara-Yoosef. 

Karajitch,  Karadjitch,  or  Karadschitsch,  ki-rS'- 
jitsh,  (VuK,)  a  learned  Servian,  born  near  Lasnitza  in 
1787.  Having  fled  to  Vienna  in  1813  to  escape  the  cruel- 
ties of  the  Turks,  his  attention  was  turned  to  the  national 
ballad-poetry  of  his  country,  said  to  exceed  hi  richness 
and  extent  that  of  almost  every  other  nation.  His 
collection  was  issued  in  Vienna  in  1814,  under  the  title 
of  "Servian  National  Songs."  He  published  a  Servian 
Grammar,  a  Servian-and-German  Dictionary,  and  various 
other  works.     Died  February  7,  1864. 

See  RowRiNG,  "Servian  Poetiy ;"  Jungmann,  "History  of  Bo- 
hemian Literature." 

Karamzin  or  Kai'amsin,  kS-rSm-zeen'  or  kS-rlm- 
zin',  (Nikolai  Mikhaelovitch,)  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  Russian  historians,  was  born  in  the  province  of 
Orenburg  in  December,  1765,  and  was  educated  in  Mos- 
cow. In  1789  he  commenced  a  tour  through  England, 
France,  Switzerland,  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  On 
his  return  he  published  "  Letters  of  a  Travelling  Rus- 
sian." He  afterwards  issued  various  literary  productions, 
which  were  written  in  a  finished  and  elegant  style.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  European  Messenger,"  a 
literary  journal.  In  1803  he  was  appointed  historiogra- 
pher of  Russia,  and  the  same  year  commenced  his  great 
work,  the  "  History  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  (11  vols., 
1815-24.)  He  did  not  live  to  finish  the  work,  which  ends 
about  the  year  16 10.  No  work  in  the  Russian  language 
has  obtained  greater  popularity.  The  first  edition,  of 
eight  volumes,  brought  the  author  100,000  rubles.  The 
emperor  Alexander  created  him  councillor  of  state  and 
knight  of  the  order  of  Saint  Anne  ;  and  after  the  death  of 
the  historian  his  widow  received  from  the  same  monarch 
an  annual  pension  of  50,000  rubles.  "  The  History  of 
the  Russian  Empire"  has  been  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Polish.     Died  in  May,  1826. 

See  Depping,  notice  of  Karamzin  in  the  "  R^vue  Encyclop^dique  ;" 
Prince  A.  Galitzin,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale  ;"  "  British  and  Foreign  Review"  for  September,  1828  :  "  Monthly 
Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix;)  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  September,  1828. 

Karasiu,  ka-rS'sin,  (Nicolai  Nikolayevitch,)  a 
Russian  soldier,  artist,  and  author,  born  in  1842.  His 
writings  include  various  novels  and  stories,  as  well  as 
some  ethnological  papers. 

Karburis.     See  Carburis. 

Karim  or  Kareem.     See  Kereem. 

Karl,  (Friedrich  Alexander,)  Prince  of  Prussia, 
a  German  field-marshal,  a  brother  of  the  Emperor  Wil- 
liam I.,  was  born  at  Charlottenburg,  June  29,  1801.    He 


held  prominent  commands  in  the  Austrian  war  of  1866 
and  in  the  French  war  of  1870-71.  Died  at  Berlin, 
January  21,  1883. 

Karl,  (Friedrich  August,)  Duke  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  born  at  Hanover  in  1785.  Having  distinguished 
himself  in  several  actions  against  the  French,  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  by  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1813. 
He  entered  Paris  at  the  head  of  the  royal  guard  in  1815. 
In  1825  he  became  a  general  of  infantry  and  president 
of  the  council  of  state.     Died  in  1837. 

Karl  Albrecht,  Elector  of  Bavaria.  See  Charles 
VII.,  Emperor. 

Karl  Alexander,  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  born  in  1684, 
was  the  successor  of  Ludwig  Eberhard.  He  was  an 
ally  of  the  emperor  Leopold  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Turin  in  1706,  defended  Landau  against  Marshal  Villars 
in  1 713,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  Died 
in  1737. 

Karl  der  Fiinfte.     See  Charles  V. 

Karl  der  Grosse.     See  Charlemagne. 

Karl  Eugen,  (oi-gan',)  or  Charles  Eugene,  a  son 
of  Karl  Alexander,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1728, 
and  became  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1737.  He  pro- 
moted commerce,  arts,  and  agriculture,  and  founded  the 
university  called  Carolina,  at  Stuttgart     Died  in  1793. 

Karloman.     See  Carloman. 

Karlstadt.     See  Carlstadt. 

Karmarscli,  kaR'maRsh,  (Karl,)  a  German  savant, 
and  director  of  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Hanover,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1803.  He  wrote  "  First  Sketches  of  Me- 
chanical Technology,"  and  other  scientific  works.  Died 
March  24,  1879. 

Karmat,  Karmath,  Carmath,  kaR'mit,  or  Kar- 
mathi,  kan'mS-tee,  called  also  Hamd^n,  hSm-dSn',  the 
founder  of  a  fanatical  and  numerous  sect  which  made 
great  ravages  in  the  Arabian  empire  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. He  attempted  to  establish  a  community  of  property, 
and  taught  a  contempt  for  religion  and  morality.  His 
followers  were  called  Karmatians  (Carmatians)  or  Kar- 
mattians.     Died  about  900  a.d. 

Karneades.     See  Carneades. 

Karnkowski,  kaRn-kov'skee,  written  also  Karn- 
cov,  kaRn'kov,  or  Karnowski,  (Stanislas,)  a  distin- 
guished prelate,  born  in  Poland  about  1525.  In  1581 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate  of 
Poland.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  and  a 
successful  promoter  of  reforms  among  the  priests.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Interregnum  in  Poland,"  and 
several  other  works.     Died  in  1603. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Kdroly,  ki'rol,  written  also  Karoli,  (Jasper,)  a 
Protestant  minister,  who  lived  in  Hungary  about  1580. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  philosophy, 
theology,  and  philology.  He  produced  a  valuable  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  from  the  original  Hebrew  into  the 
Hungarian,  (1589.) 

Karpinski,  kaR-pin'skee  or  kaR-pin'skee,  (FRANCls.y 
a  Polish  poet,  born  in  Galicia  about  1760.  He  wrote  a 
tragedy  entitled  "Judyta,"  and  a  number  of  popular 
songs  and  idyls.     Died  in  1823. 

Karpinski,  kar-pfen'skee,  (Hyacinth,)  a  Russian 
theological  writer,  born  in  Ukraine  in  1721 ;  died  in 
Moscow  in  1798. 

Karpocrates.     See  Carpocrates. 

Karr,  ktR,  (Jean  Baptiste  Alphonse,)  a  popular 
French  novelist,  born  at  Munich  in  1808,  was  a  son  of 
Henri  Karr,  a  pianist.  He  produced  in  1832  a  novel 
entitled  "  Sous  les  Tilleuls,"  in  which  the  public  admired 
the  mixture  of  irony  and  sentiment,  of  fancy  and  good 
sense.  About  1837  he  became  editor  of  the  "Figaro," 
and  of  a  satirical  monthly  periodical  called  "The  Wasps," 
("  Les  Guepes.")  Among  his  numerous  novels  are  "  Fa 
diese,"(i834,)  "Vendredi  Soir,"  (1835,)  and  "La  Famille 
Alain,"  (1848.)  He  also  wrote  an  ingenious  work  on 
flowers  and  gardens,  "  Voyage  autour  de  mon  Jardin," 
(2  vols.,  1845.)     Died  September  30,  1890. 

See  "Revile  des  Deux  Mondes,"  February,  1842;  Clement  db 
Rrs.  "  Portraits  A  la  Piume,"  1853  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May, 
1851,  and  February,  1S54;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1852; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 


:  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Yi^i^nttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jg^="See  P2xplanations,  p.  23.) 


KARSCH 


1422 


KA  UFMANN 


Karsch,  kaRsli,  or  Karschin,  kaRsh'!n,  (  Anna 
LuiSE,)  a  German  i)oetess,  whose  original  name  was 
DuRBACH,  was  born  near  Schwiebus  in  1722.  After 
living  a  long  time  in  poverty  and  obscurity,  she  visited 
Berlin,  where  she  was  patronized  by  Gleim  and  Men- 
delssohn. Her  "Select  Poems,"  published  in  1764,  were 
very  favourably  received,  and  procured  for  her  the  title 
of  "the  German  Sappho."     Died  in  1791. 

See  L.  VON  Ki.euke,  "  Lebenslauf  der  Karschin,"  1792;  HiR- 
SCHING,  "  Historiscli-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Kars'lake,  (Sir  John  Burgess,)  Q.C,  an  English 
lawyer  and  statesman,  born  at  Bencham,  near  Croydon, 
in  1821.  In  1S67  he  became  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed  solicitor- 
general,  in  which  capacity  he  also  acted  for  a  time  under 
Disraeli  in  1874,  but  was  compelled  to  resign  on  account 
of  failing  sight.     Died  in  London,  October  4,  1881. 

Karsten,  kaa'sten,  (Dietrich  Ludwig  Gustav,)  a 
German  mineralogist,  born  at  BUtzow  in  1768.  He  wrote 
many  able  treatises  on  mineralogy.     Died  in  1810. 

See  Leopold  VON  Buch,  "I.nbredeauf  Karsten,"  in  the  "Ab- 
handlungen  der  Berliner  Akadeniie,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Karsten,  (Franz  Christian  Lorenz,)  a  German 
agriculturist  and  writer,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Biitzow  in  1751  ;  died  in  1829. 

Karsten,  (Karl  Johann  Bernhard,)  an  eminent 
Prussian  mineralogist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Biitzow  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  privy  councillor  of 
mines  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1819.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  the  Carbonaceous  Substances  of 
the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1826,)  a  "  System  of  Metallurgy'," 
(5  vols.,  1832,)  a  "  Philosophy  of  Chemistry,"  (1843,)  and 
other  important  works.  In  his  peculiar  department  of 
science  Karsten  occupied  the  highest  rank.  Died  in  1853. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikou." 

K&rtikeya,  klR-tl-ka'ya,  written  less  correctly  Car- 
ticeya  or  Cartikiya,  otherwise  named  Skan'da,  a 
son  of  Siva  and  Parvati,  and  brother  of  Ganesa,  is  the 
Hindoo  god  of  war  and  commander  of  the  celestial  armies. 
He  is  sometimes  called  AgnibhOs  or  Agnibhu'va, 
("born  of  Agni"  or  Fire,)  Srimana,  and  many  other 
names.  One  of  his  greatest  exploits  was  the  destruction 
of  the  mighty  giant  Tripurasura,  who  had  acquired  such 
power  that  Indra  and  the  other  gods  trembled  for  their 
dominion. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kartikiya.     See  Kartikeya. 

Ka.shyapa.     See  Kasyapa. 

Kassiopeia.     See  Cassiopeia. 

Kas'son,  (John  Adams,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  near  Burlington,  Vermont,  January  11,  1822.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1842,  and 
became  a  lawyer.  Having  removed  to  Iowa,  he  was 
made  first  assista^it  postmaster-general  under  President 
Lincoln  in  1861,  was  United  States  postal  commissioner 
to  Europe,  and  signed  postal  conventions  with  nearly 
every  important  nation  in  Europe,  was  a  Republican 
memberof  the  Thirty-Eighth,  Thirty-Ninth,  Forty-Third, 
Forty-Fourth,  Forty-Seventh,  and  Forty-Eighth  Con- 
gresses, and  served  as  United  States  envoy  and  minister 
to  Austria-Hungary,  1877-81.  He  went  to  Germany  as 
United  States  minister  in  1884. 

Kastner  or  Kaestner,  kgst'ner,  (Abraham  Gott- 
helf,)  an  eminent  German  matheinatician,  astronomer, 
and  poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  September,  17 19.  He  be- 
came assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  Leipsic  in 
1746,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  physics 
at  Gottingen  in  1756.  In  1762  he  succeeded  Tobias 
Mayer  as  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Gottingen.  He 
wrote,  besides  numerous  works  on  mathematics  and 
astronomy,  and  witty  e])igrams,  a  "  History  of  Mathe- 
matics from  the  Revival  of  Science  to  the  End  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (in  German,  4  vols.,  1796-1800.) 
Died  in  June,  1800. 

See  "Vita  Kaestneri,"  by  himself,  Leipsic,  1787;  Kirsten,  "De 
A.  G.  Ksestnero,"  1787 ;  C.  G.  Heyne,  "  Elogium  Kaestneri,"  1801 ; 
"Nouvelle  Biograpnie  G^n^rale." 

Kastner,  kist'n^r,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Gottlob,)  a 
German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Greifenberg, 
in   Pomerania,  in  1783.     In  1821  he  was   professor  of 


chemistry  and  medicine  at  Erlangen.  He  wrote,  among 
other  treatises,  "  Outlines  of  Physics  and  Chemistry," 
(1821,)  and  a  "Manual  of  Meteorology,"  (3  vols.,  1823- 
30.)     Died  in  1857. 

Kas'ya-pa  or  Casyapa,  (modern  Hindoo  pron. 
kus'ya-pa,)  [etymology  obscure  ;  perhaps  from  the  San- 
scrit kas  or  kijf,  to  "shine,"]  written  also  Kashyapa 
and  Kagyapa,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
a  celebrated  sage  (Rishi)  or  demi-god,  the  father  (by 
Aditi)  of  the  Suras,  including  Indra,  and  (by  Diti)  of 
the  Asuras,  or  giants. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Monier  Williams,  "Transla- 
tion of  Sakoontala."  (by  Kalidasa.) 

Kasyapa,  kSs'ya-pa,  called  also  Kan'a-da,  a  cele- 
brated Hindoo  sage  or  philosopher,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  Hindoo 
logicians.  He  founded  the  atomistic  philosophy  called 
"  vaiseshika." 

Kate,  Ten,  t§n  ki'teh,  (Jan  Jakob  Lodewyk,)  a 
Dutch  clergyman,  born  at  the  itague,  December  23, 
1 819.  He  was  educated  at  Utrecht,  and  became  a  pastor 
at  Amsterdam.  Besides  eight  volumes  of  poems,  largely 
religious,  he  published  many  translations  from  foreign 
languages,  and  a  number  of  scientific  works  having  a 
religious  tone. 

Kate,  Ten,  tSn  ki'teh,  (Lambert,)  a  Dutch  clergyman, 
who  lived  about  1720.  He  is  known  for  his  valuable 
grammar  of  the  Dutch  language,  (Amsterdam,  1723.)  He 
also  wrote  "On  the  Connection  between  the  Gothic  and 
Dutch  Languages,"  and  a  "Life  of  Jesus  Christ." 

See  Sax,  "Onomasticon." 

Ka'ter,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  a  skilful  mathematician, 
born  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1777,  was  educated  in  the 
Royal  Military  College  in  Sandhurst.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  investigations  of  the  principles  of  reflect- 
ing telescopes  ;  for  his  experiments  to  determine  the 
exact  length  of  the  seconds-pendulum  ;  for  his  important 
advice  and  improvements  on  measures  and  weights  ;  and 
especially  for  his  invention  of  the  floating  collimator,  an 
instrument  for  adjusting  the  telescope.  In  1814,  when 
the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  visited  England,  Kater 
was  decorated  by  him  with  the  order  of  Saint  Anne. 
He  wrote  several  mathematical  treatises.     Died  in  1835. 

Katona,  kot'o-noh,  (Stephen,)  an  eminent  Hungarian 
scholar  and  historian,  was  born  at  Papa  in  1732,  and 
became  a  Jesuit  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  He  afterwards 
filled  the  chairs  of  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  history  in  the 
University  of  Buda.  Died  in  181 1.  His  chief  produc- 
tion is  a  History  of  Hungary,  written  in  Latin,  ("  Historia 
critica  Regum  Stirpis  Austriacae,"  41  vols.,  ijg^  ei  se^.) 
This  is  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  and  accurate 
work  upon  the  subject.  It  closes  with  the  year  1801. 
Katona  was  also  the  author  of  several  other  historical 
works,  in  the  Latin  and  Hungarian  languages. 

See  G.  Fejer,  "  Memoria  S.  Katonas,"  1812. 

Katt,  von,  fon  kat,  a  Prussian  officer,  born  in  1681, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Prince  Frederick,  afterwards 
Frederick  the  Great.  For  having  aided  him  in  his 
attempt  to  escape  to  England,  Katt  was  executed  before 
the  prison- windows  of  the  prince,  in  1730. 

Kauer,  kovv'er,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  musical  com- 
poser, born  in  Moravia  in  175 1.  His  works,  amounting 
in  all  to  nearly  two  hundred,  consist  of  church  music, 
operas,  symphonies,  concertos,  etc.     Died  in  1 831. 

Katiffmann,  kowf'man,  (  Maria  Angelica,  )  the 
daughter  of  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Coire,  in 
Switzerland,  about  1741.  After  studying  painting  in 
Italy,  she  went  under  the  patronage  of  Lady  Wentworth 
to  England,  where  in  a  short  time  she  gained  consider- 
able celebrity  in  her  art.  Her  popularity  was  probably 
as  much  due  to  her  accomplished  manners  and  her  supe- 
rior education  as  to  any  excellence  which  she  possessed 
as  an  artist.  In  1781  she  was  married  to  Antonio  Zucchi, 
a  Venetian  painter,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Italy  in 
the  following  year.  She  still  retained  her  maiden  name 
of  Kauffmann.     Died  at  Rome  in  1807. 

See  G.  DE  Rossi,  "  Vita  di  Angelica  Kauifmann,"  1810 ;  A.  Fr. 
L60N  DE  Wailly,  "Angelica  Kauffmann,"  Paris,  3  vols.,  1838; 
Konijnenburg,  "  Kunstverdiensten  van  A.  Kauffrnann  en  Raphael," 
1810;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gi^n^rale." 

Kaufmann,  kowf  mSii,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 


a. e, T, 6, u,  y, /<7«f ; i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,i,6,u,^,sAor(;  3.,e,  j,  o, obscure;  tar,  fill,  fdt;met;  nflt;go6d;  moon; 


KA  UFMANN 


1423 


KA  YSER 


man  mechanician,  born  at  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony,  in  1751, 
was  the  inventor  of  several  very  ingenious  instruments, 
among  which  was  a  flute-  and  harp-clock,  (Floten-  itnd 
Harfenuhr,)  which  was  purchased  by  the  Elector  Fred- 
erick Augustus.  Died  in  1818.  His  son  Frederick, 
born  in  1785,  invented  the  automaton  trumpeter  and 
other  similar  works.     Died  in  1866. 

Kaufmann,  von,  fon  kowFmSn,  (Konstantin  Pe- 
TROVITCH,)  a  Russian  general,  born  at  Maidani,  February 
19,  (O.S.,)  181 8.  He  entered  the  army  as  an  officer  of 
engineers  in  1839,  and  obtained  promotion  slowly,  though 
distinguished  for  valour.  In  1867  he  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  Turkestan,  where  he  made  impor- 
tant conquests  and  in  other  ways  extended  the  Russian 
influence.  In  1874  he  was  made  engineer-general  of 
the  army.  He  is  charged  with  having  acted  with  extreme 
cruelty  towards  the  conquered  people  of  Turkestan. 
Died  at  Tashkent,  May  15,  1882. 

Kaulbach,  kowl'bJK,  (Wii.helm,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  painters  of  recent  times,  was  born  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Waldeck,  Germany,  in  1805.  Though  destined 
by  his  father  to  be  an  artist,  he  showed  little  inclination 
for  painting,  until  a  collection  of  engravings  illustrating 
Schiller's  tragedies  fell  into  his  hands  and  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  his  genius.  He  began  his  studies  under 
Cornelius  at  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf  about  1822,  and 
in  1829  finished  his  picture  of  the  "  Mad-House,"  ("  Irren- 
haus,")  a  work  displaying  such  originality  and  power  as 
entitled  him  at  once  to  a  place  among  great  painters. 
About  this  time  he  executed  the  frescos  of  "Apollo  and 
the  Muses,"  in  the  Odeon,  and  "  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  in 
the  palace  of  Duke  Max,  at  Munich.  In  1837  he  com 
pleted  his  "  Battle  of  the  Huns,"  founded  on  the  tradition 
of  the  combat  before  the  gates  of  Rome,  between  the 
Romans  and  the  spirits  of  the  Huns  who  were  slain, 
which,  rising  in  the  air,  continued  the  fight.  This  won- 
derful production,  so  strange  and  unique  in  its  character, 
was  received  with  general  applause,  and  is  justly  re- 
garded as  a  miracle  of  art.  His  second  great  historical 
piece,  "The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,"  was 
finished  in  1838;  and  a  copy  of  it,  executed  in  oil  at  the 
request  of  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place  in  the  Pinakothek.  Kaulbach  also  illustrated, 
somewhat  in  the  style  of  Hogarth,  Schiller's  "Criminal 
from  Lost  Honour,"  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  and  "  Renard  the 
Fox,"  ("  Reineke  Fuchs :")  the  last  displays  exquisite 
humour.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  works,  he  painted 
a  number  of  portraits,  and  furnished  illustrations  for 
Shakespeare  and  other  poets.  Kaulbach  excelled  in  the 
highest  qualities  of  his  art,  and  was  eminently  successful 
in  blending  in  .Sis  style  the  ideal  and  symbolic  with  the 
real.  He  was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Munich, 
and  a  member  of  nearly  all  the  similar  institutions  of 
Europe.     Died  April  7,  1874. 

See  A.  Raczinski,  "  Histoive  de  I'Art  moderne  en  Allemagne  ;" 
H.  FoRTOUL,  "De  I'Art  en  Allemagne;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^ndrale." 

Kaunitz,  von,  fon  kow'nits,  (Wenzel  Anton,) 
Prince,  a  celebrated  Austrian  statesman  and  diploma- 
tist, born  at  Vienna  in  February,  17 11.  After  travelling 
in  England,  France,  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  aulic  councillor,  (1735.)  On  the 
accession  of  Maria  Theresa  he  was  made  in  1745  minis- 
ter-plenipotentiary to  Charles  of  Lorraine,  Governor  of 
the  Netherlands.  Ii>  1748  he  was  a  member  of  the  Peace 
Congress  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  was  soon  after  created 
minister  of  state  and  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
Having  been  sent  as  ambassador  to  France  in  1750,  he 
negotiated  the  secret  alliance  between  that  country  and 
Austria.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  chancellor  of 
state  and  chancellor  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  He 
enjoyed  the  unbounded  confidence  of  the  empress,  to 
whose  service  he  was  devoted,  and  the  principal  measures 
of  her  government  are  to  be  ascribed  to  his  influence. 
He  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  reforms 
of  Joseph  II.  The  court  of  Rome,  offended  by  these 
innovations,  called  Kaunitz  "the  heretical  minister," 
("  il  ministro  eretico.")  For  a  long  time  he  was  consid- 
ered as  the  oracle  of  diplomacy,  and  exercised  such  an 
influence  over  the  direction  of  affairs  that  he  was  jest- 
ingly called  "The  Coachman  of  Europe."    Kaunitz  was 


a  generous  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts,  and  was 
himself  an  accomplished  scholar.     Died  in  1794. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  Grimm,  "Correspon- 
dance;"  Obermayer,  "Trailer  am  Grabe  des  W.  A.  Fursten  von 
Kaunitz,"  1794;  "Nouvelle  Hiographie  Gdndrale." 

Kaup,  kow]},  (JoHANN  Jakob,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Darmstadt,  April  10,  1803  ;  died  July  4,  1873. 

Kausler,  von,  fon  kows'ler,  (Franz,)  a  German 
officer  and  military  writer,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1794, 
served  in  the  campaigns  against  the  French  from  1812 
to  1815.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Wars  of  all 
Nations  and  Times,"  (5  vols.,  1826-32,)  and  a  "  Life  of 
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,"  {2  vols.,  1839.)     Died  in  1848. 

Kautz,  kawts,  (August  Valentin,)  an  American 
soldier,  was  born  at  Ispringen,  Baden,  January  5,  1828,  and 
in  that  year  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  Ohio.  He  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1S52.  During  the  war  of  1861-65 
he  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  for  a  time  commanded  the  cavalry-division  of  the 
Army  of  the  James.  He  published  "  The  Company 
Clerk,"  (1863,)  "Customs  of  Service  for  Non-Commis- 
sioned  Officers  and  Soldiers,"  (1864,)  and  "Customs  of 
Service  for  Army  Officers,"  (1866.) 

Kav'a-naugh,  (Hubbard  Hinde,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
bishop,  born  in  Clark  county,  Kentucky,  January  14, 
1802,  became  a  preacher  in  1823,  and  in  1854  a  bishop, 
being  connected  with  the  Southern  branch  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church.  Died  at  Columbus,  Mississippi, 
March  19,  1884. 

Kavanagli,  ktv'a-nia,  (Julia,)  a  distinguished  writer 
of  tales  and  romances,  born  in  the  county  of  Tippe- 
rary,  Ireland,  in  1824.  In  1S48  she  published  "Made- 
leine," a  tale  from  real  life,  which  was  very  successful, 
and  her  romance  of  "Nathalie"  (1851)  was  still  more 
admired.  She  also  wrote  a  biographical  work  entitled 
"  Woman  in  France  during  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1850.)  Her  writings  are  remarkable  for  theii 
beautiful  delineation  of  character  and  graceful  simplicity 
of  style.     She  died  October  28,  1877. 

Kay,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  was  the  first  that  re- 
ceived in  England  the  title  of  poet-laureate.  He  flourished 
about  1480. 

Kay,  (John,)  a  miniature-painter  and  engraver,  born 
near  Dalkeith,  in  Scotland,  in  1742.  For  several  years 
he  gained  a  livelihood  as  a  barber  in  Edinburgh ;  but, 
having  exhibited  a  talent  for  sketching,  he  was  assisted 
by  a  wealthy  gentleman,  that  he  might  devote  himself 
entirely  to  art.  His  paintings  were  distinguished  for 
their  correct  and  exact  likeness  to  the  original.  He 
etched  about  nine  hundred  plates,  which  contained  por- 
traits of  the  distinguished  or  eccentric  personages  of 
Edinburgh  at  that  date.  These  were  published,  under 
the  title  of  "Kay's  Edinburgh  Portraits."    Died  in  1826. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kay  or  Key,  ki,  (Willem,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter,  born  in  Breda  in  1520.  Of  his  most  admired 
productions  we  may  mention  a  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Granvelle,  and  a  large  painting  in  which  the  chief  magis- 
trates of  Antwerp  were  introduced  of  the  size  of  life. 
Died  in  1568. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kay-Shuttleworth,shut'tel-worth, (Sir  James  Phil- 
lips,) an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1804.  He  was  noted  for 
his  activity  in  advancing  the  interests  of  public  schools. 
For  several  years  he  held  the  office  of  secretary  to  the 
committee  of  the  privy  council  on  education.    Died  1877. 

Kaye.     See  Caius. 

Kaye,  ka,  (John,)  an  Englisl  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1 783, 
became  Bishop  of  Lincoln  about  1827.     Died  in  1853. 

Kaye,  (John  William,)  an  English  historical  writer, 
born  in  London  about  1814.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  War  in  Affghanistan,"  (1851,) 
a  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Malcolm,"  (1856,)  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Sepoy  War,"  (1866.)     Died  July  24,  1876. 

Kayser,  ki'zer,  (Karl  Philipp,)  a  German  Latii 
scholar,  born  at  Enzisheim,  November  18,  1773;  died 
November  18,  1827. 

Kayser,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German  scholar,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Heidelberg,  February  3, 
1808.    He  was  distinguished  alike  as  a  Homeric  scholar 


€as/6;  9as.f;  gkard;  gasj;  G,H.K,^iiura/;  N, nasal;  Yi,trilled;  sass;  thasin^/^/j.     (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.* 


KA  YSERLING 


1424 


KEATS 


and  philologist  and  as  a  musical  genius.  Died  May  i, 
1872. 

Kayserling,  kl'zer-llng,  (Moses,)  a  Hebrew  preaclier 
and  author,  was  born  at  Hanover,  Germany,  June  17, 
1829.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin,  and  was  (1861-70) 
chief  rabbi  of  the  Swiss  Jews,  removing  in  1870  to  Pesth. 
His  works  include  "  Romantic  Poetry  of  the  Jews  of 
Spain,"  (1859,)  "  History  of  the  Jews  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal," (i860,)  "  History  of  the  Jews  of  England,"  (1861,) 
"Life  of  Moses  Mendelssohn,"  (1862,)  etc. 

Kazinczy,  koz'int-se,  (Francis,)  a  Hungarian  noble- 
man, distinguished  for  his  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  his  country,  was  born  at  Er-Semlyn  in  1759. 
He  devoted  his  attention  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Hungarian  language,  which  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  was 
attempting  to  extirpate.  This  dialect  had  then  partially 
fallen  into  disuse,  and  many  terms  to  express  modern 
significations  were  required  to  be  added  in  order  to  give 
it  a  reasonable  degree  of  completeness.  To  effect  this, 
Kazinczy  translated  numerous  works  from  the  French, 
German,  and  English,  adding  words  where  the  original 
Hungarian  was  deficient.  In  this  undertaking  he  appears 
to  have  been  eminently  successful.  In  1 78S  he  established 
the  first  Hungarian  magazine,  entitled  "  Magyar  Mu- 
zeum,"  and  two  years  later  commenced  the  "  Orpheus." 
In  1794  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  and 
condemned  to  death.  This  sentence,  however,  was  com- 
muted to  imprisonment,  and  after  the  expiration  of  about 
six  years  he  regained  his  liberty.  He  wrote  various 
poems,  and  several  works  in  prose.  Died  of  cholera 
in  1 83 1. 

Kazwyny,  (Zacharia  Ben  Mohammed.)  See  Caz- 

WEENEE. 

Keach,  keech,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1640.  After  the  resto- 
ration he  was  bitterly  persecuted  on  account  of  the 
principles  which  he  had  advanced  in  his  writings.  He 
preached  some  years  in  London  after  1668.  The  most 
important  of  his  works  are  the  "  Key  to  open  Scripture 
Metaphors,"  (1682,)  and  "Exposition  of  the  Parables," 
(1704.)  He  also  wrote  two  works  in  imitation  of  Bunyan, 
viz.,  "Travels  of  True  Godliness,"  and  "Travels  of  Un- 
godliness."    Died  in  1704. 

See  Crosby,  "History  of  the  Baptists." 

Kean,  (Charles  J.,)  a  distinguished  actor,  the  son 
of  Edmund  Kean,  was  born  in  Waterford,  Ireland,  in 
1811,  and  studied  at  Eton.  He  made  several  visits  to 
America,  the  last  of  which  was  in  1866.  About  1846  he 
became  the  manager  of  the  Princess's  Theatre,  London, 
to  the  popularity  of  which  he  contributed  greatly  by  the 
introduction  of  the  most  admirable  machinery,  such  as 
had  never  before  been  exhibited  to  the  British  public. 
He  was  also  employed  to  superintend  the  royal  theatri- 
cals at  Windsor  Castle.  Died  in  London,  January  22, 
1868.     (See  his  "  Life,"  by  J.  W.  Cole.) 

Kean,  (Edmund,)  a  celebrated  tragedian,  born  in 
London  about  1787.  He  was  the  son  of  an  actress 
named  Ann  Carey,  and,  while  very  young,  was  brought 
upon  the  stage  to  play  those  parts  in  which  children 
were  represented.  In  this  capacity  he  performed  before 
George  HI.  at  Windsor  Castle,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction 
of  that  monarch.  In  1814  he  first  appeared  at  Drury 
Lane  Theatre,  in  the  character  of  "  Shylock,"  with  such 
distinguished  success  that  he  not  only  fully  established 
his  own  fame,  but  also  retrieved  the  declining  popularity 
of  the  theatre.  He  afterwards  visited  America,  where 
he  remained  two  years.  Died  in  1833.  As  a  tragedian 
Kean  is  considered  not  inferior  to  any  one  that  has  ap- 
peared on  the  English  stage.  His  remarkable  success 
was  owing  to  his  great  application  in  the  study  of  his 
characters  and  the  intensity  of  passion  which  he  threw 
into  them.  He  especially  excelled  in  his  representations 
of  "Shylock,"  "Othello,"  and  "Richard  IH." 

See  Procter,  "Life  of  E.  Kean,"  1835;  F.  W.  Hawkins,  "Life 
uf  Edmund  Kean;"  Oxbbrrv,  "  Dramatic  Biography." 

Kean,  (Ellen,)  known  also  by  her  maiden  and  pro- 
fessional name  of  Ellen  Tree,  an  excellent  actress, 
both  in  tragedy  and  comedy,  the  wife  of  Charles  J.  Kean. 
She  was  born  in  London  in  1805,  first  appeared  upon 
the  stage  in  1823,  was  married  in  1842,  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1868,  and  died  August  20,  1880. 


Keane,  keen,  (John,)  Lord,  a  celebrated  British 
general,  was  born  at  Belmont,  in  the  county  of  Water- 
ford,  in  1 781.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  thirteen. 
In  1799  he  was  promoted  to  the  grade  of  captain,  and 
was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  Earl  Cavan  in  Egypt. 
In  1812  he  served  as  colonel  in  Spain  under  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  was 
present  at  the  engagements  of  Vitoria,  Toulouse,  and 
other  important  battles.  He  was  subsequently  sent  to 
America,  where,  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  January,  1815. 
In  1833  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  forces  of 
Bombay,  and  in  1838  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
British  army  sent  against  the  Afghans.  In  1839  he  be- 
sieged the  fortress  of  Ghuznee,  which  had  been  regarded 
as  impregnable,  and  which  was  garrisoned  with  31500 
men,  well  supplied  with  all  the  munitions  of  war.  The 
place  was,  however,  taken  by  assault  in  forty-eight  hours, 
with  a  loss  of  only  two  hundred  on  the  side  of  the  British. 
For  this  victory  General  Keane  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Keane  of  Ghuznee.    Died  in  1844. 

Keane,  (John  Joseph,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at  Bal- 
lyshannon,  Ireland,  September  12,  1839,  came  in  boy- 
hood to  Baltimore,  was  educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
institutions  of  Maryland,  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1866, 
and  in  1878  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia. 

Kearney  or  Kearny,  kar'ne,  (Philip,)  an  able 
American  general,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  June, 
1815.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  by  the  government  to 
study  the  French  cavalry  tactics  about  1838.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  captain  in  1846,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  lost  his  left  arm  near  Mexico  in  1847.  Having 
resigned  his  commission  in  1851,  he  passed  several  years 
in  Europe,  and  served  in  the  French  army  at  Solferino, 
(1859.)  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union 
army  in  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battles 
of  Williamsburg,  May  5,  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  White  Oak 
Swamp,  June  30,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  In 
the  month  last  named  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chantilly, 
September  i,  1862. 

iSZearny,  (Stephen  Watts,)  a  major-general  in  the 
United  States  army,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1794.  He  entered  the  army 
as  lieutenant  in  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Queenstown.  Promoted  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Mexican  war  in 
1846,  he  marched  westward  from  the  Arkansas,  con- 
quered New  Mexico,  and  established  a  provisional  gov- 
ernment at  Santa  Fe.  He  was  brevetted  major-general 
for  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  San  Pasqual,  December 
3,  1846.  In  the  following  spring  he  was  for  some  time 
Governor  of  California.     Died  in  1848. 

Kear'y,  (Annie,)  an  English  author,  born  at  Bilton, 
in  Yorkshire,  March  3,  1825,  the  daughter  of  a  clergy- 
man of  Irish  birth.  She  published  "tastle  Daly,"  "A 
Doubting  Heart,"  "  Clemency  Franklyn,"  and  other 
novels,  besides  tales  and  verse  for  children,  and  "Heroes 
of  Asgard,"  a  work  on  Norse  mythology.  She  was  of 
a  deeply  religious  nature.  Died  at  Eastbourne,  March 
3.  1879. 

Keate,  keet,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1729.  During  his  travels  on  the 
continent  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Voltaire,  with 
whom  he  was  a  correspondent  for  a  long  time.  Of  his 
works  we  may  mention  the  poems  of  "Ancient  and  Modern 
Rome,"  (1760,)  and  "The  Alps,"  (1763.)  He  compiled  an 
account  of  the  "  Pelew  Islands"  (1788)  from  manuscripts 
placed  in  his  hands  by  Captain  Wilson.     Died  in  1797. 

Keat'ing,  (Geoffrey,)  D.D.,  a  Catholic  priest  and 
historical  writer,  was  born  in  Tipperary,  Ireland,  about 
1600.  His  chief  production  is  a  "History  of  Ireland 
from  the  Time  that  it  was  Planted  after  the  Flood  until 
the  Seventeenth  Year  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  II."  This 
work,  which  is  replete  with  fables  and  traditions,  was 
translated  from  the  Irish  by  Dermot  O'Connor,  and 
published  in  London,  in  1738. 

Keats.  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1795  or  1796,  and  educated  in  the  classics  at 
Enfield.     He  published  his  first  poems  in  181 7,  at  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fjll,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KEATS 


1425 


KEIL 


recommendation  of  Leigh  Hunt.  His  "  Endymion," 
which  appeared  soon  after,  was  severely  criticised  by 
Gifford  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review."  As  Keats  was  of  a 
very  sensitive  disposition,  it  is  supposed  that  this  criti- 
cism aggravated  the  disease  under  which  he  was  suffer- 
ing. He  died  in  1821  at  Rome,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
reside  on  account  of  his  health.  The  poetry  of  Keats, 
though  exhibiting  a  vivid  perception  of  the  beautiful,  and 
great  powers  of  fancy,  is  deficient  in  intensity  and  force  ; 
and  his  celebrity  is  perhaps  to  be  attributed  as  much  to 
the  circumstances  attending  his  early  death  as  to  his 
poetical  abilities.  Besides  the  "Endymion,"  we  may 
mention,  as  among  the  most  important  of  his  works, 
"Hyperion,"  "Lamia,"  and  "Isabella." 

"We  had  never  happened,"  says  I,ord  Jeffrey,  "to 
see  either  of  these  volumes  ["Endymion"  and  "The 
Eve  of  Saint  Agnes"]  till  very  lately,  and  have  been 
exceedingly  struck  with  the  genius  they  display,  and  the 
spirit  of  poetry  which  breathes  through  all  their  extrava- 
gance. .  .  .  Mr.  Keats,  we  understand,  is  still  a  very 
young  man ;  and  his  whole  works,  indeed,  bear  evidence 
enough  of  the  fact.  They  are  full  of  extravagance  and 
irregularity,  rash  attempts  at  originality,  interminable 
wandeiings,  and  excessive  obscurity.  They  manif^estly 
require,  therefore,  all  the  indulgence  that  can  be  claimed 
for  a  first  attempt ; — but  we  think  it  no  less  plain  that 
they  deserve  it ;  for  they  are  flushed  all  over  with  the 
rich  lights  of  fancy,  and  so  coloured  and  bestrewn  with 
the  flowers  of  poetry,  that,  even  while  perplexed  and  be- 
wildered in  their  labyrinths,  it  is  impossible  to  resist  the 
intoxication  of  their  sweetness,  or  to  shut  our  hearts  tc 
the  enchantments  they  so  lavishly  present."  ("Edin- 
burgh Review'"  for  August,  1820.) 

See  Richard  Monckton  Milnes,  "Life,  Letters,  and  Literal v 
Remains  of  John  Keats,"  2  vols.,  1848;  "Quarterly  Review"  foi 
April,  1818;  "Westminster  Revievkf"  for  January,  1849;  "AtUntic 
Monthly"  tor  January,  1861  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1821). 

Keats,  (Sir  Richard  Goodwin,)  an  English  admiral, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1757.  In  1778  he  was  promoted  to 
a  lieutenancy  in  the  ninety-eight-gun  ship  Prince  George, 
where  the  Duke  of  Clarence  (afterwards  William  IV.) 
was  placed  under  his  command.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  Americans  and  the  French.  In  1782 
he  received  a  cominander's  commission,  and  in  1807 
became  rear-admiral.     Died  in  1834. 

Keble,  kee'bel  or  kee^b'l,  (John,)  an  English  divine 
and  poet  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Fairford,  in  Glou- 
cestershire, on  the  25th  of  April,. 1792.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  elected  a  Fellow  of  Oriel  College  about  1810, 
and  ordained  a  priest  in  1816,  soon  after  which  date  he 
left  the  university.  For  twenty  ensuing  years  he  was 
employed  as  his  father's  curate  at  Fairford.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  John  Henry  Newman,  and  one  of  the? 
leaders  of  the  Tractarian  movement  in  favour  of  High- 
Church  doctrines,  or  Puseyism.  According  to  Dr.  New- 
man, Keble  was  the  primary  author  of  this  movement. 
In  1827  he  published  "The  Christian  Year:  Thoughts 
in  Verse  for  the  Sundays  and  Holidays  throughout  the 
Year,"  which  obtained  almost  unbounded  popularity, 
and  passed  through  fifty  editions  or  more.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  1833,  and 
became  vicar  of  Hursley  in  1835.  About  this  time  he 
married  Charlotte  Clarke.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Tracts 
for  the  Times,"  (1834-36,)  and  published  a  number  of 
sermons.  Among  his  popular  works  is  "Lyra  Innocen- 
tium:  Thoughts  in  Verse  on  Christian  Children,  theii 
Ways  and  Privileges,"  (1846.)  "To  English  church 
people  without  number,"  says  the  "  North  British  Re- 
view," "'The  Christian  Year'  has  long  been  not  only  a 
cherished  classic,  but  a  sacred  book,  which  they  place 
beside  their  Bible  and  their  Prayer-Book.  .  .  .  Popularity 
is  no  word  to  express  the  fact  that  this  book  has  been 
for  years  the  cherished  companion,  in  their  best  moods, 
of  numbers  of  the  best  men,  of  the  most  diverse  charac- 
ters and  schools,  who  have  lived  in  our  time."  Died  in 
March,  1866. 

See  Sir  John  T.  Coleridge,  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  John  Keble," 
1869;  "North  British  Review"  for  September,  1866;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  April  and  July,  1869;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1867;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1869. 

Keble,  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer  upon  law,  born 
in  London  about  1632;  died  in  17 10.     Of  his  numerous 


works  we  may  cite  "An  Explanation  of  the  Laws  against 
Recusants,"  (1681.) 

Keckermann,  k?k'ker-m5n',  (Bartholomaus,)  a 
learned  German  writer  on  science,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1571.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Systema  Ethi- 
cum,"  (1610,)  and  "Systema  Mathematices,"  (1617.) 
Died  in  1609. 

Ked'die,  (Henrietta,)  a  British  author,  known  by 
the  pseudonym  of  Sarah  Tytler.  She  was  born  in 
1827.  She  published  the  novels  "  Daj's  of  Yore,"  (1864,) 
"  Citoyenne  Jacqueline,"  (1865,)  "Noblesse  Oblige," 
(1869,)  and  various  other  tales,  besides  hand-books  on 
art  and  literature,  and  didactic  books  for  girls. 

Keder,  kil'der,  (Nils  or  Nicholas,)  a  Swedish  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Stockholm  in  1659.  He  wrote  his  auto- 
biography, and  several  treatises  upon  the  ancient  medals 
of  the  North.     He  was  ennobled  in  17 19.    Died  in  1735. 

Ked'ney,  (John  Steinfort,)  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Bloomfield,  New  Jersey,  February 
12,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1838,  and 
at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York  in 
1841,  and  took  priest's  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  1843.  I"  1871  be  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
Seabury  Divinity  School  at  Faribault,  Minnesota.  His 
principal  works  are  "  Catawba  River,  and  other  Poems," 
(1847,)  and  "The  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime,"  an  able 
treatise  on  aesthetics,  (1880.)  Many  of  his  poems  are 
marked  by  much  power  and  originality.  Prof  Kedney 
is  one  of  the  instructors  in  the  Concord  Summer  School 
of  Philosophy. 

Keen,  (William  Williams,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Philadelphia,  January  19,  1837.  He 
graduated  at  the  Philadelphia  High  School  in  1853,  at 
Brown  University  in  1S59,  and  at  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege in  1862.  He  served  with  distinction  as  an  army- 
surgeon,  and  then  studied  his  profession  in  Europe  for 
two  years.  He  afterwards  conducted  a  school  of  anat- 
omy in  Philadelphia,  and  published  various  professional 
papers  and  treatises. 

Keene,  keen,  (Edmund,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Lynn  in  17 13.  In  1752  he  was  raised  to  the  see  of 
Chester,  and  in  1770  to  that  of  Ely.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning  and  benevolence.     Died  in  1781. 

Keen'er,  (John  Christian,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Baltimore  in  1819,  graduated  at  Wes- 
hyan  University  in  1834.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"The  Post-Oak  Circuit."     He  became  a  bishop  in  1870. 

Kee-Tse  or  Ki-Tse,  kee-tsuh,  [written  in  French, 
Ki-TsEU,]  a  Chinese  philosopher,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth 
century  B.C.  He  became  the  adviser  of  the  emperor 
Woo-Wang,  the  founder  of  the  third  Chinese  dynasty. 

See  Pauthier,  "Chine  ancienne;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G&^- 
rale  " 

Keferstein,  ka'fer-stin',  (Christian,)  a  German 
geologist,  born  at  Halle  in  1784.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Geognostic  Observations  on  the  Basaltic 
Structure  of  Western  Germany,"  (1820,)  in  which  he 
successfully  maintains  the  volcanic  nature  of  basalt,  and 
"The  Natural  History  of  the  Earth,"     Died  in  1866. 

Kehrein,  ka'rin,  (Joseph,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Heidesheim,  October  20,  1808.  He  was  a  distinguished 
teacher,  and  a  man  of  kindly  and  genial  nature.  He 
wrote  "Love  and  Psyche,"  (1834,  in  verse,  from  Apu- 
leius,)  "Lives  of  the  Saints,"  (1842,)  and  many  other 
works,  chiefly  educational.     Died  March  25,  1876. 

Kehren,  ka'ren,  (Joseph,)  a  German  historical  painter, 
born  at  HUlchrath,  near  Dusseldorf,  May  30,  18 17. 
Many  of  his  works  are  of  a  religious  and  ecclesiastical 
character.     Died  May  12,  1880. 

Keightley,  kit'le,  (Thomas,)  a  historical  and  bio- 
graphical writer,  born  in  Dublin  about  1790.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Mythology  of  Ancient 
Greece  and  Rome,"  (3d  edition,  1S54 ;)  a  "  History  of 
England,"  (1837  ;)  a  "Life  of  Jcihn  Milton,"  (1855 ;)  and 
a  "  History  of  Rome."     Died  November  4,  1872. 

Keil,  kil,  (Christian  August  Karl,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Weissenfels,  May  17,  1812.  He  studied 
at  Berlin  and  Leipsic,  and  held  professorships  of  philology 
in  Berlin.  He  published  works  on  Greek  onomatology, 
"  Analecta  Epigraphica,"  "  Sylloge  Inscriptionum  Boeoti- 
carum,"  etc.     Died  December  15,  1865. 


€  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

90 


(S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KEIL 


1426 


KELAOON 


Keil,  (Franz,)  an  Austrian  geographer,  born  at  Gras- 
litz,  in  Bohemia,  June  22,  1822.  He  became  an  apothe- 
cary, but  studied  geology,  and  especially  the  structure 
of  the  Eastern  Alps.  Died  at  Marburg,  March  10,  1876. 
His  reports,  charts,  etc.,  are  of  very  high  value. 

Keil,  kll,  (JoHANN  Georg,)  a  German  scholar  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Gotha  in  1781.  He  published  in  1814 
an  "  Elementary  Book  of  the  Spanish  Language."  In 
1 8 13  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Spanish 
Academy.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  lyrical  poems. 
Died  in  1857. 

Keil,  (Karl  August  Gotflieu,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Grossenhain  in  1754.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "Manual  of  Hermeneutics  of  the 
New  Testament,"  in  German,  (1810.)     Died  in  1818. 

Keilhan,  kil'how,  (Balthasar  Matthias,)  a  Nor- 
wegian geologist,  born  at  Birid,  November  2,  1797,  of  a 
family  originally  German.  He  became  professor  of  min- 
eralogy in  Christiania,  where  he  died,  January  i,  1858. 
His  labours  in  the  study  of  the  geology  of  Norway  were 
of  much  importance. 

Keill,  keel,  (James,)  a  physician,  brother  of  John, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1673.  He 
studied  medicine  in  his  native  city  and  at  Leyden,  and 
lectured  on  anatomy  in  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Anatomy  of 
the  Human  Body,"  and  several  physiological  treatises. 
Died  in  1719. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keill,  (JoH.v,)  a  distinguished  mathematician,  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1671,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1700 
he  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote 
several  works  in  defence  of  the  theories  of  Newton  against 
Leibnitz.  In  171 1  he  was  chosen  to  decipher  papers  for 
the  queen,  for  which  position  he  was  well  qualified.  He 
became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford,  where  he  had 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  physic.  Among  his 
works  are  "  An  Introduction  to  Natural  Philosophy," 
and  "An  Introduction  to  the  True  Astronomy,"  both 
of  which  were  published  in  Latin  and  English.  Died 
in  1721. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keini,  kim,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  architect, 
born  in  1769  ;  died  in  1864. 

Keim,  klm,  (Theodor,)  a  German  Protestant  theo- 
logian, born  at  Stuttgart,  December  17,  1825.  He  was 
educated  at  Tiibingen,  and  in  i860  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Zurich.  Among  his  writings  are  a  "  Life 
of  Ambrosius  Blarer,"  (i860,)  "The  Historical  Christ," 
(1865,)  "History  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,"  (3  vols.,  1867-72,) 
a  briefer  "  History  of  Jesus,"  (1873,)  ^^c.  Died  Novem- 
ber 17,  1878. 

Keim,  klm,  (William  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  in  1813.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  voters  of  Berks  county 
in  1858,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
autumn  of  1861.  Died  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania, 
in  May,  1862. 

Keisar,  kl'sar  or  kl'zar,  (Willem,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1647;  died  about  1693. 

Keiser.     See  Kieser,  (Dietrich  Georg.) 

Keiser,  kl'zer,  (Reinhard,)  one  of  the  earliest  opera 
composers  in  Germany,  born  in  Leipsic  in  1673,  was  the 
author  of  more  than  a  hundred  operas,  besides  several 
concertos  and  pieces  of  church  music.  His  productions 
were  highly  esteemed  by  Handel.     Died  in  1739. 

See  "  Ncuvelle  Biographie  G^nerale ;"  Burney,  "  History  of 
Music." 

Keith,  keeth,  (George,)  fifth  Earl  Marischal  of 
Scotland,  distinguished  as  a  munificent  patron  of  learn- 
ing, and  as  the  founder  of  Marischal  (mar'shal)  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  at 
Geneva,  where  he  had  the  celebrated  Theodore  Beza  for 
a  preceptor.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  earl 
marischal  in  1581.  During  the  reign  of  James  VI.  he  was 
appointed  to  several  high  offices  of  state.    Died  in  1622. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kfeith,  (George,)  hereditary  Earl  Marischal  of  Scot- 
land, was  born  in  that  country  about  1693.  He  entered 
the  army,  and  was  appointed  by  Queen  Anne  the  captain 


of  her  guards.  At  the  death  of  that  sovereign  he  made 
strenuous  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to  have  the  Pretendei 
proclaimed  in  London.  After  the  accession  of  George 
I.,  in  1714,  his  property  was  confiscated,  and  sentence 
of  death  passed  against  him  by  the  British  Parliament 
Keith  escaped  to  the  continent,  and  served  for  some 
time  in  the  Spanish  army.  He  subsequently  removed 
to  Berlin,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in 
high  favour  with  Frederick  the  Great.    Died  in  1778. 

See  D'.^LEMBBRT,  "  filoge  de  .Milord  Mar^chal,"  1779. 

Keith,  (George,)  a  Scottish  religionist,  who  at  an 
early  age  embraced  the  principles  of  George  Fox,  in 
the  defence  of  which  he  displayed  much  zeal  and  elo- 
quence. He  subsequently  advocated  many  views  at  va- 
riance with  those  held  by  the  Quakers,  for  which  he  was 
"  disowned"  or  excommunicated  by  the  Society.  Before 
his  death  his  views  again  changed,  and  he  died  in  the 
communion  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  wrote  "  The 
Standard  of  the  Quakers  Examined,"  (1702,)  intended  as 
a  refutation  of  Barclay's  "Apology." 

See  Jan.vev,  ''  History  of  Friends,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  iii.  ;  Gough, 
"  History  of  the  Quakers ;"  Smith,  "  History  of  Pennsylvania." 

Keith,  (James,)  field-marshal  of  Prussia,  and  brother 
of  George  Keith,  (1693-1778,)  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
1696.  Having  entered  the  army  of  the  Pretender,  he 
took  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Sheriffmuir,  where 
he  was  wounded.  He  afterwards  served  in  Spain  and 
in  Russia,  where  he  obtained  distinction  as  a  warrior  and 
statesman  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-gen- 
eral. Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  empress  Elizabeth 
he  removed  to  the  court  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  whom 
he  was  created  field-marshal  of  Prussia,  and  in  1749 
governor  of  Berlin.  He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Hochkirchen, 
in  October,  1758. 

See  A.  Henderson,  "Memoirs  of  Field-Marshal  Keith,"  1759; 
Varnh.\ge.v  VOM  Ense,  "  Leben  des  Feld-Marschalls  J.  Keith," 
Berlin,  1844;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Keith,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Episcopal  clergyman  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Kincardineshire  in  1681,  was  conse- 
crated a  bishop  in  1727.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Affairs  of  Church  and  State  in  Scotland  from 
the  Beginning  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Reign  of  James 
V.  to  the  Retreat  of  Queen  Mary  into  England,"  (1734.) 
Died  in  1757. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen. 

Keith,  (Sir  Robert  Murray,)  a  British  diplomatist, 
born  about  173P.  He  was  for  many  years  ambassador 
at  the  court  of  Vienna.     Died  in  1795. 

See  his  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence,  Official  and  Familiar," 
etc.,  published  by  Mrs.  Gillespie  Smyth,  2  vols.,  1849. 

Keith,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1759.  He  wrote  the  "Complete  Practical 
Arithmetician,"  a  work  on  Trigonometry,  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1824. 

Keith,  Viscount.     See  Elphinstone,  (G.  Keith.) 

Keitt,  commonly  pronounced  kit,  (Lawrence  M.,)  a 
politician,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1824.  In  1853  he 
was  elected  a  representative  to  Congress,  and  re-elected 
in  1855,  1857,  and  1859.  In  1856  he  was  associated  with 
Preston  S.  Brooks  in  his  assault  upon  Charles  Sumner 
on  the  floor  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  .Southern  disunion  movement  of  i860. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Richmond  in  June,  1864. 

Kekule,  keh-koo-li',  (Friedrich  August,)  an  emi- 
nent German  chemist,  born  at  Darmstadt,  September  7, 
1829.  He  held  successively  professorships  at  Ghent  and 
Bonn.  His  principal  works  are  the  excellent  "  Hand- 
Book  of  Organic  Chemistry,"  (1861  ;  3d  vol.,  1867,)  and 
"Chemistry  of  Benzol  Derivatives,"  (vol.  i.,  1867.) 

Kekule,  (Reinhard,)  a  German  archaeologist,  born 
at  Darmstadt,  March  6,  1839.  He  was  educated  at  Er- 
langen,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin,  and  in  1870  became  pro- 
fessor of  archaeology  at  Bonn.  He  published  "Greek 
Terra  Cottas  from  Tanagra,"  (1878,)  a  "Life  of  F.  G. 
Welcker,"  and  many  other  works.  _ 

Keiaoon,  Kelaoun,  or  Kel^un,  kSl'i-oon',  (Alma- 
lek- Almansoor- Self- ed- Been,  (or  -Almansour- 
Saiffeddyn,)  al-mtl'ek  ^1-mdn-sooR'  sif-ed-deen',)  Sul- 
tan of  Egypt,  was  brought  to  that  country  as  a  slave  in 
1240  a.D.     He  rapidly  rose  in  rank,  and  in  1279,  having 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  sJimrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


KELIJARSLAN 


1427 


KELLY 


revolted  against  Almalek-al-Saeed,  he  was  proclaimed 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.     He  subsequently  conquered 
Tripoli,  and  other   places  of   importance  in  Northern 
Africa.     Died  in  1290. 
Kelij-Arsian.     See  Kilfj-Arslan. 
Keller.     See  Cei.larius. 

Keller,  kel'Ier,  (Georg,)  a  German  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, born  near  Bomdorf,  in  the  Black  Forest,  in  1760. 
He  became  in  1806  jiastor  at  Aarau,  where  his  opinions, 
which  leaned  towards  Protestantism,  gave  great  offence 
to  the  Catholic  clergy.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  Catholicon."     Died  in  1827. 

Keller,  (GEKAun,)  a  Dutch  auth<3r,  born  at  Gouda, 
February  13,  1829.  He  became  well  known  as  an  editor, 
and  as  author  of  a  large  number  of  novels,  books  of 
travel,  dramatic  poems,  art-criticisms,  etc.  His  books 
for  the  young  are  highly  popular. 

Keller,  kel'ler,  (Gudkkey,)  a  Swiss  poet,  born  at  Zu- 
rich in  1819.  He  published  in  1846  a  volume  of  poems, 
which  were  received  with  such  favour  that  the  Senate  of 
Zurich  voted  him  a  pension  to  enable  him  to  prosecute 
his  literary  studies.  His  "  New  Poems"  a])peared  in  1851, 
"Green  Henry,"  a  historical  romance,  in  1854,  and  in 
1856  his  best-icnovvll  work,  "The  People  of  Seldwyla," 
a  collection  of  short  stories  illustrating  Swiss  manners. 
His  laier  books  include  "Zurich  Novels"  and  "Seven 
Legends,"  (1872.)      Died  July  15,  1890. 

Keller,  (Jean  Balthasar,)  a  brass-founder,  born  in 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  1638  ;  died  in  1702. 

Keller,  (Joseph,)  an  able  German  engraver,  bom  at 
Linz,  on  the  Rhine,  in  181 5,  became  jjrofessor  of  en- 
graving at  Dusseldorf  .'Vmong  his  works  are  a  large 
engraving  of  Raphael's  "  Dispute  of  the  Sacrament," 
and  several  prints  after  Overbeck.  Died  May  31,  1873. 
Keller,  von,  fon  kel'ler,  (Heinrich  Adelijert,)  a 
German  jihilologist,  born  at  Pleidelsheim,  WUrtemberg, 
July  15,  1S12.  He  studied  at  Tiibingen.  and  became  a 
clergyman,  and  librarian  of  that  university.  He  was 
very  laborious  as  an  editor  of  old  texts,  French  and 
especially  German.     Died  March  7,  1883. 

Keller  von  Steinbok,  kel'ler  fon  stin'bok,  (1<  kied- 
Ricu  LUDWIG,)  a  .Swiss  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1799,  became  professor  of  law  at  Halle  in  1843. 
Died  at  Berlin,  September  12,  i860. 

Kellerhoven,  kel'ler-ho'ven,  (Moritz,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Altenrath,  duchy  of  Berg, 
in  1758,  became  court  painter  at  Munich  about  1806. 
He  excelled  in  portraits,  and  engraved  many  of  his  own 
woiks.     Died  in  1830. 

Kellermann, de,  deh  ki'l^R'mftN',  (Franqois  Chris- 
TOPiiE,)  Duke  of  Valmy,  a  distinguished  French  mar- 
shal, of  German  extraction,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1735. 
After  serving  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  he  was  made  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1792,  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
to  command  the  central  army  on  the  Moselle.  He  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  at  Valmy 
in  September,  1792.  Having  been  accused  of  treachery 
by  Custine  and  others,  he  was  im]3risoned  for  ten  months, 
and  only  released  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In  1795 
he  became  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Alps,  and 
after  his  return  to  Paris  was  appointed  inspector-general 
of  cavalry,  in  1798.  He  was  created  in  1804  senator  and 
marshal  of  France,  and  in  1806  he  obtained  from  Napo- 
leon the  command  of  the  reserve  army  on  the  Rhine,  and 
other  distinctions.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XVIII. 
he  was  made  a' peer,  and  received  the  grand  cross  of  the 
order  of  Saint  Louis.     Died  in  1820. 

See  De  Salve,  "Fragments  historiques  sur  le  Mar^chal  de  Kel- 
lermann," 1807;  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire:" 
BoTiDOUx,  "  Esquisse  de  la  Carri^re  militaire  de  F.  C.  de  Keller- 
mann," 1817;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^raie. " 

Kellermann,  de,  (Francois  Christophe  Edmond,) 
Duke  of  Valmy,  a  son  of  F"ran9ois  Etienne,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1802.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties in  1839,  1842,  and  1S44.     Died  in  1868. 

Kellermann,  de,  (Francois  Etienne,)  Duke  of 
Valmy,  born  at  Metz  in  1770,  was  a  son  of  General  Kel- 
lermann, noticed  above.  He  served  as  adjutant-general 
under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  in  1796,  became  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1797,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory 
at  Marengo  in  1800.     About  1802  he  obtained  the  rank 


of  general  of  division.  He  was  wounded  at  Austerlitz, 
where  he  directed  several  charges  of  cavalry.  In  1815 
he  fought  for  Napoleon  at  Waterloo.     Died  in  1835. 

Kel'ley,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American  gen- 
eral in  the  Union  army,  born  in  New  Hampshire  about 
1807.  He  gained  a  victory  at  Philippi,  Virginia,  in  June, 
1861.  In  March,  1862,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  "railroad  district"  in  Northwestern  Virginia. 

Kel'ley,  (Edward,)  a  noted  astrologer,  born  at  Wor- 
cester, England,  in  1555.  He  was  an  accomplice  of  the 
notorious  Dr.  Dee,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Germany. 
While  there,  he  was  im]>risoned  as  an  impostor  by  the 
emperor  Rudolph  ;  but,  having  afterwards  obtained  his 
release,  he  won  the  favour  of  the  emperor,  by  whom  he 
was  knighted.  He,  however,  resumed  his  old  practices, 
and  was  again  imprisoned.  In  an  attempt  to  regain 
his  liberty,  he  fell  from  his  window,  and  was  mortally 
Afounded,  in  1595.  He  wrote  various  works  upon  al- 
chemy and  astrology. 

See  Wood,  "  .A.thenE  O.Konienses." 

Kelley,  (William  D.,)  born  in  Philadelphia  about 
1814,  studied  law,  and  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  About  1856  he  became 
an  active  Republican,  and  was  in  i860  an  ardent  sup- 
porter of  Lincoln  for  the  Presidency.  He  was  elected 
a  member  ot  Congress  from  Philadelphia  in  i860,  and 
was  re-elected  each  successive  term  until  his  death.  In 
Congress  he  uniformly  acted  with  the  radical  Repub- 
licans.     Died  January  9,  1890. 

Kellgren,  chel'sjRen,  (Juhan  Henrik,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1751,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Abo,  in  Finland.  In  1786 
Gustavus  III.  a])]3ointed  him  a  member  of  the  Swedish 
Academy,  and  likewise  chose  him  for  his  private  secre- 
tary and  librarian.  His  works,  consisting  of  lyric  poetry 
and  four  operas,  were  published  in  1796,  in  3  vols.,  under 
the  title  of  "  Samlade  Skriftes."     Died  in  1795. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  N.  von  Ro- 
SENSTEiN,  "J.  H.  Kellgrens  Lefnad,"  1796. 

Kellie,  Earl  of.     See  Erskine,  (T.  Alexander.) 

Kel'li-son,  (Matthew,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  Northainptonshire  about  1560.  He  filled 
the  offices  of  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Rheinis  and 
r^resident  of  the  College  of  Douay.  He  wrote  numerous 
religious  and  controversial  works.     Died  in  1641. 

Kel'logg,  (Clara  Louise,)  an  American  singer,  born 
It  Sumterville,  South  Carolina,  in  July,  1842,  of  New 
England  parentage.  Her  father  was  a  prominent  inventor. 
She  made  her  debut  in  1S61,  and  has  since  sung  with 
great  applause  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe  and 
America.     She  was  married  in  18S7  to  Carl  Strakoscli. 

Kel'ly,  (Alfred,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at  Mid- 
dletown,  Connecticut,  in  1787.  Having  removed  to 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  he  contributed  greatly  to  the  internal 
improvement  of  the  State  by  canals,  and  was  several 
times  elected  to  the  legislature.     Died  in  1859. 

Kel'ly,  (Sir  FitzruY,)  a  British  lawyer,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1796.  He  was  for  many  years  a  Conservative 
member  of  Parliament,  and  was  attorney-general  in 
1858-59.     Died  September  17,  1880. 

Kelly,  (Frances  Maria,)  a  British  actress,  a  niece 
of  Michael  Kelly,  born  December  15,  1790.  She  first 
appeared  on  the  stage  at  the  Drury  Lane  Theatre  in 
1799.  She  attained  great  eminence  in  her  profession, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb. 
Died  November  9,  1882. 

Kelly,  (Hugh,)  a  dramatic  and  political  wrrter,  born 
at  Killarney,  in  Ireland,  in  1739.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  became  the  editor  of  several  jieriodicals. 
He  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  a  "Vindication  of  the 
Administration  of  Mr.  Pitt,"  and  the  plays  of  "  False 
Delicacy,"  (1768,)  "A  Word  to  the  Wise,"  (1770,)  and 
the  "School  for  SVives,"  (1774.)     Died  in  1777. 

See  "  Life  of  Kelly,"  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  his  Works,  1778. 

Kelly,  (John,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, born  at  Douglas,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  in  1750.  He 
translated  the  Bible  into  the  Manks  language,  a  dialect 
of  the  ancient  Celtic,  in  which  he  was  exceedingly  well 
versed,  and  wrote  "  A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Ancient 
Gallic,  or  Language  of  the  Isle  of  Man."     Died  in  1809. 


€  as^;  9asj;  ghard;  gasy/G,  H.  K,  s;uttural ;  ^,  nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin/>4/j.     (iJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  2^.\ 


KELLY 


1428 


KEMPENFELT 


Kelly,  (Michael,)  a  celebrated  singer  and  musical 
composer,  born  at  Dublin  in  1762.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  went  to  Naples,  and  received  lessons  there  from 
Fineroli  and  Aprili.  He  performed  with  eminent  success 
in  Italy,  and  also  in  Germany,  where  he  was  a  favourite 
with  the  emperor  Joseph  and  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
great  Mozart.  He  afterwards  became  first  singer  at 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  London.  He  wrote  an  interesting 
work  entitled  "  Reminiscences"  of  his  contemporaries 
'  and  friends.     Died  in  1826. 

See  "Musical  Biography,"  London,  1814;  "  Monthly  Review' 
for  November,  1S25. 

Kelly,  (Patrick,)  D.D.,  born  in  Ireland,  in  1820  was 
made  (Roman  Catholic)  Bishop  of  Richmond,  Virginia. 
In  1S22  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Waterford,  lie- 
land.     Died  October  8,  1829. 

Kemble,  (Adelaide.)     See  Sartoris. 

Kem'ble,  (Charles,)  a  brother  of  Mrs.  Siddons  and 
J.  P.  Kemble,  was  born  in  South  Wales  in  1775.  He 
was  educated  at  Douay,  in  France,  and  became  an  actor 
at  the  age  of  eighteen.  In  1792  he  performed  at  Drury 
Lane  as  "Malcolm"  in  "  Macbeth,"  and  continued  upon 
the  stage  as  a  successful  actor  until  1840.     Died  in  1854. 

See  Oxberry's  "Dramatic  Biography;"  "Eraser's  Magazine 
for  December,  1854. 

Kemble,  (Elizabeth,)  a  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble, 
was  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1761.  She  made 
her  first  appearance  in  London  in  1783.  In  form  and 
expression,  as  well  as  in  the  applause  which  she  re- 
ceived, she  has  been  compared  to  her  sister,  Mrs.  Sid- 
dons. In  1785  she  married  an  actor  named  Whitlock, 
whom  she  accompanied  to  America  in  1792.  In  this 
country  she  became  a  great  favourite,  and  performed 
several  times  before  General  Washington.    Died  in  1836. 

Kemble,  (Fra.\ces  AxNNE,)  often  called  Fanny 
Kemble,  a  popular  English  actress  and  writer,  born  in 
London  in  181 1,  was  a  daughter  of  Charles  Kemble.  She 
performed  both  tragedy  and  comedy  with  eminent  suc- 
cess. About  1832  she  accompanied  her  father  to  the 
United  States,  where  she  married  Pierce  Butler,  from 
whom  she  was  divorced  in  1S49,  and  afterwards,  for  nearly 
twenty  years,  resided  in  Lenox,  Massachusetts.  She  pub- 
lished a  "Journal  of  a  Residence  in  America,"  (1835,) 
"The  Star  of  Seville,"  a  drama,  (1837,)  "Journal  of  a 
Residence  on  a  Georgian  Plantation  in  1838-39,"  (1863,) 
"  Records  of  a  Girlhood,"  (1878,)  and  "  Records  of  Later 
Life,"  (1882.) 

Kemble,  (George  Stephen,)  another  brother  of  the 
Kemble  family,  and  a  distinguished  actor,  was  born  in 
Herefordshire  in  1758.  He  first  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1783,  and  afterwards  was  successively  the 
manager  of  the  theatres  of  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and 
Drury  Lane.     Died  in  1822. 

Kemble,  (John  Mitchell,)  an  Anglo-Saxon  scholar 
and  historian,  son  of  Charles  Kemble  the  actor,  was 
born  in  1807,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. For  several  years  he  was  the  editor  of  the 
"British  and  Foreign  Quarterly  Review."  He  became 
a  member  of  various  foreign  scientific  and  historical 
societies.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "The  Saxons  in 
England ;  a  History  of  the  English  Commonwealth  till 
the  Period  of  the  Norman  Conquest,"  (2  vols.,  1849.) 
Died  in  1857. 

See  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March  and  May,  1857. 

Kemble,  (John  Philip,)  an  eminent  English  trage- 
dian, brother  of  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Siddons,  and  son 
of  Roger  Kemble,  was  born  at  Prescot,  in  Lancashire, 
in  1757.  He  first  appeared  on  the  stage  at  the  age  of 
ten  years.  He  was  afterwards  educated  at  the  Roman 
Catholic  seminary  at  Douay,  France.  In  1776  he  again 
went  on  the  stage,  and  rose  rapidly  to  the  first  rank  in 
his  profession.  In  1783  he  first  performed  as  "  Hamlet" 
in  London  at  the  Drury  Lane  Theatre.  He  subsequently 
became  a  shareholder  and  manager  in  the  Covent  Garden 
Theatre.  He  retired  from  his  profession  in  181 7.  On 
this  occasion  a  public  dinner  was  given  him,  at  which 
Lord  Holland  presided.  On  account  of  ill  health,  he 
then  went  to  reside  in  the  south  of  France,  and  after- 
wards at  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  died  in  1823. 

A  competent  and  impartial  critic  thus  states  his  im- 
pressions of  Kemble  as  an  actor :  "  His  performances 


throughout  evince  deep  study  and  application,  joined  to 
amazingly  judicious  conception.  They  are  correct  and 
highly-finishedpaintings,  but  much  laboured. .  .  .  Though 
my  head  is  satisfied,  and  even  astonished,  yet  my  heart  is 
seldom  affected.  .  .  .  Once,  I  must  own,  however,  I  was 
completely  overpowered  by  his  acting.  It  was  in  the 
partofZanga.  ...  I  could  not  have  believed  that  tragic 
representation  could  so  far  deceive  the  senses  and  the 
judgment."  ("  Life  and  Letters  of  Irving,"  vol.  i.  p.  156.) 
As  an  actor,  Kemble  excelled  in  the  highest  order  of 
tragedy.  He  possessed  an  elegant  and  discriminating 
taste,  and  was  learned  and  refined.  His  manners  were 
uncommonly  attractive.  He  enjoyed  a  high  character  as 
a  gentleman  aud  a  man  of  honour. 

See  BoADEN',  "  Memoirs  of  John  V.  Kemble,"  2  vols.,  1825. 

Kemble,  (Priscilla,)  an  English  actress,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1755  ;  died  in  1845. 

Kemble,  (Roger/)  a  distinguished  actor,  born  in  Here- 
ford, England,  in  1721.  In  1753  he  married  Sarah  Ward, 
an  actress,  by  whom  he  had  twelve  children.  Among 
these  were  Mrs.  Siddons,  John  Philip  Kemble,  Eliza- 
beth Kemble,  and  Charles  Kemble,  all  of  whom  are 
mentioned  in  this  work.    Died  in  1802. 

Kemeny,  kgm'aii,  (Sigmund,)  IParon  of,  a  Hunga- 
rian writer  and  journalist,  born  in  1816.  In  1849  he  was 
elected  to  the  National  Assembly  at  Pesth,  where  he 
advocated  the  revolutionary  cause.  The  next  year  he 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Respublica."  He 
wrote  several  popular  romances.     Died  Sept.  22,  1S75. 

Kem.p,  (George  Mickle,)  the  designer  of  the  Scott 
monument  at  Edinburgh,  was  born  at  New  Hall,  in 
Scotland,  about  1794.  He  was  employed  for  a  time  as  a 
draughtsman,  and,  when  plans  were  requested  for  the 
Scott  monument,  he  furnished  one  which  was  preferred, 
though  he  did  not  live  to  see  the  execution  of  it.  Died 
in  1844. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 

(Supplement.) 

Kemp,  (James,)  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal diocese  of  Maryland,  born  in  Scotland  in  1764, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1787,  and  for  more  than 
twenty  years  was  rector  at  Great  Choptank,  Maryland. 
He  was  bishop  of  that  diocese,  and  provost  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland,  from  1816  until  his  death,  in  1827. 

Kemp,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Kent  about 
1400,  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1452,  and 
subsequently  became  lord  chancellor.  He  had  distin- 
guished abilities  both  as  a  primate  and  statesman.  Died 
in  1454. 

Kemp,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  musical  composer, 
and  organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Bristol,  was  born  at 
Exeter  in  1778;  died  in  1824.  Among  his  productions 
are  the  anthems  "I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,"  "A  Sound 
of  Battle  is  in  the  Land,"  and  "The  Siege  of  Ischia," 
an  opera. 

Kempelen,  von,  fon  k?m'peh-l§n,  (Wolfgang,)  a 
famous  mechanical  genius,  and  the  inventor  of  the  chess 
machine,  was  born  at  Presburg  in  1734.  His  remarkable 
talent  for  chess-playing  made  him  a  favourite  at  the 
court  of  Maria  Theresa,  who  created  him  an  imperial 
councillor.  In  1769  he  exhibited  to  the  empress  his 
so-called  automaton  chess-player,  a  figure  in  size  and 
appearance  like  a  Turk,  which,  though  opposed  by  the 
best  players,  was  nearly  always  victorious  ;  but,  after 
astonishing  and  puzzling  all  Europe,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  figure  concealed  within  it  a  Russian  dwarf,  a 
famous  chess-player,  who  directed  its  motions.  He  also 
invented  the  speaking-machine,  having  the  form  of  a 
wooden  box  provided  with  a  bellows.  This  was  made  to 
speak  words  distinctly  in  a  voice  like  that  of  a  child. 
Kempelen  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Mechanism  of  Human 
Speech."     Died  in  1804. 

Kem'pen-felt,  (Richard,)  an  English  admiral,  the 
son  of  a  Swede  in  the  English  service,  was  born  at  West- 
minster in  1720.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  gallantry 
and  activity,  and  in  1779  was  made  a  rear-admiral.  He 
went  down  with  the  "  Royal  George,"  at  Spithead,  Au- 
gust 29,  1782,  a  calamity  touchingly  commemorated  by 
Cowper  in  a  poem  "  On  the  Loss  of  the  Royal  George." 
Kempenfelt  wrote  some  good  religious  poetry,  of  which 
the  lyric  "  Burst,  ye  emerald  gates"  is  the  best-known. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  till,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KEMPER 


1429 


KENNEDY 


Kem'p^r,  (Jackson,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Pleasant  Valley,  New  York,  December 
24,  1789.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1809, 
took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1814,  and  was 
for  twenty  years  a  clergyman  of  Philadelphia.  In  1835 
he  was  consecrated  a  missionary  bishop  for  the  Western 
States.  In  1859,  after  long  and  severe  labours  through- 
out a  wide  field,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Wisconsin. 
Died  at  Delafield,  Wisconsin,  May  24,  1S70. 

Kemper,  kSm'per,  (Jan  Melchior,)  an  able  Dutch 
jurist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1776.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Leyden  in  1809,  and  published  a  numbei 
of  works  on  law.     Died  in  1824. 

See  M.  SiEGENBEEK,  "Meiiioria  J.  M.  Kemperi,"  1824. 

Kem'per,  (Reuben,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Fauquier  county,  Virginia.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
various  engagements  against  the  Spaniards  in  Florida 
and  Mexico,  and  took  part  in  the  defence  of  New  Orleans 
under  General  Jackson.     Died  in  1826. 

Kemph,  k^mf,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  theologian 
and  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1397  ;  died  in  1497. 

Kempis,  ^  S  k^m'pis,  (Thomas,)  or  Thomas  Ham'- 
er-ken,  a  celebrated  German  ascetic  writer,  born  at 
Kempen,  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  about  1380.  He 
became  an  inmate  of  the  monastery  of  Mount  Saint 
Agnes,  and  spent  much  time  in  copying  religious  books. 
He  is  said  to  have  employed  fifteen  years  in  writing  a 
copy  of  the  Bible.  He  also  wrote  several  original  treat- 
ises. His  reputation  is  founded  on  the  well-known  work 
entitled  "De  Imitatione  Christi ;"  but  it  remains  ar. 
unsettled  question  whether  he  composed  or  only  tran- 
scribed it.  Many  volumes  have  been  written  on  eacli 
side  of  this  question.     Died  in  1471. 

See  Brewer,  "Thorns  i  Kempis  Biograpliia,"  1676;  Baehring, 
"Thomas  von  Kempen,"  etc.,  1854;  Mooren,  "Nachrichten  iiber 
Thomas  4  Kempis,"  Crefeld,  1S55,  (said  to  be  the  best  of  all  the 
biographies  of  T.  cl  Kempis  ;)  Mai.ou,  "  Recherches  sur  le  veritable 
Auteur  de  I'Imitation,"  1S58 ;  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Mar- 
tyrs," Philadelphia,  1867  ;  Charles  Hoffmann,  "  T.  k  Kempis  et  ses 
Eciits,"  1848;  J.  P.  Silbert,  "  Gersen,  Gerson  und  Kempis,  oder 
ist  Einer  von  diesen  Dreien  der  Verfasser,"  etc.,  1828;  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Ken,  (Thom.\s,)  a  celebrated  English  prelate,  born  at 
Berkhamstead  in  1637,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  About 
1679  he  went  to  Holland  as  chaplain  to  the  Princess 
of  Orange.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  chaplain  to 
Cliarles  II.,  who  raised  him  to  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells 
in  1684.  "He  was,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  man  of  parts 
and  learning,  of  quick  sensibility  and  stainless  virtue.  .  .  . 
Before  he  became  a  bishop,  he  had  maintained  the 
honour  of  his  gown  by  refusing,  when  the  court  was  at 
Winchester,  to  let  Eleanor  Gwinn  [a  mistress  of  Charles] 
lodge  in  the  house  which  he  occupied  there  as  a  preben- 
dary. The  king  had  sense  enough  to  respect  so  manly 
a  spirit.  Of  all  the  prelates  he  liked  Ken  the  best." 
Deprived  of  his  bishopric  as  a  nonjuror  upon  the  coro- 
nation of  William  III.,  he  was  regarded  with  the  highest 
esteem  even  by  his  opponents.  Queen  Anne,  upon  her 
accession,  granted  him  a  pension.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  volumes  of  elaborate  sermons,  and  of  many 
poetical  productions  of  a  religious  character.  "  His 
Morning  and  Evening  Hymns,"  says  the  writer  above 
quoted,  "are  still  repeated  daily  in  thousands  of  dwell- 
ings."    He  died  in  171 1. 

See  W.  Hawkins,  "Life  of  Bishop  Ken,"  1713;  W.  L.  Bowles, 
"  Life  of  Thomas  Ken,"  1830;  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  i.  chap,  v.;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1851;  Miss 
Strickland,  ''Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  etc.,  London,  1866; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1832. 

KSn'dal,  (George,)  an  English  nonconformist  minis- 
ter, born  in  Devonshire,  was  a  Calvinist.  He  became 
rector  of  Blissland,  in  Cornwall,  from  which  he  was 
ejected  about  1662.     Died  in  1663. 

Kendal,  (Margaret  Brunton,)  an  English  actress, 
better  known  by  her  stage  and  maiden  name  of  Madge 
Robertson.  She  was  born  at  Great  Grimsby,  March 
15,  1849,  went  upon  the  stage  in  1865,  and  in  1869  mar- 
ried Mr.  Kendal,  an  actor,  whose  name  was  originally 
Grimston.  Mrs.  Kendal  is  one  of  the  leading  actresses 
in  comedy  of  the  recent  British  stage. 

Keu'dall,  (Amos,)  an  able  American  statesman,  born 
at  Dunstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1789.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1811,  and  subsequently,  removing 


to  Kentucky,  became  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Henry 
Clay.  He  supported  General  Jackson  in  the  Presiden- 
tial campaign  of  1829,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  by 
him  an  auditor  of  the  treasury  department.  He  was 
made  postmaster-general  in  1835,  and  continued  to  fill 
that  post  till  1840.  He  began  about  1844  a  Life  of 
General  Jackson,  of  which  the  first  volume  was  pub- 
lished several  years  ago.     Died  in  1869. 

See  notice  in  the  "Democratic  Review"  for  March,  1838,  (with  a 
portrait ;)  "  Life  of  Jackson." 

Ken'dall,  (G.,)  an  English  missionary,  who  laboured 
m  New  Zealand,  and  opened  a  school  there  in  1816.  He 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  language  of  that 
country,  and  wrote  a  "  Grammar  and  Vocabulary  of  the 
Language  of  New  Zealand,"  (1820.)  He  was  drowned 
at  sea  in  1835. 

Kendall,  (George  Wilkins,)  an  American  writer 
and  journalist,  born  at  Amherst,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1810.  He  removed  in  1835  to  New  Orleans,  where  he 
became  associated  with  Mr.  Lumsden  as  editor  of  the 
"Picayune."  In  1841  he  accompanied  the  Santa  Fe  ex- 
pedition from  Texas,  of  which  he  published  an  account 
after  his  return.  He  brought  out  in  185 1  a  work  entitled 
"The  War  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,"  with 
coloured  plates  of  the  principal  conflicts.    Died  in  1867. 

Kendall,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  and  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends,  born  about  1725;  died  in  1814. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Thomas  Story,"  and 
"Precepts  of  the  Christian  Religion." 

Kendi,  AL     See  Alchindus. 

Ken'drick,  (Asahel  C.,)  D.D.,  an  American  scholai 
and  Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Poultney,  Vermont,  in 
1809.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  New  York, 
in  1 83 1.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Madison  University,  and  in  1850 
Greek  professor  in  the  University  of  Rochester,  New 
York.  He  has  published  a  number  of  religious  and 
miscellaneous  works. 

Kendrick,  (Nathaniel,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1777,  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  and  moral  philosophy  in  Hamilton 
College  (now  Madison  University)  in  1822.  His  labours 
contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  institution. 
Died  in  _i848. 

Ken-eal'y,  (Dr.  Edward  Vaughan  Hyde,)  a  British 
lawyer  and  author,  born  at  Cork  in  1819.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  became  noted  as  a 
translator  of  songs  from  foreign  languages,  of  which  he 
had  a  wonderful  knowledge.  His  ardent  zeal  on  behalf 
of  "the  Tichborne  claimant"  in  1873  gave  him  even 
greater  fame.  His  paper  "The  Englishman,"  founded  in 
1874,  had  a  very  great  popularity,  and  in  1875  he  was 
sent  to  Parliament.  His  principal  works  are  "  Bralla- 
ghan,"  (1845,)  ^"d  "Goethe,  a  New  Pantomime,"  (1850.) 
Died  in  London,  April  16,  18S0. 

Keuicius,  k&-nee'she-us,  (Peter,)  Archbishop  of 
Upsal,  Sweden,  during  tlTe' reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
tvas  born  in  1555.  He  rendered  important  service  to 
the  cause  of  education,  and  owing  to  his  efforts  parish 
hospitals  were  established  throughout  Sweden.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works.     Died  in  1636. 

Ken'ly,  (John  R.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  general, 
l)orn  in  Baltimore  about  1820.  He  commanded  a  small 
force  which  was  attacked  at  Front  Royal  by  the  army 
of  Stonewall  Jackson,  May  23,  1862.  He  was  wounded 
and  captured  in  this  action. 

Ken'na-way,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  diplomatist,  born 
at  Exeter  "in  1758.  He  became  a  captain  of  the  army  in 
India  in  1780,  and  negotiated  an  important  treaty  with 
Tippoo  Saib  in  1792.     Died  in  1836. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (Benjamin  Hall,)  D.D.,  an  English 
scholar,  a  brother  of  the  following,  was  born  near  Bir- 
mingham, November  6,  1804.  He  graduated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1827,  and  in  1867  was  ap- 
pointed regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge.  Be- 
sides volumes  of  sermons,  poems,  lectures,  etc.,  he  pub- 
lished translations  from  the  Greek  classics,  and  various 
Greek  text-books.  He  was  noted  for  his  extensive  and 
thorough  scholarship.     Died  .^pril  6,  1889. 

Kennedy,  (Charles  Rann,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  son  of  Rann  Kennedy,  a  poet  and  divine, 


eas>i;  ^asj;  gkard;  gas  i ;  G,YI,'K.,  guttural;  a, nasal;  v.,triUed;  sasz;  th  as  in /y^/j.     (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KENNEDY 


1430 


KENRICK 


was  born  near  Birmingham,  MarcJi  i.  iSoS,  giadiiatetl 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  published  poems, 
translations,  law-books,  etc.  He  is  best  known  as  the 
translator  (with  his  father)  of  Virgil  into  English  blank 
verse.     Died  in  1867. 

Ken'ne-dj^,  (Gracf,)  a  popular  Scottish  authoress, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1782.  She  published  several  moral 
and  religious  tales  of  great  merit.  Among  these  we 
may  name  "Anna  Ross,"  "The  Decision,"  and  "Jessy 
Allan,"  which  have  been  translated  into  German  ;  also 
"Father  Clement,"  (1825.)     Died  in  1825. 

Kennedy,  (Ii.defonso,)  a  Scottish  Benedictine  and 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Muthel  in  1721,  was  secretary 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Munich.     Died  in  1804. 

Kennedy,  (James,)  a  Scottish  j^relate,  and  grandson 
of  Robert  III.,  was  born  about  1405.  He  was  raised  in 
1440  to  the  see  of  Saint  Andrew's,  and  was  subsequently 
chosen  a  lord  of  the  regency  until  James  HI.  obtained 
his  majority.  He  was  distinguished  for  the  salutary  re- 
forms which  he  effected  among  the  Scottish  clergy.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Saint  Salvator,  at 
Saint  Andrew's.     Died  in  1466. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kennedy,  (John,)  a  physician  and  antiquary,  born 
in  Scotland.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  coins  of  the 
emperor  Carausius.     Died  in  1760. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (John,)  an  English  author,  and  rector  of 
Bradley,  in  Derbyshire.  Among  his  works  is  "A  Scrip- 
ture Chronology,"  (1752.)     Died  about  1770. 

Kennedy,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  preacher,  born 
at  Killearnan,  Ross-shire,  August  li,  1819.  He  received 
a  university  education,  and  in  1844  was  ordained  min- 
ister of  Dingwall,  afterwards  joining  the  Free  Church. 
Among  his  works" are  "Man's  Relation  to  God,"  "Days 
of  the  Fathers  in  Ross-shire,"  and  "  The  Apostles  of 
the  North."  He  is  one  of  the  most  eloquent  of  Scot- 
tisli  pulpit  orators,  and  in  1881  was  prominent  as  an 
antagonist  of  the  opinions  of  Prof.  W.  R.  Smith. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (John  Pendleton,)  an  American  states- 
man and  popular  writer,  born  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in 
1795.  He  sewed  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  elected  in 
1820  to  the  Maryland  House  of  Delegates.  He  was  sub- 
sequently three  times  elected  to  the  United  States  House 
of  Representatives,  where  he  actively  supported  the  lead- 
ing measures  of  the  Whig  party.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  1852.  He  published  several 
popular  works  of  fiction,  among  which  we  may  name 
"Swallow  Barn,  or  a  Sojourn  in  the  Old  Dominion," 
(1832,)  and  "  Horse-Shoe  Robinson,  a  Tale  of  the  Tory 
Ascendency,"  (1835;)  also  a  "Life  of  William  Wirt," 
besides  other  works.     Died  in  August,  1870. 

See  Griswold.  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Kennedy,  (Thomas  Francis,)  a  Scottish  reform 
politician,  born  near  Ayr  in  1788.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1818  as  a  Whig.  His  public  life  was  devoted 
successfully  to  the  reform  of  the  Scottish  administration 
of  government.     Died  in  1879. 

Kennedy,  (Walter,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Ayr- 
shire about  1450.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  "  Fiyting," 
or  rhymed  controversy  with  the  poet  Dunbar ;  but  his 
best  extant  work  is  "  The  Praise  of  Age."  Died  in 
1508. 

Kennedy,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Paisley  in  1799.  He  published  in  1827  "Fitful 
Fancies,"  and  in  1830  "The  Arrow  and  the  Rose,  and 
other  Poems."  He  resided  for  some  years  at  Galveston, 
Texas,  as  British  consul,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"The  Rise,  Progress,  and  Prospects  of  the  Republic  of 
Texas,"  (1841.)  He  returned  to  Great  Britain  in  1847, 
and  died  in  1849. 

Ken'n^t,  (Basil.)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  brother  of  Bishop  Kennet,  born  in  Kent 
in  1674,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  chaplain 
to  the  English  factory  at  Leghorn.  He  returned  to 
England  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  wrote  various 
antiquarian  and  historical  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Antiquities  of  Rome,"  (1696,)  relating  to  the  history  of 
the  republic,  and  "Lives  and  Characters  of  Ancient 
Greek  Poets,"  (1697.)     Died  in  1715. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 


Kennet,  (White,)  an  English  prelate  and  author, 
born  at  Dover  in  1660,  was  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  at  Oxford.  In  1699  he  received  the  degree 
of  D.D.,  and  in  1718  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Peterbo- 
rough. He  was  distinguished  as  a  preacher  of  great 
eloquence  and  as  a  scholar  of  indefatigable  industry  and 
l^erseverance,  as  well  as  for  his  opposition  to  the  High- 
Church  party.  Died  in  1728.  Of  his  numerous  works 
we  may  mention  "  Parochial  Antiquities  attempted  in 
the  History  of  Ambrosden,  Burcester,  and  other  Ad- 
jacent Places  in  the  Counties  of  Oxford  and  Bucks," 
(1695,)  and  "A  Register  and  Chronicle,  Ecclesiastical 
and  Civil,"  (1728,)  relating  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 

See  W.  Newton,  "Life  of  White  Kennet,"  1730;  "Biographia 
Britannica." 

Ken'neth  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  died,  after  a  short 
reign,  in  606,  and  was  succeeded  by  Eugene  III. 

Kenneth  EC.  succeeded  his  father,  Alpin,  as  King  of 
the  Scots,  in  834.  He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against 
the  Britons,  and  reduced  the  Picts  to  subjection.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  sovereign  who  swayed  a 
sceptre  over  all  Scotland.     Died  about  858  a.d. 

Kenneth  III.  ascended  the  throne  of  Scotland  in  970. 
He  repelled  the  invasions  of  the  Danes,  established  a 
just  and  efficient  government  in  his  dominions,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  monarch  who  gave  Scotland 
a  written  code  of  laws.     He  was  assassinated  in  994. 

See  Buchanan,  "  History  of  Scotland." 

Ken'uey,  (Charles  Lamh,)  an  English  dramatist, 
critic,  and  journalist,  son  of  James  Kenney,  and  godson 
of  Charles  Lamb,  was  born  in  1823.  His  principal  works 
were  "The  Gates  of  the  East,'"  and  "Life  and  Letters 
of  Balzac."     Died  August  25,  1881. 

Kenney,  (James,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  in  1780.  He 
published  "Society,  with  other  Poems,"  (1803,)  and 
wrote  several  successful  farces  and  plays,  among  them 
"Raising  the  Wind"  and  "Sweethearts  and  Wives." 
Died  in  1849. 

Ken'ni-cott,  (Benjamin,)  a  learned  divine  and  He- 
brew scholar,  born  at  Totness,  in  Devonshire,  England, 
in  1 7 18.  While  a  student  at  Oxford,  he  wrote  two  dis- 
sertations, one  "  On  the  Tree  of  Life  in  Paradise,"  and 
the  other  "On  the  Oblations  of  Cain  and  Abel,"  which 
procured  for  him,  free  of  expense  and  before  the  usual 
period,  the  degree  of  B.A.  He  was  soon  after  elected 
a  Fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  became  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1750. 
In  1753  he  published  a  treatise  on  "The  State  of  the 
Printed  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,"  in  which 
he  unfolded  his  plan  of  collating  the  Hebrew  manuscripts 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Although  his  efforts  met  with 
opposition  from  some  of  the  clergy,  a  large  sum  was 
raised  to  aid  him  in  his  enterprise,  and  several  men 
of  learning  were  employed  to  assist  him  in  his  labours. 
His  "  Hebrew  Bible,"  the  result  of  these  labours,  was 
issued  in  1776,  with  the  various  readings  attached.  Dr. 
Kennicott  and  his  assistants  in  this  valuable  work  con- 
sulted sixteen  Samaritan  and  over  six  hundred  Hebrew 
manuscripts.     Died  at  Oxford  in  1783. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Ken'npn,  (Robert  Lewis,)  a  Methodist  divine  and 
physician,  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1789.  He  excelled 
in  various  branches  of  science,  particularly  geology,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  coal- 
fields of  Alabama.     Died  in  1838. 

Ken'rick,  (Francis  Patrick,)  D.D.,  a  Catholic 
prelate,  born  at  Dublin  in  1797,  emigrated  in  1821 
to  America.  In  1S42  he  succeeded  Dr.  Con  well  as 
Bishop  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Baltimore  in  1851,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  by 
the  pope  "  primate  of  honour,"  having  precedency  over 
all  other  Catholic  prelates  of  the  country.  He  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  for  learning,  and  published,  among 
other  works,  "Dogmatic  Theology,"  and  "Moral  The- 
ology," (both  in  Latin.)     Died  in  1863. 

Kenrick,  (Peter  Richard,)  D.D.,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Dublin  in  1806.  Having  re- 
moved to  Philadelphia,  he  became  editor  of  the  "Cath- 
olic Herald."  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Rosati,  in  1843,  he 
succeeded  him  as  Bishop  of  Saint  Louis,  and  in  1847 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obseure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KENRICK 


1431 


KEOGH 


was  made  first  archbishop  of  that  city.  He  has  founded 
several  charitable  institutions,  and  has  been  active  in 
promoting  the  cause  of  education. 

K6n'rick,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  noted  for 
his  quarrelsome  disposition,  born  in  Hertfordshire  about 
1720,  published  "Epistles,  Philosophical  and  Moral," 
in  poetry,  (1759,)  "A  Review  of  Dr.  Johnson's  New  Edi- 
tion of  ShaUspeare,"  (1765,)  which  caused  a  controversy 
with  Johnson's  friends,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Eng,ish 
Language,"  and  a  poem  called  "  Love  in  the  Suds,"  for 
which  he  was  sued  for  damages  by  Garrick,  whom  he 
had  libelied  in  it.     Died  in  1779. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dianiatica." 

Ken'sett,  (John  Frederick,)  an  American  land- 
scape-painter, born  in  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in  1818. 
He  studied  in  London,  and  in  1845  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  his  "View  of  Windsor  Castle."  He 
afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  executed  several 
excellent  pictures  of  Italian  scenery.  Among  his  best 
American  landscapes  may  be  named  "  Sunset  in  the 
Adirondacks,"  "  Franconia  Mountains,"  and  "  Hudson 
River  from  Fort  Putnam."  He  became  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1S49.  Died  in  1872. 

.See  TuCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Kent,  (Charles  ;  in  full,  William  Charles  Mark,) 
an  English  journalist  and  Roman  Catholic  author,  born 
in  London,  November  3,  1823.  He  was  educated  in  the 
colleges  at  Prior  Park  and  Oscott.  In  1859  he  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple.  Among  his 
publications  are  "The  Vision  of  Cagliostro,"  (1847,)  "Ale- 
theia,"  (1850,)  "Dreamland,"  (1862,)  "A  Mythological 
Dictionary,"  "  Catholicity  in  the  Dark  Ages,"  "  Foot- 
prints on  the  Road,"  "  Pcjems,"  (1870,)  "Corona  Cathol- 
ica,"  (1880,)  etc.  His  wife  {nk  Ann  Young)  is  a  suc- 
cessful novelist. 

Kent,  (Edward,)  Duke  of,  father  of  Victoria,  Queen 
of  Great  Britain,  and  the  fourth  son  of  George  III.,  was 
born  in  1767.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Geneva.  In 
1790  he  entered  the  army,  and  three  years  later  assisted 
in  the  capture  of  Saint  Lucia.  In  1796  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general,  and  in  1799  was  created  Duke  of  Kent 
and  Strathern  and  Earl  of  Dublin.  In  1802  he  became 
Governor  of  Gibraltar  ;  but,  his  rigid  discipline  producing 
a  mutiny,  he  was  soon  after  recalled.  In  1818  he  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  Duke  of 
Kent  was  a  liberal  patron  of  benevolent  enterprises. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  "Life  of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,"  by  Erskine  Neale,  1S50. 

Kent,  (Edward,)  LL.D.,  an  American  judge,  born  in 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  in  1802.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  and  in  1825  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Bangor, 
Maine.  lie  was  afterwards  twice  Governor  of  the  State, 
and  became  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Maine  in  1859.     Died  at  Hangor,  May  19,  1S77. 

Kent,  (J.A.MES,)  a  distinguished  organist  and  musical 
composer,  born  at  Winchester  in  1700.  He  became  one 
of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  London.  Upon 
finishing  his  education,  he  was  successively  chosen  or- 
ganist of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  of  Winchester 
Cathedral.  He  published  a  popular  work  containing 
"Twelve  Anthems"  of  his  composition.     Died  in  1776. 

See  BuRKEV,  "History  of  Music." 

Kent,  (James,)  an  eminent  American  jurist,  born  in 
Putnam  county.  New  York,  in  July,  1763.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1781,  studied  law,  and  commenced  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Poughkeepsie.  In  politics 
he  was  a  Federalist.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  legal 
knowledge.  He  became  a  resident  of  the  city  of  New 
York  about  1793,  and  a  friend  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 
In  1798  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  sui^reme  court 
of  New  York,  and  in  1804  became  chief  justice.  He 
lectured  on  law  at  Columbia  College.  His  important 
decisions  in  law  and  equity  have  been  preserved  in  the 
Reports  of  Johnson  aiui  Caines.  He  became  chancellor 
in  1S14,  and  retired  from  that  office  in  1S23,  after  which 
he  was  again  professor  of  law  in  Columbia  College.  He 
published  "Commentaries  on  American  Law,"  (4  vols., 
1826-30,)  which  is  a  standard  work  of  high  authority 
and  a  production  of  great  literary  merit.  Referring  to 
this  work.  Judge  Story  remarks,  "These  Commentaries 


have  already  acquired  the  reputation  of  a  juridical  classic, 
and  have  placed  their  author  in  the  first  rank  in  the 
benefactors  of  the  profession.  They  embody  the  prin- 
ciples of  law  in  pages  as  attractive  by  the  persuasive 
eloquence  of  their  style  as  they  are  instructive  by  the 
fulness  and  accuracy  of  their  learning."  ("  On  the  Con- 
flict of  Laws.")  "It  will  be  a  proud  distinction  to  Kent 
and  Story,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October, 
1852,  (p.  340,)  "that  they  have  done  more  than  any  other 
men  to  put  an  end  to  the  indifference  of  English  lawyers 
to  the  learning  of  their  American  brethren."  Judge 
Kent  had  a  high  reputation  tor  virtue.  He  died  in  New 
York  in  December,  1847,  leaving  one  son,  William. 

See  John  Duek,  "  Discimrse  on  the  Life  of  Janie.s  Kent ;"  "  Na 
tioiial  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Ali.i 
BONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors,"  vol.  ii. ;  Duvckinck,  "Cyclopasdia 
of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Kent,  (Maria  Louisa  Victoria,)  Duchess  of,  born 
in  1786,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  .Sa.xe-Coburg. 
She  was  married  about  1803  to  Prince  Emich  Karl  of 
Leiningen,  and  again  to  the  Duke  of  Kent  in  1818.  Vic- 
toria, Queen  of  England,  was  the  issue  of  her  second 
marriage.     Died  in  1861. 

Kent,  (William,)  the  founder  of  the  English  style 
of  landscape-gardening,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  about 
1685.  He  studied  painting,  which  he  soon  abandoned 
for  ornamental  architecture.  Among  his  best  designs  is 
that  of  the  temple  of  Venus  at  Stowe.  His  fame,  how- 
ever, rests  chiefly  on  the  great  improvement  he  effected 
in  landscape-gardening,  by  substituting  the  close  imita- 
tion of  nature  for  the  stiff  and  formal  style  of  the  French 
and  Dutch.  Walpole  has  styled  him  "the  creator  of 
modern  gardening."     Died  in  1748. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting."* 

Kent,  (William,)  an  American  lawyer,  son  of  James 
Kent,  the  eminent  jurist,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1802.  He  was  appointed  by  Governor  Seward  a  judge 
of  the  circuit  court  of  New  York.  Having  resigned 
that  office,  he  practised  law  in  New  York  City.  Died  in 
January,  1861. 

Kent'i-gern,  Saint,  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  became 
Bishop  of  Glasgow.  He  is  said  to  have  converted  many 
of  the  natives  to  Christianity.     Died  about  600. 

Ken'ton,  (Simon,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in  Fau- 
quier county,  Virginia,  was  one  of  the  associates  of 
Daniel  Boone,  the  Kentucky  pioneer.  He  fought  against 
the  Indians  on  the  Western  frontier,  and  subsequently 
in  the  war  of  1812.     Died  in  1836. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  .\mericans,' 
vol.  iv. 

Ken'yon,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Jamaica 
about  1783,  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  pul)lished 
"A  Day  at  Tivoli,  with  other  Poems."    Died  in  1856. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1S38;  "North 
AiTierican  Review"  for  April,  1839,  (by  Prescott.) 

Kenyon,  (Lloyd,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English  law- 
yer, and  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  was  born  at 
Greddington,  in  Flintshire,  October  5,  1732.  He  be- 
came in  1754  a  member  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1761.  With  too  high  a  sense 
of  honour  to  employ  artifice,  and  having  no  influential 
friends  to  assist  him,  several  years  elapsed  before  he 
obtained  practice.  In  1779  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  able  defence  of  Lord  George  Gordon,  on  trial  for 
treason.  Three  years  later  he  was  made  attorney-general. 
In  1 788  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Ken- 
yon, Baron  Greddington.  He  died  in  1S02,  after  having 
ama.ssed  a  large  fortune.  Lord  Kenyon  was  generally 
popular,  though  his  extremely  parsimonious  habits,  added 
to  his  overbearing  and  haughty  manner  towards  the  bar- 
risters as  well  as  towards  his  associate  judges,  made  him 
no  favourite  v*'ith  the  members  of  his  profession.  As  a 
justice,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  strict  adherence  to 
the  letter  of  the  law,  and  for  his  impartial  severity  upon 
offenders  of  every  rank. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices;"  "Sketch 
of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Lord  Kenyon,"  London,  1802  ;  Foss,  "The  Judges 
of  England." 

Keogh,  ke'o,  (William,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  born  at 
Galway  in   1817.     He  published  "The   Practice  of  the 


€as>6;  casj;  ^hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  oy^/Zwrrt/;  N,fuisa/;  R,iril/ea';  sasz;  thasin/'/4w.     (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KEPLER 


1432 


KER  CKHERDERE 


Court  of  Chancery  in  Ireland."  In  1856  he  became  a 
judge  of  the  common  pleas.     Died  September  30,  1878. 

Kepler,  k^p'ler,  or  Keppler,  [Lat.  Keple'rus,] 
(JoHANN,)  a  celebrated  German  astronomer,  born  at  or 
near  Weil,  in  Wiirtemberg,  on  the  27th  of  December, 
1571.  His  father,  Henry  Kepler,  lost  nearly  all  his  prop- 
erty by  becoming  surety  for  a  friend,  and  was  reduced 
to  the  position  of  tavern-keeper  at  Elmendingen.  About 
1586  he  entered  the  monastic  school  of  Maulbronn, 
where  he  was  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg.  He  continued  his  studies  at  Tubingen, 
which  he  quitted  in  1591  with  the  degree  of  master. 
In  1594  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Gratz,  in  Styria.  He  published,  under  the  title  of 
"Mysterium  Cosmographicum,"  (1596,)  an  account  of 
his  i'nquiries  and  speculations  in  relation  to  the  number, 
distances,  and  periodic  times  of  the  planets.  In  1597  he 
married  a  widow  named  Barbara  von  Muller.  Kepler 
and  the  other  Protestant  professors  were  driven  from 
Gratz  by  persecution  about  1600.  He  visited  Tycho 
Brahe,  who  then  resided  near  Prague,  and  who  intro- 
duced him  to  the  emperor  Rudolph.  At  the  request  of 
Rudolph,  he  began  to  assist  Tycho  in  the  formation  of 
astronomical  tables  ;  but  his  relations  with  that  astronu- 
mer  were  not  very  agreeable  to  either. 

On  the  death  of  Tycho,  in  October,  1601,  Kepler  suc- 
ceeded him  as  principal  mathematician  to  the  emperor, 
with  a  salary  of  1500  florins,  and  inherited  his  unpub- 
lished observations.  He  published  in  1604  an  important 
contribution  to  the  science  of  optics,  entitled  a  "  Supple- 
ment to  Vitellio."  After  he  obtained  the  patronage  of 
the  emperor  he  resided  for  some  years  at  Linz.  In  1609 
he  produced  his  greatest  work,  "Astronomia  nova,  seu 
Physica  celestis  tradita  Commentariis  de  Motibus  Stellae 
Martis,"  in  which  he  announced  two  of  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  periods  and  motions  of  the  planets,  and 
which  are  known  as  Kepler's  Laws.  These  are  :  i,  that 
the  orbits  of  the  planets  are  elliptical  ;  2,  the  radius- 
vector,  or  line  extending  from  a  planet  to  the  sun,  de- 
scribes or  passes  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times ;  3,  the 
squares  of  the  periodic  times  of  planets  are  proportional 
to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 
"These  laws  constitute  undoubtedly,"  says  Sir  John 
Herschel,  "  the  most  important  and  beautiful  system  of 
geometrical  relations  which  have  ever  been  discovered 
by  a  mere  inductive  process,  independent  of  any  con- 
sideration of  a  theoretical  kind.  They  comprise  within 
them  a  compendium  of  the  motions  of  all  the  planets, 
and  enable  us  to  assign  their  places  in  their  orbits  at  anv 
instant  of  time,  past  or  to  come."  "This  beautiful  and 
simple  law,"  says  Professor  Playfair,  in  reference  to  the 
third  law,  "had  a  value  beyond  what  Kepler  could  pos- 
sibly conceive  ;  yet  a  sort  of  scientific  instinct  instructed 
him  in  its  great  importance.  He  has  marked  the  year 
and  the  day  when  it  became  known  to  him  :  it  was  on 
the  8th  of  May,  1618."  His  third  law  was  discovered 
with  infinite  satisfaction  in  1618,  and  announced  in  his 
"Harmonice  Mundi,"  (1619,)  the  title  and  contents  of 
which  recall  the  ideas  of  Pythagoras  on  celestial  har- 
mony. Kepler  imagines  that  in  this  music  of  the  spheres 
Saturn  and  Jupiter  perform  the  bass,  Mars  the  tenor, 
and  the  Earth  and  Venus  the  hattte-contre.  He  con- 
sidered the  sun  to  be  the  source  of  motion  as  well  as  of 
light  and  heat.  The  treasury  of  the  emperor  was  so 
exhausted  by  war  that  Kepler  could  not  obtain  the  pay- 
ment of  his  salary,  and  often  felt  the  pressure  of  poverty. 
After  the  death  of  Rudolph,  (1612,)  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Linz.  His  first  wife  having 
died,  he  married  Susanna  Rettinger,  about  1614.  In 
1620  he  was  visited  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  an  English 
ambassador,  who  invited  him  to  remove  to  England: 
but  he  declined.  He  expended  the  labour  of  several 
years  on  his  "  Rudolphine  Tables,"  which  were  published 
in  1627  and  were  highly  prized.  Among  his  important 
works  is  his  "Dioptrica,"  (1611,)  in  which  he  describes 
the  astronomical  telescope  with  two  convex  lenses.  The 
invention  of  this  form  of  telescope  is  ascribed  to  him. 
Kepler  was  so  devoted  to  science,  and  had  so  little  re- 
gard for  riches,  except  those  of  the  mind,  that  he  used 
to  say  he  would  rather  be  the  author  of  the  works  he 
had  written  than  possess  the  duchy  of  Sa.xony.     He  died 


at  Katisbon  in  November,  1630,  leaving  four  sons  and 
three  daughters. 

See  Drinkwater  Bethune,  "Life  of  Kepler,"  in  the  "Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge;"  Brkitsciiwiikd,  "  Keplers  Leben  und  Wir- 
l<en,"  1S31  :  Sir  David  Krewstek,  "  ^f  anyrs  of  Science,"  1841; 
AuAGo,  "Notices  biographiqiies,"  tome  ii. ;  Dr.  F.  Hoefer,  anicle 
in  tlie  "  Nouvelle  Bioiiraijhie  Gi^n^rale  :"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1835;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  April,  i860. 

Kepler,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  physician,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1607.  He  practised 
at  Bale,  Strasburg,  and  Konigsberg,  and  wrote  several 
works.     Died  in  1663. 

Keplerus.     See  Kepler,  (Johanx.) 

Kep'pel,  (Augustus,)  an  English  admiral,  son  of 
William,  Earl  of  Albemarle,  was  born  in  1725.  In  1761, 
as  commander  of  a  small  squadron,  he  captured  Belle- 
Isle,  and  the  following  year  was  created  rear-admiral  of 
the  blue.  In  177S  he  became  admiral.  He  was  subse- 
quently raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Viscount  Keppel,  Baron 
Elden,  and  was  twice  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty. He  was  accused  by  Sir  Hugh  Palliser  of  neglect 
of  duty  in  an  action  against  the  French  in  July,  1778,  and 
was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  by  which  he  was  honourably 
acquitted.     Died  in  1786. 

Keppel,  (Lady  Caroline,)  the  reputed  author  of  the 
popular  song  "  Robin  Adair,"  was  born  in  Scotland  about 
1735.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  second  Earl  of  Al- 
bemarle, and  married  Robert  Adair,  an  Irish  surgeon, 
in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  her  family. 

Keppel,  Earl  of  Albemarle.     See  Albemarle. 

Keppel,  (George  Thomas,)  an  English  officer,  born 
in  1799,  was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Albemarle.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1832  and  in  1847,  ^"'i  '"  '851 
succeeded  to  the  earldom.  He  published  a  "Journey 
across  the  Balkan." 

Keppel,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  naval  officer,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1809.  He  became 
a  captain  about  1837,  and  commanded  the  naval  forces 
operating  against  China  in  1857-58.  He  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "  An  Expedition  to  Borneo." 

Keppler.     See  Kepler. 

Kepp'ler,  (Jos^h  Ferdinand,)  a  distinguished  cari- 
caturist, born  in  \ienna,  (Austria,)  February  2,  1838. 
After  working  as  a  photographer,  caricaturist,  and  suc- 
cessful comedian,  he  came  to  the  United  States  about 
1869,  and  was  a  theatrical  manager  at  Saint  Louis.  In 
1873  ^^  went  upon  the  staff  of  a  weekly  periodical  in 
New  York.  He  in  1876  founded  "  Puck,"  a  well-known 
comic  paper,  of  which  he  was  the  principal  caricaturist. 

Ker,  ker  or  kar,  (John,)  of  Kersland,  a  Scottish 
philologist,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Edinburgh.  He 
was  employed  as  a  political  agent  by  William  III.,  and 
published  "  Memoirs  and  Secret  Negotiations,"  (3  vols., 
1726.) 

Ker,  (John,)  an  eminent  bibliographer,  born  in  London 
in  1740,  was  the  son  of  Robert,  Duke  of  Roxburgh,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1755  in  the  Scottish  dukedom,  and  also  in 
the  British  peerage  as  Earl  and  Baron  Ker  of  Wakefield. 
He  died  in  1804.  In  the  accumulation  of  his  library, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  valuable  private 
collection  in  Great  Britain,  he  exhibited  remarkable 
industry  and  rare  judgment.  The  sale  of  these  books 
after  his  death  produced  a  great  sensation  in  the  lite- 
rary world.  One — "  II  Decamerone  di  Boccaccio" — was 
sold  for  ^^2250. 

Ker,  (Robert.)     See  Carr. 

Ker  Porter.     See  Porter,  (Robert  Ker.) 

Keralio,  de,  deh  k?h-rt'leV,  (Louis  F^Lix  Guine- 
ment — g^n'inflN',)  a  French  ofncer  and  litterateur,  born 
in  Brittany  in  1731.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
one  upon  the  "General  Principles  of  Tactics."    Died  in 

1793- 

Keratry,  de,  deh  ki'rt'tRe',  (Auguste  Hilarion,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  statesman,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1769.  He  was  twice  chosen  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  in  181 8  and  in  1827,  and  was  made  a  peer  in 
1837.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Moral  and  Physi- 
ological Inductions,"  (1817,)  and  several  romances  and 
poems.     Died  in  1859. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La    France   Liiu^mire. " 

Kerckherdere,  k^Rk'hSR'deh-reh,  (Jan  Geraart,) 
a  Dutch  philologist  and  theologian,  born  near  Maestricht 


e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  far,  fill,  lit;  met;  n6t;  good;  n)Oon; 


KERCKHOVE 


1433 


KESSEL 


\ 


about  1678.     tie  was  professor  at  Louvain,  and  wrote 
several  works.     Died  in  1738. 

Kerckhove,  van  den,  vtn  Alw  k?Rk'ho'veh,  (Jan 
PoLYANDER,)  a  Protestant  theologian,  of  Dutch  extrac- 
tion, born  at  Metz  in  1568.  In  1609  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  of 
which  he  was  subsequently  chosen  rector  eight  times. 
Died  in  1646. 

Kerckhove,  van  den,  written  also  Kerckchove, 
(Joseph,)  an  able  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in 
i66g.     He  painted  sacred  history.     Died  in  1724. 

Kerckring,  kenk'ring,  (Theodorus,)  a  physician  and 
anatomical  writer,  burn  at  Amsterdam  ;  died  in  1693. 

Kereem-  (Kerim-  orKerym-)  Khan,  ker-eem'  Kin, 
became  sovereign  of  Persia  in  1750.  He  was  an  able 
warrior,  lawgiver,  and  statesman.     Died  about  1780. 

Ker'foot,  (John  Barreti',)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop, 
born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  March  i,  1S16.  He  came  in 
1819  to  the  United  States,  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  was  assistant  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
Saint  Paul's  College,  on  Long  Island,  from  1837  to  1842, 
was  rector  of  the  College  of  Saint  James,  in  Maryland, 
from  1842  to  1S64,  and  president  of  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, from  1864  to  1866.  In  1866  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Pittsburg.     Died  July  10,  1881. 

Kerguelen-Tremarec,  de,  deh  kgn'gi'lfiN'  tRi'mt'- 
rSk',  (Ives  Joseph,)  a  celebrated  French  navigator,  born 
at  Quimper,  in  Brittany,  in  1745.  Having  previously 
visited  the  North  Sea,  he  set  out  in  1771  on  a  voyage  to 
the  South  Sea,  and  the  following  year  discovered,  in  49 
south  latitude,  the  island  to  which  Captain  Cook  gave, 
in  1776,  the  name  of  Kerguelen's  Land.  He  published 
a  "  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Shores  of  Iceland,  Greenland,"  etc.,  (1771,)  and  "An 
Account  of  Two  Voyages  in  the  South  Sea  and  the 
Indies,"  (1782.)     Died  in  1797. 

Kerhallet,  de,  deh  ki  rS'l^',  (Charles  Philippe,) 
a  French  hydrographer,  born  in  Brittany  in  1809.  He 
became  a  captain  in  the  navy,  and  was  employed  many 
years  in  surveying  the  coast  of  Africa.  He  published  a 
"  Manual  for  the  Navigation  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa," 
(3  vols.,  1853.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1863. 

Keri,  ka'ree,  (Francis  Borgia,)  a  historian  and  Jesuit, 
born  at  Zemplin,  in  Hungary,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Empire  of  the  East."     Died  in  1769. 

Keri,  (John  or  JAnos,)  a  learned  Hungarian  bishop, 
who  wrote  "  Ferocia  Martis  Turcici,"  a  history  of  the 
different  Turkish  invasions  of  Hungary.     Died  in  16S5. 

Kerim-Khan.     See  KereemKhan. 

Keri,  k^Rl,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  German  composer 
and  organist,  born  in  Saxony  in  1625.  He  was  chapel- 
master  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.    Died  about  1685. 

Kern,  k^Rn,  (J.  Conrad,)  a  Swiss  statesman  of  the 
Liberal  party,  was  born  at  Berlingen  in  1808.  He  be- 
came president  of  the  Federal  Tribunal  in  1850,  and 
President  of  the  republic  in  1875.     Died  in  1888. 

Kern,  k^Rn,  (Vincenz,)  a  skilful  German  surgeon, 
born  at  Gratz  in  1760.  He  became  professor  of  surgery 
in  the  University  of  Vienna,  and  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced important  reforms  in  the  practice  of  surgery.  He 
published  several  professional  works.     Died  in  1829. 

Kerner,  ken'oer,  (A.ndreas  Jusiivus,)  a  German 
lyric  poet,  born  at  Ludvvigsburg  in  1786.  He  published 
in  181 1  "Travelling  Shadows,  by  the  Magic-Lantern 
Player,"  a  work  of  great  humour  and  originality,  in  1817 
"Romantic  Poems,"  and  in  1853  "The  Last  Bunch  of 
Blossoms."  But  his  most  famous  work  was  "  The  Seeress 
of  Prevorst,"  (1829,)  a  biographical  sketch  of  Frederike 
Hauffe,  who  claimed  to  have  communications  with  the 
spirit-world.     He  died  February  21,  1862. 

Keroual,  k§r'roo-tl',  or  Querouaille,  ki'roo'tl'  or 
ki'roo't'ye,  (Louise  Penhoet,)  Duchess  of  Portsmouth, 
a  mistress  of  Charles  II.  of  England,  was  born  in  France 
about  1652.  She  went  to  England  as  maid  of  honour  to 
Henriette,  the  queen  of  Charles  I.,  and  received  the  title 
of  Duchess  of  Portsmouth  in  1673.  She  is  said  to  have 
used  her  influence  to  promote  the  designs  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  1734. 

See  Evelyn,  "Diary;"  Voltaire,  "  Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Kerr,  ker  or  kar,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and 
scientific  writer,  born  about  1755,  was  a  member  of  the 


Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies  of  Edinburgh.  Among 
his  works  are  "  The  Animal  Kingdom  or  Zoological 
System  of  Linnaeus,"  "  The  Natural  History  of  Quad- 
rupeds and  Serpents,"  and  a  "  History  of  Scotland  during 
the  Reign  of  Robert  Bruce."  The  first  and  second  an" 
translations.     Died  in  1813. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 

Kersaint.    See  Dun  as,  de,  (Claire  Lechat.) 

Kersaint,  de,  deh  kcR's^N',  (Armand  Gui  Simon,) 
Count,  a  French  naval  commander,  born  in  Paris  about 
1741.  After  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  he 
made  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Jacobin  Club.  He  afterwards  joined  the  Girondists, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  Convention,  boldly  opposed  the 
execution  of  the  king  and  the  extreme  measures  of  the 
Jacobins.  He  was  proscribed  and  executed  in  Decem- 
ber, 1793. 

Kersenbrock,  k&r'sen-bRok',  (Hermann,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  the  county  of  Lippe  in  1526.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Miinster,"  (in 
Latin.)     Died  in  1585. 

Ker'sey,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and  wrote  a  work  on  Algebra, 

(1673) 

Kersseboom,  k§Rs'seh-b6m',  (Willem,)  a  Dutch 
statistician,  born  in  1691,  wrote  a  number  of  valuable 
works  on  population,  mortality,  etc.     Died  in  1771. 

See  Heuschling,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Kersseboom,"  1837- 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Kervillars,  de,  deh  kCR've'ySR',  (Jean  Marie,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Vannes  in  1668.  He  produced  a 
version  of  Ovid's  Elegies,  (1724.)     Died  in  1745. 

Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  ker-vin'  (or  k^R'v^N')  deh 
I§t'ten-ho'veh,  (Joseph  Marie  Bruno  Constantin,)  a 
Belgian  historian,  born  near  Bruges  in  1817.  As  a 
legislator,  he  was  long  a  distinguished  supporter  of  the 
Catholic  party,  and  he  was  minister  of  the  interior  in 
1870  and  1871.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a 
"  History  of  Flanders,"  and  a  translation  of  Milton's 
works.      His  writings  are  in  French. 

Kesav  Das,  k^s'iv  dJs,  a  Brahman  author,  who  wrote 
in  Hindee.  His  writings  include  the  "  Rasikvriya,"  a 
treatise  on  rhetoric,  (written  in  1592  a.d.,)  the  "  Rama- 
chandrika,"  (a  religious  poem,  1602,)  the  "  Bhakta  lilam- 
rita,"  an  exposition  of  Vaishnava  doctrine,  etc.  His 
works  are  much  read  in  India. 

Kdsava,  ka'sa-va,  written  also  Cesava  and  Kigava, 
[from  the  Sanscrit  word  kisd,  "hair,"  probably  cognate 
with  the  Latin  casaries,  having  the  same  signification,] 
{i.e.  "having  beautiful  hair,")  an  epithet  of  Krishna. 
(which  see  ;)  also,  a  surname  of  Booddha. 

Kesh'ub  Chun'der  Sen,  (Baboo,)  written  also 
Babu  Kesab  Chandra  Sen,  an  East  Indian  religious 
leader,  born  in  Bengal,  December  19,  1838.  He  was 
educated  at  Calcutta,  partly  under  English  influences. 
Having  rejected  caste  and  idolatry,  he  joined  the  Brahma 
Samaj  founded  by  Rajah  Rammohun  Roy,  of  which  he 
became  one  of  the  leaders.  In  1866,  he,  with  the  more 
progressive  members  of  the  society,  broke  away  from  the 
old  Brahma  Samaj,  and  formed  "  the  Brahma  Samaj  of 
India."     Died  at  Calcutta,  January  7,  18S4. 

Kessel,  van,  van  kes'sel,  (Ferdinand,)  a  distin- 
guished painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  patronized 
by  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  and  William  III.  of 
England.  His  death  is  variously  dated  in  1696  and  about 
1710. 

See  PiLKlNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kessel,  kes'sel,  or  Kessels,  van,  vtn  kes'sels,  (Jan.j 
the  Elder,  a  Dutch  artist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1626, 
excelled  in  painting  animals,  fruits,  and  flowers.  His 
portraits  and  landscapes  were  also  of  superior  merit. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.     Died  about  1692. 

Kessel,  van,  (Jan,)  the  Younger,  the  son,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  the  nephew,  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1648.  He  was  one  of  the 
best  portrait-painters  of  his  time  ;  and  some  of  his  works 
have  been  mistaken  for  those  of  Van  Dyck.  Having 
visited  Spain,  he  was  appointed  in  1686  court  painter  to 
Charles  II.  His  portraits  of  the  two  queens  of  Charles 
and  that  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain  are  ranked  among  his 
master-pieces.     Died  in  1708. 


€as/4;  {as  j;  gha?d;  gasy;  O,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  y^,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin  this.     ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KESSEL 


14.^4 


KHADIIAH 


Kessel,  van,  (Nicolaas,)  a  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
m  1684,  was  a  nephew  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above.  He 
adopted  the  style  of  David  Teniers.     Died  in  1741. 

Kessel,  van,  (Thkodokus,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1620,  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens, 
and  historical  subjects  after  several  Italian  masters. 

Kessels,  kes'sels,  (Matthias,)  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished Dutch  sculptors  of  recent  times,  was  born  at 
Maestricht  in  1784.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  colossal 
scene  from  the  Deluge,  a  "  Madonna,"  a  "Cupid  sharp- 
ening his  Arrow,"  and  a  "Discobolus."  Died  at  Rome 
in  1836. 

See  FiLiPPO  Gerardi,  "  Vita  di  M.  Kessels,"  1837  ;  Nagler, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kestner,  kest'ner,  (Christian  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
physician,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1694,  published  "  Biblio- 
theca  Medica,"  (1746.)     Died  in  1747. 

Ket  or  Kett,  (Robert,)  a  tanner,  of  Norfolk  county, 
England,  was  the  chief  leader  in  a  rebellion  which 
occurred  in  1549,  during  the  protectorate  of  Somerset. 
After  several  considerable  successes,  he  was  at  length 
defeated  by  Dudley,  Eail  of  Warwick.  Soon  after  he 
was  taken  prisoner  and  hung  at  Norwich  Castle.  Ket's 
rebellion — or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Norfolk  re- 
bellion— was  "remarkable,"  says  Froude,  "among  other 
things,  for  the  order  which  was  observed  among  the 
people  during  seven  weeks  of  lawlessness."  ("  History 
of  England,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xxvi.) 

Ket,  (William,)  of  Norfolk,  an  English  rebel,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents 
who  took  Norwich.     He  was  hanged  in  1549. 

Ketboga  or  Ketbogha,  k§t-bo'ga,  a  Mongolian  by 
birth,  and  Sultan  of  Egypt,  was  brought  to  that  country 
as  a  slave  in  a.d.  1288.  He  rapidly  rose  in  rank,  and 
finally  made  himself  the  sovereign  of  Egypt  in  1294.  In 
1296  he  was  driven  from  the  country  by  his  favourite 
Lajeen,  (Lajin  or  Ladjyn,)  who  succeeded  him. 

Ketch'um,  (William  Scott,)  an  American  officer 
in  the  Union  army,  born  at  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  in 
1813.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  in  1862  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.     Died  in  1871. 

Ketel,  ka'tel,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Gouda  in  1548.  He  commenced  his  studies  in  Paris  ; 
but,  being  a  Protestant,  he  was  soon  driven  from  France 
by  Charles  IX.  About  1574  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  painted  the  portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  of 
several  English  noblemen.  Died  after  1602.  Among 
his  pictures  is  "  Force  Conquered  by  Wisdom,"  which 
he  painted  in  England. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Ketelaer,  ka'teh-laR',  (Nicolaas,)  one  of  the  earliest 
of  Dutch  printers,  flourished  at  Utrecht  about  1480. 

Kett,  (Henry,)  a  learned  English  divine  and  author, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1761,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1783. 
He  was  drowned,  while  bathing,  in  1825.  Among  his 
works  are  "History  the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy,"  (3 
vols.,  1798-99,)  "Elements  of  General  Knowledge,"  (3 
vols.,  1802,)  and  "Flowers  of  Wit,"  (1814.) 

Kett,  (Kohert.)     See  Ket. 

Ketteler,  von,  fon  ket'teh-ler,  (Wilhelm  Emanuel,) 
a  German  bishop  and  baron,  born  at  Miinster,  December 
25,  1811.  He  was  made  a  Catholic  priest  in  1844,  and 
Bishop  of  Mentz  in  1850.  He  became  the  leading  ultra- 
montane statesman  of  the  German  Reichstag,  and  pub- 
lished many  works  bearing  on  the  relationship  of  church 
and  state  in  Germany,  and  on  kindred  subjects.  Died 
July  13,  1877. 

Kettle'well,  ket'tel-wel,  (John,)  an  English  nonjuring 
divine,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1653.  He  published  in 
1678  "Measures  of  Christian  Obedience,"  which  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  became  rector  of  Coleshill  alx)ut 
1682,  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William 
III.  in  1689,  and  was  ejected.  His  "rare  integrity"  is 
commended  by  Macaulay.     Died  in  1695. 

See  Neuson,  "Life  of  Kettlewell,"  1718. 

Kettner,  kSt'ner,  (Friedrich  Ernst,)  a  German 
writer  on  history  and  theology,  born  at  Stollberg  in 
1671  ;  died  in  1722. 

K§tu,  ka'too,  or  K6tus,  ka'toos,  [perhaps  etyinologi- 
cally  related   to  the  Greek  w/rof,  a  "sea-monster,"j  a 


monster  of  the  Hindoo  mythology ;  in  astronomy,  the 
dragon's  tail,  or  descending  node.     (See  Rahu.) 

Keuchen,  ko'Ken,  (Rohert,)  a  poet  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  Geldern,  flourished  about  1660. 

Keulen,  van,  vtn  ko'len  or  kuh'len,  (Jans-zons,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  in  1580.  He  wasemjiloyed  in  Eng- 
land by  Charles  I.,  and  afterwards  fixed  his  residence  at 
the  Hague.     Died  in  1665. 

Keulen,  van,  (Ludolph,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  at  Hildesheim.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  circle, 
("  Van  den  Cirkel,"  1596,)  and  "Geometrical  Problems." 
Died  at  Leyden  in  1610. 

Keux,  Le.     See  Le  Keu.x. 

Kew,  written  also  K'ew  and  Kieou,  one  of  the  names 
given  to  Confucius. 

See  Legge's  "  Life  and  Teachings  of  Confucius,"  ch.  v.  p.  58. 

Kexler,  kSks'ler,  (Simon,)  a  .Swedish  scholar,  born  in 
1602,  wrote  various  mathematical  works.    Died  in  1669. 

Key.     See  Caius. 

Key,  (Francis  Scott,)  an  American  jurist  and  ])oet, 
horn  in  Frederick  county,  Maryland,  in  1779.  Having 
removed  to  Washington,  he  became  district-attorney  of 
tliC  District  of  Columbia.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
|)opular  national  song  of  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner," 
and  a  number  of  other  poems.     Died  in  1843. 

Key,  (Thomas  Hewitt,)  an  English  philologist,  born 
near  London  in  1799.  Having  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  invited  in  1824  to  fill  the  chair  of  mathematics  in 
the  University  of  Virginia,  then  recently  founded.  After 
his  return  he  became,  in  1828,  professor  of  Latin  in  the 
University  of  London.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
a  "Latin  Grammar,"  (1846,)  and  numerous  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia"  and  the  "Journal 
of  Education."  In  1874  he  published  "Language,  its 
Origin  and  Development."     Died  November  29,  1875. 

Key,  ki,  (Willem,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Breda, 
m  the  Netherlands,  in  1520;  died  in  1568. 

Keyes,  keez,  (Erasmus  D.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  181 1,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1832.  He  became  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army 
in  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21. 
1  [e  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31,  1862,  and  at  other  battles  in  June  of  that  year.  He 
jjublished  "Fifty  Years'  Observations  of  Men  and 
Events,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Keying,  kl'ing',  or  Ky-In,  kl'in',  a  Chinese  diplo- 
matist, negotiated  with  the  English  the  treaty  of  Nankin 
in  1842,  after  which  he  was  governor  of  Canton.  He 
favoured  a  friendly  policy  towards  Europeans,  and  was 
disgraced  by  Hien-Fung  in  1850,  but  restored  in  1852. 

Keylhau,  kil'how,  (Eberhart,)  a  painter,  known  in 
Italy  under  the  name  of  MoNSU  Bernardo,  was  born 
at  Helsingor,  in  Denmark,  in  1624.  After  studying  under 
Rembrandt,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1687. 

Keyser,  de,  deh  kl'zer,  (Nicaise,)  an  eminent  Belgian 
painter,  was  born  near  Antwerp  in  1813.  In  1836  he 
exhibited  at  Brussels  his  picture  of  "The  Battle  of  the 
Golden  Spurs."  Among  his  other  most  admired  works 
are  "The  Battle  of  Woeringen,"  "The  Antiquary,"  and 
a  "Crucifixion."     Died  July  17,  1887. 

Keyser,  van,  vtn  kl'zer,  sometimes  written  De 
Keyser,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  architect  and  sculptor, 
horn  at  Utrecht  in  1565.  In  1619  he  completed  the 
inommient  of  William  L,  Prince  of  Orange.  Died  in 
1621. 

Keyser,  van,  (Thomas,)  a  skilful  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  about  1595  ;  died  in  1679. 

Keyserliug,  von,  fon  kl'/.er-ling',  (Thierry,)  a  Prus- 
sian general  and  littenitenr,  born  in  Courland  in  1698, 
was  a  friend  of  Frederick  the  Great.     Died  in  1745. 

See  Maupertuis,  "filoge  de  Keyserliug." 

Keysler,  kis'ler,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  anti- 
quary, born  at  Thurnau  in  1683.  Pie  published  "Travels 
in  Germany,  Italy,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1741,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  Haberi.in,  "Keysler's  Leben,"  1743. 

Khadijah,  Khadeejah,  or  Khadidja,  K5-dee'ji,  [in 
German,  Chadiuscha,]  written  also  Cliadijah,  a  rich 
widow  of  Mecca,  who  married  Mohammed  the  prophet. 
At  the  time  of  their  marriage  she  was  about  forty  years 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  shori;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  till,  f4i;  mil;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KHADYJAH 


M3  = 


KHOSROO 


of  age,  while  he  was  only  twenty-five.  She  bore  him  eight 
children,  all  of  whom  died  young  except  P'atimah,  who 
became  the  wife  of  his  cousin  and  favourite,  Alee,  (Ali,) 
the  son  of  Aboo-Talib.     (See  Mohammed.) 

Khadyjah.     See  Khadijah. 

Khaisang,  ]<'hi'saiig',  surnamed  Woo-tsoong,  (the 
"  Honourable  Warrior,")  called  by  the  Tartars  Kaishan- 
Knlluk-Khan,  ki'shjn'  kool'look  kIh,  a  sovereign  of 


the  Mongolian  dynasty,  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne 
of  China  A.D.  1308,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  abilities  as  a  commander,  and  for 
his  patronage  of  men  of  letters.     Died  A.D.  131 1. 

Khalaf,  vA-Wi',  ascended  the  throne  of  Seistan,  in 
Eastern  Persia,  about  A.D.  963.  He  was  a  bold  and  skil- 
ful warrior  and  an  able  diplomatist,  but  was  treacherous, 
cruel,  and  tyrannical.  After  a  reign  of  forty  years,  he 
was  conquered  by  the  emperor  Mahmood  of  Ghazna, 
who  imprisoned  him  till  his  death,  a.d.  1008. 

See  Malcolm,  "Histoi-j'  of  Persia." 

Khaied  or  Chaled,  Ka'led,  written  also  Caled,  a 
celebrated  Arabian  general,  born  in  582  A.D.  In  the 
third  year  of  the  Hejrah  he  comi)letely  routed  the  army 
of  Mohammed  at  the  battle  of  Ohod.  He  subsequently 
embraced  the  Moslem  faith,  gained  numerous  important 
victories  over  its  enemies,  and  received  from  the  prophet 
the  title  of  "  The  Sword  of  God."  Eastern  writers  asci  ibe 
to  this  warrior  almost  superhuman  valour,  which,  how- 
ever, was  often  stained  with  cruelty.  Died  about  642  A.D. 

See  OcKLEY,  "History  of  the  Saracens;"  Elmacin,  "  Historia 
Saracenonim  ;"  Aboolfeda,  "Aiiiiales  Mosleniici." 

Khaled-Ben  (or-Ibn)  -Barmek.  See  Barmecides. 
Khaleel  (Khalil)  or  Chalil,  Kaieel',  (Aboo-Abd- 
er-Rahman,  J'boo  ibd-er-rdn'mSn,)  a  celebrated  Arabic 
grammarian  of  Hassora,  born  about  719  A.D.  ;  died  in  786. 
Khaleel,  (Khalil,)  surnamed  Melik-al-Ashraf, 
mSl'ik  ai-Ssh'raf,  [i.e.  the  "Illustrious  King,")  eighth 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  succeeded  his  father  Kelaoon 
(Kelaun)  a.d.  1290.  He  took  Acre  from  the  European 
Christians,  whom  he  finally  drove  from  Syria.  He  was 
assassinated  by  his  ameers,  A.D.  I2q3. 

Khaleel-  (Khalil-  or  Chalil-)  Beg,  Ki-leel'  b§g,  of 
the  Turkoman  dynasty,  succeeded  his  father,  Oozoon 
(Uzun)  Ilassail,  on  the  throne  of  Persia,  A.D.  1478.  His 
excessive  cruelty  and  oppression  caused  several  revolts 
among  his  subjects,  during  one  of  which  he  was  slain 
on  the  field  of  battle. 

Khaleel  ( Khalil  or  Chalil)  Pasha,  grand  vizier  to 
the  Ottoman  Sultan  Amurath  IL     In  1444  he  gained 
at  Varna  a  decisive   victory  over  the   Christian    allies. 
In  this  battle  Ladislaus,  King  of  Hungary,  fell.     Upon 
the  accession  of  Mahomet  H.  Khaleel  still  retained  his 
power,  and  commanded  the  Turkish  army  at  the  capture 
of  Constantinople,  in  1453.     He  was  a  few  days  after 
condemned  on  a  charge  of  bribery,  and  executed. 
Khalil.     See  Khaleel. 
Khallikan.     See  Ihn-Khallikan. 
Khan  Arzu,  kSn  aR-zoo',  (or  simply  Arzu,)  an  Urdu 
(Oordoo),  or  Hindustanee,  poet,  born  in  1689.     He  lived 
at  Delhi,  and  at  Lucknow,  where  he  died  in  1756.      He 
wrote  good  poems  both  in  Urdu  and  in  Persian,  and  left 
an  excellent  Persian  dictionary. 

Khang-Hee,  (or -Hi,)  k'hSng  hee.  Emperor  of  China, 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Mantchoo  Tartars,  was  born  about 
1653  A.D.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Shun-Chee,  (Chun- 
tchi,)  at  the  age  of  seven  years.  In  1675  he  quelled  a 
formidable  rebellion  raised  against  him  by  the  Chinese 
under  Oo-san-Kwei.  He  afterwards  carried  on  success- 
ful wars  against  the  neighbouring  nations,  and  reduced 
nearly  all  the  princes  of  Tartary  to  vassalage.  Historians 
speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  justice,  candour,  libe- 
rality, and  tolerant  spirit  of  this  monarch.  Died  in  1722. 
See  BouvET,  "Life  of  Cang-Hy,  Present  Emperor  of  China," 
London,  1699;  Mailla,  "  Histoire  g^n^rale  de  la  Chine;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Eiographie  Generale. " 

Khatchadoor,  Khatchadour,    or    Khatchadur 

K^-ch^-dooR',  an  Armenian  poet  and  bishop,  born  at 
Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  about  1600.  His  poems  are 
chiefly  of  a  religious  and  moral  character. 

Khatchig  (Ka'chig)  I.  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Ar- 
menia in  972.  He  founded  numerous  monasteries,  and 
encouraged  literature  and  the  fine  arts.     Died  in  992. 


Khatchig  II.,  sometimes  written  Khatchadoor,  be- 
came Patriarch  of  Armenia  in  1058.  He  was  imprisoned 
at  Constantinople  by  Constantine  Ducas,  who  afterwards 
banished  him  to  Cappadocia.     Died  in  1064. 

Khell,  K&l,  (Joseph  von  Khellburg,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  at  Linz  in  1714,  published  several 
works  in  Vienna.     Died  in  1772. 

Khemnitzer,  (Ivan  Ivanovitch.)  See  Chem- 
nitzer. 

Kheraskof  or  Kheraskov,  Kgr'Ss-kof,  [written,  m 
German,  Cheraskow,]  (Michael  Matvievitch,)  a 
distinguished  Ru.ssian  poet,  born  in  1733.  _  Among  his 
principal  works  maybe  mentioned  "  Rossiada,"  (1785,) 
an  epic  on  the  event  of  the  Russians  liberating  them- 
selves from  their  Tartar  oppressors.     Died  in  1807. 

Khevenhiiller,  Ka'ven-h'ai'ler,  (Franz  Christoph,) 
a  German  historian,  born  in  1589,  rose  to  be  imperial 
minister  of  state.  He  wrote  "  Annales  Ferdinandei,"  a 
history  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  II.     Died  in  1650. 

Khilkof  or  Khilkov,  Kil'kof,  (Andrei  Yakof  Le- 
viTCH,)  a  Russian  prince,  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sweden 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1700.  War  having  been  soon 
after  declared  between  the  two  countries,  Charles  XII. 
ordered  Khilkof  to  be  thrown  into  prison.  During  his 
confinement  of  eighteen  years  he  wrote  his  celebrated 
"  History  of  Russia."  He  died  at  the  isle  of  Aland,  on 
his  return  to  Russia,  in  1718. 

Khlesl,  klgsl,  (Melchior,)  a  German  cardinal,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1553,  became  first  minister  of  the  emperor 
Matthias,  whom  he  had  assisted  in  usurping  the  throne 
of  Rudolph  II.     Died  in  1630. 

See  Von  Hammer-Purgstall,"  Leben  des  Cardinals  M.  Khlesl," 
Vienna,  4  vols.,  1847-51. 

Khoda-Bendeh,   Ko'dah   bSn'deh,   (Mohammed,) 

sovereign  of  Persia,  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sofees,  (or 
Sofys,)  "began  to  reign  in  1578.  He  was  a  weak  and 
effeminate  prince.  During  his  reign  the  Turks  and  Tar- 
tars ravaged  his  dominions.     Died  about  1587. 

Khomarooyah  or  Khomarouyah,  Ko-mi-roo'yah, 
succeeded  his  father,  Ahmed,  as  Sultan  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  S84  a.d.,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  carried  on  a 
war  with  the  caliph  Mootamed,  whom  he  obliged  to  sue 
for  peace,  and  invaded  the  Greek  empire,  from  which 
he  carried  a  rich  booty.     He  was  assassinated  in  896. 

Khomiakof,  Ko-me-^'kof,  Khomiakov,  or  Khomi- 
akow,  Ko-me-a'kov,(  Alexis  Stefanovitch,)  a  popular 
Russian  poet,  born  about  1802.  He  published  historical 
dramas,  called  "  Yermak"  (or  "  lermak")  and  "The  False 
Demetrius,"  also  lyrical  poems,  and  some  able  prose 
works. 

Khondemeer,  Khondeniir,  or  Khondemyr,  Kon- 
d^-mecR',  a  surname  of  Giyas-ed-Deen*  (Giyaa- 
eddin)  Mohammed,  ge-Sss'  ed-deen'  mohim'med,  a 
Persian  historian,  and  a  son  of  the  eminent  historian 
Mirkhond,  was  born  at  HerSt  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  valuable  universal  his- 
tory, extending  from  the  creation  to  1471,  also  a  work 
called  "The  Friend  of  Biographies  and  Eminent  Men," 
which  is  highly  commended.     Died  after  1522. 

See  Abel  Remusat,  "Melanges  .Asiatiques  ;"  D'Herbelot, 
"  BiblioihiQue  Orientale." 

Khoong-Foo-tse.     See  Confucius. 

Khosroo  or  Khosru,  Kos'roo',  written  also  Khos- 
rou,  Khosrau,  Kos'row,  and  Khosrew,  [Gr.  Xoapw/c; 
Lat.  Chos'roes,]  surnamed  in  Persian  Noushirvan, 
now'shlR-vIn',  or  Nooshirv.^n,  (Nuschirwan,)  said  to 
signify  "  Generous  Soul,"  the  greatest  of  the  Sassanide 
sovereigns,  was  the  son  of  Kobad,  (Cabades,)  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Persia,  A.D.  531.  At  an 
early  age  he  displayed  extraordi.  ary  talents  for  govern- 
ment, and  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne  immediately 
commenced  a  reform,  which  the  corrupt  reign  of  his 
father  had  rendered  necessary.  By  the  retrenchment 
of  expenditures,  and  other  means,  he  greatly  impioved 
the  state  of  the  finances.  He  appointed  none  but  the 
most  efficient  men  to  offices  ;  he  established  a  strict 
and  impartial  justice  throughout  his  dominions;  he  re- 
modelled his  army,  and  suppressed  the  Zendiks,  who 
were  promulgating  doctrines  immoral  and  dangerous  to 
the  slate.     He  also  concluded  a  peace  with  the  emperor 


*  Written  also  Gaintheddin.     See  Introduction,  p.  15. 


€as/4;  9asj;  ghard;  g^sj;  G,ii,'K.,gi(ttural;  -n, nasal;  v.,trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in //«>.     (2;:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KHOSROO 


1436 


KTELHORN 


Justinian,  who  raid  the  Persian  monarch  ten  thousand 
pounds  of  gold!  He  afterwards  carried  on  wars  with 
various  Asiatic  nations,  extending  his  empire  as  far  as 
the  Indus.  Alarmed  at  the  successes  of  Belisarius  in 
Italy  and  Africa,  he  resolved  to  strike  a  sudden  blow. 
In  540  he  invaded  Syria,  pillaged  and  burned  several 
cities,  including  Antioch,  and  took  a  multitude  of  pris- 
oners and  an  immense  amount  of  booty.  The  next  year 
he  was  opposed  by  Belisarius,  one  of  ilie  greatest  gene- 
rals of  that  or  of  any  age.  The  Roman  commander,  with 
a  small  number  of  ill-disciplined  soldiers,  succeeded  in 
holding  in  check  tlie  innumerable  hosts  of  Persia.  But 
in  542  this  great  general  was  recalled,  and  Khosroo, 
having  now  nothing  to  fear,  went  from  victory  to  victory. 
The  war  continued  until  562,  when  Justinian  purchased 
a  treaty  for  thirty  thousand  pieces  of  gold,  liostilities 
were  again  renewed  under  the  emperor  Justin,  and  the 
King  of  Persia  met  at  length  with  a  total  defeat,  in  578, 
from  Justinian,  the  general  of  the  emperor  Tiberius. 
Khosroo  died  in  579.  The  long  and  beneficent  reign  of 
this  prince  is  mentioned  by  Oriental  poets  as  the  golden 
age  of  Persia.  His  virtues,  his  wise  and  efficient  meas- 
ures for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  his  conquests,  his 
liberal  encouragement  of  literature  and  science,  attested 
by  the  numerous  colleges  and  libraries  which  he  founded, 
all  rendered  it  worthy  of  this  eminent  distinction.  A 
Pehlvi  translation  of  the  celebrated  Bidpay  or  Pilpay 
Fables  of  India  was  made  under  the  auspices  of  this 
prince.     He  was  succeeded  by  Hormisdas  IV. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  MiRK- 
HOND,  "Histoire  des  Snssanides,"  translated  by  De  Sacy  ;  D'Her- 
BKLOT,  "  Bibiioiheque  Orientale,"  article  "  Noiiscliirvau." 

Khosroo,  Khosru,  or  Kliosrau  (or  Chosroes)  II., 
surnamed  Parveez  or  ParwIz,  par'veez',  i.e.  the  "  Gene- 
rous," son  of  Hormisdas  IV.,  and  grandson  of  Khosroo 
I.,  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Persia  upon  the  deposition 
of  his  father,  A.D.  590.  He  was  soon  after  driven  from 
his  capital  by  the  rebel  Bahram,  and  obliged  to  seek  the 
protection  of  Maurice,  the  Emperor  of  the  East.  This 
sovereign,  with  a  powerful  army,  overthrew  the  rebels 
and  reinstated  Khosroo.  In  602  Maurice  was  assassin- 
ated by  the  usurper  Phocas.  Khosroo  immediately  took 
up  arms  to  avenge  his  death,  and  by  a  series  of  victories 
in  a  few  years  subjugated  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek 
empire,  and  at  length  appeared  before  the  gates  of  Con- 
stantinople. Heraclius,  the  successor  of  Phocas,  having 
vainly  attempted  to  obtain  a  favourable  peace,  resolved 
oravely  to  meet  his  foe  in  the  field.  He  gained  repeated 
victories,  and  in  five  years  drove  the  Persians  out  of 
every  province  which  they  had  wrested  from  the  einpire. 
Khosroo  was  assassinated  in  628.  He  had  married  a 
Christian  lady  named  Shereen,  (Shirin,)  distinguished  for 
her  exquisite  beauty.  She  poisoned  herself  at  his  grave. 
The  romantic  and  unchanging  affection  of  these  royal 
lovers,  together  with  their  tragic  end,  has  furnished  the 
subject  of  many  an  Oriental  poem. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia;"  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du 
Bas-Empire." 

Khosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosi'u  I.,  King  of  Armenia, 
surnamed  the  Grea'I",  a  brave  prince  and  able  general, 
ascended  the  throne  198  a.d.  He  conquered  the  nations 
of  the  Khazars  and  Basiliens,  and  overran  the  greater  part 
of  the  Persian  dominions.     He  was  assassinated  in  232. 

Khosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  II.,  the  second 
Christian  King  of  Armenia,  and  a  contempt)rary  and 
ally  of  Constantine  the  Great,  ascended  the  throne  in 
314.     Died  in  325. 

ISlhosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  III.  was  placed 
upon  the  throne  of  Persian  Armenia  by  the  King  of 
Persia  in  387,  whilst  the  legitimate  king  Arsaces  ruled 
that  part  of  Armenia  which  belonged  to  the  Romans. 
Khosroo  gained  several  important  victories  over  the 
neighbouring  nations,  and  upon  the  death  of  Arsaces 
annexed  Roman  Armenia  to  his  own  dominions.  In  392 
the  King  of  Persia,  suspecting  Khosroo  of  the  design 
to  render  himself  independent,  took  him  prisoner,  and 
placed  another  prince  on  his  throne.  After  remaining 
in  captivity  twenty-one  years,  he  was  restored  to  his 
kingdom.     His  death  occurred  soon  after. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Khoung-Fou-Tseu  or  Khoung-Tseu.  See  Con- 
fucius. 


Khowarezmi.     See  Al-Khowarezmi. 

KhuUeel.     See  Khaleel. 

Khuns,  khoons,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  was 
the  son  of  Amen  (Amnion)  and  Mut,  He  was  the  moon- 
god. 

Kick,  kik,  (Cornelis,)  an  artist,  celebrated  as  a 
painter  of  flowers  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Amsterdam 
in  1635;  died  in  1675. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kidd,  (John,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  1775,  was 
professor  of  chemistry,  or  medicine,  at  Oxford.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  the  Bridgewater  Treatise 
"On  the  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical 
Condition  of  Man."     Died  in  1851. 

Kidd,  (Samuel,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  at  Hull 
in  1801.  He  went  as  missionary  to  Malacca,  and  after 
his  return  was  professor  of  Chinese  in  the  University  of 
London.  He  published  "Illustrations  of  the  Symbols 
of  China,"  (1S41.)     Died  in  1843. 

Kidd,  (William,)  a  pirate,  born  in  Scotland  about 
1650.  He  is  known  to  local  tradition  as  Robert  Kidd. 
In  1696  he  was  intrusted  by  the  British  government  with 
the  command  of  a  privateer,  and  sailed  from  New  York 
for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  the  numerous  pirates 
then  infesting  the  seas.  He  went  to  the  East  Indies, 
where  it  was  believed  that  he  began  a  career  of  piracy. 
He  was  arrested  at  Boston  in  1699,  and  a  large  atnount 
of  his  plunder  was  afterwards  recovered.  He  was  soon 
sent  to  England  for  trial,  and  was  executed  in  1701.  It 
has  been  latterly  asserted  that  Kidd  was  no  pirate,  but 
only  a  privateer. 

See  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  Robin  Hood  and  Captain  Kidd,"  by 
W.  W.  Campbell,  1853. 

Kid'der,  (  Daniel  Parish,  )  D.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  clergyman,  born  in  Genesee  county,  New 
York,  in  1815.  He  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Connecticut,  and  in  1836  settled  as  a  pastor  at 
Rochester,  New  York.  In  1837  he  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Brazil,  where  he  introduced  the  Scriptures  in  the 
Portuguese  language.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Sketches  of  a  Residence  and  Travels  in  Bra- 
zil," (1845,)  which  was  republished,  with  large  additions, 
by  Rev.  James  C.  Fletcher,  in  1858. 

Kid'der,  (Richard,)  a.  learned  English  theologian, 
entered  Cambridge  University  in  1649,  and,  after  various 
preferments,  wasappointedDeanof  Peterborough  in  1689. 
He  was  raised  by  William  III.  to  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells  in  1691,  as  successor  to  Bishop  Ken.  He  wrote 
"A  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,"  a  "  Demonstration 
of  the  Messias,"  and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1703. 

SeeMACAOLAV,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  V. ;  Wood,  "Athena 
Oxonienses. " 

Kid'der-min'ster  or  Kyd'er-myn'ster,  (Rich- 
ard,) an  English  monk,  distinguished  as  a  preacher 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Worcestershire.  He  published 
a  Latin  treatise  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther.  Died 
in  1531. 

Kief'fer,  (Moses,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  was 
born  near  Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania,  May  5,  1814. 
He  graduated  at  Marshall  College  in  1838,  was  ordained 
to  the  ministry  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  in 
1839,  and  held  various  successful  pastorates.  He  was 
president  of  Heidelberg  College,  and  professor  in  the 
theological  school  at  Tiffin,  Ohio,  1855-64,  and  retained 
the  professorship  until  1867.  He  afterwards  held  an 
honorary  professorship  at  Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania. 

Kiel,  (Cornelis  van.)     See  Kii  ian. 

Kiel,  keel,  (Friedrich,)  a  Prussian  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Puderbach,  on  the  Lahn,  October  7, 
1821.  He  is  a  professor  of  music  at  Berlin.  Kiel  ranks 
as  one  of  the  ablest  contrajiuntists  of  the  present  century. 
His  "Canons  and  Fugues,"  his"  Missa  Solemnis,"  (1S66,) 
and  his  "  Requiem,"  (1862,)  are  excellent.   |D.  in  1885.J 

Kielhoru,  keel'hoKn,  (Fkanz  Lokenz,)  a  German 
Sanscrit  scholar,  born  at  Osnaburg,  May  31,  1840.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  Breslau,  London,  Berlin,  and  Ox- 
ford. In  1866  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Sanscrit  in 
the  Deccan  College  at  Pooiiah,  and  in  1882  he  became 
professor  at  Gottingen.  Besides  editions  and  translations 
of  various  texts,  he  published  a  "  Sanscrit  Grammar," 
(1870;  2d  edition,  1880.) 


a,  e,  i,  6,  fi,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,s/ipr/;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fdll,  fit;  \wl\.\  n6t;  good;  moon 


KIELLAND 


M37 


KILIJ-ARSLAN 


Kielland,  kySKIind,  (Alexander  L.,)  a  Norwegian 
author,  born  at  Stavanger,  February  i8,  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  Christiania,  and  became  a 
manufacturer.  He  published  "  Garman  og  Worse,"  a 
romance,  " Arbeidsfolk,"  (a  novel,  188 1,)  many  short 
tales,  several  bright  and  lively  pieces  for  the  stage,  and  a 
"  Life  of  Kristian  Elster,"  (1882.)  His  earlier  works  are 
in  the  manner  of  Zola  ;  his  later  ones  are  better  and 
more  original. 

Kielnieyer,  von,  fon  keeKmi'er,  (Karl  Friedrich,) 
a  German  naturalist  and  professor,  born  near  Tubingen 
in  1765.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Relations  of 
Organic  Forces,"  (1793.)  Cuvier,  who  was  his  pupil, 
speaks  of  him  as  the  founder  of  the  modern  philosophical 
school.     Died  in  1844. 

See  Von  Martius,  "  Denkrede  aiif  C.  F.  von  Kielmeyer,"  1845. 

Kielsen,  keel'sen  or  ke-Sl'sen,  (Frederic  Chris- 
tian,) a  Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1774,  wrote  on  zoology  and  botany,  a  "Natural  History 
of  Birds,"  (1810,)  and  other  works. 

Kien-Looug,  (or  -Lung,)  ke-en'166ng,  written  also 
Kien-Long,  born  in  1710,  succeeded  his  father,  Yung- 
Tching,  on  the  imperial  throne  of  China  in  1735.  He 
reduced  Calmuck  Tartary  and  Thibet  to  subjection,  and 
established  numerous  fortresses  throughout  his  vast  em- 
pire. It  was  in  1770,  during  the  reign  of  this  emperor, 
that  the  Torgoots,  a  Mongolian  tribe  numbering  about 
300,000  and  inhabiting  the  country  near  the  Volga,  left 
their  homes,  and,  travelling  eastward,  after  incredible 
sufferings,  finally  reached  the  confines  of  China.  Kien- 
Loong  welcomed  them  warmly,  and  allotted  them  ample 
territory  for  their  future  home.  As  a  prince,  he  was  wise, 
just,  and  beneficent.  He  was  noted  for  his  love  of  lite- 
rature, and  for  the  liberal  encouragement  which  he  gave 
to  learned  men  of  every  nation.     Died  in  1799. 

See  FoRTiA  d'Urban,  "  Discours  sur  I'Empereur  Kien-Long," 
1841  ;  Abel  Ri^musat,  "  Nouveaiix  Melanges  Asiatiqiies,"  tome 
ii. ;  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  G^nerale."  For  an  interesting  account 
of  the  migration  of  Ae  Torgoots,  see  De  Quincey,  "  Narrative  and 
Miscellaneous  Papers,"  etc.,  vol.  i. 

Kien-Lung.     See  Kien-Loong. 

Kieou,  (pronounced  almost  kew,)  a  name  given  to 
Confucius  in  his  childhood.     (See  Confucius.) 

Kiepert,  kee'pCRt,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  geogra- 
pher, born  in  Berlin  in  1818,  published  a  number  of 
excellent  maps,  among  which  are  the  "Atlas  of  Hellas 
[Greece]  and  the  Hellenic  Colonies,"  "Maps  of  Asia 
Minor,"  and  an  "Historical-Geographical  Atlas  of  the 
Ancient  World." 

Kierings,  kee'rings,  (Alexander,)  a  skilful  land- 
scape-painter, born  in  Holland  in  1590;  died  in  1646. 

Kierkegaard,  ky§R'ke-goRd',  (Soren  Aabye,)  an 
eminent  Danish  philosopher,  born  at  Copenhagen,  May 
5,  1813.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  that  town,  and 
became  a  theologian,  but  was  never  ordained.  He  left 
some  thirty  books,  and  many  manuscript  writings ;  but 
his  most  noteworthy  book  is  "  Enten — Ellor,"  ("  Either — 
Or,")  a  philosophical  defence  of  Christianity.  Died  at 
Copenhagen,  November  ir,  1855.  His  "Life,"  by  G. 
Brandes,  (1877,)  is  a  very  brilliant  and  able  work. 

Kierman,  keeR'min,  (Gustaf,)  a  Swedish  patriot, 
born  in  1702.  He  was  elected  seven  times  a  member  of 
the  Diet.     Died  in  1766. 

Kiernander  or  Kjernander,  kySR'nSn'der,  (Johan 
Zecharias,)  a  missionary,  born  in  Sweden  in  171 1, 
was  sent  to  India  by  the  English  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge.     Died  at  Calcutta  in  1799. 

Kieser,  kee'zer,  (Dietrich  Georg,)  a  German  natu 
ralist  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Harburg,  in  Hanover, 
in  1779 ;  died  in  1862. 

Kiesewetter,  kee'zeh--^et'ter,  (Johann  Christoph,) 
a  learned  German  writer,  born  at  Oberweissbach  in  1666. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  many  works.     Died  in  1744. 

Kiesevretter,  (Rafael  Georg,)  a  German  writer  on 
music,  born  in  Moravia  in  1773.  Among  his  productions 
are  treatises  "On  the  Music  of  the  Modern  Greeks"  and 
"  On  the  Music  of  the  Arabians."  He  was  an  uncle  of 
Ambros,  the  historian  of  music.  His  musical  composi- 
tions are  very  numerous.     Died  in  1850. 

Kiesling,  kees'ling,  (Johann  Rudolph,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1706;  died  in 
1778. 


Kiesling,  (Leopold,)  an  eminent  German  sculptor, 
born  at  Schoneben,  in  Austria,  in  1770.  He  worked  in 
Vienna,  and  became  sculjitor  to  the  court.  Among  his 
works  are  a  bust  of  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  the 
monument  of  Von  Hammer-Purgstall.     Died  in  1827. 

See  Naglhr,  "AUgenieines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kif'fin  or  Kif'fen,  (William,)  an  English  merchant 
and  preacher,  born  in  i6i6.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune 
by  trade,  and  afterwards  became  a  dissenting  minister. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  Macaulav,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vii. 

Kik'kert,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  at  Vlie- 
land  in  1762  ;  died  about  1835. 

Kilbourne,  kil'burn,  (James,)  an  American  pioneer, 
born  in  New  Britain,  Connecticut,  in  1770.  He  organized 
about  1802  the  Scioto  Company  which  settled  in  Ohio, 
and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1813  to  1817.  He 
was  a  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  Died  at 
Worthington,  Ohio,  April  9,  1850. 

Kilbye,  kil'be,  ?  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Ratcliffe,  in  Leicestershire,  about  1550.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  O.xford,  and  one  of  the  translators 
of  the  liible.     Died  in  1620. 

Kilbye,  (Richard,)  an  English  minister,  author  of 
"  The  Burden  of  a  Loaded  Conscience."     Died  in  161 7. 

Kil-dare',  (Thomas  Fitzgerald,)  Earl  of,  an  Irish 
nobleman,  born  about  15 14,  was  a  son  of  Gerald,  Earl 
of  Kildare.  He  rebelled  against  the  King  of  England 
in  1534,  and  was  taken  prisoner,  sent  to  England,  and 
executed  at  Tyburn  in  1537. 

Kilian,  kee'le-Sn'  or  kil'e-an,  (Bartolomaus,)  a  skil- 
ful engraver,  born  in  Augsburg  in  1630,  was  the  son  and 
pupil  of  Wolfgang,  noticed  below.     Died  in  1696. 

Kilian,  kee'le-an,  or  van  Kiel,  (vtn  keel,)  (Corne- 
LIS,)  a  learned  author,  born  in  Brabant.  Among  his 
works  are  an  "  Etymology  of  the  Teutonic  Languages, 
or  a  Teutonic-and-Latin  Dictionary,"  and  several  pieces 
of  Latin  poetry.     Died  in  1607. 

Kilian,  (Georg  Christoph,)  an  engraver,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1709,  was  a  brother  of  Philipp  Andreas, 
noticed  below.     Died  in  1781. 

Kilian,  (Lucas,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
German  engravers,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1579.  He  eii- 
graved  with  uncommon  ease  and  rapidity.  Among  his 
best  works  are  "The  Resurrection,"  by  Paul  Veronese, 
and  "Christ  after  Death,"  by  Michael  Angelo.  Died 
in  1637. 

Kilian,  (Philipp  Andreas,)  an  eminent  engraver, 
was  born  in  Augsburg  in  17 14.  Augustus  IIL,  King  of 
Poland  and  Elector  of  Saxony,  appointed  him  his  court 
engraver,  and  Kilian  executed  several  designs  at  Dres- 
den, though  he  continued  to  spend  most  of  his  time  at 
Augsburg.  Among  his  works  are  the  "  Adoration  ot 
the  Kings,"  by  Paul  Veronese,  and  portraits  of  Francis 
[.  and  Maria  Theresa.     Died  in  1759. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kilian,  (Wolfgang,)  brother  of  Lucas,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1581.  He  studied  engraving  at  Augsburg 
and  Venice.  The  most  important  of  his  numerous  works 
is  the  "Celebration  of  the  Westphalian  Peace  in  Augs- 
burg in  1649,"  which  contains  about  fifty  portraits.  Died 
in  1662. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kilij-  (or  Kilidj-)  Arsian,  kil'lij  aR'slSn',  written 
also  Kelij-Arsian,  I.,  Sultan  of  Iconium,  began  to  reign 
in  1092.  He  was  defeated  by  the  crusaders  under  God- 
frey of  Bouillon  at  Nicaea  in  1097.  In  iioi  he  gained  a 
complete  victory  over  a  large  army  of  crusaders.  Haviiig 
revolted  against  the  Sultan  of  Persia,  he  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1107. 

See  Aboolfeda,  "Annales." 

Kilij-  (or  Kilidj-)  Arslin  II,  surnamed  Azz-ed- 
Deen  or  Azzeddyn,  iz'ed-deen',  ("  Splendour  of  the 
Faith,")  Sultan  of  Anatolia,commenced  his  reign  at  Ico- 
nium in  II 55  A.D.  He  carried  on  long  and  doubtful 
wars  against  the  Greek  empire,  but  finally  succeeded  in 
annexing  several  provinces  to  his  dominions.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  skill,  energy,  and  generosity.  Died 
in  1 1 92. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  Histoire  des  Croisades." 


€  as  /J;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Q^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KJLLIGRE  W 


1438 


KING 


Kil'll-grew,  (Anne,)  an  English  lady,  to  whom  i)iy- 
den  has  addressed  his  most  beautiful  elegy,  was  cele- 
brated for  her  virtues  and  accomplishments.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Dr.  Henry  Killigrew,  and  was  born  in 
1660.  She  excelled  both  as  a  poetess  and  as  an  artist. 
A  volume  of  her  ])oems  was  published  shortly  after 
her  death,  which  occurred  in  1685.  She  executed  por- 
traits of  James  II.  and  his  queen,  and  several  historical 
plain  tings. 

Set  Bai.lard,  "Memoirs  of  Several  Ladies  of  Great  Britain," 
etc.  .  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  Costello, 
1844 

Killigrew,  (Catherine,)  the  wife  of  Sir  Henry  Kil- 
ligrew, was  born  about  1530.     She  was  distinguished  for 
her  poetical    effusions  and   for    her  knowledge    of   the  j 
classical  and  Oriental  languages.     She  was  a  daughter  \ 
of   Sir   Anthony  Cooke,  and   a  sister  of  Lord   Bacon's 
mother.     Died  in  1600. 

Killigrew,  (Dr.  Henry,)  a  dramatist,  and  a  brother 
of  Sir  William  Killigrew,  was  born  in  1612.  He  served 
as  chaplain  to  the  Cavaliers,  and  subsequently  gradu- 
ated as  D.D.  at  Oxford  in  1642.  He  wrote  a  tragedy, 
"The  Conspiracy,"  and  other  works.     Died  abo.it  1688. 

See  Wood,  "Athene  Oxonienses." 

Killigrew,  (M.a.rgaret,)  wife  of  William  Cavei-.dish, 
Duke  of  Newcastle.  She  wrote  a  life  of  her  husband, 
and  several  philosophical  works.     Died  in  1673. 

Killigrew,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  m 
Middlesex  in  161 1,  was  a  page  to  Charles  I.  After  the 
commencement  of  the  rebellion  he  accompanied  Charles 
II.  on  the  continent,  and  married  one  of  the  queen's 
maids  of  honour.  Upon  the  restoration  he  was  made 
groom  of  the  bed-chamber,  and,  on  account  of  his  wit 
and  oddities,  became  a  highly-privileged  person  at  court 
He  wrote  several  plays.     Died  in  1682. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Killigrew,  (Sir  William,)  a  brother  of  the  precedmg, 
was  born  in  1605.  For  his  faithful  adherence  to  Charles 
I.  he  was  knighted  at  the  restoration,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  vice-chamberlain.  He  wrote  several  plays, 
and  two  works  entitled  "Midnight  and  Daily  Thoughts'" 
and  "  Artless  Midnight  Thoughts  of  a  Gentleman  at 
Court."     Died  in  1693. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Kilmaine,  kil-man',  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  general, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1754,  entered  the  French  army,  and 
served  with  distinction  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  Died 
in  1799. 

Kilmarnock,  Earl  of.     See  Boyd,  (William.) 

Kil-pat'rick,  (Judson,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  Jersey  in  1836,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  April, 
1861.  He  served  as  captain  at  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1861  became  a  lieutenant-colonel 
of  cavalry.  In  1862  he  took  part  in  various  operations  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  May,  1863,  after  which  he  was 
employed  in  a  raid  to  Richmond  for  the  release  of  Federal 
prisoners.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  of  Sherman's 
army  in  its  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah,  November- 
December,  1864.  He  was  minister  to  Chili  from  1865  to 
1870,  was  reappointed  in  1881,  and  died  there  December 
4  of  the  same  year. 

Kilwardeby,  kil-wird'be,  (Robert,)  an  English 
prelate,  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1272,  and 
cardinal  in  1277.     Died  in  1279. 

Kil-war'den,  (Arthur  Wolfe,)  Lord,  an  Irish 
judge,  born  about  1740.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1766,  became  attorney-general  in  1789,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench  in  1798.  He  was  massacred  by  a 
mob  of  insurgents  in  Dublin  in  1803,  during  a  revolt,  of 
which  Robert  Emmet  was  the  leader, 

Kim'ball,  (Harriet  McEwen,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  She  has  pub- 
lished "Hymns,"  (1867,)  "Swallow  Flights  of  Song," 
(1874,)  and  "The  Blessed  Company  of  all  Faithful 
People,"  (1879.) 

Kim'ball,  (Nathan,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Indiana.  He  commanded  a  division  of  the  Union  army 
It  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  June-July,  1863,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Franklin,  November,  1864. 


Kimball,  (Richard  Burleigh,)  an  American  writer 
and  lawyer,  born  at  New  Lebanon,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1S18.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  sub- 
sequently travelled  in  England  and  on  the  continent. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Reminiscences  of  an 
Old  Man,"  "Cuba  and  the  Cubans,"  (1850,)  and  "Ro- 
mance of  Studen>t-Life  Abroad,"  (1853.) 

Kim'ber,  (Edward,)  son  of  Isaac  Kimber,  born  in 
1 719,  produced  some  historical  works,  and  a  novel  en- 
titled "  Adventures  of  Joe  Thompson."     Died  in  1769. 

Kimber,  (Isaac,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  born 
in  Berkshire  in  1692.  He  wrote  the  Lives  of  Bishop 
Beveridge  and  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  (1714.)  and  compiled 
a  "  History  of  England,"  (1745.)     Died  in  1758. 

Kim'ber-ley,  (John  Wodehuuse,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1826,  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1847.  He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs 
from  1852  to  1856,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Pe- 
tersburg in  the  latter  year,  and  returned  in  1858.  He 
was  again  appointed  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs 
in  June,  1859,  resigned  in  August,  1861,  and  was  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  from  October,  1864,  to  July,  1866. 
In  1866  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and  in  1868  he 
was  appointed  lord  privy  seal.  He  was  colonial  secre- 
tary in  1870-74  and  1S80-82.  In  1882  he  became 
secretary  of  state  for  India. 

Kimchi,  kim'kee,  or  Kimhi,  kim'nee,  (David,)  aii 
eminent  Jewish  rabbi,  sometimes  called  Redak,  born 
at  Narbonne,  France,  ab(iut  115S.  His  Gentile  family 
name  was  Pkiti".  He  is  regarded  by  his  nation  as  the 
greatest  Hebrew  grammarian.  In  1232,  on  account  of 
his  influence  and  vast  erudition,  he  was  appointed  by 
the  French  and  Spanish  Jews  to  decide  in  a  controversy 
which  then  existed  between  them  in  regard  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Maimonides.  His  principal  works  are  a  Hebrew 
Grammar,  a  "Dictionary  of  Hebrew  Roots,"  and  com- 
mentaries on  nearly  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Died  about  1235. 

Kimchi,  (Joseph,)  a  learned  rabbi,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  flourished  at  Narbonne  about  1 160.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  grammar. 

Kiiiaston.     See  Kynaston. 

Kind, kint,  (Johann  FRiEDRiCH,)aGerman//V/mz/'^;^r 
and  poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1768.  He  wrote  novels, 
dramas,  and  poems.  His  most  famous  production  is  the 
opera  "  Der  Freischiitz,"  set  to  music  by  Weber.  Died 
at  Dresden  in  1843. 

Kind,  (Karl  Theodor,)  a  German  writer,  distin- 
guished for  his  knowledge  of  the  modern  Greek  language 
and  literature,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1 799.  He  published 
"  Modern  Greek  Popular  Songs  in  the  Original  and  with 
a  German  Translation,"  etc.     Died  December  7,  1868. 

King,  (Charles,)  an  American  journalist,  son  of 
Rufus  King,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  New  York 
in  1789.  Lie  became  in  1823  associate  editor  of  the 
"  New  York  American,"  a  literary  and  political  journal 
of  a  conservative  character.  He  was  subsequently  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "Courier  and  Enquirer,"  in  New 
York,  and  in  1849  was  chosen  president  of  Columbia 
College.     Died  near  Rome  in  1867. 

King,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  the  subject  of  Milton's  monody  of  "Lycidas."  He 
was  drowned  in  1637,  aged  about  twenty-seven  years. 

King,  (Edward,)  a  learned  English  antiquary  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1735.  In  1767  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Observations  on  Ancient  Castles,"  and  a  treatise 
on  English  architecture  previous  to  the  Norman  con- 
quest.    Died  in  1807. 

King,  (Gregory,)  an  English  engraver  and  writer  on 
heraldry,  born  at  Lichfield  about  1648;  died  in  1712. 

King,  (Harriet  E.  Hamilton,)  an  English  poetes.s, 
born  in  1S40,  daughter  of  Admiral  Hamilton,  and  niece 
of  the  Duke  of  Abercorn.  In  1863  she  married  Henry 
S.  King,  a  publisher.  Among  her  books  of  poetry  are 
'■'  Aspromonte,"  (1S69,)  "The  Disciples,"  (1873,)  and  "A 
Book  of  Dreams,"  (1883.) 

King,  (Dr.  Henry,)  an  English  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  1 591,  became  Bishop  of  Chichester.  He  wrote  "A 
Poetical  Version  of  the  Psalms,"  "Poems,  Elegies,  Para- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fAt;  m5t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KING 


M39 


KING 


doxes,  and  Sonnets,"  (1659,)  and  various  sermons  and 
religious  treatises.     Died  in  1669. 

See  Wood,  "Atlienae  Oxonienses." 

King,  (John,)  a  clergyman  and  writer,  brother  of 
Bishop  Henry  King,  was  born  about  1596;  died  in  1639. 

King,  (John,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in  the 
county  of  Bucks  about  1559,  was  the  father  of  Henry, 
noticed  above.  He  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  In  161 1  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  London.     Died  in  1621. 

King,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cornwall  in 
1652.  He  preached  for  some  time  at  Chelsea,  and  be- 
came prebendary  of  York  in  173 1.     Died  in  1732. 

His  son  John,  born  in  1696,  was  a  physician,  and 
published  an  edition  of  the  "Orestes,"  "Hecuba,"  and 
"Phoenissae"  of  Euripides,  (1726.)     Died  in  1728. 

King,  (John  Crookshanks,)  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1806,  emigrated  in  1829  to  America,  where  he 
soon  became  distinguished  as  a  sculptor.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  busts  of  John  Q.  Adams,  Daniel 
Webster,  and  other  eminent  Americans.     Died  in  1882. 

BZing,  (John  Glen,)  a  clergyman  and  writer,  was  born 
in  Norfolk,  England,  about  1735.  He  was  chosen  in 
1763  chaplain  to  the  English  factory  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  wrote  "  The  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Greek 
Church  in  Russia;  containing  an  Account  of  its  Doc- 
trine, Worship,  and  Discipline."     Died  in  1787. 

King,  (John  P.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  Glas- 
gow, Kentucky,  April  3,  1799,  was  elected  by  the  Demo- 
cratic party  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1S33  ;  was 
again  elected,  but  resigned,  and  became  president  (1841- 
78)  of  the  Georgja  Railroad.    Died  March  19,  1888. 

King,  (Matphew  Peter,)  an  English  musician  and 
composer,  born  in  1773.  He  composed  the  music  for 
various  dramatic  pieces,  and  also  produced  songs,  glees, 
etc.     Died  in  1823. 

King,  (Mitchell,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  in  Scotland  in  1783.  He  removed  to 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  law.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Philosophical  Society  at  Charleston,  and  was  appointed 
in  1819  judge  of  the  city  court. 

King,  (Peter,)  Lord,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  high 
chancellor  of  England,  born  at  Exeter  in  1669,  was  the 
son  of  a  grocer.  His  talents  and  application  attracted 
the  attention  of  his  maternal  uncle,  the  celel^rated  John 
Locke,  through  whose  influence  he  was  sent  to  the 
University  of  Leyden.  After  his  return  to  England  he 
studied  law,  gained  admission  to  the  bar,  and  rapidly 
rose  in  his  profession.  He  was  elected  about  1700  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Beer-Alston,  which  seat  he 
retained  for  several  years.  In  1708  he  was  appointed 
recorder  of  London,  and  was  knighted.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  arduous  duties  of  his  profession,  King  found  time 
to  write  two  able  theological  works,  which  alone  would 
have  made  him  celebrated.  They  are  an  "  Inquiry  into 
the  Constitution,  Disci]5line,  Unity,  and  Worship  of  the 
Primitive  Church,"  (1691,)  (in  which  he  favoured  the 
rights  of  the  Protestant  dissenters,)  and  the  "  History 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  with  Critical  Observations  on  its 
Several  Articles,"  (1702.)  In  17 14  Sir  Peter  King  was 
created  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  and  in  1725 
was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  King  of  Ockham.  He  was  attached  to  theXVhig 
party.  He  resigned  the  seals  in  1733,  on  account  of  il) 
health.     Died  in  1734. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors ;"  "  Selec- 
tion from  the  Speeches  and  Writings  of  Lord  King ;"  Foss,  "  The 
Judges  of  England." 

King,  (Peter,)  Lord,  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  1775,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Lords  about  1796,  and  became  a 
political  and  personal  friend  of  Charles  James  Fox.  He 
published  a  "Life  of  John  Locke,"  (1829.)  He  died  in 
1833,  leaving  a  son  William,  Earl  of  Lovelace,  who 
married  Lord  Byron's  daughter  Ada. 

See  Lord  Brougham,  "  Sketches  of  Statesmen  of  the  IMrne  o' 
George  IIL,"  (second  series.) 

King,  (Peter  John  Locke,)  an  English  legislator,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ockham,  Surrey,  in 
181 1.     He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1847,  and  ob- 


tained the  repeal  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  sleeping 
statutes  in  1856.     Died  Novetnber  12,  1S85. 

King,  (Philip  Parker,)  an  English  navigator,  born 
in  the  island  of  Norfolk  in  1793.  He  commanded  an 
expedition  sent  in  1826  to  explore  and  survey  the  coasts 
of  South  America.  The  results  were  published  in  a 
"Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voyages  of  H.M.S.  Ad- 
venture and  Beagle,  between  the  Years  1826  and  1836," 
(1839.)     Died  in  1855. 

King,  (Preston,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Ogdensburg,  New  York,  in  1806.  He  embraced  the 
profession  of  law,  and  was  a  representative  in  Congress 
from  1843  to  1847,  and  again  from  1849  to  1853.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1853,  took  an 
active  part  in  the  senatorial  debates,  and,  during  the  dis- 
union movement  of  i86o-6ii  advocated  a  firm  adherence 
to  the  principles  of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  ap- 
pointed collector  of  the  port  of  New  York  about  1864. 
Died  at  New  York  in  November,  1865. 

King,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine  and  polemical 
writer,  born  in  Bristol  about  1750.  Among  his  princi- 
pal works  are  "  Letters  from  Abraham  Plymley  to  his 
Brother  Peter  on  the  Catholic  Question,"  and  a  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures."    Died  in  1810 

King,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  admiral,  born  i^ 
Dorsetshire  in  1771.  He  rendered  important  services 
at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  where  he  fought  as  captain, 
(1805.)   He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1821.    Died  in  1834. 

King,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in  Scar- 
borough, Maine,  in  1755,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1777. 
He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  17S0,  and 
became  an  eloquent  pleader.  In  1784  he  was  elected 
a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  in  which  he 
offered  in  1785  a  resolution  "Tiiat  there  be  neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in  any  of  the  States 
described  in  the  resolution  of  Congress  of  April,  1784," 
i.e.  the  Northwest  Territory.  He  married  Mary  Alsop, 
of  New  York  City,  in  1786.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Convention  which  in  1787  formed  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and  became  a  leader  of  the 
Federal  party.  Having  fixed  his  residence  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  178S,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  1789.  He  advocated  Jay's  treaty  in 
several  eloquent  speeches,  was  re-elected  to  the  national 
Senate  in  1795,  and  was  appointed  minister-plenipoten- 
tiary to  Great  Britain  in  1796.  He  performed  the  duties 
of  this  position  with  much  ability  for  eight  years,  and 
retired  to  private  life  in  1804.  In  1813  he  was  elected 
a  United  States  Senator  by  a  legislature  of  adverse  poli- 
tics. Having  been  again  elected  in  1819  or  1820,  he 
continued  in  that  body  until  1825,  and  made  an  able 
speech  against  the  extension  of  slavery  on  the  occasion 
of  the  admission  of  Missouri.  He  was  appointed  mui- 
ister  to  England  in  1825,  returned  about  a  year  later,  and 
died  in  April,  1827. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

King,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of  Charles 
King,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York 
in  1814.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833,  and  was 
employed  as  an  engineer  for  several  years.  About  1838 
he  became  adjutant-general  of  New  York.  He  after- 
wards edited  a  paper  at  Milwaukee.  He  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  commanded 
a  division  under  Generals  McDowell  and  Pope  in  the 
summer  of  1862.  He  was  minister  at  Rome  from  Oc- 
tober, 1863,  to  July,  1867.     Died  October  13,  1876. 

King,  (Susan  Petigru,)  an  American  writer,  daugh- 
ter of  James  L.  Petigru,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1824.  She  published  "  Busy  Moments  of  an 
Idle  Woman,"  "Sylvia's  World,"  and  other  tales.  Her 
secujid  husband  was  a  Mr.  Bowen.     She  died  in  1875. 

King,  (Thomas,)  an  actor  and  dramatist,  born  in 
London  in  1730.  Among  his  productions  are  "  Love  at 
First  Sight,"  "  A  Peep  behind  the  Curtain,  or  the  New 
Rehearsal,"  and  "Wit's  Last  Stake."     Died  in  1805. 

King,  (T.  Butler,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Hampshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1804.  He  studied 
law,  and  removed  to  Georgia  about  1824.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1839,  1841,  and  1845,  ^^^  ^^" 
came  a  secessionist  in  1861.     Died  in  1864. 


eas/J;  ^asj;  ghard;  gasy;  G,  U,yi,gutltiral;  a.mual;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin//;/j.     (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KING 


1440 


KINGSTON 


King,  (Thomas  Starr,)  an  American  Unitarian  di- 
vine, born  in  New  York  in  1824.  He  became  in  184S 
pastor  of  the  church  in  Hollis  Street,  Boston,  and  in 
1S60  sailed  for  San  Francisco,  where  he  assumed  charge 
of  the  Unitarian  church  in  that  city.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lecturer,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  White  Hills:  their  Legends,  Landscapes, 
and  Poetry,"  (1859.)     Died  in  1864. 

See  "A  Tribiile  to  Thomas  Starr  King,"  by  R.  Fkothingham. 

King,  (William,)  a  Protestant  prelate,  was  born  in 
Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1650.  He  opposed  the  Catholics 
under  James  H.,  and  favoured  the  Revolution.  In  1703 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  He  wrote  "  The 
Inventions  of  Men  in  the  Worship  of  God,"  (1694,) 
intended  to  reconcile  the  Irish  Presbyterians  to  the 
Episcopal  ceremonies,  and  a  treatise,  in  Latin,  on  "  The 
Origin  of  Evil,"  ("De  Origine  Mali,"  1702,)  which  was 
attacked  by  Bayle  and  Leibnitz.     Died  in  1729. 

Kling,  (William,)  a  learned  and  satirical  writer,  born 
in  London  in  1663.  About  1702  he  was  appointed  in  Ire- 
land to  the  offices  of  judge  of  the  admiralty,  keeper  of  the 
records,  and  commissioner  of  prizes.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Animadversions  upon  the  Pretended  Account  of 
Denmark,"  (1694,)  in  answer  to  a  work  by  Lord  Moles- 
worth,  "The  Transactioneer,"  a  satire  on  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, (1700,)  and  "Original  Works  in  Prose  and  Verse," 
(3  vols.,  1776.)  A  Memoir  of  his  life  is  prefixed  to  the 
last.     Died  in  171 2. 

King,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  near  Lon- 
don in  1685.  Among  his  works  are  several  Latin  tracts 
on  various  subjects,  and  his  autobiography,  entitled 
"Political  and  Literary  Anecdotes,"  (1819,)  containing 
an  interesting  account  of  a  number  of  his  contemporarie.'^. 
He  was  principal  of  Saint  Maty's  Hall,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  "Edinburgh  Renew"  for  July,  1819;  "Monthly  Review" 
for  February,  1819- 

King,  (William,)  born  at  Scarborough,  Maine,  in 
1768,  was  president  of  the  convention  which  framed  tiie 
Constitution  of  his  native  State.  He  was  afterwards 
elected  first  Governor  of  Maine.     Died  in  1852. 

King,  (William  Fletcher,)  D.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  near  Zanesville,  Oiiio,  Deceniber  20,  1S30. 
He  graduated  at  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  in  1857,  and 
for  five  years  was  tutor  there.  In  1S63  he  became  pres- 
ident of  Cornell  College,  in  Iowa. 

Klixig,  (William  Rufus,)  an  American  statesman  of 
the  Democratic  party,  born  in  Sampson  county,  North 
Carolina,  in  1786.  In  1810  he  was  elected  to  Congress. 
He  was  United  States  Senator  from  Alabama  from  1819 
to  1840,  being  re-elected  four  times.  He  supported 
General  Jackson  in  the  Presidential  campaigns  of  1824, 
1828,  and  1832,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  France  by 
President  Tyler  in  1844.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Senate  in  1S50,  and  in  1852  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States.     Died  in  1853. 

Kiug'lake,  (Alexander  William,)  an  English  au- 
thor and  barrister,  born  at  Taunton  in  1809,  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837,  after  which  he  made  a 
tour  in  the  Levant,  and  published  a  book  of  travel 
called  "  Eothen,"  (1844,)  which  was  highly  successful. 
He  accompanied  the  British  army  to  the  Crimea  in  1854, 
and  w^rote  a  "History  of  the  Crimean  War."  In  1857 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament.     Died  January  2,  1891. 

Sec  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1844,  and  April,  1863; 
"  Hl.ickwood's  Magazhie"  for  March,  1863,  and  January,  1S69; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1863  ;  "  North  British  Review"  lor 
May,  1863. 

Klinglake,  (John  Alexander,)  an  English  Liberal, 
born  in  Taunton  in  1S05,  a  cousin  of  A.  W.  Kinglake. 
In  his  times  he  was  considered  an  extreme  Radical. 
Died  in  London,  July  ii,  1870. 

Kinglake,  (Robert  Arthur,)  an  English  reformer 
and  philanthropist,  a  brother  of  the  historian  A.  W. 
Kinglake.  He  was  born  at  Taunton  in  1813.  His  atten- 
tion has  mainly  been  given  to  the  improvement  of  the 
condition  of  labouring  people.  He  established  a  "Court 
of  Reconciliation,"  by  which  suits  at  law  are  avoided 
and  difficulties  settled  without  cost.  Mr.  Kinglake  is 
also  the  author  of  several  works  of  merit. 


Kingo,  king'o,  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  poet  and  prelate, 
born  at  Slangerup  in  1634,  became  Bishop  of  Fiinen. 
His  sacred  poems  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contem- 
l^oraries,  and  he  has  been  compared  by  English  readers 
to  Dr.  Watts.     Died  in  1723. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kingsboiough,  kingz'bcir'eh,  (Edward  King,)  Vis- 
count, an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1795,  '^'^^  "^  son 
of  the  Earl  of  Kingston.  He  jjublished  "Antiquities  of 
Mexico,  comprising  Fac-Similes  of  Ancient  Mexican 
Paintings,"  etc.,  (9  vols.,  1830  et  seq.)     Died  in  1837. 

Kings'ley,  (Calvin,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist 
clergyman,  born  in  Oneida  county.  New  York,  in  1812, 
became  editor  of  the  "Western  Christian  Advocate"  in 
1856.  He  was  elected  a  bishop  in  1864.  Having  made 
a  tour  round  the  world,  he  died  on  his  return,  at  Jeru- 
salem, in  1870. 

Kings'ley,  (Rev.  Charles,)  a  popular  English  writer, 
born  at  Holne  Vicarage,  in  Devonshire,  in  June,  1819. 
He  was  educated  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  was 
ordained  a  priest  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  1843,  ^"^ 
became  rector  of  Eversley,  Hampshire,  in  1844.  About 
this  date  he  married  Miss  Grenfell,  whose  sister  is  the 
wife  of  Froude  the  historian.  He  published  in  1848  a 
dramatic  poem  called  "The  Saint's  Tragedy."  He 
united  with  his  friend  the  Rev.  J.  F.  D.  Maurice  in  efforts 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  working-men  by  the 
formation  of  co-operative  associations.  His  interest  in 
the  sufferings  and  trials  of  the  working-classes  in  large 
towns  was  manifested  in  his  novel  of  "  Alton  Locke, 
Tailor  and  Poet,"  (1850,)  which  attracted  much  attention, 
and  in  "  Yeast,  a  Problem,"  (1851,)  he  showed  a  similar 
interest  in  the  labor  question.  His  romance  of  "  Hy- 
patia"  (1853)  is  regarded  as  one  of  his  most  powerful 
works,  and  among  his  others  the  best-known  are  "  Alex- 
andria and  her  Schools,"  "  Sermons  for  the  Times," 
{1854,)  "  Westward  Ho  !"  a  novel,  (1855,)  "  Glaucus  ;  or, 
The  Wonders  of  the  Shore,"  "The  Heroes,  or  Greek 
Fairy  Tales,"  "Two  Years  Ago,"  a  novel,  (1856,)  "The 
Water-Babies,  a  Fairy  Tale  for  a  Land-Baby,"  (1863,) 
and  "  Plays  and  Puritans,"  (1873.)     Died  Jan'.  23,  1875. 

Kingsley,  (Henry,)  an  English  author,  brother  of 
Charles  Kingsley,  was  born  at  Holne,  in  Devon,  in  1830, 
and  was  educated  in  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  living,  for 
several  years  after,  in  Australia.  He  jjublished  "  Recol- 
lections of  Geoffrey  Hamlyn,"  (1S5S,)  "  Ravenshoe," 
(1S61,)  "Austin  Elliott,"  (1863,)  "'The  Hillyars  and  the 
Burtons,"  (1S65,)  "  Leighton  Court,"  (1866,)  "Mademoi- 
selle Mathilde,"  (186S,)  "  Stretton,  Hetty,  and  other 
Stories,"  (1869,)  "Old  Margaret,"  (1871,)  "Reginald 
Hetheridge,"  (1874,)  "The  Grange  Garden,"  (1S76,)  and 
many  other  stories.     Died  May  24,  1S76. 

Kingsley,  (James  Luce,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Windham, 
Connecticut,  in  1778,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1799, 
and  in  1805  became  professor  of  Hebrew,  Latin,  and 
Greek  in  that  institution.  He  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Ezra 
Stiles"  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography,"  and  pub- 
lished several  educational  works.     Died  in  1852. 

Kiugs'mill,  (Andrew,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  at  Sidmonton  in  153S.  He  preached  at  Oxford  and 
at  Geneva,  and  published  several  religious  works.  Died 
at  Lausanne  in  1569. 

Kings'ton,  (Elizabeth  Chudleigh,)  Duchess  of, 
an  English  beauty,  born  in  1720.  She  was  privately 
married  to  Harvey,  who  became  Earl  of  Bristol,  and 
from  whom  she  was  soon  separated.  In  1769  she  was 
again  married  to  the  Duke  of^Kingston.  Slie  was  tried 
on  a  charge  of  bigamy,  and  convicted.     Died  in  1788. 

See  "An  Authentic  Detail  of  Particulars  relative  to  the  Duchess 
of  Kingston,"  London,  178S. 

Kingston,  (William  Henry  Giles,)  an  English 
writer  of  fiction,  chiefly  for  juvenile  readers,  was  born  in 
London,  February  28, '1S14,  and  spent  most  of  his  youth 
in  Portugal,  .^niong  his  numerous  works  are  "The 
Circassian  Chief,"  (1844,)  "The  Prime  Minister,"  (1S45,) 
"Lusitanian  Sketches,"  "Peter  the  Whaler,"  (1S51,) 
"Western  Wanderings,"  (1856,)  "The  Three  Midship- 
men," "The  Three  Lieutenants,"  "The  Three  Com- 
manders," "The  Three  Admirals,"  etc.,  his  boys'  books 
alone  numbering  over  one  hundred  and  thirty.  Died  at 
Willesden,  August  5,  iSSo. 


a,  c,  T,  6,  Q,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^,  fill,  f^tj  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KINKEL 


1 441 


KIRCHHOFF 


Kinkel,  kink'el,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
patriot,  poet,  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Oberkassel  in 
1815.  He  published  in  1846  a  "History  of  the  Plastic 
Art  among  Christian  Nations,"  and  a  poem  entitled 
"Otto  the  Archer."  In  1848  he  established  a  journal 
called  "  Spartacus,"  in  which  he  was  a  zealous  advocate 
of  democratic  principles.  Having  taken  part  in  the 
storming  of  the  arsenal  at  Siegburg,  and  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Palatinate,  he  was  in  June,  1849,  taken  by  the 
Prussians  and  imprisoned  at  Spandau.  In  November, 
1850,  assisted  by  his  friend  Carl  Schurz,  he  made  his 
escape  to  England.     Died  November  15,  1882. 

See  Strodtmann,  "  Kinkels  Leben,"  2  vols,,  1850;  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kinkel,  (Johanna,)  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  1807,  was  distinguished  as  an  authoress  and 
musician.     Died  in  1858. 

Kinker,  kink'er,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  author  and  poet, 
born  near  Amsterdam  about  1760;  died  aljout  1825. 

Kiiiloch,  kin'loK,  (William  Penney,)  Lord,  a 
Scottish  judge,  born  at  Glasgow,  August  8,  1801,  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1858  was 
made  a  judge.  Died  October  30,  1872.  He  published 
several  volumes  of  verse,  mostly  of  a  devotional  char- 
acter. 

KinnSra,  kfn'a-ra,  [etymology  uncertain,]  sometimes 
improperly  written  Cinnara,  the  name  given  to  the  male 
dancers  of  Swerga,  or  the  paradise  of  Indra.  The  Kin- 
naras  are  represented  with  the  body  and  limbs  of  a  man 
and  the  head  of  a  horse. 

Kin'ney,  (Coates,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Crooked  Lane,  near  Penn  Yan,  New  York,  in  1826. 
He  went  West  when  a  boy,  and  has  been  successively 
school-teacher,  journalist,  and  lawyer.  He  published 
"Keeuka,  and  other  Poems,"  in  1854.  His  short  lyric 
called  "  Rain  on  the  Roof"  has  attained  wide  popularity. 

Kinsbergen,  van,  v3n  kins'b^R'nen,  (Jan  Hen- 
DRIK,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  at  Doesburg  in  1735.  In 
1767  he  entered  the  Russian  service  under  Catherine  II., 
and  soon  after  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Turks. 
In  1781  he  assisted  in  the  famous  battle  of  Doggersbank, 
fought  between  the  Dutch  and  English.  He  was  created 
Count  of  Doggersbank  by  Louis,  King  of  Holland.  Died 
in  1820. 

See  M.  C.  van  Hall,  "Leven  en  Karakter  van  den  Admiraal 
Jonkheer  J.  H,  van  Kinsbergen,"  1841 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Kinscliot,  van,  vtn  kins'Kot,  (Hendrik,)  a  Belgian 
jurist,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1541  ;  died  in  1608. 

Kinschot,  van,  (Kaspar,)  a  Dutch  writer  of  Latin 
poetry,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1622  ;  died  in  1649. 

Kinsky,  kin'skee,  (Franz  Joseph,)  Count,  an  Aus- 
trian general,  born  at  Prague  in  1739,  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  French  in  1793-96.     Died  in  1805. 

Kinsky,  kin'skee,  (Ferdinand  Johann  Nepomqk 
Joseph,)  Prince,  an  Austrian  musician,  known  as  a  friend 
and  patron  of  Beethoven.     Died  November  2,  1812. 

Kinson,  kin'son,  or  Kinsoen,  kin'soon,  (Frans,)  a 
skilful  Flemish  portrait-painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1774 
or  1770,  worked  in  Paris  and  Brussels.     Died  in  1839. 

Kip,  (William  Ingraham,)D.D.,  an  American  prel- 
ate, born  in  New  York  in  181 1.  He  graduated  in  1831 
at  Yale  College,  and  was  consecrated  in  1853  mi.ssionary- 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  California. 
He  published  "Early  Conflicts  of  Christianity,"  "The 
Double  Witness,"  "  The  Catacombs  of  Rome,"  "  Domes- 
tic and  Religious  Life  in  Italy,"  etc. 

Kip'ling,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  professor  of  theology  at 
Cambridge,  and  Dean  of  Peterborough,  born  in  England 
about  1755.  ^^  wrote  "The  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England  proved  not  to  be  Calvinistic,"  and  various  other 
works.     Died  in  1821. 

Kipping,  kip'ping,  [Lat.  Kippin'gius,]  (Heinrich,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  near  Rostock  about  1623, 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works  on  philology,  history, 
and  antiquities.     Died  in  1678. 

See  H.  E.  Heeren,  "Oratio  de  H.  Kippingio,"  etc.,  1755. 

Kippingius.    See  Kipping. 

Kip'pis,  (Andrew,)  an  English  dissenting  minister 
and  eminent  biographer,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1725. 
He  preached  for   some  years  in  London,  whither  he 


removed  in  1753,  and  was  appointed  teacher  in  Coward's 
Academy  for  the  education  of  dissenting  ministers,  in 
1763.  About  1780  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  His  most  important  work  is  a  new  and  enlarged 
edition  of  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  of  which  he  pub- 
lished 5  vols,  in  1778-79.  This  work  is  highly  esteemed, 
but  was  left  unfinished,  terminating  at  the  letter  F.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Captain  Cook,"  (1788.)     Died  in  1795. 

See  Rees,  "Cyclopaedia." 

Kir'by,  (John  Joshua,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  artist 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1716.  He  published 
"  The  Perspective  of  Architecture,"  (1761,)  and  "A  Map 
of  Suffolk."     Died  in  1774. 

Kirby,  (Rev.  William,)  an  eminent  English  ento- 
mologist, born  in  Suffolk  in  1759,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  educated  ?.t  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  became  curate  of  Barham.  He  studied 
various  branches  of  natural  history,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  to  which  he 
contributed  several  papers.  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  work  on  English  Bees,  "Monographia 
Apium  Anglias,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)  In  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Spence,  he  published  an  excellent  "  Introduction  to  En- 
tomology,"'(4  vols.,  1815-26.)  He  also  wrote  the  Bridge- 
water  Treatise  entitled  "  The  Habits  and  Instincts  of 
Animals."     Died  in  1850. 

See  J.  Freeman,  "Life  of  William  Kirby,"  1852;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  October,  1835 ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January, 
1803,  and  November,  1817. 

Kirch,  kSeRK,  (Christfried,)  a  distinguished  as- 
tronomer and  writer,  born  at  Guben  in  1694.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academies  of  Science  at  Paris  and  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  director  of  the  Observatory  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1740. 

Kirch,  (Gottfried,)  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1639.  He  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  Observatory  and  royal  astronomer  at  Berlin. 
He  wrote  "  Observations  upon  the  Comet  that  appeared 
in  Italy  in  1676,"  (1677,)  "Astronomical  Tables,"  and 
"  Christian,  Jewish,  and  Turkish  Calendar  to  the  Year 
1685."     Died  in  1710. 

Kirch,  (Marie  Margarethe  Winckelmann,)  an 
astronomer,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Upper 
Lusatia  in  1670.  She  assisted  her  husband  in  his  astro- 
nomical labours,  and  published  almanacs.     Died  in  1720. 

Kirchbach,  von,  fon  kggRK'baK,  (Hugo  Ewald,)  a 
German  general,  born  May  23,  1809.  He  entered  the 
Prussian  army  in  1826,  was  a  lieutenant-general  in  the 
Austrian  war  of  1866,  and  a  corps-commander  and  full 
general  in  the  French  war  of  1870-71. 

Kjr'eher,  [Ger.  pron.  kegR'Ker ;  Lat.  Kirche'rus,] 
(  Athan  asius,)  a  learned  German  Jesuit,  distinguished  for 
his  talents  and  versatility,  was  born  near  Fulda  in  1601. 
Having  studied  at  Avignon,  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by 
the  pope  to  fill  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Roman 
College.  He  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  philology, 
hieroglyphics,  and  antiquities,  which  display  profound 
learning,  but  are  deficient  in  sound  criticism,  and  many 
of  them  are  rather  interesting  than  reliable.  Among 
these  may  be  named  "  Prodromus  Coptus,"  (1636,) 
"CEdipus  Egyptiacus,"  (3  vols.,  1652-55,)  being  an  ex- 
planation of  hieroglyphics,  "  Mundus  Subterraneus," 
(1665,)  and  "Description  of  Latium  considered  in  its 
Ancient  and  Modern  Aspect,"  ("  Latium,  id  est  nova  et 
parallela  Latii,  tum  veteris,  turn  novi,  Descriptio,"  1669.) 
He  also  published  several  valuable  scientific  treatises; 
and  to  him  is  generally  ascribed  the  invention  of  the 
.magic-lantern.     Died  in  1680. 

See  his  autobiography,  "Vita  Kircheri,"  in  the  "Fasciculus 
Epistolarum  Kircheri,"  16S4  :  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary ;"  Nic^ron,  "  M^moires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Kircher,  (Conrad,)  a  German  philologist  and  writer, 
born  in  Augsburg.  His  chief  work  is  a  Greek  and  He- 
brew Concordance  of  the  Old  Testament,  (1607.)  Died 
after  1620. 

Kirchhoff,  kSSRK'hof,  (Gustav  Robert,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  at  Konigsberg,  March  12,  1824.  He 
held  professorships  of  physics  at  Breslau,  Heidelberg, 
and  Berlin,  and  became  distinguished  for  his  observations 
and  discoveries  with  the  spectroscope.  He  published 
"  Researches  on  the  Solar  Spectrum."     Died  in  1887. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s; 


\  hard;  g  as/V  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 

91 


(2!^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KIRCHMAIER 


1442 


KIRK  WOOD 


Kirchmaier  or  Kirchmayer,  kS^RK'mi'er,  (Georg 
Kaspar,)  a  German  chemist  and  scholar,  born  in  Fran- 
conia  in  1635.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  several  classic 
authors.  The  discovery  of  the  art  of  etching  on  glass 
with  fluoric  acid  is  attributed  to  hin.      Died  in  1700. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgemdnes  Gelehrten-Lexikoii ;"  "  Nouvella 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Kirchmaier,  (Thomas,)  a  Lutheran  minister,  born  in 
Bavaria  about  151 1.  He  took  the  Greek  name  of  Nao 
Georgos.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  Latin  poems 
and  theological  and  polemical  works,  mostly  written  in 
the  Latin  language.  He  preached  at  Stuttgart,  Esslingen, 
and  Wisloch.     Died  in  1563. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Sax,  "  Ono- 
masticon." 

Kirchman,  kSgRK'min,  a  Russian  electrician,  of  Ger- 
man extraction,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Saint 
Petersburg.  He  was  killed  by  the  electric  fluid,  in  the 
act  of  attracting  it  from  the  clouds,  in  1753. 

Kirchmann,  ke^RK'niin,  (Johann,)  a  German  au- 
thor and  scholar,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1575,  became  in 
1603  professor  of  jioetry  at  Rostock.  He  wrote  a  "  Dis- 
sertation on  the  Funeral  Ceremonies  used  among  the 
Romans,"  (1605,)  and  "De  Annulis,"  a  treatise  on  an- 
cient rings.     Died  in  1643. 

See  Bayi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Kirchmann,  von,  fon  kd^RK'mSn,  (Julius,)  a  German 
philosopher  and  jurist,  born  at  Schafstedt,  near  Merse- 
burg,  in  1802.  He  was  educated  at  Leipsic  and  Halle, 
and  became  prominent  as  a  Liberal  Prussian  legislator,  but 
in  1S66  was  deprived  of  his  right  to  act  as  a  legal  coun- 
sellor. Besides  important  legal  works,  ("  Prussian  Code 
of  Civil  Procedure,"  "Penal  Code  for  North  Germany," 
"  Penal  Code  for  the  Empire,"  etc.,)  he  published  "  Phi- 
losophy of  Science,"  "  On  Immortality,"  "  .i^sthetics 
based  on  Realism,"  "Catechism  of  Philosophy,"  etc. 
Though  opposed  to  idealism,  his  system  is  considered  in- 
compatible with  absolute  materialism.     Died  in  18S4. 

ELirchner,  k^RK'ner,  (Theodor,)  a  German  musical 
composer,  born  at  Neukirchen,  in  Saxony,  in  1824.  His 
"  genre  pieces"  for  the  piano-forte,  in  which  the  influence 
of  Schumann  is  manifest,  are  his  best  performances. 

Kirgener,  k^Rzh'naiR',  (Joseph,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1766,  was  killed  at  Markersdorf  in  1813. 

Kirk,  (Edward  N.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio.  He  was  a  citizen  of  Illinois  when  the  civil  war 
began.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at 
thebattleofShiloh,  April  6  and  7,  1862,  and  was  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Stone  River.     Died  July  29,  1863. 

Kirk,  (Edward  Norris,)  D.D.,  an  American  Con- 
gregationalist  divine,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  and 
became  in  1828  pastor  of  a  church  at  Albany.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  secretary  of  the  Foreign  Evangelical 
Society,  and  in  1842  settled  as  pastor  of  the  Mount  Ver- 
non Church,  Boston.     Died  March  27,  1874. 

Kirk,  (Ellen  W.,)  an  American  novelist,  second  wife 
of  J.  F.  Kirk,  was  born  in  1842.  She  was  a  daughter 
of  Jesse  Olney.  Among  her  writings  are  "  Love  in  Idle- 
ness," "  A  Lesson  in  Love,"  "  Through  Winding  Ways," 
"  A  Midsummer  Madness,"  etc. 

Kirk,  (John  Foster,)  an  American  historian,  born  at 
Fredericton,  New  Brunswick,  in  1824.  His  education 
was  obtained  in  Nova  Scotia.  He  was  secretary  and 
assistant  to  the  historian  Prescott  from  1847  'o  1859. 
His  principal  work  is  the  "  History  of  Charles  the  Bold," 
(3  vols.,  1863-6S.)  He  also  edited  a  new  edition  of  Pres- 
cott's  works,  with  notes.  In  187 1  he  became  editor  of 
"  Lippincott's  Magazine." 

Kirk'al,  (Edward,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
Shefiield  about  1700. 

Kirkaldy,  ker-kauMe,  (Sir  William,)  of  Grange, 
one  of  the  earliest  Protestants  of  Scotland,  was  the  son 
of  Sir  James  Kirkaldy,  high  treasurer  under  the  reign  of 
James  V.  Sir  William  was  implicated  in  the  assassina- 
tion of  Cardinal  Beaton,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned. 
He  finally  escaped  to  France,  where  he  was  distinguished 
as  one  of  the  most  valiant  and  chivalrous  knights  in  the 
court  and  army  of  Henry  II.  After  his  return  to  Scot- 
land, he  became  a  leader  of  the  Protestants.     He  fought 


bravely  against  the  French,  who  had  been  sent  over  to 
assist  the  Catholics,  and  made  Queen  Mary  prisoner.  He 
vainly  attempted  to  capture  Bothwell,  whom  he  pursued 
as  far  as  the  coast  of  Norway.  About  1570  Kirkaldy 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  queen,  of  whose  party  he 
became  the  leader.  He  refused  to  obey  the  mandates 
of  the  regent,  and  after  several  months  of  fighting,  in 
which  great  ferocity  was  displayed  on  both  sides,  sus- 
tained a  siege  in  Edinburgh  Castle.  He  was,  however, 
finally  obliged  by  his  soldiers  to  make  an  unconditional 
surrender.  He,  with  several  of  his  friends,  was  hung 
in  August,  1573.  John  Knox,  who  had  formerly  been 
his  intimate  friend  and  fellow-sufferer  in  the  Protestant 
cause,  deeply  deplored  his  change  of  principles  and  his 
untimely  end. 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Adventures  of  Sir  Wm.  Kirkaldy,"  Edmburirli, 
1849  :  RonERTSON,  "  History  of  Scotland  :"  Chambers,  "  Biographi- 
cal Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  Froude,  "  History  of  Eng- 
land;" "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Janiiai-y,  1S49. 

Kirk'bride,  (Thomas  S.,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  i8og. 
Having  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he 
became  resident  physician  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
at  Philadelphia,  and  in  1840  superintendent  of  the  Hos- 
pital for  the  Insane.  He  published  "  Rules  and  Regula- 
tions for  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  for  the  Insane," 
(1850,)  "  The  Construction,  Organization,  and  General 
Arrangements  of  Hospitals  for  the  Insane,"  (1854,)  etc. 
He  died  December  17,  1883. 

Kirke,  kerk,  (Percy,)  Colonel,  a  British  officer, 
notorious  for  cruelty,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  James  II.  ard 
William  III.     His  men  were  called  "  Kirke's  Lambs.' 

See  Pepys,  "Diai-y;"  Macaulav,  "History  of  England." 

Kirke  "White.     See  White. 

Kirk'land,  (Mrs.  Caroline  Matilda  Stanseury,) 
an  American  writer,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York,  was 
married  about  1830  to  Professor  William  Kirkland,  of 
Hamilton  College.  After  a  residence  of  nearly  three 
years  in  Michigan,  she  published,  under  the  assumed 
name  of  "Mary  Clavers,"  "A  New  Home — Who'll  Fol- 
low.'" (1839,)  "  Forest  Life,"  (1842,)  and  "Western  Clear- 
ings," (1846,)  which  soon  obtained  a  wide  popularity. 
She  became  editor  of  the  "Union  Magazine,"  in  New 
York,  in  1847.  Among  her  other  works  may  be  named 
"An  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Spenser,"  (1846,) 
and  "Personal  Memoirs  of  George  Washington,"  (1858.) 
Mrs.  Kirkland's  delineations  of  Western  pioneer-life  are 
among  the  most  admirable  of  their  kind,  abounding  in 
humorous  incidents,  shrewd  sense,  and  picturesque  de- 
scriptions.    Died  in  1864. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duvckinck,  "  Cy- 
clopaedia of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Cleveland,  "Compen- 
dium of  American  Literature ;"  "  North  American  Review"  foi 
January,  1S40. 

Kirkland,(JoHN  Thornton,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Little  Falls,  New  York, 
in  1770.  Having  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1789,  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  Summer 
Street,  Boston.  He  was  elected,  in  1810,  president  of 
Harvard  College.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Fisher  Ames," 
and  several  other  works.     Died  in  1840. 

Kirk'land,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician  ana 
medical  writer,  born  in  1721.  He  graduated  as  M.D.  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.     Died  in  1798. 

Kirk'man,  (Marshall  Monroe),  an  American  rail- 
way expert,  born  in  Illinois,  July  10,  1842.  He  in  early 
life  became  connected  with  the  Chicago  and  Northwest- 
ern Railroad,  of  which  road  and  certain  of  its  subsidiary 
lines  he  has  long  been  an  officer.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Railway  Revenue,"  "The  Officer's  Hand-Book,"  "  Bag- 
gage, Parcel,  and  Mail  Traffic  of  Railroads,"  "  Railway 
Expenditures,"  (2  vols.,)  "  Hand-Book  of  Railway  Ex- 
penditures," "  Railway  Train  and  Station  Service," 
"Track  Accounts  of  Railroads,"  and  various  other 
technical  works. 

Kirk-pat'rick,  (William  James,)  an  Oriental 
scholar,  born  about  1760,  was  a  member  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Calcutta,  and  major-general  in  the  English 
army  at  Bengal.  He  wrote  a  "  Biography  of  the  Persian 
Poets,"  "Description  of  the  Kingdom  of  Nepaul,"(i8ii,) 
and  several  other  works.     Died  in  1S12. 

Kirk'wood,  (Daniel,)  LL.D.,  an  American  astrono- 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f2.r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KIRK  WOOD 


1443 


KITTO 


mer,  born  in  Harford  county,  Maryland,  September  27, 
1814,  was  principal  of  the  high  school  of  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  1843-48,  professor  of  mathematics  in  Dela- 
ware College,  1851-56,  in  Indiana  University,  1856-66, 
and  again  was  called  to  that  position  in  1S67.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  "Meteoric  Astronomy,"  (1867,)  and 
"  Comets  and  Meteors,"  (1873.)  He  has  made  important 
discoveries  in  astronomical  science. 

KirkTWOod,  (Samuel  J.,)  an  American  Governor, 
born  in  Harford  county,  Maryland,  December  20,  1813. 
In  1843  '^^  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Ohio,  and  in  1856 
he  was  elected  a  State  Senator  of  Iowa.  He  was  Gov- 
ernor 01  iowa,  1860-63,  ^"'^  again  in  1875,  United  States 
Senator,  1860-67,  and  1S76-81.  In  1881  he  was  made 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  under  President  Garfield. 

Kirnberger,  k^Rn'b§RG'er,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a 
German  musician  and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Thuringia 
in  1721  ;  died  in  1783. 

Kirsten,  kdSR'sten,  or  Kirchstein,  kdSRK^stin, 
(Georg,)  a  physician  and  writer  on  surgery  and  anatomy, 
born  at  Stettin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1613  ;  died  in  1660. 

Kirsten,  (Michael,)  a  learned  physician  and  scientific 
writer,  born  in  Moravia  in  1620;  died  in  1678. 

Kirsten,  [Lat.  Kirste'nius,]  (Peter,)  a  distinguished 
physician  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Breslau  in  1577. 
He  studied  at  the  most  celebrated  universities  of  Ger- 
many, and  travelled  extensively  in  Europe.  He  was  sub- 
sequently invited  to  Sweden  by  Chancellor  Oxenstiern, 
where  he  was  appointed  physician  to  Queen  Christina 
and  medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Upsal.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  master  of  twenty-six  languages. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  an  "  Arabic  Grammar," 
(1608-10,)  and  "Notes  on  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew, 
from  the  Collation  of  Arabic,  Syriac,  Egyptian,  Greek, 
and  Latin  Texts,"  (161 1.)     Died  at  Upsal  in  1640. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary';"  Nic^ron. 
"  Mdmoires." 

Kirstenius.    See  Kirsten,  (Peter.) 

Kirwan,  ker'wan,  (Richard,)  a  distinguished  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  at  Galway,  in  Ireland,  about  1733, 
or,  as  others  say,  in  1750.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  and  member  of  various  scientific  associations 
on  the  continent.  He  published  "An  Essay  on  the 
Constitution  of  Acids,"  (1787,)  which  was  translated 
by  Lavoisier  and  refuted  by  him,  "  Elements  of  Mine- 
ralogy," (1794,)  an  "Essay  on  the  Analysis  of  Mineral 
Waters,"  "An  Estimate  of  the  Temperature  of  Different 
Latitudes,"  and  other  scientific  works.     Died  in  1812. 

See  Ci;viER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles." 

Kirwan,  (Walter  Elake,)  an  Irish  clergyman,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  eloquence,  born  at  Galway  in  1754. 
He  was  educated  as  a  Catholic  priest,  but  joined  the 
Church  of  England  in  1787,  after  which  he  preached  in 
Dublin.     Died  in  1805. 

Kis,  k!sh,  (Stephen,  )  a  Hungarian  theologian,  bom  at 
Szegedin  in  1505,  was  a  disciple  of  Luther.  He  preached 
at  Temesvar,  and  published  several  works.   Died  in  1572. 

Kischtasp.     See  Gushtasp. 

Kisfaludy,  k!sh'foh-loody,  almost  kish'foh-looj, 
(KAroly,)  a  celebrated  dramatist,  the  founder  of  Hun- 
garian comedy  was  born  at  Tete  in  March,  1790.  On 
account  of  his  fiery  and  turbulent  disposition,  he  was 
placed  in  the  Austrian  army  at  an  early  age.  He  served 
as  an  officer  in  Italy  in  1805  against  Napoleon,  and  was 
afterwards  taken  prisoner  by  the  French.  Having  been 
exchanged,  he  fought  in  Germany  in  1809.  He  left  the 
army  in  1810,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Vienna,  where 
he  gained  a  lining  as  an  artist.  In  1819  he  acquired  a 
sudden  celebrity  by  his  play  "The  Tartar  in  Hungary." 
Soon  after  he  produced  "  Ilka,"  a  tragedy,  "  Stiber  the 
Chieftain,"  and  several  other  plays,  all  of  which  were 
received  with  the  greatest  applause.  Among  the  most 
popular  of  his  comedies  are  the  "  Student  Matthias," 
of  which  the  emperor  Matthias  Corvinus  is  the  hero, 
"The  Suitors,"  and  "The  Insurgents."  Kisfaludy  es- 
tablished an  able  and  successful  literary  annual,  entitled 
the  "Aurora."     Died  in  November,  1830. 

See  T.  MuNDT,  "Gescliichte  der  Literatur  der  Gegenwart;" 
Franz  Schedsl,  "Kisfaludy  K.  filete,"  Biida-Pesth,  183:;  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1850,  (by  Mrs.  Putnam.) 


Kisfaludy,  (SAndor,)  an  elder  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  poets  of 
Hungary,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Szalad  in  1772.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1793,  and  formed  an  attachment  for 
the  beautiful  Rosalia  Szegedy,  who  rejected  him.  He 
subsequently  served  against  Napoleon  in  Italy,  and  was 
<iaken  prisoner  by  the  French.  While  a  captive  in  the 
place  where  Petrarch  had  poured  forth  his  immortal 
strains  to  Laura,  the  young  Hungarian  resolved  to  ad- 
dress the  object  of  his  love  in  a  similar  poem.  In  1800 
he  regained  the  affections  of  the  lady  Rosalia,  to  whom 
he  was  married.  He  left  the  army  and  retired  to  his 
paternal  estate.  The  same  year  the  anonymous  publica- 
tion of  his  poem,  under  the  title  of  "  Himfy,"  produced 
a  sensation  among  men  of  letters  never  equalled  in 
Hungary.  In  1807  he  made  himself  known  in  publish- 
ing a  poem  entitled  "Happy  Love."  He  afterwards 
wrote  several  other  poems  and  dramas,  of  which  "John 
Huniades"  and  "Ladislaus  the  Rumanian"  were  greatly 
admired.  Died  in  1844.  Three  years  later  his  complete 
works  were  published  at  Pesth,  in  6  vols.  Several 
extracts  from  "  Himfy"  have  been  translated  into  English. 

See  T.  MuNDT,  "  Geschichte  der  Literatur  der  Gegenwart," 
Leipsic,  1853;  also  the  article  on  the  "Language  and  Literature 
of  the  Magyars"  in  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September, 
1S23. 

Kiss,  kis,  (Augustus,)  a  distinguished  Prussian  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Pless,  in  Upper  Silesia,  in  1802.  He  studied 
under  the  celebrated  Ranch.  He  was  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Berlin.  Among  his  most 
admirable  works  are  an  equestrian  statue  of  Frede 
rick  the  Great,  and  two  colossal  groups  in  bronze, — an 
"Amazon  attacked  by  a  Tiger,"  and  "Saint  George 
and  the  Dragon."     Died  in  1865. 

Kisselef,  Kisseleff,  or  Kisselew,  kis'seh-l§f',  (Ni- 
cholas,)  Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born  in  1800. 
He  was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Paris  in 
185 1,  and  minister  to  Rome  in  1856.    Died  Dec.  7,  1869. 

Kisselef,  (Paul,)  Count,  a  Russian  general  and 
diplomatist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Moscow  in  1788.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
domains  of  the  emperor  in  1837,  and  sent  as  ambassador 
to  France  in  1856.     Died  at  Paris,  November  26,  1873. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Kisselevy.    See  Kisselef. 

Kitch'en-er,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and 
writer  on  gastronomy,  born  in  London  about  1775.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  The  Cook's  Oracle,"  "  The  Art  of 
Invigorating  and  Prolonging  Life,"  "The  Traveller's 
Oracle,"  "Observations  on  Vocal  Music,"  and  other 
works  on  various  subjects.     Died  in  1827. 

See  William  Jeedan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1827. 

Kit'chin,  (George  William,)  D.D.,  an  English 
author,  born  at  Naughton,  in  Suffolk,  December  7,  1827. 
He  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1850,  and 
remained  connected  with  the  university  until  18S3,  when 
he  became  Dean  of  Winchester.  He  has  issued  editions 
of  Bacon's  works,  and  of  the  "  Faerie  Queene,"  etc.,  and 
wrote  a  "  History  of  France,"  (1873.)  "  Life  of  Pius  II.," 
(18S1,)  etc. 

Kite,  (Charles,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Gravesend  about  1768  ;  died  in  1811. 

Ki-Tseu  or  Ki-Tse.     See  Kee-Tse. 

Kit'to,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  distinguished  as  a 
biblical  scholar,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1804.  He  suffered 
much  privation  and  neglect  in  his  childhood  in  conse- 
quence of  the  intemperance  of  his  father.  About  the 
age  of  twelve  he  was  rendered  incurably  deaf  by  a  fall 
from  the  roof  of  a  house.  He  became  an  inmate  of  the 
poor-house,  where  he  manifested  such  an  earnest  desire 
to  improve  his  mind  that  some  persons  procured  for 
him  admission  to  a  college  in  Islington.  As  tutor  to  the 
children  of  Mr.  Grove,  he  travelled  in  Russia,  Arme- 
nia, and  Persia  in  1829-32.  About  1833  he  was  engaged 
by  Charles  Knight  to  write  for  the  "Penny  Magazine." 
He  edited  "  The  Pictorial  Bible"  published  by  Charles 
Knight,  (1838,)  and  produced  numerous  valuable  and 
successful  works,  among  which  are  "The  Cyclopedia 
of  Biblical  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1845-50,)  "The  Lost 
Senses — Deafness  and  Blindness,"  which  contains  an 
autobiography,  and  "Daily  Bible  Illustrations,"  (7  vols., 


€  as  k:  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i^°"See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


KIUPERLI 


1444 


KLEBER 


1849-53.;     He  was   married   about  1S33.     He  died  at 
Cannstadt,  Wiirtemberg,  in  1854. 

See  J.  E.  RvLAND,  "Memoirs  of  John  Kitto,"  1856;  "Brief 
Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  "North  British  Review"  fo- 
February,  1847. 

KiuperlL     See  Koi'rili. 

Kjoping  or  Kjoeping,  chb'ping,  (Nikoi.aus  Mat- 
son,)  a  Swed'sh  traveller,  born  in  1630.  In  1648  he 
sailed  to  the  East  Indies,  and  afterwards  visited  Persia, 
Farther  India,  Arabia,  and  Egypt.  An  account  of  his 
travels  was  published  after  his  death.     Died  in  1667. 

Klaczko,  klitch'ko,  (Julian,)  a  distinguished  publi- 
cist, born  at  Wilna,  in  Russian  Lithuania,  November  6, 
1828.  He  graduated  in  1846  at  Konigsberg,  after  which 
time  he  lived  in  Germany,  Italy,  and  Austria,  but  chiefly 
at  Paris.  Among  his  principal  books  are  "  Etudes  de 
Diplomatic,"  (1866,)  and  "  Les  deux  Chanceliers,"  which 
was  translated  into  various  languages.  He  also  wrote 
"La  Poesie  polonaise,"  (1S62.) 

Klapka,  klop'koh,  (General  George,)  born  at  Te- 
mesvar,  in  Hungary,  in  1820.  He  became  a  cadet  in 
an  artillery  regiment  about  1838,  and  lieutenant-colonel 
in  1847.  I'^  1S4S  he  joined  the  Hungarian  revolutionists, 
and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  daring  courage 
and  his  ability  as  a  commander.  He  soon  after  received 
a  general's  connnission  and  was  appointed  secretary  of 
war.  In  1849,  while  defending  the  fortress  of  Comorn, 
he  made  a  sally  at  midnight,  totally  routed  the  Austrian 
army,  and  took  several  pieces  of  artillery.  He  forced 
his  enemies  to  evacuate  Raab,  and  cut  off'their  commu- 
nication with  Austria.  A  few  days  after  he  received  the 
information  that  the  Hungarian  army  in  the  South  had 
surrendered  to  the  Austrians,  and  also  a  command  from 
Gorgey  to  yield  up  the  fortress  of  Comorn.  This  man- 
date General  Klapka  refused  to  obey  ;  but  two  months 
later,  having  obtained  honourable  terms  from  Haynau 
for  himself  and  troops,  he  capitulated,  in  October,  1849. 
He  then  went  to  London,  and  afterwards  to  Geneva. 
He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  War  of  Independence  in 
Hungary,"  (2  vols.,  1850,)  and  a  work  upon  the  war  in 
the  East  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  (1855.) 

Klaproth,  kl  Jp'rot,  sometimes  Anglicised  in  pronun- 
ciation as  klap'rSth,  (Heinrich  Julius,)  an  eminent 
German  Orientalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Berlin,  October 
II,  1783,  was  a  son  of  Martin  H.  Klaproth,  noticed  below. 
At  an  early  age  he  acquired,  without  a  teacher,  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  in  1802 
founded  the  "  Asiatisches  Magazin"  at  Weimar.  On  the 
recommendation  of  Count  Potocki,  he  was  invited  in  1805 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  was  made  adjunct  for  the 
Oriental  languages  and  literature  at  the  Academy  ot 
Sciences.  In  the  capacity  of  interpreter  to  the  Russian 
embassy  to  China,  he  travelled  through  Siberia  as  far  as 
Iikootsk  in  1805,  and  collected  valuable  books  and  docu- 
ments, which  he  used  in  the  composition  of  his  "  Asia 
Polyglotta."  In  1807  he  was  sent  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment on  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  Caucasus,  and  on 
his  return,  in  1809,  was  appointed  aulic  councillor,  and 
received  a  title  of  nobility  and  other  distinctions.  He 
resigned  his  offices  in  Russia  in  181 2.  In  1 816,  through 
the  influence  of  William  von  Humboldt,  Klaproth  re- 
ceived from  the  King  of  Prussia  the  honorary  title  of 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  literature  at  Berlin, 
together  with  a  large  pension,  and  permission  to  reside 
in  Paris.  Among  his  numerous  works  we  may  mention 
"Travels  in  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia,"  (2  vols.,  1812- 
14,)  "Geographical  and  Historical  Description  of  the 
Eastern  Caucasus,"  (1S14,)  "Historical  Pictures  of  Asia 
from  the  Monarchy  of  Cyrus  to  the  Present  Time," 
(1824,)  "Asia  Polyglotta,"  or  a  classification  of  Orien- 
tal nations  according  to  their  languages,  (1829,)  and 
"  On  the  Origin  of  Paper  Money  in  China."  Besides 
the.se  productions,  which  enjoy  the  highest  reputation 
throughout  Europe,  he  published  a  number  of  excellent 
maps  and  geographical  treatises,  and  wrote  valuable 
articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in 
Paris  in  1835.  Klaproth  was  one  of  the  greatest  linguists 
of  his  time.  His  sagacity,  judgment,  and  memory  were 
extraordinary.  "  Since  Klaproth's  death,"  says  the  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica,"  "  his  fame  has  continued  to  rise. 
His  merits  as  a  philologer  are  very  great ;  but  his  merits 


as  a  linguist  are  greater  still.  .  .  .   Hi^  memory,  both  tor 
comi^rehensiveness  and  accuracy,  was"  unrivalled." 

See  Landkesse,  "  Notice  liistorique  et  litt^raire  sur  Klaproth  ;" 
Fischer,  "  Denhsclirift  auf  Klaproth,"  Berlin;  "Nocivelle  Bio- 
grai'liie  G(5n^rale  ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1814. 

Klaproth,  (Martin  Heinrich,)  an  eminent  German 
analytical  chemist  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Wernigerode, 
in  Prussian  Saxony,  in  December,  1743.  He  served  an 
apprenticeship  as  an  apothecary,  and  about  1768  went  to 
Berlin,  where  he  studied  chemistry.  Having  gained  dis- 
tinction by  the  analysis  of  mineral  substances  and  by 
discoveries  in  chemistry,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Berlin  in  1788,  and  a  foreign  associate  of  the 
French  Institute.  He  discovered  the  metals  Uranium 
and  Titanium,  and  the  earth  Zirconia.  He  published  the 
results  of  his  researches  and  experiments  in  his  "  Con- 
tributions to  the  Chemical  Knowledge  of  Mineral  Bodies," 
(5  vols.,  1796-1810.)  About  1809  he  became  professor 
of  chemistry  in  Berlin.     Died  in  Berlin  in  1817. 

See  "  Bio^raphie  Mddicale  ;"  Kopp,  "  Geschichte  der  Chemie." 

Klas.s,  klis,  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a  German  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Dresden  in  1752;  died  in  1827. 

Klass,  (Karl  Christian,)  a  historical  painter,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1747. 
Died  in  1793. 

Klauber,  klow'ber,  (Ignaz  Sebastian,)  a  German 
engraver,  was  born  in  Augsburg  in  1754-  He  was 
invited  to  Saint  Petersburg  by  the  empress  Catherine, 
who  appointed  him  professor  in  the  Imperial  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts.  Died  about  1820.  Among  his  engravings 
is  a  portrait  of  the  empress  Catherine. 

Klauber,  (Joseph,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Augsburg 
in  1710,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1768. 

Klaus,  a  surname  of  Nicolas  von  der  Flue.  See 
Flue,  de. 

Kleander  or  Kleandros.     See  Oleander. 

Kleanthes.     See  Cleanthes. 

Klearchus.     See  Clearchus. 

Kle'ber,  [Fr.  Kl6ber,  klk'baiR',]  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
a  celebrated  French  general,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1754. 
Having  studied  at  the  military  school  of  Munich,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1788,  and  soon  attained  the  rank 
of  adjutant-major.  For  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  siege 
of  Mayence,  in  1793,  he  was  made  general  of  brigade. 
He  subsequently  gained  several  advantages  over  the 
Vendeans ;  but  his  generous  treatment  of  the  prisoners 
called  down  upon  him  the  censures  of  the  committee  of 
safety.  He  was  removed  to  the  army  of  the  North,  in 
which,  as  general  of  division,  he  served  under  Jourdan. 
He  gained  distinguished  laurels  in  1794  at  the  battle 
of  Fleurus,  where  he  cominanded  the  left  wing  of  the 
French  army.  He  soon  after  captured  Mons  and  the 
fortress  of  Macstricht.  In  1797,  displeased  with  the 
Directory,  he  retired  to  a  country-seat  near  Paris ;  but 
he  left  this  retreat  at  the  request  of  Bonaparte,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  1798  to  Egypt.  He  was  severely  wounded 
at  the  siege  of  Alexandria,  of  which  city  he  was  appointed 
governor.  The  following  winter  he  marched  into  Syria 
at  the  head  of  the  French  vanguard,  reduced  El  Arish, 
Gaza,  and  Jaffa,  and  gained  in  April,  1799,  the  decisive 
victory  of  Mount  Tabor.  On  his  return  to  Egypt  he 
added  to  his  already  brilliant  reputation  at  the  battle  of 
Aboukir.  In  August,  1799,  he  was  made  commander- 
in-.chief  by  Bonaparte,  who  returned  to  France.  Though 
Kleber  was  very  popular,  this  event  caused  general  dis- 
satisfaction in  the  army.  The  soldiers  were  greatly  re- 
duced in  numbers,  and  provisions  were  scarce.  The  grand 
vizier,  with  over  40,000  men  and  several  English  officers, 
having  captured  the  important  fortress  of  El  Arish,  was 
marching  against  the  French.  For  these  reasons  Kleber 
formed  a  treaty  with  the  Turks  and  the  English  admiral 
Sir  Sidney  Smith,  by  which,  upon  the  surrender  of  all 
the  fortresses  in  his  possession  except  three,  he  was  to 
receive  from  the  Turks  a  large  amount  of  gold  and  per- 
mission to  return  peaceably  to  France.  He  accordingly 
delivered  up  several  strongholds,  and  was  preparing  to 
sail  from  Egypt,  when  he  was  informed  by  Admiral  Keith 
that  the  English  government,  on  the  ground  that  Smith 
was  not  vested  with  full  authority,  would  not  consent 
that  the  French  should  leave  the  country  except  as  pris- 
oners of  war.     This  infraction  of  the  treaty  thoroughly 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KLE  BS 


1445 


KLENZE 


I 


aroused  the  French  general.  He  attacked  the  Turks, 
gained  over  them  the  brilliant  and  decisive  victory  of 
Heliopolis,  drove  their  army  from  Cairo,  and  within  a 
month  regained  every  position  which  he  had  previously 
abandoned.  He  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  his  conquests.  He  distributed  land  among 
his  troops,  formed  several  companies  of  native  soldiers, 
and  was  using  practicable  and  efficient  means  to  render 
Egypt  a  valuable  colony  of  France,  when  he  was  assassin- 
ated in  June,  1800,  by  a  Mohammedan  fanatic.  Kleber 
stands  as  one  of  the  very  first  of  the  many  distinguished 
generals  of  that  period.  To  his  great  intellectual  powers 
were  joined  the  generosity  of  a  lofty  mind  and  the  hatred 
of  avarice  and  cruelty.  "Kleber,"  said  Napoleon  at 
Saint  Helena,  "  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  France  and  to 
me.  He  was  a  man  of  the  brightest  talents  and  of  the 
greatest  bravery.  Of  all  the  generals  I  have  had  under 
me,  Desaix  and  Kleber  possessed  the  greatest  talents." 
See  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "  Histoire  des  G^neraux  Desaix  et 
KMber,"  1S02;  LuBERT  de  Hericourt,  "Vie  du  G^ndral  Kleber," 
1800;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution:"  E.  Barrois, 
"Notice  sur  le  General  Kleber,"  1839;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale." 

Klebs,  klebs,  (Erwin,)  an  eminent  German  patholo- 
gist, born  at  Konigsberg,  February  6,  1834.  He  held 
professorships  of  pathological  anatomy  at  Bern,  Wiirz- 
burg,  and  Zurich.  He  has  published  important  works 
on  pathology,  etc. 

Kleeberg,  kla'b^RG,  (Minna,)  a  German  poetess, 
born  of  Jewish  parents,  named  Cohe.n,  at  Elmshorn, 
Holstein,  July  21,  1841.  She  married  a  rabbi  named 
Kleeberg  in  1862.  She  afterwards  removed  to  the  United 
States.  She  died  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  December 
31,  1878.  A  volume  of  her  lyric  poems  (all  in  German) 
has  been  published.  They  are  full  of  fire  and  patriot- 
ism, and  gained  for  their  author  a  wide  reputation. 

Kleeman,  kla'min,  (Christian  Friedrich  Karl,) 
a  German  naturalist  and  painter  of  insects,  etc.,  was 
born  near  Nuremberg  in  1735.  ^^  wrote  several  works 
on  entomology.     Died  in  1789. 

Klefeker,  kla'feh-ker,  (Johann,)  a  German  writer, 
born  in  Hamburg  in  1698  ;  died  in  1775. 

Klein,  klin,  (Bernhard,)  a  German,  composer,  born 
at  Cologne  in  1794.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the 
oratorios  of  "Job"  and  "David,"  and  an  opera  entitled 
"  Dido."  He  was  an  able  composer  of  vocal  music. 
Died  September  9,  1832. 

See  FStis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Klein,  kliN,  (Dominique  Louis  Antoine,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Blamont  in  1761  ;  died  in  1845. 

Klein,  (Ernst  Ferdinand,)  a  learned  jurist,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1743,  became  privy  councillor  at  Berlin. 
He  wrote  "  Principles  of  German  and  Prussian  Penal 
Law,"  (1795,)  "System  of  Prussian  Civil  Law,"  (1830,) 
and  other  legal  works.     Died  in  1810. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  E.   F.  Klein's  Selbstbiographie, "  1810. 

Klein,  (Jakob  Theodor,  )  a  celebrated  writer  on 
natural  history,  born  at  Konigsberg  in-  1685.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Saint  Peters- 
burg and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Linnjeus 
gave  the  name  of  Kleinia  to  a  new  plant  in  honour  of 
this  naturalist.  The  works  of  Klein  are  regarded  as 
valuable  contributions  to  science.     Died  in  1759. 

See  Christian  Sendel,  "  Lobrede  auf  Herrn  J.  T.  Klein,"  1759; 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^u^rale." 

Klein,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  distinguished  German 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  a  skilful  engraver, 
was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1792.  He  visited  Rome 
about  1820.     Died  at  Munich,  May  21,  1875. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Klein,  klTn,  (Julius  Leopold,)  a  Jewish  dramatist, 
born  at  Miscolcz,  Hungary,  in  1S04.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, but  finally  settled  at  Berlin  as  a  literary  man.  He 
produced  many  tragedies  and  comedies,  but  is  chiefly 
memorable  for  his  "  History  of  the  Drama,"  (12  vols., 
1865-76,)  which  was  never  finished.     Died  in  1876. 

Kleinarts.     See  ClAnard. 

Kleinau,  klT'now,  (Johann,)  Baron  von  Janowitz, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  Bohemia  about  1760.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  Wagram,  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Leipsic,  1813.     Died  in  1819. 


Kleinert,  klln'^Rt,  (Hugo  Wilhelm  Paul,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Bielguth,  in  Silesia,  September 
25,  1837.  In  1868  he  was  called  to  a  professorship  in 
the  University  of  Berlin.  His  commentaries  (chiefly 
in  Lange's  "Bibelwerk")  and  critical  studies  are  well 
known. 

Kleist,  von,  fon  klTst,  (Ewald  Christian,)  a  popu- 
lar German  poet,  was  born  near  Koslin,  in  Pomerania, 
in  1 71 5.  He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  and  afterwards 
entered  the  Danish  army.  In  1740  he  left  Copenhagen, 
and  received  a  commission  in  the  service  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Kunnersdorf  in  1759,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded. 
His  most  celebrated  work  is  a  poem  entitled  "  Spring," 
("Der  Friihling,"  1749.)  Besides  this,  he  wrote  several 
hymns  and  idyls,  a  series  of  essays,  and  a  treatise  on 
military  tactics. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  F.  Nicolai, 
"  Ehrengedachtniss  E.  C.  von  Kleist's,"  1759;  Gervinus,  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung,"  1853. 

Kleist,  von,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1776.  He  fought 
in  the  Prussian  army  against  France.  In  1808  he  was 
associated  with  Adam  Miiller  in  the  publication  of  the 
"Phoebus."  A  victim  of  hypochondria,  he  committed 
suicide  in  1811.  Gervinus  places  him  above  all  the  dra- 
matic poets  of  his  time.  His  works  include  dramas,  lyric 
poems,  novels,  and  tales,  among  which  are  the  tragedies 
entitled  "The  Prince  of  Homburg"  and  "The  Battle  of 
Hermann,"  (1809,)  and  "Michael  Kohlhaas,"  a  tale. 

See  BiJLOW,  "Heinrich  von  Kleist's  Leben  und  Briefe,"  1848; 
Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung,"  4th  edition,  1853 ; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828 ;  "  British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  i860. 

Kleist  von  Nollendorf,  klTst  fon  nol'len-doRf 
(Emil  Friedrich,)  Count,  a  Prussian  commander, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1762.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Russian  campaign  of  i8i2,  and  at  the  battle  of  Baut- 
zen, after  which,  as  Prussian  plenipotentiary,  he  concluded 
the  truce.  After  the  battle  of  Dresden  and  the  retreat 
of  the  allies,  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  Vandamme 
at  Nollendorf,  (August,  1813.)  He  was  created  a  field- 
marshal  in  1821,  having  previously  received  the  order  of 
the  Black  Eagle  and  been  made  commander-general  of 
Saxony.     Died  in  1823. 

Kleisthenes.     See  Clisthenes. 

Kleitarchos.     See  Clitarchus. 

Kleitomachos.     See  Clitomachus. 

Kleitos.     See  Clitus. 

Klemm,  klSm,  (Friedrich  Gustav,)  a  German  hi- 
ierateur,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1802.  He  published  a 
"History  of  Bavaria,"  (3  vols.,  1828,)  a  "Manual  of 
German  Archseology,"  (1835,)  a  "General  History  of 
Human  Civilization,"  (10  vols.,  1843-50,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Dresden,  August  26,  1867. 

Klengel,  kl6ng'el,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Dresden  in  1751. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  an  "Italian  Landscape  at 
Twilight,"  and  "The  Wheat  Harvest."     Died  in  1824. 

Klenze,  kl^nt'seh,  (Clemens  August  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
iiian  jurist,  a  brother  of  the  following,  was  born  near 
Hildesheim  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  Common 
Penal  Law,"  (1833,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1838. 

Klenze,  von,  fon  klint'seh,  (Leo,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1784.  He  studied 
at  Brunswick  and  at  Berlin,  and  afterwards  in  France, 
England,  and  Italy.  In  1S13  he  went  to  Munich,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  crown-prince  Ludwig,  and  two 
years  later  was  appointed  court  architect  to  the  King  of 
Bavaria.  In  1833  he  was  ennobled.  Among  the  most 
important  of  his  designs  are  the  Glyptothek,  a  building 
to  receive  statuary  and  gems,  completed  in  1830;  the 
Odeon  and  the  Pinakothek  (picture-gallery)  at  Munich, 
completed  in  1837  ;  and  the  Walhalla,  or  hall  of  heroes, 
a  magnificent  marble  edifice  near  Ratisbon,  finished  in 
1839.  This  building,  the  exterior  of  which  resembles  the 
Parthenon,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments 
erected  in  modern  times.  Klenze,  in  his  designs  for 
buildings,  displays  an  uncommon  knowledge  of  the 
various  styles  of  architecture  ;  though  he  regards  the 
Grecian  models  as  superior  to  all  others.  He  also 
erected  at  Saint  Petersburg,  under  the  auspices  of  the 


€  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  h,  y.,  s^utttiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KLEOBULGS 


1446 


KLOFSTOCK 


emperor  Nicholas,  the  Imperial  Palace  (completed  in 
1851)  and  the  Imperial  Museum.  Klenze  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Restoration  of 
the  Tuscan  Temples,"  "The  Walhalla  in  its  Artistic  and 
Technical  Relations,"  and  several  collections  of  Grecian 
designs.  He  was  likewise  skilled  in  painting,  and  pro- 
duced several  landscapes  and  architectural  pieces.  Died 
m  1864. 

See  R.  WiEGMANN,  "Ritter  L.  von  Klenze  und  unsere  Kunst," 
1S39;  Nagler,  "Allsemeiiies  Kunstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale;"  Fortoi'L,  "  De  I'Art  en  AUemagne,"  tome  i. 

Kleobulos.     See  Cleobulus. 

Kleombrotos.     See  Cleombrotus. 

Kleomedes.     See  Cleomedes. 

Kleomenes.    See  Cleomenes. 

Kleon.     See  Cleon. 

Kleopatra.     See  Cleopatra. 

Kleophon.     See  Cleopho.n. 

Kleostratus.     See  Cleostratus. 

Klerck,  kl^Rk,  (Hendrik,)  an  artist  and  poet,  born 
m  Brussels  about  1570.  Among  his  paintings  are  "The 
Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  "The  Martyrdom  of 
Saint  Andrew." 

Kletten,  klet'ten,  (Georg  Ernst,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1759;  died  in  1827. 

Klettenberg,  klet'ten-b^Rc',  (Susanne  Catherine,) 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1723,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Goethe's  mother,  and  has  been  celebrated  by 
the  poet  in  his  "  Wilhelm  Meister,"  under  the  name  of 
"  the  Beautiful  Soul."  She  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
essays  and  hymns.     Died  in  1774. 

Kleuker,  kloi'ker,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Osterode  in  1749.  He  became  in  1798 
professor  of  theology  at  Kiel,  where  he  died  in  1S27. 
He  translated  the  "  Zend  Avesta"  of  Zoroaster  from  the 
Persian,  (1776,)  and  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Religious 
System  of  the  Brahmins,"  (1797.) 

See  Ratjen,  "J.  F.  Kleuker  und  Briefe  seiner  Freunde,"  etc., 
1842. 

Klicpera,  klits'p6h-ra,  (VAclaw  KlimEnt,)  a  Bohe- 
mian dramatist,  born  at  Chlumec  in  1792;  died  in  1859. 

Klingemann,  kling'e-min,  (Carl,)  a  German  litti- 
rateur,  born  at  Limmer,  Hanover,  in  1798.  He  wrote  the 
words  for  many  of  Mendelssohn's  songs  and  other  com- 
positions.    Died  September  25,  1S62. 

Bllimrath,  kl^N'rtt',  (Henri,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Strasbourg  in  1S07  ;  died  in  1837. 

Kllingemann,  kling'eh-min',  (Ernst  August  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  dramatic  poet,  and  director  of  the  court 
theatre  at  Brunswick,  where  he  was  born  in  1777.  Among 
his  best  works  are  "  Luther,"  "  Henry  the  Lion,"  and 
"German  Fidelity,"  ("Deutsche  Treue.")  Died  in  1831. 

See  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1827. 

Klingenstierna,  kling'en-shea'ni,  (Samuel,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born 
near  Linkoping  about  1690,  was  educated  at  Upsal. 
Having  visited  Germany,  he  became  the  friend  and  dis- 
ciple of  the  celebrated  Wolf.  Upon  his  return  to  Swe- 
den, in  1730,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics, 
and  was  subsequently  chosen  tutor  to  the  crown-prince, 
(Gustavus  III.)  He  performed  the  duties  of  this  office 
with  great  ability,  receiving  as  a  reward  the  order  of  the 
Polar  Star  and  the  title  of  councillor  of  state.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and  of  Upsal. 
Klingenstierna  wrote  a  work  on  refracting  telescopes, 
which  obtained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Saint  Petersburg,  a  treatise  on  the  height  of 
the  atmosphere,  (1732,)  and  various  other  productions. 
Died  at  Stockholm  in  1785. 

See  Martin  Stroemer,  " Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  S.  Klingen- 
stierna," 1785;  Adelung  and  Jocher,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Klinger,  kling'er,  (Friedrich  Maximilian,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  Febru- 
ary, 1753-  Having  visited  Russia  in  1780,  he  became 
reader  to  the  grand  duke  Paul,  whom  he  accompanied 
on  his  travels.  In  1811  he  was  created  lieutenant-general. 
He  published  poems,  dramas,  and  romances.  Died  at 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1831.  His  drama  entitled  "Storm  and 
Stress,  or  Impulse,"  ("Sturm  und  Drang,"  1775,)  had  a 
great  success,  and  gave  a  name  to  a  period  of  German 
literature,  ("Die   Sturm-und-Drang    Periode,")    which. 


says  Gervinup,  "was  an  epoch  of  the  revolt  of  nature 
against  civilization,  of  simplicity  against  conventionality, 
of  youth  against  age,  of  the  heart  against  reason,"  etc. 

See  Gervini;s,  "Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Klingsor  von  Ungerland,  kling'soR  fon  oong'er- 
ISnt',  a  German  minnesinger  and  astrologer  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been 
the  author  of  the  famous  "  Nibelu»gen-Lied,"  while 
others  regard  him  as  a  fabulous  personage. 

Klingstadt,  Klingstaedt,  or  Klingstet,  kling'stSt, 
(Claudius  Gustav,)  a  miniature-painter  in  the  suite 
of  the  regent  Duke  of  Orleans,  born  at  Riga  in  1657; 
died  at  Paris  in  1734. 

Klio.     See  Clio. 

Klocker,  klok'ker,  or  Blloker,  klo'ker,  (David,)  a 
portrait  and  historical  painter,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1629. 
In  early  life  he  went  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Sweden, 
where  he  was  appointed  to  give  lessons  in  drawing  to 
Queen  Christina.  He  was  afterwards  liberally  patron- 
ized by  Charles  X.     Died  at  Stockholm  in  1698. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Kloosterman.     See  Closterman,  (Johann.) 

Klopp,  (Onno,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Leer, 
October  9,  1822.  He  studied  at  Bonn,  Berlin,  and  Got- 
tingen,  and  became  an  archivist  attached  to  the  court 
of  the  King  of  Hanover.  He  afterwards  went  to  Austria. 
He  wrote  a  "History  of  East  Friesland,"  (1854-81,) 
"Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,"  (i860,)  "The  Fall  of  the 
House  of  Stuart,"  (1875-76,  in  4  vols.,)  etc. 

Klopstock,  klop'stok,  (Friedrich  Gottlieb,)  k 
celebrated  German  poet,  born  at  Quedlinburg,  July  2, 
1724.  He  early  cherished  the  ambition  of  writing  an  epic 
poem.  About  1746  he  went  to  Jena  to  study  theology, 
and  in  1747  removed  to  Leipsic.  He  produced  in 
1748  the  first  three  cantos  of  his  "Messiah,"  which 
had  immense  success  and  opened  a  new  era  in  German 
poetry.  In  1749  he  was  employed  as  tutor  in  a  family 
at  Langensalza.  He  removed  in  1751  to  Copenhagen, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  king,  Frederick  V.,  who  gave 
him  a  pension  of  four  hundred  thalers  that  he  might 
have  leisure  to  complete  his  great  poem.  In  1754  he 
married  Margar'et  (Meta)  Moller,  an  accomplished  and 
literary  woman,  whom  he  has  commemorated  in  odes 
and  elegies  under  the  name  of  "Cidli."  He  remained 
twenty  years  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  Count  Bernstorff  and  Count  Moltke.  In  1755  he  pub- 
lished five  more  cantos  of  the  "Messiah."  He  cherished 
the  idea  that  he  had  a  great  poetical  mission.  "  This 
idea  of  an  epic  priesthood,"  says  Taillandier,  "gradually 
became  a  reality.  He  transferred  to  his  poem  the  events 
of  his  life ;  he  regulated  his  life  by  the  inspirations  of 
his  poem."  "  By  his  character  and  conduct,"  says  Goethe 
in  his  Autobiography,  "  Klopstock  had  succeeded  in 
creating  attention  and  respect  for  himself  and  other  men 
of  talent.  ...  At  this  time  Klopstock  came  forward 
and  offered  his  'Learned  Republic'  for  subscriptions. 
Although  the  later  cantos  of  the  'Messiah'  could  not 
have  the  effect  of  the  earlier,  partly  on  account  of  their 
contents,  partly  on  account  of  their  mode  of  treating  the 
subject,  which  came  pure  and  innocent  into  a  pure  and 
innocent  time,  the  esteem  for  the  poet  remained  un- 
changed." The  same  writer  remarks,  "  On  the  whole, 
one  might  have  taken  him  for  a  diplomatist.  He  carried 
himself  with  the  self-conscious  dignity  of  a  person  who 
has  a  great  moral  mission  to  fulfil." 

In  1758  he  was  greatly  afflicted  by  the  death  of  his 
wife.  He  settled  at  Hamburg  in  1771,  and  published 
in  1773  the  last  cantos  of  his  "Messiah."  The  general 
sentiment  of  his  contemporaries  in  relation  to  this  poem 
is  thus  expressed  by  Madame  de  Stael,  in  her  "  Tableau 
de  I'Allemagne :"  "  When  the  reader  commences  this 
poem,  he  receives  an  impression  like  that  of  a  person 
entering  a  grand  cathedral  filled  with  the  music  of  an 
organ."  His  admirers  compared  him  to  Homer  and 
Milton ;  but  more  sober  critics  censure  his  sentimen- 
tality, monotony,  and  lack  of  action.  Although  his 
"  Messiah"  is  seldom  read  at  the  present  time,  all  the 
German  schools  unite  in  the  expression  of  honour  and 
gratitude  to  the  author  for  the  impulse  which  he  gave 
to  the  national  literature.    The  finest  qualities  of  his 


a. e,  1,  o,  u, y, hiig: i,  h,  6, same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure; fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


KLOSE 


1447 


KNEELAND 


I 


genius  are  displayed  in  his  odes,  some  of  which  are  con- 
sidered as  classic  models  of  the  noble  and  the  graceful. 
He  also  wrote  a  number  of  sacred  dramas,  among  which 
is  "The  Death  of  Adam."  About  1792  he  married  a 
widow  named  Von  Winthem.  He  died  at  Hamburg  in 
March,  1803. 

See  Heinrich  Doring,  "  F.  G.  Klopstock's  Biographie,"  1853; 
Cramer,  "  Klopstock  er  und  iiber  ihn,"  5  vols.,  1780-93;  Miss 
Benger,  "Klopstock  and  his  Friends,"  1814;  H.  Doring,  "Klop- 
stock's Leben,"i825;  Johann  G.  Gruber,  "  Klopstocks  Leben," 
1832;  Bon  Joseph  Dacier,  "filoge  de  Klopstock,"  Paris,  1805; 
F.  L.  MoLTKE,  "  Ara  D.  M.  F.  G  Klopstock,"  Altona,  181S  ;  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  January,  1843 ;  Gervinur,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Dichtung  ;"  Alexander  Tolhausen,  "Klopstock,  Lessing,  and 
Wieland:  Treatise  on  German  Literature,"  London,  1848;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Klose,  klos,  (F.  J.,)  an  English  musical  composer  and 
skilfjl  pianist,  was  born  in  London ;  died  in  1830. 

Klotz,  klots,  [Lat.  Klot'zius,]  (Christian  Adol- 
PHUS,)  a  learned  German  critic  and  poet,  born  at  Bischofs- 
werda,  near  Dresden,  in  1738.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Jena,  and  in  1762  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Gottingen.  He  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  Prussia 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Halle  in  1765,  with  the  title  of 
aulic  councillor.  He  wrote  numerous  commentaries  and 
short  treatises,  among  which  are  "  Ridicula  Literaria," 
(1762,)  "Acta  Literaria,"  (7  vols.,  1764-73,)  and  "Lec- 
tiones  Venusinae,"  (1771.)     Died  in  1771. 

See  C.  Hausen,  "  Leben  und  Charakter  C.  A.  Klotzens,"  1772; 
C.  G.  VON  MuRR,  "Denkmal  zur  Ehre  des  Herrn  Klotz,"  1772; 
Mangelsdorf,  "  Vita  et  Meinoria  Klotzii,"  1772. 

Klotz,  (Matthias,)  a  German  painter  of  portraits 
and  landscapes,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1748;  died  in  1821. 
His  three  sons,  Caspar,  Simon,  and  Joseph,  acquired 
distinction  in  the  same  departments  of  painting. 

Klotz,  (Reinhold,)  a  German  critic  and  scholar,  born 
at  Stollberg  in  1S07,  succeeded  Hermann  as  professor  of 
philology  at  Leipsic  in  1849.  He  published  editions  of 
Terence,  of  the  "  Phoenissae"  and  "  Medea"  of  Euripides, 
and  other  works.     Died  August  10,  1870. 

Klotz,  (Simon,)  a  German  painter  of  history  and 
landscapes,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1777,  was  a  son  of 
Matthias,  noticed  above.     Died  in  1825. 

Klotzius.     See  Klotz,  (Christian  Adolphus.) 

Klotzius,  klot'se-iis,  (Siephen,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Lippstadt  in  1606  ;  died  in  i668. 

Kliiber  or  Klueber,  klii'ber,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a 
German  jurist  and  writer  of  high  reputation,  was  born 
near  Fulda  in  1762.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Heidelberg  in  1807,  soon  after  which  date  he  was  coun- 
cillor of  state  at  Carlsruhe.  In  1817  his  friend  Prince 
Hardenberg  procured  for  him  a  high  office  in  the  min- 
istry of  foreign  affairs  at  Berlin.  He  acquired  distinc- 
tion by  a  history  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  "  Acten  des 
Wiener  Congresses  in  den  Jahren  1814  und  1815,"  (9 
vols.,  1815-35,)  ^""^  other  works.     Died  in  1837. 

See  MoRSTADT,  "Kliibers  Leben,"  prefixed  to  KlUber's  "  Of- 
fentliches  Recht  des  Deutschen  Bundes,"  1S40;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Klueber.     See  Kluber. 

Kluegel.     See  Klugel. 

Kliigel,  klii'gel,  (Georg  Simon,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Hamburg  in  1739.  He  became  in  1766 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Helmstedt.  Among  his 
principal  works  is  "Elements  of  Astronomy,"  (1819.) 
Died  in  1812. 

Kluit,  kloit,  (  Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  historical  writer,  born 
at  Dort  in  1735.  In  1779  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  the  archaeology  of  Holland  and  of  diplomatic  history 
at  Leyden.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the 
Political  Administration  of  Holland"  until  1795,  (5  vols., 
1802-05,)  and  the  "  Political  Economy  of  Holland."  Died 
in  1807. 

Kluk,  klook,  (Christopher,)  a  Polish  naturalist, 
born  in  Podlachia  in  1739,  published  a  "Dictionary  of 
Plants,"  (3  vols.  1786-SS.)     Died  in  1796. 

Klupfel,  kloop'fel,  (Emmanuel  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man, born  in  Saxe-Gotha,  became,  in  1764,  editor  of  the 
well-known  "Almanach  de  Gotha."     Died  in  1776. 

Klyn  or  KUjn,  klin,  (Hendrik  Herman,)  a  Dutch 
poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1773,  wrote  a  poem  on 
Astronomy,  (1809,)  and  other  works. 


Klytemnestra.     See  Clytemnestra. 

Kmety,  kma'tee,  (George,)  General,  the  son  of  a 
Protestant  minister,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Gomor, 
in  Hungary,  in  18 10.  He  entered  the  Austrian  army, 
in  which  he  obtained  a  commission.  In  1848  he  joined 
the  Hungarian  army  which  fought  against  the  Austrians, 
and  signalized  his  bravery  on  several  occasions.  After 
the  surrender  of  Gorgey,  he  embraced  the  Moslem  faith, 
and  enlisted  in  the  Turkish  service,  with  the  title  of 
Ismael  Pasha.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  general  in 
the  Crimean  war,  particularly  in  a  battle  with  the  Rus- 
sians before  Kars.     Died  in  1865. 

Knapp,  knip  or  k'nip,  (  Albrecht,)  a  German  divine, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Wurtemberg  in  1798,  published 
several  collections  of  hymns  and  sacred  poems,  which 
are  highly  esteemed.     Died  June  18,  1864. 

Kuapp,  (Georg  Christian,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Halle  in  1753.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Halle  about  fifty  years,  and  was  distinguished  in  sacred 
criticism.  He  was  moderately  orthodo.x,  endeavouring 
to  reconcile  revelation  with  the  demands  of  reason.  He 
published  "Lectures  on  Christian  Theoloj;y,"  (2  vols. 
1827,)  and  other  works.     Died  at  Halle  in  1825. 

See  A.  H.  Niemeyer,  "  Epicedien  dem  Andenken  G.  C.  Knapp's. 
etc.,  1825. 

Knapp,  nap,  (Jacob,)  an  American  Baptist  revival 
preacher;  born  in  Otsego  county.  New  York,  December 
7,  1799.  He  was  ordained  in  1825,  and  for  many  years 
was  known  as  a  marvellously  successful  evangelist. 
Died  in  Rockford,  Illinois,  March  2,  1874. 

Knapp,  (Johann,)  a  German  painter  of  flowers  and 
animals,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1778  ;  died  in  1833. 

Kuapp,  nap,  (S.amuel  Lorenzo,)  a  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1784. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Biographical  Sketches 
of  Eminent  Lawyers,  Statesmen,  and  Men  of  Letters,'' 
"Travels  in  North  America,  by  Ali  Bey,"  "Lectures 
on  American  Literature,"  and  "American  Biography" 
Died  in  1838. 

Knapton,  nap'ton,  (George,)  an  English  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1698,  painted  in  crayons. 
Died  in  1788. 

Knatchbull-Hugessen.     See  Brabourne. 

Knaus,  knowss,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  painter,  was 
born  at  Wiesbaden,  October  10,  1829.  His  specialty  is 
the  painting  of  scenes  in  peasant-life.  His  pictures  are 
extremely  popular  in  Germany. 

Knaust,  knowst  or  k'nowst,  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  1541 ;  died  in  1577. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Knaut,  knowt  or  k'nowt,  (Christian,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Halle  in  1654;  died  in  1716. 

Knaut,  (Christoph,)  a  botanical  writer,  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Halle  in  1638;  died  in  1694. 

Kuauth,  knowt,  (Christian,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Gorlitz  in  1706;  died  in  1784. 

Knebel,  kna'bel,  (Emmanuel  Theophilus,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1 772  ;  died  in  1809. 

Knebel,  von,  fon  kna'bel,  (Karl  Ludvi^ig,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Wallerstein,  in  Franconia,  in 
1744.  He  published  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
Elegies  of  Propertius  (1798)  and  the  "De  Rerum 
Natura"  of  Lucretius,  (1821  and  1831.)  His  interesting 
"  Correspondence  with  Goethe"  came  out  after  Knebel's 
death,  which  took  place  in  1834.  He  was  intimate  with 
Mendelssohn,  Gleim,  Jacobi,  and  other  eminent  writers. 

See  T.  MuNDT,"Knebels  Leben,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Literarischer 
Nachlass,"  1S35-40:  Schwarz,  "Zur  Erinnerung  an  K.  L.  von 
Knebel:  Rede  an  seinem  Grabe  gesprochen,"  1834;  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1838. 

Kneeland,  ne'land,  (Samuel,)  M.D.,  an  American 
naturalist,  born  in  Boston,  August  i,  1S21.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1S40,  studied  medicine  in 
Boston  and  Paris,  was  a  surgeon  in  the  army,  1862-66, 
and  in  1866  became  professor  of  zoology  and  physiology 
in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Wonders  of  the  Yosemite  Valley,"  (1871,) 
"  An  American  in  Iceland,"  (1876,)  "The  Land  of  Hemp 
and  Sugar,"  etc.  He  has  travelled  extensively  for  the 
study  of  earthquakes  and  volcanic  phenomena. 


f.2&k;  ^ass;  ghard;  ^as/Vc,  \i,Yi,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  Vi,  trilled;  sasa;  ^h  asm  this.     (iJ:^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KNELLER 


1448 


KNIGHTON 


Knelier,  nel'ler,  [Ger.  pron.  knel'ler,]  (Godfrf.y,) 
a  celebrated  portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Lubeck  in 
1648.  He  commenced  his  studies  under  Rembrandt, 
and  pursued  them  in  Italy,  lie  afterwards  went  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  successively  court  painter  to  Charles 
II.,  James  II.,  William  III.,  Queen  Anne,  and  George  I. 
The  last-named  created  him  a  baronet.  Knelier  was  also 
made  a  knight  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  emperor 
Leopold.  In  addition  to  the  distinguished  personages 
o^the  English  court,  he  painted  portraits  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Peter  the  Great.     Died  about  1723. 

See  W.  A.  AcKEKMANN,  "  Der  Portraitiiialer  Sir  Godefrey  Knelier 
im  Verliiiltniss  zur  Kunstbildung  seiner  Zeit  dargeslellt,"  Lubeck, 
1845- 

Kniazhnin,  kne-lzh'nin,  written  also  Kniaschnin 
and  Kuiajiiin,  (Yakof  Borissovitch,)  a  Russian  poet 
and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Pskov  in  1742.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Dido"  and  "  Sopho- 
nisba,"  and  a  number  of  odes,  songs,  and  fables.  At  the 
request  of  the  empress  Catherine,  he  translated  from 
the  Italian  "  La  Clemenza  di  Tito"  of  Metastasio.  Died 
in  1791. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Princess  Daschkoff,"  1840. 

KniazieAwicz,  kne-lzh'yi-vitch,  ?  (Karl,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1762.  He  fought  bravely,  though  un- 
successfully, in  the  defence  of  his  country  in  1794,  and 
afterwards  entered  the  French  army  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1798.  He  was  made 
a  commander  of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1804.  Died  in 
1842. 

See  L.  Chodzko,  "La  Pologne  illustree,"  1840. 

Kniaznin,  kne-izh'nin,  ?  (Francis  Dionysius,)  a 
Polish  poet,  born  in  the  government  of  Vitepsk  in  1750, 
became  teacher  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Warsaw,  and 
was  afterwards  secretary  to  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski. 
He  was  the  author  of  lyric  poems,  and  published  various 
translations  of  ancient  poets  into  Polish.     Died  in  1807. 

Knibb,  nib,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  Baptist  mis- 
sionary, noted  for  his  courageous  opposition  to  slavery 
m  Jamaica,  was  born  at  Kettering,  in  Northamptonshire, 
about  1800.  He  laboured  zealously  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  slaves  ;  and  by  his  representations  to 
the  people  of  England  he  aided  not  a  little  in  the  negro 
emancipation  of  Jamaica,  as  well  as  in  the  subsequent 
abolition  of  the  apprentice  system.  He  made  a  powerful 
anti-slavery  speech  at  Exeter  Hall  in  1840.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Jas.  Hobv,  "  Memoir  ofWm.  Knibb."  1839;  J.  H.  Hinton, 
"  Memoirs  of  \Vm.  Knibb,"  1S47. 

Knicanin,  kne-cha-neen',  (Stephan  Petrovitch,)  a 
Servian  general,  born  in  1808,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  in  1852  was  made  a  general 
and  senator.     Died  in  1855. 

Knickerbacker,  nik'er-bak'er,  (David  Buel,)  D.D., 
an  American  bishop,  born  at  Schaghticoke,  New  York, 
February  24,  1S33,  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1853,  and  at  the  General  Episcopal  Theological 
Seminary  in  1856,  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church, 
(1856,  1857,)  was  rector  of  a  church  in  Minneapolis,  Min- 
nesota, (1S57-73,)  and  in  1S83  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Indiana. 

Knickerbocker,  (Diedrich.)     See  Irving. 

Kniep,  kneep,  (Christoph  Heinrich,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1748.  He  travelled  in 
Italy  with  Goethe,  and  worked  in  Naples.  His  drawings 
in  sepia  and  crayons,  of  Italian  landscapes  and  antiqui- 
ties, are  much  admired.     Died  in  Naples  in  1825. 

Knigge,  von,  fon  knik'keh,  (Adolf  Franz  Fried- 
rich,)  Baron,  a  German  philosopher  and  writer,  born 
near  Hanover  in  1752.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Romance  of  my  Life,"  ("Roman  meines  Lebens," 
4  vols.,  1 781,)  and  "On  the  Art  of  Living  with  Men," 
("Ueber  den  Umgang  mit  Menschen,"  1788.)  Died  in 
1796. 

See  GoDEKE,  "Adolf  von  Knigge,  sein  Leben  und  Blicke  in  seine 
Zeit,"  1S44;  "Kurze  Biographie  des  A.  von  Knigge,"  1825. 

Knight,  nit,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  English  editor 
and  author,  born  at  Windsor  in  1791.  He  settled  in 
London  about  1823,  and  commenced  business  as  a  pub- 
lisher. He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  under  whose 
auspices  he  published  "The  Penny  Magazine"  (1832-45) 


a^t  his  own  risk,  and  "The  Library  of  Entertaining 
Knowledge."  Among  the  works  which  he  published  or 
edited  are  "  The  Penny  Cyclopedia,"  (30  vols.,  1833-46,) 
"The  Pictorial  History  of  England,"  (about  1844,)  and 
a  valuable  "English  Cyclopasdia,"  (24  vols.,  1854-61,) 
which  is  in  fact  a  recast  of  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  with 
important  changes  and  additions.  This  is  separated  into 
divisions  for  biography,  geography,  etc.  He  also  published 
a  number  of  popular  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Life  of 
Shakspere,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Pictorial  Shakspere,"  (1839,) 
"Knowledge  is  Power,"  (1855,)  and  his  "Popular  His- 
tory of  England,"  (1856-62.)     Died  March  9,  1S73. 

See  "Passages  of  a  Working-Life,"  by  Charles  Knight; 
"British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1864. 

Knight,  (Cornelia,)  an  English  authoress,  born 
about  1758,  was  for  a  time  companion  to  the  princess 
Charlotte.  She  resided  many  years  in  Italy.  Among 
her  works  is  "  Dinarbas,"  (1790,)  which  is  a  sequel  to 
Johnson's  "Rasselas."     Died  about  1837. 

See  "Autobiography  of  Miss  Cornelia  Knight,"  London,  1861  , 
Bessie  R.  Parkes,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1866 

Knight,  (Edward,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born  at 
Birmingham  in  1774;  died  in  1826. 

Knight,  (Godwin,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  philosopher, 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1742.  He  published  an  "  Attempt 
to  demonstrate  that  all  the  Phenomena  of  Nature  may 
be  explained  by  Attraction  and  Repulsion,"  (1748.)  Died 
in  1772. 

Knight,  (  Henry  Gally,  )  an  English  antiquary, 
traveller,  and  writer,  born  in  1786.  He  wrote  poems 
and  treatises  on  architecture.     Died  in  1846. 

Knight,  (James,)  an  English  navigator,  who  in  1719 
was  sent  by  a  mercantile  company  with  two  vessels  to 
search  for  a  northwest  passage  and  for  mines  of  copper. 
None  of  this  party  ever  returned. 

Knight,  (John  Prescott,)  an  English  painter,  born 
at  Stafford  in  1803,  was  tiie  son  of  a  noted  comedian.  He 
painted  portraits  witii  success      Died  March  26,  1881. 

Knight,  mt,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  surgeon,  born 
at  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  in  1789.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Yale  College  in  1813,  and  was  professor 
of  surgery  at  the  same  college  from  1838  to  1864-  Died 
in  1864. 

Knight,  (Joseph  Philip,)  an  English  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Bradford-on-Avon,  July  26,  1812.  He 
composed  the  music  for  many  popular  songs,  the  words 
of  which  were  furnished  by  Thomas  Haynes  Bayly, 
Moore,  and  others.  Of  these,  "  Rocked  in  the  cradle  of 
the  deep"  is  perhaps  best  known ;  but  many  others  were 
popular  in  their  day. 

Blnight,  (Richard  Payne,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
Greek  scholar,  born  in  Herefordshire  in  1750.  He  was 
several  times  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  boroughs  of 
Leominster  and  Ludlow.  He  made  a  large  collection 
of  Greek  coins,  bronzes,  and  various  works  of  art,  valued 
at  fifty  thousand  pounds,  which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
British  Museum.  Among  other  works,  he  wrote  "An 
Analytical  Enquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Taste,"  (1805.) 
He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  and  wrote 
a  mediocre  poem  on  "The  Progress  of  Civil  Society," 
(1796,)  which  furnished  Canning  and  others  a  subject  for 
a  parody  in  "The  Anti-Jacobin."     Died  in  1824. 

Knight,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman  and  biogra- 
pher, born  in  London  in  1674.  He  wrote  the  Lives  of 
Erasmus  (1724)  and  of  Dr.  John  Colet,  (1726.)  He 
became  chaplain  to  George  II.  in  1730,  and  Archdeacon 
of  Berks  in  1735.     Died  in  1746. 

Knight,  (Thomas  Andrew,)  a  distinguished  vege- 
table physiologist  and  horticulturist,  born  in  1758,  was  a 
brother  of  R.  R  Knight,  noticed  above.  He  succeeded 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  as  president  of  the  British  Horticul- 
tural Society.  He  wrote  "A  Treatise  on  the  Culture 
of  the  Apple  and  Pear,  and  on  the  Manufacture  of  Cider 
and  Perry,"  (1797,)  and  other  works.  He  produced  new 
and  valuable  varieties  of  fruits  from  seeds,  and  made 
experiments  in  vegetable  fecundation,  in  the  germination 
of  seeds,  and  in  other  processes  of  vegetable  physiology. 
Died  in  1838. 

Knighton  or  Knyghton,  nl'tgn,  (Henry,)  a  his- 
torical  writer   and   ecclesiastic,  flourished   in  England 


I 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  •^,loiig;^,h,b,^2imt.,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  \\,y,shori;  a, e,  i,  q,ol>scurt:;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mht;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KNILL 


1449 


KNOX 


about  1380-1400.  His  principal  works  are  a  chronicle 
of  events  from  thf  invasion  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
and  a  history  of  Richard  II. 

Kuill,  nil,  (Rev.  Richard,)  an  English  Methodist  mis- 
sionary, born  in  Devonshire  in  1787.  He  was  sent  in 
1816  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  India,  where 
he  spent  three  years,  and  subsequently  resided  si.xteen 
years  in  Russia,  where  he  laboured  with  great  zeal  and 
success.     Died  in  1857. 

See  Chakles  M.  Birrei.l,  "  Life  of  Richard  Kuill,  wth  a  Review 
of  his  Life  .ind  Character,"  uy  J.  .^ngell  Ja.mes,  London,  i860. 

Knipperdolling,  knip'per-doriing,  (Bernhard,)  a 
German  fanatic,  born  in  Miinster,  was  associated  with 
the  principal  leaders  of  the  Anabaptist  insurrection  of 
1533.  He  was  executed  in  1536,  with  his  accomplice, 
John  of  Leyden. 

Kiiipstr'ovius.     See  Knipstrow. 

Knipstrow,  knip'stRo,  or  Kniepstro"w,  kneep'stRo, 
[Lat.  Knipstko'vius,]  (Johann,)  a  German  reformer, 
born  at  Sandow,  in  Silesia,  in  1497.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  a  public  dispute  against  Tetzel  in  15 18.  In 
1539  he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Greifswalde, 
and  in  1547  rector  of  the  university  at  that  place.  Died 
in  1556. 

See  Mayer,  "Vita  Knipstrovii." 

Knjaschuin  or  Knjaznin.     See  Kniazhnin. 

ELnobelsdorf,  kno'bels-doRf,  (Hans  Georg  Wen- 
CESLAUS,)  a  distinguished  Prussian  architect,  born  in 
1697,  was  appointed  by  Frederick  the  Great  superin- 
tendent of  the  royal  buildings.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  castle  of  Sans-Souci  and  the  Opera-House  at 
Berlin.     Died  in  1753. 

Knoblauch,  knob'lowK,  (Karl  Hermann,)  a  Ger- 
man physicist,  born  at  Berlin,  April  11,  1820.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Berlin  University,  and  held  professor- 
ships of  |)hysics  at  Marburg  and  Halle. 

ICnoblecher,  knop'l^K-er,  (N.,)  a  German  mission- 
ary and  traveller,  born  about  1800.  In  company  with  a 
trading-party,  he  ascended  the  White  Nile  in  1849-50 
to  about  4°  north  latitude,  but  was  unable  to  reach  the 
source  of  the  river. 

KiioUer,  von,  fon  knol'ler,  (Martin,)  an  eminent 
historical  painter,  born  at  Steinach,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1725, 
studied  several  years  in  Rome.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  frescos  painted  from  incidents  in  the  life  of 
Cardinal  Borromeo,  and  a  large  fresco  at  Munich  of  the 
"Ascension  of  the  Virgin."  Knoller  received  a  patent 
of  nobility  from  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  worked 
many  years  in  Milan.     Died  in  1804. 

See  Enrico  Glausen,  "  Memoria  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  M. 
Knoller,"  Milan,  1S38  ;  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Knolles,  n5lz,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  about  1545.  Among  his  works 
are  "  General  History  of  the  Turks  from  the  Origin  of 
this  Nation  until  the  Elevation  of  the  Ottoman  Family," 
(1610,)  and  a  "Compendium  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  Grammar."  His  "  History  of  the  Turks"  was 
praised  by  Dr.  Johnson.     Died  in  1610. 

Knolles  or  Knowles,  nolz,  (Robert,)  a  celebrated 
English  general  under  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  was 
born  about  1317  ;  died  about  1406. 

See  Froissart,  "Chronicles." 

Knollis  or  Knowles,  nolz,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  about  1530.  He  pro- 
moted the  Reformation  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  On 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  (1558,)  he  was  appointed 
chamberlain  of  the  household  and  privy  councillor.  Died 
in  1596. 

See  Turner,  "History  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  VL,"  etc. 

Knorr,  knoR,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  a  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Nuremberg  in  1705  ;  died  in  1761. 

Knorr  von  Rosenroth,  knoR  fon  ro'zen-r5t',  (Chris- 
tian,) Baron,  a  German  scholar  and  statesman,  born 
near  Liegnitz  in  1636.  He  wrote  an  "Evangelical  His- 
tory," and  "  Kabbala  Denudata,"  an  exposition  of  the 
transcendental,  metaphysical,  and  theological  doctrines 
of  the  Hebrews.     Died  in  1689. 

Knortz,  knoRts,  (Karl,)  a  German-American  scholar, 
born  at  Garbenheim,  Rhenish  Prussia,  August  28,  1841. 
He  was  educated  in  Wetzlar,  London,  and  Heidelberg. 


In  1864  he  came  to  America,  where  he  became  a  preacher. 
His  numerous  books  are  mostly  published  in  German. 
Among  them  are  "  Tales  and  Legends  of  the  North 
American  Indians,"  (1871,)  German  translations  of  Long- 
fellow's poems,  with  notes,  "  American  Sketches,"  (1876,) 
"Little  Snow-White  and  the  Dwarfs,"  (1873,)  "Long- 
fellow :  Studies  in  Literary  History,"  (1879,)  "  An  Ameri- 
can Shakspeare  Bibliography,"  (1877,)  etc. 

Knott,  not,  (Edwaru,)  an  English  Jesuit  and  con- 
troversial writer,  whose  proper  name  was  Matthew 
Wilson,  was  born  in  Northumberland  in  1580.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  "  Infidelity  Unmasked,"  (1652,)  in 
answer  to  Chillingworth's  "  Religion  of  Protestants." 
Died  in  1656.- 

Knowler,  no'ler,  ?  (William,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  about  1700,  translated  part  of  Saint  Chrysostom's 
works.     Died  in  1767. 

Knowles,  nolz,  (James,)  an  English  editor  and  archi- 
tect, born  in  1831.  He  was  educated  at  University 
College,  London,  as  an  architect.  He  executed  many 
fine  buildings  in  and  about  London.  He  founded  the 
Metaphysical  Society  in  1869,  edited  the  "Contemporary 
Review,"  1870-77,  and  in  1877  founded  "  The  Nineteenth 
Century,"  a  review,  of  which  he  was  editor  and  owner. 
He  published  "The  Story  of  King  Arthur,"  (1S60.) 

Knovvrles,  ndlz,  (James  Davis,)  an  American  writer 
and  Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
in  1798.  He  graduated  at  Columbian  College,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  and  in  1825  became  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Boston.  He  wrote  Memoirs  of  Roger  Williams  and 
of  Mrs.  Ann  H.  Judson,  and  was  the  founder  of  the 
"Christian  Review."     Died  in  1838. 

Knowles,  n51z,  (James  Sheridan,)  a  popular  drama- 
tist and  actor,  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in  1784.  At 
twelve  years  of  age  he  wrote  his  first  play,  and  at  four- 
teen produced  an  opera,  "The  Chevalier  de  Grillon." 
He  visited  America  in  1835,  where  he  performed  on  the 
stage  and  met  with  a  flattering  reception.  Four  years 
later,  an  annual  pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  the  British  government.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  of  his  numerous  plays  may  be  mentioned 
"Leo  the  Gipsey,"  "Caius  Gracchus,"  (181 5,)  "  Vir- 
ginius,"  (1820,)  and  "The  Hunchback,"  (1832.)  Several 
years  before  his  death  he  left  the  stage  and  became  a 
Baptist  preacher.     Died  in  1862. 

See  R.  H.  Horne,  "  New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1833;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April.  1836; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1863;  Allibone,  "Diction- 
ary of  Authors." 

Knowles,  (Richard  Brinsley,)  a  son  of  J.  Sheridan 
Knowles,  was  born  in  Glasgow  in  1820.  He  wrote  "The 
Maiden  Aunt,"  (1845,)  ^  successful  play,  and  in  1843  ^'^^ 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple.  He  contributed 
much  to  current  literature,  and  for  many  years  was  an 
editor  in  London.  He  also  edited  and  published  many 
old  manuscripts.     Died  January  18,  1882. 

Knowles,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  at  Ely  in  1723.  He  wrote  "Advice  to 
Young  Clergymen,"  "Primitive  Christianity,  in  Defence 
of  the  Trinity,"  and  "  Lectures  for  Passion  Week." 
Died  in  1802. 

Knowlton,  n51'ton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  botanist, 
born  in  1692  ;  died  in  1782. 

Knox,  noks,  (Henry,)  an  able  American  general  and 
statesman,  born  at  Boston,  July  25,  1750,  was  a  book- 
seller in  his  youth.  He  married  an  accomplished  lady 
named  Lucy  Fluker.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  as  an  engineer  and 
artillerist.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  artillery.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  in  1776,  and  served  under  Washington  in  the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  January,  1777.  He 
directed  the  artillery  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  Sep- 
tember, 1777,  and  at  Monmouth,  June,  177S.  He  also 
contributed  to  the  defeat  and  capture  of  the  British  army 
at  Yorktown,  in  October,  1781,  soon  after  which  he  was 
promoted  to  be  a  major-general.  He  enjoyed  in  a  high 
degree  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  General  Wash- 
ington. He  succeeded  General  Lincoln  as  secretary  of 
war  in  March,  1785,  before  the  adoption  of  the  Consti- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  h,  y:., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i;^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KNOX 


1450 


KNOX 


tutioii,  and  was  appointed  to  the  same  office  by  President 
Washington  in  1789.  In  politics  he  was  a  Federalist. 
lie  resigned  his  office  in  December,  1794,  after  which  he 
lived  in  Maine.  He  had  seven  or  more  children.  He 
died  at  Thomaston,  Maine,  in  October,  1806. 

See  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States;"  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iL 

Knox,  (IsA  Craig,)  a  Scottish  poetess,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, October  17,  183 1.  Her  maiden  name  was  Craig. 
She  published  several  successful  volumes  of  poetry  and 
prose,  among  them  a  "  Little  Folk's  History  of  Eng- 
land," "  Songs  of  Consolation,"  "  Uuchess  Agnes,"  a 
dramatic  poem,  etc. 

Knox,  noks,  (John,)  the  greatest  of  the  Scottish  Re- 
formers, was  born  at  Gifford,  in  East  Lothian,  in  1505. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's, 
and  in  theology  was  a  jjupil  of  John  Major  or  Mair.  He 
was  ordained  a  priest  about  1 530,  soon  after  which  a  great 
change  took  place  in  his  religious  opinions.  In  1542 
he  openly  renounced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and 
became  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Protestant  doctrines, 
which  at  that  time  had  few  adherents  in  Scotland.  The 
storm  of  persecution  soon  began  to  beat  against  him, 
and  it  is  stated  that  Cardinal  Beaton  employed  assassins 
to  take  his  life.  In  1547  he  retired  for  safety  to  the  castle 
of  Saint  Andrew's,  which  was  occupied  by  a  party  of 
Protestants  who  had  conspired  against  and  killed  Cardi- 
nal Beaton.  During  the  siege  of  this  place  he  preached 
with  great  power  and  converted  many  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  castle  at  length  was  captured  by  Regent  Arran  and 
his  French  allies,  who  carried  Knox  as  a  prisoner  to 
Rouen.  He  was  confined  nineteen  months  in  the  French 
galleys,  and  released  in  1549,  after  which  he  preached 
at  Berwick  and  Newcastle  for  several  years.  He  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.  about  1551,  and  was 
intimate  with  Cranmer.  In  1553  he  married  Marjory 
Bowes.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  (1553,)  he 
was  induced  by  the  urgent  entreaties  of  his  friends  to 
retire  to  the  continent.  He  visited  Scotland  in  1555, 
after  which  he  passed  about  three  years  at  Geneva,  where 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Calvin,  studied  Hebrew,  and 
was  employed  as  pastor  of  a  church.  In  1558  he  pub- 
lished "The  First  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the 
Monstrous  Regiment  of  Women."  The  Scotch  Prot- 
estants in  the  mean  time  had  increased  in  number,  and 
the  conflict  between  the  opposing  ideas  had  reached  a 
crisis  which  required  the  inflexible  resolution  and  un- 
flinching courage  of  Knox.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in 
May,  1559,  and  became  the  master-spirit  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  that  country,  which  was  then  ruled  by  Marie, 
the  queen-regent,  a  French  princess  of  the  family  of 
Guise.  The  Protestants  raised  and  maintained  an  army 
for  self-defence,  and  were  animated  by  the  vehement 
harangues  of  Knox,  who  thundered  continually  against 
the  idolatry  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  Parliament  in 
1560  renounced  the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  adopted 
a  confession  of  faith  proposed  by  Knox.  In  1561  the 
young  queen  Mary  arrived  in  Scotland,  and  had  with 
Knox  several  interviews,  with  no  satisfactory  results. 
"  At  my  interview  with  the  queen,"  he  wrote  to  Cecil, 
"she  showed  more  artifice  than  I  ever  found  in  a  person 
so  young."  At  her  instigation,  Knox  was  accused  of 
treason,  and  tried,  but  was  acquitted,  (1563.)  His  first 
wife  having  died,  he  married  in  1564  Margaret  Stewart, 
a  daughter  of  Lord  Ochiltree.  The  projects  and  influ- 
ence of  Knox  were  promoted  by  the  abdication  of  the 
queen  and  the  appointment  of  Murray  as  regent.  But 
in  his  latter  years  he  was  greatly  afflicted  by  the  assas- 
sination of  Murray  {1570)  and  the  confusion  and  disorders 
which  followed  that  event.  He  died  in  November,  1572. 
Among  the  Reformers  of  that  age,  Knox  was  distin- 
guished for  his  courage  and  sagacity,  as  well  as  for  his 
earnestness  and  the  inflexible  austerity  of  his  principles. 
The  regent  Morton,  in  a  short  funeral  oration,  said  of 
him,  "Here  lies  he  who  never  feared  the  face  of  man." 

Of  Knox,  Froude  remarks  that  he  was  "perhaps  in 
that  extraordinary  age  its  most  extraordinary  man,  and 
whose  character  became  the  mould  in  which  the  later 
fortunes  of  his  country  were  cast."  ("  History  of  Eng- 
land," vol.  iv.  chap,  xviii.)  In  another  place  he  says, 
"No  grander  figure  can  be  found  in  the  entire  history  of 


the  Reformation  in  this  island  than  that  of  Knox.  .  .  , 
The  one  man  without  whom  Scotland,  as  the  modern 
world  has  known  it,  would  have  had  no  existence.  .  .  . 
His  was  the  voice  which  taught  the  peasant  of  the 
Lothians  that  he  was  a  free  man,  the  equal  in  the  sight  of 
God  with  the  proudest  peer  or  prelate  that  had  trampled 
on  his  forefathers.  He  was  the  one  antagonist  whom 
Mary  Stuart  could  not  soften  nor  Maitland  deceive  ;  he 
it  was  that  raised  the  poor  commons  of  his  country  into 
a  stern  and  rugged  peojjle,  who  might  be  hard,  narrow, 
superstitious,  and  fanatical,  but  who  nevertheless  were 
men  whom  neither  king,  noble,  nor  priest  could  force 
again  to  submit  to  tyranny."  (See  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  X.  chap,  xxiii.  pp.  452-456  et  seq.) 

See  McCrie,  "Life  of  John  Knox,"  2  vols.,  1812;  Burton, 
"  History  of  Scotland,"  more  particularly  chap,  xxxviii.  ;  Robert- 
son, "  History  of  Scotland;"  Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vols. 
v.,  vii.,  ix.,  X.  ;  Niemeyer,  "  Leben  des  J.  Knox  und  der  beiden 
Marien,"  1824;  "  Encyclopjedia  Britannica;"  "Westminster  Re- 
view" for  July,  1853 ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nen  Scotsmen;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812,  April,  1852, 
and  July,  1853. 

Knox,  noks,  (John,)  an  English  benefactor,  born 
about  1720,  was  a  bookseller  of  London.  He  acquired  a 
fortune  by  business,  and  spent  much  time  and  money  m 
plans  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  which  he  visited  sixteen  times.  He 
wrote  a  "  Systematic  View  of  Scotland."     Died  in  1790. 

EZnox,  (John,)  a  native  of  Edinburgh,  and  captain 
in  the  English  navy,  wrote  a  historical  account  of  the 
campaigns,  naval  battles,  etc.  in  America  during  the 
years  1757,  1759,  and  1760.     Died  in  1790. 

Knox,  (Loren  Laertes,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Nelson,  New  York,  January  8,  1811.  He 
graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1838,  entered  the 
Methodist  ministry  in  1S40,  and  held  various  college 
professorships,  chiefly  in  the  Western  States.  He  pub- 
lished "Money  Matters  Explained  to  the  Young,"  (1852,) 
"Evangelical  Rationalism,"  (1879,)  etc. 

Knox,  (Robert,)  of  the  British  East  India  naval 
service,  was  born  about  1640.  In  1660  he  was  wrecked 
on  the  island  of  Ceylon,  where  he  remained  a  captive 
twenty  years.  After  his  escape  he  published  a  "  His- 
torical Relation  of  the  Island  of  Ceylon,"  (1681.)  Died 
about  1700. 

Kuox,  (Thomas  Francis,)  D.D.,  a  British  divine, 
born  in  December,  1822.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1845  ^^  went  over  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  in  1849  accompanied  F.  W.  Faber  to  London  to 
found  the  London  Oratory,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death.  One  of  his  works,  "  When  does  the  Church  speak 
infallibly  ?"  attracted  much  notice,  and  was  translated 
into  German  and  Italian.     Died  March  20,  1882. 

Knox,  (Thomas  Wallace,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Pembroke,  New  Hampshire,  June  26,  1835.  He 
became  a  teacher,  and  was  afterwards  a  journalist  of 
Denver,  Colorado  ;  served  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  attain- 
ing the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  acting  also  as 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  "  Herald  ;"  travelled 
across  Asia  and  Europe,  Wiz  Alaska  and  Siberia,  in  1866, 
in  the  interest  of  a  telegraph  enterprise,  and  again  trav- 
ersed the  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  World  in  1877. 
His  principal  books  are  "  Camp-Fire  and  Cotton-Field," 
(1865,)  "Overland  through  Asia,"  (1870,)  "Under- 
ground," (1873,)  "Backsheesh,"  (1875,)  "The  Boy 
Travellers,"  (5  vols.,  18S0-84,)  "The  Young  Nimrods," 
(2  vols.,  1881-82,)' etc. 

Knox,  (ViCESiMUS,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  English  cler- 
gyman and  author,  born  at  Newington  Green,  in  the 
county  of  Middlesex,  in  1752.  The  title  of  D.D.  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Of  his  numerous  works  may  be  mentioned  "  Essays, 
Moral  and  Literary,"  (1777,)  "Personal  Nobility,  or 
Letters  to  a  Young  Nobleman,"  "Christian  Philoso- 
phy," (1795,)  "On  the  National  Importance  of  Classical 
Education,"  and  "Considerations  on  the  Nature  and 
Efficacy  of  the  Lord's  Supper."  As  a  preacher  he  was 
very  popular.  He  obtained  the  united  rectories  of  Rum- 
well  and  Ramsden  Grays  in  Essex,  and  was  master  of 
Tunbridge  School,  which  he  conducted  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1821. 

Knox,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  about  1788. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  nioon ; 


KNOX-LITTLE 


1451 


KOEBERGER 


Among  his  poems  are  "  The  Lonely  Hearth,"  and  "  Ma- 
riamne."     Died  in  1825. 

Kuoz-Iiittle,  (William  John,)  a  British  preacher, 
born  in  the  North  of  Ireland  about  1830.  He  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1S62.  In  18S1  he  was 
made  a  canon  of  Worcester.  He  is  a  popular  pulpit 
orator  and  a  High  Churchman,  and  has  published  "  Ser- 
mons" and  several  devotional  and  religious  books. 

Knud.     See  Canute. 

Knupfer,  knoop'fer,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  paintei 
of  battles  and  mythological  subjects,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1603  ;  died  in  1660. 

Knut     See  Canute. 

Knutzen,  knoot'sen,  (Martin,)  a  German  writer,  and 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg, 
was  born  in  that  city  in  1713  ;  died  in  1751. 

Knutzen,  EZnuzen,  or  Cnutzen,  knoot'sen,  (Mat- 
thias,) an  atheist  or  skeptic,  was  born  in  Holstein,  and 
educated  at  Konigsberg.  He  made  numerous  proselytes, 
who,  from  his  doctrine  that  reason  and  conscience  were 
sufficient  to  guide  all  men,  have  been  called  Conscien- 
tiarians.     Died  after  1674. 

Knuzen.     See  Knutzen. 

Knyphausen,  knip'how'zen,  (Baron,)  a  German 
general,  born  in  Alsace  about  1730.  He  obtained  in  1776 
command  of  an  army  of  Hessians  who  were  hired  by 
the  British  ministry  to  fight  against  the  Americans.  He 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  September,  1777, 
and  in  other  actions  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  Died  in 
Berlin  in  1789. 

Kobad.     See  Cabades. 

Kobell,  ko'b^I,  (Ferdinand,)  an  able  German  land- 
scape-painter and  engraver,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1 740. 
He  worked  for  some  years  at  Munich,  where  he  died  in 
1799.     His  etchings  are  highly  prized. 

Kobell,  (Franz,)  a  German  landscape-painter,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Mannheim  in  1749.  He  also 
executed  with  his  pen  a  large  number  of  pictures,  which 
have  been  greatly  admired.     Died  in  1822. 

Kobell,  (Franz,)  a  German  poet  and  mineralogist, 
a  grandson  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above,  was  born  af 
Munich  in  1803.  He  published  several  good  works  on 
mineralogy,  and  popular  poems.  Died  November  11, 
18S2. 

Kobell,  ko'b^l,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Rotterdam  in  1751.  He  painted  landscapes,  marine 
pieces,  and  naval  battles  with  success.     Died  in  1782. 

Kobell,  (Jan,)  a  skilful  painter  of  landscapes  and 
animals,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1782,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
•"cding.     Died  in  1814. 

Kobell,  (Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  German  painter 
of  landscapes  and  battles,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1766, 
was  a  son  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above.  He  worked  at 
Munich.     Died  in  1853. 

Kobenzl.     See  Cobenzl. 

Koch,  koK,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
Prussian  jurist,  born  at  Mohrin,  February  9,  1798.  He 
was  bred  a  shoemaker,  but  studied  law  in  Berlin.  He 
wrote  numerous  and  valuable  legal  works,  and  is  justly 
regarded  as  one  of  the  reformers  of  German  legal 
administration,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  new 
Prussian  legal  system.     Died  January  21,  1872. 

Koch,  (Robert,)  a  celebrated  German  physician,  was 
born  at  Clausthal,  December  11,  1843,  and  was  bred  at 
Gottingen.  He  discovered  in  1882  the  bacillus  of  tuber- 
culosis, and  in  1883  led  the  cholera-expedition  to  Egypt 
and  India.  He  soon  after  announced  the  discovery  of 
the  cholera-bacillus ;  but  the  announcement  led  to  much 
discussion,  many  pathologists  regarding  his  theory  as  not 
yet  established. 

Koch,  von,  fon  koK,  (Christoph  Wilhelm,)  a 
French  Protestant  and  historical  writer,  of  German 
parentage,  was  born  at  Bouxviller,  in  Alsace,  in  1737. 
He  studied  at  Strasburg  under  Schopfiin,  and  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  lecturer  on  history,  public  law,  etc.  in  that 
city.  In  1791  he  represented  Bas-Rhin  in  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly.  He  was  imprisoned  during  the  reign  of 
terror,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Tribunate  in  1802. 
Among  his  important  works  are  "  Tableau  des  Revolu- 
tions de  I'Europe  depuis  le  Bouleversement  de  I'Empire 
Romain,"    (1771,)    and   an   "Abridged    History  of  the 


Treaties  between  the  European  Powers  since  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,"  (4  vols.,  1796.)     Died  in  1813. 

See  ScHWEiGHAUsER,  "Notice  biographique  de  Koch." 

Koch,  (Jean  Baptiste  Fr^d^ric,)  a  general,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1782.  He  wrote 
"  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  the  Campaign  of  1814," 
(3  vols.,  1819,)  and  aided  Jomini  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Wars  of  the  Revoludon,"  (5  vols.,  1819-24.)  Died  in  1861. 

Koch,  (Joseph  Anton,)  an  eminent  landscape  and 
historical  painter,  born  in  the  valley  of  Lech,  near  Augs- 
burg, in  1768.  He  studied  in  Rome,  where  he  fixed  his 
residence.  Among  his  best  pieces  are  the  "  Sacrifice  of 
Noah,"  "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  and  the  frescos  from 
Dante  in  the  villa  Massimi.  He  also  etched  twenty 
plates  of  Italian  landscapes,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces.    Died  at  Rome  in  1839. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Koch,  (Karl  Heinrich  Emanuel,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Weimar  in  1809.  He  travelled  in  Southern 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  the  Caucasus,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  his  "  Journey  through  Russia  to  the  Caucasian 
Isthmus,"  (2  vols.,  1842,)  "Wanderings  in  the  East,"  (3 
vols.,  1846,)  and  a  "Flora  of  the  Levant,"  ("  Beitrage  zu 
einer  Flora  des  Orientes,"  1848-54.)    Died  May  25,  1879. 

Koch,  (Wilhelm  Daniel  Joseph,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  near  Deux-Ponts  in  1771,  be- 
came, in  1824,  professor  of  botany  and  medicine  at  Erlan- 
gen.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  European  Willows," 
("De  Salicibus  Europasis,"  i8i8,)  "Synopsis  of  the  Flora 
of  Germany  and  Switzerland,"  (1835-37,)  and  other  works 
on  botany.     Died  in  1849. 

Koch-Sternfeld,  koK  stSRn'fglt,  (Joseph  Ernst,) 
a  German  historical  writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Mit- 
tersill  in  1778.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Kingdom  of 
the  Longobards  in  Italy,"  (1839,)  and  "  Historical  Studies 
on  Civilization  in  the  Alps,"  (1852.)     Died  in  1866. 

Kochano-wski,  ko'Ka-nov'skee,  (John,)  a  Polish 
nobleman  and  celebrated  poet,  born  in  1532.  For  his 
transladons  of  the  Psalms  into  Polish  verse  he  received 
the  title  of  "the  Pindar  of  Poland."  His  other  poems 
were  published  at  Warsaw,  (1803-05.)     Died  in  1584. 

See  Bbntkowski,  "History  of  Polish  Literature." 

Kochly  or  Koechly,  koK'lee,  (Hermann  August 
Theodor,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1815.  He  wrote,  among  otlier  works,  a  valuable  "  History 
of  the  Art  of  War  among  the  Greeks."     Died  in  1876. 

Kock,  (Matthew.)     See  Cock. 

Kock,  de,  deh  kok,  (Charles  Paul,)  a  French  ro- 
mance-writer and  dramatist,  of  Dutch  extraction,  born 
at  Passy,  near  Paris,  in  1794.  His  works,  though  pos- 
sessing little  merit  as  literary  productions,  and  ranking 
among  the  most  immoral  of  French  novels,  enjoy  great 
popularity  both  in  France  and  other  countries  of  Europe. 
Some  French  critics  consider  him  an  excellent  painter 
of  French  manners,  of  Parisian  roguery,  rustic  bonhomie, 
and  the  absurdity  of  the  bourgeois.     Died  in  1S71. 


American  Review"  for  April,  1S43 

Kock,  de,  deh  kok,  (Henri,)  a  French  author,  a  son 
of  Paul  de  Kock.  He  was  born  in  Paris  in  .1821.  He 
has  written  a  vast  number  of  novels  and  romances,  and 
a  number  of  plays.  His  style  and  his  subjects  much 
resemble  those  of  his  father. 

Kodde,  van  der,  vSn  der  kod'deh,  (Jan,  Adriaan, 
and  Gysbert,)  three  brothers,  who  lived  at  Warmond, 
near  Leyden,  and  founded  a  religious  society,  called  Col- 
legiants,  about  1620. 

Kodhaee  or  Kodhai,  Al,  il  ko-dha'ee,  (Abdallah- 
Ibn-Abi-Bekr-Ibnul-Abbar,  ab-dil'lah  ib'n  J'bee 
b^k'r  ib-nool'  ib-b^R',)  often  called  simply  IbniU-  (or 
Ibnool-)  AbbSr,  a  celebrated  Spanish  Arabian  author, 
born  at  Valencia,  in  Spain,  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
His  style  is  elegant,  pure,  and  terse.  Among  his  writings 
are  two  biographical  works  on  the  Arabian  poets  and 
authors. 

Kodros  or  Kodrus.     See  Codrus. 

Koeberger,  koo1)gRG-er,  (Venceslaus,)  a  Flemish 
painter  and  architect,  born  in  Antwerp  about  1550.     He 


R  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;';  G,  H,  Vi, giitturai ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


KOECHLIN 


1452 


KOLETTIS 


studied  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  Among  his  paintings 
are  the  "Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian,"  and  "Christ 
taken  from  the  Cross  and  supported  by  Angels."  Died 
in  1634,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1610. 

See  Dksca.mps.  "Vies  des  Peiiitres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Koeclilin,  k^k'l^N',  (Daniel,)  a  French  chemist  and 
manufacturer  of  cotton,  born  at  Miilhouse  about  1785, 
was  one  of  the  firm  of  Nicolas  Koechlin  freres.  He 
greatly  promoted  the  prosperity  of  Miilhouse  by  the 
invention  of  a  process  of  adorning  printed  muslins  with 
rich  designs  and  brilliant  colours.    Died  April  18,  1871. 

Kceclilin,  (Nicol.\s,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Miilhouse  in  1781.  He  was  a  manufacturer  of 
fine  muslins  (indiennes)  at  Miilhouse,  and  a  liberal  mem- 
ber of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.     Died  in  1852. 

Koechly.     See  Kochly. 

Koeck,  kook,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish  painter,  engravci, 
and  architect,  was  born  at  Alost  about  1500.  He  studied 
in  Italy,  and  afterwards  visited  Turkey.  Among  his 
works  are  seven  large  and  well-executed  paintings  to 
illustrate  the  manners  of  the  Turlcs.  He  also  rnade 
engravings  of  these  pictures.  Koeck  was  first  painter 
to  Charles  V.     Died  in  1553. 

See  Pii.KiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Koegler.     See  Kogler. 

Koehler.     See  Kohler. 

Koekkoek,  kook'kook,  (  Bernard  Cornelis,  )  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1803, 
published  in  1841  "Recollections  and  Communications 
of  a  Landscape-Painter."  His  works  are  commended 
for  fidelity  to  nature  and  other  merits.     Died  in  1862. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Koelcsey,  (Francis.)     See  Kolcsey. 

Koeler.     See  Kohler. 

Koelliker.     See  Kolliker. 

Koelreuter.     See  Kolreuter. 

Koenig.     See  Konig. 

Koenigshoven.     See  Konigshoven. 

Koenigsmarck.     See  Konigsmarck. 

Koeppen.     See  Koppen. 

Koepstein.    See  Capito,  (Wolfgang.) 

Koerner.     See  Korner. 

Koerte.     See  Korte. 

Koerten-Block.     See  Block. 

Koes,  (F.)     See  Kos. 

Koestlin.     See  Kostlin. 

Koets,  koots,  (Roelof,)  a  Dutch  portrait-pamtei, 
born  at  Zwolle  in  1655.  Among  his  works  are  the  por- 
traits of  William  HI.  of  England,  and  of  several  distin- 
guished Flemings,  Germans,  and  Englishmen.     Died  in 

1725- 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kofod,  ko'fod,  (Johan  Ancher,)  a  Danish  writei, 
born  near  Bornholm  in  1777,  published  several  histories 
and  a  "Conversations-Lexicon,"  (28  vols.,  1816-28.) 
Died  in  1829. 

See  Ersi.ew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Kogler  or  Koegler,  koo'ler,  (  Ignaz,  )  a  learnea 
Jesuit,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1680.  In  1715  he  was  sent  as 
a  missionary  to  China,  where  he  received  many  marks 
of  distinction  from  the  emperor  Kang-Hee,  (Kang-Hi.) 
He  died  in  Pekin  in  1746. 

Kohen  Attar,  ko'hen  dt-tlR',  written  also  Cohen 
Atthar  and  Kuhan  Atthar,  a  learned  Egyptian  phy 
sician,  lived  about  11 50,  and  wrote  on  materia  medica. 

Kohl,  kol,  (JoHANN  Georg,)  a  German  traveller  and 
po]3ular  writer,  was  born  at  Bremen  in  1808.  Among  his 
princijial  works  are  "Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Russia 
and  Poland,"  (1841,)  "Travels  in  Styria and  the  Bavarian 
Highlands,"  (1842,)  "Travels  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,"  (1844,)  and  "Travels  in  the  Netherlands," 
(1850.)  He  also  wrote  "Sketches  from  Nature  and 
Common  Life,"  (2  vols.,  1851.)  His  fine  descriptive 
powers  and  attractive  style  entitle  him  to  rank  among 
the  best  writers  of  travels  in  recent  times.  Died  in  1878 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1841,  and  January, 
1842;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1S46. 

Kohler  or  Koehler,  ko'ler,  (Johann  Bernhard,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1742.  In  1781  he 
was  appointed   to  the  chair  of  the  Greek  and  Oriental 


languages  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  He  wrote 
"Remarks  on  Dion  Chrysostom,"  "Tracts  on  Roman 
Law,"  and  several  other  woiks.     Died  in  1802. 

Kohler,  Koehler,  or  Koeler,  (Johann  David,)  a 
German  author  and  antiquary,  born  near  Leipsic  in 
1684.  In  1710  he  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  at 
Altorf,  and  about  1725  was  chosen  professor  of  history 
at  Gottingen.  His  numerous  works  relate  to  history, 
bibliography,  and  literature.     Died  in  1755. 

See  J.  M.  Gesner,  "  Memoria  Koehleri,"  1755;  Gatteker  und 
J.  K.  KoHLHK,  "J.  D.  Kcihlers  Leben,"  in  the  last  volume  of  his 
'Miinzbelustigungen,"  22  vols.,  1729-55. 

Kohler  or  Koehler,  (Johann  Tobias,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  at  Altorf  in  1720,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  "Cabinet  of  Ducats," 
("Ducaten-Cabinet,"  2  vols.,  1758-60.)     Died  in  1768. 

Kohlrausch,  kol'rowsh,  (  Heinrich  Friedrich 
Theodor,)  born  near  Gottingen  in  1780,  published  a 
"History  of  Germany."  Died  in  Hanover,  January  31 
1867. 

Kohne,  ko'neh,  (Frederick,)  born  in  Prussia  in 
1757,  emigrated  to  America  in  1780,  and  made  a  large 
fortime  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  He  died  in  1829, 
leaving  a  great  part  of  his  property  to  the  charitable 
institutions  of  Pennsylvania  and  -South  Carolina,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  coloured  as  well  as  the  white  population. 

Kolb.    See  Kolke,  (Peter.) 

Kolb,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German  editor  and 
politician,  born  at  Spires,  September  14,  1808.  After 
his  banishment  (1S53-60)  he  edited  the  "Frankfurter 
Zeitung."  He  published  a  "  Hand-Book  of  Compara- 
tive Statistics"  (1858)  and  "The  Basis  of  Statistics," 
(1862.)     Died  in  1884. 

Kolbe,  kol'beh,  (Adolf  Wilhelm  Hermann,)  a 
German  chemist,  born  near  Gottingen  in  1818.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Wohler,  Liebig,  and  Bunsen,  and  held  pro- 
fessorships of  chemistry  at  Marburg  and  Leipsic.  He 
published  a  valued  treatise  on  organic  chemistry,  in  which 
branch  of  the  science  he  made  important  discoveries. 
Died  in  1S84. 

Kolbe,  kol'beh,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  skilful  German 
engraver  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1757.  He  etched 
numerous  landscapes  after  his  own  designs,  and  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Riches  of  the 
German  and  French  Languages,  and  the  Capacity  of 
both  for  Poetry,"  (1806.)     Died  in  1835. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Mein  Lebenslauf  und  mein  Wirken," 
1825;  Nagler,  "AUgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Kolbe,  (Karl  Wllhelm,)  a  German  painter,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Berlin  in  1781  ;  died  in  1853. 

Kolbe,  written  also  Kolb,  kolp,  or  Kolben,  kol'ben, 
(Peter,)  a  naturalist,  born  at  Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria, 
in  1675.  He  passed  some  years  in  Southern  Africa, 
and  wrote,  among  other  works,  "A  Description  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  (1719.)  His  book,  containing 
much  valuable  information,  was  translated  into  the 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  languages.     Died  in  1726. 

See  G.  C.  Oertel,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Mentis  P.  Kolbii," 
1758- 

Kolben.     See  Kolbe,  (Peter.) 

Kolcsey,  koKcha,  (Francis,)  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Hungarian  orators,  celebrated  also  as  a  poet,  critic,  and 
lawyer,  was  born  in  Middle  Szolnok  in  1790.  At  an 
early  age  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Kazinczy  and  Paul 
Szemere,  and  in  1826  was  associated  with  the  latter  as 
editor  of  a  journal  entitled  "Life  and  Literature."  He 
published  in  this  periodical  a  number  of  critical  essays, 
regarded  as  the  best  in  the  Hungarian  language,  the 
object  of  which  was  the  improvement  of  the  national 
literature  of  Hungary.  He  was  a  deputy  to  the  Diet 
of  1832-36,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  rare  elo- 
quence and  his  unswerving  course  in  the  support  of 
liberal  principles.  Died  in  1838.  His  complete  works, 
consisting  of  poems,  tales,  essays,  and  philosophical  and 
miscellaneous  writings,  were  published  the  same  year. 

See  an  article  on  the  "  Language  and  Literature  of  the  Magyars," 
in  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

Koler.     See  Kohler. 

Ko-let'tis  or  Co-let' tls,  (Joan n is,)  a  modern  Greek 
statesman  and  democrat,  born  near  Janina  in  1788,  was 
one  of  the  most  active  promoters  of  the  insurrection  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  Ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fjlr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KOLLAR 


i45> 


KONIGSMARCK 


1821.  On  the  accession  of  King  Otho  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  interior  and  president  of  the  cabinet. 
He  became  in  1844  minister  of  foreign  aifairs,  which  post 
he  held  until  his  death,  in  1847. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiK,  "M.  Colettis,  par  un  Homnie  de  Rien," 
1842. 

Kollar,  kol'laR,  (Jan,)  a  distinguished  ecclesiastic, 
poet,  and  antiquary,  born  in  Northern  Hungary  in  1793. 
He  endeavoured  by  his  writings  to  establish  a  common 
language  and  feeling  of  nationality  between  the  various 
Slavonic  races  in  Europe.  This  spirit  pervades  all  his 
poetry,  for  which  he  used  the  Bohemian  language,  re- 
garding his  native  Slovakian  as  deficient  in  dignity  and 
comprehensiveness.  After  the  revolt  of  the  Hungarians, 
to  whom  he  was  bitterly  opposed,  he  removed  to  Vienna, 
where  he  became  professor  of  archaeology.  Died  in  1852. 
His  principal  poem  is  entitled  "  Slawy  Dcera,"  ("Daugh- 
ter of  Glory,"  1824.)  Among  his  prose  works  are  "Treat- 
ises on  the  Names  and.  Antiquities  of  the  Slavonic 
Nation,"  and  "  On  the  Literary  Reciprocity  between  the 
Races  and  Dialects  of  the  Slavonic  Tribes,"  (1831.) 

See  Dr.  J.  Bowring,  "Servian  Poetry;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  182S. 

Kolli,  kol'lee,  de,  (Baron,)  a  political  adventurer, 
born  in  Piedmont  about  1775.  He  made  an  attempt  in 
1810  to  release  from  prison  the  Spanish  prince,  (after- 
wards Ferdinand  VH.,)  but,  his  plan  having  been  be- 
trayed, he  was  imprisoned  four  years  in  the  castle  of 
Saumur.     Died  about  1825. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Baron  de  Kolli,"  by  himself;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1823. 

Kblliker  or  Koelliker,  kol'le-ker,  (Albert,)  a  Ger- 
man physiologist  of  high  reputation,  born  about  1818. 
He  gained  distinction  by  his  minute  investigations  with 
the  microscope.  Among  other  works,  he  published 
"Manual  of  Human  Histology,"  ("  Handbuch  der  Gewe- 
belehre  des  Menschen,"  1852,)  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Busk  and  Huxley.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Wiirzburg. 

Kollmann,  kol'min,  (August  Friedrich  Karl,)  a 
German  composer,  born  near  Hanover  in  1756.  He  was 
an  organist  in  London,  and  wrote  a  "Theory  of  Musical 
Harmony,"  (1806.)     Died  in  1824. 

KoUontaj  or  Kolontaj,  kol'lon-tl',  (Hugo,)  written 
also  Kollontay,  a  Polish  patriot,  born  in  the  government 
of  Sandomir  in  1750.  He  had  the  principal  share  in 
drawing  up  the  constitution  of  the  3d  of  May,  1791,  but, 
after  the  meeting  of  the  confederation  of  Targowitza,  was 
forced  to  leave  the  country.  He  was  afterwards  impris- 
oned for  a  time  at  Olmiitz  by  the  Austrians.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  able  political  treatises.     Died  in  1812. 

Kolmar.     See  Colmar. 

Koln.     See  Coln. 

Kol-o-ko-tro'nis  or  Colocotronis,  (Theodore,) 
a  modern  Greek  patriot,  born  in  Messenia  in  1770.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  many  engagements  with  the 
Turks,  and  rose  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus in  1823.  In  1835  he  was  made  a  councillor 
of  state  by  King  Otho,  and  obtained  other  distinctions. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  QuiNET,  "  La  Grfece  moderne  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  I'An- 
tiquit^." 

Kolowrat  or  Kolowrat-Liebsteinski,  ko'lo-rit' 
leep-stln'skee,  (Franz  Anton,)  a  Bohemian  minister  of 
state,  born  at  Prague  in  1778.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  council  of  ministers  at  Vienna  in  1825,  and  long 
had  charge  of  the  department  of  finances.    Died  in  1861. 

Kolowrat,  ko'lo-rSt',  or  Kollo-wrath,  kol'lo-rit , 
(Leopold  Krakowski,)  a  statesman  of  Austria  under 
the  reigns  of  Francis  L,  Maria  Theresa,  Joseph  H. 
Leopold  n.,  and  Francis  H.  He  held  the  offices  of 
minister  of  the  interior  and  grand  chancellor  of  Bohemia. 
Died  in  1809. 

Kolreuter  or  Koelreiiter,  kol'roi'ter,  (Joseph 
Gottlieb,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at  Julz,  on  tht 
Neckar,  in  1733  ;  died  in  1806. 

Koltzof  or  Kolzov,  kolt'sof,  (  Alexei  Vasilie- 
viTCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  the  government  of 
Voronezh  in  1809.  His  "Russian  Songs  and  Ballads" 
are  ranked  among  the  best  productions  of  the  kind  in 
the  language.     Died  in  1842. 


Komnenos.     See  Comnenus. 

Konarski,  konaR'skee,  (Stanislas  Jerome,)  a 
Polish  poet  TiwAlitth-ateicr,  born  at  Konary,  near  Cracow, 
in  1700.  He  founded  a  college  of  Piarists  at  Warsaw. 
He  published  numerous  works  which  contributed  to 
reform  the  national  literature.     Died  in  1773. 

See  Kkajewski,  "  filoge  historique  de  Konarski,"  Warsaw,  17S3 

Konewka,  ko-ngw'ka,  (Paul,)  a  Poksh  artist,  born 
about  1840,  was  noted  for  his  skilful  silhouette  illustra- 
tions.    Died  at  Berlin  in  1871. 

Kong-Fou-Tse.     See  Confucius. 

Kong-Fu-Tse.     See  Confucius. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  ko'nic,  (Christian  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Altorf  in  1711 ;  died  in  1782. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  ko'nio,  (Emanuel,)  a  Swiss  natu- 
ralist and  medical  writer,  born  at  Bale  in  1658.  Among 
his  works  is   "  Regnum   Vegetabile,"  (1680.)     Died  in 

1731- 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Friedrich,)  the  inventor  of  the 
steam-press,  was  born  at  Eisleben,  in  Germany,  in  1775. 
About  1807  he  visited  London,  where  he  was  aided  in 
carrying  out  his  plans  by  Bensley,  Taylor,  and  Woodfall. 
In  1811  a  sheet  of  the  "  Annual  Register"  was  printed, 
being  the  first  that  was  done  by  a  printing-machine  by 
which  the  paper  was  applied  to  the  type  by  a  revolving 
cylinder.  In  November,  1814,  a  number  of  the  "Times" 
was  printed  by  a  steam  press  on  the  principle  of  Kbnig's 
invention :  it  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  newspaper 
ever  printed  by  steam-power.  After  his  return  to  Ger- 
many, Konig,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Bauer,  es- 
tablished at  Oberzell,  near  Wiirzburg,  a  manufactory 
for  the  construction  of  printing-machines,  four  hundred 
of  which  had  in  1853  been  sent  forth  from  it.  After  the 
death  of  Konig,  in  1833,  the  business  was  carried  on  by 
Bauer. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Bioa:raphie  G^n^rale." 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Georg  Matthias,)  a  German 
writer  and  scholar,  born  at  Altdorf,  in  Franconia,  in  1616, 
was  appointed  in  1667  professor  of  poetry  in  his  native 
city.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Latin-and-German  Lexi- 
con," (1668,)  and  a  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Authors, 
("  Bibliotheca  Vetus  et  Nova,"  1678.)     Died  in  1699. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  M^moires." 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Heinrich  Joseph,)  a  German 
novelist,  born  at  Fulda  in  1790.  Among  his  best  works 
are  "The  Waldenses,"  (1836,)  "William  Shakspeare," 
(1839,)  and  "The  Clubbists  of  Mentz,"  ("Die  Clubisten 
von  Mainz,"  1847  :)  the  last  named,  a  historical  romance, 
is  especially  admired.  He  was  secretary  of  finance  at 
Hanau  from  1819  to  1835.     Died  in  1869. 

See  N.  Gretch,  "  H.  Konig  und  seine  Liigen  ;  Seitenstilck  zu 
Nic.  Gretsch  und  die  Russische  Literatur  in  Deutschland,"  1840. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Johann  Gerard,)  a  botanist,  and 
pupil  of  Linnaeus,  born  in  Livonia  in  1728.  He  visited 
Iceland  and  the  East  Indies,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
on  botany,  which  he  left  in  manuscript.  Died  at  Tran- 
quebar  in  1785. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  mathema- 
tician, son  of  Samuei  Heinrich,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  BUdingen  in  17 12.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Franeker,  and  professor  of  philosophy  and  law  at  the 
Hague.     Died  in  1757. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Samuel  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss 
Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  about  1670  at  Berne, 
where  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  and  Oriental 
languages  in  1731.     Died  in  1750. 

Konig  or  Koninck,  (Solomon.)     See  Coninck. 

Konigshoven  or  Koenigshoven,  kS'niGs-ho'ven, 
also  known  as  James  Twinger,  an  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1346.  He  wrote,  in  Latin  and  German, 
"  Chronicles  of  Strasburg."     Died  in  1420. 

See  Oberlin,  "  De  Jacobo  Twingero,"  etc.,  1789. 

Konigsmarck  or  Koenigsmarck,  von,  fon  ko'- 
nios-maRk',  written  also  Konigsmark,  [Lat.  Konigs- 
mar'kius,]  (Johann  Christoph,)  Count,  a  celebrated 
general,  born  in  Germany  in  1600,  entered  the  service 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1630.  After  the  death  of  the 
King  of  Sweden,  he  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  battle 
of  ^^'olfenbiittel.  He  also  invaded  Bohemia,  and  captured 
Prague,  in  1648.    He  was  afterwards  appointed  Governor 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,guttnral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


KONIGSMARCK 


1454 


KOPPEN 


of  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden.  Queen  Christina 
created  him  count  and  field-marshal.     Died  in  1663. 

See  "  Eterna  Gloria  J.  C.  Koiiigsmarkii,"  Holm,  1664. 

Konigsmarck,  Koenigsmarck,  or  Konigsmark, 
von,  (Maria  Aurora,)  Countess,  a  granddaughter  of 
the  preceding,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  accomplish- 
ments, was  born  in  Bremen  about  1670.  She  was  the 
mistress  of  Frederick  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
King  of  Poland,  by  whom  she  had  a  son,  Maurice  Count 
de  Saxe,  afterwards  famous  as  a  French  general.  In 
1702  she  was  sent  by  the  Elector  to  treat  with  Charles 
XII.  That  monarch  refused  to  see  her;  "but  she 
returned,"  says  Voltaire,  "with  the  satisfaction  of  be- 
lieving that  she  was  the  only  person  feared  by  the  King  of 
Sweden."  The  Countess  of  Konigsmarck  spoke  several 
languages  with  great  fluency  and  correctness.  She  com- 
posed a  poem  on  Charles  XII.,  written  in  the  purest 
French.     Died  in  1728. 

See  Cramer,  "  Denkwiirdigkeiten  der  M.  A.  Konigsmark,"  2 
vols.,  1836;  CoRViN-WiERSBiTZKY,  "Maria  Aurora  Grafin  von 
Konigsmark,"  1841  :  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1S37. 

Konigsmarck,  von,  (Otto  Wilhelm,)  Count,  son 
of  Johann  Christoph,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  West- 
phalia in  1639.  He  subsequently  served  with  great  dis- 
tinction in  the  French  army  under  Turenne  and  with 
the  Swedish  army  in  Germany.  In  1686  he  was  created 
generalissimo  of  the  Venetian  republic,  for  which  he 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Turks.    Died  in  1688. 

Konigsmark  or  Koenigsmark,  ko'nics-maRk',  (Fi- 
LIP  Christoker,)  Count,  a  Swedish  officer,  born  about 
1640,  was  a  favourite  lover  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  the  wife 
of  George,  Elector  of  Hanover.  This  prince,  it  is  said, 
caused  him  to  be  assassinated  in  1694. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires;"  Blaze  de  Bury,  "  Episode  de 
I'Histoire  du  Hanovre." 

Kbnigsmarkius.    See  Konigsmarck. 

Koninck.     See  Coninck. 

Koning,  ko'ning,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born 
at  Haarlem  about  1524,  engraved  portraits  of  celebrated 
men,  including  Luther  and  Calvin. 

Koning,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes  and 
history,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1645.  He  went  to 
Copenhagen,  and  worked  for  the  King  of  Denmark. 

Koning,  de,  (David.)     See  Coninck. 

Koning  or  Koninck,  de,  deh  ko'ning,  (Philipp,) 
an  able  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1619,  was 
a  pupil  of  Rembrandt.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and 
excelled  in  landscapes  and  portraits.     Died  in  1689. 

Konon.     See  Conon. 

Konrad.     See  Conrad. 

Konstantijn  or  Konstantyn.  See  Constantino 
the  Great. 

Kontski,  kont'skee,  (Martin,)  a  Polish  general,  born 
in  1635,  served  with  distinction  under  John  Sobieski.  He 
directed  the  artillery  in  the  great  battle  against  the  Turks 
at  Vienna  in  1683.     Died  in  1710. 

Konz,  (Karl  Philipp.)     See  Conz. 

Kooang  or  Kouang,  koo-ang',  (almost  kwang,)  a 
Chinese  statesman  and  celebrated  historian,  born  in  the 
province  of  .Shen-see  or  Chen-si  about  1018  a.d.  He 
wrote  an  important  work  on  the  history  of  China.  Died 
in  1086. 

See  Mailla,  "  Histoire  gen^rale  de  la  Chine." 

Kooblai  (Koublai  or  Kublai)  Khan,  koo'blT'  KJn, 
(Shee-Tsoo  or  Chi-Tsou,  shee-tsoo,)  the  founder  of 
the  Mongol  dynasty  of  China,  was  a  grandson  of  Jengi- 
Khan.  He  began  to  reign  over  the  north  part  of  China 
about  1260,  soon  after  which  date  he  conquered  the 
southern  provinces  and  became  master  of  a  vast  empire 
extending  from  the  Polar  Sea  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
and  including  Thibet,  Tartary,  Siam,  etc.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  able  ruler.  In  his  reign  Marco  Polo  visited 
China.     Died  in  1294. 

Koogen,  van  der,  vtn  der  ko'gen,  (Leonard,)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1610,  was  also  an 
etcher.     Died  in  16S1. 

Koolee  Khan.     See  Nadir  Shah. 

Koolnef,  Koulneff,  or  Kulne-w,  kool-nSf,  (Yakof,) 
a  Russian  general,  born  in  1763.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Drissa,  in  July,  1812. 

Koorakin  or  Kourakin,  koo'ri-keen'  or  koo'rS-kin', 
(Alexander  Borisovitch,)  Prince,  a  Russian  diplo- 


matist, born  in  1752,  was  a  favourite  courtier  of  Paul  L 
He  was  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1808  to  1812.  Died 
in  1818. 

Koorakin  or  Kourakin,  (Boris  Ivanovitch, ) 
Prince,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born  in  1677,  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Peter  I.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  on  a 
political  mission  by  that  emperor.     Died  in  1727. 

Koornhert.     See  Cornhert. 

Kooten,  van,  vtn  ko'ten,  (Theodorus,)  a  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Holland  in  1749;  died  in  1S14. 

Kootooz  or  Kfttiiz,  (Kothouz,)  koo-tooz'  or  koo'- 
tooz',*  written  also  Kotouz,  (Mahmood  Seif-ed- 
Deen  Malek  Modhaffer,  mdn'mood'  sif  ed-deen'  mo'- 
dhSf'fer,)  became  Sultan  of  Egypt  in  1259  bv  usurpation. 
He  defeated  the  Tartars  in  Syria.  He  was  assassinated 
by  Bibars  in  1260. 

Kootoozof,  Koutouzof,  Koutousof,  or  Kutfi- 
so-w,  koo-too'zof,  (Michael  Laurionovitch  Goleni- 
tchef,)  a  celebrated  Russian  commander,  born  in  1745, 
served  against  the  Poles  and  the  Turks,  and  rose  to  be 
lieutenant-general  in  1789.  In  1793  he  was  ambassador 
to  Constantinople,  and  on  the  accession  of  the  emperor 
Paul  was  charged  with  a  mission  to  Berlin.  After  the 
assassination  of  that  sovereign  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor-general of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1805  was 
created  commander-in-chief  of  the  first  corps  of  the 
Russian  army  against  the  French.  He  gained  a  victory 
over  Marshal  Mortier  at  Diirrenstein,  and  soon  after 
commanded  the  allied  army  under  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander at  Austerlitz,  (1S05.)  In  1812,  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
seven,  he  succeeded  Barclay  de  Tolly  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Russian  army,  a  few  days  before  the 
battle  of  Borodino.  For  his  victories  over  Ney  and 
Davoust  the  emperor  bestowed  upon  him  the  surname 
of  Smolenskoi.  He  died  in  1813,  at  Buntzlau,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  him. 

See  S^GUR,  "  Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  grande  .Armde :" 
Mikhailovskv-Danilevskv,  "Vie  du  Feld-Mar^chal  Koutouzoffi" 
translated  from  the  Russian  by  Fizelier,  1850 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Gen^rale." 

Kopernicus.    See  Copernicus. 

Kopernik.     See  Copernicus. 

Kopievitch,  ko-pe-a'vitch,  written  also  Kopieu- 
vicz,  (Elias,)  a  Russian  philologist,  who  was  sent  by 
Peter  the  Great  to  Holland  in  order  to  complete  his 
studies.  Among  his  works  are  a  Latin  Grammar  for  Rus- 
sian schools,  and  a  Slavonic-and-German  Dictionary. 
Died  in  1701. 

Kopisch,  ko'pish,  (August,)  a  German  poet  and 
artist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1799;  died  in  1853. 

Kopitar,  ko'pe-taR',  (Bartholomaus,)  a  philologist, 
born  in  Carniola  in  1780,  was  appointed  first  keeper  of 
the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna,  (1843.)  ^^  published 
in  1808  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Slavonian  Language  in  Car- 
niola, Carinthia,  and  Styria."     Died  in  1844. 

Kopp,  kop,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Offenbach  in  1698.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Law  which  now  prevails  in 
Germany,"  ("  Historia  Juris  quo  hodie  in  Germania 
utimur,"  1741.)     Died  in  1748. 

Kopp,  kop,  (Joseph  Eutvch,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born 
at  Miinster,  in  Lucerne,  in  1793.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  History  of  the  Swiss  Leagues,"  (Bunde,)  (4  vols.,  1845- 
57.)  Kopp  discredits  the  popular  tradition  of  William 
Tell.     Died  October  25,  1866. 

Kopp,  (Ulrich  Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Cassel  in  1762,  became  director  of  the  court 
archives  in  1802.  His  "  Palaeographia  critica"  (1817)  is 
much  esteemed.     Died  in  1834. 

Koppe,  kop'pfh,  (Johann  Be.njamin,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  l3antzic  in  1750.  He  published 
several  exegetical  works,  and  left  unfinished  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek,  (3  vols.)    Died  in  1791. 

See  HoppENSTEDT,  "Ueber  den  verstorbeuen  J.  B.  Koppe," 
1791- 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (Adolphus  Louis,) 
a  Danish  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1S04.  In  1834  he  visited  Greece,  where  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  history,  archaeology,  and  modern  languages 


*  There  is  some  discrepancy  in  the  mode  of  writing  this  name. 
Abulpharagius  more  frequently  gives  both  syllables  long.  Sse 
Pocock's  edition,  Oxford,  1663. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


KOPPEN 


1455 


KOSCIUSKO 


at  the  military  college  in  ^gina.  He  removed  in  1S46  to 
America,  where  he  became  in  1854  professor  of  history, 
aesthetics,  and  modern  languages  in  Franklin  and  Mar- 
shall College,  Pennsylvania.  He  has  published  "The 
World  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1854,)  and  other  works. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (Carl  Friedrich,) 
a  German  writer,  born  about  iSoo,  became  assistant  pro- 
fessor in  one  of  the  principal  gymnasiums  of  Berlin.  He 
published  in  1848  a  treatise  "On  the  Divine  Right  of 
Kings,"  ("De  Jure  Divino,")  which  was  condemned  by 
the  government  and  forbidden  to  be  reprinted.  His 
work  entitled  "  The  Religion  of  Booddha  and  its  Origin" 
("Die  Religion  des  Buddha  und  ihre  Entstehung,"  1857) 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  treatises  on  that  subject. 
He  also  published  "  The  Lamaic  System  of  Religion," 
etc.,  ("  Lamaische  Hierarchic,"  1859.) 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (Friedrich,)  a  Ger 
man  writer  on  philosophy,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1775.  He 
Decame  pastor  of  a  church  at  Bremen  in  1804,  and  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Erlangen  in  1827.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Philosophy  of  Christianism,"  (2  vols.. 
1813-15.)     Died  in  1858. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  (Johann  Heinrich  Justus,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  at  Hanover  in  I755.  He 
published  a  Greek  Anthology,  (3  vols.,  1787,)  "Com- 
mentary on  Homer's  Iliad,"  (5  vols.,  1787-92,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1791. 

Kbppen,  kop'pen,  (Peter,)  a  Russian  writer,  born  at 
Kharkov  in  1793,  published  several  works  on  the  antiqui- 
ties and  statistics  of  Russia,  and  a  valuable  "  Ethnograph- 
ical Chart  of  European  Ru.ssia,"  (185 1.)      Died  in  1864. 

Koprili,  kb'pre-lee,  written  also  Coprogli  and  Kiu 
perli,  (Mehemet,)  an  eminent  Turkish  commander, 
born  at  Kopri,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  1585,  rose  from  the 
station  of  a  cook  to  be  grand  vizier  at  Constantinople  in 
1656.  He  took  Tenedos  and  Lemnos  from  the  Vene- 
tians, and  obtained  other  advantages  over  the  enemies 
of  the  Sultan.  As  a  ruler  he  showed  great  energy  and 
prudence,  and  effected  important  reformations  in  the 
condition  of  the  country.     Died  in  166 1. 

Koprili,  (Mustafa,)  surnamed  the  Virtuous,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  appointed  grand  vizier  by  Solyman 
HI.  in  1689.     Died  in  1691. 

Koprili-Fazil-Ahmed,  (or  -Achmed,)  ko'pre-lee 
fl'zil  dii'med,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1626, 
succeeded  Mehemet  Koprili  as  grand  vizier.  He  gained 
several  important  victories  over  the  Hungarians  and  the 
Poles,  and  took  the  island  of  Candia.     Died  in  1676. 

See  Vox  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Kops,  kops,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian  landscape- 
painter,  born  about  1800. 

Koray.     See  Cor  ay. 

Kordes,  koR'dSs,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1762.    He  lived  at  Kiel.    Died  in  1823. 

Koren,  (Moses  of.)     See  Moses  Chorenensis. 

Koreuatz.     See  Moses  Chorenensis. 

Korf,  koRf,  (Andrei,)  Baron,  a  Russian  publicist 
and  senator,  born  near  Mittau  in  1715  ;  died  in  1823. 

Korf,  (Nicholas,)  Baron,  a  Russian  minister  of  state 
under  Peter  HI.,  was  born  in  1710;  died  in  1766. 

Korinna.     See  Cortnna. 

Kornelisz.     See  Cornelisz. 

Korner  or  Koerner,  koR'ner,  (Christian  Gott- 
fried,) born  at  Leipsic  in  1756,  was  the  father  of  Theo- 
dor  Korner,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Schiller.  He  was 
also  a  correspondent  of  Goethe.  It  was  in  his  beautiful 
vineyard  near  Dresden  that  Schiller  wrote  "  Don  Car- 
los."    Died  in  1831. 

Korner  or  Koerner,  (Karl  Theodor,)  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  German  poets,  was  born  in  Dresden  in 
1791.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Berlin,  and  displayed 
at  an  early  age  a  rare  poetical  genius.  Among  his  nrst 
productions  were  the  popular  comedies  of  "The  Green 
Domino,"  (1812,)  and  "The  Watchman,"  (1812.)  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  enlist  in  t4ie  war  against  Napoleon  ; 
and,  inspired  with  patriotic  enthusiasm  and  a  keen  sense 
of  his  country's  wrongs,  he  produced  some  of  the  most 
spirited  and  beautiful  martial  lyrics  in  the  German  lan- 
guage. These  were  published  under  the  title  of  "The 
Lyre  and  the  Sword,"  (1814.)  Korner  was  also  the 
author  of  two  popular  tragedies,  "  Rosamunda,"  (1812,) 


and  "  Zriny,"  (1813.)     He  fell  in  battle  near  Rosenberg, 
in  1813,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two. 

See  F.  W.  Lehmann,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  K.  T.  Koerner's," 
1810;  H.  A.  Erhard,  "T.  Koerner's  Leben,"etc.,  1821;  H.  Blazb, 
"  Elcrivains  et  Poetes  de  I'Alleniagne,"  1851  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  October,  1820,  and  February,  1821. 

Kornraann,  koRn'mJn,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  writer 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg ;  died  about  1620. 

Korosi.     See  Csoma. 

Korosi,  ko'Ro-shee,  (Joszef,)  a  Hungarian  statistician, 
born  at  Pesth,  April  20,  1844.  He  has  published  many 
volumes  regarding  Hungarian  populations,  finances, 
trade,  prices,  railways,  etc. 

Korte  or  Koerte,  koR'teh,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Aschersleben  in  1766.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Gleim,"  (1811,)  who  was 
his  great-uncle,  and  a  "Life  of  Carnot,"  (1820.)  Died 
in  1846. 

Kortholt,  koRt'holt,  [Lat.  Korthol'tus,]  (Chris- 
tian,) a  Lutheran  theologian  and  ecclesiastical  historian, 
born  at  Burg,  in  Holstein,  in  1633.  About  1665  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Kiel. 
He  published  numerous  religious  treatises,  of  which  we 
may  name  "  On  the  Pagan,  Mohammedan,  and  Jewish 
Religions,"  (i666,)  "Of  the  Three  Impostors  Herbert, 
Hobbe.s,  and  Spinosa,"  (1680,)  "On  the  Origin  and  Na- 
ture of  Christianity,"  and  "  On  the  State  and  Progress 
of  Schools  and  Academies,  especially  in  Germany."  Died 
in  1694. 

See  LiNDEMANN,  "  MemoHa  C.  Korthoiti,"  1694. 

Kortholt,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  or  German  theo- 
logian, son  of  Sebastian,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Kiel  in  1709.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  published  "The  Letters  of  Leibnitz,"  (4 
vols.,  1734-42,)  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  (in  Latin,) 
an  "Essay  on  the  Enthusiasm  of  Mohammed,"  (1745.) 
Died  in  1751. 

See  Ayrer,  "  Memoria  C.  Korthoiti,"  1751. 

Kortholt,  (Sebastian,)  a  son  of  Christian,  noticed 
above,  (1633-94,)  and  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Kiel  about  1670.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing, and  wrote  many  literary  essays.     Died  about  1740. 

Kortholtus.     See  Kortholt. 

Kortiim  or  Kortuem,  koR'tiim,  (Johann  Friedrich 
Christoph,)  a  German  historian,  born  in  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz  in  1788,  became  professor  of  history  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1840.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  the  Political  Constitution  of  Greece,"  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1837.)     Died  in  1858. 

KortUm  or  Kortuem,  (Karl  Arnold,)  a  German 
physician  and  satiric  poet,  born  at  Mulheim-an-der-Ruhr 
in  1745,  published  a  mock-heroic  poem  entitled  "The 
fobsiad ;  or.  The  Life,  Opinions,  and  Deeds  of  Jerome 
Jobs  the  Candidate,"  (1784.)  Died  in  1824.  An  English 
translationof  "The  Jobsiad,"by  Rev.  Charles  T.  Brooks, 
was  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1863. 

Kosciusko,  kos-se-iis'ko,  [Polish,  KosciuszKO,  kdsh- 
yoo'sko,]  (Thaddeus,)  an  illustrious  Polish  patriot  and 
general,  of  noble  family,  born  in  Lithuania,  February  12, 
1746.  Having  studied  at  the  military  academy  of  Ver- 
sailles, he  embarked  about  1777  for  America,  where  he 
fought  with  distinction  at  New  York  and  Yorktown  and 
acquired  the  friendship  of  Washington.  He  returned 
to  Poland  in  17S6,  but,  his  country  being  soon  after  sub- 
jected to  Russia,  he  retired  to  Leipsic.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  revolution  of  1794,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Polish  army.ancl  defeated  the  Russians 
with  greatly  superior  numbers  at  Raclawice.  For  two 
months  he  defended  Warsaw  against  the  united  forces 
of  Russia  and  Prussia,  but,  overpowered  at  last  by  fresh 
troojjs  advancing  under  Fersen,  suffered  a  total  defeat  at 
Maciejowice,  where  he  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner 
in  October,  1794.  After  two  years'  imprisonment,  he  was 
released  by  the  emperor  Paul,  who  offered  him  his  sword, 
which  Kosciusko  refused,  saying  "he  had  no  need  of  a 
sword,  since  he  had  no  longer  a  country."  When  solicited 
by  Napoleon  to  aid  him  in  his  ambitious  schemes  with 
regard  to  Poland,  he  steadily  refused  ;  and  the  proclama- 
tion to  the  Poles,  which  appeared  in  the  "Moniteur" 
under  his  name  in  1806,  was  declared  by  him  a  forgery. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/.-  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji:^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KOSEGARTEN 


i45t> 


KOl^ZEBUE 


Me  died  in  1817,  at  Soleure,  in  Switzerland,  having 
previously  written  to  the  emperor  Alexander  entreat- 
ing him  to  give  to  Poland  a  free  constitution.  He  also 
abolished  serfdom  on  his  Polish  domain. 

See  M.  A.  Jui.i.ien,  "Notice  sur  Kosciuszko,"  181S;  Fai.ken- 
STF.iN,  '■  KosciuszUo,"  Leipsic,  1825:  L.  CHonZK'O,  "  Histoire  mili- 
taire,  politique  et  priv^e  de  Kosciuszkn."  1837:  Jur.KS  Michelet, 
"  Kosciuszko,  Legeiida  democratycziia,"  translated  from  the  Krencli 
by  GoDEBHSKi,  1851;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  Marcli,  1S35. 

Kosegarten,  ko'zeh-gaR'ten,  (Johann  Gottfried 
LUDWIG,)  son  of  Ludwig  Theobul,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Ritgen  in  1792.  Having  studied 
philology  in  Paris,  he  became  in  1824  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Greifswalde.  He  translated  into 
German  the  Hindoo  poem  "  Nala,"  (1820,)  and  made 
several  versions  from  the  Persian.  He  also  published 
editions  of  the  "  Moalakat,"  and  other  Arabic  works. 
Died  in  1S60. 

Kosegarten,  (Ludwig  Theobul,)  a  German  divine 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Grevismiihlen,  in  Mecklenburg 
in  1758.  He  became  in  1808  professor  of  history  at 
Greifswalde,  and  subsequently  of  theology,  and  rector 
of  the  university.  His  romance  of  "Ida  von  Plessen," 
(1788,)  as  well  as  his  "Legends"  and  lyric  poems,  enjoy 
a  wide  popularity.  He  also  made  several  translations 
from  the  Danish  and  English  :  among  the  latter  is  Rich- 
ardson's "Clarissa."     Died  in  1818. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Koslof,  kos'lof,  or  Kozlov,  koz'lof,  (Ivan  Ivano- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  1774,  made  a  number 
of  excellent  translations  from  the  English.  His  poems, 
written  after  he  became  blind,  are  distinguished  for  their 
melody  of  versification  and  tender  pathos.  Among  the 
most  admired  of  these  is  "The  Monk,"  ("Tchernets.") 
Died  in  1838. 

See  E.  Mecherski,  "  Les  Poetes  Russes." 

Koslovski,  (M.  I.)     See  Kozlofski. 

Kos-lov'ski,  (Ossip  Antonovitch,)  a  popular  Rus- 
sian composer,  produced,  among  other  works,  a  "  Re- 
quiem" of  great  beauty,  and  composed  the  music  for 
Userot's  tragedy  of  "  Fnigal."     Died  in  1831. 

Kosmas.     See  Cosmas. 

Kossuth,  kosh'oot,  (Louis,)  an  eminent  Hungarian 
orator  and  statesman,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Monok, 
in  the  county  of  Zemplin,  in  1802.  He  studied  law  at  the 
Protestant  college  of  Sarospatak,  and  joined  the  popular 
party  in  opposing  the  despotic  policy  of  Austria.  Having 
offended  the  government  by  his  writings,  he  was  impris- 
oned three  years,  (1837-40.)  The  Diet  of  1840  refused  to 
grant  supplies  during  the  imprisonment  of  Kossuth,  who 
was  consequently  liberated.  In  1841  he  married  Theresa 
Meszlenyi,  and  began  to  edit  a  daily  paper  at  Pesth,  called 
"  Pesti-Hirlap,"  the  tone  of  which  was  liberal,  but  not 
radical  or  democratic.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Diet  by  the  national  party  of  Pesth  in  1847,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  In  March,  1S48,  the 
Diet  adopted  a  proposition  made  by  Kossuth,  the  object 
of  which  was  the  appointment  of  a  responsible  Hun- 
garian ministry,  as  a  pledge  of  constitutional  reforms. 
Kossuth  and  others  were  sent  as  a  deputation  to  Vienna, 
and  obtained  the  assent  of  the  emperor,  then  conscious 
of  the  pressure  of  a  powerful  revolutionary  movement. 
Kossuth  induced  the  Diet  to  vote  the  perfect  equality  of 
civil  rights  and  public  burdens  for  all  classes,  and  to 
extend  the  right  of  suffrage.  He  became  minister  of 
finance  in  the  new  ministry  formed  in  April,  1848.  Al- 
though the  benefits  of  these  reforms  were  shared  by  the 
Croatians  and  Servians,  an  anti-Magyar  party  was  soon 
formed  in  Croatia  1:^  the  intrigues  of  Austrian  agents. 
The  Croatians,  directed  by  Jellachich  and  secretly  aided 
by  Austria,  revolted  against  Hungary,  and  began  hos- 
tilities by  the  massacre  of  villagers  on  the  frontier.  In 
June,  1848,  the  Austrian  court  openly  sanctioned  the 
movements  of  the  Croatian  insurgents.  Kossuth  believed 
that  the  time  had  come  to  defend  by  arms  the  constitu- 
tion and  the  national  independence.  He  called  for  the 
levy  of  200,000  men,  which  was  granted  by  the  Diet.  In 
September,  1848,  Jellachich  was  defeated  in  battle,  and 
Kossuth  was  elected  president  of  a  committee  of  de- 
fence. After  the  second  insurrection  at  Vienna,  October, 
1848,  the  Hungarian  army  advanced  to  the  assistance 


of  the  Liberals  of  that  capital,  but  was  repulsed  at 
Schwechat.  The  Austrian  general  Windischgratz  then 
invaded  Hungary,  took  Pesth,  and  committed  great  atro- 
cities. A  war  of  extermination  followed,  and  the  Austrians 
were  defeated  in  several  battles.  In  April,  1849,  the 
Hungarians  renounced  allegiance  to  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg,  and  chose  Kossuth  governor  or  dictator.  But  the 
intervention  of  Russia  rendered  the  heroic  efforts  and 
sacrifices  of  the  Hungarians  unavailing.  The  victories 
gained  by  Dembinski,  Klapka,  and  ]5em  served  merely 
to  prolong  the  national  agony.  Kossuth,  after  a  dis- 
agreement with  Gorgey,  whom  he  accused  of  treachery, 
resigned  his  office  on  the  nth  of  August,  1849,  and  went 
into  exile.  He  retired  to  Turkey,  and  was  imprisoned 
at  Kutaieh.  Through  the  intervention  of  England  and 
the  United  States,  he  was  released  in  August,  1851.  He 
then  visited  England,  where  he  was  received  with  en- 
thusiastic popular  demonstrations,  and  made  several 
admirable  speeches  in  the  English  language.  In  the 
autumn  of  185 1  he  came  to  the  United  States,  the 
citizens  of  which  gave  him  a  very  warm  and  fiatiering 
reception. 

See  P.  C.  Headlev,  "  Life  of  L.  Kossuth,"  1832  ;  Horn,  "  Louis 
Knssutli,"  1851;  "Kossuth,  von  einem  Ungarn,"  Leipsic,  1854; 
"Kossuth  in  England  und  seine  Reden,"  etc.,  1851  ;  Klapka,  "Me- 
inoiren,"  1850;  "  L.  Kossuth,  Dictator  von  Ungarn,"  Mannheim, 
1S49:  "Hungary  and  its  Revolutions,  with  a  Memoir  of  L.  Kossuth." 

Kosta-Ibn-Looka,  (or  -Luka,)  kos'ta  ib'n  loo'ki, 
written  also  Costha-Ben-Louka,  an  excellent  Arabian 
scholar  and  translator,  born  at  Balbec,  flourished  from 
about  870  to  900  a.d.  He  translated  several  Greek  works 
into  Arabic,  and  wrote  original  treatises  on  philosophy, 
logic,  medicine,  etc. 

Koster.     See  Coster. 

Kos'ter  or  Cos'ter,  (Laurens  Janszoon,)  a  Dutch 
printer,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1370,  is  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  invented  the  art  of  printing.  Ac- 
cording to  one  tradition,  he  kept  his  art  a  secret,  but  it 
was  stolen  by  one  of  his  workmen,  named  John  Fust. 
Died  about  1440. 

See  A.  F.  Didot,  "  Essai  sur  la  Typographie ;"  Auguste  Ber- 
nard, "  Histoire  de  I'Origine  de  I'Imprimerie." 

Kostlin  or  Koestlin,  kost-leen',  (Christian  Rein- 
hold,)  a  German  jurist  and  novelist,  born  at  Tiibingen 
in  1813  ;  died  in  1856. 

Kostlin,  kost'leen,  (Julius,)  an  able  German  theo- 
logian, born  at  Stuttgart,  May  17,  1826.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen  and  Berlin,  and  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Gottingen  in  1855,  at  Breslau  in  1S65,  and  at  Halle  in 
1870.  He  has  published  "The  Church  of  Scotland," 
(1852,)  "  Luther's  Doctrine  of  the  Church,"  (1853,) 
"Faith,"  (1859,)  "Luther's  Theology,"  (1863,)  and  a 
valuable  "Life  of  Luther,"  (1875,)  which  he  afterwards 
abridged  for  popular  use,  (18S3.) 

Kostrof,  Kostrov,  or  Kostrow,  kos'tRof,  (Ermil 
Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  the  province  of 
Viatka  ;  died  in  1796. 

Kothouz.     See  Kootooz. 

Kotouz  or  Kotuz.     See  Kootooz. 

Kotter  or  Cotter,  kot'ter,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
enthusiast,  born  in  Silesia  in  1585.  He  obtained  notoriety 
by  visions  and  predictions.     Died  in  1647. 

Kotzebue,  von,  fon  kot'seh-boo,  (August  Fried- 
rich  Ferdinand,)  a  prolific  and  popular  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1 761.  He  went  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1 781,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the 
government  of  Esthonia.  He  produced  in  1789  "The 
Indians  in  England,"  and  "The  Stranger,"  which  were 
very  successful.  About  1800  he  settled  in  Berlin.  He 
wrote  abusive  articles  against  Goethe  and  other  great 
German  authors,  who  had  refused  to  admit  him  into 
their  literary  circle  at  Weimar.  Between  1802  and  1806 
he  made  journeys  in  different  countries  of  Europe,  and 
published  "  Souvenirs  of  Paris  in  1804,"  (2  vols.,  1805.) 
After  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806)  he  took  refuge  in  Russia, 
and  edited  two  journals,  called  "The  Bee,"  (1808-10,) 
and  "The  Cricket,"  (1811-12,)  in  which  he  wrote  against 
Napoleon.  In  181 7  he  was  sent  to  Germany  by  the 
Russian  government  to  watch  and  report  the  state  and 
tendency  of  public  opinion.  He  expressed  such  hostility 
and  contempt  for  liberal  principles  and  institutions  that 
he  rendered  himself  odious  to  many  Germans,  especially 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KOTZEBUE 


1457 


KRASINSKI 


the  students.  He  was  assassinated  at  Mannheim  in  1819 
by  Karl  Ludwig  Sand,  who  was  actuated  by  a  fanatical 
zeal  against  one  whom  he  considered  a  traitor  to  liberty. 
Among  his  dramas  are  "The  Two  Klingsbergs,"  a 
comedy,  (1807,)  and  "  Pizarro,"  ("  Die  Spanier  in  Peru.") 
His  works,  which  were  very  numerous,  were  formerly 
more  popular  than  they  are  at  the  present  time.  Kot- 
zebue  possessed  a  ready  invention  and  a  great  facility  in 
composition  ;  but  his  productions  are  deficient  in  depth 
and  power. 

See  F.  Cramer,  "Kotzebiie's  Leben,"  1820;  "  Kotzebue,  sein 
Leber),  Wirken  unci  trauriges  Ende,"  Frankfort,  1819;  H.  Doring, 
"  Kotzebue's  Leben,"  1830;  Geiser,  "  Kotzebue  als  Knabe,  Jiing- 
ling,  Mann,  Schriftstellerund  Exulant,"  1803  ;  "  Literary  and  Political 
Life  of  Aug.  Kotzebue,"  translated  from  the  German  ;  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1801,  September,  1805,  and  August, 
1806. 

Kotzebue,  von,  (Otto,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Reval,  in  Russia,  in  1787.  After  having  made  the 
voyage  around  the  world  with  Krusenstern,  he  set  sail 
again  in  181 5,  accompanied  by  Chamisso,  Eschscholtz, 
and  others.  He  discovered  several  islands  in  the  South 
Sea,  and  the  sound  southeast  of  Behring's  Strait  called 
by  his  name.  He  published,  after  his  return,  a  "Voyage 
of  Discovery  in  the  South  Sea  and  to  Behring's  Strait, 
to  find  a  Northeast  Passage,"  {1821.)  Having  sailed 
for  the  third  time  in  1823,  he  made  other  discoveries, 
which  are  described  in  his  "  New  Voyage  around  the 
World  in  1823-26,"  (1830.)     He  died  at  Reval  in  1846. 

Kotzeluch,  kot's^h-looK',  (Leopold,)  a  Bohemian 
composer  and  musician,  bom  at  Welwarn  in  1753.  He 
succeeded  Mozart  as  composer  to  the  court  at  Vienna, 
(1792.)  He  composed  operas,  symphonies,  and  sonatas, 
which  were  once  very  popular.     Died  in  1814. 

Kouang.     See  Kooang. 

Koublai  Khan.    See  Kooblai  Khan. 

Kouck,  kowk,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in 
1500  or  1 50 1,  worked  at  Antwerp.  He  was  patronizecJ 
by  Charles  V.     Died  in  1550. 

Kouli  Khan.     See  Nadir  Shah. 

Koulneff.    See  Koolnef. 

Koumas,  koo'mas,  (  Constantine  Michael,  )  a 
modern  Greek  scholar  and  author,  was  born  at  Larissa 
about  1775.  He  published  a  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1826,) 
"Elements  of  Philosophy,"  (4  vols.,)  and  other  scientific 
works.     Died  at  Trieste  in  1836. 

Koung-Fou-Tseu.    See  Confucius. 

Kourakin.     See  Koorakin. 

Kourma  or  Kourmavatara.     See  KOrma. 

Koutouz.     See  Kootooz. 

Koutouzof  or  Koutousof,     See  Kootoozof. 

Kouwenberg,  van,  vtn  kow'en-bSRg',  (Kristiaen,) 
a  Dutch  painter  of  history,  born  at  Delft  in  1604;  died 
at  Cologne  in  1667. 

Kov-a-lef sky,  or  Kcwalewski,  (A.,)  an  eminent 
Russian  enibryologist,  born  November  7,  (O.S.,)  1840. 
He  became  professor  of  zoology  at  Odessa.  He  is  a 
high  authority  on  the  anatomy  and  development  of  the 
ascidians,  tunicata,  worms,  brachiopods,  and  the  related 
forms  of  animal  life. 

Kozlofski,  koz-loFskee,  or  Koslovski,kos-lov''skee, 
(Michail  Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  became 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  statue  of  Suwarow  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  the  statue  of  Catherine  H.  as 
Minerva.     Died  in  1803. 

Kozlov.     See  Koslof. 

Kozmian,  koz'me-Sn,  ?  (Gaetan  or  Cajetan,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  in  Lublin  in  1771.  He  wrote  odes  which  were 
highly  esteemed, — "The  Georgics  of  Poland," — and  an 
epic  poem  entitled  "  Stephen  Czarniecki."    Died  in  1856. 

See  F.  MoRAWsKi,  "  Notice sur  Kozmian,"  Posen,  1856. 

Krafft,  kRift,  (Adam,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Nuremberg  about  1429.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  tabernacle  in  the  church  of  Saint  Lawrence  at  Nu- 
remberg, the  celebrated  Ciborium  in  the  minster  at  Ulm, 
and  a  number  of  beautiful  bas-reliefs.     Died  in  1507. 

Krafft,  (Joseph,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Hanau  in 
1787,  was  a  brother  of  Peter,  noticed  below.  He  worked 
in  Vienna.     Died  in  1828. 

Krafft,  (Peter,)  a  German  painter,  and  professor  at 


the  Academy  of  Vienna,  born  at  Hanau  in  1780.  Among 
his  works  we  may  name  "  Rudolph  of  Habsburg"  and 
"  Belisarius."     Died  in  1856. 

Kraft     See  Crato. 

Kraft,  kRift,  (Anton,)  a  Bohemian  violoncellist  and 
composer,  born  December  30,  1752,  at  Rokitzan,  near 
Pilsen.  Died  August  28,  1820.  His  son,  Nikolaus, 
born  December  14,  1778,  was  also  famous  as  a  composer 
and  performer  on  the  violoncello.     Died  May  18,  1853. 

Kraft,  kRift,  or  Krafft,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  a  Gei- 
man  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1701, 
was  professor  of  physics  at  Tubingen,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  geometry  and  physics.     Died  in  1 754. 

Kraft  von  Toggenburg,  kR^ft  fon  tog'gen-bSoRG',  a 
German  minnesinger.     Died  in  1259. 

Kraitsir,  kRit'sir,  (Charles,)  a  Hungarian  physician 
and  scholar,  born  in  1804.  He  emigrated  to  America 
in  1833,  "^'""^  became  in  1842  professor  of  modern  lan- 
guages and  history  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He 
published  "  Glossology,"  and  several  other  works.  Died 
in  Westchester  county,  New  York,  in  i860. 

Kramer.     See  Cramer. 

Kramp,  kR6N,  (Chretien,)  a  French  mathematician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg ;  died  about  1828. 

Kranach.     See  Cranach. 

Krantor.     See  Grantor. 

Krantz  or  Crantz,  kRints,  (Albert,)  a  German  his- 
torian and  diplomatist,  born  at  Hamburg  about  1450. 
was  employed  on  several  important  embassies  to  Eng, 
land  and  France.  Among  his  principal  works,  which 
are  written  in  Latin,  are  "  Chronicles  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,"  and  "Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Saxony."     Died  in  1517. 

See  WiLKENS,  "Leben  Alberlii  Crantzii,"  1722;  Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Nlc^RON,  "  Mimoires  ;"  M6ller, 
"  Cimbria  Literata." 

Kranz,  (David.)     See  Cranz. 

Krasheninnikof  or  Krasoheninnikov,  kRish-en- 
nin'ne-kof,  (Stephen  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian  natural- 
ist, born  at  Moscow  in  17 13.  He  travelled  in  Siberia 
and  Kamtschatka,  and  wrote  a  "  Description  of  Kanit 
schatka,"  (2  vols.,  1755.)     Died  in  1755. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Russe." 

Krasicki,  IcRi-s^t'skee,  (Ignatius,)  an  eminent  Polisu 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Dubiecko  in  1734.  Having 
taken  orders  as  a  priest,  he  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Erme- 
land  in  1767,  and  in  1795  Archbishop  of  Gnesen.  His 
wit  and  conversational  powers  made  him  a  favourite 
with  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  once  said  to 
him,  "  I  hope,  my  lord  bishop,  you  will  take  me  into 
Paradise  with  you  under  your  mantle."  "  No,  sire,"  he 
replied,  (alluding  to  the  loss  of  some  revenues:)  "your 
majesty  has  made  it  so  short  that  I  cannot  conceal  any- 
thing contraband  under  it."  Among  his  principal  worlis 
we  may  name  the  mock-heroic  poem  entitled  "The 
Mousiad,"  ("Myszeis,")  founded  on  the  tradition  of  King 
Popiel  being  devoured  by  rats  and  mice,  "  War  of  the 
Monks,"  ("  Monachomachia,")  and  a  number  of  fables 
and  satires  of  great  merit.  His  novel  of  "  Pan  Podstoli" 
is  also  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1801. 

See  S.  K.  Potocki,  "Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Krasicki,"  1808; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale ;"  Dmochowski,  "  £loge  de  Kra- 
sicki," 1801. 

Krasinski,  kR^-sin'skee,  (Valerian,)  Count,  a  dis 
tinguished  Polish  writer  and  scholar,  born  in  White 
Russia  about  1780.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Polish 
revolution  of  1830  he  repaired  to  England,  where  he 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Re- 
formation in  Poland,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  "  Panslavism  and 
Germanism,"  (1848,)  and  "  Religious  History  of  the  Sla- 
vonic Nations,"  (1851.)     Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1855. 

Krasinski,  (Zvgmunt  Napoleon,)  a  Polish  count 
and  poet,  born  at  Paris,  February  19,  i8i2.  He  was  an 
ardent  patriot  and  anti-Russian.  He  published  several 
poetical  works,  of  which  the  "  Undivine  Comedy" 
("  Nieboska  Komedya,"  1837-48)  is  the  most  celebrated. 
Lord  Lytton's  poem  of  "  Orval"  is  adapted  from  this 
work.  "  Iridion"  is  also  a  celebrated  fiction  by  Kra- 
sinski. His  writings  are  well  known  in  their  English 
translation  by  Martha  Walker  Cook.  Died  at  Paris, 
February  24,  1859. 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 

92 


KRASZEWSKI 


1458 


KRISHNA 


Kraszewski,  kRi-sh^v'skee,  (Joseph  Ignatius,)  a 
Polish  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  War- 
saw in  1812.  His  works,  which  are  very  numerous,  con- 
sist of  novels,  poems,  travels,  and  historical  treatises. 
His  romances  are  very  popular  in  Poland,  and  have  in  a 
great  measure  superseded  the  French  novels.  Among 
the  best  are  "The  Magic-Lantern,"  (1843,)  "Ulana," 
(1843,)  ^""^  "Sviat  i  Poeta."  His  epic  poem  "  Ana- 
fielas,"  and  a  "  History  of  Wilna,"  are  also  ranked  among 
his  best  productions.     Died  March  20,  1887. 

Krateros.     See  Craterus. 

Krates.     See  Crates. 

Kratinos.     See  Cratinus. 

Kratippos.     See  Cratippus. 

Kratzenstein,  kRat'sen-stin',  (Christian  Gott- 
lieb,) a  German  natural  philosopher,  mechanical  inventor, 
and  writer,  born  at  Wernigerode  in  1723,  became  pro- 
*€ssor  of  physics  at  Copenhagen  in  1754.     Died  in  1795. 

Kraus,  kRowss,  (Christian  Jakob,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man writer,  professor  of  philosophy,  etc.  at  Kbnigsberg, 
was  born  at  Osterode  in  1753.  He  published  a  treatise 
on  "  Political  Economy,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1807. 

Kraus,  (Franz,)  a  German  historical  painter,  born  in 
Suabia  about  1704;  died  about  1750.    . 

Kraus  or  Krauss,  krowss,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a 
German  prelate  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Ratisbon 
in  1700.  He  was  prince-abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Saint 
Emmeran.     Died  in  1762. 

Kraus,  (Johann  Ulrich,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
at  Augsburg  about  1645  ;  died  in  1719. 

Kraus,  (Martin.)     See  Crusius. 

Krause,  kRow'zeh,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German 
economist  and  writer  on  the  science  of  forests,  born  at 
Prenzlow  in  1768  ;  died  in  1836. 

Krause,  (Georg  Melchior,)'  a  German  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1737  ;  died  in  1806. 

Krause,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Artern  in  1749.  Among  his  works  is  a  "His- 
tory of  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1789-98.)     Died  in  1799. 

Krause,(JoHANN  Gottlieb,)  a  German  bibliographer, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1684,  published,  besides  other  works, 
"UmstandlicheBucher-Historie,"(3  vols.,  1716.)  He  was 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Wittenberg.     Died  in  1736. 

See  KiRCHMAlER,  "  Programma  ad  Exequias  J.  G.  Krausii,"  1736. 

Krause,  (Karl  Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philosopher  and  masonic  writer,  born  at  Eisenberg  in 
1781.  He  devoted  several  works  to  the  display  of  the 
merits  of  freemasonry,  of  which  he  was  a  zealous  advo- 
cate. Among  his  other  works  is  "  Urbild  der  Mensch- 
heit,"  ("The  Type  of  Humanity,"  181 1.)     Died  in  1832. 

See  LiNDEMANN,  "  Darstellung  des  Lebens  und  der  Wissen- 
schaftslehre  Krauses,"  1839. 

Krause,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  landscape  and  marine 
painter,  born  at  Dessau  in  1803.  He  has  produced  some 
excellent  pictures  of  Norwegian  scenery. 

Kraut,  kRowt,  (Wilhelm  Theodor,)  professor  of 
law  at  Gottingen,  was  born  at  Liineburg  in  1800.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  legal  works.     Died  Jan.  i,  1873. 

Krauth,  krawth,  (Charles  Porterfielu,)  D.D.,  a 
Lutheran  divine  and  accomplished  scholar,  the  son  of 
Dr.  Charles  Philip  Krauth,  (late  president  of  Pennsyl- 
vania College  at  Gettysburg,)  was  born  at  Martinsburg, 
Virginia,  March  17,  1823.  He  graduated  at  Pennsyl- 
vania College  in  1839.  Ordained  in  1842,  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Baltimore,  and  was  subsequently 
settled  at  Winchester,  Virginia,  and  Pittsburg,  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1859  he  was  called  to  the  pastoral  charge  of 
Saint  Mark's  Lutheran  Church,  Philadelphia,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  In  1861  he  became  editor  of  "The 
Lutheran  and  Missionary,"  issued  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1864  professor  of  theology,  church  history,  etc.  in  the 
Lutheran  Seminary  of  that  city.  In  1868  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1873  became  vice- 
provost  of  the  same  iHstitution.  He  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Tholuck'ii  "Commentary on  Saint  John,"  (1859,) 
"  The  Conservative  Reformation  and  its  Theology," 
(1871,)  an  edition  of  Berkeley's  "Principles  of  Human 
Knowledge,"  (1873,)  '^"*^  'i"  edition  of  Fleming's  "Vo- 
cabulary of  Philosophy,"  to  which  he  added  a  valuable 
Index,  etc.,  (1877.)     He  died  January  2,  1883. 


Kray,  von,  fon  kRi'  or  Krajof,  von,  fon  kRi'ol, 
(Paul,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Kesmark, 
in  Hungary,  in  1735.  He  fought  against  the  French  in 
the  Low  Countries  and  on  the  Rhine  in  1793-95,  and 
became  a  field-marshal-lieutenant  in  1796.  In  1799 
he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  army,  defeated 
Scherer  twice  in  Italy,  and  took  Mantua.  Having 
failed  in  a  campaign  against  Moreau  in  Germany  in  1800, 
he  was  removed  from  the  command.     Died  in  1804. 

See  Alison,  "History  of  Europe." 

KrayenhoflF,  kRi'en-hof,  written  also  Kraijenholi, 
(CoRNELis  Roelf,)  a  Dutch  general,  born  at  Nymwegen 
in  1758,  became  minister  of  war  under  Louis  Bonaparte. 
He  published  several  excellent  charts.  Died  about  1840. 

Krayer.    See  Crayer. 

Krebs,  kR§ps,  (Johann  August,)  a  learned  German 
writer,  born  at  Heinaugen  in  1681  ;  died  in  1713. 

Krebs,  (Johann  Tobias,)  a  German  scholar  and  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Thuringia  in  1718;  died  in  1782. 

Krehl,kRal,  (August  Ludwig,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Eisleben  in  1784,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Leipsic  in  1834.     Died  in  1855. 

Kreil,  kRil,  (Karl,)  an  able  astronomer,  born  at  Ried, 
in  the  Tyrol,  in  1798,  became  director  of  the  Observatory 
of  Prague  in  1845.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Nature  and  Motion  of  Comets,"  (1843.)    Died  in  1862. 

Kreitmayer  or  Kreytniayr,  kRit'mTR,  written  also 
Kreittmayr,  (Aloys  Wigulaus,)  a  German  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  at  Munich  in  1705.  Among  his  works 
we  may  name  "Code  of  Bavarian  Judicial  Law,"(i75i,) 
and  "Bavarian  Civil  Code."     Died  in  1790. 

See  J.  A.  Kalb,  "  Biographie  des  Staatskanzlers  A.  W.  voi. 
Kreittmayr,"  1825. 

Kremer,  kRa'mer,  (Christoph  Jakob,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Worms  in  1722.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  German  history.     Died  in  1777. 

Kremer,  kRa'mer,  (Peter,)  an  eminent  Belgian 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1801. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Marius  at  Carthage,"  and  "  David 
Teniers  Designing  after  Nature." 

Kresa,  kRa'sd,  Father,  a  Moravian  priest  and  lin- 
guist, born  in  1648;  died  in  1715. 

Kretschmann,  kRetsh'min,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Zittau  in  1738,  published  "Songs 
of  the  Bard  Ringulph,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1809. 

Kreutzer,  kRoit'ser,  (Konradin,)  a  German  com- 
poser of  operas  and  songs,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Baden 
in  1782  ;  died  in  1849. 

Kreutzer,  kRUt'saiR',  (Rudolf,)  a  celebrated  com- 
poser and  musician,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Ver- 
sailles in  1766,  became  violinist  at  the  imperial  chapel, 
and  a  member  of  the  Conservatory  in  Paris.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  operas  of  "  Lodoiska"  and  "  Paul 
and  Virginia."     Died  in  1831. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Kreysig,  kRl'zio,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  medical 
writer,  born  near  Leipsic  in  1770,  studied  medicine  at 
Pavi'a  under  Spallanzani.  In  1803  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  Elector  Frederick  Augustus,  afterwards 
King  of  Saxony.  He  became  in  181 5  professor  of  thera- 
peutics and  pathology  at  Dresden.     Died  in  1839. 

Kreysig,  (Georg  Christoph,)  a  German  historian, 
born  near  Annaberg  in  1697.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
of  Saxony.     Died  in  1758. 

Kreytmayr.     See  Kreitmayer. 

Krichna.     See  Krishna. 

Kriloff  or  Krilov.     See  Krylof. 

Krishna,  Crishna,  Krichna,  or  Krischna,  kR!sh'- 
na,  [a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "dark  blue  :"  see  below,] 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  eighth  avatar  of  Vishnu, 
usually  regarded  as  the  most  glorious  of  all  the  manifesta- 
tions of  that  deity.  It  is  said  by  the  votaries  of  Krishna 
that  in  the  other  avatars  Vishnu  manifested  only  a 
portion  of  his  godhead,  but  that  in  this  instance  he  ap- 
peared in  all  the  fulness  of  his  power  and  glory.  He 
was  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Mathura  ;  his  mortal  parents 
were  Vasudeva  and  Devaki.  It  had  been  predicted  that 
the  son  of  Devaki  should  deprive  Kansa,  the  tyrannica., 
king  of  that  country,  of  his  life  and  crown.  Kansa  there- 
fore sought  by  force  and  stratagem  to  destroy  the  young 
child ;  but  the  parents,  assisted  and  guided  by  power 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  lottg;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KRITIA^ 


1459 


KRUMMACHER 


divine,  succeeded  in  baffling  all  his  efforts.  It  is  related 
that,  when  Krishna  was  only  seven  years  old,  Indra, 
jealous  of  the  popularity  of  the  child-god,  attempted  to 
destroy  the  worshippers  of  the  latter  by  a  fearful  storm 
of  lightning,  rain,  and  hail.  But  Krishna  raised  above 
them  on  the  tip  of  his  little  finger  Mount  Goverdhen, 
the  Hindoo  Parnassus,  thus  affording  complete  shelter 
*'i  his  trembling  followers. 

"  Them  the  heavenly  child 

Called,  and  with  looks  ambrosial  smiled; 

Then  with  one  finger  reared  the  vast  Goverdhen, 

Beneath  whose  rocky  burden. 

On  pastures  dry,  the  maids  and  herdsmen  trod : — 

The  lord  of  thunder  felt  a  mightier  god," 

Sir  William  Jones:  Hymn  to  Indra. 

One  of  Krishna's  earliest  exploits  was  the  destruction  of 
the  great  serpent  Kaliya,  (or  Kalinaga,)  which  poisoned 
the  waters  of  the  river  Jumna.  Not  long  afterwards 
he  slew  his  malignant  enemy  Kansa,  having  first  para- 
lyzed him  with  fear.  A  remarkable  resemblance  between 
Krishna  and  the  Grecian  Apollo  has  been  pointed  out 
by  Sir  William  Jones  and  other  writers.  "In  honour  of 
Krishna's  triumph,"  (over  Kaliya,)  says  Moor,  "games 
and  sports  are  annually  held  in  India,  as  the  Pythic 
games  at  stated  times  were  exhibited  in  Greece.  .  .  . 
Apollo  and  Krishna  are  both  inventors  of  the  flute. 
One  was  disappointed  by  Daphne,  who  was  turned  into 
the  Latirus,  hence  sacred  to  Apollo;  Krishna's  coy 
nymph  was  transformed  into  the  Tulasi,  alike  sacred  to 
him."  Krishna  was  pre-eminently  a  pastoral  god,  and 
his  followers  were  principally  milkmaids  and  herdsmen. 
Apollo  was  regarded  as  the  protector  of  flocks  and  herds, 
(his  name  of  Nomios  theos  (vofitog  debi)  is  derived  from 
nome,  (vofi^,)  a  "  meadow"  or  "  pasture ;")  and,  when 
compelled  to  pass  some  time  on  earth,  he  employed  him- 
self in  tending  the  flocks  of  Admetus,  King  of  Thessaly. 

The  pictures  of  Krishna  are  usually  painted  a  dark 
blue,  (the  colour  of  Vishnu,  which  see,)  this  colour  cor- 
responding to  the  signification  of  his  iiame.  Among  his 
other  names  are  Bhagavat,  (modern  Hindoo  pron. 
b'hiig'a-viit,)  the  "adorable;"  Kesava  (ka'sa-va)  or 
Keshava,  "having  fine  or  beautiful  hair;"  GSvinda  or 
GopAla,  the  "cow-herd,"  etc. 

See  "  Biographie  Uniyerselle,"  (Partie  mythologique ;)  Moor, 
"Hindu  Pantheon;"  Coleman,  "Hindu  Mythology;"  Sir  W. 
Jones,  "On  the  Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  in  "Asiatic 
Researches,"  vol.  i.  ;  see,  also,  the  episode  of  the  "  ^Iah5bhSrata," 
entitled  "Bhagavat  Gita, "(/.<?.  the  "Song  of  Krishna.") 

Kritias.     See  Critias. 

Kritolaos.     See  Critolaus. 

Kriton  or  Krito.     See  Crito. 

Kroeyer.     See  Kroyer. 

Krohn,  kRon,  (Hermann  Georg,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  1705;  died  in  1756. 

Kroniayer,  kRo'mlR,  (Hieronymus,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Zeitz  in  1610,  wrote  "  His- 
toria  Ecclesiastica,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1670. 

See  G.  Lehmann,  "  Leichpredigt  aufH.  Kromayer,"  1670. 

Kromayer,  (Johann,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Misnia  in  1576,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  superintendent  (Protestant  bishop)  at  Weimar, 
and  published  several  works.     Died  in  1643. 

Kronimer,  kRom'mer,  (Franz,)  a  German  composer, 
born  at  Kamenitz,  in  Moravia,  in  1759  ;  died  in  1831. 

Krosick,  von,  fon  kRo'zik,  (Bernhard  Friedrich,) 
Baron,  a  German  savant,  born  in  1656,  erected  a  private 
observatory  at  Berlin.     Died  in  17 14. 

Kroyer  or  Kroeyer,  kRo'yer,  (Hendrik  Nicolaus,) 
a  Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1799.  He 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  South  America  in  1840.  He 
published,  besides  other  works  on  natural  history,  "The 
Fishes  of  Denmark,"  (2  vols.,  1838-43.)      Died  in  1870. 

Kriidener  or  Kruedener,  (Juliana,)  a  Russian 
mystic  or  enthusiast,  born  at  Riga  in  1766,  was  the 
daughter  of  Baron  Vietinghof,  and  was  married  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  to  Baron  Krudener,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced  in  a  few  years.  She  was  intimate  with  Madame 
de  Stael.  Having  lived  for  a  time  in  fashionable  dissipa- 
tion, she  adopted  the  views  of  the  Pietists  about  1806, 
and  gave  herself  up  entirely  to  preaching  the  gospel  and 
prophesying.  After  travelling  in  Germany,  where  she 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Stilling,  she  visited  Paris, 
but,  owing  to  the  disturbances  caused  by  her  meetings,  j 


was  obliged  to  leave  the  city,  and  soon  after  her  arrival 
in  Germany  she  was  ordered  by  the  government  to  return 
to  Russia.  She  died  in  1824.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
romance  entitled  "  Valeria,"  (1803.)  She  is  said  to  have 
had  much  influence  over  Alexander,  Czar  of  Russia,  who 
heard  her  preach  in  Paris  in  1815,  and  who  submitted  to 
her  revision  his  plan  of  the  Holy  Alliance.  In  the  latter 
part  of  her  life  she  abounded  in  works  of  charity  towards 
the  poor. 

See  Ch.  Evnard,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Kriidener,"  1849;  AofeLB 
DU  Thou,  "Notice  sur  Julienne  de  Kriidener,"  1827  ;  "Vie  de  Ma- 
dame de  Kriidener,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1849;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Por- 
traits de  Fenimes  ;"  W.  T.  Krug,  "  Gesprach  unter  vier  Augen  mit 
Frau  von  Kriidener,"  1818;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January. 
1852. 

Krueger.     See  Kruger. 

Kruenitz.     See  Krunitz. 

Krug,  kRooG,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  historian 
and  numismatist,  born  at  Halle  in  1764,  wrote  on  Rus- 
sian history  and  coins.    Died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1844, 

Krug,  (Wilhelm  Traugott,)  a  German  philoso- 
phical writer,  born  near  Grafenhaynchen,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  1770.  Having  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Wit- 
tenberg, he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic 
in  1809.  He  was  chosen  in  1833  a  deputy  to  the  first 
constitutional  Diet,  where  he  was  a  warm  advocate 
of  liberalism.  Among  his  principal  writings  are  his 
"  Fundamental  Philosophy,"  (1803,)  and  "  History  of  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Ancients,  especially  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,"  (1815.)  He  professed  a  system  called 
"  transcendental  synthetism,"  which  was  very  popular 
in  Germany.     Died  in  1842. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Meine  Lebensreise  in  sechs  Stationen," 
1826;  Emil  F.  Vogel,  "Dr.  W.  T.  Krug,  in  drei  vertraulichen 
Briefen  an  einen  Freund  im  Auslande  biographisch-literarisch  ge- 
schildert,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kriiger  or  Krueger,  kRiiG'er,  (Ephraim  Gottlieb,) 
a  German  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1756.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "Ariadne  at  Naxos."   Died  in  1834. 

Kruger  or  Krueger,  (Franz,)  a  skilful  German 
painter,  born  at  Anhalt-Dessau  in  1796.  He  worked 
in  Berlin,  where  he  painted  good  portraits  and  became 
court  painter.  His  favourite  subjects  were  hunting- 
scenes  and  landscapes  with  animals.     Died  in  1857. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kriiger,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Halle  in  1715,  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  Physics,"  ("Naturlehre,"  3  vols.,  1740- 
49.)     Died  in  1759. 

Kriiger,  (Theodor,)  a  learned  German  writer,  born 
at  Stettin  in  1694;  died  in  1751. 

Kriiger,  (Theodor,)  a  German  engraver,  born  about 
1575  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1650. 

Kruilof.     See  Krylof. 

Krunimacher,  kRoom'miK'er,  (Friedrich  Adolf,) 
a  distinguished  German  theologian  and  writer,  born  at 
Tecklenburg,  in  Westphalia,  in  1768.  He  was  succes- 
sively professor  of  theology  at  Duisburg,  councillor  of 
the  consistory,  and  court  preacher  at  Bernburg.  His 
"  Parables"  (in  verse)  {1805)  enjoy  great  popularity  both 
in  Germany  and  in  other  countries.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Die  Kinderwelt,"  consisting  of  religious 
poems  for  children,  "  Sufferings,  Death,  and  Resurrec- 
tion of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  (1817,)  "Cornelius  the 
Centurion,"  (1829,)  and  "The  Life  of  Saint  John," 
(1833.)  He  was  attached  to  evangelical  religion  as 
distinguished  from  rationalism.     Died  in  1845. 

See  M8LLER,  "  F.  A.  Krummacher  und  seine  Freunde,"  2  vols., 
1849- 

Krummacher,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent 
pulpit  orator  and  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1796.  He  was  for  a  time  pastor  in  Wupperthale, 
where  he  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  older  Lutheran- 
ism,  and  gave  great  offence  by  his  denunciation  of  the 
rationalists.  As  preacher  of  a  reformed  community, 
he  went  to  New  York  in  1843.  After  a  few  years  he 
returned  to  Germany,  and  settled  at  Berlin  in  1847. 
Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name  "The  Church's 
Voice  of  Instruction,"  "Elijah  the  Tishbite,"  and  "Sab- 
bath Bells,"  (1851.)     Died  in  December,  1868. 

Krummacher,  (Gottfried  Daniel,)  an  uncle  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Tecklenburg  in  1774.     He 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KRUMPHOLZ 


1460 


KUGLER 


became  in  1816  reformed  preacher  at  Elberfeld,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Pietists. 
Among  his  works  are  a  series  of  sermons,  entitled  "  The 
Wanderings  of  the  Israelites  through  the  Wilderness  to 
Canaan,"  (1850,)  and  "  Daily  Manna,"  which  have  been 
translated  into  English.     Died  in  1837. 

See  Friedrich  W.  Krummacher,  "G.  D.  Krummacher's  Le- 
ben,"  1838. 

Krumpholz,  kroomp'holts,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a 
harpist  and  musical  composer,  born  about  1 745,  at  Zlonitz, 
near  Prague,  his  father  being  a  band-master  in  a  French 
regiment.  He  committed  suicide  in  1790.  His  brother, 
Wenzel  Krumpholz,  born  in  1750,  was  an  eminent 
violinist.     Died  May  2,  1817. 

Kriinitz  or  Kruenitz,  kRii'nits,  (Johann  Georg,)  a 
German  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1728,  is 
principally  Icnown  as  the  publisher  of  the  "  Economico- 
technological  Encyclopaedia,"  seventy-three  volumes  of 
which  had  appeared  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1796. 
The  work  was  afterwards  continued  and  largeiy  ex- 
tended by  the  brothers  Florke  and  others. 

Krupp,  kioo'.i,  (Alfred,)  a  German  manufacturer, 
born  at  Essen,  April  26,  1812.  He  inherited  from  his 
father  the  celebrated  cast-steel  works  of  his  native  town, 
and  extended  them  very  greatly.  The  steel  cannon  of 
the  establishment  are  especially  celebrated ;  but  the 
works  turn  out  all  kinds  of  steel  goods,  and  are  upon 
the  largest  scale  ever  known.     Died  July  14,  1887. 

Kruse,  knoo'zeh,  (Friedrich  Karl  Hermann,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1790.  In  1825 
he  published  his  principal  work,  entitled  "  Hellas,"  and 
in  1828  was  appointed  professor  of  universal  and  Russian 
history  at  the  University  of  Dorpat.  He  also  wrote  a 
valuable  "  Chronicle  of  the  Northmen."     Died  in  1866. 

Kruse,  (Karsten  or  Christian,)  a  learned  German 
writer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Olden- 
burg in  1753.  He  published  "  Atlas  and  Tables  for  the 
Survey  of  the  History  of  all  European  Countries,"  (1804.) 
Died  in  1827. 

Kruse,  kRoo'zeh,  (Laurids  or  Laurent,)  a  Danish 
litteratettr,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1778.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works  are  comedies,  novels,  etc.  He  translated 
into  Danish  and  German  some  works  of  Ingemann,  and 
others.     Died  in  Paris  in  1839. 

See  his  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  "  Erinneningen  aus  ineinem  Leben," 
2  vols.,  1829. 

Kruseman,  kRoo'zeh-mSn',  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch 
historical  painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1797.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  A  Burial-Scene," 
"The  Preaching  of  John  the  Baptist,"  and  "  Belisarius." 
Died  in  1857. 

Kruseman,  (Jan  Adam,)  a  painter  of  portraits  and 
sacred  history,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Haarlem  in  1804.     Died  in  1862. 

Krusemark,  kRoo'zeh-maRk',(FRiEDRTCH  Wilhelm 
Ludvvig,)  a  Prussian  commander  and  diplomatist,  served 
against  the  French  in  tJie  campaigns  from  1806  to  1813, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  was 
employed  successively  on  important  missions  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  Paris,  and  Vienna.     Died  in  1822. 

Krusenstem,  kRoo'zen-st§Rn',  (Adam  John,)  a  cele- 
brated Russian  navigator  and  traveller,  born  in  Esthonia 
in  1770.  In  1803  he  sailed  from  Cronstadt,  and  during 
an  absence  of  three  years  discovered  the  Orloff  Islands, 
and  obtained  much  information  respecting  countries  pre- 
viously little  known.  He  brought  out  in  1810"  his  "  Voy- 
age around  the  World  from  1803  to  1806,"  (3  vols., 
with  an  atlas  and  104  plates,)  which  was  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages.  He  also  published 
"  Contributions  to  the  Hydrography  of  the  Greater 
Oceans,"  "  Atlas  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,"  and  other  similar 
works.  Krusenstern  was  the  first  Russian  navigator  who 
sailed  around  the  world.     Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
June  and  July,  1814. 

Krylof,  kRe-loF,  or  Kruilof,  almost  kRwe-lof,  (Ivan 
Andreievitch,)  written  also  Krylow,  Kriloff,  and 
Krilov,  a  celebrated  Russian  fabulist,  born  at  Moscow 
in  1768.  At  an  early  age  he  became  familiar  with  the 
French  language,  and  read  with  avidity  the  works  of 
Moliere,  Racine,  and  Boileau.     His  first  compositions 


were  dramas,  which  were  not  favourably  received.  He 
was  successively  editor  of  "The  Spirit  Post,"  "The 
Spectator,"  and  the  "  Petersburg  Mercury,"  and  in  1801 
was  appointed  secretary  to  Prince  Gallitsin.  In  1808  he 
published  a  collection  of  fables,  which  met  with  great 
favour.  He  was  elected  to  the  Petersburg  Academy  in 
1811,  and  subsequently  received  a  large  pension  from 
the  emperor  Alexander,  who  also  loaded  him  with  hon- 
orary distinctions.  His  "  Fables,"  which  vie  with  those 
of  La  Fontaine  in  naivete  and  humour,  are  the  delight 
of  all  ages  and  classes  in  Russia,  and  many  sentences 
in  them  have  become  proverbs.  They  have  been  trans> 
lated  into  German,  French,  and  Italian ;  but  no  version, 
it  is  thought,  does  justice  to  the  original.  Krylof  was 
intimate  with  Pooshkin,  (Pushkin,)  Karamzin,  and  other 
eminent  writers.     Died  in  1844. 

See  Pletnef,  "Life  of  Kriloff,"  prefixed  to  his  Works:  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  for  September  i,  1852;  Alfred  Bougeault, 
"Krylofii  ou  le  La  Fontaine  Russe,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Fables,"  Paris, 
1852  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate  ;"  also  an  article  on  the  Rus- 
sian Fabulists,  in  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February',  1839. 

Kryns  or  Krijns,  kRlns,  (Everard,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  lived  at  the  Hague  about  1600. 

Kshat'ri-ya,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  kshut'ri-ya,] 
written  also  Kshetriya  and  Kshattriya,  the  name  or 
the  second  or  military  caste  among  the  Hindoos.  It 
originally  included  all  princes  and  professional  warriors. 
But  at  the  present  time  there  are  many  exceptions  to 
this  general  rule  :  many  of  the  Brahmans  nowadays  are 
professional  soldiers.     (See  Brahmanism.) 

Kublai  Khan.     See  Kooblai  Khan. 

Kiichenmeister,  kii'Ken-mls-ter,  (Gottlob  Fried- 
rich Heinrich,)  a  German  physician  and  naturalist,  born 
at  Buchheim,  January  22,  1821.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Prague.  His  writings  are  mostly  on  the  entozoa  and 
other  parasites,  and  he  has  also  written  on  contagion,  on 
water-cure,  on  cremation,  etc.  His  principal  work  is 
"On  the  Cestoid  Worms,"  (1853.) 

Kiicken  or  Kuecken,  kiik'ken,  (Friedrich  Wil- 
helm,) a  popular  German  composer,  born  at  Bleckede  in 
1810.  His  songs  and  ballads  are  great  favourites  both 
in  Germany  and  England.  In  1851  he  was  appointed 
court  chapel-master  at  Stuttgart.  He  produced  two 
successful  operas.     Died  April  6,  1882. 

Kuecken.    See  Kucken. 

Kuegelgen.     See  K(jgelgen. 

Kuehn.     See  Kuhn. 

Kuehne.    See  Kuhne. 

Kuehnoel.    See  Kuhnol. 

Kuenen,  kii'nen,  (Abraham,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Dutch 
Orientalist,  of  German  descent,  was  born  at  Haarlem, 
September  9,  1S29.  He  studied  theology  at  Leyden 
from  1846  to  1S51,  and  became  extraordinary  professor 
of  theology  there  in  1852,  and  in  1855  full  professor. 
Among  his  writings  are  a  Latin  translation  of  Abu 
Said's  Arabic  version  from  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
(1851-54,)  a  "  Historico-Critical  Investigation  into  the 
Origin  of  the  Old  Testament  Books,"  (1861-65,)  "The 
Religion  of  Israel,"  (1874-75,)  "  Prophets  and  Prophecy 
in  Israel,"  (1877,)  "National  Religions  and  Universal 
Religions,"  (1882,)  and  numerous  other  works.  He  is 
the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  "  Leyden  school"  of 
theology,  and  is  distinguished  for  his  "  advanced"  views 
regarding  the  textual  criticism  of  the  Scriptures. 

Kuesel.     See  KOsel. 

Kuester.     See  Kuster. 

Kiigelgen  or  Kuegelgen,  kii'gel-gen,  (Karl  ana 
Gerhard,)  German  painters,  bom  at  Bacharach,  on 
the  Rhine,  in  1772,  were  twin  brothers,  and  pursued 
their  studies  together  at  Rome.  In  1799  they  visited 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  they  married  two  sisters  of 
high  rank.  Karl  remained  in  Saint  Petersburg,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Alexander,  while  Ger- 
hard returned  to  Dresden.  He  perished  by  the  hand  of 
a  robber  near  that  city  in  1820.  His  works  are  chiefly 
portraits  and  historical  pictures.  Among  Karl's  pro- 
ductions are  a  series  of  Crimean  and  Finnish  landscapes, 
executed  by  order  of  the  emperor.  In  1823  he  published 
"A  Painter's  Journey  in  the  Crimea."     Died  in  1832. 

Kugler,  kooG'ler,  (Franz  Theodor,)  an  eminent 
German  critic  and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Stettin  in  1808, 
became  in  1833  professor  of  the  history  of  art  in  the 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon* 


KUH 


1 46 1 


KURMA 


Academy  at  Berlin.  About  1835  he  visited  Italy,  and 
in  1837  brought  out  his  "  Hand-Book  of  the  History 
of  Painting  from  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  Present 
Time,"  which  was  followed  by  his  equally  valuable 
"Manual  of  the  History  of  Art,"  (1841,)  and  other  simi- 
lar works.     Died  in  Berlin  in  1858. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Kuh,  koo,  (Ephraim  Moses,)  a  German  poet,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Breslau  in  1731,  wrote  songs, 
odes,  fables,  and  epigrams.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lessing 
and  Mendelssohn.     Died  in  1790. 

Kuhl,  kool,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  naturalist,  born 
at  Hanau  in  1797;  died  at  Java  in  1821. 

See  T.  VAN  Swinderen,  "  Bijdrasen  tot  eene  Schets  van  het 
Leven,  het  Karakter,  etc.  van  H.  Kuhl,"  1822. 

Kuhlau,  koo'low,  (Friedrich  Daniel,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  in  Hanover  in  1786  or 
1787.  He  composed  operas  which  were  popular,  and 
music  for  the  flute.     Died  in  1832. 

Kuhlmann,  kiil'm6N',(CHARLES  Fr6d6ric,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  at  Colmar  in  1803.     Died  in  1881. 

Kuhlmann,  kool'min,  (Quirinus,)  a  German  vision- 
ary, born  at  Breslau  in  1651.  He  led  a  wandering  life, 
and  published  several  extravagant  writings.  He  was 
burned  at  Moscow  in  16S9. 

See  G.  Wernsdorf,  "  De  Fanaticis  Silesiorum  et  speciatini  de 
Q.  Kuhlmanno,"  1698. 

Kiihmstedt,  kiim'stet,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Oldisleben,  Saxe-Weimar, 
December  20,  1809.  He  wrote  operas,  symphonies,  and 
oratorios  ;  but  his  fame  rests  on  his  treatises  on  the  organ. 

Kuhn,  koon,  (Adalbert,)  a  celebrated  German  phi- 
lologist and  mythologist,  born  at  Konigsberg,  in  Bran- 
denburg, November  19,  1812,  was  a  pupil  of  Bockh, 
Bopp,  and  Lachmann,  and  in  1856  was  appointed  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Cologne  gymnasium.  Among  his  works 
are  "  On  the  Primitive  History  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
Peoples,"  (1856,)  "Myths,  Customs,  and  Legends  of 
Westphalia,"  (1859,)  etc.  Comparative  mythology  was 
his  specialty.     Died  in  188 1. 

Kuhn,  koon,  or  Kuhnius,  koo'ne-ils,  (Joachim,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1647.  He 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Strasburg  in  1676.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Quaestiones  Philosophicae  ex  Sacris  Veteris 
et  Novi  Testamenti  Scriptoribus,"  (1698.)    Died  in  1697. 

Kiilin  or  Cuehn,  kiin,  (Karl  Gottlob,)  a  German 
physician,  born  near  Merseburg  in  1754,  published  a 
complete  edition  of  the  "  Extant  Works  of  the  Greek 
Physicians,"  ("Opera  Medicorum  Graecorum  quas  super- 
sunt,")  in  the  original,  with  a  Latin  translation,  29  vols., 
(1821.)     Died  in  1840. 

Kuhnau,  koo'now,  (Johann,)  a  German  musician, 
composer,  and  litterateur,  born  at  Geysing,  in  Bohemia, 
in  1667.  His  compositions  for  the  clavier  were  es- 
pecially famous.  He  was  the  inveptor  of  the  sonata  as 
a  piece  in  several  movements  not  dance-tunes,  and  four- 
teen examples  of  this  form  of  music  are  still  extant 
among  his  productions.  His  satirical  poems  were  ad- 
mired in  their  day.  He  died  in  Leipsic,  (whither  he  had 
removed  in  1682,)  June  25,  1722. 

Kuhne  or  Kuehne,  kU'neh,  (Gustav,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1806,  published  "  Clois- 
ter Novels,"  ("  Klosternovellen,")  etc.     Died  in  1888. 

Kiihner,  kii'ner,  (Rafael,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1802,  published  a  "Complete  Gram- 
mar of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1834,)  and  "Elementary 
Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language."    Died  in  1878. 

Kuhnius.     See  Kuhn. 

Kiihnol  or  Kuehnoel,  kii'nol,  (Christian  Gott- 
lieb,) a  German  biblical  critic,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1768. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Giessen  about  1809, 
and  published  "  Commentaries  on  the  New  Testament," 
(4  vols.,  1807-18.)     Died  in  1841. 

Kuick.     See  Kuyk. 

Kuli  Khan.     See  NAdir  Shah. 

Kullack  or  Kullak,  kool'ldk.  (Theodor,)  a  Ger- 
man composer,  born  in  Posen  in  1818.  He  received  the 
title  of  pianist  to  the  King  of  Prussia.     Died  in  1882. 

Kulni,  koolm,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  German  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1689;  died  in  1745. 

Kulmaun,  kool'mJn,  (Elisabeth,)  a  Russian  poetess, 
of  German  extraction,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1808. 


She  spoke  many  languages,  and  composed  lyric  poems, 
publiihed  in  three  volumes  in  1833.     Died  in  1825. 

Kummer,  koom'mer,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  Ger- 
man violoncellist  and  composer,  born  at  Meiningen. 
August  5,  1797  ;  died  May  22,  1879. 

Kummer,  koom'mer,  (Georg  Adolf,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Ortrand  in  1786 ;  died  near  Kakonda, 
Africa,  in  181 7. 

Kummer,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  geographer, 
born  about  1780,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
produced  globes  and  maps  en  relief.     Died  about  1840. 

Kun,  van  der,  (Peter.)     See  Cun^us. 

Kunckel,  koonk'kel,  (Johann,)  a  German  chemist, 
born  at  Rendsburg  in  1630.  He  is  said  to  have  dis- 
covered phosphorus.      Died  at  Stockholm  in  1702. 

See  MoLLER,  "  Cimbria  Literata;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Kundmann,  koont'mJn,  (Johann  Christian,)  a 
German  numismatist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1684;  died  in  1751. 

Kung,  koong,  or  Kung-Chien-Wang,  a  Chinese 
prince,  brother  of  the  emperor  Hien-Fung,  (died  in 
1861,)  and  uncle  of  the  emperor  Tung-Che,  (died  in 
1875.)  Kung  was  born  in  1835.  On  the  accession  of 
Tung-Che  (i86i)  Prince  Kung  was  made  one  of  the 
three  regents,  and  became  the  real  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. He  retained  much  power  under  the  emperor 
Kwang-Seu,  under  whom  he  was  founder  and  head  of 
the  foreign  office,  and  principal  secretary  of  state.  In 
1884  it  was  reported  that  Prince  Kung  had  retired  from 
office  and  committed  suicide.  He  had  long  been  leader 
of  the  Chinese  progressive  party.  (The  word  kung  is 
properly  a  title  belonging  to  princes  of  the  blood  of  the 
fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  ranks,  and  has  been 
translated  "duke.") 

Kunigunde,  the  German  of  Cunegonde,  which  sec- 

Kunrath,  koon'rSt,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  chemist 
and  alchemist,  born  at  Leipsic  about  1560;  died  in  1605. 

Kunst,  koonst,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1493  ;  died  in  1544. 

Kunth,  von,  fon  koont,  (Karl  Sigismund,)  an  emi- 
nent German  botanist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  June,  1788.  He 
was  patronized  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  who  fur- 
nished him  with  the  means  to  study  in  the  University  of 
Berlin,  and  took  him  to  Paris  in  1813.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  Berlin  in  1819.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Nova  Genera  et  Species  Plantarum  quas 
collegerunt  Bonpland  et  Humboldt,"  which  treats  of  the 
plants  collected  in  America  by  Bonpland  and  Humboldt, 
(7  vols.,  1815-25,)  "The  Grasses  of  South  America,"  (2 
vols.,  1825-33,)  and  an  "Enumeration  of  all  the  Plants 
hitherto  known,"  (5  vols.,  1833-50.)     Died  in  1850. 

Kuntz,  koonts,  (Karl,)  a  skilful  German  painter  of 
animals  and  landscapes,  bovn  at  Mannheim  in  1770,  was 
also  an  engraver.  He  worked  mostly  at  Carlsruhe,  where 
he  was  court  painter.  He  engraved  Claude  Lorrain's 
picture  of  "  Abraham  Sending  away  Hagar."  Died  in 
1830. 

Kuntz,  (Rudolf,)  a  German  lithographer  and  painter 
of  horses,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1798;  died 
at  Carlsruhe,  May  8,  1848. 

Kunzen,  koont'sen,  (Friedrich  Ludwig  Emil,)  a 
musical  composer,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1 761,  produced  a 
number  of  successful  operas.     Died  in  181 7. 

Kupetzky  or  Kupetzki,  koo-pets'kee,  (Johann,)  an 
eminent  German  portrait-painter,  born  at  Pesing,  on  the 
borders  of  Hungary,  in  1667.  After  a  residence  of  many 
years  in  Italy,  where  he  was  patronized  by  John  Sobieski, 
he  returned  to  Vienna.  He  was  treated  with  great  dis- 
tinction by  the  emperors  Joseph  I.  and  Charles  VI., 
whose  portraits  he  painted,  as  well  as  those  of  the  prin- 
cipal nobles  of  the  court.  He  painted  in  the  style  of 
Rembrandt,  and  ranks  among  the  best  artists  of  the 
time  in  his  department.     Died  in  1740. 

See  J.  C.  FuESSLi,  "  LebenG.  P.  Rugendasund  J.  Kupetzki,  "1758. 

Kflrma,  kooR'ma,  called  also  KurmavatSra,  koor- 
mS'va-ti'ra,  {i.e.  the  "avatar  of  the  tortoise,")  the  second 
of  the  avatars  of  Vishnu,  on  which  occasion  he  took  the 
form  of  a  tortoise  that  he  might  furnish  a  support  to 
Mount  Mandara  while  the  gods  and  Asurs  churned 
the  ocean.     The  mountain  being  the  churn-stick,  the 


€as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  •«., pUtural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KURMAVATARA 


1462 


KYRLE 


great  serpent  Sesha  was  made  use  of  for  the  string.* 
The  churning  of  the  ocean  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  popular  febles  related  in  the  mythology  of  the  Hin- 
doos. It  resulted  in  the  production  of  the  fourteen  gems, 
as  they  are  called, — namely,  i.  Chandra,  (the  moon  ;)  2. 
Lakshmi,  the  incomparable  consort  of  Vishnu;  3.  Sura- 
devi,  or  the  goddess  of  wine ;  4.  Oochisrava,  a  won- 
derful eight-headed  horse  ;  5.  Kustubha,  a  jewel  of  ines- 
timable value  ;  6.  Parijata,  a  tree  that  yielded  whatever 
one  might  desire ;  7.  Surabhi  or  Kamadhenu,  a  cow 
similarly  bountiful ;  8.  Dhanwantara,  a  wondrous  phy- 
sician ;  9.  Iravata  or  Iravat,  the  elephant  of  Indra  ;  10. 
Shank,  a  shell  which  conferred  victory  on  whoever 
sounded  it ;  II.  Danusha,  an  unerring  bow  ;  12.  Vish,t  a 
remarkable  drug  or  poison;  13.  Rembha,  (or  Rambha,) 
an  Apsara  possessed  of  surpassing  charms;  14.  Amrita, 
or  Amrit,  the  beverage  of  immortality. 
See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kurmavatara.     See  KOrma. 

Kurreem  Khan.     See  Kereem  KhXn. 

Kuirer,  koor'rer,  (Jakoh  Wilhei.m  Heinrich,)  born 
in  Wiirtemberg  in  1781,  wrote  "On  the  Art  of  Dyeing 
and  Printing  Cloth,"  (3  vols.,  1848-50.)     Died  in  1862. 

Kurschner,  (Conrad.)     See  Pellican. 

Kurtz,  kooRts,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Prussian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Montjoie  in  1809,  became  in  1850  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Dorpat.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "The  Unity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis,"  and 
other  religious  works. 

Kurz,  kooRts,  (Heinrich,)  a  litterateur  and  Oriental 
scholar,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 
He  wrote  chiefly  in  German.     Died  February  24,  1873. 

Kiisel  or  Kuesel,  kii'sel,  (Matihias, )  a  German 
engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1621  ;  died  in  1682. 

Kiisel  or  Kuesel,  (Melchior,)  a  skilful  engraver, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Augsburg  in  1622. 
He  engraved  (with  the  burin)  and  etched  portraits,  sacred 
history,  and  landscapes.  He  resided  mostly  at  Augsburg. 
Died  in  16S3. 

Kiister  or  Kuester,  kiis'ter,  (Georg  Gottfried,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Halle  in  1695.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Ancient  and  Modern  Berlin,"  (3 
vols.,  1752-59.)     Died  in  1776. 

Kiister,  (Ludolph,)  an  eminent  German  scholar, 
born  at  Blomberg,  in  Westphalia,  in  1670.  He  published 
"  Historia  Critica  Homeri,"  (1696,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Romanorum"  of  Grae- 
vius.  He  also  published  editions  of  Suidas  (3  vols.,  1705) 
and  Aristophanes,  (1710.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  Paris.     Died  in  1716. 

Kiittner,  kut'ner,  (Karl  Gottlob,)  a  German  trav- 
eller, born  near  Delitzsch  in  1755.  He  published  several 
books  of  travel  and  descriptive  works  on  England, 
France,  and  other  countries  of  Europe.     Died  in  1805. 

Kutuzof  or  Kutiisow.     See  KoO'i'OOZOF. 

Kuvera  or  Cuv§ra,  koo-va'ra,  [a  Sanscrit  word  sig- 
nifying "deformed,"  "lazy,"  "slow," J]  the  name  of  the 
Hindoo  Plutus  or  god  of  riches,  said  to  be  a  half-brother 
of  the  famous  giant  Ravana.  He  is  said  to  reside  in  the 
splendid  city  of  Alaka,  and  is  sometimes  borne  through 
the  air  in  a  gorgeous  car  called  Push'paka.  His  consort 
(Sakti)  is  called  Kauveri,  (kow-va'ree.) 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kuyk,  koik,  or  Kuick  van  "Wouterszoon,  (vtn 

•  It  maybe  proper  to  observe  that  in  India  churning  is  usually 
perforined  by  causing  a  body,  termed  the  churn-stick,  to  revolve 
rapidly  in  the  cream  or  milk,  by  means  of  a  string,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  a  drill  is  made  to  revolve.  In  some  of  the  Hindoo  pictures  of 
the  cluirning  of  the  ocean,  the  gods  are  represented  as  standing  on  one 
side  of  Moimt  Mandara,  and  "the  Asurs  on  the  other,  both  grasping 
in  their  hands  the  serpent  Sesha,  which  is  wound  round  the  mountain. 
This  rests  upon  the  back  of  the  tortoise,  (Vishnu.)  At  the  same 
time,  the  preserving  deity,  inconsequence  of  his  ubiquitous  character, 
is  seen  standing  among  the  gods  and  grasping  Sesha,  and  also  as 
dancing  on  the  top  of  Mandclra.  (See  Plate  49  in  Moor's  "  Hindu 
Pantheon.") 

t  Called  Bikh  in  some  of  the  modern  Hindoo  dialects. 

X  The  signification  of  the  name  of  Kuvera  has  doubtless  allusion  to 
the  fact  that,  to  those  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  it  usually 
seems  to  come  with  a  very  slow  and  hobbling  pace.  In  like  manner 
the  Plutus  of  the  Greeks  was  represented  as  not  only  blind,  (because 
he  bestowed  his  favours  with  so  little  di.scernment,)but  lame,  because 
he  seemed  to  come  so  slowly  and  reluctantly  to  tliose  who  sought 
him. 


w6w'ter-z6n',)  (Jan,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter  on  glass, 
born  at  Dort  in  1530.  Having  opposed  the  Jesuits,  he 
was  charged  with  heresy,  and  burned  at  Dort  in  1572. 

Kuyp.     See  Cuyp. 

Kiizing  or  Kiitzing,  kiit'sing,  (Friedrich  Trau- 
GOTT,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1807, 
published,  among  other  works,  "Elements  of  Philo- 
sophical Botany." 

Kvasir,  kvi'sjr,  [etymology  unknown,]  a  mythic  per- 
sonage mentioned  in  the  Norse  legends.  He  was  so 
wise  and  knowing  that  no  one  could  ask  him  a  question 
which  he  could  not  answer.  He  was,  however,  entrapped 
and  slain  by  two  dwarfs  who  had  invited  him  to  a  feast. 
With  his  blood  they  iningled  honey,  and  thus  composed 
a  mead  which  makes  every  one  who  drinks  of  it  a  skald, 
or  wise  man. 

K^wang-Seu,  ("  Succession  of  Glory,")  a  Chinese  em- 
peror, born  in  1871.  On  the  death  from  smallpox  of  the 
emperor  Tung-Che,  (January  12,  1875,)  Kwang-Seu,  the 
infant  grandson  of  the  emperor  Taoo-Kwang,  (who  died 
in  1850,)  was  selected  as  emperor.  There  were  numbers 
of  other  princes  nearer  to  the  succession,  but  Chinese 
law  requires  that  every  heir  must  be  younger  than  the 
person  from  whom  he  inherits  :  consequently  Kwang-Seu, 
previously  called  Tsai-T'ien,  was  placed  upon  the  throne, 
two  aged  princesses  of  the  blood  being  made  regents. 

Kyau,  von,  fon  kee'ow,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,) 
Baron,  a  Prussian  nobleman,  celebrated  for  his  wit  and 
blunt  honesty,  was  born  in  1654.  He  was  a  favourite  of 
Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  who  made  him  adjutant- 
general.     Died  in  1733. 

Kyd,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  flourished 
about  1580,  a  short  time  before  Shakspeare.  His  only 
works  e.xtant  are  entitled  "Cornelia,  or  Pompey  the 
Great  his  fair  Cornelia's  Tragedy,"  "  The  First  Part  of 
Geronimo,"  and  "  The  Spanish  Tragedy,  or  Hieronymo 
is  mad  again."  The  last-named  production  displays 
uncommon  power,  and  is  supposed  to  have  suggested 
to  Shakspeare  some  parts  of  "  Hamlet." 

Kydermynster.     See  Kidderminster. 

Kyffhauser,  klFhoi'zer,  an  ancient  palace  (now  in 
ruins)  of  the  emperors  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  is 
situated  on  a  higli  eminence  near  the  village  of  Tilleda, 
in  Germany.  There  is  a  popular  tradition  that  at  the 
Kyffhauser,  in  a  magnificent  subterranean  palace,  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa  ("  Red-beard")  e.xists  in  a  state  of  en- 
chantment, with  his  knights  and  squires  seated  round 
a  stone  table,  through  which  his  beard  has  grown.  Once 
in  one  hundred  years  (or,  as  some  say,  in  sixty  years) 
he  partially  awakes  from  his  enchanted  sleep,  and  sends 
out  some  one  to  inquire  how  the  time  is  passing.  It  is 
supposed  that  after  a  certain  period  he  will  awake  and 
revisit  his  empire,  and  then  a  better  time  will  prevail. 
One  of  Freiligrath's  finest  poeius,  entitled  "  Barbaros- 
sa's  First  Awaking,"  ("Barbarossa's  erstes  Erwachen,") 
has  reference  to  the  above  tradition. 

Kylian,  kil'e-dn,  (J.-^COB,)  a  Bohemian  astronomer, 
born  at  Prague  in  1714  ;  died  in  1774. 

Kyn'as-ton  or  Kin'as-ton,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  Eng- 
lish poet,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1587,  translated  Chau- 
cer's "Troilus  and  Cressida"  into  Latin,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Leoline  and  Sydanis."  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Museum  Minervje  in  Covent 
Garden.     Died  in  1642. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Kynaston,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Ches 
ter  in  1728,  was  a  Fellow  of  Brazennose  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1783. 

Kyper,  kee'per,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  about  1605.  He  became 
first  physician  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  professor 
of  medicine  at  Leyden  in  1648.     Died  in  1655. 

Kypke,  k!p'keh,  (Georg  David,)  a  German  Oriental- 
ist, born  in  Pomerania  in  1724,  wrote  "  Observationes 
Sacras  in  Novi  Foederis  Libros,"  (1755.)     Died  in  1779. 

Kyrle,  kerl,  (John,)  an  English  benefactor,  eulogized 
by  Pope  in  the  verses  on  the  Man  of  Ross,  was  born 
about  1664.  He  was  a  native  or  resident  of  Ross,  in 
Herefordshire,  where  he  built  a  church  and  endowed  a 
hospital.  He  owned  an  estate  of  ;^5oo  a  year.  Died 
in  1754,  aged  ninety. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  xx,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAALE 


1463 


LABERGE 


L. 


Laale,  lau'l?h,  (Peder,)  a  Danish  poet  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Lolland.  He  wrote  "  Latin-Danish 
Proverbs,"  ("Adagia  Latino-Danica.") 

Lacir.     See  Laer,  van. 

Labadie,  Ifbt'de',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister, regarded  by  some  as  a  mystic  or  a  fanatic,  was  born 
at  Bourg,  in  Guienne,  in  16 10.  After  joining  the  Jesuits 
and  obtaining  success  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  he  turned 
Protestant  in  1650,  and  was  for  eight  years  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Montauban.  He  subsequently  preached  at 
Geneva,  Middelburg,  etc.,  where  he  made  many  prose- 
lytes or  friends,  among  whom  were  Anna  M.  Schur- 
mann  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth  of  the  Rhine.  The 
sect  called  Labadists,  which  he  formed  in  Germany, 
continued  for  nearly  a  century.     Died  in  1674. 

See  Maucduict,  "Avis  charitable  i  Messieurs  de  Genfeve  tou- 
chant  la  Vie  du  Sieur  Jean  Labadie,"  etc.,  Lyons,  1664. 

La'ban,  [Heb.  p'7,]  the  son  of  Bethuel,  lived  at 
Haran,  in  Mesopotamia,  about  1740  B.C.  He  had  two 
daughters,  Leah  and  Rachel,  who  became  the  wives  of 
Jacob.     (See  Genesis  xxi.x.  and  xxx.) 

Labanof  (Labanov  or  Labanow)  de  Rostof, 
IS-bJ'nof  deh  ros'tof,  (Prince  Alexander,)  a  Russian 
general  and  writer,  born  in  1788,  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  the  emperor  from  181 7  to  1828.  His  principal  work 
is  "Letters,  Instructions,  and  Memoirs  of  Mary  Stuart, 
Queen  of  Scots,"  (7  vols.,  1844.)     Died  Dec.  8,  1866. 

La  Barbinais  le  Gentil,  It  btR'be'ni'  leh  zh5N''- 
te',  a  French  traveller,  born  probably  at  Saint-Malo. 
He  visited  Chili,  Peru,  and  China,  as  a  merchant,  about 
1 715,  and  published  "A  New  Voyage  round  the  World 
with  a  Description  of  China,"  (3  vols.,  1727.) 

Lab'a-ree,  (Benjamin,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Charlestown,  New  Hampshire,  June  3, 
iSoi.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1828,  and 
at  Andover  Seminary  in  1831.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
Congregational  ministry  in  183 1,  was  professor  of  ancient 
languages  in  Jackson  College,  Tennessee,  and  its  presi- 
dent from  1832  to  1837,  and  was  president  of  Middlebury 
College,  Vermont,  from  1840  to  1S66.  Died  at  Walpole, 
New  Hampshire,  November  15,  1S83. 

Labarraque,  IS'b^'rtk',  (Antoine  Germain,)  s 
French  chemist,  born  at  Oloron  in  1777;  died  in  1850. 

Labarre.     See  Barre. 

Labarre,  IS'bta',  (Eloi,)  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Picardy  in  1764,  built  the  Bourse  and  Tribunal  of  Com- 
merce in  Paris,  (finished  about  1826.)  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1827.     Died  in  1833. 

Labarre,  (Theodore,)  a  French  composer,  and  a 
skilful  performer  on  the  harp,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 
He  composed  popular  ballads  and  operas.    Died  in  1870. 

Labarre  de  Corcelles,  de,  deh  iS'btR'  deh  koR'sSl', 
(Francois  Tirecuy — t^R'kii-e',)  a  French  liberal  poli- 
tician, born  in  1801.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cavaignac, 
who  in  1848  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  pope.  In  1875 
he  became  a  life  senator. 

La  Barre-Duparc,  de,  deh  It'btR'  dii'ptRk',  (Nico- 
las Edouard,)  a  French  military  writer  and  officer,  born 
at  Saint-Cloud  in  1819. 

Labarthe,  It'btRt',  (Pierre,)  a  French  geographer 
and  writer,  born  at  Dax  in  1760;  died  in  1S24. 

La  Bastie,  de,  deh  It  bts'te',  (Joseph  Bimard,) 
]5aron,  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1703  ; 
died  in  1742. 

Labat,  li'bt',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  monk  and 
successful  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1663.  Pie  went  in 
1694  to  the  West  Indies  as  a  missionary,  and,  having 
returned  to  France  in  1706,  published  a  "Description 
of  the  West  Indies,"  (6  vols.,  1722,)  a  work  of  some 
merit  In  1728  he  published  an  excellent  Description 
of  Senegal  and  adjacent  regions,  ("  Relation  de  I'Afrique 
occidentale,"  5  vols.,  1728,)  the  data  of  which  were  fur- 
nished by  De  Brue.     Died  in  1738. 

Labat,  (L6on,)  a  French  traveller  and  physician, 
born  at  .A.gde  in  1803.  He  cured  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
who  gave  him  the  title  of  prince.     Died  in  1847. 


Labbe,  Itb,  (Philippe,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  volumi- 
nous writer,  born  at  Bourges  in  1607.  He  lived  many 
years  in  Paris,  and  published  several  useful  works  on 
history  and  chronology,  among  which  is  "Chronological, 
Technical,  and  Historical  Agreement,"  ("  Concordia 
Chronologica,  Technica  et  Historica,"  1656.)  He  is 
chiefly  known  at  the  present  time  by  his  valuable  work 
on  Latin  pronunciation,  entitled  "Eruditas  Pronuntia- 
tionis  Catholici  Indices,"  which  was  enlarged  by  E. 
Leeds  and  republished  in  London  in  1751.    Died  in  1667. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Labbe  de  Monveron,  It'bi'  deh  m4N'vi'r6N', 
(Charles,)  a  French  philologist  and  advocate,  born  in 
Paris  in  1582.  He  published,  as  editor,  besides  other 
works,  "  Glossaries  of  Cyrillus,  Philoxenus,  and  other 
Ancient  Writers,"  ("  Cyrilli,  Philoxeni  et  aliorum  vete- 
rum  Glossaria,"  1679.)     Died  in  1657. 

Labe,  It'bi',  (Louise,)  a  French  lady,  known  by  the 
name  of  La  belle  CoRDifeRE,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1526, 
and  became  the  wife  of  Ennemond  Perrin,  a  merchant 
who  dealt  in  cordage.  She  was  learned  in  languages 
and  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  ardent  imagination. 
She  composed  elegies,  sonnets,  and  a  drama  named 
"Debat  de  la  Folie'et  de  I'Amour."     Died  in  1566. 

La  Bedolliere,  It  bi'do'le-aiR',  (Emile  Gigault,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Amiens  in  1812.  He  became 
an  editor  of  the  "  Siecle."  He  translated  into  French 
Fenimore  Cooper's  works,  Mrs.  Stowe's  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  and  the  Waverley  Novels.  Among  his  writings 
are  a  "Life  of  La  Fayette,"  (1833,)  a  "History  of  the 
Manners  and  Private  Life  of  the  P'rench,"  (1847,)  "  His- 
tory of  Italy,"  (1859,)  "A  History  of  the  War  between 
Germany  and  Italy,"  (1866,)  "France  and  Prussia," 
(1867,)  "History  of  the  War  of  1870-71,"  (1872,)  "  Ba- 
zaine  and  the  Capitulation  of  Metz,"  (1873,)  "General 
History  of  .\ncient  and  Modern  Nations,"  (1879,)  etc. 

Labedoyere  or  La  Bedoy^re,  de,  deh  Ifbi'dwl'- 
yaiR',  (Charles  Angi^lique  Huchet,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  noted  for  graceful  manners  and  chivalrous  spirit, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to 
Marshal  Lannes  in  1808.  At  Essling,  in  1809,  he  was 
wounded  by  the  side  of  Lannes,  who  was  killed  at  the 
same  time.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  Eugene  Beauhar- 
nais  in  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  Moskwa 
and  Berezina.  In  1814  he  accepted  from  Louis  XVIII. 
the  command  of  a  regiment  stationed  at  Grenoble.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  officers  that  in  181 5  joined  the  stan- 
dard of  Napoleon,  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  general 
of  division  ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  last  to  leave  the  field 
at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  Having  been  arrested  in 
Paris  and  tried  by  court-martial,  he  was  shot,  in  1815. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

La'be-o,  (Quintus  Antistius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  about  50  B.C.  He  fought  for  Brutus  at  Phi- 
lippi,  and,  after  the  battle  was  lost,  died  by  his  own  hand 
His  son,  Quintus  or  Marcus  Antistius  Labeo,  was  3 
more  eminent  jurist,  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  an 
inflexible  republican.  He  lived  during  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, to  whom  he  sometimes  expressed  his  mind  with 
boldness.  He  was  the  founder  or  head  of  a  school  of 
law,  and  was  the  rival  of  Capito.  He  wrote  Commen- 
taries on  the  Twelve  Tables,  and  many  treatises,  extracts 
from  which  are  preserved  in  the  Digest.  Labeo  and 
Capito  are  styled  "ornaments  of  Peace"  ("decora  Pacis") 
by  Tacitus.  The  disciples  of  Labeo  were  called  Procu- 
Hani,  from  Proculus,  his  successor. 

See  AuLus  Gellius,  "  Noctes  Atticae;"  C.  van_  Eck,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  Vita,  Moribus  et  Studiis  Q.  Antistii  Labeonis,"  1692. 

Laberge,  de,  deh  It'biRzh',  (Charles  Auguste,) 
an  excellent  French  landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in 
1805.  He  represented  human  nature  with  surprising 
fidelity  in  a  picture  of  a  "Diligence  passing  through  a 
Village  and  announcing  the  Revolution  of  1830."  His 
"Country  Physician"  (1832)  is  called  his  master-piece. 
His  works  are  finished  very  minutely,  without  impairing 
the  general  effect.     Died  in  1842. 


f.  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.     ( 2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ! 


LABERGERIE 


1464 


LABOULAYE 


Labergerie,  de,  deh  IS'bSKzh're',  (Jean  Baptiste 
RouGiER,)  Baron,  an  eminent  French  agriculturist,  born 
in  Touraine  in  1759.  He  published  several  approved 
historical  works  on  the  agriculture  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
Romans,  and  Gauls,  also  treatises  on  Practical  Agricul- 
ture.    Died  in  1836. 

La-be'ri-us,  (Decimus,)  a  Roman  knight,  distin- 
guished as  a  writer  of  mimes,  was  born  about  107  i'..c. 
In  the  year  45  Csesar  signified  a  wish  that  he  should  act 
his  mimes  in  public.  He  reluctantly  complied,  such 
practice  being  deemed  degrading,  and  acquitted  him- 
self with  credit,  at  the  same  time  availing  himself  of  the 
opportunity  to  turn  his  wit  against  the  dictator.  The 
prologue  which  he  spoke  on  this  occasion  has  been 
preserved,  and  is  much  admired.  Only  small  fragments 
of  his  works  are  extant.     Died  in  43  B.C. 

Labiche,  It'bish',  (Eugene  Marin,)  a  French  dra- 
matic author,  born  at  Paris,  May  5,  1815.  He  studied 
at  the  College  Bourbon  and  at  the  law-school,  but  be- 
came a  news-reporter  for  the  small  journals.  He  attained 
great  success  as  a  writer  of  eccentric  and  extravagant 
comedies,  farces,  and  vaudevilles.  In  1880  he  was 
chosen  to  the  Academy.  His  plays,  more  than  one 
hundred  in  number,  were  in  many  instances  prepared  by 
other  writers  with  his  assistance,  the  originality  and  ex- 
travagance being  in  most  cases  his  own.  Among  his 
best-known  works  are  "  Le  Chapeau  de  Paille  d'ltalie," 
(1851,)  and  "Le  Voyage  de  M.  Perrichon."    Died  1888. 

La-bi-e'nus,  (Quintus,)  was  a  son  of  Titus,  noticed 
below.  He  conmianded  an  army  of  Parthians  which 
defeated  the  forces  of  Mark  Antony  in  Cilicia.  Having 
been  captured  by  the  Romans,  he  was  put  to  death  in  39 
B.C.  His  brother,  Titus  Labienus,  was  an  eloquent 
orator,  and  an  enemy  of  Augustus  Caesar.  He  died  in 
12  A.D. 

Labienus,  (Titus,)  a  Roman  general,  born  98  B.C., 
was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  in  63,  and  prsetor  a  few 
years  later.  About  60  B.C.  he  became  lieutenant  of  Caesar, 
He  was  the  ablest  general  that  served  under  Caesar  in 
the  conquest  of  Gaul,  where  he  gained  victories  over  the 
Treviri.  He  abandoned  his  late  chief  at  the  passage  of 
the  Rubicon,  and  took  arms  for  Pompey  and  the  senate  in 
49  B.C.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he  commanded  in 
Africa,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Munda,  in  Spain, 
in  45  B.C. 

See  CyESAR,  "De  Bello  Gallico ;"  Dion  Cassius,  "  Historj'  of 
Rome." 

Labillardiere  or  La  Billardiere,  de,  deh  It'be'ytR'- 
de^iR',  (Jacques  Julien  Houton,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Alengon  in  1755.  After  he  had  explored  Cyprus, 
Syria,  and  Mount  Lebanon  as  a  botanist,  he  was  em- 
ployed as  naturalist  in  the  expedition  which  was  sent  in 
search  of  La  Perouse  in  1791.  Having  returned  to 
Paris,  he  published  two  valuable  works,  viz.,  "  Narrative 
of  a  Voyage  in  Search  of  La  Perouse,"  (1800,)  and  a 
"Flora  of  New  Holland,"  (1804-06.)  The  former  has 
enriched  the  various  branches  of  natural  history.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute.     Died  in  1834. 

See   P.   Flourens,   "  £loge  de  J.  J.  de   Labillardiere,'    J837. 

Labitte,  It'b^t',  (Charles,)  a  French  critic,  born  at 
Chateau-Thierry  in  1816,  became  professor  of  foreign 
literature  at  Rennes  in  184O.  He  wrote  for  the  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  able  articles  on  M.  J.  Chenier  and 
other  authors.  Died  in  1845.  Two  volumes  of  his 
"Etudes  litteraires"  were  published  in  1846. 

Lablache,  It'bltsh',  (Louis,)  a  celebrated  singer  and 
actor,  born  of  French  parentage  in  Naples  in  1794.  He 
performed  many  seasons  in  Paris  and  London.  His 
voice  embraced  two  full  octaves  ;  it  was  firm  and  sonorous, 
powerful  and  expressive.  He  was  successful  both  in 
the  serious  and  comic  opera.  It  is  stated  that  he  gave 
lessons  in  music  to  Queen  Victoria.  "  He  has  given 
form  and  life,"  says  M.  D'Ortigue,  "to  the  immortal 
types  traced  by  musicians  of  genius  ;  he  has  delighted 
civilized  Europe  for  nearly  half  a  century  as  a  tragedian 
full  of  dignity  and  as  an  inimitable  buffoon."  Died  in 
1858. 

See  Castil-Blaze,  "  Biographie  de  Lablache;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Lablee,  IS'bli',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer  of  fiction 
and  verses,  born  at  Beaugency  in  1751 ;  died  in  1841. 


La  Beetle.     See  BoiiriE. 

La  Borde.     See  Borde. 

Laborde,  (Generai_)     See  Delabokde,  (Henri  F.) 

Laborde,  It'bord',  (Maximilian,)  an  American  phy- 
sician, of  French  extraction,  born  in  Edgeheld,  South 
Carolina,  in  1804.  He  became  in  i838secretary  of  state. 
In  1842  he  was  apjjointed  professor  of  logic  and  belles- 
lettres  in  South  Carolina  College,  and  afterwards  of 
metaphysics  and  physiology.     Died  November  6,  1873. 

Laborde,  iS'boRd',  (Vidien,)  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Toulouse  in  1680.  He  lived  in  Paris,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  de  Noailles.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Essence,  Distinction,  and  Limits  of  the  Spiritual  and 
Temporal  Powers,"  "  Familiar  Conferences,"  and  other 
admired  religious  works.     Died  in  1748. 

Laborde,  de,  deh  It'boad',  (Alexandre  Louis  Jo- 
seph,) Count,  a  French  antiquary  and  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1774,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph,  (1724-94.) 
He  accompanied  Lucien  Bonaparte  in  his  embassy  to 
Spain  in  iSoo,  after  which  he  devoted  some  years  to  the 
study  and  delineation  of  Spanish  monuments,  scenery, 
etc.  He  published  the  results  in  a  large  and  costly 
work, — "  Picturesque  and  Historic  Journey  in  Spain," 
("  Voyage  pittoresque  et  historique  en  Espagne,"  4  vols., 
1807-18,  with  900  engravings,)  which  is  highly  com- 
mended. He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1822  and  1827,  and  risked  his  life  for  the  popular 
cause  in  July,  1830,  after  which  he  became  a  councillor 
of  state.  Among  his  important  works  are  "The  Monu- 
ments of  France  classed  Chronologically,"  (24  parts, 
1816-26,)  and  a  "Picturesque  Journey  in  Austria,"  (3 
vols.,  1821-23.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
August  and  October,  iSio. 

Laborde,  de,  (Jean  Joseph,)  Marquis,  a  French 
financier,  born  at  Jacca,  Aragon,  in  1724.  He  acquired 
a  very  large  fortune  bv  commerce,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  liberality.  1  le  was  appointed  banker  to  the 
court  by  the  Duke  of  Choiseul,  who  gave  him  the  title 
of  marquis.  He  was  guillotined  in  1794,  on  suspicion 
of  having  conspired  against  the  dominant  party. 

Laborde,  de,  (L60N  Emmanuel  Simon 'Joseph,) 
Count,  a  French  traveller  and  writer  on  art,  a  son  of 
Count  Alexandre  Louis  Joseph,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1807.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to  La  Fa- 
yette in  1830,  and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties in  1840.  In  1842  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  He  produced  a  splendid  work  entitled 
"  Travels  in  the  East,"  ("  Voyage  en  Orient,"  etc.,  con- 
taining four  hundred  views  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  36 
parts,  1837-55,)  "The  Renaissance  of  the  Arts  at  the 
Court  of  France,"  (1850-55,)  and  other  works  on  art. 
In  1857  he  was  chosen  director  of  the  archives  of  the 
empire.     Died  March  29,  1S69. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gt$n^rale;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1837. 

Labouchere,  IS'boo'shaiR',  (Henry,)  Baron  Taun- 
ton, an  English  Whig  minister  of  state,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1798,  was  descended  from  a  family  of  French 
Protestants.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Taunton 
in  1830,  became  privy  councillor  in  1835,  and  president 
of  the  board  of  trade  in  1839.  Having  resigned  with 
his  party  in  1 841,  he  was  chosen  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land in  1846.  He  was  president  of  the  board  of  trade 
from  July,  1S47,  ''H  February,  1852,  and  was  colonial 
secretary  from  the  accession  of  Palmerston,  in  1855,  until 
February,  1858.  His  mother  was  a  Baring,  sister  of 
Lord  Ashburton.     Died  in  July,  1869. 

Labouchere,  la'boo'shaiR',  (Pierre  Antoixe,)  a 
French  historical  painter,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1807. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Colloquy  of  Geneva  in  1 549  : 
Calvin,  Beza,  and  Farel,"  and  "  Luther  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms,"  (1857.)     Died  at  Paris,  March  28,  1873. 

Labouderie,  It'bood're',  (Jean,)  a  French  religious 
writer  and  abbe,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1776  ;  died  in  1849. 

Laboulaye,  It'boo'li',  (Edouard  Ren6  Lefi^bure,) 
a  French  jurist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
181 1.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings, 
among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Landed 
Property  in  Europe,"  (1839,)  a  "  History  of  the  United 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  ^, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moor. 


LABO  URD  ONNAIE 


1465 


LA   CHATRE 


States  of  America,"  (3  vols.,  1855,)  and  an  ingenious 
and  witty  \vorl<  entitled  "  Paris  in  America."  He  trans- 
lated into  French  several  of  the  works  of  Dr.  Channing, 
(1853.)  In  1845  ^^  W'ls  chosen  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Union 
during  the  great  civil  war,  (1861-65,)  and  was  a  Liberal 
in  French  politics.  Died  May  25,  1883. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale. " 

Labourdonnaie  or  La  Bourdonnaie,  de,  deh  18'- 

booR'do'ni',  (Anne  Francois  Augustin,)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Guerande  in  1747.  In  1792  he 
was  made  a  general,  and,  having  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  the  North,  was  denounced  byDumouriez  for 
obstructing  his  operations  in  Belgium,  and  was  recalled. 
He  afterwards  commanded  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Died  in  November,  1793. 

Labourdonnaie,  de,  (Franqois  R6gis,)  Count,  a 
French  legislator,  born  at  Angers  in  1767.  In  1815 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  for 
about  fifteen  years  he  was  one  of  the  chief  orators  of 
the  extreme  royalists.  He  obtained  the  portfolio  of  the 
interior  in  the  Polignac  ministry  in  1S29,  but  resigned 
about  the  close  of  that  year.     Died  in  1839. 

Labourdonnais,  de,  (Mah6.)     See  Mah6. 

Labourdonnais,  de,  deh  iS'booR'do'ni',  (MahS, 
mt'i',)  a  Frenchman,  surnamed  "The  King  of  Chess," 
was  born  in  1795.  After  the  death  of  Philidor  he  was 
probably  the  most  skilful  chess-player  in  France.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Mahe  de  Labourdonnais,"  (his  grand- 
father.)    Died  in  1840. 

Laboureur,  Le,  leh  It'boo'ruR',  (Jean,)  a  French 
priest,  whose  works  have  thrown  light  on  the  history  of 
France,  was  born  at  Montmorency  in  1623.  He  became 
one  of  the  almoners  of  the  king.  He  published  "Monu- 
ments of  Illustrious  Persons,"  (1641,)  "Memoirs  of 
Michel  de  Castelnau,"  (1659,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1675. 

Labrador,  ia-bRi-D6R',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter  of 
the  Seville  school,  was  born  in  Estremadura.  He  painted 
flowers  and  fruits  with  great  success.  His  works  are 
highly  prized  in  Spain.   Died  in  1600,  at  an  advanced  age. 

Labrousse,  de,  deh  It'bRooss^  (Clotilde  Suzanne 
de  Courcelles — deh  kooR'sel',)  a  French  enthusiast, 
born  in  Perigord  in  1747.  She  professed  to  be  a  pro- 
phetess. In  the  Revolution  she  advocated  the  popular 
cause.     Died  in  1821. 

LaBrousse,  de,  (Nicolas,)  Comtede  Verteillac,  (deh 
vSR'ti'yik',)  a  French  general,  born  in  1648,  was  killed 
near  Mons  in  1693.  Louis  XIV.  said,  "I  have  lost  in 
the  Count  of  Verteillac  the  best  ofiicer  of  infantry  that  I 
have  had  since  Turenne." 

La  Brune,  de,  deh  It  bRiin,  (Jean,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant minister  and  writer,  lived  about  1690-1720. 

La  Brunerie,  de,  deh  IS  bRiin're',  (Guillaume,)  Vi- 
comte  Dode,  a  French  general,  born  in  Isere  in  1775. 
He  had  the  chief  command  of  the  engineers  of  the  arnij 
which  invaded  Spain  in  1823,  and  directed  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Paris,  (1840-45.)  He  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1847.     Died  in  1851. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

La  Briiyere.     See  BRUvfeRE,  de  t.a. 

La  Caille.     See  Caille,  de  la. 

La  Calleja,  de,  di  IJ  kil-ya'aJ,  (Andres,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  La  Riojain  1705  ;  died  in  Madrid  in  1785. 

La  Calprenede.     See  Calpren^de,  de  la. 

Lacarry,  It'kfre',  (Gilles,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit 
and  historian,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Castres  in  1605,  was 
for  many  years  rector  of  the  College  of  Cahors.  He  pub- 
lished several  esteemed  historical  works,  among  which 
is  a  "  History  of  Rome  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Constan- 
tine  I.,"  (1671.)     Died  in  1684. 

Lacau.ssade,  It'ko'sSd',  (Augusts,)  a  French  poet 
and  critic,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1820.  He  made 
a  good  version  of  Ossian's  poems,  (1842,)  and  became 
secretary  to  M.  Sainte-Beuve.  In  1852  he  published 
"  Poemes  et  Paysages,"  ("Poems  and  Landscapes.") 

Lacaze,  de,  deh  iS'ktz',  (Louis,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  Beam  in  1703.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Idee  de  I'Homme  physique  et  moral,"  ("  Ideal  of  the 
Physical  and  Moral  Man,"  1755.)     Died  in  1765. 

Lacep^de,  de,  deh  iS'si'pid',  (Bernard  Germain 


Etienne  de  la  Ville,)  Count,  an  eminent  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Agen  in  1756.  He  was  carefully  edu- 
cated at  home  by  his  father,  who  was  of  a  distinguished 
family,  and  in  early  youth  chose  natural  history  as  his 
favourite  study  and  Buffon  as  his  model.  Having  sent 
to  Buffon  an  account  of  some  experiments  on  electricity 
and  received  a  complimentary  answer,  he  went  to  Paris 
in  1777,  and  formed  an  intimacy  with  that  naturalist  and 
Daubenton.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  Electricity" 
in  1 781,  and  soon  after  became  the  favourite  pupil  of 
Buffon,  who  selected  him  to  continue  his  "Natural  His- 
tory." In  1785  Lacepede  was  appointed  curator  and 
sub-demonstrator  in  the  Cabinet  du  Roi.  He  published, 
as  a  sequel  to  Buffon's  work,  in  17SS,  a  "Natural  His- 
tory of  Oviparous  Quadrupeds  and  Serpents,"  which 
was  commended  by  Cuvier.  In  1791  he  entered  the 
Legislative  Assembly  as  a  moderate  friend  of  the  new 
regime,  and  during  the  reign  of  terror  found  refuge  in  the 
country.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  zoology  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  in  1795,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1796.  His  "Natural  History  of  Fishes"  (6 
vols.  4t(),  1798-1803)  is  elegant  in  style,  but  defective  in 
philosophy.  Having  been  chosen  president  of  the  senate 
in  1801,  grand  chancellor  of  the  legion  of  honour  in 
1803,  and  minister  of  state  in  1804,  he  was  very  assiduous 
in  the  performance  of  his  public  duties.  His  "Natural 
History  of  Cetacea"  (2  vols.,  1804)  is  called  his  best 
work.  After  the  restoration  he  was  made  a  peer  of 
France.     Died  in  1825. 

See  Cuvier  '' filoge  historique  du  Comte  de  Lac^pJde,"  1820, 
ViLLENAVE,  "Eloge  historique  du  Comte  de  Lac^pMe,"  1826; 
Amalric,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  le  Comte  de 
Lacepfede:"  Querard,  "La  France  Litt^raire ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Gein5rale." 

La  Cerda.     See  Cerda,  de  la. 

Lacerda  e  Almeida,  de,  di  IS  sSR'da  i  ll-ma'e-di, 
(Francisco  Joz6,)  a  Portuguese  traveller,  explore3^arts 
of  Brazil,  and  portions  of  Africa  between  10°  and  26°  south 
latitude.     Died  in  Africa  about  179S. 

La  Chabeau.gsiere,  de,  deh  It  sht'bo'se^iR',  (Ange 
Stienne  Xavier  Poisson,)  a  French  comic  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1752  ;  died  in  1820. 

La  Chai.se  or  Lachaise,  de,  deh  It  shiz,  (Francois 
d'Aix,)  or  La  Chaise  d'Aix,  (Francois  de,)  PiRE, 
a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  Forez  in  1624.  After  teaching 
philosophy  at  Lyons,  he  obtained  in  1675  the  place  of 
confessor  to  Louis  XIV.,  which  he  kept  for  thirty-four 
years.  Pie  had  much  influence  with  the  king,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  acted  with  moderation  and  prudence. 
Voltaire  calls  him  a  "mild  person,  with  whom  the  ways 
of  conciliation  were  always  open."  He  is  partly  respon- 
sible, however,  for  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Died  in  1709.  A  large  cemetery  of  Paris  bears  the  name 
of  Pere  La  Chaise. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV:"  Saint-Simon,  "MiS- 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Chalotais.     See  Chalotais,  de  la. 

Lachambeaudie,  iS'shdN'bo'de',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
fabulist,  born  at  Sarlat  in  1806.  He  joined  the  Saint- 
Simonians  about  1832,  and  published,  in  1839,  "  Popular 
Fables,"  (7th  edition,  1849,)  which  gained  a  prize  of  2000 
francs  from  the  French  Academy.     Died  July  6,  1872. 

La  Chambre.     See  Chamhre,  de  la. 

Lachapelle  or  La  Chapelle,  de,  deh  iS'shS'pSK, 
(Arm and  Boisbeleau — bwa'beh'16',)  a  French  Prot- 
estant minister,  was  born  in  Saintonge  in  1676.  After 
preaching  in  London,  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  at 
the  Hague  in  1725.  He  was  the  editor  of  the  last  ten 
volumes  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  Anglaise,"  or  "  Literary 
Journal  of  Great  Britain,"  (15  vols.,  1717-27,)  which  was 
commenced  by  Laroche,  and  wrote  several  theological 
works.     Died  in  1746. 

La  Chapelle,  de,  (Jean,)  a  mediocre  French  poet, 
born  at  Bourges  in  1655,  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  wrote  several  successful  tragedies,  among 
which  was  "Zaide,"  and  "The  Amours  of  Catullus," 
(1680.)     Died  in  172^. 

Laeh'a-res,  [Aa^^apWi]  an  Athenian  demagogue  and 
tyrant,  who  obtained  the  chief  power  at  Athens  in  296 
B.C.     He  was  expelled  by  Demetrius  in  295. 

La  Chatre,  de,  deh  It'shatR',  (Claude,)  a  French 
general  and  courtier,  born  about  1536  ;  died  in  1614. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( gj^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  CHAUSSEE 


1466 


LA  CROIX 


La  Chaussee.     See  ChaussEe. 

La'-ehes,  [Aa;i;)?f,]  an  Athenian  general,  commanded 
an  expedition  sent  to  Sicily  in  427  B.C.  He  was  one  of 
the  commanders  of  the  army  sent  to  Argos  in  418  B.C., 
and  was  killed  at  Mantinea  in  that  year. 

La-eh'e-sis,  [Aax^crif,]  a  Greek  word  signifjring  "lot" 
or  "  destiny,"  the  name  of  one  of  the  Parc^,  (which  see.) 

La  Chetardie.     See  Ch^tardie,  de  la. 

Lachmaiin,  laK'mdn,  (Karl,)  an  eminent  German 
critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  March,  1793. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottingen.  After  having 
lectured  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg,  he  became 
in  1S27  professor  in  that  of  Berlin,  where  he  acquired 
a  high  reputation.  In  1830  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin.  He  published  excellent 
critical  essays  on  Homer  and  on  the  "  Niebelungen- 
Lied."  Between  1S29  and  1845  he  edited  the  works  of 
Catullus,  Tibullus,  Terence,  and  Avianus.  He  published 
an  edition  of  Lucretius,  (1850.)  He  also  wrote  "  De 
Choreis  Systematis  Tragicorum  Graecorum,"  (i8i9,)and 
.nany  other  works.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
important  labours  on  the  text  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment.    Died  in  Berlin,  March  13,  185 1. 

See  Jacob  Grimm,  "Redeaiif  Lachmann,"  1851 ;  Martin  Hertz, 
"  K.  Laclimann,  eine  Biographie,"  1851 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Lachner,  ISK'ner,  (Franz,)  a  German  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Rain,  in  Bavaria,  in  1804.  He  composed 
symphonies,  which  are  his  chief  title  to  fame,  and  sev- 
eral operas  and  oratorios.  After  acting  as  chapel-master 
in  Vienna  some  years,  he  became  royal  chapel-master  in 
Munich  in  1836,  and  in  1852  he  was  chosen  general  di- 
rector of  music.  He  ranks  among  the  greatest  com- 
posers of  symphonies  in  recent  times.     Died  in  1890. 

Lackemacher,  ISk'keh-mlK'er,  (Johann  Gott- 
fried,) a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Osterwick  in 
1695  ;  died  in  1736. 

Lack'ing-ton,  (James,)  an  English  bookseller,  born 
about  1745  ;  died  in  1816. 

See  his  "  Autobiocraphic  Memoirs,"  1792. 

Lackmann,  lak'm^n,  (Adam  Heinrich,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Weningen  in  1694  ;  died  in  1753. 

La  Clede  or  Laclede,  de,  deh  It'klid',  (N.,)  a  French 
historian,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.  He  published  a  "  Gen- 
eral History  of  Portugal,"  (2  vols.  4to,  1735.)  of  which 
a  Portuguese  version  appeared  ini6  vols.,  (1781-97.)  He 
died  young  in  1736. 

Laclos  or  La  Clos,  de,  deh  It'klo',  (Pierre  Am- 
BROISE  Franqois  Clioderlos-^sho'dgR'los',)  a  French 
officer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1741.  He  was  secretary  to 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  during  the  Revolution.  In  the 
army  he  served  as  marechal-de-camp  under  the  Republic. 
He  published  a  licentious  romance,  "The  Dangerous 
Liaisons."     Died  in  1803. 

La  Colonie,  de,  deh  It  ko'lo'ne',  (Jean  Martin,)  a 
French  historical  writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1674.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Bordeaux,"  (3  vols.,  1757.)  Died 
in  1759. 

Lacombe,  It'kiMb',  (Jacques,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1724.  Among  his  numerous 
works,  in  prose  and  verse,  are  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Fine 
Arts,"  (1759,)  a  "History  of  Revolutions  in  Russia," 
(1763,)  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Trades,"  (8  vols., 
1789-91.)     Died  in  181 1. 

La  Condamine.     See  Condamine,  La. 

Lacordaire,  It'koR'd^R',  (Jean  Baptiste  Henri,)  a 
celebrated  French  preacher,  and  founder  of  a  new  order 
ot  Dominicans,  was  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource  (Cote  d'Or) 
in  1802.  He  was  educated  for  the  law,  which  he  re- 
nounced in  1823  for  the  church,  having  been  converted 
from  Voltairian  views  by  the  "  Essay  on  Indifference" 
of  Lamennais.  In  1830  he  was  associated  with  Lanien- 
nais  and  Montalembert  as  an  editor  of  the  "Avenir," 
which  was  ultramontane  in  religion  but  liberal  or  radical 
in  politics.  His  unity  and  co-operation  with  Lamen- 
nais ceased  in  1832,  after  a  visit  to  Rome  with  his  two 
friends  above  named,  and  after  the  pope  had  denounced 
the  "Avenir."  In  1835  l^'^e  archbishop  opened  to  him 
the  pulpit  of  Notre-Dame,  Paris,  where  he  attracted 
immense  crowds  by  the  novel  and  brilliant  style  of  his 
sermons,  in  which  he  availed  himself  freely  of  the  various 
interests  and  excitements  of  the  time.  '  He  became  a 


Dominican  friar  in  1840,  and  published  a  "  Life  of  Saint 
Dominic."  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Constituent 
Assembly  ;  but  he  resigned  his  seat  in  May  of  that  year, 
having  failed  as  a  parliamentary  speaker.  He  after- 
wards preached  in  Paris  and  other  cities.  He  pub- 
lished "  Considerations  on  the  Philosophic  System  of 
Lamennais,"  (1834,)  "Sermons  (Conferences)  at  Notre- 
Dame,"  (3  vols.,  1835-50,)  "Letter  on  the  Holy  See," 
(1838,)  and  other  works.  In  1859  or  i860  he  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  place  of  De  Tocqueville. 
Died  in  November,  1861. 

See  Montalembert,  "Vie  de  Lacordaire;"  "  Notice  sur  Lacor- 
daire," Lyons,  1843;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Limdi,"  tome 
i.  ;  L.  DE  Lom^nie,  "Le  Pere  Lacordaire,"  1S44;  Pierre  Lohrain, 
"  Biographie  historique  de  Lacordaire,"  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale  :"  "Blackwood's  Masjazine"  for  February,  1863;  "Quar- 
terly Reviesv"  tor  July,  1S64  ;  P^re  Chocarne,  "  Vie  du  Pere  Lacor- 
daire," (and  English  translation  ol'the  same,  Dublin  and  New  York. 
1867.) 

Lacordaire,  (Jean  Theodore,)  a  French  naturalist, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource 
in  1801.  He  travelled  extensively  in  South  America 
between  1825  and  1832.  Among  his  works  are  ati  "In- 
troduction to  Entomology,"  (2  vols.,  1834-37,)  and  a 
"  Natural  History  of  Insects  :  Genera  of  Coleoptera." 
(4  vols.,  1857.)     Died  at  Liege,  July  18,  1870. 

Lacoste,  It'kost',  (Slie,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at 
Montagnac,  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792.  On 
the  9th  Thermidor,  1794,  he  spoke  with  energy  against 
Robespierre,  and  procured  the  suppression  of  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal.     Died  in  1803. 

Lacoste,  li'kost',  (Marie  R.,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  in  Georgia  about  1842,  known  as  the  author  of 
"  Somebody's  Darling,"  a  short  poem  which  appeared 
anonymously  in  1863  and  achieved  wide  popularity. 

Lacour,  It'kooR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  and 
archaeologist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1778. 

Lacretelle,  de,  deh  lt'kReh-t§l',  (Jean  Charles 
Dominique,)  a  popular  French  historian,  born  at  Metz 
in  1766.  He  was  in  Paris  during  the  Revolution,  and  was 
a  zealous  partisan  of  the  moderate  Constitutionalists. 
After  the  fall  of  Robespierre  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  jeunesse  dorie,  and  gained  distinction  as  an  elo- 
quent writer  and  editor  of  a  political  journal.  On  the 
i8th  Fructidor,  1797,  he  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
being  a  royalist,  and  imprisoned  twenty-three  months. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (5 
vols.,  1801-6,)  which  obtained  great  success,  a  "His- 
tory of  France  since  the  Restoration,"  (3  vols.,  1829-35,) 
and  many  other  works  on  French  history.  Among  his 
best  productions  is  a  "  History  of  France  during  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (6  vols.,  1808,)  and  "The  National 
Convention,"  (3  vols.,  1S25.)  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  181 1,  and  was  professor  of  history 
at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  from  1809  to  1848.  In  1827  he 
was  the  prime  mover  of  a  protest  which  the  French 
Academy  made  against  a  proposed  law  to  subvert  the 
freedom  of  the  press.     Died  in  1855. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  Tastel,  "  Histoire  des 
quarante  Fauteuils  de  I'Academie  Franpaise."  4  vols.,  1855  ;  "Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April,  1814;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January, 
1805. 

Lacretelle,  de,  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
successful  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Metz  in  1751.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  at  an  early 
age.  He  gained  reputation  by  his  "filoge  de  Montau- 
sier,"  by  a  prize  essay  "  Sur  la  Prejuge  des  Peines  infa- 
mantes,"  ("On  the  Prejudice  against  [the  Families  of 
those  who  suffer]  Infamous  Penalties,"  17S4,)  and  other 
works,  for  which  the  Academy  in  1786  awarded  him  the 
prize  founded  for  the  work  most  useful  to  morals.  In 
1 791  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where 
he  acted  with  the  moderate  Constitutionalists.  About 
1802  he  was  adinitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  place 
of  La  Harpe.  After  the  restoration  of  1S14  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "  Minerve  Fran9aise."  He  was 
author  of  "Portraits  and  Tableaux"  and  "Melanges  of 
Philosophy  and  Literature,"  (5  vols.,  1802-07.)  Died  in 
1824  or  1825. 

Lacroix,  It'kRwi',  (Jules,)  a  French  novelist  and 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1809,  published  "  The  Parasites," 
(2  vols.,  1S37,)  "  Memoirs  of  a  Somnambulist,"  (5  vol.s., 
1845,)  and  other  novels.     Died  in  1887. 


a,  e,T,  o,  u,  y, /<?«^,- i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  .fAo;Y;  a,  e,  \,o,odsatre;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LA  CROIX 


1467 


LADISLA  US 


Lacroix,  (Paul,)  a  prolific  writer  and  novelist,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  and  is 
known  under  the  pseudonym  of  P.  L.  Jacob  bibliophile. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  in 
France,"  (4  vols,  1834,)  a  "  History  of  Napoleon  HI.," 
{4  vols.,  1854,)  and  other  historical  works.  The  manners, 
arts,  and  sciences  of  Europe  in  the  middle  ages  and  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  are  illustrated  in  his 
"Moyen-Ageet  la  Renaissance,"  (5  vols.,  1847-51,)  which 
is  regarded  as  a  valuable  and  important  work.  Among 
his  novels  are  "  Soirees  of  Walter  Scott  at  Paris,"  (2  vols., 
1829-31,)  "The  Good  Old  Time,"  (1835,)  "Lover  and 
Mother,"  ("  Amante  et  Mere,"  2  vols.,  1839,)  and  "  Le 
Dieu  Pepetius,"  (1874.)  He  was  very  prominent  as  a 
bibliographer.     Died  at  Paris,  October,  1884. 

Lacroix,  (Silvestre  Franc^ois,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He  was  professor  in  the 
Polytechnic  School,  the  Sorbonne,  and  the  College  of 
France  for  about  sixty  years,  and  rendered  important 
services  to  science  by  his  elementary  works  on  geometry, 
algebra,  etc.  He  ])ublished  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Diff"er- 
ential  and  Integral  Calculus,"  {2  vols.,  1797,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Lacroix  or  La  Croix,  de,  deh  It'kuwi',  (Emeric,; 
a  French  writer  against  war,  born  in  Paris  about  1 590. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  New  Cyneas." 

Lacroix,  de,  (FRA.N-gois  Joseph  Pamphile,)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1774; 
died  in  1842. 

Lacroix,  de,  (J.  P.,)  a  French  regicide  and  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Pont-Audemer  in  1754.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Convention,  and  became  a  political  friend 
of  Danton,  with  whom  he  was  executed  in  April,  1794. 

Lacroix,  de,  (Louis  Antoine  Nicolle,)  a  French 
geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  published  a 
"  Modern  Geography,"  (1747,)  which  was  used  in  colleges 
for  about  fifty  years.     Died  in  1 760. 

Lacroix,  de,  (Marie  Nicolas  Chrestien,)  a  French 
engineer  and  topographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He 
enjoyed  high  consideration  as  chief  of  the  tcjpographical 
bureau  in  the  department  of  foreign  affairs.   Died  in  1836. 

Lacroix  du  Maine,  de,  deh  It'kRwi'  dii  mSn, 
(Francois  Grud^,)  Sieur,  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
at  Mans  in  1552.  Having  collected  many  books  and  lite- 
rary materials,  he  published  in  1584  his  "  Bibliotheque 
Frangaise,"  which  contains  valuable  information  on 
French  works  and  their  authors,  and  is  commended  for 
accuracy.  He  was  assassinated  in  1592  by  some  fanatics 
who  suspected  that  he  secretly  favoured  the  Reformed 
religion. 

Lacrosse,  de,  deh  It'kRoss',  (Bernard  Theobald 
Joseph,)  Baron,  a  French  politician,  born  at  Brest  in 
1796.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  public 
works,  and  became  a  senator  in  1852.     Died  in  1865. 

Lacrosse,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Raymond,)  Baron, 
a  French  admiral,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Meilhan  in  1765.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  flotilla  at  Boulogne.   Died  in  1S29. 

Lacroze,  de,  deh  It'kRoz',  (Mathurin  Veyssi^re,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1661,  became 
librarian  of  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1697,  and  professor 
of  philosophy  in  Berlin.  He  wrote  an  "  Egyptian  Dic- 
tionary," and  several  historical  treatises.     Died  in  1739. 

Lacruz  or  La  Cruz,  de,  di  IS-kRooth',  (Juan,)  a 
skilful  Spanish  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born 
at  Valencia  in  1545,  and  was  surnamed  Pantoja.  He 
was  patronized  by  Philip  II.,  for  whom  he  painted  por- 
traits and  religious  pieces.     Died  in  1610. 

Lacruz,  de,  (Juana  I55ez,)  a  Spanish  or  Mexican 
poetess,  born  near  Mexico  in  165 1.  She  published  in 
1670  a  volume  of  dramas  and  other  poems,  religious  and 
secular,  which  were  greatly  admired  for  grace  and  sensi- 
bility. She  retired  to  a  convent  in  1668,  and  died  in 
1695.     She  was  often  called  "the  Tenth  Muse." 

Lacruz  y  Cano,  de,  dk  li-kRooth'  e  kS'no,  (Ramon,) 
a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Madrid  in  1731.  He 
had  great  facility  in  versification,  and  excelled  in  ridicule 
or  facetiae.  He  produced  many  successful  comedies,  in 
which  characters  are  skilfully  treated.     Died  in  1795. 


LacshmS.     See  LAKSHMt. 

Lactance.    See  Lactantius. 

Lactantius,  iak-tan'she;us,[Fr.  Lactance,  ISk'tSNss'; 
It.  Lattanzio,  lat-tan'ze-o,]  (Lucius  Ccelius  Firmi- 
anus,)  an  eloquent  Latin  Father,  who  flourished  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Africa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Arnobius.  About 
290  A.D.,  Diocletian  employed  him  as  teacher  of  rhetoric 
at  Nicomedia.  Some  writers  think  he  was  converted 
from  paganism  after  that  date.  Between  310  and  320  he 
was  preceptor  of  Crispus,  the  son  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine,  and  during  that  period  lived  in  Gaul.  His 
principal  work  is  "Institutiones  Divinae,"  ("Divine  la- 
stitutions,")  a  defence  of  Christianity.  He  is  reputed 
the  most  eloquent  and  polished  of  the  Latin  Fathers, 
and  was  called  by  Saint  Jerome  "the  Christian  Cicero." 
Died  probably  about  325  a.d. 

See  Brooke  Mountain,  "  Summary  of  the  Writings  of  Lactan- 
tius," London,  1839;  Fleurv,  "  Histoire  eccldsiastique :"  Saint 
Jeromr,  "  De  Scriptoribiis  Ecclesiasticis  ;"  P.  Eckkrman,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  Lactantio,  Cicerone  Christiano,"  1754 ;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Gf^n^rale." 

Lacuee,  iS'kii'i',  (Gerard  Jean,)  Comte  de  Cessac, 
a  French  general  and  administrator,  born  near  Agen  in 
1752.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  minister 
of  state,  (1807,)  and  minister  of  the  administration  of 
war  in  1810.     Died  in  1841. 

Lacuna.     See  Laguna. 

La'cy,  (John,)  an  English  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Doncaster.  He  obtained  such  popularity  as  a  comic 
actor  that  Charles  II.  had  his  portrait  painted  in  several 
characters.  He  wrote,  besides  other  comedies,  "  The 
Dumb  Lady,"  and  "  Sir  Hercules  Buffoon."  Died  in  1681. 

La'cy,  (Michael  Rophino,)  a  musician,  actor,  and 
composer,  born  in  1795,  at  Bilboa,  Spain,  where  his  father 
was  an  English  merchant.  He  was  famous  as  a  per- 
former on  the  violin,  and  subsequently  appeared  as  a 
comedian,  but  is  best  known  as  the  adapter  of  the  words 
and  music  of  famous  operas  so  as  to  suit  them  to  the 
taste  of  the  time.     Died  September  20,  1S67. 

Lacy,  de,  di  li7/4ee',  (Luis,)  an  able  Spanish  general, 
born  near  Gibraltar  in  1775.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  restore  theauthority  of  the  Cortes,  he  was  shot  in  1S17. 

Lacy,  von,  (Joseph  Franz  Moritz.)     See  Lascy. 

La-9y'des,  [Aa/cidT^f,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Pla- 
tonic school,  was  a  native  of  Cyrene.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Arcesilaus,  whose  successor  he  became  at  Athens 
about  240  B.C.  His  writings  are  not  extant.  Died 
about  215  B.C.,  (one  account  says  241  B.C.) 

Ladd,  (George  Trumbull,)  D.D.,  an  American 
theologian,  born  at  Painesville,  Ohio,  January  19,  1842. 
He  graduated  at  Western  Reserve  College  in  1864,  and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1S69,  held  Congre- 
gationalist  pastorships  from  1869  to  1879,  was  professor 
of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  at  Bowdoin  College 
from  1879  to  1S81,  and  in  1881  was  called  to  the  corre- 
sponding chair  in  Yale  College.  His  principal  published 
works  are  "Principles  of  Church  Polity,"  (18S2,)  and 
"Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture,"  (2  vols.,  18S3.) 

Ladd,  (William,)  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  in  1778,  was  one  of  the 
originators  of  the  American  Peace  Society,  of  which  he 
became  president.  He  was  successively  editor  of  the 
"  Friend  of  Peace"  and  the  "  Harbinger  of  Peace,"  and 
wrote  several  essays  on  that  subject.     Died  in  1841. 

Ladenberg,  von,  fon  lS'den-b6RG',  (Adalbert,)  born 
at  Anspach  in  1798,  filled  many  important  posts  und«r 
the  Prussian  government.     Died  in  1855- 

Ladenberg,  von,  (Philipp,)  a  Prussian  lawyer,  the 
father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1769, 
became  in  1837  privy  minister  of  state.     Died  in  1847. 

Ladislaus,  lad'is-lawss  or  IS'dis-lowss,  [Fr.  Ladislas, 
It'de'sl^s';  Polish,  Wladislaw,  vlS'de-slav'  or  vli'de- 
sl^f,]  L,  King  of  Hungary,  and  Saint,  born  in  1041,  was 
a  son  of  Bela  I.  He  began  to  reign  in  1078,  and  died  in 
1095.     He  was  canonized  by  the  pope. 

See  GAn6czv,  "Dissertatio  de  S.  Ladislao,"  etc.,  Vienna,  1775. 

Ladislaus  IL,  of  Hungary,  a  son  of  Bela  II.,  was 
born  about  H34;  died  in  1162,  after  a  reign  of  about 
six  months.  He  is  omitted  from  some  lists  of  the  kings 
of  Hungary. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  ;';  G,  H,  v:., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23. ' 


LADISLA  US 


1468 


LA  PAGE 


Ladislaus  H.  or  III.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1 185,  was  a  son  of  Emeric.  He  was  elected  in  1204,  and 
died  in  1205. 

Ladislau8  III.  or  IV.,  surnamed  Cuman,  King  of 
Hungary,  succeeded  his  father,  Stephen  IV.,  in  1272.  In 
his  reign  Hungary  was  ravaged  by  the  Tartars  or  Mon- 
gols.    He  was  assassinated  in  1290. 

Ladislaus  IV.  or  V.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1400,  was  a  son  of  Jagellon  or  Ladislaus.  He  inherited 
the  throne  of  Poland  in  1434,  and  was  elected  King  of 
Hungary  in  1440.  His  army  gained  several  victories 
over  the  Turkish  invaders.  (See  Huniades.)  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Varna  by  the  Turks  in  1444.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  infant  son  of  Albert  II.,  who 
was  styled  Ladislaus  VI.,  and  who  died  in  1457,  aged 
seventeen. 

See  FEs'iLER,  "  Geschiclite  der  Ungarn." 

Ladislaus  VI.  or  VII.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1450,  was  a  son  of  Casimir  IV.  of  Poland.  He  was 
elected  King  of  Hungary  in  1490.  During  his  reign  the 
conquests  of  Matthias  Corvinus  in  Austria  were  lost 
He  died  in  15 16,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Louis. 

See  Count  von  Mailath,  "  Geschichte  der  Ungarn." 

Ladislaus  or  Lancelot,  King  of  Naples,  was  the 
son  of  Charles  III.,  and  began  to  reign  in  1386.  His 
rival,  Louis  II.,  had  possession  of  Naples,  but  was  ex- 
pelled in  1399.  Ladislaus  excited  the  Romans  to  revolt 
against  Innocent  VII.,  and  in  1408  made  himself  master 
of  Rome.     Died  in  1414. 

Ladislaus  of  Poland.     See  Vladislaus. 

Ladmiral,  Itd'me'rtK,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  of 
French  descent,  born  at  Leyden  in  1680. 

Ladoucette,  de,  deh  It'doo'sSt',  (Jean  Charles 
Franqois,)  Baron,  a  meritorious  French  administrator, 
born  at  Metz  in  1770;  died  in  1848. 

Ladowski,  li-dov'skee,  (Remie,)  a  Polish  naturalist, 
bom  at  Volhynia  in  1738,  published  a  "Natural  History 
of  Poland,"  (1783.)     Died  in  1798. 

Ladvocat,  lid'vo'kt',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  at  Vaucouleurs  in  1709, 
was  learned  in  philosophy,  history.  Oriental  languages, 
etc.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the  Sorbonne, 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Hebrew  Grammar, 
"  Bibliotheque  annuelle,"  (1748-51,)  and  a  "Historical 
Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,  1752.)  An  enlarged  edition  of  the 
last  was  published  in  5  vols,  in  1822.     Died  in  1765. 

See  Qu^RARD,  'Li  France  Litt^raire." 

Ladvocat,  (Louis  Franqois,)  a  French  philosophica. 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1644.  He  became  a  counsellor 
and  dean  of  the  chamber  of  accounts.  He  wrote  several 
metaphysical  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  a  "  New 
System  of  Philosophy."     Died  in  1735. 

Ladvocat,  (N.,)  a  French  publisher  and  bookseller, 
born  in  1790  ;  died  in  1854. 

Laelius,  lee'le-us,  (Caius,)  surnamed  Nepos,  an  emi- 
nent Roman  general.  He  had  a  high  command  under 
Scipio  Africanus  in  the  expedition  against  Spain  in  210 
B.C.  In  205  he  gained  a  victory  over  Syphax  in  Africa, 
for  which  he  received  a  crown  of  gold.  He  was  elected 
praetor  in  197,  and  consul  in  190.  His  notes  furnished 
Polybius  with  materials  for  his  history  of  Scipio's  cam- 
paigns in  Spain. 

Leelius,  (Caius,)  surnamed  Sapiens,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, studied  philosophy  with  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and 
became  an  eminent  orator.  He  served  with  distinction 
under  his  friend  Scipio  the  Younger  at  the  siege  of  Car- 
thage, and  was  chosen  consul  in  140  B.C.  He  favoured  the 
aristocratic  party,  and  was  an  opponent  of  T.  Gracchus. 
The  celebrity  of  the  friendship  between  Lselius  and 
Scipio  caused  Cicero  to  place  the  name  of  the  former  at 
the  head  of  his  dialogue  "  De  Amicitia."  Horace  com- 
mends his  mild  philosophy, — "mitis  sapientia  Laelii," 
(Serm.  ii.  Sat.  i.)     Died  about  115  B.C. 

See   Cicero,  "Brutus"   and   "  De  Oratore  ;"  Hendrik  Hana, 
Dissertatio  de  C.  Laelio  Sapiente,"  1832. 

Laemlein.     See  Lamlein. 

Laennec,  It'nSk',  (Guillaume  FRAwgois,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Quimper  in  1748,  was  the  uncle  of 
the  following.  He  became  physician-in-ordinary  to  the 
king  in  1779.     Died  in  1822. 


Laennec,  (Ren6  Th6odore  Hyacinthe,)  an  eminent 
French  ])hysician,  born  at  Quimper  in  February,  1781, 
went  to  Paris  in  1800  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  anatomy,  in  which  he  made  several 
discoveries.  He  had  already  acquired  a  reputation  by  his 
practice  and  writings,  when  he  invented  the  stethoscope 
in  1815,  and  opened  a  new  era  in  medicine  by  his  impor- 
tant discovery  of  auscultation.  Having  been  chosen  chief 
physician  of  the  Hopital  Necker  in  1816,  he  studied  the 
diseases  of  the  thorax  with  great  diligence,  sagacity,  and 
success.  His  "  Treatise  on  Mediate  Auscultation,"  etc 
("Traite  de  I'Auscultation  mediate  et  des  Maladies  des 
Poumons  et  du  Cosur,"  2  vols.,  1819)  produced  a  great 
sensation,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  important 
contribution  to  medical  science  made  in  the  present  cen- 
tury. He  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
College  of  France  in  1822,  and  obtained  the  chair  of 
clinic  medicine  in  1822  or  1823.  He  died  of  consump- 
tion in  1826. 

See  Pariset,  "  filoge  de  Laennec,"  1840 ;  A.  L.  J.  Bavle,  "  No- 
tice historique  sur  R.  T.  H.  Laennec,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Laensbergh,  iSns'bgRH  or  lins'b^Rg,  (  Mathieu,) 
a  Fleming,  who  lived  about  1630,  was  the  author  of  a 
famous  almanac,  first  published  about  1635.  An  almanac 
bearing  his  name  continues  to  be  published  at  Liege. 

La  Bnzina  or  Encina.     See  Enzina. 

Laer  or  Laar,  van,  vtn  ISr,  (Pieter,)  a  celebrated 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1613.  He  studied 
and  worked  sixteen  years  in  Rome,  where  he  was  inti- 
mate with  N.  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorrain  and  received 
the  surname  of  Bamboccio.  In  1639  he  returned  to 
Holland  and  settled  in  Haarlem.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  hunting-scenes,  rural  sports,  fairs,  fisheries,  and 
rustic  festivals,  which  he  treated  with  great  vivacity.  He 
excelled  in  design,  colour,  and  aerial  effects.  His  etch- 
ings of  his  own  designs  are  also  much  admired.  Died 
in  1673. 

Laerte.     See  Laertes. 

La-er'tes,  [Gr.  AaspTrig ;  Fr.  Laerte,  lt'§Rt',]  King 
of  Ithaca,  and  father  of  Ulysses,  is  said  to  have  been 
one  of  the  Argonauts.  He  resigned  the  crown  to  his 
son  just  named. 

Laertius,  (Diogenes.)     See  Diogenes. 

Laet,  van,  vtn  lit,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  geographer,  born 
at  Antwerp,  was  well  versed  in  languages  and  history. 
He  published  valuable  descriptive  works  on  Spain,  Italy, 
Persia,  etc.  His  "  Description  of  the  West  Indies"  (1640) 
is  highly  commended.     Died  about  1650. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires." 

Laevinus,  le-vl'nus,  (Marcus  Valerius,)  a  Roman 
general,  who,  having  obtained  the  office  of  praetor  in  214 
B.C.,  fought  with  success  against  Philip,  King  of  Mace- 
don,  at  Oricum.  He  became  consul  in  210  B.C.,  and 
obtained  by  lot  the  command  of  Italy,  which  was  then 
invaded  by  Hannibal ;  but  he  exchanged  this  province 
with  Marcellus  for  Sicily.  He  quickly  expelled  the  Car- 
thaginians from  this  island.     Died  in  200  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "History  of  Rome;"  Polybius,  "History." 

Laevinus,  (Publius  Valerius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  was  consul  in  280  B.C.  He  obtained  the  chief  com- 
mand in  the  war  against  Pyrrhus  and  the  Tarentines. 
His  army  was  defeated  by  Pyrrhus  in  a  great  battle  on 
the  Siris,  near  Heraclea,  in  280  B.C. 

Laevinus,  li-vee'nus,  (  Torrentius,  )  called  also 
Vander  Beken,  vtn  der  ba'ken,  a  Flemish  prelate, 
born  at  Ghent  about  1525,  was  distinguished  as  a  Latin 
poet.  He  founded  a  college  of  Jesuits  at  Louvain,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Mechlin.     Died  in  1595. 

Laevius,  lee've-us,  a  Latin  poet,  of  whom  little  is 
known.  He  lived  in  the  first  century  before  Christ,  and 
wrote  "Erotopaegnia." 

Lafabrique,  la'fS'bRik',(NicoLAS,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Namur  ;  died  at  Liege  in  1736. 

La  Fage,  It  ftzh,  (RaImond,)  a  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Lisle  (Albigeois)  about  1650,  studied 
and  worked  at  Rome  and  at  Paris.  He  was  renowned 
for  boldness  of  touch  and  facility  of  execution.  The 
pen  was  his  favourite  instrument  in  design.  He  left 
many  etchings.  His  habits  were  very  intemperate. 
Died  abo"*  1600. 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  s/io?-^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LA  FAGE 


1 469 


LA  FAYETTE 


La  Fage,  de,  deh  IS  ftzh,  (Juste  Adrien  Lenoir,)  a 
French  musician,  composer,  and  writer  on  music,  born 
at  Paris  in  1801.  In  1828  he  produced  a  comic  opera, 
"  I  Creditori,"  which  was  moderately  successful.  But 
he  is  best  known  for  his  works  on  music,  "The  Complete 
Manual  of  Music,"  (1836-38,)  and  "General  History  of 
Music."     Died  March  8,  1S62. 

La  Faille,  de,  deh  IS  ftl  or  fS'ye,  (  Clement,  )  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1718;  died  in 
t782. 

Lafaist.     See  Lafaye. 

La  Fare,  de,  deh  It  fSR,  (Charles  Auguste,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  littSratetir,  born  at  Valgorge  in  1644.  He 
served  several  campaigns  in  the  army,  (1667-74,)  and 
became  a  friend  of  Turenne.  Besides  some  trifling 
poetical  pieces,  he  wrote  "  Memoirs  and  Reflections  on 
the  Principal  Events  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.," 
(1715,)  which  is  commended.     Died  in  1712. 

La  Farge,  IS  fSRzh,  (Joachim,)  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Paris  about  1750,  originated  a  system  of  tontine 
which  is  called  by  his  name.     Died  about  1825. 

Lafarge,  la-f^rj',  (John,)  an  American  artist,  born  in 
New  York  city  about  1S40.  He  is  one  of  the  best  land- 
scape-painters in  the  United  States,  and  is  noted  for  his 
flower-pieces  and  water-colour  pictures.  His  strongest 
quality  is  exhibited  in  the  masterly  and  expressive  use  of 
colour.  Among  his  noted  works  are  "  Paradise  at  New- 
port," "  Christ  and  Nicodemus,"  a  cartoon  sketch,  and 
the  frescos  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston.  Comparatively 
few  of  his  paintings  are  free  from  technical  faults,  but 
their  popularity  is  based  upon  high  yet  often  subtile  and 
indefinable  excellences  of  conception  and  execution. 

La  Farge,  (Marie  Cappelle,)  a  Frenchwoman, 
notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  born  in  Picardy  in  1816. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  colonel  of  artillery,  and  was 
married  in  1838  to  M.  La  Farge,  who  died  soon  after,  it 
was  supposed,  from  the  effects  of  poison  administered 
by  his  wife.  About  the  same  time  she  was  accused  of 
having  stolen  from  one  of  her  friends  some  diamonds  of 
great  value.  The  trial  which  followed  was  of  the  most 
exciting  kind,  several  eminent  chemists  having  declared, 
after  an  examination  of  the  remains,  that  there  were  no 
marks  of  poison,  while  M.  Orfila  asserted  that  arsenic 
was  present.  Madame  La  Farge  was  condemned  to 
imprisonment  for  life,  but  after  twelve  years  she  was 
released,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  died  in  1852. 

See  "Mdmoires  de  Marie  Cappelle  Veuve  La  Farge,"  by  herseH 
4  vols.,  1840;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1842. 

La  Farina,  IS  fi-Ree'nS,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  lawyer 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Messina  in  1815.  He 
founded  several  liberal  journals,  which  were  successively 
suppressed  by  the  government.  He  afterwards  settled 
at  Florence,  where  he  found  more  liberty,  and  published 
a  democratic  anti-papal  journal,  "  L'Alba."  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  unsuccessful  revolution  in  Sicily 
in  184S,  after  which  he  again  became  an  exile.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "History  of  Italy  from  1815  to  1850," 
(6  vols.,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  of  Sicily  in 
1848-49,"  (2  vols.)     Died  in  1863. 

Lafaye,  IS'f^',  (Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister, born  at  Chateaudun,  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Geneva  in  1584.  He  wrote  several  theological  works, 
and  a  "Life  of  Beza,"  (1606.)     Died  in  1615. 

Lafaye  or  Lafaist,  iS'fi',  (Pierre  Benjamin,)  a 
French  philologist,  born  in  the  department  of  Yonne  in 
1808.  His  chief  works  are  "French  Synonymes,"  (1841,) 
crowned  by  the  Institute,  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Synonymes  of  the  French  Language."     Died  in  1867. 

Lafaye,  de,  deh  iS'fi',  (Jean  £lie,)  an  able  French 
engineer,  born  at  Vienne  in  1671.  He  served  in  the 
army  many  years  as  engineer,  and  made  discoveries  in 
the  science  of  war.     Died  in  17 18. 

Lafaye,  de,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  diplomatist^ 
distinguished  for  his  wit  and  accomplishments,  brother, 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Vienne  in  1674.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.     Died  in  1731. 

La  Fayette  or  Lafayette,  de,  deh  iS'fi'St',  (George 
Washington,)  the  only  son  of  General  La  Fayette,  was 
born  in  1779.  He  entered  the  army  young,  and  served 
in  Italy  about  1796.  As  aide-de-camp  of  General  Grou- 
chy, he  made  the  campaigns  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and 


Poland,  (1805-07.)  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1822,  and  again  in  1827,  by  the  voters  of 
Seine-et-Marne,  whom  he  continued  to  represent  until 
1848.  In  politics  he  was  an  advanced  liberal.  Died  in  1849. 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Gilbert,)  a  French  general,  born 
about  1380.  He  fought  for  the  dauphin  Charles  against 
the  English,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1420. 
He  was  afterwards  one  of  the  chief  counsellors  of 
Charles  VII.,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Joan 
of  Arc  at  Orleans  in  1429.  He  aided  in  expelling  the 
English  from  Normandy  in  1449.     Died  in  1462. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Louise,)  a  French  lady,  born  in 
1616,  was  a  daughter  of  Count  Jean  de  la  Fayette. 
She  gained  the  affection  of  Louis  XIII.  about  1634,  and 
encouraged  him  to  become  more  independent  of  Riche- 
lieu.    She  entered  a  convent  about  1636.     Died  in  1665. 

La  Fayette  or  Lafayette,  de,  (Marie  Jean  Paul 
Roch  Yves  Gilbert  Metier — rosh  iv  zhfel'baiR'  mo'- 
te-i',)  Marquis,  an  illustrious  French  statesman  and 
patriot,  was  born  at  Chavagnac,  September  6,  1757.  His 
father,  who  was  a  marquis  and  marechal-de-camp,  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Minden  in  1757.  After  leaving 
the  College  Du  Plessis,  in  Paris,  he  married  in  1774 
Mdlle.  d'Ayen,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Ayen.  He 
was  the  heir  of  an  immense  fortune,  and  had  brilliant 
prospects  at  court,  when,  with  generous  enthusiasm  for 
liberty,  he  offered  his  services  to  the  new-born  republic 
of  America.  Silas  Deane,  commissioner  of  the  United 
States  in  Paris,  accepted  his  offer,  and  promised  him 
the  grade  of  major-general,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
American  Congress.  In  the  spring  of  1777  he  arrived 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  the  same  year  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  the  Brandywine,  where  he  was  wounded. 
He  gained  the  favour  and  confidence  of  Washington, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  his  conduct  at 
Monmouth  in  1778.  The  French  court  having  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  the  United  States,  La  Fayette 
recrossed  the  ocean  in  1779  and  returned  with  material 
aid  to  the  scene  of  war.  He  commanded  the  advanced 
guard  of  Washington  in  1780,  and  contributed  to  the 
decisive  victory  of  Yorktown,  (1781,)  where  the  war  was 
virtually  ended. 

On  his  return  to  France,  with  a  prestige  magnified 
by  distance,  he  was  received  with  unbounded  applause, 
which  reanimated  or  confirmed  his  devotion  to  the  cause 
of  liberty.  In  1787  he  advocated  the  rights  of  the  French 
Protestants  and  various  reforms  in  the  government.  His 
principal  parliamentary  act  in  the  States-General  of  1789 
was  his  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  which  was 
adopted  by  that  body.  In  that  year  he  was  chosen  by  ac- 
clamation commandant  of  the  Parisian  militia,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  the  National  Guard.  At  this  period 
he  was  the  popular  favourite  of  the  nation.  "  The  federa- 
tion of  1790,"  says  Lamartine,  "was  the  apogee  of  La 
Fayette.  He  overshadowed  on  that  day  both  the  king 
and  the  Assembly."  ("  History  of  the  Girondists.") 
Aiming  to  reconcile  his  loyalty  to  the  king  with  his  duty 
to  the  cause  of  freedom,  he  acted  with  the  Feuillants, 
the  friends  of  constitutional  monarchy.  In  the  main- 
tenance of  order  he  often  risked  his  life,  and  he  enforced 
martial  law  against  the  insurgents  in  the  Champ-de-Mars 
in  July,  1 791,  soon  after  the  arrest  of  the  king  at  Va- 
rennes.  Before  the  end  of  that  year  he  resigned  his  com- 
mand, and  was  a  candidate  for  the  mayoralty  of  Paris ;  but 
the  intrigues  of  the  queen  and  court,  who  hated  or  feared 
him,  decided  the  election  in  favour  of  Pethion,  who  was 
a  radical  revolutionist.  The  large  majority  of  Pethion 
showed  that  the  star  of  La  Fayette  was  declining.  In  the 
winter  of  1791-92  he  was  chosen  commander  of  one  of 
the  three  armies,  and,  war  having  been  declared  against 
Austria  in  April,  he  directed  some  small  operations  on 
the  frontier  of  Flanders,  at  the  same  time  striving,  with- 
out success,  to  defeat  the  Jacobins  at  Paris.  Indignant 
at  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries,  (June  20,  1792,)  La  Fayette 
went,  with  a  single  officer,  to  Paris,  and,  in  a  short 
harangue  before  the  bar  of  the  Assembly,  demanded  the 
punishment  of  the  offenders.  "  In  this  attempt  to  act  as 
dictator,"  says  Lamartine,  "the  motive  was  generous, 
the  peril  great,  but  the  means  null."  Returning  to  the 
army,  he  devised  a  plan  to  save  the  king  by  transferring 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  2&j;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2^^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  FAYETTE 


1470 


LAFITAU 


him  from  the  capital  to  his  camp;  but  the  court  rejected 
the  offer. 

The  insurrection  of  August  10  gave  the  ascendency  to 
the  1  epublicans,  who  deprived  La  Fayette  of  his  command. 
He  then  fled  towards  Holland,  intending  to  emigrate  to 
the  United  States,  but  was  arrested  by  the  Austrians  and 
detained  in  the  dungeons  of  Neiss  and  Olmiitz,  where 
he  was  treated  with  much  rigour.  In  a  treaty  with  Aus- 
tria in  1797,  Bonaparte  insisted  on  his  liberation,  which 
was  effected  in  Sejjtember  of  that  year.  Having  passed 
about  two  years  in  Holland,  he  returned  to  France  in 
1800,  and,  refusing  several  ofl"ers  of  public  employment 
under  Bonaparte,  maintained  his  political  consistency  in 
retirement  at  La  Grange.  Some  one  having  com])lained 
that  La  Fayette  censured  the  government,  the  First 
Consul  replied,  "  Let  him  alone  :  he  will  not  say  more 
against  me  than  he  has  expressed  openly  before  me." 

In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1815,  he  opposed  the 
claims  of  Bonaparte  and  of  the  Bourbons,  and  wished  to 
rally  round  the  standard  of  1789  for  "liberty,  equality, 
and  order."  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
spoke  frequently  in  the  Chamber  in  opposition  to  the 
ministry.  In  1824  he  revisited  the  scene  of  his  youthful 
exploits,  where  he  was  received  with  cordial  demonstra- 
tions of  honour  and  gratitude,  and  passed  about  a  year 
in  a  triumphal  progress  through  the  twenty-four  States  of 
the  Union.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States  voted 
$200,000  in  recompense  for  his  services  in  the  war  of 
independence.  The  arbitrary  measures  of  Charles  X. 
again  roused  him  to  political  action.  He  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  as  the  chief  of  the 
popular  camp  in  Paris,  and  president  of  the  commission 
which  exercised  a  sort  of  dictatorship  after  the  expul- 
sion of  Charles  X.  He  was  also  chosen  commander 
of  all  the  National  Guards  of  France.  He  acquiesced 
in  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  which  Lamartine 
thinks  he  might  easily  have  prevented  by  proclaiming 
a  republic.  On  this  occasion  he  said  to  the  new  king, 
"  You  know  that  I  am  a  republican,  and  that  I  regard 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  as  the  most  perfect 
that  ever  existed."  He  died  May  20,  1834,  leaving  one 
son  and  several  daughters.  Perhaps  no  man  ever  lived 
through  such  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  and  such  severe 
trials  of  his  virtue,  with  a  character  more  free  from  just 
reproach  than  La  Fayette.  The  high-toned  consistency 
of  his  conduct  is  expressed  in  the  assertion  of  Madame 
de  Stael,  "  that  you  could  certainly  predict  what  he  would 
do  in  every  contingency." 

See  Sarraks,  "  Lafayette  et  la  Revolution  de  1830,"  2  vols., 
1834;  Cloquet,  "Souvenirs  de  la  Vie  de  La  Fayette,"  1S36 :  "  Me- 
moires  et  Correspondance  du  General  Lafayette,"  (published  by 
his  family,)  6  vols.,  1S3S;  J.  Q.  Adams,  "  Oration  on  the  Life  and 
Character  of  Lafayette,"  1S34;  William  Cutter,  "  Life  of  General 
Lafayette,"  New  York,  1849  ;  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "  M.  de  Lafayette,  par 
un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842;  P.  C.  Headlev,  "Life  of  Lafayette," 
Auburn,  1S51  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Critiques  et  Portraits  litteraires," 
tome  V.  ;  ^mile  de  la  BEDOLLifeRE,  "  Vie  politique  du  Marquis  de 
Lafayette,"  1S33  :  Bancroft,  "History  of  tlie  United  States,"  vol. 
ix.  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1S25,  (by  George 
TiCKNOK,)  and  Jannary,  1S3  ,  (by  Edward  Kverktt;)  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  December,  1832  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1832;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1833. 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Marie  Madeleine  Pioche  de  la 
Vergne — pe'osh'  deh  It  viRfi,)  Countess,  a  popular 
French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1634,  was  eminently 
beautiful.  She  married  the  Count  de  la  Fayette  in  1655, 
and  her  house  became  the  resort  of  La  Fontaine,  La 
Rochefoucauld,  Menage,  and  other  eminent  authors. 
She  wrote  two  successful  novels,  "Zayde,"  (1670,)  and 
"The  Princess  of  Cleves,"  (1678,)  which  were  the  first 
French  works  of  fiction  that  truly  represented  the  man- 
ners of  the  higher  classes.  She  left  also  "  Memoirs  of 
the  French  Court"  for  the  years  1688  and  1689,  (1731,) 
and  a  few  other  works.     Died  in  1693. 

See  Lemontev,  "Notice  sur  Madame  de  la  Fayette,"  1822; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  de  Femmes,"  1844;  Auger,  "Notice 
biographique  sur  Madame  de  Lafayette,"  (prefixed  to  her  Letters,) 
1823  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Oscar,)  a  son  of  George  W.,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He  served  in  the 
army  in  Africa,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  In 
1846  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  in 
1848  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted 
with  the  republicans.     Died  March  26,  1881. 


Laferriere  or  La  Ferridre,  It'f&'re-aiR',  (Louis 
FiRMiN  Julien,)  a  French  jurist,  and  a  member  of  the 
Institute,  was  born  at  Jonzac  in  1798.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Civil  Law  of  Rome  and  of 
French  Law,"  (6  vols.,  1846-53.)     Died  in  1861. 

La  Ferriere,  de,  deh  It  fi're-aiK',  (Louis  Marie,) 
Count,  born  at  Redon  in  1776,  became  a  general  of 
division.  He  lost  a  leg  at  Craonne  in  1814.  Napoleon 
left  him  a  legacy  of  100,000  francs.     Died  in  1834. 

La  Ferte-Imbault,  de,  deh  It  fSn'ti'  iN'bo',  (Marie 
Th^r^se  Geoffrin,)  Marquise,  a  literary  French  lady, 
born  in  Paris  in  1715,  was  a  daughter  of  the  well-known 
Madame  de  Geoffrin.  She  was  trained  up  in  the  society 
of  such  men  as  Fontenelle  and  Montesquieu,  who  were 
habitues  of  her  mother's  salon.  Her  moral  or  pious  prin- 
ciples caused  her  to  close  her  door  against  D'Alembert 
and  the  other  Encyclopaedists.  She  was  grand  mattresse 
of  the  order  of  Lanturelus,  designed  for  literary  diver- 
sion, and  composed  several  volumes  of  moral  maxims. 
Died  in  1791. 

La  Ferte-Senueterre,  de,  deh  It  fln'ty  sSn'taiR' 
(Henri,)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  1600,  com- 
manded a  wing  at  the  battle  of  Rocroy,  (1645.)  He 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1651,  after  which  Tu- 
renne  and  he  recovered  Bar,  Arras,  and  other  townn 
which  the  Prince  of  Conde  had  captured.  Died  in 
1681. 

La  Feuillade.     See  Feuillade,  de  la. 

LafEtte,  It'fit',  (Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  finan- 
cier and  liberal  statesman,  born  at  Bayonne  in  1767,  was 
the  son  of  a  carpenter.  In  1788  he  entered  as  clerk  the 
banking-house  of  Perregaux  at  Paris.  He  became  a  part- 
ner about  1802,  and  the  head  of  the  firm  in  1809.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  governor  of  the  Bank  of 
Prance.  The  great  fortune  which  he  had  acquired  was 
fieely  off'ered  for  the  defence  of  Paris  from  the  invaders 
in  1 814,  and  for  the  restoration  of  the  public  credit  in 
181 5.  Napoleon  deposited  with  him  5,000,000  francs 
just  before  his  departure  to  Saint  Helena,  with  the  ex- 
pression of  perfect  confidence  in  his  honesty.  In  1816 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he 
acted  with  the  Liberal  opposition  and  spoke  with  ability 
on  financial  questions.  "  Placed  in  the  vanguard  of  the 
defenders  of  the  Charter,"  says  M.  de  Lomenie,  "as 
popular  by  his  o-pinions  as  by  his  princely  munificence, 
the  opulent  banker  beheld  himself  surrounded  by  all  the 
notabilities  of  the  press  and  the  tribune."  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  dethronement  of  Charles  X.  in  1830, 
and  used  his  influence  in  favour  of  Louis  Philippe,  to 
whom  in  a  critical  hour  he  wrote,  "No  more  hesitation  ! 
Choose  between  a  crown  and  a  passport."  He  entered 
the  first  ministry  of  the  new  reign  as  minister  without  a 
portfolio.  This  ministry  having  been  speedily  dissolved, 
Laffitte,  on  the  3d  of  November,  1830,  became  prime 
minister  (president  du  conseil)  and  minister  of  finance. 
Failing  to  command  a  majority  in  the  chamber,  he  re- 
signed in  March,  1831.  The  financial  crisis  which  fol- 
lowed ruined  his  fortune,  which  had  been  reduced  by 
large  donations  to  the  popular  cause  in  1830.  A  national 
subscription  relieved  him  from  embarrassment  about 
1833.     Died  in  1844. 

See  M.  C.  Marchal,  "Souvenirs  de  J.  Laffitte,  racont^s  par  lut- 
meme,"  1844  ;  "Jacques  Laffitte,"  Paris,  1844;  "Vie  de  M.  Laffitte," 
Paris,  1S44;  LoM^NiE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains  illustres." 

Laffon  de  Ladebat,  It'fiN'  deh  It'di'bt',  (Andre 
Daniel,)  a  French  financier,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1746, 
was  a  merchant  in  early  life.  He  was  a  moderate  mem- 
ber of  the  Assembly  in  1 791,  and  of  the  Council  of  Elders 
in  1795.  The  coup  d'etat  of  September  4,  1797,  sent  him 
as  an  exile  to  Guiana.  After  his  return  to  France  he 
published  several  treatises  on  finance,  economy,  etc.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Protestant  Bible  Society 
in  1818.     Died  in  1829. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Lafitau,  It'fe'to',  (Joseph  FRANgois,)  a  French  Jes- 
uit, born  at  Bordeaux.  Having  been  for  many  years  a 
missionary  in  Canada,  he  returned  to  France,  and  pub- 
lished "  Manners  of  the  American  Savages  compared 
with  the  Manners  of  Primitive  Ages,"  and  two  other 
works.     Died  in  1740. 


a,  e,  i,  5,  ii,  y,  long;  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


LAFITAU 


1471 


LA  GAR  AYE 


Lafitau,  (Pierre  Fran<;ois,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1685.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Clement  XI.,"  (1752,)  and  other  works.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Sisteron  in  1719.     Died  in  1764. 

Lafite,  It'ffet',  (Marie  fiLiSABEXH  Bouee — boo'i',) 
a  French  autlioress,  born  in  Paris  about  1750.  She 
wrote  several  juvenile  books,  among  which  are  "Moral 
Conversations  and  Tales,"  etc.,  (1781,)  often  reprinted. 
Died  in  1794. 

Lafitte,  It-fit'  or  It'fSt',  (Jean,)  a  notorious  French 
privateer,  born  about  1780,  became  about  1813  the  leader 
of  a  band  of  pirates  who  established  themselves  at 
Grande  Terre,  in  Barataria  Bay,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
In  1814  he  was  offered  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  a 
commission  in  the  navy,  on  condition  of  his  assisting 
the  British  in  their  attack  on  New  Orleans.  He  refused 
these  proposals,  and  offered  his  services  to  defend  Loui- 
siana on  condition  of  pardon  to  himself  and  followers, 
v^'hich  offer  was  accepted.  Tiie  time  and  circumstances 
of  his  death  are  unknown.  The  adventures  of  Lafitte 
have  formed  the  subject  of  several  tales  and  romances. 

Lafolie,  13'fo'le',  (Charles  Jean,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Paris  in  1780,  published  "Notices  of  the 
Public  Monuments,  Palaces,  Museums,  Colleges,  etc. 
of  Paris,"  (1820.)     Died  in  1824. 

Lafolie,  (Louis  Guillaume,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1739.  He  discovered  the  yellow  dye  ex- 
tracted ixovci  gaiide,  (dyer's  weed,)  and  wrote  an  imagina- 
tive work  called  the  "  Philosopher  without  Pretension," 
("  Philosophesans  Pretention,"  etc.,  1775.)  Died  in  1780. 

Lafon,  lt'f6N',  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  prolific  French 
author,  known  by  the  literary  name  of  Mary  Lafon. 
He  was  born  at  Lafran9aise  in  1812.  He  wrote  books 
on  the  troubadours,  on  the  Provencal  language,  etc., 
besides  a  "  History  of  the  South  of  France,"  "  History 
of  the  French  Cities,"  many  plays,  some  romances,  and 
the  autobiographical  "Cinquante  Ans  de  la  Vie  litte- 
raire."  His  works  comprise  more  than  fifty  volumes. 
Died  near  Montauban  in  1884. 

Lafon,  It'fiN',  (Pierre,)  a  famous  P>ench  tragic 
actor,  born  in  Perigord  in  1775,  made  a  successful  dehU 
in  Paris  in  1800,  and  was  considered  by  his  admirers  a 
rival  of  Talma.     Died  in  1846. 

Lafons,  de,  deh  It'f^N',  (FRANgois  Joseph  Alex- 
andre,) Baron  de  Mellicocq,  a  French  botanist  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Noyon,  Oise,  in  1802. 

Lafont,  lt'f(!)N',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a  popular  mu- 
sician, born  in  Paris  in  17S1,  was  appointed  in  1809  first 
violinist  to  the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia,  and  on  his 
return  to  Paris  in  1815  filled  the  same  office  at  the  royal 
chapel.     Died  in  1839. 

Lafont,  (Pierre  Chi^ri,)  a  French  actor,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1801.     Died  April  18,  1873. 

Lafont,  de,  deh  It'f^N',  (Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  16S6,  wrote  successful  comedies,  among 
which  was  "The  Festivals  of  Thalia,"  (" Les  Fetes  de 
Thalie,"  1714.)     Died  in  1725. 

Lafontaine,  lt'f(!)N'tin',  (August  Heinrich  Julius,) 
a  popular  novelist,  of  French  origin,  born  at  Brunswick 
about  1758.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  was  employed 
as  pastor  or  professor  at  Halle.  He  published,  in  Ger- 
man, a  great  number  of  novels,  which  had  a  temporary 
success  and  were  translated  into  French.  Among  them 
are  "  The  Singular  Man,"  ("  Der  Sonderling,")  "  The 
Family  De  Halden,"  and  "Agnes  and  Bertha,"  (1818.) 
Died  at  Halle  in  183 1.  His  style  is  easy  and  agreeable, 
but  his  sentimentality  is  considered  excessive. 

See  JoHANN  G.  Gruber,  "A.  Lafontaine's  Leben  und  Wirken," 
1833;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;""  Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  February,  1834. 

La  Fontaine  or  Lafontaine,  de,  deh  It'fiN'tin', 
(Jean,)  a  famous  French  fabulist,  born  at  Chateau- 
Thierry,  July  8,  1621,  was  the  most  popular  French  poet 
of  his  time.  He  was  remarkable  for  an  easy,  careless, 
and  indolent  temper,  and  passed  the  age  of  twenty-one 
before  he  manifested  his  poetical  genius.  He  married 
Marie  Hericart  to  please  his  father,  who  procured  for 
him  the  office  of  master  of  waters  and  forests ;  but  he 
soon  sold  his  office  and  separated  from  his  wife.  The 
Duchess   de    Bouillon,   pleased   with   his   first   literary 


efforts,  became  his  patroness  and  took  him  to  Paris.  He 
received  a  pension  from  Fouquet,  and  about  1662  com- 
posed an  admirable  elegy  on  the  fall  of  that  minister. 
He  enjoyed  for  about  twenty  years  the  hospitality  of 
Madame  Sabliere,  a  lady  of  Paris,  who  generously  pro- 
tected him  from  the  effects  of  his  improvidence  and 
incapacity  for  business.  His  first  tales  appeared  in  1664, 
and  six  books  of  Fables  in  1668.  Ten  years  later,  he 
produced  the  last  six  books  of  those  inimitable  works. 
At  the  death  of  Colbert  (1683,)  La  Fontaine  and  Boileau 
were  rival  candidates  for  the  place  which  he  left  vacant 
in  the  French  Academy ;  and  the  former  was  successful. 
Moliere  and  La  Fontaine  are  reckoned  the  two  most 
original  writers  of  the  brilliant  age  of  Louis  XIV.  Many 
anecdotes  are  related  of  his  simplicity,  ndiveti,  and  ab- 
sence of  mind.  "His  lines,"  says  Hallam,  "have  5 
proverbial  truth  and  a  humour  of  expression  which 
render  them  constantly  applicable.  .  .  .  Many  of  his 
fables  are  admirable  :  the  grace  of  the  poetry,  the  happy 
inspiration  that  seems  to  have  dictated  the  turns  of 
expression,  place  him  in  the  first  rank  among  fabulists." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  died 
in  Paris  in  April,  1695,  having  expressed  penitence  for 
the  licentious  passages  in  his  tales. 

See  I.A  Harpe,  "  Eloge  de  Lafontaine,"  1774  ;  Walckenaek, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  de  La  Fontaine,"  1820; 
Marais,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  de  La  Fontaine," 
1811 ;  Chamfort,  "  filoge  de  La  Fontaine,"  1774;  Sainte-Beuvb 
"  Portraits  litt^raires,"  tome  i.,  and  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  vii.  ; 
Des  Renaudes,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  de  Lafontaine,"  1852; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe." 

La  Fontenelle  or  Lafontenelle,  de,  deh  IS  fcb.Nt'nSK, 
(Armand  D6sir6,)  a  French  antiquary  and  biographer, 
born  in  Poitou  in  1784.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  His- 
tory of  Oliver  de  Clisson,"  (2  vols.,  1826,)  and  the  "Life 
and  Correspondence  of  Du  Plessis-Mornay,"  (with  Au- 
guis,  12  vols.,  1822-42.)    Died  in  1847. 

Lafosse,  It'foss',  (Philippe  Stienne,)  a  French  vete- 
rinary physician,  wrote  "The  Farrier's  Guide,"  (1766,) 
and  a  "Manual  of  Veterinary  Medicine,"  (1803.)  Died 
ir  1820.  . 

Lafosse  or  La  Fosse,  de,  deh  It  foss,  (Antoine,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1653, 
was  accounted  by  some  the  first  tragic  poet  of  his  time. 
He  produced,  besides  other  dramas,  "  Polyxene,"  (1686,) 
and  "  Manlius  Capitolinus,"  (1698,)  a  tragedy,  which  is 
highly  praised  by  La  Harpe.     Died  in  1708. 

Lafosse,  de,  (Charles,)  a  French  historical  paintei 
of  high  reputation,  born  in  Paris  in  1636,  was  an  undo 
of  the  preceding.  He  studied  under  Lebrun,  and-  in 
Rome.  He  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  adorn  the 
Trianon  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  the  frescoed  dome 
of  which  is  called  his  master-piece.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  1683,  when  he  exhibited 
the  "Abduction  of  Proserpine."     Died  in  1716. 

See  "  N6iivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lafosse,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  skilful 
French  engraver,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1721 ;  died  about 

1775- 

Lafrery,  Itf'R're'  or  liTReh-re',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Salins  in  15 12.  He  worked  in  Rome, 
where  he  published  maps  and  engravings,  and  "  Mirror 
of  Roman  Grandeur,"  ("Speculum  Romanae  Magni- 
tudinis,"  in  118  plates,  1554-73.)     Died  in  1577. 

La  Fuente.     See  Fuente,  La. 

La  Fuente,  li  fwSn'ti,  (AlcAntara  Miguel,)  a 
Spanish  historian  and  lawyer,  born  in  the  province  of 
Malaga  in  181 7.  He  died  at  Havana  in  1850,  soon  after 
he  had  been  xni^A^ fiscal  (attorney-general)  of  Cuba.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  Granada,"  (4  vols.,  1843-48.) 

Lagalla,  IS-gdl'lS,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  philosopher,  born  at  Padula  in  1576,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Roman  College  from  1597 
till  his  death.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Comets," 
(1613,)  and  "De  Immortalitate  Animorum,"  (1621,)  an 
effort  to  prove  that  Aristotle  admitted  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.     Died  in  1624. 

La  Gallissoniere.     See  GALLissoNifeRE,  de  la. 

Lagaraye,  de,  deh  It'gS'ri',  (Claude  Toussaint 
Marot,)  Comte,  a  French  chemist  and  philanthropist, 
born   at    Rennes   in  1675.     He  founded  infant-schools, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi, giittural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  GARDE 


1472 


LA   GUE  RONNIE  RE 


and  hospitals  for  the  sick  and  aged.  He  made  some 
improvements  in  vegetable  analysis,  and  pu'olished  a 
treatise  on  "Hydraulic  Chemistry,"  ("Chimie  hydrau- 
lique,"  1746.)     Died  in  1755. 

See  "  Les  fipoux  charitables,  ou  Vies  du  Comte  et  de  la  Comtesse 
de  La  Garaye,"  Rennes,  1782. 

Lagarde.     See  Deshouli£res. 

La  Gardie.     See  Gardie,  de  la. 

La  Gasca.     See  Gasca,  de  la. 

Lagerbring,  l^'ger-bRing,  (Sven  or  Sven  Bring,) 
a  Swedish  historian,  born  in  1707,  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Lund.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Sweden"  down  to  1457,  (3  vols., 
1769-76,)  a  work  of  much  research,  but  defective  in 
style  and  method.     Died  in  1788. 

See  C.  WOLLIN,  "Parentation  ofver  S.  Lagerbring,"  1788. 

Lagerlof  or  Lagerloef,  l^'ger-lof,  (Pehr,)  a  Swedish 
scholar  and  writer,  born  in  1648,  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Upsal.  He  was  learned  in  languages,  and 
wrote  Latin  verse  with  much  purity  of  style.  He  pub- 
lished several  antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1699. 

See  JocHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Lagerstrom  orLagerstroem,  von,  fon  li'ger-stRom', 
(Magnus,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1696, 
was  a  friend  of  Linnaeus.  He  translated  French  and 
German  works  into  Swedish,  and  availed  himself  of  his 
advantages  as  director  of  the  East  Lidia  Company  to 
collect  scientific  facts  and  specimens  and  to  promote 
researches  in  natural  history.     Died  in  1759. 

See  Kryger,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  M.  Lagerstroem,"  1760. 

Lagny,  de,  deh  iSn'ye',  (Thomas  Fantet,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1660.  He  removed  to 
Paris  in  1678,  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1695,  and  chosen  professor  of  hydrography  at  Roche- 
fort  in  1697.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  He  published,  besides  other  ingenious  treatises, 
"The  Cubature  of  the  Sphere,"  (1703,)  "which,"  says 
Fontenelle,  "would  prove  him  to  be  a  great  geometer." 
Died  in  1734. 

Lagomarsini,  15-go-maR-see'nee,  (Girolamo,  )  an 
eminent  Italian  philologist  and  Jesuit,  born  in  1698.  He 
was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Florence  for  many  years,  and 
about  1750  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Roman 
College.  He  published  Latin  orations  (1746)  and  epis- 
tles, a  poem  "  On  the  Origin  of  Springs,"  ("  De  Origine 
Fontium,"  1749,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1773. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excelleiitium  ;"  Parthe- 
Nius,  "De  Vita  et  Studiis  H.  Lagomarsini,"  1801. 

La  Grange,  (Antoine.)   See  Rivet  de  la  Grange. 

Lagrange  or  La  Grange,  It  gR6Nzh,  (Joseph  Louis,) 
one  of  the  most  eminent  geometers  of  modern  times,  was 
born  at  Turin  on  the  25th  of  January,  1736.  His  parents 
were  of  French  origin.  He  was  educated  in  the  College 
of  Turin,  where  his  mathematical  genius  was  rapidly 
developed  and  was  specially  directed  to  the  study  of 
modern  analysis.  It  has  been  said  that  all  he  learned 
seemed  to  be  only  a  reminiscence  of  what  he  had  before 
known.  Having  examined  Euler's  work  on  "  Isoperi- 
metrical  Problems,"  he  sent  to  the  author  in  1755  the 
first  essays  of  his  "  Method  of  Variations,"  which  alone 
would  immortalize  his  name,  and  which  he  had  invented 
to  respond  to  the  desire  of  Euler.  About  the  age  of 
nineteen  he  was  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
military  college  of  Turin.  The  first  volume  of  the  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Academy  of  Turin"  (1759)  consisted  chiefly 
of  the  admirable  essays  of  Lagrange  on  the  most  im- 
portant and  difficult  points  of  analysis  and  mechanics, 
such  as  the  propagation  of  sound  and  the  vibration  of 
chords.  He  published  in  1762  some  applications  of  his 
great  discovery,  which  was  afterwards  called  the  "  Method 
of  Variations."  In  1764  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  for  a  "  Theory  of  the 
Libration  of  the  Moon."  Invited  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  he  removed  to  Berlin  in  1766,  and  was  for  twenty 
years  director  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  which 
ne  enriched  with  numerous  treatises  on  "  Tautochronous 
Curves,"  "  Numerical  Equations,"  the  "  Integral  Cal- 
culus," "  Partial  Differences,"  and  on  the  most  arduous 
questions  of  general  astronomy  and  celestial  mechanics. 
He  was  chosen  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Paris 


in  1772.  The  persuasion  of  Mirabeau  and  the  oflTer  of  a 
pension  from  the  king  induced  him  to  settle  in  Paris  in 
1787.  He  published  in  1788  his  magnificent  work  "La 
Mecanique  analytique,"  ("Analytical  Mechanics,")  which 
is  considered  one  of  the  master-pieces  of  the  human  in- 
tellect. His  interest  was  vividly  excited  by  the  Revolu- 
tion, in  which,  however,  he  took  no  active  part.  In  1792 
he  married  Mademoiselle  Lemonnier.  He  was  the  first 
professor  of  geometry  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  founded 
about  1794;  and  his  name  was  the  first  inscribed  on  the 
list  of  the  members  of  the  Institute,  founded  in  1795. 
Napoleon,  who  highly  appreciated  the  great  talents  of 
one  so  incapable  of  intrigue  and  adulation,  gave  him  the 
office  of  senator  and  the  titles  of  count  of  the  empire  and 
grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  died  in  April, 
1813.  "Among  the  inventors  who  have  most  enlarged 
the  boundaries  of  our  knowledge,"  says  La  Place,  "  New- 
ton and  Lagrange  appear  to  have  possessed  in  the  highest 
degree  the  power  which,  by  the  discovery  of  general 
principles,  constitutes  the  true  genius  of  science."  "After 
Newton's  discovery  of  the  elliptic  orbits  of  the  planets," 
says  Playfair,  "Lagrange's  discovery  of  their  periodical 
inequalities  is,  without  doubt,  the  noblest  truth  in  phy- 
sical astronomy ;  and,  in  respect  of  the  doctrine  of  final 
causes,  it  may  truly  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  all." 

See  Delambre,  "  filoge  de  Lagrange;"  Virey  et  Potel, 
"  Precis  hiptorique  siir  la  Vie  de  Lagrange,"  1813  ;  Pietro  Cossali, 
"  Elogio  di  G.  L.  Lagrange,"  1813  ;  Magistrini,  "Discorso  in  Lode 
di  Lagrange,"  1819;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

La  Grange,  (N.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris 
in  1738,  translated  the  great  poem  of  Lucretius  "  De 
Rerum  Natura,"  with  notes,  (1768,)  and  the  works  of 
Seneca,  (7  vols.,  1779.)  The  former  passes  for  one  of 
the  best  versions  in  the  French  language.    Died  in  1775. 

La  Grange  or  Lagrange,  de,  deh  It  gR6Nzh,  (Ade- 
laide Blaise  FRANgois  le  Lievre,)  Marquis  de  Fou- 
rilles,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  became  general  of  division 
in  1809.     Died  in  1833. 

La  Grange,  de,  (Adelaide  £douard,)  Marquis,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1834  to  1848,  and  voted  with 
the  friends  of  Lonis  Napoleon  in  the  Assembly  of  1849. 
In  1852  he  became  a  senator.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  treatises  on  numismatics.     Died  January  17,  1876. 

La  Grange,  de,  (  Amand  Charles  Louis  le  LifevRE,) 
a  French  general,  born  in  1783,  served  with  distinction 
under  Napoleon  I.     Died  July  31,  1864. 

Lagrange,  de,  (Joseph,)  Comte,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1763;  died  in  1836. 

La  Grange,  de,  (Joseph  de  Chancel,)  a  French 
dramatic  and  satiric  poet,  commonly  called  La  Grange- 
Chancel,  was  born  at  Perigueux  in  1676.  His  drama 
of  "  Jugurtha"  was  performed  with  success  in  1694.  He 
produced  other  tragedies,  among  which  "  Aniasis"  (1701) 
and  "  Ino  and  Melicerta"  (1713)  are  called  the  best.  He 
was  imprisoned  or  exiled  some  years  for  three  remark- 
able odes,  named  "Philippiques,"  (1720,)  which  were 
libellous  satires  against  the  Regent  of  France.  "  As  a 
satiric  poet,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate," 
"  he  has  left  a  work  which,  in  spite  of  its  imperfections 
and  crying  injustice,  is  the  monument  of  satire  in  France." 
Died  in  1758. 

See  "Nouvelle  Eiographie  G^n^rale ;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^ 
moires." 

Lagrene,  de,  deh  ItgR'ni'  or  It'gReh-ni',  (ThEodose 
Marie  Melchior  Joseph,)  a  French  diplomatist,  was 
born  at  Amiens  in  1800.  He  went  to  Athens  as  minister 
in  1836,  and  to  China  in  1844.     Died  April  27,  1862. 

Lagr6n6e,  iS'gRi'ni',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1 740.  He  worked  in  Paris 
with  success,  and  reproduced  antique  paintings  by  incrus- 
tation on  marble  and  glass.     Died  in  1821. 

Lagr6n6e,  (Louis  Jean  Francois,)  called  Ain6,  a 
French  historical  painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1724.  He  was  surnamed  "the  French 
Albano."  He  studied  at  Rome,  became  Academician 
in  1755,  and  for  some  time  was  first  painter  to  the  Em- 
press of  Russia.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1805. 

See  Renou,  "  Notice  sur  Lagren^e  I'ain^,"  i8iS- 

La  Gu6ronniere  or  Lagueronniere,  de,  deh  It  gi'- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  Idll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


LA  GUERRE 


1473 


LAINEZ 


ro'ne-aiR',  (Arthur,)  Vicomte,  a  French  political 
writ^and  Bonapartist,  born  in  18 16.  He  becanie  chief 
editor  of  Lamartine's  new  journal,  the  "  Pays,  in  1850. 
A  dissension  arose  between  him  and  Lamartme  on  the 
subject  of  a  historical  study  on  Louis  Napoleon,  which 
the  former  published  in  the  "  Pays,"  and  which  increased 
his  reputation  as  a  brilliant  writer.  Me  was  elected  a 
deputy  in  1852,  and  appointed  a  councillor  of  state  in 
1854  His  pamphlet  entitled  "Napoleon  TH.  and  Eng- 
land" (1858)  produced  a  great  sensation  on  both  sides 
of  the  Channel.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  "  Consti- 
tutionncl."     Died  December  23,  187 S- 

Laguerre,  iS-gaiR',  (Jean,  commonly  called  Jack,) 
an  English  musician,  painter,  and  engraver,  born  in 
London  in  1700.  He  was  the  son  of  Louis  Laguerre,  a 
French  painter  who  settled  in  England.     Died  in  1748. 

Laguerre  or  La  Guerre,  irgaia',  (Louis,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Brun.  He  went 
to  England  about  16S4,  and  worked  with  or  for  Verrio. 
He  painted  "The  Labours  of  Hercules"  in  Hampton 
Court  Palace.     Died  in  1721. 

La  Guiche  or  Laguiclie,  de,  deh  It  gJsh,  (Philt- 
BERT,)  a  French  general,  born  about  1540.  He  refused  to 
execute  the  order  of  the  court  for  the  massacre  of  Prot- 
estants in  1572.  He  commanded  the  artillery  at  Ivry, 
and  contributed  largely  to  the  victory.     Died  in  1607. 

His  nephew,  Jean  FRANgois,  born  in  1569,  was  a 
marshal  of  France.     Died  in  1632. 

Laguille,  It'g^I'  or  It'ge'ye,  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Autun  in  1658,  wrote  an  "Ancient  and  Modern 
History  of  Alsace,"  (2  vols,  folio,  1727.)     Died  in  1742. 

Laguna,  la-goo'nl,  or  Lacuna,  la-koo'nil,  (Andres,) 
a  learned  Spanish  physician,  born  at  Segovia  in  1499. 
He  obtained  the  confidence  of  Charles  V.,  who  appointed 
him  physician  of  the  army  in  Flanders.  He  practised 
in  Metz,  (1540-46,)  and  in'Rome,  where  he  was  patron- 
ized by  the  pope,  who  made  him  a  count.  He  died  in 
Spain  in  1560,  leaving  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  Commentaries  on  Galen  and  Hippocrates,  and 
*'Anatomica  Methodus,"  (1535.) 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotliecu  Hispana  Nova." 

Laharpe  or  La  Harpe,  It'/^SRp',  (Fk6d6ric  CiSsar,) 
a  Swiss  officer  and  republican,  born  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud 
in  1754.  He  was  for  some  years  preceptor  of  Ale.xander, 
afterwards  Czar  of  Russia,  and  about  1 798  became  the 
chief  or  most  powerful  director  of  the  Helvetic  Republic. 
He  went  out  of  power  in  1800.  Li  1814  he  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Alexander,  who  was  in  Paris  and  gave  him  the 
rank  of  general  in  his  army.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  Swiss  politics.     Died  in  1838. 

See  Charles  Monnard,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  le  Geii^rni 
F.  C.  de  Laharpe,"  1838  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

La  Harpe  or  Laharpe,  de,  deh  iSV/tap',  (Jean 
Franqois,)  a  celebrated  French  critic  and  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739,  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Harcourt.  He  produced  in  1763  the  tragedy  of  "  War 
wick,"  which  was  very  successful,  and  wrote  to  Voltaire  a 
letter  on  the  dramatic  art  which  procured  him  the  favour 
and  patronage  of  that  philosopher.  He  composed,  be- 
-sides  other  dramas,  the  applauded  tragedies  of  "  Me- 
lanie,"  (about  1770,)  and  "  Philoct^te."  His  talents 
found  a  congenial  employment  in  academic  competitions. 
He  wrote  admirable  eulogies  on  Fenelon,  Henry  IV., 
Lafontaine,  and  others,  and  he  received  several  prizes 
from  the  French  Academy,  of  which  he  was  chosen  a 
member  in  1776.  About  1786  he  began  to  lecture  at 
the  Lycee  of  Paris  on  literature.  These  lectures,  en- 
titled "Cours  de  Litterature,  ancienne  et  moderne,"  (18 
vols.,)  constitute  his  most  durable  title  to  fame.  His 
criticisms  on  French  authors  are  much  better  than  those 
on  the  ancient  classics.  "The  seventeenth  century," says 
Sainte-Beuve,  "in  some  of  its  parts  and  some  of  its 
works,  was  never  better  analyzed,"  [than  by  La  Harpe.] 
At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  he  was  a 
republican.  He  was  imprisoned  a  few  months  during 
the  reign  of  terror.     Died  in  1803. 

See  Sainte-Beuvb,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.;  L^ON 
Thiess^,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Laharpe,"  1837; 
Melv-Janin,  "Vie  de  J.  F.  de  La  Harpe,"  1813  ;  Daunou,  "  Notice 
sur  La  Harpe;"  Saint-Surin,  "Notice  sur  La  Harpe,"  1S22; 
Auger,  "Vie  de  La  Harpe,"  1813;  Serievs,  "J.  F.  de  La  Harpe, 
peint  par  lui-meme,"  1817. 


€  as  /6  •  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis. 

93 


La  Haye,  (French  engraver.)     See  Delahaye. 

Lahire  or  Lahyre,  \i'/ihK',  (£tienne  Vignoles— 
vin'yol',)  a  famous  French  captain  or  bandit.  He  per- 
formed many  exploits  against  the  English  in  France  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  vIL  He  never  obtained  a  verj 
high  rank  in  the  army.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt  to 
rescue  Joan  of  Arc  at  Rouen,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but 
soon  escaped.     Died  in  1442. 

La  Hire  or  Lahyre,  de,  deh  It'hh'ef,  (Laurent,)  an 
eminent  French  painter  and  engraver  of  merit,  born  in 
Paris  in  1606.  He  adorned  many  of  the  churches  of 
Paris  with  his  works,  among  wtiich  the  "Apparition  of 
Christ  to  the  Three  Marys"  is  called  the  master-piece. 
His  easel-pictures  are  very  finely  finished.  He  received 
the  title  of  painter  to  the  king,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Academy.     Died  in  1656. 

Lahire,  de,  (Philippe,)  a  French  geometer,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1640.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1678,  and  was  employed 
by  the  government  in  continuing  the  measurement  of  the 
meridian  commenced  by  Picard.  For  many  years  he  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  of  France.  He 
was  also  versed  in  experimental  physics.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Conic  Sections,"  (1685,)  a  "Treat- 
ise on  Mechanics,"  (1695,)  ^"<^  "Astronomical  Tables," 
(1702.)     Died  in  1718  or  1719. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  filoge  de  Lahire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^uerale." 

La  Hontan,  de,  deh  It  dN'tSN',  (Armand  Louis  db 
Dei.ondak6e,)  Baron,  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Mont- 
de-Marsan  about  1667.  He  was  a  private  soldier  in 
North  America,  1683-93,  and  published  three  volumes 
of  "Nouveaux  Voyages  dans  I'Amerique,"  (1703-04,) 
which  are  untrustworthy.     Died  at  Hanover  in  1715. 

La  Huerta.     See  Huerta. 

Lahyre.     See  La  Hire. 

Laid'la-w,  (William,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  1760. 
died  in  1845. 

Laignelot,  lin'yeh-lo',  (Joseph  Franqois,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  Jacobin,  born  at  Versailles  in  1750,  com- 
posed a  tragedy  called  "Rienzi."  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Convention  from  1792  to  1795,  and  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king.     Died  in  1829. 

Laine,  li'ni',  (Joseph  Henri  Joachim,)  Vicomte, 
an  eminent  French  orator  and  statesman,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1767.  He  acquired  distinction  as  an  advocate 
at  Bordeaux,  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revo- 
lution, and  was  for  several  years  under  the  empire  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body.  In  1813,  as  chairman 
of  a  committee  of  that  house,  he  made  an  important 
report  on  the  state  of  the  nation,  which  gave  great  offence 
to  Napoleon.  Having  become  a  royalist,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1814  and  in 
181 5.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  and 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior  in  1816.  He  retired 
from  office  in  December,  1818,  became  secretary  of  state 
without  a  portfolio  in  1821,  and  was  created  a  peer  of 
France  in  1823.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  mode- 
rate royalists.  Died  in  1835.  "  M.  Laine  and  De  Serres," 
says  Lamartine,  "  were  the  two  greatest  characters  and 
the  two  most  pathetic  orators  of  the  restoration." 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie G^n^rale." 

Lainez,  li'ni',  (  Alexandre,  )  a  French  poet  and 
linguist,  born  at  Chimay  about  1650.  After  travelling 
several  years  in  Europe  and  Asia,  he  became  a  resident 
of  Paris.  He  was  courted  by  the  great  for  his  brilliant 
conversation  and  extensive  knowledge,  and  composed 
brief  poetical  effusions,  which  were  admired  for  grace 
and  vivacity.     Died  in  1710. 

Lainez  or  Laynez,  IT-n&th',  sometimes  improperly 
written  Leynez,  (Jago  or  Diego,)  the  second  general 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  born  in  Castile,  Spain,  in 
1 512.  About  1536  he  was  associated  with  Ignatius  Loy- 
ola in  organizing  the  society  of  Jesuits.  (See  Loyola.) 
He  was  deputed  by  the  pope  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
where  he  signalized  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the 
court  of  Rome.  In  1558  he  succeeded  Loyola  as  gen- 
eral of  the  order.  The  Council  of  Trent  having  re- 
sumed its  session,  he  made  there  a  famous  speech,  in 
which  he  argued  the  necessity  of  a  supreme  head  of 

(^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAING 


1474 


LALAMANT 


the  Church.  Died  in  1565.  The  polity  of  the  Jesuits 
appears  to  have  been  mainly  the  product  of  the  intelli- 
gence and  subtlety  of  Lainez. 

See  RiUADBNEiRA,  "  Vidadel  P.  V.  D.  Laynez,"  1604  ;  F.  Soi.ier, 
"Vic  du  P.  J.  Laynez,"  1599;  F.  Rainaldi,  "Vita  di  J.  Laynez," 
Rome,  1672. 

Laing,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  minor  puet,  born  at 
Brechin,  May  14,  1787.  He  was  a  flax-dresser  by  trade. 
He  published  "  VVayside  Flowers,"  and  many  songs. 
Died  October  14,  1S57. 

Laing,  lang,  (Alexander  Gordon,)  Major,  a  resolute 
Scottish  traveller,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1793,  enlisted  in 
the  army  in  1810.  In  1822  the  Governor  of  Sierra  Leone 
sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  Mandingo  country.  He 
also  explored  Solimana  and  adjacent  regions.  In  1824 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major,  and  was  employed 
by  Lord  Bathurst  to  explore  the  Niger.  Proceeding 
from  the  north,  he  arrived  in  August,  1826,  at  Timbuctoo, 
after  having  been  wounded  by  the  Tuariks.  On  his  way 
to  Sansanding  he  was  murdered  by  his  guide,  an  Arab 
sheik,  in  September,  1826.  His  journal  has  not  been 
recovered. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen. 

Laing,  (David,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  antiquary  and  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Edinburgh  in  1793.  He  was  the  original 
secretary  of  the  liannatyne  Club,  founded  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  for  the  printing  of  rare  books  on  Scottish  history 
and  literature,  and  edited  many  of  its  publications.  He 
devoted  much  attention  to  the  old  Scottish  ballads  and 
other  antiquarian  matters,  and  brought  to  light  many 
interesting  documents.  He  edited  the  works  of  John 
Knox,  David  Lyndsay,  William  Dunbar,  and  Robert 
Henryson,  enriching  them  with  many  valuable  annota- 
tions.    Died  October  11,  1878. 

Laing,  (Malcolm,)  an  able  Scottish  historian  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Orkney  in  1762.  He  practised  law  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1785. 
In  1800  he  published  a  "  History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Union  of  the  Crowns  [1603]  to  the  Union  of  the  King- 
doms in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne,"  which  is  a  work 
of  merit  and  remarkable  for  critical  acumen,  but  defect- 
ive in  style.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  authenticity 
of  Ossian's  poems,  and  a  few  other  works.  He  became 
a  member  of  Parliament,  and  he  was  a  friend  of  Charles 
J.  Fo.x.  His  political  principles  were  liberal.  Died  in 
t8i8. 

Laing,  (Samuel,)  a  British  lawyer  and  politician,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  1810. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1852,  and 
was  president  of  the  company  which  owned  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  from  1850  to  1854.  He  was  finan- 
cial secretary  to  the  treasury  in  1859  and  i860,  and  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  India  in  the 
latter  year.    In  1873  he  was  again  elected  to  Parliament. 

Lair,  ISr,  (Pierre  Aim6,)  a  French  writer  on  agricul- 
ture, born  at  Caen  in  1769,  was  noted  for  his  Ijeneficence. 
Died  in  1853. 

Laire,  ISr,  (FRANgois  Xavier,)  an  eminent  French 
bibliographer  and  monk,  born  at  Vadans  in  1738.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolution  he  saved  valuable  historical  documents 
from  destruction.  He  published  a  "  Series  of  Aldine 
Editions,"  a  "  Specimen  of  Roman  Typography  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century,"  an  "  Index  of  Books  from  the  In- 
vention of  Printing  to  the  Year  1500,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1801. 

Laire,  ll'reh,  (Sigismond,)  a  German  painter,  born  in 
IVvaria  about  1550 ;  died  in  Rome  in  1636. 

Lairesse,  li'ress',  (Gerard,)  a  skilful  Flemish  his- 
torical painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Liege  in  1640,  was 
a  pupil  of  his  father.  He  settled  in  Amsterdam.  His 
facility  as  an  artist  was  remarkable.  He  had  a  rich 
imagination,  and  was  skilful  in  costume  and  composi- 
tion. His  engravings  are  much  esteemed.  He  died  in 
171 1,  leaving  an  able  "Treatise  on  Painting." 

La'is,  [Aoff,]  a  celebrated  Greek  courtesan,  lived  at 
Corinth  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  was  notorious  for  her 
avidity  and  caprice.  Among  her  lovers  was  the  phi- 
loeopher  Aristippus.  The  citizens  of  Corinth  erected  a 
monument  to  her.  Another  courtesan  of  that  name  was 
supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Sicily.  She  lived  at 
Athens  or  Corinth  about  400  B.C. 


Ln-118,  [Gr.  Autof,]  a  king  of  Thebes,  and  the  father 
ofGtdipus.  An  oracle  having  declared  that  he  should 
be  killed  by  his  own  son,  he  exposed  his  son  soon  after 
birth  on  Mount  Cithajron.  The  child  was  preserved  by 
strangers,  was  named  OEdipus,  and  remained  ignorant 
of  his  parentage.     (See  CEdipus.) 

Lajard,  li'zhiR',  (Jean  Baptiste  F6lix,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Lyons  in  1783,  went  to  Persia  as  sec- 
retary of  embassy  in  1807.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1830.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Researches  into  the  Public  Worship  and  the  Mysteries 
of  Mithra  in  the  East  and  West,"  (1848.)  He  pro- 
pounded a  novel  theory  on  the  relations  of  the  Greeks 
with  the  Oriental  races,  which  has  since  been  partially 
confirmed.     Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 

Lajard,  de,  deh  It'zhiR',  (Pierre  Augusts,)  an  able 
French  statesman,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1757,  was 
minister  of  war  in  1792.  During  the  empire  he  was  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body.     Died  in  1837. 

Lajeunesse,  (Marie  Emma.)     See  Albani. 

La  Jonchere,  de,  deh  It  zhiN'shaiR',  (Etienne  L6- 
CUYEK,)  a  French  engineer,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1690. 
He  projected  the  connection  of  the  Saone  and  the  Yonne 
by  a  canal,  the  construction  of  which,  however,  was  given 
to  another  engineer.     Died  aboiit  1740. 

Lakanal,  It'kt'ntK,  (Joseph,)  a  French  republican, 
born  at  Serres  (Ariege)  in  1762.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95,)  he  protected  the  interests  of  the 
arts  and  sciences.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
organization  of  the  Institute,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
In  1814  he  retired  to  the  United  States,  was  welcomed 
by  Jefferson,  and  obtained  from  Congress  five  hundred 
acres  of  cotton-land.  He  was  afterwards  president  of 
the  University  of  Louisiana,  and  returned  to  France  in 
1833.     Died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

Lake,  (Arthur,)  a  learned  English  preacher,  born  at 
Southampton,  was  appointed  Dean  of  Worcester  in  1608, 
and  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1616.  Died  in  1626. 
Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 

Lake,  (Gerard,)  Viscount  Lake,  a  British  general, 
was  born  in  1744.  Having  served  in  the  American  wai 
and  in  the  war  against  the  French  republic,  he  was  ap 
pointed  commander  of  the  army  in  Ireland  during  the 
rebellion  which  began  in  1797,  and  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Castlebar.  In  1800  he  obtained  the  chief 
command  in  India,  and  in  1803  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Mahrattas  near  Delhi.  He  defeated  them  again  the 
same  year  at  Laswarree.  Between  1804  and  1806  he 
waged  a  successful  war  against  Holkar,  and  received 
the  title  of  Baron  Lake  of  Delhi,  etc.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1807,  and  was  created  a  viscount.  Died  in 
1808. 

Lake,  (John,)  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1624,  became 
Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1685.  He  was  imprisoned,  m 
company  with  six  other  prelates,  in  the  Tower  of  London 
in  1688.     Died  in  1698. 

See  Agnes  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops." 

Laksh'nii,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  liiksh'mee ;  ety- 
mology obscure,]  called  also  Sri,*  suee,  or  Sliri,  shRee, 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  goddess  of  wealth,  and  the 
consort  of  Vishnu,  is  fabled  to  have  sprung  from  the 
churning  of  the  ocean.  (See  KOrma.)  There  is  a  striking 
analogy  between  the  origin  of  Lakshmi  and  that  of  the 
Venus  (Aphrodite)  Anadyomene  of  the  Greeks,  who 
also  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea. 
(See  Venus.)  But  Lakshmi,  though  represented  as 
extremely  beautiful,  is  not,  like  Venus,  the  patroness  of 
love,  but  the  goddess  of  wealth  and  prosperity.  She  is 
represented  with  four  arms  and  arrayed  with  the  most 
beautiful  ornaments  and  gems.  She  is  sometimes  called 
Padma,  {irova.  pddtna,  the  "lotus,")  in  allusion,  perhaps, 
to  her  divine  beauty,  and  by  many  other  names.  She  is 
sometimes  identified  with  the  beautiful  Apsara  Rambha 
(or  Rembha.) 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Lalamant  or  Lallemant,  Itl'mftN',  (Jean,)  a  French 
physician  and  scholar,  who  lived  about  1550-90,  was  a 


*  I.e.  "  prosperity ;"  also  '"  beauty"  or  "  splendour." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  \i,  y,  /ou^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  §,  j,  9,  obscure;  tar,  fdll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


LALANDE 


M75 


LALLY 


native  jf  Autun.  He  produced,  besides  works  on  medi- 
cine, history,  etc.,  a  French  version  of  Demosthenes' 
"  Philippics,"  (1 549-) 

Lalande,  de,  d?h  li'lSwd',  (Jacques,)  a  meritorious 
French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1622.  He  published 
"Specimen  Juris  Romano-Gallici  ad  Pandectas,"  (1690.) 
Died  in  1703. 

Iialande,  de,  (Joseph  JfiKdME  LEFRANg.MS,)  one  of 
the  most  eminent  French  astronomers,  was  born  at 
Bourg  (Ain)  in  July,  1732,  and  was  the  only  child  of 
Pierre  Lefranfais.  He  manifested  at  an  early  age  the 
love  of  fame  which  was  his  ruling  passion.  He  was  a 
student  in  a  college  of  Lyons  when  the  great  eclipse  of 
July,  1748,  inspired  him  with  a  determination  to  be  an 
astronomer.  Having  been  sent  by  his  parents  to  Paris 
to  study  law,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Messier  and 
Lemonnier  on  astronomy  and  mathematics,  and  became 
the  favourite  pupil  of  both  professors.  The  Academy 
having  resolved  to  send  an  astronomer  to  Berlin  to 
make  observations  and  to  second  La  Caille,  who  was 
stationed  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Lalande  was 
selected  in  1751,  through  the  influence  of  Lemonnier. 
Returning  in  1752,  his  labours  were  approved,  and  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
his  twentieth  year.  He  next  ascertained  the  diameter 
of  the  moon,  and  began  to  work  on  the  theory  of  the 
planets,  which  became  one  of  the  most  constant  occu- 
pations of  his  life.  He  assisted  Clairaut  in  computing 
the  effect  of  planetary  perturbations  on  the  return  of 
llalley's  comet  about  1759. 

He  was  chosen  in  1760  editor  of  the  "Connaissances 
lies  Temps,"  in  the  plan  of  which  he  introduced  impor- 
tant improvements,  and  succeeded  Delisle  as  professor 
of  astronomy  in  the  College  of  France  in  1762.  For 
forty-six  years  he  discharged  the  functions  of  this  place 
with  great  zeal  and  eclat.  In  1764  he  published  his  great 
"Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  ("Traite  d'Astronomie,")  in 
which  the  theory  and  practical  part  of  the  science  are 
extensively  treated.  He  produced  in  1772  a  "Memoir 
on  the  Transit  of  Venus  of  1769,"  and  a  year  later  a 
speculation  on  the  possibility  of  a  collision  of  comets 
with  the  earth,  which  caused  a  panic  among  the  un- 
learned, although  he  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
such  a  collision  was  very  improbable.  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "  Encyclopedie  Methodique"  and  the 
"Journal  des  Savants,"  and  published  "The  History, 
Theory,  and  Practice  of  Navigation,"  ("  Abrege  de  Na- 
vigation,'' etc.,  1793.)  Among  his  o;her  works  are 
"Astronomical  Bibliography,"  (1803,)  "  Histoire  celeste 
Fran^aise,"  (1801,)  containing  the  observations  of  many 
French  astronomers,  and  "  Memoirs  on  the  Parallax  of 
the  Moon."  He  died  in  1807.  "Though  in  many  re-  1 
spects  only  an  astronomer  of  the  second  order,"  says 
Delambre,  "  he  was  the  foremost  of  all  as  a  professor, 
and  did  more  than  any  other  to  promote  the  study  of  | 
the  science."  His  temper  was  irritable,  but  candid  and  [ 
benevolent. 

See  Dei.ambre,  "  £loge  de  Lalande  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Lalande,  de,  (Michel  Jean  J6r6me  LEFRANgAis,) 
an  astronomer,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Normandy  in  1766.     Under  the  direction  of  his  uncle  he  : 
made  observations  in  Paris,  and  ascertained  the  theory  | 
of  the  orbit  of  Mars.     He  became  a  member  of  the  \\\- 
stitute  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes.     Died  in  1839, 

Lalande,  de,  (Michel  Richard,)  a  French  com 
poser,  born  in  Paris  in  1657,  became  superintendent  of 
music  of  Louis  XIV.  about  1683.  He  composed  many 
motets.  "  He  was,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "  the  most  skilful 
French  composer  of  religious  music  of  his  time."  Died 
in  1726. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

La  Landelle  or  Lalandelle,  de,  deh  It  ISN'oei', 
(Guillaume  Joseph  Gabriel,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1812,  wrote  "The  Naval  Crown,"  (9 
vols.,  1848,)  and  other  maritime  novels. 

Lalanne,  It'lin',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  didactic 
poet,  born  at  Dax  in  1772. 

Lalanne,  (L60N  Louis  Chretien,)  a  French  civil 
engineer  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1811. 

Ledanne,  (Marie  Ludovic  Chretien,)  a  French 


writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1815, 
Among  his  works  is  "Curiosites  litteraires,"  (1845.) 

Lallemand,  Itl'mSN',  (Charles  FRANgois  An- 
TOiNE,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  called  Lallemand 
A1N16,  was  born  at  Metz  in  1774.  He  served  in  Spain, 
where  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  (181 1.) 
During  the  Hundred  Days  he  joined  Bonaparte,  and 
commanded  a  division  at  Waterloo.  As  a  fugitive,  he 
sought  refuge  in  the  United  States,  and  attempted  to 
found  a  colony  in  Texas  about  1818,  but  failed.  In  1830 
he  returned  to  France,  was  restored  to  the  rank  of  gene- 
ral, and  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers.     Died  in  1839. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lallemand,  (Claude  Francois,)  an  eminent  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1790.  He  was  professor 
of  clinical  surgery  at  Montpellier  from  1819  to  1823,  and 
again  from  1826  to  1845.  ^'^  '^^  latter  year  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
settled  in  Paris.  He  wrote,  besides  other  medical  treat- 
ises, an  important  work  entitled  "Anatomico-Pathologic 
Researches  on  the  Brain,"  (5  vols.,  1820-36,)  which  was 
translated  into  many  languages.  He  was  once  called  to 
Egypt  to  attend  Ibraheem  Pasha.  Died  in  1854. 
See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteiaire." 
Lallemand,  (Henri  Dominique,)  born  in  1777,  was 
a  brother  of  Charles  Fran9ois  Antoine,  noticed  above, 
and  a  brave  jjartisan  of  Napoleon,  who  made  him  general 
of  division  in  the  Hundred  Days.  He  fought  at  Water- 
loo, (1815,)  after  which  he  went  as  an  exile  to  the  United 
States.     Died  at  Bordentown  in  1823. 

Lallemand,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter  of 
landscapes  and  sea-views,  born  at  Dijon  in  17 10,  worked 
some  years  in  Rome,  and  painted  several  pieces  for  the 
Vatican.     Died  in  1802. 

Ij'AlleTaand,  lSrm6N',  (SiEGMUND,)an  eminent  Aus- 
trian painter  of  battle-pieces,  born  at  Vienna,  March  8, 
1840.  He  was  a  soldier,  and  afterwards  he  devoted 
himself  with  great  success  to  his  specialty. 

Lallemandet,  Itl'mSN'di',  (Jean,)  a  theologian,  born 
at  Besangon  in  1595,  wrote  "Philosophical  Decisions," 
("  Decisiones    Philosophicae,"  1644,)   and   other  works. 
Died  in  1647. 
Lalleniant.     See  Lalamant. 

Lallemant,  IJtl'mfiN',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  near  Abbeville  about  1660.  He  published 
a  remarkable  work,  entitled  "The  True  Spirit  of  the 
New  Disciples  of  Saint  Augustine,"  (4  vols.,  1706  et 
seq.,)  and  "  Moral  Reflections,  with  Notes,  on  the  New 
Testament,"  (11  vols.,  1714.)     Died  in  1748. 

Lallemant,  (Pierre,)  a  mystical  French  writer,  born 
at  Rheims  in  1622,  published  "  The  Spiritual  Testament," 
(1672,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1673. 

Lalli,  Idl'lee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  diplomatist,  born  at  Norcia,  in  Umbria,  in  1572, 
was  employed  in  several  negotiations  by  the  courts  of 
Rome  and  of  Parma.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
by  his  epic  poem  "Titus  Vespasian,  or  the  Destruction 
of  Jerusalem,"  ("II  Tito  Vespasiano,  overo  La  Geru- 
salemme  Desolata,"  1629.)  He  also  produced  some 
popular  burlesque  poems,  among  which  is  "The  ^neid 
Travestied,"  (1633.)     Died  in  1637. 

Lallu  Lai,  lul'loo  lai,  (called  also  Sri  Lallu  LAl  and 
Lallu  Lal  Kavi,)  a  Brahman  prose  author  of  the  present 
century.  He  was  educated  at  Fort  William  College, 
Calcutta.  His  writings  are  in  the  Hindee  dialects,  and 
are  of  high  importance.  They  include  "  Prem  Sagar," 
(1804-10,)  a  history  of  Krishna,  and  "  Rajniti,"  (1S09,) 
the  latter  a  translation  of  the  "  Hitopadesa"  and  of  a 
part  of  the  "  Panchatantra"  into  the  old  or  poetic  Hindee. 
His  works  are  extremely  popular  in  Northern  India. 

Lally,  de,  deh  IS'le',  (Thomas  Arthur,)  Count, 
Baron  of  Tollendal,  in  Ireland,  a  French  general,  of 
Irish  descent,  born  in  Dauphine  about  1700.  For  his 
conduct  at  Fontenoy,  in  1745,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general.  He  fought  for  the  Pretender  in  Scotland  in 
the  same  year.  In  1756,  while  France  was  at  war  with 
England,  he  was  appointed  commandant-general  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India,  commissary  of  the  king, 
and  syndic  of  the  French  East  India  Company.  He 
took  Fort  Saint  David  in  1758,  and  attacked   Madras 


e  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  K.  s^ttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  t/iis.     (Jt^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LALL  Y  TOLLENDAL 


1476 


LA  MAR  TINE 


without  success.  His  plans  were  thwarted  by  the  cor- 
rupt agents  of  the  company.  Ir.  1761  he  surrendered 
Pondicherry  to  Sir  E.  Coote,  and  was  taken  as  prisoner 
to  England.  After  having  been  imprisoned  for  four  years 
in  the  Bastille,  he  was  e.\ecuted  for  treason  in  1766.  In 
1778  the  royal  council  annulled  iiis  sentence,  the  injustice 
f  of  which  was  generally  recognized. 

See  Voltaire,  "Siede  de  Louis  XV." 

Lally-Tollendal,  de,  deh  iS'le'  to'lSN'dSK,  (Tro- 
PHIME  G^KARD,)  Marquis,  a  French  orator  and  writer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1 751.  He 
devoted  many  years  to  the  successful  vindication  of  his 
father's  memory.  In  1789  he  was  deputed  by  the  no- 
blesse to  the  States-General,  and  was  one  of  the  minority 
of  his  order  who  united  with  the  Tiers-fitat  and  favoured 
reform.  He  emigrated  to  England  in  1792,  and  returned 
to  France  in  1800.  In  1S15  he  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Peers,  where  he  showed  himself  a  moderate  royalist.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1816.  He  died 
in  1830,  leaving  many  political  treatises. 

See  Qut^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

La  Louge  or  Laloiige,  It  16Nzh,  (Hubert  or  Ro- 
bert,) called  II  Fiammingo,  (i.e.  "the  Fleming,")  a 
skilful  painter,  born  at  Brussels,  lived  mostly  in  Italy. 
Died  in  1709. 

La  Loubere.     See  LouBfeRE,  La. 

La  Luzerne.     See  Luzerne,  La. 

Lama,  Id'ma,  (Giovanni  Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  was  born  about  1510. 
He  i>ainted  religious  subjects  and  portraits  with  success. 
Died  about  1580. 

Lani'a-ehus,  [\afiaxoi,\  an  Athenian  general,  born 
about  470  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Xenophanes,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Plutarch,  was  a  man  of  great  courage  and  honour. 
In  415  Nicias,  Alcibiades,  and  Lamachus  were  chosen 
generals  of  the  expedition  against  Syracuse.  The  people 
having  recalled  Alcibiades,  Nicias  had  the  principal 
direction  of  the  enterprise,  though  Lamachus  was  the 
abler  general.     He  was  killed  at  Syracuse  in  414  B.C. 

Lamalle.     See  Dureau. 

Lamanon,  de,  deh  li'mt'n6N',  (Robert  de  Paul,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Salon  in  1752. 
He  lived  some  years  in  Paris,  wrote  memoirs  on  fossil 
bones,  etc.,  and  accompanied  the  expedition  of  La 
Perouse  as  naturalist  in  1785.  He  was  murdered  by 
some  natives  of  one  of  the  Navigator  Islands  in  1787. 

La-mar',  (Lucius  Quintus  Cincinnatus,)  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  a  son  of  a  distinguished  citizen  of  the 
same  name,  was  born  in  Putnam  county,  Georgia,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1825.  He  graduated  at  Emory  College  in 
1845,  and  in  1847  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Mississippi,  1856-60,  served 
in  the  Confederate  army,  1S61-63,  and  was  in  1863  sent 
as  commissioner  to  Russia.  He  held  professorships  in 
the  University  of  Mississippi,  1866-72,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress,  1S72-76.  He  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1876  and  in  1882.  In  1885  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  interior. 

La-mar^  (Mirabeau  B.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Louisville,  Georgia,  in  1798.  He  removed  in 
1835  to  Texas,  and  was  elected  first  Vice-President  in 
1S36,  and  in  1838  President  of  the  republic.  Died  at 
Richmond,  Texas,  December  19,  1859. 

Lamarche  or  La  Marche,  1$  mitRsh,  (Joseph 
Drouot,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Vosges  in  1733. 
At  the  death  of  Dampierre  (1793)  the  chief  command 
devolved  on  Lamarche,  until  he  was  superseded  by 
Custine  in  July,  1793.     Died  about  1800. 

La  Marche,  (Olivier.)     See  Marche,  La. 

La  Marck,  (Robert.)     See  Marck,  La. 

Lamarck  or  La  Marck,  de,  deh  It  mtRk,  (Jean 
Bakfiste  Pierre  Antoine  de  Monet,)  Chevalier,  a 
celebrated  French  naturalist,  born  in  Picardy,  August 
I,  1744.  He  was  educated  for  the  church  at  a  college  of 
Amiens,  but  entered  the  army  in  1761  and  fought  in  one 
campaign  with  distinction.  Having  been  disabled  for 
action  by  an  accidental  injury,  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  studied  medicine,  whicli,  however,  he  did  not  prac- 
tise. He  devoted  himself  to  botany,  in  the  classification 
of  which    he    made    some    innovations,  and    published 


in  1778  "Flore  Fran9aise."  ("French  Flora,")  which 
opened  to  him  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Taking  the 
most  general  conformations  as  the  point  of  departure, 
proceeding  by  a  dichotomic  jjath,  and  presenting  at 
each  s\.t\>  a  choice  between  two  opposite  characters  it 
was  found  a  convenient  guide.  Having  received  a  com- 
mission as  botanist  to  the  king,  he  was  employed  in 
botanical  researches  in  Holland  and  Germany',  from 
which  he  returned  in  17S2.  He  extended  his  reputation 
by  the  article  Botany  in  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique." 
(about  1783.)  In  1788  he  became  an  assistant  of  the 
director  of  the  Jardin  du  Koi,  which  was  reorganized  in 
1793,  under  the  name  of  the  "Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory." Lamarck  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  in 
that  institution.  His  sagacious  and  zealous  researches 
and  writings  in  the  department  of  invertebrata  (which 
devolved  on  him  because  the  other  professors  deemed 
them  beneath  their  notice)  constitute  his  principal  title 
to  celebrity,  and  raise  him  to  the  rank  of  a  legislator  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  In  1809  he  propounded,  in  his 
"  Philosophic  zoologique,"  several  novel  or  absurd  hy- 
potheses on  the  production  of  animals, — as  the  theory 
of  metamorphosis  or  progressive  development,  and  that 
of  spontaneous  generation.  His  capital  work,  entitled 
"Natural  History  of  Invertebrate  Animals,"  ("  His- 
toire  naturelle  des  Animaux  sans  Vertebres,"  7  vols., 
1815-22,)  ranks  among  the  noblest  monuments  of  human 
science.  He  had  published  an  outline  of  the  same  in 
1801.     Died  in  1829. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Lamarck;"  Geoffrov  SAiNT-HiLArRE, 
"Discours  prononcd  sur  la  Tombe  de  Lamarck;"  "Nouvelle  Bio" 
graphie  Generale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixv.,  1811  et  seq., 
(Appendix.) 

Lamare-Picquot,  It'mtR^  pe'ko',  (N.,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Bayeux  about  1785,  travelled  in  the 
East  Indies,  from  which  he  brought  specimens  of  zoology 
of  eight  hundred  and  fifty-five  species.  Between  1841 
and  1848  he  explored  North  America. 

La  Marmora.     See  Marmora,  della. 

Lamarque,  It'mtRk',  (Franqois,)  a  French  regicide, 
born  in  Perigord  about  1755,  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
vention in  1792.  He  was  one  of  the  four  deputies  who 
attempted  to  arrest  Dumouriez  at  the  head  of  his  army 
in  1793,  and  who  were  by  him  delivered  to  the  Austrians. 
Died  in  1839. 

Lamarque,  (Maximilien,)  an  able  French  general 
and  orator,  born  at  Saint-Sever  (Landes)  in  1770.  He 
served  as  a  general  of  brigade  at  Austerlitz  in  1805, 
obtained  command  of  a  division  in  1807,  and  took  Capraea 
from  the  English  in  1808.  At  the  battle  of  Wagram,  in 
1809,  his  courage  was  conspicuous.  He  joined  the 
standard  of  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba,  and 
commanded  with  success  in  several  actions  against  the 
Vendeans  in  1815.  In  1828  he  became  a  liberal  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Died  in  1832.  A  bloody 
conflict  occurred  between  the  troops  and  the  populace 
at  his  funeral  in  Paris. 

See  Louis  Blanc,  "Histoire  de  dix  Ans ;"  "M^moires  et  Sou 
venirs  du  General  Lamarque,"  published  by  his  family,  3  vols.,  1835- 
36;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

La  Martelliere  or  Lamartelliere,  It  mtR'ti'le-aiR', 
(Jean  Henri  Ferdinand,)  a  French  dramatic  author, 
born  at  Ferrette  in  1761  ;  died  in  1830. 

Lamartine,  de,  deh  It'mtR'tin',  (Alphonse,)  a 
French  poet,  orator,  and  historian  of  great  celebrity,  was 
born  at  Macon,  on  the  Saone,  on  the  2ist  of  October, 
1792.  His  father  served  for  a  short  time  in  the  army 
as  captain  or  major,  and  was  imprisoned  as  a  royalist 
in  the  Revolution.  His  mother's  name  was  Alix  des 
Roys.  The  name  of  De  Prat  has  been  erroneously  given 
to  the  subject  of  this  article  by  some  biographers.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  of  Belley,  which  he  left 
about  1809,  and  afterwards  passed  some  time  at  home, 
where  he  read  and  admired  Dante,  Petrarch,  Shakspeare, 
Milton,  and  Ossian.  In  1811-12  he  visited  Rome  and 
Naples.  He  entered  the  life-guards  of  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1814,  and  when  his  company  was  disbanded  on  the  re- 
turn of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  he  retired  into  Switzerland, 
where  he  remained  during  the  Hundred  Days.  In  1820 
he  published  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  "  Meditations 
poetiques,"  which  excited  general  admiration,  and  of 
which  45,000  copies  were  sold  in  four  years.  This  volume 


i,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  ooscurc;  tar,  till,  lat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAMARTTNE 


1477 


LAMB 


contained  "The  Lake,"  ("  Le  Lac,")  a  beautiful  elegy, 
(composed  in  1S17,)  in  which  he  expresses  the  contrast 
between  the  permanence  of  nature  and  the  instability  of 
human  affairs.  Lamartine  was  appointed  in  1820  secre- 
tary of  legation  at  Florence,  (or,  as  one  writer  says,  at 
Naples,)  and  married  an  English  heiress  named  Eliza 
Marianna  Birch.  His  "  Nouvelles  Meditations  poetiques" 
appeared  in  1823.  He  was  charge-d'affaires  at  Florence 
for  several  years,  ending  in  1829,  and  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1830.  He  professed  devotion  to  the 
church  and  the  throne  in  his  "  Harmonies  poetiques  et 
religieuses,"  ( 1 830,)  wiiich  are  considered  by  some  critics 
as  his  best  productions. 

After  the  Revolution  of  1830  he  adopted  more  liberal 
political  principles,  and  resolved  to  make  a  change  in  his 
pursuits.  He  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  election 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  was  defeated.  In  1832, 
accompanied  by  his  wife  and  daughter  Julia,  he  visited 
Palestine,  the  favourite  scene  of  his  youthful  reveries  and 
aspirations,  travelling  like  a  prince  in  a  vessel  which  he 
had  chartered.  His  daughter  Julia  died  at  Beyroot.  He 
returned  in  the  autumn  of  1833,  and  published,  in  prose, 
"Souvenirs,  Impressions,  Pensees  et  Paysages  pendant 
un  Voyage  en  Orient,"  (3  vols.,  1835,)  the  English  ver- 
sion of  which  is  entitled  "A  Pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land."  During  his  absence  he  had  been  elected  by  the 
voters  of  Bergues  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which 
he  maintained  a  position  independent  of  party,  but  spoke 
often  with  success  on  questions  of  social  and  political 
philosophy.  He  displayed  a  marvellous  affluence  of 
pure  sentiments  and  beautiful  images  in  his  poem  of 
"  Jocelyn,"  (1836,)  announced  or  designed  as  an  episode 
of  a  great  poem  on  the  progressive  phases  of  humanity. 
He  became  the  representative  of  Macon  in  the  Chambei 
in  1837,  and  was  classed  for  some  years  among  the 
"  progressive  conservatives ;"  but  he  censured  the  im- 
mobility of  Guizot's  policy,  and  in  1843  became  a  deter- 
mined opponent  of  the  ministry  and  conservative  party. 
The  public  were  greatly  surprised  by  the  avowal  of 
democratic  princi])les  and  sympathies  which  he  made  in 
his  eloquent  and  brilliant  "  History  of  the  Girondists," 
(8  vols.,  1847,)  which  had  an  important  political  influ- 
ence as  a  cause  of  the  Revolution  of  1848.  He  is  cen- 
sured for  inaccuracy  as  a  historian,  and  for  his  imitation 
of  a  habit  of  many  ancient  writers  who  ascribe  to  historical 
persons  Imaginary  speeches.  "This  work,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1848,  "brings  before 
us  that  most  stirring  and  important  period  with  a  clear- 
ness and  vividness  that  all  previous  descriptions,  except 
nome  of  Carlyle's,  have  failed  to  realize:  it  presents  us 
on  the  same  page  with  distinct,  highly-finished  sketches 
of  the  principal  actors.  ...  M.  de  Lamartine  seems  to 
us,  on  the  whole,  to  have  brought  to  the  consideration 
of  the  Revolution  a  more  candid  spirit  and  more  whole- 
some sympathies  than  any  preceding  writer."  He  kept 
himself  aloof  from  the  reform  banquets  of  1847,  ^•'"^  took 
no  part  in  the  first  two  days  of  the  ensuing  revolution. 
On  the  24th  of  February  he  entered  the  Chamber,  and, 
rejecting  the  claims  of  the  falling  dynasty,  advocated 
the  formation  of  a  provisional  government.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  the  government  formed  in  that  momentous  crisis, 
he  assumed  the  functions  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
He  became  at  once  the  master-spirit  and  moderator  of 
the  Revolution,  and  repressed  the  spirit  of  anarchy  and 
homicide  by  memorable  demonstrations  of  eloquence, 
courage,  and  magnanimity.  His  harangue  to  the  se- 
ditious and  infuriated  bands  who  demanded  the  red  flag 
instead  of  the  tricoloured  (February  25)  was  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  triumphs  of  eloquence  recorded  in 
history.  He  addressed  a  pacific  manifesto  to  Europe, 
(March  4,)  and  was  successful  in  averting  a  general  war. 
For  some  months  his  popularity  was  immense  among 
nearly  all  classes.  In  April  he  was  elected  by  ten  de- 
partments to  the  Constituent  Assembly  which  met  on 
the  5th  of  May.  He  was  the  fourth  on  the  list  of  the 
Executive  Commission  of  Five  chosen  by  the  Assembly 
on  the  loth  of  May.  The  decline  of  his  popularity 
shown  by  this  fact  is  ascribed  to  his  connection  or  col- 
lusion with  Ledru-Rollin, — a  collusion  which  he  com- 
pared to  that  of  the  lightning-rod  with  the  pernicious 
power  which  it  averts.     Lamartine  and  his  colleagues 


resigned  in  consequence  of  the  insurrection  of  June  22, 
which  they  were  unable  to  suppress. 

On  the  6th  of  October  he  made  a  remarkable  speech 
in  the  Assembly,  in  which  he  advocated  the  election  of 
president  by  the  people,  and  said,  "  If  the  republic  suc- 
ceeds, I  have  won  my  game  (partie)  against  destiny.  If 
it  fails,  either  in  anarchy  or  in  a  reminiscence  of  despot- 
ism, my  name,  my  responsibility,  and  my  memory  will 
fall  with  it."  He  also  expressed  his  foreboding  that  the 
result  of  the  popular  vote  would  not  accord  with  his  own 
choice.  At  the  election  of  president  in  December,  1848, 
he  received  only  about  8000  votes.  After  the  coup  d'etat 
of  December,  185 1,  he  took  no  ])art  in  political  affairs. 
He  published  in  1S49  ^  "  History  of  the  Revolution  of 
1848,"  (2  vols.,)  "  Les  Confidences,"  containing  memoirs 
of  his  early  life,  and  "  Raphael,  Pages  de  la  vingtieme 
Annee."  Among  his  later  works  are  a  "  History  of  the 
Restoration,"  (7  vols.,  1851-52,)  "  Histoire  des  Cons- 
tituents," (4  vols.,  1854,)  and  a  "  History  of  Turkey," 
(Svols.,  1855.)  Many  of  his  works  have  been  translated 
into  nearly  all  European  languages.  His  neglect  of 
economy  and  his  expensive  habits  involved  him,  many 
years  ago,  in  pecuniary  embarrassments,  which  his  great 
literary  industry  and  success  failed  to  relieve.  His  friends 
in  1858  opened  a  national  subscription  in  his  favour  ;  but 
the  results  of  this  appeal  to  the  public  gratitude  were 
not  very  satisfactory.  Died  in  February,  1869.  "There 
is  in  the  most  imperfect  sketches  of  Lamartine,"  says  an 
anonymous  French  critic,  "  a  grand  current  of  inspira- 
tion which  im])arts  to  each  passion  and  idea  its  appro- 
])riate  life  and  lustre.  God  and  man,  society  and  nature, 
religion  and  politics,  all  objects  of  thought  and  senti- 
ment, contribute  to  this  resplendent  focus  of  universal 
poetry." 

See  Charles  Robi.m,  "  Biographie  de  Lamartine,"  1848;  Cha- 
puvs  MoNTLAViLLE,  "  Vie  de  Lamartine;"  Lomkn'IE,  "  Galerie  des 
C'ontemporains  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Portraits  contemporains,"  tome 
i.  ;  LuRiNE,  "  Histoire  de  A.  de  Lamartine,"  1S48  ;  Longkei-LoW; 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  E.  Frensdokip,  "Lamartine," 
Berlin,  184S;  Cokmenin,  "Lamartine  et  le  Gouvernement  provi- 
soire,"  1.S4S  ;  A.  de  Lamartine,  "Trois  Moisaii  Pouvoir,"  (and  Eng- 
lish version  of  the  same,  entitled  "  Three  Months  in  Power:  a  Hi<to-v 
and  a  Vindication  ;")  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835,  and  March, 
1852;  "Edinburgh  Review"  lor  January,  1848,  and  January,  1850; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1844,  and  September,  1847  ; 
"  Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1836  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  August,  1849. 

La  Martiniere.     See  MARTiNifeRE,  de  la. 

Lamb,  lam,  (Lady  Caroline,)  an  English  authoress, 
daughter  of  Frederick  Ponsonby,  Earl  of  Besborough,  was 
born  in  1785.  She  was  married  in  1805  to  William  Lamb, 
afterwards  Lord  Melbourne.  Her  romances,  entitled 
"  Glenarvon,"  "  Graham  Hamilton,",  and  "Ada  Reis," 
procured  her  some  literary  reputation.  Her  friendship 
or  love  for  Lord  Byron  attracted  much  attention,  and 
gave  rise  to  some  scandal.     Died  in  1828. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1822;  Madame  Guic- 
cioi.i,  "Recollections  of  Lord  Byron,"  pp.  loo-ioi  et  seq. 

Lamb,  (Charles,)  a  popi^lar  English  essayist  and 
humorist,  was  born  in  London  in  February,  1775,  and 
was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital,  where  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Coleridge.  In  1792  he  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company  as  clerk  in  the  India 
House,  London.  He  began  his  literary  career  with  a 
small  volume  of  poems  published  in  1798  in  connection 
with  some  verses  of  Coleridge  and  Lloyd.  After  the 
faithful  performance  of  his  irksome  duties  at  the  desk 
for  thirty-three  years,  he  retired  in  1825,  with  a  pension 
of  £iAl.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  prose 
works,  especially  the  "Essays  of  Elia,"  (1830.)  His 
exquisite  taste  and  critical  sagacity  are  manifested  ir 
his  "  Essays  on  the  Tragedies  of  Shakspeare,"  and  other 
works.  His  character  was  amiably  eccentric,  abounding 
in  whims  and  quaint  humours,  and  most  of  his  writings 
are  strongly  expressive  of  his  mental  individuality.  He 
remained  unmarried,  and  lived  with  his  sister  Mary,  who 
in  a  fit  of  insanity  killed  her  mother  about  1796.  She 
was  restored  to  a  sound  mind,  and  found  an  aff'ectionate 
guardian  in  her  brother  until   his  death  in  1834. 

See  T.  N.  Talfourd,  "  Life  of  Charles  Lamb  ;"  Bryan  W. 
Procter,  "  Charles  Lamb:  a  Memoir,"  1S66;  De  Quincev,  "Lite- 
rary Reminiscences,"  vol.  i.  ;  Perc\'  Fitzgerald,  "Charles  Lamb 
and  his  F'riends;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1837  ;  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  August,  iSiS,  and  August,  1849;  "British 
Ouarterly  Review"  for  April,  1867. 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,^ttnral;  N,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2i^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAMB 


1478 


LAMBERT 


Lamb,  (George,)  an  English  author,  born  in  1784, 
was  a  younger  son  of  the  first  Lord  Melbourne,  and  a 
brother  of  prime-minister  Lord  Melbourne.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Whigs  in  1818,  and  was 
several  times  re-elected.  He  contributed  to  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review."  of  which,  said  Byron,  "Jeffrey  and  Lamb 
were  the  Alpha  and  Omega,"  and  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Catullus.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  under- 
secretary of  the  home  department.     Died  in  1834. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Lamb,  (Sir  James  Bland  Burges,)  an  English  poli- 
tician and  writer,  born  at  Gibraltar  in  17^2  ;  died  in  1824. 

Lamb,  (Mary,)  a  sister  of  Charles  Lamb,  was  born 
in  London  in  1765.  She  was  subject  to  attacks  of  terrible 
insanity,  although  ordinarily  her  disposition  was  remark- 
ably calm  and  sweet.  She  died  May  20,  1847.  With 
her  brother,  she  wrote  "Tales  from  Shakspeare,"  (1807,) 
and  "Mrs.  Leicester's  School,"  (1808,)  besides  poems 
and  other  pieces  first  published  collectively  in  1S74. 

Lamb,  (William.)     See  Melbourne,  Lord. 

Lamballe,  de,  deh  ISN'btK,  (Maria  Th^rese  Louise 
de  Savoie  -  Carignan  —  deh  sS'vwS'  kt'r^n'y6N', ) 
Princess,  born  at  Turin  in  1749,  was  a  member  of  the 
royal  family  of  Sardinia,  and  distinguished  for  beauty 
and  virtue.  In  1767  she  became  the  wife  of  the  Prince 
of  Lamballe,  (the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Penthievre,)  and  one 
year  later  was  left  a  widow.  She  was  a  favourite  attendant 
of  Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  whose  danger  and  adverse 
fortune  she  shared  during  the  Revolution.  Having  been 
imprisoned  in  La  Force,  she  was  massacred,  with  cir- 
cumstances of  great  atrocity,  in  September,  1792. 

See  "  Memoires  de  la  Princesse  de  Lamballe,"  par  Madame 
Gurnard,  4  vols.,  1801 ;  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Lara^barde,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  antiquary,  was  born  in  London  in  1536.  He  be- 
came a  master  in  chancery  in  1592,  keeper  of  the  rolls 
in  1597,  and  keeper  of  the  records  of  the  Tower  in 
1600.  He  published  a  work  on  old  Saxon  laws,  entitled 
"  Archaionomia,"  (1568,)  "The  Perambulation  of  Kent," 
and  "Eirenarcha;  or,  The  Office  of  the  Justices  of  the 
Peace."  He  founded  a  hospital  for  the  poor  at  Green- 
wich.    Died  in  1601. 

See  Nichols,  "  Life  of  Lambarde." 

Lamb'din,  (George  C.,)  an  American  artist,  born  in 
Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  January  6,  1832.  His  father 
was  a  portrait-painter.  The  younger  Lambdin  studied 
art  in  Munich,  Paris,  and  Italy.  In  early  life  he  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  and  in  1868  to  New  York,  returning  to 
Philadelphia  after  some  years.  His  specialties  are  por- 
traits, especially  of  young  girls,  and  flower-pieces.  His 
pictures  of  roses  are  especially  noteworthy.  He  is  one 
of  the  professors  in  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  De- 
sign, and  in  1S6S  was  made  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy. 

Lambeccius  or  Lambecius.     See  Lambeck. 

Lambeck,  ISm'bek,  [I^at.  Lambec'cius  or  Lambe'- 
cius,]  (Peter,)  an  eminent  German  bibliographer,  born 
at  Hamburg,  April  13,  1628.  He  became  professor  of 
history  in  his  native  place  in  1652,  and  librarian  of  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  at  Vienna,  about  1662.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "History  of  Hamburg,"  (1652,)  and  "A 
Catalogue  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,"  ("Com- 
mentaria  de  Augusta  Bibliotheca  Cassarea  Vindobo- 
nensi,"  8  vols.,  1665-79,)  said  to  be  the  most  extensive 
ever  compiled.     Died  in  Vienna  in  1680. 

See  "  Leben  des  Petri  Lambeccii,"  Hambure,  1724. 

Lamberg,  von,  fon  Hm'b^RG,  (Joseph  Maximilian,) 
Count,  a  learned  and  ingenious  German  writer,  born 
at  Briinn,  Moravia,  in  1729,  corresponded  with  Voltaire 
and  Hume.  He  published  (in  French)  an  "Essav  on 
the  Impossible,"  (1764,)  and  "Memoriel  d'un  Mond'ain," 
("Memorial  of  a  Worldling,"  1775.)     Died  in  1792. 

Lam'bert,  the  son  of  Gui,  Duke  of  Spoleto,  Emperor 
and  King  of  Italy,  succeeded  his  father  at  an  early 
age,  in  894  A.D.  His  rivals  Berenger  and  Arnulf  were 
masters  of  parts  of  Italy.  He  took  Milan  in  895,  and 
was  killed  by  falling  from  a  horse  in  89S. 

Lam'bert,  (Aylmer  Bourkk,)  an  English  botanist, 
born  in  1762,  contributed  memoirs  to  the  "Linnasan 
Transactions,"  and   was    a   liberal    patron  of  scientific 


men.     His  herbarium  was  one  of  the  finest  in  England. 
Died  in  1842. 

Lambert,  IfiN^baiR',  (Charles  Joseph,)  called  Lam- 
bert Bey,  a  French  engineer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in 
1804.  About  1832  he  entered  the  service  of  Mehemet 
AH  of  Egypt,  and  became  director  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  and  the  Observatory  of  Boolak.     Died  in  1864. 

Lambert,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French  compiler, 
born  at  Dole,  lived  in  Paris.  He  published  numerous 
mediocre  works,  among  which  was  a  "History  of  all 
Nations,"  (15  vols.,  1750.)     Died  in  1765. 

Lambert,  (Daniel,)  a  famous  giant,  born  at  Leices- 
ter, England,  in  1770.  He  was  five  feet  eleven  inches  in 
height,  and  at  twenty-three  years  of  age  weighed  four 
hundred  and  forty-eight  pounds.  He  was  also  remark- 
able for  his  strength,  and  performed  wonderful  feats  as 
a  swimmer  and  pedestrian.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
(1809)  he  weighed  seven  hundred  and  thirty-nine  pounds. 

Lambert,  [Lat.  Lamber'tus,]  (Francois,)  a  French 
Protestant  Reformer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1487,  became  a 
monk  in  early  youth.  Having  embraced  the  Reformed  re- 
ligion, he  fled  to  Switzerland  in  1522,  assumed  the  name 
of  Johannes  Serranus,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Marburg  in  1527.  He  published  com- 
mentaries on  the  Bible,  and  other  works.  He  contributed 
greatly  to  the  propagation  of  the  Reformed  doctrines  in 
Thuringia  and  Hesse.  His  system  of  theology  is  ex- 
plained in  his  "Farrago  of  almost  all  Theological  Mat- 
ters," ("  Farrago  Omnium  fere  Rerum  Theologicarum.") 
Died  in  1530. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Johann  W. 
Baum,  "  F.  Lambert  von  Avignon  nach  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1S40 
Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 

Lambert,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Kent  about  17 10.  He  painted  land- 
scapes in  the  manner  of  Gaspard  Poussin,  and  had  a 
great  talent  for  etching.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Beefsteak  Club.     Died  in  1765. 

Lambert,  IJm'b^Rt,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  profound 
and  original  philosopher  and  matheinatician,  was  born  of  a 
French  Protestant  family  at  Miilhouse,  Alsace,  in  August, 
1728.  From  1748  to  1759  he  was  preceptor  to  the  sons 
of  Count  de  Salis.  About  1763  he  became  a  resident 
of  Berlin  and  a  pensioned  member  of  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  civil 
affairs,  with  the  title  of  councillor.  He  cultivated  with 
great  success  mathematics  and  astronomy,  on  which  he 
wrote  many  treatises,  and  he  demonstrated  the  incom- 
mensurability of  the  circumference  and  diameter  of  a 
circle.  His  "  Cosmological  Letters"  (1761)  attracted 
much  attention.  He  produced,  in  German,  a  celebrated 
work  on  dialectics  entitled  "Novum  Organon,"  (1763,) 
and  "  Photometria,  sive  de  Gradibus  Luminis,"  ("On 
the  Degrees  of  Light,"  etc.)  He  belonged  to  the  Prot- 
estant church.     Died  in  Berlin  in  1777. 

See  Matthias  Graf,  "  J.  H.  Lamberts  Leben,"  1829;  Formev, 
"  filoge  de  Lambert ;"  Daniel  Huber,  "J.  H.  Lambert  nacliseincra 
Leben  undWirken,"  1829:  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie." 

Lambert,  (John,)  a  prominent  English  republican 
general,  born  about  1620,  was  a  favourite  of  the  Inde- 
pendents. He  entered  the  army  of  the  Parliament,  fought 
as  colonel  at  Marston  Moor  in  1644,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  first  civil  war  had  obtained  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  second  in  command  under  Cromwell  in  Scotland 
in  1649,  and  led  the  van  at  Dunbar  in  1651.  In  1653  he 
made  the  proposition  that  the  title  of  Protector  should 
be  given  to  Cromwell.  "  Lambert,  his  creature,"  says 
Hume,  "  who,  under  an  appearance  of  obsequiousness 
to  him,  indulged  an  unbounded  ambition,  proposed  to 
temper  the  liberty  of  a  commonwealth  by  the  authority 
of  a  single  person'"  After  the  death  of  Oliver  he  plotted 
against  Richard  Cromwell  in  1659,  and  commanded  the 
army  in  opposition  to  the  Parliament  until  the  triumph 
of  the  royalists  under  Monk.  In  1662  he  was  condemned 
to  death  ;  but  this  penalty  was  commuted  to  banishment 
in  Guernsey,  where  he  siirvived  thirty  years. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Granger,  "Biographical 
History  of  England." 

Lambert,(JosEPH,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  moralist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1654,  became  prior  of  Saint-Martin-de- 
Palaiseau.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Evangelical 
Year,  or  Homilies  on  the  Gospels,"  (7  vols.,  1693-97,) 


a,  e.  '\,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/tori;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  ikf,  fdil,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moun; 


LAMBERT 


1479 


LAMENNAIS 


and  "  Instruction  respecting  the  Creed,"  (Symbole,)  (2 
vols.,  1728;  9th  edition,  1830.)     Died  in  1722. 

Lambert,  lim'bert,  (Jossk,)  a  Flemish  printer  and 
engraver,  lived  at  Ghent,  and  died  in  1556  or  1557. 

Lambert,  (Michel,)  a  French  musician,  born  near 
Poitiers  in  1610,  was  patronized  by  Richelieu  and  praised 
by  Boileau.  His  songs  and  cantatas  were  greatly  ad- 
mired.    Died  in  1696. 

Lambert,  (N.,)  a  French  dramatist,  lived  about  1650 
Among  his  works  is  a  drama  in  verse,  called  "Magic 
witho'jt  Magic,"  ("La  Magie  sans  Magic,"  1668.) 

Lambert,  Saint.     See  Saint  Lambert. 

Lambert,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Maestricht,  was  assassin- 
ated in  70S  by  order  of  Alpheide,  mother  of  Charles 
Martel,  for  having  censured  her  profligacy. 

Lambert,  de,  deh  ISw'baiR',  (Anne  Th^rj^se  de 
Marguenat  de  Coiircelles — mtRg'nt'  deh  kooR'sSl',) 
Marquise,  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1647, 
was  the  wife  of  General  Henri  Lambert,  noticed  below. 
She  was  a  friend  of  Fenelon  and  Fontenelle.  She  wrote 
"Treatises  on  Friendship,  Taste,  and  Riches,"  (1732,) 
"Advice  of  a  Mother  to  her  Daughter,"  (1734,)  and 
other  works,  commended  for  purity  of  style  and  of  morals. 
Died  in  1733. 

Her  son,  Henri  Francois,  (1677-1754,)  became  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1720. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  Eloge  de  la  Marquise  de  Laniberl,"  prefixed 
to  her  " CEuvres  completes,"  1767;  Sainte-Bhuve,  "Causeries  du 
Lundi,"  tome  iv. 

Lam.bert,  de,  (Henri,)  Marquis  de  Saint-Bris,  a 
French  general,  born  in  163 1  ;  died  in  1686. 

Lambert  le  Chaiioine,  IdN'baik'  leh  sht'nw^n',  a 
learned  compiler,  produced  a  book  called  "Liber  Flori- 
dus."     Died  at  Saint  Omer  in  1125. 

Lambert  von  Aschaffenburg,  lini'bSRt  fon  i-shiif'- 
fen-booRC',  a  German  historical  writer,  born  about  1020, 
was  author  of  well-written  "Annals"  published  in  1525. 
Died  about  1080. 

Lamberti,  lim-b§R'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Venice  in  1757;  died  in  1832. 

Lamberti,  (Bonaventura,)  an  Italian  painter,  borii 
at  Carpi  in  165 1,  was  a  pupil,  and  one  of  the  best  imi- 
tators, of  Cignani.     He  worked  in  Rome.     Died  in  1721. 

Lamberti,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  born  at 
Reggio  about  1758.  In  1797  he  became  a  member  of 
the  grand  council  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  and  in  the 
next  year  a  member  of  the  Directory  of  the  same.  He 
was  afterwards  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  of 
Milan,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Italian  Institute.  His 
most  important  work  was  a  beautiful  edition  of  Homer, 
(3  vols.,  1808.)  He  published  an  ode  to  Napoleon,  and 
other  mediocre  poems.     Died  iniSi3. 

Lambertini,  ldm-b§R-tee'nee,  (Michele,)  a  painter 
of  the  Bolognese  school,  lived  from  1426  to  1469.  He 
painted  a  celebrated  Madonna  in  fresco  at  Bologna. 

Lambertini,  (Prospero.)     Se-  Benedict  XIV. 

Lambertus.     See  Lambert,  (Francjois.) 

Lambilotte,  IfiN'be'lot',  ( Pere  Louis,)  a  French 
composer,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1797.  His  fugues,  motets, 
etc.  had  great  success.  The  "  Restoration  of  the  Gre- 
gorian Chant"  is  called  his  master-piece.     Died  in  1855. 

Lambin,  ISN'biN',  [Lat.  Lambi'nus,]  (Denis,)  a 
learned  French  professor  and  classical  scholar,  born  at 
Montreuil-sur-Mer,  in  Picardy,  about  15 16.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Paris  in  1561.  He  published  esteemed  editions  of 
Cicero,  Horace,  (1561,)  and  Lucretius,  (1563,)  and  Latin 
versions  of  Demosthenes  and  Aristotle,  (in  part.)  He 
died  of  grief  for  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1572. 

See  Ghilini,  "  Teatro  degli  Uomiui  illustri ;"  Teissier,  "  Eloges 
des  Hommes  savantes." 

Lambinet,  IdN'be'ni',  (Emile,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Versailles  in  1819.     Died  in  1877. 

Lambinet,  (Pierre,)  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
near  Mezi^res  in  1742,  wrote  "Researches  into  the  Ori- 
gin of  Printing,"  (1798.)     Died  in  1813. 

Lambinus.     See  Lambin. 

Lamblardie,  lox'bllR'de',  (Jacques  Elie,)  a  French 
engineer,  born  at  Loches,  in  Touraine,  in  1747.  He  wrote 
an  able  "  Memoir  on  the  Coasts  of  Upper  Normandy  in 
Relation  to  the  Collection  of  Shingle,"  ( Galet,)  (1789.) 


He  was  the  first  director  of  the  "Ecole  centrale  des 
Travaux  publics,"  the  name  of  which  was  changed  to 
Polytechnic  School  in  1795.     Died  in  1797. 

Lam'brun,  (Margaret,)  a  Scottish  woman,  whose 
/,eal  for  the  cause  of  Mary  Stuart  induced  her  to  make 
an  attempt  against  the  life  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Hei 
pistol  having  dropped  from  her  hand  when  she  was 
about  to  fire,  her  design  was  frustrated,  and  she  wa? 
pardoned. 

Lambruschini,  1  Jm-bRoos-kee'nee.  (Luigi,)  an  Ital- 
ian cardinal,  born  at  Genoa  in  1776.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs  by  Gregory  XVI.  In  1846 
he  obtained  more  votes  for  pope  in  the  first  scrutiny 
than  any  other  candidate,  but  was  not  elected.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  Pius  the  Ninth's  council  of  state  in 
1846,  and  fled  from  Roine  during  the  short  triumph  of 
the  popular  cause  in  1848.     Died  in  1854. 

Lambton,  (John  George.)  See  Durham,  Earl  of. 

Lambton,  lam'ton,  (William,)  Lieutenant-Colo» 
NEL,  an  English  officer,  who  acquired  distinction  by  his 
astronomical  and  geodesic  labours  in  Hindostan,  was 
born  about  1748.  He  was  employed  by  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley  about  1801  to  direct  the  trigonometrical  sur- 
veys which  were  designed  to  connect,  by'  a  series  of  tri- 
angles, the  eastern  with  the  western  coast  of  India.  By 
the  assiduous  labour  of  more  than  twenty  years,  he  had 
extended  his  operations  from  the  Carnatic  to  Ellichpoor, 
and  measured  an  arc  of  the  meridian  12"  in  extent.  He 
died  in  India,  of  fever,  in  1823.  The  Records  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  contain  several  Memoirs  on  the  opera- 
tions above  mentioned. 

Lame,  ll'mk',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  geometer  and 
engineer,  born  at  Tours  in  1795,  became  professor  oi 
physics  at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  about  1833, 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  able  "  Treatise 
on  Physics,"  (3  vols.,  1836,)  "Lessons  on  the  Inverse 
Functions  of  Transcendents,"  etc.,  ("  Le9ons  snr  les 
Fonctions  inverses  des  Transcendantes,"  etc.,)  and 
"  Lectures  on  the  Mathematical  Theory  of  the  Elasticity 
of  Solid  Bodies,"  (1852.)  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Institute.      Died  atJParis,  May  i,  1870. 

La'meeh,  [Heb.  ID/,]  the  son  of  Methusaleh,  and 
the  father  of  Noah,  died  five  years  before  the  Flood, 
aged  seven  hundred  and  seventy-seven  years.  Another 
Lamech,  a  descendant  of  Cain,  is  the  first  patriarch 
mentioned  in  Scripture  as  having  more  than  one  wife. 

See  Genesis  iv.,  v. 

La  Meilleraie  or  Meilleraye.  See  Meilleraie,  La. 

Lamennais  or  La  Mennais,  de,  deh  It  mi'ni', 
(Hugues  F6licit6  Robert,)  Abb^,  a  celebrated  P'rench 
writer  on  religion  and  politics,  was  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
June,  1782.  He  was  educated  at  home,  where  he  learned 
Greek,  Latin,  etc.  without  a  teacher.  Having  received 
the  tonsure  in  181 1,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  at  Rennes 
m  1816,  and  acquired  sudden  celebrity  by  the  publication 
of  his  eloquent  "Essay  on  Indifference  to  Religion," 
("  Essai  sur  ITndifference  en  Matiere  de  Religion,"  4 
vols.,  1817-23,)  in  which  he  appeared  as  an  orthodox 
champion  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  1824  he  visited 
Rome,  and  declined  the  offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat  from 
Leo  XII.  He  published  in  1825  "Religion  considered 
in  its  Relations  with  the  Civil  and  Political  Order," 
which  favoured  the  ultramontane  doctrines.  Before  the 
revolution  of  1830  his  mind  had  made  great  progress 
towards  liberal  or  democratic  principles,  without  depart- 
ing from  his  religious  faith.  In  that  year  he  founded  the 
"Avenir,"a  journal  which,  in  bold  and  fervent  words, 
advocated  religious  and  political  reforms.  Lacordaire 
was  his  disciple  and  coadjutor  in  this  journal,  which  was 
condemned  by  the  pope  in  1832  and  suppressed.  He 
announced  in  1834  his  final  revolt  from  the  Church  of 
Rome,  in  his  "  Words  of  a  Believer,"  ("  Paroles  d'un 
Croyant,")  which  is  one  of  his  most  important  and 
powerful  productions  and  was  stigmatized  by  the  pope 
as  "small  in  volume  but  iinmense  in  perversity."  A 
great  outburst  of  enthusiasm  and  indignation  followed  the 
publication  of  this  work.  He  became  ultra-deinocratic, 
and  wrote  several  political  works,  among  which  were 
"The  Affairs  of  Rome,"  (1S36,)  and  "The  Book  of  the 
People,"  (1837.)  His  "Outlines  of  Philosophy"  ("Es- 
quisse  d'une  Philosophie,"  1840-46)  obtained  great  sue- 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  )i^, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAMENNAIS 


1480 


LAMOIGNON 


cess.  In  1840  he  was  sentenced  for  one  of  his  writings 
to  an  imprisonment  of  one  3'ear.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1848.  Died  in  1854.  His  com- 
plete works  appeared  in  12  vols.  8vo,  1837. 

See  E.  Renan,  "  Lamennais  et  ?es  Ecrits,"  in  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,"  August,  1S57;  SAiNTE-l'>ii;uvK,  "  Portraits  cnnteni- 
porains,"  1846,  vol.  i.  ;  E.  Robinet,  "  fitudes  sur  I'AIjW  de  La- 
mennais,"  1S35:  Maijroi.i.h,  "  Histoire  secrete  dii  Partie  et  de 
I'Apostasie  de  M.  de  Lamennais,"  1S43:  L.  de  UoMit.viE,  "  M.  de 
Lamennais,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1840;  "  Noiivelle  Biograj^hia 
G^n^rale ;"  "  Koreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838;  "  West 
minster  Review"  for  April,  1859. 

Lamennais,  de,  (Jean  Marie  Rohrrt,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Saint-Malo  about  1775,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  several  religious  works,  and 
became  canon  of  the  diocese  of  Rennes.     Died  in  i860. 

La  Mesnardiere,  de,  deh  IS  m.VnaR'de-aiR',  (Hippo- 
LYTF.  Jui.es  Filet,)  a  mediocre  French  poet,  born  at 
Loudun  in  1610;  died  in  1663. 

Laniet,  de,  deh  lS'niy,(  Adiue.n  Augustin  de  Bussy,) 
a  French  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  in  1621.  He 
wrote  "  Solutions  of  Many  Cases  of  Conscience,"  (1714.) 
Died  in  1691. 

Lameth,  de,  deh  la'mi',  (Alexandre,)  Count,  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  In  1789  he 
was  one  of  the  deputies  of  the  noblesse  who  united  with 
the  Third  Estate  to  form  the  National  Assembly,  and  he 
acted  the  part  of  a  zealous  patriot  in  that  body.  After 
the  death  of  Mirabeau,  (1791,)  Barnave  and  the  Lameths 
were  for  a  short  time  among  the  master-spirits  of  the 
.\ssembly.  He  co-operated  with  his  brother  and  La 
Fayette  in  their  efforts  to  defend  the  constitution  and  the 
king  alter  his  arrest  at  Varennes.  He  was  a  general  in 
La  Fayette's  army  when  the  crisis  of  August  10,  1792, 
compelled  him  to  fly  with  his  general,  and  both  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  Lameth  recovered  his 
liberty  in  1795,  '^'^^  returned  to  France  in  1800.  In  1820 
he  acted  and  voted  with  La  Fayette  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)     Died  in  1829. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Qu^rard, 
"La  France  Litteraire ;"  '"Nouvelle  Biograjiliie  Generale." 

Lameth,  de,  (Charles  Malo  F^ranqois,)  Count, 
a  French  politician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1757.  He  served  at  Yorktown,  Virginia, 
in  1781.  In  17S9  he  was  elected  to  the  States-General, 
in  which  he  acted  with  the  popular  party.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  Barnave,  and  asj^ired  to  be  a  rival  of 
Mirabeau.  Changing  his  course  in  1791,  he  became  the 
friend  of  the  king,  and  resisted  the  progress  of  the  Revo- 
lution to  extreme  issues.  He  emigrated  about  1793,  and 
returned  home  in  1801.  Under  the  regime  of  Napoleon 
he  was  a  general  of  brigade.     Died  in  1832. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gcnerale." 

Lameth,  de,  (Theodore,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,' 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1756.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
marechal-de-camp  in  1791,  and  was  in  that  year  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted  with 
the  constitutional  royalists.  He  defended  the  king  and 
queen  by  his  voice  with  courage  and  energy,  and  was  an 
cxiie  from  1792  to  1800.     Died  in  1854 

La  Metherie,  de,  deh  It  mi'tRe',  (Jean  Claude,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  in  Maconnais  in  1743.  He  pub- 
lished "  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (2  vols., 
1787,)  "Considerations  on  Organized  Beings,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  "Lectures  on  Geology,"  (3  vols.,  1816,)  and  other 
works.  He  became  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  the 
College  of  France  in  1812.     Died  in  1817. 

La  Mettrie.     See  METfRiE,  La. 

Lamey,  la'mi,  (Andreas,)  a  German  historical  writer, 
born  at  MUnster  in  1726,  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
.\cademy  of  Mannheim.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Diplomatic  History  of  the  Counts  of  Ravensberg," 
(1779.)     Died  in  1802. 

Lami  or  Lamy,  iS'me',  (Bernard,)  a  learned  French 
jmest  of  the  Oratory,  born  at  Mans  in  1640.  He  taught 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Saunuir,  Angers,  and  other 
places,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Descartes.  He  published 
successful  works  on  religion  and  science,  among  which 
are  a  "  Treatise  on  Rhetoric,"  "  Elements  of  Geometry," 
(1685,)  "Apparatus   Biblicus,"  (1696,)  and  a  "Descrip- 


tion of  tne  Temple  and  Holy  City  of  Jerusalem,"  (in 

Latin,  1720.)     His  work  called  "  Conversations  on  the 

Sciences"   ("  Entretiens   sur   les    Sciences,"  1684)   was 

highly  esteemed  by  J.  J.  Rousseau.     Died  in  1715. 

See  I'ouiLi.iER,  "Histoire  du  Cartdsianisme;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gdn<5rale." 

Lami  or  Lamy,  (Dom  Francois,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  near  Chartres  in  1636.  He  passed 
his  last  twenty  years  in  the  abbey  of  Saint-Deni.s.  He 
was  noted  for  his  skill  and  alacrity  in  disputation,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  theoh^gical  works,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  "  On  the  Knowledge  of  One's 
Self,"  (6  vols.,  1694-98.)     Died  in  171 1. 

Lami,  li'mee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
litterateur  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Santa  Croce,  a 
village  between  Pisa  and  Florence,  in  1697.  He  was  a 
good  classical  scholar,  and  became  professor  of  eccle- 
siastical history  at  Florence  about  1732.  From  1740  to 
1770  he  edited  an  able  literary  periodical  named  "No« 
velle  Letterarie."  He  contributed  much  to  explain  or 
elucidate  the  civil  and  literary  history  of  Tuscany,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Delights  of  Learned 
Men,"  (Delicias  Eruditorum,"  18  vols.,  1736-69,)  and  the 
lives  of  many  eminent  Italian  literati,  "  Memorabilia 
Italorum  Eruditione  praestantium,"  (3  vols.,  1742-48  j 
Died  in  1770. 

See  his  Avitobiography  in  the  15th  volume  of  his  "Delicia;  Eru- 
ditorum;" FoNTANi,  "  Elogio  di  Lami,"  1789;  Fabroni,  "Vitae 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Lami,  (Pierre  R6mi  Crussolle,)  a  ¥re.\-\ch  litt^ratetir, 
born  in  Paris  in  1798;  died  in  1832. 

La'mi-a,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  renowned  for  wit 
and  profusion,  was  the  mistress  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
about  300  B.C. 

Lamiee,  la'm!-ee,  [Gr.  Ao/Jat ;  Fr.  Lamies,  It'me',] 
fabulous  monsters  of  classic  mythology,  sometimes  rep- 
resented as  having  tlie  head  and  breast  of  a  wornan  and 
the  body  of  a  ser|)eiit.  They  were  supposed  to  have  the 
power  of  changing  their  forms.  Accoiding  to  one  tradi- 
tion, there  was  a  queen  of  Libya  named  Lamia,  who  was 
notorious  for  her  cruelty  and  was  accustomed  to  murder 
children.  The  name  of  Lamia  was  used  to  frighten 
children  in  the  nurseries  of  antiquity. 

Lamies.     See  Lami/e. 

Lam'ington,  (Alexander  Dundas  Ross  Wisheart 
Baillie  Cochrane,)  Lord,  formerly  known  as  Baili.ie 
Cochrane,  an  English  author,  a  son  of  Sir  T.  J.  Coch- 
rane, already  noticed.  He  was  born  in  November,  i8i6, 
and  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
ijridge.  For  many  years  (1S41-S0)  he  was  a  Conserva- 
tive in  Parliament,  and  in  18S0  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage.  Among  his  works  are  "  Poeins,"  (183S,) 
"Ernest  Vane,"  (1849,)  "Florence,  the  l^eautiful," 
(1854,)  "Young  Italy,"  (1S65,)  "Francis  the  First,"  etc., 
(1870,)  "The  Theatre  Fran^ais  in  the  Reign  of  Louis 
XV.,"  (1879,)  etc.     Died  February  16,  1890. 

Lamlein  or  Laemlein,  Igm'lln,  (Alexander,)  a 
German  painter,  born  at  Hohenfeld,  Bavaria,  in  1813, 
became  a  citizen  of  Paris  in  his  youth.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Awaking  of  Adam,"  (1841,)  "The  Lad- 
der of  Jacob,"  (1847,)  and  portraits  for  the  palace  of 
Versailles.     Died  at  Pontlevoy,  April  25,  1871. 

Lamoignon,  de,  deh  la'mwan'y6N',  (Chretien 
Francois,)  a  French  magistrate,  eininent  for  his  integ- 
rity and  talents,  born  in  Paris  in  1644,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  President  Guillaume  de  Lamoignon.  He  was  chosen 
master  of  requests  about  1668.  For  twenty-five  years 
(1673-98)  he  performed  with  honour  the  duties  of  advo- 
cate-general to  the  Parliament.  He  was  made  president 
(J  morfier'm  1690.  He  was  intimate  with  Racine,  and 
with  Boileau,  who  addressed  to  him  his  Sixth  Epistle.  In 
1704  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions, after  declining  ■afaiiteuil  in  the  Academic  Fran 
false.     Died  in  1709. 

His  son  Guillaume,  Seigneur  de  Malesherbes,  born 
in  1683,  became  successively  advocate-general,  president 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  chancellor  of  France, 
(1750.)  He  inaintained  the  virtuous  reputation  of  his 
family,  and  died  in  1772,  leaving  a  son,  who  was  the 
eininent  Malesherbes. 

Lamoignon,  de,  (Chretien  Francois,)  a  French 
judge,  born  probably   in    Paris   in   1735.     He   became 


a,  e, 1, 6,  li,  y, long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t; good;  moon; 


LAMOIGNON 


1 48 1 


LA  MP  ETTA 


I 


president  <)  viortier  in  1758,  and  shared  the  exile  of  Par- 
liament in  1772.  He  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  seals 
in  17S7.     Died  in  1789. 

Lamoignon,  de,  (Guii.laume,)  an  eminent  judge, 
and  first  jjresident  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  was  born 
in  161 7.  His  father,  Chretien  de  I.amoignon  de  Kaville, 
was  a  highly  meritorious  magistrate.  Guillaume  became 
master  of  requests  in  1644,  and  first  president  of  the 
Parliament  in  1658.  In  announcing  his  nomination,  the 
king  said  to  him,  "  If  I  had  known  a  better  man,  I  should 
have  appointed  him."  He  received  much  praise  for  the 
part  he  took  in  relation  to  the  ordinances  of  1667  and 
1670,  and  in  several  instances  preferred  the  claims  of 
duty  to  the  favour  of  the  court.  He  laid  the  basis 
of  an  important  judiciary  reform  in  his  "Decisions," 
("Arrctes,")  printed  in  1702.     Died  in  1677. 

See  Gaili.ard,  "  Vie  de  Lamoignon,"  1782  ;  Flechier,  "  Funeral 
Oration;"  Saint- Simon,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gendrale." 

Lamoignon  de  BSville,  lt'mwSn''yAN'  deh  bS'v^l', 
(NicoL.'vs,)  the  fifth  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1648.  He  was  ai^pointed  master  of  requests  in  1673. 
Died  in  1724. 

Lamoignon-Malesherbes     See  Malksherbes. 

La  Monnoye.     See  Monnoik. 

Lamont,  von,  fon  IS'mont',  (Johann,)  an  astronomer, 
born  in  Braemar,  Scotland,  December  13,  1805,  was  edu- 
cated at  Ratisbon,  in  Germany,  and  became  a  monk.  In 
1S52  he  was  chosen  professor  of  astronomy  at  Munich. 
Died  August  6,  1879.  He  made  valuable  contributions 
to  astronomy  and  to  the  science  of  magnetism. 

Lanioriciere,  de,  deh  IS'mo're'se-aiR',  (Christophk 
Louis  L^on  Juchauit — zhU'sho',)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Nantes  in  1806.  He  gained  distinction  as  colonel 
of  zouaves  in  Algeria,  and  became  a  marechal-de-carnp 
in  1840.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in 
1843,  returned  to  France  in  1846,  and  was  elected  a 
deputy  in  1847.  In  the  Revolution  of  184S  he  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  support  the  Orleans  dynasty.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  in  the  fight  against  the 
insurgents  of  Paris  in  June,  1848.  He  was  Cavaignac's 
minister  of  war  about  six  months  ending  in  December, 
1848.  Having  shown  hostility  to  the  power  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  he  was  arrested  on  the  2d  of  December,  18=; i, 
and  confined  a  few  weeks  in  the  Castle  of  Ham.  He  be- 
came general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  pope  in  i860,  and 
was  defeated  by  the  Sardinians  at  Castelfidardo.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  soon  after  this  action.     Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gt^n^rale  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  February,  1S66. 

La  Mothe,  It  mot,  (N.,)  a  French  historian,  born 
about  16S0,  was  also  called  La  Hode.  He  wrote  "  His- 
tory of  the  Revolutions  of  France,"  (1738,)  and  a  "His- 
tory of  Louis  XIV.,"  (5  vols.,  1740.)    Died  about  1740. 

Lamothe,  de,  deh  It'mot',  (Pierre  Lamhert,)  a 
French  priest,  born  in  1624.  He  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Siam  about  1662,  and  died  there  in  1679. 

La  Mothe-Houdancoiirt,  de,  deh  IS  mot  hoo'dSN'- 
kooR',  (Philippe,)  Due  de  Cardone,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1605,  gained  successes  over  the  Spaniards,  and 
received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1642.  Having  been  de- 
feated at  Lerida  in  1644,  he  was  depii\cd  of  command. 
Died  in  1657. 

Lamothe- Langon,  de,  deh  lt'mot'16N'g6N',  (Eri- 
enne  L60N,)  Baron,  a  Yxt.x\z\\Utterateu7-,ho\\\  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1786.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  poems, 
historical  memoirs,  and  romances.     Died  in  1S64. 

La  Mothe  le  Vayer.     See  Mothe,  La. 

La  Motte.     See  Motte,  La. 

Lamotte,  iS'mot',  (Jeanne  de  Luz  de  Saint-R^my 
DE  Valois,)  Madame,  an  artful  Frenchwoman,  who 
acquired  notoriety  in  the  affair  of  the  "  Diamond  Neck- 
lace," was  born,  probably,  at  Bar-sur-Aube  about  1750. 
She  became  the  wife  of  a  person  who  styled  himself 
Count  Lamotte.  Having  practised  with  success  on  the 
credulity  of  Cardinal  Rohan,  she  induced  him  to  nego- 
tiate for  a  diamond  necklace  valued  at  about  a  million 
and  a  half  of  francs,  which  he  designed  as  a  present  to 
the  queen.  Her  husband  absconded  with  the  diamonds, 
which  she  had  obtained  by  fraud.  She  was  whipped 
and  imprisoned  for  this  offence,  and  died  in  179^- 


Lamotte-  (or  La  Motte-)  Fouqiie,  It'mot'  foo'ki', 
(Caroline,)  a  German  authoress,  wife  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Nennhausen  in  1773.  She  published  suc- 
ce.ssful  novels  entitled  " Feodora,"  "Lady  of  Falken- 
stein,"  and  "Ida,"  also  "Letters  on  Female  Education" 
and  "  Letters  on  Greek  Mythology,"  which  were  received 
with  favour.     Died  in  1S31. 

Lamotte-Fouque,  de,  deh  IJt'mot'  foo'ki',  (Fried- 
rich  Heinuich  Kari,,)  often  called  simply  Fouque, 
Baron,  a  German  ])oet  and  romance-writer  of  rare  genius, 
was  born  at  Brandenburg,  February  12,  1777.  He  was  a 
grandson  of  Henry  Augustus  Fouque.  (See  FoUQU^.) 
I  laving  served  in  several  great  battles  of  the  war  against 
Napoleon,  about  1813  he  retired  from  the  army  on  ac- 
count of  ill  health,  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  afterwards 
resided  in  Paris,  at  Halle,  and  on  his  estate  of  Nenn- 
hausen. He  found  a  congenial  sphere  for  his  fertile 
imagination  in  the  Northern  traditions  and  the  old  Ger- 
man poetry,  and  produced  many  beautiful  poems  and 
works  of  fiction,  among  which  are  "Undine,"*  a  tale, 
(1813,)  one  of  the  most  exquisite  creations  of  German 
genius,  "Corona,"  a  poem,  (1S14,)  "  Der  Zauberring," 
('The  Magic  Ring,"  1816,)  "Eginhard  and  Emma," 
a  drama,  and  "  Bertrand  du  Guesclin,"  an  epic  poem, 
(1821.)     Died  in  1843. 

See  his  Autobios;rai>liy.  entitled  "  Lebensjreschichte,"  etc.,  1840; 
C.F.RviNus,  "  Gescliiclite  der  Deutsclien  Diclitung;"  "Monthly  Re- 
view" tor  October,  1820. 

Lamourette,  iS'moo'rSt',  (Adrien,)  Ai?ij6,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Picardy  in  1742.  He  became  an 
auxiliary  of  Mirabeau  in  1789,  and  wrote  the  address  on 
the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  which  that  orator  pro- 
nounced. In  1 79 1  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Rhone-et« 
Loire,  and  deputed  to  the  National  Assembly.  Having 
resisted  the  extreme  measures  of  the  dominant  party,  he 
was  guillotined  in  1794.  He  had  published  several  re- 
ligious works. 

Lamouroux,  It'moo'roo'',  (Jean  Vincent  F6lix,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Agen  in  1779.  He  went  to 
Paris  in  1807,  and  was  chosen  professor  of  botany  or 
natural  history  at  Caen  about  1810.  He  gave  specia? 
attention  to  those  marine  productions  which  are  found 
on  the  borders  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  which  he  described  in  several  capital  works. 
Ainong  these  is  a  "Description  of  Coral-forming  Polypi 
or  Zoophytes,"  ("  Histoire  des  Polypiers  coralligencs 
flexibles,"  1816.)  He  also  published  "Lectures  on  Phys- 
ical Geography."     Died  in  1825. 

See  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Lamouroux,"  by  his  brother,  1829. 

Lampadius,  lim-pi'de-tis,  (Wilhelm  August,)  a 
German  chemist,  called  the  founder  of  metallurgy,  was 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1772.  He  became 
professor  of  chemistry  or  metallurgy  at  Freiberg  in  1795. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "  Manual  of  General  Metal- 
'^Jrgy,"  (3  vols.,  1801-09.)     Died  in  1842. 

See  Callisen,  "  Mediciuisches  Schrll'tsteller-Lexikon ;"  "Bio- 
graphie M^dicale." 

Lampe,  lim'peh,  (Friedrich  Adolph,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Detmold  in  1683.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht  in  1720,  and 
published  sermons  and  other  works,  among  which  was 
a  "  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  Saint  John."  Died 
in  1729. 

Lampe,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  composer  of 
songs  and  operas,  born  about  1692,  lived  in  London. 
Died  in  1756. 

Lamperti,  ISm-p^R'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
teacher  of  singing,  born  at  Savona  in  1S13.  His  success 
with  private  pupils  led  to  his  being  appointed  in  1850 
professor  of  singing  to  the  Conservatorio  at  Milan,  where 
he  trained  many  of  the  most  distinguished  operatic 
vocalists.     He  resigned  in  1875. 

Lampetia,  lam-pee'she-a,  [Gr.  AafiTrerirj ;  Fr.  Lam- 
p6tie,  ISw'pi'te',]  a  daughter  of  Helios,  whose  flocks 
and  herds  she  tended  in  the  island  of  Thrinakia.  Ulysses 
having  been  long  detained  on  the  island  by  stress  of 
weather,  his  companions  killed  some  of  the  sacred  oxen, 
for  which  the  offended  gods  afterwards  sent  against  them 
a  great  tempest,  in  which  all  perished  except  Ulysses, 
who  saved  himself  on  the  piece  of  a  mast. 

*  Called  in  French  Otuiine. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,g-nttnral;  N,  fiasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^^See  Explanations  p.  2^) 


L  A  MP  E  TIE 


14S2 


LANCJEAN 


ljamp6tie.     See  Lampftia. 

Lampillas,  lim-peel'yis,  or  Llampillas,  lam-peel'- 
yjs,  (Francisco  Xavier.)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Catalonia  in  1731.  He  lived  at  Genoa  after  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  in  1767.  His  principal 
work  is  a  defence  of  Spanish  literature  against  Bettinelli 
and  Tiraboschi,  "Saggio  storico-apologetico  della  Let- 
teratura  Spagnuola,"  (6  vols.,  1778-81.)     Died  in  1810. 

Lamplugii,  lam'ploo,  t  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1615.  He  became  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1676,  and  was  a  partisan  of  James  H.  in  1688,  but 
after  his  flight  recognized  William  HI.,  who  appointed 
him  Archbishop  of  York.     Died  in  1691. 

Lampredi,  lam-pKa'dee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian publicist  and  writer  on  law,  born  near  Florence  in 
1732  ;  died  in  1793. 

Lampredi,  (Urban,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at 
Florence  in  1761  ;  died  in  1838. 

Lampride.     See  Lampridius. 

Lampridio,  lim-pRee'de-o,  (Benedetto,)  a  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Cremona.  After  being  professor  of  Greek 
in  Rome,  he  opened  a  school  in  Padua  in  1521.  He 
composed  admired  odes,  epigrams,  and  elegies.  "  It 
cannot  be  denied,"  says  Tiraboschi,  "that  he  has  imi- 
tated Pindar  happily  in  nobleness  of  ideas  and  in  imagi- 
native power."     Died  about  1540. 

See  Tiraboschi,    "  Storia   della   Letteratura   Italiana. 

Lam-prid'i-us,  [Fr.  Lampride,  liN'pR^d',]  (/Elius,,) 
a  Latin  historical  writer,  who  flourished  about  310  A.D. 
He  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Augusta  Historia," 
to  which  he  is  said  to  have  contributed  the  lives  of 
Commodus,  Diadumenus,  Heliogabalus,  and  Alexander 
Severus. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis ;"  D.  W.  Moller,  "  Dis- 
putatio  circiilaris  de  A.  Lampridio,"  16S8. 

Lampson,  limp'son,  [Lat.  Lampsonius,  limp-so'ne- 
us,]  (Dominic,)  a  Flemish  painter  and  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Bruges  in  1532.  His  paintings  are  rare  and  esteemed. 
Died  in  1599. 

Lampsonius.     See  Lampson. 

Lampugnani,  ISm-poon-yS'nee,  (Agostino,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  at  Milan  in  1588.  He  wrote  many  works 
which  were  once  popular.     Died  in  1668. 

Lamy.     See  Lami,  (Bernard.) 

Lana,  li'ni,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  M6- 
dena  in  1597.  He  worked  in  that  city,  and  imitated 
Guercino  with  success.  \W%  picture  of  "  Modena  de- 
livered from  the  Plague"  is  called  his  master-piece. 
Died  in  1646. 

Lana-Terzi,  IJ'ni-tSRd'zee  or  -t^Rt'zee,  (Francesco,) 
(or  Francesco  Terzi-Lana,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  natu- 
ral philosopher,  born  at  Brescia  in  163 1.  lie  was  at  one 
time  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  place,  and  was 
a  diligent  observer  and  experimenter  in  natural  science. 
He  published,  besides  a  few  other  works,  "Magisterium 
Naturae  et  Artis,"  (3  vols.,  1684-92,)  which  treats  of  natu- 
ral philosophy.     Died  in  1687. 

La  Nauze,  de,  deh  It  noz,  (Louis  Jouard,)  a  French 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1696  ; 
died  in  1773. 

Lanc'as-ter,  (Edmund,)  Earl  of,  the  son  of  Henry 
III.  of  England,  was  born  in  London  in  1245.  Edward 
1.  sent  him  with  an  army  to  conquer  Guienne,  but,  before 
he  could  effect  that  purpose,  he  died  in  1296.  His  son 
Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster,  was  the  most  powerful  sub- 
ject of  his  time  in  England.  He  was  a  mortal  enemy 
to  Piers  Gaveston,  whose  death  he  procured  in  1312. 
Having  rebelled  against  Edward  II.,  he  was  defeated 
and  beheaded  in  1322.  His  brother  He.n'RY  became  his 
heir,  and  aided  Queen  Isabella  to  depose  the  king  in 
1326.  He  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  young  king 
Edward  III.  in  1327. 

Lancaster,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  navigator,  who 
made  a  voyage  to  India  in  1591,  and  conducted  the  first 
expedition  which  the  East  Lidia  Company  sent  to  that 
region  (1600-03)  f^''  '^^  purpose  of  forming  commercial 
relations.  He  made  a  treaty  with  the  King  of  Acheen. 
Died  in  1620.  Narratives  of  his  voyages  may  be  found 
in  Hakluyt  and  Purchas.  An  inlet  of  Baffin's  Bay  was 
named,  in  honour  of  him,  Lancaster  Sound. 

See  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign." 


Lancaster,  (John  of  Gaunt,)  Duke  of.  Sec  John 
OE  Gaunt. 

Lancaster,  (Joseph,)  an  Englishman,  who  acquired 
distinction  as  the  founder  of  "  Lancasterian  Schools,' 
was  born  in  London,  November  25,  177S.  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  At  about  the  age  of 
twenty  he  opened  a  school  in  Southwark,  and  tried  with 
success  the  system  of  mutual  instruction.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  and  other  noblemen. 
By  lectures  and  writings  he  rendered  his  system  popular, 
and  gave  an  impulse  to  the  cause  of  education  in  Eng- 
land and  other  countries.  Having  become  insolvent,  he 
went  to  the  United  States  about  1818,  and  continued  to 
labour  in  the  same  cause.     Died  in  New  York  in  183S. 

Lancaster,  (Nathaniel,)  a  learned  English  writer, 
born  in  Cheshire  about  1700.  He  was  for  some  time 
rector  of  Stamford-Rivers.  His  principal  work  is  an 
•'Essay  on  Delicacy,"  (1748,)  a  poem.     Died  in  1775. 

Lance,  (George,)  an  excellent  English  painter  of 
fruit  and  still  life,  was  born  in  Essex  in  1802.  He  re- 
ceived lessons  in  "  high"  or  "  historical"  art  from  Haydon, 
and  pursued  his  master's  favourite  branches  of  painting, 
until  he  discovered  that  his  genius  was  more  adapted  to 
the  treatment  of  fruit,  flowers,  game,  etc.  In  this  depart- 
ment he  is  considered  to  have  excelled  all  the  English 
oil-painters  of  his  time.  He  ]5roduced  some  historical 
pieces  and  tableaux  de  i^enre.     Died  in  1864. 

Lance,  (William,)  an  American  lawyer  and  political 
writer,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1791.  He 
published  a"  Life  of  Washington"  in  Latin.  Died  in  1840. 

Lancelot,  16ns'1o',  (Antoine,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he  WTOte  many 
learned  antiquarian  treatises.  For  a  few  years  he  had 
the  office  of  secretary  to  the  king,  which  he  sold  in  1725. 
Died  in  1740. 

Lancelot,  (Dom  Claude,)  an  able  French  gram- 
marian, born  in  Paris  in  1615.  He  became  one  of  the 
recluses  of  Port-Royal  in  1638,  and  was  the  first  regent 
of  the  schools  of  Port-Royal,  which  flourished  from  1646 
to  1660  under  the  care  of  such  men  as  Arnauld  and  Pas- 
cal. Lancelot  was  the  first  master  of  Racine.  "  He  threw 
some  additional  lustre,"  says  Hallam,  "  around  Port- 
Royal  by  the  Latin  and  Greek  Grammars  (1644  and 
1655)  which  are  more  frequently  called  by  the  name  of 
that  famous  cloister  than  by  his  own."  They  were  used 
for  a  long  time  in  the  French  schools.  He  published  in 
1660  "Grammaire  generale  et  raisonnee,"  a  treatise  on 
the  philosophy  of  all  languages,  which  is  esteemed  a 
work  of  the  first  class.     Died  in  1695. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Port-Royal ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaiie  His- 
toriqiie;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Lancelot  of  Naples.     See  Ladislaus. 

Lancelotti,  lin-chi-lot'tee,  written  also  Lauceloti, 
(Giovanni  Paolo,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Peru-ia  in 
1511.  He  WTOte,  in  Latin,  "Institutes  of  Canon  Law," 
which  were  approved  by  Pope  Paul  IV.     Died  in  1591. 

Lancillotti,  ISn-ch^l-lot'tee,  or  Lancelloti,  Idn-ch^I- 
lo'tee,  (Secondo,)  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  born  at 
Perugia  in  1575.  He  published  in  1630  a  successful  work 
entitled  "To-Day,"  ("L'Hoggidi,")  intended  to  prove 
that  the  world  was  not  morally  or  physically  worse  than 
it  had  been  in  ancient  times.  He  wrote  other  learned 
works.     Died  in  Paris  in  1643. 

Lancilotti,  l^n-che-lot'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  poet,  born  at  Florence,  lived  about  1500. 
He  excelled  in  nocturnal  scenes. 

Lancisi,  IJn-chee'see,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Rome  in  1654.  Foi 
thirteen  years  he  lectured  on  anatomy  with  eclat  at  the 
College  of  Sapienza,  Rome.  He  became  the  chief  phy- 
sician'of  Pope  Innocent  XL  in  1688,  and  served  Clement 
XI.  in  the  same  capacity.  Besides  other  professional 
works,  he  published,  in  Latin,  a  "Treatise  on  Sudden 
Deaths,"  (1707,)  and  one  "On  the  Noxious  Effluvia  of 
Marshes,"  (17 17.)     Died  in  1720. 

See  AssALTi,  "Vie  de  Lancisi,"  prefixed  to  his  treatise  "  De 
Motu  Cordis;"  Fabroni,  "Vitas  Italonim,"  etc.  :  G.  IVL  Crescim- 
BENi.  "Vita  di  G.  M.  Lancisi,"  1721  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Lancival.     See  Luce  de  Lancival. 

Lancjean,   l6N'zh6N',    (RtMi, )   a    skilful     Flemish 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LANCRE 


1483 


LAND  ON 


t 


painter  of  history,  born  at  Brussels,  was  a  pupil  of  Van 
Dyck.     Died  in  1671. 

Lancre,  IflNkR,  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer,  and  writer 
on  demonology  and  sorcery,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  ;  died 
in  1630. 

Lancret,  IfiN'kRi',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1690.  He  imitated  the  manner  of  Watteau 
with  success.  His  reputation  was  higher  in  his  own 
time  than  at  the  present.     Died  in  1743. 

Lancrinck  or  Lankrink,  l^n'knink,  (Prospkr 
Henry,)  a  skilful  landscape-painter,  of  German  ex- 
traction, born  about  1628.  He  worked  in  England,  and 
was  employed  by  Sir  Peter  Lely  to  paint  the  landscapes, 
I  flowers,  etc.  of  his  pictures.  Died  in  1692. 
'  Landa,  de,  di  Idn'dJ,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter,  lived 
at  Pampeluna  from  1570  to  1630. 

Landais  or  Landois,  IfiN'di',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
parvenu  of  low  birth,  born  at  Vitre,  became  the  favourite 
of  Francis  H.,  Duke  of  Brittany,  who  gave  him  absolute 
power.  Landais  was  hated  by  the  nobles,  who  conspired 
against  him  and  put  him  to  death  in  1485. 

Lande.     See  Lai.ande. 

Landelle,  IfiN'd^K,  (Charles,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Laval,  Mayenne,  in  1S21.  He  obtained 
a  medal  at  the  Great  Exposition  of  1855  for  his  picture 
of  the  "  Repose  of  the  Virgin." 

Lan'den,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  at 
Peakirk  in  1719.  He  began  to  write  for  the  "Ladies' 
Diary"  in  1744,  and  published  in  1755  "Mathematical 
Lucubrations,"  in  which  various  parts  of  high  analysis 
are  treated.  In  1766  he  was  admitted  into  the  Royal 
Society.  He  wTote  several  treatises  on  dynamics  and 
the  integral  calculus.  Among  his  principal  works  is  his 
"Residual  Analysis,"  (1764.)     Died  in  1790. 

Lan'der,  (Frederick  William,)  an  American  en- 
gineer and  general,  born  at  Salem,  Massachuset's,  in 
1822.  He  commanded  an  expedition  to  open  a  wagon- 
road  across  the  plains  to  California  in  185S.  It  is  stated 
that  he  made  five  explorations  across  the  continent, 
having  been  employed  by  the  government  to  survey  a 
route  for  a  Pacific  railroad.  In  July,  1861,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general.  He  was  wounded  at  Ed- 
wards's Ferry,  October,  1861,  and  signalized  his  courage 
at  Blooming  Gap,  Virginia,  in  February,  1862.  He  died 
at  Pawpaw,  Virginia,  in  March,  1S62,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  for  enterprise  and  bravery. 

Lan'der,  (John,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in  1807. 
He  accompanied  his  brother  Richard  in  an  expedition  to 
explore  the  river  Niger  in  1830.  (See  Lander,  Richard.) 
Died  in  1839. 

Lander,  (Louisa,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  about  1835,  studied  at  Rome 
under  Crawford.  Among  her  best  works  may  be  named 
statues  of  "  Evangeline"  and  of  "  Virginia  Dare,"  and 
a  bust  of  Hawthorne. 

Lander,  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller,  who  has 
rendered  his  name  memorable  by  solving  the  problem 
of  the  course  of  the  Niger,  was  born  at  Truro  in  1804. 
He  had  been  employed  as  a  servant  by  several  gentle- 
men before  1825,  when,  hearing  of  Captain  Clapperton's 
proposed  expedition  to  Africa,  he  offered  his  services 
and  was  engaged  by  that  officer  as  his  confidential  ser- 
vant, (See  Clapperton,  Hugh.)  After  performing 
the  last  otiices  to  his  master  near  Saccatoo  in  April, 
1827,  he  returned  with  the  papers  of  Clapperton  to 
England,  where  he  arrived  in  1S2S.  The  offer  which 
he  made  to  renew  the  enterprise  was  accepted  by  gov- 
ernment. Accompanied  by  his  brother  John,  he  sailed 
from  England  in  January,  1830,  traced  the  Niger  from 
Yaoori  (or  Yauri)  to  its  mouth  in  the  Bight  of  Benin, 
and  returned  home  in  1831.  A  "Journal  of  an  Expe- 
dition to  Explore  the  Course  and  Termination  of  the 
Niger,"  (2  vols.,)  by  Richard  and  John  Lander,  was 
published  in  1832.  The  voyage  from  Yaoori  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  occupied  about  four  months,  from 
August  2  to  December  i,  1830.  Having  undertaken 
another  expedition  to  Western  Africa  in  the  service  of 
a  mercantile  company,  he  was  killed  by  the  natives  in 
1835.  The  most  prominent  trait  of  his  character  was 
indomitable  perseverance. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1832. 


Landi,  lin'dee,  (Costanzo,)  Count,  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist and  numismatist,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1521 ;  died 
in  1564. 

Landi,  (Gasparo,)  Chevalier,  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1756.  He 
worked  mostly  in  Rome,  and  became  professor  of  paint- 
ing in  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  He  excelled  in  car- 
nation tints  and  in  truth  of  expression.  Some  Italian 
critics  considered  him  as  one  of  their  best  painters. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  "The  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin."     Died  at  Rome  in  1830. 

Landi,  (Giulio,)  Count,  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Piacenza  about  1500,  wrote  a  romance  entitled  "The 
Life  of  Cleopatra,"  (1551.)     Died  about  1580. 

Landi,  (Ortensio,)  a  witty  and  extravagant  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Milan.  He  was  for  some  time  in  the 
service  of  the  Bishop  of  Trent,  and  passed  many  of  his 
later  years  in  Venice.  He  published  several  scandalous 
and  paradoxical  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Dialogue 
on  the  Death  of  Erasmus."  (1540,)  "  Paradoxes,"  ("  Para- 
dossi,")  and  the  "Scourge  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Au- 
thors," (1550.)     Died  about  1560. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Landi,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  in  Rome, 
lived  about  1630.  He  composed  sacred  music,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  inventive  genius. 

Landini,  Idn-dee'nee,  or  Landino,  ISn-dee'no, 
(Christoforo,)  an  Italian  critic  and  scholar,  born  at 
Florence  in  1424,  was  reputed  one  of  the  principal  orna- 
ments of  the  Platonic  Academy  of  that  city.  He  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Florence  in  1457,  and  was 
chosen  by  Pietro  de'  Medici  to  finish  the  education  of 
his  two  sons.  He  wrote  several  Latin  poems,  and  es- 
teemed commentaries  on  Horace,  Virgil,  and  Dante, 
Died  in  1504. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Histoirede  la  Litterature  Itallenne;"  Negri, 
"Istoriade'  Scrittori  Fiorentini." 

Landini,  (Taddeo,)  a  Florentine  sculptor,  who  worked 
in  Rome  and  was  employed  by  Gregory  XIII.,  Sixtus  V., 
and  Clement  VIII.     Died  about  1594. 

Landino,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  organist  and  com- 
poser, surnamed  CiECO,  (the  "  Blind,")  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence about  1325  ;  died  in  1390. 

Lan'do  or  Lan'dou,  a  native  of  Sabina,  was  elected 
pope,  as  successor  to  Anastasius  III.,  in  913.  He  died 
in  914  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  X. 

Lando,  ISn'do,  (Pietro,)  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1539.  During  his  reign  the  Venetians  made  peace 
with  the  Turks,  and  resisted  the  efforts  of  Charles  V. 
and  Francis  I.  to  engage  them  in  new  hostilities.  Died 
in  1545,  aged  eighty-four. 

Landon,  Ion'cIAn',  (Charles  Paul,)  a  French  painter 
and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Normandy  in  1760.  He 
studied  in  Rome  as  a  pensioner  of  the  king,  and  worked 
in  Paris,  but  acquired  more  reputation  by  his  writings 
than  by  his  paintings.  He  published  many  magnificent 
illustrated  works,  among  which  are  "The  Lives  and 
Works  of  the  Most  Eminent  Painters  of  all  Schools," 
(25  vols.,  1803  ct  seq.,)  and  "Annals  of  the  Museum," 
etc.,  ("Annalesdu  Musee  et  de  I'ficole  des  Beaux-Arts," 
(33  vols.,  1808.)     Died  in  1826. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Geiierale." 

Lan'don,  (Letitia  Elizaketh,)  a  popular  English 
poetess,  born  in  a  suburb  of  London  in  1802,  She  began 
to  write  verse  about  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  in  1S20 
became  a  contributor  to  the  "  Literary  Gazette,"  under 
the  signature  of  L.  E.  L.  These  poetical  efforts  pro- 
cured lor  her  an  extensive  reputation,  and  enabled  her 
to  support  herself.  She  produced,  anonymously,  two 
novels,  entitled  "  Romance  and  Reality"  and  "  Ethel 
Churchill,"  and  poems  called  "The  Troubadour,"  "Ze- 
nana," etc.  Her  poems  are  chiefly  of  a  sentimental  or 
romantic  character.  In  1838  she  was  married  to  George 
Maclean,  Governor  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Africa,  whither 
they  went  to  reside.  Her  death,  which  occurred  in  1839, 
is  ascribed  to  prussic  acid,  which  she  was  in  the  habit  of 
taking  as  medicine. 

See  Laman  Blanchard,  "Life  and  Literary  Remains  of  L.  E. 
L.,"  3  vols.,  1840;  "Autobiography  of  William  Jeidan,"  rol.  iii. ; 
Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from 


■e  as  .4;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAND  OR 


1484 


LAN  FRANCO 


the  Cmnmcncement  of  the  Last  Ceiuiiry,'  vnl.  ii.,  \^a,->,:  Ai.i.irone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors:"  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1825; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  March,  1865. 

Lan'dor,  (Walter  Savage,)  an  eminent  English 
author,  born  at  Ipsley  Court,  Warwickshire,  January 
30,  1775,  was  a  son  of  Walter  Landor,  who  married  a 
rich  heiress  named  Elizabeth  Savage.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  became 
master  of  an  independent  fortune,  and  followed  no  pro- 
fession except  that  of  author.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1795,  and  a  poem  entitled  "Gebir"  in  1798. 
In  1806  he  sold  his  large  estates,  quitted  England  in 
disgust,  and  removed  to  the  continent.  He  served  as  a 
colonel  in  the  Spanish  army  against  Napoleon  from  1808 
to  1814.  In  i8u  he  married  Julia  Thuillier,  of  Bath. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Plorence  about  1816,  and  occu- 
pied the  palace  of  the  Medici  for  several  years.  He  pub- 
lished in  1820  Latin  poems,  entitled  "Idyllia  Heroica." 
His  reputation  was  extended  by  his  "  Imaginary  Con- 
versations of  Literary  Men  and  Statesmen,"  {5  vols., 
1824-29,)  which  presented  many  novel  and  paradoxical 
ideas.  Among  his  other  works  are  "Count  Julian,"  a 
poem,  (1831,)  "Pericles  and  Asjiasia,"  (1836,)  "Andrea 
of  Hungary,"  a  drama,  (1839,)  "The  Hellenics,"  (1847,) 
and  "The  Last  Fruit  of  an  Old  Tree,"  (1853.)  He  was 
a  friend  of  Robert  Southey.  Died  at  Florence  in  Sep- 
tember, 1864. 

See  John  Foster,  "Walter  S.  Landor;  a  Biography,"  i-Sfiq; 
"  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1S24,  February,  1S37,  and  October, 
1839;  "  Edinburgh  Review''  fur  April,  1S46,  and  April,  1850;  "  North 
British  Review"  for  November,  1846,  and  July,  1S69;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale  :"  R.  W.  Emerson,  "  English  Traits  ;"  "  Bio- 
graphical Sketches,"  by  Harriet  Martinkai;  ;  Miss  Field,  "  Last 
Days  of  W.  S.  Landor,"  in  the  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  April,  May, 
and  June,  1866.  t'l 

LantJriani,  ldn-dRe-a'nee,^PAOLO  Camili.o,)  a  painter 
of  the  Milanese  school,  born  about  1570  ;  died  about  1618. 

Land'seer,  (Charles,)  an  English  painter,  a  son  of 
John  Landseer,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1799.  He 
received  lessons  from  Haydon,  and  acquired  a  fair  repu- 
tation as  an  artist.  His  subjects  are  chiefly  taken  from 
English  history  and  poetry.  His  "Monks  of  Melrose" 
(1843)  gained  a  prize  of  about  ;^300.  He  was  chosen 
an  AcadeiTiician  in  1845,  and  keeper  of  the  Academy  in 
1851.     Died  July  22,  1879. 

Landseer,  (Sir  Edwin,)  the  most  celebrated  modern 
painter  of  animals,  was  born  in  London  in  1802,  He 
learned  to  draw  after  nature  in  hjs  childhood,  under  the 
direction  of  his  father,  began  to  exhibit  in  181 7,  and  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  painted  his  admirable  "  Dogs  of  Saint 
Gothard."  Between  1821  and  1830  he  produced  "The 
Prowling  Lion,"  "The  Return  from  Deer-Stalking," 
(1827,)  and  "  Hunting  of  Chevy  Chase."  He  was  elected 
Royal  Academician  in  1S30,  after  which  he  exhibited  "  Sir 
Walter  Scott  and  his  Dogs,"  (1S33,)"  Bolton  Abbey  in  the 
Olden  Time,"  "The  Old  Shepherd's  Chief  Mourner," 
(1837,)  highly  praised  by  Ruskin  "as  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect poems  or  pictures  (I  use  the  words  as  synonymous) 
which  modern  times  have  seen."  His  humorous  picture 
of  "  Laying  Down  the  Law"  appeared  in  1840.  His 
marvellous  technical  skill  is  subordinated  to  the  expres- 
sion of  sentiment  or  pathos  in  a  "  Pastoral  Scene,"  (1845,) 
"Peace"  and  "War,"  (1846,)  and  other  works.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  a  portrait  of  a  Newfoundland  dog. 
Styled  "A  Member  of  the  Humane  Society,"  (1838,)  "A 
Scene  from  the  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'"  (1851,) 
and  "The  Children  of  the  Mist,"  (1853.)  Many  of  his 
works  have  been  engraved.     Died  October  i,  1873. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1856. 

Landseer,  (John,)  an  English  engraver,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lincoln  in  1769.  Having 
acquired  reputation  by  excellent  engravings  of  animals, 
after  Rubens  and  other  artists,  he  was  chosen  associate 
engraver  of  the  Royal  Academy  about  1807.  He  lec- 
tured on  art  in  London,  and  published  several  treatises 
on  art,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Sabsean  Researches," 
(1823.)     Died  in  1852. 

Landseer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist  and  eminent 
engraver,  the  eldest  son  of  John  Landseer,  and  brother 
of  Charles  and  Sir  Edwin,  was  born  in  1795.  Among 
his  most  admired  productions  are  engravings  of  his 
brother  luhvin's  pictures  of  animals,  and  of  Rosa  Bon- 


heur's  "  Horse-Fair,"  by  the  faithful  reproduction  of 
wiiich  he  unquestionably  did  much  to  confirm  the 
fame  of  these  distinguished  artists.  Died  January  10, 
1880. 

Landstad,  lind'stild,  (Magnus  Brostrup,)  a  Nor- 
wegian clergyman,  born  in  a  hamlet  on  the  isle  of  Maasoe, 
near  the  North  Ca))e,  in  1802.  He  published  avast  col- 
lection of  peasant-songs  of  the  North,  and  prepared  also 
a  great  collection  of  hyinns  and  psalms,  published  at  the 
expense  of  the  government.  His  own  verses  are  often 
tame  and  ])oor,  but  some  have  merit.     Died  in  1881. 

Lan'dulph,  (Fr.  Landulphe,  IfiN'diilf',]  a  mediasval 
historian  and  priest,  born  at  Milan  about  1080,  was  a 
pupil  of  Anselm  of  Laon.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  His- 
tory of  Milan  from  1095  to  1137." 

Lane,  (Edward  William,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Hereford  in  1801.  He  resided  several  years  in 
P2gypt,  and  published  an  interesting  and  valuable  work 
"On  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern  Egyp- 
tians," (1836,)  and  a  very  complete  "Arabic-and-Eng- 
lish  Lexicon,"  (in  two  Parts,  1863-65.)      Died  in  1876, 

Lane,  (Henry  S.,)  an  American  Senator  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Montgomery  county,  Kentucky,  in  i8ir,  removed 
to  Indiana.  He  represented  a  district  of  Indiana  in  Con- 
gress, 1841-43,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
as  a  Republican  in  1861.  Having  been  chosen  a  Sen- 
atoT  of  the  United  States  in  i86r,  he  resigned  the  office 
of  Governor.      Died  June  18,  i88i. 

Lane,  (James  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  at  LaW- 
renceburg,  Indiana,  in  1814.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1852,  and  removed  in  1855  to  Kansas,  where  he  be- 
came a  leader  of  the  Free  State  party.  He  was  elected 
major-general  by  the  legislature  of  Kansas  in  1857,  and 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1861.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  in  the  first  year  of  the  civil  war,  but  retained 
his  seat  in  the  Senate.     Died  by  suicide  in  July,  1866. 

Lane,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general  and  politician, 
born  in  North  Carolina  in  1801.  He  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Mexican  war  ot 
1846-47,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
became  Governor  of  Oregon  Territory  in  1848,  and  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  from  the  State  of  Oregon 
in  1859.  In  1S60  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
Vice-President,  John  C.  Breckinridge  being  the  nomi- 
nee for  President.  Died  at  Roseburg,  Oregon,  April  9, 
1881. 

Lane,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  is 
Northamptonshire.  He  was  counsel  for  the  Earl  of 
Strafford  in  1640,  and  was  an  adherent  of  the  king  in  the 
civil  war.  In  1645  he  became  keeper  of  the  great  seal. 
Died  in  165 1. 

Lane,  (Richard  James,)  an  English  lithographer, 
born  in  Hereford  about  1800.     Died  Nov.  21,  1872. 

Lan'franc,  [Lat.  Lanfran'cus  ;  It.  Lanfranco,  l^n- 
fRin'ko,]  a  distinguished  prelate.  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  born  at  Pavia  about  1005.  Having  embraced 
the  monastic  life,  he  became  celebrated  for  ]3iety  and 
learning.  He  was  a  counsellor  of  William  of  Normandy 
before  his  conquest  of  England,  and  in  1070  was  chosen 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  "  His  zeal  in  promoting  the 
interests  of  the  papacy,"  says  Hume,  "was  indefati- 
gable." He  enjoyed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence 
of  the  king,  who  consulted  him  in  affairs  of  state.  He 
crowned  William  Rufus  in  1087,  and  died  in  1089,  leaving 
several  works  on  theology. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  ii.  :  A.  Charma,  "  Lanfranc,  Notice  biographique,  lit- 
teraire,"  etc.,  1849;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Lanfranco.     See  Lanfranc. 

Lanfranco,  Lin-fKan'ko,  or  Lanfranc,  Idn-fRirk', 
fLat.  Lanfran'cus,]  an  Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Milan 
about  1250.  He  removed  in  1295  to  Paris,  where  he 
practised  and  lectured  with  a  high  reputation.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  on  surgery,  entitled  "  Chirurgia  magna 
et  parva,"  (1490.) 

Lanfranco  or  Lanfranc,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Parma  in  1581.  He  received 
lessons  from  the  three  Caracci,  whom,  in  design  and 
exi)ression,  he  imitated.  He  worked  in  Rome  for  the 
Dukes  Farnese  and  the  Borghese  family,  and  afterwards 
in  Naples.     His  painting  on  the  cupola  of  San  Andrea 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u.  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohscwe;  far,  fdll,  fit:  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LANFRANCUS 


1485 


LANGE 


della  Valle,  Rome,  was  much  admired.   His  works  in  oil 
and  fresco  are  very  numerous.     Died  at  Rome  in  1647. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Fault- 
ing in  Italy." 

Lanfrancus.     See  Lanfranc  and  Lanfranco. 

Lanfrey,  loN'fRi',  (Pierre,)  a  F'rencli  historian,  born 
at  Chambery,  Savoy,  Octol^er  26, 1828.  He  was  educated 
at  Paris,  and  became  a  lawyer  and  man  of  letters.  His 
"  L'figlise  et  les  Philosophes  au  XVHIieme  Siecle" 
{1855)  was  a  brilliant  and  successful  attack  on  the 
church.  His  principal  work  was  the  "  Histoire  de  Na- 
poleon I,"  (6  vols.,  1867-76,)  in  which  he  "destroyed  for- 
lever  the  Napoleonic  legend."  He  was  chosen  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1871,  and  was  minister  to 
Switzerland  from  1871  to  1874.  In  1876  he  was  made 
a  life  senator.  Died  at  Pau,  November  16,  1877.  ^^^ 
was  a  moderate  republican  in  theory,  but  in  practical 
politics  found  himself  almost  continually  in  opposition 
to  every  party. 

Lang,  (Andrew,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  Scotland  in 
1844.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  and  became  a  Fellow 
of  Merton  College.  With  S.  H.  Butcher,  he  prepared  a 
spirited  prose  translation  of  the  Odyssey.  He  also  made 
a  prose  translation  of  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus. 
His  other  publications  include  "XXH  Ballades  in  Blue 
China,"  (enlarged  and  reissued  as  "XXH  and  X  Bal- 
lades,") a  volume  called  "The  Library,"  "Ballades  and 
Verses  Vaine,"  (18S4,)  "Customs  and  Myth,"  (1884,) 
"Verses  a  la  Mode,"  (1885,)  etc. 

Lang,  ling,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  divine,  born  at 
Frommern,  November  14,  1826.  He  was  educated  at 
Tubingen,  and  published  much  in  the  interest  of  what  is 
called  liberal  religion.  He  was  for  years  a  pastor  in 
Zurich.  Among  his  works  are  "  An  Attempt  at  a  Chris- 
tian Dogmatic,"  (1857,)  "The  Life  of  Jesus  and  the 
Church  of  the  Future,"  etc.     Died  December  30,  1876. 

Lang,  (JoHANN  Michael.)     See  Lange. 

Lang,  ling,  (Karl  Nikolaus,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Lucerne  in  1670.  He  practised  medicine  with 
success  in  his  native  place,  cultivated  natural  history, 
and  acquired  fame  by  his  work  on  the  figured  stones  of 
Switzerland,  "  Idea  Historias  naturalis  Lapidum  figurato- 
rum  Helvetiae,"  (1705.)     Died  in  1741. 

Lang,  (Louis,)  Ijorn  in  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  in 
1814,  studied  painting  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  at 
Rome.  In  1845  he  settled  in  New  York  City,  where 
he  has  executed  numerous  works. 

Lang,  von,  fon  ling,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German 
historical  writer,  born  in  Suabia  in  1764,  was  appointed 
in  181 1  director  of  the  archives  of  the  kingdom  at  Munich, 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Jesuits  in  Bavaria,"  and 
other  works  relative  to  that  country.     Died  in  1835. 

See  Karl  Heinrich  Lang,  "Memoiren,"  1842. 

Langallerie,  de,  deh  IfiN'gSl're',  (Philippe  de  Gen- 
tils,)  Marquis,  a  French  military  adventurer,  born  at 
Lamotte-Charente  in  1656.  He  gained  the  rank  of  gene- 
ral in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  fought  under 
Prince  Eugene  against  the  French.  He  died  in  1717, 
leaving  two  volumes  of  Memoirs,  (1709,)  which  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

Langara,  de,  di  lin-gi'ri,  (Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish 
admiral,  born  about  1730.  He  was  defeated  near  Cape 
Saint  Vincent  in  1780  by  an  English  fleet  under  Rodnev, 
but  was  in  the  same  year  made  lieutenant-general  of  the 
navy.  He  commanded  the  Spanish  fleet  which  took 
Toulon  in  1793.     Died  in  1800. 

Langbaine,  ling'ban,  (Gerard,)  D.D.,  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Westmoreland  about  1608.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1644  keeper 
of  the  archives  of  the  university.  He  edited  Longinus, 
and  left  several  useful  catalogues,  which  remain  in  manu- 
script.    Died  in  1658. 

Langbaine,  (Gerard,)  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Oxford  in  1656.  Having  collected  many  old 
plays,  (nine  hundred  and  eighty,)  he  published  a  cata- 
logue of  the  same,  called  "  Momus  Triumphans,"  which 
was  improved  and  reprinted  in  1691,  with  the  title  of 
"Account  of  the  English  Dramatic  Poets."  This  work 
is  prized  for  the  information  it  affords,  but  has  little 
critical  merit.     Died  in  1692. 

Laugbein,  lang'bTn,  (August  Friedrich  Ernst,)  a 


German  poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Radeburg, 
near  Dresden,  in  1757.  He  became  a  resident  of  Berlin 
in  iSoo.  He  published  a  number  of  romances,  songs, 
and  humorous  poems,  which  had  a  transient  popularity. 
Among  his  prose  works  are  "Talismans  against  Ennui," 
"The  Wings  of  Time,"  and  "  Ganymeda/'  (1823.)  He 
had  an  agreeable  style,  but  little  imagination.     Died  in 

1835- 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lang'bridge,  (Frederick,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Birmingham,  March  17,  1849.  He  took  orders  in  the 
English  Church  in  1877,  ^""i  '"  ^^80  graduated  at  Saint 
Alban  Hall,  Oxford,  having  in  1879  been  appointed  to 
the  incumbency  of  Glen  Alia,  in  the  North  of  Ireland. 
He  has  published  several  volumes  of  poetry,  beside!* 
many  songs  and  tales  and  some  burlesque  comedies. 

Langdale,  Lord.     See  Bickersteth,  (Henry.) 

Lang'dale,  (Sir  Marmaduke,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  Yorkshire.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil 
war,  and  commanded  with  success  at  the  siege  of  Ponte- 
fract  Castle.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  Naseby 
in  1645,  and  was  defeated  by  Cromwell  at  Preston  in 
1648.  On  the  restoration  he  returned  to  England  in 
1660,  after  many  years  of  exile,  and  was  chosen  lord 
lieutenant  of  Yorkshire.     Died  in  1661. 

Lang'don,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1739.  He 
became  successively  a  delegate  to  the  General  Congress, 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate  in  1789,  and  Gov- 
ernor of  New  Hampshire  several  times  between  1805 
and  181 L  He  acted  with  the  Republican  party.  Died 
in  1S19. 

Langdon,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
theological  writer,  born  at  Boston  about  1723,  became 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1774,  and  resigned  in 
1780.     Died  in  1797. 

Lange,  ling'^h,  (Joachim,)  a  German  linguist  and 
writer,  born  at  Gardelegen  in  1670.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Halle  in  1709,  and  published,  be- 
sides some  theological  works,  a  Latin  Grammar  and  a 
Greek  Grammar,  which  were  successful.     Died  in  1744, 

Lange,  [Lat.  Lan'gius,]  (Johann,)  a  learned  German 
physician,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1485.  He 
was  first  physician  to  several  Electors-Palatine.  He 
wrote  professional  works  which  are  commended.  Died 
in  1565. 

Lange  or  Lang,  ling,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German 
Protestant  divine,  eminent  as  an  Orientalist,  born  at 
Ezelwangen  in  1664.  He  lived  as  inspector  at  Prentzlau 
from  1710  until  his  death,  in  1731.  He  published  a 
treatise  "On  Mohammedan  Fables,"  (1697,)  and  several 
critical  essays. 

Lange,  feng'eh,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  divine, 
born  of  poor  parents  at  Sonnborn,  April  10,  1802.  He 
was  educated  at  Dusseldorf  and  Bonn.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  and  dogma  at  Zurich  in  1841, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1854.  Among  his 
more  important  works  are  "Life  of  Jesus,"  (1S44-47,) 
"Christian  Dogmatic,"  (1849-52,)  "The  History  ot  the 
Church,"  (1853-54,)  and  the  great  "Bibelwerk,"  or 
"  Commentary,"  of  which  there  is  an  American  transla- 
tion, (1865  et  seq.,)  edited  by  Dr.  P.  Schaff,  with  the  aid 
of  other  scholars.  Lange  also  wrote  many  evangelical 
hymns  and  poems.     Died  in  1S84. 

Lange,  (Joseph,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Kai- 
sersberg.  He  published  editions  of  Martial,  Juvenal,  and 
Persius,  also  "  Florilegium,"  (1598.)     Died  about  1630. 

Lange,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  actor,  born  at  Wiirz- 
burg,  Bavaria,  in  1751.  He  became  a  favourite  on  the 
theatre  of  Vienna,  where  he  performed  many  years.  Died 
about  1820. 

Lange,  ling'?h,  (Julius  Henrik,)  a  Danish  art-cntic 
and  historian,  born  at  Voringborg,  June  19,  1839.  He 
was  educated  at  Copenhagen.  He  published  a  treatise 
on  Michael  Angelo,  "The  Origin  of  the  Ionic  Capital," 
(1878,)  "The  Gods  and  Men  of  Homer,"  (1881,)  and 
other  works.  ^       ,.  ,  ,, 

Lange,  ling'eh,  (Lars,)  a  Danish  or  Swedish  traveller, 
born  at  Stockholm.  Having  entered  the  Russianservice 
as  an  officer  of  engineers,  he  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Pekin  in  17 19,  and  again  in  1726.     Several  narratives  of 


-easyfe;  9asj;  ghard;  ga.s/;  G,H,K,£uUurai;  ii, nasal;  wJrilUd;  sasz;  th  as  in  i'/i/j'.     iS^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LANGE 


i486 


LANGLES 


these  journeys  were  published.  The  Journal  of  Lange 
contains  some  interesting  notices  of  the  nomadic  tribes 
of  Siberia. 

Lange,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Han- 
over, March  4,  1825.  He  held  profess<jrships  of  archae- 
ology in  Prague,  Giessen,  and  Leipsic.  His  capital  work 
is  an  extensive  and  important  "  Hand-Book  of  Roman 
Antiquities."  He  wrote  also  valued  memoirs  upon 
various  points  of  Greek  archaeology,  epigraphy,  and 
grammar.     Died  in  1SS5. 

Lange,  [Lat.  Lan'gius,]  (Rudolph,)  of  Munster,  a 
German  writer,  born  about  1438.  He  published  some 
Latin  poems.     Died  in  15 19. 

Lange,  de,  deh  ling'eh,  written  also  Langhe,  [Lat. 
Lan'gius,]  (Charles,)  an  eminent  Flemish  philologist 
and  critic,  born  at  Ghent  or  Brussels.  He  edited  Cicero's 
treatises  "  De  Officiis,"  "  De  Amicitia,"  and  "  De  Senec- 
tute."  Lipsius  pronounced  him  the  most  learned  Fleming 
of  his  time.     Died  at  Liege  in  1573. 

See  F^Lix  van  Hulst,  "  C.  de  Langhe  (Carolus  Langius)  et  Lieviii 
Vanderbeke,"  1846. 

Langeac,  de,  deh  ISx'zhtk',  (N.  de  l'Espinasse,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  poet,  born  about  1748.  He  pro- 
duced, besides  a  number  of  original  poems,  a  version  of 
Virgil's  "Bucolics,"  (1806.)     Died  in  1839. 

Langebeck,  l^ng'eh-b^k',  (Jacob,)  a  learned  Danish 
wiiter,  born  in  Jutland  in  17 10.  He  was  employed  -by 
the  king  to  collect  manuscripts,  inscriptions,  etc.  He 
became  keeper  of  the  national  archives,  and  councillor 
of  state.  His  principal  work  is  a  great  collection  of 
Danish  writers,  under  the  title  of  "  Danish  Historians 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  ("Scriptores  Rerum  Danicarum 
medii  ^vi,"  1772.)     Died  in  1774. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Langelande.     See  Longland. 

Langenbeck,  lJng'en-b§k',  (Konrad  Johann  Mar- 
tin,) a  German  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  in  the  king 
dom  of  Hanover  in  1776,  wrote  a  "  Manual  of  Anatomy," 
(1806,)  "  Icones  Anatomicas,"  (8  vols.,  1826-39,)  and 
other  valuable  works.     Died  in  1851. 

See  Saint-Maurice  Cabany,"  C.  J.  M.  Langenbeck,"  etc.,  1852. 

Langenbeck,  (Maximilian  Adolf,)  a  physician,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Gottingen,  January  11, 
1818.  He  held  professorships  in  Gottingen  and  Berlin, 
and  in  1864  became  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  Prussian 
army.  He  wrote  on  ophthalmology,  surgery,  and  medical 
police.     Died  in  1887. 

Langendyk,  l^no'en-dik',  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1683.  He  excelled  in  humorous 
composition,  and  was  the  author  of  several  epigrams 
and  comedies,  among  which  is  "  Don  Quixote  at  the 
Wedding  of  Camacho."     Died  in  1756. 

Langenn,  von,  fon  ling-gn',  (Friedrich  Albrecht,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Merseburg  in  1 798,  was  ai^pointed 
in  1835  tutor  to  Prince  Albert     Died  Dec.  30,  1868. 

Langenstein,  ling'en-stln',  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
astronomer  and  theologian,  born  in  Hesse,  was  called 
Henricus  de  Hassia.     Died  at  Vienna  in  1397. 

Langer,  IJng'er,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  painter 
born  in  1756,  became  successively  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  at  Dusseldorf  and  at  Munich,  where  he 
obtained  great  reputation  and  success  as  a  teacher.  His 
best  picture  rej^resents  "  Christ  Blessing  Children." 
Died  in  1824.  His  son  Robert,  born  at  IDusseldorf  in 
1783,  was  distinguished  as  a  fresco-painter  and  designer. 
Died  in  1846. 

Langeron,  de,  deh  15Nzh'r6N',  (Andrault,)  Count, 
a  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He  emigrated  in  1789, 
entered  the  Russian  service,  and  became  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  1799.  He  commanded  a  Russian  division  at 
Austerlitz,  in  1805,  and  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
French  in  the  campaign  of  1813.     Died  in  1831. 

Langetti,  lin-jet'tee,  (Giovanni  Batitsta,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1635  ;  died  in  1676. 

Langevin,  16Nzh'viN',  (Sir  Hector  Louis,)  a  Cana- 
dian statesman,  born  in  Quebec,  August  25,  1826.  He 
became  a  barrister  in  1850,  Queen's  counsel  in  1864, 
solicitor-general  for  Lower  Canada  in  1864,  postmaster- 
general  in  1866,  secretary  of  state  for  Canada  in  1867, 
minister  of  public  works  in  1869,  postmaster-general  in 


1878,  and  again  minister  of  public  works  in  1879.  He 
was  knighted  in  1881. 

Lang'ford,  (John  Alfred,)  an  English  author,  born 
at  P.irmingham,  September  12,  1823.  A  journalist  by 
profession,  he  published  numerous  volumes  of  prose  and 
verse.     Died  August  29,  1884. 

Langham,  lang'am,  de,  (  Simon,)  an  English  car- 
dinal, born  in  Rutlandshire.  He  was  appointed  by  the 
king  chancellor  in  1364,  became  Archbisho]3  of  Can- 
terbury in  1366,  and  a  cardinal  in  1368.  He  was  hostile 
to  Wyctiffe,  whom  he  removed  from  the  mastership  of 
a  college  at  Oxford.  The  temporalities  of  his  see  were 
seized  by  Edward  HL  about  1368.     Died  in  1376. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  iv.  chap.  xiii. 

Langhans,  ISng'hlns,  (Karl  Gotthard,)  an  eminent 
German  architect,  born  at  Landshut  in  1733.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  public  buildings  of  Berlin,  and 
adorned  that  city  with  several  fine  structures,  among 
which  are  the  Brandenburg  Gate  and  a  theatre.  He 
was  the  author  of  some  treatises  on  architecture.  Died 
in  1S08. 

Langhe,  de,  (Charles.)     See  Lange. 

Lang'horne,  (Rev.  Daniel,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London.  He  published  "  Chronicle  of  the 
Kings  of  England,"  ("  Chronicon  Regum  Anglorum," 
1679.)     Diedin  16S1. 

Langhorne,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1 735.  Having  taken  holy 
orders,  he  obtained  a  curacy  in  London  in  1764.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  successful  sentimental  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  among  which  are  "Letters  of  Theodosius  and 
Constantia,"  and  "  The  Fatal  Prophecy,"  a  drama.  About 
176S  he  obtained  the  living  of  Blagden,  Somersetshire. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  translation  of  Plu- 
tarch's "Lives,"  (1770,)  which  is  correct  and  literal. 
He  was  assisted  in  this  by  his  brother  William.  He 
vindicated  the  Scotch  against  the  satire  of  Churchill  in 
a  poem  called  "  Genius  and  Valour."  His  versification 
is  easy  and  harmonious.     Died  in  1779- 

See  Johnson  and  Chalmers,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Langhorne,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1 721,  and  became  rector  of  Folkstone.  He 
assisted  his  brother  in  the  translation  of  Plutarch,  and 
published  "Job,  a  Poem,"  and  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of 
a  part  of  Isaiah.     Died  in  1772. 

Langini,  lin-jee'nee,  (Antonio,)  called  also  Antonio 
da  Carrara,  because  he  was  born  at  Carrara,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  lived  about  1530. 

Langius.    See  Lange. 

Langlade,  de,  deh  IfiN'gltd',  (Jacques,)  Baron  de 
Saumieres,  a  French  writer,  born  in  Perigord  about 
1620.  He  was  secretary  to  Cardinal  Mazarin.  Died 
in  1680. 

Langland.     See  Longland. 

Langle,  ISx'gli',  (Honors  Francois  Marie,)  an  able 
writer  on  music,  born  at  Monaco  in  1741.  He  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Harmony  and  Modulation,"  (1797,)  and 
composed  several  operas.     Died  in  1807. 

Langle,  de,  deh  IftNgl,  (Jean  Maximilien,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Evreux  in  1590; 
died  at  Rouen  in  1674. 

Langle,  de,  (Paul  Antoine  Marie  Fleuriot,)  an 
able  French  naval  officer,  born  in  1744.  He  sailed  as 
second  in  command  of  La  Perouse's  exploring  expe- 
dition. He  was  killed  by  the  savages  on  one  of  the 
Navigator  Islands  in  1787. 

Langles,iaN'glgss',  (Louis  Mathieu,)  a  French  Ori- 
entalist, born  near  Saint-Didier  in  1763.  He  gave  special 
attention  to  Arabic  and  Persian,  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  professor  of  Persian  in 
Paris,  and  keeper  of  the  Oriental  manuscrijUs  of  the 
National  Library,  (1795.)  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  a  French  version  of  the  "  Political  and  Military 
Institutes  of  Tamerlane,"  translations  from  the  Eng- 
lish of  several  books  of  travels  in  the  East,  a  Mantchoo 
Dictionary,  and  "Ancient  and  Modern  Monuments  of 
Hindostan,"  (2  vols.,  1812-21,  unfinished.)   Died  in  1824. 

See  Abel  Remusat,  "  Nouveaux  Melanges  Aslatiques ;"  J.  P. 
A.  Remusat,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  L.  M.  Langlfes," 
1825  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 


»,  e,  r,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  nigt;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


LANGLET 


14S7 


LANJUINAIS 


Langlet.     See  Lenglet. 

Lang'ley,  (Samuel  P.,)  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
astronomer,  born  at  Koxbury,  (Huston,)  Massachusetts, 
August  22,  1834.  lie  received  his  professional  training 
at  the  Harvard  Ctjllege  Observatory,  and  in  1867  be- 
came director  of  the  observatory  at  Alleghany,  Pennsyl- 
vania. Since  1870  he  has  devoted  a  large  share  of  at- 
tention to  solar  physics,  and  in  1880  invented  the  bo- 
lometer, an  instrument  for  measuring  minute  quantities 
of  radiant  energy.  In  1881  he  organized  an  expedition 
to  Mt.  Whitneyi  California,  for  the  more  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  Solar  Constant.  lie  has  published  many 
astronomical  papers,  and,  for  his  researches  and  discov- 
eries, has  been  awarded  the  Draper  medal,  and  also  both 
the  Rumford  medals, — one  from  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  and  the  other  from  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences.  In  1887  he  was  elected  Secretary  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington. 

Langlois,  loN'ghvd',  (Eustache  Hvacinthe,)  a  skil- 
ful French  designer  and  engraver,  born  in  1777  ;  d.  1837. 

Langlois,  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1649,  became  a  resident  of  Rome. 

Langlois,  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  painter  of  bat- 
tles and  panoramas,  born  in  Calvados  in  1789.  Among 
his  works  are  panoramas  of  the  "Battle  of  Moskwa" 
and  the  "Burning  of  Moscow."     Died  in  1870. 

L'Anglois,  ISN'glwl',  (Michel,)  [Lat.  Michael 
Angli'cus,]  a  Flemish  priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Beaumont  about  1470. 

Langlois,  (Simon  Alexandre,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  in  1788.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  in  1835.  Among  his  works  is  "Rig 
Veda,  ou  Livre  des  Hymnes,"  translated  from  the  San- 
scrit, (4  vols.,  1849-52.)     Died  in  1854. 

Langri.sh,  lang'grish,  (Browne,)  an  English  physi- 
cian, born  about  1700,  wrote  several  works  on  medicine. 
Died  in  1759. 

Langsdorff,  lings'doRf,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  Baron, 
a  German  naturalist  and  physician,  born  in  Suabia  in 
1774,  accompanied  Krusenstern's  expedition  to  the 
North,  (1803,)  and  afterwards  visited  Brazil.  He  pub- 
lished a  Treatise  on  "Plants  collected  during  the  Rus- 
sian Voyage  around  the  World,"  (1810,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1852. 

Lang'toft,  (Peter,)  an  English  chronicler,  who  lived 
about  1300,  was  a  canon-regular  of  the  order  of  Saint 
Austin  at  Bridlington.  He  compiled  a  "  Chronicle  of 
England,"  (in  French  verse,)  which  extends  to  the  year 
1307.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward II. 

Laug'ton,  (Stephen,)  an  English  cardinal,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  In  1206  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
was  made  a  cardinal.  The  election  of  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  being  contested  in  1207,  Innocent  III.  com- 
pelled the  monks  to  choose  Langton,  whom  King  John 
refused  to  recognize  until  the  pope,  by  laying  his  king- 
dom under  an  interdict,  reduced  him  to  submission  in 
1213.  He  co-operated  with  the  insurgent  barons  in 
asserting  the  national  liberties  against  King  John  in 
12 1 5,  and  was  suspended  by  the  pope  for  refusing  to 
publish  the  sentence  of  excommunication  against  the 
barons.     Died  in  1228. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  xii. 

Languet,  IfiN'gi',  (Hubert,)  a  French  Protc-stanl 
and  ]:iolitical  writer,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1518,  was  a 
friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  He  entered  the  service  of 
Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  in  1568,  and  was  the  envoy 
of  that  ])rince  to  Paris  at  the  time  of  the  Massacre  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  from  which  he  escaped.  He  was 
afterwards  employed  as  negotiator  by  William,  Prince 
of  Orange.  In  1579  he  published,  under  the  name  of 
Junius  Brutus,  a  famous  work,  entitled  "  Vindicias  contra 
Tyrannos,"  a  bold  assertion  of  the  right  of  resistance  to 
tyrants.     Died  in.1581. 

See  Philibert  dk  la  Mare,  "Vie  d'Hiibert  Languet,"  1700: 
Chevreul,  "Hubert  Languet,"  1852;  Bavi.e,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Nic^ron,  "  Mdmoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale." 

Languet  de  Gergy,  ISN'gV  deh  zh^R'zhe',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  French  philanthropist  and  bene- 


factor, was  born  at  Dijon  in  1675.  He  became  vicar  of 
.-^aint-Sulpice,  Paris,  and  built  the  magnificent  church 
of  Saint-Sulpice,  finished  in  1745.  He  also  founded  in 
Paris  an  institution  in  which  poor  women  and  girls  were 
suj^ported  and  educated.  It  is  said  that  he  several  times 
refused  a  bishopric.     Died  in  1750. 

Languet  de  Gergy,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  at  Dijon  in  1677,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  Jansenists, 
and  ."ained  distinction  by  his  polemical  writings.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1 721,  and 
Archbishop  of  Sens  in  1730.  He  published  Catechisms, 
and  other  religious  books.     Died  in  1753. 

Lanier  or  Laniere,  IS-ne-aiR',  (Niccol6,)  an  Italiati 
l^ainter  and  musician,  was  born  in  1 568.  He  lived  in  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  who  patronized  him  and 
employed  him  to  purchase  pictures.  He  was  more  eminent 
as  a  musician  than  as  a  painter,  and  became  the  king's 
chapel-master  in  1626.  Lanier  was  also  a  dealer  in 
pictures,  and  jjurchased  several  at  the  sale  and  dispersion 
of  the  collection  of  Charles  I.     Died  about  1660. 

Lanier,  lan'i-er,  (Sidney,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Macon,  Georgia,  February  3,  1842.  He  graduated  witht 
honours  at  Oglethorpe  College  in  i860,  served  in  the  Con- 
federate army,  1861-65,  and  was  five  months  a  prisoner 
of  war.  After  the  war  he  became  a  lawyer,  and  partner 
with  his  father  at  Macon.  His  earliest  work  was  "  Tiger- 
Lilies,"  a  novel,  (1867.)  "Florida"  (1875)  ^^^  ^  small 
descriptive  work  in  prose.  His  "  Poems,"  (1876,)  and 
especially  his  Centennial  Ode,  made  him  well  known 
everywhere.  He  also  prepared  "The  Boy's  Froissart," 
(1879,)  "The  Boy's  King  Arthur,"  (i88o,)'"The  Science 
of  English  Verse,"  (i88o,)  and  "The  Boy's  Mabino- 
gion,"  (1881.)  His  "The  English  Novel  and  its  Develop- 
ment," (1883,)  and  "Complete  Poems,"  (1884,)  were  post- 
humously published.  He  lectured  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University  and  other  schools  on  literary  topics.  Lanier's 
poetical  gifts  were  rich  and  abundant.  He  died  of  con- 
sumption, at  Lynn,  North  Carolina,  September  8,  1881. 

Lan'I-gan,  (George  Thomas,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Saint  Charles,  Canada,  December  10,  1845.  H!e 
became  a  journalist  of  the  United  States,  and  contributed 
largely  to  periodical  literature  on  political,  literary,  and 
social  subjects.  His  principal  books  are  "  Canadian 
Ballads,"  (1S64,)  "Fables  out  of  the  World,"  (1S77,)  a 
comic  "Life  of  Andrew  Jackson,"  etc.     Died  in  1SS6. 

Lan'I-gan,  (John,)  an  Irish  writer  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic priest,  born  at  Cashel  in  1758.  Among  his  works  is 
an  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland,"  (4  vols.,  1822.) 
Died  in  1828. 

Lanino,  ll-nee'no,  or  Lanini,  li-nee'nee,  (Bernar- 
dino,) an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Vercelli,  was 
a  pupil  of  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,  whom  he  imitated.  He 
worked  at  Milan  and  Novara.  His  design  and  composi- 
tion are  admired.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  .Scenes 
in  the  Life  of  the  Virgin,"  "The  Sibyls,"  (at  Novara,) 
and  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Catherine,"  (in  fresco,)  at 
Milan.     Died  about  1570. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  Storia  pittorica.' 

Lanjuinais,  IfiN'zhii-e'ni',  (Jean  Denis,)  Count,  a 
French  lawyer  and  liberal  legislator,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1753.  He  was  deputed  to  the  States-General  in  1789, 
and  to  the  Convention  in  1792.  In  the  latter  body  he 
boldly  defended  the  king  during  his  trial,  and  resisted 
the  terrorists  with  great  energy.  His  defence  of  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793,  is  praised  by  Lamartine.  He 
was  proscribed  with  the  Girondists,  but  escaped,  and 
kept  himself  concealed  during  the  reign  of  terror.  H; 
was  chosen  a  senator  in  1800,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1S08.  He  published  many 
political,  religious,  and  historical  treatises.  Died  January 
13,  1827. 

See  DupiN,  "  Notice  sur  Lanjuinais,"  1827 ;  Dacier,  "  Notice  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrasies  de  Lanjuinais:"  Michel  Berr,  "Notice 
biographique  sur  le  Comte  Lanjuinais,"  1827;  V.  de  Lanjuinais, 
"Notice  historique  sur  J.  D.  de  Lanjuinais,"  1832;  LaimartinE; 
"  Hisioiy  of  the  Girondists;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lanjuinais,  (Joseph,)  a  French  writer,  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Bretagne.  Having  removed  to 
Moudon,  in  Switzerland,  he  turned  Protestant,  and  became 
a  school-teacher.     He  published,  besides  other  works. 


cas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  K,gutlural;  N,  ttasal;  R,  irilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     (S^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LANJUTNAIS 


LANSDOWNE 


"The  Accoinijlished  Monarch  ;  or,  Prodigies  of  Goodness 
and  Wisdom  which  make  the  Eulogy  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.,"  (3  vols.,  1774.)     Died  in  1808. 

Lanjuinais,  (VicroR,)  a  French  lawyer,  a  son  of  Jean 
Denis,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1838,  and  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1848.     Died  January  2,  1869. 

Laiik'es-ter,  (Edwin,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist 
and  popular  lecturer,  born  at  Melton,  in  Suffolk,  in  1814, 
graduated  as  M.D.  at  Heidelberg  in  1839.  He  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1845,  and  professor  of 
natural  history  at  New  College,  London,  in  1850.  He 
lectuied  on  natural  history  at  the  Royal  Institution  and 
other  places,  and  contributed  scientific  papers  to  various 
periodicals.  He  became  joint  editor  of  the  "Quarterly 
Journal  of  Microscopical  Science"  in  1853.  Among  his 
works  are  an  article  on  sanitary  science  in  the  "Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,"  and  "  Half-Hours  with  the  Micro- 
scope," (1859.)      Died  October  30,  1S74. 

Lankester,  (Edwi.m  Ray,)  an  English  biologist,  a 
son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in  London,  May  15, 
1847.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and 
in  1874  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  compara- 
tive anatomy  in  University  College,  London.  He  has 
published  several  books,  and  many  scientific  papers, 
mostly  on  palaeontology  and  comparative  anatomy. 

Lankrink.     See  Lancrinck. 

Lan'nian,  (Charles,)  an  American  artist  and  author, 
a  son  of  Judge  Lanman,  of  Connecticut,  was  born  at 
Frenchtown,  Michigan,  June  14,  1819.  He  became  a 
journalist,  and  for  many  years  held  positions  in  the  civil 
service  at  Washington,  D.C.  He  was  one  of  the  secre- 
taries of  the  Ja])anese  legation  at  Washington,  1S71-82. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Life  on  the  Lakes," 
(1S36,)  "  Summer  in  the  Wilderness,"  (1847,)  "Essays 
for  Summer  Hours,"  (1853,)  "  Dictionary  of  Congres>," 
(1S58,)  "The  Japanese  in  America,"  (1S72,)  "Recollec- 
tions of  Curious  Characters  and  Pleasant  Places,"  (1881,) 
and  "Leading  Men  of  Japan,"  (1S83.)  He  is  prominent 
as  a  landscape-painter,  and  is  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,  New  York. 

Lannei-,  lin'ner,  (Joseph  Franz  Karl,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1802.  His  works  consist 
chiefly  of  overtures,  ballet-pieces,  marches,  and  waltzes. 
Died  in  1843. 

Lannes,  Itn,  (Jean,)  Duke  of  Montebello,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  marshals  of  the  French  empire,  was 
born  of  humble  parentage  at  Lectoure  (Gers)  in  1769. 
He  entered  the  army  as  a  volunteer  in  1792,  and  was 
rapidly  promoted  until  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  9th  Thermi- 
dor,  1794,  when  he  was  forced  to  retire  from  the  army. 
As  chef-de-bataillon,  he  served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy 
in  1796,  and  was  made  a  colonel  for  his  conduct  at  Mon- 
tenotte.  In  179S  he  followed  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  where 
he  became  a  general  of  division  and  rendered  important 
service  at  Aboukir.  His  courage  and  capacity  were  very 
conspicuous  at  the  battles  of  Montebello  and  Marengo, 
in  1800.  He  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Por- 
tugal in  1801,  and  on  his  return,  in  1804,  was  created  a 
marshal  of  the  empire  and  Duke  of  Montebello. 

Lannes  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  grand  army 
in  the  campaign  of  1805,  and  added  to  his  already 
brilliant  reputation  at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  (1806.)  His 
military  skill  was  e.xerted  with  success  at  the  memorable 
siege  of  Saragossa,  where  he  commanded  in  chief,  in 
1809.  In  the  second  war  against  Austria  he  contributed 
to  the  victory  at  Eckmiihl,  (1809,)  and  directed  the  suc- 
cessful attack  on  Ratisbon,  where,  when  his  men  faltered, 
he  seized  a  scaling-ladder  and  ran  forward  through  "  the 
imminent  deadly  breach."  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Aspern  and  Essling,  in  May,  1809.  In  the 
midst  of  the  conflict.  Napoleon  paused  to  address  the 
dying  general,  who  said,  "Adieu,  Sire!  Live  for  the 
world  ;  but  bestow  a  few  thoughts  on  one  of  your  best 
friends,  who  in  a  few  hours  will  be  no  more."  The  em- 
peror is  said  to  have  been  more  deeply  affected  by  this 
scene  than  he  ever  was  before.  "  Lannes  was  at  once," 
said  Napoleon,  "  the  Roland  of  the  army  and  a  giant  in 
cajjacity.  He  had  been  in  fifty-four  pitched  battles.  He 
was  cool  in  the  midst  of  fire,  and  possessed  a  clear, 
penetrating  eye.  Violent  and  hasty  in  his  temper,  some- 


times even  in  my  presence,  he  was  yet  ardently  attached 
to  me.  As  a  general,  he  was  greatly  superior  to  Moreau 
or  Soult.  I  found  him  a  mere  swordsman  ;  I  raised  him 
to  the  highest  point  of  art."  He  left  a  son,  Napoleon 
Auguste,  Duke  of  Montebello. 

.See  Rhn^  Perin,  "  Vie  niilitairede  J.  I.annes,"  iSio  :  ChXteau- 
NKUF,  "  Vie  du  .Mardchal  Lannes,"  1813  ;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution;"  '' Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Lannes,  (Napoleon  Auguste,)  Duke  of  Montebello, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1802.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Naples  in  1838,  and  became  minister 
of  the  marine  in  1847.  In  1849  he  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  .\ssembly,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  ma- 
jority. He  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1858, 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army  at  Rome 
about  June,  i8f)2.      Died  July  19,  1874. 

Lanno,  It'no',  (Francois  Gaspard  Aim6,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Rennes  in  1800.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1827  for  his  Mucins  Scsevola.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  of  Fenelon  and  Pascal.     Died  in  1871. 

Lannoi.     See  Lannoy. 

Lannoy,  IS'n  wi',  (Juliana  Cornelia,)  Baroness  of, 
an  eminent  Dutch  poetess,  born  at  Breda  in  1738.  Her 
poetical  talents  were  displayed  in  satires,  odes,  and  epis- 
tles, which  are  admired  for  elegance  and  spirit-stirring 
power.  She  produced  three  successful  tragedies,  "  Leo 
the  Great,"  (1767,)  "The  Siege  of  Haarlem,"  (1770,)  and 
"Cleopatra,"  (1776.)     Died  in  1782. 

Lannoy  or  Lannoi,  de,  deh  It'nwi',  (Charles,)  a 
fiimous  general  of  the  Spanish  armies,  was  born  in  Flan- 
ders about  1470.  Having  served  with  distinction  in 
various  campaigns,  he  received  the  badge  of  the  Golden 
Fleece  in  15 16,  and  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Naples  by 
Charles  V.  in  1521.  After  the  death  of  Prosper  Colonna, 
he  commanded  the  imperial  armies,  and  in  1525  gained 
the  decisive  victory  of  Pavia,  where  he  exchanged  swords 
with  Francis  I.  Diedini527.  (See  AVALOS,  Ferdihando 
d',  Marquis  de  Pescara.) 

His  son  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Boyennes,  born  in  Italy 
about  1 5 10,  was  versed  in  mathematics,  and  was  reputed 
the  inventor  of  the  demi-cannon.  He  attained  the  rank 
of  general  of  artillery  in  the  Spanish  army,  and  was  after- 
wards Governor  of  Holland  and  of  Gray.     Died  in  1579. 

La  None.     See  Noue,  La. 

Lanoue,  It'noo',  (Fi:Lix  Hippolyte,)  a  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Versailles  in  1812.  He  gained  the 
first  prize  for  landscapes  in  1841.     Died  Jan.  22,  1872. 

Lansberg,  lins'b^Rc',  or  Lanspefg,  llns'pSKo', 
(Johann,)  an  ascetic  German  writer  and  monk,  born  at 
Landsberg,  in  Bavaria.  Died  in  1539.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  a  "Manual  of  the  Christian  Warfare,"  ("En- 
chiridion Militiae  Christianas,"  1546,)  which  he  wrote  in 
opposition  to  the  "  Miles  Christianus"  of  Erasinus. 

Lansberg,  lUns'b^Rgor  lans'beRH,  written  alsoLaus- 
berghe,  (Philippus,)  a  Dutch  astronomer  and  geometer, 
born  in  Zealand  in  1561.  He  was  for  many  years  pastor 
of  the  Protestant  church  at  Ter-Goes.  He  published, 
besides  other  works  on  mathematics,  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Diurnal  and  Annual  Motion  of  the  Earth,"  (1630,)  in 
which  he  advocates  the  Copernican  system,  and  "  Geom- 
etry of  Triangles,"  (1631.)     Died  in  1632. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Foppens, 
"Bibliotheca  Belglca." 

Lansdo-wne.  See  Granville,  (George.) 
Lans'downe,  (Henry  Charles  Keith  Fitzmau- 
rice,)  fifth  Marquis  of,  an  English  peer,  born  in  1S45, 
a  son  of  the  fourth  marquis,  previously  noticed.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  his  titles  in  1S66.  He  held  positions  in  the 
treasury,  war,  and  India  offices  under  Mr.  Gladstone, 
and  in  May,  1883,  was  appointed  Governor-General  of 
Canada. 

Lansdowne,  lanz'down,  (Henry  Petty  Fitz-Mau- 
rice.)  third  Marquis  of,  an  eminent  English  statesman, 
born  in  1780,  was  the  second  son  of  the  first  Marquis. 
(See  Shelburne.)  About  1795  he  was  placed  under 
the  tuition  of  Dugald  Stewart  in  Edinburgh,  and  several 
years  later  he  graduated  at  Catiibridge.  In  1802  Lord 
Henry  Petty  entered  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he 
at  length  became  a  successful  debater.  He  was  ap- 
pointed  chancellor   of  the  exchequer    when    the  Whig 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mht;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


LANSDOWNE 


14S9 


LAO-TSE 


ministry  of  Grenville  and  Fox  came  into  power  in  1806, 
but  retired  from  t'lat  office  in  March  of  the  ensuing 
year.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ilchester 
in  1808.  At  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  1809,  he  in- 
heritsid  the  title  of  marquis,  and  passed  into  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  cordially  supported  at  different  times  the 
efforts  to  abolish  slavery,  spoke  ably  in  favour  of  Catholic 
emancipation,  and  acted  generally  with  the  Whig  party. 
In  1827  he  was  secretary  for  the  home  department  under 
Canning  for  three  or  four  months  ;  and  during  the  brief 
ministry  of  Lord  Goderich,  which  resigned  about  the 
end  of  1828,  he  was  secretary  of  foreign  affairs.  On  the 
formation  of  a  Whig  ministry  by  Lord  Grey  in  1831,  Lord 
Lansdowne  became  president  of  the  Council,  which  po- 
sition he  filled  with  credit  until  1841.  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  opposition  in  the  House  of  Lords  from  1841  until 
1846,  when  he  entered  the  cabinet  of  Lord  John  Russell 
as  president  of  the  Council.  He  resigned  in  1852.  Died 
about  February  i,  1863. 

His  son,  the  fourth  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  born  in 
1816,  died  in  July,  1S66. 

Lansdowne,  Marquis  of.     See  Shelburne,  Earl 

OF. 

Lantara,  ISN'tt'rt',  (Simon  Mathurin,)  an  excellent 
French  landscape-painter,  born  nearMilly  in  1729,  or,  as 
some  say,  in  1745.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  passed  his 
life  in  poverty,  caused  by  his  indolent  and  improvident 
habits.  His  manner  reminds  one  of  Claude  Lorrain. 
He  excelled  in  aerial  perspective,  and  represented  in  a 
marvellous  manner  the  different  periods  of  the  day.  The 
skies  of  his  pictures  present  a  vapory  tone  and  an  ex- 
quisite lightness  of  touch.     Died  in  Paris  in  1778. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres ;"  La  Chavigne- 
RIE,  "  Recherches  historiques,  biographiques  et  litteraires  sur  le 
Peintre  Lantara,"  1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lanteri,  IJn-ta'ree,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Briga  in  i8oi.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History 
of  the  House  of  Savoy,"  ("  Storia  della  Monarchia  di 
Casa  Savoja,"  1835.)     Died  in  1843. 

Lanthenas,  IfiNt'nSs',  (Franqois,)  a  French  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  Forez  about  1740.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  National  Convention,  and  was  proscribed  with  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793  ;  but  his  name  was  erased  from 
the  fatal  list  by  Marat  with  an  expression  of  contempt. 
Died  in  1799. 

Lantier,  de,  deh  16N'te-i^  (Etienne  Francois,)  a 
popular  French  author,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1734,  was 
called  "the  Anacharsis  of  the  Boudoirs."  His  comedy 
"  L'Impatient"  was  performed  with  great  applause  in 
1778.  He  is  ranked  by  some  critics  among  the  best 
disciples  of  the  school  of  Voltaire.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  (1793)  he  was  imprisoned  at  Lyons.  He  after- 
wards produced  a  fictitious  narrative  of  the  "  Travels  of 
Antenor,"  ("Voyages  d'Antenor,"  1798,)  which  had  a 
prodigious  success  and  was  translated  into  nearly  all 
modern  languages.  At  the  age  of  ninety  he  composed 
a  poem,  called  "Geoffroy  Rudel,  or  the  Troubadour." 
Died  in  1826. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lanusse,  It'niiss',  (Franqois,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Habas  (Les  Landes)  in  1772.  As  general  of 
brigade  he  rendered  important  services  at  Lodi  and 
Castiglione,  and  as  general  of  division  followed  Bona- 
parte to  Egypt  in  1798.  He  commanded  in  the  Delta 
during  the  expedition  against  Syria,  and  was  killed  by 
the  English  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria,  or  Aboukir,  in 
March,  1801. 

See  Adrien  Pascal,  "  Biographies  du  Lieut. -G^n^ral  de  Lanusse 
et  du  Lieut. -G^n^ral  Baron  de  Lanusse,"  1843. 

Lan'yon,  (Charles,)  an  English  architect  and  civil 
engineer,  born  in  Sussex  in  1813.  He  designed  Queen's 
College,  in  Belfast,  and  other  edifices.     Died  in  1889. 

Lanza,  ISn'zS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  statesman,  born 
at  Vignale,  in  Piedmont,  in  1815.  He  was  a  physician 
by  profession,  and  between  1855  and  1873  "^^^^  many 
cabinet  positions  under  Victor  Emmanuel,  for  several 
terms  acting  as  premier.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
attempted,  but  only  in  part  successful,  financial  reforms. 
Died  March  9,  1882. 

Lanzani,  IJn-zi'nee,  or  Lanzano,  lin-zi'no,  (An- 
drea,) an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  about  1648, 


studied  under  Carlo  Maratta.  He  worked  at  Milan  and 
Vienna,  where  he  was  employed  by  the  emperor.  Among 
his  works  are  a  Saint  Charles  Borromeo,  and  a  "  Holy 
Family,"     Died  at  Vienna  in  1712. 

Lanzano.     See  Lanzani. 

Lanzi,  IJn'zee,  (Luici,)  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  near  Macerata  in  1732.  He 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  had  acquired  the 
reputation  of  an  able  professor  and  writer,  when  the 
suppression  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  opened  to  him  a  new  career.  He  was  chosen 
sub-director  of  the  Gallery  of  Florence  in  1773.  In  1789 
he  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Etruscan  Language,"  (3 
vols.,)  which  was  highly  prized  by  the  learned.  His 
reputation  was  increased  by  his  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy  from  the  Renaissance  of  Art  to  the  End  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  ("  Storia  pittorica  della  Italia," 
etc.,  1792  ;  3d  edition,  6  vols.,  1809,)  which  is  character- 
ized by  good  taste  and  judicious  criticism.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Thomas  Roscoe.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Zannoni,  "  Elogio  storico  di  L.  Lanzi;"  Mauro  Boni, 
"  Sa^gio  di  Studj  di  L.  Lanzi,"  i8is;  A.  Cappi,  "  Biografia  di  L 
Lanzi,"  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

Lanzoni,  IJn-zo'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1663.  He  obtained  in  1684 
a  professorship  of  philosophy  at  Ferrara,  which  he  re- 
tained until  his  death.  His  works  have  been  collected 
under  the  title  "Opera  Omnia  Medico-Physica  et  Philo- 
sophica,"  (3  vols.,  1738.)     Died  in  1730. 

La-00'o-on,  fGr.  Aao/cowp,]  a  Trojan  hero,  and  a  priest 
of  Apollo  or  of  Neptune,  was  variously  represented  as  a 
son  of  Antenor  or  a  son  of  Priam.  He  strenuously 
opposed  the  admission  of  the  wooden  horse  into  the  city 
of  Troy,  and  thrust  his  spear  into  that  structure.  While 
he  was  offering  a  sacrifice  to  Neptune  with  his  two  sons, 
two  huge  serpents,  issuing  from  the  sea,  attacked  them 
and  crushed  them  all  to  death.  His  story  was  a  favourite 
subject  with  the  ancient  poets  and  artists,  and  has  derived 
especial  celebrity  from  a  magnificent  marble  group  of 
Laocoon  and  his  sons  which  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican 
in  Rome,  and  which  was  described  by  Pliny  as  superios 
to  all  other  master-pieces  of  ancient  sculptors.  Thia 
group  was  executed  by  Agesander,  his  son  Athenodorus. 
and  Polydorus. 

See  Virgil's  ".'Eneid,"  book  ii.  41-50  and  199-233;  also,  Les- 
sing's  "  Laocoon." 

Laodameia.     See  Laodamia. 

La-o-da-nii'a  or  La-o-da-mei'a,  [Gr.  Kao5dy.£ia; 
Fr.  Laodamie,  It'o'dt'me',]  a  daughter  of  Acastus,  and 
wife  of  Protesilaus,  the  first  Greek  who  fell  at  Troy.  To 
keep  alive  the  memory  of  her  husband,  whom  she  ten- 
derly loved,  she  caused  a  wooden  image  of  him  to  be 
made.  Her  father,  in  the  hope  of  dispelling  her  grief, 
ordered  it  to  be  burned,  when  she  threw  herself  into  the 
flames  and  perished  with  it. 

Laodamie.     See  Laodamia. 

La-od'i-ce,  [AaocJi'/c?/,]  the  name  of  several  Grecian 
princesses,  one  of  whom  was  the  mother  of  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator,  founder  of  a  Syrian  dynasty.  Another  was  the 
wife  of  Antiochus  Theos,  whom  she  poisoned  in  246  B.C. 
Her  son,  Seleucus  Callinicus,  then  became  king. 

La-om'e-don,  [Gr.  Aao/«(5wv,]  the  king  and  founder 
of  Troy,  and  the  father  of  Priam.  According  to  ancient 
legends,  Neptune  and  Apollo  were  condemned  to  serve 
Laomedon  for  one  year,  and  the  former  built  the  walls 
of  Troy  for  a  stipulated  price,  but  after  the  work  was 
finished  the  perfidious  king  refused  to  pay  Neptune. 
Laomedon  was  killed  by  Hercules  for  another  breach 
of  faith. 

Laomedon,  a  Greek  general  in  the  service  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  that  king  in 
a  high  degree.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  he  became 
governor  of  Syria,  in  323  B.C.  He  was  driven  out  by  the 
army  of  Ptolemy  about  321  B.C. 

Lao-Tse,  IS'o'tseh'  or  la'o'tsiih',  or  Lao-Tseu,  li'o'- 
tsuh^  written  also  Laou-Tsze  andLao-Tze,  sometimes 
called  Lao-Kiun,  (kyoon,)  a  celebrated  Chinese  phi- 
losopher or  sage,  who  was  born,  it  is  said,  in  the  province 
of  Honan,  565  years  before  Christ,  or  fourteen  years  be- 
fore  the  birth  of  Confucius.  He  was  born,  we  are  told, 
with  white  hair  and  eyebrows,  whence  he  was  named 


■eas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  v:., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

94 


(ffi^°"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAO-TSEU 


1490 


LA  PL  A  CE 


Lao-Tse,  the  "hoary  or  aged  child,"  and  Lao-Kiun,  the 
"aged  prince."  His  white  hair  seems  to  have  been  re- 
garded as  an  indication  of  his  early  wisdom.  Many  other 
marvels  are  told  concerning  his  birth,  which  need  not  be 
related  here.  It  seems  probable  that  Lao-Tse  was  not 
wholly  unacquainted  with  the  religious  doctrines  of  India, 
not  only  those  of  the  Brahmans,  but  perhaps  also  of  the 
Booddhists.  For  some  years  he  was  archivist  and  his- 
toriographer to  one  of  the  Chinese  princes.  He  was,  it 
is  said,  profoundly  versed  in  the  doctrines  and  institutions 
of  the  ancients.  He  taught  the  existence  of  a  supreme 
Being,  under  the  name  of  Tao,  or  the  "supreme  reason." 
His  "followers  are  called  Tao-Sse  (tA'o  si)  or  Taose, — 
that  is,  the  "disciples  of  Reason."  Instead  of  referring, 
like  Confucius,  to  the  authority  of  the  ancient  sages,  he 
taught  that  we  must  seek  for  the  principles  of  right 
within  ourselves,  in  complete  retirement  from  all  worldly 
pursuits  and  thoughts.  On  one  occasion  Confucius  had 
an  interview  with  Lao-Tse,  who  cautioned  him  against 
seeking  the  honours  of  the  world.  Lao-Tse  observed 
that  the  possessor  of  true  wisdom  seeks  rather  to  hide 
than  to  display  his  riches.  Confucius  left  him  deeply 
impressed  with  his  extraordinary  character,  and  evidently 
regarded  him  as  something  wonderful,  if  not  divine.  We 
are  told  that  after  this  interview  Confucius  said  to  his 
disciples,  "  It  does  not  astonish  me  to  see  the  birds  fly, 
^he  fishes  swim,  or  the  beasts  run  ;  I  know  that  the  fishes 
may  be  taken  with  nets,  the  beasts  with  snares,  and  that 
the  birds  may  be  shot  with  an  arrow.  But  I  cannot  tell 
how  the  dragon*  can  fly  on  the  wind  through  the  clouds 
and  raise  himself  to  heaven.  To-day  I  have  seen  Lao- 
Tse  :  he  can  be  compared  only  to  the  dragon."  The 
date  of  Lao-Tse's  death  is  unknown.  He  was  undoubt- 
edly an  extraordinary  man,  and  his  influence  is  not  yet 
lost  in  China.  The  following  sayings  of  his  may  serve 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  cast  and  calibre  of  his  mind  :  "  He 
only  can  be  called  wise  (or  enlightened)  who  knows  him- 
self; he  only  can  be  called  valiant  who  subdues  him- 
self; he  only  can  be  called  rich  who  knows  what  is 
necessary."  Like  the  Brahmans  of  India,  Lao-Tse 
taught  the  final  absorption  of  pure  and  enlightened  souls 
into  the  supreme  eternal  Spirit,  and  that,  "having  thus 
become  one  with  the  supreme  Reason,  they  will  exist 
eternally."  He  inculcated  universal  benevolence  :  we 
ought  to  show  kindness  not  only  to  the  sincere  and  vir- 
tuous, but  also  to  the  insincere  and  wicked.  '"Those 
who  are  holy,"  he  says,  "will  treat  all  men  as  a  father 
treats  his  children."  The  religion  of  the  Tao-Sse,  at 
the  present  day,  seems  closely  allied  to  Booddhism ; 
and  many  of  its  votaries  of  both  sexes,  like  the  followers 
of  Gautama,  spend  their  lives  in  monasteries.  The 
modern  Tao-Sse  are  much  addicted  to  superstitious 
observances,  and  deal  largely  in  sorcery.  They  are  very 
popular  with  the  common  people,  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  empire  their  influence  rivals  that  of  the  Booddhists. 
See  Pauthier,  "Chine,"  pp.  110-120;  Legge,  "Life  and  Teach- 
ings of  Confucius,"  chap,  v.,  London,  1867,  Trubner&  Co.  ;  Brock- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon,"  article  "  Lao-Tse  ;"  LooMis,"  Con- 
fucius and  the  Chinese  Classics,"  p.  278  et  seg.  ;  J.  P.  A.  RAmusat, 
"  M^moire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Opinions  de  Lao-Tseu,"  1829. 

Lao-Tseu.     See  Lao-Tse. 

Laou-Tse  or  Laou-Tsze.     See  Lao-Tse. 

La  Paix,  the  French  of  Eirene,  which  see. 

LapareUi,  IJ-pS-rel'lee,  (  Francesco,  )  an  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Cortona  in  1521.  He  planned  the 
city  of  Valetta,  Malta,  and  assisted  Michael  Angelo  in 
the  design  of  Saint  Peter's,  at  Rome.     Died  in  1570. 

La  Pirouse.     See  P6rouse,  de  la. 

La  Peyrfere.     See  Peyr^re,  La. 

La  Peyronie,  de,  deh  It  pi'ro'ne',  (Francois  Gigot,) 
a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1678.  He  re- 
ceived the  title  of  first  surgeon  to  the  king,  (Louis  XV.,) 
and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Brain,"  (1708.) 
Died  in  1747. 

La  Peyroxise,  de,  deh  It  pi'rooz',  (Philippe  Picot,) 
Baron,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1744. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora  of  the  Pyr- 
enees," (1795-1801.)     Died  in  1818. 

See  Decampe,  "  filot;e  de  M.  le  Baron  de  La  Peyrouse,"  1819. 

*  The  dragon  of  the  Chinese  is  regarded  as  a  supernatural  oj 
divine  being. 


Lapham,  lap'am,  (Increase  A.,)  an  American  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Palmyra,  New  York,  in  1811.  He  pub 
lished  "  Wisconsin  :  its  Geography  and  Topography 
History,  Geology,  and  Mineralogy,"  (1844,)  "  Antiquities 
of  Wisconsin,"  (1855,)  etc.     He  died  Sept.  14,  1875. 

Lapi,  IS'pee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  in  1661,  was  a  pupil  of  Luca  Giordano.  The 
gallery  of  Florence  contains  a  "Transfiguration"  by  him. 
Died  in  1732. 

Lapide,  d.,  S  15'pe-di',  called  also  Steen,  (stan,) 
(Cornelius,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Liege.  He  wrote  "  Commentaries  on  the  Bible."  Died 
in  1657. 

Lapis,  IS'pfess,  (Gaetano,)  a  painter  of  the  Roman 
school,  born  in  Umbria  in  1704  ;  died  in  1776. 

Lapisse,  It'pJss',  (Pierre  I3elon,)  Baron  de  Sainte- 
Hel^ne,  a  French  general,  born  at  Lyons  in  1762,  was 
killed  at  Talavera  in  July,  1810. 

Lapithae,  lap'I-///ee,  [Gr.  Aanidai  ;  Fr.  Lapithes,  It'- 
p^t',]  a  fabulous  tribe  of  Thessalians,  whose  story  is 
intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  Centaurs.  They 
were  ruled  by  a  chief  named  Pirithous,  to  whose  mar- 
riage the  Centaurs  were  invited.  At  this  marriage-feast 
occurred  the  celebrated  fight  of  the  Lapithae  and  the 
Centaurs,  which  was  a  favourite  subject  with  the  ancient 
poets  and  artists. 

Lapithes.     See  Lapith>e. 

Lapito,  It'pe'to',  (Louis  Auguste,)  a  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  near  Paris  in  1805.  Many  of  his 
works  are  in  the  royal  galleries  of  Luxembourg,  Tuile- 
ries,  etc.     Died  April  7,  1874. 

Laplace,  It'pltss',  (  Cyrille  Pierre  Theodore,)  a 
French  navigator,  born  in  1793.  He  commanded  two 
scientific  expeditions,  of  which  he  gave  accounts  in  the 
following  works:  a  "Voyage  around  the  World,  per- 
formed in  1830-31-32,"  (5  vols.,  1833-39,)  and  "Circum- 
navigation of  the  Artemisia,  1837-40,"  (4  vols.,  1845-48.) 
He  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in  1853.     Died  in  1875. 

La  Place,  (Pierre.)     See  Place,  de  la. 

Laplace,  (-Pierre  Simon,)  one  of  the  greatest  as- 
tronomers and  mathematicians  of  any  age  or  country, 
was  born  at  Beaumont-en-Auge,  (Calvados,)  in  France, 
March  23,  1749.  His  father  was  a  peasant  or  poor 
farmer.  After  making  great  progress  in  the  high  mathe- 
matics at  the  Academy  of  Beaumont,  he  went  to  Paris, 
where,  through  the  influence  of  D'Alembert,  he  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  military  school  about 
1 768.  He  was  chosen  a  membre-adjoint  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1773,  and  about  that  time  produced  a  capital 
"Memoir  on  Differential  Equations  and  the  Secular  In- 
equalities of  the  Planets."  Addressing  himself  to  the 
arduous  questions  of  mathematical  astronomy,  he  began 
to  confirm  the  theories  of  his  predecessors  and  to  demon- 
strate in  detail  the  principles  of  Newton.  In  1785  he 
became  a  titular  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
which  he  enriched  with  memoirs  on  pure  mathematics, 
general  astronomy,  and  the  theory  of  the  planets.  He 
favoured  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  and  offered 
homage  to  the  rising  star  of  Bonaparte,  who  in  1799  nomi- 
nated him  minister  of  the  interior,  thinking,  perhaps, 
that  the  man  who  ascertained  the  laws  of  the  planetary 
perturbations  might  also  regulate  the  disturbing  forces 
of  the  social  and  political  spheres.  This  experiment  was 
a  failure,  and  Laplace  was  removed  from  that  office  to 
the  sinat  conservateiir  in  December,  1799.  "He  was," 
said  Napoleon,  "below  mediocrity  as  a  minister.  He 
looked  at  no  question  in  its  proper  point  of  view,  but, 
always  searching  for  subtleties,  aimed  to  conduct  the  gov- 
ernment on  the  principles  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus." 
In  1796  he  published  important  discoveries  in  his 
"  Exposition  of  the  System  of  the  Universe,"  ("  Exposi- 
tion du  Systeme  du  Monde,")  which  is  a  kind  of  trans- 
lation into  popular  language,  without  analytical  formulas, 
of  his  greater  work,  "  La  Mecanique  celeste."  It  was 
the  "  Exposition"  that  procured  for  him  the  reputation 
of  a  pure  and  elegant  writer,  and  eventually  opened  to 
him  the  Academie  Franfaise  in  1816.  The  clearness 
and  facility  with  which  he  explains  and  demonstrates  the 
great  laws  of  astronomy  render  this  work  one  of  the  most 
admirable  resumes  which  have  ever  appeared.  "  No  work 
of  that  kind  existed  at  that  time,"  says  Parisot,  "which 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f2.r,  t'S.ll,  fit;  mJt;  nfit;  good;  m5on; 


LA  PLACE 


1491 


LARCH ER 


combined  the  same  merits  in  the  same  degree."  He 
received  the  title  of  count  in  1806.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  member,  and  eventually  president,  of  the  bureau 
of  longitudes.  In  1814  he  voted  to  erect  a  provisional 
government  on  the  ruins  of  Na]5oleon's  empire,  and  he 
remained  aloof  from  the  Imperialist  party  during  the 
Hundred  Days.  He  was  created  Marquis  Laplace  in 
181 7,  and  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  had  been  chosen  an  associate 
of  many  foreign  Academies.  Among  his  important  pro- 
ductions are  "  The  Analytic  Theory  of  Probabilities," 
(1812,)  and  a  "Philosophic  Essay  on  Probabilities," 
(i3i4.)  The  capital  monument  of  his  genius  is  his 
"Treatise  on  Celestial  Mechanics,"  ("Traite  de  la  Me- 
canique  celeste,"  5  vols.,  1 799-1 825,)  which  will  doubt- 
less preserve  his  memory  to  the  latest  posterity.  Among 
his  great  discoveries  are  the  theory  of  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites, and  the  causes  of  the  grand  inequality  of  Jupiter 
and  Saturn,  and  of  the  acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean 
motion.  He  shares  the  honour  of  proving  the  stability 
of  the  planetary  system  with  Lagrange,  than  whom  he 
has  attained  a  higher  celebrity  by  ranging  over  a  wider 
field  of  discovery.  One  of  his  last  expressions  was, 
"  What  we  know  is  but  little,  (pen  de  chose ;)  that  which 
we  know  not  is  immense."     Died  in  1827. 

See  Fourier,  "  iSloge  deLn  Place;"  Arago,  "  Biographie  de 
La  Place,"  (and  English  version  of  the  same,  published  in  1859  :) 
"  Nouvelle  Riographie  G^n^rale ;"  Puisieux  et  Charles,  "No- 
tices sur  Malherbe,  Laplace,"  etc.,  1847;  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
February,  1809  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1S08.  and  Jan- 
uary, 1810;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

La  Place  or  Laplace,  de,  deh  It'pltss',  (Charles 
Emile  Pierre  Joseph,)  Marquis,  a  son  of  the  great 
astronomer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1789.  He  entered 
the  army  young,  and  served  in  the  cam^^aigns  of  Ger- 
many, (1809,)  of  Russia,  (1812,)  and  of  France,  (1814.) 
He  became  a  peer  of  France  in  1827,  a  lieutenant-general 
in  1843,  and  a  senator  in  1853.     Died  October  30,  1874. 

La  Place,  de,  [Lat.  PlaC/E'us,]  (Josu6,)  a  French 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Bretagne  about  1605.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Saumur  in  1633.  Among 
his  works  are  a  treatise  "  On  the  Imputation  of  the  First 
Sin  of  Adam,"  ("De  Imputatione  Primi  Peccati  Adami," 
1655,)  in  which  he  opposes  the  doctrine  that  the  sin  of 
Adam  is  imputed  to  all  his  posterity,  and  "  An  Argument 
for  the  Divinity  of  Christ,"  (1657.)     Died  in  1665. 

La  Placette,  IS  plS'sIt',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant 
divine  and  moralist,  born  at  Pontac  in  1639.  He  emi- 
grated when  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  in  1685, 
and  was  pastor  of  the  French  church  in  Copenhagen 
from  1686  to  1 7 II.  Among  his  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed,  are  "  Essays  on  Morality,"  (2d  edition,  4  vols., 
1697,)  and  "  Christian  Morals  reduced  to  Three  Princi- 
pal Duties  :  the  Repentance  of  Sinners,  the  Perseverance 
of  the  Righteous,  and  Growth  in  Grace,"  (1695.)  Died 
in  1718. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires;"  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

La  Planche.     See  Regnier,  (Louis.) 

Lapo,  1^'po,  a  Florentine  architect,  was  the  pupil  of 
Niccol6  de  Pisa,  and  a  friend  of  Arnolfo  di  Lapo.  Va- 
sari  represents  him  as  a  German,  (whose  proper  name 
was  Jacob  or  Jacopo,)  and  as  the  father  of  Arnolfo  ;  but 
others  have  disproved  both  of  these  statements.  He 
adorned  Florence  with  many  fine  edifices,  which  time 
has  destroyed.     Died  about  1275. 

Lapo,  (diminutive  of  Jacopo,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  in  Tuscany,  taught  canon  law  at  Florence  more  than 
twenty  years,  and  was  chosen  captain  or  chief  of  the 
Guelph  party.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  researches 
for  manuscripts  of  classic  authors,  and  had  the  good  for- 
tune to  find  Cicero's  oration  for  Milo  and  the  Philippics, 
which  he  sent  to  his  intimate  friend  Petrarch.  Died  in  1381. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Lapo  Grianni,  Id'po  jin'nee,  an  Italian  poet,  a  native 
of  Florence,  lived  about  1250. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 
Lapo,  di,  de  IS'po,  (Arnolfo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  born  near  Florence  about  1232, 
was  the  son  of  Cambio,  and  the  pupil  of  Cimabue  in  de- 
sign. He  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  Tuscan 
architect  in  his  time.     About  1294  he  began  to  erect 


the  church  of  Santa  Croce  in  Florence.  His  greatest 
work  is  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  called  also 
the  Duomo,  or  Cathedral,  of  Florence,  which,  however, 
he  left  unfinished.  Its  noble  and  beautiful  dome  was 
the  work  of  Brunelleschi.  Among  his  master-pieces  of 
sculpture  is  the  tabernacle  of  the  basilica  of  San  Paolo, 
near  Rome.     Died  about  1300. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Lapointe,  IS'pw^Nt',  (Savinien,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Sens  (Yonne)  in  1812,  was  a  shoemaker  in  his  youth. 
He  was  befriended  by  Beranger  and  Victor  Hugo,  with 
whose  aid  he  published  a  volume  of  verses  called  "A 
Voice  from  Below,"  ("Une  Voix  d'en  bas,"  1844.)  He 
wrote  interesting  "Memoirs  of  Beranger,"  (1857.) 

Laponneraye,  iS'pon'ri',  (Albert,)  a  French  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Tours  in  1808,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  from 
1789  to  1840,"  (3  vols.,  1840.)     Died  in  1849. 

Laporte  or  La  Porte,  de,  deh  It'poRt',  (Hippolyte,) 
Marquis,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1770. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Ivelina,"  (3  vols.,  1830,)  and 
"Recollections  of  an  Emigrant,"  (1843.)     Died  in  1852. 

Laporte,  (Pierre  Fran<;ois,)  a  French  comedian  and 
theatrical  manager,  went  to  London  in  1824  as  member 
and  joint  mairager  of  a  company  who  performed  French 
plays  at  the  theatre  in  Tottenham  Street.  He  was  subse- 
quently manager  of  the  King's  Theatre,  and  introduced 
many  famous  singers  and  operas  to  the  English  public 
Died  September  25,  1841. 

La  Porte,  de,  (Joseph,)  Abb6,  a  French  critic  and 
compiler,  born  at  Befort  in  1713.  The  most  important 
or  popular  of  his  compilations  was  the  "  French  Trav- 
eller," ("Voy;igeur  Fran^ais,")  a  melange  of  romantic 
adventures  and  historical  narratives,  (42  vols.,  1765-95.) 
Died  in  1779. 

Laporte  du  Theil.     See  Dutheil  de  la  Porte. 

Lappe,  1  Jp'peh,  (Karl,)  a  popular  German  poet,  born 
near  Wolgast  in  1774,  published  "Funereal  Garlands," 
;"Friedhofskranze,")  and  other  works.     Died  in  1843. 

Lappenberg,  ISp'pen-b^Rc',  (Johann  Martin,)  an 
able  German  historian,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1794.  He 
studied  in  Edinburgh,  London,  and  Berlin,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  the  court  of  Berlin  in  1820.  In  1823 
he  became  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  senate  of  Ham- 
burg. He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  continua- 
tion of  Sartorius's  "Authentic  History  of  the  Origin 
of  the  German  Hanse  Towns,"  (1830,)  and  a  valuable 
"  History  of  England  under  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kings," 
(2  vols.,  1834-37,)  which  has  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Thorpe.     Died  in  1865. 

Lappoli,  Idp'po-Iee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1492.  He  worked  in  Rome  and  at 
Arezzo.     Died  in  1552. 

Laprade,  de,  deh  iS'pRtd',  (Pierre  Marin  Victor 
Richard,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Montbrison  in  1812, 
was  called  a  disciple  of  Lamartine.  His  "Symphonies" 
(1856)  opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  French  Academy 
in  1858.     He  died  December  14,  1883. 

Lap-raik',  (John,)  a  Scottish  minor  poet,  born  in  1727. 
He  was  a  correspondent  of  the  poet  Burns.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  poor  verses  in  1788,  and  died  at  Muir- 
kirk  in  1807. 

La  Primaudaye,  de,  deh  It  pue'mo'di',  (Pierre,) 
a  French  writer,  born  about  1545.  Among  his  works 
was  "L'Academie  Fran9oise,"  (1577,  often  reprinted.) 

La  Quintiuie.     See  Quintinie,  de  la. 

Larauza,  It'ro'zt',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  teacher, 
born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  wrote  an  "Elssay  on  the  Pas- 
sage of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal,"  (1826.)     Died  in  1825. 

La  Ravardiere,  de,  deh  It  rt'vtR'de-aiR',  (Daniel 
de  la  Tousche,)  Sieur,  a  French  explorer,  born  in 
Poitou  about  1570.  He  conducted  an  expedition  to 
Brazil  in  1611,  and  planted  a  colony  on  the  island  of 
Maranham  ;  but  they  were  expelled  by  the  Portuguese  in 
161 5.     Died  after  1630. 

Larcher,  Ita'shi',  (Pierre  Henri,)  a  French  littera- 
teur and  Hellenist,  born  at  Dijon  in  1726.  After  trans- 
lating several  works  from  the  English,  he  published  in 
1767  an  able  work,  entitled  "Supplement  to  the  Phi- 
losophy of  History,"  which  was  designed  to  refute  Vol- 
taire, from  whom  it  drew  a  sarcastic  reply.     His  chief 


€33 /J."  9asj;  gkard;  gas  7;  G,K,K,£ri^ttural;  N.fiasal;  R,tri/led;  sasz,-  ihas'mtAis.     (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LARCOM 


1492 


LARMESSIN 


work  is  a  translation  of  Herodotus  into  French,  with  a 
commentary.  (1786,)  which  is  highly  prized  as  a  monu- 
ment of  learning,  but  has  no  beauty  of  style.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  third  class  of  the  Institute  or  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.     Died  in  1812. 

See  Dacier,  "filoge  de  Larclier;"  Boissomade,  "Notice  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  M.  Larcher,"  1813  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographio 
Generate. " 

Lar'com,  (Lucy,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Bev- 
erly Farms,  Massachusetts,  in  1826.  In  early  life  she 
worked  in  the  Lowell  mills,  and  afterwards  taught  school 
in  Illinois  and  in  Massachusetts.  Her  principal  original 
work  is  "  Wild  Roses  of  Cape  Ann,"  and  she  has  made 
several  valuable  compilations  in  prose  and  verse. 

Lardizabal,  de,  di  laR-de-thi-b^l'',  (Don  Manuel,) 
a  Spanish  minister  of  state,  born  in  Biscay  about  1750. 
In  1814  Ferdinand  VII.  appointed  him  minister  of  the 
Indies.  Soon  after  that  date  he  was  imprisoned  for  some 
unknown  reason,  and  died  in  exile  in  1823. 

Lard'n?r,  (Dionysius,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  scien- 
tific writer  and  editor,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1793, 
and  educated  at  Trinity  College.  He  wrote  at  college  a 
"Treatise  on  Algebraic  Geometry,"  (1823.)  His  "Popu- 
lar Lectures  on  the  Steam  Engine"  (1828)  passed  through 
many  editions.  In  1828  he  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  London  Universit)',  ancf  projected  the 
"Cabinet  Cyclopaedia,"  to  which  Herschel,  Brewster, 
and  other  eminent  authors  contributed.  For  this  work, 
which  appeared  in  134  volumes,  (1830-44,)  Dr.  Lardner 
wrote  the  treatises  on  hydrostatics,  pneumatics,  geome- 
try, etc.  Between  1840  and  1845  '^^  delivered  in  the 
chief  cities  of  the  United  States  scientific  lectures,  which 
were  published,  and  favourably  received.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  in  1845,  ^f'^^"'  which  he  published 
hand-books  of  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  other 
sciences.     Died  in  1859. 

Lardner,  (Nathaniel,)  D.D.,  an  English  theologian 
of  great  merit,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1684.  He  studied 
at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  became  a  dissenting  minis- 
ter. From  1713  to  1729  he  was  chaplain  in  the  family 
of  Lady  Treby.  He  began  to  preach  to  the  Presbyterian 
congregation  of  Old  Jewry,  London,  in  1723.  In  1727 
he  published  the  first  part  of  his  "Credibility  of  the 
Gospel  History,"  a  work  of  profound  reasoning  and 
research,  and  one  of  the  most  successful  arguments  in 
defence  of  Christianity  ever  given  to  the  world.  Re- 
ferring to  this  work.  Sir  James  Mackintosh  remarks  that 
it  "soon  wearies  out  the  greater  part  of  readers,  though 
the  few  who  are  more  patient  have  almost  always  been 
gradually  won  over  to  feel  pleasure  in  a  display  of  know- 
ledge, probity,  charity,  and  meekness  unmatched  by  an 
avowed  advocate  in  a  case  deeply  interesting  his  warmest 
feelings."  (See  his  remarks  on  Paley  in  the  "View  of 
the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy.")  Between  1733 
and  1743  he  produced  five  more  volumes  of  the  same 
work.  He  was  the  author  of  other  treatises,  one  of 
which  ("  Letter  on  the  Logos,"  or  "  Word")  advocates 
Socinian  doctrines.     Died  in  1768. 

See  Kippis,  "  Life  of  N.  Lardner,"  prefixed  to  his  complete  Works, 
II  vols.,  17SS;  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  the  Rev.  N.  Lardner," 
London,  1769. 

La  Renaudiere,  de,  deh  It  reh'no'de-aiR',  (Philippe 
Francois,)  a  French  geographer,  born  at  Vire,  in  Nor- 
mandy, in  1 781,  was  associated  with  Malte-Brun  as  editor 
of  the  "Annales  des  Voyages,"  (54  vols.,  1826-39.)  He 
published  several  geographical  works.    Died  in  1845. 

LarenticL     See  Acca  Laurentia. 

La'res,  a  name  applied  to  genii,  or  inferior  gods  of 
human  origin,  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Romans.  The 
Lares  were  believed  to  preside  over  houses  and  families, 
and  were  divided  into  several  classes,  as  Lares  domestici. 
Lares  publici.  Lares  urbani,  etc.  They  were  supposed 
to  be  the  spirits  of  good  men  who  had  died,  and  were 
partly  identified  with  the  Manes.     (See  Manes.) 

Lareveillere-Lepaux  or  Lai-^velliere-L^peatix, 
de,  deh  lt'ri'viryg-a,iR'  li'p5',  a  French  republican, 
born  at  Mortagne  in  1753.  He  was  deputed  to  the  Con- 
vention in  1792,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
defended  the  proscribed  Girondists  in  1793,  for  which  he 
was  doomed  to  die,  but  escaped  by  concealing  himself. 
In  1795  he  resumed  his  place  in  the  Convention,  where 


he  acquired  the  reputation  of  an  effective  speaker,  and 
in  October  of  that  year  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Directory.  He  presided  over  the  department 
of  science,  morals,  and  religion,  and  showed  his  hostility 
to  the  Catholics,  who  stigmatized  him  as  a  fanatic  and 
"theophilanthropist."  He  acted  with  Barras  and  the 
majority  of  the  Directors  in  the  coup  d'Stat  of  the  i8th 
Fructidor,  (September,  1797.)  The  Directors  became 
divided  into  two  parties,  in  which  Lepaux  was  opposed 
to  Barras,  and,  finding  himself  in  a  minority,  he  re- 
Bigned  in  June,  1799.     Died  in  1824. 

See,  also,  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nou- 
relle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lareveillere-L6pea\rx,  (Ossian,)  a  French  littSra- 
teur,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 
He  wrote  important  articles  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale."     He  died  September  27,  1876. 

Largilliere,  ItR'zhe'ye-aiR',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  of  portraits  and  history,  born  in  Paris  in 
1656,  was  called  "the  French  Van  Dyck."  He  worked 
some  years  in  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  of 
James  II.  and  his  queen.  In  1686  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Paris.  He  surpassed  all  his 
French  rivals  in  portraits  except  Rigaud,  worked  with 
great  facility,  and  was  a  good  colorist.  Among  his  works 
are  portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Charles  Lebrun.  Died 
in  1746. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  Horace  Wal- 
POLE,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

La  Riboisiere  or  Lariboisiere,  de,  deh  It're'bwi'- 
ze-aiR',  (Jean  Ambroise  Baston,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Fougeres  in  1759.  He  became  a  general  of  di- 
vision in  1807,  and  directed  the  artillery  with  skill  at 
Eylau,  Dantzic,  and  Friedland.     Died  in  1813. 

La  Rive,  de,  deh  It  r^v,*  (Auguste,)  a  Swiss  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1801,  was  a  son  of  the 
following.  He  became  professor  of  physics  in  his  native 
city,  and  wrote  many  treatises  on  electricity,  the  voltaic 
pile,  etc.     Died  November  27,  1873. 

La  Rive  or  Larive,  de,  (Charles  Gaspard,)  a  Swiss 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Geneva  in  1770.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  voltaic  electricity,  and  about  1820 
constructed  a  pile  of  five  hundred  pairs.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  action  of  the  electric 
current  on  the  magnetic  needle.     Died  in  1834. 

Larive  or  La  Rive,  de,  deh  It  r^v,  (Jean  Mauduit 
— mo'dii-e',)  a  popular  French  tragedian,  born  at  La  Ro- 
chelle  about  1746.  He  made  his  d^but  in  Paris  in  1770, 
and  for  many  years  was  a  prime  favourite.  His  voice  and 
gestures  were  admirable.  No  actor  of  his  time  possessed 
in  such  perfection  the  tone  of  command,  of  disdain,  of 
irony,  and  of  menace.  He  performed  "  Achilles,"  "  Spar- 
tacus,"  " Philoctetes,"  "Bayard,"  and  "William  Tell" 
with  great  success.  He  was  imprisoned  more  than  a 
year  by  the  Jacobins  in  1793-94-     Died  in  1827. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Larivey,  de,  deh  It're'vi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  at  Troyes  about  1550.  He  published  in  1579 
the  "Laquais,"  and  other  comedies,  which  in  humour 
are  compared  to  those  of  Moliere.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  in  France  who  chose  subjects  for  comedy  from  real 
life,  and  the  first  Frenchman  who  wrote  original  dramas 
in  prose.     Died  about  16 12. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Riviere.     See  RivifeRE. 

Lariviere,  It're've-aiR',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a 
French  historical  paiiitef,  born  at  Paris  about  1798.  He 
obtained  the  grand  prize  in  1824,  and  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  at  the  Exposition  of  1855.  Among  his  works  is 
"Bayard  wounded  at  Brescia."     Died  Feb.  29,  1876. 

Lariviere  or  La  Riviere,  de,  deh  It're've-aiR', 
(Pierre  Joachim  Henri,)  a  French  lawyer  and  orator 
of  the  Girondist  party,  was  born  at  Falaise  in  1761.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  struggle  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793.  He  found  refuge  in  Calvados, 
and  resumed  his  seat  in  1795.     Died  in  1838. 

Larmessin,  ItR'mi'sdN',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1640,  produced  numerous 
portraits  of  illustrious  men.     His  son,  Nicolas,  born  in 


I 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LARNAC 


1493 


LA  RUE 


1683,  surpassed  his  father  in  the  same  art.  He  engraved 
portraits  and  history  with  equal  success,  and  received 
the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king.     Died  in  1755. 

Larnac,  ItR'ntk',  (Francois,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1760;  died  in  1840. 

Lar'ned,  (Rev.  Sylvester,)  an  American  Presbyte- 
rian divine,  born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1796.  He 
studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  soon  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  subsequently  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  New  Orleans,  where  he  died  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  yellow  fever  in  1820.  A  collection 
of  his  sermons  was  published  in  1844. 

Laroche  or  La  Roche,  IS'rosh',  (Benjamin,)  a 
French  poet  and  translator,  born  in  1797,  produced  good 
translations  of  "The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  Shakspeare's 
works,  (6  vols.,)  Byron's  complete  works,  (4  vols.,)  and 
the  complete  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  wrote  a 
poem  called  "The  Funeral  of  Liberty,"  (1820.)  Died 
m  1852. 

Laroche,  It'rosh',  (Marie  Sophie,)  a  German  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Kaufbeuren  in  1 73 1,  was  the 
author  of  "Moral  Tales,"  "  Rosalie's  Letters,"  and  sev- 
eral popular  romances.     Died  in  1S07. 

Laroche  du  Maine.  See  Luchet,  (Jean  Pierre 
Louis.) 

La  Rochefoucauld.    See  Rochefoucauld. 

Larochejacquelin.    See  Rochejaquelein. 

La  Rochejaquelein.    See  Rochejaquelein. 

Laromiguiere,  It'ro'me'g^^iR',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
French  metaphysical  philosopher,  born  in  Rouergue 
(now  Aveyron)  in  November,  1756.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Toulouse  in  1784.  Having 
removed  to  Paris,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1796.  As  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of 
Letters,  he  delivered,  in  181 1  and  1812,  a  series  of  lec- 
tures which  were  attended  and  admired  by  the  Slite  of 
the  capital.  He  retained  the  title  of  professor  after  1812, 
but  ceased  to  lecture,  and  published  in  1815  "Lectures 
on  Intellectual  Philosophy,  or  on  the  Cause  and  Origin 
of  our  Ideas,"  ("  Le9ons  de  Philosophic  sur  les  Principes 
de  rintelligence,  ou  sur  les  Causes  et  sur  les  Origines 
de  nos  Idees,"  2  vols.)  This  work  was  adopted  by  the 
government  as  a  text-book  for  public  instruction.  Died 
in  August,  1837.  "  He  left  a  fair  and  pure  renown,"  says 
M.  Cousin,  who  delivered  an  oration  at  his  funeral. 

See  Daunou,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Laromi- 
guifere,"  1839;  MiGNET,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  £crits 
de  Laromiguiere,"  1856;  Valhtte,  "Laromiguiere  et  Tficlectisme," 
1842;  article  by  C.  Mallet  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Laroon,  li-ron',  (Marcellus,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  the  Hague  in  1653,  was  skilful  in  copying  the  wo<-ks 
of  great  masters.  He  worked  some  years  in  England. 
Died  in  1705. 

Larousse,  H'rooss',  (Pierre,)  a  French  editor  and 
publisher,  born  at  Toucy,  October  23,  1817.  He  wrote 
many  school-books,  but  is  chiefly  known  for  his  volumi- 
nous "  Dictionnaire  du  XIXe  Siecle,"  which  had  a  very 
great  success.  He  died  January  3,  1875,  leaving  his  great 
work  unfinished. 

Larra,  de,  di  ISr'ri,  (Don  Mariano  Jus6,)  a  popular 
and  witty  Spanish  author,  born  at  Madrid  in  1809.  He 
had  no  profession  except  literature.  In  1832  he  pub- 
lished a  satirical  journal,  "El  Pobrecito  Hablador," 
which  was  suppressed  after  the  appearance  of  the  four- 
teenth number,  and  a  few  years  later,  as  chief  editor  of 
the  "  Spanish  Review,"  ("  Revista  Espanola,")  produced, 
under  the  signature  of  "Figaro,"  able  articles  on  Span- 
ish politics,  manners,  literature,  etc.  He  published 
"  Macias,"  and  other  dramas.  All  his  works  bear  the 
decided  stamp  of  the  Spanish  national  character.  He 
committed  suicide  in  1837,  before  which  he  had  been 
subject  to  deep  melancholy. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Larramendi,  llr-rS-m^u'dee,  (Manuel,)  a  Spanish 

E)hilologist,  born  in  Guipuzcoa.  He  wrote  on  the  Basque 
anguage.     Died  in  1750. 

Larrey,  Ifri',  (Claude  Franqois  Hilaire,)  a  French 

physician  and  writer,  born  in  1774,  was  a  brother  of 

Dominique  Jean,  noticed  below.    He  practised  at  Nimes. 

Died  in  1819. 

Larrey,  (Dominique  Jean,)  Baron,  a  French  surgeon 


of  great  merit,  born  near  Bagneres-de-Bigorre  (Haul- 
Pyrenees)  in  1766.  Having  served  a  short  time  in  the 
navy,  he  entered  the  land-army  about  1792,  and  rendered 
important  services  by  the  invention  of  the  ambulances 
volantes,  (flying  hospital.)  He  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  published  a  "Historical  and  Sur- 
gical Account  of  the  Expedition  to  the  East,"  (1803.) 
He  received  the  title  of  baron  about  1810,  and  became 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  grand  army  in  1812.  At  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  in  1815,  he  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner.  Under  the  restoration  he  was  chief  surgeon 
of  the  royal  guards  and  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  until 
he  resigned  in  1836.  He  died  in  1842,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  for  virtue  and  talents.  He  had  published 
"Memoirs  of  Medicine  and  Military  .Surgery,"  (1812-18,) 
"  Collection  of  Treatises  on  Surgery,"  ("  Recueil  de  Me- 
moires  de  Chirurgie,"  1821,)  and  other  excellent  works. 
Bonaparte  in  his  will  mentions  Larrey  as  "the  mos*' 
virtuous  man  I  have  ever  known." 

See  Louis  de  Lom^nie,  "  Le  Baron  Larrey,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1840;  J.  Saint-Amour,  "Notice  n^crologique  sur  D.  J. 
Larrey,"  1844;  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litt^raire ;"  "Biographie 
Mddicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  March,  iSig. 

Larrey,  (FSlix  Hippolyte,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1810.  He 
became  surgeon-ordinary  to  Napoleon  III.,  and  in  1858 
<nedecin-inspecteur  of  the  army. 

Larrey,  de,  deh  It'ri',  (Isaac,)  a  French  Protestant 
historian,  born  at  Montivilliers  in  1638.  Having  become 
an  exile  for  the  sake  of  religion,  he  took  up  his  residence 
in  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  an  aulic  councillor  by  the 
Elector,  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  Augustus,"  (1690,)  a  "History  of  England,"  (1697- 
17 13,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Seven  Sages  of  Greece," 
(1713-16,)  which  were  favourably  received.  Died  in 
Berlin  in  1719. 

Larrivee,  It're'vi',  (Henri,)  a  celebrated  French 
operatic  performer  and  singer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1733. 
He  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1755,  and  maintained 
his  reputation  in  the  opera  for  thirty  years.  Died  in 
1802. 

Larroque,  It'rok',  (Daniel,)  born  at  Vitre  in  1660, 
became  a  Catholic,  and  lived  in  Paris,  where  he  was  a 
clerk  in  the  bureaus  of  De  Torcy,  secretary  of  state. 
He  displayed  literary  talents  in  several  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Proselyte  Abused,"  (1684,)  and  the  "Life 
of  Mezeray."     Died  in  1731. 

Larroque,  de,  deh  It'rok',  (Mathieu,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  theologian,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Lairac,  near  Agen,  in  1619.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  church  of  Vitre  from  1643  to  1669,  after  which  he 
preached  at  Rouen.  His  "History  of  the  Eucharist" 
(1669)  was  highly  esteemed.  He  wrote  several  other 
works.     Died  in  1684. 

See  "  Life  of  M.  Larroque,"  by  his  son,  prefixed  to  his  "Adver- 
saria Sacra,"  16S8;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Larruga,  lar-roo'gl,  (Don  Eugenio,)  a  Spanish  writer 
on  political  economy,  commenced  a  work  entitled  "  Po- 
litical and  Economical  Memoirs  on  the  Industry,  Mines, 
and  other  Resources  of  Spain."  Forty-eight  volumes 
had  been  issued  at  his  death,  in  1804. 

Lartet,  l^R'ti',  (Edouard,)  a  French  archaeologist, 
born  at  Saint-Guerand  in  1801.  He  became  noted  as  a 
student  of  fossils,  making  many  important  finds  in  that 
department  of  science.  He  later  became  eminent  as  a 
writer  on  prehistoric  anthropology.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  professor  of  palaeontology  in  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  at  Paris. 

La  Rue  or  Larue,  de,  deh  It'rii',  [Lat.  RUjE'us,] 
(Charles,)  a  French  poet  and  eloquent  preacher,  born 
in  Paris  in  1643.  ^^^  composed,  in  Latin,  tragedies  and 
other  poems,  one  of  which,  on  the  victories  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  translated  into  French  by  P.  Corneille,  (1667.) 
His  Sermons  were  published  in  4  vols.,  1719.  His 
tragedy  of  "Sylla"  is  commended.  He  prepared  an 
edition  of  Virgil  "in  usum  Delphini,"  (1675,)  often  re- 
printed.    Died  in  1725. 

La  Rue,  IS  rii,  [Lat.  Ru^'us,]  (Francois,)  a  Flemish 
naturalist,  born  at  Lille  about  1520;  died  in  1585. 

La  Rue,  IS  rii,  (Pierre,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  biographer, 
born  at  Middelburg  in  1695. 


€  as  k;  q  as  s;  g  /tii7-d:  g  as/;  G,  11,  v:.,g-ntlit}\il;  N,  nasal:  K,  ti-ilifd:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


see  Explanations,  p.  23  ^ 


LARUE 


1494 


LAS  CASES 


Larue,  de,  (Gervais.)     See  Delarue. 

La  Sabliere.    See  SABLifeRK,  de  la. 

La  Sabliere,  de,  deh  IS  s$'ble-aiK',  (Antoine  dh 
Rambouillet,)  Sieur,  a  French  poet  and  financier, 
born  in  Paris  in  1624;  died  in  1679. 

Lasagni,  IS-sin'yee,  (Bartolommeo  Vincenzo  Giu- 
seppe,) an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Rome  in  1773.  He  was 
a  judge  or  counsellor  in  the  French  court  of  cassation 
in  Paris  from  1810  to  1850.     Di^d  in  i8';7. 

Lasagni,  (PiETRO,)an  Italian  Cardinal,  born  at  Rome 
July  15.  1814,  was  created  a  cardinal-deacon  in  1882. 

La  Sale  or  La  Salle,  de,  deh  \t  stl,  (Antoine,)  a 
French  writer,  born  about  1398.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  satire  entitled  "  Les  quinze  Joyes  de  Mariage," 
("The  Fifteen  Comforts  of  Matrimony,")  which  was  often 
reprinted.     Died  after  1461. 

La  Sale,  de,  (Robert  Cavelier.)     See  La  Salle, 

Lasalle  or  La  SaUe,  de,  deh  It  sSl,  (Antoine,)  a 
French  metaphysician,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  published 
"  The  Natural  Balance,"  ( 1 788,)  and  "  Moral  Mechanics," 
(2  vols.,  1789.)  He  translated  the  works  of  Lord  Bacon 
into  French,  (15  vols.,  1800.)     Died  in  1829. 

Lasalle,  de,  (Antoine  Charles  Louis  Collinet,) 
Count,  a  French  officer,  born  at  Metz  in  1775,  served 
in  several  campaigns  in  Italy.  In  1798  he  followed 
Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  where  he  gave  proof  of  courage 
at  the  Pyramids  and  Thebes.  As  general  of  brigade, 
he  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Austerlitz  (1805)  and 
Jena,  (1806.)  At  the  end  of  1806  he  was  made  general  of 
division.  In  the  second  Austrian  war  he  commanded 
the  cavalry  of  the  advanced  guard  at  Raab,  Essling,  and 
finally  at  Wagram,  where  he  was  killed  in  July,  1809. 

See  E.  A.  B^gin,  "Vie  militaire  du  Conite  de  Lasalle,"  1830; 
PiGAULT- Lebrun,  "  £lo<re  liistorique  du  General  de  Lasalle," 
1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpbie  Generale." 

La  Salle,  (J.  B.)     See  Salle,  de  la. 

La  Salle  or  La  Sale,  de,  (Robert  Cavelier — ktv'- 

le-i',)an  enterprising  Frenchman,  who  has  rendered  his 
name  memorable  by  his  exploration  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississijipi,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1643.  He  emigrated 
to  Canada  in  1667,  and  engaged  in  the  fur-trade,  making 
long  excursions  among  the  native  tribes.  In  1675  he  was 
appointed  by  Colbert  governor  of  Fort  Frontenac,  and 
was  encouraged  to  pursue  discoveries  which  his  own 
ambition  or  enterprising  spirit  had  suggested.  Having 
built  a  vessel  on  Lake  Erie,  he  began  his  voyage  in 
August,  1679,  and  passed  through  Lakes  Huron  and 
Michigan.  He  built  a  fort  at  Peoria,  Illinois,  and,  as  his 
vessel  had  been  wrecked,  returned  by  land  to  Frontenac 
in  1680.  Irt  1682  he  renewed  the  enterprise  with  a  nume- 
rous party,  and  descended  the  Mississippi  in  canoes  from 
the  Illinois  River  to  its  mouth,  where  he  arrived  in  April, 
1682.  The  part  of  this  river  below  the  Arkansas  had  never 
before  been  explored  by  a  European.  In  1683  he  went 
to  France,  and,  having  obtained  a  commission  to  plan'. 
a  colony  in  Louisiana,  undertook  a  voyage  to  that  region 
by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  1684,  but  failed  to  find  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  landed  in  Texas.  There 
he  encountered  great  difficulties,  and  at  last  was  mur 
dered  by  his  own  mutinous  crew,  in  March,  1687.  "  Hia 
capacity  for  large  designs,"  says  Professor  Jared  Sparks, 
"and  for  procuring  the  resources  to  carry  them  forward, 
has  few  parallels  among  the  most  eminent  discoverers. 
To  him  must  be  mainly  ascribed  the  discovery  of  the 
\?ast  regions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley." 

See  "  Memoir  of  La  Salle,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
vol.  i,,  2d  series:  "Journal  historique  du  dernier  Voyage  de  La 
Salle,"  par  Michel,  1723:  Hildketh,  "History  of  the  United 
States,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  xviii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Sante  or  Lasante,  de,  deh  \t  sSxt,  (Gilles 
Anne  Xavier,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  liretagne  in  16S4,  taught  belles-lettres  in  Paris,  and 
numbered  Turgot  among  his  pupils.     Died  in  1762. 

Lasaulx,  von,  fon  lt's5',  (Ernst,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist and  writer  of  classic  antiquities,  was  born  at 
Coblentz  in  1805.  He  became  professor  of  philology 
at  Munich  in  1844,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  On 
the  Oracle  of  Dodona,"  (1841,)  "On  the  Myth  of  Pro- 
metheus," (1843,)  and  "Studies  on  Classical  Antiquity," 
(1854.)     Died  in  1S61. 

La  Saussaye,  de,  deh  It  so'si',  (Jean  Franqois  de 
Paule  Louis  Petit,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Blois 


in  1801.  His  "  Numismatics  of  Narbonese  Gaul"  ("Nu- 
mismatique  de  Gaule  Narbonnaise,"  1842)  opened  to  him 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.     Died  February  24,  1878. 

Lasca,  lis'ki,  (Antonio  Francesco  Grazzini,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Florence  in  1503.  In 
1540  he  founded  the  Florentine  Academy,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Lasca,  ("  Mullet.")  He  afterwards  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  new  Academy,  called  Delia  Crusca,  the  aim 
of  which  should  be  to  perfect  the  Tuscan  language.  His 
most  famous  work  is  a  collection  of  tales,  entitled  "The 
First  and  Second  Supper,"  ("  La  prima  e  la  seconda 
Cena.")  He  also  composed  sonnets,  satirical  poems,  and 
"Gelosia"  and  other  comedies  in  prose.  His  works  are 
recognized  as  authorities  (testi  di  lingua)  by  the  Academy 
Delia  Crusca.     Died  in  1583. 

See  GinguenA,  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Lascaris  or   Lascari.     See  Carburis,  (Marino.) 
Lascaris,  lis'ki-ris,  (Agostino,)  Marquis  of  Vinti- 
miglia,  an  Italian  general  and  agriculturist,  born  at  Turin 
in  1776.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  agriculture.  Died 
in  1838. 

Las'ca-ris,  (Andreas  Johannes,)  surnamed  Rhyn- 
dacenus,  a  noble  Greek  scholar.  About  1454  he  went 
as  a  fugitive  to  the  court  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  by  whom 
he  was  patronized.  In  or  before  1495  he  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  taught  Greek  to  Budseus  and  others. 
Leo  X.  placed  him  at  the  head  of  a  Greek  college  in 
Rome  about  1508.  Between  1518  and  1534  he  resided 
chiefly  in  Paris  or  Venice,  whither  Francis  I.  sent  him 
as  ambassador.  He  edited  "The  Greek  Anthology," 
(1494,)  "Commentaries  on  Sophocles,"  (1518,)  and  other 
Greek  works.     Died  in  1535. 

See  BAV1.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Paolo  Giovio, 
"  Elogia  Virorum  illustrium." 

Lascaris,  (Constantine,)  a  Greek  scholar,  who 
contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  learning,  was  a  de- 
scendant of  the  royal  family  of  Constantinople.  After 
the  conquest  of  that  city  by  the  Turks,  he  took  refuge  in 
Italy,  (1454,)  and  was  employed  by  the  Duke  of  Milan 
to  give  lessons  in  Greek  to  his  daughter  Ippolita.  He 
afterwards  taught  Greek  at  Rome,  Naples,  and  Messina, 
where  he  died  about  1494.  His  Greek  Grammar  (1476) 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  work  printed  in  Greek 
characters. 

See  HoDius,  "  De  Grscis  illustribus ;"  Villemain,  "Lascaris, 
ou  les  Grecs  du  quinziime  Siecle,"  1S25. 

Lascaris,  Its'kS'riss',  (Paul  Louis,)  a  French  trav- 
eller, born  in  Provence  in  1774.  In  the  service  of  Bona- 
parte, he  traversed  Syria  and  Asiatic  Turkey  between 
1803  and  1814  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  friendship 
of  the  Bedouins  and  preparing  the  way  for  an  expedi- 
tion to  India.  He  died  at  Cairo  in  1815,  leaving  notes, 
which  were  published  by  Lamartine. 

Lascaris,  (Theodore  I.,)  a  Greek  emperor,  eminent 
for  political  and  military  talents,  born  about  I175.  He 
tnarried  about  1200  the  daughter  of  Alexis  III.,  who 
had  usurped  the  throne  of  his  brother  Isaac.  After  a 
brave  resistance  to  the  crusaders,  who  took  Constanti- 
nople in  1204,  he  was  elected  emperor  and  made  himself 
master  of  Bithynia.  He  was  crowned  as  emperor  at 
Nicaea  in  1206.  He  waged  war  for  several  years  against 
the  French  or  Latins,  and  defeated  Alexis  (above  named) 
near  .\ntioch  in  12 10.  He  died  in  1222,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son-in-law,  John  Ducas  Vatatzes. 

Lascaris,  (Theodore  II.,)  the  son  of  John  Ducas, 
became  Emperor  of  Nicasa  in  1255.  He  waged  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  the  Bulgarians.  He  died  in  1259, 
leaving  an  infant  son,  John,  whose  throne  was  usurped 
by  Michael  Palseologus. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Mi- 
CHAUD,  "History  of  the  Crusades;"  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas- 
Empire." 

Las  Casas.     See  Casas,  de  las. 

Las  Cases,  de,  deh  lis  ki.z,  (Emmanuel  Augustin 
Dieudonn6  Marin  Joseph,)  Marquis,  a  French  officer, 
distinguished  as  a  companion  of  Bonaparte  at  Saint 
Helena,  was  born  near  Revel,  in  Languedoc,  in  1766. 
He  served  some  years  in  the  navy,  emigrated  in  1789, 
fought  for  the  royal  cause  at  Quiberon,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1800.     He  became  chamberlain  to  Bonaparte 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  0,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAS  CASES 


1495 


LASSEN 


I 


in  1810,  and  followed  him  into  exile  in  1815.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1816,  he  was  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
he  was  imprisoned  several  months,  after  which  he  was 
taken  to  Europe.  He  had  kept  a  journal  of  Napoleon's 
conversation,  which  he  published,  under  the  title  of  "  Me- 
morial of  Saint  Helena,"  (8  vols.,  1822-23.)  Died  in  1842. 
See  "  M^moires  d'E.  A.  D.  Comte  de  Las  Cases,  communiques 
par  lui-meme,"  etc.,  1819;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  March  and  May,  1823. 

Las  Cases,  de,  (Emmanuel  Pons  Dieudonn6,)  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Finisterre  in  1800.  He 
fought  for  the  popular  cause  in  Paris  in  July,  1830,  and 
sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1848.  He 
became  a  senator  in  1852.     Died  July  8,  1854. 

Lasco  or  Laski.     See  A   Lasco. 

Las'gy,  (or  La'cy,)  de,  (Peter,)  Count,  an  Irish 
general,  father  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Limerick 
in  1678.  Having  entered  the  Russian  service,  he  was 
rapidly  promoted,  and  in  1709  commanded  the  left  wing 
at  Pultowa.  The  Czar  Peter  appointed  him  general-in- 
chief  of  the  infantry  about  1722.  In  1734  he  commanded 
an  army  against  the  Poles  under  Stanislas,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  field-marshal.  He  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Swedes  at  Helsingfors  in  1742.  Died 
in  I75L 

Lascy  or  Lacy,  von,  fon  lis'see,  (Joseph  Francis 
Maurice,)  Count,  a  general  in  the  Austrian  army,  born 
in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1725.  Having  saved  the  army  at 
Lowositz  in  1756,  he  was  promoted  from  the  rank  of 
colonel  to  that  of  general.  For  his  services  at  Hoch- 
kirchen,  in  1758,  he  was  made  general  of  artillery.  He 
received  from  Maria  Theresa  a  marshal's  baton  in  1762. 
After  the  peace  he  entered  the  aulic  council,  and  dis- 
played much  ability  as  minister  of  war.     Died  in  1801. 

See  "  Huldigung  dargebracht  der  Wahrheit  und  den  Manen  dea 
Grafen  von  Lascy,"  1801. 

La  Sena,  lil  sa'nS,  or  La  Seine,  It  sin,  (Pietro,) 
also  written  Lascena,  an  Italian  philologist,  born  in 
Naples  in  1590,  practised  law  in  that  city.  He  vvrote 
"  Plomeri  Nepenthes,  sen  de  Abolendo  Luctu  Liber," 
(1621,)  and  several  treatises  on  philology.    Died  in  1636 

See  BuccARDi,  "Vita  P.  La  Senas,"  1637. 

Laserna.     See  Santander. 

Lasinio,  li-see'ne-o,  (Carlo,)  Count,  an  able  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Treviso  about  1765.  He  engraved 
numerous  works  of  early  Italian  masters.  Among  his 
plates  is  a  collection  called  "  Etruria  pittrice."  Died 
about  1837. 

His  son,  Giovanni  Paolo,  was  an  engraver  at  Flor- 
ence. 

Lasius,  IS'ze-iis,  (Lorenz  Otto,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Ruden  in  1675  ;  died  in  175 1. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Lebensbeschreibung,"  1730. 

Lasker,  lis'ker,  (Eduard,)  a  German  statesman  of 
Jewish  family,  was  born  at  Jaroczyn,  Prussian  Poland, 
October  14,  1829.  He  studied  law  at  Breslau  and  Berlin 
and  in  England.  For  many  years  a  prominent  legislator, 
(in  the  Prussian,  North  German,  and  Imperial  Diets  suc- 
cessively,) he  was  one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  fearless 
advocates  of  all  the  reforms  and  progressive  measures 
proposed,  and  the  most  infltiential  opponent  of  Bis- 
marck's policy.  He  never  held  an  important  office,  ex- 
cept as  a  legislator.  He  published  "Zur  Verfassungs- 
geschichte  Preussens,"  ("  On  the  History  of  the  Prussian 
Constitution,")  etc.     Died  in  New  York,  June  5,  18S4. 

Lasne,  ISn,  (Michel,)  a  French  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Caen  in  1596,  engraved  chiefly  after  Italian  mas- 
ters.    Died  in  1667. 

Lasnier,  13.'ne-i',  (R6mi,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
celebrated  oculist,  practised  in  Paris.  He  was  very 
successful  in  the  treatment  of  cataract.     Died  in  169a 

Laso,  (Garcias.)     See  Garcilaso. 

Lasource,  IS'soorss',  (  Marie  David  Albin,  )  a 
French  Girondist  revolutionist,  born  near  Montpellier 
in  1762.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792,  he 
strove  to  establish  order  in  the  republic.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  members  of  the  committee  of  public  safety. 
He  attacked  Robespierre  in  a  speech  in  April,  1793, 
was  arrested  about  June  i,  and  executed  with  the  other 
Girondist  chiefs  in  October  of  that  year. 


Lasphrise,  de,  deh  Id'fR^z',  (Marc  de  Papillon— 
p$'pe'y6N',)  Seigneur,  a  French  poet,  born  at  Amboise 
in  1555,  composed  many  admired  sonnets,  songs,  elegies, 
and  epitaphs.     He  was  living  in  1599. 

Lassaigne,  Iri'sAfi',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  became  professor  of  chem- 
istry or  pharmacy  at  Alfort  in  1828.  Among  his  dis- 
coveries were  delphine,  cathartine,  and  phosphoric  ether. 
He  published  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Organic  and 
Inorganic  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)     Died  in  1859. 

Lassala,  lis-s<VlC  or  Lasala,  (Manuel,)  a  Spanish 
historian  and  poet,  born  at  Valencia  in  1729.  He  be- 
came a  Jesuit,  and  as  such  was  banished  in  1767,  after 
which  he  lived  at  Bologna.  He  published  an  "Essay 
on  Ancient  and  Modern  History,"  (3  vols.,  1755.)  Died 
in  1798. 

Lassalle,  lis'siK,  (Ferdinand,)  a  brilliant  German 
socialist,  born  at  Breslau,  of  Jewish  parents,  in  1825. 
He  studied  in  Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  became  known  as 
a  Hegelian  and  a  friend  of  the  poet  Heine.  For  ten 
years  he  prosecuted  the  cause  of  the  Countess  Hatzfeldt 
against  her  husband,  bringing  the  case  before  thirty-six 
different  courts,  with  final  success.  After  1862  he  began 
with  great  zeal  an  agitation  in  behalf  of  the  working- 
men.  On  August  28,  1864,  he  was  killed  in  a  duel  with 
a  man  who  had  married  the  lady  to  whom  Lassalle  was 
affianced.  Lassalle  was  a  man  of  vast  learning  and 
ability  and  of  boundless  ambition.  His  aim  was  a 
German  working-man's  republic,  with  himself  for  presi- 
dent. His  principal  works  were  "  Die  Philosophic  He- 
rakleitos  des  Dunkeln  von  Ephesos,"  ("  Philosophy  of 
Heraclitus  the  Obscure,"  185S,  a  work  of  great  ability, 
though  it  makes  the  Greek  philosopher  more  like  Hegel 
than  the  facts  will  warrant,)  and  "  System  der  erwor- 
benen  Rechte,"  ("System  of  Acquired  Rights,"  1861  ;) 
but  his  numerous  pamphlets  are  of  even  greater  interest. 
(See  his  "  Life."  by  G.  Brandes.) 

Lassay,  de,  deh  It'si',  (Armand  L:6on  de  Madail- 
LAN  DE  Lesparre,)  Marquis,  a  French  officer,  distin- 
guished for  his  gallantry  and  talents,  was  born  in  1652. 
He  was  intimate  with  Fontenelle  and  Voltaire.  He  died 
in  1738,  leaving  a  volume  entitled  "Recueil  de  differentes 
Choses,"  or  "  Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  de  Lassay." 

See  Paulin  Paris,  "Le  Marquis  de  Lassay  et  I'Hotel  de  Las- 
say," 1848;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  ix. 

Las-sell'',  (William,)  F.R.S.,  LL.D.,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  at  Bolton,  in  Lancashire,  June  iS,  1799. 
For  many  years  he  was  a  brewer  in  Liverpool,  but  de- 
voted all  his  leisure  to  his  favourite  study  of  astronomy. 
He  constructed  his  own  telescopes,  with  which  he  dis- 
covered one  satellite  of  Neptune  and  two  satellites  of 
the  planet  Uranus.     Died  October  5,  18S0. 

Las'sels,  (Richard,)  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in 
1603,  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
He  wrote  "Travels  in  Italy,"  (2  vols.,  1670.)  Died  at 
Montpellier  in  1668. 

Lassen,  lis'sen,  (Christian,)  a  Norwegian  scholar, 
distinguished  for  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  Ori- 
ental languages  and  Indian  antiquities,  was  born  at  Ber- 
gen in  1800.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  at  Bonn, 
where  in  1840  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  ancieni 
Indian  language  and  literature.  He  rendered  most  im- 
portant services  to  philology  by  his  excellent  editions  of 
standard  works  in  Sanscrit,  and  published  "Contribu- 
tions to  the  History  of  the  Greek  and  Indo-Scythian 
Kings  in  Bactria,  Cabool,  and  India,"  "Indian  Antiqui- 
ties," (2  vols.,  1844-52,)  and  "The  Old  Persian  Inscrip- 
tions in  the  Arrow-Headed  Characters,"  which  he  was 
the  first  to  decipher  and  explain.  His  "Institutiones 
Linguas  Pracriticas"  (1837)  is  esteemed  the  best  work 
that  has  appeared  on  the  subject  of  the  ancient  popular 
dialects  of  India.     Died  May  9,  1876. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  October,  1837. 

Lassen,  (Eduard,)  a  musician  and  composer,  born 
at  Copenhagen,  .A.pril  13,  1830,  but  educated  at  Brussels, 
whither  he  was  taken  when  only  two  years  of  age.  His 
operas  "  Le  Roi  Edgar,"  "  Frauenlob,"  and  "  Der  Ge 
fangene"  have  been  fairly  successful. 


€  asi;  9as  j;  gJtard;  gA&j:  G,  H,  v., gicttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  \wthis.     (^i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LASSIS 


1496 


LATIMER 


Lassis,  It'sfess',  (N.,)  a  French  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing  in  1772,  devoted  his  atten- 
tion chiefly  to  the  subject  of  contagion.  He  practised 
in  the  army  in  1812  and  1813,  during  the  prevalence  of 
the  typhus  fever.     Died  in  1835. 

Lasso,  di,  de  Ids'so,  (Orlando,)  [Lat.  Orlan'dus 
Las'sus,]  sometimes  called  Roland  de  Lattre,  (deh 
IttR,)  a  famous  musical  composer,  born  at  Mons,  in  Flan- 
ders, in  1520.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  taken  to  Italy 
by  Gonzago,  Viceroy  of  Sicily.  After  passing  a  few  years 
in  Rome  and  Antwerp,  he  was  invited  by  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria  to  Munich,  whither  he  went  in  1557  and  became 
7nattre-de-chapelle.  He  was  invited  to  Paris  by  Charles 
IX.  in  1574;  but  that  king  died  before  the  arrival  of 
Lasso.  By  the  number,  originality,  and  richness  of  his 
compositions  he  acquired  a  higher  rank  than  any  com- 
poser of  his  time  except  Palestrina.  Among  his  works 
are  masses,  motets,  magnificats,  songs,  and  other  music. 
Died  about  1595. 

See  Fetis,  "  Bingraphie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  Delmotte, 
"Notice  sur  R.  Delatire,"  1836;  Mathieu.  "Roland  de  Lattre," 
1838;  BuRNEV,  "History  of  Music;"  F.  C.  KisT,  "  Levensgeschie- 
denis  van  O.  de  Lassus,"  1841. 

Lasso  or  Lassus,  von,  fon  Us'siis,  (Rudolf,)  a  mu- 
sician, born  at  Munich,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  organist  to  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.     Died  in  1625. 

Lassone,  It'son',  (Joseph  Marie  Francois,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1717.  Having 
practised  with  success  in  Paris  for  many  years,  he  became 
physician  to  the  queen  in  1751.  After  her  death  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  medicine  and  chemistry,  which  were  inserted 
in  the  collections  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in 
1788. 

See  F^Lix  ViCQ  d'Azvr,  "filoge  de  J.  M.  F.  Lassone,"  17S9. 

Lassus.     See  Lasso  and  Lasus. 

Lassus,  It'siis',  (Pierre,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  in  1 741,  was  professor  of  external  pathology 
in  Paris  for  many  years.     Died  in  1807. 

Lasteyrie,  de,  deh  Its'ti're',  (Ferdinand,)  an  anti- 
quary, born  in  Paris  in  1810.  He  acted  with  the  Liberal 
party  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  (1S42-48,)  and  with 
the  moderate  republicans  in  the  Assembly,  (1848-50.)  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Painting  on  Glass."     Died  in  1879. 

Lasteyrie,  de,  (Jules,)  a  grandson  of  General  La 
Fayette,  was  born  in  1810.  He  was  elected  a  deputy  in 
1842  and  in  1846.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Assembly.  He  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."     Died  in  1883. 

Lasteyrie-Dusaillant,  de,  deh  Its'ti're'  dii'zt'ySN'; 
(Charles  Philibert,)  Count,  a  French  philanthro 
pist  and  economist,  the  father  of  Ferdinand,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Correze  in  1759.  He  wrote  treatises 
on  agriculture  and  on  the  natural  history  of  the  sheep, 
the  horse,  etc     Died  in  1849. 

Lastic,  de,  deh  Its'tik',  (Jean  Bonpar,)  a  brave 
French  captain,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1370.  He  was 
chosen  grand  master  of  the  order  of  Saint  John  of  Jeru- 
salem in  1437.  In  1444  he  defended  the  city  of  Rhodes 
with  success  against  the  Sultan  of  Egypt    Died  in  1454. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  de  I'Ordre  de  Saint  Jean  de  Jerusalem  ;"' 
"Achievements  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,"  by  Alexander  Suther- 
land, Philadelphia,  1846. 

Lastman,  ISst'mSn,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter  and 

engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Haarlem  between 
1562  and  1581.  He  visited  Rome  in  1604.  He  was  one 
of  the  masters  of  Rembrandt.  His  son  Nicolas,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1619,  was  a  skilful  artist 

La'sus,  [A«(TOf,]  an  eminent  Greek  dithyrambic  poet, 
born  at  Hennione,  in  Argolis,  flourished  at  Athens  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  master 
of  Pindar.  His  works  are  not  extant.  He  was  some- 
times reckoned  among  the  Seven  Wise  Men. 

La  Suze.    See  Coligni,  (Henrieite.) 

Latapie,  It'tt'pe',  (Francois  de  Paul,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1739 ;  died  in  1823. 

Laterrade,  It'ti'rtd',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French 
botanist  of  Bordeaux,  born  about  1780;  died  in  1858. 

La'tham,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist  and 
physician,  born  at  Eltham,  in  Kent,  in  1 740.  He  began 
to  practise  at  Dartford  in  1763,  and,  in  the  intervals  of 


business,  pursued  the  study  of  natural  history,  especially 
ornithology.  Between  1781  and  1787  he  produced  his 
"General  Synopsis  of  Birds,"  (6  vols.,  with  plates,)  a 
work  of  much  merit  In  1796  he  removed  to  Romsey, 
in  Hampshire,  and  ceased  to  practise  medicine.  He 
afterwards  received  the  title  of  physician  to  the  prince- 
regent.  He  also  wrote,  besides  medical  treatises,  a  "  Gen- 
eral History  of  Birds,"  {1821-24,)  of  which  the  figures 
were  drawn  and  engraved  by  his  own  hand.  Died  in 
1837- 

Latham,  (Robert  Gordon,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish philologist  and  ethnologist,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1812.  He  took  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.D.  at  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  acquired  proficiency  in  ancient  and 
modern  languages.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  English  literature  in  University  College,  London.  He 
published  "The  English  Language,"  (i 841,)  which  is  con- 
sidered a  standard  book,  and  several  English  grammars, 
which  are  extensively  used  in  the  schools.  Among  his 
other  works  are  "  Natural  History  of  the  Varieties  of 
Man,"  (1850,)  "Man  and  his  Migrations,"  (1851,)  "Eth- 
nology of  Europe,"  (1852,)  "Nationalities  of  Europe," 
(1863,)  a  new  edition  of  Johnson's  Dictionary,  (1870,) 
"  Outlines  of  Philology,"  (1878,)  and  "  Russian  and  Turk 
from  a  Geographical,  Ethnological,  and  Historical  Point 
of  View,"  (1878.)     Died  March  9,  1SS8. 

La'thxpp,  (George  Parsons,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Honolulu,  in  Hawaii,  August  25,  1851.  He  was 
educated  in  New  York,  and  in  Dresden,  Saxony,  and  at 
the  law-school  of  Columbia  College.  He  was  assistant 
editor  of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  1875-77,  and  editor 
of  the  Boston  "Courier,"  1878-80.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne.  His  principal  works 
are  "A  Study  of  Hawthorne,"  (1876,)  "Afterglow,"  (a 
novel,  1877,)  "  Spanish  Vistas,"  {18S3,)  and  "  Newport," 
(a  novel,  1884.) 

La'throp,  (John,)  born  at  Boston  in  1772,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Speech  of  Canonicus,  or  ar 
Indian  Tradition,"  (1803.)     Died  in  1820. 

See  DuvCKlNCK,  "  Cyclopsedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Lathrop,  (John  Hiram,)  an  American  college-presi 
dent,  born  at  Sherburne,  New  York,  January  22,  1799. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1819,  and  became  a 
lawyer.  He  held  various  college  professorships,  was 
chosen  president  of  Missouri  University  in  1840,  of  Wis- 
consin University  in  1S49,  and  of  Indiana  University  in 
1859.     Died  at  Columbia,  Missouri,  August  2,  1866. 

Lathrop,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presby- 
terian divine,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1731. 
Having  graduated  at  Yale  College,  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  church  at  West  Springfield.  He 
published  a  collection  of  sermons,  entitled  "  Wolves  in 
Sheep's  Clothing,"  which  obtained  extensive  popularity. 
Died  in  1820. 

Latl-mer,  (Hugh,)  a  celebrated  English  Reformer, 
distinguished  for  his  courage,  zeal,  and  piety,  was  born 
in  Leicestershire  about  1472.  Having  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge and  entered  into  holy  orders,  he  gained  distinction 
as  a  zealous  and  eloquent  preacner  of  the  Reformed  re- 
ligion. He  was  patronized  by  Thomas  Cromwell,  who 
in  1529  gave  him  a  benefice  in  Wiltshire  and  saved  him 
from  persecution  which  certain  bishops  raised  against 
him.  He  became  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn  and  Bishop 
of  Worcester  in  1535.  On  account  of  the  passage  of  the 
act  of  six  articles  in  1539,  he  resigned  his  bishopric,  and 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  until  the  death  of  Henry 
VIIL,  in  1547.  He  was  again  arrested  in  1553,  and 
compelled  by  his  enemies  to  be  present  at  a  dispute  on 
transubstantiation  at  Oxford  in  1554.  In  1555  he  was 
burned  at  the  stake,  in  company  with  Ridley,  to  whom 
he  said,  "  Be  of  good  cheer,  brother  ;  we  shall  this  day 
kindle  such  a  torch  in  England  as  I  trust  shall  never  be 
extinguished." 

See  W.  Gilpin,  "  Life  of  Hugh  Latimer,"  1780  :  Froude,  "  His- 
tory of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi.  ;  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi., 
1822;  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1755. 

Latimer,  (William,)  an  English  scholar  and  reviver 
of  classical  learning.  He  became  Fellow  of  a  college  at 
Oxford  in  1489,  and  taught  Greek  to  Erasmus,  who  ex- 
pressed a  good  opinion  of  him.     Died  in  1545. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u, ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LA  TIN  I 


1497 


LATREILLE 


r 


Latini,  li-tee'nee,  (Brunetto,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
poet,  orator,  and  grammarian,  born  at  Florence  about 
1230.  He  taught  philosophy  and  grammar  in  Florence, 
where  Dante  was  his  pupil,  and  he  held  some  of  the 
highest  offices  in  the  republic.  He  was  attached  to  the 
Guelph  party.  His  greatest  work,  entitled  "The  Trea- 
sure," ("  Le  Tresor,")  is  written  in  French,  and  consists 
of  extracts  and  translations  from  classic  authors  on  his- 
tory, philosophy,  rhetoric,  etc.  He  also  composed  "The 
Little  Treasure,"  ("II  Tesoretto,")  a  poem,  and  a  treatise 
on  rhetoric.     Died  in  1294. 

See  Negri,  "  Istoria  degli  Scrittori  Fiorentini ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"Storiadella  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^- 
rale." 

Latini,  ll-tee'nee,  or  Latinio,  IJ-tee'ne-o,  (Latino,) 
[Lat.  Lati'nus  Latin'ius,]  a  learned  and  judicious 
Italian  critic,  was  born  at  Viterho  in  15 13.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Rome  in  1552,  and  served  as  secretary  to 
several  cardinals,  among  whom  was  Cardinal  Colonna. 
He  published  "Letters,  Conjectures,  and  Observations," 
(1659,)  in  Latin,  which  treat  of  many  points  of  history, 
antiquity,  and  criticism.     Died  in  1593. 

Latino.     See  Latinus. 

La-ti'nus,[Gr.  Karlvoq;  It.  Latino,  li-tee'no,]  a  legen- 
dary king  of  Latium,  a  son  of  Faunus,  and  the  father  of 
Lavinia,  who  became  the  wife  of  .(Eneas.  According  to 
some  authors,  he  was  an  incarnation  of  Jupiter  Latiaris. 

See  Virgil's  "iEneid,"  book  vii. 

Latinus  Latinius.     See  Latini. 

Lat'o-nius,  (or  iS'to'miiss',)  the  Latin  name  of  a  Flem- 
ish theologian,  sometimes  called  James  Masson,  who 
was  born  in  Hainault  about  1475.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Louvain,  and  was  one  of  the  ablest  adver- 
saries of  Luther.  He  wrote  several  works  against  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformers.     Died  in  1544. 

Latomus,  (Barth^lemy,)  a  scholar,  born  in  Luxem- 
burg about  1485,  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the 
College  Royal  of  Paris  in  1534.  He  wrote  notes  on 
Cicero,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1566. 

La-to'na,  [Gr.  ArjTu  ;  Fr.  Latone,  li'ton',]  in  classic 
mythology,  a  daughter  of  the  Titans  Cceus  and  Phoebe, 
was  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  the  mother  of  Apollo  and 
Diana.  The  poets  relate  that,  persecuted  by  Juno,  she 
wandered  about  until  she  came  to  Delos,  which  was 
then  a  floating  island,  but  became  stationary  when  she 
touched  it.  Here  Apollo  and  Diana  were  born.  Latona 
received  from  Niobe  an  affront  which  Apollo  and  Diana 
severely  revenged. 

Latone.    See  Latona. 

Latouche  or  La  Touche,  de,  deh  ll'toosh^  (Hya- 
CINTHE  Thabaud,)  a  French  poet  and  romancer,  born 
at  La  Chatre,  in  Berry,  in  1785,  was  known  by  the  name 
of  Henri  de  Latouche.  He  edited  the  posthumous 
poems  of  Andre  Chenier  about  1819.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  fictitious  "Correspondence  of  Clement 
XIV.  and  Carlin,"  (1827,)  and  several  short  poems. 
Died  in  1851. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  iii. ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 

La  Touche-Tr^ville,  de,  deh  It  toosh  iv^'vhV, 
(Louis  Ren6  Madeleine  le  Vassop.,)  a  French  admiral, 
born  at  Rochefort  in  1745.  He  was  elcL^.d  to  the  States- 
General  in  1789,  and  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1792.  He 
commanded  in  a  naval  battle  against  Nelson  in  1801. 
Died  in  1804. 

Latour.     See  Tour,  de  la. 

Latour  or  La  Tour,  It'tooR',  (Dominique,)  a  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  in  1749,  was  chief 
physician  to  Louis  Bonaparte  while  he  was  King  of 
Holland.     Died  about  1820. 

Latour,  (Jean  Raimond  Jacques  Am^dSe,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1805.  He  founded 
in  1847  the  "  Union  Medicale,"  a  journal. 

Latour,  de,  (Cagniard,)  Baron.     See  Cagniard. 

Latour,  de,  deh  li'tooR',  (Louis  Antoine  Tenant,) 
a  French  poet  and  litteratettr,  born  in  Haute-Vienne  in 
1808,  published  "Far  from  the  Fireside,"  ("Loin  du 
Foyer,"  1841,)  and  other  poems. 

Latour,  de,  (Maurice  Quentin,)  an  eminent  French 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1704.  He 
removed  to  Paris  about  1727,  and  became  a  fashionable 


painter  of  portraits  in  pastel.  In  1750  he  received  the 
title  of  painter  to  the  king.  Among  his  works  are  por- 
traits of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau.     Died  in  1788. 

Latour.von,  fon  It'tooR',  (Karl  Anton  Maximilian 
Baillet,)  Count,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1737. 
He  obtained  command  of  the  army  of  the  Lower  Rhine 
in  1796.  In  this  campaign  he  was  opposed  to  Moreau, 
and,  in  concert  with  the  Archduke  Charles,  fought  seve- 
ral battles,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  worsted.  He 
became  president  of  the  council  of  war,  and  died  in  1806. 

La  Tour  (or  Latour)  d'Auvergne,  de,  deh  It'tooR' 
do'vARii^  (Th^ophile  Malo  Corret,)  a  brave  officer, 
surnamed  "  the  first  grenadier  of  France,"  was  born  at 
Carhaix  in  1743.  He  was  eminent  for  modesty  and 
generosity.  Having  become  captain  about  1789,  he  re- 
fused further  promotion  ;  but  in  1793  he  became  com- 
mander of  a  division  of  8000  grenadiers,  which  formed 
the  vanguard  of  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees  and  was  called 
"the  infernal  column."  By  the  rapidity  of  his  move- 
ments he  usually  decided  the  victory  before  the  main 
body  of  the  army  reached  the  field  of  battle.  Napoleon 
having  presented  him  a  sabre  inscribed  to  "the  first 
grenadier  of  France,"  he  answered,  "  Among  us  soldiers 
there  is  no  first  nor  last."  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Oberhausen,  in  1800.  He  learned  many  languages,  and 
published  "  Researches  into  the  I>anguage,  Origin,  and 
Antiquities  of  the  Bretons,"  (1792.) 

See  BuHOT  de  Kkrsers,  "  Histoire  de  La  Tour  d'Auvergne," 
1841  ;  Calohar,  "  Notice  sur  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1841  ;  Roijx 
de  RocHELLE.  "Notice  sur  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1800;  Priou, 
"  Notice  sur  T.  M.  de  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1843 ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale." 

La  Tour  d'Auvergne.  See  Turenne,  and  Bouil- 
lon. 

Latour  du  Pin  Gouvernet,  de,  deh  l^'tooR'  du 
p4n  goo'v&R'n^',  (Jean  Fr6d6ric,)  Comte  de  Paulin, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1727.  He  was 
elected  in  1789  to  the  States-General,  and  was  minister 
of  war  from  August,  1789,  to  November,  1790.  He  was 
executed  in  1794. 

Latour  -  Maubourg,  de,  deh  li'tooR'  mo'booR', 
(Marie  Charles  C6sar  Fay,)  Count,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  in  1758.  He  was  one  of  the  three  commis- 
saries who  escorted  the  king  from  Varennes  to  Paris  in 
1 791,  after  which  he  was  marechal-de-camp  in  the  army 
of  La  Fayette.  He  escaped  with  La  Fayette  in  1792, 
and  shared  liis  long  captivity  in  Austria.  Died  in 
1831. 

Latour  -  Maubourg,  (Marie  Victor  de  Fay,) 
Marquis,  a  general,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1766.  Flaving  become  a  general  of  division  in  1807, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  Spain  and  Russia,  and  lost  a 
leg  at  Leipsic,  (1813.)  He  was  minister  of  war  about 
two  years,  (1820-21.)     Died  in  1850. 

See  A.  Sai.a,  "Le  General  de  Maubourg,"  Paris,  1S50;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

La  Tourette.    See  TouBFTTii,  ue  la. 

Latreille,  If  tRil'  or  It'tRi'ye,  (Pierre  Andr^,)  an 
eminent  French  naturalist,  surnamed  "the  Prince  of 
Entomology,"  was  born  at  Brives  (La  Correze)  in  1762. 
While  a  student  in  the  college  of  Cardinal  Lemoine, 
Paris,  he  gained  the  favour  of  Abbe  Haiiy.  In  1786  he 
retired  to  his  native  province,  where  he  spent  all  his 
leisure  in  the  study  of  insects,  having  adopted  the  pro- 
fession of  a  priest.  In  consequence  of  the  revolutionary 
troubles,  he  abandoned  that  profession,  and  applied  him- 
self to  his  favourite  science  as  his  chief  business.  He 
published  in  1796  a  treatise  "  On  the  Generic  Characters 
of  Insects."  About  1798  he  was  employed  to  arrange 
insects  in  the  Museum  of  Paris,  in  which  position  he 
remained  nearly  thirty  years.  In  1814  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  and  in  1829  he  succeeded  La- 
marck as  professor  of  zoology.  He  had  published  "The 
Natural  History  of  Ants,"  (1802,)  "  The  Natural  History 
of  Reptiles,"  (1802,)  "A  Memoir  on  the  Sacred  Insects 
of  the  Egyptians,"  and  many  other  works.  Latreille  was 
the  author  of  the  entomological  part  of  Cuvier's  "  Regne 
Animal,"  and  of  the  portion  of  Buffon's  and  Sonnini's 
work  which  treats  of  Crustacea  and  insects.  His  capital 
work  is  "  The  Genera  of  Crustacea  and  Insects,  arranged 
according  to  the  Natural  Order,"  ("  Genera  Crustaceo- 


casi;  5asj;  ghard;  gasy;  g,  h,k,  oTiUuraJ;  N,  nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sasz;  thas  inM/j.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  j 


LA  TREMOUILLE 


1498 


LAUDERDALE 


rum  et  Insectorum  secundum  Ordinem  naturalem  dis- 
posita,"  4  vols.,  1806-09.)     Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale;"  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litt^raire ;" 
V.  AUDOUIN,  "Discoiirs  prononc^  siir  la  Tombe  de  M.  Latreille," 
1833;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdn^rale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol. 
ivi.,  180S,  (Appendix.) 

La  Tr^moiiille.     See  Trimouille,  de  la. 

La  Trimouille,  de,  deh  It  tRe'mool'  or  IS  tRe'moo'y?, 
(Claude,)  Due,  a  French  Protestant  commander,  born 
in  1566,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  the  prince  Henri  de 
Conde.   He  distinguished  himself  at  Ivry.  Died  in  1604. 

His  son  Henri,  born  in  1599,  became  a  general  in  the 
service  of  Louis  XHI.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange.     Died  in  1674. 

La'tro,  (M.  Porcius,)  a  Latin  rhetorician,  born  about 
50  B.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Seneca  the  elder.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  declaimer,  and  was  master  of  a  cele- 
brated school  in  Rome,  where  Ovid  was  his  pupil.  He 
was  called  by  Quintilian  "  imprimis  clari  nominis  pro- 
fessor."    Died  in  4  B.C. 

Latrobe,  It'trol/,  (Benjamin  Henry,)  an  architect, 
born  in  England  in  1763.  He  emigrated  to  America  in 
1795,  and  was  employed  as  engineer  by  the  State  of  Vir- 
ginia. He  was  architect  of  the  United  States  Bank  in 
Philadelphia,  and  of  the  first  Hall  of  Representatives  at 
Washington.     Died  in  1820. 

Latrobe,  (Charles  Joseph,)  an  English  traveller, 
who  visited  the  United  States  and  Mexico  in  1832,  pub- 
lished "The  Rambler  in  North  America,"  (London, 
1835,)  also  entitled  "The  Rambler  in  Mexico."  It  is 
commended  by  Prescott  and  other  competent  critics. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1835;  "Westminster 
Review"  tor  January,  1837. 

Latrobe,  li-trob',  (Rev.  Christian  Ignatius,)  an 
English  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Fulnec,  Leeds, 
in  1758.  He  took  orders  in  the  Moravian  Church,  and 
in  1795  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Unity  of  the 
Brethren  in  England.  He  composed  sacred  music,  and 
edited  "  Moravian  Hymn  Tunes,"  and  "  A  Selection  of 
Sacred  Music  from  the  Works  of  the  Most  Eminent 
Composers  of  Germany  and  Italy,"  (6  vols.,  1806-2!;  ) 
Died  May  6,  1836. 

Lattaignant.     See  Attaignant,  de  l'. 

Lattanzio.    See  Lactantius. 

Lattre.    See  Lasso. 

Latude.     See  Masers. 

Laub,  lowp,  (Ferdinand,)  an  Austrian  violinist,  born 
at  Prague,  January  19,  1832.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  an  early  age,  and,  after  making  successful  tours  through 
the  principal  European  cities,  he  established  himself  at 
Moscow  in  1866  as  head  professor  of  the  violin  in  the 
Conservatorium,  and  first  violin  at  the  Musikgesellschaft. 
Died  March  17,  1875. 

Laiibe,  low'beh,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  poet  and  lit- 
Urateur,  born  in  Silesia  in  1806.  His  "Tales  of  Travel," 
("Reisenovellen,")  published  in  1834,  resemble  those 
of  Heine,  and  are  by  some  critics  preferred  to  them. 
Among  his  other  productions  we  may  cite  "  The  Countess 
Chateaubriand,"  a  romance,  (1843,)  "Prinz  Friedrich," 
and  other  dramas,  and  an  interesting  work  entitled  "The 
First  German  Parliament,"  (3  vols.,  1849.)  Died  at 
Vienna,  August  i,  1884. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

L'Aubespine.     See  Aubespine,  de  l'. 

Laud,  lawd,  (William,)  a  celebrated  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  was  born  at  Reading,  in  Berkshire,  in  1573, 
and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  one  of  the  chap- 
lains of  the  king  about  1615,  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in 
1621,  and  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1626.  After  the 
accession  of  Charles  I.  he  rose  rapidly  into  great  influ- 
ence at  court.  In  1628  he  was  translated  tn^the  see  of 
London,  and  became  the  chief  minister  or  favourite  of 
the  king.  He  took  part  in  the  persecution  of  the  Puri- 
tans, and  was  unjustly  suspected  of  a  bias  in  favour 
of  popery.  In  1633  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  "Of  all  the  prelates  of  the  Anglican 
Church,"  says  Macaulay,  "  Laud  had  departed  farthest 
from  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  and  had  drawn 
nearest  to  Rome."  "Of  all  men  then  livinsi,"  says  Gar- 
diner, "he  [Laud]  was  the  least  fitted  to  "be  intrusted 


with  political  power.  .  .  .  His  thorough  belief  in  the 
unbounded  efficacy  of  external  forms  and  institutions, 
combined  with  his  complete  ignorance  of  human  nature, 
would  be  suflicient  to  goad  to  madness  any  nation  which 
might  be  subjected  to  his  control."  ("  History  of  Eng- 
land from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  p.  41.)  In  1640 
he  was  impeached  by  the  Commons  and  committed  to 
the  Tower.  After  he  had  been  tried  for  treason,  without 
obtaining  a  judicial  sentence,  the  Commons  passed  an 
illegal  and  unjust  ordinance  for  his  execution,  and  he 
was  beheaded  in  1645.  "  His  zeal  was  unrelenting," 
says  Hume,  "in  the  cause  of  religion, — that  is,  in  im- 
posing by  rigorous  measures  his  own  tenets  and  pious 
ceremonies  on  the  obstinate  Puritans,  who  had  profanely 
dared  to  oppose  him."  Laud  had  many  noble  qualities 
of  head  and  heart;  but  his  great  fault  (and  that  of  his 
times)  was  the  non-recognition  of  the  right  of  private 
judgment  in  a  commonwealth  nominally  free.  But  in 
his  time  not  one  writer  or  other  authority,  great  or 
obscure,  seems  to  have  recognized  any  such  popular 
right. 

See  "Life  of  Laud."  by  Prvnne,  1644,  Hevlin,  1671,  Lawson, 
1S29,  Baines,  1S55;  Wharton,  "Troubles  and  Trial  of  W.  Laud, 
to  which  is  prefixed  the  Diary  of  his  own  Life,"  1794;  Hume,  "  His- 
tory of  England,"  chap.  lii.  ;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  1S23. 

Laudati,  low-dd'tee,  (Gioseffo,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  Roman  school,  born  at  Perugia  in  1672,  was  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.     Died  after  1718. 

Lau'der,  (Sir  John,)  Lord  Fountainhall,  an  eminent 
Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1646.  He  became 
a  member  of  Parliament,  and  opposed  the  arbitrary 
policy  of  James  II.     Died  in  1722. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lauder,  (Robert  Scott,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  1803.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"The  Bride  of  Lammermuir,"  "Trial  of  Effie  Deans,' 
and  other  scenes  from  Scott.  He  worked  mostly  in 
London  and  Edinburgh.      Died  April  21,  1869. 

Lauder,  (Sir  Thomas  Dick,)  a  Scottish  author,  born 
in  1784,  inherited  a  baronetcy  from  his  father,  and  lived 
near  Edinburgh.  He  was  one  of  the  early  contributors 
to  "Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  author  of  various 
works,  among  which  are  "  Lochandhu,"  a  novel,  "High- 
land Rambles,"  (1837,)  and  a  "Tour  round  the  Coasts 
of  Scotland."     Died  in  1848. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lauder,  (William,)  a  Scotchman,  who  gained  no 
toriety  by  literary  impostures  designed  to  prove  that 
Milton  was  a  plagiarist  In  1751  he  published  an  "Es- 
say on  Milton's  Use  and  Imitation  of  the  Moderns  in 
his  Paradise  Lost,"  in  which  he  charged  Milton  with 
making  too  free  use  of  the  ideas  of  Grotius  and  others. 
He  was  convicted  of  having  interpolated  in  Grotius's 
Latin  drama  "  Adamus  Exsul"  several  verses  copied 
from  an  obscure  version  of  Milton's  poem.  He  died  in 
Barbadoes  in  177 1. 

Lau'der-dale',  (James  Maitland,)  Earl  of,  an  able 
Scottish  \Vhig  statesman,  born  in  1759,  was  the  son  of 
the  seventh  Earl  of  Lauderdale,  and  was  first  styled 
Lord  Maitland.  About  1781  he  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  where  he  acted  as  the  political 
friend  of  Fox,  and  in  1787  was  chosen  one  of  the  man- 
agers of  the  impeachment  of  Hastings.  He  inherited  the 
title  of  earl  in  1789,  and  was  chosen  one  of  the  Scottish 
representative  peers  in  1790.  He  favoured  the  French 
republic,  and  opposed  the  war  against  the  French  which 
began  in  1793.  In  1806  he  became  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  keeper  of  the  seal  of  Scotland,  and  was 
sent  by  Mr.  Fox  to  Paris  with  full  powers  to  negotiate 
a  peace,  but  without  success.  On  the  fall  of  the  Whig 
ministry  in  1807  he  gave  up  the  seal  of  Scotland.  He 
died  in  1S39,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son  James.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  finance  and  political  economy. 

Lauderdale,  (John  Maitland,)  Duke  of,  a'British 
courtier,  born  .at  Lethington  in  1616,  was  a  grandson 
of  John  Lord  Maitland,  Chancellor  of  Scotland.  Plis 
father  was  first  Earl  of  Lauderdale.  He  was  conspicu- 
ous among  the  Scottish  insurgents  of  1638,  and  began  his 
public  career  as  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  Covenant. 
After  the  restoration  of  1660  he  became  the  prime  fa- 
vourite of  Charles  II.,  and  in  1670  was  a  member  of  that 


a  e,  T  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


LA  UDIVIO 


1499 


LAURENBERG 


\ 


corrupt  cabinet  called  the  Cabal.  "  Under  the  outward 
show  of  boisterous  frankness,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  was 
perhaps  the  most  dishonest  man  in  the  whole  Cabal." 
He  was  created  duke  in  1672.  In  1678  he  became  min- 
ister for  Scottish  affairs,  which  he  managed  in  a  violent 
and  arbitrary  manner.  "  He  had  the  fortune,  beyond 
any  other  minister,"  says  Hume,  "to  maintain  an  ascend- 
ant over  Charles  H.  during  the  greater  part  of  his  reign." 
("  History  of  England.")  Died  in  16S2.  As  he  left  no 
male  issue,  his  brother  inherited  the  earldom. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England;"  Buknet,  "  History  of 
his  Own  Time." 

Laudivio,  16w-dee've-o,  (Zaccaria,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Genoa,  lived  about  1470.  He  wrote  "  Letters 
of  the  Grand  Turk,"  ("Epistolae  Magni  Turci,"  1473,) 
often  reprinted,  and  "On  the  Praises  of  Wisdom  and 
Virtue,"  ("De  Laudibus  Sapientiae  et  Virtutis.") 

Laudou,  von,  fon  low'don,  written  also  Laudohn 
and  Loudon,  (Gideon  Ernst,)  Baron,  a  famous  field- 
marshal  of  the  Austrian  army,  was  born  in  Livonia  in 
1716.  He  entered  the  service  of  Maria  Theresa  in  1743, 
and  for  his  exploits  in  several  campaigns  was  rewarded 
with  the  rank  of  general  in  1757.  The  next  year  he  was 
made  lieutenant-general,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
victory  of  Hochkirchen  over  the  Prussians.  In  1759  he 
gained  a  complete  victory  at  Kunersdorf,  where  Frederick 
the  Great  commanded  in  person.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  in  1778,  gained  several  victories 
over  the  Turks  in  178S,  and  was  chosen  generalissimo 
'n  1789.     Died  in  1790. 

See  ToLNAV,  "  Laiidon's  Elirendeukmal ;"  Johann  Pezzl,  "  Le- 
bensgeschichte  Laiidon's,"  17^0;  Fkihdkich  von  der  Trenxk, 
"Denkmal  und  Traiierrede  bei  dem  Grabe  des  Feldmarschalls  Lau- 
don,"  1790;  "  Leven  en  Heldendaden  van  G.  E.  van  Loudon,"  1792. 

Lauffer,  lowf'fer,  (  Jakob,  )  a  Swiss  historian  and 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Zofifingen  in  1688.  He  wrote, 
in  German,  a  "  History  of  Helvetia,"  (or  Switzerland,) 
("Helvetische  Geschichte,"  1736-38.)     Died  in  1734. 

Laugel,  16'zhSl',  (Antoine  Auguste,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Strasbourg,  January  20,  1830.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1864,  and  published  "The  United 
States  during  the  War,"  (1866,)  "England,  Political 
and  Social,"  (1873,)  "Great  Historical  Figures,"  (1875,) 
"Louise  de  Coligny,"  (1877,)  "France,  Political  and 
Social,"  ([877,)  and  other  works. 

Laugier,  16'zhe-i',  (Andr6,)  an  able  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1770.  In  1S09  he  succeeded  Fourcroy 
as  professor  of  chemistry  in  his  native  city.  His  lectures 
were  published  with  the  title  of  "  Cours  de  Chimie  gene- 
rale,"  (3  vols.,  1828.)  He  excelled  in  chemical  analysis, 
and  wrote  numerous  memoirs  on  the  analysis  of  minerals. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  P.  J.  RoBiQUET,  "Notice  historique  sur  A.  Laugier,"  1832; 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

Laugier,  (Ernest,)  an  astronomer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1812,  obtained  in  1841  the 
Lalande  medal  for  the  discovery  of  a  comet  and  the  cal- 
culation of  its  orbit.     Died  April  5,  1872. 

Laugier,  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Toulon  in  1785,  worked  in  Paris.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae,"  and  "  Trance  of  Saint 
Paul,"  after  Poussin.     Died  February  24,  1S75. 

Laugier,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  writer  and 
priest,  born  at  Manosque  in  1713.  He  preached  in  sev- 
eral pulpits  of  Paris,  and  afterwards  obtained  the  abbey 
of  Ribeaute  in  1757.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  successful  "Essay  on  Architecture,"  (1753-55,)  and  a 
•'History  of  Venice,"  (12  vols.,  1759-68,)  which  was  the 
best  which  had  appeared  until  that  of  Daru  was  pub- 
lished in  18x9.     Died  in  1769. 

Laugier,  de,  deh  16'zhe-i',  (C6sar  de  Bellecour,) 
Count,  a  general,  was  born  in  the  isle  of  Elba  in  1789. 
He  is  ranked  among  the  best  military  writers  of  Italy. 
In  May,  1848,  he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  Tus- 
can corps  raised  to  fight  against  Austria.  With  about 
5000  men  he  resisted  30,000  Austrians  for  six  hours  near 
Mantua.  He  was  minister  of  war  under  Leopold  II.  in 
1850  and  1851.  Among  his  works  is  "Annals  and  Vicis- 
situdes of  the  Italian  Peoples  from  180 1  to  1815,"  (13 
vols.,  1829-32.)      Died  at  Florence,  March  25,  1871. 

Laujon,  16'zh6N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Paris  in  1727.     He  composed  admired  songs  and  lyrical 


dramas.  In  1807  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  "  Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixviii.,  1812,  (Appendix.) 

Lauman,  law'man,  or  Laii'man,  (  Jacob  G.,  )  an 
American  general,  born  in  Maryland  in  1813.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7, 
1862,  and  a  division  at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  June  and 
July,  1863. 

Laumout,  de,  deh  16'm6N',  (Francois  Pierre  Ni- 
colas Gillet — zhe'yV,)  a  French  mineralogist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1747.  He  discovered  several  minerals,  and 
wrote  memoirs  which  were  printed  in  the  "Annales  des 
Mines"  and  other  journals.     Died  in  1834. 

Launay,  de,'deh  lo'ni',  (pRAwgois,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Angers  in  1612.  He  was  professor  of  French 
law  at  the  College  Royal,  and  published  several  legal 
works.     Died  in  1693- 

Launay,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  theo- 
logian, born  at  Blois  in  1573.  He  received  the  title  of 
counsellor  to  the  king,  and  taught  Greek  gratis  at  the 
Academy  of  Saumur.  He  wrote  a  "Paraphrase  on  the 
Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  (2  vols.,  1650,)  and  other  com- 
mentaries on  Scripture,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1661. 

Lauuey,  de,  deh  16'ni',  (Bernard  Ren6  Jourdan,) 
the  last  governor  of  the  Bastille,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1740,  and  became  governor  in  1776.  The  storming  of 
that  state  prison  by  the  populace,  being  the  first  violent 
symptom  of  the  Revolution,  has  rendered  his  name 
historical.  On  the  14th  of  July,  1789,  he  repulsed  the 
insurgents  for  several  hours  with  cannon  and  other 
guns,  and  attempted  to  blow  up  the  building  by  firing 
the  magazine,  but  was  prevented.  He  was  massacred 
immediately  after  the  capture  of  the  place. 

Launey,  (Emmanuel  de.)     See  Entraigues,  d'. 

Launitz,  low'nits,  (Robert  Eberhakd,)  a  nephew  of 
the  following,  was  born  at  Riga,  in  Russia,  November  4, 
1806.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Thorwaldsen.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1828,  and  was  for  many  years  devoted 
chiefly  to  monumental  sculpture.  Died  in  New  York, 
December  13,  1S70. 

Launitz,  von,  fon  low'nits,  (NiKOLAUS  Karl Eduard 
Schmidt,)  a  German- Russian  sculptor,  born  at  Grobin, 
in  Courland,  November  23,  1797.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Thorwaldsen,  and  worked  mostly  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  where  he  died,  December  12,  1869. 

Launoi  or  Launoius.     See  Launoy. 

Launoy  or  Launoi,  de,  deh  16'nwi',  [Lat.  Launo'- 
lus,]  (Jean,)  a  French  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  near 
Valogne  in  1603,  had  a  high  reputation  for  learning.  In 
1643  '^^  '^'^^  chosen  royal  censor  of  books.  He  published, 
besides  many  works  on  theology,  a  "  History  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Navarre,"  (1677,)  and  clefended  the  liberties  of 
the  Galilean  Church  against  the  pretensions  of  the  court 
of  Rome.  He  was  noted  for  his  zeal  and  sagacity  in 
expunging  the  names  of  spurious  saints  from  the  calen- 
dar, and  was  said  to  have  dethroned  more  saints  than 
ten  popes  had  canonized.     Died  in  1678. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"Memoires;"  J.  Reiser,  "J.  Launoius  Theologus,"  etc.,  1685 

Laura.  See  Noves,  de,  and  Petrarch. 

Laura,  (Filippo.)  See  Laurl 

Lauraguais,  de,  deh  I5'rt'gi',  (Louis  L60N  F6li- 
CIt6,)  Comte,  Due  de  Brancas,  an  eccentric  French 
nobleman,  born  at  Versailles  in  1733.  He  patronized 
literature  and  science,  and  by  his  chemical  experiments 
associated  his  name  with  those  of  Lavoisier  and  Daicet. 
He  wrote  many  political  treatises.     Died  in  1824. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Laurati.     See  Lorenzettl  (Pietro.) 

Laurati,  16w-ri'tee,(PiETRO,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1282;  died  in  1340. 

Laurel.     See  Laurelius. 

Laurelius,  low-rii'le-us,  or  Laurel,  low'rel,  (Olaus,) 
a  Swedish  theologian,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1585. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Westeris  in  1647.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "System  of  Theology,"  (1641,) 
which  was  esteemed  a  standard  work.     Died  in  1670. 

Laurenberg,  low'ren-beRo',  or  Lauremberg,  low'- 
rem-b^RG',  (Johann,)  a  poet  and  j^hilologist,  born  at 
Rostock  in  1590.     He  ranked  high  among  the  poets  of 


eas-4,-  9asj';  '%hard;  ga.sj;  G,ii,K,  guttural;  N,fiasa/;  ^,trilled;  sasz;  %hasin///w.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAURENBERG 


1500 


LAUTREC 


his  time.  Among  his  works  are  four  poetical  satires, 
(1652-70,)  and  "Grfficia  Antiqua,"  a  description  of 
ancient  Greece,  (1661.)     Died  in  1658. 

Laurenberg,  (Petkr,)  a  botanist  and  anatomist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rostock  about 
1575.  He  became  professor  at  Rostock  in  1624,  and 
published  several  works  on  anatomy.     Died  in  1639. 

Lau'rence  or  Law'rence,  (Dr.  Frknch,)  an  eminent 
English  civilian  and  author,  born  at  Bristol,  graduated 
at  Oxford  about  1780.  "He  was," says  Lord  Brougham, 
"one  of  the  most  able,  most  learned,  and  most  upright 
men  tliat  ever  adorned  the  legal  profession.  .  .  .  He 
united  in  himself  the  indefatigable  labour  of  a  Dutch 
commentator  with  the  alternate  playfuhtess  and  sharp- 
ness of  a  Parisian  wit."  He  was  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment about  twenty  years.  About  1797  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford.  He  was  the  intimate 
friend  and  executor  of  Edmund  Burke.  He  wrote  some 
of  the  "  Probationary  Odes,"  and  contributed  largely  to 
the  epigrams  and  satires,  in  prose  and  verse,  of  "The 
Rolliad."     Died  in  1809. 

Laurence,  (Richard,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Bath  in  1760.  He  became  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Oxford  in  1814,  and  Archbishop  of  Cashel 
in  1822.  Died  in  1838.  He  was  a  great  authority  on 
the  Ethiopic  language  and  literature,  and  translated 
several  of  the  sacred  books  found  in  that  tongue. 

Laurencin,  de,  deh  lo'rfiN'saN',  (Jean  Esp6rance 
Blandine,)  Comte,  a  French  poet,  born  near  Valence 
in  1733  ;  died  in  1812. 

Laurens.    See  Du  Laurens. 

Lau'rens,  (Henry,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1724.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  he  was  elected  a  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Congress,  of  which  he  subsequently 
became  president,  in  November,  1777.  While  on  his 
voyage  as  ambassador  to  the  Hague,  in  1780,  he  was 
taken  by  the  British  and  imprisoned  for  fourteen  months 
in  the  Tower  of  London.  In  conjunction  with  Franklin 
and  Jay,  he  afterwards  signed  the  preliminaries  to  a  treaty 
with  England,  November,  1782.     Died  in  1792. 

See   "National   Portrait-Gallery   of  Distinguished   Americans." 

Laurens,  (John,)  an  American  patriot  and  soldier, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  1756,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  entered  the  army  early  in  1777,  became 
an  aide-de-camp  to  Washington,  and  was  wounded  at 
Germantown.  It  is  stated  that  he  distinguished  him- 
self in  every  action  of  the  army  which  W^ashington 
commanded.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  General 
Hamilton.  In  1781  he  was  sent  to  France  on  a  special 
mission,  for  which  he  was  selected  by  Washington.  He 
was  successful,  and  returned  in  time  to  take  part  in 
the  victory  at  Yorktown,  October,  1781.  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  on  the  Combahee  River,  South  Carolina, 
in  August,  1782.  Colonel  Laurens  is  represented  as 
having  been  a  man  of  rare  endowments,  as  blending  in 
harmonious  union  the  character  of  a  gallant  officer,  a 
fine  scholar,  and  an  accomplished  gentleman. 

Laurent.     See  Lawrence,  Saint. 

Laurent,  lo'rSN',  (Auguste,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
near  Langres  in  1807.  He  became  assayer  of  the  mint 
at  Paris  in  1848,  and  wrote  a  "Method  of  Chemistry," 
(1854.)     Died  in  1853. 

Laurent,  (Paul  Marie,)  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Ardfeche  in  1793.  His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of 
Napoleon,"  with  500  designs  by  Horace  Vernet,  (9  vols., 
1838-42.)     Died  at  Versailles,  August  7,  1877. 

Laurent,  (Pierre,)  a  skilful  French  engraver,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1739,  worked  in  Paris.  He  excelled  in 
landscapes  and  animals,  and  published  engravings  of 
the  master-pieces  of  the  Louvre.     Died  in  1809. 

Laurent,  (Pierre  Jo.seph,)  a  skilful  Flemish  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Bordeaux  in  1715.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  the  canals  of  Flanders  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  and  gained  reputation  by  the  junction  of  the  Somme 
with  the  Scheldt.  He  was  very  skilful  in  the  fabrication 
of  artificial  limbs.     Died  in  1773. 

Laurentie,  lo'r6N'te',  (Pierre  SiSbastien,)  a  French 
historical  and  political  writer,  born  at  Houga  (Gers)  in 
1793.     He  edited  several  royalist  journals  in  Paris,  and 


published  "Studios,  Literary  and  Moral,  on  the  Latin 
Historians,"  (2  vols.,  1822,)  and  a  "History  of  France," 
(1841-43.)     Died  at  Paris,  February  9,  1876. 

LaurentiuB,  (Joannes.)     See  Lydus. 

Laurentius,  (Lydus.)     See  Lydus. 

Laurentzen,  16w'rent-zen,  or  Lorentsen,  lo'rent- 
sen,  (Johan,)  a  Danish  historical  writer,  born  at  Ribe. 
He  wrote  on  Danish  history,  and  produced  a  Danish 
version  of  the  Bible,  (1719.)     Died  about  1728. 

LaiTretti,  16w-ret'tee,  or  Laureti,  low-ra'tee,  (ToM- 
maso,)  an  Italian  jiainter,  born  at  Palermo,  worked  at 
Rome  for  Gregory  XIII.,  and  became  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  His  pictures  of"  Brutus  Judging 
his  Sons"  and  "Horatius  Codes  Defending  the  Bridge 
were  much  admired.     Died  about  1600,  aged  eighty. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Lauri,  low'ree,  (Balthasar,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1570 ;  died  at  Rome  in 
1642. 

Lauri  or  Laura,  low'rS,  (Filippo,)  an  eminent  painter 
of  history  and  landscapes,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Rome  in  1623.  Filippo  painted  in  preference  small 
cabinet  pictures  which  were  remarkable  for  imagination 
and  spirit.  He  also  painted  figures  for  the  landscapes 
cf  Claude  Lorrain.  His  design  and  composition  are 
highly  commended  by  E.  Breton  in  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale."  Died  in  1694.  His  broth-tr 
Francesco  was  a  promising  artist  when  he  died  in 
1635,  aged  twenty-five. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Lauria,  (Roger  di.)     See  Loria. 

Lauriere,  de,  deh  16're-aiR',  (EusiBE  Jacob,)  a  pro- 
found French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1659.  He  was 
thoroughly  versed  in  legal  science,  and  attained  great 
proficiency  in  literature.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Origin  of  the  Law  of  Amortizement,"  (1692,) 
and  "  Library  of  Common  Law,"  ("  Bibliotheque  des 
Coutumes,"  1699.)     Died  in  1728. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Laurillard,  lo'ri'ySR',  (Charles  Leopold,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  artist,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1783,  was  a 
pupil  of  Cuvier,  who  employed  him  in  the  execution  of 
his  anatomical  designs.  He  published  "The  Mammifera 
and  Human  Races,"  (1849.)     Died  in  1853. 

Laurimanus.     See  Lauwerman. 

Lauriston,  de,  deh  lo'rJs'tfiN',  (Jacques  Alexan- 
dre Bernard  Law,)  Marquis,  a  marshal  of  France, 
was  born  in  India  in  1768,  and  was  great-nephew  of 
John  Law,  the  famous  projector.  In  i8co  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  Bonaparte,  and  served  at  the  battle  of 
Marengo.  He  was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in  1802, 
general  of  division  in  1805,  and  governor-general  of 
Venice  in  1807.  Having  received  the  title  of  count, 
as  commander  of  the  artillery  of  the  imperial  guard,  he 
took  part  in  several  victories  over  the  Austrians  in  1809. 
He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  181 1,  and  com- 
manded a  corps  in  the  campaign  of  1813.  He  was  created 
a  marquis  in  1817,  became  minister  of  the  royal  house- 
hold in  1821,  received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1823,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  state  in  1824.     Died  in  1828. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  G^ndraux  Frangais ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lauro,  low'ro,  (Giovanni  Baitista,)  a  modern  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Perugia  in  1581  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1629. 

Laus  du  Ferret.    See  Duperret. 

Lauterbach,  low'ter-b^K',  (Wolfgang  Adam,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  in  1618,  wrote  a  work  on  the  Pan- 
dects, (3  or  4  vols.,  1690-1714.)     Died  in  1678. 

Lauth,  lot,  (Alexandre,)  a  .skilful  French  anatomist, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1S03.  He  published  a  "Manual 
for  the  Anatomist,"  (1829,)  and  other  able  professional 
works.     Died  in  1837. 

Lautrec,  lo'iR^k',  (Odet  de  Foix,)  Marshal,  a 
brave  French  general,  was  a  cousin  of  Gaston  de  Foix. 
He  was  wounded  at  Ravenna  in  1512.  Just  after  Con- 
stable Bourbon  had  resigned  the  command,  Francis  I. 
ajjpointed  Lautrec  his  lieutenant-general  in  Italy,  (1516.) 
He  was  defeated  at  Bicoque  in  1522,  and  fought  by  the 
side  of  Francis  I.  at  Pavia  in  1525.     In  1527  he  resumed 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,Iona';k.,h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,\,6,\\,y,s/iort;  a,  e,  \,q,  obscure;  fjir,  fill,  fdt;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LA  UWERMAN 


1501 


LAVE  A  UK 


command  of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  was  besieging  Naples, 
when  he  died  of  fever  in  1528. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fraiifais." 

Lauwerman.low'er-man'JLat.  Laurima'nus,]  (Cor 
NELis,)  a  Dutch  teacher  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1520;  died  in  1573. 

Lauzun,  Due  de.   See  Biron,  (Armand  Louis  ie.) 

Lauzun,  de,  deh  16'zun',  (Antoine  Nompar  de 
Caumont,)  Duke,  a  French  courtier  and  general,  whose 
life  presents  remarkable  vicissitudes,  was  born  in  Gascony 
in  1632.  He  became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
gave  him  a  high  rank  in  the  army  before  he  had  merited 
it  by  services.  In  1671  he  commanded  the  army  which 
accompanied  the  king  to  Flanders.  He  was  engaged  to 
Vnna  Maria,  Duchess  of  Montpensier,  a  granddaughter 
of  Henry  IV.,  but  the  match  was  broken  oif,  and,  having 
incurred  the  enmity  of  Madame  Montespan,  he  was  im- 
prisoned from  1671  to  1681,  when  his  penalty  was  com- 
muted into  exile  from  court.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
secretly  married  to  the  lady  first  above  named.  When 
the  throne  and  person  of  James  II.  of  England  were 
menaced  by  revolution,  (1688,)  that  king  confided  his 
wife  and  son  to  Lauzun,  who  escorted  them  to  Paris 
and  by  that  service  regained  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV. 
He  commanded  the  French  army  sent  to  Ireland  to  fight 
tor  James  II.,  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  in 
1690,  and  returned  to  France  about  the  end  of  that  year. 
Died  in  1723.  "His  life  was  like  a  romance,"  said  La 
Bruyere,  "except  that  it  lacked  probability." 

See  La  BruyAre,  "Caractferes;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires;" 
Dangeau,  "Journal ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdni^rale  ;"  Delort, 
"Histoire  de  la  Detention  de  Fouquet,  de  Pellisson  et  de  Lauzun,'' 
3  vols.,  1829;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Laval,  IS'vtl',  (Anne  Adrien  Pierre  de  Mont- 
morency,) Due  de  Laval,  born  in  Paris  in  1768,  was 
the  son  of  the  Due  de  Laval.  He  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador to  Spain  in  1814,  to  Rome  about  1820,  and  to 
Vienna  in  1828.  In  1829  he  was  transferred  to  the  court 
of  Saint  James.     Died  in  1837. 

Lavalette,  de,  deh  li'va'l^t',  (Pere  Antoine,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  in  1707.  He  was  chosen  superior- 
general  of  the  missions  of  South  America  in  1754.  He 
engaged  in  mercantile  speculations  which  resulted  in  a 
disgraceful  bankruptcy.  This  affair  was  one  of  the 
causes  or  pretexts  of  the  abolition  of  the  order  of  Jesuits 
in  France  in  1 762  ;  for  the  order  refused  to  pay  the  debts 
of  Lavalette,  as  directed  by  the  courts. 

Lavalette,  de,  (Charles  Jean  Marie  F^lix,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Senlis  in  1806.  He 
was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  Sublime  Porte  from 
1851  to  1853,  and  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator  in 
the  latter  year.  In  1865  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  interior.  He  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
December,  1868.     Died  May  2,  1881. 

La  Valette,  de,(jEAN  Parisot.)  See  Valette,  de  la. 

Lavalette,  de,  (Marie  Chamans,)  Count,  a  favour- 
ite officer  and  minister  of  Bonaparte,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1769.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  obtained 
the  grade  of  captain  at  Areola  in  1796.  Soon  after  this 
date,  Bonaparte  employed  him  in  important  missions, 
and  gave  him  for  his  wife  fimilie  de  Beauharnais,  a 
niece  of  Josephine.  During  the  Egyptian  campaign 
(1798)  he  was  one  of  Bonaparte's  favourite  attendants. 
In  1800  he  was  called  to  preside  over  the  post-office 
department,  first  with  the  title  of  commissary,  and  soon 
after  with  that  of  director-general.  At  the  restoration 
of  1814  he  retired  to  private  life,  but  on  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba  he  resumed  his  functions  as  post- 
master-general on  the  20th  of  March,  181 5.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  arrested  by  the  agents  of  Louis  XVI 1 1,  and 
condemned  to  death.  Just  before  the  day  of  execution, 
Madame  Lavalette  visited  him  in  prison,  and  remained 
in  his  place  while  he  escaped  disguised  in  her  dress.  By 
the  aid  of  Sir  R.  Wilson  and  other  Englishmen,  he 
reached  Flanders  safely.  He  was  pardoned  by  the  king 
in  1822,  and  died  in  1830,  leaving  two  volumes  of  me- 
moirs of  his  life,  (1831.)  His  wife  was  tried  and  acquitted, 
but  became  permanently  insane  in  consequence  of  the 
exertion  and  excitement. 

See  Lavalette,  "  M^moires  et  Souvenirs,"  2  vols.,  1831,  and 
"  Notice  biographique  sur  le  Comte  de  La  Valette,"  Paris,  1830. 


La  Vallee,  It  vt'li',  (Joseph,)  Marquis  de  Bois- Ro- 
bert, a  French  writer,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1747.  Among 
his  works  is  a  piquant  journal  called  "  Semaines  cri- 
tiques," (4  vols.,  1797.)     Died  in  London  in  1816. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxxv.,  i8i8,  (Appendix.) 

Lavall6e,  (Th^ophile  Si^bastien,)  a  French  histo- 
rian, born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  French  from  the  Time  of  the  Gauls  to  1830,"  (3 
vols.,  1839  ;  loth  edition,  1854,)  and  other  works.  He 
died  at  Versailles,  August  29,  1866. 

La  Valliere.     See  Valli^re,  de  la. 

Lavardiu,  de,  deh  li'vtR'diN',  Marshal,  a  French 
general,  whose  proper  name  was  Jean  de  Beaumanoir, 
was  born  in  Maine  in  1551.  He  fought  as  second  in 
command  of  the  Catholic  army  al  Coutras  in  1578,  but 
entered  the  service  of  Henry  IV.  in  1595,  and  was 
then  made  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was  riding  in  the 
carriage  with  the  king  when  the  latter  was  assassinated 
in  1610.     Died  in  1614. 

Lavardin,  de,  (Henri  Charles  de  Beaumanoir,) 
Marquis,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.  In 
1687  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome,  with  a  large 
retinue  of  armed  men,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a 
claim  to  certain  privileges  or  franchises  which  the  pope 
refused  to  grant.  (See  Innocent  XI.)  Lavardin  en- 
tered Rome  as  a  victor  at  the  head  of  an  army,  but  was 
excommunicated,  and  returned  to  France  in  1689.  Died 
in  1701. 

Lavater,  la^vi-ter  or  It'vt'taiR',  (John  Caspar,)  a 
celebrated  Protestant  minister  and  writer  on  physiog- 
nomy, born  at  Zurich  in  1741.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  which  profession  was  congenial  to  his  character. 
In  1763  he  made  a  journey  to  Berlin  with  Henry  Fuseli 
the  artist.  He  produced  in  1767  his  admirable  "  Swiss 
Songs,"  and  in  1768  an  ingenious  work  entitled  "Pros- 
pects into  Eternity,"  ("Aussichte  in  die  Ewigkeit")  He 
was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1769,  and  a  few  years  later 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Zurich.  His  sermons 
were  much  admired,  and  widely  diffused  by  the  press ; 
but  he  was  censured  by  some  for  a  tendency  to  paradox, 
superstition,  and  mystical  theology.  In  1775-78  he  pub- 
lished, in  German,  his  celebrated  "Physiognomic  Frag- 
ments for  the  Promotion  of  the  Knowledge  and  Love 
of  Mankind,"  ("Physiognomischen  Fragmente  zur  Be- 
fdrderung  der  Menschenkenntniss  und  Menschenliebe," 
4  vols.)  This  is  the  result  of  multiplied  and  curious 
observations  generalized  into  an  ingenious  system.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  religious  and  moral  works 
in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  are  "Pontius  Pilate," 
(1782,)  and  two  poems,  "The  Messiah"  (4  vols.,  1783-86) 
and  "The  Human  Heart,"  (1789.)  He  was  a  friend  of 
Goethe,  with  whom  he  corresponded.  In  the  commo- 
tions which  followed  the  French  Revolution  he  displayed 
courage  and  firmness  in  opposing  the  French  party, 
(though  not  with  carnal  weapons ;)  and  at  the  capture 
of  Zurich  by  Massena,  in  September,  1799,  he  was  shot 
in  the  street  by  a  soldier.  After  suffering  from  the  wound 
more  than  a  year,  he  died  in  1801.  His  character  was 
eminently  honest  and  noble.  "Lavater's  spirit,"  says 
Goethe,  in  his  Autobiography,  "was  altogether  im- 
posing. Near  him,  you  could  not  resist  his  decided  in- 
fluence ;  and  I  had  to  submit  to  observing  brow  and 
nose,  eyes  and  mouth,  in  detail,  and  to  weighing  their 
relations  and  proportions  to  each  other.  .  .  .  Many 
times  in  my  after-life  I  had  occasion  to  think  about  this 
man,  who  is  one  among  the  most  excellent  with  whom  I 
have  ever  attained  to  so  intimate  a  relation." 

See  Meister,  "J.  C.  Lavater,"  1802;  Gessner,  "Lavater's 
Lebensbeschreibung,"  3  vols.,  1802;  Goethe,  "  Briefe  an  Lavater." 
1833;  BoDEMANN,  "Life  of  Lavater,"  1856:  P.  L  Heisch,  "Me- 
moirs of  J.  C.  Lavater,"  London,  1842;  C.  L.  Haller,  "  Denkmal 
auf  Lavater,"  1801  ;  F.  W.  Jung,  "  Erinnerungeu  an  Lavater,"  1812; 
F.  Herbst,  "Lavater  nach  seinem  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1832. 

Lavater,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  clergyman,  born 
in  1527.  He  lived  in  Zurich,  and  wrote  many  theological 
and  other  works,  among  which  is  a  curious  treatise  on 
spectres,  apparitions,  etc.,  (1570.)     Died  in  1586. 

Laveaux,  It'vo',(jEAN  Charles  Thibault,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Troyes  in  1749.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  French  Lan- 
guage," (1826.)     Died  in  1827. 


■e  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  h,  K.,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.     ( g:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAVELEYE 


1502 


LAW 


Laveleye,  de,  deh  ISv'li',  (Emile  Louis  VicroR,)  a 
Belgian  economist,  burn  at  Bruges,  April  5,  1822.  He 
was  educated  at  Paris  and  Ghent,  and  in  1864  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  the  Liege  University. 
Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  on  the  Proven9al  litera- 
ture, (1844,)  "  Histoire  des  Rois  francs,"  (1847,)  "La 
Question  de  I'Or,"  (i860,)  "  Questions  contemporaines," 
(1863,)  "  Essai  sur  I'Economie  rurale,"  (1863,)  "fitudes 
d'ficonomie  rurale,"  {1864,)  "  Essais  sur  les  Formes  du 
Gouvernement,"  (1872,)  "  De  la  Propriete,"  (a  work  of 
great  merit,  1874,)  and  "  Elements  d'Economie  publique," 
(1882.) 

Lavergne,  de,  deh  It'viRn',  (Louis  Gabriel  L6once 
Guilhaud — ge'16',)  a  French  economist  and  writer,  born 
at  Bergerac  in  1S09.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Memoir 
on  the  Rural  Economy  of  France,"  (1857,)  and  many 
important  articles  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes" 
on  Spanish  history,  literature,  etc.     Died  Jan.  18,  i88o. 

La-ver'na,  [Fr.  Laverne,  lt'v§Rn',]  in  Roman  my- 
thology, was  regarded  as  the  patroness  of  thieves  and 
impostors. 

Laverne.     See  Laverna. 

La  Verne,  de,  deh  It  v§Rn,  (Leger  Marie  Phit.tppf 
Tranchant — trSN'shSw',)  Comte,  a  French  tactician 
and  writer  on  the  art  of  war,  born  near  Vesoul  in  1769. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  General  Suwarow," 
(1809.)     Died  in  1815. 

Laves,  li'v^s,  (Georg  Ludwig  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  architect,  and  chief  director  of  buildings 
for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  was  born  at  Uslar  in  1789. 
In  1852  he  finished  the  new  theatre  at  Hanover,  which  is 
regarded  as  his  best  work.     Died  April  30,  1864. 

Lavialle,  It've-tl',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  D.D.,  a  bishop, 
born  at  Lavialle,  France,  in  1820.  He  studied  with  the 
Sulpitians  at  Paris,  was  ordained  at  Louisville,  Ken- 
tucky, in  1844,  became  in  1849  professor  of  theology  in 
Saint  Thomas's  Seminary,  and  in  1856  president  of  Saint 
Mary's  College.  In  1865  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Louisville.  Died  at  Nazareth,  near  Bardstown,  Ken- 
tucky, May  II,  1S67. 

Lavigerie,  Cardinal.     See  Allemand-Lavigerie. 

Lavigne,  de,  deh  It'vfen',  (Anne,)  a  French  poetess, 
born  at  Vernon,  in  Normandy;  died  in  1684. 

La  Ville  de  Mirmont,  de,  deh  It  v^l  deh  m^R'miN', 
(Alexandre  Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1782.  His  drama  "Le  Libere" 
(1835)  gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy.    Died  in  1845. 

La  Villemarque,  de,  deh  It  vfel'mtR'ki',  (Theodore 
Claude  Henri  Hersart — hiR'stR',)  Vicomte,  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Quimperle  in  1815.  He  published 
"The  Popular  Songs  of  Bretagne,"  (1839,)  with  a  French 
version,  and  other  works. 

Lav'ing-ton,  (George,)  a  learned  English  prelate, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1683.  He  became  a  canon  of  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  in  1732,  and  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1747. 
He  published,  besides  sermons,  "  The  Enthusiasm  of  the 
Methodists  and  Papists  Compared."     Died  in  1762. 

La-vin'i-a,  [Fr.  Lavinie,  It've'ne',]  a  daughter  of 
Latinus,  King  of  Latium,  and  his  wife  Amata,  who 
promised  her  to  Turnus.  She  was  married  to  .^neas 
instead  of  Turnus  because  an  oracle  had  declared  that 
she  should  be  the  wife  of  a  foreign  prince.  She  was  the 
mother  of  yEneas  Sylvius. 

See  Virgil,  "  jEneid,"  book  vii. 

Lavinie.     See  Lavinia. 

Lavocat,  It'vo'kt',  (Antoine,)  a  French  mechanician 
and  inventor,  born  near  Nancy  in  1707;  died  in  1788. 

Lavoisier,  It'vwi'zeji',  (  Antoine  Laurent,  )  an 
illustrious  French  chemical  philosopher,  and  the  chief 
founder  of  modern  chemistry,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the 
26th  of  August,  1743.  After  leaving  the  College  Maza- 
rin,  where  he  obtained  high  honours,  he  pursued  with 
zeal  the  study  of  astronomy,  mathematics,  and  especially 
chemistry.  In  1766  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1763  for  an  improved  method 
of  lighting  the  streets  of  Paris,  and  in  1768  was  chosen 
an  associate  of  that  institution.  About  this  period  he 
entered  the  public  service  as  farmer-general,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  funds  required  for  his  scientific  researches, 


to  which  he  devoted  the  greater  part  of  his  time.  He 
acquired  durable  celebrity  by  the  discovery  of  a  new 
chemical  theory  of  combustion,  (called  the  anti-phlo- 
gistic,) which  was  partially  developed  in  1773  in  a  work 
entitled  "Physical  and  Chemical  Essays,"  ("Opuscules 
physiques  et  chimiques,")  and  which  forms  a  great  epoch 
in  the  science  of  chemistry.  In  a  memoir  which  he  read 
to  the  Academy  in  1775,  he  announced  that  calcination 
and  combustion  are  the  results  of  the  union  of  a  "highly 
respirable  gas"  (oxygen)  with  combustible  bodies,  and 
soon  after  proposed  the  theory  that  the  heat  produced 
during  combustion  was  disengaged  from  that  respirable 
air.  "These  two  propositions,"  says  Cuvier,  "belong 
to  Lavoisier  in  his  own  right,  and  form  the  basis  and 
fundamental  character  of  the  new  chemical  theory."  In 
1776  he  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  fabrication  of 
saltpetre  and  gunpowder,  of  which  he  greatly  improved 
the  quality.  Co-operating  with  other  French  chemists,  he 
rendered  an  important  service  by  reforming  the  chemical 
nomenclature,  and  published  in  1787  "Method  of  Chemi- 
cal Nomenclature,"  ("Methode  de  Nomenclature  chi- 
mique,")  in  which  a  simple,  systematic,  and  expressive 
terminology  was  substituted  for  the  absurd  or  fanciful 
terms  of  the  alchemists.  He  displayed  his  admirable 
talent  for  explaining  the  truths  which  he  had  discovered 
in  his  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  ("Traite 
elementaire  de  Chimie,"  2  vols.,  1789.)  He  invented  the 
pneumatic  cistern,  die  gasometer,  and  other  chemical 
apparatus.  His  glorious  career  was  prematurely  closed 
by  an  unjust  suspicion  against  the  farmers  of  the  revenue, 
although  in  this  service  he  had  acquitted  himself  with 
great  honour  and  success.  In  the  reign  of  terror  La- 
voisier and  many  of  his  colleagues  were  condemned  to 
death  on  frivolous  charges,  one  of  which  was  that  they 
moistened  with  water  the  tobacco  of  which  they  had  the 
monopoly.  His  request  for  a  resjjite  of  a  few  days,  in 
order  to  finish  some  important  experiments,  was  refused, 
and  he  was  executed  in  May,  1794.  About  that  time  he 
had  published  two  volumes  of  a  large  and  important 
work  on  chemical  philosophy,  entitled  "Memoires  de 
Chimie,"  which  remained  unfinished. 

See  article  on  Lavoisier,  by  Cuvier,  in  the  "  Eiographie  Univer- 
selle;"  Fourcroy,  "  Notice  sur  Lavoisier,"  1796;  J.J.  Le  Francois 
DE  Lalan'de,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Lavoisier," 
1796;  Dr.  F.  Hoefek.  article  in  the  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Gen^- 
rale;"  Kik^evskv,  "  Histoire  des  Legislateurs-Chlniistes  :  Lavoisier, 
Berthollet,  H.  Davy,"  1S45. 

Law,  (Ed.mund,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  metaphy- 
sician, born  in  Lancashire  in  1703,  was  the  father  of  Lord 
Ellenborough.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and, 
while  a  student  there,  published  a  translation  of  King's 
"Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Evil,"  with  notes,  and  an  "En- 
quiry into  the  Ideas  of  Space  and  Time."  He  became 
rector  of  Graystock,  Cumberland,  in  1737,  and  arch- 
deacon of  Carlisle  in  1743.  Soon  after  this  date  appeared 
his  admired  "  Reflections  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Christ."  He  was  appointed  master  of  Peter-House, 
Cambridge,  about  1755,  professor  of  casuistry  in  1764, 
and  prebendary  of  Durham  in  1767.  In  1769  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Carlisle.  He  published  in  1777  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Locke,  with  a  life  of  the  author, 
of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  He  belonged  to  the  rational 
and  liberal  school  of  theology.     Died  in  1787. 

Law,  (Edward.)     See  Ellenborough. 

Law,  (John,)  of  Lauriston,  a  famous  Scottish  pro- 
jector and  financier,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1671, 
and  inherited  an  estate  called  Lauriston.  About  1694 
he  went  to  London,  where,  by  means  of  his  handsome 
figure  and  graceful  address,  he  gained  admission  into 
fashionable  society,  and  supported  himself  by  gaming. 
Having  killed  a  man  in  a  duel,  he  fled  to  the  continent, 
where  he  followed  the  trade  of  a  gambler  with  great 
success  in  Paris,  Venice,  Genoa,  etc.  About  17 15  he 
persuaded  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Regent  of  France,  to 
favour  a  scheme  by  which  he  proinised  to  greatly  im- 
prove the  financial  condition  of  the  kingdom.  In  17 16 
he  obtained  a  charter  for  a  general  bank  of  issue  and 
discotint,  under  the  name  of  Law  &  Company.  In 
connection  with  this  bank  he  formed  the  Mississippi 
Company,  with  a  capital  of  one  hundred  million  francs, 
and  with  the  exclusive  right  of  the  trade  between  France 
and  Louisiana,  China,  India,  etc.     The  stock  of  these 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  "j, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LAW 


1503 


LA  WRENCE 


companies  was  bought  up  with  avidity,  and  the  former 
was  soon  erected  into  the  Royal  l^ank,  with  the  privilege 
ofcoining  gold  and  silver.    The  hope  of  enormous  profits 

P  infatuated  the  public  so  generally  that  the  stock  of  the 

company  rose  to  twenty  times  its  original  value.  In 
January,  1720,  Law  was  appointed  contrSletir-giniral  oi 
finances,  {i.e.  prime  minister.)  The  fall  of  his  baseless 
fabric  was  sudden  and  ruinous  in  1720,  when  the  public 
confidence  began  to  fail,  and  the  notes  of  his  bank  fell 
to  one-tenth  of  the  nominal  value.  Law  was  compelled 
to  leave  France;  and  he  died  poor  at  Venice  in  1729. 
His  system  is  often  called  the  "  South  Sea  Bubble." 

See  John  Philip  Wood,  "  Memoirs  of  John  Law  of  Lauriston," 
1824 ;  A.  CocHUT,  "Law,  son  Syst&me  et  son  fipoqiie,"  1853;  Le- 
VASSBUR,  "  Recheiches  sur  la  Systfeme  de  Law,"  1857;  Theodore 
ViAi,,  "J.  Law  et  le  Systfeme  du  Papier-Monnaie  de  1716,"  1849; 
J.  Heymann,  "Law  und  sein  System,"  1853;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Law,  (William,)  a  pious  and  mystical  English  au- 
thor, born  at  King's  Cliff,  Northamptonshire,  in  1686. 
He  became  a  Fellow  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
but  forfeited  his  fellowship  by  refusing  to  take  the  re- 
quired oath  at  the  accession  of  George  L  in  1714.  He 
lived  some  years  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  Gibbon,  (father 
of  the  historian,)  to  whom  he  was  related,  and  was  after- 
wards chaplain  to  Miss  Hester  Gibbon  at  King's  Cliff. 
He  adopted  the  mystical  doctrines  of  Jacob  Bohme,  (or 
Behmen,)  which  he  inciilcated  in  his  "Way  to  Know- 
ledge," "Spirit  of  Love,"  and  "Letters."  Mr.  Law 
published  many  other  works,  of  which  the  most  popular 
is  his  "Serious  Call  to  a  Devout  and  Holy  Life,"  (1729.) 
This  was  praised  by  Ur.  Johnson  and  by  Gibbon.  "  In 
mere  dialectical  skill,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  had  very  few 
superiors."    Died  in  176K 

See  Richard  Tighe,  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Law,"  1813. 

La'wes,  lawz,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  composer, 
born  probably  at  Salisbury  in  1600.  He  was  one  of  the 
gentlemen  of  the  royal  chapel,  and  clerk  of  the  cheque 
to  Charles  I.,  in  whose  service  he  continued  until  1649. 
He  composed  the  music  for  Milton's  "Comus,"  (per- 
formed in  1634,)  in  which  the  poet  compliments  him  as 
one 

"  Whose  artful  strains  have  oft  delayed 
The  huddling  brook  to  hear  his  madrigal. 
And  sweetened  every  musk-rose  of  the  dale." 

In  1653  he  published  "  Ayres  and  Dialogues,"  consisting 
of  songs,  duets,  and  trios.  "  Milton  probably  took  lessons 
fin  music]  from  him."  (Masson.)     Died  in  1662. 

Lawes,  (Sir  John  Benneit,)  Bart.,  an  English 
agriculturist,  born  at  Rothamsted,  Herts,  December  28, 
1814.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Brasenose  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  In  1834  he  undertook  (in  connection, 
after  1843,  with  Dr.  J.  \\.  Gilbert)  that  course  of  experi- 
mental farming  at  Rothamsted  which  has  made  his  name 
everywhere  famous.  He  has  also  conducted  extensive 
works  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  fertilizers.  The 
published  results  of  the  labours  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  are 
widely  recognized  as  of  very  great  importance  to  agri- 
culture. 

LaTwes,  (William),  a  brother  of  Henry  Lawes,  was 
a  skilful  musician  and  composer,  and  was  one  of  the 
gentlemen  of  the  royal  chapel.  He  fought  for  the  king 
in  the  civil  war,  and  was  killed  at  Chester  in  1645.  He 
composed  music  for  Sandys's  paraphrase  of  the  Psalms, 
and  many  other  works. 

Law'less,  (John,)  an  Irish  agitator  and  orator,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1772,  was  often  called  "honest  Jack  Law- 
less."    Died  in  London  in  1837. 

La-wrless,  (Valentine.)     See  Cloncurry. 

Law'rance,  (John,)  a  judge,  born  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, in  1750.  He  emigrated  in  1767  to  the  city  of  New 
York,  where  he  practised  law,  and  rose  to  distinction  in 
his  profession.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  in  1785-87,  and  represented  the  city 
of  New  York  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from 
1789  to  1793.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
district  court  for  New  York.  He  was  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  for  New  York  in  1796,  and  resigned 
his  seat  in  1800.  He  was  a  Federalist,  and  a  personal 
Iriend  of  Alexander  Hamilton.  Died  in  New  York  in 
November,  1810. 


La'w'rence,  (Abbott,)  an  eminent  American  mer- 
chant and  philanthropist,  born  in  Groton,  Massachusetts, 
in  1792.  As  the  partner  of  his  brother,  Amos  Law- 
rence, he  acquired  a  large  fortune,  a  portion  of  which 
was  invested  by  them  in  the  cotton-factories  of  Lowell, 
which  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  these  enterprising 
merchants.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1839,  and  in 
1843  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle 
the  northeast  boundary  question  with  Great  Britain.  He 
was  United  States  minister  to  England  in  1849.  He 
died  in  1855.  Among  his  numerous  and  munificent  do- 
nations was  that  of  $100,000  to  Harvard  University  to 
found  the  scientific  school  called  by  his  name.  He  also 
bequeathed  the  sum  of  1(550,000  towards  erecting  model 
lodging-houses. 

See  Appleton,  "Life  of  Abbott  Lawrence;"  Hunt,  "Lives  of 
American  Merch.ints." 

Lawrence,  (Amos,)  a  distinguished  philanthropist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Groton,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1786.  Having  acquired  an  immense  fortune 
as  a  merchant,  he  spent  a  great  part  of  it  in  various 
charities  and  donations  to  public  institutions ;  and  the 
amount  of  his  benefactions  is  estimated  at  $700,000. 
Among  the  colleges  to  which  he  gave  large  sums  were 
Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  Williams  College,  and  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Bangor,  Maine.  He  died  in  1852, 
and  his  "Life  and  Correspondence"  was  published  by 
his  son  in  1855. 

Law'rence,  (Edward  Ai.kxander,)  D.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican divine,  born  at  Saint  Johnsbury,  Vermont,  October 
7,  1808.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1834, 
and  at  Andover  Seminary,  was  ordained  to  the  Congre- 
gationalist  ministry  in  1839,  was  a  professor  in  the  theo- 
logical school  at  East  Windsor,  Connecticut,  1854-65, 
and  published  various  theological  writings.  Died  af 
Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  September  4,  1S83. 

Lawrence,  (Eugene,)  an  American  author,  born  in 
New  York  city,  October  10,  1S23,  graduated  at  the  New 
York  University  in  1842,  and  studied  at  the  Harvard 
Law  School.  Among  his  works  are  "  Lives  of  British 
Historians,"  (1855,)  "Historical  Studies,"  (1873,)  ^'<^- 
He  has  contributed  largely  to  periodical  literature. 

La^wreuce,  (George  Alfred,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1S27.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby,  and  at  O.x- 
ford,  where  he  graduated  with  honours  in  1848.  Called 
to  the  bar  in  1852,  he  abandoned  law  for  literature  after 
the  success  of  his  first  novel,  "Guy  Livingstone."  This 
was  published  ancnymously  in  1857,  and  was  followed 
by  "Sword  and  Gown,"  "Barren  Honour,"  "  Anteros," 
etc  He  also  published  a  volume  of  "  Ballads."  Died 
September  23,  1S76. 

Law'rence,  (Sir  Henry  Montgomery,)  an  English 
ofiRcer,  born  in  Ceylon  in  1806,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  campaigns  of  the  Sutlej.  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  government  in  the  Punjaub  about 
1850,  and  chief  commissioner  of  Oude  in  1857.  He 
rendered  important  service  by  the  defence  of  Lucknow 
against  the  mutinous  Sepoys,  and  was  killed  during  the 
siege  of  that  city  in  July,  1857. 

See  J.  W.  Kaye,  "Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  London,  1867; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1857  ;  "North  British  Review" 
for  May,  1S60. 

Lawrence,  (James,)  an  American  naval  officer,  of 
distinguished  bravery,  born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey, 
in  1 781.  He  served  under  Commodore  Decatur  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  succes- 
sively to  the  command  of  the  Vixen,  the  Wasp,  the  Argus, 
and  the  Hornet.  In  1813  he  captured  the  Peacock  from 
the  British  after  a  short  engagement,  and  was  soon  after 
made  post-captain,  and  commander  of  the  frigate  Ches- 
apeake. On  the  1st  of  June,  1813,  he  encountered  near 
Boston  the  British  frigate  Shannon,  and  afler  a  severe 
contest,  in  which  he  was  mortally  wounded,  his  vessel 
was  boarded  and  taken  by  the  English.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  he  uttered  the  memorable  words,  "  Don't 
give  up  the  ship."  The  remains  of  Captain  Lawrence 
were  subsequently  removed  to  Trinity  church-yard, 
where  a  monument  has  been  erected  to  him.  He  left  a 
widow  and  two  children.  He  had  been  in  command  of 
the  Chesapeake  only  a  few  days,  and  was  a  stranger  to 
the  crew,  who  were  not  well  disciplined. 


eas^;  Qasj;  %hard;  gas/;  g,  H,  Yi,^ittural;  fi, nasal;  vl,  trilled;  sass;  thasinM/j.     (2i:^^See  Explanations,  p  23.) 


LA  WRENCE 


1504 


LAYA 


Lawrence,  (John,)  an  English  agriculturist,  born  at 
Colchester  in  1756,  became  a  merchant  in  London.  He 
published  a  "Philosophical  and  Practical  Treatise  01. 
Horses,"  and  several  treatises  on  rural  economy.  Died 
about  1836. 

Lawrence,  (Sir  John  Laird  Mair,)  an  English 
administrator  of  great  ability,  a  brother  of  Sir  Henry  M. 
Lawrence,  was  born  in  1810.  He  entered  the  civil  service 
of  the  East  India  Company  about  1830,  and  became  chief 
commissioner  of  the  Punjaub  soon  after  the  conquest  of 
that  country.  He  was  knighted  for  his  services  in  the 
suppression  of  the  mutiny  of  1857,  and  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India  in  November,  1863.  In  1869 
he  was  made  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Lawrence  of 
the  Punjaub  and  Grately.     Died  June  27,  1879. 

La"wrence,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  poet  and  law- 
yer, born  in  New  York  in  1807.  He  died  in  1833,  leaving 
a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Law'rence,  [Lat.  Lauren'tius;  Fr.  Laurent,  lo'- 
tSn';  It.  Lorenzo,  lo-r&n'zo;  Ger.  Lorenz,  lo'rints,] 
Saint,  a  martyr,  born  in  Rome  in  the  third  century, 
was  in  257  appointed  by  Pope  Sixtus  treasurer  of  the 
Church.  In  consequence  of  edicts  issued  against  the 
Christians  by  Valerian,  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  258. 
It  is  said  he  was  burned  to  death  on  a  gridiron. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Lawrence,  (Stringer,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1697,  commanded  in  India  for  many  years.    Died  in  1775. 

Lavyrence,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  in  Westminster  in  17 11.  Pie  became  a  Fellow  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  in  1744,  and  was  president  of 
the  same  from  1767  to  1774.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Wil- 
liam Harvey,"  and  several  medical  treatises  in  Latin. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.   Died  in  1783. 

La'wrence,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  por- 
trait-painter, born  at  Bristol  in  1769.  His  artistic  talents 
were  marvellously  developed  in  early  childhood,  when 
he  was  also  remarkable  for  his  memory,  musical  voice, 
and  personal  beauty.  It  is  stated  that  he  drew  with  a 
crayon  accurate  likenesses  of  eminent  persons  about  the 
age  of  six  years.  In  1782  he  became  a  pupil  of  Prince 
Hoare  at  Bath,  and  soon  acquired  the  grace,  inspiration, 
and  delicacy  of  manner  which  rendered  him  unrivalled 
among  contemporary  English  artists  in  the  expression 
of  female  beauty.  He  removed  to  London  in  1787,  and 
was  admitted  as  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1791.  In  1792  he  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
first  painter  to  the  king.  From  that  time  he  was  abun- 
dantly patronized  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  guineas  for 
a  full-length  portrait.  In  1797  he  painted  a  portrait  of 
Mrs.  Siddons,  which  is  one  of  his  master-pieces.  Be- 
tween 1814  and  1820  he  painted,  by  order  of  the  prince- 
regent,  the  King  of  Prussia,  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
Pope  Pius  VII.,  Wellington,  and  many  famous  generals 
and  statesmen.  He  received  the  honour  of  knighthood 
in  1815,  and  visited  Vienna  and  Rome  in  1819.  On  the 
death  of  Benjamin  West,  in  1820,  Sir  Thomas  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Died  in  1830.  He 
excelled  in  the  art  of  imparting  ideal  beauty  to  his  sub- 
jects without  departing  from  the  reality.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  portraits  of  Benjamin  West,  John 
Kemble,  Curran,  Lord  Erskine,  Lady  Cowper,  and  the 
Duchess  of  Sutherland. 

See  D.  E.  Williams,  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  T.  Law 
rence,"  3  vols.,  1831  ;  Charles  Blanc,  "  liistoire  des  Peintres ;" 
Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  De- 
cember, 1831. 

Lawrence,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  surgeon, 
born  about  1785.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London, 
about  1816,  and  delivered  "Lectures  on  the  Physiology, 
Zoology,  and  Natural  History  of  Man,"  which  attracted 
much  attention.  Among  his  works  are  "  Anatomico- 
Chirurgical  Descriptions  and  Views  of  the  Nose,  Mouth, 
Larynx,  and  Fauces,"  a  "Treatise  on  Ruptures,"  (5th 
edition,  1838,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Eye." 
Died  in  1867. 

Lawrence,  (William  Beach,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  New  York  city,  October  23,  1800.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1818,  was  admitted 


to  the  bar  in  1823,  and  was  secretary  of  the  United  States 
legation  in  London  from  1826  to  1828.  After  1S32  he 
took  a  very  prominent  position  at  the  New  York  bar. 
In  1850  he  removed  to  Rhode  Island,  of  which  State  he 
was  acting  Governor  in  1851.  Plis  principal  works  are  a 
translation  of  MarboiS's  "  History  of  Louisiana,"  (1830,) 
"  Law  of  Charitable  Uses,"  (1845,)  ^  very  valuable  anno- 
tated edition  of  Wheaton's  "International  Law"  (1S55,) 
a  (French)  "Commentaire  sur  les  Elements  du  Droit 
international,"  (1868-73,)  "Administration  of  Equity 
Jurisprudence,"  (1874,)  etc.     Died  March  26,  1881. 

LaTv'spn,  (Cecil  Gokkon,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Chelsea  in  December,  185 1.  He  ex- 
hibited many  paintings  at  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  and  the 
Royal  Academy.     Died  June  10,  1882. 

Law'son,  (George,)  a  learned  Scottish  divine,  born 
in  West  Linton  in  1749;  died  in  1820.  His  memory 
was  so  extraordinary  that  he  knew  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  Bible  by  heart.  It  was  his  own  belief  that  if  the 
Holy  Scriptures  should  be  destroyed  he  could  restore 
them  all  from  his  memory,  with  the  exception  of  two  or 
three  chapters  in  the  Old  Testament. 

See  the  "  Sketch  of  Professor  George  Lawson"  in  the  "  Watdi- 
maii  and  Reflector,"  1S67. 

Law'spn,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  savant,  born 
at  Greenwich  in  1774.  He  erected  an  observatory  at 
Bath,  and  published  a  "  History  of  the  New  Planets," 
(1847.)     Died  in  1858. 

Lawson,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  admiral,  born  at 
Hull,  became  a  captain  before  the  end  of  the  civil  war. 
He  co-operated  with  Monk  in  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  and  was  made  rear-admiral.  About  1664  he  and  De 
Ruyter  were  sent  with  combined  fleets  into  the  Medi- 
terranean in  order  to  chastise  the  pirates  of  Barbary. 
He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Dutch  in  1665. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Lawson,  (John,)  a  native  of  Scotland,  emigrated  to 
America,  where  he  became  surveyor-general  of  North 
Carolina.  He  was  captured  and  put  to  death  by  the 
Indians  in  1712.  He  published  "A  New  Voyage  to 
Carolina,"  etc.,  (1709.) 

Law'tpn,  (Alexander  R.,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Georgia  about  1820,  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
Confederate  army  in  1861. 

Las:,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  astronomer,  born  in 
1751.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy  and  geometry 
at  Cambridge  in  1795.     Died  in  1836. 

Laxmann,  Idks'min,  (Adam,)  a  Russian  officer,  who 
in  1792  was  sent  by  his  government  to  Japan  for-  the 
purpose  of  opening  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
Japanese.  He  failed  in  this  object,  and  wrote  a  succinct 
narrative  of  his  journey. 

Lay,  (Benjamin,)  an  eccentric  philanthropist,  born  in 
England,  became  a  resident  of  Abington,  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  zealous  opponents 
of  slavery  in  the  United  States,  and  the  coadjutor  of 
Franklin  and  Benezet.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  in  which  he  bore  a  faithful  testimony  against 
the  practice  of  slaveholding,  then  prevalent  among  them. 
He  resolutely  refused  to  partake  of  any  food  or  wear  any 
clothing  which  was  wholly  or  in  part  produced  by  the 
labour  of  slaves.     Died  in  1760. 

See  "Life  of  Benjamin  Lay,"  by  R.  Vaux,  Philadelphia,  iSis. 

Lay,  (Henry  Champlin,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  December  6,  1823.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1842,  and  at 
the  Episcopalian  Theological  Seminary  near  Alexandria 
in  1846,  and  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Arkansas  in 
1859.  In  1868  he  was  translated  to  the  new  diocese  of 
Easton,  Maryland.  Among  his  writings  are  "  Letters 
to  a  Man  bewildered  among  Many  Counsellors,"  and 
"Studies  in  the  Church."     Died  September  17,  1885. 

Laya,  It'yt',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  jurist  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  published  a  work 
on  English  law,  "Droit  Anglais,  ou  Resume  de  la  Legis- 
lation Anglaise,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "  Studies  on 
the  Life  of  M.  Thiers,"  (2  vols.,  1846.) 

Laya,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  dramatist,  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  His  comedy 
"  The  Friend  of  the  Laws"  was   received  with   great 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAYA 


1505 


LEACH 


favour  in  1793,  but  was  proscribed  by  tlie  terrorists. 
He  wrote  various  other  worlcs,  and  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy  in  1817.     Died  in  1833. 

See  "Notice  biographique  sur  J.  L.  Laya,"  Paris,  1833;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Laya,  (LlioN,)  a  French  dramatist,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1809.  He  produced  many 
popular  comedies,  among  which  are  "  Emma,  or  the 
Guardian  Angel,"  (1844,)  and  "An  April  Fool,"  ("Un 
Poisson  d'Avril,"  1845.)     Died  September  5,  1872. 

Lay'a-mon,  or  Law'f-nian,  an  English  priest  of 
Ernley,  (now  Arley  Regis,)  in  Worcestershire,  who  in 
the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  wrote  the  Old- 
English  clironicle  of"  Brut,"  an  enlarged  and  free  trans- 
lation of  VVace's  "Brut  d'Angleterre."  This  work  is 
important  as  the  principal  literary  monument  in  the 
English  language  of  that  period. 

Lay'ard,  (Austen  Henry,)  an  Orientalist  and  anti- 
quary, a  grandson  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris,  of 
English  parents,  in  March,  181 7.  lie  visited  Asia  Minor, 
Persia,  etc.  about  1840,  and  a  few  years  later  discovered 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh  near  Mosul.  Under  the  auspices 
of  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  and  in  conjunction  with 
M.  Botta,  he  made  extensive  excavations  at  Nimroud, 
where  he  found  monuments  marked  with  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  and  colossal  embleniaWc  figures  in  the  form 
of  winged  bulls  and  lions, — memorials  of  a  civilization 
which  existed  before  the  commencement  of  profane  his- 
tory. These  sculptures,  bas-reliefs,  etc.  are  now  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum.  Mr.  Layard  returned  to  England 
in  1847,  •1"'^  published  an  account  of  his  researches  in 
"  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  (2  vols.,  1849.)  He  resumed 
the  enterprise  in  1849,  and  i)ublished  a  second  work, 
entitled  "  Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon, with  Travels  in  Armenia,  Kurdistan,  and  the  Desert," 
(1853.)  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament. 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  from 
August,  1861,  to  June,  1866.  In  December,  1S68,  as  a 
member  of  the  Liberal  party,  he  was  appointed  commis- 
sioner of  public  works  under  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  ambas- 
sador to  Spain  in  1869.  In  1877  he  was  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Constantinople,  and  in  1878  received  the  order  of 
the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

Layard,  (Charles  Peter,)  an  English  divine,  of 
French  descent,  born  about  1748,  was  grandfather  of 
the  preceding.  He  obtained  the  Seatonian  prize  for 
poetry  at  Cambridge  about  1774.  In  1800  he  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Bristol.     Died  in  1803. 

'Layens,  de,  deh  ll'ens  or  It'ySN',  (  Mathieu,  )  a 
Flemish  architect  of  Louvain.  He  designed  the  Hotcl- 
de-Ville  of  Louvain,  an  excellent  specimen  of  what  is 
termed  ogival  architecture.     Died  in  1484. 

Laynez.     See  Lainez,  (Jago.) 

Lays,  or  Lay,  li,  (Francois,)  a  French  vocalist,  born 
at  La  Barthe  de  Nestes,  in  Gascony,  February  14,  1758. 
From  1780  to  1822  he  was  one  of  the  principal  singers 
at  the  Grand  Opera  in  Paris.     Died  March  30,  183 1. 

Lazare.     See  Lazarus. 

Laz'a-rus,  [Gr.  Au^apoc  ;  Fr.  Lazare,  li'ztR' ;  It.  Laz- 
ZARO,  la't'si-ro,]  one  of  the  personal  friends  of  Christ,  and 
a  brother  of  Mary  and  Martha.  The  Saviour  wrought 
one  of  his  most  memorable  miracles  by  recalling  Lazarus 
to  life  after  he  had  been  dead  four  days. 

See  John  xi.  and  xii. 

Laz'a-rus,  (Emma,)  an  American  poet,  born  in  New 
York  city,  July  22,  1849,  of  a  Hebrew  family.  Her  prin- 
cipal books  are  "  Admetus,  and  other  Poems,"  (1871,) 
"  Alide,"  a  prose  tale,  (1S74,)  "  Poems  and  Ballads  from 
Heine,"  (1881,)  "Songs  of  a  Semite,"  (1882.)     D.  1887. 

Lazarus,  lit'si-rils,  (Moritz,)  a  German  (Jewish) 
philosopher,  born  at  Filehne,  Prussian  Poland,  Septem- 
ber 15,  1824.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin,  and  in  i860 
was  elected  to  a  professorship  in  the  University  of  Berne, 
of  which  in  1864  he  became  rector.  In  1873  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Berlin.  His  works  include  "The  Life  of  the  Soul,"  (2 
vols.,  1877,)  "Ideal  Problems,"  (1878,)  "The  Origin  of 
Morals,"  "  Ideas  in  History,"  etc 

Lazeri,iad-za'ree, .''  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  writer  on  eccle- 
siastical history,  l)(jrn  at  Sienna  in  1710;  died  in  1780. 


Lazius,  ISt'se-fts,  (Wolfgang,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Vienna  in  15 14,  practised  medicine  in  that  city. 
About  1550  the  emperor  Ferdinand  appointed  him  his 
physician.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  On 
the  Migrations  of  Nations  and  Origin  of  Languages," 
etc.,  ("  De  Gentium  aliquot  Migrationibus,  Linguarumque 
Initiis,"  etc.,  1557.)     Died  in  1565. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires  ;"  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Lazzarelli,  IJt-sJ-rel'lee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  satirical  poet,  born  at  Gubbio  in  1621.  His 
principal  works  are  "  La  Cicceide,"  a  personal  satire, 
and  "  Cosmopoli,"  (1691.)  "He  was,"  says  Tiraboschi, 
"among  the  small  number  of  poets  who  did  not  follow 
the  bad  taste  of  his  age."     Died  in  1694. 

Lazzarelli,  (Luigi,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  San  Seve- 
rino  in  ^50.  He  wrote  "  The  Cup  of  Hermes,"  ("  Crater 
Hermetis,")  and  "  Bombyx,"  a  poem  on  silk-worms, 
(1518.)     Died  in  1500. 

Lazzari.     See  Bramante,  (Donato  Lazzari.) 

Lazzarini,  IJt-si-ree'nee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  near  Macerata  in  1668.  He  composed  a 
few  dramas,  sonnets,  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1734. 

Lazzarini,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter  and  elegant  writer,  was  born  at  Pesaro  in  1710, 
and  became  a  canon  of  the  church.  His  master-piece 
is  a  "  Virgin  with  Saint  Catherine,"  (at  Gualda,)  some 
figures  of  which  Lanzi  pronounces  "truly  Raffaelesque." 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Painting,"  which 
was  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1786,  or,  as  others  say,  in 
1801.  "  Lazzarini  was  perfectly  master  of  good  painting 
as  well  as  good  writing,"  says  Lanzi ;  "easy,  yet  always 
studied  in  every  part ;  at  once  noble  and  graceful,  .  . 
yet  free  from  affectation  and  parade." 

See  MoNTANARi,  "  Biografia  del  Canonico  G.  A.  Lazzarini," 
1836;  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Fantuzzi,  "  Notizie 
del  Canonico  Lazzarini." 

Lazzarini,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Venice  in  1655.  He  excelled  in  design  and 
colouring.  His  "  S.  Lorenzo  Giustiniani"  was  greatly 
admired.  He  was  one  of  the  best  Venetian  painters 
of  his  time.     Died  in  1730  or  1740. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Lazzaro.    See  Lazarus. 

Lea,  lee,  (Henry  C.,)  publisher  and  author,  a  son  of 
Isaac  Lea,  and  a  grandson  of  Mathew  Carey,  was  born 
in  Piiiladelphia,  September  19,  1825,  and  succeeded  to  the 
business  of  the  celebrated  publishing-house  of  Mathew 
Carey  &  Sons.  Mr.  Lea  wrote  "  Superstition  and  Force 
— Essays  on  the  Wager  of  Law,  the  Wager  of  Battle,  the 
Ordeal  and  Torture,"  (1866,)  "A  Historical  Sketch  of 
Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in  the  Christian  Church,"  (1867,) 
"Studies  in  Church  History,"  etc.,  (1869,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (3  vols., 
1887-88.) 

Lea,  (Isaac,)  LL.D.,  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in  1792.  He  became  in  1821 
the  partner  of  his  father-in-law,  Mathew  Carey,  a  [jromi- 
nent  publisher  in  Philadelphia.  His  "Observations  on 
the  Genus  Unio"  came  out  in  1827,  and  was  followed 
by  "Contributions  to  Geology,"  (1833.)  ^^^  ^^^  P"^" 
lished  "Fossil  Footmarks  in  the  Red  Sandstones  of 
Pottsville,"  "  Synopsis  of  the  Family  of  Naiades,"  and 
other  scientific  treatises.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  in  1858. 
Mr.  Lea's  contributions  on  conchology  to  the  "Trans- 
actions" of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  are 
esteemed  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  appeared 
on  that  subject.      Died  December  8,  1886. 

Lea,  (Thomas  Gibson,)  a  botanist,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in  17S5  ; 
died  in  1844. 

Leach,  leech,  (William  Elford,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1790. 
He  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  about  1812, 
and  was  appointed  curator  of  the  natural  history  depart- 
ment of  the  British  Museum  in  1813.  Thenceforth  he 
devoted  his  time  to  the  study  of  natural  history,  espe- 
cially zoology.  In  1815  he  published  the  first  part  of 
his  excellent  "  History  of  the  British  Crustacea,"  which 
was  never  completed.  He  largely  promoted  the  intro- 
duction into  England  of  the  natural  system  wiiich  La- 


€  as  >^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as//  G,  H,  K, gttttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  Iri.  led;  s  as  s  ,•  th  as  i n  this.     ( 

95 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.1 


LEAD 


1506 


LEBEA U 


marck  and  Cuvier  had  adopted.  About  1 821  he  resigned 
the  place  of  curator,  on  account  of  ill  health.  Died  in 
Italy  in  1836. 

Lead  or  Ledde,  l§d,  (Jane,)  an  English  mystical 
writer,  born  in  1623,  was  a  disciple  of  Jacob  Bohmen. 
She  wrote  a  number  of  works,  among  which  is  "The 
Wonders  of  the  Creation  in  Eight  Different  Worlds,  as 
they  were  revealed  to  the  Author,"  (1695.)    Died  in  1704- 

See  Lee,  "Life  of  Jane  Lead." 

Lead'er,  (Benja.min  Williams,)  an  English  painter, 
born  at  Worcester,  March  12,  1831.  His  pictures  are 
numerous  and  very  popular,  his  principal  subjects  being 
mountain-scenes. 

Leake,  leek,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1656,  was  the  son  of  Captain  Richard  Leake, 
noticed  below.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  battle 
of  La  Hogue,  in  1692,  and  displayed  skill  as  commander 
at  Gibraltar  in  1705.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which 
took  Alicante,  Majorca,  etc.  in  1706.  In  1707  he  was 
made  an  admiral  and  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the 
fleet,  and  in  1709  became  a  lord  of  the  admiralty.  Died 
in  1720. 

See  S.  M.  Leake,  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Leake,"  1750. 

Leake,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Ain- 
stable.  He  practised  with  success  in  London,  and  ex- 
celled in  obstetrics.  He  wrote  treatises  "On  Puerperal 
Fever,"  the  "Diseases  of  Women,"  etc.     Died  in  1792. 

Leake,  (Richard,)  an  English  naval  officer,  born  at 
Harwich  in  1629.  He  displayed  great  courage  in  a  battle 
against  the  Dutch  in  1673,  and  was  appointed  master- 
gunner  of  England.     Died  about  1690. 

Leake,  (Stephen  Martin,)  a  nephew  of  Sir  John, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  England  in  1702.  He  ob- 
tained a  high  office  in  the  Heralds'  College,  and  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  British  Coins,"  (1726,)  and  a  "Life 
^f  Sir  John  Leake,"  (1750.)     Died  in  1774. 

Leake,  (Colonel  William  Martin,)  an  English  trav- 
eller, distinguished  by  his  researches  in  the  antiquities 
Df  Greece,  was  born  in  1777.  Having  obtained  the  rank 
Df  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army,  he  commenced  about 
iSoo  his  travels  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Morea,  and  other 
parts  of  Greece.  He  returned  to  England  in  1810,  and 
afterwards  published  a  number  of  valuable  works, — viz., 
"  Researches  in  Greece,"(i8i4,)"Topography  of  Athens," 
(1821,)  "Travels  in  the  Morea,"  (1830,)  "Travels  in 
Northern  Greece,"  (1835,)  and  "Numismata  Hellenica," 
a  catalogue  of  Greek  coins,  (1854.)  By  his  thorough 
research  and  critical  sagacity  he  has  done  more,  probably, 
than  any  other  traveller  to  illustrate  the  history  and 
geography  of  ancient  and  modern  Greece.     Died  in  i860. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1814. 

Le-an'der,  [Gr.  kziav&poq ;  Fr.  L6andre,  li'SNdR',] 
a  youth  of  Abydos,  and  a  lover  of  Hero.  He  swam 
across  the  Hellespont  every  night  to  visit  Hero  at  Sestos. 
As  he  was  once  attempting  to  cross  in  a  storm,  he  was 
drowned.     (See  Hero.) 

Leander,  [Fr.  L6andre,]  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Sev- 
ille, in  Spain,  was  a  brother  of  Saint  Isidore.  He  was 
a  zealous  opponent  of  Arianism.  He  died  about  600 
A.D.,  leaving  a  work  "  De  Institutione  Virginum,"  ("On 
the  Education  of  Virgins.") 

Leandre.     See  Leander. 

Leang-Oo-Tee,  (or  -Ou-Ti,)  li'ing'  oo'tee.  Emperor 
of  China,  and  founder  of  the  Leang  dynasty,  usurped  the 
throne  about  502  A.D.  Through  devotion  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Fo  and  the  mysticism  of  the  Bonzes,  (priests 
of  Fo  or  Booddha,)  he  neglected  the  care  of  the  empire. 
He  died  in  549,  soon  after  he  had  been  dethroned  by 
one  of  his  officers,  Heoo-King. 

Leao.     See  Leo. 

Leao,  la-6wN',  or  Liao,  do,  do  le-owN',  (Duarte 
Nunez,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at  Ev'ora  in  1608. 

Lea'por,  (Mary,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in  North- 
amptonshire in  1722,  was  the  daughter  of  a  gardener, 
and  received  the  usual  education  of  the  lower  class.  At 
her  death,  in  1746,  she  gave  her  father  several  poems 
which  she  had  kept  secret,  and  which  have  considerable 
merit.     One  of  them  is  called  "The  Temple  of  Love." 

Lear,  leer,  (Tobias,)  a  diplomatist,  born  at  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  about  1760.     He  became  pri- 


vate secretary  to  General  Washington  in  1785,  and 
negotiated  a  jjeace  with  Tripoli  in  1805.     Died  in  i8i6. 

Le-ar'-ehus,  [Gr.  A.eapxoi ;  Fr.  L^arque,  li'tRk',|  an 
ancient  Greek  statuary  of  Rhegium,  lived  about  600  or 
700  i!.c.  Pausanias  states  that  he  saw  at  Sparta  a  bronze 
statue  of  Jupiter  executed  by  Learchus. 

Learque.    See  Lpiarchus. 

Leathes,  (Stanley,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Ellesborough,  Bucks,  March  21,  1830.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Jesus  College,  Cambiidge,  graduating  in  1852, 
was  ordained  in  1856,  and  was  appointed  Hebrew  pro- 
fessor in  King's  College,  London,  in  1S63.  He  has 
written  various  theological  and  religious  books,  including 
"The  Witness  of  the  Old  Testament  to  Christ,"  (Boyle 
Lectures,  1868,)  "The  Gospel  its  own  Witness,"  (Hul- 
sean  Lectures,  1873,)  "Religion  of  the  Christ,"  (Bamp- 
ton  Lectures,  1877,)  and  "  The  Foundations  of  M(jraliiy," 
(1S82.) 

Lebaillif,leh  bt'yif,  (Alexandre  Claude  Martin,) 
a  French  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Saint-Fargeau  in 
1764.  He  constructed  excellent  micrometers  and  elec- 
trometers, and  invented  a  sideroscope.     Died  in  183 1. 

Lebailly,  leh-bt'ye',  (Antoine  Francois,)  a  French 
fabulist,  born  at  Caen  in  1756.  He  published  a  collec- 
tion of  fables  in  1784,  and  another  in  1811.  They  are 
praised  for  wit,  imagination,  style,  and  good  morality. 
He  also  wrote  operas,  etc.     Died  in  1832. 

Lebarbier,  leh-btR'be-i',  (Jean  Jacques  Franqois,) 
a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Rouen  in  1738, 
worked  in  Paris.  Lie  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.     Died  in  1826. 

Lebas  or  Le  Bas,  leh-bi',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  an 
eminent  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1707.  He 
was  for  a  long  time  the  most  popular  of  French  engravers. 
In  1743  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Painting. 
He  engraved  many  works  of  Teniers,  Wouwerman,  and 
Vernet,  and  some  of  his  own  designs,  whicn  are  also 
admired.  In  1782  he  received  the  title  of  engraver  to 
the  king.     Died  in  1784. 

See  Basan,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Lebas  or  Le  Bas,  (Jean  Baptiste  Apollinaire,) 
a  French  engineer,  born  in  the  department  of  Var  in 
1797.  He  superintended  the  removal  of  an  obelisk  from 
Luxor,  Egypt,  to  Paris  in  1836,  and  published  an  account 
of  that  difficult  enterprise.     Died  January  i,  1873. 

Le  Bas,  (Louis  Hippolyte,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1782.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute 
His  principal  works  are  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de 
Lorette,  commenced  about  1825,  and  the  prison  of  L?- 
Roquette,  Paris.     Died  June  12,  1867. 

Lebas,  (Philippe,)  a  French  archaeologist,  son  of  the 
succeeding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  became  in 
1S20  the  preceptor  of  Louis  Napoleon,  (late  emperor,) 
returned  to  France  in  1828,  and  in  1842  was  sent  on 
a  scientific  mission  to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  The 
results  of  this  mission  were  published  by  order  of  the 
government  in  his  "Antiquarian  Journey  in  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor,"  ("  Voyage  archeologique  en  Gr^ce  et  en 
Asie  Mineure,"  about  12  vols.,  1847  et  seq.)     Died  i86o. 

Lebas,  (Philippe  FRANgois,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born 
near  Arras  in  1765.  He  became  the  devoted  personal 
friend  and  partisan  of  Robespierre,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king  in  the  Convention.  As  the  commis- 
sary of  the  Convention  in  the  departments  of  the  Rhine, 
he  seconded  Saint-Just  in  the  direction  of  the  army,  and 
arrested  several  generals.  At  his  own  request,  he  was 
included  in  the  decree  against  Robespierre  on  the  9th 
Thermidor,  1794,  and  killed  himself  on  the  same  day. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lebeau  or  Le  Beau,  leh-bo',  (Charles,)  a  learned 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1701.  He  obtained 
the  chair  of  eloquence  in  the  College  of  France  in  1752. 
and  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  in  1755.  He  published  Latin  verses,  ("Car- 
mina,"  3  vols.,  1782,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Lower  Em- 
pire from  the  Time  of  Constantine  the  Great,"  ("  liistoire 
du  Bas-Empire  en  commen^ant  a  Constantin  le  Grand," 
22  vols.  i2mo,  1757-79,)  which  is  a  judicious  and  accu- 
rate resume  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  but  is  faulty 
in  style.     Having  been  left  unfinished  by  Lebeau,  it  was 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEBEA U 


'507 


LEBRUN 


completed  by  Ameilhon  and  published  In  twenty-seven 
volumes.  A  revised  edition  was  published  by  Saint- 
Martin  and  Brosset,  (21  vols.,  1836.)     Died  in  1778. 

See  Charles  F.  Dupuis,  "  Lloge  de  C.  Lebeau,"  1779;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  lor  July  and  August, 
1770. 

Lebeau,  (Jean  Louis  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  minister  of 
state,  born  at  Huy  in  1794.  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  April,  1840,  to  April,  1841.     Died  in  1865. 

See  L.  DH  LoMi^NiE,  "M.  Lebeau,  parun  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844. 

Lebedef,  l^b'eh-dgf,  (Guerasim  or  Herasim,)  a 
Russian  traveller  and  Orientalist,  born  in  1749.  He 
passed  some  years  at  Madras  and  Calcutta,  and  pub- 
lished a  "  Grammar  of  the  Pure  and  Mixed  East  Indian 
Dialects,"  (London,  1801.)     Died  after  1815. 

Lebeed,  Lebid,  or  Lebyd,  15b-eed',  a  popular  Ara- 
bian poet,  born  about  530  a.d.  He  had  acquired  a  great 
reputation  when,  at  the  age  of  ninety,  he  was  converted 
to  Islamisin  by  Mohammed,  whom  he  followed  in  his 
flight  to  Medina.  Under  the  reign  of  Omar  he  settled 
at  Koofah,  where  he  died  about  673  a.d.,  at  the  extra- 
ordinary age  of  one  hundred  and  forty-five.  Another 
account  states  that  he  died  in  662,  aged  about  ninety. 
His  poems  are  said  to  abound  in  original  ideas. 

See  De  Sacv,  "Notice  sur  le  Poete  Lebyd;"  D'Hcrbelot, 
"  Bibliothfeque  Orientale;"  Caussin  de  Perceval,  "Essai  sur 
I'Histoire  des  Arabes." 

Leberecht,  von,  fon  la'beh-r§Kt',  (Karl,)  a  German 
engraver  of  medals,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1749.  He 
settled  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1775,  and  became  in  1800 
director  of  the  Russian  mint,  or  Cour  des  Monnaies. 
Died  in  1827. 

Le  Berriays,  leh  bi're'i',  (Ren^,)  a  French  horticul- 
turist, born  near  Avranches  in  1722,  wrote  a  valuable 
"Treatise  on  Gardens,"  (2  vols.,  1775.)     Died  in  1807, 

Lebert,  leh'b^R',  (Hermann,)  a  celebrated  patholo- 
gist, born  at  Breslau,  Silesia,  June  9,  1S13.  He  was 
educated  at  Berlin  and  Zurich,  where  he  graduated  as 
M.D.  in  1834.  During  a  large  part  of  his  career  he 
lived  in  Paris.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at 
Zurich  in  1853,  and  was  principal  medical  professor  at 
Breslau,  1859-74.  Most  of  his  writings  are  in  French. 
The  best-known  is  "Traite  d'Anatomie  pathologique," 
(1855-60.)     Died  at  Bex,  Switzerland,  August  i,  1878. 

Lebeuf,  leh-buf,  (Jean,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1687.  In  1740  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  memoirs.  He  published  several  dissertations 
on  French  history.     Died  in  1760. 

Lebid.     See  Lebeed. 

Leblanc  or  Le  Blanc,  leh-bl3N',  (FRANgois,)  a 
French  numismatist,  born  in  Dauphine  ;  died  in  1698. 

Leblanc  or  Le  Blanc,  (Jean  Bernard,)  Abb6,  a 
mediocre  French  writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1707.  He 
published  various  works,  two  of  which  had  a  transient 
popularity,  viz.,  "Abensaid,"  a  tragedy,  and  "Letters 
of  a  Frenchman  on  the  English  Nation,"  (3  vols.,  1745.) 
Died  in  1781. 

Leblanc,  (Louis,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Pon- 
toise,  practised  at  Orleans  about  1770. 

Le  Blanc  or  Leblanc,  (Marcel,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
who  was  sent  to  Siam  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English,  and  not  released 
until  1690.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Siam,"  (1692.)     Died  at  Mozambique  in  1693. 

Le  Blanc,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at 
Issoudun  in  1753,  was  attached  as  a  surgeon  to  the 
household  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He  discovered  about 
1790  a  method  of  obtaining  soda  from  sea-salt,  and  thus 
rendered  an  important  service  to  the  industrial  arts. 
Died  in  1806. 

Le  Blanc,  (Thomas,)  a  French  author,  born  at  Vitry 
in  1599,  vvrote  many  works  for  the  promotion  of  religion 
and  morality.     Died  in  1669. 

Leblanc  de  Castillon,  leh-bl6N'  deh  kts'te'yiN', 
(Jean  FRANgois  Andr6,)  a  French  magistrate,  born  at 
Aix  in  1 719,  was  eminent  for  his  legal  knowledge  and 
eloquence.     Died  in  1800. 

Leblanc  de  Gnillet,  leh-bl6N'  deh  ge'yi',  (Antoine 
Blanc,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1730, 


He  produced,  besides  other  works,  two  tragedies,"  Manco 
Capac,"  ( 1 763,)  and  "  The  Druids,"  ( 1 772. )   Died  in  1 799. 

Leblond,  leh-blAN',  (Auguste  Savin ien,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "Dictionary  of  Celebrated  Men  of  Antiquity 
and  Modern  Times,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)     Died  in  1811. 

Leblond  or  Le  Blond,  (Gaspard  Michel,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Caen  in  1738,  lived 
in  Paris.  He  was  keeper  of  the  Mazarin  Library,  and 
a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
on  medals.     Died  in  1809. 

Leblond,  (  Guillaume,  )  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  was  selected  in  1751  by  Louis 
XV.  to  teach  mathematics  to  the  princes-royal.  He 
published  "  Elements  of  Fortification,"  "  Elements  of 
Tactics,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1781. 

Leblond,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Toulongeon  in  1747.  He  travelled  in  South  America 
many  years  between  1767  and  1802,  and  published 
"Travels  in  the  Antilles  and  South  America,"  (1813.) 
Died  in  1815. 

Leboeuf,  leh-buF,  (Edmond,)  a  marshal  of  France, 
born  at  Paris,  November  5,  1809.  He  served  in  Al- 
geria, in  the  Crimea,  and  in  Italy,  and  became  war-min- 
ister in  1869,  and  a  marshal  in  1870.  He  was  one  of 
the  persons  directly  responsible  for  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71,  and  was  both  war-minister  and  chief  of 
staff  in  the  earlier  part  of  that  war.  As  a  corps-com- 
mander under  Bazaine,  he  behaved  with  great  gallantry. 
Died  in  1888. 

Lebon  or  Le  Bon,  leh-bAN',  (Jean,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Champagne,  was  physician  to  Charles 
IX.     He  published  numerous  works,  (1554-76.) 

Lebon,  (Joseph,)  a  French  revolutionist,  who  ren- 
dered his  name  infamous  by  his  cruelties,  was  born  at 
Arras  in  1765.  He  became  a  partisan  of  Robespierre 
and  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1793.  He  was 
executed  in  1795. 

Lebon,  (Philippe,)  a  French  chemist  and  engineer, 
born  near  Joinville  in  1769.  He  is  said  to  have  invented 
the  use  of  gas  for  illumination.     Died  in  1804. 

Lebossu,  leh-bo'sii',  (Ren6,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  163 1.  He  joined  the  canons-regular  of  Saint- 
Genevieve  in  1649,  and  taught  the  humanities  in  various 
schools.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Epic  Poetry," 
(1675,)  which  was  praised  by  Boileau  as  one  of  the  best 
works  on  poetry  that  have  appeared  in  the  language. 
Died  in  1680. 

Le  Boucq,  leh  book,  (SiMON,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Valenciennes  in  1591.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
and  antiquities  of  Valenciennes.     Died  in  1657. 

Le  Bouvier,  leh-boo've-i',  (Gilles,)  a  French  chroni- 
cler, born  at  Bourges  in~i386,  wrote  a  "History  of 
Charles  VII.  of  France."     Died  about  1460. 

Lebret,  la'bR^t  or  leh-bRi^  (Johann  Friedrich,) 
born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1732,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ger- 
many," (1772,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1807. 

Lebreton  or  Le  Breton,  leh-bReh-t<?>N',  (AndrA 
FRANgois,)  a  French  bookseller,  born  in  Paris  in  1708, 
He  was  the  publisher  of  Diderot's  "Encyclopedic," 
commenced  in  1751,  and  took  the  liberty  to  suppress 
or  modify  furtively  some  passages  which  were  offensive 
to  the  court  and  clergy.  Diderot  was  extremely  angry 
when  he  detected  the  fact.     Died  in  1779. 

Lebreton,  (Joachim,)  a  French  littcratmr,  born  in 
Bretagne  in  1760  ;  died  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1819. 

Lebreton,  (Theodore,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Rouen 
•n  1803.  He  was  befriended  by  Beranger  and  Lamar- 
tine,  and  published  a  collection  of  ])oems,  "Leisure 
Hours  of  a  Workman,"  ("  Heures  de  Repos  d'un  On 
vrier,"  1837.)     Died  December  12,  1883. 

Lebrixa,  (Antonio  de.)     See  Nebrissensis. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  leh-bruN',  (Anne  Charles,) 
Duke  of  Piacenza,  (Plaisance,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1775,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  statesman  C.  F. 
Lebrun.  He  was  aide-de-camp  of  Desaix  at  Marengo, 
(1800,)  distinguished  himself  at  Jena,  (1806,)  and  became 
a  general  of  brigade  in  1807.  He  was  an  aide  to  Napo- 
leon at  Eylau  and  Wagram  in  1809,  and  was  made  a 
general  of  division  in  1^12.  During  the  Hundred  Days 
he  took  the  field  for  Napoleon.     He  inherited  the  title 


€as k;  5 as s;  g hard;  g asy;  G,  H,  K,guitural;  N,  nasal;  r,  hilL-d;  s as z:  ih  as  in  this.     (fl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEBRUN 


1508 


LECCHI 


of  duke  in  1824.     In  1852  he  was  appointed  a  senator. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Biographic  des  Membres  du  S(Jiiat,"  1852. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  (Anioine  Louis,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1680,  wrote  verses  in  Latin  and 
French.  Among  his  best  works  is  a  collection  of  fables, 
(1722.)  Voltaire  imputed  to  Lebrun  the  authorship 
of  the  satire  for  which  the  former  was  confined  in  the 
Bastille.     Died  in  1743. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  March,  1619.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Vouet  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  studied  six  years  with 
Poussin  at  Rome.  In  1648  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Painting,  and,  having  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation, he  became  first  painter  to  Louis  XIV.  in  or  before 
1662.  He  displayed  his  genius  as  a  painter,  and  his  ex- 
traordinary powers  of  invention,  in  a  series  of  pictures  of 
the  battles  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  are  among  his 
most  admired  productions.  "The  Family  of  Darius"  is 
called  his  master-piece.  He  was  appointed  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy  and  director  of  the  Gobelin 
manufactory,  and  exercised  a  sort  of  dictatorship  in 
the  arts  for  many  years.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on 
Physiognomy."    'Died  in  1690. 

See  FiuBiEN,  "Vies  des  Peintres ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres;"  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary," 

Lebr\in  or  Le  Brun,  (Charles  FRANgois,)  Duke  of 
Piacenza,  a  French  statesman  and  author,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1739.  He  was  versed  in  ancient  and  modern 
languages.  He  composed  many  discourses  and  edicts 
for  his  patron  Maupeou  during  his  contest  with  the  par- 
liaments. In  1776  he  published  an  esteemed  version 
of  Homer's  "  Iliad."  Elected  to  the  States-General  in 
1789,  he  acted  with  the  moderate  friends  of  reform. 
Lebrun  became  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Elders  in  1796,  and  was  appointed  Third  Consul 
by  Bonaparte  in  1799.  Fie  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
the  First  Consul,  (who  afterwards  designated  him  as  one 
of  the  best  writers  of  France,  and  a  man  of  strict  probity.) 
He  was  appointed  chief  treasurer  in  1804,  and  made  Duke 
of  Piacenza  (Plaisance)  in  1808.  In  1810  he  was  chosen 
Viceroy  or  Lieutenant-General  of  Holland,  the  throne  of 
which  Louis  Bonaparte  had  just  resigned.  The  Dutch 
were  pleased  with  his  modest  temper  and  methodical 
habits.  F"rom  181 1  to  1813  inclusive  he  was  Governor- 
General  of  Holland.  He  published  an  admired  version 
of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1824. 

See  Makie  du  Mesnil,  "  M^moire  sur  le  Prince  Lebrun,  Due 
de  Plaisance,"  1S28;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;" 
"  Opinions,  Rapports  et  Choix  d'ficrits  politiques  de  C.  F.  Lebrun," 
preceded  by  a  "Notice  biographique"  by  his  son  Charles,  1S28; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lebrun,  (Denis,)  a  French  jurist,  became  an  advo- 
cate in  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  1659  ;  died  in  1706. 

Lebrun,  leh-bruN',  (Francesca,  nSe  Danzi,)  a  Ger- 
man vocalist,  born  in  Mannheim  in  1756.  As  early  as 
1772  she  was  engaged  in  opera  at  Mannheim,  and  she 
subsequently  made  the  tour  of  the  principal  European 
cities,  achieving  everywhere  a  brilliant  success.  Died  at 
Berlin,  May  14,  1791. 

Lebrun,  (Jean  ]3aptiste  Pierre,)  a  French  picture- 
dealer,  critic,  and  amateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1748.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  best  connoisseur  of  paintings  in 
Europe.  His  wife,  in  her  "  Souvenirs,"  says  he  ruined 
her  fortune  by  his  passion  for  gaming  and  other  vices. 
They  lived  separately  many  years.  Died  in  1813.  He 
published  a  "  Gallery  of  Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German 
Painters,"  containing  two  hundred  plates. 

Lebrun,  leh-bruw',  (Karl  August,)  born  at  Halber- 
Stadt,  in  Germany,  in  1792,  acquired  celebrity  as  an  actor, 
and  wrote  several  successful  drainas.     Died  in  1842. 

Lebrun,  Madame,  {nie  Marie  Louise  Elisabeth 
Vig^e — ve'zhk',)  a  French  lady,  eminent  for  her  beauty 
and  her  skill  as  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  in  1755.  In 
1776  she  was  married  to  J.  B.  P.  Lebrun,  a  painter  and 
dealer  in  pictures.  She  became  a  fashionable  artist,  and 
was  welcomed  in  aristocratic  society  as  an  accomplished 
woman.  Between  1779  and  1789  she  painted  several 
portraits  of  Marie  Antoinette.  Her  soirees  were  thronged 
with  people  of  rank  and  celebrity.  After  her  return  to 
Paris,  in  1801,  she  painted  Lord  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael, 


etc.  In  1835  she  published  well-written  "Souvenirs" 
of  her  life.  The  number  of  her  portraits  is  over  six 
hundred.     Died  in  1842. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1837. 

Lebrun,  (  Pierre,  )  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Brignolles  in  1661,  was  professor  in  several  colleges. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "Critical  History  ot 
Superstitious  Practices  which  have  seduced  the  People," 
(1702.)     Died  in  1729. 

Lebrun,  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Mon*-- 
pellier  in  1761.  He  wrote  agreeable  verses,  and  was 
the  author  of  the  version  of  Horace's  "  Ars  Poelica" 
published  by  Count  Daru,  who  was  his  brother-in-law. 
Died  in  1810. 

Lebrun,  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  popular  French  lyric 
and  dramatic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  In  1805  he 
received  a  pension  for  his  "  Ode  to  the  Grand  Army." 
His  tragedy  "  Ulysses"  was  received  with  favour  in  1814. 
After  the  restoration  he  produced  "  Joan  of  Arc"  and 
other  odes,  and  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Napoleon, 
(1821,)  which  was  much  admired.  His  drama  "Marie 
Stuart"  (1820)  had  a  great  success,  and  is  called  his 
capital  work.  In  1828  he  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  place  of  Fran5ois  de  Neufchateau.  From 
1831  to  1848  he  was  director  of  the  royal  printing-estab- 
lishment, and  in  1839  he  was  admitted  to  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.  He  became  a  senator  in  1853,  and  a  grand 
otiicer  of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1868.     Died  May  27, 

1873- 

Lebruu,  (Pierre  Henri  H^l^ne  Marie  Tondu,)  a 
French  Girondist,  born  at  Noyon  in  1763.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  August,  1792,  and 
was  executed  in  1793. 

Lebrun,  (  Ponce  Denis  £couchard,  )  a  popular 
French  lyric  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1729,  was  called  Le- 
brun Pindare,  (piN'dtR',)  or  the  French  Pindar,  In 
early  life  he  began  a  poem  on  Nature,  which  was  never 
finished.  He  composed  a  number  of  beautiful  odes 
before  the  Revolution,  and  during  the  Republic  favoured 
the  popular  cause.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Conven- 
tion, and  afterwards  by  Napoleon,  who  in  1801  granted 
him  a  pension  of  6000  francs.  In  1803  he  produced  a 
National  Ode  on  the  prospective  invasion  of  England. 
"Although  he  excelled  in  epigram,"  says  Marie  J.  Che- 
nier,  "and  though  he  displayed  remarkable  beauties  in 
poems  which  he  left  unfinished,  he  will  owe  chiefly  to 
his  odes  his  durable  reputation,  and  will  pass  to  pos- 
terity as  one  of  the  three  great  French  lyric  poets."* 
La  Harpe  judged  him  less  favourably.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Institute.     Died  in  1807. 

Lebrun  de  Charmettes,  leh-bRuN'  deh  shlR'mSt', 
(Philippe  Alexandre,)  a  French  poet  and  historian, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1785.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"History  of  Joan  of  ^rc,"  (4  vols.,  1817,)  and  "L'Orle- 
anide,"  a  poem,  (2  vols.,  1819.) 

Lecamus.  See  Camus,  Le,  (Antoine  and  Etienne.) 

Lecanu,  leh-kt'nii',  (Louis  Ren6,)  5  French  chemist, 
born  in  1800,  published  numerous  works.      Died  1871. 

Lecat,  leh'kS',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Picardy  in  1700.  He  settled  about  1733 
at  Rouen,  where  he  lectured  on  anatomy  and  practised 
with  success.  In  1744  he  founded  a  Royal  Academy  at 
Rouen.  He  was  a  skilful  lithotomist,  and  published 
several  treatises  on  that  branch  of  surgery.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Senses,"  (1740,)  and  other  professional 
works.     Died  in  1768. 

See  L.  A.  Valentin,  "  filoge  de  Lecat,"  1769  :  Monfalcon,  m 
the  "Biographie  Mi^dicale  ;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Chirurgica:' 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lecchi,  lek'kee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Milan  in  1702.  He  obtained  in 
1739  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  Pavia,  where  he  taught 
with  great  success  for  twenty  years.  Pie  was  afterwards 
appointed  by  Maria  Theresa  mathematician  of  the  court 
at  Vienna.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Ele- 
ments of  Geometry,"  (1753,)  a  "Theory  of  Light,  including 
Optics,"  (1759,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Hydrostatics,"  (1765.) 
Died  in  1776. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biogmfia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 


•  J.  B.  Rousseau  and  Malherbe  being  the  other  two. 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  iix;  mkv,  n6t;  g(30d;  niooti; 


LECENE 


1509 


LECLUSE 


Lecene,  !eh-sin',  (Charles,)  a  learned  French  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Caen  about  1647.  He  retired 
to  Holland  in  1685,  and  afterwards  to  London,  where 
he  attempted  to  found  an  Arminian  church,  but  failed, 
because  he  was  suspected  of  holding  Socinian  views. 
He  made  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1741,) 
which  deviates  too  much  from  the  literal  sense,  and 
wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  London  in  1 703. 

Lechevalier  or  Le  Chevalier,  leh  sheh-vt'le-i', 
(Jkan  Bapi'ISTE,)  a  French  traveller  and  savant,  born 
near  Coutances  in  1752.  In  1784  he  went  to  the  Levant 
as  secretary  of  Choiseul-GoufHer,  ambassador  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  and  made  diligent  researches  in  the 
plain  of  Troy,  which  attest  the  accuracy  of  Homer's 
descriptions.  He  published  his  "  Voyage  de  la  Troade," 
(1798  or  1800,)  and  a  "Voyage  to  the  Propontis  and  the 
Euxine,"  (1800.)     Died  July  2,  1836. 

Leck'y,  (William  Edward  Hartpole,)  a  British 
philosopher,  born  near  Dublin,  March  26,  1838.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1859.  He  pub- 
lished in  1865  a  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Infiuence  of 
the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe,"  (London,  2  vols.) 
"  We  closed  them,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review," 
(April,  1865,)  "with  the  conviction  that  Mr.  Lecky  is 
one  of  the  rriost  accomplished  writers  and  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  thinkers  of  the  time."  He  also  wrote 
a  "  History  of  European  Morals,  from  Augustus  to 
Charlemagne,"  (1869,)  "The  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion 
in  Ireland,"  published  anonymously  in  1861  and  repub- 
lished in  1871-72,  and  "  History  of  England  in  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century,"  (vols.  i.  and  ii.,  1878,  iii.  and  iv.,  1882.) 

Le  Clair,  leh-kleR',  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French  violinist 
and  composer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1697.  He  began  life  as 
a  ballet-master,  but  was  induced  by  the  famous  Somis 
to  take  up  the  violin,  and  his  compositions  for  that  in- 
strument enjoy  a  high  reputation.  He  was  assassinated 
at  Paris,  October  22,  1764. 

Le  Clear,  (Thomas,)  an  American  portrait-painter, 
born  in  Oswego  county.  New  York,  March  il,  1818. 
He  was  chosen  to  the  National  .'\cademy  in  1863.  Died 
at  Rutherford  Park,  New  Jersey,  November  26,  1882. 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  leh-klaiR',  (Daniel,)  a  Swiss 
physician,  born  at  Geneva  in  1652,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean  the  eminent  critic.  He  practised  with  distinction 
in  Geneva,  became  a  counsellor  of  the  republic,  and 
published,  besides  some  other  works,  a  "Complete 
Surgery,"  (1695,)  and  a  "History  of  Medicine,"  (1696,) 
which  was  translated  into  English.     Died  in  1728. 

Leclerc,  (David,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  theologian,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1591 ;  died  in  1654. 

Leclerc,  (David,)  a  skilful  Swiss  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Berne  in  1680,  worked  many  years  in  Frankfort, 
and  painted  portraits  in  oil  and  miniature  of  numerous 
German  princes.     Died  in  1738. 

Leclerc,  leh-klaiR',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  physician, 
practised  in  Paris.  He  became  physician-in-ordinary  to 
Louis  XIV.,  and  published  between  1694  and  1706  several 
professional  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Convenient 
Medicine,"  ("La  Medecine  aisee.") 

Leclerc,  [Lat.  Cler'icus,]  (Jean,)  an  eminent  Swiss 
critic  and  divine,  born  at  Geneva  in  1657.  He  became 
a  champion  of  Arminianism,  and  removed  to  Holland  in 
1683.  After  preaching  for  a  short  time  in  the  church  of 
the  Remonstrants  in  Amsterdam,  he  obtained  in  that  city 
the  chair  of  philosophy  and  Hebrew,  which  he  retained 
until  his  death.  In  1686  he  commenced  the  "  Biblio- 
theque  Universelle,"  the  first  of  those  three  celebrated 
series  of  reviews  to  which  he  owes  much  of  his  fame, 
and  which  was  issued  monthly  until  1693.  It  was  fol- 
kiwed  by  the  "Bibliotheque  Choisie,"  (1703-13,)  and  the 
'Bibliotheque  ancienne  et  moderne,"  (1714-27.)  "These 
journals,"  says  Hallam,  "enjoyed  an  extraordinary  in- 
fluence over  Europe,  and  deserved  to  enjoy  it.  .  .  .  He 
is  generally  temperate  and  judicious,  and  displays  a  very 
extensive  erudition."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  He  published  many  other  valuable  works, 
among  which  are  "Ars  Critica,"  (2  vols.,  1696,)  "Par- 
rhasiana,"  (2  vols.,  1699-1701,)  and  a  "Commentary  on 
the  Bible."     Died  in  1736. 

See  J.  Clerici,  "Vila  et  Opera  ad  Annum  171 1  Amici  ejus  Opus- 
culum." 


Leclerc,  (Jean  Baptistb:,)  a  French  legislator  and 
writer,  born  at  Angers  in  1756.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  (1795-99.)  He  wrote  "Pastoral  Poems." 
(1786,)  and  other  literary  works.     Died  in  1826 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Leclerc,  (Jean  Louis.)     See  Buffon. 

Leclerc,  (Joseph  Victor,)  a  French  classical  scholar, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1 789.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  Latin 
eloquence  at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  in  1824,  and  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1834.  Ho 
published,  besides  some  original  works,  "The  Thoughts 
(if  Plato,"  in  Greek  and  French,  (1818,)  and  "The  Cora 
plete  Works  of  Cicero,"  with  a  French  version,  (30  vols., 
1821-25.)     I^i^d  November  12,  1865. 

Leclerc,  (Laurent,)  a  French  priest,  born  in  Paris  in 
1677,  was  a  son  of  Sebastien  Leclerc  the  engraver.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "A  Critical  Letter  on 
Bayle's  Dictionary."     Died  in  1736. 

Leclerc,  (Michel,)  a  French  poet  and  advocate, 
born  at  Albi  in  1622.  His  principal  work  is  "Virginia 
the  Roman  Girl,"  ("  Virginie  Romaine,"  a  tragedy, 
1645.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1691. 

Leclerc,  (Nicolas  Gabriel.)     See  Clerc. 

Leclerc,  (Oscar,)  known  as  Leclerc  ThoUin,  an 
agriculturist,  born  in  Paris  in  1798,  was  a  son  of  Jean 
Baptiste,  noticed  above,  and  a  nephew  of  Andre  Thoiiin. 
He  published  treatises  on  agriculture.     Died  in  1845. 

Leclerc,  (Sebastien,)  a  skilful  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Metz  in  1637,  removed  to  Paris  in 
1665.  In  1672  he  was  chosen  professor  of  perspective 
in  the  Academy  of  Painting.  His  works  were  nearly 
all  designed  by  himself.  Louis  XIV.  appointed  him 
engraver  of  his  cabinet  and  professor  in  the  £cole  des 
Gobelins.  Leclerc  published  a  "System  of  Vision," 
("  Systeme  sur  la  Vision,"  1679,)  and  an  esteemed  treat- 
ise on  Architecture,  (1714.)     Died  in  1714. 

See  Vallemont,  "  Eloge  de  M.  Leclerc  Dessinateur,"etc.,  1715; 
QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  (S6bastien,)  a  good  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1684,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  about  1704.     Died  about  1765. 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  (Victor  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Pontoise  in  1772.  He  served  at  the 
siege  of  Toulon,  (1793,)  where  he  formed  a  friendship  with 
Bonaparte,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1796.  He  followed  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
and  promoted  the  success  of  the  coup  d'etat  of  i8th  Bru- 
maire,  1799.  Soon  after  this  event  he  married  Pauline 
Bonaparte,  with  the  consent  of  her  brother,  the  First 
Consul,  who  in  1801  gave  him  command  of  a  large 
armament  (35,000  men)  sent  to  subjugate  the  revolted 
negroes  of  Hayti.  He  obtained  some  successes,  and 
sent  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  as  a  captive  to  France ;  but 
his  army  was  wasted  by  the  yellow  fever,  of  which  he 
died  in  November,  1802. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "His- 
tory of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Leclerc  des  Essarts,  leh-klaiR'  di  zi'stR',  (Louis 
Nicolas  Marin,)  a  French  general,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Pontoise  in  1770.  For  his  services 
at  Eckmiihl,  Wagram,  etc.,  in  1809,  he  received  the  title 
of  count.  He  commanded  a  division  in  Russia  in  1812, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage  and  skill. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Leclercq  or  Le  Clercq,  leh-kl^Rk',  (ChriStien,)  a 
French  missionary,  born  in  Artois  about  1630.  In  1655 
he  was  sent  to  Canada,  where  he  laboured  many  years. 
After  his  return  to  France  he  published  "The  History 
of  the  French  Colonies  in  New  France,  and  of  Lasalle's 
Expedition  to  Explore  the  Mississippi,"  (1691.) 

Leclerq,  (Michel  Theodore,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1777.  He  published  "Dramatic  Pro- 
verbs," (4  vols.,  1823-26,)  which  were  very  popular. 
Died  in  1851. 

Lecluse  or  L'^cluse,  de,  deh  li'kliiz',  written  also 


«  as.^."  9as  j;  ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  a, nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  #h  asin/Ziw.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LECLUSE 


LECTIUS 


LlJscluse,  (Chari.es,)  ll.at.  Car'olus  Clu'sius.J  a 
savant,  who  made  important  contributions  to  the  science 
of  botany,  was  born  at  Arras  in  1526.  He  studied  at 
Louvain,  Wittenberg,  and  Montpeilier.  At  the  last-named 
place  he  graduated  as  physician  in  1555.  After  travelling 
many  years  in  France,  Spain,  etc.,  for  botanical  informa- 
tion, he  was  director  of  the  emperor's  garden  at  Vienna 
from  1573  to  1587.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "Descrip- 
tion of  the  Rare  Plants  of  Spain,"  (1576,)  and  a  "De- 
scription of  the  Rare  Plants  of  Austria,"  (1583,)  both  of 
which  were  afterwards  united  in  his  "  Rariorum  Plan- 
tarum  Historia,"  ("History  of  the  Rarer  Plants,"  1601,) 
with  figures.  In  1593  he  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Leyden,  where  he  died  in  1609.  He  was  endowed  with 
a  great  memory  and  a  rare  sagacity,  and  excelled  in 
description.  He  left  a  work  on  foreign  animals  and 
plants,  entitled  "  Exoticorum  Libri  Decern,  quibus  Ani- 
malium,  Plantarum,  Aromatumque  Historiae  describun- 
tur,"  (1605.) 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  RD'anica  ;"  NicfeoN,  "  M^moires  ;" 
fitOY,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Midecine;"  Morren,  "Ala  M^moire 
de  C.  de  L'Escluse,  un  des  P^res  de  la  Botanique,"  etc.,  Liege,  1853. 

L6cluse,  de,  (Fleury,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1774.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  Greek 
and  Latin  Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1837.)     Died  in  1845. 

Lecocq,  leh-kok',  (Alexa.ndre  Charle.s,)  a  French 
musical  composer,  born  in  Paris,  June  3,  1832.  In  1857 
he  entered  a  competition  to  produce  the  music  for  an 
operetta,  "  Le  Docteur  Mirade,"  and  was  bracketed  with 
Bizet.  Other  operettas  followed ;  but  his  first  real  suc- 
cess was  gained  in  1868  with  "  Fleur  de  The."  Since 
that  time  he  has  been  one  of  the  favourite  French  com- 
posers of  light,  gay,  and  brilliant  music,  and  has  pro- 
duced a  number  of  comic  operas,  the  best-known  of 
which  are  "La  Fille  de  Madame  Angot,"  (1872,)  "Giro- 
fle-Girofla,"  (1874,)  and  "La  Marjolaine,"  (1877.) 

Lecointe.     See  Cointe,  Le. 

Lecointe-Puiraveau,  leh-kwiNt'  pu-e'rt'vo',  (Mi- 
chel Mathieu,)  a  French  legislator,  born  at  Saint- 
Maixent  about  1750,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Con- 
vention, (1792-95.)     Died  in  1825. 

Lecointre,  leh-kwiNtR',  (Laurent,)  a  French  regi- 
cide. He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  the  Con- 
vention, and  instigated  the  execution  of  the  queen. 
Died  in  1805. 

Lecointe  or  Le  Comte,  leh-k6Nt'',  (F6lix,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  a  pupil  of  Falconet. 
He  was  received  as  Academician  in  1771.  By  order  of 
the  king,  he  executed  statues  of  Fenelon  and  Rollin. 
He  is  classed  in  the  second  rank  of  French  sculptors. 
Died  in  1817. 

Lecomte,  (Jules,)  an  able  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1812.  He  edited  several  journals, 
and  published  "Letters  on  French  Authors,"  (1837,)  a 
"History  of  the  Revolution  of  1848,"  {1850,)  and  "The 
English  Pontoons,"  ("  Les  Pontons  Anglais,"  a  maritime 
novel,  5  vols.,  1850-52.)     Died  in  1S64. 

Lecomte,  (Louls,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux, was  one  of  six  mathematicians  sent  as  mission- 
aries to  China  in  1685.  He  laboured  some  years  in 
the  mission  of  Shensee,  (Chensi,)  and,  having  returned 
to  France,  published  in  1696  "Memoirs  on  the  Present 
State  of  China,"  which  was  censured  by  the  Faculty  of 
Theology.     Died  in  1729. 

Lecoiite,  leh-k6Nt',  [Lat.  Con'tius,]  (Antoine,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Noyon,  was  a  cousin-german  of 
Calvin,  but  an  opponent  of  his  doctrines.  He  lectured 
on  law  at  Orleans  and  Bourges,  and  left  several  legal 
works.     Died  in  1586. 

Le  Conte,  le-k6nt,  (John,)  an  American  naturalist, 
and  officer  in  the  corps  of  United  States  engineers,  was 
born  near  Shrewsbury,  New  Jersey,  in  1784.  He  pub- 
lished "Descriptions  of  the  Species  of  North  American 
Tortoises,"  "Monographs  of  the  North  American  Spe- 
cies of  Utricularia,"  etc.,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1861. 

Leconte,  (John  L.,)  M.D.,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  New  York  in  1825,  was  a  distinguishecf  entomol- 
ogist. He  published  numerous  treatises,  etc.,  on  ento- 
mology, among  which  is  one  "  On  the  Classification  of  the 
Carabidse  of  the  United  States."     Died  Nov.  15,  1883. 


Leconte,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  American  naturalist  and 
physician,  born  in  Liberty  county,  Georgia,  in  1818.  He 
became  in  1856  professor  of  natural  and  mechanical 
philosophy  in  South  Carolina  College,  and  in  1869  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  California.     D.  April  30,  1891. 

Leconte,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Liberty  county,  Georgia,  in  1823.  From 
1856  to  1859  he  was  professor  of  chemistry  and  geology 
in  South  Carolina  College,  and  in  1869  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  geology  and  natural  history  in  the  University 
of  California.  Besides  several  works  on  education  and 
the  fine  arts,  he  wrote  a  work  on  "  The  Mutual  Relations 
of  Religion  and  Science,"  and  papers  on  "The  Agency 
of  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  Formation  of  the  Peninsula 
of  Florida,"  on  "  The  Correlation  of  Vital  Force  with 
Chemical  and  Physical  Forces,"  on  "  The  Phenomena 
of  Binocular  Vision,"  on  "The  Ancient  Glaciers  of  the 
Sierras,"  on  "  The  Great  Lava-Flood  of  the  Northwest," 
and  on  "The  Structure  and  Age  of  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains." 

Leconte  de  Lisle,  leh-k5Nt'  deh  \h\,  (Charles 
Marie,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in 
1820.  He  produced  "  Poemes  antiques,"  (1852,)  "  Poesies 
nouvelles,"  (1854,)  and  "Poemes  barbares,"  (1862,)  be- 
sides translations  of  classic  authors. 

Le  Conte,  (Lewis,)  M.D.,  an  American  scientist, 
born  near  Shrewsbury,  New  Jersey,  August  4,  1782. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1799,  and  became 
a  resident  of  Georgia-  He  was  eminent  as  a  chemist, 
zoologist,  botanist,  and  mathematician.  Died  January 
9,  1838. 

Lecoq  or  Le  Coq,  leh-kok',  (Henri,)  a  French  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Avesnes  (Nord)  in  1S02.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  geology,  chemistry,  and  botany.  His  most 
important  work  is  "  Studies  on  the  Botanical  Geography 
of  Europe,"  (7  vols.,  1854-57.)     Died  August  4,  1871. 

Le  Coq,  (Thomas,)  a  beneficed  cleric  of  Falaise,  in 
Normandy,  who  in  1580  produced  "Cain,"  a  play  or 
mystery  of  unusual  merits. 

Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran,  leh-kok'  deh  bwi'bo'dR5N', 
(Paul  Emile  FRANgois,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at 
Cognac,  in  1838,  of  a  Protestant  family.  Possessed  of 
great  wealth,  he  devoted  himself  to  chemical  researches. 
He  discovered  the  metal  "gallium,"  and  named  it  with 
a  double  reference  to  his  country  (Latin  "Gallia")  and 
to  his  own  name,  (Lecoq,  in  Latin  "Gallus.")  He 
published  "  Spectres  lumineux.  Spectres  prismatiques," 
(1874,)  etc. 

Lecoq,  von,  fon  leh-kok',  (Karl  Christian  Erd- 
MANN  Edler.)  an  able  German  general,  born  at  Toigr.i 
in  1767.  He  fought  for  the  French  at  Wagram  in  1S09, 
and  commanded  a  division  of  Saxon  troops  in  the  Rus- 
sian campaign  of  1812.  After  1815  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  Saxon  army.     Died  in  1830. 

Le  Courayer  or  Le  Courrayer.  See  Courayer,  I  e. 

Lecourbe  or  Le  Courbe,  leh-kooRb',  (Claude 
Joseph,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Lons-le-Saulnier  in 
1760.  In  1799  he  defeated  the  Austrians  in  Switzerland. 
Having  been  selected  by  Moreau  to  command  the  right 
wing  of  his  army  in  1800,  he  distinguished  himself  at 
Hochstadt  and  other  places.  On  account  of  his  attach- 
ment to  Moreau,  he  was  deprived  of  command  in  1804- 
Died  in  1815. 

Lecouvreur  or  Le  Couvreur,  leh-koov'rUR',  (Adri- 
ENNE,)  a  popular  French  actress,  born  near  fipernay 
about  1690.  She  excelled  in  tragedy,  and  was  a  great 
favourite  in  Paris  from  171 7  until  her  death.  Voltaire 
and  other  poets  offered  poetical  homage  to  her  talents. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Lect,  l§kt,  [Lat.  Lec'tius,]  (Jacques,)  a  learned 
Swiss  jurisconsult,  born  in  1560,  at  Geneva.  He  obtained 
a  chair  of  law  in  that  city  in  1583,  and  the  next  year  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  In  the  critical 
times  which  followed  he  showed  firmness  and  ability. 
He  wrote  several  legal  works,  an  edition  of"  Poetae  Graeci 
veteres  Carminis  heroici  Scriptores,"  (1606,)  and  short 
Latin  poems,  "Poemata  Varia,"  (1609.)     Died  in  1611. 

LectiuB.     See  T  ect. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long:  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/tort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


LECURIEUX 


1511 


LED  YARD 


Lecurieux,  leh-ku're'uh',(  Jacques  Joseph,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Dijon  in  1801.  Among  his 
works  are  "Saint  Louis  at  Daniietta,"  and  "Mary  of 
IJurgundy." 

Le'd?,  [Gr.  A^f5a,]  the  wife  of  Tyndareus,  King  of 
Sparta,  and  mother  of  Castor,  Pollux,  Helen,  and  Cly- 
temnestra.  According  to  the  popular  legend,  two  of 
these  were  the  offspring  of  Jupiter,  who,  when  he  visited 
Leda,  assumed  the  form  of  a  swan. 

Le  Dain,  leh  dix,  (Olivier,)  a  Flemish  barber,  who 
became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XL  of  France.  He  was 
hung  by  Charles  VHI.  in  1484. 

Ledebour,  von,  fon  laMeh-booR',(KARL  Friedrich,) 
an  eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1785. 
He  was  professor  of  botany  at  Dorpat  from  181 1  to  1836, 
and,  after  a  journey  to  the  Altai  Mountains,  published 
"  Flora  Altaica,"  (4  vols.,  1829-34.)  His  "  Flora  Rossica" 
(3  vols.,  1842-51)  is  regarded  as  the  best  work  that  has 
appeared  on  the  flora  of  Russia.  He  also  published 
"  Illustrations  of  New  Russian  Plants,  in  five  hundred 
coloured  plates,"  (5  vols.,  1829-34.)     Died  in  1851. 

Ledebur,  von,  fon  la'deh-booR',  (Leotold  Karl 
WiLHELM  August,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1799,  published  a  number  of  geographical,  historical, 
and  antiquarian  works.     Died  November  17,  1877. 

Ledeganck,  la'deh-gSnk,  (Karel,)  a  Belgian  poet  of 
remarkable  talents,  born  in  1S05  ;  died  in  1847. 

Lederlin,  leh-d§R'liN',  (Jean  Henri,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1672.  He  published 
editions  of  the  "Onomasticon,"  by  Pollux,  of  /Elian's 
History,  (1713,)  and  of  other  works.     Died  in  1737. 

Ledermiiller,  la'der-mul'ler,  (Martin  Frobenius,)  a 
German,  distinguished  for  his  researches  with  the  micro- 
scope, was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  17 19.  He  published 
"  Microscopic  Studies,"  (1759,)  and  "  Microscopic  Amuse- 
ments," ("Mikroskopische  Gemiiths-  und  Augenergot- 
zen,"  3  vols.,  1760-64,)  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1769. 

Ledesma,  de,  di  li-Des'm^,  (A1.0NZ0,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Segovia  in  1552.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Gongora,  and,  notwithstanding  the  obscurity  and  othei 
defects  of  his  poetry,  acquired  a  high  reputation.  Lope 
de  Vega,  in  his  "Laurel  d'Apollo,"  mentions  him  in 
favourable  terms.  He  published  "Spiritual  Thoughts," 
("Conceptos  Espirituales,"  1600-16,)  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1623. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ledesma,  de,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Bur- 
gos in  1630;  died  in  1670. 

Ledieu,  leh-de-uh',  (FRANgois,)  Abb6,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Peronne,  was  private  secretary  to 
the  celebrated  Bossuet,  Bishop  \of  Meaux.  He  wrote 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Bossuet,"  (4  vols., 
1856.)     Died  in  1713. 

Ledochowski,  iSd'o-Kov'ske,  (Miecislas  Halka,) 
Cardinal  and  Count,  a  Polish  prelate,  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Gork,  October  29,  1822.  He  studied  at  War- 
saw, entered  the  Lazarist  order,  and  finished  his  studies 
at  Vienna  and  Rome,  where  he  became  a  domestic  prel- 
ate and  prothonotary  to  Pius  IX.  and  was  attached  to 
several  foreign  nunciatures.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Thebes  and  nuncio  to  Belgium,  and  in  1866 
became  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen  and  Primate 
of  Poland.  For  his  strenuous  resistance  to  the  German 
laws  interfering  with  church  liberty  he  was  imprisoned, 
1874-76,  and  was  heavily  fined,  and  then  banished.  In 
1875  he  was  created  a  cardinal-priest.  In  1884  he  resigned 
the  episcopate. 

Ledoux,  leh-doo',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Dormans  in  1736.  The  most  remark- 
able monuments  of  his  invention  are  the  Barrieres 
of  Paris.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Architecture." 
Died  in  1806. 

Ledran,  leh-dRfiN',  (PIenri  Franqois,)  an  eminent 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1685,  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
professional  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Lithotomy,"  (1730,) 
"Observations  on  Surgery,"  (1731,)  and  "Practical  Re- 
flections on  Gunshot  Wounds,"  (1737.)  Died  in  1770. 
Ledru,  leh-dRii',  (Andr6  Pierre,)  a  French  priest 


and  naturalist,  born  in  Maine  in  1761,  was  employed 
as  botanist  in  Baudin's  expedition  to  the  Canaries  and 
the  Antilles  in  1796.  He  wrote  several  works.  Died 
about  1825. 

Ledru,  (Nicolas  Philippe,)  a  French  experimentei 
in  natural  philosophy,  born  in  Paris  in  1731,  was  a 
grandfather  of  Ledru-Rollin.  He  made  discoveries  in 
magnetism.     Died  in  1807. 

Ledru-Rollin,  le-dru'  roKlin  or  leh-dRii'  ro'liN', 
(Alexandre  Auguste,)  a  distinguished  French  socialist 
and  radical  republican,  born  in  Paris  in  1808.  His  family 
name  was  Ledru,  to  which  he  added  that  of  RoUin.  He 
became  an  advocate  about  1830,  and  was  employed  as 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  many  political  trials  between 
1832  and  1848.  In  1841  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  by  the  voters  of  Mans,  and  became  the  chief 
orator  of  the  extreme  gauche,  or  ultra-democrats.  As  a 
tribune  and  popular  agitator  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
audacity  and  vehemence,  but  had  not  much  influence 
in  the  Chamber.  He  founded  "  La  Reforme,"  a  political 
journal,  and  took  a  prominent  part  at  the  reform  ban- 
quets of  1847. 

During  the  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  he  entered 
the  Chamber  when  the  regency  of  the  Duchess  of  Or- 
leans was  under  discussion.  By  the  exertion  of  great 
physical  force  he  occupied  the  tribune,  and,  amidst  the 
violent  tumult,  spoke  against  the  regency.  He  was  chosen 
by  acclamation  as  a  member  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, and  became  minister  of  the  interior.  (See  Lamar 
riNE.)  His  measures  in  this  capacity  were  not  approved 
by  the  majority  of  his  colleagues.  He  was  censured  for 
an  attempt  to  proscribe  the  defeated  party ;  but  he  is  said 
to  have  saved  the  government  from  the  violence  of  the 
insurgents  on  the  i6th  of  April.  At  the  election  of  five 
members  of  the  executive  commission  by  the  Assembly 
in  May,  he  was  the  lowest  of  the  successful  candidates, 
receiving  four  hundred  and  fifty-eight  votes  out  of  about 
eight  hundred.  He  owed  this  election  to  the  influence 
of  Lamartine.  He  lost  his  popularity  with  the  masses, 
and  retired  from  power  in  June,  1848,  when  Cavaignac 
became  dictator.  In  December,  1848,  Ledru-Rollin  re- 
ceived only  370,119  votes  for  president,  having  failed  to 
obtain  the  support  of  the  socialists.  He  was  the  chief 
of  the  "Mountain"  in  the  Assemblies  of  1848  and  1849, 
to  the  latter  of  which  he  was  elected  by  five  departments, 
and  made  eloquent  speeches  against  the  government. 
In  June,  1849,  he  demanded  the  impeachment  of  the 
president,  and,  when  this  was  refused,  called  on  his 
partisans  to  rise  in  arms.  The  few  who  obeyed  this  call 
were  quickly  dispersed  by  the  troops,  and  Ledru-Rollin 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  remained  many  years.  In 
his  absence  he  was  condemned  to  deportation.  He  pub- 
lished a  book  "On  the  Decline  of  England,"  (2  vols., 
1850,)  and  united  with  Kossuth  and  Mazzini  to  form  a 
revolutionary  committee  for  the  promotion  of  the  demo- 
cratic cause  in  Europe.  Among  his  publications  is 
"  French  Jurisprudence,"  etc.,  ("  Jurisprudence  Fran- 
9aise,  ou  Repertoire  du  Journal  du  Palais,"  8  vols., 
1843-48.)  Availing  himself  of  the  general  amnesty,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1870.     Died  December  31,  1874. 

See  N.  Gallois,  "  Vie  politique  de  Ledru-Rollin."  1850:  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  August,  1850 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gini- 
rale." 

Leduc  or  Le  Due,  leh-diik',  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  paintei 
and  engraver,  born  at  the  Hague  about  1638,  was  a  pupil 
and  skilful  imitator  of  Paul  Potter.  He  painted  interiors, 
guard-rooms,  robbers,  etc.  About  1671  he  entered  the 
army,  in  which  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain,  and 
abandoned  his  art. 

Led'wich,  (Edward,)  an  Irish  antiquary,  born  in 
1739,  became  vicar  of  Aghaboe.  He  published  a  valu- 
able work  entitled  "The  Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  (1794,) 
and  a  few  other  treatises.  He  offended  many  of  his 
countrymen  by  denying  the  truth  of  the  legend  of  Saint 
Patrick.     Died  in  1823. 

Led'yard,  (John,)  a  celebrated  American  traveller, 
born  at  Groton,  in  Connecticut,  in  1751.  At  an  early 
age  he  took  passage  as  a  common  sailor  on  a  vessel 
bound  for  Gibraltar,  and  thence  repaired  to  London, 
where  in  1776  he  set  sail  with  Captain  Cook  on  his  third 
voyage  around  the  world.     After  his  return,  in  1780,  he 


■e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as_/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  (rilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LEDYARD 


1512 


LEE 


published  a  journal  of  the  voyage,  including  an  account 
of  the  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Captain 
Cook.  Having  projected  an  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  he  set  out  in  1786,  and,  after  a  journey  of  great 
hardships,  he  arrived  at  Irkootsk  in  January,  1787.  Here 
he  was  arrested  as  a  spy  by  order  of  the  empress,  and 
forbidden  again  to  enter  Russia.  He  ne.xt  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  was  most  kindly  received  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  and  in  June,  1788,  under  the  ])atronage  of  the 
African  Association,  set  out  on  a  voyage  of  discovery 
to  Central  Africa.  He  reached  Cairo  in  August,  but, 
while  making  prej^arations  for  his  journey,  was  attacked 
by  a  fever,  of  which  he  died.  The  news  of  his  death 
was  heard  with  deep  regret  by  his  friends  in  England, 
who  had  formed  the  highest  opinion  of  his  qualifica- 
tions for  the  arduous  task  of  African  exploration.  He 
was  described  by  Mr.  Eeaufoy,  secretary  of  the  African 
Association,  as  "adventurous  beyond  the  conception  of 
ordinary  men,  yet  wary  and  considerate,  and  appeared 
to  be  formed  by  nature  for  achievements  of  hardihood 
and  peril." 

See  Sparks.  "Lite  of  Ledyard,"  in  his  "American  Biography;" 
"Pursuit  ol  Kiiovviedi;e  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "Quarterly  Re- 
view' tor  July,  182S,  (by  Southev  ;)  "  North  American  Review" 
for  October,  1S28  ;  Cleveland,  "Compendium  of  American  Litera- 
ture." 

Ledyard,  (William,)  Colon?:l,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Connecticut  about  1750,  commanded  at  Fort 
Griswold  during  the  attack  made  by  the  British  in  1 781. 
He  was  brutally  stabbed  by  the  English  commander. 
Major  Bromfield,  after  he  had  delivered  up  to  him  his 
sword.  He  was  an  uncle  of  the  distinguished  traveller 
John  Ledyard. 

Lee,  (.Alfred.)  an  American  theologian,  born  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1807,  was  consecrated 
Protestaiit  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Delaware  in  1841.  He 
published  a  "  Life  of  the  Apostle  Peter,"  and  a  "  Life  of 
Saint  John."  In  1S84  he  became  presiding  bishop  of 
his  church.     Died  April  12,  1887. 

Lee,  (Anne,)  founder  of  the  sect  called  Shakers,  was 
born  at  Manchester,  in  England,  in  1735.  Having  re- 
moved to  America,  she  settled  near  Albany,  New  York 
where  she  gathered  a  number  of  proselytes  around  her 
She  taught  many  strange  doctrines, — among  others,  that 
all  marriage  is  sinful,  and  is  to  be  shunned  under  all 
circumstances.  She  was  usually  styled  by  her  fol- 
lowers "Mother  Anne."  She  died  in  1784.  Among 
the  ))rincipal  settlements  made  by  her  followers  are  those 
at  New  Lebanon,  near  Albany,  and  at  Harvard,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

See  Allen's  "American  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Lee,  (Arthur,)  an  American  statesman  and  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  1740, 
was  a  brother  of  Richard  Henry  Lee.  He  studied  medi- 
cine in  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  became  a  student 
of  law  in  London.  He  there  published  a  number  of 
eloquent  political  essays,  under  the  name  of  "Junius 
Americanus,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  cause  of  the 
American  people.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France 
in  1776;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Franklin  and  Deane, 
he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  French.  He  was  recalled 
in  1779.  After  his  return  he  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1782,  and  was  subsequently  made  a  counsellor  of  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  and  a  member  of 
the  board  of  treasury,  (1784.)  He  was  never  married 
He  was  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  an  intimate  friend  of 
Sir  William  Jones.     Died  in  1792. 

See  R.  H.  Lee,  "Life  of  Arthur  Lee,"  2  vols.,  1829;  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1830  ;  "  Encyclopedia  Americana." 

I,ee,  (Charles,)  adistinguished  officer  in  the  American 
Revolutionary  war,  was  a  native  of  Wales.  Having  served 
for  a  time  in  the  British  army,  he  removed  to  America. 
He  was  appointed  major-general  by  Congress  in  June, 
1775.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
^f  the  Southern  colonies.  He  was  surprised  and  taken 
[irisoner  by  the  English  while  marching  through  New 
Jersey  to  join  Washington  in  Pennsylvania,  (December, 
1776;)  but  after  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  in  October, 
1777,  he  was  exchanged.  Having  disobeyed  General 
Washington's  orders  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  in  1778, 
he  was  tried   by  a  court-martial,  and  suspended  from 


service  for  a  year.     Died  in  1782.     General  Lee  was  the 
author  of  several  political  works. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (Edward,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Kent  in 
1482.  He  became  chaplain  of  Henry  VHL,  who  em- 
ployed him  in  several  diplomatic  missions.  In  1529 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  negotiate  for  the  divorce  of  the 
king,  and  in  153 1  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  York. 
He  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  favoured  the 
innovations  which  Henry  VIII.  made  in  the  Church. 
He  wrote  "  Epicedia  Clarorum  Virorum,"  and  other 
works  in  Latin.     Died  in  1544. 

Lee,  (Eleanor  Percy,')  an  American  poetess,  born 
near  Natchez,  Mississippi,  June  16,  1817.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Ware.  With  her  sister,  Mrs.  C.  A.  Warfield, 
(q.  v.,)  she  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1843.  Died 
October  14,  1849. 

Lee,  (  Eliza  Buckminster,  )  an  American  writer, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Buckminster,  was  born  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "  Sketches  of  a  New  England  Village,"  and 
"  Naomi,  or  Boston  Two  Hundred  Years  Ago."  She 
also  translated  the  "Life  of  Jean  Paul  Richter,"  and 
other  books,  from  the  German.     Died  June  22,  1864. 

Lee,  (FiTZ-HuGH,)  an  American  general,  a  nephew 
of  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  a  grandson  of  Henry  ("  Light- 
Horse  Harry")  Lee,  of  Revolutionary  fame,  and  a  great- 
grandson  (on  his  mother's  side)  of  George  Mason  the 
author  of  the  Virginia  Bill  of  Rights,  was  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1835.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1856, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  became  general 
of  cavalry  in  the  Confederate  army.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Virginia  in  18S5. 

Lee,  (Francis  Lightfoot,)  an  American  statesman 
snd  patriot,  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in 
October,  1734,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Richard  Henry 
Lee.  He  inherited  a  large  estate,  and  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  Colonel  John  Tayloe  in  1772.  He  was  elected  to 
the  General  Congress  in  1775,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  in  1776.  Having  been  re-elected,  he 
continued  to  serve  in  Congress  until  1779.  He  was  too 
diffident  to  gain  distinction  as  a  debater,  but  took  an 
active  part  in  legislative  business.  Died  without  issue, 
at  Richmond,  in  1797.  He  was  eminent  for  conversa- 
tional powers,  and  was  a  general  favourite  in  society. 

Lee,  ('Frederick  George,)  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  an  English 
divine,  born  at  Thame,  Oxfordshire,  January  6,  1832. 
He  graduated  at  Saint  Edmund's  Hail,  Oxford,  with  high 
honours,  studied  divinity  at  Cuddesden  College,  and  re- 
ceived priest's  orders  in  the  Established  Church  in  1856. 
He  is  a  High  Churchman  of  the  extremest  school.  He 
has  published  several  volumes  of  religious  poetry,  and  a 
large  number  of  devotional  and  theological  books  and 
brochures. 

Lee,  (Frederick  Richard,)  a  popular  English  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Barnstaple  about  1800.  He  began 
to  exhibit  at  the  Royal  Academy  about  1S24,  and  was 
chosen  an  Academician  in  1838.  He  is  most  successful 
in  river-scenery  and  in  landscapes  where  trees  are  promi- 
nent objects.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Mill,"  "The 
Storm  on  the  Lake,"  "The  Avenue  of  Shobrooke  Park,' 
"  The  Bay  of  Biscay,"  etc.  Died  at  Cape  Town,  June  4, 
1879. 

Lee,  (George  Alexander,)  an  English  vocalist, 
manager,  and  musical  composer,  born  in  London  in 
1S02.  In  1825  he  appeared  as  a  tenor-singer  at  the 
Dublin  Theatre,  and  in  1826  at  the  Ilaymarket  Theatre 
in  London.  He  was  successively  manager  of  several 
London  theatres.  He  comjjosed  music  for  many  dra- 
matic pieces,  and  also  produced  songs  and  ballads  that 
were  popular  in  their  day.     Died  in  1S51. 

Lee,  (George  Washington  Custis,)  a  son  of  General 
Robert  E.  Lee,  was  born  at  Fortress  Monroe,  Virginia, 
September  16,  1S32.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  Mil- 
itary Academy  in  1854,  served,  1S54-61,  in  the  United 
States  army,  and,  1S61-65,  in  the  Confederate  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia,  attaining  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  professor  of  military  engineering  at  the  Virginia 
Military  Institute,  1865-71,  and  in  1871  was  chosen 
president  of  Washington  and  Lee  University. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  /<'«;■■,•  A,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6, 1'l,  y, s/ior(;  a,  e,  j,  g,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


LEE 


LEE 


Lee,  (Hannah  F.,)  an  American  novelist  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Newburynort,  Massachusetts. 
Her  "Three  Experiments  of  Living,"  published  in  1838, 
passed  through  numerous  editions  both  in  America  and 
Europe.  Among  her  works  are  "  tjrace  Seymour," 
"Eleanor  Fulton,"  "Luther  and  his  Times,"  and  a 
"History  of  Sculpture  and  Sculptors."     Died  in  1865. 

Lee,  (Harriet,)  an  English  writer  of  fiction,  was 
born  in  London  in  1756.  In  partnership  with  her  sister 
Sophia,  she  taught  school  for  many  years  (1780-1803) 
at  Bath.  After  publishing  "Clara  Lennox"  and  other 
novels,  which  are  now  neglected,  she  produced  between 
1797  and  1805  five  volumes  of  the  "Canterbury  Tales," 
which  were  very  successful.  Diedini85i.  Lord  Byron, 
referring  to  "  Kruitzner"  in  Lee's  "  Canterbury  Tales," 
(from  which  he  took  the  subject  of  his  "  Werner,")  says, 
"  I  am  not  sure  it  ever  was  very  popular  ;  .  .  .  but  I 
have  generally  found  that  those  who  had  read  it  agreed 
with  me  in  their  estimate  of  the  singular  jjower  of  mind 
and  conception  which  it  develops.  .  .  ,  Amongst  those 
whose  opinions  agreed  with  mine  upon  this  story  I  could 
mention  some  very  high  names."  (See  Preface  to  the 
tragedy  of  "  Werner.") 

Lee,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  American  general,  born  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  January,  1756.  His 
father,  Henry  Lee,  was  a  first-cousin  of  Richard  Henry 
Lee.  He  became  a  captain  of  cavalry  in  1776,  joined 
the  main  army  in  September,  1777,  and  performed  several 
daring  exploits.  He  captured  a  British  fort  at  Paulus 
Hook  in  July,  1779.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel about  1780,  after  which  year  he  served  in 
the  army  of  General  Greene  as  an  officer  of  cavalry.  He 
rendered  important  services  at  Guilford  Court-House, 
March,  1781,  and  at  the  attack  on  Fort  Ninety-Six.  His 
legion  of  cavalry  also  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Eutaw 
Springs,  September  8,  1781.  He  was  appointed  a  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Congress  in  1786,  and  was  elected 
Governor  of  Virginia  in  1791  or  1792.  He  was  again  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1799,  and  was  selected  by  Con- 
gress to  pronounce  a  eulogy  on  Washington,  whom  he 
characterized  as  "first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in 
the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."  He  wrote  about  the  yeai 
1809  valuable  "Memoirs  of  the  War  in  the  Southern 
States."  In  1814  he  was  severely  injured  by  a  Baltimore 
mob,  against  which  he  fought  to  defend  a  printing-office 
and  editor.  He  never  recovered  from  this  injury,  and 
died  in  Georgia  in  March,  1818,  leaving  four  sons, — 
Henry,  Charles  C,  Robert  E.,  (the  famous  general,)  and 
Sidney  Smith.  He  was  often  called  Light -Horse 
Harry.  In  a  letter  to  Henry  Lee,  General  Greene 
wrote,  "Everybody  knows  I  have  tlie  highest  opinion  oi 
you  as  an  officer.  .  .  .  No  man  in  the  progress  of  the 
campaign  had  equal  merit  with  yourself." 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. ; 
"  Encyclopedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (Henry  Washington,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican bishop,  born  at  Hamden,  Connecticut,  July  24,  1S15, 
became  a  teacher,  and  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  1839.  In  1854  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Iowa.     Died  at  Davenport,  Iowa,  September  26,  1874. 

Lee,  (Jesse,)  an  American  Methodist  divine,  born 
in  Virginia  in  1758,  was  for  many  years  a  chaplain  to 
Congress.     Died  in  1816. 

Lee,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  professor  of  divinity, 
born  about  1780.  He  became  principal  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  about  1840,  and  afterwards  professor  of 
divinity  there.     Died  in  1859. 

Lee,  (Leroy  Madison,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  born  at  Peters- 
burg, Virginia,  in  1808.  He  published  several  religious 
works,  and  in  1836  became  editor  of  the  Richmond 
"Christian  Advocate."     Died  April  21,  1882. 

Lee,  (Luther,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American  divine 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Scho- 
harie county.  New  York,  in  1800.  He  was  editor  of  the 
"New  England  Christian  Advocate"  and  "The  True 
Wesleyan."  He  became  president  and  professor  cf  the- 
ology in  Michigan  Union  College  in  1856.  He  has  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "Slavery  Examined  in  the 
Light  of  the  Bible,"  and  "The  Immortality  of  the  Soul." 


Lee,  (Mary  E.,)  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1813,  was  the  author  of  "Tales  from  History,"  and 
made  a  number  of  translations  from  the  French,  Italian, 
and  German.     Died  in  1849. 

See  Griswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Lee,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  about 
1658.  After  he  had  appeared  as  an  actor  on  the  London 
stage  without  success,  he  composed  thirteen  tragedies, 
two  of  which — viz.,  "Alexander  the  Great"  and  "Theo- 
dosius" — obtained  public  favour.  He  was  confined  in 
Bedlam  for  insanity  in  16S4,  and  released  about  1688. 
Died  in  1691.  His  imagination  is  extravagant,  and  in- 
clined to  bombast.  "  Among  our  modern  English  poets," 
says  Addison,  "there  is  none  who  was  better  turned  foi 
tragedy  than  Lee,  if,  instead  of  favouring  the  impetuosity 
of  his  genius,  he  had  restrained  it  within  proper  bounds." 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iii.,  1821. 

Lee,  (Rachel  Fanny  Antonina,)  an  eccentric  Eng- 
lish authoress,  originally  named  Dasiiwood,  was  born 
about  1770.  She  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Government," 
which  was  commended  by  Wordsworth.     Died  in  1829. 

See  De  QuiNCEV,  "Autobiographic  Sketches,"  chap.  iv. 

Lee,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, was  born  in  the  county  of  Westmoreland, 
Virginia,  in  1732.  He  was  educated  in  England,  and, 
after  his  return,  was  elected  about  1757  to  the  House  of 
Burgesses  in  Virginia.  He  married  Miss  Aylett  in  early 
life.  In  1765  he  eloquently  defended  the  resolutions 
against  the  Stamp  Act,  introduced  by  Patrick  Henry, 
He  was  a  delegate  from  Virginia  in  1774  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  pro 
ceedings  of  that  body.  The  memorial  to  the  people  of 
British  America,  authorized  by  the  Continental  Congress, 
is  attributed  to  his  pen.  In  June,  1776,  he  introduced 
into  Congress  the  measure  declaring  the  ccjlonies  free 
and  independent  States,  which  motion  he  supported  by 
a  most  eloquent  and  powerful  speech.  Mr.  Lee  was 
again  elected  to  Congress  in  1778  ;  he  became  president 
of  that  body  in  1784,  and  was  elected  a  United  States 
Senator  from  Virginia  in  1789.  Like  most  other  Vir- 
ginians, he  disapproved  the  Federal  Constitution.  Died 
in  1794. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence ;"  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  R.  H.  Lee,"  by  his  grand- 
son, R  H.  Lee,  2  vols,,  1825  ;  "  Nortli  American  Review"  for  April, 
1826,  (by  Edward  Everett.) 

Lee,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  a  theologian,  born  at  North  Dur- 
ham in  1804,  was  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  became  professor  of  biblical  criticism  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1846.     Died  in  1868. 

Lee,  (Robert  Edward,)  a  celebrated  American 
general,  a  son  of  General  Henry  Lee,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Stratford,  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia, 
in  1806.  His  mother's  name  was  Anne  Carter.  He 
graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class  at  West  Point  in  1829, 
and  married  in  1832  a  daughter  of  George  Washington 
Parke  Custis,  who  was  the  adopted  son  of  General 
Washington.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1838, 
and  served  in  the  Mexican  war  (1846-47)  as  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  army  of  General  Scott,  by  whom  his  conduct 
was  highly  commended.  For  his  services  in  Mexico  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brevet  colonel.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  Academy  at  West  Point  from 
September,  1852,  to  April,  1855.  By  his  marriage  he 
became  proprietor  of  the  Arlington  House,  on  the  Poto- 
mac, where  his  family  resided  when  the  civil  war  began. 
He  was  appointed  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in  March,  1S61. 
On  the  2Cth  of  April,  1861,  he  resigned  his  commission 
by  a  letter  to  General  Scott,  to  whom  he  wrote,  "  My 
resignation  would  have  been  presented  at  once,  but 
for  the  struggle  it  has  cost  me  to  separate  myself  from 
a  service  to  which  I  have  devoted  all  the  best  years  of 
my  life." 

About  the  21st  of  April  he  was  appointed  major- 
general  in  command  of  all  the  forces  of  Virginia.  In 
July  ensuing,  his  rank  was  fixed  as  brigadier-general  in 
the  Confederate  army,  and  he  took  command  of  a  force 
in  Northwestern  Virginia.  He  was  opposed  to  General 
Rosecrans  in  this  campaign,  the  results  of  which  were 


€  as  ^.-  c  as  J.-  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  K, giittural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LEE 


1514 


LEECH 


rather  favourable  to  the  Unionists ;  though  no  impor- 
tant battle  was  fought.  About  December,  1861,  he  was 
ordered  to  take  charge  of  the  coast-defences  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  He  returned  to  Richmond  in 
March,  1862,  and  on  the  3d  of  June  took  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  army  destined  to  defend  the  capital.  On 
the  26th  of  June  he  attacked  the  army  of  General 
McClellan  at  Mechanicsville.  The  conflict  was  renewed 
on  the  27th  at  Gaines's  Mill,  where  both  armies  suffered 
heavy  losses.  Having  been  attacked  at  Savage's  Sta- 
tion on  the  29th,  the  Union  army  retired  to  Malvern 
Hill,  close  to  the  James  River.  Lee's  army  was  defeated 
at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  losing  about  6500  killed  and 
wounded.  General  McClellan  was,  nevertheless,  soon 
after  compelled  to  retreat,  and  to  abandon  t'le  siege  of 
Richmond.  The  seat  of  war  having  been  transferred 
to  the  northern  part  of  Virginia,  General  Lee  gained  a 
victory  over  General  Pope  at  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas, 
on  the  29th  and  30th  of  August,  and  invaded  Maryland 
about  the  4th  of  September.  He  commanded  in  person 
at  the  great  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  where  he 
had,  according  to  Pollard,  about  70,000  men.  His  loss 
at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam  is  reported  to  have 
been  1842  killed  and  9399  wounded,  besides  several 
thousand  prisoners.  General  Lee  retired  to  Virginia  on 
the  i8th,  but  was  not  pursued,  and  occupied  a  strongly- 
fortified  position  at  Fredericksburg,  where  General 
Burnside  attacked  him  on  the  13th  of  December  and 
was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  On  the  2d  and  3d  of 
May,  Generals  Lee  and  Hooker  fought  a  great  battle  at 
Chancellorsville,  where  the  former  had  the  advantage ; 
but  the  losses  were  nearly  equal,  and  the  retiring  Union 
army  was  not  pursued.  Having  been  largely  reinforced, 
he  assumed  the  offensive  with  an  army  of  about  95,000 
men,  and  crossed  the  Potomac  on  the  24th  of  June,  1863, 
for  the  invasion  of  Pennsylvania.  Marching  against 
Harrisburg,  he  was  confronted  at  Gettysburg  by  the 
Union  army,  commanded  by  General  Meade  and  posted 
on  a  range  of  hills.  The  Union  army  acted  on  the 
defensive  in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  which  began  on 
the  1st  of  July  and  was  renewed  on  the  2d  without  a 
decisive  result.  On  the  3d,  General  Lee  made  several 
desperate  assaults,  which  were  repulsed,  and  the  Unidn 
army  was  finally  victorious.  According  to  the  report  of 
General  Meade,  the  Federals  took  here  13,621  prisoners, 
including  the  wounded.  General  Lee  retired  in  the 
night  of  the  4th  of  July,  through  the  rain,  and  returned 
to  Virginia.  His  army  was  not  engaged  in  any  great 
battles  during  the  ensuing  winter. 

The  campaign  of  1864  was  opened  about  the  4th  of 
May  by  General  Grant,  who  crossed  the  Rapidan  and 
advanced  towards  Richmond.  A  severe  and  indecisive 
battle  ensued  at  the  Wilderness  on  the  5th  and  6th  of 
May.  General  Grant  continued  to  approach  his  objective 
point  by  a  series  of  flank  movements,  alternating  with 
great  battles  at  Spottsylvania  Court-House,  May  9-12, 
at  the  North  Anna  River,  May  23,  and  Cold  Harbour, 
June  3.  In  these  battles  General  Lee  acted  mostly  on 
the  defensive  in  fortified  positions,  and  his  losses  were 
probably  less  than  those  of  Grant.  General  Grant,  how- 
ever, referring  to  those  battles,  says,  "  Bloody  and  terrible 
as  they  were  on  our  side,  they  were  even  more  damaging 
to  the  enemy."  Having  crossed  the  James  River  about 
June  15,  the  Union  army  commenced  the  long  siege  of 
Petersburg,  near  which  several  actions  were  fought  in 
July  and  August.     (See  Grant,  Ulysses  S.) 

In  February  or  March,  1865,  General  Lee  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Confederate  armies.  During 
the  winter  of  1864-65  the  army  of  Virginia  had  been 
mostly  inactive,  and  greatly  trammelled  by  the  necessity 
of  defending  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  About  the  30th 
of  March  the  armies  operating  against  these  cities  began 
to  move,  and  to  cut  the  Danville  and  Southside  Railroads, 
by  which  Lee's  army  received  supplies.  The  right  wing 
of  his  army  was  defeated  by  General  Sheridan  at  Five 
Forks  on  the  1st  of  April,  and  General  Grant  made  a 
general  and  successful  assault  on  the  works  at  Peters- 
burg on  the  2d.  General  Lee  evacuated  Richmond  and 
Petersburg  in  the  night  of  April  2,  and  retreated  towards 
Danville  with  about  35,000  men.  He  was  pursued  by 
the  cavalry  under  General  Sheridan,  who  attacked  him 


on  the  6th  near  the  Appomattox  River  and  took  about 
6000  prisoners.  He  received  pacific  overtures  from 
General  Grant  on  the  7th,  and  surrendered  his  army  at 
Appomattox  Court-House  on  the  9th  of  April,  1865.  It 
was  then  agreed  by  the  contracting  parties  that  "each 
officer  and  man  will  be  allowed  to  return  to  his  home, 
not  to  be  disturbed  by  United  States  authority  so  long 
as  they  observe  their  jiaroles  and  the  laws  in  force  where 
they  reside."  Soon  after  the  end  of  the  war.  General  Lee 
became  president  of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington, 
Virginia.  Speaking  of  the  character  of  Lee  as  a  general, 
Mr.  Greeley  remarks  that  he  knew  how  to  make  the 
most  of  a  good  defensive  position,  "the  single  point  in 
which  (but  it  is  a  vital  one)  his  admirers  can  justify 
their  claim  for  him  of  a  rare  military  genius.  No  other 
American  has  ever  so  thoroughly  appreciated  and  so 
readily  seized  the  enormous  advantage  which  the  in- 
creased range,  precision,  and  efficiency  given  to  musketry 
by  rifling  have  insured  to  the  defensive,  when  wielded 
by  a  commander  who  knows  how  speedily  a  trench  mav 
be  dug  and  a  slight  breastwork  thrown  up,  which  will 
stop  nine-tenths  of  the  bullets."  ("American  Conflict," 
vol.  ii.  p.  581.)  He  died,  at  Lexington,  October  12,  1870. 
See  "  Southern  Generals,"  (anonymous,)  New  York,  1865  ;  E.  A. 
PoLLARO,  "  Lee  and  his  Lieutenants, "1867. 

Lee,  (Samuel,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  in  London  in  1625.  He  preached  in  London  for 
some  years,  and  emigrated  to  New  England  about  1686. 
He  published  several  religious  works,  among  which  is 
"The  Temple  of  Solomon."     Died  in  1691. 

Lee,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Longnor,  in  Shropshire,  in  1783.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  a  carpenter,  which  he  followed  for  some 
years,  during  which  he  studied  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Arabic,  etc.  About  1817  he  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  a*:  Cambridge,  and  entered  holy  orders.  He  was 
chos*;-  professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  in  1819,  and 
professor  of  Hebrew  about  1832,  after  which  date  he 
obtained  the  rectory  of  Barley.  He  published  a  Hebrew 
Grammar,  (1830,)  a  "Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  and  English 
Lexicon,"  (1840,)  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Nature,  Progress, 
and  End  of  Prophecy,"  (1849,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1852. 

Lee,  (Samuel  P.,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Virginia,  became  a  midshipman  in  1825.  He  commanded 
the  Oneida  in  the  battle  against  the  forts  below  New 
Orleans  in  April,  1862,  and  in  1863  commanded  the 
North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron.  He  became  com- 
modore in  1866  and  rear-admiral  in  1870.   Retired  in  1S73. 

Lee,  (Sarah,)  (Mrs.  Bowdich,)  an  English  writer 
born  about  1800,  was  the  wife  of  T.  E.  Bowdich,  whom 
she  accompanied  to  South  Africa.  She  wrote  "Stories 
of  Strange  Lands,"  (1825,)  a  "  Memoir  of  Baron  Cuvier," 
(1833,)  and  other  works.  She  was  married  again  to  a 
Mr.  Lee.     Died  in  1856. 

Lee,  (Sophia,)  an  English  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  London  in  1750,  was  a  sister  of  Harriet,  noticed 
above.  She  began  her  literary  career  in  1780 'by  the 
"Chapter  of  Accidents,"  a  comedy,  which  was  success- 
ful, and  was  followed  by  novels  entitled  "The  Recess," 
(1785,)  and  "The  Life  of  a  Lover."  In  1796  she  com- 
posed "  Almeyda,  Queen  of  Granada,"  a  tragedy,  of  which 
Mrs.  Siddons  performed  the  principal  r^/^  with  applause. 
She  wrote  two  of  the  "Canterbury  Tales"  published  by 
her  sister,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1824. 

See  BoADEN,  "Life  of  Mrs.  Siddons,"  chap.  vi.  p.  103. 

Lee,  (Thomas,)  a  Virginian  planter,  distinguished  for 
his  talents,  was  president  of  the  Council  of  Virginia.  He 
was  the  father  of  Richard  Henry,  Francis  Lightfoot,  and 
Arthur  Lee.     Died  in  1750. 

Lee,  (ThOiMas,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1769.  He  was  appointed  by 
President  Monroe  judge  of  the  United  States  district 
court  for  South  Carolina  in  1823.     Died  in  1839. 

Lee,  (Thomas  Bland,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1762.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1789  to  1795.     Died  in  1827. 

Leelj,  lap,  (Johann,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Menimingen  in  1790;  died  about  1856. 

Leech,  (John,)  an  English  artist  and  caricaturist, 
born  in  London  about  1816.    He  is  chiefly  known  as  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  ftt:  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon 


LEECH 


1515 


LEFEVRE 


designer  of  the  humorous  figures  which  illustrate  the 
London  "  Punch."  His  sketches  are  excellent  as  works 
of  art,  though  drawn  with  rapidity  and  haste.  He  pub- 
lished "  Picf-nes  of  Life  and  Character,"  and  "The 
Rising  Generation,"  (1848,)  which  disphiy  a  rare  percep- 
tion of  the  varieties  of  character  and  tlie  keenest  sense 
of  the  ludicrous.     Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  March,  1865. 

Leech,  (Samuel  V.,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  clergyman, 
born  at  Albany,  New  York,  March  17,  1837.  He  was 
educated  in  the  seminary  at  Cooperstown,  New  York, 
and  at  Evanston,  Illinois,  graduating  from  his  theological 
course  in  1S57.  He  held  important  pastorates  at  Annap- 
olis, Martinsburg,  West  Virginia,  Baltimore,  and  Albany, 
and  did  much  work  ft)r  denominational  journals.  Among 
his  writings  are  "  The  Drunkard,"  (1S62,)  "  Round  Lake 
Letters,"  (1874,)  a  "Reply  to  IngersoU,"  (1881,)  etc. 

Leech'nian,  (William,)  a  learned  Scottish  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Lanarkshire  in  1706.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Glasgow  for  seventeen  years.  His  lectures 
in  defence  of  revealed  religion  against  Voltaire  and  Hume 
are  commended.  He  published  a  collection  of  sermons, 
and  a  work  "  On  the  Nature,  Reasonableness,  and  Ad- 
vantages of  Prayer,"  (1743.)     Died  in  1785. 

Leeds,  Duke  of.  See  Danby,  Earl  of. 

Leemani3,  la'mins,  (Conrad,)  a  Dutch  archaeologist, 
born  at  Zalt  Boemel  in  1809,  published  an  extensive 
work  "On  the  Egyptian  Monuments  of  the  Museum  of 
Leyden,"  (1835-52.) 

Leepe,  van  der,  vSn  der  la'peh,  (Jan  Antoon,)  a 
Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1664, 
excelled  in  marine  views.  His  execution  is  easy,  his 
touch  light,  and  his  colour  good.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "Flight  into  Egypt."     Died  in  1720. 

Lees,  (Edwin,)  an  English  botanist  and  author,  born 
at  Worcester,  May  12,  1800.  Among  his  works  are 
"Affinities  of  Plants  and  Animals,"  "Pictures  of  Na- 
ture," "The  Botany  of  Worcestershire,"  (1868,)  "The 
Forest  and  Chace  of  Malvern,"  (1877,)  "Scenery  and 
Thought,"  (1880,)  etc.     Died  October  28,  1887. 

Lees,  (Frederic  Richard,)  an  English  total-absti- 
nence writer  and  speaker,  born  near  Leeds,  March  15, 
181 5.  He  has  published  many  volumes  on  religion,  criti- 
cism, health,  and  physiology,  and  especially  on  temper- 
ance. 

Lee'ser,  (Isaac,)  a  Jewish  theologian  and  religious 
writer,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1806,  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica, and  became  in  1829  rabbi  of  the  principal  synagogue 
of  Philadelphia.      Died  in  1868. 

Leeu,  Leuw,  or  Leeu^w,  van  der,  vtn  der  15  or  luh, 
(Gabriel,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  animals,  born  at  Dort  in 
1643.  He  worked  at  Amsterdam,  Paris,  Naples,  and 
Rome  with  success,  and  adopted  the  Italian  manner. 
His  touch  was  grand  and  decided.  His  works  represent 
flocks  of  sheep,  herds  of  cattle,  etc.     Died  in  1688. 

Leeu  or  Leeu-w,  van  der,  (Pieter,)  a  painter  of  land- 
scapes and  cattle,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1645.  His  style  resembles  that  of  Van  der  Velde, 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  painted  with  facility.  Died 
about  1705. 

Leeuw  orLeuw^,  van  der,  vtn  der  16  or  luh,  (Wil- 
LEM,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1600. 
He  engraved  many  works  of  Rubens,  among  which  is 
"  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  and  several  works  of  Rem- 
brandt, including  "  David  Playing  on  the  Harp."  Died 
about  1665. 

Leeuwen,  van,  vtn  luh' wen  or  lo'wen,  (  Simon,)  a 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1625  ;  died  in  1682. 

Leeuwenhoeck.     See  Leuvvenhoek. 

Leeves,  leevz,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  composer, 
born  in  1749,  was  the  author  of  the  air  of  "  Auld  Robin 
Gray."     Died  in  1828. 

Lefebure,  leh-fi'biiR',  (Louis  Henri,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  wrote  a  prize 
essay  against  lotteries,  besides  several  treatises  on  music 
and  botany.     Died  in  1839. 

Lefebure  de  Fourcy,  leh-ft'biiR'  deh  fooR'se', 
(Louis,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Saint  Do- 
mingo in  1785.  He  succeeded  Lacroix  as  professor  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences  in  Paris,  and  published  "De- 


scriptive Geometry,"  (4th  edition,  1843,)  a"d  "Analytit 
Geometry,"  (1827.)     Died  March  12,  1869. 

Lefebure- Wely,  leh-fi'buR'  vi'lfe'.  (Louis  James 
Alfred,)  (real  name  Lefebvre,)  a  French  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Paris,  Novetnber  13,  181 7.  He 
was  best  known  as  an  organist,  but  he  was  also  a  versa- 
tile and  prolific  composer.     Died  December  31,  i86q. 

Lefebvre.    See  LEFivRE. 

Lefebvre,  leh-fivR^  or  leh-fgvR',  (Charlemagne 
Th6ophile,)  a    French   traveller,    born   at   Nantes   in 

181 1,  became  an  officerin  the  navy.  He  wrote  "  Travels 
in  Abyssinia,"  (6  vols.,  1845-50,)  a  scientific  work  oi 
much  merit.     Died  July  6,  i860. 

Lefebvre,  (Francois  Joseph,)  Duke  of  Dantzic,  a 
Prench  marshal,  born  at  Ruffach,  in  Alsace,  in  1755.  He 
was  rapidly  promoted  in  the  war  which  began  in  1792,  and 
became  a  general  of  division  in  January,  1794.  He  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  victories  of  Fleurus  (1794)  and 
Altenkirchen,  (1796.)  In  August,  1799,  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Directory  commander  of  the  military  division  of 
which  Paris  was  the  head-quarters.  On  the  i8th  Bru- 
maire  he  acted  as  lieutenant  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom  he 
rendered  important  services  in  that  coup  d''etat  which 
made  him  dictator.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  the 
emjiire  in  1804,  commanded  the  foot-guards  at  the  battle 
of  Jena,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  success  at  the  siege 
of  Dantzic  in  1S07  by  the  title  of  Duke  of  Dantzic.  In 
the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809  his  skill  and  courage 
were  conspicuous  at  Eckmiihl  and  Wagram.  He  com- 
manded the  imperial  guard  in  the  Russian  campaign  of 

1812,  and  defended  France  at  Montmirail,  etc.  in  1814- 
On  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  Lefebvre  ac- 
cepted a  place  in  his  Chamber  of  Peers,  and  conse- 
quently was  excluded  from  that  of  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1816.  He  was  reinstated  in  his  military  rank  in  1S19. 
Died  in  1820.  He  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  best  generals  of  the  army,  uniting  great  intrepidity 
with  superior  judgment,  and  had  the  faculty  of  animating 
his  men  as  if  by  an  electric  influence.  "His  military 
genius,"  says  Marshal  Suchet,  "found  on  the  scene  of 
action,  and  without  any  previous  combination,  extraor- 
dinary resources  to  decide  the  victory. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "  Hibt..ry 
of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;"  De  Courcellhs,  "Dictioinuire 
des  Gen^raux  Frangais;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lefebvre,  (Tanneguy.)     See  LEFfeVRE. 

Lefebvre  or  Lefevre,  (Valentin.)  See  F^bre,  Le. 

Lefebvre  de  Cheveru.s,  (Jean  Louis  Anne  Made- 
leine.)    See  Cheverus. 

Lefebvre  -  Desnouettes,  leh  -  f^vu'  d^'  noo'  fit', 
(Charles,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in 
1773.  ^^  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  Bonaparte's  aides-de-camp  in  1800.  As  colonel 
he  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz  in  1805.  He  be- 
came a  general  of  division  in  1808,  commanded  the  chas- 
seurs of  the  emperor's  guard  in  1809,  and  was  employed 
near  Napoleon's  person  in  Russia,  (1812.)  At  the  first 
restoration  he  was  retained  in  his  command  by  Louis 
XVIII. ;  but  he  joined  the  standard  of  Bonaparte  in 
March,  1815,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  Having  been 
condemned  to  death  by  a  council  of  war,  he  escaped  to 
the  United  States  in  1816.  He  perished  in  the  wreck 
of  the  Albion  packet-ship,  as  he  was  returning  to  Europe, 
in  April,  1822. 

Lefevre.  See  Caumartin,  Dacier,  F^vre,  Le- 
febvre, and  Faber,  (Jean.) 

Lefevre,  (Charles  Shaw.)     See  Eversley. 

Lefevre  or  Lefebvre,  (Claude.)     See  Fi;vRE,  Le. 

Lefevre,  leh-fivR',  (Jean,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Lisieux,  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1682.  He  edited  the  "Connaissances  des 
Temps"  from  1684  to  1701.     Died  in  1706. 

Lefevre,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  liberal  French  publisher, 
born  at  Neufchateau  in  1779,  settled  in  Paris  in  his 
youth.  He  published  excellent  editions  of  many  Greek, 
Latin,  and  French  classics,  for  some  of  which  he  wrote 
notes.     Died  in  1858. 

Lefevre,  (Nicolas,)  an  able  French  chemist,  emi- 
grated to  England  in  1664  at  the  invitation  of  Charles 
II.,  who  gave  hira  the  direction  of  a  laboratory  in  his 


€as/j;  9asj;  %hard:  gzs ;':  G,H,K.  guttural:  fi, nasal;  R,tnlled;  sasz;  ihas'miAis.     (^i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


LEFEVRE 


1516 


LEGENDRE 


palace.  He  wrote  "Theoretical  and  Practical  Chem- 
istry," (1660.)     Died  in  1674. 

Ijeffevre,  (Pierre  Fkanc^ois  Alexandre,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1741,  produced 
tragedies  entitled  "  Zuma,"  (1776,)  and  "filisabeth  de 
France,"  (1783,)  also  "Gustavus  Vasa,"  an  epic  poem. 
Died  in  1813. 

Lefevre,  (Pierre  Paul,)  a  bishop,  born  April  30, 
1804,  at  Roulers,  Belgium.  He  was  ordained  a  Catholic 
priest  in  1831  at  Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  and  in  1841  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Zela  and  administrator  of  the 
diocese  of  Detroit.     Died  at  Detroit,  March  4,  1869. 

Lefevre,  (Robert,)  a  French  i)ortrait-painter,  born 
at  Bayeux,  in  Calvados,  in  1756,  removed  to  Paris  in 
1784.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation,  he  painted 
portraits  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine,  which  were  so 
much  admired  that  more  than  twenty  copies  W'ere  or- 
dered by  various  cities,  courts,  and  other  parties.  About 
1815  he  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  king. 
Died  in  1830. 

Lefevre  or  Lefebvre,  leh-ftvR',  (Tannegui  or  Tan- 
NEGUY,  ttn'ge',)  [Lat.  Tanaquil'lus  Fa'ber,]  an  emi- 
nent French  scholar  and  critic,  born  at  Caen  in  1615,  was 
the  father  of  the  renowned  Madame  Dacier.  He  was 
appointed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  inspector  of  the  royal 
printing-establishment  in  Paris.  After  the  death  of 
Richelieu  he  joined  the  Protestants,  and  was  chosen  a 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Saumur  about  1655.  He 
published  annotated  editions  of  Lucretius,  (1662,)  Lon- 
ginus,  (1663,)  Horace,  (1671,)  Virgil,  and  other  classics, 
and  translated  into  French  several  Greek  works.  Died 
in  1672. 

See  F.  Graverol,  "  M^nioires  pour  servir  i  la  Vie  de  T.  Le- 
ftvre,"  1686;  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
Drotestanle  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Lefevre  de  la  Boderie,  leh-fivR'  deh  It  bod're', 
(Guy,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  near  Falaise  in  1541. 
He  co-operated  with  Arias  Montanus  in  the  Polyglot 
Bible  of  Antwerp,  for  which  he  edited  and  translated 
into  Latin  the  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
(1572.)     He  also  wrote  some  poems.     Died  in  1598. 

Lefevre  d'^taples,  leh-f^vR'  di'tapl',  [Lat.  Fa'ber 
Stapulen'sis,]  (Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  scholar 
and  theologian,  born  at  Etaples  about  1455.  He  was 
condemned  as  a  heretic  by  the  Sorbonne,  but  was  justi- 
fied by  P^rancis  L,  who  employed  him  as  preceptor  to 
his  son.  Lefevre  produced  the  first  complete  French 
version  of  the  Bible,  (1530.)  His  version  is  used  in  the 
French  Protestant  churches.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  the  works  of  Aristotle.  Erasmus  expressed  veneration 
for  his  character,  ( singidarem  vites  sanctimoftiam  veneror.) 
Died  in  1537. 

See  C.  H.  Graf,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Merits  de  J.  Leftvre 
d'Etaples,"  1S42;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
Haag,  "  La  France  protestante  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Lefevre  de  Saint-Remy,  leh-fivR'  deh  s^n  ri'me', 
(Jean,)  a  French  chronicler,  born  near  Abbeville  about 
1394  ;  died  in  1468. 

Lefevre-Deumier,  leh-flvR'  duh'me-i',  (Jules,)  a 
French  poet,  born  alaout  1804.  He  Ijecame  private 
librarian  of  President  Louis  Napoleon  in  1849,  ^"d 
librarian  at  the  Tuileries  in  1852.     Died  in  1857. 

Leflo,  leh-flo',  (Adolphe  Charles  Emmanuel,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Lesneven  in  1804.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1848,  was  banished  in  1852, 
but  returned  to  France  in  1859.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  defence  of  Paris  in  1870,  and  was  ambassador  to 
Russia  from  1871  to  1879. 

Lefort  or  Le  Fort,  leh-foR',  (Fran<;ois,)  a  Swiss 
general,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1656.  He  entered  the 
Russian  service,  and  fought  several  campaigns  against 
the  Turks  before  the  peace  of  i68i.  He  rendered  valu- 
able service  to  the  Czar  Peter  in  his  contest  with  Sophia, 
his  sister  and  rival  ;  and  when  that  prince  triumphed,  in 
1689,  Lefort  became  his  favourite  and  chief  minister,  a 
dignity  which  he  merited  by  his  virtues  and  talents.  He 
gave  wise  counsels  to  the  young  autocrat,  and  was  the 
author  of  many  of  the  reforms  which  marked  that  reign. 
Lefort  was  appointed  general-in-chief  and  admiral  about 
1693.     Died  in  1699. 

Lefranc.     See  Pompignan. 

Lefranc,  (Martin.)     See  Franc,  Le. 


Lefranc,  leh-fuftN',  (Viciok,)  a  French  advocate  and 
writer,  born  at  Garsin  in  1809. 

Lefrangais.     See  Lalande. 

Lefren,  la'fRen  or  llffufen,  (Lars  Ulof,)  a  Swedish 
Orientalist,  born  in  1722;  died  in  1803. 

Lefuel,  leh-fvi-Sl',  (Martin  Hector,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  at  Versailles  in  1810.  In  1853  he  succeeded 
Visconti  as  architect  of  the  structures  by  which  the 
Louvre  is  joined  to  the  Tuileries.  He  designed  the 
fa9ades  and  distributed  the  interiors  of  this  work,  whicli 
was  finished  in  1857.  He  designed  the  palace  of  the 
Universal  Exposition  of  1855.     Died  January  i,  1881. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Legallois  or  Le  Gallois,  leh-gS'lwi',  (Julien  Jean 
CitsAR,)  a  French  physiologist,  born  near  Dol,  in  Bre- 
tagne,  in  1770.  In  1801  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D., 
and  wrote  an  able  treatise  entitled  "  Is  the  Blood  iden- 
tical in  all  the  Vessels  through  which  it  passes .'"  He 
merited  a  high  rank  among  physiologists  and  experi- 
menters by  his  "Experiments  on  the  Principle  of  Life, 
especially  on  that  of  the  Movements  of  the  Heart  and 
on  the  Seat  of  this  Principle,"  (1812.)     Died  in  1814. 

See  BoissEAU,  in  the  "  Biographie  M^dicale;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Le  Gallois,  (Pierre,)  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
in  Paris.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Finest  Libra- 
ries of  Europe,"  (1680,)  and  "  Academic  Conversations," 
(1674.) 

Legare,  pronounced  leh-gree',  (Hugh  Swinton,)  an 
American  statesman  and  scholar,  of  Huguenot  descent, 
was  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  January  2,  1797. 
He  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina  College  about  1815, 
after  which  he  pursued  his  studies  in  Paris  and  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  other  lan- 
guages. He  also  studied  law,  and  gave  much  attention 
to  juridical  philosophy.  In  1830  he  was  elected  attorney- 
general  of  South  Carolina.  He  contributed  many  able 
articles  to  the  "  Southern  Review,"  and  was  an  adherent 
of  the  Union  when  nullification  was  agitated  in  his  State. 
Having  served  as  charge-d'afi'aires  at  Brussels  for  about 
three  years,  he  returned  home  in  1836,  and  was  elected 
by  the  voters  of  Charleston  a  member  of  Congress,  in 
which  he  served  one  term,  (1837-39.)  As  a  la%vyer  he 
stood  high  in  his  profession.  In  1840  he  advocated  the 
election  of  General  Harrison  to  the  Presidency  by  several 
eloquent  speeches  in  New  York,  Virginia,  etc.  He  was 
appointed  in  September,  1841,  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States  under  President  Tyler.  He  died  at  Boston 
in  June,  1843.  Among  his  writings  are  an  "Essay  on 
Classical  Learning,"  an  "  Essay  on  Roman  Literature," 
and  "The  Constitutional  History  of  Greece."  "The 
impression  left  by  his  collected  writings,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "  is  that  his  mind  was  of  the  first  order,  but  that 
it  did  not  hold  in  that  order  a  very  prominent  place." 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America,"  and  a  Memoir  pre- 
fixed to  Legare's  collected  works,  2  vols.,  1S46. 

Legare,  (Bullen,)  (Mary  Swinton,)  sister  of  Hugh 
.S.  Legare,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  about  1800.  She  has  acquired  distinction  as  an 
artist. 

Legazpi,  de,  di  li-gith-pee',  (Miguel  Lopez,)  a 
Spanish  commander,  born  at  Zubarraja.  He  went  to 
Mexico  in  1545,  and  cominanded  an  expedition  sent  in 
1564  against  the  Philii>pine  Isles,  which  he  conquered 
about  1565-70.     Died  in  1572. 

Legendre  or  Le  Gendre,  leh-zhfiNdR',  (Adrien 
Marie,)  an  eminent  French  geometer,  and  one  of  the 
most  profound  analysts  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1752.  He  was  educated  at  Mazarin  College, 
Paris,  and  in  early  life  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics 
in  the  Ecole  militaire  of  that  city.  Having  written  a 
prize  essay  on  the  balistic  problem,  and  a  memoir  on 
the  attraction  of  spheroids,  (1782,)  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1783.  He  was  associated 
in  1787  with  Cassini  and  Mechain  in  the  operation  to 
connect  the  Observatories  of  Paris  and  Greenwich  by  a 
series  of  triangles.  In  1794  he  published  his  admirable 
"  Elements  of  Geometry,"  which  has  been  extensively 
used  as  a  text-book  in  various  languages,  and  has  done 
more  to  popularize  his  name  than  any  other  work.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  bureau  of  longitudes,  and  from 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaa-e;  fjlr,  fill,  f4t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEGJiJy/VKlL 


1517 


LEGOYT 


1807  to  1815  an  honorary  councillor  of  the  Imperial 
University.  In  1807  he  produced  an  important  work 
called  "Exercises  on  Integral  Calculus,"  etc.,  ("Exer- 
cices  de  Calcul  integral  sur  divers  Ordres  de  Transcen- 
dantes,"  3  vols.,)  which  contains  his  discoveries  on  the 
subject  of  elliptic  functions.  This  subject  was  more 
fully  developed  in  his  "Traite  des  Fonctions  elliptiques 
et  des  Integrales  Euleriennes,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)  He  also 
made  valuable  additions  to  the  theory  of  numbers,  on 
which  he  published  an  essay.  Died  in  1833.  Laplace, 
Lagrange,  and  Legendre  formed  a  mathematical  trium- 
virate, which  the  French  consider  entitled  to  pre- 
eminence among  European  geometers  of  that  age. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  "Memoir  of  Legendre" 
in  the  "Report  of  the  Sinilhsonian  Institution"  for  1867,  translated 
from  the  French  of  ^lie  ds  Beaumont;  "North  American  Re- 
view" for  July,  182S. 

Legendre,  (Louis,)  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1655.  He  became  a  canon  of  the  church  of 
Notre-Dame,  Paris,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  France,  ending  at  the  Death  of  Louis 
XIII.,"  (3  vols.,  1718.)     Died  in  1733. 

Legendre,  (Louis,)  a  subaltern  demagogue  of  the 
French  Revolution,  born  in  1756.  He  was  deputed  in 
1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  with  the 
"Mountain."  "He  was,"  says  Lamartine,  "the  most 
courageous  friend  of  Danton,  and  was  by  turns  the 
agitator  and  moderator  of  the  people."  The  next  day 
after  the  arrest  of  Danton,  Legendre  openly  defended 
him  in  the  Convention  by  a  speech.     Died  in  1797. 

Legendre,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
fitampes  in  1619,  worked  in  Paris.  His  subjects  are 
chiefly  religious.     Died  in  1671. 

Le  Gentil.     .See  La  Barbinais. 

Legentil  de  la  Galaisiere,  leh-zh6N'te'  deh  It  gt'- 
l^'ze-aia',  (Guillaume  Joseph  Hyacinthe  Jean  Bap- 
TISTE,)  a  French  astronomer  and  traveller,  born  at 
Coutances  in  1725.  In  1769  he  went  to  Pondicherry  to 
observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  but  failed,  because  the  sun 
was  hidden  by  clouds.  He  published  a  "Voyage  in  the 
Indian  Seas,"  (1779,)  which  contains  valuable  observa- 
tions on  monsoons,  currents,  and  tides,  and  information 
respecting  the  manners,  religion,  and  science  of  the 
Hindoos.     Died  in  1792. 

See  Jean  Dominique  Cassini,  "  filoge  de  M.  Legentil,"  1810. 

Leger,  li'zhi'  or  li'zhaiR',  (Antoine,)  a  Protestant 
divine,  born  in  Savoy  in  1594.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Geneva  from  1645 
until  his  death,  in  1661.  He  published  a  Greek  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  (1638.) 

L6ger,  (Antoine,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Geneva  in  1652,  and  was  ordained  a  minister.  He 
filled  the  chair  of  philosophy  for  twenty-four  years  at 
Geneva  with  eminent  success.  He  published  several 
scientific  treatises  and  many  sermons.     Died  in  1719. 

Leger,  (Jean,)  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Savoy  in  1615.  He  was  a  pastor  of  a  church  of  the 
Waldenses,  and,  having  escaped  from  the  massacre  of 
1655,  he  went  to  France,  and  solicited  the  interventitm 
of  the  court  for  his  countrymen.  In  1663  he  became 
pastor  of  a  Walloon  church  in  Leyden.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Churches  of  the  Valleys  of  Piedmont," 
(the  Waldenses,  1669.)     Died  about  1670. 

See  "  Abr^g^  de  la  Vie  de  Jean  Leger,  ^crite  par  lui-menie,"  at 
the  end  of  his  "  History  of  the  Waldenses." 

Leger,  Saint.     See  Saint-Leger. 

Legge,  Igg,  (George,)  Lord  Dartmouth,  an  English 
admiral,  born  about  1648.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  against  the  Dutch  in  1671,  was  made  Baron  of 
Dartmouth  in  1682,  and  admiral  in  1683.  At  the  acces- 
sion of  James  II.,  in  1685,  he  was  appointed  master  of 
the  horse  and  general  of  the  ordnance.  He  commanded 
the  fleet  in  1688,  and  made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  pre- 
vent the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  After  taking 
the  oath  to  William  HI.,  he  joined  a  Jacobite  conspiracy 
in  1690.  "He  laid  a  plan,"  says  Macaulay,  "for  betray- 
ing Portsmouth  to  the  French."  He  was  arrested  for 
treason,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  where,  after  a  short 
confinement,  he  died  of  apoplexy  in  1691. 

Legge,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  British  scholar, 


born  at  Huntly,  in  Scotland,  December  20,  1815.  He 
was  educated  at  Aberdeen  and  London,  went  to  Malacca 
and  Hong-Kong  as  a  missionary,  and  in  1876  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Chinese  at  Oxford.  He  has  pub- 
lished annotated  translations  of  several  important  Chinese 
cla.ssics,  and  is  author  of  "The  Notions  of  the  Chinese 
respecting  God  and  Spirits,"  (1S52,)  "  Life  of  Confucius," 
and  "The  Religions  of  China,"  (1880.) 

Leg'gett,  (William,)  an  American  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  1802.  In 
1828  he  founded  in  his  native  city  a  literary  gazette  en- 
titled "The  Critic,"  which  was  subsequently  united  with 
"The  Mirror."  To  these  journals  he  contributed  a  num- 
ber of  spirited  tales  and  sketches,  afterwards  published 
under  the  titles  of  "Sketches  of  the  Sea"  and  "Tales  by 
a  Country  .Schoolmaster."  He  married  Elmira  Waring 
in  1828,  and  became  associated  with  Mr.  Bryant  as 
editor  of  the  "Evening  Post"  in  1829,  and  in  1836  estab- 
lished "  The  Plaindealer,"  (issued  weekly,)  which  soon 
acquired  a  high  reputation  for  its  independent  spirit  and 
the  distinguished  ability  with  which  it  was  conducted. 
He  was  appointed  a  diplomatic  agent  from  the  United 
States  to  the  republic  of  Guatemala  in  April,  1838,  but, 
while  preparing  for  his  departure,  died  suddenly,  on 
the  29th  of  May,  1838.  Two  volumes  of  his  political 
writings,  with  a  Memoir,  were  published  by  his  friend 
Mr.  Theodore  Sedgwick,  who  says,  in  his  preface,  "  It  i« 
not  the  suggestion  of  a  too  fond  affection,  but  the  voice 
of  a  calm  judgment,  which  declares  that,  whatever  puljlic 
career  he  had  i)ursued,  he  must  have  raised  to  his 
memory  an  imperishable  monument." 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America ;"  DuYO 
KINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  "Quarterly 
Review,"  1828;  "Democratic  Review"  ior  January,  1840,  (with 
portrait.) 

Legillon,  leh-zhe'ydN',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1739;  died  in  Paris  in  1797. 

Legipont,  leh-zhe'p6N',  (Oliver,)  a  learned  monk 
and  writer,  born  at  Soiron,  in  Limburg,  in  1698 ;  died 
in  1758. 

Le  Glay,  leh  gli,  (Andr6  Joseph  Ghislain,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Arleux  in  1785.     Died  in  1863. 

Legnani,  l&n-yj'nee  or  lin-yi'nee,  (Stefano,)  an 
Italian  painter,  also  called  Legnanino,  born  at  Milan  in 
1640,  was  a  pupil  of  Cignani  and  Carlo  Maratta.  H« 
painted  frescos  at  Milan.     Died  in  1715. 

See  E.  Corazzi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  S.  Legnani,"  1720. 

Legobien,  leh-go'beJ^N',  (Charles,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1653,  became  secretary  of  the 
missions  to  China.  He  published,  about  1702,  a  collec- 
tion of  letters  from  missionaries  in  China,  etc.,  entitled 
"Lettres  edifiantes  et  curieuses  ecrites  des  Missions 
etrangeres."  This  interesting  publication  was  continued 
by  Duhalde.     Died  in  1708. 

Le  Gonidec,  leh  go'ne'dSk^  (Jean  Franqois  Marie,) 
a  French  philologist,  born  at  Conquet,  in  Bretagne,  in 
1775.  He  published  a  good  "  Dictionnaire  Bretou- 
Fran9ais,"  (1821.)     Died  in  1838. 

Legote,  li-go'ti,  (Pablo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
about  1600  ;  died  at  Cadiz  about  1670. 

Legouv6,  leh-goo'vS.',  (Ernest  Wilfrid,)  a  French 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  obtained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  his  poem  "  On  the  In- 
vention of  Printing,"  (1829,)  and  produced  several  dramas. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1855. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Littdraire." 

Legouve,  (Gabriel  Marie  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1764.  He  produced  "The  Death  of  Abel,"  (1792,) 
which  was  very  successful,  and  other  tragedies.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1798.  His  tragedy 
"Henry  IV.  of  France"  (1806)  displays  dramatic  skill 
and  elegant  diction.  He  composed  several  popular 
poems,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Female  Merit,"  ("Me- 
rite  des  Femmes,"  1800.)     Died  in   181 2. 

See  "  Notice  of  Legouv^,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  by  BouiLLV  and 
Malo,  1826;  QuArard,  "La  France  Litt^raire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Geudrale." 

Le  Gouz.     See  Gouz. 

Legoyt,  leh-gwd',  (Alfred,)  a  French  economist  and 
statistician,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1815,  became 


€as^;  9asj;  %hard;  gzsj;G,n.K..^ttural;  n,nMsal;  k,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin//4»j.     (g^^See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


LEG RAIN 


1518 


LEIBNITZ 


chief  of  the  bureau  of  general  statistics,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  I>a  Fiance  statislique,"  (1843.) 

Legrain  or  Legiin,  leh-gR^N',  (Jean  Baptistk,)  a 
French  historian,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1565.  He  held 
some  office  at  the  court  of  llcnry  IV.,  and  was  master 
of  requests  of  the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  IV.,  ("Decade 
contenant  la  Vic  et  les  Gestes,"  etc.,  1614,)  and  "The 
History  of  Louis  XIII.  from  1610  to  1617,"  (1618.) 
Died  in  1642. 

Legrand  or  Le  Grand,  l?h-gRftN',  (Antoine,)  a 
French  writer  and  monk,  born  at  Douay,  lived  about 
1650-80.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  theology 
in  Douay,  and  was  a  disciple  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy, 
on  which  he  wrote  several  treatises.  He  published  a 
"Sacred  History  from  the  Creation  to  Constantine  the 
Great,"  (1685,)  and  other  works. 

Le  Grand,  (Baptiste  Alexis  Victor,)  a  meritorious 
French  engineer  and  administrator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1 791.  He  became  engineer-in-chief  of  the  first  class, 
and  in  1834  was  appointed  director-general  of  bridges, 
roads,  and  mines.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  five  times.  It  is  stated  that  no  person  con- 
tributed more  to  the  success  of  the  vast  plan  conceived 
in  his  time  to  increase  the  riches  of  France  by  facility  of 
transport.  His  moral  dignity,  public  spirit,  and  various 
merits  are  highly  commended  by  M.  Villemain,  who 
calls  him  a  true  mode]  of  the  able  and  zealous  adminis- 
trator.    Died  in  1848. 

See  Villemain's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Legrand,  (Claude  Just  Alexandre,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  the  department  of  Oise  in  1762.  As 
general  of  division,  he  commanded  under  Moreau  at 
Hohenlinden,  (iSoo,)  and  served  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.) 
He  maintained  his  reputation  at  Jena  (1S06)  and  at 
Wagram,  (1809.)  He  commanded  the  second  corps- 
d'armee  at  the  Berezina,  (1812.)     Died  in  1815. 

Legrand,  (Jacques  Guii.laume,)  an  eminent  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was  a  pupil  of  Clerisseau, 
whose  daughter  he  married.  After  he  had  travelled  in 
Italy  and  acquired  a  pure  taste,  he  was  employed  as 
architect  of  several  public  edifices  in  Paris,  among  which 
are  the  Halle  aux  Bles,  (Corn-Market,  1783,)  Halle  aux 
Draps,  (Cloth-Market,  1786,)  and  Theatre  Feydeau, 
(1790.)  Molinos  was  associated  with  him  in  these  works. 
Legrand  published  a  "  Comparison  between  Ancient  and 
Modern  Architecture,"  (1799,)  and  wrote  an  "Essay  on 
the  History  of  Architecture,"  (1809.)     Died  in  1807. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gi^n^rale." 

Legrand,  (Joachim,)  a  French  historian  and  abbe, 
born  at  Saint-Lo  in  1653,  was  a  person  of  great  erudi- 
tion. He  was  secretary  of  legation  in  Spain  about  1702, 
and  was  afterwards  employed  in  the  foreign  office.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  the  Divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,"  (1688,)  and  a  few  other  historical  works. 
Died  in  1733. 

Legrand,  (Louis,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  Bur- 
gundy in  171 1.  He  became  professor  or  mathr  Jfs  Etudes 
m  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice,  Paris,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of 
th=  Word,"  (1751.)  He  composed  the  censures  which 
the  Faculty  of  Theology  published  against  Rousseau's 
"Emile"  (1762)  and  Buffon's  "  fipoques  de  la  Nature." 
Died  in  1780. 

Legrand,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  dramatist  and 
actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1673.  He  composed  a  number 
of  popular  comedies,  among  which  are  "The  Blind 
Clairvoyant,"  (1716,)  and  "  Rbi  de  Cocagne,"  1719.  Died 
in  1728. 

Legrand  d'Aussy,  leh-gRfiN'  do'se',  (Pierre  Jean 
Kai'TI.ste,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Amiens  in  1737. 
He  wrote,  besides  otlier  works,  "  Fabliaux,  or  Tales  of 
the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries,"  (1779.)  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  French  manuscripts  of  the 
National  Library.     Died  in  1800. 

Legranzi,  li-guln'zee,  or  Legrenzi,  li-gR5n'zee, 
(Giovanni,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  near  Bergamo 
about  1625;  died  about  1690. 

Legras,  lehgid',  (Antoine,)  a  French  scholar  and 
writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1680.    He  published,  besides 


other  works,  "The  Works  of  the  Fathers  who  lived  in 
the  Time  of  the  Apostles,  with  Notes,"  (1717.)  Died 
in  1751. 

Legraverend,  leh-gRtv'RftN',  (Jean  Marie  Ema- 
nuel,) a  French  jurist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1776,  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Criminal  Legislation  in  France,''  (1816,) 
and  other  approved  works.     Died  in  1827. 

Legrenzi.     See  Legranzi. 

Legrin.     See  Legrain. 

Legris-Duval,  leh-gue'  dii'vSK,  (Ren6  Michel,)  a 
Frencii  priest,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1765,  was  a  zealous 
and  efficient  promoter  of  benevolent  institutions.  Died 
in  1819. 

Legroing  de  la  Maisonneuve,  leh-gRwiN'  deh 
It  mi'zo'nuv',  (Franqoise  Th^r^se  Antoinette,) 
Countess,  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1764, 
She  wrote  "Zenobia,"  a  novel,  (1800,)  an  "Essay  on  the 
Education  of  Women,"  (1801,)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Gauls  and  of  France  from  the  Flarliest  Times  to  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  Hugh  Capet,"  (1830.)     Died  in  1837. 

Legros  or  Le  Gros,  leh-gRo',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
Jansenist  theologian,  born  atRheimsin  1675.  He  passed 
the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  in  Holland,  to  which 
he  retired  for  refuge  from  persecution.  Among  his  works 
are  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1739,)  which  is 
esteemed  for  fidelity,  and  a  "Manual  for  tlie  Christian," 
(1740.)     Died  in  1751. 

Legros,  (Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris 
in  1666.  He  studied  in  Rome,  where  he  executed  many 
admired  works.  His  statue  of  Saint  Dominic  is  reckoned 
among  the  master-pieces  of  the  Basilica  of  Saint  Peter. 
He  also  adorned  the  chateau  of  Versailles.  He  sacri- 
ficed less  to  the  depraved  taste  of  the  time  than  most 
other  French  artists.     Died  in  Rome  in  1719. 

Le  Guaspre.     See  Dughet. 

Lehmann,  la'min,  (Christian  Gottfried  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1765. 
He  published  a  "  Summary  of  the  Natural  History  of 
Man,"  (1799.)     Died  in  1823. 

Lehmann,  (Heinrich,)  a  skilful  German  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Kiel  in  1814.  He  became 
in  youth  a  resident  of  Paris,  where  he  obtained  medals 
of  the  first  class  in  1840,  1848,  and  1855,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  the  emperor  to  adorn  the  palace  of  Luxem- 
bourg.    Died  in  April,  1882. 

Lehmann,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  topographer 
born  in  1765,  invented  about  1793  a  new  method  of  sur 
veying,  since  called  by  his  name.     Died  in  181 1. 

Lehmann,  (Johann  Georg  Christoph,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  about  1794,  was  professor  of  botany  at 
Hamburg.  He  wrote  monographs  of  several  genera, 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1861. 

Lehmann,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  Ge  man  philoso- 
pher, who  acquired  a  European  reputation  as  a  mine- 
ralogist. In  1 761  he  removed  from  ]5eih'n  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  in  compliance  with  an  invitation  from  the 
empress,  who  gave  him  a  place  in  the  Academy  of  that 
city.  He  published  a  work  on  mineralogy  for  the  use 
of  schools,  (1759,)  and  ot\ier  treatises  on  that  science. 
Died  in  1767. 

Lehmann,  (Rudolf,)  a  painter,  and  a  brother  of 
Heinrich,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1819.  He  worked 
mostly  in  Rome,  and  received  medals  at  the  Sulon  of 
Paris.  Many  of  his  works  represent  the  manners,  cos- 
tumes, and  scenery  of  Italy. 

Lehnberg,  lan'b§RG,  (Magnus,)  an  eloquent  Swedish 
writer  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  1758,  became  Bishop 
of  Linkfiping.     Died  in  1809. 

Lehoc,  leh-ok',  (Louis  Gr^goire,)  a  French  littira 
tetir,  born  in  Paris  in  1743.  Among  his  works  is  "Pyr- 
rhus,"  a  tragedy,  (1807.)     Died  in  18 10. 

Lehrberg,  laR'b^RG,  (Aron  Christian,)  a  Russian 
scholar,  born  at  Dorpat,  in  Livonia,  in  1770.  He  re- 
moved to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  wrote  "  Inquiries  into 
the  Early  History  of  Russia,"  (1814.)     Died  in  1813. 

Le  Huerou,  leh  hii-i'Roo',  (Julien  Marie,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Prat  in  1807.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
of  the  Franks,  Gauls,  etc.     Died  in  1843. 

Leibnitz  or  Leibniz,  von,  fon  llb'nits  or  llp'nits, 
I  Lat.  Leibnitz'ius, I  (Gottfried  Wilhklm,)  Baron,  a 
German   philosopher   and    mathematician  of  the   first 


a,  e,  T.  o,  u,  '^,long;  i,  k.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ilx,  fAll,  f4t;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LEIBNITZ 


15 19 


LEIDY 


order,  pre-eminent  among  the  moderns  as  a  universal 
genius,  was  born  at  Leipsic  on  the  6th  of  July,  1646. 
He  was  a  son  of  Friedrich  Leibnitz,  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Leipsic.  After  learning  Latin  and  Greek 
at  the  school  of  Saint  Nicholas,  he  entered  the  University 
of  Leipsic  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  studied  law,  philoso- 
phy, mathematics,  etc.  He  acquired  a  profound  know- 
ledge of  the  works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  whose  systems 
he  endeavoured  to  harmonize.  In  1666  he  produced  a 
remarkable  treatise  on  the  combination  of  numbers  and 
ideas,  "  De  Arte  Combinatoria,"  and  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  laws  at  Altorf.  He  accepted  in  1667  the  office 
of  councillor  of  state  at  Frankfort,  and  published  his 
"New  Method  of  Learning  and  Teaching  Jurispru- 
dence," ("  Nova  Methodus  discendae  docendaeque  Juris- 
prudenticC,"  1668,)  an  ingenious  and  profound  essay  on 
Roman  law,  which  raised  him  to  the  first  rank  of  philo- 
sophic writers. 

Attracted  by  a  tendency  to  universality  in  science,  he 
meditated  the  plan  of  an  encyclopaedia,  which  became 
one  of  his  favourite  projects,  and  produced  in  ra])id 
.succession  works  on  politics,  religion,  and  philosophy, 
in  Latin  and  French, — for  he  scarcely  ever  wrote  in  his 
mother-tongue.  He  advanced  new  and  bold  theories  of 
motion  in  his  "Theory  of  Concrete  Motion"  ("Theoria 
Motus  concreti")  and  "Theory  of  Abstract  Motion," 
("Theoria  Motus  abstracti,"  1671.)  In  1672  he  visited 
Paris,  where  he  met  Cassini  and  Huyghens,  and  declined 
to  enter  the  Academy  of  Sciences  with  the  condition  that 
he  should  abjure  the  Protestant  religion.  Proceeding 
to  London,  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Newton, 
Boyle,  and  others,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1676  he  removed  to  Hano\er,  having  been 
appointed  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Liineburg  his  coun- 
sellor {Hofraik)  and  librarian.  About  this  time  he  made 
the  great  discovery  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus,  nearly 
identical  with  Newton's  method  of  fluxions.  Many 
years  later  an  acrimonious  controversy  was  carried  on 
between  the  friends  of  these  two  rivals,  respecting  the 
priority  of  claim  to  this  discovery.  A  committee  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  (about  1705)  decided  in 
favour  of  Newton  ;  but  M.  Biot  maintains  that  Leibnitz 
anticipated  Newton  in  respect  to  publicity  by  a  letter  to 
Oldenburg  in  1676,  and  accords  to  both  the  honour  of 
the  original  invention.  Leibnitz  developed  the  power 
of  this  calculus  with  a  marvellous  felicity  in  its  applica- 
tion to  the  theory  of  curves,  to  mechanical  problems,  etc. 

In  1682  he  became  editor  of  the  "Acta  Eruditorum" 
of  Leipsic,  a  journal  which  he  rendered  celebrated.  He 
wrote  in  1693  a  treatise  on  geology,  entitled  "Protogaea," 
"which,"  says  Hallam,  "no  one  can  read  without  per- 
ceiving that  of  all  the  early  geologists  Leibnitz  came 
nearest  to  the  theories  which  are  most  received  in  the 
English  school  at  this  day."  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin  in  1702,  with- 
out being  required  to  change  his  residence  or  to  retire 
from  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Brunswick.  Charles 
VI.  of  Germany  gave  him  the  titles  of  baron  and  of  aulic 
councillor,  but  could  not  prevail  on  him  to  enter  his 
service.  Between  1690  and  1700  he  was  engaged  in  a 
long  epistolary  negotiation  with  Bossuet  in  order  to  re- 
store the  unity  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches. 
He  crowned  his  career  as  author  by  his  great  work 
entitled  "Essay  of  Theodicea  on  the  Goodness  of  God, 
the  Liberty  of  Man,  and  the  Origin  of  Evil,"  ("Essai  de 
Th^odicee  sur  la  Bonte  de  Dieu,  la  Liberte  de  I'Homme, 
ct  rOrigine  du  Mai,"  1710.)  According  to  his  system, 
God  is  the  supreme  Reason  of  the  universe,  the  first  and 
last  term  in  the  series  of  efficient  causes,  as  in  that 
of  final  causes.  In  forming  the  world  He  has  realized 
the  ideal  models  of  truth,  beauty,  and  perfection  which 
existed  eternally  in  His  mind.  To  the  parallelism  estab- 
lished in  the  divine  mind  between  the  reign  of  efficient 
causes  and  that  of  final  causes,  corresponds  another  har- 
mony, of  a  superior  order,  between  the  kingdoms  of  nature 
and  of  grace.  From  the  infinite  perfection  of  the  divine 
attributes  he  deduces  the  celebrated  theory  of  Optimism, 
— that  among  all  possible  plans  of  creation  the  Almighty 
has  chosen  the  best,  the  one  which  combines  the  greatest 
variety  with  the  greatest  order, — in  which  matter,  space, 
and  time  are  most  wisely  economized.  He  died  at  Hano- 


ver, November  14,  17 16.  Among  his  important  works 
is  one  entitled  "New  Essays  on  the  Human  Understand- 
ing," ("Nouveaux  Essais  sur  I'Entendement  humain," 
about  1 765,)  in  which  he  controverts  the  opinions  of  Locke. 
Another  of  his  works  is  called  "  Pre-Established  Har- 
mony," ("Harmonie  pre-etablie.")  His  "Monadologie," 
(1714,)  in  which  his  metaphysical  system  is  developed, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  his  intel- 
lectual power.  "There  was  only  one  man  in  the  world," 
says  Hallam,  "who  could  have  left  so  noble  a  science  as 
philosophical  jurisprudence  for  pursuits  of  a  still  more 
exalted  nature  and  for  which  he  was  still  more  fitted ; 
and  that  man  was  Leibnitz  himself"  ("  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  was  never  married.  His 
disposition  was  cheerful,  his  manners  were  affable,  and 
his  habits  temperate.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
has  recently  been  published  by  Foucher  de  Careil,  Paris. 
See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoge  de  Leibnitz;"  J.  A.  Eberhard, 
"Cbaracteristik  des  Freiherrn  von  Leibnitz,"  1817;  Lamprecht, 
"Leben  des  Freiherrn  G.  W.  von  Leibnitz,"  1740;  Hissmann, 
"Veisucli  iiber  das  Leben  des  Freihemi  von  Leibnitz,"  1783;  Db 
Jaucourt,  "  Vie  de  Leibnitz,"  1734:  Guhrauer,  "G.  W.  von  Leib- 
nitz, Biographic,"  2  vols.,  1845;  G.  Schilling,  "Leibnitz  ala 
Denker,"  1846;  Jean  Svlvain  Baillv,  "  £loge  de  Leibnitz,"  1769; 
John  M.  Mackie,  "  Life  of  G.  W.  Leibnitz,"  Boston,  1S45;  Emil 
F.  VoGEL,  "G.  W.  von  Leibnitz,"  Leipsic,  1846;  Dr.  F.  Hoefer, 
article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biogvaphie  G^n^rale;"  Biot,  article  in  th» 
"  Biographie  Universelle ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1846 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1858. 

Leibnitzius.    See  Leibnitz. 

Leicester,  Earl  of.     See  Dudley,  (Robert,)  and 

MON  TFOKT,  DE,  (SiMON.) 

Leicester,  lls'ter,  of  Holkham,  (Thomas  William 
Coke,)  Earl  of,  an  eminent  English  agriculturist,  was 
the  son  of  Wenman  Roberts,  of  Norfolk,  and  was  born 
in  1752.  His  father  assumed  the  name  of  Coke  when 
he  inherited  the  estates  of  his  uncle  Thomas  Coke,  who 
was  Earl  of  Leicester  and  a  descendant  of  Sir  Edward 
Coke.  From  1776  to  1832  he  represented  the  county  of 
Norfolk  in  Parliament,  and  was  a  constant  supporter  of 
the  Whig  party.  He  owned  a  very  large  and  highly- 
cultivated  estate  at  Holkham,  and  became  distinguished 
for  his  liberality  and  zeal  in  the  improvement  of  agricul- 
ture. After  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford  (1802)  he 
was  reputed  to  hold  the  highest  place  among  English 
cultivators.  In  1837  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Earl  of  Leicester  of  Holkham.  The  last  name  of  this 
title  was  annexed  to  distinguish  him  from  another  Earl 
of  Leicester.     Died  in  1842. 

Leich,  llK,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1720,  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  that  city  in  1748.  He  wrote  the  "Life  and 
Reign  of  Constantinus  Porphyrogenitus,"  and  several 
other  works.     Died  in  1750. 

Leichner,  llK'ner,  (Eccard,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  physician,  born  in  Tliuringia  in  1612.  He  practised 
at  Erfurt,  where  he  died  in  1690. 

Leichner,  (Johann  Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1684;  died  in  1769. 

Leichhart,  liK'h^Rt,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  traveller, 
born  at  Trebatsch,  in  Prussia,  October  23,  1813.  He 
went  to  Australia  in  1S41,  and  there  conducted  several 
•mportant  explorations.  He  was  either  murdered  c 
died  of  starvation  on  one  of  these  journeys  in  184S. 

Leidy,  li'de,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  naturalist,  of  German  extraction,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  September  9,  1823.  He  graduated  as  M.D. 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1844,  and  the  same 
year  commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  for  more  congenial  pursuits.  In  1846  he 
was  chosen  to  the  position  of  chairman  of  the  curators 
in  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  From  1846  to 
1852  he  gave  private  courses  of  lectures  on  anatomy  and 
physiology,  and  in  1853  he  was  elected  professor  of 
anatomy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  position 
he  held  until  his  death.  Besides  anatomy,  human  and 
comparative,  he  devoted  much  attention  to  natural  his- 
tory, more  especially  zoology  and  palaeontology.  Tiie 
third  volume  of  the  "Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers." 
published  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  gives  a  list 
of  one  hundred  and  eleven  of  his  published  papers  up 
to  i860.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the 
"Flora    and    Fauna  within   Living   Animals,*'  and   the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23. 


LEIGH 


1520 


LEJAY 


"  Ancient  Fauna  of  Nebraska,"  both  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Subsequently,  besides  publish- 
ing an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Human  Anatomy,"  he 
largely  added  to  his  list  of  scientific  papers,  among  the 
most  imjKjrtant  of  these  being  the  "  Cretaceous  Reptiles 
of  the  United  States,"  published  in  the  "  Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  (1865,)  "The  Extinct 
Mammalian  Fauna  of  Dakota  and  Nebraska,"  (4to,  with 
30  plates,)  published  as  the  seventh  volume  of  the  "Jour- 
nal of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences"  of  Philadelj^hia, 
and  the  "  Fresh-Water  Rhizoi)ods  of  North  America," 
(1879,)  |)ublished  under  the  auspices  of  the  government. 
In  1866  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard 
University.     Died  April  30,  1891. 

leigh,  lee,  (Benjamin  Watkins,)  an  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Chesterfield  county,  Virginia,  in 
1781  ;  practised  law  at    Richmond.     He  was  elected  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  in    1834  or   1835,  and 
signed  his  seat  in  1837.     I^ied  in  1849. 

Ijeigh,  lee,  (Charles,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
Dorn  in  Lancashire  about  1650.  He  practised  medicine 
in  London  and  other  cities,  and  published  several  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  a  "Natural  History  of 
Lancashire,  Cheshire,  and  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire," 
(1700.) 

Leigh,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  writer  and  biblical 
scholar,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1602,  was  educated  for 
the  law.  In  the  civil  war  he  favoured  the  popular  cause, 
and  was  a  member  of  Parliament,  from  which  he  was 
expelled  in  1648  by  the  extreme  opponents  of  the  king. 
He  displayed  much  learning  in  his  "  Critica  Sacra, 
or  the  Hebrew  Words  of  the  Old  and  the  Greek  of  the 
New  Testament,"  (1639,)  and  published  a  "Treatise  of 
Divinity,"  (1646,)  and  other  esteemed  religious  works. 
Died  in  1671. 

Leighton,  la'ton,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  clergy- 
man, born  at  Edinburgh  in  1568.  He  was  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  that  city  for  several  years  prior  to 
1613,  when  he  removed  to  London  and  obtained  a  lec- 
tureship. For  libellous  or  offensive  expressions  against 
the  king,  queen,  and  the  bishops  in  his  book  called 
"  Zion's  Plea,"  (1629,)  he  was  punished  by  the  Star 
Chamber  with  mutilation,  the  pillory,  and  long  imprison- 
ment. He  was  released  in  1640,  and  died  about  1646. 
Laud  appears  to  be  responsible  for  the  cruel  treatment 
of  Leighton. 

Leighton,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  at 
Dundee  in  1800.  He  is  said  to  have  written  nearly  all 
"  Wilson's  Tales  of  the  Borders,"  and  published  "  Ro- 
mance of  the  Old  Town  of  Edinburgh,"  and  several 
volumes  of  sketches.     Died  December  24,  1874. 

Leighton,  la'ton,  (Sir  Frederick,)  an  English  painter, 
born  at  Scarborough,  December  3,  1830.  He  was  edu- 
cated on  the  Continent,  painting  in  Germany,  France, 
Italy,  and  the  Netherlands.  His  "Cimabue,"  the  first 
of  his  pictures  shown  in  England,  (1854,)  was  one  of  his 
best,  and  is  truly  a  great  work  of  art.  His  pictures  are 
very  numerous,  and  are  often  on  classical,  scriptural, 
dramatic,  mediaeval,  or  literary  subjects.  In  1878  he  was 
knighted  and  made  president  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Leighton,  (John,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  West- 
minster, September  12,  1822.  His  reputation  rests 
largely  upon  his  illustrative  designs,  and  especially  on 
his  work  as  an  art-educator. 

Leighton,  (Robert),  a  British  divine  of  eminent 
merit,  born  in  London  about  1612,  was  the  son  of  Alex- 
ander Leighton,  (1568-1646.)  About  1641  he  became 
minister  of  the  Presbyterian  church  at  Newbottle,  near 
Edinburgh.  Finding  that  his  moderation  was  unaccept- 
able to  the  contentious  spirit  and  fierce  zeal  which  then 
prevailed,  he  retired  from  the  pulpit,  and  was  chosen 
principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  When  Charles 
II.  resolved  to  restore  Episcopacy  in  Scotland,  (about 
1661,)  Leighton  was  made  Bishop  of  Dumblane.  About 
1670  he  became  Archbishop  of  Glasgow.  His  conduct 
was  more  conciliatory  than  that  of  the  other  bishops. 
He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher,  and  published 
sermons  and  other  works,  which  are  greatly  esteemed. 
His  commentary  on  the  first  epistle  of  Peter  was  often 
reprinted.    In  1674  he  resigned  his  archbishopric,  prob- 


ably from  an  abhorrence  of  the  violent  con  lest  which 
disturbed  the  Church  and  State.     Died  in  1684. 

See  John  N.  Pearson,  "  Life  of  R.  Leighton,"  1.S32  ;  Gkorgk 
Jerment,  "Remains  of  the  Life  of  R.  Leighton,"  i8o8 :  Bdh.nbt, 
"History  of  liis  Own  Time;"  '"R.  Leighton  ein  apostolischet 
Mann,"  etc.,  Berlin,  1S34;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leighton,  (Rohert,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Dundee, 
February  20,  1822,  entered  upon  a  business  life,  residing 
in  his  later  years  in  Liverpool.  His  principal  book  was 
"Rhymes  and  Poems,"  (1855.)  His  most  famous  poem 
is  "The  ]5apteesment  of  the  Bairn,"  published  in  a  later 
collection,  (1875.)  Died  May  10, 1869.  His  brother  Wil- 
liam (born  at  Dundee,  February  3,  1841  ;  died  at  Liver- 
pool, April  22,  1869)  was  also  a  poet  of  much  promise. 

Leiningen,  li'ning-en,  [Fr.  Linange,  li'nflNzh',J  a 
great  family  of  German  princes  and  counts,  having  as 
branches  the  families  of  Leiningen-Billigheim,  Leiningen- 
Neudenau,  Alt-Leiningen-Westerburg,  Neu-Leiningen- 
Westerburg,  etc. 

Leiningen,  von,  fon  li'ning-en,  (Charles,)  Prince, 
a  German  prince,  born  in  1804,  was  a  half-broiher  of 
Victoria,  Queen  of  England.     Died  in  1856. 

Leinster,  lin'ster  or  leen'ster,  (William  Robert 
Fitzgerald,)  Duke  of,  an  Irish  peer,  born  in  1749, 
entered  the  British  House  of  Lords  in  1776,  and  acted 
with  the  Tories.     Died  in  1805. 

Leisewitz,  ll'zeh-tiv'its',  (Johann  Anton,)  a  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1752,  wrote  a  pojiula/ 
tragedy,  entitled  "Julius  von  Tarent."     Died  in  1806. 

Leisler,  lls'ler,  (Jacob,)  an  adventurer  and  revolu- 
tionist, born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  Germany,  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1660,  and  became  a  resident  of 
Albany.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners 
of  the  court  of  admiralty  in  16S3.  In  1689  he  was  the 
leader  of  a  mob  which  seized  the  fort  and  public  funds 
of  New  York,  "for  the  preservation,"  as  he  said,  "of  the 
Protestant  religion."  Having  declared  himself  for  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  he  strengthened  the  fort,  and  was 
proclaimed  by  his  adherents  commander-in-chief  of  the 
province.  Sloughter  having  been  soon  after  appointed 
Governor  of  the  colony,  Leisler  was  arrested,  and  exe- 
cuted in  1 69 1. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Jacob  Leisler,"  by  C.  F.  Hoffman,  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  iii.  2d  series. 

Leisma.nn,  lls'min,  (Johann  Anton,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Salzburg  in  1604,  He  settled  in  Venice, 
painted  landscapes  and  battles,  and  had  a  high  reputa- 
tion. His  manner  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  Salvator 
Rosa.     Died  in  1698. 

Leitner,  lit'ner,  (Gottlieb  Wilhelm,)  iPh.D.,  a 
celebrated  linguist,  born  at  Pesth,  in  Hungary,  October 
14,  1840.  He  studied  in  Brusa,  Constantinople,  Malta, 
and  King's  College,  London.  When  fifteen  years  old,  he 
was  a  first-class  interpreter  in  the  British  service  in  the 
Crimea.  In  1861  he  was  made  professor  of  Arabic  and 
of  Mohammedan  law  in  King's  College,  London.  He 
afterwards  was  principal  of  the  Lahore  Government  Col- 
lege, the  Lahore  Oriental  College,  registrar  of  the  Punjab 
University,  (which  he  founded,)  etc.  He  published  many 
books  on  linguistic,  archaeological,  historical,  and  ethno- 
logical subjects,  mostly  regarding  Asia,  and  especially 
the  northwest  of  India.  He  is  said  to  speak,  write,  and 
read  twenty-five  languages. 

Leith,  leeth,  (Sir  James,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  in  1763.  He  served  as  major- 
general  under  Sir  John  Moore  in  the  Peninsula,  and 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Corunna,  in  1809.  He  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  forces  in  the  West  Indies 
in  1814.     Died  in  1816. 

Lejay,  leh-zhi',  (Gabriel  Francois,)  a  French  Jes- 
uit, born  iti  Paris  about  1660.  He  was  eminent  as  a 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  Paris,  where  Voltaire  was  his 
pupil.  He  published,  besides  other  works  in  Latin, 
"  Bibliotheca  Rhetorum,"  ("  Library  of  Orators,"  1725,) 
which  is  said  to  be  a  valuable  systematic  treatise  on 
eloquence.     Died  in  1734. 

Lejay  or  Le  Jay,  (Gui  Michel,)  a  Frenchman,  known 
by  the  Polyglot  Bible  which  bears  his  name,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1588.  He  expended  the  labour  of  severteen 
years  and  a  large  patrimony  in  the  publication  of  his 


a, e, I,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  nSt;  gwd ;  moon; 


LEJEUNE 


1521 


LELUT 


"Bible  in  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Clialdee,"  etc.,  ("Biblia 
Hebraica,  Saniaritana,  Chaldaica,  Grseca,  Syriaca,  I  atina, 
Arabica,"  1645,)  which  is  a  master-piece  of  typography. 
Lejay  was  assisted  in  editing  this  work  by  Morin,  Gabriel 
Sionita,  and  other  learned  men.  He  was  made  a  privy 
councillor.     Died  in  1674. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Lejeune,  leh-zhun',  (Claude,)  a  famous  French 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Valenciennes  about 
1540.  '  He  received  the  title  of  composer  to  Henry  IV. 
Died  about  1600. 

I»e  Jeune,  (Jean.)     See  JexTne,  Le. 

Lejeune  or  Le  Jeune,  (Louis  Fran<;ois,)  Baron, 
a  French  general  and  painter,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1771;. 
For  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  he  was  made  chef-de-batail- 
lon  in  1805.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade 
at  Borodino  in  1812,  and  is  said  to  have  saved  the  army 
of  Oudinot  at  Hoyerswerda.  He  painted,  besides  other 
subjects,  "The  Battle  of  Marengo,"  (1801,)  "The  Battle 
of  Lodi,"  (1804,)  and  "The  Battle  of  the  Moskwa," 
(1824.)     Died  in  1850. 

Lejeune,  (Paul,)  a  French  missionary,  born  in  1592, 
laboured  in  Canada  for  many  years.  He  published  a 
descriptive  work  on  Canada  and  its  native  tribes,  (7 
vols.,  1640.)     Died  in  1664. 

Lejeune-Dirichlet,  (Gustav.)     See  Dirichlet. 

Lekain,  leh-k^N',  (Henri  Louis,)  a  famous  French 
actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1728.  He  was  patronized  by 
Voltaire,  who  discerned  in  him  the  germ  of  great  talent 
while  he  was  acting  in  a  private  troupe.  He  made  his 
debut  in  1750,  and  attained  a  celebrity  scarcely  equalled 
by  that  of  any  actor  of  modern  times  except  Garrick. 
Lekain  was  most  successful  in  tragedy  and  in  the  ex- 
pression of  deep  emotion.  Voltaire  designated  him  as 
the  only  truly  tragic  actor.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
career  he  performed  at  Berlin,  by  request  of  Frederick 
the  Great.     Died  in  1778. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Lekain,"  published  by  his  son,  1801  :  F.  J. 
Talma,  "Memoire  sur  Lekain  et  sur  I'Art  dramatique,"  1827; 
Voltaire,  "Correspondance;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^a^rale;" 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xxxvi.,  1801,  (Appendix.) 

Le  Keux.  leh-kooks, .?  (Henrv,)  a  skilful  English 
engraver,  born  in  17S8.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Turner  and  Prout,  illustrations  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Poems,  etc.     Died  in  1868. 

Le  Keux,  (John,)  an  English  architectural  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1783 
or  1784.  He  excelled  in  the  engraving  of  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture, the  principles  and  details  of  which  he  had 
diligently  studied.  His  works  have  contributed  much 
to  the  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  the  Gothic  style  in  England. 
He  engraved  part  of  Britten's  "Cathedral  Antiquities," 
and  of  Pugin's  "Antiquities  of  Normandy"  and  "Gothic 
Specimens,"  and  other  works.     He  died  in  1846. 

Le  Laboureur,  (Jean.)  See  Laboureur,  Le. 

Le'land,  (Charles  Godfrey,)  an  American  littira- 
teiir,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1824.  He  published  in 
1855  "The  Sketch-Book  of  Meister  Karl"  and  "The 
Poetry  and  Mystery  of  Dreams,"  a  translation  of  Heine's 
"  Pictures  of  Travel,"  ("  Reisebilder,"  1856,)  '"  Sun- 
shine in  Thought,"  (1862,)  "Legends  of  Birds,"  (1S64,) 
"Hans  Breitmann's  Ballads,"  (1867-70,)  "The  Music- 
Lessons  of  Confucius,  and  other  Poems,"  (1870,)  "Gau- 
deamus,"  (1871,)  "The  Egyptian  Sketch-Book,"  (1873,) 
"The  English  Gypsies  and  their  Language,"  (1873,) 
"English  Gypsy  Songs,"  (1875,)  "The  Minor  Arts," 
(1880,)  and  "The  Gypsies,"  (1882.) 

Lel'and  or  Laylonde,  la'lgnd,  (John,)  an  eminent 
English  antiquary  and  linguist,  born  in  London  soon 
after  1500.  He  learned  the  ancient  and  modern  lan- 
guages at  Oxford  and  Paris.  Having  entered  into  holy 
orders,  he  became  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  em- 
ployed him  as  librarian  and  in  1533  gave  him  the  title 
of  his  antiquary,  with  orders  to  explore  the  antiquities 
of  England.  He  spent  about  seven  years  in  collecting 
materials  for  history,  and  in  1545  compiled  his  "Account 
of  British  Authors,"  ("  Commentarii  de  Scriptoribus  Bri- 
tannicis.")  He  became  insane  in  1550,  and  died  in  1552, 
leaving  many  manuscripts,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
Bodleian  Library.  His  "  Itinerary"  (9  vols.)  was  edit&i 
by  Hearne  in  1710. 


Leland,  (John,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1691.  He  became  pastor  of  a  Presby- 
terian congregation  in  Dublin  in  1716.  In  1733  ^^  pub- 
lished an  "Answer  to  Tindal's  'Christianity  as  Old  as 
the  Creation.'"  He  wrote  other  approved  treatises  in 
defence  of  Christianity,  and  in  1754  published  his  chief 
work,  a  "  View  of  the  Principal  Deistical  Writers  that 
have  appeared  in  England  in  the  Last  and  Present  Cen- 
tury."    Died  in  1766. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1754,  March,  17SS1  and 
June,  1764. 

Leland,  (John,)  an  American  Baptist  divine,  born  at 
Grafton,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He  published  nume- 
rous sermons,  and  essays  on  various  subjects.  Died  ir» 
1841. 

Leland,  (Thomas,)  a  classical  scholar  and  historical 
writer,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1722.  He  took  orders,  and 
became  eminent  as  a  preacher.  In  1756  he  produced 
the  first  volume  of  an  excellent  translation  of  Demos- 
thenes' Orations,  which  was  finished  in  1770.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  oratory  in  Trinity  College  in  1763. 
His  principal  works,  besides  the  above-named,  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon," 
(175S,)  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Principle  of  Human  Elo- 
quence," (1764,)  and  a  "History  of  Ireland,"  (1773.) 
Died  in  1785. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1758,  and  September  and 
November,  1773. 

Leleux,  leh-luh',  (Adolphe,  )  a  popular  French 
painter  of  genre,  born  in  Paris  in  1812.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Spanish  Smugglers,"  and  "The  Return 
from  Market,"  (1847.) 

Leleux,  (Armand,)  a  painter  of  genre,  etc.,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  181 8. 

Lelewel,  li-la'vel,?  (Joachim,)  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Polish  historians  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Warsaw  in  1786.  He  conspired  with  the  insurgents  at 
Warsaw  against  Constantine  of  Russia  in  November, 
1830,  and  was  proposed  for  dictator;  but  Chlojncki  was 
preferred.  Lelewel  held  several  high  offices  in  the  new 
government  for  a  short  time,  until  the  victories  of  the 
Russians  drove  him  into  exile  in  1831.  After  1833  he 
resided  at  Brussels.  Among  his  most  popular  works 
are  a  "  History  of  Poland,"  (1829,)  a  "  History  of  Poland 
under  Stanislas  Augustus,"  (1831,)  and  "Poland  of  the 
Middle  Ages,"  (1846-51.)  He  published  (in  French)  an 
important  work  on  "Mediaeval  Geography,"  (1852,)  and 
various  other  books.     Died  in  1861. 

See  L.  Chodzko,  "Notice  biographique  sur  J.  Lelewel,"  4th 
edition,  1834. 

Lelli,  lel'lee,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  painter  and  modelleT 
of  the  Bolognese  school,  born  in  1702.  He  excelled  in 
the  art  of  anatomical  preparations.     Died  in  1766. 

Leloir,  leh-lw5R',  (Louis  Auguste,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris,  March  15,  1843.  He  became  one  of  the 
most  graceful  and  refined  of  recent  French  painters, 
ranking  very  high  as  a  draughtsman,  a  colourist,  and  a 
designer.     Died  in  1SS4. 

Lelong,  leh-lAN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  priest  and 
bibliographer  of  high  reputation,  born  in  Paris  in  1665, 
was  learned  in  languages  and  literary  history.  He  be- 
came librarian  in  the  Maison  Saint-llonore,  at  Paris, 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Bibliotheca  Sacra;  or, 
Syllabus  of  nearly  all  Editions  and  Versions  of  the 
Scriptures,"  (2  vols.,  1709,)  and  "Bibliothequehistorique 
de  la  France,"  (1719,)  containing  a  catalogue  of  works 
which  treat  on  French  history,  with  notes.  An  enlarged 
edition  of  the  latter  was  published  by  Fevret  de  Fon- 
tette,  (5  vols.,  1768-78.)     Died  in  1721. 

Le  Lorradn,  l?h  lo'riN',  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French 
engraver  and  mediocre  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1715; 
died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1760. 

Lelorrain  or  Le  Lorrain,  (Robert,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Paris  in  1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Girardon.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1701. 
His  works  display  good  talents,  but  are  censured  for 
mannerism.     Died  in  1743. 

L^lut,  li'lU^  (Louis  Francois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Haute-Saone  in  1804.  He  wrote  able  treatises 
on  psvchology,  insanity,  etc.     Died  January  25,  1877. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this. 

96 


(Jj^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LELY 


1522 


LEMEKY 


Le'l^,  (Sir  Peter,)  or  Van  der  Faes,  v5n  der  fSs,  a 
successful  portrait-painter,  of  Dutch  descent,  was  born 
at  Soest,  in  Westphalia,  in  1617.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  lie  excelled  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  female  beauty,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
fashionable  artists  of  that  time.  After  the  restoration 
in  1660,  he  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  Charles 
II.,  the  beauties  of  whose  court  were  the  subjects  of 
his  master-pieces.  His  works  are  generally  censured  for 
immodesty.     Died  in  1680. 

See  Bkvan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Walpolk,  "Anecdotes 
of  Painting." 

Lemaire,  leh-mSR',  (Henri,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1756.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
French  Gil  Bias,  or  Adventures  of  Henri  Lanfon,"  (3 
vols.,  1792.)     Died  in  180S. 

Lemaire,  leh-mSR',  (Jacques,)  a  Dutch  navigator  and 
merchant,  who  was  director-general  of  a  company  which 
in  16 1 5  sent  an  expedition  to  find  a  new  route  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  He  discovered  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name  and  separates  Staten  Land  from  Terra  del 
Fuego,  in  1616,  doubled  Cape  Horn  for  the  first  time, 
and  sailed  to  the  East  Indies.  He  died  at  sea  in  1616. 
C.  Schouten  was  captain  of  the  ship  which  made  this 
voyage. 

See  A.  G.  Chotin,  "Notice  sur  J.  Lemaire,  Navigateur." 

Lemaire,  (Jean,)  a  Belgian  poet  and  historian,  born 
in  Hainault  about  1473.  He  entered  the  service  of 
Margaret  of  Austria  as  librarian.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Illustrations  of  the  Gauls,"  ("  Illustrations 
des  Gaules,"  1512.)     Died  about  1548. 

Lemaire,  (Nicolas  £loi,)  a  French  classical  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Triancourt  (Meuse)  in  1767.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  Latin  poetty  in  the  Faculty  of 
Letters,  Paris,  in  1811.  He  composed  Latin  verses  with 
remarkable  facility.  Among  his  productions  is  a  Latin 
"Ode  on  the  Birth  of  the  King  of  Rome,"  (1S12.)  He 
acquired  reputation  among  classical  literati  by  the  pub- 
lication of  all  the  best  Latin  authors,  in  154  vols.  8vo, 
under  the  title  of  "  Bibliotheca  Classica  Latina."  This 
is  said  to  be  the  best  collection  of  the  classics  that  exists. 
Died  in  1S32. 

See  "  Notice  sur  N.  E.  Lemaire,"  Paris,  184a. 

Lemaire,  (Philippe  Henri,)  a  French  sculptor,  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  was  born  at  Valenciennes  in 
1798.  He  gained  the  first  prize  in  1821,  and  studied  in 
Rome.  His  design  for  the  froiitott  or  ])ediment  of  the 
church  of  Madeleine,  Paris,  was  preferred  in  1S36.  This 
vast  composition  is  called  his  capital  work.     Died  1880. 

Lemaire,  (  Pierre  Auguste,  )  a  French  classical 
scholar,  a  nephew  of  Nicolas  Eloi,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Triancourt  in  1802.  He  edited  Lucan,  Lucre- 
tius, and  other  classic  authors.     Died  in  1887. 

Lemaistre,  leh-mitR',  (Antoine,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1608,  was  a  brother  of  Lemaistre  de  Sacy. 
He  acquired  a  great  reputation  by  his  eloquence,  and 
afterwards  retired  to  the  cloister  of  Port-Royal.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Pascal,  and  a  nephew  of  Arnauld  d'Andilly. 
Referring  to  his  published  forensic  speeches,  Hallam 
says,  "  Lemaistre  is  fervid  and  brilliant ;  he  hurries  us 
with  him.  Both  Lemaistre  and  Patru  do  great  honour 
to  the  French  bar."  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of 
the  Port-Royal  New  Testament.     Died  in  1658. 

See  Philippe  Simon  Dupin,  "Notice  sur  A.  Lemaistre,"  1822; 
Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Fournel,  "Histoire  des  Avo- 
cats;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdn^rale." 

Lemaistre,  (Jean,)  a  French  magistrate,  who  in  1591 
was  nominated  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
by  the  chiefs  of  the  League.  At  a  critical  period  in  the 
contest  between  the  League  and  Henry  IV.  he  procured 
a  decree  of  Parliament  in  favour  of  the  latter,  (1593.) 
Died  in  1596. 

Lemaistre  de  Saci  or  Sacy,  leh-mitR'  deh  sS'se', 
(Isaac  Louis,)  a  French  Jansenist  theologian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1613,  was  a  nephew  of  Antoine  Arnauld  le 
Grand.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1650,  and  became 
confessor  or  principal  director  of  the  recluses  of  Port- 
Royal.  He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  two  years,  (1666- 
68,)  during  which  he  made  a  French  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament.  He  w^as  one  of  the  translators  of  the 
New  Testament  of  Mons,  (1667,)  which  was  often  re- 


printed. In  consequence  of  renewed  persecution,  he  left 
Port-Royal  in  1679.  He  published  French  versions  of 
several  works,  among  which  were  the  fourth  and  sixth 
books  of  the  ".iCneid."    Died  in  1684. 

See  Fontaine,  "M^moires  sur  Port-Royal;"  Sainte-Beuve, 
'Port-Royal,"  tome  ii.  ;  Lelong,  "  Bibliothfeque  sacr^e;"  "Nou- 
velle Uiographie  G^nerale." 

Lemaitre,  leh-mitR',(FR^D6Ric,)  a  celebrated  French 
actor,  born  at  Havre  in  1800,  was  called  "the  Talma  of 
the  Boulevards."  He  was  successful  in  tragedy  and  com- 
edy, and  excelled  in  the  romantic  drama.     Died  in  1876. 

Le'man,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
\\\  1751  ;  died  in  1827. 

Le  Maout,  or  Lemaout,  leh-mt'oo',  (Jean  Emma- 
nuel Marie,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Guingamp,  De- 
cember 29, 1799.  He  published  various  works  on  botany, 
and,  with  M.  J.  Decaisne,  prepared  a  well-known  "Gen- 
eral Treatise  on  Botany,"  (1S67.)     Died  June  23,  1877. 

Le  Marchamt,  leh  mtR'shfiN',  (Jacques,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  born  at  Fumes  in  1537,  wrote  several  works 
on  the  history  of  Flanders.     Died  in  1609. 

Lemare,  leh-mtR',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French 
grammarian,  i)orn  in  Franche-Comte  in  1766,  published 
several  successful  works  on  grammar.     Died  in  1835. 

Lemazurier,  leh-mt'zii're-a',  (Pierre  David,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Gisors  in  1775;  died  in  1836. 

Lembke,  l^mp'keh,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1631,  painted 
battles,  sieges,  and  hunting-scenes  with  success.  He 
was  invited  to  the  court  of  Sweden  by  Charles  XL,  who 
gave  him  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king.    Died  in  1721. 

Lemchen.    See  Lemnius,  (Simon.) 

Lemene,  li-ma'ni,  (Francesco,)  Count,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Lodi  in  1634.  He  composed  many  elegant 
Latin  verses,  but  his  principal  poen.s  were  written  in  the 
Italian  language.  He  had  a  rich  and  poetic  imagination, 
and  contributed  much  to  reform  the  poetry  of  his  country. 
Died  in  1704. 

See  ToMMASo  Ceva,  "  Memorie  di  alcune  Virti  del  Signer 
Conte  F.  di  Lemeiie,"  1706;  Tiraboschi,  "Storiadella  Letteratura 
Italiana." 

Letnens,  van,  vtn  la'mens,  (Balthasar,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1637,  worked  in 
London.     Died  in  1 704. 

Lemercier,  leh-m§R'se-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  at  Pontoise  about  1600.  By  order  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  he  built  about  1635  the  church  of  the  Sor 
bonne  at  Paris,  and  the  Chateau  Richelieu.  He  obtained 
the  title  of  chief  architect  to  the  king.  Among  his  most 
admired  works  are  the  church  of  the  Annonciade  at 
Tours,  and  that  of  Saint-Roch  in  Paris.     Died  in  1660. 

See  Fontenav,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
pliie Gen^rale  ;"  Quatrem^re  de  Quincy,  "  Vies  des  plus  celibre* 
Aichitectes." 

Lemercier,  (Louis  Jean  N^POMUcfeNE,)  a  popular 
French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris,  April  21, 
1771.  He  was  a  republican  in  the  Revolution  and 
through  all  the  changes  which  followed.  His  tragedy 
of  "Agamemnon,"  in  verse,  (1797,)  procured  for  him 
a  triumph  of  which  the  annals  of  the  theatre  offer  few 
examples.  He  afterwards  produced  "Ophis,"  "Louis 
XL,"  (182 1,)  and  other  successful  tragedies.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1810.  He 
wrote  a  poem  entitled  "The  French  Ages,"  (1803,)  and 
many  other  works.  Talleyrand  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  Lemercier  conversed  better  than  any  other  man  in 
France,     Died  in  1840. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Lemery,  lim're',  (Louis,)  a  skilful  physician  and 
chemist,  a  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1677.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  for  which  he  wrote  many  memoirs.  For  thirty- 
three  years  he  was  physician  to  the  Hotel-Dieu,  Paris. 
Died  in  1743. 

Lemery,  (Nicolas,)  M.D.,  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1645,  was  educated  a  Protestant.  In  1672 
he  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  lectured  on  chemistry  with 
(clat,  and  published  a  "Course  of  Chemistry,"  ("Cours 
de  Chimie,"  1675,)  which  was  very  successful.  It  was 
often  reprinted,  and  was  translated  into  many  languages. 
After  suffering  much  persecution  for  religion,  he  abjured 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ti,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


LEMIERRE 


1523 


LEMONTEY 


Calvinism  in  1686.     He  was  received  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1699.     Died  in  1715. 

See  Paul  Antoine  Cap,  "filoge  de  N.  Ldmery,"  1838;  J.  Ton- 
net,  "  Notice  sur  N.  Ldmery,"  1S44  ;  Fontkneli.e,  "  Eloge  de  N. 
Ldnery,"  1715;  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdndrale." 

Leniierre,  leh-me-aiR',  (Antoine  Marin,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1723.  He  produced 
in  1758  "  Hypermnestre,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  com- 
pletely successful.  His  tragedies  "  William  Tell"  (1766) 
and  "The  Widow  of  Malabar"  (1770)  were  often  per- 
formed with  applause.  I  le  composed  a  poem  on  Painting, 
(1769,)  which  contains  several  fine  passages.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1781.  Died 
in  1793. 

See  Pkrrin,  "  Notice  de  Lemierre,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his 
works,  Paris,  3  vols.,  1810;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdndrale." 

Leniire,  leh-ni6R'  or  leh-meeR',  [Lat.  Mir^'us,  ] 
(AuBERT,)  a  Flemish  compiler,  born  at  Brussels  in  1573. 
He  studied  for  the  clerical  profession,  and  became  vicar- 
general  at  Antwerp  in  1624.  He  published,  besides  other 
Latin  works,  "Eulogies  of  Eminent  Belgian  Authors," 
(1602,)  and  "Annals  of  Belgium,"  ("Rerum  Belgicarum 
Annales,"  1624.)     Died  in  1640. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Mdmoires  ;"  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Lemire,  leh-m^R',  (Noel,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1724,  was  a  pupil  of  Lebas.  He  engraved 
landscapes,  portraits,  etc.,  and  excelled  in  vignettes. 
"The  Partition  of  Poland"  (designed  and  engraved  by 
him)  is  called  his  master-piece.     Died  in  1801. 

Lemmens.    See  Lemnius. 

Lemnius,  l^m'ne-us,  or  Lemmens,  l§m'm5ns,  (LiE- 
viN,)a  Dutch  physician  and  philosopher,  born  at  Zierikzee 
in  1505.  He  practised  in  his  native  place,  and  acquired 
a  European  reputation  by  his  skill.  He  wrote,  in  elegant 
Latin,  "  De  occultis  Naturae  Miraculis,"  ("The  Secret 
Wonders  of  Nature,"  1559,)  and  other  scientific  or  moral 
works,  which  were  very  successful.     Died  in  1568, 

See  Harderwijck,  "Jets  over  L.  Lemnius,"  1843;  M.  Adam, 
"Vitae  Medicorum  Germanorum." 

Lemnius,  l§m'ne-Cis,  (Simon,)  a  Swiss  poet,  whose 
proper  name  was  Lemchen,  (Ifm'Ken,)  was  born  in  the 
Grisons.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  whence  he  was 
banished  by  the  influence  of  Luther  or  Melanchthon 
about  153S,  probably  on  account  of  his  writings.  He 
published  Latin  epigrams  and  other  verses.  Died  in  1550. 

Lemoine,  leh-mwin',  (Antoine,)  a  French  officer,  a 
brother  of  D'Iberville,  was  born  at  Montreal  in  1683.  He 
became  Governor  of  Cayenne,  where  he  died  about  1730. 
(See  Iberville,  d'.) 

Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,  leh-mwin',  (Charles,)  a 
Drother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1656,  at  Montreal, 
of  which  he  afterwards  became  governor.  Died  in  1729. 

Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,  (Stienne,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant divine  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Caen  in  1624, 
wrote  "  Varia  Sacra."     Died  in  1689. 

Lemoine,  (Francois,)  an  eminent  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  a  pupil  of  Galloche. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy  in  17 18,  in 
consideration  of  his  "  Hercules  and  Cacus."  He  made 
a  short  visit  to  Italy  in  1723,  and  at  his  return  was  chosen 
professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy.  His  master- 
piece is  "The  Apotheosis  of  Hercules,"  (1736,)  an  oil- 
painting,  which  adorns  a  ceiling  in  the  palace  of  Ver- 
sailles, and  is  said  to  be  the  largest  in  Europe,  (64  feet 
by  54.)  He  excelled  in  composition,  and  had  probably 
a  higher  reputation  than  any  French  painter  of  his  time  ; 
but  his  design  was  incorrect.  In  1736  he  became  first 
painter  to  the  king,  and  in  the  next  year  committed 
suicide. 

See  Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters.  * 

Lemoine,  (Jean,)  a  French  cardinal  and  canonist, 
born  at  Crecy.  He  founded  in  Paris  the  college  which 
bears  his  name.     Died  in  1313. 

Lemoine,  (Joseph,)  brother  of  Charles,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  lilontreal  in  1668.  In  1 7 19  he  took  Pen- 
sacola  from  the  Spaniards.     Died  in  France  in  1734. 

Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,  (Pierre.)  a  French  poet 
and  Jesuit,  born  at  Chaumont,  in  Bassigny,  in  1602.  He 
took  part  in  the  dispute  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jan- 
senists.    His  principal  work  is  a  bombastic  epic  poem  en- 


titled "  Saint  Louis,  or  the  Holy  Crown  recovered  from 
the  Infidels,"  (1653,)  which  obtamed  little  favour  with 
the  public.  His  "  Devotion  Made  Easy"  ("  La  Devotion 
aisee,"  1653)  was  criticised  by  Pascal  in  the  eleventh  of 
his  "  Provincial  Letters."     Died  in  167  L 

Lemoine,  (Sauvolle,)  brother  of  Joseph,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Montreal  about  1671.  He  accom- 
panied his  brother  D'Iberville  on  his  western  expedition, 
and  was  appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  governor  of  the 
colony  of  Louisiana  in  1699.     Died  in  1701. 

Lemoine  d'lberviUe.    See  Iberville,  d'. 

Lemoinne,  leh'mwin',  (John  Emile,)  a  French 
editor,  born  in  London,  October  17,  1815.  For  many 
years  he  was  chief  director  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats." 
In  1S75  '^^  ^'^^  elected  to  the  Academy,  and  in  1880  he 
was  made  a  life-senator  and  minister  to  Belgium.  He 
published  "Etudes  critiques  et  biographiques,"  (1862,) 
and  other  volumes,  made  up  chiefly  from  his  review-arti- 
cles, which  have  won  for  him  a  European  reputation. 

Lem'on,  (George  William,)  an  English  gramma 
rian,  born  in  1726.  He  published  an  "Etymological 
English  Dictionary."     Died  in  1797. 

Lemon,  (Mark,)  an  English  dramatist,  humorist, 
and  editor,  born  in  London  in  1809.  He  produced  a 
large  number  of  farces,  melo-dramas,  etc.,  among  which 
are  "The  Serious  Family"  and  "The  Ladies'  Club." 
Several  of  his  plays  are  quite  popular.  He  became 
editor  of  the  London  "  Punch"  soon  after  its  first  pub- 
lication, and  literary  editor  of  the  "Illustrated  London 
News."     Died  in  May,  1870. 

Lemonnier,  leh-mo'ne-i',  (Anicet  Charles  Ga- 
briel,) a  French  painter,"~was  born  at  Rouen  in  1743. 
Among  his  works  are  " Cleombrotus"  and  the  "Death 
of  Antony."     Died  in  1824. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdndrale." 

Lemonnier,  (Guillaume  Antoine,)  a  French  abbe 
and  littlrateur,  born  in  1 721,  produced  French  trans- 
lations of  Terence  and  Perseus,  and  wrote  a  volume  of 
"  Fables  and  Tales."     Died  in  1797. 

Lemonnier  or  Le  Monnier,  (Louis  Guillaume,) 
a  French  physician  and  botanist,  born  in  171 7,  was  a 
brother  of  Pierre  Charles,  noticed  below.  He  succeeded 
Bernard  Jussieu  as  professor  of  botany  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi  in  1777,  and  received  the  title  of  first  physician  to 
the  king  about  1 780.  He  was  for  some  time  chief  phy- 
sician of  the  army.  He  rendered  considerable  service 
to  the  science  of  botany,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
which  were  inserted  in  the  collection  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.     Died  in  1799. 

See  Chai-LAN,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  L.  G.  Lemonnier," 
1800. 

Le  Monnier,  (Pierre,)  a  French  astronomer,  born 
m  Normandy  in  1675.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  the  College  of  Harcourt,  and  published  a  work  called 
"  Course  of  Philosophy,"  ("  Cursus  Philosophise,"  6  vols., 
1750.)     Died  in  1757. 

Lemonnier  or  Le  Monnier,  (Pierre  Charles,)  a 
distinguished  French  astronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  171 5, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1736,  and  assisted  Mau- 
pertuis  and  Clairaut  in  measuring  a  degree  of  the  me- 
ridian at  Tornei,  within  the  polar  circle,  in  1736-37.  In 
1746  he  ascertained  the  inequalities  of  Saturn  caused  by 
the  attraction  of  Jupiter,  and  in  1748,  during  an  eclipse, 
measured  the  diameter  of  the  moon  on  the  disc  of  the 
sun.  He  was  for  many  years  a  professor  of  physics 
in  the  College  of  France.  He  published  "  Histoire  ce- 
leste," (1741,)  "Astronomic  Institutes,"  ("Institutions 
astronomiques,"  1746,)  a  good  elementary  work  on 
astronomy,  "Nautical  Astronomy,"  (1771,)  and  othei 
treatises  on  astronomy,  navigation,  etc.     Died  in  1799. 

SeeLALANDE,  "  Bibliographie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdndrale.' 

Lemontey,  leh-mAN'ti',  (Pierre  Sdouard,)  an  ablo 
French  historical  writer  and  lawyer,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1762.  He  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 
1 791.  During  the  empire  he  gained  the  confidence  of 
Napoleon,  who  ordered  him  to  write  tlie  "  History  of 
France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century."  He  publjshed  in 
1818  an  "Essay  on  the  Monarchical  Sy?>\.tm  ( Etablisse- 
vient)  of  Louis  XIV.,"  and  was  admitted  into  the  French 


€  as  /6;  9  as  J,  g  hard;  g  zs,j;  G,  h,  K.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  ihis.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ' 


LEMOS 


1524 


LENIENT 


Academy  in  1819.  Died  in  1826.  In  1832  appeared  his 
"History  of  the  Regency  and  the  Minority  of  Louis 
XV.,"  a  part  of  his  unfinished  "  History  of  France." 

See  ViLLEMAiN,  "  Discours  prononc^  aux  Fun^railles  de  Lemon- 
tey;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ierale;"  Passeron,  "Notice  sur 
Lemontey." 

Lemos,  la'm6s,  (Tomas,)  a  Spanish  theologian,  born 
in  Galicia,  was  professor  at  Valladolid  in  1594  when  the 
Thomists  and  Molinists  began  a  controversy  about  grace. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  favour  of  the  former,  and 
wrote  many  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  "  Panoply 
of  Grace,"  ("  Panoplia  Gratiae,"  1676.)     Died  in  1629. 

Lemos,  de,  di  la'mis,  (Don  Pedro  Fernandez  de 
Castro,)  Count,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Madrid 
about  1564.  He  became  president  of  the  Council  of  the 
Indies  in  1603,  and  Viceroy  of  Naples  about  1610.  lie 
was  a  patron  of  Cervantes.     Died  in  1634. 

Lemot,  leh-mo',  (Franqois  Fr6d6ric,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Lyons  in  1773.  Having  gained  the 
grand  prize  about  1790,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 
He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris,  and  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute.  Among  his  admired  works  arc 
statues  of  Henry  IV.,  Lycurgus,  Leonidas,  Brutus,  and 
Cicero.     Died  in  1827. 

See  J.  S.  Passeron',  "  Notice  sur  Lemot" 

Lemoyne.    See  Lemoine. 

Lemoyne,  leh-mwan',  (Camille  Andr£,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Saint-Jean-d'Angely  in  1S22.  He  studied 
law,  but  became  a  printer.  He  published  "  Stella  Maris 
— Ecce  Homo — Renoucement,"  etc.,  (i860,)  "  Les  Roses 
d'Antan,"  a  novel,  (1865,)  "  Une  Idylle  normande," 
(1874,)  etc.  His  poetry  is  remarkable  for  its  careful 
finish  and  refinement. 

Lemoyne,  leh-mwtn',  (Je.\n  Baptiste,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1704;  died  in  1778. 

Lemoyne,  (Jean  Baptiste  Moyxe,)  a  French  com- 
poser, born  in  Perigord  in  1751.  He  composed  "  Phedre," 
(1786,)  and  other  successful  operas.  The  poem  of 
"Phedre"  was  written  by  Hoffman.     Died  in  1796. 

L'Empereur.     See  E.mpereur,  L'. 

Lempriere,  l§m'pre-er  or  Igm-preer',  (John,)  D.D., 
a  teacher  and  classical  scholar,  born  in  the  island  of 
Jersey  about  1760.  He  published  in  i7S8an  excellent 
classical  dictionary,  which  has  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity 
and  is  still  in  e-xtensive  use.  After  acting  as  master  of 
the  grammar-school  at  Exeter,  he  obtained  the  rectory 
of  Meeth,  in  Devonshire,  about  181 1.  He  also  ])ub 
lished  a  "Universal  Biography,"  (1808.)     Died  in  1824. 

Lem'u-res,  [Fr.  L6mures,  li'miiR',]  a  name  applied 
by  the  ancient  Romans  to  spectres  or  departed  spirits, 
which,  as  they  believed,  returned  to  the  world.  If  benefi- 
cent, they  were  called  Lares;  and  if  malign,  Larvte. 
.Some  authors,  however,  considered  the  Lemures  and 
I^rvce  as  identical.  To  propitiate  them  or  counteract 
their  influence,  solemn  rites  were  annually  performed. 

Leneeus,  le-nee'us,  (Pompeius,)  a  grammarian,  born 
at  Athens,  lived  about  50  B.C.  He  was  once  a  slave  of 
Pompey  the  Great,  who  liberated  him.  He  defended 
Pomjiey  against  the  charges  of  Sallust. 

Lenain.    See  Tillemo.nt. 

Lenau,  la'now,  (Nikolaus,)  an  eminent  poet,  born 
in  Hungary,  August  15,  1802.  His  family  name  in  full 
was  NiEMBSCH  von  Strehlenau,  (neempsh  fon  stRa'- 
leh-now'.)  After  he  left  the  University  of  Vienna  he 
studied  law,  medicine,  and  natural  sciences,  and  visited 
the  United  States  in  1832.  He  produced  about  1832  a 
collection  of  lyric  poems  in  German,  which  had  great 
success.  He  also  wrote  several  epic  poems,  among 
which  is  "The  Albigenses,"  ("Die  Albi^enser,"  1841.) 
He  is  ranked  by  the  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale" 
among  the  first  lyric  poets  of  Germany.     Died  in  1850. 

See  Uffo  Horn-,  "  N.  Lenau,  seine  Ansichten  und  Tendenzen," 
1838;  Theodor  Opitz,  "  N.  Lenau;  ansriihrliche  Characteristik 
des  Dicliters,"  1850;  L.  A.  Frankl,  "Zu  Lenau's  Biograpliie," 
1854. 

Lenclos  or  L'Enclos,  de,  deh  IfiN'klo',  (Anne; 
commonly  called  Ninon,)  a  French' courtesan,  celebrated 
for  her  wit  and  beauty,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1620.  She 
was  courted  by  many  men  of  high  rank  and  of  eminent 
talents,  with  whom  she  formed  liaisons.  Among  her 
female  friends  were  Madame  de  Maintenon  and  Madame 


de  La  Fayette.  She  was  never  married.  It  appears  that 
venality  was  not  one  of  her  vices.  Her  letters  are 
marked  by  an  elegant  simplicity  of  style.  Moliere  is 
said  to  have  had  such  a  high  opinion  of  her  literary 
taste  that  he  often  consulted  her.     Died  in  1706. 

See  Bret,  "M^moire  sur  Ninon  de  L'Enclos,"  1750;  Guyon  db 
SARDifeuE,  "  Vie  de  Ninon  de  L'Enclos;"  L.  Damours,  "  Lettres 
de  Ninon  de  Lenclos  au  Marquis  de  Sevign(5,  augmentees  de  sa  Vie," 
2  vols.,  1752,  (translated  into  English,  London,  1761.) 

Lenet,  leh-nA',  (Pierre,)  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Dijon,  was  devoted  to  the  Prince  of  Conde  during  the 
war  of  the  Fronde.  He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Civil 
War  which  began  in  1649,"  (2  vols,,  1729.)    Died  in  1671. 

Le  Neve,  leh-neev',  (John,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  about  1679.  He  published  "  Fasti  Ecclesiae  Angli- 
canae."     Died  about  1740. 

Le  Neve,  (Peter,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1662,  became  Norroy  king-at-arms.     Died  in  1729. 

Lenfant,  16N'f6N',  (Alexandre  Charles  Anne,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  eminent  as  a  preacher,  was  born  at  Lyons 
in  1726.  He  preached  in  Paris  and  other  cities,  and 
was  reputed  one  of  the  most  eloquent  pulpit  orators  of 
his  time.  He  was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  massacre 
in  Paris  in  September,  1792. 

Lenfant,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  of 
great  merit,  born  at  Bazoche  in  1661.  He  was  educated 
at  Saumur  and  Geneva,  and  in  1689  removed  to  Berlin, 
where  he  preached  forty  years.  About  1705  he  became 
chaplain  to  Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  and  in  1724 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  valuable  works,  among  which 
are  a  "  History  of  the  Council  of  Constance,"  (2  vols., 
1714,)  a  "Preventive  against  Reunion  with  the  See  of 
Rome,"  (1723,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Hussites  and  of  the  Council  of  Basle,"  (2  vols.,  1731.) 
In  partnership  with  Beausobre,  he  produced  a  French 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with  notes  and  a 
learned  introduction  by  Lenfant,  (1718.)  Died  in  1728. 
His  histories  are  admitted  to  be  impartial  and  moderate. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Haag,  "La  F"rance  protestante." 

Leng,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  born  at  Norwich 
in  1665.  He  became  chaplain  to  George  I.,  who  ap>- 
pointed  him  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1723.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  (1695,)  and  a 
good  edition  of  Terence,  (1701.)     Died  in  1727. 

Lengard.     See  Lennard. 

Lengerke,  von,  fon  l?ng'er-keh,  (Alexander,)  a 
celebrated  agricultural  writer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1802. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  the  "Agricultural  Con- 
versations-Lexicon," (4  vols.,  1835-38.)     Died  in  1853. 

Lengerke,  von,  (  Casar,  )  a  learned  theologian, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1803. 
Mis  principal  works  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Prophet 
Daniel  and  the  Psalms."    Died  in  iS^iS- 

Lenglet-Dufresnoy,  IftN'gl.V  dii'fRi'nwS',  (NicoL.'^s,) 
a  French  abbe,  noted  as  a  voluminous  and  sarcastic  writer, 
was  born  at  Beauvais  (Oise)  in  1674.  He  was  several 
times  confined  in  the  Bastille  for  his  freedom  or  impru- 
dence as  a  writer.  He  displayed  great  erudition  in  his 
numerous  works,  which  are  chiefly  historical.  Among 
his  most  important  works  are  "Method  for  the  Study 
of  History"  (2  vols.,  1713)  and  "Method  for  the  Study 
of  Geography,"  (4  vols.,  1716.)  He  also  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Hermetic  Philosophy,"  (3  vols.,  1742,)  and 
edited  the  works  of  various  authors.     Died  in  1755. 

See  MiCHAULT,  "  Memoire  de  Lenglet-Dufresnoy,"  1761 ;  Qvk- 
RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Lengnich,  ISng'niK,  (Gottfried,)  a  Prussian  his 
torian  and  publicist,  born  at  Dantzic  about  169c.  He 
published  a  "History  of  Polish  Prussia  from  1526  to 
1748,"  (9  vols.,  1723-48,)  "The  Public  Law  of  Poland," 
(1742,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1774. 

Lengnich,  (Karl  Benjamin,)  a  German  numismatist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1742  ;  died  in  1795. 

Lenhossek,  de,  deh  l§n-hosh'gk,  ?  (Michael,)  a 
Hungarian  physician,  born  at  Presburg  in  1773.  He 
obtained  the  title  of  first  ])hysician  of  Hungary,  and 
published  many  able  professional  works.     Died  in  1840. 

Lenient,  leh-ne-4N',  (Charles  F£lix,)  a  French 
critic,  born  at  Provins,  November  24,  1S26.  He  was 
educated  in  the  great  schools  of  Paris   and  held  proles- 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sAori;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LENNARD 


1525 


LENOX 


sorships  of  rhetoric  and  French  poetry  in  the  Ecole 
normale.  He  wrote  two  admirable  historical  treatises 
(1859,  1S66)  on  "  Satire  in  France." 

Len'nard  or  Lengard,  ISng'gard,  (Sampson,)  an 
English  antiquary,  who  fought  under  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
at  Zutphen.  He  translated  from  the  French  Charron's 
"La  Sagesse,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1633. 

Lenne,  lA'ni',  (Peter  Joseph,)  born  at  Bonn  in  1789, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  throughout  Germany  for  his 
skill  and  taste  in  landscape-gardening.     Died  in  1866. 

Lennep,  van,  vSn  len'nep,  (David  Jacob,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1774.  He 
became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Leyden,  and  was 
eminent  as  a  classical  scholar.  He  wrote  philological 
essays  and  elegant  verses,  and  published  editions  of 
Hesiod  and  of  Ovid.     Died  in  1853. 

See  KoENEN,  "  Lijkrede  op  D.  J.  van  Lennep,"  1853. 

Len'nep,  van,  (Henry  John,)  D.D.,  an  American 
missionary,  born  at  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor,  March  8,  1815. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1837.  From  1840 
to  1859  he  was  chiefly  engaged  as  a  Congregationalist 
missionary  in  Turkey.  He  published  "Travels  in  Asia 
Minor,"  "Bible  Lands,"  "Ten  Days  among  Greek  Brig- 
ands," etc. 

Lennep,  van,  (Jacob,)  a  celebrated  novelist,  a  son  of 
D.  J.  van  Lennep,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1802.  He 
chose  the  profession  of  the  law,  in  which  he  attained 
eminence.  Among  his  early  productions  are  poems 
entitled  "  National  Legends,"  ("  Vaderlandsche  Legen- 
den.")  In  1830  he  produced  "The  Village  on  the 
Frontier,"  a  political  farce,  which  had  immense  success. 
He  published  many  popular  novels,  among  which  are 
"Our  Forefathers,"  ("  Onze  Voorouders,")  and  "The 
Rose  of  Dekama."  He  translated  into  Dutch  some  plays 
of  Shakspeare,  and  poems  of  Byron  and  Tennyson.  He 
died  August  26,  1868. 

Lennep,  van,  (Jan  Daniel,)  a  Dutch  linguist  and 
critic,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1724.  He  was  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Groningen  from  1752  to  1768.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  by  a  work  "On  the  Analogy 
of  the  Greek  Language,"  and  by  his  "Etymology  of  the 
Greek  Language,"  ("Etymologicum  Linguae  Graecas,") 
(published  by  Scheide,  2  vols.,  1790.)     Died  in  1 771. 

See  Sax,  "Onomasticon." 

Lenngren,  l^n'gR5n,(ANNA  Maria,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
originally  named  Malnistedt,  (mSlm'stSt,)  born  at  Upsal 
in  1754,  was  the  author  of  poems  of  a  humorous  character. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Len'noz,  (Charlotte,)  an  ingenious  authoress,  born 
at  New  York  in  1720,  was  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Ram- 
say, lieutenant-governor  of  that  place.  She  went  to  Eng- 
land in  her  youth,  and  appears  to  have  been  dependent 
on  her  literary  talents  for  support  before  and  after  her 
marriage  with  Mr.  Lenno.x.  She  wrote  "The  Female 
Quixote,"  (1752,)  "  Henrietta,"  a  successful  novel,  (1758,) 
and  other  works  of  fiction.  In  1753  she  published 
"  Shakspeare  Illustrated,"  a  collection  of  tales  on  which 
the  plays  of  that  dramatist  are  founded,  translated  from 
various  languages.  She  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Dr. 
Johnson,  who  expressed  a  high  opinion  of  her  works. 
Died  in  1804. 

Lennox,  (Lord  William  Pitt,)  an  English  novelist 
•and  writer  on  sporting  matters,  born  in  1799.  He  was 
a  younger  son  of  the  fourth  Earl  of  Richmond.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "Compton  Audley,"  (1S41,) 
"The  Tuft-Hunter,"  (1843,)  "The  Story  of  my  Life," 
(1857,)  "  Merrie  England,  its  Sports  and  Pastimes," 
(1857,)  "Drafts  on  my  Memory,"  (1865,)  etc.  Died 
February  18,  1881. 

Lenoble,  leh-nobK,  (Eustache,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Troyes  in  1643.  He  wrote  many  works  in  prison, 
where  he  was  confined  for  forgery,  and  acquired  some 
popularity  as  a  gay,  sprightly  writer.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Political  Dialogues,"  (1690,)  and  "The  School  of  the 
World."     Died  in  1711. 

Lenoir,  leh-nwSR',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  In  the  Revolution  he 
saved  from  destruction  many  monuments  and  works  of 
art  found  in  convents  and  churches.  He  was  chosen 
keeper  (adniinistrateur)  of  the  Museum  of  French  Monu- 


ments in  1801.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"History  of  Painting  on  Glass,"  (1804,)  and  a  "History 
of  the  Arts  in  France  proved  by  Monuments,"  (iSic,) 
Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Lenoir,  (Alexandre  Albert,)  an  architect,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  was 
architect  of. the  museum  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Palais  des  Thermes  with  the  Hotel  de  Cluny. 

Lenoir,  (Etienne,)  a  Frenchman  distinguished  for 
his  skill  in  the  fabrication  of  astronomical  and  mathe- 
matical instruments,  was  born  at  Mer  in  1744.  He  fur- 
nished the  instruments  for  the  expeditions  of  La  Perouse 
and  Baudin,  and  those  used  by  the  savants  whom  Bona- 
parte took  to  Egypt  in  1798.     Died  in  1832. 

Lenoir,  (Nicolas,)  called  Le  Romain,  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  was  employed  as  an 
architect  by  Voltaire  at  Ferney.     Died  in  1810. 

Lenormand,  leh-noR'm6N',  (Marie  Anne  Ade- 
laide,) a  French  fortune-teller,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1772. 
She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Em- 
press Josephine,"  (1829,)  which  has  been  translated  into 
English.     Died  in  1843. 

See  F.  GiRAULT,  "  Mademoiselle  Le  Normand.sa  Biographie,  ses 
Predictions,"  etc.,  1843. 

Lenormant,  leh-noR'm6N',  (Charles,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  accompanied 
Champollion  to  Egypt  in  1828,  and  was  chosen  a  substi- 
tute of  Guizot  as  professor  of  history  in  Paris  in  1835. 
He  wrote  an  "  Introduction  to  Oriental  History,"  (1838,) 
and  other  works.     Died  November  24,  1859. 

Lenormant,  (FRANgois,)  an  eminent  French  archae- 
ologist, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris,  Jan- 
uary 17,  1837.  He  began  his  archasologistic  studies 
when  very  young.  In  1874  he  was  made  professor  of 
archaeology  in  the  National  Library.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Lettres  assyriologiques  et  epigraphiques,"  (4  vols., 
1871-72,)  "  Les  premieres  Civilisations,"  (1S74,)  "  Etudes 
accadiennes,"  (1875,)  "Etude  sur  quelques  Parties  des 
Syllabaires  cuneiformes,"  (1877,)  "  Les  Origines  de  I'His- 
toire  d'apres  la  Bible,"  etc.     Died  December  9,  1SS3. 

Lendtre,  leh-notR',  (Andr6,)  a  French  architect  and 
designer  of  the  royal  gardens,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1613. 
He  displayed  his  inventive  genius  in  adorning  the  park 
and  garden  of  Versailles  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  designed 
or  embellished  other  royal  gardens  at  Chantilly,  Saint- 
Cloud,  and  the  Tuileries.  In  1675  the  king  granted 
him  letters  of  nobility.  Died  in  1700.  "The  gardens 
of  the  Tuileries  and  of  Versailles,"  says  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  "  will  always  be  the  master-pieces  of  the 
style  invented  by  Lenotre." 

See,  also,  Mor^ri,  "  Dlctionnaire  Historique ;"  "  NouvelI.e  Bio- 
graphie G^nerale." 

Lenourry,  leh-noo're',  (Denis  Nicolas,)  a  learned 
French  monk,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1647.  He  devoted 
many  years  to  a  work  entitled  "Apparatus  ad  Bibliothe- 
cam  maximam  Patrum  Veterum,"etc.,  (2  vols.,  1694-97,) 
which  contains  critical  dissertations  on  the  works  of  the 
Fathers.     Died  in  1 724. 

Len'ox,  (James,)  the  founder  of  the  Lenox  Library  in 
New  York,  was  born  about  iSoo.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
wealthy  merchant  of  New  York,  of  Scottish  birth.  James 
Lenox  made  a  splendid  collection  of  rare  books.  In 
1870  this  collection  was  turned  over  to  a  corporation 
and  was  made  the  nucleus  of  a  free  library.  Mr.  Lenox 
also  built  for  the  library  a  handsome  building,  worth, 
with  the  land  it  occupies,  one  million  two  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  building  was  finished  iii  1877.  Mr. 
Lenox  died  in  1880. 

Lgn'ox,  (Maithew  Stuart,)  Earl  of,  a  Scottish 
nobleman,  was  the  father  of  Lord  Darnley.  In  1544  he 
was  driven  out  of  Scotland  by  the  hostility  of  the  regent 
Arran,  and  went  to  the  court  of  Henry  VHI.,  who  gave 
him  his  niece  Margaret  Douglas  in  marriage.  He  was 
invited  to  return  to  Scotland  with  his  son  in  1564.  In 
1570  he  was  chosen  Regent  of  Scotland  by  the  party 
which  was  hostile  to  Queen  Mary.  Her  partisans  sur- 
prised him  at  Stirling  in  1572,  and,  perceiving  that  his 
friends  were  likely  to  rescue  him,  instantly  put  him  to 
death. 


*  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h.  k.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LENS 


1526 


LEO 


Lens,  IJns  or  15n,  (Andreas  Cornelis,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1739.  He  worked  in  Brus- 
sels, and  painted  history  and  portraits.  He  excelled  in 
design,  colouring,  and  chiaroscuro.     Died  in  1822. 

See  De  Stassart,  "A.  C.  Lens,"  1846. 

Lens,  (Bernard,)  a  Belgian  painter  and  engraver, 
excelled  in  miniature.  He  became  court  painter  to 
George  H.  of  England.     Died  in  1741. 

Lenstrom  orLenstroem,  l^n'strom,  (Karl  Julius,) 
a  Swedish  writer,  born  at  Gefle  in  181 1.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  his  native  place,  and  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Theories 
of  Art,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  and  a  "History  of  Swedish 
Poetry,"  (1840.) 

Lenthal  or  Lenthall,  l?nt'al,  ?  (William,)  an  English 
statesman  and  lawyer,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1591.  He 
was  returned  to  Parliament  in  1639,  and  in  1640  was 
chosen  Speaker  of  the  Commons  by  the  popular  or  re- 
publican party.  When  the  king  attempted  to  arrest 
Hampden,  and  four  other  members,  in  the  House,  and 
asked  Lenthal  if  they  were  present,  he  prudently  re- 
plied, "  I  have  neither  eyes  to  see  nor  tongue  to  speak 
in  this  place,  but  as  the  House,  whose  servant  I  am,  is 
pleased  to  direct  me."  In  1653  he  ceased  to  be  Speaker, 
the  Parliament  having  been  violently  dissolved  by  Crom- 
well, but  was  elected  by  the  new  House  to  the  same 
office  in  1654.  He  also  acted  as  Speaker  for  a  short 
time  in  1660,  before  Charles  H.  was  restored.  Died  in 
1682,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1662. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Clarendon,  "History  of 
the  Rebellion." 

Len'tu-lus,  the  name  of  a  noble  Roman  family,  a 
branch  of  the  gens  Cornelia,  which  produced  several 
distinguished  men.  Publius  Cornelius  Lentulus 
Sura,  a  man  of  corrupt  character  but  popular  manners, 
was  chosen  consul  in  73  B.a,  and  was  afterwards  ex- 
pelled from  the  senate  for  some  misconduct.  He  was 
an  accomplice  in  Catiline's  conspiracy,  and  was  per- 
suaded by  the  soothsayers  that  he  was  the  third  member 
of  the  Cornelia  gens  destined  by  the  fates  to  have  the 
chief  power  in  Rome.  By  the  orders  of  Cicero  and  the 
senate,  he  was  put  to  death  in  62  B.C. 

P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Spinther  was  consul  in 
57  B.C.,  when  he  promoted  the  recall  of  Cicero.  In  the 
civil  war  he  took  arms  for  Pompey,  was  made  prisoner 
and  liberated  by  Caesar,  but  fought  for  Pompey  at  Phar- 
salia,  and  fled  to  Rhodes.  Nothing  further  is  known 
respecting  him. 

Lentulus,  Ign'too-lus,  (Cyriacus,)  a  German  publi- 
cist, born  at  Elbingen  about  1620.  He  published,  in  Latin, 
"Arcana  of  Kingdoms  and  Republics,"  (1653,)  and  "The 
Absolute  Prince,"  (1663,)  which,  with  his  other  works, 
form  an  ample  commentary  on  Tacitus.     Died  in  167S. 

Lenz,  lints,  (Heinrich  Friedrich  Emil,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Dorpat  in  1804,  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1834,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  medicine 
at  the  university  in  that  city,  and  numbered  among  b-s 
pupils  the  imperial  princes. 

Lenz,  (Jakob  Michael  Reinhold,)  a  German  poet 
and  intimate  friend  of  Goethe,  born  in  Livonia  in  1750. 
He  became  insane  in  consequence  of  an  unrequited 
passion  for  Frederica  Brion,  who  has  been  celebrated 
by  Goethe.     He  wrote  several  comedies.     Died  in  1792. 

See  A.  Stober,  "Der  Dichter  Lenz  und  Friederike  von  Sesen- 
heim,"  1842. 

Lenz,  (Karl  Gotthold,)  a  German  philologist  and 
writer,  born  at  Gera  in  1763  ;  died  at  Gotha  in  1809. 

Leuz,  (Oskar,)  an  Austrian  geologist,  born  in  1S48. 
Since  1874  he  has  made  extensive  explorations  in  West 
Africa, 

Lenz,  (Samuel,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Stend^l 
in  16S6  ;  died  about  1760. 

See  Hugh,  "  S.  Lenz's  Leben,"  1758. 

Le'o  [Fr.  L60N,  I^'An']  L,  Fla'vl-us,  Emperor  01 
Constantinople,  was  a  native  of  Thrace.  At  the  death  of 
Marcianus,  in  457  a.d.,  he  held  a  high  rank  in  the  army, 
by  which  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Aspar,  who  designed  to  make  him  only  a  nominal 


monarch.  Having  gained  a  victory  over  the  Huns,  he 
sent  an  expedition  against  Genseric  in  Africa,  which  was 
unsuccessful.  He  is  represented  as  an  able  ruler.  He 
died  in  474  a.d.,  having  named  as  his  successor  his 
grandson,  Leo,  an  infant,  who  died  after  a  nominal  reign 
of  a  few  months.  Zeno,  the  father  of  Leo  II.,  then  began 
to  reign. 

See  Gi  BBON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Lb  Bk/  u, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire,"  edited  by  Saint-Martin. 

Leo  H., born  about  470  a.d.,  succeeded  Leo  I.  in 474, 
and  died  the  same  year. 

Leo  IIL,  called  Isau'ricus,  one  of  the  most  able 
emperors  of  the  East,  was  born  in  Isauria,  of  obscure 
parentage.  In  the  army  of  Justinian  II.  he  rose  to  the 
highest  rank.  When  Anastasius  II.  was  dethroned,  in 
716  A.D.,  Leo  and  Theodosius  aspired  to  succeed  ;  and 
the  former  prevailed  in  717.  The  first  important  event 
of  his  reign  was  his  great  victory  over  the  .Saracens,  who 
hnd  besieged  Constantinople  for  two  years,  (718-19.) 
The  prosperity  of  his  reign  was  soon  blasted  by  a  dis- 
pute about  the  use  of  images,  which  Leo  prohibited 
in  727,  and  which  the  Greek  patriarch  and  the  pope 
defended.  Thus  began  the  schism  of  the  Iconoclasts, 
which  convulsed  the  empire  with  persecutions,  revolts, 
and  great  calamities  to  the  end  of  his  reign,  and  caused 
the  final  separation  of  the  Latin  from  the  Greek  Church. 
He  died  in  741  a.d.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Constantine  Copronymus. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  Le  Bbau, 
"Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Theophanes,  "History;"  "  NouveU* 
Biographie  Generale." 

Leo  IV.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  born  in  751 
A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Constantine  Copronymus,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  775.  His  wife  was  the  ambitious  Irene. 
He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclaf*:,  and  is  charged  with  perse- 
cuting the  orthodox  or  image-worshippers.  He  died  in 
780,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  minor  son,  Constantine  VI. 
See  Cedrenus,  "  History." 

Leo  v..  Emperor  of  the  East,  is  called  the  Armenian, 
because  his  father  was  a  native  of  Armenia.  Supported 
b)  the  army,  which  he  had  corrupted,  he  rebelled  against 
Michael  Rangabe,  and  usurped  the  throne,  in  813  a.d. 
He  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  who  invaded  his  dominions, 
in  814.  He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast,  and  violently  per- 
secuted the  image-worshippers,  who  appear  to  have  been 
the  majority.  He  was  assassinated  in  820  a.d.,  and 
Michael  the  Stammerer  became  emperor. 

Leo  VL,  surnamed  THE  Philosopher,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  born  in  865  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  Basilius  the 
Macedonian,  whom  he  succeeded  in  886.  He  exiled  the 
patriarch  Photius.  His  empire  was  invaded  by  the  Sara- 
cens, who  gained  several  victories.  After  a  weak  and 
inglorious  reign,  he  died  in  911,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  Leo  was  more 
successful  as  an  author  than  as  a  ruler.  He  wrote  an 
esteemed  treatise  on  Tactics,  a  poem  on  the  desolation 
of  Greece,  moral  discourses,  and  other  works. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lk 
Beau,  "Histoire du  Bas-Empire  ;"  Fabricius,"  BibliothecaGraca." 

Le'o  [Fr.  LfioN,  1^'6n';  It.  Leone,  li-o'ni ;  Sp.  Leon, 
ii-An';  Port.  Leao,  li-6wN']  L,  Pope,  called  the 
Great,  an  ambitious  and  able  pontiflf,  was  a  native  of 
Rome,  and  was  chosen  bishop  of  that  see  in  440  a.d.,  as 
successor  to  Si.xtus  III.  His  talents  and  learning  had . 
been  approved  in  several  important  missions.  In  445 
he  reversed  the  decision  of  Hilaire,  (Hilarius,)  a  French 
bishop,  on  a  question  of  discipline.  It  was  the  con- 
stant aim  of  his  policy  to  promote  the  supremacy  of  the 
Bishops  of  Rome.  He  pronounced  against  the  heresy 
of  Eutyches,  which  was  condemned  in  the  cecumenic 
Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  Tradition  informs  us  that 
Attila,  marching  against  Rome  in  452,  was  persuaded 
by  the  prayers  of  Leo  to  spare  that  city.  He  failed 
to  prevent  the  pillage  of  Rome  by  the  Vandal  king 
Genseric  in  455.  He  died  in  461  a.d.,  leaving  many 
sermons  and  epistles,  which  are  valuable  for  the  light 
they  throw  on  the  history  of  the  age.  Hilarius  I.  was 
his  successor. 

See  P.  DE  Mornav,  "  Histoire  pontificale,"  1612 ;  P.  Dumoulim, 
"Vie  et  Religion  de  deux  bons  Papes,  Leon  I  et  Gr^goire  I,"  1650^ 


I 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


LEO 


1527 


LEO 


Leo  H.,  Pope,  a  native  of  Sicily,  succeeded  Agathon 
in  682  A.D.  He  is  praised  for  virtues  and  learning  by 
Catholic  writers.  He  died  in  May,  6S4,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Benedict  H. 

Leo  IIL,  a  Roman  by  birth,  was  chosen  pope  in  795 
A.D.,  in  place  of  Adrian  I.  His  first  act  was  the  recog- 
nition of  his  subjection  or  allegiance  to  Charlemagne,  to 
whom  he  sent  the  keys  of  Saint  Peter's.  In  799  he  was 
attacked  by  a  band  of  conspirators,  and  escaped  with 
several  wounds.  Charlemagne  visited  Rome  in  800,  and 
was  crowned  by  the  pope  as  Emperor  of  the  Romans, 
with  the  title  of  Augustus.  Thus  the  Western  Empire 
was  restored,  after  it  had  been  subverted  three  hundred 
and  twenty-five  years.  Leo  died  in  816  A.D.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Stephen  IV. 

See  J.  G.  Fader,  "Dissertatio  de  Leone  III.  Papa  Romano." 
1748. 

Leo  IV.,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  chosen  pope  in  847 
A.D.,  in  place  of  Sergius  II.  He  bravely  defended  Rome 
against  the  Saracens,  who,  however,  pillaged  the  basilica 
of  Saint  Peter.  He  built  a  suburb  of  his  capital,  which 
was  named  Leonina.  His  character  is  said  to  have  been 
good.  He  died  in  855,  and  was  succeeded  by  Benedict 
III.  The  fabulous  female  pope  Joan  was  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  the  successor  of  Leo  IV. 

See  Baronius,  "Annales." 

Leo  v.,  a  native  of  Ardea,  was  elected  pope  in  903 
A.D.,  after  the  death  of  Benedict  IV.  About  two  months 
after  his  election  he  was  deposed  by  his  rival  Christopher, 
and  died  in  prison,  according  to  one  account,  in  903. 

Leo  VL  succeeded  John  X.  in  928  a.d.,  when  the 
Church  was  in  a  deplorable  state  and  Italy  was  filled 
with  disorder.  After  a  reign  of  seven  months,  he  died, 
in  929,  and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VII. 

Leo  VIL  was  chosen  pope  after  the  death  of  John 
XL,  in  937  A.D.  He  has  the  reputation  of  a  wise  and 
pious  pontiff.  His  reign  was  not  marked  by  important 
events.  He  died  in  939,  and  Stephen  VIII.  then  became 
pope. 

Leo  VTIL  was  elected  pope  in  963  A.D.,  in  place  of 
John  XII.,  who  had  been  deposed  by  a  council.  John 
returned,  expelled  Leo  from  Rome,  and  held  the  place 
until  his  death,  in  964.  The  Romans  then  elected  Bene- 
dict V. ;  but  Leo  was  restored  by  the  emperor  Otho.  He 
died  in  965,  and  was  succeded  by  John  XIII. 

See  Platina,  "Vitas  Pontificum  Romanorum." 

Leo  IX.,  originally  Bruno,  bRoo'no,  was  born  in 
Alsace  in  1002,  and  was  a  cousin-german  of  the  emperor 
Conrad  the  Salic.  He  was  noted  for  learning,  and  be- 
came Bishop  of  Toul.  In  1049  he  succeeded  Damasus 
II.  He  held  frequent  councils,  and  laboured  zealously 
to  reform  the  morals  of  the  clergy  Having  raised  an 
army  to  oppose  the  Normans,  he  was  defeated  by  them 
and  made  prisoner,  but  was  at  last  released.  He  died  in 
1054,  and  was  succeeded  by  Victor  II. 

See  F.  X.  Hunkler,  "  Leo  IX.  und  seine  Zeit,"  1851 ;  MuRA- 
TORi,  "  Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptores,"  vol.  iii.,  1733. 

Leo  X.,  (Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  Medici — di  m?d'- 
ee-chee,)  celebrated  as  a  munificent  patron  of  literature 
and  the  arts,  the  second  son  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  (the 
Magnificent,)  was  born  at  Florence  in  1475.  He  was 
created  a  cardinal  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  In  1512  he 
was  made  prisoner  by  the  French  at  Ravenna,  but  soon 
regained  his  liberty.  Julius  II.  having  died.  Cardinal  de' 
Medici  was  elected  pope,  March  11,  1513,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Leo  X.  He  announced  his  patronage  of 
literature  by  choosing  two  eminent  authors,  Bembo  and 
Sadolet,  as  his  apostolical  secretaries.  The  pontificate  of 
Leo  is  a  memorable  epoch  in  religion,  politics,  and  the  fine 
arts.  In  15 15  he  negotiated  and  signed,  with  Francis  I.  of 
France,  an  important  concordat,  which  remained  in  force 
nearly  three  centuries  and  gave  to  the  king  the  right  of 
nominating  bishops  in  his  own  dominions.  One  of  the 
most  momentous  acts  of  his  administration  was  the  im- 
mense issue  and  sale  of  indulgences,which  were  authorized 
in  1517,  (ostensibly  for  the  completion  of  the  cathedral 
of  Saint  Peter's,)  and  which  impelled  Luther  to  denounce 
the  corruptions  and  defy  the  power  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  (See  Luther.)  He  is  censured  by  many  Catho- 
lics for  his  lenity  towards  Luther.  By  violence  and  craft 
he  annexed  Urbino  and  Perugia  to  the  Papal  State.     In 


1521  he  made  a  treaty  with  Charles  V.,  and  became  the 
ally  of  that  prince  in  a  war  against  Francis  I.  The 
capture  of  Milan  had  just  been  achieved  by  the  allies, 
when  Leo  died  in  December,  1521,  not  without  suspicion 
of  poison.  He  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  VI.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  Leo  was  rather  worldly  and 
luxurious  as  the  head  of  the  Church.  His  fondness  for 
buffoonery  gave  much  offence  to  the  stricter  Catholics. 
As  a  temporal  ruler  he  is  considered  more  meritorious. 
Under  his  auspices  Michael  Angelo  obtained  celebrity 
at  Florence  and  the  splendid  works  of  Raphael  were 
completed  in  the  Vatican.  He  restored  its  alienated 
revenues  to  the  Roman  University,  in  which  one  hundred 
professors  received  salaries,  founded  a  Greek  college  at 
Rome,  and  liberally  patronized  poets,  scholars,  and 
artists.  The  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  in  which  learn- 
ing and  art  flourished  most  remarkably  is  generally 
designated  as  the  "age  of  Leo  the  Tenth." 

SeeW.  RoscoE,  "  Life  of  Leo  X.,"  3d  edition,  i?4o;  A.  Fabroni, 
"  VitaLeonisX.,"  1797;  Audin,  "  Histoirede  L^onX,"  1844;  Paulo 
Giovio,  "Vita  Leonis  X.,"  1651 ;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire 
des  souverains  Pontifes,"  vol.  iv. :  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary:"  Guicciardini,  "  Istoria  d'ltalia  ;"  Ranke,  "History 
of  the  Popes;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January',  1806;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  1806. 

Leo  XI.,  (Cardinal  Alessandko  de'  Medici — di 
m§d'e-chee,)  was  advanced  in  years  when  he  succeeded 
Clement  VIII.  on  the  ist  of  April,  1605.  He  died  on 
the  27th  of  the  same  month,  probably  from  the  fatigue 
of  the  coronation.  He  had  been  legate  to  France  under 
Clement  VIII.,  and  had  the  reputation  of  a  virtuous  and 
moderate  prelate.     Paul  V.  was  his  successor. 

Leo  XII.,  (Cardinal  Annibale  della  Genga — del'ld 
j^n'ga,)  was  born  in  the  district  of  Spoleto  in  1760.  Having 
acted  for  some  years  as  nuncio  in  Germany  and  France, 
he  became  a  cardinal  in  1816.  In  September,  1823,  he 
succeeded  Pope  Pius  VII.  He  proclaimed  a  jubilee  in 
1825,  and  made  reforms  in  the  civil  administration.  His 
biographers  give  him  credit  for  political  prudence.  In 
a  circular  letter  of  1825  he  denounced  the  Bible  Socie- 
ties. He  died  in  February,  1829,  and  was  succeeded  by 
PiusVIIL 

See  P.  RuDONi,  "Leone  XII.  e  Pio  VIII.,"  1829;  C.  Schmid, 
"Trauerrede  auf  Leo  XII,"  1829;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire 
du  Pape  L(5on  XII.,"  2  vols.,  1843;  Cardinal  Wiseman,  "Recol- 
lections of  the  Last  Four  Popes." 

Leo  XIII.,  Pope,  (Gioacchino  Pecci,)  was  born 
March  2,  1810,  at  Carpineto,  in  Central  Italy.  He  was 
descended  from  an  old  patrician  family,  and  studied  at 
Viterbo  and  at  the  Collegio  Romano.  He  graduated 
in  law  and  theology,  and  acquired  a  strong  enthusiasm 
for  the  philosophy  of  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas.  He  was 
named  by  Gregory  XVI.  one  of  his  chaplains  in  1837, 
became  Bishop  of  Damietta  in  1843,  ^^^  nuncio  to  Bel- 
gium from  1843  to  1846,  was  made  Archbishop  and  Bishop 
of  Perugia,  1846,  was  created  a  cardinal-priest  in  1S53  by 
Pius  IX.,  became  papal  camerlengo  in  1S77,  and  was 
chosen  pope  February  21,  1878.  He  had  been  a  friend 
and  favourite  of  Gregory  XVI.,  who  is  said  to  have  re- 
served him  for  the  cardinalate.  Though  a  strong  advo- 
cate of  the  papal  claims  to  temporal  dominion,  Leo  is 
looked  upon  as  a  man  opposed  to  radical  measures  and 
extreme  views.  By  the  bull  ".(Eterni  Patris"  he  estab- 
lished and  defined  the  authority  of  the  philosophical  and 
theological  writings  of  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas.  He  also 
authorized  the  publication  of  a  great  part  of  the  records 
of  the  papal  court.  This  publication  began  in  1884,  and 
promises  to  afford  matter  of  great  value  to  the  writers 
and  students  of  history. 

Leo,  an  astronomer,  who  lived  at  Constantinople. 
He  was  invited  to  Bagdad  by  the  caliph  Al-Mamoon, 
but  the  emperor  refused  to  part  with  him.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  but  was  deprived 
of  that  office,  for  his  opposition  to  image-worship,  in 
849  a.d. 

Leo  [Gr.  Aewv]  of  Byzantium,  [Fr.  L^on  de  By- 
ZANCE,  1Ji'6n'  deh  be'zSNss',]  a  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  350  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Plato.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Philip  of  Macedon.  His  writings  have 
not  come  down  to  us. 

Leo  of  Modena,  a  celebrated  Jewish  rabbi,  whose 
proper  name  was  Juda  Arid  or  Arje,  (aR'yi,)  was  born 


€as/6;  9asj;  %hard;  gas/;  G,ii.K,f7(tiura!-  N  nasal-  v..  trilled-  Sass:  ^h  as  in /;(;>.     (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  2^.) 


LEO 


1528 


LEONI 


at  Venice  about  1572,  and  lived  mostly  in  that  city.  He 
wrote  verses  in  Hebrew  and  Italian,  and  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  Hebrew  dictionary,  and  an  "Ac- 
count of  the  Rites  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,"  (1637.) 
Died  about  1650. 

See  Wolf,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica." 

Leo  OF  Orvieto,  [Lat.  Leo  Urbeveta'nus,]  an 
Italian  chronicler,  who  flourished  about  1320.  He  wrote, 
in  barbarous  Latin,  a  chronicle  of  the  emperors,  ending 
in  130S,  and  a  chronicle  of  the  popes,  ending  in  1314. 

Leo,  la'o,  (IIeinrich,)  an  eminent  German  historian, 
born  at  Rudolstadt  in  1799.  lie  obtained  about  1828 
the  chair  of  history  at  Halle,  which  he  filled  for  twenty- 
five  years  or  more.  In  1830  he  published  a  "  Manual  of 
Medieval  History"  and  a  "History  of  the  Italian  States," 
(5  vols.,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  was  an 
adversary  of  the  Liberal  or  radical  party  in  politics. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "Guide  to  Universal  His- 
tory," ("  Leitfaden  der  Universal-Geschichte,"  1838-40.) 
He  died  at  Halle,  April  24,  1878. 

Leo,  la'o,  (Juan,)  surnamed  Africa'nus,  a  Moorish 
geographer,  born  at  Granada,  was  a  child  when  his  pa- 
rents, flying  from  the  victorious  Spaniards,  took  him  to 
Africa  in  1491.  He  travelled  extensively  in  Africa  and 
Asia,  was  taken  captive  by  Christian  corsairs,  and  pre- 
sented to  Pope  Leo  X.  about  15 17.  He  abjured  Islam- 
ism,  and  wrote,  in  Arabic,  a  "  Description  of  Africa," 
(1526,)  which  was  published  by  Ramusio  in  1550  and 
was  for  a  long  time  the  best  work  on  that  subject 

See  Casiri,  "  Bibliotheca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Leo,  la'o,  (Leonardo,)  an  eminent  Italian  composer, 
born  in  Naples  in  1694,  was  a  pupil  of  Scarlatti.  He 
composed  admired  Italian  operas,  but  acquired  a  more 
durable  reputation  by  his  "  Miserere,"  "  Dixit  Dominus," 
and  other  pieces  of  sacred  music,  in  which  a  grand  effect 
is  produced  bv  means  comparatively  simple.  He  was 
the  master  of  Piccini  and  of  other  excellent  composers. 
His  death  is  variously  dated  1742,  1745,  or  1755. 

See  F^.Tis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Blographie  G^nerale." 

Leo  AUatius.    See  Allatius. 

Le'o  Di-ac'o-nus,  a  Byzantine  historian,  was  born  at 
Caloe,  in  Ionia,  about  950  A.D.,  and  became  a  lesident 
of  Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of  events  from 
959  to  975,  which  is  called  a  valuable  supplement  to  the 
JByzantine  history. 

Leo  the  Grammarian,  one  of  the  Byzantine  his- 
torians. He  wrote  about  1013  (as  a  continuation  of 
Theophanes)  a  history  of  Leo  V.  and  seven  succeeding 
emperors,  entitled  "Chronographia  Res  a  recentioribus 
Imperatoribus  gestas  complectens,"  from  813  to  929. 

Leo  the  Great.    See  Leo  I.,  Pope. 

Leo  Judae.    See  Juda,  (Leon.) 

Leo  Pi-la'tus  or  Leon'tius  (le-on'she-us)  Pila'tua 
[Fr.  L60NCE  Pilate,  li'iNss'  pe'lat',]  a  Greek  scholar, 
who  taught  Greek  at  Florence,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  translated  Homer  into  Italian  or  Latin.  He 
was  killed  by  lightning  at  sea  about  1364. 

See  HoDius,  "De  Grjecis  illustribus ;"  Petrarch,  "Epistola;," 
V.  and  vi, 

Leo  Urbevetanus.    See  Leo  of  Orvieto. 

Le-o-eh'a-res,  [Acw.YupT^f,]  an  excellent  Greek  sculp- 
tor, flourished  at  Athens  in  the  fourth  century  before 
Christ.  "His  master-pieces  were  the  "  Rape  of  Gany- 
mede," a  statue  of  Apollo  wearing  a  diadem,  and  one 
of  Jupiter  Tonans,  which  was  placed  in  the  Capitol  of 
Rome.  He  executed,  in  gold  and  ivory,  portrait-statues 
of  King  Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great.  Died  after 
338  B.C. 

Le-od'a-mas,  [Aew(5a|Uaf,]  an  Athenian  orator  of  high 
reputation,  was  a  disciple  of  Isocrates,  and  flourished 
about  400-350  B.C. 

Leon,  the  French  for  Leo,  which  see. 

Leon,  W-b\\' ,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  general,  born  in 
1804.  In  the  civil  war  which  began  in  1S33  he  fought 
for  the  queen  against  Don  Carlos.  He  was  reputed  the 
best  general  of  cavalry  in  Spain.  In  1840  he  became  a 
partisan  of  Christina  in  her  contest  with  Espartero,  and 
was  appointed  by  her  captain-general  of  Madrid.  He 
conspired  against  Espartero,  was  made  prisoner,  and 
executed  in  1841. 


Leon,  (Ponce  de.)     See  Ponce  de  Leon. 

L^on  de  Saint-Jean,  li'flN'  deh  s4n  zhftN,  or  Leo 
of  Saint  John,  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Rennes 
in  1600.  He  wrote  "Studium  Sapientiae  universalis." 
Died  in  1671. 

Leonard,  li'o'ntR',  (Nicolas  Germain,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Guadeloupe  in  1744,  came  to  France  in 
early  youth.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  seasons,  and 
several  idyls,  (1766.)     Died  at  Nantes  in  1793. 

Leonard  de  Limousin,  W'q'w^k'  deh  le'moo'ziN', 
or  Limosin,  le'mo'ziN',  a  French  painter  and  enamel- 
ler,  born  at  Limoges  about  1500.  He  was  director  of  a 
manufactory  of  enamels  which  Francis  I.  founded  at 
Limoges.  His  works  are  admirable  in  design  and  colour. 
He  copied  the  master-pieces  of  Raphael,  Giulio  Romano, 
and  other  Italian  painters.     Died  about  1580. 

Leonardi,  li-onaR'dee,  or  Leonardoni,  li-o-naR- 
do'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice 
in  1654,  excelled  in  portraits.     Died  at  Madrid  in  171 1. 

Leonardo,  li-o-naR'do,  (Augustin,  )  a  Spanish 
painter  and  friar,  born  at  Valencia  about  1580.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits  with  success  in  Seville  and 
Madrid.     Died  about  1640. 

Leonardo  (or  Lionardo,  le-o-naR'do)  da  Pisa,  li- 
o-naK'do  di  pee'si,  called  also  Lionardo  Pisano 
(pe-s4'no)  and  Leonardo  Bonacci  (bo-nSt'chee)  or 
Fibonacci,  (fe-bo-nit'chee,)  an  Italian  mathematician, 
who  flourished  about  1200.  He  was  probably  the  first 
who  introduced  into  Europe  the  Arabic  numeration  and 
the  knowledge  of  algebra,  which  he  derived  from  the 
Saracens.  He  wrote  in  1202  an  arithmetic  called  "  Liber 
Abaci,"  which  was  published  in  1857. 

See  GuGLiELMlNl,  "  Elogio  di  Lionardo  Pisano,"  1813. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.    See  Vincl 

Leonarducci,  li-o-naR-doot'chee,  (Gaspare,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1685.  His  principal  poem  is 
"  Providence,"  ("La  Providenza,"  1739.)     Died  in  1752. 

Leonatus.    See  Leonnatus. 

Leonbruno,  li-on-bRoo'no,  (Lorenzo,)  a  painter  of 
the  Mantuan  school,  born  in  1489;  died  about  1537. 

See  Prandi,  "  Notizie  spettanti  la  Vita  di  L.  Leonbruno,"  1823. 

L^once.     See  Leontius. 

Leonce  Pilate.    See  Leo  Pilatus. 

Leone.     See  Leo. 

Leonelli,  li-o-nel'lee,  (Zecchini,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician and  architect,  born  at  Cremona  in  1776;  died 
in  1847. 

Leouhard,  von,  fon  la'on-haRt',  (Karl  Caesar,)  an 
eminent  German  geologist,  born  near  Hanau  in  1779. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1818  was  appointed 
professor  ofgeology  at  Heidelberg.  Among  his  numerous 
works  we  may  name  his  "Topographical  Mineralogy," 
(3  vols.,  1805-09,)  and  "Geology,  or  Natural  History  of 
the  Earth,"  (8  vols.,  1836-45,)  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  French,  and  Dutch.    Died  in  1863. 

Leonhardi,  li-on-haR'dee,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a 
German  physician,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1746.  He  became 
physician  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony.     Died  in  1823. 

Leonhardt,  la'on-haRt,  (Gerhard  Adolhh  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Neustadt,  Hanover,  June 
6,  181 5.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin,  and  was 
made  minister  of  justice  for  Hanover  in  1S65,  and  chief 
justice  of  Hanover  (under  the  Prussian  riginie)  in  1867. 
Soon  after  this  he  was  made  minister  of  justice  for  Prus- 
sia. As  head  of  the  committee  on  justice  in  the  council 
of  the  federal  empire,  he  made  a  new  criminal  code  for 
Germany.     Died  at  Hanover,  May  7,  1880. 

Leoni,  li-o'nee,  (Giacomo,)  a  Venetian  architect,  who 
removed  to  England.     Died  about  1746. 

Leoni,  (Leone,)  a  skilful  sculptor  and  engraver  of 
medals,  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany.  He  was  patronized 
by  Charles  V.,  for  whom  he  worked  at  Brussels  and 
Madrid.  He  made  marble  statues  of  Charles  and  his 
empress,  and  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  the  former  at 
Madrid.  Died  about  1592.  His  son  PoMPEio  was  also 
skilful  in  the  same  arts,  and  was  enriched  by  the  favours 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.     Pompeio  died  at  Milan  in  1660. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura." 

Leoni,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  en- 
graver,  surnamed    Padovano,  was   born  at  Padua  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


LEONI 


1529 


LEOPOLD 


153 1.  He  practised  his  three  arts  at  Rome  with  nearly 
equal  success.  His  paintings  are  landscapes  and  his- 
torical pieces.     Died  in  1606. 

Leoni,  (Ottavio,)  surnamed  IL  Padovano  or  Pado- 
VANINO,  the  son  and  jjupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Rome  about  1576,  and  became  one  of  the  most  famous 
portrait-painters  of  his  time.  He  was  chosen  principal 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Rome.    Died  about  1630. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Leoniceno,  li-o-ne-cha'no,  [Lat.  Leonice'nus,](Nic- 
COl6,)  an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Lonigo,  in 
the  Vicentine,  in  1428.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
or  philosophy  at  Ferrara,  and  gained  a  high  reputation 
by  his  writings.  He  was  the  first  who  translated  Galen's 
work  into  Latin.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  "On 
Syphilis,"  ("  De  Morbo  Gallico,"  1497.)     Died  in  1524. 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elopia  Virorum  illustrium  ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Leonicenus.    See  Leoniceno. 

Le-on-i-ce'nus  Om-ni-bo'nus,  [It.  Ognibu6no  di 
LoNiGO,  on-ye-boo-o'no  de  lo-nee'go,J  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian grammarian,  born  at  Lonigo  about  1420.  He  lived 
in  Venice,  where  it  is  supposed  he  taught  rhetoric.  He 
published  a  Latin  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1473,)  ^"<^ 
Commentaries  on  Lucan,  Cicero,  and  other  classics. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Cibliotheca  Latina  niedias  et  infim^  .(Etatis." 

Leonico,  li-on'e-ko,  (Tommaso  Niccol6,)  an  Italian 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Venice  in  1456.  He  translated 
some  works  of  Aristotle  and  other  ancient  Greeks.  Died 

in  1531- 

Le-on'I-das,  [  htuvlfiaq,  ]  a  heroic  king  of  Sparta, 
renowned  for  his  invincible  courage,  patriotic  devotion, 
and  noble  and  tragical  end,  was  the  son  of  Anaxandrides. 
He  succeeded  his  brother,  Cleomenes  I.,  in  492  B.C.  When 
Xerxes  invaded  Greece  with  his  countless  myriads,  in 
480,  the  Greek  Congress  resolved  to  defend  the  ]5ass  of 
Thermopylae,  and  Leonidas  commanded  tiie  small  band 
to  which  that  task  was  confided.  With  about  4000  men, 
he  resisted  the  Persian  army  for  several  days,  until  a 
treacherous  Greek  guided  10,000  of  the  enemy  through 
a  secret  path  over  the  mountain.  Leonidas,  j^erceiving 
that  his  position  was  turned,  dismissed  all  his  men  ex- 
cept 300  Spartans  and  about  1000  other  Greeks.  The 
S])artans  maintained  their  post  until  they  were  all  slain. 
The  Persians  are  said  to  have  lost  there  20,000  men.  The 
monument  raised  on  the  grave  of  the  Spartans  bore  this 
inscrijition  :  "Go,  traveller,  and  tell  at  Lacedcemon  that 
we  fell  here  in  obedience  to  her  laws."  He  left  a  son, 
Pleistarchus,  who  became  king. 

See  Herodotus,  books  v.  and  vii.  ;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;" 
Justin,  book  ii.  ;  P.  Eckerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  Virtute  Leonidje," 
1762. 

Leonidas  II.,  King  of  Sparta,  the  son  of  Cleonymus, 
ascended  the  throne  in  256  B.C.  He  factiously  opposed 
the  reforms  of  Agis  IV.,  his  colleague,  who  wished  to 
restore  the  regulations  of  Lycurgus.  After  having  been 
deposed  for  a  short  time,  he  regained  his  power  in  240, 
and  procured  the  death  of  Agis.  In  236  B.C.  he  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Cleomenes  HI. 

Leonidas  of  Tarentum,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at 
Tarentuni,  flourished  about  275  B.C.  He  wrote  about 
one  hundred  epigrams,  which  are  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology  and  are  much  admired. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Leonio,  li.-o'ne-o,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Spoleto  in  1650.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Arcades,  and  contributed  by  his  precept:- 
and  example  to  reform  Italian  poetry.     Died  in  1720. 

Leonnat.     See  Leonnatus. 

Le-on-na'tus  or  Le-o-na'tus,  [Gr.  Arowdrof ;  Fr. 
L60NNAT,  li'o'nt',1  a  Macedonian  general  of  Pella,  ac- 
companied Alexander  the  Great  in  his  invasion  of  Persia 
in  334  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  officers  employed  about 
that  king's  ]3erson  and  on  occasions  requiring  entire 
confidence.  In  the  attack  on  Malli  the  life  of  Alexander 
was  saved  by  the  personal  bravery  of  Leonnatus  and 
Peucestas.  At  the  death  of  his  chief  he  obtained  the 
satrapy  of  Phrygia  Minor,  and  was  soon  urged  by  An- 
tipater  to  aid  him  against  the  revolted  Greeks,  For 
this  purpose  he  marched  with  an  army  into  Thessaly 
where  he  was  killed  in  battle  in  322  B.C. 


Le-on-ti'a-des,  [Gr.  Afovrmdr/f ,  |  a  leader  of  the  oli 
garchical  party  which,  aided  by  the  Spartan  army,  ob- 
tained the  mastery  at  Thebes  about  382  B.C.  He  was 
killed  in  his  own  house  by  Pelopidas  in  379  B.C. 

Leontief  or  Leontiew,  li-on'te-§f',  (Alexis  Leon- 
TiEViTCH,)  a  Russian  savant,  who  obtained  in  1779  the 
title  of  aulic  councillor,  and  held  other  high  offices.  He 
was  deeply  versed  in  the  Chinese  literature,  and  trans- 
lated into  Russian  several  Chinese  works  on  history, 
geography,  etc.     Died  in  1786. 

Leontium,  le-on'she-um,  [Gr.  Afoitwv,')  an  Athenian 
courtesan,  the  disciple  and  mistress  of  Epicurus.  She 
acquired  some  distinction  as  a  philosopher,  and  corn- 
loosed  in  answer  to  Theophrastus  a  work  on  philosophy, 
the  style  of  which  is  praised  by  Cicero  as  written  "scito 
quidem  sermone  et  Attico."*  Among  her  various  lovers 
was  Metrodorus,  the  disciple  and  intimate  friend  of  Epi- 
curus. 

Leontius,  le-on'she-us,  [Gr.  Aeovtioc;  Fr.  L160NCE, 
li'ANSs',]  Emperor  of  iTTe  East,  was  born  about  650  A.n. 
He  became  a  general,  and  gained  several  victories.  In 
695  A.D.  he  rebelled  against  Justinian  II.,  and  usurped 
the  throne.  He  was  deposed  by  Apsimerus  in  698, 
and  in  705  A.D.  was  put  to  death  by  Justinian,  who  had 
recovered  his  power. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Leontius  of  Byzantium,  called  Sciiolas'ticus,  an 
ecclesiastical  writer,  lived  about  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century.     He  wrote  "De  Sectis,"  and  other  works. 

Leontius  Pilatus.    See  Leo  Pilatus. 

Leopardi,  IJi-o-paR'dee,  (Ai.essandro,)  an  excellent 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Venice.  Among 
his  works  are  the  mausoleum  of  Doge  Andrea  Vendra- 
mini,  (Venice,)  and  the  three  bronze  columns  in  the 
Piazza  di  San  Marco,  on  which  the  standards  of  the  re- 
public were  suspended.  The  elegance  and  proportions 
of  these  are  equally  admirable.     Died  in  1515. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Leopardi,  (Giacomo,)  Count,  an  eminent  Italian 
poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Recanati,  in  the  Papal 
States,  in  June,  1798.  Between  18 18  and  1820  he  won  a 
place  among  the  first  lyric  poets  of  Italy  by  camoni  "To 
Italy,"  and  "On  the  Monument  which  Florence  was 
about  to  erect  to  Dante."  In  1822  he  removed  to 
Rome,  where  he  produced  an  excellent  criticism  on  the 
publication  of  the  "Chronicon"  of  Eusebius  by  Mai 
and  Zohrab,  (1823.)  His  poems,  published  collectively 
under  the  title  of  "Canti,"  (1831,)  contain  passages  of 
great  eloquence  and  pathos.  His  prose  essays,  "  Operette 
morali,"  (1827,)  are  esteemed  among  the  finest  models  of 
Italian  prose  which  the  present  century  has  produced. 
Died  in  Naples  in  1837.  "  We  believe,"  says  the  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April,  1850,  "it  may  be  said  without 
exaggeration  that  he  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
men  whom  this  century  has  produced,  both  in  his  powers 
and  likewise  in  his  performances,  achieved  as  they  were 
under  singular  disadvantages.  For  not  only  did  he  die 
at  thirty-eight,  almost  7iel  mezzo  del  cammin  di  nostra 
vita,  but  likewise  'Heaven's  unimpeached  decrees,'  in 
his  case,  nearly 

'  Made  that  shortened  span  one  long  disease.' 
With  a  life  thus  limited,  .  .  .  Count  Giacomo  Leopardi 
amassed  great  stores  of  deep  and  varied  learning,  proved 
nimself  to  be  po.ssessed  of  profound  literary  judgment, 
exquisite  taste,  and  a  powerful  imagination,  and  earned 
in  his  own  country  the  character  summed  up  in  the  words 
of  one  of  his  editors,  as  sommo  filologo,  sonivto  poeta  e 
jomnto  Jilosofo."  Leopardi  sympathized  with  the  efforts 
to  liberate  Italy  from  foreign  domination. 

See  MoNTANARi,  "  Bif>grafia  del  Conle  Leopardi,"  1838;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Portraits  conteniporains,"  tome  iii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale;"  "Encyclopedia  Britannica ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1S48. 

Le'o-pold  [It.  Leopoldo,  li-o-pol'do]  I.,  often  called 
Leopold  the  Great,  [Ger.  Leopold  der  Grosse,  la'- 
o-polt  d§K  gRos'seh  ;  Lat.  Leopol'dus  Mag'nus,]  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  of  the  house  of  Austria,  the  second  son 
of  Ferdinand  III.  and  of  Maria  Anna  of  Spain,  was  born 
in  June,  1640.     He  became  King  of  Hungary  in  1655, 


*  I.e.  "In  a  skilful  and  elegant  style." 


€  as  -6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  «;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEOPOLD 


1530 


LEOPOLD 


and  King  of  Bohemia  in  1657.  After  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  a  competition  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
Leopold  was  elected  emperor  on  the  i8th  of  July,  1658. 
The  Turks,  having  invaded  Hungary  with  a  large  army, 
were  def?ated  at  Saint  Gothard  in  1664,  and  I.eopold 
then  made  with  them  a  truce  of  twenty  years.  In  1674 
he  commenced  war  against  Louis  XIV.,  which,  after 
indecisive  campaigns  on  the  Rhine,  was  ended  by  the 
treaty  of  Nymwegen  in  1678.  The  Hungarians,  driven 
by  his  despotic  measures  to  revolt,  chose  Tekeli  as  their 
leader  in  1682,  and  were  aided  by  a  Turkish  army  of 
200,000  men,  wliich  besieged  Vienna  in  July,  1683.  So- 
bieski.  King  of  Poland,  saved  the  capital  by  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Turks  in  September  of  that  year.  The 
Austrians,  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene,  finished  the  war 
by  a  victory  at  Zenta  in  1697,  in  which  year  also  a  second 
war  against  France  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick. 
The  claim  of  his  family  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  vacated 
by  the  death  of  Charles  II.  in  1700,  involved  Leopold 
in  another  war  with  Louis  XIV.  He  renewed  his  alli- 
ance with  England  and  Holland  in  1701.  His  army, 
commanded  by  Prince  Eugene,  gained  several  victories 
in  Italy  in  1701-02,  and  shared  the  triumph  of  the  allies 
at  Blenheim  in  1704.  Before  the  termination  of  this 
long  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  died,  in  May, 
1705,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Joseph  I.  He  had 
had  three  wives,  the  first  of  whom  was  a  Spanish  prin- 
cess, Margarita  Theresa.  His  prosperity  is  ascribed  to 
the  merit  of  his  ministers  and  generals,  rather  than  to 
his  own  abilities.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
reign  was  the  recognition  of  Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover, 
in  1692,  as  an  Elector  of  the  empire. 

See  "Life  of  Leopold  L,"  London,  1706;  Mencke,  "Leben 
Leopolds  L,"  1707  ;  Wagner,  "  Historia  Leopold!  Magni,"  1719-31  ; 
RiNCK,  "Leben  nnd  Thaten  Leopolds  des  Grossen,"  1708;  Reina, 
"Vita  ed  Imperio  di  Leopoldo  I.,"  1710;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
General  e." 

Leopold  II.  OF  Germany,  the  second  son  of  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa,  was  born  May  5,  1747.  At  the 
death  of  his  father,  Francis  I.,  in  1765,  he  inherited  the 
grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  which  he  ruled  twenty-five 
years  in  a  wise  and  liberal  spirit.  During  this  period 
he  made  many  reforms  in  the  administration.  He  sup- 
pressed the  Inquisition,  abolished  the  penalty  of  death, 
and  co-operated  with  Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia,  in  the 
reformation  of  monastic  discipline,  which  caused  an 
angry  contest  between  him  and  the  court  of  Rome.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Joseph  II.,  February  20,  1790, 
Leopold  became  heir  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  which 
was  then  not  in  a  prosperous  condition.  The  Low  Coun- 
tries were  in  revolt,  Hungary  was  discontented,  Turkey 
and  Prussia  were  hostile,  and  France  was  estranged  from 
Austria  by  the  Revolution.  He  quickly  reduced  the 
Low  Countries  to  obedience  by  an  army,  and  pacified 
his  other  subjects  by  a  conciliatory  policy.  In  1791  he 
concluded  peace  with  Turkey  at  Sistova,  and  was  elected 
Emperor  of  Germany.  The  alarming  progress  of  the 
French  Revolution  induced  him  to  form  an  alliance  with 
Prussia  at  Pilnitz,  in  1791,  for  the  restoration  of  Louis 
XVI.  Hostilities  were  about  to  begin,  when  he  died 
suddenly  on  the  ist  of  March,  1792,  leaving  the  repu- 
tation of  an  able  and  just  ruler.  His  wife  was  Maria 
Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  HI.  of  Spain.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II.,  (of  Germany,)  who 
in  reference  to  Austria  is  styled  Francis  I. 

See  "Leben  Leopolds  IL,"  Prague,  1791  ;  Foucault.  "  Histoire 
de  Leopold  II,"  17Q1  ;  Alxinger,  "Ueber  Leopold  II.,"  1792; 
Sartori,  "  Leopoldinische  Annalen,"  2  vols.,  1792;  J.  B.  Schels, 
"Leopold  II.,"  1837. 

Leopold  I.,  King  of  Belgium,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and 
Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  was  born  at  Coburg  in 
1790.  He  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saal- 
feld,  was  a  brother  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent,  and  uncle  of 
the  British  queen  Victoria.  In  May,  1S16,  he  married 
the  princess  Charlotte,  daughter  of  George  IV.  and  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  who  died  in 
childbirth  before  the  end  of  that  year.  He  refused  the 
crown  of  Greece,  offered  to  him  in  1830.  On  the  4th  of 
June,  1831,  he  was  elected  King  of  the  Belgians,  who 
were  separated  from  Holland  by  the  revolution  of  1830. 
Hostilities  were  renewed  by  the  Dutch,  and  a  French 
army  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Belgians.     In  1832  Leopold 


married  Louise  Marie  Therese.  a  daughter  of  King  Louts 
i'hilippe.  He  was  quite  popular  among  his  subjects, 
towards  whom  his  policy  was  marked  by  liberality  and 
a  scrupulous  regard  for  their  constitutional  rights.  He 
died  in  December,  1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Leopold  II. 

See  L.  Hvmans,  "  Histoire  du  Rigne  de  Leopold  I,"  1864  ;  Ras- 
TOUL  DE  MoNGEOT,  "Leopold  I,  Roi  des  Beiges,  sa  Vie  militaire  et 
politique,"  1850;  Theodore  Ji;ste,  "Leopold,  Roi  des  Beiges," 
;86S;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1869;  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1866. 

Leopold  II.,  King  of  tlie  Belgians,  son  and  successor 
of  Leopold  I.,  was  born  at  Brussels,  April  9,  1835.  ^"^^ 
is  a  grandson  of  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  France,  and  a 
near  relative  of  the  reigning  families  of  Great  Britain 
and  Coburg-Gotha.  As  Duke  of  Brabant,  he  was  an 
active  legislator  before  his  succession  (in  1865)  to  the 
throne.  His  wife,  Queen  Charlotte,  is  a  niece  of  Francis 
Joseph,  Emperor  of  Austria.  Of  his  three  daughters, 
the  eldest,  Louise,  his  heir-apparent,  is  married  to 
prince  of  the  Saxe-Coburg  line  ;  the  second,  Stephanie, 
is  the  wife  of  Rodolph,  prince-imperial  of  Austria. 

Leopold  I.,  Duke  of  Austria,  was  born  in  1157.  He 
served  under  Richard  I.  of  England  at  the  siege  of  Acre. 
In  1 193,  to  gratify  his  avarice  and  to  revenge  an  insult 
he  fancied  he  had  received  from  Richard,  he  arrested 
him  at  Vienna  on  his  homeward  journey  and  threw  him 
into  prison.  He  received  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the 
transfer  of  the  royal  captive  to  the  emperor  Henry  VI. 
Died  in  1194. 

Leopold  II.,  Duke  of  Austria,  born  in  1292,  was  the 
third  son  of  Albert  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  was 
killed  in  1308,  leaving  his  dominions  in  joint-tenancy  to 
his  sons.  Leopold  ruled  Suabia,  Alsace,  and  Switzer- 
land. His  brothers,  Frederick  and  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
were  competitors  for  the  imperial  throne.  In  13 15  Leo- 
pold attacked  the  Swiss,  (who  favoured  the  cause  of 
Louis  of  Bavaria,)  and  was  defeated  at  Morgarten.  In 
1325  a  treaty  was  made  between  the  two  parties,  and  it 
was  agreed  that  Louis  and  Frederick  should  reign  jointly. 
Leopold  died  about  1326. 

See  LiCHNOwsKV,  "  Geschichfe  Hauses  Habsburg." 

Leopold  III.,  Duke  of  Austria,  the  son  of  Albert  II., 
was  born  about  1350.  He  became  ruler  over  Suabia, 
Tyrol,  etc.  War  having  broken  out  between  him  and 
the  Swiss  cantons,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1386  at 
the  famous  battle  of  Sempach,  where  Arnold  of  Win- 
kelried  decided  the  victory  by  throwing  himself  on  the 
Austrian  spears  and  breaking  the  phalanx. 

See  KuRZ,  "Oestreich  unter  Albrecht  III." 

Leopold  I.  OF  Tuscany.  See  Leopold  II.,  (Em- 
peror.) 

Leopold  II.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  was  born  at 
Florence  in  1797,  and  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand  III.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1824.  He  conceded  a  constitution  to 
Tuscany  in  1847.  In  consequence  of  the  triumph  of 
the  democratic  party,  he  retired  from  Florence,  but  was 
restored  by  the  Austrian  army  in  July,  1S49.  He  was 
forced  to  abdicate  by  the  revolutionary  movements  of 
the  spring  of  1859,  and  Tuscany  was  annexed  to  Sardinia. 
He  published  a  fine  edition  of  the  works  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  (4  vols.,  1S25.)     Died  in  1870. 

Leopold  OF  Anhalt-Dessau.  See  Anhalt-Dessau. 

Leopold  OF  Lorraine.     See  Lorraine. 

Leopold,  la'o-pold',  (Carl  Gustaf,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1756.  In  1778  he 
composed  an  "Ode  on  the  Birth  of  the  Prince-Royal 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  and  in  17S8  he  became  private 
secretary  of  Gustavus  HI.,  who  treated  him  with  much 
favour  and  confidence.  He  produced  two  successful 
tragedies,  "Odin"  (1790)  and  "Virginia,"  and  sang  the 
oiartial  exploits  of  the  Swedes  in  several  admired  odes, 
llewas  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  1818.  Died  in  1829. 

See  Magnus  af  Pontin,  "  Minne  af  C.  G.  Leopold,"  1S30; 
Ehrenstroem,  "Notice  biographique  sur  M.  de  Leopold,"  183S; 
Skjoeldebrand,  "Tal  vid  C.  G.  af  Leopolds  Graf,"  1829;  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Leopold  Frledrich,  la'o-polt'  fReed'riK,  Duke  of 
Anhalt-Dessau,  was  born  in  1794.  On  the  death  of  his 
grandfather,  in  1817,  he  succeeded  to  the  government, 
and  in  1853  to  that  of  Anhalt-Kothen.     Died  in  1871. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  %,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEOPOLD 


1531 


LEPIDUS 


Leopold  Friedrich  Franz,  la'o-polt'  fReed'riK 
fRints,  Duke  of  Dessau,  born  in  1740.  In  1758  he 
assumed  the  government,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  able  administration  and  his  patronage  of  learning 
and  the  arts.  He  died  in  181 7,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson,  the  subject  of  the  preceding  article. 

Leopoldo.     See  Leopold  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

L^osthene.     See  Leosthenes. 

Le-os'the-nes,  [Gr.  Afwo^ti'w  ,•  Fr.  L^osTHfeNE,  li'- 
os'tAn',]  an  Athenian  general,  who  makes  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  history  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  324  B.C.  He  was  attached  to  the  party 
of  Demosthenes,  and  seems  to  have  had  a  high  repu- 
tation, as  he  was  chosen  commander  of  the  combined 
Greek  army  in  the  Lamian  war,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  liberate  Greece  from  the  Macedonian  yoke.  He  de- 
feated Antipater  in  Thessaly,  and  besieged  him  in  Lamia. 
At  this  siege  Leosthenes  was  killed,  in  323  B.C.,  after 
which  success  deserted  the  Athenian  arms. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of 
Greece." 

L^otaud,  li'o'to',  (Vincent,)  an  able  French  geome- 
ter, born  in  the  diocese  of  Embrun  in  1595-  He  was  a 
professor  at  the  College  of  Dole.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Elements  of  Practical  Geometry,"  ("  Geometrica; 
practicae  Elementa,"  1631,)  and  "Cyclomathia,"  etc., 
(1663.)     Died  in  i_672. 

Le-o-tyeh'i-des,  [Gr.  AE(jrv,t£<57?f;  Fr.  L^otychide, 
li'o'te'kW,]  a  Spartan  king,  the  son  of  Menares,  suc- 
ceeded Demaratus,  who  was  deposed  about  491  B.C. 
Leonidas  L  was  his  colleague  in  the  government.  He 
obtained  command  of  the  Greek  fleet,  and  shared  with 
Xanthippus  the  honour  of  the  signal  victory  over  the 
Persians  at  Mycale  in  479  B.C.  Having  been  accused  of 
receiving  a  bribe  from  some  Thessalians,  he  was  banished 
}n  469,  and  died  in  exile  at  Tegea. 

See  Herodotus,  *'  History,"  books  vi.,  viii.,  and  ix. 

Leowitz,  la'o-<^its',  [Lat.  Leovi'tius,]  (Cyprian,) 
a  Bohemian  astronomer,  born  near  Hradisch  in  1524; 
died  in  1574. 

Le  Pedge,  leh-p^zh',  (Thomas,)  a  French  religious 
writer,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1597 ;  died  in  1658. 

.  Lepaute,  leh-p5t',  (Jean  Andr^,)  a  French  clock- 
maker,  born  at  Montmedy  in  1709.  He  lived  in  Paris, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  perfection  of  his  works.  He 
made  time-pieces  for  many  public  edifices  of  Paris,  and 
for  the  most  of  the  observatories  of  Europe.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  Clockwork,"  (Horlogerie.)  Died 
in  1789. 

His  wife,  nee  Nicole  Reine  idtable  de  Labriere — 
i'ttb'K  deh  It'bRe'aiR',  born  in  Paris  in  1723,  acquired 
distinction  as  an  astronomer.  She  was  a  friend  of  Clai- 
raut  and  Lalande,  whom  she  assisted  in  the  calcula- 
tions on  the  return  of  Halley's  comet,  (1757.)  She  was 
the  author  of  "  Observations"  inserted  in  the  "Connais- 
sances  des  Temps,"  of  "Tables  of  the  Sun,  Moon,  and 
Planets,"  and  of  several  memoirs  on  astronomy.  Died 
in  1 7S8. 

LepautreorLep6tre,leh-potR',  (ANTOiNE,)aFrench 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  16 14.  He  was  first  architect 
of  Louis  XIV.  In  1652  he  published  an  esteemed  work 
entitled  "The  Architecture  of  A.  Lepautre."  He  had 
an  excellent  talent  for  decoration,  and  abounded  in  new 
inventions.  The  church  of  Port-Royal,  in  a  suburb  of 
Paris,  was  designed  by  him.     Died  in  1691. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "Dictioiinaire  Historique." 

Lepautre,  (Jean,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
m  Paris  in  1617,  was  a  skilful  designer  and  engraver. 
He  designed  and  etched  many  subjects  which  are  ad- 
mirable models  for  architects  and  other  artists.  Died 
in  1682. 

Lepautre,  (Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris 
in  1660,  was  a  son  of  Antoine,  noticed  above.  He  studied 
and  worked  in  Rome  for  fifteen  years,  and  then  returned 
to  Paris,  where  he  obtained  success,  though  his  works 
are  defective  in  taste.  His  chief  production  is  the  group 
of  .flLneas  and  Anchises,  at  the  Tuileries.     Died  in  1744. 

Lepaux.     See  LAKtvEiLLfeRE. 

LePaya  de,  deh  leh  pi'e',  (Ren6,  )  Sieur  Plessis- 
Villeneuve,  a  gay  and  witty  French  versifier,  born  at 


Nantes  or  Fougeres  in  1636.  He  was  for  many  years 
director-general  of  the  salt-tax  (gabelle)  in  Dauphine  and 
Provence.  He  was  noted  for  his  (^(7;wwc'/'j.  His  "Friend- 
ships, Loves,  and  Little  Loves"  ("Amities,  Amours  et 
Amourettes,"  1664)  had  a  great  success.  He  published 
many  letters,  sonnets,  etc.     Died  in  1690. 

See   Bayle,    "Historical  and   Critical    Dictionary;"    MoRiRl. 
Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Lep^e,  (Abb6.)     See  fip^E,  de  l'. 

Lepekhin  or  Lepechin,  l§p-eh-Keen'  or  15p-eh-Kin', 
(Ivan  Ivanowitch,)  a  Russian  naturalist,  born  about 
1740.  He  was  charged  by  Catherine  II.  to  explore 
Russia,  and  published  the  results  in  a  "  Journal  of 
Travels  through  the  Various  Provinces  of  the  Russian 
Empire,"  (3  vols.,  1771-80.)     Died  in  1802. 

Lepelletier,  leh-pll'te-4',  (Claude,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1670,  became  canon 
of  Rheims.  He  wrote  polemical  treatises  against  the 
Jansenists,  and  many  religious  works.     Died  in  1743. 

Lepelletier  or  Le  Pelletier,  (Jean,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary and  merchant,  born  at  Rouen  in  1633.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Noah's  Ark,"  (1704.) 
Died  in  1711. 

Lepelletier  (or  Le  Peletier,  leh  peh-leh-te-i')  de 
Saint-Fargeau,  leh-p^l'te-i' deh  s^N'fSR'z'ho',  (Louis 
Michel,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  in  Paris  in  1760, 
was  president  h  mortier  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and 
was  the  owner  of  an  immense  fortune.  He  became  a 
partisan  of  the  new  regime,  and  in  1792  was  an  influen- 
tial member  of  the  Convention.  It  appears  that  he  had 
given  the  royalists  reason  to  expect  he  would  favour 
lenity  in  the  king's  trial,  but  was  impelled  by  the  ter- 
rorism of  the  Jacobins  to  vote  for  death.  For  this  act 
he  was  assassinated  by  Paris,  a  royalist,  in  January,  1793. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution ;"  F^Lix  Le- 
pelletier, "Vie  de  M.  Lepelletier,"  1793. 

Le  Pere,  leh  paiR,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  in  1761.  He  accompanied  the  expe- 
dition to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  was  directed  by  Bonaparte 
to  draw  up  a  plan  for  the  restoration  of  the  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez.     Died  in  1844. 

Lipicie,  li'pe'se-i', (Bernard,)  a  skilful  French  en- 
graver and  painter,"was  born  in  Paris  in  1698.  He  went 
to  England,  and  engraved  Raphael's  Cartoons  at  Hamp- 
ton Court.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  Academy  in  1740.  His  manner  is  broad 
and  mellow,  and  his  design  correct.     Died  in  1755. 

Lepicie,  (Nicolas  Bernard,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1735.  He  was  a  pupil  of  C.  Vanloo,  became  professor 
in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  received  the  title  of  painter 
to  the  king.  His  works  are  marred  by  the  faults  which 
prevailed  in  the  French  school  at  that  time.  Died 
in  1784. 

Lep'i-da  Do-mi'ti-a,  (do-mish'e-a,)  a  Roman  lady 
of  great  personal  beauty  but  infamous  character.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Drusus,  and  aunt  of  the  emperor 
Nero. 

Lep'i-dus,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Roman  family 
of  the  patrician  gens  Emilia.  Marcus  ^milius  Lepi- 
Dus  was  elected  consul  in  187  B.C.,  pontifex  maximus 
in  180,  and  censor  in  179.  He  was  six  times  chosen  by 
the  censors  princeps  Seimtus.  Died  about  152  B.C.  Th» 
triumvir  of  the  same  name  was  his  lineal  descendant 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  ^milius,)  a  Roman  orator,  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  137  B.C.  In 
the  next  year  he  commanded  in  several  battles  in  Spain, 
and  was  defeated.  Cicero  represents  him  as  the  greatest 
orator  of  his  age. 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  .(^milius,)  the  father  of  the  tri- 
umvir, was  prastor  in  Sicily  in  81  B.C.  In  79  he  was 
chosen  consul  by  the  partisans  of  Marius,  and  attempted 
to  nullify  or  repeal  the  measures  of  Sulla,  who  had  just 
died.  A  violent  contest  ensued  between  the  factions.  In 
77  Lepidus  was  declared  by  the  senate  a  public  enemy, 
and  was  defeated  in  battle  by  Pompey  near  Rome.  He 
died  about  76  B.C. 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  vEmilius,)  the  Triumvir,  was 
praetor  when  the  civil  war  broke  out  between  Pompey 
and  Caesar,  in  49  B.C.  He  joined  the  party  of  Caesar, 
who,  at  his  departure  for  Spain,  left  Lepidus  in  charge 


c  as  >6;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^/V  G,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkLt,     ( g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEPIDUS 


«53* 


LERMA 


of  the  capital.  In  48  he  obtained  the  province  of  Nearer 
Spain,  with  the  title  of  proconsul,  and  in  46  became  the 
colleague  of  Caesar  in  the  consulship.  He  was  master 
of  the  horse  when  Caesar  was  killed,  in  44  B.C.  When 
the  senate  and  Antony  came  to  an  open  ru|)ture,  Lepidus 
joined  the  latter  with  an  army,  and  in  October,  43,  he 
united  with  Antony  and  Octavian  to  form  the  famous 
triumvirate.  He  ]jut  his  own  brother  on  the  list  of  the 
proscribed  who  were  sacrificed  by  this  coalition.  In 
the  division  of  provinces,  Spain  and  Narbonese  Gaul 
were  allotted  to  Lepidus,  who  remained  in  Italy,  while 
the  other  two  led  their  army  against  Urutus.  After  their 
victory  at  Pliilippi,  Octavius  and  Antony  ceased  to  treat 
him  as  their  equal,  and  deprived  him  of  his  provinces 
in  42,  but  gave  him  a  command  in  Africa.  When  the 
triumvirate  was  renewed,  however,  (37  B.C.,)  he  was 
nominally  included  in  it.  In  36  he  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  recover  power,  and,  being  deserted  by  his  troops,  sur- 
rendered to  Octavius,  who  spared  his  life  but  banished 
him  from  Rome.     He  died  in  13  B.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome;"  Appian,  "  Bellum 
Civile;"  Merivale,  "The  Romans  under  the  Emperors." 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  ^Iimilius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
formed  a  conspiracy,  in  30  B.C.,  to  kill  Augustus  on  his 
return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Actium.  Maecenas 
detected  the  plot,  and  sent  Lepidus  to  Augustus,  who 
put  him  to  death. 

Lepidus,  (Paulus  ^milius,)  a  brother  of  the  tri- 
umvir, became  aedile  about  55  B.C.,  praetor  in  53,  and 
consul  in  50.  After  the  death  of  Caesar,  44  B.C.,  he  acted 
with  the  aristocratic  party  in  opposition  to  the  triumvirs. 
Died  about  40  B.C. 

Leplat,  leh-plt',  (Josse,)  a  Belgian  jurist  and  canonist, 
born  at  Malines  in  1732;  died  in  1810. 

Lepois.     See  Pois,  Le. 

Le  Poittevin,  leh  pwSt'viN',  a  successful  French 
painter  of  landscapes,  genre,  and  marine  pieces,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1806.  His  proper  name  is  Edmonde 
MoDESTE  Eugene  Poidevin.  He  gained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1836.      Died  August  6,  1870. 

Le  Pievost  d'Iray,  leh  pRi'v5'  de'ri',  (Chretien- 
Simeon,)  a  French  poet  and  antiquary,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1768.  Among  his  works  is  a  "History  of 
Egypt  under  the  Romans,"  (1816.)     Died  in  1849. 

Leprince  orLe  Prince,  leh  puiNss,  (Jean,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Metz  in  1733.  He  worked  several  years 
in  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  adorned  the  imperial 
palace.  He  returned  to  France  many  years  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1781. 

Le  Prince  de  Beaumont,  leh  prdxss  deh  bo'm^N', 
(Marie,)  a  sister  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen 
in  1 71 1.  She  was  divorced  from  M.  Beaumont  in  1745, 
and  removed  to  London,  where  she  was  employed  as 
governess  or  teacher  for  many  years.  She  published 
many  useful  and  successful  juvenile  books,  moral  tales, 
etc.  Her  "Magazine  for  Children"  ("  Magasin  des  En- 
fants,"  1757)  was  often  reprinted  and  translated.  She 
was  author  of  a  popular  "Magazine  for  Young  Ladies," 
"The  Modern  Mentor,"  (1772,)  "Complete  Education," 
etc.  About  1764  she  went  to  reside  at  Annecy,  in  Savoy. 
Died  in  17S0. 

Lepsius,  l?p'se-ils,  (Karl  Peter,)  a  German  anti- 
quary, born  at  Naumburg,  on  the  Saale,  in  1775,  was  the 
father  of  Karl  Richard,  noticed  below.  He  studied  law, 
and  obtained  several  civil  offices  under  the  Saxon  and 
Prussian  governments.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Mediaeval  Architectural  Monuments  of  Saxony  and 
Thuringia,"  and  a  few  other  works.     Died  in  1853. 

Lepsius,  (Karl  Richard,)  a  German  philologist  and 
antiquary,  highly  distinguished  for  his  Egyptian  re- 
searches, was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  born 
at  Naumburg,  in  Prussian  Sa.xony,  December  20,  1813, 
and  received  his  first  instruction  from  his  father.  He 
pursued  his  studies  in  the  Universities  of  Leipsic  and 
Gottingen,  giving  special  attention  to  languages  and  phi- 
lology. In  1834  he  published  "  Palaeography  as  an  Aid 
to  Pliilology,"  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  French 
Institute,  and  was  followed  by  an  "  Essay  on  the  Affinity 
of  the  Semitic,  Indian,  Ancient  Persian,  Egy|)tian,  and 
Ethiopian  Languages,"  (1835.)  In  1836  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Bunsen, 


and  wrote  a  "Letter  to  Rosellini  on  the  Hieroglyphic 
Alphabet,"  (1837,)  which  attracted  great  attention.  lie 
visited  England  in  1838,  and  afterwards  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Berlin.  He  produced  a  treatise  on  the  "  Etrurian 
andOscan  Dialects,"  (1841,)  and  "Obituary  of  the  Egyp- 
tians," ("Das  Todtenbuch  der  Aegypter,"  1842.)  Lep- 
sius having  projected  a  great  historical  and  antiquarian 
work  on  Egypt,  the  King  of  Prussia  was  induced  by 
Bunsen  and  Humboldt  to  send  to  Egypt  an  expedition 
under  his  direction.  Assisted  by  artists  of  various 
sorts,  he  investigated  the  antiquities  of  that  country  from 
1S42  until  1846.  On  his  return  he  was  chosen  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  1849  produced 
the  first  volume  of  his  "Chronology  of  the  Egyptians." 
He  published  the  interesting  and  important  results  of 
his  late  expedition  in  a  splendid  work  entitled  "The 
Monuments  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,"  ("  Denkmaler  aus 
Aegypten  und  Aethiopien,"  1849-59.)  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  "Letters  on  Egypt,  Ethiopia,  and  the 
Peninsula  of  Sinai,"  (1852,)  "Universal  Linguistical 
Alphabet,"  (1855,)  "The  Assyrian  Eponymes,"  (1869,) 
and  "  The  Babylonian  Tables  of  Senkereh,"  {1877.)  Died 
in  London,  July  12,  1884. 

Lep'ti-nes,  [Gr.  AetttIvtic;  Fr.  Leptine,  l^p'tii/,]  a 
Syracusan  commander,  was  a  brother  of  Dionysius  the 
Elder.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  defeat  of  the 
Carthaginians  at  Syracuse  about  396  B.C.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Cronium,  in  3S3  B.C. 

Lequien,  leh-ke-iN',  (Michel,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1661.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "Defence  of  the  Hebrew  Text,  and  of  the 
Vulgate,"  (1690,)  and  "Oriens  Christianus,"  (3  vols., 
1740,)  an  account  of  the  churches,  patriarchs,  etc.  of 
the  East,  which  is  commended.     Died  in  1733. 

Lequien  de  la  Neuville,  leh-ke-4N'  deh  1$  nuh'v^K, 
(Jacques,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1647.  He 
accompanied  the  French  ambassador  to  Lisbon  in  1713, 
and  there  composed  his  principal  work,  a  "  History  of 
Portugal,"  (2  vols.,  1700-20.)     Died  in  1728. 

Leray,  leh-ui',  (Francis  Xaviek,)  D.D.,  an  arch- 
bishop, born  at  Chateaugiron,  France,  April  20,  1825. 
lie  removed  when  eighteen  to  the  United  States,  was 
educated  at  Rennes  and  at  Baltimore,  in  1852  was  or- 
dained a  Catholic  priest,  served  chiefly  in  Mississippi,  and 
held  professorships  in  the  colleges  at  Vincennes,  Spring 
Hill,  and  Baltimore.  In  1S77  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Natchitoches,  was  api)ointed  coadjutor  of  New  Or- 
leans in  1879,  and  in  1SS3  succeeded  Dr.  Perche  as 
archbishop  of  that  see. 

Leray,  leh-rV,  (Theodore  Constant,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Brest  in  1795  ;  died  in  1849. 

Lerche,  l^R'Keh,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Potsdam  in  1703;  died  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1780. 

Lerchenfeld,  l^R'Ken-fglt',  (Maximilian,)  Baron 
OF,  a  German  statesman  of  liberal  opinions,  born  at 
Munich  in  1779  ;  died  in  1843. 

Lerdo  de  Tejada,  IgR'do  dk  taiii'Di,  (Sebastian,) 
a  Mexican  president,  born  at  Jalapa,  April  25,  1S25.  He 
studied  at  Puebla,  and  at  the  College  of  San  Ildefonso, 
Mexico.  He  became  an  advocate  in  1853,  was  a  judge  of 
the  high  court,  1S55-57,  became  foreign  minister  and 
premier  in  1S57,  was  minister  of  justice  and  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1863,  shared  in  the  work  of  destroying  Maxi- 
milian's empire,  became  chief  justice  in  1868,  and  was 
elected  president  in  1872.  He  was  re-elected  in  1876, 
but  was  soon  after  exiled.     Died  April  21,  1889. 

Lerebours,  leh-reh'booR',  (Noel  Jean,)  a  French 
optician,  born  in  Normandy  in  1762.  He  made  tele- 
scopes of  superior  quality,  and  other  optical  instruments. 
Died  in  1S40. 

Leri,  de,  deh  leh-re',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  in  1534.  He  laboured  in  Brazil  about  two 
years,  (1556-58,)  and  published  "An  Account  of  his 
Voyage  to  Brazil,"  (1577.)     Died  in  1611. 

Lerma,  de,  di  l^u'mi,  (Francisco  de  Ro.xas  (01 
RojAS)  DE  Sandoval,)  Duke,  a  Spanish  statesman  of 
moderate  ability.  He  was  equerry  to  Don  Philip,  who 
in  1598  became  king  as  Philip  HI.  and  appointed  the 
subject  of  this  article  prime  minister.  He  was  then 
created  Duke  of  Lerma,  having  previously  been  called 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  Io»^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y, short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LERMINIER 


1533 


LEROY 


Marquis  of  Denia.  He  equipped  a  large  fleet  which 
was  ordered  to  cruise  on  the  English  coast,  but  was 
destroyed  by  a  storm,  after  which  he  made  a  peace  on 
terms  favourable  to  England.  For  twenty  years  he 
retaiiied  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  had  entire  control 
of  the  government.  His  policy  was  mild,  pacific,  and 
prudent  in  some  respects,  but  was  not  successful  in 
relation  to  finances.  He  was  supplanted  in  1618  by  his 
son,  the  Duke  of  Uzeda.     Died  in  1625. 

See  Watson,  *'  History  of  Philip  II.;"  Motley,  "  United  Nethei^ 
lands,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xlvin. 

Lerminier,  l§R'me'ne-4',  (Jean  Lotris  EuofeNE,)  a 
French  publicist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He 
obtained  in  183 1  a  chair  of  legislation  in  the  College  of 
France,  where  his  eloquent  lectures  were  much  admired 
by  the  ardent  youth.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Phi- 
losophy of  Law,"  (2  vols.,  1831,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Legislators  and  Constitutions  of  Ancient  Greece,"  (2 
vols.,  1852.)  He  wrote  the  article  "Guizot"  in  the  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale."  He  was  remarkable  for 
animation  of  style,  vigour  of  images,  and  nobleness  of 
expression.     Died  in  1857. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lerminier,  (Th^odoric  N^lamond,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Saint-Valery-sur-Somme  in  1770.  In 
1808  he  was  appointed  physician  par  qtiartier  for  the 
service  of  the  imperial  household.  He  attended  Na- 
poleon in  the  campaigns  of  Spain,  Russia,  (1812,)  and 
Sa.xony,  and  gave  jjroof  of  great  professional  talent 
and  courage.     Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

L'Ermite.     See  Ermite,  L'. 

Lermontof,Lermontov,  or  Lermonto'w,  l§R'mon- 
tof,  (Mikhail  Ivanovitch,)  a  popular  Russian  poet, 
born  in  181 1,  became  an  officer  in  the  guards.  In  1837, 
by  a  poem  "On  the  Death  of  Pushkin,"  he  offended  the 
emperor,  who  ordered  him  to  join  the  army  of  the  Cau- 
casus. While  serving  there  in  the  army,  he  wrote  "The 
Circassian  Boy,"  and  other  popular  poems,  and  a  suc- 
cessful novel,  called  "A  Hero  of  our  Own  Time,"  (1840.) 
He  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  1841.  Like  Byron,  he  ex- 
presses his  own  character  and  feelings  in  his  writings, 
and  is  the  principal  person  in  the  tales  or  pictures  which 
his  imagination  produces. 

See  Saint-Ren^  Taillandier,  "Le  Poete  du  Caiicase,"  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  February  i,  1855;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Gdndrale. " 

Lernaean  Hydra.    See  Hydra. 

Lernout,  ICR'noo',  (Jean,)  [Lat.  Ja'nus  Lernu'tius,] 
a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Bruges  in  1545.  He  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  English  in  1587,  and  detained  five  years. 
His  "Carmina,"  odes,  epigrams,  etc.,  published  in  1579, 
are  said  to  have  considerable  merit.     Died  in  1619. 

Lernutius.    See  Lernout. 

Leroi.     See  Leroy. 

Leroux,  leh-roo',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Sevres  in  1749.  Having  been  elected  to  a  high 
municipal  office  in  Paris  in  1 790,  he  exposed  his  life  in 
his  efforts  to  defend  the  royal  family,  for  which  he  was 
proscribed.     Died  in  1832. 

Leroux,  (Pierre,)  a  French  socialist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1798.  He  founded,  in  partnership  with  Madame  George 
Sand,  the  "Revue  Independante."  His  principal  work 
is  "On  Humanity:  its  Principle  and  its  Prospects," 
("  De  I'Humanite  :  de  son  Principe  et  de  son  Avenir," 
2  vols.,  1840.)     Died  April  12,  1871. 

Leroy,  leh-RwS',  (Charles,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1726,  was  a  son  of  Julien,  noticed  below.  He 
published  two  valuable  works,  viz. :  "  Memoirs  and  Ob- 
servations on  Medicine,"  and  "  Melanges  of  Philosophy, 
Chemistry,"  etc.,  (1771.)     Died  in  1779. 

Leroy,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  natural  philosopher,  born 
ji  Paris,  was  a  son  of  Julien,  noticed  below.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1751,  and  wrote 
several  memoirs  on  electricity.     Died  in  1800. 

Leroy,  (Jean  Baptiste  On^sime,)  a  French  dramatic 
writer,  born  it  Valenciennes  in  1788.  He  produced  suc- 
cessful comedies.     Died  February  18,  1875. 

Leroy  or  Le  Roy,  (Julien,)  a  French  watchmaker, 
born  at  Tours  in  1686.  He  settled  in  Paris,  and  ac- 
quired a  European  reputation  by  the  excellence  of  his 
workmanship.    He  obviated  the  changes  of  temperature 


by  a  mechanism  of  compensation,  invented  horizontal 
clocks,  and  made  many  improvements. in  the  art.  In 
1739  he  received  the  title  of  horloger  to  the  king.  Died 
in  1759.  His  sons  Charles,  Jean  Baptiste,  Julien 
David,  and  Pierre  are  noticed  in  this  work. 

Leroy  or  Leroi,  (Julien  David,)  a  French  architect, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1726. 
Having  visited  and  studied  the  ancient  models  in  Greece, 
he  published  in  1758  an  excellent  work  entitled  "Ruins 
of  the  Finest  Monuments  of  Greece,"  which  contributed 
greatly  to  reform  the  vitiated  taste  that  prevailed  in 
France  before  its  appearance.  The  lectures  which  he 
gave  for  forty  years  as  professor  of  architecture  finished 
the  revolution  which  that  book  commenced.  He  wrote, 
also,  "  Observations  on  the  Edifices  of  Ancient  Nations,*' 
(1767,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1803. 

See  Gabet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Leroy  or LeRoy,[Lat.  Re'gius,](Louis,)  an  excellent 
French  classical  scholar,  born  at  Coutances.  He  trav- 
elled much  in  his  youth,  and  on  his  return  home  gained 
distinction  by  translations  of  Demosthenes'  "  Philippics" 
and  of  some  works  of  Plato.  He  was  an  old  man  when 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  in  the  College  Royal  in 
1572.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Budaeus,"  in 
elegant  Latin,  (1540,)  "The  Origin  and  Excellence  of 
the  Art  of  Government,"  (TArt  folitiqtte,)  (1567,)  and 
"The  Vicissitude  and  Variety  of  Things,"  (1576.)  He 
is  reputed  one  of  the  first  French  writers  who  attained 
harmony  in  prose.     Died  in  1577. 

See  Nic^RO.v,  "Mdmoires;"  Teissier,  "filoges." 

Leroy,  (Pierre,)  a  French  satirical  writer,  who  lived 
about  1590,  was  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Rouen.  He 
was  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  a  very  popular  satire 
and  master-piece  of  pleasantry,  entitled  "Menippean 
Satire  on  the  Virtue  of  the  Spanish  Catholicon,"("Satyre 
Menippee  de  la  Vertu  du  Catholicon  d'Espagne,"  1593,) 
"  which,"  said  Voltaire,  "  was  as  profitable  to  the  cause 
of  Henry  IV.  as  the  battle  of  Ivry." 

Leroy,  (Pierre,)  a  skilful  watchmaker,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 71 7,  was  the  son  of  Julien,  noticed  above.  He  was 
chiefly  noted  for  the  perfection  he  attained  in  marine 
time-pieces,  and  received  a  prize  from  the  Academy  for 
the  best  method  of  measuring  titne  at  sea.  He  has  the 
credit  of  discovering  the  isochronism  of  spiral  springs. 
He  published  several  remarkable  treatises  on  his  art, 
— one  called  "Etrennes  chronometriques  pour  I'Annee 
1760."     Died  in  17S5. 

Leroy-Beaulieu,  leh-RwS'  bo'Ie-uh',  (Pierre  Paul,) 
a  French  economist,  born  at  Saumur,  December  9,  1843, 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lycee  Bonaparte,  and  at  Rome, 
Bonn,  and  Berlin.  In  1878  he  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  His  essay  "  On  tlie  influence  of  the  moral 
and  intellectual  condition  of  labourers  upon  their  %vages" 
(1867)  received  great  attention.  He  is  the  author  of  many 
papers  on  politics,  taxation,  colonization,  free  trade, 
(which  he  defends,)  finance,  labour,  etc.  In  1878  he  waa 
chosen  to  the  French  Institute. 

Leroy  d'Etiolles,  leh-RwS'  di'te'ol',  (Jean  Jacques 
Joseph,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1798,  js 
distinguished  as  the  inventor  of  instruments  used  in 
lithotrity.  This  invention  was  also  claimed  by  M.  Ci- 
viale;  but  a  committee  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
awarded  a  prize  to  Leroy  d'fitiolles  "for  having  first 
made  known  [in  1822]  the  instruments  which  he  had 
invented."     He  died  August  25,  i860. 

Leroy  de  la  Corbinaye,  leh-Rwi'  deh  It  koR'be'ni', 
(Charles,)  a  French  lexicographer,  born  at  Saint-Brieuc 
in  1690.  lie  published  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  French 
Orthography,  in  the  Form  of  a  Dictionary,"  (1739,)  which 
is  praised  for  accuracy,  method,  etc.     Died  in  1739. 

Leroy  de  Saint- Arnaud,  leh-RwS'  deh  sAwt  ^R'no', 
(Arnaud  Jacques,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris 
about  iSoo.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Algeria,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp  in  1847,  and  that 
of  general  of  division  in  1851,  as  a  reward  for  his  suc- 
cessful operations  against  the  Kabyle  tribes.  Having 
become  minister  of  war  in  October,  1851,  he  promoted 
the  ccnip  d'etat  of  December  2,  and  was  made  a  marshal 
of  France  in  December,  1852.  He  obtained  the  chief 
command    in  the  Crimean  war,  which  began  in  1854, 


€  as  /i;  5  as  j;  |  hard;  g  asy;  G,  11,  Vi,g»ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i!^°^See  Explanations,  p.  23.! 


LERY 


1534 


LESCOT 


and,  although  suffering  severely  from  disease,  displayed 
his  usual  energy  and  skill  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma, 
September  20,  1854.  He  was  obliged  by  the  state  of  his 
health  to  resign  the  command,  and  he  died  on  the  29th 
of  September,  1854. 

See  DuPHRREi.  Sainte-Marie,  "M.  le  G^n^ral  Leroy  de  Saint- 
Arnaud,"  1852;  Charras,  "  Les  trois  Mar^chaux  MM.  de  Saint- 
Arnaud,  Magnan  et  Castellane,"  1851. 

L6ry,  li're',  or  L^ri,  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  and 
traveller,  born  at  Margelle  in  1534.  He  went  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Brazil  in  1556,  and  returned  in  1558.  He 
published,  in  French  and  in  Latin,  "A  Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  to  Brazil,"  with  a  good  description  of  that  re 
gion,  (1578.)     Died  in  1611. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  leh  stzh,  (Alain  Ren^,)  a  cele- 
brated French  romancer  and  dramatist,  born  at  Sarzeau, 
near  Vannes,  (Morbihan,)  May  8,  1668.     He  was  the  son 
of  a  lawyer,  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Vannes,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  employed  several  years  in  the 
collection  of  taxes.     In  1692  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
law  and  philosoj^hy.     There  his  handsome  figure  and  his 
intelligence  and  fine  literary  taste  procured  for  him  free 
access  to  the  most  polished  and  aristocratic  society.     In 
1694  he  married  Mademoiselle  Huyard,  of  Paris,  and  was 
admitted  as  advocate  of  the  Parliament,  but  soon  relin- 
quished all  other  pursuits  that  he  might  devote  himself 
to  literature.     He  studied  Spanish,  and  improved  his 
style  by  translating  or  imitating  several  Spanish  come- 
dies.    His  corned)  "Don  Caesar  Ursin,"  imitated  from 
Calderon,  was  a  failure;  but  his  "Crispin  Rival  de  son 
Maitre"  ("Crispin  the  Rival  of  his  Master")  was  per- 
formed with  brilliant  success  in  1 707.   In  the  same  year  he 
produced  "Le  Diable  boiteux,"  {i.e.  "The  Lame  Devil," 
popularly  called  in  English  "The  Devil  on  Two  Sticks," 
and  sometimes  "Asmodeus,")  a  romance,  the  idea  and 
name  of  which  he  derived  from  a  work  of  Luis  Velez  de 
Guevara.     By  its  satire   on  all  conditions,  its  nervous 
style,  and  its  truthful  portraits,  this  book  attained  great 
popularity.     He  increased  his  reputation  by  an  original 
prose  play  called  "Turcaret,"  which  exposed  the  iniqui- 
ties of  the  ti-aitants  and  other  agents  of  the  revenue. 
These  parties  offered  him  one  hundred  thousand  francs 
to  suppress  the  piece ;  but  he  refused  the  bribe,  and  it 
was  performed  with  immense  applause  in  1709.     It  is 
superior  to  any  play  which  he  imitated  from  the  Spanish. 
In  1715  Le  Sage  published  two  volumes  of  his  most 
celebrated    work,   "Gil    Bias  de   Santillane,"  which  is 
perhaps  a  more  universal  favourite  than  any  other  novel, 
and  owes  its  success  to  its  admirable  and  natural  pictures 
of  human  life  in  all  its  conditions  and  all  its  phases. 
It  has  been  translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Voltaire    and    others   attempted,    without   success,   to 
convict  him  of  borrowing  or  purloining  the  story  from 
some  Spanish  writer.     Their  charges  have  been  refuted 
by  Fran9ois  de  Neufchateau.     He  employed  the  period 
between  1713  and  1738  chiefly  in  writing  comic  operas 
and  other  pieces,  which  were  exhibited  at  the   fair  of 
Saint-Germain  and  were  extremely  popular.     He  pub- 
lished "Roland  I'Amoureux,"  (1717-21,)  an  imitation  of 
"Orlando  Innamorato,"  and  "The  Adventures  of  Guz- 
man d'Alfarache,"  (1732,)  an  amusing  novel,  superior 
to  the  Spanish  work  of  which  it  is  a  version  or  imitation. 
In  1735  he  produced  a  dialogue  full  of  witty,  wise,  and 
original  thoughts,  entitled  "  A^Day  of  the  Parcae,"  ("  Une 
Journee  des  Parques,")  and  finished  the  last  volume  of 
"Gil  Bias."     After  composing  several  other  works  and 
enjoying  a  large  share  of  domestic  happiness,  he  died  at 
Boulogne  in  November,  1747.     He  had  the  reputation 
of  a  high-minded  and  honourable  man.     His  eldest  son, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  MoNTM^NlL,  became  a  famous 
play-actor. 

See  AuDiFFRET,  "  Notice  sur  A.  R.  Lesape,"  1822 ;  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  "  Biograpliical  Notice  of  Le  Sage,"  (in  his  Miscellaneous 
Works:)  Malitourne,  "Elogede  Le  Sage,"  1822:  Sainte-Bhuve, 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi,"tome  ii. ;  Henri  Patin,  "  filoge  de  Lesage," 
1822;  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Villemain, 
"  Littdrature  Fran?aise  du  dix-huiti^ine  Siecle,"  tome  i, ;  Sai.mt- 
Marc  Giraroin,  "  Eloge  de  Lesage,"  1S22;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gdn^rale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  (Bernard  Marie,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792, 
and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.     As  a  Girondist  he 


was  proscribed  and  outlawed  in  1793,  but  escaped  by 
flight.    Died  in  1796. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  (George  Louis,)  a  Swiss  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Geneva  in  1724.  He  studied  medicine, 
but  did  not  practise  it.  His  favourite  studies  were  nttural 
philosophy,  mathematics,  and  mechanics.  In  1750  he  be- 
came a  teacher  of  mathematics  at  Geneva.  He  published 
an  "Essay  on  Mechanical  Chemistry,"  (1758,)  an  inge- 
nious treatise  called  "Newtonian  Lucretius,"  ("Lucr^ce 
Newtonien,"  1782,)  and  "Fragments  on  Final  Causes," 
and  left  many  works  in  manuscript.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  corresponded  with 
D'Alembert  and  other  eminent  savants.     Died  in  1803. 

See  P.  PR^vbsT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  G.  L.  Lesage,"  1803 ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 

Le  Sage  (or  Lesage)  de  Montm^nil,  leh  stzh  deh 
mAN'mi'nfel',  (Ren6  Andr6,)  a  son  of  the  author  of  "Gil 
Bias,"  was  horn  in  Paris  in  1695.  He  made  his  debut  on 
the  stage  in  1726,  and  performed  various  r6Us  in  comedy 
with  success.  He  soon  became  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated French  actors  of  that  time.  His  private  character 
is  said  to  have  been  noble.     Died  in  1743. 

Les-bo'nax,  [XeaSCrvu^,]  a  Greek  sophist  and  rheto- 
rician of  Mitylene,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  B.C.,  in 
the  time  of  Augustus.  He  was  the  father  of  Polemon, 
the  preceptor  of  Tiberius.  His  philosophic  works  have 
not  come  down  to  us  ;  but  we  have  two  orations  of  some 
merit,  which  are  ascribed  to  him.  Another  Lesbonax,  a 
Greek  grammarian,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  a  later 
period.  He  was  author  of  a  small  work  on  grammatical 
figures,  liepl  2  \;»?^aT(jv,  which  is  extant 

See  SuiDAS,  "Lesbonax." 

Lescaille,  li'kSI'  or  li'kt'ye,  (Catherine,)  a  Dutch 
poetess,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1649,  was  called  "the 
Sappho  of  Holland."  She  wrote  tragedies, — "  Genseric," 
"Cassandra," "Herod and Mariamne," etc  Died  in  1711. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Lescaille,  (Jacques,)  a  Flemish  or  Dutch  poet  and 
publisher,  born  in  1610,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1677. 

Lescale.     See  Scaliger. 

Lescallier,  li'kt'le-i'  or  li'ktl'yi',  (Daniel,)  a 
French  officer  of  the  marine,  born  at  Lyons  in  1743.  He 
wrote  a  "  French-English  Vocabulary  of  Marine  Terms," 
(1777,)  and  "Travels  in  England,  Russia,"  etc.,  (1800.) 
Died  in  1822. 

Lescarbot,  li'ktR'bo',  (Marc,)  a  French  writer  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Vervins.  He  contributed  to  form  the 
first  French  colony  in  Canada,  and,  having  returned  to 
France,  published  in  1609  a  "  History  of  New  France." 

Lescene-Desmaisons.LVsin'dk'mi'zAN',  (Jacques,) 
a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Granville  in  175c. 
He  published  in  1781  a  "  History  of  the  Last  Revolution 
in  Sweden,"  and  in  1789  a  "  Political  History  of  the 
French  Revolution."     Died  in  1808. 

Leschassier,  li'sht'se-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1550;  died  in  1625. 

Leschenault  de  La  Tour,  lish'no'  deh  It  tooR, 
(Jean  Baptiste  Louis  Claude  Theodore,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in 
1773.  ^^  travelled  in  Hindostan  about  five  years,  (1816- 
21.)  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Vegetation 
of  New  Holland."     Died  in  1S26. 

Les'-ehes  [A£(j;t;7?f]  or  Les'cheus,  [At(T;i;£wc,]  a  Greek 
poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  lived  about  700  or 
600  B.C.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  poem  called 
"The  Little  Iliad,"  ('Wiag iiLKpa.) 

L'Escluse.     See  L'ficLUSE. 

Lesconvel,  de,  deh  li'k6N'v§l',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  about  1650;  died  in  Paris  in  1722. 

Lescot,  l^s'ko',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  about  15 10.  Little  is  known  of  his 
life,  except  that  he  was  ablSe  of  Clagny.  He  designed 
the  Louvre,  which  was  begun  about  1 541.  The  part  of 
this  palace  called  the  Fa9ade  de  I'Horloge  is  considered 
a  master-piece.  Another  specimen  of  his  good  taste  is  the 
Salle  des  Caryatides,  in  the  same  edifice.  "He  will  ever 
be  regarded,"  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "as 
one  of  the  greatest  architects  of  France."    Died  in  1571. 

See  Quatrem^re  de  Quinc\',  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Archi- 
tectes;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 


a,  c,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort, 


■"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. 

';  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LESCUN 


1535 


LESLIE 


Lescun,  de,  deh  ISs'kuN',  (Thomas  de  Foix,)  Sei- 
gneur, a  French  general,  was  a  younger  brother  of 
Lautrec.  Me  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1521. 
After  fighting  the  armies  of  Charles  V.  at  several  places 
in  Italy,  he  was  mortally  wounded  at  Pavi'a  in  1525. 

Lescure,  de,  deh  LVkiiR',  (Louis  Marie,)  Marquis. 
a  French  royalist  and  Vendean  chief,  was  born  in  1766, 
and  was  a  cousin  of  Larochejaquelein.  He  was  the  most 
scientific  officer  in  the  Vendean  army,  and  was  noted  for 
his  cool  bravery.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Fontenay 
and  Torfou,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Tremblaye 
in  October,  1793.  "His  humanity,"  says  Alison,  "was 
angelic.  Alone  of  all  the  chiefs  in  that  memorable 
struggle,  it  could  be  said  with  truth  that  his  glory  was 
unstained  by  human  blood."  ("  History  of  Europe.") 

See  Madame  de  la  Rochejaquelhin,  "M^moires." 

Lescurel,  de,  deh  la'kii'rel',  (Jehannot,)  a  French 
poet,  who  probably  lived  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life.  His  ex- 
tant ballades  and  rondeaux  are  of  singular  grace  and 
elegance. 

Lesdiguieres,  de,  deh  li'de'ge-aiR',  (FRANgots  de 
Bonne,)  Duke,  a  distinguished  French  marshal,  born  in 
Dauphine  in  1543.  He  fought  for  the  Protestants  in 
the  civil  war  which  began  about  1562,  and  obtained  the 
chief  command  of  the  Protestant  army  in  1575.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  most  effectually  aided  Henry  IV.  in 
obtaining  the  throne.  In  1608  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
rank  of  marshal  and  a  dukedom,  and  about  1610  com- 
manded the  army  in  Italy,  where  he  defeated  the  Span- 
iards. He  was  accused  by  some  writers  of  conspiring 
with  other  Protestant  leaders  to  form  a  republic  after 
the  death  of  Heniy  IV. ;  but  he  refused  to  fight  against 
the  court  in  the  civil  war  that  began  about  1620.  In 
1622  he  abjured  Calvinism,  and  was  appointed  Con- 
stable of  France.  Died  in  1626.  Henry  IV.  once  said 
he  would  acknowledge  his  own  inferiority  to  no  captain 
in  Europe  except  Lesdiguieres, 

See  Louis  Videl,  "Vie  du  Mar^chal  de  Lesdiguieres,"  163S; 
Brant6me,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaiiies  ;"  DeThou,  "  Historia  sui 
Temporis;"  J.  C.  Martin,  "Histoire  abr^g^e  de  la  Vie  de  F.  de 
Bonne,"  1802;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 
-  Leseur,  leh-zUR',  (J  ean  Baptiste  CicfiRON,)  a  French 
architect,  born  near  Rambouillet,  October  5,  1794.  His 
principal  books  are  "  History  and  Theory  of  Architec- 
ture," and  a  valued  "  Chronology  of  the  Kings  of  Egypt." 
Died  in  1SS3. 

Leseur,  leh-zuR',  (Thomas,)  an  able  French  geometer, 
born  at  Rethel  in  1703.  He  became  a  professor  of  ma- 
thematics in  the  College  of  Sapienza,  in  Rome.  There 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  F.  Jacquier,  whom  he  as- 
sisted in  two  works,  viz.,  a  "  Commentary  on  Newton's 
Principia"  and  "Elements  of  the  Integral  Calculus," 
(1748.)     Died  in  1770. 

Leske,  l^s'keh,  (Nathaniel  Gottfried,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Muskau  in  1757;  died  in  1786. 

Lesley.     See  Leslie,  (Alexander.) 

LesTey,  (John,)  Bishop  of  Ross,  a  Scottish  Catholic 
prelate,  chiefly  noted  for  his  zeal  and  fidelity  in  the 
service  of  Maty  Queen  of  Scots,  was  born  in  1527.  He 
escorted  Mary  from  France  to  Scotland  in  1561,  and  was 
soon  after  appointed  Bishop  of  Ross.  When  Queen 
Mary  was  detained  as  a  prisoner  in  England,  and  com- 
missioners were  ordered  to  examine  her  cause  in  1568, 
Lesley  was  one  of  the  commissioners  whom  she  chose 
to  defend  her.  Having  taken  part  in  the  matrimonial 
intrigue  between  Mary  and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  1571,  and  released  in  1573. 
He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  exile.  He  wrote  a 
Latin  work  "On  the  Origin,  Customs,  and  Achievements 
of  the  Scotch,"  (1578,)  eloquent  arguments  in  defence  of 
Queen  Mary,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1596. 

See  RoBEKTsOiV,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Laing,  "History  of 
Scotland;"  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xli. ; 
Froude,  "History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Les'ley,  (J.  Peter,)  an  American  geologist,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  September  19,  1819,  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  183S,  and  at  the  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  1844.  He  was  engaged  upon 
the  geological  survey  of  Pennsylvania,  1839-41,  became 


pastor  of  a  church  near  Milton,  Massachusetts,  in  1847, 
but  in  1850  devoted  himself  to  the  profession  of  a  geolo- 
gist In  1873  ^^  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1S74  was  put  in 
charge  of  the  State  geological  survey.  Among  his  works 
are  "  A  Manual  of  Coal,"  etc.,  (1856,)  "The  Iron-Manu- 
facturer's Guide,"  (185S,)  "Man's  Origin  and  Destiny," 
(1867,  18S2,)  "A  Catalogue  raisonne  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society's  Library,"  (1S84,)  "  History  of  the 
First  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,"  (1875,)  etc. 
In  1S84  he  became  president  of  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Les'lie  (ISs'le)  or  Lesley,  (Alexander,)  Earl  of 
Leven,  an  eminent  Scottish  general.  He  served  some 
years  under  Gustavus  AdoljDhus  of  Sweden,  who  pro- 
moted him  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1628  he 
defended  Stralsund  with  success.  Having  returned 
home  in  1639,  when  the  Covenanters  were  preparing  to 
resist  Charles  I.,  he  was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  their 
army  ;  but  before  any  battle  was  fought  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  made.  War  was  renewed  in  1640.  Leslie  defeated 
the  king's  army  at  Newburn,  and  another  treaty  followed. 
He  commanded  the  large  Scottish  army  which,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1644,  marched  to  assist  the  English  Parliament 
Having  effected  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Fairfax,  he 
led  a  division  at  Marston  Moor,  (1644,)  where  he  was 
driven  off  the  field,  though  his  allies  gained  the  victory. 
In  May,  1646,  Charles  I.  delivered  himself  up  to  the 
army  of  Leslie,  then  encamped  at  Newark.  On  account 
of  his  great  age,  he  resigned  his  command  in  1650.  Died 
in  i66l 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leslie.  (Charles,)  a  British  polemical  writer  on 
politics  and  religion,  was  born  in  Ireland  about  1650. 
He  took  orders  about  1680  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and 
gained  distinction  as  a  disputant  against  the  Catholics. 
In  the  Revolution,  however,  (1688,)  he  was  a  staunch 
Jacobite  and  nonjuror,  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  preferment 
in  the  church.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works 
against  the  Jews,  Deists,  Socinians,  and  other  sects.  In 
his  "Snake  in  the  Grass"  he  attacked  the  Society  of 
Friends.  After  the  death  of  James  II.,  Leslie  joined  the 
court  of  the  Pretender  in  France.  He  died  in  Ireland 
in  1722.  His  most  esteemed  work  is  a  "Short  and 
Easy  Method  with  the  Deists,"  (1694.)  Dr.  Johnson 
pronounced  him  the  only  one  of  the  nonjurors  that 
could  reason. 

See  Burnet,  "History  of  his  Own  Time;"  MoRiRi,  "Diction- 
luire  Historique." 

Leslie,  (Charles  Robert,)  an  eminent  English  his- 
torical painter,  born  of  American  parents  in  London  in 
1794,  was  a  brother  of  Eliza  Leslie  the  authoress.  After 
passing  twelve  years  in  Philadelphia  with  his  parents, 
he  removed  in  1813  to  London,  where  he  was  instructed 
in  the  study  of  art  by  West  and  AUston.  Among  his 
first  successful  works  was  "  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  going 
to  Church,"  (1820.)  He  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1S21,  and  Royal  Academician  in  1826. 
His  subjects  are  mostly  of  a  homely  and  familiar  char- 
acter, illustrative  of  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  Moliere, 
Cervantes,  and  other  humorous  writers.  Among  his 
most  admired  productions  are  his  illustrations  of  "Don 
Quixote."  He  was  also  successful  in  portraits.  In  1847 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  painting  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy. He  published  a  "Life  of  John  Constable,"  (1843,) 
and  a  "  Hand-Book  for  Young  Painters,"  (1855.)  Died 
in  1859.  "The  more  I  learn  of  art,"  says  Ruskin,  "th£ 
more  respect  I  feel  for  Mr.  Leslie's  painting  as  such 
Given  a  certain  quantity  ot  oil-colour  to  be  laid  with  one 
touch  of  the  pencil  so  as  to  produce  at  once  the  subtlest 
and  largest  expressional  result  possible,  and  there  is  no 
man  now  living  who  seems  to  me  to  come  at  all  near  Mr. 
Leslie,  his  work  being  in  places  equal  to  Hogarth  for 
decision." 

See  Ruskin,  "Modem  Painters;"  C.  R.  Leslie,  "Autobio- 
graphic Recollections,"  edited  by  Tom  Taylor,  Boston,  1865; 
■Qii.irierly  Review"  for  April,  i860;  "North  .'Vmericau  Review" 
for  Janu.iry,  iS6i. 

Leslie  or  Lesley,  (David,)  an  able  Scottish  general 
After  serving  with  distinction  under  Gustavus  Adolphus 


€as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.     (E^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.; 


LESLIE 


1536 


LESSER 


/>{  Sweden,  he  returned  to  Scotland  about  1642.  He 
had  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  when  he  fought 
against  Charles  I.  at  Marston  Moor  in  1644.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  action  was  ascribed  chiefly  to  Cromwell  and 
Leslie.  In  1646  he  defeated  Montrose  at  Philiphaugh. 
On  the  resignation  of  the  Earl  of  Leven,  (1650,)  Leslie 
was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  Scottish  army 
raised  to  restore  Charles  IL  He  intrenched  his  army 
between  Edinburgh  and  Leith,  and  prudently  declined 
Cromwell's  offer  of  battle.  Leslie  followed  the  PLnglish 
army  to  Dunbar,  where  they  were  reduced  to  extremi- 
ties for  want  of  provisions.  Against  his  own  judgment, 
he  was  induced  by  the  clergy  to  descend  from  his  ad- 
vantageous position  and  offer  battle.  The  result  was  a 
signal  defeat  of  the  Scotch,  September  3,  1650.  Leslie 
was  second  or  third  in  command  at  Worcester  in  1651. 
In  the  retreat  from  this  battle  he  was  made  prisoner,  and 
was  confined  in  the  Tower  until  1660.  He  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Newark  in  1661.     Died  in  16S2. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the 
Rebellion." 

Leslie,  (Eliza,)  an  American  writer,  sister  of  Charles 
Robert,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1787. 
She  was  the  author  of  numerous  tales  and  sketches, 
which  display  uncommon  powers  of  humour  and  satire 
and  acquired  extensive  popularity.  Among  the  principal 
of  these  are  "Pencil  Sketches,  or  Outlines  of  Character 
and  Manners,"  (1833,)  "Atlantic  Tales,"  "The  American 
Girl's  Book,"  and  "Althea  Vernon,"  (1841.)  She  also 
published  "The  Domestic  Cookery  Book,"  the  "Beha- 
viour Book,"  and  other  similar  works.     Died  in  1858. 

See  "North  American  Review"  for  Octnber,  1833. 

Leslie,  (George  Dunlop,)  an  English  painter,  a  son 
of  C.  R.  Leslie,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  London,  July 
2,  1S35.  He  became  a  Royal  Academician  in  1S76.  His 
pictures  are  mostly  of  a  cheerful  and  domestic  kind. 

Le.slie,  (Henry  David,)  an  English  musician  and 
composer,  born  in  London,  June  iS,  1822.  In  1856  he 
founded  the  Choral  Society  in  London  which  bears  his 
name.  His  compositions  are  numerous  and  varied  in 
nature. 

Leslie,  (John,)  born  in  Scotland  about  1570,  was  the 
father  of  Charles  Leslie,  (1650-1722.)  He  spoke  Latin 
and  several  modern  languages.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Raphoe  in  1633,  and  built  a  strong  castle, 
which  he  defended  against  Cromwell  in  the  civil  war. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  last  in  Ireland  to  submit 
to  the  victor.  In  1661  he  became  Bishop  of  Clogher. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leslie,  (Sir  John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  geometer  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Largo,  in  Fifeshire,  in  1766. 
He  was  educated  at  Saint  Andrew's  and  Edinburgh,  and 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  1790.  In  1793  he  pro- 
duced a  translation  of  Buffon's  "  Natural  History  of 
Birds,"  which  was  very  favourably  received.  About 
1795  he  invented  the  Differential  Thermometer.  He 
published  in  1804  his  ingenious  "Experimental  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  and  Propagation  of  Heat,"  for  which 
the  Royal  Society  awarded  him  the  Rumford  medal.  In 
1805  he  was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Uiiiversity  of  Edinburgh,  although  the  clergy  formally 
protested  against  his  election,  because  he  had  com- 
mended Hume's  "Theory  of  Causation."  He  succeeded 
Playfair  as  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  Edinburgh 
in  1 819,  and  contributed  much  to  the  perfection  of  the 
apparatus  and  experiments  of  that  department.  He 
wrote  many  scientific  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica"  and  "Edinburgh  Review."  Among  his 
separate  publications  were  "  Elements  of  Geometry," 
etc.,  (1809,)  and  "Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy," 
(1823.)  He  wrote  an  interesting  and  excellent  "Dis- 
course on  the  Progress  of  Matheinatical  and  Physical 
Sciences  during  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  which  is  one 
of  the  preliminary  dissertations  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  new  edition  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  His 
treatise  on  "  Heat,"  above  noticed,  indicates  a  remarka- 
ble original  genius,  and  constitutes  an  era  in  the  history 
of  that  branch  of  science.     Died  in  1832. 


Leslie,  (Thomas  Edward  Cliffe,)  an  able  econo- 
mist, born  in  the  county  of  Wexford,  Ireland,  probably 
in  1827.  He  was  educated  at  King  William's  College  in 
the  Isle  of  Man,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where 
he  graduated  in  1846.  He  was  called  to  the  English  bar, 
and  in  1853  was  appointed  professor  of  jurisprudence 
and  political  economy  in  the  Queen's  College,  Belfast, 
but  he  lived  chiefly  in  London  and  on  the  Continent. 
His  principal  works  are  "The  Land  System  of  France," 
(2d  edition,  1870,)  "Essays  in  Political  and  Moral  Phi- 
losophy," (1879,)  and  a  volume  on  "Land  Systems." 
He  prepared  a  work  on  the  economic  and  legal  history 
of  England,  the  manuscript  of  which  was  unaccountably 
lost  in  1S72.  He  is  recognized  as  the  founder  of  th« 
historic  school  of  political  economists.  Died  at  Belfast, 
January  27,  1882. 

Lespinasse.    See  Espinasse,  de  l'. 

Lespinasse,  ISs'pe'nts',  (Augustin,  )  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Preuilly  in  1737.  In  1796  he 
fought  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  and  directed  the  artil- 
lery at  Mantua,  Castiglione,  and  Areola  with  great  skill, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  Died  in  1816. 

Lesquereux,  li'keh-Ruh',  (Charles  L60,)  a  Swiss- 
American  botanist,  born  at  Fleurier,  near  Neufchatel, 
November  18,  1806.  He  was  educated  at  the  College 
of  Neufchatel,  was  a  professor  at  Eisenach,  and  later  the 
head  of  a  college  at  Chaux  de  Fonds.  When  twenty- 
five  years  old,  he  became  totally  deaf.  He  was  director 
of  the  exploitation  of  the  peat-bogs  of  Neufchatel.  In 
1848  he  was  brought  to  the  United  States  by  Prof. 
Agassiz.  Besides  two  volumes  on  peat-bogs,  (in  French, 
1844,  1845,)  '^^  published  "  Musci  American!, "  (with  W. 
S.  Sullivant,  1856,  1S65,)  "Manual  of  the  Mosses  of 
North  America,"  (with  T.  L.  James,  1SS4,)  and  a  large 
number  of  monographs  and  reports  on  the  fossil  botany 
of  North  America,  chiefly  published  in  connection  with 
the  various  State  and  United  States  surveys.     D.  18S9. 

Lessart,  de,  deh  li'siR',  (Antoine  de  Valdec  )  a 
French  minister  of  state,  born  in  Guienne  in  1742.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior  about  January  i, 
1791,  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  December  of  that 
year.  His  policy  offended  the  dominant  party,  which 
unpeached  him  in  March,  1792.  He  was  imprisoned, 
and  perished  in  the  massacre  of  September,  1792. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Les'sel,  (Franz,)  a  Polish  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Pulawy,  on  the  Vistula,  about  17S0.  He  was 
one  of  Haydn's  favourite  pupils.  His  compositions  em- 
brace church  and  chamber  music,  songs,  symphonies, 
cantatas,  etc.     Died  March,  1839. 

Lesseps,  de,  deh  li'sSp',  (Ferdinand,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1805.  He  became 
consul  at  Cairo  about  1833,  and  in  1842  was  appointed 
consul  at  Barcelona.  During  the  bombardment  of  this 
city  by  Espartero.  Lesseps  performed  perilous  acts  of 
humanity,  for  which  he  received  testimonials  of  honour 
from  several  governments.  He  was  minister  at  Madrid 
from  April,  1848,  to  February,  1849.  In  May,  1849,  he 
was  sent  to  Rome  to  negotiate  a  peace  between  the 
popular  party  and  the  French  army.  He  was  recalled 
in  disgrace  in  June  of  that  year,  because  he  was  too 
favourable  to  the  Roman  republic.  He  projected  the 
construcrion  of  the  ship-canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
which,  under  his  superintendence,  was  completed,  at  a 
cost  of  nearly  sixty  millions  of  dollars,  and  opened  in 
November,  1869.  In  1880  he  undertook  the  formation 
of  a  company  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans. 

Lesseps,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Barth^lemt,)  a  French 
traveller  and  civil  ofiicer,  born  at  Cette  in  1766.  As 
interpreter  he  accompanied  La  Perouse's  expedition  in 
1785,  and  on  their  arrival  at  Kamtchatka  (1787)  was 
sent  home  by  land  with  despatches,  etc.  He  published 
a  Journal  of  his  Travels  from  Kamtchatka  to  France, 
(1790.)    Died  in  1834. 

Lesser,  l§s'ser,  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1692. 
He  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Nordhausen  in  1739. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  /on£-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/ior£;  a,  5,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fHU,  f4tj  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LESSER 


1537 


LESTOILE 


Lesser,  de,  (A.  Creuz6.)     See  Creuz6  de  Lesser. 

Lessing,  ISs'sing,  (Gotthold  Ephkaim,)  an  eminent 
author,  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  new  era  of  German 
literature,  was  born  at  Kamentz,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  in 
1729.  When  twelve  years  old,  he  was  sent  to  the  high 
school  at  Meissen,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  application  and  his  rapid  acquisition  ot  knowledge. 
Being  destined  by  his  parents  to  the  ministry,  he  entered, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  the  university  at  Leipsic.  While 
here,  his  taste  for  general  literature  and  his  fondness  for 
the  theatre  caused  him  to  neglect,  and  ultimately  to 
abandon,  the  study  of  theology,  that  he  might  devote 
himself  wholly  to  his  favourite  pursuits.  Not  to  mention 
several  dramas  of  minor  importance,  Lessing  brought 
out  in  1755  "Miss  Sarah  Sampson,"  a  tragedy,  which 
was  received  by  the  German  public  with  extraordinary 
favour,  and  was  translated  into  other  languages.  In 
1757  he  commenced,  in  concert  with  Mendelssohn  and 
Nicolai,  the  publication  of  the  "  Bibliothek  der  schonen 
Wissenschaften,"  (literally,  the  "  Library  of  the  Beautiful 
Sciences,") — a  literary  journal  of  great  merit.  He  pub- 
lished in  1766  his  "  Laocoon,  or  the  Limits  of  Poetry 
and  Painting."  This  work  has  exerted  a  great  and  per- 
manent influence  on  the  science  of  criticism  in  Germany, 
both  in  literature  and  art.  In  1768  appeared  the  "  Dra- 
maturgie," — another  critical  work,  in  which  Lessing 
opposes  the  French  and  defends  the  English  drama. 
He  completed  in  1772  his  "Emilia  Galotti,"  which  has 
been  styled  "the  master-piece  of  German  tragedy,  as 
the  '  Laocoon'  is  the  master-piece  of  German  criticism  ;" 
and  in  1775  he  brought  out  his  "Minna  von  Barnhelm," 
regarded  as  the  most  perfect  of  his  comedies.  His 
last  important  work  was  "Nathan  the  Wise,"  ("Nathan 
der  Weise,") — a  sort  of  controversial  drama  in  iambic 
verse,  directed  against  religious  intolerance.  Our  limits 
will  scarcely  permit  us  to  do  more  than  allude  to  his 
various  minor  productions,  nearly  all  of  which,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  bear  the  decided  impress  of  an 
earnest,  independent,  and  original  mind.  We  may, 
however,  mention  his  "Letters  on  Literature,"  ("  Lite- 
raturbriefe,")  his  "  Education  of  the  Human  Race," 
("Erziehung  des  Menschengeschlechts,")  and  especially 
his  "  Fables,"  so  rich  in  wit  and  original  thought :  many 
of  these  have  a  literary  ajjplication. 

One  of  the  great  objects  for  which  Lessing  earnestly 
laboured  was  to  build  up  a  national  literature.  The 
Germans  had  previously,  to  a  great  extent,  neglected 
or  despised  the  rich  native  resources  of  their  own 
tongue.  Lessing  sought  by  precept  and  example  to  re- 
call his  countrymen  from  the  almost  exclusive  study  of 
the  French,  recommending  in  preference  the  English 
dramatic  models,  as  superior  in  themselves  and  better 
adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  German  people. 

In  1760  Lessing  was  made  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  soon  after  accom- 
panied General  Tauen/.ien,  Governor  of  Silesia,, as  his 
secretary,  to  Breslau,  where  he  resided  five  years.  During 
this  period  he  became  addicted  to  gambling;  but  this 
vice  does  not  appear  to  have  materially  interfered  with 
his  application  to  literature.  In  1770  he  obtained  the 
office  of  head  librarian  of  the  Wolfenbiittel  Library. 
Soon  after,  he  discovered  and  published  the  famous 
"  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,"  (on  the  discrepancies  of  the 
gospel  narratives,)  by  Reimarus,  who,  however,  at  that 
time  was  not  known  as  the  author.  This  publication 
brought  upon  Lessing  much  censure  and  reproach  :  he 
was  accused  of  a  deliberate  design  to  undermine  Chris- 
tianity. If,  however,  we  may  believe  his  friend  Herder, 
he  gave  those  "Fragments"  to  the  public  "  purely  for 
the  interests  of  truth,  for  the  sake  of  freer  inquiry  and 
of  examination  and  confirmation  on  all  sides."  A  candid 
examination  of  Lessing's  own  writings  will,  we  are  per- 
suaded, go  far  to  justify,  if  not  fully  to  confirm.  Herder's 


opinion.  The  extraordinary  activity  and  incessant  appli- 
cation of  Lessing's  mind  at  length  wore  out  his  physical 
constitution.  He  died  at  Brunswick  1781,  aged  fifty-two. 

SeeE.  P.  Evans,  "Life  and  Works  of  G.  E.  Lessing,"  from  the  Ger- 
man of  Adolf  W.  T.  Stahr,  2  vols.,  i867;Danzel,  "  G,  E.  Lessing, 
sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke,"  1850  ;  C.  G.  Lessing,  "  G.  E.  Lessing's 
Leben,"  etc.,  3  vols.,  1793;  Doring,  "G.  E.  Lessing's  Biograpliie," 
1853;  DiLLER,  "  Erinnerungen  an  G.  E.  Lessing,"  1841  ;  Schink, 
"  Characterislik  G.  E.  Lessing's,"  1S25;  Grossmann,  "Lessing's 
Denkmal,"  1791  ;  A.  Tolhausen,  "  Klnpstnck,  Lessing,  and  VVie- 
land,"  London,  184S;  H.  G.  Graeve,  "  G.  E.  Lessing's  Lebensge- 
scliichte,"  etc.,  iSzg;  F.  Schi.egel,  "Characteristics  and  Criticisms" 
("  Characteristiken  und  Kritiken")  on  Lessing,'"  1801;  "Charac- 
teristics of  Men  of  Genius,"  by  E.  P.  Whipple,  1840;  "Black- 
wood's M.^gazine"  for  November,  1826,  (by  De  Quincey  ;)  Hedgk, 
"Prose  Writers  of  Germany,"  1847  ;  "  Biographie  Universeile." 

Lessing,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German 
painter,  and  grand-nephew  of  the  celebrated  critic,  was 
born  at  Wartenberg  in  1808.  He  studied  architecture 
for  a  time,  but  soon  yielded  to  his  stronger  attraction 
for  painting.  In  1825  he  finished  his  picture  of  "The 
Church-Yard,"  which  excited  great  admiration.  He 
soon  after  studied  historical  painting  under  Schadow  at 
Dusseldorf.  In  this  department  he  produced  in  1829 
"The  Battle  of  Iconium,"  and  completed  other  illustra- 
tions of  the  life  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  left  unfinished 
by  Cornelius.  His  next  productions,  representing  scenes 
from  Burger's  "  Lenore"  and  Uhland's  "  Royal  Mourn- 
ers," display  great  originality  and  poetic  fancy.  Among 
his  master-pieces  we  may  also  name  "  Huss  before  the 
Council  of  Constance,"  "The  Robber  and  his  Child," 
and  a  "Scene  in  the  Eifel,"  with  several  other  exqui- 
site landscapes.  Lessing,  while  retaining  many  of  the 
peculiar  excellencies  of  the  ideal  or  romantic  school, 
avoided  the  formality  of  style  into  which  it  has  sometimes 
degenerated.     Died  June  5,  1880. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Lessing,  (Karl  Gottheif,)  a  German  dramatist, 
born  in  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  author.  He 
published  several  comedies,  and  a  "  Life  of  Gotthold 
Ephraim  Lessing." 

Lessius,  les'se-us,  (Leonard,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Brechtan,  in  Brabant,  in  1554.  He  lectured  on  the- 
ology with  Sdat  at  Louvain  from  1585  until  1623.  He 
wrote  several  popular  works,  among  which  are  one 
"On  Justice  and  other  Cardinal  Virtues,"  (1621,)  and 
another  "  On  the  Power  of  the  Pope."  He  was  charged 
with  favouring  semi-Pelagianism.     Died  in  1623. 

Lessmann,  l^s'min,  (Daniel,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Soldin  in  1794.  He  wrote  lyric  poems,  and 
a  number  of  novels  and  tales.  He  died  in  1831,  it  is 
supposed  by  suicide. 

Lesson,  li's6N',  (Ren6  Primev^re,)  a  French  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Rochefort  in  1794.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  a  "Manual  of  Ornithology,"  (2  vols.,  1828,) 
and  a  "Supplement  to  the  Works  of  Buffon,"  ("  Coin- 
plement  des  CEuvres  de  Buffon,"  10  vols.,  1828  et  seq.) 
Died  in  1849. 

See  Am^u^e  LEpfevRE,  "  £loge  historique  de  R.  P.  Lesson," 
1830. 

LSs'ter,  (Charles  Edwards,)  an  American  littera- 
teur, born  in  New  London  county,  Connecticut,  in  1815. 
He  published  the  "Life  and  Voyages  of  Americus 
Vespucius,"  "Artists  of  America,"  and  various  other 
works,  and  made  several  translations  from  the  Italian. 
Died  January  29,  1890. 

Lestiboudois,  Igs'teTDoo'dwi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  botanist,  born  at  Douay  in  1715;  died  in  1804. 
His  grandson,  Th^mistoCLES,  born  at  Lille  in  1797,  was 
a  physician  and  writer  on  botany,  etc.     Died  in  1876. 

Lestocq  or  Lestoq,  ISs'tok',  (Johann  Herman,) 
a  surgeon,  born  of  French  parents  in  Hanover  about 
1695.  He  removed  in  1713  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
became  surgeon  to  Peter  the  Great.  In  1725  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  princess  Elizabeth.  He  was 
the  master-spirit  of  the  plot  or  revolution  which  made 
her  empress  in  1741.  For  some  years  afterwards  he 
was  treated  with  much  favour,  and  took  an  influential 
part  in  affairs  of  state;  but  in  1750  he  was  disgraced 
and  exiled.  He  was  recalled  by  Peter  HI.  in  1762. 
Died  in  1767. 

Lestoile  or  L^toile.    See  Etotle,  de  \.\ 


€as>S;5asj;  %hard:  gz%j:  G,  H,  K,jptft/im/:  s,  luisdl;  K,tri.l,il;  sas  s.  th  .n.>  in  ////f.     (S^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

97 


r  ESTRANGE 


1538 


LETTE 


L'Batrange,  ISs-tranj',  (Sir  Roger,)  an  English  par- 
tisan writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1616,  was  a  zealous 
royalist  in  the  civil  war.  Having  been  detected  in  a  plot 
to  surprise  Lynn,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  as  a  s])y  in 
1644,  but  obtained  a  respite,  and  escaped  in  1648.  After 
passing  a  few  years  in  exile,  he  returned  in  1653  and 
obtained  from  Cromwell  a  release  from  the  sentence.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  censor  of  the  press.  He 
translated  the  works  of  Josephus,  Seneca's  "Morals," 
and  /Esop's  Fables,  and  wrote  many  popular  political 
tracts.  I  lis  ."^tyle  is  censured  for  vulgarity,  and  his  works 
abound  in  slang.  After  the  restoration  he  edited  several 
political  journals.  "  His  yTlsop's  Fables,"  says  Hallam, 
"will  present  everything  that  is  hostile  to  good  taste." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1704. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Lesueur  or  Le  Sueur,  leh-sii'uR',  (Charles  Alex- 
andre,) a  French  naturalist  and  designer,  born  at  Havre 
in  1778.  He  explored  with  Peron  the  coasts  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  wrote  many  memoirs  on  mollusca,  etc.  Died 
in  1846. 

Lesueur,  (Cic^RON  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  near  Rambouillet  in  1794,  became  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  He  published  a  "Chronology  of  ^he 
Kings  of  Egypt,"  (1848-50.)     Died  December  26,  1883. 

Lesueur,  (Eustache,)  an  excellent  painter  of  history, 
surnamed  "the  French  Raphael,"  was  born  in  Paris  in 
161 7.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet.  He  excelled  in  com- 
position, expression,  and  chiaroscuro.  Among  his  works 
are  "Saint  Paul  Preaching  at  Ephesus,"  "The  Annun- 
ciation," "The  Life  of  Saint  Bruno,"  (in  22  pictures,) 
and  "The  Death  of  Tabitha."  The  first  is  called  a 
master-piece  of  invention  and  style.  He  died  prema- 
turely in  1655. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Fran<;ais,"and  "fitude 
sur  E.  Lesueur,"  1845;  Louis  Vitet,  "  E.  Lesueur,  sa  Vie  et  ses 
CEuvres,"  1S53  ;  L.  DussiEux,  "  Nouvelles  Reclierches  sur  la  Vie 
d'E.  Lesueur,"  1832. 

Lesueur,  (Jean,)  a  French  historian  and  Protestant 
minister.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Church  and  Em- 
pire from  the  Birth  of  Christ,"  (1672.)     Died  in  1681. 

Lesueur  or  Le  Sueur,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  cele- 
brated French  composer,  born  near  Abbeville  about 
1760.  Having  gained  reputation  by  his  motets  and 
masses,  he  was  chosen  chapel -master  of  Notre-Danie, 
Paris,  in  1786.  His  opera  "La  Caverne"  (1792)  was 
very  successful.  In  1804  he  became  chapel-master  of 
Napoleon,  and  produced  "The  Bards,"  ("  Les  Bardes,") 
an  opera,  which  was  greatly  applauded.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Institute  in  181 5.  He  composed  other 
operas,  an  "Essay  on  Sacred  Music,"  and  a  "Treatise 
on  Ancient  Music,"  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
in  1837. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Geiidrale." 

Le  Sueur,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in 
Paris  about  1540,  became  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Inquests  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  He  made  a  good 
translation  of  Pindar's  Odes  into  Latin  verse,  (1575.) 
Died  in  1594. 

Lesueur,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  engraver  of  cameos, 
born  in  Paris  in  1690;  died  in  1764.  His  uncle  Pierre, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1636,  was  one  of  the  best  engravers  on 
wood  of  his  time.     Died  in  1716. 

Leszczinski.     See  Stanislas. 

L6tanduere,  de,  deh  li'tfiN'dii'aiu',  (Henri  Fran- 
cois Deshereiers,)  Marquis,  an  able  French  naval 
oflficer,  born  at  Angers  in  1682.  He  was  made  ckefcTes- 
cadre  m  1745.  In  that  year  he  captured  four  English 
frigates  near  Brest.     Died  in  1750. 

Letellier.  See  Louvois,  Courtanvaux,  de,  and 
:Estr6es,  d',  (Louis  C6sar.) 

_  'LeteUier,  leh-ti'le-i',  a  French  painter,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1614,  was  a  nephew  and  pupil  of  the  celebrated 
Poussin.  His  favourite  subjects  were  devotional.  He 
excelled  in  expression  and  linear  perspective.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  "Holy  Family,"  an  "Ascension," 
and  an  "Annunciation."     Died  in  1676. 

LeteUier  or  Le  Tellier,  (Michel,)  a  French  states- 


man, born  in  1603.  By  the  patronage  of  Mazarin,  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  the  war  department 
soon  after  1642.  During  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde  he 
was  an  adherent  of  Mazarin.  The  latter  having  with- 
drawn from  France  about  165 1,  Letellier  was  employed 
as  minister  by  the  queen-regent  during  the  short  period 
of  his  absence.  In  1677  he  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  France.  He  sealed  with  alacrity  the  fatal  edict  against 
the  Protestants  which  in  1685  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Died  in  1685.  Louvois,  the  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  was 
his  son. 

See  Voltaire,  "Si&cle  de  Louis  XIV:"  Choisv,  "Mfenio'res." 
LeteUier,  (Michel,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Vire, 
in  Normandy,  in  1643.  He  edited  Quintus  Curtius  foi 
the  use  of  the  dauphin  (in  iistim  Delphini)  in  1678,  and 
wrote  against  Jansenism.  In  1709  he  became  confessor 
to  Louis  XIV.,  with  the  privilege  of  presenting  subjects 
for  benefices.  D'Alembert  and  others  accuse  him  of 
giving  the  king  perfidious  counsels.  At  tlie  death  of 
Louis  XIV.  (1715)  he  was  exiled.     Died  in  1719. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^- 
moires ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Le'tdie,  [A^^t/,]  a  Greek  word  signifying  "forgetful- 
ness"  or  "  oblivion,"  and  forming  the  name  of  one  of 
the  streams  of  Hades.     See  Pluto. 

Lethiere,  leh-te-aiR',  (Guillaume  Guillon, )  an 
eminent  French  landscape-  and  historical  painter,  was 
born  in  Guadeloupe  in  1760.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
worked  in  Paris  with  success.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Caesar,"  "The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  and 
"Homer  reciting  his  Poems."     Died  in  1832. 

Lethington.     See  Maitland,  (William.) 

Leti,  la'tee,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  historical  writer, 
born  at  Milan  in  1630.  He  went  to  Geneva,  turned 
Protestant,  and  opened  a  school  in  1660.  In  1669  he 
published  a  "Life  of  Sixtus  V.,"  which  is  his  most 
popular  work.  His  satirical  humour  involved  him  in 
difficulties,  which  compelled  him  to  leave  Geneva  in 
1679.  He  passed  some  time  at  the  court  of  Charles 
II.  of  England,  and  was  ordered  to  quit  that  kingdom 
in  1682.  He  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1701,  leaving  many 
histories  and  biographies,  which  are  unreliable. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires." 

Leto.     See  Latona. 

Leto,  (PoMPONio.)     See  Pomponius  L>etus. 

Letourneur,  leh-tooR'nUR',  (Charles  Louis  Fran- 
cois HoNOR^,)  a  Director  of  the  French  republic,  was 
born  in  Basse-Normandie  in  1751.  He  was  deputed  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  with  the  Girondists 
for  the  death  of  the  Icing.  He  was  one  of  the  members 
of  the  Executive  Directory  elected  in  October,  1795  or 
1796.  He  was  exiled  as  a  legicide  in  1816,  and  died 
in  1817. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Le  Tourneur,  (Pierre.)     See  Tourneur,  Le. 

Letronne,  leh-tRon',  (Jean  Antoine,)  an  eminent 
French  antiquary  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1787,  was 
remarkable  for  sagacity,  mental  activity,  and  variety  of 
acquirements.  After  returning  from  his  travels  in  Italy 
and  other  countries,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1816.  In  1823  he  published 
a  "  Historical  Essay  on  Egypt  during  the  Domination 
of  tha  Greeks  and  Romans."  He  wrote  able  articles 
for  the  "Biograjjhie  Universelle"  and  "Revue  des  Deu.x 
Mondes."  He  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the 
College  of  France  about  1831,  and  keeper  of  the  archives 
of  France  in  1840.  Among  his  principal  works  is  "A 
Collection  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions  of  Egypt," 
(2  vols.  4to,  1842-48.)  He  proved  that  the  zodiac  of 
Denderah  belonged  to  the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
thus  exploding  the  theory  of  Dupuis.     Died  in  1848. 

See  BuRNOUFet  QuATREMfeRK,  "  Discours  prononct?s  anx  Fun^- 
railles  de  Letronne,"  1848;  Walckenaer,  "  Eloge  de  Letronne," 
1850;  Edmond  Garnier,  "  Notice  sur  Letronne  ;"  Alfrkd  Maury, 
"Notice  sur  Letronne,"  1S49;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Letrosne,  leh-tRon',  (Guillaume  Francois,)  a 
French  advocate  and  economist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1728. 
He  published  a  treatise  in  favour  of  free  trade  in  grain, 
and  other  works  on  political  economy.     Died  in  1780. 

Lette,  let'teh,  (Wilhelm  Adolph,)  a  Prussian  econ- 


I 


a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/tori:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LETTERIS 


1539 


LEUWENHOEK 


omist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Kienitz  in  1799. 
He  was  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly  of  Prussia 
several  times  between  1850  and  1856.     Died  in  1868. 

Letteris,  ISt-ti'ris,  (Maximilian,)  a  Polish  poet,  born 
at  Ziolkiev,  September  13,  iSoo,  of  a  Jewish  family.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  where  he  was 
for  many  years  a  proof-reader.  He  published  some 
translations  from  Racine,  besides  lyric  poems,  chiefly  in 
Hebrew  and  German.  His  masterpiece  is  "  lien  Abuyah." 
He  died  in  great  poverty  at  Vienna,  June  4,  1871. 

Lettice,  Ict'tiss,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  clergy- 
man, born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1737.  His  poem  on 
the  conversion  of  Saint  Paul  gained  a  prize  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1764.  He  attained  eminence  as  a  i)nlpit  orator. 
In  1785  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Peasemarsh, 
Sussex.  He  was  author  of  "  Faliles  for  the  Fireside," 
(1812,)  "Strictures  on  Elocution,"  (1821,)  sermons,  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1832. 

Lett'som,  (John  Coakley,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  the  West  Indies,  near  Tortola,  about  1744.  His 
parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He 
studied  in  Edinburgh,  Paris,  and  Leyden,  and  in  1769 
settled  in  London,  where,  through  the  influence  of  Dr. 
Fothergill,  he  obtained  a  large  practice.  He  acquired  an 
extensive  scientific  reputation,  and  was  elected  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1771.  Besides  several  profes- 
sional treatises,  he  published  "The  Natural  History  of 
the  Tea-Tree,"  (1772,)  the  "Naturalist's  and  Traveller's 
Companion,"  (1774,)  and  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Fothergill," 
{1783.)     Died  in  1815. 

See  "Memoirs  of  J.  C.  Lettsom,"  by  T.  J.  Pettigrew,  1817- 
Desgenettes,  in  the  "  Biographie  Al^dicale." 

Leu,  loi,  [Fr.  pron.  luh,]  (Johann  Jakoh,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1689.  His  most  important 
work  is  a  "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Switzerland,"  {2C 
vols.,  1746-63,)  which  treats  of  the  civil,  religious, 
literary,  and  natural  history  of  that  country.  Died  in 
1768. 

Leuchtenberg,  Duke  of.     See  Beauharnais,  de, 

(EuGfeNE.) 

Leuchtenberg,  de,  deh  loiK'ten-b^Rc',  (Karl  Au- 
gust Nai'Ol6on,)  Prince,  the  eldest  son  of  Eugene  de 
Beauharnais,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
1810.  His  mother  was  Augusta  Amelia,  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Bavaria.  He  passed  his  youth  in  Bavaria, 
About  1834  he  was  made  the  first  peer  of  Bavaria  by 
his  uncle,  Louis  I.  He  married  Maria,  Queen  of  Por- 
tugal, in  January,  1S35,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Santa 
Cruz,  but  died  before  the  end  of  the  year. 

Leucippe.    See  Leuciitus. 

Leu-cip'pus,  [Gr.  Aci'/cOTTfjf;  Fr.  Leucippe,  luh'sip',] 
a  famous  Greek  philosopher,  who  is  generally  reputea 
the  author  of  the  atomic  philosophy.  He  was  a  disciple 
of  Zeno  of  Elea.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are 
unknown ;  but,  as  he  was  the  teacher  of  Democritus,  he 
probably  lived  earlier  than  450  B.C.  Different  accounts 
state  that  he  was  born  at  Elea,  Abdera,  or  Miletus.  His 
works,  if  indeed  he  left  any,  have  not  come  down  to  us. 
His  doctrines  are  supposed  to  have  been  similar  to  those 
of  Democritus. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Leuckart,  loik'dRt,  (Karl  Georg  Friedrich  Ru- 
dolph,) a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Helmstedt,  October 
7,  1823.  He  was  educated  at  Gottingen.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  comparative  anatomy  at  Giessen,  1855-70,  and 
in  1870  was  called  to  a  similar  chair  at  Leipsic.  He  has 
published  numerous  works,  mostly  on  helminthology. 

Leuckfeld,  Ioik'f?lt,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Germai. 
historian,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1668;  died  in  1726. 

Leu'con,  [Afr/cuv,]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old 
comedy,  was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Aristophanes. 

Leu-coth'e-a,  (or  Ui-ko'the-a,)  [Gr.  AevKodia;  Fr. 
Leucoth^e,  luh'ko'ti',]  i.e.  "White  Goddess,"  a  name 
given  to  Ino,  which  see. 

Leucoth^e.     See  Leitcothea. 

Leunclavius,  loin-kLVve-fts,  (Johann,)  an  excelleii 
German  scholar,  whose  proper  name  was  Lowenklau 
or  Loewenklau,  (16'<^en-klow',)  was  born  at  Amel- 
bauern,  in  Westphalia,  in  1533.     He  was  well  versed  in 


Greek,  Latin,  and  public  law.  A  large  part  of  his  life  was 
passed  at  the  courts  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  of  other 
princes.  He  published  editions  with  Latin  versions  of 
Xenophon,  (1569,)  Dion  Cassius,  Zosimus,  (1579,)  Pro- 
copius,  and  other  Greek  authors.  Scaliger,  Bayle,  and 
others  praise  him  highly  as  a  translator.  He  wrote  a 
few  original  works,  among  which  was  a  "  History  of 
the  Moslems,"  ("  Musulmanicae  Historiae  Libri  XVIII.," 
1595.)     Died  at  Vienna  in  1593. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"Memoires;"  M.  Adam,  "VitK  Philosophorum  Germanorum." 

Leupold,  loi'polt,  (Jakob,)  an  ingenious  Saxoti 
mechanician,  born  at  Planitz  in  1674.  He  excelled  iii 
the  fabrication  of  mathematical  and  philosophical  instru- 
ments. The  Elector  of  Saxony  appointed  him  a  membei 
of  the  Council  of  Mines.  He  published  in  1723-27  an 
important  work  called  "Theatre  of  Machines,"  ("Thea- 
trum  Machinarum,")  which  treats  of  machines,  statics, 
hydrostatics,  mechanical  sciences,  etc.     Died  in  1727. 

See  Tettei.bach,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  J.  Leupolds,"  1735. 

Leupoldt,  loi'polt,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Weissenstadt,  Bavaria,  in  1794.  He 
published  a  number  of  treatises  on  pathology,  physi- 
ology, and  hygiene,  and  a  "General  History  of  Medi- 
cine," (1S25.)     Died  August  21,  1S74. 

Leuret,  luh'ri',  (  Franqois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1797.  Having  given  special  attention 
to  mental  maladies,  he  acquired  distinction  by  his  "  Psy- 
chological Fragments  on  Insanity,"  (1834,)  and  othei 
works,  among  which  is  one  "On  the  Moral  Treatmeni 
of  Insanity,"  (1840.)  He  became  chief  physician  of  the 
Bicetre  in  Paris.     Died  in  185 1. 

See  U.  Trelat,  "  Notice  stir  F".  Letiret,"  1851 ;  Charles  He- 
3UET,  "  Notice  biograpliiqiie  siir  la  Vie  du  Docteur  Leuret,"  1832. 

Leusden,  lus'den,  [Lat.  Leusde'nius,|  (Jan,)  a 
Dutch  |)hilologist,  eminent  as  a  Hebrew  scholar,  was 
born  in  1624,  at  Utrecht.  He  studied  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  that  city  and  Amsterdam.  In  1649  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Utrecht,  which  he  held  until  his 
death.  He  ex])lained  many  curious  Biblical  questions 
in  three  works,  entitled  "  Hebrew  Philologist,"  ("  Philo- 
logus  Hebrzeus,"  1656,)  "  Philologus  Hebraso-Mixtus," 
(1663,)  and  "  Hebrew-Greek  Philologist,"  ("Philologus 
Jlebraeo-Graecus,"  1670.)  Among  his  other  works  are 
"Scholia  .Syriaca,"  "Compendium  Biblicum,"  (1674,) 
and  a  Greek  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  (1675.) 
Died  in  1699. 

See  Nic^ROM,  "Memoires  ;"  Burmann,  "Trajectum  Eriiditum  ;" 
G.  DE  Vries,  "Oratio  in  Obitum  J.  Leusdenii,"  i6gg. 

Leusdenius.    See  Leusden. 

Leutholf.     See  Ludolphus. 

Leutinger,  loi'ting-er,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  in  Brandenburg  in  1547.  He  published 
about  1587  a  "History  of  Brandenburg."    Died  in  1612. 

Leutze,  loit'seh,  (Emanuel,)  a  distinguished  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Gmiind,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in 
1816.  At  an  early  age  he  accomjianied  his  father  to 
Philadelphia,  where  his  talents  attracted  the  notice  of 
Mr.  Carey,  by  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled  to  visit 
Europe.  '  He  studied  at  Dusseldorf  under  Lessing,  and 
ibout  1S42  jiroduced  his  "Columbus  before  the  Council 
at  Salamanca,"  which  gave  him  a  high  reputation. 
Among  his  pictures,  many  of  which  illustrate  American 
history,  we  may  mention  "The  Landing  of  the  North- 
men," "Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware,"  "John 
Knox  and  Mary'Stuart,"  "  Washington  at  Princeton," 
and  "Columbus  before  the  Queen."  Died  at  Washing- 
ton in  July,  1868. 

See  H.  T.  Tl'ckerman,  "American  Artist  Life,"  1S67,  and 
'Book  of  tlie  Artists." 

Leuwenhoek,  van,  vSn  luh'wen-hook',  (Antoon.) 
sometimes  written  Leeuwenhoek  or  Leeu-wenhoeck, 
a  celebrated  Dutch  naturalist,  born  at  Delft  in  1632. 
He  first  acquired  reputation  by  his  skill  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  microscojjes.  By  his  successful  use  of  the  micro- 
scope in  researches  into  the  intimate  structure  of  the 
human  system  and  the  composition  of  animal  fluids,  he 
afterwards  obtained  celebrity  as  an  anatomist  and  physi- 
ologist. He  communicated  many  of  his  discoveries  to 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  in  16S0.   He  discovered  the  so-called  animalcules 


€  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  asy;  o,  H,  v., guttural :  N,  nasal:  k,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  tltis.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEVA 


1540 


LEVESQUE 


in  the  spermatic  fluid  in  1677.  About  1690  he  proved 
the  continuity  of  the  arteries  with  the  veins,  and  success- 
fully combated  the  prevalent  hypothesis  of  the  fermen- 
tation of  the  blood.  He  described  with  accuracy  the 
structure  of  the  lamina  which  compose  the  crystalline 
lens  of  the  eye.  In  1698,  Peter  the  Great,  passing 
through  Delft,  requested  the  favour  of  seeing  Leuwen- 
hoek  and  his  microscopes,  which  was  accorded.  Died 
in  1723.  Leuwenhoek's  works  were  printed  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions,"  (London.)  Four  vol- 
umes of  his  collected  works  were  published  at  Leyden 
in  1724,  under  the  title  of  "Opera  Onmia." 

See  I.  VAN  Haastert,  *'A.  van  Leeiiwenlioeck,  vereerend  Her- 
daclit  in  eene  korte  Levensschets,"  eic,  1S23;  Halbhrtsma,  "  Dis- 
sertatio  historico-medica  de  A.  Leeiiwenluieckii  Meritis,"  etc.,  1843. 

Leva.     See  Leyva. 

Le  Vacher  de  Chamois.     See  Charnois,  de. 

Le  Vaillant.     See  Vah.lant,  Le. 

Leval,  leh-vtl',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1761.  As  general  of  division,  he  ob- 
tained success  at  Philipsburg  in  1799.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Jena,  in  1806.    Died  in  1834. 

Levasseur,  leh-vt'sUR',  a  French  anatomist,  who 
wrote  about  1540.  "He  appears,"  says  Ilallam,  "to 
have  known  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 
lungs,  as  well  as  the  valves  of  the  arteries  and  veins, 
and  their  direction  and  its  purpose, — treading  closely 
on  an  anticipation  of  Harvey." 

Levasseur,  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Abbeville  in  1734.  He  engraved  some  works 
of  Boucher,  Lemoine,  Vanloo,  etc.     Died  about  1810. 

Levasseur  de  la  Sarthe,  leh-vS'suk'  deh  li  sSrI, 
(Rex6,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in  Maine  in  1747,  voted 
in  the  Convention  of  1792  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
was  a  violent  enemy  of  the  Girondists.     Died  in  1834. 

See  AcHn,i.E  Roche,  "  Mi^tnoires  de  R.  Levasseur,"  2  vols.,  1S29 

Levassor,  leh-vt'soR',  (Michel,)  a  French  historian 
and  priest,  born  at  Orleans.  About  1675  he  became  a 
Protestant,  and  emigrated  to  Holland.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  England,  and  ])ublished  a  "  History  of  Eu- 
rope in  the  Reign  of  Louis  XHL,"  (10  vols.,  1700-11.) 
Voltaire  calls  him  "  un  declamateur  odieux,"  ("  an  odious 
declaimer,")  and  says  he  was  thought  to  be  erroneous  in 
nearly  all  his  judgments.     Died  in  1718. 

Levati,  li-vS'tee,  (Carlo  Amhrogio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Biassono  in  1790.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Illustrious  Women  of  all 
Ages  and  Nations,"  (3  vols.,  1822.)     Died  in  1841. 

Levau  or  Leveau,  leh-v6',  (Louis,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  1612.  He  built  the  Hotel  Lambert  and 
Hotel  Colbert,  at  Paris.  He  obtained  the  title  of  first 
architect  to  Louis  XIV.,  by  whose  order  he  added  to  the 
chateau  of  the  Tuileries  the  Pavilions  de  Flore  and  de 
Marsan.     Died  in  1670. 

See  QuATREMiRB  DE  QuiNCV,  "  Viris  des  phis  ilhistres  Aichi 
tectes." 

Levavasseur,  leh'vt'vS'suR',  (Louis  Gustave,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Argentan,  November  9,  1819. 
Among  his  writings  are  "Poesies  fugitives,"  (1S46,) 
"Farces  et  Moralites,"  (1850,)  "Etudes  d'apres  Na- 
ture," (1864,)  "Dans  les  Herbages,"  (1S76,)  etc.  Some 
of  his  best  work  is  in  the  old  Norman  manner. 

Le  Vayer.    See  Mothe,  La. 

Leven,  Earl  of.     See  Leslie,  (Alexander.) 

L6v6que,  li'vSk',  (Pierre,)  an  able  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Nantes  in  1746.  To  a  sound  judgment 
he  added  extensive  acquirements  in  various  sciences  and 
languages.  He  published  "The  Navigator's  Guide," 
(1779,)  which  was  praised  by  Lalande,  and  other  nautical 
works.  He  was  elected  to  the  Institute  in  1801.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  Dei-ambre,  "  filoge  de  LdvSque,"  1816:  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
Rraphie  Gt!n^r.ile." 

Le'ver,  (Sir  Ashton,)  an  English  naturalist,  born 
near  Manchester.  He  formed  a  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory.    Died  in  1788. 

Le'ver,  (Charles  James,)  a  popular  Irish  novelist, 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1806.  He  j^ractised  medicine  a 
few  years,  but  abandoned  that  profession  when  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  "  Dublin  University  Magazine,"  about 
1S42.     He  wrote   a  multitude  of  novels,   among  which 


are  "Harry  Lorrequer,"  (1840,)  "Charles  O'Malley, 
(1841,)  "Tom  Burke  of  Ours,"  (1844,)  "The  Daltons," 
(1S52,)  "The  Knight  of  Gwynne,"  (1854,)  and  "  Daven- 
port Dunn,"  (1859.)  After  1845  he  resided  for  many 
years  at  Plorence.  In  1858  he  was  aj^pointed  vice-consul 
at  Spezzia,  and  was  transferred  to  Trieste  in  1867.  He 
died  at  Trieste,  June  i,  1872. 

Lever,  (Thomas,)  an  elocpient  English  divine,  born 
in  Lancashire.  He  was  ordained  a  Protestant  minister 
in  1550.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  (1553)  he  retired  to 
the  continent.  He  afterwards  dissented  from  the  Angli- 
can Church,  from  a  partiality  to  Calvinism.  He  pub- 
lished sermons,  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in  1577. 

L6v'e-rett,  (Frederick  Percival,)  an  American 
scholar,  born  at  Boston  in  1803.  He  published  a  "  Lexi- 
con of  the  Latin  Language,"  an  edition  of  Caesar's  "  Com- 
mentaries," and  other  educational  works.    Died  in  1836. 

Leverett,  (Sir  John,)  born  in  England  in  1616, 
emigrated  to  America,  where  he  was  elected  in  1673 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  made  a  baronet 
by  Charles  II.     Died  in  1679. 

Leverett,  (John,)  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Boston  in  1662,  became  president  of  Harvard  University 
in  1708.  He  was  a  distinguished  jurist  and  scholar,  and 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1724. 

Lev'?-ridge,  (Richard,)  an  English  singer,  song 
writer,  and  musical  composer,  was  born  about  1670.  He 
published  two  volumes  of  his  own  songs,  and  composed 
the  music  for  many  of  Purcell's  songs.     Died  in  1758. 

Leverrier  or  Le  Verrier,  leh  vA're-A',  (Urdain 
Jean  Tosei'H,)  an  eminent  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Saint-L6  (La  Manche)  in  March,  181 !.  He  entered  the 
Polytechnic  School  about  1830,  and  after  leaving  it  de- 
voted himself  with  success  to  chemistry  and  mathematics. 
He  became  a  tutor  (repetitciir)  in  the  Polytechnic  School, 
and  in  1S39  wrote  two  treatises  on  astronomy,  which  pro 
cured  for  him  the  friendship  of  Arago.  In  Januarj^,  1846, 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Before  that  date  he  had  undertaken  to  rectify  the  tables 
of  Uranus,  the  orbit  of  which  was  subject  to  perturba* 
tions  from  an  unknown  cause.  Conjecturing  this  cause 
to  be  a  planet,  he  calculated  its  orbit,  mass,  and  position, 
and  announced  the  results  in  a  memoir  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  June,  1846.  The  planet  was  observed  by 
telescope  near  the  place  indicated,  byGalle,  of  Berlin,  in 
September  of  that  year,  and  received  the  name  of  Nep« 
tune.  Leverrier  acquired  a  just  celebrity  by  this  great 
discovery,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris.  In  1849  he  was  elected 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly.  Having  supported  Louis 
Napoleon's  policy,  he  was  chosen  a  senator  in  1852.  He 
succeeded  Arago  in  1853  as  astronomer  to  the  bureau 
of  longitudes  and  director  of  the  Imperial  Observatory. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Annales  de  I'Oo 
servatoire  de  Paris,"  (1856.)  About  i860  he  presented  to 
the  Institute  an  interesting  memoir  on  Mercury.  He  ob- 
served a  movement  of  the  perihelion  of  that  planet  which 
suggested  the  existence  of  a  small  planet  between  Mer- 
cury and  the  sun.  In  1870  he  was  removed  from  the  posi- 
tion of  director  of  the  Observatory.    Died  Sept.  23,  1877. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Biographie  des  Membres 
du  Senat,"  1852. 

Le  Vert,  leh  vert,  (Octavia  Walton,)  an  American 
writer,  born  in  Georgia  about  1820.  She  published 
"Souvenirs  of  Travel,"  (1857,)  and  contributed  to  Eng- 
lish and  American  periodicals.     Died  March  13,  1877. 

L6vesque,  li'vtk',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  his- 
torian and  translator,  born  in  Paris  in  1736.  He  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1773. 
In  1780  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  published  his  "His- 
tory of  Russia,"  ("  Histoire  de  Russie,"  6  vols.,  1782,) 
which  is  esteemed  a  classic  work.  lie  afterwards  was 
chosen  a  professor  in  the  Royal  College  and  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  In  1795  he  produced  a  successful  trans- 
lation of  Thucydides.  He  wrote  other  historical  works, 
and  translated  some  of  the  writings  of  Plutarch  and 
Xenophon.     Died  in  1812. 

See  Dacier,  "  l5lo.c;e  de  L^vesqiie;"  "Nouvelle  riiogrnphie 
Giln^rale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review,"  vol.  liv.,  1S07  c/ j^./.,  (.Appendi.x.) 

L^vesque  de  Burigny.    See  Buriony,  de. 
Ldvesque  de  la  Ravaliere,  li'vfk'  deh  IS  rS'vS'- 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  c,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  oh  at  re:  far,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  n6l;  good;  moon; 


L  EVES  QUE 


1541 


LE  HJS 


le-aiR',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Troyes  in  1697.  He  was  chiefly  known  by  his  edition 
of  the  poems  of  Thibault  de  Champagne,  King  of  Na- 
varre, (1742,)  which  was  accompanied  by  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Revolutions  of  the  French  Language  from  Charle- 
magne to  Saint  Louis."     Died  in  1762. 

Levesque  de  Pouilly,  li'vik'  deh  poo'ye',  (Louis 
Jean,)  a  French  litUratcur,  born  at  Rheims  in  1691.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1722. 
He  corresponded  with  Fontenelle,  Voltaire,  and  Lord 
Bolingbroke.  His  principal  work  is  the  "Theory  re- 
specting the  Agreeable  Sentiments,"  ("Theorie  des 
Sentiments  agreables,"  1747,)  revised  and  enlarged  in 
1749.     Died  in  1750. 

His  son,  Jean  Simon,  (1734-1820,)  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Chancellor  L'Hopital,"  (1764,)  and  a  work  called 
"Theory  of  the  Imagination,"  (1803.) 

Le'vi,  [Heb.  '1/ ;  Gr.  Am,]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  a 
son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  was  born  in  Mesopotamia  about 
1750  B.C.  He  died  in  Egypt,  aged  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seven,  leaving  three  sons,  one  of  whom  was  the 
grandfather  of  Moses. 

See  Genesis  xxix.,  xxxiv.,  xlix.,  and  Exodus  vi.  16. 

Levi,  (David,)  a  learned  Jew,  born  in  London  in  1740. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lingua  Sacra,  or  a 
Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and 
Talmudic  Dialects,"  (3  vols.,  1789.)     Died  in  1799. 

Levi,  la'vee,  (Leone,)  a  writer  on  commerce  and 
commercial  law,  born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Ancona,  July 
6,  1821.  He  became  in  1852  professor  of  commercial 
law  in  King's  College,  London.  Among  his  works  is  an 
important  treatise  on  "  The  Commercial  Law  of  the 
World,"  (4  vols.,  1850-52,)  also  a  "  History  of  British 
Commerce,"  (1872,)  etc.     Died  May  8.  1888. 

Levieil,  leh-ve-il',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  on 
glass,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1708.  He  restored  the 
painted  windows  of  Notre-Dame,  and  wrote  a  com- 
plete technical  "  Treatise  on  Painting  on  Glass."  Died 
in  1772. 

Levieux,  leh-ve-uh',  (Renaud,)  a  French  painter  ol 
history,  born  at  Nismes  about  1630.  By  correctness  of 
design  and  brilliancy  of  colour  he  merited  a  place 
among  artists  of  the  second  order. 

LSv'ing-stpn,  (Tames,)  Earl  of  Callendar,  a  Scottish 
officer,  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war.  Died  in 
1672. 

L^vis,  de,  deh  li've'  or  li'viss',  (FRANgois,)  Due, 
marshal  of  France,  was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1720.  He 
succeeded  Montcalm,  who  was  killed  at  Quebec  in  1759, 
and  took  up  his  winter-quarters  at  Montreal.  He  de- 
fended Canada  several  months ;  but  he  was  forced  by 
want  of  stores  to  capitulate  to  the  English  about  1760. 
He  was  made  a  marshal  in  1783.     Died  in  1787. 

Levis,  de,  (Pierre  Marc  Gaston,)  Due,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  about  1760.  In  1789  he  was  de- 
puted to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  favoured 
moderate  reforms.  He  emigrated  in  1792  to  England, 
and  returned  in  1800.  He  acquired  literary  distinction 
by  his  "Maxims  and  Reflections"  (i8o8)  and  "Souve- 
nirs and  Portraits,"  (1813,)  and  wrote  several  other 
works.  In  1816  he  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  and  of  the  privy  council.     Died  in  1830. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclcpddique  de  la  France." 

Levita.     See  Elias  Levita. 

Levitschnigg,  la'vit-shnik',  (Heinrich,)  a  populai 
Austrian  poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1810,  was  the  author  of 
a  number  of  lyric  and  romantic  poems.     Died  in  1862. 

Levizac,  de,  deh  leh-ve'zik',  (Jean  Pons  Victor 
Lecoutz,)  Abb6,  a  French  grammarian,  born  in  Langue- 
doc. Having  been  driven  into  exile  by  the  Revolution, 
he  emigrated  to  London,  where  he  taught  French.  He 
published  in  1797  a  "Grammar  of  the  French  Lan- 
guage," which  was  extensively  used  by  persons  to  whom 
the  French  is  a  foreign  tongue.  He  wrote  other  educa- 
tional works.     Died  in  1813. 

Levret,  l^h-vRi',  (Andr6,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris  in  1703,  had  a  high  reputation  for  skill  in  accouche- 
ments.  He  was  called  to  court  to  attend  the  dauphiness, 
mother  of  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  excellent  works  on 
obstetrics,    among   which    is    "The    Accoucheur's    Art 


demonstrated  by  Physical  and  Mechanical  Principles," 
("  L'i.\rt  des  Accouchements  demontre  par  des  Principes 
de  Physique  et  Mecanique,"  1753.)     Died  in  1780. 

Levy,  la'vee,  (Juxius,)  a  German  (Jewish)  novelist, 
poet,  journalist,  and  ethnographer,  born  at  Rodenberg, 
July  6,  1831.  His  pseudonym  is  Julius  Rodenberg. 
His  most  successful  works  are  feuilletons  and  light 
romances. 

Lewald,  la'^Jlt,  (Fanny,)  a  popular  authoress,  and 
a  relative  of  the  writer  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Konigsberg  in  1811.  Her  principal  works  are  novels, 
tales,  and  sketches  of  travel.  She  was  married  to  Adolf 
Stahr,  the  author,  about  1854.    Died  in  1889. 

Le-wald,  (Johann  Karl  August,)  a  German  littera- 
teur, born  at  Konigsberg  in  1792.  He  produced  a  number 
of  dramatic  works,  novels,  and  tales,  and  in  1835  founded 
a  journal  entitled  "  Europe,  or  Chronicle  of  the  Educated 
World."     Died  at  Munich,  March  10,  1871. 

See  "Aquarelle  aus  dem  Leben,"  4  vols.,  1837. 

Lewenhaiipt.     See  Lowenhaupt. 

Lewes,  lu'iss,  (George  Henry,)  a  popular  English 
author,  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  versatility,  was 
born  in  London  in  1817.  He  studied  medicine,  but  soon 
exchanged  that  profession  for  literature,  in  which  his 
labours  have  been  very  abundant  and  diversified.  He 
contributed  many  literary,  historical,  scientific,  and  phi- 
losophical essays  to  the  "  Edinburgh,"  "  Westminster," 
and  other  quarterly  reviews.  He  also  wrote  articles  for 
Blackwood's  and  Eraser's  Magazines  and  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopaedia."  Among  his  principal  separate  works  we 
may  mention  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy," 
(1845,)  "  Rose,  Blanche,  and  Violet,"  a  novel,  (1848,) 
"Comte's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences,"  (1853,)  "The 
Life  and  Works  of  Goethe,"  (1855,)  which  is  one  of 
his  most  popular  productions,  and  "Sea-Side  Studies," 
(1858.)  He  is  the  author  of  a  successful  tragedy,  "The 
Noble  Heart,"  (1850,)  and  of  other  dramas.  In  1865 
he  became  for  a  short  time  the  chief  editor  of  the 
"  Fortnightly  Review."     Died  November  30,  1878. 

See  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1864. 

Lewis  or  Ludwig,  lood'^iG,  (Karl  August,)  t.  King 
of  Bavaria,  born  in  August,  1786,  was  the  son  of  Xing 
Maximilian  Joseph.  He  married  in  1810  the  princess 
Thereseof  Saxe-Hildburghausen.  Before  his  accession  he 
built  the  Glyptothek,  a  splendid  museum  for  the  master- 
pieces of  sculpture.  He  became  king  in  1825,  and  made 
economical  reforms  in  the  government.  His  reign  is 
remarkable  for  the  great  impulse  given  by  his  liberality 
and  taste  to  the  fine  arts,  especially  architecture.  He 
assembled  in  his  capital  many  scholars  and  artists,  and 
adorned  Munich  with  numerous  fine  edifices,  among 
which  are  the  Odeon,  the  Pinakothek,  the  royal  palace, 
university,  and  several  churches.  He  built  the  famous 
Walhalla  at  Ratisbon,  (Regensburg,)  and  made  a  canal 
which  bears  his  name.  In  1829  he  published  a  collection 
of  poems.  The  latter  part  of  his  reign  did  not  correspond 
with  the  beginning.  He  excited  disaffection  by  restoring 
convents  and  restricting  the  political  and  religious  liber- 
ties of  his  subjects.  The  influence  of  Lola  Montez  over 
the  king  was  another  cause  of  offence.  Stimulated  by 
the  revolution  in  France,  (1848,)  the  Bavarians  revolted, 
demanding  reforms,  in  consequence  of  which  he  abdi- 
cated in  March,  1848,  in  favour  of  his  son,  Maximilian 
11.  Otho,  ex-King  of  Greece,  was  his  second  son.  Died 
at  Nice  in  February,  1868. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lewis  IL,  (Otho  Fkiedrich  Wilhelm,)  King  of 
Bavaria,  was  born  at  Nymphenburg,  August  25,  1845. 
In  1864  he  succeeded  his  father,  Maximilian  II.  His 
mother  was  of  the  royal  house  of  Prussia.  The  king  in 
1866  took  part  with  Austria  in  the  war  against  Prussia, 
but  after  the  defeat  of  his  armies  he  took  the  Prussian 
side.  He  was  ostensibly  the  first  to  propose  the  new 
German  empire  with  William  of  Prussia  at  its  head.  In 
that  empire  Bavaria  was  merged,  but  retained  a  nearly 
autonomous  position.  The  king,  becoming  insane,  com- 
mitted suicide  June  14,  1886. 

Lewis,  (Kings  of  France.)     See  Louis. 

Lew'is  or  Louis,  loo'is,  [Ger.  Ludwig,  lood'<^5G ; 


€as  k;  5  as s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     (fl^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEWIS 


1542 


LEWIS 


Lat.  LuDOVi'cus.J  I.,  King  of  Germany,  styled  i.E  Ger- 
MAN'IQUE,  (or  German'icus,)  the  third  son  of  Louis  le 
Debonnaire,  was  born  in  806,  and  became  King  of  Ba- 
varia in  817  A.D.,  when  his  father  divided  his  dominions 
among  his  three  sons.  Having  revolted  against  his 
father,  he  seized  Saxony,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Germany.  In  alliance  with  Charles  the  Bald,  he 
defeated  his  brother,  Lothaire  I.,  at  Fontenoy  in  841. 
He  died  in  876  A.D.,  leaving  three  sons,  Carloman, 
Lewis,  and  Charles. 

See  H.  LuDEN,  "Gescliichte  des  Deut<;c1ien  Volkes,"  12  vols., 
1825-37  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lewis  (Ludw^ig)  II.  or  III.  of  Germany  was  the 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  876. 
The  same  year  he  defeated  his  uncle,  Charles  the  Bald, 
who  had  invaded  his  kingdom.  Me  died  at  Frankfort 
in  882,  while  waging  war  with  the  Normans. 

Lewis  (Ludwig)  III.  or  IV.,  called  the  Infant, 
(DAS  Kind,)  born  in  893  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  the 
emperor  Arnulph,  and  became  King  of  Germany  in 
900.  He  died  in  912,  and  was  the  last  prince  of  the 
race  of  Charlemagne  in  Germany. 

Lewis  IV.  or  v.,  Em])eror  of  Germany,  born  in  1286, 
was  the  son  of  Lewis,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Matilda, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  the  emj^eror  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg.  After  the  death  of  Henry  VII.  (13 14)  Lewis 
and  his  cousin,  Frederick  of  Austria,  were  rival  candi- 
dates for  the  throne,  and  both  claimed  to  have  been 
elected.  A  long  civil  war  was  the  result,  in  which  the 
Ghibelines  fought  for  Lewis  and  the  Gueljihs  for  Frede- 
rick, who  was  taken  prisoner  in  1322.  Lewis  released 
him  after  he  had  signed  an  act  of  renunciation  of  the 
empire,  and  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  1328.  About 
this  time  he  was  e.vcommunicated  by  Pope  John  XXII., 
against  whom  he  retorted  the  charge  of  heresy.  In  1346 
Clement  VI.  issued  a  bull  against  Lewis,  and  attempted 
to  transfer  the  crown  to  Charles  IV. ;  but  Lewis  defended 
himself  until  his  death,  in  1347. 

See  Conrad  Mannekt,  "Kaiser  Ludwig  IV.,"  1S12;  N.  liuR- 
GUNDUS,  "  Historia  Bavarica,  sive  Ludoviciis  IV.,"  etc.,  1636;  J. 
ScHLRTT,  "  Biographie  vuii  Kaiser  Ludwig  deni  Bayer,"  1822;  KoT- 
£Ei!UE,  "Geschichte  Kaiser  Ludwigs  IV.,"  1S12. 

Lewis  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  King  of  Hungary 
and  Poland,  born  in  1326,  was  the  son  of  Charobert, 
whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Hungary  in  1342. 
He  waged  successful  wars  against  the  Venetians  and 
against  Joan,  Queen  of  Naples.  After  the  death  of  his 
uncle  Casimir,  in  1370,  he  was  elected  King  of  Poland. 
He  died  in  13S2,  leaving  three  daughters,  one  of  whom 
was  married  to  Sigismund,  Emperor  of  Germany.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  just  and  wise  ruler. 

See  BoNFlNius,  "  De  Rebus  Hiiiigaricis;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Lewis  II.  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  was  born  in 
1506,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Ladislaus  VI.,  in  1516. 
Owing  to  his  youth  and  the  factious  conduct  of  the 
nobles,  his  power  was  only  nominal.  In  1521  he  mar- 
ried Mary,  a  sister  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  His 
kingdom  was  invaded  by  the  Turks,  and  his  army  com- 
pletely defeated  at  Mohacs,  where  Lewis  was  killed  in 
1526.  He  left  no  issue,  and  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria 
became  master  of  Hungary. 

Lewis,  (Kings  of  Italy  and  Spain.)     See  Louis. 

Lewis  iSp.  Luis,  loo-iss'|  L  of  Spain,  the  eldest  son 
of  Philip  v.,  was  born  in  1707.  Philip  V.,  having  fallen 
into  a  melancholy  mood,  retired  to  the  solitude  of  Saint 
Ildefonso,  and  resigned  the  crown  to  Lewis,  who  was 
proclaimed  in  January,  1724.  A  few  months  after  his 
accession  he  died  of  smallpox,  and  Philip  V.  resumed 
the  cares  of  royalty. 

Lewis  [Ger.  Ludwig,  lood'<ViG]  I.,  Grand  Duke  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  born  in  1753,  succeeded  his  father  in 
1790.  _  He  joined  the  alliance  against  Napoleon  in  i8i-^. 
Died  in  1830. 

See  Steiner,  "Ludwig  L  von  Hessen-Darmstadt,"  1842. 

Lewis  (Ludwig)  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1777,  and  became  grand  duke  in  1830.     Died  in  1848. 

Lewis,  (Ludwig,)  Prince  of  Prussia,  often  called 
Ludwig  Ferdinand,  was  a  nephew  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  was  born  in  1772.  He  was  a  son  of  Prince 
August  Ferdinand.     He  served  in  the  campaign  against 


the  French  in  1792.  In  1806  he  was  the  head  cf  the 
war-party  which  urged  the  king  into  a  disastrous  contest 
with  Bonaparte.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-general, he  engaged  a  superior  force  under  Lannes 
at  Saalfeld,  October  10,  1806,  when  he  was  defeated  and 
killed,  preferring  to  die  rather  tlian  to  surrender. 

Lew'is,  (Andrew,)  born  in  Ireland  about  1730,  emi- 
grated to  Virginia,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  being  made  brigadier-general 
about  1775.  His  statue  occupies  a  place  near  Washing- 
ton's Monument  at  Richmond.  Died  in  1780.  His  three 
brothers,  Thomas,  William,  and  Charles,  were  also 
noted  as  patriots  and  soldiers. 

Levyis,  (Dio,)  an  American  physician, born  at  Auburn, 
New  York,  March  3,  1823.  He  was  educated  in  the 
medical  schools  of  Boston  and  Buffalo,  published  many 
books  on  health  and  kindred  subjects,  and  wrote  largely 
on  educational  topics,  especially  on  gymnastics  as  an 
element  of  education.     Died  May  21,  1886. 

Lewis,  (Dixon  Hall,)  a  Senator  and  lawyer,  born 
in  Hancock  county,  Georgia,  in  1802,  removed  to  Ala- 
bama. He  was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  1830  to  1844,  and  became  a  United 
.States  Senator  in  the  latter  year.     Died  in  1848. 

Lewis,  (Edmonia,)  an  American  sculptor,  of  negro 
and  Indian  extraction,  born  near  Albany,  New  York, 
about  1845.  Among  her  works  are  "  The  Freedwomau 
on  first  hearing  of  her  Liberty,"  and  a  bust  of  Colonel 
-Shaw. 

Lewis,  (Ellis,)  LL.D.,  an  able  American  jurist,  bori« 
in  York  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1798.  He  rose  through 
various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1854.    Died  in  1871. 

Le'wis,  (Enoch,)  a  distinguished  American  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1776. 
He  became  teacher  of  mathematics  in  the  Friends'  Acad- 
emy, Philadelphia,  in  1799,  and  subsequently  at  the  West- 
town  Boarding-School,  established  by  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  algebra, 
trigonometry,  etc.,  a  "  Life  of  William  Penn,"  and  other 
valuable  works.  In  1847  '^^  became  editor  of  the 
"Friends'  Review,"  Philadelphia.     Died  in  1856. 

Lewis,  (EsrELLE  Anna  Robinson,)  an  American 
poetess,  born  in  Maryland  about  1825,  published  "  Rec- 
ords of  the  Heart,"  (1844;)  "Myths  of  the  Minstrels," 
(1852,)  "The  King's  Stratagem,"  (1873,)  "Sappho,  a 
Tragedy,"  (1875,)  and  made  numerous  contributions  to 
American  and  European  journals.     Died  Nov.  24,  iSSo. 

Lewis,  (Francis,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  American  Independence,  born  in  Wales  in  17 13, 
emigrated  to  New  York  in  1735.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1775.     Died  in  1803. 

Lew'is,  (Sir  George  Coknewall,)  Bart.,  an  eminent 
English  statesman  and  author,  born  in  London  in  Octo- 
ber, 1806,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Frankland 
Lewis.  lie  graduated  with  high  honours  in  the  classics 
at  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1831,  but  never 
practised  law.  In  1S44  he  married  a  sister  of  the  Earl 
of  Clarendon.  In  1S47  he  was  elected  by  the  Liberal 
party  member  of  Parliament  for  Herefordshire,  and  was 
appointed  secretary  to  the  board  of  control.  He  became 
under-secretary  for  the  home  department  in  1848,  and 
secretary  of  i  le  treasury  in  1850.  He  resigned  this  office 
when  Lord  John  Russell  ceased  to  be  premier,  in  March, 
1852.  In  this  year  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Method  of  Observing  and  Reasoning  in  Politics."  He 
became  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  1854,  but 
retired  from  that  post  in  the  early  part  of  the  next  year. 
From  February,  1855,  until  February,  1858,  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  Palmerston's  cabinet. 
On  the  formation  of  a  new  Liberal  ministry  under  Pal- 
merston,  in  June,  1859,  Sir  George  was  appointed  home 
secretary.  He  succeeded  Lord  Herbert  as  secretary  of 
war  in  July,  1861.  He  wrote  several  able  political  and 
philosophical  works,  among  which  is  an  "  Inquiry  into 
the  Credibility  of  Early  Roman  History,"  and,  with 
the  Right  Hon.  H.  Tufnel,  made  a  translation  of  K.  O. 
Miiller's  "Die  Dorier,"  ("The  Dorians,"  2  vols.,  1830.) 
Died  in  1863. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1856:  "  Fraser's  M^azine" 
for  February,  1848. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y, sliort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  oi'scure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEWIS 


1543 


LEYSER 


Levris,  (John,)  an  English  theologian  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1675.  He  became  curate  of  Margate 
and  rector  of  Saltvvood  and  Eastbridge.  Besides  many 
works  on  theology,  he  published  a  "  History  of  John 
Wickliff,"  (1720,)  and  a  "Life  of  Caxton,"  (1737.)  Died 
!n  1746. 

Levris,  (John  Frederick,)  an  excellent  English 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1805,  received  instruction 
from  his  father,  F.  C.  Lewis,  a  laiidsca|)e-painter.  After 
a  visit  to  Spain,  he  produced  about  1835  several  admired 
pictures  in  water-colours  of  Sj^anish  scenes,  among  which 
was  a  "Bull-Fight  in  Seville."  Between  1840  and  1850 
he  worked  and  travelled  in  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  other 
l^arts  of  the  Levant.  After  his  return  he  increased  his 
reputation  by  excellent  and  finely-finished  pictures  of 
"The  Harem,"  (1850,)  "An  Arab  Scribe,"  and  "Mount 
Sinai."  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water-Colours  in  1855,  and  became  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1859.     Died  in  1876. 

Lewis,  (Lady  Maria  Theresa,)  an  English  author, 
born  in  1803,  was  a  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Clai  endon.  She 
was  married  to  Thomas  Henry  Lister  in  1830,  and  to 
Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis  in  1844.  She  edited  Miss 
Eden's  stories  "The  Semi-Detached  House"  and  "The 
Semi-Attached  Couple,"  and  was  credited  with  their 
authorship.     Died  in  1865. 

Le'wis,  (Matihew  Gregory,)  a  successful  English 
novelist  and  dramatist,  often  called  Mouk  Le^wis,  was 
born  in  London  in  1775.  He  inherited  from  his  father 
an  ample  fortune,  which  consisted  partly  in  an  estate 
and  slaves  in  Jamaica.  About  the  age  of  twenty  he 
produced  "The  Monk," a  novel  which,  by  an  artful  com- 
bination of  mysterious  horrors  and  voluptuous  images, 
obtained  a  large  circulation,  but  was  stigmatized  as  per- 
nicious by  the  stricter  moralists.  He  composed  several 
successful  dramas,  among  which  were  "  The  Castle 
Spectre,"  "  Adelgitha,"  a  tragedy,  and  "  Timour  the 
Tartar,"  (1812.)  He  also  wrote  other  romances  and  a 
few  poetical  pieces.  He  died  at  sea,  on  a  voyage  from 
Jamaica  to  England,  in  1818. 

See  "Life  and  Coirespondence  of  M.  G.  Lewis,"  London,  1839; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1803,  (by  Sydney  Smith.) 

Lewis,  (Meriwether,)  an  enterprising  American 
traveller,  born  in  Virginia  in  1774.  He  became  private 
secretary  to  President  Jefferson  about  1801,  and  was 
soon  after  employed  by  the  United  States  government, 
conjointly  with  Captain  Clarke,  to  explore  the  northwest 
part  of  the  American  continent.  Tney.gave  the  names 
of  Jefiferson,  Gallatin,  and  Madison  to  the  three  streams 
which  form  the  Missouri.  They  also  explored  the  Co- 
lumbia River  to  its  mouth.  After  his  return,  in  1806, 
Captain  Lewis  was  made  Governor  of  Missouri  Territory, 
He  committed  suicide  in  1809,  in  a  fit  of  temporary  in- 
sanity. One  of  the  principal  affluents  of  the  Columbia 
River  was  named  in  his  honour.  A  "  Memoir"  of  Cap- 
tain Lewis  was  written  by  Jefferson. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815:  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1S15;  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  August,  and  Sep- 
tember, 1815. 

Lcwris,  (Morgan,)  an  American  general  and  Gov- 
ernor, born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1754,  was  a  son 
of  Francis,  noticed  above.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  at  the  end  of  which  he  had 
the  rank  of  colonel.  In  1801  he  became  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York.  He  was  Governor 
of  that  State  from  1805  to  1807,  and  commanded  the 
forces  in  New  York  in  1814,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general.     Died  in  1844. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distiugiushed  Americans," 
vol.  ill. 

Lewis,  (Samuel,)  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Falmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1799,  settled  in  Ohio, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  promoting 
education  and  other  reforms.     Died  in  1854. 

Le'wis,  (Tayler.)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  author,  born  in  Saratoga  county,  New  York, 
in  1802,  became  professor  of  Greek  in  Union  College 
in  1849.  He  wrote  critical  and  theological  works  evincnig 
much  learning  and  ability.     Died  May  11,  1877. 

See  Ar.LiBONB,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 


Le'wis,  (William,)  an  English  chemist  and  physician, 
who  practisetl  at  Kingston,  Surrey.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  employed  to  read  lectures 
on  chemistry  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  at  Kew.  He  pub- 
lished "An  Experimental  History  of  the  Materia  Medica," 
(1760,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1781. 

Ley  or  Leigh,  lee,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1552.  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in  1621,  and  lord 
high  treasurer  in  1625.  He  was  afterwards  created  Earl 
of  Marlborough.  Died  in  1628.  His  "Reports  of 
Cases  in  the  Courts  of  Westminster"  were  published. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Ley,  (John,)  an  English  controversial  writer,  born  at 
Warwick  in  1583.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  Parliament 
in  the  civil  war.     Died  in  1662. 

Leyba,  de,  di  la^-Bi,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
dramatic  poet  of  the^venteenth  century.  His  works 
are  highly  commended. 

Leybourn,  la'burn,  ?  (William,)  an  English  mathe- 
matician, who  was  in  his  youth  a  printer  in  London. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Gunter,  and  published,  beside.s 
other  works,  "  The  Complete  Surveyor,"  "  Mathematical 
Course,"  ("Cursus  Mathematicus,  1690,)  and  "The 
Trader's  Guide,"  (1693.)     He  died  about  1690. 

Leydecker,  li'dJk'er,  (Melchior,)  a  learned  Dutch 
Calvinist  theologian,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1642.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht  in  1678,  and 
published  (in  Latin)  several  esteemed  works,  among 
which  are  a  "History  of  the  African  Church,"  (1690,) 
"On  the  Hebrew  Republic,"  (1704,)  and  a  treatise 
against  the  philosophy  of  Descartes,  called  "The  Torch 
of  Truth,"  ("Fax  Veritatis.")     Died  in  1721. 

Leyden,  ll'den,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
antiquary,  eminent  as  an  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  at 
Denholm,  on  the  Teviot,  in  1775.  At  a  college  of  Edin- 
burgh he  studied  the  principal  ancient  and  modern 
laViguages.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine,  and  in 
1802  went  to  Madras  as  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company.  There  he  learned 
Sanscrit,  Persian,  Hindostanee,  and  other  Asiatic  lan- 
guages. About  1806  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Hindostanee  at  Calcutta.  He  became  assay-master  of 
the  Calcutta  Mint  in  1810.  He  contributed  to  Scott's 
"  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border,"  wrote  other  poetical 
pieces,  and  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Languages  and 
Literature  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Nations."  Died  in  Java 
in  181 1. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "Essay  on  the  Life  of  Leyden,"  io 
Scott's  Miscellaneous  WdrUs  ;  and  a  Memoir  by  Morton  pre- 
fixed to  the  "Poems  of  Leyden,"  iSig;  Chambers,  "  Hiographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  July. 
1822. 

Leyden,  (John  of.)     See  John  of  Leyden. 

Leyden,  van,  vtn  li'den,  (Lucas,)  [Fr.  Lucas  dk 
Leyde,  lii'kas'  deh  lAd,)  or  Lucas  Dammesz,  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  in 
1494.  He  received  his  first  lessons  in  design  from  his 
father,  Hugh  Jacobs  or  Jacobze,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve 
painted  in  distemper  a  picture  of  Saint  Hubert,  which 
was  greatly  admired.  He  i)ainted,  with  equal  success, 
landscapes  and  jDortraits.  As  an  engraver  he  excelled 
in  aerial  perspective  and  chiaroscuro,  and,  according  to 
Vasari,  surpassed  Albert  Diirer  in  composition.  "As  a 
painter,"  says  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "  he  jiasses 
for  the  preatest  artist  of  the  Flemish  school  in  his  time.'" 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  painting  of  the  "Last 
Judgment,"  an  "Ecce  Homo,"  dated  1510,  an  engraving 
of  "  Mary  Magdalene  Dancing,"  and  another  called  "  Eu- 
lenspiegel,"  of  which,  it  is  said,  only  five  or  six  proofs 
are  extant.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Albert  Diirer. 
Died  in  1533. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Descamps,  "  Vies  des 
Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Leynez.     See  Lainez. 

Leys,  Us  or  li,  (Jean  Auguste  Henri,)  an  eminent 
Belgian  historical  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1815.  He 
obtained  one  of  the  grand  medals  at  the  Exposition  of 
Paris  in  1855,  when  he  exhibited  "The  New  Year  in 
Flanders,"  and  other  pictures.     Died  August  25,  1869. 

Leyser,  vou,  fon   IT'zer,   (Augustin,)   an   eminent 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as ;;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this,     ( Ii:^=See  Exi)lanations,  p.  23. ) 


LEYSER 


1544 


VHOPITAL 


German  jurist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1683.  He  pub- 
lished many  legal  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  "Thoughts  on  the  Pandects,"  ("Meditationes  ad  Pan- 
dectas,"  11  vols.,  1717-47.)     Died  in  1752. 

Leyser,  von,  written  also  Lyser,  |Lat.  Lyse'rus,] 
(PoLYCARP,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine,  was  born  in 
Wiirtemberg  in  1552.  He  was  aj)pointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1576.  From  1594  until  his 
death  he  was  the  first  preacher  at  the  court  of  Dresden. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  continuation  of 
Chemnitz's  "  Harmonia  Evangelica."     Died  in  1610. 

Leyssens,  lis'sens,  (Niculaas,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1660,  worked  with  success  in  his 
native  city.     Died  in  1720. 

Leyva,  de,  di  la/e-vd,  or  Leva,  la'vS,  (Antonio,) 
one  of  the  ablest  goTerals  of  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
was  born  in  Navarre  about  1480.  He  fought  at  Ravenna 
in  1512,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Rebec  in  1524. 
He  commanded  in  Pavia  when  it  was  besieged  by  Francis 
1.  His  obstinate  defence  occasioned  the  battle  of  Pavi'a, 
(1525,)  during  which  he  made  a  sortie,  and,  falling  upon 
the  rear  of  the  French,  decided  the  fate  of  the  day.  In 
1532  he  was  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  Italian  league 
against  Francis  I.  He  accompanied  Charles  V.  in  his 
expedition  against  Tunis  in  1535,  and  had  the  chief 
direction  of  the  army  which  invaded  Provence  in  1536. 
He  died  of  an  epidemic  in  the  same  year. 

See  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V." 

Leyva,  de,  (Jago,)  a  Spanish  painter,  l)orn  about 
1580.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  worked  at  Burgos. 
Died  in  1637. 

Lezardiere,  de,  deh  li'zSR'de-aiR',  (Marie  Char- 
i.oiTE  Pauline  Robert,)  a  FreiTch  female  publicist, 
born  in  La  Vendee  in  1754.  She  produced  in  1791  a 
work  of  some  merit,  entitled  "Theory  of  the  Political 
Laws  of  the  French  Monarchy,"  reprinted  in  4  vols., 
1S44.     Died  in  1835. 

Lezay-Maruesia,  de,  deh  leh-zi'  mtRn'ze^',  (Ad- 
RIEN,)  Count,  a  French  publicist,  born  near  Orgelet 
in  1770.  He  published  a  tract  against  the  Constitution 
of  1795,  a  work  "On  the  Causes  of  the  Revolution," 
(1797,)  and  other  political  treatises.  He  was  prefect  of 
Strasbourg  when  he  died,  in  1814. 

Lezay-Marnesia,  de,  (Claude  Francois  Adrien,) 
Marquis,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Metz  in  1735.  He  was  a  liberal  member  of  the  States- 
General  in  1789.  He  published,  besides  several  prose 
works,  a  poem  of  some  merit,  called  "Essays  on  Rural 
Nature,"  ("  Essais  sur  la  Nature  champetre,"  1787.) 
Died  in  1800. 

L'Heritier  de  Brutelle,  li're't^'  deh  bRii't^K, 
(Charles  Louis,)  a  French  botanist,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1746.  He  was  admitted  into  the  court  of  aids  in  1775. 
After  the  Revolution  he  was  twice  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  civil  tribunal  of  Paris.  His  principal  works  are 
"  New  or  Rare  Plants,"  ("  Stirpes  novae  aut  minus  cog- 
nitoe,"  1784,)  and  "  Sertum  Anglicum,"  (17S8,)  a  descrip- 
tion of  plants  in  the  royal  garden  of  Kew,  in  England. 
"His  works,"  says  Cuvier,  "are  prized  throughout 
Europe  for  the  exactitude  of  the  descriptions  and  the 
finish  of  the  plates."  He  left  in  manuscript  a  "Flora  of 
Peru,"  which  he  compiled  from  the  notes  and  herbal  of 
Dombey.  He  was  assassinated  near  his  house  in  1800. 
Neither  the  author  nor  the  motive  of  this  crime  was  evei 
discovered. 

See  Cuvier,  "filoge  de  L'Heritier,"  in  the  "Menioires  de  Tin?- 
titut;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

L'Heritier  de  Villandon,  li're'te-i'  deh  vc'ISn- 
(16n',  (Marie  Jeanne,)  a  French  authoress,  born  ir 
Paris  in  1664,  wrote  in  ])rose  and  verse.     Died  in  1734. 

L'Heritier  de  Villandon,  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Pari.s 
about  1613;  died  in  1680. 

L'Hermite,  l^R'mtt',  (Francois,)  a  popular  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  known  under  the  name  of  Tristan, 
was  born  in  La  Marche  in  1601.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy  in  1649.     Died  in  1655. 

L'Homond  or  Lnomond,  Io'uiAn',  (Charles  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  teacher,  born  at  Chaulnes  in  1727,  was. 
a  professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.  He  was  a  friend 
of  the  eminent  Haiiy,  whose  first  scientific  efforts  hr 


directed.  He  published  two  elementary  works  which 
are  used  in  many  schools  of  France,  England,  and 
America,  viz.,  "  Viri  Romre,"  and  "  Epitome  of  Sacred 
History,"  ("  Epitome  Historiae  Sacrae.")     Died  in  1794. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

L'Hdpital,  de,  deh  16'pe'tSl',  (Fran<;ois,)  Comte  de 
Rosnay,  a  marshal  of  France,  born  in  1583,  was  a  brothei 
of  Marshal  de  Vitry.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  com- 
manded in  Lorraine,  where  he  gained  several  victories 
between  1638  and  1642.  He  received  a  marshal's  baton 
in  1643,  and  was  selected  to  advise  the  young  Prince  of 
Conde,  who  had  just  taken  command  of  the  army  in 
Flanders.  Against  the  orders  of  the  ministry  and  the 
advice  of  L'llopital,  Conde  risked  a  battle  at  Rocroy 
in  1643,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards.  Died 
in  1660. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "Dictionnaire  des  G^ii^raux  Fraiifais." 

L'Hdpital  or  L'Hospital,de,  (Guillaume  Francois 
Antoine,)  Marquis  de  Saint-Mesme  and  Count  d'En- 
tremont,  a  distinguished  French  geometer,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1661.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  is  said  to  have 
been  a  profound  mathematician.  In  early  life  he  was 
forced  to  renounce  the  military  profession  by  the  weak- 
ness of  his  sight.  In  1692  he  learned  from  John  Ber- 
noulli the  new  geometry  which  Leibnitz  had  discovered. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  about 
1694.  In  1696  Bernoulli  challenged  the  geometers  of 
Europe  to  a  trial  of  skill  in  the  jjroblem  of  the  brachys- 
tochron, — i.e.  line  or  curve  of  quickest  descent.  At  the 
expiration  of  the  stated  time  (ten  months)  solutions  were 
furnished  by  only  four  persons, — Newton,  Leibnitz, 
L'llopital,  and  James  Bernoulli.  The  result  was  the 
paradoxical  cycloid.  In  1696  he  published  "Analyse  des 
infiniment  petits,"  ("Analysis  of  Infinitesimals,")  which, 
being  the  first  work  adapted  to  initiate  students  in  the 
mysteries  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus  of  Leibnitz,  was 
received  with  great  eagerness  and  marked  the  epoch  of 
a  revolution  in  the  science.  He  died  in  1704.  His  post- 
humous work,  "Analytic  Treatise  on  Conic  Sections," 
(1707,)  had  a  high  re]Hitation. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  E!lor;e  du  Marquis  de  L'Hopital;"  Moh 
TUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Malheniatiques  ;"  "Acta  Eiuditorum,"  1721. 

L'Hfipital  or  L'Hospital,  de,  (Michel,)  Chancellor 
of  France,  an  illustrious  legislator  and  statesman,  was 
born  at  Aigueperse,  in  Auvergne,  in  1505.  His  father, 
Jean,  was  physician  to  Constable  Bourbon,  to  whom  he 
adhered  in  his  defection  from  the  service  of  Francis  I. 
to  that  of  Charles  V.  He  studied  law  at  Padua  for  six 
years,  and  about  1534  settled  in  Paris.  Three  years  later, 
Morin,  lieutenant-criminel,  gave  him  his  daughter,  and  the 
ofiice  of  counsellor  to  the  Parliament  as  her  dowry.  His 
promotion  was  hindered  by  the  connection  of  his  father 
with  the  defection  of  Bourbon,  and  by  his  own  modesty  ; 
but  he  at  last  found  a  patron  in  Chancellor  Olivier,  and 
was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1547.  About  1554  he  was  chosen  by  Henry  II.  superin- 
tendent of  the  finances,  in  the  management  of  which  he 
made  important  reforms.  In  1560  the  regent  Catherine 
de  Medicis  appointed  him  chancellor  of  France.  On  his 
arrival  at  court  he  found  that  the  chiefs  of  the  house  of 
Guise  had  resolved  to  establish  the  Inquisition  and  to 
ruin  the  Protestants.  He  defeated  the  first  project,  and 
ojjposed  the  other  with  partial  success.  He  caused  the 
States-General  to  be  convoked  at  Orleans  in  December, 
1560,  and  obtained  edicts  favourable  to  liberty  or  tolera- 
tion. But,  in  spite  of  his  mediatorial  efforts,  the  war 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  begair  in  1562.  His 
advice  was  no  longer  listened  to  at  court,  and  he  was 
removed  from  office  in  1568.  He  was  at  his  country- 
seat  at  Vignay  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew, and  his  life  was  spared  through  the  mediation  of  a 
lady  at  court.  He  died  in  1573,  leaving  a  name  greatly 
venerated  for  wisdom  and  integrity.  As  a  statesman 
and  legislator  he  holds  a  high  rank.  His  political  prin- 
ciples are  announced  in  a  Latin  poem,  (composed  on 
occasion  of  the  coronation  of  Francis  II.,)  wiiich  was 
much  admired.  He  wroie  other  elegant  Latin  poems 
and  discourses,  which  have  been  published. 

See  M.  ViLi.EMAiN,  "Vie  de  L'Hopital,"  in  his  "  fitudes  d'His- 
toire  inoderne  ;"  L^vesque  de  Pouilly,  "Vie  de  Michel  de  L'Hospi- 
tal," 1764  ;  Charles  Butler,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  of  M.  de  L'Hopi- 


a>  e,  T,  o,  r,  y,  lotig;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  Ti,  5',  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VHOPITAL 


1545 


LIDERTAS 


tal,"  1814:  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  De  Thou, 
"Historic  sui  Teniporis;"  M.  Cki-:sson,  "  £lo;;e  historiqiie  de  M. 
de  L'Hoijital,"  1S50;  Taillandier's  article  in  the  "Noiivelle  Bio- 
graphie  Geiidrale. " 

L'Hdpital,  de,  (Michel  Hurault,)  Seigneur  de 
Belesbat,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
chancellor  of  Henry  of  Navarre  before  the  latter  became 
King  of  France,  (1589.)  He  was  also  employed  by  Henry 
as  ambassador  to  Holland  and  Germany,  and  wrote  two 
able  political  treatises  "On  the  State  of  France,"  (1588- 
93.)     Died  in  1592. 

Ii'H6te  or  Lhdte,  lot,  (Nestor,)  an  artist  and  anti- 
quary, born  of  French  parents  at  Cologne  in  1804.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  sent  in  1828  to  ex- 
plore Egypt  ur.dcr  the  direction  of  Champollion,  who 
empli^yed  him  as  draughtsman.  In  1838  he  made  fur- 
ther explorations  and  illustrations  of  Egypt,  for  the 
purpose  of  rendering  more  complete  Champollion's 
posthumous  work  on  the  monuments  of  that  country. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1842. 

Lhoyd,  loid,  written  also  Lhuyd  and  Llw^yd, 
(HuMPllKY,)  a  learned  British  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Denbigh,  in  Wales.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Cambria 
from  Caradoc,"  "On  Moiia,  the  Island  of  the  Druids," 
("  De  Mona  Druidum  Insula,")  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1570. 

See  Wood,  "  Atlienje  Oxonienses." 

Lhuyd,  commonly  pronounced  loid,  (Edward,)  an 
eminent  Welsh  antiquary,  born  in  Carmarthenshire 
about  1665.  He  became  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Mu- 
seum in  1690.  He  jjublished  a  catalogue  of  the  figured 
fossils  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  called  "Lythophylacii 
Britannici  Iconographia,"  (1699,)  and  a  treatise  on 
British  antiquities,  "  Archaeologia  Britannica,"  (1707.) 
Died  in  1709. 

Iiiadieres,  le't'de^iR',  (Pierre  Charles,)  h  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Pan  in  1792.  He  composed  several 
dramas,  and  other  mediocre  works  in  prose  and  verse. 
Died  in  1858. 

Liais,  le'4',  (Emmanuel,)  a  French  astronomer,  born 
at  Cherbourg  in  1826.  He  was  appointed  an  assistant 
in  the  Observatory  of  Paris  in  1852,  but  removed  to 
Brazil,  where  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Imperial 
Observatory.  Besides  valuable  reports  and  papers  on 
mathematics  and  astronomy,  he  published  several  vol- 
umes on  Brazil  and  its  resources. 

Liancourt,  de,  deh  le'dx'kooR',  (Jeanne  dk  Schom- 
berg,)  Di;chess,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for  her 
talents  and  piety,  born  in  1600,  was  the  daughter  of 
Henri  de  Schomberg,  marshal  of  France.  She  became 
the  wife  of  the  Due  de  Liancourt.  Her  house  was 
frequented  by  Pascal,  Arnauld,  and  other  recluses  of 
Port-Royal.     Died  in  1674. 

See  J.  J.  BoiLEAU,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  Liancourt,"  1698. 

Liano,  da,  di  le-S'no,  (Teodoro  Felipe,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1575,  excelled  in  miniatures, 
and  was  surnamed  the  Little  Titian.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Lope  de  Vega.     Died  in  1625. 

Liard,  le'lR',  an  eminent  French  engineer,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1747.  His  principal  work  is  the  important 
canal  which  connects  the  Rhine  with  the  Rhone.  It  was 
commenced  about  1805  and  completed  in  1832.  Died 
in  1832. 

Liban,  lee'bin,  [Lat.  Liba'nius,]  (George,)  a  Polish 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Liegnitz  m  1490.  He  taught 
Greek  at  Cracow.     Died  in  1550. 

liibanius.     See  Liban. 

Li-ba'nl-u3,  \  Gr.  Aifiavwf,  |  a  celebrated  heathen 
sophist  and  rhetorician,  born  at  Antioch  in  314  a.d.  He 
studied  with  Diophantes  of  Athens  and  others.  After 
he  had  taught  rhetoric  for  several  years  at  Constanti- 
nople and  Athens  with  success,  he  settled  in  354  at  An- 
tioch, where  he  opened  a  school,  which  became  very 
celebrated.  Among  his  pupils  were  Saint  Basil  and 
Saint  Chrysostom.  He  accepted  the  office  of  quaestor 
from  the  emperor  Julian,  who  was  his  friend  and  ad- 
mirer. He  died  probably  about  390  a.d.,  leaving  many 
works,  which  are  still  e.xtant,  and  display  a  brilliant 
imagination.  They  consist  chiefly  of  declamations  on 
events  of  Greek  history,  and  have  been  designated  bj 


Giboon  as  "  the  vain  and  idle  compositions  of  an  orator 
who  cultivated  the  science  of  words."  But  this  is  re- 
garded by  other  eminent  critics  as  too  harsh  a  judgment. 
See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  Bc'o?  ij  Adyos  wepi  r^?  cavroC 
ruxis;  EuNAPius,  "Vita  Sophistarum  ;"  Kabricius,  "  Biblioiheca 
Grarca;"  J.  G.  Bekger,  "  De  Libanio  Disputationes  sex,"  i6q6; 
C.  Petersen,  "  Coinmentatio  de  Libanio  Sophista,"  1827  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Libavius,  le-bd've-fis,  (Andreas,)  a  German  physi- 
cian and  chemist,  born  at  Halle.  He  was  chosen  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  of  Coburg  in  1605.  He  gained  repu- 
tation by  works  on  chemistry,  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  refute  the  reveries  of  Paracelsus.  His  "Alchymia 
recognita  emendata  et  aucta"  (1597)  was  the  best  manual 
of  chemistry  which  had  appeared  at  that  time.  Died 
in  1616. 

See  Freher,  "  Theatrum  Eruditorum;"  Linden,  "De  Scriptori- 
bus  Medicis." 

Libelt,  lee'bSlt,  (Karol,)  an  able  Polish  writer  oi. 
philosophy  and  politics,  was  born  at  Posen  in  1806.  He 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  Russians  in  the  Polish 
insurrection  which  began  in  1830.  For  his  share  in  a 
democratic  conspiracy  he  was  imprisoned  at  Berlin  in 
1846,  but  was  leleased  by  the  revolution  of  1848.  Soon 
after  his  release  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Slavonic 
congress  of  Prague.  While  a  prisoner  in  Berlin  in  1847 
he  wrote  "The  Maid  of  Orleans."  Among  his  works 
are  excellent  philosophical  and  critical  essays,  "Filo- 
zofia  i  Krytyka,"  (1845-50.)     Died  June  9,  1875. 

See  Bkockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikoii." 

Li'ber,  a  name  applied  by  the  Romans  to  the  B^: 
chus  or  Dionysus  of  the  Greek  mythology.     Liber  was 
an  ancient  Italian  divinity.     See  Bacchus. 

Lib'e-ra,  in  the  Roman  mythology,  was  the  wife  of 
Liber,  and  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  culti- 
vation of  the  vine.  She  was  sometimes  identified  with 
Proserpine. 

Liberate  da  Verona,  le-bi-r3.'li  di  v4-ro'n3,  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Verona  in  145 1. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  excellent  artists  of  his  country 
at  that  time.  His  painting  of  the  "Epiphany"  is  said 
to  be  still  visible  at  Verona.     Died  in  1536. 

Lib-er-a'tus,  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Carthage. 
He  was  sent  to  Rome  about  535  by  a  council  of  African 
bishops. 

Libere.     See  Liberius. 

Liberi,  lee'bi-ree,  (Pietro,)  Cavaliere,  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  Libertino,  (le-b§R-tee'no,) 
born  at  Padua  in  1605,  was  a  pupil  of  Padovanino.  He 
pursued  his  studies  in  Rome,  Parma,  Venice,  etc.,  and 
formed  a  style  in  which  the  characteristics  of  several 
schools  were  united.  "  He  was  regarded,"  says  the  "  Bio- 
gra])hie  Universelle,"  "as  the  most  skilful  draftsman  of 
the  Venetian  school."  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  at  Venice,  "The  Gene- 
ral Deluge,"  "Noah  coming  out  of  the  .^rk,""  The  Judg- 
ment of  Paris,"  and  several  pictures  of  Venus  nude.  His 
style  was  sometimes  grand  and  sometimes  graceful.  It 
is  said  that  when  he  worked  for  connoisseurs  his  manner 
was  bold  and  free,  but  for  other  patrons  he  finished  his 
work  with  much  care  and  precision.     Died  in  1687. 

See  GuAi.DO  Priorato,  "Vita  del  Cavaliere  P.  Liberi,"  i8i!s, 
RtDor.Ft,  "Vlte  del  Pittori  Veneti ;"  Winckelmann,  "  Neue* 
Mahler-Lexikon." 

U-be'ri-us,  [Fr.  LiFfeRE,  le'baiR' ;  It.  Liberio,  le- 
ba're-o,]  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  352 
or  353  A.D.,  and  succeeded  Julius  I.  He  favoured  the 
orthodox  in  the  controversy  with  the  Arians ;  and,  the 
Council  of  Milan  having  condemned  Athanasius  in  355, 
he  refused  to  sanction  that  act.  For  this  cause  he  was 
banished  by  the  emperor  Constantius  to  Bercea.  After 
an  exile  of  two  years,  he  recovered  his  see  in  358, 
by  signing  the  formula  of  Sirmium,  a  modification  of 
Arianism.  He  refused  to  subscribe  the  confession  of 
the  Council  of  Rimini,  (359,)  where  the  Arians  again 
prevailed.  He  died  in  366  a.d.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Damasus  I. 

See  Bakonius,  "Annates:"  Larroque,  "Dissertatio  de  Liberio 
Romano,"  1670. 

Lib'er-tas,  [Fr.  Libert^,  le'b^R'ti',]  the  goddess  of 
liberty  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Romans.     She  was 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as//  G,  h,  K^gttttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LIBERTE 


1546 


LICINIANUS 


represented  as  a  matron,  holding  in  one  hand  a  broken 
sceptre  and  in  the  other  a  pike  surmounted  by  a  cap, 
(pileus.) 

Libert^.     See  Lihertas. 

Iiibertino.     See  Liberi. 

Libes,  lib,  (Antoine,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Beziers  in  1752.  For  many  years  he  taught  the  physi- 
cal sciences  in  the  College  Charlemagne,  Paris.  He 
discovered  that  pressure  is  one  of  the  elements  of  the 
intensity  of  electric  tension  developed  by  contact,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Physical  and 
the  Moral  World,"  (1815.)     Died  in  1832. 

Li-beth'ri-dei,  [Gr.  A«5»7%'(5ef,]  a  name  of  the  Muses, 
which  they  derived  from  Mount  Libethrius,  or  from  a 
well  called  Libethra,  in  Thrace.     (See  Mus^.) 

Lib-i-ti'na,  [Fr.  Libitine,  leTje'tin',]  a  Roman  god- 
dess, supposed  to  preside  over  funerals.  All  things 
needful  for  funerals  were  kept  for  sale  in  her  temple. 
The  business  of  an  undertaker  was  also  called  libitina. 

Libitine.     See  Libitina. 

Li'bon  or  Li'bo,  [Gr.  Aj'fiwv,]  a  Greek  architect,  a 
native  of  Elis,  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  built  near 
Pisa  or  Olympia,  in  the  Doric  style,  the  magnificent 
temple  of  CJiympian  Jove,  245  feet  long  by  100  wide.  In 
the  vicinity  of  this  the  Olympic  games  were  celebrated, 
and  the  master-pieces  of  art  were  accumulated  for  many 
ages.  It  contained  a  celebrated  statue  of  Jupiter  by 
Phidias. 

See  QuATREM&RE  DE  QuiNC\',  "Jupiter  Olympieii." 

Libri,  dai,  dS-e  lee'bKee,  (Girolamo,)  a  Venetian 
painter  and  illuminator,  born  at  Verona  in  1472,  was  one 
of  the  most  skilful  artists  of  his  time.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  and  "  The  Expulsion 
of  Adam  and  Eve  from  Eden."  He  painted  many  books 
for  the  Church,  and  excelled  in  miniature.    Died  in  1555. 

His  son  Francesco  was  a  promising  painter,  who 
died  young. 

IjiDri-Carnicci,lee'bRee  kJr-root'chee,  (Guillaume 
Brutus  Icilius  Timol^on,)  Cou.nt,  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Florence  in  1803.  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Pisa  in  1823,  and  emigrated  to 
France  in  1830.  Having  been  naturalized  as  a  French 
citizen,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1833,  and 
was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the  libraries  of 
France.  On  a  false  charge  of  purloining  books  of  great 
value  from  the  public  libraries,  he  was  condemned  in 
1850  to  imprisonment  for  ten  years ;  but  he  had  pre- 
viously escaped  to  London.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"History  of  Mathematical  Sciences  in  Italy,"  (4  vols., 
1838-41,)  which  is  highly  commended.     Died  in  1869. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographle  Geiierale." 

Liburnio,  le-booR'ne-o,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  gram- 
marian, born  at  Venice  in  1474,  became  a  canon  of  San 
Marco,  in  that  city.     Died  in  1557. 

Liceti,  le-cha'tee,  or  Liceto,  le-cha'to,  (Fortunio,) 
an  Italian  physician  and  professor,  famous  in  his  time 
as  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rapallo,  near 
Ginoa,  in  1577.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Padua  in  1609,  and  professor  of  medicine  in  1645.  ^^ 
published  a  treatise  on  the  nature  of  monsters,  (1616,) 
and  other  works,  the  majority  of  which  are  now  justly 
neglected.  He  had  more  erudition  than  judgment. 
Died  in  1657. 

See  Uavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Lichnowsky,  von,  fon  IjK-nov'skee,  (Eduard  Ma- 
ria,) Prince,  a  German  historian,  born  in  1789.  He 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,"  (4  vols,, 
l8'56-44,)  which  is  commended.     Died  in  1845. 

Lichno'wsky,  von,  (Feli.x,)  Prince,  a  Prussian 
general,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1814.  He 
fought  for  Don  Carlos  in  Spain  about  1839.  In  German 
politics  he  was  a  conservative  or  absolutist.  He  was 
killed  by  a  mob  at  Frankfort  in  1848. 

See  KosTLiN',  "Auerswald  und  Lichnowsky,"  1853. 

liichtenau,  von,  fon  liK'teh-now',  (Wilhelmine 
Enke,)  Countess,  bom  at  Potsdam  in  1754,  was  the 
daughter  of  a  poor  musician.  She  became  the  mistress 
of  the  crown -prince  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William. 
After  his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1786,  she  was  a 


powerful  and  influential   person  until  the  death  of  the 
king.     Died  in  1820. 

See  her  "  Autobiograjihic  Memoirs,"  iSoS. 

Lichtenberg,  liK'ten-bSRc',  (Georg  Christoph,)  a 
German  savant  and  witty  author,  born  near  Darmstadt 
in  July,  1742.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  made  great 
progress  in  nearly  all  deijartments  of  knowledge.  In 
1770  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  and  exact 
sciences  at  Gottingen.  He  visited  England,  where  he 
associated  with  the  most  eminent  literati.  He  wrote 
excellent  scientific  articles  for  two  periodicals  of  Gottin- 
gen,— "The  Magazine  of  Science  and  Literature,"  (1780- 
85,)  and  "The  Almanac,"  (1778-99,)  which  owed  their 
great  success  chiefly  to  him.  The  charms  of  his  style 
contributed  greatly  to  the  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  the 
sciences.  He  particularly  excelled  in  what  in  English 
is  called  "humour."  Among  his  most  popular  works  is 
his  "Ample  Commentary  on  the  Engravings  of  Hogarth," 
which  he  began  to  publish  in  1794,  and  left  unfinished 
at  his  death.  It  abounds  in  wit  and  satire,  and  displays 
much  insight  into  human  nature.  His  autobiography  is 
said  to  be  the  most  candid  and  piquant  ever  written. 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1799.  "  He  is,"  says  Stapfer,  "gay 
without  the  least  trace  of  levity,  versatile  and  profound 
without  ceasing  to  be  solid  and  clear."  ("  Biographic 
Universelle.") 

See  his  Autobiography,  in  an  edition  of  his  works,  Gottingen,  9 
vols.,  1800-1806;  ■■  EJogiiim  Lichtenbergii,"  by  Kastner,  1799; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Heinrich  Doping,  "  Lebens- 
umrisse  von  Karl  August  von  Sachsen-Weirnar,  J.  D.  Falk,  Lich- 
tenberg," etc.,  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1804; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1836. 

Lichtenstein,  liK'ten-stln',  (Martin  Heinrich 
Kari.,)  a  German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1780.  About  1802  he  became  physician 
to  the  Governor  of  Cape  Colony,  Africa,  and  in  1810 
published  "Travels  in  Southern  Africa,"  (2  vols.,)  a 
valuable  contribution  to  natural  history.  In  1813  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Zoological  Museum  of 
Berlin,  which,  under  his  care,  became  one  of  the  largest 
in  Europe.  His  favourite  pursuit  was  ornithology.  Died 
in  1857. 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  (Supple- 
ment.) 

Lichtenstein,  von,  fon  liK'ten-stTn',  (Johann  Jo- 
seph,) Prince,  a  general,  the  head  of  one  of  the  most 
noble  families  of  Austria,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1760. 
After  serving  in  several  campaigns  against  the  French, 
he  negotiated  the  conditions  of  peace  at  Presburg  in 
1805.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Essling  and  Wagram 
in  1S09.     Died  in  1836. 

Lichtenstein,  von,  (Joseph  Wenzel,)  Prince,  an 
Austrian  general,  born  in  Vienna  in  1696.  His  services 
in  the  campaigns  of  1733  and  1734  were  rewarded  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  Having  been  made  field- 
marshal,  he  commanded  the  army  in  Italy  in  1746,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Piacenza.  He  was  afterwards  em- 
ployed with  success  in  diplomatic  affairs.     Died  in  1772, 

Lichtenstein,  von,  (Ulric,)  one  of  the  early  Ger- 
man poets,  was  born  about  1199.  His  principal  poem, 
entitled  "  Frauendienst,"  though  possessing  no  great 
literary  merit,  is  a  valuable  monument  of  the  manners 
of  that  time.     Died  about  1275. 

Lichtwer,  liKt'uer,  (Magnus  Gottfried,)  one  ot 
the  most  popular  German  fabulists,  was  born  at  Wurzen 
in  1719.  He  published  the  first  edition  of  his  "  Fables" 
in  1748,  and  in  the  next  year  removed  from  Wittenberg 
to  Halberstadt,  where  he  obtained  a  canonicate.  In 
1758  he  produced  another  edition  of  the  "  Fables."  The 
jerman  critics  rank  him  as  a  fabulist  with  Lessing  and 
Gellert,  whom  perhaps  he  surpasses  in  piquancy  of 
style  and  talent  for  narration.     Died  in  1783. 

See  EiciiH.oi.z,  "Lichtwer's  Leben,"  1784;  Hirsching,  "  His- 
torischliterarisches  Handbuch." 

Li-cinl-a,  (or  IT-sin'e-a,)  the  name  of  the  wife  ui  C. 
Gracchus.  Also  the  name  of  the  wife  )f  Maecenas,  said 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  her  conjugal  tenderness. 

Li-cin-i-a'nu8  Gra'ni-us,  a  Roman  historian,  who 
lived  probably  in  the  first  century  B.C.  In  1853  Mr. 
Pertz,  of  Berlin,  discovered  a  portion  of  his  "  Annals" 


a,  e,  T, 6,  u,  y,  long; i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  far,  fill,  iix;  niSt;  ndt;  good;  mooui 


LICINIO 


1547 


LIEBIG 


among  some  ISyriac  manuscripts  brought  from  the  desert 
of  Nitria  in  1847. 

Licinio,  le-chee'ne-o,  (Bernardino,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Pordenone,  was  one  of  the  best 
pupils  of  Pordenone,  who  was  his  relative.  He  painted 
portraits  and  Madonnas.     He  was  living  in  1540. 

Liciuio,  (Giovanni  Antonio.)    See  Pordenone. 

Licinio,  (Giulio,)  called  IL  Romano,  (il  ro-mi'no,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  about  1500,  was  a  nephew  of 
Pordenone.     Died  at  Augsburg  in  1561. 

Li-cin'i-us,  (or  le-sin'e-us,)  (Flavius  Valerius,) 
(called  by  some  writers  Pub'lius  Fla'vius  Gale'rius 
Valeria'nus  Licinia'nus,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in 
Dacia  about  263  a.d.,  was  originally  a  peasant.  He  rose 
to  the  rank  of  general  in  the  army,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  Galerius,  who  in  307  made  him  a  partner  in  the 
empire,  with  the  title  of  Augustus.  In  313  he  married 
Constantia,  sister  of  Constantine  the  Great,  and,  having 
defeated  Maximin,  became  master  of  all  the  Eastern 
provinces.  A  war  soon  ensued  between  him  and  Con- 
stantine, which  ended  in  the  complete  defeat  of  Licinius 
at  Chalcedon,  near  Byzantium,  in  323.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  the  victor  in  324  A.D.  He  was  noto- 
rious for  cruelty  and  other  vices. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Li-cin'J-us  CSl'vus,  (Caius,)  an  eminent  Roman 
orator  and  poet,  son  of  C.  Licinius  Macer,  was  born  in 
82  B.C.  Cicero  thought  his  style  was  too  laboured,  but 
admitted  that  he  had  wit,  judgment,  and  much  learning. 
His  style  was  eulogized  by  Quintilian  as  grave,  chaste, 
and  sometimes  vehement.  As  a  poet  he  was  usually 
ranked  with  Catullus,  and  was  very  popular.  His  works 
are  all  lost  except  fragments  of  his  poems,  which  con- 
sisted of  elegies  and  epigrams  or  lampoons.  He  died 
about  the  age  of  thirty-five. 

See  Weichert,  "  De  C.  Licinio  Calvo  Oiatore  et  Poeta,"  1825; 
Pliny,  "  Natural  History,"  vii.  and  xxxiv. 

Licinius  Macer.     See  Macer. 

Li-cin'i-us  Sto'lo,  or,  more  fully,  Ca'ius  Licln'ius 
CaPvus  Sto'lo,  a  Roman  legislator,  of  plebeian  family, 
who  effected  important  changes  in  the  constitution  of 
Rome.  In  375  B.C.,  he  and  his  friend  L.  Sextius  La- 
terantis  were  chosen  tribunes  of  the  people,  and  pro- 
posed the  enactment  of  these  laws:  ist.  That  in  future 
one  of  the  two  consuls  chosen  annually  should  be  a  jjle- 
beian,  and  that  no  more  military  tribunes  should  be 
appointed  ;  2d.  That  no  citizen  should  ])ossess  more 
than  five  hundred  acres  (jugera)  of  public  land.  These 
innovations  were  strenuously  resisted  by  the  patricians 
for  about  ten  years,  a  period  of  anarchy,  during  which 
Camillus  was  chosen  dictator.  The  land  in  question 
had  been  acquired  by  conquest,  and  had  been  a])pro- 
priated  by  the  patricians.  The  laws  above  named  were 
passed  in  366,  and  Licinius  was  elected  consul  in  364 
B.C.  He  was  re-elected  in  360,  and  was  fined  ten  thou- 
sand as.ses  in  356  for  the  violation  of  his  own  agrarian 
law. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History-  of  Rome  :"  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome," 
books  vi.  and  vii. ;  "  Nouvelle  liiographie  Generale." 

Li-ci'nus  Por'cius,  (por'she-us,)  a  Roman  poet,  men- 
tioned by  Aulus  Gellius,  lived  about  120  B.C. 

Lick,  (James,)  an  American  business-man,  born  at 
Fredericksburg,  Lebanon  county,  Pennsylvania,  August 
25,  1796.  He  went  to  South  America  in  1821,  and  to 
California  in  1S47,  where  he  acquired  great  wealth.  He 
died  at  San  Francisco,  California,  October  i,  1876,  leaving 
by  will  some  five  million  dollars  to  various  public  uses, 
chiefly  educational.     He  founded  the  Lick  Observatory. 

Licquet,  le'ki',  (Francois  Isidore,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Caudebec,  Normandy,  in  1787.  He  wrote, 
besides  several  dramas,  a  "  History  of  Normandy,"  (2 
vols.,  1835,)  a  work  of  merit,  which  was  completed  by 
Depping.     Died  in  1835. 

Lid'dfl,  (Duncan,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Aberdeen  in  1561.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  llelmstedt  in  1591,. after  which 
he  was  first  physician  at  the  court  of  Brunswick.  Having 
returned  to  Scotland  in  1607,  he  founded  a  professorship 
at  Aberdeen.  He  was  author  of  several  medical  works, 
one  of  which  is  called  "  Ars  Medica,"  (1607.)  Died  :n 
1613. 


Lid'd^U,  (Rev.  Henry  George,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  in  1812.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  prince-consort 
about  1845,  and  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1855. 
He  produced,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Scott,  an  excel- 
lent "Greek-English  Lexicon,"  (1843,)  on  ^^^  basis  of 
the  Greek-German  Lexicon  of  Passow,  and  wrote  a 
"History  of  Rome." 

Liddell,  (Sir  John,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  physician,  born 
at  Dumblane  in  1 794.  He  served  as  surgeon  in  the  royal 
navy,  was  knighted  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  the  medical  department  of  the  royal  navy 
about  1854.  In  1859  he  became  honorary  physician  to 
Queen  Victoria.    Died  May  28,  1868. 

Lid'don,  (Henry  Parry,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1829.  He  graduated  in  1850  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  In  1864  he  became  a  prebendary  of 
Salisbury,  and  in  1S70  canon  residentiary  of  Saint  Paul's. 
He  was  ]jr(ifessor  of  e.xcgesis  at  Oxford,  1870-82,  and 
was  noted  as  one  of  the  first  pulpit  orators  of  his  time. 
He  published  "  The  Divinity  of  our  Lord,"  (Bampton 
1-ectures  for  1866,)  "Some  Elements  of  Religion,"  and 
other  works.     Died  September  9,  1890. 

Lideu,  le-dnn',  (Johan  Henkik,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
iiorn  at  Linkoping  in  1741,  was  struck  in  the  prime  of 
life  with  palsy,  which  deprived  him  of  the  use  of  his 
limbs.  He  composed  a  "  History  of  Swedish  Poets," 
and  several  literary  memoirs.     Died  in  1793. 

See  Wallin,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  iifver  J.  H.  Lid^n,"  1797. 

Lidner,  lid'ner,  (Bengt,)  a  Swedish  poet,  born  ni 
1759,  resided  some  time  in  Paris.  His  chief  work,  "The 
Countess  Spastara,"  is  commended  for  eloquence  and 
pathos.     Died  in  1793. 

Lidskialf,  (Hlidskial£)    See  Odin. 

Lie,  lee,  (Jonas  Laurits  Idemil,)  a  Norwegian  poet 
and  novelist,  born  at  Ecker,  near  Drammen,  November 
6,  1843,  ^^^  ^""  '^^  3  lawyer.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Christiania,  and  was  admitted  to  practise  law 
at  the  higher  courts.  He  published  "  Digte,"  ("  Poems," 
1S64,)  various  novels,  "  Den  Fremsyne,"  ("  The  Clairvoy- 
ant," 1S70,)  "The  Pilot  and  his  Wife,"  (1S74,)  "  Rutland," 
(1881,)  "  Life's  Slaves,"  (18S3,)  "  Grabows  Kat,"  (a  play, 
1880,)  and  other  very  successful  works. 

Liebault,  le'i'bo',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer  on  medi- 
cine and  agriculture,  born  at  Dijon  about  153"^;  died  in 

1596. 

Liebe,  lee'beli,  (Christian  Sigismond,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  in  Misnia  in  1687.  He  was  a  large 
contributor  to  the  "Acta  Eruditorum."     Died  in  1736. 

Lieber,  lee'ber,  (Francis,)  a  German  historical  and 
political  writer  of  distinguished  ability,  born  at  Berlin, 
March  18,  1800.  He  served  against  the  French  in  1815, 
and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Ligny  and  Waterloo. 
Being  imprisoned  some  years  after  for  his  liberal  opinions, 
he  was  released  through  the  influence  of  Nicbuhr,  and 
sought  refuge  in  1827  in  the  United  States.  In  1829  he 
edited  the  "Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (13  vols.,)  taking 
for  its  basis  Brockhaus's  "  Conversations- Lexikon."  (pub- 
lished at  Leipsic,  in  Germany.)  Among  his  numerous 
and  popular  works  are  "  Reminiscences  of  Niebuhr  the 
Historian,"  (1835,)  "Manual  of  Political  Ethics,"  (1838,) 
"  Laws  of  Property  :  Essays  on  Property  and  Labour," 
(1842,)  and  "Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government,"  (2 
vols.,  1853;  2d  ed.,  enlarged,  1859  ;  3d  ed.,  1874.)  He 
was  professor  of  history  and  political  economy  in  the 
University  of  South  Carolina  from  1838  to  1856,  and  in 
1857  was  elected  professor  of  history  and  political  science 
in  Columbia  College,  New  York.    Died  October  2,  1872. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Duvckinck,  "  Cyclo- 
paedia of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  North  American  Review 
for  January,  1832. 

Lieber,  (Thomas.)     See  Erastus. 

Lieberkuhn,  lee'ber-koon',  (Joh.\nn  Nathaniel,)  a 
German  anatomist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1711,  practised  in 
that  city.  He  was  very  skilful  in  the  art  of  injections. 
He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don.    Died  in  1756. 

Liebhard.     See  Camerarius,  (Joachim.) 

Liebig,  von,  fon  lee'bic,  (Justus,)  Baron,  one  of  the 
greatest  chemists  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at 
Darmstadt,  in  Germany,  in  May,  1803.     He  entered  the 


cas/J;  9asj;  ghard;  g^k.sj;G,u,'«.,  guttural;  N, nasal;  R,trtlli-d;  sass;  ihasintkis.     (g^^'See  E.xplanations,  p.  23.) 


LIEBKNECKT 


1548 


LiGNE 


University  of  Bonn  in  1819,  and  in  1822  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  Humboldt  and  Gay- 
Lussac.  Favoured  by  the  influence  of  Humboldt,  Liebig 
obtained  in  1824  the  appointment  of  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  Giessen.  He  founded  there 
the  first  model  laboratory  of  Germany,  which  became 
very  celebrated  and  made  that  university  the  central 
point  of  attraction  to  the  chemical  students  of  Europe. 
Although  his  services  have  been  great  in  every  dejiart- 
ment  of  chemical  science,  he  owes  his  celebrity  chiefly 
to  his  discoveries  in  organic  chemistry.  He  produced 
in  1840  an  important  work  entitled  "Organic  Chem- 
istry in  its  Application  to  Agriculture  and  Physiology," 
("Die  organische  Chemie  in  ihrer  Anwendung  auf 
Agricultur  und  Physiologic.")  Mis  principal  worlvji, 
besides  the  above,  are  "Animal  Chemistry,  or  Chemistry 
in  its  Application  to  Physiology  and  Pathology,"  (1842,) 
"Researches  on  the  Chemistiy  of  Food,"  (1849,)  and 
a  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (5  vols.,  1S37-51,)  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Wohler.  He  received  the  title 
of  baron  in  1845,  ^"<^  accepted  the  chair  of  chemistry 
at  Munich  in  1852.  In  1848  Liebig  and  Professor 
Kopp  began  to  issue  an  annual  report  on  the  progress 
of  chemistry.  His  "  Familiar  Letters  on  Chemistry" 
(1844)  are  much  admired,  and  are  well  adapted  to 
render  the  science  popular.  His  principal  works  above 
named  have  been  translated  into  English  and  French. 
Died  April  18,  1873. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale ;"  "  Quarterly  Review"  for 
June,  1842;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1841,  April,  1842, 
and  October,  1842. 

Liebkiiecht,  leep'kn^Kt',  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man antiquary,  born  at  Wassungen  about  1680,  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Discourse  on  the  Great  Deluge," 
("  Discursus  de  Diluvio  Maximo,"  1704.)    Died  in  1749. 

Liemaecker  or  Liemaker,  lee'ma'ker,  (Nikolaas,) 
a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  surnamed  RoosE,  was  born  at 
Ghent  in  1575,  and  was  a  friend  of  Rubens.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  mostly  of  large  dimensions,  are  "The 
Last  Judgment,"  and  "The  Transfiguration."  Died  in 
1646. 

Iiieoo-  (or  Lieou-)  Pang,  le-oo'  pSng,  a  Chinese 
emperor,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Han,  was  born 
about  250  B.C.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  202. 
One  of  his  generals,  named  King-Poo,  having  revolted, 
a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  Lieoo-Pang  gained  the  vic- 
tory, but  received  a  wound  of  which  he  died  in  195  B.C. 

Lieutaud,  le-uh'to',  (Joseph,)  a  skilful  French  physi- 
cian, born  in  1703,  at  Ai.x,  in  Provence.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  m  1752.  Li  1774  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  Louis  XVL  He  published, 
besides  other  professional  works,  "  Synopsis  of  Univer- 
sal Medical  Practice,"  ("  Synopsis  Universal  Praxeos 
Medica:,"  1765,)  a  work  of  much  merit.     Died  in  1780. 

See  Co.vuoRCET,  "filoge  de  Lieutaud,"  1780;  Laspervolle, 
"  E!loge  historique  de  M.  Lieutaud,"  1781  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^ii^rale." 

Lieven,  de,  deh  lee'ven,  (Dorothea,)  Princess,  a 
Russian  lady,  of  German  extraction,  celebrated  for  her 
diplomatic  talents  and  political  intrigues,  was  born  in 
1784.  Her  maiden  name  was  Benkendorf.  She  went 
to  London  about  1812  with  her  husband,  who  was 
Russian  ambassador  at  that  court,  and  acquired  much 
influence  by  her  conversational  powers.  After  1838 
ehe  resided  in  Paris,  where  her  salon  was  frequented  by 
many  diplomatists,  statesmen,  etc.  She  was  often  called 
the  "  Egeria  of  Guizot."     Died  in  1857. 

Lieveu,  von,  fon  lee'ven,  (Johan  Henrik,)  Count, 
a  Swedish  general,  born  in  Livonia  in  1670.  After  the 
defeat  of  Charles  at  Pultowa,  in  1709,  Lieven  was  sent 
by  the  council  of  regency  on  a  mission  to  that  king, 
then  in  Turkey.     Died  in  1733. 

Iiievens,  lee'vens,  (Jan,)  |Lat.  Johan'nes  Livine'- 
lUS,]  a  Flemish  Hellenist,  born  about  1546.  He  was 
canon  of  Antwerp.  He  edited  and  translated  some  works 
of  Chrysostom  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa.     Died  in  1599. 

See  Paquot,  "M^moires." 

Lievens  or  Livens,  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  in  1607.  About  1630  he 
went  to  England,  and  painted  i)ortraits  of  the  royal 
family.     He  afterwards  worked  at  Antwerp,  chiefly  on 


historical  subjects,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation.  As  an 
engraver  he  is  said  to  rival  Rembrandt.     Died  in  1663. 

SeeDESCAMPs,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flaniaiids,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ligario,  le-gi're-o,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  the  Valtellina  in  1686;  died  in  1752. 

Li-ga'rI-us,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  officer,  who  fought 
for  Pompey  in  the  civil  war,  and  after  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia  renewed  the  war  against  Caesar  in  Africa.  He  was 
pardoned  by  the  victor,  but  was  forbidden  to  enter  Italy. 
When  his  friends  made  efforts  to  restore  him  to  citizen- 
ship, they  were  opposed  by  Tubero,  who  became  his 
public  accuser  in  a  trial  before  the  dictator,  in  45  or  46 
B.C.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  pronounced  his  admirable 
oration  "Pro  Ligario."  Plutarch  informs  us  that  Caesar 
had  resolved  to  condemn  Ligarius,  but  that  in  the 
course  of  the  speech  his  colour  often  changed,  his  frame 
trembled,  and  a  verdict  of  acquittal  was  obtained  from 
him  through  the  transcendent  powers  of  the  orator. 

See  Plutakch,  "Life  of  Cicero." 

Liger,  le'zhi',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  on  agricul- 
ture, born  at  Auxerre  in  1658.  He  published  several 
mediocre  but  useful  works.     Died  in  1 717. 

Light'foot,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  eminent  as  a 
biblical  commentator,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1602. 
He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar.  In  1630  he  be- 
came rector  of  Ashley,  and  in  1642  obtained  the  living  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  in  London.  He  was  identified  with 
the  Presbyterians  during  the  civil  war.  About  1644 
he  was  chosen  master  of  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge, 
and  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Great  Munden.  In 
Rabbinical  literature  he  had  few,  if  any,  superiors.  He 
published  "  Horae  Ilebraicae  et  Talmudicae,"  (1658,)  and 
many  Latin  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  one  of 
which  is  called  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists," 
(1644-50.)     Died  in  1675. 

See  "  Brevis  Descriptio  Vita  J.  Lightfooti,"  1699;  NiciRON, 
"  Mdmoires." 

Lightfoot,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  Gloucestershire  in  1735.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  became  chaplain  to  the  Duchess  of  Portland, 
and  obtained  the  livings  of  Sheldon  and  Gotham.  In 
company  with  Pennant,  he  explored  the  Hebrides  about 
1772,  and  published  in  1777  a  valuable  "Flora  of  Scot- 
land," ("  Flora  Scotica,"  2  vols.,)  with  excellent  figures. 
His  herbal  was  purchased  by  the  king,  and  was  after- 
wards consulted  with  profit  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Pennant,  "  Life  of  J.  Lightfoot." 

Lightfoot,  (Joseph  Barber,)  D.D.,  an  English  bishop 
and  eminent  liiblical  scholar  and  critic,  was  bora  in 
Liverpool  in  1828.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1851,  took  orders  in  1854,  became  a  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1867,  canon  of  Saint 
Paul's  in  1S71,  Margaret  professor  at  Cambridge  in  1875, 
Bishop  of  Durham  in  1879.  He  has  published  revised 
texts,  with  notes,  etc.,  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  (1S69;  4th  edition,  1874,)  Philippians,  (1S70; 
3d  edition,  1873,)  »"<^  Colossians,  (1875,)  and  of  Saint 
Clement's  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  (1869,)  an  essay 
on  New  Testament  Revision,  (1S71,)  and  other  works  of 
high  value.  As  a  scholar  Dr.  Lightfoot  (to  use  the  lan- 
guage of  the  late  Dr.  Ezra  Abbot)  "has  no  superior 
among  the  Germans  in  breadth  of  learning  or  thoi"OUgh- 
ness  of  research."    [Died  December  21,  1S89.] 

Lignac,  de,  deh  lin'ytk',  (Joseph  Adrien  le  Large,) 
a  French  abbe  and  author,  born  of  a  noble  family  of 
Poitiers.  He  wrote  "  Letters  to  an  American  on  Buffon's 
Natural  History,"  (1751-56,  4  vols.,)  and  a  few  othci 
works.     Died  in  1762. 

Ligne,  de,  deh  \l\\  (Karl  Joseph,)  Prince,  an  able 
Austrian  general  and  witty  author,  born  at  Brussels, 
May  12,  1735,  was  the  son  of  a  field-marshal  in  the  Aus- 
trian service.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  was  made  a  general-major  in 
1765.  In  1782  he  was  ambassador  to  Russia,  and  was 
highly  favoured  by  Catherine  II.  He  conmianded  a 
corps  at  the  capture  of  Belgrade  in  1789.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1808.  His  generous  and 
chivalrous  character  rendered  him  the  idol  of  his  army. 
He  died  at  Vienna  in  1814,  leaving  interesting  memoirs. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  0,  olisiun:;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  nioon; 


LIGNJVILLE 


1549 


LILLY 


letters,  and  other  works,  (in  French,)  which  contain 
curious  anecdotes  and  piquant  passages.  Madame  de 
Stael  published  in  1809  a  volume  of  "Letters  and 
'riiniights  of  Prince  de  Ligne."  He  had  published 
"Military,  Literary,  and  Sentimental  Miscellanies," 
("Melanges  militaires,  litteraires  et  sentimentaires," 
34  vols.,  1795-1811.)  According  to  Madame  de  Stael, 
"  he  was  the  only  foreigner  that  became  a  model  in  the 
French  style,  instead  of  an  imitator." 

See  "  Letters  and  Reflections  of  the  Austrian  Field-Marshal 
Prince  de  Ligne ;"  Soubiran,  "  Biographie  du  Prince  C.  de  Ligne," 
1807;  Saintf.  IjKUVE,  "Caiiseries  du  Lundi;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Gen^rale." 

Ligniville,  de,  deh  IJn'ye'vil',  (Reni6  Charles  Eli- 
sabeth,) CoMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  1757;  died 
in  1813. 

Lignon,  l^n'yiN^,  (firiENNE  Fr^d6ric,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1779  ;  died  in  1S33. 

Lig'on,?  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller,  who  emi- 
grated to  Barbadoes  in  1647  and  returned  to  England 
in  1650.  He  published  "A  True  and  Exact  History 
of  Barbadoes,"  a  work  of  some  value.  He  was  the 
overseer  of  the  female  slave  Yarico,  wliose  story  is 
narrated  in  his  book  and  furnished  Steele  a  subject  for 
the  eleventh  number  of  the  "  Spectator." 

Ligonier,  lig'o-neer',  (John,)  EIarl,  an  eminent  gene- 
ral of  the  British  army,  was  born  of  Protestant  parents  in 
France  in  1678,  and  emigrated  to  England  in  early  youth. 
He  fought  at  Blenheim,(T704,)  Ramillies.and  Malplaquet, 
(1709,)  and  commanded  the  infantry  at  Fontenoy,  (1745.) 
In  1746  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  Flanders.  He  displayed  great  skill  and 
courage  at  Laffeldt  in  1747,  but  was  there  made  prisoner. 
He  became  an  English  peer,  with  the  title  of  Earl  Ligo- 
nier,  in  1766,  and  was  a  field-marshal  and  privy  coun- 
cillor at  his  death,  in  1770. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Ligorio,  le-go're-o,  (Pirro,)  an  Italian  architect, 
painter,  and  antiquary,  born  in  Naples  about  1530,  or, 
as  others  say,  1498.  lie  was  appointed  by  Paul  IV. 
architect  of  the  Vatican  and  of  Saint  Peter's  Church, 
which  Michael  Angelo  had  previously  superintended. 
The  latter  left  Rome  about  that  tiine.  Ligorio,  having 
deviated  from  the  plan  of  Michael  Angelo,  which  he  was 
ordered  to  follow,  was  discharged  in  1568.  He  then  was 
employed  as  architect  by  Alphonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara. 
He  died  about  1580,  leaving  in  manuscript  voluminous 
writings  on  antiquities  and  architecture,  which  are 
praised  by  Muratori. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

Ligozzi,  le-got'see,  (Jacopo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Verona  in  1543,  was  a  pupil 
of  Paul  Veronese.  He  painted  both  in  fresco  and  in  oil. 
Having  acquired  a  high  reputation  at  Verona,  he  re- 
moved to  Florence,  where  he  received  the  title  of  painter 
to  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Four  Crowned  Saints,"  at  Imola,  and  the 
"  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Dorothea,"  at  Pescia.  His  smaller 
pictures  are  highly  finished.     Died  in  1627. 

See  LANzr,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dlziona- 
rio  ;"  Lomazzo,  "Idea  del  Tenipio  della  Piltura." 

Liguori,  da,  da  le-goo-o'ree,  (Alfonso  Maria,)  an 
Italian  priest  and  casuist,  born  at  or  near  Naples  in 
1696.  He  founded  in  1732  an  order  of  missionaries  to 
convert  or  instruct  the  lower  classes,  and  named  it  the 
Order  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer.  In  1762  he  was 
ajipointed  Bishop  of  Saint  Agatha  dei  Goti.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  approved  works,  a  "  Moral  Theology," 
('755>)  which  was  often  reprinted.     Died  in  1787. 

See  GiATTiNi,  "Vita  del  beate  A.  M.  Liguori,"  1815  ;  G.  Ki.oth, 
"  Leben  des  heiligen  A.  M.  Liguori,"  1835  :  "  Life  of  Saint  A.  M.  de 
Liguori,"  London,  2  vols.,  184S. 

Lil'burne,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  enthusiast  and 
radical  agitator,  was  born  in  Durham  in  1618.  He  was 
accused  before  the  Star  Chamber  in  1637  of  distributing 
setlitious  pamphlets,  and  was  condeinned  to  be  whipped 
and  imprisoned.  He  was  released  in  1640,  and  obtained 
;^20oo  damages.  In  1644  he  fought  bravely  against  the 
king  at  Marston  Moor,  where  he  led  a  regiment.     He 


afterwards  attacked  Prynne,  Lenthal,  and  others  in  pam- 
phlets, for  which  he  was  committed  to  Newgate.  He 
was  one  of  the  master-spirits  of  the  "  Levellers,"  and 
a  stubborn  o])ponent  of  Cromwell's  authority.  In  1651 
he  was  tried  for  treason  and  acquitted  by  the  jury.  He 
became  a  Quaker  a  few  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1657.  Hume  designates  him  as  "the  most 
turbulent,  but  the  most  upright  and  courageous,  of  human 
kind."     ("  History  of  England.") 

See,  also.  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  "Monk's 
Contemporaries,"  by  GuizoT,  London,  1S65. 

Lilieblad,  lee'le-eh-blSd',  or  Liljenblad,  leel'yen- 
hl3d',  (GusTAVUS,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and  linguist,  born 
at  Strengnes  in  165 1.  He  was  for  many  years  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Upsal,  and  wrote,  in  Latin,  a 
"History  of  Egypt,"  (1698.)     Died  in  1710. 

See  Gezeliu.s,  "  BiograpMskt-Lexicon." 

Lilienberg  or  Liljenberg,  lee'le-§n-b§Rg',  (Erik 
GusTAF,)  Baron  of,  a  Swedish  general,  who  served  in 
the  French  army  at  Laufeld  and  in  other  battles.  Died 
in  1770. 

Lilienkrantz  or  Liljenkrantz,  lee'le-en-kRjnts',  or 
Liliecrantz,  lee'Ie-eh-kR^nts',  (Johann,)  Count  de,  a 
Swedish  financier,  born  about  1730.  On  the  accession 
of  Gustavus  HI.  (1771)  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
finances,  which  he  managed  with  success  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1815. 

See  Geyrr,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suide." 

Lilienthal,  lee'le-gn-tSl',  (Michael,)  a  learned  Prus- 
sian philologist,  born  at  Liebstadt  in  1686.  He  was 
for  many  years  professor  of  theology  in  the  University 
of  Konigsberg.  He  was  the  principal  editor  of  the 
"Erlautertes  Preussen,"  (1724-28,)  a  highly-esteemed 
literary  journal,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Historical  and  Literary  Selections,"  ("Selecta  His- 
torica  et  Literaria,"  1711-19.)     Died  in  1750. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch;"  Meusel, 
"Lexikon." 

Lilieuthal,  (Theodor  Christian,)  a  Gerinan  theo- 
logian and  writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  a* 
Konigsberg  in  1717;  died  in  1782. 

Lilio,  lee'le-o,  or  Lilli,  161'lee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ancona  in  1555.  He  worked  at  Rome 
for  Sixtus  v.,  and  at  Ancona.     Died  in  1610. 

Lilio,  (LuiGi,)  [Lat.  Aloy'sius  Lil'ius,]  an  Italian 
physician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Calabria.  He  is 
remembered  only  for  the  part  he  had  in  the  refonn  of 
the  calendar  under  the  auspices  of  Gregory  XIII.  He 
applied  the  epacts  to  the  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  and, 
by  adding  one  day  to  the  end  of  each  cycle,  he  arrived 
at  an  approximative  equation  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
years.  He  died  in  1576,  just  after  he  had  finished  the 
work.     His  method  was  approved  by  the  pope  in  \^%i 

Lilio  Giraldi.     See  Giraldi. 

Lilius.    See  Lilio. 

Liljenblad.    See  Lilieblad. 

Liljenkrantz.     See  Lilie.nkrantz. 

Lil'lo,  (George,)  a  successful  English  dramatist,  born 
in  1693,  became  a  jeweller  of  London.  He  holds  a  high 
rank  among  English  dramatists  of  the  second  order. 
"The  Fatal  Curiosity,"  a  tragedy,  (1737,)  is  called  his 
master-piece,  and  is  constructed  with  remarkable  skill. 
His  "George  Barnwell"  and  "Arden  of  Feversham" 
were  also  popular.     Died  in  1739. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica ;"  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the 
British  Poets." 

Lil'ly,  written  also  Lily  and  Lyly,  (John,)  an  English 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Kent  about  1553.  He  wrote 
several  dramas,  which  were  performed  with  success,  and 
flourished  as  a  wit  at  the  court  of  Elizabeth.  About  1580 
he  published  "  Euphues  :  the  Anatomy  of  Wit,"  which 
became  very  popular  with  that  pedantic  generation  for 
its  affected  and  dainty  style,  called  "Euphuism."  "It 
deserves  notice,"  says  Hallam,  "on  account  of  the  influ- 
ence it  is  recorded  to  have  had  upon  the  court  of  Eliza- 
beth and  over  the  public  taste."  He  was  the  author  of 
a  famous  satirical  pamphlet  against  Martin  Mar-Prelate, 
called  "  Pap  with  a  Hatchet."    Died  about  x6oo. 

See  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  John  Lyly,  with  some  Accouni 
of  his  Life,"  etc.,  by  T.  W.  Fairholt,  185S;  "Quarterly  Review' 
for  April,  :86i. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  g,  h,  Yi,g7(ttin-al;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     { Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LILLY 


1550 


LINCOLN 


Lilly,  (William,)  a  famous  English  astrologer,  bom 
in  Leicestershire  in  1602.  In  early  life  he  was  employed 
as  a  servant  in  London.  He  began  to  study  astrology 
in  1632,  and  acquired  fame  as  a  fortune-teller.  He  pro- 
fited by  the  credulity  of  Charles  L,  who  consulted  him 
on  political  affairs  in  the  civil  war.  Some  agents  of  the 
popular  party  also  patronized  him.  lie  i)ublished  an- 
nually an  almanac,  called  "  Merlinus  Anglicus  Junior," 
(1644-81.)  His  character  is  represented  by  Butler  under 
the  name  of  "  Sidrophel."     Died  in  1681. 

See  "Life  and  Times  of"  W.  Lilly,"  by  himself,  1715;  "Retro 
spective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1S20. 

Lil'y  or  Lil'ly,  (William,)  a  distinguished  English 
schoolmaster,  born  at  Odiham,  in  Hampshire,  about 
1468.  After  studying  languages  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
he  settled  in  London  in  1509,  and  opened  a  grammar- 
school.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  taught 
Greek  in  London.  In  1512  he  became  master  of  Saint 
Paul's  School,  just  founded  by  Colet.  He  published, 
besides  Latin  poems,  "  Brevissima  Institutio  seu  Ratio 
Granimatices  cognoscends,"  (1513,)  commonly  called 
"Lily's  Grammar,"  which  was  for  a  long  time  more 
used  in  English  schools  than  any  other  Latin  grammar. 
He  was  intimate  with  Erasmus.     Died  in  1523. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  Poetry." 

Iiima,  de,  di  lee'md,  (Luiz  Caetano,)  a  Portuguese 
historian  and  grammarian,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1671  ;  died 
in  1757. 

Limayrac,  le'mi'rtk',  (Paulin,)  a  French  htterateicr, 
born  at  Caussade  in  1817.  He  became  chief  editor  of 
*La  Patrie,"  a  daily  paper  of  Paris,  in  1858.    Died  1868. 

Limborch,  van,  vtn  lim'boRK',  written  also  Iiim- 
borg,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the  Hague 
in  1680,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Adrian  van  cler 
Werf,  of  whose  works  he  made  fine  copies.   Died  in  1758. 

Limborch,  van,  (Philipi'US,)  a  learned  Dutch  theolo- 
gian, was  born  in  Amsterdam  the  19th  of  June,  1633.  He 
was  one  of  the  principal  sujiportcrs  of  the  Remonstrant 
or  Arminian  doctrines,  which  were  condemned  by  the 
Synod  of  Doit  in  1619.  After  preaching  fir  ton  years 
at  Gouda,  he  became  in  1668  pastor  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Amsterdam.  He  corresponded  for  a  long 
time  with  John  Locke.  His  most  important  work  is 
"'I'heologia  Christiana,"  (16S6,)  "a  system  of  divinity 
and  morals  which,"  says  Hallam,  "is  the  fullest  delinea- 
tion of  the  Arminian  scheme."  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Inquisition,"  (1692.)     Died  in  1712. 

See  Leclerc,  "Oratio  funebris  in  Obitum  P.  Limborcli,"  1712; 
Van  der  Hoeven,  "  Dissertationes  II.  de  J.  Clerico  et  P.  a  Lim- 
borch," etc.,  1843;  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires." 

Limbourg,  van,  vtn  lim'bSoRc',  (Jan  PuiLiprus,) 
a  Flemish  medical  writer,  born  near  .Spa  in  1726.  He 
practised  at  Spa  with  great  success.     Died  in  181 1. 

Limburg-Brouvrer,  van,  vtn  lim'biiRH  bRow'er, 
(PlETEK,)  a  Dutch  jJoet,  born  in  1795  ;  died  in  1847. 

Limerick,  Eari.  of.     See  Donga.n. 

Limnaeus  or  Limnaus,  lini-na'us,  (Johanx,)  a  Ger- 
man publicist,  born  at  Jena  in  1592.  lie  was  preceptor 
of  the  Margrave  of  Anspach  and  of  Albert  of  Branden- 
burg, who  afterwards  employed  him  as  chancellor  and 
privy  councillor.  He  wrote  an  esteemed  work  on  "The 
Public  Law  of  the  Romano-Germanic  Empire,"  (3  vols., 
1645-57,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  French  Monarchy  and 
Constitution,"  ("  Notitia  Regni  Gallias,"  2  vols.,  1655.) 
Died  in  1663. 

See  Strebel.,  "  Leben  und  Scliriften  des  Staatslehrers  J.  Lim- 
naus," 1741. 

Limousin  or  Limosin.  See  Leonard  de  Limousin. 

Liu.     See  Linus. 

Liu,  van,  vtn  l!n,  (Hans,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  genre, 
who  flourished  about  1650,  was  surnamed  Si'iLHElD.  He 
excelled  in  battle-pieces,  and  painted  horses  better  than 
any  other  Dutch  artist  e.xcept  Wouwerman. 

Linacre,  lin'a-ker,  written  also  Linacer  (or  Liua- 
ker)  and  Lynacer,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English 
physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Canterbury  about  1460. 
He  learned  Greek  of  Demetrius  Chalcondylas  at  Flor- 
ence, and  studied  medicine  at  Rome.  After  his  return  to 
England  he  lectured  on  medicine,  and  taught  Greek  at 
Oxford  for  several  years,  until  Henry  VIII.  emjjloyed 


him  as  physician  and  preceptor  of  Prince  Arthur.  He 
was  the  jirincipal  founder  and  first  president  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians,  London.  At  an  advanced  age  he  took 
orders,  and  obtained  the  rectory  of  Mersham,  a  prebend 
in  York  Cathedral,  and  other  benefices.  He  was  an  ex- 
cellent classical  scholar,  and  a  correspondent  of  Erasmus. 
He  translated  several  of  Galen's  works  into  Latin,  and 
wrote  "On  the  Correct  Structure  of  Latin  Prose,"  ("  De 
Emendata  Structura  Latini  .Sermonis,")  which  Hallam 
calls  "the  first-fruits  of  English  erudition,"  and  which 
must,  he  says,  have  been  highly  valuable.  Died  in  1524. 
See  "Lives  of  British  Physicians,"  London,  1857;  IiAVle,  "  His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Linant,  le'nSN',  (Michel,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Louviers  in  1708.  Voltaire,  who  was  his  friend,  spoke 
highly  of  his  taste  and  imagination.  Linant  lived  in 
Paris,  and  was  employed  as  tutor  to  the  sons  of  M. 
Helicrt.  He  wrote  odes,  epistles,  and  other  short  poems, 
which  gained  several  prizes  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
also  ]3ublished  an  edition  of  Voltaire's  works,  (1738.) 
Died  in  1749. 

Liuck,  link,  (Johann  Hetnrich,)  a  German  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1674;  died  in  1734. 

Lincke,  link'eh,  (Joseph,)  a  Prussian  violoncellist  and 
composer,  born  June  8,  1783,  at  Trachenberg,  in  Silesia. 
Died  March  26,  1S37. 

Lincoln,  link'on,  (Aeraha.m,)  the  sixteenth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Hardin  county,  Ken- 
tucky, (iij  a  part  now  included  in  Larue  county,)  the 
I2th  of  February,  1809.  His  ancestors  were  of  English 
descent ;  they  are  supposed  to  have  originally  emigrated 
to  America  with  the  followers  of  William  Penn.  A 
little  before  the  middle  of  last  century  they  resided  in 
Berks  county,  Pennsylvania,  whence  a  part  of  the  family 
vemoved  in  1750  to  Virginia.  About  the  year  1780 
Abraham  Lincoln,  the  grandfather  of  the  subject  of  this 
notice,  settled  in  Kentucky,  where  not  long  after  he  was 
stealthily  shot  by  an  Indian.  He  left  three  sotis,  of  whom 
the  eldest,  Thomas  Lincoln,  married  and  settled  in  Har- 
din county  in  1806.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  his  second 
child  and  oldest  son.  His  childhood  was  passed  in  the 
midst  of  hardship  and  toil.  When  he  was  scarcely 
eight  years  old,  his  parents  removed  to  Spencer  county, 
Indiana.  It  was  a  difficult  and  wearisome  journey,  and 
he  ever  afterwards  retained  a  vivid  recollection  of  the 
trials  and  hardships  which  he  passed  through  on  that 
occasion.  Before  he  was  eleven  years  of  age,  he  ex- 
perienced a  bitter  and  irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of 
his  mother.  Under  her  guidance  he  had  learned  to 
read  and  prize  the  Bible,  and  to  her  influence,  there  is 
reason  to  believe,  he  was  largely  indebted  for  the  develop- 
ment of  those  rare  and  noble  moral  traits  which  have 
conferred  upon  him,  if  not  a  brilliant,  at  least  a  spotless 
and  ever-enduring  fame.  Among  the  books  which,  as  a 
boy,  he  particularly  valued,  was  a  Life  of  Washington  ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
character,  which  united  to  plain  and  practical  common 
sense  moral  qualities  of  the  highest  order,  may  have 
contributed  not  a  little  to  that  combination  of  straight- 
forward simplicity  and  moral  grandeur  for  which  Lin- 
coln was  afterwards  distinguished.  The  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress"  was  also  one  of  his  favourite  books  ;  and  its 
influence  upon  his  style  may  perhaps  be  traced  not 
merely  in  his  preference  for  forcible  and  racy  Saxon 
words,  but  also  in  that  homely  directness  of  expression 
by  which  all  his  speeches  and  writings  are  characterized. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Black  Hawk  war,  in  the 
early  part  of  1832,  Lincoln  promptly  volunteered  for  the 
defence  of  the  frontier  settlements,  and  was  chosen  captain 
of  his  company.  The  war,  however,  having  been  speedily 
brought  to  a  close  before  he  had  an  opportunity  of  meet- 
ing the  enemy,  he  returned  to  the  pursuits  of  peace.  In 
the  political  contest  which  took  place  between  General 
Jackson  and  Henry  Clay  in  the  autumn  of  1832,  he  zeal- 
ously espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter,  for  whom  he 
had  felt  an  enthusiastic  admiration  froin  his  boyhood. 
He  himself  was  a  candidate  for  the  State  legislature; 
and,  although  unsuccessful,  he  received  in  his  own  pre- 
cinct two  hundred  and  seventy-seven  votes  out  of  the 
two  hundred  and  eighty-four  which  had  been  cast;  that 


<,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k.,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s'nort:  a,  e,  i,  o,  oosnre:  far,  fill,  fdt;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LINCOLN 


1551 


LINCOLN 


is,  thirty-nine  fortieths  of  the  whole  number.  In  1834 
he  was  again  a  candidate  for  the  legislature,  and  was 
elected.  He  was  re-elected  in  1836.  In  March,  1837, 
he  gave  proof  of  the  uprightness  as  well  as  independ- 
ence of  his  character  by  recording  his  protest  on  the 
journal  of  the  House  against  some  extreme  ])ro-slavcry 
resolutions  which  had  been  passed  by  the  Democratic 
majority  in  the  legislature.  At  that  time  the  expression 
of  any  anti-slavery  sentiments  was  extremely  unpopular 
in  every  jiart  of  the  United  States,  but  perhaps  nowhere 
north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  was  it  more  so  than  in 
Illinois.  Lincoln  and  another  member  who  shared  his 
views  declared  in  their  protest  that  "they  believe  that 
the  institution  of  slavery  is  founded  in  injustice  and  bad 
policy."  Having  been  again  elected  to  the  legislature 
in  1838,  he  became  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
Whigs  in  the  House,  and  received  the  entire  vote  of  his 
party  for  the  speakership,  which  he  lost  by  only  one  vote. 
He  had  been  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  and  in  April, 
1837,  he  established  himself  permanently  in  Springfield 
and  commenced  the  practice  of  law  in  earnest,  with  John 
T.  Stuart  as  his  jiartner.  In  November,  1842,  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Mary  Todd,  daughter  of  Robert  S.  Todd,  Esq., 
of  Lexington,  Kentucky.  Having  accepted  the  nomi- 
nation for  Congress  in  1846,  he  was  triumphantly  elected, 
being  the  only  Whig  out  of  the  seven  representatives 
sent  by  Illinois  to  the  national  legislature.  During  the 
time  that  he  was  in  Congress  he  uniformly  gave  his  voice 
in  favour  of  freedom,  voting  against  laying  on  the  table 
without  consideration  the  petitions  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  always  supporting  the  doctrines  of  the 
Wilmot  Proviso  whenever  any  measure  of  this  kind 
was  before  the  House.  The  passage  of  the  Nebraska 
bill  in  May,  1854,  involving  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  gave  everywhere  fresh  interest  and  ar- 
dour to  the  contest  between  freedom  and  slavery.  A 
United  States  Senator  was  to  be  chosen  by  the  Illinois 
legislature.  Lincoln  had  been  nominated  by  the  Repub- 
lican party  as  their  candidate  for  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States.  Judge  Douglas,  confessedly  the  ablest  politician 
and  best  debater  among  all  the  Democratic  leaders  of 
the  West,  was  the  opjjosing  candidate.  Lincoln  chal- 
lenged his  opponent  to  a  series  of  public  discussions 
respecting  the  views  and  policy  of  the  two  contending 
parties.  That  political  contest  first  fully  revealed  the 
versatility,  depth,  and  comprehensiveness  of  Mr.  Lin- 
coln's mind.  Even  some  of  those  belonging  to  the  party 
of  Judge  Douglas  admitted  that  the  latter  was  inferior 
to  his  opponent  both  in  learning  and  in  argument, — in 
short,  in  every  essential  qualification  for  the  discussion 
of  those  great  principles  which  were  then  agitating  the 
country  froin  one  extremity  to  the  other.  As  the  elec- 
tion of  United  States  Senator  depended  on  the  legisla- 
ture, and  not  on  a  direct  vote  by  the  peojjle,  Douglas 
was  the  successful  competitor;  but  the  extraordinary 
ability  displayed  bv  Lincoln  in  the  discussion  above  re- 
ferred to,  led  to  his  nomination  by  the  Republican  party 
in  i860  as  their  candidate  for  the  Presidency.  No  Presi- 
dential contest  involving  issues  so  momentous  had  ever 
before  occurred.  .  The  general  election  then  about  to 
take  place  was  to  decide  the  all-im]5ortant  question 
whether  the  blighting  influence  of  slavery  should  be 
allowed  to  extend  to  every  part  of  the  republic,  or  should 
thenceforward  be  restricted  to  the  territory  which  it 
already  possessed.  Never  before  had  any  Presidential 
election  so  strongly  excited  all  the  hopes  and  fears  of  the 
patriot,  all  the  affections  and  passions  of  the  people. 
It  took  place  on  the  6th  of  Noveinber,  i860.  Lincoln 
received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the  free  States  except 
New  Jersey,  which  was  divided,  giving  him  four  votes 
and  Douglas  three.  Breckinridge  received  the  votes 
of  all  the  slave  States  except  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Missouri ;  the  three  fonner  voted  for  Bell, 
the  last  for  Douglas.  Lincoln  received  in  all  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  electoral  votes,  Breckinridge  seventy-two, 
Bell  thirty-nine,  and  Douglas  twelve. 

No  sooner  was  the  result  of  the  election  known  than 
several  of  the  Southern  States  made  preparations  for 
formally  separating  themselves  from  the  Federal  Union. 
South  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  the  secession  movement. 
The  legislature  convened  in  November  and  passed  an 


act  calling  a  State  convention  to  meet  on  the  17th  of 
December.  It  met  accordingly,  and  on  the  20th  an 
ordinance  was  j^assed  unanimously  dissolving  the  union 
till  then  "subsisting  between  South  Carolina  and  other 
.States  under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  America." 
Ft  was  evident,  from  the  language  of  the  leading  men  in 
that  convention,  that  the  ordinance  of  secession  was  not 
the  result  of  any  sudden  excitement  or  hastily-adopted 
resolution,  but  was  the  deliberate  fulfilment  of  a  settled 
and  long-cherished  purpose.  "The  secession  of  South 
Carolina,"  said  Mr.  Rhett,  "was  not  the  event  of  a  day." 
It  was  "a  matter  which  had  been  gathering  head  for 
thirty  years."  Mr.  Inglis  said  that  most  of  them  had 
had  it  "under  consideration  for  the  last  twenty  years." 
"  So  far,"  says  Raymond,  "as  South  Carolina  was  con- 
cerned, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  her  action  was  de- 
cided by  men  who  had  been  plotting  disunion  for  thirty 
years,  not  on  account  of  any  wrongs  her  people  had  sus- 
tained at  the  hands  of  the  Federal  government,  but  from 
motives  of  personal  and  sectional  ambition,  and  for  the 
pur]iose  of  establishing  a  government  which  should  be 
permanently  and  completely  in  the  interest  of  slavery." 
("  Lincoln's  Administration,"  chap,  i.)  Following  the 
example  of  South  Carolina,  Mississippi  passed  an  ordi- 
nance of  secession  on  the  9th  of  January,  1861,*  Florida 
January  10,  Alabama  Januaiy  II,  Georgia  January  18, 
Louisiana  January  26,  Texas  February  i.  Thus,  more 
than  a  month  previous  to  the  expiration  of  Mr.  Buch- 
anan's term  of  office,  seven  States  had  done  all  that 
lay  in  their  power  to  dissolve  their  connection  with  the 
Union.  Delegates  appointed  by  the  conventions  of  the 
seceding  .States  met  at  Montgomery  early  in  February, 
and  formed  a  new  Confederacy,  of  which  Jefferson  Davis, 
of  Mississippi,  was  elected  Piesident,  and  Alexander  H. 
Stephens,  of  Georgia,  Vice-President.  Not  long  after, 
Mr.  Stephens,  in  an  elaborate  speech  addressed  to  the 
people  of  Savannah,  attempted  to  vindicate  the  course 
of  the  seceders  in  setting  up  a  new  government  in  oppo- 
sition to  that  of  the  United  States.  On  that  occasion  he 
said  that  the  prevailing  ideas  of  Jefferson  and  "most 
of  the  leading  statesmen  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of 
the  old  Constitution  were  that  the  enslavement  of  the 
African  was  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature,  that  it  was 
wrong  in  principle,  socially,  morally,  politically.  .  .  . 
These  ideas,  however,  were  fundamentally  wrong.  They 
rested  upon  the  assumption  of  the  equality  of  races. 
This  was  an  error.  .  .  .  Our  new  government  was 
founded  upon  exactly  the  opposite  ideas  ;  its  foundations 
are  laid,  its  corner-stone  rests,  upon  the  great  truth  that 
the  negro  is  not  equal  to  the  white  man ;  that  slavery, 
subordmation  to  the  superior  race,  is  his  natural  and 
normal  condition.  This,  our  new  government,  is  the 
first  in  the  history  of  the  world  based  upon  this  great 
physical,  philosophical,  and  moral  truth." 

While  President  Buchanan  took  the  ground  that  the 
Federal  government  had  no  right  to  coerce  the  seceding 
States,  several  members  of  the  cabinet  had  not  neglected 
the  opportunities  which  their  official  position  afforded,  of 
promoting  the  interests  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 
The  secretary  of  war,  John  B.  F"loyd,  took  care  to  make 
such  a  disposition  of  the  Federal  arms  and  ammunition 
that  in  case  the  new  administration  should  be  disposed 
to  adopt  a  more  decisive  policy  it  would  find  its  energies 
paralyzed  by  a  total  want  of  the  material  o*"  war,  while 
the  revolted  States,  in  case  of  necessity,  m'ght  readily 
possess  themselves  of  that  very  material  whii.h  had  been 
thus  adroitly  placed  beyond  'the  reach  of  fie  Federal 
government.  An  official  report  from  the  ordnance 
department,  dated  January  16,  1861,  shows  that  during 
the  year  i860  115,000  muskets  had  l>een  removed  from 
Northern  armories  and  sent  to  Southern  arsenals  by  a 
single  order  of  the  secretary  of  war  ;  and  it  was  claimed 
for  him,  by  one  of  his  eulogists  in  Virginia,  that,  while 
a  member  of  President  Buchanan's  cabinet,  Mr.  Floyd 
"thwarted,  resisted,  and  forbade"  certain  measures 
which,  if  carried  into  effect,  would  have  rendered  the 
formation  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  impossible. 

It  was  under  such  circumstances  as  these — with  seven 

•  Tliese  dates,  and  most  of  the  others  in  this  article  connected 
with  the  events  of  the  rebellion,  are  taken  from  Greeley's  "American 
Conflict." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,pittnral;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LINCOLN 


1552 


LINCOLN 


of  the  most  influential  of  the  United  States  in  open  re- 
volt, and  several  others  on  the  eve  of  secession, — with 
timorous  indecision  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and 
secret  treason  lurking  not  only  among  the  members 
of  the  cabinet,  but  also  among  the  officers  of  the  army 
and  navy — that  Abraham  Lincoln,  on  the  nth  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1 861,  left  his  Western  home  and  proceeded  to 
Washington  to  take  into  his  hands  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. Ilis  brief  parting  words  to  his  friends  at  Spring- 
field reveal  at  one  view  the  simple,  manly  earnestness 
of  his  character,  and  that  humble  but  unfaltering  trust 
in  God  by  which  he  was  sustained  through  all  the  perils 
and  darkness  which  surrounded  his  administration.  "  My 
Friends  :  No  one  not  in  my  position  can  appreciate  the 
sadness  I  feel  at  this  parting.  To  this  people  I  owe  all 
that  I  am.  Here  I  have  lived  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century  ;  here  my  children  were  born,  and  here  one  of 
them  lies  buried.  I  know  not  how  soon  I  shall  see  you 
again.  A  duty  devolves  uj^on  me  which  is,  perhaps, 
greater  than  that  which  has  devolved  upon  any  other 
man  since  the  days  of  Washington.  He  never  would 
have  succeeded  except  for  the  aid  of  divine  Providence, 
upon  which  he  at  all  times  relied.  I  feel  that  I  cannot 
succeed  without  the  same  divine  aid  which  sustained 
him;  and  on  the  same  almighty  Being  I  place  my  reli- 
ance for  support ;  and  I  hope  you,  my  friends,  will  all 
pray  that  I  may  receive  that  divine  assistance,  without 
which  I  cannot  succeed,  but  with  which  success  is 
certain.     Again  I  bid  you  all  an  affectionate  farewell." 

A  rumour  was  current  some  time  before  the  President- 
elect left  his  home  in  Illinois,  that  he  would  never  reach 
the  national  capital  alive.  An  attempt  was  made  (Feb- 
ruary II)  on  the  Toledo  and  Western  Railroad  to  throw 
from  the  track  the  train  on  which  he  was  ;  and  after- 
wards, just  as  he  was  leaving  Cincinnati,  a  hand-grenade 
was  found  to  have  been  secreted  on  the  car.  A  plot  had 
likewise  been  formed  to  take  his  life  during  his  passage 
through  Baltimore  on  his  way  to  Washington.  Mr. 
Seward  and  General  Scott,  having  been  informed  of 
that  fact,  arranged  it  that  Lincoln  should  pass  through 
Baltimore  several  hours  earlier  than  had  at  first  been 
proposed.  The  plans  of  the  conspirators  were  thus 
friistrated,  and  the  President-elect  reached  Washington 
in  safety  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  of  February. 

Mr.  Lincoln  was  inaugurated  as  President  of  the 
United  States  on  the  4th  of  March,  1861.  In  his  ad- 
dress on  that  occasion  he  mildly  but  distinctly  and 
firmly  announced  his  purpose  to  "take  care  that  the 
laws  of  the  Union  be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the  States." 
"I  trust,"  he  adds,  "this  will  not  be  regarded  as  a 
menace.  .  .  .  There  need  be  no  bloodshed  or  violence  ; 
and  there  shall  be  none,  unless  it  be  forced  upon  the 
national  authority.  The  power  confided  to  me  will  be 
used  to  hold,  occupy,  and  possess  the  property  and  jilaces 
belonging  to  the  government,  and  to  collect  the  duties 
and  imposts ;  but,  beyond  what  may  be  necessary  for 
these  objects,  there  will  be  no  invasion,  no  using  of  force 
against  or  among  the  people,  anywhere.  .  .  .  The  mails, 
unless  repelled,  will  continue  to  be  furnished  in  all  parts 
of  the  Union.  So  far  as  possible,  the  people  everywhere 
shall  have  that  sense  of  perfect  security  which  is  most 
favourable  to  calm  thought  and  reflection.  .  .  .  Physically 
speaking,  we  cannot  separate.  We  cannot  remove  our 
resjjective  sections  from  each  other,  nor  build  an  impass- 
able wall  between  them.  A  husband  and  wife  may  be 
divorced  and  go  out  of  the  presence  and  beyond  the 
reach  of  each  other  ;  but  the  different  parts  of  our  coun- 
try cannot  do  this.  They  cannot  but  remain  face  to  face  ; 
and  intercourse,  either  amicable  or  hostile,  must  continue 
between  them.  Is  it  possible,  then,  to  make  the  inter- 
course more  advantageous  or  more  satisfactory  after 
separation  than  before?  .  .  .  The  Chief  Magistrate 

DERIVES  ALL  HIS  AUTHORITY  FROM  THE  PEOPLE  ;  AND 
THEY  HAVE  CONFERRED  NONE  UPON  HIM  TO  FIX  TERMS 
FOR  THE  SEPARATION  OF  THE  States.  .  .  .  His  DUTY  IS 
TO  ADMINISTER  THE  PRESENT  GOVERNMENT  AS  IT  CAME 
INTO  HIS  HANDS,  AND  TO  TRANSMIT  IT  UNIMPAIRED  BY 
HIM  TO  HIS  SUCCESSOR. 

"  My  countrymen,  one  and  all,  think  calmly  and  well 
up-on  this  whole  subject.  Nothing  valuable  can  be  lost 
by  taking  time.     If  there  be  an  object  to  hurry  any  of 


you  in  hot  haste  to  a  step  which  you  would  never  take 
deliberately,  that  object  will  be  frustrated  by  taking 
time  ;  but  no  good  object  can  be  frustrated  by  it.  .  .  . 

"  In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow-countrymen, 
and  not  in  mine,  is  the  momentous  issue  of  civil  war. 
.  .  .  You  can  have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves 
the  aggressors.  You  have  no  oath  registered  in  heaven 
to  destroy  the  government,  while  I  shall  have  the  most 
solemn  one  to  '  preserve,  protect,  and  defend'  it."  Mr. 
Lincoln  did  not  deny  that  the  laws  of  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment, and  even  the  Constitution  itself,  might  perhaps 
bear  unequally  and  hardly  upon  some  sections  of  the 
country;  but  he  thought  that  all  grievances  of  this  kind 
would  be  far  more  likely  to  be  ])roperly  redressed  through 
a  calm  and  friendly  appeal  to  the  sense  of  justice  in  the 
people  than  by  violence  or  war. 

It  was  enough,  however,  for  the  slave-holding  party 
that  he  denied  not  merely  the  expediency  but  the  right 
of  any  State  or  sectional  combination  of  States  to  se- 
cede. This  was  considered  equivalent  to  a  declaration 
of  war  ;  and  active  preparations  for  the  coming  struggle 
were  at  once  commenced  throughout  the  seceded  States. 
The  moderate,  reasonable,  and  conciliatory  tone  of  the 
Inaugural  had,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  a  most  happy  effect, 
not  only  in  uniting  and  consolidating,  so  to  speak,  the 
public  sentiment  of  the  North,  but  also  in  encouraging 
all  those  in  the  border  States  who,  whatever  may  have 
been  their  views  in  relation  to  slavery,  had  not  yet  cast 
off  all  attachment  to  the  national  flag  and  the  Federal 
Union.  Fort  Sumter,  in  the  harbour  of  Charleston,  was 
occupied  by  a  United  States  garrison,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Major  Anderson.  General  Beauregard,  on  the 
part  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  demanded  its  sur- 
render. To  this  demand,  which  was  made  on  the  nth 
of  April,  Major  Anderson  at  once  replied  that  his  "sense 
of  honour  and  his  obligations  to  his  government  prevented 
his  compliance."  Early  on  the  12th  an  attack  on  the  fort 
was  commenced,  and  kept  up  with  the  utmost  fury  with 
shells  and  red-hot  cannon-balls,  in  consequence  of  which 
Major  Anderson,  after  a  gallant  resistance  of  thirty-three 
hours,  was  at  length  obliged  to  evacuate  the  place,  which 
he  did  on  the  morning  of  the  14th.  The  bombardment 
of  Fort  Sumter  was  the  first  aggressive  act  committed 
on  either  side.  It  produced  a  deep  and  intense  excite- 
ment throughout  the  Northern  States,  breaking  down 
for  a  time  all  party  distinctions,  and  uniting  the  whole 
people  in  an  earnest,  unfaltering  purpose  to  support  the 
government.*  The  President,  justly  regarding  this  un- 
provoked attack  upon  a  United  States  fort  as  the  com- 
mencement of  actual  war,  issued  on  the  next  day  (April 
15)  a  proclamation  directing  both  Houses  of  Congress 
to  meet  in  extra  session  on  the  4th  of  July  following, 
and  calling  out  "the  militia  of  the  several  States  of  the 
Union,  to  the  aggregate  number  of  75,000,"  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supjjorting  the  authority  and  enforcing  the  laws 
of  the  Federal  Union.  It  was  not,  however,  merely  for 
maintaining  the  authority  of  the  government  that  troops 
were  needed,  but  for  the  defence  of  the  national  capital 
itself.  The  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  had 
declared,  more  than  a  month  before,  that  whenever  war 
should  commence  the  North  and  not  the  South  should 
be  the  battlefield  ;  and  the  recent  attack  on  Fort  Sumtei 
was  a  sufficient  proof  that  no  veneration  for  the  national 
flag  nor  any  lurking  scruples  of  any  kind  would  be  likely 
to  prevent  the  carrying  out  of  that  threat  if  it  were  pos- 
sible to  accomplish  it.  All  the  Northern  States  responded 
to  the  demand  of  President  Lincoln  with  the  utmost 
alacrity  and  zeal.  Massachusetts — be  it  said  to  her 
immortal  honour — was  the  first  in  the  field.  The 
next  day  after  the  issue  of  the  proclamation,  her  Si.xth 
regiment  left  Boston  for  the  national  capital.  Two 
more  regiments  set  out  within  forty-eight  hours.  The 
Sixth  regiment  was  attacked  (April  19)  in  Baltimore 
by  a  nu)b  carrying  a  secession  flag,  and  several  of 
the  soldiers  were  killed  or  severely  wounded.  Gov- 
ernor Hicks  having  united  with  Mayor  Brown,  of  Balti- 


*  Tlie  verv  next  day  after  Major  Anderson  liad  evacuated  the  ruins 

of  Fort  Sumter,  a  leading  journal  of  New  York  (the  "  Tribune")  aptW 

and  forcibly  observed,  "  Fort   Sumter  is  lost,  but  freedom  is  saved. 

.   It  is  hard  to  lose  Sumter:  it  is  a  consolation  to  know  that  is 

losing  it  we  liave  gained  a  united  people." 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y, long;  i, k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e.  T.  o.  u, y.  short:  a,  e,  j,  9.  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fAt;  niit;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


LINCOLN 


1553 


LINCOLN 


more,  in  urging,  for  prudential  reasons,  that  no  more 
troops  should  be  brought  through  that  city,  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  those  needed  for  the  defence  of  Washington 
should  in  future  be  sent  thither  by  way  of  Annapolis. 
On  the  19th  of  April  President  Lincoln  issued  a  procla- 
mation blockading  the  ports  of  the  seceded  States.  The 
excitement  caused  by  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter, 
which  tended  so  powerfully  to  unite  public  sentiment  at 
the  North,  appeared  to  have  produced  a  still  greater 
effect  in  the  Southern  States,  where  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  people  was  inflamed  almost  to  frenzy  by  what 
seemed  the  brilliant  success  of  the  Confederates,  in  re- 
ducing so  quickly  a  fortress  which  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  strongest  in  the  United  States,  though  it  was  at 
that  time  feebly  garrisoned  and  supplied  with  provisions 
for  a  few  days  only.  Yielding  to  this  whirlwind  of  ex- 
citement, the  legislature  of  Virginia,  on  the  17th  of 
April,  (three  days  after  the  taking  of  Fort  Sumter,) 
passed  an  ordinance  of  secession  by  a  vote  of  88  to  55. 
Not  long  after,  the  State  Convention  of  North  Carolina, 
elected  during  the  excitement  which  followed  the  cap- 
ture of  Sumter,  passed  unanimously  an  ordinance  of 
secession. 

The  most  active  preparations  were  made  on  both  sides 
for  the  contest  which  was  now  inevitable.  In  the  seceding 
States  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  trooj^s  had  been 
raised,  of  which  the  larger  portion  had  been  marched 
towards  the  Northern  border.  The  greatness  of  the  force 
arrayed  against  the  government  made  an  additional  sup- 
ply of  troops  necessary  for  the  security  of  the  national 
capital.  A  second  proclamation  was  issued  on  the  3d 
of  May,  calling  into  the  United  States  service  a  large 
number  of  volunteers,  and  greatly  increasing  the  force 
both  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  difficulties  surrounding 
the  new  administration  were  rendered  still  more  for- 
midable by  the  jjrecipitate  action  of  the  French  and 
English  governments,  which,  as  soon  as  information  was 
received  that  hostilities  had  actually  begun  in  America, 
determined,  in  concert,  to  acknowledge  the  Southern 
Confederacy  as  a  belligerent  power. 

In  accordance  with  the  proclamation  of  the  15th  of 
April,  Congress  met  in  extra  session,  July  4,  1861.  In 
the  message  which  on  that  occasion  the  President  ad- 
dressed to  the  Senators  and  representatives,  after  re- 
viewing the  condition  of  the  country  and  explaining 
the  course  of  the  government,  he  proceeds  to  say, — 

"It  is  thus  seen  that  the  assault  upon  and  reduction 
of  Fort  Sumter  was  in  no  sense  a  matter  of  self-defence 
upon  the  part  of  the  assailants.  They  well  knew  that 
the  garrison  in  the  fort  could  by  no  possibility  commit 
aggression  upon  them.  They  knew,  they  were  expressly 
notified,  that  the  giving  of  bread  to  the  few  brave  and 
hungry  men  of  the  garrison  was  all  which  would  on  that 
occasion  be  attempted,  unless  themselves,  by  resisting 
so  much,  should  provoke  more.  They  knew  that  this 
government  desired  to  keep  the  garrison  in  the  fort,  not 
to  assail  them,  but  to  maintain  visible  possession,  and 
thus  to  preserve  the  Union  from  actual  and  immediate 
dissolution,  trusting,  as  before  stated,  to  time,  discussion, 
and  the  ballot-box  for  final  adjustment ;  and  they  assailed 
and  reduced  the  fort  for  precisely  the  reverse  object,  to 
drive  out  the  visible  authority  of  the  Federal  Union  and 
thus  force  it  to  immediate  dissolution.  ...  In  this  act, 
discarding  all  else,  they  have  forced  upon  the  country 
the  distinct  issue,  'immediate  dissolution  or  blood.' 

"And  this  issue  embraces  more  than  the  fate  of 
these  United  States.  It  presents  to  the  whole  family  of 
man  the  question  whether  a  constitutional  republic  or 
democracy — a  government  of  the  people  by  the  same 
people — can  or  cannot  maintain  its  territorial  integrity 
against  its  own  domestic  foes.  .  .  . 

"It  was  with  the  deepest  regret  that  the  Executive 
found  the  duty  of  employing  the  war-power  in  defence 
of  the  government  forced  upon  him.  He  could  but  per- 
form this  duty  or  surrender  the  existence  of  the  govern- 
ment. .  .  .  As  a  private  citizen,  the  Executive  could  not 
have  consented  that  these  institutions  should  perish  ; 
much  less  could  he,  in  betrayal  of  so  vast  and  so  sacred 
a  trust  as  these  free  people  have  confided  to  him.  He 
felt  that  he  had  no  right  to  shrink,  or  even  to  count  the 
chances  of  his  own  life,  in  what  might  follow." 


There  were  a  few  members  in  both  Houses  who  in- 
sisted that  any  employment  of  the  war-power  against 
the  rebels  was  unconstitutional ;  but  the  general  senti- 
ment of  Congress  fully  sustained  the  President  in  the 
course  he  had  taken.  On  July  15,  Mr.  McClernand,  a 
Democratic  member  from  Illinois,  offered  a  resolution 
]5ledging  the  House  to  vote  any  amount  of  money  and 
any  number  of  men  necessary  to  suppress  the  rebellion 
and  restore  the  authority  of  the  government.  This  reso- 
lution was  adopted  with  but  five  dissenting  votes.  The 
spirited  action  of  Congress  seemed  to  inspire  the  people 
everywhere  throughout  the  North  with  renewed  hope 
and  confidence.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  June,  a  large 
rebel  force  had  occupied  a  strong  position  on  Bull  Run 
Creek,  near  Manassas.  It  was  resolved  on  the  part  of 
the  Federal  government  to  attack  and  drive  back  this 
force  ;  and  the  belief  was  generally  entertained  that  a 
single  decided  success  on  the  part  of  the  Union  armies 
would  put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  Federal  forces,  com- 
manded by  General  McDowell,  made  an  attack  upon 
the  position  of  the  rebels  on  the  21st  of  July  ;  but  they 
met  with  a  disastrous  defeat,  and  were  driven  back  in 
great  disorder  towards  Washington.  Then,  for  the  first 
time,  the  Northern  States  realized  the  greatness  of  the 
conflict  which  was  before  them.  They  then  understood 
how  great  were  the  advantages  possessed  by  the  Con- 
federates in  consequence  of  their  having  been  for  years 
preparing  for  war.  No  inconsiderable  portion  of  their 
troops  had  been  thoroughly  disciplined  under  excellent 
officers,  while  many  of  the  Northern  troops  had  scarcely 
any  discipline  at  all.  Add  to  this  that  a  large  proportion 
of  the  best  and  most  experienced  officers  in  the  regular 
army  of  the  United  States  had  resigned  their  commis- 
sions and  joined  the  Confederate  cause.  All  the  prin- 
cipal Confederate  officers,  with  scarcely  an  exception, 
had  been  educated  at  the  national  military  academy  at 
West  Point,  and  had  afterwards  held  important  positions 
in  the  regular  army.  It  may  suffice  to  cite  the  names  ot 
Generals  Joseph  E.  and  Albert  Sydney  Johnston,  Jeffer- 
!>on  Uavis,  the  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy, 
and  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  regarded,  at  the  time  of  the 
breaking  out  of  the  rebellion,  as  by  far  the  ablest  officer 
in  the  United  States  army.  General  Scott  having  become 
through  age  and  infirmities  unequal  to  the  duties  of  the 
field.  But  the  disaster  of  Bull  Run  damped  the  hopes 
of  the  Unionists  for  a  moment  only.  After  the  first 
surprise  was  over,  its  effect  was  to  rouse  the  courage  and 
determination  of  the  people  to  the  highest  point.  Vol- 
unteers flocked  by  thousands  to  join  the  national  army. 
From  the  time  of  Lincoln's  inauguration,  through  all  the 
anxious  months  of  the  spring  and  summer  of  1861,  Gene- 
ral Scott  had  retained  his  position  as  commander  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States,  and  had  given  the  govern- 
ment the  benefit  of  his  wisdom  and  experience  and  the 
support  of  his  great  influence  and  unwavering  loyalty. 
At  length,  on  the  31st  of  October,  in  consequence  of  ill 
health  and  advancing  age,  he  applied  to  the  secretary  of 
war  to  be  released  from  active  service.  He  was  accord- 
ingly placed  upon  the  list  of  retired  officers  of  the  army 
of  the  United  States,  but  retaining  his  full  pay,  according 
to  a  special  provision  passed  by  Congress  in  the  summer 
session.  At  the  recommendation  of  General  Scott,  Gene- 
ral McClellan,  who  had  obtained  marked  distinction  by 
his  success  during  the  summer  of  1861  in  clearing 
Western  Virginia  of  rebel  troops,  was  called  to  Wash- 
ington and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Federal 
forces.  He  at  once  commenced  a  thorough  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  army,  and  before  many  months  brought  it 
into  a  state  of  high  and  efficient  discipline.  Unfortunatelv, 
his  sympathies  were  rather  with  the  moderate  slak'e- 
holders  than  with  the  staunch  supporters  of  the  govern- 
ment, and,  when  it  became  necessary  to  sacrifice  slavery 
in  order  to  save  the  republic,  he  could  not  nerve  himself 
to  the  task.  In  a  war  of  a  different  kind,  requiring  simply 
vigilance,  skill,  and  the  spirit  of  conciliation,  he  might 
have  earned  enduring  laurels.  But  the  Confederates  had 
gone  too  far  to  be  won  back  by  conciliation.  As  nothing 
could  satisfy  them  short  of  breaking  up  the  Union,  so 
nothing  was  left  for  the  Federal  government,  if  it  would 
escape  general  disruption  and  utter  ruin,  but  to  suppress 
the  rebellion  by  force  of  arms. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi,^tttitral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  5  as  s.-  th  as  in  this. 

98 


iSi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


LINCOLN 


1554 


LINCOLN 


'I'he  forces  under  the  immediate  command  ot  (jencral 
McClellan  having  remained  inactive  during  most  of  the 
winter  of  1S61-62,  President  Lincoln  issued  on  the  27th 
of  January,  1862,  an  order  that  on  the  22d  of  P"ebruary  a 
general  movement  against  the  insurgents  should  be  made 
by  the  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States.  Gene- 
ral McClellan  at  first  objected,  in  a  letter  to  the  secre- 
tary of  war,  to  the  plan  of  operations  which  he  had  been 
directed  to  pursue.  At  length,  on  the  13th  of  March,  a 
council  of  war  was  held,  in  which  it  was  decided  to  ad- 
vance against  Richmond  from  Fortress  Monroe.  The 
army  was  conveyed  by  water  down  the  Potomac  and 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  James  River.  Soon 
after  tlie  commencement  of  the  campaign.  General 
McClellan  began  to  complain  that  he  was  not  jiroperly 
supported  by  the  Executive  at  Washington.  Advancing 
into  the  heart  of  a  hostile  country,  where  his  enemies, 
by  means  of  the  railroads,  which  they  could  completely 
control,  might  concentrate,  at  a  very  short  notice,  all  their 
available  force  at  or  near  the  point  of  threatened  attack, 
it  behooved  him,  undoubtedly,  to  use  great  circumspec- 
tion. Unhappily,  the  extreme  precautions  which  he  took 
iigainst  a  doubtful  or  contingent  peril  had  no  other  effect 
than  to  surround  him  with  real  dangers  of  the  most  for- 
midable character.  His  movements  were  so  slow  and 
hesitating  that  the  Confederates  not  only  had  time  to 
assemble  their  forces  from  distant  points  and  erect  ex- 
tensive fortifications,  but  even  to  raise  and  discipline 
large  reinforcements  of  fresh  troops.  Had  he  early  in 
April  advanced  with  his  army  against  Yorktown,  he 
would  have  met  with  a  feeble  resistance,  and  might,  in 
all  probability,  have  pushed  on  at  once  to  the  conquest 
of  Richmond.  But  he  decided  to  approach  it  by  a  regular 
siege  ;  extensive  earthworks  were  thrown  up,  and  the 
campaign  was  protracted  into  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer.  His  troops,  compelled  to  encamp  among  the 
swamps  adjacent  to  theChickahominy,  perished  in  great 
numbers  from  disease.  At  last,  after  a  series  of  sangui- 
nary but  indecisive  conflicts,  the  army  was  forced  to 
retreat.  It  was  moved  in  August  from  James  River  by 
water  to  Aqui'a  Creek,  on  the  Potomac,  some  forty  miles 
below  Washington.  About  the  same  time  the  army  of 
General  Pope,  after  several  daj's  of  hard  fighting  near 
Manassas  and  Centreville,  was  driven  back  with  heavy 
loss  upon  Washington.  There  was  perhaps  no  darker 
period  during  the  whole  war  than  that  in  which  the 
summer  of  1862  came  to  a  close  ;  and  we  may  safely  say 
that  no  one  throughout  the  land  felt  more  deeply  the 
reverses  and  sufferings  of  his  countrymen  than  President 
Lincoln. 

'On  the  2d  of  September,  General  McClellan  took 
ton.mand  of  all  the  available  troops  for  the  defence  of 
the  capital.  General  Lee,  having  crossed  the  Potomac 
(September  5)  into  Maryland,  was  attacked  and  de- 
feated by  McClellan  at  Antietam  on  the  l6th  and  17th 
of  September.  He  retreated  into  Virginia,  and  was  not 
pursued.  Early  in  October  McClellan  was  ordered  to 
cross  the  Potomac  and  give  battle  to  the  enemy  or  drive 
him  southward  ;  but,  having  delayed  his  advance  for 
about  three  weeks,  he  was  removed  from  his  command, 
by  an  order  dated  November  5.  General  Burnside,  who 
succeeded  McClellan  as  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  attacked  (December  13)  General  Lee,  then 
occupying  a  strongly-fortified  position  at  Fredericks- 
burg, and  was  repulsed  with  severe  loss.  Again,  on  the 
2d  and  3d  of  May,  1S63,  General  Hooker  was  worsted 
by  General  Lee  in  a  very  hard-fought  battle  at  Chancel- 
lorsville.  The  great  and  repeated  disasters  experienced 
by  the  Union  armies  from  the  beginning  of  the  war,  but 
more  particularly  those  of  the  summer  of  1862,  appear 
to  have  prepared  the  people  of  the  Northern  States  for 
the  ado])tion  of  a  more  radical  policy  on  the  part  of  the 
government.  At  first  it  had  been  the  aim  of  the  Execu- 
tive to  preserve  the  Union  with  all  the  provisions  of  the 
'Constitution  as  it  was  originally  adopted.  But,  the  slave- 
holders having  by  their  rebellion  forfeited  all  claim  to 
the  protection  of  that  instrument,  it  might  become  ex- 
pedient or  necessary  to  assail  them  on  the  side  where 
they  were  confessedly  weakest, — viz.,  through  the  institu- 
tion of  slavery.  President  Lincoln  had  been  censured 
by  some  for  not  taking  a  more  decided  position  on  the 


subject  of  slavery  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  ;  but 
he  had  very  strong  reasons  for  the  line  of  policy  which 
he  had  hitherto  thought  proper  to  pursue.  So  powerful 
was  the  influence,  so  plausible  the  arguments,  brought 
by  the  Confederates  to  bear  upon  the  border  States,  that 
it  was  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  Maryland 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri  could  be  ]5revcnted 
from  following  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  and  joining 
the  rebellion.  If,  then,  the  Federal  government,  with 
those  States  standing  neutral  or  divided,  was  able  to  re- 
establish its  authority  only  after  years  of  conflict  and  the 
loss  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives,  what  might  have 
been  the  issue  had  those  four  po]5ulous  and  warlike 
States  from  the  very  commencement  of  the  war  iiecn 
closely  and  firmly  united  with  the  Confederacy?  Had 
President  Lincoln  at  once,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
rebellion,  attempted  the  overthrow  of  slavery,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  all  the  above-named  States  would 
have  arrayed  themselves  against  the  government,  and 
the  theatre  of  war,  instead  of  being  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  territory  of  the  slave  States,  would,  in  all 
probability,  have  been  extended  to  the  adjacent  free 
States, — to  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  if  not  still  farther. 
Nor  would  this  have  been  the  only  misfortune  ;  such  an 
attempt  would,  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  have  divided 
the  people  in  many  of  the  free  States,  and  prevented 
them  from  giving  the  government  that  cordial  and  united 
support  so  indispensable  to  the  Union  cause  in  such  a 
crisis. 

The  ccnscientious  and  anxious  desire  evinced  by  the 
President  to  respect  the  constitutional  rights  of  every 
section  of  the  country,  if  it  produced  no  favourable  influ- 
ence upon  the  minds  of  the  Confederates,  had  at  least 
the  effect  of  gaining  over  to  his  cause  multitudes  of  his 
political  opponents  in  the  Northern  as  well  as  in  the  bor- 
der States  ;  so  that  tens  of  thousands  who  had  op])osed 
his  election  in  i860  became,  before  the  close  of  his  first 
Presidential  term,  of  the  number  of  his  most  cordial 
suj'jporters.  He  considered  it,  indeed,  to  be  not  merely 
ex])edient,  but  to  be  his  imperative  duty,  to  weigh  care- 
fully all  the  circumstances  by  which  he  was  surrounded. 
A  religious  or  moral  reformer  may  very  properly  content 
himself  with  merely  proclaiming  and  expounding  great 
truths,  and  then  leave  the  minds  of  men  to  embrace 
them,  as  they  may  be  prepared  to  do  so.  But  he  who, 
being  placed  at  the  head  of  a  government,  neglects  to 
consider  the  question  whether  his  measures  are  prac- 
ticable, or  whether  they  are  or  are  not  adapted  to  the 
actual  condition  and  wants  of  the  people,  can  have  no 
claim  to  the  name  of  statesman,  although  he  may  pos- 
sibly merit  that  of  a  far-seeing  reformer  or  philanthropist. 

To  some,  who  were  urging  him  to  issue  at  once  a 
proclamation  of  emancipation,  intimating  that  they  fel. 
assured  it  was  the  will  of  God  that  he  should  do  so. 
Lincoln  replied,  "I  hope  it  will  not  be  irreverent  for  me 
to  say  that,  if  it  is  probable  that  God  would  reveal  his 
will  to  others  on  a  point  so  connected  with  my  duty,  it 
might  be  supposed  he  would  reveal  it  directly  to  me  ; 
for,  unless  I  am  more  deceived  in  myself  than  I  often 
am,  it  is  my  earnest  desire  to  know  the  will  of  Providence 
in  this  matter  ;  and  if  I  can  learn  what  it  is,  I  will  do  it" 
At  another  time  he  said,  "There  are  50,000  bayonets  in 
the  Union  army  from  the  border  slave  States.  It  would 
be  a  serious  matter  if,  in  consequence  of  a  proclamation 
such  as  you  desire,  they  should  go  over  to  the  rebels. 
.  .  .  Every  day  increases  their  Union  feeling."  He  dili- 
gently sought  every  ojiportunity  of  informing  himself  re- 
specting the  condition  of  public  sentiment,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  question  of  emancipation.  A  great  change 
in  the  minds  of  the  people  had  undoubtedly  taken  place 
in  this  respect,  not  only  in  the  North,  but  also  in  several 
of  the  slave  States.  After  mature  deliberation,  being  at 
length  satisfied  that  the  welfare  of  the  country  would  be 
promoted  by  such  a  measure,  and  that  public  senti-- 
ment  would  sustain  it,  he  issued  (September  22,  1S62)  a 
proclamation  of  emancipation,  in  which  it  was  declared 
that  on  the  first  day  of  January,  1S63,  "all  persons  held 
as  slaves  within  any  State,  or  designated  part  of  a  State, 
the  people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  .States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever 
free  ;  and  the  executive  government  of  the  United  States, 


a.  e,  i,  6,  u,  y. /^«^.- i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u, y,  J/4(7r/; a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure ;^r,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;g6r;d;  moon- 


LINCOLN 


LINCOLN 


including  the  military  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will 
recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom  of  such  persons, 
and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such  persons,  oi 
any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for  theii 
actual  freedom." 

After  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  the  tide  of  success 
seemed  to  turn  in  favour  of  the  Union  cause.  This  is 
not  the  place  to  go  into  any  detailed  accoimt  of  the 
movements  of  the  different  armies.  It  may  suffice  briefly 
to  notice  a  few  of  the  principal  battles  which  constituted, 
so  to  speak,  turning-points  in  the  history  of  tiie  war,  and 
which  had  an  immediate  and  important  influence  ir 
bringing  it  to  a  close. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  1863,  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
under  General  Meade,  defeated  the  rebel  forces,  com- 
manded by  General  l.ee,  in  a  great  battle  (which  had 
lasted  three  days)  near  Gettysburg,  in  Pennsylvania. 
On  the  4th  of  the  same  month,  General  Grant  cap- 
tured Vicksburg,  after  a  long  and  most  obstinate  defence 
on  the  part  of  the  garrison,  and  in  spite  of  the  strenuous 
efforts  of  the  Confederate  general  Joseph  E.  Jolinston  to 
raise  the  siege.  The  number  of  Confederate  troops 
paroled  at  Vicksburg  was  about  27,000,  of  whom  only 
15,000  were  fit  for  duty.  "This,"  says  Mr.  Greeley, 
"  was  the  heaviest  single  blow  ever  given  to  the  muscu- 
lar resources  of  the  rebellion  ;  and  no  other  campaign 
in  the  war  equals  in  brilliancy  of  conception  and  general 
success  in  execution  that  which  resulted  in  the  capitula- 
tion of  Vicksburg."  As  Commander  Farragut,  su]  ported 
by  a  land-army  under  General  Butler,  had  already  (April, 
1862)  taken  possession  of  New  Orleans,  the  conquest 
of  Vicksburg  gave  to  the  Unionists  the  command  of  the 
Mississippi  throughout  its  entire  length. 

The  Courage,  skill,  and,  above  all,  the  tmconquerable 
energy  displayed  by  General  Grant  in  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Vicksburg,  seemed  to  point  him  out  to  the 
government  as  pre-eminently  qualified  to  conduct  a  wai 
in  which  a  wise  foresight,  an  untiring  vigilance,  and  an 
indefatigable  activity  were  equally  necessary  to  success. 
There  was  another  point  also  wherein,  to  adopt  the 
language  of  Mr.  Greeley,  "his  fitness  for  the  chief 
command  was  decided,  if  not  pre-eminent;  and  that 
was  an  utter  disbelief  in  the  efficacy  of  any  rose-watet 
treatment  of  the  rebellion."  On  the  ist  of  March,  1864, 
in  compliance  with  a  recommendation  of  Congress,  the 
President  appointed  General  Grant  lieutenant-general  of 
the  armies  of  the  United  States.  When  he  presented 
General  Grant  with  his  commission,  Mr.  Lincoln  ad- 
dressed him  with  these  words  :  "  The  nation's  apprecia- 
tion of  what  you  have  already  done,  and  its  reliance  upon 
you  for  what  still  remains  to  be  done,  in  the  existing 
great  struggle,  are  now  presented  with  this  commission, 
constituting  you  lieutenant-general  of  the  armies  of  the 
United  States.  With  this  high  honour  devolves  upon 
you  also  a  corresponding  responsibility.  As  the  country 
herein  trusts  you,  so,  under  God,  it  will  sustain  you.  I 
scarcely  need  to  add  that  with  what  I  here  speak  for 
the  nation,  goes  my  own  hearty  personal  concurrence." 

In  the  autumn  of  1864,  Mr.  Lincoln  was  a  second  time 
elected  President  of  the  United  States,  General  McClel- 
lan  being  the  opposing  candidate.  Lincoln  received  the 
votes  of  all  the  Northern  States  except  New  Jersey  and 
Delaware. 

General  Grant,  having  taken  immediate  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  commenced  early  in  May  the 
ever-memorable  campaign  of  1864  against  Richmond. 
After  many  severe  and  bloody  conflicts,  and  the  display 
of  consummate  military  skill  on  the  part  of  the  rival  com- 
manders, and  an  obstinate  bravery  on  the  part  of  their 
troo]5s,  rarely  paralleled  in  the  history  of  warfare,  Gen- 
eral Lee  was  at  length  (April  2,  1865)  forced  to  abandon 
the  defence  of  Richmond,  which  was  evacuated  the  fol- 
lowing night,  and  on  the  9th  of  April  he  surrendered  to 
General  Grant  with  all  his  army.  On  the  17th  of  the 
same  month,  General  J.  E.  Johnston,  commander  of  the 
southern  division  of  the  Confederate  army,  then  in  North 
Carolina,  entered  into  terms  of  capitulation  with  Gen- 
eral Sherman,  according  to  which  all  the  Confederate 
troops  still  remaining  in  the  field  were  to  lay  down  their 
arms  and  return  to  their  respective  States.  Thus  the 
war  of  the  rebellion  was  brought  to  a  close.    But,  before 


the  final  arrangement  between  Sherman  and  Johnston 
was  completed,  the  universal  joy  of  the  Northern  States 
was  changed  into  bitter  mourning  by  the  death  of  Presi- 
dent Lincoln,  who  was  cut  off  in  the  very  hour  of  triumph 
by  the  hand  of  an  assassin.  A  desperate  band  of  con- 
spirators, of  whom  John  Wilkes  Booth,  a  native  of 
Maryland,  was  the  ringle.nder,  had  for  some  time  enter- 
tained the  design  of  seizing  the  President  and  making 
him  a  prisoner.  Finding  no  opportunity  to  carry  their 
purpose  into  effect,  they  resolved  at  length  to  take  his 
life.  The  great  object  of  Lincoln's  administration — the 
restoration  of  the  authority  of  the  government — having 
been  at  last  accomplished,  on  the  evening  of  the  14th  of 
April  he  sought  at  Ford's  Theatre  a  brief  relaxation  from 
the  duties  and  cares  of  his  high  office.  Booth,  being  an 
actor  by  profession,  had  free  admittance  to  the  theatre. 
While  the  President's  attention  was  absorbed  by  the 
scene  before  him,  the  assassin  a]ipro3ched  him  from 
behind,  unperceived.  To  make  sure  of  his  victim.  Booth 
discharged  his  pistol  when  the  muzzle  was  not  more 
than  a  few  inches  from  the  head  of  the  President,  who, 
as  the  ball  entered  his  brain,  sank  slightly  forward  with- 
out uttering  a  sound  ;  and,  although  he  continued  to 
breathe  for  several  hours,  he  was  evidently  wholly  un- 
conscious from  the  time  that  he  received  the  fatal  wound 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  half-past  seven  on  the 
morning  of  the  15th.  Mr.  Lincoln  had  often  received 
anonymous  letters  threatening  him  with  death  ;  but  his 
thoughts  were  too  much  occujiied  with  the  affairs  of 
the  nation  to  permit  him  to  feel  anxiety  for  his  personal 
safety ;  and,  indeed,  it  was  impossible  for  him,  as  ho 
intimated  to  some  of  his  friends  who  urged  him  to  be 
more  on  his  guard,  to  render  his  life  secure  without 
adopting  precautions  alike  rej^ugnant  to  his  own  feel- 
ings and  to  the  universal  usage  of  his  country.  We 
believe  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  since  the  dawn 
of  history,  no  more  upright  or  conscientious  ruler  than 
Abraham  Lincoln  ever  presided  over  the  destuiies  ot  a 
great  nation  ;  nor  has  there  been  any  more  free  from 
every  taint  of  selfish  ambition  or  personal  resentment. 

Among  the  many  eminent  men  who,  in  their  writings 
or  public  speeches,  have  attempted  Xo  portray  the  char- 
acter and  commemorate  the  virtues  of  President  Lincoln, 
we  know  of  none  who  has  been  more  successful  than 
Mr.  Emerson.  The  admirable  fitness  of  his  remarks 
must  be  our  apology,  if  any  be  needed,  for  giving  the 
following  extracts  from  his  discourse  delivered  at  the 
funeral  services  held  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  April 
19,  1865  : 

"A  plain  man  of  the  people,  an  extraordinary  for- 
tune attended  him.  Lord  Bacon  says,  'Manifest  virtues 
procure  reputation;  occult  ones,  fortune.'  He  offered 
no  shining  qualities  at  the  first  encounter;  he  did  not 
offend  by  superiority.  He  had  a  face  and  manner  which 
disarmed  suspicion,  which  inspired  confidence,  which 
confirmed  good  will.  He  was  a  man  without  vices.  He 
had  a  strong  sense  of  duty,  which  it  was  very  easy  foi 
him  to  obey.  Then  he  had  what  farmers  call  a  'long 
head  ;'  was  excellent  in  working  out  the  sum  for  himself, — 
in  arguing  his  case  and  convincing  you  fairly  and  firmly. 
.  .  .  He  had  a  vast  good  nature,  which  made  him  tolerant 
and  accessible  to  all.  .  .  .  Then  his  broad  good  humour, 
running  easily  into  jocular  talk,  in  which  he  delighted 
and  in  which  he  excelled,  was  a  rich  gift  to  this  wise 
man.  It  enabled  him  to  keep  his  secret,  to  meet  every 
kind  of  man,  and  every  rank  in  society,  ...  to  mask 
his  own  purpose  and  sound  his  comimnion,  and  to  catch 
with  true  instinct  the  temper  of  every  company  he  ad- 
dressed. His  occupying  the  chair  of  state  was  a  triumph 
of  the  good  sense  of  mankind  and  of  the  public  conscience. 
This  middle-class  country  had  got  a  middle-class  Presi- 
dent at  last.  Yes,  in  manners  and  sympathies,  but  not 
in  powers ;  for  his  powers  were  superior.  This  man 
grew  according  to  the  need  ;  his  mind  mastered  the  prob- 
lem of  the  day;  and  as  the  problem  grew,  so  did  his 
comprehension  of  it.  Rarely  was  a  man  so  fitted  to  the 
event.  ...  It  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  any  exagger- 
ation of*his  worth.  If  ever  a  man  was  fairly  tested,  he 
was.  There  was  no  lack  of  resistance,  nor  of  slander, 
nor  of  ridicule.  .  .  .  Then  what  an  occasion  was  the 
whirlwind  of  the  war!     Here  was  place  for  no  holiday 


€as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (fl^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


k 


LINCOLN 


;56 


LINDE 


magistrate,  no  fair-weather  sailor  :  the  new  pilot  was 
hurried  to  the  helm  in  a  tornado.  In  four  years — four 
years  of  battle-days — his  endurance,  his  fertility  of  re- 
sources, his  magnanimity,  were  sorely  tried  and  never 
found  wanting.  There,  by  his  courage,  his  justice,  his 
even  temper,  his  fertile  counsel,  his  humanity,  he  stood 
a  heroic  figure  in  the  centre  of  a  heroic  epoch.  He  is 
the  true  history  of  the  American  people  in  his  time — the 
true  representative  of  this  continent — father  of  his  country, 
the  pulse  of  twenty  millions  throbbing  in  his  heart,  the 
thought  of  their  minds  articulated  by  his  tongue." 

"The  name  of  Lincoln,"  says  the  eminent  historian 
Merle  d'Aubigne,  "will  remain  one  of  the  greatest  that 
history  has  to  inscribe  on  its  annals."  "This  man," 
observes  Henry  Martin,  "  will  stand  out  in  the  traditions 
of  his  country  and  the  world  as  an  incarnation  of  the 
people,  and  of  modern  democracy  itself." 

See  Raymond,  "Life  and  Administration  of  President  Lincoln,' 
1864;  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  2  vols.  8vo,  Hartford,  1864-66; 
Dr.  J.  G.  Holland,  "Life  of  A.  Lincoln,"  1865;  and  the  noble 
and  eloquent  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Lincoln  in  Mrs.  Stowh's 
"  Men  of  our  Time,"  Hartford,  1868. 

Lincoln,  (Benj.xmin,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  January,  1733.  lie  was 
originally  a  farmer.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  militia,  and  joined  the  army  of  Washington 
with  reinforcements  in  February,  1777.  In  this  year  he 
was  appointed  major-general  by  Congress,  and  was  or- 
dered to  join  the  Northern  army,  commanded  by  General 
Gates.  In  October,  1777,  he  received  a  wound  which 
disabled  him  for  nearly  a  year.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  chief  command  of  the  Southern  department  about 
September,  1778,  and  defended  Charleston  against  Gen- 
eral Prevost  in  the  spring  of  1779.  In  October  of  that 
year  General  Lincoln  and  Count  D'Estaing  made  an 
unsuccessful  assault  on  Savannah.  He  was  besieged  by 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  Charleston,  which  he  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  in  May,  1780.  He  afterwards  com- 
manded a  division  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  in  October, 
1781.  He  had  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  prudent 
general.  In  October,  17S1,  he  became  secretary  of  war. 
lie  retired  from  this  office  about  the  end  of  1784,  and 
was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts  in 
17S7  by  the  Federalists.     Died  at  Hingham  in  1810. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Benjamin  Lincoln,"  by  Fkancis  Bowen,  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biograpliy,"  second  series,  vol.  xiii.  ;  "Na- 
tional Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Lincoln,  link'pn,  (Edward  Clinton,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  1512,  was  the  only  son  of 
Thomas  Lord  Clinton.  He  was  appointed  lord  admiral 
for  life  in  1550.  In  1557  he  commanded  a  division  of 
the  English  army  at  Saint-Queniin.  On  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  (1558)  he  was  retained  in  the  office  of  lord 
admiral.  In  the  peaceful  reign  that  followed  he  had 
little  opportunity  to  acquire  renown.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Lincoln  in  1572.  Died  in  1584,  leaving  the  title 
to  his  son  Henry.  A  Henry  Clinton,  Earl  of  Lincoln, 
married  the  daughter  of  Henry  Pelham,  who  was  prime 
minister  about  1750.  In  1768  he  inherited  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Newcastle.     Died  in  1794. 

Lincoln,  (Enoch,)  a  lawyer,  brother  of  Levi,  noticed 
below,  (1782-186S,)  was  born  at  Worcester,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1788.  He  represented  a  district  of  Maine  in 
Congress  from  1819  to  1826,  and  was  Governor  of  that 
State  in  1827-29.  Died  in  1829.  He  wrote  several 
poems,  including  one  entitled  "The  Village,"  (1816.) 

Lincoln,  (John  Larkin,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scholar 
and  critical  writer,  born  at  15oston  in  1817.  He  was 
appointed  in  1844  professor  of  the  Latin  language  and 
literature  in  Brown  University.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Horace  for  the  use  of  schools. 

Lincoln,  (Levi,)  an  American  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1749,  graduated  at 
Harvard  College.  He  practised  law  at  Worcester,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  eminent  lawyers  in  the  State. 
In  1799  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress.  He  was 
a  Democrat  or  Republican  in  party  politics,  and  was 
attorney-general  under  Jefferson  from  1801  to  December, 
1S05.  In  1807-08  he  was  Lieutenant-Governor«)f  Mas- 
sachusetts.    Died  at  Worcester  in  1820. 

Lincoln,  (Levi,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in    17S2.     He 


was  chosen  Governor  of  his  native  State  in  1825,  being 
supported  by  both  parties,  and  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress during  three  terms,  (1835-41.)     Died  in  1868. 

Lind,  (James,)  an  English  physician,  born  about  1716, 
published  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  the  Scurvy,"  (1753,) 
and  "  Essay  on  the  Diseases  to  which  Europeans  are 
exposed  in  Hot  Climates,"  (1768,)  which  were  often 
reprinted.     Died  at  Gosport  in  1794. 

Lind,  (Jenny,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  vocalist,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1820,  was  the  daughter  of  a  teacher  of 
languages.  She  began  to  sing  on  the  stage  alxjut  the 
age  of  ten  years,  and  performed  in  vaudevilles  with 
success.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  became  the  prime 
favourite  of  the  Stockholm  Opera,  where  she  made  her 
debut  as  Agatha  in  "  Der  Freischiitz."  In  1841  she 
became  a  pupil  of  Garcia,  the  celebrated  singing-master 
in  Paris,  where  she  met  Meyerbeer,  who  engaged  h;r 
for  the  Opera  of  Berlin.  She  sang  in  Berlin  in  1844  a.id 
1845,  exciting  great  and  unabated  enthusiasm.  After 
performing  in  several  capitals  of  Germany,  she  visited 
London,  where  she  was  greeted  with  the  warmest  ap- 
plause, in  1847  ^"d  the  two  ensuing  years.  Having 
made  an  engagement  with  P.  T.  Barnum  to  sing  in  the 
United  States,  she  arrived  at  New  York  in  Sei)tember, 
1850.  Her  concerts  in  this  country  excited  enthusi- 
astic admiration,  and  were  repeated  in  the  chief  cities  of 
the  Union  until  1852,  when  she  returned  to  Europe  with 
Otto  Goldschmidt,  a  skilful  pianist,  to  whom  she  had 
been  married  in  1851.  In  private  life  she  ever  main- 
tained an  enviable  reputation,  and  while  in  the  United 
States  gave  many  thousand  dollars  for  charitable  pur- 
poses. After  her  marriage  she  occasionally  appeared 
in  charitable  concerts.     Died  November  2,  1887. 

See  N.  P.  Willis,  "  Memoranda  of  the  Life  of  Jenny  Lind  ;"  J. 
A.  Becher,  "J.  Lind:  Skizze  ihres  Lebens,"  etc.,  1847;  "Memoir 
of  J.  Lind,"  London,  1847;  Hans  Christian  Andersen,  "True 
Story  of  my  Life  ;"  the  same  notice  in  the  "  Living  Age"  for  No- 
vember, 1850. 

Linda.     See  Lindanus. 

Lindanus,  lin-dd'nus,  or  Linda,  -lin'di,  (William 
Damasus,)  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  noted  as  a  cos- 
troversialist,  was  born  at  Dort,  Holland,  in  1525.  He 
was  remarkable  for  the  severity  with  which  he  per- 
formed the  office  of  Inquisitor  of  the  faith.  In  1562 
he  was  appointed  by  Philip  II.  Bishop  of  Ruremond. 
His  most  popular  work  was  "Evangelical  Panoply," 
("Panoplia  Evangelica,"  1563.)     Died  in  1568  or  1588. 

See  A.  Havensius,  "Vita  G.  Lindani,"  1609. 

Lindau,  lin'dow,  (Paul,)  a  German  critic  and  drama- 
tist, born  at  Magdeburg,  June  3,  1839.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Paris.  Besides  miscellaneous 
works,  he  has  published  "Moliere,"  (1S72,)  "  Beaumar- 
chais,"  (1875,)  "Alfred  de  Musset,"  (1877,)  several  vol- 
umes of  essays  and  criticisms,  and  many  comedies, 
highly  valued  for  their  refinement  of  tone. 

Lindberg,  Hnd'beRC,  (Jacok  Christian,)  a  Danish 
theologian  and  numismatist,  born  at  Ripen,  Jutland,  in 
1797.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Cufic  Coins," 
(1830,)  a  "Hebrew-Danish  Hand-Lexicon,"  (1835,)  and 
able  works  on  theology,  etc.     Died  December  10,  1857. 

Lindblom,  lind'blom,  (Jacob  Axel,)  a  Swedish  prel- 
ate, born  in  Ostrogothia  in  1747.  He  was  professor  ot 
belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Upsal,  and  published 
a  "  Latin-Swedish  Dictionary"  before  he  became  Bishop 
of  Linkoping,  (1789.)  He  was  afterwards  chosen  Arch- 
bishop of  Upsal.     Died  in  1819. 

See  Hedborn,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  iifver  J.  A.  Lindblom,"  1819. 

Linde,  von,  fon  lin'deh,  (Justin  Ti.motheus  Bal- 
thasar,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1797. 
published  numerous  legal  treatises.     Died  in  1870. 

Linde,  vfon,  fon  lin'deh,  (Samuel  Gottlob,)  an  emi- 
nent Polish  lexicographer,  born  at  Thorn  in  1771.  About 
1803  he  became  rector  of  the  Lyceum  and  chief  librarian 
of  the  University  in  Warsaw.  In  1807  he  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  "  Dictionary  of  the  Polish  I-an- 
guage,"  (6  vols.,)  regarded  as  the  best  work  of  the  kind. 
From  1833  to  1838  he  was  director  of  the  gymnasium 
of  W^arsaw.  He  wrote  a  "  Historical  Outline  of  the 
Literature  of  the  Slavonic  Races,"  (1825.)  Died  at  War- 
saw in  1847. 

See  Saint-Mauricb  Cabanv,  "S.  T.  de  Linde,"  etc.,  1853. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /<w;^■  i,  h,  i,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6, 1'l, 


See  Saint-Mauricb  Cabanv,  "S.  T.  de  Linde,"  etc.,  1853. 
y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LINDEBLAD 


1557 


LINDSEy 


Lindeblad,  lin'deh-blid',  (Assar,)  a  Swedish  poet, 
born  near  Lund  in  1800.  Among  his  best  productions 
is  "The  Missionary,"  (1839.) 

Linden,  van  der,  vin  der  lin'den,  (David,)  a  Flemish 
poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ghent  about  1570;  died 
about  1635. 

Linden,  van  der,  vtn  der  lin'den,  (Jan  Antonides,) 
a  learned  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Enkhuysen  in  1609. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about  1650. 
He  published  a  "  Medical  Bibliography,"  ("  De  Scriptis 
Medicis,"  1637,)  "  Physiological  Medicine,"  ("  Medicina 
Physiologica,")  and  a  good  edition  of  Hippocrates,  in 
Greek.     Died  in  1664. 

See  Bayi-e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NiciRON, 
■  Memoires. " 

Lindenau,  von,  fon  lin'deh-now',  (Bernhard  Au- 
gust,) a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Altenburg  in  17S0. 
Between  1826  and  1843  '^^  served  the  King  of  Saxony 
as  privy  councillor,  minister  of  the  interior,  etc.  In  1843 
he  retired  from  political  life  to  devote  himself  to  as- 
tronomy. Among  his  publications  are  "  Tables  of  Venus," 
(1810,)  "Tables  of  Mars,"  (1811,)  and  a  "History  of 
Astronomy  during  the  First  Decade  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  (1811.)     Died  in  1854. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lindenbrog,  lin'den-bRoc',  or  Lindenbruch,  lin'- 
Jen-bKooK',  (Lat.  Tiliohko'ga,]  (Eri'old,)  a  German 
historical  writer,  born  at  Bremen  in  1540.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Kings  of  Denmark,"  and  "Chronicle 
of  the  Life  and  Actions  of  Charlemagne."  He  also 
edited  the  "  Historians  of  Northern  Germany."  Died 
in  1616. 

See  WiLKENS,  "  Leben  der  beriilimten  Lindenbrogiorum,"  1723. 

Lindenbrog  or  Lindenbruch,  (Friedrich,)  a  jurist 
and  classical  scholar,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Hamburg  in  1573  ;  died  in  1648. 

Lindenschmit,  lin'den-shmit',  (Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  born  at  Mentz  in  1806.  Among 
his  works  are  frescos  painted  for  Prince  Ludwig  in 
the  Hofgarten,  Munich,  and  in  the  Pinakothek.  Died 
in  1848. 

Lindet,  liN'dcV,  (Jean  Baptiste  Robert,)  a  French 
Jacobin  and  financier,  born  at  Bernay,  Normandy,  in 
1743.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  after 
its  number  was  reduced  and  after  it  was  invested  with 
supreme  executive  power,  (1793.)  He  was  reputed  one 
of  the  least  violent  but  most  subtle  chiefs  of  the  domi- 
nant faction.  He  was  minister  of  finances  from  June, 
1799,  until  Bonaparte  became  First  Consul,  in  November 
'^f  that  year.     Died  in  1S25. 

Lind'ley,  (John,)  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  botanists  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at 
Catton,  near  Norwich,  England,  in  1799.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  proprietor  of  a  nursery-garden.  About  1821 
he  became  a  resident  of  London,  and  was  employed  to 
write  the  descriptions  of  Loudon's  "Encyclopaedia  of 
Plants,"  (1829.)  In  1830  he  published  an  "  Introduction 
to  the  Natural  System  of  Botany."  Of  this  system  he 
is  a  zealous  advocate,  and  has  contriijuted  more  than 
any  other  English  botanist  to  reiTder  it  popular.  His 
"Introduction  to  Systematic  and  Physiological  Botany" 
(1832)  is  highly  commended.  In  1836  he  produced  "  A 
Natural  System  of  Botany,"  which  was  expanded  into 
"The  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  (1846,)  with  engravings, — 
probably  the  most  excellent  and  comprehensive  work 
that  has  ever  appeared  on  that  subject.  He  adopted  in 
this  work  an  improved,  or  at  least  new,  system  of  classi- 
fication, and  explained  the  uses  of  plants.  In  1829  Dr. 
Lindley  became  professor  of  botany  in  the  University 
College,  London,  where  he  was  very  successful  as  a  lec- 
turer. His  "Flora  Medica"  (1838)  describes  the  plants 
used  in  medical  practice.  He  wrote  many  botanical 
articles  for  the  "  Penny  Cyclopcedia,"  and  a  good  ele- 
mentary work  on  Botany  inserted  in  the  "Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge."  In  his  excellent  work  entitled 
"Theory  of  Horticulture,"  (1844.)  he  successfully  ap- 
plied science  to  practical  utility.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  popular  treatises,  entitled  "Ladies'  Botany," 
"  School  Botany,"  "  British  Pomology,"  and  "  Orchard 


and  Kitchen  Garden."  About  1841  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Gardener's  Chronicle,"  a  valuable  periodical. 
Died  at  Acton  Green,  November  i,  1865. 

Lindner,  Hnt'ner,  (Friedkich  Ludwig.)  a  German 
political  writer,  born  at  Mitau,  Courland,  in  1772.  In 
1824  he  published  "Secret  Pai:)ers,"  and  in  1825  became 
editor  of  the  "Political  Annals,"  at  Munich.  He  also 
wrote  "  Europe  and  the  Orient,"  (1839,)  and  other  works 
Died  in  1845. 

Lindner,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  teacher 
and  theologian,  born  at  Weida  in  1779.  He  became 
professor  of  the  science  of  teaching  at  Leipsic  in  1825. 
He  published  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  art  of  teaching, 
"  De  Finibus  et  Prsesidiis  Artis  pcedagogicae,"  (1S25,) 
and  a  work  on  free- masonry.     Died  in  1864. 

Lindner,  (Wilhelm  Bruno,)  a  writer  on  theology, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1814.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic  in  1846. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Manual  of  the  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  (2  vols.,  1S48-54.) 

Lindpaintner,  Ifnt'pint'ner,  (Peier  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man composer,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1791.  He  produced 
symphonies,  overtures,  instrument  pieces,  and  o[)eras 
entitled  "The  Sicilian  Vespers"  and  "The  Vampyre  " 
Died  in  1856. 

Lindsay,  lin'ze,  (Alexander  William  Craw^ 
ford,)  Lord,  a  British  author,  the  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Crawford,  was  born  in  Cumberland  in  1812.  After 
making  a  tour  in  the  East,  he  published  in  1838  "  Letters 
on  Egypt,  Edom,  and  the  Holy  Land,"  which  passed 
through  several  editions.  He  increased  his  reputation 
by  an  important  and  novel  work,  entitled  "  Sketches  of 
the  History  of  Christian  Art,"  (1847,)  which  displays 
much  research  and  contains  eloquent  passages.  In  1849 
he  published  the  "Lives  of  the  Lindsays,"  a  family  his- 
tory of  much  merit.     Died  in  1880. 

Lindsay,  (Sir  David,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  about 
1495.  He  became  in  1512  a  page  or  servitor  to  the 
prince,  (afterwards  James  V.,)  and  continued  in  his  ser- 
vice until  1524.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The 
Dream,"  "The  Complaint  of  the  King's  Papingo,"  (a 
satire  on  the  clergy,)  a  "Satire  on  the  Three  Estates," 
and  "The  Monarchic."  He  excelled  in  sarca«m,  which 
he  directed  with  much  effect  against  the  Romish  Church. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  after  1567. 

See  Lord  Lindsay,  "  Lives  of  the  Lindsays,"  1849:  Chalmers, 
"  Life,"  prefixed  to  Lindsay's  works,  1S06 ;  Chambers  "  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;" 

iiindsay,  lin'ze,  (John,)  an  English  nonjuring  minis- 
ter, born  about  1686.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Regal 
Succession,"  (1720.)     Died  in  1768. 

Lindsay,  (John,)  Earl  of  Crawford,  an  able  British 
general,  born  in  1702.  For  his  conduct  at  Fontenoy  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  was  renowned 
for  generosity,  talents,  and  other  popular  qualities.  Died 
in  1749. 

See  Richard  Rolt,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Lindsay,"  etc., 
,1753;  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.* 

Lindsay,  (William  Schaw,)  a  British  merchant, born 
in  Ayrshire  in  1S16,  became  one  of  the  largest  ship-owners 
in  the  kingdom.  He  was  once  a  cabin-boy,  and  raised 
himself  to  affiuence  by  industry  and  prudence.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  "  History  of  Merchant  Shipping,"  in  4 
vols.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1854.  Died 
August  28,  1877. 

Lindsey,  Earl  of.     See  Bertie,  (Robert.) 

Lindsey,  lin'ze,  (Montague  Bertie,)  Earl  of, 
born  in  1608,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Bertie.  (See  Bertie.) 
He  fought  for  Charles  I.  at  Edgehill  and  Naseby,  and, 
when  the  king  was  imprisoned  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
negotiated  the  treaty  of  Newport.     Died  in  1666. 

Lindsey,  (Theophilus,)  an  English  Unitarian  min- 
ister, born  in  Cheshire  in  1723.  Having  taken  orders 
in  the  Anglican  Church,  he  obtained  in  1763  the  living 
of  Catterick,  Yorkshire.  He  became  so  dissatisfied  with 
the  Trinitarian  creed  that  in  1773  he  resigned  his  living 
and  published  an  "Apology"  for  his  course,  which  is  a 
work  of  i^uch  research,  lie  then  removed  to  London, 
where  he  was  successful  in  forming  a  Unitarian  congre- 
gation, and  preached  about  twenty  years.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Historical  View  of  the  State  of 


€  as  k:  9  as  v;  g  h.trl:  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi,^uttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  asz;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


LIN DS  LEY 


155S 


LINN  ALUS 


the  Unitarian  Doctrine  and  Worship,"  (17S3.)     Died  in 
1808. 

See  Thomas  Belsham,  "  Memoirs  of  Theaohilus  Liudsey,"  1812. 

Idndsley,  Hnz'le,  (Philip,)  D.D.,  an  American  di- 
vine and  scholar,  born  at  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  in 
1786.  He  became  in  1850  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
archaeology  in  the  New  Albany  Theological  Seminary, 
Indiana.     Died  in  1855. 

Ling,  (Pehr  Henkik,)  born  in  Smiland,  in  Sweden, 
in  1776,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of  modern 
gymnastics.  He  founded  a  gymnastic  institute,  and  intro- 
duced "  the  movement  cure"  for  diseases.  He  published 
some  volumes  of  poetry.     Died  in  1839. 

Linga,  Ung'ga,  or  Liiigam,  Hng'gam,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  a  phallic  symbol,  or  type  of  the  reproductive 
power,  which  is  regarded  as  the  especial  attribute  of 
Siva.     (See  Siva.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Guigniaut,  " Religions  del'An- 
tiquit^,"  book  i.  chap.  ii. 

Lingard,  ling'gard,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  histo- 
rian, born  at  Winchester  in  1771.  He  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  and  settled  at  Hornby,  Lancashire,  about 
181 1.  He  published  in  1819  the  first  volume  of  his 
"History  of  England  from  the  First  Invasion  by  thi 
Romans  to  the  Accession  of  William  and  Mary  in  16S8," 
of  which  the  si.xth  edition,  in  10  vols.,  ajipeared  in 
1855.  This  work  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  style,  accu- 
racy, and  other  merits.  He  also  wrote  "  Tlie  Antiquities 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,"  (1806,)  and  other  works. 
He  visited  Rome  in  1825,  and,  it  is  said,  refused  the 
offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat.     Died  in  185 1. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1S25,  (vol.  xlii.,)  and  March, 
1831,  (vol.  liii.  ;)  "Montlily  Review"  for  July  and  .September,  1819, 
and  September,  1S25;  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1846. 

L'Ingegno.  See  Luigi,  (Andrea  di.) 
Lingelbach,  ling'el-biK',  (Johann,)  sometimes  writ- 
ten Liiiglebach,  an  eminent  painter  of  genre  and  land- 
scapes, was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1625.  He 
studied  in  Rome,  and  settled  in  Holland  about  1650. 
He  e.xcelled  in  the  treatment  of  markets,  fairs,  and  sea- 
ports. His  colour  is  good,  his  touch  free  and  spirited, 
and  his  works  remarkable  for  variety.  His  blue  dis- 
tances and  lightly-clouded  skies  produce  an  exhilarating 
effect.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Sea-Port  in  the  Levant," 
and  "  The  Vegetable  Market."  Died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1687. 

See  C.  Blanc,  "Les  Peintres  de  toutes  les  ficoles;"  Nagler, 
"AUgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Lingendes,  de,  deh  liN'zhflNd',  (Claude,)  a  French 
pulpit  orator  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Moulins  in  1591 ;  died 
in  1660. 

Lingendes,  de,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Mou- 
lins about  1580,  composed  stanzas,  odes,  and  other  verses. 
Died  in  1616. 

Lingendes,  de,  (Jean,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Moulins  in  1595.  He  became  an  eminent 
preacher,  and  chaplain  to  Louis  XI H.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Macon  in  1650.     Died  in  1665.  < 

Lingiiet,  liN'gV,  (Si.mon  Nicolas  Henri,)  an  elo- 
quent French  advocate  and  polemical  writer,  born  at 
Rheims  in  1736.  He  pleaded  with  success  at  the  bar  of 
Paris,  but  made  many  enemies  by  his  sarcasms  and  his 
impetuous  temper.  He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  two 
years,  ending  in  17S2.  He  published  numerous  works, 
which  display  learning  and  talent  but  are  censured  as 
paradoxical.  Among  them  are  a  "  History  of  the  Age  of 
Alexander  the  Great,"  (1762,)  and  "The  Fanaticism  of 
Philosophers,"  (1764.)  He  fell  a  victim  to  the  reign  of 
terror  in  1794. 

See  Gardaz,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Linguet," 
180S;  "Nouvelie  Biouraphie  Gen^rale." 

Lingg,  ling,  (Hermann  Ludwig  Otto,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Lindau,  January  22,  1820.  He  graduated 
at  Munich  as  doctor  of  medicine  in  1S43,  ^""^  studied 
later  in  Berlin  and  Prague.  He  published  many  dramas, 
and  some  volumes  of  verse,  including  "The  Migrations 
of  the  Peojjles,"  an  epic. 

Liniere,  de,  deh  le'ne-aiR',  (Francois  Pavot,)  a 
French  satiric  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  gay 
votary  of  pleasure.     He  composed  songs  and  epigrams 


with  facility.  Boileau,  in  his  ninth  .Satire,  mentions 
Liniere  as  a  judicious  critic.     Died  in  1704. 

Link  or  Linck,  l!nk,  (Heinrich  Friedrich,)  « 
German  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Ilildesheim 
in  1767.  He  was  ajjpointed  professor  of  botany  and 
chemistry  at  Breslau  in  181 1,  and  in  181 5  filled  the 
same  chair  at  Berlin.  He  published  numerous  works 
on  botany,  of  which  we  may  name  "'I'he  Anatomy  of 
Plants,"  (1807,)  and  "Elements  of  Botanical  Philos- 
ophy," (1824.)     Died  in  1S51. 

See  Von  Maktius,  "  Denkrede  auf  H.  F.  Linck,"  :35i  :  "  Bio- 
graphie  Medicale." 

Lin'ley,  (Thomas,)  an  excellent  English  musical 
composer,  born  at  Wells  about  1725,  was  a  pupil  of  Pa- 
radies.  In  his  early  life  he  conducted  the  concerts  and 
oratorios  at  Bath.  He  composed  the  music  for  Sheri- 
dan's "  Duenna,"  which  had  great  success,  in  1775.  In 
1776  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  one  of  the 
proprietors  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  in  partnership  with 
his  son-in-law,  R.  B.  Sheridan,  the  great  orator.  Mr. 
Linley  directed  the  musical  department,  and  composed 
for  it  the  "Carnival  of  Venice,"  "The  Cam)},"  etc. 
Among  his  admired  productions  are  ".Six  Elegies," 
"Twelve  Ballads,"  and  a  madrigal  to  these  verses  of 
Cowley, 

"  Let  me,  careless  and  imthoughtfnl  lying, 
Hear  the  soft  winds  above  me  flying." 
Died  in  1795. 

See  BuRNEV,  "History  of  Music." 

Linley,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Bath  about  1756,  and  inherited  his  father's  musical 
talent.  He  studied  under  the  best  masters  of  Italy,  and 
became  very  intimate  with  Mozart.  He  composed  seve- 
ral admired  airs  for  the  theatre.  He  was  drowned  in 
1778,  while  sailing  in  a  pleasure-boat  in  Lincolnshire. 

Linley,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  wa.-« 
born  al)out  1766.  In  his  youth  he  went  to  India  as  a 
clerk,  and  rose  to  the  office  of  sub-treasurer  at  Fort  Saint 
George.  He  returned  to  England  in  the  prime  of  life, 
and  devoted  himself  to  music  and  literature.  He  com- 
posed several  glees,  songs,  and  other  verses,  and  pub- 
lished the  drainatic  songs  of  Shakspeare.     Died  in  1835. 

Linn,  (John  Blair,)  D.D.,  an  American  poet  and 
divine,  born  at  Shippensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1777, 
was  brother-in-law  of  the  celebrated  novelist  Charles 
Brockden  Brown,  and  son  of  William  Linn,  who  was 
also  a  divine.  He  became  assistant  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadelphia  in  1798.  He 
was  the  author  of  "The  Powers  of  Genius,"  and  other 
poems,  and  a  reply  to  Dr.  Priestley's  "Comparison 
between  Socrates  and  Christ."     Died  in  1S04. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopadia  of  American  Literature." 

Linn,  (Lewis  Fields,)  M.D.,  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1795.  and 
removed  to  Missouri  about  1816.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Senate  by  the  Democrats  in  1833,  and  again  about  1838. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "Life  of  L.  F.  Linn,"  by  E.  A.  Lm.v  and  N.  Sargent, 
1857. 

Linnaeus,  lin-nee'us,  [Sw.  Von  Linn6,  fon  lin-nil',] 
(Charles  or  Carl,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  botanist, 
and  the  most  influential  naturalist  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Rdshult,  in  Smdland,  on  the  24th 
of  May,  1707.  He  was  the  son  of  Nicholas  Linnieus,  a 
village  curate,  who,  it  is  said,  so  far  underrated  his  son's 
capacity  that  he  made  him  an  apprentice  to  a  shoemaker 
after  he  had  reached  the  age  of  seventeen  witliout  mak- 
ing much  progress  in  his  studies.  In  1727,  however,  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Lund  to  study  medicine, 
and  his  inclination  for  natural  history  was  favoured  by 
Professor  Stobaeus.  Although  nearly  destitute  of  pecu- 
niary resources,  he  ])ursued  his  studies  at  Ujisal,  (1728,) 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Olaus  Celsius,  who  relieved 
him  from  his  extreme  poverty.  About  1730  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  reforin  in  botanical  method  and  nomencla- 
ture, and  began  the  composition  of  several  great  works, 
noticed  below.  At  the  expense  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Upsal,  he  made  a  botanical  excursion  on  foot  through 
Lapland  in  1732,  the  results  of  which  appeared  in  his 
"Flora  Lapponica,"  (1737.) 

Between  1735  and  1738  he  passed  three  years  in  the 


a,  e,  I,  6,  ft,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t; good;  moon ; 


LINNAEUS 


1559 


LIONEL 


\ 


house  of  George  Cliffort,  a  rich  Dutch  gentleman  living 
between  Leyden  and  IlaarJ^Mii,  who  em|)loyed  him  to 
arrange  his  fine  garden  and  museum.  Linnaeus  has 
expressed  his  gratitude  to  this  benefactor  for  the  facilities 
he  there  enjoyed  for  his  favourite  pursuits,  and  has 
honoured  his  memory  by  a  work  entitled  "  The  Garden 
of  Cliftbrt,"  ("Hortus  Cliffortianus.")  He  perceived 
that  it  was  necessary  to  invent  methods  of  distribu- 
tion capable  of  embracing  all  creatures,  and  founded  on 
characters  well  defined ;  to  invent  terms  sufficiently 
numerous  to  designate  the  prodigious  variety  of  their 
conformation,  and  define  these  terms  with  precision ; 
finally,  to  make  a  general  review  of  all  beings  described 
in  former  works,  or  to  be  found  by  the  exploration  of 
nature.  The  first  sketch  of  this  great  enterprise  ap- 
peared in  two  small  volumes,  entitled  "  System  of  Nature, 
or  theTiiree  Kingdoms  of  Nature  exhibited  methodically 
in  Classes,  Orders,  Genera,  and  Species,"  ("  Systema  Na- 
turae, seu  Regna  tria  Naturas  systematic^  proposita,  per 
Classes,  Ordines,  Genera  et  Species,"  1 735,)  and  "  Funda- 
menta  Botanica,"  ( 1 736.)  The  characters  of  genera  were 
largely  developed  in  iiis  "Genera  of  Plants  according  to 
the  Number,  Figure,  Position,  etc.  of  the  Parts  of  Fruc- 
tification," ("Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Numerum, 
Figuram,  etc.  onniium  Frnctificationis  Partium,"  1737.) 
He  removed  in  1738  to  .Stockholm,  where  he  jjractised 
medicine,  lectured  on  botany,  and  received  the  title  of 
physician  to  the  king.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Dr. 
More  in  1739.  In  1741  he  obtained  at  Upsal  the  chair 
of  botany,  which  he  occupied  thirty-seven  years,  witness- 
ing the  continuous  growth  of  his  fame  and  influence,  and 
exerting  his  unabated  activity  to  improve  his  scientific 
productions.  Thunberg,  Kalm,  Hasselquist,  Forskd.1,  and 
other  eminent  naturalists,  who  had  been  his  pupils,  visited 
various  foreign  countries  and  brought  back  willing  tribute 
to  enrich  his  collections  and  publications.  The  botanical 
philosophy  of  Linnaeus  was  reproduced  in  its  etisemhle, 
arranged  in  its  parts,  and  enforced  by  examples  in  his 
"  Philosophia  Botanica,"  (1751.)  "This  work,"  says 
Cuvier,  "  which  exhibits  on  every  page  j^roofs  of  the 
rarest  ingenuity  (finesse  d'esprit)  and  the  most  sur- 
prising profoundness  of  observation,  has  enjoyed  a  suc- 
cess which  was  previously  unexampled.  It  has  become 
as  it  were  a  fundamental  law,  to  which  all  botanists  con- 
form in  their  descriptions  and  in  their  use  of  terms." 
His  artificial  sexual  system  was  for  a  long  time  uni- 
versally adopted,  but  has  been  superseded  in  a  great 
measure  by  the  natural  method  of  Jussieu.  In  1753  he 
produced  his  "  Sjjecies  Plantarum,"  an  important  work, 
in  which  he  adopted  the  happy  idea  of  designating  each 
species  by  a  single  epithet  added  to  the  name  of  the 
genus.  He  also  applied  his  methods  with  success  to  the 
animal  kingdom  in  several  enlarged  editions  of  his 
"Systema  Naturae,"  in  his  "Fauna  Suecica,"  ("Swedish 
Fauna,"  1744,)  or  history  of  Swedish  animals,  and  va- 
rious other  works.    Died  in  January,  1778. 

See  PuLTENEV,  "Life  of  LiniiKus,"  17S1  :  Agarda,  "Antiqui- 
tates  Linnsaiia,"  1826;  A.  L.  A.  Fee,  "Vie  de  Linne,"  1832; 
Miss  Kkightwell,  '"  Life  of  Linnsus  ;"  Van  Hall,  "  Epistols  Lin- 
nasi  ;"  J.  '1'rapp,  "  Life  of  Linnxus,"  1794  ;  Stoever,  "  Leben  des 
Ritters  C.  von  Linn^,"  2  vols.,  1792;  Adam  Afzelius,  "  Egenhan- 
diga  Anteckniiit;ar  af  C.  Linnsus  om  sie  sjelf,"  1823  ;  Antonio 
Cattanko,  "  Cenni  sulla  Vita  di  C.  Linne,"  1838;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gdnerale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1785. 

Linnaeus,  (Linne,)  von,  (Charles  or  Carl,)  only 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Fahlun  in  1 741.  He 
was  chosen  demonstrator  of  botany  at  the  Royal  Garden 
of  Upsal  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  succeeded  his  father 
as  professor  in  the  university  of  that  place  in  1778.  He 
published  "Two  Decades  of  Rare  Plants  of  the  Gar- 
den of  Upsal,"  "Methodus  Muscorum,"  ("Method  of 
Mosses,")  and  a  few  other  small  works.  His  talents 
were  moderate.  He  died  in  1783,  and  the  family  then 
became  extinct. 

Linn6.     See  Linn.«us. 

Lin'nell,  (John,)  a  successful  English  portrait-  and 
landscape-painter,  born  in  London  in  1792.  Among 
his  well-known  works  are  "A  Heath  Scene,"  "The 
Windmill,"  (1847,)  "The  Eve  of  the  Deluge,"  (1848,) 
■■'The  Return  of  Ulysses,"  (1849,)  "Christ  and  the 
Woman  of  Samaria,"  (1850,)  "The  Forest  Road,"  (1853,) 
'  The  Last  Gleam  before  the  Storm,"  "  The  Last  Sleep," 


(1869,)  "  Sleeping  for  Sorrow,"  (1870,)  "  Shelter,"  (1871,) 
"Forward,"  (1872,)  "The  Coming  Storm,"  (1873,) 
"Woods  and  Forest,"  (1875,)  "Autumn,"  (1877,)  and 
"The  Heath,"  (1878.)     Died  January  20,  1882. 

Linschooten,  van,  vSn  lin'sKS'ten,  (Adriaan,)  a 
skilful  Dutch  painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Delft 
in  1590.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Repentance  of  Saint 
Peter."     Died  about  1678. 

Linschooten  or  Linschoten,  van,  (Jan  Hugo,)  i^ 
Dutch  voyager,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1563.  He  went  to 
Goa  in  1583,  and  remained  there  several  years  in  the 
service  of  Archbishop  Fonseca.  After  his  return,  he 
published  in  1596  an  "Account  of  his  Voyage,  with  a 
Description  of  the  Portuguese  East  Indies,"  which  is 
said  to  be  reliable,  and  has  often  been  reprinted.  Died 
in  1633. 

Linsenbahrt,  lin'sen-baut ,  |Lat.  Rosi'nus  Len- 
TIl'ilts, ]  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Waldenburg 
in  1657;  died  at  Stuttgart  in  1733. 

Lint,  van,  \h^  Hnt,  (Hendrik,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  lived  probably  about  163:^-50.  He 
worked  in  Rome,  where  he  obtained  the  surname  of 
Studio.     Among  his  works  's  "  Views  near  Rome." 

Lint,  van,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Antwerj)  in  1609.  He  worked  in  Rome,  and 
afterwards  at  Antwerp,  to  which  he  returned  in  1639, 
and  was  patronized  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark.  He 
was  a  good  colorist,  a  correct  designer,  and  painted 
history  with  equal  success  in  large  or  small  pictures. 
Died  about  1668. 

Lin'ton,  (Ei.iza  Lynn,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at 
Keswick  in  1822.  Her  maiden  name  was  Lyn.n.  In 
1S58  she  married  W.  J.  Linton,  the  engraver.  Among 
her  works  are  "  Azeth,"  (1846,)  "  True  History  of  Joshua 
Davidson,"  (1872,)  "Patricia  Kemball,"  (1874,)  "The 
Girl  of  the  Period,"  "lone,"  (1882,)  etc. 

Lin'ton,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Liverpool  about  1790.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  in  his  youth,  and  afterwards  travelled 
extensively  in  the  South  of  Europe.  The  subjects  of  his 
best  works  are  Italian  and  Grecian  scenes,  among  which 
are  "The  Bay  of  Naples,"  "Lake  Lugano,"  "Ruins 
of  Paestum,"  "Athens,"  and  "An  Arcadian  Landscape." 
His  style  is  simple  and  rather  austere.     Died  in  1876. 

Linton,  (Willia.m  Ja.vies,)  an  eminent  wood-engraver 
and  author,  born  in  London,  December  7,  181 2.  He 
took  part  (1844-48)  in  various  Chartist  and  republican 
movements.  He  removed  in  1867  to  the  United  States. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Wood-Engraving," 
"Works  of  Deceased  British  Artists,"  (1S60,)  "Claribel, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1865,)  "  Life  of  Thomas  Paine," 
"  Practical  Hints  on  Wood- Engraving,"  (1879,)  "  History 
of  Wood-Engraving  in  America,"  (1882,)  "  Rare  Poems," 
(edited,  18S2,)  "Golden  Apples  of  Hesperus,"  (edited, 
1882,)  "English  Verse,"  (edited,  with  R.  H.  Stoddard, 
1883,)  and  "A  Manual  of  Wood-Engraving,"  (18S4.) 

Li'nus,  [Gr.  Aivof,]  a  fabulous  personage,  whom  the 
ancients  regarded  as  a  son  of  Apollo  or  Mercury,  and  as 
one  of  the  inventors  of  poetry.  He  is  called  by  some 
authors  a  personification  of  the  dirge.  Among  the  an- 
cient Greeks  circulated  a  plaintive  song  or  dirge  called 
"Linus,'"  which  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  ("Iliad,"  xviii. 
569.)  According  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by  Hercules, 
who  was  his  puijil. 

Li'nus,  [Fr.  Lin,  liN,]  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  a  native 
of  Volterra,  in  Tuscany.  According  to  some  accounts, 
he  became  bisho])  in  66  A.D.,  and  was  the  immediate 
successor  of  Saint  Peter.  Little  is  known  of  his  history  ; 
but  it  is  supposed  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  about  78 
A.D.  He  is  mentioned  in  Saint  Paul's  second  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  cliaj).  iv.  21. 

Lin'Tvood,  (Maky,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Birming- 
ham in  1755,  made,  in  needle-work,  copies  of  many  pic- 
tures of  the  old  masters.  She  was  offered,  it  is  said,  three 
thousand  guineas  for  one  of  her  works.     Died  in  1845. 

Lionardo  da  Vinci.    See  Vinci,  da. 

Li'o-nel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  the  third  son  of  Edward 
III.  of  England,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1338.  He  died 
in  1368,  leaving  no  issue  except  a  daughter,  Philippa, 
who  was  married  to  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March. 


k 


«  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hanl:  g  as/.-  g,  H,  Vi,giittii>-al;  N,  luisal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LIONNE 


1560 


LIFS 


Lionne,  de,  deh  le'on',  (Hugues,)  Marquis  de  Bernv, 
a  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Grenoble 
in  161 1.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1655. 
He  succeeded  Mazarin  in  i66i  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  which  he  directed  with  great  ability  for  ten  years^ 
Died  in  1671 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Menioires :"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
Cais." 

Lionnet.     See  Lyon  net. 

Liotard,  le'o'tiR',  (Jean  firiENNE,)  a  Swiss  portrait- 
painter,  surnamed  THE  TuRK,  because  he  adopted  the 
Turkish  costume,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1702.  In  1725 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  acquired  reputation  by  his 
skill  in  crayon  and  enamel  miniatures.  He  worked  four 
years  in  Constantinople,  (1738-42),  painting  Turkish  cos- 
tumes, etc.  He  afterwards  painted  portraits  of  the  royal 
families  of  Austria  and  France.     Died  in  1790. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Liotard,  (Jean  Michel,)  a  twin-brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Geneva  in  1702,  was  an  engraver,  and 
one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Benoit  Audran.  He  engraved 
the  great  cartoons  of  C.  Cignani  in  Italy,  and  afterwards 
worked  in  Paris.  He  returned  to  Geneva,  where  he 
died  about  1760. 

Liotard,  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist,  born  near 
Grenoble  in  1729,  was  originally  a  poor  peasant.  He 
acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  the  plants  of  the  Alps, 


and  was   employed   as   guide   by  J.  J.    Rousseau   and 

■  d  for  some  years  with 

Rousseau.     Died  in  1796. 


Desfontaines.      He   corresponded 


Liouville,  le'oo'vil',  (Joseph,)  an  able  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1809.  He  became  in 
1839  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  wrote  several  im- 
portant treatises,  and  edited  for  a  long  time  a  journal 
of  ])ure  mathematics  called  by  his  name. 

Lipano,  de,  di  le-pi'no.  Countess,  was  the  title 
assumed  by  Caroline,  Queen  cf  Naples,  after  the  death 
of  Murat,  her  husband.  See  Bonaparte,  (Carolinf 
Marie.) 

Liparini,  le-pi-ree'nee,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Bologna  in  iSoo  ;  died  in  1856. 

Lipenius,  le-pa'ne-iis,  (Martin,)  a  learned  German 
bibliographer,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1630,  was  rector 
of  gymnasiums  at  Halle  and  Stettin.  He  compiled 
"Bibliotheca  Juridica,"  (1679,)  "Bibliotheca  Realis,  etc. 
Philosophica,"  (2  vols.,  1682,)  "Bibliotheca  Realis  The- 
ologica,"  (2  vols.,  1685,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Lubeck  in  1692. 

See  J.  H.  VON  Shelen,  "Vita  M.  Lipenii,"  edited  by  Jenichen, 
1737;  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires." 

Lipinski,  le-p^n'skee,  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  Polish 
violinist,  born  at  Radzin  in  1790.  He  received  the  title 
of  first  violinist  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia.     Died  1861. 

Lippert,  lip'p^Rt,  (Philipp  Daniel,)  a  German  artist 
and  glyptographer,  was  born  at  Meissen  in  1703.  He 
published  "  Dactyliotheca ;  or,  A  Collection  of  Two 
Thousand  Prints  of  Antique  Gems."     Died  in  1785^ 

Lippe-Schaumburg,  von,  fon  lip'peh  showm'booRG, 
(Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  Count,  a  German  general,  born 
in  London  in  1724.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  the 
Austrian  army,  and  afterwards  travelled  in  Italy.  He 
obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  British  troops  sent 
in  1 761  to  aid  Portugal,  which  he  defended  with  success 
against  the  Spaniards.     Died  in  1777. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lippi,  lip'pee,  (Annibale,)  a  Roman  architect,  wiio 
lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Lippi,  (FiLiPPO,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  old 
Italian  painters  in  oil  and  fresco,  born  at  Florence  in  1412. 
was  a  pupil  of  Masaccio.  Before  he  was  of  age  he  was 
captured  by  pirates  and  enslaved  in  Africa.  His  master 
was  so  pleased  with  a  portrait  of  himself,  drawn  with  a 
coal  on  the  wall,  that  he  gave  the  artist  his  liberty. 
Lippi  then  returned  to  Florence,  and  adorned  the 
churches  and  convents  of  that  city,  and  of  Spoleto, 
Prato,  etc.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  Madonna, 
in  oil,  "The  Life  of  Saint  Stephen,"  "The  Death  of  San 
Bernardo,"  in  oil,  at  Prato,  two  "  Annunciations,"  and 
"The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  in  fresco.    He  excelled 


in  invention,  design,  and  colouring,  and  is  ranked  among 
the  greatest  painters  before  Raphael.     Died  in  1469. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  P.iinters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in    Italy;"  Baldinucci,   "  Notizie ;"  Ticozzi,   "Dizionario." 

Lippi,  (FiLiPPO  or  Filippino,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1460,  and  became  an  excellent 
painter.  He  studied  with  Sandro  Botticelli,  and  worked 
chierty  in  Florence  and  Rome.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  good  taste  and  correctness  of  design,  and  was 
perhaps  the  first  painter  among  the  moderns  who  treated 
costumes  and  other  accessories  with  propriety.  Am<jng 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Peter  and  Saint  Paul  before 
the  Proconsul,"  the  "  Death  of  Lucretia,"  at  the  Pitti 
palace  in  Florence,  several  Madonnas,  and  frescos  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  in  the  same  city.     Died  in  1505. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Painters  :"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale." 

Lippi,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Bo- 
logna in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  L.  Caracci. 

Lippi,  (Lippo,)  called  Lippo  of  Florence,  a  Floren- 
tine painter,  born  in  1354,  was  the  father  of  Filippo 
Lippi,  (1412-69.)  His  works,  which  are  praised  by 
Vasari,  are  not  now  extant.     Died  in  141 5. 

Lippi,  (Lorenzo,)  a  successful  Italian  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1606,  received  lessons  in  art 
from  Roselli.  He  worked  in  Florence,  and  was  reputed 
one  of  the  best  draughtsmen  of  his  time.  "The  Martyr- 
dom of  Saint  Sebastian"  and  "The  Triumph  of  David" 
are  called  his  master-pieces.  He  wrote  a  facetious  poem 
called  "II  Malmantile  racquistato,"  (1676,)  which  was 
admired  and  recognized  by  the  Academy  della  Crusca 
among  the  tcsti  di  lingita.     Died  in  1664. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;"  Lanzi, 
"History  of  Painting  ill  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie." 

Lip'piii-cott,  (Joshua  B.,)  an  American  publisher, 
distinguished  for  his  ability,  energy,  and  enterprise, 
was  born  in  Burlington  county.  New  Jersey,  March  18, 
1813.  About  1828  he  came  to  Philadelphia,  and  at  an 
early  age  commenced  the  publishing  and  bookselling 
business,  which  he  conducted  successfully.  In  1850  he 
purchased  the  business  of  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  and 
the  firm  of  which  he  became  the  head  soon  took  its  place 
among  the  most  distinguished  publishing  houses  in  the 
United  States.     Died  January  5,  18S6. 

Lippincott,  (Sarah  J.,)  a  popular  American  wTiter, 
whose  original  name  was  Clarke,  was  born  at  Pompey, 
in  Onondaga  county.  New  York,  about  1S25.  Her  first 
productions  appeared  in  the  New  York  "  Mirror,"  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Grace  Greenwood.  She  also 
contributed  to  the  "  National  Era,"  Washington.  Her 
principal  works  are  "Greenwood  Leaves,"  (1850-52.) 
"History  of  my  Pets,"  (1850,)  "  Poems,"  (1851,)  "  Recol- 
lections of  my  Childhood,"  (1851,)  "  Haps  and  Misiiaps 
of  a  Tour  in  Europe,"  (1852,)  "Forest  Tragedy,  and 
other  Tales,"  (1856,)  "Stories  and  Legends  of  History 
and  Travel,"  (1857,)  "Stories  from  P\imous  Ballads," 
(i860,)  "  Stories  of  Many  Lands,"  "  Stories  and  Sights  in 
France  and  Italy,"  "Records  of  Five  Years,"  (1867,) 
"New  Life  in  New  Lands,"  (1S73,)  and  "  Life  of  Queen 
Victoria,"  (1883.)  She  was  married  in  1S53  to  Leander  K. 
Lippincott,  of  Philadelphia,  where  she  became  editor  of  a 
popular  juvenile  periodical  called  "The.  Little  Pilgrim." 

Lippo  OF  Florence.     See  Lippi. 

Lippomani,  IJp-po-mi'nee,  (.^loisio,)  a  learned  Ital 
ian  prelate,  born  at  Venice  about  1500.  He  obtained 
successively  the  bishoprics  of  Modon,  Verona,  and  Ber- 
gamo, and  was  one  of  three  prelates  selected  to  preside 
over  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  1556  he  became  secretary 
to  Pope  Julius  HI.  He  wrote,  besides  a  few  other  works, 
commentaries  on  Genesis,  Exodus,  and  the  Psalms.  Died 

'"  1559- 

Liprandi,  le-pRSn'dee,  (Paul  Petrovitch,)  a  Rus 
sian  general,  born  in  1796,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
taking  of  Warsaw,  in  1831,  and  in  the  Crimean  war  took 
(1854)  the  Turkish  fortress  at  Kadikoi.      Died  in  1864. 

Lips,  lips,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  painter,  de- 
signer, and  engraver,  born  near  Zurich  in  1758.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  engravings  for  Lavater's  "  Phys- 
iognomical Fragments,"  and  a  "Saint  Sebastian,"  aftei 
Van  Dyck.     Died  in  181 7. 


a.  e.  T,  0.  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  ^, short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good ;  moon 


LIPSE 


1561 


LISTER 


\ 


Lipse,  (Juste.)     See  Lii'Sius. 

Iiipsius,  lip'se-us,  (Justus,)  [Fr.  Juste  Lii-se,  zhiisi 
l^ps,|  a  Flemish  scholar,  critic,  and  philologist  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Isque,  between  Brussels  and 
Louvain,  in  1547.  He  was  educated  at  Brussels  and 
Louvain.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  produced  "  Various 
Readings,"  ("  Variae  Lcctiones,")  which  were  received 
with  favour.  He  was  professor  of  history  in  Jena  two 
years,  ending  in  1574,  and  occupied  the  same  chair  at 
Leyden  from  1579  to  1592.  About  this  time  he  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  history 
at  Louvain.  He  wrote  many  works  on  history,  criticism, 
antiquities,  etc.,  which  were  very  popular  in  his  time. 
His  best  work,  according  to  Scaliger,  is  a  commentary 
on  Tacitus,  (1574,)  whose  history,  it  is  said,  he  knew  by 
heart.  His  admiration  of  Tacitus  and  Seneca  spoiled 
his  Latinity,  which  was  affectedly  concise.  His  moral 
character  is  said  to  have  been  good.     Died  in  1606. 

See  MiR^us,  "Vita  Jiisti  Lipsii,"  1606;  Scribani,  "Just!  Lipsu 
Defer.sio;"  Charles  Nisard,  "  Le  Triumvirat  litteraire  au  XVIe 
Slide,  J.  Lipse,  Joseph  Scaliger  et  I.  Casaubon,"  1852;  Edward 
VAN  Even,  "  J.  Lipsius  als  Vaderlander,"  184(5;  Bayle,  "  Historica) 
and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Liron,  le'ri.N',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Chartres  in  1665,  lived  in  Paris  and  at 
Mans.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Amenities  of  Criti- 
cism," (2  vols.,  1717,)  and  a  curious  book  called  "His- 
toric and  Literary  Oddities,"  ("  Singularites  historiques 
et  litteraires,"  4  vols.,  1734-40.)     Died  in  1749. 

Liruti,  le-roo'tee,  (Giovanni  Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  Friuli  about  1710;  died  in  1780. 

Lis,  lis  or  liss,  (Charles  Augusts,)  a  Belgian  com- 
poser, born  at  Antwerp  in  1784;  died  in  1845. 

Lis  or  Lys,  liss,  or  Van  der  Lys,  vtn  der  liss,  (Jan,) 
a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1570.  He  wciked 
in  Rome  and  Venice,  taking  for  his  models  Titian  and 
Paul  Veronese.  Some  critics  find  in  his  works  the  good 
colouring  of  the  former  with  the  grace  of  the  latter. 
Among  his  productions  are  "Adam  and  Eve  Mourning  for 
Abel,"  and  "The  Prodigal  Son."   Died  at  Venice  in  1629. 

Lis  or  Lys,  van  der,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Breda  about  1600.  A  picture  of  "  Diana  Bathing"  is 
called  his  best  work. 

Lisboa,  de,  di  Ifes-bo'S,  (Marcos,)  a  Portuguese  his- 
torian and  Franciscan  friar,  born  at  Lisbon  in  15 11. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Order  of  Friars  of  Saint 
Francis,"  (3  vols.,  1556,  1570,  1660,)  and  is  ranked  among 
the  classic  authors  of  Portugal.     Died  in  1591. 

Liscov,  lis'kof,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  the  most  ex- 
cellent satirist  and  prose  writer  of  Germany  before  Les- 
sing,  was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1701.  He  lived  at 
Lubeck,  Dresden,  etc.,  and  about  1741  became  secretary 
to  Bruhl,  the  Saxon  minister.  In  1745  he  obtained  the 
title  of  Kriegsrath,  (councillor  of  war,)  but  a  few  years 
later  he  was  removed  from  office.  He  published  in  1739 
a  "Collection  of  Satirical  and  Serious  Writings."  His 
style  was  remarkable  for  ])urity.  His  works  are  per- 
vaded by  a  sound  philosophical  spirit,  and  have  been 
more  highly  appreciated  since  his  death  than  before. 
He  was  a  complete  master  of  the  weapons  of  irony. 
One  of  his  treatises  is  entitled  "The  Excellence  and 
"Jtility  of  Bad  Writers."     Died  in  1760. 

See  LiscH,  "Liscovs  Leben,"  184s;  Kari.  Gustav  Helbig, 
"C.  L.  Liscow:  Beitrag  zur  Literatur-  und  Cultur-Geschichte,"  etc., 
•  844. 

Lisfranc,  le'fKdN',  (Jacques,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  the  department  of  Loire  in  1790.  Among 
his  works  is  "Diseases  of  the  Uterus,"  ("Maladies  de 
rUterus,"  1836.)     Died  in  1847. 

See  L.  A.  Coutourier,  "  Biographie  de  J.  Lisfranc,"  1852 ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Lisgar,  Lord.     See  Young,  (Sir  John.) 
Lisle,  ITl,  (Lady  Alice,)  was  the  widow  of  an  English 
lawyer  who  took  an  active  part  against  Charles  I.     She 
was  condemned  to  death  by  Judge  Jeffreys,  and  executed 
in  1685. 

See  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. 

Lisle,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  royalist  officer,  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Newbury.  Having 
been  taken  jirisoner  at  Colchester  in  1648,  he  was  shot. 

L'lsle-Adam.     See  Villiers  de  lTsle  Ada.m. 


Lisle,  de.     See  Delisle. 

Lisle,  de,  deh  Itl,  (Jean  Baptiste  Isoard,)  a  prolific 
French  writer,  called  also  Delisle  de  Sales,  was  borr. 
at  Lyons  in  1743.  He  was  condemned  to  exile  for  the 
alleged  immorality  of  his  "  Philosophy  of  Nature," 
which  consequently  attracted  attention  ;  but  his  sentence 
was  annulled  or  remitted.  He  wrote  many  other  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

ijismanin,  lis-mJ-neen',  (Francis,)  a  Socinian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Corfu,  became  confessor  to  the  Queen  of 
Poland  about  1546.     Died  about  1563. 

Lisola,  de,  deh  le'zo'lS',  (Francois  Paul,)  Baron, 
an  able  diplomatist,  born  at  Salins,  France,  in  1613.  He 
was  successively  employed  by  the  Emperor  of  Gennany 
as  minister  to  England,  (1743,)  to  Poland,  and  to  Spain. 
He  wrote  several  successful  political  treatises,  one  of 
which,  called  "Shield  of  the  State  and  of  Justice," 
(1667,)  was  directed  against  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  about  1675. 

List,  list,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  political  economist, 
was  born  at  Reutlingen  in  1789.  In  1825  he  emigrated 
to  Pennsylvania,  where  he  was  extensively  engaged  in 
coal-mining,  and  published,  in  English,  "Outlines  of  a 
New  System  of  Political  Economy,"  (Philadeljihia,  1827.) 
Having  been  appointed  United  States  consul  at  Leipsic, 
he  returned  to  Europe  in  1832,  and  in  several  publica- 
tions efficiently  advocated  the  construction  of  railroads 
in  Germany.  He  published  "A  National  System  of  Po- 
litical Economy,"  (Stuttgart,  1841,)  in  which  he  favours 
the  ]3rotection  of  native  industry.  He  committed  suicide 
in  1S46.  Since  his  death  his  merit  has  been  more  fully 
recognized  throughout  Germany. 

See  "  Life  of  List,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works  published 
at  Stuttgart,  1851. 

Lista  y  Aragon,  lis'ti  e  i-ri-g6n',  (Don  Alberto,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  critic,  and  mathematician,  j3orn 
at  Triana,  a  suburb  of  Seville,  in  1775.  ^^  ''^^  ■'g^  of 
twenty  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  nau- 
tical college  of  Seville.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric 
and  poetry  in  the  university  of  that  city  in  1807,  but  lost 
it  in  consequence  of  the  French  invasion  of  1808.  He 
passed  about  four  years  as  an  exile  in  France,  from  18 13 
to  1817.  In  1820  he  began  to  edit  "The  Censor,"  at 
Madrid.  After  various  removals  and  adverse  fortunes, 
he  became  about  1833  editor  of  the  "  Gaceta  de  Madrid," 
which  in  his  hands  was  an  able  and  successful  political 
journal.  In  1822  he  published  a  volume  of  poems,  which 
are  greatly  admired.  His  superior  critical  ability  is  dis- 
played in  his  "Lectures  on  the  I!)ramatic  Literature  of 
Spain,"  (1839.)  He  also  published  a  "Treatise  on  Pure 
and  Mi.xed  Mathematics,"  which  is  a  standard  work. 
.\s  a  lyric  poet  he  united  the  fervour  and  sj^lendid  colour 
of  the  old  Spanish  school  with  the  purer  taste  and  depth 
of  reflection  of  the  moderns.  His  imitations  of  Horace, 
in  his  "  Philosophic  Poems,"  are  admirable.  Died  in  1848. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Lis'ter,  (Joseph  Jackson,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mer- 
chant of  London,  who  attained  distinction  by  his  know- 
ledge of  optics  and  by  his  improvement  of  the  achromatic 
microscope.  He  had  been  led  to  the  use  of  that  in- 
strument by  a  love  of  natural  history.  About  1828  he 
produced  a  coinbination  of  lenses  which  was  perfectly 
achromatic,  with  a  large  focal  pencil,  thus  surmounting 
what  had  before  been  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  perfection 
')f  the  microscope.  He  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  an 
account  of  it,  which  was  inserted  in  their  "Philosophical 
Transactions." 

Lister,  (Martin,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Radcliffe  (Bucks)  about  1638.  In  1670  he  settled 
at  York,  where  he  practised  medicine.  He  removed  to 
London  in  1684,  and  published  "Synopsis  Conchylio- 
rum,"  (1685-93,)  a  valuable  work  on  conchology,  which 
was  highly  commended  by  Linnaeus.  In  1709  he  became 
physician  to  Queen  Anne.  He  wrote  three  excellent 
treatises  on  English  Spiders,  Fluviatile  Shells,  and 
Marine  Shells,  (1678,)  and  other  works.  "Lister  may 
be  reckoned,"  says  Hallam,  "one  of  those  who  have 
done  most  to  found  the  science  of  conchologv."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")     Died  in  1711. 

See  Thompson,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society." 


cas/^,-  cas.f,-  %karJ;  gd^/;  G,ii,K,!;tMura/;  N,>tasa/;  R,iri//eJ;  sasz;  thasin//;/r.     (2^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23  ) 


LISTER 


1^62 


LITTRE 


Lister,  (Sir  Matihkw,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Yorkshire  about  1565.  He  became  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  London,  and  pliysician  to  Charles 
I.     Died  in  1657. 

Lister,  (Thomas  Henry,)  an  English  author  and 
gentleman,  born  about  1800,  was  the  son  of  Thomas 
Lister,  Esq.,  of  Armitage  Park.  He  obtained  the  offirt 
of  registrar-general  of  births.  He  published  two  novels, 
entitled  "Granby,"  (1826,)  and  "  Herbert  Lacy,"  and  a 
"  Life  of  Lord  Clarendon  the  Historian."  lie  married 
the  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  known  as  the  au- 
thoress of  "  Sketches  of  the  Contemporaries  of  Lord 
(Ihancellor  Clarendon."  Died  in  1842.  In  1844  his 
widow  became  the  wife  of  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis. 
He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Lord  John  Russell. 

Lis'ton,  (John,)  a  popular  English  comedian,  born 
in  London  in  175'6,  appeared  on  the  London  i,tage  about 
1805.  He  excelled  in  low  comedy,  and  acted  many  years 
at  the  Haymarket,  Covent  Garden,  and  Drury  Lane 
Theatres.     Died  in  1846. 

Lis'ton,  (Robert,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Scottish  phy- 
sician, born  in  1794.  About  1S17  he  began  to  practise 
in  Edinburgh,  where  he  attained  great  eminence  as  a 
surgeon.  In  1833  he  published  his  "  Principles  of  Sur- 
gery." He  removed  to  London  in  1834,  practised  with 
success,  and  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
University  College.     Died  in  1848. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement  ) 

Liszinski,  le-shfen'skee,  (Casimir,)  a  Polish  philoso- 
pher, who  was  beheaded  in  1689  on  a  false  charge  of 
heresy  or  atheism. 

Liszt,  list,  (Franz,)  a  Hungarian  musician,  and  the 
most  celebrated  pianist  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Rai- 
ding in  181 1.  He  was  instructed  by  Czerny  and  Salieri 
at  Vienna,  and  afterwards  repaired  to  Paris,  where  his 
perfx)rmance  made  a  great  sensation.  About  1S23  ht 
visited  England,  and  was  received  with  equal  enthusiasm. 
Having,  after  his  return  to  Paris,  heard  Paganini,  he  re- 
solvedto  obtain  the  same  mastery  over  the  piano  which 
that  great  musician  had  gained  over  the  violin  ;  and  it  is 
generally  allowed  that  he  succeeded.  He  visited  the 
principal  cities  of  Europe,  and  everywhere  excited  the 
warmest  admiration.  Though  he  produced  many  com- 
positions, he  chiefly  excelled  as  a  performer.  Liszt 
was  distinguished  for  generosity,  and  gave  largely  to 
charitable  and  useful  institutions.  In  1848  he  was  ap- 
pointed leader  of  the  orchestra  in  the  imperial  chapel 
at  Weimar.  In  1865  he  became  a  cleric  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Liszt  had  several  natural  children, 
one  of  whom  (Cosima,  whose  mother  was  the  Countess 
d'Agoult)  was  married  first  to  Von  Biilow  and  then  to 
Richard  Wagner.  Another  daughter  married  £mile 
Ollivier.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life  of  Frederick 
Chopin."     Died  July  31,  1886. 

See  L.  Rellstab,  "  F.  Liszt:  BeurtheiliiiiKen,  Berichte,  Lebens- 
skiz/.e,"  1842;  GusTAV  Schilling,  "  F.  Liszt:  sein  Leben  und 
Wirken,"  1844;  F.  Kempe,  "  F.  Liszt;"  Richard  Wagner,  "Apho- 
ristische  Memoiren,"  etc.,  1852. 

Lith'gow,  (William,)  a  traveller,  who  traversed  on 
foot  a  large  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  pub- 
lished in  1614  an  entertaining  narrative  of  his  travels. 
At  Malaga  he  was  arrested  as  a  spy  and  heretic,  and 
tortured  by  the  Inquisition. 

Lithov,  lit'hov,  .'  (Gustavus,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  In 
Sweden  in  1692.  In  1734  he  published  "Heroic-Mis- 
cellaneous Poems,"  (  Poemata  heroico-miscellanea." ) 
His  "Panegyric  on  Charles  XII."  (1720)  produced  a 
great  sensation.     Died  in  1753. 

Lit'olff,  (Henry  Charles,)  an  English  pianist  and 
comijoser,  born  in  London,  February  6,  iSiS.  His  father, 
an  Alsatian,  had  settled  in  London  as  a  violinist  He 
has  given  concerts  in  the  principal  European  cities,  and, 
after  many  wanderings,  finally  settled  in  Paris. 

Litta,  l^t'ti,  (PoMPEO,)  Count,  an  Italian  historical 
writer,  born  in  Milan  in  1781.  He  entered  the  French 
army  in  1S04,  fought  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and,  having 
obtained  the  grade  of  chef-de-bataiHoit,  left  the  service  in 
1814.  In  iSighe  began  to  publish  at  Milan  his  famous 
and  costly  work,  "  Celebrated  Italian  Families,"  which 
was  continued  until  his  death,  and  contains  accounts  of 


seventy-five  families.     It  is  considered  remarkable  for 
historical  accuracy.     Died  in  1852. 
See  Bkockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Little.     See  Moore,  (Thomas.) 

Lit'tle,  (Henry,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Bal- 
timore, served  in  Mexico  in  1846,  and  entered  the  Con- 
federate army  in  i86l  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
(ilka,  in  1862. 

Lit'tle,  (William,)  an  English  historian,  called  Nau 
itRiGENSis,  was  born  at  Bridlington,  Yorkshire,  in  1 136. 
He  became  a  monk  of  Newborough  Abbey,'and  wrote  a 
■'  History  of  England  from  the  Conquest  to  1 197,"  which 
!S  a  work  of  merit. 

Little,  (W.  J.  Knox.)     See  Knox-Little. 

Lit'tle-dale.  (Richard  Frederick,)  LL.D.,  a  British 
clergyman,  born  at  Dublin,  September  14,  1833.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1854,  and  in 
1856  took  orders  in  the  English  Church.  He  published 
a  large  number  of  works,  controversial,  liturgical,  and 
other.  He  was  of  the  extreme  High-Church  party,  but 
was  a  zealous  anti-Romanist.     Died  January  11,  1890. 

Lit'tle-j6hu,  (  Abra.m  Newkirk,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Florida,  New  York,  December  13,  1824, 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1845,  took  orders  in  the 
Episcopal  Church,  1848,  1849,  and  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Long  Island  (the  first  of  that  title)  in  1869. 
He  has  made  large  and  important  contributions  to  cur- 
rent religious  literature. 

Lit' tie-ton,  (Adam,)  an  English  divine,  eminent  a.t 
a  philologist  and  Orientalist,  was  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1627.  He  became  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  rector  of 
Chelsea,  and  prebendary  of  Westminster.  His  Latin 
Dictionary  (1679)  was  esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  He 
published  many  sermons,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1694. 

Littleton,  (Edward,)  Lord,  lord  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  of  England,  born  at  Munslow,  Shropshire,  in  1589, 
was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  jurist  Thomas  Littleton. 
After  finishing  his  studies  in  the  Inner  Temple,  he  soon 
rose  to  the  summit  of  his  profession.  In  1626  he  entered 
Parliament,  where  he  was  at  first  a  zealous  adherent  of 
the  popular  party,  but  afterwards  went  over  to  the  court 
with  Wentworth  and  others.  He  was  made  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas  in  1640,  and  reluctantly  accepted 
the  great  seal  in  January,  164L  He  was  then  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Lord  Littleton.  The  vacillation  which 
he  displayed  in  the  contest  between  Charles  I.  and  the 
Parliament  is  ascribed  to  lack  of  moral  courage  ;  but  be 
was  suspected  of  perfidy  by  the  royalists  and  by  the  king. 
In  1642  the  king,  then  at  York,  ordered  Falkland  to  de- 
mand the  great  seal  from  the  "  traitor."  Littleton  soon 
joined  the  court  at  York,  and,  through  the  intercession 
of  Lord  Clarendon,  was  retained  in  office  until  his  death, 
in  1645.  "He  was,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "a  man  of 
excellent  private  character." 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  En^ 
land,"  1846;  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Littleton,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet.  He  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Maple  Durham  about  1727, 
and  was  afterwards  chaplain  to  the  king.  He  was  author 
of  Verses  on  a  Spider,  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1734. 

Littleton,  Lord.     See  Lyttleton. 

Littleton  or  Lyttleton,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated 
English  judge  and  jurist,  born  probably  about  1420,  was 
the  son  of  Thomas  Westcote,  of  Devonshire,  and  Eliza- 
beth Littleton.  He  studied  in  the  Inner  Temple.  In 
1455  he  was  appointed  king's  Serjeant,  and  rode  the 
northern  circuit  as  judge  of  assize.  After  the  triumph 
of  the  house  of  York,  he  received  a  pardon  from  Edward 
IV.,  about  1462,  and  was  retained  in  the  office  of  king's 
sergeant.  He  was  ajipointed  a  judge  of  the  court  of 
common  ple.as  in  1466,  and  created  a  knight  of  the  Bath 
in  1475.  He  died  in  1481,  leaving  three  sons,  from  whom 
the  lord  keeper  Lyttleton  and  other  eminent  men  de- 
scended. His  treatise  on  "  Tenures,"  written  in  Norman 
French,  is  regarded  as  the  principal  basis  of  the  laws 
of  property  in  Great  Britain.  Sir  Edward  Coke  wrote  a 
celebrated  commentary  on  Littleton. 

Littre,  le'tKi',  (Maximilien  Paul  Emile,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  was  an  editor  of 
the  "  National,"  a  democratic  journal,  from  1831  to  1851 
and    published   a  translation  of   Hippocrates,  (8  vols. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y, long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  ni6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LITTROW 


M 


LIVINGSTON 


1S39-52,)  a  translation  of  Strauss's  "  Life  of  Jesus," 
(1839-40,)  "  History  of  the  French  Language,"  (1862.) 
an  admirable  "  Dictionary  of  the  Frencli  Language," 
(1863-73,)  "Medicines  and  Medical  Men,"  (1873,)  ^^C- 
In  1867  he  established  a  new  review,  •'  La  Philosophic 
Positive."  In  1871  he  became  professor  of  history  and 
geography  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.     Died  June  2,  1881. 

Littrow,  lit'tRof  or  lit'tRo,  (Joskph"  Johann,)  an 
eminent  astronomer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1781.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  at  Cracow  in  1807,  and 
at  Kazan  in  1810.  In  1819  he  became  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  Vienna,  which  he  greatly  imjjroved,  and 
lectured  on  astronomy  with  success  in  that  city.  He 
published  many  valuable  scientific  works,  among  which 
are  "Theoretic  and  Practical  Astronomy,"  (1822-26,) 
"  Dioptrics,"  (1830,)  and  "  The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens," 
(1853.)  The  last  is  called  one  of  the  best  popular  books 
on  that  subject.     Died  in  1840. 

Littrow,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Kazan  in  181 1.  He  succeeded  his  fathei 
as  director  of  the  Observatory  of  Vienna  in  1842.  The 
Annals  of  this  observatory  which  have  appeared  since 
his  appointment  are  esteemed  among  the  most  valuable 
astronomical  registers.  In  1847  Littrow  and  W.  Struve 
were  employed  to  connect  Austria  and  Russia  by  trian- 
gulation.     Littrow  died  at  Vienna,  November  16,  1877. 

Lit-y-er'sei,  [Or.  \irvzpo)]r,\  a  son  of  Midas,  King 
of  Phrygia,  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Liutprand.     See  Luitprand. 

Liutpraudus.     See  Luitprand. 

Livens.     See  Li evens. 

Liverani,  le-vi-ra'nee,  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at 
Castel-Bolognese  in  1S23,  published  in  1861  a  work 
against  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope. 

Liv'er-more,  (Auiel  Abisott,)  au  American  Unita- 
rian divine,  born  at  Wilton,  New  Hampshire,  in  i8n, 
became  in  1850  pastor  of  a  church  at  Cincinnati,  and  in 
1S63  president  of  a  theological  school  at  Meadville, 
Pennsylvania.  He  has  published  a  number  of  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  including  several  commentaries. 

Livermore,  (Mary  Ashton,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  December  19,  1S21. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Rice.  Her  husband  was  D.  P. 
Livermore,  a  Universalist  preacher.  During  the  war  of 
1861-65  she  was  very  prominent  in  the  work  of  sanitary 
relief,  both  in  the  field  and  in  the  Northern  cities.  After 
the  war  she  edited  the  "  Woman's  Journal,"  and  became 
distinguished  as  a  public  speaker. 

Liv'er-pool,  (Charles  Jenkinson,)  first  Earl  of, 
a  British  statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1727,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  Jenkinson.  In  1761  he  entered  Par- 
liament, and  was  appointed  by  Lord  Bute  under-secretary 
of  state.  After  the  retirement  of  Lord  Bute,  in  1763,  he 
acquired  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  incurred  much 
popular  odium  as  the  chief  of  the  secret  cabinet.  He 
became  one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury  in  1767,  was 
secretary  of  war  under  Lord  North  from  1778  to  1782, 
and  was  afterwards  president  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
the  ministry  of  the  younger  Pitt.  He  was  created  Lord 
Hawkesbury  in  17S6,  ancl  Earl  of  Liverpool  in  1796.  In 
1758  he  had  published  a  "Discourse  on  the  Conduct  of 
Great  Britain  with  respect  to  Neutral  Nations."  He  died 
in  1808,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  who  became  premier. 

Liverpool,  (Robert  Banks  Jenkinson,)  Earl  of, 
a  conservative  British  statesman,  eminent  for  his  pru- 
dence and  prosperity,  born  in  1770,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1790  he 
entered  Parliament  as  a  political  friend  of  Pitt.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  candour  in  debate,  by  abilities 
more  solid  than  brilliant,  and  by  his  persistent  hostility 
to  innovation  or  reform.  About  1796  he  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Hawkesbury,  and  married  a  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Bristol.  He  became  foreign  secretary  in  the 
ministry  of  Addington  in  March,  iSoi,  and  made  peace 
with  Napoleon  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802.  In 
1804  he  accepted  the  office  of  home  secretary  under  Pitt, 
who  had  returned  to  power.  The  ministry  having  been 
dissolved  by  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  Lord  Hawkesbury 
was  requested  by  the  king  to  form  a  new  ministry;  but 
be  declined  the  task.     He  took  office  as  home  secretary 


in  the  cabinet  of  the  Duke  of  Portland  in  1807,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  earldom  in  1808.  In  June,  1812, 
he  obtained  the  place  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  or 
premier,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Percival,  which  he  re- 
tained until  he  was  prostrated  by  a  stroke  of  apo]:)lexy 
in  February,  1827.  "He  presided  over  the  councils  of 
England,"  says  Brougham,  "  for  a  longer  time  than  any 
other,  excepting  Walpolc  and  Pitt.  It  happened  to  him 
that  the  years  during  which  the  helm  of  the  state,  as  it 
is  called,  were  intrusted  to  his  hands,  were  those  of  the 
greatest  events,  alike  in  negotiation,  in  war,  in  commerce, 
and  in  finance,  which  ever  happened  to  illustrate  or  to 
checker  the  annals  of  Europe.  ...  So  long  and  so  little 
interrupted  a  course  of  official  prosperity  was  never, 
perhaps,  enjoyed  by  any  other  statesman."  Brougham 
also  represents  him  as  remarkable  for  discretion  and 
as  a  model  of  safe  mediocrity.  He  is  censured  for  op- 
posing the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  for  the  part 
he  took  in  the  persecution  of  Queen  Caroline.  Died 
in  December,  1828. 

See  Brougham.  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.;" 
"  Momnirs  of  the  Public  Life  of  Lord  Liverpool,"  London,  1827. 

Liv'i-a,  [Fr.  Livie,  le've',]  or,  more  fully,  Livl-a 
Dru-sil'la,  a  Roman  emjjress,  born  in  58  k.c,  was 
first  married  to  Tiberius  Nero.  After  becoming  the 
mother  of  Tiberius  and  Drusus  Gcrmanicus,  she  was 
married  in  38  n.C.  to  the  emperor  Augustus,  over  whom 
she  acquired  an  ascendency  which  she  retained  until  his 
death.  She  persuaded  him  to  adopt  her  son  Tiberius  as 
his  successor.  By  his  last  will  he  appointed  Livia  and 
Tiberius  his  heirs,  and  directed  her  to  assume  the  name 
of  Julia  Augusta.  She  was  a  woman  of  superior  talents. 
Died  in  29  A.D. 

See  J.  D.  KoEHLER,  "Dissertatio  de  Livia  .Augusta,"  171s; 
Tacitus,  "Annales,"  i.  and  v.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bioj;raphie  Generale." 

Liv'i-a  Liv-ilTa,  a  granddaughter  of  the  preceding, 
was  the  sister  of  Germanicus.  She  became  the  wife  of 
her  cousin  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  and  was  sus- 
pected of  poisoning  her  husband  in  concert  with  Sejanus. 
She  was  put  to  death  for  that  crime,  by  order  of  Tiberius, 
about  30  A.D. 

Livie.     See  Livia. 

Livineius.     See  Li evens,  (Jan.) 

Liv'iiig-ston,  (1]rockholst,)  an  American  jurist  ana 
soldier,  born  in  New  York  in  1764,  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  subsequently  rose  to 
be  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  a  son  of  William  Livingston,  Governor  of  New 
Jersey.     Died  in  1823. 

Livingston,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  American  juri.st 
and  statesman,  born  in  Clermont,  Columbia  county.  New 
York,  on  the  26th  of  May,  1764,  was  a  son  of  Robert 
Livingston,  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York. 
His  mother  was  Klargaret  Beekman.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  in  17S1,  studied  law, 
and  began  to  practise  in  the  city  of  New  York  about 
1785.  He  married  Mary  McEvers,  of  New  York.  After 
he  had  acquired  great  eminence  as  an  advocate,  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1794  by  the  Democrats. 
He  was  re-elected  in  1796  and  in  1798.  In  iSoi  he  was 
appointed  district-attorney  of  the  United  States  for  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  elected  mayor  of  the  city  of 
New  York  for  two  years.  In  the  autumn  of  1803  he 
became  a  public  defaulter  in  consequence  of  the  mis- 
conduct of  one  of  his  clerks.  He  made  an  assignment 
of  his  property,  resigned  his  ofticcs,  and  removed  in 
1804  to  New  Orleans.  Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he 
married  a  Creole,  named  Louise  Moreau  de  Lassy,  in 
1S05.  He  enjoyed  great  professional  success  in  New 
Orleans,  and  paid  in  full  the  debt  which  he  owed  to 
the  government.  He  was  involved  in  a  long  controversy 
and  litigation  about  the  title  to  some  land,  called  the 
Batture,  which  he  purchased  in  New  Orleans.  President 
efferson  was  one  of  his  adversaries  in  this  dispute; 
out  Livingston  gained  his  cause.  At  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans,  January  8,  1815,  he  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Jackson,  who  was  his  intimate  friend.  In  1821 
he  was  authorized  by  the  legislature  of  Louisiana  to 
revise  the  system  of  criminal  law.  He  acquired  celebrity 
by  his  "System  of  Penal  Law  or  Criminal  Codes,"  pub- 
lished in  i8j3,  in  which  he  opposed  capital  punishment. 


^zsk;  <^zss;  %hard:  gas  i:  G,  h,  Vi, gttttiiral ;  N.  lusal:  \k.tr.lLui:  sasg;  th  as  \nthis.     (g^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LIVINGSTON 


1564 


LIVY 


"This  volume,"  says  the  "  Edi^l)ur^h  Review"  for  July, 
1864,  "  is  a  perfect  treasure-house  of  juridical  and  legis- 
lative schemes  and  suggestions,  doctrines  and  contri- 
vances ;  and  its  indirect  influence  has  been  immense." 
M.  Villemain  declared  the  "System"  to  be  "a  work 
without  examijle  from  the  hand  of  any  one  man.  .  .  . 
The  lapse  of  time  has  deepened  and  strengthened  the 
foundations  of  his  fame." 

He  represented  a  district  of  Louisiana  in  Congress 
froni  1S23  to  1829,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in  the 
latter  year.  In  April  or  May,  1831,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  by  President  Jackson.  Having  re- 
signed this  office  in  May,  1833,  he  was  immediately 
appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  France,  where  he 
is  said  to  have  "hit  the  happy  medium  between  firm- 
ness and  conciliation  in  diplomacy."  He  returned  home 
about  the  end  of  1835,  and  died  at  Rhinebeck,  New 
York,  in  May,  1836.     He  had  several  children. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Edward  Livingston,"  by  Charles  Havens  Hunt, 
with  an  Introduction  by  George  Bancroft,  1864;  "National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i.  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1S36. 

Liv'ing-ston,  (John,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine, 
born  in  1603.  Having  declined  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance in  1663,  he  was  banished,  and  retired  to  Rotter- 
dam, where  he  died  in  1672. 

See  Cham  HERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
A.  GUNN   "Memoirs  of  J.  Livingston,"  New  York,  1829. 

Livingston,  (Rev.  John  H.,)  an  American  divine 
of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  born  at  Poughkeepsie, 
New  York,  in  1746.  Having  studied  at  Yale  College 
and  in  Holland,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D., 
he  became,  on  his  return,  pastor  of  the  Dutch  Church 
in  New  York.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Queen's  College,  New  Jersey,  in  1807,  and  president 
of  that  institution  in  1810.     Died  in  1825. 

Living.ston,  (Philip,)  an  American  revolutionist,  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  Al- 
bany in  1716.  He  graduated  at  Vale  College  in  1737, 
and  in  1759  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  colony  from  the  city  of  New  York.  In  177c 
he  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed  to  correspond 
with  the  celebrated  Edmund  Burke,  then  agent  for  the 
colony  of  New  York.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Congress  of  1774  and  1776.     Died  in  1778. 

Livingston,  (Robert,)  the  first  possessor  of  the 
Livingston  Manor,  New  York,  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
1654.  He  emigrated  to  New  York  about  1672,  and  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  a  large  tract  of  land  near  the  Hudson 
River.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  several  eminent  men  named 
Livingston.  He  had  three  sons,  Philip,  Robert,  and 
Gilbert,  from  the  second  of  whom  the  statesmen  Robert 
R.  and  Edward  Livingston  were  descended. 

Livingston,  (Robert  R.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  New  York  in  1746,  was  a  brother  of  Edward 
Livingst(jn,  the  great  jurist.  He  graduated  at  King's 
College,  New  York,  in  1765.  He  was  a  descendant  of 
Robert,  noticed  above.  As  a  mcntber  of  the  Congress 
of  1776,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  committee  to  draw 
u])  the  Declaration  of  Inde[)endence.  He  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1777,  w.is  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  about  two  years,  (1781-83,)  and  in 
1801  was  sent  as  minister  to  France,  where  he  was  very 
favourably  received  by  Napoleon  and  assisted  in  the 
negotiation  for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  He  returned 
home  in  1805,  after  which  he  aided  Robert  Fulton  in 
the  introduction  of  steam-navigation,  and  promoted 
improvements  in  agriculture.     Died  in  February,  1813. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
Tol.  iv. 

Livingston,  (William,)  an  American  jurist,  brother 
of  Phili|j,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1741. 
Having  removed  to  New  Jersey,  he  was  elected  to  the 
first  Congress  from  that  State  in  1774.  He  became 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1776,  which  office  he  filled 
for  fourteen  years.  He  was  a  nieinber  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution,  (1787.)  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Review  of  the  Military  Operations  in  North 
America  from    1753  to   1758;"  also  of  several  political 


works,  and  of  a  poem  entitled  "Philosophical  Solitude." 
Died  in  1 790. 

See  "  Memoir  of  William  Livingston,"  by  Theodork  Sedg- 
wick, Jr. 

Liv'ing-stone  or  Liv'ing-ston,  (David,)  a  Scottish 
missionary,  distinguished  as  an  explorer  of  Africa,  was 
born  at  Blantyre,  near  Glasgow,  March  19,  1813.  He 
worked  in  a  cotton-factory  in  his  youth.  Having  studied 
medicine  and  theology,  with  an  intention  to  labour  as  a 
missionary,  he  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  So- 
ciety to  South  Africa  in  1840.  He  laboured  and  trav- 
elled in  the  interior  of  Africa  for  sixteen  years,  and 
made  important  discoveries  for  which  the  Geographical 
Society  awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1856,  and  published  an  interesting  work  entitled 
"Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa," 
etc.,  (1857.)  In  1858  he  again  went  to  Africa,  as  consul 
at  Quilimane  or  Kiilimane,  with  a  view  to  explore  the 
river  Zambesi,  to  promote  the  production  of  cotton,  and 
to  open  commercial  intercourse  with  the  natives  of  that 
region.  He  returned  to  England  in  1864,  and  about  the 
end  of  1865  published  a  "Narrative  of  an  Expedition  tu 
the  Zambesi,  1858-64."  He  set  out  again  for  Africa  in 
1865,  explored  a  portion  of  the  continent  westward  from 
Zanzibar,  and,  after  enduring  great  hardship,  succumbed 
to  an  attack  of  dysentery,  and  died  on  the  south  shore 
of  Lake  Bangweolo,  May  i,  1873.  ^'^  "Last  Journals" 
were  published  in  1874. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1S66 ;  "Westminster  Re- 
view" for  January,  iS66;   "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1858 

Livin  Menus,  lee'vin  ma'nus,  ?  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1630,  worked  for  many 
years  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1691. 

Livius,  (Titus.)     See  Livy. 

Liv'i-us  Au-dro-ni'cus,  a  popular  Roman  drainatist 
and  actor,  who  becan  his  career  as  an  author  about  240 
B.C.  The  place  of  Iiis  birth  is  unknown.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  earliest  dramatic  writer  of  Rotne.  He  composed 
both  tragedies  and  comedies,  of  which  only  small  frag- 
ments now  remain,  and  was  the  sole  performer  of  his 
own  plays,  which  were  used  in  schools  in  the  time  of 
Horace.  He  was  a  writer  of  industry  and  learning 
rather  than  original  genius. 

See  Professor  Sellars,  "  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic," 
chap,  iiu 

Livonniere,  de,  deh  le'vo'ne-aiK',  (Claude  Poc- 
quet — po'ki',)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  in  1652  ; 
died  in  Paris  in  1726. 

Livoy,  de,  deh  le'vwi',  (Pere  Timoth6e,)  a  Ficnch 
friar  and  litth-ateur,  born  at  Pithiviers  in  1 715.  He  pub- 
lished, in  1767,  a  "Dictionary  of  French  Synonyms." 
Died  in  1777. 

Liv'y,  [LaL  Liv'ius,]  (Titus,)  [It  Tito  Livid,  tee'to 
lee've-o  ;  Fr.  Tite  Live,  t^t  l^v.J  a  celebrated  Roman 
historian,  was  born  at  Patavium  (now  Padua)  in  59  B.C. 
Ancient  writers  furnish  us  few  particulars  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  was  patronized  by  Augustus  and  became 
a  person  of  consideration  at  court,  lie  ai)pears  to  have 
passed  the  greater  ]3art  of  his  lime  in  Rome.  Niebuhr 
favours  the  opinion  that  he  was  in  early  life  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  His  great  history  of  Rome,  from  the  origin  of 
the  city  to  the  year  9  B.C.,  was  called  by  him  "Annales," 
and  was  comprised  in  one  hundred  and  forty-two  books, 
of  which  thirty-five  have  come  down  to  us  entire, — viz., 
the  first,  third,  and  fourth  decades,  and  five  books  of  the 
fifth  decade.  We  have  also  epitomes,  by  an  unknown 
hand,  of  one  hundred  and  forty  books.  The  first  book 
was  probably  published  or  written  between  29  and  25 
B.C.  His  dialogues  on  philosophy  and  politics,  which, 
according  to  some  writers,  procured  him  the  favour  of 
Augustus,  are  not  now  extant. 

The  great  jiopulari'y  of  his  history  must  be  ascribed 
to  the  excellence  and  beauty  of  his  style  and  his  wonder- 
ful powers  of  description.  The  numerous  orations  by 
which  the  history  is  diversified  are  models  of  eloquence. 
"The  painting  of  the  narrative,"  says  Macaulay,  in  his 
essay  entitled  "  History,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review," 
"  is  beyond  description  vivid  and  graceful.  The  abun- 
dance of  interesting  sentiments  and  splendid  imagery  in 
the  speeches  is  almost  miraculous."  But  he  was  desti- 
tute of  many  qualifications  essential  to  a  historian  of  the 


a,  e.  I,  o,  u,  y,  loiii;.  4,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  shorl;  a,  e,  j,  (?,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  \\\h\;  iifit;  good;  moon: 


LJASALFAR 


1^6: 


LOBAU 


first  order.  Incapable  of  broad  philosophic  views,  and 
indisposed  to  profound  research,  he  was  more  studious 
to  exalt  the  national  glory  and  produce  a  picturesque 
effect  than  to  compose  a  true  history.  He  made  little 
^  use  of  public  documents,  and  was  not  familiar  with  the 
antiquities  of  his  country.  His  work  is  also  deficient 
in  the  explanation  of  the  original  constitution  of  the 
state,  the  contests  between  the  orders,  the  progress 
of  civilization,  and  other  domestic  affairs.  Livy  was 
married,  and  had  two  or  more  children.  Died  at  Padua 
in  17  A.D. 

See  N.  Machiavei.li,  "Discorso  sopra  !a  prima  Decada  di  Tito 
Liv-io,"  1533,  (translated  into  English  by  E.  D acres,  1636;)  D.  W. 
MoLLER,  "Disputalio  circularis  de  Tito  Livio,"  16S8;  A.  M.  Mene- 
r»HELLi,  "Vita  di  Tito  Livio,"  1835;  G.  F.  Tommasini,  "  Vita  Titi 
Livii,"  1630;  J.  C.  Hand,  "  De  Tito  Livio  Oratore,"  1773. 

Ljasalfar.    See  Elves. 

Llanos  de  Valdez,  li'nis  di  vai'dSth,  (Don  Sebas- 
tian,) a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Granada  about  1602; 
died  after  1670. 

Llanover,  Lord.    See  Hall,  (Benjamin.) 

Llewellyn  or  Llywelyn,  ioo-Sl'in,  I.,  Prince  of 
Wales,  began  to  reign  about  1 190,  and  married  a  daughter 
of  John,  King  of  England.  The  latter  afterwards  invaded 
Wales  and  forced  him  to  do  homage.  Llewellyn  waged 
war  against  Henry  III.  about  1228.  Being  harassed  by 
the  rebellion  of  his  youngest  son  Griffith,  he  made,  in 
1237,  a  treaty  with  Henry,  and  purchased  peace  by 
acknowledging  himself  the  vassal  of  that  king.  He  died 
in  1240,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  David. 

Llewellyn  H.  was  the  son  of  Griffith,  and  successor 
of  his  uncle  David.  He  renewed  the  homage  to  Henry 
III.,  but  conspired  with  the  Earl  of  Leicester  against 
him  in  1263.  Llewellyn  and  his  allies  were  defeated  at 
Evesham  in  1265.  In  1276  he  was  summoned  by  Edward 
I.  to  come  and  do  homage ;  but  he  declined.  Wales 
was  then  invaded  and  conquered  by  Edward  in  1277. 
Llewellyn,  having  again  revolted,  was  killed  in  battle  in 
1282. 

Llorente,  Io-r5n'ti,  (Bernardo  Germano,)  a  Span- 
ish painter,  born  nt  Seville  in  16S5  ;  died  in  1757. 

Llorente,  (Don  Fell\,)  a  Spanish  painter,  bom  at 
Valencia  in  1712,  was  successful  in  history,  landscapes, 
and  portraits.     Died  in  17S7. 

Llorente,  (Don  Juan  Antonio,)  a  learned  Spanish 
historian,  born  near  Calahorra,  in  Aragon,  in  1756. 
Having  been  ordained  as  a  priest,  he  was  chosen  vicar, 
general  of  the  see  of  Calahorra  in  1782.  Favoured  by 
Florida-Blanca  or  the  king,  he  was  appointed  in  1789 
secretary-general  of  the  Inquisition,  of  which  he  became 
a  determined  adversary.  In  1794  the  Grand  Inquisitor 
directed  Llorente,  whose  opinions  were  known  to  be 
liberal,  to  write  an  exposition  of  the  abuses  of  the  In- 
quisition. In  1808  he  embraced  the  party  of  the  French 
invaders,  was  admitted  into  the  council  of  state  by  Kinq 
Joseph,  and  promoted  the  suppression  of  the  Inquisition 
in  1809.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Sj^ain,  in 
1814,  he  went  as  an  exile  to  Paris,  where  he  published 
in  1817  his  "Critical  History  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion," which  was  his  great  work.  It  is  said  by  Prescott 
to  be  the  only  authentic  account  of  that  institution.  He 
also  wrote  "  1  listorical  Notices  of  the  Basque  Provinces," 
(1806-8.)     Died  in  1823. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  parti. ; 
his  autobiographic  Memoirs,  "  Noticia  biografica  o  Memorias  para 
la  Historia  de  su  Vida,"  iSiS ;  J.  A.  Mahul,  "  Notice  biographique 
Eur  Don  J.  A.  Llorente,"  1823;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;" 
"  Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix.) 

Lloyd,  loid,  (Charles,)  an  English  banker,  eminent 
as  a  scholar  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Birmingham 
in  September,  1748,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  conspicuous  as  an  advocate  of  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  was  a  man  of  great  in- 
fluence in  the  community.  He  was  an  uncle  of  Thomas 
F.  Buxton,  and  father  of  Anna  Braithwaite.  Died  in  1828. 

Lloyd,  (Charles,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in  Buck- 
inghamshire in  1784.  He  was  appointed  regius  professor 
of  divinity  ir.  Oxford  in  1822,  and  Bishop  of  (Oxford  in 
1827.     Died  in  1829. 

Lloyd,  (Charles,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Birming- 
ham, was  a  son  of  Charles  Lloyd,  banker,  noticed  above, 


and  was  a  friend  of  Coleridge,  Lamb,  and  Southey.  In 
1796  he  went  to  Bristol,  and  lived  in  the  same  house 
with  Coleridge.  Lloyd  produced,  besides  other  poems, 
"Nugae  Canorae,"  ("Sounding  Trifles,"  1819,)  "Desul- 
tory Thoughts  in  London,"  (1821,)  and  "The  Duke 
of  Ormond,"  a  tragedy,  (1822.)  He  translated  the 
tragedies  of  Alfieri  into  English.     Died  in  1839. 

See  De  Quincev,  "  Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Monthly 
Review"  for  May,  1816,  July.  1S20,  and  July,  1823. 

Lloyd,  (David,)  a  British  biographer,  born  in  Merio- 
nethshire in  1625.  He  took  orders,  and  successively 
held  several  benefices.  Among  his  principal  works  is 
"The  Statesmen  and  Favourites  of  England  since  the 
Reformation,"  (1665.)     Died  in  1691. 

Lloyd,  (Edward,)  an  English  tenor-singer,  born  in 
London  in  1845.  ^^  ^^^  considerable  reputation  as  an 
oratorio  and  concert  singer. 

Lloyd,  (Henry,)  a  British  officer,  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  tactics,  was  born  in  Wales  about  1725.  He 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  first  in  the  Austrian 
army  and  afterwards  in  that  of  Prussia.  About  1770 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  Russian 
army,  and  was  employed  in  a  war  against  the  Turks,  but 
was  suspected  of  being  a  secret  agent  of  the  English 
government  Suddenly  quitting  the  Russian  service,  he 
went  to  Gibraltar,  and  gave  valuable  counsel  to  General 
Elliott  respecting  the  siege  of  that  fortress.  He  died  at 
Huy  in  1783,  leaving  an  "  Introduction  to  the  History  &f 
the  War  between  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Empress 
Maria  Theresa,"  (1781,)  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Invasion  and 
Defence  of  England,"  (1798,)  and  other  works. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lloyd,  (Nicholas,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Flint- 
shire in  1634.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Newington, 
Surrey,  in  1672.  In  1670  he  published  a  "  Historical, 
Geographical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary,"  which  was  once 
esteemed.     Died  in  1680. 

Lloyd,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  West- 
minster in  1733.  He  became  an  usher  in  the  West- 
minster School,  and  a  companion  of  Churchill,  Colman, 
etc.  His  health  and  fortune  were  injured  by  dissipated 
habits.  He  composed  an  admired  poem,  "The  Actor," 
(1760,)  "The  Capricious  Lovers,"  a  comic  opera,  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1764. 

See  Newton,  "  Life  of  R.  Lloyd  ;"  Kenrick,  "  Life  of  Lloyd," 
'774- 

Lloyd,  (William,)  a  pious  and  learned  English 
bishop,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1627.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1680,  and  was  one  of  the 
bishops  imprisoned  by  James  II.  in  1688  for  refusing  to 
publish  in  their  churches  the  declaration  of  indulgence 
to  Catholics  and  dissenters.  He  became  almoner  to 
William  III.,  Bishop  of  Lichfield  in  1692,  Bishop  of 
Worcester  in  1699  or  1700,  and  almonei  to  C^ueen  Anne 
a  few  years  later.  He  furnished  Burnet  valuable  mate- 
rials for  his  history,  and  wrote  several  religious  treatises. 
Died  in  171 7. 

See  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times;"  Macaulay,  '"  His- 
tory of  England  ;"  M  iss  Strickland,  "  Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops," 
London,  1866. 

Llywelyn.    See  Llewellyn. 

Loaysa,  lo-i'sS,  (Garcias,)  a  Spanish  cardinal  and 
eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Talavera  a'wt  1480.  About 
1524  he  became  confessor  to  Charles  V.  He  was  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Seville,  and  president  of  the  Royal 
Council  of  the  Indies.     Died  in  1546. 

Loban,  de,  deh  lo'b5',  (Georges  Mouton — moo'- 
iAn',)  Count,  a  P'rench  general,  born  in  Phalsbourg  in 
1770.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  became  aide-de- 
camp of  Joubert  in  1798,  and  aide-de-camp  of  Bonaparte 
in  1805.  His  services  were  rewarded  by  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  in  1807.  He  displ.iyed  great  courage 
at  Eckmiihl,  Aspern,  and  Loi^au  in  1809,  and  received 
the  title  of  (^ount  de  Lobau.  In  the  invasion  of  Russia 
(1812)  he  was  aide-major-general  of  the  imperial  guard. 
He  fought  at  Lutzen  and  Bautzen  in  1S13,  and  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Waterloo  in  181 5,  aftei  which  he  passed  many 
years  in  retirement.  During  the  revolution  of  1830  he 
favoured  the  cause  of  Louis  Philippe,  who  appointed  him 
commander  of  the  national  guard  in  December,  1830,  and 
gave  him  a  marshal's  baton  in  1831.     Died  in  1838. 


eaSiJ;  ^asj;  gkard:  gzsj :  G,H.  K.!;uttural:  a, nasal;  V.,trillcd:  sass;  thasin/^/j.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LOBB 


1566 


LOCK 


Lobb,  (Theophilus,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1678.  He  practised  with  success  in  that  city, 
and  wrote  medical  works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Small-Pox,"  (1731,)  and  "Medical  Practice  in 
Curing  Fevers,"  (1735.)     Died  in  1763. 

Lobe,  lo'beh,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  mu- 
sical composer,  born  at  Weimar  in  1797.  He  produced 
in  1833  "The  Princess  of  Granada,"  an  opera.  His 
theoretic  works  are  highly  esteemed.   Died  July  27, 1881. 

Lobeck,  lo'bdk,  (Christian  August,)  one  of  the 
most  thorough  and  acute  jjhilologists  and  antiquaries  of 
recent  times,  was  born  at  Naumburg,  in  Prussia,  in  1781. 
He  became  professor  of  ancient  literature  and  eloquence 
at  Konigsberg  in  1814.  He  published  valuable  editions 
of  the  "  Ajax"  of  Sophocles,  (1810,)  and  of  Phrynicus, 
(1820.)  Among  his  other  most  important  works  is  "  Pa- 
thologic Linguae  Grsecae  Elementa,"  (1853.)  Died  in 
i860. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^iale." 

Lobeira  or  Lobeyra,  de,  di  lo-ba^-ri,  written  also 
Loveira,  (Vasco,)  a  celebrated  Portuguese  author,  was 
born  at  Oporto  about  1360.  He  was  knighted  by  King 
John  I.  of  Portugal  on  the  battle-field  of  Aljubarrota  in 
1386,  and  died  in  1403.  He  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
romance  "  Amadis  de  Gaul,"  which  is  now  seldom  read. 
The  earliest  edition  now  known  was  printed  in  1519.  It 
passed  for  the  best  of  the  romances  of  chivalry  until  the 
satire  of  Cervantes  rendered  them  all  unpopular. 

See  Ticknor's  "  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  L  chap.  xi.  p.  221 
et  se<i. 

Lobel  or  L'Obel,  lo'bSK,  (Mathieu,)  an  eminent 
botanist,  born  at  Lille,  France,  in  1538.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Antwerp,  and  became  physician  to  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  after  whose  death  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  passed  the  most  of  his  life.  In  1570  Lobel  and  Pena 
published  in  London  "  Stirpium  Adversaria,"  which  pre- 
sents the  first  sketch,  though  rude,  of  a  natural  method 
of  botany,  with  neat  engravings  of  about  two  hundred 
and  seventy  plants.  He  published  in  1581  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Icones  Stirpium,"  which  contains  figures 
of  about  two  thousand  plants,  and  is  still,  says  Duvau, 
often  consulted.  Lobel  was  also  physician  to  James  I. 
Died  near  London  in  1616.  The  genus  Lobelia  was 
named  in  honour  of  him. 

See  C.  F.  A.  Morren,  "  Notice  bioCTsphique  surM.  de  L'Obel," 
1853  :  Et.OY,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Lobell  or  Loebell,  16'bel,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  historian,  born  in  Berlin  in  1786.  He  became 
professor  of  history  at  Bonn  about  1830.    Died  in  1863. 

LobenorLoeben,lo'ben,  (OrroHEiNRicH,)  Count, 
a  German  writer  of  the  romantic  school,  born  at  Dresden 
in  1786,  is  known  by  the  name  of  IsiDORUS  Orie.ntalis. 
He  wrote,  besides  numerous  tales  and  poems,  roinances 
entitled  "  Guido"  (1808)  and  "Arcadion,"  (1811.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Lobera,  lo-Ba'rl,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile.  He  was  physician  to  Charles 
v.,  and  published  treatises  on  anatomy  and  medicine, 
(1542-51.) 

Lobiiaeau,  lo'be'no',  (Gui  Alexis,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  at  Rennes  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  continuation 
of  the  "  History  of  Bretagne"  (1707)  by  Legallois,  and 
another  of  Felibien's  "  History  of  Paris,"  (5  vols.,  1725.) 
Died  in  1727. 

Lobko"witz.     See  Caramuel. 

Lobkowitz.     See  Hassenstein. 

Lobkowitz,  lob'ko-<^itz',  (Josef  Franz  Maximil- 
ian,) Prince,  an  Austrian  musician,  born  at  Vienna  in 
1772.  He  is  best  known  as  the  friend  and  patron  of 
15eethoven,  who  dedicated  to  him  a  number  of  his  works. 
Died  December  16,  1816. 

Lobkowitz,  von,  fon  lob'ko-<^its',  (Georg  Chris- 
tian.) Prince,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1702.  He 
took  command  of  the  army  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
in  1741,  and  gained  advantages  over  the  French  at  Brau- 
nau  and  Prague.  Died  in  1753.  His  son  Joseph,  born 
in  1725,  distinguished  himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  as 
major-general.  In  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  he  was  made 
a  field-marshal.     Died  in  1802. 

Lobo,  lo'bo,  (Francisco  Rodriguez,)  a  celebrated 
Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Leiria  about  1550.  He  was  the 


author  of  songs,  pastoral  romances,  sonnets,  and  of  a 
prose  work  entitled  "Court  in  the  Country  and  Winter 
Nights."  lie  has  been  styled  "the  Portuguese  Theocri- 
tus." "  He  was,"  says  Longfellow,  "a  scholar  of  great 
erudition  ;  and  the  services  he  rendered  to  the  Portu- 
guese language  and  style  make  an  era  in  that  literature." 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lobo,  Io'ho,  (Gerardo,)  a  Spaiiish  poet,  born  in  Old 
Castile.  He  became  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Philip 
IV.,  who  sometimes  required  his  companions  to  talk 
in  verse  to  him.  Lobo  had  a  remarkable  facility  for 
improvisation,  and,  it  is  said,  could  converse  all  day 
without  descending  to  ]5rose.  His  productions  consist 
of  odes,  sonnets,  etc.     Died  in  1668. 

Lobo,  (Jeronimo,)  an  enterprising  Portuguese  mis- 
sionary and  Jesuit,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1593.  He  was 
sent  to  labour  in  the  mission  of  Goa  in  1622.  In  1625, 
with  other  missionaries,  he  undertook  to  evangelize 
Abyssinia,  whose  sultan,  Seged,  (Segued,)  had  become  a 
Roman  Catholic,  or  at  least  was  friendly  to  that  Church. 
The  sultan  having  died,  the  missionaries  were  expelled 
by  his  successor  in  1634.  In  1640  he  went  again  to  Goa, 
where  he  was  chosen  provincial  of  his  order.  He  re- 
turned to  Lisbon  in  1656,  and  published  a  valuable  rela- 
tion of  his  travels  in  Abyssinia,  entitled  a  "  History  of 
Ethiopia,"  (1659,)  which  was  translated  into  English  by 
Dr.  Johnson.     Died  in  1678. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  I'ibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Lobstein,  lop'stTn  or  lob'stix',  (Jean  Fr6d6ric,)  a 
French  anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  near  Strasburg  in 
1736  ;  died  in  1784. 

Lobstein,  (Jean  Fr^d^ric,)  an  anatomist,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Giessen  in  1777,  lived  at  Stras- 
burg.    Died  in  1835. 

Locatelli,  lo-ki-tel'lee,  or  Lncatelli,  loo-kS-teKlee, 
(Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter  of  landscapes  and  genre, 
born  at  Rome.  He  adorned  his  landscapes  with  figures 
which  are  admired,  and  dis])layed  good  taste  in  familiar 
scenes.     His  works  are  praised  by  Lanzi.     Died  in  1741. 

Locatelli,  (Luioi,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Ber- 
gamo, invented  the  "balm  of  Lucatel."     Died  in  1637. 

Locatelli  or  Lucatelli,  (Pietro,)  a  historical  painter 
born  in  the  Roman  .States.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke  in  1690. 

Locatelli,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  violinist,  born  at  Ber 
gamo  in  1693  ;  died  in  1764. 

Loccenius,  lok-sa'ne-us,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  histo- 
rian, born  in  Holstein  about  1598.  Queen  Christina  gave 
him  the  title  of  historiographer  of  -Sweden.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  "  History  of  .Sweden,"  (1654,)  and  several  works 
on  law.     Died  in  1677. 

See  M.  Steuch,  "  Memnria  J.  Locceiiii,"  167S  ;  Olof  A.  Knoe.s, 
"Lefvernes  Beskrifning  om  J.  Loccenius,"  1S07. 

Loch,  lok  or  loK,  (James,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in 
1780.  He  was  employed  as  auditor  by  the  Earl  of  Elles- 
mere  and  other  noblemen,  and  was  for  many  years  a 
Liberal  member  of  Parliament.  He  iniblished  a  "Sta- 
tistical and  Historical  Account  of  the  County  of  Suther- 
land."    Died  in  1855. 

Locher,  loK'er,  (Jakob,)  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Suabia  in  1470,  was  surnamed  Philomusus.  He  was 
crowned  poet-laureate  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  a  poem  on  Lazarus 
and  Dives,  and  "The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  (1501.)  Died 
in  152S. 

Lochner,  loK'ner,  (Michael  Friedrich,)  a  skilful 
German  physician  and  botanist,  born  near  Nuremberg 
in  1662  ;  died  in  1720. 

Lochore,  16k-6r',  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  minor  poet, 
born  at  Strathaven,  July  7,  1762.  He  was  a  shoemaker, 
and  a  friend  of  Burns,  lie  published  "  Tales  in  Rhyme," 
(1S15.)     Died  April  27,  1S52. 

Lock,  (Maitiiew,)  an  excellent  English  cfimposer, 
born  at  Exeter  about  1635.  Soon  after  the  restoration 
(1660)  he  received  the  title  of  coniiioser-in-ordinary  to 
Charles  II.  He  is  called  the  first  English  composer  for 
the  stage.  Some  of  his  sacred  com])ositions  appeared  in 
the  "  Harmonia  Sacra."  His  chief  title  to  durable  fame 
is  the  admirable  "  Music  in  Macbeth."    Died  in  1677. 

See  BuRNEV,  "  History  of  Music." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


LOCK  ART 


1567 


LOCKER 


Lock'art,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  1675.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Scot- 
land."   Died  in  1732. 

Locke,  lok,  (David  Ross,)  an  American  humorous 
writer,  born  in  Vestal,  New  York,  September  20,  1833. 
He  became  a  journalist  of  Ohio,  and  wrote  much  politi- 
cal satire,  under  the  name  of  Petroleum  V.  Nashy. 
Among  his  books  are  "  Divers  Views,  Opinions,  and 
Prophecies,"  "Swingin'  Round  the  Cirkle,"  "  Ekkoes 
from  Kentucky,"  "Morals  of  Abou  ben  Adhem,"  "A 
Paper  City,"  "Moral  History  of  America's  Life-Strug- 
gle," etc.      I)ied  February  15,  18S8. 

Locke,  lok,  [Lat.  Loc'kius,]  (John,)  a  celebrated 
English  philosopher  anci  philanthropist,  born  at  Wring- 
ton,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1632,  was  the  son  of  Captain 
Locke,  who  served  in  the  parliamentary  army  during 
the  civil  war.  He  studied  at  Westminster  School,  and  in 
1 65 1  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  talents  and  acquirements.  He 
left  Oxford  with  no  very  favourable  views  of  the  system 
of  instruction  there  pursued.  He  had,  indeed,  been  far 
more  indebted  for  his  mental  culture  to  his  own  efforts 
than  to  the  skill  or  labour  of  his  tutors,  and  was  himself 
an  example  of  that  self-teaching  which  in  his  writings 
he  so  strongly  recommends.  In  1665  Locke  accom- 
panied, as  secretary.  Sir  Walter  Vane,  royal  envoy  to 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  returned  to  England 
in  February,  and  soon  after  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
Lord  Ashley,  (afterwards  Shaftesbury,)  who  received  him 
into  the  number  of  his  most  intimate  and  confidential 
friends.  In  1672,  Shaftesbury  being  then  lord  chancellor, 
Locke  was  appointed  secretary  for  the  presentation 
of  benefices,  but  quitted  this  office  in  1673,  when  his 
patron,  having  quarrelled  with  the  court,  resigned  the 
great  seal.  In  1675  Locke  visited  the  south  of  France 
on  account  of  his  health.  He  resided  more  than  a  year 
at  Montpollier,  and  afterwards  spent  much  time  in  Paris. 
He  returned  to  his  own  country  in  1679  ;  but,  Shaftes- 
bury having  been  compelled  by  his  enemies  to  leave 
England  towards  the  close  of  1682,  Locke  followed  him 
to  the  continent  in  T683,  and  passed  several  years  in 
Holland.  In  i683  he  returned  to  his  native  land  in 
the  same  fleet  that  conveyed  the  Princess  of  Orange  to 
England.  Soon  after  his  arrival,  he  was  offered  by  Lord 
Mordaunt  the  position  of  envoy  to  one  of  the  European 
courts ;  but  he  declined  the  office  on  account  of  his 
feeble  health  ;  he  accepted,  however,  the  post  of  com- 
missioner of  appeals,  which  yielded  him,  it  is  said, 
two  hundred  pounds  a  year, — no  inconsiderable  sum  for 
that  period.  The  asthmatic  affection  under  which  he 
had  been  suffering  for  many  years  having  become  more 
aggravated,  he  resigned,  in  1700,  his  position  under  the 
government,  and  retired  to  Oates,  in  Essex.  Here  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  at  the  house  of  Sir 
Francis  Masham,  whose  accomplished  lady  was  the 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Cudworth.  He  died 
October  28,  1704. 

Locke  was  no  less  distinguished  for  his  virtues  and 
piety  than  for  his  extraordinary  intellectual  endowments. 
All  his  writings  may  be  said  to  have  had  for  their  object 
the  improvement  of  mankind  in  knowledge,  liberty,  and 
virtue.  Although  he  was  in  favour  of  the  utmost  free- 
dom of  investigation  in  regard  to  religious  as  well  as 
other  truths,  he  entertained  for  the  Holy  Scriptures  the 
profoundest  veneration.  To  a  friend  inquiring  the  best 
way  to  attain  a  true  knowledge  of  the  Christian  religion, 
he  answered,  "Study  the  Holy  Scriptures,  especially 
the  New  Testament :  therein  are  contained  the  words 
of  eternal  life.  It  has  God  for  its  author,  salvation  for 
its  end,  and  truth  without  any  mixture  of  error  for  its 
matter."  A  little  before  his  death,  while  acknowledging 
that  his  life,  on  the  whole,  had  been  a  happy  one,  he 
pronounced  all  sublunary  enjoyments  to  be  "vanity," 
and  earnestly  exhorted  his  friends  to  prepare  for  the 
endless  life  to  come.  He  extolled  the  goodness  of  God 
in  providing  for  the  salvation  of  mankind  througli  faith 
in  Jesus  Christ,  and  expressed  particular  gratitude  that 
he  had  been  led  through  divine  goodness  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Saviour.  (See  a  letter  by  Coste,  the  French 
translator  of  the  "Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding," 
published  February,  1705.)  As  a  controversialist,  Locke 


was  remarkable  not  only  for  the  clearness  and  cogency 
of  his  arguments,  but  also  for  the  perfect  fairness  and 
respect  with  which  he  treated  his  opponents.  His  con- 
versation, we  are  told,  was  a  "  happy  union  of  wit  and 
good  sense  ;"  so  that  his  company  was  sought  by  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  that  period, — such  as 
Halifax,  Buckingham,  etc.  As  an  evidence  of  the  variety 
and  extent  of  his  attainments,  we  may  mention  that  the 
great  Sydenham,  alluding  to  Locke's  skill  in  medicine, 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  "in  genius,  penetration,  and 
accurate  judgment  he  had  in  that  age  few  equals  and 
scarcely  any  superior."  From  the  character  of  Locke 
as  given  by  Le  Clerc,  which  he  assures  us  "  is  an  accu- 
rate and  by  no  means  flattered  description,"  we  take  the 
following:  "  He  was  a  profound  philosopher,  and  a  man 
fit  for  the  most  important  affairs.  He  had  much  know- 
ledge of  belles-lettres,  and  his  manners  were  very  polite 
and  particularly  engaging.  He  knew  something  of  almost 
everything  which  can  be  useful  to  mankind,  and  was 
thoroughly  master  of  all  that  he  had  studied ;  but  he 
showed  his  superiority  by  not  appearing  to  value  himself 
in  any  way  on  account  of  his  great  attainments.  .  .  .  He 
was  very  charitable  to  the  poor,  provided  they  were  not 
the  idle  nor  the  profligate.  ...  He  was  an  exact  ob- 
server of  his  word,  and  what  he  promised  was  sacred. 
He  was  scrupulous  about  recommending  people  whom 
he  did  not  know  ;  and  he  could  not  bring  himself  to 
praise  those  whom  he  did  not  think  worthy."  (See  "Life 
of  Locke,"' by  Lord  King,  pp.  267-271.) 

Locke's  great  work,  entitled  an  "  Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding,"  was  first  published  in  1690,  (three  yeais 
after  the  ajipearance  of  Newton's  "  Principia,")  although 
the  original  copy,  still  preserved  and  in  his  own  hand- 
writing, is  dated  1671, — an  evidence  of  his  great  caution 
(evinced  also  in  his  other  works)  with  respect  to  offering 
his  views  to  the  public.  The  leading  position  of  his 
essay  is  that  the  human  mind  has  no  innate  ideas,  and 
that  all  ideas,  with  their  various  combinations,  are  to  be 
referred  to  sensation  and  reflection.  His  other  publica- 
tions were, — three  "Letters  on  Toleration,"  (1690-92,) 
a  "Treatise  on  Education,"  (1690,)  one  on  the  value  of 
money,  (i69i,)"The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity," 
(1695,)  a  first  and  second  Vindication  of  the  last-named 
work,  (1696,)  and  three  elaborate  letters  in  defence  of 
the  "Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding"  against 
Stillingfleet,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  (1697-99.)  Locke's 
work  on  the  "Conduct  of  the  Human  Understanding," 
and  his  "Discourse  on  Miracles,"  and  "Commentaries 
on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  were  published  after  his 
death." 

See  "Life  of  Locke,"  by  Lord  King;  "Nouvelle  Kio^aphie 
Geiiirale ;"  "Biographic  Universelle ;"  article  "  Locke"  in  ihe 
"  Eiicyclopadia  Britannica  ;"  Jean  Leclekc,  "  Eloge  historiqiie  de 
feu  M.  Locke,"  1711;  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Locke,"  1742; 
J.  G.  Mellring,  "Merita  J.  Lockii  in  Philosophiani,"  \-jCji;  LiL- 
JENROTH,  "  Dissertatio  Vitam  J.  Lockii  expoiiens,"  1793;  Edouakd 
Laboulaye,  '■  Locke  Legislateurde  la  Caroline,"  1850;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  1854;""  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1S47. 

Locke,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  Americnn  geologist,  born 
at  P'ryeburg,  Maine,  in  1792.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Cincinnati  in  1836.  He  was  well  versed 
in  geology  and  natural  history.  Died  in  Cincinnati 
in  1856. 

Locke,  (Joseph,)  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
railway-engineer,  born  near  Sheffield  in  1805.  He  learned 
the  business  of  engineering  with  the  celebrated  George 
Stephenson.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  engineei 
of  the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  (of  which  Birmingham 
is  one  of  the  termini,)  completed  in  1837.  The  London 
and  Southampton  Railway,  under  his  direction,  was 
opened  in  1840.  He  was  afterwards  employed  as  en- 
gineer of  the  railways  connecting  Paris  and  Rouen,  and 
Havre  and  Rouen,  in  France.  For  several  years  before 
his  death  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  he 
acted  with  the  Liberal  party.     Died  in  i860. 

See  "  Life  of  Joseph  Locke,"  by  J.  Devey,  1S62. 

Lock'er,  (Arthur,)  an  English  author,  (brother  of 
F.  Locker,)  was  born  in  Greenwich  Hospital,  July  2, 
1S2S.  He  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  and  at 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  rSsi. 
Among   his   works   are   "Sir   Godwin's   Folly,"   (1S64,) 


€  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  nard;  g  asy.  G,  H,  K,giilturitl;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     l2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.  j 


LOCKER 


1568 


LODGE 


"Sweet  Seventeen,"  (1866,)  "  Stei^hen  Scudamore," 
(1868,)  "On  a  Coral  Reef,"  (1S69,)  "The  Village  Sur- 
geon," {1874,)  and  many  other  tales,  besides  reviews, 
poems,  etc.  In  1S70  he  became  editor  of  the  London 
"  Graphic." 

Lock'er,  (Edward  Hawke,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Kent  in  1777.  He  was  private  secretary  to  Lord 
Exmouth  about  fifteen  j^ears,  commencing  in  1800.  He 
was  one  of  the  projectors  and  editors  of  "The  Plain 
Englishman,"  a  useful  periodical  adapted  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  tlie  people.  He  also  published  "Lectures  on  the 
Bible  and  Liturgy."     Died  in  1849. 

Locker,  (Frederick,)  an  English  poet,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Greenwich  Hospital  in  1821,  and 
became  a  precis  writer  in  the  Admiralty.  His  principal 
works  are  "London  Lyrics,"  (1857,)  and  "Patchwork," 
(1S79.)  He  also  edited  the  "  Lyra  Elegnntiarum,"  (1S67,) 
and  is  noted  as  a  talented  writer  of  vers  dc  societe.  His 
first  wife  was  a  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin,  and  the 
second  a  daughter  of  Sir  Curtis  Lampson,  a  wealthy 
American-born  merchant  of  London. 

Lockhart,  lon'art,  (Sir  George,)  an  eminent  Scot- 
tish lawyer,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  William,  noticed  be- 
low. He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  1656,  and  was 
appointed  lord  president  of  the  court  of  sessions  in  1685. 
He  was  murdered  in  Edinburgh  in  1689. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  ol  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lockhart,  (George,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  near  Edinburgh  in  1673.  He  was  a  zealous  and 
prominent  partisan  of  the  Pretender  about  the  time  of 
the  rebellion  of  1715.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  concern- 
ing the  Affairs  of  Scotland,"  which  are  of  some  historical 
value.     Died  in  1731. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lockhart,  (John  Gibson,)  a  distinguished  British 
author,  poet,  and  critic,  was  born  at  the  manse  of  Cam- 
busnethan,  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1794.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Presbyteri.in  minister,  who  removed  to  Glasgow 
while  the  subject  of  this  article  was  in  his  infancy.  As 
a  student  in  the  Glasgow  University  he  obtained  a  valua- 
ble bursary,  in  virtue  of  which  he  entered  Baliol  College, 
Oxford.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  Scottish 
bar  in  1816,  but  preferred  the  profession  of  literature. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  about  seven  years  after  it  was  first  estab- 
lished, in  1817.  He  advocated  Tory  principles  in  politi- 
cal articles  which  displayed  a  great  mastery  of  sarcasm 
and  invective.  In  1820  he  married  Sophia,  daughter  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  produced  in  1S21  "Valerius,  a 
Roman  Story,"  which  is  much  admired,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  "Reginald  Dalton,  a  Story  of  English  Univer- 
sity Life,"  (1823.)  About  this  time  he  published  elegant 
translations  of  "  .Xncient  Spanish  Ballads."  In  1825  or 
1826  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  editor  of  the 
"  Quarterly  Review,"  which  he  conducted  with  success 
until  1853,  and  for  which  he  wrote  many  excellent  criti- 
cal and  biographical  articles.  In  1843  he  ^^'^s  appointed 
to  the  lucrative  office  of  auditor  of  the  duchy  of  Corn- 
wall. His  most  important  work  is  his  "Life  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,"  (7  vols.,  1838,)  which  ranks  very  high  in 
respect  to  literary  merit,  and  is  surpassed  in  interest 
by  few,  if  any,  biographies  in  the  English  language. 
He  also  published  a  "Life  of  Robert  Burns,"  (1825,) 
which  was  received  with  favour,  and  Lives  of  Theodore 
Hook  and  Napoleon  I.  His  manners  were  reserved 
and  even  chilling.  His  last  years  were  rendered  un- 
happy by  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  two  sons.  He  died  in 
1854,  leaving  a  daughter,  who  was  the  only  surviving 
descendant  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  when  she  was  married 
to  Mr.  Hope. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "  Biograpliical  Sketclie?,"  by  Harriet  Martineau, 
London,  1S69;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1864;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1830,  (with  a  jiortrait.) 

Lockhart,  (Laurence  William  Maxwell,)  a  Brit- 
ish novelist,  the  ne[ihew  of  [ohn  Gibson  Lockhart,  born 
in  Lanarkshire  in  1S32.  lie  obtained  a  commission  in 
the  Ninety-Second  Highlanders,  and  did  good  service  in 
the  Crimea.  During  the  Franco-German  war  he  was 
one  of  the  correspondents  of  the  "  Times."     His  novels 


are  "Double  and  Quits,"  "Fair  to  See,"  and  "Mine  is 
Thine."     Died  at  Mentone,  March  23,  1882. 

Lockhart,  (Sir  William,)  of  Lee,  an  able  British 
statesman,  born  in  i62L  He  fought  for  Charles  II., 
and  was  made  prisoner  at  Preston,  (1650.)  In  1652  he 
entered  the  civil  service  of  Cromwell,  and  in  1655  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  He  com- 
manded the  British  at  the  siege  of  Dunkirk  in  1658,  and 
then  became  governor  of  that  place.  At  the  restoration 
of  1660  he  was  recalled.  Died  in  1675.  "He  was," 
says  Clarendon,  "a  man  of  great  address  in  treaty." 

SeeCHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  North  British  Review"  for  February,  1862. 

Lockiiis.    See  Locke,  (Joh.n.) 

Lockman.     See  Lokman. 

Lock'man,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  various 
subjects,  born  in  1698;  died  in  1 771. 

Lock'wood,  (Henry  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kent  county,  Delaware,  about  1814,  graduated  at 
West  Point.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  United 
States  volunteers  in  August,  1861,  and  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

Lock'yer,  (Joseph  Norman,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
English  astronomer  and  physicist,  born  at  Rugby,  May 
17,  1S36.  In  1S57  he  entered  the  war  office,  and  was 
chiefly  self-educated  in  science.  He  has  made  many 
discoveries,  largely  in  solar  physics  and  spectroscopy, 
and  is  the  author  of  many  papers  and  several  books  on 
scientific  subjects. 

Locman.    See  Lokman. 

Locr6  de  Roissy,  lo'kui'  deh  rwJ'sc',  (Jean  Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  jurist,  born  of  a  French  family  at  Leipsic  in 
1758,  came  to  France  in  his  youth.  He  published  "The 
Spirit  of  th.e  Code  Napoleon,"  ("Esprit  du  Code  Napo- 
leon," etc.,  (5  vols.,  1806,)  and  "The  Civil,  Commercial, 
and  Criminal  Legislation  of  France,"  (31  vols.,  1826-32.) 
Died  in  1840. 

Lo'der,  (Edward  James,)  an  English  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Bath  in  1813.  His  best-known  works  are 
his  opera  "The  Night  Dancers,"  (1846,)  and  the  songs 
"The  Brave  Old  Oak"  and  "Invocation  to  the  Deep." 
Died  April  5,  1S65. 

Loder,  lo'der,  (Justus  Christian,)  an  anatomist, 
born  at  Riga  in  1753.  In  1809  the  Czar  Alexander  called 
him  to  Moscow  and  chose  him  for  his  first  physician. 
He  published  "Anatomical  Plates,"  ("Tabulae  Ana- 
tomicas,"  1794,)  with  explicative  text,  a  work  of  great 
merit.     Died  in  Moscow  in  1832. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Lodge,  (Edmund,)  an  English  herald  and  biographer, 
born  in  London  in  1756.  He  became  Norroy  king-at- 
arvns  in  1S22,  and  Clarenceux  king-at-arms  in  1838.  He 
published  valuable  "  Illustrations  of  British  History," 
(3  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages 
of  Great  IJritain,"  (4  vols.,  1S21-34,)  which  is  his  prin- 
cipal work.  It  was  republished  in  8  vols.,  1849.  In 
reference  to  it  Sir  Walter  Scott  remarked,  "It  is  impos- 
sible for  me  to  conceive  a  work  which  ought  to  be  more 
interesting  to  the  present  age  than  that  which  exhibits 
before  our  eyes  our  'fathers  as  they  lived,'  accompanied 
with  such  memorials  of  their  lives  and  characters  as 
enable  us  to  compare  their  persons  with  their  sentiments 
and  actions."     Died  in  1839. 

Lodge,  (Henry  Cabot,)  Ph.D.,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Boston,  May  12,  1S50.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1871,  and  at  the  Dane  Law  School  in  1874,  be- 
came a  prominent  politician  of  Massachusetts,  and  edited 
the  "North  American  Review"  from  1873  to  1S76,  and 
the  "International  Review"  from  1879  to  1S81.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Land-Law  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,"  (1S76,) 
"  Life  of  George  Cabot."  (1877,)  "  History  of  the  English 
Colonies  in  America,"  (18S1,)  a  "Life  of  Alexander 
Hamilton,"  (18S2,)  "Daniel  Webster,"  a  biography, 
(1SS3,)  "Studies  in  History,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Lodge,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist  and  versatile 
writer,  born  at  West  Ham  about  1556,  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Oxford.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
in  early  life  a  soldier,  and  is  said  to  have  practised  medi- 
cine in  London.  He  died  of  the  plajue  in  1625.  He 
translated  Josephi-s  and  Seneca  into  English,  and  wrote 


i, e, T,  o,  H, y, /tf//^.- i, 4,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e, 1, 6, ii, y,  J^'"'^,'  a,  e,  \,f),  obscure;  fllr,  fill,  fitj  ni§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LODGE 


;69 


LOGAN 


successful  dramas,  novels,  and  other  works.  Among  his 
principal  productions  are  "The  Wounds  of  Civil  War,'' 
a  tragedy,  (1594,)  a  "  Looking-Glass  for  London  and 
England,"  (a  drama,  of  which  R.  Greene  was  joint  author,) 
and  "Rosalynde:  Euphues'  Golden  Legacie,"  (1590,)  a 
novel  which  furnished  the  incidents  of  Sliakspeare's  "As 
You  Like  It."  Hallam  calls  him  one  of  the  best  poets 
of  the  age.   ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses;"  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Lodge,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  at  Leeds  in  1649.  He  travelled  in  Italy  and  in  his 
native  country,  and  published  engravings  of  places,  etc. 
which  he  had  designed.  He  translated  into  English 
Barri's  "Picturesque  Journey  in  Italy,"  (1679,)  and  en- 
graved with  remarkable  skill  a  series  of  portraits  of 
eminent  persons.     Died  in  1689. 

Lodi,  (Calisto  da.)     See  Piazza,  (Calisto.) 

Lo'diir,  [related  to  the  German  lodeni,  to  "blaze,"] 
one  of  the  gods  of  the  Norse  mythology,  who  assisted 
Odin  in  the  creation  of  mankind.  He  is  supposed  to 
typify  vital  warmth.  As  Loki  is  named  from  the  perni- 
cious qualities  of  fire,  so  Lodur  would  seem  to  represent 
its  beneficent  properties.     (See  Loki,  also  Hoenir.) 

Loebell.     See  Lobell. 

Loeben.     See  Loben. 

Loefling.     See  Lofling. 

Loehr.     See  Lohr. 

Loennrot.     See  Lonnrot. 

Loescher.     See  Loscher. 

Loesel.     See  Losel. 

Loeve-Veimars,  \o'k\'  vi'mtR^,  (Francois  Adol- 
PHE,)  Baron,  a  P'rench  litth'ateur,\>ox\\  in  Paris  in  1801. 
He  published  translations  from  the  German,  tales,  cri- 
tiques, a  "History  of  Ancient  Literature,"  (1825,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1854, 

Loew,  lo^,  (Franz  Hermann,)  a  German  entomolo- 
gist, born  at  Weissenfels,  July  19,  1807.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Halle,  and  became  eminent  as  a  teacher.  His 
entomological  labours  were  of  great  importance,  and 
there  is  no  higher  authority  on  the  Diptera  (his  specialty) 
than  his  writings  afford.     Died  at  Halle,  April  21,  1879. 

Loevren.     See  Lowen. 

Loe-wendahl.     See  Lowendahu 

Loewenhaupt.     See  Lowenhaupt. 

LoeTveuhielm.     See  Lowenhielm. 

Loevcenklau.     See  Leunclavius. 

Lofft,  (Capel,)  an  English  writer  on  various  subjects, 
born  in  London  in  1751,  was  a  gentleman  and  lawyer. 
He  patronized  the  poet  Bloomfield,  advocated  the  abo- 
lition of  the  slave-trade,  and  wrote  political  pamphlets, 
dramas,  verses,  etc.     He  died  in  France  in  1824. 

Lofling  or  Loefling,  lofling,  (Peter,)  a  Swedish 
botanist,  born  at  Tollforsbruch  in  1729.  He  was  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Linnjeus,  by  whose  mediation  he  was 
appointed  botanist  to  the  King  of  Spain  in  1751.  He 
accompanied  as  naturalist  an  expedition  sent  by  the 
Spanish  government  to  South  America  in  1754.  After 
brief  explorations  of  the  districts  of  Cumana  and  Guiana, 
he  died  in  1756.  His  "  Excursion  in  Spain"  ("Iter  His- 
panicum")  was  published  in  1758  by  Linnaeus. 

Lofn,  lot'^n,  or  Lov'na,  \ixoxt\  lof,  "praise,"  also 
"  leave,"  "favour  :"  compare  the  German  Zt^/^  and  Ver- 
laub,\  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a  goddess,  who  is  espe- 
cially favourable  to  lovers,  by  whom  she  is  principally 
worshipped.  Power  is  given  to  her  to  unite  those  who 
love  each  other,  whatever  obstacles  may  stand  in  the 
way.  From  a  root  cognate  with  her  name  the  Swedes 
derive  their  forlofaa  and  the  Germans  their  verloben, 
signifying  to  "betroth." 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology ;"  Mallet,  "  Northern 
Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  Fable  XVIII. 

Lof  tus,  (Dudley,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  versed  in  Orien- 
tal lore,  was  born  near  Dublin  in  1618.  He  became  a 
master  in  chancery  and  a  judge  of  the  prerogative  court. 
He  translated  several  works  from  the  Syriac,  and  made 
the  Latin  version  of  the  .^thiopic  New  Testament  which 
was  published  in  Walton's  Polyglot.     Died  in  1695. 

Lof'tus,  (William  Kenneti",)  an  English  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Rye  about  1820.  He  explored  the  sites  of 
ancient  cities  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  pub- 


lished a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Travels  and  Researches 
in  Chaldsea  and  Susiana,"  etc.,  (1857.)     Died  in  1S58. 

Lo'gau,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief,  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Cayugas,  whose  original  name  was  Tah-gah-jute,  was 
born  about  1725.  His  family  having  been  murdered 
by  a  party  of  white  men,  he  avenged  himself  by  waging 
a  destructive  war  on  the  Western  settlers,  in  which  the 
Indians  were  at  length  defeated.  He  was  killed  in  1780 
in  a  skirmish  with  a  party  of  Indians.  Logan's  regard 
for  the  whites  caused  him  to  be  called  by  his  country- 
men "  the  Friend  of  the  White  Man."  A  granite  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Fair  Hill  Cemetery, 
near  Auburn,  in  Cayuga  county.  New  York. 

Logan,  (George,)  an  American  physician  and  philan- 
thropist, born  near  Philadelphia  in  1753,  was  a  grandson 
of  James  Logan,  noticed  below.  He  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  peace,  and  went  to  France  in  1798  in  order 
to  prevent  a  war  between  France  and  America.  He 
represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  from  1801  to  1807.  He  acted  with  the  Repub- 
licans, and  was  denounced  by  the  Federalists  for  his 
voluntary  services  in  France.     Died  in  1821. 

Lo'gan,  (James,)  a  colonial  statesman  and  author, 
born  at  Lurgan,  Ireland,  in  1674,  was  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  He  was  master  of  the  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  and  German  languages.  In  1699  he  accompanied 
William  Penn  to  America  as  his  secretary.  Under  the 
patronage  of  William  Penn  he  was  much  employed  in 
public  affairs.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  pro- 
vince in  1701,  after  which  he  became  chief  justice  and 
president  of  the  council.  He  acted  as  Governor  about 
two  years  after  the  death  of  Governor  Gordon,  in  1736. 
Among  his  works  is  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  generation 
of  plants,  "Experimenta  et  Meleterhata  de  Plantarum 
Generatione,"  (1739.)  He  produced  a  good  version  of 
Cicero  "  De  Senectute,"  (1744.)  He  collected  a  library 
of  about  3000  volumes,  which  is  known  under  the  name  of 
the  Loganian  Library  and  is  included  in  the  Philadelphia 
Library.  Died  near  Philadelphia  in  October,  1751. 
See  a  "Memoir  of  James  Logan,"  by  W.  Armistead. 
Lo'gan,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  poet,  born  at 
Soutra  in  1748.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  Leith  in 
1773,  and  became  an  eloquent  and  popular  preacher. 
He  delivered  in  Edinburgh  lectures  "On  the  Philosophy 
of  History,"  which  were  published  in  1781.  In  this  year 
he  published  a  volume  of  admired  poems,  chiefly  lyrical, 
among  which  is  an  "Ode  to  the  Cuckoo."  Having  given 
offence  to  his  church  by  writing  "  Runnimede,"  a  tragedy, 
(1783,)  he  removed  to  London  in  1785.  There  he  wrote 
a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Review  of  the  Charges  against 
Warren  Hastings,"  advocating  the  cause  of  Hastings. 
It  led  to  the  celebrated  trial  of  Stockdale,  his  publisher. 
Died  in  1788.  His  sermons  were  published  in  1790,  and 
are  highly  esteemed. 

See  "Life  of  Logan,"  prefixed  loan  edition  of  his  poems,  1805, 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Logan,  (John  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Jackson  county,  Illinois,  in  February,  1826.  He  studied 
law,  which  he  practised  with  success  until  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Democrats  of  the  ninth 
district  of  Illinois,  in  1858.  In  i860  he  was  again  elected 
to  Congress.  Having  raised  a  regiment  of  volunteers, 
he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  same  in  September, 
i86r,  and  was  wounded  at  Fort  Donelson,  February, 
1862.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  March,  1862, 
and  a  major-general  about  the  end  of  that  year.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign  against  Vicks- 
burg. which  ended  July  4,  1863.  In  October,  1863,  he 
obtained  command  of  the  fifteenth  army  corps,  with 
which  he  contributed  to  the  victories  gained  by  Sherman 
between  Chattanooga  and  Atlanta,  after  McPherson  was 
killed.  He  commanded  the  army  of  the  Tennessee  in  a 
battle  near  Atlanta,  July  22,  1864.  He  also  led  a  corps 
of  Sherman's  army  in  the  march  from  Savannah  through 
South  Carolina  and  North  Carolina  in  February  and 
March,  1865.  In  1866  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a 
Radical.  He  was  one  of  seven  members  selected,  March 
2,  1868,  to  manage  the  impeachment  of  President  John- 
son, and  was  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1868.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1871,  and  re- 
1  elected  in  1877  and  in  1885.      Died  December  26,  1886. 


cas-4;  9asj,-  ghard;  gasy;  g,H,  K,guUuraI;  n, nasal;  K,trilled;  sass;  th  as  in //i/.y.     (Jt^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

99 


LOGAN 


1570 


LOKl 


liOgan,  (Sir  William  Edmond,)  a  distinguished  geol- 
ogist, born  at  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1798.  About  1842 
he  was  appointed  to  superintend  a  geological  survey  of 
Canada.  He  received  the  gold  medal  of  honour  at  the 
Paris  Industrial  Exhibition  of  1855,  and  in  1856  the 
Wollaston  palladium  medal.     He  died  June  22,  1875. 

Logau,  von,  fon  lo'gow,  (Friedkich,)  IJaron,  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  in  Silesia  in  1604.  He  passed  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz, 
and  died  in  1655,  leaving  a  great  number  of  epigrams, 
which  were  highly  praised  by  Lessing  and  are  remark- 
able for  irony  and  pathos. 

Loges,  des,  di  lozh,  Madame,  a  Protestant  French 
lady,  whose  maiden  name  was  Marie  Bruneau,  (bRii'- 
no',)  was  born  at  Sedan  about  1584.  Her  house  in  Paris 
was  frequented  by  Malherbe  and  other  eminent  wits, 
attracted  by  the  charm  of  her  conversation.  Died  in  1641. 

Log'gan,  (David,)  an  eminent  engraver  and  designer, 
born  at  Dantzic  about  1635.  He  became  a  resident  of 
London,  where  he  published  Engravings  of  the  Colleges 
of  Oxford,  ("Oxonia  Illustrata,")  and  similar  illustra- 
tions of  those  of  Cambridge.  After  the  restoration  of 
1660,  he  engraved  portraits  of  Charles  H.,  and  of  many 
dukes,  earls,  prelates,  etc.  of  his  time.     Died  in  1693. 

See  Strutt,  "  Dictionai-y  of  Engravers." 

Lohaia,  Ibii,  ib'n  lo-hl'a,  or  Ibn-Lahia,  ib'n  IS-hee'a, 
a  Moslem  doctor,  born  about  710  a.d.  He  was  appointed 
Cadee  of  Egypt  in  771,  and  died  about  790.  The  tra- 
ditions transmitted  through  him  are  of  great  authority 
among  Egyptians.  Silvestre  de  Sacy  attaches  importance 
to  the  historical  traditions  derived  from  him. 

Lohenstein,  von,  fon  lo'en-stin',  (Daniel  Caspar,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Nimptsch,  in  Silesia,  in  1635. 
He  founded  a  literary  school  which  corrupted  the  na- 
tional taste,  and  wrote  tragedies  and  other  poems.  "  He 
was  always  tumid,"  says  Hallam,  "and  striving  at  some- 
thing elevated,  so  that  the  '  Lohenstein  swell'  became  a 
byword  with  later  critics."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")     Died  in  1683. 

See  Passow,  "  D.  C.  von  Lohenstein,  seine  Trauerspiele,"  etc., 

lSS2. 

Lolier,  von,  fon  lo'her,  (Franz,)  a  German  author, 
born  at  Paderborn,  October  15,  1S18.  He  studied  in 
several  universities,  and  travelled  extensively  in  America 
and  Europe,  and  afterwards  received  a  professorship  at 
Munich.  He  published  "  Princes  and  Towns  of*  the 
Times  of  the  Hohenstaufens,"  (1S46,)  "  History  of  the 
Germans  in  America,"  (1848,)  "Naples  and  Sicily," 
(1864,)  "A  Reckoning  with  France,"  (1870,)  "Nature 
and  History  of  Alsace,"  besides  legal  works,  books 
of  travel,  etc.  He  also  wrote  "  General  Spork,"  a  genial 
story,  and  other  works  in  verse  and  prose. 

Lohr  or  Loehr,  loR,  (Johann  Andreas  Christian,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1764,  published 
several  popular  works  for  children.     Died  in  1823. 

Lohur^sp,  lo'hoo-risp',  written  also  Lohrasp,  a 
Persian  king,  who  was  (according  to  the  "  Shah  Nameh") 
the  father  of  Gushtasp.  He  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
about  550  B.C.  According  to  the  Arabian  chronicles, 
his  army  took  Jerusalem. 

See  J.  Atkinson's  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  NSmeh  of  Fir 
«laus!,"  London,  1832. 

Loir,  IwSr,  (Nicolas  Pierre,)  a  skilful  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1624.  After  a  visit  to  Rome, 
he  returned  in  1649,  was  received  as  Academician  in 
1663,  and  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  him 
a  pension  of  four  thousand  francs.  He  worked  with 
facility,  and  was  successful  in  history  and  landscapes. 
The  picture  of  "Cleobis  and  Biton  drawing  the  Chariot 
of  their  Mother"  is  called  his  master-piece.  He  etched 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  his  own  and  of 
other  artists.     Died  in  1679. 

His  brother  Alexis,  born  about  1640,  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  engraver.  He  engraved  several  works 
of  Poussin,  Lebrun,  etc.     Died  at  Paris  in  1713. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Loiseau  de  Mauleon,  Iwi'zo'  deh  mo'li'AN',  (Alex- 
andre J6r6me,)  an  eloquent  French  advocate,  born  in 
Paris  in  1728.  He  was  a  friend  of  Rousseau,  who  ad- 
vised him  to  defend  good  causes  exclusively.     "He  fol- 


lowed my  counsel,"  says  Rousseau,  "  and  has  found  the 
advantage  of  it.  His  defence  of  M.  de  Portes  is  worthy 
of  Demosthenes."     Died  in  1771. 

See  Rousseau,  "Confessions." 

Loisel,  lwS'z§l',  (Antoine,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Beauvais  in  1536.  He  wrote,  besides  other  legal  works, 
"Institutes  coutumieres,"  (1607,)  a  treatise  on  common 
law.     Died  in  1617. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  Iwiz'luR'di'IdN'shflN', 
(AiJGUSTE  Louis  Armand,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1805,  gave  special  attention  to  the  Sanscrit. 
His  most  important  work  is  "The  Book  of  the  Laws  of 
Manu,"  ("  Manava-Dharma-Sastra,"  1832.)  Died  in  1840. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  (Jean  Louis  Au- 
GUSTE,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Dreux  in  1775,  was 
the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  obtained  a  diploma  as 
physician  in  1805.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Flora  Gal- 
lica,"  (2  vols.,  1806-7,)  and  "Le  Nouveau  Duhamel,"  or 
"Treatise  on  Trees  and  Shrubs  cultivated  in  the  Open 
Air  in  France,"  (7  vols.,  1812-19.)     Died  in  1849. 

Loison,  1wI'z6n',  (Louis  Henri,)  a  French  general 
of  division,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1770,  received  the 
grand  cross  of  honour  for  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz, 
(1805.)     Died  in  1816. 

Lojsalfar.     See  Elves. 

Lok  or  Loke.     See  Loki. 

Loki,  lo'ke,  or  Loke,  lo'keh,  written  also  Lok,  [from 
the  old  Norse  logi,  (Ger.  Lohe,)  "flame,"  allied  to  the 
Latin  luc-eo,  to  "shine,"  and  to  the  Scottish  lug,  "fire;" 
probably  so  named  because  he  united  the  subtlety  and 
untrustworthiness  (or  treachery)  of  fire  with  its  destroy- 
ing properties,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  god  of  evil 
and  deceit,  corresponding  in  the  main  with  the  Ahriman 
of  the  Zoroastrians.  He  is  of  Jotun  (giant)  descent,  but 
was  received  among  the  gods,  and  in  the  beginning  was 
a  foster-brother  of  Odin.  From  his  association  with  the 
/Esir,  he  is  often  styled  AsA-LoKl  or  Asaloke.  He  is 
called  by  various  appellations  ;  among  others,  the  Slan- 
derer or  Accuser, — epithets  exactly  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  dtaGoXog,  (Latin  Diah'olus.)  He  is  the  enemy  and 
mocker,  as  well  as  tempter,  of  gods  and  men.  As  proof 
of  his  subtlety,  he  often  changed  his  sex,  assuming  on 
different  occasions  the  form  of  a  mare,  a  cow,  an  old 
woman,  etc.,  as  well  as  that  of  the  gods.  The  J^svc  often 
made  use  of  his  cunning  and  strength ;  but  still  more 
frequently  they  had  cause  to  rue  those  very  powers  em- 
ployed against  themselves.  Professor  Petersen  furnishes 
perhaps  the  most  philosophical  and  most  satisfactorj 
account  of  Loki  and  his  various  attributes  that  can  any- 
where be  found.  Among  other  things,  he  observes  that 
"Asaloke  forms  an  antagonism  (viodsattuftg)  to  all  the 
other  gods.  He  is  the  [principle  of]  evil  exerting  itself 
in  every  direction.  He  runs  in  the  veins  of  mankind  as 
sensuality.  He  is  the  destructive  [power]  of  nature  in 
air,  in  fire,  and  in  water.  In  the  bosom  of  the  earth  [he 
shows  himself]  as  volcanic  fire;  in  the  sea  as  a  devour- 
ing serpent ;  in  the  lower  world  ( nnderverden )  as  pale 
Death.  He  is  not  confined  to  any  one  part  of  nature, 
but,  like  Odin,  pervades  it  all.  .  .  .  And  all  that  he  is 
in  [external]  nature,  the  same  is  he  in  the  mind  of  man  : 
shrewdness,  but  also  cunning  and  falsehood  at  the  same 
time  ;  spirit,  but  likewise  craft,  deceit,  and  malice.  .  .  . 
And  in  each  of  these  forms  he  continually  becomes  worse 
and  worse  ;  according  to  the  old  proverb,  that  '  every- 
thing grows  worse  as  it  grows  older.'"  ("Nordisk  My- 
thologi,"  pp.  355-6.)  ..,,,, 

Through  the  deceitful  malice  of  Loki,  Balder,  the 
beautiful  and  good,  was  slain  by  the  hand  of  his  blind 
brother  Hoder.  (See  Balder.)  By  the  female  Jotun 
Angurboda,  Loki  was  the  father  of  the  wolf  Fenrir,  of 
the  World-Serpent,  (or  Midgard's  Ormr,)  and  of  Hela, 
the  goddess  of  death.  He  is  also  fabled  to  have  been  (by 
a  change  of  sex)  the  dam  of  the  horse  Sleipnir.  The 
yEsir,  exasperated  on  account  of  the  death  of  Balder, 
determined  at  length  to  take  vengeance  on  Loki.  He 
had  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  there  built  himself  a 
house  which  was  open  on  four  sides,  whence  he  could 
see  everything  that  happened  throughout  the  world.  By 
day  he  often  transformed  himself  into  a  salmon,  and  hid 
himself  in  a  waterfall.     The  gods,  learning  his  hiding. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f4t;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


L  OK  MAN 


1571 


Z  OMBARD 


place,  attempted  to  catch  him  with  a  net ;  he  sprang 
over  the  net,  but  Thor  caught  him  by  the  tail.  This  is 
the  reason,  we  are  told,  why  the  salmon  has  so  thin  and 
pointed  a  tail.  Having  thus  captured  Loki,  the  gods 
bound  him  with  magic  cords  to  three  sharp  stones.  A 
venomous  snake  was  then  hung  above  his  head,  so  that 
the  poison  might  continually  drip  on  his  face.  But  his 
faithful  wife  Sigyn  (sig'in)  stands  by  him  and  catches  the 
falling  venom  in  a  cup.  When  the  cup  is  full,  while  she 
is  emptying  it  the  poison  falls  upon  his  face,  which  makes 
him  hjwl  with  anguish  and  writhe  his  body  so  that  the 
whole  earth  tren>bles.  Loki  will  break  loose  from  his 
bonds  at  Ragnarock,*  (the  "  twilight  or  evening  of  the 
gods,")  when  he  will  become  the  leading  spirit  among 
the  enemies  of  the  ^sir.  He  is  not  only  the  leader  of 
Fenrir  and  the  other  progeny  of  evil,  but  he  is  said 
to  steer  the  fatal  ship  Naglfar  which  conveys  the  sons 
of  Muspel  over  the  ocean.  In  the  final  conflict  he  will 
encounter  Heimdall,  and  they  will  slay  each  other.  Frey 
falls  under  the  sword  of  Surt.  Tyr  slays  and  is  slain  by 
the  dog  Garm.  Odin  is  devoured  by  the  wolf  Fenrir, 
which  in  turn  is  killed  by  Vidar.  Thor  slays  the  world- 
serpent,  but  dies  immediately  afterwards  from  the  effects 
of  its  venom.  Then  Surt  scatters  fire  over  the  earth, 
and  the  whole  world  is  consumed.  (See  Fenrir.)  We 
are  told,  however,  that  this  destruction  is  not  to  last 
forever.  A  new  earth,  forever  green  and  beautiful,  will 
rise  out  of  the  sea.  Vali  and  Vidar  (the  slayer  of  Fen- 
rir) will  survive  the  conflagration,  and  will  be  joined  by 
Modi  and  Magni,  the  sons  of  Thor  and  Balder,  and 
Hoder  will  return  from  the  realms  of  Hela.  The  sun 
before  her  destruction  bore  a  daughter  more  beautiful 
than  herself.  As  successor  to  her  mother,  she  will  pursue 
her  appointed  path  through  the  renovated  world.  A  new 
race  shall  fill  the  earth,  and  all  evil  come  to  an  end. 

See  Keyser,  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  translated  by  Pen- 
nock,  pp.  101-104 ;  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Mai,- 
LET,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  li..  Fable  XVI.,  also  XXX.  to 
XXXIII.  inclusive;  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Lokm^  or  Locin3.n,  lok'mtn',  written  also  Loq- 
m&n,  an  ancient  Arabian  sSge,  celebrated  for  his  wis- 
dom, and  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  collection  of 
popular  Oriental  fables.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  Koran, 
and  is  regarded  as  a  contemporary  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon. Ofie  Arabian  writer  tells  us  that  Loknian  (who  is 
called  "the  oldest  sage")  was  an  Abyssinian  slave  be- 
longing to  an  Israelite  in  the  time  of  King  David,  and 
that  he  was  a  tailor  by  trade.  Another  writer  says  he 
had  read  more  than  10,000  wise  sayings  and  maxims,  but 
none  finer  than  those  of  Lokman.  It  is  related  that 
Lokman,  being  asked  whence  he  had  learned  his  wisdom, 
replied,  "  From  the  blind,  who  do  not  set  down  their 
feet  until  they  know  the  place  ;"  and  when  asked  from 
whom  he  had  learned  good  manners,  tie  said,  "  From 
the  ill-mannered,  because  I  avoid  everything  offensive 
in  them."  Coincident  traditions  suggest  the  possible,  if 
not  probable,  identity  of  Lokman  and  .^sop.  "Many 
passages  of  his  history,"  says  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  "seem 
evidently  borrowed  from  the  life  of  /Esop."  "Nothing 
in  his  fables  is  characteristic  of  Arabian  genius  ;  and 
they  have  received  the  name  of  Lokman  only  because 
he  was  renowned  for  wisdom."  They  were  edited  and 
translated  into  Latin  by  Erpenius  in  1615. 

See  Hammer-Purgstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber," 
vol.  i.  p.  31  et  seg. 

Lola  Montez,  lo'li  mon'tSz,  (Maria  Dolores  Por- 

Ris  Gilbert,)  a  famous  female  adventurer,  was  born 
about  1820,  at  Limerick.  At  an  early  age  she  made  her 
dihut  at  Paris  as  a  danseuse,  and  by  her  beauty  and 
genius  attracted  many  admirers.  About  1846  she  went 
to  Munich,  where  she  captivated  the  king,  Louis,  who 
gave  her  the  title  of  Countess  of  Lansfeld.  After  several 
ministers  had  been  discarded  by  her  influence,  her 
enemies  prevailed  in  1848,  and  she  retired  from  Bavaria. 
She  was  afterwards  married  twice,  and  lived  in  England 
and  the  United  States,  where  she  lectured  with  success 
in  various  cities.  She  published  a  volume  of  lectures, 
and  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  work  called  "  The  Arts 

*  Derived,  according  to  Keyser,  from  Regin.  the  "  ruling  powers," 
«nd  hence  "gods,"  and  R'dkkr,  "darkness,"  also  "  twilight." 


of  Beauty,  or  Secrets  of  a  Lady's  Toilet."  She  died  in 
New  York  in  1S61. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1848. 

Loli,  lo'lee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna  in  1612,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido 
Reni.  His  most  admired  works  are  etchings,  after  Guido, 
Sirani,  etc.     Died  in  1691. 

Lol'lard  or  Lol'hard,  (Walter,)  a  person  of  whom 
we  have  little  information,  except  that  he  was  burned 
to  death  as  a  heretic  at  Cologne  in  1322.  His  followers 
or  fellow-believers,  called  "Lollards,"  were  a  numerous 
sect  in  England  many  years  after  his  death.  Their  doc- 
trines appear  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  Prot- 
estants. The  term  Lollard  was  applied  to  the  disciples 
of  Wickliffe  by  their  opponents.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
V.  (1414)  the  Lollards  were  persecuted,  and  revolted 
without  success.     (See  Couham,  Lord.) 

Lolli,  loKlee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  violinist,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1728  ;  died  in  1802. 

Lol'li-a  Pau-li'na,  a  Roman  empress,  whose  beauty 
captivated  Caligula.  She  was  married  to  him  in  38  A.n., 
but  was  soon  discarded  by  the  capricious  emperor.  She 
was  put  to  death  in  49  a.d.  by  the  order  of  Agrippina, 
who  was  prompted  to  this  act  by  jealousy. 

Lol-ll-a'nus,  [AoX/ljavof,]  a  Greek  sophist  and  writer 
on  rhetoric,  born  at  E])hesus,  lectured  at  Athens  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  (117-138  a.d.) 

See  Kayser,  "P.  Hordeonius  Lollianus  geschildert,"  etc.,  1841. 

LolUo,  lol'le-0,  (Alberto,)  an  Italian  orator  and 
poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1508.  He  published  elegant 
orations  and  letters,  and  several  poems,  among  which  is 
"Arethusa,"  a  pastoral  drama,  (1563.)     Died  in  1568. 

Lol'Ii-us,  (M.,)  a  Roman  general  in  the  service  of 
Augustus.  He  was  defeated  in  Gaul  by  the  Germans  in 
16  B.C.     Died  in  3  a.d. 

Lolnie.     See  De  Lolme. 

Lom'ax,  (John  Tayloe,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Caroline  county,  Virginia,  in  1781,  was  appointed  in 
1826  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Virginia. 

Lomazzo,  lo-mSt'so,  (Giovanni  Paolo,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  able  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
1538.  He  was  appointed  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  keeper 
of  his  vast  gallery  of  pictures  in  Florence.  He  was 
versed  in  belles-lettres  and  various  sciences,  and  ac- 
quired a  profound  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge 
of  the  fine  arts.  Having  become  blind  in  the  prime  of 
life,  he  composed  his  "Trattato  della  Pittura,"  (1584,) 
"  the  most  complete  treatise  on  painting,"  says  the  "Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,"  "  that  has  hitherto  appeared."  His 
praises  were  sung  by  the  first  Italian  poets  of  his  time. 
He  also  published  "  Idea  (or  Image)  of  the  Temple  of 
Painting,"  ("Idea  del  Tempio  della  Pittura,"  1591.) 
Died  about  1600. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Winckelmann, 
"  Neues  Mahler-Lexikon  ;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Lombard,  liw'btR',  (Claude  Antoine,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Dole  in  1741;  died  in  1811. 

Lombard,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  artillerist,  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1723,  was  learned  in  languages,  etc.  He 
published  a  translation  of  Robins's  "  Principles  of  Ar- 
tillery," (1783,)  and  other  esteemed  works  on  gunnery. 
Died  in  1794. 

Lombai'd,  lom'baRt,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  Prus- 
sian politician,  born  at  Berlin  about  1767.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs  about  1800.  He 
favoured  the  French  interest  by  promoting  the  neutrality 
in  which  Prussia  persisted  until  1806.     Died  in  1812. 

Lombard,  16N'btR',  [Lat.  Lombar'dus,]  (Lambert,) 
an  excellent  Flemish  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Liege 
about  1500.  He  studied  in  Italy  under  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
and  returned  to  his  native  city.  In  his  school  of  design 
were  formed  several  eminent  artists,  among  whom  was 
Frans  Floris.  His  style  is  Italian.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  an  oil-painting  of  the  "  Last  Supper."     Died  in 

1565- 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Paniters;"  Dominicus  Lampsonius, 
(or  Lampson,)  "  Lambert!  Lombardi  apud  Eburones  Pictoris  Celebes 
rimi  Vita,"  1565. 

Lombard,  (Petek.)     See  Peter  Lombard. 
Lombard,  (Theodore,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  An- 
nonay  in  1699;  died  about  1770. 


«  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOMBARD 


1572 


LOMONOSOF 


Lombard  de  Langres,  16iN'btR'  deh  16NgR,  (Vin- 
cent,) a  French  litthateiir,  born  at  Langres  about  1765. 
He  wrote  "Neslie,"  (1798,)  and  other  poems,  and  "Me- 
moirs of  the  French  Revolution,"  (2  vols.,  1823.)  Died 
in  1830. 

Lombard!,  lom-baR'dee,  (Alfonso,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1487.  He  had  an  excellent 
talent  for  portraits.  Among  his  works  were  portraits  of 
Bembo,  Ariosto,  and  Charles  V.,  and  a  group  in  terra 
cotta  representing  the  "Death  of  the  Virgin."  Died 
in  1536. 

See  G.  Baruffaldi,  "Vita  di  A.  Lombard!,"  1839;  Vasari, 
"Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cicognara,  "Storiadella 
Scultura." 

Lombard!,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Rimini,  became  a  Protestant,  and  a  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  medicine  at  Marburg,  where  he  died  in  1669. 

Lombard!,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  called  L'Omino, 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1682 ;  died  in  1752, 

Lombard!,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Ferrara,  lived  about  1550.  He  was  employed,  under  the 
direction  of  Sansovino,  on  the  church  of  San  Marco, 
Venice. 

Lombard!,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born 
at  Verona  in  1707  ;  died  in  1792. 

Lombardo,  lom-baR'do,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian  archi- 
tect and  sculptor.  He  made  the  monument  raised  to 
Dante  at  Ravenna  in  1482,  and  designed  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  de'  Miracoli  at  Venice.  Among  his  works  ir 
the  tower  for  the  clock  on  the  Piazza  San  Marco.  Died 
about  1520.  His  sons  Antonio  and  Tullio  were  able 
sculptors  and  architects.  The  latter  designed  the  church 
of  San  Salvator,  Venice.  His  finest  works  as  a  sculptor 
were  two  marble  bas-reliefs  in  the  Chapel  del  Santo  at 
Padua.     Died  in  1559. 

See  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Lombardo,  (Sante,)  an  architect  and  sculptor,  born 
at  Venice  in  1504,  was  a  nephew  of  Tullio.  Among  his 
works  was  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco  at  Venice.  Died 
in  1560. 

Lombardo,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Lugano,  lived  about  1530. 

Lombardus.    See  Lombard,  (Lambert.) 

Lombart,  l6N'btR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1612.  Among  his  works  are  twelve 
portraits,  after  Van  Dyck,  a  "  Nativity,"  after  Poussin, 
and  a  "  Penitent  Magdatene,"  after  Titian.    Died  in  1682. 

Lombert,  liN'baiR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  translator, 
born  in  Paris,  was  an  associate  of  the  Port-Royalists. 
He  produced  French  versions  of  the  works  of  Saint 
Cyprian,  (2  vols.,  1672,)  and  of  Saint  Augustine's  "City 
of  God,"  (2  vols.,  1675.)     Died  in  1710. 

Lomeier,  lo'mi'er,  written  also  Lomeir,  (Jan,)  a 
learned  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Zutphen  in  1636.  He 
became  minister  of  the  church  in  that  town  in  1674,  and 
professor  of  belles-lettres  there  in  1686.  He  published 
a  curious  treatise  "On  Libraries,"  ("  De  Bibliothecis," 
1669,)  and  a  work  on  ancient  history  and  philology,  en- 
titled "Dierum  Genialium."     Died  in  1699. 

See  Sax,  "Ononiasticon." 

Lomen!,  lo-ma'nee,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
rural  economy,  born  at  Milan  in  1779  ;  died  in  1838. 

Lom6nie,  de,  deh  lo'mi'ne',  (Henri  Auguste,) 
Count  de  Brienne,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1594.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  obtained  the  reversion 
of  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  which  his  father  had 
held.  In  1624  he  was  sent  to  England  to  draw  up  the 
articles  of  the  marriage  between  Henrietta  of  France 
and  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  retired  from  office  in  166 1, 
and  died  in  1666. 

Lom^nie,  de,  (Louis  Henri,)  Count  de  Brienne,  the 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1635.  About  the  age 
of  twenty-six  he  resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory.  He  wrote 
poems,  memoirs,  and  other  works,  which  have  some 
literary  merit.  He  was  expelled  from  the  order  of  the 
Oratory  for  eccentric  or  improper  conduct,  and  was 
deranged  many  years.     Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Mdmoires  de  L.  H.  de  Lom^nie,"  2  vols.,  1720. 


Lom^nie,  de,  (Louis  Leonard,)  a  French  author, 
born  in  Haute-Vienne  in  1818.  He  began  his  literary 
career  by  a  series  of  biographies,  entitled  "Gallery  of 
Illustrious  Contemporaries,  by  a  Man  of  no  Account," 
("  Galerie  des  Contemporains  illustres,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  10  vols.,  1840-47,)  which  procured  for  him  an 
honourable  reputation  for  good  taste,  discretion,  and 
other  merits.  Many  of  these  biographies  have  been 
published  separately.  Among  his  works  is  "  Beaumar- 
chais  and  his  Times  :  Studies  on  French  Society,"  (2 
vols.,  1855.)     Died  April  2,  1878. 

Lom^nie  de  Brienne,  de,  deh  lo'mi'ne'  deh  bRe'?n', 
(firiENNE  Charles,)  a  French  cardinal  and  minister  of 
state,  born  in  Paris  in  1727.  He  was  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Toulouse  in  1763.  In  1770  he  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  In  May,  1787,  he  succeeded 
Calonne  as  contr&leur-general  of  finances,  without  abili- 
ties adequate  to  the  crisis.  An  exciting  contest  arose 
between  the  court  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  which 
was  exiled  from  the  capital  and  deprived  of  political 
power.  In  1788  he  was  invested  with  the  title  of  prime 
minister  and  made  Archbishop  of  Sens.  In  this  year, 
yielding  to  the  importunate  appeals  of  the  people,  then 
in  a  state  of  great  excitement,  he  convoked  the  States- 
General  for  May,  1789.  Having  been  so  unsuccessful  as 
a  financier  that  he  was  compelled  to  suspend  payments, 
he  was  dismissed  on  the  24th  of  August,  1788,  and  Necker 
became  premier.  He  was  one  of  those  in  the  new  regime 
who  took  the  oath  as  a  constitutional  bishop.  Died  in 
1794. 

See  Droz,  "  Histoire  du  Rfegne  de  Louis  XVI ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grnphie  G^nerale." 

Lomi,  lo'mee,  (Artemisia,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Pisa  in  1590,  was  a  daughter  of  Orazio  Lomi,  and  a 
pupil  of  Guido.  She  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait- 
painter,  and  painted  some  historical  works,  among  which 
is  "Judith  and  Holofernes."  She  died  in  London  or 
Naples  about  1644. 

Lorn!,  (Aurelio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Pisa  in 
1556,  is  called  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  school  of  Pisa. 
He  painted  frescos  and  oil'paintings  in  Rome,  Genoa, 
Florence,  Pisa,  etc.  Among  his  admired  works  are  a 
Saint  Jerome  and  "Adoration  of  the  Magi."  Died  in  1622. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "No- 
tizie." 

Lomi,  (Baccto,)  an  Italian  painter,  an  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Pisa,  lived  about  1 570-1600.  He 
worked  at  Pisa  with  success,  and  founded  a  school. 

Lomi,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  painter,  called  Genti- 
leschi,  a  brother  of  Aurelio,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Pisa  about  1563.  He  worked  in  Rome,  where  he  was 
employed  by  Agostino  Tassi  to  paint  figures.  About 
1623  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  Charles  I.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Repose  in 
Egypt,"  and  an  "Assumption."  Died  in  London  in  1646. 

Lomm,  lom,  [Lat.  Lom'mius,]  (Josse,)  one  of  the 
most  skilful  physicians  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Buren, 
in  Holland,  in  1500.  He  practised  at  Tournai  and  at 
Brussels,  whither  he  removed  about  1557.  In  his  "  Medi- 
cinal Observations"  ("  Observationes  Medicinales,"  1560) 
many  diseases  are  accurately  described.  He  wrote  other 
works,  in  Latin  of  uncommon  purity.     Died  after  1562. 

Lommius.     See  Lomm. 

Lomonosof,  Lomonossov,  Lomonosov,  or  Lom- 
onosow,lom-o-no'sof,  (Michael  Vasilievitch,)  a  cele- 
brated Russian  poet,  born  at  or  near  Kolmogory,  in  the 
government  of  Archangel,  in  1711,  is  called  the  father 
of  modern  Russian  literature.  He  was  the  son  of  a  serf, 
whom  he  assisted  in  the  business  of  a  fisherman  until 
his  thirst  for  knowledge  led  him  to  Moscow,  and  thence 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  in  1734.  He  became  learned  in  an- 
cient and  modern  languages  and  in  abstract  and  natural 
sciences.  In  1746  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chem- 
istry, and  in  1760  rector  of  the  gymnasium  and  Uni- 
versity of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  rendered  the  Russian 
language  more  polished  and  more  rich  by  his  multifarious 
productions,  in  prose  and  verse,  on  grammar,  history, 
chemistry,  rhetoric,  etc.  His  poem  entitled  "  Petriade" 
(an  unfinished  epic,  of  which  Peter  the  Great  is  the 
hero)  is  one  of  his  most  popular  works.     He  also  pro- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  f^U,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LONDE 


1573 


LONGFELLOW 


duced  two  volumes  of  odes,  religious  and  secular,  and! 
an  abridged  "  History  of  Russia."  He  was  made  council- 
lor iif  state  in  1764.  Died  in  1765.  Polevoi  has  published 
a  work  entitled  "  M.  V.  Lomonossov,"  (1836,)  which  is 
said  to  be  a  biography  blended  with  fiction. 

See,  also,  G.  Geitlin,  "  Dissertatio  de  Mentis  literariis  Lomo- 
nossovii,"  1829;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "  Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1839. 

Loude,  16Nd,  (Charles,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Caen  in  1798.  His  "  Elements  of  Hygiene" 
(1827)  has  been  frequently  translated.     Died  in  1862. 

Londe,  de  la,  dch  It  16Nd,  {Francois  Richard,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Caen  in  1685  ;  died  in  1765. 

Londerseel,  lon'der-sal',  (AssuR,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1550. 

Londerseel,  van,  vtn  lon'der-sal',  (Jan,)  a  Flemish 
engraver,  born  at  Bruges  about  1580. 

Lpn'don-der'r;^,  (Charles  William  Stewart,) 
third  Marquis  of,  born  in  Dublin  in  1778,  was  a  son 
of  Robert  the  first  Marquis,  and  a  half-brother  of  Lord 
Castlereagh.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Lord  Chan- 
cellor Camden.  He  entered  the  army  in  1793,  became 
colonel  and  aide-de-camp  to  the  king  in  1803,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  Portugal  under  Sir  John  Moore. 
He  served  as  adjutant-general  under  Sir  Arthur  Wel- 
lesley  for  several  years  in  the  Peninsula.  In  1813  Sir 
Charles  was  envoy-extraordinary  to  the  court  of  Berlin, 
and  was  officially  attached  to  the  head-quarters  of  l?er- 
nadotte.  Much  importance  is  ascribed  to  the  efforts 
and  menaces  by  which  he  induced  Bernadotte  to  co- 
operate with  the  allies  at  Leipsic.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Lord  Stewart,  in  1814.  and  was  one  of  the 
plenipotentiaries  sent  by  England  to  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815.  Having  married  a  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Sir  Harry  Vane  Temiiest  in  1819,  he  assumed  the 
name  of  Vane.  He  succeeded  his  half-brother  as  Mar- 
quis of  Londonderry  in  1822,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
general  in  1837.  In  politics  he  was  an  ultra-conserva- 
tive. He  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Peninsular 
War,"  (1813.)  He  died  in  1854,  leaving  two  sons,  Wil- 
liam Robert,  who  inherited  the  title,  (died  November 
25,  1872,)  and  George,  the  fifth  marquis,  (born  April  26, 
1821  ;  died  November  6,  1884.) 

See  T.  P.  Fitzgerald,  "Life  of  Lord  Londonderry:"  "Bio- 
graphical Sketches,"  by  Harriet  Martinrau. 

Londonderry,  Marquis  of.     See  Castlereagh. 

Londonio,  lon-do'ne-o,  (  Francesco,  )  an  Italian 
painter  of  animals,  born  at  Milan  in  1723  ;  died  in  1783. 

Long,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Corn- 
wall in  1734.  He  emigrated  in  1757  to  Jamaica,  where 
he  was  ajjpointed  a  judge.  Having  returned  to  England 
in  1769,  he  published  a  "History  of  Jamaica,"  (1774,) 
and  several  minor  works.     Died  in  1813. 

Long,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
editor,  born  at  Poulton,  Lancashire,  in  1800.  Having 
been  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  became  professor  of 
ancient  languages  in  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1824, 
and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  London  University  in 
1826.  About  this  time  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,"  under 
whose  auspices  he  edited  the  "  Pe\iny  Cyclopaedia,"  with 
great  ability,  from  1832  to  1843.  He  afterwards  edited 
for  the  same  society  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary,"  which 
was  discontinued  at  the  end  of  the  letter  A.  He  con- 
tributed many  articles  to  Smith's  "Classical  Dictionary," 
edited  Cicero's  Orations,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "France  and  its  Revolutions,"  (1850,)  and  "The 
Decline  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (5  vols.,  1864-74.)  He 
translated  into  English  the  "Thoughts  of  the  Emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus."  He  was  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors in  the  college  at  Brighton  from  1849  to  1871. 
Died  August  10,  1879. 

Long,  (Roger,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  astronomer,  bom 
in  the  county  of  Norfolk  in  1680.  He  became  Lowndes 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in  1749,  and  after- 
wards obtained  the  rectory  of  Bradwell.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  of  which  the  first  volume  was 
published  in  1742  and  the  second  in  1764.     Died  in  1770. 

Long,  (Stephen  H.,)  an  American  engineer,  born  at 
Hopkinton,  New  Hampshire,  in  1784.  About  1816  he 
set  out  on  a  tour  for  exploring  the  western  frontier  from 


Texas  to  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and  published 
in  1824  his  "Expedition  to  the  Source  of  Saint  Peter'a 
River,  Lake  of  the  Woods,"  etc.     Died  Sept.  4,  1864. 

Long,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at  Exe- 
ter in  1621.  About  1660  he  obtained  a  prebend  in  Exeter 
Cathedral,  from  which  he  was  ejected  as  a  nonjuror  in 
1688.  He  wrote  a  "  Vindication  of  the  Primitive  Chris- 
tians in  Point  of  Obedience  to  their  Prince,"  (1683,)  and 
other  polemical  works.     Died  in  1700. 

Long,  Le.     See  Lelong. 

Longchamps,  de,  deh  16N'sh6N',  (Pierre,)  a  Fren»-'>. 
writer,  born  probably  at  Rochelle.  He  translated  the 
Elegies  of  Propertius  into  French  prose,  and  wrote 
"  Memoirs  of  a  Nun,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1812. 

Longepierre,  de,  deh  li*>Nzh'pe-aiR',  (Hilaire  Ber- 
nard DE  Requelf.ynf.,)  Baron,  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1658.  He  was  an  excellent  Greek  scholar,  and 
produced  poetical  versions  of  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Bion, 
and  Moschus.  His  tragedy  of  "  Medea,"  says  Voltaire, 
although  too  full  of  declamation,  is  supencr  to  Corneille's 
"Medea."     Died  in  1721. 

Longet,  liN'zhy,  (FRANgois  Achille,)  a  French 
physician  and  physiologist,  born  at  Saint-Germain-cn- 
Laye  in  1811.  He  published  "  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  the  Nervous  System,"  (2  vols.,  1843-46,)  and  a  "  Com- 
plete Treatise  on  Physiology,"  (1850-55.)  He  became 
consulting  physician  of  the  emperor.     Died  in  1871. 

Long'fel-low,  (Henry  Wadsworth,)  an  eminent 
American  poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Portland  (Maine) 
the  27th  of  February,  1807.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1825,  soon  after  which  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  modern  languages  and  literature  in  that  institu- 
tion, with  the  understanding  that  he  should  have  the 
privilege  of  spending  some  time  in  Europe  in  order  more 
fully  to  qualify  himself  for  his  new  position.  He  left 
home  in  1826,  and  spent  four  years  abroad,  chiefly  in 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany.  In  1835  he  suc- 
ceeded Mr.  George  Ticknor  in  the  chair  of  modern 
languages  and  belles-lettres  at  Harvard.  The  same  year 
he  visited  Europe  the  second  time ;  and,  after  making 
an  extensive  tour  through  Denmark,  Sweden,  Germany, 
etc.,  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  professorship  in 
1838.  In  1839  ajjpeared  his  romance  of  "  Hyperion," 
and  a  collection  of  his  poems,  entitled  "  Voices  of  the 
Night,"  which  attracted  great  attention  and  raised  him 
at  once  to  the  first  rank  among  American  poets.  In 
1841  he  published  "Ballads,  and  other  Poems:"  his 
charming  drama  of  "The  Spanish  Student"  appeared 
in  1843.  This  was  followed  by  his  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  (1845,)  "The  Belfry  of  Bruges,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1846,)  and  "Evangeline,"  (1847,)  one  of  the 
most  admired  of  all  his  productions.  It  has  been  pro- 
nounced (and  we  think  justly)  "the  most  perfect  speci- 
men extant  of  the  rhythm  and  melody  of  the  English 
hexameter."  It  was  followed  by  "The  Golden  Legend," 
(1851,)  "The  Song  of  Hiawatha,"  (1855,)  perhaps  the 
most  popular  of  all  his  works,  "  The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish,"  (1858,)  "Flower  de  Luce,"  (1866,)  "New 
England  Tragedies,"  (1868,)  "The  Divine  Tragedy," 
(1872,)  "Three  Books  of  Song,"  (1873,)  "Aftermath," 
(1874,)  "The  Hanging  of  the  Crane"  and  "The  Masque 
of  Pandora,"  (1875,)  "  Keramos,"  (1878,)  "  UltimaThule," 
(first  part,  1881 ;  second  part, — "  In  the  Harbour," — 1882.) 
A  posthumous  drama,  "  Michael  Angelo,"  appeared  in 
1883.  Of  his  prose  writings,  besides  "  Hyperion,"  al- 
ready referred  to,  we  may  mention  "Outre-Mer  :  a  Pil- 
grimage beyond  the  Sea,"  (1835,)  "  Kavanagh,"  a  novel, 
(1849,)  and  his  contributions  to  the  "  North  American 
Review."  He  also  published  a  careful  and  scholarly 
translation  of  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy,"  (3  vols.,  1867- 
70,)  and  edited  a  series  of  volumes  entitled  "  Poems  of 
Places."  Longfellow  resigned  his  chair  at  Harvard  n 
1854,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lowell.  In  1868-69  he  tra  '- 
elled  in  Europe,  and  was  everywhere  received  wi'h 
marked  attention,  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  being  conferri  d 
on  him  by  the  Universities  of  both  Oxford  and  Can- 
bridge,  England.  He  died  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
March  24,  1882. 

As  a  poet,  Longfellow  is  characterized  by  tenderness 
and  depth  of  feeling,  to  the  expression  of  which  the  pic 
turesque  and  graceful   simplicity  of  his  language  ofter 


«  as ii;  f  as  s;  g hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H.  Yi^gtittural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (jg^See  Explanations,  p.  23 


LONGHENA 


1574 


LONGOLIUS 


Poet 
ture 


imparts  an  indescribable  charm.  He  seldom  or  never 
attempts  to  excite  admiration  by  far-sought  conceits,  by 
wild  or  lofty  flights  of  imagination,  or  by  the  exhibition 
of  dark  and  terrible  passions.  He  relies  chiefly  for  his 
success  on  asimple  and  direct  appeal  to  those  sentiments 
which  are  common  to  all  mankind, — to  persons  of  every 
rank  and  of  every  clime. 

It  is,  in  fact,  to  his  command  over  those  feelings  which 
are  universal  in  the  human  heart,  that  we  must  ascribe 
the  extraordinary  popularity  of  his  Indian  story  of  "  Hia- 
watha." It  is,  perhaps,  not  too  much  to  say  that  he  is 
not  merely  the  first  but  the  only  writer  who  has  suc- 
ceeded in  giving  a  deep  and  living  interest  to  a  story  of 
Indian  life.  Restricted  as  he  necessarily  was  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject, — by  the  extreme  simplicity,  not  to 
say  meagreness,  of  the  character  of  our  aborigines, — he 
has  yet  produced  a  poem  which  not  only  comes  home  to 
the  hearts  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  but  which  must  ex- 
cite the  admiration  of  the  cultivated  reader  who  will  take 
into  consideration  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  task, 
and  the  limits  and  restrictions  which  the  poet,  in  selecting 
such  a  subject,  had  necessarily  to  impose  upon  himself. 
The  form  of  the  verse  is  in  admirable  keeping  with  the 
simplicity  of  the  story.  "  But,  unhappily  for  the  poet,"  as 
has  been  observed,  "  this  is  the  very  measure  to  attract 
the  parodist,"  and,  immediately  upon  the  issue  of  the 
poem,  countless  parodies  were  made  upon  it.  Those, 
however,  who  can  appreciate  the  intrinsic  merits  of  true 
poetry  find  much  that  is  beautiful  and  excellent  in  the 
'•Song  of  Hiawatha."  Several  different  translations  of 
it  have  been  made, — one  by  the  distinguished  German 
poet  Freiligrath, — and  it  has  been  read  and  admired  m 
every  part  of  Europe. 

See  Allfbone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"Grirwold,"  Poets  and 
ry  of  America  ;"DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Litera- 
vol.  ii.  :  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1840,  July, 
1S42,  July,  1S45,  and  January,  1848  :  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March, 
1848  :  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January  a^nd  April,  1S64. 

Longhena,  lon-ga'nS,  (Baldassare,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, worked  at  Venice  about  1640. 

Longhi.     See  Lunghi. 

Longhi,  lon'gee,  (Alessio  or  Alessandro,)  a  Vene- 
tian painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1726  ;  died  about  1790. 

Longhi,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Monza,  in  Lombardy,  in  1766.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Vincenzo  Vangelisti.  He  worked  mostly  at  Milan, 
where  he  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 
His  works  are  admired  for  the  magical  effect  of  the  chiaro- 
uuro.  He  was  an  excellent  draftsman.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "The  Marriage  of  the  Virgin,"  after 
Raphael,  "  The  Magdalene,"  after  Correggio,  a  "  Gala- 
tea," after  Albani,  and  "The  Last  Judgment,"  after  Mi- 
chael Angelo.  He  published  "  La  Calcographia,"  (1830,) 
an  able  treatise  on  engraving.     Died  in  183 1. 

See  F.  LoNGHiTNA,  "  Notizie  biografiche  di  G.  Longhi,"  1831  ; 
Sacchi,  "  Biografia  di  G.  Longhi,"  1S31  ;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italian!  illustri;"  G.  Beretta,  "Vita  del  Cavaliere  G.  Longhi," 
1837- 

Longhi,  lon'gee,  or  Lunghi,  loon'gee,  (LUCA,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Ravenna  in  1 507,  always  resided 
in  that  city.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  and  also  painted 
some  subjects  of  sacred  history  with  success.  Died  in 
1580.  "  His  conceptions,"  says  Lanzi,  "  are  sweet,  varied, 
and  graceful,  with  a  powerful  union  of  colours."  His 
daughter  Barbara  was  also  a  painter. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Longhi,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter  of  masquerades, 
dances,  and  other  gay  or  familiar  scenes,  born  at  Venice 
in  1702  ;  died  in  1762. 

Longin.     See  Longinus. 

Longino.     See  Longinus. 

Longinus.     See  Dlugosz. 

Lon-gi'nus,  [Gr.  Koyylvoq;  Fr.  Longin,  liN'zh^N';  It. 
Longino,  lon-jee'no,]  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher 
and  critic,  was  born  probably  in  Syria,  and  flourished 
in  the  third  century.  Some  ancient  writers  call  him 
Longinus  Cassius,  or  Dionysius  Cassius  Longinus. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Phronto  of  Emesa,  and  was 
a  Platonist  in  philosophy.  He  opened  at  Athens  a 
school  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  which  became  very 
celebrated.  The  famous  Porphyry  was  one  of  his  pupils. 
After  passing  many  years  at  Athens,  he  accepted  the 


invitation  of  Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  to  reside  at 
her  court.  He  taught  her  Greek,  and  served  her  as 
councillor  or  prime  minister  during  her  war  against  Au- 
relian,  Emperor  of  Rome.  The  latter,  having  captured 
Palmyra,  put  Longinus  to  death  in  273  A.D.  Longinus 
was  the  first  to  whom  was  applied  the  phrase,  often  re- 
peated since,  "a  living  library,"  and  is  considered  the 
greatest  philosopher  of  his  age.  He  wrote  many  critical 
and  philosophical  works,  none  of  which  have  come  down 
to  us  except  his  admirable  "Treatise  on  the  Sublime," 
(Ilept  'Ti/;TOf,)  which  Boileau  translated  into  French  and 
called  a  "master-piece  of  good  sense,  learning,  and  elo- 
quence." Some  writers,  however,  have  doubted — but  with 
little  reason,  it  would  seem — whether  Longinus  was  the 
real  author  of  this  work.  (See,  on  this  subject,  the  arti- 
cle "Longin"  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 
It  has  been  truly  said  that  to  be  a  good  critic  one  must 
be  something  of  a  poet.  This  qualification  Longinus 
possessed  in  a  pre-eminent  degree.  Pope,  addressing 
him,  says, 

"Thee,  bold  Longinus!  all  the  Nine  inspire, 
And  bless  their  critic  with  a  poet's  fire  ; 
An  ardent  judge,  who,  zealous  in  his  trust, 
With  warmth  gives  sentence,  yet  is  always  just ; 
Whose  own  example  strengthens  all  his  laws, 
And  is  himself  that  great  sublime  he  draws." 

Essay  on  Criticism,  part  ill 

Of  Longinus's  "Treatise  on  the  Sublime," several  gooO. 
French  translations  have  been  made, — one  by  the  cele- 
brated critic  and  poet  Boileau,  (1674.)  It  has  also  been 
translated  into  German  by  Schlosser,  and  into  English 
by  W.  Smith. 

See  D.  RuHNKEN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Longini," 
1776;  P.  Ekerman,  "Dissertatio  de  D.  Longino  Cassio,"  1750; 
L.  Vaitcher,  "  Etudes  critiques  sur  la  Traits  du  Sublime  et  sur 
les  iScrits  de  Longin,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;" 
"  Monthlv  Review"  for  May,  1779. 

Loug'land  or  Lang'land,  (John,)  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Henley  in  1473.  He  became  confessor  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  in  1520.  On  the  question 
of  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  he  gave  the  king 
such  counsels  as  were  most  agreeable  to  the  latter.  His 
sermons  were  published.     Died  in  1547. 

Longland,  Langelande  or  Langley,  (William,)  an 
early  English  poet,  a  native  of  Shropshire,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Chaucer,  and  a  disciple  of  Wickliffe.  He 
was  the  reputed  author  of  a  celebrated  poem  called  the 
"Visions  of  Piers  Plowman,"  (1369.)  It  is  a  satire 
directed  against  the  vices  of  the  clergy  and  other  pro- 
fessions, and  displays  considerable  fancy  and  oiiginality. 

Long'man,  (Thomas  Norton,)  an  English  merchant 
and  publisher,  born  about  1770,  was  honourably  and 
widely  known  as  the  head  of  the  great  publishing-firm 
of  Longman  &  Company,  Paternoster  Row,  London. 
He  published  works  for  Scott,  Wordsworth,  and  Thomas 
Moore.     Died  in  1842. 

Longmuir,  long'nuir,  (John,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  Free 
Church  clergyman,  born  near  Stonehaven,  November  13, 
1803.  He  graduated  at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
in  1825.  Besides  many  volumes  of  prose  and  verse,  he 
prepared  several  dictionaries,  and  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  enlarued  "  Jamieson's  Scottish  Dictionary." 

Longobardi,  lon-go-baR'dee,  (Niccol6,)  a  Jesuit, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1565.  He  went  to  China  as  a  mission- 
ary in  1596,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Confucius  and  his 
Doctrine,"  ("  De  Confucioejusque  Doctrina  Tractatus.") 
Leibnitz  published  a  new  edition  of  this  work,  with  notes. 
Died  at  Pekin  in  1655. 

Longolius.     See  Longueil. 

Longolius,  long-go'le-Hs,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  Ger- 
man scientific  writer,  born  at  Meissen  in  1677  ;  died  in 
1740. 

Longolius,  (Paul  Daniel,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  near  Dresden  in  1704.  He  was  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasium of  Hof  for  forty-four  years,  and  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "  German  Encyclopjedia,  or  Universal 
Lexicon,"  of  Zedler,  (Leipsic,  1731-50.)  He  also  pub- 
lished editions  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  and  of  Aulus 
Gellius.     Died  in  1779. 

See  G.  W.  Kirsch,  "Vier  Programme  von  P.  D.  Longolii  Leben," 
1779-81  ;  "  Life  of  Longolius,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Notitia  Hermuu- 
dorum  maximaeque  Partis  Germaniae,"  by  Ernest:,  1793. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y, long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  i"i,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfet;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LONGOMONTAN 


1575 


LONI 


\ 


Longomontan.     See  Longomontanus. 

Longoniontanus,  lon'go-mon-ti'niis,  [Fr.  Longo- 
montan, liN'go'mdN'tfiN',  ]  (Christian,)  a  Danish 
astronomer,  born  in  1562  at  Langsberg,  (Jutland,)  of 
which  place  he  assumed  the  name,  Latinizing  it,  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  time.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
poor  labourer,  whose  family  name  was  Severin.  He 
obtained  the  favour  of  Tycho  Brahe,  whom  he  assisted 
in  calculations  and  observations  at  Huen,  or  Hoene, 
from  1589  to  1597.  From  1605  to  1645  '^^  ^^^s  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Academy  of  Copenhagen.  He 
died  in  1647.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "First 
Part  of  a  Mathematical  System,"  ("  Systematis  Mathema- 
tici  Pars  L,"  161 1,)  "Danish  Astronomy,"  ("  Astronomia 
Danica,"  1622,)  "  Pentas  Problematum  Philosophise," 
(1623,)  and  "Invention  of  the  Quadrature  of  the  Circle." 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires;"  L.  Scavenius,  "Programma  Lon- 
gomontani." 

Longp^rier,  de,  deh  16N'pi're-i',  (Henri  Adrien 
Pr6vost,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1816, 
wrote  treatises  on  numismatics,  etc.     Died  in  1882. 

Long'street,  (Augustus  Baldwin,)  son  of  William, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Augusta,  Georgia,  in  1790. 
He  became  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the  South  Caro- 
lina College  in  1857.     He  died  September  9,  1870. 

Longstreet,  (James,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  South  Carolina  in  1821,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
was  breveted  major  for  his  conduct  at  Molino  del  Rey. 
In  1852  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  He  resigned 
his  commission  about  June,  1861,  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  Confederate  army  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  and  be- 
came a  major-general  soon  after  that  date.  He  took 
part  in  the  battles  near  Richmond  in  May  and  June, 
1862,  and  commanded  the  right  wing  of  General  Lee's 
army  at  Antietam,  September  17.  Having  been  raised 
to  tiie  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  a  corps 
at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  2-3,  1863.  In  the  Sep- 
tember ensuing  he  joined  the  army  of  General  Bragg, 
under  whom  he  served  at  Chickamauga,  September  19- 
20.  He  commanded  a  force  which  General  Bragg  sent 
against  Bnrnside  in  October,  1863  ;  and  he  attempted  to 
take  Knoxville  in  November,  without  success.  In  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  6,  1864,  he  was  severely 
wounded,  but  resumed  his  command  during  the  siege  of 
Petersburg.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  unreservedly 
accepted  the  situation,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
by  President  Grant  surveyor  of  the  port  of  New  Orleans. 
In  1880-81  he  was  minister  to  Turkey. 

Longstreet,  (William,)  an  American  inventor,  born 
in  New  Jersey,  removed  to  Georgia.  He  obtained  a 
patent  for  an  improvement  in  the  cotton-gin.  Died  in 
1814. 

Lougueil,  de,  deh  liN'guI'  or  l6N'guh'ye,  (Lat.  Lon- 
GO'lius,]  (Christophe,)  an  eminent  French  scholar, 
born  at  Malines  in  1490.  He  practised  law  in  Paris, 
and  was  chosen  conseiller  an  parlenient.  Afterwards  he 
removed  to  Padua,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
He  was  one  of  the  Latin  scholars  whose  fastidious  purity 
Erasmus  ridiculed  in  his  "Ciceronianus,"  and  who 
affected  to  use  no  terms  which  were  not  found  in  Cicero's 
works.  He  was  author  of  discourses  against  Luther,  of 
"Letters  to  Bembo  and  Sadolet,"  etc.     Died  in  1522. 

See  PoLUs,  "Vita  Longnlii ;"  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogia  Virorum 
illiistrium;"  Nic^ron,  "M^moires;"  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Bel- 
gica." 

Longueil,  de,  deh  liN'guI',  [Lat.  Longo'lius,]  (Gil- 
RERT,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1507.  He 
taught  school  at  Deventer  and  Cologne,  and  practised 
medicine.  He  published  a  "  Latin-Greek  Lexicon," 
(1533,)  and  notes  on  Ovid,  Plautus,  and  Cicero.  Died 
at  Cologne  in  1543. 

Longueil,  de,  (Joseph,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Givet  in  1736;  died  in  1792. 

Longuemar,  de,  deh  l6Ng'mtR',  (  Alphonse  le 
Tour6,)  a  French  geologist  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Saint-Dizier  about  1800;  died  in  i88i. 

Longuerue,  de,  deh  liNg'rii',  (Louis  Dufour,) 
Abb6,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  eminent  for  learning,  was 
borr  at  Charleville  in  1652.     He  was  deeply  versed  in 


languages,  history,  philosophy,  etc.,  and  wrote  many 
works,  but  published  none.  His  friends,  however,  pub- 
lished for  him  an  "  Essay  on  the  Antiquities  of  Chaldea 
and  Egypt,"  "Description  of  France,  Ancient  and  Mod- 
ern," (1719,)  "Annals  of  the  Arsacidae,"  (1732,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1733. 

See  MoR^Rt,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique,"  edition  of  17S9;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Longneval,  liNg'vtl',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit 
born  near  Peronne  in  1680.  He  taught  rhetoric  and 
theology  in  various  colleges,  and  was  author  of  the  first 
eight  volumes  of  a  "  History  of  the  Galilean  Church," 
(1730-49,)  which  was  continued  by  Fontenay  and  others. 
Died  in  1735. 

Longueville,  liNg'v^K,  (Edme  Paul  Marcellin,)  a 
French  Hellenist,  born  in  Paris  in  1785 ;  died  in  1855. 

Longueville,  de,  deh  IdNg'vfel',  (Anne  Genevieve 
de  Bourbon  -  Conde  —  deh  booR'biN'  kfiN'di', ) 
Duchess,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for  beauty,  tact, 
and  talent,  was  born  at  Vincennes  in  1619.  She  was  a 
sister  of  the  great  Conde,  and  was  married  to  the  Due 
de  Longueville,  noticed  below,  in  1642.  The  enmity 
between  the  parliaments  and  Mazarin  gave  rise  to  the 
faction  or  conspiracy  of  the  Fronde,  of  which  she  became 
the  heroine.  Her  nonchalance  and  languor  were  agree- 
ably diversified  by  surprising  and  splendid  awakenings 
of  genius.  She  exercised  great  influence  over  the  chiefs 
of  the  Fronde,  and  had  a  liaison  with  La  Rochefou- 
cauld, who  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  that  party.  When 
her  husband  and  brothers  were  imprisoned  by  Mazarin 
in  1650,  she  escaped  to  Stenay,  the  head-quarters  of 
Turenne,  whom  she  induced  to  join  the  party  of  tho 
Fronde.  With  his  aid  she  effected  the  release  of  her 
three  friends  in  1651,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  triumph. 
Peace  was  made  between  the  Frondeurs  and  the  court 
in  1659,  after  which  she  ceased  to  meddle  with  politics. 
She  became  devout,  and  spent  much  time  in  her  latter 
years  at  the  cloister  of  Port-Royal.  Cardinal  Mazarin 
once  said,  "  We  have  three  women  in  France  who  would 
be  competent  to  govern  or  overturn  three  great  king- 
doms, namely,  the  Duchess  de  Longueville,  the  Princess 
Palatine,  and  the  Duchess  de  Chevreuse."  Died  in  1679. 

See  BouRGOiNG  de  Villefore,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Longue- 
ville," 1738;  V.  Cousin,  "La  Jeunesse  de  Mme.  de  Longueville." 
1853;  La  Rochefoucauld,  "M^moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Longueville,  de,  (Charles  Paris  d'0rl6ans,) 
Due,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1640, 
inherited  the  brilliant  qualities  of  his  mother.  He  served 
in  the  army  of  his  uncle  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  was 
killed  at  the  passage  of  the  Rhine  in  1672,  when  the 
Polish  deputies  were  on  their  way  to  offer  him  the  crown 
of  Poland. 

Longueville,  de,  (Henri,)  Due,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1595,  was  the  son  of  Henri  d'Orleans,  a  prince 
of  the  blood,  and  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Henry  IV.  Iii 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  he  distinguished  himself  by 
military  exploits  in  Italy,  etc.  He  married  the  sister  of 
the  Prince  of  Conde  in  1642,  and  supported  the  party  of 
the  latter  in  the  time  of  the  Fronde.     Died  in  1663. 

Lon'gus,  [Aoyyof,]  a  Greek  sophist  or  author,  of  whom 
little  or  nothing  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  of  our  era,  and  to  have  been 
the  author  of  an  ingenious  prose  romance  entitled 
n.oi/iEviKu  Ta  Kara  Adcppiv  koL  XXotiv,  ("  Pastorals  relating 
to  Daphnis  and  Chloe,")  sometimes  called  "Loves  of 
Daphnis  and  Chloe."  It  is  admired  for  a  charming, 
elegant  style,  and  other  literary  merits.  In  1810  Paul 
Louis  Courier  found  at  Florence  a  manuscript  of  Longus 
which  supplied  a  hiatus  of  all  the  other  manuscripts. 
He  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  original  and  a 
corrected  edition  of  Amyot's  French  version. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grsca;"  Dunlop,  "History  ol 
Fiction;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Long'worth,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  cultivator, 
born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1782.  Having  removed 
to  Cincinnati,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  culture  of  native 
grapes  and  the  manufacture  of  wine,  by  which  he  acquired 
an  immense  fortune.     Died  in  1863. 

Loni,  lo'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Florence  in  1655,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Dolce.  Died 
in  1702. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


Z  O  NICER 


1576 


LOPE 


Lonicer,  lo'nlt-s?r,  [Lat.  Lonice'rus,]  (Adam,)  a 
German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Marburg  in 
1528,  was  a  son  of  Johann,  noticed  below.  He  obtained 
in  1554  the  place  of  pensioned  physician  of  Frankfort, 
which  he  occupied  thirty-two  years.  He  published 
several  treatises  on  medicine,  and  a  Latin  work  on  Plants, 
Animals,  and  Minerals,  called  "  Naturalis  Historias  Opus 
Novum,"  (1551-55.)  which  was  often  reprinted.  Died  in 
1586. 

His  son,  Johann  Adam,  born  in  1557,  was  a  physician 
of  Frankfort.  He  published  Latin  poems,  and  a  treatise 
on  the  chase,  called  "  Venatus  et  Aucupium." 

Lonicer,  [Lat.  Lonice'rus,]  (Johann,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Mansfeld  in  1499.  From  1527  until  his 
death  he  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Mar- 
burg. He  made  good  Latin  translations  of  several  Greek 
authors,  among  whom  were  l^indar,  Isocrates,  and  De- 
mosthenes. He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Melanchthon.     Died  in  1569. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vitje  Philosopliorum  Germanorum  " 

Lonicerus.     See  Lonicer. 

Lonjumeau.     See  Gaillard  de  Lonjumeau. 

Lonnrot  or  Loennrot,  lon'rot,  (Elias,)  a  Finnisli 
philologist,  born  in  the  district  of  Helsingfors  in  1802. 
He  became  a  zealous  student  of  the  national  literature 
of  Finland.  About  1835  he  discovered  and  published 
the  famous  Finnish  poem  of  "Kalevala,"  which  is  said 
to  resemble  the  "Hiawatha"  of  Longfellow.  He  suc- 
ceeded Castren  as  professor  of  Finnish  at  Helsingfors  in 
1852,  and  published  several  collections  of  old  legends, 
proverbs,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  revive  the  use  of  the  Finn- 
ish language.     Died  in  March,  1884. 

Lous'dale,  (Henry,)  an  English  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Carlisle  in  1816.  He  gained  distinction 
by  his  researches  in  the  toxicology  of  prussic  acid  and 
other  subjects.     Died  July  23,  1876. 

Lonsdale,  (William  Lowther,)  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish peer,  born  in  1787.  He  was  postmaster-general  from 
1841  to  1845.  and  was  lord  president  of  the  council  in 
the  cabinet  of  Lord  Derby  in  1852.  Died  March  4,  1872. 

Loo.     See  Vanloo. 

Loo'mis,  (Elias,)  an  American  astronomer  and  phy- 
sicist, born  in  Tolland  county,  Connecticut,  in  181 1, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1830.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Western  Reserve 
College,  Ohio,  in  1837,  in  the  New  York  University  in 
1844,  and  in  Yale  College  in  1866.  He  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  discussion  of  the  subjects  of  mag- 
netism, astronomy,  and  meteorology,  and  published  sev- 
eral text-books  of  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  the 
natural  scie»ices.     Died  August  15,  1889. 

Loon.    See  Van  Loon. 

Loon,  van,  vtn  Ion,  (Theodore,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  about  1630.  His  design  was  correct, 
and  his  colouring  excellent.  After  working  with  Carlo 
Maratta  at  Rome,  he  returned  to  Brussels,  where  he  con- 
firmed his  reputation  by  many  historical  paintings  in  the 
manner  of  Maratta.  Some  of  the  churches  of  Rome  and 
Florence  are  adorned  with  his  works.     Died  in  1678. 

Loop,  (Henry  A.,)  an  American  artist,  born  at  Hills- 
dale, New  York,  September  9,  1831.  He  studied  art  in 
New  York  under  H.  P.  Gray,  in  Paris  under  Couture, 
and  in  Italy.  He  was  chosen  to  the  National  Academy 
in  1S61.  He  won  distinction  alike  by  his  portraits  and 
ideal  works.  Among  the  latter  are  *'  Undine,"  (1863,) 
"Improvvisatrice,"  (1869,)  "The  Italian  Minstrel," 
(1869,)  "Echo,"  (1879,)  "Love's  Crown,"  (1882,)  and 
"The  Summer  Moon,"  (1884.) 

Loop,  (Jennette  S.  Harrison,)  an  American  artis,t, 
born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  March  5,  1840.  Her 
studies  and  instructors  were  much  the  same  as  those  of 
her  husband,  H.  A.  Loop.  Among  her  ideal  groups  are 
"Baby  Belle,"  "Little  Runaway,"  "A  Bouquet  for 
Mama,"  and  "  Blowing  Bubbles  ;"  but  her  greatest  dis- 
tinction is  as  a  portrait-painter.  Her  portraits  take  rank 
among  the  best  ever  painted  in  America.  She  was 
chosen  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  in  1875. 

Loopolof,  Loupolov,  or  Lupolow,  loo'po-lof, 
(Prascovia,)  a  Russian  heroine,  born  in  1784,  was  a 
daughter  of  an  officer  exiled  to  Siberia.     She  performed 


on  foot  the  journey  from  Tobolsk  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  obtained  a  pardon  for  her  father.  Her  adventures 
form  the  subject  of  Madame  Cottin's  "  Elizabeth,  or  the 
Exiles  of  Siberia."     Died  in  1809. 

Loos,  los,  [Lat.  Callid'ius,]  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Gouda  about  1545.  He 
was  persecuted  for  opposing  the  prevalent  superstitious 
notions  respecting  magic  in  his  book  "  De  vera  et  falsi 
MagiS,"  ("  On  True  and  False  Magic,")  and  for  con- 
demning the  practice  of  burning  those  called  witches. 
He  wrote  other  works.     Died  in  1595. 

See  "Callidius,"  ir  Bavle's  "Historical  and  Critical  Diction- 
ary;" Nic^RON,  "Mdnioires." 

Loosjes,  los'yes,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  at  Haarlem  in  1761,  was  a  dealer  in  books. 
He  passed  his  life  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  works 
are  novels  entitled  "John  De  Witt"  (1805)  and  "Susanna 
Bronkhorst,"  (6  vols.,  1806,)  and  a  poem  called  "The 
Last  Campaign  of  De  Ruyter."     Died  in  1818. 

See  "  Hulde  aan  de  Nagedachtenis  van  A.  Loosjes,"  by  P.  H. 
Peerlkamp,  C  DE  KoNiNG,  A.  VAN  derWilligen,  and  H.  Meijer, 

i8i8. 

Loots,  lots,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Am- 
sterdain  in  1774;  died  about  1850. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lope  de  Rueda,  lo'pi  di  roo-a'ol,  a  Spanish  actor 
and  dramatic  author,  born  at  Seville  about  1500.  He 
was  the  leader  of  the  first  troupe  of  strolling  players  in 
Spain,  and  was  praised  by  Cervantes  as  an  actor  and 
writer.  His  plays  were  dialogues  between  a  few  shep- 
herds.    Died  in  1564. 

Lope  de  Vega  Carpio,  lo'pi  di  va'gi  kaR'pe-o, 
(Felix,)  a  celebrated  .Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Madrid  on  the  25th  of  November,  1562,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Cervantes  and  .Shakspeare.  His  father 
was  a  hidalgo,  (gentleman,)  but  rather  poor.  Felix  began 
lo  write  verses  in  early  childhood,  and  composed  dramas 
about  the  age  of  twelve.  While  a  student  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Alcald,  he  found  a  powerful  patron  in  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  whose  service  he  entered,  and  at  whose 
request  he  wrote  his  "Arcadia,"  a  pastoral  heroic  poem, 
which  first  revealed  his  superior  genius.  It  was  first 
printed  in  1598,  though  finished  many  years  earlier.  He 
quitted  the  service  of  Alva,  and  married  Dona  Isabel 
de  Urbino.  Having  in  a  duel  wounded  his  antagonist, 
he  fled  from  Madrid,  and  passed  a  few  years  in  Valencia. 

His  grief  for  the  death  of  his  wife  is  assigned  as  his 
motive  for  becoming  a  soldier.  In  1588  he  enlisted  as 
a  private  volunteer,  and,  with  ardent  zeal  for  what  he 
deemed  a  holy  cause,  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the 
Invincible  Armada,  during  which  he  wrote  his  admired 
poem  the  "  Beauty  of  Angelica,"  ("  Hermosura  de  An- 
gelica,") a  continuation  of  Ariosto's  "Orlando."  Re- 
nouncing martial  pursuits  in  1590,  he  returned  to  Madrid, 
where  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  by  his  mar- 
vellous fertility  of  invention  rapidly  acquired  fame  and 
affluence.  He  lequired  only  a  single  day  to  compose  a 
versified  drama.  This  astonishing  facility  enabled  him 
to  produce  two  thousand  original  dramas,  consisting  of 
spiritual  plays,  historical  comedies,  and  dramas  of  in- 
trigue, called  De  Ccipa  y  Esfmia,  ("  Of  the  Cloak  and 
Sword,")  which  were  performed  with  immense  applause. 
There  is  scarcely  an  example  on  record  of  an  equal 
popularity.  His  name  became  a  synonym  for  the  super- 
lative degree,  and  it  was  the  fashion  to  say  a  Lope  dia- 
mond, a  Lope  dress,  etc.,  to  express  the  splendour  or 
perfection  of  those  articles.  He  was  styled  the  "  Centre 
of  Fame,"  the  "  Darling  of  Fortune,"  the  "  Phoenix  of 
Ages,"  etc.  Among  his  drainas  we  may  mention  "  The 
Beautiful  Deformed,"  ("La  Hermosa  fea," )  "The 
Prude,"  ("  La  Dama  melindrosa,")  "  The  Certain  for 
;he  Doubtful,"  ("  Lo  Cierto  por  lo  Dudoso,")  and  "Es- 
trella  de  Sevilla,"  or  "  Don  Sancho  Ortiz."  In  richness 
of  invention,  vivacity  of  dialogue,  and  variety  of  ideas 
he  is  perhaps  unsurpassed  by  any  dramatist.  For  the 
sake  of  trying  the  public  taste,  he  published,  without 
his  name,  a  poem  entitled  "  Soliloquies  on  God,"  which 
was  received  with  much  favour.  After  the  death  of  his 
second  wife  he  became  a  priest,  (1609,)  but  continued  to 
write  for  the  stage.  He  also  wrote  epic  poems,  entitled 
"Circe,"  "Andromeda,"  and  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y, long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/tori;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moou; 


LOPES 


1577 


LORENZINI 


which  are  considered  much  inferior  to  his  dramas.  Died 
in  1635.  (For  some  very  interesting  remarks  on  Lope  de 
Vega,  particularly  in  reference  to  the  marvellous  fertility 
of  his  genius,  see  Prescott's  "  Miscellanies,"  pp.  137-139.) 
See  MoNTALVAN,  "  Kama  postlninia  a  la  ViHa  y  Miierte  del  Lope 
de  Vega  Carpio,"  Madrid,  1636;  Lord  Holland,  "Some  Account 
of  the  Life  of  Lope  de  Vega  Carpio,"  1817  ;  Larramendi,  "  Planto 
funebre  en  la  Muerte  de  L.  F.  de  Vega  Carpio,"  1635:  Ticknor, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  His- 
pana  Nova;"  Sedano,  "  Parnaso  Espaiiol  ;"  Fauribl,  "Lope  de 
Vega,"  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  September  i,  1839,  and 
September  15,  1S43;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetrj'  of  Europe;" 
Enk  von  der  Burg,  "  Studien  iiber  Lope  de  Vega,"  Vienna,  1839. 
Lopes,  lo'pes,  (Fernando,)  a  Portuguese  historian, 
horn  about  1380;  died  in  1449.  His  Chronicles  are  of 
hicjh  literary  and  historical  importance. 
Lopez.  See  Avala,  de,  Gomara,  and  Castanheda. 
Lopez,  lo'pSth,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  critic,  born  at 
Valladolid.  He  practised  medicine  with  such  success 
that  he  received  the  title  of  physician  to  Maria  of  Castile, 
daughter  of  Charles  V.  He  published  in  1596  "Ancient 
Poetical  Philosophy,"  ("Philosophia  antiqua  poetica.") 
Lopez,  lo'pes  or  lo'p^th,  (Carlos  Antonio,)  a  Para- 
guayan ruler,  the  father  of  F.  S.  Lopez,  noticed  below. 
He  was  born  at  Asuncion,  November  4,  1790,  and  in 
1840  succeeded  Francia  as  dictator,  ruling  the  country 
with  skill  and  energy  till  his  death,  September  10,  1S62. 
Lopez,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  artist,  who  became 
painter  to  Philip  HI.  about  1602,  and  adorned  the  Prado 
with  frescos.     He  was  living  in  1638. 

Lopez,  lo'pes  or  lo'p^th,  (Don  Francisco  Solano,) 
an  able  South  American  general  and  political  leader, 
born  about  1826.  He  was  elected  in  September,  1862, 
President  of  Paraguay,  as  the  successor  of  his  father, 
Don  Carlos  Lopez.  He  declared  war  against  Brazil  in 
1865,  and  commanded  his  army  in  person  with  various 
success.    He  was  killed  in  battle  or  retreat  April  i,  1870. 

Lopez,  (Iago  or  Diego,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Toledo  about  1465  ;  died  about  1530. 

Lopez,  (Don  Joaquin  Maria,)  an  able  and  eloquent 
Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Villena  in  1802,  was  a  zeal- 
ous adherent  of  the  constitutional  party.  In  1836  he 
became  minister  of  the  interior  under  Calatrava.  He 
resigned  in  March,  1837.  He  was  prime  minister  for  a 
short  time  in  1843.     Died  in  1855. 

Lopez,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville 
about  1650,  was  a  pupil  of  Murillo. 

Lopez,  lo'pSs  or  lo'p^th,  (Narcisso,)  an  American 
revolutionist  or  filibuster,  born  in  Venezuela  in  1799. 
He  served  some  time  as  an  officer  in  the  Sj^anish  army, 
and  in  1849  organized  in  the  United  States  an  expedition 
lox  the  conquest  of  Cuba,  which  failed.  He  renewed  the 
enterprise  in  August,  1851,  was  captured,  and  garroted 
at  Havana  the  same  year. 

Lopez,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  painter,  was  a  pupil  of 
Greco.  His  chief  work  is  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
(dated  1608,)  at  Toledo,  which  is  much  admired. 

Lopez  de  Lerena,  lo'peth  di  li-ra'nd,  (Don  Pedro,) 

a  Spanish  financier,  born  at  Val  de  Moro  in  1734.     He 

was  appointed  in  1785  secretary  of  state  for  the  finances, 

which  he  managed  with  success  until  his  death,  in  1792. 

Loqman.     See  Lokman. 

Loras,  Io'r^',  (Matthias,)  D.D.,  a  liishop,  born  at 
Lyons,  France,  in  July,  1792.  He  became  in  early  man- 
hood a  priest,  and  head  of  the  theological  school  of  Lar- 
gentiere.  In  1829  he  went  to  New  Orleans,  and  thence  to 
Mobile  in  1830.  In  1837  he  was  consecrated  Catholic 
Bishop  of  Dubuque,  the  first  of  the  title.  Died  at  Du- 
buque, February  18,  1858.  Bishop  Loras  was  eminent 
for  zeal,  learning,  and  charity. 

Lorch,  loRK,  written  also  Lorich,  (Melchior,)  a 
Danish  painter  and  eminent  engraver,  born  in  Sleswick 
in  1527.  He  visited  many  foreign  countries,  and  died  in 
Rome  in  1586.  Among  his  works  are  engravings  of 
Luther,  of  Albert  Diirer,  and  of  the  Deluge. 

Lord,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  lecturer,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  December  27,  1810.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1843,  ^"^  became  a 
Congregationalist  minister,  and  later  won  distinction  as 
a  popular  lecturer  on  historical  subjects.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  United  States,"  "Modern  History,'' 
"  Points  of  Historv,"  etc. 


'  Lord,  (Nathan,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1792.  He  graduated 
at  Bowdoin,  and  in  1828  became  president  of  Dartmouth 
College.    Died  in  1870. 

Lordon,  loR'd6N',  (Pierre  JiSrome,)  a  French  histori- 
cal painter,  born  in  1780,  worked  in  Paris.     Died  in  1838. 

Loredano,  lo-ri-di'no,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a 
mediocre  Italian  poet  and  littSrateur,  born  at  Venice  in 
1606.  He  became  a  senator,  and  obtained  other  high 
offices.  About  1630  he  founded  the  academy  of  the  In- 
cogniti.  He  wrote  numerous  works  in  verse  and  prose, 
among  which  are  "  The  Agreeable  Jests,"  ("  Gli  Scherzi 
geniali,"  1632,)  "  L'lliade  giocosa,"  a  burlesque  of  the 
"Iliad,"  (1654,)  and  "Amorous  Tales."     Died  in  1661. 

See  A.  Lupis,  "Vita  di  G.  F.  Loredano,"  1663;  G.  Brunacci, 
"Vita  di  G.  F.  Loredano,  Senatore  Veneto,"  :662. 

Loredano,  (Leonardo,)  was  Doge  of  Venice  from 
1501  until  1521,  when  he  died,  at  the  age  of  ninety.  His 
administration  was  disturbed  by  the  wars  which  were 
consequent  on  the  League  of  Cambray,  and  was  a  period 
of  disaster  to  the  republic.  He  waged  war  against  a 
powerful  coalition  consisting  of  France,  Germany,  and 
the  pope.     He  was  one  of  the  greatest  doges  of  Venice. 

Lorentz,  lo'r^nts,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
iTiathematician,  born  at  Halle  in  1738;  died  in  1807. 

Lorentz  or  Lorenz,  lo'r6N',  (Joseph  Adam,)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Alsace  in  1734;  died  in  1801. 

Lorenz.     See  Lorenzo  and  Lawrence. 

Lorenz,  lo'r^nts  or  lo'rdN',  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1723,  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  his  native  city,  and  of  eloquence  in 
1784.  He  published,  (in  Latin,)  besides  other  works  of 
merit,  a  "Life  of  Saint  Paul,"  ("  Annales  Paulini,"  1769,) 
a  "History  of  Ancient  Gaul,"  and  "Rudiments  of  Ger- 
man History,"  (1776.)     Died  in  i8oi. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Lorenzetti,  lo-r§n-zet'tee,  or  Lorenzetto,   lo-r§n- 

zet'to,  (Ambrogio,)  sometimes  called  Ambrogio  di 
Lorenzo,  an  old  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna  about 
1260,  was  a  pupil  of  his  father  Lorenzo,  and  was  a 
brother  of  Pietro.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  about 
1257,  1277,  and  1300.  Ambrogio  and  Pietro  worked 
together  in  Sienna,  and  were  among  the  greatest  artists 
of  their  time.  The  works  of  Ambrogio  are  nearly  all 
destroyed ;  but  some  of  his  frescos  are  still  visible  in 
Sienna.  He  was,  says  Vasari,  universally  admired.  Died 
in  1340,  1348,  or  1360. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie." 

Lorenzetti,  (Pietro,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
worked  in  Sienna,  Florence,  Rotne,  and  Pisa,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Vasari,  surpassed  Cimabue  and  Giotto.  In 
the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa  is  preserved  his  picture  repre- 
senting the  "  Life  of  the  Fathers  in  the  Desert,"  in  fresco. 
He  painted  several  Madonnas,  which  have  been  de- 
stroyed. He  is  sometimes  called  Lauratl  His  last 
works  are  dated  1355. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Lorenzetto.     See  Campanaio. 

Lorenzi,  lo-rSn'zee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  Jesuit,  born  near  Verona  in  1732,  had  an  excellent 
talent  for  improvisation.     Died  in  1822. 

Lorenzi,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  engraver, 
born  in  Tuscany  in  1528;  died  in  1593. 

Lorenzi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Verona  in  1719  ;  died  in  1783. 

Lorenzi,  (Stoldo  di  Gino,  stol'do  de  jee'no,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Settignano  about  1540. 

Lorenzini,  lo-r§n-zee'nee,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  in  Rome  in  1680.  He  acquired  a 
.high  reputation  as  a  poet,  and  was  remarkable  for  the 
energy  of  his  style.  In  1728  he  succeeded  Crescimbeni 
as  president  of  the  Academy  of  Arcades.  He  was  the 
author  of  satires,  epigrams,  dramas,  and  other  poems  in 
Italian  and  Latin.     Died  in  1743 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitje  Italorum." 

Lorenzini,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1665.  He  engraved  the  works  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto  and  other  Italian  masters.  Died  in  1 740. 

Lorenzini,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born  at 


•e  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard:  g  asy;  G,  H,  yi,gntti(ral;  N,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji^^See  Expl  an  ations,  p.  23. ) 


LORENZO 


1578 


LORRAINE 


Florence  in  1652.  For  some  political  offence  he  was 
imprisoned  at  Volterra  twenty  years,  ending  about  1700, 
and  in  this  period  wrote  an  able  work  on  conic  sections. 
Died  in  1721. 

Lorenzo.     See  Lawrence,  Saint. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici.     See  Medici. 

Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  See  Medici,  (Lo- 
renzo de'.) 

Loret,  lo'ri',  (Jean,)  a  French  rhymer,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy. He  began  to  issue  in  1650  a  weekly  newspaper, 
called  "Gazette  en  Verses  burlesques,"  which  was  very 
successful.  From  1656  to  1665  it  was  published  under 
the  title  of  "Muse  historique."     Died  about  1665. 

Lorge,  loRzh,  (Jean  Thomas  Guillaume,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Caen  in  1767  ;  died  in  1826. 

Lorges.     See  Durfort,  de,  (Gui  Alphonse.) 

Lorgna,  loRn'yi,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Verona  about  1734.  After  obtaining 
the  rank  of  colonel  of  engineers,  he  became  professor 
in  the  military  school  of  Verona.  He  had  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  best  geometers  of  Italy.  Died  in 
1796-  Among  his  works  are  treatises  on  Statics  and 
Mechanics,  and  "Essays  on  Mathematics  and  Physics." 
("Opuscula  Mathematica  et  Physica,"  1770.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale. " 

Loria,  di,  de  lo're-S,  or  Lauria,  16w're-S,  (Roger.) 
an  able  Italian  admiral,  born  at  Loria,  (or  Lauria.)  In 
1282,  as  admiral  of  Peter  II.,  King  of  Aragon  and  Sicily, 
he  defeated  the  fleet  of  Charles  I.  of  Naples  near  Mes- 
sina. He  gained  a  naval  victory  over  the  French  near 
Barcelona  in  12S5,  and  another  over  the  Neapolitans 
before  Castellamare  in  1287.  Having  entered  into  the 
service  of  Jayme  of  Aragon,  he  defeated  the  Sicilian 
fleet  at  Cape  Orlando  in  1299,  and  again  in  1300.  Died 
in  1305.  Sismondi  considers  him  the  greatest  admiral 
that  Italy  has  produced. 

See  QuiNTANA,  "Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards;"  Sismondi, 
"Histoire  das  R^publiques  Italiennes;"  Giovanni  Villani,  "  Isto- 
rie  Florentine." 

Lorichon,  lo're'shiN',  (Antoine  Constant  Louis,) 
a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Lorieux,  lo're-uh',  (Auguste  Julien  Marie,)  a 
French  writer  and  lawyer,  born  at  Croisic  in  1797.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  X.,"  and  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Royal  Prerogative  in  France  and  Eng- 
land," (1840.)     Died  in  1842. 

Lorin,  lo'riN',  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Avignon  in  1559;  died  in  1634. 

Lo'ring,  (William  W.,)  an  American  major-general, 
born  in  North  Carolina  about  1815.  He  took  arms 
against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  was  employed  in  the 
defence  of  Vicksburg  in  the  spring  of  1863.  After  the 
war  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  and 
was  made  a  pasha.     Died  in  New  York,  Dec.  30,  1S86. 

Lorinser,  lo'rin-ser,  (Karl  Ignaz,)  a  German  medi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1796  ;  died  in  1853. 

Loriot,  lo're'o',  (Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French  me- 
chanician, born  near  Pontarlier  in  1716.  He  gained  a 
wide  reputation  by  his  ingenious  and  useful  inven- 
tions, among  which  were  a  loom  for  ribbons,  machines 
for  working  mines,  and  a  new  mortar  or  water-proof 
cement  which  bears  his  name.     Died  in  1782. 

Loriot,  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Salins,  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Leipsic  in  1550 ;  died  about 
1568. 

Loriquet,  lo're'ki',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  fipernay  in  1760.  He 
published  many  school-books  in  which  history  was  ex- 
purgated or  falsified  to  promote  sectarian  and  partisan 
opinions.  He  stated  in  one  of  his  works  that  "In  1809 
the  Marquis  of  Bonaparte,  as  lieutenant-general  of  the 
Kingof  France,  entered  Vienna  at  the  head  of  an  army." 
Died  in  1845. 

Loris-Melikoff.     See  Melikoff. 

Loritz.     Sec  Glareanus. 

Lorme,  de.     See  Delorme. 

Lome,  (John  George  Edward  Henry  Douglas 
Sutherland  Campbell,)  Marquis  of,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  was  born  in  London,  August  6, 
1845.  I"  1871  he  was  married  to  Louise,  a  daughter  of 
Queen  Victoria.     He  was  Governor-General  of  Canada, 


1878-83.  He  has  published  "A  Trip  to  the  Tropics," 
(1867,)  "Guido  and  Lita,"  (a  poem,  1875,)  "The  Psalms 
in  Verse,"  {1877,)  "Canadian  Pictures,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Lorrain,  (Claude.)     See  Claude  Lorrain. 

Lorrain,  Le,  (Robert.)     See  Lelorrain. 

Lorraine.  See  Charles  II.,  Charles  III.,  Fran- 
cis I.,  Guise,  Harcourt,  (Henri,)  and  Mayenne. 

Lorraine,  lor-ran'  or  lo'rin',  (Antoine,)  Duke  of, 
the  son  of  Rene  II.,  was  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1489. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  1508,  and  married  Renee  de 
Bourbon,  a  French  lady.  He  maintained  a  neutrality  in 
the  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  and  reigned 
mostly  in  peace,  except  some  bloody  contests  with  the 
German  Protestant?.  He  died  in  1544,  leaving  the  duchy 
to  his  son,  Francis  II. 

Lorraine,  Cardinal.     See  Guise,  (Charles  de.) 

Lorraine,  lo'rin',  (Charles  IV.,)  Duke  of,  the  son 
of  Francois,  Comte  de  Vaudemont,  was  born  in  1604,  and 
succeeded  his  uncle  Henry  (whose  daughter  he  had  mar- 
ried) in  1624.  Louis  XIII.  of  France  invaded  Lorraine 
in  1632,  and  took  without  much  resistance  Nancy  (the 
capital)  and  several  fortresses.  In  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  which  began  about  1620,  Charles  fought  for  the 
German  empire,  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the 
Swedes  at  Nordlingen  in  1634,  and  as  an  ally  of  Spain 
fought  against  the  French  in  several  ensuing  campaigns. 
By  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659)  Lorraine  was  re- 
stored to  him,  but  France  retained  the  duchy  of  Bar.  In 
1662  he  appointed  Louis  XIV.  his  heir,  but  soon  took 
arms  against  him,  and  became  a  general  in  the  imperia' 
army.     Died  in  1675. 

See  DoM  Calmet,  "  Histoire  de  Lorraine ;"  C.  A.  Begin,  "  His- 
toire  des  Duches  de  Lorraine  et  Bar,"  1834  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Lorraine,  (Charles  V.,)  Duke  of,  an  able  general 
and  statesman,  born  at  Vienna  in  1643,  was  the  nephew 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  the  son  of  Francis,  (a  brother 
of  Charles  IV.)  At  the  death  of  Charles  IV.  the  duke- 
dom was  claimed  by  the  subject  of  this  article,  and  by 
the  French  king,  who  had  possession  ;  but  Charles  was 
recognized  as  duke  by  the  other  powers  of  Europe. 
Having  entered  the  Austrian  service,  he  was  made  a 
general  in  1672,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Senef  in 
1675.  His  reign  over  Lorraine  was  only  nominal.  He 
was  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  imperial  army  in  1676. 
In  1678  he  married  a  sister  of  the  Austrian  emperor,  and 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Nymwegen  to  his  duchy, 
with  the  condition  of  ceding  Nancy  to  France ;  but  he 
refused  to  accept  these  terms.  He  rendered  signal 
services  to  Austria  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  which 
began  in  1683,  and  commanded  a  corps  against  the 
French  in  1689.  He  died  in  1690,  leaving  his  title  to  hi.s 
son,  Leopold  I. 

See  Jean  de  la  Brunb,  "Vie  de  Charles  V,"  1691  ;  C.  Fres- 
CHOT,  "  Vita  di  Caroli  V.,"  1692  ;  Dupont,  "  Abreg^  historique  de  la 
Vie  de  Charles  V,"  1701. 

Lorraine,  (Henri,)  Duke  of,  surnamed  the  Good, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1563,  was  the  son  of  Charles  III.  and 
Claude,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  He  married 
Catherine  de  Bourbon,  a  sister  of  King  Henry  IV.,  and 
in  1608  succeeded  his  father.  He  died  in  1624,  leaving 
the  duchy  to  his  nephew,  Charles  IV. 

Lorraine,  (Leopold  I.,)  Duke  of,  born  at  Innspruck 
in  1679,  was  the  son  of  Charles  V.  By  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick,  in  1697,  he  recovered  Lorraine,  with  the  con- 
dition that  he  should  not  repair  the  dismantled  forts  ncr 
keep  an  army.  He  married  Elizabeth  Charlotte,  niece 
of  Louis  XIV.  He  showed  himself  a  wise  ruler,  and 
improved  the  condition  of  his  dominions,  which  had  been 
desolated  by  long  wars.  In  reference  to  him,  Voltaire 
says,  "  One  of  the  petty  sovereigns  of  Europe  has  done 
the  most  good  to  his  people."  He  died  in  1729,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Francis,  who  married  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and  exchanged  Lorraine  for  Tuscany. 
He  was  the  last  Duke  of  Lorraine. 

Lorraine,  (Ren6  II.,)  Duke  of,  born  in  145 1,  be- 
came duke  in  1473.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
Rene  of  Anjou,  and  heiress  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  His 
dominions  having  been  invaded  by  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy,  Rene,  with  his  Swiss  allies,  defeated  Charles 
at  Morat  in  1476.     The  next  year  he  gained  another 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/iori;  at,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  ndt;  good;  moon, 


LORRAINE 


1579 


LOTH  A  IRE 


famous  victory  near  Nancy,  where  Charles  was  killed  in 
battle.  He  formed  an  alliance  with  Venice,  and  in  1480 
was  appointed  captain-general  of  that  republic;  but  on 
the  death  of  Louis  XI.  of  France  he  left  the  service 
of  Venice  to  urge  his  claims  to  Anjou  and  Provence, 
which  he  failed  to  obtain.  He  died  in  1508,  leaving  two 
sons,  Antoine,  who  was  his  heir,  and  Claude,  the  first 
Duke  of  Guise. 

See  DoM  Calmet,  "Histoire  de  Lorraine." 

Lorraine,  de,(CHARLES  I.)  See  Charles  de  France. 

Lorraine,  de,  (Charles  H.)  See  Charles  H.,  Duke 
of  Lorraine. 

Lorraine,  de,  (Charles  IH.)  See  Charles  IH., 
called  the  Great. 

Lorraine,  de,  deh  lor-ran',  (Charles,)  an  Austrian 
general,  called  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  born  at 
Luneville  in  1712,  was  the  second  son  of  Duke  Leopold 
L,  and  a  brother  of  Francis  L  of  Austria.  He  commanded 
the  Austrians  in  the  war  between  Maria  Theresa  and 
Frederick  the  Great,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  at  Czas- 
lau  in  1742.  In  1744  he  forced  Frederick  to  evacuate 
Bohemia,  married  a  sister  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  was 
appointed  Governor  of  the  Low  Countries.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Seven  Years'  war  he  was  commander  of 
the  Austrians,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Prussians 
at  Breslau  in  1757  ;  but,  having  been  completely  defeated 
in  the  great  battle  of  Leuthen,  in  the  same  year,  he  re- 
signed his  command.     Died  in  1780. 

Lorraine,  de,  (Francois,)  grand-prieur  of  France, 
was  born  in  1534,  and  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Guise. 
After  serving  with  distinction  in  naval  war  against  the 
Turks,  he  was  made  general  of  the  galleys,  and  com- 
manded several  expeditions.     Died  in  1563. 

Lorris,  de,  deh  lo'r^ss^  (Guillaume,)  a  mediaeval 
French  bard,  born  at  Lorris,  on  the  Loire.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  "Romance  of  the  Rose,"  ("Roman  de  la 
Rose,")  a  remarkable  poem,  which  had  a  great  influence 
on  French  literature.  The  subject  is  the  art  of  love,  and 
is  treated  in  an  agreeable  style.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1240. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lorry,  lo're',  (Anne  Charles,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Crosne  in  1726.  He  practised  in  Paris,  and 
attained  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession.  He  became 
docteur-regent  oi tht  faculty,  and  attended  Louis  XV.  in  his 
last  illness.  He  published  a  valuable  treatise  "  On  Cuta- 
neous Diseases,"  (1777;)  also  an  edition  of  the  "Apho- 
risms" of  Hippocrates,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1783. 

See  Vicq-d'Azyr,  "  £loge  de  Lon-y ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gdn^rale." 

Lort,  (Michael,)  an  English  writer  on  theology,  born 
in  1725.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge 
about  1759.     Died  in  1790. 

Lortic,  loR't^k',  (Andr^,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister and  writer,  born  at  Saintonge,  lived  between  1650 
and  1700.     Died  in  London. 

Lortzing,  loRt'sing,  (Albert  August,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  Berlin  in  1803;  died  in  1851. 

Losada,  lo-si'Dd,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  officer,  wh«i 
conquered  the  native  tribes  of  Venezuela,  and  founded 
Santiago  de  Leon.     Died  in  1569. 

Losaua,  lo-si'nd,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  priest,  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1738.  He  published  useful  treatises  on 
rural  economy,  insects,  etc.     Died  in  1833. 

Loscher  or  Loescher,  lo'sh^r,  (Valentin  Ernst,) 
a  German  theologian,  born  at  Sondershausen  in  1672. 
He  taught  theology  at  Wittenberg  for  many  years,  and 
published  there  a  monthly  journal  of  theology  and  lite- 
rature, (1701-20,)  which  had  great  success.  Died  in  1749. 

Loschge,  losh'geh,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  writer,  born  at  Anspach  in  1755; 
died  in  1840. 

Losel  or  Loesel,  lo'zel,  (Johann,)  a  German  bota- 
nist, born  at  Brandenburg  in  1607.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  botany  at  Konigsberg,  and  died 
in  1656,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  "  Flora  Prussica," — a 
mere  catalogue  of  plants, — which  Gottsched  published 
n  1703. 

Losenko,  Io-s§n'ko,  written  also  Lossenko,  (Ivan,) 
an  eminent  Russian  painter,  born  about  1720.     He  was 


director  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Saint 
Petersburg.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Parting  of  Hec- 
tor and  Andromache."     Died  in  1773. 

Loskiel,  los-keeK,  (George  Henry,)  a  bishop,  born 
in  Courland,  November  7,  1740.  He  became  a  Moravian 
missionary,  and  in  1802  was  consecrated  a  bishop,  after 
which  time  he  was  also  pastor  at  Bethlehem,  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Mission  to  the 
Indians  of  North  America,"  etc.  Died  February  23, 
1814. 

Los'sing,  (Benson  John,)  an  American  historian  and 
engraver,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1813. 
He  published  numerous  illustrated  works,  among  the 
most  important  of  which  are  "The  Pictorial  Field-Book 
of  the  Revolution,"  (2  vols.,  1850-52,)  "The  Life  and 
Times  of  Philip  Schuyler,"  (2  vols.,  i860,)  a  "  Life  of 
Washington,"  (3  vols.,  i860,)  a  "  Pictorial  History  of 
the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States,"  (3  vols.,  1866-69,) 
"Pictorial  History  of  the  War  of  1812,"  (1869,)  "  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  for  Children,"  {1875,)  "Dic- 
tionary of  American  History,"  etc.     Died  June  3,  1891. 

Lot,  [Heb.  D1^;  Fr.  Loth,  lot,]  a  Hebrew  patriarch, 
who  lived  about  1900  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Haran,  and 
nephew  of  Abraham.  He  resided  in  Sodom  until  he 
was  warned  by  angels  of  its  impending  destruction. 

See  Genesis  xi.,  xii.,  xiii.,  xix.  ;  II.  Peter  ii.  7. 

Lotario.     See  Lothaire  I. 

Loten,  lo'ten,  (John  or  Jacob,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  who  excelled  in  wild,  rocky  scenery,  and  storms. 
He  worked  mostly  in  England,  where  he  died  in  1681. 

Loth.     See  Lot. 

Loth,  lot,  or  Loti,  lo'tee,  [in  Italian,  LoTTi,]  (Johann 
Karl,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Munich  in  1632.  He 
acquired  a  high  rank  among  the  realists,  whom  the  Ital- 
ians call  "Naturalist!."  Among  his  chief  works  are 
"  The  Death  of  Abel,"  and  a  "  Nativity."  He  received 
the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  Died 
at  Venice  in  1698. 

Lothaire,  lo-thair',  [Fr.  pron.  lo't^R' ;  Lat.  Lotha' 
Rius  ;  Ger.  LoTHAR,  lo-tiR';  It.  LoTARio,  lo-tS're-o,]  I, 
Emperor  of  the  West  or  of  Rome,  born  abou.  795  a.d., 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire.  His  father  as- 
sociated him  with  himself  in  the  empire  in  817,  and  made 
him  King  of  Italy  in  822.  Pepin  and  Louis,  brothers  of 
Lothaire,  received  respectively  Aquitaine  and  Germany. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  840,  he  claimed  supremacy 
as  emperor ;  but  his  brothers,  Louis  the  Germanic  and 
Charles  the  Bald,  united  to  dispute  his  title,  and  defeated 
him  at  the  great  battle  of  Fontanet,  (now  Fontenailles,)  in 
841.  By  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843)  Lothaire  retained 
Italy,  with  some  provinces  of  France.  His  capital  was 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  died  in  855  a.d.,  leaving  three  sons, 
Louis,  Charles,  and  Lothaire,  among  whom  the  empire 
was  divided. 

See  AsTRONOMUS,  "  Vita  Ludovici  Pii ;"  Fauriel,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Gaule  mdridionale,"  tome  iv.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lothaire  [Lat.  Lotha'rius  ;  Ger.  Lothar]  IL  or 
III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  sometimes  called  Lothaire 
OF  Saxony,  was  born  in  1075.  He  was  the  son  of  Geb- 
hard.  Count  of  Arnsberg.  After  the  death  of  Henry 
V.  he  was  elected  emperor,  in  1125.  Conrad,  Duke 
of  Franconia,  protested  against  the  election,  and  was 
crowned  at  Milan  by  his  partisans.  About  1132  Lothaire 
marched  to  Rome  and  restored  Pope  Innocent  II.,  who 
had  been  expelled  by  his  rival  Anaclete.  He  was 
crowned  at  Rome  by  Innocent,  and  performed  acts  of 
homage  to  the  pope  which  were  afterwards  cited  as  an 
evidence  that  the  empire  was  a  fief  of  the  Roman  See. 
He  died  in  1137,  and  Conrad  III.,  above  named,  became 
emperor.  In  the  reign  of  Lothaire  the  Diet  of  the  empire 
asserted  its  exclusive  right  to  impose  taxes  and  make 
war  or  peace. 

See  Gervais,  "Geschichte  Deutschlands  unter  Kaiser  Heinrich 
V.  vind  Lothar  III.,"  2  vols.,  1842;  Mascov,  "  Commentarii  de 
Rebus  Imi>erii  Roniano-Germanici  sub  Lothario  II.,"  1753;  Jaff^, 
"Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Reiches  unter  Lothar  von  Sachsen," 
1843. 

Lothaire,  lo-thair'or  lo't^R',  King  of  France,  the  son 
of  Louis  d'Outremer,  was  born  in  941  a.d.,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  954.     His  reign  was  disturbed  by 


•€  as  k;  5  as  .f;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  y:., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  *h  as  in  this,     (^I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOTH  A  IRE 


1580 


LOUIS 


contests  with  powerful  vassals,  among  whom  was  HuG;h 
Capet,  and  he  waged  war  with  Otho  II.  of  Germany.  He 
died  in  986,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  V. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Lothaire,  King  of  Italy,  was  the  son  of  Hugh  of 
Provence,  who  admitted  him  to  a  share  of  the  royal 
power  in  931.  He  reigned  alone  a  few  years,  and  died 
in  950,  leaving  an  only  child,  Emma,  who  was  married  to 
Lothaire  of  France.     His  successor  was  Berenger  II. 

Lothaire,  King  of  Lorraine,  was  the  second  son  of 
the  emperor  Lothaire  I.  In  855  he  inherited  the  country 
Bituated  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse,  which  was 
called  Lotharingia, — Callid  Lorraine.  He  weakened  the 
royal  power  by  yielding  to  the  encroachments  of  the 
clergy,  and  by  other  impolitic  measures.  Died  in  869  a.d. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Lothar.     See  Lothaire. 

Lotharius.    See  Lothaire. 

Lotharius,  Cardinal.     See  Innocent  III. 

Lotich,  lo't5K,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  physician 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Nauheim  in  1598,  was  a  nephew 
of  Peter,  noticed  below.  He  lived  at  Frankfort,  where 
he  died  in  1669.  He  was  the  author  of  Latin  epigrams 
and  of  several  historical  and  medical  works. 

See  Nlc^RON,  "Mdmoires." 

Lotich,  [Lat.  Lotich'ius,]  (Peter,)  a  celebrated 
German  poet,  born  at  Schluchtern,  Hesse-Cassel,  in 
1528,  was  called  Secundus,  to  distinguish  him  from  his 
uncle  of  the  same  name.  He  fought  for  the  Protestant 
League  of  Schmalkalden,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
civil  service  of  the  Elector-Palatine.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Heidelberg  in  1557,  and  died  in 
1560.  He  owes  his  fame  to  Latin  elegies  and  other 
poems,  (1551,)  which  were  highly  praised  by  eminent 
critics.  "Lotich,"  says  Hallam,  "is  a  very  elegant  and 
classical  versifier,  and  perhaps  equal  in  elegy  to  any 
Cisalpine  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Johann  Hagen,  "Vita  Petri  Lotichii  Secundi,"  1586;  Nic^- 
RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Germanorum  Philosophorum." 

Lotichius.     See  Lotich,  (Peter.) 

Lotta.    See  Crabtree,  (Lotta.) 

Lotteri,  lot-ta'ree,  (Angelo  Luigi,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  in  tlie  Milanese  in  1760.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Principles  of  the  Differential  and  Integral 
•Calculus,"  (1788.)     Died  at  Milan  in  1839. 

Lotti.     See  Loth. 

Lotti,  lot'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Venice  about  1665  ;  died  in  1740. 

Lotti,  (Cosimo,)  a  Florentine  painter  and  architect, 
was  noted  for  mechanical  ingenuity,  and  made  several 
automata  at  Florence.  About  1628  he  was  invited  by 
Philip  IV.  to  Madrid,  where  he  built  the  theatre  Buen 
Retiro. 

Lottin,  lo't^N',  (AuGUSTiN  Martin,)  a  French  book- 
seller, born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  published  a  "Return 
from  Saint-Cloud  by  Land  and  Sea,"  a  facetious  work. 
Died  in  1793. 

Lotto,  lot'to,  (Lorenzo,)  an  excellent  Italian  painter, 
\,as  born  at  Venice  about  1490.  He  worked  chiefly  at 
Bergamo,  and  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
best  painters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  several  Madonnas  at  Bergamo.  His  first 
works  are  dated  about  151 5,  and  his  last  about  1560. 
"His  master-pieces,"  says  Lanzi,  "place  him  almost  on 
a  level  with  the  first  luminaries  of  the  art." 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti." 

Lotze,  lot'seh,  (Rudolph  Hermann,)  an  eminent 
German  philosopher,  born  at  Bautzen,  Saxony,  May  21, 
1817.  He  was  educated  at  Zittau  and  Gottingen,  and  in 
1838  graduated  as  doctor  of  jjhilosophy  and  of  medicine. 
He  afterwards  lectured  on  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  and  in 
1844  was  made  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen, 
where  for  nearly  forty  years  he  lived  a  laborious  and 
uneventful  life.  Died  at  Berlin,  July  i,  1881.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Metaphysics,"  (1841,)  and  "  Logic,"  (1843,) 
and  later  works  (1S74  and  1S79)  with  the  same  titles, 
forming  jjarls  of  his  uncompleted  "  System  of  Philos- 
ophy," "General   Pathology  and  Therapeutics   as   Me- 


chanical and  Natural  Sciences,"  (1842,)  "  General  Physi- 
ology of  the  Organic  Life,"  (1851,)  "  Medical  Psychology, 
or  Physiology  of  the  Soul,"  (1852,)  "  Ili.story  of  /Esthetics 
in  Germany,"  (1868,)  etc.  But  his  greatest  work  is  the 
"  Microcosmus,"  (3  vols.,  1856-64.)  Lotze  is  one  of  the 
ablest  of  the  recent  opponents  of  materialism.  Several 
of  his  treatises  have  been  translated  into  English.  With- 
out founding  a  new  school  of  thought,  Lotze  exerted, 
and  still  exerts,  a  wide  and  wholesome  intellectual  and 
moral  influence  ;  but  his  usefulness  as  a  teacher  has  been 
limited  by  the  frequent  obscurity  of  his  diction. 

Louandre,  loo'flNdR',  (Charles  Leopold,)  a  French 
litterateur^  born  at  Abbeville  in  1 813. 

Loubere,de  la,  debit  loo'baiR',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
geometer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1600.  He  taught  va- 
rious sciences  in  the  colleges  of  the  Jesuits,  and  pub- 
lished several  learned  mathematical  works.  Died  in  1664. 

Loubere,  de  la,  (Simon,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1642.  He  was  sent  as  envoy 
to  Siam  in  1687.  After  his  return  he  published  a  work 
"  On  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,"  (1691,)  which  is  praised  for 
fidelity  and  judicious  observations.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1693.     Died  in  1729. 

Loubon,  loo'b^N',  (  Charles  Joseph  Emile,  )  a 
French  painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Aix 
in  1809.     Died  at  Marseilles,  March  i,  1863. 

Louchet,  loo'sh^',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin,  who 
became  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792.  He  was 
the  first  who  ventured,  on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794,  to 
move  the  arrest  or  trial  of  Robespierre.  Lamartine 
calls  him  an  obscure  representative.     Died  in  1815. 

Loudon,  (Gideon  Ernst.)     See  Laudon. 

Loudon,  low'don,  (Jane,)  the  wife  of  J.  C.  Loudon, 
noticed  below,  and  daughter  of  Thomas  Webb,  was  born 
near  Birmingham  in  1808.  She  was  married  in  1381, 
before  which  she  had  published  a  novel  called  "The 
Mummy."  She  gave  efficient  aid  to  her  husband  in  his 
literary  enterprises,  and  after  his  death  published  new 
editions  of  some  of  his  works.  She  also  wrote  "The 
Ladies'  Flower-Garden,"  (  1841,)  "Botany  for  Ladies," 
(1852,)  "Gardening  for  Ladies,"  and  other  esteemed 
works.     Died  in  1858. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xvii. 

Loudon,  (John  Claudius,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
writer  on  horticulture  and  agriculture,  was  born  at 
Cambuslang  in  1783.  Having  learned  the  business  of 
a  landscape-gardener,  he  removed  to  London  in  1803. 
A  few  years  later  he  rented  a  farm,  on  which  he  tried 
new  modes  of  cultivation  with  success,  and  soon  acquired 
an  easy  fortune.  After  visiting  various  countries  of 
Europe,  he  returned  to  London,  and  published  "The 
Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,"  (1822,)  which  had  a  very 
large  sale.  He  afterwards  produced  "  Encyclopaedia  of 
Agriculture,"  (1825,)  and  "Encyclopaedia  of  Cottage, 
Farm,  and  Villa  Architecture,"  (1832.)  The  last  was 
especially  popular.  He  was  editor  of  the  "Gardener's 
Magazine,"  commenced  in  1826,  and  of  the  "Magazine 
of  Natural  History,"  (1828-36.)  His  industry  and  ex- 
tensive learning  were  displayed  in  an  expensive  work  on 
the  trees  and  shrubs  of  Britain,  entitled  "  Arboretum  et 
Fruticetum  Britannicum,"  (1838.)     Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Memoir  of  J.  C.  Loudon,"  by  his  wife,  1845 ;  Chamber:., 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ,"  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  July,  1839. 

Louet,  loo'i',  (Georges,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Angers  about  1540;  died  in  1608. 

Lough,  luf,  (John  Graham,)  an  English  sculptor, 
born  at  Greenhead,  in  Northumberland.  He  produced 
about  1827  an  admirable  statue  of  Milo  for  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  went  to  Italy  in  1834.  After  his  return 
home,  in  1838,  he  exhibited  "  Ophelia,"  "  Hebe  banished," 
"The  Roman  Fruit-Girl,"  a  statue  of  Victoria,  (1845,) 
and  a  statue  of  Prince  Albert,  (1847.)  Among  his 
greatest  works  is  a  colossal  marble  group  of  "  Satan 
subdued  by  the  Archangel  Michael,"  (1851.)   Died  1876. 

Loughborough,  Lord.     See  Wedderburn. 

Louis,  loo'iss,  [It.  Luigi,  loo-ee'jee,]  L,  King  of  Etru- 
ria,  born  at  Parma  in  1773,  was  the  son  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Parma.  In  1795  he  married  Maria  Louisa,  a 
daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain.     By  a  treaty  between 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOUIS 


1581 


LOUIS 


the  Spanish  court  and  Napoleon  in  1801,  Louis  acquired 
Tuscany  in  exchange  for  Parma,  and  the  name  of  the 
former  was  changed  to  Etruria.  He  died  in  1803, 
leaving  a  son,  Louis  IL 

Louis,  loo'iss,  [Fr.  pron.  loo'e' ;  Ger.  Ludwig,  lood'- 
^io ;  Lat.  LuDovi'cus,]  the  name  of  many  kings  of 
France.  Louis  I.,  surnamed  le  D^bonnaire  and  THE 
Pious,  [Lat.  Ludovi'cus  Pi'us  ;  Ger.  Ludwig  der 
Fromme,]  Emperor  of  the  West,  and  King  of  France, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Charlemagne,  was  born  at 
Casseneuil  in  778  a.d.  Two  elder  brothers  having  died 
before  their  father,  Louis  became  heir  of  all  the  vast 
dominions  of  Charlemagne  in  814  ;  but  his  character 
was  too  feeble  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  empire. 
He  had  three  sons,  Lothaire,  Pepin,  and  Louis,  whom 
about  820  he  made  his  colleagues  in  the  government, 
giving  Italy  to  the  first,  Aquitaine  to  the  second,  and 
Bavaria  to  the  third.  After  this  division  another  son, 
Charles  the  Bald,  was  born  to  him.  His  sons  Lothaire 
and  Pepin  revolted  in  830,  and  deposed  him.  He  was 
compelled  to  do  public  penance,  and  confined  in  a  con- 
vent. By  the  efforts  of  his  sons  Louis  and  Pepin,  he  was 
restored  to  thi^  throne  a  short  time  before  his  death^, 
which  occurred  in  840. 

See  Frantin,  "Louis  le  Pieux  et  son  Sifecle,"  2  vols.,  1840; 
Franck,  "Ludwig  der  Fromme,"  1832;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale. " 

Louis  II.,  surnamed  le  BfecuE,  leh  big,  {i.e.  "the 
Stammerer,")  King  of  France,  the  son  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  was  born  in  846  a.d.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
877.  He  propitiated  his  turbulent  nobles  by  granting  to 
them  many  duchies,  earldoms,  and  seignories.  He  died 
in  879,  leaving  three  sons,  Louis,  Carloman,  and  Charles 
the  Simple. 

See  MiCHELET,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  III.,  King  of  France,  born  about  863,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis  H.  In  879  the  kingdom  was  divided 
between  Louis  and  Carloman,  the  former  of  whom  re- 
ceived for  his  share  Neustria.  He  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Normans  who  invaded  France,  when  he  died,  with- 
out issue,  in  882  a.d.,  aged  about  twenty,  and  Carloman 
became  sole  king  of  France. 

See  MiCHELET,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  IV.,  surnamed  d'Outremer  (dootR'maiR') 
because  he  had  visited  England  in  infancy,  was  the  son 
of  Charles  the  Simple.  He  was  born  in  920  a.d.,  and 
crowned  king  in  936.  Among  the  events  of  his  reign 
was  a  war  between  him  and  Hugh,  the  father  of  Hugh 
Capet.  He  died  in  954,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Lothaire  II. 

See  SiSMONDl,  "  Histoire  des  Franipais." 

Louis  v.,  King  of  France,  surnamed  le  Faineant, 
(i>,  "the  Idle"  or  "Do-Nothing,")  the  son  of  Lothaire 
II.,  was  born  about  966.  He  inherited  the  title  of  king  in 
986,  and  died  in  987,  without  issue,  being  the  last  king 
of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  Hugh  Capet  was  elected 
as  his  successor. 

See  MiCHELET,  "Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  VI.  of  France,  surnamed  le  Gros,  (leh  gRo,) 
was  the  son  of  Philip  I.  and  of  Bertha.  He  was  born 
in  1078,  and  became  king  in  1 108.  Before  his  accession 
the  royal  power  had  been  much  reduced  by  the  preva- 
lence of  the  feudal  system,  and  in  his  reign  many  sei- 
gneurs asserted  by  arms  the  sovereign  power  over  their 
fiefs.  He  waged  war  against  Henry  I.  of  England  for 
the  possession  of  Normandy,  but  was  not  successful. 
He  is  represented  as  a  brave  and  generous  prince,  and 
is  honoured  for  the  establishment  of  communes  and 
municipal  governments,  by  which  he  promoted  the  politi- 
cal influence  of  the  third  estate.  He  died  in  1137,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VII. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais;"  Michelet,  "Histoire 
de  France." 

Louis  VII.,  King  of  France,  surnamed  le  Jeune, 
("the  Young,")  born  in  11 20,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VI., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1137.  He  married  Eleanor, 
heiress  of  the  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  Having  been  anathe- 
matized by  the  pope,  he  became  penitent,  and,  in  order 
to  expiate  his  sins,  he  joined  the  second  crisade  to  Pal- 
estine in   1 147,  and  was  followed  by  a  large  army  of 


Frenchmen  and  others.  After  many  defeats  and  disas- 
ters, by  which  he  lost  nearly  all  his  men,  he  returned  in 
1 149.  His  wife  Eleanor,  having  been  divorced  in  1152, 
married  Henry  II.  of  England,  who  by  this  marriage 
acqiiired  Guienne  and  Poitou.  War  ensued  between 
Louis  and  Henry,  but  no  decisive  advantage  was  gained 
by  either.  He  died  in  1180,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Philip  Augustus. 

See  MiCHEi.ET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Micuaud,  "  History  oI 
the  Crusades  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Louis  VIII.,  surnamed  Cceur-de-Lion,  (kuR'deh- 
le'6N',)  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus,  was  born  in  11 87, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1223.  His  wife  was  Blanche 
of  Castile.  He  recovered  by  arms  Poitou  and  several 
places  which  the  English  held  in  France.  Instigated  by 
the  pope,  he  led  a  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and 
waged  an  unjust  war  against  the  Count  of  Toulouse, 
who  was  denounced  as  a  heretic.  At  the  end  of  the  first 
campaign  he  died,  in  1226,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Louis  IX. 

See  Rymer,  "  Foedera, "  i  704  ;  Vaissette,  "  Histoire  g^n^rale 
du  Languedoc,"  5  vols.,  1730-45. 

Louis  IX.,  or  Saint  Louis,  King  of  France,  was  born 
in  1215,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Louis  VIII.,  in  1226. 
His  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile,  was  regent  during  his 
minority,  and  defended  his  throne  with  wisdom  against 
Thibaut  de  Champagne  and  other  barons  who  were 
leagued  with  him.  Louis  married  Margaret  of  Pro- 
vence in  1234.  In  1244  he  recovered  from  a  dangerous 
illness,  and  made  a  vow  to  conduct  a  crusade  against 
the  infidels.  Having  raised  a  large  army,  he  departed 
in  1248,  and  in  the  next  year  entered  Egypt.  There  his 
army  was  ravaged  by  disease,  and  defeated  at  Mansourah 
by  the  Saracens,  who  took  Saint  Louis  prisoner.  By 
paying  a  ransom  he  obtained  his  liberty,  and  pursued 
his  course  to  Palestine,  where  he  remained  about  three 
years.  He  returned  to  France  in  1254,  and  employed 
himself  in  improving  the  condition  of  the  people  by  wise 
laws.  His  foreign  policy  was  pacific  towards  European 
nations,  but  his  zeal  against  infidels  urged  him  to  another 
crusade  in  1270.  He  first  directed  his  operations  against 
Tunis,  but  before  he  had  reached  that  place  he  died,  near 
Carthage  or  Tunis,  in  August,  1270.  He  was  canonized 
in  1297.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philippe  le  Hardi. 
"  Louis  was,"  says  Voltaire,  "  in  all  respects  a  model  for 
men.  His  piety,  which  was  that  of  an  anchorite,  did  not 
deprive  him  of  royal  virtues.  He  made  a  profound  policy 
agree  and  concur  with  exact  justice ;  and  perhaps  he  is 
the  only  sovereign  who  merits  this  praise." 

See  G.  de  Nangis,  "Vie  de  Saint-Louis;"  Joinville,  "Vie  de 
Saint-Louis;"  Filleau  de  la  Chaise,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Louis," 

2  vols.,  1688;  Bury,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Louis,"  1775;  Michelet, 
"  Histoire  de  France  ;"  Michaud,  "  History  of  the  Crusades;"  ViL- 
leneuve-Bargemont,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Louis,  Roi  de  France," 

3  vols.,  1836;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Louis  X.,  surnamed  le  Hutin,  (leh  hii'tiw',)  King  of 
France,  the  son  of  Philippe  le  Bel,  was  born  in  1289, 
and  became  king  in  13 14.  He  married  Clemence,  a 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Hungary.  Among  the  chief 
events  of  his  short  reign  was  his  unfortunate  expedition 
against  Flanders.  He  died,  without  male  issue,  in  13 16, 
and  his  brother,  Philippe  le  Long,  was  his  successor. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Louis  XL,  King  of  France,  born  at  Bourges  in  1423, 
was  the  son  of  Charles  VII.  He  married  Charlotte,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  His  ambitious  and  un- 
scrupulous character  was  early  manifested  by  revolts 
against  his  father.  He  became  king  in  1461,  soon  after 
which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  other  nobles  formed 
against  him  the  "  League  of  the  Public  Good."  Besieged 
in  his  capital  by  the  army  of  this  league  in  1465,  he  in- 
duced them  to  retire  and  disband  by  the  large  conces- 
sions of  a  treaty  which  he  intended  to  violate  at  his  own 
convenience.  By  crafty  policy,  superior  abilities,  and 
vigorous  measures,  he  greatly  increased  the  royal  power 
at  the  expense  of  the  nobles,  many  of  whom  fell  victims 
to  his  cruelty.  His  inveterate  enemy,  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  having  been  killed  in  battle  at  Nancy  in 
1477,  Louis  availed  himself  of  the  occasion  to  seize  his 
large  domains,  but  was  resisted  with  partial  success  by 
Maximilian  of  Austria  in  a  war  of  several  years.     Louis 


€as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gnttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2!:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LOUIS 


1582 


LOUTS 


had  made  peace  with  Edward  IV.  of  England  in  1475. 
He  died  in  1483,  leaving  (he  throne  to  his  son,  Charles 
VIII.  The  reign  of  Louis  XI.  is  remarkable  for  the 
multitude  of  important  events,  and  for  the  complete 
revolution  which  the  monarchy  then  passed  through. 
Post-offices  were  first  established  by  him  in  France. 

See  CoMiNES,  "  M^moires  contenant  les  Choses  advenues  durant 
le  R4gne  de  Louis  XI,"  1523  :  tlie  same  in  English  ;  Duci.os,  "  His- 
toire  de  Louis  XL"  1745;  Jean  de  Troves,  "  Chronique  scanda- 
leuse  ;"  Mathieu,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XL"  i6"o  ;  Kasin,  "  De 
Rebus  gestis  Carol!  VIL  et  Ludovici  XL;"  Michei.et,  "Histoire 
de  France;"  "Nouvelle  Bioijraphie  G^nerale." 

Louis  XII.  of  France,  born  at  Blois  in  1462,  was  the 
son  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  Marie  of  Cleves. 
At  the  accession  of  Charles  VIII.  (1483)  he  was  the 
first  prince  of  the  blood.  Before  that  date  he  had  been 
compelled  to  marry  Jeanne,  the  daughter  of  Louis  XI. 
In  1495  he  attended  his  cousin,  Charles  VIII.,  in  his 
expedition  against  Naples,  and  in  1498  became  the  suc- 
cessor of  that  king,  who  left  no  issue.  lie  married  Anne 
de  Bretagne,  the  widow  of  the  late  king,  thus  securing 
the  province  of  Bretagne  for  the  crown.  His  army  con- 
quered the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  brought  Duke  Francis 
Sforza  a  captive  to  France  in  1500.  He  resolved,  also, 
to  prosecute  the  claims  of  his  family  to  Naples,  then 
ruled  by  Frederick  of  Aragon.  In  1501  Louis  and  Fer- 
dinand of  Spain  agreed  to  partition  between  themselves 
the  kingdom  of  Frederick,  who,  finding  resistance  im- 
possible, retired  to  France  and  received  a  pension  from 
Louis.  The  quarrel  that  ensued  between  Louis  and 
Ferdinand  ended  in  1503  by  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Naples  by  Gonsalvo  de  C6rdova.  The  pope,  Julius 
II.,  having  formed  a  league  against  Louis,  the  French 
were  defeated  at  Novara  in  1513  and  driven  out  of  Italy. 
At  the  age  of  fifty-three  he  married  Mary,  a  sister  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  Janu- 
ary, 1 5 15,  leaving  two  daughters,  Claude  and  Renee. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Francis  I.  Louis  XII.  gained  the 
affection  of  his  subjects  by  reducing  the  taxes  and  pro- 
moting justice,  and  received  the  surname  of  "Father  of 
the  People." 

See  Jean  d'Auton,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XIL"  i6is;  Clauds 
DE  Seyssel,  "Les  Louanges  du  bon  Roi  Louis  XIL"  1508;  Jay, 
"  Histoire  de  Louis  XII  :"  Brant6me,  "  ffiuvres;"  A.  Varillas, 
"Histoire  de  Louis  XII,"  1688;  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
?ais ;"  P.  L.  Ginguen^,  "  filoge  de  Louis  XII,"  17S8. 

Louis  XIII.  of  France,  the  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  of 
Marie  de  Medicis,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  on  the 
27th  of  September,  1601.  He  succeeded  his  father 
May  14,  1610,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  was  de- 
clared of  age  in  1614,  and  married  Anne  of  Austria,  a 
daughter  of  Philip  HI.  of  Spain,  in  1615.  Soon  after 
that  date  Marie  de  Medicis  was  exiled  from  court,  and 
the  Duke  de  Luynes  became  the  royal  favourite.  In 
1620  Louis  marched  against  his  Protestant  subjects,  who 
had  been  provoked  into  a  revolt.  During  the  progress 
of  this  war  Richelieu  obtained  the  favour  and  confi- 
dence of  the  king,  who  made  him  prime  minister  in 
1624.  As  Louis  was  very  deficient  in  political  ability 
Richelieu  was  the  master-spirit  of  the  government  from 
that  time  until  his  death.  Among  the  memorable  events 
of  this  reign  was  the  capture  of  Rochelle  from  the  Prot- 
estants, (1628,)  after  a  siege  of  about  a  year.  The  great 
talents  and  policy  of  Richelieu  were  directed  with  suc- 
cess to  the  subjection  of  the  Huguenots,  the  establish- 
ment of  absolutism  in  France,  and  the  abatement  of  the 
overgrown  power  of  Austria.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
war  the  French  armies  obtained  frequent  successes 
against  the  Spaniards  and  Imperialists,  and  extended 
the  boundaries  of  France  by  the  conquest  of  Roussillon, 
Alsace,  and  the  duchy  of  Bar.  Louis  died  in  May,  1643, 
leaving  the  crown  to  his  son,  Louis  XIV.  His  character 
was  timid,  and  not  adapted  to  win  the  favour  or  admira- 
tion of  the  French.  He  is  said,  however,  to  have  given 
proof  of  personal  courage  in  several  battles. 

SeeMALiNGRE,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XII  I,"  1646;  Ch.  Bernard, 
"Histoire  de  Louis  XIII,"  1646;  J.  Howell,  "Life  of  Lewis 
XIII.,"  1646;  Le  Vassor,  "Histoire  du  Rfegne  de  Louis  XIII," 
1700-11;  Bazin,  "Histoire  de  France  sous  Louis  XIII,"  1837: 
"  Nouvelle  Biographle  Gendrale." 

Louis  XIV.,surnamed  le  Grand,  (leh  gRflN,)  or  "  the 
Great,"  often  called  even  by  English  speakers  Louis 
QuATORZE,  (loo'e'  kt'toRz',)  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  XIII. 


and  Anne  of  Austria,  was  born  on  the  i6th  of  September, 
1638.  At  the  age  of  five  he  ascended  the  throne,  in  1643, 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  who  was  a  daughter  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain.  During  his  minority  the  government 
was  directed  by  Cardinal  Mazarin,  (which  see,)  a  for- 
eigner, whose  ministry  was  very  unpopular,  and  who  was 
involved  in  a  civil  war,  against  a  faction  called  La  Fronde, 
from  1648  until  1653.  In  1649  Louis  and  his  mother  were 
driven  out  of  the  capital  by  the  Frondeurs,  of  whom 
Conde  was  the  chief.  The  Thirty  Years'  war  was  ended 
in  1648  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  on  terms  favourable 
to  France  ;  but  Spain,  refusing  to  unite  in  this  treaty,  con- 
tinued the  war  against  the  French  until  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees,  (1659,)  when  Louis  married  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

At  the  death  of  Mazarin,  in  1661,  Louis  resolved  to  be 
his  own  prime  minister,  and  was  fortunate  in  obtaining 
the  services  of  so  able  a  financier  as  Colbert.  France 
was  then  without  doubt  the  greatest  and  most  compact 
power  in  Europe.  To  the  arduous  duties  of  his  new 
position  the  king  brought  imposing  and  popular  persona, 
qualities,  and  political  talents  of  a  high  order.  His  am- 
bition was  to  make  France  prosperous  and  the  monarchy 
absolute.  His  policy  was  briefly  summed  up  in  his  fa- 
mous saying,  "L''£tat,  c'est  moil"  ("The  State — that  is 
myself!")  The  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  in  1665, 
furnished  him  a  pretext  for  the  extension  of  his  domin- 
ions towards  the  Rhine.  In  exchange  for  the  dowry 
promised  to  his  queen,  which  the  Spanish  court  neglected 
to  pay,  he  claimed  Flanders  and  Franche-Comte,  which 
he  invaded  with  success  in  1667.  The  emperor  Leopold 
and  the  Dutch  aided  the  Spaniards  against  him  until  the 
treaty  of  Nymwegen,  (1678,)  by  which  Louis  retained 
Franche-Comte  and  a  large  part  of  Flanders.  In  the 
mean  time  the  administration  had  been  reformed  and 
centralized  by  Louis,  and  the  taxes  had  been  reduced 
and  the  revenue  increased  by  Colbert.  In  1670  Louis 
made  a  secret  treaty  with  Charles  II.  of  England,  whose 
alliance  he  jjurchased  by  a  pension.  Commerce,  manu- 
factures, arts,  literature,  etc.  were  liberally  encouraged  in 
his  reign  ;  but  the  intolerant  zeal  of  the  king  betrayed 
him  into  one  very  unjust  and  impolitic  measure  when, 
in  1685,  he  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  had  se- 
cured the  religious  liberty  of  Protestants.  His  Catholic 
zeal,  however,  did  not  deter  him  from  a  serious  quarrel 
with  the  pope,  on  the  question  of  franchises,  in  1687. 
About  this  time  he  secretly  married  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon,  a  lady  of  obscure  origin  but  eminent  merit.  (See 
Maintenon.) 

A  second  general  war  broke  out  in  1688,  between  Louis 
on  one  side,  and  Spain,  Austria,  England,  and  the  Prince 
of  Orange  on  the  other.  Louis  failed  in  his  attempt  to 
restore  James  II.  of  England,  and  found  a  formidable 
adversary  in  James's  successor,  William  III.  After  many 
sieges  and  indecisive  actions  in  Flanders,  the  war  was 
suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  (1697.)  By  the  will 
of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  (1700,)  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou, 
a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  appointed  heir  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  This  occasioned  a  great  European  coali- 
tion against  the  French  king,  and  the  long  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  in  which  he  had  to  contend  against 
the  English  and  Austrians,  under  Marlborough  and  Eu- 
gene, who  won  great  victories  at  Blenheim,  Malplaquet, 
etc.  ;  but  the  French  prince  Philip  remained  master  of 
Spain,  and  hostilities  were  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
in  April,  17 13.  After  a  reign  of  seventy-two  years,  he 
died,  on  the  ist  of  September,  1715,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  great-grandson,  Louis  XV.  The  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  was  the  most  brilliant  in  the  liter.iry  history  of 
France,  and  he  was  a  very  judicious  as  well  as  a  very 
munificent  patron  of  literary  merit.  He  preserved  his 
equanimity  in  his  successes  and  his  reverses. 

"No  sovereign,"  says  Macaulay,  in  his  review  of  Du- 
mont's  "  Recollections  of  Mirabeau,"  "  has  ever  repre- 
sented the  majesty  of  a  great  state  with  more  dignity 
and  grace.  .  .  .  He  was  not  a  great  general  ;  he  was  not 
a  great  statesman  ;  but  he  was,  in  one  sense  of  the  words, 
a  great  king.  Never  was  there  so  consummate  a  master 
of  what  our  James  I.  would  have  called  king-craft. 
Though  his  internal  administration  was  bad,  though  the 
military   triumphs   of  his   reign   were   not   achieved   by 


a.  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fdt;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOUIS 


1583 


LOUIS 


himself,  though  his  later  years  were  crowded  with  de- 
feats, ...  he  succeeded  in  passing  himself  off  on  his 
people  as  a  being  above  humanity." 

See  Voltaire,  "  Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV,"  1752  ;  Pellisson,  "  His- 
toire  de  Louis  XIV,"  1749  ;  Dangeau,  "Journal  de  la  Gourde  Louis 
XIV;"  "  Letters  of  Madame  de  Maintenon  ;"  J.  de  Larrev,  "  His- 
toire  de  France  sous  le  Kfegne  de  Louis  XIV,"  1718-22  ;  Capefigue, 
"  Louis  XIV,  son  Gouvernement,"  etc.,  6  vols.,  1S37;  Saint-Simon, 
"  Memoires;"  G.  P.  R.  Jamks,  "  The  Life  and  Times  of  Louis  XIV.," 
4  vols.,  1838  ;  Lord  Bolingbroke,  "  Si^cle  politique  de  Louis  XIV," 
■>.  vols.,  1754  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Louis  XV.  of  P'rance,  the  great-grandson  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  the  15th  of  February, 
1710.  His  father  was  the  virtuous  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  his  mother  was  Maria  Adelaide  of  Savoy.  Louis 
became  king  on  the  ist  of  September,  17 15,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  a  nephew  of  Louis  XIV.,  being  then  appointed 
regent.  The  minority  of  Louis  was  a  period  of  scan- 
dalous corruption  in  morals  and  politics.  Among  the 
ruinous  errors  of  the  regent's  administration  was  his 
^  adoption  of  the  financial  system  of  the  famous  projector 

Law.  (See  Law,  John.)  In  1723  the  king  was  declared 
of  age,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  died,  and  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon  became  prime  minister.  In  1725  Louis  married 
Marie  Leczinska,  daughter  of  Stanislas,  the  dethroned 
king  of  Poland,  and  in  the  next  year  Bourbon  was  super- 
seded by  the  eminent  statesman  Cardinal  Fleury,  who 
had  been  preceptor  of  the  young  king  and  had  merited 
his  confidence.  By  his  prudent  and  pacific  administra- 
tion Fleury  restored  some  degree  of  order  and  prosperity 
in  the  state,  and  arrested  the  downward  progress  of  the 
monarchy.  A  war  which  began  between  the  French  and 
Austrians  in  1733  was  waged  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Italy 
until  1735,  when  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna.  Against  the  advice  of  Fleury,  Louis 
joined  in  1741  the  iniquitous  coalition  against  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and  sent  an  army  into  Bohemia. 
The  English  then  declared  war  against  France.  In  1743 
Cardinal  Fleury  died,  and  Louis  resolved  to  dispense 
with  a  prime  minister.  Among  the  principal  events  of 
this  war  was  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  (1745,)  where  in 
presence  of  Louis  his  army  defeated  the  English  under 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  Hostilities  were  suspended 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  174S.  About  this 
period  Louis  ceased  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  govern- 
ment, and  abandoned  himself  to  scandalous  vices  in  the 
harem  called  the  "Pare  aux  Cerfs." 

Rival  claims  of  the  French  and  English  in  Canada 
were  the  cause  or  pretext  of  a  war  which  began  in  1755, 
and  the  French  court  was  at  the  same  time  involved  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war  as  the  ally  of  Maria  Theresa.  The 
disasters  and  disgraces  of  this  war  increased  the  un- 
popularity of  the  king,  who  was  stabbed  by  a  fanatic 
named  Damiens  in  1757,  but  only  slightly  hurt.  The 
French  were  defeated  by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Ross- 
bach  (1757)  and  at  Minden,  (1759,)  and  in  various  naval 
battles  by  the  English.  After  losing  Canada  and  other 
colonies,  the  French  court  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris  in 
1763,  and  ended  a  war  the  odium  of  wliich  was  thrown 
on  Madame  de  Pompadour.  Under  the  auspices  of  the 
Due  de  Choiseul,  then  chief  minister,  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits  was  suppressed  about  1762.  Louis  died  in  May, 
1774,  leaving  the  kingdom  impoverished,  oppressed,  and 
demoralized.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Louis 
XVI.,  whose  father,  the  dauphin,  had  died  in  1765. 

See  Lacretelle,  "  Histoire  de  France  pendant  le  dix-huiti^nie 
Sifecle,"  s  vols.,  1809;  Bauer,  "  Ludwig  XV.,  Kbnig  von  Frank- 
roicli,"  1804;  Voltaire,  "Histoire  du  Si^cle  de  Louis  XV;"  Db 
TjCQUeville,  "Histoire  philosophique  du  Rfegne  de  Louis  XV," 
1847;  Maurepas,  "Memoires,"  1791  ;  M.  Capefigue,  "Louis  XV 
et  la  Soci^td  du  XVIIIe  Siecle;"  Carlyle,  "  French  Revolution." 

Louis  XVI.,  the  grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born 
at  Versailles,  August  23,  1754.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  and  Marie  Josephe  of 
Saxony,  and  received  at  his  birth  the  title  of  Due  de 
Berry.  In  1770  he  married  Marie  Antoinette,  a  daughter 
of  Maria  Theresa,  Empress  of  Austria.  He  ascended 
the  throne  in  1774,  and  appointed  Turgot  minister  of  the 
finances,  wliich  were  then  in  great  disorder.  Turgot, 
a  man  of  probity  and  ability,  undertook  wise  and  exten- 
sive refonns ;  but  these  were  resisted  by  the  nobility 
and  clergy,  and  he  was  dismissed  from  ofiice  in  1776. 
Necker  then  became  contrSleur-general,  or  prime  minister. 


(SeeNECKER,  J.)  In  1778  the  French  court  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States,  declared  war 
against  England,  and  sent  a  fleet  and  army  to  fight  for 
the  new  republic.  Peace  was  restored  between  France 
and  Englandin  1783,  and  the  French  soldiers  returned 
hoine  enthusiasts  for  liberty. 

Necker  having  resigned  in  1781,  Calonne  was  ap- 
pointed contr6leur-general.  He  not  only  failed  to  supplj 
the  deficit  in  the  revenue,  but  increased  the  public  dis- 
tress by  his  prodigality,  and  called  an  Assembly  of  Nota- 
bles in  1787.  In  this  year  Calonne  was  superseded  by 
Lomenie  de  Brienne,  who  also  was  found  incompetent 
to  guide  the  state  through  that  great  financial  and  politi- 
cal crisis,  and  advised  the  king  to  convoke  the  States- 
General,  which  had  not  been  assembled  since  1614. 
Louis  recalled  Necker  to  the  place  of  prime  minister 
about  September  i,  1788,  and  convoked  the  States-Gene- 
ral at  Versailles  in  May,  17S9.  This  event  was  the  signal 
for  the  explosion  of  passions,  ambitions,  and  resentments 
which  had  accumulated  and  fermented  during  a  long 
period  of  misrule.  The  popular  cause  derived  great 
advantage  from  Necker's  ordinance  that  the  number  of 
the  deputies  of  the  Third  Estate  should  be  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  the  noblesse  and  clergy.  After  a  contest 
between  the  Third  Estate  and  the  other  orders  on  the 
question  whether  they  should  vote  together  or  separately 
by  orders,  the  Third  Estate  prevailed,  and  took  the  name 
of  the  National  Constituent  Assembly.  Necker  having 
been  dismissed  in  July,  1789,  the  populace  of  Paris  de- 
stroyed the  Bastille  a  few  days  later.  Thenceforth  the 
progress  of  revolution  was  rapid  and  irresistible.  The 
Assembly  made  a  great  and  sudden  change  in  the  po- 
litical and  social  condition  of  France  by  the  abolition  of 
tithes,  titles  of  nobility,  feudal  privileges,  and  inveterate 
abuses.  The  landed  estates  of  the  Church,  comprising 
nearly  one-third  of  France,  were  confiscated.  The  king, 
who  was  disposed  to  make  large  concessions  and  lacked 
firmness  to  resist  popular  aggressions,  remained  as  a 
hostage  of  the  old  regime  in  the  hands  of  the  nation. 
The  position  of  Louis  became  so  irksome  and  perilous 
that  he  attempted,  in  June,  1791,  to  escape  with  his 
family  from  Paris,  but  was  arrested  at  Varennes  and 
compelled  to  return.  He  then  accepted  the  new  consti- 
tution, which  proclaimed  liberty,  equality,  and  universal 
suffrage.^  In  March,  1792,  a  Girondist  ministry  was 
formed,  in  which  DuiTiouriez  and  Roland  were  the  chief 
ministers,  and  v^far  was  declared  against  Austria  and 
Prussia.  By  the  insurrection  of  August  10,  the  Jacobins, 
led  by  Danton  and  Robespierre,  effected  the  total  sub- 
version of  the  monarchy  and  initiated  the  reign  of  terror. 
Louis  was  confined  in  a  prison  called  the  Temple,  after 
being  subjected  to  indignities  and  outrages  from  the  mob. 
He  was  tried  for  treason  by  the  National  Convention, 
which  met  in  September,  1792,  defended  by  Deseze  and 
Tronchet,  and  condemned  to  death,  the  vote  being  387 
for  death  and  334  for  banishment  or  detention.  He  was 
executed  January  21,  1793,  and  died  with  tranquil  forti- 
tude. He  left  a  son,  Louis,  styled  the  Seventeenth,  and 
a  daughter,  Elizabeth.  His  virtues  were  better  adapted 
to  a  private  station  than  to  a  throne. 

See  Ga.ssier,  "Vie  de  Louis  XVI,"  1814  ;  Durdent,  "Histoire 
de  Louis  XVI,"  1817;  J.  Droz,  "Histoire  du  Rigne  de  Louis 
XVI,"  3  vols.,  1839-42  ;  Falloux,  "  Louis  XVI,"  1840;  Capefigue, 
"Louis  XVI,  son  Administration,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1844;  Soulavie, 
"Memoires  du  Rfegne  de  Louis  XVI,"  6  vols.,  iSoi ;  Thiers, 
"History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Lamartine,  "History  of 
the  Girondists,"  1847;  Carlyle,  "French  Revolution;"  "Last 
Years  of  the  Reign  and  Life  of  Louis  XVI.,"  by  Francis  Hue. 

Louis  XVIL  of  France,  the  second  son  of  Louis 
XVI.,  was  born  in  17S5.  He  became  dauphin  at  the 
death  of  an  elder  brother  in  1789,  and  was  recognized  as 
king  in  January,  1793,  by  the  French  royalists  and  several 
foreign  courts,  but  was  closely  confined  by  the  Jacobins. 
The  cruel  treatment  which  he  received  from  his  jailers 
hastened  his  death,  which  occurred  in  prison  in  June, 
1795- 

See  A.  DE  Beauchesne,  "Lite,  Sufferings,  and  Death  of  Louis 
XVIL,"  translated  by  W.   Hazlitt. 

Louis  XVm.  of  France,  born  at  Versailles  in  No- 
vember, 1755,  was  the  third  son  of  the  dauphin,  and 
younger  brother  of  Louis  XVI.  He  received  at  his 
birth  the  names  of  Louis  Stanislas  Xavier,  and  the  title 


€  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  zs>j;  G,  H,  Vi,giittural;  N,  tiasal;  k,  tritled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOUIS 


1584 


LOUIS 


of  Count  de  Provence.  He  was  also  styled  Monsieur 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  In  1771  he  married 
Marie  Josephine  de  Savoy.  He  favoured  the  Revolu- 
tion in  its  first  stages,  and  by  his  influence  determined 
that  the  Third  Estate  should  send  to  the  States-General 
as  many  deputies  as  both  of  the  other  orders.  He  re- 
mained in  Paris  until  the  flight  of  the  king  to  Varennes, 
in  June,  1 791,  when  he  escaped  by  another  route.  During 
the  republic  and  empire  he  resided  at  Verona,  Mitau, 
Warsaw,  and  Hartwell,  England.  In  April,  1814,  he 
returned  to  France  and  ascended  the  throne  vacated 
by  Bonaparte.  He  hastened  to  accept  a  constitutional 
charter  which  his  ministers  presented.  By  the  escape 
of  Napoleon,  his  daring  march  to  Paris,  and  the  defec- 
tion of  the  army,  Louis  was  forced  to  fly  on  the  20th  of 
March,  1815,  and  retired  to  Ghent.     (See  Bo.naparte.) 

He  was  again  restored  by  the  allied  armies  in  July, 
18 1 5,  at  one  of  the  most  disastrous  epochs  in  French 
history.  "  The  king  must  have  had,"  says  Lamartine, 
"great  courage  or  a  great  thirst  of  power,  to  accept  a 
throne  and  a  nation  buried  under  so  many  ruins."  Louis 
dismissed  Talleyrand,  and  selected  for  prime  minister 
the  Uuc  de  Richelieu ;  but  M.  Decazes,  minister  of 
police,  was  his  chief  favourite.  The  majority  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  were  extreme  royalists,  and  main- 
tained an  opposition  to  the  ministry.  Several  Bona- 
partists  were  executed,  and  others  banished.  On  Sep- 
tember 5,  1 816,  the  king  dissolved  the  Chamber,  and  by 
this  coup  d'etat  gained  much  popularity.  The  next  elec- 
tions resulted  in  favour  of  the  moderate  royalists.  In 
December,  1818,  a  new  liberal  ministry  was  formed,  and 
Decazes  became  prime  minister.  (See  Decazes.)  The 
ultra-royalists,  with  Villele  as  premier,  came  into  power 
in  February,  1820,  and  passed  an  electoral  law  less 
favourable  to  the  liberal  party.  In  1823  the  French 
court  sent  an  army  into  Spain,  and  supported  the  cause 
of  absolutism,  as  an  ally  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Louis  died 
in  September,  1824,  without  issue,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Charles  X.  "  His  qualities,"  says  Michaud, 
"were  rather  brilliant  than  solid."  He  had  respectable 
literary  attainments  and  an  easy  elocution.  He  is  re- 
puted the  author  of  the  saying,  "  Punctuality  (exactitude) 
is  the  politeness  of  kings." 

See  Alphonse  de  Beauchamp,  "Vie  de  Louis  XyiII,"i82i; 
Lacretelle,  "Histoire  de  France  depuis  la  Restauration,"  4  vols., 
1829-36;  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "  M^moires 
de  Louis  XVI H,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  1832;  Chateaubriand, 
"M^moires  d'Outre-Tombe ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale;" 
Eyre  Evans  Crowe,  "  History  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.," 
2  vols.,  1854;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1833. 

Louis,  (Kings  or  princes  of  Germany.)     See  Lewis. 

Louis  [It.  Luigi,  loo-ee'jee]  II.,  King  and  Emperor  of 
Italy,  the  son  of  Lothaire  I.,  was  born  about  822  a.d. 
He  became  the  colleague  of  his  father  in  850,  and  at  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  855,  inherited  the  throne  of  Italy. 
Among  the  events  of  his  reign  were  battles  which  he 
fought  with  various  success  against  the  Saracens  whc 
invaded  Italy.  He  died  in  875,  leaving  a  daughter 
Ermengarde,  who  was  married  to  Boson,  King  of  Aries. 
They  had  a  son,  who  was  styled  Louis  III. 

See  Muratori,  "  Annali  d'ltalia;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Louis  (Luigi)  III.,  King  or  Emperor  of  Italy,  sur- 
named  THE  Blind,  born  about  879,  was  a  grandson  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  a  son  of  Boson,  King  of  Arle.s 
and  Ermengarde.  In  900  he  was  invited  to  Italy  by 
several  barons,  and  was  crowned  in  place  of  Berenger, 
who  took  Louis  prisoner  in  905  and  put  out  his  eyes. 
Died  in  929. 

Louis  (Luigi)  of  Tarentum,  King  of  Naples,  born 
in  1320,  was  a  grandson  of  Charles  the  Lame.  He  was 
a  cousin  of  Queen  Joan  of  Naples,  who  married  Louis 
in  1346,  after  she  had  strangled  her  husband  Andrew. 
Died  in  1362. 

Louis  (Luigi)  II.,  King  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Jerusa- 
lem, born  in  1377,  was  a  son  of  Louis  I.  He  was  crowned 
by  the  pope  in  1389,  and  obtained  possession  of  Naples, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  by  Ladislaus  in  1399.  Died 
in  141 7. 

Louis  (Luigi)  III.,  of  Naples,  Duke  of  Anjou,  born 
in  1403,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  inherited  his 
father's  title  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  which,  however. 


was  occupied  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon.  He  invaded  Italy, 
and  conquered  a  large  part  of  the  kingdom,  but  died  m 
1434,  before  his  enterprise  was  finished. 

Louis  [Port.  Luis,  loo-^ss']  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  bcrn 
in  1838,  began  to  reign  at  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Pedro  v.,  in  November,  1861,  before  which  he  was  the 
Duke  of  Oporto.  He  married  Maria  Pia,  a  daughter  of 
Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy,  in  1862.     Died  Oct.  19,  18S9. 

Louis  (Luigi)  I.,  King  of  Sicily  or  of  Naples,  Count 
of  Provence,  Duke  of  Anjou,  etc.,  born  in  1339,  was 
a  younger  son  of  Jean  II.  of  France.  At  the  instigation 
of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  Queen  Joan  of  Naples  adopted 
Louis  as  her  successor  in  1380,  but  his  title  was  disputed 
by  Charles  of  Durazzo,  who  afterwards  became  King  of 
Naples.     Died  near  Bari  in  1384. 

Louis  [Sp.  Luis,  loo-iss']  of  Aragon,  King  of  Sicily, 
born  in  1338,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Peter  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1342.     Died  in  1355. 

Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  the  son  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Maria  Theresa,  was  born  in  1661,  and  was  called 
MoNSEiGNEUR.  His  education  was  directed  by  Bossuet, 
who  wrote  for  him  his  "Discourse  on  Universal  His- 
tory." The  dauphin,  however,  had  a  great  aversion  to 
study,  and  appears  to  have  had  only  moderate  abilities. 
He  married  Marie  Christine  of  Bavaria,  and  became 
father  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  of  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  who  was  afterwards  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  In  1688 
Louis  XIV.  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the 
Rhine,  under  the  direction  of  Vauban.  As  commander 
of  the  army  in  Flanders  in  1694,  the  dauphin  received 
credit  for  a  march  which  protected  Dunkirk.  His  last 
years  were  passed  in  compulsory  idleness.  Died  in  17 11. 

Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  the  son  of  Louis  XV,, 
was  born  in  1729.  His  virtues,  talents,  and  attainments 
are  highly  commended  by  M.  Michaud,  Jr.  In  1747  he 
married  Marie  Josephe  of  Saxony,  by  whom  he  had 
three  sons,  who  became  kings,  viz.,  Louis  XVI.,  Louis 
X  VTIL,  and  Charles  X.  He  was  excluded  by  his  father 
from  all  participation  in  the  government.     Died  in  1765. 

Louis,  loo'e',  (Antoine,)  a  celebrated  French  sur- 
geon, born  at  Metz  in  1723.  He  settled  in  Paris  at  an 
early  age,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings 
on  surgery.  He  wrote  many  able  surgical  articles  for 
the  "  Encyclopedie."  He  was  for  many  years  the  oracle 
and  counsel  of  the  tribunals  in  questions  of  medical 
jurisprudence.     Died  in  1792. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Louis,  (Louis  Dominique,)  Baron,  a  successful 
French  financier,  better  known  as  Abb6  Louis,  was  born 
at  Toul  in  1755.  He  emigrated  to  England  in  1792,  and 
returned  about  the  end  of  1799.  During  the  empire  he 
became  administrator  of  the  treasury,  councillor  of  state, 
and  a  baron.  From  April,  1814,  until  August,  1815,  he 
served  Louis  XVIII.  as  minister  of  finance.  He  was  re- 
called to  the  same  office  in  1818  by  Decazes,  and  resigned 
in  November,  1819.  He  was  also  appointed  minister  of 
finance  by  Louis  Philippe  in  1830.     Died  in  1837. 

See  "  Souvenirs  sur  le  Baron  Louis,"  Paris,  1842 ;  Comte  db 
Saint-Cricq,  "filoge  de  Baron  Louis,"  1838;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Gendrale." 

Louis,  (Pierre  Charles  Alexandre,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Ai  (Marne)  in  1787.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Researches  on  Typhoid  Fever,"  (2  vols., 
1828.)     Died  at  Paris,  August  24,  1872. 

Louis  Napoleou.     See  Napoleon  HI. 

Louis  Philippe,  loo'e'  fe'lfep',  Duke  of  Orleans,  Kmg 
of  the  French,  often  called  "the  Citizen  King,"  was 
born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  October,  1773,  and  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Duke  of  Orleans, 
who  was  stvled  Philippe  Egalite.  His  mother  was  Louise 
Marie  de  Bourbon,  a  daughter  of  the  Due  de  Pen- 
thievre.  His  early  education  was  directed  by  Madame 
de  Genlis,  who  taught  him  liberal  principles  and  formed 
him  to  habits  of  prudence  and  self-control.  During  the 
life  of  his  father,  who  was  e.\ecuted  in  1793,  he  was  styled 
the  Duke  of  Chartres.  About  1790  he  entered  the  army 
as  colonel,  and  merited  two  civic  crowns  by  saving  the 
lives  of  two  priests  in  an  imeute.  He  favoured  the 
popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  and  served  in  the  firet 
campaign  against  the  Austrians  in  1792.     In  November 


a,  e.  i.  6.  u,  y.  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  (Ir,  till,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


LOWIS 


15S5 


LOUVEL 


of  that  year  he  commanded  the  centre  at  Jemmapes, 
and  was,  says  Lamartine,  the  favourite  lieutenant  of 
Dumouriez,  the  general-in-chief.  Having  been  sum- 
moned to  appear  at  the  tribunal  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety  in  April,  1793,  he  escaped  across  the  Bel- 
gian frontier  with  Dumouriez,  in  whose  conspiracy  with 
the  Austrians  he  was  implicated.  He  afterwards  wan- 
dered as  an  exile  and  in  disguise  through  various  coun- 
tries and  strange  vicissitudes,  and  was  for  some  months 
(1794)  professor  in  the  College  of  Reichenau,  under  the 
name  of  M.  Chambaud.  In  1796  he  came  for  greater 
safety  to  the  United  States,  where  he  travelled  more  than 
a  year.  From  1800  until  1808  the  Duke  of  Orleans  re- 
sided in  England.  He  married  Maria  Amelia,  daughter 
of  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples,  in  1809.  At  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons  (1814)  he  returned  to  France,  and 
was  reinstated  in  his  hereditary  honours  and  possessions. 
When  the  escape  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba  became  known 
at  Paris,  Louis  XVIII.  appointed  the  Duke  of  Orleans 
commander  of  the  army  of  the  North ;  but  he  soon  re- 
signed this  place.  He  took  little  part  in  public  affairs 
until  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  had  dethroned  Charles 
X.,  and  a  provisional  government  was  formed,  under  the 
direction  of  La  Fayette,  Lafitte,  Guizot,  Thiers,  and  others. 
A  powerful  party  then  urged  the  claim  of  Louis  Philippe 
to  the  throne,  while  others  wished  a  republic.  The  scale 
appears  to  have  been  turned  by  La  Fayette,  (who  did  not 
consider  France  yet  prepared  for  a  republic,)  and  the 
crown  was  offered  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans  by  the  Deputies 
and  Peers,  on  the  9th  of  August,  and  accepted,  with  a 
remodelled  constitution.  The  king  called  into  his  cabi- 
net the  Due  de  Broglie,  Count  Mole,  M.  Guizot,  and 
Lafitte.  He  was  soon  after  recognized  by  the  great  powers 
Qf  Euro])e.  In  October,  1830,  M.  Lafitte  became  premier, 
and  in  March,  183 1,  was  superseded  by  Casimir  Perier. 
The  first  part  of  this  reign  was  disturbed  by  riots  and 
conspiracies  of  the  Carlists  and  republicans,  and  several 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  the  king.  In  October, 
1832,  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  of  which  Marshal  Soult 
was  premier  and  Guizot  and  Thiers  were  members,  the 
majority  being  Doctrinaires.  Frequent  changes  of  the 
ministry  afterwards  occurred,  by  which  Count  Mole,  the 
Due  de  Broglie,  Thiers,  and  Guizot  were  successively 
raised  to  the  olifice  of  prime  minister.  In  October,  1836, 
Louis  Napoleon  made  at  Strasbourg  an  abortive  attempt 
to  dethrone  Louis  Philippe,  for  which  he  was  banished  to 
the  United  States.  Louis  Philippe  followed  a  pacific  policy, 
and  waged  no  wars  against  the  great  European  powers ; 
but  his  army  made  important  conquests  in  Algeria.  His 
reign,  however,  though  successful,  was  not  generally 
popular.  It  was  stigmatized  as  reactionary,  tem])orizing, 
"egotistical."  The  peace  which  had  been  the  chief  meiit 
of  this  reign  was  at  last  imperilled  by  the  impolitic  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son,  the  Duke  of  Montpensier,  to  the 
eventual  heiress  of  the  Spanish  crown.  Electoral  reform 
became  the  rallying-cry  of  a  plan  of  agitation  concerted 
by  a  coalition  of  republicans,  Bonapartists,  and  royalist!) 
in  1847.  The  forcible  opposition  of  the  ministry  to  this 
open  agitation  at  reform  banquets  caused  a  collision  be- 
tween the  troops  and  the  Parisian  populace  on  February 
24,  1848.  Unwilling  to  authorize  a  great  slaughter  of 
the  people,  the  king  then  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
grandson.  Count  of  Paris;  but  the  republic  proclaimed 
by  Lamartine,  Arago,  and  others  prevailed.  Louis  Phi- 
lippe escaped  in  disguise  to  England,  where  he  was  kindly 
received.  He  died  at  Claremont,  England,  in  August, 
1850,  leaving  four  sons,  styled  the  Due  de  Nemours, 
the  Due  de  Montpensier,  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  and 
the  Due  d'Auniale. 

SeeBouDiN,  "  Histoirede  Louis  Philippe,"  1847;  I..  G.  Michaud, 
"The  Public  and  Private  Life  of  Louis  Philippe,"  in  French,  1S49; 
NouvioN,  "Viede  Louis  Philippe,"  1849;  G.  N.  Wright,  "The 
Life  and  Times  of  Louis  Philippe,"  1842;  Louis  Blanc,  "Histoire 
de  dix  Ans,"  (1830-40.)  Paris,  1842;  Alfred  E.  Douglas,  "Life 
and  Times  of  Louis  Philippe,  ex- Kingof  the  French,"  184S;  Guizot, 
"  Memoires  pour  servir  k  I'Histoire  de  mon  Temps;"  "  Nouvelle 
Bidgraphie  Gdnerale." 

Louis  Quatorze.     See  Louis  XIV. 

Louisa  (or  Luise)  Auguste  Wilhelmine  Amalie, 

Queen  of  Prussia,  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz,  was  born  at  Hanover  in  1776.  She  was 
married  in  1793  to  the  prince-roval,  who  in  1797  became 


King  Frederick  William  III.  After  becoming  the  mothei 
of  several  children,  she  died  in  1810.  Her  beauty  and 
accomplishments  are  highly  praised. 

See  Charlotte  Richardson,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Private  Life  of 
Louisa,  Queen  of  Prussia,"  1847;  J.  F.  Schink,  "Louise  Preus- 
sens  Schutzgeist,"  1817;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Louise  de  Lorraine,  loo'^z'  deh  lo'rin'.  Queen  of 
France,  born  in  1554,  was  the  daughter  of  Nicolas, 
Count  de  Vaudemont.  In  1575  she  was  married  to 
Henry  HI.,  who  treated  her  with  neglect.    Died  in  1601. 

Louise  de  Savoie,  loo'^z'  deh  st'vwi'.  Regent  of 
France,  born  at  Pont  d'Ain  in  1476,  was  the  daughter 
of  Philip,  Duke  of  Savoy.  She  married  Charles  of  Or- 
leans, and  had  a  son  who  became  king  as  Francis  I. 
On  his  departure  to  Italy,  in  1515,  he  appointed  her 
regent  of  the  kingdom.  She  caused  the  loss  of  the 
Milanese  by  appropriating  to  herself  the  money  destined 
to  pay  the  troops,  and  by  her  unjust  treatment  provoked 
Constable  Bourbon  to  join  the  enemy.  She  obtained 
the  regency  again  in  1524,  and  retained  it  during  the 
captivity  of  the  king.  In  1529  she  negotiated  with  Mar- 
garet of  Austria  the  treaty  of  Cambray  between  Francis 
I.  and  Charles  V.     Died  in  1532. 

See  Marillac,  "Vie  du  Conn^table  de  Bourbon  ;""  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Louise  d'Orleans,  loo'^z'  doR'li'fiN',  (Marie  Th6- 
RiSE  Caroline  Isabelle,)  Queen  of  Belgium,  born  at 
Palermo  in  1812,  was  a  daughter  of  Louis  Philippe  of 
France.  She  was  married  to  Leopold,  King  of  Belgium, 
in  1832.     Died  in  1850. 

SeeT.  Schellinck,  "  Een  Engel  in  den  Hemel  of  Leven  van  H. 
M.  Louise  Marie,"  etc.,  1850:  Morren,  "Heliotrope;  Immortality 
de  Louise  Marie,  Reine  des  Beiges,"  1850. 

Louise  (or  Luise)  Ulrike,  loo-ee'zeh  661're-k§h, 
Queen  of  Sweden,  born  at  Berlin  in  1720,  was  a  sister 
of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia.  She  became  ac- 
quainted with  Voltaire,  who  wrote  verses  in  praise  of 
her  agreeable  qualities.  In  1744  she  was  married  to 
Prince  Adolphus  Frederick,  who  became  king  in  1751. 
She  founded  an  Academy  of  Belles-Lettres  at  Stockholm 
in  1753.     Died  in  1782.     Gustavus  III.  was  her  son. 

Loup,  loo,  [Lat.  Serva'tus  Lu'pus,]  Abbe  of  Fer- 
rieres,  is  regarded  as  the  most  polished  writer  that 
France  produced  in  the  ninth  century.  He  was  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Sens  in  805.  He  was  employed  by  Charles 
the  Bald  in  important  missions,  and  corresponded  with 
the  most  eminent  men  of  his  time,  including  several 
kings.  His  letters  are  prized  for  the  light  they  throw 
on  the  events  of  that  period. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Loupolov,    See  Loopolof. 

Louptiere,  de  la,  deh  It  loo'te-aiR',  (Jean  Charles 
de  Relongue — reh-loNg',)  a  French  poet,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Sens  in  1727  ;  died  in  1784. 

Lourdoueix,  looR'doo'y,(SoPHiE  Tessier,)  a  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.  She  married  M. 
Lourdoueix,  an  editor  of  the  "  Gazette  de  France.'' 
Among  her  works  is  "The  Son  of  his  Works,"  ("  Le 
Fils  de  ses  CEuvres,"  2  vols.,  1845.)     Died  in  1859. 

Loureiro,  de,  di  lo-ra^-ro,  (Joao,)  a  Portuguese  bot- 
anist, born  about  171 5.  'He  practised  medicine  many 
years  in  Cochin  China  and  China,  and  returned  to  Por- 
tugal after  an  absence  of  thirty-six  years.  His  "  Flora 
of  Cochin  China"  (1790)  described  many  new  genera, 
and  was  esteemed  a  valuable  contribution  to  botanical 
science.     Died  in  1796. 

Loutherbourg,  loo't^RTjooR',  or  Lutherburg,  loo'- 
t§R-bo6RG',  (Philippe  Jacques,)  a  skilful  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Strasburg  about  1735,  was  a  pupii 
of  Casanova.  After  working  some  years  in  Paris,  he 
removed  in  1771  to  London,  where  he  painted  decora- 
tions for  the  Opera.  He  excelled  in  landscapes,  battle- 
pieces,  and  views  on  the  sea-coast.  His  execution  is 
remarkable  for  facility  and  vigour.  He  etched  some  of 
his  own  designs.     He  died  in  London  about  1812. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Louvard,  Ioo'vIr',  (Francois,)  a  French  Jansenist 
and  polemical  writer,  born  in  Maine  in  1661 ;  died  in  1739. 

Louvel,  loo'vSl',  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  assassin, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1783,  was  a  saddler  by  trade. 
Prompted  by  party  spirit  and  enmity  to  the  Bourbons, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, grtttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  *h  as  in  this. 

100 


(2®^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOUVERTURE 


1586 


LOVELACE 


he  assassinated  the  Due  de  Berry,  February  13,  1820. 
This  act  caused  great  political  excitement,  and  led  to  the 
resignation  of  the  prime  minister  Decazes.  Louvel  was 
executed  in  June,  1S20. 

Louvertxire.    See  Toussaint  L'Ouverture. 

Louvet,  loo'vi',  (Pierre,)  a' mediocre  French  histo- 
rian, born  at  Beauvais  in  161 7.  He  wrote  histories  of 
Languedoc,  Aquitaine,  and  Provence.    Died  about  1680. 

Louvet,  (Pierre,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  near 
Beauvais  about  1570;  died  in  1646. 

Louvet  de  Couvray,  loo'vi'  deh  koo'vRi',  (Jean 
Baptiste,)  a  French  Girondist  orator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1760.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
Decame  a  prominent  member  of  the  Girondist  party.  In 
October,  1792,  he  attacked  Marat  and  Robespierre  in  a 
bold  and  effective  speech.  He  was  proscribed  with  the 
Girondist  chiefs  about  June  i,  1793,  but  escaped  by  flight 
to  Normandy.  In  April,  1794,  he  entered  Paris,  where 
he  concealed  himself  until  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In 
1795  he  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Convention,  from  which 
he  passed  into  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  He  pro- 
duced several  successful  romances,  comedies,  and  polit- 
ical tracts.  Died  in  1797.  In  reference  to  the  above- 
named  speech,  which  is  inserted  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Girondists,"  Lamartine  says,  "Louvet  was  one  of  those 
men  whose  political  destiny  is  composed  of  a  single  day; 
but  this  day  conquers  futurity  for  them,  because  it  asso- 
ciates with  their  name  the  memory  of  a  sublime  talent 
and  a  sublime  courage." 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists ;"  Thiers,  " His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Louviers,  de,  deh  loo've-i',  (Charles  Jacques,)  a 
French  writer,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state  by  Charles  V.  in  1376.  He  is  supposed  to  be 
the  author  of  the  famous  "Dream  of  the  Orchardist," 
("Songe  du  Vergier,")  the  aim  of  which  is  to  prove  that 
the  pope  has  no  temporal  power  over  princes.  The  book 
is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue. 

Louville,  de,  deh  loo'vfel',  (Charles  Auguste  d'Al- 
lonville — dt'l^N'v^l',)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist, 
born  in  1668.  In  1701  he  was  chosen  gentleman  of  the 
chamber  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  afterwards  employed 
him  in  missions  to  Paris  and  Rome.     Died  in  1731. 

Louville,  de,  (Jacques  Eugene  d'Allonville,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  astronomer,  born  in  the  Chartrain 
in  1671,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  devoted 
himself  to  astronomy,  and  erected  an  observatory  near 
Orleans.  Having  been  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  he  contributed  to  it  "  New  Tables  of  the  Sun," 
"Observations  on  the  Obliquity  of  the  Ecliptic,"  etc. 
Died  in  1732. 

See  FoNTENELt.E,  "  £loge  de  M.  Louville." 

Louvois,  de,  deh  loo'vwi',  (Camille  Letellier,) 
Abb6,  born  in  Paris  in  1675,  was  a  son  of  the  celebrated 
minister  of  war.  He  was  included  by  Baillet  among  'he 
"enfants  celebres,"  and  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1706.  He  added  30,000  books  to  the  Royal 
Library.     Died  in  1 718. 

Louvois,  de.  Chevalier.  See  Estr^es,  d',  (Louis 
C6sAR  Letellier.) 

Louvois,  de,  (FRANgois  Michel  Letellier,)  Mar- 
quis, a  powerful  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris 
in  1641,  was  a  son  of  Michel  Letellier,  chancellor  of 
France.  In  1654  his  father,  who  was  then  secretary  of 
war,  obtained  the  reversion  of  that  office  for  Louvois, 
who,  having  qualified  himself  by  diligent  studies  and 
gained  the  favour  of  the  king,  became  sole  minister  of 
war  in  1666.  While  Colbert  managed  the  finances  and 
increased  the  resources  of  France,  Louvois  contributed 
greatly  to  the  military  successes  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
supplanted  Colbert  in  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  in- 
stigated Louis  to  persecute  the  Protestants.  By  the 
counsels  of  this  unscrupulous  and  haughty  minister,  who 
was  then  extremely  powerful,  the  edict  of  Nantes  was 
revoked  in  1685,  and  the  Palatinate  was  wasted  by  fire 
and  sword  in  1689.  The  atrocity  of  the  latter  measure 
excited  general  horror.  His  insolence  at  last  exhausted 
the  patience  of  the  king.  In  1691  Louvois  excited  the 
anger  of  Louis  by  proposing  to  burn  Treves,  and  would 
have  been  dismissed  if  he  had  not  died  suddenly  in  the 
same   year.      He   is   censured   for    having   caused   the 


derangement  of  the  finances,  and  for  fomentmg  the  ag- 
gressive martial  ambition  of  his  master.  "He  was  the 
greatest  adjutant-general,  the  greatest  quartermaster- 
general,  the  greatest  commissary-general,"  says  Macau- 
lay,  "that  Europe  had  seen.  He  may,  indeed,  be  said 
to  have  made  a  revolution  in  the  art  of  disciplining,  dis- 
tributing, equipping,  and  provisioning  armies."  His 
son,  the  Marquis  of  Barbesieux,  was  his  successor  as 
minister  of  war. 

See  Chamlav,  "M^moires  pour  servir  i  I'Histjire  du  Marquis 
de  Louvois;"  Saint-Simon,  "  M^iiioires  ;"  Dangeau,  "Journal;" 
Voltaire,  "  Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Hiitoire  des  Fran- 
gais  ;"  "Nouvelle  liiographie  G^n^rale." 

Louvrex,  de,  deh  loo'vRi',  (Mathias  Guillaume,) 
a  Belgian  jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Liege  in  1665  ; 
died  in  1734. 

Lovat,  liiv'at,  (Simon  Fraser,)  Lord,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite  conspirator,  born  near  Inverness  about  1676. 
At  the  death  of  Lord  Lovat,  who  was  chief  of  the  Fraser 
clan,  Simon  Fraser  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain 
the  title  and  estates.  To  evade  the  penalty  of  some 
crime,  he  passed  over  to  France  about  1700,  and  turned 
a  Roman  Catholic.  Having  entered  the  service  of  the 
Pretender,  he  was  sent  to  Scotland  in  1702  to  incite  the 
Highlanders  to  rebellion  ;  but  he  betrayed  his  trust,  and 
acted  the  part  of  informer  agai-nst  the  Jacobites.  For 
this  offence  he  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  several  years. 
In  1715  Fraser  fought  against  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  at 
Inverness,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  estates  of  the 
Erasers  and  the  title  of  Lord  Lovat.  In  the  rebellion 
of  1745  he  was  detected  in  treasonable  acts  against  Kinp 
George,  for  which  he  was  executed  in  London  in  1747. 

See  Arbuthnot,  "Life  of  Simon  Fraser,"  1746;  Foster,  "Me- 
moirs of  Lord  Lovat,"  1746  ;  "Memoirs  of  Lord  Lovat,"  by  him- 
self, 1797  ;  John  Hill  Burton,  "  Lives  of  Lord  Lovat  and  Duncar 
Forbes,"  1846;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1847. 

Love,  liiv,  (Christopher,)  a  Presbyterian  theologian, 
was  born  at  Cardiff,  Wales,  in  1618.  He  began  to 
preach  in  London  in  1644,  after  which  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
I.,  he  entered  into  a  conspiracy  called  Love's  Plot,  the 
design  of  which  was  to  restore  Charles  II.  For  this 
cause  he  was  executed  in  August,  1651.  His  Sermons, 
and  other  works,  were  published  in  three  volumes. 

Love,  (James.)  the  assumed  name  of  a  dramatist  and 
actor,  who  was  a  son  of  Mr.  Dance,  a  London  architect. 
A  satire  against  Walpole  having  appeared  under  the 
title  "Are  these  Things  so.''"  he  wrote  an  answer,  en- 
titled "Yes,  they  are:  What  then  ?"  for  which  Walpole 
gave  him  a  present.  He  acted  at  Drury  Lane  from  1762 
until  his  death,  and  wrote  "  Pamela,"  and  other  come- 
dies.    Died  in  1774. 

Loveira.     See  Lobeira. 

Love'joy,  (luv'joi,)  (Elijah  P.,)  an  American  clergy- 
man and  opponent  of  slavery,  born  at  Albion,  in  Maine, 
in  1802,  graduated  at  Waterville  in  1826.  He  began  to 
edit  at  Alton,  Illinois,  about  1836,  an  anti-slavery  paper, 
called  "The  Alton  Observer."  His  press  was  twice  de- 
stroyed by  a  pro-slavery  mob.  While  defending  his 
premises  at  Alton  against  a  third  attack,  he  was  sho*- 
and  mortally  wounded,  in  November,  1837. 

Lovejoy,  (Owen,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Albion,  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  181 1.  He 
was  employed  as  minister  of  a  Congregational  church  at 
Princeton,  Illinois,  from  1S3S  to  1854,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  Republicans  of  the  third 
district  of  Illinois  in  1856.  He  was  re-elected  in  1858, 
i860,  and  1862.  He  was  a  radical  opponent  of  slavery. 
Died  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  March,  1864. 

Love'lace,  (Ada  Augusta  Byron,)  Countess  of, 
the  only  child  of  the  poet  Lord  Byron,  was  born  in  181 5. 
She  was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Lovelace,  who  was  a  son 
of  Lord  Peter  King.     Died  in  1852. 

Lovelace,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Kent 
in  1618.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil  war,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  Having  spent  his  fortune 
in  the  royal  cause,  he  entered  the  French  service  in 
1646.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1648,  he  was  impris- 
oned for  political  reasons.  In  1649  he  was  released, 
and  published  a  volume  of  poems,  consisting  of  odes, 
sonnets,  etc.,  addressed  to  "  Lucasta."  Some  of  these  are 
admired  for  grace  and  vigour.     He  died  poor  in  1658. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  \,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good ;  moon : 


LOVELL 


1587 


LOWELL 


Lovell.  luv'el,  (Mansfield,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  October  20, 
1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  lived  in 
New  York  city  when  the  civil  war  began.  In  October, 
1861,  he  took  command  of  the  disunion  army  at  New 
Orleans.  After  the  Union  fleet  had  passed  the  forts 
below  the  city,  he  evacuated  New  Orleans,  which  he 
transferred  to  the  custody  of  the  mayor  on  the  25th  or 
26th  of  April,  1862.     Died  in  New  York,  June  i,  1884. 

Lover,  luv'er,  (Samuel,)  an  Irish  novelist,  poet,  and 
painter,  born  in  Dublin  in  1797.  He  acquired  in  his  youth 
a  good  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter,  and  afterwards 
became  a  successful  author.  Besides  numerous  ballads 
and  dramas,  he  produced  "  Legends  and  Stories  of  Ire- 
land," and  a  novel  entitled  "  Handy  Andy,"  (1842,)  and 
"  Rory  O'Moore,"  a  song.  Among  his  later  publications 
is  "Metrical  Tales,  and  other  Poems,"  (iSsjo.)  Died  in 
July,  1868. 

Lovering,  liiv'er-ing,  (Joseph,)  born  in  Charlestown, 
Massachusetts,  December  25, 1813,  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1833,  and  in  1838  was  made  professor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  that  college.  He 
published  a  great  number  of  scientific  memoirs,  etc. 

Lov'i-bond,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet,  was  born 
in  Middlesex,  and  inherited  an  easy  fortune.  He  con- 
tributed several  essays  to  "The  World,"  a  popular  pe- 
riodical, and  was  the  author  of  various  poems,  among 
which  "The  Tears  of  Old  May-Day"  (1754)  is  highly 
praised.     Died  in  1775. 

Lo villi.     See  Luinl 

Lovir,  (George,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born  in  Forfar- 
shire in  1746.  He  became  a  clergj-man  in  Pomona,  one 
of  the  Orkney  Isles,  in  1774.  He  wrote  "Fauna  Or- 
cadensis,"  (1813,)  which  treats  of  the  animals  of  the 
Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles.     Died  in  1795. 

Low,  (W^ill  Hicok,)  an  American  artist,  born  at 
Albany,  New  York,  May  31,  1853,  studied  in  Europe, 
1873-77,  under  C.  Duran  and  J.  L.  Gerome.  He  became 
a  teacher  of  life  and  antique  drawing  in  the  National 
Academy,  New  York.  Among  his  pictures  are  "  Rev- 
erie," (1876,)  a  portrait  of  Emma  Albani,  (1877,)  "Skip- 
per Ireson,"  (1881,)  "Arcades,"  (1882,)  and  "Telling  the 
Bees,"  (1884.)  He  also  attained  distinction  as  a  deco- 
rator and  illustrator. 

LSw'der,  (Charles  Fuge,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Bath,  June  22,  1820.  He  was  educated  at  King's 
College,  London,  and  at  E.xeter  College,  Oxford,  grad- 
uating in  1843.  H^  ^^^^  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  in  1844.  His  principal  work  was  that  of 
a  missionary  in  the  East  of  London,  in  which  region  he 
accomplished  much  good.  He  was  an  extreme  ritualist. 
Died  at  Zell-am-See,  Tyrol,  September  9,  1880. 

Lowe  or  Loe'we,  lo'^eh,  the  name  of  a  German 
femily,  distinguished  in  various  dejjartments  of  art. 
August  Leopold  Lowe,  born  at  Schwedt  in  1767,  was 
the  composer  of  a  popular  opera  entitled  "The  Island 
of  Temptation."  Died  in  1816.  His  son  Ferdinand, 
born  in  1787,  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  tragedian. 
Died  in  1832.  His  daughter  Sophie,  born  in  1815, 
became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  vocalists  in  Germany. 
She  was  married  about  1840  to  Prince  Frederick  of 
Liechtenstein.  Died  November  29,  1866.  Her  brother, 
Francis  Louis  Feodor,  (born  in  1816,  died  in  1890,) 
distinguished  himself  as  an  actor  and  a  poet.  Julia 
Lowe,  aunt  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1790,  was  very 
successful  as  an  actress  at  Vienna.     She  died  about  1850. 

Lo'we,  15,  (Sir  Hudson,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Ireland  about  1770.  He  served  many  campaigns  in 
Egypt,  Italy,  Germany,  etc.,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  1814.  In  1815  he  was  selected  to  be 
the  jailer  of  Bonaparte  in  Saint  Helena.  He  was  cen- 
sured by  many  French  and  English  writers  for  arbitrary, 
rude,  and  illiberal  treatment  of  the  captive,  who  in  1816 
refused  to  see  him  or  have  any  further  intercourse  with 
him.     Died  in  1844, 

See  a  "  History  of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon,  from  the  Letters 
of  Sir  Hudson  Lowe,"  etc.,  by  W.  Forsyth,  4  vols.,  1S53. 

Lowe,  (Johann  Karl  Gottfried,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  near  Halle  in  1796.  His  works  include 
operas,  sonatas,  ballads,  and  oratorios :  of  the  last  we 
may  name  "The  Seven  Sleeoers."     Died  in  1869. 


Loy^re,  (Peter,)  a  Scottish  medical  writer,  practised 
medicine  in  Paris.  He  wrote  a  "  Discourse  on  Chi- 
rurgery,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1612. 

Lowe,  (Robert,)  an  English  financier  and  eminent 
orator,  born  at  Bingham  in  1811.  He  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford in  1833,  and  practised  as  a  barrister  in  Australia 
from  1843  to  1850.  In  1852  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Kidderminster.  He  was  appointed  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  education  board  in  1859,  but  was  removed  a 
few  years  later.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Adullamites, 
(nominal  Liberals,  who  opposed  the  Reform  Bill  of  Rus- 
sell and  Gladstone  in  1866,)  and  was  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  brilliant  debaters  in  Parliament.  He  supported 
Gladstone's  motion  for  the  disestablishment  of  the  An- 
glican Church  in  Ireland,  and  held  the  office  of  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  from  1868  to  1873,  when  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Home  OflSce.  He  was  created  LL.D. 
of  Edinburgh  in  1867,  and  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  in  1870. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  Univer- 
sity of  London  in  November,  1868.  In  1880  he  received 
the  title  of  Viscount  Sherbrooke. 

Low'ell,  (Charles,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  a  son 
of  Judge  Lowell,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1782.  He  became  minister  of  the  West  Congregational 
Church  in  that  city  about  1806.  He  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Europe  and  the  East,  returning  home  in  1840. 
Among  his  publications  are  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
(1855.)     Died  January  20,  1861. 

Lowell,  (Colonel  Charles  Russell,)  an  American 
officer,  born  in  Boston  in  1835,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
poet,  J.  R.  Lowell.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1854 
with  the  first  honours.  He  served  as  captain  of  cavalry 
in  the  peninsular  campaign  in  1862,  and  commanded 
a  body  of  cavalry  which  protected  Washington  in  the 
summer  of  1863,  after  which  he  served  under  General 
Sheridan  and  commanded  a  brigade.  He  had  thirteen 
horses  shot  under  him.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Cedar  Creek,  Virginia,  October  19,  1864.  He  was  a 
young  man  of  great  promise. 

Lo'well,  (Francis  Cabot,)  brother  of  John  Lowrll, 
(the  second  of  the  name,)  born  at  Newburyport  in  1775, 
was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the  city  of  Lowell, 
to  which  he  gave  his  name.  He  was  a  merchant  and 
manufacturer  of  cotton.     Died  in  181 7. 

Lo^well,  (James  Russell,)  a  distinguished  American 
poet,  critic,  and  scholar,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Charles 
Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born  February  22,  1819. 
Having  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1838,  he  entered  the 
law  school  uf  that  institution,  where  he  remained  two 
years,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841  ;  but  he  soon 
abandoned  the  profession,  that  he  might  devote  himself 
wholly  to  literature.  He  published  in  1844  a  volume 
of  poems  containing  a  "  Legend  of  Brittany,"  "  Pro- 
metheus," and  a  number  of  smaller  pieces.  In  1848 
appeared  a  second  collection  of  poems,  and  in  a  small 
volume  (separately)  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal."  In 
the  same  year  he  also  published  the  "Biglovv  Papers," 
a  witty  and  humorous  satire,  written  in  the  "Yankee" 
dialect,  on  the  events  of  the  Mexican  war,  and  a  "Fable 
for  Critics,"  a  charmingy'^^  d'esprit,  which,  in  the  words 
of  Professor  Bowen,  is  "a  very  witty  review  article  done 
into  rhyme."*  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  best 
parts  of  this  poem  (which,  by  the  way,  is  very  unequal) 
are  scarcely  surpassed  either  in  wit  or  in  felicity  of  ex- 
pression by  anything  of  a  similar  kind  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. In  the  summer  of  185 1  Mr.  Lowell  visited  Europe, 
and  returned  home  after  an  absence  of  somewhat  more 
than  a  year.  In  the  winter  of  1854-55  he  delivered  in 
Boston  a  very  popular  course  of  lectures  on  the  British 
poets.  Professor  Longfellow  having,  in  1854,  resigned 
the  chair  of  the  modern  languages  and  belles-lettres  at 
Harvard,  Mr.  Lowell  was  appointed  his  successor  in 
January,  1855.  On  the  establishment  of  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  in  1857,  Professor  Lowell  became  the  editor, — 
a  position  which  he  held  about  five  years, — and  under 
his  auspices  this  magazine  acquired  a  wide  and  deserved 
popularity.  Among  his  noteworthy  poetical  produc- 
tions we  may  mention  "  Under  the  Willows,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1869,)  and  "The  Cathedral,"  (1870.)     Besides 


*  See  "  North  American  Review"  for  January.  1849. 


eas.t;  gasj;  ghard;  g2is  j;  G,H,K, guttural;  a, nasal;  R,  trilled;  sass;  thasin/'/4w.     (2i:^="See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


L  O  WELL 


isSS 


LOWITZ 


the  various  collections  of  his  poems  referred  to  above, 
he  published  several  volumes  of  his  jjrose  writings,  en- 
titled "Among  my  Books,"  (1S70;  second  series,  1876,) 
and  "My  Study  Windows,"  (1871.) 

Among  the  poets  of  America,  Lowell  is  distinguished 
by  the  great  range,  as  well  as  by  the  versatility,  of  his 
powers.  He  seems  equally  at  home  in  the  playful,  the 
pathetic,  or  the  meditative  realms  of  poetry.  And  we 
always  rise  from  the  perusal  of  his  productions  with  the 
impression  that  he  has  not  put  forth  all  his  strength,  but 
that  something  still  higher  would  not  have  been  beyond 
the  reach  of  his  genius.  In  1877  he  was  appointed 
United  .States  minister  to  Spain,  and  from  1879  until  his 
removal  by  President  Cleveland  in  1885  he  was  minister 
to  England.  In  1S83  he  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  St. 
Andrew's  University,  and  while  in  England  he  received 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  Universities  of  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  and  Edinburgh.     Died  August  12,  1891. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

LoTwell,  (John,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1743.  He  began  to 
practise  law  in  Boston  about  1777.  As  a  member  of  the 
convention  whfch  formed  the  Constitution  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1780,  he  efficiently  promoted  the  liberation  of 
slaves  held  in  that  State.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1781,  and  appointed  a  judge  of  the  dis- 
trict court  of  Massachusetts  in  1789.  He  had  three 
sons,  John,  Francis  C,  and  Charles.  Died  at  Roxbury 
in  1802. 

Lo'well,  (John,)  an  able  lawyer  and  political  writer, 
born  at  Newburyport  in  October,  1769,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1786, 
practised  law  at  Boston,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
About  1803  he  visited  Europe.  He  was  a  Federalist, 
wrote  much  for  the  public  journals,  and  exerted  great 
influence  in  New  England,  but  declined  to  enter  the 
public  service.  He  published  twenty-five  or  more  pam- 
phlets, mostly  political,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Boston  Athenffium  and  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  colloquial  powers. 
Died  at  Boston  in  1840. 

Lowell,  (John,)  the  founder  of  Lowell  Institute,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1799,  and  was  a  son 
of  Francis  Cabot  Lowell,  noticed  above.  Having  lost 
his  wife  and  children  about  i83i,he  travelled  extensively 
in  Europe,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  He  died  at  Bombay  in 
March,  1836,  leaving  by  his  will  about  1^250,000  to  main- 
tain in  Boston  annual  courses  of  gratuitous  lectures  on 
various  subjects. 

Lowell,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Boston,  October  18,  1824,  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1843,  ^^^s  a  United  States  district  court  judge,  1S65-78, 
and  a  United  States  circuit  court  judge  for  Massachusetts, 
1878-84.  He  published  two  volumes  of  United  States 
Reports,  and  wrote  especially  upon  bankruptcy. 

Lowell,  (Maria  White,)  an  American  poetess,  the 
wife  of  James  Russell  Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Watertown,  Massachusetts,  in  1821.  She  was  married 
to  Mr.  Lowell  in  1844.  She  died  in  1853.  She  is 
described  as  having  been  singularly  beautiful  both  in 
person  and  character.  A  volume  of  her  poems  appeared 
in  1855. 

See  Griswold's  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Lowell,  (Mary.)     See  Putnam,  (Mrs.  Mary.) 

Lowell,  (Robert  Traill  Spence,)  son  of  the  Rev. 
Charles  Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1816.  He  was  ordained  a  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  1842,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of 
Christ  Church,  Duanesburg,  New  York.  He  published 
a  novel  entitled  "The  New  Priest  in  Conception  Bay," 
and  a  collection  of  poems      Died  September  12,  1891. 

Lbweu  or  Loewen,  16'^en,  (Johann  Friedrich,) 
a  German  poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Klausthal 
in  1729  ;  died  in  1771. 

Lbwendahl  or  Loewendahl,  16'<^en-dSl',  written 
also  Loevendahl,  (Ulrich  Friedrich  Woldemar,) 
a  celebrated  general,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1700,  was 
a  great-grandson  of  Frederick  HI.  of  Denmark.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Russia  in  the  reign  of  Anne,  about 
1736,  and  as  general  of  artillery  gained  victories  over  the 


Turks  and  Tartars.  In  1743  he  passed  into  the  French 
service  as  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1745  commanded 
the  reserve  corps  at  Fontenoy.  As  second  in  command 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  he  took  many  towns  in  Flanders 
in  the  same  year.  For  the  capture  of  Bergen-op-Zoom, 
in  1747,  he  was  rewarded  with  a  marshal's  baton.  He 
died  in  1755. 

See  Carl  C.  Rothe,  "  Grev  von  Loevendals  Liv  og  Levnet,' 
1750;  M.  Ranft,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  des  Grafen  von  Lowenthal " 
1754;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Low^enhaupt  or  Loew^enhaupt,  lo'^en-howpt', 
(Adam  Louis,)  Count,  a  skilful  Swedish  general,  born 
in  1659.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Riga  in  1706. 
On  his  march  to  join  the  army  of  Charles  XII.,  who  had 
invaded  Russia,  he  was  attacked  by  the  Czar  Peter  at 
Liesna  in  1708,  and  lost  about  4000  men,  but  pursued 
his  course.  He  displayed  great  courage  at  Pultowa, 
July,  1 709,  and  when  Charles  fled  to  Turkey  the  command 
of  the  Swedish  army  devolved  on  Lowenhaupt,  who  was 
forced  to  capitulate  in  1709.  He  was  kept  as  a  prisoner 
in  Russia  until  his  death,  in  17 19. 

LoTvenhaupt  or  Loe^v^enhaupt,  von,  fon  lo'^en- 
howpt',  (Carl  Emil,)  Count,  a  Swedish  general,  born 
in  1692.  War  having  been  declared  against  Russia,  he 
was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  an  army  sent  to  invade 
Finland  in  1742.  His  success  was  hindered  by  dissen- 
sions among  the  Swedish  officers,  and  he  surrendered 
at  Helsingfors,  in  September,  1742.  The  anti-war  party 
having  become  dominant,  he  was  tried  for  that  reverse, 
and  executed  in  1743. 

Lowenhielm  or  Loewenhielm,  lo'wen-he-&lm', 
(Carl  Gustaf,)  Count  of,  a  Swedish  statesman,  was 
the  chief  of  the  party  of  "Caps."  His  party  having 
gained  the  ascendency  in  1765,  he  was  then  made  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs.  He  wrote  several  memoirs  for 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.     Died  in  1768. 

Lowenhielm  or  Loew^enhielm,  (Gustaf  Carl 
Frederik,)  Count  of,  a  Swedish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1771.  He  served  in  the  army,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  general.  He  represented  Sweden  at  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  (1814,)  and  was  Swedish  minister 
at  the  court  of  Paris  from  1818  until  1856.  He  wrote 
several  military  treatises,  and  a  remarkable  work  on  the 
organization  of  government.     Died  in  1856. 

Lbwenklau.    See  Leunclavius. 

Lowenthal,  lo'^en-tll,  (John  Jacob,)  a  celebrated 
Hungarian  chess-player  and  writer  on  the  game,  born  in 
1810,  at  Buda-Pesth.  He  went  to  London  in  1851  to 
partake  in  a  chess  tournament,  and  from  that  time  perma- 
nently resided  in  England.  He  published  "  Morphy's 
Games,"  "Book  of  the  Chess  Congress,"  (1864,)  and 
"Transactions  of  the  British  Chess  Association,"  (1867- 
69.)     Died  July  20,  1S76. 

Lower,  low'er,  (Mark  Anthony,)  an  English  anti- 
quarian writer,  born  at  Chiddingly,  Sussex,  in  1813  ; 
died  March  22,  1S76. 

LSw'er,  (Richard,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
anatomist,  born  in  Cornwall  about  1630.  He  became  a 
friend  and  coadjutor  of  Dr.  Willis,  whom  he  assisted  in 
his  work  on  the  "  Anatomy  of  the  Brain."  In  1661  he 
confirmed  the  Harveian  theory  by  experiments  on  the 
transfusion  of  blood.  He  practised  medicine  in  London 
many  years,  and  WTOte,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Heart,  on  the  Motion  of  the  Blood,"  etc  Died 
in  1691. 

Low^er,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Cornwall ;  died  in  1662. 

Lovrltz,  lo'^its,  (Georg  Moritz,)  a  German  astrono- 
mer, born  near  Nuremberg  in  1722.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Gottingen  about  1755,  and  was 
afterwards  director  of  the  observatory  at  that  place.  In 
1766  he  removed  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  by  which  he  was  employed 
in  astronomical  observations.  He  was  killed  by  some 
rebels  at  Dmetriefsk  in  1774.  He  had  written  several 
memoirs  on  astronomy. 

His  son  Tobias,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1757,  became 
one  of  the  most  eminent  members  of  the  Imperial  Acad- 
emy of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  professor  of  chemistry. 
Died  in  1804. 


a,  e,T,6,ii,y,/o«_^;i,t,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \i,y,s/tort;a.,  e,\,q,obsaere;  fdr,  fJU,  fit;  mht;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LOWMAN 


1589 


LUBBERT 


Low'man,  (Moses,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  London  in  16S0.  About  1710  he  settled  at  Clapham, 
where  he  preached  many  years  to  a  congregation  of  Dis- 
senters. He  wrote  a  "  Rationale  of  the  Ritual  of  the 
Hebrew  Worship,"  and  ether  works.     Died  in  1752. 

Lowiides,  lowndz,  (Rawlins,)  born  in  the  British 
West  Indies  in  1722,  settled  at  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, where  he  rose  to  eminence  as  a  statesman  and  law- 
yer. He  was  elected  president  or  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1778.     Died  in  1800. 

Lo-wndes,  (William  Jones,)  an  eminent  American 
statesman,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  on  the  7th  of  February,  1782.  He 
studied  law,  and  married  a  daughter  of  General  Thomas 
Pinckney.  In  1810  or  1811  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  for  a  district  of  South  Carolina.  He  was  an 
eloquent  debater,  and  was  eminent  for  his  wisdom  and 
logical  acumen.  He  is  said  to  have  been  modest  and 
unambitious.  He  continued  to  serve  in  Congress  about 
eleven  years,  and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of 
ways  and  means  from  1818  to  1822.  It  appears  that  he 
was  a  general  favourite,  and  was  reputed  to  stand  in  the 
first  rank  of  American  statesmen.  His  health  having 
failed,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  but  died  on  the  voyage  in 
October,  1822. 

See  "  Encyc'iopjedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Lowndes,  (William  Thomas,)  an  English  bibliog- 
rapher, lived  in  London.  He  published,  about  1834, 
"  The  Bibliographer's  Manual,"  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1843. 

Low'ry,  (Wilson,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born 
at  Whitehaven  in  1762,  became  a  resident  of  London. 
He  contributed  to  the  perfection  of  his  art  by  several 
important  inventions,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation, 
especially  as  an  engraver  of  architecture  and  mechanism, 
in  which  he  was  unsurpassed.  He  engraved  many  figures 
for  Rees's  "Cyclopaedia."     Died  in  1824. 

Lowth,  low^h,  (Robert,)  an  English  bishop  and  emi- 
nent writer,  born  at  Winchester  in  17 10,  was  the  son  of 
William  Lowth,  noticed  below.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, and  became  eminent  as  a  biblical  scholar.  Having 
been  chosen  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford,  (1741,)  he 
delivered  "  Lectures  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  (in 
Latin,)  which  were  published  in  1753,  and  often  reprinted. 
This  work  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  most  eminent 
critics.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in 
1766,  translated  to  the  see  of  Oxford  in  the  same  year, 
and  to  that  of  London  in  1777.  Among  his  most  impor- 
tant works  is  an  excellent  "Translation  of  the  Prophet 
Isaiah,"  (1778.)     Died  in  1787. 

See  P.  Hall,  "Life  of  Bishop  Lowth,"  1834  ;  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  of  Robert  Lowth,"  London,  1797;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
February  and  March,  1779,  and  April,  1780. 

Lo'wth,  (  Simon,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1630.  He  was  vicar  of  Saints 
Cosmas  and  Damian-on-the-Blean.  He  published  "  Let- 
ters between  Dr.  G.  Burnet  and  Simon  Lowth,"  (1684,) 
and  other  writings.     Died  in  1720. 

Lowth,  (William,)  a  scholar  and  commentator,  the 
father  of  Robert,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  London  in 
1661.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
and  became  rector  of  Buriton  about  1700.  He  wrote 
several  highly  esteemed  works,  among  which  are  "  Di- 
rections for  the  Profitable  Reading  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures," (1708,)  and  a  "Commentary  on  the  Four  Greater 
Prophets,"  (4  vols.,  1714-26.)     Died  in  1732. 

Lowther,  (William.)     See  Lonsdale,  Earl  of. 

Loyd,  loid,  (Lewis,)  an  English  banker,  born  in  1768. 
He  was  a  partner  of  the  banking-house  of  Jones,  Loyd 
&  Co.,  London,  and  was  distinguished  as  a  financier.  He 
died  in  1858.  His  son,  Samuel  J.  Loyd,  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Overstone. 

Loyer,  Le,  leh  Iwi'yi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  in  Anjou  in  1550,  was  learned  in  antiquities  and 
Oriental  languages.  He  wrote  a  curious  work  on  de- 
monology,  entitled  "  On  Spectres,  Angels,  and  Demons 
distinctly  manifesting  themselves  to  Men,"  ("Quatres 
Livres  des  Spectres,  Anges  et  Demons  se  montrant  sen- 
siblementaux  Hommes,")  and  other  works.  Died  in  1634. 

Loyola,  loi-o'la,  [Sp.  pron.  lo-yo'ld,]  (Ignatius,) 
originally  Don  Inigo  Lopez  de  Recalde,  (di  ri-kSKdi,) 


often  called  Saint  Ignatius,  (ig-ua'she-us ;)  [Fr.  Saint- 
IgnaCE,  s^N'tin'yts';  It.  Sant'  IgnazTo,  sant  in-yit'- 
se-o,]  a  celebrated  Spanish  reformer,  and  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Loyola  Castle,  in  Biscay,  in  1491.  He  received  from 
nature  an  ardent,  imaginative  temperament,  and  in  youth 
was  the  very  prototype  of  the  hero  of  Cervantes,  an 
enthusiastic  votary  of  chivalrous  romance.  After  signal- 
izing his  gallantry  in  several  campaigns,  he  received 
about  1520,  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  a  wound  which 
made  him  a  cripple  for  life.  During  the  tedious  con- 
finement which  followed,  his  attention  was  directed  to 
the  mysteries  of  religion.  Ascribing  his  recovery  to  a 
miracle  of  grace,  he  dedicated  himself  to  arduous  re 
iigious  enterprises  and  to  the  service  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gm.  He  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  renowned 
for  his  penances  and  vigils.  In  1523  he  performed  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  from  which  he  returned  to 
Spain  in  1524.  He  passed  several  ensuing  years  at  Al- 
cala  and  Salamanca  in  the  study  of  grammar,  philosophy, 
etc.,  which  he  had  neglected  to  learn  in  his  youth.  In 
1528  he  became  a  student  in  the  University  of  Paris, 
where  he  found  several  congenial  spirits,  among  whom 
were  Francis  Xavier  and  James  Lainez.  With  these  he 
formed  in  1534  a  religious  society  devoted  to  the  educa- 
tion of  youth,  the  renovation  of  the  Catholic  Ciiurch, 
and  the  conversion  of  the  infidels. 

After  they  had  digested  the  polity  and  peculiar  maxims 
of  the  new  order,  Paul  III.  gave  it  his  formal  sanction 
in  1540,  and  Loyola  was  chosen  superior  or  general 
(with  absolute  power)  of  the  order,  which  was  styled  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  Loyola  thenceforth  remained  in  Rome, 
and  witnessed  the  extraordinary  success  of  his  efforts. 
"Under  his  rule,"  says  Macaulay,  "the  order  grew 
rapidly  to  the  full  measure  of  its  gigantic  powers.  With 
what  vehemence,  with  what  policy,  with  what  exact 
discipline,  with  what  dauntless  courage,  with  what  self- 
denial,  with  what  unscrupulous  laxity  and  versatility  in 
the  choice  of  means,  the  Jesuits  fought  the  battles  of 
their  Church,  is  written  in  every  page  of  the  annals  of 
Europe  during  several  generations.  In  the  Order  of 
Jesus  was  concentrated  the  quintessence  of  the  Catholic 
spirit;  and  the  history  of  the  Order  of  Jesus  is  the 
history  of  the  great  Catholic  reaction.  This  order  pos- 
sessed itself  at  once  of  all  the  strongholds  which  com- 
mand the  public  mind, — of  the  pulpit,  of  the  press,  of 
the  confessional,  of  the  academies.  .  .  .  Nor  was  it  less 
their  office  to  plot  against  the  thrones  and  lives  of  apos- 
tate kings,  to  spread  evil  rumours,  to  raise  tumults,  to 
inflame  civil  wars,  to  arm  the  hand  of  the  assassin." 
(See  Review  of  Ranke's  "History  of  the  Popes.")  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  that  Loyola  was  responsible 
for  the  corruptions  referred  to  in  the  above  quotation. 
His  chief  work  is  "Spiritual  Exercises,"  ("  Exercicios 
espirituales,"  1548,)  in  which  he  gives  rules  and  counsels 
for  the  guidance  of  believers.  He  died  in  1556,  and  was 
canonized  as  a  saint  by  the  pope  in  1622. 

See  RiBADENEiRA,  "  Vida  de  S.  Ignazio,"  1570;  G.  P.  MaffeIj 
"De  Vita  et  Moribus  Ignatii  Loyolae,"  15S4;  Stein,  "Vita  Ignatii 
Loyolje,"  1598;  P.  Bouhours,  "  Vie  de  Saint-Ignace,"  1679;  BoM- 
bina,  "Vita  S.  Ignalii,"  1615;  M.  Wai.pols,  "  Life  of  Saint  Igna- 
tius," 1617;  Isaac  Taylor,  "  Life  of  Ignatius  Loyola;"  Bartoli, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Societe  de  Ji^sus  ;"  Gretser,  "  Apologia  pro  Vita 
S.  Ignatii,"  1599-1604  ;  Genei.i.i,  "  Leben  des  Ignatius  von  Loyola," 
1S4S;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824. 

Loyseau.     See  Loiseau. 

Loyseau,  Iwi'zo',  (Charles,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Nogent-le-Roi  in  1566;  died  in  1627. 

Loysel.    See  Loisel. 

Loyson,  (Charles.)     See  Hyacinthe. 

Loyson,  Iwi'zAN',  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Mayenne  in  1791,  was  maitre  des  confirences  in  the 
Normal  School.  He  published,  in  1819,  a  volume  of 
elegies  and  epistles,  which  abound  with  beautiful  verses. 
"He  approaches  Lamartine,"  says  Sainte-Beuve,  "in 
elevation  and  spiritualisme  of  sentiments."    Died  in  1820. 

Lu'a,  [from  hio,  to  "purge"  or  "purify,"]  a  Roman 
goddess,  who  presided  over  things  purified  by  lustra- 
tions.    By  some  she  is  identified  with  Ops  or  Rhea. 

Lubbert,  liib'bert,  orLuthbert,  liit'bgRt,  (Sibrand,) 
a  learned  Dutch  Calvinist,  born  in  Friesland  about  1555. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  divinity  at  Franeker, 
and  was  deputed  to  the  Synod  of  Dort  about  1618.    He 


€  as  k;  9  as  .f;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G  H,  Vi,guttut  -./;  N,  ?iasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     { Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LUBBOCK 


^59° 


LUCAS 


wrote  controversial  works  against  Socinus,  Arminr.is, 
and  Grotius.     Died  in  1625. 

Lub'bpck,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  banker  and  savant, 
a  son  of  Sir  John  William,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
London  in  1834.  In  1870  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
as  a  Liberal  from  Maidstone.  Besides  several  scientific 
memoirs,  he  is  the  author  of  two  important  works,  "  Pre- 
historic Times,"  (1865,)  and  "The  Origin  of  Civilization  ; 
or,  The  Primitive  Condition  of  Man,"  {1870.) 

Lubbock,  (Sir  John  William,)  Bart.,  an  English 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  in  London  in  1803, 
was  educated  at  Cambridge.  About  1830  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which  he  served  as  treas- 
urer for  many  years.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Philosophic 
Transactions"  treatises  on  the  "Tides,"  "On  Meteor- 
ology," "  Researches  in  Physical  Astronomy,"  etc.  In 
1833  he  produced  a  work  "On  the  Theory  of  the  Moon 
and  on  the  Perturbations  of  the  Planets."  Died  in  1865. 

Lubersac,  de,  deh  lii'bSR'stk',  (N.,)  a  French  writer 
and  amateur  of  art,  born  in  Limousin  in  1730;  died 
in  1804. 

Lubert,  de,  deh  lii'baiR',  Mademoiselle,  a  French 
romance-writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1 7 10.  She  com- 
posed successful  romances  and  fairy-tales,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "Princess  Rose-Colour  and  Prince  Celadon." 
Voltaire  complimented  her  with  the  title  of  "Muse  et 
Grace."     Died  about  1780. 

Lubieniecius.     See  Lubieniecki. 

Lubieniecki,  loo-be-en-e-lts'kee,  written  also  Lu- 
bienetski  or  Lubienietski,  (Christopher,)  a  painter, 
of  Polish  extraction,  born  at  Stettin  in  1659.  He  settled 
in  Amsterdam,  where  he  painted  portraits  and  history. 
Died  in  1729. 

Lubieniecki  or  Lubienietski,  [Lat.  Lubienie'- 
cius,]  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish  Socinian  and  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Cracow  in  1623.  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  in  Lublin,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Polish 
Reformation,"  (1685.)  He  was  exiled  from  Lublin  for 
his  opinions  in  theology,  and  died  at  Hamburg  in  1675. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  "Theatrum  Cometi- 
cum,"  (1667,)  which  gives  an  ample  account  of  four 
hundred  and  fifteen  comets  which  appeared  from  the 
Deluge  to  his  own  time. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Lubieniecki  or  Lubienetski,(THEODORE,)  a  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Cracow  in  1653,  was  a  brother  of 
Christopher,  noticed  above.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Berlin,  where  he  painted  landscapes  and  historical  pic- 
tures. A  Socinian  treatise  which  he  wrote  having  been 
burnt  by  the  hangman,  he  resigned  his  place,  and  re- 
turned to  Poland,  in  1706.     Died  in  1720. 

Lubin,  lii'biN',  (Augustin,)  a  French  monk,  born  in 
Paris  in  1624.  He  received  the  title  of  geographer  to 
the  king,  and  published,  besides  other  learned  works 
on  ancient  and  sacred  geography,  "  Plates  of  Sacred 
Geography,"  ("Tabulae  Sacrae  Geographicse,"  1670.) 
Died  in  1695. 

Lubin,  loo'bin,  (Eilhard,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Oldenburg  in  1565.  He  became  in  1595  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  at  Rostock,  where  he  died  in  1621, 
leaving,  besides  other  works,  a  "Key  to  the  Greek  Laii- 
guage,"  ("Clavis  Linguae  Giaecae,"  1622,)  and  notes  on 
Horace,  Persius,  and  Juvenal. 

Lubin,  (Jacques,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
m  1637;  died  about  1695. 

Lubis,  lU'b^ss',  (E.  P.,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  in  1806,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Restoration," 
(in  French,  6  vols.,  1836.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1859. 

Liibke,  lUb'keh,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  art-historian, 
born  in  Dortmund,  January  17,  1826.  He  was  professor 
of  art-history  at  Zurich,  1861-66,  when  he  was  called  to 
a  professorship  in  the  art-schools  of  Stuttgart.  He  is 
the  author  of  several  inaportant  works  on  the  history  of 
art. 

Lublink,  liib'link,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  writer,  bom  at 
Amsterdam  in  1735.  He  translated  into  Dutch  Thom- 
son's "  Seasons"  and  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts,"  and 
wrote  other  works.     Died  about  1815. 

Lubomirski,  loo-bo-m^R'skee,  (Stanislas  Hera- 
CLiiTS,)  a  noble   Polish  writer,  born   about  1640.     He 


became   grand   marshal  of  Poland,   and   defended    the 
national  independence  with  his  pen  and  sword.     One 
of  his  works  is  a  political  treatise  called  "Consultations; 
or.  On  the  Vanity  of  Counsels,"  ("Consultationes,  s>" 
de  Vanitate  Consiliorum,"  17CSD.)     Died  in  1702. 

Luc,  the  French  for  Luke,  which  see. 

Luc,  Saint.     See  Luke,  Saint. 

Luc,  de.     See  Deluc. 

Luc  de  Bruges.     See  Lucas  Brugensis. 

Luca.     See  Luke. 

Luca,  loo'ki,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  prelate,  born  at  Venosa  in  1614.  He  published 
"Theatre  of  Truth  and  Justice,"  ("Theatrum  Veritatis 
et  Tustitiae,"  7  vols.,  1697,)  which  treats  on  canon  and 
civil  law  and  was  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1683. 

Luca  or  Lucae,  loo'tsi,  (Samuel  Christian,)  a 
German  anatomist,  bom  at  Frankfort  in  1787;  died  in 
1821. 

Luca,  de,  di  loo'kS,  (Antonino  Saverio,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Bronte,  Sicily,  October  28,  1805.  He 
was  bred  in  the  seminary  of  Monreale,  and  at  Rome; 
where  he  was  a  secretary,  and  an  editor,  and  afterwards 
acted  as  an  ablegate,  and  as  censor  of  the  Academy  of 
the  Catholic  Religion.  He  was  also  appointed  an  hon- 
orary professor  in  the  Roman  University,  a  consultor  for 
the  Propaganda  and  the  Index,  and  a  supernumary  secret 
cameriere.  In  1845  '^^  ^^'^^  consecrated  Bishop  of  Aversa, 
in  1853  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Tarsus  and  nuncio 
to  Bavaria,  and  in  1856  nuncio  to  Austria.  In  1863  he 
was  created  a  cardinal-priest,  and  in  1878  a  cardinal- 
bishop,  and  Bishop  of  Palaestrina.  He  was  head  of  the 
apostolic  deanery,  vice-chancellor  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Church,  etc.     Died  in  1884. 

Luca,  von,  fon  loo'ki,  (Ignaz,)  a  German  historian 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Vienna  in  1746;  died  in  1799. 

Luca  Santo,  loo'ki  sin'to,  or  Saint  Luke,  a  Flor- 
entine painter  of  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  painted  the  Madonnas  which  were 
ascribed  to  Saint  Luke  the  Evangelist. 

Lucain.     See  Lucan. 

Lu'can,  (George  Charles  Bingham,)  Earl  of,  a 
British  general,  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lucan,  was  born  in 
London  in  1800.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  about 
1840.  In  1854-55  he  served  in  the  Crimea  in  command 
of  a  division  of  cavalry,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
the  Alma,  Balaklava,  and  Inkerman.  He  became  colonel 
in  the  Life-Guards  in  1S55,  and  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  in  1S58,  and  general  in  1865.     Died  in  1S88. 

Lu'can,  [Lat.  Luca'nus;  Fr.  Lucain,  lii'kiN' ;  It. 
LuCANo",  loo-ki'no,]  (Marcus  Ann/EUS,)  a  Roman  epic 
poet,  born  at  Corduba,  (Cordova,)  Spain,  in  38  A.D.,  was 
a  nephew  of  the  philosopher  Seneca.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome.  His  early  poems  procured  him  the  favour  of 
Nero,  who  appointed  him  quaestor  and  augur  and  con- 
descended to  appear  as  his  rival  in  a  literary  contest. 
Lucan  gained  the  prize,  but  at  the  same  time  lost  the 
favour  of  the  tyrant,  whom  he  had  formerly  addressed 
with  gross  adulation.  Nero  forbade  him  to  read  any  more 
poems  in  public.  Lucan,  with  Piso  and  others,  conspired 
against  the  life  of  Nero;  the  plot  was  detected,  and  the 
poet  was  put  to  death  in  65  A.D.  His  fame  rests  on  a 
poem  entitled  "  Pharsalia,"  which  treats  of  the  civil  war 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  and  displays  great  beauties 
with  great  defects.  Among  the  latter  is  an  inflated, 
declamatory  style.  Corneille  and  Voltaire  were  warm 
admirers  of  Lucan.  "  His  genius,"  says  Villemain,  re- 
ferring to  his  early  death,  "  had  only  time  to  produce 
grandeur,  without  naturalness  or  truth."  Among  his 
merits  are  exalted  imagination,  intense  energy,  and 
impressive  diction. 

See  Karl  H.  Weise,  "  Vita  Lucani,"  1S35  :  Jacob  Palmer 
"Apologia  pro  Lucano,"  1704:  Voltaire,  "  Essai  sur  la  Poesie 
epique  :"  J.  G.  Meusel,  "  Dissertaiiones  II.  de  Lucano,"  1767; 
Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Lucano.    See  Lucan. 

Lucauus.     See  Lucan. 

Lucar,  (Cyril.)     See  Cyril-Lucar. 

Lu'cas,  (Charles,)  an  Irish  physician,  patriot,  and 
politician,  born  in  17 13.  He  was  a  popular  member  of 
the  Irish  Parliament,  and  an  opponent  of  the  court. 
Died  in  1771. 


a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LUCAS 


1591 


LUCIAN 


Lu'cas,  (Charles.)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Salisbury,  July  28,  1808.  He  produced 
"  The  Regicide,"  (an  opera,)  symphonies,  anthems,  songs, 
etc.     Died  March  30,  1869. 

Lu'cas,  (Frederick,)  an  English  lawyer  and  editor, 
was  born  in  Westminster  in  1812.  About  1840  he  was 
converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  soon  after 
became  editor  of  "The  Tablet,"  a  newspaper  published 
in  London.  Having  removed  to  Dublin,  he  was  elected 
to  Parliament  in  1852,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  to  promote  the  political  power  or  privileges  of  the 
Irish  Catholics.     Died  in  1855. 

Lucas,  lii'ka',  (Hippolyte  Julien  Joseph,)  a  French 
poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Rennes  in  1807.  He 
produced  in  1834  two  volumes  of  verse  and  prose, 
entitled  "The  Heart  and  the  World."  Among  his 
numerous  works'  is  a  "  Philosophic  and  Literary  His- 
tory of  the  French  Theatre."    Died  Nov.  14,  1878. 

Lucas,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  and  Jesuit,  born  in 
Paris  about  1650.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"Actio  Oratoris,"  (1675,)  which  treats  on  gesture  and 
elocution. 

Lucas,  (Jean  Andr6  Henri,)  a  French  mineralo- 
gist, born  in  Paris  in  1780 ;  died  in  1825. 

Lucas,  (Jean  Jacques  Etienne,)  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Marennes  in  1764.  In  1803  he  obtained 
command  of  the  Redoutable.  At  the  battle  of  Trafalgar 
(1805)  his  ship  grappled  with  Nelson's  flag-ship,  the  Vic- 
tory, and  one  of  his  crew  gave  Nelson  a  mortal  wound. 
Lucas  was  taken  prisoner  in  this  action.     Died  in  1819. 

Lucas,  (Jean  Marie  Charles,)  a  French  economist, 
born  at  Saint-Brieuc  in  1803.  He  wrote  "On  the  Re- 
form of  Prisons,"  (3  vols.,  1836-38,)  and  other  works. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1836. 

Lucas,  (Margaret.)   See  Cavendish,  (Margaret.) 

Lucas,  (Paul,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1664,  was  in  early  life  a  dealer  in  jewels.  He  visited 
Upper  Egypt,  Syria,  Persia,  etc.,  and  published  "  Voyage 
to  the  Levant,"  (1704.)  Having  received  a  commission 
from  Louis  XIV.  to  collect  medals  and  other  monu- 
ments of  antiquity,  he  again  explored  ihe  Levant,  (1705- 
d8,)  and  published  a  narrative  of  his  journey.  In  17 19 
he  produced  his  best  work,  entitled  a  "  Journey  in  Turkey, 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,"  (performed  in  1 715-16.) 
Many  of  his  stories  are  exaggerated  and  absurd.     Died 

in  1737- 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Oen^rale." 

Lu'cas,  (Richard,)  a  learned  British  divine,  born 
in  Radnorshire  in  1648.  He  settled  in  London  about 
1684,  and  became  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1696. 
He  published  an  "  Enquiry  after  Happiness,"  and  "  Prac- 
tical Christianity,"  which  are  highly  commended,  and 
other  works.     Died  in  171 5. 

Lucas,  Saint.     See  Luke,  Saint, 

Lucas,  (Samuel,)  an  English  journalist  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1818.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "  Press"  and  of  "  Once  a  Week."  He  contributed 
to  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  Reviews.    Died  in  1868. 

Lu'cas  Bru-gen'sis,  [or  Luc  de  Bruges,  liik  deh 
briizh,]  (Francois,)  a  Flemish  theologian  and  excellent 
linguist,  born  at  Bruges  in  1549.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Concordances  of  the  Vulgate  Edition  of 
the  Sacred  Books,"  ("  Sacrorum  Bibliorum  Vulgatas 
Editionis  Concordantia;,"  1617;  and  5  vols.,  1712.)  Died 
'n  1619. 

Lucas  van  Leydeii     See  Leyden. 

Lucas  von  Cranach.     See  Cranach. 

Lucatelli.     See  Locateli.i. 

Lucca,  look'ka,  (Pauline,)  an  Austrian  operatic 
singer,  born  at  Vienna,  of  Jewish  parents,  in  1842.  At 
an  early  age  she  entered  the  chorus  of  the  opera  at 
Vienna,  and  in  1859  created  a  sensation  by  her  manner 
of  leading  the  Bridesmaids'  Chorus.  In  the  same  year 
she  made  her  debut  at  Olmutz,  in  the  character  of  "El- 
vira" in  "  Ernani,"  and  at  once  established  herself  as  a 
popular  favourite.  Attracting  the  attention  of  Meyer- 
beer, the  composer,  he  secured  for  her  an  engagement  in 
Berlin  in  1861.  Here  she  was  appointed  court  singer 
for  life,  but  severed  her  connection  in  1872.  During  this 
period  she  also  sang  in  London  and  Saint  Petersburg, 


and  achieved  a  Contmental  reputation.  In  September, 
1872,  she  visited  the  United  States,  where  she  remained 
for  two  years.  She  then  returned  to  Europe,  and,  after 
making  a  tour  of  all  the  principal  cities  in  Germany 
except  Berlin,  finally  settled  in  Vienna.  Lucca  married 
Baron  Rahden  in  1865,  but  was  shortly  afterwards 
divorced  from  him. 

Lucceius,  luk-see'us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  orator  and 
friend  of  Cicero,  flourished  about  60  B.C. 

Lucchesini,  look-ki-see'nee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian 
philologist,  born  at  Lucca  in  1756,  was  a  brother  of 
the  marquis,  noticed  below.  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  numerous  works  on  philology,  among 
which  is  "  The  Sources  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Lan- 
guages."    Died  in  1832. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Lucchesini,  (Giovanni  Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  at  Lucca  in  1638.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  refutation  of  Machiavel's  workon  Politics,  (1697.)  Died 
about  1 7 10. 

Lucchesini,(Gi0VANNi  ViNCENZO,)an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Lucca  in  1660.  He  lived  in  Rome,  and  obtained 
from  Clement  XII.  the  high  office  of  secretary  of  briefs. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Demosthenes'  Orations,  with 
notes  and  a  good  Latin  translation,  and  a  "History  of 
Europe  from  1678  to  about  1735."     Died  in  1744. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Lucchesini,  da,  da  look-ki-see'nee,  (Girolamo,  ) 
Marquis,  an  able  diplomatist,  born  at  Lucca  in  1752. 
He  removed  to  Berlin  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  appointed  him  his  librarian 
and  reader.  He  was  sent  as  minister  of  Prussia  to  Vi- 
enna in  1793,  and  to  Paris  in  1802.  After  the  battle  of 
Jena  (1806)  he  negotiated  a  truce  with  the  victor  ;  but  it 
was  not  ratified  by  the  Prussian  court.  Soon  after  this 
event  he  returned  to  Lucca.  He  wrote  a  work  called 
"  On  the  Causes  and  Effects  of  the  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine,"  (1819.)     Died  in  1825. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Luce,  the  French  of  Lucius,  (Pope,)  which  see. 

Luce  de  Lancival,  liis  deh  16N'se'vMl',  (Jean 
Charles  Julien,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Picardy 
in  1764.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  belles-lettres  in 
the  Prytanee,  a  college  of  Paris,  about  1797.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  poem  called  "Achilles  at 
Scyros,"  (1805,)  and  "Hector,"  a  tragedy,  (1809,)  which 
Villemain  pronounces  "truly  Homeric."     Died  in  1810. 

See  ViLi.EMAiN,  notice  in  the  "  Magasin  Encyclop^dique ;"  H. 
Grellet,  "  Luce  de  Lancival:  Notice  biographique,"  1857. 

Lucena,  de,  di  loo-sa'na,  (Joao,)  a  Portuguese  writer, 
born  at  Trancoso  about  1548.  He  was  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Ev'ora,  and  author  of  an  excellent  "Life  of 
Francis  Xavier,"  (1600,)  often  reprinted.     Died  in  1600. 

Lucena,  de,  (Vasco  Fernandez,)  Count,  a  Portu- 
guese historian  and  statesman,  born  about  1410.  He 
translated  Quintus  Curtius  into  French  for  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy.  He  received  the  title  of  chancellor 
of  Portugal.     Died  about  1500. 

Lu-ce'ri-us,  ["  light-bringing,"]  a  surname  of  Jupi- 
ter, which  see. 

Luchet,  lii'shi',  (Auguste,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
democrat,  born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  was  sentenced  in 
1842  to  an  imprisonment  of  two  years  for  one  of  his 
works.     He  died  March  9,  1872. 

Luchet,  de,  deh  lii'shi',  (Jean  Pierre  Louis,)  Mar- 
quis, a  prolific  French  author,  born  at  Saintes  about 
1740,  was  styled  Marquis  de  la  Roche  du  Maine.  He 
published  many  superficial  works.  His  "  Literary  His- 
tory of  Voltaire"  (1782)  furnishes  some  curious  details. 
Died  in  1792. 

Luchetto  da  Geneva.     See  Cambiaso,  (Luca.) 

Lucian,  loo'she<in,  [Gr.  AovKiavog;  Lat.  Lucia'nus  ; 
Fr.  LuciEN,  lii'se-^N' ;  It.  Luciano,  loo-chJ'no,]  one 
of  the  most  witty  and  original  Greek  writers,  was  born 
at  Samosata,  (Someisat,)  on  the  Euphrates,  about  120 
a.d.  He  practised  law  a  short  time  at  Antioch,  and 
exchanged  that  profession  for  the  more  lucrative  pursuit 
of  sophist  and  teacher  of  rhetoric,  which  he  followed 
with  success  in  Gaul  until  he  was  about  forty  years  old. 
Again  changing  his  profession,  he  returned  to  the  East, 


€  as  i;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUCIAN 


1592 


LUCRETIUS 


and  lived  many  years  at  Athens,  where  he  was  intimate 
with  Demonax  and  employed  his  time  in  literary  com- 
position. His  principal  works  are  dialogues,  written 
in  pure  and  elegant  Greek,  on  history,  mythology,  phi- 
losophy, and  various  other  sul)jects.  His  object  appears 
to  have  been  to  cure  men  of  their  prejudices  and  super- 
stitions and  their  foolish  admiration  of  philosophic  char- 
latans. His  genius  is  eminently  satirical,  and  his  works 
are  remarkably  humorous ;  but  some  of  them  are  cen- 
sured as  offensive  to  morality  and  religion.  Among  the 
titles  of  his  dialogues  are  "Timon  the  Misanthrope," 
"Charon,"  "Menippus,"  and  "The  Assembly  of  Gods." 
English  versions  of  his  dialogues  have  been  jjublished  by 
T.  Franklin  (17S0)  and  William  Tooke,  (1820.)  Wieland 
produced  a  good  German  translation.  Good  editions  of 
the  Greek  text  have  been  published  by  Dindorf  (Paris, 
1840)  and  Bekker,  {1S53.) 

See  Karl  Georg  Jacob,  "  Characteristik  Lucian's  von  Samo- 
sata,"  1S32;  TiEMANN,  "  Veisuch  iiber  Lucian's  von  Samosata  Phi- 
losophie,"  1804;  Eduard  Emil  Struve,  "  Specimina  II.  de  ^tate 
et  Vita  Luciani,"  1829-30;  Passow,  "  Lucian  und  die  Geschichte," 
1854;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
January,  February,  April,  May,  and  June,  1839. 

Lucian,  [Fr.  Lucien,  lii'-se'iN',]  Saint,  a  Christian 
martyr,  born  at  Samosata  in  the  third  century,  was  emi- 
nent for  piety  and  learning.  He  was  ordained  a  priest 
or  presbyter  at  Antioch.  He  prepared  a  revised  edition 
of  the  Scriptures,  which,  Jerome  says,  was  more  correct 
than  those  of  Hesychius  and  Pamphilus.  Diocletian 
having  issued  an  edict  against  the  Christians,  Lucian 
suffered  martyrdom  in  312  A.D. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "De  Viris  illustribus;"  Eusebius,  "  Historia 

Ecclesiastica." 

Luciano.     See  Piombo,  (Sebastiano  del.) 

Lucianus.     See  Lucian. 

Lucien,  the  F'rench  of  Lucian,  which  see. 

Lu'ci-fer,  Bishop  of  Calaris,  (now  Cagliari,)  in  Sar- 
dinia, was  noted  for  his  intolerance  and  zeal  against 
Arianism.  About  355  a.d.  he  was  banished  by  Constan- 
tius,  who  favoured  the  Arians.  He  wrote  a  "Defence 
of  Athanasius,"  and  other  works.  He  refused  to  recog- 
nize as  orthodox  those  bishops  who  signed  the  formula 
of  Rimini,  (359,)  or  to  have  fellowship  with  any  who 
recognized  them,  and  finally  became  the  author  of  a 
schism.  He  had  many  followers,  who  formed  a  distinct 
sect,  called  Luciferians.     Died  about  370  a.d. 

Lu-cil'i-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  satiric  poet,  born  at 
Suessa  Aurunca,  (now  Sessa,)  in  Italy,  about  148  B.C.,  was 
a  great-uncle  of  Pompey  the  Great.  In  early  youth  he 
served  under  Scipio  Africanus  at  the  siege  of  Numan- 
tia,  and  became  an  intimate  friend  of  that  general.  He 
composed  thirty  satires  and  various  other  poems ;  but 
only  fragments  of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us. 
Horace  asserts  that  he  was  the  first  writer  of  satire 
among  the  Romans,  (Sat.,  lib.  2,  i.  62.)  His  satires 
were  much  admired  by  many  ancient  critics,  including 
Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny.  "  He  was,"  says  Professor 
Sellar,  "vehement  in  invective,  because  he  was  thor- 
oughly earnest  in  his  purpose  to  expose  vice  and  base- 
ness among  the  high  and  low  with  impartial  severity. 
Although  probably  few  writers  of  verse  have  had  less 
poetical  faculty,  yet,  by  his  originality  and  force  of  char- 
acter, he  became  the  favourite  of  his  own  time  and  coun- 
try; and  he  alone  among  Roman  writers  has  introduced 
a  new  and  permanent  form  of  poetry  into  the  world." 
Died  about  100  B.C. 

See  Sellar,  "  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,"  chap.  vi.  ;  Pkter- 
MANN,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  Lucilii  Vita,"  1842 ;  Smith,  "Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Lucil'ius  Ju'nior,  a  Roman  poet  and  naturalist, 
lived  in  the  first  century,  and  was  a  friend  of  Seneca. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  poem  of  six  hun- 
dred and  forty  hexameter  verses,  entitled  "  .^tna,"  which 
presents  some  fine  passages. 

Lu-ci'na,  [Fr.  Lucine,  lii'sfen',]  the  name  of  the  god- 
dess that  brings  to  light  and  presides  over  the  birth  of 
children,  was  used  as  a  surname  of  Juno  and  of  Diana, 
both  of  whom  were  supposed  to  assist  women  in  partu- 
rition, and  were  sometimes  called  LuciNy«.  The  Greek 
goddess  Ilithyi'a  or  Eileithyia  ['EtAci^ta]  appears  to 
be  essentially  the  same  as  Diana  (Artemis)  in  her  char- 
acter of  Lucina. 


Lucine.     See  Lucina. 

Lucius.     See  Luz. 

Lucius,  loo'she-us,  [Fr.  Luce,  Hiss,]  L,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  succeeded  Cornelius  in  October,  252  a.d.,  and 
died  in  March,  253.     Stephen  I.  was  his  successor. 

Lucius  IL,  a  native  of  Bologna,  was  elected  pope  in 
March,  1 144,  as  successor  to  Celestine  II.  He  died  in 
1145,  after  a  pontificate  of  eleven  months,  and  Eugenius 
III.  was  chosen  in  his  place. 

Lucius  in.  (Cardinal  Ubaldo  of  Lucca)  was  elected 
pope  in  1181,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  ITT.  His 
election  was  the  first  that  was  decided  by  the  cardinals, 
the  clergy  and  people  being  excluded  from  the  right  to 
vote.  A  revolt  of  the  people  of  Rome  obliged  him  to 
leave  the  city,  and  he  retired  to  Verona.  He  died  in 
1 185,  and  was  succeeded  by  Urban  III. 

Lucius,  (Cy^:sAR,)  a  Roman  prince,  .born  17  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  M.  Agrippa  and  Julia,  who  was  a  daughter  of 
the  emperor  Augustus.  He  and  his  brother  Caius  were 
heirs-presumptive  of  the  empire,  but  they  died  before 
Augustus.  Lucius  died  in  2  a.d.  The  Maison  Carree 
at  Nimes  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  Caius  and  Lucius. 

Lucius,  lu'she^s,  [It.  Lucio,  loo'cho,]  (Giovanni,) 
a  historian,  born  at  Trau,  in  Dalmatia.  He  published 
in  1666  a  "  History  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia."  Died  in 
1684. 

Lucius  Verus.     See  Verus. 

Liicke  or  Luecke,  liik'keh,  (Gottfried  Christian 
Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German  theologian,  was  born 
at  Egeln,  near  Magdeburg,  in  1791.  He  studied  at 
Halle  in  1810,  and  subsequently  at  Gottingen,  where 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Bunsen  and  Lachmann. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and 
soon  after  published,  conjointly  with  Schleiermacher  and 
De  Wette,  the  "Theological  Journal."  His  "Commen- 
tary on  the  Writings  of  Saint  John  the  Evangelist"  (4 
vols.,  1820-32)  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  works  of  its 
kind.  In  1827  he  snceeded  Staudlin  in  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Gottingt  n.     Died  at  Gottingen  in  1855. 

Luckner,  look'uer,  (Nikolaus,)  a  marshal  of  France, 
born  at  Kampen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1722.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  the  service  of  Prussia,  for  which  he  fought 
with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  (1756-63.) 
About  1763  he  accepted  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
in  the  French  army,  which  for  many  subsequent  years 
was  not  called  into  active  service.  Having  submitted 
to  the  new  regime,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  mar- 
shal in  December,  1791.  In  the  sjKing  of  1792  he  ob- 
tained command  of  one  of  the  armies  which  defended  the 
frontier  against  the  Austrians,  and  a  few  weeks  later 
succeeded  Rochambeau  as  general-in-chief.  The  domi- 
nant party,  distrusting  both  his  fidelity  and  capacity,  de- 
prived him  of  the  command  in  1792.  He  was  guillotined 
in  January,  1794. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoi"y  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lucotte,  lii'kot',  (Edme  Aim^,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1770.  The  Bourbons  con- 
fided to  him  the  defence  of  Paris  in  March,  181 5.  Died 
in  1815. 

Lucrece.     See  Lucretia  and  Lucretius. 

Lucretia,  loo-kree'she-a,  [It.  Lucrezia,  loo-kRlt'- 
se-S ;  Fr.  Lucrece,  lu'kRis',]  a  Roman  lady,  distin- 
guished for  her  beauty,  virtue,  and  tragical  destiny,  was 
the  wife  of  Collatinus,  who  was  related  to  Tarquin  the 
Proud,  King  of  Rome.  The  outrage  offered  to  her  honour 
by  Sextus  Tarquin,  and  the  voluntary  sacrifice  of  her 
life,  (507  B.C.,)  have  furnished  a  favourite  theme  for  poets 
and  painters,  and,  according  to  a  doubtful  legend,  caused 
the  dethronement  of  Tarquin,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Roman  state  into  a  republic,  under  the  direction  of 
Junius  Brutus. 

Lucretius,  lu-kree'she^us,  [Fr.  LucRfeCE,  lii'kRiss'; 
It,  LucREZio,  loo-kR§t'se-o ;  Sp.  Lucrecio,  loo-kRa'- 
///e-o,j  or,  to  give  his  full  name,  Ti'tus  Lucre'tius 
Ca'rus,  one  of  the  greatest  Latin  poets,  was  born  in 
Italy  in  95  B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with  Cicero. 
The  records  of  antiquity  throw  scarcely  any  light  on  his 
life,  which  was  probably  passed  in  studious  retirement. 
It  is  not  known  whether  he  ever  visited  Greece  ;  but 
it  is  evident  from  his  writings  that  he  had  profoundly 
studied  the  language,  philosophy,  and  manners  of  that 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I.  6,  li,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  nigt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


L  UCREZIA 


1593 


LUDOLPHUS 


people.  A  doubtful  tradition  asserts  that  he  was  subject 
to  insanity  caused  by  a  love-potion  ;  and  the  statement 
that  he  committed  suicide  in  his  forty-fourth  year  is  gen- 
erally credited.  He  left  only  one  work, — a  philosophic 
and  didactic  poem,  in  six  books,  entitled  "De  Rerum 
Natura,"  ("  On  the  Nature  of  Things,")  in  which  he  ex- 
]iounds  and  illustrates  the  physical  and  ethical  doctrines 
of  Epicurus,  of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  From  such 
abstruse  speculations  and  intractable  subjects  he  has 
produced  one  of  the  most  admirable  poems  in  the  lan- 
guage. Although  his  system  is  erroneous  and  incoherent, 
his  reasoning  is  remarkably  clear  and  close.  Probably 
no  other  work  so  amply  demonstrates  the  jiower  of  the 
Latin  language  to  utter  the  sublimest  conceptions  with 
a  sustained  majesty  and  harmony.  "A  great  atheistic 
poet,"  says  Villemain,  "  is  surely  a  surprising  phenom- 
enon. His  genius  finds  sublime  accents  to  attack  all 
the  inspirations  of  genius.  He  renders  even  nothing- 
ness poetic;  he  insults  glory;  he  enjoys  death.  Out  of 
the  abyss  of  skepticism  he  sometimes  soars  to  a  height 
of  enthusiasm  which  is  rivalled  only  by  the  sublimity  of 
Homer."  Referring  to  this  work,  Macaulay  remarks, 
"The  finest  poem  in  the  Latin  language — indeed,  the 
finest  didactic  poem  in  any  language — was  written  in 
defence  of  the  silliest  and  meanest  of  all  systems  of 
natural  and  moral  philosophy."  Ovid  appears  to  be 
the  only  contemporary  writer  who  fully  appreciated  the 
genius  of  Lucretius. 

See  the  article  on  Lucretius,  by  Villemain,  in  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle  :"  Sellar,  "Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic;"  Carl  F. 
ScHMiD,  "  Dissertatio  de  T.  Lucretio  Caro,"  176S;  J.  Siebelis, 
"  Qiiastiones  Lucretianae,"  1844  ;  J.  Legris,  "  Rome,  ses  Novateurs, 
ses  Conservateurs,  etc.  fitudes  historiques  sur  Lucrfece,  CatuUe,"  etc., 
1846;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  Smith,  "Dictionai-y  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807. 

Lucrezia.    See  Lucretia. 

Lucrezio.    See  Lucretius. 

Lu-cul'lus,  (Lucius  Licinius,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
general,  born  of  a  patrician  family  about  no  B.C.  In 
the  year  87  he  went  to  Asia  as  quaestor  under  Sulla, 
who  gave  him  many  proofs  of  his  confidence.  After  an 
absence  of  several  years,  during  which  the  civil  war  be- 
tween Marius  and  Sulla  raged  at  Rome,  he  returned,  and 
was  elected  consul  in  74  B.C.  In  this  year  he  obtained 
tlie  chief  command  in  the  war  against  Mithridates,  whom 
he  defeated  at  Cyzicus  in  73,  and,  after  other  victories, 
drove  him  out  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus.  He  afterwards 
defeated  Tigranes  of  Armenia,  whose  capital  he  took 
about  68  B.C.  The  mutiny  of  his  troops  prevented  his 
final  triumph  over  Mithridates,  and  he  was  superseded 
by  Pompey  in  the  year  66.  Cicero  expressed  the  opinion 
that  so  great  a  war  was  never  conducted  with  more 
prudence  and  courage.  ("  Pro  Muraena.")  LucuUus  then 
retired  from  public  affairs,  and  expended  part  of  the  im- 
mense fortune  he  had  acquired  in  the  East  in  building 
magnificent  villas,  giving  sumptuous  entertainments,  and 
collecting  expensive  paintings  and  statues.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  Sulla  had  dedi- 
cated to  him  his  Commentaries.  Plutarch,  after  com- 
paring him  with  Cimon,  says  it  is  hard  to  say  to  which 
side  the  balance  inclines.  He  was  living  in  59,  but  was 
not  living  in  56  B.C. 

See  "  Lucullus,"  in  Plutarch's  "Lives;"  Cicero,  "Pro  Lege 
Manilia;"  Johan  Upmarck,  "Dissertatio  historica  de  Lucuilo," 
170.?;  DioM  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxv.  and  xxxvii. ; 
Drumann,    "  Geschichte  Roins,"  vol.  iv. 

Lucumo.    See  Tarquinius  Priscus. 

Ludeke,  loo'deh-keh,  or  Ludecke,  loo'd§k-keh, 
(Christoph  Wilhelm,  )  a  German  writer,  born  at 
^chonberg  in  1737,  was  minister  of  a  German  church 
in  Stockholm.  He  published  a  "  Historical  Account 
of  Turkey."     Died  in  1805. 

Luden,  loo'den,  (Heinrich,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man historical  and  political  writer,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Bremen  in  1780.  He  became  in  18 10  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Jena,  where  he  also  lectured  on  history. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  German 
Nation,"  ("Die  Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Volkes,"  12 
vols.,  1825-37,)  brought  down  to  1237.  He  also  wrote 
general  histories  of  the  nations  of  antiquity  and  of  the 
middle  ages,  a  "Life  of  Hugo  Grotius,"  (1806,)  several 
biographies,  etc.     Died  at  Jena  in  1847. 


Luden,  (Heinrich,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Jena  in  i8io.  He  became  a  professor  of  law,  and  a 
member  of  the  court  of  cassation  at  Jena.  He  published 
several  legal  works.     Died  December  24,  1880. 

Liiders,  lU'd^rs,  (Alexander  Nikolaievitch,)  a 
Russian  general,  of  Gernnan  origin,  born  in  1790.  He 
defeated  the  Hungarians  under  Bem  in  July,  1849,  and 
succeeded  Gortchakof  in  the  command  of  the  army  of 
the  Danube  in  1855.  He  was  commander-in-chief  in 
the  Crimea  for  a  few  weeks  between  the  fall  of  Sebas- 
topol  and  the  end  of  the  war.     Died  February  13,  1874. 

Ludewig.    See  Ludovici,  (Karl  Gunther.) 

Ludewig,  von,  fon  loo'deh-^^ic',  (Johann  Peter,) 
a  learned  German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Suabia 
about  1670.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Halle  in  1695,  and  of  history  in  1703.  The  King  of 
Prussia  made  him  a  privy  councillor  in  1709.  Among 
his  works  are  "Germania  Princeps,"  (1702,)  treating 
on  the  rights,  privileges,  etc.  of  the  house  of  Austria 
and  of  the  Electors,  "  Writers  of  German  History," 
("Scriptores  Rerum  Germanicarum,"  1718,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Justinian,"  (1730.)     Died  in  1743. 

See  Friedrich  Wiedebokg,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  J_.  P.  de  Lude- 
wig," Halle,  1757;  HiRSCiiiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Hand- 
buch." 

Lu'di-us,  a  Roman  painter,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  of  whoin  we  know  little.  He  gained 
renown  by  decorating  walls  with  landscapes  of  large 
dimensions. 

Liid'lovT',  (Edmund,)  an  able  English  republican 
general,  born  in  Wiltshire  about  1620.  lie  fought  against 
the  king  at  Edgehill  in  1642,  and  led  a  regiment  at  the 
battle  of  Newbury.  Elected  to  Parliament  in  1645,  he 
voted  for  the  conversion  of  the  kingdom  into  a  republic, 
and  was  one  of  the  judges  who  condemned  Charles  I. 
in  1649.  In  this  year  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state,  in  which  he  opposed  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Crcmwell.  In  1650  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
lieutenant-general.  On  the  death  of  Ireton,  November, 
1 65 1,  the  command  of  the  army  devolved  on  Ludlow. 
As  he  refused  to  support  the  government  of  the  Pro- 
tector, (1653,)  he  was  deprived  of  command.  After  the 
death  of  Oliver  (1658)  he  resumed  his  seat  in  Parliament, 
and  obtained  command  of  the  army  in  Ireland  in  1659. 
At  the  restoration  (1660)  he  escaped  through  France  to 
Vevay,  where  he  resided  mostly  until  his  death,  in  1693. 
He  left  Memoirs  of  his  life,  (2  vols.,  1698.)  Macaulay 
refers  to  him  as  "almost  the  only  survivor,  [in  1689,! 
certainly  the  most  illustrious  sinvivor,  of  a  mighty  race 
of  men,  the  judges  of  a  king,  the  founders  of  a  repub- 
lic. .  .  .  There  was  but  a  single  blemish  on  his  fame," — 
i.e.  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  ;"  Hume,  "  History 
of  England;"  Guizot,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  I'Angleterre  ; 
Wm.  Sewel,  "  Memoirs  of  E.  Ludlow,"  3  vols.,  1698-99;  "Monk's 
Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot,  London,  1864. 

Lud'lo'w,  (FiTZHUGH,)  an  American  author,  born  at 
Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  in  1837,  the  son  of  a  Congre 
gationalist  minister.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in 
1856.  Atnong  his  works  are  "  The  Hasheesh-Eater," 
(1S57,)  "  Little  Brother,"  (1867,)  "  What  Shall  they  Do  to 
be  Saved?"  (1868,)  and  "The  Heart  of  the  Continent,' 
(1870.)  He  died  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  September  13. 
1S70,  a  victim  of  the  opium-habit.  He  wrote  several 
very  popular  student-songs. 

Ludolf,  loo'dolf,  (Hieronymus,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1679  ;  died  in  1728. 

Ludolph,  loo'dolf,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a  nephew 
of  the  following,  was  born  at  Erfurt  in  1655.  He  became 
secretary  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  who  married 
Queen  Anne  of  England.  He  published  a  Russian 
Grammar,  (Oxford,  1696,)  and  several  snxall  religious 
treatises.     Died  in  171X. 

Ludoiph  OF  Saxony,  a  monk,  who  died  at  Mentz 
about  1370.  He  composed,  in  Latin,  a  "  Life  of  Christ," 
which  was  j^opular  and  often  reprinted. 

Ludolphvis,  loo-dol'fCis,  written  also  Ludolph  and 
Ludolf,  originally  Leutholf,  loit'holf,  (Job,)  an  emi- 
nent German  Orientalist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1624.  He 
is  said  to  have  acquired  twenty-five  languages,  among 
which  was  the  Abyssinian.     The  Duke  of  baxe-Gotha 


€  as  k;  <j  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H.  K,  <fnttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  t  h  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUDOVICI 


1594 


LUKE 


employed  him  to  educate  his  sons,  and  appointed  him 
an  aulic  councillor.  Ludolf  published,  in  Latin,  an 
esteemed  "  History  of  Abyssinia,"  (1681,)  an  Ethiopian 
Grammar,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1704. 

See  C.  JuNCKER,  "Commentariiis  de  Vita  J.  Ludolfi,"  1710; 
VoCKKRODT,  "  Memoria  J.  Ludolfi  reiiovata,"  1723 ;  Nic^RON, 
'M^nioires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Ludovici,  loo-do-veet'§ee,  or  Ludwig,  lood''<^iG, 
(Gottfried,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Baruth,  in 
Prussia,  in  1670.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Universal  History,"  (2  vols.,  1716.)     Died  in  1724. 

Ludovici,  (Karl  Gunther,)  a  learned  German  pro- 
fessor, born  at  Leipsic  in  1707.  He  wrote  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Commerce,"  (5  vols.,  1752-56,)  and  a  "Plan  of  a 
Plistory  of  the  Philosophy  of  Leibnitz,"  (1737-)  Died  in 
1778.  He  spelled  his  name  Ludewig  in  his  latter  years. 

Ludovisio.     See  Gregory  XV. 

Ludwig.     See  Lewis,  Louis,  and  Ludovicl 

Lud'wig,  (Kings  of  Germany.)     See  Lewis. 

Ludwig,  lood'<^iG,  (Christian  Goitlieb,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Brieg,  Silesia,  in  1709.  About  1732  he 
made  a  botanical  excursion  to  Africa.  He  was  chosen 
professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic  in  1747.  He  contributed 
to  reform  botanical  science  by  his  writings,  among  which 
are  works  "  On  the  Sexes  of  Plants,"  "  Definitions  of 
Plants,"  (1737,)  and  "  Botanical  Aphorisms,"  (1738.)  !■ 
J.  Rousseau  expressed  the  opinion  that  Ludwig  was  the 
only  botanist  besides  Linnaeus  that  viewed  botany  like  a 
philosopher.     Died  in  1773. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch;"  "  Noii 
velle  Biograpliie  G6iirale." 

Ludwig,  (Daniel,)  a  German  writer  on  materia 
medica,  born  at  Weimar  in  1625  ;  died  in  1680. 

Ludwig,  (Johann,)  a  self-taught  German  peasant, 
born  near  Dresden  in  17 15,  became  a  proficient  in  a^ 
tronomy. 

Ludwig,  (Karl  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
biologist,  born  at  Witzenhausen,  Hesse,  December  29, 
1816.  He  was  educated  at  Marburg  and  Erlangen,  and 
held  professorships  at  Marburg,  Zurich,  Vienna,  and 
Leipsic.  Among  his  works  are  some  of  great  value, 
including  a  "Text-Book  of  Physiology,"  (1852-56,)  etc. 

Ludwig,  (Otto,)  a  German  novelist  and  tragedy- 
writer,  born  at  Eisfeld,  Saxe-Meiningen,  February  11, 
1813.  His  tragedies  ("  The  Hereditary  Forester,"  "  The 
Maccabees,"  "  Agnes  Bernauer")  were  generally  suc- 
cessful, and  some  of  his  novels,  though  severely  criti- 
cised, were  well  received  by  the  public.  Died  at  Dresden, 
February  25,  1865. 

Luecke.     See  Lucke. 

Luers,  liiRs  or  lu'erz,  (John  Henry,)  D.D.,  a  bishop, 
born  near  Miinster,  Germany,  September  29,  1819,  of 
humble  parentage.  He  came  to  New  York  in  1833, 
studied  in  the  Lazarist  Seminary  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier 
at  Saint  Martin's,  Ohio,  and  became  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest  in  1846.  In  1858  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Fort  Wayne,  the  first  of  that  title.  Died  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  June  29,  1871.  He  was  a  laborious  pastor,  and 
was  distinguished  as  an  advocate  of  total  abstinence. 

Luetzelburger.     See  Lutzelburger. 

Luetzow.     See  LUtzow. 

Lufft,  looft,  (Hans,)  a  German  printer  and  bookseller, 
born  in  1495,  resided  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  published 
the  first  editions  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible. 
This  work  appeared  complete  in  1534.  Within  fifty 
years  one  hundred  thousand  copies  were  issued  from 
Lufft's  office ;  and  he  has  been  surnamed  the  Bible 
Printer.     Died  in  1584. 

Lugauski.    See  Dahl,  (Vladimir  Ivanovitch.) 

Lugo,  de,  di  loo'go,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1583.  He  taught  theology  at  Rome  twenty 
years,  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1643,  and  wrote  several 
theological  works,  which  were  often  reprinted.  Died  in 
1660.  His  brother  Francisco  (15S0-1652)  was  also  a 
Jesuit,  and  author  of  several  works  on  theology. 

Luigi,  di,  de  loo-ee'jee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  paintei, 
surnamed  l'Ingegno,  (l^n-jgn'yo,)  and  sometimes  called 
Andrea  di  Assist,  was  born  at  Assisi  about  1470.  He 
assisted  Perugino  in  adorning  the  Cambio  at  Perugia, 
and  worked  mostly  at  his  native  place.     He  painted  a 


coat  of  arms   for  the  town-hall  of  Assisi.     It  appears 
that  nothing  is  known  certainly  of  his  other  works. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Luiken,  loi'ken,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  in 
1649;  died  in  1708.  He  published  in  1671  a  noteworthy 
volume  of  poems. 

Luini,  loo-ee'nee,  (Aurelio,)  an  Italian  painter,  a 
son  of  Bernardino,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1530. 
He  worked  at  Milan,  and  painted  scriptural  subjects, 
among  which  is  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  He 
died,  according  to  Lanzi,  in  1593  ;  but  some  date  his 
death  many  years  earlier. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Luini,  Luvini,  loo-vee'nee,  or  Lovini,  lo-vee'nee, 
(Bernardino,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was  born  at 
Luino,  on  Lake  Maggiore.  He  is  called  the  most  ex- 
cellent imitator  and  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Lo- 
mazzo  says  he  was  already  a  distinguished  painter  in 
1500.  Luini  worked  both  in  fresco  and  oil,  and  painted 
at  Milan  several  works  which  are  still  in  good  preserva- 
tion. "  Few  paintv-rs,"  says  Lanzi,  "  deserve  to  be  com- 
pared to  him."  Among  his  master-pieces  in  oil  are  a 
"Magdalene,"  a  "Madonna,"  and  a  "Saint  John  with  a 
Lamb,"  all  at  Milan.  He  excelled  in  colouring,  chiarc 
scuro,  and  the  expression  of  feminine  grace.  He  died 
after  1530.  His  sons,  Aurelio  and  Evangelista,  were 
skilful  painters. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Luini,  (Evangelista,)  a  decorative  painter  of  Milan, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.     Died  after  1584. 

Luini,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Rome 
about  1597.  He  was  called  Caravaggino,  because  he 
imitated  Caravaggio.     Died  about  1632. 

Luino,  loo-ee'no,  or  Luini,  loo-ee'nee,  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  geometer,  born  at  Milan  in  1740.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  successively  in  a  college  of 
Milan  and  in  the  University  of  Pavia.  He  published  a 
treatise  on  "  Progressions  and  Series,"  ("  Sulle  Progres- 
sioni  e  sulle  Serie,"  1767,)  "Philosophic  Meditation" 
and  a  few  other  works.     Died  in  1792. 

Luis,  the  Spanish  for  Louis,  which  see. 

Luis  de  Granada.     See  Granada,  (Luis  de.) 

Luisini,  Luisino,  or  Luisiuus.  See  Luviginj, 
(Francesco.) 

Luithold  von  Savene,  loit'holt  fon  si'veh-neh,  or 
Ltitolt  von  Saven,  lU'tolt  fon  si'ven,  a  German  minne- 
singer of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Luitprand,  loo'it-prand  or  lut'prand,  written  also 
Liutprand,  King  of  the  Lombards,  the  son  of  Ans- 
prand,  reigned  from  712  A.D.  until  744.  His  valour  and 
wisdom  are  praised  by  Sismondi.  In  739  he  marched 
into  France  to  aid  Charles  Martel  against  the  Saracens. 
He  died  in  744,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Hil- 
debrand. 

See  Muratori,  "Annali  d'ltalia." 

Luitprand  or  Liutprand,  [Lat.  Luitpran'dus,]  a 
historical  writer,  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
the  age.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople 
in  946  by  Berenger,  Marquis  of  Ivrea.  Having  been 
chosen  Bishop  of  Cremona,  he  attended  in  963  a  council 
(at  Rome)  which  deposed  Pope  John.  In  968  the  em- 
peror Otho  I.  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  maltreated  by  the  emperor.  He  was  au- 
thor of  an  esteemed  "  History  of  Europe  from  862  to  964." 

See  KoEPKE,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Luitprand!,"  1842;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gdn^rale. " 

Lukaszewitsch,  loo-ki'sh§-<Wtch,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  at  Kronipkowo,  November  30,  1797,  pub- 
lished works  on  ecclesiastical  history,  including  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Churches  of  the  Helvetic  Confession  in 
Lithuania,"  (1842.)     Died  February  13,  1S73. 

Luke,  IGr.  AovKag ;  Lat.  Lu'cas;  Fr.  Luc,  liik;  It. 
LuCA,  loo'kS,]  Saint,  one  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  was  a 
companion  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in  his  mission  to  the  Gen- 
tiles, between  50  and  66  a.d.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown.  That  he  was  liberally  educated  is 
made  evident  by  the  classical  style  of  his  writings  and 
by  the  learned  details  which  he  gives  on  historical  and 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/'iO}-t;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^l;  mi!t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LUKIN 


1595 


LUNGHI 


geographical  subjects.  His  Gospel  contains  valuable 
accounts  which  are  not  found  in  the  others.  He  also 
wrote  "The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  which,  as  well  as  his 
Gospel,  is  in  the  Greek  language.  Tradition  indicates 
that  Saint  Luke  is  the  same  as  the  physician  Luke 
mentioned  by  Saint  Paul  in  Colossiarts  iv.  14,  and  the 
same  as  Lucas  named  in  Philemon  24.  (See  H.  Tim- 
othy iv.  II.) 

Lu'kin,  (Lionel,)  an  English  mechanic,  noted  as  the 
mventor  of  the  life-boat,  was  born  about  1742  ;  died  in 
1834- 

Lull.     See  Lulli,  (Raymond.) 

Lulli  or  LuUe,  looKlee,  [Fr.  Lulle,  lul,]  (Antonio,) 
a  grammarian,  born  in  Majorca.  He  corresponded  with 
Erasmus,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  called  "De 
Oratione."     Died  in  1582. 

Lulli  or  Lully,  lli'le',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  called  "the  father  of  French  dramatic 
music,"  was  born  at  Florence  in  1633.  About  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  skilful 
performer  on  the  violin,  and  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.  In  the  fetes  which  were  often  repeated  at  court, 
he  found  occasion  to  try  his  talents  for  operatic  music. 
In  1672  the  king  gave  him  th^  privilege  or  direction  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  from  which  time  dates 
the  foundation  of  the  Grand  Opera  in  France.  Co-ope- 
rating with  Quinault  the  poet,  Lulli  composed  in  fifteen 
years  nineteen  operas,  which  were  very  successful.  He 
finally  became  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  king.  Died 
in  1687. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians;"  De  la 
BoRDE,  "  Essai  sur  la  Musiqiie,"  1780;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^- 
rale:"  Le  Provost  d'Exmes,  "  Lulli  Musicien." 

Lulli  or  Lully,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1665.  With  his  brother  Louis  he  com- 
posed an  opera  called  "Orphee,"  (1690.)     Died  in  1701. 

Lulli,  (Jean  Louis,)  born  in  1667,  succeeded  his 
father,  Jean  Baptiste,  as  composer  to  the. king.  Died 
in  1688. 

Lulli,  (Louis,)  a  musician,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1664.  He  became  composer  to  the 
king  in  1688.     Died  about  1736. 

Lulli,  written  also  Lully,  Lulle,  and  Lull,  [Lat. 
Lul'lus  or  Lul'lius,]  (Raymond,)  a  philosopher, 
surnamed  the  Enlightened  Doctor,  was  born  at 
Palma,  in  Majorca,  about  1235.  He  professed  to  believe 
that  he  was  called  to  convert  the  Moslems,  and  he  pre- 
pared himself  for  the  task  by  learning  Arabic.  In  order 
to  prove  that  the  mysteries  of  faith  were  not  opposed 
to  reason,  he  composed  a  treatise,  or  method,  called 
"  Ars  Lulli,"  or  "Ars  Magna  Lulli,"  ("The  Great  Art 
of  Lulli,")  designed  also  to  systematize  knowledge  'and 
facilitate  the  process  of  reasoning  on  all  questions. 
His  method  obtained  great  celebrity;  but,  according 
to  Hallam,  it  was  an  "  idle  and  fraudulent  attempt  to 
substitute  trick  for  science."  "  He  was  one  of  those 
innovators  in  philosophy  who,  by  much  boasting  of  their 
original  discoveries  in  the  secrets  of  truth,  gain  credit 
for  systems  of  science  which  those  who  believe  in  them 
seldom  trouble  themselves  to  examine."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  But  Hallani's  judgment 
is  much  too  severe.  Lulli  was  full  of  quixotic  and  fan- 
tastical projects,  of  which  his  "  Great  Art"  was  one,  but 
he  was  honest  and  generous,  and  in  many  ways  far  in 
advance  of  his  times.  He  wrote  many  treatises  and 
tractates  in  Latin  and  in  the  Catalan  tongue.  He  made 
several  attempts  to  convert  the  Moors  in  Northern  Africa, 
and  was  violently  persecuted  by  them.  He  died  in  con- 
sequence of  injuries  received  from  the  Moslems  in  1315. 

See  Wadding,  "Viede  R.  Lulle;"  Segui,  "Viede  R.  Lulle," 
1605;  CoLLETET,"  Vie  de  R.  Lulle,"  1646;  LoEV,  "  De  Vita  R.  Lulli 
Specimen,"  1830;  Perroquet,  "Vie  et  Martyre  de  R.  Lulle,"  1667; 
Helffereich,  "Raymond  Lull,"  Berlin,  1858;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  G^nerale." 

Lullin  de  Chateauvieux,  Iu'I^n'  deh  sha'to'vg-uh', 
(Jacob  Fr^d^ric,)  a  Swiss  agriculturist  and  writer, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1772;  died  in  1840. 

Lullin  de  Chateauvieux,  (Michel,)  a  Swiss  writer 
and  experimenter  on  agriculture,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1695  ;  died  in  1781. 

Lully.    See  Lulli. 


Lulof,  lU'lof,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  astronomer,  born  at 
Zutphen  in  1711.  He  wrote  several  works  on  astronomy. 
Died  in  1768. 

Lumene  van  Marck,  lU'meh-neh  (?)  vtn  maRk,  [Lat. 
Lumin>e'us,]  (Jacques  Corneille,)  a  Flemish  scholar 
and  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Ghent  about  1570.  He 
produced  many  Latin  poems.     Died  in  1629. 

Luminaeus.     See  Lumene  van  Marck. 

Lump'kin,  (Joseph  Henry,)  brother  of  Governor 
Lumpkin,  noticed  below,  born  in  Oglethorpe  county, 
Georgia,  in  1799,  became  professor  in  the  Lumpkin  Law 
School  at  Athens,  in  his  native  State.     Died  in  1867. 

Lumpkin,  (Wilson,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Pittsylvania  county,  Virginia,  in  1783.  He  was  twice 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia,  and  became  a  United 
States  Senator  in  1838.     Died  December  28,  1870. 

Lttma'd^n,  (Matthew,)  a  distinguished  Scottish 
Orientalist,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1777.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of  Persian  and  Arabic  in  the  College 
of  Calcutta  in  1805.  In  i8io  he  published  an  excellent 
"Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language,"  and  in  1813  an 
"Arabic  Grammar."  About  1820  he  returned  to  Great 
Britain.     Died  in  London  in  1835. 

His  brother  Thomas,  an  officer,  published  a  Journey 
from  Merut,  India,  to  London,  (1822.) 

See  Zenker.  "Bibliotheca  Orientalis." 

Lu'na,  [Fr.  Lune,  liin,]  the  Moon,  a  goddess  wor- 
shipped by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Luna,  loo'ni,  (Fabrizio,)  an  Italian  lexicographer, 
born  at  Naples,  is  said  to  have  been  the  compiler  of 
the  first  Italian  dictionary,  called  "Vocabulary  of  Five 
Thousand  Tuscan  Words,"  ("  Vocabulario  di  cinque  mila 
Vocabuli  Toschi,"  1536.)     Died  in  1559. 

Luna,  de,  di  loo'na,  (Don  Alvaro,)  a  Spanish  cour- 
tier and  poet,  who  became  the  chief  favourite  and  min- 
ister of  John  II.  of  Castile.  In  1423  he  was  made  Con- 
stable of  Castile.  Through  the  enmity  of  the  grandees, 
he  was  exiled  in  1427,  and  again  in  1439.  In  1445  }^^ 
was  recalled,  and  obtained  command  of  the  army,  with 
which  he  defeated  the  malcontents.  Having  lost  the 
favour  of  the  king,  he  was  executed  in  1453. 

See  a  well-written  biography,  entitled  "  Cronica  del  Condestable 
Don  Alvaro  de  Luna,"  by  an  anonymous  contemporary  writer,  pub- 
lished in  1546,  and  "  Histoire  de  Alvaro  de  Luna,"  Paris,  1720. 

Lund,  loond,  (Carl,)  a  Swedish  writer  on  law,  born 
at  Jonkoping  in  1638,  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Sweden."     Died  in  1715. 

Lund,  (Daniel,)  a  Swedish  professor  of  Hebrew, 
born  in  1666;  died  in  1747. 

Lunden.     See  Lundin. 

Liin'din  or  Lun'den,  (Sir  Alan,)  an  ambitious  Scot- 
tish  politician,  was  born  in  Forfarshire.  He  married  a 
natural  daughter  of  Alexander  II.,  and  in  1243  was 
chosen  lord  justiciar  of  Scotland.  Having  opposed  the 
coronation  of  the  minor  son  of  the  late  king,  he  was 
dismissed  from  office  about  1250.  He  was  afterwards 
pardoned,  and  held  the  same  office  for  several  years. 
Died  in  1275. 

Liin'dy,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  in  Sussex  county.  New  Jersey,  in  1789.  He  founded 
in  1815  an  anti-slavery  association,  called  the  "Union 
Humane  Society,"  and  subsequently  became  editor  of 
the  "Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,"  originally 
published  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Ohio,  but_  removed^  to 
Baltimore  in  1824.  He  was  also  active  in  promoting 
lectures  on  slavery  and  in  advocating  abstinence  from 
the  products  of  slave-labour.     Died  in  1839. 

See  the  "  Life,  Travels,  etc.  of  Benjamin  Lundy,"  by  Thomas 
Earle;  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  111-115. 

Luneau  de  Boisjermain,  lu'no'  deh  bwS'zhSR'- 
m3.N',  (Pierre  Joseph  Francois,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1732.  He  became  a  school- 
teacher in  Paris,  and  published  several  educational  works 
on  history  and  languages.  He  also  edited  the  works  of 
Racine,  (1768.)     Died  in  1801. 

Lunghi,  (LucA.)     See  Longhi. 

Lunglai,  loon'gee,  (Martino,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  in  the  Milanese.  He  was  employed  in  Rome  by 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  erected  the  Campanile  of  the  Capi- 
tol, and  built  the  elegant  palace  of  Prince  Borghese. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jt^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


Z  UNGHI 


1596 


LUTHER 


His  last  works  were  built  about  i6co.  His  grandson, 
Martino,  was  an  architect,  and  worked  in  Rome, 
Naples,  and  Milan.     Died  in  1657. 

See  QuATREMiKE  DE  QuiN'CY,  "  Dictioniialre  d' Architecture," 
and  "Vies  des  Architectes  c^Iebres." 

Lunghi,  written  also  Longhi  and  Longo,  (Sii.i.A 
GlACOMO,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Vigiu,  in  the 
Milanese  ;  died  about  1625. 

Lungo,  del,  del  Joong'o,  (Isidoko,)  an  Italian  critic, 
born  at  Montevarchi,  December  20,  1841.  He  studied 
at  Cortona,  Florence,  Sienna,  and  Fisa,  and  held  profes- 
sorships in  Faenza,  Casale,  Sienna,  and  Florence.  He 
published  "Versi,"  (1858,)  "Dino  Compagni  e  la  sua 
Cronica,"  (1S78-80,)  "DelT  Esilio  di  Dante,"  (1881,)  etc. 

Lunig,  loo'niG,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  com- 
piler and  publicist,  born  in  1662.  He  published  valua- 
ble works  entitled  "Archives  of  the  German  Empire," 
(24  vols.,  1713-22,)  "Diplomatic  Code  of  Italy,"  ("Codex 
Italiae  Diplomaticus,"4  vols.,  1725-35,)  and  "Diplomatic 
Code  of  Germany,"  ("  Codex  Germanise  Diplomaticus," 
2  vols.,  1733.)     Died  in  1740. 

Lunt,  (George,)  an  American  lawyer  and  miscella- 
neous writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts.  He 
was  appointed  in  1849  district  attorney  for  Massachu- 
setts. He  published  several  volumes  of  Poems,  and  wrote 
two  novels,  besides  works  on  social  and  political  subjects. 
He  was  born  in  1803  ;  died  May  17,  1885. 

Lunt,  (William  Parsons,)  an  American  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1805.  He  officiated  as  a  Unitarian  minister  in 
New  York,  and  afterwards  in  Quincy,  Massachusetts. 
Died  March  20,  1857. 

Lupercalia.     See  Pan. 

Luperci.     See  Pan. 

Lu-per'cus,  an  ancient  deity,  who  was  worshipped 
by  the  Italian  shepherds  as  the  guardian  of  their  flocks 
against  wolves,  and  sometimes  identified  with  Pan. 

Lupi,  loo'pee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  a  learned  Italian 
Jesuit  and  antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  1695  ;  died  in 

1737- 
Lupi,  (Mario.)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Bergamo 

in  1720 ;  died  in  1789. 

Lupin,  von,  fon  loo-peen',  (Friedrich,)  Baron,  a 
German  writer  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Memmingen  in 
1771  ;  died  in  1844. 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  2  vols.,  1844-47. 

Lupoli,  loo'po-lee,  (Vincenzio,)  an  Italian  canonist 
and  jurist,  born  near  Aversa  in  1737,  published  several 
works  on  law.     Died  in  1800. 

Lup'set,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1496.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at 
Oxford,  and  corresponded  with  Erasmus  and  Sir  Thomas 
More.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Charity,"  and  other 
religious  works,  and  translated  parts  of  the  writings  of 
Cyprian  and  Chrysostom.     Died  in  1532. 

Lup'tpn,  (Donald,)  an  English  biographer,  of  whom 
little  is  known.  He  published  in  1637  a  "  History  of  the 
Modern  Protestant  Divines,"  (translated  from  the  Latin,) 
and  "The  Glory  of  their  Times;  or.  The  Lives  of  the 
Primitive  Fathers,"  (1640.) 

Lu'pus,  or  "Wolf,  w61f,  (Christian,)  a  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Ypres  in  1612.  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Louvain,  and  published  several 
works  on  dogmatic  theology.     Died  in  1681. 

Lupus  Servatus.     See  Loup. 

Luque,  de,  di  loo'ki,  (Hernando,)  a  Spanis'i  bishop 
of  Peru.  He  was  a  priest  of  Panama  when,  in  1525,  he 
associated  himself  with  Pizarro  and  Almagro  in  an  ex- 
pedition for  the  conquest  of  Peru.  De  Luque  furnished 
the  money  for  this  enterprise.     Died  in  1532. 

See  Herrera,  "  Historia  general  de  los  Viajes  en  las  Indias  Occi- 
dentales  :"  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 

Lurine,  lii'rin',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  of  fiction, 
satire,  etc.,  born  in  1816.  He  contributed  many  articles 
to  the  jjublic  journals.     Died  November  30,  i860. 

Luscinius,  loSs-see'ne-tis,  (Othmar,)  a  litterateur, 
whose  proper  name  was  Nachtigall,  (niK'te-gil,)  was 
born  at  Strasburg  about  1480.  He  removed  from  Augs- 
burg to  Hale  in  1526,  and  afterwards  lodged  with  Eras- 
mus at  Freyburg.    He  edited  some  works  of  Lucian  and 


Martial,  and  published  various  other  works.  Died  about 
1535- 

Lusli,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  legal  writer,  born  at 
Shattesbury,  October  25,  1807.  His  best-known  work 
was  "The  Practice  of  the  Superior  Courts  of  Law  at 
Westminster,"  (1840.)  He  was  appointed  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  Queen's  Bench  in  1865,  and  in  1875  became 
a  judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  Died  December 
27,  18S1. 

Liish'ing-ton,  (Right  Hon.  Stephen,)  D.C.L.,  an 
eminent  English  civilian  and  statesman,  born  in  London 
in  1782,  was  the  son  of  6ir  Stephen  Lushington.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  called  to  the  bar  in  1806. 
Between  1807  and  1841  he  represented  Yarmouth,  II- 
chester,  the  Tower  Hamlets,  and  other  places,  in  Par- 
liament, voting  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  (1807) 
and  for  other  liberal  measures.  He  also  contributed 
greatly  to  the  abolition  of  slavery.  He  was  one  of  the 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  trial  of  Queen  Caroline, 
(1821.)  In  1838  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  admi- 
ralty, and  privy  councillor.     Died  January  20,  1873. 

Lusignan;  (Guy  de.)     See  Guy  de  Lusignan. 

Lusignan,  de,  deh  lii'z^n'yflN'  or  loo-sfen-yin',  (Ste- 
fano,)  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Cyprus,  was 
born  in  that  island  in  1537.  He  became  a  priest,  and 
emigrated  to  Italy  in  1571.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Cyprus  from  the  Time  of  Noah  until  1572,"  and  other 
works.     Died  about  1590. 

Lussan,  de,  deh  1U's6n',  (Marguerite,)  a  French 
novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1682.  In  1730  she  published 
the  "  Story  of  the  Countess  de  Gondes,"  which  was  suc- 
cessful. She  also  wrote  "  The  Life  of  the  Brave  Crillon," 
(1757,)  and  several  historical  romances.     Died  in  1758. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  " 

Lussi,  loos'see,  (Melchior,)  a  Swiss  general  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Stanz  in  1529 ;  died  in  1606. 

Lutatius  Catulus.     See  Catulus. 

Luthbert.     See  Lubbert,  (Sibrand.) 

Lu'ther,  (Martin,)  [Ger.  pron.  maR'tin  loo'ter;  Lat. 
Marti'nus  Luthe'rus;  It.  Martino  Lutero,  maR- 
tee'no  loo-ta'ro  ;  Sp.  Martin  Lutero,  maR-tit/  loo- 
ta'ro,]  the  great  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
was  born  at  Eisleben,  the  loth  of  November,  1483.  He 
was  the  son  of  Hans  Luther,  a  miner.  His  mother's 
maiden  name  was  Margarethe  Lindemann.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin  school  at  Eisenach, 
then  under  the  direction  of  Trebonius.  In  1501  he  en- 
tered the  university  at  Erfurt.  While  here,  he  found 
in  the  university  library  a  rare  and  precious  book, — a 
Latin  Bible, — which  became  an  object  of  extraordinary 
interest  to  him.  About  this  time  a  severe  attack  of  ill- 
ness, and,  soon  after,  the  sudden  death  of  one  of  his 
intimate  friends,  (caused,  as  some  historians  state,  by  a 
stroke  of  lightning,)  produced  such  an  impression  on 
the  mind  of  young  Luther,  that  he  made  a  solemn  vow 
to  become  a  monk,  and  in  July,  1505,  he  entered  the 
Augustine  convent  at  Erfurt.  In  1507  he  was  ordained 
a  priest,  and  in  the  following  year,  through  the  influence 
of  Staupitz,  (the  provincial  of  his  order,  and  subsequently 
vicar-general,)  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Wittenberg.  Luther's  visit  to  Rome, 
made  in  1510,  in  fulfilment  of  a  previous  vow,  opened  to 
him  new  views  of  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
Romish  Church.  In  1512  he  was  made  licentiate  and 
doctor  of  divinity,  and  began  about  this  time  to  declare 
openly  his  views  of  scriptural  theology,  which  he  ex- 
plained according  to  the  system  of  Saint  Augustine, 
resting  the  doctrine  of  justification  solely  on  faith  in  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Saviour.  In  1517,  Tetzel,  a  Dominican 
monk,  received  from  the  pope,  (Leo  X.,)  through  the 
Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  a  commission  for  the  sale  of 
indulgences.  With  a  view  to  increase  the  demand  for 
his  merchandise,  Tetzel  asserted,  what  few  or  none  of 
the  other  Catholics  appear  to  have  ever  claimed,  that 
the  indulgences  not  only  released  the  purchasers  from 
the  necessity  of  penance,  but  absolved  them  from  all  the 
consequences  of  sin  both  here  and  hereafter.  Indignant 
at  what  he  regarded  as  an  insult  to  reason  and  religion, 
Luther  drew  up  his  celebrated  ninety-five  propositions, 
in  which  he  set  forth  in  the  strongest  language  the  theo- 


a,  e, !,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsatre;  Qr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LUTHER 


1597 


L  CITHER 


logical  unsoundness  as  well  as  the  pernicious  effects  of 
Tetzel's  doctrine  of  indulgences.  This  publication  in- 
volved Luther  in  violent  controversies.  Among  the 
most  conspicuous  of  his  opponents  was  Dr.  Eck,  (in 
Latin,  Eckius  or  Ecciits,)  professor  of  divinity  at  Ingol- 
j  stadt.     But  the  cause  of  the  Reformer  steadily  gained 

I  ground,  and  among  the  number  of  his  favourers  was 

'  Frederick  the  Wise,  the  Elector  of  Saxony, — one  of  the 

most  powerful  princes  of  Germany.  Leo  having  sum- 
moned Luther  to  plead  his  cause  at  Rome,  the  Elector 
i  interposed,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  examination  or 

trial  should  take  place  at  Augsburg,  before  Cardinal 
Cajetan,  (Caietano,)  the  legate  of  the  pope.  The  car- 
dinal having  refused  to  enter  into  any  discussion  with 
Luther,  at  the  same  time  insisting  that  the  latter  should 
submit  himself  unreservedly  to  the  authority  of  the 
papal  see,  Luther,  fearing — perhaps  with  too  much 
reason — the  fate  of  John  Huss,  secretly  withdrew  from 
Augsburg,  leaving  an  "  appeal  to  the  pope  when  he 
should  be  better  informed."  Soon  after  Leo  issued  a 
bull  in  support  of  the  doctrine  of  indulgences  ;  where- 
upon Luther  appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council 
of  the  Church. 

With  a  view  to  restore  tranquillity  to  the  Church,  Leo 
;  bent  his  chamberlain  Miltitz — a  Saxon  by  birth,  and  a 

man  of  great  tact  and  intelligence — as  nuncio  into  Ger- 
many. By  kindness  and  flattery,  Miltitz  obtained  from 
Luther  (March,  1519)  a  promise  that  he  would  submit 
to  the  authority  of  the  pope  and  discontinue  the  con- 
troversy respecting  indulgences,  on  condition  that  his 
adversaries  should  also  preserve  silence  on  the  subject. 
Dr.  Eck,  however,  would  not  permit  the  controversy  to 
slumber.  He  soon  after  challenged  Carlstadt,  one  of 
Luther's  disciples,  to  a  public  dispute  at  Leipsic  ;  so  that 
Luther  himself  was  again  almost  unavoidably  involved 
in  the  contest.  The  result  was  a  confirmation  of  his 
former  views  of  the  fallibility  of  the  pope  and  the  errors 
of  the  Church,  which  found  expression  in  several  publi- 
cations, and  especially  in  a  work  entitled  "  De  Captivi- 
tate  Babylonica  Ecclesiae,"  ("  On  the  Babylonian  Cap- 
tivity of  the  Church.")  Leo  had,  a  short  time  previously 
to  this  publication,  issued  a  bull  condemning  forty-one 
propositions  which  had  been  selected  from  the  works  of 
Luther,  and  directing  the  bishops  to  search  diligently 
for  the  writings  in  which  those  errors  were  contained, 
and  to  have  them  publicly  burned.  Luther  resolved  to 
anticipate  the  blow,  and  at  the  same  time  to  render  the 
breach  between  himself  and  Rome  forever  impassable. 
Attended  by  a  crowd  of  doctors,  professors,  and  students, 
he  proceeded  to  a  spot  fixed  on  for  the  purpose,  without 
the  walls  of  Wittenberg,  near  the  east  gate,  and  there 
burned  before  the  assembled  multitude  the  bull,  with 
the  accompanying  decretals  and  canons  relating  to  the 
pope's  supreme  authority. 

Up  to  this  period,  it  would  appear  that  the  reverence 
for  the  Church  in  which  Luther  had  been  educated  had 
always  exercised  a  controlling  influence  upon  his  mind  ; 
for,  although  he  denounced  in  the  boldest  manner  the 
abuses  of  the  ecclesiastical  power,  he  had  ever  mani- 
fested a  profound  respect  for  the  sovereign  pontiff  him- 
self. But  now  he  broke  through  all  restraint,  and  not 
only  denied  the  authority  of  the  pope,  but  he  assailed 
him  with  all  the  fierce  invective  and  vituperation  which 
were  so  common  in  that  age. 

After  this  additional  provocation,  it  was  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  thunders  of  the  Church  should  slumber. 
Not  content  with  merely  excommunicating  Luther  and 
laying  every  place  which  should  harbour  him  under  an 
interdict,  Leo  urged  the  newly-elected  emperor,  Charles 
V.',  to  come  forward  as  the  champion  of  Catholicism 
and  inflict  upon  the  arch-heretic  and  his  adherents  the 
punishment  due  to  their  apostasy.  But  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  to  whom  Charles  had  been  indebted  for  his  new 
dignity,  interposed  a  second  time,  and  so  far  prevailed 
that  it  was  determined  the  cause  of  Luther  should  be 
tried  before  the  Diet  of  the  empire.  The  Diet  assem- 
bled at  Worms  early  in  the  year  1521.  It  was  the  wish 
and  intention  of  the  legate  Aleander  and  the  other 
advocates  of  the  papal  cause  that  Luther  should  not  be 
present  at  his  own  trial.  But  the  majority  of  the  Diet, 
whether  influenced  by  friendship  for  the  Reformer  or  by 


the  desire  to  preserve  the  appearance  of  justice  in  their 
proceedings,  insisted  that  Luther  should  not  be  con- 
demned unheard.  The  emperor  was  prevailed  upon  to 
grant  him  a  safe-conduct,  (dated  March  6,  1521.)  The 
greater  number  of  Luther's  friends  earnestly  dissuaded 
him  from  going  to  Worms.  Even  Spalatin,  the  secretary 
and  confidential  adviser  of  the  Elector  Frederick,  sent 
him  a  pressing  message  exhorting  him  on  no  account  to 
enter  that  city.  Luther  replied,  "  Were  there  as  many 
devils  in  Worms  as  tiles  upon  the  roofs  of  the  houses, 
still  would  I  enter,"  ("  Wenn  so  viel  Teufel  zu  Worms 
waren  als  Ziegel  auf  den  D'achern,  doch  wollt'  ich 
hinein.")  He  arrived  in  the  city  on  the  i6th  of  April, 
and  appeared  before  the  Diet  the  following  day.  When 
asked  if  he  was  the  author  of  the  works  produced  against 
him,  containing  the  passages  which  had  been  condemned, 
he  replied  in  the  affirmative.  On  being  again  asked 
whether  he  was  prepared  to  retract  the  objectionable 
doctrines  contained  in  them,  he  answered  that,  as  this 
question  concerned  the  word  of  God,  the  Christian  faith, 
and  the  salvation  of  souls,  it  was  of  great  importance 
that  he  should  not  speak  rashly,  lest  he  should  offend 
against  the  word  of  God  :  he  therefore  desired  that  time 
might  be  allowed  him  for  consideration.  The  next  day 
he  was  again  brought  before  the  Diet.  While  he  ad- 
mitted that  in  some  instances  he  might  have  written 
with  less  humility  and  more  violence  than  became  his 
ecclesiastical  character,  he  refused  to  retract  anything 
that  he  had  said,  unless  it  could  be  shown  to  be  con- 
trary to  the  Scriptures  ;  at  the  same  time,  he  boldly 
repeated  and  defended  several  of  his  positions  which 
had  been  objected  to.  Hereupon  Charles  and  the  other 
favourers  of  the  Catholic  cause  refused  to  hear  him  any 
further.  He  was  commanded  to  leave  Worms.  He 
accordingly  returned  to  Saxony.  As  he  was  journeying 
on  the  borders  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  he  was  sud- 
denly seized  by  a  number  of  warriors  in  masks,  and 
hurried  off  to  the  solitary  castle  of  Wartburg,  where 
his  ecclesiastical  habit  was  exchanged  for  the  dress 
and  sword  of  a  knight.  This  whole  proceeding  was  a 
stratagem  of  Frederick  to  protect  the  Reformer  against 
the  designs  of  his  enemies.  Luther  had  previously  been 
apprised  of  the  scheme.  He  remarks,  in  one  of  his  letters, 
that  he  scarcely  knew  himself  in  his  strange  disguise. 

Immediately  after  the  departure  of  Luther,  Aleander, 
the  Papal  legate,  prevailed  on  Charles  to  give  the  edict 
against  him  the  sanction  of  the  imperial  signature  and 
seal.  It  was  declared,  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  that, 
as  soon  as  the  term  of  his  safe-conduct  had  expired, 
Luther  should  be  seized  and  held  in  durance  until  they 
should  be  informed  how  to  deal  with  him. 

Luther  remained  in  the  castle  of  Wartburg  about  ten 
months.  He  left  it  in  March,  1522,  and  returned  to  Wit- 
tenberg in  order  to  rebuke  the  excesses  into  which  some 
of  his  former  disciples  had  fallen.  In  1524  he  laid  aside 
the  monastic  dress;  and  in  1525  he  married  Catharina 
von  Bora,  who  had  once  been  a  nun.  Luther  completed 
his  German  version  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1534;  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  had  appeared  in  1522. 
These  translations,  by  their  extensive  circulation,  as  well 
as  by  the  force  and  beauty  of  the  language,  have  exerted 
a  most  important  influence  upon  German  literature, 
which  may  almost  be  said  to  date  its  origin  from  their 
com])osition. 

Frederick  the  Wise,  Luther's  faithful  friend  and  pro- 
tector, died  in  1525,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
John,  who  was  an  open  and  devoted  adherent  of  the 
great  Reformer.  During  the  latter  portion  of  his  life, 
Luther  was  held  in  the  highest  consideration  by  most 
of  the  princes  of  Germany,  where  his  doctrines  continued 
to  spread,  and  finally,  even  during  his  lifetime,  extended 
to  Moravia,  Bohemia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  He  died 
at  Eisleben,  the  i8th  of  February,  1546,  in  the  sixty-third 
year  of  his  age.  Among  Luther's  voluminous  works, 
his  translation  of  the  Bible,  already  mentioned,  is  the 
most  important.  Besides  his  controversial  writings,  he 
has  left  numerous  letters,  sermons,  etc.  His  "  Table- 
Talk,"  ("Tischreden,")  which  is,  says  Carlyle,  "the 
most  interesting  now  of  all  the  books  proceeding  from 
him,"  consists  of  sayings  and  anecdotes  collected  by 
Luther's  friends  after  his  death. 


€  as  k;  5  as  J,"  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  n,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  i  n  this.     1  Jl^^See  Expl  an  ations,  p.  23. ) 


L  UTHER 


1598 


LUTZOW 


Although  the  character  of  Luther  was  especially  dis- 
tinguished by  ardent  zeal  and  unconquerable  courage, 
yet  on  important  occasions  he  could  exercise  the  greatest 
moderation  as  well  as  discretion.  The  intrepidity  with 
which  he  faced  the  dangers  that  threatened  him  at  Worms 
is  not  more  deserving  of  our  praise  than  the  admirable 
prudence  and  tact  which  he  displayed  in  his  defence  on 
that  memorable  occasion.  The  fierce  invective  and  coarse 
vituperation  for  which  his  controversial  writings  have 
been  censured,  are  palliated  by  the  consideration  that 
such  was  the  almost  universal  custom  of  that  age.  If 
his  opposition  was  violent,  it  was  not  malignant  or  un- 
forgiving. When  his  bitterest  enemy,  Tetzel, — the  man 
who  had  excited  Luther's  fiercest  indignation, — was  in 
misfortune  and  disgrace,  forsaken  by  all  his  friends,  he 
received  from  his  generous  adversary  a  letter  of  con- 
dolence and  consolation.  As  a  reformer,  Luther  sought 
to  introduce  such  changes  only  as  he  deemed  to  be  im- 
peratively demanded  ;  and  to  the  last  he  clung  to  some 
of  the  doctrines  of  his  early  faith  which  were  rejected 
by  all  or  nearly  all  the  other  Protestants.  He  was  always 
an  advocate  of  peace  where  peace  could  be  had  without 
the  sacrifice  of  any  great  principle ;  and,  so  long  as  he 
lived,  he  steadfastly  opposed,  both  by  his  counsels  and 
by  his  influence,  those  religious  contests  which  after  his 
death  desolated  Germany. 

"Justification  by  Faith"  formed  the  great  central  doc- 
trine in  Luther's  system  of  theology,  as  unconditional 
election  and  reprobation  was  the  central  idea  of  that  of 
Calvin.  The  great  aim  of  the  latter  would  seem  to  have 
been  to  prove  the  utter  and  absolute  helplessness  of 
man  ;  and,  in  the  march  of  his  inexorable  logic,  he  some- 
times appears  equally  regardless  of  the  hopes  of  man- 
kind and  of  the  justice  of  God.  Luther,  while  ascribing 
everything  in  the  act  of  conversion  to  the  grace  of  God, 
seems  not  so  completely  to  close  the  door  to  human 
aspirations, — taking  for  his  motto,  "  If  thou  canst  believe 
— all  things  are  possible  to  him  that  believeth." 

Luther  is  described  as  a  man  of  low  stature  but  hand- 
some person,  with  a  lively  complexion  and  falcon  eyes. 
His  voice  was  clear  and  of  great  power.  On  behold- 
ing his  picture,  Melanchthon  is  said  to  have  exclaimed, 
"  Each  one  of  thy  words  was  a  thunderbolt !"  ("  Fulmina 
erant  singula  verba  tua.")  Carlyle  says  of  him,  "No 
more  valiant  man  ever  lived  in  that  Teutonic  kindred 
whose  character  is  valour  :  the  thing  he  will  quail  before 
exists  not  on  this  earth  or  under  it."  "  He  was,"  observes 
Heine,  "not  only  the  greatest,  but  the  most  German, 
man  of  our  history.  In  his  character  all  the  faults  and  all 
the  virtues  of  the  Germans  are  combined  on  the  largest 
scale.  He  had  qualities  which  are  very  seldom  found 
united,  which  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  irrecon- 
cilable antagonisms.  .  .  .  He  was  not  only  the  tongue, 
but  the  sword,  of  his  time.  Sometimes  he  was  wild 
as  the  storm  that  uproots  the  oak,  and  again  he  was 
as  gentle  as  the  zephyr  which  dallies  with  the  violet," 
In  a  not  dissimilar  strain,  Carlyle  contrasts  the  wild, 
unconquerable  energy  with  the  affectionate  tenderness 
of  Luther's  character:  "A  most  gentle  heart  withal, 
full  of  pity  and  love,  as,  indeed,  the  truly  valiant  heart 
ever  is."  Alluding  to  Luther's  fondness  for  music,  he 
adds,  "Death-defiance  on  the  one  hand,  and  such  love 
of  music  on  the  other, — between  these  two,  all  great 
things  had  room." 

Those  who  may  desire  to  see  a  less  favourable  view  of 
the  great  Reformer's  character  and  influence,  are  referred 
to  the  article  "Luther"  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale,"  from  the  pen  of  the  editor.  Dr.  Hoefer, 

See  D'AuBiGN^,  "'History  of  the  Reformation;"  Michelet, 
"Memoires  de  Luther,"  2  vols.,  1835;  Melanchthon,  "Life  of 
Luther,"  ("Vita  Lutheri;")  Johann  Mathesius,  "Historiavon 
Dr.  M.  Luther's  Anfang,  Lehr,  Leben,"  etc.,  1565  :  Immanuel  Vega, 
"  De  M.  Lutheri  Vila  et  Miraculis,"  15S6:  AL  Dres.ser,  "  Historia 
M.  Lutheri,"  1598  ;  T.  Havnk,  "  Life  and  Death  of  Martin  Luther," 
1641  :  C.  JuNCKER,  "Vita  Lutheri,"  etc.,  1699;  C.  M.  Seidel,  "  Er- 
bauliches  Leben  Dr.  M.  Luther's,"  1718;  J.  Colerus,  "  Lutherua 
Redivivus,"  1718;  J.  Cochlaeus,  "  Commentaria  de  Actis  et  Scriptis 
M.  Lutheri,"  1549:  N.  Taillepied,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  M.  Lu- 
ther," 1577  ;  Glocerus,  "  Historia  vonderLehre,  Leben,  etc.  Dr.  M. 
Lutheri,"  1586;  J.  D.  Herrenschmidt,  "Vita  Dr.  ^L  Lutheri," 
etc.,  1742;  C.  J.  Wagenseil,  "  Lebensgeschichte  Dr.  M.  Luther's," 
1782  J  TisCHER,  "  Leben,  Thaten  und  Meinungen  Dr.  M.  Luther's," 
1783;  F.  G.  ZiMMERMANN,  "  Memoria  Dr.  M.  Lutheri,"  1808;  A. 
Bower.  "  Life  of  Dr.  M.  Luther,"  1813;  Ukert.  "Dr.  M.  Luther's 


Leben,"  1S17  ;  H.  MuEi.t.ER,  "  Dr.  M.  Luthers  Leben  und  Wirken," 
1817  ;  Stang,  "  M.  Luther,  sein  Leben,"  etc.,  1S35  ;  G.  Pfizer,  "  M. 
Luther's  Leben,"  1836;  J.  E.  Riddle,  "Luther  and  his  Times," 
1837  ;  John  Scott,  "  Luther  and  the  Lutheran  Reformation,"  1S38; 
AUDIN,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  M.  Luther,"  2  vols.,  1839;  Hannah 
Lee,  "  Life  and  Times  of  M.  Luther,"  Boston,  1839;  M.  Meurer, 
"  M.  Luther's  Leben,"  3  vols.,  \^\h;  Carl  JOrgens,  "M.  Luther  s 
Leben,"  3  vols.,  1847  ;  R.  Ferguson,  "  Luther:  his  Times,  Charac- 
ter, and  Works,"  1848:  F.  VV.  Genthe,  "Leben  und  Wirken  Dr. 
M.  Luther's,"  1842:  Ignaz  Dollinger,  "Luther:  eine  Skizze," 
1S51  ;  E.  Haag,  "Vie  de  M.  Luther,"  1840;  Jander,  "Luther's 
Leben,"  etc.,  1S53;  N.  M.  Petersen,  "M.  Luther's  I.evnet,"  1840; 
J.  A.  Cramer,  "Luther  und  Melanchthon,"  1817;  Paul  Seidel, 
"  Historia  und  Geschichte  des  Vaters  Dr.  M.  Lutheri,"  1581 ;  Carl 
R.  RiCHTER,  "Geschichte  Dr.  M.  Luther's,"  1817;  K.  F.  A. 
Kahnis,  "  Lutherische  Dogmatik,"  2  vols.,  t86i-68;  Dr.  C.  P. 
Krauth,  "  The  Conservative  Reformation  and  its  Theology,"  etc., 
1870;  Carlyle,  "On  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship;"  Hedge,  "Prose 
Writers  of  Germany;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1839; 
and  the  recent  "  Life"  by  Kostlin.  and  that  by  Plitt. 

Luther,  (Paul,)  a  chemist,  son  of  the  preceding,  waa 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1533.  He  became  physician  to 
Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  to  his  successor,  Chris- 
tian.    Died  at  Leipsic  in  1593. 

Luther,  (Karl  Theodor  Robert,)  a  German  as- 
tronomer, born  April  16,  1822.  He  discovered  twenty 
small  planets  or  asteroids  between  1852  and  1875. 

Lutherburg.     See  Loutherbourg. 

Luti,  loo'tee,  or  Lutti,  loot'tee,  (Benedetto,)  an 
excellent  .Italian  painter  of  history,  born  at  Florence  in 
1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Gabbiani.  He  worked  chiefly  in 
Rome,  and  was  patronized  by  Clement  XI.  According 
to  Lanzi,  many  connoisseurs  designated  him  the  last 
master  of  the  Florentine  school.  Among  his  merits  are 
forms  delicate  and  graceful,  and  a  skilful  distribution  of 
colours  and  shadows.  He  painted  in  oil,  in  fresco,  and 
in  pastel.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  an  "Annun- 
ciation," "San  Ranieri  taking  the  Habit,"  and  "The 
Prophet  Isaiah,"  in  the  Lateran,     Died  in  1724. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Diziona 
rio;"  WiNCKELMANN,  "  Neues  Mahler- Lexikon." 

Lutke,  loot'keh,  (Feodor  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian 
navigator  and  explorer,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1797. 
In  1821  he  was  commissioned  to  explore  Kamschatka, 
in  1822-24  he  made  several  voyages  in  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, and  in  1826-28  he  commanded  an  exploring  ex- 
pedition round  the  world,  in  which  he  was  accompanied 
by  a  scientific  staff.  He  was  made  an  admiral  in  1856, 
and  a  count  in  1866.     Died  in  August,  1882. 

Luton,  lii'tiN^  (Louis,)  a  French  chemist  and  painter 
on  glass,  born  in  Paris  in  1757 ;  died  in  1852. 

Luttrell,  Colonel.     See  Wilkes,  (John.) 

Lut'trell,  (Henry,)  an  English  poet,  wit,  and  man  of 
fashion,  born  in  1770.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  natural 
son  of  Lord  Carhampton.  He  published  "  Advice  to 
Julia,  a  Letter  in  Rhyme,"  (1820,)  and  "  Crock  ford 
House,"  (1S27,)  but  was  best  known  as  a  brilliant  talker 
in  London  society.     Died  in  185 1. 

Lut'trell,  (Narcissus,)  an  English  political  writer, 
who  kept  a  diary  of  public  events  during  the  Revolution 
of  1688  and  subsequent  years,  which  Macaulay  often 
quotes  and  calls  a  valuable  manuscript.  Died  about 
1732.     His  diary  was  published  in  1857. 

See  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1857. 

Lutz,  loots,  (Wilhelm  Meyer,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Mannerstadt,  Kissingen,  in  1829. 
In  1848  he  went  to  England,  where  he  has  since  resided. 
He  has  produced  many  operas  and  operettas,  chief 
among  which  are  "Faust  and  Marguerite,"  (1855,) 
"Zaida,"  (1868,)  "Legend  of  the  Lys,"  (1873,)  ^'c. 

Liitzelburger  or  Luetzelburger,  ISt'sel-booRc'er, 
sometimes  erroneously  written  Leutzelburger,  (Hans,) 
also  called  Hans  Frank,  a  Swiss  wood-engraver,  of 
whom  very  little  is  known,  lived  about  1520-40.  Among 
the  most  important  works  attributed  to  him  is  the 
"  Dance  of  Death,"  (usually  ascribed  to  Holbein,)  "  Illus- 
trations of  the  Old  Testament,"  a  portrait  of  Erasmus, 
and  "The  Sale  of  Indulgences." 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Ltitzow  or  LuetzQ-w,  liit'so,  (Ludwig  Adolf  Wil- 
helm,) a  Prussian  general,  born  in  1782.  In  1813  he 
commanded  a  free  corps  of  "  black  chasseurs"  against 
the  French.     Died  at  Kerlin,  December  6,  1834. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long; i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LUTZOW 


1599 


LUZAC 


Liitzow,  von,  fon  liit'so,  (Theresa  von  Struve,) 
Madame,  a  German  authoress,  born  at  Stuttgart  in 
1804.  She  wrote  several  novels  and  books  of  travel. 
Died  in  Java  in  1852. 

Luvigini,  loo-ve-jee'nee,  Luisini,  loo-e-See'nee,  or 
Luisino,  looesee'no,  [Lat.  Luisi'nus,]  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Udine  in  1523.  He  was  pre- 
ceptor of  the  son  of  Ottavio  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Latin  Commentary  on  Horace's 
Art  of  Poetry,"  (1554.)  His  poetical  talent  is  praised 
by  Muret  and  Giraldi.     Died  in  1568. 

Luvigini  or  Luisino,  (Luicr,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Udine,  was  a  physician  at  Venice.  Among 
his  works  is  a  version  of  the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hippocrates, 
in  Latin  hexameters,  (1552.) 

Lux,  looks,  (Adam,)  a  German  republican,  born  at 
Mentz  about  1770.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  in  March,  1793, 
to  solicit  the  annexation  of  his  country  to  France.  He 
witnessed  with  sympathy  and  admiration  the  conduct  of 
Charlotte  Corday  at  her  execution.  A  few  days  later  he 
published  an  apology  for  that  heroine.  For  this  and 
other  offences  he  was  executed  in  November,  1793. 

Luxdorf,  looks'doRf,  (Bolle  Willum,)  a  Danish 
writer  and  lawyer,  born  in  the  island  of  Seeland  in  1716. 
He  cultivated  Latin  jjoetry  with  success.     Died  in  1788. 

Luxembourg,  liik'sSN'booR',  (Christian  Louis  de 
MoNTMORENCi,)  Prince  de  Tingri,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1675,  was  the  fourth  son  of  the  great  Mar- 
shal Luxembourg.  For  his  services  at  Oudenarde  and 
Lille  (170S)  he  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 
He  commanded  at  Ettlingen  in  1734,  and  was  made  a 
marshal  of  France  in  the  same  year.  From  that  time  he 
was  called  Marshal  de  Montmorenci.     Died  in  1746. 

See  PiNARD,  "  Chronologie  militaire." 

Luxembourg,  de,  deh  liik'sSN'booR',  (Charles 
Francois  Fr6d6ric  de  Montmorenci,)  Marshal, 
born  in  1702,  was  a  grandson  of  the  first  Marshal  Lux- 
embourg. He  was  aide-de-camp  of  Louis  XV.  in  the 
war  of  1 741,  and,  having  served  with  distinction  in  Ger- 
many, became  a  marshal  of  France.  He  gave  a  home  to 
J.  J.  Rousseau  at  Montmorenci.  (See  the  notice  of  his 
wife,  below.)     Died  in  1764. 

See  Rousseau,  "Confessions." 

Luxembourg,  de,  written  also  Luxemburg,  (Fran- 
cois Henri  de  Montmorenci,)  Due,  a  celebrated  mar- 
shal of  France,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  son  of  the 
Count  de  Montmorenci-Bouteville,  and  a  cousin-german 
of  the  great  Prince  de  Conde.  For  his  conduct  at  Lens 
in  1648  he  was  made  marechal-de-camp.  From  devotion 
to  the  Prince  of  Conde,  he  served  several  campaigns 
against  France  between  1653  and  1659,  during  which 
period  Conde  commanded  the  Spanish  army.  Having 
received  a  pardon  from  the  king  in  1660,  he  married  the 
heiress  of  the  house  of  Luxembourg,  and  assumed  that 
name.  In  1672  he  obtained  command  of  an  army  which 
invaded  Holland  and  took  several  towns.  His  skilful 
retreat  from  Utrecht  to  Charleroi  in  November,  1673, 
raised  him  to  the  rank  of  the  first  captains  of  that  age. 
In  1674  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of  Conde's  army 
at  Senef,  and  in  1675  received  a  marshal's  baton.  He 
gained  victories  over  the  allies  in  Flanders  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1677,  which  was  followed  by  a  long  peace. 
Having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Louvois,  he  was  confined 
in  the  IBastille  fourteen  months  on  a  charge  of  sorcery. 
In  1690,  Louis  XIV.,  against  whom  Austria,  Spain,  and 
England  had  formed  a  coalition,  gave  the  chief  com- 
mand of  his  army  to  Marshal  Luxembourg,  who,  since 
the  death  of  Turenne  and  Conde,  was  the  ablest  of  his 
generals.  He  defeated  the  allies  at  Fleurus  in  1690. 
In  the  campaign  of  1691  he  defeated  William  III.  of 
England  at  the  great  battle  of  Steenkerke.  He  was  victo- 
rious over  the. same  enemy  and  leader  at  Neerwinden, 
or  Landen,  in  1693.  He  died  in  January,  1695,  after 
which  the  army  of  Louis  gained  few  victories.  "Even 
the  admirers  of  William  III.,"  says  Macaulay,  "were 
forced  X.o  own  that  in  the  field  he  was  not  a  match  for 
Luxembourg,"  whose  "judgment  was  clearest  and  surest 
when  responsibility  pressed  heaviest  on  him  and  when 
difficulties  gathered  thickest  around  him."  "He  gained 
immense  renown  at  William's  expense  ;  but  he  had  not 
the  art  of  improving  a  victory,  while  William,  of  all  gen- 


erals, was  best  qualified  to  repair  a  defeat."     ("  History 
of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xix.) 

See  Beaurain,  "  Histoire  militaire  du  Due  de  Luxembourg," 
1756;  "Memoirs  of  Marshal  Luxemburg,"  written  by  himself,  1758; 
VoLTAiRH,  "Siicle  de  Louis  XTV;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires;" 
Drsormbaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorenci,"  vols.  iv.  and 
V.  ;  L.  Artoing.  "  Le  Maieclial  de  Luxembourg,"  1853;  "  NouvelU 
Biographie  Gf^nerale." 

Luxembourg  or  Luxemburg,  de,  (Louis,)  Comtc 
de  Saint-Pol,  an  ambitious  French  general,  born  in  1418. 
He  fought  against  Louis  XI.  at  Montlheri  about  1464, 
but  was  soon  after  won  over  by  the  high  office  of  Con- 
stable of  France,  and  married  the  queen's  sister,  Marie 
de  Savoie.  He  was  called  the  pivot  of  the  principal 
intrigues  of  that  time.  His  perfidy  provoked  Louis  XL 
and  Charles  the  Bold  to  declare  him  their  common 
enemy.     He  was  beheaded  in  1475. 

See  CoMiNES,  "  M^moires  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Franpais ;'' 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Luxembourg,  de,  (Madeline  Ang^lique  de  Neuf- 
ville-Villeroi — deh  nuf'vM'  v^l'Kvva',)  Mar6chale- 
DucHESSE,  born  in  1707,  was  agranddaughter  of  Marshal 
Villeroi.  She  was  married  to  Marshal  C.  F.  de  Luxem- 
bourg in  1750.  About  1758  this  couple  gave  Rousseau 
an  asylum  at  Montmorenci.  Rousseau  has  commemo- 
rated in  his  "Confessions"  her  charming  conversation 
and  liberality.  Her  rank  and  talents  gave  her  great 
social  influence  in  Paris.     Died  in  1787. 

Luxembourg-Ligni,  de,  deh  liik'sSN'booR'  lin'ye', 
(Waleran,)  Comte  de  Saint-Pol,  was  born  in  1355,  of 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  families  of  Europe.  While 
fighting  for  the  French  king,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  English  in  1374-  He  married  Matilda,  a  sister  of 
Richard  II.  of  England.  Having  been  chosen  Con- 
stable of  France  in  1412,  he  defeated  the  Armagnacs 
in  battle.     Died  in  1417. 

Luxemburg.    See  Luxembourg. 

Luyken  or  Luycken,  loi'ken,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  en- 
graver, born  in  1649,  lived  in  Amsterdam.  He  etched, 
after  his  own  designs,  many  admired  works,  which  dis- 
play a  fertile  invention.  The  "Death  of  Coligny"  is 
called  his  best  production.     Died  in  17 12. 

Luynes  or  Luines,  de,  deh  lii-^n',  (Charles  d'Al- 
BERT,)  Due,  the  favourite  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France, 
was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1578.  As  the  companion 
of  Louis  in  youth,  he  acquired  an  ascendency  over  him, 
and  about  1616  he  became  his  most  powerful  minister. 
His  cupidity  and  ambition  excited  many  enemies,  among 
whom  was  the  king's  mother ;  but  through  his  influence 
she  was  sent  into  exile.  In  1621  he  was  appointed  Con- 
stable of  France,  and  declared  war  against  the  Hugue- 
nots. It  appears  that  Louis  had  resolved  to  discard  him  ; 
but  before  that  purpose  was  effected  Luynes  died,  in 
December,  1621.  He  was  a  brother  of  Marshal  Chaulnes, 
noticed  in  this  work. 

See  Bazin,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XIII;"  Bassompierre,  "M^- 
moires ;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
pliie Generale." 

Luynes,  de,  (Honor^  Th:6odoric  Paul  Joseph 
d'Albert,)  Duo,  a  French  antiquary,  born  iii  Paris  in 
1802,  was  a  liberal  patron  of  arts  and  sciences.  He  was 
admitted  in  1830  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  to 
which  he  contributed  many  valuable  treatises  on  antiqui 
ties  and  medals.     Died  at  Rome,  December  14,  1867. 

Luyts,  loits,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Horn  about  1660,  became  professor  of 
physics  at  Utrecht.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy.     Died  in  1721. 

Luz,  liiz, .?  [Lat.  Lu'curs,]  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  Protest- 
ant theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1577.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Jesuits,"  (1626,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1642. 

Luzac,  lu'zik',  (Ei.ias,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and 
jurist,  born  near  Leyden  in  1723.  He  published  in  1756 
"  Researches  into  the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge." 
His  "Riches  of  Holland,"  (1778,)  a  history  of  Dutch 
commerce,  is  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1796. 

Luzac,  (Jan,)  a  philologist  and  publicist  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Leyden  in  1746.  He  practised  law  in  his 
native  place.  In  1775  he  became  chief  editor  of  the 
"Gazette  de  Leyde."  From  1785  until  1796  he  was 
professor  of  Greek  in  Leyden  University.     He  corre- 


€as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi,gutturi.ii;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ((J^^See  Explanation.s.  i).  2X.  I 


L  UZA  C 


1600 


LYCURGUS 


S])oiided  with  Washington  and  Jefferson,  the  former  of 
whom  wrote,  "America  is  under  great  obligations  to  the 
writings  and  actions  of  sucli  men  as  you."  Among  his 
works  are  "  Socrates  as  a  Citizen,"  ("De  Socrate  Cive,") 
dedicated  to  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  and  "Attic 
Readings,"  ("Lectiones  Atticse,"  1809.)  He  was  killed 
by  an  explosion  of  gunj^owder  at  Leyden  in  1807. 

See  SiEGENBEEK,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  lesTravaux  de  J.  Luzac." 

Luzac,  (Steven,)  the  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Leyden  in  1706.  He  became  in  1738  proprietor  and 
editor  of  the  "Gazette  de  Leyde,"  which  is  described 
as  a  model  of  accuracy  and  wisdom,  and  possessed  much 
historical  value.     Died  in  1787. 

Luzan,  loo-thin',  (Don  Ignacio,)  a  Spanish  critic, 
poet,  and  literary  reformer,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1702. 
About  1750  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  mint,  a 
councillor  of  state,  and  minister  of  commerce.  To  coun- 
teract the  vicious  poetical  style  of  Gongora,  he  wrote 
his  celebrated  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  ("  La  Poetica,  o  Reglas 
de  la  Poesia  en  general,"  1737,)  which  is  said  to  have 
been  effectual  in  rectifying  the  national  taste.  He  pro- 
duced several  admired  poems,  one  of  which  is  "The 
Judgment  of  Paris."    Died  in  1754. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature:"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Luzarches,  de,  deh  lu'ztRsh',  (Robert,)  a  French 
architect,  designed  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  Amiens, 
which  was  commenced  in  1220  and  finished  in  1269. 

Luzerne,  de  la,  deh  It  lii'ziRn',  (Anne  C6sar,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1741. 
In  1779  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  had  much  influence,  and  performed  with  credit 
the  duties  of  a  position  which  the  absence  of  instructions 
made  more  responsible.  He  left  the  United  States  in 
1783.  He  was  ambassador  from  France  to  London  from 
1788  until  his  death,  in  September,  1791. 

Luzerne,  de  la,  (C^sar  Guillaume,)  a  learned  prel- 
ate, born  in  Paris  in  1738,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  became  Bishop  of  Langres  in  1770,  and  was 
elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789.  He  emigrated  in 
1791,  returned  in  1814,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1817. 
Among  his  numerous  works  is  "  Considerations  on 
Divers  Points  of  Christian  Morality,"  (5  vols.,  1795.) 
Died  in  1S21. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Luzerne,  de  la,  (C6sar  Henri,)  Count,  a  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  and  a  nephew  of  Malesherbes.  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  the  marine  in  X787.  The  hostility 
of  the  dominant  party  caused  him  to  resign  in  1790.  He 
emigrated  in  1791,  and  died  in  Austria  in  1799. 

Luzzatto,  loot-sit'to,  (Philoxene,)  a  Jewish  linguist, 
a  son  of  S.  D.  Luzzatto,  was  born  at  Triest,  July  10, 
1829.  He  mastered  twelve  or  more  languages,  and  pub- 
lished various  treatises,  chiefly  on  Sanscrit,  Assyrian, 
and  other  ancient  tongues.     Died  January  25,  1854. 

Luzzatto,  (Samuel  David,)  a  Jewish  scholar,  born 
at  Triest,  in  Austria,  August  22,  1800.  In  early  life  he 
wrote  against  the  Cabbalists  and  published  some  vol- 
umes of  Hebrew  verse.  In  1829  he  was  made  professor 
of  biblical  literature  in  the  Rabbinical  College  of  Padua. 
He  wrote  various  theological  treatises,  commentaries, 
etc.,  and  left  a  nearly  complete  Italian  version  of  the  Old 
Testament.     Died  at  Padua,  September  30,  1865. 

Lyceus,  ll-ee'us,  [Gr.  AnaiOf,  from  Avu,  to  "  free"  or 
"  loosen,"]  a  surname  given  to  Bacchus,  because  he  (wine) 
frees  the  mind  from  care  ;  though  some  say  it  is  because 
he  loosens  the  limbs  of  his  votaries,  rendering  them  un- 
able to  walk.     (See  Bacchus.) 

Ly'all,  (Sir  Alfred  Comyns,)  K.C.B.,  an  English 
writer,  born  at  Coulston,  Surrey,  in  1835.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton,  and  at  Haileybury  College,  was  appointed 
home  secretary  in  India  in  1873,  foreign  secretary  in 
1878,  and  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  North-West 
Provinces  in  1882.  He  published  "Asiatic  Studies," 
(1882,)  etc.,  and  is  a  singularly  able  and  original  writer 
in  prose  and  verse. 

Lycambes.     See  Archilochus. 

Ly-ca'on,  [Gr.  Av/cuwv,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Arcadia, 
and  a  son  of  Pelasgus.     He  and  his  numerous  sons  were 


notorious  for  impiety  and  cruelty  The  poets  feigned 
that  Jupiter  in  disguise  once  visited  Lycaon,  who  offered 
him  human  flesh  to  eat,  for  which  offence  he  was  changed 
into  a  wolf 

Lycius,  lish'e^s,  [Av/cwf,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  in 
Bosotia,  lived  ab^t  425  B.C.  According  to  Pliny,  he  was 
a  pujiil  of  Myron. 

Lyconiede.     See  Lycomedes. 

Lycomede,  le'ko'mid',  the  assumed  name  of  Giu- 
seppe Maria  Arrighi,  (ar-ree'gee,)  a  Corsican  writer, 
born  in  1768.  He  published,  in  Italian,  a  "Historical 
Essay  on  the  Civil  and  Political  Revolutions  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (3  vols.,  1812.)     Died  in  1834. 

Lyc-o-me'des,  [Gr.  AvKO/if/i^rig ;  Fr.  Lycomede,  le'- 
ko'mid',]  a  king  of  Scyros  and  of  the  Dolopians,  was 
the  father  of  Deidamia,  who  became  the  mother  ot 
Pyrrhus  by  Achilles.  The  poets  relate  that  young 
Achilles  was  committed  to  his  care  by  Thetis  to  prevent 
him  from  going  to  the  Trojan  war.  Lycomedes  is  said 
to  have  murdered  Theseus,  who  sought  refuge  at  his 
court. 

Lycomedes,  [Gr.  Avko/it/^tjc]  an  Arcadian  general, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Megalopolis,  (370  B.C.)  He 
defeated  the  Spartans  in  369,  and  took  Pellene.  He  was 
murdered  about  366  B.C. 

Ly'con,  [Ar/cwv,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  acquired 
notoriety  as  one  of  the  accusers  of  Socrates.  He  was 
banished  with  Anytus  for  this  offence. 

Lycon,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Laodicea,  lived 
about  300  B.C.  He  was  the  successor  of  Strato,  and  for 
about  forty  years  was  the  head  of  the  Peripatetic  school 
of  Athens.     He  had  a  high  reputation  for  eloquence. 

See  RiTTER,  "History of  Philosophy." 

Lj^c'o-phron,  \AvK6(bpui>,]  a  Greek  poet  and  gram 
marian,  born  at  Chalcis,  in  Euboea.  He  lived  at  the 
court  of  Ptolemy  Philadeljjhus,  in  Alexandria,  from  280 
to  250  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  poets  who  were 
styled  the  "  Pleiades."  The  numerous  tragedies  which 
he  wrote  have  all  been  lost,  but  his  lyric  poem  called 
"Cassandra,"  or  "Alexandra,"  has  come  down  to  us.  It 
is  very  obscure  and  enigmatical,  but  is  admired  as  a 
prodigy  of  learning  and  valued  as  a  treasury  of  facts 
and  traditions. 

SeeOsiANDER,  "  Bemerkungen  zu  Lycophron,"  1826:  Fabricius, 
"Bibliotheca  Grsca ;"  Volker,  "  De  Lycophronis  Cassandra," 
1820;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ly-cor'tas  [AvKoprad  of  Megalopolis,  an  Achaean 
general,  was  the  father  of  Polybius  the  historian,  and  a 
friend  of  Philopoemen.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Rome  in  189  B.C.     Died  after  168  B.C. 

Lycosthenes,  le-kos'ti-nes,  (Conrad,)  the  Greek 
name  of  Conrad  Wolffhart,  a  scholar,  born  in  Alsace 
in  1 5 18.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  in  Bale  in 
1545,  and  published  a  curious  work  on  "Prodigies," 
("  Prodigiorum  Chronicon,")  a  new  edition  of  Gesner's 
"Bibliotheca,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1561. 

Ly-cur'gus,  [Gr.  AvKovpyog;Fr.  Lycurgue, le'kiiRg',] 
in  classic  mythology,  a  king  of  Thrace,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  a  persecutor  of  Bacchus,  and  to  have  been  punished 
with  madness.  According  to  another  tradition,  Jupiter 
deprived  him  of  sight. 

Lycurgus,  [Gr.  Avmi'pyoc :  Fr.  LVCURGUE,  le'kiiRg'; 
Ger.  LVKUKGUS,  le-kooR'goos,]  a  famous  Spartan  law- 
giver, who  belongs  to  the  period  anterior  to  authentic 
history.  Plutarch  begins  his  biography  with  the  remark 
that  nothing  certain  can  be  said  concerning  him.  Accord- 
ing to  Aristotle,  he  lived  more  than  850  years  B.C.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  King  Eunomus,  who  was 
succeeded  by  another  son,  Polydectes.  At  the  death  of 
the  latter,  Lycurgus  refused  the  crown,  and  defended  the 
right  of  Charilaus,  a  posthumous  son  of  Polydectes.  He 
visited  many  foreign  countries,  whose  institutions  he 
studied,  and^  after  a  long  absence,  returned  to  Sparta, 
where  he  made  social  and  political  changes  of  the  most 
radical  kind.  His  constitution  was  considered  by  the 
Greeks  as  the  model  of  a  perfect  aristocracy,  but  con- 
tained a  strong  democratic  element.  The  executive 
power  was  divided  between  two  persons  called  kings.  A 
remarkable  feature  in  his  system  was  the  equal  division 
or  community  of  property,  which  existed  to  an  extent 
unequalled  in  any  other  country  in  ancient  or  modern 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  lit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LYCURGUS 


1601 


L  YMAN 


times.  The  interference  of  the  state  with  domestic  affairs 
and  relations  was  carried  to  a  great  excess.  His  laws  were 
Dased  on  the  idea  that  men  are  made  for  the  government, 
rather  than  the  government  for  men.  He  is  said  to  have 
prohibited  the  use  of  gold  and  silver  money,  and  abol- 
ished all  professions  among  the  Spartans  except  that  of 
arms,  assigning  all  mechanical  and  menial  employment 
to  the  slaves,  (Helots,)  who  appear  to  have  l^een  treated 
with  great  severity.  Having  imposed  on  the  people  an 
oath  that  they  would  not  alter  his  laws  during  his  ab- 
sence, he  went  into  voluntary  exile,  from  which  he  never 
returned.  Tradition  informs  us  that  he  vanished  myste- 
riously from  the  earth.  The  Spartans  erected  a  temple 
to  him,  and  paid  him  divine  honours.  According  to  one 
legend,  he  ordered  his  ashes  to  be  cast  into  the  sea  after 
his  death,  fearing  that  if  his  body  were  conveyed  to 
Sparta  the  Spartans  might  think  themselves  absolved 
from  their  oath. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Lyciirgus ;"  Grote,  "History  of 
Greece,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vl.  ;  Plato,  "  De  Legibus ;"  K.  O.  Muller, 
"Die  Dorier  ;"  Aklstotle,  "  Politica  :"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of 
Greece  ;"  Weichhrt,  "  Questionum  Lycurgearum  Specimen,"  1S44  ; 
J.  Wegelin,  "  Politische  und  nioraiische  Betrachtungen  iiber  die 
Spartanische  Gesetzgebuiig  des  Lycurgus,"  1763;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Lycurgus,  an  eminent  Athenian  orator,  born  about 
400  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Lycophron.  He  is  said  to  have 
studied  philosophy  under  Plato,  and  eloquence  under 
Isocrates.  For  about  fifteen  years  he  presided  over  the 
public  revenue  with  a  high  reputation  for  integrity  and 
financial  ability.  In  the  contest  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
he  supported  the  democratic  party.  He  was  one  of  the 
orators  whom  Alexander  required  Athens  to  deliver  up 
to  him  in  335  k.c.  This  demand  was  firmly  refused. 
Fifteen  of  his  orations  were  extant  in  the  time  of  Plu- 
tarch, and  only  one  (that  against  Leocrates)  has  come 
down  to  us.  His  style  is  noble  rather  than  elegant. 
Died  in  323  is.c. 

See  Nlssen,  "  Disseitatio  de  Lycurgi  Oratoris  Vita,"  1833;  G.  A. 
Blume,  "Navratio  de  I.ycurgo  Oratore,"  1S34;  Plutarch,  "Vitse 
Decern  Oratorum." 

Lyde.    See  Joyner,  (William.) 

Lyd'gate,  (John,)  an  old  English  poet,  born  about 
1375,  became  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  Bury  Saint  Ed- 
mund's. He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1397,  after  which 
he  travelled  on  the  continent.  On  his  return,  he  opned 
at  the  abbey  above  named  a  school,  in  which  he  taught 
languages,  rhetoric,  and  versification.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  poet.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Story  of  Thebes,"  "The  Fall  of  Princes,"  and 
the  "History,  Siege,  and  Destruction  of  Troy."  Died 
about  1460. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Lyd'i-at,  (Thomas,)  an  English  chronologer  and 
mathematician,  was  born  at  Okerton  in  1572.  He  be- 
came rector  of  Okerton  about  1612.  During  the  civil 
war  he  suffered  persecution  for  his  loyalty  to  Charles  I., 
and  he  died  very  ]30or  in  1646.  His  adversities  are 
commemorated  in  these  verses  of  Dr.  Johnson  : 
"  If  dreams  yet  flatter,  once  again  attei>d: 
Hear  Lydiat's  life  and  Galileo's  end." 

Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  a  Censure  of  Scaliger's 
Chronology,  ( "  Emendatio  Temporum  contra  Scalige- 
rum,"  1609,)  "  The  Period  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,"  and 
"The  Measurement  of  the  Solar  Year." 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Wood,  "Athe- 
nae  Oxonienses;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Lydius,  lid'e-us,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  scholar  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  a  minister  of  Dort.  He  pub- 
lished "  Belgium  Gloriosum,"  and  other  works. 

Ly'dus,  a  son  of  Atys  and  Callithea,  was  the  sup- 
posed ancestor  of  the  ancient  Lydians. 

Lydus,  [Gr.  kv&oq,\  the  surname  of  Joannes  Lau- 
KENTlus,  ['I(jdw7/f  AavpffTtof,]  a  Greek  historical  writer, 
born  at  Philadelphia,  in  Lydia,  about  490  A.D.  He  was 
employed  many  years  in  various  official  functions  in  the 
imperial  palace  at  Constantinople.  He  resigned  his 
offices  about  550,  and  afterwards  wrote  many  works, 
some  of  which  are  lost.  An  important  treatise,  "  On  the 
Magistrates  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  is  still  extant. 

See  Photius,  "  Bibliotheca ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 


Lye,  il,  (Edward,)  an  English  philologist  and  clergy- 
man, born  at  Totness  in  1704.  Soon  after  he  left  college 
he  obtained  the  living  of  Houghton  Parva,  and  in  1750 
became  vicar  of  Yardley  Hastings.  He  acquired  dis- 
tinction by  his  researches  into  the  Saxon  language  and 
literature.  In  1743  he  published  the  "  Etymologicon 
Anglicanum,"  which  Francis  Junius  had  left  in  manu- 
script. His  chief  work  is  his  "Anglo-Saxon  and  Gothic 
Dictmnary,"  (1772.)     Died  in  1767. 

Ly'ell,  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  botanist,  born  about 
1767,  resided  at  Kinnordy,  Forfarshire.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  geologist  of  the  same  name.    Died  in  1849. 

Lyell,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  eminent  British  geologist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kinnordy,  in  Forfar- 
shire, in  November,  1797.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1821,  and  studied  law,  but  soon  relinquished  the  prac 
tice  of  that  profession  in  order  to  devote  his  time  to 
geology.  About  1826  he  began  to  contribute  to  the 
"Transactions  of  the  Geological  Society"  a  series  of 
papers  which  display  superior  powers  of  observation 
and  comparison,  and  in  1830  published  the  first  volume 
of  his  important  work,  "  Principles  of  Geology,"  (3 
vols.,  1830-33,)  which  was  very  favourably  received.  It 
reached  the  fif^th  edition  in  1837.  He  afterwards  divided 
the  work  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  was  published 
under  the  title  of  "Elements  of  Geology,"  (1838.)  In  a 
subsequent  edition  the  name  was  changed  to  "  Manual 
of  Elementary  Geology."  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
his  work  contributed  much  to  place  geology  on  a  philo- 
sophical basis  as  an  inductive  science.  Having  visited 
the  United  States  in  1841,  he  lectured  on  geology  at  Bos- 
ton, and  after  his  return  published  "  Travels  in  North 
America,  with  Geological  Observations  on  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Nova  Scotia,"  (2  vols.,  1845.)  ^^^ 
also  wrote  many  treatises  on  the  geology  of  America, 
which  were  printed  in  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society,  and  in  other  journals.  In  1845  he  made 
another  excursion  to  the  United  States,  the  result  of 
which  was  a  "  Second  Visit  to  the  United  States,"  (2 
vols.,  1849.)  Both  of  these  books  of  travel  contain  much 
to  interest  the  general  reader.  Mr.  Lyell  was  knighted 
in  1848.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Geological 
Society  in  1836,  and  again  in  1850.  He  published  in 
1863  "The  Geological  Evidences  of  the  Antiquity  of 
Man,  with  Remarks  on  Theories  of  the  Origin  of  Species 
by  Variation."  He  was  formerly  prominent  among  the 
opponents  of  the  "development"  or  Darwinian  theory; 
but  later  in  life  he  changed  his  views  in  that  respect. 
Died  February  22,  1875. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1839,  and  July.  1863  ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1849,  and 
October,  1S51  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  February,  1851 ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1845. 

Ly'fprd,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Berkshire  about  1598.  He  became  a  Calvinistic  minister 
at  Sherborne,  Dorsetshire,  and  wrote  several  works,  one 
of  which  is  called  "  Principles  of  Faith  and  of  a  Good 
Conscience."     Died  in  1653. 

Lykurgos,  le-koor'gos,  (Logothetis,)  a  modern 
Greek  patriot,  born  in  the  island  of  Samoe  in  1772. 
Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  independence 
in  Greece,  (1821,)  he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  in  Samos.  He  was  also  appointed  civil  and 
military  governor  of  the  island,  which  office  he  held  till 
1826.  He  afterwards  became  a  senator  under  the  new 
monarchy  of  Greece.     Died  in  1850. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lykurgus  or  Lykurgos.    See  Lycurgus. 

Lyle,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Paisley  in 
1792.  He  is  remembered  for  the  song  "  Kelvin  Grove," 
which  is  still  popular.     Died  in  1859. 

Lyly,  (John.)     See  Lilly,  (John.) 

Ly'man,  (Phineas,)  an  American  officer,  bom  at 
Durham,  in  Connecticut,  in  1716.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  French  in  Canada  under  General 
Johnson,  Abercrombie,  and  others,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  major-general.     Died  in  1775. 

Lyman,  (Theodore,)  an  American  naturalist,  born 
in  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  August  23,  1833.  He  grad- 
uated in  arts  at  Harvard  College  in  1855  and  in  the  sci- 


€  as  k;  9  as  a;  g  hard:  g  asy,-  G,  H,  K., guttural ;  N,  tiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( 

loi 


see  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LYMAN 


1602 


LYON 


entific  school  in  1S58,  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  and  aide 
on  the  staff  of  General  MeaJe,  1863-65,  and  fishery  com- 
missioner of  Massachusetts,  1865-82.  He  published  the 
"Reports"  of  the  Massachusetts  Fishery  Commission, 
1865-82,  "The  Ophiuroidea  of  the  Challenger  Expe- 
dition," (4to,  18S2,)  and  numerous  papers,  chiefly  on 
the  lower  orders  of  marine  zoology.  In  1883  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  as  an  Independent. 

Lyman,  (Thkodore  BENEDicr,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Brighton,  Massachusetts,  November  27, 
1815.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New 
York,  in  1837,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  in  1840,  took  priest's  orders  in  1841,  lived  in 
Europe  from  i860  to  1870,  being  founder  and  incumbent 
of  an  Episcopal  church  in  Rome,  and  in  1873  was  con- 
secrated Assistant  Bishop  of  North  Carolina,  and  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  Atkinson  as  diocesan  in  1881. 
Lyna.  See  Hlin. 
Lynacer.     See  Linacre. 

Lynar,  von,  fon  lee'naR,  (Friedrich,)  Count,  a 
German  statesman  and  scholar,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia 
in  1708.  He  held  several  high  offices  in  Denmark 
between  1740  and  1749.  He  wrote  political  treatises, 
"Travels  in  Germany,"  etc.  Died  in  1781. 
Lyncee.     See  Lynceus. 

Lyn'9eTis,  [  Gr.  KvyKtvQ ;  Fr.  Lyncee,  lix'si',  ]  a 
king  of  Argos,  was  a  son  of  ^gyptus,  and  married 
Hypermnestra,  one  of  the  Danaides.  She  saved  his  life 
when  her  forty-nine  sisters  killed  their  husbands.  (See 
Danaides.) 

Lynceus,  one  of  the  Argonauts,  was  a  son  of  Apha- 
reus,  and  celebrated  for  his  keenness  of  sight.  He  was 
killed  by  Pollux. 

Lynch,  (Johx,)  a  learned  Irish  priest  and  writer, 
born  at  Galway  about  1600.  He  took  refuge  in  France 
in  1652,  and  returned  to  Ireland  after  the  restoration, 
(1660.)  He  wrote  a  historical  work  in  Latin,  entitled 
"  Cambrensis  Eversus,"  {1662,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1674. 

Lynch,  (Patrick  Nieson,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Cheraw,  South  Carolina,  March  10,  1S17. 
He  studied  in  the  Catholic  seminary  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  was  trained  in  theology  (1834-40)  at  the  Propa- 
ganda in  Rome,  became  a  priest  and  a  divinity-professor 
of  Charleston,  and  was  made  vicar-general  under  Bishop 
Reynolds  in  1850.  In  1858  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Charleston.     Died  February  26,  1882. 

Lynch,  (Thomas,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  American  Independence,  was  born  in  Prince 
George's  Parish,  South  Carolina,  in  1749.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge,  England,  and  soon  after  his  return 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  company  in  the  first 
South  Carolina  regiment  of  provincial  regulars.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1776.  While  on  a  voyage 
for  his  health,  he  was  lost  at  sea  in  1779. 

Lynch,  (William  F.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Virginia  about  1805.  He  set  out  in  1847  on 
an  expedition  to  explore  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
of  which  he  published  an  interesting  account,  entitled 
"  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Expedition  to  the  River 
Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,"  (1849.)     Died  in  1865. 

Lyncker,  von,  fon  Hnk'er,  (Nikolaus  Christoph,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Marburg  in  1643.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  aulic  council  at  Vienna,  and  wrote  many 
legal  works.     Died  in  1726. 

Lynde,  lind,  (Sir  Humphry,)  an  English  author,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1579.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  several  years.  He  published  "Ancient  Characters 
of  the  Visible  Church,"  and  "  Via  Tuta,  or  the  Safe 
Way,"  which  was  often  reprinted.     Died  in  1636. 

Lynd'hurst,  (John  Singleton  Copley,)  Lord,  an 
eminent  English  statesman,  born  at  Boston,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1772,  was  the  son  of  the  distinguished  painter 
John  S.  Copley,  who  took  him  to  England  about  1775. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  chose  the  profes- 
sion of  law.  Having  gradually  risen  to  be  the  leader 
of  the  Midland  circuit,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  as 
a  Tory  in  1818,  and  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1819, 
when  he  was  also  knighted.  Sir  John  became  attorney- 
general  in  1824,  and  was  returned  to  Parliament  by  the 
University  of  Cambridge  in  1826.  After  opposing  the  bill 


for  Catholic  emancipation,  he  accepted  the  office  of  lore! 
chancellor  in  the  Liberal  ministry  of  Canning  in  April, 
1827,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Lyndhurst. 
Having  been  retained  in  his  office  by  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington, he  voted  in  concurrence  with  his  colleagues  for 
Catholic  emancipation  in  1829.  In  November,  1830,  the 
Liberal  party,  under  Earl  Grey,  came  into  power,  and 
Lord  Lyndhurst  was  deprived  of  the  great  .seal ;  but 
in  1831  he  was  appointed  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer. 
He  made  an  able  speech  against  the  Reform  bill  in  1832. 
In  the  court  of  exchequer  he  displayed  eminent  judicial 
qualifications.  He  was  again  lord  chancellor  during  the 
brief  ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1834.  In  August, 
1841,  Sir  Robert  became  premier,  and  Lord  Lyndhurst 
lord  chancellor,  of  a  new  Conservative  ministry,  which 
was  deprived  of  power  by  the  triumjjh  of  the  Whigs  in 
1846.  After  that  date,  until  near  his  death,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  orators  of  his  party  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  advocated  the  prosecution  of  the  Russian 
war  (1854-56)  in  several  eloquent  speeches.  Died  in  1863. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Life  of  Lord  Lyndhurst,"  i86<);  Foss, 
'  The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. ;  "  Biographical  Sketches  from 
the  Note-Book  of  a  Law  Reporter,"  by  W.  H.   Bennett,  London 

1867. 

Lyndsay.     See  Lindsay. 

Lyne,  (Joseph  Leycester,)  an  English  clergyntan, 
born  in  London,  November  23,  1837,  best  known  as 
Father  Ignatius.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Glenalmond,  and  in  i860  was  ordained  in  the  Established 
Church.  He  assumed  the  name  of  "  Ignatius  of  Jesus," 
and  founded  Llanthony  Abbey  (Anglican)  in  Wales, 
adopting  a  Benedictine  rule  for  the  monks  and  nuns  of 
his  community.  He  has  published  hymns,  poems,  "  Tales 
of  Llanthony,"  "Brother  Placidus,"  "Leonard  Morris," 
"Tales  of  the  Monastery,"  etc. 

Lynedoch,  iTn'doK,  (Thomas  Graham,)  Baron,  a 
British  general,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1750.  Having 
obtained  the  rank  of  general,  he  served  under  Sir  John 
Moore  in  Portugal  in  1808-9.  He  gained  a  victory  at 
Barossa  in  1811,  and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Vitoria,  in  1813.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1814.     Died  in  1843. 

Lyu'-TO-ood,  L^nd'TWOod,  or  Lin'-c70od,  (Wil- 
liam,) an  English  canonist,  and  Bishop  of  Saint  David's. 
Died  in  1446. 

Ly'pn,  (George  Francis,)  an  English  navigator, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1795,  entered  the  navy  in  his  youth. 
In  1818-19  he  was  the  companion  of  J.  Ritchie  in  an 
expedition  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  of  which  he  pub- 
lished an  account  in  1821.  Captain  Lyon  commanded 
one  of  the  ships  in  Parry's  voyage  to  the  Northern 
Ocean,  (1821-23,)  and  kept  a  journal,  which  was  pub- 
lished. Both  of  the  works  above  named  are  commended 
Died  in  1832. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1821. 

Ly'on,  (Mary,)  a  meritorious  teacher,  born  at  Buck- 
land,  Massachusetts,  in  1797,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Mount  Holyoke  Female  Seminary  in  that  State.  It  was 
opened  in  1837,  and  soon  acquired  a  very  high  reputa- 
tion and  extensive  patronage.  "  She  presided  for  years 
over  an  admirable  school,"  says  Allen.  Died  at  South 
Hadley  in  1849. 

See  Dr.  Humphrey's  "  Life  of  Mary  Lyon,"  and  "  Recollectiona 
of  Mary  Lyon,"  by  Miss  F.  FisK,  Boston,  1866;  Allen's  "Amer- 
ican Biographical  Dictionary." 

Lyon,  (Matthew,)  born  in  Wicklow  county,  Ireland, 
in  1746,  emigrated  to  America,  where  he  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  poli- 
tician of  the  Democratic  party.     Died  in  1822. 

Lyon,  (Nathaniel,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
at  Ashford,  Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  July,  1819, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1851. 
Early  in  1861  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  United 
States  Arsenal  at  Saint  Louis,  where  he  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.  He  captured 
a  large  band  of  secessionists  at  Camp  Jackson,  Missouri, 
in  May,  and  was  appointed  commander  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Missouri  in  June,  1861.  He  defeated  the  insur- 
gents at  Booneville,  June  17,  after  which  he  marched  to 
Springfield.     He  commanded  an  army  of  about  6000 


a,  e,  \,  o,  u,  y,  loit;;:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s/iofS;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


LYONNET 


1603 


LYSIPFUS 


men  which  engaged  a  superior  force  at  Wilson's  Creek, 
where  he  was  killed,  August  10,  1861.  His  loss  was 
deeply  lamented  as  a  national  disaster.  He  left  by  will 
about  thirty  thousand  dollars  to  the  public  treasury. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  "Last  Po- 
litical Writings,  etc.  of  Nathaniel  Lyon,"  New  York,  1861. 

Lyonnet,  le'o'ni',  (Pierre,)  a  skilful  anatomist,  natu- 
ralist, and  engraver,  of  French  origin,  was  born  at  Maes- 
tricht  in  1707.  He  studied  law,  and  was  employed  at 
the  Hague  as  secretary  and  translator  for  Latm  and 
French  by  the  government.  About  1760  he  published 
an  "  Anatomical  Treatise  on  the  Caterpillar  which  eats 
the  Willow,"  which,  says  Cuvier,  "is  among  the  master- 
pieces of  human  industry."  Tiie  engravings  are  ex- 
quisitely neat  and  delicate.     Died  in  1789. 

See  P.  H.  Marron,  "Notice  biographique  sur  P.  Lyonnet,' 
i7qs:  JouRDAN,  in  the  "Biographie  Medicale,"  vol.  vi.  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Lyonnet,  (Robert,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Puy-en-Velay.  He  became  physician  to  Louis  XHI., 
and  published  a  treatise  on  the  Plague,  (1639.) 

Ly'ons,  (Edmund,)  Lord,  a  British  admiral,  born 
near  Christchurch,  Hants,  in  1 790.  He  entered  the 
navy  about  iSoi.  In  181 1  he  performed  a  daring  exploit 
when  he  captured  by  storm  the  Dutch  fort  Marrack  in 
the  island  of  Java.  He  became  a  post-captain  in  1814, 
after  which  a  long  peace  followed.  In  1828  he  com- 
manded a  vessel  at  the  blockade  of  Navarino.  He  was 
knighted  in  1835,  and  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  the  court  of  Athens,  where  he  remained  until  1849. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  war  against  Russia,  (1853,)  Sir 
Edmund  was  appointed  second  in  command  in  the  Black 
Sea.  His  ship,  the  Agamemnon,  was  engaged  with  the 
enemy  on  the  shore  at  the  battle  of  Alma,  in  September, 
1854.  He  planned  a  successful  expedition  against  the 
forts  on  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  became  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  fleet  in  June,  1855.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Baron  Lyons  of  Christchurch,  in  1856.  Died 
in  1858. 

Lyons,  (Israel,)  a  Polish  Jew,  taught  Hebrew  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  published  a  Hebrew 
Grammar.     Died  in  1770. 

Lyons,  (Israel,)  an  English  botanist  and  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Cambridge  in  1739,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Fluxions," 
and  a  work  on  the  plants  growing  near  Cambridge.  At 
the  invitation  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  he  went  to  Oxford 
about  1762,  and  lectured  there  on  botany.  The  bureau 
of  longitude  selected  him  to  accompany  Captain  Phipps 
towards  the  North  Pole  in  1773.     Died  in  1775. 

Lyons,  (Richard  Bickerton  Pemell,)  Lord,  a 
son  of  Edmund,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1817,  and 
inherited  the  title  of  baron  in  1858.  He  was  ambassador 
to  the  United  States  from  1859  to  1865,  and  to  Con- 
stantinople from  1865  to  1867,  when  he  was  sent  to 
Paris  in  the  same  capacity.  He  was  made  a  viscount  in 
1881.     Died  December  5,  1887. 

Lyra,  de,  deh  le'rS',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  monk  and 
exegetical  writer  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Lyre  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  was  a  good  Hebrew  and 
Greek  scholar.  He  wrote  a  commentary  (jn  the  Bible, 
"  Postillse  Perpeture,"  which  was  esteemed  and  often 
reprinted.  The  first  edition  appeared  at  Rome  in  1472, 
(5  vols.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1340. 

Lys.     See  Lis. 

Ly-san'der,  [Gr.  x\vaav^(>oq ;  Fr.  Lysandre,  le'- 
e6NdR' ;  Ger.  Lysandros,  le-zan'dRos,]  one  of  the  ablest 
generals  and  statesmen  of  ancient  Sparta,  makes  his 
first  appearance  in  history  near  the  close  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  In  407  B.C.  he  was  chosen  commander  of 
the  fleet,  with  which  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Athe- 
nians at  Notium  in  that  year.  He  made  himself  very 
popular  with  the  Persian  allies  of  Sparta,  and  he  de- 
feated the  Athenian  fleet  in  a  decisive  battle  at  ^Egos- 
potami  in  405.  In  404  he  captured  Athens,  and  changed 
its  democracy  into  an  oligarchy  ruled  by  thirty  archons, 
(usually  called  the  Thirty  Tyrants.)  He  was  then  the 
most  powerful  man  m  Greece,  but  soon  found  an  able 
rival  in  Agesilaus,  who  became  King  of  Sparta  in  398 
B.C.  and  thwarted  his  ambitious  designs.  Lysander 
meditated  a  revolution  in  Sparta  by  the   abolition  of 


hereditaiy  royalty.  Before  his  design  was  matured,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  an  army  sent  against  the 
Thebans,  and  was  killed  in  battle  at  Haliartus  in  395 
B.C.  In  Plutarch's  "Lives"  Lysander  is  brought  into 
comparison  with  the  Roman  Sulla. 

See  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica  ;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Vita  Lysan- 
dri ;"  W.  Vischek,  "  Alcibiades  und  Lysandros,"  1845;  Plu-tarch, 
"Life  of  Agesilaus;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Lysandre.     See  Lysa.nder. 

Lysandros,  the  German  of  Lysander,  which  see. 

Lyschanderor  Lyscander,  lis-kSn'der,  (Claudius 
Christophorsen,)  a  Danish  chronicler,  born  in  1557. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  Greenland,"  in  Danish  verse, 
(1608,)  and  flattered  the  national  vanity  in  a  fabulous 
work  on  the  genealogy  of  the  Danish  kings,  entitled 
"  Synopsis  of  Danish  History,"  ("  Synopsis  Historije 
Danica:,"  1622.)     Died  in  1623. 

Lyser,  lee'zer,  originally  Leonhardt,  la'on-haRt', 
(Caroline,)  a  German  authoress,  born  at  Dresden  in 
181 7.  Among  her  works  are  fugitive  poems,  "  Sketches 
of  Character  for  German  Matrons  and  Maids,"  (1838,) 
and  "Albert  Diirer,"  a  drama,  (1840.) 

Lyser,  (Michael,)  a  German  anatomist,  born  at 
Leipsic  about  1650.  He  published  a  good  manual  of 
anatomy,  entitled  "Culter  Anatomicus,"  (1653.)  He 
shares  with  Bartholin  the  honour  of  the  discovery  of 
the  lymphatic  vessels. 

Lyser  or  Lyserus,  (Polycarp.)     See  Leyser. 

Lysias,  lish'e-as,  [Avai'of,]  one  of  the  ten  Athenian 
orators,  was  born  at  Athens  in  458  B.C.,  and  was  the  son 
of  Cephalus,  in  whose  house  Plato  placed  the  scene  of 
his  famous  dialogue  "  On  the  Republic."  From  443  until 
411  he  lived  at  Thurium,  in  Italy,  from  which  he  was 
expelled  by  the  victorious  Spartans  at  the  latter  date. 
He  then  returned  to  Athens,  where  his  property  was 
confiscated  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  who  would  have  put 
him  to  death  if  he  had  not  escaped,  404  B.C.  Soon  after 
that  date  he  united  with  Thrasybulus  in  the  exj^ulsion 
of  the  Thirty,  and  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric  in  Athens. 
His  orations,  amounting  to  more  than  two  hundred, 
were  mostly  composed  after  his  return  to  Athens,  (411.) 
Thirty-four  of  these  have  come  down  to  us.  Lysiaa 
died  at  Athens  about  37S  B.C.,  leaving  a  high  reputation 
as  a  writer  of  orations,  only  one  of  which,  it  is  said,  was 
spoken  by  him.  His  diction  is  eminently  graceful,  pure, 
and  perspicuous.  "  He  resembles,"  says  Quintilian, 
"  rather  a  pure  fountain  than  a  great  river,"  ("puro  fonti 
quam  magno  flumini  propior.") 

See  Plutarch,  "Vitae  Decern  Oratoi-um  ;"  Franz,  "Dissertatio 
de  Lysia  Oratore  Attico,"  (in  Greek,)  183S;  Suidas,  "Lysias;" 
L.  Horlscher,   "  Dissertatio    de  Lysia  Vita    et  Dictione,"   1837 

Ly-sic'ra-tes,  [AvCTiKpar???,]  an  Athenian,  who  lived 
about  335  B.C.,  and  whose  name  has  been  preserved  by 
means  of  a  beautiful  choragic  monument  built  for  him  at 
Athens.  It  has  been  commonly  called  "the  Lantern  of 
Demosthenes,"  from  a  tradition  that  he  used  it  as  a 
place  of  study. 

Ly-sini'a-ehus,  [Gr.  Avai/iaxog ;  Fr.  Lysimaque, 
le'ze'mtk',]  King  of  Thrace,  was  born  in  Macedonia 
about  355  B.C.  In  his  youth  he  was  so  distinguished 
for  courage  and  strength  that  Alexander  the  Great 
chose  him  as  one  of  his  body-guards.  In  the  division  of 
provinces  at  the  death  of  Alexander,  (323,)  Lysimachus 
obtained  Thrace  and  some  adjacent  districts.  In  315 
he  joined  Seleucus,  Cassander,  and  Ptolemy  in  a  coali- 
tion against  Antigonus.  Lysimachus  marched  into  Asia 
Minor,  formed  a  junction  with  Seleucus,  and  fought  a 
battle  at  Ipsus  in  301  B.C.,  where  Antigonus  was  defeated 
and  killed.  By  this  victory  he  acquired  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  Asia  Minor.  Demetrius  of  Macedon  having 
been  defeated  and  dethroned  by  the  allied  armies  of 
Lysimachus,  Pyrrhus,  and  Seleucus,  the  first  annexed 
Macedon  to  his  dominions  in  286.  He  was  soon  after 
involved  in  a  war  with  Seleucus,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
at  Corupedion  in  28r  B.C. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis;"  Ju.stin,  " History,"  books  xiii.,  xv., 
and  xviii. ;  Diodorus  Siculus,  books  xviii.,  xLx.,  and  xx. 

Lysimaque.    See  Lysimachus. 
Lysippe.     See  Lysippus. 

Ly-sip'pus,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  born  lu 
Arcadia,  flourished  about  434  B.C. 


eas  k;  g  as  s:  g hard;  g a.sy;  g,  h,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (ffi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.; 


LYSIPPUS 


1604 


MAAS 


Lysippus,  [Gr.  Avanrnoc;  Fr.  Lysippe,  le'zJp',]  a 
Greek  statuary  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  at  Sicyon, 
and  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great,  about 
330  B.C.  He  formed  his  style  by  the  imitation  of  nature, 
without  much  respect  to  the  conventionalities  of  the 
schools.  His  statues  and  groups,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  were  some  fifteen  hundred  in  number,  all  or 
nearly  all  of  which  were  of  bronze.  None  of  his  works 
are  known  to  be  extant,  though  several  well-authenticated 
copies  are  to  be  seen.  Among  his  master-pieces,  de- 
scribed by  Pliny,  Pausanias,  and  others,  were  colossal 
Statues  of  Zeus  and  Hercules,  a  statue  of  Time  or  Oppor- 
tunity, (Kaipof,)  and  several  images  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  is  said  to  have  issued  an  edict  that  no  one 
should  make  his  statue  but  Lysippus. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History,"  book  xxxiv.  ;  Pausanias,  i.,  ii.i 
vi.,  and  ix.  :  Sillig,  "  Catalogus  :"  Nagler,  "Allgememes  Kunst- 
ler-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Ly'sis,  [Ai)<7ff,]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Tarentum,  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have 
received  lessons  from  Pythagoras.  Having  been  driven 
from  Italy  by  persecution,  he  settled  at  Thebes,  and  be- 
came the  teacher  of  Epaminondas. 

See  RiTTHR,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Lysistrate.     See  Lysistratus. 

Ly-sis'tra-tus,[Fr.  Lysistrate,  le'ze'stRtt',]  aGreek 
statuary  of  Sicyon,  was  a  brother  of  Lysippus,  and  flour- 
ished about  425  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  used  gypsum  moulds  in  the  formation  of  wax 
figures. 

Ly'sons,  (Daniel,)  an  English  physician,  practised 
at  Bath,*where  he  died  in  1800.  He  had  published  several 
medical  treatises. 

Lysons,  (Rev.  Daniel,)  an  English  topographical 
writer,  born  at  Rodmarton  in  1760,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  The 
Environs  of  London,"  (1792-96,)  and  became  rector  of 
Rodmarton.  In  partnership  with  his  brother  Samuel, 
he  published  another  excellent  topographical  work, 
" Great  Britain,"  ("Magna  Britannia,"  1806-22.)     Died 

in  1834. 

Lysons,  (Samuel,)  an  English  antiquary,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rodmarton  in  1763.  He 
was  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
About  1804  he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  records  of 
the  Tower  of  London.  His  principal  work  is  "  Great 
Britain,"  ("Magna  Britannia,"  1806-22,)  in  which  he 
was  aided  by  his  brother  Daniel.     Died  in  1819. 

Lyte,  (Henry,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in  Somer- 
setshire in  1529.  He  published,  in  1578,  an  English 
version  of  Dodoen's  "History  of  Plants,"  with  many 
engravings.     Died  in  1607. 

Lyte,  (Henry  Francis,)  a  British  hymn-writer,  born 
at  Ednam,  Scotland,  June  i,  1793.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  entered  the  Anglican  Church, 
and  held  curacies  in  Ireland,  and  at  Brixham,  in  England. 
His  health  was  never  robust.  He  died  at  Nice,  Novem- 
ber 20,  1847.  Among  his  works  are  "Tales  in  Verse," 
(1826,)  "Poems,  chiefly  Religious,"  (1833,)  "The  Spirit 
of  the  Psalms,"  (1834,)  and  a  fine  biography  of  Henry 
Vaughan,  the  Silurist.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the 
author  of  several  popular  hymns. 


Lytle,  ll'tel,  (William  Haines,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1826.  He  served  as 
colonel  in  Western  Virginia  in  1861,  and  was  wounded 
at  Perry ville,  Kentucky,  in  October,  1862.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  20,  1863. 

Lyt'tle-ton  or  Lyt'tel-tpn,  (Charles,)  an  English 
antiquary,  born  at  Hagley  in  17 14,  was  a  brother  of  Lord 
George,  noticed  below.  He  became  Bishop  of  Carlisle 
in  1762.     Died  in  1768. 

Lyttletou  or  Lytteltou,  (George,)  Lord,  an  Eng- 
lish author  and  statesman,  born  in  1709,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Thomas  Lyttleton,  of  Hagley,  in  Worcester- 
shire, and  a  descendant  of  the  great  jurist  Littleton. 
About  1730  he  entered  Parliament,  where  he  became  a 
successful  speaker  and  acted  with  the  opponents  of 
Walpole.  He  was  afterwards  secretary  to  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  in  1744  was  appointed  a  lord  of 
the  treasury.  In  1747  he  published  "Observations  on 
the  Conversion  and  Apostleship  of  Saint  Paul,"  a  work 
of  superior  merit.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
for  several  months  in  1756,  and  resigned  that  othce  (for 
which  he  was  not  well  qualified)  when  Pitt  became  prime 
minister.  In  1759  he  was  created  Baron  Lyttleton.  He 
was  author  of  a  popular  work  entitled  "Dialogues 
of  the  Dead,"  (1760,)  of  a  valuable  "History  of  Henry 
II.,"  and  of  several  poems,  "which,"  says  Dr.  Johnson, 
"  have  nothing  to  be  despised,  and  little  to  be  admired." 
Died  in  1773. 

See  JOHNKON,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Poets,"  Phillimore,  "Life  of  Lord 
Lyttleton,"  1845;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1S46  ;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  April  and  May,  1772,  and  December.  J774. 

Lyttleton,  (Thomas.)     See  Littleton. 

Lyttleton,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  a  son  of  Lord  George, 
noticed  above,  was  born  about  1744.  The  day  of  his 
death  is  said  to  have  been  announced  to  him  three  days 
before  it  occurred,  by  means  of  a  dream  or  vision.  Died 
in  1779. 

Lyt'ton,  (Edward  Robert  Bulwer-Lytton,)  Earl 
of,  an  English  poet,  only  son  of  Edward  Bulwer,  Baron 
Lytton,  the  celebrated  novelist.  He  was  born  November 
8,  1831,  and  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Bonn.  He 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1849,  and  did  duty  at 
Washington,  Florence,  Paris,  the  Hague,  Constantinople, 
Vienna,  Belgrade,  Copenhagen,  Athens,  Lisbon,  and 
Madrid.  While  secretary  of  embassy  at  Paris  in  1873  he 
succeeded  to  the  titles  of  his  father,  and  soon  after  was 
made  minister  plenipotentiary  at  the  French  capital.  In 
1874  he  was  made  minister  at  Lisbon,  and  from  1876  to 
1880  was  Viceroy  of  India.  He  published,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  "  Owen  Meredith,"  several  volumes  of 
verse,  including  "  Clytemnestra,"  (1855,)  "The  Wan- 
derer," (1859,)  "  Lucile,"  (i860,)  "Poetical  Works," 
(1867,)  "Orval,"  (1869,)  "Fables  in  Song,"  (1874,)  etc. 
He  also  published  a  "Memoir  of  Julian  Fane,"  (1871,) 
"The  Ring  of  Amasis,"  (a  romance,  1863,)  "Life  and 
Letters"  of  his  father,  (1883,)  and  a  collection  of  Servian 
songs. 

Lyveden,  llv'den,  (Robert  Vernon  Smith,)  Lord, 
born  in  London  in  1800,  was  a  nephew  of  the  famous 
Rev.  Sydney  Smith.  He  represented  Northampton  as 
a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  from  1831  to  1859,  and 
was  secretary  at  war  in  1852.     Died  February  10,  1873. 


M. 


Maan,  mflN,  (Jean,)  a  French  historian  and  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Mans,  became  canon  ot  Tours  in  1648. 

Maanen,  van,  vtn  mJ'nen,  (Cornelis  Felix,)  a 
Dutch  statesman,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1769.  After  the 
accession  of  King  William  he  was  made  president  of 
the  Assembly  of  Notables,  and  minister  of  justice,  (1815.) 
His  unpopular  measures  contributed  to  bring  about  the 
Belgian  revolution,  and  in  1830  he  resigned  his  office. 
Died  in  1843. 

Maas,  mSs,  (Arnoult  van  Aart,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Gouda  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of 
D.  Teniers.     Died  after  1650. 

See  PiLKiNGTON.  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 


Maas  or  Maes,  mis,  (Dirk  or  Diedrik,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1656,  was  a  pupil  of  Berg- 
hem  and  Huchtenburgh.  He  excelled  in  battle-pieces 
and  hunting-scenes.     Died  in  1715- 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Maas  or  Maes,  mis,  (Godfried,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  a  pupil 
of  his  father.  He  was  chosen  a  director  of  the  Academy 
in  1682,  and  acquired  a  fair  reputation  as  an  artist.  He 
died  in  1722,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  about 
1710. . 

Maas  or  Maes,  (Nicolaas,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /o)t£-:  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u, y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  mdlm; 


AIAASS 


1605 


MA  CAUL  AY 


of  genre  and  portraits,  born  at  Dort  in  1632,  was  a  pupil 
of  Rembrandt.  In  his  youth  he  imitated  the  manner 
of  that  master  with  success.  He  afterwards  adopted  a 
different  style.  About  1678  he  removed  to  Amsterdam, 
where  he  applied  himself  chiefly  to  portraits  and  became 
a  fashionable  artist.     Died  in  1693. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flaniaiids,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Maass,  niJss,  (Johann  Gebhard  Ehrenreich,)  a 
German  philosopher  and  savant,  born  near  Halberstadt 
in  1766.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle 
in  1798,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Essays  on 
the  Imagination,"  {1792,)  the  "  Passions,"  (1805-07,)  and 
the  "Sentiments,"  (181 1.)     Died  in  1823. 

Mabellini,  mi-b§l-lee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista 
Carlo  Maria,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  known  in  France 
by  the  name  of  Akb6  Mablin  or  Mabi.ini,  was  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1774.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  1834. 

Mabil  or  Mabille,  mi-beeK  or  mt'bM',  (Pierre 
Louis,)  a  learned  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1752.  He  made  a  good  translation  of  Livy 
into  Italian,  and  published  "  Mabiliania,"  "The  Influence 
of  Poetry  on  the  Customs  of  Nations,"  (1804,)  and  othei 
works.     Died  in  1836. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  Catullo, 
"  Cenni  biografici  del  Cavaliere  P.  L.  Mabil,"  1836. 

Mabillon,  mt'be'y^N',  (Jean,)  a  very  learned  French 
author,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims  in  1632,  became  a 
Benedictine  monk.  In  1685  he  visited  Italy,  by  order  of 
the  king,  to  collect  manuscripts  and  historical  documents, 
and  on  his  return  published  his  "  Museum  Italicum," 
(1687-89.)  His  "Treatise  on  Monastic  Studies"  (1691) 
was  received  with  favour.  Among  his  most  important 
works  is  a  treatise  on  Diplomatics,  (1681.)   Died  in  1707. 

See  Chavin  dk  Malan,  "  Histoire  de  Mabillon,"  1843;  J.  La- 
BOUUERiE,  "Notice  sur  Dom  Mabillon;"  Thierry  Ruinart, 
"  Abr^g^  de  la  Vie  de  Dom  J.  Mabillon,"  1709;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Geiierale." 

Mably,  de,  deh  mt'ble',  (Gabriel  Bonnot,)  Abb6, 
a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1709, 
was  a  brother  of  Etienne  Bonnot  de  Condillac.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  his  youth,  and  produced 
in  1740  his  "Parallel  between  the  Romans  and  French 
in  Respect  to  Government,"  which  was  very  successful. 
In  1743  he  negotiated  a  secret  treaty  with  Prussia  against 
Austria.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Observations 
on  the  Romans,"  (1751,)  and  "Observations  on  the  His- 
tory of  France,"  (1765.)     Died  in  1785. 

See  L.  Harth^lemy,  "Vie  priv^e  de  Mably,"  1791  ;  Brizard, 
"  filoge  de  Mably,"  1787;  P.  C.  L^vesque,  "  Eloge  historique  de 
I'Abb^  de  Mably,"  1787  ;  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Maboul,  mS'bool',  (Jacques,)  a  French  pulpit  orator, 
Bishop  of  Alet,  born  in  Paris  about  1650;  died  in  1723. 

Mabuse,  mt'biiz',  or  Maubeuge,  niD'huzh',  (Jan,) 
a  famous  Flemish  painter,  whose  family  name  was  Ges- 
3ART  or  Gassaert,  was  born  at  Maubeuge  in  1499.  He 
is  said  to  have  studied  in  Italy.  _He  worked  in  Middel- 
burg  and  in  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  of  the 
royal  family  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  historical 
pictures,  which  are  still  admired.  Among  his  master- 
pieces was  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  lightning  at  Middelburg,  and  "The  Wise 
Men's  Offering,"  now  owned  by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle. 
His  habits  were  very  intemperate  and  prodigal.  Died 
about  1562. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. ;  Pi^rart, 
"Recherches  historiques  sur  Maubeuge,"  1853. 

Mac-ad'am,  (John  Loudon,)  a  Scottish  surveyor, 
noted  for  his  improvement  in  roads,  born  September  21, 
1756.  He  lived  in  America,  1770-83,  takingan  active  part 
against  the  colonies,  and  making  and  losing  a  fortune  in 
the  war.  He  constructed  the  first  macadamized  roads, 
near  Bristol,  about  181 5,  and  explained  his  system  in  his 
•'Essay  on  the  Scientific  Repair  and  Preservation  of 
Public  Roads,"  (1819.)  In  1827  he  was  made  general 
surveyor  of  the  metropolitan  roads,  and  afterwards  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  ;^io,ooo  for  his  services.    Died  in  1836. 

See  "Annual  Register,"  1836;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;" 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup- 
plement.) 

Macaire.     See  Macarius. 

Mac-a-nal'l^,  (David  Rice,)  an  American  Methodist 


divine,  born  in  Granger  county,  Tennessee,  in  1810.  He 
ha.'i  published  "Sketches  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Mrs.  Ramsay,"  and  other  biographical  works. 

Mac-Ar'dell,  (James,)  an  excellent  English  engraver 
in  mezzotinto,  born  about  1710.  He  engraved  portraits 
of  many  eminent  contemporaries,  and  subjects  after  Rem- 
brandt, Van  Dyck,  Murillo,  and  other  masters.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Moses  on  the  Nile,"  after  Van  Dyck,  and 
an  "Assumption,"  after  Murillo.  Died  in  1765.  Of 
MacArdell  Basan  observes  that  he  "was  one  of  the  best 
engravers  in  mezzotinto  that  England  ever  produced." 

See  Strutt,  article  "Ardell"  in  his  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Macarel,  mt'kt'rSKj  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1790.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Elements  of  Administrative  Jurispru- 
dence," (1818.)     Died  in  1851. 

Ma-ca'ri-us,  [Gr.  Ma/capwf ;  Fr.  Macaire,  mt'kSR',] 
an  eminent  ascetic  or  hermit  of  Egypt,  born  about  300 
A.D.,  has  been  canonized  as  a  saint  by  the  Catholic 
Church.  Fifty  extant  Greek  homilies  are  ascribed  to 
him.     Died  about  390  A.D. 

Another  Saint  Macarius,  called  Junior,  lived  at 
Alexandria  in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  noted  for 
his  ascetic  piety.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a 
work  called  the  "  Rule  of  Saint  Macarius." 

See  Tii.i.EMONT,  "  M^moires  ;"  Ceillier,  "  Histoire  des  Auteurs 
sacres;"  Schatteman,  "Leven  van  den  H.  Macarius,"  1623;  Gen- 
NADius,  "De  Viris  illustribus." 

Mac-ar'thur,  (Duncan,)  an  American  soldier  and 
statesman,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1772. 
He  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1830.     Died  in  1840. 

Mac-Ar'thur,  (John,)  a  general,  born  in  Scotland 
about  1826,  emigrated  to  Illinois  about  1850.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  Shiloh,  April, 
1862,  and  at  Corinth,  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

MacArthur,  (John,)  a  distinguished  architect,  born 
at  Bladenoch,  in  Wigtonshire,  Scotland,  May  13,  1823, 
came  to  Philadelphia  when  only  ten  years  of  age.  He 
learned  the  business  of  a  carpenter,  and  studied  drawing 
and  architecture  in  his  evenings.  In  1848  he  was 
awarded  the  first  premium  for  his  plan  of  a  new  House 
of  Refuge,  and  was  given  the  entire  charge  of  the  erection 
of  the  building.  Among  the  prominent  buildings  erected 
by  him  in  Philadelphia,  we  may  name  the  Continental 
Hotel  and  Jayne's  splendid  mansion  at  the  corner  of 
Nineteenth  and  Chestnut  streets.  He  was  architect  for 
the  war  department  during  the  war,  and  after  its  close 
for  the  navy  department,  for  which  he  built  the  Naval 
Hospital  at  Philadelphia,  and  other  similar  works. 

Mac-art'ney,  (George,)  Earl  of,  a  statesman,  of 
Scottish  descent,  born  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1737.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1768,  and  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland  in  1769.  In  1775  he  was  chosen 
Governor  of  the  island  of  Granada,  which  the  French 
captured  from  him  in  1779.  From  December,  1780,  to 
1786,  he  was  Governor  of  Madras.  He  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India,  as  successor  to  Warren 
Hastings,  but  declined  on  account  of  ill  health.  His 
most  remarkable  public  service  was  his  embassy  to 
China,  where  he  arrived  in  August,  1793,  being  the  first 
English  ambassador  to  that  court.  He  refused  to  pros- 
trate himself  before  the  emperor,  according  to  Chinese 
etiquette.  Though  he  failed  to  obtain  a  commercial 
treaty,  he  maintained  his  reputation  as  an  able  negotiator. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  a  baron  in  1776,  and 
was  made  Earl  of  Macartney  in  1794.  He  died  in  1806, 
after  which  appeared  a  "Journal  of  the  Embassy  to  China 
in  1792-94." 

See  an  "Account  of  the  Public  Life,  etc.  of  Lord  Macartney," 
by    John     Barrow,    1807;     "Nouvelle     Biographie     G^n^rale." 

Macaulay,  ma-kaw'le,  (Catharine,)  an  English 
authoress,  whose  maiden  name  was  Sawbridge,  was 
born  in  Kent  in  1733.  She  was  married  to  Dr.  George 
Macaulay,  of  London,  about  1760,  and  published  a 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  I.  to 
the  Elevation  of  the  House  of  Hanover,"  (1763,)  which 
is  favourable  to  republicanism.  In  1785  she  visited 
Washington  at  Mount  Vernon.  She  wrote  several  po- 
htical  treatises.     "  Her  history,"  says  T.  B.  Macaulay, 


f  as  k:  q  as s;  g hard;  g  as/.-  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJI^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACAULAY 


1606 


MACAULAY 


"is  more  distinguished  by  zeal  than  either  by  candour 
or  skill."     Died  in  1791. 

See  Wilkes,  "  Life  and  Letters  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March 
1765,  May,  1769,  and  August,  1771. 

Macaulay,  (Thomas  Babington,)  Baron,  an  emi- 
nent English  scholar,  critic,  and  historian,  was  born  at 
Rothley  Temple,  in  Leicestershire,  October  25,  1800. 
His  father,  Zachary  Macaulay,  was  a  native  of  Scotland, 
of  Highland  descent ;  his  mother,  vSelina  Mills,  the 
daughter  of  a  bookseller  of  Bristol,  was  of  a  Quaker 
family.  His  home  education  was  religious  and  somewhat 
austere.  Mrs.  Hannah  More,  who  was  intimate  with 
his  parents,  has  given  in  her  letters  many  interesting 
particulars  of  the  future  historian.  From  his  earliest 
childhood  he  was  passionately  fond  of  poetry, — so  much 
so  that  he  could  hardly  be  prevailed  on  to  read  prose. 
Later,  however,  we  find  him  deeply  interested  in  history, 
and  warmly  discussing  with  a  friend  of  his  own  age  the 
respective  merits  of  Marlborough  and  other  eminent 
commanders.  (See  "  Letters  of  Hannah  More  to  Zach- 
ary  Macaulay,  containing  Notices  of  Lord  Macaulay's 
Vouth,"  i860.) 

When  about  twelve  years  of  age,  he  was  placed  under 
the  instruction  of  Mr.  Preston,  with  whom  he  laid  the 
foundations  of  his  acquaintance  with  the  classics.  At 
eighteen  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  having  twice  won  the 
chancellor's  medal  for  English  verse, — the  first  time  for 
a  poem  on  "  Pompeii,"  in  1819,  the  second  for  one  on 
"Evening," in  1820.  He  graduated  as  B.A.  in  1822,  and 
soon  after  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  his  college.  He 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1826.  "The  Battle  of  Ivry,"  one  of  the  most 
universally  admired  of  his  shorter  poems,  was  published 
in  "Knight's  Quarterly  Magazine"  in  1824.  In  1825  he 
contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  an  article  on 
Milton,  which  at  once  placed  him  in  the  foremost  rank 
of  the  most  distinguished  essayists  of  the  age.  This 
was  the  commencement  of  that  splendid  and  fascinating 
series  of  review-articles,  the  publication  of  which  maybe 
said  to  form  an  era  in  the  history  of  literature,  when  for 
the  first  time  the  critical  or  historic  essay  threatened  to 
bear  away  the  palm  of  popularity  from  the  most  brilliant 
works  of  fiction. 

Macaulay  entered  Parliament  in  1830,35  a  representa- 
tive of  the  borough  of  Calne.  While  at  Cambridge  he 
had  distinguished  himself  as  an  orator,  and  he  now  more 
than  justified  the  high  expectations  which  his  friends 
had  formed  of  his  parliamentary  career.  His  speeches 
on  the  Reform  bill  (in  1830-32)  established  his  fame  as 
an  able  and  eloquent  speaker.  It  is  said,  however,  that, 
owing  to  his  rapid  and  somewhat  monotonous  delivery, 
his  speeches  were  more  efi"ective  and  convincing  when 
they  appeared  in  print  than  when  spoken  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  One  of  his  most  remarkable  efforts  was 
his  great  speech  (1833)  on  the  bill  for  the  renewal  of  the 
charter  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  was  soon  after 
made  a  member  of  the  supreme  council  of  India,  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  law  commission  to  prepare  a 
new  code  for  the  government  of  that  country.  Although 
it  was  found  impossible  to  carry  into  immediate  effect 
many  of  the  reforms  which  he  sought  to  introduce,  his 
efforts  in  this  cause  have  not  been  without  important 
results.  Since  the  government  of  India  was  transferred 
to  the  imperial  crown,  his  code  has  been  made  the  basis 
of  the  legal  system  of  the  country.  His  sojourn  in  India 
(from  1835  to  1838)  had  made  him  acquainted  with  its 
history  and  with  the  character  of  its  various  peoples  ; 
and  to  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  in  a  field  hitherto 
untrodden  by  him,  we  are  indebted  for  two  of  his  most 
effective  and  most  brilliant  essays, — those  on  Clive  and 
Warren  Hastings. 

Having  returned  to  England  in  1838,  he  again  entered 
Parliament,  as  a  representative  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh, 
and  soon  after  received  the  appointment  of  secretary 
at  war  in  the  Melbourne  ministry.  On  the  fall  of  the 
Whigs  in  1841,  he  went  into  the  opposition.  When  they 
returned  to  power  in  1846,  he  was  made  paymaster-gene- 
ral. He  had  been  regularly  re-elected  from  Edinburgh 
until  1847,  when,  owing  to  an  unusual  combination  of 
different  party  elements,  he  was  defeated.     The  mor- 


tification of  this  repulse  stung  him  very  deeply.  He 
resolved  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  studious 
retirement.  He  seems  to  have  felt,  indeed,  that  his 
proper  vocation  was  the  |)ursuit  of  literature,  apart  from 
the  excitements  of  the  political  arena.  One  of  the  im- 
portant results  of  his  withdrawal  from  public  life  was  his 
being  able  to  apply  himself  without  interruption  to  the 
composition  of  his  great  work,  the  "  History  of  Eng- 
land," the  first  two  volumes  of  which  made  their  appear- 
ance near  the  close  of  1848.  Never  before  in  the  annals 
of  literature  was  any  work  of  history  welcomed  by  the 
public  with  such  enthusiastic  admiration.  His  work  was 
read  by  tens  of  thousands  with  as  much  eagerness  and 
delight  as  a  fresh  novel  by  Scott  or  Bulwer  would  have 
been.  In  1849  Macaulay  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  Not  long  after,  in  a  speech  which 
he  made  in  that  city,  he  took  a  formal  leave  of  political 
life,  explaining  at  the  same  time  the  principles  by  which 
he  had  sought  to  guide  his  course  while  he  was  con- 
nected with  the  government.  Among  other  things,  he 
said  on  that  occasion,  "  I  cannot  accuse  myself  of  having 
ever  been  untrue  either  to  the  cause  of  civil  or  religious 
liberty,  or  to  the  cause  of  property  and  law.  I  reflect 
with  pleasure  that  I  bore  a  part  in  some  of  those  reforms 
which  corrected  great  abuses  and  removed  just  discon- 
tents. I  reflect  with  equal  pleasure  that  I  never  stooped 
to  the  part  of  a  demagogue,  and  never  feared  to  confront 
what  seemed  to  me  to  be  an  unreasonable  clamour."  In 
1852  the  people  of  Edinburgh,  as  some  atonement  for 
the  injustice  which  they  felt  had  been  done  him  five  years 
before,  again  returned  Macaulay  to  Parliament,  without 
his  having  so  much  as  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  or 
having  made  the  smallest  effort  to  procure  his  re-elec- 
tion. Although  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, his  declining  health  did  not  permit  him  to  take 
any  active  part  in  the  debates.  During  the  whole  time 
that  he  was  in  the  House  he  spoke  but  twice :  on  both 
occasions  he  was  listened  to  with  the  most  respectful 
and  eager  attention.  An  imperfect  and  extremely  in- 
accurate collection  of  his  speeches  having  been  printed 
without  his  sanction,  a  correct  edition  was  by  his  au- 
thority issued  in  1854.  In  1856,  on  account  of  ill  health, 
he  resigned  his  seat  in  Parliament.  In  1855  the  third 
and  fourth  volumes  of  his  History  made  their  appearance. 
They  were  welcomed  as  warmly  and  read  as  eagerly  as 
the  two  former  had  been.  It  was  his  original  purpose 
to  bring  his  History  from  the  accession  of  James  II. 
down  to  a  time  within  the  memory  of  persons  still  living. 
But  in  the  last  volume  he  had  only  reached  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  After  his  decease  another  frag- 
mentary volume  was  published,  including  an  account 
of  the  death  of  William  IIL 

In  1857  Macaulay  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Macaulay  of  Rothley.  Although  his 
health  continued  to  decline,  he  still  applied  himself  to 
his  literary  labours  until  very  near  the  time  of  his  death. 
His  disease  was  an  affection  of  the  heart,  of  which  he 
died  suddenly  on  the  28th  of  December,  1859. 

Besides  the  various  productions  of  his  pen  already 
referred  to,  he  contributed  a  series  of  valuable  biogra- 
phies to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  Not  content 
with  his  acknowledged  mastery  in  the  different  depart- 
ments of  prose,  he  became  again  in  1842  a  candidate  for 
poetic  laurels,  and  gave  to  the  world  his  "Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome,"  of  which  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that, 
for  a  combination  of  picturesqueness,  simplicity,  and 
power,  there  is  nothing  of  the  kind  superior  to  tliem  in 
the  English  language. 

It  is,  however,  as  a  writer  on  history  that  the  name 
of  Macaulay  is  destined  to  take  its  most  distinguished 
place  and  descend  to  the  remotest  posterity.  Already, 
in  his  essays,  he  had  proved  his  mastery  in  this  depart- 
ment of  composition.  A  perfect  history,  according  to 
his  ideal,*  would  not  be  content  with  merely  recording 
wars  and  revolutions,  the  lives  of  kings  and  heroes,  but 
would  include  literature  and  the  arts,  manners  and 
usages,  the  progress  of  civilization, — in  short,  the  whole 
life  of  the  nation  ;  not  of  the  aristocracy  only,  but  of  the 
people  in  every  rank  and  condition      Referring  to  Mac- 

*  See  his  essay  on  "  History,"  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Re\'ie\v,"  1828. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,y,/r'«^;i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y, short ;^,&,  i,  o,  obscure ;iit.t,  fill,  fit;  m6t;nflt;good;  moon; 


MA  CAUL  AY 


1607 


MACCABEES 


aulay's  historic  essays,  Dean  Milman  well  observes,  "  The 
variety  of  topics  is  almost  as  noticing  to  the  variety  of 
information  on  every  topic."  Of  the  style  he  remarks, 
"  It  was  eminently  his  own.  ...  Its  characteristics  were 
vigour,  animation,  copiousness,  clearness, — above  all, 
sound  English,  now  a  rare  excellence.  .  .  .  His  English 
was  pure  both  in  idiom  and  in  words  ;  pure  to  fastidious- 
ness ;  not  that  he  discarded  or  did  not  make  free  use 
of  the  plainest  and  most  homely  terms,  .  .  .  but  every 
word  must  be  plain  English, — nothing  that  approached 
real  vulgarity,  nothing  that  had  not  the  stamp  of  popu- 
lar use  or  the  authority  of  sound  English  writers." 

That  Macaulay  possessed  in  a  pre-eminent  degree 
many  of  the  highest  attributes  of  a  great  historian,  none 
will  deny.  In  that  power  of  imagination  by  which  he 
was  enabled  to  clothe  the  dead  past  with  all  the  activity 
and  fulness  of  life,  he  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  the 
most  gifted  writers  of  fiction.  In  the  extent  and  variety 
of  his  knowledge,  in  the  quickness  and  strength  of  his 
intellect,  by  which  he  was  able  to  grasp  with  facility  the 
most  difficult  jiolitical  and  moral  problems,  in  his  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  all  the  springs  of  human  action, 
in  the  vividness  of  his  descriptions,  in  the  animation 
and  sustained  interest  of  his  nairative,  in  the  clearness, 
force,  and  brilliancy  of  his  style,  in  his  command,  in 
short,  over  every  species  of  eloquence,  whether  declama- 
tory, argumentative,  or  poetical,  he  has,  even  among  the 
greatest  masters  of  historical  composition,  few,  if  any, 
superiors.  He  is,  however,  it  must  be  confessed  wjth 
regret,  deficient  in  one  important  or  rather  essential 
qualification, — impartiality.  His  feelings  were  so  intense, 
his  attachments  and  aversions  so  strong,  that,  where 
these  chanced  to  enter  into  the  subject  to  be  weighed, 
the  balance  was  too  seldom  held  with  an  equal  hand. 

Macaulay's  great  work  has  been  compared  to  a  vast 
painting,  in  which  the  different  figures  correspond  to 
prominent  historic  characters.  It  may  be  said  that  as 
in  his  style  he  too  often  sacrifices  simplicity  to  his  love 
of  antithesis,  so  in  his  history  he  is  too  apt  to  exagger- 
ate, for  the  sake  of  effect,  the  lights  and  shadows  of  his 
portraits. 

In  relation  to  his  conversational  powers.  Dean  Milman 
observes,  "In  the  quiet  intercourse  with  the  single 
friend,  no  great  talker  was  more  free,  easy,  and  genial 
than  Macaulay.  There  was  the  most  equable  interchange 
of  thought ;  he  listened  with  as  much  courtesy  as  he 
spoke  with  gentle  and  pleasant  persuasiveness.  In  a 
larger  circle,  such  as  he  delighted  to  meet  and  assemble 
around  him  to  the  close  of  his  life,  a  few  chosen  in- 
timates, some  accomplished  ladies,  foreigners  of  the 
highest  distinction  who  were  eager  to  make  his  acquaint- 
ance, his  manners  were  frank  and  open.  In  conversation 
in  such  a  circle,  a  commanding  voice,  high  animal  spirits, 
unrivalled  quickness  of  apprehension,  a  flow  of  language 
as  rapid  as  inexhaustible,  gave  him,  perhaps,  a  larger 
share,  but  a  share  which  few  were  not  delighted  to  yield 
up  to  him.  His  thoughts  were  like  lightning,  and  clothed 
themselves  at  once  in  words.  .  .  .  And  the  stores  which 
his  memory  had  at  instantaneous  command  !  .  .  .  With 
these  came  anecdotes,  touches  of  character,  drollery,  fun, 
excellent  stories  excellently  told." 

"Lord  Macaulay,"  observes  the  same  writer,  "was 
never  married ;  his  strong  domestic  affections  were 
chiefly  centred  in  his  sister — happily  married  to  his 
frienci  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan — and  her  family.  Her 
children  were  to  him  as  his  own,  and  cherished  with 
almost  parental  tenderness.  As  a  friend  he  was  singu- 
larly steadfast.  He  was  impatient  of  anything  dispar- 
aging of  one  for  whom  he  entertained  a  sincere  esteem. 
In  the  war  of  political  life  he  made,  we  believe,  no  lasting 
enemy;  he  secured  the  unswerving  attachment  of  his  po- 
litical friends,  to  whom  he  had  been  unswervingly  true." 

All  Macaulay's  works  have  been  reprinted  in  Germany. 
His  "  History"  has  been  translated  into  French,  the  first 
two  volumes  by  M.  Jules  de  Peyronnet,  the  second  and 
third  by  M.  Amedee  Pichot. 


See  a  "  Memoir  of  Lord  Macaulay,"  written  for  the  Royal  Society 


(or  Maicli,  1S43,  April,  1849,  and  April,  i868  ;  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  April,  iS4g,  August  and  September,  1856,  July  and  August, 
1S59  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1856,  and  November,  i860  ; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1S56 ;  J.  Paget,  "New  Examen ;" 
Tkevelvan,  "Life  of  Lord  Macaulay  " 

Macaulay,  (Zachary,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  philan- 
thropist, of  Scottish  descent,  born  about  1768,  was  the 
father  of  Lord  Macaulay,  the  historian.  He  was  a 
zealous  coadjutor  of  Wilberforce  in  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade,  in  which  cause  he  laboured  many  years. 
Died  in  1838.  His  father,  John  Macaulay,  minister  at 
Inverary,  is  mentioned  in  Dr.  Johnson's  "Tour  to  the 
Helirides." 

Mac-Au'ley,  (Catherine  E.,)  an  Irish  lady,  eminent 
for  benevolence  and  piety,  born  in  the  county  of  Dublin 
in  1787.  She  was  educated  a  Catholic.  Having  lost 
her  parents  in  early  life,  she  was  ado])ted  by  Mr.  Cal- 
lahan, a  wealthy  gentleman,  who  at  his  death,  in  1822, 
left  her  his  entire  fortune.  She  founded  in  1827,  in 
Baggot  Street,  Dublin,  an  institution  designed  as  a 
temporary  home  for  poor  women  out  of  employment, 
and  a  school  for  children.  It  was  afterwards  called  the 
Institute  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  of  Mercy,  having  for  its 
object  the  care  of  the  sick.  She  became  in  1831  superior 
of  the  Order  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  This  order  has 
been  introduced  into  Great  Britain,  the  United  States. 
.\ustralia,  and  South  America.     Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Life  of  Catherine  MacAulev,"  by  a  member  of  the  Order 
of  Mercy,  New  York,  1866. 

Mac-beth'  or  Macbeda,  mak-ba'tha,  a  king  ot 
Scotland,  who,  according  to  the  common  tradition,  was 
a  cousin  of  King  Duncan,  and  originally  Thane  of  Gla- 
mis.  About  1040  Macbeth  assassinated  Duncan  and 
usurped  the  throne.  Malcolm,  the  lawful  heir,  tied  to 
England,  and,  having  returned  with  an  army,  defeated 
Macbeth,  who  was  killed  in  1056  or  1057. 

The  story  of  Macbeth's  usurpation  would  seem  to 
possess  scarcely  any  positive  historic  basis.  "  However 
he  may  have  gained  his  power,"  says  Burton,  "  he  exer- 
cised it  with  good  repute,  according  to  the  reports  nearest 
to  his  time.  It  is  among  the  most  curious  of  the  an- 
tagonisms that  sometimes  separate  the  popular  opinion 
of  people  of  mark  from  anything  positively  known  about 
them,  that  this  man,  in  a  manner  sacred  to  splendid  in- 
famy, is  the  first  whose  name  appears  in  the  ecclesiastical 
records  both  as  a  king  of  Scotland  and  a  benefactor  of 
the  Church.  .  .  .  ?Te  had  a  wider  dominion  than  any 
previous  ruler,  having  command  over  all  the  country 
now  known  as  Scotland,  except  the  isles  and  a  portion 
of  the  western  highlands."  ("  History  of  Scotland,"  vol. 
i.  chap.  X.)  The  legend  of  Macbeth  forms  the  subject 
of  one  of  Shakspeare's  most  celebrated  tragedies. 

See  HoLiNSHED,  "Chronicles  of  Englande,  Scotlande,"  etc.: 
Buchanan,  "  Historia  Scotica. " 

Mac-Bride',  (David,)  an  eminent  surgeon,  born  in 
the  county  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1726,  settled  in  Dublin 
in  1749.  Besides  other  works,  he  published  an  "Intro- 
duction to  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (1772,) 
which  is  much  esteemed.     Died  in  1778. 

Maccabaeus,  (Judas.)     See  Judas. 

Mac-Cabe',  (Edward,)  an  Irish  cardinal,  born  at 
Dublin,  February  14,  1816,  was  bred  at  Maynooth,  and 
made  a  priest  in  1839.  In  1877  he  became  bishop  and 
assistant  to  Cardinal  Cullen,  to  whom  he  had  for  several 
years  been  a  vicar-general.  In  1879  he  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  and  in  1882  he  vvas  created  a  cardinal- 
priest.     Died  at  Kingstown,  Ireland,  February  10,  18S5. 

MacCabe,  (William  Bernard,)  an  Irish  journalist, 
born  in  Dublin,  November  23,  1801.  For  many  years 
he  was  connected  with  the  press  of  Dublin  and  London, 
and  was  (1847-51)  Uruguayan  consul  at  London.  Be- 
sides various  books  translated  from  the  Italian  and  Ger- 
man, he  published  a  "  Catholic  History  of  England," 
(1848-54,)  novels  entitled  "Bertha,"  (1851,)  "  Florine," 
"Agnes  Arnold,"  (i860,)  "Adelaide,"  etc.,  and  other 
works. 

Mac'ca-bees,  [Gr.  MaKKaScuoi;  Fr.  Maccabees,  mS'- 
kt'bi',]  a  celebrated  Jewish  family,  which  attained  the 
royal  dignity  in  Judea.  The  surname  MaccaB/EUS,  from 
the  Hebrew  Makkab,  a  "  hammer,"  was  first  given  to 
Judas  for  his  victories  over  the  King  of  Syria,  about  165 
B.C.     His  family  and  descendants  were  also  called  Mac- 


cas^;  9asj;  gkard;  gas/;G,  \i,Vi,  guttural;  "H,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin/ziw.     (2]^r*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACCALL 


1608 


MACCLELLAN 


cabees  or  Asmonaeans.  Jiidas,  who  was  the  son  of 
Mattathias,  had  three  hrotliers,  John,  Simon,  and  Jona- 
than, noticed  in  this  work. 

See  Apociyplial  Book  of  Maccabees;  Josephus,  " Antiquitates 
Judaicse." 

Mac-CaU',  (Gkokgf.  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1802,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822. 
He  took  Command  of  a  division  or  corps  called  the  Penn- 
sylvania Reserves,  about  May,  iS6i,and  commanded  the 
same  at  Mechanicsville  and  Gaines's  Mill,  June  26-27, 
1862.  He  was  taken  prisoner  June  30  of  that  year. 
Died  in  February,  1868. 

Mac-Car'thy,  {Uknis  Florenck,)  an  Irish  author, 
born  at  Cork  in  1820.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
poetry  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Dublin,  and  in  1871 
was  made  the  recipient  of  a  literary  pension  of  one  hun- 
dred pounds  per  annum.  Among  his  works  are  trans- 
lations from  Calderon"s  dramas,  (1S53,)  "  Ballads,  Poems, 
and  Lyrics,"  (1850,)  "  Under-Glimpses,"  (1857,)  "The 
Bell-Founder,  and  other  Poems,"  (1857,)  "Shelley's 
Early  Life,"  (1872,)  etc.  He  also  edited  a  "  Book  of 
Irish  Ballads,"  (1S46.)     Died  April  7,  1882. 

MacCarthy,  (Justin,)  an  Irish  author,  born  at  Cork. 
November  22,  1830.  He  received  a  good  education,  and 
became  a  journalist  of  Liverpool  (1853)  and  London, 
(i860.)  He  passed  several  years  in  the  United  States. 
In  1S79  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  as  a  Home-Ruler, 
representing  the  county  of  Longford,  and  in  1880  was 
re-elected  with  no  opposition.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Waterdale  Neighbours,"  (1867,)  "My  Enemy's 
Daughter,"  (1869,)  "Lady  Judith,"  (1871,)  "A  Fair 
Saxon,"  (1873,)  "Linley  Rochford,"  (1874,)  "Dear  Lady 
Disdain,"  (1875,)  "Miss  Misanthrope,"  {1877,)  "Con 
Amore,"  (1881,)  "  A  History  of  Our  Own  Times,"  a  work 
of  much  merit,  (1878-80,)  "The  E])och  of  Reform,"  (1S82,) 
"  A  Short  History  of  Our  Own  Times,"  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Four  Georges,"  (1884.) 

Mac-Caul',  (Rev.  Alexander,)  an  English  Hebraist 
and  writer  on  theology,  was  born  about  1800.  He  be- 
came prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  1845.  Died 
in  1S63. 

MacCheyue,  mak-shan',  (Robert  Murray,)  a  Scot- 
tish divine,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1813.  He  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Chalmers  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  and  in  1836  was  ordained  minister  of  Saint 
Peter's,  Dundee.  His  earnest  and  faithful  labours  were 
instrumental  in  converting  great  numbers  during  the 
memorable  revival  of  1839.  He  died  in  1843,  leaving  a 
number  of  hymns  of  great  beauty. 

See  "Memoir  and  Remains  of  Robert  M.  McClieyne,"  by  Rev. 
A.  A.  BoNAR,  1844;  Rev.  Robert  Steel.  "  lUirning  ajid  Shining 
Lights,"  1864;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Macchi,  mJk'kee,  (Mauro,)  an  Italian  political 
writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1815.  He  was  a  moderate  Lib 
eral  in  politics.     Died  in  18S0. 

Macchiavelli  or  Machiavelli,  de,  di  ma-ke-l-veK- 
lee,  often  Anglicized  as  Machiavel,  mak'e-a-vgl,  [Lat. 
Machiavel'lus  ;  Fr.  Machiavel,  mt'she't'vSl',]  (Nic- 
col6  di  Bernardo,  )  a  famous  Italian  statesman, 
diplomatist,  and  writer,  whose  character  abounds  in 
enigmas  and  paradoxes,  and  from  whose  name  has  been 
derived  a  synonym  of  perfidious  policy,  ( Mackiavellism. ) 
He  was  born  at  Florence  on  the  3d  of  May,  1469.  In 
1499  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Ten  who  managed 
the  diplomatic  affairs  of  the  republic.  He  retained  this 
office  about  fourteen  years,  during  which  he  was  em- 
ployed in  many  foreign  missions  to  France,  etc.,  and 
acquitted  himself  with  great  dexterity.  In  1510,  for  the 
third  time,  he  was  sent  to  France,  and  negotiated  an 
alliance  with  Louis  XII.  He  zealously  exerted  his  talents 
and  influence  to  maintain  the  independence  of  Florence, 
but  without  success.  In  15 12  the  Medicis  obtained  sove- 
reign power  in  Florence  by  the  aid  of  the  pope  and  the 
emperor,  and  Macchiavelli  was  banished  from  the  city, 
but  forbidden  to  leave  the  country.  He  passed  several 
ensuing  years  in  retirement,  and  during  this  period  com- 
posed a  treatise  on  the  "Art  of  War,"  and  his  important 
work  entitled  "The  Prince,"  ("Del  Principe,"  or  "De 
Principatibus,")  which  has  entailed  a  large  portion  of 
conventional  infamy  on  his  name.    It  was  written  for  the 


private  use  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and  not  designed  foi 
publication.  "Few  books,"  says  Hallam,  "have  been 
more  misrepresented.  His  crime,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
world,  was  to  have  cast  away  the  veil  of  hypocrisy." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  About 
1520  he  was  recalled  into  public  service  by  Leo  X.,  and 
was  employed  on  several  missions,  the  last  of  which  was 
to  the  army  of  the  league  against  Charles  V.,  (1526.)  He 
died  at  Florence  in  June,  1527.  His  last  work  was  an 
excellent,  luminous,  and  picturesque  history  of  Florence, 
("  Storie  Florentine,"  1525,)  the  style  of  which  is  greatly 
admired.  He  was  also  author  of  several  comedies  of 
some  merit,  and  of  valuable  "  Discourses  on  Livy." 
"The  character  of  Macchiavelli,"  says  Macaulay,  "was 
hateful  to  the  new  masters  of  Italy.  His  works  were 
misrepresented  by  the  learned,  misconstrued  by  the 
ignorant,  censured  by  the  Church,  abused  with  all  the 
rancour  of  simulated  virtue  by  the  minions  of  a  base 
despotism  and  the  priests  of  a  baser  superstition.  .  .  . 
The  name  of  a  man  whose  genius  had  illuminated  all 
the  dark  places  of  policy,  and  to  whose  patriotic  wisdom 
an  oppressed  people  had  owed  their  last  chance  of 
emancipation,  passed  into  a  proverb  of  infamy.  .  .  .  The 
terms  in  which  he  is  commonly  described  would  seem 
to  import  that  he  was  the  tempter,  the  evil  principle,  the 
discoverer  of  ambition  and  revenge,  the  original  inventor 
of  perjury,"  etc.  "  His  History  of  Florence,"  says  Hal- 
lam, "is  enough  to  immortalize  the  name  of  Machiavel. 
Seldom  has  a  more  giant  stride  been  made  in  any  de- 
partment of  literature  than  by  this  judicious,  clear,  and 
elegant  history."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  ot 
Europe.") 

See  Galanti,  "  Elogio  di  Niccol6  Machiavelli,"  1779;  Bal- 
DELLi,  "Elogio  di  Niccol6  Machiavelli,"  1794:  PeriAs,  "Histoire 
de  N.  Machiavel,"  1823  :  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Machiavel,  ."^on 
G(5nie  et  ses  Erreurs,"  1833  ;  Macaulay's  "  Essays,"  article  "  Ma- 
chiavelli ;"  T.  MuNDT,  "Macchiavelli  tind  der  Gang  der  Euro- 
paisrhen  Politik,"  1852;  Ginguen^,  "Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature 
Italienne;"  Gervinus,  "  Historische  Schriften  ;"  F.  W.  Ebeling, 
"  N.  di  Bernardo  de  Macchiavelli's  politisches  System,"  etc.,  1850; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  (Senerale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Septem- 
ber, 1816,  p.  2og,  (by  Sir  James  Mackintosh;)  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  March,  1827;  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Macchietti,  mSk-ke-et'tee,  (Giroi.amo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  del  CROCiFissAjo,(kRo-che-fis-sa'yo,) 
(because,  as  we  are  told,  his  master  painted  crucifixes,) 
was  born  at  Florence  about  1540.  He  worked  at  Florence 
and  Rome,  and  painted  history  and  portraits  with  great 
success.  Among  his  master-pieces  was  a  picture  of  the 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi." 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Mac-Clel'lan,  (George,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  American 
surgeon,  born  at  Woodstock,  Windham  county,  Con- 
necticut, in  1796.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1815,  and  studied  medicine  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1819. 
He  founded  about  1826  the  Jefferson  Medical  College 
in  Philadelphia,  in  which  he  became  professor  of  surgery 
and  a  very  popular  lecturer.  He  was  one  of  the  first  in 
the  United  States  to  introduce  the  system  of  clinical 
instruction  into  the  medical  schools.  He  was  particu- 
larly distinguished  as  a  bold  and  successful  surgical 
operator.     Died  in  1847. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography,"  i86i ;  Samuel 
G.  Morton,  "Biographical  NoticeofDr.  George  McClellan,"  1849; 
W.  Darrach,  "  Memoir  of  Dr.  George  McClellan,"  1847. 

MacClellan,  (  George  Brinton,  )  a  distinguished 
American  general,  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  December  3, 1826.  He  entered  the  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point  in  1842,  and  graduated  there  in 
the  summer  of  1846,  standing  second  in  general  rank  in 
a  large  class.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  lieutenant 
of  engineers  in  1847,  and  was  breveted  captain  for  his 
services  at  the  capture  of  Mexico.  In  the  spring  of  1855 
the  governinent  sent  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the  Crimea  a 
military  commission  to  examine  the  military  systems  of 
the  European  powers,  etc.  Captain  McClellan  was  one 
of  the  three  officers  selected  for  this  mission.  He  re- 
turned home  in  April,  1856,  and  gave  the  results  of  his 
observations  in  a  valuable  report  to  the  war  department. 
He  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army  in  1857,  and 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  Illinois  Central 
Railroad. 

In  May,  1861,  he  took  command  of  the  Union  forces 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good ;  moon ; 


MA  CCLERiYAND 


1609 


MACCLURE 


In  Western  Virginia,  which  defeated  the  enemy  at  Rich 
Mountain  and  Cheat  River  in  July.  A  few  days  after 
the  battle  of  Bull  Run  (July  21,  1861)  he  was,  at  the  re- 
commendation of  General  Scott,  appointed  commander 
of  the  army  at  Washington.  He  reorganized  that  army 
and  brought  it  into  a  high  state  of  discipline.  When 
General  Scott  retired  from  active  service,  November  i, 

1861,  McClellan  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States.     About  the  end  of  January, 

1862,  the  President  ordered  that  a  general  movement 
should  be  made  by  all  the  armies  on  the  22d  of  February. 
Having  been  relieved  from  the  command  of  all  the  de- 
partments except  that  of  the  Potomac,  McClellan  began 
to  move  towards  Richmond  about  the  loth  of  March. 
He  conveyed  his  army  by  water  down  the  Potomac  and 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  James  River.  Soon 
after  the  opening  of  this  campaign  he  began  to  complain 
that  he  was  not  properly  supported  by  the  President. 
He  commenced  active  operations  about  the  5th  of  April, 
by  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  which  the  insurgents  evacuated 
on  the  3d  or  4th  of  May.  On  the  next  day  he  fought  an 
indecisive  battle  at  Williamsburg,  from  which  he  slowly 
followed  the  retiring  enemy  to  the  Chickahominy. 

According  to  his  biographer  and  admirer,  Mr.  Hillard, 
"the  mind  of  McClellan  was  constantly  burdened  with 
a  conviction  that  his  troops  were  not  numerous  enough." 
He  had  about  95,000  men  at  Yorktown.  The  Union 
army  was  attacked  at  Fair  Oaks  on  the  31st  of  May  by 
General  J.  E.  Johnston,  who  was  repulsed  with  heavy 
loss.  According  to  Hillard,  McClellan  was  confined  to 
bed  by  illness  during  this  battle.  His  army  remained 
nearly  inactive  in  the  swamps  of  the  Chickahominy  for 
about  three  weeks,  during  which  he  lost  great  numbers 
by  sickness.  Active  hostilities  were  renewed  by  the 
enemy  on  the  26th  of  June,  and  then  began  the  Seven 
Days'  battles,  at  Mechanicsville,  Savage's  Station, 
White  Oak  Swamp,  Gaines's  Mill,  and  Malvern  Hill, 
(July  I,  1862,)  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  Union 
army  was  compelled  to  retreat  and  abandon  the  con- 
quest of  Richmond.  He  wrote  to  Secretary  Stanton, 
June  28,  "If  I  save  this  army  now,  I  tell  you  plainly 
thac  I  owe  no  thanks  to  you  or  to  any  other  persons  in 
Washington.  You  have  done  your  best  to  sacrifice  this 
army."  In  July,  1862,  he  wrote  the  President  a  letter 
on  the  policy  which  ought,  in  his  view,  to  be  adopted 
in  the  conduct  of  the  war.  "Military  power,"  he 
wrote,  "should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  rela- 
tions of  servitude.  ...  A  declaration  of  radical  views, 
especially  upon  slavery,  will  rapidly  disintegrate  our 
present  armies." 

In  August  his  army  left  the  peninsula,  and  was 
moved  by  water  from  the  James  River  to  Aqui'a  Creek 
About  the  2d  of  September  he  was  appointed  general-in- 
chief  of  the  army  which  had  been  commanded  by  Pope 
and  had  been  driven  back  to  Washington.  General 
Lee,  having  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  was 
pursued  by  McClellan,  who  gained  a  victory  at  Antietam 
Creek  on  the  i6th  and  17th  of  September,  1862.  The 
Union  army  lost  in  this  battle  11,426  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  was  unprepared  or  unable  to  pursue  Lee, 
who  retired  to  Virginia  on  the  i8th  of  September.  On 
the  6th  of  October  McClellan  was  ordered  to  cross  the 
Potomac  and  give  battle  to  the  enemy  or  drive  him 
south  ;  but  he  delayed  his  advance  for  about  three  weeks, 
and  was  removed  from  command  by  an  order  dated  the 
5th  of  November  and  received  on  the  7th.  In  August, 
1864,  he  was  nominated  as  Democratic  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  by  the  Convention  at  Chicago.  He  received 
at  the  election  only  twenty-one  electoral  votes,  cast  by 
the  States  of  Kentucky,  Delaware,  and  New  Jersey. 
He  resigned  his  commission  as  major-general  of  the 
regular  army,  November  8,  1864,  and  made  a  long  visit 
to  Europe,  from  which  he  returned  in  1868.  He  subse- 
quently was  appointed  superintendent  of  docks  and  piers 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  a  position  which  he  resigned 
in  1872.  In  1877  he  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State 
of  New  Jersey.     Died  October  29,  1885. 

Mac-Clernand,  (John  A.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Breckinridge  county,  Kentucky,  in  1812.  He 
removed  to  Illinois,  and  served  as  a  member  of  Congress 
from  that  State  from  1843  ^^  1861.     He  commanded  a 


brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862,  and  a  division 
at  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7  of  that  year.  He  succeeded 
General  .Sherman  as  commander  of  an  army  in  Missis- 
sippi in  January,  1S63,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the  siege 
of  Vicksburg  in  May.  He  was  removed  from  this  com- 
mand before  the  end  of  that  siege. 

Macclesfield,  Earl  of.     See  Parker. 

Mac-Clint'pck,  (Sir  Francis  Leopold,)  a  successful 
Arctic  explorer,  born  at  Dundalk,  Ireland,  in  1819.  He 
entered  the  navy  about  1831,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  in  1S45.  In  1848  and  1849  he  served  under 
Sir  James  Ross  in  his  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  enterprise, 
skill,  and  energy  in  several  subsequent  expeditions  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  performed  remarkable  feats  in 
sledge-travelling.  In  1857  Captain  McClintock  received 
command  of  the  "  Fox"  screw-steamer,  fitted  out  by  Lady 
Franklin  for  a  final  effort  to  obtain  tidings  of  the  lost 
navigator.  In  the  winter  of  1858-59  he  and  his  officers 
performed  extensive  sledge-journeys,  and  in  May  found 
at  Point  Victory,  on  King  William's  Island,  the  record 
of  Franklin's  death  and  the  remains  of  the  last  sur- 
vivors of  his  party.  (See  Franklin,  Sir  John.)  Soon 
after  his  return,  September,  1859,  he  was  knighted,  and 
received  various  honours  and  rewards.  He  published  a 
"  Narrative  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,"  (i86o.)     He  became  vice-admiral  in  1877. 

Mac-Cliut'ock,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
scholar  and  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1814,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1835.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Dickinson 
College  at  Carlisle,  became  editor  of  the  "Methodist 
Quarterly  Review"  in  184S,  and  conducted  the  same  with 
great  ability  for  eight  years.  In  1857  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
where  he  acquired  distinction  as  a  pulpit  orate r.  He 
accepted  in  i860  the  charge  of  the  American  Chapel 
in  Paris.  During  the  civil  war  he  rendered  important 
services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union  by  his  pen  and  voice, 
and  his  home  in  Paris  became  a  rallpng  centre  for  pa- 
triotic Americans.  Having  returned  home  about  1865, 
he  resumed  his  literary  labours,  and  was  selected  in  1867 
to  organize  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary.  His  most 
important  work,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Dr.  W. 
Strong,  is  a  "Theological  and  Biblical  Cyclopaedia,"  in 
10  vols.,  of  which  only  three  volumes  were  published 
before  his  death,  which  occurred  March  4,  1870. 

Mac-Clos'key,  (John,)  l).D.,an  American  cardinal, 
born  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  March  20,  1810.  He  was 
trained  in  the  college  and  seminary  at  Emmittsburg, 
Maryland,  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1S34,  and  studied 
two  years  at  Rome.  In  1844  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Axiere  and  made  coadjutor  of  the  Bishop  of  New 
York.  In  1847  he  was  installed  Bishop  of  Albany,  where 
his  administration  was  brilliantly  successful.  In  1864 
he  was  promoted  to  be  Archbishop  of  New  York,  and 
in  1875  was  created  a  cardinal-priest.     Died  in  1S85. 

MacCloskey,  (William  George,)  D.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can bishop,  born  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  November  10, 
1S23.  He  graduated  at  the  college  in  Emmittsburg, 
Maryland,  in  1847,  and  became  a  professor  in  Saint 
Mary's  Theological  Seminary,  (Roman  Catholic,)  was 
in  1S59  appointed  president  of  the  American  College  in 
Rome,  and  in  i868  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Louis- 
ville, Kentucky. 

Mac-C'lure''  or  Maclure,  (Sir  Robert  Le  Mesu- 
RIER,)  a  navigator,  was  born  at  Wexford,  Ireland,  in 
1807.  After  serving  many  years  in  the  navy,  he  accom- 
panied Sir  James  Ross  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin 
in  1848.  On  his  return,  in  1849,  he  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  captain.  In  1850,  as  captain  of  the  Investigator, 
he  was  directed  to  renew  the  enterprise  by  advancing 
eastward  from  Behring's  Strait.  He  entered  a  strait 
which  he  named  the  Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  and,  after 
his  ship  was  frozen  fast,  he  pursued  the  exploration  by 
sledges  until  he  reached  Melville  or  Barrow's  Strait,  in 
the  winter  of  1850-51.  This  is  called  the  first  discovery 
of  the  Northwest  Passage.  In  the  next  season  he  dis- 
covered a  second  passage,  on  the  north  side  of  Baring 
Island.  In  1853  he  was  extricated  from  a  perilous  situ- 
ation by  Captain  Kellet,  who  arrived  at  Melville  Island 


C  as  /i;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  ;V  G,  H,  Vi, g^Mural :  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  g;  th  as  in  this.     (2:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MACCLURG 


1610 


MACCULLOCH 


from  the  east;  but  lie  was  forced  to  abandon  the  Iiuls- 
tigator.  On  his  return  home  he  received  a  reward  of 
^5000  for  his  discoveries.     Died  October  17,  1873. 

See  OsBORN',  "  Narration  of  the  Discovery  of  the  North-West 
Passage,"  1856. 

Mac-clurg',  (James,)  an  American  physician,  born 
at  Ilanipton,  Virginia,  in  1747,  was  tlie  author  of  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Human  Bile,"  which  was  translated 
into  several  languages.     Died  in  1825. 

Mac-Coll',  (Malcolm,)  a  British  author, born  at  Glen- 
finan,  county  of  Inverness,  Scotland,  March  27,  1838. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  Trinity  College,  Glenal- 
mond,  and  the  University  of  Naples,  and  became  a  cler- 
gyman of  the  English  Chtirch.  He  wrote  "Science  and 
Prayer,"  "The  Reformation  in  England,"  "Lawlessness, 
Sacerdotalism,  and  Ritualism,"  "  The  Eastern  Question," 
and  a  number  d  books  on  political  subjects. 

Mao-con'nel,  (John  L.,)  an  Anierican  lawyer,  born 
in  Illinois  in  1826;  died  in  1862.  He  published  "Tal- 
bot and  Vernon,"  and  other  sketches  of  Western  life. 

Mac-Cook',  (Alexander  McDowell,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Columbiana  county,  Ohio,  in  1831,  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1852.  He  served  as  colonel  at 
15ull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  as  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers at  Shiloh  in  April,  1862.  He  became  major- 
general,  and  held  a  command  at  the  battle  of  Perryville, 
October  8,  1862,  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  January  2, 
1863,  and  at  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20  of  the 
latter  year.  He  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  and 
major-general  March  13,  1865,  and  becaine  colonel  aide- 
de-cani])  to  the  general  June  11,  1875. 

MacCook,  (Henry  Christopher,)  D.D.,an  Ameri- 
can naturalist,  born  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio,  July  3,  1837. 
He  graduated  at  Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1859,  and  studied  at  the  Allegheny  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  entered  the  Presbyterian  ministrj',  and 
in  1869  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Philadelphia.  His 
religious  books  include  "Object  and  Outline  Teaching," 
(1871,)  a  "Teacher's  Commentary,"  (2  vols.,  1871-72,) 
"The  Tercentenary  Book,"  (1873,)  ^^^-  His  scientific 
works  include  "Mound-Making  Ants,"  (1S77,)  "Agri- 
cultural Ants  of  Texas,"  (1880,)  "Honey  and  Occident 
Ants,"  (1882,)  "The  Tenants  of  an  Old  Farm,"  (1884,) 
etc.  Dr.  MacCook  is  the  highest  living  authority  on  the 
ants  and  spiders  of  the  New  World. 

MacCook,  (  Robert  L.,  )  an  American  general,  a 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Jefferson  county, 
Ohio,  in  1837.  He  was  a  lawyer  before  the  war.  He 
served  as  colonel  at  Mill  Springs,  Kentucky,  January, 
1862.  He  was  murdered  by  guerillas  near  Salem,  Ala- 
bama, in  August  of  the  same  year. 

Mac-cord',  (David  J.,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Saint  Matthew's  parish,  South  Carolina,  in  1797,  con- 
tributed a  number  of  essays  to  the  "  Southern  Review" 
and  "  De  Bow's  Review."     Died  in  1S55. 

MacCord,  (George  Herbert,)  an  American  painter, 
born  in  New  York  city,  August  i,  1848.  Among  his 
best-known  works  are  "Sunnyside,"  (1876,)  "Wintry 
Night,  Fifth  Avenue,"  (1878,)  "  The  Ice-Harvest,"  (1884,) 
etc.  In  1883  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy. 

MacCord,  (Louisa  S.,)  an  American  poet,  a  daughter 
of  the  statesman  Langdon  Cheves,  and  wife  of  David  J., 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1810.  She 
published  "My  Dreams,"  a  volume  of  lyrics,  (184S,)  and 
"Caius  Gracchus,"  a  tragedy,  (i.8_5i.)     Died  in  1880. 

Mac-Cor'mic,  (Charles,)  a  historical  writer,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1744,  wrote  "The  Reign  of  George  III.  to 
:783,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1807. 

Mac-Cor'mick,  (Cyrus  Hall,)  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  at  Walnut  Grove,  in  Rockbridge  county, 
Virginia,  February  11,  1809.  He  won  great  fame  and 
wealth  by  his  improved  reaping-machines,  the  first  of 
which  was  patented  in  1834.  In  1847  he  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Chicago,  where  he  died  in  1884.  He  founded  a 
Presbyterian  theological  seminary  in  that  city  in  1859. 

Mac-Cosh',  (James,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scottish  writer 
on  theology  and  metaphysics,  was  born  in  Ayrshire  about 
1810.  He  became  a  minister  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  about  1852  professor  of  logic  at  Belfast, 
Ireland.     Among  his  works  are  "  The  Method  of  the 


Divine  Government,  Physical  and  Moral,"  (1850,)  ''The 
Intuitions  of  the  Mind  Inductively  Investigated,"  (i860,) 
"The  Supernatural  in  Relation  to  the  Natural,"  (1862,) 
"Examination  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  Philosophy,"  (1866,) 
"Typical  Forms  and  Special  Ends  in  Creation,"  (in 
conjunction  with  Dr.  Dickie,)  (1869,)  "  Christianity  and 
Positivism,"  (1871,)  "The  Scottish  Philosophy,  etc.," 
(1874,)  "A  Reply  to  Tyndall's  Belfast  Address,"  (1875,) 
and  "The  Emotions,"  (1880.)  At  the  earnest  invitation 
of  the  trustees  and  other  friends  of  Princeton  College, 
New  Jersey,  he  held  the  office  of  president  in  that  insti- 
tution from  1868  to  1 883,  to  the  jirosperity  of  which  his 
naine  and  influence  gave  a  new  impulse. 

Maccovius.     See  Makowski. 

Mac-Cown^  (John  Porter,)  an  officer,  born  in  Ten- 
nessee, served  in  the  Mexican  war  in  1847,  and  became 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army  in  r86i. 

MacCrea,  mak-kra',  (Jane,)  a  daughter  of  a  Scottish 
clergyman  in  New  Jersey,  was  murdered  in  1777  by  the  In- 
dian allies  of  Burgoyne,  near  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Hudson, 

MacCrie,  mak-kree',  (Thomas,)  an  eloquent  Scottish 
Presbyterian  writer,  born  at  Dunse,  i)i  Berwickshire,  in 
1772.  He  belonged  to  "the  most  straitest  sect"  of  his 
religion,  styled  "  Anti-Burghers,"  a  part  of  the  Secession 
Church.  About  1795  '^^  '^''^^  ordained  minister  of  a  con- 
gregation in  PZdinburgh.  In  1811  or  1812  he  published 
a  "  Life  of  John  Knox,"  which  obtained  great  popularity. 
His  "Life  of  Andrew  Melville"  (1819)  displays,  with  warm 
sectarian  partiality,  much  learning  and  ability.  He  after- 
wards produced,  besides  other  works,  an  interesting 
"  History  of  the  Progress  and  Suppression  of  the  Re- 
formation in  Italy,"  (1827.)  Died  in  1835.  In  reference 
to  his  "  Life  of  Knox,"  Lord  Jeffiey  says,  "  We  do  not 
hesitate  to  pronounce  it  by  far  the  best  piece  of  history 
which  has  appeared  since  the  commencement  of  our 
critical  career.  It  is  extremely  accurate,  learned,  and 
concise,  and  at  the  same  time  very  full  of  spirit  and 
animation." 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  :Si2;  Chambers,  "Biogra- 
phical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

MacCrie,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  divine, 
a  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  179S. 
He  became  a  professor  of  theology  in  the  Presbyterian 
College  in  London.  Among  his  works  are  "  Sketches 
of  Scottish  Church  History,"  (1841,)  a  new  translation 
of  Pascal's  "  Provincial  Letters,"  a  "  Life  of  Thomas 
McCrie,"  (his  father,)  etc. 

MacCuUagh,  mak-kiil'laH,  (James,)  a  distinguished 
mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  the 
county  of  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1809,  was  educated  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of 
that  college  in  1832,  and  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  1843.  f^^  gained  distinction  by  his  researches  in  the 
wave  theory  of  light,  and  other  subjects,  on  which  he 
wrote  several  treatises.  In  1846  he  received  the  Coplev 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  for  his  contributions  to  th"* 
science  of  light.     He  died,  by  suicide,  in  1847. 

MacCulloch,  mak-kul'loh,  (Benjamin,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Rutherford  county,  Tennessee,  in  1814 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  took  arms 
against  the  Union  in  1861.  He  commanded  at  the  battle 
of  Wilson's  Creek,  Missouri,  August  10,  1861,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862. 

See  Tenney,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  1865. 

MacCulloch,  mak-kul'loh  or  mak-kul'loK,  (Hora- 
tio,) a  skilful  Scottish  landscape-painter,  born  in  Glas- 
gow in  idob,  worked  iu  Edinburgh.  Died  June  15, 
1867. 

MacCulloch,  mak-kul'lgh,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  Brit- 
ish geologist  and  naturalist,  born  in  Guernsey  in  1773. 
He  studied  medicine,  which  he  practised  for  a  short 
time.  About  181 2  he  began  to  make  a  scientific  survey 
and  exploration  of  Scotland  in  the  service  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  while  thus  einployed  he  examined  the  geology 
and  mineralogy  of  that  region.  He  became  well  versed 
in  many  natural  sciences  and  in  several  arts.  In  1821 
he  published  a  "Geological  Classification  of  Rocks," 
etc.,  and  in  1824  "The  Highlands  and  Western  Isles  of 
Scotland,  in  a  Series  of  Letters  to  Sir  W.  Scott."  For 
many  years,  ending  in  1832,  he  was  employed  in  the 
geological  and  mineralogical  survey  of  Scclland.     Hfl 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  "^Jong;  k,  k,  \  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MACCULLOCH 


1611 


MACDONOUGH 


afterwards  published  the  results  of  this  survey  in  an 
excellent  mineralogical  map.     Died  in  1835. 

MacCulloch,  (John  Ramsay,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
writer  on  political  economy  and  commerce,  was  born  in 
Wigtonshire  about  1789.  He  edited  the  "Scotsman" 
in  Edinburgh  for  a  few  years,  and  contributed  many 
articles  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  About  1828  he 
removed  to  London  and  became  professor  of  political 
economy  in  the  new  university.  He  wrote  many  works, 
which  are  highly  esteemed.  Among  these  are  "The 
Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1825,)  a  valuable 
"Dictionary  of  Commerce  and  Commercial  Naviga- 
tion," (1832,)  and  a  "  Dictionary,  Geographical,  Statis- 
tical, and  Historical,"  etc.  About  1838  he  became  comp- 
troller of  the  stationery  office,  London.     Died  in  1864. 

MacCuUoch,  mak-kuKloh,  (Hugh,)  an  American 
banker  and  statesman,  born  at  Kennebunk,  Maine,  in 
181 1.  He  studied  in  Bowdoin  College,  and  in  1835  be- 
came a  lawyer  at  Fort  Wayne,  Lidiana.  He  was  later 
a  bank-president.  From  1863  to  1865  he  was  United 
States  CDinplroller  of  the  currency.  He  was  secretary 
of  the  treasury  from  1S65  to  1869,  and  in  1870  became 
a  banker  in  London.  In  1884  he  was  again  appointed 
secretary  of  the  treasurv.  He  published  "  Men  and 
Measures  of  Haifa  Cent'ury,"  (18SS.) 

Macdiarmid,  mak-der'mid,  ?  (John,)  a  Scottish 
author,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1790.  In  181 7  he 
became  editor  of  the  "Dumfries  Courier,"  which,  under 
his  direction,  was  an  excellent  and  successful  journal 
for  many  years.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Cowper,'" 
"  Sketches  from  Nature,"  "The  Scrap-Book,"  and  a  few 
other  works.     Died  in  1852. 

Macdiarmid,  (John,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  m 
Perthshire  in  1779.  He  settled  in  London,  where  he 
edited  "The  Saint  James's  Chronicle."  He  was  authoi 
of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  System  of  Military  Defence," 
and  "  Lives  of  British  Statesmen."     Died  in  1808. 

See  Disraeli,  "Calamities  of  Authors;"  Chambers,  "  Biograph- 
i;al  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 

Mac-don'ald,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  Jacobite  poet, 
born  at  Dalilea,  in  Moidart,  in  1701.  He  was  a  school- 
master, but  served  as  an  officer  in  the  Young  Pretender's 
army.  Among  his  works  are  a  Gaelic  vocabulary,  (1741,) 
a  volume  of  Gaelic  poems,  and  several  collections  of 
verse  in  English.     Died  at  Santaig  about  1780. 

Mac-don'ald,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Leith  ab^ut  1755.  He  was  an  Episcopal  clergyman  in 
Glasgow  fcr  a  few  years.  He  wrote  "  Velina,"  a  poem, 
and  a  tragedy  called  "  Vimonda,"  which  was  performed 
with  success  in  Edinburgh.  Having  retired  from  the 
clerical  profession,  he  removed  about  1786  to  London, 
where  he  was  reduced  to  extreme  poverty.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;" 
Disraeli,  "  Calamities  of  Authors." 

Macdonald,  [Fr.  pron.  mtk'do'ntl',]  (Etienne 
Jacques  Joseph,)  Duke  of  Tarentum,  an  able  French 
marshal,  was  born  of  a  Scottish  family  at  Sancerre  in 
1765.  For  his  conduct  at  Jemmapes  (1792)  he  was  made 
a  colonel.  In  1793,  as  general  of  brigade,  he  served  under 
Pichegru  in  Flanders.  He  was  made  a  general  of  division 
in  1795  or  1796,  and  joined  the  army  of  Italy  in  1797.  In 
February,  1799,  he  succeeded  Championnet  in  the  chief 
command  at  Rome,  where  his  operations  were  success- 
ful. He  commanded  at  the  great  battle  of  Trebbia,  (June, 
1799,)  where  the  superior  numbers  of  the  allied  forces 
under  Suwarow  were  victorious.  In  November,  1800,  he 
led  an  army  to  Italy  by  the  celebrated  passage  of  the 
Spkigen,  which,  says  Alison,  "was  perhaps  the  most 
wonderful  achievement  of  modern  war."  ("  History  of 
Europe.")  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Denmark  in 
1802,  and  returned  in  1804.  After  this  he  passed  about 
five  years  without  employment,  having,  it  is  supposed, 
offended  Bonaparte  by  his  public  expressions  in  favour 
of  Moreau.  Having  received  command  of  a  division  in 
1809,  he  displayed  great  skill  and  courage  at  Wagram, 
(July,  1809,)  where  Bonaparte  gave  him  a  marshal's 
biton  on  the  field  of  battle.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
was  created  Duke  of  Tarentum.  In  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1812,  Marshal  Macdonald  commanded  the  tenth 
corps.  He  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Lutzen  and 
Bautzen,  (1813,)  and  served  the  emperor  with  fidelity  to 


the  last  in  the  campaign  of  1814.  When  Napoleon  was 
about  to  abdicate,  he  expressed  his  grateful  sense  of 
Macdonald's  services,  and  presented  to  him  a  Turkish 
sabre.  Having  declared  his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVIIL, 
he  refused  to  serve  his  former  master  during  the  Hun- 
dred Days,  and  in  1816  was  appointed  grand  chancellor 
of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  commander  of  a  military 
division.  He  died  in  1840,  leaving  his  title  of  duke  to 
an  only  son. 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  Jomini, 
"Precis  des  Operations  militaires  ;"  Thibaudeau,  "Histoire  ds 
Napoleon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Macdonald,  (  Flora,  )  a  Scottish  heroine,  born  in 
one  of  the  Hebrides  in  1720.  After  the  battle  of  Cul- 
loden,  (1746,)  the  Pretender  Charles  Edward  Stuart  he- 
came  a  fugitive,  and  was  hunted  from  place  to  place  b'- 
the  king's  troops  until  he  was  rescued  by  the  courageous 
exertions  of  Flora,  who  conducted  him  (disguised  as  her 
female  servant)  to  the  Isle  of  Skye.  She  was  imprisoned 
a  few  months  for  this  offence.  About  1750  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Macdonald  of  Kingsburgh.  They  emigrated  tc 
the  United  States  of  North  America  about  1774,  and 
afterwards  returned  to  Skye,  where  she  died  in  1790. 

See  the  "Autobiography  of  Flora  Macdonald,"  Edinburgh,  1869. 

MacDonald,  (George,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  nov- 
elist, born  at  Huntly,  in  Aberdeenshire,  in  1824.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen  and  in  the 
college  at  Highbury,  London,  and  was  for  a  time  a  min- 
ister of  the  Independents,  but  afterwards  joined  the 
English  (Episcopal)  Church  as  a  layman.  He  has  pub- 
lished some  volumes  of  poems,  and  many  stories,  in- 
cluding "  David  Elginbrod,"  (1862,)  "  Robert  Falconer," 
( 1868,)  "The  Princess  and  the  Goblin,"  (1871,)" The  Mar- 
quis of  Lossie,"  (1S77,)  "Castle  Warlock,"  (1882.)  etc. 
Some  of  his  works  are  for  children,  and  all  are  written 
with  some  religious  or  didactic  purpose. 

Macdonald,  (Hugh,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  ai 
Glasgow  in  181 7.  He  was  a  block-printer,  but  became 
a  journalist.  He  wrote  "  Rambles  about  Glasgow," 
"  Days  at  the  Coast,"  and  a  volume  of  genial  "  Poems," 
(1863.)     Died  March  16,  1S60. 

Macdonald,  (James,)  a  Scottish  hymn-writer,  born 

Culcreuch,  Stirlingshire,  September  18,  1807.  He  was 
educated  at  Glasgow  University,  and  became  a  proof- 
reader and  schoolmaster.     Died  May  27,  184S. 

Macdonald,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician, 
born  at  White  Plains,  New  York,  in  1803.  He  pub- 
lished an  "  Essay  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of 
Insane  Hospitals,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1849. 

Macdonald,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  officer  and 
writer,  was  the  son  of  Flora,  above  noticed,  and  was  born 
at  Kingsburgh  in  1759.  He  passed  many  years  in  the 
military  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  became 
a  captain  in  the  corps  of  engineers.  About  1800  he  re- 
tamed  to  England.  He  published  a  valuable  "Treatise 
on  Telegraphic  Communications,"  (1S08,)  and  wrote 
many  articles  on  magnetism  and  other  sciences,  some  of 
which  were  inserted  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine." 
He  translated  from  the  French  several  works  on  military 
tactics.     Died  in  1831. 

See  "GentltMian's  Magazine,"  1S31 ;  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Macdonald,  (Sir  John  Alexander,)  a  statesman, 
born  in  Sutherlandshire,  Scotland,  January  11,  1815. 
He  went  in  childhood  to  Canada,  and  in  1835  became  a 
lawyer  of  Kingston.  He  at  once  became  a  recognized 
leader  among  the  Canadian  Conservatives.  He  held 
many  important  public  offices,  and  in  1878  was  made 
minister  of  the  interior  and  premier  of  the  Dominion. 
He  was  knighted  (K  C.B.)  in  1867.     Died  in  1891. 

Macdonald,  (Laurence,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born 
in  1798,  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life  at 
Rome.  His  subjects  are  mostly  taken  from  the  Greek 
and  Roman  mythology,  and  are  treated  in  the  pure 
classical  style.     Died  March  4,  1878. 

Macdonald,  (William  Bell,)  a  Scottish  scholar, 
born  in  1807.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  wrote  a  "  Coptic  Grammar,"  and  made  a  trans- 
lation of  "  Faust."     Died  at  Glasgow  in  1862. 

Macdonough,  mak-don'ph,  (Thomas,)  an  American 
commodore,  born  in  New  Castle  county,  Delaware,  in 


c  as  k:  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  Ttasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.,' 


MACDOUGAL 


1612 


MACFARLANE 


1784.  As  commander  of  the  American  fleet  on  Lake 
Champlain,  he  gained  a  splendid  and  decisive  victory 
over  the  British  in  September,  1814,  in  an  action  of  little 
more  than  two  hours.  For  this  service  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  captain.     Died  in  1825. 

Macdougal,  mak-doo'gal,  (Alexander,)  an  Amer- 
ican officer,  born  about  1730,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  rose  to  be  major-general,  and 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  White  Plains,  (1776.)  He 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1781.  Died 
in  1786. 

Mac-DoTw'eil,  (Irvin,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Franklin  county,  Ohio,  about  1818,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1838.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846- 
47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1847.  I"  May,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regular  army. 
He  commanded  the  Union  forces  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  July  21,  1861.  In  April,  1862,  he  took  command  of 
the  department  of  the  Rappahannock.  He  commanded 
a  corps  of  the  army  of  General  Pope,  and  took  part  in 
several  battles  near  Manassas  in  August,  1862.  In  1864- 
65  he  was  commander  of  the  department  of  the  Pacific, 
and  became  commander  of  the  fourth  military  district 
(Mississippi  and  Arkansas)  in  1867.  He  was  subsequently 
transferred  to  the  department  of  the  Pacific.  He  became 
major-general  in  1872;  retired  in  1882;  died  in  1885. 

MacDo'well,  (James,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia,  in  1796.  He  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  from  1842  to  1845,  and  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1845  to  1851.     Died  in  1851. 

MacDowell,  (Mrs.  Katherine  S.,)  born  in  Missis 
sippi  in  1853.  She  was  married  about  1S69,  and  in  1871 
removed  to  Boston,  Massachusetts,  to  enter  upon  a  liter- 
ary life.  Her  principal  works  ("  Like  unto  Like"  and 
"  Dialect  Tales")  attained  great  and  well-deserved  suc- 
cess. Her  "  Suwanee  River  Tales"  appeared  in  1884. 
Died  at  Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  July  22,  1883. 

Mac-D6"w'ell,  (Patrick,)  a  skilful  sculptor,  born  at 
Belfast,  in  Ireland,  in  1799.  After  he  had  served  sev- 
eral years  as  an  apprentice  to  a  coachmaker  of  London, 
he  became  a  self-taught  sculptor.  His  marble  statue 
of  a  "Girl  Reading"  (183S)  was  greatly  admired,  and 
procured  for  him  liberal  patronage.  In  1844  he  pro- 
duced a  marble  group  called  "  Love  Triumphant."  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1846.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Psyche,"  "Eve,"  "Early  Sorrow," 
and  "The  Day-Dream."     Died  December  9,  1870. 

Mac-duff',  (John  R.,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  clergyman, 
born  at  Bonhard,  in  Perthshire,  in  iSiS.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Edinburgh  High  School  and  University.  In 
1842  he  became  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  soon  acquired  fame  as  a  pulpit  orator.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Memories  of  Patmos."  "  Sunsets  on  Hebrew 
Mountains,"  "Memories  of  Bethany,"  and  "The  Gates 
of  Praise,"  the  last  a  collection  of  poems. 

Mac-Duf'fie,  (George,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  in  Columbia  county,  Georgia,  about 
1788.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1821  to 
1835,  supported  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828,  and 
was  elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1834.  He 
gained  distinction  as  a  public  speaker,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  debates  of  Congress,  in  which  he 
advocated  State  rights  and  the  policy  of  J.  C.  Calhoun. 
In  1843  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina.  He  resigned  his 
seat  in  1846,  on  account  of  ill  health.     Died  in  1851. 

Mace,  (Frances  Laughton,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Orono,  Maine,  in  1836.  She  has  contributed  to 
the  leading  magazines,  and  one  of  her  poems,  "  Only 
Waiting,"  published  anonymously  in  1854,  has  achieved 
a  wide  popularity. 

Mace,  mt'sk',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
biblical  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1640.  He  wrote 
"La  Science  de  I'ficriture  sainte,"  (1708,)  and  othei 
works.     Died  in  1721. 

Mac^,  (Jean,)  a  French  author,  born  in  Paris, 
April  22,  181 5.  He  was  bred  at  the  College  Stanislas, 
(1825-35,)  but  became  a  private  soldier.  He  has  written 
much  for  the  popularization  of  science,  and  laboured  for 
the  establishment  of  schools  and  libraries  for  the  people. 
He  was  expelled  from  France  as  a  republican  in  1851. 


Many  of  his  books  treat  of  popular  education,  of  phys- 
iology and  health,  etc  He  has  also  written  fairy-tales 
of  much  merit. 

Mace,  mas,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician,  born  in 
1613,  published  a  book  called  "Music's  Monument," 
(1676.)     Died  in  1709. 

See  BuRNEV,  "  History  of  Music." 

Macedo,  de,  di  mS-sa'do,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  born  at  Coimbra  in  1612.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  tfcie  Portuguese  Popes  and  Cardinals,"  (1663.)  Died 
in  1693. 

Macedo,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  monk  ana 
prolific  writer,  born  at  Coimbra  in  1596,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.     Died  at  Padua  in  1681. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^RON, 
"Memoires;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  "Nou- 
velle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

Macedo,  de,  (Joz6  Agostinho,)  a  distinguished 
Portuguese  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Ev'ora  about  1770. 
He  adopted  the  profession  of  a  priest,  and  became  a 
popular  preacher  in  Lisbon.  He  edited  the  official 
Gazette  of  Lisbon,  and  wrote  several  political  tracts. 
About  181 1  he  produced  an  epic  poem  called  "Gama." 
A  revised  edition  appeared  with  the  title  "The  Orient," 
("O  Oriente.")  He  was  also  author  of  poems  entitled 
"Meditation"  ("Meditacao")  and  "Newton."  Died  in 
1831. 

Mag'e-don,  [Ma/ce(5(jv,]  said  to  have  been  a  son  ot 
Jupiter  and  Thyia,  and  a  brother  of  Magnes.  From  his 
name  that  of  Macedonia  is  supposed  to  be  derived. 

Macedon'icus,  a  surname  of  Q.  C/ECILIUS  Metel- 
Lus.     See  Metellus. 

Ma9-e-do'ni-us,  [Gr.  MaKcdoviOf,]  the  founder  of  a 
heretical  sect  called  Macedonians.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  Semi-Arians,  and  was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople by  the  Arians  about  341  A.D. ;  but  the  Catholics 
refused  to  recognize  him.  In  360  he  was  deposed.  He 
afterwards  denied  the  divinity  or  personality  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  found  followers,who  composed  a  separate  sect. 

See  TiLi-EMONT,  "  Memoires ;"  Saint  Augustine,  "  De  Hasresi- 
bus;"  Saint  Athanasius,  "  Historia  Arianoruni." 

MacEntee,  mak'en  tee,  (Jervis,)  an  American  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Rondout,  New  York,  July  14, 
1828.  His  pictures  are  very  frequently  autumn  scenes 
of  great  but  melancholy  beauty.  He  also  painted  the 
figure  with  success.  He  was  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy.     Died  January  27,  1891. 

Macer.     See  Calvus,  (C,  Licinius  Macer.) 

Ma'cer,  (.(Emii.ius,)  a  Roman  poet  of  Verona,  was 
contemporary  with  Virgil.  He  wrote  a  poem  or  poems 
on  Birds,  Snakes,  and  Medicinal  Plants.  His  works  are 
not  extant.     Died  in  16  B.C. 

Macer,  (/Emilius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  Severus.  He  wrote  several  legal 
works,  of  which  extracts  are  given  in  the  "Digest." 
Among  the  titles  of  these  are  "  De  Appellationibus"  and 
"  De  Re  Militari." 

Macer,  (C.  Licinius,)  a  Roman  historian,  born  about 
no  B.C.,  was  the  father  of  C.  Licinius  Calvus,  and  a 
leader  of  the  democratic  party.  He  became  praetor 
about  the  year  70.  His  history  of  Rome,  entitled  "An- 
nales,"  or  "  Rerum  Romanorum  Libri,"  is  referredto  by 
Livy  with  respect.  Having  been  impeached  by  Cicero, 
and  convicted  under  the  law  "De  Repetundis,"  in  66 
B.C.,  he  committed  suicide. 

See  Liv^-,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  iv.,  vii.,  ix.,  and  x. 

Mac-far'lan,  (James,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Glas- 
gow, "April  9,  1832.  He  published  several  volumes, 
chiefly  of  meritorious  verse.  After  a  short  life  of  great 
poverty  and  hardship,  he  died  at  Glasgow,  November  6, 
1862.  (See  his  "Complete  Poems,"  with  a  memoir,  by 
H.  B.  MacPhail.) 

Mac-FarTand,  (Francis  Patrick,)  D.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican bishop,  born  at  Franklin,  Pennsylvania,  April  6, 
1 819.  He  was  educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  insti- 
tutions of  Emmittsburg,  Maryland,  and  in  1845  was  or- 
dained to  the  priesthood,  after  which  he  held  various 
theological  professorships.  In  1858  he  was  made  Bishop 
of  Hartford,  Connecticut.     Died  October  12,  1874. 

Macfarlane,  mak-far'len,  (Charles,)  a  British  au- 
thor, who  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Our  Indian 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  ?ame,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  shoi-t;  a,  e.  j,  9,  obscure;  f3r,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MA  CFARLANE 


i6i 


MA  CHIN 


Empire,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  "The  French  Revolution,"  (4 
vols.,  1845,)  and,  in  conjunction  with  George  L.  Craik, 
"The  Pictorial  History  of  England,"  (8  vols.,  1849,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1858. 

Macfarlaiie,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in 
1734.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  George 
III.,"  edited  the  "  Morning  Chronicle,"  London,  and  is 
said  to  have  assisted  Macpherson  in  the  preparation  of 
Ossian.     Died  in  1804. 

Mac-far'ren,  (George  Alexander,)  an  eminent 
English  musical  composer,  born  in  London  in  1813.  He 
became  a  professor  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
produced  many  successful  operas,  sonsjs,  duets,  etc. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Devil's  Opera," 
(1838,)  "Don  Quixote,"  (1846.)  "King  Charles  H.," 
(1849,)  "  Robin  Hood,"  (i860,)  and  "  Jessie  Lea,"  (1863.) 
Died  in  1887. 

Mac-fer'rin,  (John  Berry,)  an  American  Method- 
ist divine,  born  in  Rutherford  county,  Tennessee,  in 
1807,  became  editor  of  the  "Southwestern  Christian 
Advocate,"  Nashville,  in  1840.     Died  May  10,  1887. 

Mac-Gee',  (Thomas  D'Arcy,)  a  Canadian  journalist, 
born  in  Carlingford,  Ireland,  April  13,  1825.  He  was 
editor  of  a  Catholic  paper  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  1842 
-45,  a  politician  and  journalist  of  Dublin,  1845-48,  and  an 
editor  of  Irish-American  papers  in  New  York,  1848-57. 
In  1857  he  removed  to  Montreal,  where  he  became  a 
journalist  and  member  of  Parliament,  filling  several  posi- 
tions in  the  Colonial  ministry.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Catholic  History  of  North  America,"  (1855,)  "  History 
of  Ireland,"  (1863,)  and  "  Poems,"  (1870.)  He  was  mur- 
dered by  a  Fenian  at  Ottawa,  April  7,  1868. 

MacGeohegan,  mak-gi'he-gan  or  mak-gi'nan, 
(James,)  an  Irish  priest,  born  near  Mullingar  in  1698. 
He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  "  History  of  Ireland," 
(1758,)  written  originally  in  French.     Died  in  1764, 

Mac-Gill,'  (James,)  born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Oc- 
tober 6,  1744,  went  in  early  life  to  Canada,  acquired  great 
wealth,  and  served  in  the  war  of  1812  as  a  brigadier- 
general  of  provincial  troops.  He  founded  McGill  Uni- 
versity at  Montreal,  where  he  died,  December  19,  1813. 

Mac-Gill',  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  November  4,  1809.  He  graduated  from  a 
college  at  Bardstown,  Kentucky,  and  practised  law  with 
success.  He  then  studied  divinity  at  Rome  and  Balti- 
more, and  in  1830  became  a  Roman  Catholic  priest.  In 
1850  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Richmond,  Virginia, 
where  he  died,  January  14,  1872. 

Mac-gil'li-vray,(ALEXANDER,)  born  in  Coosa  county, 
Alabama,  about  1740,  became  chief  of  the  Creek  Indians 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  in  which 
he  sided  with  the  British.     Died  in  1793. 

Mac-gil'li-vray,  (William,)  a  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Harris  in  1796.  He  became  con- 
servator of  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
in  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  professor  of  civil  and 
natural  history  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  zoologist,  and  also  cultivated 
botany  and  geology.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  British  Birds,"  (3  vols.,)  two  volumes  of  which  were 
published  after  his  death.  Among  his  other  works  is  a 
"History  of  British  Quadrupeds."     Died  in  1852. 

See  "Brie/  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  "North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1853. 

Mac-greg'or,  (John,)  a  British  statistician  and 
economist,  born  at  Stornoway,  county  of  Ross,  in  1797. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  British  America,"  (1832,) 
and  became  assistant  secretary  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
1840,  and  a  member  of  Parliament  about  1847.  Among 
his  works  is  "  The  Progress  of  America  from  the  Dis- 
covery of  Columbus  to  the  Year  1846,"  (2  vols.,  1847.) 
Died  in  1857. 

MacGregor,  (John,)  a  British  author,  born  at  Graves- 
end,  January  24,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1851.  He 
published  "  A  Thousand  Miles  in  the  Rob  Roy  Canoe," 
(l866,)  "The  Rob  Roy  in  the  Baltic,"  "  A  Voyage  Alone 
in  the  Yawl  Rob  Roy,"  "  The  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan," 
stc. 

Mac-Guffey,   (William    Holmes,)  an   American 


Presbyterian  clergyman,  born  in  Washington  county, 
Pennsylvania,  September  23,  1800.  He  graduated  at 
Washington  College,  Pennsylvania,  in  1826,  held  various 
professorships  in  Miami  University,  Ohio,  and  was  chosen 
president  of  Cincinnati  College  in  1836,  and  of  Miami 
Univ«-sity  in  1839.  He  was  professor  of  moral  philos- 
ophy in  the  University  of  Virginia,  1845-73.  His  school- 
books  are  still  extensively  used.  Died  at  Charlottesville, 
Virginia,  May  4,  1873. 

Machado.     See  Barbosa-Machado, 

Mac-Hale',  (John,)  D.D.,  an  Irish  archbishop,  born 
at  Tubbernavine,  county  of  Mayo,  March  6,  1 791.  Edu- 
cated at  Maynooth,  he  became  in  1814  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic priest,  and  a  professor  of  dogmatic  theology  at 
Maynooth.  In  1825  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Maronea 
in  partibus,  in  1834  Bishop  of  Killala,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  promoted  to  be  Archbishop  of  Tuam.  He  was 
active  in  Irish  politics,  a  great  church-builder,  and  a 
hearty  opponent  of  secular  education.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Evidences  and  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church," 
(1827,)  a  translation  of  part  of  the  Bible  into  Irish,  and 
other  works  in  the  Irish  language.  Died  November  8, 
1S81. 

Ma-ehanl-das,  a  tyrant  of  Sparta,  was  killed  by 
Philopoemen  in  207  B.C. 

Ma-eha'on,  [Ma;tauv,]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician, 
a  son  of  .^sculapius.  He  is  said  to  have  served  as 
surgeon  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  was  one  of  the  Greek  heroes  inclosed  in  the 
wooden  horse. 

See  Virgil's  "^neid,"  book  ii.,  1.  263. 

Machault,  de,  deh  mt'sho',  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
poet,  born  about  12S4,  of  a  noble  family  of  Champagne. 
He  was  a  court  officer  to  Philip  the  Fair,  to  King  John 
of  Bohemia,  and  to  other  princes.  He  left  a  vast  num- 
ber of  ballades,  a  long  poem  called  "Voir  dit,"  (written 
in  1362,)  and  "  La  Prise  d'Alexandrie,"  a  rhymed  chron- 
icle.    Died  about  1377. 

Machault,  de,  deh  mS'sho',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  in  Paris  in  1600.  He  wrote  "The  History 
of  Japan,"  ("  De  Rebus  Japonicis,"  1646,)  and  a  work 
on  the  Indian  and  Persian  Missions.     Died  in  1680. 

Machault,  de,  (Jean,)  a  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1561,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  Died  in 
1629. 

Machault  d'Arnouville,  mS'sho'  dtR'noo'vil', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  an  able  French  financier  and  statesman, 
born  in  1701.  He  was  appointed  coiitr6leur-general  of 
the  finances  in  1745,  and  received  in  addition  the  office 
of  keeper  of  the  seals  in  1750.  In  order  to  divide  the 
imposts  more  equally,  he  encroached  on  the  pecuniary 
privileges  of  the  clergy,  and  thus  made  powerful  enemies. 
In  1754  he  was  removed  from  the  control  of  the  finances, 
but  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  marine.  He  was  dis- 
missed finally  from  office  in  1757.     Died  in  1794. 

See  Martin,  "  Histoire  de  France  :"  Bresson,  "  Histoire  finan- 
ci^re  de  la  France  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Machebeuf,  mSsh'buf,  (Joseph  Projectus,)  D.D., 
a  bishop,  born  at  Riom,  in  France,  jTanuary  11,  1812. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Riom  and  at  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, graduating  in  arts  in  1830,  and  in  theology 
in  1836,  in  which  year  he  was  oraained  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest.  In  1839  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  was 
a  pastor  in  Sandusky,  Santa  Fe,  and  Denver.  In  1868 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Epiphania  and  appointed 
Vicar-Apostolic  of  Colorado. 

Machet,  mt'shi',  (G6rard,)  a  French  cardinal,  bom 
at  Blois  about  1380.  He  was  confessor  to  Charles  VII., 
and  presided  over  the  examination  of  Joan  of  Arc  in 
March,  1429,  (while  the  king  was  yet  doubtful  whether 
to  trust  her  predictions,)  when  he  declared  that  the 
advent  of  a  liberatress  was  announced  by  prophecy,  and 
that  he  had  read  it  in  books.     Died  in  1448. 

See  H.  Gr^goire,  "  Histoire  des  Confesseurs,"  1824. 

MachiaveL     See  Macchiavelli. 

Machin,  mak'in,  ?  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  mathema- 
tician, was  made  professor  of  astronomy  in  Gresham  Col- 
lege in  1713.  He  wrote  "On  the  Laws  of  the  Moon's 
Motions,"  a  "  Solution  of  Kepler's  Problem,"  and  a  treat- 
ise "On  the  Curve  of  Quickest  Descent."    Died  in  I7SI. 

See  Ward,  "Livesof  the  Professors  of  Gresham  College,"  1740. 


e  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  11,  k.  ^tttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2!^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MA  CHON 


1614 


MACKENZIE 


Ma'-ehon,  [Ma;\'wv,|  a  Greek  comic  poet,  born  at 
Corinth  or  Sicyon,  lived  at  Alexandria  between  300  and 
260  B.C.  According  to  A  then  sens,  he  was  one  of  the 
best  poets  of  the  "Pleiad."  His  works  are  lost,  except 
small  fragments. 

Machy,  de,  dehmt'she^  (Pierre  Antoine,)  al^'rench 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1722  ;  died  in  1807. 
Macias,  mS-Mee'Js,  one  of  the  most  admired  Span- 
ish poets  of  his  age,  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
was  surnamed  Ei.  Enamorado,  ("the  Enamored,")  in 
reference  to  an  unhappy  ]>assion  which  inspired  his  best 
poetical  effusions.  He  had  many  imitators  among 
Spanish  poets.  He  was  assassinated  by  a  man  whose 
motive  was  jealousy. 

Maciejowski,  niit-se-i-yov'skee,  (Wenceslaus 
Alexander,)  a  Polish  historian  and  jurist,  born  in  1792. 
He  published  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Historya  Pra- 
wodawstw  Slowianskich,"  (4  vols.,  1885),  which  treats  of 
the  political  and  civil  institutions  of  the  Slavonic  nations. 
Died  February  to,  1883. 

Macllvaine,  mak-il-van',  (Charles  Pettit,)  D.D., 
LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  divine  and  writer,  born  at 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1798.  lie  was  appointed 
professor  of  ethics  and  chaplain  in  the  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point  in  1S25.  In  1832  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Ohio. 
His  lectures  on  "The  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  deliv- 
ered in  New  York  in  1831,  and  published  in  1832,  have 
nad  an  extraordinary  success,  and  have  been  republished 
in  London  and  Edinburgh.     He  died  March  12,  1873. 

Macllvaine,  (Joshua  Hali,,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Lewes,  Delaware.  March  4, 
1815.  He  graduated  in  1837  at  Princeton  College,  where 
he  also  studied  divinity.  He  was  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Princeton,  1860-70.  His  principal  books  are 
"  The  Tree  of  Knowledge,"  "  Wisdom  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture," and  a  treatise  on  the  Apocalypse. 

Mac'In-tosJi,  (John,)  an  American  soldier  of  the 
Revolution,  was  a  native  of  Georgia;  died  in  1826.  His 
son,  James  S.  Macintosh,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  of  1812  and  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  mor- 
tally wounded  at  the  battle  of  Molino  del  Rey,  in  1847. 

Macintosh  or  Mackintosli,  (Lachlan,)  born  near 
Inverness,  Scotland,  in  1727,  emigrated  to  Georgia, 
where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the 
American  army.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1784. 
Died  in  1806. 

Seethe  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
Tol.  iii. 

Macintosh,  (Maria  J.,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Sunbury,  Georgia,  in  1803.  She  has  published  "Jessie 
Graham,"  "Praise  and  Principle,"  (1845,)  "Charms  and 
Counter-Charms,"  (1848,)  etc.    Died  February  25,  1878. 

Mac'in-tyre,  (Duncan,)  called  Donacha  Ban,  {i.e., 
"  Fair  Duncan,")  a  Scottish  (Gaelic)  poet,  born  at  Druim- 
liaghart,  in  Argyll,  March  20,  1724.  Much  against  his 
will,  he  served  in  the  royal  army  at  the  battle  of  Falkirk, 
(I745-)  His  excellent  poems  were  first  published  in 
1790.     Died  at  Edinburgh  in  May,  181 2. 

Mack  von  Leiberich,  m<\k  fon  lI'beh-rlK',  (Karl,) 
Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  noted  for  his  ill  success, 
was  born  at  Neuslingen  in  1752.  He  served  as  quarter- 
master-general against  the  French  in  1793.  In  1794  he 
was  sent  to  London  to  concert  with  the  English  minis- 
ters the  operations  of  the  war.  The  court  of  Naples 
having  in  1798  requested  that  of  Austria  to  send  a  gene- 
ral to  command  the  army  against  the  P'rench,  Mack  was 
Belected.  He  was  quickly  defeated  by  Championnet, 
and  sought  refuge  from  the  rage  of  the  Neapolitans  in 
the  French  camp,  (1799.)  In  1805  he  obtained  com- 
mand of  the  Austrian  army,  which  was  invested  by  Na- 
poleon in  person  at  Ulm.  On  the  20th  of  October  he 
ignominiously  surrendered  his  army  of  30,000  men  as 
prisoners.  Mack  was  tried  by  court-martial,  and  pun- 
ished by  imprisonment  for  several  years.     Died  in  1828. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  Alison, 
"  History  of  Europe:"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^uerale." 

Mac-kaiP,  (William  W.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  1818,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Mexican  war  of  1846-47,  and  became 
in  1861  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army. 


Mackau,  mS'ko',  (Ange  Ren6  Armand,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  from  Tuly,  1843,  ^o  May,  1847.     Died  in  1855. 

Mac-kay%  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  writer  of 
songs',  was  born  at  Perth  in  1814.  He  published  "The 
Salamandrine,"  a  poem,  (1842,)  "  Legends  of  the  Isles," 
(1845,)  "Voices  from  the  Crowd,"  (1846,)  including  a 
popular  song  called  "  The  Good  Time  Coming,"  "  Voices 
from  the  Mountains,"  (1847,)  "Town  Lyrics,"  (1848,) 
"Egeria,  or  the  Spirit  of  Nature,"  (1850,)  "The  Lump 
of  Gold,"  (1855,)  "Under  Green  Leaves,"  (1857,)  "A 
Man's  Heart,"  (i86o,)  "  Studies  from  the  Antique,  etc.," 
(1864,)  and  prose  works  entitled  "Memoirs  of  Extraor- 
dinary Popular  Delusions,"  (1841,)  and  "Lost  Beauties 
of  the  English  Language,"  (1874.)    Died  in  1889. 

Mackay,  ma-kl',  (Rokert,)  oftener  called  Rob  Donn, 
{i.e.,  "  Black  Robert,")  and  Robert  Calder,  a  Highland 
bard,  born  at  Durness  in  1714.  He  was  a  herdsman  and 
drover,  afterwards  a  steward  to  Lord  Reay,  and  in  1759 
enlisted  in  the  army,  but,  f»om  his  high  reputation,  was 
not  permitted  to  do  military  duty.  Died  in  1788.  His 
poems  arejimong  the  best  in  Gaelic  literature. 

Mac-Kean',  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in 
Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1734.  In  1765  he  rep- 
resented the  counties  of  Newcastle,  Kent,  and  Sussex, 
in  Delaware,  in  the  so-called  Stamp-Act  Congress.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774  from  Delaware,  in 
which  post  he  continued  till  1783.  He  had  been  appointed 
in  1777  i)resident  of  the  State  of  Delaware,  and  chief 
justice  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  Governor  of  the  latter 
State  from  1799  to  1808.  Died  in  181 7.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  Jefferson. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence ;"  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  ofDistinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

MacKean,  (Thomas  J.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Bradford  countv,  Pennsylvania,  about  1810,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1831.  He  became  a  brigadier-general 
about  November,  1861,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
Corinth,  October  4,  1862. 

MacKean,  (William  W.,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1801,  was  a  nephew  of  Governor 
Thomas  McKean,  noticed  above.  He  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron  in 
1861.     Died  in  1865. 

Mac-Kee'ver,  (Isaac,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1793.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  of  1812,  and  in  1851  commanded  the  squadron 
on  the  coast  of  Brazil.     Died  in  1856. 

Mackeldey,  mak'kel-di',  (Ferdinand,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1784.  He  became  first  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and  published  a  "Manual 
of  the  Institutes  of  Roman  Law  of  the  Present  Time  " 
(1814.)     Died  in  1834, 

Mac-Kel'lar,  (Thomas,)  an  American  poet,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1S12.  He  became  a  printer, 
and  removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1833.  On  the  death  of 
Mr.  Johnson,  in  i860,  Mr.  Mackellar  succeeded  him  as 
the  head  of  the  type-foundry  of  L.  Johnson  &  Co.,  (now 
of  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan,)  perhaps  the  most  ex- 
tensive establishment  of  the  kind  in  the  United  States. 
He  has  published  several  small  volumes  of  poems,  some 
of  which  have  been  warmly  commended  by  N.  P.  Willis, 
W.  C.  Bryant,  and  other  competent  critics. 

See  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Mac-ken'dree,  (William,)  born  in  King  William 
county,  Virginia,  in  1757,  entered  the  ministry  about  1788. 
He  \\"as  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1808.     Died  in  1835. 

Mac-ken'zie,  (Sir  Alexander,)  an  enterprising 
Scotchman,  born  at  Inverness  about  1755.  I"  ^^^  youth 
he  emigrated  to  Canada,  and  became  a  clerk  in  the 
service  of  the  Northwest  Fur  Company.  From  1781  to 
1789  he  spent  eight  years  in  trading  with  the  Indians  at 
Lake  Athabasca,  and  in  the  latter  year  discovered  the 
river  which  bears  his  name,  and  traced  it  from  its  source 
to  its  entrance  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  he  arrived 
in  July,  1789.  In  1792  he  led  another  exploring  party 
westward  to  the  Pacific.  On  his  return  to  England,  in 
1801,  he  published  his  "Voyages  from  Montreal  to  the 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /onc^;  i,  k,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MACKENZIE 


1615 


MACKINTOSH 


Frozen  and  Pacific  Oceans,"  which,  says  Chateaubriand, 
"is  a  work  of  great  merit."     Died  in  1820. 

See  Chateaubriand,  "Voyages  en  Anidrique ;"  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Monthly  Review" 
for  July  and  August,  1802. 

Mackenzie,  (Alexander,)  a  statesman,  born  at 
Logierait,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  January  28,  1822.  He 
became  a  business-man  and  journalist  in  Canada  West, 
and  held  prominent  offices  in  Ontario.  In  1867  he  en- 
tered the  Parliament  of  the  Dominion,  and  was  premier 
and  minister  of  public  works  from  1873  ^'^  1878. 

Mac-ken'zie,  (Alexander  Slidkll,)  an  American 
naval  officer  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  New  York 
in  1803.  Having  visited  Euroj^e  in  1825,  he  published, 
soon  after  his  return,  his  "Year  in  Spain,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour.  In  1835  he  made  another 
voyage  to  Europe,  the  result  of  which  was  his  two  works 
entitled  "  The  American  in  England"  and  "  Spain  Re- 
visited." While  commander  of  the  Somers,  in  1842,  he 
ordered  the  mutineer  Spencer  and  two  of  his  associates 
to  be  hanged  from  the  yard-arm  of  the  vessel,  which  act 
was  publicly  approved  by  a  high  court  of  inquiry  after 
his  return.  He  died  in  1848.  Besides  the  above-named 
works,  he  wrote  a  "Life  of  Paul  Jones,"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography." 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  t'ycIopuEdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Mackenzie,  (Charles  Frazer,)  a  Scottish  mission- 
ary, born  in  Peebleshire  in  1825.  He  went  to  Southern 
Africa  in  i860,  and  began  to  labour  near  the  Zambesi 
River.     He  died  in  Africa  in  January,  1862. 

Mackenzie,  (Donald,)  a  merchant,  born  in  Scot- 
land in  1783.  He  became  in  1809  a  partner  of  John 
Jacob  Astor  in  the  fur-trade,  and  made  an  overland 
journey  to  the  Pacific.     Died  in  1851. 

Mackenzie,  (George,)  Earl  of  Cromarty,  a  Scottish 
politician  and  writer,  born  in  1630.  He  was  appointed 
justice-general  in  1678,  and  a  lord  of  session  in  1681. 
In  1685  he  was  created  Viscount  Tarbat,  and  in  1703 
Earl  of  Cromarty.  He  was  secretary  of  state  for  Scot- 
land from  1701  to  1704.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Synopsis  Apocalyptica,"  (1708,)  and  an  "Account  of 
the  Conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie  against  James 
VI.,"  (1713.)     Diedini7i4. 

See  Walpolk,  "Royal  and  Noble  Authors;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionar\'  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mackenzie,  (Sir  George,)  a  Scottish  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  at  Dundee  in  1636.  He  attained  eminence 
in  his  profession,  and  about  1661  was  appointed  justice- 
depute,  or  judge.  He  published  "  Religio  Laici,"  a  treat- 
ise on  religion  and  morality,  (1663,)  "Moral  Gallantry," 
(1667,)  "  Institutions  of  the  Laws  of  Scotland,"  (1684,) 
and  other  works.  From  1674  to  1685  he  was  employed 
as  king's  advocate,  and  in  this  period  had  some  agency 
in  the  persecution  of  the  Covenanters,  who  designated 
him  "the  bloodthirsty  advocate."     Died  in  1691. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  G.  Mackenzie,"  prefixed  to  his  works  ;  Burnet, 
"  History  of  his  Own  Times;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mackenzie,  (  George,  )  a  Scottish  physician  and 
writer,  who  practised  in  Edinburgh  with  success,  and 
published  "  Lives  and  Characters  of  the  Most  Eminent 
Writers  of  the  Scottish  Nation,"  (3  vols.,  1708-22.) 
Died  in  1726. 

Mackenzie,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  Scottish  novelist 
and  essayist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1745.  In  his  youth 
he  obtained  the  office  of  attorney  in  the  Scottish  court  of 
exchequer.  In  1771  he  published,  anonymously,  "The 
Man  of  Feeling,"  a  novel,  which  is  his  principal  work, 
and  was  generally  admired.  He  edited  "The  Mirror," 
a  periodical  resembling  the  "  Spectator,"  which  was  first 
issued  in  1779,  and  was  discontinued  the  next  year. 
More  than  one-third  of  the  articles  in  this  popular  work 
were  written  by  him.  He  afterwards  produced  "The 
Man  of  the  World,"  a  novel,  several  political  treatises 
favourable  to  the  Tory  party,  "The  Prince  of  Tunis," 
and  other  dramas.  He  contributed  many  essays  to  "The 
L/iunger,"  a  successful  periodical,  of  which  he  was  editor 
in  1785-86.  In  1804  he  obtained  the  lucrative  office  of 
comptroller  of  taxes  for  Scotland.     Died  in  1831. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Gdn^rale;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 


Mackenzie,  (Robert  Shelton,)  D.C.L.,  a  writer 
and  journalist  of  much  ability,  boin  in  Limerick  county, 
Ireland,  in  1809.  He  was  editor  successively  of  the 
"  Liverpool  Jomnal"  and  various  f/ther  British  periodi- 
cals, and  in  1852  settled  in  America,  where  he  became 
literar^  and  foreign  editor  of  the  Philadelphia  "  Press." 
He  published  "Lays  of  Palestine,"  (1828,)  "Life  of 
Curran,"  (1855,)  "Tressilian,  or  the  Story-Tellers," 
(1857,)  a  "Life  of  Charles  Dickens,"  (1870,)  and  many 
other  works.     Died  November  21,  1881. 

Mackenzie,  (William  Lyon,)  a  Canadian  journalist 
and  politician,  born  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  in  1794.  He 
emigrated  to  Canada  in  early  life,  and  became  the  editor 
of  a  paper.  He  was  the  leader  of  a  party  which  took 
arms  against  the  government  in  December,  1837,  and 
was  quickly  dispersed.  He  took  refuge  in  New  York. 
Died  in  1861. 

Mackey,  mak'ee,  (Alkert  Gallatin,)  an  American 
physician  and  journalist,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1807.  He  published  a  "Text-Book  of 
Masonic  Jurisprudence,"  etc.     Died  in  1881. 

Mackey,  mak'ee,  (John,)  an  Englishman,  who,  as 
an  agent  of  William  III.,  watched  the  movements  of  the 
Jacobite  exiles  after  the  revolution  of  1688.  He  wrote 
a  "Picture  of  the  Court  of  Saint  Germain,"  (1695.) 
Died  in  1726. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Secret  Services  of  John  Mackey,"  London, 
1833. 

Mackie,  mak-kee',  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
in  Fifeshire  in  1748,  published,  besides  medical  treatises, 
"  A  Sketch  of  a  New  Theory  of  Man."     Died  in  1831. 

Mackie,  (John  Milton,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Wareham,  Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He  has  written  a 
"Life  of  Godfrey  William  von  Leibnitz,"  (1845,)  "Life 
of  Schamyl,  the  Circassian  Chief,"  (1856,)  and  contrib- 
uted various  articles  to  the  "North  American  Review." 

Mac-kin'non,  (Daniel,)  Colonel,  a  British  officer, 
born  in  1791.  He  commanded  a  regiment  of  Coldstream 
Guards  at  Waterloo,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Cold- 
stream Guards."     Died  in  1836. 

See  Chambers,  "  BiographicalDictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Mackinnon,  (Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  near 
Winchester  in  1773.  He  served  many  campaigns  against 
the  French.  He  distinguished  himself  in  several  actions 
in  Spain,  obtained  command  of  a  brigade  in  1809,  and 
was  killed  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  in  1812. 

Mack'in-tosh,  (Sir  James,)  an  illustrious  British 
author,  orator,  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Aldourie, 
near  Inverness,  on  the  24th  of  October,  1765.  He  was 
the  son  of  Captain  John  Mackintosh,  of  the  army,  and 
Marjory  Macgillivray.  At  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
which 'he  entered  in  1780,  he  profited  by  the  congenial 
society  of  Robert  Hall,  who  was  his  fellow-student  and 
intimate  friend.  He  studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh, 
and,  having  obtained  his  diploma,  in  178S  removed  to 
London,  where  he  married  Catherine  Stuart  in  1789.  His 
fluent  elocution,  admirable  temper,  and  refined  manners 
procured  his  admission  into  the  best  society.  He  had  a 
"boundless  literary  ambition,"  and  a  most  capacious  and 
accurate  memory.  In  defence,  or  rather  ardent  eulogy, 
of  the  first  reforms  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  produced, 
in  answer  to  Burke's  famous  "Reflections,"  his  "Vindi- 
ciae  Gallicae,"  (1791,)  which  raised  him  into  sudden 
celebrity  and  caused  him  to  be  warmly  caressed  by  Fox, 
Sheridan,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  Whig  party.  About 
this  time  he  renounced  medicine  and  became  a  student 
of  law.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1795,  gave  special 
attention  to  public  law,  and  practised  with  success  in  the 
home  circuit.  In  1799  he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures 
"On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,"  which  were 
highly  applauded  by  the  most  eminent  judges  of  all 
parties  as  a  noble  monument  of  intellectual  power  and 
wisdom.  He  expressed  in  these  lectures  more  conserva- 
tive views  than  those  of  his  "Vindicia;  Gallicae."  In 
1803  he  gained  a  high  reputation  for  forensic  eloquence 
by  his  defence  of  M.  Peltier,  a  French  emigrant,  who 
was  tried  for  a  libel  on  Bonaparte,  and  was  acquitted. 
This  speech  was  translated  into  French  by  Madame  de 
Stael.  He  accepted  the  office  of  recorder  of  Bombay, 
where  he  arrived  in  1804,  and  was  appointed  judge  of 
the   admiralty  court   in  1806.     Sir  James   returned  to 


€  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  ha7-d;  g  as/;  G,  H,  \!i,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     { ^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  | 


MACKLIN 


i6i6 


MACLEAN 


England  in  i8i2,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the 
Whigs  in  1813.  He  won  and  maintained  a  high  place 
among  parliamentary  speakers.  From  1818  to  1824  he 
was  professor  of  law  and  politics  in  the  college  at  Hai- 
leybury.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review," 
and  wrote  an  important  "  Dissertation  on  the  Progress 
of  Ethical  Philosophy,"  which  appeared  among  the  pre- 
liminary essays  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  In 
1830  he  accepted  office  as  commissioner  for  the  affairs 
of  India  under  the  ministry  of  Earl  Gray.  He  made  a 
powerful  and  luminous  speech  in  the  House  on  the  Re- 
form bill  in  183 1.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  England,"  a 
work  of  great  merit,  which  was  published  in  "Lardner's 
Cyclopaedia,"  (1831.)  He  died  in  May,  1832,  leaving 
unfinished  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  England 
in  i688,"  which  was  published  in  1832.  "We  have  no 
hesitation,"  says  Macaulay,  "in  pronouncing  this  frag- 
ment decidedly  the  best  history  now  extant  of  the  reign 
of  James  II.  .  .  .  The  intellectual  and  moral  qualities 
which  are  most  important  in  a  historian,  he  possessed  in 
a  very  high  degree.  He  was  singularly  mild,  calm,  and 
impartial  in  his  judgments  of  men  and  of  parties."  The 
same  critic  adds,  "  He  distinguished  himself  highly  in 
Parliament.  But  nevertheless  Parliament  was  not  ex- 
actly the  sphere  for  him.  The  effect  of  his  most  success- 
ful speeches  was  small,  when  compared  with  the  quantity 
of  ability  and  learning  which  was  expended  on  them." 

"  It  would  be  difficult,"  says  Mr.  Whipple,  "  to  men 
tion  any  writer  whose  name  has  been  connected  with  the 
literary  journals  of  the  nineteenth  century,  who  has 
carried  into  the  task  of  criticism  so  much  fairness  and 
moderation  as  Mackintosh.  His  nature  was  singularly 
free  from  asperity  and  dogmatism.  To  a  large  under- 
standing and  boundless  stores  of  knowledge  he  united 
candour  and  even  humility  in  their  employment.  .  .  . 
The  beauty  of  his  character  will  long  continue  to  exert  an 
influence  in  insensibly  moulding  the  minds  of  scholars 
and  statesmen."  (See  article  on  "British  Critics"  in 
the  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845.) 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh,"  edited  by 
his  son,  Robert  J.  Mackintosh,  2  vols.,  1835:  "Historical  Char- 
acters," by  Sir  H.  L.  Bulwer,  London,  1868:  "  Encyclop.Edia 
Britannica;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  October,  1S35,  (by  Jeffrey  ;)  "  British  Quarterly  Re\'iew" 
for  November,  1846;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1832, 
(by  A.  H.  Everett;)  and  the  very  elaborate  article  on  "Mackin- 
tosh" in  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Mac-klin',  (Charles,)  a  popular  Irish  actor  and 
dramatist,  (whose  family  name  was  McLaughlin,)  was 
born  at  Westmeath  in  1690.  He  appeared  on  the  Lon- 
don stage  in  1725,  and  did  not  retire  until  1789.  He 
excelled  in  the  r6le  of  "Shylock,"  and  wrote,  besides 
several  other  plays,  a  successful  comedy  called>  "The 
Man  of  the  World."     Died  in  1797,  at  the  age  of  107. 

See  J.  T.  KiRKMAN,  "  Memoirs  of  Charles  Macklin,"  1799;  Wil- 
liam Cooke,  "  Memoirs  of  C.  Macklin,"  1804 ;  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  November  and  December,  1799. 

MacKnight,  mak-nit',  (George,)  M.D.,  an  American 
poet,  born  at  Sterling,  New  York,  in  1840.  He  has 
published  "  Life  and  Faith,"  a  collection  of  religious 
sonnets,  of  a  high  order  of  merit,  (1878.) 

MacKnight,  mak-nit',  (James,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Irvine  in  1721.  He  became 
minister  at  Maybole  in  1753,  ^""^  published  his  "  Har- 
mony of  the  Gospels,"  (1756,)  which  is  esteemed  an  ex- 
cellent standard  work  and  has  been  often  reprinted.  In 
1763  he  produced  "The  Truth  of  the  Gospel  History," 
which  was  received  with  favour.  From  1772  until  1778 
he  preached  in  Lady  Yester's  parish  in  Edinburgh,  and 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  was  minister  of  the 
Old  Church  of  that  city.  In  1795  he  published  a  "  Lite- 
ral Translation  of  all  the  Apostolic  Epistles,"  a  work  of 
high  reputation.     Died  in  1800. 

See  "Life  of  J.  Macknight,"  by  his  son;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

MacLachlan,  mak-liK'lan,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish- 
Canadian  poet,  born  at  Johnstone,  in  Renfrewshire,  Au- 
gust 12,  1818.  He  removed  in  1841  to  Canada.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Poems,  chiefly  in  the  Scottish  Dialect," 
(1855,)  "Lyrics,"  (1858,)  "The  Emigrant,"  etc.,  {1861,) 
"  Poems  and  Songs,"  (1874,)  etc. 

Maclachlan,  (Ewen,)  a  Scottish  philologist  and  poet, 


born  at  Torracalltuinn,  Lochaber,  in  1775,  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's.  He  died  March 
29,  1822.  He  compiled  a  learned  and  laborious  Gaelic 
dictionary,  and  wrote  poems  in  Gaelic,  English,  Latin, 
and  Greek. 

Maclane,  mak-lan',  (Archibald,)  an  Irish  clergyman, 
born  at  Monaghan  about  1722.  He  preached  for  the 
Anglican  Church  of  the  Hague  about  fifty  years,  ending 
in  1796.  He  published  a  volume  of  sermons,  and  trans- 
lated Mosheim's  "History  of  the  Church,"  (1765.) 
Died  in  1804. 

MacLane,  mak-lan',  (Louis,)  an  American  states- 
man, born  at  Smyrna,  Delaware,  in  May,  1786.  He 
gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and  represented  Delaware 
m  Congress  from  181 7  to  1827.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  elected  a  -Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legis- 
lature of  Delaware.  He  served  as  minister  to  England 
about  two  years,  (1829-31,)  and  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  treasury  by  President  Jackson  in  April  or  May, 
1831  ;  but,  not  approving,  it  is  said,  of  the  removal  of  the 
deposits  from  the  United  States  Bank,  he  was  in  1833 
removed  from  the  treasury  and  made  secretary  of  state, 
which  position  he  resigned  in  June,  1834.  In  1845  he 
went  to  England  as  ambassador.  After  the  question  of 
the  boundary  of  Oregon  was  settled,  he  returned  home. 
Died  in  October,  1857. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Mac-lar'en,  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  journalist  and 
geologist,  born  about  1783.  He  was  chief  editor  of  the 
"  Scotsman"  (a  leading  political  journal  of  Edinburgh) 
from  1820  to  1847.  ^^  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Geology  of  Fife  and  the  Lothians,"  (1839.)  Died 
in  September,  1866. 

Mac-Lar'en,  (William  Edward,)  D.D.,an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Cieneva,  New  York,  December  13,  1831, 
graduated  in  1851  from  the  college  at  Washington,  Penn- 
sylvania, was  a  journalist,  1852-57,  studied  theology  in 
the  Presbyterian  Seminary  at  Pittsburg,  and  became  a 
Presbyterian  clergyman.  In  1S72  he  took  orders  in  the 
Episcopal  Church,  and  in  1S75  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Illinois. 

Mac-lau'rin,  (Colin,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Kilmodan  in  1698.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  mathematics  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
in  1717.  In  1720  he  published  ''  Geometria  Organica  sive 
Descriptio  Linearum  Curvarum  universalis,"  Jt  treatise 
on  curve  lines,  which  is  said  to  have  excited  the  admira- 
tion of  Newton.  In  1725  he  was  appointed  assistant  of 
Professor  Gregory  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where 
he  remained  about  twenty  years.  While  he  was  em- 
ployed in  fortifying  Edinburgh  against  the  Pretender's 
army,  in  1745,  he  contracted  a  disease  which  hastened 
his  death.  He  shared  with  D.  Bernoulli  and  Euler  the 
prize  awarded  in  1740  by  the  Academy  of  Paris  for  a 
memoir  on  Tides.  He  was  the  author  of  several  original 
and  profound  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Treatise  on 
Fluxions,"  (1742,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Algebra,"  (1748.) 
Died  in  1746. 

See  MoNTucLA,  "  Histoire  des  Math^matiques ;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Maclaurin,  (John,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  bom  in  Edin-" 
burgh  in  1734,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
a  judge  about  1787,  when  he  received  the  title  of  Lord 
Dreghorn.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Literary  Property," 
a  drama  entitled  "  Hampden,"  and  several  other  works 
in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1796. 

See  "  Life  of  Lord  Dreghorn,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Mac-La-wi',  (Lafayette,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Georgia  in  1821.  He  commanded  a  division  of  Gen- 
eral Lee's  army. 

Mac-lay',  (Archibald,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Scotland  in  1778,  emigrated  to  America  in  1805,  and 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Ne<\'  York.  He  was 
thirteen  years  general  agent  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.     Died  in  1S60. 

Maclay,  (Micklucho.)     See  Micklucho-M.-\clay. 

MacLean  or  Maclean,  mak-lan',  (John,)  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  Morris  county.  New 
Jersey,  in  March,  1785.  He  removed  with  his  father  to 
Ohio  about  1798,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1807,  and 


i,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  ^«^;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  i"i,  y,  .f/4:7r/;  a,  e,  \,q,  obscure;  far,  f^li,  fit;  ni§t;  n6l;  good;  moonj 


MACLEAN 


1617 


MA  CMULLEN 


began  to  practise  at  Lebanon.  In  1812  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress,  in  which  he  acted  with  the 
Democrats,  and  supported  the  war  against  England. 
He  was  again  elected  by  a  unanimous  vote  in  1814, 
was  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio  from  1816  to 
1822,  and  became  postmaster-general  in  1823.  He  filled 
this  office  with  great  credit  and  ability  until  March,  1829, 
during  which  period  he  introduced  many  improvements 
and  brought  the  department  into  a  state  of  the  highest 
elificiency.  He  declined  a  place  in  the  cabinet  of  Presi- 
dent Jackson,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  in  1829.  He  dissented  from 
the  decision  of  the  court  in  the  Dred  Scott  case,  as  given 
by  Chief-Justice  Taney  in  1857,  and  opposed  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery.  At  the  Republican  National  Convention 
of  1856  he  received  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  votes  as 
a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States. 
Died  in  Cincinnati  in  April,  1861. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Maclean,  (Mrs.  L.  E.)     See  Landon,  (L.  E.) 

MacLehose,  mak'le-hose,  (Agnes,)  a  friend  and  cor- 
respondent of  Burns,  was  born  in  1759.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Craig.  During  a  long  separation  from  her 
husband,  she  carried  on  (between  1787  and  1792)  a  very 
sentimental  correspondence  with  ]}urns.  lier  letters, 
often  reprinted,  are  signed  "Clarinda."  Died  at  Edin- 
burgh, October  22,  1841. 

Mac-Lel'lan,  (Isaac,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  about  iSio.  Among  his  works  we  may 
mention  "The  Fall  of  the  Indian,  (1830,)  and  "The 
Year,  and  other  Poems,"  (1832.) 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  Cleveland, 
"Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Mac-Len'nau,  (John  Ferguson,)  a  Scottish  social 
philosopher,  born  at  Inverness,  October  14,  1S27.  He 
was  educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1857  was  passed  as  an  advocate  at  Edin- 
burgh. His  principal  works  are  "  Primitive  Marriage," 
(1865,)  a  "Life  of  Thomas  Drummond,"  (1867,)  and 
"Studies  in  Ancient  History,"  (1876.)  His  works  are 
highly  original,  and  are  of  recognized  value.  Died  June 
14,  1881. 

Macleod,  mak-lowd',  (Alexander,)  D.D.,  born  in 
the  island  of  Mull  in  1774,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  became  in  1861  pastor  of  a  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian church  in  New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Ecclesiastical  Catechism,"  "  Negro  Slavery  Unjustifi- 
able," "The  Life  and  Power  of  True  Godliness,"  and 
other  religious  works.     Died  in  1833, 

MacLeod,  mak-lowd',  (Henry  Dunning,)  a  Scottish 
political  economist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1821.  He 
studied  at  Eton,  Edinburgh,  and  Cambridge,  and  in  1849 
became  a  barrister  of  London.  Among  his  works  are 
"Theory  and  Practice  of  Banking,"  (1856,)  "Elements 
of  Political  Economy,"  (1858,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of 
Political  Economy." 

MacLeod,  (John,)  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born  at  Bun- 
hill  in  17S2.  He  became  in  181 7  surgeon  of  the  Alceste, 
which  conveyed  Lord  Amherst  to  China,  and  in  1818 
published  "The  Voyage  of  the  Alceste  along  the  Coast 
of  Corea,"  etc.   .  I)ied  in  1820. 

See  WALeKENA«!R,  "  Collection  des  Relations  des  Voyages." 

MacLeod  or  Macleod,  (Rev.  Norman,)  a  Scottish 
divine,  born  at  Cainpbelton  in  i8i2.  He  became  min- 
ister of  Loudon  in  1838,  of  Dalkeith  in  1843,  and  of  the 
Barony  Parish,  Glasgow,  in  185 1.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Home  Education,"  and  "The  Earnest 
Student,"  and  was  editor  of  a  monthly  periodical  called 
"Good  Words."     Died  June  16,  1872. 

Macleod,  (Xavier  Donald,)  a  son  of  Alexander, 
noticed  above,  born  in  New  York  in  1821,  published 
numerous  works  in  prose  apd  verse,  among  which  we 
may  name  a  "  Life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,"  (1857,)  and 
a  poem  "Entitled  "The  Saga  of  Viking  Torquil."  Died 
in  1865. 

Maclise,  mak-leess',  (Daniel,)  a  popular  historical 
painter,  born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  in  181 1.  He  went  to 
London  in  1828,  and  became  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  where  he  quickly  won  several  prize  medals. 
He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  "Vow  of  the  Ladies 


and  the  Peacock,"  (1835,)  and  "Merry  Christmas  in  the 
Baron's  Hall,"  (1838.)  In  1840  he  was  elected  an 
Academician.  Among  his  admired  productions  are 
"The  Sleeping  Beauty,"  (1841,)  "The  Play  Scene  in 
Hamlet,"  (1842,)  "Noah's  Sacrifice,"  (1847,)  and  "  Shak- 
speare's  Seven  Ages,"  (184S.)  He  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  original  of  English  painters  of  the  present 
time.     Died  in  April,  1870. 

Maclure.     See  Macclure. 

Mac-lure',  (William,)  an  eminent  naturalist,  and 
pioneer  of  American  geology,  born  at  Ayr,  in  Scotland, 
in  1763.  Having  made  an  extensive  scientific  tour  in 
Europe,  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and  about 
1S06  entered  upon  a  geological  survey  of  that  ci^untry. 
In  the  accomplishment  of  this  task,  he  visited  nearly 
every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union,  and  crossed  and 
recrossed  the  Alleghanies  fifty  times.  An  account  of  his 
tour  was  published  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  .Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society,"  (1809.)  In  181 2  Mr.  Maclure 
became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  just  founded  at  Philadelphia,  and  was 
elected  president  of  that  institution  in  18 17.  He  con- 
tinued to  fill  this  post  for  twenty-two  years,  and  the  "Jour- 
nal" of  the  Academy  was  begun  under  his  auspices.  His 
donations  of  books  to  the  Academy  amotinted  to  nearly 
fifteen  hundred  volumes,  comprising  valuable  works  on 
natural  history,  antiquities,  etc.,  and  he  gave  the  sum  of 
$20,000  towards  the  erection  of  the  building  on  Broad 
Street,  finished  in  1840.  Died  in  1840,  at  San  Angel,  in 
Mexico,  whither  he  had  gone  on  account  of  his  health. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  \Vm.  Maclure,"  by  SAMt;EL  G.  MoRTOH. 

MacMahon,  mtk'mt'6N',  (Marie  Edme  Patrick 
-Maurice,)  Due  de  Magenta,  a  French  marshal,  of  Irish 
extraction,  born  in  1808,  was  a  son  of  a  peer  of  France. 
He  served  in  Algeria  from  1830  to  1850.  In  1852  he 
became  a  general  of  division.  In  the  siege  of  Sebastopol 
he  commanded  the  division  which  took  the  Malakoff  by 
assault  on  the  8th  of  September,  1855.  He  commanded 
the  second  corps-d'armee  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1859, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Magenta. 
This  service  was  rewarded  (June  5,  1859)  by  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France  and  the  title  of  Due  de  Magenta.  He 
also  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Solferino,  June  24,  1859. 
In  the  war  with  Prussia  he  was  defeated  at  Worth  (Au- 
gust 6,  1870)  and  at  Sedan,  (September  i,)  where  he  was 
severely  womided.  He  put  down  the  revolution  of  the 
Commune  in  1871,  and  was  President  of  France,  1873-79. 

Mac-Mas'ter,(GuY  Hu.MPHREYS,)an  American  poet, 
born  at  Clyde,  New  York,  January  31,  1829.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Hamilton  College  in  1847,  ^"^  became  a  lawyer. 
He  was  county  judge  of  Steuben  county,  New  York, 
from  1864  to  1S71,  and  from  1878  to  1S84.  In  1884  he 
was  made  surrogate  of  the  same  county.  He  wrote 
"Carmen  Bellicosum,"  etc.     Died  September  13,  1887. 

MacMaster,  (John  Bach,)  an  American  author,  born 
in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  June  29,  1S52.  He  graduated 
at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1S72,  and 
studied  civil  engineering.  He  was  an  instructor  first  in 
his  alma  mater  and  then  in  Princeton  College,  and  in 
1883  was  chosen  professor  of  history  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "History  of 
the  People  of  the  United  States,"  (vol.  i.,  1883.) 

MacMichael,  mak-mi'kel,  (Morto.n,)  an  able  Ameri- 
can editor  and  orator,  born  in  Burlington  county.  New 
Jersey,  in  1807,  was  sheriff"  of  the  county  of  Philadelphia 
from  1843  to  1846.  In  1845  he  becaine  proprietor  and 
chief  editor  of  the  "North  American  and  United  States 
Gazette."  He  was  mayor  of  Philadelphia  from  1865  to 
1868.      Died  January  6,  1879. 

MacMicliael,  mak-mi'kel,  (William.)  an  English 
physician,  born  in  1784.  He  published  a  "Journey  from 
Moscow  to  Constantinople,"  (1819.)    Died  in  1839. 

Mac-milTan,  (Hugh,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  divine, 
born  at  Aberfeldy,  September  1 7, 1833.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Edinburgh  University,  and  became  a  distinguished 
Free  Church  minister.  He  published  "Bible  Teach- 
ings in  Nature,"  (1866,)  "First  Forms  of  Vegetation," 
"Holidays  on  High  Lands,"  "The  True  Vine,"  and 
ni.iny  other  popular  religious  books. 

Mac-MulTen,  (Joh.\,)  D.D.,  a  bishop, bcnn  at  Bally- 
iiahiiich,  Ireland,  March  8,  1833.     He  was  taken  in  1S37 


■c  as  /&.•  9  as  /;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  yi, gtittural ;  N,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 

102 


MACNAB 


1618 


MACPHERSON 


to  Canada,  and  in  1843  to  Chica,e;o,  graduated  at  Saint 
Mary's  College  in  1S53,  studied  at  Rome,  and  was  ordained 
in  1858  to  the  Catht)lic  priesthood.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  Saint  Mary's  University,  and  in  188 1  was  made 
Bishop  of  Davenport,  Iowa.     Died  July  4,  18S3. 

Mac-Nab',  (Sir  Allan,)  an  officer  in  the  British  ser- 
vice, born  in  Canada  in  1798.  He  studied  law,  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Canada  West.  During  the 
insurrection  of  1837  he  commanded  near  Niagara,  and 
sent  over  the  falls  the  steamboat  Caroline,  which  had 
been  captured  from  the  insurgents.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal minister  during  part  of  the  period  in  which  Lord 
Elgin  governed  Canada,  (1846-54.)  He  was  knighted 
for  his  services  in  the  rebellion  above  mentioned.  Died 
in  Canada  in  August,  1862. 

MacNaghten,  mak-naw'ten,  (Sir  William,)  a  British 
officer  in  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 
was  sent  as  envoy  to  .Shah  Soojah  about  1840,  and  was 
assassinated  at  Cabool  by  Akbar  Khan  in  1841. 

Mac-Nal'ly,  (Leonard,)  an  Irish  barrister  and  dram- 
atist, born  in  Dublin  in  1752.  He  wrote  "Fashionable 
Levities,"  a  successful  comedy,  and  several  operas  and 
farces,  also  "The  Rules  of  Evidence."     Died  in  1820. 

Mac-nee',  (Sir  Daniel,)  a  Scottish  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Fintry  in  1S06.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  and 
was  in  the  main  self-educated.  He  was  knighted  in 
1876.     Died  at  Edinburgh,  January  18,  1882. 

Mac-neil',  (Heciur,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  near 
Rosli'n  in  1746.  He  passed  many  of  his  early  years  in 
the  West  Indies,  probably  as  overseer,  and  returned  to 
Scotland  about  1788.  He  published  "The  Harp,"  (1789,) 
"Scotland's  Skaith,"  (1795,)  which  was  much  admired, 
and  other  poems.     Died  in  1818. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mac-neil',  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Hampshire  in  1784,  served  with  distinction  at  the 
battle  of  Chippewa  in  1814.     Died  in  1850. 

Macneile,  mak-neel',  (Rev.  Hugh,)  D.D.,  an  Irish 
Protestant  clergyman,  born  in  the  count^t<if  Antrim  about 
1794.  He  preached  several  years  in  London,  and  be- 
came the  incumbent  of  Saint  Paul's,  near  Liverpool,  in 
1848.  He  published  "The  Church  and  the  Churches 
of  Christ,"  (1847,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1879. 

MacNeill,  mak-neel',  (Sir  John,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
officer  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Colonsay  in  1795.  He 
passed  several  years  in  the  army  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. P'rom  1835  until  1844  he  was  British  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Persia,  where  he  gained  important  in 
formation  respecting  the  policy  and  resources  of  seveial 
Asiatic  nations.  In  the  winter  of  1854-55  he  was  one 
of  two  commissioners  sent  to  the  Crimea  to  inspect  the 
commissariat  department.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  privy  council  in  1857.     Died  March  2,  1880. 

Mac-nev'in,  (William  James,)  born  in  Galway 
county,  in  Ireland,  in  1763,  joined  the  United  Irishmen 
in  the  rebellion  of  1 791,  and  subsequently  entered  the 
French  army.  In  1805  he  removed  to  America,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Medical 
College,  New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  "Rambles 
in  Switzerland,"  and  several  scientific  works.  Died  in 
1841. 

Mac-nish',  (Robert,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  author,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1802.  He  became  one  of  the  editors  of 
"Fraser's  Magazine"  in  1831.  Among  his  works  is  "Tht 
Philosophy  of  Sleep,"  {1830.)     Died  at  Glasgow  in  1837 

See  D.  MoiR,  "Life  of  R.  Macnish,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  o( 
his  "Tales,  Essays,  and  Sketches,"  1839  and  1.S44 ;  Chambers, 
"  liiographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement;'* 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1835,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Macomb,  ma-koom'  or  ma-kom',  (Alexander,)  a 
distinguished  American  general,  born  at  Detroit  in  1782. 
He  served  in  the  war  of  181 2,  and,  as  brigadier-general, 
in  1814,  gained  the  victory  of  Plattsburg  over  theBritish 
at  the  same  time  that  Commodore  Macdonough  signally 
defeated  them  on  the  lake.  General  Macomb  was  ap- 
pointed in  i835commander-in-chief  of  the  United  States 
army.     Died  in  1841. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Macomb,  (William  H.,)  an  American  commodore, 

a  son  of  General  Alexander  Macomb,  was  born  in  Mich- 


igan in  1820.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1834,  served  with 
distinction  through  the  war  of  1861-65  with  the  rank  of 
commander,  and  was  made  a  commodore  in  1870.  Died 
at  Philadelphia,  August  12,  1872. 

Ma'con,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Warren  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1757.  He  served 
as  a  private  in  the  army  from  1778  to  1782,  and  opposed 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
(1788.)  In  1791  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
for  a  district  of  North  Carolina,  which  he  represented 
until  181 5.  He  was  always  a  Democrat,  and  a  strict- 
constructionist.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  National  House 
of  Representatives  for  three  terms,  (1801-06,)  and  be- 
came a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  i8i6.  His 
speeches  were  short,  but  effective.  He  served  in  the 
Senate  until  1826,  having  then  been  a  member  of  Con- 
gress for  thirty-seven  consecutive  years.  He  died  in 
Warren  county.  North  Carolina,  in  June,  1837.  John 
Randolph  called  him  "the  best  and  wisest  man  that  I 
ever  knew." 

Mac-Os'car,  (William,)  a  Scottish  minor  poet,  born 
at  Lochwinnoch,  May  7,  1806.  He  was  a  schoolmaster, 
and  lived  many  years  In  London.  Died  at  Kilbarchan, 
January  1 1, 1877.  His  "  Poetical  Works"  were  published 
in  1878. 

Mac-Pher'son,  (Edward,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
author,  was  born  at  Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania,  July  31, 
1830.  He  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College  in  184S, 
and  became  a  journalist.  He  was  in  Congress  from  1859 
to  1S63,  and  was  clerk  of  the  lower  house  of  Congress, 
1863-69.  He  published  a  "Political  History  of  the 
United  States,"  (1864,)  a  "Political  Manual,"  and  other 
works. 

Mac-ph^r'spn,  (James,)  a  Scottish  poet,  celebrated 
as  the  translator  or  author  of  "  Ossian,"  was  born  in  In- 
verness-shire in  1738.  After  leaving  college  he  became 
a  school-teacher  at  Ruthven,  and  in  1 758  published  "  The 
Highlander,"  a  poem,  which  was  not  successful.  In  1760 
he  surprised  the  literary  world  by  the  publication  of 
"Fragments  of  Ancient  Poetry  collected  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  and  translated  from  the  Gaelic  or  Erse 
Language."  These  were  admired  by  the  poet  Gray  and 
others,  and  a  subscription  was  raised  to  aid  Macpherson 
in  exploring  the  Highlands  for  other  similar  treasures. 
The  ostensible  result  of  this  search  appeared  in  "Fingal, 
an  Epic  Poem,"  (1762,)  and  "Temora,  an  Epic  Poem," 
(1763,)  which  purported  to  be  the  work  of  Ossian,  a 
poet  of  the  third  century.  These  poems  found  matiy 
enthusiastic  admirers  throughout  Europe.  An  animated 
controversy  ensued  about  their  authei\ticity,  which  was 
defended  by  Dr.  Blair  and  other  eminent  critics.  Dr. 
Johnson,  on  the  other  hand,  confidently  maintained  that 
they  were  forgeries.  Many  others  adopt  the  theory  that 
he  caught  the  spirit  of  the  Ossianic  poetry  from  the 
tales  of  the  old  Celtic  bards,  but  supplied  from  his  own 
invention  much  of  the  peculiar  imagery  and  cloudy 
verbiage  which  abound  in  his  pretended  translations. 
About  1772  he  settled  in  London,  and  produced  a  prose 
version  of  the  "  Iliad,"  which  was  a  failure,  a  "  History 
of  Great  Britain,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member 
of  Parliament  from  1780  to  1790.     Died  in  1796. 

See  B1..AIR,  "Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Poems  of  Ossian,"  1763  ; 
H.  Mackhnzie,  "Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Highland  Society 
of  Scotland,"  eic.  :  J.  Sinclair,  "On  the  Authenticity  of  Ossian's 
Poems,"  1S06  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  Review  of  "  OssiaD." 
in  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January  and  February,  1762. 

Mac-Pher'son,  (James  Birdseye,)  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican general,  born  in  Sandusky  county,  Ohio,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1828.  He  entered  the  Military  Academy  of  West 
Point  in  1849,  and  graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class  in 
1853.  Having  been  assigned  to  the  corps  of  engineers, 
ne  was  employed  as  engineer  at  New  York,  Fort  Del- 
aware, and  Alcatraz  Island,  California.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  first  lieutenant  in  1858,  and  that  of  captain 
in  August,  1861.  In  November  ensuing  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  General  Halleck,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel. He  served  as  chief  engineer  on  General 
Giant's  staff  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7,  1S62.  In  May  of  that 
year  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army, 
ami  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.     He  commanded  a 


1,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/!or(; a,  e,  i,  o,  obscii^r;  far,  fill,  fSt;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


MACPHERSON 


1619 


MACROS  lUS 


division  which  broke  through  the  lines  of  General  Price, 
then  investing  Corinth,  and  marched  in  to  the  relief  of 
the  garrison  in  October.  For  this  service  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major-general  on  the  8th  of  Octo- 
ber, 1862.  Having  obtained  command  of  the  seventeenth 
army  corps  in  December,  he  served  under  General  Grant 
in  the  campaign  against  Vicksburg.  His  corps  gained  a 
victory  at  Raymond  on  the  12th  of  May,  1863,  and,  with 
the  aid  of  General  Sherman's  corps,  defeated  General 
Joseph  E.  Johnston  at  Jackson  on  the  14th.  General 
McPherson  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Champion's 
Hills,  and  took  part  in  two  unsuccessful  assaults  on 
the  works  of  Vicksburg  in  May.  P'or  his  services  in  this 
campaign  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army,  to  date  from  the  capture  of  Vicksburg, 
and  was  appointed  commander  of  the  district  of  Vicks- 
burg, July,  1863.  He  served  under  Sherman  in  the 
expedition  to  Meridian  in  February,  1864.  In  the  next 
month.  General  Grant,  who  had  just  been  nominated 
general-in-chief  of  all  the  Union  armies,  wrote  a  letter 
to  Sherman,  in  which  he  expressed  his  thanks  to  Sher- 
man and  McPherson  as  the  men  to  whom  he  was  most 
indebted  for  his  success.  On  the  12th  of  March,  McPher- 
son was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  and 
army  of  the  Tennessee. 

As  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee,  he 
maintained  his  high  reputation  in  the  campaign  which 
Sherman  conducted  in  Georgia.  His  army  fought  with 
success  against  the  rebels  at  Dallas  on  the  28th  of  May. 
On  the  27th  of  June,  Generals  Thomas  and  McPherson 
assaulted  the  fortified  lines  of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  but 
were  repulsed  with  severe  loss.  By  a  flank  movement 
of  the  army  of  McPherson,  General  Johnston  was  induced 
to  abandon  his  strong  position  at  Kenesaw  about  July  3, 
and  to  retreat  to  Atlanta.  After  the  Union  armies  had 
advanced  to  the  vicinity  of  Atlanta,  the  enemy  adopted 
a  bolder  polic)',  and  made  several  attacks,  in  one  of  which 
McPherson  was  killed,  July  22,  1864.  "About  i  p.m. 
of  this  day,"  says  General  Grant,  "  the  brave,  accom- 
plished, and  noble-hearted  McPherson  was  killed."  (Re- 
port, dated  July  22,  1865.) 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Macpherson,  (Sir  John,)  born  in  Skye,  ScotLind, 
about  1767,  became  a  member  of  the  supreme  council 
of  Bengal  in  1781.  He  acted  as  Governor-General  of 
India  alter  the  retirement  of  Warren  Hastings,  (Feb- 
ruary, 1785,)  until  July,  1786.     Died  in  1821. 

Macquarie,  ma-k\v6r're,  (Lachlan,)  a  British  gene- 
ral, born  in  the  island  of  Mull  in  1762.  He  served  many 
years  in  India,  and  fought  against  the  French  in  Egypt  in 
1801.  From  1809  to  1821  he  was  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales.  About  1S14  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general. 
Died  in  1824. 

Macquart,  mfkla',  (Louis  Charles  Henri,)  a 
French  mineralogist,  born  at  Rheims  in  1745.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Manual  of  the  Properties  of  Water,"  (1783,) 
and  a  "Dictionary  of  Health  and  Education,"  (2  vols., 
1800.)     Died  in  1808. 

Macquer,  mt'kaiR',  (Philippe,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1720.  He  was  author 
of  a  "Chronological  Abridgment  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory," (2  vols.,  1 75 1,)  "Roman  Annals,"  (1756,)  and  an 
"Abridged  History  of  Spain  and  Portugal,"  (2  vols., 
1759,)  (all  in  French,)  which  were  received  with  favour. 
Died  in  1770. 

See  QuiiRARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Macquer,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  meritorious  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1718,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  discovered  new  properties 
in  many  chemical  substances,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  proved  that  the  diamond  is  combustible, 
(1771.)  He  published  "  Elements  of  Theoretical  Chem- 
istry," (1741,)  and  a  valuable  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
(1766.)  In  1745  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academj 
of  Sciences.  He  succeeded  Bourdelin  as  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  edited  the  scientific 
department  of  the  "Journal  des  Savants'"  from  1768  to 
1776.     Died  in  1784. 

Mac-quoid',  (Katharine  S.,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  in  Kentish  Town,  London,  about  1835.     Among 


her  works  are  many  novels  ("  A  Bad  Beginning,"  (1S62,) 
•'Hester  Kirton,"  "Patty,"  (1871,)  "Doris  Barugh,'" 
(1878,)  "Beside  the  River,"  "  Fifine,"  etc.,)  and  some 
books  of  travel,  such  as  "Through  Normandy," 
"Through  Brittany,"  "  In  the  Ardennes,"  etc.  Some  of 
her  works  have  been  illustrated  by  her  husband,  Mr. 
Thomas  R.  Macquoid. 

Macready,  ma-kree'de,  (William  Charles,)  a 
popular  English  tragic  actor,  born  in  London  in  1793. 
He  made  a  successful  deliut  Ai  Birmingham  in  1810,  and 
appeared  on  the  London  stage  in  1816,  when  he  per- 
formed "  Orestes"  at  Covent  Garden  with  great  applause. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  his  performance  of  the 
"  Virginius"  of  Sheridan  Knowles,  and  of"  Richard  III." 
and  other  leading  characters  of  Shakspeare.  From  1837 
to  1839  he  was  lessee  and  manager  of  Covent  Garden 
Theatre.  About  1842  he  assumed  the  management  of 
Drury  Lane ;  but,  as  he  failed  to  make  it  profitable,  he 
kept  it  only  two  or  three  seasons.  He  performed  with 
great  success  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States 
in  1848  and  1849.  While  he  was  in  this  country,  a 
quarrel  between  him  and  Edwin  Forrest  resulted  in  a 
serious  riot  in  New  York.  He  retired  from  the  stage 
in  1851.     Died  April  27,  1873. 

See  Littleton,  "Biography  of  W.  C.  Macready,"  1851;  R- 
H.  HoKNE,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1S44;  "New  American  Cy- 
clopedia." 

Macret,  mt'kRi',  (Charles  Franqois  Adrien,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in   1750;  died  in 

1783- 

Mac-rl-a'nus,  [Fr.  Macrien,  mS'kReJ^N',]  (Marcus 
FuLVius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Egypt.  He  rose 
from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army.  The 
emperor  Valerian  having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Persians,  a  part  of  the  army,  in  261  A.D.,  chose  for  his 
successor  Macrianus,  who  was  then  an  old  man.  In 
262  he  was  defeated  in  Illyricum,  and  put  to  death,  by 
Domitian,  a  general  of  Gallienus. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Macrien.    See  Macrianus. 

Macrin.    See  Macrinus,  and  Salmon,  (jean.j 

Macrino  d'Alba,  mS-kRee'no  dSl'bd,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Alba,  near  Turin,  about  1460.  He  was 
among  the  most  skilful  artists  of  his  time,  and  one  of  the 
first  to  adopt  the  modern  style.  Many  of  his  works  are 
preserved  at  Turin  and  Alba.     Died  about  1520. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Macrinus,  mt'kKe'niiss',  (Charles  Salmon,)  a 
French  writer,  was  a  brother  of  Jean  the  poet,  and  pre- 
ceptor to  Catherine  of  Navarre.  He  was  a  victim  of  the 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.) 

Ma-cri'nus,  [Fr.  Macrin,  m^'kadN',]  (M.  Opelius 
or  Ol'lLlUS,)  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  of  obscure 
parents  in  Mauritania  in  164  A.n.  He  obtained  the  high 
office  of  prefect  of  the  praetorians  under  Caracalla.  In 
April,  217  A.D.,  he  instigated  the  assassination  of  Cara- 
calla, and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army,  whose 
choice  was  confirmed  by  the  senate.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Parthians  at  Nisibis.  He  was 
defeated  near  Antioch  in  June,  218,  by  the  partisans  of 
Elagabalus,  and  put  to  death. 

See  Tii.LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  "  Nouvelle  Bicgra- 
pliie  Generale." 

Ma'cro,  [Fr.  M.\cron,  mt'kR6N',]  (N/EVius  Sertu- 
RIUS,)  a  profligate  Roman  courtier,  who  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  the  emperor  Tiberius  and  was  the  principal 
agent  in  the  arrest  of  Sejanus.  After  the  death  of 
Sejanus,  he  became  prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard.  He 
was  put  to  death  by  Caligula  in  38  a.d. 

Macrobe.    See  Macrobius. 

Ma-cro'bi-us,[Fr.  Macrobe,  mi'kRob',](.A.MBROSius 
AUKELIUS  Theodosius,)  a  grammarian  and  writer,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Rome  in  the  fifth  century. 
It  is  not  known  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  a  pagan,  a 
Greek  or  a  Roman.  He  was  the  author  of  three  Latin 
works  which  have  come  down  to  us,  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Latin  and  Greek  Verb,"  a  "Coinmentary  on  the  Dream 
of  Scipio,"  and  a  series  of  curious  and  valuable  essays 
on  history,  mythology,  criticism,  etc.,  entitled  "Saturna- 
liorum  Conviviorum  Libri  Septem." 


€  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as ;;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  fh  ly  ^ 


MA  CTYEIRE 


1620 


MADISON 


Mactyeire,  mak-te-air',  ?  (Holland  Nimmons,) 
D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1824,  became  editor  of  the  "Christian  Advocate,"  at 
Nashville,  and  was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Southern 
Methodist  Church  in  1866.     Died  February  15,  1889. 

MacVeagh,  mac-va',  (Wayne,)  LL.D.,an  American 
lawyer,  born  at  Phoenixville,  Pennsylvania,  April  19, 1833, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1853,  became  a  lawyer,  was 
United  States  minister  to  Turkey  from  1872  to  1873,  ^^'^'^ 
in  1881  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "  Pennsylvania,"  (Common- 
wealth Series.) 

Mac-vick'ar,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episcopal 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1787.  He  was  appointed 
in  1817  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  rhetoric  in 
Columbia  College.  He  published  "Outlines  of  Political 
Economy,"  "  The  Professional  Years  of  Bishop  Hobart," 
and  other  works.     Died  October  29,  1868. 

Mac-Vick'ar,  (William  Neilson,)  D.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman,  born  in  New  York  city,  October  19,  1S43. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1865,  was  rector 
of  Holy  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  186S-75,  ^"<i  became 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  Philadelphia, 
in  1S75. 

Mac-whir'ter,  (John,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  at 
Slateford,  Midlothian,  in  1839.  He  established  himself 
in  London  in  1864.  Among  his  works  are  "Loch  Coru- 
isk,"  (1867,)  "The  Lady  of  the  Woods,"  (1876,)  "The 
Lord  of  the  Glen,"  (iSSo,)  "  Highland  Harvest,"  (18S3,) 
etc.  Several  of  his  pictures  are  very  popular  as  en- 
gravings. 

Mac-whorter,  mak-hwur'ter,  ?  (Alexander,)  a  Pres- 
byterian minister,  born  in  New  Castle  county,  Delaware, 
in  1734.  He  preached  many  years  at  Newark,  New  Jer- 
sey.    Died  in  1807. 

Madai,  von,  von  mod'oy,  (David  Samuel,)  a  Hun- 
garian numismatist,  born  at  Schemnitz  in  1709.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "A  Complete  Cabinet  of  Medals," 
(1765-74.)     Died  in  1780. 

Mad'an,  (^L\RTIN,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  near 
Hertford  in  1726.  He  became  a  popular  preacher  at  the 
Lock  Hospital,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Thelyphthora,"  in  which  he  advocated  polygamy.  Died 
in  1790. 

Madan,  (Spencer,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  be- 
came Bishoj)  of  Peterborough.     Died  in  1813. 

Madan,  (Rev.  Spencek,)  a  son  of  Martin,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1759.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  obtained  the  living  of  Ibstock  and  the  prebend  of 
Peterborough.  For  about  thirty  years  he  was  chaplain 
to  the  king.     Died  in  1836. 

Mad'den,  (Sir  Frederick,)  an  eminent  English 
antiquary,  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1801,  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum  in 
1837.  He  was  a  valuable  contributor  to  British  history, 
and  edited  many  works,  among  which  are  "  Havelock 
the  Dane,"  (1828,)  and  "Layamon's  Brut,  or  Chronicle 
of  Britain,"  (1847.)     Died  March  8,  1873. 

Mad'den,  (Richard  Robert,)  an  Irish  physician 
and  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  in  Dublin  in 
1798.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Travels  in 
Turkey,  Egypt,  and  Palestine,"  (2  vols.,  1829,)  "The 
Lives  and  Times  of  the  United  Irishmen,"  (7  vols.,) 
and  •'  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  the  Countess  of 
Blessington,"  (3  vols.,  1855.)     Died  in  1886. 

Madden,  (Samuel,)  an  Irish  clergj-man  and  writer, 
whom  Dr.  Johnson  said  Ireland  ought  to  honour,  was 
born  in  1687.  He  was  noted  for  public  spirit,  and  founded 
at  Dublin  a  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts  by  pre- 
miums. He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Twentieth  Cen- 
tury," (1732,)  and  the  "  Monument  of  Boulter,"  a  poem. 
Died  in  1765. 

See  Nichols  and  Bowver,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Maddersteg,  mSd'der-st^c',  (Michael,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  marine  views,  etc.,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1659,  worked  in  Berlin.     Died  in  1709. 

Maddius.    See  Maggi,  (Carlo.) 

Mad'dpx,  (Isaac,)  born  in  London  in  1697,  became 
Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1743.  lie  wrote  a  "Review  of 
Neal's  History  of  the  Puritans."     Died  in  1759. 


Madeleine.    See  Magdalene. 

Madelenet,  mSd'leh-ni',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  the  Auxerrois  about  1587,  lived  mostly  in  Paris. 
He  composed  elegant  Latin  odes.     Died  in  1661. 

Mader,  mS'der,  (Joachim  Johann,)  a  German  philol- 
ogist, born  at  Hanover  in  1626.  He  published  editions 
of  some  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers,  and  wrote  "  De  Coro- 
nis  sacris  et  profanis,"  (1662.)     Died  in  1680. 

Maderno,  md-d^R'no,  (Carlo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
architect,  born  in  Lombardy  in  1556.  He  studied  or 
worked  with  his  uncle,  Domenico  Fontana,  in  Rome. 
Having  acquired  a  great  reputation,  he  obtained  abott 
1614  the  title  of  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  and 
was  charged  by  the  pope  to  finish  the  anterior  part.  He 
deviated  from  the  original  plan  by  adopting  the  form  of 
a  Latin  cross  instead  of  a  Greek  cross.  His  additions 
to  this  edifice  are  condemned  by  Milizia  and  others. 
Among  his  best  works  is  the  Mattei  palace.  Died  in 
1629. 

See  Quatretii6re  de  Quincy,  "  Vies  des  plus  calibres  Archi- 
tectes;"  Cicognara,  "Storia  della  Scultura;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
nario;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Maderno,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  near 
Como  in  1576.  He  adorned  some  churches  of  Rome 
with  bas-reliefs  and  statues.     Died  in  1636. 

Made-weis,  ma'deh-<Nis',  (Friedrich,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Sammentin  in  1648;  died  in  1705. 

Madier  de  Montjau,  mt'de-i'  deh  miN'zho',  (Pau- 
LIN,)  a  French  advocate  and  judge,  born  at  Bourg-Saint- 
Andeol  in  1785.  He  showed  firmness  and  sagacity  in  the 
repression  of  the  excesses  committed  by  the  royalists 
about  1816-20.     Died  May  10,  1865. 

Mad'i-spn,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  American  prelate,  born 
in  Rockingham  county,  Virginia,  in  1749,  became  Episco- 
pal Bishop  of  Virginia  in  1790.  He  had  been  previously 
elected  president  of  William  and  Mary  College.  Died 
in  1812. 

Madison,  (James,)  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
he  fourth  President  of  the  United  States,  born  in  King 
George  county,  Virginia,  on  the  16th  of  March,  1751, 
was  a  son  of  Colonel  James  Madison  and  Eleanor  or 
Nelly  Conway.  He  entered  Princeton  College,  New 
Jersey,  in  1769,  and  graduated  in  1771,  after  which  he 
studied  law.  In  1776  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  or  Convention  of  Virginia.  He  was  defeated 
in  the  election  of  1777  because  he  refused  to  "treat"  the 
voters;  but  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General 
Congress  by  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  in  1779.  From 
this  period  he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  in 
the  political  history  of  the  republic.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1786,  and  was  a  member  of  the  National  Convention 
which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  17S7  to  form  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  on  the  Constitution,  and  advocated  the 
adoption  of  the  same  by  a  series  of  able  essays,  forming 
part  of  "The  Federalist,"  which  is  the  joint  production 
of  Hamilton,  Madison,  and  Jay.  Madison  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  Convention  which,  after  a  spirited 
contest,  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution  by  a  small 
majority  in  June,  1788.  He  became  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  17S9,  and  united  with  the  Republicans  as  a 
moderate  opponent  of  the  administration  of  Washington 
and  the  financial  measures  of  Hamilton.  He  was  dis- 
posed to  be  a  mediator  rather  than  a  partisan  in  the 
dissensions  which  arose  among  the  founders  of  the  re- 
public. In  1794  he  married  Dorothy  Todd,  originally 
Dorothy  Paine,  a  woman  eminent  for  her  virtues  and 
accomplishments.  He  declined  the  office  of  secretary 
of  state  vacated  by  JefiTerson  in  December,  1793,  ard 
continued  to  serve  in  Congress  until  1797.  He  opposed 
the  alien  and  sedition  laws  of  1798,  and  was  the  author 
of  a  series  of  resolutions  adopted  by  the  Assembly  of 
Virginia  and  known  as  the  Resolutions  of  1798,  which 
protested  against  all  attempts  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  Federal  government  by  forced  constructions  of  gen- 
eral clauses  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  by  President  Jefferson  in  March,  1801, 
and  filled  that  office  for  eight  years  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  acquire  the  confidence  and  approbation  of  the  people. 
Having  been  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  a  caucus 
of  Republican  members  of  Congress,  he  was  elected  iu 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  V,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  tar,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6l;  good;  moon; 


MADLER 


1621 


M^CENAS 


1S08,  receiving  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  electoral 
votes  out  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five,  which  was 
the  whole  number.  Charles  C.  Pincknej^,  the  Federal 
candidate,  received  forty-seven  votes.  On  entering  upon 
the  office  of  President,  March  4, 1809,  he  found  the  United 
States  involved  in  difficulties  and  disputes  with  the  British 
government,  which  had  offended  the  Americans  by  im- 
pressing seamen  and  by  searching  American  vessels  for 
deserters,  and  had  injured  their  commerce  by  orders 
in  council.  His  cabinet  at  first  consisted  of  Robert 
Smith,  secretary  of  state,  Albert  Gallatin,  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  William  Eustis,  secretary  of  war,  and  Paul 
Hamilton,  secretary  of  the  navy. 

In  May,  iSio,  Congress  passed  a  non-intercourse  act. 
The  President  sent  to  Congress  a  special  message  on 
the  subject  of  British  aggressions  about  the  1st  of  June, 
1812,  and  war  was  declared  on  the  i8th  of  the  same 
month.  A  few  days  later  the  British  ministry  repealed 
their  orders  in  council  in  relation  to  the  rights  of  neu- 
trals, but  they  refused  to  satisfy  the  Americans  in  relation 
to  the  impressment  of  seamen.  In  the  autumn  of  1812 
Mr.  Madison  was  re-elected  to  the  Presidency  by  one 
hundred  and  twenty  eight  electoral  votes.  His  com- 
petitor was  De  Witt  Clinton,  who  received  eighty-nine 
votes.  The  slave  States,  with  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Vermont,  voted  for  Madison.  A  strong  ])arty  in  the 
United  States  was  opposed  to  the  war  of  1812,  which 
was  waged  with  various  success  on  land  and  sea.  Com- 
modore Perry  gained  a  naval  victory  on  Lake  Erie  in 
September,  1813.  About  the  3d  of  July,  1814,  a  small 
American  army  invaded  Canada,  gained  a  victory  at 
Chippewa,  and  fought  a  severe  battle  at  Lundy's  Lane, 
or  Niagara,  (July  25,)  in  which  the  Americans  lost  743 
killed  and  wounded  and  the  British  lost  878.  In  August 
of  that  year  a  small  British  force  ascended  the  Chesa- 
peake, took  Washington  by  a  sudden  movement,  and 
burned  the  Capitol.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
Ghent,  December  24,  1814;  but,  before  the  tidings  of 
this  event  had  reached  the  United  States,  General  Jack- 
son gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  British  at  New 
Orleans,  January  8,  1815.  In  1816  Madison  approved  a 
bill  which  Congress  had  passed  to  charter  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States  for  twenty  years.  On  the  4th  of  March, 
181 7,  he  retired  from  public  life.  He  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days  on  his  farm  at  Montpelier,  Orange 
county,  Virginia.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Convention  called  in  1829  to  revise  the  Constitution  of 
the  State.     Died  at  Montpelier,  June  28,  1836. 

"This  great  statesman  and  philosopher,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "  was  the  confidential,  personal,  and  political 
friend  of  Jefferson  ;  but  in  almost  every  respect  their 
characters  were  essentially  different.  Mr.  Madison's  in- 
tellect was  of  a  far  higher  order,  and  its  ascendency  over 
his  passions  was  nearly  perfect.  His  triumphs  were 
those  of  pure  reason.  His  public  and  private  life  were 
above  reproach.  ,  .  .  His  writings  on  the  Constitution 
and  other  subjects  were  second  only  to  those  of  Hamilton 
in  ability  and  influence;  and  his  extensive  information, 
sound  judgment,  skill  as  a  logician,  and  unvarying  cour- 
tesy, secured  him  the  highest  consideration  in  the  Con- 
gresses of  which  he  was  a  member."  ("  Prose  Writers 
of  America.")  He  left  in  manuscript  "  Reports  of  the 
Debates  in  the  National  Convention  of  1788,"  which 
were  purchased  by  Congress  after  his  death,  and  pub- 
lished in  3  vols.,  (1840.)  This  is  a  work  of  great  value  to 
students  of  political  philosophy. 

See  Wm.  C.  Rives,  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  James 
Madison,"  3  vols.,  1S59-1868,  (unfinished.  This  work  extends  only 
to  1797;)  John  Q.  Adams,  "Life  of  James  Madison,"  1850;  Ban- 
croft, "History  of  the  United  States;"  "  National  Portrait-Gallery 
of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. ;  "  New  American  Cyclopedia  ;' 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1812. 

Madler  or  Maedler,  m^d'ler,  (Johann  Heinrich,) 
a  German  astronomer,  born  in  Berlin  in  1794.  In  con- 
junction with  Beer,  he  produced  an  excellent  lunar  chart, 
— "Mappa  Selenographica,"  (1834-36.)  In  1840  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  Dorpat.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Existence  of  a  Central  Sun,"  (1846,)  and 
"  Researches  into  the  System  of  Fixed  Stars,"  which  is 
highly  commended.     Died  March  14,  1874, 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 


Mad'oc  or  Madog,  the  second  son  of  Owen  Gwy- 
nedd.  Prince  of  Wales,  lived  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Some  writers  favour  the  hypothesis  that  he  discovered 
America  about  11 70,  at  which  period  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  Wales  by  a  successful  rebellion  against  his 
dynasty.  Tradition  informs  us  that  he  sailed  from  Wales 
on  a  second  expedition  to  the  newly-discovered  shores, 
and  was  never  heard  from  after.  His  history  furnishes 
the  subject  of  Southey's  poem  entitled  "  Madoc." 

Madog.     See  Madoc. 

Madou,  mi'doo',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Brussels  in  1796;  died  April  3, 
1877. 

Madoz;  (Isaac.)     See  Maddox. 

Mad'ox,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary, 
was  an  inmate  of  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  about  1704.  He  was  a  diligent 
collector  of  old  legal  and  historical  records,  and  obtained 
the  title  of  royal  historiographer.  His  principal  work 
is  "The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Exchequer  of 
the  Kings  of  England  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to 
the  Ya\A  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  II. ,"  (1711.)  He  also 
published  "  Firma  Burgi ;  or,  A  Historical  Essay  con- 
cerning the  Cities,  Towns,  and  Boroughs  of  England," 
(1726.)     Died  about  1735. 

See  Nichols  and  Bowver,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Madoz,  mi-d6th',  (Pascual,)  a  Spanish  author  and 
liberal  statesman,  was  born  at  Pampeluna  in  1806.  He 
chose  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  was  appointed  a 
judge  at  Barcelona  in  1835.  He  edited  a  "Universal 
Geographical  Dictionary,"  (1831-34,) — a  work  of  de- 
cided merit.  Having  been  elected  a  deputy  to  the 
Cortes,  he  removed  to  Madrid,  where  he  devoted  much 
time  to  an  arduous  and  successful  enterprise,  as  editor 
of  a  voluminous  "  Geographical -Historical  Dictionary 
of  Spain,"  (1848,)  which  is,  perhaps,  the  most  com- 
plete and  excellent  work  of  the  kind  ever  published. 
Madoz  became  a  leader  of  the  party  called  Progre- 
sistas,  and  was  minister  of  finance  for  about  four  months 
in  1855.     Died  December  11,  1870. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Madrazo,  de,  di  mS-DR5'tho,  (Don  Federico,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  18 15.  He  painted  ]5ortraits  with  success,  and 
became  court  painter  at  Madrid.  He  gained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1855. 

Madrazo  y  Agudo,  de,  dS.  mS-DR^'tho  e  S-goo'oo, 
( Don  Jost, )  a  Spanish  painter  of  history  and  portraits, 
born  at  Santander  in  1781.  He  became  court  painter  to 
Ferdinand  VII.,  and  director  of  the  Academy  of  Madrid. 
Died  in  1859. 

Madrid,  de,  di  mlo-rfen',  ( Josifi  Fernandez,)  born 
at  Carthagena,  South  America,  in  1789.  He  was  chosen 
president  of  the  republic  of  New  Granada  in  1816,  but 
in  the  same  year  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards. 
After  an  imprisonment  of  nine  years  in  Havana,  he 
escaped  in  1825,  arf^ter  which  he  was  employed  by  Bolivar 
as  secret  agent  in  Paris.  He  wrote  "  Atala,"  a  tragedy. 
Died  in  1830. 

MadroUe,  mt'dRoK,  (Antotne,)  a  French  writer  on 
religion  and  politics,  born  at  Saint-Seine  in  1792.  He 
published  numerous  works,  in  which  he  advocated  ultra- 
montane doctrines.     Died  in  1861. 

Madvig,  mid'vig,  (Johann  or  Jens  Nikolai,)  a 
Danish  philologist,  born  in  the  isle  of  Bornholm  in  1S04. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  public  instruction  in  1848. 
.'\mong  his  works  are  "  Opuscula  Academica,"  2  vols., 
(1834-42,)  a  noted  "  Latin  Grammar,"  (1841,)  and  editions 
of  Latin  authors.     Died  in  18S6. 

Maecenas,  me-see'nas,  [It.  Mecenate,  mS-chi-ni'ti, 
orMECENATO;  Fr.  Miocene,  mi'sin',]  (Caius  Cilnius,) 
a  celebrated  patron  of  literature  at  Rome,  was  born  prob- 
ably about  70  B.C.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
and  royal  Etruscan  family,  and  belonged  to  the  eques- 
trian order.  (Horace,  Carm.  I.  1-20.)  He  was  the  friend 
of  Octavius  before  his  accession  as  the  emperor  Augus- 
tus. His  fidelity  and  talents  having  been  approved  in 
many  important  negotiations,  Octavius  intrusted  to  him 
the  administration  of  Rome  during  his  absence  in  36  B.C. 
when  he  went  to  war  against  Sextus  Pompeius.  After 
the   battle  of  Actium  (31  a.d.)  had  rendered  Octavius 


cas/J;  jas  j;  ^hard;  gasj;  g,  h,  Vi,^*iiural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  sasa;  th  asin//«j.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MMCIANUS 


1622 


MAGALOTTI 


master  of  Rome,  he  is  said  to  have  followed  the  counsel 
of  Maecenas  in  founding  an  empire  instead  of  restoring 
the  republic.  Agrijjpa  and  Maecenas  were  the  favourites 
and  chief  ministers  of  Augustus  for  many  years.  The 
political  career  of  the  latter  ended  about  16  li.c.  Mae- 
cenas was  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  and 
rendered  his  name  memorable  by  his  liberal  patronage 
of  Horace,  Virgil,  and  other  poets,  who  were  his  intimate 
friends.  His  name  had  become  ])roverbial  as  a  patron 
of  letters  as  early  as  the  time  of  Martial.  It  is  said  that 
Virgil's  "  Georgics"  was  written  at  the  request  of  Mas- 
ceiias.  In  the  councils  of  state  he  advocated  mild  and 
liberal  measures  and  the  free  expression  of  opinions. 
He  wrote  several  mediocre  works,  of  which  only  small 
fragments  are  extant.     Died  in  8  B.C. 

See  A.  RiviNus,  "  Dissertationes  II.  de  Maecenate,"  1649-52 
Henri  Richer,  "Vie  de  Mecenas,"  1746;  R.  Schomberg,  "Life 
of  Maecenas,"  London,  1766;  C.  Caporali,  "Vita  di  Mecenate,' 
1604;  S.Viola,  "Storia  di  C.  C.  Meceiiato,"  1816;  Frandsen,  "  C, 
C.  Mxcenas,"  etc.,  1843:  Meibomius,  "  De  C.  C.  Mxceiiaiis  Vita,'' 
1653;  Beli.man,  "  Ma;cenas  Literatonim  Patronus,"  Upsal,  1705- 
Tacitus,  "Annales,"  books  L,  iii.,  vi.,  and  xiv. ;  Dion  Cassius. 
"  History  of  Rome." 

MaBCianus,  me-se-a'nus,  (Lucius  VoLusius,)  a 
Roman  jurist  of  the  second  century.  He  was  a  legal 
adviser  of  Antoninus  Pius,  and  a  preceptor  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  He  wrote  "  De  Fideicommissis,"  and  other 
works,  of  which  extracts  are  found  in  the  "Digest." 

Maedler.     See  Madler. 

Maelzel.     See  Malzel. 

Msenades,  m§n'a-d^z,  [from  (laivofiaL,  to  "rave,"]  a 
name  of  the  priestesses  of  15.\CCHUS,  (which  see.) 

Mffionides,  me-on'i-deez,  [Gr.  MaiW4(^7/f,]  or  Maeonian 
bard,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Homer,  because  he 
was  reported  to  have  been  born  in  Lydia,  the  ancient 
name  of  which  was  Maeonia.     (See  Ho.mer.) 

Maerlaud  or  Maerlant,  van,  vtn  mlr'lint,  (Jacob,) 
an  early  Flemish  poet,  born  about  1235,  is  called  "the 
father  of  Flemish  poetry."  He  was  a  person  of  uncom- 
mon information  and  learning  for  that  age.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Sentences  from  Aristotle,"  "  The  War  of 
Troy,"  and  "  Wapen  Martyii."     Died  in  1300. 

See  J.  F.  WiLLEMS,  "J.  van  Maerlant,"  1S3S;  Visscher,  "Jets 
over  J.  de  Coster  van  Maerlant,"  1S3S. 

Maes.     See  Maas. 

Maes,  mSs,  (Andreas,)  a  Belgian  Orientalist,  born 
in  Brabant  in  1515  or  1516;  died  in  1573. 

Maes,  mSs,  (Camillus  Paul,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born 
at  Courtrai,  Belgium,  March  13,  1S46.  He  graduated 
in  1863  at  the  College  of  Courtrai,  studied  divinity  at 
Bruges  and  Louvain,  was  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest  in  1S6S,  came  to  America  in  1869,  was  stationed 
chiefly  in  Detroit,  and  in  1884  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Covington.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Charles  Nerinckx," 
(18S0.) 

Maestlin.     See  Mastlin. 

Maevius,  mee've-us,  an  obscure  Roman  poetaster  of 
the  Augustan  age,  acquired  notoriety  by  his  envious 
attacks  on  the  best  poets  of  his  time.  His  name  has 
been  saved  from  oblivion  by  the  ridicule  of  Virgil,  who 
mentions  him  in  his  Third  Eclogue.  The  name  of 
Gifford's  satiric  poem  "The  Maeviad"  is  derived  from 
Maevius. 

Maffei,  mif-fa'ee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Riva  di  Trento  in  1802.  He  published  several  volumes 
of  original  verse,  but  is  chiefly  known  for  his  excellent 
translations  from  other  literatures,  mainly  Engli.-sh  and 
German.     Died  in  1885. 

Maffei,  maf-fa'ee,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  i5i3,wrote  a"  Commentary  on  Cicero's  Epistles." 
Died  at  Rome  in  1553. 

Maffei,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  bom  at 
Vicenza.  He  imitated  Paul  Veronese  in  colouring.  His 
style  is  grand,  but  rather  exaggerated.    Died  about  1660. 

Maffei,  (Francesco  ScipTone,)  Marquis,  a  cele- 
brated Italian  scholar  and  author,  born  at  Verona  in 
June,  1675.  He  made  a  campaign  in  the  service  of 
Bavaria,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Donauwerth  in 
1704,  but  soon  renounced  the  military  profession  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  In  1713  he  produced 
"  Merope,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  highly  applauded,  and 


ran  through  seventy  editions  in  forty  years.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  "Verona  Illustrata,"  (2  vols,  fob,  1731,) 
treats  of  the  origin,  history,  and  literary  history  of 
Verona.  It  is  admirable  for  profound  research,  sound 
criticism,  and  elegant  style.  He  also  wrote  "Introduc- 
tion to  the  Science  of  Diplomatics,"  ("Istoria  diplo- 
matica  che  serve  d'Introduzione  all'  Arte  critica  in  tal 
Materia,")  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Societies  of  London  and  of  Berlin.  Died  in  1755. 
See  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium;"  Pindb- 
MC.vTE,  "Elogiodei  Marchese  Maffei,"  1784;  Tipaldo,  " Biografia 
degli  Italian!  illustri;"  " Isouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Maffei,  [Lat.  MAFF.ii:'ius  or  Maph^^'us,]  (Giovanni 
PiETRO,)  an  excellent  Italian  writer,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1535.  He  went  to  Rome  and  entered  the  order  of 
Jesuits  in  1565,  after  which  he  lectured  on  eloquence  for 
six  years  at  the  Roman  College  with  great  success.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  "Historiae  Indicae,"  ("History 
of  India,"  15S8,)  of  which  the  style  is  the  chief  merit. 
"Maffei,"  says  Hallam,  "threw  all  the  graces  of  a  pure 
Latin  style  over  his  description  of  the  East."  He  wrote 
a  "  Life  of  Loyola,"(i585,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1603. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Nici^ron, 
"Memoires." 

Maffei,  (Paolo  Alessandro,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Volterra  in  1653.  He  published  a  "Collection 
of  Ancient  and  Modern  Statues,  with  Critical  Observa- 
tions," and  another  esteemed  work,  illustrative  of  ancient 
gems,  ("Gemme  antiche  figurate,"  1707.)    Died  in  1716. 

Maffei,  (Raffaello,)  also  called  RaffaeUo  Volter- 
rano,  rJf-f^-el'lo  vol-tSr-ri'no,  an  Italian  scholar,  born 
at  Volterra  in  145 1.  His  most  important  work  is  "  Com- 
mentarii  Urbani,"  which  treats  of  geography,  biography, 
sciences,  etc.  It  was  reprinted  at  Paris  in  1526.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1522. 

Maffeo  (or  Maffei)  Vegio,  mif-fa'o  va'jo,  [Lat 
MapH/e'us  Ve'gius,]  one  of  the  most  eminent  Latin 
poets  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  born  at  Lodi  in  1406. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  briefs  and  datary  by  Eugene  IV.  iJesides 
several  religious  works  in  prose,  he  composed  Latin 
poems,  entitled  "  The  Golden  Fleece,"  ("  Astyanax  Vel- 
lus  Aureum,")  and  "^neidos  Supplementum,"  (1471,) 
a  continuation  of  Virgil's  great  epic.  The  last  was  the 
most  admired  of  his  works.  He  was  highly  praised  by 
Scaliger.    Died  in  1458. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Bavle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Maf'fitt,  (John  Newland, )  a  noted  Methodist 
preacher,  born  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1794.  Having 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1819,  he  became 
in  1833  associate  editor  of  the  "Western  Methodist," 
published  at  Nashville,  Tennessee.  He  was  elected 
professor  of  elocution  at  La  Grange  College,  Alabama, 
in  1837.     Died  in  1850. 

Mafoma.     See  Mohammed. 

Magalhaens.     See  Magellan. 

Magalhaens,  mi-gil-yd'^Ns,  (Gabriel,)  a  Portu- 
guese missionary,  born  near  Coimbra  in  1609,  laboured 
in  the  Jesuit  missions  in  China  from  1640  until  his  death, 
in  1677,  and  wrote  a  "Description  of  China,"  (i688.) 

Magalhaens  de  Gandavo,  de,  di  mi-gai-yi'gNs 
dk  gSn-di'vo,  (Pedro,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  bom  at 
Braga  about  1550.  He  passed  some  years  in  Brazil,  and 
published  at  Lisbon  in  1576  a  "History  of  Brazil,"  a 
work  of  some  merit. 

Magalon,  mt'gt'liN',  (Jean  Denis,)  a  French  writer 
and  journalist,  born  at  Bagnoles  in  1794;  died  about  1840. 

Magalotti,  mS-ga-lot'tee,  (  Lorenzo,  )  Count,  an 
Italian  philosopher,  boin  at  Rome  in  1637,  was  versed 
in  ancient  and  modern  languages.  He  became  a  resider.t 
of  Florence,  the  grand  duke  of  which  employed  him  on 
diplomatic  missions  to  Vienna  and  Mantua.  Among  his 
works  are  a  treatise  against  atheism,  called  "Familiar 
Letters,"  (1719, )  "Scientific  and  Learned  Letters," 
("Lettere  scientifiche  ed  erudite,"  1721,)  and  "Ana- 
creontic Songs,"  (1723.)  "The  Letters  of  Magalotti 
and  of  Redi,"  says  Hallam,  "seem  to  do  more  credit 
than  anything  else  to  this  period,"  (of  Italian  literature.) 
Died  in  171 2. 


a,  e,  T, 6,  u,  y,  hug;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T, 6,  li, y,  shoit;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MAGANZA 


1623 


MA  GILL 


Maganza,  m3-g5n'z5,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1556.  He  imitated 
Paul  Veronese  with  moderate  success.  Died  in  163c. 
Alessandro  had  three  sons,  who  were  promising  artists  ; 
but  they  died  prematurely  before  their  father. 

See  A.  M.  Mrneghei.li,  "  Elogio  diA.  Maganza,"  1845;  Lanzi, 
"  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Maganza,  (Giovanni  BArnsTA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  il.  MaGagno,  {k\  niS-gin'yo,)  born  at  Vicenza 
in  1509,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Titian,  and  was  successful  in  portraits  and  his- 
tory. He  was  author  of  a  volume  of  poems,  ("  Rime,") 
published  in  1570.     Died  in  1589. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  No- 
tizie  " 

Maganza,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1577,  was  a  son  and 
pupil  of  Alessandro,  noticed  above.     Died  in  1617. 

Ma'gas,  [Gr.  Majaf,]  a  king  of  Gyrene,  and  a  step- 
son of  Ptolemy  Soter.     Died  in  258  B.C. 

Magati,  mi-gi'tee,  or  Magatti,  mS-gSt'tee,  [LaL 
Maga'tus,]  (Cesare,)  an  eminent  Italian  surgical  writer, 
born  at  Scandiano  in  1579.  He  wrote  "  De  rara  Medi- 
catione  Vulnerum,"  (i6i6.)     Died  in  1647. 

Magatus.     See  Magati. 

Mag'da-Iene  or  Mag'da-len,  [Fr.  Madeleine  or 
Madeline,  rntd'lin',]  (Maky,)  an  eminent  Christian 
saint,  was  probably  born  at  Magdala,  in  Galilee.  She 
was  one  of  the  personal  followers  of  Christ,  by  whom 
she  was  "healed  of  evil  spirits  and  intirmities."  (See 
Luke  viii.  2.)  Nothing  appears  to  be  known  of  her  his- 
tory in  addition  to  the  facts  narrated  by  the  four  Evan- 
gelists. (See  Matthew  xxvii.  and  xxviii.,  Mark  xvi.,  and 
John  xix.  25  and  xx.  1-18.)  The  learned  differ  on  the 
question  of  her  identity  with  Mary  the  sister  of  Lazarus 
of  Bethany.  The  prevalent  notion  that  her  morals  were 
very  depraved  before  her  conversion  appears  to  have  no 
real  foundation. 

Ma-gee',  (William,)  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1765.  He  opposed  Unitarianism  in 
"  Discourses  on  the  Scriptural  Doctrines  of  the  Atone- 
ment," (2  vols.,  1801,)  which  procured  for  him  a  wide 
reputation.  He  became  Bishop  of  Raphoe  in  1819,  and 
Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1822.     Died  in  1831. 

Magee,  (William  Connor,)  D.D.,  a  prelate,  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cork,  Decem- 
ber 17,  1821.  He  was  educated  at  Kilkenny  College, 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1864  he  was  made 
Dean  of  Cork,  and  soon  after  dean  of  the  Chaix;! 
Royal,  Dublin.  In  1868  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Peterborough,  (Anglican,)  and  in  1891  became  Arch- 
bishop of  York.     Died  May  5,  1891. 

Magellan,  mi-jel'lan,  |Sp.  pron.  mi-hSl-yin';  Port. 
Magalhaens,  mi-gil-yi'eNs,]  (Fernando,)  a  Portu- 
guese navigator,  distinguished  for  his  skill,  enterprise, 
and  important  discoveries,  was  born  about  1470.  He 
served  several  years  in  the  East  Indies  under  Albu- 
querque, and  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Malacca  in 
i^ii.  A  few  years  later  he  offered  his  services  to 
Charles  V.,  and  received  command  of  a  fleet  of  five 
vessels  and  230  men.  With  these  he  sailed,  September, 
11,19,  with  a  view  to  find  a  western  route  to  the  East 
Indies.  He  passed  the  winter  of  1520  (from  May  to 
September)  in  the  Bay  of  Saint  Julian,  about  49°  south 
latitude,  where  a  serious  mutiny  or  conspiracy  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  execution  of  two  captains  of  vessels.  In 
October,  1520,  he  discovered  and  passed  through  the 
strait  which  bears  his  name.  Pursuing  his  course  through 
the  great  ocean  of  which  he  was  the  first  navigator, 
and  which  he  named  the  Pacific,  he  discovered  the  La- 
drones  about  the  6th  of  March,  1521.  He  proceeded 
thence  to  the  Philippine  Isles,  and  was  amicably  received 
by  the  Prince  of  Zebu  or  Cebu.  Having  become  an  ally 
of  this  prince  in  a  war  against  another  small  island  of 
the  same  group,  Magellan  was  killed  in  battle  in  April, 
1 52 1.  One  of  his  ships,  the  Vittoria,  commanded  by 
Sebastian  del  Cano,  returned  to  Spain,  and  was  the  first 
that  circumnavigated  the  globe.  An  Italian  named  Pi- 
gafetta  accompanied  Magellan  in  this  last  voyage,  and 
kept  a  journal,  which  was  published.    (See  Pigafetta.) 


Magellan  or  Magalhaens,  ( JoAo  Jacinto,)  was 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1723.  He  emigrated  to  England 
about  1764,  cultivated  natural  philosophy  with  success, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  (1774.) 
He  wrote  a  "  Description  of  English  Octants  and  Sex- 
tants," and  other  scientific  treatises.  Died  near  London 
in  1790. 

Magendie,  mt'zhSN'de',  (Fran(;ois,)  an  eminent 
French  physiologist  and  physician,  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux on  the  15th  of  October,  1783,  and  was  educated 
in  Paris.  He  became  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine,  Paris,  about  1805.  In  1816  he 
produced  a  manual  of  physiology,  "  Precis  elementaire 
de  Physiologie,"  which  was  translated  into  German  and 
English.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences about  1821,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  or 
medicine  in  the  College  of  France  in  1S31.  His  experi- 
ments contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  physiology. 
Among  his  important  services  was  the  discovery  or 
demonstration  of  the  functions  of  the  spinal  nerves.  The 
honour  of  this  discovery,  however,  is  shared  by  Charles 
Bell.  Magendie  discovered  that  in  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  the  arteries  act  not  by  irritability,  but  by  elas- 
ticity, and  proved  that  the  veins  are  organs  of  absorption. 
He  experimented  on  living  animals  more  than  any  of  his 
predecessors.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Lectures 
on  the  Physical  Phenomena  of  Life,"  ("  Lemons  sur  les 
Phenomenes  physiques  de  la  Vie,"  4  vols.,  1S36-42,) 
and  "  Lectures  on  the  Functions  and  Diseases  of  the 
Nervous  System,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)  He  founded  in  1821 
the  "Journal  of  Experimental  Physiology,"  which  he 
continued  to  edit  until  1S31.  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  public  health  (comite  consultatij 
(Thygihie publique)  in  1848.     Died  in  October,  1855. 

See  Flourens,  "  filoge  liisioriqiie  de  F.  Magendie,"  1858;  Du- 
bois d'Amiens,  "Eloge  de  Magendie;"  "  Nouvelle  l!iographi« 
Generale." 

Magenta,  Due  de.     See  MacMahon. 

Mageoghegau,  (Jam^s.)     See  MacGeohegan. 

Maggi,  mSd'jee,  [Lat.  Mad'dius,]  (Carlo  Maria,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan  in  1630.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca,  and  professor 
of  Greek  in  Milan.  His  works  consist  of  Greek,  Latin, 
and  Italian  poems,  of  Letters,  etc.  "  Maggi  bore  an 
honourable  part,"  says  Hallam,  "  in  the  restoration  of 
poetry."     Died  in  1699. 

See  L.  A.  Muratori,  "Vita  di  C.  M.  Maggi,  Milanese,"  1700; 
TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Maggi,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter  and  etcher, 
born  in  Rome  about  1566;  died  after  1618. 

Maggi,  (GiROLAMO,)  a  lawyer  and  writer,  born  at 
Anghiari,  in  Tuscany.  About  1560  he  settled  in  Venice, 
where  he  published  several  worlvs,  among  which  were 
"The  War  of  Flanders,"  a  poem,  and  "Varioe  Lec- 
tiones."  Having  been  made  prisoner  by  the  Turks  in 
Cyprus,  he  attempted  to  escape,  was  recaptured,  and 
strangled  in  Constantinople  in  1572. 

Maggi,  (LuciLio  Filalteo,)  a  learned  Italian  physi- 
cian, was  born  at  Brescia  about  15 10.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Pavia  about  1553. 
He  wrote  "  Familiar  Letters"  ("  Epistolae  Familiares") 
on  the  literary  history  of  Italy.     Died  about  1570. 

Maggio,  mJd'jo,  or  Magio,  ma'jo,  (Francesco 
Maria,)  a  monk,  born  at  Palermo  in  1612,  became 
skilled  in  Oriental  languages.  He  was  employed  as  a 
missionary  in  Syria,  Georgia,  etc.,  and  wrote  a  "Gram- 
mar of  the  Georgian  Language."     Died  in  1686. 

Ma'gi,  a  religious  sect  or  priestly  caste  of  ancient 
Persia,  which  had  exclusive  possession  of  scientific 
knowledge.  They  worshipped  fire  and  the  sun,  and 
were  reformed  by  Zoroaster.  In  the  Gospel  certain 
members  of  this  caste  are  mentioned  as  "  wise  men  of 
the  East."  (  See  Matthew  ii.  i.)  In  process  of  time 
the  term  Magi  became  synonymous  with  philosophers, 
learned  men,  astronomers,  and  soothsayers,  or  dealers 
in  magic  arts. 

Ma-gill',  (Edward  H.,)  LL.D.,  an  American  educator 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania, 
September  24, 1825.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University, 
Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1852.  The  same  year  he 
became  principal  of  the  classical  department  of  the  Prov- 


«  as  <^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  o,  H,  K.  ^tiural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MA  GIN  I 


1624 


MAGNUS 


idence  High  School,  which  position  he  held  till  1859, 
when  he  was  appointed  sub-master  of  the  Boston  Latin 
School.  Having  in  1867  resigned  his  place  in  the  Latin 
School,  he  spent  some  time  in  foreign  travel.  In  187 1 
he  became  president  of  Friends'  College,  at  Swarthmore, 
in  Delaware  county,  Pennsylvania.  The  high  degree  of 
prosperity  which  that  institution  has  enjoyed  is  due  in 
no  small  measure  both  to  his  rare  skill  as  an  instructor 
and  to  his  wise  and  efficient  government.  President 
Magill  is  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  co-education  of  the 
sexes,  and  the  complete  and  signal  success  of  this  system 
at  Swarthmore  furnishes  a  practical  argument  in  its 
favour  not  easy  to  refute  or  resist.  During  his  connec- 
tion with  the  Boston  Latin  School,  Mr.  Magill  published 
a  French  Grammar  and  a  series  of  French  Readers  which 
have  been  widely  used  in  the  schools  and  colleges  of  our 
country. 

Magini,  mi-jee'nee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Padua  in  1555.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Bologna  from  1588  to  1617,  and  wrote 
many  works,  among  which  are  "  Ephemerides,"  and 
"  New  Theories  of  the  Celestial  Orbs,"  ("  Novae  Cceles- 
tium  Orbium  Theorias,"  1589.)     Died  in  1617. 

See  Lalande,  "  Bibliothique  astronomique." 

Ma-ginn',  (William,)  a  witty  and  versatile  writer, 
born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  about  1793.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1S24,  and  adopted  literature  as  a  profes- 
sion. About  this  time  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  in  which  he  appears  as  the 
"  Morgan  O'Doherty"  of  the  "  Noctes  Ambrosianse." 
About  1828  he  became  sub-editor  of  "The  Standard,"  a 
Tory  paper,  and  began  to  write  able  and  caustic  articles 
for  "  Fraser's  Magazine."  He  also  wrote  a  novel  called 
"Whitehall."     Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Aiitobiosrapliy  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  vii.  ; 
"Fraser's  Magazine"  fiir  January,  1831,  (with  a  portrait,)  and  for 
February,  March,  and  April,  1838. 

Magirus,mi-gee'rTis,(ToBiA5,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Angermiinde  in  1586,  taught  logic  and  physics 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.     Died  in  165 1. 

MagistiLs,  de,  deh  mi-j^s'tR^ss,  (Giacinto,)  an  Ital- 
ian missionary,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Cremona  in  1605  ; 
died  at  Goa,  India,  in  1666. 

Magistris,  de,  (Simone,)  an  Italian  priest,  noted  for 
his  mastery  of  ancient  languages,  was  born  in  Corsica  in 
1728  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1802. 

Magliabecchi,  mll-yi-bek'kee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
bibliomaniac  and  librarian,  noted  for  his  prodigious 
memory  and  learning,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1633.  He 
devoured  a  great  number  of  books  with  avidity,  became 
versed  in  languages  and  antiquities,  and  was  regarded  as 
an  oracle  by  the  learned.  His  habits  were  very  eccentric. 
He  was  for  many  years  librarian  of  Cosimo  III.,  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  of  his  successors.  At  his  death, 
in  1714,  he  left  his  rich  library  to  the  city  of  Florence, 
by  which  it  is  kept  open  to  the  public. 

See  TiRABosCHi,  "Storia  della  Letieratura  Italiana ;"  Fabroni, 
"Vits  Italonim  doctrina  excellentium ;"  L.  Brightwei.l,  "By- 
Paths  of  Biography:"  "  Nouvelle  BioRraphie  G^n^rale ;"  A.M. 
Salvini,  "Orazione  funerale  in  Lode  di  A.  Magliabecchi,"  1715. 

Magnan,  nitn'ySN^,  (Bernard  Pierre,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1791.  He  served  as  captain  at 
Waterloo,  (1815,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  about 
1827,  after  which  he  was  employed  in  Algeria.  He 
became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1845,  and  commanded 
the  army  of  the  Alps  in  1849.  In  July,  1851,  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Paris,  and 
in  December,  1852,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France.     Died  in  1865. 

See  J.  Lassagne,  "Notice  sur  le  G^n^ral  Magnan,"  1852. 

Magnan,  (Dominique,)  a  French  antiquary  and  monk, 
born  at  Raillane  in  1731.  He  lived  in  Avignon  and 
Rome,  and  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  works, 
among  which  are  a  "  Description  of  the  City  of  Rome," 
(1763,)  and  several  treatises  on  numismatics.  Died  in 
1796. 

Magnani,  mSn-yi'nee,  (Cristoforo,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Pizzighettone  before  1550,  was  a  pupil 
of  Bernardino  Campi. 

Magnasco,  mSn-ySs'ko,  (Alessandro,)  called  Lis- 
SANDKIN'O,  an   Italian  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1681. 


His  favourite  subjects  were  processions,  etc.  Died  iit 
1747- 

Magnasco,  (Stefano,)  a  painter,  born  about  1630, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1665. 

Magne,  mSfi,  (Pierre,)  a  French  advocate  and  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1806.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  public  works  in  January,  185 1,  and 
minister  of  finance  in  February,  1855.  He  retired  from 
this  office  about  i86i.     Died  in  1879. 

Magnence.    SeeMACNENTius. 

Magnentius,  mlg-n?n'she-us,  [Fr.  Magnence,  mSn'- 
ySNss',]  (Flavius,)  a  Roman  general,  born  in  Germany 
about  300  A.D.  While  commanding  an  army  in  Gaul, 
he  revolted  against  the  emperor  Constans,  and  usurped 
the  empire  of  the  West  in  350.  Constans  was  killed  by 
his  orders.  Magnentius  made  himself  master  of  the  city 
of  Rome.  A  war  ensued  between  him  and  Constantius, 
who  defeated  the  usurper  on  the  river  Drave  in  351. 
He  retreated  to  Gaul,  was  again  defeated,  and  killed 
himself  in  August,  353  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lh 
Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Mag'nei,   [Mayv^,]    an  Athenian  poet   of   the    old 
comedy,  was  born  in  Icaria,  and  lived  about  450  B.C. 
See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca." 

Magni,  (Johan.)     See  Magnus. 

Magni,  mSg'nee,  written  also  Magne,  [from  Maim, 
"  strength,"]  a  son  of  Thor,  who,  with  his  brother  Modi, 
will  survive  the  conflagration  of  the  world  at  Ragnarock. 
(See  Modi.) 

Magni,  mSg'nee,  or  Magnus,  mSg'nfis,  (Johan  01 
Jonas,)  a  Swedish  bishop,  born  at  Wexio  in  1583,  wrote 
"  Synopsis  Historise  universalis,"  (1622,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1651. 

Magni,  mSn'yee,  [Lat.  Mag'nus,]  (Valeriano,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  Capuchin  friar,  born  at  Milan  about 
1586.  He  wrote  against  the  Jesuits.  "  This /^rf,"  says 
Pascal,  in  a  letter  to  the  Jesuits,  "has  found  the  secret 
of  stopping  your  mouth."  Among  his  works  is  "  Or- 
ganum  theologicum,"  (1643.)     Died  in  1661. 

See  Pascal,  "Lettres  Provinciales." 

Magnien-Grandpre,  mtn'ye^N'  gufiN'pRi',  (N.,) 
French  financier  and  writer,  born  at  Challon  in  1745 
died  in  181 1. 

Magnier,  mtn'ye-a',(LAURENT,)  called  also  MANifeRE, 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1618 ;  died  in  1700. 

Magnin,  mtn'y^N',  (Charles,)  a  French  critic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1793.  He  acquired  reputation  as  a  critic  of 
dramatic  literature.  Among  his  works  are  a  series  of 
"Lectures  on  the  Drama,"  (1838,)  and  "Causeries  et 
Meditations  historiques  et  litteraires,"  (2  vols.,  1842.) 
Died  in  1862. 

Magnocavalli,  mSn-yo-kS-vSI'lee,  (Francesco  Ot- 
tavio,)  Count  de  Varengo,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Casal  in  1707,  wrote  "  Corradin,  Marquis  de  Mont- 
ferrat,"  and  other  tragedies.     Died  in  17S8. 

Magnol,  mtn'yoK,  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist  and 
physician,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1638.  He  became 
professor  of  botany  in  his  native  city  in  1694,  before 
which  he  had  published  "Introduction  to  the  General 
History  of  Plants,"  ("Prodromus  Historian  generalis 
Plantarum,"  1689.)  He  had  some  sound  ideas  on 
botanical  philosophy,  and  shares  with  other  botanists 
of  his  time  the  merit  of  favouring  the  progress  of  the 
natural  method.  He  wrote  several  minor  works  on 
botany.  The  genus  Magnolia  was  named  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1715. 

See  "  Biographic  M^dicale." 

Magnon,  mtn'y6N',  (Jean,)  a  mediocre  French  poet 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Tournus.  He  left  unfinished  a 
poem  entitled  "La  Science  universelle,"  (1663.)  He 
was  assassinated  at  Paris  in  1662. 

Mag'nus  I.,  King  of  Norway,  surnamed  THE  GooD, 
was  the  son  of  Saint  Olaiis.  He  became  king  in  1034, 
and  at  the  death  of  Canute  II.,  in  1042,  obtained  the 
throne  of  Denmark.  He  died  in  1047,  leaving  Norway 
to  Harold,  and  Denmark  to  Sweyn,  a  nephew  of  Canute 
the  Great. 

See  ToRF.eus,  "Historia  Rerum  Norvecicariim." 

Magnus,  surnamed  Ladulos,  King  of  Sweden,  born 


I,  €,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon- 


MAGNUS 


1625 


MAHAN 


In  1240,  was  the  second  son  of  Birger.  He  deposed  his 
own  brother,  Waldemar,  and  reigned  many  years.  He 
died  in  1298,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Birger. 

Magnus,  surnamed  Smek,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in 
13 16,  was  the  son  of  Duke  Eric,  and  succeeded  Birgei 
in  1320.  His  actual  reign  began  in  1337.  He  was  placed 
under  interdict  by  the  pope,  and  dei)0sed  by  his  nobles 
about  1363,  when  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  became  king. 
Magnus  died  in  1374. 

See  F.  RuHS,  "  Geschichte  Schwedens." 

Mag'nus,  a  Greek  physician,  lived  about  100  A.u. 
He -was  one  of  the  Pneumatic  sect. 

Magnus,  (Albertus.)     See  Albertus  Magnus. 

Magnus,  mSg'nus,  (Eduard,)  a  German  painter  of 
genre  and  portraits,  born  at  Berlin  in  1799.  His  works 
are  commended  as  excellent  in  colour  and  correct  in 
design.     Died  August  9,  1872. 

Magnus,  (Heinrich  Gustav,)  a  German  physicist, 
born  at  Berlin,  May  2,  1802.  In  1834  he  was  made  ex- 
traordinary professor  of  physics  there,  and  in  1845  full 
professor.  His  main  reputation  came  from  his  experi- 
ments and  papers  respecting  heat,  on  the  physics  of 
gases,  and  on  capillarity.  He  also  made  some  chemical 
discoveries.     Died  April  4,  1870. 

Magnus,  mSg'nils,  or  Magni,  mJg'nee,  (JoHAN  or 
Jonas,)  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  was  born  at  Linkoping  in 
1488.  He  opposed  the  Reformation  in  Sweden  without 
success,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1544. 
He  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  Sweden,"  in  Latin, 
("  Historia  Gothorum  Suevorumque,"  1554.) 

See  Nic^RON,  "Meinoires;"  Scheffer,  "  Suecia  Literata." 

Magnus,  (Olaus  or  Olof,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Linkoping  about  1490.  He 
was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  HI.  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1546.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  a  "  History  of  the  Northern 
Nations,"  (1555,)  which  was  translated  into  English, 
Dutch,  German,  and  Italian.     Died  in  Rome  in  1568. 

See  Anders  Nokberg,  "Dissertationes  II.  de  Mentis  et  Fatis  J. 
et  O.  Magnorum,"  1741-43. 

Mag'nus,  (Thomas,)  an  English  emissary,  sent  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey  to  Scotland  in  1524,  in  the  twofold 
capacity  of  ambassador  and  spy.  He  sent  to  the  Eng- 
lish court  some  curious  details  (preserved  in  the  stafe 
papers  of  Henry  VIII.)  relating  to  the  young  King  of 
Scotland  and  the  customs  of  those  times. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  chaps,  xxxii.  and  xxxvii. 

Magnusen,  mig'nus-en,  or  Magnusson,  mJg'nus- 
(ion,  (Finn,)  an  Icelandic  historian  and  antiquary,  born 
at  Skalholt  in  1781.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
a  "Translation  and  Explanation  of  the  Elder  Edda," 
(1821.)     Died  in  1847. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexikon  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review 
for  April,  1828,  and  April,  1829. 

Magnusson.     See  Arni-Magnusson. 

Maguy,  de,  deh  mtn'yfe',  (Olivier,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Cahors  about  1524.  He  was  a  lover  of  Louise 
Labe,  and  a  follower  of  the  Fieiade.  His  "  Odes," 
"  Amours,"  "  Soupirs,"  "  Gayetes,"  etc.,  evince  much 
talent.     Died  in  1560. 

Ma'go,  [Gr.  Muywv;  Fr.  Magon,  mt'giN',]  a  Cartha- 
ginian admiral,  who  gained  a  victory  over  the  fleet  of 
Syracuse  about  396  B.C.  A  few  years  later  he  was  de- 
feated by  Dionysius  in  Sicily.  He  returned  to  Carthage, 
and  was  elected  chief  magistrate.  Having  led  another 
land-army  into  Sicily,  he  was  killed,  and  his  army  was 
defeated  at  Cabala  by  Dionysius,  about  382  B.C.  His 
son,  Mago,  succeeded'  to  the  command  of  the  army,  and 
prosecuted  the  war  with  success. 

Another  Mago  commanded  a  fleet  which  the  senate 
of  Carthage  sent,  in  280  B.C.,  to  aid  the  Romans  against 
Pyrrhus.     He  was  grandfather  of  Hannibal. 

See  Diodorus  Siculus. 

Mago,  a  Carthaginian  writer  of  uncertain  period,  was 
called  "the  father  of  agriculture"  by  Columella.  He 
wrote  an  extensive  work  on  agriculture,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  the  order  of  the  Roman  senate  after 
the  destruction  of  Carthage. 

Mago,  a  brother  of  the  famous  Hannibal,  followed 
him  in  the  invasion  of  Italy,  and  held  a  high  command 
at  the  battle  of  Cannae,  216  B.C.     He  carried  the  news 


of  this  victory  to  Carthage,  and  solicited  reinforcements, 
but  was  ordered  to  Spain,  where  he  and  Hasdrubal  com- 
manded for  several  years  against  the  Scipioswith  vari- 
ous success.  After  gaining  some  advantages  in  Liguria, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded,  he  was  ordered  to 
hasten  to  the  defence  of  Carthage,  but  he  died  during 
the  voyage,  in  203  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxx.  ;  PoLYBlus, 
"  History,"  books  iiu,  x.,  and  xi. 

Magon.     See  Mago. 

Magon  de  Clos-Dore,  mi'g^N'  deh  klo'do'ri', 
(Charles  Reni6,)  a  French  rear-admiral,  born  in  Paris 
in  1763.    He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  in  1805. 

Ma-goon',  (Elias  L.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Lebanon,  New  Hampshire,  in  1810, 
published  "Proverbs  for  the  People,"  "Orators  of  the 
American  Revolution,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1886. 

Magri,  mi'gRee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
in  Malta  in  1604.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon  of  Ec- 
clesiastic Terms  and  Rites,"  ("Notizia  de'  Vocaboli 
ecclesiastici.")     Died  in  1672. 

Magruder,  ma-groo'der,  (John  B.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Virginia  about  1810,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1830.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1846-47.)  With  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
fought  against  the  Union  at  White  Oak  Swamp  and 
Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  He  commanded  the  army 
in  Texas  in  1863  and  1864.    Died  in  1871. 

Maguire,  ma-gwir',  (John  Francis,)  M.P.,  an  Irish 
Catholic  politician,  born  at  Cork  about  1815,  wrote 
"Rome  and  its  Rulers,"  (1857,)  etc.     Died  in  1S72. 

MAHA,m7i-W,  [from  the  adjective wa/^<z/,  "great,"]  a 
Sanscrit  prefix  forming  a  portion  of  many  Indian  names, 
as  Mahadeva,  "great  god,"  Maha-Pralya, the  "great 
destruction,"  etc.  See  these  names  in  their  alphabetical 
place. 

Maha-Bali.     See  Bali. 

Mahabharata,  ma-ha'bi'ra-ta,  or  Mahabhaiat 
ma-ha'ba'rat,  [from  the  Sanscrit  md/id,  "great,"  and 
Bhdratd,  a' descendant  of  Bharata,  a  famous  Hindoo 
prince,]  the  name  of  the  great  epic  poem  of  the  Hindoos, 
so  called  because  it  treats  of  the  war  waged  among  the 
descendants  of  Bharata.  It  is  said  to  contain  200,000 
lines,  or  100,000  double  verses.  Tradition  ascribes  it 
to  Vyasa,  the  arranger  or  editor  of  the  Vedas.  (See 
Vyasa.)  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  the 
production  or  compilation  of  several — perhaps  of  many 
— writers,  living  in  different  ages,  both  before  and  after 
the  Christian  era.  It  was  made  a  kind  of  cyclopaedia 
of  such  knowledge  as  was  deemed  desirable  for  the 
Kshatriyas,  or  warrior  caste. 

See  the  article  on  "Sanscrit  Literature"  in  the  "  New  American 
Cyclopsedia,"  (by  Professor  Whitney,)  xiv.,  p.  337. 

Mahad§va,  ma-hS'da'va,  or  MahS-Deo,  ma-hi'  da'o, 
[i.e.  the  "  great  god,")  the  name  by  which  Siva  is  com- 
monly known  in  many  parts  of  India.     (See  Siva.) 

Ma-haf'fy,  (John  Pentland,)  an  eminent  scholar  and 
critic,"  born  at  Chaponnaire,  near  Vevay,  Switzerland, 
February  26,  1839.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  in  1S56.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient 
history  in  that  institution  in  1871,  and  became  distin- 
guished for  his  versatility  and  wide  attainments.  He 
took  orders  in  the  Anglican  Church.  Among  his  books 
are  "Twelve  Lectures  on  Primitive  Civilization,"  (1S68.) 
"Prolegomena  to  Ancient  History,"  (1871,)  "Kant's 
Critical  Philosophy  for  English  Readers,"  (1871,)  "  Greek 
Social  Life,  from  Homer  to  Menander,"  (1S74,)  "Greek 
Antiquities,"  (1876,)  "  Rambles  and  Studies  in  Greece," 
(1876,)  "History  of  Classical  Greek  Literature,"  (18S0,) 
etc. 

Maha-Kaia,  ma-hi'  kd'la,  a  name  of  Siva,  regarded 
as  Time,  which  is  the  great  destroyer.     (See  Siva.) 

Malia-Kaii.     See  KalT. 

Maha-Mayi,  ma-hd'  mS'yJ,  the  name  of  the  mother 
of  Booddha.     See  Gautama. 

Ma-han',  (Asa,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Vernon,  New  York,  in  1799.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  in  1824,  and  at  Andover  Seminary  in  1S27.  In 
1829  he  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  and 
he  held  various  pastorates  in  that  and  the  Congregation- 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  |  hard;  g  asy  .•  i;,  h,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilUd;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^=-See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAHAI^ 


1626 


M AH  MOOD 


alist  denomination.  He  was  chosen  president  of  Ober- 
lin  College  in  1835,  and  of  Cleveland  University  in  1850. 
He  was  also  (1861-71)  president  of  Adrian  College. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Science  of  Intellectual  Philos- 
ophy," (1845,)  "Doctrine  of  the  Will,"  (1846,)  "The 
True  Believer,"  (1847,)  "Science  of  Moral  Philosophy," 
(1856,)  "Science  of  Logic,"  (1857,)  and  a  work  entitled 
"  Doctrine  of  Christian  Perfection," — a  doctrine  which 
he  earnestly  maintained.     Died  April  4,  18S9. 

Malian,  (Dennis  Hart,)  LL.D.,  an  American  soldier 
and  engineer,  born  in  New  York,  April  2,  1S02.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  with  highest  honours  in  1824, 
and  was  an  assistant  professor  there,  1824-26,  and  pro- 
fessor of  engineering,  1832-71.  Among  his  works  are 
treatises  on  "Field  Fortifications,"  (1S36,)  "Civil  Engi- 
neering," (1837;  mostly  rewritten,  1868,)  "On  Indus- 
trial Drawing,"  (1853,)  "Descriptive  Geometry,"  (1864,) 
and  "Military  Engineering,"  (part  i.,  1865;  part  ii., 
1867.)  He  committed  suicide  by  drowning,  near  Stony 
Point,  New  York,  September  16,  1871. 

Mahaii,  (MiLO,)  D.D.,  an  American  theologian, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Suffolk,  Virginia, 
May  24,  1819.  He  studied  at  Saint  Paul's  College, 
Flushing,  New  York,  and  in  1845  entered  the  Episcopa- 
lian ministry.  He  was  professor  of  church  history  in 
the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York  city,  from 
1861  to  1864.  He  published  "The  Exercise  of  Faith," 
(1851,)  "  History  of  the  Church,"  (i860  ;  enlarged,  1872,) 
and  other  works,  which  gave  him  a  high  place  among 
the  theologians  of  his  church.  Died  in  Baltimore,  Sep- 
tember 3,  1870.  (See  his  "  Collected  Works  and  Life," 
by  J.  H.  Hopkins,  3  vols.,  1872-75.) 

Ma-ha'  Pral'ya,  [  modern  Hindoo  pron.  ma-hi' 
prul'ya,]  {i.e.  the  "great  end"  or  "great  destruction,")  a 
term  applied  to  the  final  consummation  of  all  things, 
which,  it  is  supposed,  will  take  place  after  a  hundred 
years  of  Brahma  have  elapsed,  in  which  each  day  (with 
Its  night)  is  reckoned  as  8640  millions  of  our  years.  At 
the  time  referred  to,  all  the  gods,  including  Brahma,  aa 
well  as  all  creatures,  will  be  annihilated  ;  Brahm,  the 
eternal,  self-existent  Spirit,  will  alone  remain. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindoo  Pantheon." 

Maharbal.     See  Maherbal. 

Maha-Rudra,  a  name  of  Siva.     See  Rudra. 

Mahdee,  Mahdy,  or  Mahdi,  Al,  tl  mdh'dee,  (Mo- 
hammed, mo-HSm'mgd,)  the  third  Abbasside  caliph  of 
Bagdad,  succeeded  his  father,  Al-Mansoor,  in  775  a.d. 
He  waged  war  against  the  Greeks  with  such  success  that 
the  empress  Irene  sued  for  peace.  He  died  in  785,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hadee,  (or  Hady.) 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  iii. 

Mahdi,  El,  §1  mi'dee,  (Arabic  for  "  the  well-directed,") 
toe  title  of  a  prophet  and  deliverer  of  Islam  foretold 
by  Mohammed;  also  the  assumed  title  of  Mohammed 
Ahmed,  known  to  Europeans  as  "The  False  Prophet 
of  the  Soudan,"  who  was  born  near  Dongola,  Nubia,  in 
1842.  He  worked  in  his  youth  as  a  boat-builder  at 
Khartoom,  and  engaged  in  the  traffic  in  wild  animals  for 
European  menageries.  He  learned  to  read  and  write 
after  becoming  an  adult,  taught  school  at  Khartoom,  and 
subsequently  established  himself  at  Tamaniat  as  an  in- 
terpreter of  the  Koran.  Afterwards  he  went  with  some 
disciples  to  reside  on  the  island  of  Aba,  in  the  White 
Nile,  where,  by  strict  seclusion  and  austerity  for  six 
years,  he  acquired  great  fame  as  a  holy  man  and  was 
visited  by  pilgrims.  In  1881  he  announced  himself  by 
proclamation  as  the  expected  Mahdi,  claiming  to  have 
all  the  physical  signs  jjrophesied  of  that  personage.  On 
the  overthrow  of  Arabi  Pasha  in  18S2  he  acquired  great 
ascendency  in  the  Soudan,  took  possession  of  Sennaar, 
Kordofan,  and  Darfur,  raised  immense  forces,  and  anni- 
hilated, in  Noveniber,  1SS3,  near  El  Obeid,  the  Egyptian 
army  commanded  by  Hicks  Pasha.  In  1884  his  power 
extended  to  the  Red  Sea,  he  waged  war  with  the  British 
at  Suakim  and  vicinity,  blockaded  General  Gordon  at 
Khartoom,  rejecting  the  title  of  "Sultan  of  Kordofan" 
offered  him  by  Gordon,  and  forced  England  to  send 
an  expedition  under  Lord  Wolseley  to  Khartoom  for 
the  relief  of  Gordon.  Khartoom  fell  and  Gordon  was 
killed  January  26,  1885. 


Mah6  de  la  Bourdonnaia,  mt'i'  deh  It  booR'do'- 
w\' ,  (Bernard  FRANgois,)  a  distinguished  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1699.  About  1718  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  French  East  India  Company. 
He  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Isles  of 
France  and  Bourbon  in  1734,  and  received  command  of 
a  squadron  in  1741.  War  having  begun  between  F'rance 
and  England,  he  repulsed  an  English  fleet  near  Madras, 
and  captured  that  place,  in  1746.  He  quarrelled  with 
Dupleix,  governor  of  the  French  possessions  in  Hin- 
dostan,  who  refused  to  give  up  Madras,  which  La  Bour- 
donnais  by  treaty  had  agreed  to  restore  to  the  EngJish. 
Having  been  recalled  to  France,  where  he  arrived  in 
1748,  he  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  three  years,  and 
then  tried  and  acquitted.  His  talents  and  virtues  are 
praised  by  Saint-Pierre  in  the  preface  to  "Paul  and 
Virginia."     Died  in  1754  or  1755. 

See  Gerard,  "Vies  des  plus  ilUistres  Marins  Franjais,"  1825; 
Mill,  "  History  of  British  India."  1826. 

Ma-hen'dra,  called  also  Mahin'do,  a  son  of  Asoka, 
introduced  Booddhism  into  Ceylon  about  200  B.C. 

Ma-her'bal  or  Ma-har'bal,  [Gr.  MuapSaf,]  a  Car- 
thaginian general,  who  followed  Hannibal  into  Italy, 
fought  at  Thrasymene,  and  commanded  the  right  wing  at 
the  battle  of  Cannae,  in  216  B.C.  He  urged  Hannibal  to 
advance  on  the  Roman  capital,  and,  when  the  latter 
rejected  this  counsel,  said  to  him,  "  You  know  how  to 
gain  victories,  but  not  how  to  improve  them." 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi  -xxiiL 

Mah^sa,  ma-ha'sa,  or  MahSsha,  ma-ha'sha,  and 
MahSsAwara,  ma-has' wa-ra,  names  of  Siva,  which  see. 

Mahindo.     See  Mahendra. 

Mahlmann,  mll'min,  (Siegfried  August,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1771.  Some  of  his  produc- 
tions were  very  popular.     Died  in  1826. 

Malimed.    See  Mohammed. 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud,  mSii-mood', 
I.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in  1696,  was  the  son  of 
Mustafa  II.  He  succeeded  his  uncle,  Ahmed  (Achmet) 
III.,  in  1730.  In  1734  he  began  a  war  against  the  Rus- 
sians, who  were  assisted  by  the  Austrians.  The  latter 
made  peace  and  gave  up  Belgrade  to  Turkey  in  1739. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Russia.  Mahmood  left  the  direction  of  affairs  to  his 
ministers.     Died  in  December,  1754. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;" 
Levesque,  "  Histoire  de  la  Russie." 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmiiid  II.,  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  a  younger  son  of  Sultan  Abdool  Hamid, 
was  born  July  20,  1785.  His  youth  was  passed  in  seclu- 
sion or  confinement  and  in  literary  pursuits.  During 
the  reign  of  his  brother,  Mustafa  IV.,  the  deposed  Sul- 
tan, Selim  III.,  was  his  fellow-captive,  and  initiated  him 
in  those  projects  of  reform  which  he  himself  had  failed 
to  effect.  In  July,  1808,  Mustafa  was  deposed  by  the 
military,  and  Mahmood  was  proclaimed  .Sultan  at  one  of 
the  most  critical  periods  in  the  history  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  The  pashas  of  Asia  and  Africa  had  rendered 
themselves  nearly  independent  <of  the  Sultan,  and  the 
disaffection  of  the  Janissaries  threatened  a  revolution  in 
the  capital.  He  began  the  work  of  reform  in  the  army, 
which  he  ordered  to  be  organized  after  the  European 
system.  In  November,  1808,  the  Janissaries  rebelled, 
attacked  the  Sultan's  palace,  and  proclaimed  Mustafa. 
Mahmood  suppressed  this  dangerous  revolt  by  the  exe- 
cution of  Mustafa  and  his  heirs,  after  which  he  remained 
the  only  surviving  prince  of  his  race. 

A  war  with  Russia,  in  which  the  Turks  had  been  de- 
feated, was  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  May,  1812. 
He  pursued  his  projects  of  reform  with  courage  and 
energy,  amidst  the  violent  opposition  of  his  subjects. 
About  1822  began  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Greeks, 
who,  after  a  war  of  several  years,  were  liberated  from 
the  Turkish  yoke.  During  this  war  he  continued  his 
bold  innovations  against  the  old  customs  and  traditions  ; 
he  dressed  himself  in  the  European  fashion,  and  finally 
accomplished  his  most  important  measure, — the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Janissaries,  who  had  instigated  a  formidable 
insurrection  in  the  capital.  The  next  d.iy  (June  15)  the 
standard    of  the  prophet   was    unfurled,   and    all   good 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  §,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MAHMOOD 


1627 


MAHMOOD 


Mussulmans  were  summoned  to  arms.  The  Janissaries 
weie  outnumbered  and  speedily  overpowered,  and  many 
thousands  of  them  were  killecl.  On  the  16th  an  edict 
was  issued  for  the  abolition  of  their  organization. 

On  the  20th  of  October,  1827,  Mahmood's  fleet  was 
defeated  and  ail-but  annihilated  at  Navarino  by  the  allied 
French,  English,  and  Russians,  who  fought  there  for  the 
liberty  of  Greece.  Mahmood  is  censured  for  rashness 
in  renewing  the  war  with  Russia  in  1828.  The  Russian 
general  Diebitsch  defeated  the  Turks  at  Shunila,  crossed 
the  Balkan,  and  took  Adrianople  in  1829.  The  existence 
of  the  Turkish  empire  was  in  peril  ;  but,  through  the 
mediation  of  England  and  other  powers,  the  Sultan  ob- 
tained peace  (September,  1S29)  by  paying  a  large  sum 
of  money  and  resigning  the  sovereignty  of  Moldavia, 
Wallachia,  and  Servia.  In  1832  he  was  mvolved  in  war 
with  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt,  whose  army,  commanded 
by  his  son  Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory at  Konieh,  (December,  1832.)  Russia  interposed 
to  protect  Mahmood  against  his  rebellious  vassal.  The 
Ottoman  empire  was  apparently  on  the  verge  of  disso- 
lution, when  the  Sultan  died,  in  June,  1839,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Abdool-Mejeed. 

See  Von  Munch,  "  Mnlimud  1 1.,  sein  Leben,"  etc.,  1S39  ;  PoUQUE- 
VILLR,  "  Histoire  de  la  R^g^n^ration  de  la  Grece,"  and  article 
"Miihmoud"  in  the  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  GiSnerale." 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud,  mSn'mood', 
(Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dowlah,  or  Abul- 
(Aboul-)  Kasim-Yemin-ed-Daulah,  i'bool  ki'sim 
ySh-meen'  ed-dow'lah,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  ail 
the  Mohammedan  conquerors,  the  founder  of  the  Gazne- 
vide  dynasty,  and  the  first  who  estal)lished  a  permanent 
Moslem  empire  in  India,  was  born  at  Gazna  (or  Ghiznee) 
in  967  A.D.  lie  was  the  son  of  Sabiiktageen,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  governor  of  the  province  of  Candahar,  (or 
Gazna.)  At  an  early  age  he  distinguished  himself  while 
fighting  under  his  father  against  the  enemies  of  Nooh, 
(or  Nouh,)  the  Samanide  sovereign  of  Persia,  from  whom 
he  received  the  title  of  Seif-ed-Dowlah,  ("  Sword  of  the 
State.")  But  afterwards,  having  been  ill  treated  by 
Mansoor,  a  successor  to  Nooh,  he  overthrew  the  throne 
of  the  Samanides,  and  established  his  em])ire  over  a 
vast  territory,  including  what  is  now  called  Affghanistan, 
besides  an  extensive  region  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Persia.  Bit,  still  unsatisfied,  he  resolved  on  the  subju- 
gation cc'the  countries  beyond  the  Indus.  During  a  reign 
of  rather  more  than  thirty  years,  he  made  no  fewer  than 
twelve  expeditions  into  India,  besides  carrying  on  several 
important  wars  in  Central  Asia,  He  extended  his  con- 
quests not  only  over  the  whole  of  the  Punjab,  but  pene- 
trated as  far  as  Bundelcund  on  the  east  and  Guzerat  on 
the  south.  Moore,  in  his  beautiful  poem  of  "  Paradise 
and  the  Peri,"  gives  a  striking  picture  of  Mahmood's 
sanguinary  and  desolating  career  through  Hindostan 
Apostrophizing  India,  he  says, 

"Land  of  the  sun  1  what  foot  invades 
Thy  pagods  and  thy  pillared  shades? 
'Tis  he  of  Gazna, — fierce  in  wrath 

He  comes,  and  India's  diadems 
Lie  scattered  in  his  ruinous  path. 
His  bloodhounds  he  adorns  with  gems 
Torn  from  the  violated  necks 
Of  many  a  young  and  loved  sultana ; 
Maidens  within  their  pure  zenana, 
Priests  in  the  very  fane  he  slaughters. 
And  chokes  up  with  the  glittering  wrecKs 
Of  golden  shrines  the  sacred  waters." 

Lalla  Rookh. 

It  is  related  by  Ferishta,  a  celebrated  Moslem  his- 
torian, that,  having  heard  of  the  immense  riches  de- 
posited in  the  temple  of  Somnath,  famous  throughout 
all  India  for  its  sanctity,  Mahmood  determined  to  take 
possession  of  that  place.  The  priests  of  Somnath  had 
boasted  that,  if  he  dared  approach  their  holy  shrine,  he 
would  receive  from  the  avenging  gods  the  just  reward 
of  his  temerity.  The  temple  stood  on  the  extremity 
of  a  point  of  land  in  Guzerat,  and  was  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  the  sea.  It  was  defended  by  the  Hindoos 
with  all  the  courage  of  religious  enthusiasm  and  all  the 
obstinacy  of  despair.  But  nothing  could  withstand  the 
valour  of  the  fierce  invaders.  Mahmood,  having  entered 
the  temple,  was  about  to  demolish  a  gigantic  image,  the 
object  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Hindoos.     The 


Brahmans,  in  great  trepidation,  offered  hiin  an  immense 
sum  of  gold  if  he  would  spare  their  idol.  Some  of  his 
officers  advised  him  to  accept  the  ransom  ;  but  his  zeal 
as  a  true  Moslem  forbade  such  a  compromise.  He 
smote  the  image  and  broke  it  to  pieces.  It  proved  to 
be  hollow,  and  a  countless  treasure  of  diamonds,  rubies, 
and  pearls  was  poured  from  its  cavity  upon  the  ground, 
thus  richly  rewarding  the  incorruptible  zeal  of  the  con- 
queror, and  at  the  saine  time  explaining  the  pious  libe- 
rality of  the  Brahmans.  In  the  extensive  wars  which 
Mahmood  carried  on  in  Central  Asia,  after  his  first  ex- 
pedition into  India,  he  appears  to  have  been  mainly 
indebted  for  his  success  to  the  elephants  used  in  his 
army.  It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion  Ilij  (or  Elich) 
Khan,  a  Turkish  prince,  invaded  Khorassan  with  a  large 
army.  Mahmood  hastily  assembled  an  inferior  force, 
which  was  accompanied,  however,  by  five  hundred  ele- 
phants. Tiie  hostile  armies  met  near  Biilkh,  (or  Balkh,) 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Amoo,  or  Oxus.  Mahmood 
was  mounted  on  a  superb  elephant,  which,  during  the  heat 
of  the  battle,  rushed  forward,  and,  seizing  with  his  trunk 
the  chief  standard-bearer  of  the  Turks,  hurled  him  into 
the  air.  The  other  elephants  followed  the  example  of 
their  great  leader  :  with  their  trunks  they  lifted  the  horse- 
men from  their  saddles  and  dashed  them  on  the  ground, 
so  that  the  Turkish  army  was  soon  broken  and  put  to  a 
total  rout.  Later,  the  military  establishment  of  Mah- 
mood is  said  to  have  comprised  no  fewer  than  thirteen 
hundred  elephants  and  more  than  fifty  thousand  horse. 

Along  with  great  military  talents  and  a  fierce,  uncon- 
querable energy  and  courage,  Mahmood  possessed  some 
virtues  of  a  more  exalted  kind.  A  woman  from  a  dis- 
tant province,  it  is  said,  complained  one  day  to  the  Sultan 
that  her  son  had  been  killed  and  her  property  carried 
off  by  robbers.  He  replied  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  prevent  all  disorders  in  a  region  so  remote. 
"Why,  then,"  said  the  woman,  "do  you  conquer  king- 
doms which  you  cannot  protect,  and  for  which  you  will 
have  to  answer  at  the  day  of  judgment  ?"  Far  from 
resenting  the  freedom  of  this  rebuke,  he  immediately 
took  effective  measures  for  establishing  order  in  that  dis- 
tant part  of  his  dominions.  After  his  Indian  conquests 
he  not  only  greatly  embellished  Gazna,  which  still  con- 
tinued to  be  the  capital  of  his  em])ire,  so  that  it  rivalled, 
it  is  said,  the  most  splendid  cities  of  the  East,  but  he 
showed  himself  a  patron  of  science  and  literature,  espe- 
cially of  poetry.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  Firdousee, 
(or  Firdausi,)  the  greatest  of  all  the  poets  of  Moham- 
medanism, flourished.  (See  Firdousee.)  Seven  other 
distinguished  poets,  according  to  Von  Hammer,  lived  at 
his  court  and  chanted  his  praises,  Mahmood  was  the 
first,  it  is  said,  of  the  great  Moslem  rulers  who  employed 
the  Persian  language  in  of^cial  documents.  Died  in  1030. 

See  Ferishta,  "  History  of  the  Rise  of  tlie  Maliomedan  Power 
in  India," (translated  by  General  Briggs;)  Ibn  Khallikan,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  Biographique ;"  Wilkkn,  "Historia  Ghasnexidarum ;" 
Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  der  schonen  Redekunste  Persiens ;" 
Hamdali.ah  Mestoufi,  "  Histoires  choisies;"  "  History  of  British 
India,"  in  "  Harper's  Family  Library,"  vol.  i.  ;  Von  Hammer, 
"  Gemahldesaal  grosser  Mosleniischer  Herscher." 

Mahmood  (Mahmoud  or  Mahmud)  II.,  surnamed 
Nasir-ood-Deen,  (Nasir-oud-Din,)  ni'sir  66d-deen', 
{i.e.  "Defender  of  the  Faith,")  an  eccentric  though  able 
Sultan  of  Delhi,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1246.  After 
the  death  of  his  father,  Altmish,  (llt'mish,)  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  his  step-mother,  and  remained  in  confine- 
ment several  years.  During  this  period  he  voluntarily 
earned  his  bread  by  copying  manuscripts.  Even  after 
he  was  raised  to  the  throne  he  continued,  it  is  said,  to 
earn  his  subsistence  by  his  pen.  As  a  king  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  ability,  justice,  and  liberality  ;  he  was 
a  patron  of  learning,  the  protector  of  his  people,  and  a 
friend  of  the  poor.  He  was  a  successful  general,  and 
speedily  reduced  several  insurrections  which  broke  out 
during  his  reign.  Contrary  to  the  custom  of  Moslem 
princes,  Mahmood  had  but  one  wife,  whom  he  required 
to  be  as  industrious  as  himself,  and  to  perform  all  the 
homely  duties  of  housewifery  like  the  meanest  of  her 
s^ibjects.  Her  majesty,  having  one  day  burned  her 
fingers  while  cooking,  begged  Mahmood  to  let  her  have 
a  maid  to  assist  her  ;  but  he  refused,  saying  he  was  but  a 
trustee  of  the  state  and  had  no  right  to  burden  it  with 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  H,  Yi,pittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (.2[^=°See  Explanations,  p,  33.) 


MAHMOOD 


1628 


MAIA 


needless  expenses.  He  used  to  say,  "Those  who  will 
not  work  for  their  bread  do  not  deserve  it."  Mahmood 
Nasir-ood-Deen  was  a  half-brother  of  the  distinguished 
Sultana  Ruzeea  Begum.  (See  RuzEEA  Begum.)  He 
died  after  a  reign  of  twenty  years. 

See  Fefishta,  "Rise   of  the   Mahoniedan   Power  in   India," 
(Briggs's  translation,)  vol.  i.  ;  "  History  ol"  British  India,"  vol.  i.,  in 
Harper's  Family  Library." 

Malimood.  (Mahmoud  or  Mahmud)  Shah,  (NS- 
sir-ed-Deeii  or  -Eddyn,  nd'sir  ed-deen',)  Emperor  of 
Hindostau,  was  the  son  of  Mohammed  HI.  He  ascended 
the  throne  of  Delhi  in  1394,  and  was  a  feeble  ruler.  His 
reign  was  a  disastrous  period  of  intestine  wars  and  an- 
archy. Timur  (Tamerlane)  invaded  India,  defeated  the 
army  of  Mahmood  in  1399,  and  took  Delhi.  A  few  years 
later,  Mahmood  returned  to  Delhi,  but  he  obtained  but 
little  power.  He  died  in  1413,  being  the  last  of  his 
dynasty. 

Mahmood,  (Sultan  of  Syria  and  Egypt.)  See  Noor- 
ed-Deen.) 

Mahmoud.     See  Mahmood. 

Mahmud.     See  Mahmood. 

Mahomet,  (the  Prophet.)     See  Mohammed. 

Ma-hom'et*  [  Fr.  pron.  mtVmi']  or  Mohammed 
(mo-him'mSd)  I.,  Emperor  or  Sultan  of  the  Ottomans, 
born  in  1374,  was  a  younger  son  of  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  I., 
who  was  defeated  by  Taiuerlane  at  Ancyra  in  1401.  At 
this  tiiTie  he  was  governor  of  Amasia,  of  which  the  victor 
left  him  in  possession.  Mahomet  and  his  brother  Moosa 
(Mousa)  having  appealed  to  arms  for  a  decision  of  their 
claims  to  the  throne,  the  latter  was  killed  in  battle  in  1413. 
Mahomet  restored  the  Ottoman  emijireto  its  former  sta- 
bility, subjected  the  Bosnians  and  Servians,  and  was  the 
first  Sultan  that  disputed  with  the  Venetians  the  empire 
of  the  sea.  He  died  in  1421,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Amurath  II. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschiclite  des  Osmaiiischen  Reichs." 

Mahomet  or  Mohammed  II.,  styled  the  Great,  the 
son  of  Amurath  II.,  was  born  in  1430,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  1451.  Having  raised  an  army  of  about  300,000 
men,  he  attacked  Constantinople,  defended  by  the  Greek 
emperor  Constantine  Palaeologus.  After  a  siege  of  fifty- 
five  days,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm  on  the  29th  of  May, 
1453,  and  Constantine  was  killed  fighting  in  the  breach. 
Great  numbers  of  the  Greek  citizens  were  massacred  by 
the  orders  or  permission  of  the  victor,  who  in  1456  returned 
to  Adrianople,  his  former  capital.  In  that  year  he  was 
defeated  at  Belgrade  by  the  Hungarian  chief  Huniades. 
He  conquered  Trebizond  from  David  Comnenus  in  1461, 
and  afterwards  acquired  by  his  arms  Bosnia,  and  seve- 
ral islands  in  the  Archipelago.  In  1465  he  was  defeated 
by  Scanderbeg  in  Albania.  He  waged  successful  wars 
against  the  Venetians  and  the  Persians,  (1470-78,)  and 
invaded  Italy  in  14S0.  Death  arrested  his  progress  to 
further  conquest  in  I48l,and  delivered  Christian  nations 
from  a  formidable  adversary.  He  left  the  throne  to  his 
son,  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  II. 

See  GuiLLET  de  Saint-Georges,  "  Histoire  du  Rfegne  de  Ma- 
homet," 16S2 ;  Von  Hammer,  "  Gesch'chte  des  Osmanischen 
Reichs;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  tlie  Roman  Empire;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Mahomet  or  Mohammed  III.,  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
was  born  about  1568,  and  succeeded  his  fiither,  Amurath 
III.,  in  1595.  He  put  his  brothers  to  death  in  the  first 
days  of  his  reign.  He  was  a  feeble  ruler,  and  preferred  the 
pursuit  of  pleasure  to  his  duties  as  a  monarch.  Among 
the  chief  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  with  the  emperoi 
Rudolph  in  Hungary,  where  the  Turks  lost  several 
towns.  He  died  in  1603,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Ahmed  (Achmet)  I. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mahomet  or  Mohammed  IV.,  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Ibraheem  I.,  was  seven  years  old  when  his  father 
was  killed  by  the  Janissaries  in  1649.  Having  a  ruling 
passion  for  the  chase,  he  permitted  the  grand  vizier, 
Mahomet  Koprili,  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  empire. 
That  able  minister  took  Lemnos  and  Mitylene  from  the 
Venetians  in  1660,  and  about  the  same  time  waged  war 
against  the  Austrians  in  Hungary.  After  several  victories, 

*  For  some  remarks  on  the  pronunciation  of  this  name,  see  Mo- 
hammed, (the  Prophet.) 


the  Turks  were  defeated  at  Saint  Gothard  on  the  Raab  in 
1663,  and  the  war  was  suspended  by  a  treaty.  In  that  year 
Koprili  died,  and  his  son  Ahmed  (Achmet)  became  grand 
vizier.  He  took  the  capital  of  Candia  in  1669,  after  a 
long  siege.  In  1683  a  Turkish  army  of  about  200,000 
men  under  Cara  Mustafa  invaded  Austria  and  besieged 
Vienna,  from  which  the  emperor  Leopold  fled  without 
offering  battle.  After  a  siege  of  nearly  two  months,  John 
.Sobieski  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  and  put  the 
Turks  to  a  total  rout.  In  consequence  of  this  and  other 
later  reverses,  Mahomet  was  deposed  in  16S7,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Solyman  II.  Mahomet  was 
imprisoned  until  his  death,  in  1691. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;' 
Devize,  "  Histoire  de  Mahomet  IV  deposd  en  16S7,"  Amsterdam. 
1688. 

Mahon,  Lord.     See  Stanhope,  Earl  of. 

Mahon,  mi'6.N',  (Paul  Augustin  Olivier,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Chartres  in  1752.  He  wrote  "  Mede- 
cine  legale,"  (3  vols.,  1802.)     Died  in  1801. 

Ma-hone',  (WiLLi.-VM,)  an  American  Senator,  was  born 
near  Monroe,  Southampton  county,  Virginia,  December 
I,  1S26.  He  graduated  at  the  Virginia  Military  Institute 
in  1847,  and  became  a  civil  engineer  and  railroad-presi- 
dent. He  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  colonel  in 
1S61,  and  rose  to  be  major-general,  winning  great  distinc- 
tion as  a  fighting  corps-commander.  After  the  war  he 
resumed  the  railway-presidency.  Entering  the  field  of 
politics,  he  combined  the  Republican  and  Readjuster 
parties  of  Virginia,  and  in  1881  took  his  seat  in  the 
United  States  Senate. 

Ma-ho'uy,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  writer  and  wit,  born 
about  1805,  wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  "Father 
Prout."  He  contributed  many  able  articles  to  "  Eraser's 
Magazine,"  which  were  jjublished  separately  in  i860. 
He  also  wrote  as  correspondent  for  several  daily  jour- 
nals of  London.     Died  in  1866. 

Mahudel,  mt'U'd^l',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Langres  in  1673.  He  practised  medicine  in 
Paris  for  many  years.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Ancient  Medals  or  Coins  of  Spain,"  (1725,)  and  several 
antiquarian  treatises  inserted  in  the  records  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions.     Died  in  1747. 

Mahul,  inS'iiK,  (Alphonse  Jacques,)  a  French  po- 
litical writer,  born  at  Carcassone  in  1795.  He  published 
a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Annuaire  necrologique,  ou 
Supplement  annuel  et  Continuation  de  toutes  les  Bio- 
graphies," (6  vols.,  1821-26.)     Died  August  25,  1871. 

Mai,  md'ee  or  m!,  (Angelo,)  Cardinal,  a  celebrated 
Italian  critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Schilpario,  in  the 
province  of  Bergamo,  on  the  7th  of  March,  1782.  He 
became  an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and  about  1808 
was  admitted  as  an  associate  in  the  Ambrosian  Library 
of  Milan,  which  was  rich  in  ancient  manuscripts.  He 
applied  himself  to  the  task  of  deciphering  jialimpsests, 
and  discovered  portions  of  Cicero's  orations  and  other 
classic  works  which  had  never  been  printed.  In  1819 
he  was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 
The  discovery  which  made  the  greatest  sensation  was 
that  of  si.x  books  of  Cicero,  "  De  Republica,"  which  he 
published,  with  able  critical  notes,  in  1822.  These 
books,  which  had  been  lost  since  the  twelfth  century, 
were  found  by  him  in  the  Vatican.  Among  the  monu- 
ments of  his  critical  sagacity  and  patient  research  are 
three  collections,  entitled  "A  New  Collection  of  Ancient 
Authors,  produced  from  the  Library  of  the  Vatican," 
("  Scriptorum  Veterum  nova  Collectio  e  Vacicanis  Codi- 
cibus  edita,"  10  vols.  4to,  1825-38,)  "CLtssic  Writers 
published  from  the  Manuscri|)tsof  the  Vatican,"  ("Clas- 
sici  Scriptores  ex  Codicibus  Vaticanis  editi,"  10  vols., 
1828-38,)  and  "New  Library  of  the  Fathers,"  ("Nova 
Bibliotheca  Patruni,"  6  vols.,  1845-53.)  ^^^  ^^'''S  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  cardinal  in  1838,  was  chosen  a  foreign 
associate  of  the  French  Institute  in  1842,  and  librarian 
ol  the  Roman  Church  in  1S53.   Died  in  September,  1854. 

See  P.  A.  MuTTi,  "  Elogio  dl  Angelo  Mai,"  1S2S;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Ma'ia,  [MaZa  or  Mataf,]  in  Greek  mythology,  is  repre- 
sented as  the  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  (whence 
she  was  called  Atlantis  and  Pleias,)  and  the  eldest  of  the 
Pleiades.     She  was  the  mother  of  Hermes,  (Mercury.) 


a.  e,  1. 6,  i"i,  V. long;  i,  k,  i),  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fdl  1,  fit;  mfit;  n5t;  good;  m65n; 


MAIANO 


1629 


MAILLY 


Another  Maia,  alias  Majesta,  was  a  goddess  of  the 
Romans,  who  named  one  of  the  months  in  honour 
of  her. 

Maiano  or  Majano,  da,  ^  ma-yS^no,  (Benedetto,) 
an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  was  born  in 
Tuscany,  perhaps  in  Florence,  in  1424,  or,  according  to 
other  authorities,  in  1442.  He  acquired  fame  first  by 
his  unrivalled  slcill  in  inlaid  work,  and  afterwards  de- 
voted himself  to  sculpture  in  marble.  He  worked  in 
Florence  and  Naples.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
a  bust  of  Giotto,  and  a  marble  pulpit  of  Santa  Croce, 
(in  Florence,)  in  which  he  represented  the  life  of  Saint 
Francis.     Died  in  1498. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  QuATREinfeRE  de 
QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  Architectes  c^lebres." 

Maiano  or  Majano,  da,  (Giultano,)  an  excellent 
Italian  architect,  born  in  Naples.  His  birth  is  variously 
dated  1377,  1387,  and  1432.  He  designed  at  Najiles  the 
royal  palace  of  Poggio  Reale  and  the  triumphal  arch  of 
Castello  Nuovo.  Having  been  invited  to  Rome  by  Paul 
II.,  he  built  between  1464  and  147 1  one  of  the  courts  of 
the  Vatican  and  the  palace  and  church  of  San  Marco. 
Died  about  1490. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Maichel,  ml'Kel,  (Daniel,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1693,  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Tubingen  in  1724.  He  published  an  "Introduc- 
tion to  Literary  History,"  in  which  he  describes  the 
great  libraries  of  Paris.     Died  in  1752. 

Maidalchini-Pamfili.     See  Maldachini-Pamfili. 

Maienne.     See  Mayenne. 

Maier.     See  Mayer. 

Maier,  ml'er,  (Michael,)  a  famous  German  alchemist, 
born  in  Ilolstein  in  1568.  He  became  physician  to  the 
emperor  Rudolph,  but  left  his  service,  and  wasted  his 
time  and  money  in  the  researches  of  alchemy.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Jocus  Severus,"  "Atalanta  fu- 
giens,"  (1618,)  and  "  Tripus  Aureus,"  ("  Golden  Tripod,") 
which  are  prized  by  amateurs.     Died  in  1622. 

See  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Cliimie." 

Maignan,  min'yfiN',  [Lat.  Maigna'nus,](Emanuel,) 
a  French  monk,  eminent  as  a  geometer  and  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1601.  He  becaine  professor 
of  mathematics  in  Rome  in  1636.  He  wrote  "  Perspec- 
tiva  Horaria,"an  able  "  Treatise  on  Catoptrics,"  (1648,) 
and  a  few  other  works.     Died  in  1676. 

See  Sacuens,  "De  Vita,  Moribus,  etc.  E.  Maignani,"  1697 
NlC^RON,  "  Memoires." 

Maignauus.     See  Maignan. 

Maigrot,  mi'gRo',  (Charles,)  a  French  missionary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1652.  He  laboured  in  China  from  1683 
to  1706,  and  wrote  "  De  Sinica  Religione,"  (unpublished.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1730. 

See  M  AILLA,  "  Histoire  g^nerale  de  la  Chine." 

Maikof,  Maikov,  Maikoff,  or  Maiko-w,  nii-kof, 
(Vasil  Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  soldier  and  poet,  born 
at  Yaroslaf  in  1725.  He  obtained  some  reputation  for 
humour  and  comic  power  by  his  "  Yelisei,  or  Bacchus 
Enraged,"  a  burlesque  poem.  He  also  wrote  several 
dramas  and  fables.     Died  in  1778. 

Maildth  or  Majldth,  niT'iSt,  (JAnos  Nepomuk,) 
Count,  an  eminent  Hungarian  poet  and  historian,  was 
born  at  Pesth  in  1786.  He  was  employed  many  years 
in  the  civil  service  of  Austria.  In  the  affairs  of  Hun- 
gary he  was  identified  with  the  conservatives,  or  adver- 
saries of  Kossuth.  He  published,  in  German,  two 
important  works,  a  "History  of  the  Magyars,"  (1S28- 
31,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Austrian  Empire,"  (1834-50.) 
Tiie  revolution  of  1848  deprived  him  of  his  official  em- 
ployment as  judex  curies  at  Pesth,  and  reduced  him  to 
extreme  poverty.  He  and  his  daughter  Henrietta  drowned 
themselves  in  Lake  Starnberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1855.  He 
left  several  poems  and  translations.  He  was  highlj 
respected  as  a  man. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  also  an  article  on 
the  "Language  and  Literature  of  the  Magyars"  in  the  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  182S,  and  October,  1839. 

Mailhe,  mil,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  revolution- 
ist, born  in  1754,  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792. 
During  the  trial  of  the  king,  he  voted  for  an  appeal  to 


the  people ;  but  he  was  counted  among  those  who  voted 
for  death  conditionally.     Died  in  1834. 

Mailla,  Maillat,  mt'yt',  or  Maillac,  de,  deh  mt'ytk'. 
(Joseph  Anne  Marie  de  Moyria,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  near  Nantua  in  1679.  He  was  sent  to 
China  in  1702,  resided  at  court,  and  received  the  title  of 
mandarin.  He  translated  into  P'rench  a  "General  His- 
tory of  China,"  (12  vols.,  1777-S3.)  "This  work,"  says 
Weiss,  "with  the  Memoirs  published  by  Batteux,  Bre- 
quigny,  etc.,  (1775-1816,)  forms  the  most  extensive  and 
valuable  collection  that  has  yet  appeared  on  China."  He 
died  in  Pekin  in  174S. 

Maillac.    See  Mailla. 

Maillane.     See  Durand  de  Maillane. 

Maillard,  mt'ytR',  (Olivier,)  a  celebrated  Frencn 
pulpit  orator,  born  in  Bretagne.  He  preached  in  Paris 
in  1494,  and  gave  much  offence  by  his  boldness.  Louis 
XI.  having  threatened  to  throw  him  into  the  river,  Mail- 
lard said  to  the  person  who  conveyed  the  menace,  "Go 
tell  the  king  that  I  shall  arrive  at  heaven  by  water  sooner 
than  he  can  by  post-horses."     Died  about  1505. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle   Biographie  Gendrala 

Maillard,  (Sebastian,)  a  scientific  Austrian  general, 
born  at  Luneville  in  1746.  He  wrote  "The  Mechanics 
of  Arches,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1822. 

Maillard  de  Chambure,  mt'ytR'  deh  shdw'biiR', 
(Charles  Hippolyte,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at 
.Semur  in  1772  ;  died  in  1841. 

Maillat.     See  Mailla. 

Maillebois,  de,  deh  mil'bw^'  or  mt'ye-bw5',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Francois Desmarets — di-mt'rV,)  Marquis, 
a  famous  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1682,  was  a  son 
of  Nicolas  Desmarets,  cojttrSleiir-general,  and  a  grandson 
of  the  great  Colbert.  After  many  services,  he  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1731,  commanded  a  division  in  Italy 
in  1733,  and  took  Corsica  in  1739.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  marshal  in  1 741,  defeated  the  Austrians  on  the  Po  in 
September,  1745,  and  was  forced  to  retreat  at  the  battle 
of  Piacenza,  in  June,  1746.     Died  in  1762. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siicle  de  Louis  XV ;"  Si.smondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Frangais  ;"  Masson  de  Pezav,  "  Histoire  des  Campagnes  du  Mard- 
chal  de  Maillebois  en  Italie,"  3  vols.,  1773. 

.Maille-Brez6,  de,  deh  mt'yi'  bReh-zi',  (Urbain,)  a 
French  general,  who  obtained  command  of  the  French 
army  in  Germany  in  1634,  and  defeated  the  Spaniards 
at  Avesnes  in  1635.  Having  gained  several  advantages 
in  Flanders  between  1642  and  1650,  he  was  made  a 
marshal  of  France.  His  wife  was  Nicole,  a  sister  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu.     He  died  in  1650. 

His  son,  Armand,  born  in  1619,  became  Due  de 
Fronsac  and  de  Caumont.  As  admiral  of  France,  he 
defeated  the  Spaniards  off  Cadiz  in  1640,  and  was  killed 
at  Orbitello  in  1646. 

See  Griffet,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XHL" 

Maille  de  Breze,  de,  deh  nit'yi'  deh  bReh-zi', 
(Simon,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1515.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Tours  in  1554,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.     Died  in  1597. 

Maillet,  nit'yi',  (Jacques  Leonard,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1823.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1847. 

Maillet,  de,  deh  mS'y.V,  (BenoTt,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1656.  He  was  consul-general  of 
France  in  Egypt  about  ten  years,  ending  in  1702,  and 
published  a  "  Descri])tion  of  Egypt,"  (1735,)  which  has 
some  merit.  He  also  wrote  a  singular  treatise  on  cos 
mology,  entitled  "Telliamed,"  (anagram  of  De  Maillet.) 
Died  in  1738. 

Maillet-Duclairon,  mt'yi'  dii'kli'niN',  (Antoine,) 
a  French  author,  born  near  Macon  in  1721.  He  cor- 
responded with  Voltaire  and  Turgot,  and  wrote  several 
works,  among  which  is  "  Cromwell,"  a  tragedy,  (1764.) 
Died  in  1809. 

Mailly, mt'ye',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  respectable  French 
historian,  born  at  Dijon  in  1744.  He  lectured  on  his- 
tory at  Godran  College  in  Dijon,  and  published  "  Spirit 
of  the  Fronde,"  ("  L'Esi^rit  de  la  Fronde,"  1772,)  and 
"  Spirit  of  the  Crusades,"  ("  L'Esprit  des  Croisades,"  4 
vols.,  1780.)     Died  in  1794. 

Mailly  d'Hautcourt,  de,  deh  mt'ye'  dS'kooR',  (Jo- 
seph  AuGUSTiN,)   Count,  a   French  general,  born  in 


€as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,gutttiral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  0;  th  as  in  this.     (fl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAIMBOURG 


1630 


MAINTENON 


1708.  After  tlie  peace  of  1763  lie  was  commandant-in- 
chief  of  Roussillon.  He  obtained  the  ranl<  of  marshal 
in  1783.     He  was  tjeheaded  as  a  royalist  in  1794. 

Maitnbourg,  mdN'buoR',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  historian,  born  at  Nancy  in  1620.  He  acquired 
reputation  by  his  historical  works,  which,  however,  are 
neither  accurate  nor  impartial.  Having  written  a  treatise 
in  defence  of  the  liberties  of  the  Gailican  Church,  and 
thus  offended  the  pope,  he  was  expelled  from  the  order 
of  Jesuits.  Among  his  works  are  (in  French)  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Iconoclasts,"  (1674,)  a  "  History  of  the 
Crusades,"  (1675,)  a  "History  of  Arianism,"  (16S2,)  a 
"History  of  Calvinism,"  (i6Si.)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Pontificate  of  Saint  Leo,"  (16S7.)  His  style  is  agree- 
able. Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that  he  was  "  over- 
rated at  first,  and  too  much  neglected  afterwards."  Died 
in  1686. 

See  DupiM,  "  BibliothJque  ecclesiastique  :"  Bavle,  "  Histoncal 
and  Critical  Diciionary." 

Maimon.     See  Maimonides. 

Maimon,  mi'mon,  (Solomon',)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1753.  He  had  a  talent 
'or  metaphysical  speculations,  and  a  skeptical  spirit. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "Critical  Researches  on  the 
Human  Mind,"  ("  Kritische  Untersuchungen  iiber  den 
nienschlichen  Geist,"  1797,)  and  memoirs  of  his  own  life, 
entitled  "  Lebensgeschichte,"  (2  vols.,  I793-)  Died  in 
1800. 

Maimonide.    See  MAiMoxinRS. 

Maimonides,  mi-mon'e-des,  [Fr.  Maimonide,  mt'e'- 
mo'nid',  ]  or  Mo'ses-Ben-Maimon,  (b§n-niT'mon, ) 
called  by  the  Arabs  Moosa-rbn-Maimoon,  (Miisa- 
Ibn-Maimfin  or  -Maimouii,)  moo'sd  !b'n  mi'moon',  a 
Jewish  rabbi  and  philosopher  of  great  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  about  1 135.  He  studied  philosophy 
and  medicine  under  the  famous  Averroes,  with  whom  he 
formed  a  lasting  friendship,  and  was  also  versed  in  mathe- 
matics and  several  languages.  I  laving  removed  to  Egypt 
about  1 165,  he  became  chief  physician  to  the  Sultan 
Saladin  and  his  successor.  He  acquired  a  great  repu- 
tation for  talents  and  learning.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "The  Strong  Hand,"  a  digest  of  Hebrew 
laws,  and  "  More  Nebokhim ;  or,  Teacher  of  the  Per- 
plexed," (in  Arabic,)  which  explains  difficult  and  obscure 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament.     Died  in  1209. 

See  Abraham  GEifiER,  "  Mose  Ren  Maimon,  seine  Lebensge- 
Bchiclite,"  1850:  Oi-AL's  Crlsius,  "  De  Maimonide,"  1727;  Peter 
Beer,  "  Das  Leben  Moses  ben  Maimon,"  1835  ;  Lem  ans,  "  Levens- 
beschrijvinjr  van  Maimonides,"  1815;  Stein.  "Moses  Maimonides," 
1846;  R.  M.  Maimonides,  "Account  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Maimoni- 
des," London,  1837;  "  Nouvelle  BioRraphie  Generale." 

Mainardi,  mT-naR'dee,  (Andkea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona  about  1550.  He  was  sometimes  called 
Chiaveghino,  (ke-d-v4-gee'no.)     Died  after  1613. 

Mainardi,  (Bastiano,)  a  painter  of  the  Florentine 
school,  born  in  Tuscany,  lived  about  1500. 

Mainardi,  (Lattanzio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna,  lived  about  1590.  He  was  employed  by  the 
pope  Sixtus  V.  to  adorn  with  frescos  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore,  and  the  Vatican.  Died  at  the  age  of 
twenty-seven. 

Maindron,  miN'dRfiN',  (Ettenne  Hippolyte,)  a 
French  statuary,  born  in  the  department  of  Maine-et- 
Loire  in  1801. 

Maine,  man,  (Sir  Henry  James  Sumner,)  LL.D.,  an 
English  jurist,  born  in  1S22.  He  graduated  with  high 
honours  at  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  in  1S44,  and 
was  appointed  a  tutor  of  Trinity  Hall.  He  was  regius 
professor  of  civil  law  at  Cambridge  from  1847  to  1S54, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1S50,  was  law-member  of  the 
government  of  India  from  1862  to  i86g,  and  in  that  time 
effected  great  reforms,  was  professor  i)f  jurisprudence  at 
Oxford  from  1870  to  1879,  and  in  1S79  became  master 
of  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  Among  his  works  are 
"Roman  Law  and  Legal  Education,"  (1S56,)  "Ancient 
Law:  its  Connection  with  the  Early  History  of  Society," 
(1861,)  "  Village  Communities,"  (1871,)  "  Lectures  on  the 
Early  History  of  Institutions,"  (1875,)  "  Dissertations  on 
Early  Law  and  Custom,"  (1883,)  etc.  Died  in  1888. 
Maine,  (Lacroix  du.)  See  Lacroix  nu  Maine. 
Maine  de  Biran,  min  deh  be'rSs',  (Marie  Fran- 
QOTS  Pierre  Gonthier,)  an  eminent  French  metaphy- 


sician, born  near  P.ergerac  in  1766.  After  opposing  the 
excesses  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  deputed  from  Doi 
dogne  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1797.  From 
1809  to  1814  he  was  a  member  of  the  legislative  body. 
.■\fter  the  restoration  of  1816  he  was  a  moderate  royalist 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  gained  in 
1803  a  prize  of  the  Institute  for  his  essay  "On  the  Influ- 
ence of  Habit  on  the  Faculty  of  Thought,"  ("De  ITnflu- 
ence  de  I'Habitude  sur  la  Faculte  de  Penser.")  He  also 
wrote  the  metaphysical  part  of  the  article  "Leibnitz"  in 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  a  "Memoir  on  the  De- 
composition of  Thought,"  ("Sur  la  Decomposition  de  la 
Pensee,"  1805,)  and  several  other  works.  M.  V.  Cousin 
estimated  him  as  the  greatest  metaphysician  of  Franc** 
since  Malebranche.     Died  in  1824. 

See  Ernest  Naville,  "Maine  de  Biran,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Pens^es," 
1857;  Damiron,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Philosophie  en  France 
au  dix-neuvi^me  Siecle;"  Saintk-Bel've,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;" 
Cousin,  Preface  to  the  "  CEuvres  philosophiques  de  Maine  de 
Biron,"  1841 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "  British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1S66. 

Maine,  du.dii  min,  (Louis  Auguste  de  Bourbon,) 

Duke,  the  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  Montes- 
pan,  was  born  in  1670,  and  legitimated  in  1673.  He  was 
appointed  general  of  the  gallej'S  in  1688,  and  grand 
master  of  the  artillery  in  1694.  The  king  recognized 
him  as  a  prince  of  the  blood  and  capable  of  succeeding 
to  the  throne.  The  duke  appears  to  have  displayed  a 
gentle  and  liberal  spirit,  with  moderate  literary  talents. 
Died  in  1736. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Lemontev,  "Histoire  de  la 
Regence;"  ^L^DAME  de  Sevigne,  "Lettres." 

MainfroL    See  Manfred. 

Maine,  mi'no,  (Giasone,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Pesaro  in  1435.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Pavi'a  from 
1467  to  i486.  After  an  absence  he  returned  to  Pavia  in 
1491,  and  lectured  to  large  classes  of  Italian,  French, 
and  German  students.  He  published  commentaries  on 
the  Digest,  three  Latin  orations,  and  "  Consilia  sive 
Responsa."     Died  in  15 19. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Maintenon,  de,  deh  miNt'niN',  (Francois  d'Au- 
bign6,)  Marquise,  a  French  lady,  whose  life  was 
marked  by  romantic  adventures  and  surprising  vicissi- 
tudes, was  born  in  1635,  in  the  prison  of  Niort,  (where 
her  father.  Constant  d'Aubigne,  was  detained.)  She  was 
a  granddaughter  of  the  eminent  author  T.  A.  d'.A.ubigne. 
Having  become  a  poor  orphan,  she  was  constrained 
by  her  guardians  to  abjure  Calvinism.  To  escape  the 
miseries  of  dependence  on  her  unkind  godmother,  she 
married  in  1652  Scarron  the  burlesqi^e  poet  and  wit,  who 
was  infirm  and  deformed  in  person.  His  house  was  a 
fashionable  resort  of  the  most  brilliant  wits  and  noblesse 
of  Paris.  He  died  in  1660,  leaving  her  again  destitute 
of  resources  except  her  rare  beauty  and  talents.  Ilei 
eyes  are  described  as  dark,  intensely  spiritual,  and  inex- 
pressibly lustrous.  She  received  a  pension  of  2000  livres 
from  the  queen-mother  for  several  years  preceding  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  1666. 

About  1670  Madame  Scarron  was  selected  as  govern- 
ess of  the  Due  du  Maine,  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
Madame  de  Montespan.  The  king  presented  to  her  the 
estate  of  Maintenon  in  1674,  after  which  she  was  called 
Madame  de  Maintenon.  She  gradually  gained  a  com- 
plete ascendant  over  Louis,  and  was  secretly  married  to 
him  in  1685.  The  marriage  was  never  formally  avowed 
by  him.  "  It  would  be  hard  to  name  any  woman,"  says 
Macaulay,  "who,  with  so  little  romance  in  her  temper, 
has  had  so  much  in  her  life.  ...  A  just  understanding  ; 
an  inexhaustible  yet  never  redundant  flow  of  rational, 
sprightly  conversation  ;  a  temper  of  which  the  serenity 
wasnever  for  a  moment  ruffled  ;  a  tact  which  surpassed 
the  tact  of  her  sex  as  much  as  the  tact  of  her  sex  sur- 
passes the  tact  of  ours :  such  were  the  qualities  which 
made  the  widow  of  a  buffoon  first  the  confidential  friend 
and  then  the  spouse  of  the  proudest  and  most  powerful 
of  European  kings."  Madame  de  Sevigne  describes  her 
society  as  "truly  delicious." 

She  laboured  assiduously  to  convert  the  king  to  vital 
religion.  Louis  transacted  business  with  his  ministers 
in  her  apartment,  discussed  the  most  important  ques- 
tions in  her  presence,  and  often  .tsked  her  advice  in  these 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAINVIELLE 


1631 


MAISTRE 


Verms:  "Qu'en  pense  votre  Solidite?"  ("What  does 
your  Solidity  think  about  it  ?")  He  was  once  dissuaded 
by  her  from  the  cruel  purpose  of  burning  the  city  of 
Treves.  As  the  king  grew  old  and  fretful,  her  task  of 
entertaining  him  became  very  arduous.  "I  have  seen 
her,"  says  Mile.  d'Aumale,  "  divert  the  king  by  a  thou- 
sand inventions  for  four  hours  together,  without  repeti- 
tion, yawning,  or  slander."  She  founded  a  good  school 
for  girls  at  Saint-Cyr.  She  died  in  1719.  Her  letters 
and  other  works  have  been  published  by  M.  Lavallee,  in 
10  vols.,  (1854  et  seq.)  This  edition  includes  "Souvenirs 
de  Mme.  de  Caylus,"  and  "  Memoires  de  Mile.  d'Au- 
male." 

See  Caraccioli,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  1786;  Ma- 
dame SuARD,  "  Madame  de  Maintenon  peinte  par  elle-meme,"  1810  ; 
MoNMERQUH,  "Notice  sur  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  iSaq;  La 
Beaumelle,  "  Memoires  ponr  servir  i  I'Histoire  de  Mme.  de  Main- 
tenon," 1756;  Le  Due  DE  Noailles,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de 
Maintenon,"  4  vols.,  184^-59;  Lafont  d'Au.sonne,  "Histoire  de 
Madame  de  Maintenon,"  1814;  Voltaire,  "Siicle  de  Louis  XIV;" 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Limdi,"  tome  iv.  ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
giaplue  G^n^rale ;"  W.  H.  D.  Adams,  "  Famous  Beauties  and 
Historic  Women,"  vol.  i.,  London,  1865;  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
yine"  for  February,  1850 ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1S49; 
"  Letters  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  in  the  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1753. 

Mainvielle,  miN've'SK,  or  Mainville,  mi.N'v^K, 
(Pierre,)  a  member  of  the  French  Convention  of  1792, 
was  born  at  Avignon  in  1765.  He  was  e.xecuted  with 
the  Girondists  in  October,  1793. 

See  Lamartine,  "  Histoire  des  Girondins." 

Mainzer,  mint'ser,  (Joseph,)  a  German  musician  and 
writer  on  music,  born  at  Treves  in  1801 ;  died  in  1851. 

Maio  or  Majo,  da,  dS  mi'yo,  (Francesco  or  Cic- 
Cio,)  an  excellent  Italian  composer  of  operas  and  sacred 
music,  born  at  Naples  in  1745,  (some  say  about  1740.) 
Among  his  operas  are  "Montezuma,"  (1765,)  and 
"Ipermnestra,"  (1770.)     Died  at  Rome  in  1774. 

See  Fins,  "Biographie  Universeljle  des  Musiciens." 

Maioli  or  Majoli,  m5-yo'lee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Forll  in  1746.  He  obtained  a  chair 
of  philosophy  at  Rome  in  1781.  He  wrote  many  works 
on  botany  and  zoology,  the  most  of  which  remain  in 
manuscript.     Died  in  1823. 

See  FARiNt,  "  Memorie  sopra  la  Vita  del  Majoli,"  1824. 

Maioli  or  Majoli,  (Simone,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  at  Asti  in  1520 ;  died  about  1597. 

Maioragio  or  Majoragio,  m.\-yo-ri'jo,  [I-at.  Ma- 
fORA^Glus,]  (Marcantonio,)  an  eloquent  and  learned 
Italian  writer,  whose  proper  name  was  Antonio  Maria 
CoNTi,  was  born  in  the  Milanese  in  15 14.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-six  he  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence  at 
Milan.  I  le  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Works  of 
Cicero,"  poems,  harangues,  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  1555. 

Maiquez,  mT-k?th',  (Isidoro,)  a  popular  Spanish 
comedian,  born  at  Carthagena  about  1766.  He  intro- 
duced at  Madrid  a  more  simple  and  natural  style  of 
action,  and  was  re]iuted  the  most  excellent  comedian 
that  Spain  had  ])roduced.     Died  in  1820. 

Mair,  (John.)     See  Major,  (John.) 

Mairan,  de,  deh  mi'rfiN',  (Jean  Jacques  Dortous,) 
a  distinguished  French  savant  and  littcratacr,  born  at 
Beziers  in  1678.  About  171 8  he  removed  to  Paris,  and 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  memoirs  on  geometry,  physics,  and  other 
sciences.  He  published  a  "  Dissertation  on  Ice,"  ("  Dis- 
sertation sur  la  Glace,")  "  Letters  on  China,"  and  other 
works.  In  1740  he  succeeded  Fontenelle  as  secretary 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1743  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  He  was  intimate  with  Voltaire. 
Died  in  1771. 

See  Vii.T.FMAiN.  "Tableau  de  la  Litt^ratnre  Fran^aise  au  dix- 
huitiSme  Siecle  ;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  G^n^rale;"  Saba- 
THIBR.  "  Eloge  de  Mnlran."  1S42  ;  Gkandjean  de  Fouchv,  "  Eloge 
de  Mairan,"  1771  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mairault,  de,  deh  mi'ro',  (Adrien  Maurice,)  a 
French  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1708.  He  aided  Desfon- 
taines  in  his  critical  works.     Died  in  1746. 

Maire,  Le.    See  Lemaire. 

Mairct,  m^'ri',  (Jean,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1604.  In  1629  he  produced  his  principal 
work,  "  Sophonisba,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  very  suc- 


cessful, and  formed  an  epoch  in  the  annals  of  the  French 
theatre,  being  the  first  in  which  the  rule  of  unities  was 
observed.  He  wrote  many  other  tragedies  and  come- 
dies.    Died  in  1686. 

See  La  Harpk,  "Co.irsde  la  Litf^rature ;"  Gitizot,  "C  rncille 
et  son  Temps;"  Fontenelle,  "Vie  de  Corneille." 

Mairobert,  de,  deh  mi'ro'baiR',  (Mathieu  Fran- 
cois PiDANSAT,)a  French  writer,  born  in  Champagne  in 
1707.  Among  his  works  is  the  "Observateur  Anglais,'- 
(4  vols.,  1778,)  reprinted  under  the  title  of  "Espion 
Anglais,"  ("English  Spy.")     Died  in  1779. 

Maironi  da  Ponte,  ml-ro'nee  di  pon'ti,  (Gio- 
vanni,) an  Italian  naturalist  and  writer,  born  at  Ber- 
gamo in  1748;  died  in  1833. 

Maiseaux,  Des.    See  Desmaiseaux. 

Maison,  mi'z6N',  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  Count,  a  mar- 
shal of  France,  was  born  at  £pinay,  near  Paris,  in  1771. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  Jemmapes  in  1792.  In  1799 
he  became  adjutant-general  or  chief  of  the  staff  in  the 
army  of  Bernadotte.  For  his  services  at  Austerlitz,  in 
1805,  he  was  made  a  general  of  brigade.  He  took  part 
in  the  Russian  campaign  of  181 2,  during  which  he  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  general  of  division.  In  1814  he 
received  from  Louis  XVIII.  the  title  of  peer  and  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Paris.  He  refused  to  recog- 
nize Bonaparte  on  his  return  from  Elba.  He  commanded 
the  expedition  against  the  Turks  of  the  Morea  in  1828, 
and  on  his  return  received  a  marshal's  baton.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1830,  and  became  min- 
ister of  war  in  1835.     Died  in  1840. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Republique,  du  Consulat  et  de 
I'Empire;"  Marmont,  "  Memoires;"  Victor  de  Broglie,  "  filoge 
historique  du  Mar^chal  Maison,  "  1S42  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Maisonfort,  de  la,  deh  It  m.Vz^N'foR',  (Louis  Du- 
bois Descours,)  Marquis,  a  French  biographer,  born 
in  Berry  in  1763,  was  a  royalist.  He  published  a  bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  those  who  figured  in  the  French 
Revolution,  (3  vols.,  1800.)     Died  in  1827. 

Maisonneuve,  m.yz6'nuv',  (Jules  Germain  Fran- 
Cj'ois,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Nantes  in  1810.  He 
took  his  degree  of  doctor  at  Paris  in  1835,  and  acquired 
an  extended  fame  by  the  boldness  and  brilliancy  of  his 
surgical  operations.  He  published  many  papers  and 
minor  works  on  surgery  and  its  methods. 

Maisonneuve,  de,  deh  mA'zo'nuv',  (Louis  Jean 
Baptiste,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Saint-Cloud 
about  1745.  His  tragedy  of  "  Roxelane  et  Mustapha" 
(1785)  had  a  prodigious  success.  He  produced,  also, 
"  Odmar  and  Zulma,"  (1788.)     Died  in  1819. 

Maissiat,  mi'se't',  (Michel,)  a  French  topographical 
engineer,  born  at  Nantua  in  1770.  He  published  several 
professional  works.     Died  in  1822. 

Maistral,  mi'tRtl',  (Esprit  Tranquille,)  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Quimper  in  1763  ;  died  in  1815. 

Maistre.     See  Sacy. 

Maistre,  (Isaac.)     See  Lemaistre. 

Maistre,  de,  deh  mltR,  (Joseph  Marie,)  Count,  an 
eminent  political  writer  and  philosopher,  was  born  at 
Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1754.  He  was  a  warm  oppo- 
nent of  the  French  Revolution,  and  attached  to  the 
ultramontane  school  of  theology.  In  1796  he  published 
"Considerations  on  France,"  which  obtained  great  suc- 
cess. He  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  Sardinia  grand 
chancellor  in  1799.  From  1802  to  1816  he  was  ambas- 
sador to  Saint  Petersburg,  and,  on  his  return  to  Turin 
in  181 7,  became  minister  of  state.  His  most  important 
work  is  entitled  "On  the  Pope,"  ("  Du  Pape,"  1819,)  an 
argument  for  the  cause  of  popery  and  absolutism.  Died 
in  1821.     Pie  was  distinguished  as  an  original  thinker. 

See  Raymond,  "  filoge  du  Comte  J.  M.  de  Maistre,"  1827 ;  Vri,- 
i.emain,  "  Cours  de  Litlerature  Franijaise  au  dix-hniti^me  Si4cle  ;" 
Villeneuve-.'^rifat,  "  filosje  du  Comte  J.  de  Maistre,"  1S53; 
Sainte-Bhuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  and  "' Portraits  contempo- 
rains  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiidrale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  October,  1852  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849. 

Maistre,  de,  (Xavier,)  a  popular  and  witty  author, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Chambery 
in  1764.  He  entered  the  Russian  service  about  1800, 
fought  against  the  Persians,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general.  In  1794  he  produced  (in  French)  his  in- 
genious and  humorous  "Journey  around  my  Chamber," 


c  as  k;  5 as  j;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  yi,pUtural;  N,  uasil;  r,  tri.led;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJI^^'See  E.xplanations,  p.  23. 


MAITANI 


1632 


MAJOR 


("Voyage  autour  de  ma  Chambre.")  He  maintained 
his  reputation  as  an  elegant  writer  by  tales  entitled 
"  Prisoners  of  the  Caucasus,"  and  "  Prascovie,  ou  la 
jeune  Siberienne."  After  1817  he  lived  alternately  in 
France  and  Saint  Petersburg.     Died  in  1852. 

See  Sainte-Bruve,  "Portraits  contemporains;"  "  Noiivelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Maitani,  mi-tVnee,  (Lorf.nzo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Sienna  about  1240  ;  died  after  1310. 

Maifland,  (Sir  Frederick  Lewis,)  a  British  naval 
ofricer,  born  in  Scotland  in  1779.  As  captain,  he  served 
with  distinction  against  the  French  on  the  coast  of  Egypt 
In  1801.  In  181 5  he  was  ordered  to  keep  watch  on  the 
coast  of  France  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  Na- 
poleon, who  surrendered  himself  to  Captain  Maitland  in 
July  and  was  conveyed  by  him  in  the  Bellerophon  to 
England.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  Died 
in  1839. 

Maitland,  (James.)     See  Lauderdale,  Earl  of. 

Maitland,  ([ohn.)     See  Lauderdale,  Duke  of. ^ 

Maitland,  (John,)  of  Thirlestane,  first  Lord  Mait- 
land, an  eminent  Scottish  statesman,  born  about  1540, 
was  the  second  son  of  Sir  Richard  Maitland,  noticed 
below,  and  grandfather  of  the  Duke  of  Lauderdale.  He 
was  appointed  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  in  1567.  For  his 
loyalty  to  Queen  Mary  he  was  proscribed  by  the  domi- 
nant party  about  1570  and  imprisoned  several  years.  In 
1584  he  was  made  secretary  of  state,  and  became  in  fact 
the  chief  minister  of  James  VI.  He  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor of  Scotland  in  15S6  or  1587,  and  created  Baron 
Maitland  in  1590.  He  is  praised  for  his  moderation  and 
integrity  as  well  as  for  his  talents.  Several  of  his  Latin 
epigrams  have  been  published.     Died  in  1595. 

See  Mackenzie,  "Scotch  Writers;"  Lodge,  "Lives  of  Eminent 
Personages." 

Maitland,  (Sir  Richard,)  of  Lethington,  a  Scottish 
writer  and  judge,  born  in  1496,  was  the  father  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Maitland,  noticed  below,  and  of  John,  first  Lord 
Maitland.  He  studied  law  in  France,  and  held  several 
high  ofiices.  About  1550  he  was  chosen  a  lord  of  session, 
and  in  1562  lord  privy  seal.  He  acquired  distinction 
IS  a  poet  and  collector  of  Scottish  poetry.  One  of  his 
poems  is  entitled  "Creation  and  Paradise  Lost."  Died 
in  1586. 

See  Irvine,  "  Lives  of  the  Scottish  Poets  ;"  Mackenzie,  "  Scotch 
Writers;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Kininent  Scots- 
men." 

Maitland,  (Rev.  Samuel  Roffey,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an 
able  English  essayist  and  writer  on  ecclesiastical  history, 
etc.,  was  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  was  librarian  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  1837  to  1848.  He 
was  author  of  numerous  essays  on  theology,  morals,  etc. 
Among  his  principal  and  most  popular  works  is  "The 
Dark  Ages  :  being  a  Series  of  Essays  intended  to  Illus- 
trate the  State  of  Religion  and  Literature  in  the  Ninth, 
Tenth,  Eleventh,  and  Twelfth  Centuries,"  (1844.)  He 
aims  to  prove  that  those  ages  were  not  so  dark  as  they 
are  commonly  represented.     Died  in  1866. 

Maitlandj  (Sir  William,)  of  Lethington,  Lithington, 
or  Lidington,  an  able  Scottish  minister  of  state,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Richard,  noticed  above.  In  1558 
he  became  principal  secretary  to  Mary  of  Guise,  queen- 
regent  ;  but  in  1559  he  joined  the  Protestant  chiefs  who 
had  taken  arms  against  her.  He  was  restored  to  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state  by  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in 
1561.  Though  not  a  Catholic,  he  enjoyed  the  favour  and 
confidence  of  the  queen,  who  sent  him  on  several  em- 
bassies to  Queen  Elizabeth.  After  Mary  was  imprisoned, 
(1567,)  he  adhered  to  her  cause,  and  united  with  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk  in  an  effort  to  save  her.  Having  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  mediate  between  the  two  hostile  parties, 
in  1570  he  declared  openly  for  the  queen.  His  enemy. 
Regent  Morton,  took  him  prisoner,  and  would  probably 
have  hung  him  if  Maitland  had  not  died  soon  after,  as 
some  suppose,  by  his  own  hand,  in  1573.  "All  the  con- 
temporary writers,"  says  Robertson,  "mention  him  with 
an  admiration  which  nothing  could  have  excited  but  the 
greatest  superiority  of  penetration  and  abilities."  "  His 
name,"  says  Burton,  "  was  a  by-word  for  subtlety  and 
gtate-craft.  Yet,  ...  if  we  look  at  his  life  and  doings, 
we  do  not  find  he  was  one  of  those  who  have  left  the 


mark  of  their  influence  upon  their  age.  .  .  .  He  had 
great  abilities,  but  they  were  rather  those  of  the  wit  and 
rhetorician  than  of  the  practical  man."  ("History  of 
Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  55-57-)  Hume  styles  Maitland 
"Secretary  Lidington."  Queen  Elizabeth  called  him 
"the  flower  of  the  wits  of  Scotland." 

See  Froude,  "Reign  of  Elizabeth,"  /S^m/wi,  but  particularly 
chaps,  xix.  and  xxiii. ;  Hume,  "  History  of  England ;"  Robertson, 
"  History  of  Scotland." 

Maitland,  (William,)  a  Scottish  antiquary,  born  at 
Brechin  about  1693.  He  became  a  resident  of  London, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  London,"  (1739,)  and  a  "His 
tory  of  Edinburgh."     Died  in  1757. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen. 

Maittaire,  mi'tilR',  (Michel,)  an  eminent  scholar 
and  bibliographer,  born  in  France  in  1668,  was  the  son 
of  Protestant  parents,  who  emigrated  to  England  when 
the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  (1685.)  He  was  a 
good  classical  scholar,  and  edited  many  Greek  and  Latin 
authors.  He  resided  many  years  in  London.  Among 
his  most  important  productions  are  "Dialects  of  the 
Greek  Language,"  (1706,)  and  "Typographic  Annals 
from  the  Invention  of  Printing  to  1557,"  ("Annales  Ty- 
pographici  ab  Artis  Inventae  Origine  ad  Annum  1557," 
9  vols.,  1719-41,)  a  work  of  great  research,  and  superior 
to  any  that  had  appeared  on  that  subject.    Died  in  1747. 

See  DiBDiN,  "Bibliomania;"  P.  Chasle.s,  "  Dissertation  on  th« 
Life  and  Works  of  M.  M.iittaire,"  London,  1819. 

Maitz  de  Goinipy,  du,du  m^ts  deh  gwlN'pe',  (Fran- 
cois Louis  Edmk  Gabriel,)  Count,  a  French  astrono- 
mer and  naval  officer,  born  in  Beauce  in  1729 ;  died  aftei 
17S4. 

Mains.     See  May. 

Maizeroy,  de,  deh  miz'rwd',  (Paul  G6d6on  Joly,) 
a  French  officer  and  eminent  tactician,  was  born  at  Metz 
in  1 7 19.  He  served  several  campaigns,  ending  at  the 
peace  of  1763,  and  became  lieutenant-colonel.  He  wrote 
numerous  works  on  tactics  and  military  science,  which 
had  a  transient  success,  but  are  now  obsolete.  Died  in 
1780. 

Maizi^res,  de,  deh  mi'ze-aiR',  (Philippe,)  a  French 
writer,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens  in  1312.  He  insti- 
gated the  Kings  of  France  and  of  Cyprus  to  conduct  a 
crusade  against  the  Saracens  of  Egypt  in  1365.  He 
wrote  an  allegory,  "Le  Songe  du  vieil  Pelerin,"  etc 
Died  in  1405. 

Majano.     See  Maiano. 

Majldth.     See  Mailath. 

Majo.     See  Maio. 

Majoli.     See  Maioll 

Major,  md'yoR,  or  Meier,  ml'er,  (Georg,)  a  German 
Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1 502.  He 
studied  under  Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  was  afterwards  professor  of  theology  for  many 
years.  He  published  commentaries  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  many  theological  works.     Died  in  1574. 

See  C.  Ulenberg,  "Vita  et  Res  gestas  M.  Lutheri,  P.  Melanch- 
thonis  et  G.  Majoris,"  1622. 

Major,  (Isaac,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1576.  He  engraved 
a  number  of  large  landscapes  representing  scenes  in 
the  mountains  of  Bohemia.     Died  in  1630. 

Major,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Breslau  in  1634.  He  practised  with 
success  at  Hamburg.  In  1665  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
medicine  at  Kiel,  where  he  planted  a  botanic  garden. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  many  learned  professional  treatises. 
Died  in  1693. 

Ma'jor,  (John,)  written  also  Mair,  a  Scottish  his- 
torian and  theologian,  born  near  North  Berwick  about 
1470.  He  passed  a  number  of  years  in  Paris  as  a  stu- 
dent and  then  as  a  professor  of  scholastic  philosophy. 
In  1 5 19  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  some  years  later 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Saint  Andrew's,  where 
George  Buchanan  and  John  Knox  were  his  pupils.  He 
wrote,  (in  Latin,)  besides  other  works,  "  Commentaries 
on  the  Four  Books  of  Sentences,"  and  a  "  History  of 
Scotland."  Died  about  1550.  Robertson  calls  him  a 
"  succinct  and  dry  writer." 


a, e, T,  6,  u,  y, /<?«^;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  J^t^r/;  z,e,\,Q,odscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAJOR 


^^IZ 


MALAN 


\ 


Ma'jor,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1818.  He  edited  several  works,  and 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,"  (1868.) 

Major,  (Thomas,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born 
about  1 715.  He  engraved  landscapes  after  Berghem, 
Teniers,  Claude  Lorrain,  etc.  Among  his  most  ad- 
mired works  are  twenty-four  views  of  the  Ruins  of 
Paestum,  after  J.  B.  Borra,  published  at  London,  (1768.) 
Died  in  1770. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Majoragio.    See  Maioragio. 

Maj  oragius.    See  Maioragio. 

Majorano,  (Gaetano.)     See  Gaffarelli. 

Ma-jo'ri-an,  [Lat.  Majoria'nus;  Fr.  Majorien, 
mt'zho'reJ^N',]  (Julius  Valerius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  succeeded  Avitus  as  Emperor  of  the  West  in  457 
A.D.  He  defeated  Theodoric  the  Visigoth  in  Gaul  in  459, 
and  afterwards  waged  war  against  Genseric.  He  was 
deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Ricimer  in  461. 

Majorien.     See  Majorian. 

Maj  us,  mS'yus,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  natural  philos- 
'jpher,  born  at  Cassel  in  1632  ;  died  in  1696. 

Majus,  (Johann  Burkhard,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Pforzheim  in  1652.  He  wrote  "  De  Rebus 
Badensibus,"  (1678,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1726. 

Majus  or  Maius,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  an  Oriental- 
ist, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1653.  He  wrote 
on  theology  and  Hebrew  antiquities.     Died  in  1719. 

Makart,  mS'kaRt',  (Hans,)  a  celebrated  Austrian 
painter,  born  at  Salzburg,  May  28,  1840.  He  began  to 
learn  engraving  in  his  youth,  but,  turning  his  attention  to 
painting,  became  a  pupil  of  Piloty,  at  Munich.  His  first 
picture  was  a  "Sleeping  Horseman  embraced  by  a 
Nymph,"  (i866,)  which  was  soon  followed  by  "Modern 
Flirtations,"  a  painting  which  established  his  fame. 
Among  his  later  works  are  "  Leda  and  the  Swan,"  "The 
Plague  of  Florence,"  "The  Seven  Capital  Sins,"  "  Entry 
of  Charles  V.  into  Antwerp,"  (1878,)  etc.  Died  at 
Vienna,  October  3,  18S4. 

Makeblyde,  ma'keh-bli'deh,  (Louis,)  a  Flemish 
religious  writer,  born  at  Poperingue  in  1564;  died  in 
1630. 

Makkaree,  Makkari,  or  Makkary,  Al,  tl  mSk'- 
kS-ree,  (Ahmed-Ihn-Mohammed,  Jn'm^d  ib'n  mo-him'- 
mSd,)  an  Arabian  historian,  born  at  Tlemcen  about 
1585.  He  became  a  resident  of  Cairo  about  1620,  and 
wrote  numerous  historical  and  theological  works,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  a  valuable  "  History  of  Spain 
during  the  Domination  of  the  Moors,"  which  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Pascual  de  Gayangos,  under  the 
title  of  a  "  Plistory  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  (2  vols.,  1843.)     Died  in  1631. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Mako,  mok'ko,  (Paul,)  a  learned  Hungarian  Jesuit, 
born  in  1723.  He  wrote  on  geometry,  physical  science, 
etc.     Died  in  1793. 

Makouski.     See  Makowski. 

Makow^ski,  mS-kov'skee,  written  also  Makouski, 
[Lat.  Macco'vius,]  (John,)  a  Polish  Protestant  divine, 
born  at  Lobzenick  in  1588.  He  was  noted  for  disputa- 
tiousness  and  fondness  for  scholastic  subtleties.  Died 
in  1644- 

3ee  Johann  Cocceji,  "Oratio  in  Funere  J.  Maccovii,"  1644. 

Makreezee  or  Makrizi,  Al,  tl  mi-kRee'zee,  sur- 
named  Takyah-ed-Deen  or  Taky-ed-Deen,  (or  Taki- 
eddIn,)  t2.k'yed-deen',  {i.e.  the  "  Support  of  Religion,")  a 
celebrated  Arabic  writer,  born  at  Cairo  about  1360.  He 
held  several  civil  and  religious  offices  in  his  native  city. 
He  wrote  many  historical  works,  which  attest  the  variety 
and  extent  of  his  knowledge.  His  "  Historical  and  Topo- 
graphical Description  of  Egypt"  gives  an  ample  account 
of  the  events  which  occurred  after  the  conquest  of  the 
Saracens,  and  of  the  customs  and  antiquities  of  that 
country.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  Saladin  and 
his  Successors,"  and  a  treatise  on  Moslem  Coins.  The 
above-named  works  have  been  translated  into  French 
by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  Al  Makreezee  has  the  reputa- 
tion of  being,  on  the  whole,  an  impartial,  trustworthy, 
and  eminently  judicious  writer.     Died  in  1442. 

See  SiLVESTRK  DE  Sacy,  " Chrestomathie  Arabe." 


Makrtzt.    See  Makreezee. 

Malabranca,  mi-ia-bRSn'ka,  (Latino,)  an  Italian 
Dominican,  called  also  Frangipani,  was  a  nephew  of 
Pope  Nicholas  HI.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Ostia  and 
Velletri  in  1278.  His  diplomatic  talents  were  employed 
and  approved  by  several  successive  popes.  Died  about 
1294.  The  celebrated  hymn  "  Dies  Irae"  is  attributed 
to  him  by  many  writers. 

Malacarne,  mS-iakaR'ni,  (Michele  Vincenzo,)  an 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Saluzzo  in  1744.  He  contributed 
by  his  works  to  the  progress  of  science  in  Italy.  He  was 
professor  of  surgery  at  Padua  from  1794  until  his  death, 
in  1816.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  on  Encepha- 
lotomy. 

MalV«hi,  [Heb.  OX70,]  the  last  of  the  minor  He- 
brew prophets,  is  supposed  to  have  prophesied  about 
420  B.C.  Nothing  is  positively  known  of  his  history. 
The  name  signifies  "  angel,"  or  "messenger  of  the  Lord." 
The  book  of  Malachi  is  the  last  book  of  the  (Jld  Testa- 
ment, m  the  order  of  time  as  well  as  of  position. 

Malacho'wski,  ^S-lS-Kov'skee,  (Casimir,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1765.  He  had  the  chief  command  at 
Warsaw  when  that  place  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
183 1.      Died  in  1S45. 

Malachy  (maKa-ki)  IL,  or  Maelsechlaiiiu,  a  king  of 
Ireland,  the  last  of  the  Hui  Neill  dynasty  who  was  un- 
disputed over-king  of  the  whole  island.  He  gained  the 
throne  in  980,  and  soon  after  won  a  great  battle  at  Tara 
over  the  Danes  of  Dublin,  Man,  and  the  Isles.  In  989  he 
took  Dublin.  He  had,  in  later  years,  continual  warfare 
with  Danes  and  Irish  vassals  alike,  and  in  looi  submitted 
to  Brian  Boroihme. 

Malachy,  Saint,  (in  Irish,  Maelmaedog  Ua  Mor- 
GAIR,)  also  called  Imcir  Malachy,  an  Irish  archbishop, 
born  at  Armagh  about  1095,  of  a  noble  race.  Pie 
became  about  1127  Bishop  of  Connor  and  Dromore, 
where  he  did  much  to  introduce  the  Roman  obedience. 
In  1129  he  was  promoted  to  be  Archbishop  of  Armagh, 
but  actually  held  that  see  only  from  1134  to  1137, 
when  he  took  the  bishopric  of  Down.  While  «it  Rome 
in  1139  he  was  made  papal  legate  a  latere,  with  authority 
to  visit  and  reform  thg  Irish  Church.  In  1148  he  con- 
vened a  national  council  at  Inis  Phadrig,  and  in  the  same 
year  went  to  meet  the  pope  at  Clairvaux,  where  he 
died,  in  the  arms  of  Saint  Bernard,  November  2,  1148. 
The  celebrated  "  Prophecy  of  Saint  Malachy  regarding 
the  Lives  of  Future  Pontiffs"  was  not  written  by  him. 

MalagTida,  mS-lS-gRee'di,  (Gabriele,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1689.  He  .removed  to 
Portugal,  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  wrote  several 
works.  He  was  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  attempt 
to  assassinate  the  King  of  Portugal,  (1758,)  and  was 
convicted  of  heresy,  for  which  he  was  burned  in  1761. 

See  Smith,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal ;"  Voltairb, 
"  Precis  du  Si^cle  de  Louis  XV  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale  ;" 
Platel,  "  Relazione  della  Condamna  ed  Esecuzione  del  Gesuita  G. 
Malagrida,"  1761. 

Malaguti,  mS-li-goo'tee,  (Francois,)  a  distinguished 
chemist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1802.  Having  settled  in 
France,  he  studied  in  the  laboratory  of  Gay-Lussac,  and 
became  in  1850  professor  of  chemistry  at  Rennes.  He 
published  several  valuable  works,  among  which  is  "  Les- 
sons of  Agricultural  Chemistry."    Died  April  25,  1878, 

Malaine,  mS'lin',  (Joseph  Laurent,)  a  French 
painter  of  flowers,  born  at  Tournai  in  1745 ;  died  in 
Paris  in  1809. 

Mal'a-la,  Mal'e-la,  or  Mal'e-las,  [Gr.  MoAoAa  or 
Ma/u'Aa,]"  called  also  John  of  Antioch,  was  the  author 
of  a  Greek  chronicle  which  extends  from  the  creation 
to  the  year  566  a.d.  It  was  first  printed  by  Chilmead, 
at  Oxford,  in  1691.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  and 
death  are  not  known.  He  was,  perhaps,  the  same  as 
John  of  Antioch  the  Scholastic. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Malan,  mt'lON',  (Abraham  Henri  C6sar,)  a  Swiss 
theologian,  born  at  Geneva  in  1787,  was  the  leader  of  a 
sect  sometimes  called  mSmiers.     Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "Life,  Labours,  etc.  of  Cssar  Malau,"  by  Iiis  son,  Lon- 
don, 1869. 

Malan,  (Solomon  Caesar,)  D.D.,  a  Swiss-English 
clergyman  and  linguist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1812,  a  son 


€  as  /fe;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 

103 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MALAPERT 


1634 


MALCZEWSKI 


of  the  preceding.  He  graduated  at  Saint  Edmund  Hall, 
Oxford,  in  1837.  lie  went  to  Calcutta  and  became  a 
professor  in  Bishop's  College,  but  returned  to  Oxford, 
took  priest's  orders  in  the  English  Church,  and  attained 
various  preferments,  being  a  prebendary  of  Sarum  from 
1871  to  1875.  I  le  has  published  a  vast  number  of  trans- 
lations from  Oriental  languages,  (Chinese,  Armenian, 
Georgian,  Coptic,  Geez,  Russian,  Japanese,  etc.,)  very 
often  of  works  of  much  interest  in  connection  with  litur- 
gical and  doctrinal  questions.  Dr.  Malan  is  also  gifted 
as  an  artist,  musician,  and  naturalist.  He  is  said  to  con- 
verse fluently  in  twenty-five  languages  and  to  be  able  to 
translate  over  one  hundred.  Since  Mezzofanti,  he  ranks 
as  the  greatest  living  polyglot  scholar,  but  is  latterly 
rivalled  by  Dr.  Leitner  in  this  regard. 

Malapert,  mt'lt'paiR',  (CH-A-RLES,)  a  Flemish  poet 
and  geometer,  born  at  Mons  in  1581.  He  became  a 
Jesuit,  and  a  professor  of  mathematics  in  various  col- 
leges. He  published  Latin  poems,  and  several  works 
on  geometry.     Died  in  Spain  about  1630. 

Malarme,  de,  deh  mt'ItRm',  (Charlotte,)  Count- 
ess, a  novelist,  born  at  Metz,  France,  in  1753,  was  a 
sister  of  Count  de  Bournon,  the  mineralogist.  She 
wrote  "Niralba,"  (1800,)  and  other  novels.  Died  about 
1830. 

Malaspina,  m5-lS-spee'nS,  (Ricordano,)  the  earliest 
historian  of  Florence,  was  born  in  that  city  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Florence  from 
its  Origin  to  the  Year  1281." 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Malaspina  di  Sannazaro,  mi-ld-spee'nS  de  sin- 
nid-zS'ro,  (LuiGi,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  writer  and  politi- 
cal economist,  born  at  Pavia  in  1754.  He  founded  a 
school  of  fine  arts  in  his  native  city.     Died  in  1834. 

Malatesta,  md-lS-tgs'ti,  a  noble  Italian  family,  which 
acquired  the  lordship  of  Rimini  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  furnished  several  leaders  of  the  Guelph  party. 
Malatesta  II.  and  Galeotto  Malatesti,  sons  of 
Pandolfe  I.,  began  to  reign  over  Rimini  in  1335.  They 
had  a  great  military  reputation,  and  next  to  the  Visconti 
were  perhaps  the  most  powerful  princes  of  Italy.  The 
former  died  in  1364,  and  Galeotto  in  1385,  leaving  two 
sons.  Carlo  and  Pandolfo  III.  These  two  became 
able  generals,  and  commanded  the  army  of  Visconti, 
Duke  of  Milan,  from  1393  to  1408.  Carlo,  who  was 
Lord  of  Rimini,  died  without  issue  in  1429.  The  de- 
scendants of  Pandolfo  III.  possessed  Rimini  until  11528, 
when  it  was  added  to  the  papal  dominions. 

Malatesta,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  lady  of  eminent 
talents,  was  married  in  1405  to  Galeotto  Malatesta, 
Seigneur  of  Pesaro.  She  taught  philosophy  in  public, 
made  Latin  orations  before  the  emperor  and  pope,  and 
wrote  some  admired  verses. 

Malaval,  m^'la'vtl'.  (Francois,)  a  French  mystic, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1627,  became  blind  in  infancy, 
but  studied  Latin  with  success.  He  published,  besides 
several  prose  works  of  a  mystical  character,  "  Poesies 
spirituelles,"  ("Spiritual  Poems.")    Died  in  1719. 

Mal-bone',  (  Edward  G.,  )  an  American  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1777.  He 
visited  Europe  in  1801  in  company  with  Washington 
Allston,  but  returned  the  same  year  to  America,  where 
he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  his  art.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  DUNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chap.  ii. ;  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Mal'-ehus  [Gr.  Md>l:j;of]  of  Philadelphia,  called 
the  Sophist,  a  Byzantine  historian,  lived  about  600 
A.D.     Fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Malchus,  von,  fon  mai'Kfis,  (Karl  August,)  Baron, 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1770,  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  the  interior  in  the  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia in  1813.  He  published  several  works  on  political 
economy.     Died  in  1840. 

Malcolm  (miKkprn)  I.,  King  of  Scots,  the  son  of 
Donald  IV.,  succeeded  his  cousin,  Constantine  III.,  in 
938  A.D.  He  was  killed  by  some  of  his  own  subjects  who 
had  revolted  ;  but  the  date  of  this  event  is  not  known. 

Malcolm  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  the  son  of  Ken- 
neth HI.    He  began  to  reign  in  1003,  and  resisted  seve- 


ral hostile  incursions  of  the  Danes  witn  success.  He 
died  in  1033,  leaving  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was 
the  mother  of  Duncan  I. 

Malcolm  III.,  surnamed  Canmore,  ("  Great  Head,") 
was  the  son  of  King  Duncan,  whose  virtues  and  tragical 
fate  are  commemorated  in  Shakspeare's  "  Macbeth." 
When  Duncan  was  killed,  in  1040,  Malcolm  escaped  to 
England.  (See  Macbeth.)  He  returned  with  an  army, 
defeated  Macbeth,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1057. 
About  1090  a  war  commenced  between  William  II.  of 
England  and  Malcolm,  who  was  killed  in  battle  at  Aln- 
wick Castle  in  1093.  His  sons  Alexander  and  David 
became  kings. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi. 

Malcolm  IV.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  born  about 
1140,  and  succeeded  his  grandfather,  David  I.,  in  1 153. 
He  made  peace  with  Henry  II.  of  England  by  ceding 
to  him  Northumberland.  ITe  died  in  1165,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  William. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xiii.,  xiv.  ; 
Buchanan,  "  Renim  Scolicarum  Historia." 

Malcolm,  mil'kom,  (James  Peller,)  an  engraver 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1768.  He 
visited  Europe  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  student  in 
the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  He  published  "  Lon- 
dinum  Redivivum  ;  or,  The  Ancient  History  and  Modern 
Description  of  London,"  (1802-05,)  "Seventy  Views 
taken  within  the  Compass  of  Twelve  Miles  round  Lon- 
don," (181 1,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1815. 

Malcolm,  m41'kom,  (Sir  John,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
general  and  eminent  historian,  born  in  Dumfriesshire, 
Scotland,  in  1769.  In  his  youth  he  went  to  India  as  a 
cadet  in  the  army  of  the  Company.  After  performing 
an  important  political  mission  to  Persia,  (1799,)  he  was 
appointed  to  the  presidency  of  Mysore  in  1803.  He 
was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Persia  in 
1809  and  1810.  Having  collected  information  respect- 
ing Persia,  he  went  to  England  in  1812,  and  published 
a  valuable  "History  of  Persia"  (1815)  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  date  of  publication.  He  returned  to  India 
in  181 7,  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and,  as 
second  in  command,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Mehidpoor,  where  Holkar  was  defeated.  For  several 
ensuing  years  he  governed  Malwa  and  the  adjacent 
provinces  in  a  manner  which  is  highly  commended.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1821,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Bombay  in  1827, 
and  resigned  that  post  about  the  end  of  1830.  Sir  John 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Political  History  of 
India,"  (from  1784  to  1823,)  and  left  a  "Life  of  Lord 
Clive,"  which  appeared  in  1836.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Admiral  Sir  Pulteney  Malcolm.     Died  in  1833. 

See  J.  W.  Kaye,  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  John  Mal- 
colm," 2  vols.,  1856;  "Qiianerly  Review"  for  April,  1816,  and  Juiy, 
1823  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1S12,  and  April,  1857  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Geiierale  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Malcolm,  (Sir  Pulteney,)  G.C.B.,  a  British  admiral, 
born  near  Langholm,  Scotland,  in  1768,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1778,  fought 
against  the  French  in  the  West  Indies,  and  was  made 
a  post-captain  in  1794.  He  escorted  the  army  of  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  to  Portugal  in  i8o8,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1813.  In  1816  and  181 7  he  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Saint  Helena  station,  where 
his  duty  called  him  into  intercourse  with  Bonaparte,  who 
expressed  himself  much  pleased  with  his  manners  and 
conduct.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  full  admiral 
in  1837.     Died  in  1838. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Mal'com,  (Howard,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1799,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Tract  Society  and  of  the  American  Sunday- 
School  Union.  In  1835  he  visited  India  and  China,  and 
on  his  return  published  "  Travels  in  South-Eastern  Asia," 
(1839.)  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible," 
which  had  an  extensive  circulation,  and  other  religious 
works.     Died  March  25,  1879. 

Malczewski,  mil-ch6v'skee,  written  also  Mal- 
czeski,  (Antoni,)  an  excellent  Polish  poet,  born  in  Vol- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  jMolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  Ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  ilx,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MALDACHINI 


1635 


MALET 


hynia  about  1792,  was  a  son  of  a  general  in  the  Russian 
service.  He  received  a  French  education,  and  entered 
the  army  in  i8u.  Having  quitted  the  army  in  1816,  he 
travelled  for  some  years,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Pole  that  ascended  Mont  Blanc.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  a  single  poem,  entitled  "Maria;  a  Tale  of 
the  Ukraine,"  (Warsaw,  1826,)  which  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  poems  in  the  Polish  language.  He  died  poor  at 
Warsaw  in  1826. 

See  BiELOwsKi,  "A.  Malczewski,"  etc.,  1S43. 

Maldachini  -  Pamfili,  mSl-dd-kee'nee  pSm-fee'lee, 
(Donna  Olimpia,)  an  Italian  woman,  noted  for  her  am- 
bition, vices,  and  political  influence,  was  born  at  Viterbo 
in  1594.  She  was  married  to  a  man  whose  brother,  J.  B. 
Pamfili,  was  elected  pope  in  1644  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Innocent  X.     Died  in  1656. 

Mai'den,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1800,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1822.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  in  University  College,  London,  about 
1830.      Died  July  4,  1876. 

Maldonado,  mil-do-nl'no,  (Lopez,)  a  Spanish  poet 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  contemporary  with  Cer- 
vantes, who  mentions  him  with  eulogy. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Maldonado,  (Lorenzo  Ferrer,)  a  navigator,  who 
was  born  probably  in  Spain.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of  a 
voyage  which  he  made,  or  pretended  to  have  made,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  through  Behring  Strait  in  1588. 
The  majority  of  geographers  have  discredited  his  story. 

See  F.  DB  Navarrete,  "  Historia  de  la  Nautica." 

Maldonat,  mil-do-nit',  [Lat.  Maldona'tus,](Juan,) 
a  celebrated  Spanish  theologian,  born  in  Estremadura 
in  1534.  Having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  he  went 
to  Paris  about  1564,  and  and  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  professor  of  theology.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
person  of  great  talents,  learning,  and  piety,  and  to  have 
written  Latin  with  much  purity.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Commentaries  on  the  Four  Evangelists," 
(1596,)  which,  says  Hallam,  "have  been  highly  praised 
by  theologians  of  the  Protestant  side."    Died  in  1583. 

See  Prat,  "  Maldonat  et  I'Universite  de  Paris,"  1857;  Bavle, 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nicekon,  "Memoires." 

Maldonatus.     See  Maldonat. 

Malebranche,  mtl'bR6Nsh',[Lat.  Malebran'chius,J 
(Nicolas,)  a  French  metaphysical  philosopher  of  great 
eminence,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  August,  1638. 
His  habits  in  youth  were  retired  and  studious.  He  became 
a  priest  of  the  Oratory  in  1660,  and  was  a  zealous  Carte- 
sian in  philosophy,  which  was  his  favourite  study.  In  1674 
he  produced  the  first  volume  of  his  admirable  and  original 
"Search  for  Truth,"  ("  Recherche  de  la  Verite,")  which 
was  quickly  and  highly  appreciated.  New  and  enlarged 
editions  of  it  rapidly  followed.  The  general  design  of 
this  work  is  to  demonstrate  the  harmony  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy  with  revealed  religion.  His  style  is  eminently 
pure,  perspicuous,  and  elegant,  having,  says  Fontenelle, 
"  all  the  dignity  which  the  subject  requires,  and  all  the 
grace  or  ornament  which  it  could  properly  receive." 
"He  was,"  says  Hallam,  "a  warm  and  almost  enthusi- 
astic admirer  of  Descartes,  but  his  mind  was  independent, 
searching,  and  fond  of  its  own  inventions  ;  he  acknow- 
ledged no  master,  and  in  some  points  dissents  from  the 
Cartesian  school.  .  .  .  The  fame  of  Malebranche,  and. 
Still  more,  the  popularity  in  modern  times  of  his  '  Search 
for  Truth,'  have  been  alTected  by  that  peculiar  hypothe- 
sis, so  mystically  expressed,  the  seeing  all  things  in  God, 
which  has  been  more  remembered  than  any  other  part 
of  that  treatise."  "  He  bears  a  striking  resemblance," 
adds  the  same  critic,  "  to  his  great  contemporary  Pascal. 
Both  of  ardent  minds,  endowed  with  strong  imagination 
and  lively  wit,  sarcastic,  severe,  fearless,  disdainful  of 
popular  opinion  and  accredited  reputations.  .  .  .  But 
in  Malebranche  there  is  a  less  overpowering  sense  of 
religion  ;  his  eye  roams  unblenched  in  the  light  before 
which  that  of  Pascal  had  been  veiled  in  awe.  He  has 
less  energy,  but  more  copiousness  and  variety."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  "This  ingenious 
philosopher  and  beautiful  writer,"  says  Mackintosh,  "  is 
the  only  celebrated  Cartesian  who  has  professedly 
handled   the  Theory  of  Morals.  .  .  .  The   manner  in 


which  he  applied  his  principles  to  the  particulars  of 
human  duty  is  excellent.  He  is  perhaps  the  first  phi- 
losopher who  has  precisely  laid  down,  and  rigidly  ad- 
hered to,  the  great  principle  that  virtue  consists  in  pure 
intentions  and  disfositions  of  mi7id,  without  which  actions, 
however  confonnable  to  rules,  are  not  truly  moral."  He 
was  involved  in  a  long  and  intemperate  controversy  with 
Arnauld  on  the  theory  of  ideas  and  on  the  doctrine  of 
grace. 

In  1687  he  combined  all  the  parts  of  his  system,  and 
developed  them  more  fully,  in  "  Conversations  on  Meta- 
physics and  Religion,"  ("Entretiens  sur  la  Metaphysique 
I  et  la  Religion.")  He  was  author  of  other  religious  and 
I  mystical  works,  among  which  are  "  Christian  and  Meta- 
physical Meditations,"  (1683,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Mo 
rality,"  ("Traite  de  Morale,"  1684.)  He  gave  proof  of 
his  profound  attainments  as  a  geometer  by  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Communication  of  Motion."  Died  at  Paris  in 
October,  1715. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  filoge  de  Malebranche ;"  Mackintosh, 
"View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy;"  J.  E.  Erdmann, 
"Malebranche,  Spinoza  und  die  Sceptiker  und  Mystiker  des  sieb- 
zehnten  Jahrhimderts,"  1836;  Karl  Relstag,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Malebranchio  Philosopho,"  1846;  Nic^ron,  "Memoires;"  "  Nou- 
1  velle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

!      Malebranchius.     See  Malei?ranche. 

Maieguzzi-Valeri,  mS-li-goot'see  vS-la'ree,  (Verc- 
nica,)  Countess,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  gifted 
women  of  Italy,  was  born  at  Reggio,  Lombardy,  in  1630. 
She  wrote  a  drama  called  "  Innocence  Recognized." 
Died  in  1690. 

M^'ek-Ibn-Anas,  mS'lek  ib'n  in'as,  the  chief  or 
founder  of  one  of  the  four  Moslem  sects  which  are  ac- 
counted orthodox,  was  born  at  Medina  in  714  A.D.  His 
doctrines,  of  which  he  published  an  explanation,  were 
generally  adopted  by  the  Mussulmans  of  Spain,  Egypt, 
and  Barbary.     Died  about  795. 

See  Hammer-Pi'rgstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber;" 
"  Nmivelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Malek-Shah.     See  Malik-Shah. 

Malela.     See  Malala. 

Malermi,  m^-lCR'mee,  or  Malerbi,  mi-l&R'bee,  (Nic- 
col6,)  an  Italian  translator,  born  in  Venice  in  1422.  He 
produced  (1471)  the  first  Italian  version  of  the  Bible 
that  was  ever  printed. 

Malesherbes,  de,  deh  mSl'ziRb',  (Chretien  Guil- 
laume  de  Lamoignon — It'mwtn'ydN',)  a  meritorious 
French  judge  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Paris  in  1721, 
was  a  son  of  Chancellor  de  Lamoignon.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  was  chosen  a  counsellor  in  the  Parliament, 
and  in  1750  became  president  of  the  Cour  des  Aides.  He 
was  directeur  de  la  librairie,  or  censor  of  books,  from 
1750  to  1768,  and  was  praised  for  his  liberality  or  indul- 
gence by  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  and  the  Encyclopaedists. 
He  acquired  great  popularity  by  his  defence  of  the  Parlia- 
ment against  the  ministry  about  1772.  In  1775,  having 
been  indicated  by  the  public  voice,  he  was  appointed  a 
colleague  of  Turgot  in  the  new  ministry,  as  minister  of 
the  king's  household  and  of  the  police,  but  he  resigned 
in  1776,  when  Turgot  was  dismissed.  He  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  1775,  though  he  had  not  pro 
duced  any  purely  literary  work.  He  was  author  oi 
treatises  on  rural  economy  and  finances,  and  of  a  "Me- 
moir on  the  Liberty  of  the  Press."  When  Louis  XVI. 
was  arraigned  by  the  Convention  in  1792,  Malesherbes 
generously  offered  to  him  his  services  as  counsel,  which 
were  accepted.  This  act  of  fidelity  having  rendered  him 
suspected  by  the  terrorists,  he  was  executed  in  April, 
1794.  His  virtues  are  warmly  eulogized  by  both  royal- 
ists and  republicans. 

See  Delisle  de  Sales,  "Memoires  sur  la  Vie  publique  et  priv^e 
de  Malesherbes,"  1803;  Gaillard,  "Vie  ou  filoge  hislorique  de 
Malesherbes,"  180^;  J.  B.  Dubois,  "  Notice  sur  Lamoignon-Males- 
herbes,"  1S06 ;  BoissY  d'Anglas,  "  Essai  sur  ia  Vie,  etc.  de  Males- 
herbes," 2  vols..  1818  ;  C  P.  DuPLESSis,  "filogede  Malesherbes," 
1820;  DupiN  aTnb,  "  filoge  de  Lamoignon-Malesherbes,"  1841; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Malesherbes,"  in  "  Causeries  du  Liindi,"  tome  ii. 

Malet,  de,  deh  mt'li',  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French 
general  and  conspirator,  born  at  Dole  in  1754.  About 
1806  he  was  dismissed  from  the  service,  and  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  plotted  against  Bonaparte,  and  was  im- 
prisoned from  1808  to  1 81 2.  Having  formed  another 
conspiracy,  he  announced  at  the  barracks,  in  Paris,  on 


€3&k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jg^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MALEVJLL 


1636 


MALLEOmS 


the  24th  of  October,  181 2,  that  Bonaparte  had  died  in 
Russia,  and  that  he  (Malet)  had  been  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Paris  by  the  senate.  By  forged  orders  he  im- 
posed on  the  prefect  of  Paris,  made  Savary  prisoner,  and 
shot  General  Hullin.  At  this  crisis  his  audacity  was 
baffled  by  Laborde,  who  made  him  prisoner.  Malet  and 
his  accomplices  were  shot,  after  a  summary  process,  in 
October,  1812. 

See  Lafon,  "  Histoire  de  la  Conspiration  du  General  Malet," 
1814;  DouRiLLE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Conspiration  de  Malet,"  1840. 

Mal'e-vill  or  Mel'vill,  (Geoffrey,)  a  Scottish  states- 
man, became  lord  justiciary  of  Scotland  in  1171.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  held  that  office. 

Maleville,  de,  deh  mtl'viK,  (Jacques,)  Marquis,  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Perigord  in  1741.  He  aided  Por- 
talis  and  others  in  framing  the  Civil  Code,  about  1800, 
and  wrote  an  "  Analysis  of  the  Discussion  of  the  Civil 
Code,"  (4  vols.,  1805.)     Died  in  1824. 

Maleville,  de,  (L60N,)  a  French  advocate  and  poli- 
tician, born  at  Montauban  in  1803.  He  was  minister  of 
the  interior  for  a  short  time  in  December,  1848.  He 
was  a  moderate  royalist,  and  a  devoted  friend  of  Thiers. 
Died  March  29,  1879. 

Colonel  de  Maleville,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Domme  in  1813,  was  killed  at  Solferino  in  1859. 

Malezieu,  de,  deh  mSl'ze-yh',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1650.  He  was  a  friend  of  Fene- 
lon  and  Bossuet,  whose  influence  procured  for  him  the 
place  of  preceptor  of  the  Due  du  Maine.  He  after- 
wards taught  mathematics  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1701,  and  pub- 
lished "Elements  of  Geometry  for  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy," (1715.)     Died  in  1729. 

Maimatre  or  Malfiliatre,  de,  deh  mtl'fe'iatR', 
(Jacques  Charles  Louis,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Caen  in  1733.  He  composed  a  poem  on  the  "Transla- 
tion of  Elijah  to  Heaven,"  and  another  called  "  Narcissus 
in  the  Island  of  Venus,"  (1769,)  which  is  said  to  possess 
great  beauties.     Died  in  1767. 

See  De  Baudrh,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Malfilatre,"  1825  ; 
La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litti^rature." 

Malgaigne,  mtl'gin',  (Joseph  FRANgois,)  a  French 
medical  writer  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  about  1806. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Sur- 
gical Anatomy  and  Experimental  Surgery,"  (2  vols,, 
1838.)     Died  in  1865. 

Malherbe,  de,  deh  mt'liRb',  (  Francois,  )  a  dis- 
tinguished French  lyric  poet,  born  at  Caen  about  1555. 
He  served  several  campaigns  in  the  civil  wars  of  the 
League,  and  married  Madeleine  de  Carriolis  in  1581. 
In  1587  he  composed  his  first  work,  "  The  Tears  of  Saint 
Peter."  An  "  Ode  to  the  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis"  (1600) 
was  the  foundation  of  his  fame.  He  came  to  Paris  a  few 
years  later,  and  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Henry  IV. 
during  the  life  of  that  prince.  Malherbe  was  called  the 
poet  of  princes  and  the  prince  of  poets.  He  died  in  1628. 
"  He  was,"  says  La  Harpe,  "  the  first  [French]  model  of 
the  noble  style,  and  the  creator  of  lyric  poetry.  He  has 
its  enthusiasm,  its  movements,  and  its  tournures."  "  Mal- 
Mcrbe,"  says  Hallam,  "  gave  a  polish  and  a  grace  to  the 
iyric  poetry  of  France,  which  has  rendered  his  name  cele- 
brated in  her  criticism.  In  general,  we  find  in  his  poems 
neither  imagery  nor  sentiments  that  yield  us  delight." 
Comparing  him  with  Horace,  the  same  critic  remarks, 
"He  is  far  from  deficient  in  that  calm  philosophy  which 
forms  the  charm  of  the  Roman  poet."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

SeeKoux-ALPH^RAN,  "  Recherches  sur  Malherbe  et  sa  Famille," 
1840;  "Malherbe,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  by  M.  dk  Gournav, 
1852  ;  SAiNTE-BEitVE,  "Causeriesdu  Lundi,"  tome  viii. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Malhouet.     See  Malouet. 

Malibrau,  mS'le'bR6N',  (Maria  FelicitA,)  a  cele- 
brated singer  and  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1808,  was  the 
daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  a  Spanish  tenor  singer.  She 
made  her  d3ut  in  London  in  1825,  and  in  1826  visited 
New  York,  where  she  married  M.  Malibran,  a  banker. 
After  he  had  become  a  bankrupt,  she  separated  from  him 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  she  performed  with  complete 
success  in  1828.  In  Italy,  England,  and  Germany  she 
also  obtained  triumphs  almost  unexampled  in  the  his- 


tory of  artistes.  Her  voice  was  a  mezzo-soprano  of  great 
volume.  She  was  very  successful  as  an  actress.  She 
died  in  England  in  1836,  soon  after  a  second  marriage 
with  M.  de  Beriot,  a  violinist. 

See  FiiTis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Memoirs 
of  Madame  Malibran,"  by  the  Cot;NTEss  OF  Merlin. 

Malik  (mil'ik)  or  Melik,  m^l'ik.  El  Adel,  61  a'del, 
I.,  (Seif-ed-Deen  Aboobeker  Mohammed,  or  Saif- 
Eddyn  Aboubekr  Mohammed,  sif  ed-deen'  S'boo- 
bSk'er  mo-hS.m'med,)  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Damascus, 
born  at  Baalbec  in  1139,  was  a  brother  of  the  famous 
Saladin.  He  gained  victories  over  the  crusaders  in  11 74 
and  1187.  In  1201  he  became  Sultan  of  Egypt.  He 
extended  his  dominions  by  conquest  in  Syria.  Died 
in  1218. 
1       See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  iii. 

Malik-Shah,  mJl'ik  shSh,  written  also  Malek- 
(Malec-  or  Melek-)  Shah,  a  famous  Seljookide  sove-" 
reign,  the  son  of  Alp-Arslan,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1072. 
Under  Malik-Shah  the  Seljookian  empire  reached  its 
highest  point  of  power  and  glory.  His  character,  like 
that  of  his  father,  appears  to  have  been  singularly  noble. 
His  succession  to  the  throne  had  been  disputed  by  his 
brother  Toortoosh,  (Tourtousch.)  Before  giving  battle 
j  to  his  rival,  he  asked  his  minister,  Nizam-ool-Moolk,  as 
they  came  out  of  the  mosque  together,  what  he  had 
prayed  for.  "  I  have  prayed,"  answered  the  minister, 
"  that  God  would  give  you  the  victory  over  your  brother." 
"And  I,"  said  Malik-Shah,  "that  God  would  take  away 
my  life  and  crown,  if  my  brother  is  worthier  to  reign  than 
I."  Perhaps  the  only  stain  upon  the  character  of  this 
great  prince  is  his  having,  at  the  instigation  of  his  Sul- 
tana, the  Khatoon  Toorkan,  removed  from  ofiice  his 
minister,  the  illustrious  Nizam-ool-Moolk,*  to  whose 
wise  administration  the  empire  was  chiefly  indebted  for 
its  long-continued  prosperity.  Nizam-661-Moolk  died 
soon  after  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin.  Malik-Shah 
survived  his  minister  only  a  few  months.    He  died  in  1092. 

"There  is  no  instance,"  says  Sir  John  Malcolm,  "in 
Persian  history,  of  so  vast  an  empire  enjoying  so  long  a 
period  of  tranquillity.  The  kingdom  he  inherited,  which 
extended  from  the  plains  of  Tartary  to  those  of  Syria, 
was,  during  the  twenty  years  of  his  reign,  only  disturbed 
by  a  short  contest  with  his  uncle  and  brother.  .  .  .  Agri- 
culture was  promoted,  learning  was  encouraged ;  an  as- 
sembly of  astronomers  from  every  part  of  Malik-Shah's 
wide  dominions  were  employed  for  several  years  in  re- 
forming the  calendar." 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii. 

Malinche  or  Malintzin.     See  Marina. 

Malingre,  mt'l^NgR',  (Claude,)  a  French  histo- 
rian of  little  merit,  born  at  Sens  about  1580.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  French  history,  which  were  not  suc- 
cessful.    Died  about  16^3. 

Mallalieu,  mal-la-lu%  (Willard  Francis,)  D.D.,  an 
American  Methodist  bishop,  born  at  Sutton,  Massaclui- 
setts,  December  11,  1828.  He  graduated  at  the  Wes- 
leyan  University  in  1857,  became  a  preacher  in  the  same 
year,  and  for  some  time  was  presiding  elder  at  Boston. 
In  1884  he  was  chosen  a  bishop. 

Mal'la-ry,  (Charles,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  in 
Poultney,  Vermont,  in  1801,  removed  to  Georgia.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Mercer  Theological  Seminary, 
at  Penfield,  Georgia.     Died  July  31,  1864. 

Mallary,  (Rollin  Carlos,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in 
1784.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1819  until 
his  death,  in  1831. 

Mallemans,  mtl'mftN',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  noted 
for  singular  and  extravagant  opinions,  born  at  Beaune 
in  1649,  was  a  brother  of  Claude,  noticed  below.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  before  the  Reign  of 
Jovian,"  (1704,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1740. 

Mallemans  de  Mes.sanges,  mtl'mSN'  deh  mi'sSNzh', 
(Claude,)  a  French  savant,  born  at  Beaune  in  1653.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  for  thirty-four  years  at  the 
College  du  Plessis,  Paris.  He  published  "  A  Physical 
Treatise  on  the  World,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1723. 

Malleolus.     See  Hammerlein. 

*  This  name,  the  only  one  liyvhich  he  was  known,  signifies  the 
"regulator  of  the  state  or  kingdom." 


A,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  i"i,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  fdt;  m6t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MALLERY 


1637 


M ALONE 


Mallery,  de,  deh  mtl're',  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Antwerp  in  1576.  His  son  Philip,  born 
in  1600,  was  a  skilful  engraver. 

See  F.  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Mallet,  mt'14',  (Charles  Auguste,)  a  French  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Lille  in  1807.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Etudes  philosophiques,"  (2  vols.,  1837- 
38,)  which  gained  a  prize  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
wrote  numerous  articles  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale."     Died  March  28,  1876. 

Mal'let  or  Malloch,  mal'loK,  (David,)  a  Scottish 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Crieff,  in  Perthshire,  about 
1698,  was  the  son  of  James  Malloch.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1724,  and  changed  his  name  to  Mallet.  In 
1728  he  produced  "The  Excursion,"  a  poem,  and  in  1731 
"  Eurydice,"  a  tragedy.  He  became  intimate  with  Pope, 
who  procured  him  a  situation  as  travelling  tutor.  His 
tragedy  "  Mustapha"  (1739)  was  performed  with  ap- 
plause. About  1740  he  was  appointed  under-secretary 
to  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales.  Among  his  other  worka 
are  "  Amyntor  and  Theodora,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Bacon." 
He  is  censured  for  acting  as  the  venal  agent  of  Boling- 
broke  in  an  attempt  to  blast  the  memory  of  Pope,  (1749.) 
Died  in  1765.  "As  a  writer,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "he 
cannot  be  placed  in  any  high  class.  His  dramas  had 
their  day, — a  short  day, — and  are  forgotten  :  his  blank 
verse  seems  to  my  ear  the  echo  of  Thomson." 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  Ruffhead,  "  Life  of  Pope  ;" 
BosWELL,  "  Life  of  Johnson  ;"  Disraeli,  "  Quarrels  of  Authors  :" 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mallet,  (Edme,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Meluri 
in  1713.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  the  Study  of 
Belles-Lettres,"  and  translated  into  French  Davila's 
"  History."     Died  in  1755. 

Mallet,  mil'let,  (Fredrick,)  a  Swedish  writer  on 
science,  born  in  1 728,  was  for  many  years  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Upsal.  He  published  many  treatises 
between  1752  and  1774,  and  co-operated  with  Bergman 
in  a  general  description  of  the  earth.  Of  this  work 
Mallet  wrote  the  astronomical  part.     Died  in  1797. 

Mallet,  mt'l^',  (Jacques  Andr^,)  called  Mallet- 
Favre,  a  Swiss  astronomer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1740,  was 
a  favourite  pupil  of  Daniel  Bernoulli.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Geneva  about  1770,  and  built  an 
observatory  there.  He  wrote  memoirs  on  astronomy, 
mechanics,  etc.  for  the  Academy  of  Paris  and  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  Died 
in  1 790. 

See  PicoT,  "  filoge  de  J.  A.  Mallet,"  1790. 

Mallet,  (Paul  Henri,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1730.  He  taught  French  to  the  Prince-Royal 
of  Denmark,  (Christian  VII.,)  and  returned  to  Geneva 
in  1760.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the 
Academy  of  that  city.  Among  his  works  (in  French) 
are  "Monuments  of  the  Mythology  and  Poetry  of  the 
Celts,"  (1756,)  "Memoirs  on  the  Literature  of  the 
North,"  (6  vols.,  1760,)  and  a  "History  of  Denmark," 
(3  vols.,  1777,)  which  is  highly  esteemed  and  has  been 
translated  into  English,  German,  etc.     Died  in  1807. 

His  "  Introduction  a  rilistoire  de  Danemark"  was 
translated  into  English,  under  the  title  of  "Northern  An- 
tiquities," which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on 
Northern  mythology. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  De  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  P.  H.  Mallet,"  1807  : 
Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gini- 
rale;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1771. 

Mal'let,  (Robert,)  a  British  engineer  and  seismolo- 
gist, born  at  Dublin,  June  3,  1810.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1830.  His  numerous  reports, 
papers,  and  catalogues  on  earthquakes  (prepared  by  him 
with  the  aid  of  his  son.  Dr.  J.  W.  Mallet)  are  of  high 
importance.  He  invented  several  seismometers.  His 
largest  independent  work  is  "First  Principles  of  Obser- 
vational Seismology,"  (2  vols.,  1862.)  Died  in  London, 
November  5,  1881. 

Mallet-Dupan,  mt'lk'  dii'pftN',  (Jacques,)  a  distin- 
guished publicist  and  editor,  born  at  Geneva  in  1749. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  1782,  and  editor  of  a 
journal  called  "  Mercure  historique  et  politique,"  which 
was  very  successful.  In  the  Revolution  he  defended  the 
royalist  cause,  and  in  1792  was  compelled  to  suspend 


the  publication  of  the  "  Mercure,"  of  which  he  had 
written  the  political  editorials.  He  then  became  an 
exile,  and  in  1799  began  to  issue,  in  London,  the  "  Mer- 
cure Britannique,"  which  was  ranked  among  the  ablest 
political  journals  of  that  time.  Died  in  England  in  1800. 
See  "  M^moires  et  Correspondance  de  Mallet-Dupan,"  Paris, 
1851 ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Mallet-Prevost,  mt'li'pRi'vo',  (Henri,)  a  scientific 
Swi.ss  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1727.  He  published  a 
valuable  "  Metrologic  Manual,  or  Repertory  of  Weights, 
Measures,  and  Coins  of  Various  Nations,"  (1802,)  and  a 
"Description  of  Geneva,"  (1807.)  Died  in  i8ii.  He 
was  a  brother  of  Paul  Henri  Mallet,  noticed  above. 

Malleville,  de,  deh  mtl'vil',  (Claude,)  a  French 
minor  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1597,  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  Academic  Fran9aise.  "  He  seldom 
produced  a  finished  piece,"  says  Hallam,  "  though  not 
deficient  in  spirit  and  delicacy."  His  poems  are  son- 
nets, one  of  which  is  called  "  The  Fair  Early-Riser.'' 
("La  belle  Matineuse.")     Died  in  1647. 

Mallinkrot,  von,  fon  mil'lIn-kRot',  (Bernard,)  a 
German  philologist,  was  dean  of  the  chapter  of  Miinster. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Rise 
and  Progress  of  the  Art  of  Printing."     Died  in  1664. 

Mallio,  mil'le-o,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  writer  of  verse 
and  fiction,  born  at  Sant'  Elpidio  in  1756;  died  in  1831. 

Malloch.    See  Mallet,  (David.) 

Mal'lpck,  (William  Hurrell,)  an  English  authoi, 
a  nephew  of  the  historian  Froude,  was  born  in  Devon- 
siiire  in  1849.  He  graduated  with  high  honours  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Every 
Man  his  Own  Poet,"  (1872,)  "The  New  Republic,"  (1876, 
a  satirical  work  which  for  a  time  attracted  great  attention,) 
"The  New  Paul  and  Virginia,"  (1877,)  "Is  Life  Worth 
Living?"  (1879,)  "Poems,"  (1880,)  "A  Romance  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,"  (1881,)  and  "Social  Equality," 
(1882.) 

Mal'lo-ry,  (Stephen  R.,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  about  1810.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Florida  in  1850, 
and  re-elected  in  1856.  He  served  as  secretary  of  the 
navy  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March,  1861,  to 
1865.      Died  at  Pensacola,  November  9,  1873. 

Malmesbury,  Earl  of.     See  Harris,  (James.) 

Malmesbury,  mJms'ber-e,  (James  Howard  Har- 
ris,) third  Earl  of,  a  British  Tory  statesman,  a  grand- 
son of  the  first  Earl  of  Malmesbury,  was  born  in  1807. 
He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  at  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1841,  before  which  he  was  styled  Lord  Fitzharris. 
In  February,  1852,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  Derby  ministry,  which  was  dissolved  in 
December  of  that  year.  He  again  became  foreign  secre- 
tary under  Lord  Derby  in  1858,  and  on  the  formation 
of  the  Liberal  ministry  in  June,  1859,  was  succeeded  by 
Lord  John  Russell.  He  edited  the  "  Diaries  and  Official 
Correspondence  of  the  First  Earl  of  Malmesbury,"  (1844.) 
From  1866  to  1868  and  from  1874  to  1876  he  was  lord 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal.     Died  May  17,  1889. 

Malmesbury,  (William  of,)  an  old  English  histo- 
rian, who  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Somerset- 
shire about  1095.  He  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery 
of  Malmesbury,  where  he  held  the  office  of  librarian. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  England  fron? 
4';o  to  1127,"  ("De  Gestis  Regum  Anglorum,")  "Recent 
History,"  ("  Historia  Novella,")  wherein  he  relates  events 
of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness,  and  a  "  History  of  the 
English  Prelates,"  ("  De  Gestis  Pontificum."  )  These  are 
highly  prized  for  accuracy,  veracity,  and  critical  judg- 
ment.    He  died  in  or  after  1143. 

Malmstrom  or  Malmstroem,  mSlm'stRom,  (Elis,) 
a  Swedish  poet,  born  in  1816.  He  published  a  collection 
of  elegies  entitled  "Angelica,"  (1840,)  and  an  epic  poem 
of  "Ariadne."     Died  at  Stockholm  in  June,  1865. 

Malombra,  ml-lom'bRS,(PiETRO,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  in  1556.  He  was  successful  in  portraits  and  in 
historical  pictures.     Died  in  1618. 

Ma-lone',  (Edmund,)  an  Irish  critic,  chiefly  distin- 
guished as  an  editor  and  commentator  of  Shakspeare, 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1741.  Having  inherited  an  easy 
fortune,  he  removed  to  London  and  devoted  himself  to 


€.3&k;  9asj,-  ^hard:  gas/;  G,  h,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  th  zsmthis.     (JJI^^'See  Explanations,  p.  2^.) 


MALORY 


163S 


MALTZAN 


/iterature.  He  associated  with  Dr.  Johnson,  Burke,  and 
other  eminent  authors.  In  1790  he  published  his  edition 
of  Shakspeare,  with  commentaries.  lie  excelled  Stee- 
vens,  a  rival  commentator,  in  candour  and  love  of  truth  ; 
but  "neither  seems,"  says  Hallam,  "to  have  had  a  full 
discernment  of  Shakspeare's  genius."  Malone  published 
an  edition  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  works,  with  a  Me- 
moir of  his  Life,  (1797,)  and  other  works.  He  died  in 
1812,  leaving  unfinished  an  improved  edition  of  Shak- 
speare, since  published,  (1821.) 

See  Tames  IIoswhm.,  "  Diographical  Memoir  of  Edmund  Ma- 
lone;" Sir  Jamks  Prior,  "Life  of  Edmund  Malone,"  i860; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1793. 

Mal'9-ry,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  Welsh  or  English  knight, 
born  about  1430.  He  is  noted  as  the  compiler  and  trans- 
lator (from  the  French)  of  the  English  "  Morte  Darthur," 
begun  about  1461  and  finished  about  1470.  He  was 
probably  a  priest.  His  book  was  printed  by  Caxton  in 
1485.  It  is  a  noble  prose  epic,  and  its  appearance  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  English  literature. 

Malou,  mt'loo',  (Julius,)  a  Belgian  statesman  and 
leader  of  the  Catholic  party,  born  at  Ypres  in  1810;  died 
in  1886.      He  became  minister  of  finance  in  1845. 

Malouet  orMalhouet,  mt'loo'i',  (Pierre  Victor,) 
a  French  statesman,  born  at  Riom  in  1740.  In  1789  he 
was  elected  to  the  States-General,  where  he  became 
prominent  as  a  liberal  royalist  and  co-operated  with 
Clermont-Tonnerre.  He  took  refuge  in  England  in 
1792,  returned  about  1802,  and  was  chosen  a  councillor 
of  state  in  1810.     Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Malouin,  mt'loo-^N',  (  Paul  Jacques,  )  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Caen  in  1701.  He  be- 
came professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  Paris, 
in  1745,  wrote  many  articles  on  that  science  for  the 
"  Encyclopedic,"  and  published  an  esteemed  work  on 
"Medical  Chemistry,"  (1750.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.     Died  in  1778. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  filoge  de  P.  J.  Malouin  ;"  "  Biographie  M^di- 
cale." 

Malpighi,  mJl-pee'gee,  (Marcello,)  [Lat.  Marcel'- 
LUS  Malpig'hius,]  a  celebrated  Italian  anatomist  and 
naturalist,  born  near  Bologna  in  1628.  Having  gradu- 
ated as  a  physician  in  1653,  he  became  professor  at  Pisa 
in  1656,  and  at  Messina  about  1664.  He  published,  be- 
tween 1661  and  1665,  treatises  "On  the  Lungs,"  ("De 
Pulmonibus,")  "  On  the  Tongue,"  ("  De  Lingua,")  anc 
"On  the  Brain,"  ("  De  Cerebro.")  Malpighi  was  the 
first  who  used  the  microscope  in  the  study  of  anatomy. 
In  1670  he  returned  to  Bologna,  and  wrote  an  important 
work  on  the  anatomy  of  plants,  "Anatome  Plantarum," 
(1675,)  a  science  which  was  first  cultivated  by  Grew  and 
Malpighi.  He  made  discoveries  in  the  structure  of  the 
skin  and  glands.  In  1691  he  was  chosen  chief  physician 
to  Pope  Innocent  XII.     He  died  in  Rome  in  1694. 

See  Regis,  "Vita  Malpif;hii,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opera  posthuma," 
1698;  Fabroni,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctvina  excellentiuni  ;"  G.  Atti, 
"  Notizie  biografiche  di  M.  Malpiehi,"  etc.,  1847:  Nic^ron,  "  M^- 
nioires;"  Cuvier,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "  Nouvell'' 
Biographie  Generale." 

Malpighius.     See  Malpighi. 

Malsbiirg,  mils'booRO,  (Ernst  Friedrich  Georg 
Otto,)  Baron,  a  German  litteratem;  born  at  Hanau  in 
1786,  translated  Calderon's  dramas  into  German,  and 
published  a  number  of  religious  poems.     Died  in  1824 

Mait'by,  (Edward,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Norwich  in  1770.  He  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in 
1836,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Died 
in  1859. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1820. 

Malte-Brun,mault'brun'ormSrteh-briaN',(CoNRAD,) 
a  Danish  author  and  geographer  of  great  merit  and  celeb- 
rity, was  born  at  Thister,  Jutland,  in  1775.  His  original 
name,  Malthe  Conrad  Bruun,  (bRoon,)  was  changed 
by  the  French  into  Malte-Brun,  by  which  he  is  now 
universally  known.  He  had  a  great  facility  for  learning 
languages,  and  wrote  French  with  an  ease  and  elegance 
which  perhaps  no  other  foreigner  ever  acquired.  In  his 
snthusiasm  for  liberty,  he  wrote  some  political  articles, 
for  which  he  was  banished  in  1796.  He  composed  several 
admired  odes ;  that  on  the  death  of  Count   Bernstorf 


is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Danish  language. 
Induced  partly  by  admiration  of  Napoleon,  he  became 
an  adopted  citizen  of  France  about  1800.  In  1806  he 
was  engaged  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Journal  des 
Debats"  of  Paris,  for  which  he  wrote,  during  many  years, 
able  articles  on  foreign  politics,  history,  languages,  science, 
etc.  Malte-Brun  and  Eyries  edited  in  1808  the  "  An- 
nals of  Voyages  of  Geography  and  of  History,"  ("Annales 
des  Voyages  de  la  Geographic  et  de  I'PIistoire.")  Be- 
fore this  period  he  had  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to 
the  science  of  geography,  in  which  he  surpassed  all  his 
predecessors  by  his  happy  union  of  philosophy  with  a 
highly  poetic  imagination.  In  i8ic  he  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  work,  "  A  System  of  Universal 
Geography,"  ("  Precis  de  la  Geographic  universe!!'.-,") 
the  plan  of  which  was  too  vast  for  one  man  to  execute 
The  sixth  volume  was  finished  in  1825.  Exhausted  with 
excessive  labour  and  study,  he  died  in  December,  1826, 
leaving  his  task  unfinished.  The  language  of  this  work 
is  graphic,  picturesque,  and  at  times  highly  poetical.  In 
order  to  complete  the  plan,  two  more  volumes  were  sub- 
sequently added  by  M.  Huot.  There  is  a  good  English 
version  of  Malte-Brun's  Geograpliy,  by  J.  G.  Percival,  tht 
American  poet  and  savant. 

See  BoRV  de  Saint-Vincent,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  M. 
Malte-Brun,"  1827;  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  Ersi.ew, 
"  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Malte-Brun,  (Victor  Adolphe,)  a  geographer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  i8i6.  He 
became  professor  of  history  at  Pamiers  in  1838.  Me 
published  a  new  edition  of  his  father's  Geography,  (8 
vols.,  1852-55.)     Died  in  1889. 

Mal'thus,  (Thomas  Robert,)  an  English  political 
economist,  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  Malthusian 
theory,  was  Ijorn  near  Dorking,  Surrey,  in  1766.  He 
graduated  as  M.A.  at  Cambridge  in  1797,  took  orders, 
and  settled  in  a  parisli  near  his  native  place.  In  1798 
he  controverted  the  theories  of  Godwin  and  others  on 
the  progress  and  perfectibility  of  human  nature,  in  his 
"  Essay  on  the  Principle  of  Population  as  it  affects  the 
Future  Improvement  of  Society."  Much  attention  was 
excited  by  his  fundamental  principle,  that  population 
tends  to  increase  in  geometrical  progression,  and  that 
the  supply  of  food  and  other  necessaries  of  life  can  only 
be  increased  in  an  arithmetical  progression.  After  ex- 
ploring several  countries  of  Europe  in  search  of  facts  to 
confirm  his  system,  he  published  in  1803  an  enlarged 
edition  of  his  essay.  His  principles  were  approved  by 
many  statesmen  and  political  economists.  From  1805 
until  his  death  he  was  professor  of  modern  history  and 
political  economy  in  the  college  at  Haileybury.  He  was 
author  of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Progress  of 
Rent,"  (1815,)  "  Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1S20,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1834. 

See  Ottek,  "Memoir  of  Mnkhus;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  fur  January,  1837;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  1803.  January,  1S04,  and  May,  1821. 

Maltitz,  mSl'tits,  (Franz  Friedrich,)  Baron,  a 
Russian  statesman,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  1794, 
was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  of  Russia  at  the 
Hague.  He  was  the  author  of  poems  and  dramas,  (in 
German,)  and  wrote  a  continuation  of  Schiller's  "  Deme- 
trius." 

Maltiz,  mll'tits,  (Apollonius,)  ^litterateur zx\A  diplo- 
matist, of  German  extraction,  born  in  1795,  was  ambas- 
sador from  the  Russian  court  to  Lisbon.  He  wrote 
tales,  plays,  epigratns,  and  poems.     Died  March  2,  1S70. 

Maltiz,  mil'tits,  (Gotthilf  August,)  Baron,  a 
German  writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1794,  published 
several  dramas,  and  a  political  satire  entitled  "  Pepper- 
Corns,"  ("  Pfefferkorner.")     Died  in  1837. 

Mai'tpn,  (Thomas,)  an  English  geometer  and  artist, 
born  between  1735  and  1750,  lived  in  London.  He 
published  about  1776  a  "Complete  Treatise  on  Per- 
spective," which  is  highly  commended.  He  also  pub- 
lished various  engravings,  designed  by  himself,  among 
which  were  "  Views  of  London."     Died  about  1802. 

Maltzau,  von,  fon  mait'san,  (IIeinrich  Karl  Eck- 
HARDT  Hellmuth,)  Baron  von  Wartenburg-Penzlin, 
a  German  traveller  and  ethnologist,  born  near  Dres- 
den, September  6,  1826.  He  studied  law  in  Jena.  He 
travelled  largely  in  North  Africa,  Arabia,  etc.,  and  pub- 


a,  e,  i,  6.  u.  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tar,  fill,  fitj  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MALUS 


1639 


MANARA 


lished  "Three  Years  in  the  North-West  of  Africa," 
(1863,)  "  Meine  Wallfahrt  nach  Mecca,"  {1865,)  "  Reise 
in  Tunis  unci  Tripolis,"  (1870,)  "Reise  in  Arabien," 
(1873,)  and  other  works,  containing  much  valuable  lin- 
guistic and  scientific  material.  Died  by  suicide  at  Pisa, 
February  22,  1874. 

Malus,  mt'liis',  (Etienne  Louis,)  an  eminent  French 
optician  and  military  engineer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1775. 
He  became  a  student  of  the  Polytechnic  School  about 
1794,  and,  aided  by  the  tuition  of  Monge,  made  great 
progress  in  mathematics.  "Of  all  the  pupils  who  then 
attended  that  school,"  says  Biot,  "  he  showed  himself 
the  first  in  application  and  talents."  In  1798  he  accom- 
panied as  engineer  the  army  to  Egypt,  and  was  employed 
at  the  sieges  of  Jaffa,  Cairo,  etc.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1801,  devoted  his  leisure  to  analytic  optics,  and  pub- 
lished an  exxellent  "Traite  d'Optique."  In  1808  the 
Institute  proposed  a  prize  for  a  memoir  on  the  double 
refraction  of  crystals.  Malus  won  this  prize,  after  a  mul- 
titude of  experiments,  in  which  he  happened  to  make 
one  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  physical 
science, — viz.,  the  property  or  phenomenon  which  he 
named  the  "polarization  of  light."  He  was  elected  to 
the  Institute,  and  in  1811  received  the  Rumford  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  the  discovery  just 
named.  He  was  chosen  examiner  for  physics  and  geome- 
try at  the  Polytechnic  School.  "  While  thus  surrounded," 
as  Biot  observes,  "  with  numerous  friends  who  appre- 
ciated his  genius,  honoured  with  eminent  positions  to 
which  his  talents,  services,  and  probity  had  raised  him, 
already  celebrated  for  great  discoveries,"  etc.,  he  died 
prematurely,  in  February,  181 2. 

See  Arago,  "  Notices  biographiques,"  vol.  iii.  ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Malvasia,  mSl-vS-see'i,  (Carlo  Cesare,)  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bologna  in  1616,  was  versed 
in  law,  medicine,  and  theology.  He  became  professor 
of  law  in  the  University  of  Bologna,  and  published,  be- 
.sides  numerous  other  works,  one  on  the  Bolognese 
painters,  "  Felsina  Pittrice,  Yite  e  Ritratti  de'  Pittori 
Bolognesi,"  (1678.)     Died  in  1693. 

See  Crespi,  "  Vita  di  C.  C.  Malvasia." 

Malvenda,  mil-v§n'dd,  (Tomas,)  a  learned  Spanish 
Dominican,  born  at  Xativa  in  1566,  was  a  good  Hebrew 
scholar.  He  lived  at  Rome  and  Valencia.  He  wrote  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Old  Testament,"  with  a  literal 
Latin  version,  and  a  "Commentarius  de  Paradise," 
("Account  of  Paradise.")     Died  in  1628. 

Malvezad,  mSl-vSt'see,  (Virgilio,)  Marquis,  an 
Italian  author,  born  at  Bologna  in  1599.  He  served  in 
the  Spanish  army,  and  was  sent  as  aiiibassador  to  Eng- 
land by  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
historical  and  political  works,  "A  Life  of  Romulus,"  and 
a  "Life  of  Tarquin  the  Proud."     Died  in  1654. 

Malvoisine.     See  Mawmoisine. 

Malzel  or  Maelzel,  melt'sel,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  a 
German  mechanician,  noted  for  ingenuity,  was  born  at 
Ratisbon  in  1772.  He  made  an  automaton,  called  the 
Panharmoiiicon,  which  could  play  many  instruments  at 
once,  and  invented  a  metronome,  which  is  useful  to  musi- 
cians. He  afterwards  lived  in  the  United  States.  Died 
at  sea,  July  21,  1838. 

Mamachi,  mi'mi-kee,  (Tommaso  Maria,)  a  monk, 
born  in  the  isle  of  Scio  in  1713.  He  went  to  Rome  in 
1740,  and  became  professor  in  the  College  of  the  Propa- 
ganda. He  wrote  "  On  the  Oracles  of  the  Heathen," 
(1738,)  and  "Christian  Antiquities,"  ("Origines  et  Anti- 
quitates  Christianse,"  4  vols.,  I749-55-)    Died  in  1792. 

Mambelli,  mdm-bel'lee,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian 
grammarian,  born  at  Forli  in  1582  ;  died  in  1644. 

Mambrun,  mdN'bRiiN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  critic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1600.  He 
became  a  Jesuit,  and  taught  philosophy  at  Caen  and 
theology  at  La  Fleche  with  a  high  reputation.  Taking 
Virgil  for  his  model,  he  composed  Latin  eclogues,  an 
epic  poem  called  "  Constantinus,"  (1658,)  and  an  "  Essay 
on  Epic  Poetry."  His  epic  obtained  a  transient  favour 
vith  the  public.     Died  in  1661. 

Mameli,  mi-ma'lee,  (Goffredo,)  an  accomplished 
poet,  called  "the  Italian  Korner,"  was  born  at  Genoa  in 
1826,  and  was  killed  at  Rome  in  1849  while  fighting  the 


French.  The  patriotic  song  "  Fratelli  altalia"  is  his 
most  celebrated  piece. 

Ma-mei'cus  [Gr.  Md/ifp/cofJ  was  tyrant  of  Catana 
when  Timoleon  invaded  Sicily  in  344  B.C.  He  formed 
an  alliance  with  Hicetas  and  the  Carthaginians  against 
Timoleon,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  executed  about 
338  B.C. 

Mamiani,  ma-me-i'nee,  (Terenzio  della  Rovere,) 
Count,  an  Italian  philosopher  and  poet,  born  at  Pesaro 
about  1802.  He  produced  "Nuove  Poesie,"  (1836,)  and 
"  Dialoghi  di  Scienza  prima,"  (1846.)  He  was  minister 
of  the  interior  and  president  of  the  ministry  at  Rome 
from  May  to  July,  1848.  In  politics  he  was  a  moderate 
Liberal,  and  opposed  to  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope, 
on  which  he  published  an  able  work,  "  Del  Papato," 
(1851.)  Pie  became  minister  of  public  instruction  under 
Victor  Emmanuel  in  i860,  was  ambassador  to  Greece  in 
1861,  and  minister  to  Switzerland  in  1865.    Died  in  1885. 

Mammaea,  mam-mee'a,  or  Mamasa,  ma-mee'a,  (Ju- 
lia,) a  Roman  lady  or  princess,  born  at  Emesa,  was  the 
daughter  of  Julia  Maesa,  and  the  aunt  of  Elagabalus.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Gessius  Marcianus  and  the  mother 
of  Alexander  Severus,  whose  moral  education  she  guarded 
with  watchful  diligence.  Severus  having  been  chosen 
emperor  in  222  A.D.,  she  acted  as  regent  during  his 
minority.  She  and  her  son  were  assassinated  by  the 
partisans  of  Maximin  in  235  a.d. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Mamoou,  Mamoun,  or  Mamiin,  Al,  il-ma'moon', 
( Abool-  (or  Abul-)  Abbas-Abdallah,  i'bool'  ab'bSs' 
jb-dil'lih,)  the  seventh  Abbasside  caliph,  was  born  at 
Bagdad  in  786  A.D.,  and  was  the  son  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  After  defeating  his  brother  Alameen  in  battle, 
he  ascended  the  throne  in  813.  His  reign  was  disturbed 
by  rebellions  excited  by  princes  of  the  race  of  Alee  and 
others.  He  enforced  by  persecution  the  dogma  that  the 
Koran  was  created  and  not  eternal,  which  was  considered 
heretical  by  many  of  the  Moslem  doctors.  While  he 
was  prosecuting  a  war  against  the  Greek  emperor  The- 
ophilus  in  Cilicia,  he  died,  in  833,  leaving  his  extensive 
empire  to  his  brother  Motassem.  Mamoon  was  cele- 
brated as  a  patron  of  science  and  literature,  and  was 
praised  by  Eastern  writers  for  his  talents  and  liberality. 
He  founded  colleges,  collected  Greek  and  Hindoo  manu- 
scripts, which  were  translated  at  his  expense,  and  invited 
the  scholars  and  savants  of  all  nations  to  his  cai^ital, 
(Bagdad,)  then  the  great  centre  of  learning  and  science 
in  the  world. 

See  Hammer-Purgstall,  "Lit»-ratiir;;escliiclite  der  Araber;" 
Aboolfeda,  "  .\nnales  Moslemici ;"  Ei.macin,  "Historia  Sara- 
cenorum  :"  Conde,  "Historia  de  la  Doniinacion  de  los  Arabes;" 
Weil,  "  Gescliichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vii.  ;  Casiri,  "  Biblio- 
'heca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Mamoun.     See  Mamoon. 

Mamun.     See  Mamoon. 

Ma-mu'ri-us  Ve-tu'ri-us,  a  worker  in  brass  at 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Numa,  was  employed  to  make 
other  shields  exactly  like  the  one  which  was  said  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven.  He  asked  no  other  reward 
but  that  his  name  might  be  sung  at  the  feast  of  the  An- 
cilia,  (shields.) 

Ma-raur'ra,  a  Roman  knight,  was  the  commander 
of  the  engineers  in  Julius  Caesar's  army  in  Gaul.  He 
amassed  a  large  fortune. 

Man  or  Maan,  min,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1621.  Having  studied  and 
worked  in  Rome  and  Venice  some  years,  he  settled  at 
Delft.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  his  style  is  said  to 
nave  resembled  that  of  Titian.  His  portraits  of  surgeons 
and  physicians  in  the  Surgeons'  Hall  of  Delft  are  highly 
praised.     Died  in  1706. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Manaigo,  mJ-nl'go,  (Silvestro,)  a  historical  painter, 
born  in  Venice  about  1680. 

Manara,  vcA-vA.'x^,  (Prospero,)  Marquis,  an  Itali;m 
writer,  born  at  Taro,  near  Parma,  in  17 14.  He  became 
a  councillor  of  state,  and  afterwards  prime  minister  i>f 
the  Prince  of  Parma.  He  translated  into  Italian  verse 
Virgil's  "Georgics"  and  "  Eclogues,"  and  wrote  sonnets, 
eclogues,  and  other  short  poems.     Died  in  1800. 

See  Antonio  Cerati,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Manara,"  1801. 


:as/&;  9asj;  ghard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  K,  .?7<//«nz/;  N,fMsa/;  n,  triHea;  sa.sz;  thasinMw.     (E^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANAKDI 


1640 


MANDEL 


Manardi,  mi-naKMee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician   and    writer,  born   at    P'errara   in  1462 ;   died   in 

1536. 

Manasse.     See  Manasseh. 

Ma-nas'seh  or  Ma-nas'seS,  [Heb.  nt^JO  ;  Fr.  Ma- 
NASS^,  nit'nS'si',]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  born  in  Egypt 
about  1 712  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Asenath. 
(See  Genesis  xli.  51.)  His  descendants  formed  two  half- 
tribes  among  the  tribes  of  Israel,  one  on  the  east,  the 
other  to  the  west,  of  the  river  Jordan. 

Mauasseh,  [Heb.  riK'JO,]  King  of  Judah,  the  son  of 
Hezekiah,  was  twelve  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded 
his  father,  in  697  B.C.  Having  forsaken  the  true  worship 
and  become  an  open  idolater,  he  was  taken  captive  by 
the  King  of  Assyria,  and  detained  at  Babylon  some 
years.  He  repented,  and  was  restored  to  his  kingdom. 
After  a  reign  of  fifty-five  years,  he  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Amon. 

See  II.  Kings  xxi.  and  II.  Chronicles  xxxiii. 

Ma-nas'sei,  (Constantine,)  a  Greek  writer  of  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  a  general  chronicle,  in  verse,  from 
the  creation  to  the  year  1081  a.d.  It  is  of  some  value 
for  the  history  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 

Ma-nas'ses  Ben-Jo'seph-Ben-Is'rael,  a  learned 
Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  Spain  about  1604.  He  resided 
mostly  at  Amsterdam.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"On  the  Harmony  of  the  Scriptures,"  ("De  Convenien- 
tia  Locorum  Sanctae  Scripturae,"  etc,)  and  "The  Hope 
of  Israel,"  ("  Spes  Israelis.")     Died  in  1659. 

Man'by,  (Captain  George  William,)  a  British 
officer,  born  in  N(jrfolk  in  1765.  Having  entered  the 
army,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  About  1808 
he  invented  a  mode  of  saving  life  by  shooting  from  a 
mortar  a  rojie  to  mariners  shipwrecked  near  the  coast. 
Several  crews  having  been  rescued  by  this  means,  the 
government  provided  mortars  and  other  apparatus  at 
numerous  stations,  and  presented  to  Captain  Manby 
several  sums,  amounting  to  ;^70oo.     Died  in  1854, 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1S23. 

Man'ches-ter,  (Sir  Edward  Momtagu,)  Earl  of, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1602,  was  the  son  of  Henry, 
first  Earl  of  Manchester.  He  was  styled  Lord  Kimbolton 
before  his  father's  death,  (1642.)  Having  joined  the 
opposition  to  the  court  about  1640,  he  acquired  great 
popularity.  In  1642  he  was  impeached  for  treason,  with 
Hampden  and  four  other  members  of  Parliament,  whom 
the  king  attempted  to  seize  in  the  House.  He  was 
appointed  a  general  of  the  army  of  Parliament  in  1643, 
and  co-operated  with  Fairfax  at  the  victory  of  Marston 
Moor,  (1644.)  Manchester  and  Essex  were  charged  by 
Cromwell  with  temporizing  and  with  being  averse  to  a 
decisive  victory  of  the  popular  party,  and  the  command 
was  taken  from  them  by  the  "  Self-denying  Ordinance," 
(1644.)  At  the  restoration  (1660)  he  was  appointed  lord 
chamberlain  by  Charles  II.  Died  in  1671.  "He  was 
distinguished,"  says  Hume,  "by  humanity,  generosity, 
and  every  amiable  virtue." 

See  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Lodge,  "  Por- 
traits of  Illustrious  Personages." 

Manchester,  (Henry  Montagu,)  first  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1562.  He  became  lord  chief 
justice  about  161 7,  and  lord  treasurer  of  England  in 
1620.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Manchester  in  1626 
Died  in  1642. 

Manchoo  or  Manchu  Khan.  See  Mangoo. 

Mancinelli,  mdn-che-nel'lee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Velletri  in  1452.  He  taught  grammar  at 
Rome,  Venice,  etc.,  and  wrote  several  works  on  gram- 
mar. He  was  author  of  "  The  Mirror  of  Morality," 
("Speculum  de  Moribus,")  "Carmen  de  Vita  sua,"  (a 
poem  on  his  own  life,)  and  other  poems.  Died  about 
1506. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Nic^ron 
"  M^moires." 

Mancini,  man-chee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  the  Romagna  in  1725.  He  worked  in 
Rome,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  best  painters  of  his 
time.     Died  in  1758. 

Mancini,    (Hoktensia,)    Duchess    of    Mazarin,    an 


Italian  lady  of  remarkable  beauty,  born  at  Rome  in 
1646,  was  a  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  refused  to 
give  her  in  marriage  to  Charles  II.  of  England,  then  an 
exile.  She  made  in  1661  an  ill-assorted  marriage  with 
the  French  Due  de  la  Meilleraie,  who  then  received  the 
title  of  the  Due  de  Mazarin.  She  soon  separated  from 
him,  and  lived  many  years  in  London,  where  her  house 
was  the  resort  of  men  of  wit  and  pleasure.  Died  in 
1699.  According  to  Macaulay,  she  was  one  of  the  sul- 
tanas of  Charles  II.  in  the  la"^!  years  of  his  reign. 
See  A.  Renke,  "Les  Nieces  de  Mazarin." 

Mancini,  (Louis  Jules  )     See  Nivernais. 

Mancini,  (Maria,)  Princess  of  Colonna,  a  sister  of 
Hortensia,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1640, 
and  was  a  daughter  of  Cardinal  Mazarin's  sister.  Louis 
XIV.  was  so  well  pleased  with  her  in  his  early  youth 
that  he  was  inclined  to  marry  her ;  but  Mazarin  sent 
her  to  a  convent.  In  i66x  she  was  married  to  Prince 
Colonna.  She  ran  away  from  him  in  1672,  obtained  a 
divorce,  and  became  a  nun.     Died  about  1715. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Menioires  ;'  A.  Rhnek,  "Les  Nieces  de 
Mazarin." 

Mancini,  (Maria  Anna,)  Duchessof  Bouillon,  a  niece 
of  Mazarin,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1649.  She  was  mar- 
ried in  1662  to  the  Duke  of  Bouillon,  and  became  the 
mother  of  the  Prince  de  Turenne.  She  was  the  first 
person  who  patronized  La  Fontaine  the  fabulist,  who  has 
praised  her  in  his  letters.     She  died  in  17 14. 

See  Voi.TAiRB,  "Sieclede  Louis  XIV;"  K.  Renee,  "LesNiecet 
de  M.izarin." 

Mancini,  (Olympia,)  Countess  de  Soissons,  another 
sister  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1642,  was  married  to 
Eugene  Maurice  of  Savoy,  Count  de  Soissons.  She  was 
the  mother  of  the  celebrated  Prince  Eugene,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Austrian  armies. 

Mancini,  (Paolo,)  the  founder  of  the  Academy  of 
Umoristi,  was  born  at  Rome.  He  was  the  grandfather 
of  Hortensia  and  Maria  Mancini,  noticed  above.  Died 
in  1635. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Man'co  Ca-pac'  (orming'ko  kS-pSk')  was,  according 
to  tradition,  the  first  Inca  of  Peru.  He  instituted  the 
worship  of  the  sun,  of  which  he  pretended  to  be  the 
offspring,  founded  the  city  of  Cuzco,  and  gave  laws  to 
^he  natives  of  that  region,  whom  he  found  in  a  savage 
?tate.  He  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  1000 
A.D.     (See  Inca.) 

Manco  Capac,  Inca  of  Peru,  was  the  son  of  Huayna 
Capac.  He  became  heir  to  the  throne  after  Atahualpa 
was  killed  by  Pizarro,  in  1533.  He  made  a  treaty  with 
Pizarro,  but,  finding  himself  treated  as  a  captive,  he 
escaped  in  1535,  raised  a  native  army,  and  besieged 
Cuzco.  The  approach  of  Almagro  forced  him  to  retire. 
He  was  assassinated  by  a  Spaniard  about  1544. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
iil.  ;  G.  de  Vega,  "  Historia  general  del  Peru." 

Mandajors,  de,  deh  mSN'dt'zhoR',  (Jean  Pierre 
DES  Ours,)  a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Alais  in 
1679.  He  published  a  "Critical  History  of  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis,"  (1733.)     Died  in  1747. 

Man'da-ne,  [Gr.  M.av(savq\  a  daughter  of  Astyages, 
King  of  Media,  and  mother  of  Cyrus  the  Great. 

Mandar,  miin'diir,  the  same  as  Mandara,  which  see. 

Mandar, m6N'dSR',  (Michel  Philippe,)  better  known 
as  Th6ophile  Mandar,  a  French  political  writer  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Marines  in  1759.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  several  insurrections  in  Paris  from  1789  to  1793. 
It  is  said  that  in  the  councils  of  his  party  he  attempted 
to  arrest  the  massacre  of  September,  1792,  and  proposed 
a  dictatorship  for  that  purpose.  He  wrote  "The  Genius 
of  Ages,"  and  other  poems,  and  several  political  works. 
Died  in  1823. 

Man'da-ra,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  miin'da-ra,  ]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  a  famous  mountain  used  by  the  gods 
in  churning  the  ocean.     (See  Kurma.) 

Mandel,  mdn'del,  (Eduard,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1810.  His  portrait  of  Charles  1.,  aftei 
Van  Dyck,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece.  He  obtained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  at  the  Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 
Died  October  26,  1882. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  c,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  oiiscitrc;  f.lr,  fill,  fit;  nitt;  n(it;  good;  moon. 


MANDELOT 


1 64 1 


MANFRED 


Mandelot,  de,  deh  mfiNd'lo',  (Francois,)  a  French 
fanatic  and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1529.  He  was 
commandant  at  Lyons,  and  co-operated  with  the  king  in 
the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1572.     Died  in  1588. 

Mander,  van,  vtn  mSn'der,  (Cakel,)  an  eminent 
Fltinish  painter,  poet,  and  biographer,  born  at  Meule- 
beke,  near  Courtrai,  in  1548.  He  received  lessons  in  art 
from  Lucas  de  Heere  of  Ghent,  and  about  1574  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  worked  three  years  and  gained  a  high 
leputation  as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  of  frescos. 
In  1583  he  settled  at  Haarlem,  where  he  remained 
twenty  years  and  founded  an  academy  of  painting. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Adam  and  Eve  in  Eden," 
and  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  He  translated  the 
"Iliad,"  and  Virgil's  "  Bucolics"' and  "  Georgics."  He 
was  author  of  "  Dina,"  a  drama,  and  of  other  poems. 
His  best  literary  work  is  "  Lives  of  Flemish  and  Italian 
Painters,"  (1604,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in 
1606. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flaniands,  Hollaiidais,"  etc. ; 
fjESLACHT,  "Vie  de  Carel  van  Mander,"  prefixed  to  his  works; 
Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generaie." 

Mander,  van,  (Carel,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Delft  in  1580.  He  worked  at  the 
court  of  Denmark.     Died  about  1665. 

Man'de-vllle,  de,  (or  deh  mSNd'v^l',)  (Bernard,)  an 
ingenious  author,  born  at  Dort,  in  Holland,  about  1670. 
He  became  a  resident  of  London,  where  he  practised 
medicine  before  he  appeared  as  an  author.  In  1 714  he  pub- 
lished a  poetical  satire  called  "  The  Grumbling  Hive,  or 
Knaves  Turned  Honest."  This  having  been  censured  »& 
immoral  by  William  Law  and  other  writers,  he  published, 
with  notes,  a  new  edition,  with  the  title  of  "The  Fable 
of  the  Bees,  or  Private  Vices  Public  Benefits,"  (1723.) 
It  was  denounced  by  the  grand  jury  of  Middlesex  as  a 
pernicious  book.  (For  an  analysis  of  this  remarkable 
work,  see  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie,"  article 
"Mandeville,  B.  de.")  He  also  wrote  "Free  Thoughts 
on  Religion,  the  Church,  and  National  Happiness." 
Died  in  1733. 

See  Birth,  "Life  of  Bernard  de  Mandeville;"  "  Biographia 
Britannica." 

Mandeville,  de,  deh  man'deh-vil',  (Sir  John,)  a  fa- 
mous English  traveller,  born  at  Saint  Alban's  about  1300. 
In  early  life  he  practised  medicine.  According  to  his 
own  account,  in  1327  he  went  to  Palestine,  enlisted  in 
the  army  of  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  and  afterwards  travelled 
in  various  countries  of  Asia.  He  spent  about  three  years 
in  Cambalu,  (Peking,)  and  returned  home  in  1360.  In 
point  of  fact,  he  probably  never  went  farther  east  than 
Jerusalem.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  which 
obtained  a  wide  reputation.  His  book  abounds  in  mar- 
vellous and  extravagant  stories,  partly  borrowed  from 
Pliny  and  from  mediaeval  romances,  and  largely  made  up 
from  the  writings  of  Odoric,  Carpini,  Boldensele,  and 
other  travellers.  Mandeville's  famous  story  is  in  fact  a 
noax.  It  is  said  that  he  died  in  1371  ;  but  there  is  really 
nothing  known  as  to  this  date.  Mandeville  is  absurdly 
called  "the  first  English  prose  writer;"  but  he  wrote  in 
French.  The  Latin  versions,  the  delightfully  quaint  (but 
very  inaccurate)  old  English  version,  and  the  Italian 
translation  are  by  unknown  hands. 

See  Disraeli,  "Amenities  of  Literature;"  Sprengel,  "Ge- 
schichte  der  geographischen  Entdeckungen ;"  "Retrospective  Re- 
view," vol.  iii.,  (1821.) 

Mandosio,  min-do'se-o,  (  Prospero,)  a  mediocre 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Rome.  He  compiled  a  work 
called  "  Bibliotheca  Romana,"  consisting  of  biographies 
of  about  five  hundred  Roman  writers,  ancient  and 
modern,  (2  vols.,  1682-92.)     Died  about  1700. 

Manes.     See  Lares. 

Ma'nea,  Ma'ni,  or  Manichaeus,  man-e-kee'us,  the 
founder  of  the  heretical  sect  of  Manichaeans,  was  prob- 
ably born  in  Persia  in  the  early  part  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. He  corrupted  the  Christian  religion  by  mixing 
with  it  some  doctrines  of  the  Magi,  teaching  that  the 
world  is  made  or  ruled  by  two  eternal  and  opposing 
principles  of  light  and  darkness.  He  rejected  the  Old 
Testament,  professed  that  he  was  the  Comforter  promised 
in  John  xvi.,  held  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  and 
published  a  book  whicn  he  pretended  contained  a  revela- 


tion from  heaven.  Manes  obtained  proselytes  in  Persia, 
Egypt,  and  other  countries.  Saint  Augustine  was  a  zealot 
of  this  sect  in  his  youth.  The  Oriental  accounts  of  Manes, 
differing  widely  from  those  of  the  Greek  or  Catholic 
writers,  state  that  he  was  born  of  the  race  of  Magi,  lived 
in  Susiana,  was  an  adept  in  painting  and  other  arts, 
produced  a  "gorgeous  picture-book,"  which  was  re- 
ceived as  sacred  by  his  disciples,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  Varanes,  King  of  Persia,  about  272  A.D.  The  Latin 
and  Greek  writers  say  that  his  original  name  was  Cubri- 
CUS,  that  he  derived  his  doctrines  from  an  impostor 
named  Terebinthus,  and  was  punished  with  death  for 
his  heresy,  in  277  A.D. 

See  Beausobre,  "  Histoire  dii  Manicheisnie  ;"  Basnage,  "  His- 
toire  des  Eglises  reform^es ;"  Saint  Augustine,  "  De  Moribua 
Manichaorurn ;"  Walch,  "  Geschichte  der  Ketzereien  ;"  Plucquet, 
"  Dictionnaire  des  Heresies;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;" 
Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  article  "  Manicheism." 

Manesse,  mt'n^ss',  (Denis  Joseph,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Landrecies  in  1743  ;  died  in  1820. 

Manesson-Mallet,  mt'ni'sAN'  mS'li',  (Alain,)  a 
French  geometer  and  military  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1630.  He  published  a  "  Description  of  the  World," 
("  Description  de  I'Univers,"  5  vols.,  1683.)  Died  in  1706. 

Man'e-tho,  [Gr.  ^AavkQuv  and  Mav£0wf;  Fr.  Man6- 
THON,  mi'ni't6.N',]  a  celebrated  Egyptian  writer  and 
priest,  was  a  native  of  Sebennytus,  or,  according  to  some 
accounts,  of  Diospolis,  and  flourished  in  the  reigns  of 
Ptolemy  Soter  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  between  300 
and  250  B.C.  He  was  reputed  to  have  attained  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  wisdom.  He  was  keeper  of  the  sacred 
archives  at  Heliopolis,  and  author  of  several  important 
works,  among  which  was  a  "  General  History  of  Egypt," 
in  Greek.  This  is  lost,  except  fragments  preserved  by 
Josephus  in  his  "Reply  to  Apion,"  and  by  George  Syn- 
cellus.  He  was  the  first  Egyptian  who  wrote  in  Greek 
an  account  of  the  religion,  history,  and  chronology  of 
Egypt.  A  poem,  in  Greek,  on  the  influence  of  the  stars, 
entitled  "Apotelesmatica,"  (which  has  come  down  to  u? 
entire,)  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  Manetho,  but  was  proba- 
bly written  by  a  later  author. 

See  BuysEN,  "  Egyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte ;"  Boeck, 
"  Manetho  und  die  Hmidssteinperiode,"  1845;  Fabricius,  "Biblio- 
theca Grxca  :"  Fruin.  "  Dissertatio  historica  de  Manethone,"  1847; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie;"  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greel 
and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Manethou,     See  Manetho. 

Mauetti,  m3.-net'tee,  [Lat.  Manet'tus,]  (Gian- 
Nozzo,)  an  Italian  statesman  and  author,  born  at  Flor- 
ence in  1396,  was  one  of  those  who  contributed  to  the 
revival  of  learning  in  Italy.  He  was  versed  in  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time.  After  holding  other  high  offices 
in  Florence,  he  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Ten,  and 
was  secretary  to  Pope  Nicholas  V.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Life  of  Petrarch,"  and  a  "  Specimen  of  the  Lite- 
rary History  of  Florence  during  the  Thirteenth  and 
Fourteenth  Centuries,"  in  Latin,  (1747.)     Died  in  1459. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  J.  B. 
Requier,  "Vie  de  G.  Manetti,  S^nateurde  Florence,"  1762;  Naldo 
Naldi,  "Vita  Manetti,"  in  Muratori'.s  " Scriptores  Rerum  Itali- 
tarum." 

Manetti,  (Rutilio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  Francesco  Vanni.  His  design 
and  style  are  commended  as  correct  and  noble.  He 
painted  both  in  oil  and  fresco  with  equal  success.  Died 
in  1639. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  No- 
tizie." 

Manetti,  (Saverio,)  an  Italian  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Florence  in  1723.     He  became  keeper  of 
the  botanic  garden  of  that  city,  and  corresponded  with 
the  most  eminent  savants  of  Europe.     He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Different  Species  of 
Grain  and  Bread,"  (1765,)  and  a  splendid  work  on  the 
"  Natural  History  of  Birds,"  with  coloured  plates,  (1767.) 
Died  in  1785. 
Manettus.     See  Manetti,  (Giannozzo.) 
Man'fred,  [It.  Manfredi,  mSn-fra'dee ;  Lat.  Man 
fre'dus  ;  Fr.  Mainfroi,  miN'fRwi',]  King  of  Naples, 
born  about  1234,  was  a  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Frede- 
rick II.,  from  whom  he  seems  to  have  inherited  noble  01 
at  least  popular  qualities.  By  the  will  of  Frederick,  who 


€as^/  ^as.r;  gkard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  Vi.,  trilled;  sasz;  th  asin  this.     ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.' 


MANFRED! 


1642 


MANILIUS 


died  in  1250,  Manfred  became  Regent  of  tiie  Two  Sicilies 
until  the  arrival  of  Conrad,  the  lawful  heir,  who  was 
in  Germany.  Conrad  died  in  1254,  leaving  an  infant 
son,  Conradin  or  Corradino,  and  ^Ianfred  again  became 
regent.  A  rumour  of  Conradin's  death  having  obtained 
credence,  Manfred  was  proclaimed  king  in  1258,  and  he 
refused  to  relinquish  the  royal  power  when  that  report 
was  proved  to  be  false.  He  became  an  ally  of  th.e  Ghibe- 
lines  of  Northern  Italy  against  the  Guelphs.  Urban  IV., 
who  became  pope  in  1261,  and  who  had  long  been  an 
enemy  to  the  house  of  Suabia,  excommunicated  Manfred, 
and  oflered  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  Charles 
of  Anjou,  a  brother  of  Louis  IX.  of  France.  Charles 
accepted  it  as  a  fief  of  the  see  of  Rome,  marched  an 
army  into  Naples,  and  gained  a  victory,  in  which  Man- 
fred w-as  killed,  in  1266. 

See  BuRiONi,  "  Histoire  de  Sidle;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Republiques  Italiennes;"  Giuseppe  dk  Cesare,  "Stniia  di  Man- 
freni  Re  di  Sicilia,"  2  vols.,  1S37  ;  Von  Munch,  "Konig  Manfred," 
1840;  C.  M.  Riccio,  "AIciMii  Studii  storici  iiitonio  a  Manfredi," 
eic,  1850;  F.  A*.  Sebire,  "fitude  historique:  Les  Partis  au  Moyeii- 
Age,"  etc.,  1S53. 

Manfredi.     See  Manfred. 

Manfredi,  min-fRa'dee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Mantua  about  1580.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Caravaggio,  whom  he  imitated  so  well  that  good  judges 
mistook  his  works  for  those  of  his  master.  Among  his 
productions  is  "A  Party  of  Men  drinking."  Died  in 
Rome  in  161 7. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Manfredi,  (Eustachio,)  an  eminent  Italian  geometer 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1674.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Bologna  in  1698,  and  astronomer  to  the  Institute  of  that 
citv  in  1711.  He  published  Ephemerides  from  1715  to 
1750,  "Elements  of  Chronology,"  (1744,)  "Institutes  of 
Astronomy,"  ("  Instituzioni  astronomiche,")  and  other 
works.  Manfredi  also  wrote  admired  sonnets  and  can- 
zoni.  He  was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Paris,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.     Died  in  1739. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  Eloge  de  Manfredi;"  G.  P.  Zanotti,  "Vita 
di  E.  Manfredi,"  1745;  Fabroni,  "  Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excel- 
lentium;"  Fantuzzi,  ".Scrittori  Bolognesi." 

Manfredi,  (Gabriele,)  born  at  Bologna  in  1681,  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  in  Bologna  in  1720.  He 
succeeded  his  brother  Eustachio  in  1739  as  superin- 
tendent of  the  waters.  He  wrote  an  able  treatise  "On 
Equations  of  the  First  Degree,"  and  several  Memoirs 
for  the  Institute  of  Bologna.     Died  in  1761. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Manfredini,  man-fRi-dee'nee,  (  Federigo,  )  Mar- 
quis, an  Italian  minister  of  state,  born  at  Rovigo  in 
1743.  He  became  prime  minister  of  the  archduke  Fer- 
dinand of  Tuscany  in  1790.  His  prudent  measures  pre- 
served Tuscany  from  invasion  by  the  French  until  1799, 
when  Ferdinand  and  his  minister  were  forced  to  retire 
into  exile.     Died  in  1829. 

Manfredus.     See  Manfred. 

Man'gan,  (James  Clarence,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1803.  He  became  a  solicitor's  clerk.  Over- 
work and  misery  drove  him  to  drink  and  opium.  Having 
found  employment  in  the  library  of  Dublin  University, 
he  acquired  great  learning.  Died  at  Dublin,  of  intem- 
perate habits,  June  20,  1849.  Among  his  works  is  "  An- 
thologia  Gernianica,"  (2  vols.,  1845.)  John  Mitchell  in 
1859  published  a  volume  of  his  poems,  ballads,  and 
translations. 

Mangeart,  mSN'zhia',  (Thomas,)  a  French  nu- 
mismatist and  monk,  born  at  Metz  in  1695,  wrote  an 
"Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  Medals,"  (1763.) 
Died  in  1762. 

Mangenot,  mSNzh'no',  (Louis,)  Abb6,  a  French  poet 
and  priest,  born  in  Paris  in  1694.  He  wrote  an  admired 
eclogue  called  "The  Rendezvous."     Died  in  1768. 

Manget,  mftN'zhi',  (Jean  Jacob,)  a  Swiss  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1652.  He  practised  in 
that  city,  and  published  many  scientific  works,  among 
which  are  "  Anatomical  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Ana" 
tomica,"  1685,)  and  "Curious  Chemical  Library,"  ("Bi- 
bliotheca chemica  curiosa,"  1702.)     In  1699  he  received 


the  title  of  first  physician  to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1742. 

See  S^NEBiER,  "  Histoire  littdraire  de  Genfeve." 
Man'gey,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theological  writer, 
born  at  Leeds  in  1684.     He  obtained  the  first  stall  of 
Durham  in  1722.     Died  in  1755. 

See  HaTCHiNSON,  "History  of  Durham." 
Mangili,   mjn-jee'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an   Italian   natu- 
rali.^t  and  physician,  born  at  Caprino  in  1767;  died  in 
1829.     He  wrote  several  scientific  treatises. 

Mangin,  mfiN'zhdN',  (Charles.)  a  French  architect, 
born  near  Meaux  in  1721,  designed  several  important 
edifices  in  Paris,  among  which  were  the  Halle  au  Bl^ 
(Grain-Market)  and  the  Church  du  Gros-Caillou.  Died 
in  1807. 

Mangin,  (Jean  Henri  Claude,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  at  Metz  in  1786.  He  wrote  several  legal  works. 
Died  in  1835. 

Manglard,  mfiN'glSR',  (.A.drien,)  a  French  painter 
of  landscaijes  and  marine  views,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
i  1695  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1760. 

I      Mangles,  mang'g'lz,  (Captain  James,)  a  British  trav- 
j  eller,  who  obtained  the  rank  of  commander  in  the  navy 
I  in  1815.     In  1816,  accompanied  by  Captain  Irb)',  he  be- 
I  gan  an   extensive  journey,  in   which  tliey  explored  the 
i  Upper   Nile,  the   ruined   city  of  Petra,  and  the  Dead 
1  Sea.     They  returned  to  England  in  1820.     See  Irbv, 
j  (Charles  L.)     Died  November  18,  1867. 
i      Man'goo'  (or  Mangou)  Khan,  written  also  Meng- 
ko  and  Moengke,  Emperor  or  Grand  Khan  of  the 
Mongols,  was  the  son  of  Toolee,  (Touli,)  and  grandson  of 
Jengis  Khan.    He  ascended  the  throne  about  1250.    His 
empire   included  Tartar}^  India,  a  part   of  China,  and 
Persia.     One  of  his  armies,  under  his  brother  Koobiai 
Khan,  subdued  Thibet;  and  another  army  at  the  same 
time  (1256)  conquered  in  Persia  the  Ismaeelian  dynasty. 
Two  years  later  he  took  Bagdad  and  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  the  caliph's  dominions.     While  pursuing  his  con- 
quests in  China,  he  was  killed  in  battle,  in  1259.   He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Koobiai  Khan. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Histoire  des  likans  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Mangum,  mang'gum, (Willie  Person,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Orange  county.  North  Carolina,  in 
1792.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  .States 
by  the  legislature  of  North  Carolina  in  1831,  and  acted 
with  the  Whigs  until  that  party  was  dissolved.  He 
also  represented  North  Carolina  in  the  Senate  for  two 
terms,  (1841-53,)  and  was  president  of  that  body  during 
the  administration  of  Tyler.     Died  in  1861. 

Manhes,  mt'n§s',  (Charles  Antoine,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Aurillac  in  1777.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Muratin  1809,  and  suppressed  brigandage  in  Calabria 
with  extreme  severity.     Died  in  1854. 

Mani.     See  Manes. 

Manichaeus.     See  M.\nes. 

Manigault,  man'e-go',  ?  (Gabriel,)  a  wealthy  Amer- 
ican merchant  and  patriot  of  the  Revolution,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1704;  died  in  1781. 

Ma-nil'i-a  Gens,  the  natne  of  a  plebeian  Roman 
gens,  which  was  not  numerous  and  consequently  was 
not  divided  into  families.  Marcus  M.\nilius,  who  be- 
came consul  in  149  B.C.,  was  the  first  member  of  this 
gens  that  figures  in  history. 

Ma-nil'i-us,  (C.aius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  and  partisan 
of  Pompey.  He  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  66  B.C. 
He  proposed  a  bill  called  "  Lex  Manilia,"  granting  to 
Pompey  the  command  of  the  war  against  Mithridates  in 
place  of  Luculhis.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  uttered  iiis 
celebrated  oration  "Pro  Lege  Manilia." 

Manilius,  (Marcqs  or  Caius,)  a  Latin  poet,  known 
as  the  author  of  an  astrological  poem  called  "  Astro- 
nomica."  His  name  is  sometimes  written  Mallius  or 
Manliu.S.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  nativity 
or  history ;  but  he  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Rome 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  of  Tiberius.  His  poem, 
first  discovered  by  Poggio  about  1410,  is  a  work  of 
much  learning,  and  contains  some  fine  passages,  but  is 
faulty  in  stvle. 

Siif  .ScAi.KiKR.  "  Prolecnmena  in  Maiiilium,"  1600;  F.  Jacob, 
"  Dt;   M.  Maniiio  Poela,"  etc.,  1S32. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y, long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  llll,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MANIN 


1643 


MANN 


Manin,  mJ-neen',  (Daniei.e,)  an  eminent  Italian 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  Venice  in  May,  1804,  was 
educated  for  the  profession  of  advocate.  He  was  a  re- 
publican, and  promoted  the  liberation  of  Venetiaby  legal 
means  rather  than  by  arms.  In  March,  1848,  he  pro- 
claimed a  republic  at  Venice,  and  became  jiresident  of 
the  provisional  government.  Having  vainly  opposed 
the  annexation  of  Venetia  to  Piedmont,  he  resigned  in 
July,  1848.  He  was  soon  recalled,  and  governed  Venice 
as  dictator  during  the  siege,  which  lasted  a  year,  and 
ended,  after  a  heroic  struggle,  in  August,  1849.  He 
went  into  exile,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1857.  His  remains 
were  honoured  with  a  magnificent  public  funeral,  by 
order  of  the  Italian  Parliament,  in  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Venice,  in  March,  1868. 

See  Hknri  Martin,  "Life  of  Daniel  Manin,"  1859:  G.  V. 
RovANi,  "Memoria  storica  di  D.  Manin,"  Turin,  1850;  H.  Cas- 
TILLE,  "Manin;"  Chassim,  "Manin  et  I'ltalie,"  1859;  Edmond 
Flagg,  "  Venice,  the  Citj'  of  the  Sea,"  New  York,  1853  ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  November,  1857;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April, 
x86o. 

Manin  or  Mauini,  mS-nee'nee,  (LoDOVico,)  the  last 
Doge  of  Venice,  was  born  about  1727.  He  was  elected  in 
1788,  a  period  when  the  re]5ublic  manifested  evident  signs 
of  approaching  ruin.  He  refused  to  join  Austria  in  a 
coalition  against  the  French  in  1792,  and  remained  neutral 
in  the  war  that  ensued.  Venice  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1797,  the  form  of  the  government  was  changed, 
and  Manini  retired  to  private  life. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise. " 

Manini,  mi-nee'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
theology  and  history,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1750 ;  died 
in  1834. 

Manini,  (Lodovico.)     See  Manin. 

Man'ley,  (James  R.,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  became 
professor  in  the  Medical  College  of  New  York.  Died 
m  1851. 

Manley,  (John,)  Captain,  an  American  naval  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  1734.  He  performed  several 
important  services.     Died  in  Boston  in  1793. 

Man'ley,  (Mary  de  la  Riviere,)  a  popular  English 
authoress,  born  in  Guernsey  about  1672,  was  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Roger  Manley.  To  procure  a  subsistence,  she 
wrote  "The  Royal  Mischief,"  (1696,)  a  tragedy,  which 
was  successful.  Her  next  work  was  a  romance  called 
"Memoirs  of  the  New  Atalantis,"  containing  severe 
strictures  on  some  of  the  persons  in  power,  which  caused 
her  to  be  prosecuted  and  imprisoned  for  libel.  She 
wrote  political  articles  for  the  Tory  ministry  between 
1710  and  1714,  and  edited  the  "Examiner"  with  ability 
after  Dean  Swift  had  retired  from  the  direction  of  that 
paper.  She  also  left  an  autobiography,  and  some  novels 
and  plays  remarkable  for  their  gross  indelicacy  as  well 
as  for  their  literary  power.     Died  in  1724. 

See  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Man'li-a  Gens,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  cele- 
brated of  the  patrician  gentes  or  tribes  of  Rome.  The 
family  names  of  the  Manlii  were  Cincinnatus,  Acidinus, 
Capitolinus,  Torquatus,  and  Vulso.  Among  the  emi- 
nent persons  of  this,0(.'«j  was 

Man'li-us  Cap-it-o-li'nus,  (Marcus,)  who  was 
elected  consul  in  392  i;.c.  In  399  the  Gauls  under  Bren- 
nus  captured  Rome  and  besieged  the  Capitol,  which 
Manlius  and  others  defended.  According  to  tradition,  an 
attempt  of  the  Gauls  to  surprise  this  fortress  by  night  was 
defeated  by  Manlius,  who  was  awakened  by  the  clamour 
of  a  flock  of  geese.  For  this  service  he  received  the 
surname  of  Capitolinus.  He  became  a  champion  of 
the  popular  party,  or  plebeians,  in  385,  spent  his  for- 
tune freely  for  the  relief  of  those  who  were  oppressed 
by  debt,  and  was  accused  of  aspiring  to  royalty.  His 
enemy  Camillus  was  appointed  dictator,  and  Manlius, 
having  been  tried  for  treason  and  condemned  to  death 
by  the  patricians,  was  thrown  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  in 

381  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Cicero,  "  De  Republica  ;"  Aure- 
ui;s  Victor,  "  De  Viris  illustribus." 

Man'li-us  Tor-qua'tus,  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tus  Man'- 
lius  Capitoli'nus  Torqua'tus,  a  popular  Roman  hero, 
was  the  son  of  L.  Manlius  Imperiosus,  who  was  dictator 


in  362  or  363  B.C.  He  signalized  his  filial  affection  by 
extorting  from  Pomponius  an  oath  that  he  would  desist 
from  the  prosecution  of  his  father.  In  359  he  was  elected 
a  military  tribune.  He  killed  in  battle  a  Gaul  of  gigantic 
stature  and  despoiled  him  of  a  chain,  (torques,)  from 
which  he  derived  the  surname  Torquatus.  He  was  ap. 
pointed  dictator  in  353,  and  again  in  349  B.C.  Having 
been  elected  consul  for  the  third  time  in  340,  he  defeated 
the  Latins,  and  punished  with  death  his  own  son,  who 
had  violated  orders  by  fighting  a  single  combat  with 
one  of  the  enemy. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  vii.,  viii.  ;  Aurelius  Vic- 
tor, "  De  Viris  ilhistribiis ;"  P.  Ekerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  T.  Man- 
lio  Torquato,"  1767. 

Manlius  Torquatus,  (Titus,)  a  Roman  general,  of 
the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  235  B.C. 
Sardinia  having  been  subjected  by  him  in  that  year,  the 
temple  of  Janus  was  shut,  for  the  second  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  Rome,  because  the  Romans  enjoyed  a  universal 
peace.  He  was  re-elected  consul  in  224,  and  made  a 
speech  against  the  motion  to  ransom  the  prisoners  taken 
by  Hannibal  at  Cannae,  (216.)  In  215  B.C.  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  in  Sardinia.  He 
was  appointed  dictator  in  208,  and  died  in  202  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.,  xxiii.,  xxv.,  etc. 

Man'lius  Vu1'so,(Cneius,)  a  Roman  general,  elected 
consul  about  190  B.C.  He  conquered  the  Gauls  of  Ga- 
latia,  and  received  the  honour  of  a  triumph  in  186  B.C. 

Man'ly,  (Basil,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  in  Chatham 
county.  North  Carolina,  in  1798.  He  became  president 
of  the  University  of  Alabama  in  1837.     Died  in  1868. 

Mann,  (Horace,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  edu- 
cationist, born  in  Franklin,  Norfolk  county,  Massachu- 
setts, May  4,  1796.  His  father  was  a  farmer  in  limited 
circumstances,  so  that  Horace  was  obliged  to  procure  by 
his  own  exertions  the  means  of  obtaining  an  education. 
The  books  to  which  he  had  access  in  early  life,  as  he 
informs  us,  "were  few,  and  their  contents  meagre  and 
miserable."  "My  teachers,"  he  adds,  "were  very  good 
people,  but  they  were  very  poor  teachers."  There  was, 
however,  no  lack  of  hard  work,  and  in  summer  his 
labours  often  encroached  upon  the  hours  which  should 
have  been  devoted  to  sleep  ;  yet,  with  all  these  disad- 
vantages, his  mind  gave  early  proof  of  uncommon  power 
and  intense  activity.  He  had  earned  his  school-books, 
when  a  child,  by  braiding  straw ;  and  his  severe  and 
frugal  life  gave  him  the  habit  of  depending  solely  upon 
himself  for  the  gratification  of  all  his  wants.  When 
about  the  age  of  twenty,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
Latin,  and  in  six  months  prepared  himself  to  enter  the 
sophomore  class  in  Brown  University,  at  Providence, 
Rhode  Lsland,  where  he  graduated  with  the  highest 
honours  in  1819.  The  subject  of  his  discourse  on  that 
occasion  was  "The  Progressive  Character  of  the  Human 
Race."  This  was  always  a  favourite  theme  with  him, 
and  his  first  oration  may  be  said  to  have  foreshadowed 
his  subsequent  career  as  philanthropist  and  statesman. 
While  at  Providence  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
young  lady  whom  he  afterwards  married.  She  Was  the 
daughter  of  Dr.  Messer,  president  of  the  university.  In 
1821  he  entered  the  law  school  at  Litchfield,  and  in  1823 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  commenced  the  practice 
of  law  at  Dedham.  He  was  elected  in  1827  to  the  State 
legislature,  and  during  his  connection  with  that  body  was 
distinguished  for  the  zeal  with  which  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  interests  of  education  and  temperance.  In  the 
practice  of  his  profession  he  had  adopted  the  principle 
never  to  take  the  unjust  side  of  any  cause  :  it  is  said  that 
he  gained  four  out  of  five  of  all  the  contested  cases  in 
which  he  was  engaged.  The  extraordinary  influence 
which  he  exerted  over  the  minds  of  the  juries' was  owing 
in  a  great  measure  to  the  confidence  which  all  felt  in 
his  honesty  of  purpose.  In  1833  he  removed  from 
Dedham  to  Boston,  and  soon  after  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate.  In  1836,  and  again  in  1837,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Senate.  About  this  time  he  became 
acquainted  with  Dr.  W.  E.  Channing  and  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe, 
for  whom  he  ever  afterwards  cherished  the  sincerest 
respect  and  affection. 

To  his  enlightened  philanthropy  and  untiring  efforts 
was  due  the  establishment  of  the  State  Lunatic  Hospital 


€  as^;  §as  j;  %hard;  g  as//  G,  H,  K., gutiural :  N,  nasal-  r  trilled;  sas  z:  th  as  \\\this.     (SE^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANN 


1644 


MANNING 


at  Worcester.  In  1837  he  was  elected  secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  (then  recently  organ- 
ized,) and  was  unanimously  re-elected  to  the  same  posi- 
tion for  eleven  successive  years.  From  the  moment  that 
he  entered  u])on  his  new  duties,  he  devoted  himself  to 
them  with  undivided  attention  and  unremitting  zeal.  By 
his  lectures  and  writings  he  awakened  an  interest  in  the 
cause  of  education  that  had  never  been  felt  before. 
Through  his  influence,  important  changes  were  made  in 
the  school  laws  of  Massachusetts,  and  a  thorough  reform 
was  effected  in  the  educational  system  of  the  State. 

In  May,  1843,  Mr.  Mann  married  as  his  second  wife 
Miss  Mary  Peabody,  daughter  of  Dr.  Nathaniel  Peabody 
and  sister-in-law  of  Mr.  Hawthorne ;  and  immediately 
afterwards  he  sailed  for  Europe,  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  visiting  European  schools,  particularly  those  of  Ger- 
many. He  returned  to  his  native  country  in  the  autumn 
'>f  the  same  year. 

In  the  spring  of  1848,  Mr.  Mann  was  .elected  to  Con- 
gress, as  successor  to  J,  Quincy  Adams,  who  had  died 
in  February  of  that  year.  His  first  speech  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  was  in  advocacy  of  the  right  and  duty 
of  Congress  to  exclude  slavery  from  the  territories.  He 
says,  in  a  letter  dated  December,  1848,  "I  think  the 
country  is  to  experience  serious  times.  Interference 
with  slavery  will  excite  civil  commotion  at  the  South. 
Still,  it  is  best  to  interfere.  Now  is  the  time  to  see 
whether  the  Union  is  a  rope  of  sand  or  a  band  of  steel." 
In  another  letter,  dated  January,  1850,  he  says,  "Dark 
clouds  overhang  the  future  ;  and  that  is  not  all :  they  are 
full  of  lightning."  Again,  "  I  really  think  if  we  insist 
upon  passing  the  Wilmot  Proviso  for  the  territories  that 
the  South — a  part  of  them — will  rebel.  But  /  would 
pass  it,  rebellion  or  not.  /  consider  no  evil  so  ,ip-eat  as  that 
of  the  extension  of  slavery."  On  the  7th  of  March,  1850, 
Webster  delivered  his  great  speech  against  the  Wilmot 
Proviso.  This  led  to  an  open  rupture  between  him  and 
Mann.  Through  the  influence  of  Webster's  friends,  in 
the  following  November  Mann  failed  by  a  single  vote  to 
obtain  a  re-nomination  in  the  Whig  convention.  He, 
however,  appealed  to  the  people  as  an  independent  can- 
didate, and  was  triumphantly  re-elected. 

In  September,  1852,  Mr.  Mann  was  chosen  jjresident  of 
Antioch  College,  at  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio.  On  the  same 
day  he  was  nominated  for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  by 
a  convention  of  the  Free  Democracy  (otherwise  called 
the  Free-Soil  party)  assembled  at  Lowell.  Although  not 
elected  Governor,  his  popularity  was  shown  by  his  vote 
running  far  ahead  of  that  of  the  other  Free-Soil  candi- 
dates. He  accepted  the  presidency  of  Antioch  College, 
which  under  his  able  management  attained  a  large 
measure  of  success.  But  the  labours  and  anxieties  of 
that  responsible  position  proved  at  length  too  much  for 
his  health,  never  strong,  and  now  undermined  by  a  life 
of  the  most  intense  and  unremitting  activity.  He  died 
August  2,  1859.  The  immediate  cause  of  his  death  was 
doubtless  the  extraordinary  and  unceasing  mental  effort 
called  forth  at  the  college  commencement  in  July,  1859. 
His  address  to  the  graduating  class  on  that  occasion* 
is  an  eloquent  resume  of  the  great  principles  by  which 
his  life  was  governed,  and  forms  an  appropriate  close  to 
the  labours  of  this  heroic  and  gifted  philanthropist.  His 
widow  survived  him  many  years,  dying  February  11,  18S7. 

See  "Life  of  Horace  Mann,"  by  his  wife,  Boston,  1S65. 

Mann,  min,  (Theodore  Augustin,)  Abb6,  a  Flem- 
ish writer  and  antiquary,  born  about  1740,  resided  at 
Brussels.  He  published  a  "  Tableau  of  the  Coins, 
Weights,  and  Measures  of  Different  Nations,"  (1779,)  a 
'Description  of  Brussels,"  (1785,)  and  other  works. 
Died  at  Prague  in  1809. 

Manne,  de,  deh  mtn,  (Louis  Charles  Joseph,)  a 
French  librarian,  born  in  Paris  in  1773.  He  became  in 
1820  keeper  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  in  which  he 
classified  300,000  volumes.  Died  in  1832.  His  son 
Edmond  succeeded  him  as  librarian. 

Manners.     See  Rutland,  Duke  of. 

Maimers,  (John.)     See  Granby,  Marquis  of. 

Man'ners,  (John  James  Robert,)  Lord,  a  second 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland,  was  born  in  1818.     He 


*  Printed  in  his  "  Life,"  pp.  554-575. 


entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1841,  and  identified 
himself  with  the  Tory  party.  He  was  first  commissioner 
of  the  board  of  works  for  a  short  time  in  1858-59,  and 
obtained  the  same  position  in  the  Derby  cabinet  in  July, 
1866.  He  resigned  in  December,  1868.  He  was  post- 
master-general from  1874  to  1880. 

Manners,  (Roisert,)  Lord,  a  younger  son  of  John, 
Marquis  of  Granby,  was  a  brother  of  the  fourth  Duke 
of  Rutland.  He  died  of  wounds  received  at  a  battle  in 
the  West  Indies  in  August,  1782.  where  he  commanded 
the  ship  Resolution. 

Manners,  (Robert  William,)  Lord,  an  English 
general,  born  in  1781.  He  entered  the  army  in  1 798, 
served  Wellington  as  aide-de-camp  in  the  Peninsular 
war  from  1808  to  1813,  and  was  wounded  at  Waterloo, 
(1815.)  In  1830  he  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general. 
Pie  was  frequently  elected  to  Parliament.    Died  in  1835. 

Mannert,  min'n^Rt',  (Konrad,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Altdorf  in  1756,  was  the  author  of  a  "History 
of  the  Vandals,"  (1785,)  "History  of  Bavaria,"  (1826,) 
ar.d  other  works.     Died  in  1834. 

Manni,  m3n'nee,  (Domenico  Maria,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  antiquary  and  printer,  born  at  Florence  in  1690. 
He  published  new  editions  of  early  Italian  works,  which 
he  enriched  with  prefaces,  notes,  etc.,  and  wrote  valuable 
dissertations  on  the  history  of  Florence.  His  "  Historic 
Observations  on  the  Seals  of  the  Middle  Ages"  (30  vols., 
1739-86)  is  a  work  of  merit.     Died  in  1788. 

See  ToMiTANO,  "  Elogio  di  D.  M.  Manni,"  1789. 

Manni,  (Giannicola,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Perugia  about  1478,  was  a  pupil  of  Perugino.     Died  in 

1544- 

Man'ning,  (Henry  Edward,)  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  born  in  London  in  1809,  graduated  at  Oxford. 
He  took  orders  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and  became 
Archdeacon  of  Chichester  in  1840.  In  1851  he  entered 
the  priesthood  of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Westminster  in  1865.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Unity  of  the  Church,"  (1843,)  and 
"The  Temporal  Sovereignty  of  the  Popes,"  (i860.)  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  CEcumenical  Council  which 
held  its  sessions  in  Rome  from  December,  1869,  to  May, 
1870,  and  he  maintained  the  dogma  of  papal  infalli- 
bility.     He  was  created  cardinal  in  1875. 

Man'ning,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  di- 
vine, born  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey,  in  1738,  was 
the  first  president  of  Brown  University,  Rhode  Island. 
Died  in  1791. 

Manning,  (Owen,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1721.  He  became  Vicar  of  Godal- 
ming  and  rector  of  Pepperharrow,  (1769.)  He  wrote  the 
"  History  and  Antiquities  of  Surrey,"  and  completed 
Lye's  "  Saxon  Dictionary."     Died  in  1801. 

See  W.  Bray,  "  Life  of  O.  Manning,"  prefixed  to  the  first  volume 
of  his  "  Antiquities  of  Surrey." 

Manning,  (Thomas,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1774.  He  resided  for  a  long  time  in  Thibet, 
and  accompanied  Lord  Amherst  to  China  in  1816.  Died 
in  1840. 

Mannini,  min-nee'nee,  (Jacopo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1646;  died  in  1732. 

Manno,  min'no,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1754  ;  died  in  1831. 

Mannory,  mt'no're',  (Louis,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1696.  lie  published  "  Voltairiana," 
(174S,)  and  "  Plaidoyers  et  Memoires,"  (18  vols.,  1759.) 
Died  in  F777. 

Mannozzi,  min-not'see,  (Giovanni,)  an  excellent 
Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at  San  Giovanni,  near  Flor- 
ence, in  1590,  was  sometimes  called  Giovanni  da  San 
Giovanni.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rosselli.  In  1621  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  painted,  in  rivalry  with  Guide's 
"Aurora,"  a  picture  of  "Night  in  a  Chariot."  Having 
returned  to  Florence,  he  painted  "The  Judgment  of 
Paris,"  "Aurora  and  Tithonus,"  etc.  The  picture  of 
"  The  Patronage  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  by  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici"  is  called  his  master-piece.     Died  in  1636. 

See  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario  ;"  "  Nouvell 
Biographie  Generale." 

Man'nyng  or  Man'ning,   (Robert,)   an    English 


i,  6,  u,  y,  long^  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdi ,  tdll,  tdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MANOEL 


164: 


MANSOOR 


monk,  was  also  called  Robert  de  Brunne.  He  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  II.,  and  was  a 
canon  in  the  monastery  of  Brunne  or  Bourne.  He  trans- 
lated into  English  rhyming  chronicles  from  the  "  Brut 
d'Angleterre"  and  "Roman  le  Rou." 

Manoel.     See  Manuel. 

Manoel  of  Portugal.    See  Emmanuel, 

Manoncourt.     See  Sonninl 

Manrique,  min-ree'ki,  (Jorge,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  about  1420.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
moral  poems,  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
about  1485. 

See  TicKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mansard  or  Mansart,  mSN'stR',  (Francois,)  an 
excellent  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1598.  He 
restored  the  Hotel  Toulouse,  and  erected  the  chateaus 
of  Berny  and  of  Choisy-sur-Seine,  and  several  churches 
in  Paris.  The  Chateau  de  Maisons,  a  few  miles  from 
Paris,  is  one  of  his  most  admired  works.  His  designs 
are  remarkable  for  nobleness  and  majesty.  He  invented 
the  curb-roof  called  "Mansard."    Died  in  1666. 

See  FoNTENAV,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Mansard  or  Mausait,  (Jules  Hardouin,)  a  cele- 
brated architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1645,  was  a  son  of 
Jules  Hardouin,  a  painter.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of 
F.  Mansard,  noticed  above.  He  studied  the  art  with 
this  uncle,  and  assumed  his  name.  Having  obtained 
the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  he  designed  the  most  im- 
portant architectural  works  of  his  reign.  He  had  a  rare 
opportunity  to  display  his  genius  in  the  chateau  or  royal 
palace  of  Versailles,  which,  though  imposing  in  dimen- 
sions and  rich  in  ornaments,  fails  to  satisfy  the  require- 
ments of  good  taste.  He  built  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
— in  the  grand  dome  of  which  he  attempted  to  rival  Sir 
Christopher  Wren, — the  Chateau  de  Marly,  the  Place 
Vendome,  and  other  public  works.  In  1699  he  was 
chosen  superintendent  of  buildings,  arts,  and  manufac- 
tures.    Died  in  1 708. 

See  QuATREM&RE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Vies  des  plus  c^l^bres  Archi- 
tectes;"  Fontenay,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  Jean  Duchesne, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  H.  Mansart,"  1805. 

Mansart.     See  Mansard. 

Man'sel,  (Rev.  Henry  Longueville,)  a  prominent 
English  writer  on  metaphysics  and  theology,  logic,  etc., 
was  born  at  Cosgrove,  in  Northamptonshire,  in  1820. 
He  became  professor  of  moral  and  metaphysical  philos- 
ophy at  Oxford  about  1859,  and  regius  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  in  1867.  Among  his  works  is 
"The  Limits  of  Religious  Thought  Examined,"  (1858,) 
which  has  attracted  much  attention  and  no  little  criti- 
cism and  has  passed  through  a  number  of  editions.  In 
this  treatise  he  takes  as  the  basis  of  his  argument  Sir 
William  Hamilton's  position  that  "the  unconditioned  is 
incognizable  and  inconceivable ;"  and  the  work  is  justly 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  applications  of 
the  Hamiltonian  philosophy  to  questions  of  religion. 
He  edited  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  works  on  logic  and  meta- 
physics. He  also  contributed  to  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  a  valuable  treatise  on  metaphysics,  after- 
wards published  separately.  He  was  appointed  Dean  of 
Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  1868.     Died  July  30,  1871. 

Mansfeld,  von,  fon  mins'fSlt,  (Ernst,)  Count,  one 
of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  time,  born  in  1585,  was 
the  natural  son  of  Peter  Ernst,  noticed  below.  After 
fighting  for  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, he  left  their  service  about  1610,  and  became  an 
enemy  of  the  house  of  Austria.  He  avowed  himself  a 
convert  to  the  Reformed  faith,  and  in  1618  was  chosen 
general-in-chief  of  the  Bohemian  insurgents.  In  the 
service  of  Frederick,  whom  those  insurgents  had  elected 
king,  he  fought  many  battles,  and  defeated  the  Bavarians 
in  1622.  He  afterwards  marched  into  Flanders  and  re- 
pulsed the  Spaniards  at  Fleurus.  Having  raised  another 
army  to  attack  Austria,  he  was  defeated  by  Wallenstein 
in  1626,  and  died  near  Zara  in  the  same  year.  He  was 
one  of  those  generals  who  are  as  formidable  after  defeat 
as  before. 

See  "Acta  Mansfeldica,"  1624;  Niemann,  "  Geschichte  der  Gra 
fen  von  Mansfeld,"  1834;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Mansfeld,  von,  (Peter  Ernst,)  Count,  an  able 
German  general,  born  in  1517.     In  his  youth  he  entered 


the  army  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  After  serving  in 
several  campaigns,  he  commanded  an  army  against  the 
French  in  1552,  and  in  1569  led  another  army  to  aid 
Charles  IX.  against  the  Huguenots.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Moncontour.  He  succeeded  the 
Duke  of  Parma  as  Governor-General  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries in  1592.     Died  in  1604. 

See  Schannat,  "  Histoirc  dii  Comte  de  Mansfeld,"  1707;  Mo- 
R^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Motley,  "  United  Netherlands." 
vol.  i. 

Mans'field,  (Edward  D.,)  LL.D.,  an  American  author, 
born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  August  17,  1801.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1819,  and  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege in  1822.  Removing  to  Cincinnati,  he  practised  law, 
and  for  many  years  was  a  prominent  journalist.  He 
published  a  "  Political  Grammar,"  a  "  Treatise  on  Con- 
stitutional Law,"  "  Life  of  General  Scott,"  a  "  History 
of  the  Mexican  War,"  and  various  educational  and  legal 
works.     Died  October  27,  1880. 

Mans'field,  (Jared,)  an  American  mathematician, 
born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point.  He  published  several  scientific  works. 
Died  in  1830. 

Mansfield,  (Joseph  King  Fenno,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1803, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822.  He  served  as  captain 
in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  colonel  in 
1853.  He  commanded  the  department  of  Washington 
in  June  and  July,  1861,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  where  he  was  killed,  September  17, 
1862.     He  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Mansfield,  Lord.  See  Murray,  (William.) 
Man-si,  mSn'see,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  a  learned 
Italian  prelate,  born  at  Lucca  in  1692.  He  translated 
into  Latin  Calmet's  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible"  and  the 
"  Commentary"  of  the  same  author,  and  edited  several 
works  of  theology.  One  of  the  most  important  of  his 
works  was  an  edition  of  the  "  Collection  of  Councils," 
("Sacrorum  Conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  Collectio," 
1757  et  seq.,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  N.  Coleti.  He 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Lucca  in  1765.  Died  in 
1769. 

See  Zatti,  "Vita  di  D.  Mansi,"  1772. 

Manso,  man'so,  or  Manzo,  min'zo,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TiSTA,)  Marquis  de  Villa,  an  Italian  author,  eminent  as 
a  patron  of  literature,  was  born  in  Naples  about  1560. 
He  expended  part  of  his  fortune  in  founding  in  Naples 
the  Academy  degli  Oziosi.  He  was  intimate  with  the 
poet  Tasso,  who  commemorated  their  friendship  in  his 
dialogue  entitled  "II  Manso."  Milton,  who  had  been 
his  guest  in  Naples,  addressed  to  him  in  complimentary 
terms  a  beautiful  Latin  poem  or  eclogue  entitled  "  Man- 
sus."  Manso  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Torquato  Tasso,"  (1619,) 
and  several  poems.     Died  in  1645. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Manso,  min'so,  (Johann  Kaspar  Friedrich,)  a 
German  scholar  and  historian,  born  in  the  duchy  of 
Gotha  in  1759.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Constantino 
the  Great,"  (181 7,)  and  a  number  of  poems  and  an- 
tiquarian treatises.     Died  in  1826. 

Man'son,  (George,)  a  Scottish  water-colour  painter, 
born  at  Edinburgh,  December  3,  1850.  He  worked  with 
success  as  a  designer  and  wood-engraver,  but  after  187 1 
gave  his  attention  entirely  to  painting.  Died  at  Lymp- 
stone,  in  Devon,  February  27,  1876. 

Mansoor,  (Aboo-Amir-Mohammed.)  See  Al- 
Mansoor. 

Mansoor,  Mansour,  Man90ur,  or  Mansfir,  Al,* 
ai  mansooR',  (Aboo-Jaafar-  (or  Djafar-)  Abdallai, 
a'boo  ji'far  Sb-dil'lah,  the  second  Abbasside  caliph  of 
the  Arabian  empire,  succeeded  his  brother  As-Seffah  (ot 
Al-Saffah)  in  754  A.D.  About  765  he  founded  Bagdad, 
which  thenceforth  was  the  capital  of  the  empire  for  five 
centuries.  He  waged  war  with  success  against  the 
Turcomans  and  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  but  lost 
Spain,  which  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Omeyyads. 
He  is  said  to  have  united  superior  talents  with  great 

•  Al  M.xnsoor  signifies  "  the  Victorious." 


:  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H.  K.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R.  trilled:  s  as  s;  %h  as  in  this.     1 2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANSTEIN 


1646 


MANTUANO 


cruelty  and  other  vices.     He  died  in  775  A.D.,  leaving 
the  throne  to  his  son  Mahdee,  (or  Mahdi.) 

See  Wf.il,  "Geschichte  der  Cliallfen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii. 

Manstein,  von,  fon  mln'stin,  (Christoph  Her- 
mann,) an  able  general  and  historical  writer,  born  in 
Saint  Petersburg  in  171 1.  In  1745  he  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Prussia,  and  a  few  years  later  becajne  a  major- 
general.  He  was  employed  by  Frederick  the  Great  in 
important  political  affairs,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Prague,  (1757.)  Me  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  the  same 
year.  He  left  "Historical,  Political,  and  Military  Me- 
moirs of  Russia,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1772.)  This  work 
has  been  translated  into  English. 

See  HuBER,  "Vie  de  Manstein,"  prefixed  to  his  "M^nioires." 

Mansueti,  min-soo-a'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Venice  al^out  1450;  died  after  1500. 

Maut,  (Richard,)  an  English  bishop  and  commen- 
tator, born  at  Southamjnon  in  1776.  In  conjunction 
with  D'Oyly,  he  prepared  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  with 
notes,  (1817.)  He  became  Eishop  of  Down  and  Connor 
about  1823.  He  wiote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  the  Church  in  Ireland."     Died  in  1848. 

See  Berens,  "  Memoir  of  the  Lite  of  Bishop  Mant,"  1849. 

Mantegna,  mdn-t§n'yS,  (Andrea,)  an  eminent  Italian 
historical  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Padua  about 
1430,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Squarcione,  who  adopted  him 
as  a  son.  After  he  had  worked  at  Padua  and  Verona, 
he  went  to  Milan,  where  he  painted  the  "  Triumph  of 
Julius  Cjesar,"  which  Vasari  esteemed  his  master-piece, 
and  which  was  purchased  by  Charles  I.  of  England.  It 
is  now  at  Hampton  Court.  He  painted  several  frescos 
in  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  and  worked  soine  years  in  Man- 
tua, where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Marquis  de  Gon- 
zaga.  Among  his  most  admired  oil-paintings  is  the 
"Delia  Vittoria,"  (1495,)  (a  picture  of  the  Marquis  of 
Mantua  rendering  thanks  to  the  Virgin  for  his  victory 
at  Fornovo,)  which  still  retains  its  beauty.  He  was 
probably  the  first  engraver  of  his  time.     Died  in  1506. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "Historj'  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti  ;" 
LoMAZZo,  "  Idea  del  Tempio  del'a  Pittura  ;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Me- 
dioirs  of  Earlj-  Italian  Painters;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Mantegna,  (Bernardino,)  a  painter  of  the  Mantuan 
school,  born  in  1490,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  pre- 
ceding.    Died  in  1528. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Mantegna,  (Francesco,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  son 
3f  Andrea,  noticed  above.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father, 
and  completed  several  works  which  the  latter  left  un- 
finished at  Mantua.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  first 
master  of  Correggio.     Died  after  1514. 

Mantegna,  del,  d&l  mSn-t^n'y?.,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  was  a  relative  and  pupil  of  Andrea  Mantegna, 
noticed  above.  In  15 14  he  was  master  of  a  school  of 
Artists  in  Genoa. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Man'tell,  (Gideon  Algernon,)  an  eminent  English 
geologist  and  palaeontologist,  born  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex, 
in  1790.  He  adopted  the  medical  profession,  which  he 
practised  many  years  at  Lewes.  A  mine  near  that  place 
offered  him  a  rich  field  for  observations  in  geology,  to 
which  his  attention  was  early  directed.  He  collected 
from  the  Wealden  formation  and  the  chalk  a  museum  oi 
specimens  of  e.xtinct  reptiles,  fishes,  and  plants,  which  wa? 
afterwards  bought  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum 
for  ;^50oo.  About  1825  he  discovered  the  Iguanodon, 
an  e.xtinct  reptile  about  sixty  feet  long,  and  in  that  year 
was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society.  He  also  discovered 
three  other  genera  of  the  colossal  Dinosaurian  reptiles. 
In  1822  he  published  "The  Fossils  of  the  South  Downs." 
He  removed  to  Clapham  in  1839,  and  a  few  years  later 
to  London.  He  not  only  enriched  the  science  by  his 
discoveries,  but  was  unsurpassed  by  any  English  geolo- 
gist of  his  time  as  a  lecturer  and  a  popular  expounder 
of  geological  facts.  His  most  important  works  are  "On 
the  Iguanodon,"  "The  Geology  of  the  Southeast  of 
England,"  (1S38,)  "The  Wonders  of  Geology,"  (1838,) 
and  "The  Medals  of  Creation,"  (1844.)     Died  in  1852. 

See  Agassiz  and  Strickland,  "  Bibliographia  Zoolrgiae  el 
Geologias." 

Manteuffel,  min'toiffel,  (Otto  Theodor,)  Baron, 


a  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Liibben  in  1805.  He  was 
appointed  director  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1846, 
and  minister  of  the  interior  about  November,  1848. 
Many  of  the  notes  and  diploinatic  circulars  of  1848  and 
1849  were  written  by  him.  He  was  president  of  the 
council  of  ministers  from  December,  1850,  to  December, 
1858.     Died  November  26,  1882. 

See  G.  Hhskkiel,  "O.  T.  Manteuffel:  ein  Preussisches  Lebens- 
bild,"  1851. 

Manteuffel,  von,  fon  min'toif-fel,  (Edwin  Hans 
Karl,)  Baron,  a  German  general,  horn  at  Magdeburg, 
February  24,  1809.  He  entered  the  Prussian  army  in 
1827.  He  attained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1858, 
and  in  1861  was  made  adjutant-general  and  lieutenant- 
general.  He  commanded  a  large  force  of  German  troops 
in  the  Danish  war  of  1864,  a  contest  which  he  is  believed 
to  have  stirred  up  intentionally.  During  the  Austrian 
war  of  1S66  he  was  actively  and  successfully  employed  in 
Hanover,  Saxony,  and  Franconia ;  and  in  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-71  he  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
corps-commanders.  In  1879  he  was  named  imperial 
lieutenant  (or  governor)  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  ranking  as 
field-marshal  general  and  adjutant-general  of  the  German 
anny,  and  as  principal  aide-de-camp  general  of  the 
imperial  staff.     Died  June  17,  18S5. 

Mantica,  mSn-tee'kS,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  prel- 
ate and  jurist,  born  at  Pordenune  in  1534,  published 
"Decisiones  Romanas,"  (1618.)     Died  in  1614. 

Man'to,  [Gr.  Mai'-w,]  a  ])rophetess,  daughter  of  Tire- 
sias,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Argives  at  Thebes,  and 
was  dedicated  to  Apollo,  under  whose  auspices  she  is 
said  to  have  uttered  oracles  at  Delphi.  She  was  some- 
times called  Daphne.  She  became  the  wife  of  Rhakius 
or  Rhacius,  and  the  mother  of  Mopsus. 
]  Man'tpn,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
i  Somersetshire  in  1620.  He  obtaitted  the  living  of  Stoke 
Newington  in  1643,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Covent 
Garden  in  London.  He  was  eminent  for  eloquence  and 
learning,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Cromwell  in 
1653.  In  1660  he  became  a  chaplain  to  Charles  XL, 
but  was  ejected  froin  his  church  in  London  for  non- 
conformity in  1662.  Several  volumes  of  his  sermons, 
lectures,  etc.  were  published.     Died  in  1677. 

Mantouan,  Le.  See  Mantuano. 

Mantovano.  See  Mantuano. 

Mantuan,  mSn-too-Sn',  or  Mantuano,  m  Jn-too-i'no, 
(  Battista,  )  or  Battista  Spagnuoli,  (spin-yoo-o'lee,) 
a  Latin  poet,  once  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  at  Mantua 
in  1448.  He  had  great  facility  as  a  versifier,  but  was  de- 
ficient in  taste,  and  his  works,  consisting  of  eclogue.s, 
silva,  etc.,  are  now  entirely  neglected.  "He  was,  and 
long  continued  to  be,"  says  Hallam,  "the  poet  of 
school-rooms.  Erasmus  says  that  he  would  be  placed 
by  posterity  not  much  below  Virgil."  He  was,  however, 
surpassed  as  a  Latinist  by  several  of  his  contemporaries. 
He  lived  in  an  age  when  Latin  composition  was  in  great 
vogue,  especially  in  Italy.  He  was  a  Carmelite  friar. 
Died  in  1516. 

Mantuano,  min-too-i'no,  (Adamo  Ghisi,)  an  able 
engraver,  born  at  Mantua  about  1530,  was  a  son  of 
Giovanni  Battista,  noticed  below.  He  engraved  aftet 
Michael  Angelo,  Giulio  Romano,  and  other  masters. 

Mantuano,  (Giorgio  Ghisi,)  born  at  Mantua  about 
1522,  was  a  skilful  engraver  and  painter.  He  worked 
many  years  in  Rome,  and  engraved  the  finest  works  of 
Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  other  masters.  Among 
them  are  "The  Last  Judgment,"  after  Angelo,  and  the 
"  Holy  Family"  and  "School  of  Athens,"  after  Raphael. 
He  was  living  in  1578. 

His  sister,  Diana  Mantuana,  a  skilful  artist,  en- 
graved several  works  of  Raphael  about  1570-80. 

Mantuano,  [Fr.  Le  Mantouan,  leh  mdN'too'ftN',) 
(Giovanni  Baitista  Bertano,)  an  Italian  painter, 
scul]5tor,  engraver,  and  architect,  the  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Mantua  about  1500.  He  was  the 
head  of  a  family  which  ])roduced  several  artists,  and 
whose  proper  name  was  Ghisi.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Giulio  Roinano.  His  engraving  of  the  "Burning  of 
Troy"  is  highly  praised. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  tlie  Painters." 

Mantuano,  (Teodoro.)     See  Ghisl 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y, /<?«^;  A,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  j/zt'r^;  a,  e.  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MANU 


1647 


MAN  WOOD 


Manu,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  miin'ou,]  written  also 
Menu,  [from  the  Sanscrit  man,  to  "know,"]  a  celebrated 
Hindoo  sage,  the  son  of  Brahma,  and  the  revealer  of  the 
code  of  laws  known  as  the  "Institutes  of  Manu." 

See  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary ;"  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 
Manuce,  (Alde.)  See  Manutius,  (Aldus.) 
Man'u-el  I.  Coin-ne'nus,  [Gr.  Mavov7//i  h  Kojivrivo^ ; 
Fr.  Manuel  Comn^ne,  mS'uii'cl'  kom'nin',]  a  Greek 
emperor,  born  about  11 20,  was  a  younger  son  of  John 
Ci  imnenus,  who  designated  him  for  his  successor.  Manuel 
began  to  reign  at  Constantinople  in  H43.  He  was  am- 
bitious, brave,  and  licentious.  He  is  accused  of  perfidy 
towards  the  crusaders  Conrad  of  Germany  and  Louis 
VH.,  King  of  France,  who  passed,  with  their  armies, 
through  his  dominions  in  1 147,  and  with  whom  he  had 
made  a  treaty  of  alliance.  He  afterwards  waged  war 
against  Roger,  King  of  Sicily,  the  Hungarians,  and  the 
Turks,  over  whom  he  gained  several  victories.  Peace 
was  made  between  him  and  Roger  in  1155.  In  11 76  he 
was  defeated  disastrously  by  Az-ed-Deen,  the  Turkish 
Sultan,  near  Myriocephalus,  where  Manuel  fought  in 
person.  The  Turks  were  defeated  in  turn  by  his  army 
in  Lydia,  in  1177,  when  the  war  was  ended  by  treaty. 
He  died  in  1180,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son, 
Alexis  II. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  Le  Be.-^u, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  G^ncrale." 

Manuel  II.  Palaeologu.s,  (pal-e-ol'o-gus,)  [Gr.  Ma- 
vmrjT^  b  liakaiakoyoq  ;  Fr.  Manuel  Pal6ologue,  mS'nii'eK 
pt'li'o'log',]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  the  second 
eon  of  John  VI.,  who  admitted  him  as  his  associate  in 
the  empire  about  1372.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1 39 1,  Manuel  was  held  as  a  hostage  by  Sultan  Bayazeed 
I.  He  escaped  from  Nicsea,  and  fled  to  his  own  capital, 
in  the  same  year.  The  enraged  Sultan  marched  against 
him,  and  besieged  Constantinople.  The  French  and 
German  chivalry  came  to  his  assistance  with  a  large 
army,  and  forced  Bayazeed  to  raise  the  siege ;  but  he  de- 
feated those  allies  at  Nicopolis  (Nicopol)  in  1396.  The 
Sultan  prosecuted  the  siege  for  several  years,  until  the 
alarming  progress  of  Tamerlane  called  him  away  for  the 
defence  of  his  own  kingdom.  After  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Bayazeed,  in  1403,  Manuel  reigned  in  peace.  He  died 
in  1425,  aged  seventy-seven,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
8on,  John  VII.  Palaeologus. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire:"  VoN  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;" 
Bekger  de  XivRKV,  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Ma- 
nuel Paieologue,"  1853. 

Manuel,  mi-noo-?K,  or  Manoel,  mS-no-SK,  (Fran- 
cisco,) an  eminent  Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Lisbon  in 
1734.  He  wrote  admired  odes,  sonnets,  and  epistles, 
and  attained  the  reputation  of  the  most  excellent  modern 
lyric  poet  of  Portugal.  Among  his  poems  is  an  ode  to 
Washington.  The  liberality  of  his  principles  subjected 
him  to  a  charge  of  heresy,  for  which  he  was  summoned 
before  the  Inquisition.  He  escaped,  and  retired  to  Paris 
in  1788.  He  made  admirable  Portuguese  versions  of  La 
Fontaine's  "  Fables,"  Chateaubriand's  "  Martyrs,"  and 
Wieland's  "  Oberon."  His  poems  were  published,  under 
the  name  of"  Filinto  Elysio."     Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Manuel,  mS'nii'SK,  (Jacques  Antoine,)  a  French 
orator  and  republican,  born  at  Barcelonnette  (Low  Alps) 
in  1775.  In  the  profession  of  advocate  he  attained 
eminence  at  Aix.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  during  the  Hundred  Days,  (1815,)  when  he 
spoke  against  the  pretensions  of  Bonaparte  and  of  the 
Bourbons.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  by  the  liberals,  and  was  ranked  among  the 
ablest  debaters  of  that  assembly.  "  Of  all  the  revolu- 
tionary orators,"  says  Lamartine,  "he  was  the  most 
feared  and  hated  by  the  majority."  After  a  speech  in 
reply  to  Chateaubriand,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Cham- 
ber in  1823.  Died  in  1827.  "He  had  no  one  to  con- 
sole him,"  says  Lamartine,  "  but  Beranger,  whose  heart 
loved  in  Manuel  the  antique  stamp  of  the  premature 
but  intrepid,  moderate,  and  upright  republican.  ,  ,  ,  He 
was  more  remarkable  for  character  than  eloquence ;  he 
preferred  action  to  speech,"  etc. 

See  Fadevillb,  "Manuel  jug^  par  ses  Actions,"  1S24  ;  Ramond 
De  la  Croisettk,  "  M.  Manuel,"  1824:  Fourtanier,  "  filoge  de 
Manuel,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 


Manuel,  mi-noo-el',  (Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish  prince 
and  author,  was  a  nephew  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile.  He 
was  Regent  of  Castile  during  part  of  the  minority  of 
Alfonso  XL,  and  distinguished  himself  in  battle  against 
the  Moors.  He  wrote  many  works,  in  prose  and  verse. 
His  political  and  moral  treatise  called  "The  Count  of 
Lucanor"  ("  El  Conde  de  Lucanor")  was  esteemed  by 
Bouterwek  as  the  finest  monument  of  Spanish  literature 
in  the  fourteenth  century.     Died  about  1350. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ticknop 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Manuel,  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  Montargis  in  175 1.  According  to  Beaulieu,  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  riot  of  the  loth  of  August, 
1792,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Danton.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  conducted  the  royal  captives  to  the  prison  of  the 
Temple.  He  rescued  Madame  de  Stael  and  Beaumar- 
chais  from  the  massacre  of  September.  As  a  member 
of  the  Convention,  he  voted  against  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI.     For  this  he  was  proscribed  and  executed  in  1793. 

See  JPrudhomme,  "Les  Revolutions  de  Paris  ;"  Louis  Blanc, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Manuel,  mt'nii'el',  (Nicolas,)  a  Swiss  artist,  author, 
and  Reformer,  born  at  Berne  in  1484,  was  sometimes 
called  Deutsch,  in  Italian  Tedesco,  (i.e.  the  "German.") 
About  1 5 10  he  went  to  Venice  and  became  a  pupil  of 
Titian.  He  returned  to  Berne,  and  painted  "The  Dance 
of  Death,"  in  fresco.  He  wrote  satirical  poems  and 
songs,  and  "  Dramatic  Moralities  and  Mysteries,"  a  hu- 
morous composition.  In  his  latter  years  he  held  several 
public  offices,  and  was  an  active  promoter  of  the  Swiss 
Reformation.     Died  in  1530, 

Manutius,  ma-nu'she^s,  (Al'dus,)  [It.  Aldo  Ma- 
Nuzio,  Sl'do  mi-noot'se^ ;  Fr.  Alde  Manuce,  Sid 
mt'niiss',]  a  celebrated  Italian  printer  and  scholar,  born 
at  Bassiano,  in  the  Papal  States,  in  1447.  With  the 
patronage  of  Pico  de  Mirandola  and  Alberto  Pio,  he 
established  a  printing-press  at  Venice  about  1490.  He 
invented  the  form  of  type  called  Italic,  procured  manu- 
scripts from  various  countries,  and  published  editions  of 
classics  which  surpassed  all  others  in  correctness.  About 
1500  he  formed  at  Venice  a  literary  association  called  the 
Aldine  Academy,  the  design  of  which  was  to  promote 
literature  by  perfectii^g  the  copies  of  the  models  of  an- 
tiquity. He  compiled  a  Greek-and- Latin  Lexicon,  (1497.) 
Died  in  1515. 

See  Unger,  "  De  Aldi  Pii  Manutii  Vita  Meritisque,"  1752;  D 
M.  Manni,  "Vita  di  Aldo  Pio  Manuzio,"  1749;  A.  Renol'ard. 
"Annales  de  I'Imprimerie  des  Aide;"  Ambroise  Firmin  Didot, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^u^rale." 

Manutius,  (Aldus,)  or  Manuzio,  (Aldo,)  the 
Younger,  born  at  Venice  in  1547,  was  a  son  of  Paolo, 
noticed  below.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  published  a 
"  System  of  Orthography,"  ("  Orthographise  Ratio.")  He 
was  professor  of  eloquence  at  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  Rome. 
He  wrote,  besides  antiquarian  treatises,  "  The  Life  of 
Cosimo  I.  de'  Medici,"  and  "The  Accomplished  Gentle- 
man," ("II  perfetto  Gentil'uomo.")    Died  in  1597, 

See  A.  Renouard,  "Annales  des  Aide." 

Manutius,  (Paulus,)  or  Manuzio,  (Paolo,)  ai. 
Italian  printer,  author,  and  critic,  born  at  Venice  in  15 12, 
was  a  son  of  Aldus  Senior.  As  the  successor  of  his 
father  in  the  printing-establishment,  he  published  excel- 
lent editions  of  Latin  classics  in  Venice.  About  1562 
he  removed  his  press  to  Rome,  whence  he  returned  to 
Venice  in  1570.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
critic  and  as  a  writer  of  elegant  Latin.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  "  On  the  Roman  Senate,"  ("  De  .Senatu 
Romano,")  "  On  the  Roman  State,"  ("  De  Civitate  Ro 
mana,")  "  Roman  Antiquities,"  and  a  volume  of  Latin 
Epistles.  "  The  letters  of  Manutius,"  says  Hallam,  "  pall 
on  the  reader  by  their  monotonous  elegance.  ,  ,  .  Sciop- 
pius  thinks  him  consummate  in  delicacy  and  grace." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1574- 

See  A.  Renouard,  "Annales  de  I'Imprimerie  des  Aide,"  1834; 
J.  G.  Krause,  "Apparatus  ad  P.  Manutii  Vitam,"  i66q ;  Ambri:>ish 
Fikmin  Didot,  article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Manuzio.     See  Manutius. 

Man'wood,  <John,)  an  English  jurist,  flourished 
about  1600,  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Laws  of  the 
Forest." 


€  as  i;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  Vi,giMnral;  N,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Exj^lanations,  \>.  23. ) 


MANWOOD 


1648 


MA  RAN  A 


Manvcood,  (Sir  Roger,)  probably  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  chief  baron  of  the  court  of  exchequer. 
Died  in  1593. 

Manzi,  mSn'zee,  (Gulielmo,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Civita  Vecchia  in  1784.  He  made  a  good  Italian 
version  of  Lucian,  (1819,)  and  wrote  a  "Discourse  on 
the  Spectacles,  Festivals,  and  Luxury  of  the  Italians  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,"  (1818.)     Died  in  1821. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biojrrana  -legli  Italiani  illustri :"  Rossi,  "  Elogio 
storico  di  G.  Manzi,"  1822. 

Manzi,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Civita 
Vecchia  in  1785,  was  a  brother  cf  the  preceding.  He 
published  "  The  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  {1817,)  and  other 
vrorks.     Died  in  1839. 

Manzo.     See  Manso. 

Mauzolli,  min-zol'lee,  or  Manzoli,  min-zo'lee,  (PiE- 
TRO  or  Pier  Angelo,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Stellata,  on 
the  Po,  in  Italy,  flourished  about  1510-40.  He  was  bet- 
ter known  by  his  assumed  name,  Palingenio  or  Palin- 
ge'nius  Stella'tus.  The  events  and  circumstances 
of  his  life  are  unknown.  He  wrote  a  long  moral  poem, 
entitled  "  Zodiac  of  Life,"  ("  ZodiacusVitae,"  Bale,  1537,) 
the  books  of  which  are  named  from  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  "  It  is  not  very  poedcal,"  says  Hallam,  "  but 
by  no  means  without  strong  passages  cf  sense  and 
spirit,  in  a  lax  Horatian  metre.  The  a^ithor  has  said 
more  than  enough  to  incur  the  suspicion  of  Lutheran- 
ism."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Gerdes,  "  Historia  Reformationis ;"  "Paling^ne,"  in 
Bayle's  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionarj-." 

Manzoni,  min-zo'nee,  (Alessandro,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  novelist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Milan,  March  8, 
1784.  His  father  bore  the  title  of  count,  and  his  mother 
was  a  daughter  of  the  Marquis  Beccaria,  the  eminent 
jurist  and  writer.  About  1805  he  made  a  long  visit 
to  Paris,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Fauriel  and  produced  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Carlo 
Imbonati,  (1806.)  He  married  Henriette  Louise  Blondel, 
of  Geneva,  in  1808,  and  became  a  zealous  member  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
produced  several  hymns  on  the  Nativity,  the  Passion, 
the  Resurrection,  etc.,  which  have  much  literary  merit. 
His  next  work  was  a  tragedv,  called  "  II  Conte  di  Car- 
magnola,"  (1820,)  in  which  the  three  unities  are  not  ob- 
served. This  drama  was  warmly  applauded  by  Goethe. 
He  published  another  tragedy,  entitled  "  Adelchi,"  and 
an  admirable  ode  on  the  death  of  Napoleon,  "  II  cinque 
Maggio."  His  capital  work  is  the  historical  novel  of 
"  I  promessi  Sposi,"  (3  vols.,  1827,)  an  English  version 
of  which  has  appeared  under  the  title  of  "  The  Betrothed 
Lovers."  It  presents  a  vivid  picture  of  Italian  society 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  style  is  natural,  elo- 
quent, and  beautiful.  Manzoni  became  a  senator  of  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia  in  i860.     Died  May  22,  1873. 

See  Louis  DE  Lom^N'IE,  "  M.  Manzoni,  par  un  Homme  deRien," 
1842;  Sainte-Eel'VE,  "A.  Manzoni;  Fragment  biographique," 
1845;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biosn'aphie  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and 
November,  1827;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1826; 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,  7840. 

Manzoni,  (Francesca,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  in 
the  Milanese  in  17 10,  was  versed  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages.     Died  in  1743. 

Manzuoli,  min-zoo-o'lee,  (Tommaso,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  near  Florence  in  1536,  was  also  called 
Maso  da  San  Friano.  He  adorned  several  churches 
of  Florence.  His  master-piece  is  the  "  Visitation,"  which 
is  preserved  in  the  gallery  of  the  Vatican.    Died  in  1575. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  «tc. 

Mapes,  map,?  or  Map,  (Walter,)  an  old  English 
author,  born  in  the  Welsh  marches  about  1 1 50.  He 
became  a  favourite  of  Henry  II.,  who  sent  him  on  a  mis- 
sion to  the  King  of  France  and  gave  him  several  bene- 
fices. In  1 196  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Oxford. 
He  wrote  satirical  Leonine  Latin  poems,  among  which 
is  an  ode  which  begins  "  Meum  est  propositum  in  taberna 
mori."  In  Latin  prose  he  wrote  a  curious  and  interesting 
work  called  "  De  Nugis  Curialium."  He  was  the  re- 
puted author  of  several  romances  in  French  or  Anglo- 
Norman,  among  them  the  "Quest  dti  Saint  Graal," 
and  certain  other  Round  Table  legends,  svhich  give  him 
a  very  high  rank  in  mediaeval  literature. 


Maphseus.     See  Maffei  and  Maffeo. 

Ma'ple-spn,  (Marie,)  better  known  by  her  maiden 
name  of  Marie  Roze,  a  French  singer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1850.  She  was  educated  at  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris, 
and  early  went  upon  the  operatic  stage,  where  her  fine 
abilities  as  a  singer  and  her  versatility  as  an  actress  won 
her  great  applause.  She  married  Mr.  J.  H.  Mapleson,  a 
distinguished  English  manager  of  the  opera. 

Mapletoft,  ma'pel-toft,  (John,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  163 1.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  in  Gresham  College,  London,  iii 
1675.  About  1680  he  took  holy  orders.  He  translated 
into  Latin  Sydenham's  "Observations,"  at  the  request 
of  the  author,  and  wrote  "The  Principles  and  Duties 
of  the  Christian  Religion."     Died  in  1721. 

Mapp,  mtp,  [Lat.MAP'pus,]  ^Marc,)  a  French  bot- 
anist and  physician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1632.  He  wrote 
a  mediocre  "  Description  of  the  Plants  of  Alsace."  Died 
in  1701. 

Mappus.     See  Mapp. 

Maquet,  mS'k^',  (Auguste,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1813.  He  was  author  in  part  of  "  Monte- 
Cristo,"  and  of  other  works  which  were  published  under 
the  name  of  Alexandre  Dumas.     Died  January  9,  1888. 

Mar,  Earl  of.     See  Erskine,  (John.) 

M&ra,  mi'ra,  a  famous  deva  of  the  Hindoo  mytholog), 
mentioned  in  the  history  of  Gautama,  (which  see.) 

Mara,  mi'ri,  originally  named  Schmelling,  (Eliza- 
beth,) a  celebrated  German  singer,  was  born  at  Cassel 
in  1749.  She  was  a  pupil  of  Paradisi,  and  became  the 
wife  of  J.  Mara,  a  violoncellist  of  Berlin.  Between  1784 
and  1787  she  appeared  four  times  as  first  vocalist  at  the 
Handel  Commemoration,  and  was  greatly  admired.  She 
afterwards  performed  with  applause  in  Paris  and  Berlin, 
She  sang  in  four  languages.     Died  in  1833. 

Mara,  de,  deh  mt'ri',  (Guillaume,)  a  priest  and 
Latin  poet,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Coutances,  France 
about  1470;  died  about  1530. 

Maracci.     See  Marracci. 

Maracci,  mi-rit'chee,  or  Marracci,  mir-rSt'chee, 
(Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historical  painter,  born  at  Lucca 
in  1637,  was  a  pu]Dil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.    Died  in  1704. 

Marais,  mt'ri',  (Marin,)  a  French  musical  composer, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1656.  Among  his  works  is  an  opera 
entitled  "Alcyone,"  {1706.)     Died  in  1728. 

Marais,  (Mathieu,)  a  French  jurist  and  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1664.  He  wrote  some  articles  for  Bayle's 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  and  a  "  Life  of 
La  Fontaine,"  (181 1.)     Died  in  1737. 

Marais,  des.     See  Regnier-Desmarais. 

Maraldi,  mS-rai'dee,  (Jacques  Philippe,)  an  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Perinaldo,  in  the  county  of  Nice,  in 
1665,  was  a  nephew  of  Giovanni  Domenico  Cassini, 
under  whom  he  studied  astronomy  in  Paris.  About 
1700  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  spent  many  years  in  astronomical  observations,  and 
in  forming  a  Catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  which  he  left 
in  manuscript  when  he  died,  in  1729. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excei'ientium ;"  KiNTB- 
NELLE,  "  £loge  de  Maraldi." 

Maraldi,  (Jean  Dominique,)  a  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Perinaldo  in  1709.  He  became 
assistant  astronomer  at  the  Paris  Observatory,  and  made 
many  observations,  which  were  inserted  in  the  collection 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.     Died  in  1788. 

Maran,  mt'rSN',  [Lat.  Mara'nus,]  (Dom  Prudent,) 
a  learned  French  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Sezanne  in 
1683.  He  wrote  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Semi-Arians," 
and  edited  the  works  of  Saint  Cyprian.     Died  in  1762. 

Marana,  ma-ri'na,(GiovANNi  Paolo  or  Giampaolo,) 
an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1642.  He  was 
imprisoned  four  years  (1670-74)  for  a  political  reason. 
About  1682  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  obtained  a  pen- 
sion from  the  king.  In  1684  he  published,  in  French,  the 
first  volume  of  "  The  Turkish  Spy,"  ("  L'Espion  Turc,") 
which  was  very  successful.  "  The  Turkish  Spy,"  says 
Hallam,  "  is  no  ordinary  production,  but  contains  as 
many  proofs  of  a  thoughtful,  if  not  very  profound,  mind, 
as  any  we  can  find.  It  suggested  the  Persian  Letters 
to  Montesquieu."  He  published  a  second  volume  in 
1686.     Died  in  1693. 


a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good ;  moon; 


MARANGONI 


1649 


MARC  A 


\ 


Marangoni,  m^-r5n-go'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1673.  He  wrote  a  learned 
treatise  on  the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  and  "Thesaurus 
Parochorum."    Died  in  1753. 

Maransin,  mt'rflN'siN',  (Jean  Pierre,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Lourdes  in  1770;  died  in  1828. 

Maranta,  mS-r^n'ta,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  bot- 
anist and  physician,  lived  at  Venosa,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  He  assisted  Ferrante  Imperato  in  writing  his 
"Natural  History,"  and  wrote  an  esteemed  elementary 
work  on  botany,  entitled  "  Methodus  Cognoscendorum 
Medicamentorum  simplicium,"  (1559.)  "The  author," 
says  Hallam,  "  is  independent,  though  learned,  extremely 
acute  in  discriminating  plants  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
has  discovered  many  himself."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")     Died  about  1554. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteiatura  Italiana." 

Maranus.     See  Maran. 

Marat,  mt'rt',  (Jean  Paul,)  a  leader  in  the  French 
Revolution,  was  the  son  of  an  Italian  named  Mara,  and 
was  born  near  Neufchatel,  in  .Switzerland,  in  1743.  He 
practised  medicine  in  Paris  before  the  Revolution  with 
great  success,  becoming  in  1777  a  court-physician,  but  in 
1 786  he  resigned  his  place.  He  published  many  treatises 
on  electricity,  optics,  etc.  In  17S9  he  aroused  the  popu- 
lace by  his  journal  "The  Friend  of  the  People,"  ("  L'Ami 
du  Peuple.")  He  was  as  a  consequence  for  a  long  time 
compelled  to  live  in  sewers  and  cellars  to  escape  the 
officers  of  the  law.  Among  the  Jacobin  leaders  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  most  determined  and  ferocious 
enemy  alike  of  the  royalists  and  Girondists,  whose  in- 
sincerity he  denounced  and  for  whose  half-measures  he 
expressed  great  contempt.  In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the 
Convention,  and,  uniting  with  Danton  and  Robespierre, 
formed  the  famous  triumvirate  of  the  reign  of  terror.  He 
became  a  self-constituted  public  accuser  before  the  com- 
mune and  the  Convention.  In  May,  1793,  the  majority 
of  the  Convention  ordered  his  arrest  for  alleged  outrages 
committed  against  that  assembly.  He  was  tried,  but 
was  acquitted  by  the  tribunal  and  brought  back  to  the 
Convention  in  triumph.  "The  hesitation  of  Danton," 
says  Lamartine,  "and  the  temporizing  of  Robespierre, 
raised  Marat  at  this  moment  to  the  apogee  of  his  popu- 
larity and  power.  He  shrugged  his  shoulders  at  the 
names  of  Danton  and  Robespierre,  expressing  his  doubts 
of  their  capacity  to  guide  the  Revolution."  He  was 
assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday  in  his  own  house  in 
July,  1793.  (See  Corday,  Charloite.)  Perhaps  no 
man  in  all  history  has  been  more  unanimously  condemned 
than  Marat.  The  perfect  agreement  in  regard  to  his 
ciiaracter  among  his  contemporaries  of  the  most  diverse 
and  even  opposite  opinions  on  other  subjects,  furnishes 
the  strongest  probability  that  that  condemnation  was 
entirely  just.  That  he  preferred  the  gratification  of  his 
malignant  passions  to  the  pursuit  of  wealth  or  of  ordinary 
pleasures  is  no  proof  of  any  very  exalted  disinterested- 
ness. History  furnishes  many  examples  of  men  who, 
dominated  by  one  supreme  passion,  have  been  indifferent 
to  every  other  consideration.  We  find  very  little  force 
or  reason  in  the  recent  attempts  to  rehabilitate  the  repu- 
tation of  Marat.  The  only  charitable  view  of  his  char- 
acter that  can  rationally  be  maintained  is  to  suppose  that 
his  mind,  more  especially  his  moral  nature,  was  deeply 
diseased.  For  the  credit  of  humanity,  we  may  hope  that 
he  was  not  fully  responsible  for  his  conduct. 

Maratta,  ma-rit'ti,  or  Maratti,  mS-rit'tee,  (Carlo,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Camurano,  in  the  March  of 
Ancona,  in  May,  1625,  enjoyed  in  his  time  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  best  painters  in  Europe.  He  became 
a  pupil  of  Andrea  Sacchi  and  a  devout  student  of  Ra- 
phael's works,  and  chose  Rome  as  his  permanent  resi- 
dence. He  was  employed  by  Clement  IX.  and  by  four 
other  successive  popes,  and  received  the  title  of  painter- 
ordinary  to  Louis  XIV.,  for  whom  he  painted  a  picture 
of  Daphne.  His  Madonnas  are  admired  for  modest 
dignity  and  amiable  expression.  He  preferred  to  paint 
pictures  for  galleries  and  altars,  rather  than  large  works. 
Maratta  also  excelled  in  the  art  of  etching.  He  was  the 
last  great  painter  of  the  Roman  school.     Died  in  1713. 

See  Bellori,  "Vita  del  Cavalier  Maratti,"  1732. 


Maratta  or  Maratti,  (Maria,)  a  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  painter  and  a  poetess.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  G.  Zappe,  the  poet. 

Maratti.     See  Maratta. 

Maraviglia,  mi-ri-vfel'ya,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  moralist,  born  at  Milan.  His 
Latin  name  was  Mirabilia.     Died  in  1684. 

Marazzoli,  mS-rSt-so'lee,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser of  operas  and  oratorios,  born  at  Parma;  died  in 
1662. 

Marbach,  maR'b^K,  (Johann,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Lindau  in  1521.  Among  his  works 
is  "  The  Faith  of  Jesus  and  of  the  Jesuits,"  ("  Fides  Jesus 
et  Jesuitarum.")    Died  in  1581. 

Marbeau,  mtR'b5',  (Jean  Baptiste  Franqois,)  a 
French  writer  on  social  economy,  born  at  Brives  in  1798. 
He  founded  in  1844  charitable  institutions  called  Crhhes, 
for  infants  whose  mothers  serve  as  labourers  out  of  their 
own  houses.     Died  October  10,  1875. 

Mar'beck,  (John,)  an  English  composer  of  cathedral 
music,  was  organist  of  Windsor  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  He  composed  the  notes  to  the  Preces  and  Re- 
sponses used  in  the  English  cathedrals.  Having  iden- 
tified himself  with  the  Protestant  cause,  he  was  con- 
demned to  be  burned  for  heresy  about  1545,  but  was 
pardoned, — perhaps  on  account  of  his  musical  skill.  He 
published  a  "Book  of  Common  Prayer  Noted,"  (1550.) 
and  a  "Concordance."     Died  in  1585. 

Marbeuf  or  MarbcEuf,  mtR'buf,  (Louis  Charles 
Ren6,)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  near  Rennes 
in  1712.  He  commanded  in  Corsica  against  Paoli,  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  in  1768.     Died  in  1786. 

Marbois,  mlR^bwi',  (  Franqois  de  Barbe— deh 
btR'bi',)  Marquis,  called  also  Marquis  de  Marbois, 
a  French  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1745. 
About  1780  he  was  charge-d'affaires  and  consul-general 
to  the  United  States.  In  1792  Louis  XVI.,  who  esteemed 
him  for  his  probity,  sent  him  on  an  embassy  to  Vienna. 
He  was  elected  in  1795  to  the  Council  of  Elders,  in  which 
he  spoke  often  and  with  ability.  In  September,  1797,  he 
was,  with  others,  deported  to  Guiana  by  the  Directory. 
Bonaparte  appointed  him  director  of  the  treasury,  or  min- 
ister of  finance,  in  x8oi.  Marbois  was  dismissed  in  1805, 
but  in  1808  became  first  president  of  the  Cour  des 
Comptes,  (Chamber  of  Accounts,  or  exchequer.)  He  held 
this  office  about  thirty  years.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals 
and  minister  of  justice  in  181 5  and  1816,  and  received 
the  title  of  marquis  in  1817.  He  wrote  numerous  moral, 
political,  and  historical  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Conspiracy  of  Arnold  against  the  United  States," 
(1816,)  an'd  a  "History  of  Louisiana,"  (1828.)     Died  i" 

1837. 

See  Antoine  Passy,  "  Notice  sur  le  Marquis  de  Barbe-Marbois, 
183S;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Marbot,  mtR'bo',  (Antoine  Adolphe  Marcellin.) 
a  French  general,  born  at  Altillac  in  1781  ;  died  in  1844. 

Marbot,  (Jean  Baptiste  Antoine,)  a  general,  born 
at  Altillac  in  1782,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Na- 
poleon left  him  a  legacy  of  one  hundred  thousand  francs. 
Died  in  1854. 

Mai'C,  the  French  for  Mark,  which  see. 

Marc,  mSRk,  (Charles  Chretien  Henri,)  a  physi- 
cian, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1771,  settled  in  Paris  in  1798. 
About  1818  he  became  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
who,  on  his  accession  as  Louis  Philippe,  in  1830,  gave 
him  the  title  of  first  physician  to  the  king.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Insanity,"  ("  De  la 
Folic,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1840,)  and  published  several  able 
medical  treatises.     Died  in  1841. 

See  Pariset,  "  filoge  de  C!i.  Ch.  H.  Marc,"  i«42;  REVEii.Lii- 
Parisse,  "Notice  sur  C.  C.  H.  Marc,"  1842. 

Marc,  Saint.     See  Mark,  Saint,  and  Marcus. 

Marc  Antoine,  the  French  for  Mark  Antony.  See 
Antonius,  (Marcus.) 

Marc  Antonio.     See  Raimondl 

Marc  Aurel,  the  German  for  Marcus  Aurelius. 

Marc  Anrele.     See  Aurelius,  (Marcus.) 

Marca,  de,  deh  mtR'kt',  (Pierre,)  an  ambitious  and 
learned  French  prelate,  born  in  Beam  in  1594.  At  the 
request   of  Cardinal    Richelieu,   he   wrote    his   famous 


f:  as  k:  9 as  j;  g  hard;  g  2S,j;  G,  H,  K.,gnttural;  N,  tuxsal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z.-  th  as  in  this. 

104 


(g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. : 


MARCEAU 


16^0 


MARCELLUS 


treatise  on  the  lil^erty  of  the  Gallican  Church,  entitled 
"De  Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Imperii,"  (1641,)  which 
offended  the  court  of  Rome.  He  %vas  made  Bishop  of 
Toulouse  in  1652,  minister  of  state  about  1658,  and 
Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1661.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  History  of  Beam."     Died  in  1662. 

See  Dr  Facet,  "Viede  Pierre  de  Marca :"  Bompart,  "  filoge 
de  Marca,"  1672. 

Marceau,  mtR'so',  (FRANgois  S^verin  Desgra- 
viERS,)  a  Frencli  general,  born  at  Chartres  in  1769.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1786,  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  In  1793  he  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  the  army  sent  against  the  Ven- 
deans,  whom  he  defeated  at  Mans.  In  1795  and  1796  he 
commanded  a  division  on  the  Rhine  and  in  the  Palati- 
nate, where  he  gained  advantages  over  the  Austrians. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Altenkirchen  in  1796. 
Kleber,  who  was  his  friend,  said,  "  I  have  never  known 
any  general  so  capable  as  Marceau  to  change  the  plan 
of  battle  on  the  spot  with  sang-froid  and  judgment." 

?ee  Claude  Desprez,  "Kleber  et  Marceau,"  1837;  Lavall^ 
"Eloge  historique  du  General  Marceau,"  1797;  Sergent-Mar- 
CKAU,  "  Notice  sur  le  General  Marceau,"  1820. 

Marcel.     See  Marcellus  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Marcel,  mlR's^K,  (Etienne,)  a  French  partisan  chief 
and  agitator  of  reform,  was  provost  of  the  merchants  of 
Paris  when  King  John  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner 
at  Poitiers,  in  1356.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  popular 
party  in  its  contest  with  the  dauphin  Charles,  who  acted 
as  regent.  Marcel  was  predominant  in  Paris,  and  con- 
trolled a  majority  in  the  States-General,  which  refused 
to  vote  supplies  for  the  war  unless  their  grievances 
should  be  redressed.  A  revolution  was  effected  which 
rendered  the  government  almost  republican.  Having 
given  the  command  of  Paris  to  Charles  the  Bad,  of 
Navarre,  he  was  betrayed  by  him,  and  was  assassinated 
in  1358. 

See  Naudet,  "Conjuration  d'fitienne  Marcel,"  etc  ;  FroIssart, 
"Chronique;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Marcel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  chronologist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1647.  He  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the 
Dey  of  Algiers  in  1677.  He  published  valuable  "Chro- 
nological Tablets,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Origin  and 
Progress  of  the  French  Monarchy,"  (1686,)  which  is 
commended  for  accuracy  in  dates.     Died  in  1708. 

Marcel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  writer  and  priest, 
born  about  1612.  He  wrote  Latin  and  French  verse, 
etc.     Died  in  1702. 

Marcel,  (Jean  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French  Orien- 
talist and  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  November,  1776. 
He  went  to  Egypt  in  1798  as  a  member  of  the  scientific 
commission,  and,  having  returned  to  France  in  1801, 
was  selected  as  one  of  the  redactetcrs  of  the  "Descrip- 
tion of  Egypt."  He  was  director  of  the  national  printing 
department  ( imprimerie )  from  1802  to  1814.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "Melanges  Orientaux,"  (1833,) 
a  "  History  of  Egypt  from  the  Arabian  Conquest  to  the 
French  Expedition,"  (2d  edition,  1844,)  and  a  "Scien- 
tific and  Military  History  of  the  French  Expedition 
»n  Egypt,"  (with  Louis  Reybaud,)  (10  vols.,  1830-36.) 
iJied  in  1854. 

See  Belin,  "Notice  sur  J.  J.  Marcel,"  in  the  "Journal  Asi- 
atique,"  1854;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Marcel,  maRt'sel,  (N.,)  a  German  painter  of  flowers, 
fruits,  etc.,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1628;  died  in  1683. 

Mar-cel'la,  a  Roman  lady,  was  a  daughter  of  C. 
Marcellus  and  Octavia,  who  was  a  sister  of  the  emperor 
Augustus.  She  was  married  first  to  M.  V.  Agrippa, 
divorced  in  21  B.C.,  and  married  again  to  a  son  of  Mark 
.A-ntony  the  triumvir. 

Mafcellin.     See  Marcellinus. 

Mar-cel-li'nus,  [  Fr.  Marcellin,  mtR'si'l^N',  ] 
Saint,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Caius  as  Bishop  of 
Rome,  or  pope,  in  295  a.d.  During  his  tenure  of  that 
office  the  Church  was  persecuted  by  Diocletian.  He 
died  in  304  or  305,  and  was  succeeded  by  Marcellus  I. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes 
Romains." 

Marcellinus  Ammianus.     See  Ammianus. 
Marcellis,  mar-sel'lis,  (Otho,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
flowers   and   animals,  was  born   in  1613.     He  worked 


with  success  in  Paris,  Rome,  and  Amsterdam.     Died 
in  1673. 

Marcello,  maR-chel'lo,  (Benedetto,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer  and  poet,  born  of  a  patrician  family  at 
Venice  in  1686,  was  a  pupil  of  Gasparini.  He  studied 
law,  and  was  for  fourteen  years  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  Forty.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  poet  by  a  number 
of  sonnets  and  canzoni.  His  capital  work  is  a  collection 
of  psalms,  entitled  "  Estro  poetico-armonico  Parafrasi 
iopra  i  50  primi  Salmi,"  (1724.)  These  were  received 
with  universal  enthusiasm  throughout  Europe,  and  mer- 
ited for  the  author  the  appellation  of  the  Pindar  and 
Michael  Angelo  of  musicians.     Died  in  1739. 

See  BuRNEV,  "General  History  of  Music;"  Fetis,  "Biographie 
Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  F.  Fontana,  "Vita  di  B.  Marcello," 
178S;  F.  Caffi,  "Delia  Vita  e  del  Comporre  di  B.  Marcello,"  1830: 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Marcello,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  biographer,  lived  at 
Venice  about  1500,  and  wrote  "  De  Vita  Principum  et 
Geslis  Venetorum,"  (1554.) 

Mar-cel'lus  [Fr.  Marcel,  mtR'sSK;  It.  Marcello, 
maR-chel'lo]  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  a  Roman  by  birth, 
and  was  elected  in  308  a.d.  His  efforts  to  maintain 
strict  discipline  are  said  to  have  caused  a  schism  and 
sedition  among  the  believers.  He  died  in  309  or  310, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Eusebius. 

Marcellus  IL,  Pope,  born  at  Fano  in  1501,  was 
named  Marcellus  Cervius.  He  was  elected  pope  in 
April,  1555,  after  the  death  of  Julius  III.  About  three 
weeks  after  his  election  he  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Paul  IV. 

See  A.  Bower,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  Artaud  de  Montos, 
"  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes  Romains." 

Mar-cel'lus,  (Caius  Claudius,)  a  Roman  consul, 
who  married  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octavius  Caesar. 
He  became  consul  in  50  B.C.,  before  which  he  had  at- 
tached himself  to  the  party  of  Pompey.  While  in  this 
office  he  made  a  motion  in  the  senate  to  deprive  Caesar 
of  his  command,  but  did  not  succeed.  He  remained  in 
Italy  during  the  civil  war,  and  shared  the  clemency  of 
Caesar  after  the  victory  of  the  latter.    Died  about  40  B.C. 

Mar-cel'lus,  [It.  Marcello, maR-chel'!o,](DoNATO,) 
an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Mantua.  He  wrote  "  De 
Historia  Medica  mirabili,"  (1586.) 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  a  Roman  general, 
celebrated  as  the  conqueror  of  Syracuse,  born  about  266 
B.C.,  was  the  greatest  member  of  a  consular  plebeian 
family  which  produced  several  eminent  men.  In  222 
he  became  consul,  (with  Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio,)  defeated 
the  Insubrians  on  the  Po,  and  obtained  the  honour  of  a 
triumph.  After  Hannibal  had  invaded  Italy  in  the  second 
Punic  war,  Marcellus  was  chosen  praetor  for  the  year  216 
B.C.,  in  which  the  battle  of  Cannas  was  fought.  He  was 
not  present  at  this  battle.  The  command  of  the  forces 
which  escaped  from  that  defeat  having  devolved  on  him, 
he  repulsed  the  attack  of  Hannibal  on  Nola,  and  was  the 
first  that  checked  his  victorious  progress.  1  le  was  elected 
for  the  third  time  consul  for  the  year  214,  with  the  great 
Fabius  Maximus  as  his  colleague.  His  most  famous 
exploit  was  the  conquest  of  Syracuse,  which,  though 
defended  by  the  genius  of  Archimedes,  he  took,  after  a 
siege  of  two  years  and  some  months,  in  212  B.C.  He 
again  obtained  the  consulship  in  210  B.C.,  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  fought  an  indecisive  bat- 
tle with  Hannibal  at  Numistro.  Marcellus  and  Hannibal 
commanded  the  respective  armies  at  Canusium,  (209,) 
where  the  Romans  claimed  the  victory.  Marcellus  was 
elected  consul  for  the  fifth  time  in  208  B.C.  Having 
advanced  to  reconnoitre  near  Venusia,  he  fell  into 
an  ambuscade,  and  was  killed  in  the  skirmish  with  the 
advanced  posts  of  Hannibal,  in  that  year.  Plutarch 
has  drawn  a  parallel  between  Marcellus  and  Pelopida.s, 
"who,"  he  says,  "were  both  men  of  heroic  strength,  and 
were  equal  in  courage  and  magnanimity."  Polybius 
denies  that  Marcellus  ever  defeated  Hannibal. 

See  Plutarch's  "Lives;"  Aurf.lius  Victor,  "De  Viris  illus- 
tribus;"  Liw.  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.-xxvii. ;  Polybius, 
"History;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie." 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  a  Roman  general, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
skirmish  in  which  his  father  was  killed.     He  was  elected 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARCELLUS 


i6^i 


MARCH  AND 


praetor  in  198  B.C.,  and  consul  in  196,  when  he  com- 
manded in  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  defeated  the  Insubrians. 
In  189  he  was  censor.     Died  in  177  B.C. 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, obtained  the  consulship  in  166  B.C.  He  was 
chosen  consul  again  in  155,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Ligurians.  In  152  he  obtained  a  third  consulship, 
with  command  of  the  army  in  Spain,  where  he  subdued 
the  Celtiberians  and  founded  Corduba,  (Cordova.)  He 
perished  by  shipwreck  in  148  B.C. 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  the  friend  of  Cicero, 
and  the  subject  of  the  admirable  oration  "  Pro  M.  Mar- 
cello,"  was  a  descendant  of  the  great  Marcellus.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  Elected  consul  in 
52  B.C.,  he  urged  the  senate  to  extreme  measures  against 
Cffisar.  In  the  civil  war  he  was  an  adherent  of  Pompe} 
and  the  senate.  He  fled  from  Rome  in  49,  and  joined 
the  army  in  Epirus.  After  the  ruin  of  his  cause  at  Phar- 
salia,  he  exiled  himself  to  Mitylene.  Overcome  by  the 
warm  intercession  of  the  senators,  Caesar  granted  him  a 
pardon  in  47  B.C.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  expressed  his 
thanks  to  the  dictator,  and  his  high  estimate  of  the  merit 
of  Marcellus,  in  the  oration  which  bears  his  name. 
Marcellus  was  on  his  homeward  journey  when  he  was 
assassinated,  near  Athens,  by  P.  Magius,  one  of  his  at- 
tendants, ab(jut  46  B.C. 

St^e  Ciciiuo,  "Pro  M.  Marcello;"  Drumann,  "  Gescliichte 
Roms;"  Oreli.i,  "  Onomasticon  Tullianum." 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  was  the  son  of  C. 
Claudius  Marcellus,  noticed  above,  and  Octavia.  About 
the  year  25  B.C.  he  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  the  empe- 
ror Augustus,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Julia  in  mar- 
riage. He  was  a  youth  of  promising  talents,  and  was  a 
general  favourite.  He  died  in  his  twentieth  year,  in  the 
autumn  of  23  B.C.  His  memory  was  embalmed  by  Vir- 
gil in  a  beautiful  ])assage  of  his  epic  poem,  (book  vi.,  v. 
872,  etc.,)  which  was  recited  by  the  poet  in  the  presence 
of  Octavia  and  Augustus.     (See  Octavia.) 

See  Plutarch,  "Marcellus;"  Tacitus,  "Annales." 

Mar-cel'lus  Em-pii'i-cus,  a  Latin  writer,  born  at 
Burdigala,  (Bordeaux.)  He  was  mag-ister  officionim  in 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  (379-395  a.d.)  He 
was  author  of  a  pharmaceutical  work,  "  De  Medica- 
mentis  Empiricis,  Physicis,"  etc. 

Mar-cel'lus  Si-de'tes,  a  native  of  Side,  in  Pam- 
phylia,  lived  about  140  A.D.  He  wrote  a  long  Greek 
medical  poem,  of  which  fragments  are  extant. 

Mar-cel'lus  Ul'pi-us,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  flourished 
about  150  A.D.,  and  was  a  legal  adviser  of  the  emperor 
Antoninus  Pius.  He  was  author  of  thirty-one  books  of 
"  Digesta,"  six  books  on  the  "  Leges  Julia  et  Papia," 
and  one  book  of  "  Responsa."  About  one  hundred  and 
fifty  excerpts  from  his  works  are  found  in  the  "Digest." 
He  is  often  quoted  as  high  authority  by  Ulpian,  Paulus, 
and  other  jurists. 

See  M.  Tydeman,  "  De  Marcelli  Vita,"  1762  ;  J.  T.  Seger,  "  Ul- 
pius  Marcellus,"  1768. 

Marcellus,  de,  deh  mSR'si'liiss',  (Marie  Louis 
Jean  Andk6  Charles  Demartin  du  Tirac — deh- 
mtR'tiN'  dii  te'rtk',)  Comte,  a  French  writer,  critic, 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Guienne  in  1795.  During  a  mis- 
sion to  the  Levant,  in  1820,  he  brought  away  the  statue 
of  Venus  of  Milo.  He  published  "Souvenirs  of  the 
Levant,"  (1839,)  "  Popular  Songs  of  Greece,"  (1851,)  and 
"Chateaubriand,"  (1859.)     Died  in  1865. 

Marcet,  mar'sSt'  or  nitR'si',  (Alexandre,)  F.R.S., 
ft  skilful  Swiss  physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1770.  Having  been  exiled  for  political  reasons,  he  settled 
in  London  about  1797,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  practitioner  and  a  lecturer  on  chemistry.  In  1815  he 
returned  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  supreme 
council.  His  princijjal  work  is  an  "  Essay  on  the  Chem- 
ical History  and  Treatment  of  Calculous  Disorders," 
(181 7,  in  English.)     Died  in  1822. 

Marcet,  (Jane  Haldimand,)  a  popular  writer  on 
science,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Geneva  in 
1785.  She  published  "Conversations  on  Chemistry," 
(in  English,)  which  passed  through  many  editions,  and 
"Conversations  on  Political  Economy,"  (1816.)  "Every 
girl,"  says  Macaulay,  "who  has  read  Mrs.  Marcet's  dia- 
logues on  political  economy  could  teach  Montague  or 


Walpole   many   lessons   on   finance."     Died  June   28, 
1858. 

See  a  notice  of  Mrs.  Marcet,  by  Professor  De  la  Rive,  in  the 

"  Uibliothique  Universelle,"  new  series,   1S58,  vol.   iii. ;    Harriet 
Martin'IiAU,  "  P.iographical  Sketches,"  London,  i86g. 

Marcgraf,  maRk'gRif,  or  Marggraf,  maRc/gRif, 
(Georo,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Liebstadt  in"i6io, 
was  author  of  a  "Natural  History  of  Brazil,"  (in  Latin,) 
pub  ished  at  Leyden  in  1648.  "The  descriptions  of 
Mai cgraf,"  says  Hallam,  "are  good,  and  enable  us  to 
identify  the  animals.  They  correct  the  imperfect  notions 
of  Gesner,  and  add  several  species  which  do  not  appear 
in  his  work."     Died  in  Guinea  in  1644. 

March,  maRch,  (Ausias  or  Osias,)  a  Spani.sh  poel, 
born  at  Valencia.  He  imitated  Petrarch  with  success, 
and  wrote  many  short  poems  on  love,  morals,  etc.,  which 
were  printed  in  1543.     Died  in  1460. 

See  TicKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

March,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Millbury,  Massachusetts,  July  21,  1816.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1840,  was  ordained  in  1845,  ^"<i  held 
various  Presbyterian  and  Congregational  pastorates.  He 
published  "Niglit  Scenes  in  the  Bible,"  "  Walks  and 
Hours  of  Jesus,"  "  Home  Life  in  the  Bible,"  "  From 
Dark  to  Dawn,"  "  Our  P'ather's  House,"  etc. 

March,  Earl  of.     See  Mortimer. 

March,  (Francis  Andrew,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Millbury,  Massachusetts,  October  25, 
1825.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1845,  became 
a  lawyer  in  1850,  and  in  1858  was  appointed  professor  of 
English  and  of  comparative  philology  in  Lafayette  Col- 
lege. Among  his  works  are  "  A  Method  of  Philological 
Study  of  the  English  Language,"  (1865,)  "Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language,"  (1870,)  "Anglo- 
Saxon  Reader,"  (1870,)  "Introduction  to  Anglo-Saxon," 
(1871,)  etc.  He  also  prepared  a  collection  of  Latin 
hymns.  He  has  been  president  of  the  Spelling  Reform 
Association  from  its  first  organization  in  1876.  The 
thorough  manner  in  which  philological  studies  (especially 
those  connected  with  the  development  of  the  English 
language)  have  been  pursued  at  Lafayette  College,  under 
Professor  March's  direction,  has  elicited  high  commenda- 
tion from  distinguished  scholars  both  in  England  and 
Germany. 

March,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  painter  of  religious 
subjects,  born  at  Valencia  in  1633  ;  died  in  1670. 

March  de  les  Batallas,  maRch  di  lis  bataKySs, 
(EsTEBAN,)  a  Spanish  painter,  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Valencia.  He  acquired  a  great  reputation 
as  a  painter  of  battles.     He  died  at  Valencia  in  1660. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 

Marchais,  des,  di  mtR'shi',  (Renaud,)  a  French 
traveller,  wrote  a  description  of  Western  Africa,  which 
was  published  by  Labat,  in  4  vols.,  (1731.)  Died  about 
172S. 

Marchal,  mtR'shSK,  (FRANgois  Joseph  Ferdinand,) 
a  Belgian  writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1780.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  V.,"  (1857.) 
Died  in  1858. 

Marchand,  mlR'shflN',  (fiTiENNE,)  a  French  navi- 
gator, born  in  the  island  of  Grenada  in  1755.  He  made 
a  voyage  round  the  world  in  1790-92,  and  discovered 
several  small  islands  in  the  Northern  Pacific  Ocean.  A 
narrative  of  the  voyage  was  published.     Died  in  1793. 

Marchand,  (Jean  Gabriel,)  Comte,  a  French 
general,  born  near  Saint-Marcellin  in  1765.  He  served 
as  general  of  division  at  the  battles  of  Jena  (1806)  and 
Friedland,  (1807.)  When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba, 
(1815,)  Marchand  adhered  to  Louis  XVIII.  Died  in 
1S51. 

Marchand,  (Jean  Henri,)  a  witty  French  writer  in 
prose  and  verse.  Among  his  works  are  "  Memoirs  of 
an  Elephant,"  (1771,)  and  "Political  Testament  of  M 
de  v.,"  (Voltaire.)     Died  about  1785. 

See  Barbier,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Anonymes." 

Marchand,  ( Louis, )  a  French  organist,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1669.  He  became  organist  of  the  royal  chapel 
at  Versailles.     Died  in  1732. 

Marchand,  (Prosper,)  a  learned  French  bibliogra- 
pher, born  in  Picardy  about  1675.  Having  become  a 
Protestant,  he  removed   to  Amsterdam  in  171 1.      He 


€as  k;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Vi, pUtiiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


MARCHANGY 


1652 


MAR  CIO N 


published  editions  of  rare  books,  collected  literary  anec- 
dotes, and  wrote  a  "  Historical  Dictionary,  or  Critical 
and  Literary  Memoirs,"  (1758,)  a  work  of  considerable 
interest.  (See  Ai.lamand.)  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Journal  Litteraire,"  an  able  periodical  published 
at  the  Hague,  (1713-37,)  and  author  of  a  "History  of 
the  Art  of  Printing."     Died  in  1756. 

See  Haag,  "La  Frniice  protestante ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographic 
G^n^rale." 

Marchangy,  de,  deh  mtR'shflN'zhe',  (Louis  An- 
roiNE  Francois,)  a  French  author  and  advocate,  born 
at  Clamecy  in  17S2.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  The  History  of  France,  considered  in  its  Relations  with 
Poetry,  Eloquence,  and  the  Fine  Arts,"  ("La  Gaule 
po^tique,"  etc.,  1813.)     Died  in  1826. 

Marchant,  mtii'shSN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  botanist, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
(x666.)     Died  at  Paris  in  1678. 

Marchant,  (Nicolas  Damas,)  Baron,  a  French 
antiquary  and  physician,  born  in  1767;  died  in  1833. 

Marche,  de  la,  deh  It  mSRsh,  (Olivier,)  a  poet  ana 
chronicler,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1426.  He  served  Charles 
the  Bold  as  captain  of  his  guards,  and  was  made  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Nancy,  (1477.)  He  was  afterwards 
maitre-d'' hotel  (steward)  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  and  her 
son  Philip.  He  wrote,  in  French,  "  Historical  Memoirs," 
(of  events  which  occurred  from  1435  to  1492,)  which  are 
considered  valuable  and  candid.  He  also  wrote  several 
poems,  one  of  which  is  called  "  Le  Chevalier  deliber^, 
ou  la  Vie  de  Charles  le  Temeraire."     Died  in  1501. 

See  CoMiNES,  "  M^moires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Marchena,  maR-cha'ni,  (Jos^,)  a  Spanish  litterateur, 
born  in  Andalusia  in  1768,  went  to  France  about  1790. 
Being  an  expert  linguist,  he  was  employed  as  secretary 
by  General  Moreau,  (i  798-1 804.)  He  translated  into 
Spanish  Moliere's  "  Tartuffe,"  Rousseau's  "  Emile,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1821. 

Marches!,  maR-ka'see,  or  Zaganelli,  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cotignola.  He  lived  about 
1520,  and  worked  at  Ravenna. 

Marches!,  (Girolamo,)  a  painter,  was  born  about 
1480.  He  painted  portraits  and  history  at  Rome  and 
Naples.     Vasari  dates  his  death  about  1550. 

Marches!,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1699;  died  in  1771. 

Marches!,  (Pompeo,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor,  born 
in  1790,  was  a  pupil  of  Canova.  Among  his  works  are 
a  marble  statue  of  Goethe  at  Frankfort,  and  a  Saint  Am- 
brose at  Milan.     Died  at  Milan  in  1858. 

Marchett!,  maR-ket'tee,  (Alessandro,)  an  eminent 
Italian  poet  and  professor,  was  born  at  Pontormo,  in 
Tuscany,  in  1633.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Pisa  from  1659  to  1679.  In  the  latter  year  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Pisa.  He  published  an  able 
treatise  "  On  the  Resistance  of  Solids,"  and  other  works 
on  physics  and  mathematics.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly 
on  his  Italian  versions  of  Anacreon  and  Lucretius.  The 
version  of  Lucretius,  in  sciolti,  or  blank  verse,  is  generally 
admired  for  fidelity  and  elegance.  He  wrote,  also,  short 
original  poems.     Died  in  1714. 

See  Fkancesco  Marchetti,  "Vitadi  A.  Marchett:,"  1755;  Fa- 
BRONi,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Nic^ron,  "Md- 
nioires;"   Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Marchett!,  (  Giovanni,  )  an  Italian  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  at  Empoli  in  1753.  He  defended  the  cause 
of  the  pope  in  some  of  his  numerous  works.  Among 
these  is  a  "Critique  on  Fleury's  History  of  the  Church," 
(2  vols.,  1782.)     Died  in  1829. 

Marchetti,  (Giuseppe  Salvagnol! — sil-vSn-yo'lee,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  near  Empoli  in  1799.  He  com- 
posed several  small  poems,  and  translated  Virgil's 
Eclogues  into  Italian  verse.     Died  in  1829. 

Marchett!,  (Marco,)  called  Marco  da  Faenza,  a 
skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at  Faenza;  died  in  1588. 

Marchett!s,  d!,dee  maR-ket'tiss,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  surgery,  born  at  Padua  in  1593.  He  published 
"  Sylloge  Observationum  Medico-Chirurgicarum,"  (1664, 
often  reprinted.)  Died  in  1673.  His  sou  Domenico 
(born  in  1626,  died  in  1688)  was  a  noted  anatomist. 

March!,  da,  da  maR'kee,  (Francesco,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  engineer,  born  at  Bologna  about  1506.    He  served 


the  King  of  Spain  as  military  engineer  in  Flanders  for 
thirty  years,  and  made  inventions  in  fortification.  His 
reputation  was  founded  on  a  work  entitled  "On  Forti- 
fication," (Della  Architettura  militare,"  1599.)  Died 
about  1599. 

See  Marin7,  "Vitadi  F.  Marchi,"  iSto;  Ginguen^,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Litterature  Italienne." 

Marchin,  de,  deh  mtK'sh^N',  (Ferdinand,)  Count, 
sometimes  written  Mars!n,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1656.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  King  of  Spain 
in  1701.  He  returned  to  France  in  1703,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  marshal.  At  the  battle  of  Blenheim  (1704) 
he  was  second  in  command,  and,  after  Tallart  was  made 
prisoner,  conducted  the  retreat  in  good  order.  He  com- 
manded under  the  Duke  of  Orleans  at  the  great  battle 
of  Turin,  (1706,)  where  the  French  were  defeated  by 
Prince  Eugene  and  Marchin  was  killed. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  M^moires ;"  De  Courceli.es,  "Diction- 
naire  des  Gdn^raux  Fran^ais." 

Marchin!,  maR-kee'nee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Vercelli  in  17 13.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Treatise  on  the  Divinity  of  the  Sacred  Books," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1774. 

Marchione  (maR-ke-o'ni)  of  Arezzo,  a  mediaeval 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  flourished  about  1200. 
One  of  his  works,  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pieve, 
is  extant  at  Arezzo. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Marchmont,  Earl  of.  See  Hume,  (Sir  Patrick,) 
and  Hume,  (Hugh  Campbell.) 

Marcia  or  Martia  (mar'she-a)  Gens,  a  Roman 
^ens,  originally  patrician,  claimed  to  be  descended  from 
Ancus  Marcius.  The  family  of  Coriolanus  belonged  to 
this  gens. 

Marclan,  mar'she-an,  [Lat.  Marcia'nus  ;  Gr.  MapKi- 
avoQ ;  Fr.  Marcien,  mtR'se-^N',]  Emperor  of  the  East, 
was  born  of  obscure  parents  in  Thrace  about  390  a.d. 
He  had  risen  by  his  merit  to  a  high  rank  in  the  army 
when  Theodosius  the  Younger  died,  in  450.  He  then 
accepted  from  Pulcheria,  a  sister  of  Theodosius,  the 
ofiler  of  her  hand,  and  became  emperor.  His  reign 
was  wise  and  peaceful.  He  refused  to  pay  the  tribute 
demanded  by  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  saying,  "I 
have  gold  for  my  friends,  and  iron  for  my  enemies." 
He  died,  without  issue,  in  457  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Leo  I. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le 
Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Marclanus.     See  Marcian. 

Marcianus,  mar-she-a'nus,  (^Lius,)  a  Roman  jurist, 
who  wrote  in  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Cara- 
calla.  He  survived  the  latter,  who  died  in  217  A.D.  The 
Digest  contains  many  excerpts  from  his  "  Institutioues," 
his  "  Publica  Judicia,"  and  other  works. 

See  Oelrichs,  "De  Vita  JEXn  Marciani,"  1754. 

Marcianus  of  Heracleia,  (in  Pontus,)  [Fr.  Mar 
cien  d'H6racl6e,  mSR'se-iN'  di'rt'kli',]  a  Greek 
geographer,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fourth 
century.  He  wrote  a  "  Periplus  of  the  External  Sea, 
both  Eastern  and  Western,"  of  which  fragments  hav<» 
come  down  to  us  and  are  esteemed  valuable. 

See  Ukert,  "  Geographic  der  Griechen  und  Romer 

Marcien.     See  Marcian. 

MarcUe.     See  Marcilius. 

Marcilius,  mar-see'le-us,  [Fr.  Marcile,  mtR'sJl',] 
(Theodorus,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Arnhem  in 
1548.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  several  colleges 
of  Paris  from  1578  to  161 7.  He  published  notes  on 
Persius,  Horace,  Lucian,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote 
"  Lusus  de  Nemine,"  (1586,)  a  poem,  and  a  "History 
of  New-Year's  Gifts,"  ("  Historia  Strenarum,"  1599.I 
Died  in  161 7. 

Marcien,  mar'she-on,  [Gr,  Mapwuv,]  a  celebrated 
heresiarch  of  the  second  century,  was  born  at  Sinope,  in 
Pontus.  Having  been  excommunicated  for  some  youthful 
fault,  he  went  to  Rome  about  140  a.d.  He  devised  a 
new  creed  or  system,  which  was  accepted  by  numerous 
disciples  (Marcionites)  and  was  opposed  by  Tertullian, 
Origen,  and  other  Fathers.  He  taught  the  existence  of 
two  original  principles, — the  authors  of  good  and  evil, — 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARCK 


1653 


MARESCOT 


and  ascribed  the  Mosaic  law  to  the  evil  principle.     He 
also  rejected  a  large  part  of  the  New  Testament. 

See 'I'li-i-EMONT,  "  M^moires  eccldsiastiqiies  :"  Lardnrr,  "  His- 
tory of  Heretics;"    Schelling,  "  Dissertatio  de  Marcione,"  1795. 

Marck,  de  la,  d^h  It  maRk,  (Guillaumf.,)  a  Flemish 
chief,  born  in  1446,  was  noted  for  his  ferocity,  and  was 
surnamed  THE  Wild  Boar  of  Ardennes.  He  assas- 
sinated the  Bishop  of  Liege,  and  ravaged  Brabant,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  archduke  Maximilian.  He  then 
made  an  alliance  with  Rene  of  Lorraine  in  order  to  re- 
new the  war.  Maximilian  captured  him,  and  put  him  to 
death  in  1485.  William  de  la  Marck  is  a  conspicuous 
character  in  Scott's  romance  of  "Qnentin  Durward." 

Marck,  de  la,  (Rohert,)  Count,  was  master  of  the 
duchy  of  Bouillon  and  of  Sedan.  He  was  an  ally  of 
France  in  the  war  against  the  Austrians.  He  was  driven 
out  of  his  dominions  by  the  armies  of  Charles  V.,  but 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  (1526.)  Died  in 
1535.  His  son  Robert  became  marshal  of  France.  (See 
Fleuranges.) 

Marco  Calabrese,  maR'ko  kl-li-bRa'si,  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  flourished  from  1508 
to  1 541.     His  proper  name  was  Cardisco. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Marco  da  Faenza.     See  Marchetti,  (Marco.) 

Marco  da  Forli.     See  Palmegiani. 

Marco  Polo.     See  Polo. 

Marconville,  de,  deh  mSR'k6N'vfeK,  or  Marcou- 
ville,  miR'koo'v^K,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Le 
Perche  about  1540.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Origin  of  the  Diversity  in  the  Opinions  of  Men,' 
and  one  "  On  the  Goodness  and  Depravity  of  Women,'' 
("  La  Bonte  et  Mauvaistie  des  Femmes.") 

Marcot,  mtn'ko',  (Eustache,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1686.  He  became  first  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king.     Died  in  1755. 

Marculfe,  mar'kulf,  a  French  monk,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  650  a.d.  He  formed  a  collection  of 
formulas  of  contracts,  deeds,  and  public  acts  which  were 
used  and  approved  in  his  time.  This  collection  is  valued 
as  a  monument  of  French  history  and  jurisprudence. 

Mar'cus,  [Fr.  Marc,  mtRk,]  a  native  of  Rome,  was 
elected  Pope  or  Bishop  of  Rome,  in  place  of  Sylvester, 
in  336  A.D.  He  died  about  nine  months  after  his  elec- 
tion, and  was  succeeded  by  Julius  I. 

Marcus  AiireUus.    See  Aurelius  Antoninus. 

Mar'cus  Grae'cus  (gree'kus)  passes  for  the  author 
ot  a  Latin  work  on  the  art  of  destroying  enemies  by  fire, 
("  Liber  Ignium  ad  Comburendos  Hostes,")  a  manuscript 
of  which  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  Royal  Library  of 
Paris.  No  ancient  writer  mentions  him,  and  nothing  is 
known  of  his  history.  G.  Fournier  (of  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle")  conjectures  that  he  wrote  near  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  thinks  the  "  Liber  Ignium" 
is  a  rather  bad  version  of  a  Greek  original.  "  It  is  a 
tissue  of  errors,"  he  adds,  "and  a  collection  of  recipes, 
one  or  two  of  which  give  almost  exactly  the  composition 
*">f  gunpowder." 

Mar'cy,  (Oliver,)  LL.D.,  an  American  instructor, 
porn  in  Coleraine,  Massachusetts,  February  13,  1820. 
He  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1846.  In  1862 
he  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University 
at  Evanston,  Illinois,  and  acted  as  its  president  fi-om 
1876  to  1881.  He  was  for  some  time  a  geologist  in  the 
United  States  territorial  surveys. 

Mar'cy,  (Randolph  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Massachusetts  about  1812,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1832.  He  became  a  captain  in  1846,  and  colonel  in 
1861.  He  served  as  chief  of  staff  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  in  1862,  under  General  McClellan,  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  and  major-general  in  1865,  and  became 
inspector-general  in  1878.     Died  November  22,  1887, 

Matey,  (William  L.,)  a  distinguished  American 
statesman  of  the  Democratic  party,  born  at  Southbridge, 
Massachusetts,  in  1786.  Having  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1808,  he  studied  law  at  Troy,  New  York. 
He  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  in  several 
engagements  in  Canada.  About  1820  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Troy  Budget,"  a  Democratic  journal,  and  in  1823 
was  elected  comptroller  of  the  State.      He  became  a 


United  States  Senator  in  1831,  and  was  chosen  Governor 
of  New  York  in  1832,  1834,  and  1836.  He  was  a  candi- 
date in  1838,  but  was  defeated  by  Mr.  Seward.  He  was 
appointed  by  President  Polk  secretary  of  war  in  March, 
1845,  and  displayed  much  ability  in  this  position,  which 
was  rendered  more  arduous  by  the  occurrence  of  the 
Mexican  war.  He  retired  from  office  in  March,  1849, 
after  which  he  passed  four  years  in  private  life.  H" 
supported  General  Cass  in  the  Presidential  election  ot 
1848,  and  was  secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet  of  Presi- 
dent Pierce  from  March  4,  1853,  ^o  March  4,  1857. 
During  this  period  he  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a 
diplomatist.  He  died  at  Ballston  Spa  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1857. 

Mar-do'ni-us,  [Gr.  Mapdovtof,]  an  able  Persian  gen- 
eral, was  a  son-in-law  of  Darius  Hystaspes.  In  492  B.C. 
he  commanded  a  large  armament  sent  by  Darius  against 
the  Grecian  states.  Having  lost  a  great  part  of  his  fleet 
in  a  storm,  he  returned  without  success.  In  481  he 
held  a  high  command  in  the  expedition  which  Xerxes 
led  against  the  Greeks.  After  the  Persians  had  been 
defeated  at  Salamis,  (480  B.C.,)  Xerxes  returned  home, 
leaving  300,000  men  under  Mardonius,  who  captured 
Athens  without  much  resistance.  He  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Plataea  in  479  B.C.  by  the  army  of  Pausanias. 

Marduk,  a  great  deity  of  the  old  Babylonians,  iden- 
tified by  the  Greeks  with  Zeus,  but  in  many  respects 
resembling  Mercury.  The  planet  Mercury  was  also 
called  Marduk. 

Mare,  de  la,  deh  It  mtR,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  magis- 
trate, born  near  Paris  in  1639.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Police,"  ("Traite  de  la  Police,"  4  vols.,  1707-38.) 
Died  in  1723. 

Mare,  de  la,  (Philibert,)  a  French  historical  writer 
born  at  Dijon  in  1615.  He  wrote  "  De  Bello  Burgundico,' 
(1641,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1687. 

Marec,  mi'rgk',  (Pierre,)  a  French  legislator,  bon- 
at  Brest  in  1759,  vras  a  moderate  member  of  the  Conven 
tion,  (1792-95.)  He  rendered  valuable  services  in  the 
committees  of  finance  and  marine.     Died  in  1828. 

Mar^chal,  mt'ri'shtl',  (Ambroise,)  D.D.,  a  bishop, 
born  at  Ingre,  in  France,  in  1768,  studied  law  and  the- 
ology, and  in  1792  was  ordained  a  priest  and  removed  to 
the  United  States,  held  theological  professorships  in 
Baltimore,  in  Georgetown,  and  (1803-12)  in  France,  re- 
turning in  1812  to  the  United  States.  In  1817  he  was 
consecrated  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  where  he  died, 
January  29,  1828. 

Marechal,  mt'ri'shtl',  (Georges,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Calais  in  1658.  He  was  appointed  in  1703  first 
surgeon  to  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  several  valuable  treat- 
ises on  surgery.     Died  in  1736. 

Marechal,  (Laurent  Charles,)  a  French  painter 
on  glass,  born  at  Metz  about  1800,  adorned  many  of  the 
grand  churches  of  France  with  windows  of  painted  glass. 

Marechal,  (Pierre  Sylvain,)  a  French  litteratmr, 
born  in  Paris  in  1750,  is  said  to  have  been  an  atheist. 
He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Atheists,"  (1800,)  and 
many  other  works.  His  chief  production  is  "  Travels  of 
Pythagoras  in  Egypt,  Chaldea,  India,"  etc.,  ("  Vovages 
de  Pythagore  en  Egypte,"  etc.,  6  vols.,  1799,)  which  dis- 
plays much  learning  and  research.     Died  in  1803. 

Marenco,  md-rSn'ko,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Mondovi  in  1752.  He  wrote  "Osiris,  sive  De 
Legum  Origine,"  (1797,)  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1813. 

Marenzeo,  md-rln'ze-o,  (Luca.)  an  eminent  Italiai. 
composer,  born  at  Brescia  about  1550.  His  works  are 
principally  madrigals,  which  are  esteemed  models  of  ten- 
derness and  harmony.     Died  in  1599. 

Marescalchi,  mi-res-kai'kee,  (Ferdinando,)  an 
Italian  diplomatist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1764.  He  was 
employed  in  1803  to  negotiate  a  treaty  between  the 
Italian  republic  and  the  court  of  Rome.     Died  in  1816. 

Marescalco,  mi-rgs-kSl'ko,  (Pietro,)  sometimes 
called  La  Spada,  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born 
at  Feltre,  lived  about  1500. 

Marescot,  de,  deh  mt'rSs'ko',  (Armand  Samuel,) 
Count,  a  skilful  French  military  engineer,  born  at 
Tours  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  first  inspector-general 
by  Bonaparte  in  1800,  and  was  made  a  count  in  1804. 
Died  in  1831. 


€  as  /&;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  yi,giMural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     (2®=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARESIUS 


1654 


MARGARET 


Maresius.     See  Dksmarets,  (Samuicl.) 

Marestier,  mt'r^s'te-i',  (Jean  Baptistf.,)  an  able 
French  engineer  and  naval  architect,  born  at  Saint-Ser- 
van  about  1780.  He  constructed  the  first  steamboat 
used  by  the  military  marine  for  the  service  of  seaports. 
He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Steamboats  of  the 
United  States,"  etc.,  (1824.)     Died  in  1832. 

Maret,  mi'r,y,  (Hugues,)  a  learned  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1726.  He  was  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris, 
and  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  chemist  Guyton  de  Mor- 
veau.  One  of  his  sons  was  the  Duke  of  Bassano, 
noticed  below.     Died  in  1786. 

Maret,  (Hugues  Bernard,)  Duke  of  Bassano,  an 
able  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1763.  He  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  in  1789  reported 
the  debates  of  the  National  Assembly  in  a  daily  "  Bul- 
letin." This  was  soon  united  with  the  "  Moniteur," 
which  owed  its  success  to  the  reports  of  Maret.  Under 
the  new  regime  he  was  rapidly  advanced  in  the  dej^art- 
ment  of  foreign  affairs,  and  was  sent  on  missions  to 
England  and  Naples  in  1793.  On  his  way  to  Naples  he 
was  arrested  by  the  Austrians,  and  confined  in  a  dun- 
geon about  two  years.  From  1800  to  181 1,  as  secretary- 
general,  or  secretary  of  state,  he  directed  the  home 
department  with  great  credit,  had  a  large  share  of  Bona- 
parte's confidence,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  cam- 
paigns.  In  181 1  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
afi'airs,  and  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Bassano.  On  the 
return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  Maret  became  again  his 
secretary.  He  was  restored  to  the  rank  of  a  peer  of 
France  in  1831,  and  in  1834  was  minister  of  the  interior 
for  a  short  time.  He  had  been  admitted  into  the  Institute 
(Academie  Fran^aise)  in  1803.     Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale ;"  Las  Cases,  "Memorial 
de  Sainte-Helene." 

Maret,  (Jean  Philibert.)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1705  ;  died  in  1780. 

Marets,  des.     See  Desmarets. 

Marezoll,  mS'r§t-sor,  (Gustav  Ludwig  Theodor,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1794.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  legal  works.      Died  in  1873. 

Mar'ga-ret  of  Anjou,  [Fr.  Marguerite  d'Anjou, 
mtK'gR^t'  dfiN'zhoo',]  a  daughter  of  Rene  of  Anjou, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  was  born  in  Lorraine  in  1429.  She 
was  married  in  1445  to  Henry  VI.,  King  of  England, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  imbecility,  had  the  principal 
share  in  the  government.  In  the  ensuing  contest  be- 
tween the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  her  troops 
were  several  times  victorious  over  the  former ;  but  they 
suffered  a  fatal  defeat  at  Towton  in  1461.  After  several 
unsuccessful  efforts  to  repair  her  fortunes,  Margaret  was 
again  defeated  and  made  a  prisoner  at  Tewksbury  by 
Edward  IV.  in  147 1.  She  was  ransomed  by  the  French 
king,  Louis  XI.,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  her  life  in 
France,  where  she  died  in  14S1. 

See  Agnes  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England;' 
.A.bb6  Provost,  "  Histoire  de  Mnrciierite  d'Anjovi,"  2  vols.,  1750; 
Louis  Lai.lkmand,  "  Maraueiite  d'Anjou- Lorraine,"  1853;  J.  J. 
Rov,  "  Histoire  de  Marguerite  d'Anjou,"  1857. 

Margaret  of  Austria,  [Ger.  Margarethe  von 
Oestreich,  maR-g^-ra'teh  fon  ost'riK,]  daughter  of  Max- 
imilian, Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
was  born  at  Ghent  in  1480.  She  was  betrothed  when  a 
child  to  Charles  VIIT.  of  France.  But  he  refused  to 
keep  the  engagement,  and  married  in  1491  Anne,  the 
heiress  of  Brittany.  Margaret  was  married  in  1497  to 
Don  Juan,  Infant  of  Spain,  son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella, who  survived  but  a  few  months.  She  was  again 
married  in  1501  to  Philibert  the  Handsome,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  who  died  in  1505.  In  15 17  Margaret  was  ap- 
pointed by  her  father  ruler  of  the  Netherlands,  in  which 
post  she  displayed  signal  ability.  She  had  a  part  in  the 
League  of  Cambray,  formed  in  1508  by  the  principal 
European  powers  against  Venice.  She  died  in  1530, 
leaving  a  number  of  works  in  prose  and  verse,  including 
her  "Correspondence,"  which  was  published  in  1839, 
(2  vols.) 

See  Munch,  "Leben  Margarethes,"  1833;  Altmevkr,  "Vie 
de  Marguerite  d'Autriche,"  in  the  "Revue  Beige,"  1839;  P.  J. 
d'Avoine,  "  Essai  historique  siir  Marguerite  d'Autriche,"  1849. 

Margaret  of  Austria.  Duchess  of  Parma,  born  at 


lirussels  in  1522,  was  a  natural  daughter  of  Charles 
v.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  She  was  married  in  1533  to 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  Duke  of  Florence,  and  after  his 
death  to  Ottavio  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma.  In  1599  she 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Netherlands  by  Philip 
II.  of  Spain.  This  difficult  post  she  occupied  till  1567, 
when  she  resigned  it  to  the  Duke  of  Alva.  The  cele- 
brated Alexander  Farnese,  afterwards  Dilke  of  Parma, 
was  her  son  and  only  child. 

See  MoTLKv,  "  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic;"  Prescott, 
"Histoi7  of  Philip  IL  ;"  Schiller,  "Geschichte  des  Abfalls  der 
Niederlande." 

Margaret,  [Danish,  Margarethe,  maR-gJ-ra'teh,] 
daughter  of  Waldemar  III.,  King  of  Denmark,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1353,  was  married  in  1363  to  Haquin, 
King  of  Norway.  In  1376  she  was  appointed  Regent  of 
Denmark  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Olaus,  then  but 
five  years  old.  On  the  death  of  Haquin,  in  1380,  she  be- 
came Queen  of  Norway,  and,  her  son  dying  in  1387,  the 
Danes  also  acknowledged  her  as  their  sovereign.  Soon 
after  this,  Margaret  engaged  in  a  war  with  Albert,  King 
of  Sweden,  against  whom  his  subjects  had  rebelled.  Her 
army  defeated  the  Swedes  and  captured  Albert,  (1388,) 
who  obtained  his  liberty  only  by  renouncing  the  crown 
of  Sweden.  At  an  assembly  of  the  estates  of  the  three 
kingdoms,  held  at  Calmar  in  1397,  the  famous  treaty 
called  "the  Calmar  Union"  was  formed.  By  this  it  was 
agreed  that  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway  should  in 
future  be  united  under  one  sovereign,  and  Eric  VII., 
nephew  of  Margaret,  was  appointed  her  successor.  Died 
in  1411. 

See  SuHM,  "  Historie  af  Danmark;"  Magnus,  "Gothorum  His- 
toria  ;"  Wichmann,  "  Margarethe  Dronning  til  Danmark  Norge  og 
Sverrig,"  1824. 

Margaret  [Fr.  Marguerite,  mtR'gRdt']  of  France, 
daughter  of  Francis  I.,  born  in  1523,  was  distinguished 
for  her  learning  and  accomplishments  and  her  patron- 
age of  literature.  She  was  married  in  1559  to  Emmanuel 
Philibert,  Duke  of  Savoy.     Died  in  1574. 

See  Brant6me,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres;"  MSzerav,  "His- 
toire de  France." 

Margaret  of  France,  or  of  Valois,  [Fr.  Margue- 
rite DE  Valois,  mtR'gR^t'  deh  vtl'wi',]  a  daughter 
of  Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de  Medicis,  was  born  in 
1553.  She  had  respectable  talents,  but  little  virtue.  In 
1572  she  was  married  to  Henry  of  Navarre;  but  love 
apparently  had  no  part  in  this  fatal  alliance.  During 
the  festivities  that  followed  the  marriage,  the  perfidious 
court  of  Charles  IX.  ordered  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew.  She  had  lived  separately  from  her  hus- 
band some  years  before  he  became  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
and  their  union  was  formally  dissolved  about  the  year 
1600.     Died  in  1615. 

See  MoNGES,  "  Histoire  de  la  Reine  Marguerite  de  Valois,"  etc., 
1777  ;  BrantSme,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres  " 

Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre,  originally  Margaret 
of  Augouleme,  [Fr.  Marguerite  d'Angouleme, 
mtR'gR^t'  d6N'goo'!#m',|  daughter  of  Charles,  Count  of 
Angouleme,  and  Louise  of  Savoy,  and  sister  of  Francis 
I.,  was  born  in  1492.  She  was  married  in  1509  to 
Charles,  Duke  of  Alen^on,  who  died  in  1525,  and  in  1527 
she  became  the  wife  of  Henry  d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre. 
She  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  talents,  and  supe- 
rior culture,  and  exercised  great  influence  in  the  govern- 
ment of  her  brother,  Francis  I.,  to  whom  she  was  warmly 
attached.  The  mildness  and  toleration  she  displayed 
towards  the  Protestants,  and  particularly  her  protection 
of  Calvin,  brought  upon  her  the  imputation  of  heresy 
from  the  Catholic  party.  She  was  the  author  of  nume- 
rous works  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  may  be 
named  the  "  Heptameron,"  a  collection  of  tales  in  the 
style  of  Boccaccio's  "  Decamerone,"  and  a  devotional 
treatise  entitled  "  Mirror  of  the  Sinful  Soul."  She  died 
in  1549,  leaving  a  daughter,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  afterwards 
the  mother  of  Henry  IV.  of  France. 

See  BrantAme,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres;"  Sismondi,  "His- 
toire des  Franfais  ;"  Miss  Freer,  "Life  of  Marguerite,  Queen  of 
Navarre,"  1855 ;  Victor  Dur.\nd,  "  Marguerite  de  Valois  el  la  Cour 
de   Francois  I,"  2  vols.,   184S  ; 

Margaret  of  Provence.     See  Marguerite. 
Margaret,  Saint,  [Lat.  Sanc'ta  Margari'ta  ;  Fr. 
Sainte-Marguerite,  s^Nt  mSR'gR^t',]  a  virgin  of  An* 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y.  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  shoi't;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  till,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARGARET 


i6 


io 


MARIA 


tioch,  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in  275  A.D. 
According  to  tradition,  she  was  solicited  in  marriage  by 
Olil^rius,  governor  of  Antioch,  and  on  her  refusal  was 
tortured  and  put  to  death  by  his  order.  This  legend  has 
formed  the  subject  of  Milmau's  "  Martyr  of  Antioch," 
and  of  numerous  works  of  art. 

See  P.AiLLET,  "Vies  des  Saints;"  Mrs.  Jamhson,  "Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art." 

Margaret,  Saint,  daughter  of  Edward,  a  Saxon 
prince,  and  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  was  b(;rn  in  1046. 
She  was  married  about  1070  to  Malcolm  III.,  King  of 
Scotland,  and  died  a  few  days  after  the  death  of  her 
husband  and  son,  who  fell  in  battle  in  1093. 

See  Saint  /Elrkd,  "Vita  Sanctae  Mar^arii.T;  ;"  Raillet,  "  Vies 
des  Saints." 

Margaret  of  Scotland,  daughter  of  James  I.,  was 
married  in  1436  to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards 
Louis  XI.     Died  in  1445. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais;"  DuCLOS,  "  Histoire  da 
Louis  XI." 

Margarit,  maR-gi-rit',  or  Marguerit,  de,  di  maR- 
gi-rfet',  (J(.«6,)  Marcjuis  d'Aguilar,  a  Spanish  soldier, 
born  in  Catalonia  in  1602,  was  a  prominent  leader  in 
the  insurrection  of  that  province  against  the  Spanish 
government  in  1640.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
Governor  of  Catalonia  bv  Louis  XIII.     Died  in  1685. 

Margarit  or  Marguerit,  de,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  car- 
dinal,  born  at  Girona  about  1415,  rose  to  be  chancellor 
of  Aragon.  He  wrote  a  historv  of  Spain,  entitled  "  Para- 
lipomenon  Hispaniae."     Died  in  1484. 

Margarit,  (Pedro,)  was  educated  at  the  court  of 
Ferdinand  V.  He  sailed  with  Christopher  Columbus  in 
1492,  and  discovered  the  archipelago  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Marguerite  Isles. 

Mcirgaritone,  maR-gS-re-to'ni,  an  Italian  painter, 
scul])tor,  and  architect,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1236.  His 
pictures  were  executed  in  fresco  on  wood  and  on  copper, 
and  he  sculptured  in  wood  as  well  as  marble.  His 
monument  to  Pope  Gregory  X.,  in  the  cathedral  of 
Arezzo,  is  ranked  among  his  best  works.     Died  about 

.See  Vasari,  '"  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc.  ;  L.\NZi, 
"  History  01  Painting  in  Italy." 

Margeret,  mlRzh'ry,  (Jacques,)  a  French  officer, 
born  in  Burgundy.  He  entered  the  Russian  service, 
which  he  exchanged  about  1610  for  that  of  Poland.  He 
wrote  an  "Account  of  the  Russian  Empire,  etc.  from 
1590-1606,"  (in  French,  1607,)  which  was  translated  into 
Russian. 

Marggraf,  maRg'gRif,  (Andreas  Sigismund,)  an 
eminent  German  chemist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1709.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1738,  and  director  of  the  class  of  physics  about  1762.  He 
was  an  ingenious  and  sagacious  experimenter,  and  wrote 
many  able  treatises  or  meiiioirs,  which  were  inserted  in 
the  records  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin.  He  made  the 
important  discovery  that  sugar  can  be  procured  from 
the  beet.     Died  in  1780. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  G^iierale." 

Marggraf,  (Georg.)     See  Marcgraf. 

Margoliouth,  maR-go'le-oot,  (Moses,)  a  British 
divine,  born  in  London,  of  Jewish  parents,  December  3, 
1820.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
in  1844  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Jews,"  "  Principles  of 
Modern  Judaism,"  "  Rabbinical  Hermeneutics,"  etc. 
Died  March  i,  1881. 

Margon,  de,  deh  mtR'giN',  (Guillaume  Plantavit 
de  la  Pause,)  Abb6,  a  French  satirist,  born  near  Beziers 
about  1685.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works,  dis- 
tinguished for  their  virulence  and  bitter  personalities, 
and  directed  alternately  against  the  Jesuits  and  the  Jan- 
senists.     Died  in  1760. 

Marguerie,  mtRg're',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French 
mathematician  and  writer,  born  near  Caen  in  1742.  He 
served  as  lieutenant  in  the  navy  agaitist  the  British 
in  1778-79,  and  was  killed  near  Grenada  in  1779. 

Marguerit.     See  Margarit. 

Marguerite.     See  Margaret. 

Marguerite   de   Provence,   mlR'gR^t'   deh   pRo'- 


v6nss',  daughter  of  Raymond  Berenger,  Comte  de  Pro- 
vence, born  in  1221,  was  married  in  1234  to  Louis  IX., 
King  of  France,  commonly  called  Saint  Louis.  She 
accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  and  while 
in  Damietta  gave  birth  to  a  son.  She  died  in  a  convent 
in  1295. 

See  JoiNviLLK,  "Mdmoires  ;"  Guillaume  de  Nangis,  "Vie  de 

.Saint-Louis." 

Marguerittes,  mtR'gRit',  (Jean  Antoine  Teissier,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  royalist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1744, 
was  a  deputy  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  was 
executed  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

Margunius,  maR-goo'ne-iis,  or  Margunio,  maR- 
goo'ne-o,  (MAXIMU.S,)  a  modern  Greek  prelate  and 
scholar,  born  in  the  island  of  Candia  about  1525.  He 
founded  a  printing-office  at  Venice,  where  he  published 
numerous  editions  of  the  Greek  classics,  remarkable  for 
their  accuracy.  In  1585  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Cerigo.  He  wrote  "  Anacreontic  Hymns,"  and  several 
ecclesiastical  works.     Died  in  1602. 

Marheineke,  maR-hT'neh-keh,  (Philipp  Konrad,) 
a  German  Protestant  theologian  of  high  reputation,  born 
at  Hildesheim  in  1780,  became  successively  professor  of 
theology  at  Erlangen,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,"  (4 
vols.,  18x6,)  "  Christian  Symbolics,"  and  several  philo- 
sophical works,  in  which  he  favours  the  system  of  Hegel 
Died  in  1846. 

Maria,  the  Latin  of  Mary  and  Marie,  which  see. 

Ma-ri'a  of  Austria,  a  daughter  of  the  archduke 
Philip  the  Handsome  and  Joanna  of  Aragon,  was  born 
at  Brussels  in  1503.  She  was  married  in  1521  to  Louis 
II.,  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  after  his  death 
was  appointed  by  her  brother,  Charles  V.,  ruler  over  the 
Netherlands.  Soon  after  the  abdication  of  the  emperor 
she  resigned  her  office  and  retired  to  Spain,  where  she 
died  in  1558. 

See  Lanz,  " Correspondenz  Karls  V. ;"  Brant6me,  "Vies  des 
Dames  illustres." 

Maria,  mS-ree'i,  II.,  (da  Gloria,  diglo're-a,)  daugh- 
ter of  Don  Pedro,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  Leopoldine, 
Archduchess  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1819. 
Her  father  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Portugal  in  March, 
1S26,  but  renounced  his  right  in  favour  of  Dona  Maria, 
Her  uncle  Don  Miguel  usurped  the  throne  about  May, 
1828,  and  was  supported  by  the  absolutist  party.  A  civil 
war  ensued,  Don  Miguel  was  defeated,  and  Dona  Maria 
became  queen  about  September,  1833.  She  married 
Duke  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg-Kohary  in  April,  1836, 
Her  reign  was  disturbed  by  emeutes  and  insurrections. 
She  died  in  November,  1853,  and  was  succeeded  by  hei 
son,  Pedro  V. 

Maria,  ml-ree'S,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
architect,  surnamed  Falconetti,  born  at  Verona  in  1458. 
He  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  the  celebrated  Louis 
Cornaro,  in  whose  household  he  lived  for  twenty-two 
years.     Died  in  1534. 

Maria,  di,  de  mS-ree'S,  (Francesco,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter,  born  in  1623,  was  a  pupil  of  Domenichino.  Died 
in  1690. 

Ma-ri'a  El-e-o-no'ra  of  Brandenburg,  daughter 
of  John  Sigismund,  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  She  was 
married  in  1620  to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden, 
whom  she  accompanied  in  his  campaigns  in  Germany. 
Died  in  1655. 

See  Geijer,  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (translated  by  Turner.) 

Maria  Leszczynska,  mj-ree'i  ISsh-ch^ns'ski, 
daughter  of  Stanislas  Leszczynski,  King  of  Poland,  was 
born  in  1703,  and  was  married  in  1725  to  Louis  XV. 
of  France.     Died  in  1768. 

Maria  Louisa,  ma-ri'a  loo-ee'za,  [Fr.  Marie  Louise, 
mt're'  loo'iz',]  daughter  of  the  emjieror  Francis  I. 
of  Austria  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Naples,  was  bom  at 
Vienna  in  1791.  She  was  married  in  1810  to  Napo- 
leon I.,  Emperor  of  France,  to  whom  she  bore  a  son 
in  March,  181 1.  On  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  in 
1814,  she  retired  to  Vienna,  and  in  i8i6  the  allied 
powers  gave  her  the  duchy  of  Parma.  She  was  pri- 
vately married  to  Count  Neipperg,  her  chamberlain. 
Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K.,guUurdl;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  \ntkis,     (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. _ 


MARIA 


i6q6 


MARICHI 


Maria  Louisa  Augusta,  (Catherine,)  Empress  of 
Germany,  was  a  daughter  of  Charles  Frederick,  Grand- 
Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  and  grand-daughter  of  Paul  I., 
Czar  of  Russia.  She  was  born  September  30,  181 1,  and 
in  her  youth  was  associated  with  Goethe  at  Weimar.  In 
1829  she  married  William,  the  future  king  of  Prussia, 
and  the  first  emperor  of  Germany  in  the  new  regime. 
The  empress  Augusta  was  noted  for  benevolence,  and 
for  her  love  of  art  and  letters.     Died  January  7,  1890. 

Maria  Theresa,  mJ-ree'a  ti-ra'sJ,  |Fr.  Marie  Th6- 
KESE,  mS're'  ti'ri//,]  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain, 
was  married  in  1660  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  (See 
Louis  XIV.) 

Maria  Theresa,  ma-ri'a  te-ree'si,  [Fr.  Marie  Th6- 
Ri:sE,  mt're'  ti'riz' ;  It.  Maria  Teresia,  md-ree'^  ti- 
ra'se-d,]  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  Emj^eror  of  Germany, 
and  Elizabeth  Christina  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel,  was 
born  in  May,  171 7.  She  was  married  in  1736  to  Francis, 
Duke  of  Lorrame.  Charles  VI.,  who  died  in  1740,  ap- 
pointed her  heir  to  his  hereditary  thrones,  in  accordance 
with  the  act  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  but  her 
claims  were  disputed  by  the  Electors  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria  and  by  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  Spain,  and  .Sardinia, 
each  of  whom  claimed  some  portion  in  the  name  of  the 
Austrian  princesses  with  whom  they  were  connected. 
Maria  Theresa  immediately  repaired  to  Vienna,  where 
she  received  the  homage  of  the  Austrian  states,  and 
thence  proceeding  to  Presburg  was  crowned  Queen  of 
Hungary  in  1741.  She  received  offers  of  assistance 
from  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  on  condition  of  her  ceding 
to  him  Lower  Silesia,  but  she  firmly  refused.  Her 
capital  being  soon  after  threatened  with  a  siege  by  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria  and  his  French  allies,  the  queen 
convoked  the  Hungarian  Diet  at  Presburg,  where,  with 
her  infant  children,  she  said  to  the  deputies  that,  "being 
assailed  by  enemies  on  every  side,  she  had  no  hopes 
except  in  their  loyalty,  and  she  had  come  to  place  under 
their  protection  the  daughter  and  son  of  their  kings." 
The  Hungarian  nobles  responded  with  enthusiasm  to 
this  apijeal,  and  diew  their  swords,  exclaiming,  "  We 
will  die  tor  our  king,  Maria  Theresa  !"  ("Moriamur  pro 
rege  nostro,  Maria  Theresia  !")  The  French  and  Bava- 
rians were  soon  driven  out  of  her  hereditary  states  by 
the  forces  under  General  Kevenhuller  and  Prince  Charles 
of  Lorraine.  In  1742  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
between  Maria  Theresa  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  by 
which  the  latter  obtained  Silesia.  The  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
who  had  been  previously  chosen  Emperor  of  Germany 
under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.,  having  died  in  1745, 
Francis,  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  was  elected  to 
that  dignity.  In  1746  the  Imperialists  gained  important 
victories  in  Italy,  and  defeated  the  P'rench  and  Spaniards 
at  Piacenza.  The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748, 
put  an  end  to  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  leaving 
the  empress  in  possession  of  all  her  hereditary  estates 
except  Silesia.  The  Seven  Years'  war,  carried  on  by 
Prussia  against  France,  Russia,  and  Austria,  terminated 
in  1763,  leaving  the  boundaries  of  Austria  and  Prussia 
the  same  as  before.  The  emperor  Francis  having  died 
in  1765,  his  son  Joseph  was  elected  Emperor  of  Germany ; 
but  Maria  Theresa  still  retained  the  principal  share  in 
the  government  of  her  hereditary  doiiiinions.  She  is  said 
to  have  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  partition  of  Po- 
land (1772)  until  prevailed  upon  by  the  representations 
of  Joseph  II.  and  Prince  Kaunitz.  Among  the  important 
reforms  of  her  reign  was  the  abolition  of  the  torture 
(1776)  and  of  feudal  service.  She  also  abolished  the 
Inquisition  at  Milan,  and  suppressed  the  order  of  Jesuits. 
Slie  died  in  November,  1780,  and  was  succeeded  by  her 
son,  Joseph  II.,  as  King  of  Hungary. 

See  Paolo  Prisi,  "  Elogio  di  Maria  Teresia,"  1783;  Sabatier 
DK  Castres,  "Abre?^  de  la  Vie  de  Marie  'I'her^se," '1773 ;  RiCH- 
TER,  "  Lebens-  uiid  Staatsgeschichte  Marian  Theresiie,"  3  vols., 
174s;  Duller,  "Maria  Theresia  und  ilire  Zeit,"  1S44;  Rauten- 
STRAUCH,  "  Biographic  der  Kaiserin  Maria  Theresia,"  1780;  Rkn- 
VHR,  "  Maria  Theresia  und  Friedrich  der  Grosse,"  1831  ;  Wolf, 
'Oestreich  unter  Maria  Theresia,"  1855;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^ni^rale." 

Marialva,  mi-re-aTva,  (Dom  JoXo  Coutinho  — 
ko-t^n'yo,)  Count,  a  Portuguese  officer,  fought  under 
Alphonso  V.  against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  and  was  killed 
while  assisting  in  the  capture  of  Arziila,  in  1471. 


Marialva  y  Menezes,  mJ-re-Sl'vi  e  mi-na'zSs, 
(Antonio  Luiz,)  Count  de  Castanhede.  an  able  Portu- 
guese general  and  statesman,  born  about  1627.  In  1659 
he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Castilians  at  Elvas, 
and  soon  after  became  principal  minister  of  state,  Marquis 
of  Marialva,  and  lieutenant-general  of  the  armies  of  the 
kingdom.     Died  about  1668. 

See  Laclede,  "  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Ma-ri-am'ne,  [Gr.  Ma/3ta//vj?,]  a  beautiful  Jewess,  a 
granddaughter  of  the  high-priest  Hyrcanus  II.,  became 
in  38  B.C.  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great,  who,  when  he 
departed  from  his  capital  to  meet  Octavian,  gave  secret 
orders  that  she  should  be  put  to  death  in  case  he  did 
not  return  in  safety.  This  secret  having  been  revealed 
to  her,  she  received  him  coldly  on  his  return,  and  excited 
his  jealousy,  which  was  increased  by  the  intrigues  of 
Herod's  sister  Salome,  who  suborned  the  royal  cup- 
bearer to  testify  that  Mariamne  designed  to  poison  the 
king.  She  was  put  to  death  in  29  B.C.  This  story  is  the 
subject  of  one  of  Voltaire's  tragedies. 

See  JosKPHUs,  "  History  of  the  Jews;"  Smith,  " Dictionary  oi 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Mariana,  de,  di  mi-re-3.'ni,  (Juan,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian,  born  atTalavera  in  1536.  He  studied 
at  Alcala,  and,  having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  their  college  at  Rome, 
(1560.)  He  returned  to  Spain  in  1574,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement,  devoted  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  published  in  1599  his  "Treatise  on  Roy- 
alty," ("De  Rege  et  Regis  Institutione,")  in  which  he 
maintains  that  it  is  lawful  in  certain  cases  to  put  a  king 
to  death.  This  work  caused  a  great  sensation,  particu- 
larly in  France,  where  it  was  denounced  by  the  Sorbonne, 
and  soon  after  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV.  it  was 
publicly  burned  by  order  of  the  Parliament.  In  1592  he 
brought  out  his  great  work  entitled  "  Historia  de  Rebus 
Hispanias,"  ("  History  of  Spain,")  which  was  received 
with  great  favour  and  was  soon  after  translated  by  him 
into  Spanish.  His  Latin  style  is  characterized  by  great 
elegance  and  animation,  and  has  been  compared  to  that 
of  Livy ;  while  his  Spanish  history  is  generally  esteemed 
the  most  admirable  work  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 
"  Noble,  ]jure,  and  rich  without  diffuseness,  it  unites 
with  rare  felicity,"  says  a  French  critic,  "the  picturesque 
vivacity  of  the  chroniclers  with  the  dignity  of  history ;" 
and  Ticknor,  in  his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature," 
observes,  "  Its  admirably  idiomatic  style,  so  full  yet  so 
unencumbered,  so  pure  and  yet  so  rich,  renders  it,  if 
not  the  most  trustworthy  of  annals,  at  least  the  most 
remarkable  union  of  picturesque  chronicling  with  sober 
history  that  the  world  has  ever  seen."  Mariana  also 
published  a  treatise  "On  Weights  and  Measures,"  "On 
Death  and  Immortality,"  and  other  learned  works,  in 
Latin,  and  an  essay  entitled  "De  las  Enfermedades  de 
la  Compaiiia  y  de  sus  Remedios,"  ("On  the  Disorders 
of  the  Society  [of  Jesuits]  and  their  Remedies,"  1625,) 
in  which  he  boldly  exposes  and  condemns  the  errors  of 
the  Jesuits.     Died  in  1623. 

See  Ticknor,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Tamajo  (or 
TamavoI  de  Vargas,  "Vida  del  P.  Juan  Mariana;"  N.  Antonio, 
"  i;ibliotneca  Hispana  Nova;"  Acosta,  "  Vida  de  Mariana;"  F. 
BuCHHOLZ,  "J.  de  Mariana,  oder  Entwickelungs^eschichte  eines 
Jesviiten,"  1804;  Bouterwek,  "Histoire  de  la  Lut^rature  Espa- 
gnole;"  and  L.  Joi;bert's  excellent  article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie G^n^rale." 

Mariani,  mS-re-S'nee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1565  ;  died  in  161 1. 

Mariani,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Ascoli  about  1650.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
"  Ba])tism  of  Saint  James,"  at  Rome. 

Ma-ri-a'nus  Sco'tus,  a  Scottish  chronicler,  born  in 
1028,  is  said  by  Matthew  of  Westminster  to  have  been 
a  relative  of  the  Venerable  Bede.  His  principal  work  is 
a  "  Universal  Chronicle  from  the  Creation  to  the  Year 
10S3,"  (in  Latin.)     Died  in  1086. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Marichi,  ma-ree'chl,  a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage  01 
demi-god,  was,  according  to  one  account,  the  son  of 
Brahma, — according  to  another,  the  son  of  Bhrigu.  He 
was  the  father  of  Kasyapa.  By  some  he  is  considered 
as  the  god  of  "light,"  which  appears  to  be  the  etymo. 
logical  signification  of  his  name. 


a,  e,T,o,ri,y,^«.i'Vi,fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y, .f//*;;-/;  a,  e,  j,  Q,ol'saere;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfet;  nfit;  good;  moon 


MARIE 


1657 


MARIGNOLLI 


Marie,  the  French  for  Mary,  which  see. 

Marie,  mS're',  (Alexandre  Thomas,)  a  French  ad- 
vocate and  republican,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1795.  ^^^ 
was  minister  of  public  works  from  February  to  June, 
1848,  and  minister  of  justice  from  July  to  December  jf 
that  year.  He  was  elected  to  the  Corps  Legislatif  in 
1S63.    Died  in  1870. 

Marie  Adelaide  de  Savoie,  mt're'  t'di'ljt'id'  deh 
s^'vwi',  daughter  of  Victor  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
burn  at  Turin  in  1685,  was  married  in  1697  to  the  Duke 
of  ]>urgundy,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  She 
died  in  1712,  leaving  one  son,  afterwards  Louis  XV. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires  de  Louis  XIV,"  etc.;  Madame 
DE  Maintenon,  "Lettres." 

Marie  Amelie  de  Bourbon,  mt're'  t'mi'le'  deh 
booR'bAN',  Queen  of  France,  born  near  Naples  in  1782, 
was  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  L,  King  of  the  Two  Sici- 
lies. She  was  married  in  1809  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
afterwards  King  Louis  Philippe.  After  his  death  she 
retired  to  England,  where  she  resided  at  Claremont, 
near  London.     Died  in  1866. 

Marie  Anne  Christine  Victoire  de  Baviere 
mi're'  tn  kR^s'tfen'vfek'tw^R'deh  bt've-aiR',  daughter  of 
Ferdinand,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  was  born  at  Munich  in 
i6fio.  In  1680  she  was  married  to  Louis,  the  Dauphin 
of  France,  son  of  Louis  XIV.  She  died  in  1690,  leaving 
three  sons. 

Marie  Antoinette  Josfephe  Jeanne  d'Autriche, 
mt're'  dN'twa'n&t'  zho'zif  zhtn  do'tRish',  (commonly 
called  simply  Marie  Antoinette,)  born  at  Vienna  in 
1755,  was  the  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  and  the  em- 
peror Francis  I.  of  Germany.  She  was  married  in 
1770  to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards  Louis  XVI. 
High-spirited  and  energetic,  she  strove  during  the 
revolutionary  troubles  to  inspire  the  king  with  her  own 
courage ;  but  her  counsels  often  led  him  into  greater 
difiiculties.  It  was  her  misfortune  and  the  misfortune  of 
France  that  she  resisted  all  those  reforms  which  might 
have  prevented  or  moderated  the  violence  of  the  Revo- 
lution. Possessing  extraordinary  personal  charms  and 
great  vivacity  of  disposition,  the  freedom  of  her  manners 
was  often  misconstrued  by  her  enemies  ;  but  their  accu- 
sations are  generally  believed  to  have  been  groundless. 
During  the  terrible  scenes  which  followed  the  captivity 
of  the  royal  family,  she  displayed  the  greatest  firmness 
and  dignity,  showing  on  all  occasions  more  concern  for 
her  husband  and  children  than  for  herself.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Girondists,  Marie  Antoinette  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  in  Octobe',  1793. 
(See  Louis  XVI.) 

See  Madame  Campan,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Mare  Antoi- 
nette ;"  "  M^moires  de  Mademoiselle  Berlin  sur  la  Reine  Marie 
Antoinette  ;"  Madame  Vig^e-Lebrun,  "Souvenirs,"  1835  ;  Thiers, 
"Histoirede  la  Revolution  Fran^aise  ;"  Lamartine,  "History  of 
the  Girondists  ;"  Weber,  "  Memoires  concernant  Marie  Antoinette," 
1822. 

Marie  Clotilde  Adelaide  Xaviere  de  France, 
mS're'  klo'tild'  t'di'lt'ed'  zi've-aiR'  deh  fR6Nss,  sister 
of  Louis  XVI.,  born  at  Versailles  in  1759,  was  married 
in  1775  to  the  Prince  of  Piedmont,  afterwards  Charles 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia.     Died  in  1802. 

Marie  de  Bourgogne.    See  Mary  of  Burgundy. 

Marie  de  France,  mS'Ree'  deh  fR6Nss,  a  poetess 
who  probably  lived  in  France  in  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  who  wrote  "  Lais,"  (lays,)  of 
which  fourteen  are  extant,  also  a  collection  of  fables 
called  "  Ysopet,"  and  a  description  of  Saint  Patrick's 
purgatory  in  verse.  Her  style  is  good,  and  her  dialect 
Norman,  with  a  few  English  words. 

Marie  de  Guise.    See  Mary  of  Guise. 

Marie  de  I'lncarnation,  nit're'  deh  liN'ktR'nS'- 
^e-6N',  a  French  missionary,  whose  original  name  was 
GuYARD,  born  at  Tours  in  1599,  visited. Canada  in  1639, 
where  she  made  many  converts  among  the  Indians,  and 
founded  a  convent  of  her  order.     Died  in  1672. 

See  "  Vie  de  la  Mfere  Marie  de  I'lncarnation,"  by  P.  Ch/.rlk- 

VOIX. 

Marie  de  Lorraine.    See  Mary  of  Guise. 

Marie  Madeleine.    See  Magdalene. 

Marie  de  Medicis,  mt're'  deh  mi'de's^ss',  or  Maria 
de'  Medici,  mS-ree'S  di  mSd'e-chee,  the  daughter  of 
PVancis,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the  archduchess 


Joan  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1573.  She  was 
married  in  1600  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  She  had 
moderate  abilities,  but  exorbitant  ambition ;  and  her  ob- 
stinacy and  violent  temper  were  the  source  of  constant 
dissension  between  her  and  her  husband.  On  the  dealh 
of  Henry  she  became  regent,  for  which  office  she  proved 
herself  utterly  incoinpetent.  Having  given  offence  to  her 
subjects  by  her  partiality  for  unworthy  favourites,  she 
was  deposed  and  imprisoned,  but,  effecting  her  escape, 
again  took  part  in  the  government.  She  introduced 
Richelieu  into  the  administration,  who  soon  possessed 
himself  of  the  highest  power,  and  induced  her  son, 
Louis  XIII.,  to  imprison  her  (1630)  at  Compiegne.  Aftei 
a  second  escape,  she  died  at  Cologne  in  1642. 

See  Mis.s  Pardoe,  "Life  of  Marie  de'  Medici;"  Richkliku, 
"  Memoires  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoiredes  Krangais  ;"  Ruau,  "  Tableau 
de  la  Regence  de  Marie  de  Medicis,"  1615. 

Marie  d'Orleans,  mt're'  doR'li'Sw',  (Marie  Chris- 
tine Caroline  Adelaide  FRANgoisE  L6opoldine  de 
Valois,  mt're'  kR^s'tin'  kt'ro'lin'  t'di'li'id'  fRdN'swJz' 
li'o'pol'd^n'  deh  vtl'wJ',)  Duchess  of  Wiirtemberg, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1813,  was  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Louis  Philippe,  King  of  France.  Having  early  mani- 
fested a  love  for  the  arts,  she  studied  sculpture  and  de- 
sign under  Ary  Scheffer.  Among  her  works  the  statue 
of  Joan  of  Arc  is  the  most  generally  admired.  She  was 
married  in  1837  to  Duke  Alexander  of  Wiirtemberg. 
Died  in  1839. 

Marie  Therese.     See  Maria  Theresa. 

Mariette,  mt're'St',  (Auguste  Edouard,)  a  cele- 
brated French  archaeologist,  born  at  Boulogne  in  1821. 
Having  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics 
he  was  charged  in  1850  with  a  scientific  mission  to 
Egypt,  where  he  discovered  the  site  of  the  city  of  Mem- 
phis and  disinterred  the  temple  of  Serapis  and  a  ne- 
cropolis of  vast  extent.  In  this  were  found  the  granite 
sarcophagi  of  the  bulls  of  Apis,  hewn  out  of  a  single 
stone,  fifteen  feet  long,  nine  in  width,  and  the  same  in 
height.  He  also  removed  the  sand  from  the  colossal 
Sphinx,  which  was  cut  entire  from  a  rock.  He  published 
"The  Serapeum  at  Memphis,"  illustrated,  (1857-66,) 
"Researches  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  the  Soudan,"  (1867,) 
"The  Egyptian  Papyruses  in  the  Museum  at  Boulac,"  (2 
vols.,  1871-73,)  "  Deir-el-Bahari :  Topographical,  His- 
torical, and  Ethnographical  Documents  gleaned  in  that 
Temple,"  (1877.)     He  died  January  19,  1881. 

Mariette,  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1694,  wgs  one  of  the  most  distinguished  ama- 
teurs of  his  time,  and  became  director  of  the  Imperial 
Gallery  at  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting  in  Paris,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Design  at 
Florence.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Engraved  Gems  of  the  Royal  Cabinet."  Died 
in  1774. 

See  DuMESNiL,  "  Histoire  des  plus  c^lfebres  Amateurs  Frangais," 
1.856;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marignano,  mJ-rfen-y5'no,  written  also  Melegnano, 
[Fr.  Marignan,  mt'r^n'ydN',]  (Gian  Giacomo,)  Mar- 
quis de  Medichino,  a  celebrated  Italian  soldier,  born  at 
Milan  in  1497.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  who  sent  him  in  1540  to  reduce  the  city  of 
Ghent,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  ap]5ointed  governor. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  siege  of  Metz,  in  1552,  and 
was  subsequently  employed  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo 
de'  Medici  to  suppress  the  revolt  in  the  republic  of 
Sienna,  where  he  ravaged  the  country  and  was  guilty  of 
great  barbarity  towards  the  inhabitants.     Died  in  I5y5. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Brant6me,  "Vies 
des  grands  Capitaines;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Rtjpubliques 
Italiennes;"  Mi.saglia,  "Vita  del  .Marchese  di  Marignano,"  1605; 
Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  book  xi. 

Marignie,  de,  deh  mt'rin'ye-i',  (Jean  Etienne 
Francois,)  a  French  litterateur,  borrTin  Languedoc  about 
1755,  was  one  of  the  most  zealous  defenders  of  Louis 
XVI.  in  the  National  Convention.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  dramas  and  political  treatises.     Died  about  1830. 

Mcirignolli,  de,  di  mS-r6n-y61'lee,  (Giovanni,) 
known  also  as  John  of  Florence,  a  Franciscan  monk 
of  Italy,  born  about  1288.  In  1338  he  was  one  of  four 
clerics  sent  from  Avignon  by  Pope  Benedict  XII.  to  the 
Khan  of  Cathay,  (China.)  In  1342  they  arrived  at  Pekin, 
in  1348  went  to  Malabar,  in  India,  and  in  1353  Marignolli 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  ka}-d;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  (rilled;  s  as  2;  i\\  as  in  this.     ( Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  2  5. ) 


MARIGNY 


1658 


MARIO 


was  again  at  the  papal  court.  He  was  afterwards  made 
Bishop  of  Bisigiiani),  and  thereafter  was  a  chaplain  to 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  who  caused  him  to  write 
"  Moniimenta  Historica  Bohemise,"  in  which  he  curiously 
interpolated  stories  of  his  adventures  in  the  East.  The 
passages  of  this  description  were  put  together  and  trans- 
lated by  H.  Yule,  (1866.) 

Marigny,  de.deh  m^'r^n'ye',  (Abel  FRANgois  Pois- 
son — pwd'siN^)  Marquis,  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Paris  in  1727,  was  a  brother  of  Madame  de  Pompadour, 
through  whose  influence  he  was  appointed  in  1751  di- 
rector-general of  the  royal  buildings.     Died  in  1781. 

Marigny,  de,  (Enguerrand,)  a  French  statesman, 
filled  several  high  offices  under  Philippe  le  Bel,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  prime  minister.  Soon  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Louis  X.,  he  was  condemned  to  death  on  the 
false  accusations  of  his  enemies,  and  executed  about  1315. 

Marigny,  de,  (Francois  Augier,)  a  French  Orient 
talist  and  historian,  born  about  1690.  He  produced  a 
"  History  of  the  Twelfth  Century,"  (5  vols.,  1750,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Arabs  under  the  Government  of  the 
Caliphs,"  (4  vols.,  1750.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1762. 

Marigny,  de,  (Gaspard  Augustin  Ren6  Bernard,) 
ci  French  ofticer,  born  at  Lu9on  in  1754,  was  one  of  the 
royalist  chiefs  in  the  Vendean  war.  He  was  condemned 
to'death  by  his  own  party  for  alleged  neglect  of  duty, 
and  executed  in  1794. 

Marigny,  de,  (Jacques  Carpentier,  )  a  French 
priest,  noted  for  his  wit,  born  near  Nevers.  He  wrote 
several  poems,  and  Letters,  {1678.)     Died  in  1670. 

Marillac,  de,  deh  mt're'ySk',  (Charles,)  an  able 
French  negotiator,  born  in  Auvergne  about  15 10.  He 
was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  and  conducted  suc- 
cessfully some  important  negotiations  in  Germany  and 
Rome.  He  was  at  the  head  of  a  small  number  of  French 
bishops  known  by  their  tendency  to  a  philosophic  spirit. 
Died  in  1560. 

Marillac,  de,  (Louts,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Auvergne  in  1572.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  armies  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  made  a  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1629.  Being  afterwards  suspected  of 
conspiring  against  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  was  executed, 
on  a  charge  of  peculation,  in  1632. 

See  "  Procfes  du  Mareclial  de  Marillac,"  etc.,  1633;  Richelieu, 
"Journal." 

Marillac,  de,  (Michel,)  a  French  statesman,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1563.  He  was 
appointed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  keeper  of  the  seals, 
(1626.)  Having  subsequently  incurred  the  enmity  of 
the  cardinal,  he  was  imprisoned  at  Chateaudun  in  1630, 
where  he  died  in  1632. 

Marin.     See  Marinus  of  Tyre. 

Marin,  mt'riN',  a  French  mechanician,  and  a  native 
of  Lisieux,  invented  the  air-gun,  which  he  exhibited  in 
the  presence  of  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Marin,  (FRANgois  Louis  Claude,)  a  French  littira- 
teur,  born  in  Provence  in  1721.  Among  his  principal 
works  is  a  "  History  of  Saladin,  Sultan  of  Egypt,"  etc. 
Died  in  1809. 

Marin,  (Michel  Ange,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
devotional  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1697.  ^^^  pub- 
lished "  Lives  of  the  Hermits  of  the  East,"  (3  vols.  4to, 
1 761,)  and  numerous  other  works.     Died  in  1767. 

Marina,  mS-ree'nl,  Malinche,  mi-lfen'chi,  written 
also  Maliutzin,  the  daughter  of  a  Mexican  chief,  born 
about  1505,  was  sold  as  a  slave,  and  subsequently  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Cortez,  whom  she  accompanied  in  all 
his  expeditions.  She  possessed  rare  beauty  and  talents, 
and,  from  her  knowledge  of  the  Spanish  as  well  as 
Mexican  languages,  was  of  great  service  as  an  inter- 
preter. After  the  death  of  Cortez,  she  was  married  to 
Don  Juan  de  Xamarillo,  a  Spanish  officer.  Marina  has 
been  celebrated  by  the  Spanish  poet  Moratin  in  his 
"  Noves  de  Cortes." 

See  Bernal  Diaz,  "  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de!  Mexico;" 
Prkscott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  book  ii. 

Marina,  md-ree'nl,  (Don  Francisco  Martinez,)  a 
Spanish  political  writer  of  the  liberal  party,  born  about 
175'-.  He  published  the  "  Theory  of  the  Cortes,"  (1821,) 
"  Discourse  on  the  Origin  of  the  Spanish  Monarchy," 
etc.,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1833. 


Marinali,  m3.-re-na'lee,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Bassano  in  1643  ;  died  in  1720. 

Marinari,  m3,-re-nVree,  (Onorio,)  a  Florentine 
painter,  born  about  1660,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator  of 
Carlo  Dolce.     Died  in  1715. 

Marinas,  de  las,  dA  lis  ma-ree'nSs,  (Enriquez,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1620,  was  celebrated 
for  the  excellence  of  his  marine  views,  from  which  he 
derived  his  surname.     Died  in  1680. 

Marinella,  ml-re-nel'lS,  or  Marinelli,  mi-re-neKlee, 
(LUCREZIA,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Venice  in  1571. 
She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Life  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,"  ("  Vita  di  Maria  Vergine,"  161 7.)    Died  in  1653. 

Marineo,  mS-re-na'o,  (Lucio,)  a  Sicilian  scholar  and 
historian,  born  at  Bidino  about  1460.  He  became  chap- 
lain and  historiographer  to  Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  and 
was  also  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  He  wrote  several  works  on  Spanish  history, 
(in  Latin.)     Died  about  1535. 

Marini,  mS-ree'nee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Urbino,  lived  about  1625. 

Marini,  (Gaetano  Luigi,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  San  Arcangelo  in  1740.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Acts  and  Monu- 
ments of  the  Rural  Brothers,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1795.)  Died 
in  1815, 

Marini  or  Marino,  md-ree^no,  (Giambattista,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples  in  1569,  was  a  friend  of 
Tasso.  He  produced  "  Adonis,"  and  many  other  poems, 
which  were  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries,  bwt 
are  marred  by  affected  conceits  and  extravagant  meta- 
phors. He  passed  several  years  in  Paris,  and  received 
a  pension  from  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis.    Died  in  1625. 

See  B.MACCA,  "Vita  del  Cavalier  Marino,"  1625;  F.  Chiaro. 
"Vita  del  Cavalier  Marino,"  1636;  Loredano,  "Vita  del  Cavalier 
Marino,"  1633;  Camola,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Marini,"  1633;  Popfk, 
"Vita  J.  B.  Marini,"  1771  ;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Steb- 
EING,  London,  1S31. 

Marini,  (Giovanni  Ambrogio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Genoa  about  1594.  He  wrote  two  popular 
romances,  entitled  "  II  Caloandro  fedele"  and  "  Quarrels 
of  the  Desperadoes,"  ("  Le  Gare  de'  Desperati.")  Died 
about  1650. 

Marini,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  a  Piedmontese  phy 
sician  and  writer,  born  in  1726  ;  died  in  1806. 

Marini,  (Giovanni  Filippo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  near  Genoa  in  1608.  He  resided  four 
teen  years  at  Tonquin,  and  published  a  valuable  work 
entitled  "A  New  and  Curious  Account  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Tonquin  and  Laos,"  (1666.)     Died  in  1677. 

Marino.    See  Marini,  (Giambattista.) 

Marinoni,  m^-re-no'nee,  (Giovanni  Giacomo,)  an 
Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Udine  in  1676.  He  was 
appointed  court  mathematician  by  the  emperor  Leopold 
I.,  and  drew  a  plan  of  Vienna  and  its  environs.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Military  Science 
at  Vienna  in  1 71 7,  and  subsequently  built  at  his  own 
expense  an  observatory,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  in  Europe.  He  published  several  scientific  works. 
Died  in  1755. 

Ma-ri'nu.s,  [Gr.  MopZvof,]  a  native  of  Samaria,  studied 
philosophy  at  Athens  under  Proclus,  whom  he  succeeded 
as  a  teacher  in  485  A.D.  His  only  work  extant  is  a  "  Life 
of  Proclus." 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Grscis." 

Ma-ri'nus,  Saint,  fit.  San  Marino,  sin  m3.-ree'no, 
Fr.  Saint-Marin,  s^n  nit'r^N',]  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  a  native  of  Dalmatia,  and  lived  as  a 
hermit  near  Rimini,  in  Italy.  The  miracles  said  to  have 
been  wrought  at  his  tomb  drew  thither  many  pilgrims, 
who  in  time  built  a  town  called  San  Marino,  which  for 
ten  centuries  has  formed  the  centre  of  a  little  republic. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Marinus  of  Tyre,  [Fr.  Marin  de  Tyre,  mt'riN 
deh  t^R,]  a  Greek  geographer,  who  lived  about  150  a.d 
His  works  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
but  none  of  them  are  extant. 

See  Ukert,  "Geographie  der  Griechen  und  Romer." 

Mario,  mi're-o,  (Giuseppe,)  Marchese  di  Candia, 
an  Italian  operatic  singer,  born  at  Cagliari,  Sardinia,  in 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  3^,  sJiort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


MARIO 


1659 


MARIVETZ 


1810,  of  a  noble  but  impoverished  family.  In  1830  he 
acceptod  a  commission  in  the  Sardinian  army,  but  ten- 
dered his  resignation  in  1836,  and,  when  it  was  not  ac- 
cepted, he  escaped  to  Paris.  His  exquisite  tenor  voice 
gained  him  a  great  reputation  in  amateur  circles,  and  he 
was  reluctantly  induced  to  accept  the  munificent  offers 
of  the  director  of  the  Paris  Opera.  Under  the  assumed 
name  of  Mario,  he  made  his  first  public  appearance  De- 
cember I,  1838,  in  the  rd'.e  of  "  Robert  le  Diable."  His 
success  was  immediate.  In  1839,  while  still  attached  to 
the  Paris  Opera,  he  sang  for  a  brief  period  in  London, 
and  was  greeted  with  favour.  In  1840  he  passed  over  to 
the  Italian  Opera,  and  for  several  years  he  sang  each 
season  in  both  Paris  and  London.  In  1849  he  went  to 
Saint  Petersburg.  In  1854-55  he  accompanied  Grisi  on 
a  tour  through  the  United  States.  He  had  been  living 
with  Grisi  for  some  years,  and  on  the  dissolution  of  her 
first  marriage  was  legally  united  to  her.  On  June  18, 
1871,  he  took  his  farewell  of  the  operatic  stage  at  Co- 
vent  Garden,  London.  In  1872  he  again  visited  the 
United  States  on  a  concert  tour.  Died  at  Rome,  Decem- 
ber 11,  1S83. 

Mario  Niizzi.    See  FioRi,  de',  (Mario.) 

Marion,  mt're'6N',  (fii.iE,)  a  leader  of  the  Camisards 
in  France,  born  in  1678,  was  the  author  of  several  re- 
ligious works  and  so-called  prophecies. 

Mar'J-on,  (Francis,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1732. 
Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  he  entered  the 
army,  and  assisted  in  the  defence  of  Sullivan's  Island 
aga  nst  the  British  in  1776.  The  enemy  having  taken 
possession  of  Georgia  and  besieged  Charleston,  Marion 
raised  a  brigade  of  soldiers,  at  the  head  of  whom  he 
carried  on  for  more  than  three  years  a  guerilla  warfare, 
often  attended  with  brilliant  successes,  and  bafiiing  all 
the  attempts  of  the  British  generals  to  effect  his  capture. 
Died  in  1795. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Marion,"  by  P.  Horry  and  M.  L. 
Weems,  and  the  "  Nalional  Ponrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  iii. 

Marion  Delorme.     See  Delorme. 

Marion -Dufresne,  mS're'ix'  dii'frfn^  (Nicolas 
Thomas,)  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
1729,  sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  South  Sea 
in  1771.  Soon  after  landing  at  New  Zealand,  Marion 
was  treacherously  murdered  by  the  natives,  together 
with  the  greater  part  of  his  men,  (1772.) 

Marion  du  Mersan,  mt're'i.N'  dii  m§R's6N',  (Th6o- 
PHiLE,)  a  French  antiquary  and  dramatist,  born  in  1780, 
published  a  great  number  of  popular  comedies  and  prose 
essays  on  various  subjects.     Died  in  1849. 

Mariotte,  mt're'ot',  (Edme,  )  an  eminent  French 
mathematician  and  physicist,  was  a  resident  of  Dijon. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  experimental  philosophers  in 
France,  and  discovered  the  law  of  elastic  fluids  called 
by  his  name.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Dis- 
course on  the  Nature  of  Air,"  (1676,)  "Treatise  on  the 
Movement  of  Waters,"  (1690,)  "Experiments  on  the 
Colours  and  Congelation  of  Water,"  and  an  "  Essay  on 
Logic,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  Condorcet.  Died 
in  1684. 

See  Condorcet,  "filoges  des  Academicians,"  etc. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gdn^rale." 

Mariti,  mS-ree'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  traveller 
and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1736,  visited  the  isle  of 
Cyprus,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  and  published  in  1769  an 
account  of  his  journey,  which  was  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Swedish.     Died  in  1806. 

Maritz,  md'rits  or  mt'r^ts',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Berne  in  1711,  invented  a  machine  for 
boring  and  turning  cannon.  For  this  service  he  was 
ennobled  by  the  French  government.     Died  in  1790. 

Mariucoia.     See  Marozia. 

Ma'ri-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  general,  distinguished 
for  his  splendid  talents,  indomitable  energy,  and  unprin- 
cipled ambition,  was  born  near  Arpinum  (now  Arpino) 
in  157  B.C.  His  parents  were  poor  and  plebeian.  He 
served  under  Scipio  Africanus  at  the  siege  of  Numantia, 
and  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  in  119.  He  ob- 
tained the  praetorship  in  115,  though  strongly  opposed 
by  the  patrician  party,  and  about  the  same  time  married 


Julia,  an  aunt  of  Julius  Caesar.  Having  accompanied 
Metellus  as  legate  and  second  in  command  into  Africa, 
(109  B.C.,)  he  won  such  popularity  by  his  skill  and  bravery 
that  he  was  elected  consul  for  107  B.C.  and  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  He  defeated 
Jugurtha,  who  was  made  prisoner  in  106.  In  104  B.C. 
Marius  was  again  chosen  consul,  as  being  the  only  one 
capable  of  defending  the  state  from  the  threatened  in- 
vasion of  the  Teutones  and  Cimbri.  He  defeated  the 
barbarians  at  Aix,  (Aquae  Sextije,)  in  Gaul,  in  102  li.c. 
Having  been  elected  consul  the  next  year,  for  the  fifth 
time,  Marius,  in  conjunction  with  Catulus,  gained  a  sig- 
nal and  overwhelming  victory  over  the  Cimbri  in  the 
plain  of  Vercellae,  (Vercelli.)  By  the  aid  of  the  tribune 
Saturninus,  Marius  became  consul  for  100  B.C.,  in  spite 
of  the  determined  hostility  of  the  patricians.  During 
this  consulate  an  agrarian  law  was  passed,  and  Metellus 
Numidicus  was  exiled  for  refusing  to  conform  to  it.  On 
the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  Marius  went  to  Asia, 
under  the  pretext  of  sacrificing  to  Cybele,  but  really  in 
order  to  excite  Mithridates  to  a  war  with  Rome,  that  he 
might  again  distinguish  himself  in  his  congenial  element. 
In"90  B.C.  both  Marius  and  Sulla  entered  the  service 
of  the  consuls  Octavius  and  Cinna  in  the  Marsian  or 
Social  war ;  but,  jealous  of  the  reputation  of  his  rival, 
the  former  soon  resigned.  Sulla,  having  become  consul 
in  88  B.C.,  obtained  the  command  in  the  Mithridatic 
war,  u]ion  which  Marius,  assisted  by  his  friends,  caused 
a  law  to  be  passed  transferring  it  to  him.  He  was  soon 
driven  from  the  city  by  Sulla  and  his  adherents,  and 
forced  to  take  refuge  in  Africa.  When  Sextilius,  Gov- 
ernor  of  Libya,  sent  him  orders  to  leave  the  country,  on 
pain  of  being  treated  as  an  enemy,  Marius  replied  to  the 
messenger,  "Go  tell  him  that  you  have  seen  the  exile 
Marius  sitting  on  the  ruins  of  Carthage."  The  next 
year,  while  Sulla  was  absent  in  Greece,  Marius,  joined 
by  the  consul  Cinna,  entered  Rome  and  ordered  a 
general  massacre  of  the  opposite  party.  Among  the 
patricians  who  perished  was  M.  Antonius,  the  orator  so 
highly  praised  by  Cicero.  Marius  and  Cinna  became 
consuls,  (86  B.C.,)  but  the  former  was  attacked  by  a  fever, 
of  which  he  died  the  same  year. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Marius;"  George  Long,  "Life  of 
Marius,"  London,  1S44;  M^RIM^e,  "  £tudes  sur  I'Histoire  Ro- 
maine/'etc.  ;  Sallust,  "Jiigunha;"  F.  Weii.and,  "  C.  Marii  sep- 
ties  Coiisulis  Vita,"  Berlin,  1S45  :  P-  Ekerman,  "Dissertatio  de  C. 
Mario  septies  Consule,"  1742;  Smith,  "  Dictionai7  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Marius,  (Caius,)  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, took  refuge,  after  the  proscription  of  his  uncle, 
with  Hiempsal,  King  of  Numidia.  He  was  made  consul 
in  82  B.C.,  and  signalized  himself  by  many  acts  of  in- 
justice and  cruelty.  Having  been  defeated  by  Sulla,  he 
caused  himself  to  be  killed  by  one  of  his  officers. 

Marius,  (  Marcus  Aurelius,  )  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  of  Gaul,  was,  on  the  death  of  Victorinus  the 
Younger,  chosen  emperor  by  the  army.  He  was  assas- 
sinated about  268  A.D.,  after  a  reign  of  a  few  months. 

Marivaux,  de,  deh  mt're'vo',  (Pierre  Carlet  db 
Chamblain,)  a  French  novelist  and  dramatic  writer 
born  in  Paris  in  1688.  His  principal  works  are  his  ro 
mances  entitled  "Marianne"  and  "Le  Paysan  parvenu," 
which  enjoyed  great  popularity  at  the  time,  and  were 
among  the  first  novels  which  delineated  real  life  and 
manners.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  comedies.  The 
affected  style  and  false  sentiment  of  these  productions 
have  given  rise  to  the  term  marivaudage.  "Never," 
says  La  Harpe,  "  did  any  one  turn  common  thoughts  in 
so  many  ways,  each  more  affected  than  the  last ;"  and 
Voltaire,  admitting  that  Marivaux  knew  "the  paths  to 
the  heart,"  maintains  that  "  he  was  ignorant  of  the  high- 
road." He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1743, 
having  Voltaire  for  a  competitor.     Died  in  1763. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  avec  D'Alembert ;"  Grimm, 
"  Correspondance  litteraire;"  La  Harpe,  "Lyc^e;"  Villemain, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Frangaise  au  dix-huitifeme  Siicle ;" 
Sainte-Beuvb,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Marivetz,  de,  deh  mt're'vi',  (Etienne  Clement,) 
Baron,  a  French  savant,  born  at  Langres  in  1728,  pub- 
lished several  treatises  on  physics,  etc.  He  was  executed, 
by  order  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  in  1793. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARJOLIN 


1660 


MARLBOROUGH 


Marjolin,  mti  zho'l^N',  (Jkan  Nicolas,)  a  French 
writer  and  surgeon,  born  in  1780;  died  in  1850. 

Mark,  (Gr."Map«of;  Lat.  Mar'cus;  It.  Mar'co;  Fr. 
Marc,  mtRk,]  Saint,  the  Evangelist.  He  was  a 
companion  of  Saint  Peter  in  his  travels,  (see  I.  Peter  v. 
13,)  and  is  supposed  to  have  planted  the  Church  at  Alex- 
andria. The  early  Christian  writers  believed  that  he  was 
the  interpreter  of  Saint  Peter,  and  that  he  wrote  his 
Gospel  in  Greek,  under  the  direction  and  with  the  appro- 
bation of  that  apostle.  Saint  Augustine  thought  it  was 
an  abridgment  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  According  to 
tradition^  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  Egypt  in  68  A.D. 
By  many  critics  he  is  identified  with  John  surnamed 
Mark,  who  was  a  companion  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  in 
their  mission  to  the  Gentiles  about  45  A.D.,  (Acts  xii. 
12,  25,  xiii.  13,  XV.  37,)  and  who  was  in  Rome  with 
Paul  in  63  A.D. 

Mark'ham,  (Clement  RoiiErts,)  an  English  geog- 
.apher  and  "author,  born  at  Sliilingfleet,  Yorkshire,  July 
20,  1830.  He  was  a  naval  officer  from  1844  to  1851, 
entered  the  civil  service  in  1855,  and  afterwards  was 
employed  in  the  India  Office.  He  visited  the  Arctic 
regions  in  1850-51,  travelled  extensively  in  Peru,  (1852,) 
and  introduced  successfully  the  culture  of  cinchona-trees 
into  India,  (1860-61,)  carrying  the  plants  from  South 
America.  He  was  attached  to  the  British  army  in  Abys- 
sinia, 1867-68.  He  has  written  several  works  relating 
to  South  America  and  India,  besides  works  of  travel, 
etc.,  and  a  "Quichua  Grammar  and  Dictionary,"  (1863,) 
"Life  of  Lord  Fairfax,"  (1870,)  "Memoir  of  the  Countess 
of  Chinchon,"  (1875,)  "Peruvian  Bark,"  (1880,)  etc. 

Markham,  mark'am,  (Gervase,)  an  English  soldier 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Nottinghamshire 
about  1570,  served  in  the  royalist  army  in  the  civil  war. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "  Herod  and 
Antipater,"  "The  Poem  of  Poems,  or  Sion's  Muse," etc., 
and  other  works.     Died  about  1655. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry;"  Langbaine,  "Dra- 
matic Poets;"  Drake,  "  Shakespeare  and  his  Times." 

Mark'land,  (Jeremiah,)  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1693.  He  published 
editions  of  the  "  Sylvas"  of  Statins  (1728)  and  the 
"Supplices"  of  Euripides,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
Dieces  of  acute  criticism.  He  also  assisted  Dr.  Taylor 
(n  preparing  his  editions  of  Demosthenes  and  Lysias, 
and  published  "  Remarks  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to 
Brutus,"  etc.,  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  them  spu- 
rious.    Died  in  1776. 

See  Nichols  and  Bowyer,  "Literary'  Anecdotes." 

Markof,  maR'kof,  Markov,  or  Markow,  (Arcadi 
IvANOViTCH,)  Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist.  On  the 
accession  of  Alexander  I,  he  was  appointed  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  France,  (1800.) 

Marlborough,  mil'biir-iih,  (popularly  called  in 
French  Malbrouk,  mSl'brook';  Sp.  Mambru,  mim- 
broo',)  Duke  of,  originally  John  Churchill,  an  English 
general,  whose  military  genius  and  triumphs  have  been 
equalled  by  those  of  few  men  of  modern  times,  was  born 
at  Ashe,  in  Devonshire,  June  24,  1650.  He  was  the  son 
ot  Sir  Winston  Churchill  and  of  Elizabeth  Drake.  His 
education  was  rather  defective.  He  received  from  nature 
an  eminently  handsome  person,  a  bland  temper,  and  all 
the  qualities  essential  to  a  successful  general  and  cour- 
tier. In  1672,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  he  served  in  the 
army  which  fought  in  alliance  with  France  against  the 
Dutch.  His  bravery  in  this  and  the  ensuing  campaigns 
attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  Turenne  and  Louis 
XIV.  At  the  peace  of  1678  he  returned  to  England, 
and  married  Sarah  Jennings,  whose  talents  and  impe- 
rious temper  enabled  her  to  exert  an  important  influence 
over  his  political  conduct. 

He  was  the  favourite  attendant  and  confidential  agent 
of  the  Duke  of  York  before  his  accession  as  James 
XL,  in  1685  ;  and  soon  after  that  event  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Churchill  of  Sandridge.  Having 
contributed  to  the  defeat  of  Monmouth  at  Sedge- 
moor,  he  was  made  a  major-general.  His  wife  was  the 
favourite  of  the  king's  daughter.  Princess  Anne,  over 
whom  she  had  a  complete  ascendency.  In  the  combi- 
nations and  intrigues  which  preceded  the  revolution  of 


1688,  Lord  Churchill  acted  with  deep  duplicity.  After 
secretly  committing  himself  to  the  cause  of  William 
of  Orange,  he  professed  his  devotion  to  James  in  Novem- 
ber, 1688,  and,  a  few  days  later,  deserted  to  the  stronger 
party.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Marlborough  on  the 
accession  of  William  III.,  (1689,)  and  made  a  lord  of 
the  bedchamber. 

He  commanded  the  English  forces  employed  against 
the  French  in  the  Low  Countries  in  1689,  and  led  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  against  Cork  and  Kinsale  in  Septem- 
ber, 1690.  While  he  was  thus  trusted  by  William  and 
hated  as  an  arch-traitor  by  the  Jacobites,  he  opened  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  dethroned  king, 
who  was  at  Saint  Germain's.  According  to  Macaulay, 
he  undertook  to  corrupt  the  army,  with  which  his  bril- 
liant successes  and  winning  manners  rendered  him  a 
favourite  in  spite  of  his  sordid  avarice.  The  country 
being  apprised  of  this  plot,  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices 
in  January,  1692,  and  committed  to  the  Tower  a  few 
months  later.  Though  he  was  quickly  admitted  to  bail, 
he  passed  the  next  four  years  in  disgrace.  About  the 
end  of  1696  he  was  restored  to  his  military  rank  and 
command,  and  admitted  to  the  privy  council.  (Respecting 
Macaulay's  charges  against  Marlborough,  see  J.  Paget's 
"New  Examen,"  1861,  and  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1868.) 

In  1701,  William  took  Marlborough  to  Holland,  gave 
him  command  of  his  army,  and  invested  him  with  ample 
powers  to  negotiate  with  the  allies  in  relation  to  the  im- 
pending war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  He  displayed 
here  the  sagacity  and  address  of  a  consummate  diplo- 
matist. The  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  in  March,  1702, 
opened  to  him  a  brilliant  career  of  glory  abroad  and 
power  at  home.  He  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
allied  army,  and  at  the  end  of  the  campaign  in  Flanders, 
December,  1702,  was  created  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
About  this  time  he  and  Prince  Eugene  began  to  act  in 
concert,  and  formed  a  cordial  friendship,  which  greatly 
promoted  the  success  of  the  allies.  Among  their  most 
celebrated  achievements  was  the  decisive  victory  at  Blen- 
heim over  the  French  marshal  Tallard,  August  13,  1704. 
Marlborough  gained  a  great  victory  at  Ramillies  in  1706, 
and  shared  with  Eugene  the  triurniph  at  Oudenarde  in 
1708.  The  allies  also  claimed  the  victory  over  Mar- 
shal Villars  at  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  although  their  loss 
amounted,  it  is  said,  to  25,000  men. 

During  these  foreign  transactions,  Godolphin,  the 
duke's  personal  and  political  friend,  had  been  the  head 
of  the  English  Tory  ministry.  The  Tories,  who  had  the 
warm  sympathy  of  the  queen,  wished  to  discontinue  the 
war,  and  fomented  intrigues  against  Marlborough.  His 
duchess,  a  zealous  Whig,  with  much  importunity  pre- 
vailed on  him  to  coalesce  with  the  Whigs,  who  insisted 
on  prolonging  the  war.  The  fondness  of  the  queen  for 
the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  was  at  length  turned  into 
violent  aversion.  The  Tories  obtained  a  complete  as- 
cendency in  1 7 10,  and  Marlborough  was  dismissed  with 
disgrace  from  all  his  employments  at  the  end  of  171 1. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  (1714)  he  was  restored  to 
favour,  and  again  became  captain-general  and  master  of 
the  ordnance.  He  died  in  1722,  leaving  his  titles  and 
estate  to  the  male  heirs  of  his  daughter,  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Charles  Spencer,  Earl  of  Sunderland.  (See 
Spencer.) 

See  CoxE,  "Memoirs  of  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  3  voli., 
181S;  Sir  A.Alison,  "Life  of  Marlborough,"  1S47 ;  Macaulay, 
"History  of  England;"  Thomas  Ledyard,  "History  of  John, 
Duke  of  Marlborough,"  3  vols.,  1736;  John  Campbell,  "Military 
History  of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  2  vols., 
1736;  Charles  Bi;cke,  "Life  of  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough," 
1839;  J.  F.  HuGUEs  DuTEMs,  "  Histoire  de  J.  Churchill,"  etc., 
3  vols.,  :8o6-oS,  written  by  the  order  of  Napoleon  I. ;  George 
Murray,  "History  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough;"  Abraham  db 
Vrver,  "  Historie  van  J.  Churchill,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1738-40;  "  History 
of  Prince  Eugene  and  Marlborough,"  by  Dumont  and  Rousset, 
translated  frorti  the  French,  1736. 

Marlborough,  (Sarah  Jennings,)  Duchess  of,  the 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1660,  was  celebrated  for 
her  beauty,  ambition,  and  political  influence.  She  was 
brought  up  from  childhood  with  the  princess  Anne,  who 
regarded  her  with  romantic  fondness,  combined  with  the 
deference  which  the  weak  feel  for  superior  minds.  Im- 
patient of  the  restraints  of  etiquette,  Anne,  in  conversa- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARLIANI 


1661 


MARMONTEL 


tion  and  correspondence  with  her  favourite,  assumed  the 
name  of  Mrs.  Morley,  and  addressed  her  friend  as  Mrs. 
Freeman.  In  1678  Miss  Jennings  was  married  to  Colo- 
nel Churchill,  in  whom  she  found  an  uxorious  husband. 
"  History,"  says  Macaulay,  "  exhibits  to  us  few  specta- 
cles more  remarkable  than  that  of  a  great  and  wise  man 
who  could  carry  into  effect  vast  and  profound  schemes 
of  policy  only  by  inducing  one  foolish  woman,  who  was 
often  unmanageable,  to  manage  another  woman  who  was 
more  foolish  still.  .  .  .  To  the  last  hour  of  her  hus- 
band's life,  she  enjoyed  the  pleasure  and  distinction  of 
being  the  one  human  being  who  was  able  to  mislead 
that  far-sighted  and  sure-footed  judgment,  who  was  fer- 
vently loved  by  that  cold  heart  and  servilely  feared 
by  that  intrepid  spirit."  Having  been  supplanted  in 
the  royal  favour  by  Mrs.  Masham,  she  was  dismissed  from 
court  in  1 710,  and  became  an  inveterate  misanthrope. 
Died  in  1744. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  EngTishwomen,"  by  Louisa  S.  Cos- 
TELLO,  London,  1S44. 

Marliani,  maR-le-S'nee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Milan.  He  wrote  "Topography  of 
Rome,"  ("  Urbis  Romae  Topographia,")  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1560. 

Marlorat,  mtR'lo'rt',  (Augustin,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1506.  He  be- 
came minister  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Rouen  in  1560, 
and  acquired  a  great  influence  by  his  talents.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  other  works.  He  was 
put  to  death  at  Rouen  in  1563. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Marlowe,  mar'lo,  (Christopher,)  an  English  drama- 
tist, born  at  Canterbury  in  1564.  He  studied  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree 
in  1587.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  dramatic 
writing,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  became  an 
actor.  He  was  addicted  to  low  vices,  and  was  killed  in  a 
quarrel  with  a  footman  in  1593.  The  principal  dramas 
known  to  be  his  are  "  The  Jew  of  Malta,"  "  Edward 
the  Second,"  and  "  The  Tragical  History,  etc.  of  Dr. 
Faustus:"  the  last-named  was  the  original  of  Goethe's 
celebrated  "  Faust."  Marlowe  is  characterized  by  the 
French  critic  Villemain  as  a  genius,  whose  rude  dramas, 
disorderly  as  his  life,  contain  splendid  beauties  and  a 
gloomy  audacity,  the  influence  of  which  has  not  been 
lost  upon  Shakspeare.  His  "  Faust"  is  less  elegant  and 
less  ironical  than  that  of  Goethe,  but  every  thing  that 
the  pathos  of  such  a  subject  can  effect — the  fever  of 
doubt  in  a  superstitious  imagination,  the  boldness  of 
impiety  in  a  despairing  heart — stamps  this  work  with 
the  impress  of  extraordinary  power.  His  "  Edward  II." 
was  greatly  admired  by  Charles  Lamb,  who  says  that 
one  of  its  scenes  moves  pity  and  terror  beyond  any 
scene,  ancient  or  modern. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry ;"  Campbell,  "  Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets;"  Villkmain,  "Melanges  litt^raires ;" 
Drake,  "Shakspeare  and  his  Times;"  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  iv.,  (1821.) 

Marmier,  mtR'me-i',  (Xavier,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  traveller,  was  born  at  Pontarlier  in  1809.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "  Studies  on  Goethe,"  "  Poetic 
Sketches,"  and  "  History  of  Literature  in  Denmark  and 
Sweden,"  (1839,)  and  made  numerous  translations  from 
the  English  and  German. 

Mar'mi-on,  (Shakerly,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  in  1602.  His  principal  works  are 
the  comedies  of  "  Holland's  Leaguer,"  "  A  Fine  Com- 
panion," and  "The  Antiquary."    Died  in  i6m 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica ;'  Wood,  Athena  Oxo- 
nisnses." 

Marmitta,  maR-m^t'td,  (LuDovico,)  an  Italian  gem- 
engraver,  born  at  Parma.  Among  his  master-pieces  is 
a  cameo  representing  a  head  of  Socrates.  He  lived 
about  1500. 

Marmol,  de,  di  maR-mol',  (Luis  Caravajal,)  a 
Spanish  writer,  born  at  Granada  about  1520,  accom- 
panied the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  his  African  campaigns. 
He  wrote  a  "General  Description  of  Africa,"  (1599,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Rebellion,  etc.  of  the  Moors  of 
Granada,"  (1600.) 

See  TicKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  Prrscott, 
"  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 


Marmont,  de,  deh  mtR'm6N',  (AucasTE  Fr6d6r[c 
Louis  Viesse,)  Duke  of  Ragusa,  a  celebrated  French 
marshal,  born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1774,  received 
his  military  education  at  the  artillery  school  of  Chalons. 
He  accompanied  Bonaparte  as  aide-de-camp  in  the  Ital- 
ian campaign  of  1794,  and,  as  general  of  brigade,  took 
part  in  the  invasion  of  Egypt  in  1798.  He  fought  with 
distinguished  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Marengo,  (1800,) 
obtained  command  of  a  division,  and  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  artillery  about  1802.  Having  as- 
sisted at  the  capture  of  Ulni,  in  1805,  Marmont  became 
in  1806  general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Dalmatia,  and 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  a  superior  force  of  Russians 
and  Montenegrins  at  Castelnuovo.  In  1807  he  carried 
out  a  system  of  public  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  a  line  of  road-way  two  hundred  and  ten  miles 
in  length  ;  and  for  this  service  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Ragusa.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Wagram  (1S09)  he 
was  made  a  marshal  of  France,  and  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  the  Illyrian  provinces.  As  commander  of 
the  second  corps,  in  1813  he  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Bautzen,  Dresden,  and  Leipsic,  and  closed  the  cam- 
paign of  1814  by  his  engagement  near  Paris  with  the 
allied  army  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  (March  30.) 
Though  contending  against  a  greatly  superior  force, 
Marmont  and  Mortier  refused  to  capitulate  until  au- 
thorized to  do  so  by  Joseph  Bonaparte.  In  April,  1814, 
Marshal  Marmont,  after  stipulating  with  Prince  Schwar- 
zenberg  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  into 
Normandy,  entered  the  service  of  the  allies.  He  subse- 
quently filled  several  high  offices  under  the  Bouibons, 
Being  called  upon  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  July,  1830, 
he  brought  great  opprobrium  upon  himself  by  his  failure 
in  this  difficult  task  ;  his  name  was  struck  off"  the  army 
list,  and  he  was  exiled.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1852, 
leaving  "  Memoires  du  Due  de  Raguse,"  (8  vols.,  1856.) 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire;" 
Vaulabelle,  "  Histoire  des  deux  Restaurations;"  Bourrienne, 
"Memoires;"  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  Mau- 
DUIT,  "Demiers  Jours  de  la  grande  Armee ;"  L.  de  Lom^nie, 
"M.  le  Mar^chal  Marmont,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844: 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  vi. ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^n^rale;"  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1845  ;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1857. 

Marmontel,  mtR'miN'lSK,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  cele- 
brated French  critic  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in 
Limousin  in  1723,  His  family  was  poor,  and  he  was 
educated  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Mauriac,  but  he  did 
not  enter  their  order.  At  an  early  age  he  acquired  the 
friendship  and  patronage  of  Voltaire,  on  whose  recom- 
mendation he  visited  Paris  in  1746,  and  published  the 
same  year  a  translation  of  Pope's  "  Rape  of  the  Lock." 
He  brought  out  in  1748  his  "Dionysius  the  Tyrant," 
("Denys  le  Tyran,")  which  was  soon  followed  by  "  Aris- 
tomene"  and  "Cleopatre,"  three  tragedies,  which  had 
considerable  success  at  the  time.  His  "Moral  Tales" 
("Contes  moraux,"  1761)  were  received  with  extraor- 
dinary favour,  and  were  translated  into  the  principal 
languages  of  Europe,  including  Danish  and  Hungarian. 
They  are  written  with  great  elegance  and  animation; 
though  their  morality  is  often  questionable.  About  this 
time  Marmontel  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  in 
the  Bastille,  on  a  false  accusation  of  having  satirized  a 
person  of  rank.  He  published  in  1763  his  "Poetic^ue 
Fran9aise,"  and  in  1767  his  political  romance  of  "  Beli- 
saire,"  which  obtained  great  popularity  and  has  taken 
its  place  among  the  classics  of  the  language.  The 
empress  Catherine  II.  ordered  a  translation  of  it  into 
Russian,  and  versions  of  it  appeared  in  nearly  all  the 
European  languages.  Some  pa.-5Sages  in  the  book,  how- 
ever, which  favoured  toleration,  were  denounced  by  the 
Sorbonne,  and  the  work  was  condemned  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  as  containing  impious  and  heretical 
propositions.  In  the  exciting  controversy  which  followed, 
Voltaire  took  an  active  part,  and  published  several  witty 
and  caustic  pamphlets  in  defence  of  his  protege.  Mar- 
montel was  soon  after  appointed  historiographer  of 
France.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  works 
we  may  name  "  Les  Incas,"  a  romance,  dedicated  to 
Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  the  comic  operas  of  "  Le  Hu- 
ron," "Sylvain,"  and  "Zemire  et  Azor,"and  the  tragedy 
of  "  Les  Heraclides,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  La 


€  as  k;  t  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MARMORA 


1662 


MAROT 


Harpe.  His  "Elements  de  Litterature"  (6  vols.,  I7»7) 
is  also  ranked  among  his  best  productions.  In  1783 
Marmontel  succeeded  D'Alembert  as  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  French  Academy.  Me  lived  in  retirement  in  the 
country  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Revolution,  and 
died  in  1799,  leaving  "  Memoires"  of  his  life.  He  had 
married  about  1778  the  niece  of  Abbe  Morellet. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  :"  Saint-Surin,  "Notice  sur 
Marmontel,"  1824:  La  Harpe,  "  Lycde ;"  Grimm,  "Correspon- 
dance littdraire;"  Vii-lenave,  "Notice  sur  les  Oiivrages  de  ^Iar- 
niontel,"  1820:  Sainte-Beuve,  "Canseries  du  Lnndi,"  tome  iv.  ; 
Morellet,  "  Eloge  de  Marmontel,"  1S05;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
G<5n^rale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1806;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  November  and  December,  1805. 

Marmora,  della,  del'ii  maR'mo-ra,  (Alberto  Fer- 
rero — fer-ra'ro,)  Counp,  a  Sardinian  general  and  savant, 
born  in  1789.  He  entered  the  French  army,  and  rose 
to  be  military  commander  in  the  island  of  Sardinia  in 
1849.  He  published  "Travels  in  Sardinia;  or,  Statis- 
tical, Physical,  and  Political  Description  of  that  Island." 

Marmora,  della,  (Alessandro  Ferreko,)  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1799,  fought  in  the  war  for 
Italian  independence  in  1848,  and  became  a  major-gene- 
ral.    He  died  in  the  Crimea  in  1855. 

Marmora,  della,  (Alfonso  Ferrero,)  an  Italian 
general  and  statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Turin  in  1804.  He  was  appointed  minister  of 
war  by  the  King  of  Sardinia  in  November,  1849,  resigned 
in  February,  1855,  and  the  same  year  took  command  of 
the  Sardinian  forces  in  the  Crimean  war,  after  which  he 
again  served  as  minister  of  war.  He  was  president  of 
the  Council  of  Ministers  from  July,  1859,  to  July,  i860. 
In  September,  1864,  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
and  president  of  the  Council  of  iVIinisters  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ricasoli  in  June,  1866, 
took  command  of  the  army,  and  was  defeated  by  the 
archduke  Albert  of  Austria,  at  Custozza,  in  July  of  the 
same  year.     Died  at  Florence,  January  8,  1878. 

Marmora,  della,  (Carlo  Ferrero,)  Marquis,  Prince 
of  Masserano,  eldest  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1788.  Having  been  made  lieutenant-general  and  sen- 
ator of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  he  accompanied  Charles 
Albert  as  first  aide-de-camp  in  the  campaigns  of  1848 
and  1849.     Died  in  1854. 

Marne,  de,  deh  m3.Rn,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish 
Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Douai  in  1699,  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  County  of  Namur,"  which  has  a  high 
reputation.     Died  in  1756. 

Marne,  de,  or  Demarne,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1744.  He  was  reduced  to  the  neces- 
sity of  working  at  the  porcelain-manufactory  of  Sevres, 
and  fell  into  a  mannerism  called  the  ntaiiilre  porcelaine. 
His  early  style  was  much  more  graceful.     Died  in  1829. 

Marner,  maR'ner,  (Konrad,)  a  German  minnesinger, 
flourished  about  1250-70. 

Mariiesia  or  Mariiezia.     See  Lezay-Maknesia. 

Marnix  de  Saint-Aldegonde,  van,  van  mtr'niks' 
deh  s^N'ttrdeh-g6Nd',  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
writer  and  Protestant  Reformer,  was  born  at  Brussels  in 
1538.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  where  he  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Calvin  and  adopted  his  faith.  In  1566 
he  drew  up  the  celebrated  formulary  of  the  Flemish 
nobles  against  the  Inquisition.  As  burgomaster  of  Ant- 
werp, he  defended  that  city  in  1584  against  Alexander, 
Duke  of  Parma  ;  but  he  was  forced  to  capitulate  in  1585. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Picture  of  the  Difference  be- 
tween the  Christian  Religion  and  Popery,"  and  "The 
Romish  Bee-Hive."  He  also  translated  the  Psalms  into 
Dutch  verse,  and  was  engaged  on  a  Flemish  version  of 
the  Scriptures  when  he  died,  in  1598.  "  He  was,"  says 
Motley,  "a  man  of  most  rare  and  versatile  genius. 
Scholar,  theologian,  diplomatist,  swordsman,  orator, 
poet,  pamphleteer,  he  had  genius  for  all  things,  and  was 
eminent  in  all." 

See  Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap, 
iii.  ;  Strada,  "  De  Bello  Belgico:"  Johannes  Prims,  "  Leven  van 
P.  van  Marnix,"  1782;  Dresselhuis,  "  F.  van  Marnix,  Heer  van 
Mont  Saint-Aldegonde,"  1832;  Willem  Broes,  "  F.  van  Marnix, 
Heer  van  Saint-Aldegonde,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1S3S-40. 

Marc,  the  cognomen  of  Publius  Virgilius  Maro. 
(See  Virgil.) 
Maro,  (John.)     See  Maron,  Saint. 


Marochetti,  mi-ro-ket'tee,  (Charles,)  Baron,  a 
celebrated  Sardinian  sculptor,  born  at  Turin  about  1805. 
After  executing  several  works  in  Paris,  among  which 
was  an  equestrian  statue  of  Emmanuel  Philibert,  Duke 
of  Savoy,  he  went  to  London  in  1848.  Under  the  patron- 
age of  the  court  and  the  nobility,  he  jiroduced  a  colossal 
equestrian  statue  of  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion,  (1851,)  a 
bust  of  Prince  Albert,  an  equestrian  statue  of  Queen 
Victoria  at  Glasgow,  (1S54,)  a  statue  of  Lord  Clyde, 
(1867,)  and  several  groups  of  statuary.  He  was  elected  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1866.     Died  in  December,  1867. 

Marochetti,  (Vincenzio,)  an  Italian  scholar,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Piedmont  about  1768. 
He  was  appointed  advocate  to  the  court  of  cassation  in 
Paris.     Died  in  1820. 

Maroli,  ma'ro-lee,  (Domenico,)  a  Sicilian  painter, 
born  at  Messina  in  1612.  He  was  killed  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  Naples,  (1676.) 

MaroUes,  de,  deh  mt'rol',  (Michel,)  a  French  littl- 
rateur,  born  in  Touraine  in  1600,  was  Abbe  de  Villeloin. 
He  made  translations  from  Juvenal,  Statins,  and  other 
classics,  which  were  much  esteemed  at  the  time.  He 
made  a  valuable  collection  of  prints,  which  were  added 
to  the  royal  cabinet.     Died  in  1681. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Mdmoires;"  M.  de  Marolles,  "Memoires," 
1656,  (and  in  3  vols.,  1755.) 

Ma'roii,  Saint,  written  also  Maroun,  an  anchorite 
of  the  fourth  century,  resided  in  Asia  Minor.  He  is 
supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  founder  of 
the  Maronites,  while  others  ascribe  the  origin  of  that 
sect  to  another  of  the  same  name,  living  in  the  seventh 
century. 

Maroncelli,  m3.-ron-chel'lee,  (Piero,)  an  Italian  pa- 
triot, musician,  and  poet,  born  at  Forli  in  1795.  He 
published  in  1819  a  hymn,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned 
a  short  time.  He  was  again  arrested  in  1820,  and  con- 
demned to  twenty  years'  imprisonment  in  the  fortress 
of  Spielberg,  where  his  intimate  friend  Silvio  Pellico 
was  confined  at  the  same  time.  They  were  at  first  sepa- 
rated, but  at  the  end  of  three  years  were  permitted  to 
enjoy  each  other's  society.  They  were  released  in  1830, 
Maroncelli  having  previously  suffered  the  amputation  of 
one  of  his  legs,  in  consequence  of  a  disease  contracted 
in  the  prison.     Died  in  New  York  in  1846. 

See  Silvio  Pellico,  "My  Prisons;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Marone,  mi-ro'ni,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  improvisa- 
tore,  born  in  the  Friuli  in  1474,  was  celebrated  for  his 
skill  in  improvising  Latin  verse  on  any  given  subject. 
Died  in  1527. 

Maroni,  da,  di  ml-ro'nee,  or  Maron,  mi-ron', 
(Theresa,)  a  sister  of  the  celebrated  Raphael  Mengs, 
was  distinguished  as  a  painter  of  miniatures.  Having 
accompanied  her  brother  to  Rome,  she  was  there  mar- 
ried to  the  Chevalier  da  Maroni,  an  artist.  Died 
in  1806. 

Maroof-  (or  Marouf-)  el-Karkhi,  ma-roof  h\  kaR'- 
Kee,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Soofees,  (Soufis,)  or 
Mussulman  mystics,  born  near  Bagdad  about  750 : 
died  about  815. 

See  Hammer-Purcstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber." 

Maroof-  (or  Marouf-)  Mohammed-ben-Abdel- 
Khalik,  mi-roof  mo-him'mSd  b^n  Jb'dSl  KS'lik,  an 
Arab  lexicographer  of  the  ninth  century.  His  principal 
work  is  an  Arabic  Lexicon,  in  which  words  are  explained 
in  Persian. 

Marot,  mS'ro',  (Cl6ment,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Cahors  in  1495,  was  a  son  of  Jean,  noticed  below.  He 
was  patronized  at  the  court  of  Francis  I.,  and  became  a 
page  to  his  sister,  Margaret  of  Valois.  He  was  impris- 
oned in  1526  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  and  during  his  con- 
finement composed  his  "  Enfer,"  ("  Hell,")  an  allegorical 
satire,  and  prepared  a  new  edition  of  the  "Roman  du 
Rose."  After  his  release  he  visited  Geneva,  where  he 
professed  Calvinism  ;  but  he  was  subsequently  obliged 
to  leave  the  place,  on  account  of  some  misdemea- 
nour, and,  having  renounced  his  new  faith,  accompanied 
Francis  I.  in  his  Italian  campaign  of  1535.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  lyric  poems,  epigrams,  etc.,  which 
were  greatly  admired  for  their  grace  and  vivacity ;  and 
the  style  Marotique  has  been  imitated  by  La  Fontaine 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MAROT 


iot)3 


MARS 


and  other  French  writers.     His  version  of  the  Psalms 
was  very  popular  at  the  time.     Died  in  1544. 

See  AuGUis,  "Vie  de  Marot,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works, 
5  vols.,  1823:  Bayi-E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Jan 
Suet,  "Leven  en  Bedrijf  van  C.  Marot,"  1655;  Sainte-Heuve, 
"  Tableau  de  la  Po&ie  Frangaise  an  seiziinie  Siicle :"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  Nic^ron,  "M^moires;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Marot,  (DANrF.L,)  son  of  the  architect  Jean  Marot 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1660.  He  be- 
came architect  to  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  England  in  1688. 

Marot,  (Fran(^ois,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Paris 
in  1667  ;  died  in  1719. 

Marot,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  near  Caen  in 
1463,  was  i^atronized  by  Anne  of  Brittany,  queen  of 
Charles  VHI.  He  subsequently  accompanied  Louis 
Xn.  in  his  expedition  to  Venice  and  Genoa,  of  which  he 
wrote  an  account.     Died  in  1523. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "La  PotSsie  Fran?aise  au  seizifeme  Slide." 

Marot,  (Jean,)  a  French  architect  and  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1630.  He  furnished  the  design  for  the 
principal  fa9ade  of  the  Louvre.  Although  a  Protestant, 
he  was  appointed  royal  architect.     Died  in  1679. 

Maroto,  mS-ro'to,  (Don  Rafael,)  a  Spanish  Carlist 
general,  born  at  Conca  in  1785.  On  the  death  of  Zu- 
mala-Carreguy,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
in  Biscay,  and  soon  after  defeated  Espartero  at  Arrigoria. 
In  1839  he  concluded  with  the  queen's  party  the  treaty 
of  Bergara.     Died  in  1847. 

Maroun.     See  Maron. 

Maroutha.     See  Marutha. 

Marozia,  mJ-rot'se-i,  or  Mariuccia,  mi-re-oot'chS, 
a  Roman  lady,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  profligacy, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  famous  Theodora.  She  was 
successively  married  to  Duke  Alberic  of  Tuscany,  Guido, 
Marquis  of  Tuscany,  and  Hugo,  King  of  Italy  and  Aries. 
In  928  she  caused  Pope  John  X.  to  be  murdered,  and 
afterwards  raised  three  others  to  the  tiara,  among  whom 
was  her  son  by  Pope  Sergius  III.  Her  son  Alberic  hav- 
ing revolted  against  her,  she  was  imprisoned  for  the 
-emainder  of  her  life. 

Mar-pes'sa,  [Gr.  Mupnriaaa ;  Fr.  Marpesse,  mtR'- 
{.^ss',]  a  daughter  of  Evenus,  beloved  by  Apollo. 

See  Homer's  "Iliad,"  book  ix. 

Marpurg,  maK'pooRG,  (Frtedrich  Wilhelm,)  an 
eminent  writer  on  music,  born  at  Seehausen,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  1718.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Treat- 
ises on  Fugue,"  "  Critical  Introduction  to  the  History 
of  Music,"  (1754,)  and  "  Rudiments  of  Theoretic  Music," 
(1760.)     Died  in  1795. 

See  P'Atis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Marquard.     See  Freher,  (MARouARn.) 

Marqiiet,  m^R'k.V,  (Francois  Nicolas,)  a  French 
botanist,  and  physician  to  Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
was  born  at  Nancy  in  1687.  He  wrote  several  medicai 
and  botanical  works.     Died  in  1759. 

Marquette,  mtR'kSt',  (Jacques,)  a  celebrated  French 
missionary  and  discoverer,  was  born  in  Picardy.  He 
travelled  and  laboured  several  years  in  Canada  and  other 
regions.  The  first  Europeans  who  are  certainly  known 
to  have  discovered  and  explored  the  Mississippi  River 
were  Father  Marquette  and  M.  Joliet,  who  in  1673  con- 
ducted a  small  exploring  party  from  Quebec.  Entering 
the  great  river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin,  they  de- 
scended in  canoes  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas, 
or  to  latitude  34°,  which  they  reached  in  July,  1673.  They 
were  deterred  from  pursuing  the  voyage  by  reports  that 
the  river  below  was  infested  by  armed  savages,  and  they 
returned  in  canoes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  which 
they  ascended.  Marquette  wrote  a  narrative  of  this 
expedition,  which  was  published  in  Paris  in  1681.  "  He 
writes,"  says  Professor  Sparks,  "  as  a  scholar  and  as  a 
man  of  careful  observation  and  practical  sense.  In  every 
point  of  view,  this  tract  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
among  those  that  illustrate  the  early  history  of  America." 
Having  resumed  his  missionary  labours  among  the 
Miamis  on  Lake  Michigan,  he  died  there  in  1675. 

See  Charlevoix,  "  Hi.stoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France  ;"  MoR^Ri, 
"Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  Sparks,  "American  Biography,"  vol. 
X.,  ist  series. 

Marquis,  mtR'ke',  (Alexandre  Louis,)  a  French 


botanist,  born  at  Dreux  in  1777.  He  published  "  Frag- 
ments of  Botanic  Philosophy,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1828. 

Marracci,  mar-rSt'chee,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  priest, 
eminent  as  an  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  at  Lucca  in 
1612.  He  became  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  della 
Sapienza,  Rome.  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent 
edition  of  the  Koran  in  Arabic,  with  a  Latin  version, 
(1698.)  "This,"  says  Hallam,  "is  still  esteemed  the 
best."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
Died  in  1700. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Mdmoires." 

Marrast,  mt'ris',  (Armand,)  a  French  republican 
journnlist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Haute-Garonne 
in  1801.  Soon  after  the  revolution  of  1830  he  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Tribune,"  the  organ  of  the  ultra- 
Liberal  party.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1834  on  a  cliarge 
of  being  implicated  in  the  "  Conspiracy  of  April,"  but 
he  soon  effected  his  escape,  and  repaired  to  England, 
where  he  married  Lady  Fitz-Clarence.  On  his  return 
to  France  he  succeeded  Armand  Carrel  (1836)  as  prin- 
cipal editor  of  "  Le  National,"  -a  popular  daily  journal, 
which  he  conducted  with  great  ability  for  nearly  twelve 
years.  After  the  abdication  of  Louis  Philippe,  (1848,) 
Marrast  became  successively  secretary  of  the  provisional 
government,  mayor  of  Paris,  and  president  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly.  He  made  valuable  contributions  to 
the  "  Paris  Revolutionnaire"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1852. 

See  Regnault,  "Armand  Marrast,"  in  "  Le  Slide,"  1839; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Marre,  van,  vin  maR,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1696.  His  principal  works  are  tragedies 
entitled  "Jacqueline  of  Bavaria"  and  "  Marcus  Curtius." 
Died  in  1763. 

Marrier,  mt're-i',  (Martin,)  a  learned  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1572.  He  published 
"Bibliotheca  Cluniacensis,"  (1614.)     Died  in  1644, 

Marron,  mt'r6N',  (Marie  Anne  Carrelet,)  Ba. 
ronne  de  Meillonaz,  a  French  artist  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1725.  She  was  a  friend  and  corre- 
spondent of  Voltaire.     Died  in  1778. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance." 

Marron,  mt'rAN',  (Paul  Henri,)  a  Protestant  divine, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Leyden  in  1754.  He  be- 
came pastor  of  a  church  in  Paris  in  1788,  and  favoured 
the  Revolution.  He  contributed  numerous  valuable 
articles  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  and  published 
other  works,  on  various  subjects.  He  died  in  1832, 
leaving  a  large  collection  of  engraved  portraits,  which 
were  purchased  by  Louis  Philippe. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante  " 

Marryatt,  (Florence.)     See  Ross-Church. 

Mar'ry-at,  (Frederick,)  a  popular  English  novelist 
and  naval  officer,  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  entered 
the  service  as  midshipman  under  Lord  Cochrane  in 
1806,  and  distinguished  himself  during  the  three  follow- 
ing years  in  numerous  engagements  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  off  the  French  coasts.  He  was  made  a  captain 
in  181 5,  and  in  1821  commandrd  the  Rosario,  which 
brought  to  the  English  government  the  news  of  the 
death  of  Napoleon.  He  assisted  in  the  attack  on  Ran- 
goon in  1823,  and  in  the  expedition  against  the  Malays 
in  1824.  He  published,  besides  other  novels,  "  Peter 
Simple,"  (1834,)  "Jacob  Faithful,"  (1834,)  "  Japhet  in 
Search  of  his  Father,"  (1836,)  "Mr.  Midshipman  Easy," 
(1836,)  and  "  Masterman  Ready,"  (1841.)  Among  his 
works  is  "  Valerie,"  an  Autobiography,  and  a  "  Diary 
in  America,"  (6  vols.,  1839.)     Died  in  1848. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839. 

Mars,  [Gr.  'Ap7/f,  (Ares;)  It.  Marte,  maR^ti,]  the 
name  of  the  Roman  god  of  war,  was  a  contraction  of 
Mayors.  He  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Ju])iter  and 
Juno,  and  was  identified  with  the  Ares  of  Greek  my- 
thology. According  to  Ovid,  he  was  a  son  of  Juno,  but 
had  no  father.  He  was  worshipped  with  extraordinary 
honours  by  the  Romans,  of  whom  he  was  one  of  the 
tutelary  deities.  Homer  and  other  poets  relate  thai 
Mars  fought  for  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy  and 
was  wounded  by  Diomede.     He  was  called  Gradivus, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,gtittural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


MARS 


1664 


MARSHALL 


Quirinus,  Mavors,  Salisubulus,  Mamers,  Enyalus,  and 
Camulus.  The  amours  of  Mars  and  Venus  are  very 
celebrated.  Me  was  said  to  be  the  father  of  Romulus, 
Remus,  Cupid,  Harmonia,  and  Meleager.  Ares  was  one 
of  the  twelve  great  Olympian  gods  of  the  Greeks,  and 
was  especially  worshipped  in  Thrace.  According  to 
tradition,  he  fled  to  Egypt  during  the  contest  between 
Typhon  and  the  gods,  and  changed  himself  into  a  fish. 
Having  killed  a  son  of  Neptune,  he  was  prosecuted 
before  the  Areopagus  (Mars  Hill)  at  Athens,  and  was 
acquitted.  Mars  was  believed  to  love  war  for  its  own 
sake,  and  to  delight  in  carnage.  He  is  usually  repre- 
sented as  a  grim  soldier  in  full  armour, — sometimes  as 
driving  furiously  in  a  war-chariot. 

Mars,  marz  or  mtus,  (Anne  FRANgoiSE  Hippolyte 
Boutet  Monvel— boo'ti'  m6N'vel',)  Mademoiselle, 
a  celebrated  French  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1779.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Monvel,  a  popular  actor  at  the 
Theatre  Fran9ais,  and  an  actress  named  Mars,  and 
was  earlv  trained  for  the  stage.  She  excelled  in  genteel 
comedy.'in  which  she  was  considered  unrivalled  among 
the  actors  of  her  time.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1S41.     Died  in  1847. 

See  A.  LiKEi'X.  "Mademoiselle  Mars;  Notice  biographique," 
1847;  L.  Fusn.,  "Notice  sur  Mademoiselle  Mars,"  1847;  R.  de 
Beauvoir,  "  Meinoires  de  Mademoiselle  Mars,"  2  vols.,  1849; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marsais,  du.     See  Dumarsais. 

Marsand,  maR-sind',  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  littera- 
teur, born  at  Venice  in  1765.  He  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  Petrarch's  poems,  with  a  memoir,  and  several 
original  works  on  various  subjects.     Died  in  1842. 

Marschall  von  Bieberstein,  maR'shil  fon  bee'ber- 
stin',  (Friedrich,)  Freiherr,  a  German  botanist,  born 
in  1766,  removed  to  Russia,  where  he  became  a  council- 
lor of  state.  He  published  "Flora  Taurico-Caucasica," 
(1808-19.)     Died  in  1826. 

Marscliner,  maRsh'ner,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  com- 
poser and  musician,  born  at  Zittau  in  1795,  was  appointed 
chapel-master  at  Hanover.  Among  his  most  popular 
works  are  the  operas  of  "  The  Vampyre,"  "  The  Templar 
and  the  Jewess,"  and  "  Hans  Heiling."     Died  in  1861. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Mars'den,  (William,)  an  eminent  Orientalist,  of 
English  extraction,  born  at  Dublin  in  1754.  Having  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  he  sailed 
in  1771  to  Bencoolen,  Sumatra,  where  he  was  appointed 
principal  secretary  to  the  government  and  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  Malay  language.  He  returned 
in  1779  to  England,  and  was  soon  after  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  in  1782  his  "His- 
tory of  Sumatra,"  which  was  very  favourably  received 
and  was  translated  into  French  and  German.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  chief  secretary  to  the  board  of 
admiralty,  with  the  war  salary  of  ;C4000  per  annum. 
Having  resigned  this  post  in  1807,  he  brought  out  in 
1812  his  "Grammar"  and  "Dictionary"  of  the  Malay 
language,  which  are  esteemed  standard  works.  He  also 
made  an  excellent  translation  of  the  "Travels  of  Marco 
Polo,"  with  a  commentary,  and  wrote  a  description  of 
Eastern  coins,  entitled  "  Numismata  Orientalia  Illus- 
trata,"  (1823.)  He  gave  up  his  pension  to  the  gov- 
ernment in  1831,  and  soon  after  presented  his  valuable 
collection  of  coins  and  medals  to  the  British  Museum, 
and  his  library  to  King's  College.     Died  in  1836. 

Marsh,  (Anna  Caldwell,)  Mrs.,  an  English  au- 
thoress, born  in  Staffordshire  about  179S.  Among  her 
most  popular  works  are  "Tales  of  the  Woods  and 
Fields,"  (I S36,)  "Ravenscliffe,"  "Mount  Sorel,"  (1S43,) 
and  "Emilia  Wyndham,"  (1846.)    Died  October  5,  1874. 

Marsh,  (Catherine,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Col- 
chester about  1815.  Among*  her  works  are  "  Memorials 
of  Captain  Hedley  Vicars,"  "English  Hearts  and  Eng- 
lish Hands,"  and  "Light  for  the  Line,  or  the  Story  of 
Thomas  Ward,"  which  have  gained  extensive  popularitv. 

Marsh,  (Dexter,)  an  American  geologist,  born  in 
1806,  made  a  large  and  choice  collection  of  specimens 
of  fossil  footprints,  obtained  chiefly  in  the  Connecticut 
valley.     Died  in  1853. 

Marsh,  (George  Perkins,)  LL.D.,  an  American  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  March  15,  1801. 


He  was  appointed  minister  to  Turkey  in  1849,  in  1852 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Greece,  and  in  1861  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Italy.  His  chief  published  works 
are  a  "Compendious  Grammar  of  the  Old  Northern  or 
Icelandic  Language,  compiled  and  translated  from  the 
Grammar  of  Rask,"  (1838,)  "Lectures  on  the  English 
Language,"  (1861,)  "The  Origin  and  History  of  the 
English  Language,''  (1862,)  "Man  and  Nature,"  (1864,) 
enlarged  and  re-written,  and  issued  in  1874  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action."  He 
died  July  24,  1882.  His  wife,  Caroline  C.  Marsh,  has 
published  a  number  of  poems  and  made  translation? 
&om  the  German. 

Marsh,  (Herbert,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  in  London  in  1757.  He  became  professor  of  di- 
vinity at  Cambridge  in  1807,  and  rose  to  be  Bishop  of 
Peterborough  in  1819.  He  published  several  religious 
and  controversial  treatises,  and  translated  Michaelis'a 
"  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament"  into  English. 
Died  in  1839. 

Marsh,  (James,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  1789, 
was  the  inventor  of  an  apparatus,  called  by  his  name, 
which  detects  the  presence  of  arsenic  in  liquids,  how- 
ever minute  the  quantity.  Its  utility  and  certainty  were 
verified  by  Orfila  and  other  toxicologists.     Died  in  18^6. 

Marsh,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Hartford,  Vermont,  in  1794. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  classics  at  Hampden- 
Sidney  College,  Virginia,  and  in  1826  president  of  the 
University  of  Vermont.  He  translated  from  the  German 
Herder's  "  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,"  and  contributed 
religious  and  philosophical  essays  to  the  "Christian 
Spectator"  and  other  journals.  Died  at  Colchester, 
Vermont,  July  3,  1842. 

Marsh,  (Narcissus,)  a  learned  prelate,  born  in  Wilt- 
shire in  1638,  became  successively  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
and  of  Armagh.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  an  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Theory  of  Sounds,"  which  was  inserted  in 
the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1713. 

Marsh,  (Othniel  Charles,)  an  eminent  American 
palaeontologist,  born  at  Lockport,  New  York,  October 
29,  1831.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  i860,  studied  (1862- 
65)  at  Berlin,  Breslau,  and  Heidelberg,  and  in  1866  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  palaeontology  in  Yale  College.  Pro- 
fessor March  is  distinguished  for  the  astonishing  number 
and  great  importance  of  his  discoveries  of  new  species 
of  extinct  vertebrate  animals,  very  largely  from  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region.  He  is  author  of  some  one 
hundred  and  fifty  valuable  scientific  papers,  and  of 
"  Odontomithes,"  (410,  1880.) 

Mar'shall,  (Charles  Kimb.\ll,)  an  American  Meth- 
odist divine,  born  at  Durham,  Maine,  in  1812,  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Natchez,  Mississippi. 

Mar'shall,  (Emma,  «/^Mart±a,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  near  Cromer  about  1832.  Of  her  very  numerous 
tales,  "Mrs.  Mainwaring's  Journal"  (1874)  and  "Life's 
Aftermath"  (1876)  are  among  the  best-known. 

Marshall,  (Humphrey,)  an  American  soldier  and 
law3'er,  born  in  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  January  13,  1812. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832,  but  left  the  army 
in  1S33,  and  became  a  prominent  lawyer  and  politician, 
being  twice  sent  to  Congress.  He  was  a  colonel  of  vol- 
unteer cavalry  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  a  major-general 
in  the  Confederate  service,  1861-65.  Died  at  Louisville, 
March  28,  1872.  He  was  a  grandson  of  Humphry  Mar- 
shall, noticed  below. 

Marshall,  (Humphry,)  an  American  botanist,  was 
a  resident  of  Pennsylvania.  He  published  in  17S5  his 
"  Arbustum  Americanum,"  or  catalogue  of  the  trees  and 
shrubs  of  America,  which  was  translated  into  Fre:>ch. 
He  was  born  in  1722,  and  died  in  i8or. 
I  See  W.  Darlington,  "Memorials  of  John  Bartram  and  H. 
Marshall,"  1849. 

I  Marshall,  (John,)  an  eminent  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Germantown,  Fauquier  county,  Vir- 
I  ginia,  on  the  24th  of  September,  1755.  He  was  the 
i  eldest  son  of  Colonel  Thomas  Marshall  and  Mary  Keith, 
I  who  had  fifteen  children.  He  never  attended  a  college. 
but  he  was  well  educated  under  the  care  of  his  father. 
He  enlisted  in  the  army  in  1776,  became  a  captain  in 


a, e, T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, i,  6,  li,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  o, obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


MARSHALL 


1665 


MARSOLLIER 


Miiy,  1777,  and  served  at  the  battles  of  Brandywine, 
September,  1777,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth,  June, 
1778.  Having  resigned  his  commission  in  1781,  he  be- 
gan to  practise  law,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Delegates  in  17S2.  In  1783  he  married  Mary 
Willis  Ambler,  of  York,  Virginia,  and  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Richmond.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention 
of  Virginia,  in  1788,  be  advocated  the  adoption  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  by  several  powerful  speeches.  He 
contributed  more  to  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution 
by  Virginia  than  any  man  except  James  Madison.  He 
became  identified  with  the  Federal  party,  and  cordially 
supported  the  administration  of  Wabhington.  His 
reputation  was  widely  extended  by  a  speech  in  the 
Assembly  of  Virginia  in  favour  of  the  treaty  negotiated 
by  John  Jay  with  (jreat  Britain  in  1794.  In  1797  he 
was  associated  witii  General  Pinckney  and  Mr.  Gerry  in 
a  special  mission  to  the  French  Directory.  His  incli- 
nation or  interest  induced  him  to  decline  several  high 
offices,  but,  at  the  special  request  of  General  Washing- 
ton, he  became  a  candidate  for  Congress,  and  was  elected, 
in  1799.  He  made  a  great  speech  in  Congress,  defend- 
ing President  Adams  for  his  surrender  of  Thomas  Nash, 
alias  Robbins,  who  was  claimed  by  the  British  govern- 
ment as  a  fugitive  from  justice.  This  speech  settled 
forever  the  question  whether  such  cases  should  be 
decided  by  the  executive  or  the  judiciary.  "That  argu- 
ment," says  R.  \V.  Griswold,  "deserves  to  be  ranked 
among  the  most  dignified  displays  of  human  intellect." 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Adams 
in  May,  1800,  and  displayed  great  diplomatic  ability  in 
liis  correspondence  with  Rufus  King,  minister  to  Eng- 
land. On  the  31st  of  January,  1801,  he  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
He  performed  the  functions  of  this  high  office  for  thirty- 
four  years,  and  rendered  important  services  by  the  just 
and  liberal  principles  according  to  which  he  construed 
the  Constitution.  His  profound  learning  and  wisdom, 
his  moral  courage,  and  his  high-toned  virtue  secured  for 
him  universal  respect  and  confidence.  His  services  as 
an  expounder  of  constitutional  law  are  commended  by 
Judge  Story  in  the  following  terms:  "If  all  others  of 
the  chief  justice's  judicial  arguments  had  perished,  his 
luminous  judgments  on  these  occasions  would  have 
given  an  enviable  immortality  to  his  name."  In  1804 
he  published  a  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  (5  vols.,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Judge  Marshall  was  distin- 
guished for  his  benevolence,  modesty,  urbanity,  and 
simplicity.  He  was  a  devout  believer  in  Christianity, 
and  was  happy  in  his  domestic  relations.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia  (whither  he  had  gone  for  medical  advice) 
in  July,  1835.  "To  one  who  cannot  follow  his  great 
judgments," says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "in  which  at  the  same 
time  the  depths  of  legal  wisdom  are  disclosed  and  the 
limits  of  human  reason  measured,  the  language  of  just 
eulogy  must  wear  an  appearance  of  extravagance.  In 
his  own  profession  he  stands  for  the  reverence  of  the 
wise  rather  than  for  the  enthusiasm  of  the  many." 

See  Gkiswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America:"  Judge  Joseph 
Story,  notice  of  Jolin  Marshall,  in  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery 
of  Distinguished  .'\inericans,"  vol.  i.  ;  Horace  Binnev,  "  Kulogy 
on  the  Lite  and  Character  of  John  Marsliall ;"  "North  American 
Review"  tor  Jannary,  1S28,  and  January,  1S36. 

Mar'shall  or  Mareschal,  (Thumas,)  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Leicestershire  about  1621.  He  became 
successively  rector  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  chaplain- 
in  ordinary  to  the  king,  and  Dean  of  Gloucester,  (i6Si.) 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Oriental 
tongues  and  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  published  "  Ob- 
servations on  Two  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Gospels, — 
the  Gothic  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,"  (in  Latin,  1665,)  also 
a  "  Life  of  Archbishop  Usher."     Died  in  1685. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Marshall,  (Thomas  Francis,)  an  American  lawyer, 
a  nephew  of  Chief-Justice  John  Marshall.  He  was  born 
at  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  June  7,  1801,  and  became  a 
highly  successful  lawyer  of  Louisville.  He  was  also  a 
judge  and  a  member  of  Congress.  As  a  political  orator 
and  wit  he  had  great  fame.  Died  at  Versailles,  Ken- 
tucky, September  22,  1864. 

Marshall,  (Thomas  William  M.,)  an  English  theo- 
logical writer,  born  in  1S15.     He  was  educated  at  Trinity 


College,  Cambridge,  and  took  orders  in  the  Anglican 
Church.  In  1845  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  iii 
his  "  Comedy  of  Convocation"  and  "  My  Clerical  Friends 
and  their  Relations  to  Modern  Thought"  (1873)  he 
showed  himself  a  vigorous  satirist  of  his  former  re- 
ligious associates.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Chris- 
tian Missions,  their  Agents,  their  Methods,  and  their  Re- 
sults," (1862,)  "Catholic  Missions  in  Southern  India," 
(1865,)  and  "Protestant  Journalism,"  (1874.)  Died  at 
Surbiton,  Surrey,  December  14,  1877. 

Marshall,  (William  Calder,)  a  Scottish  sculptor, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1813,  was  a  pupil  of  Chantrey. 
He  visited  Rome  about  1836,  and  settled  in  London  in 
1839.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Sabrina,"  "Una 
and  the  Lion,"  the  "Dancing-Girl  Reposing,"  (1846,) 
which  gained  a  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds,  and  a 
statue  of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 

Marshall,  (William  Humphrey,)  an  English  bota- 
nist and  agricultural  writer,  born  in  1745.  He  published 
a  number  of  works  which  contributed  greatly  to  the  im- 
])rovement  of  agriculture  in  England.  He  also  wrote 
"  The  American  Grove  ;  or,  Catalogue  of  the  Trees,  etc. 
of  the  United  States."    Died  in  1818. 

Marsh'am,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  chronologist,  born 
in  London  in  1602.  He  embraced  the  cause  of  the 
royalists  in  the  civil  war.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Chronologicus  Canon  /Egyptiacus,  Ebraicus," 
etc.,  (1672,)  in  which  he  attempts  to  reconcile  Egyptian 
chronology  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  by  supposing 
four  collateral  dynasties  of  EgyjJtian  kings  reigning  at 
the  same  time.  This  theory  has  been  adopted  by  several 
eminent  scholars.     Died  in  1685. 

See  Wood,  "Athena  Oxonienses;"  Shuckford,  "Sacred  ara 
Profane  History." 

Marsh'man,  (Joshua,)  an  eminent  English  divine 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1767.  Being  sent 
by  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  to  India  in  1799, 
he  became  a  proficient  in  the  Chinese,  Sanscrit,  and 
Bengalee  languages.  He  translated  the  four  Gospels 
into  Chinese,  and  assisted  Dr.  Carey  in  preparing  a 
Sanscrit  Grammar  and  a  Bengalee-and-English  Diction- 
ary. He  also  translated  the  works  of  Confucius,  and 
wrote  a  "  Defence  of  the  Deity  and  Atonement  of  Jesus 
Christ,  in  Reply  to  Rammohun  Roy,"  (1822.)  Died  iu 
1837- 

See  Cox,  "  History  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society." 

Marsigli,  maR-stl'yee,  (Luigi  Ferdinando,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  naturalist  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1658.  He  served  in  the  Austrian  army 
against  the  Turks  in  1683  and  in  several  succeeding 
campaigns,  and  was  made  a  colonel  in  1689.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Sciences  and  Aits 
at  Bologna,  (1712,)  to  which  he  gave  a  very  valuable 
scientific  collection.  He  afterwards  visited  England, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Newton  and  Halley 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Physical  History  of  the  Sea,"  (1725,)  a 
descri]Dtion  of  the  shores  of  the  Danube,  entitled  "  Danu- 
bius  Pannonico-Mysicus,"  etc.,  (1726,  7  vols,  fob,  finely 
illustrated,)  "The  Military  State  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire,'' (1732,)  and  other  works.  He  had  been  elected 
in  1725  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  QuiNCY,  "  M^moires  snr  la  Vie  dii  Conite  de  Marsigli,"  1741 ; 
FoNTENELLE,  "  Eloges  des  Academiciens  ;"  Fabroni,  "  Vita:  Ita- 
lorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  G.  Fantuzzi,  "Memoria  della  Vita 
del  Conte  Marsigli,"  1770;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marsilio  (maR-see'le-o)  [Lat.  Marsil'ius]  of  Padua, 
an  Italian  jurist,  sometimes  called  Menandrino,  born 
at  Padua.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  in  whose  favour  he  wrote  his  "  Defensor  Pacis," 
an  attack  on  the  papacy,  for  which  he  was  excommuni- 
cated in  1327.     Died  in  1328. 

Marsilius.     See  Marsilio. 

Marsilius  Ficinus.     See  FiciNO. 

Marsin.     See  March  in. 

Marso,  maR'so,  [Lat.  Pisci'nus,]  (Paolo,)  an  Italian 
savant,  said  to  have  been  born  at  Piscina.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  "  Fasti"  of  Ovid,  published  in  1485, 
and  several  Latin  poems. 

Marsollier,  mSK'so'le-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer. 


€  as  <6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  v.,guUtiral;  n,  imsoI;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  «;h  as  iu  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 

105 


MARSOLLIER 


1666 


MARTHA 


born  in   Paris  in  1647,  was  author  of  a  "History  of  the 
Inquisition  and  its  Origin,"  (1693,)  and  several   other 
works.     Died  in  1724. 
See  Nic^KoN,  "  Memoires." 

Marsollier  des  Vivetierea,  mSn'so'le-i'  di  v^v'- 
te-ain',  (BenoTt  Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1750,  produced  numerous  comic  operas,  which 
had  great  popularity.     Died  in  1817. 

Mars'ton,  (Juii.v,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  the 
author  of  tragedies  entitled  "Antonio  and  Mellida," 
"  Sophonisba,"  and  "  Antonio's  Revenge,"  and  several 
comedies  ;  he  was  also  associated  with  Ben  Jonson  and 
Chapman  in  writing  "Eastward,  Ho  !"  His  comedy  of 
"The  Malecontent"  is  esteemed  his  best  work  ;  but  he 
is  said  to  have  borrowed  a  great  part  of  it  from  Webster. 
Died  in  1634. 

Mar'stpn,  (Philip  Bourke,)  an  English  poet,  a  son 
of  Westlaiid  Marston,  was  born  in  London  in  1S50. 
He  early  lost  his  sight,  finally  becoming  totally  blind. 
In  youth  he  became  the  devoted  friend  of  Swinburne 
and  D.  G.  Rossetti,  and  later  was  intimate  with  Oliver 
Madox  Brown,  a  precocious  artist.  His  principal  works 
are  "Song  Tide,"  (1871,)  "All  in  All,"  (1874,)  and 
"  Wind  Voices,"  (1S83.)     Died  in  1887. 

Marston,  (Westland,)  an  English  poet  and  drama- 
tist, born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1819.  He  wrote  "The 
Patrician's  Daughter,"  "  The  Heart  and  the  World," 
and  several  other  popular  dramas.    Died  Jan.  5,  1890. 

Marstrand,  min'strind,  (Wilhelm  Nikolas,)  a 
Danish  painter,  born  at  Copenhagen,  December  24,  1810. 
He  became  a  professor  and  director  in  the  Copenhagen 
Art  Academy,  and  was  noted  as  a  historical  and  genre 
painter.     Died  March  20,  1873. 

Marsupius.     See  Marsuppixi. 

Marsuppini,  maR-soop-pee'nee,  [Lat.  Marsu'pius,] 
(Carlo,)  an  Italian  scholar,  sometimes  called  Are- 
TINO,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1399.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Florence  in  1434,  and  secretary 
of  the  Florentine  republic  in  1444.  He  translated  into 
Latin  hexameter  verse  Homer's  "  Batrachomyomachia," 
and  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems.     Died  in  1453. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Mar'sus,  (Domitius,)  a  Roman  poet  under  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  was  a  friend  of  Virgil  and  Tibullus.  Among 
his  extant  works  is  a  poem  entitled  "  Cicuta,"  and  a 
number  of  fragments  have  been  collected  by  Broek- 
buisen  in  his  edition  of  Tibullus. 

See  Weichert,  "  De  Domitio  Marso,  Poeta." 

Marsy,  mtR'se',  (Gaspard  and  Balthasar,)  brothers 
and  distinguished  French  sculptors,  born  at  Carftbray, 
the  former  in  1625  and  the  latter  in  1628.  Among  their 
master-pieces  are  the  figures  of  the  Baths  of  Apollo, 
representing  the  "  Tritons  showering  the  Horses  of 
the  Sun,"  and  the  group  of"  Latona  and  her  Children.'" 
Both  brothers  were  members  of  the  Academy  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture.  Balthasar  died  in  1674,  and  Gaspard 
in  1681. 

See  Len-oir,  "Musee  des  Monuments  Franjais." 

Marsy,  de,  deh  mlR'se',  (Francois  Marie,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1714.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Mary  Stuart,"  and  a  Latin 
poem  entitled  "  Painting,"  ("  Pictura,")  which  was  much 
admired.     Died  in  1763. 

See  La  Harpe,  "  Cours  de  Litterature." 

Mcir's^-as,  [Gr.  Mapoiaf,]  a  personage  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  called  by  some  authors  a  Satyr,  and  a 
son  of  Olympus.  According  to  tradition,  he  found  a 
fiute  which  Minerva  had  thrown  away,  (because  her 
face  was  distorted  by  playing  on  it,)  and  challenged 
Apollo  to  a  trial  of  skill  in  music,  on  the  condition 
that  the  victor  might  do  what  he  pleased  with  the  van- 
quished. Apollo  gained  the  victory,  and  flayed  Marsyas 
alive.  This  story  was  a  favourite  subject  of  ancient 
poets  and  artists. 

Martainville,  mtR'tiN'vfel',  (Alphonse  Louts  Dieu- 
DON'n6,)  a  litterateur  ■a.wA  journalist,  of  French  e.xtraction, 
born  at  Cadiz  in  1776.  He  became  associate  editor  of 
several  political  journals  of  Paris.  He  wrote  a  number 
af  bold  and  witty  satires  on  the  Jacobins,  and  several 
popular  comedies.     Died  in  1830. 


Martange,  de,  deh  mtR'tflNzh',  (N.  Bonnet,)  a 
French  general  and  writer,  born  at  Beauce  in  1722, 
served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
He  wrote  several  poems  and  tales.     Died  in  1806. 

Marteiihe,  mtR'til'  or  mtR'ti'ye,  (Jean,)  a  French 
Protestant,  born  at  Bergerac  in  1684,  was  condemned  in 
1702  to  the  galleys  at  Dunkirk,  where  he  spent  seven 
years.     Died  in  1777.  m 

See  "The  Htitjnenot  Galley- Slave,"  New  York,  1867:  "  QuarterW         H 
Review"  for  July,  1S66.  ^ 

Martel,  (Charles.)     See  Charles  Marteu 

Martel,  mta'tdl',  (Francois,)  a  French  surgeon,  bom 
at  Perigueux  in  1 549.  He  became  first  surgeon  to  Henry 
IV.     Died  about  1610. 

Martel,  maR-t^l',  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Forma  de  celebrar 
Cortes."     He  became  royal  historiographer  in  1597. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  voL  I 
pirt  i. 

Marteliere,  de  la,  deh  It  mtRt'le-aiR',  (Pierre,)  a 
celebrated  French  lawyer,  was  born  at  Bellesme  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  published  a  number  of 
pleas,  one  of  which,  in  favour  of  the  University  of  Paris 
against  the  Jesuits,  was  very  much  admired.  Died 
in  1631. 

MarteUi,  maR-tel'lee,  (Lunovico,)  an  Italian  poet, 
Dorn  at  Florence  in  1499.  He  wrote  lyric  poems,  and 
"Tullia,"  a  tragedy.     Died  in  1527. 

See  GiNGUEN'^,  "  Histoire  litteraire  d'ltalie." 

MartelliorMartello,  maR-tel'lo,  (PiETRO  Giacomo,) 
an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna  in  1665.  He  wrote 
poems  and  dramas,  which  were  popular  at  the  time. 
Died  in  1727. 

See  FAP.Rr.Ni,  "Vits  Italorum  doctrina  exce'lentiiim  ;"  "Vita  di 
Martelli,"  {v\Titten  by  himself,)  m  Caixxjera's  "Raccolta,"  vol.  iL 

Martelly,  de,  deh  mtR'ti'le',  (Honor6  FRAxgois 
Richard,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  A:x  in 
1751,  jjublished  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Two  Figaros," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1S17. 

Martene,  mlR'tix',  (Dom  Edmoxd,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  of  the  order  of  Benedictines,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Dijon  in  1654.  In  1708  he  visited  the  abbeys 
and  cathedrals  of  France,  in  order  to  procure  materials 
for  a  new  edition  of  the  "Gallia  Christiana."  He  also 
published  a  "Collection  of  Old  Authors  and  Historical 
Monuments,"  (1700,)  in  Latin,  and,  conjointly  with  his 
friend  Durand,  "Literary  Travels  of  Two  Benedictines 
of  Saint-Maur,"  (1717.)     Died  in  1739. 

See  Tassin,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint 
Maur." 

Martens,  maR'tens,  written  also  Mertens,  [Lat. 
Marti'xus.]  (Thierry,)  a  P'lemish  printer,  born  at  Alost 
about  1450,  is  said  to  ha%-e  introduced  the  art  of  printing 
into  the  Netherlands.  He  exercised  his  profession  at 
his  native  town,  and  subsequently  at  Louvain  and  Ant- 
werp. He  printed  in  Roman  characters,  hitherto  un- 
known, and  his  editions  of  the  classics  were  highly  prized. 
Martens  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  com- 
posed a  Latin  epitaph  upon  him.     Died  in  1534. 

See  Maittaire.  "Annaies  Typographica; ;"  March  and,  "His- 
toire r!e  rimprimerie  ;"  F.  \.  van  Iseghem,  "  Biographic  de  Thierry 
Martens,"  j?52;  Theodore  Juste,  "Notice  biographique  sur  T. 
Martens,"  1849. 

Martens,  von,  fon  maR'tens,  (Georg  Friedrich,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  in  Hamburg  in  1756.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  chiefly  written  in  French,  we  may  name 
his  "  Collection  of  Treaties,"  (1791,)  and  "  Summary  of 
Modern  European  Law,"  (1821.)     Died  in  1821. 

Martens,  von,  (Karl,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1 790.  He  was  employed  as  a  diplomatist 
by  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  published,  besides  other 
works  in  French,  "Causes  celebres  du  Droit  de  Gens," 
(1827,)  and  "  Guide  diplomatique,"  (1832.)    Died  in  1863. 

Martensen,  maR'ten-sen,  (Hans  Lassen,)  a  Danish 
theologian,  born  at  Flensborg  in  1808.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Seeland  in  1S43,  and  court  preacher  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1845.  His  principal  works  are  "Christian 
Baptism,"  "A  Plan  for  a  System  of  Moral  Philosophy," 
and  a  treatise  on  Christian  I)i)ctrine.    Died  Feb.  4,  1884. 

Mar'tha,  [Gr.  'Sh'ipda  ;  Fr.  Makihe,  mtst,]  a  sister  of 
Mary  and  Lazarus  of  Retiiany. 

See  John  xi.  :   Lm1<<>  \- 


a.  e.  i.  o.  u.  V.  lonz:  i.  ^,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fdt;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


MAR  THE 


1667 


MARTIN 


Marthe,  niSut,  (Anne  Biget — be'zhi',)  a  French 
nun,  called  Sister  Mariha,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1749, 
devoted  herself  during  the  Revolution  to  the  relief  of  the 
sick  and  wounded,  and  of  prisoners  of  all  nations.  Died 
in  1824. 

Marti,  maR'tee,  [Lat.  Marti'nus,]  (Manuel,)  a 
Spanish  scholar  and  poet,  born  near  Valencia  in  1663. 
He  published  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled  "  Amalthea 
Geographica,"  and  made  several  translations  from  the 
Latin.     Died  in  1737. 

See  Mayan,  "Vita  Knianuelis  Maru'ni,"  1735. 

Martial,  mar'shej,!,  [Fr.  Martiat.,  mtR'se'iK;  Lat. 
Martia'i.is  ;  It.  Mar/.iale,  niaRt-se-a'li,|  or,  more  fully, 
Mar'cus  Vale'rius  Maiiiia'lis,  a  famous  Latin  epi- 
grammatic poet,  born  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain,  about  40  a.!)., 
went  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  and  resided  there 
thirty-five  years.  The  events  of  his  life  are  very  imper- 
fectly known  ;  but  it  appears  that  he  devoted  his  atten 
tion  chiefly  to  poetry.  Some  epigrams  which  he  wrote 
on  the  occasion  of  the  public  spectacles  given  by  Titus 
about  the  year  80,  procured  him  the  favour  of  that  prince. 
He  was  also  patronized  by  Domitian,  who  made  him  a 
tribune  and  a  Roman  knight.  He  was  intimate  with 
Juvenal,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny  the  Younger.  About  98 
A.D.  he  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  died  a  few 
years  later.  Fourteen  books  of  his  "  Epigrams"  are  still 
fixtant,  and  are  much  admired  by  some  eminent  critics, 
such  as  Scaliger,  Lipsius,  and  Malte-Brun.  The  latter 
thinks  his  writings  are  among  the  most  interesting  monu- 
ments of  Roman  literature,  though  many  of  them  offend 
against  good  taste  and  pure  morality.  Probably  no  poet 
ever  estimated  his  works  more  justly  than  he  did  in  the 
following  line  : 

"Sunt  bona,  sum  qii^dam  mediocria,  sunt  plura  mala." 
("Some  are  good,  some  indifferent,  and  more  arp  bad.") 
See  Crusius,  "Life  of  Martial,"  in  "  Lives  of  the  Roman  Poets," 
1726;  Lessing,  "Vermischte  Schriften :"  A.  P^RiCAtJD,  "  Essal  sur 
Martial,"  1816  :  Fabricius.  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  :"  "  M.  V.  Mar- 
tialis  als  Mensch  und  Dichter,"  Berlin,  1843 ;  "  Martial  and  his 
Times,"  in  the  '"Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1853. 

Martial  d'Auvergne.  See  Auvergne,  d',  (Mar- 
tial.) 

Martialis.     See  Martial. 

Martianay,  miR'se't'ni',  (Dom  Jean,)  a  French 
Benedictine  monk  and  theological  writer,  born  in  1647  ; 
died  in  1717. 

Martignac,  de,  dehmtR't^n'ytk',  (^tienne  Algay,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Brives-la-Gaillarde  about 
1620.  He  published  "  Memoirs  of  Gaston,  Duke  of 
Orleans,"  and  made  translations  from  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  other  classics.     Died  in  1698. 

See  Voltaire,  "  SiWe  de  Louis  XIV." 

Martignac,  dp,  (Jean  Baptiste  Sylv^re  Gaye,) 
A'^icomte,  an  able  and  eloquent  French  statesman  under 
Charles  X.,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1 776.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1821.  As  the 
head  of  the   ministry  that  came  into  power  in  Januarv, 

1828,  he  held  the  office  of  minister  of  the  interior,  and 
sought  to  unite  conflicting  parties  for  the  support  of  the 
throne  ;  but,  unable  to  effect  this  object,  and  forsaken  bv 
the  king  and  the  court,  he  resigned  his  place  in  August, 

1829,  and  was  succeeded  by  Polignac.  On  the  trial  of 
the  latter,  Martignac  became  his  eloquent  defender 
in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He  died  in  1832,  leaving  a 
"Historical  Essay  on  the  Spanish  Revolution,"  and 
other  works. 

See  Capefigi^e,  "  Histoire  de  la  Restauration  ;"  Chateaubriand, 
"  M^moires  d'Oiitre-Tombe  ;"  L.  de  Lom^N'IE,  "  M.  de  Martignac, 
par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1S42  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biosjraphie  Gdnerale." 

Martigny,  mtk'tiu'y^',  (Joseph  Alexandre,)  Abh^, 
a  French  archasologist,  born  at  Sauverny,  April  22,  1808. 
His  principal  work  is  the  celebrated  "  Dictionnaire  des 
Antiquites  Chretiens,"  (1865;  much  enlarged,  1877.) 

Martigues,  mSR't^g',  (S"6rastien  de  Luxemhourc.,) 
Viscount,  a  brave  French  officer,  who  assisted  at  the 
siege  of  Metz,  (1552,)  and  in  the  capture  of  Calais  by 
the  Duke  of  Guise,  (1558.)     He  was  killed  in  1569. 

Mar'tin  (Lat.  Marti'nus]  I.  succeeded  Theodore  as 
pope  in  649  A.D.  Having  condemned  the  Monothelites, 
he  was  banished  by  the  emperor  Constans  II.,  who 
favoured  that  sect,  to  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  where 
he  died  in  6^5  a.d. 


Martin  IL,  or  Marinus  L,  succeeded  John  VIII.  as 
pojje  in  882  A.D.  Died  in  884,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Adrian  HI. 

Martin  IIL,  or  Marinus  II.,  born  at  Rome,  suc- 
ceeded Stephen  VIII.  in  942,  and  died  in  946.  His 
successor  was  Agapetus  II. 

Martin  IV.,"  (Cardinal  Simon  de  Brion  —  deh 
bRe'(!)N',  (or  Brie — bRe,))  a  native  of  Touraine,  in  France, 
succeeded  Nicholas  HI.  in  1281.  He  adhered  to  the 
cause  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  and  when,  after  the  Sicilian 
Vespers,  that  sovereign  lost  his  power  in  Sicily,  Martin 
excommunicated  Peter  of  Aragon,  who  had  been  chosen 
king  of  that  country.  He  died  in  1285,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Honorius  IV. 

Martin  V.  (Cardinal  Onio  Colonna  —  ko-lon'nS) 
was  elected  pope  in  141 7,  in  the  place  of  John  XXIII., 
deposed  by  the  Council  of  Constance.  In  143 1  he 
called  a  council  at  Bale,  in  Switzerland,  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting  a  reform  in  the  Church,  and  sent  Cardinal 
Julian  Cesarini  as  his  legate.  He  died  soon  after,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Eugene  IV. 

See  Artaud  dk  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes 
Remains  " 

Martin,  son  of  Martin,  King  of  Aragon,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Sicily  in  1399.  He  married  in  1401,  as  his 
second  wife,  Blanche,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Navarre. 
He  died  in  1409,  and  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  was  united 
to  that  of  Aragon  by  his  father,  who  survived  him. 

Martin,  surnamed  Gallus,  a  French  ecclesiastic  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  was  a  missionary  to  Poland,  and 
wrote  a  history  of  that  country,  {"  Chronica  Polonorum,") 
a  valuable  work,  and  the  earliest  one  written  on  that 
subject. 

Mar'tin,  (Alexander,)  born  in  New  Jersey  about 
1740,  served  as  a  colonel  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution, 
and  was  chosen  Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1782. 
Died  in  1807. 

Martin,  mtR'tdN',  (Andr6,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Poitou  in  1621.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest 
advocates  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  and  wrote 
"Christian  Moral  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  Moralis 
Christiana.")     Died  in  1695. 

Mar'tin,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1704.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Philo- 
sophical Grammar,"  (1735,)  "New  System  of  Optics," 
(1740,)  and  other  scientific  works.     Died  in  1782.  ,. 

Martin,  (Benjamin  Nicholas,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  scholar,  born  at  Mount  Holly,  New  Jersey, 
October  20,  1816.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1837  and  at  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1840,  held  various 
Congregational  and  Presbyterian  pastorates,  and  was 
professor  of  philosophy  and  logic  in  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  1852-83.  He  made  large  con- 
tributions to  current  periodical  and  review  literature. 
Died  in  New  York,  December  26,  1883. 

Martin,  (Bon  Louis  Henri,)  an  eminent  French 
historian,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1810.  He  has  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  France  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
1789,"  (18  vols.,  1838-53;  revised  edition,  1855-60,) 
"Monarchy  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,"  (1S4S,)  a 
"  Life  of  Daniel  Manin,"  (1859,)  "  Russia  and  Europe," 
(1866,)  "Studies  in  Celtic  Archaeology,"  (1871,)  "The 
Napoleons  and  the  Frontiers  of  France,"  (1874,)  etc. 
He  was  elected  Senator  in  1871,  and  in  1878  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy.     Died  December  14,  1883. 

Martin,  (Christian  Reinhold  Dietrich,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  near  Gottingen  in  1772,  was  the  author 
of  several  legal  works.     Died  in  1857. 

Martin,  (Claude,)  a  French  soldier,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1732.  He  accompanied  General  Lally  to  India,  and  sub- 
sequently entered  the  English  service.  Having  amassed 
a  large  fortune,  he  built  a  magnificent  palace  near  Luck- 
now.  He  died  in  1800,  leaving  numerous  bequests  for 
charitable  purposes. 

See  G.  ^LARTIN,  "  £loge  historiqiie  de  C.  Martin,"  1830. 

Martin,  (Claude,)  a  learned  French  Benedictme 
monk,  born  at  'I'ours  in  1619,  published  several  devo- 
tional works.     Died  in  1696. 

Martin,  (David,)  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
born  at  Revel  in  1639.     He  published  a  "  History  of 


«  as  >&;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  t7-illed;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARTIN 


1668 


MAR  TINEA  U 


the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  "  Treatise  on  Natural 
Religion,"  and  otlier  works,  which  enjoy  a  high  reputa- 
tion.    Died  in  1721. 

See  Nici5ron,  "  Mdnioires." 

Martin,  (Francois,)  an  agent  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, born  in  France.  In  1674  he  formed  a  colony  a( 
Pondicherry,  of  which  city  he  afterwards  became  gov- 
ernor.    Died  about  1725. 

Martin,  (Edme,)  a  French  jurist,  born  near  Sens 
about  1714,  became  professor  of  canon  law  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1793. 

Martin,  (Francois  Xavier,)  LL.D.,  born  at  Mar- 
seilles, France,  in  1764,  emigrated  about  1785  to  North 
Carolina,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Louisiana.  He 
attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  jurist,  and  published  His- 
tories of  Louisiana  and  North  Carolina.     Died  in  1846. 

Martin,  (Gregory,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian, 
was  a  native  of  Sussex.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Douai,  and  subsequently  at  Rheims.  His  principal 
work  is  an  English  translation  of  the  Bible,  which 
appeared  in  1610.     Died  in  1582. 

Martin,  (Lady  Helen,)  an  English  actress,  the  wife 
of  Sir  Theodore  Martin,  was  born  in  18 16,  and  is  best 
known,  under  her  maiden  name,  as  Helen  F'aucit.  Siie 
went  upon  the  stage  in  1836,  and  very  soon  took  high 
rank  as  an  actress  of  great  power  and  versatility.  She 
was  married  in  1851. 

Martin,  (Henky  Newell,)  M.D.,  Dr.Sc,  a  distin- 
guished biologist,  born  at  Newry,  Ireland,  July  i,  1848. 
He  studied  at  University  College,  London,  received  from 
the  University  of  London  the  degrees  of  B.S.  in  1870, 
M.B.  in  1871,  and  doctor  of  science  in  1872,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Christ  College,  Cambridge,  where  in  1S74  he 
graduated  B.A.  In  1876  he  became  professor  of  biology 
in  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  at  Baltimore,  and  in 
1883  he  delivered  the  Croonian  Lecture  before  the  Roya! 
Society  of  London.  He  assisted  in  pre]3arnig  Huxley's 
"Elementary  Biology,"  (1876,)  and  published  "The 
Human  Body,"  (1881  ;  abridged  edition,  1S83.)  With 
W.  A.  Moale,  he  prepared  the  "  Hand-Book  of  Vene 
brate  Dissection,"  (3  parts,  1S81-84.) 

Martin,  (Jean  Bai'TISTF.,)  a  French  painter,  surnamed 
DES  Batailles,  ("of  battles,")  born  in  Paris  in  1659. 
On  the  death  of  Van  der  Meulen,  in  1690,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Louis  XIV.  to  paint  his  battles.   Died  in  1735. 

Martin,  (Jean  Blaise,)  a  celebrated  French  vocalist 
born  in  Paris  in  1767.  He  held  tlie  place  of  tenor  sole 
in  the  imperial  chapel  under  Napoleon  and  his  succes- 
sors, Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.     Died  in  1837. 

Martin,  (John,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  North- 
umberland in  1789.  He  studied  under  Bonifacio  Musso, 
and  in  1815  obtained  the  prize  at  the  British  Institution 
for  his  picture  of  "  Joshua  commanding  the  Sun  to  stand 
still."  This  was  followed  by  "The  Fall  of  Babylon," 
(1818,)  "Belshazzar's  Feast,"  (  1821,)  "The  Deluge," 
(1826,)  "The  Fall  of  Nineveh,"  (1828,)  and  other 
works  on  similar  subjects,  which  enjoyed  great  tem- 
porary popularity.  He  published  in  1828  "A  Plan  for 
supplying  with  Pure  Water  the  Cities  of  London  and 
Westminster."     Died  in  1854. 

See  "Autobiography  of  John  Martin,"  in  the  "  Atlienseum," 
1854;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Martin,  (Louis  Aim^,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1 781,  became  professor  of  rhetoric,  history, 
etc  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  Paris,  about  1815.  He  was 
an  int'mate  friend  of  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  whose 
widow  he  married.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Letters  to  Sophia  on  Physics,  Chemistry,"  etc.,  (1810,) 
"Collection  of  Tales,  etc' in  Verse  and  Prose,"  (1813,) 
and  an  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Works  of  ]5ernardin  de 
Saint-Pierre,"  (1820.)     Died  in  1847. 

See  Lamartine,  "  Discours  prononcd  sur  la  Tonibe  de  M.  X\mi 
Martin;"  Querakd,  "La  France  Lilteraire." 

Martin,  (Luther,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  about 
1745.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Maryland  to  the  conven- 
tion which  in  1787  formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  this  body  he  advocated  the  sovereignty  and 
equality  of  the  States,  contending  that  a  small  State 
should  send  as  many  members  to  Congress  as  a  large 
State.     Died  in  1826. 

Martin,  (Marc.aret  Maxwell,)  born  at  Dumfries, 


Scotland,  in  1807,  emigrated  to  America,  and  was  mar- 
ried in  1836  to  the  Rev.  William  Martin,  a  Methodist 
divine.  Siie  has  published  "  Methodism,  or  Christianity 
in  Earnest,"  and  other  religious  works. 

Martin,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Bonn,  in 
Prussia,  in  1814.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Karl  Sim- 
rock  the  poet.  Among  his  works  is  "  Le  Presbytere, 
Ejiopee  domestique,"  (1856.)      Died  in  1877. 

Martin,  (Pierre,)  an  admiral,  of  French  extraction, 
born  in  Canada  in  1752.  In  1795  he  maintained  a 
prolonged  fight  with  a  superior  English  fleet  under 
Ilotham,  and  was  soon  after  made  vice-admiral.  Died 
in  1820. 

Martin,  (Robert  Montgomery,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ireland,  abi:)ut  1803.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Colonies  of  the  British  Em- 
pire," (1834-38,)  and  "The  Indian  Empire:  its  History, 
Topogra])hy,"  etc..  (1S58-61.)     Died  in  1870. 

Martin,  [Lat.  Marti'nus,]  Saint,  an  eminent  eccle- 
siastic of  the  fourth  century,  was  a  native  of  Pannonia. 
He  was  converted  to  Christianity  at  an  early  age,  and 
was  made  Bisho]5  of  Tours  about  360  A. D.  He  founded 
the  abbey  of  Marmoutier,  near  the  river  Loire,  and  he 
also  established  a  mon?_stery  at  Ligug^,  near  Poitiers, 
5aid  to  be  the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  France. 
Died  about  396. 

See  Gervaise,  "Vie  de  Saint-Martin,"  1699;  Mrs.  Jameson, 
"Sacred  and  Legendary  Art;"  A.  Dui'UV,  "  Histoire  de  Saint 
Martin,"  1852. 

Martin,  Saint,  born  in  Hungary,  became  Archbishop 
of  Braga,  in  Portugal,  and  founded  a  number  of  monas- 
teries in  Galicia.  He  was  the  author  of  several  theo- 
logical works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  5S0  a.d. 

Martin,  (Sarah,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born  near 
Yarmouth  in  1791,  was  distinguished  for  her  labours  in 
the  cause  of  prison-reform.     Died  in  1843. 

Martin,  (Theodore,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1816.  He  became  a  resident  of  London  about 
1846.  In  conjunction  with  Professor  Aytoun,  he  pro- 
duced a  version  of  Goethe's  poems  and  ball.nds,  (1858,) 
and  a  book  of  humorous  verse  entitled  "Tlie  l>on  Gaul- 
tier  Ballads."  He  also  translated  various  works  of  Hor- 
ace, Heine,  Oehlenschlager,  Hendrik  Hertz,  Catullus, 
etc.,  and  wrote  a  "Life  of  the  Prince  Consort,"  and  a 
"Life  of  Lord  Lyndhurst,"  (1884.)  In  1875  he  was  made 
an  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  i58o  he  was  kniglued. 

Martin,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1697.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
Thetford,"  published  after  his  death  by  Gough,  (1779,) 
and  was  a  contributor  to  Le  Neve's  "  Monumenta  Angli- 
cana."    Died  in  1771. 

Martin,  (Thomas  Henri,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Bellesme,  in  Orne,  in  1813.  His  "Studies  on 
the  Timseus  of  Plato"  (2  vols.,  1841)  obtained  a  prize  of 
the  French  Academy.  He  also  published  a  "History 
of  the  Physical  Sciences  in  Antiquity,"  (2  vols.,  1849.) 
Died  at  Rennes  in  1884. 

Martin,  (William,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Nottinghamshire  in  1769.  He  published  "  Figures  and 
Descriptions  of  Petrifactions  in  Derbyshire,"  and  other 
scientific  works.     Died  in  1810. 

Martin,  (William  D.,)  an  American  jurist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  South  Carolina  in  1789;  died  in  1833. 

Martin,  de,  deh  mlR'tdN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Mirejwix  in  1684.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Gauls  and  of 
"heir  Conquest.s,"  etc.,  and  "The  Religion  of  the  Gauls.'' 
Died  in  1751. 

Mar'tin-dale,  (John  Henry,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Sandy  Hill,  New  York,  about  1815,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1835.  He  was  a  lawyer  before  the 
civil  war.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battles  of 
Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Grant's  army  in 
the  summer  of  1864.  In  November,  1866,  he  was  elected 
attornev-general  of  New  York.     Died  Dec.  13,  1881. 

Mar'tine,  (George,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  in 
1702,  accompanied  Lord  Cathcart  to  America,  wnere 
he  died  in  1743.  He  ]iublished  "Commentaries  on  the 
Anatomical  Tables  of  Etistachius,"  (in  Latin,)  and  othei 
works. 

Martineau,  mar'te-no,  (Harrift,)  an  English  mis- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 1'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  till,  fit;  m^t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MARTJNEAU 


1669 


MARTINI 


cellap.eous  writer,  born  at  Norwich  in  1802,  was  de- 
scended from  a  Frencli  Huguenot  family.  Being  left  in 
limited  circumstances  on  tlie  death  of  her  father,  she 
devoted  herself  to  literature  as  a  means  of  support,  and 
published,  in  1823,  "Devotional  Exercises  for  the  Use 
of  Young  People,"  which  was  succeeded  by  a  number 
of  popular  tales,  among  which  we  may  name  "Christmas 
Day,"  "The  Rioters,"  (1826,)  "Mary'Campbell,"  (1827,) 
"The  Turn-Out,"  and  "My  Servant  Rachel,"  (1828.) 
Her  "Traditions  of  Palestine"  came  out  in  1831,  and 
were  soon  followed  by  a  series  of  tales  illustrating  po- 
litical economy,  which  were  received  with  great  favour 
and  were  translated  into  French  and  German.  In  1835 
she  visited  the  United  States,  where  she  spent  about 
two  years,  and  published,  after  her  return,  "  Society  in 
America,"  (1837,)  and  "  Retros])ect  of  Western  Travel," 
(1838.)  Her  novel  of  "  Deerbrook"  appeared  in  1839, 
and  in  1840  the  romance  of  "The  Hour  and  the  Man." 
Her  health  becoming  impaired  about  this  time,  she  was 
obliged  to  suspend  her  literary  labours.  After  her  re- 
covery she  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Life  in  a 
Sick-Room,"  (1845,)  ^""^^  "  Forest  and  Game  Law  Tales," 
(1845.)  Among  her  later  iniblications  are  a  "  History 
of  England  during  the  Thirty  Years'  Peace,"  (2  vols., 
1850,)  "Letters  between  Miss  Martineau  and  Mr.  H.  G. 
Atkinson,"  etc.,  (1857,)  and  "  Biographical  Sketches," 
(London,  1869.)  She  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  West- 
minster Review"  and  other  literary  journals.  Died  June 
27,  1876.  Her  Autobiography  was  published  posthu- 
mously in  the  fall  of  the  same  year,  having  been  written 
principally  in  the  early  part  of  1855. 

Martineau,  (James,)  a  Unitarian  divine,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Norwich,  in  England,  about 
1805.  He  became  professor  of  moral  and  metaphysical 
philosophy  in  Manchester  New  College,  London,  in  1853, 
and  in  1858  associate  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  Chapel  in 
Little  Portland  Street.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Rationale  of  Religious  Liquiry,"  (1839,)  "Endeavours 
after  the  Christian  Life,"  (1843,)  and  "  Studies  of  Chris- 
tianity," (1858.)  Mr.  Martineau  occupies  a  prominent 
position  both  as  theologian  and  philosopher,  being  the 
representative  on  the  one  hand  of  Unitarianism  as  op- 
posed to  Trinitarian  orthodoxy,  and  on  the  other  of 
Theism  and  Spiritualism  as  opposed  to  the  materialistic 
tendencies  of  the  age. 

See  the  "  15ritisli  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Martinelli,  mau-te-nel'lee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1650.  Among 
his  best  works  is  the  palace  of  Prince  Lichtenstein  at 
Vienna.     Died  in  1718. 

MartinellL  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Lucca,  February  3,  1827.  In  1873  he  was  created  a 
cardinal-priest  and  made  prefect  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Index. 

Martinengo,  maR-te-nSn'go,  (Girolamo  Silvio,) 
Count,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1753,  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost"  ("  II 
Paradiso  Perduto")  into  Italian  verse.     Died  in  1834. 

Martinengo,  (Tno  Prospero,)  a  learned  Italian 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Brescia,  published  a  nun  ber  of 
devotional  poems,  in  Latin  and  Greek.     Died  in  1595. 

Martinengo-Coleoni,  maK-te-n^n'go  ko-li-o'nee, 
(Giovanni  EnoRE,)  an  Italian  otificer  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1754,  entered  the  French  service. 
Died  about  1830. 

Martinet,  mtK'te'ni',  a  F"rench  officer,  who  lived 
about  1660-80  and  introduced  great  improveinents  into 
military  tactics  and  the  organization  of  the  army. 

.See  Voltaire,  "  Si^cle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Martinet,  mtR'te'ni',  (Jan  Florens,)  a  Dutch  divine 
and  writer,  born  about  1735,  was  pastor  of  the  Men- 
nonite  church  at  Zutphen.     Died  in  1796. 

Martinet,  (Louis  Achille,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1806,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1830.  He 
engraved  several  works  of  Raphael  and  other  old 
masters.     Died  December  9,  1877. 

Martinetti,  maR-te-net'tee,  (Giamba'ITISTA,)  an  Ital- 
ian architect,  born  at  Bironico  in  1764  ;  died  in  1829. 

Martinez,  mar-tee'nSth,  (Domingo,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1690  ;  died  in  1750. 

Martinez,  (Gkegorio,)  a  Spanish  landscape-iiainter. 


born  at  Valladolid,  worked  at  Madrid.  Among  his  best 
works  is  a  "  Holy  Family  with  Saint  Francis  d'Assisi." 
Died  about  1610. 

Martinez,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Sara- 
gossa  in  1612,  became  painter  to  King  Philip  IV.  Died 
in  1682. 

Martinez,  (Sebastian,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Jaen  in  1602.  On  the  death  of  Velasquez  he  became 
first  painter  to  King  Philip  IV.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  a  "  Nativity"  and  a  "  Saint  Jerome."  Died 
in  1667. 

Martinez,  (Tomas,)  a  Spanish  painter,  was  a  native 
of  Seville.  He  imitated  successfully  the  style  of  Mu- 
rillo.  His  "  Mater  Dolorosa"  is  esteemed  a  master- 
piece.    Died  in  1734. 

Martinez  del  Barranco,  maR-tee'nSth  del  bSr-rin'- 
ko,  (Bernardo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cuesta  in 
1738  ;  died  in  1791. 

Martinez  de  la  Plaza,  maR-tee'nSth  di  IS  plS'thJ, 
(Luis,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Antequera  in  1585  ;  died 
in  1635. 

Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  maR-tee'n§th  di  15  ro'sS, 
(Francisco,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  poet,  orator,  and 
statesman,  born  at  Granada  in  1789.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  1808,  he  ably  defended  the  cause  of 
the  patriots  both  by  his  tongue  and  pen.  About  181 1 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  London,  where  he  published 
his  first  poem,  entitled  "  Zaragoza."  After  his  return  to 
Spain  he  wrote  his  tragedy  "The  Widow  of  Padilla," 
("  La  Viuda  de  Padilla,")  and  the  comedy  of  "  The 
Consequences  of  Holding  Office,"  ("  Lo  que  puede  un 
Empleo,")  which  were  brought  out  on  the  stage  at  Cadiz 
while  that  city  was  besieged  by  the  French,  and  were 
received  with  enthusiasm.  In  1812  he  was  chosen  a 
deputy  to  the  Cortes.  On  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand, 
in  1 814,  he  was  imprisoned  six  years  in  the  fortress  of 
Gomera,  on  the  African  coast.  In  1821  he  obtained  an 
office  in  the  ministry  ;  but,  being  accused  of  want  of  zeal 
by  the  Liberal  party,  he  retired  to  Paris.  Having  re- 
turned to  Spain,  he  became  prime  minister  in  1834,  and 
drew  up  the  "  Estatuto  Real,"  granting  a  new  constitu- 
tion. He  was  obliged  to  resign  his  post  in  1836,  and 
resided  for  a  time  in  Paris  and  London.  In  185 1  he 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  Among 
his  most  popular  productions  are  the  dramas  entitled 
"The  Conspiracy  of  Venice"  and  "  CEdipus,"  "The 
Girl  at  Hoine  and  the  Mother  at  the  Masquerade,"  a 
comedy,  and  "El  Arte  poetica,"  a  didactic  poem.  He 
also  published  a  historical  work,  called  "El  Espiritu  del 
Siglo,"  ("The  Spirit  of  the  Age,")  in  10  vols.,  and  the 
romance  of  "  Isabel  de  Solis."  Martinez  held  the  post 
of  perpetual  secretary  at  the  Spanish  Academy.  Died 
in  February,  1862. 

See  James  Kennedy.  "  Modem  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  :" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Lomenie,  "  Galerie 
des  Conteniporains  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  preiate, 
born  at  Prato  in  1720,  was  created  Archbishop  of  Flor- 
ence in  1 781.  He  published  an  Italian  translation  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  several  original  works. 
Died  in  1809. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (Cornelis,)  a  Belgian  writer 
on  logic  and  metaphysics,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1567; 
died  in  162 1. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (Ferdinand  Heinrich  Wil- 
HKi.M,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Gotha 
in  1729.  Among  his  works  are  the  first  three  volumes 
of  a  "Systematic  Cabinet  of  Shells,"  ("  Conchylien- 
Cabinet,"  10  vols.,  1768-88.)     Died  in  1778. 

Martini,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German  archaeologist, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1722.  He  wrote  on  Greek  and  Roman 
antiquities.     Died  in  1794. 

Martini,  (Giamuattista,)  an  eminent  Italian  musi- 
cian and  composer,  sometimes  called  Padre  Martini, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1706.  His  compositions  are  chiefly 
of  a  religious  character,  and  p  assess  great  merit ;  but  his 
reputation  rests  principally  > .w  his  "  History  of  Music" 
(3  vols.,  1757-81)  and  "Ess-.y  on  Counterpoint,"  (1775.) 
He  has  been  styled  "the  n-ost  profound  harmonist,  and 
the  best  acquainted  with  l!ie  art  and  science  of  music,  in 
Italy."     Died  in  17S4. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.  s^ttitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  t;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MARTINI 


1670 


MARTYN 


Martini,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  musician,  a  native 
of  Milan,  visited  England,  where  he  was  patronized  by 
Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  lie  was  an  excellent  jjcr- 
former  on  the  hautboy,  and  composed  a  number  of  con- 
certos and  sonatas,  which  are  greatly  admired.  Died 
in  1750. 

Martini,  (Jean  PaulEgidius,)  often  called  Martini 
IL  Tedesco,  ("the  German,")  a  German  musician  and 
composer,  whose  original  name  was  Schwa rizen dork, 
born  at  Freistadt  in  1741.  In  1767  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Choiseul  and 
the  Prince  of  Conde.  He  brought  out  in  1771  his  opera 
of  "The  Lover  of  Fifteen,"  ("  L'Amoureux  de  quinze 
Ans,")  which  had  a  brilliant  success;  it  was  followed 
by  "Henri  IV,"  "  Sapho,"  "Annette  et  Lubin,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  which  had  great  popularity. 
Martini  was  also  distinguished  for  his  improvements  m 
military  music.     Died  in  Paris  in  18 16. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Kiographie  Universelle  des  Musicieiis;"  "  Nouvell^ 
Biographie  Generale." 

Martini,  (Martino,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born  at 
Trent  in  1614,  visited  China,  and  published  after  his 
return  a  "  History  of  the  Tartar  War  in  China,"  ("  De 
Dello  Tartarico  in  Sinis,")  which  was  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages ;  also  an  excellent 
map  of  China,  ("Atlas  Sinensis,")  and  a  "History  of 
China  previous  to  the  Christian  Era,"  (in  Latin.)  Died 
in  1661. 

Martini,  (Matthias,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
in  Waldeck  in  1572,  published  a  good  "Lexicon  Philo 
logicum"  (1623)  of  the  Latin  language.     Died  in  1630. 

Martini,  (Vincenzo,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  composer, 
born  at  Valencia  in  1754.  He  visited  Italy  and  Germany, 
where  his  operas  were  received  with  great  favour,  and  in 
1788  took  up  his  residence  at  Saint  Petersburg.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Italian  Opera  in  that  city  by  the 
emperor  Paul  I.  Among  his  best  works  we  may  name 
"  Ipermnestra,"  "  L'accorta  Cameriera,"  ("The  Prudent 
Chambermaid,")  and  "  La  Cosa  rara,"  from  which  Mo- 
zart borrowed  a  portion  of  his  "  Don  Giovanni."  Diei' 
in  1810. 

See  F^TIS,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 
Martini,  di,  de  mar-tee'nee,  or  Martino,  mar-tee'no, 
an  Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  Simone  di  Mem- 
mi,  and  Simon  of  Sienna,  was  born  in  Sienna  about 
1280.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Giotto,  and  a  friend  of  Petrarch, 
for  whom  he  painted  a  portrait  of  Laura.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  the  frescos  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Is^ovella  at  Florence.  Petrarch  dedicated  two 
sonnets  to  Martini,  who  was  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  of  his  time.     Died  in  1344. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Martiniere,  de  la,  deh  It  mlK'te'nej^iR',  (Antoine 
AUGUSTIN  Bruzen  —  bRii'zSN',)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Dieppe  about  1680,  was  appointed  first  geographer 
to  Philip  v..  King  of  Spain.  His  works  are  numerous 
and  valuable.  Among  the  most  important  we  may  name 
"  The  Historical,  Geographical,  and  Critical  Dictionary," 
(10  vols.,  1726,)  and  a  "Life  of  Moliere."  Died  at  the 
Hague  about  1748. 

See  "  Biograpliie  Universelle." 

Martiniere,  de  la,  (Pierre  Martin,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  traveller,  born  at  Rouen,  accompanied  the 
expedition  sent  by  the  King  of  Denmark  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  1653,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "  New 
Voyage  to  the  North,"  etc.,  (1671.) 

Martino.    See  Martini,  (di.) 

Martinet,  mtR'te'no',  (Henri,)  a  French  mecha- 
nician, born  in  Paris  in  1646,  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  employed  him  to  make  the  clocks  for  Ver- 
sailles and  the  Trianon.     Died  in  1725. 

Martins,  mtR'tiN',  (Charles  FRio^Ric,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1806,  became  professor  of 
botany  at  Montpellier  in  1847.  He  published  several 
scientific  works,  among  which  we  may  name  his  treatise 
"On  Vegetable  Teratology,"  and  "Botanical  Journey  in 
Norway,  '  (1841.)     Died  March  7,  1889. 

Martinus.     See  Martens  and  Marti. 

Mar-ti'nus  Po-lo'nu8  or  Bo-he'mus,  a  Polish 
chronicler  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Troppau,  in  Silesia. 
He  became  chaplain  and  confessor  to  Pope  Clement  IV. 


and  several  of  his  successors,  and  was  appointed  in  1273 
Archbishop   of  Gnesen.     He   wrote   a  valuable  work, 
entitled  "Chronicon  de  Sumtnis  Pontificibus,"  ("Chron- 
icle of  the  Popes.")     Died  in  1278. 
See  Nic^KON,  "Meinoires." 

Martirano,  maR-te-rS'no,  (Coriolano,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza,  was  Uishop  of  San  Marco, 
in  Calabria.  He  wrote  a  number  of  dramas.  Died  in 
'557- 
Martire,  (Pieiro.)  See  Peier  Martyr. 
Martius,  von,  fon  maRt'se-iis,  (Karl  Friedrich 
Philipp,)  an  eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Erlangen 
in  1794.  He  studied  medicine  in  his  native  city,  and  in 
1817  joined  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the  Austrian 
and  Bavarian  governments  to  Brazil.  After  his  return 
he  published,  in  1824,  his  "Brazilian  Travels,"  a  work 
very  attractive  in  its  style,  and  full  of  valuable  infor- 
mation concerning  the  natural  history  of  that  country. 
In  1832  he  brought  out  his  "N<ova  Genera  et  Species 
Plantarum,"  (3  vols.,  with  coloured  jjlates,)  and  in  1845 
his  superb  "Genera  et  Species  Palmarum,"  being  a 
complete  description  of  the  palms,  (3  vols.,  with  219 
coloured  plates.)  Besides  the  above,  we  may  name  the 
"  F"lora  Brasiliensis,"  and  "The  Plants  and  Animals  of 
Tropical  America,"  (1831.)  Von  Martius  was  appointed 
director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Munich,  and  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  other 
institutions  of  the  kind.  Died  in  December,  1868. 
See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830. 
Martorelli,  maR-to-rel'lee,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Naples  in  1699.  He  published  a  treat- 
ise "On  the  Ancient  Colonies  of  Naples,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1777. 

Martos,  mar'tos,  (Ivan  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian 
sculptor,  born  in  Little  Russia  about  1760.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  mausoleum  of  the  emperor  Alexander 
at  Taganrog,  the  colossal  group  in  bronze  of  the  patriots 
Minin  and  Pozharsky  at  Moscow,  and  the  monument  of 
Potemkin  at  Cherson,  also  the  bas-relief  on  the  monu- 
ment of  the  grand  duchess  Helena  Paulovna.  Martos 
was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg.    Died  in  1835. 

See  Naglek,  "  Neues  Allgemeiues  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
Mar'ty,  (Martin,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at  Schwyz, 
Switzerland,  January  12,  1834.  He  was  educated  at 
Schwyz,  Friburg,  and  Einsiedeln,  became  a  Benedictine 
monk  in  1855,  and  a  professor  in  the  College  of  Einsie- 
deln, removed  to  Indiana  in  i860,  and  was  Abbot  of  Saint 
Meinrad,  Indiana,  1870-79.  In  1S80  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Tiberias  and  made  Vicar-Apostolic  of  Dakota, 
where  his  chief  work  has  been  among  the  Indians.  He 
is  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Benedictine  Order,"  in 
German. 

Mar'tyn,  (Henry,)  an  able  English  lawyer  and  ex- 
cellent scholar,  known  as  a  contributor  to  the  "Specta- 
tor." His  name  appears  in  No.  555  of  the  "Spectator" 
at  the  head  of  a  list  of  contributors  given  by  Steele,  who 
says,  "  He  can  hardly  be  mentioned  in  a  list  wherein  he 
would  not  deserve  the  precedence."  He  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  imports  and  exports,  to  reward  him 
for  the  service  he  rendered  the  government  by  the 
publication  of  "The  British  Merchant,  or  Commerce 
Preserved,"  (about  1713.)     Died  in  1721. 

Martyn,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  missionary 
and  Orientalist,  born  at  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  in  1781.  He 
studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  classics, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  college  in  1802.  Having 
become  acquainted  with  the  Rev.  Charles  Simeon  about 
this  time,  and  exjjerienced  deep  religious  convictions,  he 
embarked  in  1805  as  a  missionary  for  India.  He  made 
ra])id  jjrogress  in  acquiring  the  language  of  the  country, 
and  was  soon  able  to  translate  the  New  Testament  into 
Hindostanee,  and  subsequently  into  Persian.  He  also 
made  a  Persian  translation  of  the  Psalms.  His  health 
at  length  gave  way  under  his  devoted  labours,  and  he 
died  at  Tokat,  in  Asia  Minor,  while  on  his  way  to  Ene- 
land,  in  1S12. 

See  Rev.  J.  Sarcknt,  "  Memoir  of  ihe  Rev.  Henry  Martyn," 
1S21  ;  J.  W.  Kaye,  "Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  iSo;  ;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  iSai. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  lofig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARTYN 


1671 


MARY 


Martyn,  (John,)  an  Eiic;li.sh  physician  and  botanist, 
born  in  London  in  1699.  He  was  elected  to  the  Royal 
Society  in  1727,  and  in  1733  became  professor  of  botany 
at  Cambridge.  His  "  History  of  Rare  Plants,"  (in  Latin, 
1728,)  illustrated  by  Van  Huysum,  was  the  best  work 
of  the  kind  then  published,  and  was  translated  into 
German.  Martyn  also  made  an  excellent  translation 
of  Virgil's  "Bucolics"  and  "Georgics,"  and  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "Grub  Street  Journal."  The  genus 
Martynia  was  named  in  his  honour.     Died  in  1768. 

See  GoRHAM,  "Memoirs  of  Jolin  ami  Thomas  Martyn,''  183(1, 
CuviER,  "  Histoire  des  .Sciences  natnrelles  " 

Martyn,  (Thomas,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Chelsea  in  1735.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  jirofessor 
of  botany  at  Cambridge  in  1761.  He  wrote  several  bo- 
tanical works  and  miscellaneous  treatises.   Died  in  1825. 

Martyn,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Exeter  in  1562,  was  the  author  of  the  "  History  and  Lives 
of  the  Kings  of  England  from  William  the  Conqueror 
to  the  End  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VHL"    Died  in  1617. 

Martyr.     See  Justin  Martyr. 

Martyr,  (Peter.)     See  Peter  Martyr. 

Martyr,  (Peter.)     See  Anghiera. 

Marucelli,  mi-roo-chel'lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Florence  in  1625, 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  learned  men.     Died  in  1713. 

Marucelli,  (Giovanni  Siekano,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  born  at  Umbria  in  1586  ;  died  in  1646. 

MaruUo,  mi-rool'lo,  (Michele  Tarcagnota — taR- 
kJn-yo'ti,)  [Lat.  Marul'lusTarchanio'tes,]  a  modern 
Greek  scholar  and  poet,  born  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  Latin  hymns  and  epigrams 
of  great  elegance.     Died  in  1500. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Histoire  de  la  I.itterature  Italienne." 

MaruUus.     See  Marullo. 

Ma-rul'lus,  (Marcus,)  a  Latin  satiric  poet  in  the  time 
of  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  style  is  commended  by  Saint 
Jerome.     There  is  only  a  fragment  of  his  works  extant. 

Marum  or  Marwm,  van,  vSn  niS'room,  (Marun,) 
a  Dutch  electrician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Delft, 
March  20,  1750.  He  was  educated  at  Groningen,  and 
became  a  physician,  and  professor  of  physics  at  Haarlem. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Dissertatio  de  Motu  Fluidorum 
in  Plantis,"  (1773,)  and  a  noted  "  Treatise  on  Electricity," 
(1776.)     Died  December  26,  1837. 

Marut  [Hindoo  pron.  miir'oot]  or  Mirut,  mi'root, 
a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  wind,"  and  applied  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology  to  the  genii  (or  gods)  presiding  over 
the  winds.  In  the  Vedas  the  Maruts  are  often  adr 
dressed  as  the  attendants  and  allies  of  Indra,  and  are 
called  the  sons  of  Prisni,  (or  Pri9ni,)  or  the  Earth  ;  they 
are  also  called  Rudras,  or  the  sons  of  Rudra,  (rood'ra.) 

See  the  Introductions  to  the  several  vohunes  of  Profbssor  Wil- 
son's translation  of  the  "Rig- Veda  ;"  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ma-ru'tha  orMaroutha,  ma-roo'tha,  Saint,  a  Syrian 
prelate,  became  liishoj)  of  Martyropolis.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Council  of  Nice,"  and  other  works.  Died  about  420. 

Mar'vell,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  English  patriot  and 
satirical  writer,  born  at  Kingston-upon-Hull  in  1620. 
Having  travelled  through  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Hol- 
land, where  he  acquired  the  languages  of  those  countries, 
he  was,  after  his  return  to  England,  appointed  assistant 
to  Milton,  then  Latin  secretary  to  Cromwell,  (1657.)  He 
was  first  elected  to  Parliament  in  1660,  and  in  this  office 
gave  such  entire  satisfaction  to  his  constituents  that  he 
continued  to  represent  them  till  his  death.  MarvelTs 
wit  and  distinguished  abilities  rendered  him  formidable 
to  the  corrupt  administration  of  Charles  II.,  and  atteni])ts 
were  made  to  win  him  over  by  the  offer  of  a  large  sum 
of  money,  which  he  promptly  refused,  thus  proving  his 
integrity  to  be  equal  to  his  talents.  As  a  writer  he  is 
chieffy  known  by  his  "  Rehearsal  Transposed,"  written 
in  answer  to  Dr.  Parker,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Oxford,  a 
fanatical  defender  of  absolute  power.     Died  in  1678. 

See  the  "Life  of  Andrew  Marvell,"  by  John  Dove;  Hartley 
CoLERioGE,  "Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns:"  Campbell, 
'"Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Disraeli,  "  Qnarrels  of  Au- 
thors:"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vols.  x.  and  xi.,  (1824,  1825-) 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1844;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  January,  1833. 

Marville,  de,  (Vigneul.)     See  Argonne,  d'. 


Mar'vjn,  (Enoch  M.,)  D,D.,  an  American  Methodist 
bishop,  ijoru  in  Wanen  county,  Missouri,  June  12,  1823. 
He  entc-red  the  ministry  in  1841,  and  was  chosen  a 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South  in 
1866.  He  published  "  Transubstantiation,"  "Christ's 
Atonement,"  "  Life  of  W.  G.  Capels,"  and  "  To  the  East 
by  Way  of  the  West."     Died  November  26,  1877 

Marw^an.     See  Merwan. 

Marx,  maRks,  (Adolph  Bernhard,)  a  German  com- 
poser and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Halle  in  1799,  became 
professor  of  music  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1830. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Theory  of  Musical  Compo- 
sition," (1837,)  and  "  General  Theory  of  Music,"  ("  Allge- 
meine  Musiklehre,"  1839.)   Died  at  Berlin,  May  17,  1866 

Marx,  (Karl,)  a  German  socialist  and  agitator,  born 
at  Treves  in  1818.  Educated  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  he 
became  an  editor  at  Cologne  in  1842,  but  in  1843  ^^^s 
expelled  from  Germany.  He  retired  to  Paris  and  en- 
gaged in  literary  work,  but  in  1846  was  sent  out  of  the 
country.  In  1848  he  was  driven  out  of  Belgium.  He, 
however,  was  actively  engaged  in  the  German  revolu- 
tionary movements  of  1848-49,  when  he  was  again  ban- 
ished. From  that  time  he  lived  mostly  in  London,  where 
he  became  one  of  the  leading  spirits  of  the  International 
Association.  Among  his  works  are  "  Misere  de  la  Phi- 
losophie,"  (1S47,)  "2ur  Kritik  der  politischen  Oekono- 
mie,"  (1859,)  "Das  Kapital,"  (1859,)  etc.  Died  March 
16,  18S3. 

Ma'ry,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  was  born 
in  1497.  She  became  in  15 14  the  third  wife  of  Louis 
XII.  of  France,  who  died  in  the  following  year.  A  few 
months  after  she  was  married  to  Charles  Brandon,  Duke 
oi  Suffolk.  She  left  one  daughter,  named  Frances,  who 
was  the  mother  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.     Died  in  1534. 

Mary,  commonly  called  Bloody  Queen  Mary,  ori 
account  of  her  cruel  persecution  of  the  Protestants, 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  by  his  first  wife,  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  was  born  at  Greenwich  in  1516.  During  her 
childhood  several  negotiations  were  entered  into  for  her 
marriage,  none  of  which,  however,  were  carried  into 
efl"ect.  After  the  divorce  of  Catherine,  the  title  of 
Princess  of  Wales  was  transferred  from  Mary  to  the 
')rincess  Elizabeth.  In  1536,  on  the  execution  of  Queen 
Anne,  Mary  was  induced  to  acknowledge  Henry's  eccle- 
siastical supremacy  and  the  nullity  of  his  marriage  with 
her  mother.  Having,  by  her  outward  compliance  with 
her  father's  whims,  in  some  degree  gained  his  favour, 
the  inheritance  was  secured  to  her,  after  her  brother 
Edward  and  his  heirs,  in  the  act  of  succession  of  1544. 
When  Edward  succeeded  to  the  throne,  Mary  resisted  all 
his  entreaties,  and  those  of  his  ministers,  to  change  her 
religious  views,  upon  which,  by  the  advice  of  Northum- 
berland, he  made  over  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  Grey. 
(See  Grey,  Lady  Jane.)  Mary's  first  act  when  estab- 
lished on  the  throne  was  to  restore  to  their  sees  Bonner, 
Gardiner,  and  other  bishops  who  had  been  deposed  during 
the  late  reign  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  Cranmer  and  Lati- 
mer were  committed  to  the  Tower.  These  measures  gave 
rise  to  an  insurrection  of  the  Protestants,  headed  by  Sir 
Thomas  Wyatt,  in  1554,  which,  being  soon  quelled,  was 
followed  by  the  execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  her  hus- 
band and  father,  and  of  Wyatt  himself.  In  July,  1554, 
Mary  was  married  to  the  son  of  Charles  V.,  afterwards 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  In  the  November  following,  Par- 
liament passed  acts  restoring  the  authority  of  the  pope 
and  reviving  the  former  statutes  against  heresy.  From 
this  time  began  a  fierce  persecution  of  the  Protestants, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  two  hundred  and  eighty  victims 
died  at  the  stake  between  the  years  1555  and  1558. 
Among  the  most  eminent  of  these  martyrs  were  Bishops 
Latimer  of  Worcester  and  Ridley  of  London,  and  Cran- 
mer, Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  1557  Mary  was 
induced  to  assist  Philip  in  his  war  against  France,  and 
the  united  forces  of  England  and  Sj^ain  obtained  a  victory 
over  the  French  at  Saint-Qiientin.  But  the  following 
year  Calais  was  taken  by  the  Duke  of  Guise.  1  his 
was  a  severe  blow  to  Mary,  and  probably  hastened  her 
death,  which  took  place  in  November,  1558.  She  was 
succeeded  by  her  half-sister  Elizabeth. 

Without  defending  the  cruelties  with  which  Mary's 
reign  has  been  reproached,  the  candid  historian  will  find 


€  as  i4,  1;  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  v:., guttural;  N,  tusal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  5;  th  as  in  this.     (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARY 


1672 


MARY 


^ 


many  palliations  for  her  conduct  in  the  spirit  of  that  age, 
which  favoured  persecution,  in  the  injustice  with  which 
she  had  been  treated  by  her  father,  and  in  the  state  of 
her  health  during  that  part  of  her  reign  when  the  per- 
secutions were  at  their  height,  which  made  it  impossible 
for  her  to  know  the  true  state  of  affairs.  Froude,  who 
will  hardly  be  suspected  of  any  bias  in  her  favour,  says, 
"  To  the  time  of  her  accession  she  had  lived  a  blameless 
and,  in  many  respects,  a  noble  life  ;  and  few  men  or 
women  have  lived  less  capable  of  doing  knowingly  a 
wrong  thing."  He  adds  that  her  trials  and  disappoint- 
ments, "it  can  hardly  be  doubted,  affected  her  sanity." 
And  he  ends  with  laying  the  chief  blame  of  the  persecu- 
tions of  her  reign  first  on  Gardiner,  and  secondly,  and 
more  especially,  on  Cardinal  Pole. 

See  Froude,  "History  of  Ens;land,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xxviii  ,  and 
the  whole  of  vol.  vi.  ;  Strickland,  "Queens  of  England;"  also, 
Hume's  and  Lingard's  "  History  of  England." 

Mary  II.,  Queen  of  England,  the  eldest  daughter  of 
[ames  II.  by  Anne  Hyde,  his  first  wife.  She  was  born  in 
London,  April  30,  1662,  was  bred  a  Protestant,  and  in 
1677  married  her  cousin,  the  Prince  of  Orange,  with 
whom  as  William  III.  she  reigned  conjointly  as  sover- 
eign of  Great  liritain,  being  proclaimed  February  13, 
1689.     Died  of  smallpox,  December  28,  1694,  (O.S.) 

Mary,  [Gr.  Mapt'a  ,•  Lat.  M.ari'a  ;  Fr.  Marie,  mi're'; 
It.  Maria.  mS-ree'S,]  Saint,  a  Hebrew  woman,  cele- 
brated as  the  mother  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  styled 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 
(lieata  Virgo  Maria,)  also  the  Mother  of  God  and  Queen 
of  Heaven. 

.See  Matthew  i.  ;  Luke  i.  ;  John  i.  and  xix.  25;  Duvergier  ra 
Hauranne,  "Vie  de  la  sainte  Vierge,"  1664;  F.  W.  Genthe,  "Dis 
'iingfVau  Maria,"  etc.,  1852;  Carlo  Massi.m,  "  Vitadella  santissima 
'ersine  Maria,"  1830;  Orsini,  "La  Vierge:  Histoire  de  la  M^re 
de  Dieu,"  etc.,  1837. 

Mary  of  Burgundy,  [  Fr.  Marie  de  Bourcogne, 
mfre'  deh  booR'gofi',)  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold 
and  Isabella  de  Bourbon,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1457. 
On  the  death  of  her  father,  in  1477,  she  became  heiress 
of  Burgundy,  and  was  married  the  same  year  to  the 
archduke  Maximilian,  son  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
She  died  in  1482,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  her  horse. 
She  left  two  children,  Philip,  the  father  of  Charles  V., 
and  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Savoy. 

See  Barante,  "Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  ;"  Gaillard, 
"Histoire  de  Marie  de  Bourgogne;"  Munch,  "Marie  von  Bur- 
gund,"  1832. 

Mary  of  Guise,  (gweez,)  [Fr.  Marie  de  Guisk, 
mt're'  deh  gii-^z',]  or  Mary  of  Lorraine,  [Fr.  Marie 
DE  Lorraine,  mt're'  deh  lo'rin',]  a  daughter  of  Claude, 
Duke  of  Guise,  born  in  15 15,  was  married  in  1534  to 
Louis  d'Orleans,  Duke  of  Longueville,  who  died  the 
following  year.  In  1538  she  was  married  to  James  V. 
of  Scotland,  and  after  his  death  became,  for  a  short  time, 
regent  of  the  kingdom.  She  is  described  by  the  histo- 
rian De  Thou  as  naturally  inclined  to  justice  and  tolera- 
tion, but  she  was  influenced  by  the  court  of  France  and 
h.er  brothers,  the  Duke  and  Cardinal  of  Guise.  She 
died  in  1560,  leaving  a  daughter  Mary,  afterwards  the 
celebrated  Queen  of  Scots. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xxxvii.  and 
xxxviii.  :  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Robertson,  "His- 
tory of  .Scotland  ;"   Froude,  "  History  of  England." 

Mary  Magdalene.     See  Magdalene. 

Mary  de'  Medici.     See  Marie  de  M6dicis. 

Mary  Stu'art,  Queen  of  Scots,  born  at  Linlithgow 
about  the  7th  of  December,  1542,  was  the  only  surviving 
child  of  James  V.  and  Mary  of  Guise,  (or  Lorraine,)  who 
was  a  daughter  of  the  I'rench  Duke  of  Guise.  James 
V.  died  a  few  days  after  the  birth  of  Mary,  who  was 
crowned  in  September,  1543,  by  Cardinal  Beatoun.  This 
ambitious  and  unscrupulous  prelate,  who  was  the  head 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  usurped  the  office  of  re- 
gent. A  treaty  having  been  negotiated  for  the  marriage 
of  Mary  with  the  Dauphin  of  France,  she  was  sent  to 
France  in  the  summer  of  1548  to  com|)lete  her  education. 
Before  the  year  just  mentioned,  Scotland  had  been  in- 
volved in  a  war  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who 
wished  to  obtain  the  hand  of  Mary  for  his  son  and  thus 
unite  the  two  countries  under  one  crown. 

Educated  at  the  polite  and  voluptuous  court  of  Paris, 
Mary  excelled  in  various  accomplishments,  and  at  an 


early  age  became  mistress  of  the  Latin,  French,  and  Ital- 
ian languages.  About  the  age  of  fourteen  she  composed 
and  pronounced  before  Henry  II.  a  Latin  oration,  in 
which  she  maintained  that  it  is  becoming  for  women  to 
learn  literature  and  liberal  arts.  Her  rare  and  radiant 
personal  beauty,  her  intellectual  graces,  and  her  fasci- 
nating manners  rendered  her  a  general  favourite  and  the 
chief  ornament  of  the  French  court.  "Graceful  alike  in 
person  and  intellect,"  says  Froude,  "she  possessed  that 
peculiar  beauty  in  which  the  form  is  lost  in  the  expres- 
sion, and  which  every  jjainter,  therefore,  has  represented 
differently.  Rarely,  perhaps,  has  any  woman  combined 
so  many  noticeable  qualities  as  Mary  Stuart  :  with  a 
feminine  insight  into  men  and  things  and  human  life, 
she  had  cultivated  herself  to  that  high  perfection  in 
which  accomplishments  were  no  longer  adventitious 
ornaments,  but  were  wrought  into  her  organic  constitu- 
tion. .  .  .  She  had  vigour,  energy,  tenacity  of  purpose, 
with  perfect  and  never-failing  self-possession,  and,  as  the 
one  indispensable  foundation  for  the  effective  use  of  all 
other  qualities,  she  had  indomitable  courage."  ("  History 
of  England,"  vol.  vii.  chap,  iv.) 

In  April,  1558,  she  was  married  to  the  dauphin,  who 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  Henry  II.,  ascended  the 
throne  of  France,  as  PVancis  II.,  in  1559.  On  the  death 
of  the  English  queen  Mary,  Francis  and  Mary  assumed 
the  titles  of  King  and  Queen  of  England,  refusing  to 
recognize  the  right  of  Elizabeth  to  the  throne.  The 
brilliant  prospects  of  Mary  were  suddenly  clouded  by 
the  death  of  Francis,  who  died,  without  issue,  in  De- 
cember, 1560.  One  great  obstacle  to  her  prosperity 
was  her  zealous  attachment  to  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion, which  was  rejected  or  abhorred  by  a  majority  of 
her  subjects.  The  Scottish  Estates  sent  Lord  James 
Stuart,  Mary's  half-brother,  to  invite  her  to  Scotland 
and  to  offer  her  the  free  exercise  of  her  religion.  Having 
resolved  to  return  to  her  native  land,  she  requested 
l^ermission  to  pass  through  England  on  her  way  thither ; 
but  Elizabeth  would  not  grant  this  favour  to  a  rival 
claimant  of  her  crown.  Mary  was  thus  reduced  to  the 
alternative  of  a  voyage  by  sea,  with  the  risk  of  being 
captured  by  the  English  fleet.  She  embarked  in  August, 
1 561,  and  parted  with  regret  from  la  belle  France,  at 
which,  with  eyes  bathed  in  tears,  she  continued  to  gaze 
until  it  was  hidden  by  the  darkness.  After  a  passage  of 
four  days,  she  arrived  safely  at  Leith,  and  chose  for  her 
chief  advisers  Lord  James  .Stuart  and  William  Maitland, 
of  Lethington,  both  Protestants.  She  made  friends  even 
among  the  Protestants,  but  failed  to  propitiate  John 
Knox,  with  whom  she  had  an  interview.  According  to 
Randolph,  he  made  her  weep  on  this  occasion. 

Soon  after  her  arrival  in  Scotland,  Mary  sent  Secretary 
Maitland  to  London  as  ambassador.  He  made  overtures 
of  i^eace  and  friendship,  requiring,  however,  as  an  indis- 
pensable condition,  that  Elizabeth  and  the  English  Par- 
liament should  recognize  Mary  as  her  successor  in  case 
the  former  should  die  without  issue.  On  this  condition 
Mary  promised  she  would  not  clairn  the  English  crown 
during  the  life  of  Elizabeth.  "  Elizabeth,"  says  Froude, 
"refused  ]>ositively  to  name  Mary  Stuart  her  successor, 
knowing  that  she  would  be  signing  her  own  death- 
warrant."  These  words  suggest  the  probable  assassina- 
tion of  Elizabeth  by  the  partisans  of  her  rival.  Mary 
attempted  to  ojien  the  chapel  royal  for  public  Catholic 
service,  but  the  Protestant  mob  drove  away  the  ]:)riesf 
with  a  broken  head,  and  the  queen  made  concessi(:)n  to 
the  popular  will  by  ordering  that  the  service  should  be 
performed  privately.  In  1562  Mary  wrote  a  letter  to 
Elizabeth,  and  expressed  a  great  desire  to  have  an  inter- 
view with  her.  Several  courteously-worded  letters  were 
exchanged  by  them,  and  their  correspondence  grew  more 
and  more  cordial ;  but  a  serious  difference  arose  on  the 
choice  of  a  husband  for  Mary.  Elizabeth  objected  to 
her  proposed  marriage  with  Don  Carlos  of  S])ain,  and 
suggested  Lord  Robert  Dudley,  her  own  favourite  ;  but 
Mary  ])referred  her  cousin  Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Darnley, 
(a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lennox,)  whom  she  married  on 
the  29th  of  July,  1565.  By  this  act  she  provoked  the 
violent  hostility  of  the  English  queen,  and  estranged 
from  her  sup])ort  her  half-brother,  James  Stuart,  Earl 
of  Murray,  the  ablest  Scottish   statesman  of  his  time. 


i,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon 


MAJ^V 


1673 


MASCA  GNI 


"Iler  gentle  administration,"  says  Robertson,  "had 
secured  the  hearts  of  her  subjects,  who  were  imi^atient 
for  her  marriage  and  wished  the  crown  to  descend 
in  a  right  line  from  their  ancient  monarchs.  She 
herself  was  the  most  amiable  woman  of  her  age.  .  .  . 
No  event  in  that  age  excited  stronger  political  fears  and 
jealousies,  none  interested  more  deeply  the  passions 
of  several  princes,  than  the  marriage  of  the  Scottish 
queen."  ("  History  of  Scotland.")  Mary  made  an  un- 
wise choice  at  last ;  for  the  character  of  Darnley  was  at 
once  weak,  capricious,  and  obstinate.  She  gave  him 
the  title  of  king,  by  a  stretch  of  her  prerogative  which, 
according  to  Robertson,  was  a  strong  proof  of  the  vio- 
lence of  her  love  or  the  weakness  of  her  counsels.  In- 
stigated by  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  Scottish  malcontents, 
including  the  Earl  of  Murray,  took  arms  against  Mary 
in  August,  1565  ;  but  this  revolt  was  quickly  supj^resseci 
by  the  queen,  who  rode  on  horseback  at  the  head  of  her 
army,  and  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents  took  refuge  in 
England.  Elizabeth  disclaimed  all  responsibility  for  their 
conduct,  and  expressed  her  abhorrence  of  their  treason. 

In  1566  Mary  Stuart  joined  the  King  of  France,  the 
pope,  and  others,  in  a  Catholic  league  for  the  extirpation 
of  heresy,  and  began  to  attempt  the  restoration  of  popery 
in  Scotland.  "To  this  fatal  resolution,"  says  Robertson, 
"  maybe  imputed  all  the  subsequent  calamities  of  Mary's 
life."  She  took  into  her  confidence  and  favour  David 
Rizzio,  (or  Ritzio,)  an  Italian  musician,  who  became  lier 
French  secretary  and  inseparable  com])anion,  even  in 
the  council-room.  "  He  had  the  control,"  says  Froude, 
"of  all  the  business  of  the  state."  Mary  soon  repented 
of  her  union  with  the  insolent  and  dissolute  Lord  Darn- 
ley,  who  treated  her  with  rudeness  and  neglect  and 
became  jealous  of  Rizzio,  whom  he  resolved  to  remove 
by  violence.  Rizzio  was  dragged  from  the  queen's  pres- 
ence by  the  accomplices  of  Darnley,  and  killed,  in  March, 
1566.  This  act  was  the  result  of  a  plot  in  which  the 
Earl  of  Morton,  Ruthven,  Maitland,  and  other  Protestants 
united  for  political  reasons.  Deserted  and  betrayed  by 
Darnley,  they  failed  to  recover  power,  and  fled  to  Eng- 
land. Although  Mary  deeply  resented  the  conduct  of  her 
husband,  she  plied  him  with  caresses  and  gained  him  over 
to  her  interest.  About  this  time  a  new  favourite  acquired 
an  ascendant  over  her  heart  and  began  to  influence  her 
counsels.  This  was  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Hotiiwell, 
a  man  of  some  ability,  but  unscrupuhnis  and  reckless  to 
the  last  degree.  In  June,  1566,  occurred  an  event  which 
apparently  tended  to  confirm  the  power  and  promote 
the  interest  of  Queen  Mary, — the  birth  of  her  son  James. 
In  January,  1567,  Darnley  was  attacked  with  a  severe 
illness  at  Glasgow,  where  Mary  visited  him,  and,  having 
employed  her  artifices  to  gain  his  confidence,  persuaded 
him  to  be  removed  to  the  vicinity  <>f  Edinburgh.  He 
was  lodged  in  a  detached  house  at  Kirk-a-Field,  very 
near  the  capital.  Mary  attended  her  husband  assidu- 
ously, and  slept  two  nights  in  the  house  at  Kirk-a-F"ield, 
which  she  left  on  the  9th  of  February  at  11  p.m.  About 
three  hours  later  the  house  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder, 
and  Darnley  was  found  dead  in  the  garden.  .Suspicion 
fell  on  liothwell  as  the  chief  perpetrator  of  this  crime, 
and  on  Mary  as  an  accessary.  .She  outraged  public  sen- 
timent so  far  that  she  not  only  screened  liothwell  from  a 
fair  trial,  but  married  him  in  May,  1567.  Robertson  and 
Froude  agree  in  the  opinion  that  Mary  was  responsible 
for  the  death  of  Darnley. 

Impelled  byajustand  burning  indignation, the  Scottish 
lords  and  people,  both  Protestant  and  Catholic,  rose  in 
arms  against  Mary  and  Bothvvell,  v.-ho,  in  June,  1567, 
met  them  at  Carberry  Hill  with  a  small  army.  The 
troops  of  the  queen,  however,  refused  to  fight,  and  she 
was  compelled  to  surrender  herself  to  her  adversaries, 
who  confined  her  on  a  little  island  in  Loch  Leven.  Queen 
F.lizabeth  now  interj^osed  in  favour  of  Mary,  thinking 
the  treatment  she  received  a  dangerous  example,  and  de- 
manded her  release, — without  effect.  The  captive  queen 
abdicated  in  favour  of  her  son,  and  the  Earl  of  Murray 
became  legent,  (July,  1567.)  Letters  which  Mary  had 
written  to  Bothwell  were  produced  in  the  Scottisii  Par- 
liament, by  which  she  was  declared  to  be  accessory  to 
the  murder  of  the  king.  By  the  aid  of  George  Douglas, 
a  youth  of  eighteen,  she  escaped  from  prison  in  May, 


1568,  and  was  quickly  joined  by  an  army  of  six  thousand 
men,  which  Regent  Murray  routed  at  Langside  on  the 
13th  of  May.  Mary  fled  to  England,  and  rashly  threw 
herself  on  the  generosity  of  her  rival,  who  refused  to 
admit  her  into  her  presence  because  she  was  not  yet 
cleared  from  the  charge  of  murder.  Treated  as  a  pris- 
oner, Mary  was  confined  at  Bolton  Castle,  Coventry,  and 
Fotheringay.  She  had  many  adherents  in  England,  who 
made  several  attempts  against  the  ))ower  and  life  of 
Elizabeth.  In  1586  she  was  accused  of  complicity  in 
Babington's  conspiracy,  for  which  she  was  tried  by  a 
commission,  and  condemned  without  proof.  She  was  be- 
headed at  Fotheringay  Castle  on  the  8th  of  February,  1587. 

"All  contemporary  authors,"  says  Robertson,  "agree 
in  ascribing  to  Mary  the  utmost  beauty  of  countenance 
and  elegance  of  shape  of  which  the  human  form  is  ca- 
pable. Her  hair  was  black,  her  eyes  were  a  dark  gray, 
her  com])lexion  was  exquisitely  fine,  and  her  hands  and 
arms  remarkably  delicate  both  as  to  shape  and  colour. 
Her  stature  was  of  a  height  that  rose  to  the  majestic." 

See  Burton,  "  Histoi-y  of  Scotland;"  P'roude,  "History  of 
England;"  Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Tvtler,  "His- 
tory of  Scotland;"  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Samuel  Jebb, 
"Life  of  Mary  Stnart,"  1725;  Chalmers,  "Life  of  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots,"  1818;  Miss  Bengkr,  "Life  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots," 
1S23  ;  Bell,  "  Life  of  Mary  Stuart,"  1831  ;  Buckingham,  "  Life  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,"  1844  ;  Dft  Maksy,  "  Vie  de  Marie  Stuart," 
3  vols.,  1743;  Gentz,  "Marie  Stuart's  Leben."  170Q;  Schuetz, 
"  Leben  Marie  Stuart's,"  1839  ;  Mignet,  "  Histoirede  Marie  Stuart," 
2  vols.,  1854:  Dargaui),  "  Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart,"  2  vols.,  1850; 
Strickland,  "  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland,"  8  vols.,  1854; 
Labanoff.  "RecueildesLettres  de  Marie  Stuart,"  7  vols.,  1844. 

Marzari-Pencati,  maRd-zi'ree  pSn-ka'tee,  (Giu- 
SEi'i'E,)  Count,  an  Italian  mineralogist,  born  at  Vicenza 
in  1777,  discovered  in  1810  the  mine  of  fossil  coal  at 
Borgo  di  Valsugna.  He  invented  an  instrument  for 
measuring  angles,  called  "  Tachigonimetro."  Died  in 
1 8,^56. 

Mar'zi-als,  (Thkophile,)  an  English  song- writer,  born 
in  Brussels,  December  21,  1850.  His  father  wasa  French 
(Gascon)  Protestant  pastor,  and  his  mother  was  English. 
He  was  educated  in  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  England. 
In  1S70  he  obtained  employment  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  has  i)ublished  "The  Gallery  of  Pigeons,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1S73,)  ^''"^'  many  songs,  ballads,  rondeaux,  etc. 
He  has  also  composed  music  for  many  songs  and  ballads, 
and  is  a  successful  vocalist. 

Masaccio  Guidi  da  San  Giovanni,  mS-sit'cho 
goo-ee'dee  d&  siln  jo-vSn'nee,  (ToMMASO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  jjainter  of  the  Florentine  scho(jl,  born  near 
Florence  in  1401,  ranks  first  among  the  artists  of  the 
second  or  middle  age  of  modern  painting.  His  works 
were  studied  by  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Leonardo 
da  Vinci.  His  figures  are  characterized  by  great  anima- 
tion and  fidelity  to  nature  and  graceful  arrangement  of 
the  draperies.  He  also  excelled  in  perspective,  which 
he  learned  under  Brunelleschi.  "  Masaccio,"  says  Fuseli, 
"  was  a  genius,  and  the  head  of  an  epoch  in  the  art.  He 
may  be  considered  as  the  precursor  of  Raphael,  who 
imitated  his  principles  and  sometimes  transcribed  his 
figures."  Among  his  most  adinired  works  are  the  frescos 
of  San  Pietro  del  Carmine  at  Florence,  and  the  picture 
of  "  Christ  Curing  the  Demoniacs."  Masaccio  died  in 
1443,  and  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Me- 
moirs of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Masaniello,  mil  sS-ne-el'lo,  or  Tommaso  Aniello, 
iDorn  at  Ainalfi,  in  Italy,  in  1622,  was  the  son  of  a  fisher- 
man, and  in  1647  became  leader  of  a  revolt  against  the 
Duke  of  Arcos,  Spanish  Viceroy  of  Naples.  At  the  head 
of  50,000  insurgents,  he  compelled  the  duke  to  abolish 
a  tax  which  he  had  imposed,  and  also  to  give  up  the 
charter  of  exemption  granted  to  Naples  by  Charles  V. 
The  intoxication  produced  by  this  sudden  change  of 
fortune  seems  to  have  affected  the  reason  of  Masaniello 
and,  having  by  his  conduct  alienated  his  friends,  he 
was  soon  after  assassinated  by  the  adherents  of  the 
viceroy. 

See  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  Masaniello,"  by  Francis 
MiDON,  London.  1729;  A.  Giraffo,  "  Rivolnzioni  di  Napoli,"  1647  ; 
Meissner,  "Masaniello;  historisclies  Bruchstiick,"  1785;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Au- 
gust, 1829. 

Mascagni,  mJs-kan'yee,  (Donato,)  an  Italian  monk 


€as^;  9as  j;  gharJ;  gasy;  G,  H,  Vi,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasa;  th  as  in ////>.     (J[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MASCAGNI 


1674 


MASINJSSA 


and  painter,  called  Fra  Arsenio,  born  at  Florence  in 
1579  ;  died  in  1636. 

Mascagni,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  anatomist,  born  near 
Sienna  in  1752.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  in 
the  University  of  Sienna  in  1774.  He  wrote  an  admi- 
rable work  entitled  "History  and  Iconography  of  the 
Lymphatic  Vessels  of  the  Ilunian  Body,"  an  outline 
of  which  had  previously  obtained  the  prize  offered 
by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris.  In  1801  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy,  chemistry,  and  physi- 
ology at  the  hospital  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  at  Florence. 
Among  his  works  is  "Anatomia  universa."  Died  in 
1815. 

See  G.  Sakchi,\ni,  "  Klo.e;io  del  P.  Mascattni."  1816:  Tipai.do, 
"Biografiadeuli  lialinni  llkistri;"  DESGE^mTTKS,  article  in  the  "Bio- 
graphie  M^dicale." 

Mascardi,  mas-klRMee,(AGOSTiNo,)an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Sarzana  in  1591.  He  was  appointed  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII.  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  della 
Sapienza  at  Rome,  (1628.)  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "  Five  Treatises  on  the  Art  of  Writing  History." 
Died  in  1640. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Mascardi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and 
writer  on  jurisprudence,  born  at  Sarzana,  near  Genoa, 
was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1588. 

Mascaron,  mSs'kt'ri.N',  (Jules,)  an  eminent  French 
prelate  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Ai.x  in  1634.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  funeral  oration  on 
Anne  of  Austria,  (1666,)  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
preacher-in-ordinary  to  Louis  XIV.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Tul'e  in  1671,  and  of  Agen  in  1679.  He  is 
said  to  have  converted  many  Calvinists  in  the  latter  dio- 
cese to  Catholicism.  He  died  in  1703,  leaving  all  his 
property  to  the  poor,  to  whom  his  virtues  had  greatly 
endeared  him.  A  volume  of  his  "  Funeral  Orations" 
was  published  in  1704.  That  on  Marshal  Turenne  is 
eulogized  by  La  Harj^e  as  a  master-piece. 

Masch,  mish,  (Andreas  Gottlieb,)  a  Germar, 
writer  and  theologian,  born  in  Mecklenbuig  in  1724. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Contributions 
towards  the  History  of  Remarkable  Books,"  (1769,)  and 
an  excellent  edition  of  Lelong's  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra." 
Died  in  1807. 

Mascheroni,  mSs-ki-ro'nee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  near  Bergamo  in  1750.  He  became 
professor  of  Greel<»at  Pavia,  and  subsequently  of  geom- 
etry at  Bergamo.  On  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislative  body  in  the 
Cisalpine  Republic.  He  published  "  Researches  on  the 
Equilibrium  of  Vaults,"  (1785,)  and  other  mathematical 
treatises  of  a  high  character,  also  a  curious  work  called 
"The  Geometry  of  the  Compass,"  (1797,)  and  a  number 
of  poems.     Died  in  Paris  in  1800. 

See  Sav!oi.i,  "Memorie  alia  Vita  dell'Abate  L.  Ma?clieroni," 
i8oi  :  G.  Mangili,  "  Elocio  storico  di  L.  Mascheroni,"  1809  :  Mon- 
TUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathdmatiques ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie 
Geiierale." 

Masclef,  mts'klSf,  (Fran<;ois,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1662.  He  published  a  "Hebrew 
Grammar,"  ("Grammatica  Ilebraica,")  in  which  he  op- 
poses the  use  of  vowel-points.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  best  works  of  the  kind.     Died  in  1728. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Mascov,  mis'kof,  (Got-ifried,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1698.  He  lectured  at  Gottingen,  and 
published  several  works.     Died  in  1760. 

Mascov,  [Lat.  Masco'vius,]  (Johann  Jacob,)  a 
German  jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1689, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Leipsic  in  1 7 19,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Public  Law," 
and  other  legal  works,  in  Latin.  He  also  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Germany  to  the  Commencement  of  the 
Franconian  Monarchy,"  (unfinished.)     Died  in  1761. 

See  "  Memoria  J.  J.  ^L^scovil,"  Leipsic,  1761. 

Mascovius.     See  Mascov. 

Mascrier,  Le,  leh  mJts'kRe-i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  littirateiir,  born  at  Caen  in  1697.  He  assisted 
in  the  translation  of  De  Thou's  "Universal  History," 
and  published  several  original  works.     Died  in  1760. 


Masdeu,  mJs'dS-oo,  (Juan  Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  historian,  was  born  at  Barcelona  in  1 740.  He 
wrote  a  "Critical  History  of  Spain  and  of  Sjianish  Cul- 
ture in  every  Department."  (20  vols.,  1 783-1800,)  which 
has  a  high  reputation  for  learning  and  accuracy.  Died 
in  1817. 

Masen.     See  Masenius. 

Masenius,  md-sa'ne-us,  or  Masen,  mS'sen,  (James,) 
a  Flemish  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Juliers  in  1606. 
He  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  college  of 
Cologne,  and  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"Sarcotis,"  or  "Sarcothea,"  which,  it  is  pretended  by 
Lauder,  suggested  to  Milton  the  idea  of  "  Paradisf 
Lost."     Died  in  1681. 

Maseres  or  Mazeres,  mfzaiu',  (Francis,)  Baron, 
a  distinguished  mathematician,  of  French  extraction, 
born  in  London  in  1 731.  He  was  for  a  time  attorney- 
general  for  Canada,  and  in  1773  was  appointed  cursitor- 
baron  of  the  exchequer.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Dis- 
sertation on  the  Use  of  the  Negative  Sign  in  Algebra," 
and  other  similar  works,  and  reprinted  at  his  own  ex- 
pense a  collection  of  the  writings  of  Kepler  and  other 
mathematicians,  also  one  containing  the  optical  works 
of  Descartes,  Huyghens,  Gregory,  and  Plalley.  The 
latter  was  completed  by  Mr.  Babbage.  He  was  recorder 
of  the  city  of  London  for  about  forty  years.  Died  in 
1824. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1824. 

Masers  de  Latude,  mS'zaiR'  deh  it'tiid',  (Henri,) 
was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1725.  Having  given  offence 
to  Madame  de  Pomi^adour,  he  was  by  her  orders  im- 
jirisoned  in  the  Bastille.  After  remaining  captive  nearly 
three  years,  he  effected  his  escape,  (1756,)  with  the  assist- 
ance of  a  fellow-prisoner  and  by  means  of  the  most 
])ersevering  toil.  He  was  soon  arrested,  with  his  com- 
jjanion,  D'Alegre,  and,  after  suffering  an  imprisonment 
of  thirty  years,  was  at  length  released,  by  the  efforts 
of  Madame  Legros,  who  interested  Cardinal  Rohan, 
Madame  Necker,  and  others,  in  his  behalf.  His  "  Me- 
moirs" were  published  by  M.  Thierry.     Died  in  1805. 

See  Thierry,  "  Le  Despotisme  devoile,  ou  Memoires  de  La- 
tude," 3  vols.,  1792. 

Mash'am,  (Abigail  Hill,)  born  in  London  about 
1670,  was  a  cousin  of  the  celebrated  Duchess  of  Marlbo- 
rough, upon  whose  recommendation  she  became  waiting- 
maid  to  the  princess,  afterwards  Queen  Anne.  She 
continued  in  this  post  after  Anne  ascended  the  throne, 
and  by  her  arts  supplanted  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough 
in  the  royal  favour.  She  was  married  in  1707  to  Mr, 
Masham,  who  was  made  a  peer  in  171 1.  It  appears 
that  her  influence  raised  Harley  and  the  Tories  to  power 
in  1710,  deprived  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  of  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  (1712,)  and  made  important  changes 
in  the  politics  of  Europe.  In  allusion  to  her  intrigues, 
Macaulay  says,  "The  great  party  which  had  long  swayed 
the  destinies  o{  Euro])e  was  undermined  by  bedchamber- 
women."     Died  in  1734. 

See  Macaulav's  Review  of  Lord  Mahon's  "History  of  the 
War  of  the  Succession." 

Masham,  (Lady  Damaris,)  the  daughter  of  Dr. 
Ralph  Cudworth,  born  at  Cambridge,  England,  in  1658, 
was  married  to  Sir  Francis  Masham,  of  Esse.x.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  piety  and  for  her  attainments  in 
history,  philosophy,  and  divinity.  She  was  a  friend  and 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Locke,  who  died  at  her  house, 
having  resided  there  for  some  time.  Lady  Masham 
wrote  several  religious  treatises.     Died  in  1708. 

See  Lord  King,  "Life  of  Locke." 

Mas-i-nis'sa,  [Gr.  Mafianwiacr;?^,]  King  of  Numidia, 
the  son  of  Gula,'who  reigned  in  Massylia,  was  born  about 
250  B.C.  In  the  second  Punic  war  he  fought  at  first  for 
the  Carthaginians  in  Spain,  but,  having  been  generously 
treated  by  Scipio  Africanus,  he  became  a  zealous  and 
faithful  ally  of  the  Romans.  He  waged  war  with  Syphax, 
a  Numidian  prince,  and  was  defeated  by  him  twice.  The 
Romans  under  Scipio  came  to  his  assistance,  and  in  203 
the  allies  gained  a  decisive  victory.  Among  the  captives 
was  the  charming  .Sophonisha,  a  Carthaginian  lady, 
wiiom  Masinissa  married.  Being  sternly  reproved  by 
Scipio  for  this  impolitic  act,  he  sent  her  a  cup  of  poison, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h.,  b>,  same,  less  prolonted;  a,  e,  T,  6,  il,  v.  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fAt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MASIUS 


1675 


MASON 


which  she  drank,  it  is  said,  with  heroic  spirit.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  of  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of 
Zama,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  i<ingdom  of  Nuniidia. 
lie  is  said  to  have  been  a  wise  ruler  and  to  have  done 
much  to  civilize  his  subjects.  He  died  about  the  age  of 
ninety-seven,  leaving  the  kingdom,  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Scipio  Tlimilianus,  to  his  three  sons,  Micipsa, 
Gulussa,  and  Mastanabal. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "Lectures  on  Roman  History,"  vol.  i.  ;  Livv, 
"History  of  Rome,"  books  xxiv.-xxx.  ;  Sallust,  "Jugurtlia;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Masius.     See  Maes,  (Andreas.) 
Mas'k?!!,  (William,)  an   English   author,  born   in 
Bath  in  1S14.     " 


Mason,  (Gf.orge,)  Colonkl,  an  English  statesman 
and  soldier  under  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  and  Charlea 
H.,  eniigratr-fl  \,^  America  about  1654,  and  settled  in 
Virginia.     Died  in  1686. 

Mason,  (George,)  an  American  statesman,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Stafford  county, 
now  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  in  1726.  He  wrote  the 
Declaration  of  Rights  and  the  Constitution  of  Virginia, 
{1776,)  after  which  he  served  in  the  legislature.  In  1777 
he  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  was 
rejiuted  one  of  the  ablest  debaters  that  Virginia  ever 
])rodticed.  He  was  a  member  of  the  national  convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  but 


He  graduated  in  1836  at  University  Col-  ]  he  refused  to  sign  that  Constitution,  and  vehemently 
lege,  0.\ford,  was  (1837-50)  an  Anglican  clergyman,  but  j  opposed  its  adoption  in  the  Virginia  Assembly,  for  the 


on  account  of  the  famous  Gorhain  controversy  became 
in  1850  a  Roman  Catholic  layman.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England," 
(1S44;  new  edition,  18S2,)  "  Monumenta  Ritualia,"  (1845  ; 
new  edition,  18S2,)  "Dissertation  on  Holy  Baptism," 
(1848,)  '•  Odds  and  Ends,"  (1872,)  "  Ancient  and  Mediae- 
val Ivories,"  (1S72,)  etc.     Died  April  12,  1890. 

Mas'ke-lyne,  (Nevil,)  an  English  astronomer  of 
great  merit,  born  in  London  in  1732.  He  was  sent  to 
Saint  Helena  in  1761  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus, 
in  which  enterprise  he  failed  because  the  sun  was  ob- 
scured by  clouds.  In  1765  he  succeeded  Mr.  Bliss  as 
astronomer  royal.  He  originated  the  "Nautical  Alma- 
nack," (1767,)  and  sui)erintended  its  publication  till  his 
death.  It  acquired  a  high  rej^utation  in  Euro|)e,  and  was 
styled  by  Lalande  "the  most  perfect  Ephemeris  that 
had  ever  been  made."  For  forty-seven  years  Maskelyne 
made  exact  observations  of  the  sky  at  Greenwich,  and 
was  the  first  to  give  a  standard  catalogue  of  stars,  (1790.) 
In  1772  he  visited  Scotland,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
density  of  the  earth  by  observing  the  effect  of  the  moun- 
tain Schehallien  upon  the  plumb-line.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  astronomical  treatises  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions,"  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  also  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences in  Paris.     Died  in  181 1. 

See  Delambke,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  N.  Maskelyne,"  1813; 
Reks,  "  Cyclopxdia  ;"  Dbi.ambrr,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  au 
dixlmitiime  Siecle  ;"  "  Montlily  Review"  for  March,  17S6. 

Mris-Latrie,  de,  deh  mi'lt'tRc',  (Jacques  Marie 
Joseph  Louis,)  a  French  archaeologist  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  Castelnaudary  in  1815.  He  published  a 
"Ilistoiic  Chronology  of  the  Popes,  General  Councils," 
etc.,  (1837,)  "History  of  the  Isle  of  Cyprus  under  the 
Rule  of  the  Princes  of  the  House  of  Lusignan,"  (1852,) 
and  "  Chronicles  of  Ernoult  and  Bernard  the  Treasurer," 
(1872,)  etc. 

Maso  da  San  Friano.     See  Manzuoli. 

Ma'son,  (Armisiead  Thomson,)  a  son  of  Stevens 
T.  Mason,  (1760-1803,)  was  born  in  Loudon  county, 
Virginia,  in  1787.  He  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  Democrats  in  1815,  and  was  killed 
in  a  duel  by  J.  ril.  McCarty  in  1819. 

Ma'son,  (Charles,)  an  English  astronomer,  who 
assisted  Dr.  Bradley  in  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Green- 
wich, He  published  an  improved  edition  of  Mayer's 
"Lunar  Tables,"  and,  in  company  with  Mr.  Dixon,  was 
sent  to  America  to  determine  the  limits  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania.  They  measured  a  degree  of  the  meridian, 
and  in  1768  Dr.  Maskelyne  published  an  account  of  their 
operations  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  for  that 
year.     Died  in  1787. 

Mason,  (Fra.ncis,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Durham  in  1566,  became  Archdeacon  of  Norwich.  He 
published  a  "Defence  of  the  Anglican  Church,"  ("  Vin- 
dicise  Ecclesias  Anglicanae.")     Died  in  1621. 

Mason,  (Francis,)  D.D.,  a  learned  Baptist  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  York,  EngV.md,  in  1799.  Having 
emigrated  to  America,  he  studied  theology  at  Newton, 
Massachusetts,  and  sailed  for  India  in  1830.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Memoir  of  Mrs.  Helen  M.  Mason,"  (1847,) 
"Burmah,  its  People  and  Natural  Productions,"  (1S52,) 
"  Life  of  Kotha-byu,  the  Karen  .Apostle,"  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  the  Karen  language,  (1853,)  and  other 
works.  He  was  also  editor  of  a  Karen  journal,  entitled 
"The  Morning  Star."     He  died  March  3,  1874. 


alleged   reason   that  it  tended   to  monarchy.     He  was 
higlily  eulogized  by  Jefferson.     Died  in  1792. 

Mason,  (George,)  an  English  littemtenr,  who  wrote 
a  "Life  of  Lord  Howe,"  an  "Answer  toThomas  Paine," 
and  an  "Essay  on  Designs  in  Gardening."    Died  in  1806. 

Mason,  (George  Hemming,)  an  English  artist,  born 
at  Whitley,  in  -Staffordshire,  in  1818.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, but  abandoned  that  profession  for  art,  working 
mostly  at  Rome.  His  pictures  are  realistic  presentations 
of  homely  and  unambitious  scenes,  but,  notwithstanding 
the  fine  poetic  qualities  of  his  works,  they  were  not  pop- 
ular during  his  lifetime.     Died  October  22,  1872. 

Mason,  (James,)  a  distinguished  English  engraver, 
born  about  1 710,  executed  a  number  of  landscapes  after 
Claude  Lorrain,  G.  Poussin,  Hobbema,  and  other  artists 
Died  about  1780. 

Mason,  (James  Murr.w,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  about  1798. 
He  became  a  member  of  Congress  in  1837,  and  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legisla- 
ture of  Virginia  in  1847.  He  continued  to  be  a  member 
of  the  Senate  for  fourteen  years,  and  was  the  author  of 
the  fugitive-slave  law  of  1850.  He  was  sent  with  J. 
Slidell  on  a  mission  to  England  by  Jefferson  Davis  in 
1861.  During  the  passage  in  the  steamer  Trent  they 
were  seized  by  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  Federal  navy,  in 
November,  i86r.  They  were  claimed  by  the  British 
government,  and  were  liberated  in  January,  1862,  after 
which  Mr.  Mason  passed  several  years  in  England, 
remaining  abroad  during  the  civil  war.     Died  in  1871. 

Mason,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  statesman  and 
lawyer  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut, 
in  April,  1768,  graduated  at  Yale  College.  He  practised 
law  many  years  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  to 
which  he  removed  in  1797.  He  was  a  Federalist,  and 
a  friend  of  Daniel  Webster,  who  expressed  a  very  high 
opinion  of  him.  He  represented  New  Hampshire  in  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  from  1813  to  1817.  In  1832 
he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  died  in  October,  1848. 
He  was  considered  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  ceiv 
tury  to  be  the  foremost  lawyer  in  New  England. 

Mason,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  statesman,  born  at 
Abingdon  in  1500.  He  was  privy  councillor  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VI II.,  Edward  VL,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  Died 
in  1566. 

Mason,  (John,)  a  native  of  England,  born  in  1600, 
emigrated  to  America,  where  he  became  Deputy  Gov- 
ernor of  Connecticut.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "History 
of  the  Pequot  War."     Died  in  1672. 

See  G.  E.  Ellis,  "Life  of  John  Mason,"  in  Sparks's  "Amei- 
ican  Biography,"  vol.  iii.,  2d  series. 

Mason,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  religious  writet, 
born  in  Essex  in  1706,  was  the  author  of  a  popular  work, 
entitled  "  Self-Knowledge,"  (1745,)  which  was  translated 
into  several  languages.     Died  in  1763. 

Mason,  (John  Mitchell,)  a  celebrated  American 
theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  New  York  in  1770. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  17S9,  and  subse- 
quently finished  his  theological  studies  in  Edinburgh. 
In  1793  he  succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Cedar  Street,  New  York,  where 
he  attracted  great  numbers  by  his  eloquence.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  first  theological  seminary  in  the  United 
States,  of  which  he  was  appointed  professor.  He  be- 
came editor  of  the  "  Christian's  Magazine"  in  1S07,  and 
was  elected  in  1811  provost  of  Columbia  College,  and 


€  as  k;  9as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/.'  G,  H,  Vi,g7(ttiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  tri.led;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ^T^^'6^^  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MASON 


1676 


MASSENA 


in  1821  president  of  Dickinson  College,  Pennsylvania. 
Among  his  most  admired  writings  is  his  "  Oration  on 
the  Death  of  Alexander  Hamilton,"  who  was  his  intimate 
friend.  Dr.  Mason  died  in  1829.  His  works  (in  4  vols.) 
were  edited  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Mason. 

See  "Memoirs  of  J.  M.  Mason,"  by  J.  Van  Vechtkn,  1856; 
DuvcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i  ;  Cleve- 
land, "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Mason,  (John  Thomson,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
statesman,  son  of  Thomson  Mason,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Stafford  county,  Virginia,  in  1764.  He  was  a 
personal  friend  of  Jefferson,  who  appointed  him  to  seve- 
ral high  offices.     Died  in  1824. 

Mason,  (John  Thomson,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  in  1815,  became 
collector  of  the  port  of  Baltimore  under  President 
Buchanan. 

Mason,  (John  Y.,)  born  in  Sussex  county,  Virginia, 
about  1795,  was  secretary  of  the  navy  under  President 
Tyler,  and  attorney-general  and  secretary  of  the  navy 
(1846-49)  under  President  Polk.  '  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  minister  to  France  by  President  Pierce.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1859. 

Mason,  (Lowell,)  an  American  composer  and  teacher 
of  music,  born  at  Medfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music  from  the  New 
York  University  in  1855.  Pie  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Musical  Review,"  and  published  numerous  works  on 
music,  both  original  and  compiled.    Died  Aug.  11,  1872. 

Mason,  (Richard  B.,)  grandson  of  George  Mason, 
noticed  above,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war  of  1848,  and  became  civil  and  military  Governor  of 
California.     Died  in  1850. 

Mason,  (Stevens  Thomson,)  a  nephew  of  George 
Mason,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1760.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1794.     Died  in  1S03. 

Mason,  (Stevens  Thomson,)  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Loudoun  county,  Virginia,  in  181 1. 
He  was  elected  in  1835  first  Governor  of  the  State  of 
Michigan.     Died  January  4,  1S43. 

Mason,  (Thomson,)  younger  brother  of  George  Ma- 
son, noticed  above,  was  born  in  1730.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a  jurist  and  a  patriot,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  able  political  essays.     Died  in  1785. 

Mason,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Hull  in 
1725.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Pembroke  College  in 
1747,  and,  after  taking  orders,  became  chaplain  to  the 
king.  Mason  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  friend  and 
biographer  of  the  poet  Gray.  His  principal  works  are 
two  tragedies,  entitled  "  Elfrida"  and  "  Caractacus," 
several  odes,  and  "The  English  Garden,"  a  descriptive 
poem.  He  was  also  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  paint- 
ing and  music.     Died  in  1797. 

See  Hartley  Coleridge,  "  Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns;" 
Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Warton,  "History 
of  English   Poetry, " 

Masoodee  Alee-Abool-Hassan,  Masfidi  Ali- 
Abul-Hassan,  or  Masoudy  Ali-Aboiil-Hassan, 
mS-soo'dee  S'lee'  S'bool'  his'sati,  often  called  Al-Ma- 
BOOdee,  (or  Al-Mas'udi,)  an  eminent  Arabian  historian, 
born  at  Bagdad  in  the  ninth  century.  His  profound  and 
various  attainments  in  almost  every  department  of  know- 
ledge have  obtained  for  him  the  admiration  of  Europeans 
as  well  as  of  his  own  countrymen.  He  travelled  over  a 
great  part  of  Asia,  and  as  far  west  as  Morocco  and  Spain. 
Among  his  most  important  works  are  his  "  History  of 
the  Times,"  and  his  "Meadows  of  Gold  and  Mines  of 
Gems,"  the  latter  of  which  comprises  the  history,  poli- 
tics, religion,  and  geography  of  Eastern  and  European 
nations.  Masoodee  is  supposed  to  have  died  at  Cairo, 
in  956  A.D. 

See  firiENNE  Quatremere,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  lesOnvrages 
de  Mas'oudy,"  1839;  Reinaud,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Masotti,  mJ-sot'tee,  (Domenico,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Faenza  in  1698,  was  appointed 
professor  of  physiology  and  surgery  at  Florence,  and 
afterwards  of  lithotomy.  In  1763  he  published  his  prin- 
cipal work,  entitled  "Lithotomy  for  Women  Perfected." 
Died  in  1779. 

Masoudi.     See  Masoodee. 


Maspero,  mts'pi'RA',  (Gasion  Camille  Charles,) 
a  French  Egyptologist,  born  in  Paris,  June  24,  1846.  He 
studied  at  the  Lycee  Louis-le-Grand  and  the  Eccjle  Nor- 
male,  and  in  1874  became  professor  of  Egyptian  archae- 
ology and  jjhilosophy  in  the  College  de  France.  He  has 
published  translations  of  various  jiapyri,  and  many  me- 
moirs on  archaeological  questions,  besides  "  De  Carche- 
mis  Situ  et  Historia,"  (1873,)  "Histoire  ancienne  des 
Peuples  de  I'Orient,"  (1875,)  ^'^^  other  works. 

Masque  de  Far,  mtsk  deh  f^R,  (L'Homme  au, 
lorn  5,)  (the  "Man  with  the  Iron  Mask,")  an  unknown 
person,  who  in  1662  was  imprisoned  in  the  chateau  of 
Pignerol,  afterwards  conveyed  to  the  isle  of  Sainte-Mar- 
guerite,  and  in  1698  to  the  Bastille,  where  he  died  in  1703. 
Various  conjectures  have  been  formed  concerning  this 
mysterious  prisoner,  who  was  evidently  a  person  of  high 
rank  and  refined  tastes.  Some  writers  have  supposed 
him  to  have  been  a  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV. ;  others, 
that  he  was  the  Count  of  Vcrmandois,  the  Duke  of 
Beaufort,  or  Count  Mattioli. 

See  G.  J.  W.  A.  Eli.is,  (Loi;d  Dover.)  "History  of  the  Statt 
Prisoner  called  The  Iron  Mask,"  1S26  ;  Paul  Lacroix,  "L'Homme 
au  Masque  de  Fer,"  1837  ;  L.  Letouknelr,  "  Histoire  de  I' Homme 
au  Masque  de  Fer,"  1849  ;  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Masquelier,  mtsk'le4',  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  near  LillVIn  1741.  In  1802  he  obtained 
from  the  gallery  of  Florence  a  gold  medal  for  his  en- 
gravings.    Died  in  1811. 

Massa,  mSs'sS,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Venice  ;  died  about  1563. 

Massard,  mS'stR',  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Belleme  in  1740.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Painting  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  and,  on  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  was  made,  in  1814,  engraver 
to  the  king.  His  most  admired  works  are  "  The  Family 
of  Charles  I.,"  after  Van  Dyck,  and  "  The  Death  of 
Socrates,"  after  David.     Died  in  1822. 

Massard,  (Jean  Baptiste  Raphael  Urbain,)  a  skil- 
ful French  engraver,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1775.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael. 
Giulio  Romano,  and  David.     Died  in  1849. 

See  Nagu'R,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Le.xikon." 

Massaredo.     See  Mazarredo  y  Salazar. 

Massari,  niis-sS'ree,  (Lucio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1569,  was  a  pupil  of  Ludovico  Caracci. 
He  was  intimate  with  Albano,  and  took  part  in  some  of 
his  labours.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  "Mar- 
riage of  Saint  Catherine,"  and  a  "Noli  me  Tangere." 
"Some  of  his  works,"  says  E.  Breton,  "are  so  graceful 
that  they  defy  the  severest  criticism."     Died  in  1633. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  No- 
tizie  ;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  pittrice." 

Massaria,  mas-si-ree'i,  (Alessandro,)  a  learned 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1510.  He 
studied  under  Fracantianus  and  Fallopius,  and  in  1587 
succeeded  Mercuriale  as  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Padua.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Plague"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Bleeding,"  which  are 
highly  esteemed.     Died  in  159S. 

See  Portal,  "  Histoire  de  I'Anatomie." 

Mas'sas-soit,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Womponoags, 
born  in  Massachusetts.  In  1621  he  formed  a  league  with 
the  colonists  at  Plymouth,  which  was  never  violated.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  warrior  King  Philip. 
Died  in  1661. 

Masse,  mt'si',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  artist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1687,  engraved  the  pictures  which  Le- 
brun  had  executed  for  the  gallery  of  Versailles.  Masse 
became  painter  to  Louis  XV.     Died  in  1767- 

Masse,  mS'si',  (Viciok,)  a  French  musical  composer, 
born  at  Lorient,  March  7,  1822.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Paris  Conservatory,  taking  the  prix  de  Rome  in 
1844.  His  first  work  for  the  stage,  the  operetta  of  "  La 
Chanteuse  voilee,"  (1852,)  was  at  once  successful,  and 
he  followed  it  up  with  a  large  number  of  pieces  for  the 
stage.  The  best-known  of  these  ate  "  Galatea,"  "The 
Seasons,"  and  "Paul  and  Virginia."  The  last  is  the 
only  one  of  his  operas  well  known  in  this  country.  Died 
July  6,  1884. 

Massena,  mS'si'nt',  [It.  Massena,  mis-sa'ni,]  (An- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  91,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon 


MASSENBACH 


\(>Tl 


MASSINGER 


dr4,)  Prince  of  Ess'ing,  Duke  of  Rivoli,  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  marshals  of  Napoleon  I.,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Nice  in  1758.  He  enlisted 
in  1775  as  a  private  of  the  royal  Italian  regiment,  from 
which  he  retired  at  the  expiration  of  fourteen  years, 
having  attained  no  higher  rank  than  that  of  a  sergeant. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  he  again  en- 
tered the  army,  and  in  a  short  time  was  successively  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  colonel,  general  of  brigade,  and 
general  of  division.  In  1794  he  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Austrians  near  Tanaro,  took  Ormea,  and  rendered  effi- 
cient service  at  the  battle  of  Saorgio.  The  following  year, 
while  serving  under  General  Scherer,  he  drove  the  Aus- 
triais  from  their  position  at  Vado  and  gained  over  them 
the  decisive  victory  of  Loano.  In  1796  he  acquired 
great  distinction  at  the  engagements  of  Montenotte,  Mil- 
lesimo,  Castiglione,  and  Areola.  His  gallant  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Rivoli,  in  1797,  subsequently  procured  for 
him  the  title  of  Duke  of  Rivoli.  The  next  year  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  in  the  Papal 
States  ;  but  his  rapacity  and  avarice  excited  so  great 
hostility  both  in  his  soldiers  and  in  the  inhabitants  that 
he  was  soon  after  compelled  to  resign.  In  1799,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  armies  of  Switzerland  and  the 
Danube,  he  exhibited  the  highest  order  of  military  talent, 
especially  at  Zurich,  where  he  gained  an  important  and 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Russians.  In  1804  he  was 
created  a  marshal  of  France.  The  next  year  he  was  sent 
to  Italy,  to  command  against  the  Archduke  Charles, 
whom  he  finally  succeeded  in  driving  back  into  Germany. 
In  1806  he  reduced  the  insurgent  Calabrians  to  subjec- 
tion, took  the  fortress  of  Gaeta,  and  enabled  Joseph 
Bonaparte  to  seat  himself  firmly  upon  the  Neapolitan 
throne.  He  reaped  further  laurels  in  1809,  at  the  battles 
of  Landshut  and  Eckmiihl  and  by  the  capture  of  the 
fortress  of  Ebersdorf.  The  same  year  he  was  created 
Prince  of  Essling,  for  his  distinguished  services  at  the 
battle  of  that  place.  Massena  was  appointed  in  1810 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Portugal,  where,  although 
he  exhibited  his  usual  courage  and  military  skill,  he  was 
ultimately  obliged  to  yield  to  the  superior  genius  of  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley.  He  has,  however,  received  the  highest 
commendation  from  English  as  well  as  French  historians 
for  the  strategic  skill  with  which  he  conducted  his  re- 
treat into  Spain.  In  1812  Marmont  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  The  year  following,  Massena  joined  the 
Bourbons.  He  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Napoleon 
when  he  returned  from  Elba,  but  took  no  part  in  the 
affairs  of  government  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He 
was  subsequently  apjjointed  cominander-in-chief  of  the 
National  Guard  in  Paris,  and  also  received  several  marks 
of  distinction  from  Louis  XVIII.  He  died  in  Paris, 
April  4,  1817. 

See  General  Koch,  "  M^moires  de  Massena,"  1849 ;  Napier, 
'  History  of  the  Peninsular  War  ;"  Major-Ge.neral  J.  Mitchell, 
"Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries," 
iS6s  ;  Pons,  "  Notice  historique  sur  le  Mar^chal  Massena,"  1837  ; 
Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Massenbach,  von,  fon  mJs'sen-baK',  (Christian,) 
a  Prussian  officer,  born  at  Schmalkalden  in  1768.  He 
published  several  historical  works.     Died  in  1827. 

Masseuet,  mts'seh'ni',  (Jules  Emile  FR^niRic,)  a 
French  composer,  born  at  Montaud,  May  12,  1842.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where  he  be- 
came professor  of  composition.  Among  his  operas  are 
"  Po^me  d'Avril,"  "  Scenes  hongroises,"  "  Marie-Made- 
leine," "  Eve,"  a  mystery,  "  Le  Roi  de  Lahore,"  "  La 
Herodiade,"  "  Manon  Lescaut,"  etc. 

Mas'sey,  (Gerald,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Hert- 
fordshire in  1828.  The  child  of  indigent  parents,  he 
was  obliged  at  an  early  age  to  work  in  a  factory,  and  re- 
ceived no  other  instruction  than  that  of  a  penny  school. 
He  published  in  1847  "  Poems  and  Chansons,"  which 
were  followed  in  1853  by  "The  Ballad  of  Babe  Chris- 
tabel,  with  other  Lyrical  Poems,"  "  A  Tale  of  Eternity, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1870,)  etc.  He  also  won  some  dis- 
tinction as  a  lecturer. 

Massiac,  de,  deh  mt'se'tk',  (Gabriel,)  a  French 
officer  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Narbonne  in  1657. 
He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Most  Important  Events  of 
the  War  from  1688  to  1698."     Died  in  1727. 


Massias,  mt'se'^s',  (Nicolas,)  Baron,  a  French  litti- 
rateiir,  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1764.  Among  his 
philosophical  works  is  an  "Essay  on  Instinct,  Intelli- 
gence, and  Life,"  (4  vols.,  1822.)     Died  in  1848. 

Massie,  mas'se,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  soldier 
and  pioneer,  born  in  Goochland  county,  "Virginia,  in  1763, 
settled  in  Ohio,  where  he  became  one  of  the  largest  land- 
owners in  the  State.  He  founded  in  1796  the  town  of 
Chilicothe.     Died  in  1813. 

Massieu,  mt'se-uh',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  lit- 
tch-atenr,  born  at  Caen  in  1665.  He  was  appointed  in 
1710  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  of  France.  He 
translated  the  Odes  of  Pindar,  and  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  French  Poetry,"  brought  down  to  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.     Died  in  1722. 

See  Gros  de  Boze,  "filoge  de  Massieu;"  Thery,  "Notice  sur 

I'Abbd  Massieu." 

Massieu,  (Jean  Baptlste,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Picardy,  became  constitutional  Bishop  of  L'Oise 
in  1791.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  in  the 
National  Convention.     Died  in  1818. 

Massillon,  mt's^KyiN'  or  mS'se'yiN',  (Jean  Baj>. 
TISI'E,)  a  French  pulpit  orator  of  great  celebrity,  born 
at  Hi^res,  in  Provence,  in  1663.  He  was  educated  in 
the  college  of  that  town,  and  became  a  priest  of  the 
Oratory.  After  professing  belles-lettres  and  theology  at 
Montbrison  and  Vienne,  and  pronouncing  some  funeral 
orations,  he  was  called  to  Paris  in  1696  to  direct  the 
Seminary  of  Saint-Magloire.  His  talent  was  gradually 
developed  by  the  ecclesiastic  conferences  which  he  com- 
posed at  this  period.  He  admired  the  austere  eloquence 
of  Bourdaloue,  but  chose  for  himself  a  different  style, 
characterized  by  profound  pathos  and  an  insight  into 
the  most  secret  motives  of  the  human  heart.  In  1699 
he  ])reached  at  Paris  the  Lent  sermon,  which  was  warmly 
ap]3lauded.  The  same  year  he  was  chosen  to  preach  the 
Advent  at  court,  on  which  occasion  Louis  XIV.  said  to 
him,  "  I  have  heard  many  great  orators  and  been  pleased 
with  them  ;  but  after  hearing  you  I  am  displeased  with 
myself"  The  death  of  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue,  in 
1704,  left  him  at  the  head  of  French  pulpit  orators.  In 
this  year  he  again  preached  before  Louis  XIV.,  whose 
funeral  oration  he  pronounced  in  1715.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Clermont  in  1717,  and  preached  before 
the  young  king  the  Lent  sermon  called  "  Petit-Careme," 
which  is  esteemed  his  masterpiece.  His  diction  is  noble, 
simple,  and  unaffected.  Voltaire  kept  a  volume  of  his 
sermons  constantly  on  his  desk,  as  a  model  of  eloquence. 
Massillon  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1 7 19.  In  the  government  of  his  diocese  he  was  moderate, 
charitable,  and  conciliatory.  He  died  in  1742.  His  pub- 
lished works  consist  of  Sermons,  Ecclesiastical  Con- 
ferences, Paraphrases  of  certain  Psalms,  Letters,  etc. 
Voltaire  thought  him  "  the  preacher  who  best  understood 
the  world, — whose  eloquence  savoured  of  the  courtier, 
the  academician,  the  wit,  and  the  philosopher." 

See  La  Harpe,  "Conrs  de  Litteratiire ;"  Maury,  "  filoquenco 
de  la  Chaire  ;"  F.  Theremin,  "  Deninstlienes  und  Massillon,"  1845; 
D'Alembert,  "  Cloge  de  Massillon  ;"  Sainte-Beuvr,  "  Causeries 
du  Lundi  :"  Talbert,  "  filoge  de  Massillon,"  1773;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Massimiliano.     See  Maximilian. 

Massimo.     See  Maximus. 

Mas'sin-ger,  (Philip,)  an  eminent  English  dramatic 
poet,  was  born  at  Salisbury  in  1584.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  he  entered  Saint  Alban's  Hall,  Oxford,  supported 
by  the  Earl  of  Pembroke.  Here,  according  to  Anthony 
Wood,  "  he  spent  his  time  in  reading  poetry  and  ro- 
mances instead  of  logic  and  philosophy,  which  he  ought 
to  have  done,  as  he  was  patronized  to  that  end."  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  about  1606,  and  assisted 
Fletcher  in  the  composition  of  several  dramas.  The 
first  production  of  Massinger  was  the  "Virgin  Martyr," 
(1622.)  Eighteen  of  his  dramas  are  e.xtant,  mostlj 
tragedies  and  tragi-comedies.  .Among  the  most  admired 
are  "The  City  Madam,"  "The  Maid  of  Honour," 
"A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,"  and  "The  Fatal 
Dowry."  The  latter  has  given  to  Rowe  the  outline  of 
the  "Fair  Penitent."  _  Massinger's  dramas  are  remark 
ably  free  from  profanity;  and  the  coarseness  which  dis- 
figures some  of  them  is  probably  to  be  attributed  to  his 
coadjutors.     He  is  said  to  have  been  the  only  dramatist 


€  as^.-  9asj-;  g/icird;  gasy;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  5 ass;  tli  as  in  this.     (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MASSMANN 


1678 


MATE  LIEF 


of  that  time  who  rejected  the  doctrine  o' the  divine  right 
of  kings.     Died  in  1640. 

See  Daviks,  "  Some  Account  of  tlie  Life  and  Writings  of  P. 
Massin^er,"  i/J^g;  "Lives  of  the  British  Dramatists,"  by  Camp- 
bell, Lhigh  Hunt,  etc. 

Massmann,  mds'inin,  (Mans  FKuniNANn,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1797.  He  publi.shed  an 
edition  of  the  "Explanation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
John"  in  Gothic. 

Massolino,  da,  dS  mSs-so-lee'no,  (Panicale,  pl-ne- 
ki'li,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Florence  in  1378. 
His  master-pieces  are  the  pictures  in  the  chapel  of  San 
Pietro  al  Carmine,  representing  leading  incidents  in  the 
life  of  Saint  Peter.  He  numbered  among  his  pupils  the 
celebrated  Masaccio.     Died  in  1415. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Masson.     See  Latomus. 

Maason,  hiS'sAn',  (Antoine,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  near  Orleans  in  1636.  He  exxelled  particularly  in 
representing  colour  and  the  different  textures  of  objects. 
His  print  of  the  "Disciples  at  Emmaus,"  after  Titian,  is 
esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces,  though  not  free  from 
a  fantastic  style  of  executing  the  hair,  peculiar  to  himself. 
Masson  was  also  a  painter,  and  his  engravings  from  his 
own  portraits,  as  well  as  from  those  of  other  artists, 
are  greatly  admired,  many  of  them  representing  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  that  time.  He  was  engraver- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king.     Died  in  1702. 

His  daughter,  MADELfeNE  Masson,  born  in  1666,  was 
a  skilful  imitator  of  her  father's  style,  and  executed  the 
portraits  of  Maria  Theresa,  the  Duchess  d'Alen9on,  and 
several  others. 

See  DfMESNii,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveiir  Fran^ais." 

Masson,  (Auguste  Michel  BENotr  Gaudichot,)  a 
French  novelist  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1800, 

Masson,  (James.)     See  Latomus. 

Masson,  (Charles  Francois  Philibert,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1762.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Institute  of  France.  He  wrote  "Me- 
moirs of  Russia,"  (3  vols.,  1 800-02,)  and  a  poem  entitled 
"The  Helvetians."     Died  in  1807. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mas'son,  (David,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1822,  became  a  contributor  to  "  Era- 
ser's Magazine"  and  the  "  North  British"  and  "  Quarterly 
Reviews"  and  other  ])ublications.  In  1859  he  became 
editor  of  "  Macmillan's  Magazine,"  and  in  1865  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  literature  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  His  principal  works  are 
"The  Life  and  Times  of  Milton,"  (6  vols.,  1858-80,) 
"British  Novelists  and  their  Styles,"  (1859,)  "Critical 
and  Biographical  Essays,"  "'Drummond  of  Hawthorn- 
den,"  (1873,)  "The  Three  Devils:  Luther's,  Milton's, 
and  Goethe's,"  (1874,)  and  "Chatterton,  a  Story  of  the 
Year  1770."  etc. 

Masson,  (Francis,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  botanist, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1741.  About  1771  he  visited  the 
Cai^e  of  Good  Ho])e,  where  he  made  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  plants  for  the  Kew  Gardens.  He  died  in  Canada 
in  1805.  He  left  an  admirable  work  entitled  "  Stapeliae 
novae,"  in  folio,  with  41  coloured  plates. 

Masson,  (FRAxgois,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1745.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  several 
groups  in  the  garden  of  the  Tuileries,  the  bas-reliefs  of 
the  Pantheon,  the  sculptures  on  the  tomb  of  Vauban, 
and  an  exquisite  ligure  of  Flora.     Died  in  1807. 

See  Regnaui.t,  "  Notice  liistorique  sur  Frangois  Masson." 

Masson,  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateur  and  Protestant 
divine,  born  about  1680,  wrote  the  Lives  of  Horace  and 
Ovid,  and  several  antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1750. 

Masson,  (Jean  Papire — pt'p^R',)  [Lat.  Papir'ius 
Masso'nus,]  a  French  writer,  born  at  Saint-Germain- 
Laval  in  1544.  He  became  an  advocate  of  Parliament  in 
1576.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Annals  of  France,"  (1577,) 
a  "  Description  of  the  Rivers  of  France,"  (1618,)  and  n 
collection  of  biographies  of  eminent  persons,  entitled 
"  Elogia."  Masson  was  a  friend  of  the  historian  De 
Thou,  who  has  written  his  Life.     Died  in  161 1. 

See  De  Thou,  "Vita  P.  Massoni ;"  Nic^ron,  "Mdmoires." 

Masson  de  Pezay.    See  Pezay. 


M^ssooa  or  Massoua,  mSs'soo'a,  written  also  Ma- 
sua  and  Mesue,  a  celebrated  Arabian  savant,  who  was 
physician  to  the  caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Massuet,  mt'sii-.V,  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  phy- 
sician, born  near  Sedan  in  1698,  studied  under  the 
celebrated  Boerhaave.  He  wrote  several  historical 
treatises.     Died  in  1776. 

Massuet,  (Reni^,)  a  learned  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Normandy  in  1666.  On  the  death  of  Mabillon  aitd 
Ruinart,  he  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Annals  of  the 
Benedictine  Order."  He  also  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  the  works  of  .Saint  Irenaeus.     Died  in  1716. 

Mastelletta.     See  Donducci. 

Mas'ters,  (Rohert,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  in  1713,  published  a  "History  of  the  College  of 
Corpus  Christi,"  (1753,)  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.     Died  in  1798. 

Masters,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Glou- 
cestershire about  1600.  He  was  a  fi'"nd  of  Lord  Her- 
bert of  Cherbury,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  assisted  in 
some  of  his  writings.  He  wrote  a  Greek  poem  on  the 
"  Passion  of  Christ,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1643. 

Mastlin  or  Maestlin,  mgst-leen',  (Michael,)  a  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  about  1550.  He 
passed  a  portion  of  his  early  life  in  Italy,  where  he  asso- 
ciated with  Galileo.  Having  returned  home,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Tiibingen,  where 
he  was  the  tutor  and  generous  friend  of  Kepler.  He 
accepted  the  Copernican  theory.  He  was  author  of 
"  Thesis  de  Eclipsibus,"  "  Epitome  Astronomiae,"  (1597,) 
and  other  works.  Hallam  designates  him  as  "the  illus- 
trious master  of  Kepler."     Died  in  1590  or  1631. 

See  Kastner,  "  Gescliichte  der  Mathematik ;"  Vossn;s,  "De 
Scientiis  Matliematicis." 

Mastropetro,  mis-tRo-pa'tRO,  (Orio,)  was  elected 
Doge  of  Venice  in  11 79.  He  abdicated  in  1 191,  and 
retired  to  a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  cele- 
brated Dandolo. 

Masucci,  m5-soot'chee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Rome  in  1691,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Maratta.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  "  Holy  Family." 
Died  in  1758. 

Masuccio,  mS-soot'cho,  L,  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Naples  in  1230.  He  built  the  church 
of  San  Domenico  Maggiore,  and  completed  that  of  Santa 
Mariadel  Nuova,  begun  byGiovanniPisano.  Died  in  1305. 

Masuccio  II.,  (Tommaso  de'  S tefani,)  a  pupil  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1291.  Among  his  works  are  the 
castle  of  Saint  Ermo,  and  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo 
at  Naples.  He  also  executed  sculptured  monuments  of 
great  merit.     Died  in  1338. 

See  CiCOGNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura." 

Masudi  or  Al-Masudi.     See  Masoodee. 

Mat,  or  Ma-t,  in  the  old  Egyptian  mythology,  the 
wife  of  Thoth,  and  daughter  of  the  sun.  In  her  hall  the 
dead  are  judged.     She  is  the  goddess  of  truth. 

M^tall,  md'ta-ll,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  chariot- 
eer of  Indra. 

See  Williams's  translation  of  "  Sakoontala,"  Act  vi. 

Matani,  mJ-tS'nee,  (Antonio,)  a  learned  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Pistoia  in  1730.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  published 
a  treatise  "On  the  Figure  of  the  Earth,"  and  several 
medical  works.     Died  in  1779. 

See  Tipaldo,  "P.iografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Match'am,  (GEf)RGE,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
1755,  published  a  "Journey  from  Ale])po  to  Bagdad 
across  the  Arabian  Desert."     Died  in  1833. 

Matejko,  md-tye-ko,  (Jan  Aloysjus,)  a  Polish  artist, 
born  at  Cracow,  July  30,  1838.  He  studied  jiainting  with 
the  best  masters  in  Cracow,  Munich,  and  Vienna.  His 
most  noted  jiicturcs  illustrate  scenes  in  Polish  history. 
He  has  published  an  extensive  collection  representing 
Polish  costumes  from  1200  to  1795. 

Matelief,  mS'teh-leef',(CoRNELis,)  a  Dutch  navigator, 
born  about  1570,  was  sent  in  1605  as  commander  of  a 
squadron  to  the  East  Indies,  for  the  purpose  of  o])posing 
the  Portuguese  and  of  opening  relations  with  China  and 
[apan.  He  died  about  1628,  and  an  account  of  his  voy- 
age was  published  at  Amsterdam,  (1705.) 


a.  e.  i,  5,  u,  v. long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  Ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  ni$t;  n6t;  good ;  moon ; 


MA  TERN  A 


1679 


MATHIEU 


Materna,  mi-i^K'ni,  (Amalii-:,)  (known  as  Frau 
Frieukich  Materna,)  a  German  vocalist,  born  ai 
Sankt  Georgen,  Styria,  in  1S47.  After  a  few  years  spent 
in  operetta  at  the  minor  theatres,  she  made  her  debut  in 
Vienna  as  "Selika"  in  the  opera  of  "  L'Africaine," 
(1S69,)  and  at  once  established  her  position  as  one  of 
the  leading  German  soprano-singers. 

Materiius.     See  Firmicus. 

Matham,  mi'tim,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  bom 
at  Haarlem  in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  Henry  Goltzius. 
Died  in  163 1. 

Matham,  (Theodorus,)  son  of  the  preceding,  bom 
at  Haarlem  in  1589,  engraved  a  number  of  portraif;,  and 
several  historical  pieces  of  great  merit.     Died  in  1677. 

Math'er,  (Coiton,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  American 
theologian  and  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1663,  was  a  son 
of  Increase  Mather,  noticed  below.  He  was  ordained 
IS  a  minister  in  16S4,  and  preached  in  Boston,  .\mong 
his  principal  works  are  "The  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World,"  {1693,)  "Magnalia  Christi  Americana,  or 
The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New  England,"  (1702,) 
"Essays  to  do  Good,"  (1710,)  "Psalterium  Anierica- 
num,"  (1718,)  "The  Christian  Philosopher,"  (1721,)  and 
"  Illustrations  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,"  (in  manuscript) 
His  character  exhibits  a  remarkable  compound  of  ardent 
piety,  (which,  however,  was  not  without  a  tincture  of 
self-conceit,)  uncommon  activity,  and  force  of  intellect 
joined  to  a  credulity  which,  even  in  that  age,  had 
scarcely  any  parallel  among  educated  men.  From  the 
first  he  was  eager  to  bring  to  trial  and  punishment  those 
supposed  to  be  guilty  of  witchcraft,  and,  when  others 
began  clearly  to  see  the  folly  and  injustice  of  these  cruel 
persecutions,  he  earnestly,  though  vainly,  strove  to  stem 
the  reaction  in  the  popular  mind.    Died  in  1728. 

See  DlAXKisCK,  "  Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  : 
"North  American  Revie^v"  for  July,  1840:  Hildreth,  "History  of 
the  Ur.ited  States,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xx. 

Mather,  (Increase,)  son  of  Richard  Mather,  a  non- 
conformist divine  who  removed  from  Lancashire  to  New 
England,  was  born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1635. 
He  was  sent  about  1685  to  England  as  agent  of  the 
province  for  the  redress  of  grievance.s.  He  published, 
among  ether  works,  an  "  Essay  on  Remarkable  Provi- 
dences."    Died  in  1723. 

Mather,  (Moses,)  D.D.,  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  1719.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Systematic  View  of  Divinity,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1S06. 

Mather,  (Richard,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire in  1596,  emigrated  to  New  England  in  1635. 
He  preached  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  for  many 
years.     Died  in  1669. 

See  a  "  Life  of  R.  Mather,"  by  his  son  Increase. 

Mather,  (Richard  Henry,)  D.D.,  an  American 
scholar,  born  at  Binghamton,  New  York,  February  12, 
1835.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1855,  studied 
at  Berlin  University,  and  in  1864  became  i)rofessor  of 
Greek  at  Amherst.  Besides  a  "  >Ianual  of  Sculpture," 
he  published  several  Greek  texts.     Died  Apiii  16,  1890. 

Mathers,  (Helen  B.)     See  Reeves. 

Matheson.     See  Mattheson. 

Math'e-son,  (George,)  I).D.,a  Scottish  divine,  born 
at  Glasgow,  March  27,  1842.  Though  blind,  he  grad- 
uated with  high  honours  at  Glasgow  University,  and  in 
1866  became  a  minister  of  the  Scottish  national  kirk. 
He  published  "  Aids  to  the  Study  of  German  Theology," 
(1874,)  "Growth  of  the  Spirit  of  Christianity,"  (1877,) 
"My  Aspirations,"  and  other  religious  works. 

Math'e"w,  (Rev.  Theobald,)  the  celebrated  Apostle 
of  Temperance,  a  Catholic  priest,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tipperar}',  Ireland,  in  1790.  He  was  appointed  after 
his  ordination  to  a  missionary  charge  at  Cork,  where  he 
established  a  charitable  association  on  the  model  of  that 
of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul.  About  [838  he  became  i)resi- 
dent  of  a  temperance  societ}',  and  in  a  few  months  admin- 
istered the  pledge  to  150^000  persons  in  Cork  alone. 
He  afterwards  visited  different  parts  of  Ireland,  the  cities 
of  London,  Manchester,  and  Liverpool,  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  being  everj-where  received  with  en- 
thusiasm.    For  these  eminent  ser/ices  in  the  cause  of 


religion  and   morality.  Queen  Victoria  bestowed   upon 
Father  Mathew  an  annuity  of  ;^ 500.     Died  in  1856. 

See  "Father  Mathew,  a  Biography,"  by  J.  F.  Maguire:  P.  M. 
MoRKis,  ".Memoirs  01'  the  Life  of  Theobald  Ma-.hew,"  New  York, 
1S41  :  \.  S.  Henshaw,  "Life  of  Father  Mathew,"  New  York,  1849: 
"Biographical  Sketches,"  by'HAERiET  Mabtineau,  1869;  "  Kra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1841. 

Math'e'wS,  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  English  come- 
dian, born  in  London  in  1776.  Having  visited  the  United 
States  in  1822,  he  brought  out  on  his  return  his  enter- 
tainment entitled  "A  Trip  to  America,"  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  extraor- 
dinary talent  for  imitation,  in  the  exercise  of  which  he 
was  seldom  if  ever  ill-natured  or  offensive.  He  died  in 
1836,  leaving  "Memoirs"  of  his  life,  which  were  finished 
by  his  widow,  (4  vols.,  1S39.) 

See  "  Kraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1836;  "  Blackwood's  M^a- 
line"  for  December,  1839. 

Mathews,  (Charles  James,)  an  English  comedian, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1803.  He  mar- 
ried Madame  Vestris  in  1838,  and,  after  her  death,  in 
1857,  another  actress,  Mrs.  Davenport.  He  produced 
several  dramas,  among  which  is  "My  Wife's  Mother," 
(1833.)     Died  June  24,  1878. 

Math'e-wrs,  (Cornelius,)  a  distinguished  American 
litterateur  and  journalist,  born  at  Port  Chester,  New 
York,  in  1817.  Having  previously  contributed  numerous 
articles  in  prose  and  verse  to  the  "American  Monthly 
Magazine,"  " New  York  Review,"  and  "Knickerbocker 
Magazine,"  he  published,  in  1839,  "  Benemoth,  a  Legend 
of  the  Mound-Builders."  .Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  "The  Politicians,"  a  comedy,  (1840,)  "Poems 
on  Man  in  the  Republic,"  (1843,)  "  Witchcraft,"  a  tragedy, 
(1846,)  "Money-penny,  or  the  Heart  of  the  World," 
(1850.)  and  a  comedy  entitled  "False  Pretences,"  (1856.) 
Mr.  Mathews  has  been  a  zealous  advocate  of  inter- 
national copyright. 

See  Dtn-CKiNCK,  "Cvclopsdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Mathews,  (George,)  an  American  jurist,  born  near 
Staunton,  Virginia,  in  1774,  removed  to  Louisiana,  where 
he  was  appointed  presiding  justice  of  the  supreme  court. 
Died  in  1836. 

Mathews,  (William,)  LL.D.,  an  .^merican  author, 
born  at  Waterville,  Maine,  July  28,  1818.  He  graduated 
in  1835  at  Waterville  College,  and  in  1839  at  the  Har- 
vard Law  School.  He  was  ])rofessor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  in  the  University  of  Chicago  from 
1862  to  1875.  His  principal  books  are  "Getting  on  in 
the  Worid,"  (1872,)  "The  Great  Converters,"  (1874,) 
"Words,  their  Use  and  Abuse,"  (1876,)  "Monday 
Chats,"  from  Sainte-Beuve,  (1877,)  "Hours  with  Men 
and  Books,"  (1877,)  "Oratory  and  Orators,"  (1879,)  and 
"Literary  Style,"  etc.,  (1881.)  His  works  have  had  a 
large  sale  both  in  Europe  and  in  America. 

Mathias,  mi-thl'as,  (Thomas  James,)  an  English  lit- 
terateur, born  about  i757,\NTOte  a  poem  entitled  "  Pursuits 
of  Literature,"  (1794,)  "  Runic  Odes,"  and  other  English 
works  ;  also  a  number  of  poem.s  in  Italian.  He  died  at 
Naples  in  1835.  He  translated  Milton's  "  Lycidas"  into 
Italian. 

Mathieu,  mt'te-uh',  (.A.dolphe  Charles  Ghislain,) 
a  Belgian  poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Mons  in  1S04,  pub- 
lished numerous  works.     Died  June  13,  1876. 

Mathieu,  mt'te-uh',  (.\nselme,)  a  French  (Proven- 
9al)  poet  of  the  class  sXy\td  feUbres,  was  born  at  Chateau- 
neuf-du-Pape  about  1830.  He  studied  law  at  Aix.  His 
principal  work  is  "  Farandoulo." 

Mathieu,  mS'te-uh',  (Claude  Louis,)  a  French 
mathematician  and^tronomer,  born  at  Macon  in  1784. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  181 7. 
He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Francis  Arago.     Died  1875. 

Mathieu  de  la  Redorte,  mt'te-uh'  deh  It  reh-doRt', 
(David  Maurice  Joseph,)  CoMnCa  French  general, 
bom  at  Saii'.t-Affrique  in  176S.  He  became  general 
of  division  in  1799,  and  peer  of  France  in  1819.  He 
married  Mademoiselle  Clery,  a  sister  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte's wife.     Died  in  1833. 

Mathieu  de  Dombasle,  mt'te-uh'  deh  dAN'TDtl', 
(Christophe  Joseph  .-Alexandre,)  a  French  agricul- 
tural writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1777  ;  died  in  1843. 


•as  k:  ?  as  1  .•  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi^^tttura'.;  .n,  tmsal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this,     f £;3^".See  F.xjilanations,  p.  23. 1 


MATHIEU 


1680 


MATTEO 


Mathieu-Mirampal,  mt'te-uh'  me'r5N'ptl',  (Jean 
Baptistk  Chaki.ks,)  born  at  Compiegne,  in  P'rance, 
in  1764,  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention  in 
1792,  and  voted  for  tlie  death  of  the  king.  Died  in  1833. 

Mathilde.     See  Matilda. 

Mathon  de  la  Cour,  mS'tiN'deh  It  kooR,  (Ciiart.es 
Joseph,)  a  French  litterateur,  son  of  Jacques,  noticed 
below,  born  at  Lyons  in  1738.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Danger  of  reading  Books  hostile  to  Religion," 
(1770,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions, and  other  works.  He  was  guillotined  at  Lyons 
in  1793. 

Mathon  de  la  Cour,  (Jacques,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Lyons  in  1712.  He  published  several 
scientific  treatises.     Died  about  1 770. 

Mathusalem.     See  Meihuselah. 

Matignon,  mt'tfen'yAN',  (Charles  Auguste  de 
Goyon — deh  gwS'yA.N',)  Comte  de  Gace,  a  French 
marshal,  born  in  1647,  accomijanied  James  II.  of  Eng- 
land in  his  Irish  cam]:>aign.  He  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  at  Fleurus,  Mons,  and  Namur,  and  was  created 
a  marshal  in  1708.     Died  in  1729. 

Matignon,  de,  deh  mt'tin'yiN',  (Jacques  de  Goyon,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  Normandy  in  1525. 
He  served  in  the  wars  of  Henry  II.  and  Henry  HI. 
against  the  Protestants.  He  was  made  a  marshal  in 
1579.     Died  in  1597. 

.See  Brant6me,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines  Frangais;"  Cal- 
LifeKES,  "Histoire  du  Maresclial  de  Matignon,"  1661. 

Ma-til'da,  Maud,  or  Maude,  [Fr.  Maijiilde,  mt'- 
tild',]  Empress  of  Germany  and  Queen  of  England,  born 
about  1 102,  was  a  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  She 
was  married  in  mo  to  Henry  V.  of  Germany,  who  died 
in  1 1 25.  About  1 127  she  became  the  wife  of  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet,  Count  of  Anjou,  and  was  recognized  by 
her  father  as  his  successor.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
(1 135)  her  title  was  disputed  by  Stephen  of  Blois,  and  a 
long  civil  war  ensued  between  them.  Matilda  prevailed 
in  1 141,  and  was  crowned  in  London.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Henry  II.     Died  in  1167. 

See  Matthew  Paris,  "  Historia  major." 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Boniface  HI.,  Marquis  of  Tus- 
cany, was  born  about  1046.  Slie  was  first  married  to  God- 
frey le  Bossu,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  He  died  in 
1076,  and,  her  mother  having  died  the  same  year,  Matilda 
came  into  possession  of  her  vast  estates,  including  the 
greater  part  of  Northern  Italy.  In  the  contest  for  su- 
premacy between  Pope  Gregory  VII.  and  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  she  espoused  with  great  zeal  the  cause  of 
the  former  ;  and  it  was  at  her  castle  of  Canossa  that 
Henry  IV.  underwent  the  humiliating  penance  imposed 
by  the  pope.  In  1077  she  made  a  reversionary  grant 
of  all  her  dominions  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  She  was 
married  in  10S9  to  Guelph,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  from  whom 
she  was  divorced  in  1095.     Died  in  II 15. 

See  FiORENTiNi,  "  Memorie  di  Matilda  laContessa  di  Toscana," 
1642;  Am^d^b  Ren^e,  "La  grande  Italienne,"  1859;  Mozzi  de' 
Capitani,  "  Siilla  Contessa  Matilda,"  etc.,  1845;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Matilda,  (Caroline.)     See  Caroline  Matilda. 

Matius.     See  Calvena. 

Matius,  ma'she-us,  written  also  Mattius,  (Cneius,) 
a  Roman  poet  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  whose  friend- 
ship and  patronage  he  enjoyed.  He  was  the  author  of 
epic  and  dramatic  poems,  and  mimiambi.  Of  the  last- 
named  there  are  fragments  extant,  which  are  greatly 
admired.  He  also  translated  the  "Iliad"  into  Latin 
verse.  He  is  supjjosed  by  some  to  be  the  same  as  Cal- 
vena, (which  see.) 

Maton  de  la  Varenne,  mt't(l)N'  deh  It  vfrgn',  (P. 
A.  L.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  about  1760; 
died  in  1813. 

Matooan-  (or  Matouan-)  lin,  m^-too-in'  lin,  a  very 
learned  Chinese  writer,  born  in  the  province  of  Kiang-si 
about  1250.  He  was  the  author  of  a  historical  work, 
entitled  "  Wen-hian-thoon-khao,"  which  displays  im- 
mense erudition  and  embraces  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects. Abel  Remusat  says  of  this  production,  "  It  is  in 
itself  worth  a  library,  and,  if  Chinese  literature  contained 
no  other,  it  would  be  worth  while  to  learn  Chinese  in 
order  to  read  it." 


Matos,  de,  di  mJ'tis,  (JoAo  Xavier,)  a  Portuguese 

poet  of  the  latter  part  of  the  eigliteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  sonnets,  odes,  etc.,  and  of  a  tragedy  entitled 
'  Viriacia." 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Matos  Fragoso,  m5't6s  fR^-go'so,  (Juan,)  a  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Elvas,  in  Portugal,  about  1630,  was  the 
author  of  numerous  popular  comedies,  (in  Spanish.) 
Died  in  1692. 

Matsko,  motsh'ko,  (John  MArrHiAS,)  a  Hungarian 
astronomer,  born  at  Presburg  in  1721  ;  died  in  1796. 

Mats'ya,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  miTits'ya,]  a  Sanscrit 
word  signifying  a  "fish,"  and  forining  the  name,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  of  the  first  avatar  of  Vishnu.  On 
that  occasion  the  preserving  deity  is  said  to  have  as- 
sumed the  form  of  a  great  fish  shining  like  gold,  and, 
according  to  one  account,  "  extending  a  million  leagues," 
that  he  might  protect  the  ark  which  contained  Satyavrata 
and  the  seven  Rishis  with  their  wives,  all  the  rest  of  the 
human  race  having  been  destroyed  by  the  deluge. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Matsys,  mat-sis',  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  or  Flemish 
engraver,  born  about  1500;  died  in  1560. 

Matsys,  (Jan,)  a  relative  of  Quentin,  noticed  below. 
His  pictures  are  few  in  number,  but  of  great  merit,  and 
painted  in  the  style  of  Quentin  Matsys.  Died  about 
1560. 

Matsys,  mit-sTs',  or  Metsys,  m?t-sTs',  written  also 
Messis,  (Quentin,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1450.  He  was  originally  a  blacksmith, 
and  is  said  to  have  changed  his  vocation  in  order  to 
obtain  the  hand  of  a  lady  he  loved,  who  was  the  daughter 
of  an  artist.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp,  "The 
Misers,"  in  the  Gallery  at  Windsor,  and  the  "  Portrait 
of  a  Jeweller,"  in  the  imperial  collection  of  Vienna.  Died 
in  1529. 

See  Drscamp?;,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  E.  van 
Ewen,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Q.  Metsys,"  1846. 

Mat-ta-thi'as,  a  Jewish  priest,  appointed  to  officiate 
in  the  Temple,  was  the  founder  of  the  family  of  the 
Maccaliees,  and  the  father  of  the  celebrated  warrior 
Judas  Maccabseus.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Jews 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  he  was  conspicuous  for  his 
zeal  in  the  defence  of  his  religion,  and,  with  a  band  of 
his  followers,  marched  against  the  idolaters  and  over- 
threw their  altars.     Died  in  166  B.C. 

Matte,  mtt,  (Nicolas  Augustin,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1781.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
busts  of  Racine  and  Corneille.     Died  about  1S40. 

Matteani,  mit-ti-a'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  matheinatician,  born  at  Marostica  in  1535.  He  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Padua  in  15S9.     Died  in  1600. 

Mattel,  mdt-ta'ee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Rome  in  1744.  In  1777  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Ferrara,  and  in  1797  he  was  sent  to  negotiate  with 
Bonaparte,  then  marching  towards  Rome.    Died  in  1820. 

Mattel,  (Loretto,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Rieti  in 
1622.  He  was  the  author  of  "  II  .Salmista  Toscano,"  a 
paraphrase,  in  verse,  of  the  Psalms.     Died  in  1705. 

Mattel,  (Saverio,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  in  Cala- 
bria in  1742.  He  became  in  1767  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Naples.  His  translation  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms  was  very  popular.     Died  in  1795. 

Mattel,  (Stanislao,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1750;  died  in  1825. 

Matteis,  mit-ta'^ss,  or  Mattel,  mit-ta'ee,  (Paolo,) 
an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Naples  in  1662. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  pictures  of  the  "  Sa- 
viour and  Saint  Gaetano,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  Paul 
at  Pistoia,  and  the  "  Meeting  of  Erminia  and  the  Shep- 
herds," in  the  Museum  of  Vienna.     Died  in  172S. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Matte-Lafaveur,  mit  li'fi'vuR',  (S^rastien,)  a 
French  chemist,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Practice  of 
Chemistry."     Died  about  16S4. 

Matteo  da  Siena,  mat-ta'o  dd  se-a'ni,  or  Matteo 
di  Giovanni,  mdt-ta'o  de  jo-vin'nee,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1420.  lie  adorned  the  cathedral  of 
that  city  with  his  works.     Died  in  1495. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  \,  9,  obseure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MA  TTER 


1681 


MA  TTIJJAS 


Matter,  mt'taiR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  historian  and 
philosopher,  born  near  Saverne  in  1 791.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Critical  History  of  Gnosticism," 
etc.,  (2  vols.,  1828,)  a  "  General  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,"  (4  vols.,  1828-35,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of 
Religion,"  (1857,)  all  in  French.  He  became  in  1845 
inspector-general  of  libraries.     Died  in  1S64. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Geii^rale." 

Matteucci,  mat-too'chee,  [It.  pron.  mat-tS^ot-chee,] 
(Carlo,)  an  Italian  writer,  distinguished  for  his  researches 
in  electro-physiology,  was  born  in  181 1.  He  published, 
besides  other  valuable  works,  "  Lectures  on  the  Physico- 
Chemical  Phenomena  of  Living  Bodies,"  (1844,)  for  which 
he  received  the  prize  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
He  became  minister  of  public  instruction.  Died  at  Flor- 
ence in  1868.  (For  two  of  his  works,  see  "  Smithsonian 
Reports"  for  1865  and  1867.) 

Matteucci,  (Petronio,)  an  Italian  astronomer.  In 
17S6  he  gave  an  account  of  the  transit  of  Mercury.  Died 
in  1810. 

Matthseus,  mSt-ta'us,  (Antoo.n,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1635  ;  died  in  1710. 

Matthai  or  Matthaei,  mSt-ta'ee,  (Christian  Fried- 
rich.)  a  German  scholar,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1744,  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Wittenberg,  and  subse- 
quently of  classic  literature  at  Moscow.  He  published 
a  number  of  critical  treatises  and  editions  of  various 
Greek  classics.     Died  in  181  r. 

Matthai  or  Matthcei,(FRiEDRiCH,)  a  German  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  bom  at  Meissen  in  1777.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Casanova,  and  subsequently  of  Fiiger, 
at  Vienna,  and  was  appointed  in  1809  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Painting  at  Dresden.  Died  in  1832.  His 
brother,  Ernst  Gottlieb,  born  in  1779,  was  a  sculptor 
of  great  merit,  and  was  appointed  honorary  professor  in 
the  university  at  Rome.     Died  in  1S43. 

Matthesius,  mit-ta'ze-iis,  (Johann,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Rochlitz  in  1504.  He  became 
first  preacher  at  Joachimsthal  about  1543.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Luther's  Doctrine,  Life,  and  Death,"  (in 
German,  1565.)     Died  in  1568. 

Mattheson,  mSt'teh-son,  (Johann,)  a  German  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1681.  His 
works  are  very  numerous,  comprising  operas,  church 
music,  sonatas,  etc.  He  also  published  several  treat- 
ises on  music,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  He  was  an 
Intimate  friend  of  Handel.     Died  in  1764. 

See  BURNEY,  "  History  of  Music;"  "Nouvelle  Biogrnphie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Matthew,  math'u,  [Gr.  Uardaloq ;  Fr.  Matthieu, 
mt'te-uh';  It.  Matteo,  mat-ta'o.)  Saint,  the  Evan- 
GELisrTa  native  of  Galilee,  is  generally  believed  to  have 
been  the  same  person  as  Levi,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  men- 
tioned in  Mark  (ii.  14)  and  Luke,  (v.  27.)  His  employ- 
ment was  that  of  a  publican,  or  collector  of  customs, 
under  the  Romans,  and  while  engaged  in  this  function 
he  was  called  by  Christ  to  be  one  of  the  apostles.  The 
history  of  Matthew  after  the  ascension  of  Christ  is  not 
known,  some  writers  asserting  that  he  suffered  death 
at  Naddabar,  in  Ethiopia,  and  others  that  he  was  one 
of  the  apostles  who  escaped  martyrdom. 

Matthew  of  Cracow,  [Lat.  Matthi'as  Cracovi- 
En'sis,]  a  German  bishop  and  Reformer,  born  in  Pome- 
rania.  He  became  Bishop  of  Worms  in  1405,  and  wrote 
against  the  corrupt  practices  of  the  Church.  Among  his 
works  is  a  treatise  "  On  the  Pollutions  of  the  Romish 
Court."     Died  in  1410. 

Matthew  of  Westminster,  an  English  monk  and 
historical  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the  author 
of  "Flowers  of  History,"  ("Flores  Ilistoriarum,")  ex- 
tending from  the  creation  to  the  death  of  Edward  I.  It 
is  highly  valued  for  its  accuracy. 

Matthew,  math'u,  (Tobias,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  Bristol  in  1546.  In  1572  he  was  chosen  president  of 
Saint  John's  College,  Oxford,  and  one  of  the  queen's 
chaplains-in-ordinary.  In  1595  he  was  created  Bishop 
of  Durham,  and  in  1606  Archbishop  of  York.  The 
learning  and  piety  of  Archbishop  Matthew  have  been 
warmly  eulogized  by  Camden.     Died  in  1628. 


Matthew,  (Tt^r.iAS,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Oxford  in  1578,  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  was 
employed  by  James  I.  in  1621  to  negotiate  the  marriage 
of  the' Prince  of  Wales  with  the  Infanta  of  Spain.  He 
was  knighted  in  1623.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life 
of  Saint  Theresa,"  and  a  "Collection  of  Letters  includ- 
ing a  Character  of  Lucy,  Countess  of  Carlisle."    Died  in 

1655- 

See  Wood,  "  Atlienae  Oxonienses." 

Matthevr  Paris,  math'u  pir'iss,  a  celebrated  English 
chronicler,  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Henry  HI.,  from 
whom  he  obtained  important  privileges  for  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historia  Major 
Anglias,"  and  "  Historia  Minor  Anglice."  The  former 
extends  from  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror  to  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.     Died  in  1259. 

Matthews,  math'uz,  (Brander,)  (originally  named 
James  Branuer  Matthews,)  an  American  author,  born 
at  New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  February  21,  1S52.  He  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1871,  and 
studied  law.  He  edited  "  Comedies  for  Amateur  Act- 
ing," (1879,)  and  other  works,  and  wrote  "Theatres  of 
Paris,"  (1880,)  "French  Dramatists  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  (1881,)  "  Margery's  Lovers,"  (a  comedy,  1883,) 
"The  Home  Library,"  (18S3,)  and,  jointly  with  H.  C. 
Bunner,  "The  Documents  in  the  Case,"  (1884.) 

Matthe'ws,  math'uz,  (George,)  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Augusta  county,  Virginia,  in 
1739.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia  in  1780,  and 
again  in  1794.     Died  in  1812. 

Matthews,  (Stanley,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Cincinnati,  July  21,  1824.  He  graduated  at 
Kenyon  College  in  1840,  became  a-judge  of  the  common 
pleas  at  Cincinnati  in  1852,  was  a  State  Senator,  1855-56, 
was  appointed  United  States  district  attorney  in  1858, 
entered  the  United  States  volunteer  service  in  1861,  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  at  Cincinnati 
in  1863,  became  a  United  States  Senator  in  1877,  and 
in  1881  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court.  Among  his  writings  is  a  "Manual  of 
the  Law  of  Partnership,"  (1864.)    Died  March  22,  1889. 

Matthews,  (Thomas,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born 
in  Wales  in  1681,  distinguished  himself  in  the  engage- 
ment at  Cape  Passaro  under  Admiral  Byng,  (1718,)  and 
in  other  campaigns  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue.  Died  in 
1751. 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  g^n^rale  de  la  Marine." 

Matthia  or  Matthiae,  mSt-tee'a',  (August  HEI^ 
rich,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1769. 
He  published  "Elements  of  Greek  and  Roman  Litera- 
ture," a  "  Complete  Greek  Grammar,"  which  was  trans- 
lated into  French,  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Tragedies 
of  Euripides,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1835. 

Matthia,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born  in  Ostro- 
gothia  in  1592,  became  court  preacher  and  almoner  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  pre- 
ceptor to  Christina,  the  daughter  of  that  monarch,  and 
was  created  Bishop  of  Strengnas  in  1643.  He  wrote 
several  moral  and  theological  works.     Died  in  1670. 

Matthiae.     See  Matthia. 

Matthias,  ma-thl'ass,  [Ger.  pron..  mSt-tee'Jss ;  It. 
Mattia,  niat-tee'A,l  Emjjeror  of  Germany,  born  in  1557, 
was  the  son  of  Maximilian  II.  and  Mary,  daughter  of 
Charles  V.  He  was  invited  in  1578,  by  the  Catholics 
of  the  Netherlands,  to  assume  the  government  of  that 
country,  which  office  he  soon  resigned.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Stadtholder  of  Austria  in  1595,  and  in  1611  was 
invited  by  the  Bohemians  to  become  their  ruler.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother  Rudolf,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
in  1612,  Matthias  succeeded  to  the  throne.  In  the  en- 
suing contest  between  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  fac- 
tions he  pursued  a  vacillating  policy,  and  while  striving 
to  direct  made  himself  distrusted  by  both.  He  con- 
cluded a  disadvantageous  treaty  with  the  Turks,  then  in 
possession  of  Hungary,  (1615,)  and  soon  after  caused 
his  cousin  Ferdinand  to  be  proclaimed  King  of  Bohemia 
and  Hungary.  (See  Ferdinand  H.)  Matthias  died  in 
1619,  in  the  midst  of  the  dissensions  which  preceded  the 
Thirty  Years'  war. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  htini:  g  asy;  <;,  H,  K.^iitliinii;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  3;  tli  as  in  Ihis.     (2i^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MA  TTHIAS 


16S2 


MAUBREUIL 


Matthias,  ina-thi'ass,  an  American  fanatic  and  impos- 
tor, originally  named  Robert  Matthews,  born  in  Wash- 
ington county.  New  York,  about  1790,  became  a  street- 
preacher  in  Albany,  and  prophesied  the  destruction  of 
that  city. 

See  "Matthias  and  his  Impostures,"  by  Wm.  L.  Stone,  New 
Ifork,  1835;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Matthias  of  Janow,  (yi'nov,)  a  German  priest  and 
Reformer,  preached  in  Prague.  He  wrote  against  jjopery, 
and  published  "The  Abomination  of  Carnal  Priests  and 
Monks."     Died  in  1394. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Matthias  Corvinus.     .See  Corvinus. 

Matthieu,  the  French  for  Matthew,  which  sec. 

Matthieu,  mS^te-uh',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet  and 
historical  writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1563.  He 
became  historiograjiher  of  France  under  Henry  IV., 
wrote  a  tragedy  entitled  "  La  Guisiade,"  of  which  the 
Duke  of  Guise  is  the  hero  ;  also  a  "  History  of  Henry 
HI.  and  Henry  IV."     Died  in  1621. 

See  PoiRSO.N,  "Histoire  dii  Rigiie  de  Henri  IV;"  Nic£ron 
"  Mdmoires." 

Matthieu  de  Vendome,  mS'te-uh'  deh  vfiN'dom',  a 
French  statesman  and  ecclesiastic,  born  about  1220,  was 
appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  by  Louis  LX..  on  his 
departure  for  Palestine.  After  the  accession  of  Philip 
he  was  made  prime  minister  in  1270.     Died  in  1286. 

Matthieu  de  Vendome,  a  French  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  lived  about  1 180-1200. 

Matthiolus.     See  Mattioli. 

Matthisson,  von,  von  mdt'te-son',  (Friedrich,)  an 
eminent  German  lyric  poet,  born  near  Magdeburg  in 
1 761.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1794  accompanied 
the  Princess  of  Anhalt-Dessau  on  her  tour  through 
Switzerland,  Italy,  and  the  Tyrol.  In  181 2  the  King 
of  Wiirtemberg  appointed  him  his  chief  librarian  and 
conferred  upon  him  a  title  of  nobility.  His  poems  are 
characterized  by  great  tenderness  of  feeling,  graceful 
versification,  and  faithful  delineations  of  nature.  He 
also  published  an  interesting  work  entitled  "  Remi- 
niscences," ("Erinnerungen,"  5  vols.,  1810-16,)  being  an 
account  of  persons  and  places  he  had  visited.  Died  in 
1831. 

See  DoRiNG,  "  Matthisson'sLeben,"  1833  ;  Longfellow,  "  Poet; 
and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  F.  von  Matthisson,  "  Seibstbiographie  ' 
1818. 

Matthys,  mSt-tis',  (Gerard,)  a  Flemish  philoscphei 
and  Greek  scholar,  born  in  Gelderland  in  1523.  He 
published  a  number  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  and 
other  critical  works.     Died  in  1574. 

Matthys,  mdt'tiss,  (Jakob,)  a  Swiss  polyglot  lin- 
guist, born  at  Wolfenschiessen  in  1802.  He  became  a 
Catholic  parish  priest,  living  chiefly  in  remote  mountain- 
districts.  He  learned  many  languages,  tliough  he  had 
very  little  money  and  but  a  scanty  library.  Died  at 
Paris,  November  i,  1873. 

Matti,  mSt'tee,  (Emanuel,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastii 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Oropesa  in  1663,  was  appointed 
Dean  of  Alicante.     Died  in  1737. 

Mattioli,  mit-te-o'lee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Crevalcore  in  1662,  executed  a  nimiber  of  prints 
after  the  Caracci.  He  was  also  distinguished  as  a 
painter.     Died  about  1745. 

See  G.  Atti,  "Vita  di  L.  Mattioli,"  1836. 

Mattioli,  [Lat.  Matthi'olus,]  (Pietro  Andrex,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1500.  Being  invited  to  Prague  by  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand, he  was  made  aulic  councillor,  and  subsequently 
appointed  first  physician  to  Maximilian  II.  Me  published 
"Commentaries  on  the  Materia  Medica of  Dioscorides," 
(in  Latin,  1554,)  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  trans'ated  into  several  languages;  also  a  number 
of  medical  and  botanical  treatises.  The  well-known 
genus  Matthiola  (Stock-gilliflower)  was  named  in  honour 
of  this  botanist.     Died  in  1577. 

See  CuviER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles;"  Haller, 
"Bibliotheca  Botanica ;"  Van  der  Linden,  "De  Scriptoribus  Me- 
dicis." 

Mat'ti-son,  (Hiram,)  D.D.,  an  American  preacher, 
born  in  Norway,  New  York,  February  11,  181 1.  In 
1835  he  became  a  preacher  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 


Church,  though  for  some  time  (1861-65)  ^^  belonged  to 
an  Independent  Methodist  organization.  He  published 
"The  Trinity  and  Modern  Arianism,"  (1843,)  "Tracts 
for  the  Times,"  (1843,)  "  Elementary  Astronomy,"  (1846,) 
and  other  works,  chiefly  on  religious  and  scientific  sub- 
jects. He  was  distinguished  for  his  hostility  to  Roman- 
ism and  to  slavery.     Died  at  Jersey  City  in  1868. 

Mattius.     See  Matius. 

Mat'u-rin,  (Charles  Robert,)  a  distinguished  poet, 
novelist,  and  pul])it  orator,  born  at  Dublin  in  1782,  was 
descended  from  a  French  Protestant  family.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  College,  and  was  subsequently  appointctl 
curate  of  Saint  Peter's,  Dublin.  He  ))ul)lished  in  1807 
"The  P'atal  Revenge,  or  the  Family  of  Montorio,"  which 
was  followed  by  "  The  Milesian  Chief,"  "Women,  ui 
Pour  et  Contre,"  "Melmoth  the  Wanderer,"  and  othci 
romances  of  the  Radcliffe  school.  His  tragedy  of  "  Ber- 
tram," brought  out  at  the  Drury-Lane  Theatre  in  1816, 
met  with  brilliant  success.  It  has  been  translated  into 
French,  as  well  as  several  of  his  romances.  In  1824  he 
published  "  Controversial  Sermons,"  directed  against  the 
corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church,  which  obtained  great 
popularity.     Died  in  1824. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  j8i8  ;  "  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1818,  and  January,  1821;  "  Montlily  Review"  for 
August,  1818,  et  seq. 

Maturin,  (Edward  S.,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dublin  in  1812,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  In  1832  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  be- 
came a  lawyer.  For  many  years  he  was  a  teacher  in  South 
Carolina  and  in  New  York.  Among  his  books,  mostly 
novels,  are  "  Sejanus,"  "  Benjamin,  the  Jew  of  Granada," 
"Eva,"  "Montezuma,"  "Melmouth  the  Wanderer." 
"  Lyrics  of  Spain  and  Erin,"  and  "  Bianca,  a  Tale." 
Died  in  New  York,  May  25,  1881. 

Maturino  di  Firenze,  md-too-ree'no  de  fe-r5n'zi, 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  about  1490,  was  a 
pupil  of  Raphael,  and  a  friend  of  Polidoro  Caravaggio, 
in  conjunction  with  whom  he  executed  a  number  of 
frescos  at  Rome.  These  works  are  preserved  in  the 
engravings  of  Cherubino,  Alberti,  Goltzius,  and  other 
artists.     Died  about  152S. 

Matuszewic,  mi-too'shi-vits,  (Thaddeus,)  a  Polish 
statesman,  was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1815. 
Died  in  1818. 

Maty,  mJ'tee,  (Matthew,)  an  eminent  physician  and 
writer,  born  near  Utrecht  in  1718,  studied  at  Leyden, 
and  subsecjuently  settled  in  England,  (1740.)  He  founde(l 
in  1750  the  "Journal  Britannique,"  a  literary  periodical 
of  great  merit,  which  was  highly  commended  by  Gibbon. 
He  was  elected  in  1758  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
of  which  he  became  perpetual  secretary  in  1765.  In 
1772  he  succeeded  Dr.  Knight  as  chief  librarian  of  the 
British  Museum.  He  published  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Character  of  the  Great  Physician,  or  a  Critical  Eulogy 
on  Boerhaave,"  (in  French,  1747,)  "Authentic  Memoirs 
of  Richard  Mead,"  (1755,)  and  "Memoirs  of  Lord  Ches- 
terfield."    Died  in  1776. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes:"  Gibbon,  "Memoirs." 

Maty,  (Paul  Henry,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  London  in  1745.  He  became  one  of  the  secre- 
taries of  the  Royal  Society  in  1778.  He  published  a 
translation,  from  the  German,  of  Riesbeck's  "Travels," 
(1787.)     Died  in  1787. 

Matzner,  mSts'ner,  (Eduard  Adolf  Ferdina.nd,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Rostock,  May  25,  1805.  He 
studied  at  Rostock,  Greifswalde,  and  Heidelberg,  and  be- 
came distinguished  as  a  teacher.  Besides  some  Greek 
texts,  he  ]:)ublished  several  works  on  the  old  French  lan- 
guage, also  an  important  "English  Grammar,"  (1850- 
65  ;  in  English,  by  C.J.  Grece,  1S74,)  an  "Old  EiigUsh 
Dictionary,"  (1872  et  seq.,)  and  other  works  on  English 
etymology. 

Maubert  de  Gouvest,  mo'baiR'  deh  goo'v^',  (Jean 
Henri,)  a  IVench  litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  in  1721, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Political  History  of  the  Age," 
which  was  commended  by  Lord  Bolingbroke.  Died  in 
1767. 

Maubeuge.     See  Mabuse. 

Maubreuil,  de,  deh  mo'bRuI'  or  mo'bRuh'ye,  (Ma- 
rie Armand  Guerri,)  Marquis,  a  French  'pt>''t'cal 


a,  e,  T,  0,  i"i,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a.  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  s/ioft;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon: 


MAUBURNE 


1683 


MAUREILLAN 


adventurer,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1782.  He  served  in  the 
army  as  captain.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he 
was  authorized  and  bribed  by  certain  members  of  the 
provisional  government  in  181410  assassinate  Napoleon 
ana  to  rob  the  Queen  of  Westphalia  of  her  diamonds. 
He  performed  the  latter  part  of  his  mission,  and  was 
cast  into  prison  for  that  offence.     Died  in  1855. 

Mauburne,  mS'biiRn',  or  Momboir,  ni6N'bwSR', 
(Jean,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic  and  devotional  writer, 
born  at  Brussels  about  1460,  was  a  friend  and  corre- 
spondent of  Erasmus.     Died  in  1502. 

Maucomble,  mo'kiMbl',  (Jean  Francois  Dieu- 
DONN^,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1735,  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  City  of 
Nimes,"  (1767.)     Died  in  1768. 

Maucroix,  de,  deh  mo'kRwl',  (Francois,)  a  French 
echolar,  born  at  Noyon  in  1619.  He  made  translations 
from  the  "  Philippics"  of  Demosthenes,  the  "  Homilies" 
of  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  other  Greek  classics.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Boileau,  Racine,  and  La  Fontaine, 
and  published  conjointly  with  the  last-named  a  collection 
of  works  in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  170S. 

Maud  or  Maude.     See  Matilda. 

Maudsley  or  Maudslay,  mawdz'le,  (Henry,)  an 
English  artisan,  born  at  Woolwich  in  1771,  was  an  em- 
ploye of  Joseph  Bramah.  He  made  several  valuable 
mechanical  inventions.     Died  in  1831. 

See  Smiles,  "  Industrial  Kiography." 

Maudsley,  (Henry,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician, 
born  near  Giggleswick,  Yorkshire,  February  5,  1835. 
He  was  educated  at  University  College,  London,  and 
took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  London  in  1857. 
He  was  for  some  time  a  professor  in  his  college.  His 
princii)al    works    are    "Physiology    of    Mind,"    (1S67,) 

Pathology  of  Mind,"  (1867,)  "  Body  and  Mind,"  (1870,) 
and  "Responsibility  in  Mental  Diseases,"  (1S74.) 

Mauduit,  mo'dii-e',  (  Antoine  Ren6,  )  a  French 
nathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1731.  He  published, 
imong  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Conic  Sections  De- 
nonstrated,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  Lalande. 
Died  in  1815. 

Mauduit,  mo'dwe',  (Israel,)  an  English  writer,  of 
French  extraction,  born  at  Bermondsey  in  1 70S,  was 
appointed  agent  for  the  province  of  Massachusetts.  He 
published  a  "Short  View  of  the  History  of  the  New 
England  Colonies,"  (1769,)  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1787. 

Mauduit,  (Michel,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Vire,  in  Normandy,  in  1644.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"Analysis  of  the  Gospel,  according  to  the  Historic 
Order,"  etc.,  a  "  Treatise  on  Religion,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1709. 

Mauduit  du  Plessis,  mo'diie'  du  pli'se',  (Thomas 
Antoine,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Hennebon  in  1753, 
served  in  the  American  war,  where  his  courage  and 
abilities  won  for  him  the  particular  regard  of  Washington. 
Having  joined  the  royalists  soon  after  the  breaking  out 
of  the  French  Revolution,  he  was  killed  in  attempting 
to  suppress  a  mutiny  among  his  soldiers  in  Hayti,  in 
1791. 

Maugras,  mo'gRi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  phi- 
losopher and  writer,  born  near  Bourbonne-les-Bains  in 
1762  ;  died  in  1830. 

Mauguin,  mo'g^N',  (Fran(;'OIS,)  an  eloquent  French 
advocate,  born  at  Dijon  in  1785.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  sat  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  until  1848.     Died  in  1854. 

See  M.  DE  CoRMENiN,  "  Le  Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  L.  deLomi^nie, 
"M.  Mauguin,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1S40. 

Maule,  (Fox.)     See  Panmure,  Lord. 

Maulmont,  mol'mdN',  or  Malmont,  de,  deh  mtl'- 
m6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  scholar  and  theologian,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  T-  ^-  Scaliger. 

Maultrot,  mo'tRo',  (Gabriel  Nicolas,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  17 14,  published  numerous  treat- 
ises on  canon  law.     Died  in  1S03. 

Maun'der,  (Samuei>,)  an  English  compiler,  born 
about  1790.'  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Treasury  of  Useful  Knowledge,"  and  a  "  biographical 
Treasury,"  (6th  edition,  1847.)     Died  in  i" 


Maundeville.     See  TIandeville,  (Sir  John.) 

Maun'drell,  (Henry,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
about  1650,  visited  Palestine  in  1697,  and  published  in 
1698  his  "  Journey  from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem,"  etc.,  which 
was  translated  into  French.     Died  about  1710. 

Maunoir,  mo'nwSR',  (Julien,)  a  learned  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  in  1606.  wrote  several  theological  treat- 
ises in  Latin,  and  a  number  of  works  in  the  dialect  of 
Brittany,  including  a  grammar  and  dictionary.  Died  in 
1683. 

Maupas,  de,  deh  mo'pd',  (Charles  Cauchon,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  at  Rheims  in  1566,  was  appointed 
councillor  of  state  by  Henry  IV.,  and  was  subsequently 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  England.     Died  in  1629. 

Maupas  du  Tour,  de,  deh  m5'pi'  dii  tooR,  (Henri 
Cauchon,)  a  French  writer,  born  near  Rheims  in  1600, 
rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Evreux  in  1661.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Saint  Francis  de  Sales,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1680. 

Maupassant,  de,  deh  mo'pt'sSN',  (Henri  Ren6 
Alkert  Guy,)  a  F"rench  poet,  born  at  the  chateau  Mi- 
romesnil,  August  5,  1850.  He  wrote  "  Boule  de  Suif,"  (a 
novel,)  a  brochure  called  "  Histoire  de  vieux  Temps,"  a 
volume  of  poems,  ("  Des  Vers,"  1880,)  etc. 

Maupeou,  de,  deh  mS'poo',  (  Ren6  Charles,)  a 
French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1688.  He  was  suc- 
cessively appointed  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of 
Paris,  keeper  of  the  seals,  and  vice-chancellor,  (1763.) 
Died  ii)  1775. 

See  De  Tocqueville,   "  Histoire  de  Louis  XV." 

Maupeou,  de,  (Ren6  Nicolas  Charles  Augu 
riN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1 714,  rose  through 
various  high  offices  to  be  chancellor  of  France  in  1768. 
In  this  post  he  directed  all  his  efforts  towards  the  over 
throw  of  the  parliament,  which,  by  his  intrigues,  was 
accomplished  in  1771.  The  president  Lamoignon  and 
several  distinguished  members  were  exiled ;  but  on  the 
accession  of  Louis  XVI.  (1774)  they  were  recalled,  and 
the  fonner  system  was  re-established.  Maupeou  was  ban- 
ished to  his  estate,  near  Les  Andelys,  where  he  died 
in  1792,  having  bequeathed  to  the  nation  the  sum  of 
800,000  livres.  He  was  the  last  chancellor  of  the 
ancient  monarchy. 

See  "Lettres  de  Madame  du  Deffand  ;"  DhTocquevh.le,  "  H'^- 
toire  de  Louis  XV  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Maupertuis,  de,  deh  mo'p?R'tii-e',  (Pierre  Louis 
Moreau,)  an  eminent  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Saint-Malo  in  1698.  He  finished  his  studies  in  Paris, 
was  elected  to  the  ,\cademy  of  Sciences  in  1723,  and  in 
1727  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  London. 
In  1736  he  was  the  chief  of  a  party  of  savants,  in- 
cluding Clairaut  and  Lemonnier,  who  were  sent  to 
Lapland  by  the  Academy  in  order  to  measure  a  degree 
of  the  meridian.  The  result  of  this  experiment,  which 
is  his  chief  title  to  celebrity,  exposed  the  error  which 
had  been  made  by  Dominic  and  Cassini  in  their  measure- 
ment in  France,  and  tended  to  confirm  Newton's  theory 
of  the  oblate  form  of  the  earth.  On  the  invitation  of 
Frederick  IT.  of  Prussia,  Maupertuis  repaired  in  1740  to 
Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on 
Moral  Philosophy,"  "The  Balistic  Arithmetic,"  "The 
Measure  of  the  Northern  Degree,"  "  Discourse  on  the 
Figure  of  the  Stars,"  and  several  able  treatises  on  geom- 
etry.    Died  in  1759. 

SeeL.  A.  DELA  Beaumelle,  "Vie  de  Maupertuis,"  1856;  DamA- 
RON,  "Memoire  sur  Maupertuis;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance 
Generale;"  J.  H.  Formey,  "  Eloge  de  Maupertuis,"  1761  ;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Mauquest  de  la  Motte,  mo'V\'  deh  It  mot,  (GuiL- 
LAUME,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Valognes  in  1655, 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  "Surgery,"  (3  vols.,  1722.)  Die^ 
in  1737. 

Maur.     See  Raran-Maur. 

Maurand  or  Mauran,  mo'rSN',  (Pierre,)  the  first 
leader  of  the  Albigenses,  was  born  at  Toulouse.  It  is 
said  that,  under  the  pressure  of  severe  persecution,  he 
abjured  his  doctrines.     Died  in  1199. 

Maureillan,  mo'r.VySN',  (Casimir  Poitevin,)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1772, 
succeeded  the  Duke  of  Ragusa  as  Governor  of  Dalmatia 
in  1S06.     Died  in  1829. 


;  g  hard;  g  asy,-  G,  H,  V., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (fl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


eas  k:  9  as.r 


MAUREPAS 


16S4 


MAURY 


Maurepas,  de,  deh  moR'pi',  (Jean  Fr6d6ric  Ph6- 
lypeaux — fi'le'po',)  Comte,  a  French  statesman,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1701,  was  a  grandson  of  Chancellor  Pont- 
chartrain.  Me  succeeded  his  father,  Jerome  de  Pontchar- 
train,  as  secretary  of  state  in  17 15,  and  in  1725  became 
minister  of  marine.  Though  frivolous  in  his  character 
and  superficial  in  his  attainments,  he  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learned  men,  and  promoted  the  scientific  expeditions 
of  Maupertuis  and  his  companions  to  Lapland  and  of 
Jussieu  to  South  America.  Having  offended  Madame 
de  Pompadour  by  an  epigram,  he  was  banished  from 
court ;  but  after  twenty-five  years  he  was  recalled.  The 
principal  measure  of  his  subsequent  administration  was 
the  restoration  of  the  parliaments.     Died  in  1781. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "filoge  de  M.  de  Maurepas,"  1782;  Voltaire, 
"Slide  de  Louis  XV  ;"  Droz,  "Histoirede  Louis  XVI;"  Mar- 
MONTEL,  "Mi^moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Maurer,  mow'rer,  (Christoph,)  a  Swiss  painter  and 
engraver,  son  of  Josias,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Zurich 
in  1558.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Tobias  Stimmer.  Died  in 
1614. 

Maurer,  mow'rer,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  near  Diirkheim,  in  Bavaria,  in  1790,  became  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  and  of  justice  in  1847.  He  ]iublished 
a  number  of  legal  treatises.     Died  May  9,  1872. 

Maurer  or  Murer,  moo'rer,  (Josias,)  a  Swiss  artist 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Zurich  in  1530,  excelled  as  an 
engraver  and  painter  on  glass.     Died  in  1580. 

Maurice,  Emperor  of  the  East.     See  Mauricius. 

Maurice,  the  French  for  Mauricius,  which  see. 

Maurice,  mo'rfess',  (Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Provence  in  1677. 
He  became  professor  of  history.  Oriental  languages,  and 
theology  at  Geneva.     Died  in  1756. 

Maurice,  (Antoine,)  a  theological  writer,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  17 16,  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  chair  of  theology  in  that  city,  (1756.)  Died 
in  1795. 

Maurice,  (Fr^d^ric  Guillaume,)  Baron,  a  Swiss 
writer,  son  of  Antoine,  (the  second  of  the  name,)  born 
at  Geneva  in  1750,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Bi- 
bliotheque  Britannique,"  (1796,)  and  published  several 
agricultural  works.     Died  in  1826. 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  (John  Frederick  Denison,) 
an  English  divine  and  prominent  leader  of  the  "  Broad 
Church"  party,  born  in  1805.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the 
London  "Athen3eum."  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Theological  Essays,"  "Prophets  and  Kings  of  the 
Old  Testament,"  "Unity  of  the  New  Testament,"  "The 
Kingdom  of  Christ,"  (1841,)  "Religions  of  the  World," 
"Philosophy  of  the  First  Six  Centuries,"  "Doctrine  of 
Sacrifice  deduced  from  the  Scriptures,"  "Lectures  on 
National  Education,"  "  Philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
"Claims  of  the  Bible  and  of  Science,"  (1862,)  and  "The 
Conflict  of  Good  and  Evil  in  our  Day,"  (1865.)  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Cambridge 
in  1866.     Died  April  i,  1872. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1S54  ;  "  New  American  Cy- 
clopaedia." 

Maurice,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Hertford  in  1755,  became  vicar  of  Cud- 
ham,  in  Kent.  He  was  the  author  of  "Indian  Antiqui- 
ties," (7  vols.,  1797,)  "History  of  Hindostan,"  (3  vols., 
1799,)  and  "Modern  History  of  Hindostan,"  (2  vols., 
1804.)  He  also  translated  into  verse  the  "CEdipus 
Tyrannus"  of  Sophocles,  and  published  several  poems 
and  dramas.     Died  in  1824. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Rev.  Thomas  Maurice,"  1S19,  by  himself; 
•'Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1824. 

Maurice  of  Nassau.     See  Nassau. 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  [Ger.  Mo'ritz  ;  Lat.  Mauri'tius,] 
Elector  of  Saxony,  a  celebrated  general  and  champion 
of  the  Protestant  cause,  was  born  at  Freiberg,  March 
21,  1521.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Henry,  Duke  of 
Saxony,  in  1541,  and  married  Agnes,  a  daughter  of  I'hilip, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse.  In  1 546  he  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  the  emperor  Charles  V.  against  the  Protestant 
League  of  Schmalkaldcn,  with  a  design  to  supplant  John 
Frederick  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  whose  dominions  he 
invaded  with  success.     The  title  of  elector  was  trans- 


ferred to  him  by  Charles  V.  In  consequence  of  his  un- 
exjiccted  hostility  to  the  Protestants,  the  Imperial  army 
gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Miihlberg  in  April,  1547,  and 
the  Protestant  cause  was  apparently  ruined.  Having 
changed  his  policy,  and  formed,  in  1551,  a  secret  treaty 
with  Henry  II.  of  France,  Maurice,  aided  by  several  Ger- 
man princes,  in  the  spring  of  1552  took  arms  for  the 
as.sertion  of  religious  liberty,  and  marched  again.st  Charles 
v.,  who  was  at  Innspruck.  Surprised  by  this  sudden 
movement,  Charles  was  compelled  to  retreat,  the  Council 
of  Trent  was  dispersed  in  confusion,  and  hostilities  were 
terminated  by  the  memorable  treaty  of  Passau,  August 
22,  1552,  which  secured  religious  liberty  to  the  Protest- 
ants of  Germany.  Maurice  was  killed  in  a  battle  against 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  at  Sievershausen,  in  July,  1553. 

See  J.  Camerarius,  "Vita  Mauritii  Electoris  Saxonias,"  1569; 
Georg  Arnold,  "Vita  Mauritii,"  1710;  V.  A.  von  Langenn, 
"  Moritz  Herzofjund  Cliiirfiirst  von  Saclisen,"  2  vols.,  1841  ;  Schlen- 
KERT,  "  Moritz  Cluirt"iirst  von  Sachsen,"  4  vols.,  1798-1800;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  [Fr.  pron.  mo'r^ss',]  Saint,  a 
Christian  martyr,  was  commander  of  the  Theban  Legion, 
which  was  composed  entirely  of  Christians.  Being  or- 
dered by  the  erriiieror  Maximian  to  make  a  sacrifice  to 
the  gods  for  the  success  of  the  Roman  anns,  he  refused 
to  comply,  and  was  put  to  death,  together  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  legion  he  commanded,  (2S6  A.D.) 

See  J.  DE  Lisle,  "  Defense  de  la  V^ritd  du  Martyre  de  la  L^gioo 
Th^b^enne,"  1737. 

Mauriceau,  mo're'so',  (Fran(;ois,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, boni  in  Pari.'^,  jiublished  a  "Treatise  on  the  Dis- 
eases of  Pregnancy,"  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages.     Died  in  1709. 

Mauricianus,  mau-rish-i-a'nus,  (Junius,)  a  Roman 
jurist  under  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius. 

Mauricius  or  Mauritius,  mau-rish'i-us,  [Gr.  Mav- 
okwg ;  Fr.  Maurice,  m6'r(I;ss' ;  It.  Maurisio,  mow- 
lee'se-o,]  (Flavius  Tiberius,)  Emperor  of  the  East, 
born  in  Cappadocia  in  539  A.D.  Having  been  appointed 
by  the  emperor  Tiberius  commander  of  his  armies 
against  the  Persians,  he  gained  several  important  victo- 
ries, and  was,  on  his  return,  rewarded  by  Tiberius  with 
his  daughter's  hand.  After  carrying  on  war  for  some 
time  with  the  Abares,  a  barbarous  tribe  on  the  Danube, 
a  mutiny  broke  out  among  his  soldiers,  who  chose  for 
their  leader  a  centurion  named  Phocas.  Mauritius  was 
put  to  death,  having  previously  witnessed  the  execution 
of  five  of  his  sons,  (602.) 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lh 
Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire  ;"    "Nouvelle   Biographie  Geii^- 

Maurisio,  mow-ree'se-o,  (Gerardo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  historian,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1200-1240. 
He  served  under  the  Ghibeline  commander  Ezzelino 
da  Romano,  and  subsequently  wrote  a  history  of  his 
achievements,  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation. 

Mauritius.  See  Maurice  of  Saxony,  and  Mauri- 
cius. 

Mauro,  Fra,  fRj  mow'ro,  an  eminent  Italian  geog- 
rapher, was  a  monk  of  the  order  of  the  Camaklulcs, 
near  Venice.  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  map 
of  the  world,  executed  about  1458.  Several  copies  of 
it  have  been  made ;  one  of  the  best  of  these  is  in  the 
British  Museum. 

See  Placido  Zurla,  "II  Mappamundo  di  Fra  Mauro,"  1806. 

Mauroceiius.     See  Morosini. 

Maurocordato.     See  Mavrocordatos. 

Maurolico,  mow-ro'le-ko,  (Francesco,)  a  celebrated 
Sicilian  geometer,  born  at  Messina  in  1494,  was  for  many 
years  professor  of  mathematics  in  his  native  city.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Conic  Sections,"  "  Oj:)- 
tical  Theorem,"  and  other  valuable  works  in  Latin,  and 
made  translations  from  Euclid,  Apollonius,  and  Auto- 
lycus.     Died  in  1575. 

See  F.  Maurolico,  "Vita  del  Abbate  Francesco  Maurolico,' 
1613;  D.  ScinX,  "  Elogio  di  F.  Maurolico,"  iSoS. 

Mau'rus  Tereutia'nus,  (te-rSn-she-a'nus,)  a  Latin 
writer,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Carthage,  was 
the  author  of  a  poem  on  the  rules  of  Latin  versification, 
entitled  "  De  Literis,  Syllabis,  Pedibus,"  etc. 

Maury,  mo're',  CJea.m  Siffreix,)  acelebrated  French 
prelate  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  the  Venaissin  in  1746. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lo/i^:  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni6t;  u6t;  good;  moon; 


MAURY 


1 68:; 


MA  VR  O  MICH  A  L  IS 


He  repaiied  to  Paris  about  1766,  and  soon  acquired  a 
high  reputation  by  his  "  Funeral  Oration  on  the  Dauphin," 
and  his  "Eulogy  of  Fenelon."  He  published  in  1777 
his  "Treatise  on  Pulpit  Eloquence,"  and  in  1778  was  ap- 
pointed to  preach  the  Car8me  (Lent)  sermon  before  the 
king.  His  "  Panegyric  on  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  which 
is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  appeared  in  1785,  and  he 
was  soon  after  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
In  17S9  he  was  a  deputy  of  the  clergy  of  Peronne  to  the 
States-General,  where  he  was  cons])icuous  as  the  elo- 
quent advocate  of  the  Church  and  of  the  royalist  party 
and  the  most  powerful  opponent  of  Mirabeau.  On  the 
dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  country,  and  at  the  invitation  of  Pius  VI. 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Rome,  where  he  was  made 
a  cardinal  in  1794.  In  1804  he  wrote  a  letter  of  con- 
gratulation to  the  emperor  Najjoleon,  and  henceforth 
attached  himself  to  the  interests  of  the  new  sovereign. 
He  was  successively  created  by  him  a  member  of  the 
Institute,  first  almoner  of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  (iSro.)  After  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons,  Cardinal  Maury  was  deprived  of  his  place, 
and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1817.  Maury  was 
noted  for  his  brilliant  repartee,  of  which  the  following 
instances  may  be  given.  Being  asked  by  Napoleon  how 
he  stood  with  regard  to  the  Bourbons,  he  replied,  "Sire, 
my  respect  for  them  is  unalterable;  but  I  have  lost  faith 
and  hope,  and  there  remains  to  me  only  charity."  Once, 
in  the  Assembly,  some  ladies  of  rank,  known  for  their 
republican  opinions,  attempted  by  their  loud  conversa- 
tion to  drown  his  voice,  when,  turning  to  the  president, 
he  said,  "I  pray  you  silence  those  Sans-culottes." 

See  "  Viedu  Cardinal  Maury,"  1827,  by  his  nephew;  Poujoulat, 
"  Le  Cardinal  Maury,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1855  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Gendrale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixix.,  1812,  (Appen- 
dix) 

Maury,  mow-ree',  (Juan  Maria,)  a  Spanish  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Malaga,  published  in  1826  a  collection 
of  Spanish  lyrics,  entitled  "Poetical  Spain,"  ("Espagne 
poetique,")  which  were  translated  into  elegant  French 
verse  and  accompanied  with  critical  and  biographical 
notices.     Died  in  1845. 

Maury,  (Louis  Ferdinand  Alfred,)  a  French  anti- 
quarian writer,  born  at  Meaux  in  1817.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1857.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which 
is  his  "  History  of  the  Religions  of  Ancient  Greece," 
(3  vols.,  1857.) 

Mau'ry,  (Matthew  Fontaine,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
hydrographer  and  naval  officer,  born  in  Spottsylvania 
county,  Virginia,  in  1806.  About  1826  he  sailed  in  the 
Vincennes  on  a  voyage  around  the  world,  and  after  his 
return  was  made  a  lieutenant  in  1836.  He  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Navigation,"  (about  1835,)  "Letters  on  the 
Amazon  and  the  Atlantic  Slopes  of  South  America," 
"  Relation  between  Magnetism  and  the  Circulation  of 
the  Atmosphere,"  "Astronomical  Observations,"  (1853,) 
and  "Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,"  (1855  ;  si.xth  edi- 
tion, 1856,)  a  work  which  has  been  highly  praised  by 
competent  judges.     Died  February  i,  1873. 

See  the  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1858. 

Mau-so'lus,  [Gr.  WavaiAo^ ;  Fr.  Mausole,  mo'zol',] 
son  of  Hecatomnus,  became  King  of  Caria,  in  Asia 
Minor,  about  377  k.C,  being,  however,  nominally  a  satrap 
of  the  Persian  empire.  He  made  considerable  conquests 
in  Persia  and  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  and  was,  ac- 
cording to  Demosthenes,  one  of  the  instigators  of  the 
Social  war.  Frcmi  his  name  is  derived  the  word  "mau- 
soleum." The  colossal  statue  of  Mausolus,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  is  one  of  the  finest  extant  relics  o^ 
ancient  art.     (See  Artemisia.) 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici." 

Maussac,  de,  deh  mo'stk',  [Lat.  Maussa'cus,] 
(Philip  Jacques,)  an  "eminent  French  critic  and  scholar, 
born  near  Beziers  about  1590.  He  became  first  president 
of  the  Chambre  des  Comptes  at  Montpellier  in  1647. 
He  published  the  "Greek  Lexicon"  of  Harpocration, 
with  notes,  (1614,)  an  edition  of  Aristotle's  "  History  of 
Animals,"  and  of  Psellus"On  the  Virtues  of  Minerals." 
Maussac  was  one  of  the  first  Greek  stfholars  of  his  time, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Salmasius.     Died  in  1650. 


Maiissacus.     See  Maussac. 

Mautour,  de,  deh  mo'tooR',  (Philibert  Bernard 
Moreau,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Beaune  in  1654. 
.A.mong  his  works  is  a  "Dissertation  on  the  History  of 
the  Amazons."     Died  in  1737. 

Mauvais,  md'vi',  (F6lix  Victor,)  a  French  astron- 
omer, born  at  Maiche,  in  Doubs,  in  1809;  died  in  185.1. 

Mauvillon,  m6'vi'y6N',  (Ei.^azar,)  a  French  /i(U'- 
rateur,  born  in  Provence  in  17 12,  became  secretary  to 
Frederick  Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  He  published  a 
"History  of  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,"  (5  vols.,  1740,) 
a  "History  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (1742,)  "History  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  (1764,)  and  other  works,  (in 
French.)     Died  at  Brunswick  in  1779. 

Mauvillon,  (Jacob,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Leipsic  in  1743,  became  professor  of  military  science  at 
Cassel  in  1771.  He  wrote  a  "Historical  Essay  on  the 
Art  of  War,"  etc.,  (in  French,  1784,)  and  other  works 
in  French  and  German,  also  "  The  Prussian  Monarchy," 
("La  Monarchic  Prussienne,")  in  conjunction  with 
Mirabeau,  who  was  his  intimate  friend.     Died  in  1794. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Mauzinho  Quevedo  de  Castello  Branco,  mow- 
zfen'yo  ki-va'do  di  kis-tel'lo  buin'ko,  a  Portuguese 
poet,  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "Alphonso  the  African," 
commemorating  the  achievements  of  King  Alphonso  V. 

Ma'vor,  (William  Fordyce,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born 
near  Aberdeen  in  1758,  became  tutor  to  the  children 
of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  published  a  number 
of  useful  compilations,  among  which  we  may  name  a 
"Historical  Account  of  the  Most  Celebrated  Voyages," 
"  Elements  of  Natural  History,"  and  "The  British  Cor- 
nelius Nepos."     Died  in  1837. 

Mavors.     See  Mars. 

MavroQordatos,  mav-ro-kor-d&'tos,  or  Mavrocor- 
dato,  miv-ro-kor-dd'to,  (.-Vle-Xanukr,)  a  modern  Greek 
physician,  statesman,  and  scholar,  born  about  1636.  He 
studied  at  Rome  and  Padua,  and  took  his  medical  degree 
at  Bologna.  Having  settled  at  Constantinople,  his  pro- 
found knowledge  of  both  Oriental  and  European  lan- 
guages procured  for  him  the  post  of  grand  dragoman  to 
the  Ottoman  Porte,  (1673.)  He  was  afterwards  employed 
in  important  embassies  to  Vienna,  and  negotiated  the 
treaty  of  Carlowitz,  (1698.)  His  services  to  Austria  on 
this  occasion  were  rewarded  by  the  emperor  Leopold 
with  the  title  of  count  of  the  empire,  while  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  by  the  Sultan,  and  obtained 
other  distinctions.  He  was  the  author  of  a  medical 
work  entitled  "  Pneumaticum  Instrumentum,"  etc.,  which 
was  translated  into  French,  German,  and  Spanish,  a 
"Modern  Greek  Grammar,"  and  a  collection  of  letters. 
Died  in  1709. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mavrocordatos,  (Alexander,)  a  Greek  statesman, 
born  at  Constantinople  in  1791.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Turks  in  1821,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the 
executive  committee  in  January,  1S22,  soon  after  which 
he  took  command  of  the  army.  Having  been  rendered 
almost  powerless  by  the  dissensions  among  the  Greeks 
and  by  the  enmity  of  Colocotronis  and  Ypsilanti,  he  re- 
signed or  refused  the  office  of  president  in  1823.  In  1832 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  cabinet  by  King  Otho, 
whom  he  served  as  ambassador  to  Munich,  Berlin,  and 
London  between  1S34  and  1S40.  He  was  prime  minis- 
ter for  a  short  time  in  1S41,  and  president  of  the  council 
in  1844.  About  May,  1854,  he  was  restored  to  power, 
which  he  resigned  a  few  months  later.    Died  in  1865. 

See  Tricoui'IS,  "  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  (in  modem 
Greek,)  4  vols.,  1853-56;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  L.  db 
LoMENiE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains." 

Mavrocordatos,  (Constantine,  )  was  appointed 
Hospodar  of  Wallachia  in  1735.  He  abolished  serfdom, 
and  introduced  great  improvements  in  the  agriculture 
of  the  country.     Died  in  1765. 

Mavrocordatos,  (Nicholas,)  son  of  Alexander, 
(the  first  of  the  name,)  was  appointed  successively 
dragoman  to  the  Sultan,  Hospodar  of  Moldavia  (1709) 
and  of  Wallachia,  (1711.)     Died  in  1730. 

Mavromichalis,  mav-ro-me-Ki'lis,  known    also   as 


€  as  -5,-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v:., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ; 


MA  WE 


1606 


MAXIMILIAN 


PiETRO  Bey,  a  modern  Greek  patriot,  born  in  the  Morea 
about  1775.  He  fought  against  the  Turks  in  the  revo- 
lution which  began  in  1821,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  provisional  government.     Died  in  1848. 

Mawe,  maw,  (Joseph,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Derbyshire  in  1764,  published  "Travels  in  the  Interior  of 
Brazil,"  etc.,  (1812,)  "Treatise  on  Diamonds  and  Precious 
Stones,"  {1813,)  "Mineralogy  of  Derbyshire,"  and  other 
scientific  treatises.     Died  in  1S29. 

Mawmoisiue,  niaw'moi-zin,  or  Malvoisine,  de, 
deh  mdl'vo-zin,  (William,)  a  prelate,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  France.  Having  visited  Scotland,  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1202.  He  estab- 
lished many  monasteries  in  that  country,  and  was  active 
in  promoting  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 

Maxcy,  mak'see,  (Jonathan,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  at  Attleborough,  Massachusetts,  in 
1768.  He  became  successively  professor  of  divinity  at 
Brown  University,  Rhode  Island,  (1791,)  president  of 
Union  College,  New  York,  (1802,)  and  president  of 
South  Carolina  College,  (1804.)     Died  in  1820. 

See  the  "Literary  Remains  of  Rev.  Jonathan  Ma,\cy,"  with  a 
Memoir  by  R.  Elton,  D.D.,  1S44. 

Maxence.    See  Maxentius. 

Maxentius,  maks-^n'she-us,  [Fr.  Maxence,  mtk'- 
s6nss',]  (Marcus  AureliuTValerius,)  a  Roman  em- 
peror, was  the  son  of  Maximian,  who  abdicated  in  305 
a.d.  He  married  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  Galerius. 
He  thought  himself  slighted  by  the  promotion  of  Con- 
stantine  to  the  rank  of  Csesar  in  306,  and  e.xcited  a 
revolt  among  the  Praetorian  guards,  who  proclaimed  him 
emperor  at  Rome  in  the  same  year.  Galerius,  who  was 
then  in  a  distant  province,  sent  against  him  an  army 
under  Severus,  who  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  aid 
of  Ma.ximian,  Maxentius  and  his  father  reigned  together 
for  a  short  time,  and  made  an  alliance  with  Constantine, 
who  married  Fausta,  a  sister  of  Maxentius.  Maximian 
was  expelled  from  Rome  in  308,  in  consequence  of  a 
quarrel  with  his  son.  In  312  the  army  of  Constantine 
defeated  that  of  Maxentius,  who,  in  the  retreat,  was 
drowned  in  the  Tiber. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Max'ey,  (Samuel  Bell,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
at  Tompkinsville,  Kentucky,  March  30,  1825.  He  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1846,  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  afterwards  was  a  lawyer  in  Texas.  He  served  in 
the  Confederate  army,  and  was  made  a  major-general. 
He  was  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1875,  and 
was  re-elected. 

Maxime.     See  Maximus. 

Maxime  de  Tyi".     See  Maximus  Tyrius. 

Max-ini'i-an,  [Fr.  Maximien,  mtk'se'me^N' ;  Lat. 
Maximia'nus, ]  or,  more  fully,  Mar'cus  Vale'rius 
Maximia'nus,  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Pannonia, 
was  the  son  of  a  peasant.  He  had  obtained  high  rank  in 
the  army  when  Diocletian,  in  286  a.d.,  adopted  him  as 
his  colleague  in  the  empire.  In  the  division  of  the  em- 
pire, Italy  and  Africa  were  assigned  to  Maximian.  In 
305  Diocletian  and  Maxiinian  formally  abdicated  in 
favour  of  Galerius  and  Constantius  Chlorus.  The  next 
year  he  joined  his  son  Maxentius  in  an  effort  to  recover 
power,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor.  In  the  war  that 
ensued  between  him  and  Constantine  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  executed  in  310.     (See  Maxentius.) 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Tillb- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Mjiximianus.     See  Maximian. 

Maximien.     See  Maximian. 

Max-i-mil'i-an  [Ger.  pron.  mdk-se-mee'le-Sn ;  Vx. 
Maxi.miliex,  intk'se'me'le'dN';  Lat.  Maximilia'nus  ; 
It.  Massimiliano,  mSs-se-me-le-i'no]  I.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  born  at  Neustadt  in  1459,  was  the  son  of 
Frederick  III.  and  Leonora  of  Portugal.  He  married, 
in  1477,  Mary  of  Burgundy,  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  who  died  in  1482,  leaving  two  children, 
Philip  and  Margaret.  In  accordance  with  the  sti))ulation3 
of  the  peace  of  Arras,  (1482,)  he  betrothed  his  daughter 
Margaret  to  the  Dauphin,  (afterwards  Charles  VIII.  of 
France,)  with  Burgundy,  Artois,  and  Flanders  for  hei 


portion.  For  several  years  following  he  was  involved  in 
a  contest  with  France,  and  with  his  subjects  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, incited  to  revolt  by  Louis  XI.  About  1492  he 
prepared  to  make  war  on  Charles  VHI.,  who  not  only 
refused  to  keep  his  engagement  with  Maximilian's  daugh- 
ter, but  had  deprived  him  of  his  intended  bride,  Anne, 
the  wealthy  heiress  of  Brittany.  By  the  mediation  of 
Philip,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  between  the  two  sovereigns  at  Senlis,  (1493,) 
by  which  Charles  was  compelled  to  give  up  the  dowry 
of  the  princess.  Maximilian  was  crowned  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  in  1494  married  Bianca  Sforza,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Duke  of  Milan,  which  alliance  gave  rise  to  a 
succession  of  wars  in  Italy.  He  soon  after  joined  the 
League  of  Cambray,  formed  between  Pope  Julius  II., 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  Louis  XII.  of  France,  against 
the  Venetians ;  but,  that  republic  having  soon  after 
become  reconciled  to  the  pope,  Maximilian  joined  the 
so-called  Holy  League  between  England,  Spain,  Venice, 
and  the  pope,  in  opposition  to  the  French,  who  were 
signally  defeated  by  the  forces  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the 
emperor,  in  the  "battle  of  the  spurs,"  near  Guinegate, 
(1513.)  Francis  I.,  having  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
France,  captured  Milan,  and  compelled  Maximilian  to 
give  up  Verona  to  the  Venetians  for  200,000  ducats.  By 
the  treaty  of  Bale  (1499)  he  had  been  obliged  to  acknow- 
ledge the  independence  of  Switzerland.  Though  often 
unsuccessful  in  his  wars,  he  had  the  fortune  to  acquire 
extensive  territories  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Philip 
with  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  and  of  his  grandchildren  Fer- 
dinand and  Maria  with  the  son  and  daughter  of  Ladislaus, 
King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  His  daughter  Mar- 
garet was  married  to  the  Spanish  prince  Don  Juan,  a 
son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Among  the  important 
acts  of  his  reign  were  the  establishment  of  the  Imperial 
Chamber  and  Aulic  Council,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
Secret  Tribunal  of  Westphalia  ;  he  also  created  a  stand- 
ing army  and  introduced  military  discipline.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  works  in  prose  and  verse.  He  died  in  January, 
1519,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Charles  V. 

See  CoxE,  "History  of  the  Hoii.'^e  of  Austria :"  Hkcewisch, 
"Geschichte  der  Regierung  Maxiniiliai\s  I.,"  1782:  Kaki.  Haltaus, 
"Geschichte  des  Kaisers  Maximilian,"  1850;  Van  uer  Voort, 
"Maximilian  van  Oostenrijk,"    1844; 

Maximilian  IL,  born  in  1527,  was  the  son  of  Fer- 
dinand I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1564  as  Emperor  of 
Germany.  He  was  soon  after  engaged  in  a  war  with  the 
Turks,  who  had  established  themselves  in  Hungary. 
After  the  death  of  Solyman  II.  a  truce  of  eight  years 
was  concluded  between  his  successor  and  the  emperor. 
Maximilian  was  favourably  inclined  towards  the  Protest- 
ants, whom  he  allowed  to  fill  important  offices;  but  the 
influence  of  the  pope,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Catho- 
lic princes  of  Germany  prevented  him  from  formally 
embracing  their  doctrines.  He  died  in  1576,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Rudolph. 

See  CoxE,  "  History  of  the  House  of  Austria;"  DeThou,  "  His- 
toria  sui  Temporis;"  "  Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 

Maximilian  I.,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1573. 
On  the  formation  by  the  Protestants  of  the  confederacy 
called  the  Union,  (1608,)  Maximilian  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  opjjosing  Catholic  faction  of  the  League. 
In  conjunction  with  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  he  fought 
in  the  Thirty  Years' war  against  the  Palatine  Frederick  V., 
and  conquered  the  Uj^perand  Lower  Palatinate.  In  1623 
he  obtained  the  electoral  dignity  of  the  Palatinate  and 
the  hereditary  domains  of  Frederick  V.  Maximilian  was 
an  able  ruler,  and  founded  a  number  of  colleges  and  other 
useful  institutions.     Died  in  1651. 

See  Kari.  Maria  von  Aketi.n,  "Geschichte  des  Herzogs  und 
Kurfiirsten  Maximiiian  L,"  1S42. 

Maximilian  II.,  (Joseph,)  King  of  Bavaria,  the 
eldest  son  of  King  Lewis,  was  born  in  181 1.  Me  mar- 
ried in  1842  a  daughter  of  Prince  Frederick  William  of 
Prussia.  In  March,  1848,  he  succeeded  his  father,  who 
abdicated  the  throne.  He  opposed  the  project  to  unite 
the  German  peoples  into  one  nation  or  confederacy  of 
which  the  King  of  Prussia  should  be  the  head.  He  died 
in  March,  1864,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Lewis. 

Maximilian,   (Ferdinand  Joseph,)   Emperor  of 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohcure;  fdr,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MAXIMILIAN 


1687 


MAXWELL 


Mexico  and  Archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  July,  1832, 
was  a  l:)rother  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph.  He 
married  Carlotta.  or  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  Leopold, 
King  of  Belgium,  abcnU  1858.  In  1859  he  was  appointed 
an  admiral  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  navy. 
In  1863  he  was  temjjted  by  Napoleon  III.  to  act  the  part 
of  em]3eror  in  Mexico,  tlien  partly  conquered  by  the 
French  and  partly  governed  by  the  republican  President 
Juarez.  He  arrived  at  the  Mexican  capital  in  June,  1864. 
He  issued  a  decree  that  all  who  adhered  to  the  republic 
or  resisted  his  authority  should  be  shot.  Many  prisoners, 
including  General  Orteaga,  accordingly  suffered  death  by 
his  order.  According  to  the  New  York  "  Evening  Post," 
July  I,  1867,  he  ordered  the  enslavement  of  the  whole 
labouring  population  of  Mexico.  The  United  States 
refused  to  recognize  him  as  empcri)r,  and  required  Na- 
poleon to  withdraw  his  army.  Ma.ximilian  was  much 
embarrassed  by  the  want  of  money,  and  offended  the 
clerical  party  (which  had  favoured  him)  by  refusing  to 
restore  the  property  of  the  Church,  which  had  been 
confiscated  by  the  Liberals.  The  French  troops  de- 
parted about  the  end  of  1866,  after  which  the  republicans 
gained  several  victories  and  the  empire  quickly  collapsed. 
Maximilian  was  captured  at  Queretaro  in  Ma^,  and  shot 
on  the  19th  of  June,  1867. 

See  his  "Recollections  of  my  Life,"  3  vols.,  i868;  F.  Hall, 
"Lite  of  Maximilian,"  1868. 

Maximilian,  (Alexander  Philipp,)  Prince  of  Neu- 
wied,  a  German  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Neu- 
wied  in  1782.  In  1815  he  set  out  on  a  journey  through 
Brazil,  where  he  spent  two  years  and  made  a  rich  col- 
lection of  specimens.  On  his  return  he  published  his 
"Travels  in  Brazil"  and  a  "Description  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Brazil."  In  1833  he  visited  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States.  His  "Journey  through  North 
America,"  a  magnificent  work,  illustrated  with  eighty- 
one  engravings,  came  out  in  1843,  ^"^  '^  said  to  be 
superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  that  had  hitherto 
appeared  in  Germany.     Died  in  1867. 

Maximilian  Joseph,  "  Duke  in  Bavaria,"  a  German 
prince  and  author,  the  head  of  the  ducal  line  of  the  Ba- 
varian royal  family,  was  born  at  Bamberg,  December  4, 
1808,  and  became  a  general  of  cavalry  in  the  Bavarian 
army.  He  published  "  Wanderung  nach  Orient,"  "  No- 
vellen,"  "  Skizzenbuch,"  etc.,  and  compiled  a  collection 
of  Bavarian  popular  songs  and  melodies.  One  of  his 
daughters  became  Empress  of  Austria.     Died  in  1888. 

Maximil'ian  M»ri'a  Eman'uel,  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
born  in  1662,  was  a  grandson  of  Maximilian  I.  In  1685 
he  married  Maria  Antonia,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Leopold  I.,  and  was  appointed  in  1692  Governor  of  the 
Netherlands.  Having  taken  part  with  the  French  in 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  delivered  up  to 
them  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  After  his  defeat  at  the 
battle  of  Schellenberg,  he  was  obliged  by  the  einperor 
to  give  up  his  possessions,  which,  however,  were  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Baden  in  17 14.     Died  in  1726. 

Max'i-min,  [LaL  Maximi'nus;  Fr.  Maximin,  mtk'- 
se'miN',]  or,  more  fully,  Cai'us  Ju'lius  Ve'rus  Max- 
mii'nus,  a  native  of  Thrace,  born  in  173  A.D.,  served 
m  the  Roman  army  under  Septimius  Severus.  Having 
followed  Alexander  Severus  in  his  German  campaign, 
he  caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  a.d.  235,  and  was 
proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead.  In  consequence  of  his 
cruelties,  the  province  of  Africa  soon  after  revolted,  and 
Gordianus  was  made  emperor  by  the  senate  of  Rome, 
A.D.  237.  Maximinus,  having  defeated  and  slain  Gor- 
dianus, laid  siege  to  Aquileia,  during  which  he  was  killed 
in  a  mutiny  of  his  soldiers,  together  with  his  son,  in  238 
A.D.  If  we  may  trust  the  concurrent  testimony  of  ancient 
writers,  Maximin  was  above  eight  feet  high,  well  propor- 
tioned, and  of  such  strength  that  he  could  easily  draw  a 
loaded  wagon,  and  with  a  kick  break  the  leg  of  a  horse. 
He  is  said  to  have  used  his  wife's  bracelet  for  a  finger- 
ring. 

See  TiLl.EMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs. 

Max-I-mi'nus  Da'za,  an  Uiyrian  peasant,  a  relative 
of  Galerius,  was  raised  by  him  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar, 
A.D.  305.  He  ruled  over  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  perse- 
cuted the  Christians.  On  the  death  of  Galerius,  in  311, 
Maximinus  took  possession  of  all  the  Asiatic  provinces. 


He  afterwards  made  war  on  Licinius,  but  was  defeated, 
and  died  by  poison  at  Tarsus  in  313  A.D. 

Max'I-mu8,  |Fr.  Maxime,  mik'sim';  It.  Massimo, 
mas'se-mo,  ]  (Magnus  Clemens,)  a  usurper  of  the 
Roman  empire,  was  a  native  of  Spain.  Having  for  sev- 
eral years  commanded  the  Roman  army  in  Britain  with 
success,  he  revolted  against  Gratian  about  381  A.D., 
and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  soldiers.  He  then 
invaded  Gaul  to  offer  battle  to  Gratian,  who  was  defeated, 
or  fled  without  fighting,  and  was  killed  in  383.  Theo- 
dosius  and  Valentinian  recognized  him  as  Emperor  of 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain.  Attempting  to  obtain  Italy 
also  by  conquest,  he  was  defeated  by  Theodosius,  taken 
prisoner,  and  executed  in  388  A.D. 

See  Le  Deau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Tillemont,  "  His- 
toire des  Empereurs." 

Maximus,  [Fr.  Maxime,  mik's^m',]  Saint,  sur- 
named  the  Confessor  and  the  Monk,  an  eminent 
Greek  theologian,  born  at  Constantinople  about  580 
A.D.  He  zealously  opposed  the  heresy  of  the  Monothe- 
lites,  and  wrote  many  works  on  theology,  which  were 
highly  esteemed  in  the  middle  ages.     Died  in  662  a.d. 

Max'i-mus  the  Greek,  a  native  of  Albania,  was 
invited  to  Russia  by  the  grand  duke  Vassili  Ivanovitch, 
in  order  to  examine  numerous  Greek  manuscripts  re- 
cently discovered.  He  made  translations  of  the  priiici- 
pal  ones  into  Latin,  which  were  rendered  by  others  into 
Slavonian.  At  the  request  of  the  Czar,  he  undertook 
to  revise  the  early  translations  of  the  books  of  the 
Greek  Church ;  but  the  numerous  corrections  which  he 
made  gave  great  offence,  and  he  was  excommunicatetl 
as  a  heretic  in  1525.     Died  in  1556. 

Maximus  Fabius.     See  Fabius. 

Max'I-miis  Pe-tro'ni-us,  an  ambitious  Roman  cour- 
tier, born  in  395  A.D.  He  was  twice  chosen  consul. 
In  455  he  procured  the  assassination  of  Valentinian 
III.,  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  married  Eudoxia,  the 
widow  of  Valentinian.  Genseric  the  Vandal,  invited  by 
Eudoxia,  marched  an  army  towards  Rome,  when  Maxi- 
mus attempted  to  escape  by  flight,  but  was  killed  by  his 
soldiers,  or  by  the  officers  of  Eudoxia,  in  455  a.d. 

See  Tii.i.EMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Max'i-mus  Ru-til'i-us,  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  Severus  and  Caracalla.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Ad  Legem  Falcidiam,"  or  Commentary  on 
tlie  Lex  Falcidia. 

Max'I-mus  Tyr'i-us,  [Fr.  Maxime  de  Tyr,  mtk'- 
sfem'  deh  t^R,]  an  eminent  Platonic  philosopher,  born  at 
Tyre  in  the  second  century,  lived  at  Athens  and  Rome 
in  the  reigns  of  the  Antonines  and  of  Commodus.  He 
wrote,  in  Greek,  numerous  philosophical  dissertations. 
the  style  and  sentiments  of  which  are  commended.  Two 
of  these  are  entitled  "On  the  Daemonium  of  Socrates," 
and  "On  Plato's  Opinion  respecting  the  Deity." 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy ;"  Kabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graeca." 

Max'well,  (James  Clerk,)  an  eminent  British  phys- 
icist, born  at  Edinburgh,  June  13,  1831.  lie  studied  at 
the  Universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Cambridge,  gradu- 
ating with  highest  honours  in  1854.  He  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
1856-60,  professor  of  physics  in  King's  College.  London, 
1860-68,  and  professor  of  experimental  physics  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  1871-79.  His  life  was  full  of 
fruitful  labours  in  the  field  of  experimental  physics  and 
applied  mathematics.  Among  his  works  are  an  admi- 
rable "Theory  of  Heat,"  (1871,)  "Matter  and  Motion," 
and  "Electricity  and  Magnetism,"  (1873,)  the  latter  a 
treatise  of  the  highest  value  to  science.  Died  at  Cam- 
bridge, November  5,  1S79. 

Max'-well,  (Sir  Murray,)  a  Scottish  naval  oflScer, 
born  near  Perth  in  1766,  served  with  distinction  in  sev- 
eral campaigns  against  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and 
'in  1815  accompanied  Lord  Amherst  on  his  embassy  to 
China.     He  was  made  a  knight  in  1818.     Died  in  t.831. 

See  Basil  Hall,  "Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  Western  Coast 
of  Corea,"  etc.  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October  and  Nove.nber, 
1842. 

Maxwell,  (Robert,)  one  of  the  Scottish  lords  oi  the 
regency  during  the  absence  of  James  V.  in  France,  had 
a  share  in   the  mutiny  at  Solway  Moss.      In  the  first 


:as>J.-  rasx;  ghard:  gasy/G,  H,  Vi,^Mural:  N,  tiasal;  K^trilUJ;  sasa;  th  asinM;>.     (g:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAXWELL 


i6S8 


MA  YER 


Parliament  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  (1543,)  he  intro- 
duced a  bill  to  allow  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  the 
vulgar  tongue,  which  was-  passed  in  sj)ite  of  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  lord  chancellor,  the  bishops  and  priests. 
Died  in  1546. 

Maxwell,  (William  Hamilton,)  a  writer,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1795.  He  published,  besides  several  novels, 
a  "  Life  of  Wellington,"  and  contributed  to  "  Bentley's 
Miscellany."     Died  in  1850. 

Maxwell,  (William  Stirling.)     See  Stirling. 

May,  (Caroline,)  an  American  writer,  and  resident 
of  New  York,  has  published  several  poems  and  prose 
works,  and  prepared  an  edition  of  the  "American  Female 
Poets,"  with  notes. 

May,  (Edith.)     See  Drinker. 

May,  (EmvARD  Collett,)  an  English  musician,  born 
at  Greenwich,  October  29,  1806.  He  began  life  as  an 
organist,  but  since  1841  has  devoted  himself  with  great 
success  to  the  teaching  of  vocal  music. 

May,  (Edward  H.,)  an  American  painter,  of  English 
extraction,  born  in  1828.  He  resided  in  New  York  and 
in  Palis.  He  studied  under  Couture,  in  Paris,  and  pro- 
duced pictures  highly  commended  by  French  critics. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are"  Jewish  Captives  at  Baby- 
lon," "  Francis  I.  at  Prayer  after  hearing  of  the  Death 
of  his  Son,"  and  a  "Scene  from  Waverley."  Died  1887. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Aiiisis." 

May,  (Sa.muel  Joseph,)  an  American  Unitarian  min- 
ister, born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  September  12,  1797. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  181 7,  and  became 
distinguished  as  an  anti-slavery  writer  and  speaker  and 
as  an  advocate  of  popular  education.  Died  at  Syracuse, 
New  York,  July  i,  1871. 

May,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Sussex 
about  1595,  was  appointed  by  Cromwell  secretary  and 
historiographer  to  the  Parliament.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  tlie  English  Parliament  which  began 
November,  1640,"  which  is  commended  by  Warburton  ; 
also  the  tragedies  of  "  Antigone"  and  "  Agrippina,"  a 
comedy  entitled  "The  Heir,"  and  other  works.  He 
likewise  translated  Lucan's  "  Pliarsalia,"  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  it,  in  Latin  and  English.  It  is  eulogized 
by  Dr.  Johnson  and  other  critics.     Died  in  1650. 

May,  (Thomas  Erskine,)  an  English  historian  and 
writer  on  law,  born  in  181 5.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "A  Constitutional  History  of  England  from 
1760  to  i860,"  (1S61-63,)  and  "Democracy  in  Europe; 
a  History,"  (1877.)  He  was  made  Companion  of  the 
Bath  in  i860.     Died  May  13,  1886. 

May  de  Romain-Motier,  mi  deh  ro'mAN'  mo'te-i', 
(Emmanuel,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Berne  in  1734, 
published  a  "  Military  History  of  the  Swiss,"  etc.,  (1772.) 
Died  in  1799. 

M&yel,  mi'yl,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  Illusion," 
and  applied  by  the  Hindoos  in  a  philosophical  or  mys- 
tical sense  to  that  Power  which  caused  or  created  the 
visible  phenomena  of  the  universe,  it  being  assumed  that 
external  objects  have  no  absolute  existence,  but  that 
they  are  mere  impressions  on  the  mind,  according  to 
the  theory  held  by  Berkeley  and  some  other  European 
philosophers.  The  Maya  of  the  Hindoo  mythology  is, 
according  to  some,  a  mighty  goddess,  regarded  as  the 
wife  or  consort  of  Brahma. 

See  Moor,  "Hindoo  Mythology;"  Wilson,  "Sanscrit  Dic- 
tionary." 

Mayans  y  Siscar,  mi-dns'  e  s^s-kaR',  [Lat.  Maian'- 
Sius, I  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  scholar,  born 
at  Oliva  in  1699.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Miguel  Cer- 
vantes," (1738,)  and  a  number  of  legal  and  critical  works 
of  a  high  character.     Died  in  1781. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Strodtmann, 
"  G.  Maiansii  Vita,"  1756. 

Maydieu,  mi'de-uh',  (Jean,)  a  French  littirateur, 
who  was  born  at  Troyes,  and  lived  about  1 760-1800.  He 
wrote  several  works  of  fiction.  He  was  a  priest,  and 
was  banished  at  the  Revolution. 

Mayenne  or  Maiemie,  de,  deh  mt'ygn',  (Charles 
DE  Lorraine,)  Due,  an  able  French  general,  born  in 
1554,  was  the  second  son  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise. 
He  fought   against   the   Huguenots  in   the   civil   wars 


under  Charles  IX.  and  Heniy  III.  His  brother  Henry 
and  lie  organized  the  Catholic  League  in  1577.  (See 
Guise,  de,  Henry,  Duke.)  On  the  death  of  his  brother 
Henry,  in  1588,  the  Duke  of  Mayenne  became  cum- 
mandf.r-in-c'iiief  of  the  army  of  the  League.  1  ie  occupied 
Paris  in  February,  1589,  and  opposed  tiie  succession  of 
Henry  IV.,  wlio  defeated  Mayenne  at  Ivry  in  March, 
1590.  The  duke  retained  possession  of  Paris  until  1593, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  "of  peace  with  Henry  IV.  in  1596 
Died  in  1611. 

See  Np-RvfezE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Due  de  Mayenne,"  1618; 
SisMONur,  "Histoire  des  Kranfais ;"  Davh-a,  "History  of  the 
Civil  Wars  of  France;"  H.  Martin,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Mayenne,  de,  (Henri  de  Lorraine,)  Due,  a  son 
of  tlie  preceding,  born  in  1578.  He  acted  a  prominent 
part  in  the  tumults  and  violent  feuds  which  prevailed 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIII.  In  1621  he  wa» 
killed  at  Montauban,  where  he  fought  against  the  Prot- 
estants. 

May'er,  (Alfred  Marshall,)  an  able  American 
scientist,  born  in  Baltimore,  November  13,  1836,  a  nephew 
of  Brantz  Mayer.  He  was  educated  at  Saint  Mary's 
College  in  Baltimore,  and  in  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
held  (1856-71)  professorships  of  science  in  various  col- 
leges, becoming  a  j^rofessor  of  physics  in  the  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology,  at  Hoboken,  New  Jersey,  in 
1S71.  Electricity,  magnetism,  and  acoustics  have  been 
the  subjects  to  which  he  has  given  esjjecial  attention. 
He  is  the  author  of  many  scientific  papers,  a  treatise  on 
"  Sound,"  etc. 

Mayer,  mi'er,  (Andreas,)  a  German  astronomer, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1716;  died  in  1782. 

May'er,  (Branz,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  at  Baltimore  in  1S09.  He  published  "  Mexico 
— Aztec,  Spanish,  and  Republican,"  (1851,)  "Observa- 
tions on  Mexican  History  and  Archaeology,"  etc.,  and 
"  Mexican  Anticmities,"  (185S.)      Died  in  1879. 

Mayer,  mi'yi',  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  French  novel- 
ist and  historical  writer,  born  at  Toulon  in  1751  ;  died 
about  1825. 

Mayer,  (Constant,)  a  French-American  painter, 
born  at  Besan9on,  in  France,  October  4,  1832.  He  was 
educated  at  the  ficole  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris,  and  in  1857 
became  a  resident  of  New  York.  He  has  made  many 
life-size  genre  pictures  and  pc^rtraits,  and  in  1869  was 
created  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour.  Among 
his  best  works  are  "Consolation,"  "Recognition," 
"Good  Words,"  "Love's  Melancholy,"  "The  Sewing- 
School,"  "Tlie  Song  of  the  Shirt,"  etc. 

Mayer,  (Johann  Christoph  Andreas,)  a  German 
anatomist,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1747,  became  physician 
to  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1789.     Died  in  1801. 

Mayer,  (JonANN  Friedrich,)  a  German  divine  and 
polemist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1650.  He  held  professor- 
ships i)f  divinity  at  Wittenberg,  Kiel,  and  Greifswalde. 
He  published  over  three  hundred  and  seventy  books  and 
pamphlets,  and  was  noted  for  his  extreme  hostility  to 
Spener  and  the  Pietists.  His  works  are  nearly  forgotten. 
Died  at  Stettin  in  1712. 

Mayer,  (Julius  Ruuert,)  a  German  physicist,  born 
at  Heilbronn,  November  25,  1814.  He  was  educated  at 
Tiibingen,  Munich,  and  Paris,  and  became  a  surgeon  at 
Heilbronn.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  able  theorist  on 
thermodynamics.  His  principal  work  is  "  Die  Mechanik 
der  Warme,"  (1867.)     Died  March  20,  1878. 

Mayer,  mi'er,  [Lat.  Maye'rus,)  (Johann  Tobias.) 
an  eminent  German  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Marbach  in  1723.  At  an  early  age  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  exact  sciences,  and  in  1750 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Gottingen,  and  the  next  year  director  of  the  observatory 
in  that  place.  In  1755  he  published  his  "  Lunar  Tables," 
a  work  of  the  greatest  accuracy  and  which  at  once 
gained  him  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  many  able 
productions  we  may  name  the  "  Zodiacal  Catalogue,"  a 
treatise  "On  the  Librationof  the  Moon,"  "  Solar  Tables," 
and  "  Terrestrial  Refractions."  Mayer  also  discovered 
the  principle  of  the  repeating  circle,  since  developed  by 
Borda  and  employed  l>y  him  to  measure  the  arc  of  the 
meridian.  After  Mayer's  death,  which  took  place  in 
1762,  the    British    Parliament,   at  the  suggestion  of  the 


a,  e.  1.  o,  u,  y,  lon^<^;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolongetl ;  a,  e,  1,  6,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good ;  moon; 


MA  YER 


1689 


MAYOW 


board  of  longitude,  paid  to  his  widow  the  sum  of  ;i3000, 
being  the  prize  offered  for  the  "  Lunar  Tables." 

See  A.  G.  Kastner,  "  Elogium  T.  Mayeri,"  1762;  Nopitsch, 
"  Lebensbeschreibung  Tobias  Mayers,"  1805  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
G^n^rale." 

Mayer  or  Mayr,  mlR,  (Simon,)  a  celebrated  German 
composer,  born  at  Mendorf,  in  Bavaria,  in  1763.  He 
studied  under  Lenzi  and  Bertoni  in  Italy,  and  in  1802 
became  chapel-master  at  Bergamo.  He  composed  a 
great  number  of  operas,  among  the  most  popular  of 
which  are  his  "  Medea,"  "  Lodoiska,"  and  "  Music-Mad," 
("II  Fanatico  per  la  Musica.")     Died  in  1845. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biograpliie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Mayenie  -  Turquet,  de,  deh  niS'y^Rn'  tiiR'k.V, 
(Louis,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lyons  about  1550,  was 
the  author  of  a  "  General  History  of  Spain,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  16 18. 

Mayerne-Turquet,  de,  (Theodore,)  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  1573,  became  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  In  161 1  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  James  I.  of  England,  and 
held  the  same  oftice  under  Charles  I.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  valuable  medical  works  in  Latin.  Died 
in  1655. 

See  S^NEBiER.  "  Histoire  litleraire  de  Geneve." 

Mayerus.     See  Maykr,  (Juhann  Tobias.) 
Mayeur   de    Saint-Paul,   mi'yuR'   deh    siN'poK, 

(FRANgois  Marie,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1758,  published  a  number  of  comedies, 
romances,  and  poems.     Died  in  1818. 

Maygrier,  mi'gRe'i',  (Jacques  Pierre,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1771,  wrote  on  anatomy 
and  medicine.     Died  in  1835. 

May'hew,  (AuGUsrus  Septimus,)  an  English  author, 
a  brother  of  Henry  Mayhevv,  noticed  below,  and  author 
of  several  books,  among  them  "Kitty  Lamere,"  (1858,) 
"Paved  with  Gold,"  (1866,)  and  "Blow  Hot  and  Blow 
Cold,"  (1869.)  He  also  assisted  Henry  and  Horace 
Mayhew  in  producing  the  "Brothers  Mayhew"  series  of 
humorous  tales.  Died  December  25,  1875.  Edward 
Mayhew,  (born  in  London  in  1S13,)  a  brother  of  the 
above,  was  a  theatrical  manager,  and  the  author  of  some 
farces,  and  of  a  series  of  illustrated  and  humorously- 
written  books  on  veterinary  practice.  These  had  a  wide 
sale  in  America  and  England.  Horace,  another  brother, 
was  associated  in  the  authorship  of  the  "  Brothers  May- 
hew" series,  and  wrote  several  comic  books  of  his  own. 
He  was  born  in  London  in  1819,  and  died  April  30, 
1872.  Thomas,  the  eldest  of  the  five  brothers,  was  born 
in  1810,  and  published  the  "  Penny  National  Library," 
including  a  "  Penny  Dictionary,"  "  Penny  Grammar,'" 
etc.     He  was  also  editor  of  a  radical  pajjer. 

May'he-w,  (Henry,)  an  English  litterateur  and  jour- 
nalist, born  in  London  in  1812.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  periodical  entitled  "  Figaro  in  London,"  and 
in  1841  became  the  first  editor  of  "  Punch."  He  sub- 
sequently edited  the  "Comic  Almanac."  Among  his 
works  may  be  named  "What  to  Teach,  and  How  to 
Teach  it,"  (1842,)  "London  Labour  and  the  London 
Poor,"  (185 1,)  "Tiie  Wonders  of  Science,"  "The  Greatest 
Plague  of  Life,"  "  Whom  to  Marry  and  How  to  get  Mar- 
ried," "  Magic  of  Kindness,"  etc.     Died  July  21,  1887. 

May'hew,  (Jonathan,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  Martha's  Vineyard  in  1720,  was  distinguished  as 
a  preacher  and  controversialist,  and  published  a  number 
of  theological  works.  Among  these  we  may  name 
"Observations  on  the  Charter  and  Conduct  of  the  So- 
ciety for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,"  and 
"Christian  Sobriety."     Died  in  1766. 

Maynard,  mi'nSR',  (Francois,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1582,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Malherbe. 
He  was  the  author  of  odes,  epigrams,  and  other  poems, 
which  are  characterized  by  La  Harpeas  possessing  great 
eloquence  of  diction,  but  are  deficient  in  warmth.  Died 
in  1646. 

May'nard,(HoRACF.,)  LL.D.,an  American  statesman, 
born  at  VVestborough,  Massachusetts,  August  30,  1814. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1S38.  He  removed 
to  knoxville,  Tennessee,  where  he  was  (1838-42)  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  East  Ten- 


nessee. He  became  a  lawyer,  was  a  member  of  Congress, 
1857-63  and  1865-75,  attorney-general  of  Tennessee, 
1863-65,  United  States  minister  at  Constantinople,  1875- 
80,  and  postmaster-general,  1880-S1.  Died  at  Knoxville, 
May  3,  1882. 

May'nard,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1602.  He  became  Cromwell's  sergeant 
in  1653,  and,  after  the  restoration,  filled  the  same  otfice 
under  Charles  II.  He  was  active  in  promoting  the  Revo- 
lution of  1688,  and  was  appointed  in  1689  one  of  the 
lords  commissioners  of  the  great  seal  of  England.  Died 
in  1690. 

Mayne,  man,  (Jasper,)  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1604.  He  obtained  several  offices 
under  Charles  I.,  of  which  he  was  deprived  after  Crom- 
well's usurpation.  On  the  restoration  he  was  appointed 
chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.,  and  Archdeacon  of 
Chichester.  He  was  the  author  of  a  comedy  entitled 
"The  City  Match,"  and  a  tragi-comedy  called  "The 
Amorous  Warre."     Died  in  1672. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses ;"  Prince,  "Worthies  of 
Devon;"  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Mayno,  ml'no,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Toledo  about  1590,  was  drawing-master  to  Philip 
IV.  Among  his  best  productions  are  "The  Nativity" 
and  "The  Resurrection."     Died  in  1654. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  tspagnols.' 
Maynwaring,  mdn'a-ring,  (Arthur,)  an  English 
satirist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1668. 
He  was  for  a  time  attached  to  the  cause  of  James  II., 
and  satirized  the  government  of  William  III.,  to  which, 
however,  he  was  afterwards  reconciled.  After  the  peace 
of  Ryswick  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Boileau.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  Preston  in  1705.  Maynwaring's  productions,  both  in 
prose  and  verse,  were  much  esteemed,  and  Sir  Richard 
Steele  dedicated  to  him  the  first  volume  of  the  "Tatler." 
Died  in  17 12. 

See  Oldmixon,  "Life  and  Posthumous  Works  of  A.  Mayn- 
waring." 

Mayo,  ma'o,  (Amory  Dwight,)  an  American  divine, 
born  at  Warwick,  Massachusetts,  in  1823,  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  Unitarian  Church  in  Albany. 
He  published  "Graces  and  Powers  of  the  Christian 
Life,"  (1852,)  "Symbols  of  the  Capital,"  and  other  works. 
His  wife,  S.  C.  Edgarton  Mayo,  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  poems  of  great  beauty,  chiefly  on  religious 
subjects.     She  died  about  1850. 

Ma'yo,  (Herbert,)  an  English  physician,  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  King's  College, 
London,  and  acquired  distinction  as  a  lecturer.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geological 
Society.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Outlines  of 
Human  Physiology,"  (1827,)  "Outlines  of  Human  Pa- 
thology," (1836,)  (translated  into  German,)  "Philosophy 
of  Living,"  (1837,)  "The  Nervous  System  and  its  P'unc- 
tions,"  (1842,)  and  "Letters  on  the  Truths  contained  in 
Popular  Superstitions,"  (1849.)  Died  near  Mentzin  1852. 
Mayo,  (Mrs.  Isaisella,)  an  English  author,  a  daughter 
of  a  Mr.  Fyvie,  a  tradesman,  was  born  in  London, 
December  to,  1843.  I"  '^7°  she  married  J.  R.  Mayo, 
a  solicitor.  She  is  the  author  of  "The  Crust  and  the 
Cake,"  (1S69,)  "White  as  Snow,"  (1870,)  "Gold  and 
Dross,"  (1871,)  "The  Dead  Sin,"  (1873,)  "By  Still 
Waters,"  (1874,)  "Crooked  Places,"  (1874,)  "Doing  and 
Dieanting,"  and  other  works,  chiefly  stories.  She  has 
also  published  some  poems, 

Ma'yo,  (Richard  Southwell  Bourke,)  Earl  of, 
and  Lord  Naas,  a  Conservative  statesman,  was  born  in 
Dublin  in  1822.  He  was  appointed  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland  in  1852,  in  1S58,  and  again  in  1866.  In  1868 
he  became  Governor-General  of  India.    Died  in  1872. 

Mayo,  (William  Starkuck,)  an  American  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Ogdensburg,  New  York,  in  1812.  He 
published,  in  1849,  "  Kaloolah,"  a  fictitious  tale  of  African 
adventure,  which  was  followed  by  "  The  Berber,  or  the 
Mountaineer  of  the  Atlas,"  (1850,)  and  "Romance-Dust 
from  the  Historic  Placer." 

Mayow,  ma'5,  ?  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Cornwall  in  1645,  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
"On  Nitre  and  Nitro-Aerial  Spirit,"  in  which  he  origi- 


€  as  <l;*9  as  j;  ghard;  gas/;G,H,K,£-uttural;  n, nasal;  v.,trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in //i/j.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAYR 


1690 


MAZZA 


nated  some  of  the  most  important  modern  discoveries 
in  jiiieumatic  chemistry.     Died  in  1679. 

Mayr,  von,  fon  mlK,  (Johann  Marie  Eck,)  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  Vienna  in  1716,  fought  for  Frede- 
rictc  the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.     Died  in  1759. 

Mayseder,  mi'zeh-der,  (JosiU'ii,)  a  German  violinist 
and  composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1789.     Died  in  1863. 

Mazade,  de,  deh  mt'zad',  (Charles,)  a  French 
author,  burn  at  Castei-Sarrazin  in  1821.  He  became 
a  journalist  of  Paris,  and  published  "Odes,"  (1841,) 
"  L'Espagne  moderne,"  (1855,)  "  L'ltalie  moderne," 
(1S60,)  "  Larnartine,"  (1872,)  and  other  works,  chiefly  on 
[jublic  questions. 

Mazariu,  maz'a-reen',  [Fr.  pron.  mS'zt'riN' ;  It.  Ma- 
zarini,  mdd-zd-ree'nee ;  Lat.  Mazari'nus,]  (Giulio  or 
Jules,)  Cardinal,  a  celebrated  courtier  and  prime  min- 
ister of  France,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1602.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  a  college  of  Jesuits  at  Rome,  (where  his  father, 
Pietro  Mazarini,  resided,)  and  adopted  the  profession  of 
law.  He  had  acquired  the  rejiutation  of  an  adroit  nego- 
tiator in  the  service  of  the  pope,  when,  in  1630,  he  met 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  secured  his  attachment  to  the 
interest  of  P'rance.  When  the  French  and  Spanish  were 
about  to  engage  at  Casai,  he  prevented  a  Ijattle,  and  ne- 
gotiated the  treaty  of  Cherasco  in  163 1.  He  was  nuncio 
extraordinary  to  France  in  1634,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  the  French  king,  who  sent  him  as  ambassador  to 
Savoy  in  1640.  Through  the  infiuence  of  the  French 
court,  Mazarin  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1641.  The  next 
year  he  was  admitted  into  the  supreme  council.  The 
death  of  Richelieu  (in  1642)  and  of  Louis  XHI.  (in  1643) 
opened  a  wider  sphere  to  the  ambition  of  Mazarin,  whom 
Richelieu  recommended  as  his  successor.  By  the  will 
of  the  late  king  he  was  declared  sole  adviser  of  the 
queen-regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  in  respect  to  ecclesiastic 
affairs,  and  he  soon  acquired  the  principal  power  in  the 
government,  as  well  as  the  confidence  of  that  queen.  He 
used  his  power  at  first  with  moderation,  and  courted 
popularity  by  gracious  and  affable  manners.  He  prose- 
cuted the  war  against  Spain  which  began  under  his  pre- 
decessor, and  in  which  Conde  and  Turenne  maintained 
the  honour  of  the  French  arms.  A  dispute  which  arosp 
between  the  court  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  was  fo 
mented  by  Cardinal  de  Retz  into  the  revolt  of  the  Paris- 
ians called  "  the  Day  of  the  Barricades,"  (August  27, 
1648,)  and  was  followed  by  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde. 
The  queen,  with  her  son,  Louis  XIV.,  and  Mazarin,  were 
driven  out  of  Paris  in  1649  by  the  Frondeurs.  This  civil 
war  was  more  remarkable  for  the  levity  of  the  people  than 
for  their  military  exploits.  Ladies  directed  the  several 
factions,  and  cabals  were  made  or  broken  by  amorous 
intrigues.  In  the  midst  of  these  domestic  broils,  Maza- 
rin had  been  so  fortunate  or  politic  as  to  conclude  with 
the  German  emperor  the  famous  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
(1648,)  by  which  the  latter  ceded  to  France  the  province 
of  Alsace.  In  1651  the  cardinal  was  exiled  to  Cologne; 
but  about  two  years  later  he  returned  to  the  capital  in 
triumph,  and  the  end  of  the  rebellion,  in  1654,  restored 
him  to  his  former  power.  He  made  in  1655  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Cromwell,  who,  being  solicited  as  an  ally 
by  the  French  and  the  Spanish  courts,  preferred  the 
former.  He  acquired  the  same  influence  over  the  king, 
who  had  attained  his  majority,  as  he  had  exerted  over 
the  queen.  It  is  said  that  Louis  XIV.  wished  to  marry 
Marie  Mancini,  a  niece  of  his  minister,  but  the  latter 
discouraged  the  match,  and  in  1659  negotiated  a  marriage 
with  a  Spanish  princess.  Mazarin  once  said  "  Louis  con- 
tained the  material  for  four  kings  and  one  honest  man." 
He  died  at  Vincennes  in  March,  1661.  His  person  was 
remarkably  handsome,  and  his  manners  fascinating. 
"Mazarin,"  says  Mignet,  "had  a  far-seeing  and  invent- 
ive mind,  a  character  rather  supple  than  feeble.  His 
device  was  'Le  Temps  et  moi.'"  Much  diversity  of 
opinion  exists  respecting  his  merit  as  a  statesman  ;  but 
it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  he  was  able  and  skilful, 
and,  though  avaricious,  he  was  not  a  cruel  or  revengeful 
minister. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  1751;  Mignet, 
"M^moires  relatifs  41a  Succession  d'Espagiie;"  Saint-Aulaire, 
"  Histoiie  de  la  Fronde  ;"  Bazin,  "  Histoire  de  France  sous  le  Mi- 
nistire  du  Cardinal  Mazarin;"  Voltaire,  "  Siicle  de  Louis  XIV;" 
Gualdo-Priorato,   "Vita  del   Cardinal   Mazarini,"  1662;    John 


Calvert,  "  Life  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  1670;  Retz,  "M^moires:' 
SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Franc^-ais  ;"  Gramont,  "Memoires;"  V. 
Cousin,  "  La  Jeunesse  de  Mazarin  :"  "  Xouvelle  Uiograpliie  Gen^ 
rale  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1831,  and  Februaiy,  1832. 

Mazarini.     See  Mazarix. 

Mazarinus.     See  Mazarln. 

Mazarredo  y  Salazar,  md-thir-ra'Do  e  si-li- 
tliaR',  (Jos6  Maria,)  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  at  Bilbao 
in  1 714,  distinguished  himself  by  his  defence  of  Cadiz 
against  the  English  in  1797.  He  was  appointed  by  Joseph 
Bonaparte  minister  of  the  marine  in  1808.    Died  in  1812. 

Mazdak,  maz'dak,  or  Maz'dek,  a  Persian  impostor, 
who  was  born  about  470  a.d.,  professed  to  be  a  prophet, 
and  advocated  a  community  of  property.  He  induced 
King  Kobad  to  adopt  his  system,  and  effected  great 
changes  in  the  social  order. 

Mazdek.     See  Mazdak. 

Mazeas,  mt'zi'd',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Landernau  in  1712,  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.     Died  in  1776. 

Mazel,  mt'z^K,  (Abraham,)  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Camisards  in  France,  born  at  Saint-Jean-du-Gard. 
After  the  insurrection  of  the  Cevennes,  in  1702,  he  was 
imprisoned,  but,  having  escajied,  he  again  attempted  tc 
rouse  the  people  to  revolt,  and  was  killed  in  a  skirmish 
near  Uzes  in  1710. 

Mazeline,  mSz'lin',  (Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1633.  The  palace  of  Versailles  is 
adorned  with  several  of  his  works.     Died  in  1708. 

Ma-zep'pa,  (Ivan  StePanovitch,)  a  celebrated  Po- 
lish adventurer,  born  in  the  government  of  Kief  in  1644,, 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  John  Casimir,  King  of 
Poland.  Having  been  detected  in  an  intrigue  with  the  wife 
of  a  nobleman,  he  was  bound  by  his  orders  to  one  of  the 
wild  horses  of  the  Ukraine  and  carried  to  the  country 
of  the  Cossacks.  He  was  kindly  received  by  them, 
and  rose  to  be  hetman,  or  commander-in-chief  of  their 
armies,  about  1687.  When  Peter  the  Great  attempted 
to  take  possession  of  the  Ukraine,  Mazeppa  strongly 
opposed  the  measure,  but,  finding  resistance  vain,  en- 
tered into  a  negotiation  with  Charles  XH.  of  Sweden 
for  the  independence  of  his  country.  The  plan  being 
discovered,  and  Mazeppa  deserted  by  his  troops,  he 
joined  the  Swedish  army,  and  after  the  battle  of  Pultava 
tooK  refuge  in  Turkey,  where  he  died  in  1709.  The  ad- 
ventures of  Mazeppa  have  formed  the  subject  of  one  of 
Byron's  poems. 

See  Voltaire,  "Histoire  de  Charles  XII;"  Lesur,  "  Histoirt 
aes  Cosaques  ;"  Adlerfeld,  "  Histoire  mililaire  de  Charles  XII ;" 
Kamenski,  "Life  of  Mazeppa,"  (in  Russian,)  1S34. 

Mazois,  mfzwi',  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French 
architect  and  antiquary,  born  at  Lorient  in  1783,  was 
employed  by  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  to  restore  the 
Portici  palace,  and  other  edifices.  He  afterwards  in- 
vestigated the  antiquities  of  Pompeii.  He  published  in 
181 1  his  principal  work,  "The  Ruins  of  Pompeii,"  the 
last  two  volumes  of  which  appeared  after  his  death. 
Died  in  1826. 

Mazolini,  mJd-zo-lee'nee,  [Lat.  Prie'rias,  derived 
from  the  name  of  his  birthplace,]  (SiLVESTRO,)  an  Italian 
theologian,  born  at  Prierio  about  1460;  died  in  1523. 

Mazo-Martinez,  del,  del  ma'tho  maR-tee'nSth, 
(Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid 
about  1620,  was  a  pupil  and  son-in-law  of  Velasquez, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1661  as  jDainter  to  Philip  IV.  His 
portraits  and  landscapes  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in 
1687. 

Mazure,  mi'zuR',  (F.  A.  J.,)  a  French  journalist  and 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1776,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  English  Revolution  of  1688,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Vol- 
taire."    Died  in  1828. 

Mazza,  mSt'si,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Parma  in  1724.  He  published  "Select  Chap- 
ters of  Church  History,"  (in  Latin,  1757.)    Died  in  1797. 

Mazza,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma  in 
1741,  became  jjrofessor  of  Greek  in  his  native  city,  (176S.) 
He  was  the  author  of  an  ode  entitled  "Aura  Armonica," 
and  a  number  of  lyrics,  which  obtained  for  him  a  high 
reputation.     Died  in  1817. 

SeeTiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Mazza,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1652;  died  in  1741. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  i"i,  y,  loii};:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  11,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


MA  Z ZING  HI 


1 69 1 


MAZZUCIJELLI 


Mazzinghi,  init-sin'gee?  (Joseph,)  an  English  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  in  London  in  1768,  was 
patronized  by  George  III.  and  George  IV.  Among  his 
most  popular  operas  we  may  name  "The  Blind  Girl," 
"The  Exile,"  and  "Paul  and  Virginia."  Died  at  Bath 
in  1844. 

Mazzini,  mSt-see'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  patriot  and  writer,  born  at  Genoa,  June  28,  1808, 
was  educated  tor  the  ]Mofession  (jf  law.  In  his  youth  he 
wrote  a  number  of  literary  articles  for  the  "  Indicatore 
Genovese"  and  other  journals,  and  was  an  adherent  of 
the  romantic  school.  He  devoted  himself  at  an  early 
age  to  the  liberation  and  unity  of  Italy,  which  was  then 
degraded  and  oppressed  by  Austria  and  by  various  petty 
despots.  In  1830  he  joined  the  Society  of  Carbonari, 
which  he  ])roposed  to  reform.  Having  been  banished 
or  proscribed,  he  retired  in  1831  to  Marseilles,  where  he 
organized  a  political  association  called  "  Young  Italy," 
(La  Giovine  Italia,)  whose  watchword  was  "God  and 
the  People,"  and  whose  fundamental  idea  was  that  the 
liberty  of  the  Italians  can  only  be  secured  by  the  union 
of  the  several  states  or  kingdoms  into  one  nation.  He 
propagated  his  princijjles  by  writings,  and,  during  a 
long  period  of  exile  and  adversity,  pursued  his  purpose 
with  invincible  constancy. 

About  1842  he  became  a  resident  of  London,  and 
began  to  contribute  political  and  scientific  articles  to 
various  journals,  among  which  was  the  "  Westminster 
Review."  His  letters  were  opened  in  the  post-office  in 
1844  by  the  British  secretary  for  the  home  department. 
Sir  James  Graham.  The  revolutionary  movements  of 
1848  restored  him  to  his  native  country.  He  issued  a 
journal  called  "  Italia  del  Popolo,"  and,  although  he 
preferred  a  republic,  was  disposed  to  co-operate  with 
King  Charles  Albert  in  resistance  to  Austrian  domina- 
tion, and  he  enlisted  under  the  standard  of  Garibaldi. 
In  February,  1849,  he  went  to  Rome,  in  which  a  republic 
had  recently  been  organized  after  the  flight  of  the  pope. 
He  was  quickly  recognized  as  the  leader  and  master- 
spirit of  the  republicans,  and  in  March  of  that  year 
Mazzini,  Saffi,  and  Armellini  were  appointed  triumvirs. 
They  defended  Rome  resolutely  against  the  French 
army,  by  which  that  city  was  at  length  captured  in  July, 
1849.  Mazzini  then  went  into  exile,  and  chose  London 
as  the  base  of  his  operations.  He  associated  himself 
with  Kossuth  and  Ledru-RoUin  to  form  an  international 
revolutionary  committee  about  1851. 

In  1857  he  incited  an  insurrection  in  Northern  Italy, 
and  went  to  Genoa  to  direct  it ;  but  the  movement  failed. 
He  co-operated  with  Garibaldi  in  his  victorious  expedi- 
tion to  Sicily  in  i860,  and  opposed  the  project  which 
Napoleon  III.  formed  for  a  confederation  of  Italian 
states.  In  1861  he  republished,  with  additions,  an  es- 
say "  On  the  Unity  of  Italy,"  in  which  he  says,  "  I  know 
that  the  idea  of  a  confederation  is  both  the  counsel  and 
design  of  one  whom  many  Italians  still  regard  as  the 
friend  and  protector  of  Italy;  but  I  know,  too,  that  he  is 
treacherous,  a  foreigner,  and  a  desj^ot.  That  he  should 
seek  to  weaken  in  order  to  dominate  us  is  easily  under- 
stood ;  but  the  mere  fact  that  the  suggestion  springs 
from  such  a  source  ought  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful 
warnings  against  it." 

Some  of  his  predictions  have  been  verified  by  recent 
events  in  Italy,  which  have  tended  to  raise  his  reputation 
for  sagacity  and  practical  wisdom.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  work  entitled  "The  Duties  of  Man,"  (1858;  English 
version,  1862,)  which  enjoys  great  popularity  in  Italy, 
and  of  many  other  works.  The  "  Life  and  \Vritings  of 
Joseph  Mazzini,"  in  English,  have  appeared  in  6  vols., 
(1864-70.)  He  died  at  Pisa,  March  10,  1872,  and  was 
buried  in  his  native  town. 

The  character  of  Mazzini  is  well  described  by  Thomas 
Carlyle  in  a  letter  to  the  London  "  Times,"  June,  1844, 
reprinted  in  the  "  Westminster  Review"  for  September 
of  that  year.  He  says,  "  I  have  had  the  honour  to  know 
M.  Mazzini  for  a  series  of  years  ;  and  I  can,  with  great 
freedom,  testify  to  all  men  that  he,  if  I  have  ever  seen 
one  such,  is  a  man  of  genius  and  virtue,  a  man  of  sterling 
veracity,  humanity,  and  nobleness  of  mind, — one  of  those 
rare  men,  numerable,  unfortunately,  but  as  units  in  this 
w:)rld,  who  are  worthy  to  be  called  martyr-souls  ;  who 


in    silence   piously  in   their  daily  life    understand  and 
practise  what  is  meant  by  that." 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  6  vols.,  1864:  Jules  de  Brrval, 
"  Mazzini  jiig^  p.irlui-meme,"  1833  ;  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversatioiis- 
Lexikoii"  fur  1859. 

Mazzocchi,  mat-sok'kee,  orMazzoccolo,  mSt-sok^ 
ko-Io,  (Alessio  Simmacho,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Santa  Maria  di  Capua  in  16S4.  He  became  professor 
of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Naples,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  of  Paris.  He  wrote  many 
valuable  treatises  in  Latin  and  Italian.     Died  in  1771. 

Mazzoccolo.    See  Mazzocchi. 

Mazzola,  mat-so'lJ,  (Girolamo  Bedolo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  sometimes  called  Mazzolino,  born  near  Parma 
in  1503,  was  the  most  distinguished  pupil  of  Parmigiano. 
He  excelled  as  a  colorist  and  in  perspective.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  "Madonna  with  Saint  Cathe- 
rine," and  "Miracle  of  the  Multiplication  of  Loaves." 
Died  about  1590. 

Mazzola,  Mazzuola,  mat-soo-o'li,  or  Mazzuoli, 
mdt-soo-o'lee,  (Girolamo  Francesco  Maria,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Parmigiano,  ("the 
Parmesan,")  born  at  Parma  in  1503.  He  visited  R(mie 
in  1523,  and  was  employed  by  Clement  VII.  to  execute 
a  number  of  works  in  that  city.  His  style,  formed 
on  that  of  Correggio  and  Raphael,  is  characterized  by 
exceeding  grace  and  delicacy  of  form  and  softness  of 
colouring,  and  it  was  said  by  his  admirers  that  "the 
sj^irit  of  Raphael  had  passed  into  him."  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  the  "  Madonna  della  Rosa,"  in  the 
gallery  of  Dresden,  an  "  Annunciation,"  in  the  principal 
church  of  Viadana,  the  "Madonna  with  Saint  Margaret, 
Saint  Jerome,"  etc.,  in  the  Museum  at  Bologna,  the 
"Madonna  dello  Lungo  Collo,"  at  Florence,  and  the 
"  Vision  of  Saint  Jerome,"  in  the  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don. Mazzola  was  the  first  Italian  artist  who  engraved 
with  aquafortis.     Died  in  1540. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Affo,  "Vita  di  F- 
Mazzola,"  1784:  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian 
Painters;"  F.  Bellini,  "Cenni  intorno  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opere  di 
F.  Mazzola,"  1S44;  Mortaka,  "  Memoria  della  Vita  di  F.  Maz- 
zuola," 1846. 

Mazzolari,  mat-so-li'ree,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  called 
also  Mariano  Partenio,  an  Italian  writer  and  excellent 
Latin  scholar,  born  at  Pesaro  in  1712.  He  published 
poems,  orations,  critical  essays,  commentaries,  etc.  Died 
in  1786. 

See  MoNTKNARi,  "  Biografia  di  G.  M.  Mazzolari,"  1837. 

Mazzoli.     See  Mazzola. 

Mazzoliuo,  mit-so-lee'no,  (LuDovico,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Ferrarese,  was  born  at 
Ferrara  in  1481.  His  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and 
"Christ  in  the  Midst  of  the  Scribes,"  are  ranked  among 
his  master-pieces.     Died  about  1530. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mazzoni,  mat-so'nee,  (Giacomo.)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Cesena  in  1548.  He  produced  several  critical 
and  philosophical  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  his  "Defence  of  Dante,"  ("Defesa  di  Dante,"  1573.) 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Tasso.     Died  in  1598. 

See  Serassi,  "Vita  di  G.  Mazzoni,"  1790;  Ginguene,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Litterature  Italienne." 

Mazzuchelli,  mSt-soo-kel'lee,  (Giovanni  Maria,) 
Count,  an  Italian  biographer,  born  at  Brescia  in  1707. 
He  was  the  author  of  "Historical  and  Critical  Notices 
of  the  Lives  and  Writings  of  Learned  Italians,"  ("Scrit. 
tori  d'ltalia,  cioe  Notizie  storiche  e  critiche  intorno  alle 
Vite  ed  agli  Scritti  de  letterali  Italiani,")  a  work  of  great 
merit,  which  he  did  not  live  to  complete.  He  published 
two  volumes  of  this  work,  (1753-63.)  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  "Life  of  Archimedes,"  (1737,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Pietro  Aretino,"  (1741.)     Died  in  1765. 

See  Rodella,  "Vita  del  Conte  G.  Mazzuchelli,"  1766;  Fabroni, 
"  Vit»  Italonim  doctiiiia  excellentiuni :"  Tipalbo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  ilhistii;"  "  Nonvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Mazzuchelli,  (Piero  Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  Morazzone,  was  born  at  the  village  of  that 
name  in  1571.  He  studied  at  Milan,  where  he  after- 
wards established  aschooU  Among  his  principal  works 
are  a  "  Flagellation,"  and  "  Saint  Michael  Triumphant." 
Died  in  1626. 


^SiS,k:  <pasj.-  ghard:  gas/.  (;,  li.K, ^tCtural;  a, nasal;  K,lrilleJ;  sasz,"  i\\3&\n  this.     (Jj^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAZZUOLA 


1692 


MECKEL 


Mazzuola.     See  Mazzola. 

Mazzuoli.     See  Mazzola. 

Mazzuoli,  niat-soo-o'lee,  or  Mazzola,  mSt'so  li, 
(FiLlPPO  or  Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL 
Bastaruolo,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1530;  died  in  1589. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mead,  (Larkin  Goldsmith,)  an  American  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Chesterfield,  New  Hampshire,  January  3, 
1835,  and  became  a  citizen  of  Vermont.  He  became  in 
1852  a  puijil  of  H.  K.  Brown.  Among  his  works  are 
'The  Recording  Angel,"  (1855,)  "Vermont,"  (1857,) 
statues  of  Ethan  Allen,  (1861,  1874,)  "The  Returned 
Soldier,"  (1866,)  and  a  great  part  of  the  Lincoln  monu- 
ment at  Springfield,  Illinois,  besides  many  statuettes, 
portrait-busts,  etc. 

Mead,  (Matthew,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Buckinghamstiire  in  1629.  He  was  the  author 
of  "The  Young  Man's  Remembrancer,"  and  "Sermons 
on  Ezekiel's  Wheels."     Died  in  1699. 

Mead,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  physician, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stepney  in  1673.  He 
studied  at  Leyden,  and  subsequently  visited  Italy,  where 
he  took  his  medical  degree  at  Padua.  He  was  after- 
wards elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  and  on  the  accession  of  George 
II.  (1727)  became  his  physician- in-ordinary.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "Mechanical  Account  of  Poisons," 
(1702,)  "A  Short  Discourse  concerning  Pestilential  Con- 
tagion," (1720,)  which  was  translated  into  French  and 
Latin,  "Medicina  Sacra,"  (1749,)  or  an  account  of  dis- 
eases mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  other  medical  works 
of  a  high  character.  Dr.  Mead  numbered  among  his 
friends  Pope,  Newton,  and  Boerhaave.     Died  in  1754. 

See  Maty,  "Authentic  Memoirs  of  Ricliard  Mead,"  1755;  Le- 
MAN,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life.  etc.  of  Dr.  Richard  Mead." 

Meade,  meed,  (George  G.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  was  born  December  13,  1815,  at  Cadiz,  in  Spain, 
where  his  father,  R.  W.  Meade,  was  United  States  con- 
sul. He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1856. 
He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
August,  1861,  and  served  in  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
June  27,  1862.  At  Malvern  Hill  he  received  two  wounds, 
July  I.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Antietam,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1862.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general,  he  directed  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg, December  13,  1862,  and  at  that  of  Chancel- 
lorsville,  May  2-3,  1863.  On  the  28th  of  June  ensuing, 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
the  Potomac.  Just  before  the  date  last  named.  Gen- 
eral Lee  had  invaded  Pennsylvania  with  a  large  army, 
which  the  Union  army  encountered  at  Gettysburg  on 
the  1st  of  July.  General  Meade,  whose  forces  occu- 
pied a  good  position  on  a  range  of  hills,  acted  mostly  on 
the  defensive  at  this  battle,  which  lasted  three  days  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  triumph  of  the  Union  cause. 
(See  Lep:,  R.  E.)  General  Meade  re])orted  that  he  took 
at  Gettysburg  13,621  prisoners,  some  of  whom  were 
probably  wounded,  and  he  lost  16,643  killed  and  wounded. 
He  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regu- 
lar artny  by  a  commission  dated  July  3,  1863.  About 
the  l8th  of  July  he  moved  his  army  across  the  Potomac 
into  Virginia,  where  he  had  several  skirmishes  with  the 
enemy  in  October  and  November,  1863.  He  was  second 
in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  its  operations 
against  Richmond  in  1864.  "  I  tried  as  far  as  possible," 
says  General  Grant,  "  to  leave  General  Meade  in  inde- 
pendent command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  My 
instructions  for  that  army  were  all  through  him,  ana 
were  general  in  their  nature,  leaving  all  the  details  and  the 
execution  to  him.  The  campaigns  that  followed  proved 
him  to  be  the  right  man  in  the  right  place."  In  August, 
1864,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  of  the  regular 
army.  The  army  of  which  he  had  the  immediate  com- 
mand fought  great  battles  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsyl- 
vania  Court-House,  and  Cold  Harbour,  and  was  em- 
ployed many  months  in  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  (See 
Grant,  U.  S.)  General  Meade  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  third  military  district,  comprising  Georgia, 
Florida,  and  Alabama,  in  1867.     Died  Nov.  6,  1872. 

Meade,  (Richard  Kidder,)  an  American  soldier  of 


the  Revolution,  born  in  Nansemond  county,  Virginia, 
about  1 750,  was  one  of  General  Washington's  aides.  Died 
in  1805. 

Meade,  (William,)  D.D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  ill  Clarke  county,  Virginia,  in  17S9.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1808,  and  in  1841  succeeded 
Bishop  Moore  as  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Ei^iscopal 
Church  in  Virginia.  He  published  several  theological 
works.     Died  in  1862. 

Meadowcourt,  m§d'o-kort,  (Richard,)  an  English 
critic,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1697,  i^ublished  Notes  on 
Milton's  "Paradise  Regained."     Died  in  1769. 

Meado-ws,  m&d'oz,  (Alfred,)  M.D.,  an  English 
physician,  born  at  Ipswich,  June  2,  1833.  He  studied 
at  King's  College,  London,  and  at  Paris,  and  graduated 
as  M.D.  at  the  University  of  London  in  1858.  Among 
his  works  are  "  A  Manual  of  Midwifery." 

Meadows,  (Kenny,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  1787. 
He  achieved  some  celebrity  as  an  illustrator  of  books. 
Died  August  24,  1874. 

Meagher,  ma'Her  or  ma'er,  (Thomas  Francis,)  a 
general,  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  in  1823.  He  joined 
the  movement  for  the  independence  of  Ireland,  and  was 
condemned  in  1848  to  banishment  or  penal  servitude 
for  life.  He  escaped  from  Tasmania  in  1S52,  and  took 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  He  raised  in  1S61  an  Irish 
brigade,  which  he  commanded  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  at  Antietam,  September  17,  and  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  1862.     Died  in  1867. 

Meaii,  de,  deh  mi'fi.N',  (Charles,)  Baron,  a  Belgian 
jurist,  born  at  Liege  in  1604;  died  in  1674. 

Meaiii,  (Alexander,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born 
in  North  Carolina  in  1801.  He  became  professor  of 
natural  science  in  Emory  College  in  1838,  and  professor 
of  chemistry  in  a  medical  college  at  Atlanta,  Georgia, 
in  1855.     Died  June  5,  1883. 

Meaume,  m5m,  (Edouard,)  a  French  jurist  and 
archaeologist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1812.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Life  of  Jacques  Callot,"  (2  vols.,  i860.) 

Mecenate.     See  M^fiCENA-S. 

Mecene,  the  French  of  M/Ecenas,  (which  see.) 

Mechain,  mi'shAw',  (Pierre  Francois  Andr6,)  an 
eminent  French  astronomer,  born  at  Laon  in  1744. 
Having  visited  Paris,  he  acquired  the  friendship  and 
patronage  of  Lalande.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  about  1782,  and  in  1785  succeeded 
Jeaurat  as  editor  of  the  "  Connaissances  des  Temps."  In 
1791  he  was  appointed,  conjointly  with  Delambre,  to 
measure  the  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and 
Barcelona.  Dissatisfied  with  the  result  of  his  calcula- 
tions, he  was  preparing  to  [iroloiig  the  measurement  to 
the  Balearic  Isles,  when  he  was  attacked  with  fever,  and 
died  on  the  journey,  (1805.) 

See  Delambkk,'  "  Histoire  de  rAstronpmie  au  dix-huitifeme 
Siecle." 

Mechel,  m^k'el,  (Christian,)  a  Swiss  engraver,  born 
at  Bale  in  1737;  died  in  1817. 

Mecheln,  m^K'eln,  or  Meckenen,  van,  vSn  m§k'- 
keh-nen',  (Israel,)  a  celebrated  German  painter  and 
engraver,  said  to  have  been  born  near  Bocholt,  in  the 
bisho|)ric  of  MUnster.  It  is,  however,  supposed  by  many 
that  there  were  two  artists  of  the  name.  The  principal 
works  attributed  to  Meister  Israel,  as  he  was  called,  are 
in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  They  possess  great  excel- 
lence, and  entitle  him  to  rank  with  Van  Eyck,  Memling, 
and  other  eminent  painters  of  the  Flemish  school.  Died 
in  1503. 

Mecherino.     See  Beccafumi. 

Mechi,  m&k'e, .-'  (John  Joseph,)  a  distinguished  cul- 
tivator and  agricultural  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born 
in  England  about  1800.  Having  made  a  fortune  by  trade 
in  London,  he  purchased  in  Essex  a  farm,  esteemed  one 
of  the  finest  in  England.  He  published  "  Letters  on 
Agricultural  Imiirovement,"  "  Experience  in  Drainage," 
and  "  How  to  Farm  Profitably."     Died  Dec.  27,  1880. 

Mechitar.     See  Mekhitar. 

Meckel,  mfk'kel,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  anatomist,  born  at  Wetzlar  in  1714.  He  became 
surgeon  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  made  discoveries 
in  anatomy,  and  wrote  numerous  medical  and  anatomical 
works.     Died  in  1774. 


a.  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  loii}^:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y.  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  tdi;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


MECKEL 


1693 


MEDICI 


Meckel,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  anatomist, 
l)orn  at  Halle  in  1 781,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  professor  of  surgery  and  anatomy  at  Halle 
in  1806.  He  published  "  Contributions  to  Comparative 
Anatomy,"  and  translated  Cuvier's  "  Comparative  Anat- 
omy,"  to  which  he  added  valuable  notes.    Died  in  1833. 

Meckenen.     See  Meckf;ln. 

M6da,  mi'dt',  or  Merda,  mSa'dt',  (Charles  An 
dr6,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1775,  served  in  the  prin- 
cipal wars  of  the  Revolution,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
general  of  brigade,  (1S08.)  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Moskwa,  (1812.) 

Mede,  meed,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  divine,  born  in  Essex  in  15S6.  He  studied  at  Christ 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  afterwards  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek.  His  "  Clavis  Apocalyptica,"  published 
in  1627,  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.     Died  in  1638. 

See  "Life  of  Joseph  Mede,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  1672. 

Me-de'a,  [Gr.  M^fca;  Fr.  M^d^e,  mi'di',]  a  famous 
sorceress,  daughter  of  /Eetes,  King  of  Colchis.  Having 
assisted  Jason  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece,  she  became 
his  wife  and  accompanied  him  to  Greece.  Being  after- 
wards deserted  by  him,  she  destroyed  their  two  sons. 
The  story  of  Medea  lias  formed  the  subject  of  tragedies 
liy  Euripides  and  Sophocles  among  the  ancients,  and 
Corneille  among  the  moderns.  Those  written  by  Soph- 
ocles, ^schylus,  and  Ovid  are  lost. 

Medee.    See  Medea. 

Mederer,  ma'deh-rer,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  in  1734,  published  several  works  on 
German  history.     Died  in  1808. 

Med'hurst,  (Walter  Henry,)  an  English  mission- 
ary and  Chinese  scholar,  born  in  London  in  1796.  Hav- 
ing spent  many  years  in  China,  Java,  and  Malacca,  and 
become  thoroughly  versed  in  the  languages  of  those 
countries,  he  published  a  "  Chineseand-English  Dic- 
tionary," (1842,)  "  Chinese  Dialogues,"  (1844,)  "  English- 
and-Japanese  Vocabulary,"  and  other  works.     Died  in 

»857. 
Medici,  (Alessandro  de'.)  See  Leo  XL 
Medici,  de',  di  mJd'e-chee  or  ma'de-chee,  (Alessan- 
dro,) the  subverter  of  the  liberties  of  Florence,  born  in 
1510,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  natural  son  of 
Lorenzo,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  by  others,  of  the  cardi- 
nal Giulio  de'  Medici,  afterwards  Clement  VH.  After 
Ihe  sacking  of  Rome,  in  1527,  the  latter  made  a  treaty 
with  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1529,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Medici  should  be  restored  to  their 
former  rank  at  Florence,  with  Alexander  as  chief  of  the 
republic.  A  marriage  was  also  arranged  between  him 
and  Margaret  of  Austria,  a  natural  daughter  of  the  em- 
peror. Li  1530  Florence  was  taken  by  the  Lnperial 
troops  under  Ferdinand  de  Gonzaga,  and  soon  after  the 
pope  obtained  from  the  emperor  a  diploma  which  was 
to  decide  the  constitution  of  Florence.  By  this  article 
Alexander  was  declared  head  of  the  republic,  but  the 
Florentines  were  left  in  possession  of  the  sanie  privileges 
they  had  enjoyed  under  the  former  Medici.  At  length,  by 
the  united  intrigues  of  Clement  VH.  and  Alexander,  the 
latter  was  declared  duke  of  the  republic  in  1532,  and  the 
■)ld  form  of  government  was  abolished.  He  now  sig- 
nalized himself  by  every  species  of  cruelty  and  oppres- 
sion. In  1535,  Cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici,  whom  he 
had  long  feared  as  a  rival,  was  poisoned  by  his  orders ; 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  caused  the  death  of  his  own 
mother  in  the  same  manner.  \\\  1537,  Lorenzino  de' 
Medici,  a  distant  relative  of  the  duke,  desiring  to  rid 
his  country  of  such  a  tyrant,  procured  his  assassination. 
Alexander  left  a  son,  named  Giuliano. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoiredes  Republiques  Italiennes  ;"  Madamh 
Allart,  "  Histoire  de  la  Republique  de  Florence." 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo  or  Cosmo,)  surnamed  the 
Elder,  a  celebrated  statesman  of  the  Florentine  repub- 
lic, was  born  in  1389.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  and  made  a  munificent  use  of  the  immense 
fortune  he  had  accumulnted  by  commerce,  in  adorning 
his  native  city  with  public  edifices  and  founding  institu- 
tions for  educational  and  charitable  purposes.  Among  the 
most  important  of  these  was  an  academy  at  F'lorence  for 
teaching  the  Platonic  philosophy,  at  the  head  of  which 
he  placed  Marsilio  Ficino.     He  also  made  a  large  col- 


lection of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Oriental  manuscripts,  which 
he  bestowed  on  the  Laurentian  Library.  These  benefits, 
and  the  urbanity  and  moderation  of  his  character,  won 
for  him  great  j^ersonal  popularity  and  the  title  of  "  Father 
of  his  Country."  To  give  a  detailed  account  of  his  ser- 
vices to  literature  and  art  would  be  to  write  the  history 
of  the  Renaissance  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. Li  the  words  of  Gingiiene,  "  One  saw  at  Florence 
Masaccio  and  Lijipi  adorn  churches  and  palaces  with 
the  productions  of  their  i^encil,  Donatelli  give  life  and 
expression  to  marble,  and  Brunelleschi,  architect,  sculp- 
tor, and  poet,  raise  the  magnificent  cupola  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore  ;  while  the  Greek  refugees,  in  return 
for  the  noble  asylum  he  had  given  them,  spread  abroad 
the  treasures  of  their  beautiful  language  and  the  master- 
pieces of  their  orators,  philosophers,  and  poets."  Cosimo 
died  in  1464,  leaving  a  son,  named  Piero. 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo,)  called  the  Great,  [Lat. 
Cos'mus  Medice'us  Mac/nus,]  son  of  the  genera' 
Giovanni  de'  Medici,  was  born  in  1519.  On  the  death  ot 
Alexander  he  was  declared  his  successor  in  1537,  through 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  Cibo,  which  choice  was  con 
firmed  by  Charles  V.  In  1537  he  obtained  a  victory  a* 
Montemerlo  over  the  hostile  Florentines.  Cruel  and 
suspicious  in  his  disposition,  he  caused  upwards  of  four 
hundred  Florentine  emigrants  to  be  put  to  death  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign,  and,  having  deprived  the  magis- 
trates of  all  authority,  was  invested  with  absolute  power. 
In  1554  the  Marquis  de  Marignano,  one  of  his  generals, 
defeated  the  French  army  under  Marshal  Strozzi,  at 
Siannagallo,  and  soon  after  Philip  II.,  having  succeeded 
the  emperor,  conferred  upon  the  Duke  of  Florence  the 
state  of  Sienna,  with  the  exception  of  the  ports.  In  1562 
Giovanni  de'  Medici,  a  son  of  Cosimo,  died  suddenly, 
as  is  supposed,  by  the  hand  of  his  brother  Don  Garcias. 
Ashort  time  after,  the  latter  also  died,  and  his  father 
was  charged  with  his  death.  lileonora  of  Toledo,  wife 
of  the  grand  duke,  soon  followed  her  sons,  and  her  death 
was  likewise  attributed  to  Cosimo.  These  fatal  events 
form  the  subject  of  Alfieri's  tragedy  of  "Don  Garcias." 
In  1564  Cosimo  made  his  son  Francesco  bis  associate  in 
the  government,  and  in  1569  he  was  declared  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  by  a  bull  of  Pius  V.  He  died  in  1574, 
leaving  three  legitimate  sons,  Francesco,  Ferdinand,  and 
Piero. 

See  Baldini,  "Vita  di  Cosmo  de'  Medici  I.,"  1578;  Fabroni, 
"Magni  Cosmi  Medicei  Vita ;"  Ai.no  Manijcci,  "Vita  di  Cosimo 
de'  Medici,"  1586;  Sis.mondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  ItaU- 
ennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo  II.,)  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
born  in  1590,  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand  I.  He  began  to 
reign  in  1609,  and  ruled  with  moderation  and  clemency. 
Died  in  1621. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo  HI.,)  a  son  of  Ferdinand  IL, 
was  born  in  1642,  and  became  gra-nd  duke  in  1670.  He 
married  Marguerite  d'Orleans,  (a  daughter  of  Gaston  de 
France,)  who  regarded  Cosimo  with  extreme  dislike  and 
caused  him  much  trouble.  He  died  in  1723,  and  his 
family  then  became  extinct. 

See  BoTTA,  "Storia  d'ltalia." 

Medici,  de',  (Francesco,)  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
was  a  son  of  Cosimo  the  Great,  and  was  born  March  25, 
1541.  He  began  to  reign  on  his  own  account  in  1574, 
and  proved  a  suspicious,  false,  and  despotic  tyrant.  Love 
of  science,  art,  and  letters  was  his  only  virtue.  In  1578 
he  married  his  mistress,  the  beautiful  Bianca  Capello. 
Died  at  Poggio  a  Caiano,  October  18,  1587. 

Medici,  de',  (Giovanni.)     See  Leo  X. 

Medici,  de',  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  statesman,  born 
in  136c,  was  the  father  of  Cosimo  the  Elder,  noticed 
above.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune  by  commerce,  and 
rose  through  various  offices  to  be  gonfaloniere  of  justice 
in  1421.     Died  in  1428. 

See  Machiavel,  "  Storie  Fiorentine." 

Medici,  de',  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  general,  of  the 
same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1498.  He 
distinguished  himself  both  by  his  courage  and  his 
ferocity  in  the  civil  wars  of  his  country,  and  afterwards, 
entered  the  French  service.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
in  battle  in  1526. 


*  as  k;  9 as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy.-  G,  H.  K.  sptttimil;  N,  iinsul;  R,  trilleil   s  as  z:  t^li  as  in  t/iis.     ( Ji:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.') 


MEDICI 


1694 


MEDUSA 


Medici,  de',  (Giuliano,)  youngest  son  of  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent,  was  born  in  147S.  He  married  in  1515 
Philibeita  of  Savoy,  aunt  of  Francis  I.,  by  whom  he 
was  created  Uuke  of  Nemours.     Died  in  1516. 

See  SiSMONDl,  "Histoire  des  R^publiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Giulio.)     See  Clement  VII. 

Medici,  de',  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  ijorn  at 
Urbino  in  1511,  was  a  natural  son  of  Giuliano,  noticed 
above.  He  possessed  immense  wealth,  and  was  noted 
for  his  accomplishments  and  his  profligacy.  He  died 
'"  I535>  from  the  effects  of  poison  administered,  it  is 
supposed,  by  order  of  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  Duke 
of  Florence. 

See  Varchi,  "Istoria  Finrentina." 

Medici,  de',  (Lorenzo  I.,)  surnamed  xitE  Magnifi- 
cent, [Fr.  Laurent  le  Magnikique,  lo'rSN' leh  mtn'- 
?e'f^k';  Lat.  Lauren'tius  Mei/ices  or  Medice'us; 
t.  Lorenzo  il  Magnikico,  \o-xh\\'zo  h\  man-ycfe-ko,l 
Prince  of  Florence,  was  born  in  1448.  He  was  the  son 
of  Piero  I.,  and  grandson  of  Cosimo  the  Elder,  and, 
having  early  entered  public  life,  succeeded  to  the  influ- 
ence and  popularity  of  his  predecessors.  He  was  care- 
fully educated  by  the  best  masters  of  the  time,  being 
instructed  in  the  Platonic  philosophy  by  the  celebrated 
Marsilio  Ficino.  In  1478  he  narrowly  escaped  falling 
a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  formed  by  the  Pazzi  family  of 
Florence  in  conjunction  with  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa 
and  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  His  brother  Giuliano  was  assas- 
sinated, and  he  received  a  slight  wound.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Pisa  was  hanged  for  this  offence,  and  Lorenzo 
was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  In  14S4  the 
latter  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  VIII.,  who 
became  a  friend  and  ally  of  Lorenzo.  Florence  enjoyed 
great  prosperity  under  the  government  of  Lorenzo,  who 
acquired  the  favour  of  the  people  by  his  munificence, 
prudence,  and  clemency.  He  was  highly  distinguished 
as  a  patron  of  literature  and  art,  founded  at  Florence  an 
academy  for  the  study  of  the  antique,  and  expended  large 
sums  in  the  erection  of  public  edifices  and  in  the  collec 
tion  of  libraries.  He  also  attained  considerable  eminence 
as  a  poet.     Died  in  April,  1492. 

See  RoscoE,  "Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,"  2  vols.  4to,  1795; 
Angelo  Fabroni,  "  Laurentii  iMedicis  Magnifici  Vita,"  2  vols., 
1784;  Papire-Masson,  "  Vita  Laurentii  Medicis,"  1387  ;  Macchia- 
VELLI,  "  Istorie  Florentine  ;"  N.  Valori,  "  Laurentii  Medicei  Vita," 
1749;  SciPioNE  Ammirato,  "  Istorie  Fiorentine;"  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire des  Repiibliques  Italiennes;"  "  Noiivelle  Biograpliie  Gen^ 
rale;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Stebbinc;,  London,  1831. 

Medici,  de',  (Lorenzo  II.,)  eldest  son  of  Piero  II., 
born  at  Florence  in  1492,  was  placed,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  his  uncle,  Leo  X.,  at  the  head  of  the  republic. 
He  married  in  1518  Madeleine  de  La  Tour,  daughter  of 
Jean,  Count  d'Auvergne,  and  died  in  1 5 19,  leaving  an 
infant  daughter,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  afterwards  Queen 
of  France. 

Medici,  de',  (Ludovico,)  Duke  of  Sarto,  called  also 
the  Chevalier  de  Medici,  a  Neapolitan  statesman,  born 
in  1760.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1810, 
and  in  1815  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna.  Diecl 
in  1830. 

Medici,  de',  (Piero  L,)  eldest  son  of  Cosimo  the 
Elder,  born  in  1414,  succeeded  his  father  as  chief  of  the 
Florentine  republic.  He  had  powerful  rivals  in  the 
Pitti  family  and  other  nobles  of  Florence,  whose  atteinpt 
to  assassinate  him  was  defeated  by  the  prudence  of  his 
eon  Lorenzo.     Died  in  1469. 

See  SiSMONnr,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Piero  II.,)  eldest  son  of  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1471.  He  succeeded 
to  the  rank  and  influence  of  his  father  in  the  republic; 
but  his  arrogance  and  rashness  soon  deprived  him  of  the 
popularity  hitherto  enjoyed  by  his  family.  On  the  in- 
vasion of  Italy  by  Charles  VIIL,  in  1494,  Piero  made 
overtures  to  the  French  king,  into  whose  hands  he  sur- 
rendered several  important  places.  Having  subsequently 
entered  the  French  army,  he  shared  in  its  defeat  at  the 
Garigliano  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  in  1503,  and  was 
drowned  in  attempting  to  cross  the  river. 

See  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Rdpubliques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Salvestro,)  a  Florentine  statesman, 
belonged  to  the  Ghibeline  faction,  and  was  one  of  the 


principal   rivals  of  the  Albizzi   family.     lie  was  made 
gonfaloniere  of  justice  in   1378;  but,  the  Gucli^h  party 
having  again  come  into  power,  he  was  banished  in  1381. 
See  Noble,  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Medici." 

Medicis.    See  Catherine  de  Medicis. 

Medicus,  ma'de-kfis,  (Friedrich  Casimir,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  Grumbach  in  1736.  He  published 
several  able  botanical  and  medical  works.  Died  in  1808. 

Me-dill',  (Joski'H,)  an  American  journalist,  born  in 
the  province  of  New  Brunswick,  April  6,  1S23.  In  1832 
he  was  taken  to  Ohio,  where  he  became  a  lawyer  and 
Free-Soil  Whig  editor.  He  edited  papers  at  Coshocton 
and  Cleveland,  and  in  1854  removed  to  Chicago,  where 
he  became  principal  owner  and  chief  editor  of  the 
"Tribune."     He  was  mayor  of  Chicago  in  1872-73. 

Medina,  mi-dee'nil,  (Sir  John  Baptist,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at  Brussels  in  1630, 
resided  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  Great  Britain.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  and  enjoyed  a  high  reputation. 
Died  in  171 1. 

Medina,  mi-Dee'nS,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born 
It  Seville  about  15 10,  was  the  author  of  several  historical 
and  mathematical  works,  and  a  treatise  on  navigation, 
entitled  "Arte  de  Navegar,"  (1545,)  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages. 

Medina,  de,  di  mi-oee'nS,  (Salvador  Jacinto 
Polo,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Murcia,  wrote  the  "  Fable 
of  Apollo  and  Daphne,"  and  a  number  of  epigrams, 
lyrics,  etc.     Died  about  1660. 

Medina  de  Medinilla,  de,  di  mi-Dee'nS  di  mi-De- 
n^l'ya,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  poet,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Seville.  He  wrote  an  eclogue  on  the  death 
of  Isabella,  wife  of  Lope  de  Vega,  his  intimate  friend. 

Medina -Sidonia,  de,  di  mi-Dee'nd  se-do'ne-<^, 
(Alo.nzo  de  Guzman — di  gooth-mii/,)  Duke,  a  Span- 
ish grandee,  who  was  governor  of  Milan  and  Captain- 
General  of  Andalusia,  and  was  appointed  admiral  of  the 
great  Armada  or  fleet  sent  in  1588  to  attack  England. 
Almost  entirely  ignorant  of  naval  affairs,  the  duke  was  ill 
fitted  to  contend  either  with  the  severe  storms  of  that  un- 
fortunate expedition  or  with  the  active  and  hardy  English 
sailors,  led  by  Effingham,  Hawkins,  Drake,  and  Frobisher. 
(See  P^i.izareth.)  Medina-Sidonia  returned  to  Spain 
with  scarcely  a  third  of  his  fleet. 

Medina-Sidonia,  de,  di  mi-Dee'nJ  se-do'ne-3, 
(Caspar  Alonzo  Perez  de  Guzman  —  pa'rJth  di 
gooth-min',)  Duke,  a  Spanish  grandee,  who  lived  about 
1640,  was  a  nephew  of  the  prime  minister  Olivarez.  He 
formed  a  project  to  make  himself  King  of  Andalusia  ; 
but  his  design  was  discovered  before  he  began  to  exe- 
cute it. 

Meding,  ma'djng,  (Oskar,)  a  German  novelist,  born 
at  Konigsberg,  April  11,  1S29.  He  was  educated  at 
Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  and  in  1S51  became  a  lawyer. 
He  was  a  close  personal  adherent  of  the  fortunes  of  the 
King  of  Hanover,  but  in  1870  became  a  Prussian  sub- 
ject. Most  of  his  numerous  novels  were  published  un- 
der the  name  of  Gregor  Samarow.  He  wrote  "For 
Sceptre  and  Crown,"  (1872,)  "  Mines  and  Counter-Mines 
of  Europe,"  (1873,)  "Two  Imperial  Crowns,"  (1875,) 
"Cross  and  Sword,"  (1875,)  "Heights  and  Depths," 
(a  social  romance,  20  vols.,  1879-80,)  "Queen  Eliza- 
beth," (1881,)  etc.,  besides  "Memoirs  of  Contemporary 
History,"  (1881.) 

Medinilla,  mi-De-nil'ya,  (  Balthasar  Elisio,)  a 
Spanish  poet,  born  at  Toledo  in  1585,  was  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Lope  de  Vega,  who  wrote  an  elegy  on  his 
early  death. 

Med-I-tri'na,  a  Roman  goddess  of  medicine,  in  whose 
honour  the  festival  of  Meditrinalia  was  celebrated  in  the 
month  of  October. 

Med'ows,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  general,  born 
in  173S.  He  served  in  America,  and  was  wounded  in 
the  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  (1777.)  He  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1792,  and  in  l8ot  succeeded  Lord 
Cornwallis  as  Viceroy  of  Ireland.     Died  in  1S13. 

Medrano,  de,  di  mi-DRa'no,  (Fra.ncisco,)  a  Spanish 
lyric  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century,  whose  works  are 
highly  praised.     Little  is  known  of  his  life. 

Me-du'sa,  [Gr.  Mt(5oi»ffa;  Fr.  M6duse,  mi'diiz',]  one 


a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y,  lotts;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  ohsciirc;  fBr,  f.^11,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  gor)d;  nioTiiK 


MED  USE 


1695 


MEIWL 


of  the  Gorgons,  was  represented  as  a  beautiful  woman 
who  captivated  Neptune  and  offended  Minerva  by  re- 
ceiving his  embraces  in  her  temple.  The  goddess  changed 
her  hairs  into  serpents,  after  which  Perseus  cut  off  her 
head  and  gave  it  to  Minerva,  who  placed  it  in  the  centre 
of  her  aegis.     (See  Gorgon.) 

Meduse.    See  Medusa. 

Mee'han,  (Thomas,)  an  author  and  botanist,  born  at 
Potter's  Bar,  near  Barnet,  Herts,  England,  March  21, 
1826.  He  grew  to  manhood  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and 
studied  botany  at  the  Kevv  Gardens.  In  1848  he  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  where  he  engaged  in  landscape-garden- 
ing, afterwards  turning  his  attention  with  great  success 
to  the  business  of  a  nurseryman.  His  principal  works 
are  a  "  Hand-Book  of  Ornamental  Trees,"  (1853,)  and 
"  Native  Flowers  and  Ferns,"  of  which  th«  first  part 
appeared  in  1878.  In  1859  he  became  editor  of  "The 
Gardener's  Monthly,"  and  for  many  years  he  has  been 
botanist  to  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  etc. 

Meek,  (Alexander  Beaufort,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  writer,  born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  in  1814. 
Asa  member  of  the  legislature  of  Alabama,  he  procured 
the  adoption  of  a  system  of  free  schools  about  1853. 
Among  his  works  is  a  volume  of  "  Songs  and  Poems  of 
the  South,"  (1S57.)     He  died  November  30,  1865. 

Meek,  (Fielding  Bradford,)  an  American  palaeon- 
tologist, born  at  Madison,  Indiana,  December  10,  1817. 
He  was  engaged,  1848-58,  on  various  State  and  United 
States  geological  surveys,  and  after  that  lived  in  Wash- 
ington, where  he  was  occupied  in  palaeontological  work 
for  the  government.  His  reports  are  numerous  and  im- 
portant, especially  the  great  "  Report  on  Invertebrate 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  Fossils,"  (1876.)  Died  at 
Washington,  D.C.,  December  28,  1876. 

Meel.    See  Miel. 

Meer,  van  der,  vtn  der  maR,  (Jan,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Schoenhoven  in  1627.  His  fa- 
vourite subjects  were  sea-views,  landscapes,  and  animals, 
in  which  he  attained  great  excellence.    Died  about  1690. 

See  Dhscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flainands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Meer,  van  der,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Haarlem  about  1665,  was  a  pupil  of  Nicholas 
Berghem.     Died  in  1704. 

Meerbeeck,  van,  vtn  maR'bak,  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish 
writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1563,  was  the  author  of  several 
historical  works  in  Latin  and  Flemish.    Died  about  1630. 

Meerman,  maR'mSn,  (Geraakt,)  a  learned  Dutch 
jurist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1722,  was  appointed  pensionary 
of  Rotterdam.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  civil 
law,  entitled  "Novus  Thesaurus  Juris  Civilis,"  etc.,  (7 
vols.,  1751,)  and  "Origines  Typographicae,"  (1765,)  a 
treatise  on  the  origin  of  printing.     Died  in  1771. 

Meerman,  (Jan,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1753.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  took 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  law  at  Leyden.  He  was  made  a 
senator  and  count  of  the  empire  by  Napoleon,  (1811 


Meetkercke.     See  Metkerke,  (Adolphus.) 

Megabyze.     See  Megabyzus. 

Meg-a-by'zus  or  Meg-a-ba'zus,  [Gr.  Meyafiut.o',  01 
MeydSaCof  ,•  Fr.  M^gauyzk,  niygS'biz',  or  M^gaisazk, 
mi'gS'baz',]  a  Persian  nobleman,  and  one  of  the  seven 
who  consi)ired  against  Smerdis  the  Magian  in  521  B.C. 
He  afterwards  commanded  an  army  of  Darius  I.  in 
Europe. 

See  Herodotus,  books  iii.  and  vii. 

Megaera.     See  Furies. 

Meg'a-ra,  [Gr.  Meyapa  ,•  Fr.  M^gare,  mi'gtR',)  a 
daughter  of  Creon,  King  of  Thebes,  was  a  wife  of  Her- 
cules, who,  after  he  had  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity  killed 
her  children,  gave  her  to  lolas. 

Megare.     See  Megara. 

Megasthene.     See  Mkgasthenes. 

Me-gas'the-nes,  [Gr.  ^e^'aodevTic ;  Fr.  Megasthene, 
mi'gts'tin',]  a  Greek  geographer  under  the  reign  of 
Seleucus  Nicator,  King  of  Syria,  whom  he  served  as 
secretary  about  300  B.C.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Indica,"  extracts  from  which  are  contained  in 
the  writings  of  Strabo,  Lilian,  and  Arrian. 

Megerie.    See  Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara. 

Meggot.     See  Elwes. 

Megingjord  or  Megingjardar.     See  Thor. 

Me-gis'ti-as,  [Mqiarfaf,]  a  celebrated  soothsayer,  a 
native  of  Acarnania,  fell  with  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae. 

Meglio,  del,  del  m^l'yo,  (Jacopo  Corn,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  born  in  1523,  assisted 
Vasari  in  painting  the  pictures  in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio. 
Died  in  1591. 

Mehegan,  mi'i'gSN',  (Guillaume  Alexandre,)  a 
French  /iUerateiir,  korn  at  La  Salle  in  1721.  He  became 
professor  of  French  literature  at  Copenhagen  in  1751. 
His  most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Picture  of  Modern 
History  from  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1766.)     Died  in  1766. 

Mehemet-Alee,  (or  -Ali,)  m&h'heh-mft  S'lee,  ot 
Mo-ham'med-Al'ee,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  born  at 
Kavala  in  1769.  Having  lost  his  parents  at  an  early  age, 
he  was  protected  by  the  Turkish  governor  of  the  town. 
His  distinguished  abilities  and  energy  soon  won  for  him 
a  high  reputation,  and  he  was  sent  in  1799  to  assist  the 
British  in  expelling  the  French  from  Egypt.  He  was 
appointed  in  1804  Pasha  of  Cairo,  for  his  services  in 
defending  that  city  from  the  oppression  of  the  Mame- 
lukes, and  in  1806  was  made  Governor  of  Upper  Egypt 
by  the  Sultan.  After  a  protracted  contest  with  the  Mame- 
lukes, who  had  for  centuries  been  the  scourge  of  the 
country,  Mehemet  Alee  invited  them  to  a  festival  al 
Cairo,  and,  having  enclosed  them  in  the  citadel,  ordered 
a  general  massacre,  in  which  four  hundred  and  seventy 
perished,  (1811.)  This  sanguinary  act  was  followed  by 
the  destruction  of  the  Mamelukes  in  other  parts  of  Egypt. 
In  1830  he  invaded  Syria,  which  he  soon  subdued,  and 
which,  after  the  interference  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe, 
and  became  minister  of  public  instruction  under  Louis  j  was  ceded  to  him  by  the  Sultan,  on  condition  of  his  being 
Bonaparte.  He  wrote  a  supplement  to  his  father's  '  a  vassal  of  the  Porte,  (1833.)  The  Sultan,  becoming 
"Thesaurus,"  and  published  several  works  in  French,  i  jealous  of  his  powerful  rival,  made  a  treaty,  in  conjunc- 


He  died  in  181 5, 

See  Cras,  "  Elogiiim  Johannis  Meerman,"  1S17. 

Meerveldt,  von,  fon  maR'felt',  (Maximilian,) 
Count,  a  German  general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1766, 
commanded  a  corps  of  Austrians  at  Leipsic  in  1813. 
Died  in  1814. 

Meerza  or  Mirza,  mecR'zS,  (Samuel,)  a  Persian  his- 
torian, born  near  Ispahan  about  1490,  was  a  son  of  Shah 
Ismail,  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Softs.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  Poets."     Died  after  1550. 

Meerza-  (or  Mirza-)  Iskander-Kazem-Beg,  mecR'- 
zl   is-kan'der    kd'zem-bcg,    (Moham'med   Al'ee,) 


tion  with  several  European  powers,  in  1S41,  by  which  Me- 
hemet was  obliged  to  relinquish  Syria,  but  his  family  was 
permitted  to  retain  the  j^ashalic  of  Egypt.  He  died  in 
1849,  having  the  previous  year  resigned  the  government 
to  his  son,  Ibraheem  Pasha.  As  a  ruler,  Mehemet  Alee 
displayed  talents  of  a  very  high  order,  and  few  princes 
have  founded  more  beneficent  institutions  or  shown  a 
more  just  and  liberal  spirit.  He  established  schools  and 
colleges,  created  an  army  and  navy,  and  introduced  the 
manufactures  of  Europe.  He  protected  his  Christian 
subjects,  and  aided  by  his  liberality  the  researches  of 
Champollion,  Lensius,  and  other  eminent  savants. 

See  r .  Mengin,     Histoire  de  I'Egypte  sous  le  Goiivernement  de 


Persian  philologist,  born  in  the  province  of  Ghilan  in  Mohammed  Ali,"  1839;  A.  deVaulabelle,  "Histoire  de  I'figypte." 
1803.  Having  settled  in  Russia,  he  was  converted  to  |  Mehemet-Alee,  (Pasha,)  m5h'heh-m6t  a'lee  pd'shi', 
Christianity  in  1822,  and  subsequently  became  professor  '  an  Ottoman  minister  of  state,  born  at  Trebizond  about 


of  the  Persian  language  and  literature  at  the  University 
of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  published  an  "  Essay  on  Arabic 
Literature,"  (in  Persian,)  and  other  works  in  Russian  and 
Persian,  and  wrote  a  "  Concordance  to  the  Koran,"  (in 
Arabic,)  and  a  "General  History  of  the  Turks,"  (in 
Russian.)     Died  December  8,  1870. 


1807.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1S40,  and  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Sultan  Mahmood  in  1S44.  He  was 
grand  vizier  of  Turkey  froin  October,  1852,  to  May,  1853. 
Died  in  1S65. 

M6hul,  mi'iil',  (Etienne  Henri,)  a  celebrated  French 
composer,  born  in  the  department  of  Ardennes  in  1763. 


€  as  k:  9  as  j-.-  g  hard;  g  asy ;  G,  H,  v.,;:;iittural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilh-J;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (2i^=See  Explanations,  j).  23. ) 


MENUS 


1696 


MEINICKE 


Having  previously  received  some  instruction  from  Hau- 
ser,  a  German  organist,  he  repaired  in  1778  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Gluck.  In  1790  he  brought 
out  his  opera  of  "  Euphrosyne  and  Coradin,"  which  met 
with  brilliant  success  and  was  pronounced  by  Gretry  equal 
to  the  finest  productions  of  Gluck.  Among  his  operas, 
which  are  more  than  forty  in  number,  we  may  name 
'Rtratonice,"  "Joseph  in  Egyi^t,"  and  "The  Blind  Man 
of  Toledo."  His  "Song  of  Victory"  and  other  poinilar 
melodies  of  the  kind  are  also  greatly  admired.  Mehul 
was  one  of  the  inspectors  of  the  Conservatory  of  Music, 
and  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.     Died  in  1817. 

See  QuATRHMfeRE  DK  QuiNCV,  "Notice  siir  M^liiil  :"  F^Tis, 
"  liiogiapliie  Uiiiverselle  des  Musiciens:"  Viku.lakd,  "Notice  sur 
Mehul,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEiivres,"  1859;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^- 
ra'e. " 

Mehus,  m.Vus',  (Livio,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Oudenarde  in  1630,  studied  in  Italy  under  Pielro  da 
Cortona,  and  died  at  Florence  in  1691. 

Mehus,  ma'oos,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  scholar,  a 
native  of  Florence,  lived  about  1730-50. 

Meibom,  mi'bom,  [Lat.  Meiho'mius,]  (Heinrich,) 
a  German  historian  and  philologist,  born  at  Lemgo 
in  1555.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  history  of 
Germany  in  the  middle  ages.     Died  in  1625. 

Meibom,  (Johann  IIeinrtch,)  a  German  physician 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1590,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  wrote  a  number  of  medical  treatises, 
and  also  a  "Life  of  Maecenas."  Died  in  1655.  His  son, 
Heinrich  Meibom,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1638,  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Helmstedt  in  1661,  and  of  his- 
tory and  poetry  in  1678.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
able  medical  works  and  a  "  History  of  Germany,"  (in 
Latin.)     Died  in  1700. 

Meibom,  (Markus,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Tonningen  in  1630.  He  was  a  profound  classical  scholar, 
and  published  a  work  entitled  "  Seven  Greek  Writers 
on  Music,"  (2  vols.,  1652,)  which  he  dedicated  to  Chris- 
tina of  Sweden.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1711. 

Meibomius.     See  Meibom. 

Meier.     See  Major,  (Georg.) 

Meier,  mi'er,  (Ernst  Heinrich,)  a  learned  German 
Biblical  scholar  and  philologist,  was  born  at  Rusbendt, 
in  Schaumbuig-Lippe,  May  17,  1S13,  and  in  1848  took 
a  professorship  of  Semitic  languages  at  Tubingen.  He 
wrote  Scripture  commentaries  and  works  on  Semitic 
and  Sanscrit  subjects,  Swabian  folk-lore,  etc.,  and  a 
volume  of  original  poems.     Died  March  2,  1S66. 

Meier,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German  critic  and 
philosopher,  born  near  Halle  in  1718,  was  appointed 
professor  of  ijhilosojjhy  at  Berlin  in  1746.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Critique  on  the  Poetry  of  Gottsched," 
"Thoughts  on  Spectres,"  (1748,)  etc.     Died  in  1777. 

Meier,  (MoRirz  Hermann  Eduard,)  a  German  an- 
tiquary and  philologist,  born  at  Glogiu  in  1796,  became 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Halle,  (184S.)  He  wrote  "On 
the  Life  and  Orations  of  Lycurgus."     Died  in  1855. 

Meierotto,  mi'eh-rot'to,  (Johann  Heinrich  Lud- 
WIG,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Stargard  in  1742,  be- 
carne  professor  in  Berlin,  (1772,)  and  wrote  "  On  the  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  the  Romans,"  etc.     Died  in  1800. 

Meiggs,  megz,  (Henry,)  an  American  contractor, 
born  in  Catskill,  New  York,  in  181 1.  Engaging  with 
varied  success  in  business,  first  in  Boston  and  then  in 
New  York,  he  went  to  Califorin'a  in  1848,  and  acquired 
wealth,  but  faileti  in  1854.  From  1858  to  1877  he  carried 
on  enormous  railway  enterprises  in  Chili  and  Peru,  ac- 
quiring incredible  wealth,  and  paying  off  his  California 
debts,  so  that  the  Slate  repealed  the  act  by  which  he  had 
been  outlawed.     Died  in  Peru,  September  29,  1S77. 

Meigs,  m6gz,  (James  Aitken,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Philadelphia 
in  1829.  He  became  in  1856  librarian  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences,  and  in  1859  professor  of  the  insti- 
tutes of  medicine  in  Pennsylvania  College.  In  1S68  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in 
Jefferson  Medical  College  as  successor  to  Dr.  Dunglison. 
He  published  several  ethnological  treatises,  among  which 
we  may  name  "The  Cranial  Characteristics  of  the  Races 
of  Men."     Died  November  9,  1879. 


Meigs,  (Montgomery  C)  an  American  general,  bf)rn 
in  Georgia  about  1816.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1836,  served  several  years  as  an  engineer,  and  was 
appointed  about  1852  to  superintend  the  extension  of 
the  Capitol  at  Washington.  In  May,  1861,  he  became 
quartermaster-general  of  the  Union  army,  the  duties  ot 
which  office  he  continued  to  perform  with  distinguishcl 
zeal  and  ability  till  the  end  of  the  civil  war. 

Meigs,  (Return  Jonathan,)  an  American  officer, 
born  at  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1740,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war.     Died  in  1823. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  became  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1810,  and  in  1814  was  appointed  postmaster-general. 
Died  in  1825. 

Meikle,  mik'el,  ?  (James,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  at  Carnwath  in  1730.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Metaphysical  Ma.xims, "  (1797,)  and  "  Soli- 
tude Sweetened,"  (1803.)     Died  in  1799. 

Meikle,  (William  J.)     See  Mickle. 

Meil,  mil,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  skilful  German 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Gotha  in  1729,  furnished 
illustrations  for  Gellert's  and  La  Fontaine's  Fables  and 
Burger's  poems.     Died  in  1803. 

Meil,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Altenburg  in  1732.  He  became  director  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin.  His  prints  and 
vignettes  are  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1805. 

Meilhac,  mil'dk',  (Henri,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1832.  In  early  youth  he  began  dramatic  com- 
position. In  a  large  part  of  his  pieces  he  has  had  the 
co-operation  of  other  dramatists,  especially  that  of 
Ludovic  Halevy,  with  whom  his  name  is  generally 
associated. 

Meilleraie,  de  la,  deh  It  mil'ri'  or  mi'ye-rJ', 
(Charles  de  la  Porte — deh  It  poRt,)  Due,  a  French 
general,  was  cousin -german  to  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He 
served  in  several  campaigns,  and  in  1639  was  created 
marshal  of  France.  He  was  regarded  as  the  most  skil- 
ful general  of  his  time  in  conducting  sieges.  He  died 
in  1664,  leaving  an  only  son,  who  married  Hortense 
Mancini,  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin. 

Meineke,  ml'neh-keh,  (Johann  Albrecht  Fried- 
rich  August,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Soest  in  1791. 
He  published  excellent  editions  of  Menander  and  Phi- 
lemon, and  wrote  a  number  of  critical  treatises  on  the 
classics,  among  which  are  "  Comnientationes  Miscel- 
laneae,"  (1822.)  His  "Fragments  of  the  Greek  Comic 
Poets,"  ("  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Groecorum,"  5  vols., 
1839-43,)  preceded  by  biographical  notices  of  the  same, 
is  highly  esteemed.     Died  at  Berlin,  December  12,  1870. 

Meiner,  mi'ner,  (Johann  Werner,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Franconia  in  1723  ;  died  in  1789. 

Meiners,  mi'ners,  (Christoph,)  a  learned  German 
writer  and  antiquary,  born  near  Otterndorf,  in  Hanover, 
in  1747.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen 
about  1774,  and  published  numerous  and  various  works, 
among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Origin,  Progress, 
and  Decline  of  the  Sciences  in  Greece  and  Rome,"  (2 
vols.,  17S2,)  and  "Biographies  of  the  Eminent  Men  of 
the  Time  of  the  Renaissance,"  ("  Lebensbeschreibung 
beriihmter  Manner  aus  den  Zeiten  der  Wiederherstell," 
etc.,  3  vols.,  1796-99.)     Died  in  iSio. 

See  C.  G.  Hf.vne,  "  Memoria  C.  Meiners,"  1810;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Geiierale." 

Meinhold,  min'holt,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
writer  and  divine,  born  in  the  island  of  Usedom.  He  was 
the  author  of  various  poems,  and  a  novel  entitled  "The 
Amber  Witch,"  ("Die  Bernstein  Hexe,"  1843,)  which 
made  a  great  sensation  and  was  for  some  time  regarded 
as  a  true  narrative.  It  was  translated  into  English,  and 
is  characterized  by  a  writer  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review" 
as  a  tale  worthy  of  De  Foe.  He  also  published  "Sidonia 
the  Sorceress,"  etc.,  ("  Sidonia  von  Borck  die  Kloster- 
Hexe,"  New  York,  1850.)     Died  in  185 1. 

See  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1844;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  February,  1846  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October.  1S48. 

Meinicke,  nii'n!k-keh,  (Karl  Eduard,)  a  German 
geographer,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1803.  Among  his 
works  we  may  name  a  "  History  of  the  European  Colo- 
nies in  the  West  Indies,"  (1831,)  and  "The  Continent 
of  Australia,"  (1837.)     Died  August  26,  1876. 


i,  e, i,  o,  u,  y,  long:\h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,s/iort:  a,  e.  j,  o,  o!'  eitre:  f.'ii,  till,  lAt;  mSi;  not;  good;  moon; 


MEIR 


1697 


MELANCHTHON 


Meir  ben  Todros,  mSr  bSn  to'dR6s,  a  learned 
Spanish  rabbi,  wrote  several  able  treatises  on  the  Tal- 
mud and  the  Mosaic  rites.     Died  in  1244. 

Meisner,  mis'ner,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  in  1587  ;  died  in  1626. 

Meissel,  (Conrad.)     See  Celtes. 

Meissner,  mis'ner,  (Alfred,)  a  German  poet,  born 
at  Toplitz  in  1822,  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Ziska,"  an  epic  poem,  "  The  Son  of  Atta  Troll,"  and 
"Recollections  of  Heinrich  Heine."     Died  in  1885. 

Meissner,  (August  Gottlieb,)  a  celebrated  German 
litterateur  and  dramatist,  born  in  Upper  Silesia  in  1753. 
He  wrote  several  dramas,  of  which  his  "John  of  Suabia" 
is  esteemed  the  best.  He  owes  his  reputation  princi- 
pally to  his  "  Sketches,"  ("  Skizzen,")  consisting  of  nar- 
ratives, anecdotes,  fables,  etc.,  which  obtained  extensive 
popularity  and  have  had  many  imitators.     Died  in  1807. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Meissonier,  mi'so'ne-i',  (Jean  Louis  Ernest,)  a 
celebrated  French  painter,  born  at  Lyons  about  181 1. 
Among  his  most  admired  works  are  "  The  Little  Mes- 
senger," "  The  Painter  in  his  Studio,"  and  "  The  Chess- 
players." His  pictures  are  of  small  size  but  of  exquisite 
finish,  and  command  high  prices.  He  was  made  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1856,  and  received  a  number 
of  medals.     Died  January  31,  1891. 

Meissonier,  (Juste  AurAle,)  a  French  artist,  born 
at  Turin  in  1675,  ^^^  skilled  in  painting,  sculpture,  and 
architecture.  He  excelled  particularly  in  ornamental 
gold-work,  and  became  goldsmith  to  the  king,  Louis 
XV.     Died  in  1750. 

Meister,  mis'ter,  (Jacques  Henri,)  a  Swiss  writer, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1744,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Necker, 
Diderot,  and  Grimm.  He  wrote  "  Letters  on  Imagina- 
tion," (1794,)  "Studies  on  Man,"  (1805,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1826. 

Meister,  (Leonhard,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born  near 
Zurich  in  1741,  wrote  several  historical  works.  Died 
in  1811. 

Meister,  mis'ter,  (Simon,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Coblentz  in  1803,  studied  under  Horace  Vernet,  and 
acquired  great  skill  in  painting  battles  and  horses.  Died 
in  1844. 

M6janes,  de,  deh  mi'zhSn',  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie 
de  Piquet — deh  pe'ki',)  Marquis,  a  French  nobleman, 
born  at  Aries  in  1729,  was  the  owner  of  a  library  of  more 
than  seventy-five  thousand  volumes,  which  at  his  death, 
in  1786,  he  bequeathed  to  the  city  of  Aix. 

Mejia.     See  Mexia. 

Mejia,  mi-Hee'S,  (Ignacio,)  a  Mexican  soldier,  born 
at  Zimatlan,  August  14,  1814.  He  was  much  engaged  in 
the  civil  wars  of  his  country,  taking  for  the  most  part 
the  liberal  side.  He  fought  Tomas  Mejia  and  the 
French,  and  in  1865  was  made  war-minister,  retaining 
that  place  for  many  years,  and  doing  much  for  his 
country's  advancement. 

Mejia,  or  Mexia,  mi-nee'S,  (Tomas,)  a  Mexican 
soldier  of  Indian  blood,  born  about  1812.  He  had  great 
influence  with  the  common  people,  and  was  called  the 
"  King  of  the  Mountains."  He  fought  against  the  United 
States,  1847-48,  and  was  the  head  of  many  insurrections. 
He  acted  with  great  honour,  bravery,  and  moderation, 
and  was  devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  Conservative  or 
Church  party.  Later,  he  attached  himself  with  warmth 
and  zeal  to  the  empire  under  Maximilian,  with  whom  he 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Queretaro,  at  which  place  he  was 
condemned  and  executed,  June  19,  1867. 

Mekhitar  or  Mechitar,  miK'e-tar',  (Peter,)  an 
Armenian  priest  and  reformer,  born  at  Sebaste  in  1676. 
Having  embraced  Catholicism,  he  became  a  distinguished 
and  popular  preacher,  and  founded,  in  1740,  an  Armenian 
monastery  at  Venice.  He  also  established  there  a  print- 
ing-house for  the  Armenian  language.  Among  the  works 
issued  from  this  press  were  an  Armenian  Grammar  and 
Lexicon.     Died  April  29,  1749. 

Mekhitar  Kosh,  the  Beardless,  a  learned  Arme- 
nian ecclesiastic,  born  about  1140,  founded  a  monastery 
in  the  valley  of  Dandsoud,  in  Eastern  Armenia,  of  which 
ae  became  the  first  abbot.     Died  in  1213. 

Melf,  (Pomponius,)  an  eminent  Roman  geographer, 


born  m  Spain,  flourished  probably  about  50  a.d.  He 
wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  On  the  Situation  of  the 
Earth,"  ("  De  Situ  Orbis.")  A  good  edition  of  it  was 
published  by  Tzschucke,  Leipsic,  (7  vols.,  1807  et  seq.) 

See  Mai.te-Brun,  article  on  "  Mela"  in  the  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle." 

M^lampe.    See  Melampus. 

Me-lam'pus,  [Gr.  Mf?>.a/i7rovf ;  Fr.  M6lampe,  mi'. 
IftNp',]  a  mythical  personage  of  Argos,  famous  as  a 
soothsayer,  was  a  son  of  Amythaon.  He  was  considered 
as  the  first  mortal  that  possessed  prophetic  power,  and 
the  first  that  practised  medicine. 

Me-lan-eh'thpn  [Ger.  pron.  mi-linK'ton]  or  Me- 
lan'thon,  (Philip,)  an  eminent  German  Reformer  and 
scholar,  whose  original  name  was  Schwarzerd  or 
SCHWARZERDT,(sh\vaRts'?Rt:  i.e.  "Black Earth,") which, 
according  to  the  usage  of  the  time,  he  changed  into  Greek, 
was  born  at  Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate,  February  16, 1497 
His  father  was  a  skilful  and  prosperous  armourer.  He 
entered  in  1507  the  Academy  of  Pforzheim,  where  he  en- 
joyed the  patronage  of  Reuchlin,  who  was  his  great-uncle. 
About  the  age  of  twelve  he  passed  to  the  University  of 
Heidelberg,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
arts,  and  went  in  1512  to  finish  his  studies  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen.  He  learned  the  Greek  language, 
mathematics,  jurisprudence,  etc.,  and  remained  in  this 
university  a  number  of  years,  during  which  he  gave 
public  lectures  on  the  classics  and  other  subjects.  In 
1518  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg,  then  recently  founded,  and  there 
became  the  colleague  and  friend  of  Luther,  whose  doc- 
trines he  adopted.  The  renown  of  his  learning  and 
eloquence  soon  attracted  multitudes  of  students  from 
all  parts  of  Germany.  In  1519  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
held  a  public  disputation  at  Leipsic  with  Eckius,  one 
of  the  ablest  champions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Melanchthon  married  in  1520  Katharina  Krapp,  daugh- 
ter of  a  burgomaster  of  Wittenberg.  It  appears  that 
he  was  never  ordained  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  He 
gave  much  attention  to  biblical  exegesis,  and  became  a 
prominent  advocate  of  the  Reformed  religion  by  his 
writings.  Compared  with  the  other  Reformers,  he  was 
distinguished  for  moderation  and  gentleness,  which 
tended  to  restrain  the  impetuosity  of  Luther.  In  1521 
he  published  an  able  defence  of  the  Reformed  doctrines, 
in  a  systematic  treatise  on  theology,  entitled  "  Loci  com- 
munes Rerum  theologicarum,"  which  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity. It  was  commended  by  Luther  as  being  "next  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures  the  most  excellent  work  on  theol- 
ogy." He  aided  Luther  in  his  German  translation  of 
the  Bible,  on  which  he  expended  much  time,  (1522-34.) 
In  1529  he  attended  the  Diet  of  Spire.  Having  been 
appointed  by  the  leading  Reformers  to  compose  a  formal 
exposition  of  the  Lutheran  faith,  he  wrote  the  celebrated 
"Augsburg  Confession,"  which  was  presented  to  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530, 
and  is  perhaps  the  most  important  symbolical  book  of 
the  Lutheran  Church.  A  Latin  version  of  this  Con- 
fession was  published  under  the  title  of  "Confessio  Fidei 
exhibita  invictissimo  Imperatori  Carolo  V.,"  etc.,  (1531.) 
He  also  wrote,  in  reply  to  certain  Catholic  theologians, 
an  "Apology  of  the  Confession,"  ("  Apologie  der  Augs- 
burgischen  Confession.")  He  was  invited  by  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  and  Francis  I.  of  France  to  visit  their  courts ; 
but  he  declined  both  invitations,  and  remained  at  Wit- 
tenberg. He  was  one  of  the  theologians  that  disputed 
with  the  Roman  Catholics  at  the  Conference  of  Worms 
(1540)  and  the  Conference  of  Ratisbon,  (1541,)  where  he 
proposed  concessions  and  compromises  which  the  other 
Reformers  rejected.  After  the  death  of  Luther,  in  1546, 
Melanchthon  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Germany.  His  conduct  was  conformed  to  the 
maxim  "In  necessariis  unitas,  in  dubiis  libertas,  in  om- 
nibus caritas,"  ("  In  essentials  unity,  in  doubtful  points 
liberty,  in  all  things  charity,")  which  subjected  him  to 
violent  denunciations  from  some  Protestant  zealots.  In 
1 55 1  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which,  however,  was  dispersed  by  the  hostile  movements 
of  Maurice  of  Saxony  before  Melanchthon  arrived  at 
Trent.  The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  greatly  troubled 
by  the  acrimonious  dissensions  among  the  Protestant 


€  as  ii;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

107 


(2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MELANDER 


1698 


MELENDEZ 


theologians.  He  died  at  Wittenberg  on  the  19th  of  April, 
1560,  leaving  three  surviving  children.  He  was  a  man 
of  small  stature.  Among  his  numerous  works  were 
"Elements  of  Logic  and  Ethics,"  a  Greek  Grammar, 
Commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  editions  of  several 
classic  authors,  with  notes,  and  an  extensive  corre- 
spondence \vith  his  eminent  contemporaries.  An  edi- 
tion of  his  works  was  published  at  Wittenberg  by  his 
son-in-law,  Peucer,  in  1562-64. 

See  Camerarius,  "Vita  P.  Melancbthonis,"  1566:  F.  A.  Cox, 
"Life  of  P.  Melanchthon,"  1815;  A.  H.  Niemever,  "P.  Melanch- 
thon  als  Praecertor  Germanias,"  1817  ;  C.  Matthes,  "  P.  Melanch- 
thon, seinLeben  und  Wirken,"  1S41  ;iM.  Facius,  "P.  -Melanchthon's 
Leben,"  1832;  F.  Galle,  "Versucli  einer  Characteristik  Melanch- 
thon's," etc.,  1S40:  Ledderhose,  "  P.  Melanchthon  nach  seinem 
aussem  und  innern  Leben  dargestellt,"  1847;  D.  Nisard,  "fitudes 
sur  la  Renaissance  ;"  D'AubigniI.  "  Historv'  of  the  Reformation  ;" 
Dr.  F.  Hosfbr's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Melander,  mi-lin'der,  or  Melanderhjelm,  mi-lSn^- 
d?r-he-§lm',  (Daniel,)  an  eminent  Swedish  astronomer, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1726.  He  succeeded  Stromer 
as  professor  of  astronomy  at  Upsal  in  1761,  and  sub- 
sequently became  perpetual  secretary  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  was  also  ennobled  by  Gustavus  IH., 
(1801.)  He  wrote  a  "  Synopsis  of  Astronomical  Lessons," 
and  other  treatises,  (in  Latin.)  Melander  was  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  Lalande,  "  Bibliographie  astronomique;"  Kjellin,  "  Are- 
minne  olver  D.  Melanderhjelm,"  iSii. 

Me-la'ni-a,  [Fr.  M6lanie,  mi'lt'ne',]  Saint,  called 
THE  Younger,  a  Roman  lady  of  a  noble  family,  born 
about  388  A.D.  Having  been  converted  to  Christianity, 
she  founded  a  convent  in  Palestine,  and  subsequently  a 
mon.i-stery  near  Mount  Calvary. 

See  Mac^,  "  Histoire  de  Saiiite-Melanie." 

Melanie.     See  Melania. 

Melanippide.     See  Melanippides. 

Mel-aia-ip'pi-des,  [Gr.  MePi^viTnrt't^f ;  Fr.  MMila- 
NIPPIDE,  mi'lt'ne'p^d',]  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  the 
island  of  Melos,  lived  in  the  time  of  Perdiccas,  King  of 
Macedonia,  (about  450  B.C.,)  at  whose  court  he  died.  He 
is  styled  by  Xenophon  one  of  the  greatest  dithyrambic 
poets  of  Greece ;  and  he  also  excelled  in  music.  His 
only  writings  extant  are  to  be  found  in  Bergk's  "  Poetas 
Lyrici  Grasci." 

See  Plutarch,  "De  Musjca ;"  Xenophon,  "Memorabilia;" 
Fabricius,  "  Bibiiotheca  Grseca ;"  Scheibel,  "  Dissertatio  de  Me- 
lanippide," 1S4S. 

Melauthe.    See  Melanthius. 

Me-lan'thi-us  or  Me-lan'thus,  [Gr.  MePuii'^wf  or 
MeAavSof  ;  Fr.  M^lanthe,  mi'lSNt',]  an  eminent  Greek 
painter,  was  contemporary  with  Apelles,  with  whom  he 
studied  under  Pamphilus.  He  ranked  among  the  first 
artists  of  the  time,  and  his  pictures  commanded  very 
high  prices. 

Melcmthius,  [Me/'itvtof,]  a  Greek  tragic  poet  of 
Athens,  flourished  about  400  B.C.,  and  was  noted  for  his 
wit.  He  was  satirized  by  Aristophanes  and  other  comic 
poets.     His  works  are  lost. 

Melanthus.    See  Melanthius. 

Melas,  ma'lis,  (Michael,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  gen- 
eral, born  in  Moravia  in  1730.  He  served  under  Mar- 
shal Daun  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  and  in  several  subse- 
quent campaigns  against  the  French,  and  in  1796  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  forces  in  Italy.  He 
was  signally  defeated  by  the  French  army  at  Marengo, 
(1800,)  and  was  obliged  to  sign  a  capitulation.  Died  in 
1806. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire." 

Melbourne,  mSl'burn,  (William  Lamb,)  Viscount, 
a  popular  English  statesman,  son  of  Sir  Peniston  Lamb, 
afterwards  Lord  Melbourne,  was  born  in  1779.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1805,  and  advocated 
a  moderate  Whig  policy.  His  father  dying  in  1828,  he 
inherited  his  title,  entered  the  House  of  Lords,  and,  on 
the  formation  of  Earl  Grey's  ministry,  in  1830,  became 
secretary  of  state.  He  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  in  1834 ;  but  the  Tories,  under  Peel  and  Wel- 
lington, soon  gaining  the  ascendant,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign.  In  1835  he  succeeded  in  forming  a  Whig 
ministry,  which  lasted  six  years.     He  was  distinguished 


for  his  tact  and  popular  qualities  and  accomplishments. 
Died  in  1848.      Lord  Melbourne  was  the  author  of  a 
comedy  entitled  "The  Fashionable  Friends."     His  wife 
was  known  as  an  authoress.     (See  Lamb,  Caroline.) 
See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1S49. 

Melchthal,  von,  fon  mSlK'tSl,  (Arnold,)  a  Swiss 
patriot,  became,  in  concert  with  his  friends  Furst  and 
Stauffacher,  one  of  the  founders  of  Swiss  liberty.  In 
1307,  in  conjunction  with  thirty  of  their  countrymen, 
they  formed  a  confederacy  for  the  defence  of  Switzer- 
land against  Austrian  oppression.  In  the  course  of  the 
following  year  the  adventure  of  William  Tell  with  Gess- 
ler  brought  affairs  to  a  crisis.  (See  Tell.)  These 
incidents  form  the  subject  of  "  Wilhelm  Tell,"  one  of 
Schiller's  most  popular  dramas. 

SeeTsCHARNER,  "  Histoire  des  Conf(^derds  ;"  Mull^r,  "  Histoiie 
de  la  Confederation  Suisse." 

Melcombe,  Lord.     See  Dodington. 

Melder,  mSKder,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  miniatur'^. 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1693  ;  died  in  1740. 

Meldolla,  m^l-dol'li,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Dalmatia  about  1520,  was  a  pii])il 
of  Mazzuoli,  (Parmigiano.)  He  is  supposed  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  the  same  as  Andrea  Schiavone 
Died  in  1582. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Me-le-a'ger,  [Gr.  IsW^tdypoq  ;  Fr.  M6l6agre,  mi'14'- 
igR',]  a  famous  hero  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  son  of 
OEneus  and  Althaea,  or,  as  others  say,  a  son  of  Mars. 
According  to  tradition,  when  he  was  seven  days  old  the 
Moirse  (or  Fates)  warned  his  mother  that  he  would 
die  as  soon  as  the  billet  which  was  burning  on  her 
hearth  should  be  consumed.  Althaea  then  extinguished 
the  fatal  brand  and  hid  it  in  a  chest.  He  signalized  his 
valour  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  and  the  Calydonian 
hunt.  He  fought  with  the  Calydonians  against  the 
Curetes,  and  offended  his  mother  by  killing  her  brothers. 
She  therefore  cast  the  above-mentioned  brand  into  the 
fire,  and  Meleager  speedily  died. 

Meleager,  [Gr.  Me/'vfaypof,]  a  Macedonian  general, 
who  served  under  Alexander  the  Great,  and,  after  the 
death  of  that  monarch,  attempted  to  raise  Arrhidaeus  to 
the  throne  in  opposition  to  Perdiccas.  His  partisans 
were  defeated,  and  he  was  put  to  death,  323  B.C. 

See  Droysen,  "Geschichte  Alexanders  des  Grossen." 

Meleager,  a  Greek  poet,  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  first  century  before  the  Christian  era,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  made  a  collection  of  fugitive  poems 
and  epigrams  called  an  "  Anthology,"  ("  Anthologia.") 

See  Brunck,  "  Analecta,"  vol.  i. 

Meleagre.     See  Meleager. 

Melece.     See  Meletius. 

Melek  Shah,  (a  Seljookide  Sultan.)  See  Malik 
Shah. 

Melendez-Valdez,  mi-l§n'd§thvil'd§th,  or  Valdes, 
vSI'd^s,  (Juan  Antonio,)  an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  born 
in  Estremadura  in  1754.  He  studied  law  at  Salamanca, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  the  poet  Cadalso,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  English 
literature,  of  which  he  was  a  warm  admirer.  His 
idyl  "Batilo"  (1780)  won  the  prize  at  the  Spanish 
Academy,  and  another  was  given  to  his  "  Pindaric  Ode 
on  the  Fine  Arts"  by  the  Academy  of  San  Fernando. 
He  published  in  1785  a  collection  of  lyric  and  pastoral 
poems,  which  established  his  reputation  as  the  first  Span- 
ish poet  of  his  time.  He  had  been  appointed  in  1781, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Jovellanos,  professor 
of  humanities  at  Salamanca.  In  1791  he  obtained  an 
important  office  in  the  chancery  of  Valladolid,  and  in 
1798  became  fiscal  of  the  supreme  court  of  Madrid.  He 
published  in  1797  another  collection  of  poems,  dedicated 
to  Godoy,  who  soon  after  appointed  him  to  a  high  office 
at  court.  On  the  fall  of  the  minister  Jovellanos,  Melen- 
diZr.  was  exiled  from  Madrid,  to  which  he  was  not  per- 
mitted to  return  until  the  fall  of  Godoy,  (1808.)  Having 
subsequently  joined  the  French  party  in  Spain,  he  was 
created  councillor  of  state  and  minister  of  public  in- 
struction bv  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  died  in  France  in 
1817.  Of  Melendez,  Ticknor  observes,  "There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  he  was  better  fitted  to  form  a  new  school, 


a,  e, !,  o,  u,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MELETIUS 


1699 


MELLEN 


and  give  a  guiding  impulse  to  the  national  poetry,  than 
any  writer  that  had  appeared  in  Spain  for  above  a 
century." 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Krnnelh, 
"  Mndem  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  ;"  Longfkllow,  "  Poels  and 
Poetry  of  Europe;"  Qointana,  "Life  of  Melendez-Valde?.,"  pre- 
fixed to  an  edition  of  his  works,  Madrid,  4  vols.,  1820;  "  Nouvelle 
Bioi  raphie  Gendrale." 

Meletius,  me-lee'she-us,  [Gr.  MeAenof,]  Bishop  of 
Lycopolis,  was  founder  of  a  sect  called  by  his  name. 
H^iving  been  deposed  by  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
about  301  A.D.,  he  formed  a  schism,  and  united  with  the 
Arians. 

Meletius,  [Fr.  M^LfecE,  mi'lis',]  Saint,  called  the 
Great,  born  in  Little  Armenia,  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Sebaste  in  357  A.D.,  and  in  360  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  Arians,  he  was  thrice  de- 
posed from  his  ofiice  and  exiled,  being  finally  restored 
in  378.  He  presided  over  the  first  General  Council  at 
Constantinople,  (381,)  and  died  the  same  year,  having 
previously  confirmed  the  nomination  of  Saint  Gregory 
Nazianzen  as  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  His  funeral  oration 
was  delivered  by  Saint  Gregory  of  Nyssa. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Meniuires,"  etc.  ;  P.aillet,  "  Viesdes  Saints;" 
Maimbourg,  "  Histoire  de  I'Arianisme." 

Meletius,  a  Greek  prelate  and  geographer,  born  at 
Janina  in  1661.  He  wrote  an  "Ecclesiastical  History," 
(3  vols.,  1798.)     Died  in  1714. 

Me-le'tus,  [MeAj/TOf ,]  written  less  correctly  Me-li'tus, 
a  Greek  tragic  poet,  is  chiefly  known  as  one  of  the  three 
principal  accusers  of  Socrates.  He  was  a  licentious 
writer,  and  a  man  of  profligate  habits.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  the  Athenians  when  they  repented  of  their 
treatment  of  Socrates. 

Mel'fort,  (John  Drummond,)  Duke  of,  was  prime 
minister  to  King  James  II.  of  England,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  his  exile  to  France.  Being  accused  of 
planning  a  second  invasion  of  England,  he  was  banished 
by  Louis  XIV.  to  Angers,  where  he  died  in  1716. 

Melgarejo,  mel-gi-Ri'Ho,  (Mariano,)  a  Bolivian 
president,  born  about  1810,  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age,  distinguished  himself  in  many  revolutions,  acquired 
immense  popularity,  and  was  often  wounded,  taken  pris- 
oner, or  exiled.  In  December,  1864,  he  issued  zpronun- 
cia7niento  at  Cochabamba  against  his  brother-in-law. 
President  Acha,  whom  he  overthrew.  He  maintained 
himself  in  power  as  dictator  against  many  insurrections 
until  January,  1870,  when  he  was  overthrown  by  Morales. 
He  then  went  to  Lima,  where  he  was  killed  in  a  quarrel 
by  his  son-in-law,  November  23,  1870. 

Meli,  ma'lee,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Sicilian  poet, 
born  at  Palermo  about  1740.  His  works,  consisting 
chiefly  of  eclogues,  odes,  and  sonnets,  are  written  in  the 
Sicilian  dialect,  to  which  he  gave  a  grace  and  refinement 
hitherto  unknown.  His  pastoral  poems  are  exquisite 
specimens  of  their  kind,  especially  the  "Ecloghe  Pesca- 
torie,"  or  fishermen's  dialogues,  distinguished  for  their 
humour  and  the  graceful  simplicity  of  their  language. 
Meli  also  wrote  satires  and  fables,  and  a  mock-heroic 
poem  entitled  "  Don  Quixote."     Died  in  1815. 

See  LoMBARDO,  "  .Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1829;  A.  Gali.o,  "Cenni  biogra- 
fici  di  G.  Meli,"  1836. 

Mel-i-cer'ta  or  Mel-I-cer'tea,  [Gr.  Me/U«epTj?f,-  Fr. 
Mi;LiCERTE,  nii'le's§Rt',]  a  son  of  Athamas  and  Ino. 
The  poets  feigned  that  Ino  threw  herself  and  her  son 
into  the  sea,  and  Neptune  changed  them  into  sea-deities. 
Melicerta  then  received  the  name  of  Palaemon. 

M61icerte.    See  Melicerta. 

MePi-koff,  (Mikhail  Tarielovitch  Tainow,) 
Count  Loris-Melikoff",  a  Russian  general,  born  at  Lori,  in 
Transcaucasia,  January  i,  1826,  the  son  of  an  Armenian 
merchant  named  Melian,  of  princely  origin,  whose  sur- 
name was  Russianized  to  Melikoff.  He  was  colonel  of 
light  cavalry.  He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Kars,  and  in 
the  capture  of  Schamyl,  (1859.)  In  1865  he  was  made 
lieutenant-general  and  ataman  of  the  Terek  Cossacks. 
In  1877  he  captured  Ardahan  and  Kars  from  Mukhtar 
Pasha  and  was  ftiade  a  count  and  full  general.  In  187S 
he  was  named  Governor  of  Astrakhan,  and  in  1879 
Governor-General  of  Kharkhoff.     In   1880  he  became 


president  of  a  commissitsn  for  the  regulation  of  the  em- 
pire, and  was  afterwards  a  member  of  the  plenum  in 
the  grand  council  of  the  empire.  An  attempt  to  assas- 
sinate him  in  1880  failed.     Died  in  1888. 

Meline,  me-leen',  (James  F.,)  an  American  Catholic 
writer,  was  born  at  Sackett's  Harbor,  New  York,  in  181 1. 
He  was  educated  in  the  college  at  Emmittsburg,  and  be- 
came a  lawyer,  held  several  United  States  consulships, 
and  served  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  attaining  the  rank  of 
colonel.  He  published  "  Two  Thousand  Miles  on  Horse- 
back," "  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,"  a  "  Life  of  Sixtus  V.," 
and  other  works.  Died  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  August 
14,  1873. 

M61ingue,  mi'IiNg',  (Etienne  Martin,)  a  French 
actor  and  sculptor,  born  at  Caen  in  1808.    Died  in  1875. 

Meliorati.     See  Innocent  VII. 

Me-lis'sa,  [Gr.  WkTaaaa;  Fr.  M6lisse,  mi'liss',]  a 
daughter  of  Melissus,  King  of  Crete,  was  said  to  have 
fed  the  infant  Jupiter  with  the  inilk  of  goats. 

Melissa,  in  classic  mythology,  a  nymph  who  first  dis- 
covered the  use  of  honey,  or  the  method  of  procuring  it ; 
whence  bees  (in  Greek  iliDj.oaai)  are  said  to  have  derived 
their  name. 

Melisse.     See  Meliss.i. 

Me-lis'sus,  [MeAioctof,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at 
Samos,  flourished  about  440  B.C.  He  was  also  distin- 
guished as  a  naval  commander,  and  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Athenians.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Par- 
menides,  and  was  the  author  of  philosophical  works  of 
which  only  fragments  are  extant. 

Melissus,  mi-lis'sus,  (Paul,)  a  German,  distinguished 
as  a  Latjn  poet,  born  in  Franconia  in  1539  ;  died  in  1602. 

Mell-ton  or  Mel'i-to,  [Gr,  Me/UVui^,]  an  ecclesias- 
tical writer  of  the  second  century  a.d.,  became  Bishop 
of  Sardis  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  works 
were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries,  but  they 
have  been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  M^moires  pour  ser\'ir  a  I'Histoire  ecclesias- 
tique." 

Melitus  or  Melitos.     See  Meletus. 

Me'li-us  or  Maelius,  mee'le-us,  (Spurius,)  a  Roman 
knight,  who  gained  the  favour  of  the  people  by  the 
liberal  or  profuse  use  of  his  large  fortune.  He  was  ac- 
cused by  L.  Minucius  Augurinus  of  a  design  to  make 
himself  king,  and  was  summoned  before  Cincinnatus, 
who  was  appointed  dictator  for  this  occasion.  Refusing 
to  submit,  he  was  killed  by  Servilius  Ahala  in  439  B.C. 

See  LiVY,  "  History  of  Rome;"  Niebuhr,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Meli,  (Patrick  Hues,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ainerican 
Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Walthourville,  Georgia,  July 
19,  1814,  was  educated  at  Amherst  College.  He  became 
professor  of  ancient  languages  in  Mercer  University  in 
1842,  and  in  the  University  of  Georgia  in  1857.  In  i860  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  ethics  and  metaphysics  in  the 
same  institution,  and  in  1878  was  appointed  its  chan- 
cellor. Among  his  works  are  "  Baptism,"  (1851,)  "  Cor- 
rective Church  Discipline,"  (i860,)  "Calvinism,"  (1862,) 
"God's  Providential  Government,"  (1865,)  "Parliamen- 
tary Practice,"  (1868,)  "The  Philosophy  of  Prayer," 
(1872,)  "Church  Polity,"  (1878,)  etc.      Died  in  1888. 

Melian,  mi'lSN'',  (Claude,)  an  emiiient  French  en- 
graver and  painter,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1598,  studied 
under  Villainena  and  Vouet  at  Rome.  He  originated  a 
new  method  of  engraving,  which  consisted  in  producing 
light  and  shade  by  varying  the  thickness  of  the  single 
lines  instead  of  crossing  one  set  by  another.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Peter  Nolascus  borne  by 
Two  Angels,"  the  "  Face  of  Christ,"  "  Rebecca  at  the 
Well,"  and  a  portrait  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  Died  in 
1688. 

See  Rknouvier,"  Des Types  et  Maniferes des Maitres-Graveurs ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Melle,  mel'leh,  (Jacob,)  a  German  numismatist,  born 
at  Lubeck  in  1659.  He  published  several  works  on 
numismatics,  etc.     Died  in  1743. 

Mel'len,  (Grenville,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Biddeford,  in  Maine,  in  1799,  was  a  son  of  Chief- Justice 
Mellen,  LL.D.,  of  that  State.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "Our  Chronicle  of  Twenty-Six,"  (1827,) 
"  Glad  Tales  and  Sad  Tales,"  (in  prose,  1829,)  "  The 


€  as  i6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  n,  nnsal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


MELLIN 


1700 


MELVILLE 


Martyr's   Triumph,"   and    "Buried    Valley,   and    other 
Poems,"  (1834.)     Died  in  1841. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  Clevki,and, 
"  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Mellin,  mSl-leen',  (Gustaf  Henrik,)  one  of  the  most 
popular  Swedish  novelists  and  historians,  born  in  Fin- 
land in  1813.  Among  his  romances,  which  are  generally 
founded  on  Swedish  history,  we  may  name  "  Flickorna 
i  Askersund,"  (1832,)  "Helena  Wrede,"  (1834,)  and 
"  Johannes  Fjallman."  His  "  Den  Skandinaviska  Nor- 
dens  Historia"  (1850)  and  "  Faderlandets  Historia" 
(1852)  are  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  The 
greater  part  of  his  romances  have  been  translated  into 
German.     Died  August  2,  1876. 

Mellin  de  Saint-Gelais,  m^'liN'  deh  siN  zh^h-l^',  a 
French  poet,  born  in  1491,  was  the  author  of  ballads, 
sonnets,  elegies,  etc.     Died  in  1558. 

See  LoNGFEj-LOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Melling,  mel'ling,  (Anton  Ignaz,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1763  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1831. 

Melliui,  mSl-lee'nee,  (Giuseppe  Zama,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  religion,  born  at  Bologna  in  1788;  died  in 
1838. 

Mello,  de,  dk  meKlo,  or  Melo,  ma'lo,  (Francisco 
Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1611, 
wrote  (in  Spanish)  a  valuable  history  of  the  Catalo- 
nian  revolution,  entitled  "  Historia  de  los  Movimientos  y 
Separacion,  etc  de  Cataluna,"  (1645.)  He  also  wrote 
a  number  of  dramas  and  poems,  among  which  we  may 
name  "The  Three  Muses  of  Melodino,"  ("Las  tres 
Musas  de  Melodino.")     Died  in  1665. 

See  Barbosa-Machado,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Mello,  de,  (P.  Joz6,)  an  eminent  Portuguese  jurist, 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Portuguese  Civil  Law,"  (3d  edition, 
1800.)     Died  in  1798. 

Melloni,  mfil-lo'nee,  (Macedonio,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  at  Parma  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1839  di- 
rector of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades  at  Naples. 
He  wrote  several  scientific  works,  one  of  which  was 
entitled  "La  Termocrasi,"  etc.,  explaining  his  theory 
concerning  the  radiation  of  heat  and  the  coloration  of 
light  He  originated  valuable  discoveries  on  these  sub- 
jects, for  which  the  Royal  Society  of  London  bestowed 
upon  him  the  Rumford  medal.     Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

MSl'moth,  (William,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1666,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Great  Impor- 
tance of  a  Religious  Life,"  which  was  ascribed  by  Walpole 
to  the  first  Earl  of  Egmont.  One  hundred  thousand 
copies  of  this  work  were  printed  after  the  author's  death. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes ;"  "  Memoirs  of  a  Late  Emi- 
nent Advocate." 

Melmoth,  (William,)  an  English  litterateur,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1710.  He  published  in 
1747  a  translation  of  the  "Letters  of  Pliny,"  which  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  versions  of  a  Latin  author  in 
the  English  language,  and  is  mentioned  by  Warton  as 
"one  of  the  few  that  are  better  than  the  original."  He 
also  translated  the  "  Letters  of  Cicero  to  Several  of  his 
Friends,"  and  the  treatises  "  On  Friendship"  ('  De 
Amicitid")  and  "  On  Old  Age"  ("  De  Senectute")  of  the 
same  author.     Died  in  1799. 

Melnikov,  mel'ne-kov,  (  Pawel  Ivanowitch,  )  a 
Russian  author,  born  at  Nizhnee-Novgorod,  October  22, 
1819.  He  studied  (1834-37)  at  Kazan  University,  and 
in  1846  entered  the  civil  service.  Besides  histories  of 
the  Russian  schismatical  sects,  he  has  published  note- 
worthy novels,  among  them  "  Old  Times"  and  "  Beyond 
the  Volga." 

Melo.    See  Mello. 

Melon,  ni?h-16N',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  lit- 
tirateur,  resided  at  Bordeaux,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Duke  de  la  Force,  founded  the  Academy  of  that  city 
in  1 7 12.  He  afterwards  became  secretary  to  the  regent 
Orleans.  He  wrote  "  Mahmoud  the  Gaznevide."  an  alle- 
gorical history  of  the  regency,  and  a  "Political  Essay  on 
Commerce."  The  latter  work  was  highly  commended 
by  Voltaire.     Died  in  1738. 


Melot,  m?h-lo',  (Anicet,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1697,  became  in  1738  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions,  to  which  he  contributed  several 
able  treatises.  In  1741  he  was  appointed  royal  librarian. 
He  wrote  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Capture  of  Rome 
by  the  Gauls,"  and  other  antiquarian  works.     Died  in 

1759- 

Melozzo  da  Porli,  mk-lot'so  di  foR-lee',  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Fori!  in  1438,  invented 
the  sotto  in  s»,  and  discovered  the  rules  of  vertical  per- 
spective. Among  his  finest  extant  frescos  is  "  Sixtus  IV. 
giving  to  Platina  charge  of  the  Vatican  Library,"  now  in 
the  Vatican.  His  works  are  highly  commended  by  Vasari. 
He  excelled  in  foreshortening.     Died  in  1492. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Mel-pom'e-ne,  [Gr.  MeXtto/ievij  ;  Fr.  Melpomene, 
mel'po'min',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
tragedy,  and  was  represented  as  holding  in  her  hand  a 
tragic  mask.  She  was  said  to  be  the  mother  of  the 
Sirens.     (See  MuSiB.) 

Melun,  de,  deh  meh-liiN',  (Charles,)  a  French  states- 
man under  Louis  XL,  was  appointed  in  1465  grand 
master  of  France.  Having  subsequently  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  king,  he  was  condemned  to  death  and 
executed,  (1468.) 

Melvil.    See  Melville,  and  Malevill. 

Mel'vill,  (Rev.  Henry,)  an  eloquent  English  divine, 
and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  was  born  in 
Cornwall  about  1800.  Having  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  appointed  principal  of  the  East  India  College, 
Haileybury,  about  1840.  He  published  several  volumes 
of  sermons.     Died  February  9,  1871. 

Melvill  van  Carnbee,  mSl'vil  vtn  karn'ba,  (  Pie- 
TER,)  Baron,  a  geographer  and  naval  officer,  born  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816.  He  produced  the  "  Mariner's 
Guide,"  ("Zeeman's  Gid,"  1842.)     Died  in  i8$6. 

Melville,  m^l'vil,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
Reformer  and  scholar,  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1545.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  became  professor  of 
humanities  at  Geneva.  After  his  return  to  Scotland  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  Glasgow  College,  where  he 
introduced  great  improvements  in  the  discipline  and 
was  eminently  successful  as  a  teacher.  He  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  religious  controversies  of  the  time,  and 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  abolition  of  episcopacy 
in  Scotland.  He  became  in  1580  principal  of  Saint 
Mary's  College,  Saint  Andrew's,  where  he  also  filled  the 
chair  of  theology  and  the  Oriental  tongues.  Having 
given  offence  to  King  James  by  his  bold  opposition  to 
the  measures  of  the  court,  he  was  imprisoned  five  years, 
and  subsequently  retired  to  France,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Sedan.     Died  in  1622. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Melville,  (George  Whyte,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  about  1820.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  Coldstream 
Guards.  He  produced  many  novels,  the  best-known 
of  which  are  "Digby  Grand,"  (1853,)  "Tilbury  Nogo," 
(1853,)  "General  Bounce,"  (1854,)  "Kate  Coventry," 
(1856,)  "Holmby  House,"  (i860,)  "The  Gladiators," 
(1863,)  and  "Katerfelto,"  (1875.)  Died  December  5,  1878. 

Melville,  (Henry  Dundas,)  Viscount,  a  British 
general,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1801.  He  served  in  India 
against  the  Sikhs  in  1849,  and  inherited  the  peerage  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  185 1.     Died  February  i,  1876. 

Melville,  (Herman,)  an  American  novelist  and  trav- 
eller, born  in  New  York  in  1819.  Having  made  a  voy- 
age to  the  Pacific  in  1841,  he  spent  several  months  on 
one  of  the  Marquesas  Islands,  and  subsequently  visited 
the  Sandwich  and  Society  Islands.  He  published,  after 
his  return,  a  narrative  of  his  adventures,  entitled 
"Typee,"  (1846,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour, 
both  in  the  United  States  and  England.  Among  hit 
other  principal  works  are  "  Omoo,  a  Narrative  of  Ad- 
ventures in  the  South  Seas,"  "White  Jacket,  or  the 
World  in  a  Man-of-War,"  (1850,)  and  "The  Piazza 
Tales." 

See  DovcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopajdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  IL 

Melville  or  Melvil,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  states- 
man and  historian,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1530.     Having 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /<?«f;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fdll,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MELVILLE 


1 701 


MENAHEM 


been  appointed  page  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  during 
her  residence  in  France,  he  accompanied  her  on  hei 
return  to  Scotland,  and  was  made  her  privy  councillor 
and  employed  in  several  important  negotiations.  He 
died  in  1606,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  work  published  in 
1683,  under  the  title  of  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  James  Melvil 
of  Halhill,"  etc.,  which  are  highly  valuable  as  records 
of  his  time.  Froude  speaks  of  "Melville  as  "  a  man  who, 
without  the  faintest  pretensions  to  statesmanship,  was 
as  skilled  an  intriguer  as  Europe  could  boast."  ("  His- 
tory of  England,"  vol.  viii.  chap,  viii.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Melville,  Lord.     See  Dundas,  (Henry.) 

Melville,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  officer,  born  in  Fife- 
shire  in  1723,  served  against  the  French  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1762,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  the  pos- 
sessions conquered  from  France.  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Died  in  1809. 

Melzi,  mSKzee,  (Gaetano,)  Count,  an  Italian  littera- 
teur, born  at  Milan  in  1783,  published  a  "Biography  of 
Italian  Romances  and  Poems  of  Chivalry,"  (1838,)  and 
"  Dictionary  of  Pseudonyms  and  Anonymous  Works  of 
Italian  Writers,"  etc.,  (1848,)  both  of  which  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  the  owner  of  a  library  of 
more  than  thirty  thousand  volumes,  consisting  chiefly 
of  rare  and  valuable  works.     Died  in  1852. 

Melzi  d'ErU,  mSl'zee  di-ril',  (Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian statesman,  born  at  Milan  in  1753.  On  the  invasion 
of  Italy  by  the  French  he  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Cisalpine  republic,  of  which  he 
was  made  vice-president  in  1802.  He  was  afterwards 
created  by  Napoleon  high-chancellor  of  Italy,  and  Duke 
of  Lodi,  (1809.)  He  was  a  grandee  of  Spain.  Died 
in  1816. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire  ;' 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Memling,  m§m'ling,  Hemling,  hSm'ling,  or  Mem- 
melinck,  m§m'meh-link',  (Hans  or  Hausse,)  an  emi- 
nent Flemish  painter,  the  date  and  place  of  whose  birth 
are  unknown.  He  flourished  about  1450-85.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  the  "  Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine," 
and  a  "  Baptism  of  Christ."     Died  at  Bruges  in  1495. 

See  P.  H^DOUiN,  "  Memling,  Etude  siir  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,' 
1847  ;  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Memmi.     See  Marttni,  (Simone  di.) 

Memminger,  m§m'min-jer,  ?  (Charles  Gustavus.j 
a  native  of  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  born  in  1803,  settled 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where  he  became  distin- 
guished as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  He  zealously  opposed 
the  State  Rights  party,  which  he  satirized  in  his  "  Book 
of  Nullification,"  (1832.)  He  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  treasury  in  the  cabinet  of  Jefferson  Davis  in  February, 
1861,  and  resigned  in  June,  1864.     Died  March  7,  1888. 

Mem'mi-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  was  a  strenu- 
ous opponent  of  the  aristocrats.  He  became  tribune 
of  the  people  in  in  B.C.,  and  exposed  the  venality  and 
corruption  of  the  aristocratic  leaders  in  their  manage- 
ment of  the  Jugurthine  war.  While  a  candidate  for  the 
consulship,  he  was  killed  by  the  mob  led  by  Saturninus 
in  100  B.C. 

Memmiiis,  (Caius  Gemellus,)  a  Roman  orator, 
poet,  and  politician,  was  a  tribune  of  the  people  in  66 
B.C.,  and  praetor  in  58.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  Sulla, 
and  friend  of  Lucretius,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  poem 
"  De  Rerum  Natura."  He  is  also  frequently  mentioned 
by  Cicero.  Having  been  accused  of  bribery,  (ambitus,) 
he  went  into  exile  about  54  B.C. 

Mem'non,  [Gr.  Mfjwvwv,]  a  mythical  personage,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  son  of  Tithonus  and  Eos,  (Aurora,) 
and  a  king  of  Ethiopia  or  Egypt.  According  to  tradition, 
he  fought  for  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  slew  An- 
tilochus,  and  was  killed  by  Achilles.  The  poets  feigned 
that  the  dew-drops  which  appear  in  the  morning  are  the 
tears  which  Aurora  shed  for  the  death  of  Memnon.  Many 
writers  identify  Memnon  with  Amenophis  IL  of  Egypt, 
in  whose  honour  was  erected  the  celebrated  colossal 
statue  near  Thebes.  This  statue,  which  is  still  extant 
and  is  about  fifty  feet  high,  was  commonly  believed  by 
the  ancients  to  emit  a  sound  when  it  was  first  touched 
by  the  beams  of  the  morning  sun.     Some  writers,  in- 


cluding Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  believe  that  the  phe- 
nomenon was  the  result  of  imposture. 

See  Sir  J.  Gardner  Wilkinson,  "Topography  of  Thebes," 
PP-  33-37- 

Mem'non,  a  Greek  general  in  the  service  of  Da- 
rius, King  of  Persia,  attained  the  rank  of  high  admiral, 
and  Governor  of  Western  Asia.  He  had  great  military 
talents.     Died  in  333  B.C. 

See  Clinton,  "  Fasti  Hellenici." 

Memnon,  a  Greek  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  the  Antonines.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  Heraclea,  of  which  only  fragments 
are  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grjecis." 

Mena,  de,  di  ma'nS,  (Felipe  Gil,)  a  Spanish  por- 
trait-painter of  great  merit,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1600; 
died  in  1674. 

Mena,  de,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  poet,  bom  at  C6rdova 
about  1410.  He  was  patronized  by  John  II.,  King  of  Castile, 
who  made  him  his  Latin  secretary  and  historiographer. 
His  principal  work  is  an  allegorical  poem,  entitled  "  The 
Labyrinth,"  ("  El  Labirinto,")  which  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation in  his  time.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Henry 
de  Villena,  the  Marquis  de  Santillana,  and  other  eminent 
writers  of  that  age.     Died  in  1456. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  Prescott, 
"  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  pp.  18,  19,  20;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Menabrea,  mi-ni-bRi'S,  (L6on  Camille,)  a  littera- 
teur, born  near  Chambery  in  1804.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  mediaeval  antiquities,  and  left  unfinished  an 
important  work  entitled  "  Les  Alpes  historiques."  Died 
in  1857. 

Menabrea,  mi-nS-bRa'i,  (LuiGi  F.,)  Count,  an  Ital- 
ian general  and  statesman,  born  about  1809.  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  president  of 
the  council  of  ministers  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1867 
and  in  1869. 

Menaeclimus,  mS-nSk'mus,  |  ^evaixfJOQ,  J  a  Greek 
sculptor,  born  at  Naupactus,  lived  about  480  B.C.  His 
principal  work  was  a  statue,  in  gold  and  silver,  of 
Diana  Laphyra  at  Calydon,  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  Soidas. 

Menage,  mi'nizh',  (Gilles,)  a  celebrated  French 
critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Angers  in  1613.  He  studied 
law,  and  practised  for  a  time  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
an  advocate  to  the  Parliament.  He  subsequently  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits,  and  his  house 
became  the  resort  of  the  distinguished  wits  and  writers 
of  the  time,  including  Balzac,  Sarrazin,  and  Madame 
RambouilJet.  He  was  patronized  by  Paul  de  Gondi, 
afterwards  Cardinal  de  Retz,  whose  favour  he  subse- 
quently lost,  owing  to  his  arrogance  and  strong  propen- 
sity for  satire.  He  was  also  involved  in  a  literary  feud 
with  Boileau,  who  has  severely  satirized  him  in  one  of 
his  poems,  and  with  Moliere,  who  introduced  him  into 
his  "  Femmes  savantes,"  in  the  character  of  Vadius, 
His  reputation  rests  principally  on  his  "  Etymological 
Dictionary  of  the  French  Language,"  (1650,)  which  is 
still  a  useful  work.  He  also  published  poems  in  Latin, 
French,  and  Italian,  and  his  friends  made  a  collection  of 
his  witticisms,  etc.,  entitled  "  Menagiana,"  (1693,)  which 
ranks  among  the  best  productions  of  the  kind.  His 
"  Request  of  the  Dictionaries,"  a  satire  on  the  Dictionary 
of  the  French  Academy,  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
cause  of  his  exclusion  from  that  institution.  Died  in 
Paris,  July  23,  1692. 

See  Antoine  Galland,  "Menagiana,"  1693;  Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  "  Memoires  pour  servir  k  la  Vie  de 
Manage,"  prefixed  to  the  "Menagiana,"  1715;  Mor^ri,  "  Diction- 
naire  Historique  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Menageot,  mi'ni'zho',  (pRANgois  Guillaume,)  a 
painter,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1744- 
He  studied  in  Paris  under  Vien  and  Boucher,  and  was 
appointed  director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome  in 
1787.  Among  his  works  may  be  named  "Time  arrested 
by  Study,"  and  "Diana  seeking  Adonis."    Died  in  1816. 

Meu'a-hem,  [Heb.  DHJO,]  the  son  of  Gadi,  having 
slain  Shallum,  King  of  Samaria,  usurped  his  throne 
and  reigned  ten  years  over  that  country. 

See  II.  Kings  xv.  14. 


cas  k;  5 as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  H,  K, guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MENANDER 


1702 


MENCIUS 


Me-nan'dfr,  [Gr.  MevavtJpof;  Fr.  M^nandre,  mi'- 
nflNdR';  Ger.  Menandros,  mi-nin'dRos,  ]  a  Greek 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Athens  in  341  B.C.,  is  called  the 
originator  of  the  new  comedy,  giving  representations  of 
actual  life  and  manners.  He  enjoyed  the  highest  repu 
tation  among  his  contemporaries,  and  is  eulogized  bjr 
Julius  Cassar,  Plutarch,  and  other  eminent  men  of  anti- 
quity. His  dramas  were  very  numerous,  but  they  have 
been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  the  fragments  preserved 
in  the  works  of  several  Greek  writers. 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici;"  K.  O.  Muller,  "History 
of  Greek  Literature;"  Hal'PTMAnn,  "  De  Menandro  atque  illius 
Comoediis,"  1743;  G.  GuizoT,  "M^nandre;  fitude  historique," 
etc.,  1855;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Menander,  a  Macedonian  general,  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Lydia  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  331  B.C. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  Antigonus,  for  whom  he  fought 
against  Eumenes  in  320  B.C. 

Menander,  a  Roman  jurist  under  the  reigns  ul 
Severus  and  Caracalla. 

Me-nan'der  Pro-tec'tor,  a  Greek  historian  of  the 
sixth  century,  was  one  of  the  body-guard  of  the  emperor 
at  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  the  Eastern  Empire  from  559  to  582  A.D.,"  of  which 
only  fragments  are  extant 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Gracis." 

Menandre.    See  Menander. 

Menandrino,  mi-nSn-dRee'no,  (Marsilio,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  sometimes  called  Marsilius  of  Padua.  He  was 
counsellor  to  Louis  of  Bavaria,  for  whom  he  wrote  a 
treatise  entitled  "  Defender  of  the  Peace,"  in  support  of 
the  authority  of  the  emperor  over  the  pope.  For  this 
he  was  excommunicated  by  John  XXII,     Died  in  1328. 

Menandros.     See  Menander. 

Menard,  mi'ntR',  (Claude,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Saumur  about  1574,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
Anjou,"  which  is  commended  by  Menage.  He  also  edited 
Joinville's  "  History  of  Saint  Louis,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1652. 

Menard^  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1637,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Flechier. 
Died  in  1710. 

Menard,  (L60N,)  a  French  jurist  and  antiquary,  born 
at  Tarascon  in  1706.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  City 
of  Nimes,"  a  treatise  "  On  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Greeks,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.     Died  in  1767. 

See  Lk  Beau,  "  Eloge  de  Menard,"  in  the  "M^moires"  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

Menard,  (Nicolas  Hugues,)  a  French  theologian 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1585,  wrote  several 
religious  and  ecclesiastical  works.     Died  in  1644. 

Me'nas,  [Gr.  M7?vuf,]  a  freedman  of  Pompey  the 
Great  and  of  his  son,  Sextus  Pompey.  He  commanded 
a  fleet  sent  against  Octavius,  afterwards  deserted  Pom- 
pey for  the  service  of  Octavius,  and  was  slain  (B.C.  35) 
at  the  siege  of  Siscia. 

Menasseh  Ben  Israel  See  Manasses  Ben  Joseph 
Ben  Israel. 

Mencius,  mSn'shcMis,  the  Latinized  form  of  Meng- 
Tse,  m^ng'tseh',  or  Meng-Tseu,  ming'tsuh',  (named 
also  Meng-Kiio,  in  his  youth,)  was,  after  Confucius,  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  Chinese  philosophers.  He 
was  born  in  the  little  state  of  Tsow,  (or  Tsou,)  which 
was  subsequently  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Loo,  and 
in  the  modern  province  of  Shan-Toong,  (or  Shan-Tung,) 
about  370  years  before  Christ:  he  was,  therefore,  a  con- 
temporary of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  He  lost  his  father  in 
his  early  childhood.  To  his  mother,  who  appears  to  have 
been  a  woman  of  rare  intelligence  and  worth,  he  was 
indebted,  in  a  great  measure,  not  merely  for  his  inclina- 
tion towards  learning  and  philosophy,  but  also  for  that 
pure  and  lofty  virtue  for  which  he  was  so  distinguished. 
It  is  related  that  after  the  death  of  her  husband  she  re- 
sided for  a  short  time  near  a  butcher's  shop,  but,  fearing 
that  the  frequent  sight  of  scenes  of  blood  might  harden 
and  deprave  the  heart  of  her  son,  she  removed  to  another 
abode.  This  happened  to  be  near  a  cemetery,  and  young 
Mencius  amused  himself  with  acting  the  various  scenes 
which  he  witnessed  at  the  tombs.  "This,"  said  his 
mother  to  herself,  "is  no  place  for  my  son."     She  again 


changed  her  dwelling,  and  took  a  house  in  the  market- 
place. But  here  he  soon  began  to  play  the  part  uf  a 
salesman,  vaunting  his  wares  and  chaftering  with  cus- 
tomers. The  watchful  and  anxious  mother  was  not  yet 
satisfied.  At  last  sh":  f'^und  a  house  close  by  a  school. 
Her  son's  attention  was  attracted  by  the  various  studies 
and  exercises  which  he  saw  pursued  in  the  school,  and  a 
desire  for  learning  was  awakened  in  his  mind.  Soon 
after  she  sent  him  to  the  school ;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
distinguished  himself  by  the  quickness  of  his  intellect, 
and  subsequently  by  his  earnest  application  to  study. 
The  following  story  may  serve  to  show  his  mother's  con- 
scientious watchfulness  in  regard  to  the  moral  education 
of  her  son.  Seeing  a  butcher  killing  pigs,  he  asked  her 
what  that  was  done  for.  She  replied  rather  thoughtlessly, 
(as  it  appears,)  "It  is  to  furnish  you  with  food."  Her 
conscience  at  once  reproved  her  for  saying  what  was  not 
strictly  true,  and,  anxious  not  to  set  him  an  example  of 
untruthfulness,  she  went  and  bought  soine  pork  in  order 
to  make  good  her  words.  One  day  when  he  returned 
home  from  school,  she  looked  up  from  the  web  which 
she  happened  to  be  weaving,  and  asked  him  how  he  was 
getting  on.  He  answered,  carelessly,  that  he  was  doing 
well  enough,  whereupon  she  took  a  knife  and  cut  through 
her  web.  Alarmed,  he  inquired  what  she  meant.  She 
then  showed  him  that  she  had  only  done  what  he  was 
doing :  she  had  lost  her  labour  and  thrown  away  the  time 
she  had  spent  in  weaving  the  web,  he  also  was  throwing 
away  his  precious  time  through  neglect  of  his  studies. 
The  lesson  was  not  lost  upon  him,  and  did  not  need  to 
be  repeated. 

Some  writers  represent  Mencius  as  having  studied 
;inder  Tseu-sse,  (or  Tsze-sze,)  the  grandson  of  Confucius. 
But  this  is  scarcely  possible,  since  Tseu-sse,  had  he  been 
living,  would  have  been  more  than  a  hundred  years  old 
when  Mencius  was  born.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  he 
diligently  studied  the  writings  of  Confucius,  to  the  neglect 
of  whose  precepts  he  attributed  the  miserable  state  of 
things  which  he  saw  everywhere  around  him,  faith  and 
justice  being  disregarded,  the  bonds  of  society  breaking 
asunder,  and  the  whole  empire  hastening  to  decay.  He 
resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  correcting  these  evils  and 
restoring,  so  far  as  it  lay  in  his  power,  the  virtues  of  the 
primitive  ages. 

Although  Mencius  considered  himself  a  follower  of 
Confucius,  yet  in  his  mode  of  instruction,  and  especially 
m  his  behaviour  towards  those  rulers  who  sought  his 
counsel,  he  differed  materially  from  his  master.  In  his 
reasoning,  if  less  grave  than  Confucius,  he  displayed 
more  art  and  more  acuteness.  His  method,  indeed,  was 
not  unlike  the  dialectic  of  Socrates  ;  he  pushed  his  ad- 
versary from  one  admission  to  another,  until  he  obliged 
him  either  to  confess  his  defeat  or  else  to  maintain  the 
most  obvious  and  palpable  absurdities.  In  his  inter- 
course with  kings  he  was  more  bold  and  severe  than 
Confucius,  both  in  exposing  folly  and  denouncing  ir.jus- 
tice  and  oppression.  Mencius  appears  to  have  been 
held  in  great  respect  by  most  of  the  Chinese  princes  to 
whom  his  fame  had  penetrated.  It  is  not  known  at  what 
time  in  his  life  he  first  began  to  teach  publicly ;  but  we  are 
told  that  when  he  felt  that  he  was  sufficiently  conversant 
with  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  great  teachers 
of  Chinese  philosophy,  he  commenced  his  travels  for  the 
purpose  of  offering  his  counsels  to  the  diflerent  petty 
sovereigns  who  ruled  in  the  states  adjacent  or  neighbour- 
ing to  Loo.  But,  although  he  seems  to  have  enjoyed 
more  consideration  than  Confucius  had  done,  he  was 
scarcely  more  successful  in  carrying  into  practice  his 
ideal  plans  of  government.  His  theory  of  morals  was 
too  high  and  diffi.cult  for  human  nature  in  its  ordinary 
condition.  He  appears  not  to  have  succeeded  in  a  single 
instance  in  prevailing  on  any  of  the  princes  to  embrace 
and  consistently  carry  out  his  principles  ;  and  accordingly 
he  had  little  inducement  to  continue  at  any  of  the  courts 
longer  than  was  necessary  in  order  to  make  a  fair  trial 
of  what  his  influence  could  effect.  He  is  said  to  have 
passed  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  in  the  more  con- 
genial society  of  his  disciples,  and  in  writing  those  works 
by  which  he  has  perhaps  exerted  a  greater  influence  on 
after-ages  than  he  did  upon  that  in  which  he  lived.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  an  advanced  age  about  290 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y.  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/wri;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  1'S.il,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon 


MENCIUS 


1703 


MENDELSSOHN 


B.C.  According  to  Dr.  Legge,  he  died  288  B.C. ;  some 
other  authorities,  however,  place  the  date  of  his  death 
many  years  earlier.  The  descendants  of  Mencius,  like 
tho.se  of  Confucius,  constitute  at  the  present  day  a  class 
of  what  may  be  termed  hereditary  nobles, — the  only 
hereditary  nobility  in  China. 

One  of  the  chief  doctrines  of  Mencius  was  that  man  is 
naturally  good,  although  he  admitted  that  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  mankind  had,  through  unfavourable  cir- 
cumstances or  influences,  become  perverted.  He  says 
the  way  in  which  a  man  loses  his  natural  goodness  is 
like  the  way  in  which  trees  are  deprived  by  the  wood- 
man of  their  branches  and  foliage.  And  if  they  still 
send  forth  some  buds  and  sprouts,  then  come  the  cattle 
and  goats  and  browse  upon  them.  As  in  the  tree  all 
appearance  of  life  and  beauty  is  destroyed,  so  in  man, 
after  a  long  exposure  to  evil  influences,  all  traces  of 
native  goodness  seem  to  be  obliterated.  But  he  main- 
tains that  there  is  an  original  power  of  goodness  in  the 
race,  and  that  all  men  may,  if  they  will,  become  like 
Yao  and  Shun,  two  of  the  early  sages  and  kings,  who 
were  pre-eminent  for  their  virtue.  A  distinguished 
Chinese  scholar  says  the  great  object  of  Mencius,  in  his 
writings,  is  to  rectify  men's  hearts.  "If  a  man  once 
rectify  his  heart,"  says  Mencius,  "  little  else  will  remain 
for  him  to  do."  In  another  place  he  says,  "  The  great  or 
superior  man  is  he  who  does  not  lose  his  child's  heart," 
an  expression  which  vividly  recalls  those  beautiful  lines 
of  the  great  German  poet, — 

"  Wohl  dem  der  frei  von  Schuld  und  Fehle 
Bewahrt  die  kindlich  reine  Seele."* 

It  is  evident,  however,  that,  owing  to  his  sanguine  and 
ardent  nature,  or  to  some  other  cause,  Mencius  did  not 
very  fully  realize  the  exceeding  difficulty  of  "rectifying 
one's  heart."  Yet  Confucius,  who  was  regarded  by 
Mencius  as  the  most  perfect  of  human  beings,  recognized 
this  great  but  melancholy  truth,  when  he  said  it  was 
only  at  the  age  of  seventy  that  "  he  could  follow  what 
his  heart  desired  without  transgressing  what  was  right." 
("Analects,"  book  ii.) 

Confucius  had  always  inculcated  the  reciprocal  obli- 
gation between  kings  and  subjects.  Mencius,  without 
denying  the  general  obligation  of  obedience  on  the  part 
of  subjects,  taught  nevertheless  that  among  the  various 
elements  in  a  state  "  the  people  are  the  most  important 
element,  and  the  sovereign  the  least  important ;"  and 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  draw  the  legitimate  inference  from 
such  a  position  that  a  bad  sovereign  ought  to  be  de- 
throned, and  even  slain,  if  his  life  should  endanger  or  in 
any  way  interfere  with  the  public  good. 

The  distinguished  Orientalist  Remusat,  in  drawing  a 
comparison  between  Confucius  and  Mencius,  says  the 
former  "is  always  grave,  and  even  austere;  he  exalts 
men  of  virtue  of  whom  he  presents  an  ideal  portrait ; 
he  speaks  of  bad  men  only  with  a  cool  indignation. 
Mencius,  with  the  same  love  of  virtue,  seems  to  feel 
for  vice  rather  contempt  than  abhorrence.  He  assails 
it  with  the  force  of  argument ;  he  does  not  disdain  to 
even  employ  against  it  the  weapons  of  ridicule."  Men- 
cius combined  a  certain  modesty  with  a  just  and  manly 
appreciation  of  himself  He  seemed  greatly  surprised 
when  one  of  his  disciples  was  disposed  to  rank  him  as  a 
sage ;  yet  he  said  on  another  occasion,  "  When  sages 
shall  rise  up  again,  they  will  not  change  my  words."  He 
believed  that  he  was  appointed  by  Heaven  to  uphold  or 
restore  the  doctrines  of  the  ancient  sages,  such  as  Yao, 
Shun,  and  Confucius.  Han-Yu,  a  celebrated  Chinese 
critic,  says,  "  If  we  wish  to  study  the  doctrines  of  the 
sages,  we  must  begin  with  Mencius.  ...  It  is  owing  to 
his  words  that  learners  nowadays  still  know  to  revere 
Confucius,  to  honour  benevolence  and  righteousness,  to 
esteem  the  true  sovereign,  and  to  despise  the  mere 
pretender."  We  have  already  noticed  some  of  the  lead- 
ing opinions  of  Mencius.  The  following  are  a  few  of  his 
most  characteristic  sayings  :  "  I  love  life ;  I  also  love 
righteousness.  If  I  cannot  keep  both,  I  will  let  life  go, 
and  choose  righteousness."  (The  Works  of  Mencius, 
book  vi.  chap,  x.)     "There  is  a  nobility  of  Heaven,  and 


•  "  Happy  he  who,  free  from  sin  and  fault, 
Preserves  the  pure  childlike  soul." 

Schiller's  Kraniche  des  Ibicus. 


there  is  a  nobility  of  man.  Benevolence,  righteousness, 
self-consecration,  and  fidelity,  with  unwearied  joy  in  these 
virtues, —these  constitute  the  nobility  of  Heaven."  (Book 
vi.  chap,  xvi.)  "Benevolence  subdues  its  opposite,  just 
as  water  subdues  fire.  Those,  however,  who  practise 
oenevolence  nowadays  do  it  as  if  with  one  cup  ot  water 
tney  could  save  a  whole  wagon-load  of  fuel  on  fire,  and, 
when  the  flames  are  not  extinguished,  should  say  that 
water  cannot  subdue  fire.  This  conduct,  moreover,  greatly 
encourages  those  who  are  not  benevolent."  (Book  vi. 
chap,  xviii.)  "  There  is  no  greater  delight  than  to  be 
conscious  of  sincerity  on  self-examination."  (Book  vii. 
chap,  iv.)  Kung-Sun-Chow  said  to  Mencius  that  his 
principles  were  admirable,  but  they  were  too  difficult 
and  lofty  for  ordinary  minds,  and  asked  him  why  he  did 
not  adapt  his  teachings  to  the  capacity  of  the  learners. 
He  replied,  "A  great  artificer  does  not,  for  the  sake  of  a 
stupid  workman,  alter  or  do  away  with  the  marking-line." 
(Book  vii.  chap,  xli.) 

See  the  excellent  notice  of  Mencius  prefixed  to  the  works  of  that 
philosopher,  in  the  second  volume  of  Dr.  Legge's  "Chinese  Clas- 
sics," Hong-Kong,  1861  :  also  Pauthier's  "Chine,"  pp.  187-193; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  article  "Mencius,"  by  \AoH 
RosNV  ;  "  Les  quatre  Livres  de  Philosophie,  Morale  et  Politique  de 
ia  Chine,"  translated  by  G.  Pauthier.  Paris,  1S51  ;  the  Chinese 
Classical  Works,  translated  by  the  late  Rev.  David  Collie,  Malacca 
Mission  Press,  1828  ;  Stanislaus  Julien's  translation  (into  Latin) 
of  the  Works  of  Mencius,  Paris,  1824 ;  "  Confucius  and  the  Chinese 
Classics,"  (book  iv.,)  by  Rev.  A.  W.  LooMis,  San  Francisco,  1S67. 

Mencke,  mgnk'keh,  (Friedrich  Otto,)  a  German 
scholar  and  writer,  son  of  Johann  Burkhard,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1708.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Leipsic  in  1732.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Life  of  Angelo  Poliziano,"  (in  Latin,  1736.)  Died 
in  1754. 

Mencke,  (Johann  Burkhard,)  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1675,  became  in  1708  historiographer  to  Frederick 
Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  He  published,  in  Latin, 
"Two  Orations  on  the  Charlatanry  of  the  Learned," 
(1715,)  and  a  work  entitled  "  Writers  of  German  His- 
tory," (3  vols.,  1728-30.)  The  former  caused  a  great 
sensation,  and  was  translated  into  several  foreign  lan- 
guages. Mencke  also  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  and, 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  conducted  the  "Acta  Eru- 
ditorum."     Died  in  1732. 

See  R.  Treitschke,  "  B.  Mencke,  Professor  der  Geschich'e  zu 
Leipzig,"  1842;  JocHER,  "  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Mencke,  (Otto,)  a  learned  German,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1644.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Leipsic.  In  1682  he 
founded  the  first  literary  and  scientific  journal  published 
in  Germany.  It  was  entitled  "Acta  Eruditorum,"  and 
numbered  among  its  contributors  Leibnitz  and  other 
eminent  savants.     Died  in  1707. 

See  Seligmann,  "  Leichenpredigt  auf  O.  Mencken,"  1707;  NicS- 
RON.  "M^moires." 

Mendafia  de  Neyra,  mSn-din'yl  di  na^-r3,  (Al- 
varo,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  born  in  1541,  sailed  on  a 
voyage  to  the  Pacific  in  1567,  and  discovered  between 
7°  and  12°  south  latitude  the  islands  of  Saint  Chris- 
topher, Isabella,  and  Guadalcanar.  He  discovered  in 
1595  the  isles  since  called  by  Admiral  Byron  the  Dan- 
gerous Islands,  and  the  large  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  to 
which  Carteret  gave  the  name  of  Egmont  in  1767.  He 
also  established  a  colony  at  Bahia  Graciosa.  The  por- 
tion of  Polynesia  which  includes  the  Marquesas  has  been 
named  the  Mendafia  Archipelago.     Died  in  1595. 

See  De  Brosses,  "  Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  australes," 
1756. 

Mendelssohn,  m§n'dels-s5n',  (Moses,)  an  eminent 
philosopher,  born  at  Dessau,  in  Germany,  in  1729,  was 
the  son  of  a  Jewish  schoolmaster.  In  consequence  of 
the  limited  means  of  his  family,  he  owed  his  early  educa- 
tion chiefly  to  his  own  exertions.  In  1745  he  repaired 
to  Berlin,  where  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  the  philosophy  of  Wolf  and  Leibnitz. 
In  1754  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Lessing, 
in  conjunction  with  whom  he  afterwards  wrote  the  treat- 
ise entitled  "  Pope  a  Metaphysician."  He  next  pub- 
lished his  "  Letters  on  the  Sensations,"  and  in  1767  his 
"  Phaedo,  a  Dialogue  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul." 
The  latter  work  was  received  with  great  favour,  and  was 


casi;  9asj;  ghard;  gusj;  CU.K.^ftural;  ^, nasal;  ^Jrilled;  sasz;  th  as  in////.f.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MENDELSSOHN 


1704 


MENDOZA 


translated  into  the  principal  languages  of  Europe.  Men- 
delssohn was  one  of  the  most  profound  thinkers  of  his 
time,  and  was  liighly  esteemed  by  his  contemi)oraries  for 
the  excellence  of  his  character,  as  well  as  his  intellectual 
endowments.     Died  in  1786. 

See  MiRABEAU,  "  Sur  M.  Mendelssohn,"  etc.,  1787  ;  "Memoirs 

of  Moses  Mendelssohn,"  by  M.  Samuels;  Winckler,  "  Notice  sur 

M.  Mendelssohn,"  1798 ;  Heinhmann,  "  M.  Mendelssohn,"  1819; 

J.   A.   L.   RiCHTER,    "M.   Mendelssohn   als  Mensch,"   etc.,   1829; 

Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  mSn'dels-son'  baR-toK- 
dee,  (Felix,)  an  eminent  German  composer,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1809,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  At 
an  early  age  he  manifested  extraordinary  musical  talent, 
which  received  the  most  elaborate  culture  under  Zelter 
and  Ludwig  Berger.  He  performed  with  brilliant  suc- 
cess in  Berlin  and  Paris  before  he  had  completed  his 
tenth  year,  and  in  1827  he  brought  out  at  Berlin  his 
"Overture  to  the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  and  his 
opera  of  "  The  Wedding  of  Camacho."  He  subsequently 
visited  London  and  Paris,  where  the  "  Overture"  above 
named  was  received  with  enthusiasm.  After  his  return 
to  Germany,  he  was  appointed,  in  1835,  director  of  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts  at  Leipsic.  In  1836  he  brought 
out  his  oratorio  of  "  Saint  Paul,"  at  Dusseldorf  and 
Leipsic,  and  the  following  year  at  Birmingham,  Eng- 
land. His  "  Elijah,"  an  oratorio,  performed  at  the  Bir- 
mingham Festival  in  1846,  caused  a  greater  sensation 
in  the  musical  world  than  had  been  known  in  England 
since  the  days  of  Handel.  Subsequently,  Mendelssohn's 
health,  which  had  been  some  time  declining,  failed 
rapidly,  and  he  died  soon  after  his  return  to  Germany, 
in  November,  1847.  Among  the  more  important  of  his 
other  compositions,  we  may  name  the  overtures  of 
"Fingal's  Cave,"  "  A  Calm  Sea  and  Happy  Voyage," 
(" Meeresstille  und  gliickliche  Fahrt,")  and  "The  Beau- 
tiful Melusina,"  ("  Die  schone  Melusine,")  besides  a 
great  number  of  cantatas  and  instrumental  pieces.  His 
"  Songs  without  Words"  are  particularly  admired.  As  a 
musician  and  composer,  he  is  esteemed  second  only  to 
Handel  and  Mozart. 

See  Julius  Benedict,  "Life  and  Works  of  F.  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy,"  1850;  W.  A.  Lampadius,  "  Life  of  Felix  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy,"  1865  ;  FiStis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;" 
V.  Magnien,  "  fitiide  biographique  sur  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy," 
1850;  "  Fraser's  ALigaziiie"  for  April,  1848,  by  Mrs.  Austin; 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1862. 

Mendes,  mSN'di',  (Catulle,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Bordeaux  in  1840.  His  lyrical  drama  "  Le  Roman 
d'une  Nuit"  (i860)  caused  his  imprisonment.  Among 
his  best  works  are  "  Hesperus,"  (1869,  a  fine  poem  with 
a  Swedenborgian  tone,)  and  "  Le  Soleil  de  Minuit,"  a 
dramatic  poem.  His  wife,  Judith  Gautier,  (q.  v.,)  was 
married  in  1866,  but  soon  separated  from  him.  Mendes 
is  the  author  of  several  tales  and  romances. 

Mendes  Leal,  mSn'dSs  li-iK,  (Jos6  da  Silva,)  a 
Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon,  October  22,  1820.  He 
held  positions  in  the  public  service,  and  in  1874  was  sent 
to  France  as  minister  plenipotentiary.  His  very  popular 
"  Poems"  (1858)  were  followed  by  many  piays  and  some 
romances.     Died  in  1886. 

Mendez  Pinto.    See  Pinto. 

Mendizabal,  y,  e  m§n-de-th3,-baK,  (Don  Juan  Al- 
varez,) a  Spanish  statesman,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born 
at  Cadiz  about  1790.  Having  amassed  a  large  fortune 
by  trade,  he  rose  to  be  minister  of  finance  in  1835.  Died 
in  1853. 

Mendoga  or  Mendoza,  de,  di  mSn-do'sS,  (Andrea 
Hurtado,)  a  Portuguese  naval  commander,  who  ren- 
dered great  services  to  his  country  by  clearing  the  South 
Seas  of  pirates  and  thus  protecting  the  Portuguese  es- 
tablishments in  the  East  Indies.     Died  about  1606. 

Mendoza,  de,  di  mgn-do'thS,  (Antonio  Hurtado.) 
a  Spanish  writer,  born  about  1590,  was  appointed  private 
secretary  to  Philip  IV.  He  \vrote  a  number  of  popular 
dramas,  also  lyric  poems  and  prose  works.   Died  m  1644. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Mendoza,  de,  (Antonio  Sarmiento,)  a  Spanish 
writer,  a  native  of  Burgos,  lived  about  1630.  He  trans- 
lated Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  into  Spanish. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Don  Bernardino,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torian and  diplomatist,  was  employed  by  Philip  II.  in 


several  missions  to  France  and  England.  He  had  a 
prominent  share,  while  in  France,  in  the  formation  of  the 
Catholic  League.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
the  Netherlands  from  1567  to  1577,"  and  a  treatise  "On 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  War." 

See  Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap, 
iii. ;  Capefigue,  "  Histoire  de  la  R^forme  etla  Ligue." 

Mendoza,  de,  (Diego  Hurtado,)  a  celebrated  Span- 
ish writer,  soldier,  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Granada  in 
1503,  was  a  grandson  of  the  Marquis  de  Santillana, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  classics, 
theology,  and  civil  and  canon  law.  He  was  afterwards 
patronized  by  Charles  V.,  who  sent  him  in  1538  on  an 
embassy  to  Venice.  While  in  this  post,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  of 
which  he  acquired  a  great  number,  comprising  works  of 
Saint  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzeti,  and  Archimedes.  They 
were  subsequently  ceded  to  the  Library  of  the  Escurial. 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  by  the  emperor  ambassador 
at  Rome  and  governor  of  Sienna.  Having  returned  to 
Spain  in  1554,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Philip  II., 
who  banished  him  from  court.  He  devoted  himself 
thenceforth  to  literary  pursuits,  and  published  in  1610 
his  "  History  of  the  Wars  against  the  Moors,"  ("  Guerra 
de  Granada  contra  los  Moriscos.")  This  work,  which 
has  taken  its  place  among  Spanish  classics,  is  charac- 
terized by  great  accuracy  and  impartiality,  and  is  esteemed 
the  best  imitation  of  the  Latin  historians  in  modern  lite- 
rature. He  was  also  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems, 
and  the  celebrated  comic  romance  of  "  Lazarillo  de 
Tormes,"  (1554,)  in  which  he  originated  the  so-called 
Picaresque  school  of  fiction,  afterwards  followed  by  Le 
Sage  in  his  "  Gil  Bias."  "  Mendoza,"  says  Prescott,  "  by 
the  brilliant  success  which  he  achieved  as  a  statesman, 
a  diplomatist,  a  -novelist,  a  poet,  and  a  historian,  has 
established  a  reputation  for  versatility  of  genius  second 
to  none  in  the  literature  of  Spain."     Died  in  1575. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  Hi'^tory  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Sismondi, 
"Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Prescott,  "History  of 
Philip  II. ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  N. 
Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  Bouterwp.k,  "Histoire 
de  la  Litlerature  Espagnole;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate;" 
Notice  of  "  Lazarillo  de  Tormes"  in  the  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Inigo  Lopez.)  See  Mondejar,  Mar- 
quis DE. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Inigo  Lopez,)  Marquis  de  Santillana, 
(di  sSn-t^l-yj'nS,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  1398,  was  a 
friend  of  Juan  de  Mena  and  the  Marquis  de  Villena,  and 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  writers  of  the  court  of  John  II 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  sonnet  into  Spanish 
poetry.  Among  his  best  works  is  an  "  Elegy  on  the 
Marquis  de  Villena."  Mendoza  was  also  a  distinguished 
soldier,  and  was  created  a  marquis  as  a  reward  for  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  Olmedo,  (1445.)     Died  in  1458. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Bouterwek, 
"  Geschichte  der  Spanische  Poesie  und  Beredtsamkeit ;"  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mendoza,  de,  (Juan  Gonzalez,)  a  Spanish  mission- 
ary, born  at  Toledo  about  1540.  He  visited  China  in 
1580,  and  subsequently  South  America  and  Mexico. 
He  died  as  Bishop  of  Popayan  in  New  Granada,  (1617.) 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Great  Kingdom 
of  China,"  (1586,)  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation  and 
has  been  translated  into  French. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Don  Pedro,)  a  wealthy  Spaniard, 
born  at  Cadiz  about  1487.  He  offered  his  services,  in 
1529,  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  to  complete,  at  his  own 
expense,  the  exploration  of  the  rivers  La  Plata  and  Para- 
guay. Having  been  created  by  the  emperor  military 
chief  of  the  country  adjacent  to  those  rivers,  he  set  sail 
in  1534,  and  founded  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  1535. 
He  died  soon  after,  while  at  sea  on  his  return  to  Spain. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Pedro  Gonzalez,)  a  Spanish  prelate 
and  statesman,  called  THE  Grand  Cardinal,  born  in 
1428.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  John  II.  and  Henry 
IV.,  and  was  created  successively  Bishop  of  Siguenza, 
Chancellor  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  cardinal,  (1473.) 
Under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Toledo.  He  also  distinguished  himself  in  the  Moorish 
war,  in  which  he  held  a  command.      He  founded  the 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  ohscttre;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon 


MENDOZA 


1705 


MENIPPUS 


magnificent  College  of  Santa  Cruz  at  Valladolid,  and  a 
hospital  at  Toledo.     Died  in  1495. 

See  Mariana,  "Historia  Hispaniae  ;"  Salazar  dk  Mbndoza, 
''Coronica  del  gran  Cardinal  de  Espaiia,"  1625. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Pedro  de  Salazar,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Toledo  about  1550,  published  a 
"  Chronicle  of  the  House  of  Ponce  de  Leon,"  (1620,)  and 
a  "Chronicle  of  the  Grand  Cardinal  of  Spain,  Pedro 
Gonzalez  de  Mendoza,"  (1625.)     Died  in  1629. 

Me-nec'ra-teS,  [Gr.  MevEKpaxT^f,]  a  physician  who 
made  himself  ridiculous  by  calling  himself  Jupiter.  His 
vanity  was  rebuked  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  who  in- 
vited him  to  a  banquet  and  offered  him  only  incense 
and  libations. 

Menedeme.    See  Menedemus. 

Men-e-de'mus,  [Gr.  M.EVE6T]fiog ;  Fr.  M^N^ofeME, 
mi'ni'dim',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Eretria  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  school  of 
Eretria,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Plato  and  Stilpo.  Died 
about  277  B.C. 

See  C.  Mallet,  "  Histoire  de  I'ficole  de  M^gare  et  d'firdtrie  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Meneghelli,  mk-ni-gel'lee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an 
Italian  litterateur,  born  in  1765,  was  professor  of  law  at 
Padua.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Livy,"  ("  Vita 
di  Tito  Livio,"  1835.)     Died  in  1844. 

M^n^las.     See  Menelaus. 

Men-e-la'us,  [Gr.  MeveXaof,  Mev£/lewf,  or  Mfi'eAaf  ;  Fr. 
M6n6las,  mi'ni  ISs',  |  a  Grecian  hero  and  king  of  Sparta, 
was  a  son  of  Atreus.  He  and  his  brother  Agamemnon 
were  called  Atridae.  He  niairied  the  beautiful  Helen, 
who  preferred  him  to  all  of  her  numerous  suitors,  but 
afterwards  eloped  with  Paris.  At  the  siege  of  Troy, 
which  was  the  consequence  of  the  abduction  of  Helen, 
Menelaus  behaved  with  great  spirit  and  courage,  and 
fought  a  single  combat  with  Paris,  whom  he  was  about 
to  vanquish,  when  Venus  interposed  and  rescued  him. 
He  was  one  of  the  daring  band  that  entered  Troy  in 
the  wooden  horse.  On  the  capture  of  Troy  he  recov- 
ered Helen,  was  reconciled  to  her,  and,  after  a  devious 
voyage  of  several  years,  returned  to  Sparta.  A  temple 
was  erected  in  his  honour  at  Therapne. 

Menelaus,  a  celebrated  mathematician  and  astrono- 
mer of  Alexandria,  resided  in  Rome  under  the  reign  of 
Trajan.  His  only  extant  work  is  a  treatise  on  spherical 
geometry,  which  was  translated  into  Latin. 

Me-ne'nI-us  A-grip'pa,  surnamed  Lana'tus,  a 
Roman  patrician  and  senator,  was  chosen  consul  in 
503  B.C.  He  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Sa- 
bines,  for  which  a  triumph  was  decreed  him.  Through 
his  mediation  the  contest  between  the  patricians  and 
the  plebeians  was  appeased  in  493.  On  this  occasion 
he  related  the  fable  of  the  belly  and  the  members  to 
the  plebeians. 

Me-nep'thah  II.,  a  king  of  Egypt,  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  was  the  son  and  successor  of  Ranieses  IL  He 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Greeks  and  Libyans,  prob- 
ably in  what  is  now  called  Barca,  and  reigned  thirty  years 
with  great  dignity.  His  son,  Menepthah  HI.,  is  said  to 
have  been  at  first  a  viceroy  of  Ethiopia  under  the  usurp- 
ing Sipthah,  or  pseudo-Menepthah,  whom  he  deposed. 
After  this  he  reigned  for  many  years  at  Thebes.  He  was 
the  last  king  of  his  dynasty. 

Me'neS  [Gr.  M^??f,  or  M^i'ifJ  was  the  first  king  or 
Egypt,  according  to  the  traditions  of  that  country.  He 
is  said  to  have  founded  Memphis,  and  to  have  introduced 
the  worship  of  the  gods.  He  lived  probably  2000  B.C., 
or  earlier. 

Meneses  or  Menezes,  mi-na'sSs,  (Aleixo,)  a  Por- 
tuguese prelate,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1559,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Goa,  and  in  1607  succeeded  Alphonso  de 
Castro  as  Viceroy  of  the  Lidies.  He  was  appointed 
by  Philip  HL  of  Spain  Viceroy  of  Portugal  in  1614. 
Died  in  1617. 

See  VEYSSifeRE  La  Croze,  "  Histoire  du  Christianisme  des 
Indes. " 

Meneses  Osorio,  mi-na'sis  o-so're-o,  (Francisco,) 
a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  vSeville  in  1630,  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  Murillo.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Saint  Philip  de  Neri  adoring  the 
Virgin,"  and  "  Saint  Catherine."      Died  in  1705. 


Menesth^e.     See  Menestheus. 

Me-n6s'theus,  [Gr.  Mevecr0d}f  ;  Fr.  M6nesth6e,  mi'- 
nSs'ti',]  a  semi-fabulous  king  of  Athens,  obtained  the 
throne  in  the  absence  of  Theseus,  who  was  the  lawful 
monarch.  He  commanded  the  Athenians  in  the  Trojan 
war. 

Menestheus,  [MeveaOevf,]  an  able  Athenian  general, 
was  a  son  of  Iphicrates.  He  was  appointed  commander 
in  the  Social  war,  356  B.C.  He  also  commanded  a  naval 
expedition  against  the  Macedonians  in  335  B.C. 

Menestrier,  meh-nSs'tRe-i',  (Claude  FRANgois,)  a 
learned  French  ecclesiastic  and  antiquary,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1631.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  treatises  on 
heraldry,  antiquities,  and  history,  among  which  we  may 
name  "On  Ancient  and  Modern  Chivalry,"  (1673,)  "The 
Origin  of  Armorial  Bearings,"  (1679,)  and  "The  Philos 
ophy  of  Images,"  (2  vols.,  1682-83.)     Died  in  1705. 

Menestrier,  Le,  leh  meh-n^s'tRe^i',  (Claude,)  a 
French  antiquary,  whose  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Statue  of  the  Symbolical  Ephesian  Diana  Explained," 
Died  in  1639. 

Menestrier,  Le,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Dijon  in  1564,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "Medals,  Coins,  and  Antique  Monuments  of  the 
Roman  Empresses,"  (1625.)     Died  in  1634. 

Meneval,  de,  deh  min'vSK,  (Claude  Francois,) 
Baron,  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  During 
the  empire  he  served  Napoleon  as  secretary,  (sicritaire 
du portefeicille.)  He  wrote  "Napoleon  et  Marie  Louise, 
Souvenirs  historiques,"  (3  vols.,  1843-45.)     Died  in  1850. 

Menezes.    SccMeneses. 

Menezes.    See  Ericeira. 

Mengoli,  raSn'go-lee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  geometer, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1625 ;  died  in  1686. 

Mengs,  mengs,  (Anton  Rafael,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Aussig,  in  Bohemia,  in  1728.  He 
was  instructed  by  his  father,  with  whom  he  resided  several 
years  at  Rome.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was  ap- 
pointed court  painter  at  Dresden,  in  1744.  While  on  a 
second  visit  to  Rome,  he  painted  a  "  Holy  Family,"  which 
won  for  him  a  high  reputation.  The  Madonna  in  this 
picture  was  the  portrait  of  a  beautiful  peasant-girl,  whom 
Mengs  afterwards  married,  having  become  a  Catholic 
for  her  sake.  He  became  in  1754  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Painting  at  Rome,  and  in  1757  he  executed  his 
celebrated  fresco  of  "Apollo  and  the  Muses"  in  the  villa 
of  Cardinal  Albani,  On  the  invitation  of  Charles  III. 
of  Spain,  he  repaired  to  Madrid,  where  he  was  appointed 
first  painter  to  the  king,  with  a  large  salary.  Here  he 
produced  several  of  his  master-pieces,  among  which  we 
may  name  his  "Temple  of  Glory"  and  "Triumph  of 
Trajan"  in  the  royal  palace.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1779. 
Mengs  is  ranked  among  the  best  painters  of  his  time, 
his  works  being  distinguished  by  great  accuracy  of  de- 
sign and  neatness  of  execution,  but  they  are  censured 
by  critics  as  deficient  in  warmth  and  animation. 

See  Guibal,  "  filoge  historique  de  Mengs,"  1781 ;  J.  J.  Ma- 
RiETTE,  "Abecedario ;"  Bianconi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  R.  Mengs," 
17S0;  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Meng-Tse  or  Meng-Tseu.     See  Mencius. 

Menil-Durand,  de,  deh  mi.'nfel'  dii'r6N',  (FRANgois 
Jean  de  Graindorge  d'Orgeville  —  gR^N'doRzh' 
doRzh'v^l',)  Baron,  a  French  officer,  born  at  Lisieux 
in  1729,  published  a  number  of  works  on  military  tactics. 
Died  in  1799. 

Meninski,  meh-niN'ske',  (FRANgois  de  Mesgnien,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  whose  original  name  was  Menin, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1623.  Having  accompanied  the 
Polish  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  he  became  inter- 
preter to  the  embassy,  and  subsequently  ambassador. 
He  was  appointed  in  1671  first  interpreter  of  Oriental 
languages  at  the  court  of  Vienna.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "Dictionary  of  Oriental  Languages,"  ("Thesaurus 
Linguarum  Orientalium,"  3  vols.,  1680,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.     Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Menippe.     See  Menippus. 

Me-nip'pus,  [Gr.  Mt'vtTTTroc;  Fr.  M6nippe,  mi'nip',] 
a  Cynic  philosopher  and  poet,  was  a  native  of  Phoenicia, 
and  lived  probably  about  60  B.C.  Having  amassed  a 
large  fortune  by  usury,  he  destroyed  himself  in  con- 


c  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Yi,gicttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (^:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MENIFPUS 


1706 


MENU 


sequence  of  having  been  robbed  of  his  treasures.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  satires,  none  of  which  are 
extant.  Varro  is  said  to  have  imitated  the  style  of  Menip- 
pus.    lie  is  also  mentioned  by  Lucian  in  his  "  Dialogues." 

See  Varro,  "  Satirs  Mejiippes;"  J.  F.  Lev,  "Dissertatio  de 
Vita  Scriptisque  Menippi  Cyiiici,"  1843. 

Meuippus,  a  Greek  geographer  under  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  was  a  native  of  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Minor. 

See  "  Meiiippos  der  Geograph  aus  Pergamon,"  etc.,  1841,  by 
Grotefend  and  Ulrichs. 

Menippus  of  Stratonice,  an  eminent  Greek  rheto- 
rician, renowned  throughout  Asia  for  his  eloquence.  He 
is  highly  commended  by  Cicero  in  his  "Brutus." 

Mennander,  m§n-nln'der,  (Carl  Fredrik,  )  a 
learned  Swedish  prelate,  born  at  Stoclcholm  in  1712. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Abo,  in  Finland,  and  subsequently 
Archbishop  of  Upsal,  (1775.)     Died  in  1786. 

Menuechet,  m§n'shk',  (£douard,)  a  French  lUti- 
rateur,  born  at  Nantes  in  1794.  He  produced  odes, 
dramas,  and  "  Le  Plutarque  Frangais,"  a  collection  o*' 
lives  of  eminent  Frenchmen,  (8  vols.)     Died  in  1845. 

Menues,  menz,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  poet  and 
royalist,  born  in  Kent  in  1591  ;  died  in  1671. 

Menno,  raen'no,  [Fr,  Mennon,  mk'n6N',]  (Simonis,) 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Mennonites,  was  born  in  Fries- 
land  in  1496.  His  doctrines  resembled  in  some  points 
those  of  the  Anabaptists,  but  were  free  from  the  absurd- 
ities and  excesses  of  the  latter.  The  Mennonites  were 
included  in  the  proscriptive  edicts  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  in  1540,  and  a  price  was  set  on  the  head  of  their 
founder.  Menno  died  in  1561.  His  followers  settled  in 
England,  Holland,  and  North  America,  and  are  every- 
wnere  favourably  known  for  their  virtues  and  industry. 

See  MiJLLER,  "  Cimbria  Literata." 

Meunon.     See  Menno. 

Menochio,  mi-no'ke-o,  [Lat.  Meno'chius,]  (Gio- 
vanni Stefano,)  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Pavia  in  1576.  He  became  rector  of  the  colleges 
of  his  order  at  Rome  and  Modena.  His  principal  work 
is  a  commentary  on  the  Scriptures,  entitled  "  Brevis  Ex- 
positio  Sensus  literalis  totius  Scripturas,"  (2  vols.,  1630.) 
Died  in  1655. 

Menochio,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  jurist,  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Pavia  in  1532.  He  was  appointed 
a  president  of  the  Council  of  Milan  by  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  He  wrote  several  valuable  legal  treatises,  in 
Latin.     Died  in  1607. 

Menochius.    See  Menochio. 

Me-nod'o-tus,  [Gr.  Mz/x-otiorof,]  a  Greek  physician  of 
Nicomedia,  lived  probably  about  100  a.D.  He  belonged 
to  the  sect  of  Empirici.  He  wrote  a  medical  work, 
which  Erasmus  translated  into  Latin. 

MencEtlus,  me-nee'she-us,  [Gr.  Mevotrtof,]  a  son  of 
Actor,  and  father  of  Patroclus,  took  part  in  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition. 

Me'non,  [Gr.  Mevuf,]  a  Thessalian  general,  who 
served  in  the  Lamian  war  against  the  Macedonians.  He 
and  Antiphilus  were  defeated  by  Antipater  at  Cranon  in 
322  B.C.     He  was  killed  in  battle  in  321  B.C. 

Menon  de  Turbilly,  de,  deh  meh-n6N'  deh  tiiR'- 
b^'ye',  (Louis  Francois  Henri,)  Marquis,  a  French 
agricultural  writer,  born  near  La  Fleche  in  17 12,  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Clearing  Land."     Died  in  1776. 

Meuot,  nieh'ni',  (Michel,)  an  eminent  French  Fran- 
ciscan preacher,  born  in  1440;  died  in  1518. 

Menou,  de,  deh  meh-noo',  (Jacques  FRANgois,) 
Raron,  a  French  general,  born  in  Touraine  in  1750. 
He  served  in  the  republican  army  in  the  Vendean  cam- 
paign of  1793,  and  in  1795  commanded  the  National 
Guard  which  suppressed  the  insurrection  in  the  Fau- 
bourg Saint-Antoine.  As  general  of  division,  he  accom- 
panied Napoleon  to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  on  the  death  of 
Kleber  was  invested  with  the  chief  command.  In  1801 
he  was  besieged  in  Alexandria  by  Sir  Ralph  Abercrom- 
bie,  to  whom  he  was  obliged  to  capitulate.  After  his 
return  to  France,  in  i8o2,"he  was  appointed  by  Napo- 
leon Governor  of  Piedmont,  and  subsequently  of  Venice. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  Thiers.  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire ;"  Db 
CouRCELLES,  "  Dictionnairc  des  Generaux  Frangais :"  "Noiivelle 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 


Meiat'chi-kof,  written  also  Mentschikcw,  Ment> 
schikof,  and  Menohikof,  (Alexander  Danielo- 
vrrcH,)  Pkince,  a  celebrated  Russian  statesman  and 
general,  born  at  Moscow  about  1670,  was  the  son  of  a 
pastry-cook.  His  talents  procured  for  him  at  an  early 
age  the  notice  and  favour  of  Peter  the  Great,  and,  having 
served  with  great  distinction  in  several  campaigns  against 
the  Swedes,  he  was  created  a  field-marshal  after  the  battle 
of  Pultava,  (1709.)  He  was  also  made  a  prince  of  the 
empire,  and  governor-general  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
obtained  from  the  King  of  Prussia  the  decoration  of  the 
Black  Eagle.  On  the  death  of  Peter  (1725)  Mentchikof 
caused  the  empress-dowager  to  be  proclaimed  empress, 
under  the  title  of  Catherine  I.,  and  appointed  a  council 
of  regency  for  the  son  of  Alexis,  afterwards  Peter  II, 
The  latter,  becoming  weary  of  the  insolence  of  Mentchi- 
kof, caused  him  to  be  arrested  for  his  abuse  of  power, 
and  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  two  years,  (1729.) 

See  M.  Ran'ft,  "  Leben  desberiihmten  Fiir:-.ten  Mentschikow," 
1774  ;  "  Leben  und  Todt  des  Fiirsten  Menzikoff,"  1730  ;  Voltaire, 
"  Histoire  de  Russie  sous  Pierre  le  Grand;"  "Anecdotes  secretes 
de  la  Cour  du  Czar,"  1780. 

Mentchikof,  (Alexander  Sergeivitch,)  a  Russian 
admiral,  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1789. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary  to  Persia.  He 
was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Finland  in  1831, 
and  was  subsequently  created  an  admiral  and  minister 
of  the  marine.  In  the  Crimean  war  he  was  charged  with 
the  defence  of  Sevastopol,  and  was  defeated  at  the  Alma 
by  the  allies  in  September,  1854.     Died  in  May,  1869. 

See  Desessarts,  "  Portraits  des  Hommes  de  la  Guerre  de 
rOrient;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Mental,  m6N't§l',  (Jacques,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Chateau-Thierri  in  1597,  wrote  a  Latin  work  in 
which  he  claims  the  invention  of  printing  for  John  Men- 
tel  of  Strasburg.     Died  in  1671. 

Mentel,  mSn'tel,  or  Mentelin,  mSn'teh-leen',  (Jo- 
hann,)  the  first  printer  of  Strasburg,  born  at  Schelestadt 
about  1410,  is  said  to  have  been  instructed  in  his  art  by 
Gutenberg.  He  printed  in  1473  the  "  Specula"  of  Vin- 
cent de  Beauvais,  (10  vols,  fol.)  Mentel  was  ennobled 
by  the  emperor  Frederick  III.     Died  in  1478. 

See  Labordb,  "Debuts  de  I'lniprimerie  k  Strasbourg,"  1840; 
Jacques  Mentel,  "De  vera  Typographiae  Origine,"  1650. 

Mentelle,  m6N't§l',  (Edme,)  born  in  Paris  in  1730, 
was  the  author  of  a  "Selection  of  Geographical  and 
Historical  Lectures,"  (6  vols.,  1783,)  and  other  similar 
works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute. 
Died  in  1815. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire;"  Salm-Dvck,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  de  Mentelle,"  1839. 

Men'tor,  [Gr.  Mevrwp,]  a  wise  and  faithful  friend  of 
Ulysses,  King  of  Ithaca,  who,  on  his  departure  to  the 
siege  of  Troy,  intrusted  to  him  the  care  of  his  house. 
Minerva  is  said  to  have  assumed  the  form  of  Mentor, 
and  to  have  accompanied  Telemachus  in  his  travels. 
(See  "Odyssey,"  books  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.)  Minerva,  as 
Mentor,  performs  a  conspicuous  part  in  Fenelon's  cele- 
brated romance  of  "  Telemaque." 

Mentor,  a  Greek  artist  of  the  time  of  Pericles,  was 
celebrated  for  his  exquisite  chased  work  in  gold  and 
silver.  His  productions  are  eulogized  in  the  highest 
terms  by  Pliny,  Cicero,  and  Martial,  and  Crassus  is  said 
to  have  paid  100,000  sesterces  for  one  of  his  goblets. 

Mentor,  a  Greek  general,  and  a  brother  of  Memnon. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes 
Ochus  about  350  B.C.,  and  led  a  successful  expedition 
against  the  Egyptians.  By  treachery  he  obtained  pos- 
session of  Hermias,  (a  friend  of  Aristotle,)  whom  he 
delivered  to  King  Artaxerxes. 

Mentu,  in  the  ancient  mythology  of  the  Egyptians, 
the  god  of  the  rising  sun,  corresponding  with  At.mu,  (q.  v.) 
Like  Atmu,  Mentu  is  simply  a  phase,  or  form,  of  Ra,  the 
sun-god. 

Mentzel,  mSnt'sel,  (Christian,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  philologist,  born  at  FUrstenwald  in  1622.  He  pub- 
lished "  Kurze  Chinesischen  Chronologic,"  ("Chinese 
Chronology  Abridged,"  1696,)  and  several  botanical 
works.     Died  in  1701. 

Menu.     See  Manu. 

Menu  de  Chomorceau,  meh-nii'  deh  sho'moR'so', 


a,  e.  T,  6.  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,i,  6,  \\,  y,  s/n»-l;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohscurc;  lar,  fjll,  lit;  met;  n6t;  goc)d;  moon; 


MENURET 


1707 


MERCK 


(Jean  Etienne,)  a  French  littirateur,  born  in  1724, 
wrote  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "  Renaud,"  in  imitation  of 
Tasso.     Died  in  1802. 

Meniiret  de  Chambaud,  meh-nu'ri'  deh  shfiN'bo', 
(Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Monteli- 
mart  in  1733.  He  contributed  several  valuable  articles 
to  the  "  Encyclopedie"  of  Diderot.     Died  in  1815. 

Meuzel,  m^nt'sel,  (Adolph,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1815.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be 
named  "Frederick  the  Great  at  Sans-Souci,"  (in  oil.) 

Menzel,  (Friedrich  Wilhei.m,)  a  German,  born 
about  1726,  was  private  secretary  at  the  court  of  Saxony. 
Having  revealed  to  the  Russian  ambassador  the  secret 
correspondence  between  Russia,  Saxony,  and  Austria, 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Konigstein,  where  he  died,  after  a 
captivity  of  thirty- three  years,  in  1796. 

Menzel,  (Karl  Adolph,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Griinberg  in  1784,  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of 
Germany  till  the  Reformation,"  (1S15,)  and  a  "Modern 
History  of  Germany  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Act 
of  Confederation,"  (14  vols.,  1848,)  both  of  which  are 
highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1855. 

Menzel,  (Wolfgang,)  a  German  critic  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Waldenburg,  in  Silesia,  in  1798.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Stuttgart  about  1825,  and  edited  the  "Litera- 
turblatt"  for  many  years.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  a  "History  of  Germany,"  (1824-25,)  "German  Lit- 
erature," ("  Die  Deutsche  Literatur,"  2  vols.,  1828,)  a 
historical  romance  called  "Furore,"  (3  vols.,  1851,) 
"The  History  of  Europe  from  1798  to  181 5,"  (1853,) 
"History  of  Nature  in  a  Christian  Point  of  View," 
(1856,)  and  in  1869  a  work  on  "  European  Events  be- 
tween the  Conclusion  of  the  Italian  War  in  i860  and 
the  War  in  Germany  in  1866."     Died  April  23,  1873. 

Meqzies,  ming'iz,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  botanist, 
born  in  Perthshire  about  1754,  He  served  as  assistant 
surgeon  in  the  navy.     Died  in  1842. 

Menzini,  mgn-zee'nee,  (Benedeito,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Florence  in  1646.  He  visited  Rome  in  1685, 
and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  then 
residing  in  that  city.  His  poems  are  chiefly  sonnets, 
hymns,  and  satires,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  His 
"Arte  Poetica"  especially  ranks  among  the  classics  of 
the  language.     Died  in  1704. 

See  Paoi  ucci,  "Vita  di  B.  Menzini,"  1732;  Fabroni,  "Vitae 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  :"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  01"  Europe." 

Menzocchi.    See  Minzocchl 

Merat,  mi'rt',  (FRANgois  Victor,)  a  French  medical 
writer  and  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1780;  died  in  1851. 

Mercadante,  miR-ki-dan'tA,  (Saverio,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Altamura  in  1798,  produced  a  num- 
ber of  popular  operas,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Elisa  e  Claudio,"  "  Didone,"  and  "  The  Two  Illustrious 
Rivals."  He  was  appointed  in  1839  director  of  the  Con- 
servatory of  Music  at  Naples.     Died  in  1870. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universe'le  des  Mvisiciens." 

Mercati,  m§R-k§,'tee,  or  Mercado,  m§R-ki'do,  (Mi- 
CHELE,)  an  Italian  naturalist,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1 541, 
became  physician  to  Pope  Clement  VIII.  He  formed  a 
valuable  collection  of  minerals,  which  was  placed  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Vatican,  and  of  which  he  wrote  a  de- 
scription entitled  "  Metallotheca,"  etc.,  (1717.)     Died  in 

1593- 

See  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires;"  Magelli,  "Vita  di  Mercati,"  pre- 
fixed to  his  "  Metallotheca." 

Mercator.     See  Isidore  Mercator. 

Mer-ca'tor,  [Dutch  pron.  mCR-ki'tor,]  (Gerard,)  a 
celebrated  geographer  and  mathematician,  born  at  Rupel- 
monde,  in  East  Flanders,  in  1512,  was  originally  named 
Kauffmann,  ("Merchant,"  Lat.  Mercator.)  Through 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  Granvelle,  he  was  introduced 
to  the  notice  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  to  whom  he  pre- 
sented two  globes,  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  that 
had  then  appeared.  He  is  chiefly  known  from  the  method 
of  geographical  projection  called  by  his  name.  He  pub- 
lished in  1569  the  first  hydrographic  map  of  that  kind. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  treatise  "  On  the  Use  of 
the  Astronomical  Ring,"  and  other  works.  He  also 
executed  numerous  maps  and  charts.  Died  in  i594- 
See    Adam,    "Vitae    Philosophorum." 


Mercator,  mCR-kJl'tor,  (Nicholas,)  a  Danish  mathe- 
matician, whose  original  name  was  Kauffmann,  born  in 
Holstein  about  1630.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  new 
method  of  constructing  logarithms,  which  he  described 
in  a  work  entitled  "  Logarithmotechnia,"  (i668.)  Having 
visited  England  about  i66o,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1687. 

Mer'cer,  (Hugh,)  a  distinguished  general  in  the 
American  Revolutionary  war,  was  a  native  of  Scotland. 
He  fought  against  the  French  and  Indians,  and  served 
under  Braddock  in  the  campaign  of  1755.  He  was 
severely  woimded  at  Fort  Du  Quesne,  after  which  he 
travelled  on  foot  to  Fort  Cumberland,  a  distance  of 
more  than  one  hundred  miles.  He  afterwards  took  part 
in  the  engagements  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  latter  place,  January,  1777.  A 
monument  has  been  erected  to  his  memory  at  Laurel 
Hill,  near  Philadelphia. 

Mercer,  (Jesse,)  an  American  Baptist  divine,  born  in 
Halifax  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1769.  He  published 
a  collection  of  hymns  entitled  "Mercer's  Cluster."  He 
died  in  1841,  leaving  the  principal  part  of  his  estate  to 
the  university  in  Georgia  called  by  his  name. 

Mercer,  (John,)  an  American  officer  and  statesman, 
served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  convention  which  framed  the  United  States  Con- 
stitution. He  was  elected  Governor  of  Maryland  in 
1801.     Died  in  1821. 

Mercerus.     See  Mercier,  (Jean.) 

Mercey,  de,  deh  mCR'sk'  or  m^R'si',  (Fr6d6ri(, 
Bourgeois,)  a  French  litterateur  and  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1808.  He  wrote  works  on  art,  and  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Direction  des  Beaux-Arts  in 
1853.     Died  September  5,  i860. 

Mercier,  m§R'se-i',  (Barth6lemi,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1734.  He  published  a 
Supplement  to  Prosper  Marchand's  "  History  of  Print- 
ing," and  several  bibliographical  works.    Died  in  1799. 

Mercier  or  Le  Mercier,  leh  meR'se-^,  [Lat.  Mer- 
ce'rus,]  (Jean,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Uzes, 
succeeded  Vatable  as  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal 
College  in  1546.  He  made  a  number  of  translations 
from  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac,  and  published  commenta- 
ries on  various  books  of  the  Scriptures.     Died  in  1570. 

Mercier,  (Josias,)  Sieur  des  Bordes  et  de  Grigny, 
a  French  scholar,  born  at  Uz^s,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  made  a  councillor  of  state  by  Henry 
IV.  He  published  "Annotations"  on  Tacitus  and  other 
classics.  Mercier  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Salmasius.     Died  in  1626. 

Mercier,  (Louis  S6bastien,)  an  eccentric  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1740,  became  professor  of  rhet- 
oric in  the  College  of  Burdeau.\.  He  was  the  author 
of  "The  Year  2440,"  etc.,  (1770,)  a  caustic  satire  on 
Parisian  society,  entitled  "  Picture  of  Paris,"  ("Tableau 
de  Paris,"  1781,)  and  a  number  of  dramas,  romances, 
and  miscellaneous  treatises.  In  his  "Essay  on  the  Dra- 
matic Art"  he  denounces  the  dramas  of  Racine  and 
Corneille  and  proposes  that  his  own  should  take  their 
place  on  the  French  stage.  Among  the  most  successful 
of  his  plays  were  "The  Deserter,"  and  "The  W'heel- 
barrow  of  the  Vinegar-Dealer,"  ("  La  Brouette  du 
Vinaigrier.")  Mercier  was  chosen  in  1792  a  deputy  to 
the  National  Convention,  where  he  acted  with  the 
Girondists,  voted  for  the  imprisonment  of  the  king,  and 
was  proscribed  by  the  Jacobins.  He  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the 
Institute  of  France.     Died  in  1814. 

See  Demsle  de  Sales,  "Notice  des  Ouvrages  de  Mercier;" 
NoDiER,  "Souvenirs  de  I'Empire:"  Qiierard,  "La  France  Lltt^- 
raire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Mercier,  (Philip,)  a  painter,  of  French  extraction, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1689,  resided  principally  in  England, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales. 
His  works  are  commended  by  Walpole.     Died  in  1760. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Mercier  de  la  Riviere,  mSR'se-i'  deh  It  re've^iR', 
a  French  writer  on  political  economy,  born  about  1720. 
His  principal  work  is  "The  Natural  and  Essential 
Order  of  Political  Societies,"  (1767.)     Died  about  1794. 

Merck,  mSRk,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  lit- 


*>.  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  /;  G,  h,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (,2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MERCKLIN 


1708 


MERIAN 


tirateur,  bom  at  Darmstadt  in  1741,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Goethe.  He  translated  Addison's  "  Cato,"  and 
other  English  works,  and  contributed  to  Lavater's 
"  Physiognomy."  He  also  wrote  for  the  "  Deutschen 
Mercur,"  and  other  literary  journals.  He  died,  by  sui- 
cide, in  1 79 1. 

See  Adolph  Stahr,  "J-  H.  Merck;  ein  DenkmaJ,"  1840; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1836. 

Mercklin,  mSRk-leen',  (Georg  Abraham,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Weissemburg  in  1644 ; 
died  in  1702. 

MerccBXir,  mSR'kuR',  (£usa,)  a  French  poetess,  born 
at  Nantes  in  1809,  was  patronized  by  Chateaubriand 
Lamartine,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of  the  time 
Died  in  1835. 

Mercoeur,  do,  deh  m^R'kuR',  (Philippe  Emmanuel 
de  Lorraine— deh'  lo'rin',)  Due,  a  French  Catholic 
leader,  born  in  1558,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Bre- 
tagne  in  1582.  He  revolted  against  Henry  IH.  in  1589, 
and  afterwards  defied  the  authority  of  Henry  IV.  until 
1598,  when  he  submitted,  and  received  a  large  sum  of 
money  from  the  king.     Died  in  1602. 

See  Bruslb  de  Montplainchamp,  "Vie  de  P.  E.  de  Lorraine," 
1689:  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Mercure  or  Mercur.    See  Mercury. 

Mercuri,  m^R-koo^ree,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Rome,  April  20,  1804.  He  worked  with  success 
in  Paris  from  1832  to  1847.     Died  in  1884. 

Mercuriale,  mgR-koo-re-i'li,  or  Mercuriali,  m5R- 
koo-re-a'lee,  [Latin,  Mercuria'lis,]  (Girolamo,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Forli  in  1530,  succeeded  Fra- 
cantiani  as  professor  of  medicine  at  Padua,  (1569.)  On 
the  invitation  of  Maximilian  XL,  he  visited  Vienna,  and 
was  made  a  chevalier  and  count  palatine  by  the  emperor. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  and  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Gymnastic  Art," 
(in  Latin.)    Died  in  1606. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  F.  Boer 
NER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  H.  Mercurialis,"  1731. 

Mercurialis.     See  Mercuriale. 

Mercurio.    See  Mercury. 

Mercurius.    See  Mercury, 

Mer'cu-ry,  [Lat.  Mercu'rius  ;  Fr.  Mercure,  m^R'- 
kiiR' ;  It.  Mercurio,  m^R-koo're-o ;  Ger.  Mercur, 
mSR-kooR',]  in  the  Roman  mythology,  a  god  of  com- 
merce and  gain,  (from  the  Latin  merx,  plural  merces, 
"  merchandise,")  was  regarded  as  the  messenger  of 
the  gods,  the  patron  of  orators,  merchants,  travellers, 
and  thieves.  He  was  identified  by  the  Romans  of  the 
later  ages  with  the  Greek  Hermes,  and  was  said  to  be 
a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia.  The  poets  feigned  that  it 
was  his  office  to  conduct  the  souls  of  the  dead  to  the 
infernal  regions, — that  he  stole  from  Neptune  his  trident, 
from  Venus  her  girdle,  from  Mars  his  sword,  and  from 
Jupiter  his  sceptre, — that  he  could  assume  whatever 
shape  he  pleased,  and  render  himself  invisible.  Having 
invented  the  lyre  and  given  it  to  Apollo,  he  received 
from  that  god  a  golden  wand,  called  caducais.  The 
invention  of  the  alphabet,  of  numbers,  of  astronomy,  of 
music,  and  other  things,  was  ascribed  to  Mercury,  who 
was  also  interested  in  alliances  and  treaties.  He  was 
represented  with  a  winged  cap  (petastts)  and  winged 
sandals,  (talaria.)  He  received  numerous  surnames, 
among  which  are  Cyllenius,  (from  Mount  Cyllene,  where 
he  was  born,)  Caduceator,  {i.e.  the  "  herald"  or  "  wand- 
bearer,")  Argeiphontes,  (the  "slayer  of  Argus,")  and 
many  other  names. 

See  J.  D.  GuiGNiAUT,  "Commentatio  de  'Epjiov  seu  Mercuri' 
Mythologia,"  1835. 

Mercy,  mgR'se',  (Claude  Florimond,)  a  distin- 
guished military  commander,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1666, 
was  a  grandson  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  below.  Having 
entered  the  Austrian  service,  he  fought  against  the 
French  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1702  to  1734, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  field-marshal  and  general-in- 
chief  of  the  Imperial  forces  in  Italy.  He  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Parma,  (1734.) 

Mercy,  (Francois,)  a  celebrated  general,  born  in 
Lorraine  about  1595.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Austrian  army  during  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and  gained 


a  decided  advantage  over  Turenne  at  Marienthal,  in 
1645.     He  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  action  with  the 
Duke  of  Enghien,  near  Nordlingen,  the  same  year. 
See  Kraft,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  d'Autriche." 

Mercy  d'Argenteau,  de,  deh  mgR'se'  dtR'zhSN'to', 
(Francois,)  Co.mte,  was  Austrian  ambassador  from 
the  court  of  Vienna  to  Paris  in  1791.  He  advised  the 
flight  of  the  royal  family.     Died  in  1794. 

Mere,  de,  deh  mi'ri',  (Georges  Brossin — bRo's^N',) 
Chevalier,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Poitou  about 
1610.     Died  in  1685. 

Mer'e-dith,  (George,)  an  English  novelist,  born  in 
Hampshire  about  1828.  Among  his  works  are  "  Farina, 
a  Legend  of  Cologne,"  (1858,)  "The  Ordeal  of  Richard 
Feverel,"  (1859,)  "  Mary  Bertrand,"  (i860,)  "  Evan  Har- 
rington," (1861,)  "Emilia  in  England,"  (1864,)  "  Rhoda 
Fleming,"  (1865,)  "  Vittoria,"  (1866,)  "Adventures  of 
Harry  Richmond,"  (1871,)  and  "The  Egoist,"  (1881.) 

Meredithi,  (Henry,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in 
1782,  visited  the  northern  part  of  Guinea,  and  wrote 
an  "  Account  of  the  Gold  Coast,  with  a  Brief  History  of 
the  African  Company."  He  died  in  Guinea  of  injuries 
received  from  the  natives,  in  1812. 

Meredith,  (Louisa  A.,  nee  Twam'ley,)  an  English 
authoress,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1812.  She  married 
Mr.  C.  Meredith  in  1839,  and  went  to  reside  in  Tas- 
mania, where  he  was  a  magistrate.  Among  her  rather 
numerous  works  are  "Poems,"  (1835,)  "The  Romance 
of  Nature,"  (1839,  poems,  with  original  illustrations,) 
"  Autumn  Rambles  on  the  Wye,"  "  Notes  and  Sketches 
of  New  South  Wales,"  (1844,)  "  My  Home  in  Tasmania," 
(1852-53,  an  entertaining  and  well-written  book,)  "Over 
the  Straits,"  (1856,)  "Loved  and  Lost,"  (i860,  in  verse, 
with  her  own  illustrations,)  etc.  Mrs.  Meredith's  style 
is  remarkably  correct  and  pleasing. 

Meredith,  (Owen.)     See  Lyticjx. 

Mer'e-dith,  (William  Morris,)  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican lawj'er,  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  8,  1799, graduated 
with  distinction  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1812.  He  commenced  the  practice  of  law  about  1820. 
From  1824  to  1828  he  represented  his  native  city  in  the 
Pennsylvania  house  of  representatives,  and  from  1834 
to  1849  was  president  of  the  select  council  of  Phila- 
delphia. In  1837  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention for  amending  the  Constitution  of  the  State.  On 
the  inauguration  of  President  Taylor,  in  March,  1849, 
Mr.  Meredith  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
which  position  he  held  till  the  death  of  the  President,  m 
July,  1850.  In  1861  he  became  attorney-general  of  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  filled  this  office  until  1867. 

As  a  lawyer,  Mr.  Meredith  for  many  years  stood  in 
the  foremost  rank  in  his  native  .State,  and  was  constantly 
engaged  in  important  cases  both  in  the  supreme  court  of 
Pennsylvania  and  that  of  the  United  States.  As  an  able 
and  ready  legal  debater,  he  had  few  equals  and  scarcely 
any  superior  in  our  country.     Died  August  17,  1873. 

Mer'i-am,  (Eben,)  an  American  meteorologist,  born 

at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  in  1794.     He  was  a  diligent 

collector  of  statistics,  and  originated  a  theory  of  cycles 

of  atmospherical  phenomena.     Died  at  Brooklyn,  New 

j  York,  in  1864. 

Mericua,  mi're'&N',  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  Swiss  littSra- 
tair,  born  near  Bale  in  1723.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  philosophical  essays  of  great  merit,  and  trans- 
lated into  French  some  of  the  "  Essays"  of  Hume. 
Died  in  1807. 

Marian,  ma're-Sn,  (Maria  Sibylla,)  a  celebrated 
riower-painter  and  naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the 
Main  in  1647,  was  a  pupil  of  Mignon.  She  was  married 
in  1665  to  John  Andrew  Graff,  an  artist,  whose  name, 
iiowever,  she  did  not  assume.  Having  made  a  scientific 
tour  in  South  America  in  1698,  she  published,  after  her 
return,  a  magnificent  work  "On  the  Metamorphoses  of 
Surinam  Insects,"  (1705,  in  Dutch  and  Latin;)  also  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Origin  of  Caterpillars,  their  Nourish- 
ment and  Changes."  These  works  are  illustrated  by 
designs  from  nature  and  painted  with  exquisite  skill  and 
accuracy.  She  died  in  171 7,  leaving  two  daughters, 
lane  ^Iaria  Helena  and  Dorothea  Maria  Henrietta, 
who  were  distinguished  in  the  same  department  of  art. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MERIAN 


1709 


MERODACH 


Marian,  (Matthieu,)  an  eminent  Swiss  engraver, 
the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bale  in  1593, 
and  resided  at  Frankfort-on-the  Main.  His  prints  are 
very  numerous,  and  are  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  165 1. 

IVr^rian,  (Matthieu,)  born  at  Bale  in  1621,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  studied  under  Sandrart  and  Carlo 
Maratta,  and  painted  portraits  of  great  excellence  in  the 
style  of  Van  Dyck.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  an  eques- 
trian portrait  of  Count  Soderini.     Died  in  1687. 

Meric,  de,  deh  mi'rfek',  (Jean,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Metz  in  171 7,  served  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and 
was  killed  in  an  engagement  near  Malines  in  1747. 

Merilhou,  mi're'loo',  (Joseph,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  at  Montignac  in  1788.  He  gained  distinction  as  an 
advocate  in  political  trials.  In  1830  he  became  minister 
of  public  instruction  in  Lafitte's  cabinet.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  183 1,  and  in  1837  was 
made  a  peer.  He  published  a  "  Historical  Essay  on  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Mirabeau,"  (1827.)     Died  in  1856. 

Merille,  mi'rfel'  or  mi-re'ye,  (Edmond,)  a.  French 
jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Troyes  in  1579  ;  died  in  1647. 

Merixnee,  mi're'mi',  (Jean  FRANguis  Lj^nore,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  1765  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

Meritnee,  (Prosper,)  a  distinguished  novelist  and 
historian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1803.  He  produced  in  1825,  as  translations  from  the 
Spanish,  several  dramas,  under  the  title  of  "  Theatre  de 
Clara  Gazul."  In  1834  he  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  historical  monuments.  His  novel  of  "  Co- 
lomba"  (1841)  was  very  successful.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1844,  and  became  a 
senator  in  1853.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "The 
Double  Mistake,"  ("  La  double  Meprise,")  a  moral  tale, 
(1833,)  "Notes  of  a  Journey  in  the  South  of  France," 
(1835,)  "Notes  of  a  Journey  in  the  West  of  France," 
(1836,)  "Studies  in  Roman  History,"  "The  Conspiracj 
of  Catiline,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1844,)  a  "  History  of  Don 
Pedro  I.,  King  of  Castile,"  (1848,)  "Les  faux  Deme- 
trius; Episode  de  I'Histoire  de  Russie,"  (1853,)  and 
"Melanges  historiques  et  litteraires,"  (1855.)  He  had 
an  excellent  talent  for  narration.     Died  in  1870. 

Merino,  mi-ree'no,  (Don  Geronimo,)  a  Spanish 
guerilla  chieftain,  born  at  Villasbiado,  in  Old  Castile, 
about  1770,  distinguished  himself  in  the  principal  cam- 
paigns against  the  French  from  1808  to  181 1.  Having 
afterwards  embraced  the  cause  of  Don  Carlos,  he  suffered 
a  total  defeat  in  1838,  and  fled  to  France.     Died  in  1847. 

Me-ri'o-nes,  [Gr.  Mrjpioi'Tic;  Fr.  M^rione,  mi're'on',1 
a  Cretan  hero,  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  the  celebrated 
Helen.  He  was  a  friend  of  Idomeneus,  whom  he  served 
as  charioteer  in  the  Trojan  war. 

Mer'i-vale,  (Charles,)  an  English  historian,  a  son 
of  John  Herman  Merivale,  born  about  1808,  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1830.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Romans  under  the  Empire,"  (7  vols.,  1850-62,)  "  Boyle 
Lectures,"  (1864-65,)  a  Translation  of  Homer's  Iliad, 
(1869,)  and  "General  History  of  Rome  from  the  Founda- 
tion of  the  City  to  the  Fall  of  Augustulus,"  (1875.) 

Merivale,  (Herman,)  an  English  writer,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1805.  He  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Oxford  about  1837. 
Among  his  works  are  "Lectures  on  Colonization  and 
the  Colonies,"  (2  vols.,  1841.)  He  completed  the  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Francis,"  which  had  been 
commenced  by  Joseph  Parkes.    Died  in  1874. 

Merivale,  (Herman  Charles,)  an  English  dramatist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1839. 
He  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford.  In  1864  he  was  called  to  the  bar.  Among  his 
plays  are  "  Alone,"  "  All  for  Her,"  "  The  White  Pilgrim," 
and  "  Forget-me-Not."  He  also  wrote  "  A  Lazy  Jour- 
ney," a  sketch  of  travel. 

Merivale,  (John  Herman,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  father  of  Herman  Merivale,  was  born  at  Exeter 
in  1779.  He  practised  in  the  court  of  chancery,  and 
published  in  1827  a  "Letter  on  the  Chancery  Com- 
mission." In  1 83 1  he  was  made  a  commissioner  of 
bankruptcy.  He  translated  the  minor  poems  of  Schiller, 
and  various  other  works  from  the  German,  Greek,  and 
Italian.     Died  in  1S44. 

M6r1-w6th-?r,  (David,)  an  American  soldier,  born 


in  Virginia  in  1755,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 
He  was  chosen  to  represent  a  district  of  Georgia  in 
Congress  1802-07.     Died  in  1825. 

Merkel,m§R'kel,  (GARLiEB,)born  in  Livonia  in  1776, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Kotzebue,  with  whom  he  was 
associated  as  editor  of  the  "  Freimuthigen"  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1850. 

Merkel,  (Gustav,)  a  German  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Oberoderwitz,  in  Saxony,  in  1827.  His  chief 
fame  has  been  won  as  a  composer  for  the  organ. 

Merle,  m^Rl,  (Jean  Toussaint,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1785.  Among  his  most  popular 
works  are  "  The  Youth  of  Henry  IV."  and  "The  New- 
Market  Races."     Died  in  1852. 

Merle,  (Matthieu,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Uzts, 
in  Languedoc,  in  1548.  He  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Protestants  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  time,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  favour  of  Henry  IV.     Died  about 

1590. 

Merle,  van.    See  Merula,  (Paul.) 

Merle-d'Aubign6.    See  D'Aubign6. 

Merler.    See  Horstius,  (Jacobus.) 

Merley,  m^R'li',  (Louis,)  a  French  engraver  of 
medals,  born  at  Saint-fitienne  in  181 5. 

Merlieux,  mSR'le-uh ',  (Louis  Parfait,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  ^aris  in  1796.  He  was  employed  by 
Cuvier  in  1822  to  reproduce  the  forms  of  extinct  animals. 
His  master-piece  is  a  statue  of  "  Capaneus  struck  with 
Thunder,"  (1837.)     Died  September  8,  1855. 

Mer'lin  or  Merdhin,  mer'din,  [Lat.  Merli'nus 
Ambro'sius,]  a  celebrated  prophet  and  magician,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  Britain  about  450  a.d.  He 
is  alluded  to  by  Spenser  in  his  "  Faerie  Queene,"  and 
forms  the  subject  of  the  metrical  romance  of  "  Merlin." 

Another  Merlin,  called  "  the  Caledonian,"  is  said  to 
have  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century.  He  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  his  grave,  near  the  Tweed,  is  still  pointed  out.  The 
"  Prophecies"  of  Merlin  have  been  attributed  to  both 
writers  of  the  name. 

Merlin,  mgR'l^N',  (Antoine  FRANgois  Eugene,) 
Count,  a  French  general,  son  of  Merlin  de  Douai,  was 
born  at  Douai  in  1778.  Having  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt  as  his  aide-de-camp  in  1798,  he  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Aboukir.  He  afterwards  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Spain.     Died  in  1854. 

Merlin,  (Christophe  Antoine,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Thionville  in  1771.  He  served  under 
Joseph  Bonaparte  in  Spain.     Died  in  1839. 

Merlin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  minister,  born 
about  1535,  had  much  influence  in  the  Church.  He  pub- 
lished several  religious  works.     Died  in  1603. 

Merlin  de  Douai,  mSR'lJN'  deh  doo'^',  (Philippe 
Antoine,)  Count,  a  French  statesman  and  jurist,  born 
at  Arleux  in  1754.  Elected  to  the  Constituent  Assea-bly 
in  1789,  he  at  first  favoured  moderate  measures,  but  sub- 
sequently identified  himself  with  the  republican  party, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  National  Convention  in  1792, 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In  1793  he  presented 
to  the  Convention  the  infamous  decree  called  the  law 
of  the  suspected,  (Jot  des  suspects.)  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  justice  in  1795,  and  was  subsequently  created 
by  Napoleon  a  councillor  of  state,  count  of  the  empire, 
and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  French  Institute  soon  after  its  founda- 
tion.    He  died  in  1838,  leaving  several  legal  treatises. 

See  Mathiku,  "filoge  historique  du  Comte  Merlin,"  1839; 
C.  Paulmier,  "Merlin,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Merlin  de  Thionville,  mSa'l^N'  deh  te'6N'v4K, 
(Antoine  Christophe,)  born  at  Thionville  in  1762,  was 
a  brother  of  Christophe  Antoine,  noticed  above.  He 
was  elected  in  1792  to  the  National  Convention,  where 
he  supported  for  a  time  the  measures  of  the  Jacobins, 
whom  he  afterwards  opposed.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred.     Died  in  1833. 

Merlinus.    See  Merlin. 

Mermet,  m§R'm^',  (Julien  Augustine  Joseph,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Quesnoi  in  1772.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  in  Italy  and  Spain.     Died  in  1837. 

Merodach-Baladan,  me-ro'dak  bal'a-dan,  the  He- 
brew form   of  the  name  of  Marudak-Bal-Iddina,  a 


€.as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ME  RODE 


1710 


MERY 


king  of  the  Chaldasans.  He  is  called  Mardokem'- 
PADUS  by  Ptolemy.  In  721  B.C.  he  conquered  Babylon. 
He  sent  to  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  proposing  an  al- 
liance in  711.  In  710  he  was  dethroned  by  .Sargon.  He 
again  became  king,  but  was  expelled  from  Babylon  by 
Sennacherib,  who  in  700  B.C.  drove  him  also  out  of 
Chaldaea  proper,  (lying  south  of  Babylonia.)  He  died 
soon  after.  There  was  a  king  of  Babylon  of  this  name 
who  about  815  B.C.  was  humbled  by  Samsi-Vul  IV., 
King  of  Assyria,  who  compelled  him  to  cede  much  terri- 
tory. 

Merode,  ma'ro-deh  or  mi'rod',  (Charles  Ghislain,) 
a  Belgian  diplomatist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1763.  Having 
been  made  a  senator  by  Napoleon  in  1809,  he  defended 
the  cause  of  Pope  Pius  VH.     Died  in  1830. 

Merode,  (Jean  Philippe  Eugene,)  Marquis  of  Wes- 
terloo,  born  at  Brussels  in  1674,  entered  the  Austrian 
service,  and  was  created  a  field-marshal  and  count  of 
the  empire.  He  died  in  1732,  leaving  a  volume  of  "Me- 
moirs," reprinted  at  Mons  in  1840. 

Merode,  (Ludwig  Friedrich  Ghislain,)  a  Belgian 
count,  born  in  1792,  was  killed  near  Antwerp  in  1830, 
while  fighting  against  the  Dutch. 

Merode,  "de^  deh  ma'ro-deh  or  mi'rod',  (Philippe 
F6lix  Balthasar  Othon  Ghislain,)  Count,  a  Bel- 
gian minister  of  state,  born  in  1791,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  the  most  eloquent  chief  of  the 
Catholic  party.  He  became  minister  of  state  under 
Leopold  I.     T3ied  in  1857. 

Mer'9-pe,  [Gr.  MepoTTTj ;  Fr.  M^ROPE,  mi'rop',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  and  one  of  the 
Pleiades.  She  was  marned  to  Sisyphus.  It  was  fabled 
that  she  appears  less  luminous  than  the  other  Pleiads, 
because  she  was  ashamed  of  her  marriage  with  a  mortal. 
Merouan.     See  Merwan. 

Merovee,  mi'ro'vi',  [Lat.  Merov^'us  ;  Ger.  Mero- 
VIG,  ma'ro-viG,]  the  son  of  Clodion,  born  about  411,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  third  king  of  France,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Roman  general  Aetius,  he  defeated  Attilaj 
King  of  the  Huns,  in  451  a.d.     Died  in  457  or  458. 

Merovee  or  Mer'o-vig,  a  son  of  Chilperic  I.,  King 
of  Neustria.  He  married  in  576  A.D.  Brunehaut,  Queen 
of  Austrasia,  who  was  his  aunt.  By  this  act  he  lost  the 
favour  of  his  father.  He  was  persecuted  by  Queen 
Fredegunda,  his  step-mother,  who  employed  assassins 
to  kill  him.  After  he  had  fled  for  refuge  to  various 
cities,  he  was  killed  in  577  a.d. 

Mer'ret,  (Christopher,)  an  English  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1614,  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
He  published  an  "Account  of  the  Animal,  Vegetable, 
and  Mineral  Productions  of  Great  Britain,"  and  several 
medical  treatises.  Died  in  1695. 
See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Mer'rick,  (James,)  an  excellent  English  divine  and 
poet,  born  in  1720,  published,  at  the  age  of  fotu'teen, 
"The  Messiah,  a  Divine  Essay."  In  1739  he  translated 
the  poem  of  Tryphiodorus  on  the  "  Capture  of  Troy." 
He  became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1744, 
He  also  wrote  a  "  Dissertation  on  Proverbs,"  and  a 
translation  of  the  Psalms  into  English  verse,  regarded  as 
one  of  the  best  in  the  language.     Died  in  1769. 

Mer'rill,  (Stephen  M.,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  bishop, 
born  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Ohio,  September  i6,  1825.  He 
became  a  preacher  in  1845,  and  in  1872  was  chosen  a 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Merritt,  (Timothy,)  an  American  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Barkhamstead,  Connecticut,  in  1775,  ^"^^  editor 
of  "Zion's  Herald,"  Boston,  and  published  several  re- 
ligious works.     Died  in  1845. 

Merritt,  (Wesley,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in 
New  York  in  1836.  He  graduated  in  i860  at  West 
Point,  and  served  from  1861  to  1865  with  great  distinc- 
tion, chiefly  as  a  cavalry  officer,  attaining  the  rank  of 
major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1882  he  was  made 
superintendent  of  the  West  Point  Military  Academy. 

Mer'ry,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  in  London  in  1755,  was  the  author  of  "  Lorenzo,"  a 
tragedy,  and  a  drama  entitled  "Ambitious  Vengeance." 
Died  at  Baltimore,  in  the  United  States,  in  1798.     Merry 


was  the  founder  of  the  short-lived  "  Delia  Crusca  School" 
of  English  literature. 

Mersch,  van  der,  vtn  der  m^Rsh,  (Jean  Andr6,) 
a  Belgian  general,  born  at  Menin  in  1734,  headed  the 
revolt  of  his  countrymen  against  the  Austrian  emperor 
Joseph  II.  in  1789.  Having  been  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand and  imprisoned  through  the  intrigues  of  his  rivals, 
he  was  released  when  the  Austrians  regained  their  power 
in  Belgium.     Died  in  1792. 

Mersenne,  mSk'sdn',  |Lat.  Mersen'nus,]  (Marin,) 
a  learned  French  philosopher,  mathematician,  and  theo- 
hjgian,  born  in  Maine  in  1588.  He  studied  at  the  Col- 
lege de  la  Fl^che,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  and 
lasting  friendship  with  Descartes.  He  subsequently 
entered  the  religious  order  of  Minims.  Among  his  most 
imjiortant  works  are  a  commentary  on  Genesis,  entitled 
"Qurestiones  celeberrimse  in  Genesim,"  (1623,)  and  a 
"  Treatise  on  Universal  Harmony,"  (1627.)   Died  in  1648. 

Mertel,  m§R'teK,  (Theodolpho,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at,  Allumiere,  February  9,  1806,  was  created  a  car- 
dinal-deacon in  1858.  He  became  head  of  the  secre- 
tariate of  apostolic  briefs  and  the  grand  chancellery  of 
orders,  and  was  a  palatine-cardinal  under  Leo  XIII. 

Mertens,  m^R'tens,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  physician, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1737  ;  died  in  1788. 

Mer'ton,  de,  (Walter,)  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  was  created  chancellor  of  the  kingdom  in 
1258,  and  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1274.  He  was  the 
founder  of  Merton  College,  Oxford.     Died  in  1277. 

Mdru,  ma'roo,  or  Merus,  ma'roos,  [Gr.  Mrjpog,]  a 
word  of  doubtful  etymology,  forming,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  mountain,  said  to 
be  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  seven  continents.  Its 
height  is  supposed  to  be  84,000  yojanas,*  of  which  16,000 
are  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  sacred  river 
Ganges  (Ganga)  falls  from  heaven  on  its  summit,  and 
flows  to  the  surrounding  worlds  in  four  streams,  of 
which  the  southernmost  is  the  Ganges  of  India.  Brahma, 
attended  by  Rishis  (sages)  and  celestial  minstrels,  is 
supposed  to  reside  on  Mount  Meru,  on  one  of  the  highest 
summits  of  which,  Kailasa,  dwells  also  Siva,  with  his 
consort,  Parvati. 

Morula,  ma'roo-li  or  m§R'oo-li,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian 
scholar,  born  at  Alessandria  della  Paglia  in  1424.  He 
brought  out  in  1470  an  edition  of  Martial's  Epigrams, 
said  to  be  the  first  ever  published,  and  wrote  comment- 
aries on  Cicero,  Pliny,  and  other  classics.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Visconti,  Princes  of  Milan," 
(in  Latin.)     Died  in  1494. 

Morula,  mSr'oo-li,  (Paul,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and  writer, 
born  at  Dort  in  1558,  was  originally  named  Van  Merle. 
In  1593  he  succeeded  Justus  Lipsius  as  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Leyden.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Erasmus,"  and  a 
number  of  legal  and  historical  works,  (in  Latin.)  Died 
in  1607. 

Merulo,  mi-Roo'lo,  (Claudio,)  an  Italian  organist, 
teacher,  and  composer,  born  at  Correggio  in  1533.  For 
twenty-seven  years  he  was  organist  at  Saint  Mark's,  in 
Venice,  and  won  a  high  reputation.  Died  at  Parma, 
May  4,  1604. 

Merville,  mSR'vfeK,  the  assumed  name  of  Pierre 
Francois  Camus,  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Pontoise 
in  1783  ;  died  in  1853. 

Mer-win  or  Merouan  (mer'wSn')  I.,  surnamed  Ibn-. 
Tarid,  caliph  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Omeyyads,  born 
at  Mecca  about  623.  Having  gained  a  victory  over  his 
rival,  Abdallah  ben  Zobeir,  Merwan  was  proclaimed 
caliph  in  684.  Pie  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  wives 
in  685  a.d. 

Merwan  or  Merouan  II.,(Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-) 
Abdelmelek,  i'boo  ^bd-el-mSKek,)  one  of  the  Omey- 
yad  caliphs,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Damascus  in  688  A.D.  He  was  victorious  over  several 
rivals,  but  was  at  last  defeated  by  Abool-Abbas,  son 
of  Ibrahim,  in  749  A.D.  He  was  subsequently  killed  by 
the  Christians,  whom  he  had  cruelly  persecuted. 

M6ry,  mi're',  (Jean,)  a  French  surgeon  and  anato- 
mist, born  at  Vatan  in  1645,  published  a  work  entitled 


*  A  yo'jSnS  (called  yo'jOn  in  the  common  dialect  of  India)  is  u;u 
ally  reckoned  at  16,000  yards,  or  about  nine  of  our  miles;  but,  ac 
cording  to  some  authorities,  it  is  only  five  miles. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  lit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MERY 


1711 


MESSAPUS 


"New  System  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood,"  (1700,) 
and  other  medical  treatises.  He  was  first  surgeon  of 
the  Hotel-Dieu,  in  Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.     Died  in  1722. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoges  des  Acad^miciens,"  etc. 

Mery,  (Joseph,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  near  Mar- 
seilles in  1798,  wrote  numerous  poems,  romances,  and 
dramas.     Died  at  Paris,  June  17,  i866. 

Meryon,  ini'Re'6N',  (Charles,)  an  eminent  French 
etcher,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  His  father  was  an  English 
physician,  his  mother  a  danseuse.  Having  served  some 
time  in  the  navy,  he  tried  to  become  a  painter,  but,  being 
colour-blind,  he  finally  devoted  himself  to  etching.  He 
was  very  p>oor,  and  died  in  a  mad-house  in  1868.  Un- 
appreciated in  his  lifetime,  Meryon's  etchings  are  now 
regarded  as  among  the  most  masterly  ever  produced. 
The  twenty-two  "  Eaux-fortes  sur  Paris"  (1850-54)  are 
the  most  famous.  He  is  said  to  have  made  only  ninety- 
four  etchings  in  all.  (See  Wedmure,  "Meryon  and 
Meryon's  Paris.") 

Merz,  m§Rts,  (Jacob,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  engraver, 
horn  in  the  canton  of  Zurich  in  1783;  died  in  1807. 

Merzliakof  or  Merzliakov,  mSrz-le-a'kof,  (Alexis 
Feodorovitch,)  a  Russian  critic  an^poet,  born  in 
1778,  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  poetry  at 
Moscow.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  Discourse 
on  the  Poetry  of  the  Ancients,"  etc.  His  lyric  poems 
are  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  He  also  trans- 
lated into  Russian  Tasso's  "Gerusalemme  Liberata," 
and  various  works  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  French.  Died 
in  1827. 

Mesa,  ma'sl,  (Cristobal,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in 
Estremadura  about  1540.  During  a  residence  of  five 
years  at  Rome,  he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Tasso. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  heroic  poems,  which,  how- 
ever, are  much  less  esteemed  than  his  translations  of 
Virgil's  "iEneid,"  "Georgics,"  and  "Bucolics."  Died 
about  1620. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Me.senguy  or  Mesengui,  mi-zSN'ge',  (Francois 
Philippe,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Beauvais  in 
1677,  was  an  adherent  of  Jansenism,  and  published  sev- 
eral treatises  against  the  constitution  Unigenitus.  He 
also  wrote  an  "Abridgment  of  the  History  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,"  (1737,)  which  is  commended  by 
Rollin.     Died  in  1793. 

See  Lequeux,  "  M^moire  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  I'Abbd  Mesengui,'' 
'763. 

Mesihi,  m§s'e-hee,  a  celebrated  Turkish  poet,  flour- 
ished in  the  reign  of  Solyman  I.  He  is  one  of  the  seven 
whose  names,  written  in  golden  letters,  are  suspended 
in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  and  who  have  been  styled  by 
their  countrymen  "the  Pleiades."  One  of  his  idyls  has 
been  translated  by  Sir  William  Jones,  in  his  "  Commen- 
taries on  Asiatic  Poetry." 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  der  Osmanischen  Dichtung." 

Mesl^,  mi'li',  (Jean,)  a  French  advocate  in  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris,  wrote  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  Minori- 
ties," (1714.)     Died  in  1756. 

Mesmer,  mgs'mer,  (Friedrich  Anton,)  founder  of 
the  doctrine  of  Mesmerism,  or  animal  magnetism,  was 
born  at  Meersburg,  in  Suabia,  in  1733.  Having  made 
various  experiments  with  the  mineral  magnet,  he  was 
led  to  the  discovery  of  the  power  since  called  Mesmer- 
ism. This  he  made  public  in  1775,  in  his  "Letter  to 
a  Foreign  Physician  on  Magnetism."  He  soon  after 
established  a  hospital  at  Vienna  for  the  perfection  and 
promulgation  of  his  discovery,  and  repaired  in  1778  to 
Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  cure  of  diseases 
and  made  many  proselytes.  He  subsequently  refused  a 
large  sum  of  money  offered  him  by  the  French  govern- 
ment for  his  secret.  A  number  of  his  adherents  having 
presented  him  with  340,000  livres,  on  condition  of  being 
instructed  in  his  doctrine,  he  received  the  money,  but 
did  not  perform  his  promise.  He  died  in  Germany  in 
1815,  leaving  several  treatises,  one  of  which  was  entitled 
"Memoire  de  Mesmer  sur  ses  Decouvertes,"  (1799.) 

See  Thouret,  "  Recherches  et  Doutes  sur  le  Magn^tisme  ani- 
mal," 1784;  JnzwiK,  "Sur  le  Magnetisme  animal,"  1832;  Dk. 
HoEFER,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Mesmes,  de.     See  Avaux. 

Mesmes,  de,  deh  mem,  (Henri,)  a  French  states- 
man, born  in  Paris  in  1531,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Jacques, 
noticed  below.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  kingdom 
of  Navarre.     Died  in  1596. 

Mesmes,  de,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
born  in  1490,  was  patronized  by  Catherine  of  Navarre 
and  Francis  I.,  and  was  appointed  master  of  requests 
in  1544.     Died  in  1569. 

Mesmon,  de,  deh  m?s'm6N',  (Germain  Hyacinthe 
de  Romance — deh  ro'mSNss',)  Marquis,  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1745.  He  edited  succes- 
sively, at  Hamburg,  the  "  Spectateur  du  Nord,"  the 
"  Reveil,"  and  the  "Censeur,"  and  afterwards  repaired 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  became  editor  of  the 
"Journal  du  Nord."     Died  in  183 1. 

Mesnager,  Le,  leh  mi'nt'zhi',  (Nicolas  le  Baillif,) 
a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1658.  He  was 
sent  as  a  secret  agent  to  London  in  1711,  to  negotiate 
the  preliminaries  of  peace,  and  he  was  one  of  the  French 
diplomatists  that  signed  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  (1713.) 
Died  in  1714. 

Mesnard,  mi'nlR',  (Jacques  Andr6,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  senator,  born  at  Rochefort  in  1792.  He 
became  a  counsellor  in  the  court  of  cassation  in  1841, 
and  a  senator  in  1852.  He  translated  into  French  the 
"  Divina  Commedia"  of  Dante,  (3  vols.,  1858.)  Died  in 
1858. 

Mesnardiere  or  Meuardiere,  de  la,  deh  IS  mi'- 
nSR'de-aiR',  (Hippolyte  Jules  Pilet,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Loudun  about  1610,  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  In  1655  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  a  distinction  which  he  owed  chiefly 
to  his  brilliant  conversational  powers.     Died  in  1663. 

Mesnil,  Du.     See  Dumesnil. 

Mesnil,  du,  dii  mi'nil',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1517,  was  appointed  in  1556 
royal  advocate.     Died  in  1569. 

Mes-o-me'des,  [Gr.  MeaOjU^tJ???,]  a  lyric  poet,  who 
flourished  under  the  emperor  Hadrian.  Three  of  his 
poems  are  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Mesonero  y  Romanos,  de,  dk  mi-so-na'ro  e  ro- 
ma'n6s,  (Ramon,)  a  popular  Spanish  writer,  born  at 
Madrid  in  1803.  His  principal  works  are  a  "Manual 
of  Madrid,  Description  of  the  Court  and  the  City,"  and 
"Panorama  of  Madrid,"  ("  Panorama  Matritense,"  1S35,) 
which  are  admired  for  their  faithful  delineations  of  life 
and  manners  and  the  elegance  of  their  style. 

Mes-sa'la  (or  Mes-sEil'la)  Cor-vi'nus,  (Marcus  Va- 
lerius,) a  celebrated  Roman  orator  and  general,  born  59 
B.C.,  at  first  opposed  the  party  of  Antony,  and  commanded 
a  division  of  the  army  of  Brutus  at  the  battle  of  Philippi. 
After  the  death  of  Brutus  he  became  general-in-chiet 
He  was  subsequently  reconciled  to  Augiistus,  who  made 
him  consul,  31  B.C.,  and,  five  years  after,  prefect  of  Rome. 
Among  his  other  important  military  services,  lie  reduced 
Aquitania  to  subjection,  for  which  he  obtained  a  triumph, 
(27  B.C.)  Died  about  11  A.D.  Of  the  writings  of  Messala 
only  fragments  remain ;  but  his  eloquence  is  spoken  of 
in  the  highest  terms  by  Quintilian,  Seneca,  and  the  two 
Plinys.  He  was  intimate  with  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Pollio, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning. 

See  M.  C.  van  Hall,  "  M.  V.  Messala  Corvinus,"  etc.,  2  vols., 
1821  ;  L.  WiESE,  "  Dissertatio  de  Messalae  Corvini  Vita  et  Studiis," 
1829;  Tacitu.s,  "Annales,"  books  iv.  and  vi.  ;  Appian,  "  Bellura 
CiWle." 

Mes-sa-li'na,  [Fr.  Messaline,  mi'st'l^n',]  a  Roman 
empress,  notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  a  daughter  of  M. 
Valerius  Messala  Barbatus.  She  was  married  to  Clau- 
dius, who  afterwards  became  emperor.  She  caused  a 
number  of  eminent  Romans  to  be  put  to  death.  She 
was  executed,  by  order  of  Claudius,  in  48  a.d. 

Mes-sa-li'na  Sta-til'i-a,  granddaughter  of  Statilius 
Taurus,  became"  the  third  wife  of  the  emperor  Nero,  in 
66  A.D. 

Messalla.     See  Messala. 

Messape.    See  Messapus. 

Messapus,  [Gr.  M.eaaa'Kog;  Fr.  Messape,  mi'sSp',] 
in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  a  king  of 
Etruria.  He  fought  for  Turnus  against  .^neas,  and  was 
supposed  to  be  invulnerable. 


^ask;  q  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as ;;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MESSENE 


1712 


ME  TELL  US 


Mes-se'ne,  [Gr.  'M.tacsTjvri,]  the  wife  of  Polycaon,  whom 
she  induced  to  take  possession  of  the  country  which  was 
afterwards  called,  fronn  her,  Messenia.  A  temple  was 
erected  to  her  honour. 

Mes-se'nI-us,  [Sw.  pron.  mSs-su'ne-as,]  (Arnold,) 
son  of  Johan  Messenius,  noticed  below,  was  made  his- 
toriographer to  Christina  of  Sweden,  and  obtained  a 
title  of  nobility.  Having  been  concerned  with  his  son 
in  writing  a  libel  on  the  royal  family,  they  were  both 
condemned  to  death  and  executed,  (1648.) 

See  "Anecdotes  de  Sufede,"  The  Hague,  1716. 

Messenius,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  in 
Ostrogothia  in  1584,  was  professor  of  law  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsal.  Being  accused  of  a  treasonable  cor- 
respondence with  the  King  of  Poland  and  the  Jesuits,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  1616.  During  his  confinement  of 
nearly  twenty  years  he  wrote  several  historical  works, 
of  which  the  most  important  is  entitled  "  Scandia  Illus- 
trated," (in  Latin.)     Died  in  1637. 

See  "Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man;" 
P.  Stbnbeck,  "  De  Vita  et  Meritis  Messeniorum,"  1741. 

Mes's?r,  (Asa,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
scholar,  born  at  Methuen,  Massachusetts,  in  1769.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University,  where  he  became  suc- 
cessively professor  of  the  learned  languages,  (1796,)  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  (1799,)  and  presi- 
dent of  the  institution,  (1802.)     Died  in  1836. 

Messier,  mi'se^',  (Charles,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Badonviller,  in  Lorraine,  in  1730.  Having  visited 
Paris  in  1751,  he  was  employed  by  De  Lisle  in  his  ob- 
servatory, and  distinguished  himself  by  the  accuracy  of  his 
astronomical  observations.  He  is  said  to  have  observed 
forty-six  comets,  of  which  he  discovered  twenty-one. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris, 
and  of  similar  institutions  at  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  and 
other  cities.  He  died  in  1817,  leaving  "  Memoires"  con- 
taining his  observations.  Lalande  named  in  honour 
of  this  astronomer  a  constellation  situated  between  Ce- 
pheus,  Cassiopeia,  and  the  Camel opard. 

See  Delambre,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Messier,"  in  the 
"Memoires"  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  vol.  ii. ;  La  Harpe,  "Cor- 
respondance  littdraire." 

Messina,  da.     See  Antonello  da  Messina. 

Mes'sin-ger,  (Robert  Hinckley,)  an  American 
poet,  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  181 1.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  ot  anonymous  poems,  among  them  the 
well-known  "Give  me  the  Old."     Died  in  1874. 

Messis.    See  Matsys,  (Quentin.) 

Mgs'ton,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire about  1688,  was  the  author  of  "  Mother  Grim's 
Tales,"  in  verse,  and  a  poem  entitled  "The  Knight" 
Died  in  1745. 

See  "  Life  of  William  Meston,"  prefixed  to  his  works  ;  Chambers, 
'Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mestrezat,  mSs'tReh-zS',  (Jean,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Geneva  in  1592,  became 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Charenton,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  bold  and  eloquent  defence  of  the  Protest- 
ants against  the  Roman  clergy.  He  was  the  author 
of  theological  treatises  and  sermons,  which  are  nighly 
esteemed.     Died  in  1657. 

See  Sknebier,  "  Histoire  litt^rairede  Genive." 

Mesue  or  Messua.     See  MAssooa. 

Meszdros,  ma'si-rosh,  (Lazar,)  a  Hungarian  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Bacs  in  1796.  In 
1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  the  Hungarian 
cabinet  of  Batthyanyi,  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  joined  the  revolutionary  party.  After  sharing  with 
Dembinski  the  defeat  of  Temesvar,  he  took  refuge  in 
Turkey,  and  afterwards  visited  England  and  America. 
Died  in  1858. 

M6tastase.    See  Metastasio. 

Metastasio,  mi-tis-ti'se-o,  [Fr.  MAtastase,  mi'tis'- 
tlz',]  (Pietro  Bonaventura,)  an  eminent  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Rome  in  1698,  was  originally  named  Trapassi. 
He  manifested  at  an  early  age  extraordinary  talents 
for  improvisation  on  any  subject.  Having  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  celebrated  jurist  Gravina,  he  was  adopted 
by  him,  and  his  name  was  changed  to  Metastasio,  (a 
"changing,")  in  allusion  to  his  adoption.  His  benefactor 
died  in  1718,  leaving  his  property  to  Metastasio,  who 


now  devoted  himself  principally  to  literary  pursuits, 
and  brought  out  in  1721  his  lyric  drama  entitled  "The 
Gardens  of  the  Hesperides,"  ("Gli  Orti  Esperidi.") 
This  piece  was  received  with  great  favour,  one  of  the 
principal  parts  in  it  being  performed  by  Signora  Bulga- 
rini,  (La  Romanina,)  esteemed  the  first  vocalist  of  her 
time.  At  the  request  of  this  lady,  he  relinquished  the 
legal  profession,  which  he  had  practised  for  a  time,  and 
gave  his  attention  exclusively  to  poetry.  His  opera  of 
"  Didone  Abbandonata"  was  performed  with  great  ap- 
plause at  Naples  in  1724,  and  was  followed  by  his  "Ca- 
tone,"  "  Semiramide,"  "  Artaserse,"  and  other  operas, 
which  established  his  reputation.  On  the  invitation  of 
the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  he  repaired  to  Vienna,  and 
succeeded  Apostolo  Zeno  as  imperial  laureate.  In  1734 
he  lost  his  "  inestimable  counsellor  and  friend,"  Signora 
Bulgarini,  who  bequeathed  to  him,  after  the  death  of 
her  husband,  her  property,  amounting  to  twenty-five 
thousand  crowns.  This,  with  characteristic  delicacy,  he 
refused  to  accept.  He  brought  out  during  his  residence 
at  Vienna  two  of  his  most  admired  operas,  the  "  Olim- 
piade"  and  "  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,"  which  the  music 
of  Mozart  has  contributed  to  render  immortal.  Besides 
the  works  above  named,  he  composed  a  number  of  ora- 
torios, cantatas,  sonnets,  etc.  He  died  at  Vienna  in 
1782.  The  genius  of  Metastasio  is  eulogized  by  Vol- 
taire and  La  Harpe,  the  former  of  whom  compares  some 
of  his  scenes  to  the  most  sublime  of  the  Greek  poets. 
Rousseau,  in  his  "  Nouvelle  Heloise,"  pronounces  him 
"  the  only  poet  of  the  heart,  the  only  genius  who  can 
move  by  the  charm  of  poetic  and  musical  harmony ;" 
and  Schlegel  observes  that  his  purity  of  diction,  grace, 
and  delicacy  have  rendered  him  in  the  eyes  of  his  coun- 
trymen a  classic  author, — the  Racine  of  Italy. 

See  BuRNEY,  "  Memoirs  of  Metastasio,"  3  vols.,  1796;  Torcia, 
"Elogio  del  Abbate  P.  Metastasio,"  1782;  Hiller,  "Ueber  P.  Me- 
tastasio und  seine  Werke,"  1786  ;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  Altanesi,  "Vita  di  P.  Metastasio,"  1787  ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gdn^rale ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Stebbing,  London,  1S31. 

Metcalfe,  m§t'kJf,  (Charles  Theophilus,)  Baron, 
an  able  English  statesman,  born  in  Calcutta  in  1785,  was 
educated  at  Eton.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company  as  a  writer,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Supreme  Council  of  India  in  1827.  He  resigned  his 
office,  returned  to  England  in  1837,  and  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Jamaica  in  1839.  For  three  years  he  per- 
formed the  duties  of  this  difficult  position  with  success. 
He  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada  about 
February,  1843.  I"  politics  he  was  a  Liberal.  He  re- 
signed on  account  of  ill  health  in  the  autumn  of  1845, 
and  died  at  Basingstoke  in  September,  1846. 

See  John  William  Kaye,  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Charles, 
Lord  Metcalfe,"  1834;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December, 
1846,  and  February,  1855. 

Metcalfe,  (Frederick,)  an  English  author,  born  in 
1817.  He  graduated  as  B.A.  at  Saint  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  then  went  to  Oxford,  where  he  became 
a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College.  He  was  afterwards  a  cler- 
gyman of  the  Establishment,  and  in  1848  was  made  head 
master  of  Brighton  College.  He  edited  and  adapted 
Becker's  "Gallus"  (1844;  revised  edition,  1884)  and 
"Charicles,"  (1845,  1884,)  and  wrote  a  "History  of 
German  Literature,"  and  accounts  of  his  travels  in  Nor- 
way, Thelemarken,  and  Iceland,  ("The  Oxonian  in  Nor- 
way," etc.,  1856,  1858,  1861.)     Died  in  1885. 

Met'calfe,  (Thomas,)  an  American  Whig  statesman, 
born  in  Fauquier  county,  Virginia,  in  1780,  removed  at 
an  early  age  to  Kentucky.  He  worked  at  the  trade  of 
stone-mason  in  his  youth.  He  became  Governor  of 
Kentucky  in  1828,  and  filled  that  office  four  years.  In 
1848  he  succeeded  Mr.  Crittenden  in  the  United  States 
Senate.  His  term  expired  in  March,  1849.  Died  in  1855. 

Metelli    See  Mitelll 

Me-tel'lus,  (Quintus  Ci^ciLius,)  called  Macedo'ni- 
cus,  an  eminent  Roman  general,  of  a  noble  family,  was 
chosen  praetor  in  148  B.C.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Macedonians  in  that  year,  and  took  their  leader,  An- 
driscus,  prisoner,  for  which  a  triumph  was  decreed  him. 
In  146  he  defeated  the  Achaeans  near  Thermopylae.  He 
was  made  consul  in  143,  and  was  sent  to  Spam  to  op- 
pose Viriathus.   It  was  during  the  censorship  of  Metellus 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  v.  shoi't;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fUr,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  nftt;  g66d;  moon; 


ME  TELL  us 


1713 


METRODORUS 


and  Pompeius  (131  B.C.)  that  the  decree  was  passed 
obliging  all  Roman  citizens  to  marry.  He  opposed  the 
Gracchi.     Died  in  115  B.C. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Livy,  "Epitome." 

Metellus,  (Quintus  CiCCiLius  Numidicus,)  an  able 
Roman  general,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  a  leader 
of  the  aristocratic  party.  Having  been  chosen  consul 
for  109  B.C.,  he  obtained  as  his  province  Numidia,  then 
the  seat  of  war  with  Jugurtha,  who  had  hitherto  suc- 
ceeded in  outgeneralling  or  outwitting  all  the  Roman 
commanders  sent  against  him.  Metellus  was  more  suc- 
cessful, and  finally  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  African 
prince  at  the  river  Muthul,  towards  the  close  of  that 
year.  Before  the  end  of  this  war  the  command  was 
transferred  to  Marius;  but  Metellus  was  honoured  with 
a  triumph  on  his  return  to  Rome  in  107,  and  received  the 
surname  of  Numid'icus.  He  became  censor  in  102,  and 
was  banished  about  100  B.C.,  through  the  influence  of 
Marius  and  Saturninus,  but  he  was  recalled  the  next  year. 
He  was  distinguished  as  an  orator,  and  was  reputed  one 
of  the  most  virtuous  men  of  his  time. 

See  Sallust,  "  Bellum  Jugurthinum  ;"  Plutarch,  "  Marius." 

Metellus,  (Quintus  C^ecilius  Pius,)  a  Roman 
general,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  became  praetor  in  89 
B.C.  In  the  civil  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla  he 
fought  for  the  latter,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
Carbo  and  Norbanus,  near  Faventia,  in  82  B.C.  He  was 
chosen  consul  with  Sulla  in  the  year  80,  after  which  he 
commanded  in  Spain  and  spent  several  years  in  un- 
successful efforts  to  conquer  Sertorius.  He  became 
pontifex  maximus.     Died  about  63  B.C. 

Me-tel'lus  Ce'ler,  (Q.  C^cilius,)  a  Roman  states- 
man, and  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party.  He  became 
praetor  in  63  B.C.,  acted  with  Cicero  against  Catiline, 
and  was  chosen  consul  for  the  year  60.  During  his 
consulship  he  resolutely  opposed  the  laws  which  his 
colleague  Afranius  desired  to  enact  for  the  benefit  of 
Ponipey.     Died  in  59  B.C. 

Me-tel'lus  Ne'pos,  (Quintus,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  63  B.C.,  and 
was  a  partisan  of  Pompey.  As  tribune,  he  opposed 
Cicero  with  some  violence.  He  became  praetor  in  60, 
and  consul  in  57  B.C.     Died  about  55  B.C. 

Meteren,  van,  vin  ma'teh-ren,  (Emanuel,)  a  Flem- 
ish Protestant  historian,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1535,  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Netherlands  from  the 
Early  Part  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  his  Own  Time," 
(in  Latin  and  Flemish.)  It  is  valued  for  its  accuracy; 
but  the  historian  is  accused  by  some  writers  of  injustice 
towards  the  Catholics.     Died  in  16 12. 

See  S.  RuvTiNCK,  "  Biographie  de  Van  Meteren,"  prefixed  to  liis 
"Histoire,"  (French  translation.) 

Meteyard,  met'yird,  (Eliza,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Liverpool,  June  21,  1822.  Her  pseudonym  was 
"Silverpen."  Among  her  works  are  "Struggles  for 
Fame,"  (a  novel,  1845,)  "The  Doctor's  Little  Daughter," 
(1850,)  "  Lilian's  Golden  Hours,"  (1856,)  "  Life  of  Wedg- 
wood," (1865-66,)  "A  Group  of  Englishmen,"  (1871,) 
and  "Industrial  and  Household  Tales,"  (1872.)  Died 
at  South  Lambeth,  April  4,  1879. 

Metezeau,  meh'teh'zo',  (Clement,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  at  Dreux,  constructed  the  great  dyke  of  La 
Rochelle,  which,  suggested  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  was 
the  principal  means  of  reducing  that  city  in  1628.  Died 
about  1650. 

Method  or  Methode.     See  Methodius. 

Me-tho'di-us,  [Fr.  M6thode,  mk'tod',]  Saint,  one 
of  the  early  Christian  martyrs,  surnamed  Patarensis 
on  account  of  his  having  been  Bishop  of  Patara.  He 
was  also  Bishop  of  Olympus,  in  Lycia,  and  afterwards 
of  Tyre.  His  piety  and  learning  are  highly  commended 
by  Epiphanius  and  Jerome.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"The  Banquet  of  Ten  Virgins,"  of  which  a  great  part 
is  extant.  He  suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian 
about  312. 

Methodius  [Gr.  Mf^otJwf]  the  Confessor,  born  at 
Syracuse,  was  appointed  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
842  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  worship 
of  images,  and  was  the  author  of  several  learned  works. 
Died  in  846. 


Methodius,  [Fr.  M6thode,  mi'tod';  Ger,  Methop, 
ma'tod,]  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  was  sent,  with  his 
brother  Cyrillus,  by  the  Greek  emperor  Michael  III.,  to 
convert  the  Saracens  on  the  Euphrates,  and  about  863 
went  on  a  mission  to  the  Slavonians.  They  invented 
the  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  translated  the  Psalter  and 
Gospels  into  Slavonic.  Methodius  resided  in  the  country 
nearly  thirty  years,  and,  it  is  said,  translated  all  the 
Scriptures  into  Slavonic. 

See  F.  X.  Richter,  "  Cyrill  und  Method  der  Slaven  Apostel," 
1825. 

Me-thu'se-lah,  [Heb.  nStyiJlO  ;  Fr.  Mathusalem,* 
mS'tii'z3'16N'',  or  Mathusala,  mt'tii'zt'lt',]  a  Hebrew 
patriarch,  noted  for  his  longevity,  was  a  son  of  Enoch. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  six  years  before  the 
deluge,  aged  nine  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years. 

See  Genesis  v. 

Me'tis,  [Gr.  M^rtf ;  Fr.  M^tis,  mi'tJss',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  personification  of  prudence,  was  the 
daughter  of  Oceanus,  and  the  first  wife  of  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

Metius,  ma'te-us,  (  Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  at  Alkmaar  in  1571.  He  studied  under  Tycho 
Brahe  in  Denmark,  and  after  his  return  to  Holland  was 
appointed,  in  1598,  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Franeker.  Among  his  works  is  a  Latin  essay 
"  On  the  Institutes  of  Astronomy."     Died  in  1635. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Metius,  (Jakob,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  is  regarded 
by  Descartes  and  some  other  savants  as  the  inventor  of 
the  refracting  telescope. 

See  Barlow,  "  History  of  Optics  ;"  Borel,  "  De  vero  Tele- 
scopii  Inventore." 

Metkerke,  van,  vtn  m5t'k5R'keh,  or  Meetkercke, 

mat'k^R'keh,  (Adolphus,)  a  distinguished  Flemish  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Bruges  in  1528.  He  was  a  Protestant, 
and  was  sent  by  the  United  Provinces  on  an  embassy  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England.  He  translated  Theocritus 
into  Latin  verse,  and  published  an  edition  of  Dion  and 
Moschus.  Metkerke  was  president  of  the  Council  of 
Flanders.     Died  in  1591. 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Metochita,  mSt-o-Kee'td,  ?  (Theodore,)  a  modern 
Greek  historian,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Compendium  of 
Roman  History  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Constantine  the 
Great,"  and  a  "  Paraphrase  of  the  Physics  of  Aristotle." 
Died  in  1332. 

Me'ton,  [Merwv,]  a  Greek  astronomer,  flourished  in 
432  B.C.  He  observed  the  solstice  at  Athens,  and  dis- 
covered the  lunar  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  designed  to 
make  the  solar  and  lunar  years  begin  at  the  same  time. 
This  invention  is  called  the  Metonic  cycle,  and  is  still 
employed  by  the  Western  Churches  in  tlieir  computation 
of  Easter. 

See  SuiDAS,  "  Meton;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Metrodore.    See  Metrodorus. 

Met-ro-do'rus  [Gr.  M??T(X)f5w/30f ;  Fr.  Metrodore, 
mk'tRo'doR']  OF  Chios,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  400  B.C.,  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Nature,"  which 
was  very  celebrated.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  mas- 
ter of  Anaxarchus. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionaiy ;"  Fabriciuk 
"Bibliotheca  Gra;ca." 

Metrodorus  of  Lampsacus,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  in  23c  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  and  intimate  friend  of 
Epicurus.  He  sensualized  and  debased  the  doctrines 
which  he  had  received  from  his  master,  and  contributed 
not  a  little  to  bring  the  Epicurean  philosophy  into  con- 
tempt with  the  wise  and  virtuous.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  the  titles  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  Dio- 
genes Laertius. 

See  KnTKK,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Cr.-Eca. " 

Metrodorus,  [Gr.  M7/rfju(5w(Wf,]  a  celebrated  Athenian, 
born  about  200  B.C.  After  the  defeat  of  Perseus  by 
Paulus  Emilius,  in  168  B.C.,  the  latter  commanded  the 
Athenians  to  send  their  best  artist  to  paint  his  triumph 
and  their  greatest  philosopher  to  educate  his  sons.     Me- 


•  The  name  was  sometimes  so  written  by  the  old  English  poets. 
Cowley,  in  his  "Fragments,"  says,  "Seven  royal  years  to  a  public 
spirit  will  seem  more  than  the  private  life  of  a  Mathusalem." 


c  as  <4,  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/-  G,  H,  Y^,gnttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

108 


(Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


METSU 


1714 


MEYENDORFF 


trodorus,  being  esteemed  by  his  countrymen  as  first  in 
both  departments,  was  sent  accordingly,  and  gave  entire 
satisfaction  to  the  Roman  general. 

Metsu,  (Gai!kiel.)     See  Metzu. 

Mettenleiter,  met't^n-li'ler,  (Johann  Michael,)  a 
German  engraver,  born  in  1765,  executed  a  number  of 
mezzotints  and  lithographs  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1845. 

Metternich,  von,  fon  met'ter-nlic',  (Clemens  Wen- 
/.EL.)  Prince,  an  eminent  Austrian  statesman  and  diplo- 
•Tiatist,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1773,  was  a  son  of  Count 
Metternich,  who  was  a  minister  of  state  at  Vienna  and 
died  in  1818.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  Dresden  in 
1801,  and  to  Berlin  in  1803.  In  1806  he  became  ambas- 
sador to  Paris,  where  he  remained  until  the  renewal  of 
the  war  in  1809.  After  the  capture  of  Vienna  and  the 
restoration  of  peace,  he  was  appointed  chancellor  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  October,  1809.  For  more 
than  thirty  years  from  that  date  he  had  the  chief  direc- 
tion of  affairs  in  Austria.  He  represented  his  govern- 
ment at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  (1814,)  after  which  he 
had  great  influence  in  European  politics.  "No  diploma- 
tist," says  Alison,  "  even  in  that  age  of  intellectual  giants, 
excelled,  perhaps  hardly  any  equalled,  Metternich  in  the 
sagacious  survey  which  he  took  of  existing  events,  and 
the  admirable  tact  with  which  he  contrived  to  render 
them  conducive  to  the  interests  of  his  country."  ("  His- 
tory of  Europe.")  In  politics  he  was  extremely  conser- 
vative. He  was  driven  from  power  and  into  exile  by 
the  revolution  of  March,  1848.  He  returned  to  Vienna 
in  1851.  Died  in  1859.  "  He  always  comprehended  his 
position,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1858, 
"  and  never  lost  an  opportunity.  He  acted  with  equal  jus- 
tice and  calculation,  and  never  made  a  retrograde  step. 
His  conduct  was  always  politic,  and  never  precipitate." 
"The  Memoirs  of  Prince  Metternich,"  edited  by  his  son, 
appeared  in  1879. 

Metternich,  von,  (Richard  Clement  Joseph  Her- 
mann,) Prince,  an  Austrian  diplomatist,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  June  7,  1829.  He  became  secretary 
of  legation  at  Paris  in  1854.  In  1859,  before  the  Italian 
war  broke  out,  he  was  intrusted  with  a  special  mission 
to  Paris,  and  from  the  close  of  the  war  until  1871  he  was 
ambassador  at  the  French  court.  He  was  named  hered- 
itary councillor  of  the  Austrian  empire  in  1861,  and 
councillor  in  1864. 

Mettrie,  de  la,  deh  It  mi'tRe',  (Julien  Offray,)  a 
French  physician  and  atheistic  writer,  born  at  Saint- 
Malo  in  1709,  published  an  infamous  work  entitled  "The 
Man  Machine,"  which  he  had  the  impertinence  to  dedi- 
cate to  Haller.     Died  in  1751. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  Gdndrale." 

Metsys.     See  Matsys. 

Metz,  mgts,  (Konrad  Martin,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Bonn  in  1755,  executed  a  number  of  prints  after 
Michael  Angelo  and  Caravaggio.     Died  in  1827. 

Metzger,  mgts'g^r,  (Eduard,)  a  German  architect, 
born  at  Pappenheim  in  1807,  visited  Greece  in  1831. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  architecture. 

Metzger,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  medical  writer,  born 
at  Strasburg,  in  Alsace,  in  1739  ;  died  in  1805.  He  was 
a  professor  at  Strasburg,  and  was  promoted  to  be  chief 
professor  of  medicine  there. 

Metzu,  mSt'zii,  (Gabriel,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
oorn  at  Leyden  in  1615.  Among  his  master-pieces  we 
may  name  the  "  Vegetable-Market  at  Amsterdam," 
"  Interior  of  a  Kitchen,"  "Chemist  Reading  near  a  Win- 
dow," and  a  "  Young  Girl  Looking  at  a  Butterfly." 
Metzu  is  styled  by  Descamps  one  of  the  greatest  artists 
of  his  nation.     Died  in  1658. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  HoUandais,"  etc.;  Charles 
Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Meulan,  de,  (Pauline.)  See  Guizot,  (Elisabeth 
Charlotte.) 

Meulemeester,  de.     See  Demeulemeester. 

Meulen,  van  der,  vtn  der  muh'len  or  mb'len,  (An- 
TOON  Frans,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  battle-painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1634,  was  a  pupil  of  Snayers.  Having 
visited  Paris  about  1666,  he  was  patronized  by  Colbert, 
and  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  represent  his  principal 
engagements.     He  married  the  niece  of  Le  Brun,  and 


assisted  that  artist  in  his  works  at  the  castle  of  Ver- 
sailles. In  1673  '^s  ^'^s  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting.  As  a  painter  of  battles,  Van  der  Meulen 
had  perha])s  no  superior,  and  his  landscapes  also  possess 
great  merit.     Died  in  1690. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.;  Charles 
IjI.anc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Meulen,  van  der,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
battles,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  went  to 
England  in  1670,  and  was  patronized  by  King  Wil- 
liam III. 

Meulen,  Ver.     See  Vermeulen. 

Meun,  Meung,  muN,  or  Mehun,  mi-uN',  (Jean,) 
a  French  poet,  surnamed  Ci.opinel,  from  his  lameness, 
born  about  1280.  He  was  the  author  of  the  principal 
part  of  the  "  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  one  of  the  earliest 
poems  in  the  language,  which  was  begun  by  Guillaume 
de  Lorris.  The  best  edition  was  published  in  Paris  in 
1814,  (4  vols.  8vo.) 

See  Fauchet,  "Originede  la  Po^sie;"  Massieu,  "Histoire  de 
la  Po^sie  Fran^aise." 

Meurice,  muh'r^ss',  (FRANgois  Paul,)  a  French 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1820,  became  a  brother- 
in-law  of  Victor  Hugo.  He  produced  successful  dramas 
called  "  Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark,"  and  "Benvenuto 
Cellini." 

Meurs,  de,  deh  muRs,  [Lat.  Meur'sius,]  (Jan,)  a 
Dutch  scholar  and  historian,  born  near  the  Hague  in 
1579.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Leyden 
in  161 1,  and  soon  after  historiographer  to  the  States  of 
Holland.  He  subsequently  became  royal  historiographer 
to  the  King  of  Denmark.  He  published  a  number  of 
treatises  on  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  Denmark,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1639. 

See  SwEERT,  "Athena  Belgica ;"  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires  ;" 
Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique;"  Schramm,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Vita  et  Scriptis  J.  Meursii,"  1715. 

Meursius.     See  Meuks,  de. 

Meusebach,  moi'zeh-biK',  (Karl  Hartwig  Gre- 
GOR,)  a  German  litteratetcr,  born  near  Artern  in  1781, 
published  a  number  of  critical  essays.  He  numbered 
among  his  friends  Tieck  and  Goethe.     Died  in  1847. 

Meusel,  moi'zel,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  his- 
torian and  bibliographer,  born  near  Bamberg  in  1743. 
He  became  professor  of  history  at  Erfurt  in  1769,  and 
at  Erlangen  in  1779.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Bibliotheca  Historica,"  (22  vols.,  1782-84,)  which  con- 
tains notices  of  ancient  and  modern  historians,  a  valuable 
collection  of  biographies  of  German  scholars,  entitled 
"  Gelehrtes  Deutschland,"(i5  vols.,  1796-1812,)  to  which 
Ersch  and  Lindner  added  seven  volumes,  and  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  German  Authors  who  died  between  1750 
and  1800,"  (15  vols.,  1802-16.)  All  of  these  are  highly 
esteemed.     Died  in  1820. 

See  Karl  Heinrich  Rau,  "Dem  Andenken  J.  G.  Meusels," 
etc.,  1820  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ■"  "  Monthly  Review," 
i8oo  et  seq.,  (Appendix.) 

Meusel.     See  Musculus. 

Meusnier,  muh'ne-i',  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie,)  a 
French  general  and  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  in- 
vented several  machines  and  apparatus.  He  was  killed 
in  battle,  near  Mentz,  in  June,  1793. 

Meusnier,  (Philippe,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1656,  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  became  treasurer  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He 
excelled  in  architectural  views  and  perspective.  Died 
in  1734. 

Meusnier  de  Querlon,  muh'ne-i'  deh  k§R'lAN', 
(Anne  Gabriel,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Nantes 
in  1702.  He  wrote  critiques,  works  of  fiction,  etc.,  and 
translated  Pliny's  "  Natural  History"  into  French.  Died 
in  1780. 

Mexia  or  Mejia,  mi-Hee'I,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torian, born  at  Seville  about  1496,  published  a  compila- 
tion entitled  "  Silva  de  varia  Leccion,"  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Roman  Emperors  from  Julius  Csesar  to  Maximilian 
of  Austria."  He  was  patronized  by  Charles  V.,  who 
appointed  him  historiographer.     Died  in  1552. 

Meyendorfif,  von,  fon  mT'en-doRf,  (Peter,)  a  Rus- 
sian diplomatist,  born  in  1796.  He  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador to  Berlin  in  1839,  and  represented  Russia  at  Vienna 
from  1850  to  1854.     Died  March  19,  1863. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  Qs,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MEYER 


T715 


MEZZOFANTl 


Meyer,  mi'er,  (Conrad,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Zurich  in  1618.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
t)ie  first  engraver  who  used  soft  instead  of  hard  varnish. 
Died  in  1689. 

Meyer,  (Felix,)  an  eminent  Swiss  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Winterthur  in  1653.  His  delineations  of  the 
mountain-scenery  of  Switzerland  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces of  the  kind.     Died  in  17 13. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamnnds,  AUemands,"  etc. 

Meyer,  ml'er,  (Friedrich  Johann  Lorenz,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Plamburg  in  1760 ;  died  in  1844. 

Meyer,  mi'er,  [Lat.  Meye'rus,)  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  sometimes  called  Baliola'nus,  born  near  Bail- 
leul  in  1491,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Flanders," 
and  other  works,  (in  Latin.)  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Erasmus.     Died  in  1552. 

See  SwEERT,  "Athena  Belgicje." 

Meyer,  (Jan  Lodewyck,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  marine 
views,  born  in  Amsterdam  about  1809.  He  painted 
landscapes  in  his  youth,  and  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  as  a  marine  painter  at  the  Hague.    Died  in  1866. 

Meyer,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  distinguished  German 
painter,  called  Meyer  von  Bremen,  born  in  1813.  His 
best  works  are  delineations  of  domestic  life,  particularly 
those  representing  the  actions  and  sports  of  children. 
Among  these  may  be  named  "  The  Game  of  Blind-Man's 
Buff,"  and  "The  Youngest  Brother."     Died  in  18S6. 

See  Brockhaos,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Meyer,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  artist  and 
amateur,  born  at  Stafa,  on  Lake  Zurich,  in  1759.  While 
on-a  visit  to  Italy,  in  1784,  he  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Goethe  and  Herder.  In  1807  he  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Design  at  Weimar.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Plastic  Arts  among  the 
Greeks,"  (1824,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Pro- 
pylfien"  and  other  works  of  Goethe.     Died  in  1832. 

See  Goethe,  "  Briefwechseln." 

Meyer,  (Jonas  Daniel,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Arn- 
hem  in  1780.  He  published,  in  French,  "The  Spirit, 
Origin,  and  Progress  of  the  Judicial  Institutions  of  the 
Principal  Nations  of  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1818-23.)  Died 
in  1834. 

Meyer,  mi^er,  (Leo,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Ble- 
deln,  in  Hanover,  July  3,  1830.  He.  studied  at  Gottingen 
and  Berlin,  was  a  professor  in  the  Gottingen  University, 
1856-65,  and  was  then  called  to  Dorpat  as  professor  of 
•comparative  philology.  He  has  published  many  works 
on  philology,  grammar,  and  mythology,  especially  those 
of  the  ancient  Greeks.  Among  his  best-known  treatises 
is  "  Die  gothische  Sprache,"  ("Gothic  Language,"  1869.) 
Meyer,  mk'yi',  (Marie  Paul  Hyacinthe,)  a  French 
palaeographer,  born  in  Paris,  January  17,  1840.  Edu- 
cated at  the  ficole  des  Chartes,  he  became  in  1876  a 
professor  of  languages  in  the  College  de  France.  He 
has  published  a  great  number  of  mediaeval  and  post- 
classical  manuscripts,  many  of  them  discovered  by  him- 
self in  British  and  other  libraries,  and  is  author  of  many 
instructive  papers,  chiefly  on  early  French  literature. 

Meyer,  von,  fon  mT'er,  (Hermann,)  a  German  geol- 
ogist and  naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in 
1801,  published  several  works.      Died  April  2,  1869. 

Meyerbeer,  ml'er-baR',  (Giacomo,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man composer,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1794,  was  originally  named  Jacob  Meyer  Beer.  He 
studied  under  Clementi  and  Vogler,  and  at  the  age  of 
nine  years  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pianists  in 
Berlin.  His  first  operas,  entitled  "  Jephthah's  Daughter" 
and  "Abimelech,  or  the  Two  Caliphs,"  were  coldly  re- 
ceived, but,  having  visited  Italy  in  1815,  he  there  pro- 
duced his  "Romilda  e  Costanza,"  (1818,)  "  Semiramide 
Riconosciuta,"  (1819,)  and  "  Emma  di  Resburgo,"  (1820,) 
which  met  with  enthusiastic  applause.  To  these  suc- 
ceeded, in  1824,  his  "  Crociato  in  Egitto,"  which  was 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  all  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe.  His  "  Robert  le  Diable,"  brought  out 
in  Paris  in  1831,  raised  his  reputation  to  the  highest 
point,  and  is  ranked  among  the  master-pieces  of  musical 
art.  He  afterwards  produced  operas  entitled  "  The 
Huguenots,"  (1836,)  and  "  Le  Proph^te,"  (1849,)  both 


ot  which  were  greatly  admired.  About  1842  tie  was  ap- 
pointed director-general  of  music  by  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Among  his  later  works  are  "  L'fitoile  du  Nord,"  (1854,) 
and  "Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel,"  (1859.)     Died  in  1864. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^.NiB,  "  M.  Meyerbeer,  par  un  Homme  de  Ricn," 
J841;  P.ROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generate. " 

Meyerheim,  mi'er-him',  (Friedrich  Eduard,)  a 
German  painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Dantzic  about 
1810.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  and  in  1838  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  that  city.  His  favourite 
subjects  are  rural  and  domestic  scenes,  which  he  repre- 
sents with  exquisite  skill  and  fidelity.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  "The  Blind  Beggar,"  "The  Village  School," 
and  an  "  Old  Woman  Teaching  her  Granddaughter  to 
Knit."  Died  in  1879.  His  brother  Wilhelm  has  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  painter  of  animals,  battles,  etc. 

Meyeriiig,  mi'er-ing,  (Albert,)  a  Ditch  paintei 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1645  ;  died  in  1714. 

Meyern,  mi'gRn,  (Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man novelist,  born  near  Anspach  in  1762.  He  wrote 
a  political  romance,  entitled  "  Dya-na-Sore,  or  the 
Wanderers,"  (1787.)     Died  in  1829. 

Meyerus.    See  Meyer,  (Jacob.) 

Meygret  or  Meigret,  mi'gRi',  (Louis,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Lyons  about  1510,  produced  in  155c 
a  "  Treatise  on  French  Grammar,"  said  to  be  the  first 
which  ever  appeared.  He  attempted  to  introduce  a  new 
orthography  conformed  to  the  sound.    Died  after  1560. 

Meynell,  ma'nel,  (Alice,)  a  meritorious  English  poet- 
ess, born  about  1848,  a  sister  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  S.  Butler, 
the  artist.  Her  maiden  name  was  Thompson.  She 
married  in  1877.  She  wrote  "  Preludes"  (1875)  i"^  verse, 
besides  art-criticisms  and  other  writings  in  prose.  Mrs. 
Meynell  owed  much  to  the  friendship  and  praise  of  Mr. 
Ruskin. 

Meyr,  mir,  (Melchior,)  a  German  poet  and  prose- 
writer,  born  near  Nordlingen,  June  28,  1810.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Erziihlungen  aus  dem  Rics,"  (1856-60,) 
"Gott  und  sein  Reich,"  (i860,)  "Emilie,"  (1863,)  "  Ge- 
sprache  mit  einem  Grobian,"  (1866,)  "Uuell  und  Ehre," 
and  (1870,)  "Gedanken  iiber  Kunst,  Religion  und  Phil- 
osophic," (1874.)     Died  at  Munich,  April  22,  1871. 

Meyrick,  niSr'ik,  (Frederick,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1826,  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1847.  He  published  "The  Outcast  and  Poor 
of  London,"  (1858,)  "The  Wisdom  of  Piety,"  (1859,)  and 
various  books  and  articles  against  the  Romanists. 

Meyrick,  nigr'ik,  written  alsoMyrick,  (Sir  Samuel 
Rush,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1783.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "Critical  Inquiry  into  Ancient  Armour, 
with  Special  Reference  to  England  from  the  Norman 
Conquest  to  the  Time  of  Charles  II.,"  (1824,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  knighted  in  1832.  Died  in 
184S. 

Mezence.     See  Mezentius. 

Mezentius,  me-zSn'she^s,  [Gr.  Mmevriof ;  Fr.  M6- 
ZENCE,  mk'zfiNss',]  a  fabulous  king  of  the  Etruscans, 
notorious  for  his  cruelty  and  impiety.  According  to 
Virgil,  he  was  an  ally  of  Turnus,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
by  iEneas.     He  was  the  father  of  Lausus. 

See  Virgil's  "^Eneid,"  book  vii.  648,  book  viii.  482,  and  book  x. 
689-90S. 

Me2;eray,  de,  deh  miz'Ri',  (Franqois  Eudes,)  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Lower  Normandy  in  1610,  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  History  of  France,"  (3  vols.,  1651,)  which  enjoyed 
extraordinary  popularity  at  the  time,  owing  in  great 
part  to  the  engraved  portraits  it  contained.  He  suc- 
ceeded Voiture  as  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1649,  and  became  perpetual  secretary  of  that  institution 
in  1675.  He  was  also  historiographer  of  France.  Died 
in  1683. 

See  Larroque,  "Vie  de  Francois  M^zeray,"  1720:  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^ralc." 

Meziriac,  de,  deh  meh-ze're'tk',  (Claude  Caspar 
Bachet,)  a  French  scholar  and  mathematician,  born  at 
Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1 581.  He  published  an  edition  of 
the  "Arithmetic"  of  Diophantus,  (with  notes,)  and  trans- 
lated a  number  of  Ovid's  "  Epistles"  into  French  verse. 
Died  in  1638. 

Mezzofanti,  mSt-so-fSn'tee,  (Giuseppe  Gasparo,)  a 


£  as  /J;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h.  k.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MIALL 


1716 


MICHAEL 


celebrated  Italian  linguist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1774.  He 
studied  at  the  episcopal  seminary  of  his  native  city,  and 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1797.  In  1804  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  Greek  and  the  Oriental  languages  at  Bologna, 
and  in  181 5  was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  uni- 
versity. Distinguished  foreigners  who  visited  Bologna 
at  this  time  praised  his  extraordinary  attainments  and 
bore  witness  to  the  accuracy  with  which  he  spoke  their 
respective  languages.  On  the  invitation  of  Pope  Gregory 
XVI.,  he  repaired  in  183 1  to  Rome,  where  he  succeeded 
Angelo  Mai  as  keeper  of  the  Vatican  Library,  and  in 
1838  was  made  a  cardinal.  A  German  scholar  says  of 
him  at  this  period,  "  He  is  familiar  not  only  with  the 
principal  European  languages,  but  with  the  Irish,  Welsh, 
and  even  Lappish."  He  is  said  to  have  spoken  upwards 
of  fifty  languages,  and  was  thoroughly  versed  in  the 
idioms  and  provincialisms  peculiar  to  each  :  he  could 
entertain  his  English  friends  with  specimens  of  York- 
shire dialect,  and  his  French  or  German  visitors  with  the 
patois  of  their  respective  countries.  Lord  Byron  styles 
Mezzofanti  a  prodigy  of  languages,  who  should  have  lived 
in  the  times  of  the  tower  of  Babel,  to  serve  as  a  universal 
interpreter.     Died  in  1849. 

See   William    Russell,    "  Life  of  Cardinal    Mezzofanti,"  etc., 
1857;  Manavit,  "  Esquisse  historique  sur  le  Cardinal  Mezzofanti, 
1854;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1855. 

Mi'all,  (Edward,)  an  English  dissenter,  born  at 
Portsmouth  in  1809.  He  founded  "  The  Nonconformist," 
in  London,  and  wrote  several  works  against  the  union  of 
Church  and  State.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  Liberal 
member  of  Parliament  for  Rochdale.  He  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  Bradford  in  1869.     Died  In  18S1. 

Miaulis  or  Miaoulis,  me-6w'lis,  (Andreas  Vokos,) 
a  distinguished  patriot  and  admiral  of  modern  Greece, 
born  at  Negropont  about  1768.  In  1821  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  of  the  Greeks, 
and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Patras. 
In  1825  he  burnt  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  harbour  of 
Modon.  He  was  created  high  admiral  in  1832.  On 
the  accession  of  King  Otho  to  the  throne  of  Greece, 
Miaulis  became  one  of  his  most  zealous  adherents.  He 
died  in  1835,  ^"d  was  buried  near  the  monument  of 
Themistocles. 

See"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  1859;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Miazzi,  me-at'see,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Bergamo  in  1699.  Among  his  most  admired 
works  are  the  theatre  at  Treviso  and  the  Spineda 
palace  at  Venegazza.     Died  about  1780. 

Mi'cah,  [Heb.  HD'O  ;  Fr.  Mich6e,  me'shi',]  one  of 
the  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  was  contemporary  with 
Isaiah  and  Hosea,  and  flourished  under  the  reigns  of 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  from  759  10699  B.C.  "  His 
style,"  says  Bishop  Lowth,  "is  in  many  parts  animated 
and  sublime,  and  in  general  truly  poetical." 

Mical,  me'ktl',  (N.,)  an  ingenious  French  mecha- 
nician, born  about  1730,  constructed  several  admirable 
automatons,  among  which  were  two  speaking  heads, 
presented  by  him  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1783. 
Died  about  1790. 

See  "  Memoiies  secrets." 

Micali,  me-ka'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Leghorn  about  1780.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  entitled  "Italy  before  the  Dominion  of  the 
Romans,"  (4  vols.,  1810.)     Died  in  1844. 

Mi'eha-el,  [Heb.  SxD'O  ;  Gr.  Mi^a^A;  Fr.  Michel, 
me'sh§i' ;  It.  Michele,  me-ka'li,]  one  of  the  archangels 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  regarded  as  the 
especial  protector  of  the  Jewish  nation.  A  festival  was 
instituted  in  his  honour,  as  a  defender  of  the  Church, 
by  the  Christians  of  the  ninth  century,  which  is  still 
celebrated  on  the  29th  of  September,  (Michaelmas  Day.) 

See  Daniel  x.  13-21  ;  Revelation  xii.  7-9. 

Mx'eha-el  [Gr.  '^LxarfK;  Fr.  Michel,  me'shSK ;  It. 
Michele,  me-ka'li]  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  surnamed 
Rhangabe,  (6  'Pavju(3Tj,)  succeeded,  in  811  a.d.,  Stau- 
racius,  whose  sister  Procopia  he  had  married.  Being 
unsuccessful  in  his  war  against  the  Bulgarians,  he  abdi-/ 
cated  his  crown  in  813  and  retired  to  a  convent.  Died 
about  845. 

See  Lb  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 


Michael  II.,  the  Stammerer,  also  called  Michael 
IHE  Phrygian,  succeeded  Leo  the  Armenian,  whom  he 
had  caused  to  be  assassinated,  as  Emperor  of  Constanti- 
nople, in  820  A.D.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  nine  years, 
leaving  the  empire  to  his  son  Tlieophilus. 

Michael  III.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  a  son  of  The- 
ophilus,  ascended  the  throne  in  842  A.D.,  when  he  was 
about  three  years  old.  He  was  assassinated  by  Basil 
the  Macedonian  in  867.  His  character  was  very  de- 
praved. 

9ee  GiBiiON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Michael  IV.,  surnamed  the  Paphlagonian,  [Gr. 
Mq;a7)/l  6  na(^?.ay(jv,]  became  emperor  in  1034,  having 
previously  married  Zoe,  widow  of  Romanus  III.,  whom 
she  had  put  to  death.  He  died  in  1041,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew,  Michael  Calaphates. 

Michael  V.,  surnamed  Calaphates,  [Gr.  6  Ka/ia- 
<pdT7ig,]  was  made  Emperor  of  the  East  in  1041,  but  he 
was  deposed  by  his  subjects  in  1042. 

Michael  VI.,  Emperor  of  the  Ea?',  surnamed  Stra- 
tiot'icus,  began  to  reign  in  1056.  He  was  deposed  in 
1057,  and  was  succeeded  by  Isaac  Comnenus. 

Michael  VII.,  surnamed  Parapina'ces,  a  son  ot 
Constantine  XL,  succeeded  Romanus  III.  in  1071.  He 
was  feeble  and  incompetent  to  reign,  and  he  abdicated 
in  107S. 

Michael  VIII.  Palaeol'ogtis,  [Gr.  M(,\a^/i  6  Jla^^ai. 
oloyoq ;  Fr.  Michel  Pal^ologue,  me'shSK  pt'liVlog',] 
Emperor  of  the  East,  and  a  son  of  Androni'cus  Palaeol- 
ogus,  was  born  in  1224.  He  usurped  in  1260  the  throne 
of  John  LascaVis,  the  infant  heir  of  the  late  Emperor 
of  Nicaea.  In  1261  his  army  took  Constantinople  from 
the  Latin  ruler,  Baldwin  II.  He  was  excommunicated 
by  the  Patriarch  Arsenius  for  his  cruel  treatment  of  John 
Lascaris,  whom  he  deprived  of  sight.  Under  his  auspices 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  made  a  treaty  of 
union  in  1274;  but  this  attempt  to  restore  tiie  union 
proved  abortive.  In  1281  he  defeated  the  army  which 
Charles  of  Anjou  and  the  pope  sent  to  invade  the  Eastern 
empire.  He  died  in  1282,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Androni'cus  II. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Georgk 
Pachvmeres,  "  Historia  Rerum  a  Michaele  Paljeologo  gestarum," 
1666;  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
Gen^rale." 

Mi'-eha-el  An'ge-lo  [Fr.  Michel- Ange,  me'shSK 
6Nzh ;  It.  Michelangelo,  me-k^l-3.n'ji-Io ;  Lat.  Mi- 
chael An'gelus]  Buonarotti  (boo-o-ni-rot'tee)  or 
Buonarroti,  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  sculptor, 
and  architect,  was  born  in  the  castle  of  Caprese,  in  Tus- 
cany, on  the  6th  of  March,  1474.  He  was  descended 
from  the  noble  family  of  Canossa.  At  the  time  of  his 
birth,  his  father,  Lodovico  Buonarotti  Simone,  was 
podesta  or  governor  of  Chiusi  and  Caprese.  His 
mother's  name  was  Francesca  del  Sera.  He  attended  a 
grammar-school  in  Florence,  and  became  in  1488  a  pupil 
of  Domenico  Ghirlandaio.  Soon  after  that  date  he 
began  to  study  sculpture  in  an  academy,  or  garden,  which 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  had  furnished  with  antique 
statues  and  bas-reliefs,  in  Florence.  He  gained  the 
favour  of  Lorenzo,  who  about  1490  invited  him  to  be- 
come an  inmate  of  his  palace  and  treated  him  with  much 
respect  and  kindness.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  society  of 
eminent  literary  men,  one  of  whom,  Angelo  Poliziano, 
(Politian,)  became  his  intimate  friend.  Among  his  ear- 
liest works  was  a  marble  bas-relief,  the  subject  of 
which  was  "  The  Battle  of  Hercules  with  the  Centaurs." 
This  work,  which  was  approved  by  his  own  mature  judg- 
ment, is  preserved  in  Florence.  His  patron,  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici,  died  in  1492,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  de- 
generate son  Piero,  by  whose  order  Michael  Angelo 
made  a  colossal  statue  of  snow.  In  1494  he  went  to 
Bologna,  where  he  worked  about  a  year.  Having  re- 
turned to  Florence,  he  executed  a  statue  of  a  "  Sleeping 
Cupid,"  which  some  person  passed  off  as  an  antique 
and  sold  for  a  high  price  to  Cardinal  San  Giorgio.  About 
1497  he  produced  an  admirable  marble  group,  called  a 
"  Pieta,"  representing  "  The  Virgin  weeping  over  the 
/Dead  Body  of  her  Son."  "  In  none  of  his  works,"  says 
Ernest  Breton,  "has  he  displayed  more  perfect  know- 
ledge of  design  and  anatomy,  or  more  profound  truth  of 
expression."    ("  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.")    This 


a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,lo7tg;  ^,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  s/ic»-i;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  1%X;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MICHAEL 


1717 


MICHAELIS 


group  now  adorns  a  chapel  in  the  church  of  Saint  Peter 
at  Rome.  He  found  another  patron  in  Pietro  Soderini, 
the  gonfaloniere  (chief  ruler)  of  Florence,  who  employed 
him  in  sculpture  and  painting.  He  executed  a  gigantic 
marble  statue  of  the  psalmist  David,  which  stands  in 
front  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  in  Florence.  He  received 
four  hundred  ducats  for  this  work,  on  which  he  spent 
about  eighteen  months  and  which  he  finished  in  1504. 
Having  been  commissioned  by  Soderini  to  paint  in 
fresco  a  historical  picture  in  the  hall  of  the  ducal  palace, 
he  chose  for  his  subject  an  event  in  the  war  between  the 
Florentines  and  the  people  of  Pisa.  He  displayed  in  the 
cartoon  of  this  composition  a  grandeur  of  style  and  a 
knowledge  of  anatomy  which  had  not  been  equalled  by 
any  modern  painter.  "  Such  was  the  excellence  of  this 
work,"  says  Vasari,  "  that  some  thought  it  absolute  per- 
fection." This  cartoon  has  perished,  and  the  painting 
itself  was  never  begun.  Among  his  early  paintings  is 
an  oil-picture  of  the  "Holy  Family,"  (about  1504.)  He 
was  invited  to  Rome  by  Julius  H.  soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  that  pontiff,  who  employed  him  to  build  his 
monument  or  mausoleum.  He  formed  a  magnificent 
design  for  this  work,  which  design  was  approved  by 
the  pope  and  has  been  described  by  Vasari,  but  was 
never  completely  executed.  While  they  were  consulting 
about  a  suitable  place  for  the  monument,  the  architect, 
San  Gallo,  suggested  that  a  new  chapel  ought  to  be 
built  expressly  for  so  superb  a  mausoleum.  The  pope 
concurred  in  his  opinion,  and  determined  to  rebuild  the 
church  of  Saint  Peter.  Thus  Michael  Angelo's  design 
is  said  to  have  been  the  cause  of  the  erection  of  the 
most  magnificent  church  in  the  world.  In  1506  he  was 
offended  at  the  pope  because  he  was  not  admitted  to 
his  presence  when  he  went  to  the  palace  on  business. 
He  therefore  abruptly  quitted  his  service,  and  retired  to 
IPlorence.  Julius  H.  sent  messengers  to  bring  him  back, 
out  he  refused  to  return,  until  the  pope  had  urged  him 
by  several  letters  and  mandates.  Michael  Angelo  wished 
to  finish  the  monument  which  he  had  begun,  but  Julius 
had  changed  his  mind,  and  ordered  the  great  artist  to 
decorate  with  frescos  the  ceiling  and  walls  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel  in  the  Vatican.  He  painted  in  the  Sistine  Chapel 
umerous  scenes  from  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  colossal 
figures  of  prophets  and  sibyls.  "  From  the  commence- 
ment," says  Duppa,  "  to  the  conclusion  of  this  stupen- 
dous monument  of  human  genius,  twenty  months  only 
were  employed.  So  short  a  time  for  the  completion  of 
so  vast  a  work  could  hardly  be  credited,  if  it  were  not 
more  difficult  to  refuse  the  testimony  on  which  it  is 
supported."  It  was  finished  in  15 12.  Michael  Angelo 
and  Raphael  worked  in  the  Vatican  at  the  same  time. 

Julius  II.  died  in  15 13,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  X., 
who  is  censured  for  his  illiberal  conduct  towards  Michael 
Angelo.  I>eo  ordered  him  to  build  the  fa9ade  of  the 
church  of  San  Lorenzo  at  Florence,  and  compelled  him 
against  his  will  to  spend  several  years  in  procuring 
marble  for  that  purpose.  "  It  is  a  mortifying  reflection," 
says  Duppa,  "that  the  talents  of  this  great  man  should 
have  been  buried  and  his  time  consumed,  during  the 
whole  reign  of  Leo  X.,  in  little  else  than  in  raising  stone 
out  of  a  quarry  and  making  a  road  to  convey  it  to  the 
sea."  ("Life  of  M.  Angelo.")  Under  the  patronage 
of  Clement  VII.,  who  was  elected  pope  in  1523,  he 
began  to  build  the  library  and  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  at 
Florence.  He  erected  fortifications  at  Florence  in  1528 
or  1529,  and  aided  in  the  defence  of  that  city  against  the 
papal'troops.  After  the  accession  of  Pope  Paul  HI.,  in 
1534,  Michael  Angelo  was  permitted  to  resume  the 
monument  of  Julius  II.,  which  he  completed  on  a  smaller 
scale  than  that  which  he  first  designed.  It  consists  of 
seven  statues,  one  of  which  represents  Moses,  and  was 
placed  in  the  church  of  San  Pietro  in  Vinculo.  This 
statue  of  Moses  is  called  one  of  his  master-pieces. 

Among  his  greatest  productions  is  a  picture,  in  fresco, 
of  "The  Last  Judgment,"  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome. 
This  work,  which  occupied  him  about  eight  years  and 
comprises  nearly  three  hundred  figures,  was  finished  in 
1 541.  It  presents  a  confused  mass  of  naked  bodies  in 
the  most  violent  attitudes  and  most  admired  disorder, 
and  excels  chiefly  in  energy  of  expression.  "  In  the 
'  Last  Judgment,' "  says  E.  Breton,  "  one  will  seek  in  vain 


for  that  celestial  light  and  divine  inspiration  which  ap- 
pear in  the  'Transfiguration,'"  (of  Raphael.) 

In  1546  he  was  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's 
Church,  which  Julius  II.  began  to  build  about  1506. 
Michael  Angelo  accepted  this  appointment  on  the  con- 
ditions that  he  should  receive  no  salary,  and  that  he 
should  deviate  from  the  design  of  San  Gallo,  the  former 
architect  of  the  church.  He  adopted  a  more  simple 
design,  formed  a  model  for  the  dome,  and  devoted  the 
remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  to  that  grand  fabric,  but  did 
not  live  to  see  it  completed.  He  finished  the  Farnese 
palace,  which  is  greatly  admired,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
imposing  edifices  of  modern  Rome.  In  his  latter  years 
he  adorned  the  Capitoline  Hill  with  several  fine  buildings, 
among  which  is  the  senatorial  palace.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  sonnets  and  other  poems,  which  are 
distinguished  for  elegance  and  purity  of  style.  These 
were  published  in  1538,  and  often  reprinted.  He  never 
married.  He  died  in  Rome  in  February,  1563,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  in  1564.  His  moral  character 
is  represented  as  good. 

"  He  was  the  bright  luminary,"  says  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, "  from  whom  painting  has  borrowed  a  new  lustre, 
under  whose  hands  it  assumed  a  new  appearance  and 
became  another  and  superior  art,  and  from  whom  all 
his  contemporaries  and  successors  have  derived  what- 
ever they  have  possessed  of  the  dignified  and  majestic." 
("Discourses  on  Painting,"  vol.  ii.)  Comparing  him 
with  Raphael,  Quatremere  de  Quincy  remarks,  "If 
Michael  Angelo  is  the  greatest  of  draughtsmen,  Raffaello 
is  the  first  of  painters."  ("Life  of  Raffaello.")  "In 
painting,"  says  Duppa,  "the  great  work  on  which  Michael 
Angelo's  fame  depends,  and,  taking  it  for  all  in  all,  the 
greatest  work  of  his  whole  life,  is  the  ceiling  of  the  Sis- 
tine Chapel.  .  .  .  His  Sibyls  and  prophets  exhibit  with 
variety  and  energy  the  colossal  powers  of  his  mind.  .  .  . 
In  his  great  works,  his  superior  abilities  are  shown  in 
the  sublimity  of  his  conceptions  and  the  power  and 
facility  with  which  they  are  executed."  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  oil-painting  by  this  artist  is  now  extant. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  .Sculptors  ;"  Condivi,  "Vita 
di  Michelangelo  Buonarroti,"  1553;  Lanzi,  "  Storia  della  Pittura ;" 
Richard  Duppa,  "  Life  oi  Michael  Angelo,"  London, 1806  ;  Vignali, 
"Vila  di  Michelangelo,"  1753;  Hauchecorne,  "Vie  de  Michei- 
Aiige ;"  QuATKEM^RE  DE  QuiNCV,  "Vie  de  Michel-Ange,"  1835, 
Winckelmann,  "  Neues  Mahler- Lexikon  ;"  Nagler,  "  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon;"  Cicognara,  "Storia  della  Scultura  ;"  B.  Cellini,  "Me- 
morie  ;"  Lannau-Rolland,  "  Michel-Ange  Poete ;"  J.  S.  Hak- 
FOKo,  "  Life  of  Michael  Angelo,"  1856;  Marie  Henri  Beyle, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Peinture  en  Italie,"  2  vols.,  1817,  (said  to  contain 
an  ample  and  well-written  account  of  Michael  Angelo ;)  Hermann 
Grimm,  "Michael  Angelo's  Leben,"  and  English  version  of  the 
same,  London,  2  vols.,  1865. 

Michael  Angelo  delle  Battaglie.  See  Cerquozzi, 
Mi'chael  Feodo'rovitcli,  (fi-o-do'ro-vitch,)  Czar 
of  Russia,  born  in  1596,  was  a  son  of  Feodor  Romanot 
He  began  to  reign  in  1613.  His  rule  is  said  to  have 
been  beneficial  to  Russia.  He  had  two  sons  and  three 
daughters.     Died  in  1645. 

See  Berch,  "Reign  of  Michael  Feodorovitch,"  (in  Russian,) 
1832;  Levesque,  "Histoire  de  Russia." 

Michaeler,  ine-Ki'eh-ler,  (Karl  Joseph,)  a  German 
historian  and  scholar,  born  at  Innspruck  in  1735;  died 
in  1804. 

Michaelis,  me-KS-a'lis,  (Johann  Benjamin,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Zittau  in  1746.  He  was  the  author 
of  lyric  poems,  fables,  and  satires :  the  last-named  are 
particularly  esteemed.  He  was  intimate  with  Jacobi  and 
Gleim,  and  resided  with  the  latter  at  the  time  of  hi.s 
death,  (1772.) 

See  ScHMiD,  "  Leben  J.  B.  Michaelis,"  1773. 

Michaelis,  (Johann  David,)  an  eminent  German 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Halle  in  1717.  He 
studied  in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  acquired 
a  profound  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Chal- 
dee  languages  and  biblical  exegesis.  He  subsequently 
visited  Holland  and  England,  and  was  appointed  after 
his  return  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen,  (1745.) 
In  conjunction  with  Haller,  he  founded  the  Society  of 
Sciences  in  that  city,  of  which  he  afterwards  became 
director.  He  was  editor  of  the  "Gelehrte  Anzeigen," 
at  Gottingen,  from  1753  to  1770,  and  about  the  same  time 
held  the  office  of  librarian  at  the  university.    He  was  the 


€as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Vi, pittnrai ;  n,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MICHAELIS 


171S 


MICHELET 


author  of  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,"  ("Ein- 
leitung  in  die  Gottlichen  Schriften  des  Neuen  Bundes," 
2  vols.,  1750,)  "Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses," 
("Das  Mosaische  Recht,"  6  vols.,  1770,)  and  other  works, 
which  entitle  him  to  rank  among  the  most  learned  men 
of  his  time.  He  also  published  grammars  of  the  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  and  Chaldee  languages,  and  several  valuable 
treatises  on  chronology  and  geography.  Michaelis  wa.s 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  Paris,  and  privy  councilloi 
of  Hanover.     Died  in  1791. 

See  J.  D.  Michaelis,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  von  ihm  selbst  abge- 
fesst,"  1793;  C.  G.  Hkynk,  "  Elogiuni  J.  D.  Michaelis,"  1791; 
"Nouvelle  blographie  G^ndrale." 

Michaelis,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  Oriental- 
ist and  theologian,  born  at  Klettenberg,  Saxony,  in  1668. 
He  taught  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Chaldee  at  Halle,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  that  place  about  1709. 
He  wrote  works  on  philology,  etc.     Died  in  1738. 

Michailovic,  Mihailowitz,  or  Mihailovitz,  me- 
hi'lo-vits,  (Josp:ph,)  a  Croatian  cardinal,  born  at  Thorda, 
January  16,  1814,  became  in  i860  Archbishop  of  Agram, 
and  in  1877  was  created  a  cardinal-priest. 

Michailowski.     See  Mikhailofski. 

Michallon,  me'sht'liN',  (AcHiLLE  Etna,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  gained  the  first  prize 
in  1817,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.   Died  in  1822. 

Michjillon,  (Claude,)  a  French  sculptor,  the  fathci 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lyons  about  1751  He 
studied  at  Rome.     Died  in  1799. 

Michaud,  me'sho',  (Claude  Ignace  Francois,)  an 
able  French  general,  born  near  the  Jura  Mountains  in 
1753.  He  became  general  of  division  in  1793,  and  in 
1794  succeeded  Pichegru  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  same  year  he  gained  victories 
at  Kaiserslautern,  Mannheim,  and  other  places.  From 
1806  to  1813  he  was  Governor  of  the  Hanse  towns. 
Died  in  1835. 

Michaud,  (Joseph  FRANgois,)  a  distinguished  French 
writer  and  journalist,  born  in  Savoy  in  1767.  Soon  after 
the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution  he  repaired 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  associate  editor  for  many  years 
of  the  royalist  journals  the  "Gazette  Fran9aise"  and 
"La  Quotidienne."  In  181 1  he  began,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  the  publication  of  the  celebrated  "Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,"  (completed  in  1840,  85  vols.  8vo,) 
which  numbered  among  its  contributors  the  most  emi- 
nent literary  and  scientific  men  of  France.  Michaud 
was  the  author  of  an  excellent  "  History  of  the  Crusades," 
(6  vols.,  1841,)  a  poem  entitled  "The  Spring-Time  of  an 
Exile,"  which  had  great  popularity,  and  other  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  besides  a  number  of  contributions  to 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  He  was  for  many  years 
a  prominent  bookseller  and  publisher  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  ViLLENEUVE,  "Notice  historique  sur  Michaud,"  1839; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  February,  1S30. 

Michaud,  (Louis  Gabriel,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1772.  He  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  established  a 
printing-house  in  Paris,  from  which  issued  the  principal 
royalist  publications  of  the  time.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "Historical  Picture  of  the  First  Wars  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,"  "  History  of  Saint-Simonism,"  etc.,  and 
made  numerous  contributions  to  the  "  Biographic  Uni- 
verselle."    Died  in  1858. 

Michault,  me'sho',  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  French  phi- 
lologist and  bibliographer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1707  ;  died 
in  1770. 

MicQaux,  me'sho',  (Andr6,)  a  distinguished  French 
botanist  and  traveller,  born  at  Versailles  in  1746.  After 
having  traversed  Persia  and  other  countries,  he  was  sent 
by  the  government  to  North  America  in  1785  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  trees  and  plants.  For  about  eleven 
years  he  thoroughly  explored  the  botanical  productions 
of  the  United  States,  Canada,  etc.,  with  a  courage  and 
energy  which  no  danger  or  difficulty  could  overcome. 
In  1796  he  returned  to  France  with  his  collections,  and 
prepared  his  "  Description  of  the  Oaks  of  North  Amer- 
ica," (1801.)     He  a;companied  Baudin's   scientific  ex- 


pedition to  Australia  in  1800,  and,  while  pursuing  hi? 
researches  in  Madagascar,  he  died  of  fever  in  1802, 
He  left  a  "Flora  of  North  America,"  ("  Flora  Boreali- 
Americana,"  2  vols.,  1803,)  which  for  many  years  was 
the  most  complete  that  had  appeared.  Both  of  his  works 
are  adorned  with  excellent  engravings  by  Redoute. 

See  CuBifeRES,  "  Notice  sur  F.  A.  Michaux,"  1807  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1805  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  Novembar,  1806; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1S58. 

Michaux,  (FRANgois  Andri^,)  a  noted  French  bot- 
anist, a  son  of  Andre  Michaux,  already  noticed.  He 
was  born  at  Versailles  in  1770.  Like  his  father,  he 
travelled  extensively  in  North  America,  collecting  trees 
and  seeds  for  the  French  government.  His  principal 
work  is  "  Histoire  des  Arbres  forestiers  de  TAmerique 
septentrionale,"  (4  vols.,  1810-13.)  Died  at  Vaureal, 
October  23,  1855. 

Mich^e,  the  French  for  Micah,  which  see. 

Michel,  the  French  for  Michael,  which  see. 

Michel,  me'sh&l',  (Claude  Etienne, )  a  French 
general  of  division,  born  at  Pointre  in  1772.  Pie  was 
killed  at  Waterloo,  June,  18x5. 

Michel,  (Francisque  Xavier,)  a  French  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Lyons  in  1809.  He  published  editions  of 
the  "  Romance  of  the  Violet,"  (1834,)  "  Song  of  Roland," 
(1837,)  "Anglo-Norman  Chronicle,"  and  other  works 
of  the  middle  ages.     Died  May  21,  1887. 

Michel,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician  and  dramatic 
poet.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  and 
was  appointed  first  physician  to  the  king,  Charles  VIII. 
Died  about  1493. 

Michel,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1748,  resided  many  years  in  London,  where 
he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.     Died  in  1804. 

See  Basan,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Michel,  (Louise,)  a  female  communist,  born  at 
Chateau-lhoncourt,  France,  in  1830.  She  very  early 
began  to  publish  verses  full  of  force.  During  the  out- 
break of  the  Commune  of  Paris  she  was  a  very  active 
worker  in  the  radical  cause.  In  1871  she  was  sentenced 
to  deportation  for  life,  and  was  transported  to  Noumea, 
in  New  Caledonia,  but  returned  to  Paris  in  1880,  at  the 
time  of  the  general  amnesty,  and  became  editor  of  "  La 
Revolution  sociale." 

Michel,  (Robert,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Puy 
in  1720,  worked  mostly  in  Spain.     Died  at   Madrid   in 

1785- 

Michel-Ange.     See  Michael  Angelo. 

Michelangelo  or  Michelagnolo.  See  Michael 
Angelo. 

Michel  de  Bourges,  me'shSl'  deh  booRzh,  an  elo- 
quent French  advocate,  born  at  Aix  in  1798  ;  died  in  1853. 

Michel  de  Tours,  me'sh^l'  deh  tooR,  (Guillaume,) 
a  French  poet,  who  lived  about  1500,  was  the  author  of 
a  work  entitled  "The  Forest  of  Conscience,"  (1516.) 

Michelburne,  mik'el-burn, .?  (Sir  Edward,)  an  Eng- 
lish navigator,  born  about  1574-  He  sailed  in  1604,  with 
John  Davis,  on  a  voyage  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Michelet,  m^sh'li',  (Jules,)  an  eminent  French  his- 
torian, born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  was  chosen  chief  of 
the  historical  department  of  the  archives  of  France  in 
1830,  before  which  he  had  published  several  historical 
works  for  schools.  About  1832  he  was  appointed  the 
substitute  or  successor  of  Guizot  as  professor  of  history 
at  the  Sorbonne.  He  published  in  1831  a  "Roman 
History:  the  Republic,"  and  in  1833  the  first  volume 
of  his  "History  of  France."  In  1838  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  history  and  moral  science  in  the  College  of 
France,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  an  adversary  of  the  Jesuits  and  of  Romanism.  After  the 
cmip-iVitat  of  December,  185 1,  refusing  to  take  the  oath, 
he  lost  his  place  in  the  archives,  and  his  chair  in  the 
College  of  France.  His  principal  works  are  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,"  (7  vols.,  1847-53,)  ^ 
"History  of  France,"  (14  vols.,  1833-62,)  "Love," 
("L'Amour,"  1858,)  and  "Woman,"  ("La  Femme," 
1S59.)  These  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
often  reprinted.  His  histories  present  a  profusion  of 
poetical  images,   with  a  brilliant   style    and   ingenious 


a.,  6,1,  6,  v.,  y,  long;-  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  \\,y,s/io?-t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fS.ll,  f4t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MI  CHE  LET 


1719 


MICON 


generalizations.  He  also  wrote  "A  Sketch  [Precis)  of 
Modern  History,"  (1833,)  "  Tlie  Sea,"  ("  La  Mer,"  1861,) 
"The  Bible  of  Humanity,"  ("La  Bible  de  I'Humanite," 
1864,)  and  two  posthumous  works,  "  The  Soldiers  of  the 
Revolution,"  (1878,)  and  "The  Banquet,"  (1879.)  Died 
at  the  lies  d'Hyeres,  February  10,  1874. 

Michelet,  mdsh'eh-li',  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  distin- 
guished German  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Hegei,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1825  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  philology  in  the  French  gym- 
nasium at  Berlin,  and  in  1829  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  in  the  university.  He  published  "  The  Ethics 
of  Aristotle  in  their  Relation  to  the  System  of  Morality," 
(1827,)  "Critical  Examination  of  Aristotle's  Metaphys- 
ics," (in  French,  1836,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  Acad- 
emy of  Moral  Sciences  of  Paris,  "  History  of  the  Last 
Systems  of  Philosophy  in  Germany,  from  Kant  to  Hegel," 
(1837,)  and  other  works  of  high  repute.     Died  in  1876. 

Micheli,  meka'lee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
called  Andrea  Vicen iino, born  at  Vicenza  in  1539.  He 
was  a  good  colorist,  but  lacked  invention.     Died  in  1614. 

Micheli,  (Domenico,)  a  Venetian  statesman,  became 
Doge  of  Venice  in  11 17.  He  conducted  a  fleet  in  a  cru- 
sade to  Palestine  in  1123,  and  took  Tyre  in  11 24.  Died 
in  1x30. 

Micheli,  me-ka'lee,  or  Michieli,  me-ke-a'lee,  [Lat. 
Miche'lius,]  (Piero  Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian 
botanist,  born  at  Florence  in  1679,  was  appointed  by 
Cosimo  de'  Medici  superintendent  of  his  botanical  garden. 
He  gave  particular  attention  to  the  classification  of  the 
mosses,  fungi,  and  lichens.  His  principal  work,  pub- 
lished in  1729,  is  entitled  "Nova  Plantarum  Genera,"  in 
folio,  with  plates,  and  is  praised  in  high  terms  by  Haller. 
Linnaeus  has  named  the  genus  Michelia  in  honour  of 
this  botanist.     Died  in  1737. 

See  CoccHi,  "  Elogio  di  P.  A.  Micheli,"  1737;  Cuvier,  "  His- 
toire  des  Sciences  naturelles;"  G.  Marsili,  "  Di  P.  A.  Micheli 
botunico  insigne,"  1845  ;  Fahkoni,  "Vita  Italorum,"  etc. 

Micheli,  (Vitale,)  a  Venetian  commander,  elected 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1096,  sent  a  large  fleet  to  co-operate 
with  the  leaders  of  the  first  crusade.     Died  in  1 102. 

See  Daru,  "Histoiie  de  Venise." 

Micheli  du  Crest,  mJsh'le'dii  kRi,  (Jy\CQUES  Bar- 
th6lemy,)  a  Swiss  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1690,  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Description  of  a  Universal  Thermometer,"  of  which 
he  was  the  inventor.     Died  in  1766. 

Michelis,  mfe-Ka'lis,  (P'kiedkich,)  a  German  Old- 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Miinster,  July  27,  1815. 
He  became  a  priest,  was  professor  of  history  and  phi- 
lology in  the  seminary  of  Paderborn  from  1849  to  1854, 
and  later  was  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Lyceum  at 
Brunswick.  He  supported  Dollinger  and  followed  him 
in  the  Old-Catholic  movement.  He  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  Philosophy,"  (1867,)  "Nature  and  Revelation," 
and  many  other  works,  philosophical,  theological,  and 
controversial.     Died  in  1886. 

Michelius.     See  Micheli. 

Mich'ell,  (John.)  an  English  scientist,  born  about 
1725.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  became  professor  of  geology.  He  was  after- 
wards rector  of  Thornhill,  Yorkshire.  He  is  remem- 
bered as  the  inventor  of  the  Torsion  Balance,  and  the 
author  of  a  "  Treatise  of  Artificial  Magnets,"  (1750,)  and 
other  works  of  value.     Died  in  1793. 

Michelot,  mish'lo',  (Pierre  Marie  Joseph,)  a 
French  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1785  ;  died  in  1856. 

Michelozzi,  rne-kk-lot'see,  or  Michelozzo,  me-ki- 
lot'so,  a  Florentine  sculj^tor  and  architect,  was  a  pupil 
of  Brunelleschi.  He  furnished  the  design  for  the  Ric- 
cardi  palace  and  for  the  chapel  of  the  Annunciation  at 
Florence.     Died  in  1470. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Architects,"  etc. ;  Quatre- 
M^RE  DE  QuiNcv,  "Vies  des  Architectes  illustres." 

Michelsen,  me'Kel-sen,  (Andreas  Ludw^ig  Jakob,) 
a  German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Sleswick  in  1801, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  1842.     Died  in  1881. 

Michelson,  mee'Kel-son,  (Ivan,)  a  famous  Russian 
general,  born  in  Livonia  in  1735  ;  died  in  1807. 

Michiel,  me-ke-SK,  (Giustina  Renier,)  a  learned 


Italian  lady,  born  at  Venice  in  1755.  She  translated 
"Macbeth"  and  "Othello"  into  Italian,  and  published 
"Feste  Veneziane,"  (5  vols.,  1817-27.)     Died  in  1832. 

MichieU.     See  Micheli. 

Michiels,  me'she-51',  (Joseph  Alfred  Xavier,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Rome  in  1813.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Flemish  and  Dutch 
Painting,"  "  History  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War,"  etc. 

Mi-gip'sa,  [Gr.  Miwi/^ai,]  King  of  Numidia,  was  a 
Ron  of  Masinissa,  at  whose  death,  in  148  B.C.,  the  king- 
dom was  divided  between  Micipsa  and  his  brothers, 
Gulussa  and  Mastanabal.  After  the  death  of  these  two, 
who  survived  their  father  but  a  short  time,  he  was  king 
of  all  Numidia.  He  was  an  ally  of  the  Romans.  Died 
in  118  B.C. 

Mickie'wicz,  mits-ke-a'vitch,  (Adam,)  a  celebratec 
Polish  poet,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1798.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Wilna,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
several  distinguished  patriots  and  joined  the  secret 
societies  opposed  to  the  Russian  government.  He  pub- 
lished in  1822  a  collection  of  poems,  which  at  once  es- 
tablished his  reputation  as  the  greatest  poet  his  country 
had  produced.  He  was  banished  in  1824  to  the  interior 
of  Russia,  on  a  charge  of  conspiring  against  the  govern- 
ment, and  while  residing  at  Odessa  wrote  his  "  Crimean 
Sonnets."  Having  been  permitted  to  leave  Russia,  in 
1828  he  visited  Germany  and  Rome,  and  in  1834  took 
up  his  residence  in  Paris.  He  was  appointed  in  1840 
professor  of  the  Slavonic  language  and  literature  in 
the  College  of  France,  where  he  lectured  for  a  time 
with  great  success.  His  subsequent  connection  with  the 
Polish  fanatic  Towianski,  who  inculcated  the  worship  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  deprived  him  of  his  popularity 
and  he  was  ordered  to  quit  Paris  by  the  government. 
He  was  sent  by  Louis  Napoleon  on  a  mission  to 
Constantinople  in  1855,  and  died  soon  after  his  arrival. 
His  principal  works  are  his  "  Grajina,"  a  historic  pic- 
ture of  Lithuania  in  early  times,  "  Konrad  Wallenrod," 
(1830,)  the  "Ancestors,"  ("Dziady,"  1832,) — in  the  first 
part  of  which  he  gives  the  story  of  his  unfortunate  at- 
tachment to  the  sister  of  a  fellow-student,  and  in  the 
latter  describes  his  imprisonment  at  Wilna, — and  "  Pan 
Tadeusz,"  (1833.) 

See  L.  DE  LomSnie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  George 
Sand,  "  Essai  sur  le  Drame  fantastique ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale  :"  "A.  Mickiewicz ;  eine  biographische  Skizze,"  1857; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  lor  October,  1838. 

Mickle  or  Meikle,  mik'el,  (William  Julius,)  a 
Scottish  poet  and  translator,  born  in  Dumfriess-shire  in 
1734.  Having  visited  London  in  1763,  he  published 
several  poems,  which  obtained  for  him  the  patronage  of 
Lord  Lyttleton,  and  in  1775  brought  out  his  translation 
of  the  "  Lusiad"  of  Camoens.  It  had  great  popularity 
in  England,  and  procured  for  him  the  honour  of  ad- 
mission to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lisbon.  This  work, 
however,  is  far  from  being  a  faithful  version  of  the  origi- 
nal ;  and  Hallam  observes  that  Mickle's  "  infidelities  in 
translation  exceed  all  liberties  ever  taken  in  this  way." 
He  also  published  several  popular  ballads,  one  of  which, 
entitled  "Cumnor  Hall,"  suggested  to  Sir  Walter  Scott 
his  romance  of  "Kenilworth."     Died  in  1788. 

See  Carv,  "  Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke 
White ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1771,  and  April,  May, 
and  July,  :776. 

Micklucho  -  Maclay ,  mik-loo'Ko;ma-kli',  (Nik- 
olas,) a  Russian  traveller,  born  in  1846,  was  the  son  of  a 
nobleman.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Saint  Peters- 
burg. In  1866  he  went  with  Haeckel  to  Madeira,  in  1867 
to  the  Canaries,  and  in  1869  to  Morocco.  After  visiting 
South  America,  Tahiti,  and  Samoa,  he  in  1871-72  made 
the  first  of  his  celebrated  journeys  in  Papua.  He  also 
travelled  in  Indo-China  and  in  other  little-known  regions, 
making  important  geographical  discoveries.    Died  1888. 

Mi'con,  [Gr.  M'ikuv,]  an  eminent  Athenian  painter 
and  sculptor,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  n.c.  He  was  chosen  by  his  countrymen  to  paint 
the  walls  of  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens.  His 
pictures  representing  the  battles  of  the  Amazons  and 
Centaurs  were  especially  admired  for  the  skill  displayed 
in  the  delineation  of  the  horses.  There  were  severa; 
other  Greek  artists  named  Micon. 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as//  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MICRELIUS 


1720 


MID  GARBS 


Micrelius  or  Micraelius,  me-kRa'le-us,  (Johann,) 
a  Geiiiian  historical  writer,  bcjrn  at  Coslin  in  1597.  He 
taught  philosophy  at  Stettin,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Lexicon  Philosophicum,"  (1653,)  and 
"  Iloyal  Political  Science,"  ("  Regia  Politica  Scientia  '" 
1654.)     Died  in  1658. 

Mi'das,  [Gr.  Mi(5af,]  a  Phrygian  king,  who,  according 
•0  tradition,  requested  of  Bacchus  that  all  he  touched 
might  turn  to  gold,  and  was  gratified  by  the  grant  of  that 
wish.  Being  thus  in  danger  of  starvation,  he  could 
only  escape  the  curse  he  had  brought  upon  himself  by 
bathing  in  the  Pactolus,  which  ever  after  flowed  with 
sands  of  gold.  It  is  also  related  of  him  that,  having 
decided  in  favour  of  Pan  in  his  musical  contest  with 
Apollo,  Midas's  ears  were  changed  to  those  of  an  ass, 
which  he  endeavoured  to  conceal.  They  were  at  length 
discovered  by  a  servant,  who,  unable  to  retain  the  secret, 
whispered  it  in  a  pit  in  the  ground,  and  the  reeds  which 
grew  around  the  spot  revealed  his  disgrace,  murmuring 
in  the  winds  the  words,  "  King  Midas  has  asses'  ears." 
This  fable  was  a  favourite  theme  with  the  Athenian 
dramatists. 

Middelburg,  de,  deh  mid'del-biiRH',  (Paul,)  a 
Dutch  mathematician  and  writer,  born  at  Middelburg  in 
1445,  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua.  He 
was  made    Bishop  of  Fossombrone  in  1494.     Died   in 

1534- 

Middendorp,  van,  \i.n  mid'den-doRp',  (Jakob,)  a 
Dutch  historian,  born  in  Overyssel  in  1537.  His  his- 
tories are  not  reliable.     Died  in  161 1. 

Mid'dl-man,  (Samuel,)  an  English  engraver,  born 
in  1746.  He  engraved  landscapes  with  success.  Died 
in  1818. 

Mid'dle-tpn,   (Arthur,)  an   American   statesman, 
born  in  South  Carolina,  succeeded  Nicholson  as  governc 
of  that  colony  in  1725. 

Middleton,  (Arthur,)  an  American  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1743,  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
took  the  degree  of  A.B.  at  Cambridge,  England,  and 
after  his  return  was  a  delegate  from  his  native  State  to 
the  United  States  Congress  in  1776.  He  was  subse- 
quently re-elected  in  1782.     Died  in  1787. 

_  Mid'dle-ton,(CoNYERS,)a  celebrated  English  scholar, 
divine,  and  controversialist,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1683. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
became  a  Fellow  in  1706.  He  was  created  D.D.  in  1717, 
on  which  occasion  he  opposed  the  claims  of  Bentley  (then 
regius  professor  of  divinity)  to  an  exorbitant  fee.  A  law- 
suit followed,  in  which  Bentley  was  defeated.  Middleton 
published,  soon  after,  "A  Full  and  Impartial  Account 
of  the  Proceedings  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  against 
Dr.  Bentley,"  which,  though  highly  vindictive  in  its 
tone,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece  of  English  style.  He 
was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  university  about 
1720.  Having  visited  Italy  in  1724,  he  published,  after 
his  return,  his  "Letter  from  Rome,"  (1729,)  in  which  he 
maintains  that  "  the  religion  of  the  present  Romans  is 
derived  from  their  heathen  ancestors."  Having  brought 
upon  himself  the  charge  of  infidelity  by  this  work  and 
siicceeding  publications,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  in  defence 
ol  his  orthodoxy,  which,  however,  failed  to  remove  the 
unfavourable  impression  he  had  made.  He  brought 
out  in  1 741  his  "  History  of  the  Life  of  M.  T.  Cicero," 
which,  though  marred  with  some  grave  defects,  was 
received  with  extraordinary  favour.  "Never,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  was  there  a  character  which  it  was  easier  to 
read  than  that  of  Cicero.  Never  was  there  a  mind 
keener  or  more  critical  than  that  of  Middleton.  But  the 
great  Iconoclast  was  himself  an  idolater,  and,  while  he 
disputed  with  no  small  ability  the  claims  of  Cyprian  and 
Athanasius  to  a  place  in  the  calendar,  was  himself  com- 
posing a  lying  legend  in  honour  of  Saint  Tully."  In 
1749  he  published  "A  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Miraculous 
Powers  of  the  Christian  Church,"  in  which  he  insists 
that  the  Protestant  clergy  should  deny  the  authority  of 
the  Fathers  entirely,  or  admit  the  truth  of  the  leading 
Catholic  doctrines.  "  Died  in  1750. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica :"  E.  Middleton,  "Evangelical 
Biography ;"  Chalmers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary,"  "  Biographia 
Britaniiica." 


Middleton,  (Edward,)  an  English  gentleman,  born 
at  Twickenham,  settled  in  .South  Carolina,  and  was  the 
founder  of  a  family  which  produced  several  distinguished 
statesmen. 

Middleton,  (Erasmus,)  an  English  writer,  published 
a  "  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  .Sciences,"  and  a  collection 
of  lives  of  eminent  Protestant  theologians,  entitled 
"  Biographia  Evangelica."     Died  in  1805. 

Middleton,  (Henry,)  son  of  Arthur  Middleton, 
Governor  of  South  Carolina,  was  president  of  Congress 
in  1775. 

Middleton,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  navigator,  born 
about  1570,  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. In  1610  he  conducted  an  expedition  to  Mocha, 
Surat,  and  Bantam.     Died  in  1615. 

Middleton,  (Henry,)  an  American  statesman  under 
the  administration  of  President  Monroe,  was  elected 
Governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1820  was  minister 
to  Russia.  Died  in  1846.  His  son  Henry,  born  in  Paris 
in  1797,  has  published  several  political  treatises. 

Middleton,  (Sir  Hugh,)  a  wealthy  citizen  of  London, 
born  about  1565,  is  chiefly  known  from  the  important 
service  he  rendered  to  London  by  uniting  two  streams  in 
Hertfordshire  and  Middlesex,  for  supplying  the  city  with 
water.  The  stream  formed  by  this  junction,  called  the 
New  River,  was  conveyed  a  distance  of  about  thirty-eight 
miles.     He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1622.    Died  in  1631. 

See  LvsoNS,  "  Environs  of  London." 

Middleton,  (John  Izard,)  son  of  Arthur,  noticed 
above,  (1743-87,)  was  born  in  1785.  He  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "The  Cyclopean  Walls."     Died  in  1849. 

Middleton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  flou- 
rished during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth,  James  I.,  and 
Charles  I.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  he 
was  chronologer  to  the  city  of  London  in  1620.  Two 
of  his  principal  plays  are  entitled  "  A  Mad  World,  my 
Masters,"  and  "The  Roaring  Girl."  The  latter  is  said 
to  be  a  true  picture  of  London  life  at  that  time.  Mid- 
dleton also  assisted  Rowley,  Fletcher,  and  Jonson  in 
the  composition  of  several  of  their  plays.  One  of  his 
dramas,  entitled  "  The  Witch,"  is  supposed  to  have  fur- 
nished Shakspeare  with  the  witch-scenes  in  "Macbeth." 
Died  about  1626. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Baker, 
"  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Middleton,  (Thomas  Fanshawe,)  D.D.,  an  English 
prelate,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1769.  He  took  his  degree 
m  1808,  and  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Huntingdon 
in  1812.  Soon  after  this  the  government  having  decided 
to  constitute  a  bishopric  in  India,  Dr.  Middleton  was 
consecrated  first  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  in  1814.  Having 
previously  been  made  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  he 
set  sail  for  India.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Bishops' 
College  at  Calcutta,  in  1820,  and  established  a  consistory 
court  in  that  city.  While  zealously  engaged  in  his  duties, 
he  was  attacked  with  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  1822. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  "The  Doctrine  of  the 
Greek  Article  applied  to  the  Criticism  and  Illustration 
of  the  New  Testament." 

See  tlie  "  t^ife  of  Thomas  Fanshawe  Middleton,"  by  C.  W.  Lb 
Bas  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1810  ei  seq. 

Mid'gard's*  Serpent,  (or  MiSgariSsormr,  mith'- 
garthz-oRmr',)  called  also  the  World-Serpent,  and 
Jormungand,  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  great  serpent 
which  surrounds  the  world,  the  offspring  of  Loki  and 
the  female  Jotun  Angurboda,  (AngrboSa.)  The  gods, 
having  learned  that  the  children  of  Loki  and  An 
gurboda  were  destined  at  some  future  day  to  be  fatal  to 
them,  determined  to  get  possession  of  those  children 
while  they  were  still  young.  They  were  accordingly 
brought,  and  Midgard's  Serpent  was  cast  into  the 
ocean,  where  it  grew  till  it  encircled  the  world,  biting 
its  own  tail.  At  the  end  of  the  world  (Ragnarock)  the 
world-serpent  will  fight  among  the  enemies  of  the  gods 
and  be  slain  by  Thor,  who,  however,  will  die  in  mediately 
afterwards  from  the  effect  of  its  venom.  The  myth  of 
the  world-serpent  is  supposed  to  signify  the  deep  or  main 
ocean,  which,  excited  by  Loki,  (subterranean  fire  orearth- 


•  Midgard  ("  middle-ward")  was  originally  applied  _  to  man's 
dwelling-place  in  the  middle  of  the  universe,  and  hence  signifies  the 
'world." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  ?,  i,  9,  obscure;  f5r,  ftll,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good ;  moon; 


MID  HA  T 


1721 


MIGNARD 


quake,)  is  thrown  upon  the  land,  thus  proving  scarcely 
less  fatal  to  the  works  of  man  than  the  direct  action  of 
volcanic  fire,  represented  under  the  form  of  Fenrir, 
(which  see.) 

For  further  particulars,  the  readermav consult  Thorpe's  "  North- 
ern Atytholoity,"  vol.  i.  ;  Mallet's  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol. 
ii..  Fables  XVI.,  XXV.,  XXVI.,  XXVII.;  Kevskr's  "Religion 
of  the  Northmen  ;"  and  Peter.skn's  "  Nordisk  Mytholo,gi." 

Midhat  Pasha,  mid'hdt  pi'shi,  a  Turkish  statesman, 
born  in  Constantinople  in  1822.  In  1845  he  entered  the 
civil  service  as  a  clerk,  and  he  was  afterwards  employed 
in  various  positions  of  high  trust.  In  1857  he  crushed 
out  brigandage  in  Roumelia,  and  soon  after  he  became 
acting  governor  of  Bulgaria.  In  i860  he  was  made  a 
pasha,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Southern  Albania. 
In  1864  he  was  commissioned  as  governor-general  of 
Bulgaria.  He  was  then  successively  president  of  the 
council  of  state,  grand  vizier,  governor  of  Bagdad,  and 
minister  of  justice.  He  was  concerned  in  the  deposition 
of  Abdool  Azeez  and  of  Moorad  V.,  and  in  1876  again 
became  grand  vizier,  but  was  soon  banished.  In  1878 
he  was  appointed  governor-general  of  Syria.  In  1881 
he  was  condemned  to  death  on  the  charge  of  having  mur- 
dered the  Sultan  Abdool  Azeez,  but  was  finally  banished 
to  Southern  Arabia.     Died  May  11,  1884. 

Mieczyslaw,  me-Stch'is-liv,  [Lat.  Miccisla'us  or 
Mtcisla'us,]  I.,  surnamed  the  Glorious,  called  also 
Miesko,  (me-es'ko,)  Duke  of  Poland,  was  born  at  Posen 
in  931.  Having  become  converted  to  Christianity,  he 
showed  great  zeal  in  its  promulgation  and  the  extirpa- 
tion of  paganism.  He  died  in  992.  A  monument,  by 
Rauch,  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Posen. 

See  Kadlubeck,  "  Annales  ;"  Seidel,  "  Von  deni  ersten  christ- 
lichen  Polnischen  Fiirsten  Miecislas,"  1752. 

Mieczyslaw  or  Miesko  II.,  King  of  Poland,  born 
in  990,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1025.  He  was  de- 
ficient in  talent  and  energy,  and  lost  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  his  territory  to  the  Germans  and  Hungarians. 
He  died  in  1034,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Casimir  I. 

Miel,  meel,  or  Meel,  mal,  (Jan,)  or  Giovanni  deli.o 
ViTE,  ( jo-vin'nee  dSKlo  vee'ti,)  a  celebrated  Flemish 
painter,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1599.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Andrea  Sacchi,  but  he  afterwards  adopted  the  style 
of  Bamboccio.  His  favourite  subjects  were  pastoral  and 
hunting  scenes,  gypsies,  beggars,  and  carnivals,  in  which 
he  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was  patronized  by 
Charles  Emmanuel,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  made  him  his 
painter  and  presented  him  with  a  diamond  cross  of 
great  value.  Many  of  the  best  works  of  this  artist  are 
in  the  Imperial  Gallery  at  Vienna.     Died  in  1664. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  C.  Blanc, 
"  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Mielle,  me'§K,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  littirateiir, 
born  at  Dole  in  1757.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History 
of  Portugal,"  (id  vols.,  1828,)  in  which  he  was  associated 
with  Fortia  d'Urban.     Died  in  1839. 

Mierevelt  or  Miereveld,  mee'reh-vclt',  (Michiel 
Jansen,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1567, 
was  a  pupil  of  Blocklandt.  His  works  are  esteemed 
master-pieces  of  the  kind,  and,  though  very  numerous, 
are  finished  with  exceeding  delicacy  and  precision.  His 
portraits  are  stated  by  Sandrart  to  have  amounted  to 
more  than  ten  thousand.  Mierevelt  belonged  to  the 
sect  of  Meniionites,  but,  in  consideration  of  his  genius, 
was  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  his  religion.  Among 
his  best  portraits  we  may  name  those  of  Grotius,  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange, 
Ambrose  Spinola,  Constantine  Huyghens,  the  grand 
pensionary  Barneveldt,  Admiral  de  Coligny,  Maurice  of 
Nassau,  the  Dutch  poet  Jacob  Cats,  and  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham.     Died  in  1641. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters:"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Hollandais ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Mieris,  mee'ris,  (Frans,)  called  the  Elder,  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1635,  was  a 
pupil  of  Gerard  Douw,  who  called  him  the  prince  of  his 
discijiles.  His  works  are  principally  domestic  scenes, 
conversation-pieces,  and  interiors  of  palaces,  and  are 
distinguished  by  great  brilliancy  of  colouring  and  skilful 
imitation  of  velvet,  satin,  and  other  rich  materials. 
Among  his  inaster-pieces  we  tn ay  name  "The  Silk-Mer- 
chant," which  was  purchased  by  the  archduke   Leopold 


William  of  Austria  for  one  thousand  florins,  a  "  Young 
Girl  Painting,"  an  "  Assembly  of  Ladies,"  bought  by  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  for  one  thousand  dollars,  a 
"  Lady  at  her  Toilet,"  "The  Pearl-Stringer,"  "The  Silk- 
Store,"  "Lady  playing  with  a  Parrot,"  and  "The  Sick 
Woman."     Died  in  1681. 

See  Smith,  "Catalogue  of  the  Most  Eminent  Dutch,  Flemish, 
and  French  Painters;"  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;" 
Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Mieris,  (Frans,)  the  Younger,  son  of  Willem, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1689.  He  was  a 
skilful  artist,  but  is  better  known  as  a  scholar  and  writer. 
Among  his  works  is  his  "  History  and  Ecclesiastical 
Antiquities  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,"  (1726.) 
Died  in  1763. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Mieris,  (Jan,)  son  of  Frans  the  Elder,  was  born  at 
Leyden  in  1660.  He  painted  portraits  and  historical 
pieces  of  great  merit.     Died  in  1690. 

Mieris,  van,  vtn  mee'ris,  (Willem,)  son  of  Frans 
the  Elder,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1662.  He  studied 
under  his  father,  whose  style  he  adopted.  Among  his 
best  pictures  are  a  "Dutch  Kitchen,"  a  "Game-Mer- 
chant," and  "  Armida  and  Rinaldo."  Died  in  1747.  His 
works  are  far  inferior  to  those  of  his  father. 

See  Desc.xmps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Mieroslawski,  me-i-ro-slJv'skee,  (Louis,)  the  son 
of  a  Polish  officer  and  a  French  lady,  was  born  in  France 
in  1813.  He  wrote,  in  French,  a  "History  of  the  Polish 
Revolution,"  (1837,)  and  a  number  of  historical  and 
political  works  in  Polish.     Died  November  23,  1878. 

Mierre,  Le.     See  Lemierre, 

Mifflin,  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot  and  offices 

of  the   Revolution,  was   born   at   Philadelphia  in  1744. 

He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774, 

became  first  aide-de-camp  to  Washington  in  1775,  served 

with  distinction  at  Long  Island  and  Trenton,  and  rose 

to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1777.     He  succeeded 

Franklin  in  1788  as  president  of  the  supreme  executive 

council  of  Pennsylvania.      He  was  a  member  of  the 

Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 

States  in  1787.    He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from 

1790  to  1799.     Died  at  Lancaster  in  1800. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Miger,  me'zhi',  (Pierre  Auguste  Marie,)  a  French 
litteratair,  born  at  Lyons  in  1771 ;  died  in  1837. 

Migliara,  mil-y^'ri,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1785.  He  excelled  in  landscapes, 
perspective,  and  architectural  views.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  "  Cathedral  of  Milan,"  "  Charles  V.  in  a 
Convent,"  and  "  Interior  of  the  Church  of  Saint  Am- 
brose."    Died  in  1837. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  Westminstei 
Review"  for  April,  1S41. 

Migliorati.    See  Innocent  VII. 

Mignard,  min'ytR',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter, 
engraver,  and  architect,  born  at  Troyes  in  1608.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  brother 
of  Richelieu,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Rome  in  1644. 
He  painted  portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  his  queen,  and 
adorned  the  Tuileries  with  several  historical  pictures  of 
great  merit.  His  engravings  are  also  highly  esteemed. 
In  1663  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  died  in  1668,  leaving  two  sons,  Pierre 
and  Paul,  who  were  artists  of  considerable  merit. 

See  R.  Dumesnil,  "  Le  Peintre  Graveur  Fraiifais  ;"  Renouvier, 
"  Des  Types  et  Maniferes  des  Maitres-Graveurs." 

Mignard,  (Pierre,)  surnamed  the  Roman,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  painters  of  the  French  school,  was 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  was  born  at  Troyes  in 
1610.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Simon  Vouet,  and  in 
1635  visited  Rome,  where  he  met  with  Poussin,  Claude 
Lorrain,  Dufresnoy,  and  other  celebrated  artists  residing 
in  that  city.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  in  1658,  he  was  pa- 
tronized by  Louis  XIV.,  whose  portrait  he  painted  many 
times.  He  was  also  employed  to  decorate  the  palaces 
of  Versailles  and  Saint-Cloud.  On  the  death  of  Le  Brun 
he  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king,  and  director  of  the 
Gobelin  Manufactory.     Mignard  was  ennobled  by  Louis 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MIGNAULT 


1722 


MILBURN 


XIV.,  and  became  successively  rector,  chancellor,  and 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.     Died  in  1695. 

See  De  Monville,  "Vie  de  Mignard  :"  Robert  Dumksnu., 
"  Le  Peintre-Graveiir  Fran  pais ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des 
Peintres;"  '' Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Mignault,  mJn'yo',  (Claude,)  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Minos,*  a  learned  French  writer,  born  near 
Dijon  about  1536.  He  edited  several  Latin  classic 
authors,  and  published  "Alciati  Emblemata  cum  Notis 
Minois,"  (1574,)  often  reprinted.     Died  in  1606. 

Migne,  m^fi,  (Jacques  Paul,)  Abbe,  a  French  priest, 
born  at  Saint-Flour,  October  25,  1800.  He  was  ordained 
in  1S24,  and  became  an  editor.  He  founded  "  L'Univers," 
a  newspaper,  in  1833.  He  established  an  enormous 
business  as  a  publisher  and  editor  of  religious  books, 
employing  a  large  staff  of  writers  and  collaborateurs.  He 
issued  "Scripturas  Sacras  Cursus  Conipletus."  (28  vols.,) 
"Theologiae  Cursus  Completus,"  (28  vols.,)  "Encyclo- 
pedic theologique,"  (171  vols.,  1844-60,)  and  a  very  large 
number  of  other  works.     Died  at  Paris.  October  25, 1875. 

Mignet,  mh.x\'y\',  (Franqois  Auguste  Marie,)  a  dis- 
tinguished French  historian,  born  at  Aix,  May  8,  1796. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Avignon,  and  studied 
law  in  his  native  city,  where  M.  Thiers  was  his  fellow- 
student.  Having  removed  to  Paris  in  1821,  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Courrier  Fran9ais."  He  brought  out  in 
1824  his  "History  of  the  French  Revolution  from  1789 
to  1814,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  which  had  extraordinary  success 
and  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages. In  1830  he  was  associated  with  Thiers  and 
Arniand  Carrel  as  editor  of  the  "  National,"  and  was 
one  of  the  journalists  who  protested  against  the  sub- 
version of  the  freedom  of  the  press  by  the  edict  of  July, 
1830.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  archivist  in  the 
ministry'  of  foreign  affairs,  and  councillor  of  state.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  in  1832,  and  in  1837  became  perpetual 
secretary  of  that  institution,  and  succeeded  Raynouard 
in  the  French  Academy.  Mignet  published,  besides  the 
history  above  named,  "Introduction  to  the  Negotiations 
relative  to  the  Spanish  Succession  under  Louis  XIV.,' 
(1842,)  "Antonio  Perez  and  Philip  II.,"  (1845,)  "His 
tory  of  Mary  Stuart,"  (1851,)  "Charles  Quint,  son  Abd-- 
cation,  son  Sejour  at  sa  Mort  au  Monastere  de  Yuste," 
(1854,)  "Eloges  historiques,"  (1864,)  and  "  Rivalite  de 
Fran9ois  I  et  Charles  V,"  (1875.)     I^'^d  March  24,  1884. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  March,  1845  : 
"  Nouvelle  Biogiaphie  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Janu- 
ary, 1849  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1S66. 

Mignon,  min'y^N',  written  also  Minjon  or  Minion, 
(Abraham,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1639, 
was  celebrated  for  his  exquisite  representations  of  flowers, 
fruit,  insects,  birds,  etc.  His  works  are  esteemed  second 
only  to  those  of  Van  Huysum.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  a  "  Cat  overturning  a  Vase  of  Flowers  on  a 
Marble  Table."     Died  in  1679. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Allemands,"  etc. 

Mignot,  min'yo',  (Etienne,)  a  learned  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  in  Paris  in  1698,  published  a  number  of 
works  on  theology  and  church  government.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in 
1761.     Died  in  1771. 

Mignot,  (Vincent,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
about  1725,  was  a  nephew  of  Voltaire.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  from  its  Origin  to  the 
Peace  of  Belgrade  in  1740,"  (1771,)  and  other  historical 
works.     Died  in  1 740. 

See  Grim.m,  "  Correspondance." 

Miguel,  me-ggK,  (Dom  or  Don  Maria  Evaristo,) 
a  Portuguese  prince,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1802,  was  a 
younger  son  of  John  VI.  He  became  the  head  of  the 
absolutist  party,  and  in  1828  usurped  the  throne,  the 
lawful  heir  of  which  was  his  niece.  Dona  Maria.  The 
partisans  of  this  queen  maintained  her  title  by  arms, 
and  were  aided  by  her  father,  Don  Pedro,  and  Admiral 
Napier.  Miguel  was  defeated  in  several  actions,  and 
was  expelled  from  Spain  in  May,  1834.     Died  in  1866. 

•  It  may  be  proper  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  final  s  in  Latin 
and  Greek  names  is  sounded  in  French,  contrary  to  the  genera]  rule 
of  French  pronunciation. 


Mih-Teih,  mlh-ta',  or  Me-Teih,  an  eminent  Chinese 
philosopher,  who  lived  about  400  B.C.  Dr.  Legge  says 
of  him  that  he  was  an  original  thinker,  and  exercised  a 
bolder  judgment  on  things  than  Confucius  or  any  of  his 
followers.  He  taught  that  all  the  evils  in  society  arise 
from  the  want  of  mutual  universal  love.  For  example, 
a  prince  loves  only  his  own  state,  and  does  not  love  the 
neighbouring  state.  Therefore  he  makes  war  against  it. 
"  If  princes,"  he  asked,  "  regarded  other  states  as  their 
own,  who  would  begin  a  war  ?  If  every  one  regarded 
his  neighbour's  person  as  his  own,  v/ho  would  be  found 
to  rob.'  If  universal  love  prevailed,  all  enmities,  usur- 
pations, and  miseries  would  disappear.  Princes,  loving 
one  another,  would  have  no  battle-fields;  the  chiefs 
of  families,  loving  one  another,  would  attempt  no  usur- 
pations;  men,  loving  one  another,  would  commit  no 
robberies." 

See  Dr.  Legge,  "Chinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  iii. 

Mikhailofski  Danilefski  or  Michailowski  Da- 
nilewski,  me-Kl-loFskee  di-ne-Igf'skee,  (.\i,exander 
IVANOViTCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  1790,  served  with  distinction  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  the  French  from  1812  to  1815,  and  in 
the  Turkish  war  of  1829.  He  published,  among  other 
i^'orks,  an  "Account  of  the  Campaign  in  France  in  1814." 
Died  in  1848. 

Miklosich,  mik'lo-ziK',  (Franz,)  a  German  linguist, 
profoundly  versed  in  the  Slavonian  language,  born  at 
Luttenberg,  in  Styria,  in  1813.  He  wrote  a  "  Lexicon 
of  the  Old  Slavonian  Language,"  (in  Latin,  1850,)  a 
"Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Slavonian  Languages," 
(1852-56,)  "  Language  of  the  Bulgarians  of  Transylva- 
nia," (1856,)  "On  the  Dialects  and  the  Wanderings  of 
the  Gypsies  of  Europe,"  (1S72-77,)  etc.     Died  in  1891. 

Milan  (mee'lSn)  I.,  King  of  Servia,  was  born  at  Jassy, 
August  10,  1854.  He  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Milos 
Obrenovitch,  and  was  adopted  as  his  heir  by  his  second 
cousin,  Michael  HI.,  (Obrenovitch,)  Prince  of  Servia. 
When  Michael  was  murdered  in  1868,  Prince  Milan  was 
at  school  in  Paris,  but  he  at  once  returned  to  Servia,  and 
was  in  1872  crowned  at  Belgrade  as  Prince  Milan  IV. 
In  1876  he  declared  war  against  Turkey,  joining  the 
Montenegrins  and  Bosnians  in  an  unfortunate  campaign 
against  his  suzerain  the  Sultan.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  proclaimed  king,  but  he  was  not  generally  so  recog- 
nized until  his  next  proclamation  of  18S2,  Servia  having 
in  the  mean  time  been  recognized  as  an  independent 
nation.  His  queen  is  Natalie,  a. Russian  lady,  born 
Sejitember  7,  1859. 

Milani,  me-li'nee,  (Aurelio  or  Aureliano,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1675,  was  a  success- 
ful imitator  of  the  style  of  the  Caracci.     Died  in  1749. 

Milano,  da,  di  me-li'no,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
painter,  was  a  native  of  Milan.  He  was  a  favourite  pupil 
of  TaddeoGaddi,  whom  he  assisted  in  several  important 
works.     He  lived  about  1370-90. 

MilanoUo,  me-li-nol'lo,  (Teresa,)  an  Italian  violinist, 
born  at  Sevigliano,  near  Turin,  in  1827.  Before  she  was 
seven  years  old  she  made  her  first  public  appearance  in 
Turin,  and  she  was  subsequently  taken  to  Paris  by  her 
father,  where  she  met  with  great  success.  Her  younger 
sister,  Maria,  born  in  1832,  now  began  to  show  almost 
equal  talent,  and  the  sisters  henceforth  appeared  to- 
gether, making  tours  through  France,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  Italy.  Maria  died  in  1848,  and  Teresa  soon 
afterwards  married  M.  Parmentier  and  retired  to  private 
life. 

Milbourne,  mil'burn,  (Luke,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  born  in  1667,  published  a  "Poetical  Translation 
of  the  Psalms,"  (1698,)  "Notes  on  Dryden's  Virgil,"  and 
other  works.  He  is  one  of  the  authors  satirized  in 
Pope's  "Dunciad."     Died  in  1720. 

See  Johnson,  "Life  of  Drydeu ;"  Malone's  edition  of  the 
Works  of  Dryden. 

Mil'burn,  (William  Henry,)  a  Methodist  divine, 
known  as  "the  Blind  Preacher,"  born  at  Philadelphia  in 
1823.  Having  visited  England  in  1859,  he  gave  lectures 
in  the  principal  cities,  and  attracted  large  audiences  by 
his  eloquence.  He  published  "Ten  Years  of  Preacher 
Life,"  (1859,)  and  "The  Pioneers  and  People  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,"  (i860.) 


a,  e,  1. 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  fi,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  nigt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MILDER 


172; 


MILL 


Milder-Hauptmann,  mll'der-howpt'man,  (Pauline 
Anna,)  a  German  soprano-singer,  born  at  Constanti- 
nople, of  Austrian  parentage,  in  1785.  Slie  made  her 
first  appearance  in  opera  in  Vienna,  April  9,  1803,  with 
brilliant  success.  In  18 10  she  married  a  rich  jeweller 
named  Hauptmann.  After  making  a  professional  tour 
of  the  principal  German  towns,  she  settled  in  Berlin  in 
1816,  singing  at  the  royal  theatre  for  twelve  years.  In 
1S20  she  visited  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmar]<.  Died 
at  Berlin  in  183S. 

Mild'may,  (Sir  Walter,)  an  eminent  English  states- 
man and  scholar,  born  in  1522,  was  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.,  and  held  the 
office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under  Elizabeth 
for  more  than  twenty  years.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learning,  and  founded  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge. 
Died  in  1589. 

Miles,  mllz,  (Dixon  H.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Maryland  about  1803,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1824. 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1859,  and  served  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861.  He  commanded  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and 
there  surrendered  about  11,500  men,  September  16, 
1862.  He  was  killed  by  a  shell  thrown  after  the  sur- 
render. "  It  is  impossible,"  says  Greeley,  "  to  resist  the 
conclusion  that  Miles,  in  this  affair,  acted  the  part  of  a 
traitor."     ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  p.  202.) 

Miles,  (James  Warley,)  an  American  scholar  and 
missionary,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about 
1819.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  and  history  at 
Charleston  College.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"Southern  Review,"  and  published  various  works  in 
prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1875. 

Miles,  (Richard  Pius,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Maryland,  May  17,  1791. 
He  was  taken  to  Kentucky  in  1796,  became  a  Dominican 
in  1806,  was  ordained  to  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood 
in  1816,  and  in  1838  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Nash- 
ville.    Died  at  Nashville,  February  21,  i860. 

Mil'fort,  (Le  Clerc,)  a  native  of  France,  who  settled 
about  1776  among  the  Creek  Indians  of  Georgia  and 
fought  as  their  ally  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1796,  and  was  created  by  Bona- 
parte a  general  of  brigade.  He  published  a  narrative 
of  his  residence  among  the  Creeks,  entitled  "  Sejour 
dans  la  Nation  Creek."     Died  about  1814. 

Milicz,  mee'litch,  (Johann,)  a  priest  and  reformer, 
born  in  Moravia.  He  preached  at  Prague,  and  wrote  a 
work  "On  Antichrist."     Died  soon  after  1374. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Pliiladelphia,  1867. 

Milius,  me'Ie'iis',  (Pierre  Bernard,)  Baron,  a 
French  admiral,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1773  ;  died  in  1829. 

Milizia,  me-l^t'se-S,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect and  writer,  born  in  Otranto  in  1725,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Raphael  Mengs.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lives 
of  the  Most  Celebrated  Architects  of  all  Nations,"  (1768,) 
a  revised  edition  of  which  was  entitled  "  Memorie  degii 
Architetti  antichi  e  moderni,"  ("Memoirs  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Architects,"  2  vols.,  1781,)  which  were  trans- 
lated into  French  and  English,  a  treatise  "On  the 
Theatre,"  (1772,)  "Principles  of  Civil  Architecture," 
("Elementi  di  Architettura  civile,"  3  vols.,  1 781,)  which 
was  highly  esteemed  and  was  translated  into  various  lan- 
guages, a  "Dictionary  of  Fine  Arts,"  (1797,)  and  other 
works.  He  lived  many  years  in  Rome,  where  he  died 
in  1798. 

See  F.  Milizia,  "Notizie  iiitorno  alia  sua  Vita,"  1804:  L.  ClCO- 
GNARA,  "  Memoria  intorno  all'  Indole  di  F.  Milizia,"  1808 ;  Tipaldo, 
"Biografia  dcgli  Italian!  illustri." 

Mill,  (Henky,)  an  English  engineer,  born  in  London 
about  1680.  He  supplied  the  town  of  Northampton  with 
water,  and  was  appointed  principal  engineer  to  the  New 
River  Company. 

Mill,  (James,)  a  British  historian  and  writer  on  po- 
litical economy,  born  at  Montrose,  in  Scotland,  in  1773. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  attainments  in  the  Greek  language,  metaphysics,  and 
moral  philosophy.  Having  removed  to  London  in  1800, 
he  became  a  contributor  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
and  other  periodicals.  He  published  (181 7-19)  his 
'History  of  British  India,"  (in  5  vols.  8vo,)  a  work  of 
great  merit,  which  procured  for  him  the  oftice  of  head 


of  the  department  of  Indian  correspondence  in  the  India 
House.  "  We  know  of  no  work,"  says  Mr.  Grote,  "  which 
surpasses  his  '  History  of  British  India'  in  the  main 
excellences  attainable  by  historical  writers, — industrious 
accumulation,  continued  for  many  years,  of  original  au- 
thorities, careful  and  conscientious  criticism  of  their 
statements,  and  a  large  command  of  psychological  ana- 
lysis, enabling  the  author  to  interpret  phenomena  of 
society  both  extremely  complicated  and  far  removed 
from  his  own  personal  experience."  (See  "  Review  of 
J.  S.  Mill's  Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Philosophy,"  London,  1868.)  Among  his  other  pro- 
ductions are  a  series  of  essays  on  "Jurisprudence," 
"Liberty  of  the  Press,"  "Law  of  Nations,"  etc.  These, 
first  published  in  the  "  Supplement  to  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica,"  were  very  favourably  received,  and 
were  followed  by  his  "Elements  of  Political  Econ- 
omy," which  appeared  in  1821,  and  his  "Analysis  of  the 
Phenomena  of  the  Human  Mind,"  in  1829.  Mill  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  and  one  of  the  ablest 
expounders  of  his  system.     Died  in  1836. 

See  CHAMiiKus,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
('Supplement;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  March,  1S29  ;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  August  and  October,  1821. 

Mill,  [Lat.  Mil'lius,]  (John,)  an  English  theologian 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Westmoreland  about  1645. 
He  became  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.  in  1681, 
and  in  1704  was  made  a  canon  of  Canterbury.  He  pub- 
lished a  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
(1707,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1707. 

See  Chalmers,  "General  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Mill,  (John  Stuart,)  an  eminent  English  philosophei 
and  economist,  son  of  James  Mill,  author  of  the  "  His- 
tory of  British  India,"  was  born  in  London  in  May,  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  home  by  his  father,  and  entered  in 
1823  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  as  a  clerk 
in  the  India  House.  In  his  early  life  he  contributed  to 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  and  the  "Westminster  Re- 
view." He  published  in  1843  ^  "System  of  Logic, 
Rationative  and  Inductive,"  (2  vols.,)  and,  in  1844, 
"  Essays  on  some  Unsettled  Questions  in  Political  Econ- 
omy." He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  a  popular  work 
entitled  "The  Principles  of  Political  Economy,  with 
some  of  their  Applications  to  Social  Philosophy,"  (1848.) 
As  a  writer  he  was  distinguished  by  originality  of  thought 
and  acuteness  in  reasoning.  In  political  principles  he 
was  an  advanced  Liberal,  and  all  his  sympathies  were  in 
favour  of  liberty  and  progress.  About  1850  he  married 
Harriet  Taylor,  a  lady  of  rare  intellectual  powers.  He 
became  examiner  of  Indian  correspondence  in  1856. 
During  the  rebellion  in  the  United  States,  Mr.  Mill 
was  among  the  few  prominent  English  writers  who  de- 
fended the  cause  of  the  North  and  of  the  Federal  Union. 
Among  his  later  works  were  an  "  Essay  on  Liberty" 
and  "  An  Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's  Phi- 
losophy," (1865,)  of  which  a  highly  favourable  review 
from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Grote,  the  historian,  has  been  pub- 
lished, (London,  1868.)  He  was  for  some  time  editor 
of  the  "  Westminster  Review."  In  1865  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  Westminster.  He  became 
an  able  debater,  and  made  several  speeches  in  favour 
of  reform  and  extension  of  the  elective  franchise  in 
1866  and  1867.  His  career  as  a  legislator  was  very  suc- 
cessful. "Mr.  Mill's  success,"  says  the  "New  York 
Commercial  Advertiser,"  August  29,  1867,  "has  been 
the  most  marked  and  decided  in  the  annals  of  Parlia- 
ment. No  man  has  ever  before  acquired  so  high  a  con- 
sideration in  so  short  a  time."  He  was,  however, 
defeated  in  the  general  election  of  1868.  Mr.  Mill  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  earnest  and  able  advocate  of 
the  rights  of  women.  In  his  work  entitled  "The  Sub- 
jection of  Women,"  (1869,)  he  takes  the  ground  "that 
the  principle  which  regulates  the  existing  social  relations 
between  the  two  sexes — the  legal  subordination  of  one 
sex  to  the  other — is  wrong  in  itself,  and  now  one  of  the 
chief  hindrances  to  human  improvement,  and  that  it 
ought  to  be  replaced  by  a  principle  of  perfect  equality." 
Died  May  8,  1873. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Renew"  for  October,  1848,  and  October, 
1S69  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1848,  and  January,  1866  ; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1848,  and  May,  1859  ;  "  British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846,  January,  1S60.  and  July,  1868. 


fi  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  v:., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  u,  trilled;  s  as  a.-  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  2-;.) 


MILLAIS 


1724 


MILLER 


Millais,  mil'la',  (John  Everett,)  an  English  painter, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Southampton  in  1829,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  what  is  called  the  "  Pre-Raphaelite 
School."  He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  at 
an  early  age  produced  several  works  of  superior  merit, 
among  which  was  "  The  Benjamites  seizing  the  Daugh- 
ters of  Shiloh."  His  "  Return  of  the  Dove  to  the  Ark," 
"Child  of  the  Regiment,"  "Ophelia,"  "The  Order  of 
Release,"  and  "Joan  of  Arc"  are  among  his  most  ad- 
mired productions.  He  is  a  Royal  Academician,  and 
was  decorated  with  the  legion  of  honour  in  1878. 

Mil'lar,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  jurist,  born  in 
Lanarkshire  in  1735.  He  studied  at  Glasgow,  where 
he  became  in  1761  professor  of  civil  law.  The  spirited 
and  attractive  style  of  his  lectures,  which,  says  a  critic 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "gave  to  a  learned  discus- 
sion the  charms  of  an  animated  and  interesting  conversa- 
tion," drew  great  numbers  to  the  university,  and  made 
it  for  the  time  one  of  the  most  flourishing  and  popular 
in  the  kingdom.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Origin  of  the 
Distinction  of  Ranks,"  (1771,)  and  a  "Historical  View 
of  the  English  Government  from  the  Settlement  of  the 
Saxons  to  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart,"  (1787.) 
The  former  was  translated  into  French,  German,  and 
Italian.     Died  in  1801. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Life  of  Millar,"  by  Craig,  prefixed  to  his  "Origin  of  the  Dis- 
tinction of  Ranks;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1806. 

Mil'lard,  (David,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  Ball- 
ston.  New  York,  in  1794,  published  several  theological 
works,  also  "Travels  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  tne  Holy 
Land,"  (1843.)     Died  at  Jackson,  Michigan,  August  3, 

1873- 

Mil'ledge,  (John,)  an  American  patriot  and  states- 
man, born  at  Savannah,  Georgia,  in  1757,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  in  1802  was 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  University  of  Georgia,  and  the  former  capital  of 
the  State  was  named  in  his  honour.     Died  in  1818. 

Milledoler,  mil'dol'ar.  (Philip,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  born  at  Far- 
mington,  Connecticut,  in  1775.  He  became  president 
of  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  in  1825.  Died  in 
!Si;2. 

Mil'ler,  (Charles  Henry,)  an  American  artist,  born 
in  New  York  city,  March  20,  1842.  He  studied  art  at 
the  National  Academy,  New  York,  and  at  Munich.  He 
first  exhibited  at  the  National  Academy  in  i860.  He 
afterwards  studied  medicine,  and  graduated  as  M.D.  in 
1863  at  the  New  York  Homoeopathic  College,  but  he 
never  practised  that  profession.  In  1873  ^^  became  an 
associate,  and  in  1875  a  full  member,  of  the  National 
Academy.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Chal- 
lenge Accepted,"  (i860,)  "A  Cloudy  Day  in  Spring," 
(1882,)  "A  Bouquet  of  Oaks,"  (1884,)  "Niagara," 
"After  the  Storm,"  "Weir  and  Water-Gate,"  "The 
Wood-Gatherers,"  etc. 

Mil'ler,  (Edward,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Delaware  in  1760,  was  a  brother  of  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Miller,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons,  New  York,  and  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Yellow  Fever,"  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
*'  Medical  Repository,"  the  first  medical  journal  of 
America.     Died  in  1812. 

Mil'ler,  (Edward,)  an  English  musician  and  writer, 
born  at  Norwich,  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Burney.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Institutes  of  Music"  and  "  Elements  of 
Thorough  Bass  and  Composition."     Died  in  1807. 

Miller,  me'y^',  (Emanuel,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in 
Paris  in  1812,  has  published  a  "Catalogue  of  the  Greek 
Manuscripts  in  the  Escurial,"  (1840,)  and  edited  several 
classical  works.     [Died  in  1886.] 

Mil'ler,  (Hugh,)  an  eminent  Scottish  geologist  and 
writer,  born  at  Cromarty  on  the  loth  of  October 
1802,  was  a  son  of  a  mariner  and  shipmaster,  who  per- 
ished in  a  storm  in  1807.  He  attended  the  grammar- 
school  of  the  parish,  and  received  instruction  from  two 
maternal  uncles,  James  and  Alexander  Wright,  one  of 
whom  encouraged  his  taste  for  natural  history.     At  an 


early  age  he  began  to  write  verses.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  a  stone-mason,  and  commenced  in  1819  his  life 
of  labour  in  a  quarry  of  old  red  sandstone  at  Cromarty. 
"It  was  the  necessity  which  made  me  a  quarrier,"  he 
writes,  "that  taught  me  to  be  a  geologist."  He  worked 
as  a  mason  in  various  parts  of  Scotland,  and  diligently 
improved  the  intervals  of  labour  by  the  cultivation  of 
his  mind.  In  1825  and  1826  he  was  employed  at  Edin- 
burgh as  a  stone-cutter.  He  afterwards  published  a  vol- 
ume of  poems,  and  in  1834  relinquished  his  trade  to 
become  an  accountant  in  a  bank  at  Cromarty.  In  1835 
he  produced  "  Scenes  and  Legends  of  the  North  of  Scot- 
land," which  was  received  with  favour.  He  married 
about  1836. 

In  1839  he  defended  with  much  ability  the  cause  of 
the  Free  Church,  in  a  "  Letter  from  One  of  the  Scotch 
People  to  Lord  Brougham,"  which  was  praised  by  Mr. 
Gladstone.  He  became  in  1840  editor  of  the  "  Witness," 
an  organ  of  the  Free  Church  or  Non-Intrusionists,  pub- 
lished in  Edinburgh  twice  a  week.  He  continued  to 
edit  this  paper  until  his  death,  and  rendered  it  very 
popular  and  influential.  His  reputation  as  a  geologist 
was  increased  by  his  work  entitled  "The  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  or  New  Walks  in  an  Old  Field,"  (1841,) 
which  is  written  in  an  attractive  style.  He  afterwards 
published  "Footprints  of  the  Creator,"  (1849,)  "First 
Impressions  of  England  and  its  People,"  (1851,)  an  inter- 
esting autobiography  entitled  "My  Schools  and  School- 
masters, or  the  Story  of  my  Education,"  (1854,)  and 
"  The  Cruise  of  the  Betsey."  These  works  mark  an 
important  epoch  in  the  progress  of  geology.  "There 
was  nothing  in  Miller's  works,"  says  the  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1858,  "which  so  much  surprised  the 
public  as  their  mere  literary  merit.  Where  could  this 
Cromarty  mason  have  acquired  his  style  ?" 

In  consequence  of  excessive  mental  exertion,  his  brain 
became  diseased.  During  a  paroxysm  of  insanity,  he 
killed  himself  with  a  pistol  in  December,  1856.  He  had 
just  finished  a  work  entitled  "The  Testimony  of  the 
Rocks,  or  Geology  in  its  Bearings  on  the  Two  Theologies, 
Natural  and  Revealed,"  (1857.)  In  this  work  he  rejects 
the  theory  that  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  is 
purely  parable,  while  he  censures  those  who  refuse  to 
accept  the  evidences  of  scientific  truths  when  they  seem 
to  clash  with  traditionary  interpretations  of  Scripture. 
His  "  Footprints  of  the  Creator"  was  written  to  refute 
the  theory  of  development  advocated  by  the  author  of 
"  The  Vestiges  of  Creation."  "  Hugh  Miller,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  "must  undoubtedly  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  whom  Scotland  has 
produced.  .  .  .  The  interest  of  his  narrative,  the  purity 
of  his  style,  his  inexhaustible  faculty  of  happy  and  inge- 
nious illustration,  his  high  imaginative  power,  and  that 
light  of  genius  which  it  is  so  difficult  to  define  yet  so 
impossible  to  mistake,  all  promise  to  secure  for  the 
author  of  the  '  Old  Red  Sandstone'  the  lasting  admira- 
tion of  his  countrymen," 

See  the  "Edinbur?;h  Review"  for  July,  1S58,  article  "Hugh  Mil 
!er,"  (reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age,"  August  21,  1858;)  "North 
British  Review"  for  August,  1854;  "North  American  Review"  for 
October,  1851;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Miller,  (James,)  an  English  dramatist  and  satirical 
writer,  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1703.  He  published  sev- 
eral political  pamphlets,  a  satire  entitled  "The  Humours 
of  Oxford,"  and  a  number  oi  comedies.     Died  in  1744. 

Miller,  (James,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  Peter- 
borough, New  Hampshire,  about  1776.  He  served  as 
colonel  with  distinction  at  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and 
Lundy's  Lane,  July  25,  1814.  His  commander  asked 
him  if  he  could  take  a  certain  battery  at  Lundy's  Lane. 
He  answered,  "  I'll  try,  sir,"  and  captured  the  battery. 
Died  in  1851. 

Miller,  (Joaquin,)  the  literary  name  of  Cincinnatus 
Heine  Miller,  an  American  poet,  born  at  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  November  10,  1842.  He  went  with  his  father's 
family  westward  when  very  young,  and  in  1852  reached 
Lane  county,  Oregon.  In  1856  he  began  a  roving  life, 
and  served  for  a  time  with  Walker  in  Honduras.  In 
i860  he  began  to  practise  law  in  Oregon.  In  1863  a 
newspaper  which  he  edited  was  suppressed  for  disloyalty. 
He  was  county  judge  for  Grant  county,  Oregon,  1866-70. 
Among  his  poems  are  "  Songs  of  the  Sierras,"  "  Songs 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  t,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MILLER 


1725 


MILLIN 


of  the  Sunlands,"  "The  Siiip  in  the  Desert,"  "The  Firs; 
Fam'lies  of  the  Sierras,"  etc.  Later  worl<s  of  his  (chiefly 
prose)  are  "The  Danites,"  (an  effective  and  successful 
play,)  "My  Life  among  the  Modocs,"  "The  Shadows 
of  Shasta,"  "  The  One  Fair  Woman,"  "  The  Baroness 
of  New  York,"  "  Memorie  and  Rime,"  etc. 

Miller,  mil'ler,  (Johann  Martin,)  a  German  poet 
and  fictitious  writer,  born  at  Ulm  in  1750.  He  was  the 
author  of"  Correspondence  ofThi  ee  Academic  Friends," 
"Siegwart,  a  Convent  History,"  (1776,)  which  was  trans 
'ated  into  French,  Dutch,  and  Polish,  and  several  other 

e)pular  works.  His  lyric  poems  are  highly  esteemed, 
e  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Klopstock  and  Voss.  Died 
in  1814. 

Miller,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  English  comedian, 
whose  appreciation  as  an  actor  of  the  wit  of  Congreve's 
plays  contributed  in  a  great  measure  to  their  success, 
was  born  in  16S4.  The  jests  ascribed  to  him  were  in 
reality  compiled  by  John  Motley,  author  of  a  "  Life  of 
Peter  the  Great."     Died  in  1738. 

Miller,  (Philip,)  an  English  botanist  and  florist,  born 
in  1691.  He  published  a  "Catalogue  of  Hardy  Trees, 
Shrubs,  etc.  cultivated  near  London,"  (with  coloured 
plates,  1730,)  "Gardener's  Dictionary,"  (1731,)  which 
was  translated  into  several  languages,  and  "  Figures  of 
Plants,"  (2  vols.,  1755,)  adapted  to  the  Dictionary.  The 
genus  Milleria  was  named  by  Dr.  Martyn  in  honour  of 
this  botanist.     Died  in  1771. 

Miller,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Delaware  in  1769.  He  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  York  in  1793. 
In  1813  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Princeton.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  theological  and  controversial 
works,  and  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards,"  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography."     Died  in  1850. 

See  Samuel  Miller,  "  Life  of  Samuel  Miller,"  2  vols.,  i86g. 

Miller,  (Samuel  Freeman,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
jurist,  born  at  Richmond,  Kentucky,  April  5,  1816. 
He  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Transylvania  University  in 
1838.  He  afterwards  became  a  lawyer,  and  in  1850 
removed  to  Iowa.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  a  justice  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court.     Died  Oct.  13,  1890. 

Miller,  (Stephen  Franks,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
journalist,  born  in  North  Carolina,  became  associate 
editor  of  "De  Bow's  Review"  about  1848.  He  published 
the  "Bench  and  Bar  of  Georgia,"  etc.     Died  in  1867, 

Miller,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  1718, 
was  appointed  lord  advocate  of  Scotland  in  1760.  On 
ihe  death  of  Dundas  he  became  president  of  the  court 
of  sessions,  (1788.)     Died  in  1789. 

Miller,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  basket-maker, 
born  at  Gainsborough  about  1808.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  poet  Rogers,  by  whose  aid  he  became  a  book- 
seller. He  wrote,  besides  numerous  poems,  the  novels 
"  Royston  Govver"  and  "  Fair  Rosamond."   Died  in  1874. 

Miller,  (William,)  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Miller- 
ites,  was  born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1781. 
About  1833  he  began  to  prophesy  the  end  of  the  world, 
which  he  affirmed  would  be  destroyed  in  1843.  He  died 
in  1849;  ^"d  his  followers,  who  are  said  to  have  num- 
I)ered  nearly  fifty  thousand,  have  since  greatly  decreased. 

Miller,  (William,)  an  eminent  line-engraver,  born 
at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  May  28,  1796.  He  was  a 
Quaker,  and  spent  most  of  his  life  in  his  native  town. 
His  engravings  after  Turner  are  especially  admirable. 
Died  at  Sheffield,  England,  January  20,  1882. 

Miller,  (William,)  "the  Laureate  of  the  Nursery," 
a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Glasgow  in  August,  1810.  He 
was  a  wood-turner  by  trade,  and  his  only  published  vol- 
ume was  "  Scottish  Nursery  Songs,  and  other  Poems," 
(1863.)  Of  his  songs  "  Wee  Willie  Winkie"  is  perhaps 
the  best-known.     Died  in  Glasgow,  August  20,  1872. 

Miller,  (William  Allen,)  an  English  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Ipswich  in  181 7.  He  took  his  medical 
degree  in  London,  and  subsequently  studied  in  the  labo- 
ratory of  Liebig  at  Giessen.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  Royal  College  in  1845,  and 
assayer  at  the  Mint  and  Bank  of  England  in  185 1.  He 
was  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society  and  president  of 


the  Chemical  Society,  and  wrote  "  Elements  of  Chemistry, 
Theoretical  and  Practical,"  (1850.)    Died  Sept.  30,  1870. 

Miller,  (William  Hallows,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
English  mineralogist  and  physicist,  was  educated  at 
Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  B.A.  about  1826.  He  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Cambridge  in  1832,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  crystallography.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  new  and  greatly-improved  edition  of  Phillips's 
"Elementary  Introduction  to  Mineralogy,"  (1852.)  He 
was  a  member  of  a  commission  appointed  by  govern- 
ment in  1843  for  the  restoration  of  the  standards  of 
weight  and  measure,  and  he  constructed  and  verified  the 
new  national  standard  of  weight.     Died  May  20,  i88o. 

Milles,  milz,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  divine  and  an- 
tiquary, born  in  17 14,  became  Dean  of  Exeter  in  1762. 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Archaeologia,"  and  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  vindicate  the  authenticity 
of  Rowley's  poems.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Died  in  1784. 

Millet,  me'yi',  (Aim6,)  a  French  painter  and  sculptor, 
a  son  of  Frederic  Millet,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  about  1818;  died  January  14,  1891. 

Mil'let,  (Francis  Davis,)  an  American  painter,  born 
at  Matta])oisett,  Massachusetts,  November  3,  1846.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1869,  studied  art  at 
Antwerp  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  1871-73,  and  was 
one  of  the  jurors  in  the  Vienna  Exhibition  of  1873,  ^""^ 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878,  in  which  year  he  was 
war-correspondent  of  the  "  London  Daily  News"  on  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  He  is  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy. 

Millet,  (Fr^d^ric,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Charlieu  in  1786,  was  a  pupil  of  Isabey.  He  executed 
a  number  of  portraits  of  great  merit,  among  which  we 
may  name  that  of  the  empress  Josephine.     Died  in  1859. 

Millet,  (Jean  Francois,)  commonly  known  as  Fran- 
CISQUE,  an  eminent  painter,  born  at  Antwerp,  of  French 
parentage,  about  1644.  He  became  a  very  skilful  land- 
scape-painter, and  died  in  Paris  in  1680.  His  son,  of 
the  same  name,  (born  in  Paris ;  died  1773,)  was  a  clever 
artist,  but  inferior  to  his  father. 

Millet,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  an  eminent  French  painter, 
born  at  Gruchy,  near  Greville,  (La  Manche,)  October  4, 
1815.  He  studied  under  Delaroche,  and  then  established 
himself  at  Barbison,  an  obscure  hamlet,  and  became  the 
faithful  copyist  of  nature  and  of  the  humble  life  of 
peasants.  Among  his  more  noted  paintings  are  "  The 
Sowers,"  "The  Sheep-Shearers,"  "Woman  Carding 
Wool,"  "Sheep-Pasture  by  Moonlight,"  "The  Potato- 
Planters,"  "  The  Evening  Angelus,"  "  A  Woman  Work- 
ing Butter."  His  etchings  and  lithographs  are  few,  and 
very  costly.  His  pictures  are  now  very  highly  esteemed. 
Died  at  Barbison,  (which  under  his  influence  became  an 
artist-colony,)  January  20,  1875. 

Millevoye,  m^rvw^',  (Charles  Hubert,)  a  French 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1782.  He  was 
the  autnor  of  elegiac  poems  of  great  beauty,  and  ob- 
tained several  prizes  from  the  French  Academy.  Died 
in  1816. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  Litt^rajres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe. " 

Milli,  mfel'lee,  (Giannina,)  a  popular  Italian  poetess, 
born  at  Teramo  in  1828.  She  very  early  attained  an 
extensive  fame  as  an  improwisatrice,  travelling  from  city 
to  city  to  exhibit  her  skill.  In  1869  she  became  an  in- 
spectress  of  schools  at  Naples,  and  later  was  made  prin- 
cipal of  the  girls'  normal  school  at  Rome.  Some  volumes 
of  her  verse  have  been  published. 

Mil'li-ken,  (Richard  Alfred,)  an  Irish  poet,  born 
in  the  county  of  Cork  in  1767.  He  is  only  remembered 
for  his  humorous  poem  "The  Groves  of  Blarney,"  which 
originated  a  form  of  verse  afterwards  cultivated  success- 
fully by  Father  Prout  and  others.     Died  in  1S15. 

Millin,  me'ylN',*  (Aubin  Louis,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  naturalist,  born   in  Paris  in   1759.     He   published 


•  There  seems  to  be  some  diversity  respecting  the  pronundatim 
of  these  names:  some  speakers  say  me'laN',  me'loN',  etc.,  omiti.n? 
all  sound  of  the  liquid  /. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  //  G,  H,  K., guttural;  N,  fiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MILLINGEN 


1726 


MILNES 


"Eieuiei.ls  of  Xaunal  History,"  {1794,)  "Dictionary  of 
the  Fine  Arts,"  (3  vols.,  1806,)  •'  Mythological  Gallery," 
(181 1,)  and  other  works.  In  1795  he  became  editor  of 
the  "  Magasin  Encyclopedique,"  a  journal  of  high  char- 
acter, which  he  conducted  for  twenty  years.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of  several  foreign 
Academies,  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
In  1794  he  had  been  appointed  keeper  of  the  medals 
and  antiquities  in  the  Royal  Library.     Died  in  1818. 

See  Krafft,  "Notice  sur  A.  L.  Millin,"  1818  ;  Hon  Joseph 
Dacier,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Oiivrages  de  M.  Millin,"  1821 ; 
QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nd- 
rale." 

Millingen,  mil'ling-gen,  ?  (James,)  an  eminent  anti- 
quary, of  Dutch  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1774.  He 
published  "  Remarks  on  the  State  of  Learning  and  the 
Fine  Arts  in  Great  Ikitain,"  "  Ancient  Coins  of  Greek 
Cities  and  Kings,"  (1821,)  and  other  similar  works,  which 
have  a  very  high  reputation.     Died  in  1845. 

Millon,  me'y6.\',*  (Charles,)  a  French  litterateur^ 
born  at  Liege  in  1754,  wrote  poems,  histories,  etc.  Died 
in  1839. 

Millon,  (Eugene,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  1812.  He  published,  besides  other  chemical 
treatises,  "Elements  of  Organic  Chemistry,  comprising 
the  Applications  of  this  Science  to  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology," (2  vols.,  1845-48.)      Died  December  14,  1865. 

Millot,  mi'yo',*  (Claude  FRANgoKs  Xavier,)  a 
French  historian,  bom  in  Franche-Comte  in  1726.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Elements  of  Universal  History," 
"  Political  and  Military  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
Louis  XIV.,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1777,)  and  other  works  of 
the  kind.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1777,  and  in  1778  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  Due 
d'Enghien.     Died  in  1785. 

Mills,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Green- 
wich in  1788,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Moham- 
medanism," (1812,)  "  History  of  the  Crusades,"  (1820,) 
"Travels  of  Theodore  Ducas,"  etc.,  (1822,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1825. 

Mills,  (Clark,)  a  distinguished  American  sculptor, 
born  in  Onondaga  county,  New  York,  in  1815.  Having 
removed  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  he  executed 
several  busts  in  marble,  which  won  for  him  a  high  repu- 
tation. In  1848  he  began  his  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
Jackson,  for  which,  owing  to  its  size,  he  was  obliged  to 
construct  a  foundry.  It  was  completed  in  1853,  and 
placed  in  Lafayette  Square  at  Washington.  His  next 
work  was  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
finished  in  i860.     Died  January  12,  1883. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Mills,  (Samuel  John,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Torringford,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Missionary  Society.* 
He  also  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  organization  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  in  1817  visited 
Africa,  in  company  with  the  Rev.  E.  Burgess,  for  the 
purpose  of  choosing  a  site  for  the  colony.  He  died  in 
1818,  while  on  his  voyage  home. 

Mil'man,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  eminent  English  phy- 
sician, born  in  Devonshire  in  1746.  He  published 
"Animadversions  on  the  Nature  and  Cure  of  Dropsy," 
(1776,)  "Treatise  on  the  Source  of  the  Scurvy,"  and  other 
works.  He  was  appointed  physician  to  George  III., 
and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians.     Died  in  1821. 

Milman,  (Rev.  Henry  Hart,)  an  English  poet, 
historian,  and  divine,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
London  in  1791.  He  graduated  at  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford,  where  in  1821  he  became  professor  of  poetry. 
Having  filled  several  inferior  offices  in  the  Church,  he 
was  appointed  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1849.  ^'^  tragedy 
of  "Fazio,"  published  in  1815,  was  well  received,  and 
was  followed  by  the  poems  of  "  Samor,  Lord  of  the 
Bright  City,"  (1818,)  "The  Fall  of  Jerusalem,"  (1820,) 
"The  Martyr  of  Antioch,"  and  others.  In  1840  he 
brought  out  his  "  History  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth 
of  Christ  to  the  Extinction  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman 
Empire,"  (3  vols.   8vo,)   and   in    1854  his   "  History  of 


*  See  note  on  preceding  page. 


Latin  Christianity,  including  that  of  the  Popes  to  the 
Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V."  He  published  excellent 
editions  of  the  works  of  Horace,  with  a  well-written  life 
of  the  poet,  and  of  Gibbon's  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire."     Died  in  September,  1868. 

See  W.  E.  H.  Leckv,  "  History  of  European  Morals  from  Au- 
gustus 10  Charlemagne,"  (Preface.)  1869;  "  Eciinburgh  Review"  for 
Jaiiuarj',  1H5S,  January,  1864,  and  January,  i860;  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  .'\pril,  1S16.  Jiilv.  1S18.  M.Ay,  iHzo,  and  April,  i86g;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  March  and  July,  ii.22  :  "  North  British  Review"  for 
November,  1854,  and  March,  1869  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1854- 

Mil'niore,  (Martin,)  an  Irish-American  sculptor, 
born  in  the  county  of  Sligo,  Ireland,  September  14, 
1844.  He  settled  with  his  family  in  Boston,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1851,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Thomas  Ball.  His 
portrait-busts  are  especially  praised.  Died  at  Boston, 
July  II,  1883. 

Milne,  miln,  (Colin,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Aberdeen.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Botanical 
Dictionary,"  "Indigenous  Botany,"  etc.     Died  in  1815. 

Milne,  miln,  (Joshua,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1776,  was  appointed  actuary  of  the  Sun  Life  Assurance 
Office.  He  published  a  valuable  "  Treatise  on  Annui- 
ties," in  which  he  describes  a  new  system  of  notation  for 
the  calculation  of  life-insurance. 

Milne,  (William,)  D.D  ,  a  Scottish  missionary,  born 
at  Kinnethmont,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1785.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1812,  and  went  as  an  agent  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  to  labour  among  the  Chinese  at 
Malacca,  where  he  died  in  1822. 

Milne-Edvrards,  m!ln  ^d'wardz,  [Fr.  pron.  miln 
i'doo-SRs',]  (Henri,)  an  eminent  French  naturalist,  of 
English  descent,  born  at  Bruges  in  1800.  After  he  had 
taught  natural  history  for  some  years  in  the  College 
Henri  IV.  in  Paris,  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1838.  He  published  "The  Natural  His- 
tory of  the  Crustacea,"  (3  vols.,  1834-41,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  In  1841  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
entomology  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  in  1844  was 
chosen  adjunct  professor  of  zoology  and  comparative 
physiology  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  succeeded  I. 
Geoflfroy  Saint-Hilaire  as  professor  of  zoology  in  1862. 
Among  his  works  are  "Elements  of  Zoology,"  (4  vols., 
1834-37,)  which  obtained  considerable  popularity,  and 
"  Researches  into  the  Anatomy  and  Phvsiology  of 
Polypi,"  (1842.)     Died  in  1885. 

See  article  "Milne,"  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale.'' 

Mil'ner,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
mathematician,  born  near  Leeds  in  1751.  He  studied 
at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  in 
1783  Jacksonian  professor  of  experimental  philosophy. 
He  was  subsequently  appointed  master  of  his  college, 
(1788,)  Dean  of  Carlisle,  (1791,)  and  Lucasian  professor 
of  mathematics,  (179S.)  He  was  also  twice  elected  vice- 
chancellor  of  his  college.  He  was  the  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  miscellaneous  essays,  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  his  brother  Joseph's  "Church  History." 
He  numbered  among  his  friends  Pitt  and  Wilberforce. 
Died  in  1820. 

Milner,  (John,)  a  learned  Roman  Catholic  di\'ir.e. 
born  in  London  in  1752.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  His- 
tory, Civil  and  Ecclesiastical,  and  Survey  of  the  Anti- 
quities, of  Winchester,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Archasologia,"  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.     Died  in  1826. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Re\-iew"  for  May,  1810,  and  Octobei, 
1811. 

Milner,  (John,)  an  English  theologian,  born  near 
Halifax  in  162S,  became  canon  of  Ripon.     Died  in  1702. 

Milner,  (Joseph,)  an  English  divine,  born  near  Leeds 
in  1744,  was  a  brother  of  Isaac,  noticed  above.  He 
became  vicar  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Hull 
in  1797.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of  Christ," 
(5  vols.,  1794-1812,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
It  was  completed  by  his  brother,  the  Dean  of  Carlisle. 
Milner  also  published  an  "Answer  to  Gibbon's  Attack 
on  Christianity,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1797. 

See  Isaac  Milner,  "Life  of  J.  Milner,"  prefixed  to  his  Sermons. 

IVIilnes,  m51nz,  (Richard  Monckton,)  Baron  Hough- 
ton,  an    English    statesman   and    miscellaneous    writer 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  0,  obscure;  f^r,  f3.ll,  fit;  mit;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MILNOR 


1727 


MILTON 


born  in  Yoikshire  in  1809.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1831,  and  in  1837  was  first  elected  a  member  of  Par- 
liament for  Pontefract,  which  he  continued  to  represent 
until  1S63,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Houghton.  As  a  member  of  the  liberal  conservative 
party,  he  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  reform.  Among 
his  principal  publications  are  "  Poems,  Legendary  and 
Historical,"  "Palm-Leaves,"  (1844,)  "Memorials  of 
Many  Scenes,"  and  the  "  Life,  Letters,  and  Literary  Re- 
mains of  John  Keats,"  (1848.)  He  contributed  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Review."     Died  August  11,  1885. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1S47,  article  "Literary  Legis- 
lators;" "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1S39,  and  July, 
1842. 

Mil'npr,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episcopal 
clergyman,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1773,  became  rector 
of  Saint  George's  Church,  New  York,  in  1816.  Died  in 
1845. 

See  "  Memoir  of  James  Milnor,  D.D.,"  by  Rev.  J.  S.  Stone. 

Mi'lo,  [Gr.  Mt7.wv;  Fr.  Milon,  me'16N',]  an  athlete, 
celebrated  for  his  prodigious  strength,  born  at  Crotona, 
in  Italy,  was  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras.  He  is  said  to  have 
once  carried  a  bull  on  his  shoulders  to  the  sacrifice,  and 
killed  it  with  a  blow  of  his  fist.  In  509  B.C.  he  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Sybarites.  When  advanced  in 
years,  he  found  one  day,  in  passing  through  a  forest, 
a  tree  partly  cleft  by  wedges.  Having  introduced  his 
hands  for  the  purpose  of  severing  it  entirely,  the  wedges 
fell  out,  but,  his  strength  failing  him,  the  parts  closed 
again,  retaining  him  a  prisoner,  and  in  this  helpless  con- 
dition he  was  devoured  by  wild  beasts. 

Mi'lo,  (Titus  Annius,)  a  famous  Roman  tribune,  was 
a  plebeian,  and  a  man  of  unscrupulous  character.  He 
became  tribune  of  the  people  in  57  B.C.,  and  was  a  par- 
tisan of  Pompey.  By  his  efforts  to  restore  Cicero  from 
exile  he  incurred  the  hostility  of  Clodius,  with  whom  he 
fought  in  several  bloody  affrays.  In  the  year  53  Miio 
was  a  candidate  for  the  consulship.  Before  the  electoral 
contest  was  decided,  Milo  and  Clodius  met,  each  with 
a  band  of  armed  slaves,  and  a  fight  ensued,  in  which 
Clodius  was  killed.  Milo  was  tried  for  homicide,  and, 
though  defended  by  Cicero,  was  condemned,  and  exiled 
himself  to  Marseilles.  Having  taken  arms  against 
Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  he  was  killed  in  Lucania,  48  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "  Oratio  pro  Milone ;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte 
Roms;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome;"  Elberling,  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  T.  A.  Milone,"  1840;  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography." 

Milon.     See  Milo. 

Milouof,  Milonov,  or  Milonovr,  mee'lo-nof,  (Mi- 
chael Vassilievitch,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  1792, 
was  the  author  of  satires,  epistles,  and  lyric  poems,  which 
enjoy  great  popularity.     Died  in  1821. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Russe." 

Miloradovitch,  me-lo-rS'do-vitch,  (Michael  An- 
drievitch,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  born  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1770.  He  fought  with  distinction  against 
the  Turks  and  Poles  and  in  the  campaigns  against  the 
French  from  1799  to  1814,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
general  of  infantry.  He  was  appointed  military  gov- 
ernor of  Saint  Petersburg  in  1819.  He  was  killed  in 
attempting  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in  that  city,  De- 
cember 25,  1825. 

Milosch.     See  Obrenovitch. 

Mil'roy,  (Robert  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Indiana  about  1814.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  Union  volunteers  about  September,  1861,  and 
served  at  Cross  Keys,  June  8,  1862.  He  commanded 
about  8000  men  at  Winchester,  was  attacked  June  15, 
1863,  and  retreated,  but  lost  nearly  half  of  his  force. 

Miltiade.     See  Miltiades. 

Mil-ti'a-des,  [Gr.  ^ACkTidhiq ;  Fr.  Miltiade,  mfel'- 
te'td',]  a  celebrated  Athenian  general,  who  flourished 
about  500  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Cimon.  He  became  suc- 
cessor to  his  uncle  Miltiades,  who  had  made  himself  a 
despot  or  mas^.er  of  the  Chersonese  in  Thrace,  and  he 
appears  first  in  history  as  an  arbitrary  ruler.  Darius  of 
Persia  having  sent  a  great  armament,  under  Datis  and 
Artaphernes,  to  conquer  Greece,  Miltiades  was  chosen 
one  of  the  ten  generals  of  the  Athenian  army,  which 
awaited  the  enemy  at  Marathon  in  490  B.C.  The  Grecian 


army  numbered  about  10,000  men,  and  the  Persian  prob- 
ably over  100,000.  A  regulation  then  prevailed  that  each 
of  the  ten  generals  should  command  by  turns  for  one  day. 
Some  of  them  were  averse  to  risking  a  battle.  When 
the  command  devolved  on  Miltiades,  he  gained  one  of 
the  most  memorable  and  important  victories  recorded 
in  history.  To  reward  his  patriotism  and  eminent  ser- 
vices to  national  liberty,  the  Athenians  decreed  that  he 
should  have  the  foremost  place  in  a  painting  which  illus- 
trated the  battle.  Having  failed  in  an  attack  on  Paros, 
he  was  fined  fifty  talents,  which  he  could  not  pay,  and 
about  the  year  489  died  in  prison  of  a  wound  received 
in  the  action  just  named.  The  famous  general  Cimon 
was  his  son. 

See  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Miltiades;"  Herodotus,  books  iv.  and 
vi. ;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Thiri.vvall,  "  History 
of  Greece;"  Kirchmaier,  "  Dissertatio  de  Miltiade."  1662. 

Miltitz,  von,  fon  mil'tits,  (Karl,)  a  German  prelate, 
born  about  1490,  became  chamberlain  to  Leo  X.,  who 
sent  him  in  1518  as  nuncio  to  Germany,  in  order  to 
conciliate  Luther  or  counteract  his  influence.  On  this 
occasion  he  displayed  much  tact,  and  used  flattery  or 
persuasive  means  with  some  success.  (See  LuTh^ER.) 
Died  in  1529. 

Miltitz,  von,  (Karl  Borromaus  Alexander  Ste- 
PHAN,)  a  German  poet  and  musical  composer,  born  at 
Dresden  in  1781.  Among  his  best  compositions  are 
the  operas  of  "  Saul"  and  "  Georg  Czerny."  Died  in 
1845.  His  brother  Alexander  was  ambassador  to 
Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"The  Manual  of  Consuls."     Died  in  1843. 

Mil'ton,  [Lat.  Milto'nus  ;  It.  Mil'ton  or  Miltc  .vo, 
mil-to'no,]  (John,)  an  immortal  poet,  and,  if  we  except 
Shakspeare,  the  most  illustrious  name  in  English  litera- 
ture, was  born  in  Bread  Street,  London,  on  the  9th  of 
December,  1608.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  Milton, 
a  scrivener,  and  Sarah  Bradshaw,  (or  Caston,  according 
to  some  authorities.)  His  early  education  was  directed 
by  a  private  tutor, — Thomas  Young,  a  zealous  Puritan. 
A  portrait  of  his  beautiful  features,  taken  by  C.  Jansen, 
at  the  age  often,  has  been  preserved.  Before  he  entered 
college  he  was  an  excellent  Latin  scholar.  In  severe  and 
systematic  study  he  laid  the  foundations  of  his  fame. 
In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  written  some  years  later,  he  says, 
"  It  is  my  way  to  suffer  no  impediment,  no  love  of  ease, 
no  avocation  whatever,  to  chill  the  ardour,  to  break  the 
continuity,  or  to  divert  the  completion  of  my  literary 
pursuits."  His  first  English  poems  were  versions  of  the 
114th  and  136th  Psalms,  (1623.) 

In  February,  1624,  he  was  admitted  as  pensioner  into 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  distinc- 
tion as  a  Latin  poet.  Dr.  Johnson  expresses  the  opinion 
that  Milton  "was  the  first  Englishman  who,  after  the 
revival  of  letters,  wrote  Latin  verses  with  classic  ele- 
gance." He  took  the  degree  of  Bachelor  in  1628,  and 
that  of  Master  of  Arts  in  1632, — before  which  he  had 
been  subjected  to  a  temporary  rustication  (and,  some  say, 
to  corporal  chastisement)  for  an  unknown  offence.  "  By 
the  intention  of  my  parents,"  says  Milton  himself,  "  I 
was  destined  of  a  child  to  the  service  of  the  Church,  and 
in  my  own  resolutions.  Till  coming  to  some  maturity 
of  years,  and  perceiving  what  tyranny  had  invaded  the 
Church,  that  he  who  would  take  orders  must  subscribe 
Slave,  and  take  an  oath  withal,  ...  I  thought  better 
to  prefer  a  blameless  silence,  before  the  sacred  office  of 
speaking,  bought  and  begun  with  servitude  and  for- 
swearing." 

In  1632  he  left  the  university,  and  retired  to  his 
father's  house  at  Horton,  Bnckinghamshire,  where  he 
remained  five  years,  during  which  he  is  said  to  have 
read  all  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  He  also  took 
lessons  in  music,  which  he  loved,  and  in  which  he  was 
very  skilful.  In  this  studious  retiiement,  it  appears,  he 
wrote  his  beautiful  poems  "  Comus,"  "L'Allegro,"  "II 
Penseroso,"  and  "  Lycidas,"  (1637.)  "Comus" — adrama 
»n  form,  but  essentially  lyrical — was  written  and  per- 
formed at  Ludlow  Castle  in  1634,  but  not  printed  until 
1637.  "It  is  certainly,"  says  Macaulay,  "the  noblest 
performance  of  the  kind  which  exists  in  any  language." 
"  Lycidas"  is  contemptuously  depreciated  by  Johnson  as 
a  "  pastoral,  easy,    vulgar,  and   therefore  disgusting." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


MILTON 


1728 


MILTON 


But  Hallam  approves  the  judgment  of  a  certain  critic 
(whom  he  does  not  name)  that  "  Lycidas"  is  "a  good 
test  of  a  real  feeh'ng  for  what  is  peculiarly  called  poetry." 
Milton's  "  Allegro"  and  "  Penseroso"  are  universally 
admired.  "  It  is  impossible  to  conceive,"  says  Macaiilay, 
"that  the  mechanism  of  language  can  be  brought  to  a 
more  exquisite  degree  of  perfection.  These  poems  differ 
from  others  as  ottar  of  roses  differs  from  ordinary  rose- 
water." 

In  1638,  attended  by  a  servant,  he  visited  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Naples,  conversed  with  Galileo,  then  a  "  pris- 
oner to  the  Inquisition,"  and  received  testimonials  of 
honour  and  friendship  from  Carlo  Dati,  Francini,  and 
Manso.  He  was  admired  as  a  great  prodigy  by  these 
Italian  celebrities.  He  returned  in  1639,  and  opened  in 
London  a  small  boarding-school,  in  which  he  adopted  a 
new  system  of  education.  His  nephews,  Edward  and 
John  Philips,  were  among  his  pupils.  In  1641  he  pro- 
duced his  first  prose  work, — a  "  Treatise  of  Reforma- 
tion,"— which  was  followed  by  other  arguments  against 
the  Established  Church  and  Prelacy.  He  sympathized 
with  the  popular  party  in  the  great  crisis  of  English 
liberty,  but  took  no  active  part  in  the  civil  war  which 
began  in  1642. 

At  Whitsuntide,  1643,  he  married  Mary  Powell,  whose 
father  was  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  a  royalist  of  Ox- 
fordshire. "  The  lady,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  seems  not 
much  to  have  delighted  in  the  pleasures  of  spare  diet 
and  hard  study."  A  month  after  the  marriage,  she  made 
a  visit  to  her  father's  house,  from  which  she  refused  to 
return.  Having  resolved  to  repudiate  her,  Milton  pub- 
lished "The  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  Divorce,"  (1644,) 
and  other  treatises  on  that  topic,  in  his  own  justification. 
He  also  paid  his  addresses  to  a  Miss  Davis,  until  his 
wife  implored  forgiveness  and  was  restored  to  favour. 
She  became  the  mother  of  three  daughters,  who  were  all 
the  children  that  Milton  had. 

He  published  in  1644  his  "  Areopagitica,"  or  "  Plea 
for  Unlicensed  Printing," — probably  his  greatest  prose 
work.  "  Many  passages  in  this  famous  tract,"  says  Hal- 
lam, "  are  admirably  eloquent :  an  intense  love  of  liberty 
and  truth  glows  through  it."  He  had  taken  a  larger 
house  in  Barbican  (about  1645)  for  the  reception  of 
scholars  ;  but  his  wife's  relations,  to  whom,  when  ruined 
by  the  civil  war,  he  generously  gave  refuge,  occupied  his 
rooms.  In  March,  1648-49,  he  was  appointed  Latin 
secretary  to  the  council  of  state,  which  was  the  highest 
executive  power  in  the  new  republic.  As  an  antidote  to 
the  "  Eikon  Basilike,"  i.e.  the  "  Image  (or  Portrait)  of  the 
King," — a  work  designed  to  excite  commiseration  for  the 
sufferings  of  Charles  I.,  (see  Gauden,) — Milton  pro- 
duced his  "  Iconoclastes,"  (Eikonoklastes,)  or  "  Image- 
breaker,"  and,  by  order  of  the  council,  appeared  as  the 
antagonist  of  the  learned  Salmasius,  in  reply  to  whom 
he  wrote,  in  Latin,  his  celebrated  work  entitled  "  Defence 
of  the  English  People,"  ("  Defensio  Populi  Anglicani," 
1650.)     (See  Salmasius.) 

About  1654  he  became  totally  blind.  His  "Defensio 
Secunda"  (1654)  contains  an  eloquent  allusion  to  this 
privation.  His  wife  died  about  1653,  and  in  1656  he  mar- 
ried Catherine  Woodcock,  who  died  in  the  following  year. 
After  serving  the  Protector  Oliver  as  Latin  secretary 
for  four  or  five  years,  he  retired  about  1657  from  public 
life,  with  a  pension  of  ;^  150.  Before  that  date  he  had 
meditated  the  plan  of  a  great  epic  poem.  One  of  the 
subjects  that  presented  was  the  exploits  of  King  Arthur. 
After  much  deliberation,  "long  choosing  and  beginning 
late,"  he  preferred  the  subject  of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  which 
at  first  he  proposed  to  dramatize.  At  the  restoration, 
(1660,)  his  prosecution  was  ordered,  and  he  concealed 
himself  in  the  house  of  a  friend  until  the  Act  of  Oblivion 
released  him  from  danger.  He  married  his  third  wife, 
Elizabeth  Minshul,  in  1664;  and  when  the  great  plague 
raged  in  London,  (1665,)  he  retired  to  Chalfont,  Bucks, 
where  his  friend  Ellwood  had  engaged  a  cottage  for  him. 
(See  Ellwood,  Thomas.)  In  the  course  of  the  same 
year  Milton  showed  to  Ellwood  the  finished  manuscript 
of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  which  the  latter  took  home  and 
perused.  On  returning  it  to  the  author,  he  remarked, 
"Thou  hast  said  much  here  of  Paradise  Lost ;  but  what 
hast  thou  to  say  of  Paradise  found?'''     Milton  sold  his 


copy  in  Ajjril,  1667,  to  Samuel  Simmons,  for  an  imme 
diate  payment  of  five  pounds  and  the  promise  of  an 
equal  sum  after  the  sale  of  thirteen  hundred  copies.  It 
was  rather  coldly  received,  only  three  thousand  having 
been  sold  in  the  first  eleven  years.  "  Its  admirers,"  says 
Johnson,  "did  not  dare  to  publish  their  opinion." 

He  published  in  1671  "Samson  Agonistes,"  a  tra- 
gedy, and  "  Paradise  Regained,"  which  he  is  said  to 
have  esteemed  his  most  perfect  production  ;  but  the 
public  and  the  critics  have  not  sanctioned  this  preference. 
Milton  died  in  London,  by  "a  silent  expiration,"  on  the 
8th  of  November,  1674. 

A  manuscript  of  Milton's  "On  Christian  Doctrine," 
("  De  Doctrina  Christiana,")  found  in  the  State-Paper 
Oflice,  I,ondon,  in  1823,  was  translated  and  published 
in  1S25.  The  genuineness  of  this  work,  though  some- 
times called  in  question,  is  considered  by  the  great 
majority  of  critics  to  be  established  beyond  reasonable 
doubt. 

Milton  was  not  connected  with  any  church,  but  ap- 
pears to  have  favoured  the  Independents, — a  politico- 
religious  party.  "  He  grew  old  without  any  visible 
worship,"  says  Johnson  ;  who  adds,  "  His  studies  and 
meditations  were  an  habitual  prayer."  His  favourite 
authors  among  the  Greeks  were  Homer  and  Euripides, 
and  Shakspeare  and  .Spenser  among  the  English.  His 
stature  was  rather  below  the  middle  height.  In  his  youth 
he  was  so  eminently  and  delicately  beautiful  as  to  be 
called  "the  Lady"  of  his  college,  though  his  habits  were 
far  from  effeminate.  He  had  a  fair  complexion  and 
auburn  hair.  Portraits  of  him  were  taken  at  the  age.s 
of  ten,  twenty-one,  and  about  sixty. 

"  Considered  with  respect  to  design,"  says  Johnson, 
"'Paradise  Lost'  may  claim  the  first  place,  and,  with 
respect  to  performance,  the  second,  among  the  produc- 
tions of  the  human  mind.  .  .  .  His  [Milton's]  great  works 
were  performed  under  discountenance  and  in  blindness  ; 
but  difficulties  vanished  at  his  touch  :  he  was  born  for 
whatever  is  arduous  ;  and  his  work  is  not  the  greatest 
of  heroic  poems,  only  because  it  is  not  the  first."  "  Was 
there  ever  anything  so  delightful,"  says  Cowper,  "as 
the  music  of  'Paradise  Lost'?  It  is  like  that  of  a  fine 
organ, — has  the  fullest  and  the  deepest  tones  of  majesty, 
with  all  the  softness  and  elegance  of  the  Dorian  flute ; 
variety  without  end,  and  never  equalled,  unless,  perhaps, 
by  Virgil."  Of  Milton's  prose  writings,  Macaulay  ob- 
serves, "They  are  a  perfect  field  of  cloth  of  gold.  The 
style  is  stiff  with  gorgeous  embroidery." 

"  It  is  certain,"  says  Hume,  "  that  this  author,  when 
in  a  happy  mood  and  employed  on  a  noble  subject,  is 
the  most  wonderfully  sublime  of  any  poet  in  any  lan- 
guage. Homer  and  Lucretius  and  Tasso  not  excepted. 
More  concise  than  Homer,  more  simple  than  Tasso, 
more  nervous  than  Lucretius,  had  he  lived  in  a  later 
age  and  learned  to  polish  some  rudeness  in  his  verses, 
had  he  enjoyed  better  fortune  and  possessed  leisure  to 
watch  the  returns  of  genius  in  himself,  he  had  attained 
the  pinnacle  of  perfection  and  borne  away  the  palm  of 
epic  poetry." 

"  It  may  be  doubted,"  says  Walter  S.  Landor, 
"whether  the  Creator  ever  created  one  altogether  so 
great  as  Milton, — taking  into  one  view  at  once  his  manly 
virtues,  his  superhuman  genius,  his  zeal  for  truth,  for 
true  piety,  true  freedom,  his  eloquence  in  displaying  it, 
his  contempt  of  personal  power,  his  glory  and  exultation 
in  his  country's." 

"  Milton,"  says  Macaulay,  "  did  not  strictly  belong 
to  any  of  the  classes  which  we  have  described.  He 
was  not  a  Puritan.  He  was  not  a  Freethinker.  He 
was  not  a  Cavalier.  In  his  character  the  noblest  quali- 
ties of  every  party  were  combined  in  harmonious  union. 
.  .  .  We  are  not  much  in  the  habit  of  idolizing  either 
the  living  or  the  dead.  But  there  are  a  few  characters 
which  have  stood  the  closest  scrutiny  and  the  severest 
tests,  which  have  been  tried  in  the  furnace  and  have 
proved  pure,  which  have  been  declared  sterling  by  the 
general  consent  of  mankind,  and  which  are  visibly 
stamped  with  the  image  and  superscription  of  the  Most 
High.  These  great  men  we  trust  we  know  how  to  prize  ; 
and  of  these  was  Milton.  .  .  .  His  thoughts  are  power- 
ful not  only  to  delight,  but  to  elevate  and  purify.     Nor 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  sho7-t;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fJr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MILTON 


1729 


MINGARELLI 


do  we  envy  the  man  who  can  study  either  the  life  or  the 
writings  of  the  great  poet  and  patriot  without  aspiring  to 
emulate,  not  indeed  the  sublime  works  with  which  his 
genius  has  enriched  our  literature,  but  the  zeal  with 
which  he  laboured  for  the  public  good,  the  fortitude  with 
which  he  endured  every  private  calamity,  the  lofty  dis- 
dain with  which  he  looked  down  on  temptation  and  dan- 
gers, the  deadly  hatred  which  he  bore  to  bigots  and 
tyrants,  and  the  faith  which  he  so  sternly  kept  with  his 
country  and  with  his  fame."     ("Essay  on  Milton.") 

Those  who  desire  to  know  how  this  great  poet  is 
regarded  by  a  nation  whose  taste  and  habits  of  thought 
differ  most  widely  from  those  of  the  English,  may  con- 
sult the  article  "  Milton"  in  the  "  Biographic  Univer- 
selle,"  from  the  pen  of  the  justly-celebrated  French 
critic  Villemain.  He  admits  that  Milton's  picture  of 
our  first  parents  in  Eden  surpasses,  in  graceful  and 
touching  simplicity,  anything  to  be  found  in  the  creations 
of  any  other  poet,  ancient  or  modern,  and  that  the 
human  imagination  has  produced  nothing  more  grand 
or  more  sublime  than  some  portions  of  "  Paradise  Lost." 

See  the  article  "Milton,"  in  Johnson's  "Lives  of  the  Poets;" 
TouD,  "Life  of  Milton,"  iSoi  ;  Keightley,  "Life,  Opinions,  and 
Writings  of  John  Milton,"  J855  ;  Masson,  "Life  and  Times  of 
Milton,"  vol.  i.,  1859;  Toland,  "  Life  of  Milton,"  169S;  Svmmons, 
"  Life  of  Milton  ;"  Havlev,  "  Life  of  Milton,"  1794;  Dr.  Channing, 
"Remarks  on  the  Character  and  Writings  of  Milton,"  1S2S ;  Mac- 
AtJLAY,  "Essays;"  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  Ixii.  ;  J. 
Mosneron,  "Viede  Milton,"  1S04;  Edwin  P.  Hood,  "J.  Milton, 
.he  Patriot  and  Poet,"  1851  ;  Jo.seph  Ivimev,  "J.  Milton,  his  Life 
and  Times,"  1832;  C.  R.  Edmonds,  "J.  Milton:  a  Biography," 
i8si  ;  Edward  Philips,  "Life  of  J.  Milton,"  1694;  notice  in  the 
"  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1838,  by  R.  W.  Emerson;  and 
the  excellent  article  in  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Mil'tpn,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
the  father  of  the  poet.  He  was  of  an  ancient  Catholic 
family,  and  was  disinherited  for  embracing  Protestantism. 
Some  of  his  tunes  are  contained  in  Ravenscroft's  "  Whole 
Book  of  Psalms,"  "  The  Triumphs  of  Oriana,"  and  other 
contemporary  publications.  Died  at  an  advanced  age 
about  1646. 

Milton,  Lord.     See  Fletcher,  (Andrew.) 

Milutinovics  or  Milutinowitsch,  pronounced 
alike  me-loo-tee'no-vitch,  (Simon,)  a  Servian  poet,  born 
in  1 791.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Popular  Songs  of  the 
Montenegrins,"  etc.,  "History  of  Servia  from  1813  to 
1815,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1847. 

Mi'mas,  [Gr.  Mt//af,]  a  giant  said  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  Jupiter.  The  island  of  Prochyte,  near  Sicily, 
was  believed  to  rest  upon  his  body. 

Mim-ner'mus,  [Gr.  Mifivepfiog ;  Fr.  Mimnerme,  mfem'- 
nkRm',]  a  Greek  elegiac  and  lyric  poet,  born  at  Colo- 
phon about  630  B.C.,  was  contemporary  with  Solon. 
The  fragments  of  his  poems  have  been  published  in  the 
collections  of  Estienne,  Brunck,  and  Boissonade ;  and,  in 
a  separate  edition  by  Bach,  Mimnermus  is  said  to  have 
invented  the  pentameter  verse. 

See  K.  O.  Muller,  "Geschichte  der  Griechen  Literatur,"  etc.; 
Christian  Marx,  "  Dissertatio  de  Mimnermo,"  1831. 

Mina.mee'ni,  (Don  Francisco Bspozy — 5s-pAth'e,) 
a  celebrated  Spanish  general,  sometimes  called  El  Rey 
DE  Navarra,  ("the  King  of  Navarre,")  born  near  Pam- 
peluna  in  1782.  As  a  guerilla  chieftain,  he  successfully 
defended  Navarre  against  the  French  in  1808  and  the 
succeeding  campaigns.  Having  been  created  marechal 
del  campo  in  1813,  he  endeavoured  to  excite  an  insur- 
rection against  the  government  of  Ferdinand  VH.,  but, 
failing  in  the  attempt,  took  refuge  in  France.  After  his 
return  to  Spain,  in  1820,  he  became  captain-general  of 
the  armies  of  Navarre,  Galicia,  and  Catalonia.  He  held 
several  high  offices  under  Queen  Christina,  for  whom 
he  fought  against  Don  Carlos.     Died  in  1836. 

See  MiNAiJo,  "  Exanien  critico  de  las  Revoluciones  de  Espafa," 
1837;  Moline  de  Saint- Yon,  "Les  deux  Mina:  Chronicf^e  Es- 
pagnole  du  XIXe  Siecle,"  3  vols.,  1840;  Burckhardt,  "Riego  und 
Mina,"  etc.,  1835. 

Mina,  (Xavier,)  a  Spanish  officer,  born  in  Navarre 
in  1789,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  undertook 
to  liberate  Mexico,  which  he  entered  in  April,  1817,  with 
a  few  hundred  men.  He  gained  several  victories,  but 
was  captured  and  shot  at  Mexico  in  November,  1817. 

Miiiano  y  Bedoya,  de,  di  mfen-yi'no  e  bi-po'e-i, 
(SERASTI.A.N,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born  in  the  province  of 
Palencia  in  1779.     He  wrote  "Letters  from  a  Resident 


of  Madrid,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Spanish  Revolution 
from  1820  to  1823,"  (in  French.) 

Mind,  m!nt,  (Gottfried,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  painter, 
born  at  Berne  in  1768,  was  surnamed  the  RaI'HAEL 
of  Cats.  He  was  the  child  o*"  indigent  parents,  and 
a  cretin,  and  was  educated  at  Pestalozzi's  institution  for 
Door  boys.  His  favourite  subjects  were  cats  and  bears, 
which  he  delineated  with  unequalled  skill  and  fidelity. 
He  died  in  1814,  leaving  numerous  designs,  which  were 
sold  at  a  high  price. 

Minderer,  min'deh-rer,  (Raimond,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Aug.sburg  about  1570,  was  the  discoverer 
of  a  new  chemical  compound,  (acetate  of  ammonia,) 
since  called  Spiritus  Mindereri.  He  published  several 
medical  works  in  Latin,  and  became  physician  to  the 
emperor  Matthias.     Died  in  1621. 

Minderhout,  min'der-howt',  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1577,  excelled  in  marine  views,  seaports, 
etc.     Died  in  1663. 

Minelli,  me-nel'lee,  [Lat.  Minel'lius,]  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
scholar,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1625.  He  translated 
Terence  into  Dutch,  and  published  numerous  editions 
of  the  Latin  classics,  with  notes,  which  had  a  high  repu- 
tation at  the  time.     Died  in  1683. 

Minellius.     See  Minelli. 

Mi'ner,  (Alonzo  Ames,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Lempster,  New  Hampshire,  August 
17,  1814,  became  pastor  of  a  Universalist  church  in 
Massachusetts  in  1839,  and  in  1S42  accepted  a  pastorate 
in  Boston.  He  was  president  of  Tufts  College,  1862-75, 
and  has  long  been  conspicuous  in  educational,  temper- 
ance, and  other  reforms.  Among  his  works  are  "  Bible 
Exercises"  and  "Old  Forts  Taken,"  (1878.) 

Mi'ner,  (Thomas,)  an  American  physician,  born  at 
Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1777.  He  wrote,  conjointly 
with  Dr.  Tully,  "  Essays  on  Fevers  and  other  Subjects," 
(1823.)     Died  in  1841. 

Mi-ner'va  or  A-the'na,  [  Fr.  Minerve,  me'niRv',] 
one  of  the  greater  divinities  of  the  Roman  mythology, 
corresponding  nearly  to  the  Greek  Athena  or  Athene, 
[Gr.  'kQT]vi]  or  'A0??va.]  She  was  regarded  as  the  goddess 
of  wisdom,  arts,  and  sciences,  or  a  personification  of  the 
thinking,  inventive  faculty.  According  to  a  popular  tra- 
dition, she  was  the  offspring  of  the  brain  of  Jupiter,  from 
which  she  issued  in  full  armour.  She  was  always  repre- 
sented as  a  virgin.  In  war  she  was  contradistinguished 
from  Mars  (the  god  of  brute  force)  as  the  patroness  of 
scientific  warfare,  and  hence,  according  to  the  ancient 
poets,  was  always  superior  to  him.  The  favourite  plant 
of  Minerva  was  the  olive,  and  the  animals  consecrated 
to  her  were  the  owl  and  the  serpent.  Athena  was  the 
great  national  divinity  of  Attica  and  Athens,  to  which 
she  is  said  to  have  given  her  name.  Pope,  in  his 
"  Temple  of  Fame,"  alludes  to  her  twofold  character  as 
the  patroness  of  arts  and  arms,  where  he  says, 

"There  Caesar,  graced  with  both  Minervas,  shone." 
In  the  Trojan  war  she  fought  for  the  Greeks.  She 
was  sometimes  called  Pallas,  Parthenos,  {i.e.  "virgin,") 
Tritonia  or  Tritogeneia,  and  other  napies.  The  poets 
feigned  that  Neptune  and  Minerva  disputed  for  the  pos- 
session of  Attica,  which  the  gods  promised  to  hini  or 
her  who  should  produce  the  most  useful  gift  to  mankind. 
Neptune,  striking  the  earth  with  his  trident,  produced  a 
war-horse,  and  Minerva  produced  the  olive,  (the  symbol 
of  peace,)  by  which  she  gained  the  victory.  She  was. 
usually  represented  with  a  helmet  on  her  head,  holding 
in  one  hand  a  spear  and  in  the  other  an  aegis,  or  shield, 
in  the  centre  of  which  was  the  head  of  Medusa.  There 
was  a  celebrated  statue  of  Minerva,  called  Palladhcyn, 
which  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  the  sky,  and  on 
which  the  safety  of  Troy  depended. 

See  G.  Hermann,  "Dissertatio  de  Graeca  Minerva,"  1837; 
GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquit^ ;"  Smith,  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology  ;"  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle,"  (Partie  mythologiqne.) 

Minga,  del,  d&l  mtn'gj,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
of  the  Florentine  school,  lived  about  1550-70. 

Mingarelli,  mfen-ga-rel'lee,  (  Giovanni   Luroi,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  near  Bologna  in 
1723,  was  a  friend  of  Tiraboschi.     Died  in  1793. 
I       See  Cavahhri,  "Vita  di  Mingarelli,"  1817. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy,-  G,  H,  yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  i<,  triled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 

109 


see  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MINGHETTI 


1730 


MIOLAN 


Minghetti,  ni^n-ggt'tee,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  states- 
man, born  at  Bologna,  September  8,  1818.  He  had 
already  obtained  fame  as  a  journalist  and  political  econo- 
mist, when  in  1848  he  was  called  to  Rome,  and  became 
for  a  time  minister  of  public  instruction,  but  soon  went 
north  and  joined  the  Sardinian  army.  He  held  various 
cabinet  positions  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy,  acting 
for  several  terms  as  prime  minister,  and  wielding  a  great 
influence  as  an  orator  and  writer.  His  principal  work  is 
"Delia  Economia  pubblica,"  (1859.)  Other  works  of  his 
are  "  Opusculi  Jetterari  ed  economici,"  (1872,)  "  Le  Donne 
italiane  nelle  belle  Arti,"  (1877,)  and  "La  Chiesa  e  lo 
Stato,"  (1878.)     Died  December  10,  1886. 

Mingotti,  min-got'tee,  (Caterina,)  an  Italian  vocal- 
ist, of  German  extraction,  born  at  Naples  in  1728.  She 
studied  under  Porpora,  and  performed  with  brilliant  suc- 
cess in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe.     Died  in  1807. 

Mingotti,  mfen-got'tee,  (Regina,)  an  Italian  singer, 
born  at  Naples,  of  German  parents,  in  1728.  Her  family 
name  was  Valentin i.  When  a  mere  child  she  married 
an  impresario  named  Mingotti,  who  recognized  her  vocal 
abilities  and  had  her  educated  for  the  operatic  stage. 
She  made  her  first  appearance  in  Dresden,  and  soon  won 
a  great  reputation,  which  was  extended  by  her  tours  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  England.     Died  in  1S07. 

Miniana,  me-ne-i'nS,  (Jos6  Manuel,)  a  Spanish 
histo'-ian,  born  at  Valencia  in  1671.  He  wrote  a  continua- 
tion of  Mariana's  "  History  of  Spain,"  (1733.)  Died  in 
1730. 

Minie,  me'ne-i',  (Claude  Etienne,)  a  French  of- 
ficer, born  in  Paris  in  1810,  was  the  inventor  of  the  rifle 
called  by  his  name.  He  was  appointed  by  Napoleon 
III.  superintendent  of  the  school  of  ordnance  at  Vin- 
cennes,  and  received  from  him  the  sum  of  20,000  francs. 
The  Minie  rifle  was  an  immense  improvement  on  any- 
thing of  the  kind  that  had  previously  been  invented,  both 
as  regards  precision  and  the  extent  of  its  range.  Died 
December  14,  1879. 

Minion  and  Minjon.     See  Mignon. 

Mino  da  Fiesole,  mee'no  di  fe-§s'o-Ii,  an  eminent 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Fiesole  about  1430.  Among  his 
works  is  a  tomb  of  Paul  II.  at  Rome.     Died  in  i486. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Minoochihr,  Minoutchihr,  or  Minuchihr,  min- 
oo'ch!h'r,  written  also  Manucheher,  an  ancient  Persian 
king,  the  grandson  (or,  according  to  some  authorities, 
the  great-grandson)  of  Fereedoon,  (Feridun,)  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  of  his  nation  wiio  fortified  cities  with 
ramparts  and  ditches.  With  Minoochihr  ended  the  glory 
and  power  of  the  Peshdadian  dynasty. 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  Sir  William 
Jones's  Works ;  Atkinson,  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Naraeh  of 
Firdausi,"  1832. 

Mi'nos,  [Gr.  Mwuf,]  a  celebrated  king  and  lawgiver 
of  Crete,  whose  history  is  much  obscured  or  embellished 
with  fable.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Europa,  a  brother  of  Rhadamanthus,  and  the  father 
of  Ariadne  and  Deucalion.  He  was  renowned  for  his 
justice  and  moderation,  and  it  was  fabled  that  after  his 
death  he  became  a  judge  of  the  souls  which  entered  the 
infernal  regions.  He  has  by  some  writers  been  identified 
with  Manu,  (or  Menu,)  the  great  Hindoo  lawgiver. 

Minos,  a  king  and  lawgiver  of  Crete,  supposed  to 
have  been  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  with  whom,  how- 
ever, he  has  been  confounded  by  some  writers.  He  was 
the  husband  of  Pasiphae,  and  had  many  children.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Greek  prince  that  had  an 
important  naval  power.  The  Cretans  ascribed  to  Minos 
their  laws  and  political  institutions,  which  served  as  a 
model  for  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus.  According  to  one 
tradition,  he  was  cruel  and  tyrannical,  and  compelled  the 
Athenians,  whom  he  vanquished,  to  pay  him  an  annual 
tribute  in  the  formof  boys  and  virgins,  who  were  devoured 
uy  the  Minotaur. 

Mi'not,  (George  Richards,)  an  American  jurist  and 
historian,  born  at  Boston  in  1758.  His  principal  works 
are  a  "Eulogy  on  Washington,"  "History  of  Shays's 
Rebellion,"  and  "  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay."  Died 
m  Boston,  January  2,  1802. 

Min'ot,  >  (Lawrence,)  an  English  poet,  whose  works 


were  discovered  by  Tyrwhitt  while  he  was  preparing  an 
edition  of  Chaucer.     He  lived  about  1330-50. 

Min'o-taur,  [Gr.  Mwwravpof;  Lat.  Minotau'rus  ; 
Fr.  Minotaure,  me'no'toR',]  a  monster  of  classic  my- 
thology, represented  as  half  man  and  half  bull.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  he  was  tlie  offspring  of  Pasiphae  and  a 
bull  which  was  sent  to  Minos  by  Ne])tune  ;  he  was  kept 
in  the  great  labyrinth  of  Crete,  was  fed  with  youths  and 
maidens  whom  the  Athenians  sent  to  Minos  as  tribute, 
and  was  finally  killed  by  Theseus. 

Min'tha  or  Men'tha,  [Gr.  Mi'v^T/,]  a  nymph,  fabled 
to  have  been  beloved  by  Pluto  and  changed  by  Ceres 
into  the  plant  known  as  mint. 

Minto,  Lord.     See  Elliot. 

Min'to,  (Walter,)  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  emigrated  to  America  in  1786.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  scientific  works,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey. 
Died  in  1796. 

Miutrop,  min'trop,  (Theodor,)  a  distinguished 
German  painter  and  designer,  born  at  Heithausen,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1814.  He  produced  designs  in  crayon,  and 
several  oil-paintings  of  religious  subjects.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Riches  of  the  Year,"  and  "The  Apo- 
theosis of  Bacchus."    Died  July  4,  1870. 

Minturni,  min-tooR'nee,  (Antonio  Sebastiano,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  canonist,  born  in  Terra  di  Lavoro,  was 
noted  for  his  learning.     Died  in  1574. 

Minut,  de,  deh  me'nii',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Toulouse  about  1520.  He  was  patronized 
by  Catherine  de  Medicis,  and  was  a  friend  of  J.  C. 
Scaliger.  He  published  treatises  on  medicine,  theology, 
and  other  subjects.     Died  in  1587. 

Mlnutianus,  me-nu-she-a'nus,  [  It.  Minuziano,  me 
noot-se-i'no,]  (Alessandro,)  a  learned  Italian  printer, 
born  at  San  Severo  about  1450.  He  published  the  first 
complete  edition  of  Cicero,  and  issued  from  his  press 
numerous  classics  of  great  beauty  and  accuracy.  Died 
about  1525. 

Minutius  or  Minucius  (mi-nu'she-us)  Fe'Iix,  an 
early  Christian  writer,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Africa,  lived  in  the  third  century.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  "  Octavius,"  written  in  defence  of 
Christianity.  A  good  edition  of  it  was  published  by 
Gronovius  in  1707. 

See  BoucHARn,  "Dissertatio  de  Miniitio  Felice,"  1685;  Hein- 
RICH  Meier,  "  Conimentatio  de  Minucio  Felice,"  1825. 

Minutoli,  me-noo'to-lee,  (Heinrich  Menu,)  Baron, 
a  distinguished  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1772.  He  served  in  the  Prussian  army,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  In  1820  he 
accompanied  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the  Prus- 
sian government  to  Egypt,  and  published,  (in  German,) 
after  his  return,  a  "Journey  to  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Ammon  and  Upper  Egypt,"  (2  vols.,  1824.)  Among  his 
other  works  is  "  Recollections  of  a  Soldier."  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and 
was  appointed  by  the  king,  Frederick  William,  tutor  to 
Prince  Charles.     Died  in  1846. 

Minutoli,  (Julius,)  a  lawyer,  son  of  the  i^receding, 
was  born  at  Berlin  in  1805.  He  was  appointed  in  1851 
consul-general  for  Spain  and  Portugal.  He  published 
a  work  entitled  "  Spain  and  its  Progressive  Develop- 
ment."    Died  November  5,  i860. 

Min'y-as,  [Gr.  Ma-iaf,]  a  fabulous  personage,  said 
to  be  a  son  of  Neptune,  a  king  of  Boeotia,  and  the  an- 
cestor of  the  MiNY^,  (Miwac.,)  a  race  of  heroes  cele- 
brated in  the  most  ancient  epic  poetry  of  Greece.  The 
Argonauts  were  mostly  descendants  of  Minyas,  and  were 
called  Minyae. 

Minzocchi,  min-zok'kee,  or  Menzocchi,  mSn-zok'- 
kee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  P'orll  about 
1500,  was  a  pupil  of  Genga.  Among  his  master-pieces 
we  may  name  "The  Sacrifice  of  Melchisedec,"  "The 
Fall  of  Manna,"  and  a  "  Holy  Family."     Died  in  1574. 

Minzoni,  min-zo'nee,  (Onofrio,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1734,  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Venice.  He  was  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  sonnets  of  great  beauty.     Died  in  1817. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Miolan-Carvalho,  me'o'lflw'  kSR'vS'Io',  (Caroline 


?.  i.  o,  n,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  n,  y,  shorf.z.,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  fSr,  fill,  fAt;  mJt:  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MIOLLIS 


1731 


MIR  ABE  A  U 


F6lix,)  a  French  vocalist,  Ijorn  at  Chateau-Roux  in  1829. 
She  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London  as  an 
operatic  singer. 

Miollis,  me'o'liss',  (  Sextius  Alexandre  Fran- 
cois,) Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Aix  in  1759.  He 
was  wounded  at  Yorktown,  Virginia,  in  1781.  He  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1799,  and  obtained  command  of 
all  the  French  forces  in  Northern  Italy  in  1805.  In  1809 
he  entered  Rome,  where,  having  expelled  the  pope,  he 
remained,  with  the  title  of  governor,  until  1814.  Died 
in  1828. 

Mionnet,  me'o'ni',  (Theodore  Edme,)  a  P>ench 
antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1770.  He  wrote  a  "  Descrip- 
tive Catalogue  of  Greek  and  Roman  Medals,"  (7  vols., 
1806-35,)  a  standard  work,  which  still  ranks  among 
the  best  of  its  kind,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Rarity  and 
Value  of  Roman  Medals,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and  other 
similar  works.     Died  in  1842. 

Miot,  me'o',  (Andr6  FRANgois,)  Comte  de  Melito,  a 
French  statesman,  born  at  Versailles  in  1762.  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  at  Naples  under  Joseph  Bona- 
parte. He  died  in  1841,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  the  Con- 
sulate, the  Empire,  and  King  Joseph,"  (3  vols.,  1858.) 

Mirabaud,  nie'rt'bS',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
littSratetir,  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  He  made  a  transla- 
tion of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  which  had  great 
popularity  at  the  time.  He  also  translated  the  "  Orlando 
Furioso,"  and  published  several  treatises  on  various 
subjects.  The  atheistical  work  entitled  "  Syst^me  de 
la  Nature"  was  for  a  time  attributed  to  Mirabaud,  but  is 
now  known  to  have  been  written  by  Baron  d'Holbach. 
Mirabaud  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1726. 
Died  in  1760. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Acad^mie  Fran- 
faise." 

Mirabeau,  de,  deh  me'rS'bo',  (Boniface  Riquetti,) 
Vicomte,  a  brother  of  Gabriel,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Bignon  in  1754.  He  served  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States  about  1780.  In  1789  he  became  a  royalist  mem- 
ber of  the  States-General,  and  was  opposed  to  his  brother 
in  politics.  He  was  so  bloated  by  drinking  that  he  was 
nicknamed  "Barrel  Mirabeau,"  ("Mirabeau  Tonneau.") 
He  was  noted  for  his  sarcastic  wit.  "  In  any  other 
family,"  said  he,  "I  should  pass  for  a  reprobate  (mattvais 
sujet)  and  wit ;  but  in  mine  I  am  regarded  as  a  fool, 
but  a  sedate  man."  When  his  famous  brother  reproved 
him  for  his  intemperance,  he  wittily  replied,  "Of  all 
the  vices  of  our  family,  that  is  the  only  one  which  you 
have  left  for  me."  He  emigrated  in  1790,  and  joined  the 
royalist  army  on  the  Rhine.     Died  in  1792. 

Mirabeau,  de,  deh  me'rt'bo'  or  m!r'a-bo'',  (HonorA 
Gabriel  de  Riquetti,  (deh  re'ki'te',)  originally  Arri- 
ghetti,)  Comte,  a  famous  French  orator  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Bignon,  near  Nemours,  March  9,  1749. 
His  family  was  of  Italian  extraction.  He  was  the  oldest 
surviving  son  of  the  Marquis  de  Mirabeau  and  Marie 
Genevieve  de  Vassan.  The  last  representative  of  that 
stormy  and  highly-gifted  race,  he  inherited  a  passionate 
nature,  a  frank  and  open  temper,  and  a  mind  of  great 
amplitude  of  grasp  and  prodigious  activity.  The  edu- 
cation which  he  received  under  the  strict  discipline  of 
his  father  was  far  from  judicious.  In  his  fifteenth  year 
he  was  sent  to  a  boarding-school  in  Paris,  where  he 
'  made  rapid  progress  in  ancient  and  modern  languages 
and  mathematics,  also  in  music  and  the  fine  arts.  In 
compliance  with  his  father's  will,  he  entered  the  army 
in  1767.  The  next  year,  by  an  amorous  intrigue,  he  pro- 
voked the  ire  of  the  marquis,  who  caused  him  to  be 
imprisoned  in  the  Isle  of  Rhe.  In  1769  he  obtained 
liberty  to  serve  in  Corsica  against  Paoli,  where  he  won 
golden  opinions,  and  returned  in  1770  with  the  brevet 
of  captain.  It  puzzled  his  father  to  find  a  proper  sphere 
for  one  whom  he  called  a  windmill,  a  whirlwind,  one 
who  "  had  swallowed  all  formulas."  On  one  occasion 
he  writes,  "  I  pass  my  life  in  cramming  him  with  prin- 
ciples." 

In  1772  young  Mirabeau  married  Marie  fimilie  de 
Covet,  a  daughter  of  the  Marquis  de  Marignan,  and 
became  a  resident  of  Aix.  For  running  into  debt,  he  was 
banished  to  Manosque,  near  the  Alps,  where  he  wrote 
an  "  Essay  on  Despotism."     Having  again  displeased 


the  grim  marquis  by  some  venial  error,  he  was  confined, 
by  a  lettre  de  cachet,  in  the  castle  of  If,  in  1774,  and  was 
finally  separated  from  his  wife,  who  was  not  inconsolable 
on  that  account.  He  was  removed  in  1775  to  the  castle 
of  Joux ;  and,  having  liberty  to  walk  out  on  parole,  he 
formed  an  ardent  attachment  for  Sophie  Monnier,  un- 
happily married  to  a  man  four  times  older  than  herself. 
With  her  he  eloped  in  1776,  and  went  to  Amsterdam, 
where  he  earned  fair  wages  by  translating  Watson's 
"Philip  II."  and  doing  other  literary  jobs.  The  parlia- 
ment of  Besan9on  indicted  him  for  abduction,  and  sen- 
tenced him  to  death.  In  May,  1777,  the  police-officers 
arrested  him  in  Holland  and  consigned  him  to  the  prison 
of  Vincennes,  where  he  was  kept  forty-two  months,  ap- 
parently ruined,  but  still  indomitable  in  spirit.  Presenting 
hjmself  before  the  court  which  had  condemned  him  a? 
contumacious,  he  pleaded  his  cause  with  such  power 
that  the  sentence  was  annulled.  He  again  met  his  father 
on  amicable  terms  ;  for  it  is  recorded  among  his  few 
conventional  virtues  that  he  loved  his  father  to  the  end. 
The  marquis,  however,  left  him  to  his  own  resources 
for  a  supply  of  money. 

From  about  1783  to  1788  he  led  a  wandering  life 
in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  supporting  himself 
by  his  wits,  teeming  with  grand  projects,  and  often  en- 
gaging in  questionable  intrigues.  Under  the  auspices 
of  Franklin,  he  published  an  eloquent  essay  "On  the 
Order  of  Cincinnatus,"  (1784,)  which  was  followed  by  a 
tract  "  On  the  Opening  of  the  Scheldt."  A  polemical 
tract  on  the  water-company  of  Paris,  in  reply  to  Beau- 
marchais,  produced  a  prodigious  effect.  In  1786  Calonne 
(partly  from  a  desire  to  remove  him  out  of  the  way)  sent 
him  on  a  secret  mission  to  Berlin,  where  he  met  the 
Great  Frederick,  and  collected  materials  for  an  important 
work, — "  The  Prussian  Monarchy," — which  appeared  in 
1788.  The  States-General,  which  were  convoked  for 
May,  1789,  offered  to  him  a  congenial  arena  for  the 
exertion  of  his  gigantic  energies  against  the  system  of 
organized  injustice  and  oppression  which  for  ages  had 
afflicted  France.  After  he  had  been  rejected  with  con- 
tempt by  the  noblesse  of  Provence,  he  was  chosen  tri 
umphantly  by  the  Tiers-JStat  of  Aix  and  Marseilles.  He 
preferred  to  represent  Aix.  Aiming  at  reform  by  mod- 
erate means,  he  made  overtures  for  co-operation  with  the 
ministry,  but  was  coldly  received  by  Necker,  and  went 
away  in  ill  humour.  On  the  23d  of  June,  1789,  he  gave 
a  decisive  direction  to  the  Revolution  by  his  famous 
speech  in  reply  to  the  king's  usher,  De  Breze,  who  re- 
minded the  Assembly  that  the  king  had  ordered  them 
to  disperse  : — "The  Commons  of  France  have  resolved 
to  deliberate.  We  have  heard  what  the  king  has  been 
advised  to  say ;  and  you,  who  cannot  act  as  his  organ  in 
the  States-General, — you,  who  have  here  neither  seat 
nor  vote  nor  right  of  speech, — you  are  not  the  person 
to  remind  us  of  it.  Go  and  tell  your  master  that  we 
are  here  by  the  will  of  the  nation,  and  that  nothing  but 
the  power  of  bayonets  can  drive  us  hence !"  The  usher 
quickly  vanished,  and  Mirabeau  became  the  master-spirit 
of  the  National  Assembly.  "  Mirabeau's  spiritual  gift," 
says  Carlyle,  "  will  be  found  to  be  verily  an  honest  and 
great  one  ;  far  the  strongest,  best  practical  intellect  of 
that  time."  His  brief  and  pithy  sentences  became  the 
watchwords  of  the  Revolution  ;  "his  gestures  were  com- 
mands, his  motions  were  coups  d'etat."  Exchanging  the 
role  of  tribune  for  that  of  a  statesman,  he  soared  above 
the  intrigues  of  party  and  the  ideal  abstractions  that 
were  in  vogue.  "  Where  others  grope  darkly,"  says 
Lamartine,  "  he  aims  surely,  he  advances  directly.  .  .  . 
The  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century,  modified  by 
prudence  and  policy,  flows  out  all  formulized  from  his 
lips.  His  eloquence,  imperative  as  law,  is  only  the  gift 
of  impassioned  reasoning." 

He  advocated  the  abolition  of  the  double  aristocracy 
of  lords  and  bishops,  the  spoliation  of  the  Church,  and 
the  formation  of  the  national  guard,  but  he  demanded  for 
the  king  an  absolute  veto  and  the  initiative  in  making 
war  and  peace.  One  of  his  greatest  triumphs  as  an  orator 
was  won  over  Barnave,  on  the  latter  question,  in  1790. 
Loud  explosions  of  popular  fury  greeted  him  when  it 
was  known  that  he  favoured  the  royal  veto.  As  he  en- 
tered the  Assembly  to  speak  on  the  question,  he  said  to 


€as  k;  5  as  j-;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  tuisal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MIRABEAU 


1732 


MIRBEL 


a  friend,  "  I  will  either  leave  the  House  in  triumph,  or 
be  torn  to  fragments."  He  gained  his  point,  and  re- 
stored his  popularity.  In  the  last  part  of  his  career  he 
became  more  conservative,  and  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  the  court,  from  which  he  received  large  sums  of 
money.  He  doubtless  cherished  an  ambition  to  be  prime 
minister  of  France. 

In  January,  1791,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  "  Never  had  this  office  been  so  well 
filled,"  says  Dumont.  On  parting  with  Dumont,  who 
left  Paris  at  the  date  just  named,  Mirabeau  said,  "  I  shall 
die  at  the  stake,  and  we  shall  never,  perhaps,  meet  again. 
That  base  taction  whom  I  now  overawe  [the  Jacobins] 
will  again  be  let  loose  upon  the  country.  I  have  none 
but  direful  anticipations."  He  died  April  2,  1791. 
Among  his  last  words  were,  "  Envelop  me  with  perfumes 
and  crown  me  with  flowers,  that  I  may  pass  away  info 
everlasting  sleep."  His  strong  constitution  had  been 
ruined  by  inordinate  passions  and  immoral  pleasures 
carried  to  the  greatest  excess,  but  veiled  under  a  decorous 
exterior  after  he  had  attained  eminence  as  a  legislator. 
He  had  the  art  of  enlisting  men  of  talents  in  his  service 
and  appropriating  their  j^roductions,  on  which  he  im- 
pressed the  seal  of  his  originality.  Dumont,  Claviere, 
and  Duroverai  were,  perhaps,  the  chief  persons  who  thus 
assisted  him.  Mirabeau  had  given  development  and 
outward  form  to  the  French  Revolution ;  but  to  control 
it  was  beyond  his  power.  His  indomitable  will  might 
for  a  time  direct  or  overawe  the  fury  of  the  populace ; 
but  he  possessed  no  virtues  which  could  inspire  the 
better  portion  of  the  people  with  that  trust  and  confi- 
dence without  which  there  can  be  no  stability  for  any 
government. 

Alluding  to  the  resemblance  between  Mirabeau  and 
Chatham,  Macaulay  observes,  "Sudden  bursts  which 
seemed  to  be  the  effect  of  inspiration,  short  sentences 
which  came  like  lightning,  dazzling,  burning,  striking 
down  everything  before  them,  ...  in  these  chiefly  lay 
the  oratorical  power  both  of  Chatham  and  Mirabeau.  .  .  , 
In  true  dignity  of  character,  in  private  and  public  virtue, 
it  may  seem  absurd  to  institute  any  comparison  between 
them  ;  but  they  had  the  same  haughtiness  and  vehemence 
of  temper.  In  their  language  and  manner  there  was  a 
disdainful  self-confidence,  an  imperiousness  before  which 
all  common  minds  quailed.  .  .  .  There  have  been  far 
greater  speakers  and  far  greater  statesmen  than  either 
of  them  ;  but  we  doubt  whether  any  men  have,  in  modern 
times,  exercised  such  vast  personal  influence  over  stormy 
and  divided  assemblies."  (Article  on  "  Dumont's  Recol- 
lections of  Mirabeau,"  in  Macaulay's  "Essays.") 

See  Mirabeau,  "A  Life- History,"  London,  2  vols.,  1848 ;  Lamar- 
TINE,  "  History  of  the  Girondists,"  book  i. ;  Carlyle,  "Essays," 
vol.  i.  ;  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  2d 
series;  Chaussard,  "Esprit  de  Mirabeau,"  2  vols.,  1797;  Victor 
Hugo,  "  fitude  sur  Mirabeau,"  1S34;  F.  Lkwitz,  "Mirabeau,  Bild 
seines  Lebens,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1852-53 ;  Cadet  de  Gassicourt, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Vie  privde  de  Mirabeau,"  1800;  J.  Merilhou,  "Essai 
historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Mirabeau,"  1825;  Louis  de  Montignv, 
"  Mdmoires  biographiques,  litt^raires  et  politiques  de  Mirabeau,"  8 
vols.,  1833-41 ;  Dumont,  "  Souvenirs  sur  Mirabeau,"  1832 ;  PiTHou, 
"  Abregi  de  la  Vie  de  Mirabeau,"  1791 ;  "  M^moires  sur  Mirabeau  et 
son  fipoque,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  4  vols.,  1824;  Schneidewind, 
"Mirabeau  und  seine  Zeit,"  1831. 

Mirabeaxt,  de,  (Jean  Antoine  Riquetti,)  Mar- 
quis, surnanied  SiLVERSTOCK,  a  brave  French  officer, 
born  in  Provence  in  1666,  was  the  grandfather  of  the 
great  orator  Mirabeau.  His  ancestors,  the  Arrighettis, 
were  exiled  from  Florence  in  1267.  He  was  called  "  Ven- 
d6me's  right  arm."  At  the  battle  of  Cassano,  in  1706, 
where  he  commanded  a  regiment,  he  received  twenty- 
seven  wounds,  one  of  which  was  in  the  neck.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  he  wore  a  silver  stock  to  support  his  head. 
He  married,  and  lived  many  years  after  that  action. 

See  "M(5moires  de  Mirabeau;"  Carlvlk,  "Essays,"  vol.  i. 

Mirabean,  de,  (Victor  Riquetti,)  Marquis,  the 
self-styled  "Friend  of  Men."  born  at  Perthuis  in  1715, 
was  the  son  of  the  preceding,  and  father  of  the  great 
orator.  A  proud,  eccentric  person,  of  violent  passions 
and  powerful  intellect,  he  was  regarded  as  the  reverse  of 
a  "friend"  by  most  men  who  had  intercourse  with  him. 
His  hobby  was  Political  Economy,  in  which  he  was  a 
disciple  of  Du  Quesnay.  He  published  on  that  science 
able  and  voluminous  works,  some  of  which  were   re- 


ceived with  favour.  His  "Friend  of  Men,"  ("Ami  des 
Hommes,")  which  appeared  about  1755,  made  a  great 
sensation,  though  its  style  was  extremely  rugged,  quaint, 
and  tortuous.  He  lived  mostly  in  Paris,  and  was  am- 
bitious to  direct  aff'airs  of  state.  It  is  reported  that  he 
obtained  from  the  ministry  no  less  than  fifty-tour  lettres 
de  cachet,  arbitrary  warrants  to  imprison  his  children  and 
others.  Died  in  1789.  "Out  of  all  which  circumstances," 
says  Carlyle,  "there  has  come  forth  this  Marquis  de 
Mirabeau,  shaped  into  one  of  the  most  singular,  sublime 
pedants  that  ever  stepped  the  soil  of  France.  There 
never  entered  the  brain  of  Hogarth  or  of  rare  old  Ben 
such  a  piece  of  humour  as  in  this  brave  old  Riquetti 
nature  has  presented  us  ready-made.  For  withal  there 
is  such  genius  in  him,  rich  depth  of  character,  inde- 
structible cheerfulness  and  health  breaking  out  in  spite 
of  these  divorce-papers,  like  strong  sunlight  in  thundery 
weather." 

Mirabella,  me-rl-bel'ia,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  .Syracuse  in  1570.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  Syracuse,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1624. 

Mireeus.     See  Lemire. 

Miraflores,  de,  di  me-ra-fl6'R§s,  (  Manuel  de 
Pando,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Madrid, 
December  24,  1792.  He  was  several  times  sent  on  im- 
portant embassies,  and  was  in  later  life  prominent  as  one 
of  the  principal  ministers  of  the  government.  His  chief 
works  relate  to  the  history  and  politics  of  his  own  times. 
Died  in  Madrid,  March  17,  1872. 

Miramon,  me-ri-mdn',  (Miguel,)  a  Mexican  general, 
born  about  1832.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  clerical 
party  which  began  to  wage  war  against  Juarez  in  1858. 
He  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  in  December,  i860, 
and  went  into  exile.  He  afterwards  returned,  and 
fought  for  Maximilian,  and  was  executed  with  him  in 
June,  1867. 

Miranda,  me-rin'dJ,  (Francisco,)  a  South  American 
patriot,  born  at  Caraccas  about  1750.  Having  entered 
the  French  army,  he  served  in  the  American  campaigns 
of  1779  and  1781,  and  in  1792  became  general  of  division 
under  Dumouriez.  In  the  campaign  of  1793  he  was 
defeated  by  the  allies  at  Neerwinden,  and  was  brought  to 
trial  for  mismanagement  on  this  occasion,  but  he  was 
acquitted.  Being  condemned  by  the  Directory  in  1797, 
he  took  refuge  in  England,  and  on  his  return  to  Paris, 
in  1803,  was  a  second  time  banished.  He  sailed  in  1806 
to  Venezuela,  where  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  found  a  republic.  He  was  arrested  in  1812  by  the 
Spanish  government,  and  imprisoned  at  Cadiz,  where 
he  died  in  1816. 

See  J.  BiGG.s.  "  History  of  Miranda's  Attempt  to  effect  a  Revo- 
lution in  South  America;"  Dumouriez,  "Memoires." 

Miranda,  de,  di  me-rSn'da,  (Don  Juan  Garcia,)  a 
Spanish  artist,  born  at  Madrid  in  1677,  became  painter 
to  the  king,  Philip  V.  Died  in  1749.  There  were 
several  other  painters  of  the  same  family. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 

Miranda,  de,  di  me-rSn'di,  (Sa,)  one  of  the  earliest 
Portuguese  poets,  born  at  Coimbra  about  1495.  ^^  ^^^s 
one  of  the  founders  of  Portuguese  literature,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  to  employ  the  metres  of  Dante  and 
Petrarch.  He  was  the  author  of  sonnets  and  dramas, 
but  his  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  poetical  epistles 
and  eclogues.     Died  in  1558. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lnsitana;"  Bouterwek,  ' 
Histoire  litt^raire ;"  A.  deVarnhagem,  "O  Panorama." 

Mirandola.    See  Pico  della  Mirandola. 

Mirbel,  de,  deh  miR'bSK,  (Charles  Franqois  Bris- 
seau,)  an  eminent  French  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1776.  He  was  appointed  by  the  empress  Josephine 
superintendent  of  the  gardens  of  Malmaison  in  1803,  and 
in  1808  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  adjunct  professor  of  botany  and  vegetable  physiology 
to  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  afterwards  held  several 
public  offices,  and  in  1828  was  appointed  professor  of 
culture  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Elements  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology," (3  vols.,  181 5,)  and  "Natural  History  of  Vege- 
tables," etc.,  (15  vols.,  1826,)  written  in  conjunction  with 
Lamarck,  also  "Researches  on  the  Marchantia  Poly- 
morpha,"  and  other  treatises  of  great  value,  contributed 


I,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MIRBEL 


1733 


MITCHELL 


to  the  "Journal  de  Physique"  and  various  other  scien- 
tific periodicals.  He  likewise  assisted  Sonnini  in  his 
"Natural  History  of  Plants."  Mirbel  gave  great  atten- 
tion to  structural  botany,  in  which  brancii  of  the  science 
he  was  really  eminent,  although  his  views  have  been  to 
a  great  extent  superseded.     Died  in  1854. 

See  Payen,  "Elos;e  histnrique  de  M.  de  Mirbel,"  1858;  "  Nou- 
veUe  Biographic  G^ii^rale." 

Mirbel,  de,  (Ltzinska  Aim^e  Zot  Rue,)  the  wife  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cherbourg  in  1796.  She  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation  as  a  miniature-painter.  Among 
her  best  works  may  be  named  the  portraits  of  Louis 
Philippe,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  Count  of  Paris, 
Madame  Guizot,  and  fimile  de  Girardin.  She  obtained 
several  medals,  and  was  appointed  after  the  restoration 
miniature-painter  to  the  king.  Madame  Mirbel  ranks  as 
one  of  the  best  of  modern  miniaturists.  Her  portraits 
are  remarkable  for  correctness  and  finish,  as  well  as 
for  vigour  and  spirited  expression  and  for  harmony  of 
colour.     Died  August  31,  1849. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux- Arts,"  1849. 

Mirecourt,  de,  deh  mir'koou',  (Eugene  Jacquot,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  November  19,  1812.  The 
latter  part  of  his  name  was  assumed  from  the  name  of 
his  native  village,  Mirecourt,  in  the  Vosges.  He  early 
adopted  literature  as  a  profession,  and  in  1845  attracted 
attention  by  an  attack  on  Alexandre  Dumas,  entitled 
"The  House  of  Alexandre  Dumas  &  Co.,  Manufacturers 
of  Novels."  In  1854  he  commenced  the  publication  of 
a  series  of  volumes  under  the  general  title  of  "Les  Con- 
temporains,"  which  consisted  of  gossipy  and  semi-scan- 
dalous articles  upon  the  literary  celebrities  of  the  hour. 
Many  of  these  involved  him  in  lawsuits.  After  one 
hundred  volumes  had  been  published,  Mirecourt  founded 
a  weekly  paper  under  the  same  title  and  with  a  similar 
aim.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  inferior  romances. 
Died  February  13,  1880. 

Mirepoix,  de,  deh  m^R'pwy,  (Charles  Pierre 
Gaston  Franqois  de  Levis — deh  li've',)  Due,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1699.  He  became  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1757.     Died  in  1758. 

Mirevelt.     See  Mierevelt, 

Mir  Hasan,  meer  hi'san,  a  poet  of  India,  who  lived 
at  Fyzabad  and  Lucknow  and  died  in  1786.  He  wrote 
(in  the  Urdu  language)  "  The  Magic  of  Eloquence,"  (a 
romance,)  "  The  Rose-Garden  of  Iran,"  etc 

Mirl-am,  [Heb.  D'^^O,]  a  prophetess,  a  sister  of 
Moses,  the  Hebrew  lawgiver.  She  sang  a  song  of  tri- 
umph after  the  children  of  Israel  had  passed  through 
the  Red  Sea. 

See  Exodus  xv.  20;  Numbers  xii. 

Mirkhond,  mir'Kond',  a  celebrated  Persian  histo- 
rian, born  in  1433,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"  Garden  of  Purity,  or  History  of  Prophets,  Kings,  and 
Caliphs."  There  are  manuscripts  of  this  history  in  the 
libraries  of  Paris,  London,  Berlin,  and  Vienna,  and  por- 
tions of  it  have  been  translated  into  French  and  several 
other  languages.     Died  in  1498. 

Mir  Muhammadi  Soz,  meer  muh-hSm'mS-dee  s6z, 
a  Hindostanee  poet,  who  lived  at  Lucknow,  but  became 
a  dervish,  and  died  in  1800.  He  wrote  much  elegant 
but  licentious  verse. 

Miromesnil,  de,  deh  me'ro'mi'n^K,  (Armand  Tho- 
mas Hue,)  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  the  Or- 
leannais  in  1723.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals  from  1774 
to  1787.     Died  in  1796. 

Mir  Taki,  (or  Taqi,)  meer  ti'kee,  a  Hindostanee 
(Urdu)  poet,  born  at  Agra.  He  lived  mostly  at  Luck- 
now, and  died  in  1810.  Many  critics  give  him  the  first 
place  in  Urdu  poetry,  but  others  consider  him  inferior  to 
Sauda.     He  left  a  great  number  of  poems. 

Mirza.     See  Meerza. 

Mi-se'nus,  [Gr.  M-ior]voq :  Fr.  MisfeNE,  me'zin',]  a 
Trojan  warrior,  distinguished  for  his  valour  and  his  skill 
as  a  trumpeter,  was  called  i^oi/iDES  by  Virgil.  After 
the  capture  of  Troy,  he  went  to  Italy  with  .^neas,  whom 
he  served  as  a  trumpeter.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
drowned  by  a  Triton  who  was  envious  of  his  musical  skill. 
See  Virgil's  "/Eneid,"  book  vi.  162-174. 

Misri-Effendi,  mis'ree  6f-f5n'dee,  a  Turkish  poet 


and  enthusiast,  born  in  Egypt  about  1660.  He  cele- 
brated in  verse  the  incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ.  Died 
in  1710. 

Missiessy,  me'se'i'se',  (Edouard  Thomas  Bur- 
GUES,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Provence  in  1754.  He 
commanded  a  squadron  which,  in  May,  1805,  was  sent 
to  the  Antilles,  and  in  1809  commanded  the  naval  forces 
at  Antwerp.     Died  in  1832. 

Misson,  me'sdx',  (FRANgois  Maximilien,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Lyons,  was  of  a  Protestant  family,  and 
settled  in  England  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes.  Ilaving  visited  Italy  in  1687,  he  published, 
after  his  return,  an  account  of  his  travels,  which  was 
commended  by  Addison  for  its  lively  and  faithful  de- 
scriptions.     Died  in  1721. 

Mistral,  mts'trai',  (Frederi,  or  FRfel^Ric,)  a  French 
(Proveii9al)  poet,  born  at  Maillane,  September  8,  1830. 
His  most  noted  work  is  the  pastoral  epic  "Mireio," 
(1859;  in  English  by  H.  Crichton,  1868,  and  by  H.  W. 
Preston,  1872,)  which  was  the  basis  of  Gounod's  opera 
"  Mireille,"  (1864.)  He  also  wrote  "  Calendau,  Pouemo 
nouveau,"  (1S67,)  and  "Lis  Isclo  d'Or,"  ("The  Golden 
Shoes,"  1875.)  Mistral  is  one  of  the  principal  members 
of  the  group  of  writers  called  felibres,  (who  aim  at  a 
restoration  of  Provencal  literature,)  and  prepared  a  Pro- 
ven9al  Dictionary. 

Mitch'el,  (John,)  an  Irish  adventurer,  born  in  the 
county  of  Derry  in  1815.  He  was  for  a  time  associate 
editor  of  the  Dublin  "  Nation,"  and  subsequently  of 
"  The  United  Irishman,"  which,  however,  was  soon  sup- 
pressed by  the  British  government,  and  Mitchel  was  sen- 
tenced to  fourteen  years'  banishment  to  Australia  in  1848. 
In  1854  he  escaped  to  the  United  States,  and  became  an 
editor  successively  of  "  The  Southern  Citizen"  and  "  The 
Richmond  Examiner,"  violent  pro-slavery  and  secession 
journals.  In  1874  he  returned  to  Ireland  and  was  elected 
to  Parliament,  but  before  taking  his  seat  he  died,  March 
19,  1875. 

Mitchel,  (Ormsby  Macknight,)  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  born  in  Union  county,  Kentucky,  in 
1810.  Having  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  he 
became  in  1834  professor  of  mathematics,  philosophy, 
and  astronomy  at  Cincinnati  College,  Ohio.  He  first 
suggested  the  erection  of  an  observatory  at  Cincinnati, 
and  the  successful  accomplishment  of  the  enterprise  was 
chiefly  due  to  his  eiTorts  ;  and  the  institution,  of  which  he 
became  director,  was  provided  through  his  exertions  with 
one  of  the  finest  telescopes  to  be  found  in  the  United 
States.  He  delivered  popular  lectures  on  astronomy 
at  various  places,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Planetary  and  Stellar  Worlds,"  which  was  very  favour- 
ably received.  In  1859  he  became  director  of  the  Dud- 
ley Observatory  at  Albany.  He  was  appointed  a  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Union  army  in  August,  1861.  He 
moved  with  a  small  arrny  from  Tennessee  to  Alabama 
in  April,  1862,  surprised  Huntsville,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  energy.  Having  been  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  department  of  the  South,  about  August,  1862.  He 
died  of  yellow  fever  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in 
October  of  that  year. 

Mitch'ell,  (Sir  Andrew,)  a  distinguished  diplomatist, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1695,  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1747,  and  in  1751  was  appointed  resident  min- 
ister at  Brussels.  He  was  ambassador-extraordinary  to 
Berlin  in  1753,  and  acquired  considerable  influence  over 
Frederick  the  Great,  whom  he  succeeded  in  detaching 
from  the  interests  of  France.     Died  in  1771. 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Papers  of  Sir  Andrew  Mitchell,"  by  A.  Bis- 
SHTT,  1850;  Thi^bault,  "  Souvenirs  de  vingt  Ans  de  Sejour  k 
Berlin." 

Mitchell,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  naval  ofticer,  born 
about  1757,  attained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the 
white  in  1799,  and  in  1802  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  on  the  coast  of  America.     Died  in  1806. 

Mitchell,  (Sir  David,)  a  naval  commander  under  the 
reign  of  William  HI.,  rose  to  be  rear-admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1693.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  importap' 
missions  to  Russia  and  Holland.     Died  in  1710. 

Mitch'ell,  (Donald  Grant,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can   writer,   born   at   Norwich,    Connecticut,    in    1822. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  c,  H,  Yi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilkd;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MITCHELL 


1734 


MITFORD 


Having  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1841,  he  made  the 
tour  of  Europe,  and  published  after  his  return,  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Ik  Marvel,  "  Fresh  Gleanings  ;  or,  A 
New  Sheaf  from  the  Old  Fields  of  Continental  Europe," 
(1847.)  His  principal  works  are  "  Reveries  of  a  Bach- 
elor," (1850,)  "Dream  Life,"  (1851,)  "The  Judge's  Do- 
ings," (1854,)  "My  Farm  of  Edgewood,"  (1863,)  "Wet 
Days  at  Edgewood,"  (1864,)  "Seven  Stories,  with  Base- 
ment and  Attic,"  (1S64,)  "Dr.  Johns,"  {1866,)  "Rural 
Studies,"  (1867,)  "Pictures  of  Edgewood,"  (1869,)  and 
"About  Old  Story-Tellers,"  {1878.)  He  was  appointed 
in  1853  United  States  consul  at  Venice. 

Mitchell,  (Elisha,)  D.D.,  an  American  chernist  and 
divine,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut,  in  1793, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  in  181 7,  and  subsequently  of  chemistry 
in  the  same  institution.  Being  appointed  State  surveyor, 
he  first  discovered  the  fact  that  the  mountains  of  North 
Carolina  are  the  highest  in  the  United  States  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  While  exploring  one  of  these 
heights,  in  1857,  he  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  precipice. 
His  name  has  been  given  to  one  of  the  highest  summits. 

Mitchell,  (John  Kearsley,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Jefferson  county,  Virginia,  in  1796. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  1 841  became  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.  He 
published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Cryptogamous  Origin  of 
Malarious  and  Epidemic  Fevers,"  (1849,)  3-"d  lectures  on 
scientific  subjects,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  foreign  languages.     Died  in  1858. 

Mitchell,  (Joseph,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  about  1685,  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled 
"The  Fatal  Extravagance,"  "The  Highland  Fair,"  a 
ballad  opera,  and  a  number  of  poems.     Died  in  1738. 

Mitchell,  (Maria,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
astronomer,  born  in  the  island  of  Nantucket  in  1818. 
She  published,  besides  other  astronomical  treatises,  a 
memoir  on  a  telescopic  comet  discovered  by  her  in  1847. 
A  gold  medal  was  conferred  upon  her  by  the  King  of 
Denmark  for  this  discovery.  Miss  Mitchell  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  astronomy  at  Vassar  College  soon 
after  the  opening  of  that  institution  in  1865,  a  position 
which  she  held  until  1888.     Died  June  28,  1889. 

See  Mrs.  Hale,  "  Woman's  Record  of  Distinguished  Women." 

Mitchell,  (Robert  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ohio  about  1825.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
the  Union  army  about  April,  1862,  and  commanded  a  di- 
vision at  Perryville,  October  8  of  that  year.     Died  1882. 

Mitchell,  (S.  Weir,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  physiologist,  a  son  of  Dr.  J.  K.  Mitchell,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  February  15,  1829.  He 
graduated  at  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1850.  He 
has  particularly  distinguished  himself  by  his  researches 
on  the  chemical  nature  and  physiological  action  of  the 
venom  of  serpents.  Among  his  numerous  contributions 
to  medical  science  we  may  name  "  Researches  upon  the 
Venom  of  the  Rattlesnake,"  etc.,  published  among  the 
Smithsonian  Contributions,  (i860,)  "Experiments  and 
Observations  upon  the  Circulation  in  the  Chelonura 
Serpentina,"  (Snapping-Turtle,)  etc.,  published  among 
the  Memoirs  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
1862,  and  "  Researches  on  the  Physiology  of  the  Cerebel- 
lum," (see  the  "  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences" 
for  April,  1869.)  He  has  also  published  (with  Drs.  Keen 
and  Morehouse)  an  excellent  work  on  the  "Effects  of 
Gunshot  Wounds  and  other  Injuries  of  the  Nerves," 
(1864.)  Dr.  Mitchell  is  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  of  numerous  other  scientific  institutions. 

Mitchell,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar, 
born  in  London  in  1783.  He  studied  at  Pembroke  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  in  1813  began  the  publication  of  a 
series  of  essays  on  Aristophanes  arid  Athenian  manners, 
in  the  "Quarterly  Review,"  which  won  for  him  a  high 
reputation.  He  afterwards  published  an  excellent  trans- 
lation of  several  comedies  of  Aristophanes  into  English 
verse  ;  also  an  edition  of  Sophocles,  and  five  dramas  of 
Aristophanes,  (with  English  notes.)  He  died  in  1845, 
leaving  unfinished  an  edition  of  his  "  Pentalogia  Aris- 
tophanica." 


Mitchell,  (Sir  Thomas  Livingstone,)  a  Scottish 
traveller,  born  in  Stirlingshire  in  1792.  He  served  in 
the  Spanish  campaigns  from  1808  to  18 14,  and  in  1827 
sailed  to  Australia,  where  he  was  soon  after  appointed 
surveyor-general.  He  gave  the  name  of  Australia  Felix 
to  a  region  hitherto  unexplored,  and  ascertained  the 
courses  of  the  Glenelg,  the  Darling,  and  other  rivers. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Outlines  of  a  Sys- 
tem of  Surveying  for  Geographical  and  Military  Pur 
poses,"  (1S27,)  "Three  Expeditions  into  the  Interior  of 
Eastern  Australia,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1838,)  and  "  Australian 
Geography,"  etc.,  (1850.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geographical  Society.  Di<'d 
in  1855. 

Mitchell,  (Walter,)  an  American  divine  and  littera- 
teur, born  at  Nantucket,  Massachusetts,  in  1826.  He  is 
the  author  of  "  Bryan  Maurice,"  a  novel,  and  of  several 
poems.  Among  the  latter  is  the  often-quoted  "  Tacking 
Ship  off  Shore." 

Mitch'ill,  (Samuel  Latham,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,an  Ameri- 
can physician  and  naturalist,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1764. 
In  1786  he  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  He  became  in  1792  professor  of 
chemistry,  natural  history,  and  philosophy  in  Columbia 
College,  New  York.  He  was  for  many  years  associate 
editor  of  the  "  Medical  Repository."  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1804,  and  in  1820  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  and  materia  medica  in 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York. 
He  published  "  Observations  on  the  Absorbent  Tulles 
of  Animal  Bodies,"  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in 
183 1. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,' 
vol.  i.  ;  DuvcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopsdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i 

Mitelli,  me-tel'lee,  or  Metelii,  mi-tel'lee,  (Agosj- 
TINO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver  of  great  merit, 
born  near  Bologna  in  1609,  was  a  pupil  of  Dentone  and 
Falcetta.  His  principal  works  are  perspective  and  ar- 
chitectural pieces,  in  which  his  friend  Michael  Angelo 
Colonna  painted  the  figures.  Among  their  master- 
pieces are  the  frescos  in  the  palace  of  Cardinal  Spada 
at  Rom.e.  Mitelli  died  in  1660,  at  Madrid,  whither  he 
had  been  invited  by  Philip  IV. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mitelli,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  1634,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His 
prints  after  Correggio  and  the  Caracci  are  ranked  among 
his  best  works.     Died  in  1718. 

Mit'ford,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  journalist, 
was  editor  of  the  "Bon-Ton  Magazine,"  "Quizzical 
Gazette,"  and  other  periodicals  of  the  kind.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  naval  romance  entitled  "Johnny  New- 
come  in  the  Navy,"  and  several  popular  ballads.  Died 
in  183 1. 

See  TiMPRRLEV,  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Literary  Anecdote." 

Mitford,  (John  Freeman,)  an  English  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  1748,  was  a  brother  of  the  historian, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  New  College,  Oxford, 
and,  having  been  admitted  to  the  bar,  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Beer-Alstonin  1789.  He  became  attorney- 
general  in  1799,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1801,  and  in  1802  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  being 
created  at  the  same  time  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Redesdale.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt  he  resigned  his 
office  of  chancellor.     Died  in  1830. 

Mitford,  (Mary  Russell,)  a  charming  English  writer, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  17S6.  Her  father  was  a  physician 
of  more  than  ordinary  talent  and  culture,  whose  improvi- 
dence, however,  and  luxurious  tastes  had  involved  him 
in  pecuniary  embarrassment  In  order  to  relieve  his 
necessities.  Miss  Mitford  devoted  herself  to  authorship 
at  an  early  age,  and  published  in  1806  three  volumes  ol 
poems,  which  met  with  severe  criticism  from  some  of 
the  leading  journals.  Her  next  publications  were  the 
tragedies  of  "Julian,"  (1823,)  "The  Foscari,"  (1826,) 
"  Rienzi,"  (1828,)  and  "Charles  I.,"  several  of  which 
were  favourably  received.  She  had  previously  contrib- 
uted to  the  "  Ladies'  Magazine"  a  series  of  sketches 
of  English  life,  which  appeared  in  1832  under  the  title 
of  "  Our  Village,"  etc.,  (5  vols.)  The  genial  spirit, 
graceful  simplicity,  and  freshness  of  feeling  displayed  in 


a,  e,  I.  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MITFORD 


17. 


MITHRIDA  TIS 


these  tales  won  for  them  'the  favour  of  all  classes,  and 
they  passed  rapidly  through  many  editions.  Among 
Miss  Mitford's  other  works  we  may  name  "  Belford 
Regis;  or,  Sketches  of  a  Country  Town,"  "Stories  of 
American  Life  by  American  Writers,"  "  Recollections 
of  a  Literary  Life,"  (3  vols.,  1852,)  and  "  Atherton,  and 
other  Tales,"  (1854.)     Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "Life  of  Mary  Russell  Mitford,  told  by  herself  in  Letters 
to  her  Friends,"  edited  by  the  Rev.  A.  G.  K.  L'Estrange,  Lon- 
don, 1870;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1824;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1854. 

Mitford,  (William,)  an  English  historian,  born  in 
London  in  1744.  He  entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
and  subsequently  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple. 
He  was  appointed  in  1769  a  captain  in  the  South  Hamp- 
shire Militia,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Gib- 
bon, the  future  historian,  at  that  tiine  an  oiificer  in  the 
same  regiment.  Mitford  published  in  1774  his  "Inquiry 
into  the  Principles  of  Harmony  in  Languages,"  which 
was  followed  by  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Military  Force," 
etc.  Having  visited  France  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed, 
after  his  return,  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Hampshire 
Militia,  (1779,)  and  was  subsequently  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment, as  a  Tory,  for  Newport,  Beer-Alston,  and  New 
Romney.  He  brought  out  in  1784  the  first  volume  of 
his  "  Plistory  of  Greece,"  completed  in  five  volumes  in 
1818.  Its  style  is  characterized  by  great  spirit  and 
warmth  of  colouring,  and  displays  uncommon  learning 
and  research,  but  it  is  strongly  tinctured  with  the  anti- 
democratic prejudices  of  the  author.     Died  in  1827. 

"The  Athenian  democracy,"  says  an  able  critic  in  the 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  "  is  treated  by  him 
with  extreme  injustice.  Scarcely  anything  can  be  ima- 
gined more  partial  or  more  false  than  his  picture  of  the 
great  conflict  between  Athens  and  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Philip,  as  he  represents  him,  unites  the  perfections  of  a 
king,  a  hero,  and  an  accomplished  statesman  ;  Demos- 
thenes, on  the  contrary,  is  a  demagogue,  violent,  venal, 
and  dishonest."  "  Mitford's  History  of  Greece  is,"  says 
De  Quincey,  "  as  nearly  perfect  in  its  injustice  as  human 
infirmity  will  allow." 

See  Macaulav,  Review  of  "Mitford's  History  of  Greece;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1S08  ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
1821  :  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdnerale." 

MIth'ra  or  Mith'ras,  [Gr.  Mi'iSpaf ;  Lat.  Mith'ras  ; 
Sanscrit,  Mit'ra  or  Mitras,]  a  deity  of  the  ancient 
Persians,  usually  regarded  as  the  god  of  the  sun ;  but 
he  is  more  properly  the  god  of  day,  and,  in  a  higher  and 
more  extended  sense,  the  god  of  light,  presiding  over 
the  movements  and  influence  of  the  principal  heavenly 
bodies,  including  the  five  planets  and  the  sun  and  moon. 
By  the  followers  of  Zoroaster  he  was  regarded  as  the 
chief  of  the  Izeds,  (a  class  of  angelic  beings,)  and  in  a 
particular  manner  as  presiding  over  the  light  which 
mortals  enjoy  on  earth,  (but  as  distinct  from  the  sun,) 
and  as  a  mediator  between  men  and  Ormuzd.  The 
primary  signification  of  the  Sanscrit  Mitra  is  a  "  friend ;" 
and  Mithra  would  seem  to  be  the  representative  of 
light  as  the  friend  of  mankind  and  as  the  mediator 
between  earth  and  heaven.  In  this  character  of  medi- 
ator, as  well  as  in  some  other  respects,  he  would  seem 
to  approach  the  character  of  Agni,  (which  see.)  In 
the  time  of  the  emperors  the  worship  of  Mithra  was 
introduced  extensively  into  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the 
Roman  empire.  He  is  usually  represented  as  a  hand- 
some young  man,  seated  or  kneeling  on  a  bull,  into  which 
he  is  thrusting  the  sacrificial  knife  ;  at  his  side  are  the 
evening  and  morning  star,  and  near  at  hand  a  dog,  a 
lion,  and  other  animals,  the  signification  of  which  is  at 
present  very  imperfectly  understood. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquit^,"  vol.  i.  book  ii.  ; 
"Biographie  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Mithridate.     See  Mithridates. 

Mith-ri-da'tes,  [Gr.-  M«0p«5a77yf  or  MiBpadarric;  Fr. 
Mithridate,  me'tRe'dtt',]  a  Persian  name,  borne  by 
several  kings  of  Pontus,  who  were  descended  from 
Artabazes,  a  Persian  noble.  It  is  supposed  to  be  de- 
rived from  Alithra,  (the  sun,)  and  signifies  "given  by 
the  sun."  Little  is  known  of  Mithridates  I.,  who  was 
the  son  of  Ariobarzanes. 

Mithridates  11,  the  son  of  Ariobarzanes  II.,  began 
to  reign  about  337  B.C.     He  extended  his  dominions  by 


conquest,  and  was  called  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
Pontus.  In  a  war  with  Antigonus  he  was  defeated,  made 
prisoner,  and  put  to  death,  about  303  B.C. 

Mithridates  IIL,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded 
his  father,  and  made  conquests  in  Paphlagonia.  He 
died  after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ariobarzanes  III. 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici.' 

Mithridates  IV.,  of  Pontus,  the  son  of  Ariobarzanes 
III.,  began  to  reign  probably  about  245  B.C.,  when  he 
was  a  minor.  He  waged  a  successful  war  against 
Seleucus  Callinicus,  who,  to  obtain  peace,  gave  him  his 
own  sister  in  marriage,  with  one  or  two  provinces  as  a 
dowry.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  190  B.C.  His 
successor  was  Pharnaces  I. 

Mithridates  V.,  surnamed  Evergetes,  was  a  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of  Pharnaces  I.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  156  B.C.  He  was  a  steadfast  ally  of 
the  Romans,  who  ceded  to  him  the  province  of  Phrygia. 
After  a  peaceful  reign,  he  died  about  122  B.C. 

Mithridates  VI.,  King  of  Pontus,  surnamed  Eu'pa- 
TOR,  and  more  commonly  called  the  Great,  born  about 
135  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Mithridates  V.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded about  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  had  great  political 
and  military  talents,  and  is  said  to  have  been  master  of 
twenty-five  languages.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he 
found  scope  for  his  ambition  in  the  conquest  of  Colchis 
and  of  the  Scythian  tribes  which  roamed  on  the  north 
of  the  Euxine.  His  attempt  to  acquire  Cappadocia  by 
fraud  and  force  was  resisted  by  the  Roman  senate  about 
93  B.C.  After  forming  an  alliance  with  Tigranes,  King 
of  Armenia, — then  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Asia, 
— he  took  the  field  in  the  year  88  with  about  250,000 
men,  and  defeated  the  Romans  in  several  actions.  In 
the  same  year  he  instigated  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Romans  resident  in  Asia  Minor,  of  whom  it  was  com- 
puted that  80,000  fell  in  one  day. 

In  the  year  87  he  sent  a  large  army  into  Greece,  where 
he  was  opposed  by  Sulla  and  defeated  at  Chasronea,  86 
B.C.  Timbria,  with  another  Roman  army,  invaded  Bi- 
thynia  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  in  the  year  85.  The 
next  year  Sulla  and  Mithridates  made  a  treaty  of  peace, 
by  which  the  latter  abandoned  his  recent  conquests. 
Murjena,  who  had  obtained  command  of  the  Roman 
army,  with  some  flimsy  pretext  renewed  hostilities,  and 
was  completely  defeated  on  the  river  Halys  in  82  B.C. 
As  the  Roman  senate  had  not  ratified  the  treaty  which 
he  signed  with  Sulla,  Mithridates  made  great  preparations 
for  war,  which  was  renewed  in  74,  when  two  Roman 
armies,  under  Lucullus  and  Cotta,  entered  Bithynia.  De- 
feated with  great  loss  by  Lucullus  at  Cyzicus  and  Cabiri, 
Mithridates,  retarding  the  pursuit  of  the  Romans  by  the 
riches  he  threw  in  their  way,  took  refuge  in  the  kingdom 
of  Tigranes  (who  was  his  son-in-law)  about  72  B.C.,  and 
gave  orders  that  his  wives  Monima,  Berenice,  etc.  should 
be  put  to  death. 

Tigranes,  having  espoused  his  cause,  was  defeated  at 
Tigranocerta  by  Lucullus  in  69,  and  at  Artaxata  in  68  B.C. 
Mithridates  then  entered  Pontus,  and  in  67  B.C.  gained 
a  great  victory  over  the  Romans  under  Triarius,  and  re- 
covered his  kingdom.  Lucullus,  whose  victorious  career 
had  been  interrupted  by  a  mutiny  of  his  troops,  was 
superseded  in  66  by  Pompey  the  Great,  who  soon  ter- 
minated the  war.  After  losing  a  battle,  the  King  of 
Pontus  fled  to  Lake  Masotis,  (now  the  Sea  of  Azov,)  and 
offered  terms  of  peace,  to  which  Pompey  did  not  accede. 
While  he  was  busy  in  raising  a  new  army  among  the 
Scythians  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  his  son  Pharnaces 
conspired  against  him,  so  that,  to  avoid  the  fate  of  a 
captive,  he  took  poison,  in  the  year  63  B.C.  After  Han- 
nibal, Mithridates  was  the  most  formidable  enemy  Rome 
ever  encountered.  Cicero  considered  him  superior  in 
power  and  character  to  any  other  king  against  whom 
the  Romans  ever  waged  war. 

See  AppiAN,  "  Mithridatica;"  Livv,  "History  of  Rome;"  Jus- 
tin, "History;"  Woltersdorf,  "  Commentatio  Vitam  Mithridatis 
Magni  per  annos  digestam  sistens,"  1813;  Dion  Cassius,  "  Frag- 
menta;"  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Lucullus;"  ''Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale;"  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici;"  Niebuhr,  "Kleine 
Schriften." 

Mith-ri-da'tis,  [Gr.  MiOpttJdrtf,]  a  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  died  with  her  father  by  taking  poison,  B.C.  63. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  V.,giittural;  N,  nasal:  K.  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MITRE 


1736 


MOCENJGO 


Mitre,  me'ui,  (Bartolom^,)  aa  Argentine  president, 
born  at  Buenos  Ayres,  June  26,  1S21,  was  a  journalist  in 
Montevideo  during  the  early  part  of  tlie  nine  years'  siege, 
in  which  he  also  bore  arms  ;  went  to  Bolivia  in  1846, 
taught  in  a  military  college,  and  fought  against  Peru; 
became  a  journalist  in  Valparaiso,  was  colonel  of  artillery 
in  the  decisive  campaign  against  the  tyrant  Rosas  in  1S52, 
and  became  a  leader  in  the  movement  for  the  independ- 
ence of  the  state  of  Buenos  Ayres  from  the  remaining 
slates  of  the  Argentine  Confederation.  He  was  succes- 
sively minister  of  war  and  governor,  was  defeated  by 
I'rcsident  Urquiza  at  Cepeda  in  1859,  but  overthrew  him 
ai  Pavon,  September  1 1,  iS6i,  and  became  first  President 
uf  the  reorganized  Argentine  Republic.  He  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  "  triple  alliance"  against  Paraguay, 
1865-70.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  poet,  journalist,  and 
novelist,  and  was  author  of  an  "  Historia  de  Belgrano." 

Mitscherlich,  m!tsh'er-liK',  (Christoph  Wilhelm,) 
a  distinguished  German  scholar,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1760,  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  published  in  1800  an  excrllent  edition  of 
the  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace.     Died  in  1854. 

Mitscherlich,  (Eilard,)  an  eminent  German  chem- 
ist, born  near  Tever  in  1794.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg 
and  Gottmgen,  and  in  1819  was  invited  to  Stockholm  by 
Berzelius,  whose  notice  he  had  attracted  by  his  valuable 
discoveries  in  isomorphism.  After  his  return  to  Ger- 
many (1821)  he  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  that  city.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
French  Institute  in  1852.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Chemistry,"  ("Lehrbuch  der  Chimie,"  2  vols.,  1829-40,) 
which  has  a  very  high  reputation,  and  wrote  contribu- 
tions to  Poggendorf  s  "  Annalen"  and  to  other  journals. 
Died  in  1863. 

Mittarelli,  m^t-ti-rel'lee,  (Niccol6  Jacopo,  after- 
wards Giovanni  Benedetto,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  in  Venice  in  1707.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Camaldules,"  ("  Annales  Camaldulenses,"  9  vols.,  1755- 
73,)  a  work  of  some  merit.     Died  in  1777. 

Mittermaier,  mit'ter-mi'er,  (Karl  Joseph  Anton,) 
a  celebrated  German  statesman  and  jurist,  born  in 
Munich  in  1787.  He  was  successively  professor  of  law 
at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg,  president  of  the  preparatory 
parliament  at  Frankfort  in  1848,  and  soon  after  member 
of  the  National-  Assembly.  He  published  a  number  of 
valuable  legal  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  "The 
Common  Civil  Process  of  Germany  compared  with  that 
of  Prussia  and  France,"  (1826.)     Died  August  29,  1867. 

Mitzler  (or  Mizler)  von  Kolof,  mits'ler  fon  ko'lof, 
(LORENZ  Christoph,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born 
in  Anspach  in  1711.  He  published  a  "  Musical  Library," 
("Musikalische  Bibliothek,"  4  vols.,  1736-54,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Warsaw  in  1778. 

Miv'art,  (Saint  George,)  an  English  naturalist,  born 
in  London,  November  30,  1827.  He  was  educated  at 
King's  College,  London,  and  Saint  Mary's  College,  Os- 
cott,  and  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1844.  In  185 1 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1874  he 
was  made  professor  of  biology  in  the  (Catholic)  Uni- 
versity College  at  Kensington.  Among  his  books  are 
"Genesis  of  Species,"  (1871,)  "Lessons  in  Elementary 
Anatomy,"  (1872,)  "Man  and  Apes,"  (1873,)  "Lessons 
from  Nature,"  (1876,)  "Contemporary  Evolution," 
(1876,)  "The  Cat,"  (1881,)  "Nature  and  Thought," 
(1883,)  etc. 

Mjolnir.     See  Thor. 

Mnasalcas,  na-sil'kas,  [Gr.  MmadPjcaf,]  an  epigram- 
matic poet,  a  native  of  Sicyon,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Mnemon,  nee'mon,  a  surname  given  to  Arlaxerxes 
on  account  of  his  retentive  memory. 

Mnemcsyne,  ne-mos'i-ne,  [Gr.  MvTjfj.oavvTi ;  Fr.  Mne- 
mosyne, ni'mo'z^n',]  in  the  Grecian  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  memory,  was  the  daughter  of  Uranus,  and 
the  mother  of  the  nine  Muses. 

Mnesicles,  nes'e-kl^z,  [Gr.  M.v7iaiK2.T}c,]  an  able  Greek 
artist,  of  the  age  of  Pericles,  flourished  about  433  B.C. 
He  was  the  architect  of  the  Propylaea  of  the  Athenian 
Acropolis. 

Mnesimachus,  ne-sim'a-kus,  [Gr.  'MvrjaifMxoi ;  Fr. 


MnEsimaque,  ni'ze'mSk',]  ah  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  was  esteemed 
one  of  the  finest  writers  of  the  so-called  middle  comedy. 
Tliere  are  a  few  fragments  of  his  plays  extant. 

Mnestheus.     See  Menestheus. 

Mnioch,  mnee'oK,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Prussian  poet, 
born  at  Elbing  in  1765,  wrote  a  number  of  popular  lyrics, 
among  which  we  may  name  "The  Song  of  the  Grave," 
and  "  Song  of  the  Masons  at  Saint  John's  Festival." 
Died  in  1804. 

Mo'ab,  [Heb.  3X1D,]  the  son  of  Lot,  was  the  father 
of  the  Moabites,  who  inhabited  the  country  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.     (See  Genesis  xix.) 

Moaweeyali,  Moa'wiyah,  or  Moavvyah,  mo-3'- 
wee'yah,*  written  also  Mua'wia,  Mauv^eiah,  and  Mo^- 
veafi,  [in  German,  Moavvijah,  Muawijjah,  or  Moa- 
wijE,J  a  celebrated  caliph,  born  at  Mecca  in  610  A.D., 
was  the  founder  of  the  Omeyyad  dynasty.  He  was 
the  great-grandson  of  Omeyyah,  who  was  the  head  of  a 
powerful  family  of  the  Koreish,  and  cousin-german  to 
Abd-el-Mo6ttalib,  the  grandfather  of  Mohammed.  He 
subjected  Arabia  to  his  power  about  660,  and  deposed 
Hassan,  the  son  of  Alee,  (Ali.)  He  was  an  able  and 
successful  but  unscrupulous  ruler.  He  died  in  680,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Yezeed,  (Yezid.)  His  grand- 
son, Moaweeyah  II.,  born  in  660,  became  caliph  in  683. 
He  abdicated  in  683  or  684  a.d. 

See  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  L  chap.  v. 

Mo'ber-ly,  (George,)  D.C.L.,  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Saint  Petersburg,  Russia,  in  1S03.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Winchester,  and  graduated  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  in  1825,  becoming  a  tutor  and  Fellow  of  the 
same  college.  He  was  head-master  of  Winchester 
School,  1835-68,  and  in  1869  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Salisbury.  He  published  several  volumes  of  sermons, 
and  various  educational  and  theological  works,  and  was 
prominent  as  a  High-Church  prelate.     Died  in  1885. 

Mobius  or  Moebius,  mo'be-us,  (August  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  German  astronomer  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Schulpforte  in  1790.  In  1844  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Leipsic.  He  published,  among 
other  scientific  treatises,  "The  Barycentric  Calculus,  a 
New  Expedient  for  the  Analytic  Treatment  of  Geome- 
try," (1827,)  and  "Manual  of  Statics."     Died  in  1868. 

Mocchetti,  mok-ket'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  physician,  born  at  Como  in  1766,  published 
"Philosophical  Odes."  He  became  in  1815  physician  to 
Caroline,  Princess  of  Wales.     Died  in  1839. 

Mocchi,  mok'kee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  near  Florence  in  1580;  died  in  1646. 

Mocenigo,  mo-chi-nee'go,  (Alvisio,)  born  in  1701, 
was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1763.  He  pursued  a 
pacific  policy.     Died  in  1778. 

Mocenigo,  (Giovanni,)  brother  of  Pietro,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  1408.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1478.  The  country  being  devastated  by  famine  and  the 
plague,  and  at  the  same  time  invaded  by  the  Turks, 
he  made  peace  in  1479  with  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  II. 
Died  in  1485. 

See  M.\RiNO  Sanuto,  "  Vite  de'  Duchi  di  Venezia," 

Mocenigo,  (Luigi  I.,)  succeeded  Pietro  Loredano 
as  Doge  of  Venice  in  1570.  The  most  important  events 
of  his  rule  were  the  capture  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  victory  of  Lepanto,  gained  by  the  Vene- 
tians and  their  allies  under  Don  John  of  Austria,  (1571.) 
Died  in  1577. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Mocenigo,  (Luigi  II.,)  succeeded  Valieri  as  doge  m 
1700.  He  governed  with  great  wisdom  and  ability,  and 
prevailed  on  the  Venetians  to  keep  a  strict  neutrality 
during  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.    Died  in  1709. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Annales  d' Italia." 

Mocenigo,  (Pietro,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1474, 
having  previously  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  against  the  Turks.     Died  in  1476. 


*  There  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  accentuation  as  well  as  in  the 
spelling  of  this  name.  Hammer-Piirgstall,  than  whom  there  is  no 
higher  authority,  places  the  full  accent  on  the  penuitima ;  and  we 
have  thought  it  safe  to  follow  his  example. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  5,  y  Aw^v  k.  h,  6,  same,  .ess  prolonged:  a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  ^, short;  a,  e,  i,  Q,  obsatre;  fJr,  f^ll,  tit;  ni^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOCENIGO 


17: 


MOHAMMED 


Mocenigo,  (Sebastiano,)  brother  of  Luigi  II.,  suc- 
ceeded Cornaro  as  Doge  of  Venice  in  1722.    Died  in  1732. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Mocenigo,  (Tommaso,)  an  able  Venetian  statesman, 
born  in  1343.  He  was  elected  doge  in  1414.  The  Vene- 
tian fleet  defeated  that  of  the  Sultan  in  1416.  During  his 
administration  the  republic  was  prosperous  and  power- 
ful.    Died  in  1423. 

Mocetto,  mo-chet'to,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  artist. 
had  a  high  reputation  as  an  engraver.  He  lived  about 
1470-1500. 

Mochnacki,  moK-nat'skee,  (Maurice,)  a  Polish 
patriot  and  historian,  born  in  Galicia  in  1804.  He 
became  in  1825  associate  editor  of  the  "  Warsaw  Jour- 
nal," and  in  1830  published  an  excellent  treatise  "On 
the  Polish  Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"'  which 
was  instrumental  in  founding  a  new  school  of  poetry  in 
Poland.  He  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  insurrection 
of  1830  against  the  Russian  government.  On  the  fall 
of  Warsaw  he  took  refuge  in  France,  and  began  a 
'•  History  of  the  Polish  Revolution,"  which  he  did  not 
live  to  complete.     Died  in  1834. 

Mocquard,  mo'kSR',  (Constant,)  a  French  poli- 
tician and  litterateur,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1 791.  He 
practised  law  in  his  early  life.  During  the  reign  of 
Louis  Philippe  he  became  a  friend  and  adherent  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  who  in  1848  appointed  him  his  private 
secretary.  He  performed  an  important  part  in  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  185 1,  after  which  he  was  chef  du 
cabinet  of  the  emperor  for  many  years.  He  published  a 
collection  of  criminal  trials,  "Nouvelles  Causes  cele- 
bres,"  (6  vols.,  1847.)     Died  in  1864. 

Mo-deer',  [Sw.  pron.  mo-diir',]  (Adoi.f,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist  and  economist,  born  in  1738,  published  several 
works.     Died  in  1799. 

Modena,  mod'i-nd,  (Gustavo,)  a  i^opular  Italian 
writer  and  tragic  actor,  born  at  Venice  in  1803.  He 
made  his  debut  in  1826  at  Rome.  He  became  an  orator 
of  the  radical  party  during  the  revolutionary  movement 
of  1847,  and  published  "Popular  Dialogues,"  ("Dialo- 
ghetti  popolari.")     Die"!  at  Turin,  February  22,  1861. 

Modena,  da,  di  mod'i-nS,  or  Mutina,  moo'te-nS, 
(Tommaso  Bakisini,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  born  at  Modena  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Among  his  master-pieces  we 
may  name  an  altar-piece  of  the  Virgin  and  Child. 

Mo-des-ti'niis  He-ren'ni-us,  a  Roman  jurist  of  the 
third  century,  was  one  of  the  counsellors  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  Severus,  and  was  appointed  preceptor  to 
Maximinus  the  Younger.  He  wrote  a  number  of  legal 
works,  of  which  only  fragments  are  extant. 

Modi,  mo'de,  or  MoSi,  written  also  Mode,  [that  is, 
"  the  Courageous,"  from  a  root  cognate  with  the  Danish 
mod  and  German  miitk,  "  courage,"]  a  son  of  Thor,  des- 
tined to  survive  the  destruction  of  the  world  at  Ragna- 
rock.  In  the  renovated  world  he  will  share  with  Magni 
the  possession  of  their  father's  hammer,  (mjblnir,)  and 
direct  their  efforts  towards  putting  an  end  to  all  strife. 

Modigliano,  mo-d^l-y3'no,  (Gian  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  Francesco  da  Forli, 
born  at  Forli  about  1550.  His  works  are  principally 
historical  pieces  of  a  religious  character,  some  of  which 
have  great  merit. 

Mo'di-us,  (Francois,)  a  Flemish  philologist  and 
jurist,  born  near  Bruges  in  1536  ;  died  in  1597. 

Mod-jes'ka,  (Helena,)  a  Polish  actress,  born  at 
Cracow  about  1843.  She  married  M.  Modjeska  when 
she  was  seventeen  years  old.  After  his  death  in  1865 
she  married  one  Chlapowski,  a  journalist,  and  after  her 
great  success  upon  the  Warsaw  stage  they  removed  to 
California,  where  she  first  appeared  in  an  English- 
speaking  part  in  1877,  since  which  time  she  has  won 
many  triumphs. 

Moe,  mS'eh,  (Jorgen  Engebretsen,)  a  Norwegian 
poet,  born  at  Hole,  in  Sigdal,  April  22,  1813.  He  was 
educated  in  the  University  of  Christiania,  and  from 
1845  to  1853  was  professor  of  divinity  in  the  national 
military  school.  In  1875  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Christiansand.  He  published  "Songs,  Ballads,  and 
Staves,"  (1840,)  "  Norske  Folke-eventyr,"  (1841  ;  pre- 


pared partly  by  Asbjoinsen,  except  in  later  editions,)  "I 
Bronden  og  i  Tjernet,"  (1851,)  "En  liden  Julegave,"  ("A 
Little  Christmas-Gift,"  1859,)  etc.  Died  at  Christian- 
sand,  March  27,  18S2. 

Moebius.     See  MoBius. 

Moehler.     See  Moiiler. 

Moehsen.     See  Mohsen. 

Moellendorf.     See  Mollendorf. 

Moeller.     See  Moller. 

Moerike.     See  Morike. 

Moeris,  mee'ris,  or  Myris,  mi'ris,  [Gr.  Mdipiq  or 
Mfipof,]  a  king  of  Egypt,  who,  according  to  Herodotus, 
reigned  about  1400  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pa- 
cific monarch,  and  to  have  adorned  the  kingdom  with 
many  monuments  and  temples,  at  Thebes,  Edfou,  etc. 

Moeris  .ffllius,  mee'ris  ee'li-us,  a  Greek  lexicog- 
rapher, surnamed  Atticista,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  time  of  Adrian.  His  only  work  extant  is  a  "Lexi- 
non  Atticum,"  or  vocabulary  of  Attic  and  Hellenic 
words. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grxca." 

Moeser.     See  Moser. 

Moffat,  (James  Clement,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish-Ameri- 
can clergyman,  born  at  Glencree,  in  Galloway,  May  30, 
1811.  He  came  to  America  in  1833,  and  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1835,  and  afterwards  studied  at 
Yale  College.  He  was  then  for  two  years  a  tutor  at 
Princeton,  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Lafayette 
College,  1839-41,  of  Latin  and  history  in  Miami  Univer- 
sity, 1841-52,  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  Cin- 
cinnati, 1852-53,  of  Latin  in  Princeton,  1853-54,  and  of 
Greek,  1854-61,  and  professor  of  church  history  at  Prince- 
ton after  1861.  Among  his  works  are  "  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  ^Esthetics,"  (1856,)  "Life  of  Chalmers," 
"Comparative  History  of  Religions,"  (1871,)  "Summer 
Ramble  in  Scotland,"  (1S73,)  "  Alwyn,  a  Poem,"  (1875,) 
"The  Church  in  Scotland,  a  History,"  (1882,)  "General 
Church  History  in  Brief,"  (1884,)  etc.      Died  in  1890. 

Moffat,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  missionary,  born  near 
Edinburgh  in  1795,  set  out  for  Africa  about  1816.  He 
sjjjcnt  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  southern  part  of 
that  country,  and  about  1840  published  "Missionarj 
Labours  and  Scenes  in  Southern  Africa."  He  also 
translated  the  New  Testament  and  Psalms  into  the 
Bechuana  tongue.  Mr.  Moffat  was  father-in-law  of  the 
African  explorer,  Dr.  Livingstone.    Died  Aug.  10,  1883. 

Mogilas,  mo-Hee'lis,  (Petros,)  a  Russian  prelate,  of 
a  Wallachian  family,  born  about  1600.  He  studied  in 
Paris,  became  a  monk  in  1625,  and  in  1632  was  conse- 
crated Metropolitan  of  Kieff.  He  prepared  a  "  Cate- 
chism," (1645,)  and  the  celebrated  "Orthodox  Confes- 
sion" of  1640,  adopted  as  a  standard  by  the  patriarchs 
and  synods  of  the  Greek  Church.     Died  in  1647. 

Mohallal,  mo-hai'lal,  (Ada-Ben-Reblah,)  an  Ara- 
biaii  poet,  born  at  Diarbekir,  lived  about  600  A.D.  He 
first  fixed  the  rules  and  metre  of  Arabian  poetry.  He 
was  an  uncle  of  the  poet  Amrool-Kais. 

Mo-ham'med  or  Ma-hom'et,*  written  also  Mo- 
hamed  and  Muhammed,  [Arabic  pron.  mo-ham'- 
med  ;  Fr.  Mahomet,  mS'o'mi' ;  Ger.  Mohammed,  mo- 
ham'mgt,  or  Muhammed,  moo-h  Jm'mgt ;  It.  Maometto, 
mi-o-met'to,  or  Macome'ITO,  mi-ko-met'to  ;  Lat.  Mo- 
Ham'med  or  (rarely)  Moham'medes,  (gen.  of  both.  Mo 
hammedis,)  or  Muhammed  ;  Port.  Mafoma,  ma-fo'mS ; 
Sp.  Mahomet,  mi-o-m§t',]  a  celebrated  religious  teacher 
and  pretended  prophet,  the  founder  of  one  of  the  most 
widely  diffused  religions  of  the  globe,  was  born  at  Mecca 
about  570  A.D.  The  year  of  his  birth  is  not  positively 
ascertained  ;  the  authorities  are  divided  between  571  and 
569,  but  the  former  date  appears  to  be  generally  regarded 
as  the  more  probable  one.  Both  his  parents  belonged 
to  the  Koreish,  at  that  time  the  most  influential  of  all 
the  Arabian  tribes.  His  father,  Abdallah,  who  was  of 
the  family  of  Hashem,  was  regarded  as  the  handsomest 
youth  of  his  time.  He  married  A'minah,  of  the  noble 
family  Zohrah.     Their  only  child  was  Mohammed,  the 


*  This  name  is  often  pronounced,  especially  by  the  poets,  mah'- 
ho-met'orma'ho-met,  an  accentuation  derived,  in  all  probability,  from 
the  French.  (See  Introduction,  page  13.)  Mahom'et  (with  the  accent 
on  the  penultima)  is  not  only  the  prevailing  English  pronunciation, 
but  it  corresponds  more  nearly  with  the  Arabic. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JjJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MOHAMMED 


1738 


MOHAMMED 


future  prophet.  Aminah  possessed,  it  is  said,  a  pecu- 
liarly nervous  temperament,  and  used  to  fancy,  while 
between  slee])ing  and  waking,  that  she  was  visited  by 
spirits.  It  is  probable  that  Mohammed  inherited  from 
his  mother  his  constitutional  tendency  to  epilepsy,  as  well 
as  his  most  remarkable  mental  peculiarities.  Many  mar- 
vellous stories  are  told  of  the  circumstances  attending 
his  birth.  It  is  related,  among  other  things,  that  his 
mother  experienced  none  of  the  pangs  of  tiavail.  As 
soon  as  her  child  was  born,  he  raised  his  eyes  to  heaven, 
exclaiming,  "  There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  I  am  his 
prophet !"  That  same  night  the  fire  of  Zoroaster,  which, 
guarded  by  the  Magi,  had  burned  uninterruptedly  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  was  suddenly  extinguished, 
and  all  the  idols  in  the  world  fell  down.t 

When  his  son  was  only  two  months  old,  Abdallah 
died  ;  (according  to  some  accounts,  he  died  two  months 
before  the  birth  of  Mohammed.)  Aminah  for  a  short 
time  nursed  her  infant  herself,  but  sorrow  soon  dried 
the  fountains  of  her  breast,  and  the  young  child  was 
committed  to  the  care  of  Haleemah,  (Halimah,)  a  shep- 
herd's wife,  with  whom  he  remained  about  five  years.  It 
is  related  that  when  Haleemah  showed  the  child  to  a 
celebrated  soothsayer,  (Kahin,)  who  was  an  idolater,  the 
latter  exclaimed,  "Kill  this  child  !"  Haleemah  snatched 
away  her  precious  charge  and  flied.  Afterwards  the 
Kahin  explained  to  the  excited  multitude  :  "  I  swear  by 
all  the  gods,"  said  he,  "that  this  child  will  kill  those 
who  belong  to  your  faith ;  he  will  destroy  your  gods, 
and  he  will  be  victorious  over  you."  When  Mohammed 
was  four  years  old,  he  was  seized,  while  at  play,  with  a 
nervous  fit,  which  was  supposed  to  be  epilepsy.  As  this 
disease  was  ascribed  to  supernatural  influence,  his  nurse 
was  alarmed,  and  was  anxious  to  return  him  to  his 
mother ;  but  she  was  at  last  prevailed  on  to  keep  him 
somewhat  longer.  When  he  had  completed  his  sixth 
year,  his  mother  died.  For  the  next  two  years  he  lived 
with  his  grandfather,  Abd-el-Mo6ttalib,  who  appears  to 
have  regarded  him  with  great  fondness.  At  his  death, 
Abd-el-M66ttalib  recommended  the  orphan  to  the  care 
of  his  son,  the  noble-minded  Aboo-Talib. 

_  When  only  twelve  years  old,  Mohammed  accompanied 
his  uncle  on  a  trading  expedition  to  Syria.  Near  Bostra 
they  met  with  an  Arabian  monk  named  Baheera  or  Ser- 
gius.  It  is  said  that  Aboo-T21ib,  for  some  reason  not 
explained,  found  it  necessary  to  send  the  young  Mo- 
hammed home  again,  and  that  Sergius  took  charge  of 
him  and  accompanied  him  to  Mecca.  Early  Christian 
biographers  assert  that  Mohammed  received  his  revela- 
tions from  this  monk ;  and  he  himself  tells  us  in  the 
Koran  that  he  was  accused  of  having  been  taught  by  a 
foreigner.  It  is  not  improbable  that  on  his  different 
journeys  to  Syria  he  learned  many  facts  respecting  the 
religions  of  Western  Asia ;  but  how  far  the  knowledge 
of  such  facts  influenced  his  future  career  must  ever 
remain  a  subject  of  conjecture. 

When  Mohammed  was  twenty-five  years  of  age,  his 
uncle,  Aboo-Talib,  proposed  to  him  that  he  should  take 
charge  of  the  merchandise  which  Khadijah,  (orKhadee'- 
jah,)  a  rich  widow  of  Mecca,  was  about  to  send  to  the 
markets  of  Syria.  He  accepted  the  proposal,  and  appears 
to  have  fulfilled  his  charge  with  judgment  and  with  entire 
fidelity.  Khadijah  was  so  well  pleased  with  him  on  his 
return  that  .she  offered  him  her  hand.  Although  she 
was  forty  (lunar)  years  of  age,  and  he  but  twenty-five,  it 
was  considered  by  the  family  of  Mohammed  as  a  very 
desirable  connection.  Their  nuptials  were  celebrated 
with  a  magnificent  feast  and  great  rejoicings.  This  mar- 
riage raised  Mohammed  to  an  equal  position  with  the 
wealthiest  inhabitants  of  Mecca.  His  moral  character, 
moreover,  appears  to  have  inspired  universal  esteem 
and  confidence,  and  he  was  generally  known  by  the  sur- 
name of  El-Ameen,  (El-Amin,)  or  "the  Faithful."  For 
several  years  after  his  marriage  he  continued  his  com- 
mercial journeys,  visiting,  with  the  caravans,  the  Arabian 
fairs  and  markets  of  Syria.  But,  being  now  above  the 
necessity  of  anxiously  toiling  for  a  subsistence,  he  had 
leisure  to  give  free  scope  to  the  natural  tendency  of  his 

tit  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  some  of  tlie  most  wonderful 
of  these  stones  are  not  found  in  the  earlier  accounts  of  Mohammed's 
life,  and  are  clearly  the  inventions  of  a  later  age. 


mind,  which  inclinea  him  to  religious  meditation  and 
speculation.  "  He  had,"  says  Carlyle,  "  no  school  learn- 
ing ;  of  the  thing  we  call  school  learning,  none  at  all. 
The  art  of  writing  was  but  just  introduced  into  Arabia  ; 
'.t  seems  to  be  the  true  opinion  that  Mahomet  never 
could  write.  Life  in  the  desert,  with  its  experiences, 
was  all  his  education." 

Until  his  fortieth  year  Mohammed  appears  to  have 
been  a  devout  worshipper  of  the  gods  of  his  fathers. 
About  this  time  he  began  to  entertain  serious  scruples 
respecting  the  worship  of  idols.  His  followers  ascribe 
the  change  to  a  divine  revelation  ;  but  others  have  sug- 
gested that  his  scruples  were  probably  excited  by  a  more 
extensive  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Scriptures,  which  he  may  have  acquired  from  his  wife's 
cousin,  War'aka,  who  had,  it  is  said,  once  been  a  Jew 
and  afterwards  became  a  Christian,  and  who  made  withal 
some  pretensions  to  astrology.  Sup]:)osing  these  con- 
jectures to  have  a  basis  of  truth,  it  was  perhaps  fortunate 
for  the  new  prophet's  claims  to  an  original  revelation 
that  Waraka  died  a  short  time  before  Mohammed  pub- 
licly proclaimed  his  divine  mission.  But,  however  his 
thoughts  may  have  been  first  directed  to  the  subject  of 
religion,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was,  at 
least  in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  sincere  and  unselfish 
in  his  desire  to  convert  his  countrymen  to  a  better  faith. 
He  appears  to  have  thought  long  and  deejDly,  and  to 
have  had  many  mental  struggles,  before  he  resolved  to 
announce  himself  as  a  divine  teacher.  He  was  of  a 
nervous  and  melancholic  temperament,  and  there  were 
times,  during  the  period  of  doubt  and  conflict  which 
preceded  the  annunciation  of  his  great  mission,  when 
he  was  strongly  tempted  to  commit  suicide  by  throwing 
himself  down  from  a  precipice.  (See  Sprenger's  "Life," 
p.  105.)  In  all  his  trials  he  found  a  great  support  in  his 
faithful  wife  Khadijah,  who  was  the  first,  as  he  himself 
declared,  among  all  his  nation  that  believed  in  him. 
"God  thus  ordained  it,"  says  Ibn  Tshak,  "that  his  duties 
might  be  made  easy  to  him  ;  for,  as  often  as  he  had  to 
hear  reproachful  language,  or  was  accused  of  falsehood, 
or  was  cast  down,  she  cheered  him  up  and  inspired  him 
with  courage,  saying,  'Thou  si^eakest  the  truth.'"  We 
may  well  suppose,  with  Carlyle,  that  "of  all  the  kind- 
nesses she  had  done  him,  this  of  believing  the  earnest, 
struggling  word  which  he  now  spoke  was  the  greatest." 
For  a  considerable  time  Mohammed  preached  his  new 
doctrines  respecting  the  unitv  and  glorious  attributes  of 
God  to  his  household  and  intimate  friends  only.  In  three 
years  he  had  made,  we  are  told,  only  fourteen  converts  ; 
but  among  these  were  the  high-spirited,  devoted,  and 
indomitable  Alee,  (Ali,)  who  was  afterwards  surnamed 
the  "ever-victorious  Lion  of  God,"  (see  Alee,)  and 
Aboo-Bekr,  whose  character  for  good  sense,  benevolence, 
and  straightforward  integrity  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
respectability  and  ultimate  success  of  the  new  religion. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  his  mission,  in  obedience,  as  he 
alleges,  to  an  express  command  from  heaven,  Mohammed 
resolved  to  make  a  public  declaration  of  his  faith.  He 
addressed  himself  to  the  Koreish  and  others,  asking 
them,  "  If  I  were  to  tell  you  that  there  is  an  army  on  the 
other  side  of  that  mountain,  would  you  believe  me  ?" 
"  Yes,"  they  answered,  "  for  we  do  not  consider  thee  to 
be  a  liar."  He  then  said,  "  I  come  to  warn  you  ;  and  if 
you  do  not  believe  me,  a  great  punishment  will  befall 
you  ;"  he  told  them  they  must  renounce  idolatry,  and 
make  a  profession  of  the  one  true  God  ;  that  unless  they 
did  so  they  could  have  no  true  happiness  in  this  life  nor 
salvation  in  the  life  to  come.  He  formally  separated  him- 
self from  the  polytheists,  and  publicly  condemned  their 
religion.  A  powerful  opposition  was  in  consequence 
organized  against  him, — his  uncle,  Aboo-Lahab,  (lih'hab,) 
and  Aboo-Sofian,  (of  the  family  of  Omeyyah,)  the  prin- 
cipal leader  of  the  Koreishites,  being  among  the  number 
of  his  bitterest  enemies.  Not  only  the  prophet  himself, 
but  his  disciples  were  for  a  time  in  extreme  danger  ;  he 
owed  his  life  to  the  influence  of  the  powerful  family  of 
Hashem,  and  especially  to  the  magnanimity,  courage, 
and  indomitable  firmness  of  his  uncle,  Aboo-Talib,  who, 
although  he  refused  to  accept  the  new  faith,  resolved,  at 
whatever  cost,  to  protect  his  kinsman.  Every  form  of 
persuasion  and  menace  was  tried  upon  him  in  vain.    To 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MOHAMMED 


1739 


MOHAMMED 


the  hostile  Koreishites,  who  urged  him  to  give  up  to 
their  vengeance  the  blasphemer  of  his  country's  gods, 
he  answered  with  indignant  scorn,  and  declared  that  if 
they  should  slay  his  nephew  the  lives  of  the  chiefs  of 
their  tribe  should  pay  for  the  life  of  Mohammed.  They 
were  thunder-struck  at  his  boldness  and  awed  by  his 
invincible  determination.  But,  while  they  hesitated  to 
provoke  the  vengeance  of  the  Hashemites  by  laying 
violent  hands  upon  Mohammed,  they  persecuted  his 
disciples  in  a  hundred  ways,  insulting  and  imprisoning 
those  of  the  better  class,  and  starving  and  torturing  such 
as  had  no  wealth,  position,  or  family  connections  to  pro- 
tect them.  Under  the  pressure  of  this  persecution  many 
converts  to  the  new  faith  apostatized ;  and  Mohammed, 
fearing  that  others  might  desert  him,  advised  some  of  his 
followers  to  leave  Mecca  and  seek  refuge  in  Abyssinia, 
which  was  ruled,  he  said,  by  a  just  and  pious  king.  The 
subsequent  conduct  of  the  Abyssinian  monarch  proved 
that  the  confidence  of  the  prophet  was  not  misplaced. 

In  spite  of  all  opposition,  the  new  doctrines  continued 
to  spread.  In  the  sixth  year  of  Mohammed's  mission 
two  important  conversions  took  place, — the  prophet's 
kinsman  Hamzah,  surnamed,  on  account  of  his  bravery, 
the  "  Lion  of  God,"  and  Omar,  who  had  at  first  been  a 
bitter  opponent  of  the  Islam,  but  afterwards  became  one 
of  its  most  zealous  and  powerful  defenders.  (See  Omar.) 
Ten  years  after  the  commencement  of  his  mission, 
(that  is,  about  619  a.d.,)  Mohammed  lost  by  death  his 
generous  and  faithful  wife,  Khadijah,  and  his  noble- 
minded  uncle  and  protector,  Aboo-Talib.  He  appears 
to  have  been  greatly  cast  down  by  these  severe  afflictions, 
and  seldom  went  out  of  his  house.  Meanwhile,  his 
enemies  seemed  to  have  become  more  exasperated  than 
ever  by  the  failure  of  all  their  efforts  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  new  religion.  In  this  extremity,  his  uncle, 
Aboo-Lahab,  who  had  hitherto  been  one  of  his  most 
determined  and  bitter  opponents,  but  upon  whom  now 
devolved  the  duty  of  protecting  his  kinsman,  came  for- 
ward with  singular  magnanimity  and  said  to  Mohammed, 
"  Go  wheresoever  thou  wilt,  and  do  what  thou  wast  ac- 
customed to  do  when  Aboo-Talib  was  alive  :  I  swear  by 
the  gods  of  my  country  that  no  harm  shall  befall  thee 
while  I  live."  But  a  few  days  afterwards  some  one  said 
to  Aboo-Lahab,  "  Do  you  know  what  your  nephew  says 
of  your  father?  he  says  he  is  in  hell."  Aboo-Lahab 
asked  Mohammed  if  the  charge  was  true.  The  prophet 
had  the  hardihood  to  answer,  "  Your  father  died  an 
idolater;  and  every  idolater  goes  to  hell."  Upon  this, 
Aboo-Lahab  withdrew  his  protection. 

So  long  as  Khadijah  lived,  Mohammed  may  be  said  to 
have  been  a  strict  monogamist.  Shortly  after  her  death 
the  daughter  of  Hakeem  and  wife  of  Othman  asked  the 
prophet  why  he  did  not  marry.  "Whom  shall  I  marry?" 
said  he.  She  replied,  "  If  thou  wishest  a  virgin,  take 
Ayeshah,  the  daughter  of  Aboo-Bekr ;  if  a  widow,  take 
Sawdah,  the  daughter  of  Zamah, — she  believes  in  thee." 
He  instantly  replied,  "I  will  marry  them  both." 

After  Mohammed  was  abandoned  by  Aboo-Lahab, 
another  uncle,  El-Abbis,  (the  brother  of  Aboo-Talib, 
and  ancestor  of  the  Abbasside  caliphs,)  became  his  pro- 
tector. Meanwhile  the  faith  which  had  been  rejected  at 
Mecca  was  eagerly  embraced  in  the  neighbouring  city 
of  Medina.  A  numerous  and  powerful  deputation  from 
the  most  influential  families  of  the  latter  city  waited  on 
the  prophet,  and  in  a  solemn  covenant  promised,  with 
an  oath,  that  if  he  would  come  and  live  with  them  they 
would  protect  him  as  they  would  protect  their  own  wives 
and  children.  The  offer  of  this  powerful  aid  did  not 
come  a  moment  too  soon.  His  enemies,  headed  by 
Aboo-Sofian,  had  been  unremitting  in  their  efforts  to 
procure  his  destruction.  At  length  it  was  formally  and 
publicly  resolved  that  he  should  be  slain.  In  order  to 
baffle  the  vengeance  of  the  Hashemites,  and  to  divide 
the  guilt  of  his  death,  it  was  agreed  that  one  man  from 
every  family  should  at  the  same  moment  plunge  his 
sword  into  the  heart  of  their  victim.  Nothing  now  re- 
mained for  him  but  death  or  instant  flight.  At  the  dead 
of  night,  accompanied  by  his  faithful  friend  Aboo-Bekr, 
he  silently  escaped  from  his  house.  The  generous  and  de- 
voted Alee,  covered  with  the  shawl  of  the  prophet,  laid 
himself  down  on  the  bed  of  his  master.     Meanwhile 


Mohammed  and  Aboo-Bekr  had  fled  to  the  cave  of  Thor, 
about  a  league  from  Mecca :  there  they  remained  three 
days.  According  to  one  account,  their  enemies,  after 
exploring  every  hiding-place  in  the  vicinity,  came  to  the 
mouth  of  the  cave.  But,  a  spider  having  providentially 
spread  her  web  over  the  entrance,  the  Koreishites,  deem- 
ing it  impossible  that  Mohammed  could  have  entered^ 
there,  turned  back  from  their  pursuit.  Perhaps  a  more 
probable  explanation  is  that  as  the  Koreishites  knew 
Medina  to  be  the  destination  of  the  fugitives,  they  never 
suspected  that  they  could  be  concealed  in  the  cave  of 
Thcr,  which  lay  in  an  opposite  direction.  While  they 
were  in  the  cave,  Aboo-Bekr,  contrasting  their  weakness 
with  the  strength  of  their  enemies,  said,  trembling,  "  We 
are  but  two."  "No,"  replied  Mohammed,  "there  is  a 
third  :  it  is  God  himself"  On  the  fourth  night  the 
prophet  and  his  companion  left  their  hiding-place,  and, 
riding  on  camels  which  the  servant  of  Aboo-Bekr  had 
brought,  arrived  safely  at  Medina  sixteen  days  after  his 
flight  from  Mecca.  His  approach  having  been  made 
known,  several  hundred  of  the  citizens  went  out  to  meet 
him.  He  was  welcomed  with  loud  acclamations;  and 
he  who  a  few  days  before  had  left  his  native  city  as  a 
fugitive,  with  a  price  upon  his  head,  now  entered  Medina 
more  like  a  king  returning  victorious  from  battle  than 
an  exile  seeking  a  place  of  refuge.  This  separation  or 
flight  of  Mohammed  from  the  city  of  his  nativity  (called 
in  Arabic  Hej'rah  or  Hi/rah*)  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Mohammedan  era.t 

After  Mohammed's  arrival  at  Medina,  a  marked  change 
took  place  in  his  policy.  He  had  hitherto  asserted  liberty 
of  conscience  and  opposed  religious  violence.  He  now 
maintained  that  the  Islam  should,  if  necessary,  be  de- 
fended and  propagated  by  the  sword.  "The  sword," 
said  he,  "  is  the  key  of  heaven  and  of  hell :  a  drop  of 
blood  shed  in  the  cause  of  God,  or  a  night  spent  in  arms, 
is  of  more  avail  than  two  months  of  fasting  and  prayer  ; 
whoever  falls  in  battle,  his  sins  are  forgiven  him,  and  at 
the  day  of  judgment  the  loss  of  his  limbs  shall  be  sup- 
plied by  the  wings  of  cherubim."  He  was  not  long  in 
carrying  his  new  principles  into  practice.  His  arch- 
enemy, Aboo-Sofian,  had,  with  only  thirty  or  forty  fol- 
lowers, conducted  a  rich  caravan  of  a  thousand  camels 
to  the  marts  of  Syria.  The  prophet  resolved  to  inter- 
cept it  on  its  return.  Aboo-Sofian,  having  been  informed 
of  his  design,  dispatched  a  messenger  to  Mecca  and 
obtained  a  reinforcement  of  nearly  a  thousand  men.  Mo- 
hammed's troops  amounted  to  considerably  less  than 
half  that  number.  The  hostile  forces  met  in  the  vale 
of  Bedr,  (or  Bedder,)  about  twenty  miles  from  Medina. 
Mohammed  was  placed  on  a  throne  or  pulpit  whence 
his  eye  could  command  the  field  of  battle.  His  followers, 
being  outnumbered,  were  sorely  pressed.  At  that  critical 
moment  the  prophet  started  from  his  throne,  mounted 
his  horse,  and  threw  a  handful  of  dust  into  the  air  towards 
the  Koreishites,  crying,  "Let  their  faces  be  covered  with 
confusion  1"  Both  armies  heard  his  voice  ;  the  Koreish- 
ites were  stricken  with  terror,  while  the  Mussulmans, 
assured  of  victory,  rushed  forward  with  an  enthusiasm 
that  was  irresistible.  Some  of  the  Moslem  writers  state 
that  when  the  prophet  cast  dust  into  the  air  three  thou- 
sand angelic  warriors  on  white  and  black  steeds  rnade 
their  appearance  and  swept  his  foes  before  them  like  a 
whirlwind.  Seventy  of  the  Koreishites  were  killed,  and 
about  the  same  number  taken  prisoners.  Among  the 
slain  was  Aboo-Jahl,  perhaps  the  most  bitter  and  fero- 
cious of  all  the  enemies  of  Islam.  His  head  was  brought 
to  Mohammed,  who  exclaimed  with  exultation, "  This  man 
was  the  Pharaoh  of  our  people."  So  great  was  the  terror 
and  hatred  he  had  inspired  that  even  after  his  death  his 
name  was  never  mentioned,  it  is  said,  by  true  believers 
without  the  addition,  "  May  he  be  accursed  of  God  !" 


*  This  word  is  often,  but  less  correctly,  written  Hegira  .'  it  has, 
properly  speaking,  but  two  syllables.  The  vowel  i  has  doubtless 
been  added  by  the  Italians  or  Germans  to  indicate  the  sound  of/,  (or 
g  soft.)  Reiske,  in  his  Latin  version  of  Aboolfeda's  (Abulfeda's) 
"Moslem  Annals,"  ("Annales  Moslemici,")  invariably  employs  ^/ or 
gi  to  represent  the  sound  of  our/:  thus,  he  writes  for  Khadijah 
Chadigja,  for  Aboo-Jahl  Abii-Gjahl,  etc. 

t  The  era  of  the  Hejrah  is  not  calculated  from  the  very  day  of 
Mohammed's  flight,  but  from  the  beginning  of  the  lunar  year  in 
which  it  occurred,  namely,  July  16,  622  a.d. 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  i;  G,  H,  vi,pMural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  2,3.) 


MOHAMMED 


1740 


MOHAMMED 


The  prophet's  success  at  Bedr  was  the  first  of  that 
wonderful  series  of  victories  which,  by  spreading  the 
new  faith  to  the  borders  of  China  on  the  east  and  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west,  were  destined  to  change  the 
face  of  the  world.  The  Islamites  were  less  successful 
in  a  second  encounter  with  their  foes,  near  Mount  Ohod, 
six  miles  north  of  Medina.  Mohammed  himself  was 
wounded  in  the  face  with  a  javelin,  two  of  his  teeth  were 
shattered  with  a  stone,  and  seventy  of  the  faithful,  in- 
cluding Hamzah,  the  prophet's  uncle,  were  left  dead  on 
the  field  of  battle.  But  his  enemies  gained  no  perma- 
nent advantage.  The  Koreishites  signally  failed  in  an 
attempt  to  take  Medina  by  siege.  The  Islam  constantly 
gained  new  adherents.  "  Caled  [Khaled]  and  Amrou," 
says  Gibbon,  "  the  future  conquerors  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 
most  seasonably  deserted  the  sinking  cause  of  idolatr)'." 
Soon  after,  Mecca  itself  was  taken  by  the  followers  of 
the  prophet,  who,  led  by  Khaled,  (surnamed  afterwards, 
on  account  of  his  valour,  the  "Sword  of  God,")  entered 
the  city  in  three  divisions.  The  chiefs  of  the  Koreish 
were  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  prophet.  "  What  mercy," 
asked  he,  "can  you  expect  from  the  man  whom  you  have 
so  deeply  wronged.''"  "  We  trust  to  the  generosity  of 
our  kinsman."  "  And  you  shall  not  trust  in  vain  :  go  ; 
you  are  safe,  you  are  free."  He  who  seven  years  before 
had  left  his  native  city  as  a  hunted  fugitive  was  now 
received  and  honoured  as  prophet  and  king.  But  in  an 
attempt  made  soon  after  to  reduce  the  Arabian  tribes 
who  still  adhered  to  idolatry,  the  army  of  Mohammed 
was  surprised  in  a  mountain-pass,  and  for  a  time  his 
own  life  was  in  imminent  peril.  Several  of  his  devoted 
followers  who  endeavoured  to  shield  him  with  their 
bodies  fell  dead  at  his  feet.  In  his  distress  he  cried, 
"O  my  brethren,  I  am  the  apostle  of  truth  !  O  man, 
stand  fast  in  the  faith  !  O  God,  send  down  thine  aid  !" 
His  uncle  Abbas,  who  was  distinguished  for  the  strength 
of  his  voice,  called  on  the  flying  Moslems,  repeating  the 
promises  of  God  to  the  faithful.  The  battle  was  soon 
restored,  and  what  threatened  to  be  a  disastrous  defeat 
was  changed  into  a  complete  victory.  About  the  year 
630  Mohammed  sent  an  army,  under  the  command  of 
Zeid,  who  had  formerly  been  his  slave,  to  invade  Pales- 
tine, then  belonging  to  the  Greek  empire.  At  the  battle 
of  Muta,  where  for  the  first  time  the  Moslems  encoun- 
tered a  foreign  foe,  Zeid  and  two  other  of  the  leaders 
were  slain.  It  is  related  of  Jaafar,  who  succeeded  Zeid 
in  the  command  of  the  army,  that  when  his  right  hand 
was  struck  off  he  seized  the  banner  with  his  left ;  this 
also  being  severed  from  his  body,  he  embraced  the  stan- 
dard with  his  bleeding  stumps,  until  at  length  he  fell, 
pierced  with  no  fewer  than  fifty  wounds.  The  day  was 
saved  by  the  valour  of  Khaled,  in  whose  hand  it  is  said 
that  nine  swords  were  broken  before  the  hosts  of  the 
enemy  were  turned  backward.  Mohammed  had  to  be- 
wail, on  this  occasion,  not  only  the  death  of  his  faithful 
servant  Zeid,  but  also  that  of  many  of  his  bravest  fol- 
lowers. We  are  told  that  when,  after  the  battle,  he  first 
saw  the  young  orphaned  daughter  of  Zeid,  he  wept  over 
her  in  speechless  sorrow.  "  What  do  I  see  V  said  one 
of  his  astonished  followers.  "  You  see,"  said  he,  "  a  friend 
weeping  the  loss  of  his  most  faithful  friend." 

The  recent  successes  of  the  prophet,  by  inflaming  the 
zeal  of  the  faithful,  confirming  the  wavering,  and  con- 
vincing the  doubtful, — for,  as  it  has  been  well  observed, 
there  is  no  argument  like  success, — contributed  greatly 
to  the  rapid  diffusion  and  final  triumph  of  the  new  faith. 
But  in  the  early  part  of  632,  while  he  was  engaged  in 
organizing  a  formidable  expedition  against  Syria,  he  was 
seized  with  a  violent  malady,  (supposed  by  some  writers 
to  have  been  a  fever,)  which,  before  many  days,  terminated 
fatally.  It  is  related  that  near  the  beginning  of  this  ill- 
ness Mohammed  said  to  one  of  his  attendants,  "  The 
choice  is  given  me  either  to  remain  on  earth  until  the 
end  of  time,  or  soon  to  depart  to  the  presence  of  God  : 
I  have  chosen  the  latter."  When  he  perceived  that  his 
end  was  near,  supported  by  the  arms  of  Alee  and  another 
relative,  he  went  into  the  mosque  and  asked  publicly  if 
he  had  injured  any  one, — if  so,  he  was  ready  to  make 
full  amends,  or  to  suffer  himself  what  he  had  inflicted  on 
others.  As  no  one  answered,  he  asked  again  if  he  owed 
any  man  anything.  A  voice  replied,  "  Yes, — to  me,  three 


drachms  of  silver."  The  projihet  ordered  the  money  to 
be  paid,  and  thanked  his  creditor  that  he  made  his  com- 
plaint now  instead  of  deferring  it  till  the  day  of  judgment 
His  last  words  were  the  utterance  of  a  broken  prayer, — 
"O  God,  pardon  mv  sins — ycs — I  come!"  He  died, 
according  to  the  Ara6ian  historians,  on  his  birthday,  the 
eleventh  year  of  the  Ilejrah,  (632  a.d.,)  aged  63,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  65  years.  He  had  ceased 
to  breathe,  but  his  followers  refused  to  believe  that  he 
was  dead.  Omar,  in  his  fierce  zeal,  threatened  to  strike 
off  the  heads  of  the  infidels  who  should  dare  to  assert 
that  the  great  prophet  and  intercessor  with  God  was  no 
more.  The  authority  of  Aboo-Bekr  was  required  to 
appease  the  tumult.  "Is  it  Mohammed,  or  the  God  of 
Mohammed,  whom  you  worsliip.'  God  liveth  forever 
and  ever ;  but  Mohammed,  though  his  prophet  and 
apostle,  was  mortal  like  ourselves,  and,  in  dying,  has 
but  fulfilled  his  own  prediction." 

In  person  Mohammed  was  of  middle  stature,  with 
broad  shoulders  and  chest,  square-built  and  strong,  with 
large  hands  and  feet.  The  unusual  size  of  his  head  was 
partly  concealed  by  long  and  slightly-curling  locks  of 
hair.  His  forehead  was  broad  and  fair  for  an  Arab,  and 
his  fine  eyebrows  were  separated  by  a  vein  which  swelled 
up  and  became  very  conspicuous  when  he  was  angry. 
His  eyelashes  were  long,  and  his  eyes  dark  and  glowing. 
His  nose  was  large,  prominent,  and  slightly  hooked  ; 
his  mouth  was  wide,  but  adorned  with  a  fine  set  of 
teeth.  According  to  some  accounts,  he  stooped,  and  was 
slightly  round-shouldered.  His  natural  disposition  ap- 
pears to  have  been  in  a  high  degree  kindly  and  humane. 
"  He  was  naturally  irritable,"  says  Irving,  "  but  had 
brought  his  temper  under  great  control."  One  of  his 
servants  said,  "  I  served  him  from  the  time  I  was  eight 
years  old,  and  he  never  scolded  me,  though  things  were 
sometimes  spoiled  by  me."  "  He  was,"  says  a  writer* 
who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of  exaggerating  his  virtues, 
"  kind  to  women, — never  beat  one,  and  entertained  more 
respect  for  them  than  is  usual  with  nations  addicted  to 
polygamy.  He  frequently  protected  women  who  came 
to  him  for  refuge.  .  .  .  He  forbade  the  believers  to  beat 
their  wives  ;  but  on  the  remonstrance  of  Omar,  who  said 
that  the  wives  would  have  the  upper  hand  over  their 
husbands,  he  allowed  it."  Nevertheless,  he  insisted  that 
women  should  be  fairly  and  justly  treated,  and  not  beaten 
unless  the  occasion  absolutely  demanded  it.  His  own 
wives,  having  once  become  rebellious,  were  brought  to 
submission  by  a  revelation  from  Heaven  and  the  blows 
of  their  relatives,!  the  prophet  himself  being  disinclined 
to  such  severity,  either  from  kindness  of  heart  or  from 
a  regard  to  his  apostolic  dignity. 

"He  was,"  says  Sprenger,  "affectionate  towards  his 
relations  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  gravity  of  his  office, 
he  was  playful  with  his  wives.  Ayeshah,  being  only  nine 
years  of  age  when  she  married  him,  brought  her  toys 
mto  his  house,  and  he  occasionally  played  with  her.  She 
also  used  to  race  with  him.  .  .  .  He  would  sometimes 
tell  stories  to  his  wives,  such  as  the  adventures  of  the 
man  who  had  been  carried  away  by  the  jinn  (genii)  and, 
after  a  long  stay  with  them,  returned  to  his  family." 

The  intellectual  powers  of  Mohammed  were  of  a  very 
high  order,  and  as  a  poet  he  ranks  far  above  all  others 
who  have  ever  written  in  the  Arabic  tongue.  It  was 
usual  for  his  followers  to  point  to  the  beauty  and  sub- 
limity of  the  Koran  as  an  irrefutable  proof  of  his  divine 
inspiration  ;  and  he  himself,  in  one  of  the  chapters  of 
that  sacred  poem,  boldly  challenges  men  and  angels  to 
produce  anything  to  equal  it,  and  confidently  affirms 
that  God  alone  could  have  dictated  so  incomparable  a 
work.  Probably  no  poet  that  ever  lived  more  fully 
realized  the  state  of  mind  known  as  poetic  furor  than 
Mohammed.  It  is  said  that  while  he  was  composing 
certain  portions  of  the  Koran  he  was  in  a  state  of  such 
intense  excitement  as  amounted  almost  to  frenzy  ;  and, 
if  we  may  believe  those  accounts  of  his  life  which  seem 
best  authenticated,  some  at  least  of  the  revelations  of 
the  Koran  were  actually  communicated  (or  were  believed 
by  him  to  have  been  communicated)  during  his  epileptic 
paroxysms,  while  wholly  unconscious  of  things  around 


•  See  Sprenger,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  93.     t  Idem.,  loc  cit 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  4,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  g,  obsaire;  far,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MOHAMMED 


1 741 


MOHAMMED 


him.  With  this  view,  there  may  have  been  no  arrogance 
or  vanity  in  his  claiming  that  to  rival  the  Koran  was 
beyond  the  power  of  men  or  angels.  Referring  to  the 
prophet's  tendency  to  poetic  and  elevated  thought, 
Sprenger  says,  "  His  mind  dwelt  constantly  on  the  con- 
templation of  God:  he  saw  his  finger  in  the  rising  sun, 
in  the  falling  rain,  in  the  growing  crop ;  he  heard  his 
voice  in  the  thunder,  in  the  murmuring  of  the  waters, 
and  in  the  hymns  which  the  birds  sing  to  his  praise ; 
and  in  the  lonely  deserts  and  ruins  of  ancient  cities  he 
saw  the  traces  of  his  anger."  But  combined  with  all  his 
poetic  and  religious  enthusiasm  was  a  vein  of  strong 
common  sense.  He  was  free  from  all  ostentation  and 
parade:  that  he  pretended  to  work  miracles,  is  a  cal- 
umny of  his  enemies.  He  considered  it  miracle  enougli 
that  he  was  inspired  with  the  Spirit  of  God:  this  he 
doubtless  believed  in  all  sincerity.  One  whom  Heaven 
had  so  highly  honoured  had  no  need  of  earthly  dignity 
or  worldly  splendour.  He  set  a  praiseworthy  example 
of  indifference  to  earthly  riches,  of  patriarchal  simplicity 
of  manners,  and  of  frugality  in  his  diet  and  dress.  With 
his  own  hands  he  milked  his  goats,  and  afterwards  at- 
tended to  his  person.  The  costly  presents  which  he 
received  he  gave  to  his  friends.  The  riches  which  he 
obtained  from  the  spoils  of  war  and  from  tribute  were 
spent  in  promoting  the  interests  of  religion  and  in  re- 
lieving the  wants  of  the  poor.  "  His  military  triumphs," 
says  Irving,  "awakened  no  pride  nor  vain-glory.  .  .  . 
In  the  time  of  his  greatest  power  he  maintained  the 
same  simplicity  of  manners  and  appearance  as  in  the 
days  of  his  adversity.  So  far  from  affecting  regal  state, 
he  was  displeased  if  on  entering  a  room  any  unusual 
testimonial  of  respect  were  shown  him." 

The  most  glaring  moral  defect  of  Mohammed's  char- 
acter was  his  passion  for  women,  to  justify  which  he  pre- 
tended that  he  had  received  a  special  revelation  from 
heaven  ;J  and,  while  only  four  lawful  wives  were  allowed 
to  his  followers,  he  himself  had  eleven  wives,  besides 
several  concubines.  Mohammed's  conduct  in  this  re- 
spect, viewed  in  connection  with  his  pretended  revela- 
tions, would  seem  to  go  very  far  towards  justifying  those 
who  consider  him  to  have  been  simply  an  artful  and  self- 
ish impostor.  "  But,  however  he  betrayed  the  alloy  of 
earth,"  observes  Irving,  "after  he  had  worldly  power  at 
his  command,  the  early  aspirations  of  his  spirit  con- 
tinually returned  and  bore  him  above  all  earthly  things. 
.  .  .  On  the  mercy  of  God  he  reposed  all  his  hopes  of 
heaven."  His  wife  Ayeshah  once  asked  him  if  it  were 
indeed  true  that  none  could  enter  paradise  except 
through  God's  mercy.  "  None — none  !"  he  replied,  with 
emphatic  earnestness.  And  when  she  again  asked  if  an 
exception  would  not  be  made  in  his  case,  he  answered, 
with  great  solemnity,  "  Neither  can  I  enter  paradise 
unless  God  clothe  me  with  his  mercy." 

Until  recently,  the  belief  has  universally  prevailed  in 
Christendom  that  Mohammed  was  not  merely  the  teacher 
of  a  false  religion,  but  a  conscious  impostor,  an  artful, 
self-seeking  charlatan.  But  such  a  theory  of  his  life  and 
character  will  not  bear  examination.  Not  to  mention 
the  thousand  incidental  proofs  of  his  sincerity  which  are 
scattered  through  the  history  of  his  early  life,  it  is  wholly 
incredible  that  a  mere  self-seeking  charlatan  would  have 
exposed  himself  to  universal  obloquy  and  certain  per- 
secution, in  the  wild  hope  that  he  might  at  last  triumph 
over  those  religious  prejudices  which  had  been  for  so 
many  ages  gaining  strength  among  his  countrymen. 
When  Aboo-Talib,  weary  of  defending  his  nephew 
against  the  implacable  hostility  of  the  Koreishites,  be- 
sought him  to  abandon  a  course  attended  with  so  much 
peril  to  himself  and  his  kinsmen,  he  replied,  "O  uncle, 
I  swear  by  God  that  if  they  put  the  sun  on  my  right 
hand  and  the  moon  on  my  left,  I  will  not  renounce  the 
career  I  have  entered  upon  until  God  gives  me  success, 
or  until  I  perish."  Aboo-Talib,  touched  with  his  heroic 
spirit,  solemnly  promised  that  he  would  not  give  him  up, 
whatever  he  might  preach. 

In  considering  the  question  of  Mohammed's  sincerity, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  possessed  not  only  a 


t  "Thi»  is  a  peculiar  privilege  granted  unto  thee  above  the  rest  of 
the  true  believers."  (See  Sale's  "  Koran,"  chap,  xxxiii.) 


vivid  and  powerful  imagination,  but  a  very  peculiar  phys- 
ical and  mental  constitution.  It  seems  not  unreasonable 
0  believe,  as  traditions  relate,  that  in  those  nervous 
paroxysms  to  which  he  was  subject  he  had  visions  not 
unlike  those  which  his  mother  saw  between  sleeping  and 
waking.  Such  visions  would  be  almost  certain  to  par- 
take of  the  character  of  those  earnest  thoughts  and 
convictions  with  which  his  waking  soul  was  filled ;  and 
nothing  could  be  more  natural  than  for  such  a  mind  not 
merely  to  regard  those  visions  as  a  divine  confirmation 
of  his  peculiar  views,  but  to  employ  them,  modified  as 
they  would  necessarily  be  by  his  powerful  imagination, 
to  give  force  and  authority  to  his  public  teachings.  Nor 
will  it  appear  at  all  unreasonable  to  those  conversant 
>vith  human  nature  that  one  who  was  perfectly  sincere 
at  the  beginning  of  his  career  should  afterwards — under 
the  stimulus  of  fear,  lust,  hatred,  or  ambition — pretend 
to  visions  which  he  never  had,  fur  the  purpose  of  giving 
a  divine  sanction  to  his  cherished  opinions,  or,  it  may  be, 
to  his  arbitrary  caprices  or  selfish  desires.  How  often, 
indeed,  have  the  professors  of  a  far  purer  and  higher 
iaith  resorted  to  stratagem  and  deceit  to  promote  what 
they  sincerely  believed  to  be  a  good  cause,  which  they 
had  not  faith  enough  to  trust  to  the  care  of  Heaven  or 
to  the  legitimate  operation  of  purely  moral  influences  1 

While  we  must  admit,  with  one  of  the  prophet's  ablest 
and  most  successful  defenders,  (Carlyle,)  that  in  the 
Moslem  heaven  and  hell  "  there  is  enough  that  shocks  all 
spiritual  feeling  in  us,"  we  must  also  admit,  on  a  candid 
examination,  that  his  religion,  on  the  whole,  made  him 
and  his  followers  better,  and  not  worse.  In  estimating 
the  influence  of  the  Islam  upon  the  nations  which  em- 
braced it,  it  would  be  obviously  unjust  to  take  as  a 
standard  of  comparison  the  highest  forms  of  Christian 
civilization.  We  should  rather  compare  the  condition  of 
those  nations  under  the  sway  of  Mohammedanism  with 
their  condition  as  it  was  before  the  advent  of  the  prophet. 
If  the  religion  of  Mohammed  was  immeasurably  inferior 
to  the  religion  of  Christ,  it  was  in  most  respects  greatly 
superior  to  every  form  of  paganism  of  which  we  have 
any  knowledge,  and  probably  also  to  much  of  that 
spurious  or  half-spurious  Christianity  which  it  displaced 
in  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

"The  general  tenor  of  Mahomet's  conduct,"  says 
Irving,  "  up  to  the  time  of  his  flight  from  Mecca,  is  that 
of  an  enthusiast  acting  under  a  species  of  mental  de- 
lusion,— deeply  imbued  with  a  conviction  of  his  being  a 
divine  agent  for  religious  reform  ;  and  there  is  something 
striking  and  sublime  in  the  luminous  path  which  his 
enthusiastic  spirit  struck  out  for  itself  through  the  be- 
wildering maze  of  adverse  faiths  and  wild  traditions, — 
the  pure  and  spiritual  -worship  of  the  one  true  God, 
which  he  sought  to  substitute  for  the  blind  idolatry  of 
his  childhood.  ,  .  .  All  the  parts  of  the  Koran  supposed 
to  have  been  promulgated  by  him  at  this  time — inco- 
herently as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  and  marred  as 
their  pristine  beauty  must  be  in  passing  through  various 
hands — are  of  a  pure  and  elevated  character,  and  breathe 
poetical,  if  not  religious,  inspiration.  They  show  that 
he  had  drunk  deep  of  the  living  waters  of  Christianity; 
and  if  he  had  failed  to  imbibe  them  in  their  crystal 
purity,  it  might  be  because  he  had  to  drink  from  broken 
cistern's  and  streams  troubled  and  perverted  by  those 
who  should  have  been  their  guardians." 

See  Sprenger,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,  from  Original  Sources," 
Allahabad,  1851,  London,  1852,  (a  work  of  decided  merit ;)  Weil, 
"Mohammed  der  Prophet,  sein  Leben  und  sein  Lehre,"  Stuttgart, 
1843;  Irving,  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors,"  New  York,  2  vols., 
1850;  Gagnier,  "Vie  de  Mahomet;"  Boulainvilliers,  "Vie  de 
Mahomet ;"  "Preliminary  Discourse"  prefixed  to  Sale's  translation 
of  the  Koran  ;  Prideaux,  "Life  of  Mahomet;"  Maracci's  trans- 
lation of  the  Koran,  (in  Latin,)  with  notes;  Reland,  "  De  Religione 
Mohammedica  ;"  Abulfeda,  "Moslem  Annals,"  ("Annales  Mos- 
leniici,")  and  translated  into  Latin  by  Reiske;  Abulfeda,  "Life  of 
Mohammed,"  rendered  into  Latin  by  Gagnier,  with  the  title  "  De 
Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Mohamedis,"  Oxford,  1732;  Gibbon,  "Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  1.  ;  Carlyle,  "  Hero  and 
Hero- Worship,"  etc.,  article  "  Mahomet,"  (one  of  the  best  productions 
of  its  author;)  Rampoldi,  "Vita  di  Maometto,"  1822;  Noei.  des 
Vergers,  "Vie  de  Mahomet,"  1833  ;  George  Bush,  "  Life  of  Mo- 
hammed," New  York,  1830;  Samuel  Green,  "Life  of  Mahomet," 
1840;  Charles  Mills,  "  History  of  Mohammedanism,"  etc.,  Lon- 
don, 1812;  F.  R.  TuRPiN,  "  Histoirede  la  Vie  de  Mahomet,"  2vols., 
1773;  De  Br^quignv,  "  Vie  de  Mahomet,"  1754;  L.  Addison,  "  Life 
of  Mahomet,"  1678. 


V  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H.  K.  s^Uural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOHAMMED 


1742 


MOLA 


Mo-ham'med  II.,  (commonly  pronounced  in  India 
mo-Hum'm?d,)  Emperor  of  India,  born  about  1 150,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Gaurian  dynasty.  He  became 
master  of  part  of  Hindostan  in  1 171,  after  which  he  ex- 
tended his  dominions  by  conquest.  He  took  Lahore 
and  Delhi  between  11S4  and  1192,  and  Benares  in  1193. 
He  was  assassinated  in  1206. 

Mohammed  IV.,  Emperor  of  India,  born  at  Delhi 
in  1360,  succeeded  his  father,  Fyroz  (or  Feroze)  III.,  in 
1386.    Died  in  1394. 

Mohammed  V.,  born  at  Delhi  in  1406,  succeeded 
Moobarek  II.   as  Emperor  of  India  in  1434.     Died  in 

1443- 

Mohammed  VI.  of  India.     See  Baber. 

Mohammed  VII.  of  India.     See  Hoomaygon. 

Mohammed  IX.  of  India.     See  Akbar. 

Mohammed  XI.     See  Shah  Jehan. 

Mohammed  XIII.,  Emperor  of  India,  of  the  dynasty 
of  Grand  Moguls,  was  born  at  Agra  about  1685.  He 
began  to  reign  at  Delhi  in  1713.  He  granted  the  East 
India  Company  the  privilege  of  exemption  from  the  pay- 
ment of  duties.  He  was  deposed  in  1718,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Mohammed  XIV.,  often  called  Mohammed  Shah, 
Emperor  of  India,  born  at  Delhi  about  1700,  was  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  in  1720.  In  1739 
Nadir  Shah  invaded  India,  captured  Delhi,  massacred 
an  immense  number  of  the  people,  and  robbed  Moham- 
med of  the  celebrated  diamond  Kohinoor.   Died  in  1748. 

Mohammed,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  Mahomet. 

Mohammed  of  Gazna.     See  Mahmood. 

Mohedano,  mo-i-di'no,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Antequera  in  1561,  excelled  in  fresco- 
painting.     Died  in  1625. 

Mohl,  von,  fon  mol,  (Hugo,)  a  German  botanist,  bro- 
ther of  Julius,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1805.  He  pub- 
lished "  Contributions  to  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  Plants,"  (1834,)  etc.     Died  April  i,  1872. 

Mohl,  von,  (Julius,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Stuttgart  in  1800.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Remusat 
and  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  and  in  1845  became  professor  of 
the  Persian  language  in  the  College  of  France.  In  1852 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  having 
previously  been  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.  He  made  a  number  of  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  "Journal  Asiatique,"  and  published  editions 
of  several  Oriental  works.     Died  January  3,  1876. 

Mohl,  von,  (MoRiTZ,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1802.  He  published  "Results  of 
a  Journey  in  France  for  the  Purpose  of  studying  Arts 
and  Trades,"  (1845.) 

Mohl,  von,  (Robert,)  a  German  jurist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1799.  He  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Heidelberg  in  1847,  and  after- 
wards filled  several  important  civil  offices.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works.     Died  November  4,  1875. 

Mohler  or  Moehler,  mo'ler,  (Johann  Adam,)  a 
German  Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Igersheim  in  1796, 
published  in  1825  a  work  entitled  "  Unity  in  the  Church ; 
or.  The  Principle  of  Catholicism."     Died  in  1838. 

Mohn,  mon,  (Gottlob  Samuel,)  a  German  glass- 
painter,  born  at  Weissenfels  in  1789.  His  most  admired 
productions  are  the  painted  windows  of  the  Imperial 
Chapel  at  Laxenburg,  near  Vienna.     Died  in  1825. 

Mohnike,  mo'ne-keh,  (Gottlieb  Christian  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  writer  and  theologian,  born  in  Pome- 
rania  in  1781,  published  a  "History  of  the  Literature  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1813.)     Died  in  1841. 

Mohr,  mor,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Coblentz,  November  4,  1806.  He  studied 
at  Heidelberg,  Berlin,  and  Bonn.  When  fifty-seven 
years  old  he  was  made  extraordinary  professor  of  phar- 
macy at  Bonn.  Among  his  books  are  "  Lehrbuch  der 
chemisch-analytischen  Titrirmethode,"  ("Text-Book  of 
Chemical  Analysis  by  Titration,"  1855,  a  work  of  high 
excellence,)  "  Geschichte  der  Erde,"  ("'  History  of  the 
Earth,"  1866,  etc.,)  and  a  noted  paper  "  Ueber  die  Natur 
der  Warme,"  ("  On  the  Nature  of  Heat,"  1837,)  in  which 
he  announced  the  doctrine  of  the  correlation  of  forces. 
Died  in  October,  1879. 

Mohs,  mos,   (Friedrich,)  a  German   mineralogist, 


born  at  Gernrode  in  1774.  He  succeeded  Werner  as 
professor  of  mineralogy  at  Freiberg  in  181 7,  and  after- 
wards filled  the  same  chair  at  Vienna.  He  became 
counsellor  of  mines  in  1838.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Elements  of  the  Natural  History  of  the 
Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1832.)     Died  in  1839. 

Mohsen  or  Moehsen,  (Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  medical  writer  and  numismatist,  born  in  Ber- 
lin in  1722.  He  was  physician  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Died  in  1795. 

RIohsin-Fanee  or  Mohsin-Fani,  mon'sin  fj'nee, 
or  Muhsin-Fani,  moon'sin  fl'nee,  (Mohammed,)  a 
Persian  poet,  born  on  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  in 
161 5.  His  principal  work  is  the  "Dabistan,"  which  gives 
an  account  of  ancient  religious  sects.     Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Sir  John  Malcolm, 
"  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vii. 

Moigno,  mwSn'yo',  (Francjois  Napoleon  Marie,) 
a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Guemene  in  1804,  pub- 
lished "  Lessons  in  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus," 
(1S40,)  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Electric  Telegraph,"  (1849,) 
and  other  works.     Died  July  15,  1884. 

Moine,  Le.     See  Lemoine. 

Moine,  Le,  leh  mwin,  (Abraham,)  a  French  Protest- 
ant divine,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  became 
pastor  of  a  French  church  in  London.  He  translated 
Bishop  Gibson's  "  Pastoral  Letters"  into  French,  and 
published  a  "Sermon  in  Defence  of  the  Sacred  History, 
in  Answer  to  Lord  Bolingbroke."     Died  in  1760. 

Moir,  (David  Macbeth,)  a  distinguished  .Scottish 
writer  and  physician,  born  near  Edinburgh  in  1798.  He 
became  at  an  early  age  a  contributor  to  Constable's 
and  Blackwood's  Magazines,  and  published  a  number 
of  poems  in  the  latter,  under  the  signature  of  the  Greek 
Delta,  (A.)  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named  his 
"  Autobiography  of  Mansie  Wauch,"  a  novel,  which  had 
great  popularity,  "  The  Bombardment  of  Algiers,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1816,)  "  Outlines  of  the  Ancient  History 
of  Medicine,"  etc.,  (1831,)  "Practical  Observations  on 
Malignant  Cholera,"  (1832,)  and  "Domestic  Verses," 
(1843.)     Died  in  1851. 

See  Dr.  T.  Aird,  "  Notice  of  Moir,"  prefixed  to  his  Poetical 
Works:  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supplement ;)  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1851. 

Moir,  (George,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  Aberdeen 
in  1800.  He  became  a  successful  advocate  at  Edinburgh, 
where  he  was  in  1835  made  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  in 
1864  professor  of  Scots  law.  He  was  an  accomplished 
critic,  but  wrote  very  little.     Died  in  1870. 

Moira,  Earl  of.     See  Hastings,  Marquis  of. 

Moiree,  moi're,  [Gr.  MoZpat,]  a  name  applied  to  the 
Fates.     See  Parc.^;. 

Moise.     See  Moses. 

Moitte,  mwit,  (Jean  Guillaume,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  executed  the  large 
bas-relief  of  the  front  of  the  Pantheon,  and  statues  of 
Cassini  and  General  Custine.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.     Died  in  1810. 

See  QuATREMfeRK  DE  QuiNCV,  "  £loge  de  Moitte,"  in  the  "  Mo- 
niteur,"  1810. 

Moivre,  de.     See  Demoivre. 

Mojon,  mo'zh^N^  (Bianca  Milesi — me-la'see,)  an 
Italian  lady,  distinguished  for  her  talents,  accomplish- 
ments, and  elevated  character,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
[790.  She  was  married  in  1825  to  Dr.  Mojon,  physician 
to  the  court  in  Paris.  An  interesting  account  of  her  was 
written  by  her  friend  fimile  de  Souvestre.     Died  in  1849. 

See,  also,  Bessie  R.  Parke,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches," 
London,  1866. 

Mokanna.     See  Al-Hakem-Ibn-.A.tta. 

Moke,  mo'keh,  (Henri  Guillaume),  a  Belgian 
writer,  born  at  Havre  in  1803.  He  produced,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Belgium."    Died  in  1862. 

Moktader-Billah,  rnok'ti-der  bil'lah,  or  Mnktader- 
(motik'ti-der)  Billah,  (Abool-Fadhl-Jaafar,  a'bool 
fid'l  ji'far,)  an  Abbasside  caliph  of  Bagdad,  was  born  in 
894  A.D.,  and  began  to  reign  in  909.  He  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  932  by  Monnes  or  Mounes. 

Mola,  mo'll,  (Giambattista,)  a  painter,  of  Italian 
extraction,  called  Mola  di  Francia,  bom  at  Besan9on 


a,  e,  T,  o,  t!,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  jf,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  nigt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOLA 


1743 


MOLIERE 


in  1614.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet,  and  excelled  as  a 
landscape-painter.     Died  in  1661. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mola,  (PiETRO  Francesco,)  sometimes  called  Mola 
Dl  Roma,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  about  1620, 
was  a  pupil  of  Albano.  He  painted  a  number  of  his- 
torical works  of  great  merit,  but  he  excelled  particularly 
in  landscapes.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  Saint 
John  in  the  Desert,"  "  History  of  Joseph,"  and  "Saint 
Bruno."     Died  in  1666. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Viardot,  "  Musses 
de  r Europe." 

Molai  or  Molay,  de,  deh  mo'li',*  (Jacques,)  last 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  the  Templars,  was  born  in 
Burgundy.  The  wealth  and  power  to  which  this  order 
had  arisen  having  excited  the  jealousy  of  Philippe  le  Bel, 
King  of  France,  and  Pope  Clement  IV.,  a  plan  was  laid 
by  the  two  sovereigns  for  their  destruction.  Molai,  being 
invited  to  France  in  1306,  was  arrested  on  his  arrival, 
together  with  all  the  Templars  in  that  country,  and,  on 
various  criminal  charges,  condemned  to  death.  Nearly 
sixty  of  the  knights  perished  at  the  stake  ;  and  the  grand 
master,  after  seven  years'  imprisonment,  shared  their 
fate,  in  13 14. 

See  Pierre  Dupuy,  "  Histoire  de  la  Condamnation  des  Tem- 
pliers,"  1751 :  G.  G.  Ardison,  "  The  Knights  Templars,"  1852. 

Molanus.     See  Vermeulen,  (Jan.) 

Molard,  mo'Itu',  (Francois  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
inventor  of  machinery,  born  in  1774;  died  in  1829. 

His  brother  Claude  Pierre  (1758-1837)  also  in- 
vented several  useful  machines. 

Molbech,  mol'b§K,  (Christian,)  an  eminent  Dani;;h 
historian,  philologist,  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Soriie 
in  1783.  After  travelling  in  England  and  other  countritis 
of  Europe,  he  became  in  1823  professor  of  the  histoiy 
of  literature,  and  first  secretary  of  the  Royal  Library, 
at  Copenhagen.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Wars  of  Ditmarschen,"  (1813,)  "  Danish 
Dialect-Lexicon,"  (1837,)  and  "  History  of  Erik  Plogpen- 
ning,"  (1846.)  He  published  between  1S14  and  1817  a 
literary  journal  of  great  merit,  entitled  the  "Athene," 
and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the  "Nordisk  Tid- 
skrift"  and  "  Historisk  Tidskrift,"  (1840.)  Molbech  also 
had  a  share  in  the  great  "  Dictionary  of  the  Danish  Lan- 
guage," (unfinished.)     Died  at  Copenhagen  in  1857. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Le.xicon." 

Molbech,  (Christian  Knud  Frederik,)  a  Danish 
poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1821.  He  produced  "Dante,"  a  drama,  and  lyric 
poems,  (1846,)  which  are  highly  commended.     D.  1888. 

Mole,  mo'li',  (FRANgois  Ren6,)  a  celebrated  French 
comedian,  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  and  director  of  the  Academy  at  the  Theatre 
Fran9ais.     Died  in  1802. 

Mole,  (Louis  Mathieu,)  Count,  an  eminent  French 
statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1781,  was  descended  from 
Mathieu  Mole,  noticed  below.  He  published  in  1805 
"Moral  and  Political  Essays,"  which  procured  for  him 
the  favour  of  Napoleon,  by  whom  he  was  soon  after  ap- 
pointed master  of  retjuests,  and  prefect  of  the  Cote-d'Or. 
In  1813  he  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Massa  as  minister  of 
justice.  He  was  created  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII. ,  and 
in  1817  became  minister  of  the  marine.  Under  Louis 
Philippe  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  August 
to  November,  1830,  and  became  in  April,  1837,  prime 
minister  ;  but,  overcome  by  the  opposition  of  Guizot, 
Thiers,  and  Berryer,  he  resigned  his  post,  March  31, 
1839.  In  1840  he  succeeded  De  Quelen  in  the  French 
Academy.     Died  in  1855. 

See  Louis  de  Lom^nie,  "M.  le  Comte  MoM,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1840;  A.  dk  Cesena,  "  Le  Comte  Mol^,"  1842;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Mole,  (Mathieu,)  an  eminent  French  magistrate, 
born  in  1584.  He  was  attorney-general  in  1614,  and  in 
1641  was  appointed  by  Richelieu  first  president  of  the 
Parliament  of  Paris.  During  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde 
he  was  conspicuous  for  his  intrepidity  and  his  energetic 
measures  in  quelling  the  insurrections  of  Paris.    In  165 1 


Spe  Tntrn-ltictinn,  V.,  7  and  9. 


he  became  keeper  of  the  seals.  He  left  interesting  "  Me- 
moires,"  (published  in  4  vols.,  1855.)     Died  in  1656. 

See  Bar  ANTE,  "ViedeMol^:"  Henrion  de  Panshv,  "filogc 
de  M.  MoM,"  1775:  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Moleschott,  mo'les-sKot',  (Jacob,")  a  Dutch  natural- 
ist and  physiologist,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1822,  studied 
medicine  and  natural  science  at  Heidelberg,  and  settled 
as  a  physician  at  Utrecht.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Critical  Examination  of  Liebig's  Theory  of  the  Alimen- 
tation of  Plants,"  (1845,)  "Doctrine  of  Aliments,"  (1850,) 
"Circular  Motion  of  Life,"  (1852,)  and  other  similar 
woiks.  He  became  professor  of  physiology  and  an- 
thropology at  Heidelberg  in  1847,  and  of  physiology  at 
Zurich  in  1855.  Among  his  works  are  "  Light  and  Life," 
("Licht  und  Leben,"  1856,)  and  one  on  Georije  Forster, 
entitled  "Georg  Forster  der  Naturforscher  des  Volks," 
(1854.)  He  is  ranked  among  the  most  prominent  ad- 
vocates of  the  materialistic  philosophy,  (although  he 
recognizes  a  mixture  of  spiritual  life  with  the  material 
life  of  the  universe.)  He  totally  rejects  the  idea  of  crea- 
tion in  the  ordinary  signification  of  the  term,  referring 
the  origin  of  all  the  species  of  animals  to  the  operation 
of  universal  and  unchangeable  physical  laws. 

Moles-worth,  molz'worth,  (Mary  Louisa,  n(e 
Stewart,)  a  Scottish  author,  boni  in  1842,  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  long  a  resident  of  Paris.  Among  her  numer- 
ous tales  are  "  Hathercourt  Rectory"  and  "Miss  Bou- 
verie,"  (1880.) 

Moles-worth,  molz'worth,  (Robert,)  Viscount,  a 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1656.  He 
was  appointed  by  William  III.  a  member  of  his  privy 
council,  and  in  1692  was  envoy-extraordinary  to  Den- 
mark. He  published,  after  his  return,  an  "  Account 
of  Denmark,"  a  severe  criticism  on  the  government  and 
customs  of  the  Danes,  which  gave  great  offence  to  that 
people  but  was  very  popular  in  England.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  numbered  among  his 
friends  Locke  and  Lord  Shaftesbury.     Died  in  1725. 

See  -Walpole,  "  Royal  and  Noble  Authors  ;"  Lodge,  "  Peerage." 

Moles-worth,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  English 
statesman,  born  in  Surrey  in  1810.  Having  completed 
his  studies  at  a  German  university,  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  East  Cornwall  in  1832.  He  was  for  many 
years  associated  with  John  Stuart  Mill  as  editor  of  the 
"  Westminster  Review."  He  represented  Southwark  in 
Parliament  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  first  commissioner 
of  public  "works  in  1853,  and  secretary  of  the  colonies 
in  July,  1855.  He  died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 
Besides  his  articles  in  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  Sir 
William  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of 
Hobbes. 

Moles-w-orth,  (William  Nassau,)  an  English  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Millbrook,  in  Hants,  November  8,  1816. 
He  studied  at  Saint  John's  and  Pembroke  Colleges, 
Cambridge,  graduating  in  1839.  He  then  took  orders, 
and  for  many  years  was  a  parish  minister  in  Manchester 
and  Rochdale.  Among  his  works  are  "  Religious  Im- 
portance of  Secular  Instruction,"  (1857,)  "Plain  Lec- 
tures on  Astronomy,"  "England  and  France,"  (i860,) 
"  History  of  the  Reform  Bill,"  (1S64,)  "  System  of  Moral 
Philosophy,"  (1867,)  "History  of  England,"  (1871-73,) 
and  "  History  of  the  Church  of  England,"  (1882.)  He 
was  distinguished  as  an  advocate  of  social  and  political 
reforms.     Died  December  19,  1890. 

Mole-ville,  (Antoine  FRANgois  Bertrand.)  See 
Bertrand  de  Molleville. 

Moliere,  mo'le-aiR'.  a  celebrated  French  comic  au- 
thor and  actor,  whose  original  name  was  Jean  Baptiste 
Poqueliu,  (pok'liN',)  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  15th  of 
January,  1622.  He  received  instruction  in  private  from 
the  philosopher  Gassendi,  and  in  his  youth  assisted  his 
father,  who  was  a  dealer  in  tapestry,  (marchandtapissier.) 
He  became  valet-de-chambre  to  the  king,  Louis  XIII., 
about  1640.  Having  assumed  the  name  of  Moliere,  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  comic  actor  about  1644,  and 
a  few  years  later  appeared  in  the  provinces  at  the  head 
of  a  small  troupe  which  he  had  formed.  His  first  regular 
drama  was  "The  Giddy-Head,"  ("  L'fitourdi,")  which 
was  performed  with  success  by  his  troupe  at  Lyons  in 
1653.     Attracted  to  the  capital  by  a  growing  ambition, 


•  as^,-  fasj.-  ghard;  gasj:  G,H,K,  guttural;  ii,7tasal;  li.,trilled;  sasg;  th  as  in  Z'/4if.     (2]:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


MOLIERES 


1744 


MOLITOR 


and  favoured  with  royal  patronage,  he  opened  there  a 
theatre  in  1658.  His  "  Affected  Ladies,"  ("  Precieuses 
ridicules,")  a  satire  on  the  affected  style  and  eupliuism 
which  were  then  in  fashion,  was  performed  with  great 
applause  in  1659.  "Sganarelle"  came  out  in  1660. 
His  fame  was  increased  by  his  "  School  for  Husbands," 
("ficole  des  Maris,"  1661,)  a  comedy  of  manners,  char- 
acter, and  intrigue.  He  produced  in  1666  "The  Mis- 
anthrope," esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces.  "  The 
dialogue  of  this,"  says  Hallnm,  "is  uniformly  of  the 
highest  style  ;  the  female  and  indeed  all  the  characters 
are  excellently  conceived  and  sustained."  Still  more 
popular  was  the  "Hypocrite,"  ("Tartuffe,"  1667,)  an 
original  creation  in  dramatic  poetry,  and  generally  con- 
sidered the  greatest  effort  of  his  genius.  He  was  the 
author  of  about  thirty  other  comedies,  in  verse  or  prose, 
among  which  "The  Bores,"  ("  Les  Facheux,"  1661,) 
the  "  School  for  Wives,"  ("  Ecole  des  Fenimes,"  1662,) 
"Love  (or  Cupid)  as  Physician,"  ("  L'Amour  Medecin," 
1665,)  "  Le  Medecin  malgre  lui,"  (1666,)  "The  Miser," 
("  L'Avare,"  1667,)  "  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme,"  (1670,) 
"Learned  (or  Pedantic)  Ladies,"  ("Femmes  savantes," 
1672,)  and  "The  Imaginary  Livalid,"  (or  "Hypochon- 
driac,") ("  Le  Malade  imaginaire,"  1672,)  are  greatly 
admired.     Died  in  Paris,  February  17,  1673. 

There  is  perhaps  in  the  whole  history  of  literature  no 
more  remarkable  instance  of  the  triumph  of  genius  than 
is  presented  to  us  in  the  career  of  Moliere.  Seldom,  if 
ever,  were  the  pride  and  tyranny  of  rank  more  predomi- 
nant than  in  France  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Yet  many  of  the  French  nobility  treated  Mo- 
liere as  a  companion  and  equal.  "  Come  to  me  at  any 
hour  you  please,"  said  the  great  Prince  de  Conde  to  our 
author :  "  you  have  but  to  announce  your  name  :  your 
visit  can  never  be  ill-timed."  (See  Scott's  "  Miscellanies.") 
The  success  of  "  Tartuffe"  was  a  signal  victory  achieved  in 
the  face  of  an  all-prevailing  bigotry,  which  was  strongly 
entwined  in  the  very  spirit  of  the  age  and  had  struck 
deep  root  into  the  heart  of  the  king  himself.  But  the 
castle  of  prejudice,  invincible  to  every  other  assault,  was 
fain  to  open  its  reluctant  gates  to  the  transcendent  ge- 
nius of  Moliere.  He  was  remarkable  not  merely  for  his 
wonderful  comic  talent,  but  for  his  admirable  delineation 
of  human  nature  as  it  appears  in  all  countries  and  all  ages. 
"In  the  more  appropriate  merits  of  comedy,"  says  Hal- 
lam,  "in  just  and  forcible  delineation  of  character,  skilful 
contrivance  of  circumstances,  and  humorous  dialogue, 
we  must  award  him  the  prize."  The  same  emSnent  critic 
thinks  "that  Shakspeare  had  the  greater  genius,  but 
perhaps  Moliere  has  written  the  best  comedies."  He  was 
not  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  After  Moliere's 
death,  that  learned  body  placed  his  bust  in  their  hall, 
with  this  beautiful  and  appropriate  inscription : 

"  Rien  ne  manque  4  sa  gloire  :  il  manquait  4  la  notre."* 

See  Grimarest,  "Vie  de  J.  B.  Poquelin  de  Moliire,"  1705; 
Voltaire,  "Vie  de  Molifere,"  etc.,  1739;  La  Harpe,  "  Id^es  sui 
Moliere;"  Cailhava,  "  Etudes surMoiiere,"  1S02;  J.  Taschereau, 
"  Histoiredela  Vieet  desOuvragesde  Moliere,"  1S25  ;  Jean  Svlvain 
Bailly,  "  Eloge  de  Moliere,"  1770:  Sainte-Eeuve,  "Portraits 
litt^raires  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Most 
Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley;"  Essay  on  Moliere 
in  Scott's  "Miscellanies,"  vol.  i.,  and  the  same  article  in  the  "  Foreigi 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  182S;  Prescott,  "Miscellanies;' 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  July,  1845. 

Molieres,  de,  deh  mo'le-ain',  (Joseph  Privat,)  a 
French  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  Taras- 
con  in  1677,  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Malebranche. 
He  succeeded  Varignon  as  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1723,  and  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1729.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  scientific  works.  It  is  related,  as 
an  instance  of  his  abstraction  of  mind,  that  when  a 
robber  one  day  entered  his  apartment,  Molieres  showed 
him  where  his  money  was  kept,  but  begged  him  not  to 
disturb  his  papers.     Died  in  1742. 

Molin,  mo'liN',  or  Dumoulin,  dii'moo'ldN',  (Jac- 
ques,) a  celebrated  French  physician,  born  near  Mende 
in  1666,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV. 
He  made  free  use  of  the  lancet  in  his  practice,  and  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  original  of  "  Dr.  San- 

*  "  Nothing  is  wanting  to  his  glory;  but  he  was  wanting  to  ours." 


grado"  in  Le  Sage's  "Gil  Bias."  On  his  death-bed  he 
said  to  his  attendants,  "  I  leave  behind  me  three  great 
physicians, — Diet,  Water,  and  Exercise."   Died  in  1755. 

See  "Eloge  de  M.  Molin,"  1761. 

Molina,  mo-lee'ni,  (Giovanni  Ignazio.)  a  naturalist, 
born  in  Chili  in  1740,  lived  many  years  at  Bologna.  He 
wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Natural  History  of  Chili,"  ( 1 782,) 
and  a  "Civil  History  of  Chili,"  (1787,)  both  in  Italian, 
Died  in  1829. 

Molina,  mo-lee'ni,  (Luis,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
Jesuit,  born  in  New  Castile  about  1535,  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Ev'ora,  in  Portugal,  for  twenty  years.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  De  Concordia  Gratiae  et 
Liberi  Arbitrii,"  (1588,)  in  which  he  attempts  to  reconcile 
the  free  will  of  man  with  predestination.  This  treatise 
was  severely  assailed  by  the  Calvinists,  Dominicans,  and 
Jansenists,  and  a  bitter  controversy  ensued,  which  was 
partially  suppressed  by  Pope  Paul  V.   Died  about  1600. 

See  RossuET,  "  Avertissement  aux  Protestants;"  N.  Antonio, 
"Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Molina,  de.     See  Argote  de  Molin.v. 

Molina,  de,  Count.     See  Carlos  of  Bourbon. 

Molinaeus,  the  Latin  of  Dumoulin,  which  see. 

Molinari.     See  Mulinari,  (Stefano.) 

Molinari,  mo-le-nS'ree,  or  Mulinari,  moo-le-nd'ree, 
(Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  called  also 
Caraccino,  born  at  Savigliano  in  1577  ;   died  in  1640. 

Molinari,  de,  deh  mo-le-ni'ree,  (Gustave.)  a  Bel- 
gian author,  born  at  Liege,  March  3,  1819.  He  became 
a  homoeopathic  physician,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Etudes  economiques,"  (1846,)  "  Histoire  du  Tarif," 
(1847,)  "  Cours  d'Economie  politique,"  (1861,)  "  Lettres 
sur  les  Etats-Unis  et  le  Catiada,"  (1876,)  and  "L'fivolu- 
tion  economique,"  (1880). 

Moline  de  Saint-Yon,  mo'lin'  deh  siNt'y6N', 
(Alexandre  Piekke,)  a  French  general  and  \\Titer, 
born  in  Lyons  in  1786.  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
November,  1845,  ""^'^  May,  1847.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Counts  of  Toulouse."  Died  in  1870. 

Molinet,  mo'le'n^',  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  and  histo- 
rian of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  appointed  librarian 
to  Margaret  of  Austria,  and  historiographer  to  the  house 
of  Burgundy,  and  wrote  numerous  works  in  prose  and 
verse.     Died  in  1507. 

See  Reiffenbekg,  "  MiSmoire  sur  J.  Molinet,"  1835. 

Molinet,  du,  dii  mo'le'ny,  (Claude,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Chalons  in  1620,  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  the  Principal  Popes,  taken  from  Medals." 
Died  in  1687. 

Molinetti,  mo-le-net'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  anatomist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Venice.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Padua  in  1649.  He 
wrote  "  On  the  Senses  and  their  Organs,"  ("  De  Sensibus 
et  eorum  Organis,"  1669.)     Died  in  1675. 

Molinier,  mo'le'ne-i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator,  was  born  at 
Aries  in  1675.  ^^  published  a  translation  of  the  Psalms 
into   French  verse,  and  "Select   Sermons."     Died    in 

1745- 

Molinos,mo-lee'n6s,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  theologian, 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Quietists,  was  born  at  Saragossa 
about  1630.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Spiritual 
Guide,"  {1675,)  ^""^  inculcates,  as  its  leading  doctrines, 
the  abstraction  of  the  mind  from  external  objects,  and 
the  contemplation  of  the  Deity.  The  book  was  con- 
demned by  the  Inquisition,  and  Molinos  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  from  which  he  was  released  by 
death  in  1696. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  MartjTs,"  Philadelphia,  1S67; 
Pluquet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Hdr^sies  ;"  Scharling,  "  Mystikeren 
M.  Molino's  Laere  og  Skjaebne,"  1832. 

Molique,  mo'leek',  (Bernhard,)  a  German  violinist 
and  composer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1803.  He  went  to 
England  in  1849,  after  having  gained  a  reputation  in  his 
own  country,  and  settled  in  London.  In  1866  he  retired 
to  Cannstatt,  near  Stuttgart,  and  died  there  in  1869. 

Molitor,  mo'le'toR',  (Gabriel  Jean  Joseph,)  a 
French  marshal,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1770.  He  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  Swedish  Pomerania  in 
1807,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  subsequent  cam- 
paigns from  1808  to  1814.     He  gave  in  his  adhesion  to 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long:  4,  h,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOLLENDORF 


1745 


MONA 


the  Bourbons  after  the  restoration,  and  was  made  chrva- 
lier  of  Saint  Louis.  He  commanded  the  second  corps 
of  the  army  in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1823,  and  by 
his  skill  and  decision  soon  put  an  end  to  the  war.  He 
was  created  a  marshal  by  Louis  XVHL  Died  in  1849. 
See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gdn^raux  Franfais." 

Mbllendorf  or  Moellendorf,  von,  fon  mol'len- 
doRf,  (Richard  Joachim  Heinrich,)  a  Prussian  com- 
mander, born  in  1725,  served  under  Frederick  the  Great 
in  the  principal  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
In  1794  he  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Prussian  army.     Died  in  1816. 

MoUer,  moKler,  [Lat.  Moi.le'rus,]  (Daniel  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Presburg  in  1642. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  metaphysics  at 
Altorf  in  1674,  and  was  made  a  count  palatine  by  the 
emperor  Leopold.  He  wrote  numerous  Latin  works, 
in  prose  and  verse.  Among  them  are  dissertations  on 
many  Latin  classic  authors.     Died  in  1712. 

See  "  Memoria  MoUeri,"  17 13. 

Moller,  (Georg,)  a  German  architect,  born  in  Hano- 
ver in  1784.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  opera-house 
at  Darmstadt  and  the  theatre  at  Mentz.  He  published 
"Monuments  of  German  Architecture,"  (3  vols.,  1815- 
45,)  and  other  architectural  treatises.     Died  in  1852. 

Moller  or  Moeller,  mol'ler,  (John,)  a  Danish  biog- 
rapher, born  at  Flensborg  in  1661.  He  published  "Cim- 
bria  Literata,"  containing  biographies  of  authors  born 
in  Sleswick-Holstein,  (3  vols.,  1744.)     Died  in  1725. 

Moller  or  Moeller,  (Peter  Ludwig,)  a  Danish  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Aalborg  in  1814.  He  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Paris  in  1851.  He  wrote  "Lyric  Poems,"  (1840,) 
"The  Fall  of  the  Leaves,"  (1855,)  etc.     Died  in  1865. 

MoUerus.    See  Moller. 

MoUet,  mo'li',  (Claude,)  a  French  horticulturist, 
was  first  gardener  to  Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.,  and 
gave  the  designs  for  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  Fon- 
tainebleau,  and  Saint-Germain.     Died  about  1613. 

Mollevaut,  mol'vo',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  Ht- 
tSrateiir,  born  at  Nancy  in  1776.  He  wrote  elegies, 
fables,  and  other  original  poems,  and  made  successful 
translations  from  the  Latin  of  Virgil's  "  ^neid"  and 
"Georgics,"  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry,"  and  the  "Ele- 
gies" of  TibuUus  and  of  Catullus,  (all  in  verse.)  Died 
in  1844. 

MoUeville,  de.    See  Bertrand  de  Molleville. 

Mollien,  de,  deh  mo'le^^w',  (Nicolas  Francois,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Rouen  in  1758. 
He  was  created  minister  of  the  treasury  by  Napoleon 
in  1806.  He  published  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 
"  Memoires  d'un  Ministre  du  Tresor  public,"  (1780- 
1845.)     Died  in  1850. 

See  Prosper  de  Barante,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Comte  Mollien," 
1850;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Getierale ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1852. 

Mol-loy',  (Charles,)  an  Irish  dramatist  and  political 
writer,  born  in  Dublin,  became  editor  of  the  London 
journal  called  "Common  Sense."  He  wrote  comedies 
entitled  "The  Coquette,"  "  Half- Pay  Officers,"  and 
"The  Perplexed  Couple."     Died  in  1767. 

Mo'loch  or  Mo'leeh,  [Heb.  y^,\  a  heathen  deity 
worshipped  by  the  Ammonites  and  other  Oriental  tribes, 
who  offered  to  him  human  sacrifices. 

Molosse.    See  Molossus. 

Mo-los'sus,  [Gr.  Wokoaabq ;  Fr.  Molosse,  mo'Ioss',] 
a  son  of  Pyrrhus  and  Andromache,  is  said  to  have 
reigned  in  Epirus.  Molossia  is  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  from  him. 

Moltke,  molt'keh,  (Adam  Wilhelm,)  Count,  a 
Danish  statesman,  son  of  Joachim  Godske,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  1785.  He  was  minister  of  finance 
under  Christian  VIII.  for  many  years.  He  resigned 
in  1848,  and  was  president  of  the  ministry  from  1848 
to  1852.     Died  February  15,  1864. 

Moltke,  (Joachim  Godske,)  Count,  a  Danish  states- 
man, and  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  born  at  Nyegaard 
in  1746,  became  minister  of  state  in  1781.  Died  in  1818. 

Moltke,  (Magnus,)  Count,  a  Danish  jurist  and 
writer,  born  in  1783.  He  published  a  "  Journey  in  Upper 
and  Middle  Italy,"  (1833,)  and  several  political  treatises, 

Moltke,  von,  fon  molt'keh,  (Helmuth  Karl  Ber- 


nard,) Count,  a  Prussian  general,  eminent  as  a  strate- 
gist, was  born  in  Mecklenburg  in  1800.  He  became 
major-general  in  1856,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1859. 
He  was  chief  of  the  royal  staff,  and  planned  the  campaign 
which  resulted  in  the  great  and  decisive  victory  of  Sa- 
dowa,  July  3,  1866.  He  directed  in  person  the  operations 
of  the  armies  which,  under  the  nominal  command  of  the 
king,  gained  in  France,  in  1870,  a  series  of  great  and 
memorable  victories.  (See  William  I.)  He  was  created 
a  count  in  1870,  and  chief  marshal  of  the  German  Em- 
pire in  1871.  He  received  from  the  Czar  the  order  of 
St.  George,  the  highest  military  decoration  of  Russia,  in 
1870,  and  from  his  own  sovereign  the  grand  cross  of  the 
order  of  the  iron  cross  in  1871.     Died  April  24,  1891. 

Molyn,  (Peier.)    See  Tempest  a. 

Molyneux,  mol'e-nooks',  (William,)  an  eminent 
mathematician,  born  in  Dublin  in  1656.  After  studying 
law  in  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  for  three  years,  he 
returned  to  Ireland  in  1678.  In  1683  he  aided  in  organ- 
izing the  Dublin  Philosophical  Society,  of  which  he 
afterwards  became  president.  For  his  attainments  in 
the  exact  sciences  he  was  elected  in  1685  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society,  whose  "Transactions"  contain  many 
treatises  composed  by  him  on  various  subjects.  In  1692 
he  produced  his  principal  work,  "Dioptrica  Nova,"  a 
treatise  on  optics,  which  was  revised  by  Halley.  It  was 
the  first  English  work  on  optics  that  had  appeared,  and 
was  for  a  long  time  the  principal  manual  of  opticians. 
He  represented  the  University  of  Dublin  in  the  Irish 
Parliament  a  few  years  before  his  death.     Died  in  1698. 

Molza,  moKzS,  or  Molsa,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1489.  He  wrote  Latin 
elegies  of  great  elegance,  and  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian,  chiefly  of  a  licentious  character.     Died  in  1544. 

Molza,  (Tarquinia,)  an  Italian  lady,  distinguished 
for  her  knowledge  of  mathematics,  philosophy,  and 
languages,  was  a  granddaughter  of  the  preceding.  She 
made  translations  from  Plato,  and  wrote  poems  in  Latin 
and  Italian.  The  Roman  senate  conferred  upon  her  the 
right  of  citizenship,  and  Tasso  gave  the  name  ot  Molza 
to  his  "  Dialogue  on  Love."     Died  in  161 7. 

Mombelli,  mom-bel'lee,  (Domenico,  )  an  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  near  Vercelli  in  1751.  He 
was  noted  as  a  tenor  singer.     Died  in  1835. 

Momboir.     See  Mauburne. 

Mombrisio,  mom-bRee'se-o,  [Lat.  Mombri'tius,) 
(BoNiNO,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Milan 
in  1424.  He  published  several  editions  of  the  classics, 
which  are  highly  esteemed,  and  "  Lives  of  the  Saints," 
("  Sanctuarium.")     Died  about  1482. 

Mombritius.    See  Mombrisio. 

Momigny,  de,  deh  mo'min'ye',  (J6r6me  Joseph,)  a 
French  composer  and  musician,  born  at  Philippeville  in 
1766.  He  published  several  works  on  the  theory  of 
music.     ]3ied  in  1838. 

Mommsen,  mom'sen,  (Johannes  Tycho,)  a  German 
scholar,  brother  of  the  following,  was  born  in  1819.  He 
produced  a  good  translation  of  Pindar  into  German 
verse,  (1846,)  and  "Essays  on  Shakspeare,"  (1855.) 

Mommsen,  (Theodor,)  a  German  jurist,  historian, 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Sleswick-Holstein  in  1817.  He 
became  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Breslau  in  1854. 
Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named  "The  Mone- 
tary System  of  the  Romans,"  "Collection  of  Neapolitan 
Inscriptions,"  (1852,)  and  "Roman  History,"  ("  Ro- 
inische  Geschichte,"  3  vols.,  1857.)  He  is  an  associate 
of  the  French  Institute,  and  a  member  of  other  foreign 
Academies. 

Momoro,  mo'mo'ro',  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1756.  He  was  guillotined 
as  a  Hebertist  in  1794. 

Mo'mus,  [Gr.  Mw/zof,]  in  classic  mythology,  was  the 
god  of  mockery,  ridicule,  and  irony,  and  was  called  the 
son  of  Night,  (Nox.)  He  is  said  to  have  criticised  the 
gods  with  great  audacity,  and  to  have  censured  Vulcan 
because,  when  he  (according  to  one  of  the  ancient  myths) 
formed  a  man,  he  did  not  place  a  window  or  door  in  his 
breast,  so  that  his  secret  thoughts  might  be  perceived. 

Moua,  mo'nd,  Moni,  mo'nee,  or  Monio,  mo'ne-o, 
(Domenico,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1550; 
died  in  1602. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  t;  th  as  in  this,     ( 

1 10 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONACO 


1746 


MONDORY 


Monaco  la  Valetta,  mon'iko  li  \\-\h\.'ik,  (Raf- 
FAELE,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at  Aqnila,  February  23, 
1827,  was  created  a  cardinal-priest  in  1868,  and  became 
head  of  the  congregation  of  episcopal  visitation,  and  of 
that  of  episcopal  residence. 

Monagas,  nio-ni'gds,  (Don  Jacinto,)  a  South  Amer- 
ican commander,  born  in  Venezuela  in  1785,  was  one 
of  the  principal  liberators  of  Colombia.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  1819. 

Monantheuil,  de,  deh  mo'nftN'tuI'  or  mo'nflN'tuh'- 
ye,  [Lat.  Monantho'uus,]  (Henri,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Rheims  about  1536.  He  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  College,  Paris, 
where  he  numbered  among  his  pupils  Lamoignon  and 
De  Thou.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  treat- 
ises in  Latin.     Died  in  1606. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

MonantholiuB.    See  Monantheuil. 

Monardes,  mo-naR'd^s,  (Nicolas,)  a  Spanish  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  was  a  native  of  Seville.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Medicines  of  the 
New  World."  Linnaeus  named  in  his  honour  the  genus 
Monarda.     Died  in  1578. 

Mon-bod'do,  (James  Burnet,)  Lord,  a  learned 
Scottish  jurist  and  eccentric  writer,  born  in  Kincardine- 
shire in  1 7 14.  He  studied  at  Aberdeen,  and  subsequently 
at  the  University  of  Groningen,  and  was  appointed,  after 
his  return  to  Scotland,  one  of  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
session,  (1767.)  He  published  (1774)  his  "Dissertation 
on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language,"  in  which  he 
manifests  an  enthusiastic  admiration  for  the  literature 
and  philosophy  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  advances  the 
theory  that  the  human  race  was  originally  a  species  of 
monkey.  In  his  "Ancient  Metaphysics,  or  the  Science 
of  Universals,"  (1779,)  Lord  Monboddo  has  still  further 
developed  the  same  ideas.  He  was  intimate  with  Dr. 
Johnson  and  other  eminent  men  of  the  time,  by  whom 
he  was  highly  esteemed  for  the  excellence  of  his  charac- 
ter.    Died  in  1799. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  April,  1791,  March,  1796,  and 
January,  179S  ;  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1799. 

Monbron,  de,  deh  m6N'bR6N',  (N.  Fougeret — 
foozh'ri',)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Peronne,  wrote 
"La  Henriade  travestie,"  (1745,)  and  "  Le  Cosmopol," 
(1750.)  He  was  extremely  censorious  and  misanthrop- 
ical.    Died  in  1761. 

Moncada,  de,  di  mon-kJ'Di,  (Don  Francisco,) 
Count  of  Osuna,  a  celebrated  Spanish  general  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Valencia  in  15S6,  was  appointed  general- 
issimo of  the  Spanish  forces  in  the  Netherlands.  He 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Goch,  in  1635.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  valuable  "History  of  the  Expedition  of  the 
Catalans  against  the  Greeks  and  Turks,"  (1623,)  and  othei 
works. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Moncada,  de,  written  also  Moncade,  (Hugo,)  a 
Spanish  commander,  born  about  1466.  He  served  with 
distinction  against  the  Moors  and  Turks,  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Sicily  by  Charles  V.  about  1522,  and  was 
defeated  in  July,  1524,  in  a  naval  battle,  by  Andrew 
Doria,  who  commanded  the  French  fleet.  In  1526  he 
marched  to  Rome  and  liberated  the  imprisoned  pope, 
Clement  VII.,  on  condition  that  he  should  abandon  the 
French  party.  He  was  killed  in  a  sea-fight  near  Naples 
in  1528. 

See  SisMONDt,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais  ;"  Robertson,  "  History 
of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  iv.  and  v. 

Moncalvo,  II.     See  Caccia. 

Monceaux,  de,  deh  m^N'so',  (Francois,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Arras,  flourished  about  1570-90.  He 
wrote  "Bucolica  Sacra,"  (1587,)  and  other  works  in 
verse. 

Moncel,  du,  dii  m6N's51',  (Th^odose  Achille 
Louis,)  Vicomte,  a  French  savant,  born  in  Paris  in 
1821.  He  published, besides  other  works,  "Expose  des 
Applications  de  I'Eiectricite,"  (3  vols.,  1857.)  He  gave 
special  attention  to  electro-magnetism,  and  invented 
electrical  apparatus.     Died  February  9,  1S84. 

Moncey,  de,  deh  m^N'si',  (Bon  Adrien  Jeannot,) 
Due  de  Conegliano,  a  French  marshal,  born  at  Besan- 


9on  in  1754.  He  served  in  the  campaigns  ol  1793  and 
1794,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  in 
Sjjain,  Austria,  and  Italy,  and  was  made  a  marshal  in 
1804.  He  soon  after  obtained  the  title  of  Duke  of  Cone- 
gliano, and  the  grand  cordon  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Peers  under  Louis 
XVIIL,  and  was  appointed  goiiverneur  des  Invalides  i» 
1834.     Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale;"  De  Courchlles,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  des  G^neraux  Frangais ;"  "  £loge  du  Mar^chal  Monce>," 
by  Baron  C.  Dupin. 

Monchy.    See  Hocquincourt. 

Mouck,  munk,  (Charles  Stanley,)  Viscount,  an 
English  peer,  born  in  Ireland  in  1819.  He  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  as  a  Liberal  in  1852,  became  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1855,  and  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Canada  and  British  America  in  1861.  Hi> 
was  made  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1866. 

Monclar,  de,  deh  miN'klSR',  (Jean  Pierre  Fran- 
gois  de  Ripert — deh  re'paik',)  Marquis,  an  eminent 
French  magistrate  and  writer,  was  born  at  Apt,  in  Pro- 
vence, in  171 1.  He  became  procureur-general  in  1732. 
From  about  1749  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous 
assertion  of  the  liberty  of  the  Protestants,  and  in  1762 
he  exposed  the  tendencies  of  the  Jesuits,  in  a  work 
which  Villemain  pronounces  a  master-piece.     Died  in 

1773- 

Monconys,  mAN'ko'ne',  (Balthasar,)  a  French 
traveller,  born  at  Lyons  in  161 1,  visited  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  an  account  of  those  countries.     Died  in  1665. 

Moncornet,  miN'koR'ni',  (Balthasar,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Rouen  about  161 5 ;  died  after  1670. 

Moncreiff  or  Moncrieff,  mon-kreef,  (Sir  Henry 
Wellwood,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1750,  became  minister  of  Saint  Cuthbert's, 
Edinburgh,  in  1775.  He  was  a  zealous  Whig,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  controversies  of  the 
time,  in  relation  to  which  he  published  several  treatises. 
He  also  wrote  "  Discourses  on  the  Evidence  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Revelations,"  (1815,)  and  an  "Ac- 
count of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John  Erskine,"  (1818.) 
Died  in  1827. 

Moncrieff,  (James,)  a  Scottish  baron,  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  in  Edinburgh,  November  29,  1811.  He 
was  appointed  lord  advocate  for  Scotland  in  185 1,  and  re- 
appointed in  1859.  From  1859  to  1S6S  he  represented 
in  Parliament  the  city  of  Edinburgh,  with  the  Univer- 
sities of  Aberdeen  and  Glasgow.  In  1869  he  was  chosen 
lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

MoncriefiF,  (Sir  James  Wellwood,)  an  eminent 
Scottish  lawyer  and  judge,  born  about  1776,  was  a  son 
of  Sir  H.  W.  Moncrieff.  He  became  a  judge  of  session, 
and  lord  justiciary.     Died  in  1851. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Moncrif,  de,  deh  m^N'kRif,  (Francois  Augustin 
Paradis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1687, 
was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Louis  XV.,  and  became 
secretary  to  Count  d'Argenson.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1733,  and  %vas  intimate  with  Vol- 
taire, Marmontel,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of  the 
time.  He  was  the  author  of  a  humorous  work  entitled  a 
"  History  of  Cats,"  etc.,  "  The  Rival  Souls,"  a  romance, 
"  Essay  on  the  Necessity  and  Means  of  Pleasing,"  and  a 
number  of  operas,  songs,  and  ballads.     Died  in  1770. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  Litteraire;"  D'Alembert,  "His- 
toire de  I'Acad^ie  Krangaise." 

Mondejar,  de,  di  mon-di-iiaR',  (Caspar  Ipanez  de 
Segovia,  Persalta  y  Mendoza,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish 
historian,  who  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Cronica  del 
Rey  Don  Alonzo  el  Sabio,"  (1783.)     Died  after  1775. 

Mondejar,  de,  (Lnigo  Lopez  de  Mendoza — lo'- 
p€th  di  m^n-do'thS,)  Marquis,  a  distinguished  Spanish 
commander  under  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  was  appointed 
Captain-General  of  Granada,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  against  the  Moors. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Mondino  de  LuzzL    See  Mundinus. 

Mondory  or  Moudori,  miN'do're',  a  French  actor, 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsatre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nit;  good;  moon. 


MONDRAGON 


1747 


MONK 


born  at  Orleans  about  1580,  is  called  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  French  theatre.     Died  in  1651. 

Mondragon,  mon-dK^-gAn',  (Cristobal,)  a  brave 
Spanish  general,  surnamed  THE  GOOD  MonDRAGON, 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  Netherlanders,  and 
rose  to  be  governor  of  Antwerp.     Died  in  1596. 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  chap.  xxxi. 

Moue,  mo'neh,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  German  writer, 
born  near  Heidelberg  in  1792,  became  professor  of  his- 
tory in  that  city  in  1819.  He  published  a  "History 
of  Paganism  in  Northern  Europe,"  (1822,)  and  other  his- 
torical works.     Died  March  12,  1871. 

Monescillo  y  Vise,  mon-^s-sil'yo  ee  vee'so,  (An- 
TONJO,)  a  Spanish  cardinal,  born  in  181 1.  He  was  raised 
to  a  bishopric  in  1S61,  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Valencia  in  1877,  and  in  1884  was  created  a  cardinal- 
priest. 

Monet,  mo'ni',  (Philibert,)  a  French  scholar  and 
philologist,  born  at  Bonneville,  in  Savoy,  in  1566.  He 
wrote  '*  Ligatures  des  Langues  Fran9oise  et  Latine," 
(1629,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1643. 

Mo-ne'ta,  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to  Juno. 
The  temple  of  Juno  Moneta  at  Rome  was  used  as  a 
mint,  which  in  Latin  is  called  moneta. 

Moneti,  mo-na'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Cortona  about  1635  ;  died  in  1712. 

Monfalcon,m6N'fiirk6N',  (Jean  Battiste,)  a  French 
physician  and  historian,  born  in  Lyons  in  1792.  He 
practised  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Code  moral  des  Ouvriers,"  (1835,)  and  a 
"History  of  Lyons,"  (2  vols.,  1846-47.)     Died  in  1874. 

Mongault,  mAN'go',  (Nicolas  Hubert,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1674.  He  made  translations 
of  the  "  History"  of  Herodian  and  the  "  Letters  of  Cicero 
to  Atticus."  The  latter  is  particularly  esteemed,  and  the 
notes  accompanying  it  are  said  to  have  furnished  Mid- 
dleton  with  important  matter  for  his  "  Life  of  Cicero." 
Mongault  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  and 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.     Died  in  1746. 

Monge,  m6Nzh,  (Gaspard,)  Comte  de  PcMuse,  a  cele- 
brated French  savant,  and  the  creator  of  descriptive 
geometry,  was  born  at  Beaune  in  1746.  Soon  after  he 
left  the  College  of  Lyons  he  obtained  a  place  in  the  col- 
lege of  military  engineers  at  Mezieres.  Having  by  his 
skill  in  geometry  made  an  important  improvement  in 
the  prpcess  used  in  the  art  of  fortification,  he  became, 
about  the  age  of  twenty,  professor  of  mathematics  and 
of  natural  philosophy  at  Mezieres.  While  he  filled 
these  chairs  with  great  credit,  he  gradually  jjerfected 
the  application  of  geometry  to  the  arts  of  construc- 
tion, which  is  now  called  descriptive  geometry.  In 
1780  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, and  in  1783  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
employed  as  examiner  of  candidates  for  the  marine,  for 
whose  use  he  wrote  an  able  "Treatise  on  Statics."  His 
political  affinities  in  the  Revolution  were  with  the  re- 
publicans, who  appointed  him  minister  of  the  marine  in 
1792.  He  resigned  in  April,  1793,  ^"<^  distinguished 
himself  by  his  zealous  services  in  the  fabrication  of  arms, 
gunpowder,  and  other  materials,  which  were  urgently  re- 
quired for  the  national  defence.  In  1795  he  published 
the  first  edition  of  his  excellent  "  Descriptive  Geometry," 
and  assisted  in  organizing  the  Polytechnic  School," in 
which  he  taught  geometry  and  analysis.  Monge,  Fou- 
rier, and  Berthollet  were  the  directors  of  the  scientific 
commission  which  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in 
1798.  Aided  by  pupils  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  they 
executed  the  geodesic  and  monumental  description  of 
that  coimtry.  Having  returned  home  with  Bonaparte, 
he  presided  over  the  arrangement  and  publication  of  the 
great  work  by  which  French  science  and  art  illustrated 
Egypt.  During  the  Napoleonic  regime  he  became  a 
senator.  Count  of  Peluse,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  In  1816  he  was  expelled  from  the  Institute 
on  account  of  his  political  antecedents.  He  died  in  1818. 
He  left  an  important  work  called  "  Application  of  Analy- 
sis to  Geometry."  His  discoveries  in  geometry  form  an 
epoch  in  that  science,  for  which  he  is  said  to  have  done 
more  than  any  one  since  the  time  of  Archimedes. 

See  D.  F.  Arago,  "  HioRraphie  de  G.  Monge,"  1853;  Charlks 
Di'PiK  "Elogede  Monge,"  1849;  Dupin  aInA,  "  Essai  historique 


snrles  Ser\-ices  de  Monge,  1819 ;  Walckenaer,  "  Notice  historique 
sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  ^L  Monge,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Mongez,  m6N'zhi',  (Antoine,)  a  French  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Lyons  in  1747.  He  published  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Names  and  Attributes  of  the  Infernal  Deities," 
and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.     Died  in  1835. 

Mongez,  (Marie  Jos^i-iiine  AngAlique  Levol,)  a 
French  artist  of  great  merit,  born  near  Paris  in  1775, 
was  the  wife  of  the  preceding.  She  studied  painting 
under  Regnault  and  David.  Among  her  best  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Astyanax,"  "Orpheus  in  Hades,"  and 
"  Perseus  and  Andromeda."     Died  in  1855. 

Mongitore,  mon-je-to'ri,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  biog- 
rapher and  priest,  born  at  Palermo  in  1663.  He  pub- 
lished "Bibliotheca  Sicula,"  (2  vols.,  1708-14,)  which 
contains  notices  of  Sicilian  authors,  ancient  and  modern. 
Died  in  1743. 

Monglave,  de,  deh  mfiN'gltv',  (Francois  EucfeNE 
Garay,)  a  French  novelist  and  historian,  born  at  Bayoime 
in  1796.     Died  April  21,  1873. 

MonL     See  Mona. 

Mon'I-ca,  I  Fr.  Monique,  mo'nSk',]  Saint,  the  mother 
of  Saint  Augustine,  was  born  in  332  a.d.  She  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Christian  faith,  and  became  eminent  for  her 
virtue  and  piety.  She  lived  at  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  and 
had  several  children.     Died  at  Ostia  in  387  a.d. 

See  Saint  Augustine,  "  Confessions  ;"  Karl  Braunk,  "  Monica 
und  Augustinus,"  1846;  Petit,  "  Histoire  de  Sainte-Monique," 
1848. 

Monier,  mo'ne-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Blois  in  1639 ;  died  in  1703. 

Moniglia,  mo-nil'yi,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Ital- 
ian dramatic  poet  and  physician,  born  at  Florence  about 
1640  ;  died  in  1700. 

Mou'i-naa,  [Gr.  Mow'/z??,]  a  beautiful  Greek  woman, 
who  became  a  wife  of  Mithridates  the  Great.  She  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  that  king  in  72  B.C.,  to  prevent 
her  from  being  captured  by  the  victorious  Romans. 

Moiiino.    See  Florida  Blanca. 

Moiiio.     See  Mona. 

Monique.    See  Monica. 

Monk,  miink,  (Edwin  George,)  Mus.  Doc,  an  English 
musician  and  composer, born  at  Frome,  Somerset,  in  1819. 
He  has  published  some  sacred  compositions,  and  edited 
collections  of  hymn-  and  psalm-tunes. 

Monk,  munk,  (George,)  Duke  of  Albemarle,  a  suc- 
cessful English  general,  born  in  1608,  was  the  son  of 
Sir  Thomas  Monk,  of  Merton,  Devonshire.  After  fight- 
ing in  the  service  of  Holland,  he  returned  to  England 
about  the  age  of  thirty.  In  the  civil  war  he  bore  arms 
for  Charles  I.,  and  had  acquired  some  reputation  as  an 
able  officer  when  he  was  made  prisoner  at  Nantvvich  in 
1644  by  the  Roundheads,  who  confined  him  in  the  Tower 
of  London  more  than  a  year.  Having  accepted  a  com- 
mission from  the  Parliament,  he  commanded  a  repub- 
lican army  in  the  north  of  Ireland  between  1646  and 
1650.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Cromwell  at 
Dunbar,  in  1650,  and  the  next  year  was  left  in  Scotland 
as  commander  of  an  army,  with  which  he  speedily  com- 
pleted tne  reduction  of  that  country.  Hume  states  that 
he  put  to  the  sword  all  the  inhabitants  of  Dundee,  which 
he  had  taken  by  assault ;  though  he  elsewhere  says  his 
temper  was  humane  and  his  moderation  remarkable. 
In  1653  the  government  showed  their  confidence  in  his 
skill  by  selecting  him  to  co-operate  with  Admiral  Blake 
in  a  naval  war  against  the  Dutch.  He  commanded  in 
the  sea-fight  where  Van  Tromp  was  defeated  and  killed. 
In  1654  he  was  successful  in  his  efforts  to  enforce  the 
will  and  authority  of  the  Protector  in  Scotland.  At  the 
death  of  Oliver,  in  1658,  Monk  proclaimed  Richard 
Cromwell  as  his  successor.  When  the  officers  of  the 
army  deposed  Richard  and  restored  the  Long  Par- 
liament, he  acquiesced,  and  retained  command  of  the 
army  in  Scotland.  The  royalists  and  republicans  so- 
licited his  aid  in  the  impending  crisis;  but  he  kept  all 
parties  in  sus])ense  by  his  dissimulation  or  irresolu- 
tion. About  the  beginning  of  1660  he  marched  towards 
London,  ostensibly  to  support  the  civil  power  against 
Lambert's  army.  "Cold-blooded  and  taciturn,"  says 
Macaulay,  "zealous  for  no  polity  and  for  no  religion,  he 


eas-i;  ^asi;  g>5arar,-  gas/.G,  H,K,gnttnral;  a,  nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sass;  thasin//«j.     (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONK 


1748 


MONRAD 


maintained  an  impenetrable  reserve"  when  he  was  im- 
plored to  restore  peace  to  the  nation.  Having  cautiously 
removed  from  command  those  whom  he  distrusted,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  the  restoration,  he  declared  for  a 
free  Parliament,  which  soon  assembled,  amidst  general 
joy  and  exultation.  Charles  II.  was  proclaimed  king 
in  May,  1660,  and  rewarded  the  services  of  Monk  by 
creating  him  Duke  of  Albemarle.  In  1666  Monk  main- 
tained his  reputation  in  a  great  naval  battle  against  the 
Dutch.  He  died  in  1670,  leaving  a  son,  at  whose  death 
the  family  became  extinct.  Hume,  after  a  eulogy  of  his 
character,  says,  "  I  confess,  however,  that  Dr.  Douglas 
has  shown  me  an  original  letter  of  his,  containing  very 
earnest  and  certainly  false  protestations  of  his  zeal  for 
a  commonwealth." 

See  "State  Papers  of  Charles  II.,"  edited  by  Mrs.  Green,  Lon- 
don, 1866:  GuizoT,  "Memoirs  of  Monk;"  "The  Life  of  General 
Monk,"  by  Thomas  Skelton;  T.  Skinner,  "Life  of  General 
Monk;"  Gumble,  "Life  of  General  Monk,"  1671 ;  Clarendon, 
"  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Hallam,  "Constitutional  History;" 
Macaulav,  "History  of  England;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
liii.,  (1826;)  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Monk,  (James  Henry,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  born  at  Huntingford  in  1784.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Gloucester  about  1830.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Bentley," 
(1831.)     Died  in  1856. 

Monk,  (Mary  Molesworth,)  a  distinguished  writer, 
was  a  daughter  of  Robert,  Lord  Molesworth,  and  was 
married  to  George  Monk,  an  Irish  gentleman.  She  died 
in  1715,  leaving  a  collection  entitled  "Marinda:  Poems 
and  Translations  on  Several  Occasions,"  (1716.) 

See  CiBBER,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Monmerque,  mdw'mSR'ki',  (Louis  Jean  Nicolas,) 
a  French  litierateitr,  born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He  wrote 
many  articles  for  the  "Biographie  Universelle"  of  Mi- 
chaud,  edited  the  "  Letters  of  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
(ro  vols.,  1819,)  and  published  other  works.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1833.  Died 
in  i860. 

Monmorel,  de,  deh  mb-a'mo'xlV,  (Chari.es  le 
Bourg — leh  booR,)  a  popular  French  preacher,  born  in 
Normandy;  died  in  1719. 

Monmouth.    See  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth. 

Monmouth,  Earl  of.  See  Mordaunt,  and  Carey, 
(Henry.) 

Monmouth,  mon'miith,  (James  Scott,)  Duke  of, 
born  in  1649,  was  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  Eng- 
land. His  mother's  name  was  Lucy  Walters.  He  married 
about  1665  Anne  Scott,  Duchess  of  Buccleuch,  said  to 
have  been  the  richest  heiress  in  the  kingdom,  and  as- 
sumed her  name.  He  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Buc- 
cleuch, and  was  loaded  with  royal  favours.  His  personal 
advantages  and  agreeable  manners  rendered  him  very 
popular.  "  Though  a  libertine,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  won 
the  hearts  of  the  Puritans."  A  rivalry  or  jealousy  arose 
between  him  and  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James 
II.,  through  whose  influence  Monmouth  was  discarded 
from  court.  He  was  in  Holland  when  Charles  II.  died, 
(1684.)  A  report  that  Charles  II.  had  married  Lucy  Wal- 
ters privately  was  credulously  received  by  the  populace, 
who  regarded  Monmouth  as  the  rightful  heir  to  the 
throne  and  the  champion  of  the  Protestant  cause.  With 
a  party  of  armed  exiles  he  invaded  England  in  June,  1685, 
and  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion.  He  was  received 
with  enthusiasm  by  the  people,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
the  royal  troops  at  Axminster ;  but  he  was  completely 
defeated  at  Sedgemoor,  July  6,  and  captured  a  few  days 
later.  Having  been  taken  into  the  presence  of  King 
James,  he  threw  himself  at  his  feet,  and,  with  abject 
spirit,  begged  for  life  at  any  price,  but  in  vain.  He  was 
executed  in  July,  1685. 

See  Macaulav,  "  Historyof  England,"  vol.  i. ;  George  Roberts, 
"Life  of  the  Duke  of  Monn^uth,"  1844. 

Monnet,  mo'ni',  (Antoine  Grimoald,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1734,  was  appointed  in- 
spector-general of  mines.  He  opposed  and  undervalued 
the  discoveries  of  Lavoisier,  Berthollet,  and  others,  and 
thus  injured  his  own  reputation.  He  published  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Solution  of  Metals,"  (1775,)  "Historical  and 
Political  Memoir  on  the  Mines  of  France,"  (1791,)  and 
numerous  other  scientific  works.     Died  in  181 7. 

Monnet,  (Louis  Claude,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 


born  in  1766.  He  commanded  at  Flushing  when  it  wag 
taken  by  the  English  in  1809.  For  this  ill  success  he 
was  condemned  to  death  ;  but  he  was  then  a  prisoner  in 
England.     Died  in  1819. 

Monnier,  mo'ne-i',  (Henri  Bonaventure,)  a 
French  litterateur,  comedian,  and  caricaturist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1799.  He  represented  and  caricatured  the  life 
and  manners  of  the  common  people  with  the  pen,  and 
published  several  volumes  of  "  Scenes  popuJaires  des- 
sinees  h.  la  Plume,"  (1830-46.)  Among  his  works  is 
"Memoires  de  M.  Prudhomme."     Died  in  1877. 

Monnier,  (Jean  Charles,)  Comte,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Cavaillon  in  1758.  He  led  a  division  at 
Marengo  in  June,  1800.     Died  in  1816. 

Monnier,  (Louis  Gabriel,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1733  ;  died  at  Dijon  in  1804. 

Monnier,  de,  deh  mo'ne-^',  (Marie  Th^r^se  Ri- 
chard de  Ruffey — re'shtu'  deh  rii'f^',)  Marquise,  a 
French  lady,  known  under  the  name  of  Sophie,  and 
celebrated  in  consequence  of  her  connection  with  Mira- 
beau,  was  born  at  Pontarlier  in  1754.  Died  in  1789. 
(See  MiRABEAU.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Monnier,  Le.    See  Lemonnier. 

Monnier,  Le.leh  mo'ne-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  savant, 
born  in  Normandy  about  1675,  published  a  work  en- 
titled "Course  of  Philosophy."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.     Died  in  1757. 

Monnoie  or  Monnoye,  de  la,  deh  It  mo'nwX', 
(Bernard,)  a  French  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1641.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  Duel 
Abolished,"  which  obtained  the  first  prize  ever  awarded 
by  the  French  Academy.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
that  institution  in  1713.  He  also  published  poems  in 
Latin  and  French,  and  several  critical  treatises.  Died 
in  1728. 

See  R.  DE  JuviGNV,  "M^moire  historique  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  La 
Monnoye." 

Monnoyer,  mo'nwS'yi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  cele- 
brated painter  of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  at  Lille,  in 
Flanders,  in  1635.  Having  visited  Paris,  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  decoration  of  Versailles  and  the  Trianon. 
He  afterwards  repaired  to  England,  where  he  executed 
some  of  his  best  works.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  flower-border  of  a  mirror  at  Kensington,  and  the 
decorations  of  Montagu  House.  His  flower-pieces  have 
never  been  surpassed  for  brilliancy  of  colouring  and  free 
and  graceful  grouping.  He  died  in  1699,  leaving  a  son, 
Antoine,  who  was  also  a  flower-painter. 

See  R.  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Franfais." 

Monod,  mo'nod',  (Adolphe,  )  an  eminent  Swiss 
Protestant  minister,  born  about  1800.  He  lectured  on 
theology  and  Hebrew  at  the  College  of  Montauban  from 
1836  to  1852,  and  became  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Paris  in  1853.  He  acquired  a  wide  reputation 
as  a  preacher  and  moralist,  and  wrote  numerous  religion? 
treatises.  He  belonged  to  the  most  orthodox  school  ol 
French  Protestants.     Died  in  1S56. 

Monod,  (Fr^d^ric,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister, 
born  at  Monnaz,  in  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  in  1794,  was  ii 
Brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  in  1832  pastor 
of  the  Protestant  sect  called  "fivangelistes  libres,"  in 
Paris.  He  edited  for  many  years  "The  Archives  of 
Christianity,"  and  published  a  number  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1863. 

Monod,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1765,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Paris,  and  in  1830  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Consistory  of  the  Reformed  Church.  He 
contributed  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle"  many 
notices  of  eminent  Swiss  writers,  etc.     Died  in  1836. 

Monpou,  mAN'poo',  (Hippoi.yte,)  a  P'rench  com- 
poser and  singer,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  lie  composed 
popular  ballads  and  operas,  among  which  is  "  Les  deux 
Reines,"  (1835.)     Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Monrad,  mon'Rid,  (Dn  lev  Gothard,)  a  Danish 
bishop,  born  at  Copenhagen,  November  24,  iSil.  In 
1849  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Laaland.  He  was  at  various 
times  minister  of  worship,  of  the  interior,  and  of  finance. 
He  was  president  of  the  Legislative  Chamber  during  the 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y.  s/:ort;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  filll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MONRO 


1749 


MONS 


war  which  in  1864  detached  Sleswick  and  Holstein  from 
Denmark.  He  lived  in  New  Zealand  from  1864  to  1869. 
He  returned  to  his  diocese  in  1871.     Died  in  1887. 

Mon-ro',  (Alexander,  distinguished  as  Primus,  i.e. 
the  "  first,")  an  eminent  physician  and  anatomist,  born 
in  London  in  1697.  He  studied  successively  in  London, 
Paris,  and  at  Leyden  under  Boerhaave,  and  was  ap- 
pointed, after  his  return,  demonstrator  of  anatomy  to 
the  Surgeons'  Company  at  Edinburgh.  The  lectures  he 
delivered  at  this  time  won  for  him  a  high  reputation, 
and  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  founding  the  Medical 
School  of  Edinburgh.  Under  his  direction  also  was 
established  the  Royal  Infirmary  of  that  city,  in  which 
he  gave  clinical  lectures  on  surgery.  He  published  in 
1726  his  "Osteology,  or  Treatise  on  the  Anatomy  of  the 
Bones,"  which  passed  through  numerous  editions  and 
was  translated  into  French  and  German.  Among  his 
other  works  are  an  "  Essay  on  Comjjarative  Anatomy," 
(1744,)  and  "Account  of  the  Inoculation  of  Small-Pox 
in  Scotland,"  (1765.)  Dr.  Monro  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Surgery  in  Paris.     Died  in  1767. 

See  A.  Duncan,  "  Account  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Alexander  Monro," 
1780;  "Life  of  Alexander  Monro,"  prefixed  to  his  works;  Cham- 
BBRS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Monro,  (Alexander  Secundiis,  or  the  "second,") 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1732. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  the  chair  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1759.  He 
died  in  181 7,  leaving  a  number  of  medical  treatises  of 
great  merit.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  Observations 
on  the  Structure,  etc.  of  the  Nervous  System,"  (1783,) 
and  "  Structure  and  Physiology  of  Fishes,"  (1785.) 

SeeCHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Monro,  (Alexander  Tertius,  or  the  "third,")  a 
physician,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edin- 
burgh about  1774.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Edinburgh,  and  published  several  works  on  anatomy 
and  medicine.    Died  in  1859. 

Monro,  (Donald,)  brother  of  Alexander,  (1732-1817,) 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1729.  He  was  appointed  chief 
physician  to  the  army,  which  he  accompanied  to  Ger- 
many in  1761.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Means  of  Preserving  the  Health  of 
Soldiers."     Died  in  1802. 

Monro,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Green- 
wich in  1 715,  was  the  author  of  "Remarks  on  Battle's 
Treatise  on  Madness."     Died  in  1791. 

Monroe,  mun-ro',  (James,)  an  American  statesman, 
and  the  fifth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  April  28,  1758.  He 
was  a  son  of  Spence  Monroe,  a  jjlanter,  was  educated  at 
William  and  Mary  College,  and  entered  the  army  as  a 
cadet  in  1776.  He  soon  became  a  lieutenant  in  the  army 
of  Washington,  and  served  at  the  battles  of  Harlem 
Heights  and  White  Plains.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Trenton,  December,  1776,  and  for  his  conduct 
there  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain.  As  aide- 
de-camp  to  Lord  Stirling,  he  served  with  distinction  at 
the  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  September,  1777,  and  at  that 
of  Monmouth,  June,  1778.  Having  lost  his  rank  in  the 
regular  army  by  becoming  an  aide  to  Lord  Stirling,  he 
retired  from  the  service  in  1778,  and  studied  law  under 
Thomas  Jefferson.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  of  Virginia  in  1782,  and  a  delegate  to  the 
General  Congress  in  1783  for  three  years.  He  married, 
about  1785,  a  Miss  Kortright,  of  New  York. 

As  a  member  of  the  Convention  of  Virginia,  in  1788, 
he  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  which,  in  his  opinion,  gave  too  much 
power  to  the  Federal  government.  He  accordingly 
united  himself  with  the  Anti-Federalists,  or  Republican 
party,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  four  years  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  1790.  In 
1794  he  wa«  sent  to  France  as  minister-plenipotentiary. 
He  offended  the  heads  of  the  home  government  by  the 
open  expression  of  sympathy  with  the  French  repub- 
licans, or  by  a  departure  from  a  neutral  policy,  and 
was  recalled  about  the  end  of  1796.  He  was  Governor 
of  Virginia  three  years,  (1799-1802.)  In  1802  he  was 
sent  to  France  as  envoy-extraordinary,  to   unite  with 


Edward  Livingston,  then  the  resident  minister  at  Paris, 
in  a  negotiation  for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana, — i.e.  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  They  purchased  that 
vast  territory  from  Bonaparte  for  $15,000,000.  In  1803 
Mr.  Monroe  was  sent  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to 
England,  and  in  1805  performed  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
Spain  in  relation  to  the  boundary  of  Louisiana.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1806,  and,  aided  by  Mr.  Pinck- 
ney,  negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  protection  of  maritime 
interests  and  neutral  rights  ;  but  the  government  of 
the  United  States  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  because 
it  did  not  provide  against  the  impressment  of  seamen. 
He  returned  home  in  1808,  and  passed  about  two  years 
in  a  private  station. 

In  181 1  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Madison 
in  November,  181 1.  He  acted  as  secretary  of  war  during 
the  disastrous  and  gloomy  period  that  followed  the  cap- 
ture of  Washington,  September,  1814-March,  1815,  and 
rendered  important  services  by  his  energetic  measures 
to  restore  the  public  credit  and  reinforce  the  army.  He 
did  not  cease  to  be  secretary  of  state  until  March,  1817. 
He  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in 
1 816,  and  was  elected  by  a  large  majority,  receiving  one 
hundred  and  eighty-three  electoral  votes.  His  competi- 
tor was  Rufus  King,  who  received  thirty-four  votes.  Ho 
appointed  John  Q.  Adams  secretary  of  state,  William 
H.  Crawford  secretary  of  the  treasury,  John  C.  Calhoun 
secretary  of  war,  and  Smith  Thompson  secretary  of  the 
navy.  The  violence  of  party  spirit  abated  during  his 
administration,  which  encountered  no  strong  opposition. 
In  1819  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  the  United  States.  He 
was  re-elected  President  in  1820  without  opposition, 
receiving  every  electoral  vote  except  one.  During  his 
second  term  the  independence  of  the  South  American 
colonies  of  Spain  was  recognized  by  the  United  States. 
In  his  message  of  December,  1823,  he  asserted  the  im- 
portant principle  of  foreign  policy  which  forms  the  cele- 
brated "Monroe  Doctrine,"  in  these  terms  :  "We  owe 
it,  therefore,  to  candour  and  to  the  amicable  relations 
existing  between  the  United  States  and  those  powers, 
{i.e.  the  European  powers,]  to  declare  that  we  should 
consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  sys- 
tem to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to 
our  peace  and  safety."  He  retired  from  office  in  March, 
1825,  after  which  he  resided  at  Oak  Hill,  Loudon  county, 
Virginia.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  convention 
which  met  in  1829  to  revise  the  Constitution  of  Virginia. 
A  speech  which  he  made  in  that  Convention  contains 
this  incidental  remark  on  slavery: — "No  imputation  can 
be  cast  on  Virginia  in  this  matter.  She  did  all  that  was 
in  her  power  to  do,  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery 
and  to  mitigate  its  evils  so  far  as  she  could."*  He  died 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  at  the  residence  of  his  son-in- 
law,  Samuel  L.  Gouverneur,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1831, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  a  discreet  and  successful  states- 
man, more  distinguished  for  administrative  talents  than 
for  oratorical  powers. 

See  J.  Q.  Adams,  "Eulogy  on  James  Monroe;"  Hildketh, 
"  History  of  the  United  States,"  vols.  v.  and  vi.  ;  "National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Monrose,  m6N'roz',  the  assumed  name  of  Claude 
Louis  Barrizain,  (bi're'ziN',)  a  French  comic  actor, 
born  at  Besangon  in  1783  ;  died  in  1843. 

Mons,  van,  vtn  m6ns  or  mANss,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an 
eminent  Belgian  chemist  and  pomologist,  was  born  at 
Brussels  in  1765.  Having  learned  the  art  of  pharmacy, 
he  was  chosen  in  1797  professor  of  chemistry,  etc.  in 
Brussels.  He  founded  the  "Journal  de  Chimie  et  Phy- 
sique," which  for  many  years  was  a  central  depot  of  the 
progress  of  science  in  Europe.  Having  a  ruling  passion 
for  the  culture  of  fruit,  he  began  at  an  early  age  to  theo- 
rize and  experiment  on  the  production  of  new  varieties. 
About  the  age  of  twenty  he  adopted  the  theory  that 
seedlings  of  new  varieties  have  more  tendency  to  im- 
prove than  those  of  old  varieties,  or,  in  other  words, 
while  good  old  varieties  mostly  produce  inferior  sorts, 
those  which  are  recent  and  bad  tend  to  change  for  the 

•  This  remark,  doubtless,  has  reference  to  the  efforts  of  the  English 
government  to  introduce  slaves  into  Virginia  against  the  wishes  of 
many  of  the  colonists. 


f 


eas  k;  5 as s;  g  hard  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l[^^See  Explanations,  p.  21.^ 


MONS 


1750 


MONTAGU 


better.  Having  planted  a  large  nursery  and  devoted 
his  life  chiefly  to  experiments  on  the  pear,  he  was  suc- 
cessful in  producing  many  fine  varieties,  among  which 
was  the  Beurre  Diel.  Soon  after  181 5  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Louvain.  He  published  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Electricity,"  (1802,)  "Principles  of  Philosophic 
Chemistry,"  (1818,)  "Fruit-Trees  and  their  Culture," 
(1835,)  and  other  works.  He  was  an  associate  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  Died  in  1842.  "The  constant 
springing  up  of  fine  new  sorts  of  fruit  in  the  United 
States,"  says  Downing,  "is  given  with  much  apparent 
force  as  a  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  the  Van  Mons 
theory." 

See  QuETEt.ET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  J.  B.  van  Mons,"  1843; 
J.  S.  Stas,  "Notice  sur  J.  B.  van  Mons,"  1843. 

Mons,  van,  (Theodore,)  a  jurist,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Brussels  in  i8oi.  He  published 
several  legal  works. 

Mon'sell,  (John  Samuel  Bewley,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
poet  and  clergyman,  born  at  Londonderry,  Ireland,  March 
2,  181 1.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in 
1832,  and  became  a  presbyter  of  the  Churcii  of  England. 
Died  at  Guildford,  Surrey,  April  9,  1875.  He  published 
various  works,  but  is  chiefly  known  for  his  hymns. 

Monselet,  mAN'seh-iy,  (Charles,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  at  Nantes  in  1825.  He  wrote,  besides  various 
other  works,  "  Statues  et  Statuettes,"  (1851,)  and  "  Figu- 
rines Parisiennes,"  (1854.)    Died  May  19,  1888. 

Mon'sell,  (William,)  M.P.,  was  born  in  Limerick 
county,  Ireland,  in  1812.  He  was  appointed  a  privy 
councillor  in  1855,  president  of  the  board  of  health  in 
1857,  was  vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade  a  few 
months  in  1866,  and  became  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies  in  December,  1868.  He  was  postmaster-general, 
1871-73,  and  in  1873  received  the  title  of  Baron  Emly. 

Monsiau,  mdN'se-o',  (Nicolas  Andr6,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  worked  with 
remarkable  facility.     Died  in  1837. 

Monsignori,  mon-s6n-yo'ree,  (Francesco,)  some- 
times called  BoNSiGNORi,  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Verona  in  1455.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Man- 
tegna,  and  worked  mostly  at  Mantua.     Died  in  15 19. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Monsigny,  mAN'sin'ye',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a 
French  composer,  born  at  Artois  in  1729.  He  produced, 
besides  other  operas,  "  Le  Maitre  en  Droit,"  and  "  Le 
Cadi  dupe,"  (1760,)  the  comic  operas  of  "The  King  and 
the  Farmer"  and  "  Rose  and  Colas,"  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  (1813.)     Died  in  1817. 

See  F)^Tis,  "  Biograpliie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  Quatre- 
wfeRE  DE  QuiNCV,  "  filoje  de  Monsigny,"  i8i8;  Pierre  HioouiN, 
"Notice  historique  sur  P.  A.  Monsigny,"  1821. 

Mon'son,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1569,  served  with 
distinction  against  the  Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  French, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Naval  Tracts,"  which  were  published  in 
Churchill's  "Collection  of  Voyages."     Died  in  1643. 

See  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  British  Admirals  ;"  J.  Barrow,  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Monson,  (William  John,)  Lord,  an  English  peer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  1796.  He  entered  the  House  of 
Lords  in  1841.     Died  in  1862. 

Monstrelet,  de,  deh  m6N'streh-l.V,  (Enguerrand,) 
a  French  chronicler,  born  about  1390,  wrote  an  account 
of  the  wars  of  his  time  between  the  factions  of  Armagnac 
and  Burgundy.  His  "Chronicles,"  beginning  in  1400 
and  brought  down  to  1444,  fill  the  space  between  the 
histories  of  Froissart  and  Comines,  and  are  highly 
esteemed  for  their  accuracy  and  the  perspicuity  and 
simplicity  of  their  style.     Died  in  1453. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Montagna,  mon-tan'yS,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  bom  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1460-1500,  and 
studied  under  Andrea  Mantegna.  Among  his  master- 
pieces we  may  name  the  "  Madonna  on  a  Throne  with 
Saint  Andrew  and  other  Saints,"  at  the  Museum  of 
Milan. 

Montagna,  (Benede-tio,)  an  Italian  engraver,  a 
relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Vicenza  about  1458 ; 
died  in  1530. 


Montagne,  miN'ttiV,  (Jean  Francois  Camille,)  a 
French  botanist,  born  at  Vaudoy  in  1784.  Having 
studied  medicine,  he  was  appointed  in  1815  surgeon-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  Murat.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1852,  and  in  1858  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "Archives  de  Botanique"  and  to  other 
scientific  journals  a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on 
the  Cryptogamia,  among  which  we  may  name  "Notice 
of  the  Cryptogamous  Plants  recently  discovered  io 
France."     Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Montagny,  miN'tSn'ye',  (Etienne,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor,  born  at  Saint-£tienne  in  1816.  He  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  for  a  statue  of  Saint  Louis,  in  1859. 

M6n'ta-gu,  (Basil,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1770,  was  a  natural  son  of 
John  Montagu,  Earl  of  Sandwich.  Having  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1798.  He 
practised  with  ability  and  success,  and  extended  his 
reputation  by  numerous  legal  publications,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  a  "  Digest  of  the  Bankrupt  Laws, 
with  a  Collection  of  the  Statutes  and  of  the  Cases  de- 
termined upon  that  Subject,"  (1805.)  He  was  associated 
with  Romilly  and  Wilberforce  in  successful  efTort  to 
abolish  hanging  for  forgery  and  for  certain  other  crimes. 
In  1825  he  produced  a  valuable  edition  of  Lord  Bacon's 
works,  on  which  he  expended  the  labour  of  many  years ; 
also  a  "  Life  of  Bacon,"  in  reference  to  which  Alacaulay 
says,  "About  his  merit  as  a  collector  of  materials  there 
can  be  no  dispute ;  and  we  are  indebted  to  his  minute 
and  accurate  researches  for  the  means  of  refuting  what 
we  cannot  but  consider  his  errors."  He  published 
"  Essays  and  Selections,"  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  1851. 

Montagu,  (Charles.)     See  Halifax,  Earl  of. 

Montagu,  (Edward.)    See  Manchester,  Earl  of. 

Montagu,  (Edward  Wortley,)  son  of  Lady  Mary 
Montagu,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  17 13. 
At  an  early  age  he  manifested  a  propensity  to  low  vices, 
and  great  eccentricity  of  character.  When  placed  at 
school  he  repeatedly  ran  away,  and  at  length  hired  him- 
self as  a  cabin-boy  in  a  ship  bound  for  Spain.  Being 
discovered  and  sent  back  to  his  family,  he  travelled  soon 
after  on  the  continent.  After  his  return  he  was  member 
of  two  successive  Parliaments.  He  next  went  to  Italy, 
where  he  was  converted  to  Catholicism,  and  not  long 
after  visited  Egypt,  and  there  professed  Mohammedanism. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Rise  and  Fall 
of  Ancient  Republics."     Died  in  1776. 

See  "Memoirs  of  E.  Wortley  Montagu,"  2  vols.,  1778;  "Auto 
biography  of  Edward  Wortley  Montagu,"  London,  i86g;  Nichols 
"  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Montagu,  (Henry.)     See  Manchester,  Earl  of. 

Montagu,  (Lady  Mary  Wortley,)  a  celebrated 
English  writer,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  about  1690. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Evelyn  Pierrepont,  Duke  of 
Kingston,  and  Lady  Mary  Fielding,  and  cousin  to  the 
novelist  Henry  Fielding.  She  was  early  distinguished 
for  the  brilliancy  of  her  intellect  and  her  rapid  acquisition 
of  knowledge.  In  1712  she  was  married  to  Edward 
Wortley  Montagu,  Esq.,  and  a  few  years  after,  on  his 
appointment  to  a  place  in  the  treasury,  accompanied 
him  to  London.  Here  she  attracted  general  admiration 
by  her  wit  and  remarkable  beauty,  and  became  intimate 
with  Addison,  Pope,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of 
the  time.  In  17 16  she  accompanied  her  husband,  on  his 
being  appointed  ambassador,  to  Constantinople.  During 
her  residence  of  two  years  at  the  Porte,  she  wrote  to 
her  friends  in  England  a  series  of  Letters  containing 
shrewd  and  lively  descriptions  of  Oriental  life  and  man- 
ners. On  her  return  to  England  she  became  the  means 
of  introducing  the  Turkish  practice  of  inoculation,  having 
had  the  courage  to  have  the  experiment  first  tried  on 
her  own  son.  The  next  retnarkable  event  in  Lady  Mary's 
life  is  her  quarrel  with  Pope,  the  cause  of  which  is  not 
with  certainty  known.  In  1739  she  left  England  for 
Italy,  where  she  resided  upwards  of  twenty  years.  She 
returned  in  1761,  and  died  the  following  year.  Besides 
the  son  inentioned  above,  she  left  a  daughter  Mary,  who 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Bute,  minister  of  George  III. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  it,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MONTAGUE 


1751 


MONTALEMBER  T 


Lady  Mary  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  of  which  the 
"Town  Eclogues"  only  are  entitled  to  much  notice. 
Her  literary  reputation  is  owing  chiefly  to  her  "  Let- 
ters," which  are  ranked  among  the  finest  specimens  of 
epistolary  composition. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  Costello; 
Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1S03,  and  April,  iSo4,(by  Jekfrey  ;) 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1837;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  July,  1868,  ("Historical  Sketches  of  the  Reign  of  George  H.  ;") 
"  Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1837  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May 
and  June,  1763  et  seq. 

Montague,  mSn'ta-gu,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Northainptonshire.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in 
1539,  and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1546. 
He  was  one  of  the  counsellors  designated  in  the  will  of 
Henry  VHL  to  administer  the  government  during  the 
minority  of  Edward  VL     Died  in  1556. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies  of  England;"  Collins,  "Peerage  of 
England." 

Montague,  (Edward,)  Earl  of  Sandwich,  an  English 
naval  commander,  born  in  1625.  He  served  for  a  time 
on  the  side  of  the  Parliament,  but  subsequently  went 
over  to  the  royalists,  and  assisted  General  Monk  in  the 
restoration  of  Charles  H.  For  this  service  he  was  suc- 
cessively created  an  earl,  a  knight  of  the  Garter,  mem- 
ber of  the  privy  council,  and  admiral  of  the  Narrow 
Seas.  On  the  renewal  of  the  war  with  Holland,  in  1672, 
Lord  Sandwich  commanded  the  squadron  under  the 
Duke  of  York  against  De  Ruyter,  and  perished  in  the 
burning  of  the  Royal  James. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  tlie  Admirals;"  Clarendon,  "Me- 
moirs." 

Montague,  (Elizabeth,)  a  celebrated  English  lady, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1720.  Her  early  studies  were 
directed  by  Dr.  Conyers  Middleton,  who  was  connected 
with  her  family.  In  1742  she  was  married  to  Edward 
Montague,  Esq.  After  the  death  of  her  husband,  in 
1775,  she  resided  in  Portman  Square,  London,  where 
she  numbered  among  her  visitors  the  most  eminent  men 
of  the  day,  including  Burke,  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and 
Reynolds.  She  was  also  intimate  with  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Carter  and  Hannah  More.  Mrs.  Montague  contributed 
several  "Dialogues  of  the  Dead"  to  those  published  by 
Lord  Lyttelton  ;  but  her  principal  work  is  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare,"  which  ob- 
tained for  her  a  high  reputation.  Li  this  production 
she  has  ably  refuted  the  false  charges  of  Voltaire  against 
the  great  English  poet.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  the  literary  society  called  the  "Blue-Stocking 
Club."  Her  correspondence  was  published  after  her 
death.     Died  in  1800. 

See  Mrs.  Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England," 
etc.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1809  ;  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1813  ;  "  Mrs.  Montague  and  her  Friends,"  in  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  January,  1848  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1814. 

Montague,  (George,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Wiltshire.  In  1802  he  published  an  "Ornithological 
Dictionary,  or  Synopsis  of  British  Birds,"  and  soon  after 
his  "Testacea  Britannica,"  or  "Natural  History  of 
British  Shells,"  illustrated.  Both  of  these  works  are 
highly  esteemed.  Montague  was  a  member  of  the  Lin- 
naean  Society  of  London.     Died  in  181 5. 

Montague,  (John,)  Earl  of  Sandwich,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  London  in  1718.  He  was  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty  in  1749  and  1750,  and  obtained  the 
same  office  in  1763.  He  supported  the  administration 
of  Lord  North,  under  whom  he  served  as  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty  from  1771  to  17S2.  He  was  inore  deficient 
in  principle  than  in  capacity.     Died  in  1792. 

See  J   Cooke.  "  Memoir  of  the  Earl  of  Sandwich." 

Montague,  (Richard,)  an  English  scholar  and  theo- 
logian.    See  Mountagu. 

Mon'ta-gue,  (William  Lewis,)  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  at  Belchertown,  Massachusetts,  April  6,  1831. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1855,  and  after 
1862  held  the  professorship  of  modern  languages  in  that 
institution.  His  publications  include  Spanish  and  Italian 
grammars, "  Introduction  to  Italian  Literature,"  and  other 
works. 


Montaigne,  mfln-tan',  de,  [Fr,  pron.  deh  mdN't^fl',] 
(Michel  Eyquem— i'kSN',)  a  celebrated  French  phi- 
losopher and  essayist,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Mon- 
taigne,  in  Perigord,  on  the  28th  of  February,  1533.  His 
father,  who  was  one  of  the  noblesse,  placed  him,  whi*e 
very  young,  under  the  tuition  of  masters  who  were 
ignorant  of  French,  and  who  conversed  with  him  only  in 
Latin,  which  thus  became  his  natural  language.  At  the 
age  of  thirteen  he  had  finished  his  studtes  at  a  college 
of  Bordeaux.  Having  studied  law,  he  became  a  judge 
at  Bordeaux  about  1554.  In  1565  or  1566  he  married, 
par  convenance,  Fran9oise  de  la  Chassaigne.  In  1580  he 
produced  his  celebrated  "Essays,"  which  have  enjoyed 
an  almost  unparalleled  popularity.  Soon  after  that  date 
he  made  a  tour  in  Germany,  Italy,  etc.,  of  which  he 
wrote  a  Journal,  He  often  visited  Paris,  in  order  to 
perform  his  duties  as  gentleman  of  the  king's  chamber. 
From  1581  to  1585  he  was  mayor  of  Bordeaux.  During 
the  civil  war  of  the  League  his  impartial  moderation  did 
not  exempt  him  from  danger  and  persecution.  He  died 
in  September,  1592.  "The  Essays  of  Montaigne,"  says 
Hallam,  "make  in  several  respects  an  epoch  in  litera- 
ture, less  on  account  of  their  real  importance  than  of 
their  influence  on  the  taste  and  opinions  of  Europe,  .  .  , 
No  prose  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century  has  been  so 
generally  read,  nor,  probably,  given  so  much  delight. 
Whatever  may  be  our  estimate  of  Montaigne  as  a  phi- 
losopher,— a  name  which  he  was  far  from  arrogating, — 
there  will  be  but  one  opinion  of  the  felicity  and  bright- 
ness of  his  genius."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  "The  author  of  these  '  Essais,' "  says  Leo 
Joubert,  "is  certainly  the  most  independent  spirit  that 
ever  existed, — independent  without  revolt,  and  detached 
from  the  systems  of  others  without  having  any  system 
of  his  own.  .  .  .  We  recognize  in  his  'Essays'  a  nature 
well  endowed,  not  heroic,  perhaps,  but  generous,  exqui- 
sitely sensible,  not  aspiring  to  the  sublime,  capable  of 
devotion,  and  incapable  of  a  base  act, — in  fine,  a  model 
of  what  we  may  call  average  virtue,"  (la  vertu  moycnne.) 
("  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.")  Sprightly  humour, 
independence,  na'ivetS,  and  originality  are  the  character- 
istics of  his  mind  ;  and  his  style  is  admired  for  its  graceful 
simplicity.  His  works  are  highly  seasoned  with  his  own 
individuality,  and  afford  much  insight  into  his  character. 

"  The  Essays,"  says  Emerson,  "  are  an  entertaining 
soliloquy  on  every  random  topic  that  comes  into  his 
head, — treating  everything  without  ceremony,  yet  with 
masculine  sense.  There  have  been  men  with  deeper 
insight,  but,  one  would  say,  never  a  man  with  such 
abundance  of  thoughts :  he  is  never  dull,  never  insin- 
cere, and  has  the  genius  to  make  the  reader  care  for  all 
that  he  cares  for.  .  ,  ,  This  book  of  Montaigne  the 
world  has  endorsed  by  translating  it  into  all  tongues 
and  printing  seventy-five  editions  of  it  in  Europe, — and 
that,  too,  a  circulation  somewhat  chosen,  namely,  among 
courtiers,  soldiers,  princes,  men  of  the  world,  and  men 
of  wit  and  generosity."  (See  article  "  Montaigne,"  in 
"  Representative  Men.") 

See  J.  RouHiER,  "  M^moires  sur  la  Vie  de  Montaigne  ;"  Villb- 
MAIN,  "  filoge  de  Montaigne,"  1812;  Payen,  "Notice  sur  Mon- 
taigne," 1837;  GrUn,  "La  Vie  publique  de  M.  Montaigne,"  1853; 
Bayle  Saint  John,  "  Montaigne  the  Essayist,"  1S5S  ;  Dk  THOtj, 
"  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;" 
VicTORiN  Fabre,  "  filoge  de  Montaigne,"  1813:  "Nouvelle  Bic 
graphie  G^n^rale  :"  Mrs.  Shei.ley,  "  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent 
French  Writers;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1820;)  "Quar- 
terly Review"  for  October,  1856;  "Westminster  Review"  for  July, 
1838. 

Montalbani,  mon-tSl-bd'nee,  (Ovidio,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Bologna  about  1602,  became  succes- 
sively professor  of  physical  science,  mathematics,  and 
medicine  in  the  university  of  his  native  city.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  scientific  works  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Bumaldi.  Thunberg  gave  the  name  of  Bumaldia  to 
a  genus  of  Japanese  plants.     Died  in  1671. 

See    Ghimni,  "Teatro    d'Uomini  letterati;"    Nic^RON,  "  M^- 

molres. " 

Montalembert,  (Andr6.)     See  E.ssS. 

Montalembert,  de,  deh  mdN'tS'lflN'baiR',  (Charles 
Forhes,)  Comte,  a  distinguished  statesman,  orator,  and 
political  writer,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  London 
in  1810,  was  a  son  of  Marc  Rene  Anne  Marie,  noticed 
below.     His  mother  was  Miss  Forbes,  a  Scottish  lady. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,g7iitural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=-See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTALEMBER  T 


1752 


MONTAUSIER 


He  studied  in  Paris,  and  in  1830  became  associated  with 
Lamennais  and  Lacordaiie  as  editor  of  "  L'Avenir,"  in 
which  post  he  was  conspicuous  as  an  eloquent  champion 
of  democracy  and  the  Catholic  Church.  He  entered  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  in  183 1,  and  married,  in  1843,  Made- 
moiselle de  Merode,  a  Belgian  lady.  Devoted  to  the 
Liberal  Catholic  party,  of  which  he  was  regarded  as  the 
most  eminent  leader,  he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  re- 
ligious toleration,  popular  rights,  and  general  education. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  184S, 
and  in  1849  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in 
which  he  op])Osed  Victor  Hugo  in  several  brilliant  efforts 
of  oratory,  especially  during  the  debate  on  the  revision 
of  the  constitution,  in  June,  185 1.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1852,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
legislative  body  from  1852  to  1857,  during  which  period 
lie  represented  the  opposition  almost  alone.  In  1858  he 
was  condemned  to  a  fine,  and  imprisonment  for  six 
months,  for  a  political  essay  entitled  "A  Debate  on  India 
in  the  English  Parliament;"  but  the  penalties  were  not 
actually  inflicted.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"History  of  Saint  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  (1836,)  "On 
Vandalism  and  Catholicism  in  Art,"  (1839,)  "The  Po- 
litical Future  of  England,"  (1855,)  "The  Monks  of  the 
West,  from  Saint  Benedict  to  Saint  Bernard,"  (i86o,)  and 
"The  Free  Church  in  the  Free  State,"  ("L'Eglise  libre 
dans  I'Etat  libre,"  1863.)  He  sympathized  with  the 
Unionists  in  the  American  civil  war.  In  a  letter  to  an 
English  friend,  dated  December,  1S69,  he  wrote,  "Tem- 
poral despotism  has  faded  away  in  a  most  unexpected 
manner;  and  I  sincerely  hope  spiritual  despotism  will 
follow,  sooner  or  later.  ...  I  am  more  convinced  than 
ever  that  freedom  in  the  sphere  of  religion,  still  more 
than  in  that  of  politics,  is  the  vital  condition  of  truth." 
A  great  sensation  was  produced  by  his  letter  dated  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1870,  in  which  he  protested — almost  with  his 
latest  breath — against  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility, 
and  those  ultramontanes  "who  have  immolated  justice 
and  truth,  reason  and  history,  in  one  great  holocaust 
to  the  idol  they  have  raised  up  for  themselves  at  the 
Vatican."     Diei  in  March,  1S70. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiK,  "  M.  de  Montalembert,  par  iin  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1841  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  Nettement, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Littdrature  Fran^aise ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ne- 
rale;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1856,  and  July,  i86i  ;  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  October,  i85i  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  ior 
July.  1868;  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1861  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1870;  Mrs.  Oliphant,  "Memoirs  of  Count 
Montalembert,"  1872. 

Montalembert,  de,  (Marc  Ren6,)  Marquis,  a 
French  general  and  distinguished  military  engineer, 
born  at  Angouleme  in  17 14.  His  family  was  noble,  and 
had  produced  several  distinguished  captains.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1732,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1747.  In  the  Seven  Years'  war  (1756-63) 
he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  the  Russian  and  Swedish 
armies,  of  whose  operations  he  rendered  an  official  ac- 
count to  the  French  ministry.  He  published  in  1776  an 
extensive  and  important  work,  named  "Perpendicular 
Fortification,  or  the  Defensive  Art  superior  to  the  Offen- 
sive," (II  vols.)  He  wrote  several  memoirs  inserted  in 
the  "Collection"  of  the  Academy,  and  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1800. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Eloge  historique  du 
G^n^ral  Montalembert,"  1801. 

Montalembert,  de,  (Marc  Ren6  Anne  Marie,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  nobleman,  born  in  Paris  in  1777,  emi- 
grated in  1792.  From  1800  to  1814  he  served  in  the  Eng- 
lish army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-coloneh 
He  returned  to  France  in  1814,  and  in  1819  was  created 
a  peer  of  France.  Soon  after  that  date  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Denmark,  but,  having  offended  the  ministers 
by  a  liberal  speech  in  the  Chamber,  he  was  deprived  of 
that  post.  From  1826  to  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was 
minister  from  France  to  the  court  of  Sweden.  Died  in 
183 1.  His  eldest  son,  Charles  Forbes,  noticed  above, 
was  an  eminent  orator. 

See  De  Coi'rceli.es,  "  G^n^alogie  de  la  MaJson  de  Montalem- 
bert." 

Montalivet,  de,  deh  m6N'ti'le'v<y,  (Jean  Pierre 
Bachasson — bS'sht's6N',)  Comte,  a  French  states- 
man, born  near  Sarreguemines  in  1766.     He  was  made 


councillor  of  state  in  1805,  and  minister  of  the  interior  in 
1809.  He  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers  under  the 
ministry  of  Decazes,  in  1819.     Died  in  1823. 

Montalivet,  de,  (Marthe  Camille  Bachasson,) 
Comte,  a  French  minister  of  state,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Valence  in  iSoi.  He  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior  in  November,  1830,  and  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  March,  1831.  He  served  as  minister 
of  the  interior  from  1837  to  1839.     Died  Jan.  4,  1880. 

Montalto.    See  Danedi,  (Giovanni  Stefano.) 

Montalvan,  de,  di  mon-til-vSn',  (Juan  Perez,)  an 
eminent  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at  Madrid  in  1602,  was 
a  friend  and  disciple  of  Lope  de  Vega.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  comedies  entitled  "  There  is  no  Life  like 
Honour,"  ("  No  hay  Vida  como  la  Honra,")  "  The 
Lovers  of  Teruel,"  ("Los  Amantes  de  Teruel,")  and 
"  La  Lindona  de  Galicia."     Died  in  1638. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature :"  A.  F.  von 
SCHACK,  "  Geschichte  der  dramatischen  Literatur  in  Spanien." 

Montalvo.    See  Galvez,  (Luis  de.) 

Montan.     See  Montanus. 

Montanari,  mon-tJ-n^'ree,  (Geminiano,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Modena  in  1632,  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Bologna,  and  in  1674  filled  the  chair  ot 
astronomy  at  Padua.  He  wrote  a  number  of  scientific 
treatises,  and  is  said  to  have  discovered  the  method  of 
determining  the  height  of  mountains  by  the  barometer. 
He  was  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  Cassini.    Died  in  1687. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vita  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Montanelli,  mon-tinel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
jurist  and  litterateur,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1813,  became 
professor  of  commercial  law  at  Pisa  in  1839.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  lyric  poems  and  dramatic  works. 
Died  in  1862. 

Montano,  mon-tJ'no,  [Lat.  Monta'nus,]  (Giam- 
battista,)  an  Italian  physician,  of  high  reputation  in  his 
time,  born  at  Verona  in  1488.  He  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  medicine  at  Padua,  and  published  a  number 
of  medical  works  in  Latin.     Died  in  1551. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Montano,  mon-tJ'no,  (Reginald  Gonsalvo,)  a 
Spanish  Protestant  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  the  Protestant  martyr  Juan  Ponco 
de  Leon.  He  published  an  account  of  the  Inquisition, 
said  to  be  the  earliest  on  record, 

Montanus.    See  Arias  Montanus. 

Montanus.    See  Montano,  (Giambattista.) 

Mon-ta'nus,  [Fr.  Montan,  m6N't5N',]  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Montanists,  was  a  native  of  Phrygia,  and 
flourished  in  the  second  century.  He  pretended  to  be 
divinely  inspired,  and  that  he  was  commissioned  to  com- 
plete the  reformation  which  the  Saviour  had  begun  on 
earth.  Among  those  who  embraced  this  delusion  were 
Tertullian  and  Theodotus. 

See  EusEBius,  "  Ecclesiastical  History ;"  Ploquet,  "  Diction- 
naire  des  H^r^sies." 

Montarroyo,  de,  di  mon-tJr-ro'yo,  (Joz6  Freire,) 
a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1670.  He  pub- 
lished several  historical  works,  and  commenced  an  annual 
compilation,  entitled  "  Historia  annual  do  Mundo  das 
Gazetas  de  Lisboa,"  (1714-58.)     Died  in  1730. 

Montauban,  mAN'to'bdN',  a  famous  French  captain 
of  buccaneers,  was  born  about  1650.  He  inflicted  great 
damage  on  the  Spaniards  on  the  coasts  of  America. 
Died  in  1700. 

Montausier,  de,  deh  miN'to'ze-i',  (Charles  de 
Salnte-Maure — d?h  siNt  moR,)  Due',  a  French  noble- 
man and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1610.  He  was  loyal 
to  the  king  during  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde.  He  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  governor  to  the  dauphin,  in 
1688.  In  conjunction  with  Iluet,  he  superintended  the 
editions  of  the  classics  called  "adusum  Delphini,"  ("for 
the  use  of  the  dauphin.")  He  was  distinguished  for  the 
integrity  of  his  character,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  original  of  Moli^re's  "Alceste"  in  "  Le  Misanthrope." 
He  died  in  1690,  and  his  funeral  sermon  was  preached 
by  Flechier. 

See  Petit,  "  Viedu  Diicde  Montausier,"  1729;  Puget  dk  Saint- 
Pierre,  "  Histoire  du  Due  de  Montausier,"  17S4;  Am^d^e  Roux, 
"  Montausier,  sa  Vie  et  son  Temps,"  i860;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gin.«rale." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  %,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  g6Bd;  x\6b\\\ 


MONTA  USIER 


1753 


MONTE  MA  YOR 


Montausier,  de,  (Julie  Lucine  d'Angennes — 
dfiN'zh^n',)  DuCHESSE,  the  beautiful  and  accomplished 
wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1607.  She  was 
a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Marquise  de  Rambouillet, 
(see  Rambouillet,)  and  was  an  ornament  of  the  bril- 
liant society  of  authors  and  wits  who  met  in  the  Hotel 
Rambouillet.  She  was  married  in  1645  ^o  the  Duke 
of  Montausier,  who,  aided  by  several  poets  and  artists, 
had  composed  the  famous  "  Garland  for  Julie,"  ("  Guir- 
lande  de  Julie.")     Died  in  1671. 

See  A.  Roux,  "Montausier,  sa  Vie  et  son  Temps,"  i860;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Montbcirey,  de,  deh  mAw'bt'ri',  (Alexandre  Marie 
L60NOR  de  Saint-Mauris,)  Prince,  a  French  officer, 
born  at  Kesan9on  in  1732.  He  became  mar^chal-de- 
camp  in  1761,  and  was  minister  of  war  from  September, 
1777,  till  December,  1780.     Died  in  1796. 

Moutbel,  de,  deh  mAw'b^l',  (Guillaume  Isidore 
Baron,)  Comte,  a  French  politician  and  royalist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1787.  He  became  minister  of  public 
instruction  under  Polignac  in  August,  1829,  minister  of 
the  interior  in  November  of  that  year,  and  minister  of 
finance  in  May,  1830.     Died  in  1861. 

Montbeliard  or  Montbeillard.     See  Gu^neau. 

Moutboissier,  de,  deh  m6N'bwJ'se-4',  (Pierre,) 
called  Pierre  le  V^n^rable,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
writer,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1092.  He  was  chosen 
abbe  of  Cluny  in  1122.  A  translation  of  the  Koran  was 
made  under  his  auspices.     Died  in  11 56. 

See  "  Gallia  Cliristiana ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Montbret,  de.     See  Coquebert. 

Montbrun,  m6N'bRuN',  (Alexa.ndre  du  Puy,)  Mar- 
quis de  Saint-Andre,  a  French  general,  born  in  1600. 
He  entered  the  French  army  as  colonel  in  1638.  He 
declined  the  baton  of  marshal,  which  was  offered  to  him 
if  he  would  abjure  Protestantism.     Died  in  1673. 

Montbrun,  (Charles  du  Puy,)  a  French  captain 
and  zealous  Protestant,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Gap  about 
1530.  He  performed  several  daring  exploits  in  the  civil 
wars.     He  was  captured  and  executed  in  1575. 

See  Gui  Allard,  "Vie  du  brave  Montbrun,"  1675  ;  J.  C.  Mar- 
tin, "  Histoire  de  Charles  Dupuy,"  1816. 

Montbrun,  (Louis  Pierre,)  Comte,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Florensac  in  1770,  served  with  distinction 
at  Eckmiihl,  April,  1809,  and  at  Raab,  June,  1809.  He 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa,  September,  1812. 

Montcalm  (mSnt-kim')  de  Saint- Veran,  de,  [Fr. 
pron.  miN'ktlm'  deh  siN  vi'rftN',]  (Louis  Joseph,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  near  Nimes  in  17 12. 
Having  previously  served  in  several  campaigns  in  France 
and  the  Netherlands,  he  was  sent  in  1756  to  defend  the 
French  colonies  in  North  America.  He  gained  a  victory 
over  the  English  forces  commanded  by  Lord  Aber- 
crombie  in  1758,  but  was  defeated  by  General  Wolfe 
at  Quebec,  and  mortally  wounded  in  the  engagement, 
(1759.)     (See  Wolfe.) 

See  Montgomery  Martin,  "  History  of  the  British  Colonies;" 
Garneau,  "  Histoir*  du  Canada." 

Montchal.    See  Barentin-Montchal. 

Montchal,  de,  deh  m6N'shSl',  (Charles,)  a  French 
prelate,  born  at  Annonay  in  1589,  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Toulouse  in  1627.  He  was  an  accomplished  scholar, 
and  a  generous  patron  of  literary  men,  and  was  the 
author  of  "Memoires,"  (2  vols.,  1718.)     Died  in  1651. 

Montchrestien,  de,  deh  mAN'kRA'te4  n',  ( Antoine,) 
a  French  poet  and  economist,  born  at  Falaise  about  1570. 
He  wrote  several  dramas,  etc.  He  joined  the  Protestants 
in  revolt  against  the  king,  and  was  killed  in  162 1. 

Monteagle,  mftnt-ee'gel,  of  Brandon,  (Thomas 
Spring  Rice,)  Lord,  a  distinguished  statesman  of  the 
Whig  party,  born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1790.  He 
represented  Limerick  in  Parliament  from  1820  to  1832, 
having  been  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1830. 
He  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  the  Reform  and  Test 
Acts,  and  other  liberal  measures.  He  became  chancel- 
lor of  the  exchequer  in  1835,  retired  from  that  office  in 
1839,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  the  same  year. 
Died  in  1866. 

Montebello.    See  Lannes. 

Montecatino,mon-ti-ka-tee'no,  (Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian  philosopher,  born   at    Ferrara   in   1536,  published 


commentaries  on  the  "  Politics"  and  "  Physics"  of  Aris 
totle.     Died  in  1599. 

See  TiKABoscHi,  "Storia  dellaLetteratura  Italiana." 
Montecuccoli,  mon-ti-kook'ko-lee,  written  also 
Montecucculi,  (Raimondo,)  Count,  one  of  the  great- 
est military  commanders  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Modena, 
in  Italy,  in  1608.  Having  entered  the  Austrian  service, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of  1637  against 
the  Swedes;  but  he  was  subsequently  defeated  by  the 
Swedish  general  Banner,  (1639,)  and  made  prisoner. 
He  was  released  after  two  years'  captivity,  and  in  1664 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Saint  Gothard, 
for  which  he  was  made  lieutenant-general.  He  was  sent 
in  1673  to  oppose  the  celebrated  Turenne  ;  but,  although 
consummate  skill  was  displayed  by  both  generals  in 
their  manoeuvres,  no  decisive  battle  was  fought.  Mon- 
tecucculi regarded  this  his  last  campaign  as  the  most 
glorious  of  all,  since  he  had  encountered  Turenne  and 
Conde  without  being  defeated.  He  died  in  1681,  leaving 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Art  of  War,"  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed. He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Naturalists  at 
Vienna.  He  had  been  created  by  the  King  of  Spain  a 
knight  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
principality  of  Amalfi. 

See  Pakadisi,  "  Elopiio  del  Conte  Aronlecucculi,"  1776;  Pbzzl, 
"Lebensbeb^hreibung  Montecucculi's,"  1792;  "R.  Montecucculi't 
Leben,"  Leipsic,  1792. 

MontecucculL    See  Montecuccoli. 

Montefalconius.     See  Montkaucon. 

Montefeltro,  di,  de  mon-ti-f§l'tro,  (Federigo,> 
Count,  and  first  Duke  of  Urbino,  was  born  about  1410. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  patron  of  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  and  eloquent  princes  of  his 
time.  As  an  ally  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Naples,  he  waged 
war  against  Sigismund  Malatesta  about  1456-60.  In 
1467  he  was  chosen  to  command  the  army  of  Florence, 
and  fought  an  indecisive  battle  with  the  Venetian  general 
Coleoni.     Died  in  1482. 

Montefiore,  mon-ti-fe-o'ri,  (Sir  Moses,)  an  English 
Jew,  distinguished  for  his  philanthropy,  was  born  Octo- 
ber 24,  1784.  He  became  sheriff  of  London  in  1837, 
and  was  knighted  the  same  year.  In  1846  he  was  made 
a  baronet.  He  performed  missions  to  several  foreign 
countries  for  the  relief  of  people  who  were  oppressed 
on  account  of  religion,  and  founded  a  Jewish  college  at 
Ramsgate  in  1867.    Died  July  28,  1SS5. 

Monteggia,  mon-tSd'jl,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Laveno  in  1762,  wrote  several 
treatises,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Institutes  of  Surgery," 
is  highly  commended  by  Scarpa.     Died  in  1S15. 

Montegut,  m6N'ti'gii',  (Emile,)  a  French  critic  and 
journalist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Limoges  in  1826. 
He  became  in  1857  associate  editor  of  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes." 

Monteil,  mAN'til'  or  niSN'ti'ye,  (Amans  Alexis,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Rodez  in  1769.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  a  "  History  of  the  French,"  etc.,  ("  His- 
toire des  Fran9ais  des  divers  Etats,"  3d  edition,  5  vols., 
1848,)  which  the  French  Academy  judged  worthy  to 
share  the  Gobert  prize  with  .A.ugustin  Thierry.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Monteith,  mon-teeth',  or  Monteth,  (Robert,)  a 
Scottish  historian,  resided  in  Paris,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  published,  in  French,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Troubles  of  Great  Britain,"  which  was  trans- 
lated into  English.     Died  about  1660. 

Montelupo.     See  Baccio  da  Monte-Lupo. 

Montemagno,  da,  di  mon-ti-mSn'yo,  (Buonac- 
CORSO,)  an  Italian  poet  of  the  fourteenth  century,  wrote 
sonnets  which  are  greatly  admired  for  the  elegance  and 
purity  of  their  style. 

Montemayor,  de,  di  mon-ti-mi-y6R',  (Jorge.)  a 
Portuguese  poet  and  novelist,  born  near  Coimbra  about 
152c,  was  patronized  at  the  court  of  Philip  II.  of  Sjiain. 
His  principal  work  is  a  pastoral  romance  entitled  "  Diana 
in  Love,"  ("  Diana  enamorada,")  which  is  written  in 
Spanish.  It  is  praised  by  Cervantes  in  his  "  Don 
Quixote,"  and  has  been  many  times  translated.  Mon- 
temayor is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Spanish  pas- 


■e  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h.  k.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTEMOLIN 


1754 


MONTEZUMA 


toral ;  and  "  his  prose,"  says  Bouterwek,  "  has  served  as 
a  model  to  all  romance-writers  of  that  kind." 

See  Bouterwek,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole :" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Ticknor,  "History 
of  Spanish  Literature;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Montemolin.  See  Carlos,  or,  more  fully,  Carlos 
Luis  Maria  Fernando. 

Montemont,  m6N'tym6N',  (Albert,)  a  French  poet 
and  writer  of  books  of  travel,  born  at  Remiremont  in 
1788.  Among  his  works  is  "Letters  on  Astronomy,"  in 
verse  and  prose,  (4  vols.,  1823.)     Died  about  1862. 

Monten,  mon'ten,  (Dietrich,)  a  German  battle- 
painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1799.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  we  may  name  "The  Death  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus."     Died  in  1843. 

Montenault.     See  Monthenault. 

Montepin,  de,  deh  miN'ti'p^N',  (Xavier  Aymon,) 
a  French  novelist,  born  in  Haute-Saone  about  1820. 
He  produced  several  successful  novels,  one  of  which 
was  condemned  in  a  court  of  law  as  subversive  of  good 
morals. 

Montereau,  (Pierre.)   See  Pierre  de  Montereau. 

Moutesinos,  mon-ti-see'n6s,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  at  Osufia,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ancient 
Peru,"  which  has  been  translated  by  Ternau.x-Compans 
into  French,  under  the  title  of  "  Memoires  historiques 
de  I'ancien  Perou,"  (1849.)     Died  about  1660. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vols.  L  and  ii. 

Montespan,  mon'tes-pin',  de,  fFr.  pron.  deh  m6N'- 
tls'pSN',  (FRANgoisE  Ath^nais  de  Rochechouart — 
deh  rosh'shoo-tR',)  Marquise,  a  French  lady,  of  extra- 
ordinary personal  beauty,  born  in  1641,  was  a  daughter 
of  the  Due  de  MorteniarL  She  was  married  in  1663  to 
the  Marquis  de  Montespan.  She  afterwards  succeeded 
Mademoiselle  de  la  Valliere  as  mistress  of  Louis  XIV. 
She  bore  the  king  eight  children,  among  whom  were  the 
Due  de  Maine,  Louis  Cesar,  the  Comte  de  Vexin,  and 
the  Comte  de  Toulouse,  besides  two  sons  who  died 
young.     Died  in  1707. 

See  Saint-Si.mon',  "Memoires;"  Madame  de  Sevigv^  "  Let- 
ters :"  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Geiierale." 

Montesquieu,  moN't§s'ke-uh',  Baron,  a  grandson 
of  the  following,  was  born  in  1755.  He  served  as  an 
officer,  with  distinction,  in  the  United  States,  (1779-81.) 
In  1792  he  became  a  royalist  emigre.  He  passed  many 
years  in  England,  where  he  died  about  1824. 

Montesquieu,  mSn'tes-ku',  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  m6N'- 
t§s'ke-uh',]  or,  more  fully,  De  la  Brede  et  (deh  It  bnid 
i)  de  Montesquieu,  (Charles  de  Secondat — deh 
seh-k6N'di',)  B.^ron,  a  brilliant,  original,  and  popular 
French  author,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  near  Bor- 
deaux on  the  iSth  of  January,  1689.  In  his  childhood 
he  formed  habits  of  intense  application  to  study,  and 
became  an  insatiable  reader.  He  has  declared  that  he 
never  felt  a  sorrow  which  an  hour's  reading  would  not 
dissipate  or  relieve.  Having  been  educated  for  the  law, 
he  became  a  conseiller,  or  judge,  in  the  parliament  of 
Bordeaux  in  1714,  2i\\d  president  h  mortier  of  the  same  in 
1716.  The  favourite  studies  of  his  mature  powers  were 
historical  and  moral  sciences. 

In  1 721  he  acquired  a  rather  sudden  celebrity  by  his 
"  Persian  Letters,"  a  work  which  combines  the  attractions 
of  romance  with  the  resources  of  rational  philosophy, 
and  presents  profound  and  luminous  views  of  commerce, 
law,  and  social  phenomena.  Its  prodigious  success  was 
due  partly  to  its  spirited,  keen,  and  witty  satire  on  French 
manners,  and  its  brilliant,  piquant  style,  full  of  happy 
reticences  and  unexpected  contrasts.  In  1726  he  sold 
his  office  of  president,  and  in  1728  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He  then  began  a  journey,  in 
which  he  visited  nearly  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  He 
passed  two  years  in  England,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1734  he  produced  an  admired 
work,  "Considerations  on  the  Causes  of  the  Grandeur 
and  Decadence  of  the  Romans,"  the  most  complete 
essay  that  had  appeared  on  that  subject.  He  afterwards 
devoted  fourteen  years  to  the  composition  of  his  greatest 
work,  "The  Spirit  of  Laws,"  ("L'Esprit  des  Lois,"  1748,) 
which  excited  almost  universal  admiration.  In  eighteen 
months  it  ran  through  twenty-two  editions.  In  this 
arduous  enterprise  of  exploring  the  labyrinths  of  history 


and  political  science  he  was  in  advance  of  his  age  as  an 
advocate  of  liberty  and  humanity.  In  reference  to  this 
work,  Voltaire  said,  "The  human  race  had  Inst  its  titles; 
Montesquieu  found  and  restored  them."  He  died  in 
Paris  in  February,  1755.  He  had  married  Mademoiselle 
de  Lartigues  in  1715.  His  personal  character  was  in  a 
high  degree  amiable  and  estimable. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Sl^cle  de  Louis  XIV  et  Louis  XV;"  D'Alem- 
bert,  "Eloge  de  Montesquieu;"  Ville.main,  "  Eloge  de  Montes- 
quieu," 1S26;  FRA.sgois  RiAUX,  "Notice  sur  Montesquieu,"  1849; 
Si Ai;pERTi;is,  "  Eioge  de  Montesquieu,"  175s;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Gen^rale." 

Montesquiou,  de,  deh  m6N't?s'ke-oo',  (Pierre,) 
Comte  d'Artagnan,  a  French  general,  born  at  the  chateau 
of  Armagnac  in  1645.  He  commanded  the  right  wing 
at  the  battle  of  Maljjlaquet,  (1709,)  soon  after  which  be 
became  a  marshal  of  France.     Died  in  1725. 

Montesquiou-Fezensac,  de,  deh  m6N't5s'ke-oo' 
feh'zSN'zik',  (Ambroise  Anatole  Augustin,)  Count, 
a  French  general  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1788,  was  a 
grandson  of  Anne  Pierre,  noticed  below.     Died  in  1878. 

Montesquiou-Fezensac,  de,  (Anne  Pierre,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1739.  He  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1784, 
and  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  conquered  Savoy  in  1792. 
Died  in  1798. 

See  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  Montesquiou,"  Paris,  1847. 

Montesquiou-Fezensac,  de,  (Franqois  Xavier 
Marc  Antoine,)  Abb6,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  near 
Auch  in  1 757.  He  was  a  deputy  from  the  clergy  of  Paris 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  twice  elected 
president  of  the  National  Assembly.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  he  took  refuge  in  England,  and,  after  the  second 
restoration,  was  made  a  duke,  and  received  the  title  of 
minister  of  state.     Died  in  1832. 

See  GurzoT,  "Memoires." 

Montesson,  de,  deh  m6N'ti's6N',  (Charlotte 
Jea.vne  Beraud — bi'ro',)  Marquise,  born  in  Paris  in 
1737,  was  married  in  1773  to  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Orleans.  She  was  the  author  of  numerous  poems  and 
dramas.     Died  in  1806. 

Monteth.    See  Monteith,  (Robert.) 

Monteverde,  mon-ti-v^R'di,  (Claudio,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Cremona  about  1565.  He 
introduced  several  great  improvements  into  the  science 
of  music,  one  of  which  was  the  employment  of  double 
discords.  His  works  include  sacred  music,  operas,  and 
madrigals.  The  last-named  are  especially  admired.  In 
1613  he  was  aj^pointed  chapel-master  of  Saint  Mark,  at 
Venice.     Died  in  1649. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Montez.     See  Lola  Montez. 

Mon-te-zu'ma  L,  called  also  Moctheuzoma,  Aztec 
emperor  of  Mexico,  ascended  the  throne  about  1437. 
Before  this  event  he  had  been  an  eminent  general.  He 
extended  the  boundaries  of  his  dominions  by  the  con- 
quest of  several  adjacent  nations.  He  was  a  powerful 
and  despotic  monarch,  and  multiplied  human  sacrifices. 
Died  about  1470. 

Montezuma  H.,  the  last  Aztec  emperor  of  Mexico, 
was  born  about  1470.  He  was  elected  sovereign  in  150a 
for  his  superior  merit  as  a  warrior  and  a  priest.  When 
his  election  was  announced  to  him,  he  was  in  the  act  of 
sweeping  the  stairs  of  the  great  temple  Teocalli.  In  the 
former  part  of  his  reign  he  waged  war  with  success 
against  several  peoples,  and  extended  the  limits  of  the 
empire.  He  offended  his  subjects  by  his  haughty  deport- 
ment, and  oppressed  them  by  the  imi>osition  of  grievous 
taxes  which  were  required  to  support  his  sumptuous  style 
of  living.  In  15 19  his  empire  w^as  invaded  by  Cortez, 
against  whom  he  employed  a  temporizing  policy.  He 
sent  him  a  magnificent  present,  but  forbade  him  to  ap- 
proach the  capital.  "This  was  to  reveal,"  says  Prescott, 
"  both  his  wealth  and  his  weakness."  Cortez  entered  the 
city  of  Mexico,  without  resistance,  in  November,  :5I9, 
and  found  a  hospitable  reception.  To  secure  himself 
against  contingencies,  the  audacious  Spaniard  next  seized 
Montezuma  and  held  him  as  a  hostage.  His  captors 
tried  to  convert  him  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
but  without  success.     In  compliance  with  the  demand 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  lar,  fill,  fit;  inSt;  n6t;  g66d;  m(5on; 


MONTFAUCON 


1755 


MONTGOMERY 


of  Cortez,  he  formally  recognized  the  supremacy  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  to  whom  he  sent  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  gold  as  tribute.  In  May,  1520,  Cortez  absented 
himself  from  the  capital  to  figlit  his  rival  Narvaez,  and 
during  his  absence  the  Mexicans  revolted  against  the 
Spaniards.  Montezuma  was  persuaded  or  compelled  by 
Cortez  to  address  his  subjects  and  try  to  appease  the 
tumult,  lie  was  assailed  with  missiles  by  the  insur- 
gents, was  wounded,  and  died  in  June,  1520.  "Stately 
and  decorous,"  says  Prescott,  "he  v.'as  careful  of  his 
own  dignity,  and  might  be  said  to  be  as  great  an  'actor 
of  majesty'  among  the  barbarian  potentates  of  the  New 
World  as  Louis  XIV.  was  among  the  polished  princes 
of  Europe.  .  .  .  Montezuma's  amiable  iind  inoffensive 
manners,  together  with  his  liberality, — the  most  popular 
of  virtues  with  the  vulgar, — made  him  generally  beloved 
by  the  Spaniards." 

Montfaucon,  de,  deh  mAiN'fo'kAN',  [Lat.  Montefal- 
co'nius,]  (Bernard,)  an  eminent  French  antiquary  and 
philologist,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1655,  was  a  member 
of  the  congregation  of  Benedictines  of  Saint- Maur. 
Having  visited  Italy  in  1698,  he  published,  after  his  re- 
turn, his  "  Diarium  Italicum,"  an  account  of  the  libra- 
ries of  Italy,  "  Palaeographia  Graeca,"  a  treatise  on  the 
origin  and  progress  of  Greek  letters,  "  Antiquity  Ex- 
plained and  Represented  in  Figures,"  (10  vols,  fol.,  1719, 
in  French  and  Latin,)  and  "The  Monuments  of  the 
French  Monarchy,"  (5  vols.,  1729.)  He  also  published 
excellent  editions  of  Saint  Chrysostom  and  other  Greek 
writers.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions.    Died  in  1741. 

See  D.  Tassin,  "Histoire  litt^raire  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint- 
M.iur." 

Moutferrat,  de,  (Conrad.)  See  Conrad,  Marquis 
of  Tyre. 

Montferrat,  de,  deh  mAN'ft'rt',  (Boniface,)  Mar- 
quis, was  a  brother  of  Conrad,  King  of  Jerusalem.  He 
became  King  of  Thessalonica  in  1183,  and  was  chosen 
the  chief  of  the  fifth  or  fourth  crusade  in  1202.  He 
was  an  able  commander,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople  in  1204.     Died  in  1207. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Montferrat,  de,  (Guillaume,)  Marquis,  called 
THE  Great,  was  born  in  1243,  and  began  to  reign  in 
1254.  He  was  a  turbulent  prince  and  continually  en- 
gaged in  war  with  the  neighbouring  states.  He  married 
Beatrix,  a  daughter  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile,  in  1271. 
Having  been  taken  prisoner  in  1290,  he  was  confined  in 
an  iron  cage,  and  died  in  1292. 

Montferrier,  de,  deh  mAN'fi're-i',  (Alexandre 
Andr6  Victor  Sarrazin,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Mathematical  Sciences,  Pure 
and  Applied,"  (3  vols.,  1834-40.)    Died  March  13,  1S63. 

Moiitfleury,  miN'fluh  Ke',  the  literary  nane  of  An- 
TOINE  Jacob,  a  French  actor  and  dramatise,  born  in 
1640.  He  was  an  active  rival  of  Moliere,  and  left  sixteen 
rather  coarse,  but  very  effective,  comedies. 

Montfleury,  de,  deh  m6N'fluh're',  (Jean  Le  Petit,) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Caen  in  1698  ;  died  in  1777. 

Montfort,  Count  de.     See  John,  Duke  of  Brittanv. 

Montfort,  mflnt'fort,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  mAN'foR',] 
(Simon,)  Count,  a  French  nobleman  and  military  com- 
mander, born  about  1 1 50,  was  conspicuous  for  his  courage 
and  for  his  cruelty  in  the  wars  against  the  Albigenses, 
(1208.)  He  was  kifled  while  besieging  Toulouse,  in  1218. 

Montfort,  de,  (Simon.)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  ob- 
tained at  an  early  age  the  patronage  of  Henry  III.  of 
England,  who  made  him  Earl  of  Leicester  and  gave  to 
him  in  marriage  his  sister,  the  Countess  of  Pembroke. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  lieutenant-general  in 
Gascony.  In  1258,  a  rupture  having  occurred  between 
Henry  and  his  barons,  the  latter,  headed  by  Montfort, 
compelled  the  king  to  consent  to  the  regulations  called 
the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  which  threw  the  legislative  and 
executive  power  into  the  hands  of  twenty-four  barons. 
In  1264  a  battle  took  place  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  in  which 
the  royalists  were  defeated  and  the  king  taken  prisoner. 
Montfort  summoned  a  Parliament  in  1265,  in  which,  in 
addition  to  the  two  knights  returned  from  every  shire, 
representatives  were  sent  from  the  boroughs ;  and  in  this 


way  was  founded  the  English  House  of  Commons.  In 
the  battle  of  Evesham,  the  same  year,  Montfort  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  the  royal  troops  under  Prince  Edward. 

Montgaillard,  m6N'gt'ytR',  (Guillaume  Honor6 
Roques,)  a  historian,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1772.  He 
wrote  a  "  Chronological  Review  of  the  History  of  France, 
etc.,  1787-1818,"  (1820,)  which  was  once  popular.  Died 
in  1825. 

Montgaillard,  (Jean  Gabriel  Maurice  Roques,) 
a  French  adventurer  and  political  writer,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1761.  He  was 
employed  as  a  secret  agent  by  the  Bourbons  and  by 
their  enemies.  He  published  a  "  Memoir  concerning 
the  Treason  of  Pichegru,"  etc.,  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1841. 

Montgelas,  miN'zheh-ll',  (Maximilian  Joseph,) 
Count,  a  German  statesman,  of  Savoyard  extraction, 
born  at  Munich  in  1759,  was  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  1799,  minister  of  the  interior  in  1806, 
and  minister  of  finance  in  1809.     Died  in  1838. 

Montglat,  de,  deh  m6N'gl$',  Marquis,  a  French 
author,  of  whom  little  is  known.  He  left  memoirs  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  of  the  campaigns  before  the 
Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees.  These  memoirs  are  of  much 
historical  value. 

Montgolfier,  mont-gil'fe-er,  [Fr.  pron.  Tn5N'gor. 
fe-4',]  (Jacques  Ctienne,)  an  ingenious  Frenchman,  who 
invented  the  air-balloon,  was  born  at  or  near  Annonay 
(.\rdeche)  in  1745.  After  studying  mathematics  with 
success  at  Paris,  he  became  an  architect.  At  the  request 
of  his  father,  he  quitted  that  profession  in  order  to  take 
charge  of  the  paper-manufactory  at  Annonay.  He  in- 
vented new  machines  and  more  simjile  processes  in  this 
art.  On  reading  Priestley's  treatise  "  On  Different  Kinds 
of  Air,"  he  conceived  the  possibility  of  aerial  navigation, 
and  imparted  the  idea  to  his  brother  Joseph,  who  was  as 
another  self.  Acting  in  concert  and  community,  they 
contrived  the  means  of  realizing  this  project.  After 
trying  hydrogen  gas  and  other  fluids,  they  made  the  first 
public  experiment  at  Annonay  in  June,  1783,  and  sent 
up  a  balloon  about  thirty-seven  French  feet  in  diameter, 
inflated  with  air  rarefied  by  heat.  This  successful  ex« 
periment  made  a  great  sensation,  and  was  soon  repeated 
at  Paris.  The  brothers  were  admitted  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  Their  balloons  were  called  MontgoU 
fiires.  The  first  who  successfully  used  hydrogen  gas  in 
balloons  was  M.  Charles.  Montgolfier  died  in  1799.  (See 
Charles,  Jacques  Alexandre.) 

Montgolfier,  (Joseph  Michel,)  an  ingenious  French 
mechanician,  born  at  .Annonay  in  1740,  was  one  of  the 
inventors  of  the  air-balloon.  In  his  youth  he  assisted 
his  father,  who  was  a  successful  manufacturer  of  paper. 
In  partnership  with  a  brother,  he  carried  on  the  same 
business  at  Voiron  and  Beaujeu.  He  had  made  several 
improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  paper  before  his 
aerostatic  experiments  blazoned  his  name  throughout 
Europe.  (See  the  preceding  article.)  About  1792  he 
made  a  valuable  improvement  in  the  hydraulic  ram. 
He  also  invented  a  hydraulic  press  and  other  mechanical 
instruments.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France.     Died  in  1810. 

Montgomerie,  (Archibald  William.)  See  Eglin- 
ton. 

Montgomery,  mont-gum'e-re,  (Alexander,)  a  Scot- 
tish poet  under  the  reign  of  James  VI.,  was  the  author 
of  an  allegorical  piece  entitled  "The  Cherry  and  the 
Slae."     Died  about  1610. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Montgomery,  mont-gvam'?-re,  (George  Washing- 
ton,) a  native  of  Spain,  settled  in  America,  where  he 
published  "Bernardo  del  Carpio,"  a  historical  romance, 
and  translated  into  Spanish  Irving's  "Conquest  of 
Granada."     Died  in  1841. 

Montgomery,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  politician,  and 
a  chief  of  the  Covenanters.  He  was  appointed  lord 
justice  clerk  in  1689.  "In  parliamentary  ability  and 
eloquence,"  says  Macaulay,  "he  had  no  superior  among 
his  countrymen  except  Sir  John  Dalrymple."  He  was 
turbulent  and  perfidious.  In  1690  he  joined  the  Jacob- 
ites in  plotting  against  William  HI. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,gvUziral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^;^°^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


\l 


MONTGOMERY 


1756 


MONTIGNY 


'  Montgomery,  (James,)  a  distinguished  poet,  born  in 
Ayrshire,  Scotland,  in  1771,  was  the  son  of  a  Moravian 
preacher.  lie  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  the  Moravian 
school  at  Fulneck,  in  Yorkshire,  where  his  progress  was 
not  very  satisfactory  to  his  teachers,  as  he  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  in  reading  and  writing  poetry, 
which  was  prohibited  by  the  rules  of  the  school.  After 
leaving  Fulneck,  he  resided  for  a  time,  as  shopman  in  a 
book-store,  in  London,  and  in  1792  began  to  contribute 
political  articles  to  the  "Sheffield  Register,"  edited  by 
Mr.  Joseph  Gales.  He  founded  in  1794  a  reform  jour- 
nal, called  the  "Sheffield  Iris,"  of  which  he  was  editor 
about  thirty  years.  Several  of  his  articles  having  been 
denounced  as  revolutionary,  he  was  twice  fined  and 
imprisoned.  He  published  in  1806  his  "  Wanderer  of 
Switzerland,"  which  was  followed  by  "  The  West  Indies," 
(1809.)  "The  World  before  the  Flood,"  (1812,)  and  "The 
Pelican  Island,"  (1827.)  These  poems  are  distinguished 
for  depth  and  tenderness  of  feeling,  elevated  moral 
sentiment,  and  graceful  description.  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  hymns  of  great  beauty,  which  enjoy  exten- 
sive popularity.  One  of  Mr.  Montgomery's  last  works 
was  a  "  History  of  Missionary  Enterprise  in  the  South 
Seas,"  (1830.)     Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  James  Montgomery,"  by  J. 
Holland  and  James  Evekett;  "  Liie  of  Montgomery,"  by  Mrs. 
H.  C.  Knight;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen, "  (Supplement ;)  "Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  iSii  ; 
"Blackwood's  lilagaziue"  for  October,  1827;  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  July,  1833.  and  October,  1856. 

Montgomery,  (Richard,)  a  distinguished  general, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1737,  served  in  Canada  under  Wolfe, 
and  subsequently  entered  the  American  army.  Being 
appointed  commander  of  the  forces  in  the  Northern 
department,  he  took  Fort  Chambly  and  Montreal.  He 
was  killed  in  December,  1 775,  in  an  assault  upon  Quebec. 

See  "  Life  of  Richard  Montgomery,"  by  John  Armstrong,  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biograpliy,"  vol.  i.,  first  series;  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv. 

Montgomery,  mgnt-gi'im'e-re,  (Robert,)  an  English 
divine  and  poet,  born  at  Hath  in  1S07.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  Omnipresence  of  the 
Deity,"  (1828,)  which  had  great  temporary  success,  eight 
editions  being  sold  in  as  many  months.  He  becaine  in 
1843  pastor  of  Percy  Street  Chapel,  London.  The  extra- 
ordinary success  of  his  poetry  was  chiefly  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  nature  of  his  subject  and  the  favour  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  religious  community.     Died  in  1855. 

See  Macaulav,  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1830; 
"Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.   iv.  chap.  xvii.  ; 

Montgomery,  (William  R.,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  New  Jersey,  July  ic,  1801,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the  Union 
army  in  1861,  and  military  commandant  of  Philadelphia 
in  1862.     Died  at  Bristol,  Peinisylvania,  May  31,  1871. 

Montgomery,  nignt-giim'e-re,  de,  [  Fr.  pron.  deh 
mAN'gom're',1  (Gabriel,)  a  French  nobleman,  of  Scot- 
tish extraction,  born  about  1530.  Being  present  at  a 
tournament  given  by  Henry  II.  on  the  occasion  of  his 
daughter's  marriage  with  the  King  of  Spain,  Montgomery 
was  summoned  by  the  French  king  to  break  a  lance  with 
him.  He  complied  reluctantly,  and  had  the  misfortune 
to  inflict  a  mortal  wound  on  his  antagonist.  He  subse- 
quently went  to  England,  where  he  became  a  Protestant, 
and,  after  his  return  to  France  in  1562,  distinguished 
himself  as  a  leader  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil  war  of 
the  time.  Being  made  prisoner  by  Marshal  Matignon 
at  the  siege  of  Saint-Lo,  in  1574,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  and  executed,  by  order  of  Catherine  de  Medicis. 
"The  queen,"  says  Sismondi,  "had  no  great  affection 
for  Henry  II.,  or  cause  to  regret  him  ;  but  she  wished 
that  a  man  should  not  be  considered  innocent  after 
having,  even  by  accident,  caused  the  death  of  a  king." 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais;"  BRANTdME,  "Capi- 
taines  illustres." 

Montgon,de,dehmAN'g(i.\',  (Charles  Alexandre.) 
a  French  priest,  born  at  Versailles  in  1690.  He  entered 
the  service  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  sent  him  on  a 
secret  mission  to  the  court  of  Paris.  He  published 
"Diplomatic  Memoirs,"  (5  vols.,  1742.)     Died  in  1770. 

Monthenault  or  Montenault  d'^gly,  mAN't^h'no' 
di'gle',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 


Paris  in  1696.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
French  Kings  of  the  Two  Sicilies,"  (4  vols.,  174L)  Died 
in  1749. 

Monthion,  de,  deh  mAN'te'^N',  (Francois  G6d6on 
Bailly,)  Comte,  a  FVench  general,  born  in  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon  in  1776;  died  in  1850. 

Montholou,  de,  deh  mox'to'lAN',  (Charles  Tris- 
tan,) Marquls,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1782. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1798,  and  accompanied  Napo- 
leon in  the  subsequent  campaigns  in  Italy,  Austria,  and 
Prussia.  He  was  sent  in  1811  on  an  important  embassy 
to  the  archduke  Ferdinand  at  Wiirzburg,  and  in  1814 
was  made  general  of  brigade.  He  shared  the  emperor's 
exile  at  Saint  tielena,  and  served  him  with  unwearied 
fidelity  till  his  death,  being  appointed  by  him  executor 
of  his  will  and  keeper  of  part  of  his  manuscripts.  After 
his  return  to  France,  Montholon  published,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  General  Gourgaud,  "Memoirs  towards  the 
History  of  France  under  Napoleon,  dictated  by  Himself 
at  Saint  Helena,"  (1823.)  He  also  wrote  an  "Account 
of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon  at  Saint  Helena,"  (1847./ 
Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Blograpliie  du  General  Montholon,"  1849  ;  "  Quarterly  R» 
view"  for  March,  1848. 

Monthyon.    See  Montvon. 

Monti,  mon'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Bologna  in  1688;  died  in  1766. 

Monti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1682.  He  published  several  botanical  works 
Died  at  Bologna  in  1760. 

Monti,  (Rafaelle,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Milan  in  1818.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named 
the  "  Veiled  Vestal,"  the  "  Boy  catching  a  Grasshopper," 
and  the  "  Circassian  Slave,"  He  was  an  active  sup- 
porter of  the  popular  cause  in  1847-4S,  after  which  he 
lived  as  an  exile  in  London.     Died  October  16,  i88l 

Monti,  (Vincenzo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  i)oet,  born 
near  Ferrara  in  1753.  He  studied  in  the  university  of 
that  city,  and  began  at  an  early  age  to  write  Latin  and 
Italian  poems.  These  compositions  obtained  for  him 
the  notice  and  patronage  of  Cardinal  Borghese,  who  took 
Monti  with  him  to  Rome  in  1778.  He  published  in  1785 
his  tragedy  of  "  Aristodemo,"  which  was  received  with 
great  favour.  His  poem  entitled  "  Bassvilliana,"  (1793,) 
suggested  by  the  murder  of  Hugo  de  Bassville,  envoy  of 
the  French  republic  at  Rome,  had  also  great  popularity, 
and  passed  through  eighteen  editions  in  six  months. 
Upon  the  French  invasion  in  1796,  Monti  repaired  to 
Milan,  where,  accommodating  himself  to  the  new  order 
of  things,  he  wrote  in  favour  of  the  Revolution.  Some 
of  his  writings,  which  originally  contained  bitter  in- 
vectives against  Napoleon,  were  now  altered  so  as 
to  transfer  the  abuse  to  the  allied  sovereigns.  On  the 
Russian  invasion  in  1799  he  took  refuge  for  a  time  in 
France,  and,  soon  after  his  return,  published  his  tragedy 
of  "  Caio  Gracco,"  "  La  Mascheroniana,"  a  poem  on 
the  death  of  his  friend  Mascheroni,  and  his  beautiful 
and  popular  hymn  beginning  "  Bell'  Italia,"  etc.  Monti 
became  in  1803  professor  of  eloquence  at  Pavia,  and  on 
the  coronation  of  Napoleon,  in  1805,  was  appointed  his 
historiographer.  He  filled  this  office  rather  as  court 
poet  than  historian,  and  lavished  a  profusion  of  eulogistic 
verses  on  the  emperor  and  his  family.  He  was  created 
by  him  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  and  of  the 
iron  crown,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.     Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Notizie  sulla  Vita  e  snll'Ingegno  di  Vincenzo  Monti,"  1828; 
Zuccala,  "  Elogio  storico  di  V.  Monti,"  1828;  BozOLi,  "Ragiona- 
mento  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  V.  Monti,"  1837  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale ;"  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  February,  1826  :  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1832. 

Montiano  y  Luyando,  de,  di  mon-te-3'no  e  loo- 
ySn'do,  (AtJGUSTiN,)  a  Spanish  dramatist,  born  in  1697  ; 
died  in  1759. 

Monticelli,  mon-te-chel'lee,  (Andrea,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1640,  painted  land- 
scapes, flowers,  fruits,  etc.     Died  in  1716. 

Montigny,  m6N'tfen'ye',  (Florence  de  Montnio- 
rency — d^h  mAN'mo'rftN'se',)  Lord  of,  a  Flemish 
nobleman,  was  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1562.  Being 
sent  on  a  second  mission  in  1566,  he  was  arrested  by 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  S,  e,  1, 6, 11,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MONTIGNY 


1757 


MONTMORENCY 


order  of  Philip  II.,  accused  of  high  treason,  and  exe- 
cuted in  1570. 

Montigny,  m6N'tin'ye',  (Rose  Marie  Cizos,)  a 
popular  French  actress  of  comedy,  known  as  Rose 
ChArie,  was  born  at  fitampes  in  1824. 

Montigny,  de,  deh  m6N'tin'ye',  (Jean,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1637,  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  and  Bishop  of  Leon.     Died  in  1671. 

Montjoie,  miN'zhw^',  (Christophe  F^lix  Louis 
Ventre  de  la  Toulourre,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  at  Aix  in  1746.  He  was  a  royalist  in  the  Revo- 
lution of  1789-95.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Robespierre,"  (1796.) 
Died  in  1 8 16. 

Montjosieu,  de,  deh  miN'zho'ze-uh',  (Louis,)  a 
French  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  Rouergue.  He  visited 
Rome  in  1583.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Frenchman 
a  Guest  at  Rome,"  ("  Gallus  Romae  Hospes,"  1585.) 

Montlosier,  de,  deh  mb>i'\o' z^-y ,  (Francois  Do- 
minique Raynaud — ri'no',)  Comte,  a  French  journal- 
ist, born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1755.  He  was  a  deputy 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  a  prominent  ad- 
vocate of  the  aristocratic  party.  He  repaired  to  London, 
where  he  edited  an  anti-revolutionary  journal  called  the 
"Courrier  de  Londres."  On  his  return  to  France, 
during  the  consulate,  he  modified  or  abandoned  his  roy- 
alist views.  He  was  also  for  a  time  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Constitutionnel."  Having  attached  himself  to 
the  new  dynasty  on  the  revolution  of  July,  he  was 
made  a  peer  in  1832.  He  wrote  a  work  "  C3n  the  French 
Monarchy  from  its  Establishment  to  the  Present  Time." 
Died  in  1838. 

Montluc,  de,  deh  m6N'luk',  (Blaise  de  Lasseran- 
Massencome — deh  ISs'rfts'  mt's6N'kom',)  Seigneur, 
a  French  marshal,  born  in  Gascony  in  1501.  He  fought 
against  the  Imperialists  commanded  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  and  assisted  at  the  sieges  of  La  Rochelle 
and  Calais.  In  1573  he  was  made  a  marshal  by  Henry 
III.  He  died  in  1577,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  his  Military 
Life,"  (1592,)  which  were  praised  by  Henry  IV.  and 
often  reprinted. 

Montluc,  de,  (Jean,)  a  bishop,  the  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1508,  and  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.,  who  employed 
him  in  various  embassies.  He  became  Bishop  of  Valence 
in  1553  He  is  said  to  have  been  secretly  attached  to 
the  Reformed  religion  ;  but  he  retained  the  favour  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis.     Died  in  1579. 

Montluc,  de,  (Jean,)  Seigneur  de  Balagni,  and  mar- 
shal of  France,  a  natural  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1545.  After  he  had  fought  for  the  League 
against  Henry  IV.,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  latter, 
who  made  him  a  marshal  of  France  in  1594.  Died 
in  1603. 

Montluca,  m6N'lU'kS',  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1725.  He  became  a 
lawyer  of  Paris,  and  a  noted  linguist,  was  the  friend  of 
Lalande  and  D'Alembert,  and  filled  important  civil  offices. 
He  wrote  a  very  important  "  History  of  Mathematics," 
(1758  et  seq.,)  and  died  in  December,  1799. 

Montmaur,  de,  d?h  m^N'moR',  (Pierre,)  a  pedantic 
and  witty  Frenchman,  born  in  Limousin  or  Le  Quercy 
about  1564.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College 
de  France,  and  was  notorious  as  a  parasite.    Died  in  1648. 

Montmorency.    See  Luxembourg. 

Montmorency  or  Montmorenci,  m5nt-mo-r5n'se, 
IFr.  pron.  m^N'mo'rSN'se',]  the  name  of  a  noble  French 
family,  whose  celebrity  dates  as  far  back  as  the  eleventh 
century,  and  which  has  produced  many  famous  princes, 
peers,  and  generals.  Among  them  were  six  constables 
and  eleven  marshals  of  France. 

Montmorency,  de,  deh  m6N'mo'r6N'se',  (Anne,) 
Due,  Constable  of  France,  born  at  Chantilly  in  1493, 
was  the  first  of  his  family  that  received  the  title  of  duke. 
He  was  made  a  marshal  in  1522,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Pavia  in  1525.  In  1536,  by  skilful  manoeuvres,  he 
defended  Provence,  which  was  invaded  by  Charles  V.  in 
person.  He  was  appointed  constable  in  1538,  and  was 
chief  minister  of  Francis  I.  from  that  date  until  1541, 
when  he  fell  into  disgrace.     Henry  II.  restored  him  to 


favour  and  power  in  1547.  Montmorency  was  defeated 
and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Saint-Quentin,  in  1557. 
The  death  of  Henry  II.,  in  1559,  was  fatal  to  his  am- 
bitious prospects,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  accession 
to  power  of  his  rival  the  Due  de  Guise.  He  fought  for 
the  Catholic  party  in  the  civil  war,  and  in  1562  com- 
manded at  Dreux,  where  he  gained  the  victory,  but 
was  made  prisoner.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Saint-Denis,  in  1567.  He  has  been  censured 
for  austerity  and  excessive  rigour,  but  had  several  great 
qualities. 

See  De  Thou,  "Historia  siii  Temporis;"  Bkant6me,  "Vies  de« 
Honimes  illustres;"  Lesconvei.,  "Anne  de  Montmorency,"  1696; 
Davila,  "  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^ndrale ;"  Tavannes,  "M^moires;"  Robertson,  "His- 
tory of  Charles  V.,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Charles,)  a  French  general, 
who  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1343.  He  fought 
against  the  English  at  Crecy  in  1346.     Died  in  13S1. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Charlotte  Marguerite,)  a 
French  lady,  born  in  1594,  was  the  sister  of  Duke  Henri 
II.  de  Montmorency.  She  was  married  to  Henri,  Prince 
de  Conde,  about  1609.  Her  beauty  made  such  an  im- 
pression on  the  king,  Henry  IV.,  that  her  husband  was 
alarmed,  and  conducted  her  to  a  foreign  country.  She 
was  the  mother  of  the  great  Conde,  of  the  Prince  of 
Conti,  and  of  the  Duchess  of  Longueville.    Died  in  1650. 

See  Bazin,  "  Hisloirede  Louis XIII ;"  L'Estoile,  "Mdmoires," 
etc. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Henry  I.,)  Due,  the  second 
son  of  Anne,  noticed  above,  was  styled  Comte  de 
Damville  in  his  youth.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Admiral 
Coligni.  At  the  battle  of  Dreux,  in  1562,  he  took  the 
Prince  of  Conde  prisoner,  and  in  1566  obtained  a  mar- 
shal's baton.  He  rendered  important  services  to  Henry 
IV.,  who  appointed  him  Constable  of  France  in  1593. 
Died  in  1614.  It  is  stated  that  a  mutual  passion  was 
felt  by  him  and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  whom  he  fol- 
lowed to  Scotland  in  1561. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Henri  II.,)  Due,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Chantilly  in  1595.  His  valour, 
generosity,  and  name  rendered  him  a  great  favourite  with 
the  court,  the  army,  and  the  people.  He  commanded 
for  Louis  XIII.  in  the  civil  war  against  the  Huguenots 
which  began  about  1620,  and  defeated  the  Due  de 
Rohan  in  1628.  For  his  victory  over  the  Imperialists  at 
Veillane,  in  1629,  he  was  made  a  marshal.  Seduced  by 
Gaston,  a  brother  of  Louis  XIII.  and  heir-presumptive 
to  the  throne,  and  incited  by  enmity  to  Richelieu,  he  took 
arms  against  the  government,  and  encountered  the  royal 
army  at  Castelnaudary  in  1632.  With  too  impetuous 
valour,  he  exposed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  was 
wounded,  and  made  prisoner.  He  was  tried  for  treason, 
and  beheaded  in  October,  1632.  He  left  no  issue,  and 
the  first  ducal  branch  of  the  Montmorencies  then  became 
extinct.  His  sister  was  the  mother  of  the  great  Prince 
de  Conde  and  of  the  Duchesse  de  Longueville. 

See  Desormeaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (Mathieu  I.,)  was  appointed 
Constable  of  France  about  1130,  and  was  the  most  pow- 
erful French  seigneur  of  his  time.  He  married  first 
Aline,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  secondly 
Alix  or  Adelaide,  the  widow  of  Louis  le  Gros  and 
mother  of  Louis  VII.  of  France.  He  died  in  1160, 
leaving  several  children  by  his  first  wife. 

See  Desormeaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (Mathieu  II.,)  sumamed  lk 
Grand,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about 
1174.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory  of  the 
French  at  Bouvines,  in  1214.  In  1218  he  obtained  the 
office  of  constable,  which  his  talents  and  merits  raised 
to  be  the  highest  office  of  the  kingdom.  The  Constable 
of  France  was  thenceforth  ex  officio  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army.  He  had  great  influence  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  VIII.  and  in  that  of  his  successor.  He  was  nearly 
related  to  two  emperors  and  six  kings.  I^is  grand 
daughter  married  Louis  de  Bourbon,  a  great-great 
grandfather  of  Henry  IV.     Died  in  1230. 

See  Desormeaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorenc)'." 

Montmorency,  de,  (Mathieu  Jean  F6licit4 
de  Montmorency-Laval — deh  mfiN'mo'r&N'se'  lf« 


€  as  k;  9  as  /;  g  hard;  g  as//  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MONTMORIN 


1758 


MONTYON 


vill',)  Due,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1766, 
was  a  friend  of  La  Fayette,  in  company  with  whom  he 
served  in  the  war  of  American  Independence.  He  was 
a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  an  ad- 
vocate of  liberal  reform.  On  the  restoration  he  became 
a  zealous  royalist,  and  was  made  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1821, 
president  of  the  cabinet,  and  governor  to  the  Duke  of 
Bordeaux  in  1823.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.     Died  in  1826. 

See  De  G^rando,  "  £loge  de  M.  de  Montmorency,"  1826:  Cha- 
teaubriand, "M^moires  d'Outre-Tombe;"  V^tillard,  "Notice 
siir  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Due  de  Montmorency,"  1826. 

Montmorin  Saint-Herem,  de,  deh  mAN'mo'riN'' 
s4N-/4i'r6N',  (Armand  Marc,)  Comte,  a  French  states- 
man, born  about  1745.  He  succeeded  Count  Vergennes 
as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1787,  and  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior  in  1791.  He  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  and  executed  in 
September,  1792. 

See  Droz,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XVI;"  Lamartine,  "History 
of  the  Girondists." 

Montmort,  de,  deh  mAN'moR',  (Pierre  Esmond,) 
a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1678,  was  a 
pupil  of  Malebranche.  He  was  the  author  of  a  popular 
work  entitled  "Analytical  Essay  on  Games  of  Chance." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  that 
institution  a  valuable  essay  "On  Infinite  Series."  Died 
in  1719. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoges  des  Acad^miciens." 

Montolieu,'de,  deh  mAN'to'l^-uh',  (Jeanne  Isabelle 
Pauline  Poller  de  Bottens^po'le^'  deh  bo'tSN',) 
Dame  de  Crousaz  and  Baronne,  a  Swiss  novelist,  born 
at  Lausanne  in  1751  ;  died  in  1832. 

Montorfano,  mon-toR'fS-no,  (Giovanni  Donato,) 
an  Italian  painter  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Montorsoll,  mon-toii'so-lee,  (Fra  Giovanni  An- 
GELO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born 
at  Montorsoli,  near  Florence,  about  1500.  He  was 
employed  in  several  works  by  Michael  Angelo,  whose 
lasting  friendship  he  acquired.  He  was  selected  by 
Pope  Clement  VII.  to  restore  the  famous  group  of 
Laocoon  and  the  Apollo  Belvedere.  Among  his  master- 
pieces we  may  name  the  fountain  in  front  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Messina,  and  the  grand  altar  of  the  Church  dei 
Servi  della  Nunziata  at  Bologna.     Died  in  1563. 

See  Cicognara,  "Storia della  Scultura  ;"  Vasari,  "  Livesof  the 
Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Montpensier,  de,  deh  m6N'p6N'se-i',  (Anne  Ma- 
rie Louise  d'0rl6ans,)  DucHESSE,^mmonly  called 
Mademoiselle,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1627.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  cousin  of 
Louis  XIV.  Of  a  bold  and  energetic  character,  she 
became  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  party  of  Conde  in  the 
wars  of  the  Fronde.  She  rendered  several  important 
services  to  that  faction,  among  which  was  the  capture 
of  the  town  of  Orleans.  About  1670  she  was  married 
to  Count  Lauzun.  She  died  in  1693,  leaving  Memoirs 
which  possess  much  interest. 

See  Voltaire,  "  SiJcle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^- 
nioiies;"  "Mademoiselle's  Campaigns,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  July,  1858. 

Montpensier,  de,  (  Antoine  Marie  Philippe  Louis 
n'ORi.^ANS,)  Due,  a  younger  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe 
of  France,  was  born  at  Neuilly  in  1824.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  Algeria  in  1844  and  1845,  obtained  the 
rank  of  marechal  de  camp  in  1846,  and  married  in  that 

fear  Maria  Luisa  Fernanda  de  Bourbon,  a  sister  of  Isa- 
)ella.  Queen  of  Spain.  In  1858  Queen  Isabella  gave 
him  the  rank  of  captain-general.  He  aspired  to  t!ie  va- 
cant thronp  of  Spain  in  1869,  and  in  1870  he  killed  Prince 
Henry  of  Bourbon  in  a  duel.     Died  February  4,  1890. 

Montpensier,  de,  (Antoine  Philippe  d'Orl6ans,) 
Due,  a  younger  brother  of  King  Louis  Philippe  of 
France,  was  born  in  1775.  He  was  arrested  in  April, 
1793,  and  imprisoned  until  1796.  Died  near  London 
in  1807. 


Montpensier,  de,  (Catherine  Marie  de  Lorraine 
— d^h  lo'rii/,)  Duchksse,  a  French  lady,  born  in  1552, 
was  a  sister  of  Henri,  Due  de  Guise.  She  acted  with 
the  League,  and  fomented  rebellion  against  Henry  111. 
of  France.     Died  in  1596. 

Montpetit,  de,  deh  mfiN'peh-te',  (Armand  Vin- 
cent,) a  French  painter,  born  at  Macon  in  1713.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  a  method  of  painting  which  he  called 
iludorique,  (eiydoric.)  He  published  an  account  of  his 
invention  in  a  work  entitled  "Note  interessante  sur  les 
Moyens  de  conserver  les  Portraits  peints  ^  I'Huile," 
etc.,  (1776.)     Died  in  1800. 

Montreuil,  de,  deh  m^N'tRuI'  or  m6N'tRUh'ye, 
(Bernardin,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  theologian,  born 
in  Paris  in  1596,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Christ  taken  from 
the  Four  Gospels,"  (1637,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  in  1646. 

Montreuil,  de,  sometimes  written  Montereul,  (Ma- 
THIEU,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1611 ;  died  in 
1691. 

Montrichard,  mAN're'shtR',  (Joseph  £lie  D£sir4 
PEKRUQUEr,)a  French  general,  born  in  1760.  He  com- 
manded the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Trebbia,  June, 
1799.     Died  in  1828. 

Montrond,  de,  deh  mdN'tr^N',  (Clement  Melchiob 
Justin  Maxime  Fourcheux,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 
Gard  in  1805.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Crusades,"  (2  vols.,  1841.)     Died  in  1879. 

Montrose,  mont-roz',  (James  Grahame,)  Marquis 
of,  a  celebrated  Scottish  general,  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1612.  Having  finished  his  studies  in  France,  after  his 
return  to  Scotland  he  served  for  a  time  in  the  Pres- 
byterian army ;  but  he  subsequently  went  over  to  the 
royalists.  He  was  appointed  by  Charles  I.,  in  1644, 
Marquis  of  Montrose,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Scottish  forces.  He  signally  defeated  the  Covenanters  at 
Tippermuir  in  1644,  also  at  Inverlochy  and  at  Kilsyth 
in  1645 ;  but  his  army  was  surprised  and  totally  defeated 
by  General  Leslie  at  Philiphaugh  in  September,  1645. 
Montrose  soon  after  went  to  Germany,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  distinction  by  the  Austrian  emperor 
and  made  a  marshal  of  the  empire.  Having  collected 
a  small  but  ill-organized  force,  he  returned  to  Scotland 
in  1650,  but  was  soon  after  defeated  and  taken  pris- 
oner. He  was  executed,  without  a  trial,  at  Edinburgh, 
in  May,  1650. 

See  Clarendon,  " History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Mark  Napier, 
"  Montrose  and  the  Covenanters,"  183S  ;  Grant,  "  Life  of  Grahame, 
Marquis  of  Montrose,"  1859;  George  Wishart,  "Memoirs  of 
Grahame,  Marquis  of  Montrose;"  Sir  Edward  Cust,  "Lives  of 
the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars,"  1867;  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  1846;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1841. 

Montucci,  mon-toot'chee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
philologist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1762,  became  in  1785 
professor  of  the  English  language  in  the  Tolomei  Col- 
lege, and  subsequently  of  Italian  at  Berlin  and  Dresden. 
He  died  in  1829,  leaving  unfinished  a  Chinese  Dictionary. 

Montucla,  mAN'tii'klS',  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1725.  Having  studied 
philology  and  natural  science  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at 
Lyons,  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  became  associate  editor 
of  the  "  Gazette  de  France"  and  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Diderot,  D'Alembert,  and  other  savants  of  the  time.  In 
1764  he  accompanied  Turgot  to  Cayenne,  as  first  secre- 
tary and  astronomer  to  the  expedition.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed  royal  censor  of  mathematical  books 
and  commissioner  of  the  royal  buildings.  Me  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  of 
the  Institute  of  France.  His  most  important  work  is 
his  "History  of  Mathematics,"  (1758,)  which  was  com- 
pleted by  Lalande.  He  also  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Researches  for  Determining  the  Quadrature  of  the 
Circle,"  and  several  other  treatises.     Died  in  1799. 

See  A.  Savinikn-Leblond,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  J. 
fi.  Montucla,"  1800. 

Montiireux.     See  Bourcier. 

Montyon  or  Monthyon,  de,  deh  m6N'te-AN',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Rohkkt  Auget — o'zh.V,)  Baron,  a  wealthy 
and  philanthropic  French  nobleman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1733.  He  bequeathed  the  greater  part  of  his  large 
fortune  to  benevolent  and  learned  institutions,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  "Montyon  Prize  of  Virtue"  given 


a  e.  I,  o.  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  A,  sami,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mhi;  nflt;  gSSd;  moon 


MONVEL 


1759 


MOORE 


by  the  French  Academy.  He  published  "  Researches 
and  Considerations  on  the  Population  of  France,"  and 
other  wbrks.  "  His  name,"  says  Lamartine,  "  was  the 
foremost  on  the  roll  of  the  national  nobility."  Died 
in  1820. 

See  B.  V.  Franklin,  "l?loge  historique  de  Montyon,"  Paris, 
1834  ;  Ch  AZET,  "Vie  de  M.  de  Montyon,"  iSag  :  Andrieux,  "  £!loge 
de  A.  J.  B.  R.  Auget,"  etc.,  1S34;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^ 
rale." 

Monvel,  m6N'v5K,  (Jacques  Marie  Boutet,)  a 
French  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Luneville  in  1745, 
was  the  author  of  numerous  comedies  and  comic  operas. 
Died  in  1812. 

Monville,  de.    See  Boissel. 

Monvoisin,  miN'vwS'z^N',  {  Raymond  Auguste 
QuiNSAC,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Bordeaux 
in  1795,  studied  in  Paris  under  P.  Guerin.  Died  in  1870. 

Moo'dy,  (DwiGHT  Lyman,)  an  American  lay- 
preacher,  born  at  Northfield,  Massachusetts,  February 
5,  1837.  His  youth  was  passed  on  a  farm  until,  when 
seventeen  years  old,  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  store  in 
Boston.  He  went  to  Chicago  in  1856,  and  engaged  in 
business,  at  the  same  time  carrying  on  an  active  mission- 
ary work.  In  this  work  he  associated  Mr.  Ira  D.  Sankey, 
an  effective  singer.  They  held  religious  services  in 
various  towns  in  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  in  America. 
In  both  countries  he  has  had  a  wonderful  success  and 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  for  good  on  different  classes. 
Besides  his  church  and  school  at  Chicago,  Mr.  Moody 
established  a  school  or  college  at  Northfield,  Massachu- 
setts, and  has  published  "  Arrows  and  Anecdotes," 
(1877,)  "Heaven,"  (1880,)  "Secret  Power,"  (1881,)  etc. 

Moojaert,  mo'yjRt,  written  also  Mooyaert,  (Clas,) 
a  Dutch  landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam about  1590.  He  was  the  master  of  Berghem 
and  Jan  Weeninx. 

Moollah-Firooz  (or  MouUah-Firouz)  Ben-Ka- 
woos,  a  Persian  poet,  born  at  Bombay  in  1759.  He 
wrote  an  epic  poem,  entitled  "  George-Nameh,"  on  the 
conquest  of  India  by  the  British.     Died  in  1831. 

Moonen,  mo'nen,  (Arnold,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
distinguished  as  a  poet  and  grammarian,  was  born  at 
Zwolle  in  1644.  He  became  minister  of  a  Protestant 
church  at  Deventer,  His  poems  were  published  in  2 
vols.,  1720.     Died  in  171 1. 

Moor,  moor,?  (Edward,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1770.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  India, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  major.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Hindu  Pantheon,"  (4to,  1810.)  Died 
in  1848. 

Moor,  van,  vtn  moR,  Moro,  or  More,  (Antonis  or 
Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1519,  was  a  pupil  of  Jan  Schooreel.  He  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Granvelle,  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  and  Philip  II.,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  the  prin- 
cipal sovereigns  of  Europe.  His  works  in  this  depart- 
ment are  of  the  highest  order.  He  also  executed  several 
historical  pictures  of  great  merit.     Died  in  156S. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamand.s,  HoUandais,"  etc. ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Moor,  van,  (Karel,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Leyden  in  1656,  studied  under  Ge- 
rard Douvv  and  Mieris.  Among  his  best  works  are  por- 
traits of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough 
on  horseback.  He  was  created  a  knight  of  the  empire 
by  the  Austrian  emperor  Joseph  I.  His  "Assembly 
of  Notables,"  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  the  Hague,  is  also 
esteemed  a  master-piece.     Died  about  1738. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Klamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. ;  Charles  Blanc,  "His- 
toire  des  Peintres." 

Moorad  (moo-rSd)  V.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  was  a  son 
of  Abd-ool  Mejeed,  and  was  born  Septeml)er  21,  1S40. 
He  was  the  successor  of  his  uncle,  Abd-ool  Azeez,  and 
came  to  the  throne  on  the  enforced  abdication  of  the 
latter.  May  30,  1876.  Moorad  was  a  dissipated  man,  and 
his  reason  was  undoubtedly  affected  by  his  great  ex- 
cesses. He  was  deposed  by  the  Sheikh-ool -Islam  August 
31,  1876,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Abd-ool 
Hameed. 

Moorad- Alee  or  Mourad-Ali,  moo-rid  i'lee,  called 
also  Moorad  Khan,  (kSu,)  King  of  Persia,  of  the  Zend 


dynasty,  was  born  at  Ispahan  about  1746.  He  defended 
himself  for  a  time  successfully  against  several  rivals  ;  but 
he  was  at  length  defeated  by'jaafar  Khan  in  1784.  Died 
in  1785. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia." 

Moorad  (Mourad  or  Murad)  Bey,  moo-rid  ba,  a 
celebrated  Mameluke  chief,  born  in  Circassia  in  1750. 
On  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French,  in  1798,  he 
opposed  them  with  great  bravery,  but  was  at  length 
compelled  to  retreat.  He  subsequently  made  a  treaty 
with  General  Kleber,  by  which  he  became  Prince  of 
Assouan  and  Djirdjeh,  under  the  protection  of  France 
Died  in  1801. 

See  General  Rertrand,  "Campagnes  d'lseypte  et  de  Syrie," 
1847;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Mooravief  or  Mooraviev,  moo-r5-ve-?f,  written 
in  German  Muravriew  or  Muravrjew,  but  pro- 
nounced exactly  like  the  preceding  spellings,  (Andrew,) 
a  Russian  writer  and  traveller,  was  a  younger  brother 
of  General  Nicholas  Mooravief.  He  published,  in  Ger- 
man, a  "History  of  the  Russian  Church,"  (1845,)  a 
"Description  of  Armenia,"  (3  vols.,  1848,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Kiev,  August  30,  1874. 

Mooravief  or  Murawie-w,  (Michael,)  a  Russian 
engineer  and  general,  born  about  1795,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  a  member  of  the  imperial 
council  about  1850.     Died  in  1866. 

Mooravief  or  Mura-wiev/,  (Michael  Nikitich,)  a 
Russian  litterateur,  born  at  Smolensk  in  1757,  was  ap- 
pointed preceptor  to  the  grand  dukes  Alexander  and 
Constantine.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical  Pieces," 
"Letters  of  Emilius,"  and  several  moral  and  literary 
essays,  which  are  ranked  among  Russian  classics.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  Gretch,  "Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Lilterature  Russe." 

Mooravief,  Mouraviev,  Muraview,  or  Mura 
vieff,  (Nicholas,)  an  able  Russian  general,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1793.  He  served  as  general  in  the  war 
against  the  Poles,  (1830.)  In  1854  he  obtained  com- 
mand of  an  army  in  Asia.  He  took  Kars  from  the 
British,  after  a  long  siege,  in  November,  1855.  He 
afterwards  commanded  with  success  against  Schamyl, 
the  Circassian  chief.     Died  in  1866. 

Moorcroft,  moor'kroft, ."  (William,)  an  English  trav- 
eller, born  in  Lancaster  about  1780,  spent  several  years 
in  Hindostan,  and  explored  parts  of  the  country  hitherto 
unknown  to  Europeans.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Travels 
in  the  Himalayan  Provinces  of  Hindostan,"  etc.,  (1841,) 
"  On  the  Purik  Sheep  of  Ladakh,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1825. 

Moore,  mor,  (Alfred,)  an  American  jurist,  son  of 
Maurice,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Brunswick  county, 
North  Carolina,  in  1755.  He  was  appointed  associate 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1799. 
Died  in  1810. 

Moore,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
on  Long  Island  in  1748,  became  Bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  diocese  of  New  York.  Died 
in  1816. 

Moore,  (Clement  C.,)  LL.D.,son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1779.  He  was  appointed 
in  1 82 1  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  literature  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Seminary  in  New  York.  He 
published  a  "  Hebrew-and-English  Lexicon,"  and  other 
works.     Died  July  10,  1863. 

Moore,  mor,  (Edward,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
Berkshire  in  1712.  He  was  the  author  of  "Fables  for 
the  Female  Sex,"  which  had  great  popularity,  and  "  The 
Gamester,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  also  very  successful. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  "The  World,"  a  literary 
journal  having  among  its  contributors  Horace  Walpole, 
Soame  Jenyns,  and  Lord  Chesterfield.     Died  in  1757. 

See  Walpole,  "Letters;"  Johnson  and  Chalmers,  "English 
Poets." 

Moore,  (Edward  M.,)  M.D.,  an  American  surgeon, 
born  at  Rahway,  New  Jersey,  July  15,  1814,  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  183S.  In  1838,  in 
conjunction  with  Dr.  C.  L.  Pennock,  of  Philadelphia, 
he  performed  a  series  of  original  experiments  on  the 
physiological  action  of  the  heart,  which  excited  much 
attention  among  physiologists.    About  1840  he  removed 


€  as  k;  9 as s;  g hard;  g as  /;  G,  H,  K, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MOORE 


1760 


MOORSOM 


to  Rochester,  New  York,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  his  profession.  For  many  years  he  has 
filled  the  chair  of  surgery  in  the  medical  college  at 
Buffalo. 

Moore,  (Frank,)  son  of  Jacob  Bailey,  noticed 
below,  has  published  "  Songs  and  Ballads  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution,"  the  "  Rebellion  Record,  a  Diary 
of  American  Events,"  (11  vols.,  1861-68,)  and  several 
other  works. 

Moore,  (Jacob  Bailey,)  an  American  political  writer 
and  editor,  born  at  Andover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1797. 
He  edited  the  "New  Hampshire  Statesman,"  a  Whig 
paper,  and  became  librarian  to  the  New  York  Historical 
Society.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Laws  of  Trade  in 
the  United  States."     Died  in  1853. 

Moore  or  More,  (James,)  an  English  writer,  %vas  the 
author  of  a  comedy  entitled  "  The  Rival  Modes,"  and 
was  associated  with  the  Duke  of  Wharton  as  editor  of 
"  The  Inquisitor."  Moore  is  satirized  by  Pope  in  hi« 
"Dunciad."     Died  in  1734. 

Moore,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  1644,  be- 
came successively  Bishop  of  Norwich  and  of  Ely.  He 
died  in  1714,  leaving  a  library  of  thirty  thousand  volumes, 
which  was  purchased  by  George  H.  and  presented  to 
the  University  of  Cambridge. 

Moore,  mor,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  distin- 
guished writer,  born  at  Stirling  about  1730.  He  studied 
under  Hamilton  and  Cullen  at  Glasgow,  and  afterwards 
spent  several  years  on  the  continent.  He  published, 
after  his  return,  "  A  View  of  Society  and  Manners  in 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,"  (1778,)  which  was 
followed  in  1781  by  a  similar  work  on  Italy.  They  are 
written  in  a  lively  and  attractive  style,  and  had  great 
popularity  at  the  time.  His  principal  work  is  his  novel 
of  "Zeluco,"  (4  vols.,  1789,)  which  was  received  with 
^reat  favour  and  still  enjoys  a  high  reputation.  Died 
m  1802. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moore,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Gloucester 
in  1733.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1776,  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  17S3.     Died  in  1805. 

Moore,  (Sir  John,)  a  celebrated  British  general,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1761,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Dr.  John 
Moore,  noticed  above.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  and  was  sent  in  1794  to  Corsica,  where  he 
acted  in  conjunction  with  Paoli,  and  was  conspicuous 
for  his  courage  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Morello  and  at  the 
siege  of  Calvi.  As  general  of  brigade,  he  served  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  in  the  West  Indies  in  1796,  and 
in  1798  assisted  in  quelling  the  Irish  rebellion.  He 
accompanied  General  Abercrombie  to  Egypt  in  1801, 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria. 
He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath  on  his  return  to 
England,  and,  after  various  services  in  Sicily  and  Sweden, 
was  created  lieutenant-general,  and  sent  in'1808  to  Spain 
to  unite  with  the  forces  in  the  north  against  the  French. 
On  the  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  troops  along 
the  northern  frontier,  and  of  the  numerous  French  armies 
approaching,  he  made  a  rapid  retreat  to  Corufia_  which, 
being  performed  in  the  depth  of  winter,  was  attended 
with  great  suffering.  On  the  l6th  of  January,  1809,  an 
engagement  took  place  at  Corunna,  in  which  tlie  English 
claimed  the  victory  but  lost  their  brave  commander. 
His  death  has  been  commemorated  by  the  poet  Wolfe 
in  a  beautiful  and  popular  ode,  which  Byron  pronounced 
the  most  perfect  in  the  English  language. 

See  James  C.  Moore,  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Moore,"  2  vols.,  1834; 
R.  SouTHEV,  "History  of  the  Peninsular  War ;"  Napier,  "His- 
tory of  the  War  in  tlie  Peninsula;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moore,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  Irish-American  bishop,  born 
at  Castletown  Delvin,  Westmeath,  Ireland,  June  27, 
1835,  was  educated  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  at 
Combree,  France,  and  at  Rome,  where  he  graduated  as 
D.D.  from  the  Propaganda  in  i860.  He  held  Roman 
Catholic  pastorships  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
1861-77,  w^s  for  six  years  vicar-general  of  Charleston, 
and  in  1877  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Saint  Augustine, 
Florida. 

Moore,  (Sir  Jonas,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
ia  Lancashire  in  161 7,  was  appointed  tutor  to  Prince 


James,  son  of  Charles  I.,  and  subsequently  became  in- 
spector-general of  artillery.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  the  author  of  several  scientific  works. 
He  was  instrumental  in  founding  a  mathematical  school 
for  sailors  at  Christ's  Hospital,  and  in  the  construction 
Df  an  observatory  at  Flamstead  House.     Died  in  1679. 

See  Birch,  "  History  of  tlie  Royal  Society." 

Moore,  (Maurice,)  an  American  jurist  and  patriot 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Brunswick  county,  North 
Carolina  ;  died  in  1777.  His  son  Alfred  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  became  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court  in  1799. 
Died  in  1810. 

Moore,  (Nathaniel  F.,)  LL.D.,  a  nephew  of  Bishop 
Benjamin  Moore,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Newtown, 
Long  Island,  in  1782.  He  became  professor  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  langtjages  in  Columbia  College  in 
1820,  and  in  1842  president  of  that  instittition.  He  i)ub- 
lished  "  Ancient  Mineralogy,"  and  other  works.   D.  1872. 

Moore,  (Richard  Channing,)  D.D.,  an  American 
prelate,  born  in  New  York  in  1762.  He  became  rector 
of  Saint  Stephen's  Church,  in  that  city,  in  1809,  and  in 
1814  succeeded  Bishop  Madison  as  Bishop  of  Virginia. 
Died  in  1841. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Channing  Moore,"  by  J.  P. 
K.  Henshaw. 

Moore,  mor,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  Irish  poet,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1779.  He  entered  Trinity  College  at  an 
early  age,  but,  being  a  Catholic,  he  was  unable  to  obtain 
any  of  the  university  honours  or  offices.  He  afterwards 
studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple,  London.  He  pub- 
lished in  1801  his  translation  of  the  "  Odes  of  Anacreon," 
which  was  very  successful,  and  was  followed  by  "The 
Poetical  Works  of  the  Late  Thomas  Little,"  (1S02.)  In 
1804  he  visited  the  United  States  of  America,  on  the 
society  and  institutions  of  which  he  made  many  satirical 
comments  in  his  "Odes  and  Epistles,"  (1806.)  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Lalla  Rookh,"  (1817,)  an 
Oriental  poem,  "The  Twopenny  Post-Bag,  by  Thomas 
Brown,  Jun.,"  (1813,)  a  witty  satire  directed  against  the 
Tories,  which  had  great  popularity,  "The  Fudge  Family 
in  Paris,"  (1818,)  "Loves  of  the  Angels,"  (1823,)  and 
"  Irish  Melodies,"  (1834.)  In  1830  he  published  a  "  Life 
of  Lord  Byron,"  his  most  important  prose  work,  which, 
although  written  entirely  from  the  stand-point  of  friend- 
ship, has  been  highly  commended  by  the  critics.  He 
also  wrote  a  "Life  of  Sheridan,"  (1825,)  "The  Epicu- 
rean," (1S27,)  a  prose  romance,  and  a  "  History  of  Ire- 
land," (1835.)  Of  his  poems,  his  "Lalla  Rookh"  and 
"Irish  Melodies"  enjoy  the  highest  reputation.  The 
former,  though  deficient  in  the  higher  qualities  of 
poetry,  is  characterized  by  exquisite  melody  of  versifica- 
tion and  splendid  imagery,  and  in  its  moral  tone  affords 
a  striking  contrast  to  the  frivolity  and  licentiousness 
of  his  earlier  productions.  It  obtained  extraordinary 
popularity,  and  was  translated  into  many  languages, 
including  Persian.  Hazlitt,  in  his  critique  on  Moore, 
says  that  "his  is  the  poetry  of  the  toilette,  of  the  saloon, 
of  the  fashionable  world, — not  the  poetry  of  nature, 
of  the  heart,  or  of  human  life.  His  imagination  may 
dally  with  insect  beauties,  but  it  should  not  attempt  to 
span  the  great  outlines  of  nature,  or  keep  pace  with 
the  sounding  march  of  events,  or  grapple  with  the  strong 
fibres  of  the  human  heart."     Died  February  26,  1852. 

See  "Memoirs,  etc.,  of  Thomas  Moore,"  by  Lord  Russell 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1817,  and  April,  1854;  "Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1853  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Septem- 
ber, 1827.  and  January.  1S53;  "  Fmser's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1830;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September.  i8u6. 

Moore,  (Thomas,)  an  English  botanist,  born  at  Stoke- 
next-Guildford,  May  29,  1821.  He  published  "  Hand- 
Book  of  British  Ferns,"  (1848,)  "Elements  of  Botany," 
(1S65,)  "Epitome  of  Gardening,"  (18S1,)  and  other 
works,  chietiy  on  ferns  and  orchids.     Died  Jan.  i,  1887. 

Moore,  (Zephaniah  Swift,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Palmer,  Massachusetts,  in 
1770,  became  president  of  Williams  College  in  1815, 
and  in  1821  of  Amherst  College.     Died  in  1823. 

Moor'som,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  brave  English  admiral, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1760.  Being  appointed  in  1805 
commander  of  the  Revenge,  he  had  a  prominent  part 


i,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  nSt;  good; 


moon; 


MO  OS  A 


1761 


MORAN 


in  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  He  afterwards  represented 
Queensboroiigh  in  Parliament,  and  was  made  an  admiral 
in  1830.     Died  in  1835. 

Moosa.     See  Moses. 

Moosa,  Mousa,  or  Musa,  moo'si,  third  son  of 
Bayazeed  I.,  was  born  at  Brusa  about  1376.  He  was 
made  prisoner  with  his  father  by  Tamerlane  after  the 
battle  of  Angora.  Being  afterwards  appointed  by  the 
latter  governor  of  the  Ottoman  provinces  of  Asia  Minor, 
he  carried  on  a  war  against  his  elder  brother  Solyman, 
whose  capital  Adrianople  he  took  in  1404,  thus  becoming 
master  of  the  European  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  In 
1412  he  besieged  Constantinople,  but,  having  been  forced 
to  retire,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  strangled  by  order 
of  Mahomet  I. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Moosa,  Mousa,  or  Musa,  Ibn,  Tbn  moo'sJ,  (Aboo- 
Abdallah-Mohammed,  5'boo  Sb-dJl'lah  mo-h5m'- 
m§d,)  an  Arabian  mathematician,  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  on  algebra  entitled  "Al  Jebr  e  al  Mokabalah." 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of  his  countrymen  who 
wrote  on  that  science  ;  and  Europe  is  indebted  to  him 
for  its  introduction  and  its  name. 

Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr,  moo'sd  Tb'n  no-sar',  (or  no- 
sir',)  (Aboo-Abd-er-Rahman,  a'boo  .Wder  rSh'mJn,) 
a  celebrated  Arab  conqueror,  was  born  at  Mecca  about 
660  A.D.  He  was  appointed  in  703  Viceroy  of  Africa, 
and,  having  subjected  the  northern  part  of  that  country, 
from  Tripoli  to  Morocco,  he  turned  his  arms  against 
Spain.  In  conjunction  with  his  lieutenant  Tarik,  he  took 
Seville,  Merida,  Saragossa,  and  other  cities  of  Southern 
and  Central  Spain,  to  which  he  subsequently  added  the 
most  important  towns  of  Catalonia.  Among  other  ar- 
ticles of  great  value  of  which  he  had  possessed  himself 
was  the  emerald  table  called  the  table  of  Solomon,  taken 
at  Medina-Celi.  Moosa,  having  been  summoned  to  Da- 
mascus by  the  caliph,  presented  to  him  this  table,  and, 
on  his  expressing  his  surprise  that  it  should  have  three 
legs  of  emerald  and  one  of  gold,  Moosa  replied  that  he 
had  found  it  in  this  condition.  Tarik,  however,  imme- 
diately exposed  the  falsehood  of  his  rival  by  producing 
the  fourth  leg  of  the  table.  For  this  offence  he  was 
condemned  to  a  heavy  fine  by  Solyman,  who  afterwards 
caused  his  son  Abd-el-azeez  to  be  assassinated.  Moosa 
died  in  obscurity  in  718. 

See  Aboolfeda,  "Annates  Moslemici ;"  Makkari,  "  History  of 
the  Mohammedan  Empire  in  Spain." 

Moosa-  (Mousa-  or  Musa-)  Ibn-Shakir,  moo'sS 
Ib'n  shi'kir,  an  Arab  writer  of  the  early  part  of  the  ninth 
century,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Sources  of  History." 
He  left  three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  eminent  as 
an  astronomer  and  was  the  author  of  several  valuable 
works. 

Mooyaert.     See  Moojaert. 

Mop'sus,  [Gr.  M6i/;of,]  a  famous  soothsayer  of  classic 
mythology,  was  called  a  son  of  Apollo  and  Manto. 
According  to  tradition,  he  gained  celebrity  by  the  truth 
of  his  prophecies  at  the  siege  of  Thebes  and  at  the 
temple  of  Claros,  and  he  triumphed  over  Calchas  in  a 
trial  of  skill  in  divination. 

Moquin-Tandon,  mo'k^N'  tSw'ddN',  (Horace  Bene- 
dict Alfred,)  a  French  physician  and  botanist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1804.  He  was  appointed  in  1S53  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  in  the  Medical  Faculty  of  Paris, 
and  in  1854  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences. He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Anomalies  of 
Vegetable  Organization,"  (1841,)  and  "Essay  on  the 
Multiplication  of  Organs  in  Vegetables."     Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Mora,  de,  di  mo'rJ,  (Jos6  Joaqui.n,)  a  Spanish  lit- 
tirateur,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1784.  Having  previously  edited 
a  literary  journal  at  Madrid,  he  repaired  to  South  Amer- 
ica, and  became  editor  of  the  "Cronica  Politica"  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  He  was  appointed  in  1838  consul-general 
of  h'llivia  to  London.  He  published  a  "History  of 
the  Arabs,"  (1826,)  "Spanish  Legends,"  (1840,)  and  a 
number  of  lyric  poems  and  satires.  He  also  trans- 
lated into  -Spanish  Sir  Walter  Scott's  romances  of 
"  Ivanhoe"  and  "  The  Talisman." 

See  F.  Wolf,  "  Floresta  de  Rimas  modemas  Castellanas." 


Morabin,  mo'ri'biN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  scholar, 
born  at  La  Fleche  in  1687.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Cicero,"  and  translated  into  French  Cicero's 
"Treatise  on  Laws"  and  "Treatise  on  Consolation." 
Died  in  1762. 

Moraes,  de,  di  mo-rJ'gs,  (Cristovam  Alao  — 
i-16wN',)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  1632,  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Genealogy  of  the  Families  of  Portugal," 
and  a  number  of  sonnets  and  other  poems.   Died  in  1693. 

Moraes,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born 
at  Braganza.  He  went  to  Paris  as  secretary  of  legation 
in  the  leign  of  Francis  I.  His  chief  work  is  "Libro 
del  muy  esfor9ado  Cauallero  Palmerin  de  Inglaterra," 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  Southey.  Moraes 
was  assassinated  at  Evora  in  1572. 

Moraes  Sarmento,  mo-ri'es  saR-m§n'to,  (JoXo 
EvANGELiSTA,)  a  Portuguese  poet  of  the  present  time. 
Among  his  works  is  an  "  Ode  on  War." 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Morals,  mo-ris',  (Sabato,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  author, 
born  at  Leghorn,  Italy,  in  April,  1824,  graduated  in  1845 
at  the  Hebrew  University  of  Leghorn,  became  in  1846  a 
teacher  in  the  Hebrew  Orphan  School  of  London,  and 
in  1851  removed  to  Philadelphia  and  became  preacher 
of  the  Congregation  Mikveh- Israel.  His  works  are 
chiefly  polemical,  or  on  subjects  connected  with  Hebrew 
literature. 

Morales,  mo-ri'15s,  (Cristoval,)  a  Spanish  musician, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  composers  of  his  time,  was  a 
native  of  Seville.  He  was  appointed  by  Pope  Paul  III. 
composer  in  the  pontifical  chapel.    He  lived  about  1550. 

Morales,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  in  Andalusia  about  1598.  He  went  to  China  in 
1633,  but  was  compelled  to  quit  that  country  in  1638 
through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  censured 
for  permitting  their  converts  to  sacrifice  to  idols.  He 
returned  to  China,  where  he  died  in  1664. 

Morales,  de,  di  mo-ri'l£s,  (Ambrosio,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Cordova  in  1513.  He  studied 
at  Alcala,  where  he  subsequently  became  professor,  and 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Don  John  of  Austria.  In 
1570  he  succeeded  Ocami:)o  as  historiographer  to  Philip 
II.  His  principal  work  is  a  continuation  of  Ocampo's 
"Cronica  general  de  Espaiia,"  (3  vols.,  1577,)  bringing 
the  history  of  Spain  down  to  1037.  Morales  also  pub- 
lished a  valuable  treatise  "On  the  Antiquities  of  the 
Spanish  Cities."     Died  in  1591. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  ot"  Spanish  Literature;"  Bouterwkk, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole." 

Morales,  de,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Anda- 
lusia, lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  made  admirable 
translations  of  some  odes  of  Horace,  and  wrote  original 
poems  of  much  merit. 

Morales,  de,  (Luis.)  an  eminent  Spanish  painter, 
surnamed  el  Diving,  ("the  Divine,")  born  at  Badajoz 
in  1509.  He  was  employed  by  Philip  II.  to  decorate 
the  Escurial  ;  but  he  subsequently  lost  the  king's  patron- 
age and  was  reduced  to  great  poverty.  He  was  relieved 
a  few  years  before  his  death  by  a  pension  bestowed  upon 
him  by  Philip.  His  "  Via  Dolorosa,"  in  the  church  of  the 
Hieronymites,  at  Madrid,  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master- 
pieces.    Died  in  1586. 

SeeQuiLLiKT,  "Dictionnairedes  Peintres  Espagnols  ;"  Viardot, 
"Etudes  sur  I'Histoire  des  Beaux-Arts  en  Espagne,"  1835. 

Morali,  mo-r^lee,  (Ottavio,)  Abb6,  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Bergamo  in  1763,  became  professor 
of  Greek  at  the  College  of  Brera,  in  Milan.  He  pub- 
lished a  good  edition  of  Ariosto,  (1818.)     Died  in  1826. 

Mo-ran',  (Edward,)  an  American  painter  of  marine 
views  and  landscapes,  born  about  1845.  Among  his  best 
works  are  "The  Swallows'  Cave,  Nahant,"  and  "Pulpit 
Rock." 

See  TucKEKMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Moran,  (Peter,)  a  successful  painter,  a  brother  of 
Edward  Moran.  lie  was  born  at  Bolton,  March  4, 1842. 
He  studied  under  his  brother  Thomas,  and  in  London, 
and  became  a  resident  of  Piiiladelphia.  His  chief  suc- 
cesses have  been  in  pastoral  landscapes  and  cattle-pieces. 

Moran,  (Thomas,)  a  distinguished  artist,  born  at 
Bolton,  England,  January  12,  1837.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1844.     He  learned  wood-engraving  in 


€  as  <(;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,giiCtnral;  N,  nasal;  K,  triiled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^='See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 

Ill 


MORAND 


1762 


MORDAUNT 


Philadelphia.  He  learned  the  art  of  painting  under  no 
master,  though  he  studied  in  most  of  the  great  galleries 
of  Europe.  He  also  accompanied  many  of  the  United 
States  exploring  expeditions  in  the  mountains  of  the  far 
West.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Grand  Caiion  of 
the  Yellowstone,"  (1872,)  now  in  the  United  States  Cap- 
itol at  Washington,  "The  Chasm  of  the  Colorado,"  also 
in  the  Capitol,  "The  Mountain  of  the  Holy  Cross," 
(1875,)  "Childe  Roland,"  "Ponce  de  Leon  in  Florida," 
"  Dreamland,"  etc.  He  also  has  been  an  industrious 
illustrator  of  books. 

Morand,  mo'rSN',  (Charles  Antoine  Louis  Ale- 
xis,) CoMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Pontarlierin  1771. 
He  served  as  general  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau,  Essling, 
and  Wagram,  (1805-09.)     Died  in  1835. 

Morand,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Brian9on  about  1727.  He  executed  several  important 
works  at  Lyons,  one  of  which  is  a  wooden  bridge  over 
the  Rhone,  which  bears  his  name.  He  was  condemned 
by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and  put  to  death  in  1794. 

Morand,  (Jean  Francois  Clement,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, son  of  Sauveur  Francois,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1726.  He  became  librarian  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  was  a  member  of  several  other  learned 
societies  in  Europe.     Died  in  1784. 

Morand,(SAUVEUR  FRANgois,)adistinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1697,  was  the  first  who  intro- 
duced into  France  Cheselden's  method  of  lithotomy, 
having  previously  learned  it  in  London.  He  was  a  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  appointed  in 
1730  royal  censor  and  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  hospital 
of  La  Charite.  He  published  a  number  of  surgical 
treatises.     Died  in  1773. 

See  fiLOY,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  Medecine." 

Morand,  de,  deh  mo'r6N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  at  Aries  in  1701,  was  the  author  of  a  comedy 
entitled  "The  Spirit  of  Divorce,"  and  several  tragedies. 
Died  in  1757. 

Morande,  de,  deh  mo'rftNd',  (Charles  Th^venot 
or  Theveneau  —  tiv'no',)  a  French  adventurer  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Arnay-le-Duc  in  1748,  was  the 
author  of  "The  Cynic  Philosopher,"  and  other  works 
of  a  libellous  character.     Died  about  1803. 

Morandi-Manzolini,  mo-rSn'dee  mSn-zo-lee'nee, 
(Anna,)  a  celebrated  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1716,  was  the  wife  of  G.  Manzolini,  a  physician,  from 
whom  she  learned  anatomy  and  the  art  of  modelling  in 
wax.  Her  works  in  this  department  were  regarded  as 
the  most  perfect  of  the  kind,  and  obtained  for  her  a 
European  reputation.  She  was  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Bologna,  and  in  1758  became  professor  of  anatomy 
in  that  city.     Died  in  1774. 

Moran'dini,  mo-rln-dee'nee,  (Francesco,)  called  It 
PoPPi,  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Poppi  in  1544, 
was  a  pupil  of  Vasari.  He  worked  with  great  facility. 
Died  about  1584. 

Morando,  mo-r.ln'do,  (Filippo  Rosa,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1732;  died  in  1757. 

Mo-rant',  ?  (Philip,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  the 
isle  of  Jersey  in  1700,  published,  among  other  works, 
"  History  and  Antiquities  of  Colchester,"  and  "History 
of  Essex."     Died  in  1770. 

Morard  de  Galle,  mo'rtR'  deh  gtl,  (Justin  Bona- 
VENTURF.,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1741 ; 
died  in  1809. 

Morata,  mo-rd'tJ,  (Olympia  Fulvia,)  an  Italian  lady, 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  women  of  her  time, 
was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1526.  She  was  married  about 
1550  to  Andrew  Gundler,  a  German  physician,  whom 
she  accompanied  to  Germany.  She  died  at  Heidelberg 
in  1555,  leaving  a  number  of  works,  including  Latin 
orations  and  Greek  poems. 

^  See  TuRNBULL,  "Olympia  Morata,  her  Life  and  Times,"  1S46; 
NoLTEN,  "Vita  Olympia  Moratae,"  1775;  J.  ISonnet,  "Vie  d'Olym- 
pia  Morata,"  1S56;  Wildermuth,  "  O.  Morata;  ein  christliches 
Lebeiisbild,"  1S54;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Moratin,de,dimo-ra-teen',  (Leandro  Fernandez,) 
an  eminent  dramatist,  sometimes  called  "the  Spanish 
Moliere,"  was  born  at  Madrid  in  1760.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in   1787,  through  the  influence  of  Jovellanos, 


secretary  to  the  Spanish  embassy  in  Paris,  and  published, 
soon  after  his  return,  his  comedy  of  "The  Old  Man 
and  the  Young  Girl,"  ("El  Viejo  y  la  Nina,")  which 
was  very  successful.  Among  the  most  popular  of  his 
other  works  are  "The  Impostor,"  ("El  Baron,")  "Yes 
of  the  Maidens,"  ("Si  de  las  Ninas,")  "The  Young 
Hypocrite,"  ("  La  Mogigata,")  and  "  The  New  Comedy," 
("La  Comedia  nueva.")  His  "Origines  del  Teatro 
Espanol,"  (1838,)  a  critical  treatise,  is  also  highly  es- 
teemed. Moratin  became  first  librarian  to  Joseph  Bona- 
parte in  iSii,  and  during  the  subsequent  troubles  in 
Spain  took  refuge  in  France,  where  he  died  in  1828. 

See  Kennedy,  "  Modern  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  ;"  Prescott, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  li.  part  i. ;  Ochoa,  No- 
tice of  Moratin,  prefixed  to  his  "Origines  del  Teatro  Espanol," 
1838;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1828. 

Moratin,  de,  (Nicolas  Fernandez,)  a  Spanish  poet 
and  dramatist,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Madrid  in  1737.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Hormesinda," 
and  several  other  dramas  in  the  French  style,  also  of  an 
epic  poem  entitled  "The  Ships  of  Cortez  Destroyed," 
("Las  Naves  de  Cortes  destruidas,")  which  has  a  high 
reputation.     Died  in  1780. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  Loncfeli^w, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1827. 

Moray,  Earl  of.  See  Murray,  (James  Stuart.) 
Moray  or  Murray,  mur're,  (Sir  Robert,)  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  was  a 
native  of  Scotland.  Having  resided  for  a  time  in  France, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIII.  and  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  he  was  appointed,  after  the  restoration,  to 
several  important  offices.  He  was  the  first  president  of 
the  Royal  Society,  which  he  assisted  to  found  in  1661. 
Died  in  1673. 

See  Birch,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Morazan,  mo-rS-sIn',  (Francisco,)  a  Central  Amer- 
ican general,  born  in  Honduras  in  1799.  He  berame 
president  or  general-in-chief  of  the  republic  of  C'^ntral 
America  about  1830,  was  driven  into  exile  in  1840,  and 
put  to  death  in  1842. 

Morazzone.     See  Ma7.zuchei.li. 

Morcelli,  moR-chel'Iee,  (  Stefano  Antonio,  )  a 
learned  Italian  antiquary  and  Jesuit,  born  near  Brescia 
in  1737.  Among  his  principal  works  (which  are  mostly 
written  in  Latin)  we  may  name  "Africa  Christiana," 
(3  vols.,  1816-17,)  illustrating  the  history  of  the  Church 
in  Africa,  "Opera  Epigraphica,"  (5  vols.,  1818,)  "Opus- 
coli  ascetici,"  (3  vols.,  1820,)  and  a  treatise  "On  the 
Style  of  Latin  Inscriptions,"  (3  vols.,  1819-22.)  He 
founded  an  academy  of  archasology  at  Rome,  where  he 
passed  many  years.     Died  in  1821. 

See    P.    LoTTiERi,    "  Elogio  storico  di   S.  A.  Morcelli,"  1831 
Baraldi,  "  Notizia  di  Morcelli,"  1825. 

Mordaunt,  mor'dant,  (Charles,)  Earl  of  Peter- 
borough, a  famous  English  general,  of  chivalrous  and 
eccentric  character,  born  in  1658,  was  the  son  and  heir 
of  John,  Lord  Mordaunt.  He  first  appears  prominently 
in  history  as  a  staunch  Whig  and  opponent  of  James  II. 
In  16S9  he  was  created  Earl  of  Monmouth  and  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  but  the  next  year  he  retired 
from  that  office,  which  was  ill  suited  to  his  volatile  and 
generous  character.  He  afterwards  inherited  the  title 
of  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Peterborough.  During  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession  he  commanded  an  Eng- 
lish army  of  5000  men  which  arrived  in  Spain  in  1705 
and  performed  a  series  of  brilliant  exploits,  among  which 
was  the  capture  of  Barcelona  and  Valencia,  (1706.) 
Thwarted  in  his  plans  by  the  archduke  Charles  of 
Austria,  he  obtained  leave  to  retire  from  the  army,  and 
was  recalled  to  England  in  1707.  Through  hostility  to 
Marlborough,  he  supported  the  Tories  in  the  political 
contests  which  ensued,  and  after  the  accession  of  George 
I.  was  consequently  excluded  from  office.  He  died  in 
1735.  ^^'s  second  wife  was  Anastasia  Robinson,  a  cele- 
brated singer  and  actress.  In  the  opinion  of  Macaulay, 
he  was  "  the  most  extraordinary  character  of  that  age, 
the  King  of  Sweden  not  excepted.  His  fertility  and 
activity  of  mind  were  almost  beyond  belief.  He  loved 
to  dictate  six  or  seven  letters  at  once.     He  was  a  kind 


a,  e.  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fit ,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MORDEN 


1763 


MORE 


friend,  a  generous  enemy,  and  a  thorough  gentleman. 
But  his  splendid  talents  and  virtues  were  rendered 
almost  useless  to  his  country  by  his  levity,  his  restless- 
ness, his  irritability,  his  morbid  craving  for  novelty  and 
excitement."  ("Essays.") 

See  Macaulav,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xi.,  and 
his  Review  of  Lord  Mahon's  "  History  of  the  War  of  the  Siicces 
sion  in  Spain;"  Friend,  "Account  of  the  Earl  of  Peterborough, 
etc.  in  Spain;"  Burnet,  "History  of  his  Own  Times;"  Lord 
Mahon,  "War  of  ihs  Succession  in  Spain;"  Walpole,  "Royal 
and  Noble  Authors;"  "Eccentric  Personages,"  by  William  Rus 
SELL,  1866. 

Morden,  Lord.  See  Yorke,  (Charles.) 
More,  moR,  [Lat.  Mo'rus,]  (Alexander,)  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Castres 
in  16 16.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva  in 
1639,  and  of  history  at  Amsterdam  in  1651.  He  was  the 
author  of  Latin  poems  and  other  works.  Died  in  1670. 
See  SvMMONS,  "Life  of  Milton;"  S^nebier,  "Histoire  litt^- 
nire  de  Genfeve." 

More,  (Antonio.)     See  Moor. 

More,  (Hannah,)  an  English  writer,  whose  moral 
and  religious  works  enjoyed  great  popularity  in  her  time, 
was  born  at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  in  1745.  She  pub- 
lished in  1773  a  pastoral  drama,  entitled  "The  Search 
after  Happiness,"  and  in  1774  "The  Inflexible  Cap- 
tive," a  tragedy,  which  introduced  her  to  the  notice  of 
Garrick,  Dr.  Johnson,  and  other  eminent  men  of  that 
period,  by  whom  she  was  greatly  esteemed  for  the  excel- 
lence of  her  character.  She  was  the  author  of  several 
other  dramas,  which  were  very  favourably  received  ;  but, 
owing  to  her  convictions  of  the  immoral  tendency  of 
the  stage,  she  abandoned  dramatic  writing,  and,  while 
her  popularity  was  still  at  its  height,  devoted  herself  to 
compositions  of  a  moral  and  religious  character.  Among 
the  principal  of  these  we  may  name  "Thoughts  on 
the  Manners  of  the  Great,"  (1788,)  "Strictures  on  the 
Modern  System  of  Female  Education,"  (1799,)  "Hints 
towards  Forming  the  Character  of  a  Young  Princess," 
(1805,)  written  for  Charlotte,  Princess  of  Wales,  "  Coelebs 
in  Search  of  a  Wife,"  (1809,)  and  several  contributions 
to  the  "Cheap  Repository  Tracts,"  one  of  which  is 
entitled  "The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain."  Died 
in  1833. 

See  William  Roberts,  "Memoirs  of  tlie  Life,  etc.  of  Hannah 
More  ;"  Mrs.  H.  C.  Knight,  "  A  New  Memoir  of  Hannah  More  ;" 
H.  Thompson,  "Life  of  Hannah  More,"  etc.,  1838;  Mrs.  Elwood, 
■'Memoirs  of  the  Literarj'  Ladies  of  England,"  etc.;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  February,  i8og,  April,  1813,  and  February,  1820. 

More,  [Lat.  Mo'kus.]  (Henry,)  an  English  divine 
and  philosophical  writer,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1614. 
He  studied  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
was  chosen  a  Fellow.  He  refused  several  high  prefer- 
ments in  the  church,  and  passed  his  life  in  retirement, 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Psychozoia,  or  the  Life  of  the  Soul,"  (1640,) 
"Enchiridium  Metaphysicum,"  "Conjectura  Cabali." 
tica,"  "The  Mystery  of  Godliness,"  "Discourse  on  tht 
Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  and  other  works,  in  which  he 
favours  the  Platonic  system.  He  was  a  man  of  fine 
genius,  profound  learning,  and  rare  excellence  of  char- 
acter. He  was  one  of  the  first  Fellows  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of  Des- 
cartes.    Died  in  1687. 

See  R.  Ward,  "  Life  of  Henry  More,"  1710;  Burnet,  "His- 
tory of  his  Own  Times  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  (1S22.) 

More,  (James.)     See  Moore. 

More,  [Lat.  Mo'rus  ;  It.  and  Sp.  Mo'ro,]  (Sir 
Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  wit,  philosopher,  and 
statesman,  born  in  London  in  14S0,  was  a  son  of  Sir 
John  More,  a  judge  of  the  court  of  king's  bench.  He 
received  the  first  rudiments  of  his  education  at  Saint 
Anthony's  School,  London,  where  he  learned  Latin. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  became  a  page  in  the  house  of 
Cardinal  Morton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  prime 
minister,  who  was  much  pleased  with  the  wit  of  young 
More  and  predicted  that  he  would  prove  "  a  marvellous 
man."  In  1497  he  entered  the  University  of  Oxford, 
where  he  studied  Greek  as  a  pupil  of  Grocyn  and  formed 
an  intimate  and  lasting  friendship  with  Erasmus.  He 
gained  distinction  at  Oxford  as  a  writer  of  English  and 
of  Latin  verses.  Having  left  college,  he  studied  law  at 
Lincoln's  Inn.     "  He  manifested,"  says  Mackintosh,  "a 


predilection  for  monastic  life,  and  is  said  to  have  prac- 
tised some  of  those  austerities  and  self-inflictions  which 
prevail  among  the  gloomier  and  more  stern  orders." 
He  resolved,  indeed,  at  one  time  to  turn  monk,  and  act- 
ually became  a  lay  brother  of  the  Carthusian  convent 
(the  Charter-House)  in  London,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
passed  several  years,  devoting  himself  at  the  same  time 
to  the  study  of  the  classics,  the  French  language,  and 
music.  He  afterwards  entertained  thoughts  of  becoming 
a  priest ;  but  on  further  reflection,  and  influenced  per- 
haps by  the  general  corruption  of  the  priestly  orders,  he 
abandoned  his  design.  In  the  words  of  Erasmus,  "  Ma- 
luit  maritus  esse  castus  quam  sacerdos  impurns,"  ("he 
preferred  to  be  a  chaste  husband  rather  than  an  imi)ure 
priest.")  About  1502  he  married  Jane  Colt,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  a  gentleman  of  Essex.  He  had  a  slight 
preference  for  her  younger  sister,  but  was  so  good- 
natured  that  he  sacrificed  his  inclination,  that  he  might 
not  wound  the  feelings  of  the  eldest.  This  union  proved 
very  happy,  but  his  wife  died  a  few  years  after  her  mar 
riage,  leaving  him  a  son  and  three  daughters,  of  whom 
Margaret,  the  eldest,  inherited  the  features,  goodness, 
and  genius  of  her  father.  His  graceful  and  varied  learn- 
ing was  only  surpassed  by  his  sprightly,  inexhaustible 
wit.  "With  him,"  says  Erasmus,  "you  might  imagine 
yourself  in  the  Academy  of  Plato."  He  attained  great 
eminence  at  the  bar,  and  about  1 502  became  an  under- 
sheriff  of  London, — i.e.  a  judge  of  the  sheriffs  court.  He 
ajDpears  to  have  been  the  first  Englishman  that  cultivated 
oratory  with  any  great  success.  "  He  is,"  says  Mackin- 
tosh, "the  first  person  in  our  history  distinguished  by 
the  faculty  of  public  speaking,  and  remarkable  for  the 
successful  employment  of  it  in  Parliament  against  a 
lavish  grant  of  money  to  the  crown."  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  about  1504,  and,  by  persuading  the  Com- 
mons not  to  grant  a  supply  to  Henry  VII.  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  marriage  of  his  daughter,  deeply  offended 
that  king.  More  had  in  consequence  resolved  to  leave 
the  country  ;  but  the  death  of  Henry  relieved  him  from 
all  apprehensions. 

Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he  married  a  widow'  named 
Alice  Middleton.  In  1513  he  wrote  a  "History  of 
Richard  III.,"  which,  says  Hallam,  "  appears  to  me  the 
first  example  of  good  English  language,  pure  and  per- 
spicuous, well  chosen,  without  vulgarisms  or  pedantry." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Flanders  in  15 14,  and  about  that 
date  became  a  favourite  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  not  only 
consulted  him  in  affairs  of  state,  but  preferred  him  as 
the  companion  of  his  amusements  and  convivial  hours. 
In  1516  he  produced  his  famous  Platonic  fiction  of 
"Utopia,"  (in  Latin,)  describing  an  imaginary  common- 
wealth in  the  island  of  Utopia,  the  citizens  of  which 
had  all  things  in  common.  He  resigned  the  oflice  of 
under-sheriff  in  15 19,  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the 
exchequer  in  1521,  and  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1523.  He  gave  proof  of  his  firmness 
and  independence  by  his  answer  to  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
who  demanded  a  very  great  subsidy  for  the  king.  About 
1523  More  began  to  write  tracts  against  Luther. 

In  October,  1529,  he  was  appointed  lord  chancelloi 
in  place  of  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Although  the  Protestants 
were  persecuted  while  he  held  that  office,  it  would  appear 
that  he  was  not  responsible  for  the  persecution.  "  It  is 
a  sufficient  proof  of  his  clemency,"  says  Erasmus,  "  that 
while  he  was  chancellor  no  man  was  put  to  death  foi 
these  pestilent  dogmas."* 


*  This  statement  is  contradicted  by  Froude,  who  says,  "  Soon  after 
the  seals  changed  hands,  the  Smithfield  fires  recommenced  ;  and,  the 
chancellor  acting  in  concert  with  them,  the  bishops  resolved  to  ob- 
literate, in  these  edifying  spectacles,  the  recollection  of  tlieir  general 
infirmities."  He  afterwards  cites  the  case  of  Bainham,  who  wa.s 
burned  in  April,  1532,  a  short  time  before  More  resigned  the  office 
of  chancellor.  The  account  of  Bainham's  execution  appears  to  rest 
upon  the  single  testimony  of  Foxe,  who,  though  generally  trust- 
worthy, might  possibly  be  mistaken,  especially  when  he  was  obliged 
to  depend  wholly  on  the  statements  of  others.  He  was  but  a  boy 
when  Bainham's  death  took  place.  More,  whose  word  is  not  to  be 
lightly  set  aside,  expressly  denies  in  his  "  Apology"  (published  the 
next  year)  that  he  was  guilty  of  any  cruel  treatment  of  the  heretics. 
If  the  denial_  was  false,  there  were  doubtless  many  then  living  who 
could  prove  it  to  be  so.  It  appears,  however,  never  to  have  been 
contradicted.  How  far  he  was  responsible  for  the  acts  of  the  bishops 
it  is  difficult  to  say. 


^'as  k;  t  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi,gntiural;  N,  fuual;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23. '. 


MO  RE A U 


1764 


MO  RE A U 


Suitors  were  astonished  at  the  contrast  between  the 
afTaljIe  More  and  the  haughty  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Sir 
Thomas  resigned  the  great  seal  in  May,  1532,  1:>ecause 
his  conscience  refused  to  sanction  the  divorce  of  Queen 
Catherine  and  the  second  marriage  of  the  king.  "  Henry 
had  tried  every  possible  means  to  obtain  at  least  the 
appearance  of  his  spontaneous  approbation."  (Mackin- 
tosh.) In  1533  he  wrote  a  work  called  "The  Apology 
of  Sir  Thomas  More." 

Having  declined  to  take  the  oath  by  which  he  was  re- 
quired to  acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  king's  marriage 
with  Anne  Bolevn,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  in 
April,  1534.  After  he  had  been  in  prison  more  than  a 
year,  he  was  charged  with  denying  the  king's  supremacy 
as  the  head  of  the  Church;  and,  his  answers  not  having 
been  found  satisfactory,  he  was  pronounced  guilty  of 
treason,  and  was  beheaded  on  the  6th  of  July,  1535. 
"The  scaffold  had  been  awkwardly  erected,  and  shook 
as  he  i)laced  his  foot  upon  the  ladder.  '  See  me  safe  up,' 
he  said  to  Kingston  ;  '  for  my  coming  down  I  can  shift 
for  myself  .  .  .  The  executioner  offered  to  tie  his  eyes. 
•  I  will  cover  them  myself,'  he  said  ;  and,  binding  them  in 
a  cloth  which  he  had  brought  with  him,  he  knelt,  and 
laid  his  head  upon  the  block.  The  fatal  stroke  was 
about  to  fall,  when  he  signed  for  a  moment's  delay,  while 
he  moved  aside  his  beard.  '  Pity  that  should  be  cut,' 
he  murmured  :  '  that  has  not  committed  treason.'  With 
which  strange  words, — the  strangest,  perhaps,  ever  ut- 
tered at  such  a  time, — the  lips  most  famous  through 
Euro])e  for  eloquence  and  wisdom  closed  forever." 
(Fronde's  "  History  of  England,"  chap,  ix.)  Alluding 
to  his  behaviour  on  the  scaffold,  Addison  remarks, 
"  The  innocent  mirth  which  had  been  so  conspicuous  in 
his  life  did  not  forsake  him  at  the  last.  His  death  was 
of  a  piece  with  his  life  ;  there  was  nothing  in  it  new, 
forced,  or  affected.  He  did  not  look  upon  the  severing 
his  head  from  his  body  as  a  circumstance  which  ought 
to  produce  any  change  in  the  disposition  of  his  mind  ; 
and,  as  he  died  in  a  fixed  and  settled  hope  of  immor- 
tality, he  thought  any  unusual  degree  of  sorrow  and 
concern  improper."  ("  Spectator,"  No.  349.)  According 
to  the  account  of  his  great-grandson,  More  "  was  of  a 
middle  stature,  well  proportioned,  of  a  pale  complexion, 
his  hair  of  chestnut  colour,  his  eyes  gray,  his  counte- 
nance mild  and  cheerful." 

See  "The  Life  and  Death  of  Sir  Thomas  More,"  by  his  great- 
grandson,  C.  More.  1626  :  William  Ropkr,  "Vita  T.  Mori,"  1626, 
Sir  James  Mackintosh,  "  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  More,"  1830;  Fer- 
nando DE  Hekrrra,  "T.  Moro,"  1592;  F.  Warner,  "Memoirs 
of  the  Life  of  Sir  T.  More,"  175.S  ;  C.  More,  "  Life  of  Sir  T.  More," 
1828;  DiiMENico  Rrggi,  "Vita  di  T.  More,"  1675:  Arthur  Cay- 
ley,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  T.  More,"  2  vols.,  iSoS;  C.  Daresth,  "T. 
Morns  et  T.  Campanello,"  1S43  ;  Audin,  "  Histoire  de  T.  Morns," 
1852;  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  W.  J. 
Walter,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  T.  More,"  1847  :  J,  Hoddksuon, 
"T.  Mori  Vita,"  etc.,  1652;  Froude,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Ruu- 
hart,  "T.  Morus,"  i82g. 

Moreau,  mo'ro',  (C6sar,)  a  French  economist  and 
writer  on  statistics,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1791.  He 
published  several  works  on  commerce,  etc.  Died  in  i860. 
Moreau,  (Francois  Joseph,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Auxonne  in  1789,  practised  in  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Trait^  des  Accouchements,"  (2  vols.,  183S-41.) 
Died  in  1862. 

Moreau,  (H^g^sippe,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Pans 
in  1810,  was  the  author  of  songs,  elegies,  and  satires,  of 
considerable  merit,  and  a  prose  work  entitled  "The 
Mistletoe  of  the  Oak,"  ("Le  Gui  de  Chene.")  He  died, 
in  great  poverty,  in  1838. 

Moreau,  (Jacob  Nicolas,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
.Saint-Florentin  in  1717,  was  appointed  historiographer 
of  France  under  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  a  "Discourse 
on  the  History  of  France,"  "  Duties  of  a  Prince,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1803. 

Moreau,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Angers  in  1656,  was  patronized  at  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  employed  by  Racine  to 
comjiose  the  choruses  for  his  "  Athalie"  and  "Esther." 
Died  in  1733. 

Moreau,  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French  engraver  and 
designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1741,  became  draughtsman  of 
the  royal  cabinet,  and  a  member  of  the  Acadeiny  of 
Painting.     He  executed  one  hundred  and  sixty  plates 


for  the  "  History  of  France,"  and  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred for  editions  of  Voltaire  and  Moliere.  Died  in  1814. 
Moreau,  (Jean  Victor,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
generals  of  France,  was  born  at  Morlaix,  in  Brittany, 
.•\ugust  II,  1763.  He  studied  law,  and  was  provost  of 
law  at  Rennes  just  before  the  Revolution.  In  1792  he 
enlisted  in  the  republican  army,  and,  as  chef  de  bataillon, 
served  under  Dumouriez.  He  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1793,  and  a  general  of  division  in  1794.  In 
the  latter  year  he  commanded  with  Sclat  the  right  wing 
of  Pichegru's  army,  which  conquered  Holland.  In  the 
spring  of  1796  he  succeeded  Pichegru  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  and  opened 
the  campaign  which  was  the  fomidation  of  his  military 
fame.  His  passage  of  the  Rhine  at  Strasbourg  was  greatly 
applauded.  He  drove  the  Austrians  back  to  the  Danube, 
and  then,  finding  his  army  outnumbered,  after  several 
indecisive  actions  he  performed  the  famous  and  masterly 
retreat  through  the  Black  Forest,  which  was  one  of  his 
chief  exploits.  He  was  susi^ended  from  the  command 
in  1797  by  the  Directory,  who  probably  suspected  bin' 
of  comi)licity  in  the  defection  of  his  friend  Pichegru. 

The  reverses  of  the  French  having  rendered  his  ser 
vices  necessary,  he  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  Italy  in  the  spring  of  1799.  At  the  battle  of 
Novi  he  had  three  horses  killed  under  him,  and  made  a 
skilful  retreat,  soon  after  which  he  was  transferred  to 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  political 
crisis  of  i8th  Brumaire,  (November  9,  1799,)  Moreau 
was  in  Paris,  and  consented  to  support  Bonaparte  in 
subverting  the  power  of  the  Directory.  Some  suppose 
that  if  he  had  been  less  modest,  or  more  ambitiotis,  he 
might  have  acted  the  principal  role  in  that  great  drama. 
The  First  Consul  intrusted  to  Moreau  the  command  of 
the  army  of  Germany,  and  dictated  to  him  a  plan  of  the 
campaign,  which  the  latter  refused  to  adopt.  "Moreau 
would  not  submit,"  says  Alison,  "to  the  indignity  of 
acting  as  second  in  command  to  his  former  rival,  and 
said,  'I  have  no  notion  of  seeing  a  little  Louis  XIV.  at 
the  head  of  my  army.'"     ("History  of  Europe.") 

After  an  angry  discussion,  he  persisted  in  his  own  plan, 
and,  while  Bonaparte  marched  to  the  conquest  of  Italy, 
he  invaded  the  valley  of  the  Danube  in  May,  1800,  with 
about  100,000  men.  Between  the  1st  and  loth  of  May 
he  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Kray  at  Engen  and 
Biberach.  In  the  next  month  he  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory at  Hochstadt,  near  Blenheim.  After  an  armistice 
of  a  few  months,  the  two  armies  met  on  December  3, 
1800,  at  Hohenlinden,  where  Moreau  won  a  very  im- 
portant victory,  which  induced  the  Austrians  to  sue  for 
peace.  The  war  being  thus  ended,  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  became  the  chief  of  a  party  composed  of  royalists 
and  republicans  united  by  their  enmity  to  Napoleon. 

In  1804  he  was  arrested  as  an  accomplice  in  Pichegru's 
conspiracy,  and,  although  they  failed  to  prove  that  he 
had  any  active  part  in  it,  he  was  sentenced  to  two  years' 
imprisonment,  which  was  commuted  to  exile  in  the 
United  States.  He  resided  with  his  wife  at  Morrisville, 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  the  city  of  New  York,  I'.ntil  over- 
tures from  the  Czar  ol  Russia  induced  him  to  return  to 
Europe  in  July,  1813.  He  was  caressed  by  the  allied 
sovereigns  and  received  with  triumphal  demonstrations 
by  the  people  of  Germany.  The  Czar  said  to  Moreau, 
(who,  it  appears,  was  still  a  republican,)  "I  know  youi 
opinions;  I  will  do  nothing  which  can  thwart  them,  and 
will  leave  France  perfectly  free."  With  these  views,  he 
co-operated  with  the  allies  against  the  French,  and  was 
mortally  wouiided  at  Dresden,  August  27,  1813.  He 
announced  the  fact  by  letter  to  his  wife  in  these  terms: 
".•\t  the  battle  of  Dresden,  three  days  ago,  I  had  both 
legs  carried  off  by  a  cannon-ball.  That  rascal  Bonaparte 
is  always  fortimate.     Excuse  my  scrawl,"  etc. 

See  Lemaike,  "  Vie  impartiale  du  General  Moreau,"  1814  ;  "  Me- 
moirs of  General  Morenii,"  by  J.  Philipfart;  Garat,  "  Eloge  de 
Moreau,"  1814  :  "  Life  and  Campaigns  of  Victor  Moreau,"  (translated 
from  the  French;)  A.  de  Beauchamp,  "Vie  politique,  militaire  et 
privi^e  du  G<5ni5ral  Moreau,"  1814:  Chateauneuf,  "Histoire  du 
General  Moreau,"  etc.,  1814;  Fauche-Borel,  "Notices  sur  les 
Gen^raux  Pichegru  et  Moreau,"  1807;  Hasse,  ".Moreau,  sein 
I.eben,"  etc.,  1814;  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "Histoire  du  Geji^ral 
Moreau,"  1814:  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale ;"  Thiers,  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January, 
1814. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 1'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fSll,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MORE A U 


1765 


MORERI 


Moreau-Christophe,  mo'rS'  kRis'tof ,  (Louis  Ma. 
riiUKiN,)  a  French  economist,  born  near  Tours  in  1799. 
He  was  sent  to  fore-^n  countries  to  examine  prisons, 
and  wrote  several  wj^rks  on  the  discipline  and  reform 
of  prisons.      Died  April  21,  1S81. 

Moreau  de  la  Rochette,  mo'ro'  deh  13  ro'sh^t', 
(FKAN<;ors  Thomas,)  a  French  horticulturist,  horn  in 
Champagne  in  1720,  founded  near  La  Rochette  an  agri- 
cultural school.     Died  in  1791. 

Moreau  de  Joiines,  mo'r5'  deh  zho'nSs',  (Alexan- 
dre,) a  French  writer,  born  near  Rennes  in  1778,  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  treatises  on  mineralogy, 
statistics,  and  other  scientific  subjects.     Died  in  1870. 

Moreau  de  la  Sarthe,  mo'ro'  deh  It  sSrI,  (Jacques 
Louis,)  \.  French  physician  and  able  writer,  born  near 
Le  Mans  in  1771.  He  published  several  professional 
works.     Died  in  Paris  in  1826. 

Moreau  de  I'Yonne,  mo'ro'  deh  Ig^on',  a  French 
politician,  born  near  Tonnerre  in  1750,  was  elected  in 
1798  to  the  Council  of  Ancients.     Died  in  1S06. 

Moreau  de  Saint-M6ry,  mo'ro'  deh  siN  mi're', 
(M^d6ric  Louis  Slie,)  born,  of  French  parentage,  in 
the  isle  of  Martinique  in  1750,  was  administrator-general 
of  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  from  1802  to  1806. 
He  wrote  several  descriptive  and  scientific  works.  Died 
in  1819. 

Moreaux,  mo'ro',  (Jean  RenA,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Rocroi  in  1758.  He  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Moselle  in  1794,  and  took  Treves  and  Coblentz. 
Died  in  February,  1795. 

Moreelze,  mo-ral'zeh,  (Paul,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  M.  Mirevelt.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  jjortrait-painter,  and  was 
extensively  patronized  by  the  nobility.     Died  in  1638. 

Morel,  mo'r^l',  (Claude,)  a  French  printer,  bcrn  in 
1574,  was  a  son  of  Federic  the  Elder,  noticed  below. 
Died  in  1626. 

Morel,  (F6d6ric,)  called  the  Elder,  a  celebrated 
French  printer,  born  in  Champagne  in  1523,  was  ap- 
pointed printer  to  the  king  in  1571.     Died  in  1583. 

Morel,  (F6d6ric,)  the  Younger,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1558.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  Greek  scholar,  and  the  editions  of  the  classics 
issued  from  his  press  were  conspicuous  for  their  accu- 
racy and  the  beauty  of  the  typography.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  royal  printer  in  1583.     Died  in  1630. 

Morel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  printer,  born  at  Til- 
leul  in  1505,  was  noted  for  the  beauty  and  accuracy  of 
his  editions  of  the  classics.  He  became  printer  to  the 
king  in  1555.     Died  in  1564. 

Morel,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Champagne  in 
1539;  died  in  1633. 

Morel.  (Je'vn  Marie,)  a  French  architect  and  gar- 
dener, born  in  Lyons  in  1728.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
■*s  a  designer  of  gardens.     Died  in  1810. 

See  J.  B.  Dumas,  "  Notice  sur  J.  M.  Morel,"  1825. 

Morel  de  Vinde,  mo'r§l'  deh  viN'dk',  (Charles 
GiLHERT,)  VicoMTE,  a  French  writer  and  agriculturist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1759;  died  in  1842. 

Morel-Fatio,  mo'r^l'  ft'te'o',  (Antoine  L6on,)  a 
French  landscape  and  marine  painter,  born  at  Rouer. 
in  iSio.     Died  at  Paris,  March  4,  1871. 

Morelius.    See  Morely. 

Morell,  mo'rgl',  (Andr6,)  a  Swiss  antiquary,  distin- 
guished for  his  profound  knowledge  of  numismatics, 
born  at  Berne  in  1646.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"Thesaurus  Morellianus,"  being  a  description  of  the 
coins  of  the  Roman  families.  It  was  left  unfinished. 
Died  in  1703. 

Mo-rell',  (George  W.,)  an  American  general,  l)orn 
at  Cooperstown,  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1835.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  Union 
volunteers  in  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the 
battles  of  Gaines's  Mill  and  Malvern  Hill.   Died  in  1883. 

Mo-rell',  (J.  D.,)  an  English  contemporary  writer, 
published  "  An  Historical  and  Critical  View  of  the  Specu- 
lative Philosophy  of  Europe  in  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1846,)  "  The  Philosophy  of  Re- 
ligion," (1849,)  and  other  works.  He  contributed  to  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  the  article  on  "National 
Education."     Died  in  1891. 


Morell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic, 
born  at  Eton  in  1703.  He  published  an  edition  of  Hede- 
rich's  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1762,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  Hogarth's  "  Analysis  of  Beauty."  He  also  edited 
Chaucer's  "Canterbury  'I'ales,"  and  several  Greek  and 
Latin  classics.     Died  in  1784. 

See  Harwood,  "Alumni  Etonenses." 

Morellet,  mo'ri'Ii',  (Andr6,)  Abb^,  an  eminent 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Lyons  in  1727,  was  educated  in 
the  Sorbonne,  at  Paris.  He  became  a  friend  of  Voltaire, 
Rousseau,  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert,  to  whose  "  Ency- 
clopedic" he  contributed.  He  translated  into  French 
Beccaria's  treatise  "On  Crimes  and  Penalties,"  (1766,) 
and  wrote  several  treatises  on  political  economy,  and 
many  other  works,  among  which  is  "  Melanges  of  Lite- 
rature and  Philosophy  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (4 
vols.,  1818.)  In  1785  he  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy,  the  archives  of  which  he  concealed  at  the  risk 
of  his  life  in  the  reign  of  terror.     Died  in  1819. 

See  LiMONTEV,  "£loge  de  Morellet,"  prefixed  to  Morellet's 
"Meinoires,"  2  vols.,  1821;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;" 
"  Morellet  and  liis  Contemporaries,"  in  the  "  North  American  Re- 
view" for  October,  1822,  (by  A.  H.  Everett.) 

Morelli,  mo-rel'lee,  (CosiMO,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Imola  in  1732.  He  was  employed  by 
Pope  Pius  VI.  to  construct  the  cathedrals  of  Macerata 
and  Imola,  and  other  edifices  in  the  Pontifical  States. 
Died  in  1812. 

Morelli,  (Giacomo,)  an  eminent  Italian  critic  and 
bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  in  1745,  became  a  priest, 
and  was  appointed  librarian  at  Saint  Mark's,  Venice,  in 
1778.  He  published,  among  other  valuable  works,  a 
"Historical  Dissertation  on  the  Library  of  Saint  Mark," 
(1774,)  and  "Library  of  Greek  and  Latin  Manuscripts," 
(1802.)  Many  of  his  minor  works  were  published  in 
1820,  under  the  title  of  "  Operette,"  (3  vols.  Svo.)  Died 
in  1819. 

See  MosCHlNi,  "  Narra/.ione  della  Vita  di  G.  Morelli,"  1S19; 
Zendrini,  "  Elogio  di  Morelli,"  1S21  ;  Tipai.do,  "  Biografia  degli 
llaliaiii  illustri;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpbie  Gen^rale." 

Morelli,  (Maria  Maddalkna,)  an  Italian  poetess 
and  im]Drovisatrice,  born  at  Pistoiain  1740;  died  in  1800. 

Morelly,  mo'ri'le',  a  French  writer  on  socialism, 
born  about  1750.  He  published  an  able  work  entitled 
"The  Code  of  Nature,"  which  was  attributed  to  Diderot, 
"The  Basiliade,"  a  political  romance,  and  a  number  of 
treatises  on  various  subjects. 

Morelos,  mo-ra'l6s,  (Don  Josii  Maria,)  a  Mexic-ai 
patriot  and  general,  born  in  New  Mexico  in  1780.  He 
joined  the  insurgent  army  under  Hidalgo  in  1810,  and 
subsequently  became  leader  of  a  band  composed  chiefly 
of  negro  slaves,  with  whom  he  carried  on  a  successful 
guerilla  warfare  for  a  time  against  the  Spaniards.  He 
was  made  prisoner  in  1815,  and  soon  after  executed  a( 
Mexico. 

See  Don  Josi  Guerra,  "  Historia  de  la  Revolucion  de  Nueva 
Espana,"  1813. 

Morely  or  Morelly,  mo'rk'le',  [Lat.  More'lius,] 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Protestant,  noted  for  his 
efforts  to  organize  the  Church  on  democratic  principles, 
was  born  in  Paris  about  15x0.  His  "Treatise  on  Chris- 
tian Discipline"  (1561)  was  condemned  by  several  Prot- 
estant synods. 

See  Bavlk,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic4ron, 
"  M^moires." 

Morenas,  mo'reh-nSs',  (Joseph  Elz^ar,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  near  Carpentras  in  1778.  He  wrote 
"On  the  Castes  of  India,"  (1822,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  Mingrelia  in  1830. 

Moreno,  mo-ra'no,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Burgos  in  1642;  died  in  1674. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 

Moreno,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  at  Cadiz 
in  1743  ;  died  in  1817. 

Moreno,  (Juan  Ignacio,)  a  Spanish  cardinal,  born 
at  Guatemala,  November  24,  18 17,  was  made  a  bishop  in 
1857,  and  becam.e  Archbishop  of  Toledo  and  Primate  of 
Spain  in  1875,  having  been  created  a  cardinal-priest  in 
1868.     Died  August  28,  1884. 

Mor6ri,  mo'ri're',  (Louis,)  a  learned  French  eccle- 
siastic, born  in  Provence  in  1643.     He  published  in  1674 


v.z&k;  9asj;  ghard;  g?isj;  G,n,  is.,  guttural;  a,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in ///;>.     C2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORES 


1766 


MORGAN 


his  "  Historical  Dictionary,"  ("  Grand  Dictionnaire  His 
torique,"  i  vol.  fol.,)  a  work  of  rare  merit.  He  died  in 
16S0,  leaving  unfinished  his  great  work,  which  has  been 
extended  by  sul)sequent  writers  to  ten  volumes,  (Paris, 
1759) 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Mores,  niorz,  (Edward  Rcjwe,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  1730.  He  i^ublished  several  works  on  English 
antiquities.     Died  in  1778. 

Moret,  mo-r§t',  (Josi,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at 
Pampeluna  in  1615.  Among  his  works  is  a  History  of 
Navarre,  ("Annales  del  Regno  de  Navarra,"  5  vols., 
1715.)     Died  in  1705. 

Moret,  de,  deh  mo'ri',  (Antoine  de  Bourbon — 
deh  booR'btiN',)  Count,  a  natural  son  of  Henry  IV,  of 
France,  was  born  in  1607,  and  legitimated  in  1608.  He 
joined  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  his  revolt  against 
Louis  XHI.  in  1631,  and  was  killed  or  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Castelnaudary,  in  September,  1632.  According 
to  some  accounts,  he  survived  till  1691. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Moreto  y  Cabana,  mo-ra'to  e  kd-Bln'y3,  (Don  Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist,  born  about 
1600.  Among  his  best  works  we  may  name  "The  Brave 
Justiciary,"  ("El  valiente  Justiciero,")  "  El  Lindo  Don 
Diego,"  and  "  Disdain  for  Disdain,"  ("  Desden  con  el 
Desden."  The  last  is  said  to  have  been  the  original 
of  Moliere's  "Princesse  d'filide."     Died  in  1669. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  :"  Ochoa,  "Tea- 
tro  Espanol  ;"  A.  F.  von  Schack,  "  GeschiclUe  der  dramatischen 
Literatur  in  Spanien." 

Moretti,  mo-ret'tee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Bologna,  was  author  of  several  scientific 
treatises.     Died  in  1697. 

Moretti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  savant,  born  at  Pavi'a 
in  17S3,  became  professor  of  botany  at  that  city  in  1832. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Biblioteca  .Agraria."    Died  in  1853. 

Moretto  da  Brescia.     See  Bonvicino. 

Mor'fit,  (Campbell,)  an  American  chemist,  born  at 
Herculaneum,  Missouri,  in  1820.  He  was  associated 
with  Professor  Booth  in  1848  as  editor  of  the  "  Ency 
clopasdia  of  Chemistry."  He  has  published,  among 
other  works,  "Applied  Chemistry  in  the  Mannfactur 
of  Soap  and  Candles,"  (1847,)  "Chemical  and  Phar- 
maceutic Manipulations,"  (184S,)  and  "Perfumery,  its 
Manufacture  and  Use." 

Morgagni,  moR-gin'yee,  (Giambattista,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Forli  in  1682. 
He  studied  at  Bologna,  where  he  became  the  favourite 
pupil  of  Valsalva,  and  in  1715  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Padua.  His  principal  work  i; 
entitled  "  On  the  Seat  and  Causes  of  Diseases  discovered 
by  Anatomy,"  ("  De  Sedibus  et  Causis  Morborum  per 
Anatomen  indagatis,"  2  vols.,  1762.)  It  was  translated 
into  French,  Italian,  English,  and  German,  and  still  en- 
joys a  very  high  reputation.  His  "  Adversaria  Anato- 
mica"  is  also  highly  esteemed.  Morgagni  made  several 
valuable  discoveries,  and  he  has  been  called  the  founder 
of  pathological  anatomy.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  principal 
Academies  of  Europe.     Died  in  1771. 

See  Faeroni,  "Vitje  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium :"  FoN 
TENELLE,  "  Eloge  de  Morgagni:"  MosCA,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Mor- 
gagni," 176S;  ToRREsiNi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  B.  Morgagni," 
1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Mor'gan,  (Charles  \V.,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1790 ;  died  in  1853. 

Morgan,  (Daniel,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
New  Jersey  in  1736,  served  with  distinction  in  the  war 
of  the  Revolution.  He  was  present  at  the  capture  of 
Burgoyne,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of 
Cowpens,  (1781,)  where  he  gained  a  signal  victory,  for 
which  a  gold  medal  was  awarded  him  by  Congress. 
Died  in  1802. 

See  the  "Life  of  Daniel  Morgan,"  by  James  Graham,  1856,  and 
the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Morgan,  (Edwin  D.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1811.  He  became 
at  an  early  age  a  merchant  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  New  York  by  the  Repub- 
licans in  i8s8,  and  again  in  1S60.     He  was  elected  to 


tlie  United  States  Senate  from  New  York  in  1863.  Died 
February  14,  1883. 

Mor'gan,  (George  Cadooan,)  born  in  Wales  in 
1754,  became  ]>astor  of  a  dissenting  church  at  Norwich, 
England,  in  1776,  and  subsequently  professor  of  physics 
at  Hackney.  He  published  "  Lectures  on  Electricity," 
and  other  scientific  works.     Died  in  1798. 

Morgan,  (George  \V.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Western  Pennsylvania  about  1820,  practised  law  in 
Ohio  before  the  civil  war.  He  became  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  Union  volunteers  about  November,  1S61.  He 
took  Cumberland  Gap  in  June,  1862,  and  evacuated  the 
same  in  Septeinber  of  that  year. 

Morgan,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  Welsh  buccaneer,  born  about 
1637,  commanded  several  expeditions  against  the  Span- 
iards, and  captured  Porto  Bello  and  Panama.  He  was 
afterwards  made  a  knight,  and  appointed  Governor  of 
Jamaica  by  Charles  II.     Died  in  1690. 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  g^n^rale  de  la  Marine." 

Morgan,  (James  D.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Boston  in  1810,  removed  in  1834  to  Illinois,  and  in  1862 
became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 

Morgan,  (John  H.,)  an  American  guerilla  chief, 
born  near  Lexington,  Kentucky,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  at  Huntsville,  Alabama,  in  1826.  He  took 
command  of  a  troop  of  cavalry  in  1861,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  audacity  in  several  raids  against  the  rail- 
roads and  other  public  works  in  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee. He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  1862.  In 
July,  1863,  he  crossed  the  Ohio  River  with  about  4000 
men,  and  made  a  raid  into  Indiana  and  Ohio,  where  he 
destroyed  railroads,  bridges,  etc.  He  was  captured  in 
Ohio  and  confined  in  the  penitentiary,  from  which  he 
escaped,  by  digging,  about  the  end  of  November,  1863. 
In  September,  1864,  he  was  surprised  in  the  night  at 
Greenville,  Tennessee,  by  the  troops  of  General  Gillem, 
and  was  killed. 

See  a  Ske'ch  of  his  Life  in  "  Southern  Generals,"  1-865. 

Morgan,  ^LEWIS  Henry,)  an  American  author,  born 
in  Ledyard,  New  York,  November  21,  1818.  He  grad- 
uated at  Union  College  in  1840,  and  practised  law  at 
Rochester,  1844-64.  He  acquired  great  reputation  by 
his  "League  of  the  Iroquois,"  (1851,)  and  especially  by 
his  "Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity,"  (1S70.) 
He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  modern 
school  of  ethnological  science,  which  regards  the  com- 
parison of  rude  and  inchoate  civilizations  as  an  important 
subject  of  study,  since  they  are  believed  to  afford  ex- 
tremely valuable  hints  as  to  the  development  or  evolution 
of  the  higher  civilizations.  He  also  published  "The 
American  Beaver,"  (1868.)     Died  December  17,  1881. 

Morgan,  (Lady  Sydney,)  a  distinguished  authoress, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1789,  was  the  daughter  of  an  actor 
named  Owenson.  At  an  early  age  she  published  several 
romances,  one  of  which,  "The  Wild  Irish  Girl,"  (1806,) 
was  very  popular.  In  1812  she  was  married  to  Sir  Charles 
Morgan,  whom  in  1816  she  accompanied  to  France  and 
Italy,  and  the  result  of  her  travels  appeared  soon  after, 
in  her  two  works  entitled  "France,"  (1817,)  and  "Italy," 
(1821.)  Among  her  other  productions  we  may  name 
"Florence  Macarthy,"  (1816,)  "Absenteeism,"  (1825,) 
"The  O'Briens  and  O'Flahertys,"  (1827,)  "The  Book 
of  the  Boudoir,"  (1829,)  and  "Woman  and  her  Master," 
(1855.)  In  1851  she  published  a  "Letter  to  Cardinal 
Wiseman."     Died  in  1859. 

See  "Lady  Morgan,  her  Career,  Literary  and  Personal,"  by  W. 
J.  Fttzpatrick  ;  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap. 
V.  :  "  F.dinhurgh  Review"  for  July,  1S33;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  February,  1S63  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1863:  "  Era- 
ser's Magazine"  for  February,  1831,  and  November,  1833:  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  iSoS,  and  Octoberand  November,  1817. 

Mor'gan,  (Sir  Tho.mas  Charles,)  M.D.,  an  English 
physician,  born  in  London  about  1783.  In  iSii  he  was 
made  a  baronet,  and  the  next  year  married  Miss  Owen- 
son,  who  was  already  known  as  an  authoress.  He  soon 
after  settled  in  Ireland,  where  he  advocated  Catholic 
emancipation.  He  wrote  "  Sketches  of  the  Philosophy 
of  Life,"  and  "  Sketches  of  the  Philosophy  of  Morals. 
He  also  contributed  to  Lady  Morgan's  "France"  and 
"  The  Book  without  a  Name."     Died  in  1843. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/wri;  ^  e,  i,  (?,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MORGAN 


1767 


MORISON 


Morgan,  (William,)  a  learned  divine,  born  in  Wales, 
was  appointed  in  1601  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph.  He 
assisted  in  translating  into  Welsh  the  Bible  published 
in  15S8.     Died  in  1604. 

Morgan,  (William,)  a  Welsh  mathematician,  born 
in  Glamorganshire,  held  the  office  of  actuary  to  the 
Equitable  Assurance  Company,  London,  lie  i)ublished 
a  "Review  of  Dr.  Crawford's  Theory  of  Heat,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1833. 

Morgan,  (William,)  an  American  mechanic,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1775,  removed  subsequently  to  Batavia, 
New  York.  In  1826  he  was  abducted  from  his  home  and 
murdered  by  a  band  of  Freemasons  for  having  written  a 
work  professing  to  disclose  the  secrets  of  their  society. 

See  Allen,  "American  Biographical  Dictionary;"  "  New  Amer- 
ican Cyclopedia;"  "Gazetteer  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  by  J. 
H.  French,  p.  323. 

Morgan,  (William  F.,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  December  21,  1816. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1S37,  and  at  the  Gen- 
eral Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in  1840.  In  1841 
and  1842  he  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church.  His 
principal  pastorates  were  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  and  at 
Saint  Thomas's  Church,  New  York.    Died  May  19,  1888. 

Morgan,  De.    See  De  Morgan. 

Morghen,  moR^gen,  (Rakaelle  Sanzio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  engraver,  of  Dutch  extraction,  born  at  Florence 
in  1758,  became  professor  of  engraving  in  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  his  native  city.  His  prints  are  numerous  and 
of  great  excellence.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his 
"Transfiguration,"  after  Raphael,  "The  Last  Supper," 
after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Guido's  "Aurora."  He 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.     Died  in  1833. 

See  Nagt.er,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  Palmerini, 
"  Notice  of  R.  Morghen,"  (in  Italian,)  1824. 

Morgues,  de.     See  Mourgues,  de. 

Morhof,  moR'hof,  [Lat.  Morho'fius, J  (Daniel 
Georg,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Wismar  in  1639, 
became  professor  of  poetry  and  eloquence  at  Kiel  in 
1665,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  history  at  that  place  in 
1673.  He  published,  besides  many  other  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  a  valuable  contribution  to  literary  history, 
entitled  "  Polyhistor,  sive  de  Notitia  Auctorum  et  Rerum 
Commentarii,"  (3  vols.,  1688-92.)     Died  in  1691. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Vita  propria  ab  Anno  1639  ad  1671," 
1699:  J.  MoLLEK,  "De  Vita,  Mentis  Scriptisque  D.  G.  Morhofii," 
1710;  Nic^RON,  "M^moires." 

Morhoflus.    See  Morhof. 

Morice  de  Beaubois,  mo'rfess'dehbS'bwd',  (Pierre 
HvACiNTHE,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk  and  writer, 
born  at  Quimperle  in  1693.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Bretagne,"  (2  vols.,  1750-56.)     Died  in  1750. 

Morier,  mo'ri-er,  (James,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  about  1780.  Having  been  appointed  secretary  ti^ 
the  English  embassy  in  Persia,  he  became  versed  in 
the  Oriental  tongues.  He  published,  after  his  return,  a 
"Journey  through  Persia,  Armenia,"  etc.,  (1812,)  "Ad- 
ventures of  Haji  Baba  of  Ispahan,"  (5  vols.,  1824,)  a 
brilliant  and  entertaining  romance,  giving  the  experi- 
ences of  a  Persian  in  England,  which  had  a  wide  popu- 
larity, "Zohrab  the  Hostage,"  (1832,)  and  "  Ayesha,  the 
Maid  of  Kars,"  (1834.)     Died  in  1849. 

See  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1832.  and  June,  1834  ; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1832;  "  Monthly  Review"  foi 
April,  1824. 

Morigia,  mo-ree'jj,  (GiACOMo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Milan  in  1632.  He  became  Archbishop 
of  Florence  about  1683.     Died  in  1708. 

Morigia,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Milan 
in  1525,  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Milan,  etc  Died 
in  1604. 

Morike  or  Moerike,  imo're-keh,  (Eduard,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1804.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  "Idyl  of  Lake  Constance,"  (1846,)  and 
several  novels  and  dramatic  tales.      Died  June  3,  1875. 

Morillo,  mo  ril'yo,  (Don  Pablo,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  the  province  of  Toro  in  1777.  Having  carried 
on  a  guerilla  warfare  against  the  French  for  several 
years,  he  was  sent  in  181 5  to  suodue  the  revolted  prov- 
inces of  South  America.  He  fought  with  varying  suc- 
cess against  Bolivar,  with  whom  he  concluded  a  truce  in 
1820.     After  Morillo's  return  to  Spain  he  served  for  a 


time  in  the  royalist  army.  He  died  in  1838,  leaving 
Memoirs  of  his  campaigns  in  America,  which  were 
translated  into  French. 

See  Morillo's  "Memoirs,  relating  the  Principal  Events  of  h« 
Campaigns,"  translated  into  French  by  E.  D.  Blosseville. 

Morin,  mo'riN',  (Arthur  Jules,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1795,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1852  director  of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and 
Trades.  He  published  numerous  important  treatises  on 
mechanics,  hydraulics,  mathematics,  etc.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  and  president  of  the  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers.     Died  February  7,  1880. 

Morin,  (£tienne,)  a  French  Protestant  divine,  born 
at  Caen  in  1625.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  became  in 
16S6  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Amsterdam. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Exercises  on  the 
Primitive  Language,"  (in  Latin,  1694,)  in  which  he  at- 
tempts to  prove  that  the  Hebrew  was  the  language  of 
Paradise.  Died  in  1700. 
See  NicSron,  "  Memoires." 

Morin,  (Fr6d6ric,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1823,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and 
Scholastic  Theology,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  and  other  works. 
He  also  contributed  to  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale."     Died  August  23,  1874. 

Morin,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Blois 
in  1591.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
Oriental  tongues  and  biblical  literature.  Among  his 
principal  works  we  may  name  "  Biblical  Exercises," 
("Exercitationes  Biblicae,")  and  an  edition  of  the  "Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch,"  with  a  Latin  version.  Died  in  1659. 
See  Perrault,  "  Hommes  illustres;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires." 
Morin,  (Jean,)  a  French  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Meung-sur-Loire  in  1705.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Le  Mecanisme  universel,"  (1735.)  Died 
in  1764. 

Morin,  (Jean,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1609.  Among  his  best  works  are  prints 
of  the  "Madonna,"  after  Raphael,  and  portraits  of  De 
Thou  and  Marie  de  Medicis.     Died  about  1666. 

Morin,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Villefranche  in  1583,  was  appointed  in  1630  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  Royal  College.  He  was  devoted  to 
astrology,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  consulted  by  Car- 
dinal Richelieu  and  other  distinguished  men.  He  wrote 
"  Astrologia  Gallica,"  and  a  number  of  treatises  on 
mathematics  and  astronomy.     Died  in  1656. 

See  Delambrr,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  modeme  ;"  Nici- 
RON,  "Memoires." 

Morin,  (Louis,)  a  French  physician  and  botanist  of 
high  reputation,  born  at  Mans  in  1636.  He  %vas  the 
author  of  several  medical  and  scientific  treatises.  In 
1707  he  succeeded  Dodart  as  botanist  to  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences.     Died  in  17-15. 

Morin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1531,  was  emploved  by  Gregory  XIII.  and  Sixtus  V. 
on  editions  of  the  Bible  called"  Septuagint  and  Vulgate, 
(1590.)     Died  at  Rome  in  1608. 

Morin,  (Simon,)  a  French  fanatic,  born  near  Auniale, 
in  Normandy,  published  works  of  a  visionary  and  pro- 
fane nature.     He  was  condemned  in  1663  to  be  burned 
alive  for  having  prophesied  the  death  of  the  king. 
See  Nic^rov,  "Memoires." 

Mor'i-spn,  (James  Cotter,)  an  English  author,  born 
in  London,  April  20,  1831,  and  educated  at  Lincoln  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He  published  Lives  of  Saint  Bernard, 
(1863,)  Gibbon,  (1878,)  Macaulay,  (1882,)  and  other 
works.     Died  February  25,  1888. 

Mori-son,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1791.  He  became  in 
l8i6  minister  of  Trevor  Chapel,  London,  and  in  1824 
was  appointed  editor  of  the  "  Evangelical  Magazine," 
which  post  he  occupied  for  thirty-two  years.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  popular  works,  among  which  we 
may  name  "  Lectures  on  the  Reciprocal  Obligations  of 
Life,"  etc.,  (1822,)  "  Book  of  Family  Worship,"  (1836,) 
and  "Counsels  to  a  Newly- Wedded  Pair."  Died  in  1859. 

See  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1864. 

Morison,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  emi 
nent  botanist,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1620,  was  patronized 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;  o,  H,  \i, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORIS  OT 


1768 


MORNINGTON 


by  Charles  II.,  who  made  him  his  physician  and  be- 
stowed on  him  a  pension.  He  became  professor  of 
botany  at  Oxford  in  1669.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Universal  History  of  Plants,"  "New  Distribution  of 
Umlielliferous  Plants,"  (1672,)  and  other  works,  (in 
Latin.)  Plumier  named  in  his  honour  the  genus  Mori- 
sonia.     Died  in  1683. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenas  Oxonienses  :"  Cuvier,  "  Histoire  Hes  Sci- 
ences naturelles  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Morisot,  mo're'zo',  (Claude  Barth6lemi,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1592,  wrote  a  historical  romance 
entitled  "  Peruviana,"  or  the  secret  history  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  Marie  de  Medicis,  and  Gaston,  Duke  of  Or- 
leans.    Died  in  i66i. 

Moritz,  mo'rits,  (Karl  Puilipp,)  known  also  by  his 
pseudonym  of  Anton  Reiser,  a  German  writer  of 
considerable  genius  but  eccentric  and  unsteady  char- 
acter, was  born  at  Ilameln  in  1757.  Having  visited 
England  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed,  after  his  return, 
professor  of  archaeology  and  aesthetics  at  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts,  Berlin,  (1789.)  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "  Anton  Reiser,"  a  psychological  romance, 
(1785,)  said  to  be  an  autobiography  somewhat  idealized, 
"Essay  on  German  Prosody,"  (1786,)  and  "Fragments 
from  the  Journal  of  a  Visionary,"  (1787.)  Moritz  was  a 
friend  of  Goethe,  and  was  the  first,  it  is  said,  to  recognize 
and  encourage  the  genius  of  Jean  Paul  Richter.  Died 
in  1793. 

See  Klischnig,  "  Erinnerungen  aus  den  zehn  letzen  Lebensjah 
ren  nieines  Freundes  A.  Reiser,"  1794. 

Mork,  Moerk,  moRk,  or  Moerks,  moRks,  (Jacob 
Henrik,)  a  Swedish  author  and  minister,  born  at  Stock- 
holm in  1714;  died  in  1763. 

Moiia,  moR'ia,  (Don  Tomas,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  1752.  He  surrendered  Madrid  to  Napoleon  in 
1808,  and  entered  the  service  of  King  Joseph.  Died 
in  1820. 

Morlacchi,  mor-lSk'kee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  sacred  music  and  operas,  born  at  Perugia 
in  17S4.    He  lived  many  years  at  Dresden.    Died  in  1841. 

Mor'land,  (George,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  iii  1764,  excelled  in  delineations  of  rural  land- 
scapes, scenes  in  low  life,  and  domestic  animals,  par- 
ticularly pigs.  He  spent  his  leisure  time  chiefly  in 
ale-houses,  and  died  in  1804,  a  victim  of  intemperance. 
His  works  are  numerous,  and  command  high  prices. 

See  Cunningham,  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  G.  Dawe, 
"Life  of  Morland;"J.  Hassel,  "Memoirs  of  George  Morland :" 
W.  Collins,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  George  Morland,"  j8o6; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1808. 

Morland,  (Sir  Samuel,)  an  English  mechanician  and 
inventor,  born  in  Berkshire  about  1625.  He  was  sent  in 
1653  on  an  embassy  to  Sweden,  and  was  subsequently 
employed  by  Cromwell  to  intercede  with  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  on  behalf  of  the  persecuted  Vaudois.  After  the 
restoration  he  was  made  a  baronf '  by  Charles  II.,  and 
obtained  other  distinctions.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
the  Tuba  Stentorphonica,  or  speaking-trumpet,  and  an 
arithmetical  machine,  and  effected  great  improvements 
in  the  fire-engine,  steam-engine,  etc.  He  published  a 
"Description  of  the  Tuba  Stentorphonica,"  (1671,)  and 
other  scientific  works  ;  also  a  "  History  of  the  Evan 
gelical  Churches  of  Piedmont,"  (1658.)     Died  in  1695. 

See  Rees,  " Cyclopsedia;"  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Re- 
bellion." 

Mor'ley,  (George,)  born  in  London  in  1597,  became 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.  After  the  restoration  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  Worcester  by  Charles  II.  in  1660, 
and  of  Winchester  in  1662.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learning,  and  bequeathed  large  sums  for  charitable 
purposes.     Died  in  1684. 

Morley,  (Henry,)  an  English  author  and  journalist, 
born  in  London  in  1822.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Palissy  the  Potter,"  (1852,)  a  "Life  of  Jerome  Cardan," 
(1854,)  "Life  of  Cornelius  Agrippa,"  (1856,)  "Memoirs 
of  Bartholomew  Fair,"  (1857,)  "  Fairy  Tales,"  (2  vols., 
1859-60,)  "English  Writers  before  Chaucer,"  (1864-67,) 
"Journal  of  a  Playgoer  from  1857  to  1866,"  (1866,)  and 
"Life  of  Clement  Marot,"  (1870.)  In  1868  he  published 
Steele   and    Addison's   "  Spectator,"    with    notes,    and 


'  Tables  of  English  Literature"  in  1870.  He  was  lecturer 
at  King's  College  from  1857  to  1865.  In  1865  he  became 
professor  of  English  language  and  literature  at  University 
College,  and  in  1870  examiner  in  English  language,  liter- 
ature, and  history  to  the  University  of  London. 

Morley,  Lord.     See  Parker. 

Morley,  (John,)  a  popular  English  author,  distin- 
guished as  a  critic  and  as  a  radical  thinker,  born  at  Black- 
burn, Lancashire,  December  24,  183S.  He  was  educated 
in  Cheltenham,  and  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  graduated  in  1859.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  in  1859.  He  edited  the  "  Literary  Gazette," 
the  "Fortnightly  Review,"  (1867-82,)  and  the  "  Pall  Mall 
Gazette,"  (1880-S3,)  and  has  sat  in  Parliament  as  an 
advanced  Liberal.  Among  his  works  are  "  Edmund 
Burke,"  (1867,)  "Critical  Miscellanies,"  (1871-77,)  "  Vol- 
taire," (1872,)  "On  Comjiromise,"  (1874,)  "  Rousseau," 
(1876,)  "  Diderot  and  the  Encyclopaedists,"  (1878,)  "  Life 
of  Cobden,"  (1881,)  etc. 

Morley,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  published  a  number  of  canzonets,  madrigals,  etc., 
edited  the  "Triumphs  of  Oriana,"  and  other  collections 
of  music,  and  was  the  author  of  the  first  regular  treatise 
on  music  published  in  England,  "A  Plaine  and  Easie 
Introduction  to  Practicall  Musicke,"  (1597.)  Died  about 
1604. 

Morley,  (William,)  an  English  musical  composer, 
born  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Died 
in  1731. 

Morlifere,  de  la,  deh  IS  moR'Ie-aiR',  (Charles  Jac- 
ques Louis  Auguste  de  la  Rochette,)  Chevalier, 
a  French  writer  of  romances,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in 
1 701.  Among  his  works  is  "Angola,"  (1746.)  Died 
in  1785. 

Morlot,  moR'lo',  (Franqois  Nicolas  Madeleine,, 
a  French  prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Langres  in  1795. 
He  became  Archbishop  of  Tours  in  1842,  a  cardinal  in 
1853,  and  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1857.     Died  in  1862. 

Mormando,  moR-min'do,  (Giovanni  Francesco,) 
an  Italian  architect,  born  at  Florence  about  1455,  was 
patronized  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Spain.  He 
designed  the  beautiful  church  of  San  Severino,  and  other 
buildings,  in  Naples.     Died  in  1522. 

Mornac,  moR'nSk',  (Antoine,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
in  1554,  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  and  pub- 
lished several  legal  works.     Died  in  1619. 

Mornand,  moR'nSw',  (F^lix,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Macon  in  1815.  He  became  chief 
editor  of  the  "Courrier  de  Paris"  in  1857.     Died  1867. 

Moriiay,  de,  deh  moR'ni',  (Philippe,)  Seigneur  du 
Plessis-Marly,  often  called  Du  PlessisMornay,  a  noble 
French  Protestant,  eminent  for  virtue  and  talents,  was 
born  at  Buhy,  in  Vexin,  in  1549.  He  studied  law,  the- 
ology, and  other  sciences  in  Paris,  Germany,  and  Italy. 
In  1572  he  narrowly  escaped  from  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew,  and  in  1575  took  arms  for  the  Huguenots, 
of  whom  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs.  He  married  in 
1576.  About  this  time  he  entered  the  service  of  Henry 
of  Navarre,  who  employed  him  in  important  negotiations 
and  reposed  in  him  entire  confidence.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Ivry  in  1590,  and  then  became  a  member 
of  Henry  IV.'s  council.  Mornay  retained  the  favour  of 
Henry  after  the  latter  had  abjured  his  religion.  In  1598 
he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Institution  of  the  Eu- 
charist," which  provoked  the  Catholics  to  challenge  him 
to  a  dispute.  At  a  public  conference  before  the  king,  in 
1600,  he  was  foiled  by  Duperron.  It  appears  that  one  of 
his  own  party  had  as  unwisely  as  dishonourably  furnished 
him  with  forged  quotations  from  the  Fathers,  which  his 
antagonist  easily  exposed.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
virtual  chief  or  oracle  of  the  French  Reformed  Church, 
and  was  styled  "the  Pope  of  the  Huguenots."  He  left 
many  able  religious  works.     Died  in  1623. 

See  "  M^moires  de  Plessis-Mornay,"  4  vols.,  1624-52;  M.  Cru- 
sius,  "Singularia  Plessica,"  1724;  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Tem- 
poris  ;"  J.  Imbert,  "  Diiplessis-Mornay,"  1847:  Sismondi,  "His- 
toire des  FranQais  ;"  L'Estoii.e,  "Journal ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gent!rale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1834. 

Mor'ning-tpn,  (Garret  Wellesley,)  Earl  of,  an 
Irish  nobleman,  distinguished  for  his  musical  talent,  born 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  mooni 


MORNY 


1769 


MORRIS 


about  1720,  was  father  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He 
became  professor  of  music  in  the  University  of  Dublin, 
and  composed  a  number  of  glees  which  are  greatly  ad- 
mired.    Died  in  1781. 

Morny,  de,  deh  moR'ne',  (Charles  Auguste  Louis 
Joseph,)  Comte,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in 
181 1,  was  the  reputed  son  of  Hortense  de  Beauharnois 
and  Count  Flahaut.  He  served  for  a  time  in  Algeria, 
and  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  industrial  and 
financial  speculations.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
coup  cfitat  of  December,  1851,  by  which  his  half-brother, 
Louis  Napoleon,  was  made  president,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior.  He  resigned  in  1852, 
and  became  president  of  the  legislative  body  in  1854. 
Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Moro,  (Antonio.)    See  Moor. 

Mo'ro,  (Cristokoro,)  was  an  old  man  when  he  was 
elected  Doge  of  Venice,  in  1462.  He  waged  war  against 
the  Sultan  Mahomet  H.,  who  conquered  Negropont 
from  the  Venetians  in  1470.     Died  in  147 1. 

Morogues,  de,  deh  mo'rog',  (S^bastien  Francois 
Bigot — be'go',)  Vicomte,  a  French  naval  officer,  born 
at  Brest  in  1705.  He  wrote  a  good  work  on  naval  tac- 
tics, "  Tactique  navale,  ou  Traite  des  Evolutions,"  etc., 
(1763.)     Died  in  1781. 

His  grandson,  Pierre  Marie  S^bastien,  Baron  de 
Morogues,  (i  776-1 840,)  wrote  numerous  works  on  rural 
and  political  economy. 

Morone,  mo-ro'ni,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Milan  in  1509,  was  patronized  by  the  popes 
Clement  VH.,  Paul  IIL,  and  Julius  HI.,  who  employed 
him  in  several  important  missions.  Suspected  of  favour- 
ing the  Reformation,  he  was  imprisoned  by  Paul  IV.  in 
1557.  Pius  IV.  sent  him  as  his  legate  to  the  Council  of 
Trent,  over  which  Morone  presided  when  it  closed,  in 
1563.  He  had  been  appointed  Bishop  of  Novara  about 
1554.     Died  in  1580. 

See  Jacobei.i.i,  "  Vita  diCardinale  Morone  ;"  Fk6d^kicSclopis, 
"  Le  Cardinal  Jean  Morone,"  iS68. 

Morone  or  Moroni,  mo-ro'nee,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Albino  in  1510,  was  a 
pupil  of  Buonvicino.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  of  which 
he  executed  a  great  number.     Died  in  1578. 

Morone,  (Girolamo,)  a  celebrated  and  adroit  Italian 
diplomatist,  born  in  the  Milanese  about  1450,  was  the 
father  of  Giovanni,  noticed  above.  He  was  employed 
by  the  Dukes  of  Milan.  In  1526  he  became  secretary 
and  chief  counsellor  of  Constable  Bourbon.  He  was  one 
of  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  between  Charles  V.  and 
Pope  Clement  VII.  in  1527.     Died  in  1529. 

See  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  ii.  and  iv. 

Morosi,  mo-ro'see,  (Giuseppe,)  a  skilful  Italian  me- 
chanician, was  born  in  Tuscany  in  1772.  He  invented 
an  automaton  chess-player,  and  constructed,  at  Milan, 
hydraulic  machines  for  spinning  cotton.     Died  in  1840. 

Morosiui,mo-ro-see'nee,  [Lat.  Mauroce'nus,]  (.'Vn- 
DREA,)  a  Venetian  senator,  born  in  1558,  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  Ten,  and  was  appointed  in  1598 
historiographer  of  the  republic.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  Historia  Veneta,"  being  a  history  of  Venice 
from  1521  to  1615.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  accuracy 
and  the  elegance  of  its  style.     Died  in  1618. 

Morosini,  (Domenico,)  a  Venetian  admiral,  born  in 
loSo.  He  took  part  in  the  crusade  in  1 122,  and  captured 
Tyre.     He  was  elected  doge  in  1148.     Died  in  1156. 

Morosini,  (Francesco,)  Doge  of  Venice,  born  in  1618, 
was  one  of  the  first  military  commanders  of  his  time. 
Having  defeated  the  Turks  in  several  actions,  he  was 
appointed  in  1656  Governor  of  Candia.  He  afterwards 
defended  that  island  for  nearly  two  years  against  the 
grand  vizier  Mehemet  Koprili,  to  whom  he  made  an 
honourable  capitulation  in  1669.  For  his  subsequent 
victories  in  the  Morea  he  obtained  the  title  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesiac.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1688, 
having  been  previously  appointed  procurator  of  Saint 
Mark.     Died  in  1694. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise  ;"  Marino  Sanuto,  "Vile  de' 
Diichj  di  Venezia;"  Navagiero,  "  Storia  Veneziana;"  A.  Arrighi, 
"Vita  di  F.  Morosini,"  1749;  G.  Graziani,  "  F.  Mauroceni  Gesta," 
ftC,  i6qS. 


Morosini,  (Paolo,)  a  Venetian  linguist  and  able 
diplomatist,  born  in  1406;  died  in  1483. 

Morozzo,  mo-rot'so,  (Carlo  Luigi,)  Count,  an 
Italian  savant  and  writer  on  physical  science,  was  born 
at  Turin  in  1744  ;  died  in  1804. 

Morpeth,  Lord.  See  Howard,  (George  William 
Frederick.) 

Morphee.     See  Morpheus. 

Mor'pheiis,  [Gr.  Mop^riif;  Fr.  Morphine,  moR'fi',j 
an  inferior  deity  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
regarded  as  the  son  of  Sleep  and  the  god  of  dreams 
and  also  of  sleep.  The  name  is  derived  from  fiopipfj, 
("  form,")  because  he  was  supposed  to  give  form  to 
the  visions  of  the  sleeper. 

Mor'phj^,  (Paul  Charles,)  a  celebrated  American 
chess-player,  born  at  New  Orleans  in  1837.  At  the 
Chess  Congress  in  New  York  in  1857  he  defeated  many 
of  the  best  American  players,  and  in  1858  visited  Lon- 
don and  Paris,  where  the  same  success  attended  him 
in  his  contests  with  the  most  distinguished  players  of 
Europe.     Died  in  New  Orleans,  July  10,  1884. 

Morrealese,  II.    See  Novelli,  (Pietro.) 

Mor'r^ll,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  navigator,  born 
in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1795.  He  be- 
came captain  of  a  whaling-ship,  and  published  "Narra- 
tives of  Four  Voyages  round  the  World,"  (1832.)  Died 
in  1839. 

Morren,  mor'ren  or  mo'rSN',  (Charles  Franqois 
Antoine,)  a  Belgian  naturalist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1807. 
He  became  professor  of  physics  in  that  city  in  1833,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  botany  at  Liege  in  1837.  Among 
his  principal  works  we  may  name  "  Studies  on  Anatomy 
and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  (1841,)  and  "Researches  on 
the  Rubefaction  of  Waters  and  their  Oxygenation  by 
Animalcules  and  Algae."  He  also  published  valuable 
treatises  on  palaeontology  and  zoology,  and  was  a  liberal 
contributor  to  the  scientific  journals  of  his  own  and  other 
countries.     Died  in  December,  1858. 

See  Ed.  Morren,  "  Notice  sur  C.  Morren,"  i860. 

Morres,  mor'riss  ?  (Harvey  Redmond,)  Viscount 
Mountmorres,  an  English  publicist.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  political  and  historical  works,  among  which  we 
may  name  "  History  of  the  Principal  Acts  of  the  Irish 
Parliament  from  1634  to  1666,"  etc.,  (1792,)  and  "The 
Crisis  :  a  Collection  of  Essays  on  Toleration,  Public 
Credit,"  etc.,  (1795.)     He  died  by  suicide  in  1797. 

See  Collins,  "Peerage  of  Ireland." 

Mor'rill,  (Justin  S.,)  an  American  legislator,  born 
m  Strafford,  Vermont,  in  i8to.  He  represented  the 
second  district  of  Vermont,  from  1855  to  1865,  in  the 
National  House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  served 
(1864-65)  as  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  Vermont  in  October,  1866.  He  acts  with  the  Re- 
publican party. 

Morrill,  (Lot  M.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  1815,  became  a  lawyer. 
He  was  Republican  Governor  of  Maine  three  years, 
(1858-60,)  and  was  chosen  Senator  of  the  United  States 
in  1861.  He  was  re-elected  Senator  in  1863  for  six 
years,  and  again  in  1869.      Died  January  10,  1883. 

Mor'ris,  (Benjamin  Wistar,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Wellsboro',  Pennsylvania,  May  30,  1819, 
graduated  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  1846, 
was  made  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1847,  ^"'l 
in  1868  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Oregon. 

Mor'ris,  (Charles,)  an  American  commodore,  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1784.  He  was  first  lieutenant  of  the 
Constitution  when  that  ship  captured  the  British  frigate 
Guerriere,  in  August,  1812.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  naval  commander,  commanded  squadrons  at  several 
foreign  stations,  and  became  chief  of  the  ordnance 
bureau.     Died  in  1856. 

Morris,  (Clara,)  an  American  actress^born  at  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  in  1850.  She  went  upon  the  stage  when 
fifteen  years  old,  and  won  favourable  recognition,  first  in 
Cleveland,  and  later  in  Cincinnati.  Her  success  in  New 
York  in  1870  was  very  great.  In  1874  she  was  married 
to  Mr.  F.  C.  Harriott.  Her  greatest  success  has  been 
in  the  representation  of  strongly  emotional  scenes. 


e  as  k;  c  as  J,"  g  AarJ;  g  as  /;  o,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORRIS 


1770 


MORRIS 


Morris,  (Edward  Joy,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Pliiladelphia  in  181 7.  He  represented  the  second  dis- 
trict of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress  from  1857  to  1861, 
and  acted  with  the  People's  party,  which  was  afterwards 
merged  in  the  Republican  party.  In  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Turkey.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Tour 
through  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Egypt."  Died  Dec.  31,  1881. 

Morris,  (Francis  Orpen,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
clergyman,  born  about  1810.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  British  Birds,"  (6  vols.,)  "  Anecdotes  of  Natural  His- 
tory," and  other  works. 

Morris,  (George  P.,)  an  American  lyric  poet  and 
journalist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1802.  He  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "New  York  Mirror"  in  1823,  and 
in  1844  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Evening  Mirror,"  a 
literary  journal.  He  founded,  conjointly  with  N.  P. 
Willis,  the  "Home  Journal,"  (1846.)  He  published 
a  number  of  beautiful  and  popular  songs,  among  which 
we  may  name  "My  Mother's  Bible,"  "Woodman,  Spare 
that  Tree,"  and  "  Long  Time  Ago."  He  also  wrote 
"The  Deserted  Bride,"  and  other  poems,  and  a  drama 
entitled  "  Briercliff,"  and  edited,  conjointly  with  Mr. 
Willis,  "  The  Prose  and  Poetry  of  Europe  and  America." 
Died  in  1864. 

See  R.  W.  Gri'^wold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  281 ; 
DuvcKiNCK,  "Cj'clopxdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  Cleve- 
land, "  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Morris,  (George  Sylvester,)  Ph.D.,  an  American 
scholar,  born  at  Norwich,  Vermont,  November  15,  1840. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1861,  studied  at 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  (New  York,)  and  in 
Germany,  was  professor  of  modern  languages  in  the 
University  of  Michigan,  1870-79,  and  in  the  latter  year 
became  professor  of  ethics  and  the  history  of  philosojjhy. 
He  was  also  lecturer,  1878-83,  in  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity. He  published  a  translation  of  Ueberweg's 
"  History  of  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1872-74,)  "  British 
Thought  and  Thinkers,"  (1S80,)  a  work  on  Kant's  "Cri- 
tique of  Pure  Reason,"  "  Philosophy  and  Christianity," 
(1883,)  etc.     Died  in  1S89. 

Morris,  (Gouverneur,)  an  able  American  statesman, 
born  at  Morrisiana,  in  Westchester  county.  New  York, 
in  January,  1752,  was  a  half-brother  of  Lewis  Morris, 
notice  J  below.  He  studied  law,  and  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  New  York  in  1775. 
Pie  became  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1777,  and  acquired  distinction  as  an  eloquent  public 
speaker.  About  1780  he  removed  to  Philadelphia.  He 
was  appointed  assistant  superintendent  of  finance  by 
Robert  Morris  in  1781,  and  served  in  that  capacity  for 
three  years  or  more.  He  was  one  of  the  Pennsylvania 
delegates  to  the  National  Convention  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  17S7.  His  services 
in  that  convention  were  highly  estimated  by  James 
Madison.  In  December,  1788,  he  went  on  private  busi- 
ness to  Paris,  where  he  passed  several  years  and  kept  a 
diary  which  possesses  much  historical  interest.  He  was 
appointed  minister  from  the  United  States  to  France  early 
in  1792,  and  was  recalled  in  October,  1794.  He  acted 
with  the  Federalist  party,  and  was  a  friend  of  General 
Washington,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  resembled  in  per- 
sonal appearance.  In  1800  he  was  elected  a  Senator  ot 
the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  New  York.  His 
term  in  the  Senate  expired  in  March,  1803,  after  which 
he  returned  to  private  life.  He  married  Anne  C.  Ran- 
dolph, of  Virginia,  in  1809.  He  was  one  of  the  origin- 
ators or  promoters  of  the  Erie  Canal.  Among  his 
writings  are  a  "Eulogy  on  General  Hamilton,"  and  a 
"Discourse  on  the  Liberation  of  Europe  froni  Military 
Despotism,"  (1814.)  Died  at  Morrisiana  in  November, 
1816.  "Morris  was  endued  by  nature,"  says  James 
Renwick,  "with  all  the  attributes  necessary  to  the  ac- 
complished orator, — a  fine  and  commanding  person,  a 
most  graceful  demeanour,  which  was  rather  heightened 
than  impaired  by  the  loss  of  one  of  his  legs,  and  a  voice 
of  much  compass,  strength,  and  richness."  ("Life  of 
Clinton.") 

See  Jarbd  Sparks,  "  Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  with  Selections 
from  his  Correspondence,"  3  vols.,  1832;  "  Kncyclop^dia  Ameri- 
cana;""  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^r.ile  ;"  Duvckinck,  "  Cyclopse- 
dia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1832,  and  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1832. 


Morris,  (Henry  W.,)  Commodore,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  1805,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Morris, 
a  member  of  the  New  York  bar.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  grandson  of  Gouverneur  Morris.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1856,  and  took  command  in  January,  1862, 
of  the  new  steamer  Pensacola,  with  which  he  contributed 
to  the  victory  gained  by  Captain  Farragut  below  New 
Orleans  in  April  of  that  year.  Died  in  New  York  in 
August,  1863. 

Morris,  (Jacob,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  West- 
chester county.  New  York,  in  1755,  was  a  son  of  Lewis 
Morris,  (1726-98.)  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  General 
Charles  Lee,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  defence 
of  Fort  Moultrie.     Died  in  1844. 

Morris,  (John  G.,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  York,  Pennsylvania,  November  14,  1803.  He 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1823,  studied  the- 
ology at  Princeton,  and  held  pastorates,  chiefly  in  and 
near  Baltimore.  His  works  include  a  "  Popular  Expo- 
sition of  the  Gospels,"  (1840,)  "Quaint  Sayings  and 
Doings  concerning  Luther,"  a  "  Life  of  Catharine  de 
Bora,"  and  various  works  on  entomology  published  by 
the  Smithsonian  Institution.  He  also  translated  various 
denominational  and  religious  works  from  the  German, 
and  was  prominent  as  an  editor  and  educator. 

Morris,  (John  Thomas,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
divine,  born  at  Ootacamund,  India,  July  4,  1826.  He 
entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  but  abandoned  the 
English  Church,  and  finished  his  education  at  Rome. 
He  was  secretary  to  Cardinals  Wiseman  and  Manning. 
In  1867  he  became  a  Jesuit,  and  was  afterwards  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Saint  Beuno's  College.  Among  his 
books  are  "  Troubles  of  our  Catholic  Forefathers,"  (3 
series,)  "Life  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Canterbury,"  "Con- 
dition of  Catholics  under  James  I.,"  etc. 

Morris,  (Lewis,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  West- 
chester county.  New  York,  became  chief  justice  of  that 
State,  and  was  elected  in  1738  first  Governor  of  New 
Jersey.     Died  in  1746. 

Morris,  (Lewis,)  a  Welsh  poet  and  antiquary,  born 
in  1702,  made  a  valuable  collection  of  ancient  manu- 
scripts, and  published  a  number  of  poems  in  the  Welsh 
language.     Died  in  1765. 

Morris,  (Lewis,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Westchester 
county.  New  York,  in  1726,  was  a  grandson  of  Lewis 
Morris,  (the  first  of  the  name,)  and  half-brother  of  Gou- 
verneur Morris,  noticed  above.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Congress  of  1775,  and  resumed  his  seat  the  following 
year.     Died  in  1798. 

Morris,  (Lewis,)  a  British  poet,  a  great-grandson  of 
Lewis  Morris  (1702-65)  the  poet,  already  noticed.  He 
was  born  at  Carmarthen,  Wales,  about  1835,  graduated 
at  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  in  1855,  with  honours,  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1861,  and  practised 
law  until  1880.  His  principal  works  are  "Songs  of  Two 
Worlds,"  (3  vols.,  1871-75,)  "The  Epic  of  Hades," 
(1876-77,)  "Gwin,  a  Drama,"  (1878,)  "The  Ode  of 
Life,"  (1880,)  etc. 

Morris,  (Philip  Richard,)  an  English  painter,  bom 
at  Devonjiort,  December  4,  1838.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Holman  liunt,  and  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  made  an  associate  in  1877.  Among  the 
best-known  of  his  pictures  are  "The  Shadow  of  the 
Cross,"  "  Prison  Fare,"  and  "  A  Procession  at  Dieppe." 
His  best  works  depict  scenes  of  humble  life,  and  are 
marked  by  tenderness  and  poetic  treatment. 

Morris,  (Richard,)  LL.D.,  an  English  philologist, 
born  in  Southwark,  September  S,  1S33.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Saint  John's  College,  Battersea,  and  took  orders 
in  the  English  Church.  His  principal  distinction  was 
won  as  the  editor  of  old  English  texts.  He  also  pub- 
lished "  Etymology  of  Local  Names,"  (1S57,)  and  var'ous 
books  for  schools. 

Morris,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  statesman  and 
financier,  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1734.  At  an 
early  age  he  removed  to  America  and  entered  into 
mercantile  business  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  Congress  in  1775,  and  the  following  year  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  finance  in  1 781,  being  the  first  who 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  Ti,  y. short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  nflt;  good;  moDn; 


MORRIS 


1771 


MO R  TIER 


had  filled  that  office  in  the  United  States,  and  by  his 
judicious  and  energetic  measures  rendered  the  most 
important  services  to  the  cause  of  the  patriots.  "The 
Americans,"  says  a  distinguished  historian,  "owe  as 
much  acknowledgment  to  the  financial  operations  of 
Robert  Morris  as  to  the  negotiations  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  or  even  the  arms  of  George  Washington." 
He  pledged  his  private  fortune  to  obtain  supplies  foi 
the  army,  and  originated  the  Bank  of  Ntjrtli  America  in 
17S1.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1784,  was  a  member  of 
the  Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  in  1787,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  17S8.  He  was  imprisoned  for  debt  in 
his  old  age.     Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1806. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Morris,  (Thomas,)  an  American  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  in  Virginia  in  1776.  Having  removed  to 
Ohio,  he  was  elected  in  1830  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  in  1832  a  United  States  Senator.  In  this 
post  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  slavery, 
and  in  1843  ^^  ^^'^  nominated  for  Vice-President  by  the 
Liberty  party.     Died  in  December,  1844. 

Morris,  (Thomas  A.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Kanawha  county,  Virgini-i,  in  1794,  was 
for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  Western  Christian  Advocate," 
•*nd  in  1836  became  Bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.     Died  September  2,  1874. 

Morris,  (Thomas  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Kentucky  about  1812,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1834. 
He  became  a  citizen  of  Indiana.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  of  the  Union  army  in  Western  Virginia  in  June 
and  July,  1861. 

Morris,  (Willia.m,)  an  English  contemporary  poet, 
was  born  near  London  in  1834.  He  has  published,  among 
other  works,  "  The  Defence  of  Guenevere,"  (London, 
1858,)  "  Life  and  Death  of  Jason,"  (1867,)  "The  Earthly 
Paradise,"  (1868-71,)  "Love  is  Enough,  or  the  Freeing 
of  Pharamond,"  (1873,)  "  The  ^neids  of  Virgil  done  into 
English  Verse,"  (1876,)  "The  Story  of  Sigurd  the  Vol- 
sung,"  (1S77,)  and,  from  the  Icelandic,  "  The  Story  of 
Gretter  the  Strong,"  (1869,)  and  "  Three  Northern  Love- 
Stories,"  (1875,)  also  "  Hopes  and  Fears  for  Art,"  (1882.) 

Mor'ri-spn,  (John  Robert,)  son  of  Rev.  Robert 
Morrison,  noticed  below,  born  at  Macao  in  1 8 14.  He 
succeeded  his  father  as  secretary  and  interpreter  to  the 
British  Factory  at  Cantorr;'and  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  The  Chinese  Commercial  Guide,"  (1834.) 

Morrison,  (Rev.  Robert,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
Orientalist  and  missionary,  born  in  Northumberland  in 
1782.  Having  previously  studied  the  Chinese  language, 
he  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1807 
to  China,  where  he  became  translator  to  the  East  India 
Company's  Factory  at  Canton.  His  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  came  out  in  1814,  and  was  followed  in 
1S15  by  his  "Chinese  Grammar."  In  conjunction  with 
Rev.  Mr.  Milne,  he  next  translated  the  Old  Testament 
into  Chinese.  It  was  completed  in  1818,  (in  21  vols. 
i2mo.)  His  great  "Chinese  Dictionary,"  printed  at  the 
expense  of  the  East  India  Company,  appeared  in  1821. 
He  visited  England  in  1824,  and,  having  remained  there 
two  years,  returned  to  his  missionary  labours  in  China, 
where  he  had  founded  in  1818  an  Anglo-Chinese  Col- 
lege. Among  Dr.  Morrison's  other  works  we  may  name 
"  Horae  Sinicae,"  (1812,)  a  "View  of  China  for  Philo- 
logical Purposes,"  etc.,  (1817,)  and  "Chinese  Miscel- 
lany," (1825.)  He  was  the  first  Protestant  missionary 
to  China,  and  as  a  Chinese  scholar  he  occupies  the 
highest  rank.     Died  in  1834. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Robert  Morrison,"  by  his  widow,  1839;  A. 
R^MUSAT,  in  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  1S24. 

Mor'ro'w,  (Jeremiah,)  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1770,  became  United  States  Senator  from  Ohio  in  1813, 
and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  in  1822.  Died 
in  t8!;2. 

Mors,  [Fr.  La  Mort,  It  moR,]  the  Latin  name  of  the 
personification  of  Death,  [Gr.  Guyarof,]  said  to  be  the 
offspring  of  Night.  According  to  Homer,  Death  was 
the  brother  of  Sleep. 

Morse,  (Edward  Sylvester,)  an  American  natural- 
ist, born  at  Portland,  Maine.  June  18,  1838.     He  studied 


at  the  Scientific  School  of  Harvard  University,  and 
became  professor  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy 
in  Bowdoin  College.  He  has  published  many  papers 
on  the  molluscoids,  worms,  lower  arthropods,  and  other 
groups  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

Morse,  (Jedediah,)  D.D.,  an  American  geographer 
and  divine,  born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1761. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1789  became  pas- 
tor of  the  First  Congregational  Church  at  Charlestown, 
Massachusetts.  He  is  principally  known  by  his  geo- 
graphical works,  which  were  the  first  of  the  kind  pub- 
lished in  America,  and  which  also  obtained  a  European 
reputation.  He  lilcewise  published  several  historical 
works,  and  a  number  of  sermons.     Died  in  1826. 

Morse,  (John  Torrey,)  Jr.,  an  American  lawyer  and 
author,  born  in  Boston,  January  9,  1840.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  i860.  His  principal  works  are 
"  A  Treatise  on  Banks,"  "  Law  of  Arbitration  and 
Awards,"  "  Famous  Trials,"  "Life  of  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton," "Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams,"  and  "Life  of 
Thomas  Jefferson."  He  edited  the  "American  States- 
men" series  of  biographies. 

Morse,  (Samuel  Finley  Breese,)  an  American  in- 
ventor and  aitist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  April  27, 
1791,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Jedediah  Morse.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1810,  and  went  to  England, 
where  he  studied  painting  under  Benjamin  West.  He 
returned  home  in  1815,  and  painted  portraits  at  various 
places.  He  visited  Europe  in  1829,  and  returned  in 
1832.  During  the  passage  homeward  he  suggested  the 
idea  of  an  electric  telegraph,  in  conversation  with  his 
fellow-passengers.  He  constructed  the  apparatus  of  a 
recording  electric  telegraph,  by  which  he  conveyed  de- 
spatches through  a  small  distance,  in  1835.  About  the  end 
of  1837  he  applied  to  Congress  for  aid,  without  success. 
He  went  to  England  in  1838  to  obtain  a  patent,  which 
w.ts  refused.  Wheatstone,  an  Englishman,  had  invented 
a  different  apparatus,  for  the  same  purpose,  about  1837. 
In  the  spring  of  1843,  Congress  voted  thirty  thousand 
dollars  to  enable  him  to  construct  a  line  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore.  His  invention  was  brought  into 
successful  operation  on  that  route  in  1844,  since  which 
it  has  been  rapidly  introduced  into  nearly  all  countries 
of  the  civilized  world.  This  result  has  been  called  the 
greatest  triumph  which  human  genius  has  obtained  over 
space  and  time.  Mr.  Morse  received  gold  medals  and 
insignia  of  honour  from  several  European  sovereigns. 
The  representatives  of  the  principal  European  powers, 
assembled  in  Paris  about  1857,  presentedto  him  the 
sum  of  400,000  francs  as  a  recompense  for  his  invention. 
Morse's  system  is  generally  preferred  to  that  invented 
in  England,  on  account  of  its  greater  simplicity.  Died 
April  2,  1872. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol 
ii.  chap,  xxiii.  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1828. 

Morse,  (Sidney  Eovi^ARDS,)  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing,  was  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1794. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  181 1,  and  about  1815 
became  editor  of  the  "  Boston  Recorder,"  a  religioiis 
journal.  In  1823  he  founded,  conjointly  with  his 
brother,  R.  C.  Morse,  the  "  New  York  Observer."  He 
was  the  author  of  several  popular  school  geographies, 
and  invented  a  new  method  of  engraving  maps,  called 
cerography.     Died  in  1871. 

Mortemart,  de,  deh  moRt'mtR',  (Casimir  Louis 
Victurnien  de  Rochechouart — deh  rosh'shoo-Sa',) 
Due,  a  French  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1787.  During  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  Charles 
X.  requested  him  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  of  which  he 
was  nominated  president ;  but  it  was  too  late.  He  was 
afterwards,  in  1831,  ambassador  to  St.  Petersburg,  and 
was  made  a  senator  in  1852.     Died  January  i,  1875. 

Mortier,  moR'te-i',  (Edouard  Adolphe  Casimir 
Joseph,)  afterwards  Duke  of  Treviso,  a  celebrated  marshal 
of  France,  born  at  Cateau-Cambresis  in  1768.  He  served 
with  great  distinction  in  the  principal  campaigns  from 
1792  to  1799,  when  he  was  made  general  of  division. 
In  1803  he  was  sent  by  Napoleon  to  Hanover,  of  which 
he  soon  took  possession.  He  was  created  a  marshal  in 
1804,  and  the  year  following  received  the  grand  cordon 
of  the  legion  of  honour.     Being  appointed  in  1805  to 


•e  as  yi.-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (.Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORTIMER 


1772 


MORTON 


command  a  corps  of  the  fjrand  army  in  Germany,  he 
was  attacked  in  November  by  tlie  Russian  general  Koo- 
toosof  with  30,000  men,  against  whom  he  made  a  most 
gallant  defence  with  greatly  inferior  numbers  until  rein- 
forcements came  up.  For  the  signal  bravery  he  displayed 
at  the  battle  of  Friedland,  June,  1807,  he  was  made 
Duke  of  Treviso.  In  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1808  he 
assisted  at  the  siege  of  Saragossa,  and  defeated  the 
Spaniards  at  Ocana  and  Gebora.  He  accompanied 
B()nai)arte  to  Russia  in  1812,  and  was  commissioned  by 
him  to  blow  up  the  Kremlin.  In  1814,  in  conjunction 
with  Marshal  Marmont,  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost 
to  defend  Paris  from  the  allies,  but,  not  succeeding  in 
this,  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVIII.  After  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  entered  the  service  of  Louis 
Philippe,  and  in  1835,  while  accompanying  that  mon 
arch  to  a  review,  was  one  of  the  victims  of  Fieschi's 
"  infernal  machine." 

See  H.  Bis,  "Notice  sur  le  Mar^chal  Mortier ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^nerale."' 

Mor'ti-mer,  (Edmund,)  Earl  of  March,  an  English 
nobleman,  who  married  Philippa,  only  child  of  Lionel, 
Duke  of  Clarence.  They  had  a  son  Roger,  and  were 
ancestors  of  Edward  IV.     Died  in  1381. 

Mortimer,  (Edmund,)  fifth  Earl  of  March,  born  about 
1390,  was  the  son  of  Roger,  and  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  the  lawful  heir  to  the  crown  after  the 
death  of  Richard  II.     Died  in  1424. 

Mortimer,  (John  Hamilton,)  an  English  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Eastbourne,  Sussex,  in  1739.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Saint  Paul  preaching  to  the  Britons," 
and  "King  John  signing  Magna  Charta."  He  was  an 
inferior  colorist,  but  his  design  was  admired  by  his 
contemporaries.     Died  in  1779. 

Mortimer,  (Roger,)  Earl  of  March,  the  paramour 
of  Isabella,  Queen  of  England,  born  about  1287.  Having 
been  twice  convicted  of  treason  and  pardoned  by  Ed- 
ward II.,  he  conspired  with  the  queen  against  the  life  of 
the  king,  who  was  barbarously  murdered.  The  guilty 
pair  reigned  for  several  years  in  the  name  of  the  young 
prince  Edward  III. ;  but  Mortimer  was  at  length  made 
prisoner  by  order  of  the  prince,  and  executed  in  1330. 

See  Hume,  " History  of  England;"  Froissart,  "Chronicles." 

Mortimer,  (Roger,)  fourth  Earl  of  March,  was  a 
son  of  the  third  earl.  He  died  in  1398,  leaving  a  son 
Edmund  and  a  daughter  Anne,  who  was  married  to 
Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge,  and  was  a  grandmother  of 
Edward  IV. 

Mortimer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
London  in  1730.  He  published  "The  Britisn  Plutarch," 
(6  vols.,  1762,)  "Elements  of  Commerce,"  etc.,  (1772,) 
"  Compendium  of  History,  Chronology,  and  Biography," 
(1777,)  and  other  valuable  works. 

Morto  da  Feltre.     See  Feltre,  da. 

Mor'toii,  (Charles,)  a  learned  English  Puritan  min- 
ister, born  about  1626.  He  was  ejected  for  noncon- 
formity in  1662,  after  which  he  taught  school  in  London 
about  twenty  years.  He  emigrated  to  New  England  in 
1686,  and  became  minister  at  Charlestown,  Massachu- 
setts.   He  wrote  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1698. 

Morton,  (Charles,)  an  English  physician  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  Westmoreland  in  1716.  Elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1752,  he  became  one  of  its  secre- 
taries in  1760,  and  in  1776  succeeded  Dr.  Maty  as  libra- 
rian of  the  British  Museum.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Imperial  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  made 
several  valuable  contributions  to  the  "Transactions"  of 
the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1799. 

Mor'ton,  (Henry,)  an  American  physicist,  born  in 
New  York  city,  December  11,  1836.  He  graduated  in 
1857  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  in  1869.  In  1870  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  at  Ho- 
boken.  He  has  published  many  papers  on  chemistry 
and  physics,  and  won  a  high  reputation  as  an  original 
investigator  and  as  a  teacher. 

Mor'ton,  (James  Douglas,)  Earl  of.  Regent  of 
Scotland,  born  in  153c,  was  a  nephew  of  the  Earl  of 
Angus.  He  married  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  James 
Douglas,  third  Earl  of  Morton,  and  inherited  the  earl 


dom  in  1553,  at  the  death  of  the  third  earl,  who  left  no 
male  issue.  He  joined  the  Protestant  party,  and  became 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  congregation  about  1558.  In 
1563  he  was  appointed  lord  high  chancellor  of  Scotland. 
He  lost  that  office  by  his  complicity  in  the  assassination 
of  Rizzio.  He  was  invited  by  Bothwell  to  join  him  in 
the  plot  for  the  murder  of  Darnley.  He  declined  to  act 
in  that  affair,  but  failed  to  inform  against  Bothwell.  For 
this  course  he  afterwards  offered  the  excuse  that  the 
queen  was  already  aware  of  the  plot,  so  that  it  would  be 
useless  to  reveal  the  secret  to  her.  He  fought  against 
Bothwell  and  the  queen  at  Carbery  Hill.  In  1567  he 
was  restored  to  the  office  of  lord  chancellor  by  Regent 
Murray.  He  was  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  in 
1572,  and  rendered  himself  odious  by  his  rapacity  and 
oppressive  acts,  but  was  supported  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Having  been  accused  as  an  accessory  to  the  murder  of 
Darnley,  he  was  convicted  and  beheaded  in  June,  1581. 
See  Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  Bi;rton,  "  History  of 
Scotland." 

Morton,  (James  Douglas,)  Earl  of,  a  Scottish 
astronomer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1707,  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  an  associate  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris.     Died  in  1768. 

Mor'ton,  (James  Saint  Clair,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1829,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Samuel 
George  Morton,  noticed  below.  He  was  educated  at 
West  Point,  where  he  graduated  as  second  of  his  class  in 
185 1,  after  which  he  was  employed  as  engineer  at  various 
places.  He  was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  army 
of  the  Ohio  in  May,  1862,  and  commanded  the  Pioneer 
Brigade  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  January  1-2,  1863. 
For  his  services  in  this  action  he  obtained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  killed  in  an  assault  on 
Petersburg  in  June,  1864. 

Morton,  (John,)  an  English  prelate  and  statesman, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1410.  He  held  several  high 
offices  under  Henry  VI.,  and,  soon  after  the  accession 
of  Edwaid  IV.,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ely,  apd  lord 
chancellor  of  England.  He  was  imprisoned  by  Richard 
HI.,  but,  having  effected  his  escape,  repaired  to  the  con- 
tinent, where  he  is  said  to  have  formed  the  plan,  in  con- 
junction with  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  of  uniting  the 
parties  of  York  and  Lancaster  by  the  marriage  of  Henry 
to  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  Under  Henry  VII., 
Morton  was  created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (i486,) 
and  a  cardinal,  (1493.)  He  was  the  patron  of  Sir  Thomas 
More,  who  eulogized  him  in  his  "Utopia."    Died  in  1500. 

Morton,  (Levi  Parsons,)  an  American  merchant  and 
banker,  the  son  of  a  Congregational  clergyman,  was  born 
at  Shoreham,  Vermont,  May  16,  1S24.  In  1849  he  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  business  in  Boston,  but  subsequently 
removed  to  New  York,  where,  in  1863,  he  established 
the  banking-house  of  L.  P,  Morton  &  Co.  He  was 
twice  elected  to  Congress,  (1S78  and  1880,)  and  in  1881 
was  appointed  by  President  Garfield  minister  to  France. 
In  18S8  he  became  the  successful  candidate  for  Vice- 
President  on  the  Republican  ticket  with  Harrison. 

Morton,  (Marcus,)  an  American  jurist  and  Governor, 
born  at  Freetown,  Massachusetts,  in  1784,  He  was  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  from  1825 
to  1840,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  by  the 
Democrats  in  1840  and  1843.     ^^^'^  in  '864. 

Morton,  (Nathaniel,)  one  of  the  early  settlers  of 
Plymouth,  born  in  England  in  1612,  was  the  author 
of  "New  England's  Memorial,"  and  a  "History  of  the 
Church  at  Plymouth."     Died  in  1685. 

Morton,  (Oliver  P.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Wayne  county,  Indiana,  in  1823.  He  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847.  He  was  Governor  of 
Indiana  from  1861  to  1865,  and  was  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in 
January,  1867,  for  a  term  ending  in  March,  1873.  During 
the  civil  war  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  his  countrv.    He  died  November  I,  1877.  _ 

Morton,  (Richard,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Suffolk  about  1635,  had  a  high  reputation  for  skill  and 
learning,  and  became  in  1670  physician  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Exercises  on  Phthisis," 
and  other  medical  works,  in  Latin. 


a  e  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  Ci,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MORTON 


1773 


MOSCHENI 


Morton,  (Samuel  George,)  an  eminent  American 
naturalist,  etiinologist,  and  physician,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, January  26,  1799.  His  father,  George  Morton, 
who  was  descended  from  a  large  and  highly  respectable 
family  in  Clonmel,  Ireland,  emigrated  to  America  and 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  The  subject  of  out 
sketch  early  evinced  a  passionate  fondness  for  books  and 
thirst  for  knowledge,  and  combined  with  these  a  habit 
of  persevering  and  methodical  industry.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  March,  1820,  and 
in  October  of  the  same  year  entered  as  a  matriculate  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  the  diploma  of  which  insti- 
tution was  conferred  upon  him  in  August,  1823.  He 
returned  to  America  in  1824,  commenced  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  1826,  and  in  1827  married  Rebecca  G., 
daughter  of  Robert  and  Elizabeth  Pearsall,  highly  re- 
spected members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  His  first 
scientific  essay,  entitled  "Observations  on  Cornine,  a 
New  Alkaloid,"  was  published  in  the  "Medical  and 
Physical  Journal"  for  1825-26.  In  1827  he  communi- 
cated to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  an  "Analysis 
of  Tabular  Spar  from  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  with 
a  Notice  of  Various  Minerals  found  in  the  same  Locality." 
During  the  same  year  he  contributed  to  the  "Journal 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,"  Philadelphia,  a 
"Description  of  a  New  Species  of  Ostrea  Convexa  of 
Say."  These  papers  were  followed  in  rapid  succession 
by  many  other  scientific  communications,  and  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Academy  continued  to  be  enriched  by  his 
labours  until  within  a  short  period  of  his  death.  There 
were  not  less  than  forty  of  these  contributions,  besides 
others  published  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,"  and  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Science  and  Arts,"  edited  by  Professor  Silliman.  These 
articles,  by  their  varied  range,  exhibited  great  versatility 
of  talent,  treating  as  they  did  upon  subjects  connected 
with  anatomy,  ethnology,  archaeology,  geology,  palaeon- 
tology, zoology,  and  mineralogy.  His  celebrated  mono- 
graph on  the  "Cretaceous  Group  of  the  United  States" 
was  received,  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  with  great 
favour  by  the  most  eminent  geologists  of  Europe.  In 
1834  he  contributed  to  medical  literature  an  important 
work  on  the  "  Anatomical  Character,  Causes,  Symptoms, 
and  Treatment  of  Pulmonary  Consumption."  He  early 
began  to  make  his  now  celebrated  collection  of  crania, 
and  up  to  1840  had,  with  great  labour  and  cost,  succeeded 
in  collecting  no  less  than  1468  crania.  In  1839  he  gave 
to  the  world  his  "Crania  Americana,"  and  in  1844  his 
"  Crania  Egyptiaca,"  both  of  which  were  very  favourably 
received.  He  was  for  some  years  president  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  He  died  in  May, 
185 1.  His  name  is  often  associated  with  Nott  and  Glid- 
don's  "Types  of  Mankind,"  (1854,)  based  to  some  extent 
on  Dr.  Morton's  researches;  but  that  work,  published 
after  his  death,  and  edited  by  those  who  very  imperfectly 
understood  his  views,  gives  no  just  idea  of  the  modest, 
impartial,  and  thoroughly  scientific  spirit  with  which  he 
conducted  all  his  inquiries.  In  the  annals  of  science  his 
name  will  always  be  associated  with  that  of  ]?lumenbach, 
the  founder  of  human  craniography.  To  this  study  he 
gave  a  powerful  impetus,  by  demonstrating  the  jirecise 
method  in  accordance  with  which  it  should  be  pursued, 
and  by  indicating  its  capability  of  throwing  light  upon 
the  origin  and  affiliations  of  the  various  races  of  men. 
Dr.  Morton  left  several  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest,  an 
officer  ofgreat  merit,  died  fighting  bravely  for  his  country, 
(see  Morton,  James  Saint  Clatr  ;)  another  son, 
Thomas  George,  has  become  justly  distinguished  as 
one  of  the  most  skilful  surgeons  in  the  United  States. 

See  Gross's  "  American  Medical  Biography." 

Morton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Durham  in  1764,  was  the  author  of  numerous  comedies 
and  farces,  which  had  great  popularity  in  his  time.  His 
dramas  entitled  "Town  and  Country"  and  "A  Roland 
for  an  Oliver"  still  retain  their  place  on  the  stage. 
Died  in  1838. 

See  Baker,  "  Eiographia  Dramatica." 

Morton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  York 
in  1564,  became  successively  Bishop  of  Chester,  of  Lich- 
field, and  of  Durham.  He  published  several  controver- 
sial treatises   against  papists  and  nonconformists.     He 


was  an  intimate  friend  of  Casaubon,  to  whose  memory 
he  erected  a  monument  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Died 
in  1659. 

See  Barwick,  "Life  of  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Durham,"  1660: 
Baddii.v  and  Navlor,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Morton,"  1669. 

Morton,  (Thomas  George,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  surgeon,  a  son  of  S.  G.  Morton,  already  noticed, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  August  8,  1835.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  graduating  as 
M.D.  in  1S56.  He  became  a  surgeon  of  his  native  city, 
and  acquired  a  great  reputation  as  a  brilliant  and  skilful 
operator.  Pie  has  published  many  reports  and  profes- 
sional papers,  and  is  the  inventor  of  important  surgical 
appliances. 

Morton,  (William  Thomas  Green,)  M.D.,  an 
American  dentist  and  physician,  born  at  Charlton,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1819.  He  settled  in  Boston,  as  a  dentist, 
about  1842,  and  made  some  improvements  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  artificial  teeth.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine 
and  chemistry,  to  which  he  was  attracted  by  a  desire  to 
discover  a  substance  that  would  render  his  patients  in- 
sensible to  painful  operations  on  their  teeth.  He  began 
to  use  sulphuric  ether  as  an  anaesthetic  in  1846.  His 
claim  to  this  invention  was  disputed  by  Dr.  Jackson. 
Died  in  July,  1868.    (See  Wells,  Horace.) 

Mortonval,  moR'tftN'vtl',  the  assumed  name  of 
Furcy  Guesdon,  (fuR'se'  gi'd6N',)  a  French  novelist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1780.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
novels,  "  The  Count  of  Villamayor,"  (1825.)  Died  in  1856. 

Morns.  See  More,  (Alexander,  Henry,  and  Sir 
Thomas.) 

Moru.s,  mo'riis,  (Samuel  Friedrich  Nathanael,) 
a  German  scholar  and  theologian,  born  in  Upper  Lusa- 
tia  in  1736.  He  published  editions  of  Longinus,  Plu- 
tarch, Isocrates,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote  several 
original  works,  among  which  are  "Theological  and  Philo- 
logical Dissertations,"  (1787,)  and  an  "Epitome  of 
Christian  Theology,"  (1789.)     Died  in  1792. 

Morveau.     See  Guyton  he  Morveau. 

Morville,  de,  deh  moR'v^K,  (Charles  Jean  Bap- 
tiste  Fleuriau — flu're'6',)  Comte,  a  French  diploma- 
tist, born  in  Paris  in  1686,  was  ambassador  to  Holland 
in  1718,  and  induced  the  States-General  to  sign  the 
Quadruple  Alliance.  He  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1723,  and  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
the  same  year.     Died  in  1732. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires." 

Morvillier,  de,  deh  mor've'yi',  (Jean,)  a  French  ne 
gotiator,  born  at  Blois  in  1506.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Orleans  in  1552,  and  was  keeper  of  the  seals  about  two 
years,  (i!;68-70.)     Died  in  1577. 

Mor'y-son  or  Mor'i-spn,  (Fynes,)  an  English  travel- 
ler, born  in  1566.  He  visited  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  which  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  under  the  title  of  "  Itinerary, 
containing  his  Ten  Years'  Travel,"  (1617.)  Died  about 
1614. 

See  Harris,  "  Ireland  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,(t82S.) 

Morzillo.    See  Fox,  (Sebastian.) 

Mosbourg  or  Mosburg.  See  Agar,  (Jean  Antoinf 
Michel.) 

Mosca,  mos'kJ,  (Francesco,)  called  Moschino, 
(mos-kee'no,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  near 
Florence  about  1520;  died  after  1572. 

Moscati,  mos-ki'tee,  (Pietro,)  Count,  an  Italian 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  about  1740,  wa» 
made  president  of  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1798.  He 
was  afterwards  created  by  Napoleon  a  count,  and  sena- 
tor of  Italy.     Died  in  1824. 

Moscheles,  mosh'eh-16s',  (Ignaz,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man pianist  and  composer  for  the  piano,  born  at  Prague 
in  1794,  was  the  son  of  a  Jewish  merchant.  After  visit- 
ing Holland,  France,  and  England,  he  became  in  1825 
professor  of  music  at  the  Academy  in  London.  In  1846 
he  was  associated  with  his  pupil,  Felix  Mendelssohn,  as 
director  of  the  Conservatory  at  Leipsic.  His  principal 
works  are  sonatas,  songs,  and  instrument-pieces  of 
various  kinds.     Died  in  1870. 

See  Fitxis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Moscheni,  mos-ka'nee,  (Costanza,)  an  Italian  poet- 
ess, born  at  Lucca  in  1786;  died  in  1831. 


f.2&k;  9asj/  %hard;  gzsj;  g,h, K.^tiurai;  N, wujrt/;  %,trilled;  sasz;  th  ^?,\\\this.     (jJ^^See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


MOSCHEROSCH 


1774 


MOSES 


Moscherosch,  mosh'eh-rosh',  (Johann  Michael,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Wilstadt  in  1600.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Wonderful  and  True  Visions  of  Phi- 
lander von  Sittewald,"  (1644,)  a  collection  of  allegorical 
satires  in  the  style  of  Quevedo,  which  are  characterized 
by  great  acuteness,  originality,  and  powers  of  humour. 
Died  in  1669. 

See  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deufschen  Nationalliteratur." 

Moschini,  mos-kee'nee,  (Giannantonio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1773.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Venetian  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (4 
vols.,  1S07-09,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1840. 

Mos'-ehl-on,  [Mo(j;t;<'an',]  a  Greek  medical  writer, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  the 
Diseases  of  Women,"  which  was  first  published  in  Wolfs 
"Gynseciorum  Commentarii,"  (1566.) 
See  Fabricii's,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca." 
Moschopule.  See  Moschoput.us. 
Mos-cho-pu'lus,  [Gr.  }<[oaxoiTovJjoq ;  Fr.  Moscho- 
pule, mo'sho'piil',]  (Manuel,)  a  Byzantine  grammarian, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Crete.  There  was  another  writer 
of  the  same  name,  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  and  born  at  Constantinople.  Among  the  works 
attributed  to  them,  which  are  chiefly  grammatical,  we 
may  mention  "Scholia  on  the  Tragedies  of  Euripides," 
"  Erotemata,  or  Grammatical  Questions,"  and  "  Scholia 
on  Hesiod  and  Pindar." 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gra;ca  ;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire 
des  Math^matiques." 

Mos'^ehus,  [Mo(7;('6f,]  a  Greek  pastoral  poet,  born  in 
Syracuse,  flourished  about  200  B.C.  He  was  contempo- 
rary with  Bion,  to  whose  memory  he  vi-rote  a  beautiful 
elegy.  A  few  idyls  are  the  only  extant  works  of 
Moschns. 

See  "  Fraser's  Maerazine"  for  January,  1836. 
Moscoso  de  Alvarado,  de,  di  mos-ko'so  di  Jl-vS- 
rJ'Do,  (Don  Luis,)  a  Spanish  soldier,  born  at  Badajoz 
in  1505.  He  served  under  Hernando  de  Soto  in  the 
conquest  of  Florida  in  1539  and  1540.  On  the  death  of 
De  Soto,  Moscoso  was  chosen  general  in  his  stead.  He 
died  in  Peru  about  1560. 

Moseley,  mSz'le,  (Ben'jamin,)  born  in  Essex,  Eng- 
land, became  phvsician  to  Chelsea  Hospital.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Tropics,"  and 
other  works  ;  but  he  is  chiefly  known  from  his  violent 
opposition  to  vaccination.     Died  in  1819. 

Moseley,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  clergyman 
and  scientific  writer,  born  about  1800.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  King's  College,  London, 
and  chaplain  to  Queen  Victoria  in  1855.  Among  his 
works  is  "Mechanical  Principles  of  Engineering  and 
Architecture,"  (1855.)     Died  January  21,  1872. 

Moseley,  (Henry  Nottidge,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Wandswotth,  November,  1844,  a  son  of  Henry 
Moseley,  already  noticed.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Oxford,  Vienna,  and  Leipsic.  In  1872  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  naturalists  of  the  Challenger  Expedition  of 
1872-76.  Among  his  works  are  "Oregon,  its  Climate, 
Resources,  etc.,"  and  "Notes  by  a  Naturalist  on  the 
Challenger,"  (1879.)  I^'s  principal  studies  are  upon 
nvertebrate  animals. 

Mosellanus,  mo-zfl-lS'nCis,  (Petrus  Schade — 
shi'deh,)  a  German  scholar  and  promoter  of  classical 
learning,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Treves  in  1493.  In 
1514  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  tlie  University  of  Leipsic.  He  was  intimate  with 
Melanchthon  and  Erasmus.     Died  in  1524. 

Mosen,  mo'zen,  (Julius,)  a  German  litleratetir,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1803.  He  wrote  "Andreas  Hofer,"  and 
other  poems,  also  several  novels,  etc.  Died  in  1867. 
See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetrj-  of  Europe." 
Mosengeil,  mo'zen-giJ',  (Friedrich,)  a  popular  Ger- 
man writer,  born  near  Eisenach  in  1773.  He  published 
"  Summer  Evening  Hours,"  "  Liebenstein  and  the  New 
Arcadians,"  and  other  fictitious  works,  which  have  a 
high  reputation.     Died  in  1839. 

Mosenthal,  mo'zen-tSl,  (Salomon  Hermann,)  a 
German  dramatist  of  Hebrew  extraction,  born  at  Cassel, 


January  14,  1S21.  He  graduated  at  Marburg  in'iS42, 
and  was  in  the  Austrian  civil  service  at  Vienna.  Of  his 
many  plays  the  best-known  are  "Deborah,"  (1850,) 
"  Sonnenwendorf,"  (1856,)  and  "  Pietra,"  (1865.)  Died 
February  17,  1877. 

Mo'i§r,  (George  Michael,)  a  Swiss  artist,  bom  at 
Sci-.affhausen  about  1707.  In  1726  he  settled  in  London, 
where  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  orna- 
mental gold-work  and  enamelling.  In  1768  he  was  ap- 
pointed keeper  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts.  "Moser," 
says  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "had  a  universal  knowledge 
in  all  branches  of  painting  and  sculpture,  and  may  truly 
be  said  in  every  sense  to  have  been  the  father  of  the 
present  race  of  artists."     Died  in  17S3. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Moser,  mo'zer,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  J 701,  became  in  1727  professor  of 
law  in  the  Imperial  College  at  Tubingen.  In  1736  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  University  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder.  As  a  writer  he  was  remarkable  for  his 
indefatigable  industry,  the  whole  number  of  his  works 
amounting  to  upwards  of  four  hundred.     Died  in  1785. 

See  J.  J.  Moser's  Antobiosxrapliy,  ("  Lebensgeschichte  J.  J.  Mo- 
ser's,")  17S3  :  Ledderhose,  "Ziige  aiis  dem  Leben  J.  J.  Sloser's," 
1843;  "Nouvelle  Hiograpliie  Generale." 

Moser  or  Moeser,  mo'zer,  (Justus,)  an  eminent 
German  writer  and  jurist,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1720, 
was  chief  director  of  the  government  of  Osnabriick  for 
about  twenty  years,  (1761-81,)  and  rendered  important 
services  to  the  state.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
good  "History  of  Osnabriick,"  (1768,)  and  "Patriotic 
Fancies,"  (3  vols.,  1775,)  which  was  very  popular.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  10  vols.,  1843.  Died 
in  1794. 

See  F.  NicoLAi,  "Leben  J.  Moesers,"  1797;  Abeken,  "Re- 
liquien  von  J.  Moeser,"  1837  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1843- 

Moser,  (Mary,)  daughter  of  George  Michael  Moser, 
noticed  above,  acquired  great  celebrity  as  a  flower- 
painter.  A  room  at  Frogmore,  which  she  adorned  with 
flowers,  is  called  "Miss  Moser's  room."  She  was 
chosen  an  Academician  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lon- 
don, and  was  the  only  lady  besides  Angelica  Kauffman 
who  ever  received  that  honour.  She  became  Mrs.  Lloyd 
by  marriage.     Died  in  1819. 

Moser,  von,  fon  mo'zer,  (Friedrich  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  .Stuttgart  in  1723,  was  a  son  of  Johann 
Jakob  Moser,  noticed  above.  He  was  successively  aulic 
councillor  at  Vienna,  and  member  of  the  administration 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  (1770.)  He  published  several  legal 
works,  a  "History  of  the  Waldenses,"  and  "The  Mas- 
ter and  Servant,"  ("Der  Herr  und  der  Diener."  1759.) 
The  last-named  production,  illustrating  the  duties  of  a 
sovereign  and  his  minister,  had  great  popularity.  He 
was  for  some  years  editor  of  the  "  Patriotisches  Archiv." 
Died  in  1798. 

See  H.  VON  Busche,  "  F.  C.  von  Moser  aus  seinen  Schriften  sein 
Geist,"  etc.,  1846. 

Mo'ses,  [Heb.  Hu^O  ;  Gr.  Mwcrf/f;  Lat.  Mo'ses;  Fr. 
Moyse  or  Moi'SE,  mo'tz' ;  It.  Moisfe,  mo-e-sa' ;  Arabic, 
Moosa,  moo'sd,]  an  eminent  Hebrew  legislator  and 
prophet,  born  in  Egypt  about  1570  B.C,  was  a  son  of 
Amram,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  In  consequence  of  a  royal 
edict  that  all  male  infants  of  the  Hebrews  should  be 
killed,  he  was  deposited  by  his  mother  in  an  ark  or 
basket  on  the  border  of  the  Nile,  and  found  by  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  who  adopted  him  as  her  son.  He  became 
"learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Eg3'ptians,  and  mighty 
in  words  and  deeds,"  and  about  the  age  of  forty  began 
to  meditat^e  the  liberation  of  the  oppressed  Hebrews. 
Having  incurred  the  anger  of  the  king  by  his  active 
(Sympathy  with  his  own  race,  he  fled  to  Midian,  where 
he  served  as  a  shepherd  about  forty  years.  He  received 
a  divine  mission  to  bring  the  children  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt  to  the  land  of  Canaan.  Under  his  guidance  the 
chosen  people  passed  through  the  Red  Sea  into  the 
Wilderness.  lie  was  instrumental  in  composing  for 
them  a  code  of  laws  called  by  his  name,  and  is  the  re- 
puted author  of  the  book  of  Genesis  and  other  books 
of  the  Pentateuch.  The  form  of  government  which  he 
prescribed  to  the  Helirews  was  a  theocracy.  The  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  Mosaic  law  were  that  man  must 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOSES 


1775 


MOTLEY 


worship  the  only  true  God  exclusively,  and  love  his 
neighbour  as  himself.  Having  appointed  Joshua  as  his 
successor,  and  obtained  a  distant  view  of  the  promised 
land,  Moses  died  on  Mount  Pisgah,  aged  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years.  He  was  pre-eminent  for 
meekness. 

See  Exodus  ii.-xl. ;  Leviticus  i.-xxvii. ;  Numbers  i.-xxxvi. ; 
Deuteronomy  i.-xxxiv.  ;  Matthew  xvii.  3;  Luke  xxiv.  27;  John  iii. 
14,  V.  45,  vii.  19;  Acts  vii.  20-44;  Hebrews  iii.  2,  3,  5,  xi.  23-29; 
Revelation  xv.  3;  Warijurton,  "Divine  Legation  of  Moses  De- 
monstrated," 178S;  J.J.  Hess,  "Geschichte  Mosis,"  1777;  K.  Bous- 
QOET,  "Histoire  de  sept  Riformateurs,"  1853;  D.  VV.  Moller, 
"  Dissertatio  de  Mose  Philosopho,"  1707;  John  Campbell,  "Life 
of  Moses,"  1738. 

Mo'ses  -eiio-re-nen'sis,  (i.e.  "of  Chorene,")  an  Ar- 
menian writer  and  bishop,  flourished  about  460  A.D. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Armenia." 

Mosheim,  von,  fon  mos'him,  [Lat.  Moshe'mius  or 
Moshki'mius,]  (Johann  Lorenz,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man theologian,  pulpit  orator,  and  historian,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1694.  He  studied  at  Kiel,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Helnistedt  in  1725.  In  1747  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  theology  at  Gottingen,  with  the 
title  of  chancellor  of  the  university.  He  was  eminently 
successful  as  a  teacher,  and  acquired  a  wide  celebrity  fo"r 
his  eloquence.  His  great  work  entitled  "  Institutes  of 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  (2  vols.  i2mo,  1726,)  originally 
written  in  Latin,  has  been  translated  into  French,  Ger- 
man, and  English.  Among  his  other  writings  we  may 
name  "  Commentaries  on  Christianity  before  the  Time 
of  Constantine  the  Great,"  {1753,)  and  "  Morality  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (9  vols.)  He  also  translated  into 
Latin  Cudworth's  "Intellectual  .System."     Diedin  1755. 

See  F.  LucKE,  "  Narratio  de  J.  L.  Moshemio,"  1837;  J.  M. 
Gessner,  "  Memoria  J.  L.  Mosheimii,"  1755;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Gen^rale." 

Moskeniius  or  Mosheimius.    See  Mosueim. 

Moslemah,  mos'Ie-mah,  a  famous  Arabian  captain, 
a  son  of  the  caliph  Abd-el-Malek.  He  commanded  the 
,  armies  of  his  brothers,  Waleed  I.,  Soliman,  Yezeed  II., 
and  Hesham.  He  defeated  the  army  of  the  Greek  em- 
peror in  716  A.D.    Died  about  740  A.D. 

Mosneron-Delaunay,  mos'neh-r6N'  deh-lo'ni', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  Baron,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Nantes  in  1738,  translated  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost" 
into  French.     Died  in  1830. 

Mosquera,  mos-ka'ri,  (Don  RuY  Garcia,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  born  in  1 501,  sailed  with  Sebastian  Cabot  on 
his  voyage  to  South  America  in  1526,  and  subsequently 
became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

See  Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  du  Paraguay;"  Southkv,  "History 
of  Brazil" 

Moss,  (Charles,)  an  English  theologian,  a  nephew 
of  Robert,  noticed  below,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Saint 
David's  in  1766.  He  wrote  several  theological  treatises. 
Died  in  1802. 

Moss,  (Lemuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  clergy- 
man, born  near  Burlington,  Kentucky,  December  27, 
1829,  was  a  printer  in  early  life,  graduated  at  Rochester 
University  in  1858,  and  at  Rochester  Theological  School 
in  i860,  was  secretary  of  the  United  States  Christian 
Commission,  1863-65,  held  theological  professorships  at 
Lewisburg,  Pennsylvania,  and  at  Crozer  Seminary,  near 
Philadelphia,  became  in  1874  president  of  the  University 
of  Chicago,  and  in  1S75  president  of  Indiana  University. 
He  was  also  editor  of  the  "  National  Baptist,"  (1868-72.) 
Among  his  works  is  the  "Annals  of  the  United  States 
Christian  Commission,"  (1866.) 

Moss,  (RobEur,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Norfolk 
in  1666.  He  obtained  great  popularity  as  a  preacher, 
and  was  successively  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  William  III. 
and  Queen  Anne.  He  died  in  1729,  leaving  a  number 
of  sermons,  and  some  Latin  and  English  poems. 

Mossen  Jordi  de  San  Jordi,  mos-s§n'  hoR-dce'  di 
sin  hoR-dee',  a  Spanish  poet,  who  wrote  in  the  Catalonian 
dialect,  lived  about  1230. 

Moss'man,  (John,)  a  British  sculptor,born  in  London 
in  1817.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  and  resided  at 
Glasgow.  Many  statues  and  busts  have  been  executed 
by  him. 

Mossman,  (William,)  a  British  sculptor,  born  at 
Edinburgii,  February  22,  1824.  He  became  an  instructoi 
in  the  Glasgow  Art  School. 


Mos'som,  (Robert,)  an  Irish  prelate,  was  created 
Bishop  of" Londonderry  after  the  restoration.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  "The  Preacher's  Tripartite,"  and 
"  Zion's  Prospect  in  its  First  View."     Died  in  1679. 

Mos'spp,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  tragedian,  born  in  1729. 
He  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  an  actor,  both  on  the 
Dublin  stage  and  in  London,  where  he  was  regarded  as 
nearly  equal  to  Garrick.     Died  in  1773. 

Mostaert,  mos't^Rt,  (Francis  and  Giles,)  Flemish 
painters,  born  at  Hulst  in  1525,  were  twins,  and  sons  of 
Jan,  noticed  below.  Francis  painted  landscapes  with 
success,  and  died  in  1556.  Giles,  who  was  a  historical 
painter,  died  in  1601. 

Mostaert,  mos'tirt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Haarlem  in  1499,  was  a  pupil  of  James  of  Haarlem.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  and  was  patronized  by  the 
archduchess  Margaret  of  Austria.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  a  "  Nativity,"  "  Ecce  Homo,"  and  "  Discor.' 
throwing  the  Apple."     Died  in  1555. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Dhscamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  p'lamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Mostanser-Billah,  mos'tSn'ser  bil'lah,  sometimes 
written  Montaser-Billah,  a  caliph  and  patron  of  learn- 
ing, born  at  Cordova,  Spain,  in  910  a.d.  He  began  to 
reign  in  961.  He  founded  several  colleges,  and  a  library 
of  600,000  volumes.     Died  in  976. 

See  Romev,  "  Histoire  d'Espagne." 

Mostasem-Billah,  Al.tl  mos'tS'sem  biKlah,  (Aboo- 
Ahmed-Abdallah,  d'hoo  WrnM  ab-ddl'lah,)  the  last 
Abbasside  caliph  of  Bagdad,  was  born  in  1221,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Mostanser  in  1242.  He  was  conquered 
and  put  to  death  in  1258  by  Hoolagoo. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen." 

Mostowsky,  mos-tov'skee,  (Thaddeus,)  Count,  a 
distinguished  Polish  patriot  and  diplomatist,  born  at 
Warsaw  in  1766.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the 
Polish  classics,  (25  vols.,  Warsaw,  1803-05.)  He  lived 
many  years  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1842. 

Motanebby.     See  Al-Mootenarbee. 

Motasem-  ( or  Motassem- )  Billah,  mo'tis'sem 
bil'lah,  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  born  near  Samosata  in  794 
A.D.,  was  a  son  of  Haroun-al-Raschid.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Mamoon  in  833.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  cruel 
tyrant.     Died  in  842. 

See  Aboolfeda,  "  Annales  Moslemici ;"  Weil,  "  Geschichte 
der  Chalifen;"  Sandenburg  Matthiessen,  "  Historia  Chalifatus 
Al-Motacimi,"  1849. 

Motenabbi.     See  Al-Mootenabbee. 

Motenebbi.     See  Al-Mootenabree. 

Mothe  le  Vayer,  de  la,  deh  It  mot  leh  vt'yi', 
(Francois,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1588,  was 
appointed  preceptor  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  (1649,)  and 
to  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XIV.,  (1652.)  He 
published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Virtue  of  the  Pagans," 
(1642,)  in  answer  to  which  Arnauld  wrote  his  tract  "On 
the  Necessity  of  Faith  in  Jesus  Christ."  He  was  the 
author  of  other  works  on  various  subjects,  which  had 
great  popularity  at  the  time.  He  had  been  elected  in 
1639  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.     Died  in  1672. 

See  L.  fixiENNE,  "  Essai  sur  La  Mothe  le  Vayer,"  1849 ;  B  ayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gc^n^rale." 

Motherwell,  miith'er-wel,  (William,)  a  Scottish 
poet,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1798.  He  published  in  1827 
an  interesting  collection  of  ballads,  entitled  "  Minstrelsy, 
Ancient  and  Modern."  He  afterwards  edited  succes- 
sively the  "  Paisley  Magazine,"  "  Paisley  Advertiser," 
and  '"Glasgow  Courier."^  His  "Poems,  Narrative  and 
Lyrical,"  published  in  1833,  are  remarkable  for  pathos 
and  eirnestness  of  feeling.     Died  in  1S35. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionao'  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  1828; 
"Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1842. 

Motin,  mo'tiN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Bourges,  lived  about  1 570-1600.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  short  poems,  which  are  commended  for  grace  and 
delicacy  of  sentiment. 

Mot'ley,  (John  Lothrop,)  an  eminent  American 
historian,  born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
15th  of  April,  1814.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831, 
studied  about  a  year  in  the  University  of  Gottingen,  and 
passed  several  years  in  visits  to  various  countries  of 


c  as  -t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jj^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOTT 


1776 


MOTTEVILLE 


Europe.  Having  returned  home,  he  studied  law,  which, 
however,  he  never  practised  to  much  extent.  He  pub- 
lished in  iS39a  novel  entitled  "Morton's  Hope,  or  the 
Memoirs  of  a  Young  Provincial."  In  1840  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  legation  at  Saint  Petersburg,  where 
he  rem.Tiiied  but  a  siiort  time.  He  contriliuted  articles 
to  the  "  North  American  Review"  and  other  periodicals, 
and  produced  in  1849  "Merry  Mount,  a  Romance," 
which  had  little  success.  Having  resolved  to  write  a 
work  on  the  history  of  Holland,  he  went  to  Europe  in 
185 1  to  collect  materials  and  to  make  researches  on 
that  subject.  He  passed  several  years  at  Dresden,  Ber- 
lin, and  the  Hague,  and  published  "The  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic  :  a  History,"  (London,  3  vols.  Svo,  1856,) 
a  work  of  great  merit  and  profound  research,  which  ran 
through  several  editions  and  was  translated  into  French, 
Dutch,  and  German.  Commenting  on  Prescott's  "Philip 
n."  and  Motley's  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  of  January,  1S57,  says,  "They  do 
honour  to  American  literature,  and  they  would  do  honour 
to  any  literature  in  the  world."  His  next  work — a 
continuation  of  the  first — is  entitled  "The  History  of 
the  United  Netherlands  from  the  Death  of  Williap' 
the  Silent  to  the  Synod  of  Dort,"  (4  vols.,  1860-67.) 

"Mr.  Motley's  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
public," says  a  critic  in  tiie  "Quarterly  Review"  for  Jan- 
uary, 1861,  "is  already  known  and  valued  for  the  grasp 
of  mind  which  it  displays,  for  the  earnest  and  manly 
spirit  in  which  he  has  communicated  the  results  of  deep 
research  and  careful  reflection.  Again  he  appears  before 
us,  rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  to  tell  the  story  of  the 
United  Netherlands  from  the  death  of  William  the 
Silent  to  the  end  of  the  eventful  year  of  the  Spanish 
Armada;  and  we  still  find  him  in  every  way  worthy  of 
this  'great  argument.'  .  .  .  Many  of  Mr.  Motley's  char 
acteristics  as  a  historian  will  appear  from  the  extracts 
which  we  have  made.  It  will  be  seen  how  vividly  he 
can  depict  the  places,  the  men,  the  deeds,  of  other  days. 
But  the  work  itself  must  be  read  to  appreciate  the  vast 
and  conscientious  industry  which  he  has  so  lavishly 
bestowed  upon  it.  .  .  .  At  the  same  time,  he  is  not  op- 
pressed by  his  materials,  but  has  sagacity  to  estimate 
their  real  value  ;  and  he  has  combined  and  arranged 
with  scholarly  power  the  facts  which  they  contain." 

In  1S61  he  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to 
Austria,  but  resigned  this  position  early  in  1867,  in  con- 
sequence of  an  offensive  letter  addressed  to  him  by  Mr. 
Seward,  secretary  of  state.  In  the  spring  of  1869  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  England  by  President  Grant, 
but,  his  friends  becoming  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  the 
administration,  Mr.  Motley,  in  July,  1870,  was  requested 
to  resign.  Refusing  to  comply  with  the  request,  he  was 
formally  recalled  in  the  following  November.  He  sub- 
sequently resided  in  England,  and  published  the  "Life  of 
John  of  Barneveldt,"  (2  vols.,  1S74.)     Died  May  29,  1877. 

Mott,  originally  CofSn,  (Lucretia,)  an  American 
reformer  and  philanthropist,  born  on  the  island  of 
Nantucket  in  1793.  About  1808  her  parents,  who  were 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  removed 
to  Philadelphia.  In  1811  she  was  married  to  James 
Mott,  of  New  York,  who  soon  afterwards  came  to  Phila- 
delphia and  entered  into  mercantile  business  with  her 
father.  While  still  very  young,  her  attention  had  been 
called  to  the  iniquity  of  slavery,  and  she  felt  it  her  duty 
to  abstain  from  the  products  of  slave  labour.  She  trav- 
elled extensively  as  a  minister,  preaching  the  peculiar 
doctrines  of  the  society  in  which  she  had  been  educated, 
inculcating  obedience'  to  the  Divine  light  within  tht 
heart,  and  exposing  the  sinfulness  of  slavery  and  war. 
At  the  time  of  the  separation  in  the  Society  of  Friends, 
in  1827,  she  joined  those  popularly  known  as  "  Hicks- 
ites,"  (see  Hicks,  Elias,)  and  distinguished  herself  by 
the  advocacy  of  Unitarian  views  of  the  most  radical 
kind.  She  took  an  active  part  (1833)  in  the  organization 
of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1840 
went  as  a  delegate  to  the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Conven- 
tion, held  in  London  ;  but,  though  otherwise  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  and  courtesy,  she  was  not  admitted 
as  a  delegate,  a  majority  of  the  convention  having  de- 
cided that  women  should  be  excluded  from  any  active 
participation  in  the  business  of  the  assembly. 


Mrs.  Mott  was  long  known  as  an  earnest  and  elo- 
quent advocate  of  anti-slavery  principles,  of  the  rights 
of  women,  and  of  other  reformatory  movements.  As  a 
speaker  she  was  characterized  by  an  unaffected  simplicity 
and  earnestness  of  manner,  as  well  as  by  clearness  and 
propriety  of  expression.  Her  high  moral  qualities,  her 
ancomnion  intelligence,  the  beauty  and  consistency  of 
her  general  character, — illustrated  in  her  domestic  as 
well  as  in  her  public  life, — were  such  as  to  command  the 
respect  even  of  those  who  in  opinion  differed  most  widely 
from  her  in  regard  to  religious  and  social  questions. 
She  died  November  11,  1880. 

Mott,  (Valentine,)  a  famous  American  surgeon, 
born  at  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island,  New  York,  in  August, 
1785,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Mott,  of  New  York  City.  He 
graduated  as  M.D.  at  Columbia  College  in  1806,  and 
afterwards  pursued  his  studies  in  London  and  Edinburgh. 
He  became  professor  of  surgery  in  Columbia  College, 
New  York,  about  1809.  In  1826  he  united  with  Dr. 
Hosack  and  others  in  founding  Rutgers  Medical  Col- 
lege. He  acquired  a  wide  celebrity  by  his  skill  as  an 
operator  and  by  the  original  operations  which  he  per- 
formed. It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  that  exsected 
the  entire  right  clavicle,  and  that  he  tied  the  common 
carotid  artery  forty-six  times.  Sir  Astley  Cooper  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  Dr.  Mott  "had  performed 
more  of  the  great  operations  than  any  man  living."  He 
was  for  many  years  professor  of  surgery  and  relative 
anatomy  in  the  Collegeof  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New 
York.  Among  his  writings  are  "  Travels  in  Europe 
and  the  East,"  (1842,)  and  "Mott's  Cliniques,"  (i860.) 
Died  in  1865. 

Motte,  de  la,  deh  It  mot,  (Antotne  Houdart — 
^oo'dtR',)  a  French  critic  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1672.  He  was  the  author  of  the  dramas  of  "  Semele," 
"The  Triumph  of  the  Arts,"  and  "Inez  de  Castro," 
(1723.)  The  last-named  was  very  successful.  He  trans 
lated  Homer's  "Iliad,"  which  he  abridged  for  the  sake 
of  improving  it,  and  thus,  in  the  words  of  Voltaire, 
"changed  a  form  glowing  with  youth  and  health  into  a 
fleshless  skeleton."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  his  "Reflections  on  Criticism,"  (1715,)  in  which 
he  maintains  the  superiority  of  the  moderns  over  the 
ancients.  It  caused  a  great  sensation,  and  excited 
against  him  no  little  hostility  among  the  literati.  His 
prose  writings  are  esteemed  models  of  elegant  compo- 
sition. La  ^Iotte  had  been  chosen  in  1710  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy,  having  Rousseau  as  his  com- 
petitor.    Died  in  1731. 

See  H^RissANT,  "Vie  de  Houdart  de  la  Motte;"  Vii.lemain, 
"  Coiirs  de  Littirature  Franf  aise ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n'' 
rale." 

Motte,  du  Bois  de  la,  dii  bwj  deh  It  mot,  (Em- 
manuel AuGusTE  de  Cahideuc — deh  ktV^e'duk',) 
CoMTE,  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Rennes  in  1683  ;  died 
in  1764. 

Motte-Cadillac,  de  la,  deh  It  mot  kt'de'ytk',  (An- 
ToiNE,)  a  French  officer,  noted  as  the  founder  of  Detroit, 
was  born  in  Gascony  about  1660.  He  formed  a  settle- 
ment at  Detroit  in  1 701,  and  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Louisiana  about  1711.     Died  after  1717. 

Motte-Guyon.    See  Guyon,  (Jeanne  Bouvier  dh 

LA  MOTTR.) 

Motte,  La.     See  Lamotte. 

Motteux,  mo'tuh',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  in  1660.  On  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  settled  in  London,  where  he 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  English  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  dramas,  .\mong  the  princijial  of 
these  we  may  name  "  The  Amorous  Miser,"  and  "  Beauty 
in  Distress."  He  also  made  an  English  translation  of 
"  Don  Qui.xote,"  which  is  pronounced  by  Lord  Wood- 
houselee  "by  far  the  best  version  we  have  yet  had  of 
the  romance  of  Cervantes."    Died  in  1718. 

See  CiBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dra- 
malica." 

Motteville,  de,  deh  mot'vJK,  (Fran<;oise  Bertaut 
— bfR'to',)  a  French  lady,  born  in  Normandy  about 
1 62 1,  was  a  favourite  and  companion  of  Anne  of  .Austria, 
queen  of  Louis  XIII.  She  was  the  author  of  "Memoirs 
towards  the  History  of  Anne  of  Austria."    Died  in  1689. 


a.  e.  i,  o,  u.  v, loti^sr:  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  0,  \\,  J=,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon* 


MOTTEZ 


^111 


MOUNIER 


Mottez,  mo'ti',  (Louis  Victor,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Lille  in  1809. 

Mott'ley,  (John,)  an  English  dramatic  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  in  1692.  Among  his  works  is  a 
drama  entitled  "  The  Imperial  Captives,"  a  "  Life  of  the 
Czar  Peter  the  Great,"  "  History  of  Catherine  of  Russia," 
and  the  collection  of  witticisms  called  "Joe  Miller's 
Jests."     Died  in  1750. 

See  Baker,  "  Biogiaphia  Dramatica." 

Moucheron,  moosh'riN',  (Frkdf.rik,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Emden  in  1633.  His 
pictures  are  remarkable  for  the  graceful  form  and  group- 
ing of  the  trees  and  the  transparency  of  the  water.  The 
figures  and  animals  in  his  landscapes  were  painted  by 
Helmbreeker  and  Adrian  van  der  Velde.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "  The  Setting  Sun,"  and  "  Morning." 
Died  in  1686. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Moucheron,  (Izaak,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1670.  He 
painted  in  the  same  style  as  his  father,  and  was  regarded 
as  his  equal.     Died  about  1740. 

Mouchet,  moo'shi',  (FRANgois  Nicolas,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1750;  died  in  1814. 

Mouohon,  moo'sh^N',  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  littSratenr, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1733,  was  a  friend  of  J.  J.  Rousseau. 
He  published  "Table  analytique  et  raisonnee  des  Ma- 
ti^res  contenues  dans  I'Encyclopedie,"  (2  vols.,  1780.) 
Died  in  1797. 

Mouchy,  de,  deh  moo'she',  (Philippe  de  Noailles 
— deh  no'tl'  or  no't'ye,)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born 
in  Paris  in  1715,  was  a  son  of  the  Due  de  Noailles.  He 
served  in  all  the  wars  that  the  French  waged  between 
1733  ^"^  1759-  ^Ic  defended  the  king  when  the  palace 
was  attacked  by  a  mob,  in  1792,  and  was  executed  as  a 
oyalist  in  1794. 

Mouette,  moo'St',  (Germain,)  a  French  traveller, 
born  near  Dourdan  in  1652,  was  taken  by  the  Algerines. 
and  was  kept  in  captivity  for  eleven  years.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Conquests  of  Mouley  Archy, 
and  his  brother  Mouley  Ismael,  Kings  of  Morocco," 
etc.,  (1683.)     Died  about  1690. 

Moufet,  pronounced,  and  sometimes  written,  Muf - 
fett,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  in  London  about  1550.  He  was  the  principal 
author  of  the  work  entitled  "  Theatre  of  Insects,"  ("  In- 
ssectorum  sive  Minimorum  Animalium  Theatrum,"  1634,) 
which  is  highly  commended  by  Cuvier  and  Haller.  He 
also  published  several  medical  treatises,  among  which 
are  "Health's  Tmi^rovement,"  etc.,  and  "  De  Jure  et 
Praestantia  Chymicorum  Medicamentorum."  Died  in 
1600. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses ;"  CuviER,  "  Histoire  des 
Sciences  naturelles." 

Mougin,  moo'zhiN',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  near  Baume-les-Dames  in  1735  ;  died 
in  1816. 

Moiiliy,  de,  deh  moo'e',  (Charles  de  Fieux — deh 
fe-uh',)  Chevalier,  a  French  novelist,  born  at  Metz  in 
1 70 1.  He  wrote  many  works  of  inferior  quality.  Died 
in  1784. 

Moulac,  moo'ltk',  (Vincent  Marie,)  an  able  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Lorient  in  1780 ;  died  in  1836. 

Moule,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  inventor,  and 
theologian,  born  at  Melksham,  Wiltshire,  January  27, 
1801 ;  died  February  3,  1880. 

Moulin,  (Jean  Franqois  Auguste.)    See  Moulins. 

Moulin,  du,  (Charles.)     See  Dumoulin. 

Moulin,  du,  dii  moo'l^N',  (Louis,)  a  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  m  1606.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and 
afterwards  became  a  zealous  partisan  of  Cromwell  and 
the  Independents,  through  whose  influence  he  was  made 
Camden  professor  of  history  at  Oxford.     Died  in  1683. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Moulin,  du,  [Lat.  Molin^'us,]  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  1568,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Leyden.  He  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of  theology 
at  Sedan.     He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  the 


Recent  Origin  of  Popery,"  and  of  other  works.     Died 
about  1658. 

See  Meursius,  "Athenae  Batavae." 

Moulin,  du,  (Pierre,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  about  1600.  Having  graduated  at  Leyden, 
he  repaired  to  England,  where  he  subsequently  became 
chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.  He  is  chiefly  known 
as  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  The  Cry  of  Royal 
Blood  to  Heaven,"  written  in  reference  to  the  execution 
of  Charles  I.  He  died  in  1680,  leaving  a  number  of 
controversial  treatises. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Moulins.     See  Desmoulins. 

Moulins  or  Moulin,  moo'l^N',  (Jean  FRANgois 
Auguste,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Caen  in  1752.  He 
was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  England 
in  October,  1798.  In  June,  1799,  he  was  elected  one  of 
the  Directors  of  the  republic.  He  united  with  Gohier 
to  oppose  Bonaparte  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Bru 
maire,  (November,  1799.)     Died  in  18x0. 

See  De  Barante,  "Histoire  du  Diiectoire." 

Moullah.     See  Moollah. 

Moulton,  mol'ton,  (Joseph  White,)  an  American 
antiquary  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Stratford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1789,  published  a  "History  of  Early  New 
York,"  (1826,)  and  "New  York  One  Hundred  and 
Seventy  Years  Ago,"  (1849,)  besides  several  legal  works. 
Died  April  21,  1875. 

Moul'ton,  (Louise  Chandler,)  an  American  author, 
born  in  Ponifret,  Connecticut,  April  10,  1835,  the  daughter 
of  a  Mr.  Chandler.  In  1854  she  was  married  to  William 
Moulton,  a  publisher  of  Boston.  Among  her  works  are 
"Juno  Clifford,"  (1854,)  "My  Third  Book,"  (1859,) 
"Bedtime  Stories,"  "Firelight  Stories,"  (1883,)  "Some 
Women's  Hearts,"  (1874,)  "  Swallow-F"lights,"  (poems, 
1878,)  and  "  Random  Ramloles,"  (1881.)  Mrs.  Moulton's 
poems,  and  especially  her  sonnets,  are  of  a  high  ordet 
of  merit. 

Moulti'ie,  moo'tre,  ?  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1800.  He  became  rector  of  Rugby,  in  Warwick- 
shire, and  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1837,  and 
other  works.     Died  December  26,  1874. 

Moultrie,  moo'tre,  (William,)  a  distinguished 
general  of  the  American  Revolution,  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1731.  In  1776  he  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress  for  his  gallant  defence  of  the  fort  on  Sullivan's 
Island,  which  was  named  Fort  Moultrie  in  his  honour. 
He  assisted  General  Lincoln  in  the  defence  of  Charles- 
ton in  1780,  after  which  he  was  appointed  major-general. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1785. 
He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Revolution  in  the  Carolinas 
and  Georgia."     Died  in  1805. 

See  the  "Naiional  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Mounier,  moo'ne-i',  (Claude  Edouard  Philippe,) 
Baron,  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Grenoble  in  1784.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  by 
Napoleon  secretary  of  his  cabinet,  and  in  this  capacity 
accompanied  him  in  his  campaigns.  He  was  also 
created  a  baron,  and  in  1812  master  of  requests.  Died 
in  1843. 

See  PoRTALis.  "lilosede  M.  le  Baron  Mounier,"  1844;  "  Nou 
velle  Biograjihie  Generale." 

Mounier,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  legislator,  eminent 
for  his  talents  and  virtues,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1758. 
He  studied  law,  and,  after  he  had  served  as  judge  for 
several  years,  was  elected  in  1789  to  the  States-Gene- 
ral, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  moderation 
of  his  liberal  opinions.  He  was  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee appointed  to  form  a  new  constitution,  .but  his 
plan  was  rejected.  He  wished  a  legislature  divided 
into  two  chambers.  He  presided  with  credit  over  the 
National  Assembly  from  September  28  to  October  8, 
1789,  during  which  time  the  sessions  of  that  body 
were  disturbed  by  a  mob,  and  then  hastily  retired 
from  the  capital.  Being  denounced  as  a  royalist,  he 
emigrated  in  1790,  and  lived  in  Switzerland,  England, 
and  other  countries,  until  1801.  Having  returned  to 
France,  he  was  appointed  in  1802  prefect  of  Ille-et- 
Vilaine,  and  about  1804  councillor  of  state.  He  died 
in  1806,  leaving  several   able   political   works,  one   of 


-e  as  k;  9 as  r;  g  kay-d;  g  as/;  o,  h,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  /;/  hd:  .s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

112 


(2i^°°See  Explanations,  \).  23.) 


MOUNSEY 


i-ns 


MOZART 


which  is  "The  Influence  ascrilsed  to  the  Philosophers 
and  Free-Masons  on  the  French  Revolution." 

See  IJkrkiat  Saint-Prix,  "  filn^e  liistorique  de  Mounier,"  1806  ; 
Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Frencli  Revolution;"  Mignkt,  "History 
of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Moun'sey,  (Ann  Shepard,)  an  English  musician, 
born  in  London  in  181 1.  She  is  well  known  as  an  organ- 
ist, teacher,  and  composer.  In  1853  she  married  Mr. 
W.  Bartholomew.  Her  sister,  Elizabeth,  liorn  in 
London  in  181Q,  has  since  1834  held  tiie  position  of 
organist  of  Saint  Peter's,  Cornhill. 

Mount,  (William  Sidney,)  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Long  Island  about  1808.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  rural  and  domestic  scenes,  and  he  excelled  in 
humorous  and  comic  delineations.  His  "  Farmers  Noon- 
ing," "Husking  Corn,"  "Raffling  for  a  Goose,"  and 
"Dance  of  the  Haymakers,"  enjoy  a  wide  popularity. 
Died  in  1868. 

See  DuNi.Ap,  "Rise  and  Proa^ress  of  the  .\rts  of  Design  in 
America;"  Ti;ckhrman,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Mount'a-gu  or  Mont'a-gue,  (Richard,)  a  learned 
English  prelate,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1578.  He 
was  created  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1638.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  church  antiquities,  and  was  also 
engaged  'n  many  controversies  with  the  Papists  and  the 
Calvinists.     Died  in  1641. 

Mount'ain,  (George  Jehoshaphat,)  a  Protestant 
prelate,  born  at  Norwich,  England,  in  17S9.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Montreal  in  1836,  and  of  Quebec  in  1850.  He 
was  the  son  of  Dr.  Jacob  Mountain,  (1750-1825,)  the 
tirst  Anglican  Bishop  of  Quebec,  and  the  first  Protestant 
prelate  in  Canada.     Dr.  G.  J.  Mountain  died  in  1863. 

Mount'fort,  (William,)  a  distinguished  English 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1659. 
Among  his  principal  plays  are  the  tragedy  of  "Edward 
III.,"  and  a  farce  entitled  "The  Life  and  Death  of  Dr 
Faust."     Died  in  1692. 

Mount'fprd,  (William,)  a  clergyman  and  author, 
born  in  Kidderminster,  England,  May  31,  1816.  He 
studied  at  Manchester  New  College,  became  a  Unitarian 
preacher  in  1838,  and  in  1850  removed  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  lived  chiefly  in  Boston.  Among  his 
works  are  "Martyria,"  (1845,)  "Christianity  the  Deliver- 
ance of  the  Soul,"  (1846,)  "Euthanasy,"  (1848,)  "Thorpe, 
an  English  Town,"  (1852,)  and  "Miracles,  Past  and 
Present,"  (1870.)     Died  in  1885. 

Moura,  mo'r5,  (Joz6  de  Santo  Antonio,)  a  Portu- 
guese Orientalist,  born  at  Almodovar  ;  died  about  1845. 

Moxurad.     See  Moorad. 

Mouradja  d'Ohsson,  moo-ri'jS  dd'son,  (Ignatius,) 
born  at  Constantinople  in  1740,  was  descended  from  an 
Armenian  family.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  ambas- 
sador-extraordinary from  Sweden  to  the  Porte.  He 
published  "A  General  View  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (in 
7  vols,)  a  work  which  is  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1807. 

Mouraviev.     See  Mijoravief. 

Mouret,  moo'rj.',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  composer, 
born  at  Avignon  in  1682,  produced  a  number  of  popular 
operas  and  songs.     Died  in  1738. 

Mourgues,  mooRg,  (Michel,)  a  learned  French 
Jesuit,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1642,  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Toulouse.  Among  his  writings  are 
"  New  Elements  of  Geometry,"  and  a  "  Parallel  between 
Christian  Morality  and  that  of  the  Ancient  Philoso- 
phers."    Died  in  1713. 

Mourgues,  de,  deh  mooRg,  or  Morgues,  moRg, 
(Mathieu,)  Sieur  de  Saint-Germain,  a  French  writer 
and  theologian,  born  in  1582.  He  became  in  1620 
almoner  to  Marie  de  Medicis,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  her  exile  to  Brussels,  England,  and  Cologne.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Defence  of  the 
Queen-Mother  and  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (Antwerp,  1637.) 
Died  in  1670. 

Mourlon,  mooR'liN',  (FR^ofiRic,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Chambon  about  1812.  He  published  several 
.egal  works.     Died  December  28,  1866. 

Mousa.     See  Moosa. 

Mouskes,  moosk,  or  Mus,  (Philippe,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  born  at  Ghent  about  1 21 5,  became  Bishop 
of  Tournay  in  1274.  He  wrote,  in  verse,  a  History  of 
France,  which  was  commended  by  Du  Cange.  It  was 
published  at  Brussels  in  1836-38.     Died  in  1283. 


Moustier,de,  (Charles  Albert.)  See  Demoustier. 

Moustier,  de,  deh  moo'te-4',  (Clement  finou- 
ARD,)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Coblenti 
in  1779  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1830. 

Moustier,  de,  (£l6onore  Fran(;ois  Elie,)  Mar- 
QULS,  a  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1751,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  an  adherent  of  the  Bourbons. 
Died  in  181 7. 

Mouton.     See  Lobau. 

Mouton,  moo't^N',  (Jean,)  a  French  composer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  Josquin  Desprez,  and 
was  patronized  by  Loul^  XII.  and  Francis  I. 

Mouton-Fontenille  de  la  Clotte,  moo'tAw'  f6Nt'- 
nJK  deh  It  klot,  (Marie  Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Monfpellier  in  1769.  He  wrote  on 
botany  and  ornithology.     Died  in  1837. 

Movers,  mo'vers,  (Franz  Karl,)  a  learned  German 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Kbsfeld,  in  Westphalia,  in 
1806.  He  became  in  1839  professor  of  the  theology  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  Catholic  faculty  at  Breslau. 
His  greatest  work,  entitled  "The  Phoenicians,"  (1850,) 
illustrates  the  religion,  history,  and  antiquities  of  that 
nation.  He  also  published  several  treatises  on  Biblical 
antiquities,  and  wrote  the  article  "  Phoenicia"  in  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  "Encyclopaedia."     Died  in  1856. 

Mowatt.>  See  Ritchie,  (Anna  Cora.) 

Mo'w'fr,  (Joseph  A.,)  an  able  American  general  in 
the  service  of  the  Union.  He  commanded  a  brigade  in 
an  attack  on  Vicksburg,  May,  1863,  and  served  under 
General  Banks  in  Louisiana  in  April,  1864.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Sherman  in 
its  march  through  the  Carolinas,  1865.  Died  in  Janu- 
ary, 1870. 

Mox'on,  (Joseph,)  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1627,  was 
hydrographer  to  Charles  II.  He  published  several 
treatises  on  mathematics,  navigation,  etc.,  and  carried 
on  the  manufacture  of  globes  and  maps.  Died  about 
1700. 

Moya,  de,  di  mo'yi,  (Don  Pedro,)  a  skilful  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Granada  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Juan 
del  Castillo.     He  excelled  as  a  colorist.     Died  in  1666. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Moyle,  moil,  (Walter,)  an  English  jurist  and  writer, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1672,  was  a  friend  of  Congreve  and 
Wycherly.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Roman  Constitution,"  and  other  works,  and  translated 
Xenophon's  treatise  "On  the  Revenues  of  Athens." 
Died  in  1721. 

See  "Life  of  W.  Moyle,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Moyreau,  mwS'ro',  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1690.  Among  his  best  prints  are  "The 
Lion-Hunt,"  after  Rubens,  and  "  Bacchus  and  Ariadne," 
after  BouUongne.     Died  in  1763. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Moyse,  the  French  for  Moses,  which  see. 

Moy'ses,  (David,)  a  Scottish  historical  writer,  born 
at  Lanark  in  1573.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Affairs 
of  Scotland."     Died  in  1630. 

Mozart,  mo'zart',  [Ger.  pron.  mot's^Rt,]  (Johann 
Chrysostom  Wolfgang  Amadeus,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man composer,  born  at  Saltzburg  on  the  27th  of  January, 
1756.  Both  his  parents  were  distinguished  for  personal 
beauty.  He  began  to  perform  on  the  harpsichord  when 
he  was  about  four  years  old,  and  manifested  an  exquisite 
musical  organization.  His  first  teacher  was  his  father, 
who  devoted  much  time  to  his  education.  At  the  age 
of  six  years  he  composed  short  pieces  of  music,  and 
was  regarded  as  a  prodigy  of  musical  genius.  He  had 
a  sister  four  years  his  senior,  who  in  early  childhood 
was  an  excellent  musician.  In  1762  Leopold  Mozart 
took  Wolfgang  and  his  sister  to  Munich,  where  they 
performed  before  the  court  and  excited  great  admira- 
tion. They  also  visited  Vienna,  and  exhibited  their 
skill  before  the  emperor  and  his  family,  by  whom  they 
were  encouraged  and  caressed.  In  1763  young  Mozart 
excited  the  astonishment  of  the  Parisians  by  his  per- 
formance on  the  organ  and  by  his  talent  for  improvisa- 
tion. He  visited  with  his  parents  the  principal  cities  of 
Germany,  and  published  two  of  his  compositions  in  1763. 
The   Mozart  family  passed  the  year  1764  in  London, 


a,  e,  T,  0,  fi,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  l"dt;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MOZART 


^119 


MUDGE 


where  they  gave  public  concerts.  About  1766  they 
returned  to  Saltzburg,  where  Wolfgang  continued  his 
studies,  taking  for  models  the  productions  of  Handel 
and  Emanuel  Bach.  He  composed  in  1768  an  opera 
called  "  La  Finta  semplice,"  which  was  not  represented. 
Accovnpanied  by  his  father,  he  made  the  tour  of  Italy  in 
1769  and  1770,  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm.  He 
produced  at  Milan  the  opera  of  "Mitridate,"  which  was 
performed  with  success  in  1770.  During  his  visit  to 
Rome  the  pope  created  him  a  kniglit  (cavalicre)  of  the 
Golden  Spur.  His  next  works  were  two  serenatas,  called 
"Ascanioin  Alba,"  and  "The  Dream  of  Scipio,"  ("  II 
Sogno  di  Scipione,"  1772.)  He  composed  in  1773  an 
opera  entitled  "Lucio  Silla,"  which  was  very  successful. 
He  passed  several  years  in  travel,  and  solicited  employ- 
ment in  various  foreign  countries  without  success. 

In  1779  he  obtained  the  places  of  organist  and  chapel- 
master  to  the  Archbishop  of  Saltzburg.  At  the  request 
of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  he  composed  "  Idomeneo,"  an 
opera,  (1781,)  which  was  superior  to  his  former  works 
and  obtained  immense  applause.  "This  work,"  says 
Denne-Baron,  "was  nothing  less  than  a  complete  trans- 
formation of  the  art."  He  quitted  the  service  of  the 
archbishop, — a  coarse  and  sordid  person,  who  required 
him  to  eat  with  his  menial  servants, — and  in  1781  settled 
in  Vienna.  In  1782  he  composed  a  German  opera, 
"  The  Abduction  from  the  Seraglio,"  ("  Die  Entfuhrung 
aus  dem  Serail,")  and  married  Constance  Weber.  He 
became  a  friend  of  Haydn,  the  great  composer. 

Mozart  composed,  with  unremitting  activity  and  in 
rapid  succession,  symphonies,  sonatas,  quartets,  motets, 
waltzes,  etc.  About  1785  he  produced  "Davidde  peni- 
tente,"  an  oratorio,  which  abounds  in  beauties  of  the 
first  order.  His  comic  opera  "  The  Marriage  of  Figaro" 
("  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,"  1786)  was  performed  with 
unbounded  applause,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics, 
formed  an  epoch  in  dramatic  music.  His  master-piece 
is  the  opera  "Don  Giovanni,"  or  "  Don  Juan,"  which 
was  first  performed  at  Prague  in  1787.  The  King  of 
Prussia  offered  him  3000  crowns  a  year  to  attract  him 
to  Berlin;  but  he  declined  to  quit  the  service  of  the  em- 
peror Joseph,  who  paid  him  only  800  florins.  He  was 
often  reduced  to  painful  distress  for  want  of  money  while 
he  lived  in  Vienna.  Among  his  later  works  is  "  The 
Magic  Flute,"  an  opera,  {1791.)  Mozart,  as  a  performer 
on  the  piano,  surpassed  all  the  German  musicians  of  his 
time.  His  constitution  was  naturally  delicate,  and  his 
health  rapidly  declined  in  1791,  during  which  he  was 
employed  to  compose  a  requiem  by  a  mysterious  stranger, 
or  a  person  who  wished  his  name  to  be  a  secret.  This 
person  was  an  agent  of  Count  Walsegg.  To  his  morbid 
and  depressed  imagination  this  seemed  as  a  warning  of 
his  own  impending  death.  With  this  presentiment,  he 
composed  his  "  Requiem,"  which  is  considered  his  most 
oublime  work.  He  died  in  Vienna,  December  5,  1791, 
leaving  several  children. 

"Mozart  occupies,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "a  unique 
place  in  the  history  of  music,  by  the  universality  of  his 
genius.  .  .  .  He  excelled  in  all  departments,  and  the 
products  of  his  radiant  imagination  improved  the  art 
m  all  its  parts.  ...  In  dramatic  music  he  was  un- 
rivalled. His  enlightened  mind  and  his  exquisite  sen- 
sibility enabled  him  to  seize  with  equal  tact  and  sagacity 
the  nuances  and  the  true  conditions  of  the  lyrical  drama." 
("Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.") 

See  E.  Holmes,  "  Life  of  Mozart,"  2  vols.,  1S45;  Niemetschek, 
"Mozart's  Leben,"  1798;  Roechlitz,  "Anecdotes  of  Mozart,"  (in 
German,)  iSoi  ;  Arnold,  "Mozart's  Geist,"  Erfurt,  1803;  G.  N. 
VON  NissEN,  "Biograpliie  W.  A.  Mozarts,"  1828;  Fixis,  "  Biogra- 
phie Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  H.  Coring,  "  W.  A.  Mozart," 
and  a  French  version  of  the  same,  Paris,  i860;  Hekr  Otto  Jahn, 
"Mozart's  Leben,"  1856;  Daines  Barrington,  "  Notice  of  Mo- 
zart," in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  1770;  "Letters  of 
Mozart,"  translated  by  Lady  Wallace,  2  vols.,  1865;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1846. 

Mozart,  (Leopold,)  a  German  musician,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1719,  was  the  father  of  the  famous  com- 
poser. He  performed  on  the  violin,  and  became  about 
1762  vice-chapel-master  of  the  Prince- Archbishop  of 
Saltzburg.  He  gave  diligent  attention  to  the  education 
and  training  of  his  son.  He  composed  several  oratorios, 
etc.     Died  in  1787. 

Mozier,  mo'zh^r,  (Joseph,)  an  American  sculptor, 


born  at  Burlington,  Vermont,  in  1812.  He  passed  many 
years  in  mercantile  business  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
and  afterwards  studied  in  Italy.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Esther,"  "  Pocahontas,"  and  "  Silence."    Died  in  1870. 

Mozin,  mo'ziN',  (  .  .  .  ,)  a  French  grammarian,  born 
in  1771,  taught  in  Germany  many  years.  He  published 
several  works  on  granmiar,  and  a  good  French-German 
Dictionary,  (1812.)     Died  in  1840. 

Mozin,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1S06,  studied  under  Leprince.  His  works  are 
chiefly  marine  views,  which  have  great  merit.  Among 
the  best  we  may  name  "The  Capture  of  the  Isle  of 
Bommel  by  the  French  Army  in  1794,"  and  "The  Port 
of  Honfleur,"     Died  November  7,  1862. 

Moz'ley  (James  Bowling,)  D.D.,an  English  divine, 
an  able  writer  and  thinker,  was  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1813.  He  graduated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in  1834, 
became  a  Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  vicar  of  Shore- 
hain  in  1856,  Bampton  lecturer  in  1865,  canon  of  Worces- 
ter in  1869,  regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford,  and 
canon  of  Christ  Church  in  1871.  He  wrote  several  im- 
portant theological  treatises.     Died  January  4,  1878. 

Mozley,  (Thomas,)  a  brother  of  J.  B.  Mozley,  was 
born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1806,  was  educated  at  the  Charter- 
house, and  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  graduating  in  1828, 
was  a  Fellow  of  Oriel,  1829-36,  in  1836  became  rector 
of  Cholderton,  Wilts,  and  in  1868  rector  of  Plymtree, 
Devon.  He  was  prominently  associated  with  the  "  Brit- 
ish Critic,"  1838-42,  and  afterwards  with  the  "London 
Times."  His  "  Reminiscences  of  Oriel  College  and  the 
Oxford  Movement"  (2  vols.,  1S82)  attracted  great  atten- 
tion. 

Mozzi,  mot'see,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian  littera- 
teur and  priest,  born  at  Florence  in  1678 ;  died  in  1736. 

Mrak,  mrSk,  (Ignatius,)  D.D.,  a  Catholic  bishop,  born 
in  Austria  in  October,  1810,  was  educated  in  Carniola, 
graduating  in  1837,  became  a  Catholic  priest,  was  a  mis- 
sionary among  the  American  Indians,  1845-66,  and  in 
1S69  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Marquette,  Michigan. 
In  1878  he  resigned  the  see,  and  in  18S1  he  was  trans- 
lated to  the  titular  see  of  Antinoe. 

Muavria  or  Muawias.    See  Moaweeyah. 

Mucianus,  mu-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Mucien,  moo'se-4N'; 
It.  MuziANO,  moot-se-i'no,]  (LiciNius,)  an  able  Roman 
general  and  orator,  whose  character  was  compounded 
of  good  and  evil  qualities.  He  was  chosen  consul  in  52 
A.D.,  and  at  the  death  of  Nero,  in  68,  commanded  four 
legions  in  Syria.  To  promote  the  interest  of  his  friend 
Vespasian  in  his  contest  against  Vitellius,  he  made  a 
rapid  march  to  Rome  in  69  a.d.,  and  acted  the  part  of  a 
sovereign  until  the  arrival  of  Vespasian.  Mucianus  was 
consul  in  70  and  in  75  A.D. 

Mucianus,  (P.  LiciniusCrassus  Dives,)  an  eminent 
Roman  jurist  and  orator,  was  a  son  of  P.  Mucius  Scae- 
vola.  He  was  adopted  by  P.  Licinius  Crassus,  suc- 
ceeded Scipio  Nasica  as  pontifex  maximus,  and  became 
consul  in  131  B.C.  Having  led  an  army  into  Asia  to 
oppose  Aristonicus,  who  attempted  to  obtain  PergamuSj 
he  was  defeated  and  killed,  in  130  B.C. 

Mucien.    See  Mucianus,  (Licinius.) 

Mucius  Scasvola.    See  Scvevola. 

Miicke  or  Muecke,  muk'eh,  (Heinrich  Karl  An- 
ton,) a  German  historical  painter,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow.  Among  his  master- 
pieces maybe  named  "Saint  Ambrose  and  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,"  "  Ulysses  and  Leucothea  in  the  Tempest," 
and  a  "  Saint  Catherine." 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Mudee,  mii'di',  (Gabriel  van  der  Muyden — vtn 
der  mi'den,)  an  eminent  Flemish  jurist,  born  near  Ant- 
werp in  1500.  He  wrote  "  De  Restitutionibus  in  Inte- 
grum," (1586,)  and  other  works.  Died  .at  Louvain  in 
1560. 

See  Spinnael,  "  Gabriel  Mud^e  at  son  ficole,"  1844. 

Mud'fprd,  (William,)  an  English  editor  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1782.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,"  (1804,)  and  a 
"  Life  of  Richard  Cumberland,"  (2  vols.,  1814.)  Died 
in  1848. 

Mudge,  muj,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American 
geologist,  born  at  Orrington,  Maine,  August  n,  181 7.   He 


«as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  TR., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (Jlg^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUDGE 


1 780 


MUHLENBR  UCH 


graduated  at  Wesleyaii  University  in  1840,  practised  law 
ill  Massachusetts,  1S44-59,  removed  to  Kansas,  was  State 
geologist,  and  professor  (1865-73)  in  the  State  Agricul- 
tural College.  He  wrote  many  scientific  papers.  Died 
at  Manhattan,  Kansas,  November  21,  1879. 

Mudge,  muj,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  optician 
and  surgeon,  was  a  younger  son  of  Zachary,  noticed 
below.  He  practised  many  years  at  Plymouth,  and 
wrote  medical  essays,  some  of  which  were  inserted  in 
the  "Philosophical Transactions."  He  was  distinguished 
as  the  improver  of  the  reflecting  telescope,  and  as  author 
of"  Directions  for  Making  the  Best  Composition  for  the 
Mirrors  of  Reflecting  Telecopes,  with  a  Description  of 
the  Process  forgiving  the  Great  Speculum  the  True  Para- 
bolic Curve."  For  this  he  received  the  Copley  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1793. 

Mudge,  (Thomas,)  an  excellent  English  mechanist, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1716,  was  a  son  of  Zachary  Mudge, 
noticed  below.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  Graham, 
the  famous  watchmaker,  and  acquired  great  eminence 
in  that  art  About  1771  he  retired  to  Plymouth,  where 
he  employed  several  years  in  perfecting  chronometers. 
In  1793  he  received  from  Parliament  a  recompense  of 
three  thousand  pounds  for  his  improvements  in  these 
instruments.  Died  in  1794.  His  son  Thomas  wrote  a 
"Description  of  the  Time-Keeper  invented  by  Thomas 
Mudge,"  (Senior.) 

Mudge,  (William,)  r.R.S.,  a  scientific  English  gen- 
eral, born  at  Plymouth  in  1762,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  John 
Mudge,  noticed  above.  He  served  in  the  royal  artil- 
lery, and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant  About  1798 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  grand  trigono- 
metrical survey  of  England  and  Wales,  after  he  had 
been  employed  for  several  years  as  assistant  in  that  work. 
During  the  progress  of  the  survey  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general.  The  results  of  his  survey 
were  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
and  procured  him  much  distinction.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.     Died  in  1821. 

Mudge,  (Zachariah  Atwell,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Orrington,  Maine,  July  2,  1813,  an  elder  brother 
of  B.  F.  Mudge.  He  studied  at  Wesleyan  University, 
and  entered  the  Methodist  ministry  in  1840.  He  pub- 
lished a  large  number  of  religious  books,  tales  for  the 
young,  etc. 

Mudge,  (Zachary,)  an  eminent  clergyman  of  the 
Anglican  Church,  was  the  father  of  John  and  Thomas 
Mudge,  above  noticed,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr. 
Johnson.  He  became  master  of  a  free  school  at  Bide- 
ford  about  1716,  and  rector  of  a  church  in  Plymouth  in 
1736.  He  was  also  prebendary  of  Exeter.  His  ser- 
mons, of  which  a  volume  was  published  in  1727,  were 
highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1769. 

Mu'die,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  popular 
litterateur,  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1777,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  London.  He  published  "  Conversations  in  Moral 
Philosophy,"  "  The  Feathered  Tribes  of  the  British 
Islands,"  "  Popular  Mathematics,"  "The  British  Natu- 
ralist," "  The  Elements :  The  Heavens,  the  Earth,  the 
Air,  and  the  Sea,"  and  numerous  other  works.  Died 
in  1842. 

Mudo,  El,  51  moo'Do,  (Juan  Fernandez  Ximenes 
de  Navarete — di  nS-vS-ra'ti,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Logrono  in  1526,  received  the  surname 
of  el  Mudo  ("the  Mute")  because  he  was  deaf  and 
dumb.  He  was  patronized  by  Philip  II.,  and  painted  for 
the  Escurial  a  "  Nativity,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  other 
works  of  great  merit  He  has  been  called  "the  Spanish 
Titian."     Died  about  1579. 

Muecke.     See  Mucke. 

MueSling.    See  Muffling. 

Muegge.    See  Mugge. 

Muehlenbruch.     See  Muhlenbruch. 

Muelenaere,  de,  deh  mii'el-ni'reh,  ?  (Felix  Amand,) 
Comte,  a  Belgian  statesman,  born  in  1793.  He  was 
appointed  in  1830  Governor  of  West  Flanders,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1834.     Died  in  1862. 

Mueller.    See  Muller. 

Muellner.     See  Mullner. 

Muench.    See  Munch. 


Muench-Bellinghausen.  See  Munch-Bellino- 
hausen. 

Mueuchausen.    See  Munchausen. 

Muennich.     See  Munnich. 

Muenster.     See  Munster. 

Muenster-Ladenburg.  See  Munster  Ledenbl" kg. 

Muenter.     See  Munter. 

Muenzer.     See  Munzer. 

Muffling  or  MueSling,  muffling,  (Friedrich  Fer- 
dinand Karl,)  Baron,  a  Prussian  field-marshal,  born 
at  Halle  in  1775.  He  was  appointed  in  1815  governor 
of  Paris.  In  1829  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey.  He  became  governor  of 
Berlin  in  1837,  and  president  of  the  state  council  in  1841. 
He  died  in  185 1. 

See  "  Passages  from  my  Life,"  etc.,  by  Baron  Muffling 

Miigge  or  Muegge,  mlg'geh,  almost  mBik'keh, 
(Theodor,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Berlin  in  1806, 
wrote  several  romances,  also  political  works  entitled 
"  France  and  the  Last  of  the  Bourbons"  and  "  Eng- 
land and  Reform."  He  became  in  1850  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Berlin  "National  Zeitung,"  of  which  he 
was  afterwards  editor.     Died  in  1861. 

Muggleton,  mug'g'1-ton,  (Ludowick,)  an  English 
fanatic,  born  in  London  in  1609,  was  the  principal 
founder  of  the  sect  called  by  his  name.  Muggleton  and 
his  coadjutor,  John  Reeve,  professed  to  be  the  last  and 
greatest  prophets  of  Jesus  Christ     Died  in  1697. 

Mugnoz.     See  Munoz. 

Muguet  de  Nanthou,  mii'gi'  deh  nSN'too',  (Fran- 
gois  F^Lix  Hyacinthe,)  a  French  lawyer  and  repub- 
lican, born  at  Besan9on  in  1760.  He  was  an  active  and 
influential  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1790-91. 
He  was  one  of  the  commissaries  appointed  to  maintain 
order  in  Paris  on  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.  to  Varennea 
in  1 791.  He  died  in  1808,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a 
worthy  and  honourable  man. 

Muhammed  or  Muhammad.    See  Mohammed. 

Muhaut,  mii'6',  (Etienne,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  at  Thizy  (Rhone)  in  1797.  He  published  a  "Natu- 
ral History  of  the  Coleoptera  of  France,"  (1839  et  seq.\ 

Muhlbach,  Miss.     See  Mundt. 

Muhlenberg,  mu'len-berg,  (Gotthilf  Henry 
Ernst,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and  botanist,  son 
of  the  following,  was  born  in  Montgomery  county, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1753.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  of  North  America." 
Died  in  1815. 

Muhlenberg,  (Henry  Melchior,)  D.D.,  born  in 
Hanover,  Germany,  in  171 1,  emigrated  to  America, 
where  he  founded  the  German  Lutheran  Church,  and 
settled  as  pastor  at  Philadelphia.     Died  in  1787. 

See  the  "Life  and  Times  of  Henry  M.  Muhlenberg,"  by  M.  L. 
Stoever,  1856. 

Muhlenberg,  (Peter,)  a  general,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Montgomery  country,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1746.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
in  1801.     Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Peter  Muhlenberg,"  by  Henrv  A 
Muhlenberg,  1S49. 

Muhlenberg,  (William  Augustus,)  D.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyinan  and  poet,  a  great-grandson  of  H.  M. 
Muhlenberg,  before  noticed,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
September  16,  1796.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1814,  and  was  ordained  to  the  Epis- 
copalian ministry  in  1817.  After  service  in  Philadelphia 
and  in  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  he  founded  at  Flushing, 
New  York,  (in  1828,)  the  school  known  afterwards  as 
Saint  Paul's  College,  which  he  managed  twenty  years 
with  great  success.  He  also  founded  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Communion,  New  York,  Saint  Luke's  Hospital, 
New  York,  and  the  colony  of  Saint  Johnland,  on  Long 
Island.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  "  Evangelical 
Catholic  union."  Of  his  literary  productions,  his  hymn 
"  I  would  not  live  alway"  is  the  best-known.  Died  in 
New  York,  April  8,  1877.  (See  his  "Life,"  by  Anne 
Ayres,  1880.) 

Miihlenbruch  or  Muehlenbruch,  mii'len-bRdoK', 
(Christian  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German  jurist, 
born  at  Rostock  in  1785.     He  filled  the  chair  of  law 


a,  e,  T,  d,  u,  y,  long;  &,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MUIR 


1781 


MULLER 


successively  at  Konigsberg  and  Halle,  ^nd  in  1833  be- 
came professor  at  Gottingen.  Among  his  most  important 
works  are  a  "  Compendium  of  the  Institutes  of  Roman 
Law,"  and  "  Doctrine  of  the  Pandects,  for  the  Use  of 
Schools."    Died  in  1843. 

Muir,  mur,  (John,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  at  Glas- 
gow, February  5,  1810,  a  brother  of  Sir  William  Muir. 
He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Haileybuvy,  and  was 
in  the  Bengal  civil  service  from  182S  to  1853.  His  prin- 
cipal original  work  is  "  Origin  and  History  of  the  People 
of  India,"  (5  vols.,  1S58-70.)  He  also  published  five 
volumes  of  "Original  Sanscrit  Texts,"  (1860-70.)  Died 
at  Edinburgh,  March  7,  1882. 

Muir,  (Sir  William,)  an  Oriental  scholar,  born  at 
Glasgow  in  1819.  He  was  educated  in  the  Universities 
of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and  went  to  India  in  1837, 
where  he  held  high  positions  under  the  government. 
He  published  a  "  Life  of  Mahomet  and  History  of  Is- 
lam," (4  vols.,  1858-61  ;  abridged,  1871,)  a  treatise  on 
"The  Goran,"  (1878,)  "The  Early  Caliphate,"  (1881,) 
"  Mahomet  and  Islam,"  (1884,)  etc.  In  1885  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

Muirhead,  mur'hgd,  (James  P..)  a  British  writer  of 
the  present  age,  was  a  relative  of  James  Watt,  the  great 
inventor.  He  published  "The  Origin  and  Progress  of 
the  Mechanical  Inventions  of  James  Watt,  illustrated 
by  his  Correspondence,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1854,)  and  a  "  Life 
of  James  Watt." 

Muis,  de,  deh  mii-e',  (Simeon  Marotte— mt'rot^) 
a  French  ecclesiastic  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Orleans  in 
1587,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal  College. 
He  published  a  number  of  valuable  works,  including  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Psalms,"  (1630,)  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  that  has  appeared.  Muis  enjoyed  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  most  learned  Hebraists  and 
Biblical  critics  ot  his  time.     Died  in  1644. 

See  DlTPiN,  "  Bibliutheque  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Mukhtar  Pasha,  muK't^R'  pS'shS,  (Ghazee  Ah- 
med,) a  Turkish  geiieral,  born  at  Broosa  in  1S37.  His 
name  was  originaUy  Katyrdshy  Oghloo.  In  1849  he 
went  to  the  military  school  of  Broosa,  and  thence  was 
sent  (1854)  to  the  military  college  at  Constantinople. 
He  distinguished  himself  greatly  in  i860  in  Montenegro, 
and  was  rapidly  promoted,  becoming  a  full  general  in 
1870,  and  minister  of  public  works  in  1873.  I"  ''^^  s"'^' 
sessive  wars  of  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Montenegro 
he  had  chief  command,  gaining  twenty  victories  and 
losing  one  battle.  In  the  Kars-Erzeroom  campaign  of 
1877  against  the  Russians  he  was  overcome  by  Melikoff, 
but  only  after  deeds  of  the  greatest  gallantry,  for  which 
he  received  the  title  of  Ghazee,  the  highest  of  Turkish 
military  honours.  In  1878  he  was  made  grand  master 
of  the  Turkish  artillery. 

Mul'ca.s-ter,  (Richard,)  an  English  scholar,  born  at 
Carlisle  about  1535,  became  in  1561  master  of  Merchant 
Taylors'  School,  then  recently  founded  in  London.  He 
wrote  Latin  verses,  some  of  which  were  spoken  before 
Queen  Elizabeth  at  Kenilworth,  also  several  educational 
works.     Died  in  161 1. 

Mul'cx-ber,  [supposed  to  be  derived  from  mulceo,  to 
•'tame,"  to  "soften,"  because  he  softens  iron  and  makes 
it  tractable,]  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to  Vulcan. 

Mulder,  mul'der,  (Gerard  Jan,)  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1802,  became  professor  of  chemistry 
m  his  native  city.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
an  "Essay  on  General  Physiological  Chemistry,"  (1844,) 
"Chemical  Researches,"  (1847,)  "Essays  on  the  Chem- 
istry of  Wine  and  Beer,"  (1856,)  and  "  The  Chemistry  of 
Vegetable-Producing  Land,"  (1S61-64.)     Died  in  1880. 

Muley  (or  Mouley)  Hassan,  mu'lee  has'san  or 
moo'Ia'  hts'sin.  King  of  Tunis,  began  to  reign  in  1533. 
He  was  driven  from  the  throne  by  Barbarossa,  but  was 
restored  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1535.     Died  in 

1545- 

Muley  Ismail,  moo'la'  is-ml'eel',  Emperor  of  Mo- 
rocco, born  in  1646,  began  to  reign  in  1672.  He  took 
Tangier  from  the  English  about  1680.  In  1697  he 
attacked  the  Algerines,  by  whom  he  was  defeated.  He 
was  extremely  cruel.     Died  in  1727. 

Muley  Soliman,  moo'la'  so-li-mtn',  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  began  to  reign  in  1792.    He  abolished  slavery. 


and  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  able  ruler. 
Under  his  reign  Morocco  enjoyed  unusual  tranquillity. 
Died  in  1822. 

Mul'fprd,  (Elisha,)  LL.D.,  an  American  author,  born 
at  Montrose,  Pennsylvania,  November  19,  1833.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1855,  studied  in  Berlin, 
Germany,  and  became  a  presbyter  in  the  Episcopal 
Church.  His  principal  works  are  "The  Nation,  the 
Foundation  of  Political  Life  and  Civil  Order,"  (1870,) 
and  "  The  Republic  of  God,"  (1880.)     Died  in  1885. 

Mulgrave,  Earl  of.     See  Sheffield. 

Mul'grave,  (Constantine  John  Phipps,)  Lord,  a 
distinguished  navigator,  born  about  1740,  was  the 
son  of  an  Irish  peer.  In  1773  ^^  made  a  voyage  to 
the  Arctic  regions  in  order  to  discover  the  Northwest 
Passage,  in  which  he  was  not  successful.  After  his 
return  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor,  and  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1784.  He  published,  in  1774,  "Jour- 
nal of  a  Voyage  towards  the  North  Pole."  Died  in 
1792. 

Mulgrave,  (Henry  Philip  Phipps,)  Lord,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1755.  He  filled  several 
important  offices,  and  became  in  1806  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty.  He  exchanged  this  place  in  1812  for  that  of 
grand  master  of  artillery,  and  received  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Normanby  and  Viscount  Mulgrave.  He  died  in  183 1, 
and  left  a  son,  who  became  Marquis  of  Normanby, 
(wliich  see.) 

Mulinari,  moo-le-n3,'ree,  or  Molinari,  mo-le-ni'ree, 
(Stefano,)  a  Florentine  engraver,  executed  a  great 
number  of  prints  after  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and 
other  eminent  Italian  masters.  He  published  in  1780 
a  work  entitled  "  Essay  on  the  Five  Italian  Schools  of 
Painting." 

Mul-la'ney,  (Patrick  Francis,)  known  as  Brother 
Azarias,  an  educator,  born  in  the  county  of  Tipperary, 
Ireland,  June  29,  1847.  In  boyhood  he  came  to  the 
United  States.  When  fifteen  years  old,  he  joined  the 
"Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,"  and  in  1879  was 
made  president  of  Rock  Hill  College,  Ellicott  City, 
Maryland.  He  has  published  "  Philosophy  of  Litera- 
ture," (1874,)  "Development  of  English  Literature," 
(1879,)  "Address  on  Thinking,"  etc.,  and  some  note- 
worthy papers  on  education. 

Miiller  or  Mueller,  mul'ler,  (Adam  Heinrich,)  a 
German  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1779,  became 
aulic  councillor  at  Vienna.     Died  in  1829. 

Mul'ler,  (Albert  A.,)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about  1800,  published  a 
number  of  lyrics  and  sacred  poems. 

Miiller,  (Alexander,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  the 
bishopric  of  Fulda  in  1780,  was  the  author  of  "Archives 
for  the  most  Modern  Legislation  of  all  the  German 
States."     Died  in  1844. 

Miiller,  (Andreas,)  a  German  divine  and  Orientalist, 
born  in  Pomerania  in  1630.  He  assisted  Walton  in  his 
Polyglot  Bible,  and  contributed  to  Castell's  "  Lexicon." 
He 'also  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Cathay,"  "  Japanese 
Alphabet,"  "Chinese  Basilicon,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1694. 

Miiller  or  Mueller,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  in  1684;  died  in  1761. 

See  J.  A.  Eknesti,  "  Memoria  A.  F.  Muelleri,"  1761. 

Miiller,  mii'laiR',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  celebrated 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1815.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  maybe  named  "Christ's  Entry  into  Jeru- 
salem," "Martyrdom  of  Saint  Bartholomew,"  "Lady 
Macbeth,"  "  Marie  Antoinette  at  the  Conciergerie,"  and 
"  The  Sleeping  Sylph."  He  obtained  medals  of  the 
first  class  in  1848  and  1855. 

Miiller,  (Eduard,)  a  German  author,  (a  brother  of 
K.  O.  Miiller,)  was  born  at  Brieg,  in  Silesia,  November 
12,  1S04.  Among  his  works  are  "  History  of  the  The- 
ory of  Art,"  (1S34-37,)  and  "Samson  und  Delilah,"  (a 
tragedy,  1853.)     Died  at  Liegnitz,  November  30,  1875. 

Miiller,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  poet,  born  atKreuz- 
nach  in  1750,  was  the  author  of  "Ulrich  von  Kossheim," 
"Faust,"  and  a  drama  entitled  "Niobe."  He  was  also 
a  painter  and  engraver.     Died  in  1825. 

Miiller,  (Friedrich,)  an  Austrian  ethnologist  and 
philologist,  born  at  Jemnik,  in  Bohemia,  March  5,  1834. 


€  as  /^,'  5  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy',-  G,  H,  Vi, gttttural ;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MULLER 


17S2 


MULLER 


He  was  educated  in  Vienna,  where  in  1866  he  became 
extraordinary,  and  in  1869  full,  professor  of  Sanscrit 
and  comparative  philology.  He  has  written  much  on 
these  subjects  and  on  ethnology. 

Miiller,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  German  epic  poet, 
born  in  Vienna  in  1767,  wrote  poems  entitled  "  Alfonso," 
(1790,)  and  "Richard  Lbwenherz,"  ("Richard  Cceur-de- 
Lion,"  1790.)     Died  in  1807. 

Miiller,  (  Friedrich  M.\x,  )  an  eminent  German 
scholar  and  Orientalist,  a  son  of  the  poet  Wilhelm,  was 
born  at  Dessau  in  1823.  He  visited  England  in  1847, 
and  was  charged  by  the  East  India  Company  to  publish 
an  edition  of  the  "  Rigveda."  He  was  Taylorian  pro- 
fessor of  modern  languages  at  O.xford  from  1854  to  1875. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Buddhism  and 
Buddhist  Pilgrims,"  a  "  History  of  Ancient  Sanscrit 
Literature,"  (1859,)  "Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Lan- 
guage,"—first  delivered  in  1861  at  the  Royal  Institution 
in  London, — and  numerous  essays  and  lectures,  most  of 
which  were  subsequently  collected  into  "Chips  from  a 
German  Workshop,"  in  5  vols.,  (1868-83,)— Vol.  I., 
"Essays  on  the  Science  of  Religion;"  Vol.  II.,  "  Essays 
on  Mythology,  Tradition,  and  Customs  ;"  Vol.  III.,  "  Es- 
says on  Literature,  Biography,  and  Antiquities  ;"  Vol. 
IV.,  "  Essays  on  the  Science  of  Language ;"  Vol.  V., 
"  Miscellaneous  Later  Essays." 

MiiUer,  (George,)  a  German-English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Kroppenstadt,  in  Prussia,  September  27,  1805. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Halle,  and  in  1829  went 
to  England.  He  became  a  Dissenting  minister  at  Teign- 
mouth.  In  1836  he  opened  the  famous  Orphan-House 
on  Ashley  Downs,  near  Bristol,  which  has  since  become 
a  great  establishment,  supported  entirely  by  voluntary 
gifts  which  are  sought  for  only  through  faith  and  prayer. 
Mr.  Miiller  has  published  a  "Narrative,"  and  other 
books. 

Miiller,  (Gerhard  Friedrich,)  a  German  traveller 
and  historian,  born  in  Westphalia  about  1705.  Having 
visited  Saint  Petersburg,  he  accompanied  Gmelin  and 
De  risle,  as  secretary,  on  their  expedition  to  Siberia  in 
1733.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
of  Russia,  (1747,)  and  keeper  of  the  archives,  (1766.) 
He  published  a  "History  of  Siberia,"  "Collection  of 
Russian  Histories,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.     Died  in  1783. 

Miiller,  (Hermann,)  a  German  biologist,  born  at 
Miihlberg,  September  23,  1829.  He  studied  at  Halle  and 
Berlin,  and  was  teacher  of  natural  science  in  the  real- 
school  at  Lippstadt  from  1S54  to  1883.  He  was  a 
zealous  student  of  the  fertilization  of  plants  by  means 
of  insects.  His  principal  books  are  "Fertilization  of 
Flowers  by  Means  of  Insects,"  (1873,)  ^"^  "Alpine 
Flowers,"  (1881.)  He  was  an  excellent  observer  and 
teacher,  and  an  extreme  evolutionist.  Died  at  Prad, 
August  25,  1S83. 

Miiller,  (Jakob  and  Georg,)  brothers,   and  Swiss 
artists,  born  in  Grindelwald,  lived  about  1800,  and  were 
celebrated  for  their  skill  in  painting  on  glass. 
Miiller,  (Tax.)     See  Cadovius. 

Miiller,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam 
about  1570,  imitated  the  style  of  Goltzius.  His  prints 
are  numerous  and  distinguished  for  great  boldness  and 
facility  of  execution. 
Miiller,  (Johann.)  See  Regiomontanus. 
Miiller,  (Johann,)  a  celebrated  German  physiologist 
and  zoologist,  born  at  Coblentz  on  the  14th  of  July,  1801. 
He  entered  the  University  of  Bonn  about  181 9,  studied 
medicine  and  other  sciences,  and  graduated  as  M.D.  in 
1822.  In  1826  he  published  a  remarkable  treatise  "On 
the  Comparative  Physiology  of  the  Sense  of  Sight." 
He  became  professor  of  physiology,  etc.  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bonn  in  1830.  His  work  on  the  secreting  glands, 
"De  Glandularum  secernentium  Structura  penitiori," 
etc.,  (1830,)  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  comparative 
anatomy.  He  succeeded  Rudolphi  as  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Berlin  in  1833,  ^"^  acquired  a  wide  repu- 
tation as  a  lecturer.  He  made  several  anatomical  dis- 
coveries. His  principal  work  is  a  "  Manual  of  Human 
Physiology,"  ("  Handbuch  (or  Lehrbuch)  der  Physiologic 
des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1841-44,)  which  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  works  ever  written  on  that  subject. 


There  are  few  points  of  physiology  on  which  he  has  not 
thrown  light  by  numerous  observations  or  new  ideas. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  Latin  treatise  "On 
the  Respiration  of  the  Foetus,"  {1823,)  and  "Grundriss 
der  Vorlesungen  Uber  allgemeine  Pathologic,"  (1829.) 
Many  of  his  works  are  illustrated  by  figures  designed 
by  himself.  He  edited  a  journal  called  "  Archives  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  (1834-40.)  In  the  opinion  of 
some  critics,  Miiller  was  the  first  physiologist  of  Europe. 
He  died  in  Berlin  in  April,  1858. 

See  RoDoi.PH  Virchow,  "Joannes  Muller,"  1S58:  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  C.  D».reste,  "Jean  Muller,  ses  Travaux," 
etc.,  in  the  "Revue  Germanique"  for  February,  April,  and  June, 
1859  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Miiller,  (Johann,)  a  German  natural  philosopher  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  professor  of  phjrsics 
at  Friburg,  in  Brisgau.  He  published  "  Elements  of 
Experimental  Phvsics,"  (3d  edition,  1852.) 

Miiller,  (Johann  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
engraver,  son  of  Johann  Gotthard  von  Miiller,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1 782.  Having  completed 
his  studies  in  Paris,  he  was  appointed  in  1814  professor 
of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dresden, 
where  he  was  charged  with  the  execution  of  a  plate 
after  Raphael's  "Madonna  di  San  Sisto."  His  severe 
application  to  this  work  caused  his  death  soon  after  the 
completion  of  the  print,  (1816.)  Besides  the  above- 
named,  which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  Miillet 
engraved  "The  Four  Seasons,"  after  Jordaens,  "Saint 
John,"  after  Domenichino,  and  portraits  of  Schiller 
and  Hufeland. 

MiiUer,  (Johann  Gottwerth,)  a  German  littera- 
feur,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1744,  was  the  author  of  "  Comic 
Tales  from  the  Papers  of  the  Brown  Man."  Died  in  1828. 
MiiUer,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  astronomer 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1671, 
published  many  works  on  astronomy,  etc.  Died  in  1731. 
Miiller,  (Johann  Heinrich  Jakob,)  a  German  phys- 
icist, born  in  Cassel,  April  30,  1809.  He  studied  at 
Bonn  and  |Giessen,  and  in  1844  became  professor  of 
physical  science  at  Freiburg.  He  published  "  Text- 
Book  of  Physics  and  Meteorology,"  (1842,  based  on 
Poillet's  "filements,")  "Text-Book  of  Cosmical  Phys- 
ics," (1856,)  works  on  crystallography,  etc. 

Miiller,  (Johann  Jakob,)  an  excellent  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Riga  in  1765.  He  worked  at  Stuttgart 
and  in  Italy.     Died  in  1832. 

MiiUer,'( Johann  Sebastian,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1715.  His  plates  for  the  "Sexual 
System  of  Linnaeus  Illustrated"  are  among  his  best 
works.     Died  in  1783. 

MiiUer,  (Julius,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  a 
brother  of  K.  O.  Miiller,  was  born  at  Brieg,  in  Silesia,  April 
ID,  1801.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Gottingen, 
1834-35,  at  Marburg,  1835-39,  and  at  Halle.  His  most 
noted  work  is  "The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin,"  (1839.) 
Died  September  27,  1878. 

Miiller,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  musician,  born 
in  1797,  the  eldest  of  four  brothers,  celebrated  quartet 
players,  who  made  extensive  tours  under  the  name  of 
"The  Miiller  Brothers,"  and  the  father  of  four  sons,  who 
formed  a  famous  quartet,  known  as  "  The  younger  Muller 
Brothers."  The  brothers  of  Karl  were  Theodor  Hei.n- 
rich  Gustav,  born  1799,  died  1855  ;  August  Theodor, 
born  1802,  died  1S75  ;  Franz  Ferdinand  Georg,  born 
1808,  died  1855.  His  sons  are  Bernhard,  born  in  1825  ; 
Karl,  born  in  1829 ;  Hugo,  born  in  1832 ;  and  Wilhelm, 
born  in  1S34.  The  younger  quartet  was  broken  up  in 
1873  by  the  appointment  of  Wilhelm  as  Kammermusikus 
and  teacher  at  the  Hochschule  flir  Musik  in  Berlin. 

Miiller,  (Karl  Otfried — ot'fReet,)  a  distinguished 
German  scholar,  historian,  and  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Brieg,  in  Silesia,  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Breslau,  and 
subsequently  devoted  himself  to  philology  at  Berlin 
under  the  celebrated  Bockh.  He  became  in  1817  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  languages  in  the  Magdalenum  at  Bres- 
lau, and  in  1819  obtained  the  chair  of  archasology  and 
Grecian  art  at  Gottingen.  In  this  post  his  able  and 
eloquent  lectures,  and  the  numerous  admirable  works 
he  published  during  the  fifteen  years  following,  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  the  study  of  philology  and  antiquities 


a.  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  k,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  skoti;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MULLER 


^783 


MULLIGAN 


in  Germany.  In  1839  Miiller  visited  Italy,  and  the  next 
year  arrived  at  Athens.  Having  greatly  fatigued  himself 
while  making  excavations  at  Delphi,  he  was  soon  after 
attacked  by  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  1840.  He  was 
buried  near  the  ruins  of  the  Academy,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Athens  erected  a  monument  over  his  grave. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  History  of  the 
Hejlenic  Races  and  Cities,"  (1820,)  "The  Dorians," 
("Die  Dorier,"  2  vols.,  1824-30,)  "Introduction  to  a 
Scientific  System  of  Mythology,"  (1825,)  "  On  the  Origin 
and  Ancient  History  of  the  Macedonians,"  (1825,) 
"The  Etruscans,"  (2  vols.,  1828,)  "Manual  of  the  Archae- 
ology of  Art,"  (1830,)  and  "History  of  the  Literature 
of  Ancient  Greece,"  (1840.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Gf^n^rale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1839. 

Miiller,  (Ludwig  Christian,)  a  German  engineer 
and  mathematician,  born  in  the  march  of  Pregnitz  in 
1744.  He  served  for  a  time  in  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  became  in  1786  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Academy  of  Engineers  at  Potsdam.  He  wrote  several 
valuable  treatises  on  military  tactics.     Died  in  1804. 

Miiller,  mtil'ler,  (Otho  Frederik,)  an  eminent  Danish 
naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1730.  Being  appointed 
in  1753  tutor  to  a  young  nobleman,  he  availed  himself, 
while  travelling  with  him,  of  the  facilities  for  increasing 
his  knowledge  of  botany  and  zoology.  In  1764  he  pub- 
lished his  "Fauna  Insectorum  Friedrichsdaliana,"  and  in 
1767  his  "Flora  Friedrichsdaliana,"  giving  an  account 
of  the  insects  and  plants  of  Friedrichsdal.  The  great 
merit  of  these  productions  caused  him  to  be  appointed 
by  King  Frederick  V.  to  continue  the  publication  of  the 
"  Flora  Danica,"  a  magnificent  work,  surpassing  anything 
of  the  kind  that  had  hitherto  appeared.  Miiller  added 
iwo  volumes  to  the  three  already  published  by  Oeder. 
In  1773-74  he  brought  out  a  treatise  (in  Latin)  "On 
Earth  Worms  and  Fresh-Water  Worms."  In  the  first 
part  of  this  work  he  describes  the  infusoria,  of  which  he 
discovered  many  new  species  ;  and  he  was  the  first 
naturalist  who  distributed  animalcules  into  genera  and 
species.  In  1781  his  treatise  "On  the  Hydrachnae" 
appeared,  and  in  1785  one  "On  the  Monoculi,"  both 
written  in  Latin  and  illustrated  with  many  plates.  These 
two  works,  together  with  a  treatise  on  the  Infusoria,  (in 
4to,  with  fifty  plates,)  published  in  1786,  are  esteemed 
his  greatest  productions.  Miiller  had  begun  in  1779  a 
"Zoologia  Danica,"  a  superb  work,  of  which  he  pub- 
lished two  parts,  each  with  forty  coloured  plates.  Several 
additions  were  made  to  it  after  his  death,  which  took 
p,lace  in  1784.  Miiller  is  characterized  by  Cuvier  as  one 
of  the  most  laborious  and  accurate  observers  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  and  the  same  writer  adds,  "The  In- 
fusoria form,  as  it  were,  a  new  animal  kingdom,  which 
he  revealed  to  the  world." 

See  Hanssen,  "Tal  til  Erindring  af  O.  F.  Muller,"  1787: 
HiRRCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Miiller,  (Otto,)  a  prolific  German  novelist,  born  at 
Schotten,  in  Hesse,  June  i,  1816.  He  became  court 
librarian  at  Darmstadt,  and  afterwards  was  a  journalist 
at  Mannheim  and  Frankfort,  removing  at  a  later  date  to 
Stuttgart.  Among  his  very  numerous  stories  are  "  Charles 
Otto  Ackermann,"  (1854,)  "  Der  Klosterholf,"  (1859,) 
"Der  Wildpfarrer,"  (1866,)  "  Schatten  und  Hohen," 
•(1878,)  etc. 

Miiller,  (Peter  Erasmus,)  a  learned  Danish  theolo- 
gian and  antiquary,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1776.  Having 
completed  his  studies  in  Germany,  he  was  appointed  in 
1801  professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen. In  1830  he  succeeded  Miinter  as  Bishop  of 
Seeland.  Among  his  works  are  "  Christian  Moral 
System,"  "Sagabibliothek,"  or  "Library  of  the  Sagas," 
and  "  Critical  Examination  of  the  Traditional  History 
of  Denmark  and  Norway  from  1805  to  1830."  Died 
in  1834. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "  Almindeligt  Litteraturlexicon,"  etc. 

Miiller,  (Sophie,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  tragic 
actresses  of  the  German  stage,  born  at  Manheim  in  1803. 
She  visited  successively  Vienna,  Dresden,  and  Berlin, 
where  her  performances  elicited  the  warmest  applause. 
In  private  life  she  was  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1830. 

Miiller,  (Wenzel,)  a   popular   German  opera-com- 


poser, born  in  Moravia  in  1767.  He  was  appointed  in 
1786  chapel-master  at  Vienna.  Among  his  numerous 
works  is  "  The  Magic  Guitar."     Died  in  1835. 

Miiller,  (Wtlhelm,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
lyric  poets  of  Germany,  born  at  Dessau  in  1794.  Having 
visited  Italy  in  1817,  he  published,  after  his  return, 
"Poems  from  the  Papers  left  by  a  Travelling  Bugle 
Player,"  ("  Gedichten  aus  den  hinterlassenen  Papiereii 
eines  reisenden  Waldhornisten,"  2  vols.,  1821,)  "Songs 
of  the  Greeks,"  ("Liedern  der  Griechen,"  1821,)  and 
"Lyrical  Promenades,"  ("  Lyrischen  Spaziergangen.") 
He  also  published  the  "  Library  of  the  German  Poets  of 
the  Seventeenth  Century,"  (1822,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  Ersch  and  Grujer's  "Encyclopaedia."    Died  in  1827. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Miiller,  (William  John,)  an  eminent  landscape- 
painter,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Bristol,  in  Eng 
land,  in  1812.  He  studied  under  J.  B.  Pyne,  and  subse 
quently  visited  Egypt  and  Greece,  where  he  executed  a 
number  of  admirable  pictures.  Among  these  we  may 
name  his  "  Memnon  at  Sunset,"  "  Turkish  Merchants," 
etc.,  "View  of  Athens,"  and  "Prayer  in  the  Desert." 
Died  in  1845. 

Miiller,  von,  fon  m"81'ler,  (Johann  Gotthard,)  a 
celebrated  German  engraver,  born  near  Stuttgart  in  1747. 
He  was  patronized  at  an  early  age  by  Duke  Charles 
of  Wiirtemberg,  by  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled 
to  study  in  Paris  under  Wille.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1776,  and  sub- 
sequently became  professor  of  engraving  in  the  Academy 
of  Stuttgart,  and  obtained  the  order  of  the  Wiirtemberg 
Crown."  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  the 
"  Madonna  della  Seggiola,"  after  Raphael,  "  Saint  Ce- 
cilia," after  Domenichino,  and  "The  Battle  of  Bunker's 
Hill,"  after  Trumbull,  also  a  number  of  excellent 
portraits,  including  those  of  Moses  Mendelssohn  and 
Schiller.     Died  in  1830. 

Miiller,  von,  fon  mul'ler,  (Johannes,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  historian,  born  at  Schaffhausen,  January  3,  1752. 
He  studied  history  at  Gottingen  under  Schlozer,  and 
in  1772  published  his  "  Cimbric  War,"  ("BellumCim- 
bricum.")  He  became,  soon  after,  professor  of  Greek 
m  the  College  of  Schaffhausen,  from  which  he  removed 
to  Geneva  in  1774.  About  this  date  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Victor  de  Bonstetten.  He  published  in  1780 
the  first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  Swiss,"  which 
raised  him  to  the  first  rank  of  historians.  The  second 
edition  of  it  was  entitled  "The  History  of  the  Swiss 
ConYederation,"  ("Die  Geschichte  der  Schweizerischen 
Eidgenossen,"  1786.)  He  was  appointed  in  1786  aulic 
councillor  to  the  Elector  of  Mentz  and  librarian  of  the 
University  of  Mentz.  About  1790  he  accepted  from 
Leopold  II.  of  Austria  the  position  of  aulic  councillor; 
but,  the  publication  of  his  Swiss  history  having  been 
prohibited  by  the  Austrian  court,  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  as  privy  councillor,  in  1795.  The 
fourth  volume  of  his  great  work  appeared  in  1805.  In 
November,  1806,  he  had  a  private  interview  with  Napo- 
leon, who  had  invited  him  for  that  purpose,  and  who, 
according  to  some  authorities,  effected  some  change  in 
Miiller's  political  convictions.  Through  the  infiuence 
of  Napoleon  he  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  state  and 
director  of  public  instruction  by  the  King  of  Westphalia 
in  January,  1808.  He  died  at  Cassel  in  May,  1809. 
Among  his  works  are  his  correspondence  with  Bonstet- 
ten, entitled  "  Letters  of  a  Young  Savant  to  his  Friend," 
(1801,)  and  "Twenty- Four  Books  of  Universal  History," 
(3  vols.,  1 8 II.) 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  1S06;  A.  H.  L. 
Heeren,  "J.  von  Miiller  der  Historiker,"  i8og;  C.  G.  Heyne, 
"Memorla  J.  de  Mueller,"  iSio;  Heinrich  Doring,  "  Leben  J. 
von  Miiller's,"  1S35  ;  Charles  Monard,  "  Biographie  de  J.  de 
Mueller,"  1830  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Miiller  von  Konigswinter,  mul'ler  fon  ko'nics- 
^in'ter,  (Wolfg.'^ng,)  a  German  litteratatr,  born  at 
Konigswinter  in  1816.  He  published  "Ballads  and 
Romances,"  "Voyage  on  the  Rhine,"  "Lorelei,"  a 
charming  collection  of  legendary  ballads,  and  "The 
May  Queen,"  an  interesting  village  story.    Died  in  1873. 

Mul'li-gan,  (James  A.,)  an  officer,  born  at  Utica, 
New  York,  in  1830.     He  removed  in  1836  to  Chicago, 


€  as  ^,-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/.-  g,  h,  Yi, guttural ;  n,  tmsal:  r,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MULLNER 


1784 


MUNDY 


where  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Western  Tablet,"  a 
Catholic  journal.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  defence 
of  Lexington,  Missouri,  in  1861,  and  was  made  a  briga- 
dier-general of  Union  volunteers  in  1862.    Died  in  1864. 

Milliner  or  Muellner,  intil'ner,  (Amadeus  Gott- 
fried Adolf,)  a  German  critic  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  near  Weissenfels  in  1774,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
poet  Burger.  He  became  in  1820  associate  editor  of 
the  "Morgenblatt."  Among  his  most  popular  dramas 
are  "The  Confidants,"  "The  Twenty-Ninth  of  Febru- 
ary," and  "Die  Schuld,"  (i8i6.)     Died  in  1829. 

See  F.  K.  J.  Schutz,  "  Milliner's  Leben  uiid  Geist,"i83o;  F. 
W.VGKNER,  "Miillner  in  poetischer,  kritischer  und  religioser  Be- 
ziehiing,"  iSji. 

Mullot  or  Mulot,  mii'lo',  (pRANgois  Valentin,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1749.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Le  Museum  de  Florence,  grave  par  David," 
(6  vols.,  1788-95.)     Died  in  1804. 

Mu'lock,  (Dinah  Maria,)  an  excellent  and  popular 
English  author,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1826.  Her  prin- 
cipal works  are  entitled  "  The  Ogilvies,"  (1849.)  "  Olive," 
"  The  Head  of  the  Family,"  "  Agatha's  Husband,"  (1852,) 
"John  Halifax,  Gentleman,"  (1857,)  "A  Life  for  a  Life," 
"  A  Woman's  Thoughts  about  Women,"  "  Studies  from 
Life,"  "  A  Noble  Life,"  (1866,)  "  A  Brave  Lady,"  (1870,) 
"Hannah,"  (1871,)  "Adventures  of  a  Brownie,"  (1872,) 
"My  Mother  and  L"  (1874,)  "Sermons  out  of  Church," 
(1875,)  ^"<i  "  ^  Legacy,  being  the  Life  and  Remains  of 
John  Martin,  Schoolmaster  and  Poet,"  (1878.)  In  1865 
she  married  George  Lillie  Craik,  Jr.     Died  in  1887. 

Mulot.     See  MuLLOT. 

Mulready,  mul'red-e,  (  William,  )  a  celebrated 
painter,  born  at  Ennis,  in  Ireland,  in  1786.  He  entered 
the  Royal  Academy  at  an  early  age,  and  subsequently 
formed  his  style  on  the  model  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish 
masters.  His  "Idle  Boys,"  exhibited  in  181 5,  caused 
his  election  as  associate  of  the  Academy,  and  a  few 
months  later  he  was  made  a  Royal  Academician.  Among 
his  other  works  are  "The  Fight  Interrupted,"  "The 
Roadside  Inn,"  "Lending  a  Bite,"  "The  Wolf  and  the 
Lamb,"  "Crossing  the  Ford,"  and  "First  Love."  His 
"Choosing  the  Wedding-Gown,"  and  other  illustrations 
of  the  "Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  are  also  master-pieces  of 
the  kind,  and  have  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  modern 
British  artists.     Died  in  1863. 

Mulsant,  miil'sSN',  (Martial  IStienne,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Marnard  (Rh6ne)  in  1797.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  tn\  entomology.    Died  Nov.  4,  1880. 

Mum'mi-us,  (Lucius,)  an  able  Roman  general,  sur- 
named  Acha'icus,  was  noted  for  his  integrity.  He 
became  preetor  in  154  B.C.,  and  consul  in  146.  In  the 
same  year  he  defeated  the  Achaean  League,  destroyed 
Corinth,  and  reduced  Greece  to  a  Roman  province. 
Many  works  of  art  found  at  Corinth  were  carried  to 
Rome  to  adorn  the  triumphal  procession  of  Mummius, 
which  occurred  in  145  B.C.  and  formed  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Roman  art.  He  was  censor  in  142  13. C,  when 
Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger  was  his  colleague. 

Mummol.     See  Mummolus. 

Mum'mo-lus,  [Fr.  Mummol,  mii'mol',]  (Ennius,) 
an  able  Gallic  general,  became  Count  of  Auxerre  about 
560  A.D.,  and  commander  of  the  army  of  Gontran  of 
Burgundy.  He  defeated  the  Lombards  near  Embrun 
in  572,  and  Didier,  Count  of  Toulouse,  in  576.  Having 
revolted  against  Gontran,  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  that 
king,  in  585  A.D. 

Mun,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer  on  commerce, 
lived  about  1620-40.  He  was  a  merchant  of  London, 
and  wrote  "  England's  Treasure  by  Foreign  Trade  ;  or, 
The  Balance  of  our  Foreign  Trade  is  the  Rule  of  our 
Treasure." 

Munari  degli  Aretusi,  moo-na'ree  dil'yee  i-ri-too'- 
see,  (Pei.legrino,)  an  Italian  painter  of  Modena,  was  a 
pupil  of  Raphael.     Died  in  1523. 

Munatius  Plancus.     See  Plancus. 

Muncer.     See  Munzer. 

Munch,  moonk,  (Andreas,)  a  Norwegian  poet,  cousin 
of  Peter  Andreas,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1811.  He 
was  author  of  "  Poems,  Old  and  New,"  and  other  works. 


Miinch  or  Muench,  mSnK,  (Ernst  Hermann  Jo- 
skfh,)  a  Swiss  historian  and  voluminous  writer,  born  at 
Rheinfelden  in  1798.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  and  canon  law  at  Liege,  (1828.)  He  wrote 
(in  German)  a  "  History  of  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau," 
(1831-33,)  "Universal  History  of  Modern  Times,"  (1833 
-35,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1841. 

Munch,  (Peter  Andreas,)  an  eminent  Norwegian 
antiquary  and  philologist,  born  at  Christiania  in  1810, 
became  professor  of  history  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  (1841.)  He  published  Grammars  of  the 
Runic,  the  Gothic,  and  the  so-called  Old  Norwegian 
languages,  "  Historical  and  Geographical  Description 
of  Norway  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1849,)  "  History  of 
the  Norse  Nations,"  ("  Det  Norske  Folks  Ilistorie,"  3 
vols.,  1853-59.)  He  also  edited  the  "Ancient  Laws  of 
Norway,"  and  the  ancient  "  Edda."     Died  in  1884. 

Miinch-Bellinghausen  or  Muench-Bellinghau- 
sen,  munK  beKling-how'zen,  (Eligius  Franz  Joseph,) 
Baron,  a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  in  1806,  was  known  by  the  pseudonym 
of  Friedrich  Halm.  He  was  the  author  of  tragedies 
entitled  "  Griseldis,"  (1835,)  "The  King  and  the  Peas- 
ant," (1841,)  "The  Son  of  the  Wilderness,"  (1842,)  and 
"The  Gladiator  of  Ravenna,"  (1857.)  In  1845  he  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna. 
Died  May  21,  1871. 

Munchausen  or  Muenchausen,  mSnK'how'zen, 
(Gerlach  Adolf,)  Baron,  a  German  statesman,  born 
at  Hanover  in  1688,  was  for  many  years  curator  of  the 
University  of  Gbttingen.  He  made  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  library  of  that  institution,  and  founded  the 
Society  of  Sciences  at  Gbttingen.  He  was  appointed 
first  minister  of  Hanover  in  1765.     Died  in  1770. 

Miinchausen,  commonly  pronounced  in  English 
miin-chaw'sen,  (Hieronymus  Karl  Friedrich,)  Ba- 
ron, a  famous  German  officer,  whose  name  has  become 
proverbial  as  a  synonym  of  extravagant  boasting,  was 
born  in  Hanover  in  1720.  Having  entered  the  Russian 
service,  he  fought  against  the  Turks  in  1737.  After  his 
return,  he  acquired  great  notoriety  by  his  exaggerated 
stories  of  adventure,  a  collection  of  which  appeared 
in  England  under  the  title  of  "Baron  Munchausen's 
Narrative  of  his  Marvellous  Travels  and  Campaigns  in 
Russia."  It  obtained  great  popularity,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  German  by  BUrger.     Died  in  1797. 

See  Ellisen,  "  Nachricht  iiber  den  Freiherrn  von  Munchausen," 
prefixed  to  his  "  Adventures,"  Berlin,  1849;  Allibone,  "Diction- 
ary of  Authors,"  article  "Raspe." 

Munck.     See  Munk. 

Mundanella,  moon-dS-nel'll,  (Luigi,)  anltah'an  phy- 
sician, born  at  Brescia,  published  "Theatrum  Galeni," 
(1551.)     Died  about  1570. 

Mun'day,  (Anthony,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  1554,  wrote  "The  Downfall  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Hun- 
tingdon," and  "The  Widow's  Charm,"  and  published 
an  enlarged  edition  of  Stowe's  "  Survey  of  London." 
Died  in  1633. 

See  CoLi.iEK,  "  History  of  English  Dramatic  Poetry." 

Mun'den,  (Joseph  S.,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in 
London  in  1758;  died  in  1S32. 

Mun-di'nus  or  Mondino  da  Luzzi,  mon-dee'no 
dl  loot'see,  an  Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  in^ 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Bologna.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  among  the  moderns  who  dissected  human 
bodies.     Died  in  1326. 

See  Portal,  "  His;oire  de  1' Anatomic." 

Mundt,  mSont,  (Theodor,)  a  German  litterateur 
born  at  Potsdam  in  1808.  He  was  api^ointed  professor 
of  general  literature  and  history  at  Breslau  in  1848,  and 
in  1850  librarian  of  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  tales,  romances,  political  essays,  and 
sketches  of  travel.  Died  May  30,  186 1.  Mis  wife — origi- 
nally LuisE  MuHLBACH,  (mul'baK) — also  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  historical  romances  of  a  somewhat  extravagant 
character.  Several  of  them  have  been  translated  into 
English  and  have  enjoyed  great  popularity.  She  died  at 
Berlin,  September  26,  1873. 

Mun'dy,  (George  Rodney.)  an  English  naval  officer, 


a,  e,  T.  o,  \i,  y,  Aw(^v  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  u,  u,  y,  ,r//, .;•/.■  a.  e,  i,  o.  n/'sa/re:  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MUNGER 


1785 


MUNZER 


a  grandson  of  Admiral  Rodney,  was  born  in  1805.  He 
served  as  captain  against  the  pirates  of  Borneo  in  1846, 
and  published  a  "Narrative  of  Events  in  Borneo,"  (2 
vols.,  1848.)     Died  December  23,  1884. 

Munger,  mung'ger,  (Theodore  Thornton,)  D.D., 
an  American  Congregationalist  clergyman,  born  at  Bain- 
bridge,  New  York,  March  5,  1830.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1851,  and  at  the  New  Haven  Theological 
School.  He  has  held  several  pastorates,  mostly  in  New 
England.  His  principal  works  are  "  On  the  Threshold," 
(1881,)  "The  Freedom  of  Faith,"  (1883,)  and  "Lamps 
and  Paths,"  (1884.) 

Mungo,  Saint.     See  Kentigern. 

Munk  or  Miinck,  moonk,  (Han  or  Johann,)  a 
Danish  navigator,  born  about  1589.  He  was  sent  about 
1620  to  search  for  a  Northwest  Passage.    Died  in  1628. 

Munk,  moonk,  (Salomon,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Glogau  in  1802.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  and  was  appointed  in  1840  one  of  the 
keepers  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  in  the  Imperial 
Library.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  i860.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Geo- 
graphical, Historical,  and  Archaeological  Description 
of  Palestine,"  (in  P'rench,  1845.)     Died  at  Paris  in  1867 

Munk^czy,  moon-klt'se,  (MihAly,)  a  Hungarian 
painter,  born  at  Munkacz  in  1846.  His  relatives  perished 
in  the  Russian  invasion  of  1849,  and  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  carpenter.  In  1863  he  took  lessons  in  painting,  and 
later  studied  at  Pesth,  Vienna,  Munich,  and  Dusseldorf. 
His  "  Last  Day  of  a  Condemned  Man,"  exhibited  in  Paris 
in  1870,  was  a  great  revelation  of  power.  Since  that 
time  he  has  won  many  honours  and  medals. 

Miinnich  or  Muennich,  mun'niK,  (Burkhard 
Chkistoph,)  Count,  a  Russian  general  and  statesman, 
of  German  extraction,  born  in  1683.  Having  served 
against  the  French  in  1712,  he  was  afterwards  patron- 
ized by  Peter  the  Great,  and  rose  to  be  field-marshal 
under  the  empress  Anna.  He  subsequently  gained  a 
series  of  victories  over  the  Turks.  He  caused  himself 
to  be  made  prime  minister  during  the  minority  of  Prince 
Ivan ;  but  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  exiled 
to  Siberia,  in  1741.  He  was  recalled  by  Peter  III.  in 
1762.     Died  in  1767. 

See  Hempel,  "Leben  Miinnichs,"  1742;  Von  Hammer,  "Ge- 
scbichte  des  Osnianischen  Reiclis;"  G.  A.  voN  Halem,  "  Lehensbe- 
schreibung  des  Grafen  von  Miinnich,"  1803;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^n^rale. " 

Mun'niks,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  anatomist,  born  at  Utrecht 
in  1652  ;  died  in  171 1. 

Munniks,  (  Winoi.d,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born  in 
Friesland  in  1744;  died  in  1806. 

Munoz,  moon-y6th',  (Evarista,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
of  high  reputation,  born  at  Valencia  in  1671,  was  noted 
for  his  gallantry  and  adventures.     Died  in  1737. 

See  QuiLi.iET,  " Diclionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Munoz,  (Fernando,)  Duke  of  Rianzares,  a  Spanish 
officer,  born  at  Tarancon  about  1810.  He  was  secretly 
married  to  the  queen-regent  Maria  Christina  in  1833. 
They  were  married  publicly  in  1844.     Died  in  1873. 

Munoz,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born 
near  Valencia  in  1745,  was  appointed  cosmographer 
to  the  Indies.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  New 
World,"  (1793,)  which  is  highly  eulogized  bv  Humboldt. 
Died  in  1799. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  Prescott, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  ii.  part  2. 

Munoz,  sometimes  improperly  written  Mugnoz,  (Se- 
bastian,) a  Spanish  artist,  born  at  Naval  Carnero  in 
1654,  was  one  of  the  best  Spanish  fresco-painters  of  his 
time.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Coello,  and  was  appointed 
painter  to  the  king,  Charles  II.,  in  16S8.     Died  in  1690. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols,"  etc. 

Munoz,  (ToMAS,)  a  Spanish  naval  officer  and  en- 
gineer, born  about  1745.  He  defended  the  foundations 
of  Cadiz  against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Died 
in  1823. 

Mun-ro',  (Hugh  Andrew  Johnstone,)  an  eminent 
British  scholar,  born  at  Elgin,  Scotland,  October  14,  1819. 
He  was  etlucated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
was  professor  of  Latin  in  Cambridge  University,  1869-72. 
His  edition  of  Horace,  and  especially  his  editions  of 


Lucretius,  (i860,  1864,  1866,  and  1870,  the  latter  with 
notes  and  a  translation,)  are  of  very  high  value,  as  also 
his  "Elucidations  of  Catullus,"  (1878.)     Died  in  1885. 

Mun-ro',  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  able  English  general  and 
governor,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1760  or  1761.  He  went 
to  India  about  1780,  and  entered  the  army  of  the  East 
India  Company.  Having  served  with  distinction  in 
several  campaigns,  he  was  also  employed  in  important 
civil  offices.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Madras,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
died  in  India  in  1826  or  1827. 

See  G.  R.  Gleig.  "  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Munro,"  2  or  3  vols., 
1830;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen:" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1830. 

Mun'sell,  (Joel,)  an  American  printer  and  journalist, 
born  at  Northfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1808,  published 
the  "  Every-Day  Book  of  History  and  Chronology,"  "  An- 
nals of  Albany,"  and  other  works.     Died  Jan.  15,  1880. 

Munster,  von,  fon  moon'ster,  (Ernst  Friedrich 
Herbert,)  Count,  a  Hanoverian  politician,  born  in 
1766.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
in  1814.     Died  in  1839. 

Mun'ster,  (George  Fitzclarence,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  general,  born  in  1794,  was  a  natural  son  of  King 
William  IV.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Penin- 
sular war,  and  afterwards  in  India.  He  wrote  a  "Journal 
of  Travels  in  India,".  (1819.)     Died  in  1842. 

Munster  or  Muenster,  mtin'ster,  (Sebastian,)  a 
German  theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Ingelsheim 
in  1489,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Biblical  litera- 
ture at  Heidelberg.  He  published  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  (with  notes,)  and  a  "  Universal  Cos- 
mography." "  Munster,"  says  De  Thou,  "  was  so  learned 
in  theology  and  geography  that  he  was  styled  the  Esdras 
and  Strabo  of  Germany."     Died  in  1552. 

Munster  -  Ledenburg,  mlin '  ster  la '  den  -  booRG', 
(Ernst  Friedrich  Herbert,)  a  German  statesman, 
born  at  Osnabriick  in  1766.  He  became  minister  of 
finance  in  1798,  and  was  afterwards  sent  on  missions  to 
England  and  Russia.     Died  in  1839. 

Muntaner  En  Ramon,  moon-tS-naiR'  §n  ri-m(\n', 
a  Spanish  chronicler,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1265.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Achievements  of 
the  Princes  of  Aragon,  from  James  the  Conqueror  to 
Alfonso  IV."  The  writer  narrates,  in  a  pleasing,  un- 
affected style,  events  of  which  he  was  a  witness,  and  his 
chronicle  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  of  the  middle  ages. 
Died  in  1336. 

Miinter  or  Muenter,  mun'ter,  (Balthasar,)  a  Ger- 
man pulpit  orator  and  writer  of  sacred  poetry,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1735.  His  "Collections  of  Spiritual  Songs" 
are  greatly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  In  1772  he 
attended  the  unfortunate  Count  Struensee  a  short  time 
before  his  execution,  and  afterwards  wrote  an  account 
of  his  conversion.  This  work  became  widely  celebrated, 
and  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages.    Died  in  1793. 

See  Friedrich  MOntek,  "  Leben  und  Character  B.  Miinters," 
1794. 

Miinter,  (Friedrich,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1761.  became  successively  professor  of  theology  at  Co- 
penhagen (1790)  and  Bishop  of  Seeland,  (1808.)  He 
also  attained  great  distinction  as  an  antiquary  and 
Oriental  scholar.  Among  his  most  important  works  is 
a  treatise  "On  the  Symbols  and  Art-Representations 
of  the  Early  Christians."  Died  in  1830.  Frederika 
Sophia  Christiana  Brun,  sister  of  the  preceding, 
was  likewise  celebrated  as  an  author. 

Munting,  nnm'ting,  (Abraham,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Groningen  in  1626,  was  professor 
of  botany  and  chemistry  in  the  university  of  that  place. 
He  wrote,  among  other  treatises,  a  "Curious  Descrip- 
tion of  Plants."     Died  in  1683. 

Miinzer,  Muenzer,  or  Miincer,  m'Snt'ser,  (Thomas,) 
a  German  fanatic,  who  held  principles  similar  to  the 
Anabaptists.  Having  collected  forty  thousand  followers, 
they  committed  many  outrages  ;  but  they  were  at  length 
defeated  by  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  and  his  allies,  and 
Miinzer  was  executed,  (1526.) 

See  STiinnKi^  "Lcben,  Schriften,  etc.  Thomas  Munzers,"  1785; 
Seidemann,  "Thomas  Mtmzer,"  1842. 


^3S,k;  casj;  %hard;  g2.sj;G,n,K.,  guttural;  a, nasal;  V.,trilled;  sasz;  thasinMw.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUNZINGER 


1786 


MURCHISON 


Muuzinger,  moont'sing-er,  (Werner,)  a  Swiss  ex- 
plorer, born  at  Olten,  April  4,  1832.  He  was  a  mer- 
chant, and  afterwards  British  consul,  and  then  French 
consul,  at  Massowah,  in  Egyptian  Abyssinia.  After  an 
adventurous  life  in  various  parts  of  the  northeast  of 
Africa,  he  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  GaJlas,  Novem- 
ber 14,  1875.  He  left  several  books  of  travel,  a  Tigie 
vocabulary,  etc. 

Mura,  da,  di  moo'rS,  (Francesco,)  sometimes  called 
Francesche'ITO,  (fr5.n-chls-ket'to,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Naples.  He  painted  several  works  in  the  palace 
of  the  King  of  Sardinia.     Died  about  1745. 

Murad.     See  Moorad. 

Murad,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  Amurath. 

Murad  Bey.     See  Moorad  Bey. 

Muraire,  mu'r^R',  (Honor^,)  Count,  a  French  judge 
and  politician,  born  at  Draguignan  in  1750.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  Elders  in  1795,  was  banished 
in  1797,  and  was  appointed  first  president  of  the  court 
of  cassation  in  Paris  in  1804.     Died  in  1837. 

Muralt,  de,  deh  moo'rdlt,  (B6at  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
litterateur,  born  at  Berne.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great  of  Prussia,"  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  1760. 

Muralt,  de,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1645.  He  became  professor  of  physics 
and  mathematics  at  Zurich  in  1645,  and  published  several 
scientific  works.     Died  in  1733. 

Muraut,  mu-rSnt',  t  (Emmanuel,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1622.  His  works  are 
finely  finished.     Died  at  Leeu warden  in  1700. 

Murat,  mii'rS',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Felletin  in  1807.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1837 
for  a  picture  of  "  Noah  Offering  Sacrifice."  Died  at  Paris, 
September  25,  1S63. 

Murat,  [sometimes  Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
mu-rit')]  (Joachim,)  a  celebrated  marshal  of  the  French 
empire,  and  King  of  Naples,  was  born  near  Cahors,  in 
the  south  of  France,  in  1771.  His  father  was  an  inn- 
keeper. Soon  after  the  Revolution  began,  young  Murat 
entered  the  guard  of  Louis  XVL,  from  which  he  passed 
into  a  regiment  of  chasseurs.  As  he  was  a  warm  parti- 
san of  the  popular  cause,  he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and 
in  the  campaign  of  1796  was  a  favourite  aide-de-camp 
of  Bonaparte,  whose  fortunes  he  thenceforth  followed 
and  shared.  Having  signalized  his  impetuous  bravery 
in  the  campaigns  of  Italy  and  Egypt,  he  was  made  a 
general  of  division  in  1799.  Soon  after  Bonaparte  ob- 
tained the  chief  power,  he  gave  to  Murat  his  sister 
Caroline  in  marriage.  Murat  commanded  tlie  cavalry  at 
Marengo  in  1800,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Paris 
in  1804,  with  the  rank  of  general-in-chief.  He  received 
a  marshal's  baton  in  1804,  and  in  1806  was  created  Grand 
Duke  of  Berg  and  Cleves.  At  Austerlitz,  Jena,  and 
Eylau  he  directed  the  cavalry  with  brilliant  effect.  He 
was  pronounced  by  Napoleon  "the  best  cavalry  officer 
in  Europe,"  and  was  admired  for  his  handsome  figure, 
gorgeous  costume,  and  ch'valrous  demeanour. 

Murat  commanded  the  army  which  invaded  Spain  in 
1808,  and  in  the  same  year  was  placed  on  the  throne 
of  Naples,  where  he  was  received  with  general  joy,  and 
reigned  liberally  and  peacefully  until  181 2.  He  shared 
the  reverses  of  the  Russian  campaign,  (181 2,)  and  in 
1813  again  fought  for  Napoleon,  whose  cause  he  deserted 
after  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  He  made  a  treaty  with  the 
court  of  Vienna  in  January,  1814,  and  engaged  to  sup- 
port the  allies  with  his  army ;  but  he  failed  to  aid  them 
efficiently,  and  was  accused  of  duplicity.  As  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  appeared  indisposed  to  recognize  his 
claim,  he  secretly  renewed  his  relations  with  the  exiled 
emperor,  whose  cause  he  openly  espoused  in  March, 
1815.  Calling  the  Italians  to  rise  for  liberty,  he  com- 
menced hostilities  against  the  Austrians  in  Northern 
Italy,  but  was  repulsed  and  finally  defeated  at  Macerata 
in  May,  and  then  fled  to  France.  In  October,  1815,  he 
landed  with  about  thirty  men  in  his  former  kingdom,  and 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  recover  it,  but  was  soon 
captured  and  shot.  As  a  ruler,  he  appears  to  have  been 
mild  and  humane,  but  he  was  deficient  in  political  ability 
as  well  as  moral  courage.  His  wife  survived  him  many 
years,  and  took  the  title  of  Countess  of  Lipano.     (See 


Bonaparte,  Caroline.)    Murat  left  two  sons.  Napoleon 
Achille  and  Lucien  Charles  Joseph. 

See  F.  Maciron'e,  "Interesting  Facts  relating  to  the  Fall,  etc. 
of  J.  Murat;"  A.  de  Beauchamp,  "Catastrophe  de  Murat;"  I.^oN 
Gallois,  "  Histoire  de  Joachim  Murat,"  182X  ;  A.  Sekikys,  "Vie 
publiqiie  et  priv^e  de  Joachim  Murat,"  1816;  A.  Briiggemans, 
"  Leven  en  Lotgevallen  van  Joachim  Murat,"  1S16  ;  C.  Miramont, 
"Vie  de  J.  Murat,  Roi  de  Nnples,"  1836;  Thiers,  "  Histoiy  of  the 
French  Revolution;"  "  P.latkwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1826. 

Murat,  (Napoleon  Achille,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  emigrated  to  Florida 
about  1822.  He  wrote  a  "  Moral  and  Political  View  of 
the  United  States,"  (1832,)  and  several  other  short 
w^orks.     Died  in  Jefferson  county,  Florida,  in  1847. 

Murat,  (Napoleon  Lucien  Charles,)  Prince,  a 
French  senator,  born  at  Milan  in  1803,  was  a  son  of 
Joachim  Murat.  He  married  Miss  Fraser,  an  American, 
about  1827.  After  a  long  exile,  he  was  permitted  to  enter 
France  in  1848.  He  supported  the  policy  of  Napoleon 
III.,  who  appointed  him  a  senator  in  1852.    Died  1878. 

Muratori,  moo-rd-to'ree,  (LuDOVico  Antonio,)  an 
eminent  Italian  scholar,  historian,  and  antiquary,  born 
near  Modena  in  1672.  He  became  librarian  and  ar- 
chivist to  the  Duke  of  Modena  in  1700,  and  continued  in 
this  office  till  his  death.  He  published  in  1751  his  great 
work  entitled  "  Writers  of  Italian  History,"  ("  Rerum 
Italicorum  Scriptores,"  27  vols.  foL,  1723-38,)  which  was 
followed  by  his  "  Italian  Antiquities  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
(6  vols.,  1738,)  "  New  Treasury  of  Ancient  Inscriptions," 
(6  vols.,  1739,)  and  "Annals  of  Italy,"  (in  Italian,  12  vols., 
1744.)  He  died  in  1750,  with  the  reputation  of  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 

See  G.  F.  Muratori,  "Vita  del  celebre  L.  A.  Muratori,"  1756; 
TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  Fabroni,  "Vita  Italo- 
rum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Schedoni,  "  Elogiodi  L.  A.  Muratori,' 
iSiS  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Muraviefi.    See  Mooravief. 

MuraAview  or  Murawjevr.     See  Mooravief. 

Murazan,  moo-rd-sin',  (Juan,)  a  South  American 
patriot,  born  at  San  Salvador  in  1796,  was  president 
of  the  republic  of  Guatemala  from  1831  to  1838.  Died 
in  1852. 

Mur'ehi-son,  (Charles,)  a  British  physician,  born 
in  Jamaica  in  1830.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  practised  medicine  with  great  success 
in  London.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Contained 
Fevers,"  and  "  Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Liver." 
Died  April  23,  1879. 

Mur'ehi-spn,  (Sir  Roderick  Impey,)  an  eminent 
British  geologist,  born  atTaradale,  Ross-shire,  Scotland, 
on  the  19th  of  February,  1792,  was  a  son  of  Kenneth 
Murchison.  He  was  educated  at  the  Military  College 
of  Marlow,  entered  the  army  in  1807,  and  served  in  seve- 
ral battles  in  the  Peninsula.  He  was  also  on  the  staff  of 
his  uncle.  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  in  Sicily.  He  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  General  Hugonin  in  1815,  and  quitted 
the  army  about  1816.  By  the  advice  of  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  science, 
and  attended  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution.  Abouti825 
he  produced  a  "  Geological  Sketch  of  the  Northwestern 
Extremity  of  Sussex."  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Geological  Society  in  1825,  and  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1826.  In  company  with  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  he  explored 
in  1828  the  geology  of  Auvergne,  Provence,  and  Pied-. 
mont,  on  which  they  wrote  jointly  three  memoirs.  In 
1S30  he  began  to  examine  the  older  sedimentary  strata 
of  England  and  Wales,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
.Silurian  system.  He  published  the  results  of  these 
researches  in  an  important  work  entitled  "The  Silurian 
System."  He  was  the  first  who  discovered  the  relations 
of  these  palaeozoic  strata  and  classified  them  according 
to  the  succession  of  organic  remains.  In  1845  Mr. 
Murchison  and  M.  de  Verneuil  published  "  The  Geology 
of  Russia  and  the  Ural  Mountains,"  (2  vols.  410.)  The 
former  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1846.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety in  1844  and  1852,  and  received  the  Copley  medal 
in  1849,  fo"^  ^'"^^  establishment  of  the  Silurian  system. 
Among  his  numerous  works  is  "  Siluria ':  the  History 
of  the  oldest  known  Rocks  containing  Organic  Remains, 
with  a  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Distribution  of  Gold  over  the 
Earth,"  (1854.)  He  had  been  chosen  president  of  the 
Geological  Society  several  times  between  1830  and  1842. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lotig:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MURDOCH 


17S7 


MURPHY 


In  1S55  he  was  apix>inted  Director-Genetal  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1S64, 
and  received  the  Copley  medal  in  1S66.     Died  in  1871. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gcnerale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1S60;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July.  1S6S;  "  Eclectic  Maga- 
zine" for  December.  1S64,  (with  a  |)ortrait  ;)  "  North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1854  ;  '"  Men  of  the  Time"  for  1S68. 

Murdoch,  mur'dok,  (James  Edward,)  an  American 
actor  and  elocntionist,  born  in  Philadelphia,  January  25, 
181 1.  His  first  public  performance  was  in  Philadelphia 
in  1829.  In  1833  he  appeared  successfully  in  the  charac- 
ter of  "Romeo,"  with  Mi.ss  Fanny  Kemble  as  "Juliet," 
and  from  that  time  became  a  leading  actor  in  tragedy 
and  comedy.  About  five  years  later  he  retired  from  the 
stage,  and  opened  a  school  in  Boston  for  mental  and 
physical  training.  He  afterwards  returned  to  the  stage, 
and  in  1853  he  visited  California.  In  1855  he  went  to 
Europe,  and  while  in  London  performed  at  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre  with  great  applause.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1857.  Mr.  Murdoch's  style  is  strictly 
original,  his  articulation  distinct,  and  his  versatility  and 
range  of  character  remarkable.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  war  of  the  rebellion  he  devoted  his  time  and  atten- 
tion to  his  country,  giving  readings  and  recitatiops  in 
the  camps,  caring  for  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  rousing 
the  people  to  the  aid  of  the  suffering.  He  served  for 
some  time  on  the  staff  of  General  Rousseau.  Since  the 
close  of  the  war  he  has  devoted  himself  to  his  profession. 

Mur'doeh,  or  Mur'dock,  (William,)  a  Scottish 
inventor,  born  near  Auchinleck,  August  25,  1754.  In 
1792  he  lighted  his  own  house  with  C(5al-gas,  in  1784  he 
made  a  small  locomotive  steam-engine,  and  the  first 
oscillating  engine  was  devised  by  him.     Died  in  1839. 

Mur'dock,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  learned  American  Con- 
gregational divine,  born  at  Westbrook,  Connecticut,  in 
1776.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  ancient  languages  at  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont in  1815,  and  in  1819  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  eccle- 
siastical history  in  the  theological  seminary  of  Andover. 
He  translated  from  the  German  Mosheim's  "Institutes 
of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  and  Miinscher's  "  Elements 
of  Dogmatic  History,"  (1830,)  and  published  several 
original  works.     Died  in  1856. 

Mure,  mur,  (William,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  scholar 
of  great  eminence,  born  at  Caldwell  in  1799.  He  studied 
at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  at  Bonn,  in  Germany, 
and  after  his  return  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Ren- 
frew, in  1846.  He  published  in  1850  his  "Critical  Ac- 
count of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece," 
(5  vols.  8vo,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He 
■was  also  the  author  of  a  "Calendar  of  the  Zodiac  of 
Ancient  Egypt,"  (1832,)  and  "Journal  of  a  Tour  in 
Greece,"  (183S.)  He  was  elected  in  1855  lord  rector 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow.     Died  in  i860. 

Mure,  (Sir  William, )"a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Ayr- 
shire about  1594,  was  the  author  of  traditional  "Ballads 
and  Songs."     Died  in  1657. 

See  Chambers,  "  Bincjraphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1850. 

Mu-re'na,  (A.  Terentius  Varro,)  was  conml  suffedus 
in  23  B.C.,  and  was  put  to  death  in  22  for  complicity  in 
the  conspiracy  of  Fannius  Caepio. 

Murena,  moo-ra'nS,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  in  1713,  was  a  pupil  of  Vanvitelli.  He  worked  in 
Rome.     Died  in  1764. 

Murena,  (Lucius  Licinius,)  a  Roman  soldier  and 
consul,  was  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Sulla,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  his  campaign  against  Mithridates.  After 
Sulla  made  peace  with  Mithridates,  in  84  B.C.,  Murena 
remained  in  Asia  and  renewed  hostilities.  Died  about 
80  B.C. 

Murena,  (Lucius  Licinius,)  a  Roman  general,  who 
served  under  Lucullus  in  Asia.  He  was  elected  praetor 
about  65,  and  consul  in  63  B.C.  Having  been  accused 
of  bribery  in  the  year  last  named,  he  was  defended  by 
Cicero  and  acquitted. 

See  Cicero,  "Oratio  pro  Mursena." 

Mures,  moo'r?s,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
m  1695.    He  worked  at  Badajoz,  where  he  died  in  1761. 

Muret,  mii'ry,  |Lat.  Mure'tus,]  (Marc  Antoine,) 


a  French  classical  scholar,  born  at  Muret,  in  Limousin, 
in  1526.  He  lectured  on  philosophy  and  law  at  Paris, 
which  he  quitted  about  1552.  He  afterwards  lived  in 
Venice  and  Rome,  and  was  patronized  by  Ippolito 
d'Este.  In  1563  he  opened  a  course  of  philosophy  at 
Rome,  where  he  became  professor  of  civil  law  about 
1566.  He  was  styled  the  "luminary  and  pillar  of  the 
Roman  school"  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  He  composed 
commentaries  on  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Horace,  Tacitus,  and 
other  classic  authors.  Among  his  various  works  are 
Latin  poems  and  "Variae  Lectiones."  Died  in  Rome 
in  1585. 

See  F.  Benci,  "  Oratio  fnnebris  Mureti,"  1585  ;  Vogt,  "  Apologia 
pro  Miireto ;"  ViTRAC,  "  filoge  de  Muret,"  1775;  "Menagiana;" 
LuNDBLAD,  "Dissertatio  de  M.  A.  Mureto,"  iSig  ;  Nic^ron,  "  M^ 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Muret,  (Theodore  C^sar,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1808.  He  wrote  a  number  of  dramas  and 
histories,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  Wars  of 
the  West,"  (5  vols.,  1848.)    Died  July  23,  1866. 

Muretus.    See  Muret. 

Murger,  milR'zhi',  (Henry,)  a  French  litterateur^ 
born  in  Paris  in  1822,  contributed  to  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  a  number  of  tales  and  dramas.  His 
most  popular  work  is  entitled  "Scenes  in  Bohemian 
Life."     Died  in  1861. 

See  G.  Planche,  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  1853. 

Muriel,  moo-re-§K,  (Andres,)  a  Spanish  litterateur, 
born  in  Old  Castile  in  1776,  settled  in  Paris  about  1812. 
He  wrote  on  Spanish  history,  and  translated  into  French 
Coxe's  "Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  Plouse 
of  Bourbon,"  (Paris,  6  vols.,  1827.) 

Murillo,  mu-ril'lo,  [Sp.  pron.  moo-r^Kyo,]  (Bar- 
tolom6  Esteban,)  the  most  celebrated  painter  of  the 
Spanish  school,  was  born  at  Seville  in  1618,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  his  uncle,  Juan  del  Castillo.  About  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  derived  ad- 
vantage from  the  friendly  counsels  of  Velasquez  and 
perfected  himself  in  his  art.  Having  returned  to  Seville 
in  1645,  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  history, 
portraits,  and  other  branches  of  painting.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  King  of  Spain,  and  adorned  the  churches 
of  Madrid,  Seville,  and  Cadiz  with  his  works.  As  a 
colorist  he  surpassed  all  other  Spanish  artists.  His 
productions  are  remarkable  for  originality,  fidelity  to 
nature,  freedom  of  touch,  and  softness,  splendour,  and 
harmony  of  colour.  He  delighted  and  excelled  in  the 
representation  of  virgin  saints  and  of  beggar-boys  at 
play.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Moses  Striking 
the  Rock,"  "  The  Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine,"  "  Saint 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  "Christ  Feeding  the  Five 
Thousand,"  a  "Young  I5eggar,"  "The  Prodigal  Son,"  a 
"Holy  Family,"  and  "Saint  Anthony  of  Padua."  He 
died,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  a  scaffold,  in  1682. 

See  Chan- Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico,"etc.  ;  J.  F.  BouR- 
GOING,  "Tableau  de  I'Espagnemoderne  ;"  Quilliet,  "  Dictionnaire 
des  Peintres  Espagnols  ;"  C.  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;"  E. 
Davies,  "Life  of  B.  E.  Murillo,"  iSig;  "  Encyclopjedia  Britannica  :" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April, 
1846. 

Muris,  de,  deh  mii'riss',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  sometimes  called  Meurs  or  Murs,  lived 
about  1310-40.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  treat- 
ise on  music,  entitled  "Speculum  Musicae,"  an  abridg- 
ment of  which  has  been  published.     Died  after  1345. 

Murner,  mooR'ner,  (Thomas,)  a  famous  German 
satirist  and  controversialist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1475. 
He  possessed  uncommon  abilities  and  caustic  wit,  and 
the  offensive  personalities  in  which  he  indulged  kept 
him  in  constant  warfare  with  his  contemporaries.  His 
satires  are  chiefly  directed  against  Luther  and  his  asso- 
ciate Reformers  ;  and  some  of  them  are  regarded  as  the 
ablest  which  have  been  levelled  at  the  Reformation. 
He  also  wrote  "  The  World  of  Fools,"  and  "  The  Mill 
of  Schwindelsheim,"  in  which  he  keenly  satirized  the 
follies  of  the  time.     Died  about  1536. 

See  Waldai;,  "  Nachrichten  von  Murners  Leben,"  1775;  Flo- 
gel,  "  Geschichte  der  komischen  Literatur." 

Mur'phy,  (Arthur,)  a  dramatic  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Roscommon,  in  Ireland, 
about  1728.  He  edited  for  a  time  "The  Gray's-Inn 
Journal,"   and   wrote,   among    other    plays,    a   tragedy 


€as^:  jasj,-  gkard;  gzs /;  G,il,K, guttural;  ti, nasal;  R,trilled;  las 2;  thasin//5w.     f2:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MURPHY 


1788 


MURRA  V 


entitled  "  The  Grecian  Daughter,"  and  "  The  Way  to 
Keep  Him,"  a  comedy.  He  also  made  a  translation  of 
Tacitus,  and  wrote  the  Lives  of  Johnson  and  Garrick. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  J.  Foot,  "Life  of  Arthur  Murphy." 

Murphy,  (James  Cavanagh,)  a  distinguished  archi- 
tect and  writer,  born  in  Ireland  about  1760.  In  1788  he 
visited  Portugal,  and  after  his  return  published  an  ac- 
count of  that  country.  Among  his  principal  works  we 
may  name  "The  Arabian  Antiquities  of  Spain,"  with  97 
plates,  (181^-16.)     Died  in  1816. 

Mur'pliy,  (J.  Francis,)  an  artist,  born  at  Oswego, 
New  York,  December  11,  1853.  He  received  his  art- 
education  in  Chicago  and  New  York. 

Murphy,  (Robert,)  an  excellent  self-taught  Irish 
mathematician,  born  at  Mallow  in  1806.  In  1825  he 
entered  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  h©.  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  in  1829.  He  became  a  resident  of 
London  in  1836.  Among  his  works  are  "Analysis  of 
the  Roots  of  Equations,"  and  "The  Theory  of  Algebraic 
Equations,"  published  by  the  Useful  Knowledge  Society. 
Died  in  1843. 

Murr,  von,  fon  mooR,  (Christoph  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Nuremberg  about 
1734,  published  an  "Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Greek 
Tragic  Poets,"  (1760,)  "Antiquities  of  Herculaneum," 
(6  vols.,  1777-82,)  and  a  number  of  historical  works, 
among  whicli  is  "  Commentatio  de  Re  diplomatica  Fre- 
derici  II.,"  (1756.)  He  was  noted  for  his  various  and 
extensive  learning.     Died  in  1811. 

See  Meusel,  "  Gelelutes  Deutschl.ind  ;"  "  Biogr.iphie  Univer- 
Eelle." 

Murray,  mur're  ?  (Adolphus,)  a  Swedish  physician, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1750.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Upsal.     Died  in  1803. 

Murray,  miir're,  (Alexander,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
linguist,  born  at  Dunkitterick  in  1775.  The  son  of  a 
shepherd,  his  early  instruction  was  very  limited  ;  but, 
with  the  aid  of  a  powerful  memory  and  his  persevering 
exertions,  he  acquired,  before  the  age  of  twenty,  the 
French,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1794,  where  he 
studied  theology  and  became  versed  in  the  Oriental 
tongues.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  those  languages 
at  Edinburgh  in  1812,  and  soon  after  was  created  D.D. 
He  died  in  1813,  of  consumption.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  History  of  the  European  Languages,"  etc.,  (1813.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Liiograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men ;"  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i. 

Murray,  miir're,  (Alexander,)  an  American  com- 
modore, born  at  Chestertown,  Maryland,  in  1755.  In 
1802  he  was  commander  of  the  Constellation,  in  the 
Mediterranean,  for  the  protection  of  American  trade. 
Died  in  1821. 

Murray,  mtir're,  (Charles,)  an  English  actor  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1754.  His  principal 
plays  are  entitled  "The  Experiment,"  and  "The  New 
Maid  of  the  Oaks."     Died  in  1821. 

Murray,  (Charles  Augustus,)  an  English  diplo- 
matist, a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Dun  more,  was  born  about 
1806.  He  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Persia  in  1854,  and  as 
minister  to  Saxony  in  1859.  He  wrote  "Travels  among 
the  Indians  of  North  America,"  (1839.)  His  Indian 
tale  or  novel  entitled  "The  Prairie  Bird"  (1844)  has 
been  warmly  praised. 

Murray,  (David  Christie,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  at  West  Bromwich,  April  13,  1S47.  He  was  a 
successful  journalist  of  London.  His  tales  include  "  A 
Life's  Atonement,"  (1879,)  "Coals  of  Fire,"  (1881,)  "The 
Way  of  the  World,"  (1S83,)  and  other  works. 

Murray,  (Eustace  Clare  Grenville,)  known  as 
Grenville  Murray,  an  English  author,  a  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  was  born  October  2,  1819,  and 
was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  entered  the  diplomatic 
service  when  young,  remaining  in  it  with  brief  intervals 
from  1845  'o  186S,  when  he  became  involved  in  vexatious 
suits  with  the  government  and  was  bankrupted  and  out- 
lawed. He  published  "  Dudley  Cranbourne,"  (a  novel, 
1845,)  "Droits  et  Devoirs  des  Envoyes  diplomatiques," 
(1853,)  "Embassies  and  Foreign  Courts,"  "The  Roving 
Englishman,"    (this    became    his    literary    pseudonym,) 


"  Young  Brown,"  (a  novel,  1874,)  "Turkey,"  (1877,)  "The 
Russians  of  To-Day,"  (1S78,)  and  many  other  works. 
Died  in  1881. 

Murray,  (Sir  George,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1772.  He  served  in  Flanders  and  Egypt 
with  distinction,  and  rendered  important  services  as 
quartermaster-general  in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14,) 
after  which  he  was  employed  in  France  as  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  army  of  occupation.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Woolwich 
about  1819,  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  in 
1828.  In  1841  he  became  master-general  of  the  ord- 
nance.    Died  in  1846. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen. ' 

Murray,  (Hugh,)  a  Scottish  geographer  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  in  East  Lothian  in  1779.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "Discoveries  and  Travels  in 
.America,"  (1829,) "  Encyclopaedia  of  Geography,"  (1834,) 
and  "  History  of  British  India."     Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1821. 

Murray,  (James,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Dunkeld 
in  1702,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Aletheia; 
or,  A  System  of  Moral  Truths."     Died  in  1758. 

Murray  or  Moray,  (James  Stuart,)  Earl  of,  often 
called  Rege.mt  Murray,  born  about  1533,  was  a  natural 
son  of  James  V.  of  Scotland  and  Margaret  Erskine.  In 
1558  he  joined  the  "  Lords  of  the  Congregation,"  as  the 
Protestant  chiefs  styled  themselves,  and  in  1560  was  sent 
to  France  to  invite  Queen  Mary  (his  half-sister)  to  return 
to  her  kingdom.  She  returned  in  1561,  and  he  became 
her  most  favoured  and  powerful  minister,  and  was  made 
Earl  of  Murray.  His  talents,  firmness,  and  courage  had 
already  caused  the  Reformers  to  regard  him  as  the  head 
of  their  party.  The  marriage  of  Mary  with  Darnley, 
(1565,)  against  the  advice  of  Murray,  caused  a  breach 
between  him  and  the  queen,  which  was  afterwards  greatly 
widened  by  the  countenance  she  showed  to  Darnley's 
murderers.  Mary  having  been  deposed,  he  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  the  kingdom  in  August,  1567.  In 
1568  she  escaped  from  Lochleven  Castle,  and  raised  an 
army,  which  was  quickly  routed  by  the  regent  at  Lang- 
side.  At  the  trial  of  Mary,  which  Queen  Elizabeth  in- 
stituted, the  regent  appeared  as  evidence  against  the 
captive  queen.  By  this  and  other  acts  he  had  incurred 
the  bitter  hatred  of  the  queen's  party,  and  they  resolved 
upon  his  destruction.  In  January,  1570,  he  was  waylaid, 
shot,  and  mortally  wounded  by  James  Hamilton  of 
Bothwellhaugh,  a  notorious  desperado,  who  was  after- 
wards selected  by  the  agents  of  Philip  II.  to  assassinate 
the  Prince  of  Orange. 

The  character  of  the  regent  Murray  has  been  estimated 
very  differently,  according  to  the  temper  or  prejudice  of 
those  who  have  judged  him.  By  his  firmness,  modera- 
tion, humanity,  and  impartial  justice,  he  appears  to  have 
well  deserved  the  title  of  "the  Good  Regent,"  by  which 
he  was  known  among  the  people  of  Scotland.  "Those," 
observes  Froude,  "who  can  see  only  in  the  Protestant 
religion  an  uprising  of  Antichrist,  and  in  the  Queen 
of  Scots  the  beautiful  victim  of  sectarian  iniquity,  have 
exhausted  upon  Murray  the  resources  of  eloquent  vitu- 
peration, and  have  described  him  as  a  perfidious  brother, 
building  up  his  own  fortunes  on  the  wrongs  of  his  in- 
jured sovereign.  .  .  .  But  facts  prevail  at  last,  however 
passionate  the  predilection ;  and,  when  the  verdict  of 
plain  human  sense  can  get  itself  pronounced,  the  'good 
regent'  will  take  his  place  among  the  best  and  greatest 
men  who  have  ever  lived." 

See  Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  viii.  and  ix.,  but  more 
particularly  chaps,  viii.,  ix.,  xiii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi.,  and  xviii.  ;  Robert- 
son, "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  Knox,  "  History  of  the  Reformatioa ;" 
MicNET,  "  Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart." 

Murray,  (Johan  Anders,)  a  Swedish  physician  and 
botanist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1740,  was  a  j^upil  of  Lin- 
naeus. He  was  a  member  of  tlie  Academy  of  .Sciences 
of  Stockholm,  and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Gottingen, 
and  was  created  a  privy  councillor  by  the  King  of  Eng- 
land. Linnaeus  gave  the  name  of  Murraya  exotica  to 
an  East  Indian  tree.  He  was  a  brother  of  Adolphus, 
noticed  above.     Died  in  1791. 

See  C.  G.  Hevnh,  "  Elogium  J.  A.  Murray,"  1791. 

Murray,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician,  published  a 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MURRA  V 


1789 


MUS^US 


"  System  of  Materia  Medica  and  Pharmacy,"  and  "  Ele- 
ments of  Chemistry."     Died  in  1820. 

Murray,  (John,)  a  celebrated  divine  and  preacher, 
born  in  Hampshire,  England,  in  1741,  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  Universalism  in  America.  Having  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1770,  he  was  appointed  in  1775 
a  chaplain  in  the  army.  He  took  part  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  Universalist  Convention  in  1785,  and  subsequently 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Boston.     Died  in  1815. 

See  "Records  of  the  Life  of  John  Murray,"  written  by  himself. 

Murray,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  publisher,  born 
in  London  in  1778.  He  commenced  in  1803  a  career 
of  publication  which  is  perhaps  unrivalled  in  the  annals 
of  literature.  About  1807  he  projected  the  "Quarterly 
Review,"  in  which  he  obtained  the  co-operation  of  Can- 
ning and  Scott,  and  published  the  first  number  in  1809. 
His  sagacity  in  discerning  the  merits  or  talents  of 
authors,  and  his  tact  in  anticipating  the  wants  of  the 
public,  rendered  him  very  successful.  He  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literature,  and  a  generous  friend  to  Byron 
and  other  eminent  authors.     Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1S43  ;  "  Autobiography 
of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  ii. 

Murray,  (Lindley,)  a  distinguished  American  gram- 
marian and  educational  writer,  born  near  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1745,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  Having  removed  at  an  early  age  to  New  York, 
he  studied  law,  but  he  subsequently  engaged  in  mercan- 
tile pursuits.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
England,  to  which  he  removed  about  1784.  Among  his 
works,  which  obtained  great  popularity  both  in  England 
and  America,  we  may  name  his  "  Power  of  Religion  on 
the  Mind,"  etc.,  (1787,)  "Grammar  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage," (1795,)  "English  Reader,"  "Introduction  to  the 
English  Reader,"  and  "  Duty  and  Benefit  of  a  Daily 
Perusal  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (1817.)  He  also  com- 
piled several  French  readers.  He  died  near  York, 
England,  in  1S26. 

See  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Lindley  Murray,"  written 
by  himself;  E.  Frank,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  L.  Murray,"  1826; 
"  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. ; 
Cleveland,  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Murray,  (Nicholas,)  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1803,  studied  theology  at  Princeton, 
New  Jersey,  and  in  1834  became  pastoral  Elizabethtown, 
in  that  State.  He  published  several  theological  works. 
His  "Letters  to  Bishop  Hughes,"  (1847-48,)  under  the 
signature  of  Kirwan,  have  enjoyed  a  great  popularity, 
and  have  been  translated  into  several  foreign  languages. 
Died  in  1861. 

Murray,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in  1703, 
was  the  fifth  Lord  Elibank.  He  published  an  "  Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  and  Consequence  of  the  Public  Delfts," 
"  Thoughts  on  Mone)^  Circulation,"  etc.,  and  a  "  Let- 
ter to  Lord  Hailes  on  his  Remarks  on  the  History  of 
Scotland."  His  writings  were  highly  esteemed.  Died 
"n  1778. 

See  Chamber";,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  ofEminent  Scotsmen." 

Murray,  (Sir  Robert.)     See  Moray. 

Murray,  (William,)  Earl  of  Mansfield,  lord  chief 
justice,  a  British  lawyer  and  orator  of  great  merit  and 
celebrity,  was  born  at  Perth,  Scotland,  in  1704.  He  was 
a  younger  son  of  Andrew,  Viscount  Stormont.  Having 
gained  distinction  as  a  classical  scholar  at  Oxford,  and 
enlarged  his  mind  by  foreign  travel,  he  was  calle'd  to  the 
bar  in  1731.  He  speedily  roi^e  into  extensive  practice, 
and  in  1743  was  appointed  solicitor-general.  About  this 
time  he  entered  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  was 
successful  as  an  elegant  and  persuasive  speaker,  and 
defended  the  government  when  ISIr.  Pitt  (Lord  Chatham) 
was  the  leader  of  the  opposition.  "  He  surpassed  Pitt," 
says  Macaulay,  "in  correctness  of  taste,  in  power  of 
reasoning,  in  depth  and  variety  of  knowledge;  but  he 
wanted  the  energy,  the  courage,  the  all-grasping  and  all- 
risking  ambition  which  make  men  great  in  stirring  times." 
("Review  of  the  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.")  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  in  1754,  and  chief  justice  of 
the  king's  bench  in  1756.  Over  that  great  court  he  pre- 
sided with  honour  above  thirty  years.  In  1756  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Mansfield.  On  more 
than  one  occasion  he  refused  high  political  positions. 


among  which  was  that  of  lord  chancellor.  He  had, 
however,  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  for  more  than  a  year.  In 
the  trial  of  Woodfall  for  publishing  "  Junius's  Letters," 
Lord  Mansfield  gave  offence  to  the  popular  party,  and 
was  censured  for  leaning  against  the  freedom  of  discus- 
sion in  cases  of  libel.  During  the  riots  of  1780,  his  house 
in  London  was  burned  down  by  a  mob.  He  died,  with- 
out issue,  in  1793.  "His  mind  and  his  habits,"  says 
Lord  Brougham,  "  were  eminently  judicial ;  and  it  may 
be  doubted  if,  taking  both  the  externals  and  the  more 
essential  qualities  into  the  account,  that  go  to  form  a 
great  judge,  any  one  has  ever  administered  the  laws  in 
this  country  whom  we  can  fairly  name  as  his  equal." 

See  the  "  Life  of  William,  Earl  of  Mansfield,"  by  John  Holli- 
day;  Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL  ;"  Fos.s, 
"The  Judges  of  England:"  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief 
Justices  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men. • 

Murray,  (William,)  a  Scottish  actor,  born  in  1791, 
performed  in  Edinburgh  for  many  years.     Died  in  1852. 

Murray,  (William  Henry  Harrison,)  an  American 
preacher,  editor,  and  author,  born  at  Guilford,  Connec- 
ticut, April  26,  1840.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1862,  and  was  for  some  years  a  Congregationalist  pastor 
in  Boston,  and  editor  of  "The  Golden  Age."  His  pub- 
lished works  include  "  Adirondack  Tales,"  "  Camp-Life 
in  the  Adirondacks,"  "  Deacons,"  "  Music  Hall  Sermons," 
"The  Perfect  Horse,"  etc. 

Murray,  (William  Vans,)  an  American  diplomatist, 
born  in  Maryland  about  1762.  Having  studied  law  in 
England,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1791.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  by  Washington  United  States 
minister  at  the  Hague.     Died  in  1803. 

Mursinna,  mooR-sin'ni,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon,  born  at  Stolpe  in  1744.  He 
became  chief  surgeon  in  the  army  in  1787,  and  published 
several  surgical  works.     Died  in  1823. 

Murska,  di,  de  mooRs'kd,  (Ilma,)  an  Austrian  oper- 
atic singer,  born  about  1843.  She  made  her  dedui  in 
Florence  in  1862,  and  afterwards  appeared  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Europe  and  America.     Diec^Jan.  17,  1889. 

Murtola,  mooR'to-13i,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Genoa.  He  wounded,  with  a  pistol,  Marini  the 
poet,  who  had  criticised  one  of  his  poems.    Died  in  1624. 

Mus.    See  Decius  Mus. 

Musa.     See  Moosa. 

Mu'sa,  (Antonius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  physician, 
originally  a  slave  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  and  a  brother 
of  Euphorbus,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  pre- 
scribed the  use  of  the  cold  bath.  Having  cured  the 
emperor  by  this  remedy,  he  received  his  freedom,  and 
was  created  a  knight.  Musa  was  also  distinguished  for 
his  literary  tastes,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Virgil 
and  Horace. 

See  Ackermann,  "De  Antonio  Musa,"  1786;  Atterburv, 
"Reflections  on  the  Character  of  lapis,  in  Virgil,  or  the  Character 
of  A.  Musa,"  etc.,  1740;  Haller,  "  BiWiotheca  Botanica." 

Musee,  mia'ze,  |Gr.  Mmiaai,]  the  Muses,  sometimes 
called  Pier'ides,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the  daughters 
of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne,  (Memory,)  were  supposed  to 
preside  over  poetry,  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  sciences. 
According  to  the  generally  received  opinion,  there  were 
nine  Muses,  namely.  Calliope,  Clio,  Euterpe,  Erato,  Mel- 
pomene, Polyhymnia,  Terpsichore,  Thalia,  and  Urania. 
(See  these  names  under  their  separate  heads.)  The 
places  especially  consecrated  to  the  Muses  were  Mount 
Parnassus,  Mount  Helicon,  and  the  fountains  of  Castalia 
and  Aganippe. 

Musaeus.     See  MusXus. 

Musseus,  mu-zee'us,  [  Gr.  Uovatuoc;  Fr.  MusiiE, 
mii'zk',]  a  celebrated  and  ancient  Greek  bard,  commonly 
regarded  as  a  semi-fabulous  personage.  He  was  said  to  be 
the  son  of  Eumolpus  and  Selene,  or,  according  to  others, 
of  Orpheus,  of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  Tradition  in- 
forms us  that  he  presided  over  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
in  the  time  of  Hercules.  He  was  the  reputed  author 
of  several  poetical  works,  among  which  were  "Oracles." 
and  a  hymn  to  Ceres.  Pausanias  regarded  this  hymn  as 
the  only  genuine  poem  of  Musasus  that  was  extant  in 
his  time.  Onomacritus  collected  the  Oracles  of  Musseus 
and  mixed  with  them  some  of  his  own  productions, 
which  he  wished  to  pass  for  the  work  of  Musaeus.     For 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (J5:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUS^US 


1790 


MUSSET 


this  imposture  he  was  banished  by  Hipparchus,  the  son 
of  Pisistratus. 

See  Virgil,  "/Eneid,"  book  vi.  666;  Ulrici,  "Geschichte  der 
Helleiiische*  Dichtkiinst. " 

MuScBUS,  surnaiTied  Grammat'icus,  or  "the  Gram- 
marian," is  supposed  fo  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century. 
He  is  celebrated  for  his  poem  of  "  Hero  and  Leander," 
a  production  of  rare  merit,  of  which  several  good  editions 
have  been  published. 

See  Kromaver,  "De  Musaeo  Grammatico." 

MusSus  or  Musaeus,  moo-sa'(is,  (Johann  Karl 
August,)  a  celebrated  German  writer,  born  at  Jena  in 
1735.  His  principal  works  are  a  novel  entitled  "The 
German  Grandison,"  ("  Der  Deutsche  Grandison,"  1760,) 
"  Physiognomic  Travels,"  (1778,)  a  satire  on  the  theories 
of  Lavater,  "Popular  Legends  of  Germany,"  (1782,) 
which  enjoy  great  popularity,  and  "  Friend  Heinf  Ap- 
paritions, in  Holbein's  Manner,"  (1785.)  His  writings 
are  characterized  by  delightful  humour,  simplicity,  and 
genial  satire.  Musaus  was  a  relative  of  Kotzebue,  who 
published  in  1791  his  posthumous  works,  with  an  inter- 
esting notice  of  the  author  prefixed.     Died  in  1787. 

Muschenbroek.     See  Musschenbroeic 

Muscher.     See  Musscher. 

Mus'cu-lus  [Ger.  pron.  moos'koo-liis]  or  Meusel, 
moi'zel,  (Andreas,)  a  German  Lutheran  theologian,  born 
at  Schneeberg  in  1540.  He  preached  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  and  wrote  "Compendium  Theologicum." 
Died  in  1581. 

Musculus,  Miisslin,  miis-Ieen',  orMeiisslin,  moiss- 
leen',  (Wolfgang,)  a  German  Reformer  and  scholar,  born 
in  Lorraine  in  1497,  was  a  monk  in  his  youth.  He 
was  converted  by  Luther  about  1520,  became  minister 
of  a  church  at  Augsburg  in  1531,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  preacher.  Having  been  banished  from 
Augsburg  in  1548,  he  settled  at  Berne.  He  published 
commentaries  and  other  works.     Died  in  1563. 

See  Craik,  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties." 

Musee.     See  Mus.^us. 

Muselli,  i*oo-sel'lee,  (GrovANNi  Giacomo,)  Mar- 
quis, an  Italian  antiquary  and  writer,  bom  at  Verona  in 
1607  ;  died  in  1768. 

Musemeci,  moo-si-ma'chee,  (Mario,)  an  Italian 
architect  and' antiquary,  born  at  Catanea  in  1778.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  antiquities  and  art,  among  which 
is  "  Opere  archeologiche  ed  artistiche,"  (2  vols.,  1851.) 
Died  in  1852. 

Mus'grave,  (Rev.  George,)  an  English  wri-ter,  born 
about  1798.  He  published  "Rambles  in  Normandy," 
and  other  books  of  travel.  Died  at  Bath,  December  26, 
1883. 

Mus'grave,  (George  Washington,)  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  Presbyterian  divine,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
October  19,  1804.  He  was  educated  in  the  college  and 
seminary  at  Princeton,  and  held  leading  pastorates  in  his 
denomination.     Died  August  24,  1882. 

Mus'grave,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  Irish  historian,  born 
about  1758,  published  in  1801  a  "History  of  the  Irish 
Rebellions."     Died  in  1818. 

Musgrave,  (Samuel,)  a  grandson  of  the  following, 
was  a  distinguished  classical  scholar.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  edition  of  Euripides,  and  a  treat- 
ise on  Grecian  Mythology.     Died  in  1782. 

Musgrave,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1657.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1684  became  its 
secretary.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  the  gout,  and 
a  number  of  dissertations  on  British  and  Roman  An- 
tiquities.    Died  in  1721. 

Mush'et,  (David,)  a  Scottish  metallurgist  and  in- 
ventor, born  at  Dalkeith  in  1772.  He  acquired  distinc- 
tion by  his  improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  iron  and 
steel,  on  which  subject  he  wrote  several  treatises.  He 
originated  the  n>ethod  of  assaying  iron  ores  which  is 
now  generally  used.     Died  in  1847. 

Mush'et,  (Robert,)  an  officer  of  the  royal  mint  in 
England,  wrote  able  treatises  on  the  currency  and  mint 
regulations  and  the  state  of  finances.     Died  in  1828. 

Musis  or  Musi,  de,  (Agostino.)  See  Agostino 
Veneziano. 


Musitano,  moo-se-ti'no,  (Carlo,)  a  learned  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  in  Calabria  in  1635;  died  in  1714. 

Musius.     See  Muys,  (Cornelis.) 

Mu-so'nI-us  Ru'fus,  (Caius,)  a  Stoic  philosopher, 
born  in  Etruria,  flourished  about  70  A.D.  He  was 
banished  from  Rome  by  Nero,  but  he  returned  under 
Vespasian,  and  was  excepted  by  him  from  the  sentence 
of  exile  pronounced  against  the  Stoics.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Pliny,  Tacitus,  and  other  eminent  writers. 
Fragments  of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  Stobaeus. 

See  NiEUWi.AN'D,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  Musonio  Rufo,"  1783; 
Tacitus,  "  Annales,"  books  xiv.  and  xv. 

Muspell,  mus'p^l  or  moos'pSl,  written  also  Mus- 
pel,  Muspellheim,  and  Muspelheim,  [etymology 
unknown,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  world  of  light 
and  heat,  situated  in  the  south  part  of  the  universe, — 
Niflheim,  the  habitation  of  mist  and  cold,  being  situated 
in  the  north.  (See  Hela.)  The  inhabitants  of  this 
world  are  called  "the  sons  of  Muspell,"  among  whom 
Surt,  or  Surtur,  is  chief,  and  the  ruler  of  Muspellheim, 
(See  Surt.) 

Mus'pratt,  (James  Sheridan,)  a  distinguished 
chemist,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  182 1.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Professor  Graham  at  Glasgow  and  at  London. 
About  1843  he  went  to  Giessen  to  pursue  his  studies 
under  Liebig.  He  produced  at  Giessen  a  remarkable 
treatise  on  Sulphites.  He  founded  a  College  of  Chem- 
istry in  LiveriJool,  and  married  Miss  Susan  Cushman,  the 
actress,  in  1848.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Chemistry  ;  or.  Chemistry,  Theoretical,  Practical,  and 
Analytical,"  (2  vols.,  i860.)     Died  February  3,  1871. 

Muss,  (Charles,)  a  painter  in  enamel.  Among  his 
works  is  a  picture  of  the  "  Holy  Family."   Died  in  1824. 

Mussato,  moos-s^'to,  (Albertino,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian and  poet,  born  at  Padua  in  1261.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Life  and  Actions  of  Henry  VII.,"  and  a 
number  of  eclogues,  hymns,  and  tragedies.    Died  in  1330. 

See  GivorHvi*.  "  Hi'stoire  I.iiteraire  d'ltalie." 

Mussclienbroek,  van,  vtn  mus'Ken-bRook',  (P«- 
TER,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  savant,  born  at  Leyden  in  1692. 
He  studied  medicine  in  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  experi- 
mental physics,  in  which  he  was  eminently  successful 
and  made  important  discoveries,  especially  in  magnetism 
and  the  cohesion  of  bodies.  Having  visited  England  in 
1717,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Newton,  whose  sys- 
tem he  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  into  Holland. 
He  became  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at 
Duisburg  in  1719,  and  afterwards  filled  the  same  chair 
at  Utrecht.  In  1740  he  obtained  the  jirofessorship  of 
philosophy  at  Leyden,  where  he  resided  till  his  death, 
in  1761.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "Physicae 
Experimentales  et  Geometricae  Dissertationes,"  (1729,) 
and  "  Elementa  Physicae,"  or  "  Introduction  to  Natural 
Philosophy,"  (1734.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  principal 
learned  institutions  of  Europe. 

See  Sav^rien,  "  Vies  des  Philosophes ;"  Condorcet,  "  Eloges;" 
"  Nouvelle  Eiographie  Generale." 

Musscher  or  Muscher,  van,  vtn  mus'Ker,  (Mi- 
chael,) an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1645.  He  studied  successively  under  Van  Tempel, 
Metzu,  and  Jan  Steen,  and  painted  landscapes,  historical 
subjects,  and  portraits.  The  last-named  are  most  highly 
esteemed.     Died  in  1705. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Musset,  de,  deh  mu'si',  (Louis  Charles  Alfred,) 
a  celebrated  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  on  the  nth  of 
November,  1810,  was  a  son  of  Musset-Pathay,  noticed 
below.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  Henri  IV.  In 
1830  he  produced  a  volume  entitled  "Tales  of  Spain 
and  Italy,"  ("  Contes  d'Espagne  et  d'ltalie,")  which  at- 
tratted  much  attention.  His  reputation  was  increased 
in  1833  by  "The  Cup  and  the  Lips,"  ("  La  Coupe  et  les 
L^vres,")  a  drama,  "A  quoi  revent  les  jeunes  Filles?" 
and  "  Namouna."  He  fell  into  a  morbid  state  of  mind, 
and  expressed  misanthropic  sentiments  in  several  of  his 
works,  which  are  censured  for  an  immoral  tendency.  He 
published  "  Rolla,"  a  poem,  in  1835,  and  "Confessions 
of  a  Child  of  the  Age,"  (Enfant  du  StMeJ  in  1836 
He  contributed  to  the   "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  a 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  f5r,  fill,  fit;  m?t;  ii6t;  good;  moon; 


MUSSET 


1791 


MUZIANO 


number  of  prose  tales,  which  were  admired.  Under  the 
reign  of  Louis  Philippe  he  was  librarian  to  the  ministry 
of  the  interior.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1S52.  Among  his  finest  works  are  four 
poems  entitled  the  "  Nights,"  etc.,  ("  Nuits  :  La  Nuit  de 
Mai,  La  Nuit  d'Aout,  La  Nuit  d'Octobre,  et  La  Nuit 
de  Decembre,"  1835-37.)     Died  in  Paris  in  May,  1857. 

"None  of  his  illustrious  contemporaries,"  says  Leo 
Joubert,  "has  surpassed  him  in  spontaneity  of  poetical 
genius,  in  the  ardent  and  sincere  expression  of  passion, 
in  vivacity,  grace,  and  Sdat  of  soul,  (esprit ;)  no  one 
has  represented  with  more  fidelity  the  spiritual  unrest, 
the  viHange  of  skepticism  and  religious  aspirations, 
which  characterize  our  epoch."  ("  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

See  Sainte-Beuvk,  "Portraits  contemporains,"  and  "  Causc- 
ries  d;i  I.undi;"  CliJmhnt  de  Ris,  "Portraits  i  la  Plume:  A.  de 
Miisset."  etc.,  1S5;?:  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1857;  "West- 
minster Review"  for  April,  1S69. 

Mu.s.set,  de,  (Paul  Edmf.,)  a  novelist,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  published 
numerous  novels,  which  are  said  to  be  well  written,  and 
among  which  we  notice  "  Lauzun,"  (1835,)  "  The  Brace- 
let," ^1839,)  "Mignard  et  Rigaud,"  (1839,)  and  "  Les 
Femmes  de  la  Regence,"  (1S40.)     Died  May  17,  i88o. 

Musset,  de,  (Victor  Donatien,)  called  Mussei- 
Pathay,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  the  Vendomois 
in  1768,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  biographies,  histories,  and  tales,  a  "  Life 
of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,"  (2  vols.,  1821.)  Died  in 
1832. 

See  "  Souvenirs  historiquesde  Musset-Pathay,"  1810;  Qui^raru, 
"  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Mus'sey,  (Reuben  Dimond,)  an  American  surgeon, 
born  at  Pelham,  New  Hampshire,  June  23,  1780.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1803,  and  at  a  Phila- 
delphia medical  college  in  1809.  He  held  professorships 
in  the  medical  department  of  Dartmouth  College,  1814- 
38.  Having  removed  to  Cincinnati,  he  acquired  a  bril- 
liant fame  as  an  operator,  and  as  a  professor  of  surgery, 
in  the  Ohio  Medical  College,  1838-52,  and  in  Miami 
Medical  College,  1S52-60.  He  published  a  work  "On 
Cutaneous  Absorption,"  (1809,)  and  "  Health  :  its  Friends 
and  its  Foes,"  (1862.)     Died  at  Boston,  June  8,  1866. 

Miisslin.    See  Musculus,  (Wolfgang.) 

Musso,  moos'so,  (Cornelio,)  an  Italian  bishop,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  preacher,  born  at  Piacenza  in  151 1.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Bitonto.     Died  at  Rome  in  1574. 

See  G.  Musso,  "  Vita  di  Cornelio  Musso,"  1586. 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  Moustapha,  or  Moustafa, 
mix)s'ti-fl,  I.,  succeeded  his  brother,  Ahmed  L,  as  Sul- 
tan of  Turkey,  in  1617.  He  was  soon  after  deposed, 
and  his  nephew,  Osman,  raised  to  the  throne.  Though 
re-established  as  Sultan  in  1622,  Mustafa  was  again 
deposed  in  1623,  and  strangled,  in  1639,  by  order  of 
Anuirath  IV. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  II.,  son  of 

Mahomet  IV.,  was  born  in  1664,  and  succeeded  Ahmed 
II.  as  Sultan  in  1695.  He  fought  against  the  Austrians 
and  Venetians  with  varying  success,  and  in  1699  con- 
cluded with  those  powers  the  peace  of  Carlowitz.  Bein^ 
deposed  in  1703,  he  died  in  a  few  months,  and  his 
brother,  Ahmed  III.,  became  Sultan. 
See  "Nouvelle  Eiographie  G^n^rale." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  HI.,  son  of 
Ahmed  HI.,  born  in  171 7,  succeeded  Osman  III.  in 
1757.  He  began  in  1769  to  wage  war  with  the  Russians, 
who  took  possession  of  the  Crimea  and  Bessarabia.  He 
died  in  1774,  and  his  brother,  Abdool  Hamid,  succeeded 
to  the  throne. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  IV.,  son  of 
Abdool  Hamid,  became  Sultan  on  the  deposition  of  Se- 
lim  HI.,  in  1807.  Having  caused  Selim  to  be  strangled, 
Mustafa  was  deposed  by  Bairaktar,  Pasha  of  Rudshuk, 
and  his  brother,  Mahtnood,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 
During  the  revolt  of  the  Janissaries,  in  1808,  Mustafa 
was  executed  by  the  orders  of  Mahmood. 

See  F.  Mengin,  "Histoire  de  I'EIgypte  sous  M^hemet  Ali." 


Mustafa,  Mustr.pha,  or  Moustapha  Ben-Ismail, 

moos'tl-fj  b5n  is-ml-eeK,  an  Arabian  chief,  born  in 
Algeria  about  1770.  He  became  an  able  adversary  of 
Abd-el-Kader,  against  whom  he  fought  in  co-operation 
with  the  French,  who  gave  him  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  killed  in  battle  in  May,  1843. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mustapha.     See  Mustafa. 

Mus-tox'5?-dis  or  Mustoxidis,  (Andreas,)  a  dis- 
tinguished modern  Greek  scholar,  born  at  Corfu  in  1785. 
He  studied  at  Pavia,  and  in  1804  was  appointed  histori- 
ographer for  the  republic  of  the  Seven  Islands.  Among 
his  works,  which  are  chiefly  written  in  Italian,  we  may 
name  "  Considerations  on  the  Present  Language  of 
Greece."    Died  April  12,  i860. 

Mu-su'rus,  (Constantine,)  a  Turkish  diplomatist, 
borrt  in  1807.  He  became  Turkish  ambassador  at  Lon- 
don about  1856. 

Mu-su'riia,  (Marcus,)  a  learned  modern  Greek,  born 
in  Candia  about  1470,  was  professor  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage in  the  University  of  Padua.  He  assisted  Aldus 
Manutius  in  the  revision  of  Greek  manuscripts,  and 
published,  among  other  works,  the  "  Etymologicum 
Magnum  Grascum."  In  15 16  he  was  appointed  by  Leo 
X.  Archbishop  of  Malvasia.     Died  in  1517. 

Mut,  moot,  (i.e.,  "  mother,")  a  goddess  of  the  ancient 
Egyptian  people.  At  Thebes  she  was  worshipped  as 
the  wife  of  Amen-Ra. 

Mu'ta,  (from  mutiis,  "silent,")  the  name  of  the  god- 
dess of  silence  among  the  Romans. 

Mutiano.     See  Muziano. 

Mutina.     See  Modena. 

Mutio.     See  Muzio. 

Mutis,  moo'tiss,  .'  (Don  Jos6  Celestino,)  a  cele- 
brated Spanish  botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Cadiz 
in  1732.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Madrid 
in  1757,  and  in  1760  accompanied  the  Spanish  viceroy 
to  South  America  as  his  physician.  He  subsequently 
devoted  himself  to  scientific  explorations,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1 790  director  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Natural 
History  at  Santa  Fe.  He  died  in  1808,  leaving  un- 
finished his  "  Flora  of  New  Granada,"  one  of  the  most 
valuable  works  of  the  kind  that  had  then  appeared.  He 
was  the  first  who  distinguished  the  various  species  of 
Cinchona,  (Peruvian  bark,)  the  different  properties  of 
which  he  has  described  in  his  "Historia  de  los  Arboles 
del  Quina." 

See  Humboldt,  "  Voyage  dans  les  Regions  ^quinoxiales ;" 
VVeddell,  "  Monographie  du  Quinquina." 

Muts-Hito,  nioots-hee'to,  Emperor  of  Japan,  was 
born  November  3,  1852,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1S67. 

Muy,  du,  dii  mii-e',  (Louis  Nicolas  VicroR  de  Yt- 
Lix,)  Comte,  a  French  military  commander,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1711.  He  served  in  Germany  in  the  prin- 
cipal campaigns  from  1741  to  1760.  He  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI.,  and  was  appointed 
by  the  latter  minister  of  war,  (1774,)  and  marshal  of 
France,  (1775.)     Died  in  1775. 

See  Beauvais,  "Oraison  funfebre  du  Comte  du  Muy;"  Tressan, 
"iSloge  du  Mar^chal  du  Muy." 

Muys,  mois,  [Lat.  Mu'sius,]  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch 
priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Delft  in  1503.  He  wa.« 
hung  by  some  soldiers  at  Leyden  in  1572. 

Muys,  (Wyer  Willem,)  a  Dutch  savant  and  writer, 
born  at  Steenwyk  in  1682.  He  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine and  chemistry  at  Franeker.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  one  "  On  the  Matter  of  Light,"  ("  De 
Materia  Luminis,"  1722.)     Died  in  1744. 

Muziano,  moot-se-i'no,  or  Mutiano,  moo-te-l'no, 
(GiROLAMO,)  one  of  the  first  Italian  painters  of  his  time, 
born  near  Brescia  in  1528,  was  the  pupil  of  Romanino. 
At  an  early  age  he  visited  Rome,  where  his  admirable 
landscapes  obtained  for  him  the  name  of  "the  landscape 
youth."  He  also  attained  great  excellence  in  historical 
pictures,  and  his  mosaics  in  the  Gregorian  Chapel  are 
esteemed  the  finest  of  modern  times.  Among  his  best 
productions  are  "  The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  in  the 
Quirinal  palace,  and  "A  Company  of  Anchorites  listen- 
ing to  a  Preacher  in  the  Desert,"  in  the  Church  of  the 
Carthusians.      Muziano  completed  the  drawings  from 


■€as>6.-  9  as  J.-  ghard;  gas/;  G,ii,K.,  guttural;  a,  nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sasz;  *hasin//4/j.     (St^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUZIO 


1792 


MYTENS 


the  Trajan  column  begun  by  Giulio  Romano.  Tie  was 
the  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  Died  in 
Rome  in  1592. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters:"  Ori.ofk.  "  Mistoire  de  la 
Peinture  en  Italie." 

Muzio,  moot'se-o,  or  Mutio,  moo'te-o,  (GiROLAMO 
Nuzio,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1496. 
He  wrote  polemical  treatises  against  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  which  procured  him  the  surname  of  the  "  Ham- 
mer of  Heretics,"  ("Malleus  Hereticorum,")  also  vari 
ous  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1576. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Muz'zey,  (Artemas  Bowers,)  an  American  Unita- 
rian divine  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Lexington, 
Massachusetts,  in  1802.  He  published  "The  Young 
Man's  Friend,"  (1836,)  "Moral  Teacher,"  (1839,)  and 
other  works. 

Myconius,  me-ko'ne-tis,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  Re- 
former, born  in  Franconia  in  1491,  was  a  monk  in  his 
youth.  He  became  a  friend  of  Luther,  whose  doctrines 
he  propagated  with  zeal  and  success.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Gotha,  and  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died 
an  1546. 

See  Antom  Probus,  "Vita  F.  Myconii,"  1547;  Lommatzsch, 
*' Narratio  de  F.  Myconio,"  1825. 

Myconius,  me-ko'ne-iis,  (Oswald,)  or  Geisshau- 
ser,  (gis'how'zer,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Lucerne  in  1488,  was  a  pupil  of  Erasmus.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  church  and  professor  of  divinity  at  Bale. 
He  wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  Zuin- 
glius."     Died  in  1552. 

See  KiucHHOFER,  "  Leben  O.  Myconius  Reforraators,"  1S14. 

Mydorge,  me'doRzh^  (Claude,)  a  French  geometer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1585,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Des- 
cartes, and  furnished  the  glasses  used  by  that  philosopher 
in  his  optical  experiments.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  optics  and  mathematics,  and  a  defence  of  the  works 
of  De_scartes  against  the  Jesuits.     Died  in  1647. 

My'er,  (Albert  Joseph,)  an  American  meteorologist, 
born  at  Nevvburgh,  New  York,  September  20,  1828.  He 
graduated  at  Geneva  College  in  1847,  ^"d  as  M.D.  at 
the  University  of  Buffalo  in  1851.  In  1854  he  entered 
the  army  as  assistant  surgeon,  in  1858  was  transferred 
to  the  signal  service,  and  in  i860  became  chief  signal 
officer  of  the  army.  In  this  position  he  attained  in  1866 
the  rank  of  colonel  and  brevet  brigadier-general.  In 
1870  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  meteorological  di- 
vision of  the  signal  service,  the  work  of  which  he  organ- 
ized. He  published  "A  Manual  of  Signals"  (1868)  for 
army  and  navy.     Died  at  Buffalo,  August  24,  1880. 

My'ers,  (Abraham  C.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1S14,  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  became  in  1862  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army. 

Myers,  (Peter  Hamilton,)  an  American  novelist, 
born  in  Herkimer  county.  New  York,  in  1S12,  has  pub- 
lished "The  First  of  the  Knickerbockers,"  (1848,)  "The 
King  of  the  Hurons,"  (1850,)  "The  Van  Veldens,"  and 
several  other  historical  romances.     [Died  in  187S.] 

Mylius,  mee'le-Cis,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  in  Weimar  in  1710.  He  published 
"Bibliotheca  Anonymorum  et  Pseudonymorum,"  (1740,) 
and  "  Historia  Myliana,"  (1752,)  which  contains  biog- 
raphies of  many  men  named  Mylius.     Died  in  1757. 

Mylne,  m!ln,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  architect,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1734.  He  was  appointed  engineer  to  the 
Ntw  River  Company,  London,  and  surveyor  of  Saint 
Paal's  Cathedral.  His  principal  work  is  Blackfriars' 
Bridge,  completed  in  1769.     Mylne  was  a  Fellow  of  the 


Royal  Society,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Luke  at  Rome.     Died  in  181 1. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Myn,  van  der,  yin  der  min,  (  Herman,  )  a  Dutch 
artist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1684,  visited  London,  where 
lie  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  portraits.  His  fruit- 
and  flcnvei'-pieces  were  also  admired.     Died  in  1741. 

Mynsicht,  von,  fon  min'siKt,  (Adrian,)  a  German 
chemist  and  physician,  flourished  between  1610  and  1650. 

Mynster,  mun'ster  or  minister,  (Jakob  Peter,)  a 
Danish  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1775,  became  in  1828  court  chaplain.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Seeland  in  1834.  He  published  "Reflections 
on  Christian  Doctrine,"  and  other  theological  works. 
Died  in  1854. 

My-rep'sus,  (Nicholas,)  [Nt/c6Aaof  6  Mup£T/»6f,]  a 
Greek  physician  of  the  thirteenth  century,  practised  in 
Rome  or  Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Composition  of  Medicines,"  ("  De  Compositione  Medi- 
camentorum,"  etc.) 

Myrick,  (Sir  Samuel  Rush.)    See  Meyrick. 

Myrmidon,  mir'me-don,  [Gr.  Mj;p/zt(5wv,]  in  classic 
mythology,  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Euiymedusa.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  was  the 
ancestor  of  the  Myrmidons,  a  people  of  Thessaly,  some 
of  whom  Achilles  led  to  the  siege  of  Troy. 

My'ron,  [MtJpojv,]  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor,  born  in 
Boeotia  about  480  B.C.,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in 
representing  the  varied  forms  of  animal  life.  He  worked 
with  equal  success  in  marble,  brass,  and  wood.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  "  Cow  lowing  for  its  Calf,"  in 
bronze,  which  has  been  celebrated  by  the  Latin  and 
Greek  poets  in  numerous  epigrams,  a  colossal  group  of 
Jupiter,  Athene,  and  Hercules,  the  "Discobolus,  or 
Quoit-Thrower,"  and  "  Perseus  killing  Medusa."  His 
athletes,  dogs,  and  sea-monsters  were  also  greatly  ad- 
mired. 

See  K.  O.  Muller.  "  Handbuch  der  Archaologie  der  Kunst;" 
Goethe,  "Propylaen;"  Winckelmann,  "•  Werke,"  vol.  vi. 

Myronide.     See  Myron  ides. 

My-ronl-deS,  [Gr.  Mvpuvidrj^ ;  Fr.  Myronide,  me'- 
ro'nid',]  an  Athenian  general,  who  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Corinthians  in  457,  and  another  over  the  Boeotians 
in  456  B.C. 

Myrtis,  mir'tis,  [Myprtf,]  a  Greek  lyric  poetess  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Anthedon,  and  flourished  about 
500  B.C.  Pindar  is  said  to  have  received  instruction 
from  her. 

Mytens,  mi'tSns,  (Arnold,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1541.  Among  his  best  works  is  an  altar- 
piece  representing  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  with 
the  Apostles,"  at  Naples.     Died  in  1602. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flaraands,"  etc. 

Mytens,  (Daniel,)  the  Elder,  a  Dutch  artist,  born 
at  the  Hague  about  1590.  He  was  patronized  by  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  painted  the  portraits 
of  a  number  of  the  royal  family  and  of  the  nobility.  He 
was  regarded  as  second  only  to  Van  Dyck  in  portrait- 
painting.     Died  after  1656. 

Mytens,  (Daniel,)  the  Younger,  born  at  the  Hague 
in  1636,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became  director 
of  the  Academy  at  the  Hague.  His  principal  work  is 
the  ceiling  of  the  Painters'  Hall.     Died  in  1688. 

Mytens,  mii'tens,  (Martin,)  a  Swedish  painter,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1695.  After  visiting  Rome,  he  settled  in 
Vienna,  where  he  became  painter  to  the  court.  Among 
his  best  pieces  is  the  "  History  of  Esther  and  Ahasuerus." 
Died  in  1755. 


a, e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  gSod;  ni65n; 


NAAMAN 


179: 


N^VIUS 


N. 


Na'a-man,  [Heb.  pi'3']  a  Syrian  general,  commander 
of  the  army  of  Benhadad,  King  of  Damascus,  lived 
about  890  B.C.  He  was  cured  of  leprosy  by  the  prophet 
Elisha. 

See  II.  Kings  v. 

Nabaj  or  Nabadj,  nJ-bSj',  a  Hindoo  poet,  flourished 
about  1580-1600.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "Bhakta- 
mala,"  which  treats  of  the  adventures  and  miracles  of 
Jayadeva  and  other  ascetics. 

■NTabega  -  Ziad  -  Ibn  -  Moavyeeah- Aldobiaiii,  n V- 
be-gl  ze-id'  ib'n  mo-d-wee'ah  il-do-be-i'nee,  an  Arabian 
poet,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century. 
One  of  his  poems,  and  several  fragments,  are  given  m 
the  "  Chrestomathie"  of  Silvestre  de  Sacy. 

Na'bis,  [Gr.  Na%,]  tyrant  of  Sparta,  succeeded  Ma- 
chanidas  about  206  B.C.,  and  signalized  himself  by  his 
cruelty  and  avarice.  In  conjunction  with  Philip  H.  of 
Macedon,  he  subjected  different  parts  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, but  he  was  afterwards  defeated  by  the  Roman 
consul  Flamininus.  He  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
allies,  (192  B.C.) 

Nab-o-nas'sar,  [Gr.  Na§ovd(Tapof,]  King  of  Babylon, 
lived  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.  He  is  celebrated  for  the 
chronological  era  which  bears  his  name,  and  which  was 
employed  as  a  point  of  departure  in  ancient  astronomical 
tables.     This  era  began  in  747  B.C. 

Nab-o-po-las'sar,  King  of  Babylon,  was  originally 
a  satrap  of  Sardanapalus,  King  of  Assyria.  He  re- 
volted against  that  king,  and,  aided  by  Cyaxares,  King 
of  the  Medes,  took  Nineveh,  the  capital  of  Assyria. 
He  died  in  605  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

See  EusEBius,  "Chronicles;"  Hoefer,  "La  Phenicie,  la  Baby- 
lonie,"  etc. 

Nacchianti,  nIk-ke-Sn'tee,  [  Lat.  Naclan'tus,  ] 
(GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Florence. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  wrote 
several  works.     Died  in  1569. 

Nachman,  Ben,  b§n  n^K'min,  ?  (Moses,)  a  Spanish 
labbi,  born  at  Girone  in  11 94,  was  versed  in  the  science 
of  the  Cabala.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Lex 
H^ominis,"  (1519,)  and  "  Fons  Jacobi,"  (1547.) 

Nachtigali.     See  Luscinius. 

Nachtigal,  naK'te-gdl,  (Gustav,)  a  German  explorer, 
born  at  Eichstedt,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  February  23,  1834. 
He  studied  at  Berlin,  Halle,  Wiirzburg,  and  Greifswalde, 
and  became  an  army-surgeon  in  1858.  He  was  a  physi- 
cian in  Algeria,  1859-63,  and  then  entered  the  personal 
service  of  the  Bey  of  Tunis.  He  afterwards  traversed 
the  Eastern  Sahara,  and  made  extensive  and  important 
researches  in  the  Soudan,  reaching  Cairo  in  1874.  He 
was  in  1884  German  consul  at  Tunis.      Died  in  i885' 

Nachtigali,  niK'te-gdl',  [Lat.  Luscin'ius,]  (Otmar,) 
a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  about 
1487.  He  preached  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther  at 
Augsburg,  and  taught  Greek  at  Strasburg.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Evangelica  Historia  e  Graeco  versa,"  (1523.) 
Died  about  1535. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M(fmoires." 

Nacke  or  Naecke,  nek'keh,  (GusT-W  Heinrich,)  a 
German  historical  painter,  born  at  Frauenstein  in  1785. 
He  became  professor  of  pai\iting  in  the  Academy  of 
Dresden  in  1824.  His  works  are  highly  commended. 
Died  at  Dresden  in  1835. 

Naclantus.    See  Nacchianti. 

Na'dab,  [Heb.  311]  son  of  Jeroboam,  King  of  Israel, 
succeeded  him  in  968  B.C.  While  engaged  soon  after  in 
fighting  against  the  Philistines,  he  was  slain  by  Baasha, 
the  son  of  Ahijah,  who  ruled  in  his  stead. 

Nadal,  nS'dtl',  (  Augustin,  )  Abb6,  a  mediocre 
French  author,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1664,  wrote  tragedies 
in  verse,  criticisms,  and  moral  essays.     Died  in  1740. 

Nada-sti,  ni-das'tee,  ?  written  also  De  Nadzad, 
(Thomas,)  a  Hungarian  general,  was  an  ancestor  of  the 
following.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  defence  of 
Buda  against  the  Sultan  Solyman  in  1529,  and  afterwards 
rendered  important  military  services  to  Charles  V. 


Nadasti,  de,  deh  nj-dis'tee,  ?  (Francis,)  Cot.'nt,  a 
patriotic  Hungarian  statesman,  who  opposed  the  des- 
potic policy  of  the  emperor  Leopold.  He  was  accused 
of  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Leopold,  unjustly 
condemned,  and  beheaded  in  1671.  He  was  author 
of  a  "  History  of  Hungary,"  (1664.) 

See  MailAth,  "Geschichte  der  Magyaren." 

Nadaud,  nS'do',  (Gustave,)  a  French  musician  and 
writer  of  songs,  born  at  Roubaix  in  1820.  He  produced 
both  the  words  and  the  music  of  many  popular  songs. 

Nadault  de  BufToii,  nt'do'  deh  buTiw',  (Be.n'Jamin 
Henri,)  a  P'rench  engineer  and  writer,  born  at  Mont- 
bard  in  1804.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Course  of  Agriculture,"  (4  vols.,  1853-56,)  and  "The 
Correspondence  of  Buffon,"  (i860.)     Died  in  1880. 

Na-deeni',  Nadim,  or  Al-Nadeem,  an  Arabian 
author,  whose  name  is  also  given  as  Aboolfaraj  ibn 
IsHAK,and  Ibn  abi  Yakoob  al  Nadeem.  His"Fihrist" 
is  a  bibliographical  work  of  high  value  and  interest.  He 
lived  at  Bagdad,  and  died  in  995  A.D. 

Nade2ihdin,  ni'd^zh-din,  written  also  Nadeshdin, 
(Nicholas  Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  litterateur,  born  in 
Riazan  in  1804.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1856. 

Nadir  Shall,  na'dir  shfth,  written  also  Nader  Chah, 
Nadir  Schah,  and  Natider  Shah,  also  called  Koolee 
(or  Kouli)  Khan,  koo'lee  kSu,  a  celebrated  Persian 
conqueror,  of  Turkish  extraction,  born  in  Khorassan  in 
1688.  His  courage  and  abilities  early  gained  him  dis- 
tinction in  the  service  of  the  governor  of  that  province  ; 
but,  in  consequence  of  ill  treatment,  he  left  Khorassan 
and  became  the  head  of  a  band  of  robbers.  Being  soon 
after  called  upon  by  Tahmasp,  Shah  of  Persia,  to  oppose 
the  Afghans,  he  succeeded,  within  two  years,  in  expelling 
them  from  the  country,  upon  which  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief, (1729.)  Tahmasp  having  in  1732  made 
a  disadvantageous  treaty  with  Turkey,  Nadir  resolved 
to  prosecute  the  war,  and  gained  such  popularity  by 
the  success  of  his  arms  that  on  his  return  he  dethroned 
the  Shah  and  assumed  the  supreme  power.  In  1738 
he  conquered  Candahar  and  Afghanistan.  Having  soon 
after  invaded  India,  he  entered  Delhi  in  1739,  and  took 
possession  of  the  imperial  treasures.  The  inhabitants, 
on  a  false  report  of  Nadir's  death,  attacked  his  soldiers. 
After  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  restrain  them,  he  ordered 
a  wholesale  massacre,  in  which,  it  is  stated  by  Eraser, 
120,000  perished.  His  many  acts  of  tyranny  and  cruelly 
at  length  caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  (1747.)  In  the 
early  part  of  his  career  Nadir  Shah  appears  to  have  been 
not  only  an  able,  but,  on  the  whole,  a  just  and  humane, 
prince  ;  but  later  in  life,  having  become  a  prey  to  avarice 
and  suspicion,  his  acts,  it  is  said,  "exceeded  in  barbarity 
all  that  has  been  recorded  of  the  most  bloody  tyrants." 

See  Fraser,  "History  of  Nadir  Shah,"  1742;  "Life  of  Nftdii 
Shah,"  by  his  secretary,  Madhy  Khan,  translated  into  French  by 
Sir  WiLiliAM  Jones;  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia,"  vol.  ii. 

Naecke.    See  Nacke. 

Naenia,  nee'ne-a,  [Fr.  N^nie,  ni'ne',]  a  Roman  god- 
dess that  presided  over  funeral.s.  This  word  signifies  a 
"  dirge"  or  "  funeral  song." 

Naerssen,  van,  vftn  n§Rs'sen,  [Lat.  Nars'sius,] 
(Jan,)  a  Dutch  writer  of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Dort  iii 
1580.  He  became  physician  to  Gustavus  Adolphus  at 
Stockholm,  and  wrote  "Gustavidos  Libri  III.,"  (1632.) 
Died  in  1637. 

Nasvius,  nee've-us,  (Cneius,)  a  Roman  poet,  born  in 
Campania  about  272  B.C.,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem 
on  the  Punic  War,  and  of  several  dramas.  A  few  frag- 
ments only  of  his  writings  are  extant.  He  is  praised 
by  Cicero  as  being  in  some  respects  superior  to  Ennius. 
He  died  about  204  B.C.  "Cneius  Naevius,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Sellar,  "is  the  first  in  the  line  of  Roman  poets 
and  the  first  writer  in  the  Latin  language  whose  frag- 
ments give  indication  of  original  power." 

See  Cicero,  "  De  Oratore ;"  Sellar,  "Roman  Poets  of  the 
Republic,"  chap.  iii. ;  Klussmann,  "  C.  Nsevii  Poetae  Vita,"  1843. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( 

"3 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23. 


NAG  A 


1794 


JSIALIAN 


NSga,  nS'ga,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "snake,"  and 
forming,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  mon- 
ster regarded  as  a  demi-god,  having  a  human  face,  with 
the  tail  of  a  serpent  and  the  expanded  neck  of  a  cobra 
de  capello.  The  race  of  these  beings  is  said  to  have 
sprung  from  Kasyapa,  in  order  to  people  Patila,  or  the 
regions  below  the  earth.     (See  PXtala.) 

N&garjuna,  nd-giir-joo'na,  or  N&gasena,  ni-ga-si'na, 
a  Booddhist  sage  of  Southern  India,  supposed  to  have 
lived  about  200  B.C.  He  founded  a  new  school  of 
Booddhistic  philosophj',  from  which  sprang  the  Northern 
or  Thibetan  system  of  Booddhism. 

Nagele,  na'geh-leh,  (Franz  Karl,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1778;  died  in  185 1. 

Nageli,  ni'ceh-lee,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Swiss  musi- 
cian, music-publisher,  and  litterateur,  born  in  1768  at 
Zurich,  where  he  established  his  music-business  in  1792. 
He  published  poems  and  vocal  compositions,  but,  except 
some  favourite  church  chorals,  all  that  has  survived 
him  is  the  air  known  in  English  as  "Life  let  us  cherish." 
Died  in  1836. 

Nagele,  na'geh-leh,  (Franz  Karl,)  a  German  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1778;  died  in  1851. 

Nag'lee,  (Henry  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Philadelphia  about  181 5,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1835.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  early  in  1862,  and 
commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31  of  that  year.     Died  March  5,  1886. 

Nagier,  nS'gler,  (Karl  Ferdinand  Friedrich,)  a 
Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Anspach  in  1770.  Being 
appointed  in  1823  postmaster-general,  he  effected  a  great 
reform  in  the  postal  system.  He  was  made  minister  of 
state  in  1836.  He  made  a  very  valuable  collection  of 
works  of  art,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  pictures, 
was  purchased  for  the  Museum  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1846. 

Nagy  Sandor,  nody  (almost  noj)  sSn'dor,  (Joseph,) 
a  Hungarian  general,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1804.  He 
fought  for  the  national  cause  in  1848,  became  a  general 
about  April,  1849,  ^"d  served  with  distinction  in  several 
battles.  Having  been  taken  prisoner  at  Vilagos,  he  was 
executed  in  October,  1849. 

Naharro,  xA-lx'xo,  (Bartolom6  de  Torres — di  toR'- 
rJs,)  a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Torres,  flourished 
about  1500-20.   He  wrote  comedies,  satires,  epistles,  etc. 

Nahl,  nil,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1710.  He  adorned  the  public  buildings 
of  that  city  with  his  works.     Died  in  1781. 

Nahl,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  painter,  born 
near  Berne  in  1752,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
worked  at  Rome  and  Cassel.  He  painted  subjects  of 
Greek  mythology,  and  landscapes.     Died  in  1825. 

Nahl,  (Johann  Samuel,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
at  Anspach  in  1664.  He  settled  at  Berlin,  where  he  was 
appointed  court  sculptor,  and  rector  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts.     Died  in  1728. 

Nahl,  (Samuel,)  a  sculptor,  brother  of  Johann  August, 
(1752-1825,)  was  born  at  Berne  in  1748;  died  in  1813. 

Na'hum,  [  Heb.  Dinj,]  one  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets  of  the  Hebrews,  flourished  under  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  about  720  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
born  at  Elkosh,  in  Galilee,  from  which  he  was  surnamed 
the  Elkoshite.  He  foretells  the  destruction  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  and  the  city  of  Nineveh  in  the  most 
glowing  and  forcible  language,  and  in  sublimity  is  equal 
if  not  superior  to  any  other  of  the  minor  prophets. 

Nahuys,  ni'hois,  (Hubert  Gerard,)  Baron,  a 
Dutch  writer  and  military  officer,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1782.  He  rendered  important  services  in  Java, 
where  he  passed  many  years,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Considerations  on  Dutch  India,"  (1847.)  Died 
in  1858. 

Naiades.    See  Naiads. 

Naiads,  na'yads,  [Gr.  NatdJef  or  '^rfi^tq ;  Lat.  Nai'a- 
des,]  in  classic  mythology,  were  fresh-water  Nymphs,  or 
inferior  female  divinities,  supposed  to  preside  over  rivers, 
lakes,  brooks,  and  fountains,  and  to  be  daughters  of 
Jupiter.  They  were  represented  as  young  and  beautiful 
virgins  leaning  upon  an  urn  from  which  flows  a  stream 
of  water. 

Naigeon,  ni'zh6N',  (Jacques  Andr4,)  a  mediocre 
French  litterateur,  born   in    Paris   in  1738.     He  was  a 


friend  of  Dider  :t,  whose  skeptical  opinions  he  shared, 
and  was  one  of  the  redacteurs  of  the  "  Encyclopedie." 
He  edited  the  works  of  Diderot  and  of  other  French 
authors.     Died  in  1810. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale ,"  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sci- 
ences philosophiques." 

Naigeon,  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Beaune 
in  1757,  was  a  pupil  of  David.     Died  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Naigeon,  (Jean  Guillaume  Elzidor,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  became  conservator  of  the  Musee  Egyptien 
in  1861.     Died  December  31,  1867. 

Naillao,  de,  deh  nt'yik',  (Philibert,)  a  French 
chevalier,  born  about  1340,  became  grand  master  of  the 
order  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1396.  He  fought 
against  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  at  the  siege  of  Nicopolis, 
(1396,)  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Council  of 
Pisa.     Died  in  1421. 

Naima,  nl'm^,  a  Turkish  historian,  flourished  about 
1700.  He  wrote  an  "Ottoman  History  from  1591  to 
1659,"  which  was  published  in  2  vols.,  (1734.) 

Nain,  Le.     See  Tillemont. 

Nairne,  nirn,  (Lady  Carolina,)  a  Scottish  poetess, 
was  born  at  Gask,  Perthshire,  July  16, 1766,  and  was  famed 
for  her  beauty.  In  1806  she  married  her  cousin,  William 
Murray,  fifth  Lord  Nairne,  who  came  to  his  title  in  1824. 
She  died  at  Gask,  October  26,  1845.  Among  her  works 
are  the  songs  "The  Land  o'  the  Leal,"  (1798,)  "Caller 
Herrin',"  and  "The  Laird  o'  Cockpen."  Her  complete 
poems  are  in  vol.  i.  of  Rogers's  "  Scottish  Minstrelsy." 

Naironi,  nl-ro'nee,  (Antonius  Faustus,)  a  learned 
Maronite,  born  near  Mount  Libanus  in  1631,  was  pro- 
fessor of  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  languages  in  the 
College  della  Sapienza  at  Rome.     Died  in  1711. 

See  DupiN,  "  Auteurs  eccl^siastiques,"  etc. 

Naiven,  ni'ven,  (M.,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  1570 ; 
died  in  165 1. 

Nakhimof,  nl'Ke-mof,  written  alsoNakhimow  and 
Nakhimov,  (Akim  Nikolaevitch,)  a  Russian  poet, 
born  at  Kharkof  in  1782.  His  principal  works  are 
satires  in  verse,  fables,  and  a  witty  piece  in  prose  entitled 
"  The  Speaking  Monkeys,"  on  the  subject  of  Napoleon's 
attempted  conquest  of  Russia.  He  died  in  1814,  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-one. 

Nake  or  Naeke,  na'keh,  (August  Friedrich,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Frauenstein  in  1788.  He 
produced  "Opuscula  Philologica,"  (2  vols.,  1842-44.) 
Died  in  1838. 

Nakoola  or  Nakoula,  nS-koo'lS,  (Mooal'lem,)  sur- 
named EL  Turk,  an  Arabian  historian,  born  in  Syria  in 
1763  ;  died  in  1S28. 

Nakwaska,  nik-vSs'ki,  (Anne,)  a  Polish  novelist, 
born  in  1779,  was  the  wife  of  senator  Nakwaska.  Died 
at  Warsaw  in  1851. 

Nal'a,  [Hindoo  pron.  niil'a,]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
the  name  of  a  monkey  chief,  who,  according  to  some 
authorities,  built  for  Rama  the  bridge  from  continental 
India  to  the  island  of  Ceylon.     (See  Rama.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Naldi,  nil'dee,  [Lat.  Nal'dius,]  (Matfeo,)  a  learned 
Italian  medical  writer  and  linguist,  born  at  Sienna.  He 
became  chief  physician  to  Pope  Alexander  VII.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1682. 

Naldi,  (Naldo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence 
about  1420,  was  a  friend  of  Politian.  He  wrote  th*^ 
"  Life  of  G.  Manetti,"  and  several  admired  poems. 
Died  about  1470. 

Naldi,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian  singer,  performed  in 
London.     Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Naldini,  nil-dee'nee,  (Battista,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1537.  He  painted  in  oil 
and  fresco  at  Rome  and  Florence.     Died  after  1590. 

Naldini,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Rome, 
flourished  about  1650.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke  in  1654. 

Naldius.     See  Naldi. 

Nalian,  ni'le-Jn,  (James,)  an  Armenian  religious 
writer,  born  at  Zimara  about  1695.  ^^  became  Arme- 
nian Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1741,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  by  his  writings.     Died  in  1764. 


a, e, 1, 6,  u, y, /c«^;  i, i,  6, same,  less  prolonged;  a, e, i,  o,  u,y, short;  a.,e,i,q,ol>seure:  fhr,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NALSON 


1795 


NAPIER 


Nal'son,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  about 
1638.  He  became  rector  of  Doddington  and  prebendary 
of  Ely.  His  chief  work  is  "An  Impartial  Collection  of 
the  Affairs  of  State  from  1639  to  the  Murder  of  Charles 
I.,"  (1683.)     Died  in  1686. 

Namur,  ni'miiR',  (Jean  Pie,)  a  Belgian  bibliographer, 
born  at  Luxemburg  in  1804,  published  several  works. 

Nana-Sahib,  nS'nl  sS'Hib,  a  Hindoo  chief  of  mu- 
tineers, born  in  Poonah  about  1820.  He  committed 
atrocious  cruelties  on  English  women  and  children  at 
Cawnpore  in  1857. 

See  McLeodInnes,  "  Rough  Narrative  of  the  Siege  of  Lucknow," 
Calcutta,  1857  ;  E.  D.  Forgues,  "  La  R^volte  des  Cipayes;"  "  Nou- 
velle  liiographie  Gen^rale." 

Nancel,  de,  deh  uSn'sSK,  [Lat.  Nance'lius,]  (Nico- 
las,) a  French  physician  and  writer,  born  in  1539.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Peter  Ramus," 
(1600.)     Died  in  1610. 

Nancelius.     See  Nancel. 

Nan'di,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  nun'dl,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  a  white  bull,  regarded  as  the 
vahan  or  vehicle  of  Siva,  which  see. 

Nanek,  nj'nek,  or  Nanak,  sometimes  written  Na- 
nuk,  called  also  Yanaka,  (yd'na-ka,)  and  Nirankar, 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sikhs,  was  born  in  Lahore 
about  1468.  He  wrote  a  book  called  "  Adi-Granth," 
and  taught  a  species  of  monotlieism.     Died  in  1539. 

Nangis,  de,  deh  nftN'zhe',  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
historian  and  IBenedictine  monk.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Saint  Louis,"  a  general  chronicle,  and  a  "Chronicle  of 
the  Kings  of  France."     Died  about  1302. 

Nangis,  de,  (Louis  Armand  de  Brichanteau— deh 
bRe'shftN'lo',)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  was  born  in 
1682.  He  served  in  several  campaigns  in  Flanders,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1741.  Died 
in  1742. 

Nani,  n^'nee,  (Giambattista  Felice  Gasparo,)  a 
Venetian  historian,  born  in  1616.  He  was  for  twenty- 
five  years  ambassador  at  the  court  of  France,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He  was 
successively  appointed  historiographer  and  archivist  of 
the  republic,  and  procurator  of  Saint  Mark,  (1661.)  His 
principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Venetian  Republic 
from  1613  to  1671,"  (2  vols.,  1662-79.)     Died  in  1678. 

See  NiCERON,  "M^moires." 

Nani,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Morbegno 
in  1757 ;  died  in  1813. 

Nanini,  nS-nee'nee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Vallerano  about  1540,  served  as  a 
chanter  in  the  pontifical  chapel  in  Rome.  He  composed 
motets,  madrigals,  and  canzonettas.     Died  in  1607. 

Nan'na,  or  nin'ni,  [etymology  uncertain  ;  according 
to  Keyser,  it  is  derived  from  iienna,  to  "be  inclined  to," 
to  "  like,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  wife  of  Balder 
"the  Good."  When  her  husband  was  slain,  she  grieved 
so  intensely  that  her  heart  burst,  her  spirit  followed  his 
to  Hela's  realm,  and  her  body  was  laid  on  the  same 
funeral  pile  with  that  of  her  beloved  Balder. 

See  Keyser,  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen;"  Thorpe,  "North- 
ern Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Nanni,  (Giovannl)     See  Annius  of  Viterbo. 

Nanni,  nin'nee,  (Giovanni,)  called  also  Giovanni 
Da  Udine,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Udine  about  1490. 
He  was  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  his  stuccos  and 
grotesque  ornaments.  Many  of  his  best  works  are  at 
Rome  and  Florence.     Died  in  1564. 

Nanni,  (Peter.)     See  Nanning. 

Nanni,  (Remigio,)  [sometimes  called,  in  French, 
Rem  I  de  Florence,  ri'me'  deh  flo'rdNss',]  an  Italian 
Dominican  monk  and  writer  in  verse  and  prose,  was 
born  at  Florence  about  1521.  He  edited  Villani's  "His- 
torie  universal!,"  and  Guicciardini's  "Istoria  d'ltalia." 
Died  in  1581. 

See  Nic^ron,  "Mdmoires." 

Nanni  di  Baccio  Bigio,  n?ln'nee  dee  b^t'cho  bee'jo, 
a  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  worked  at  Rome 
about  1530-50.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  enmity 
to  Michael  Angelo. 

Nanni  di  Banco,  nJn'nee  dee  bin'ko,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1383  ;  died  after  1421. 


Nanning,  nJn'ning,  or  Nanni,  nin'nee,  (Lat.  Nan'- 
Nius,]  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  philologist  and  critical  writer, 
born  at  Alkmaar  in  1500.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ob- 
servations on  the  Institutes  of  Civil  Law,"  and  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Psalms  into  Latin  verse.     Died  in  1557. 

Nannini,  nin-nee'nee,  (Agnolo  or  Giovannini,) 
surnamed  Firenzuola,  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Florence  in  1493,  ^'^^^  the  author  of  satirical  and  bur- 
lesque poems,  dramas,  and  a  number  of  novels  in  the 
style  of  Boccaccio's  "  Decamerone." 

Nanniu.s.     See  Nanning. 

Nannoni,  nin-no'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Florence  in  171 5.  He  became  pro- 
fessor and  chief  surgeon  in  the  Hospital  of  Florence. 
His  success  as  an  operator  and  as  a  lecturer  attracted 
patients  and  pupils  from  the  most  distant  parts  of 
Europe.  He  wrote  several  esteemed  works,  among 
which  is  "Delia  Semplicita  del  Medicare,"  (1761-67.) 
Died  in  1790. 

See  AcosTiNO  Nannoni,  "  Elogio  del  Professore  A.  Nannoni," 
1790. 

Nannoni,  (Lorenzo,)  a  surgeon,  born  at  Florence  in 
1749,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  anatomy 
and  surgery.     Died  in  181 2. 

Nansouty,  de,  deh  nftw'soo'te',  (Stienne  Antoinr 
Marie  Champion — sh6N'pe-6N',)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1768.  He  was  made  a 
general  of  brigade  about  1798,  and  a  general  of  division 
in  1803.  According  to  Chateaubriand,  he  was  one  of 
the  best  cavalry  officers  that  the  war  of  the  Revolution 
produced.  The  same  writer  states  that  he  completed 
the  victory  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and  commenced  that  of 
Wagram,  (1809.)  He  was  wounded  at  Borodino,  (1812,) 
and  commanded  the  cavalry  at  Leipsic.  In  1814  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  restored  Bourbons.  Died  irs 
February,  181 5. 

See  De  Courcei.i.es,  "  Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Francais.'' 

Nanteuil,  nftN'tuT'  or  nftN'tuh'ye,  (C^lestin,)  a 
French  painter  and  lithographer,  born  in  Rome  in  1813. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 

Nanteuil,  (Charles  Francois  Lebcsuf— leh'buf',) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1817.  Among  his  works  is  "Eurydice 
Dying."     Died  November  2,  1865. 

Nanteuil,  (Robert,)  a  French  artist,  born  at  Rheims 
in  1630,  painted  excellent  portraits  in  pastel,  but  was 
chiefly  distinguished  as  an  engraver.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces are  the  portraits  of  the  secretary  of  state, 
Simon  Arnaud  de  Pomponne,  and  Van  Steenbergen, 
the  Dutch  advocate.  In  the  department  of  portrait- 
engraving  Nanteuil  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was 
designer  and  cabinet  engraver  to  Louis  XIV.  Died 
in  1678. 

See  R.  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Fran^ais ;"  Basan, 
"Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Nanteuil,  de,  deh  n&N'tuI',  (Gaugiran,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1778  ;  died  after  1830. 

Nantier - Didi^e,  n5N'te-i'  de'de-i',  Madame,  a 
French  operatic  singer,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in 
1832.     She  died  December  3,  1867. 

Nantigny  or  Nantigni,  de,  deh  nflN'tSn'ye',  (Louis 
Chasot,)  a  French  writer  on  genealogy,  was  born  in 
Burgundy  in  1692.  He  published  "  Historical  Genealo- 
gies of  Kings,  Emperors,  and  Sovereign  Houses,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind.     Died  in  1755. 

Napaeae,  na-pee'e,  [Gr.  NoTroZat;  Fr.  Naples.  ni'pi',J 
in  the  classic  mythology,  were  nymphs  of  forests,  groves 
and  glens.     (See  NvMPH.4i.) 

Napees.    See  T^iWMM. 

Naper.    See  Napier,  (John.) 

Na'pl-er,  (Sir  Charles  James,)  a  British  general, 
born  at  Whitehall  in  1782,  was  the  son  of  the  Hon. 
George  Napier  and  Lady  Sarah  Lennox,  a  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Richmond.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Admiral 
Charles  John  Napier,  and  a  brother  of  Sir  William, 
the  historian.  He  gained  the  rank  of  major  in  1806, 
was  wounded  in  several  actions  in  Spain  between  1808 
and  1812,  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  181 1,  and  was 
employed  in  ravaging  the  coasts  of  the  United  States 
in  1813-14-  He  acted  with  credit  for  several  years  as 
Governor  of  Cephalonia,  from  which  he  was  recalled  in 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NAPIER 


1796 


NAPIER  US 


1830.  Having  risen  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  in  Bengal  in 
1841.  He  increased  his  reputation  by  the  conquest  of 
Sinde,  (1843,)  in  which  he  performed  several  exploits 
that  were  highly  extolled.  His  efforts  to  reform  the 
civil  administration  of  Sinde  are  also  commended.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1847,  and  was  again  sent  to 
India  in  1849,  ^o  oppose  the  Sikhs,  but  on  his  arrival 
found  that  the  war  was  ended.  In  1850  he  returned 
home.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lights  and  Shadows 
of  Military  Life,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1853. 

See  Sir  W.  F.  P.  Napier,  "Life  and  Opinions  of  Sir  Charles 
J.  Napier  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July  and  August,  1857. 

Na'pl-er,  (Sir  Charles  John,)  K.C.B.,  an  eminent 
British  admiral,  born  in  Stirling  county,  Scotland,  in 
1786,  was  the  son  of  the  Hon.  C.  Napier,  of  Merchiston 
Hall,  Scotland,  and  a  descendant  of  the  inventor  of 
logarithms.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1799,  and,  after 
fighting  in  several  actions  with  the  French,  distinguished 
himself  at  Baltimore  and  other  places  in  the  United 
States  in  1813  and  1814.  After  1814  he  passed  about 
fifteen  years  in  inaction,  on  half-pay.  He  commanded 
the  Portuguese  fleet  which  in  1833  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  fleet  of  Don  Miguel,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  Portuguese  grandee  of  the  first  class.  As  second 
in  command.  Captain  Napier  served  with  distinction  at 
the  reduction  of  Acre,  in  1840,  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  title  of  knight  commander  of  the  Bath.  In  1841  he 
became  rear-admiral,  and  commanded  the  Channel  fleet 
for  several  years.  He  advocated  naval  reform  in  letters 
which  were  printed,  and  as  a  member  of  Parliament 
supported  liberal,  or  rather  radical,  measures.  After  the 
commencement  of  the  Russian  war,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Baltic  fleet,  (1854,)  and  proposed  to 
take  Cronstadt,  but  found  it  too  well  fortified,  and  re- 
turned without  any  remarkable  achievement.  After  his 
return  to  Parliament,  in  1855,  he  imputed  his  failure  to 
the  fault  of  the  ministers.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
admiral  in  1858.  Died  in  November,  i860.  "  In  his 
name  is  summed  up  all  that  he  was.  A  Napier  is  a  man 
possessed  of  high  spirits,  immense  courage,  great  in- 
genuity, and  prodigious  egotism."  ("  London  Times," 
November,  i860.) 

See  General  E.  Napier,  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Admiral 
Sir  Charles  J.  Napier,"  1861. 

Napier,  (Francis,)  Lord,  a  British  diplomatist,  a 
son  of  the  eighth  Baron  Napier,  was  born  in  1819.  He 
became  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States 
about  1856.  In  December,  i860,  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador-extraordinary to  the  court  of  Russia,  and  in 
1864  was  transferred  to  Berlin.  In  1866  he  became 
Governor  of  Madras. 

Napier,  (Henry  Edward,)  an  English  naval  officer 
and  writer,  born  in  1789,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Charles 
James  Napier.  He  published  "  Florentine  History  from 
the  Earliest  Authentic  Records,"  (6  vols.,  1847.)  Died 
in  1853. 

Napier,  written  also  Naper,  Neper,  or  Nepair,  [Lat. 
Napie'rus,]  (John,)  Baron  of  Merchiston,  a  Scottish 
mathematician,  celebrated  as  the  inventor  of  logarithms, 
was  born  at  Merchiston  Castle,  near  Edinburgh,  in  1550. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Archibald  Napier,  master  of  the 
mint.  He  entered  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's 
about  1563,  and  a  few  years  later  travelled  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy.  He  appears  to  have  returned 
about  1571,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  mathe- 
matics, theology,  and  literature.  In  1593  he  published 
an  ingenious  work  called  "A  Plain  Discovery  of  the 
Revelation  of  Saint  John,"  in  which  he  labours  to  prove 
that  popery  is  antichristian.  It  is  probable  that  prior  to 
1594  he  began  the  train  of  inquiry  which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  logarithms.  His  tables  were  first  published 
in  1614,  with  the  title  of  "The  Description  of  the  Won- 
derful Law  of  Logarithms,"  ("Mirifici  Logarithmorum 
Canonis  Descriptio.")  "  The  invention  of  logarithms," 
says  Hallam,  "is  one  of  the  rarest  instances  of  sagacity 
in  the  history  of  mankind  ;  and  it  has  been  justly  noticed 
as  remarkable  that  it  issued  complete  from  the  mind  of 
its  author,  and  has  not  received  any  improvement  since 
his  time."  In  solving  the  problems  of  trigonometry, 
this  invention   is  of  immense  utility,  as  it  reduces  the 


labour  of  months  to  a  few  days,  and  liberates  the  ope- 
rator from  the  errors  which  are  almost  inevitable  in  long 
calculations.  He  died  in  1617,  leaving  several  sons,  the 
eldest  of  whom,  named  Archibald,  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1627,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Napier. 

See  "  Life,  WritinRs,  and  Inventions  of  John  Napier,"  by  Earl 
OP  Buchan  and  Walter  Minto,  1787  ;  Mark  Napier,  "Meraoiia 
of  John  Napier,"  1834;  Hutton,  "Mathematical  Dictionary;" 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Na'pl-er,  (Joseph,)  an  Irish  lawyer  and  politician,  born 
at  Belfast  in  1804.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1831, 
and  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  University  of  Dublin 
in  1848.  He  became  attorney-general  for  Ireland  in 
1852,  and  was  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  March, 
1858,  to  June,  1859.     Died  December  9,  1S82. 

Napier,  (Macvey,)  a  Scottish  editor,  born  in  the 
county  of  Stirling  in  1776.  He  became  professor  of 
conveyancing  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  edited 
the  seventh  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
and  succeeded  Lord  Jeffrey  as  editor  of  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  in  1829.  He  perfonned  the  duties  of  this  po- 
sition with  ability  for  about  eighteen  years.  Among  his 
contributions  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  is  an  article 
on  "  Raleigh,"  (April,  1840.)     Died  in  1847. 

See  "Notice  of  Macvey  Napier,"  London,  i'!47;  Chambers, 
"  Biofp'aphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Napier,  (Mark,)  a  .Scottish  antiquary,  born  in  1798. 
He  wrote  "  Memorials  and  Letters  of  the  Time  of  John 
Grahame  of  Claverhouse,"  a  "  Life  of  Napier  of  Mer- 
chistoun,"  (1834,)  a  "Life  of  Montrose,"  (1840,)  and 
other  works.     Died  at  Edinburgh,  November  23,  1879. 

Napier,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  mechanical  engineer, 
distinguished  for  the  construction  of  steamships,  was  born 
at  Dumbarton  in  1791.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
a  blacksmith,  and  in  181 5  became  master  of  a  smithery 
in  Glasgow.  A  few  years  later  he  began  to  make  engines 
foT  steamboats,  and  afterwards  became  the  head  of  the 
large  establishment  of  Robert  Napier  &  Sons,  of  Glas- 
gow. He  constructed  the  machinery  of  the  British 
Queen,  and  about  1840  furnished  Mr.  Cunard  with  four 
steamships  which  plied  between  England  and  the  United 
States.  In  1856  he  built  the  Persia,  which  was  perhaps 
unrivalled  in  strength  and  speed,  and  subsequently  built 
several  iron-clad  ships  for  the  navy.    Died  June  23,  1876. 

Napier,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  British  general,  born  m  Cey- 
lon about  1 810.  He  served  as  an  officer  of  the  army 
in  India,  and  became  chief  engineer  of  Bengal.  During 
the  Sepoy  mutiny  of  1857-58  he  rendered  important 
services  as  military  engineer.  He  commanded  an  expe- 
dition sent  against  Abyssinia  about  the  close  of  1867.  He 
gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Magdala  in  April,  1868,  over 
King  Theodore,  (who  was  killed,)  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Napier.     Died  January  14,  1890. 

Napier,  (Sir  William  Francis,)  a  British  general, 
famous  as  the  historian  of  the  Peninsular  war,  was  born 
at  Castletown,  Kildare  county,  Ireland,  in  1785.  He 
was  a  brother  of  General  Charles  James  Napier,  and 
cousin  of  Admiral  Charles  J.  Napier.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1800,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1804. 
From  iSoS  to  1814  he  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
during  wliich  he  was  frequently  wounded.  He  received 
medals  for  his  conduct  at  Salamanca,  (1812,)  and  at  the 
battles  of  the  Nivelle  and  Orthes,  etc.,  and  became 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1813.  In  1828  he  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Penin- 
sula from  1807  to  1814,"  (6  vols.,)  which  was  finished 
in  1840,  and  found  its  way  to  the  summit  of  public 
favour,  although  its  tenor  was  not  in  accordance  with 
the  popular  and  political  prejudices  of  the  times.  He 
disapproved  the  policy  of  the  English  government,  and 
estimated  with  candour  the  acts  of  Napoleon  and  his 
army.  The  work  is  admired  for  dignity  of  tone,  fidelity 
to  truth,  and  beauty  of  style.  He  was  made  major- 
general  in  1841,  and  lieutenant-general  ia  1851.  His 
wife  was  a  daughter  of  General  H.  E.  Fox,  a  relative  of 
Lord  Holland.  Sir  William  published  a  "History  of 
the  Conquest  of  Scinde,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Died 
in  February,  i860. 

See  Harriet  Martineau,  "Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1869;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1857. 

Napierus.     See  Napier,  (John.) 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


NAPIONE 


1797 


NAPOLEON 


Napione,  ni-pe-o'ni,  (C.  Antonio  Galeani,)  an 
Italian  mineralogist,  born  at  Turin  ;  died  at  Rio  Janeiro 
in  1814.  His  brother,  J.  Galeani,  Count  de  Napione, 
was  a  dramatist  and  litteratetir. 

Napione  da  Cocconato,  nS-pe-o'ni  di  kok-ko-nS'to, 
(GiAN  Francesco  Galeani — gi-li-i'nee,)  Count,  a 
learned  Italian  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  at 
Turin  in  1748.  He  was  a  cousin-german  of  the  eminent 
author  Joseph  de  Maistre.  He  held  several  high  civil 
offices.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  an  essay  on 
the  Italian  language,  ("Dell'Uso  e  dei  Pregi  della  Lin- 
gua Italiana,"  2  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Lives  of  Illustrious 
Italians,"  (3  vols.,  18x8.)     Died  in  1830. 

See  L.  Martini,  "  Vita  del  Conte  G.  F.  Napione,"  1836  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Napoleon  I.    See  Bonaparte. 

Napoleon  II.    See  Reichstadt,  Duke  of. 

Na-po'le-pn  [Fr.  Napoleon,  nS'po'li'6N']  III., 
(Charles  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,)  Emperor  of 
France,  a  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte  and  Hortense  de  Beau- 
harnais,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  the  Tuileries,  April  20, 1808. 
He  was  inscribed  at  the  head  of  the  register  of  the  family 
of  the  Napoleonic  dynasty,  the  emperor  having  recog- 
nized Louis  and  his  heirs  as  successors  to  the  crown 
in  preference  to  his  elder  brothers.  His  mother,  being 
compelled  to  quit  France  in  1815,  took  this  son  with  her 
in  her  exile,  and  gave  him  for  preceptors  P.  Lebas 
and  Colonel  Armandi.  He  passed  several  years  of  his 
youth  at  Arenenberg,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Thurgau. 
On  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  in  1830,  Louis  Napo- 
leon requested  permission  to  return  to  France,  which 
was  not  granted.  He  and  his  brother  then  went  to 
Italy  and  enlisted  in  the  army  of  insurgents,  who  at 
first  gained  some  advantages  over  the  papal  troops,  but 
were  defeated  and  dispersed  by  the  Austrians  in  1831. 
On  the  death  of  the  Due  de  Reichstadt,  in  1832,  Louis 
Napoleon  became  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of  France. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Political  Reveries,"  and 
a  "Manual  of  Artillery,"  {1836.)  His  ambition,  his 
name,  and  his  unscrupulous  audacity  urged  him  to  enter 
a  career  which  presents  the  most  wonderful  vicissitudes 
of  fortune.  Having  secured  the  aid  of  Colonel  Vaudrey 
and  other  officers  stationed  at  Strasbourg,  he  made  an 
attempt  on  that  place,  with  a  few  adherents,  in  October, 
1836.  He  failed,  was  arrested,  and  was  banished  or  trans- 
ported to  the  United  States  in  November  of  that  year. 

In  1837  he  returned  to  Europe,  attended  Queen  Hor- 
tense in  her  last  illness  at  Arenenberg,  and  took  refuge 
in  England,  where  he  passed  about  two  years.  In  1839 
he  published  his  "Napoleonic  Ideas,"  ("  Idees  Napo- 
leoniennes,")  which  has  been  described  as  a  "  melange 
of  liberal  principles  and  praetorian  domination."  It  is 
an  apology  for  the  regime  of  Napoleon  I.  The  unpopu- 
lar measures  of  Louis  Philippe  encouraged  Louis  Napo- 
leon to  engage  in  another  rash  and  desperate  enterprise. 
Attended  by  about  fifty  partisans  and  a  tame  eagle, 
which  was  expected  to  perch  upon  his  banner  as  the 
harbinger  of  victory,  he  sailed  from  England  in  August, 
1840,  and  entered  Boulogne,  where  he  obtained  but  little 
support,  and  was  speedily  arrested  by  the  soldiers  who 
he  had  hoped  would  be  induced  to  join  his  standard. 
He  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  treason  by  the  House  of 
Peers,  and,  after  he  had  made  a  speech  in  his  own  de- 
fence and  professed  his  devotion  to  the  principle  of 
popular  sovereignty,  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  impris- 
onment. He  was  confined  in  the  Castle  of  Ham,  where 
he  pursued  his  political  studies  and  wrote  several  political 
and  historical  treatises.  Aided  by  his  physician.  Dr. 
Conneau,  and  disguised  as  a  labourer,  he  escaped  from 
Ham  in  May,  1846,  and  retired  to  England. 

The  revolution  of  1848  afforded  him  an  opportunity 
to  return  to  France,  and  thus  opened  a  new  field  to  his 
irrepressible  ambition.  In  June,  1848,  he  was  elected 
to  the  National  Assembly  for  the  department  of  the 
Seine.  He  was  excluded  from  that  body  by  Lamartine 
and  his  colleagues  for  a  time,  but  he  took  his  seat  in 
September,  1848,  and  became  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  president  of  France.  On  the  loth  of  December,  1848, 
he  was  elected  president  for  four  years,  having  received 
5,562,834  votes.  His  chief  competitor  was  General  Ca- 
vaignac,  who  obtained  1,469,166  votes.    He  soon  became 


involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Constituent  Assembly,  the 
republican  majority  of  which  regarded  him  with  hostility 
or  suspicion.  In  April,  1849,  he  sent  an  army  to  Rome 
to  intervene  in  favour  of  the  pope,  who  had  been  ex- 
pelled by  the  republicans.  The  French  army  took  Rome, 
and  continued  to  occupy  that  city  until  1866. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  dissolved  itself,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  May,  1849. 
The  president  appointed  the  celebrated  De  Tocqueville 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  June,  1849.  This  mmister, 
perceiving  that  the  president  expected  him  and  his  col- 
leagues to  be  the  pliant  instruments  of  his  will,  resigned 
in  October  of  that  year.  De  Tocqueville  afterwards 
remarked,  "  We  were  not  the  men  to  serve  him  on 
those  terms."  Louis  Napoleon  encountered  a  strong 
opposition  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  which  in  May, 
1850,  restricted  universal  suffrage  and  ordered  that  a 
residence  of  three  years  in  a  commune  must  be  a  qualifi- 
cation of  voters.  A  long  and  violent  struggle  between 
the  president  and  the  representatives  of  the  people 
was  terminated  by  the  coup  d''Hat  of  December  2,  1851. 
Having  secured  the  support  of  the  army,  by  a  reckless 
violation  of  his  plighted  faith  he  raised  himself  to 
the  supreme  power.  The  Assembly  was  forcibly  dis- 
solved, and  the  leading  statesmen  were  arrested.  Legis- 
lators and  felons,  statesmen  and  vulgar  culprits,  were 
huddled  together  in  the  same  vehicle  and  conveyed  to 
prison.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  his  acts  were  ratified 
by  the  form  of  a  popular  election,  and  he  was  chosen 
president  for  a  term  of  ten  years.  A  new  constitution 
was  adopted  in  January,  1852,  and  the  legislative  func- 
tions were  divided  between  two  houses,  the  Senate  and 
the  Corps  Legislatif,  which,  however,  were  so  organized 
that  they  offered  little  or  no  check  to  his  absolute  power. 
The  question  whether  he  should  take  the  title  of  em- 
peror was  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people  in  No- 
vember, 1852,  when,  according  to  the  official  report, 
7,824,189  voted  in  the  affirmative.  He  assumed  the 
title  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  married  a  Spanish  lady  of 
great  personal  attractions,  Eugenie  Marie  de  Guzman, 
Countess  de  Teba,  in  January,  1853.  Having  formed 
an  alliance  with  England  and  publicly  announced  that 
his  policy  was  peace,  he,  in  conjunction  with  his  new  ally 
declared  war  against  Russia  in  March,  1854,  and  sent  an 
army  to  the  Crimea.  After  a  long  siege,  the  allies  took 
Sevastopol  in  September,  1855,  and  the  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  March,  1856.  Among  the  events 
of  this  year  was  the  birth  of  the  prince  imperial.  Napo- 
leon Eugene  Louis,  etc. 

One  great  aim  of  Napoleon  III.  appears  to  have  been 
to  reconcile  the  French  people  to  the  loss  of  liberty  by 
promoting  their  material  prosperity,  by  splendid  public 
improvements,  and  by  gratifying  their  passion  for  mili- 
tary glory.  Accordingly,  as  an  ally  of  the  King  of 
Sardinia  in  the  war  caused  by  the  aggressions  of  Aus- 
tria, he  led  a  large  army  into  Italy  in  May,  1859.  He 
commanded  in  person  at  the  battle  of  Solferino,  where 
the  Austrians  were  defeated,  June  24,  1859,  and  in  the 
next  month  concluded  the  peace  of  Villafranca.  (See 
Francis  Joseph.)  Among  the  results  of  this  war  was 
the  cession  of  Nice  and  Savoy  to  France  by  the  King 
of  Sardinia,  who  had  extended  his  own  dominions  by 
the  conquest  of  Lombardy.  In  1861  he  availed  himself 
of  the  opportunity  presented  by  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  in  America,  to  intervene  in  Mexico,  and  fitted 
out  against  that  republic  an  expedition  which  landed  a 
well-appointed  army  under  General  Forey  early  in  1862. 
After  several  victories  over  the  Mexican  Liberals,  the 
French  forces  entered  the  city  of  Mexico  in  June,  1863. 
Napoleon  offered  the  imperial  crown  of  Mexico  to 
Maximilian  of  Austria,  who  accepted  the  fatal  gift  and 
was  supported  by  a  part  of  the  native  population.  The 
United  States  refused  to  acknowledge  the  Mexican  em- 
peror, and  intimated  to  Napoleon  that  European  powers 
would  not  be  permitted  to  establish  monarchies  by  arms 
in  North  America.  He  accordingly  withdrew  his  army 
from  Mexico  about  the  end  of  1866,  so  that  the  result  of 
the  Mexican  enterprise  was  the  reverse  of  glorious  for 
France.  It  is  well  understood  that  he  sympathized  with 
the  slaveholders  in  their  war  against  the  Union,  at  least 
so  far  as  they  sought  the  disruption  of  the  confederation. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  v.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NAPOLEON 


1798 


NAR  BONNE 


Before  the  commencement  of  the  American  war,  Napo- 
leon was  justly  regarded  as  the  most  adroit  and  most  suc- 
cessful sovereign  in  Europe.  But  his  prestige  was  greatly 
impaired  by  the  events  of  1866.  He  remained  neutral 
in  the  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  which  war  he 
probably  might  have  prevented  ;  but  in  the  diplomatic 
contest  which  ensued  between  France  and  Prussia 
he  appears  to  have  found  more  than  a  match  in  the 
genius  of  Count  Bismarck,  who  suddenly  raised  Prussia 
to  the  rank  of  a  first-rate  power  and  united  the  Germans 
in  a  determined  attitude  against  the  aggressiveness  of 
France.  The  French  felt  themselves  humiliated  by  the 
fact  that  so  great  changes  in  the  map  of  Europe  should 
have  been  effected  without  their  agency  or  concurrence, 
and  condemned  the  policy  by  which  France  was  isolated 
and  excluded  from  the  hope  of  extension  towards  the 
Rhine.  After  the  battle  of  Sadowa,  July  3,  1866,  Napo- 
leon offered  himself  as  a  mediator  between  the  belligerent 
powers.  The  Emperor  of  Austria  ceded  to  him  Venetia, 
instead  of  surrendering  it  to  the  King  of  Italy,  to  whom 
it  seemed  naturally  to  belong.  About  the  loth  of  De- 
cember, 1866,  the  French  army  was  withdrawn  finally 
fi'om  Rome,  and  the  pope,  finding  himself  in  a  critical 
position,  addressed  to  Napoleon  language  which  was  far 
from  complimentary.  Napoleon  and  Bismarck  were  in- 
volved in  a  dispute  about  Luxemburg,  which  the  former 
purchased  of  the  King  of  Holland  ;  but  the  Prussians 
occupied  a  strong  fortress  in  that  province,  which  they 
refused  to  relinquish.  It  was  generally  believed  that 
war  was  imminent;  but  the  difficulty  was  settled  by  a 
European  Convention  which  met  in  London  in  Mav, 
1867,  and  decided  that  neither  France  nor  Prussia  should 
retain  possession  of  Luxemburg. 

The  exciting  and  warmly-contested  elections  of  May 
and  June,  1869,  showed  so  great  an  increase  of  votes 
against  imperial  despotism,  that  Napoleon  thought  it 
expedient  to  make  large  concessions  to  the  people  and 
the  legislative  body.  He  gave  the  latter  the  right  to 
elect  its  own  otiftcers,  to  have  partial  control  over  the 
expenditure  of  the  public  money,  the  right  of  interpel- 
lation, and  the  privilege  to  share  with  himself  the  power 
of  initiating  laws.  He  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty 
for  political  offences  in  August,  1869.  In  December  of 
that  year  he  appointed  Emile  Ollivier  prime  minister, 
and  requested  him  to  form  a  cabinet.  "  Designate  per- 
sons," he  said,  "  who  will,  associated  with  yourself,  form 
a  homogeneous  cabinet  faithfully  representing  the  legis- 
lative majority."  This  was  regarded  as  the  end  of  per- 
sonal government  in  France,  and  the  beginning  or  resto- 
ration of  a  constitutional  regime.  He  addressed  to  prime 
minister  Ollivier,  March  22,  1870,  an  important  letter,  in 
which  he  says,  "  I  think  it  o]5portune,  under  present  cir- 
cumstances, to  adopt  all  the  reforms  required  by  the 
constitutional  government  of  the  Empire,  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  the  immoderate  desire  for  change  which  pre- 
vails in  certain  minds."  He  afterwards  issued  an  address 
and  appeal  to  the  people,  asking  their  votes,  in  these 
terms  :  "  Do  the  people  approve  the  liberal  reforms 
which  have  been  effected  in  the  Constitution  since  i860 
by  the  Emperor,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  great  legis- 
lative bodies  of  the  state,  and  ratify  the  senatus-consultum 
of  April  20,  1870.''"  On  the  eve  of  the  election  the 
government  detected  or  concocted  an  extensive  plot  to 
assassinate  Napoleon,  and  arrested  many  suspected  per- 
sons. The  result  of  the  plebiscite  of  the  8th  of  May 
was  that  about  7,000,000  voted  yes,  and  1,500,000  voted 
no.  Louis  Napoleon  wrote  a  "  History  of  Julius  Caesar," 
(1867,)  in  which  he  carries  out  the  "  Idees  Napoleoni- 
ennes,"  inculcating  the  doctrine  that  certain  gifted  men 
are  appointed  by  Providence  or  destiny  to  rule,  and  that 
it  is  as  necessary  for  the  people  as  for  themselves  that 
this  destiny  should  be  fulfilled. 

Without  a  reasonable  pretext  or  tangible  cause,  he 
declared  war  against  Prussia  about  July  15,  1870,  and, 
having  appointed  the  Empress  regent,  took  the  com- 
mand of  his  army  in  person.  The  Germans  crossed  the 
frontier  early  in  August,  and  assumed  the  offensive.  The 
French  were  outnumbered  and  outgeneralled  in  a  series 
of  great  battles  at  Worth,  Metz,  and  near  Sedan.  On 
the  2d  of  September,  Napoleon,  who  had  displayed  great 
incapacity  as  a  general,  surrendered  himself,  with  about 


100,000  men  as  prisoners  of  war,  at  Sedan.  The  decke- 
ance  of  Napoleon  was  passed  in  the  corps  legislatif,  and 
a  republic  was  tormed  by  the  citizens  of  Pans,  Septem- 
ber 4,  1870.     He  died  at  Chiselhurst,  January  9,  1873. 

See  Am^d^b  Hennequin,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  Napoleon  liona- 
parte,"  1848  ;  A.  Boudin,  "  Histoire  politique  du  Prince  Louis  Napi> 
l^on,"  etc.,  1852;  Adrien  Pascal,  "Histoire  de  Napoldon  III," 
1853;  Victor  Hugo,  "Napoleon  le  Petit,"  1852;  Paul  Lacroix, 
"Histoire  de  Napoleon  III,"  1853;  J.  H.  Fellens,  "  Louis  Napo- 
leon, sa  Vie,"  etc.,  1853;  W.  L.  Wesche,  "Napoleon  III.  Kaiser 
der  Franzosen,"  1853:  Schobnhuth,  "Napoleon  III.  Kaiser,"  etc., 
1853;  Abbott,  "Tlie  History  of  Napoleon  III.,"  1869;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Nap'per-Tan'dy,  (James,)  an  Irish  insurgent,  born 
near  Dublin  in  1747.  He  invaded  Ireland  with  a  body 
of  French  troops  in  179S,  was  taken  prisoner  and  con- 
demned to  death,  but  was  released  after  an  imprisonment 
of  two  years.     Died  in  1803. 

N^rada,  ni'ra-da,  written  also  Nareda,  the  name  of 
a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage  and  lawgiver,  supposed  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Brahma  and  Saraswati.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  Vina,  a  sort  of  lute,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  an  intimate  friend  of  Krishna. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Nar'a-slng'ha,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  nur'a-sing'ha 
or  nur'a-sing',  from  the  Sanscrit  nard,  a  "  man,"  and 
singhd,  a  "lion,"]  (the  "Man-Lion,")  the  name,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  of  the  fourth  Avatar  of  Vishnu.  It  is 
related  that  Hiranyakasipu,*  by  his  penances  and  sacri 
fices  in  honour  of  Brahma,  had  obtained  as  a  boon  from 
that  deity  that  he  should  possess  universal  monarchy 
and  be  wholly  exempt  from  death  or  injury  from  every 
god,  man,  or  creature  in  existence.  Having  now  nothing 
to  fear,  his  arrogance  and  impiety  became  insufferable. 
He  had,  however,  a  son  of  a  wholly  different  character, 
and  remarkable  for  his  piety  and  virtue.  The  son,  re- 
proving his  father's  wickedness,  once  said  to  him  that  the 
Deity  was  present  everywhere.  "Is  he  in  that  pillar.''" 
said  the  angry  tyrant.  "  Yes,"  replied  the  son.  There- 
upon Hiranyakasipu,  in  contempt,  struck  the  pillar  with 
his  sword,  when  the  stony  mass  fell  asunder,  and  a  being, 
half  man  and  half  lion,  issuing  from  its  centre,  tore  to 
pieces  the  impious  wretch  who  had  thus  insulted  and 
defied  the  Divine  Power. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

NSrayana,  nS.-rS'ya-na,  a  Sanscrit  word  of  somewhat 
uncertain  etymology,  commonly  supposed  to  signify 
"  moving  upon  the  waters,"  and  applied,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  to  the  universal  Divine  Spirit,  which  existed 
before  all  worlds.  (Compare  Genesis  i.  2.)  In  this  sense, 
Narayana  may  be  regarded  as  another  name  for  Brahm, 
(which  see ;)  but  it  is  also  frequently  used  as  one  of  the 
many  appellations  of  Vishnu. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

N&r§yaui,  nS-ri'ya-nee',  the  consort  (or  sakti)  of  Na- 
rayana, considered  as  Vishnu,  and  hence  a  name  of 
LakshmI,  (which  see.) 

Narbonne,  de,  deh  nta'bon',  (Louis,)  Count,  a 
French  courtier  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  of  the 
noble  family  of  Narbonne-Lara  at  Colorno,  in  Parma, 
in  1755.  He  was  taken  to  Paris  in  1760,  and  educated 
at  court,  where  his  mother  was  a  lady  of  honour.  He 
was  handsome,  accomplished,  and  witty,  and  a  favourite 
of  the  royal  family.  In  the  Revolution  he  acted  with 
the  constitutional  jjarty,  and  became  a  confidential  friend 
of  Madame  de  Stael,  who  regarded  him  with  admiration. 
"She  exalted  him  in  her  imagination,"  says  Lamartine, 
"  until  she  raised  him  to  the  height  of  her  ideal."  By 
her  influence,  partly,  he  became  minister  of  war  in  De- 
cember, 1791.  He  tried  with  success  the  policy  of  frank- 


*  Pronounced  by  the  modem  Hindoos  hT-rim'ya-kus'a-poo.  By 
some  blunder,  as  it  would  seem,  on  the  part  of  the  WTiters  from  whom 
he  has  copied,  Southey  gives  this  name  in  a  strangely  corrupted 
form, — Erretten : 

"  For  often  would  Ereenia  tell 
Of  what  in  elder  days  befell. 
When  other  tyrants  in  their  micht 
Usurped  dominion  o'er  the  earth. 
And  Veeshnoo  took  a  hum.nn  birth, 
Deliverer  of  the  sons  of  men, 
And  slew  the  ht\s.e  Krniaccasen, 
And  piecemeal  rent  with  lion  force 
Er'renen's  accursed  corse." 

Curie  of  Kehama,  vol.  i.,  x. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short; ^  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


NARBOROUGH 


1799 


NARVAEZ 


ness  and  confidence  towards  the  Assembly,  and  extorted 
applause  even  from  the  stern  and  suspicious  radicals. 
He  performed  prodigies  of  activity  in  raising  armies  and 
preparing  for  war.  Inspired  by  his  fervent,  rapid,  and 
martial  eloquence,  a  glow  of  patriotism  pervaded  France. 
He  was  suddenly  dismissed  from  office  in  March,  1792, 
in  consequence  of  a  difference  with  his  colleague  and 
rival  De  Lessart.  About  the  loth  of  August  he  was 
proscribed  by  the  Assembly,  but,  by  the  efforts  of  Ma- 
dame de  Stael,  escaped  to  England.  He  returned  to 
France  in  1800,  and  was  restored  to  his  rank  as  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1809.  Soon  after  that  he  was  made 
ambassador  to  Bavaria.  He  attended  Bonaparte  as  aide- 
de-camp  in  the  Russian  campaign,  (1812.)  Died  in  1813. 
See  ViLLEMAiN,  "Souvenirs  conteinporains ;"  Bignon,  "  His- 
loire  de  France  sous  NapoMon  ;"  M armont,  "  M^moires ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Narborough,  nar'biir'eh,  (Sir  John,)  an  English 
naval  officer,  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  with  the 
Dutch  in  1666.  In  1672  he  served  as  second  captain 
under  the  Duke  of  York  against  De  Ruyter  in  the  en- 
gagement of  Solebay,  where  his  bravery  and  skill  were 
conspicuous.  He  was  created  rear-admiral  and  made  a 
knight  in  1673.  In  1674  he  was  sent  against  the  pirates 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  forced  the  Bey  of  Tripoli  to 
give  up  his  British  captives  and  pay  a  large  sum  of  money 
for  previous  injuries  to  British  trade.     Died  in  1688. 

See  Charnock,  "  Biographia  Navalis." 

Nar-cis'sus,  [Gr.  'NapKtaaoc ;  Fr.  Narcisse,  ntR'siss',] 
a  beautiful  youth,  in  the  Greek  mythology.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  insensible  of  amorous  passion  until  he  saw 
his  own  image  in  the  water,  with  which  he  fell  in  love. 
Having  died  of  disappointed  love,  he  was  changed  into 
the  flower  of  the  same  name. 

Narcissus,  a  profligate  Roman  courtier  and  favourite 
of  the  emperor  Claudius,  was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  He 
acquired  unlimited  influence  over  Claudius,  and  pro- 
cured the  death  of  several  innocent  persons.  He  also 
caused  Messalina  to  be  assassinated.  He  was  put  to 
death,  by  order  of  Agrippina,  in  54  A.D. 

Nardi,  naR'dee,  (Jacopo,)  a  distinguished  historian, 
born  at  Florence  in  1476.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  Florence  from  1494  to  1531,"  (1582.)  He  also 
wrote  a  comedy  entitled  "  L'Amicizia,"  and  made  a 
translation  of  Livy,  (1540,)  esteemed  one  of  the  best  111 
the  Italian  language.     Died  about  1555. 

See  C.  Nardi,  "Vita  di  Jacopo  Nardi." 

Nardin,  nlR'diN',  (Jean  Fr6d6ric,)  a  French  Prot 
estant  minister,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1687.  He 
preached  at  Blamont.     Died  in  1728. 

See  DuvERNOY,  "Vie  de  J.  F.  Nardin,"  prefixed  to  his  Sermons 
«754. 

Nardin,  (T.,)  a  French  negotiator  and  litterateur 
born  at  Besan9on  in  1540;  died  in  1616. 

Nardini,  naR-dee'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  musician, 
born  at  Leghorn  in  1725,  was  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
violinists  of  his  time.  He  composed  a  number  of  pieces 
for  the  violin  and  flute.     Died  in  1796. 

Nareda.    See  Narada. 

Nares,  narz,  (Rev.  Edward,)  nephew  of  James  Nares, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in  1762.  He  became 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford  in  1814.  He  was 
the  authorof  a  novel  entitled  "  Thinks  I  to  Myself,"  and 
of  the  "  Life  and  Administration  of  Lord  Burghley,'' 
which  is  severely  criticised  by  Macaulay  in  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review,"  (1832.)     Died  in  1841. 

Nares,  (Sir  George  Strong,)  an  English  navi- 
gator, born  in  183 1.  He  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Naval  College,  and  entered  the  navy.  He  was  on  the 
ship  Resolute  in  the  Arctic  voyage  of  1852-54,  served  in 
the  Crimean  war,  was  for  many  years  employed  in  hy- 
drographic  surveys  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  com- 
manded the  Challenger  expedition,  1872-74,  and  led  the 
expedition  of  1875-76  in  the  Arctic  waters  west  and 
northwest  of  Greenland  with  the  ships  Alert  and  Dis- 
covery, of  which  voyage  he  published  a  "  Report"  (1876) 
and  a  "Narrative,"  (1878.)  He  also  published  various 
works  on  maritime  subjects. 

Nares,  (James,)  an  English  composer,  born  in  Mid- 
dlesex in  1715.  His  principal  compositions  are  anthems 
and  other  church  music ;  he  also  published  "  Lessons 


for  the  Harpsichord,"  and  various  treatises  on  music 
In  1756  he  succeeded  Green  as  organist  and  composer 
to  the  king.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  the  composer 
Arnold.     Died  in  1783. 

Nares,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  critic  and  theolo- 
gian, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  l)orn  in  1753.  He  be- 
came Archdeacon  of  Stafford,  and  pastor  of  Allhallows 
Church,  London  ;  he  also  held  the  office  of  assistant 
librarian  of  the  British  Museum.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Elements  of  Orthoepy,"  (1784,)  and  a 
"  Chronological  View  of  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the 
Christian  Church,"  (1805.)  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "British  Critic."     Died  in  1829. 

Narfi.     See  Norvi. 

Narino,  n5-rfen'yo,  (Antonio,)  a  South  American 
general,  born  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  in  1769.  He  fought 
against  the  Spaniards  in  1812-13,  was  made  prisoner, 
and  was  confined  at  Cadiz,  where  he  died  about  1822. 

See  Captain  Bonnvcastle,  "  Spanish  America,"  1818;  Lalle- 
MANT,  "  Histoire  de  la  Colombie,"  1826. 

Narni,  di,  de  naR^nee,  (Girolamo  Mautin — mow- 
teen',)  an  Italian  monk  and  eloquent  preacher,  lived  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Nar'ri-en,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  geometer,  born 
at  Chertsey  in  1782,  was  a  maker  of  mathematical  and 
philosophical  instruments  in  his  youth.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  and  published,  besides 
several  works  on  geometry,  a  "  History  of  the  Origin 
and  Progress  of  Astronomy,"  (1838.) 

Nar'ses,  [Gr.  Naptr^f,]  a  celebrated  general  under  the 
emperor  Justinian  I.,  was  a  eunuch,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Asia.  He  was  early  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  the  emperor,  and  in  538  a.d.  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  command  under  Belisarius  in  Italy.  Owing 
to  dissensions  arising  between  them,  Narses  was  recalled 
in  539,  but  he  was  sent  again  in  552  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Italian  army.  He  obtained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  Goths,  led  by  Totila,  and  recovered  Rome. 
Having  driven  the  barbarians  from  the  country,  he  was 
appointed  in  553  Exarch  of  Italy.  On  the  accession  of 
Justinus  II.,  Narses  was  superseded  in  his  command  by 
Longinus.     Died  in  558. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lk 
Brai;,  "Histoire  du  Bas- Empire;"  Procopius,  "Bellum  Gothi- 
cum." 

Nar'ses  or  Narsi,  nar'see,  [Gr.  Napfrw,]  a  Sassanide 
king  of  Persia,  a  son  of  Varanes  II.,  began  to  reign  in 
294  A.D.  He  waged  war  against  the  emperor  Diocletian, 
whose  army  he  defeated  in  Mesopotamia  in  296.  Having 
been  defeated  in  the  second  campaign,  Narses  sued  for 
peace,  and  in  297  made  a  treaty  by  which  he  ceded 
Mesopotamia  and  Armenia  to  Diocletian.  Narses  abdi- 
cated in  favour  of  his  son,  Hormisdas  II.,  in  303  a.d. 

Narssius.     See  Naerssen. 

Naruszewicz,  nj-roo-sha'vitch,  (Adam  Stanislas,) 
a  Polish  historian  and  poet,  born  in  1733.  He  was  ap- 
pointed successively  professor  of  poetry  in  the  Jesuits' 
College  of  Nobles  at  Warsaw,  and  Bishop  of  Smolensk. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  Poland,"  an  ex- 
cellent translation  of  Tacitus  into  Polish,  and  a  number 
of  lyrics,  fables,  and  satires.     Died  in  1796. 

See  Bentkowski   "  Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Polonaise." 

Narvaez,  de,  di  naR-vl-^th',  (Panfilo,)  a  Spanish 
commander,  born  at  Valladolid.  He  went  to  America 
in  or  before  15 10,  and  served  in  the  army.  When  Ve- 
lasquez, Governor  of  Cuba,  learned  that  Cortez  disowned 
his  authority  in  Mexico,  he  sent  an  army  against  him, 
and  gave  the  command  to  Narvaez,  in  1520.  The  latter 
was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Cortez  at  Zampoaia. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Indians  in  Florida  about  1527. 

Narvaez,  de,  (Ramon  Maria,)  Duke  of  Valencia,  a 
Spanish  general  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Andalusia 
about  1798.  He  fought  against  the  Carlists  in  1836-38, 
and  was  the  leader  of  the  insurrection  which  drove  Es- 
partero  from  power  in  1843.  ^^  was  prime  minister 
from  May,  1844,  to  February,  1846,  and  was  restored  to 
power  in  1849.  He  resigned  in  January,  1851,  was  again 
appointed  presidont  of  the  council  in  October,  1856,  and 
retired  from  office  in  November,  1857.  About  Septem- 
ber, 1864,  he  again  became  prime  minister.  Died  in 
April,  1868. 


■e  as  ^;  9  as s;  g  hard;  g asy";  O,  H,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


i 


NASCIMENTO 


1800 


NASON 


Nasciniento,  do,  do  nis-se-mSn'to,  (Manoel,)  an 
eminent  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1734.  He 
was  driven  into  exile  by  the  persecution  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion in  1778,  after  which  he  lived  in  Paris  until  his  death. 
Among  his  works,  which  he  published  under  the  assumed 
name  of  "  Filinto  Elysio,"  are  a  number  of  odes  and  a 
translation  of  La  Fontaine's  Fables.     Died  in  1819. 

See  A.  M.  San^,  "  Poi^sie  lyrique  Portugaise,"  etc.,  180S;  L. 
DK  Mendo^a,  "  Memorias  de  Litteratura  contemporanea." 

Naseef-al-Yazajee  or  Nasif-al-Yazaji,  ni-seef  SI 
yS'za-jee,  a  distinguished  Arabic  scholar  and  writer, 
born  in  "the  Lebanon,"  probably  near  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century.  Although  a  Christian,  he 
is  said  to  have  devoted  his  life  solely  to  the  study  of  the 
language,  history,  literature,  and  grammar  of  the  Arabs. 
In  his  treatise  on  grammar  he  has  condensed,  with  rare 
ability  and  skill,  the  whole  system  of  the  Arab  gram- 
marians. "  No  more  complete  exposition  of  the  subject," 
says  Mr.  Chenery,  "has  ever  been  brought  into  a  vol- 
ume of  the  same  size."  He  has  also  written  "  Makamat," 
("Assemblies,")  in  imitation  of  Hareeree,  (Hariri.) 
"Nasif,"  says  the  same  critic,  "has  little  of  the  poetical 
power  of  his  great  original,  but  in  curious  learning  he 
almost  equals  him." 

Naselli,  nS-sel'lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Ferrara.  The  churches  of  Ferrara  contain  many 
of  his  works.     Died  about  1630. 

Nash,  (Abner,)  an  American  statesman  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Virginia.  Having  set- 
tled in  North  Carolina,  he  was  elected  in  1779  Governor 
of  that  State.     Died  in  1786. 

Nash,  (F'rancis,)  an  American  brigadier-general, 
brother  of  Abner  Nash,  noticed  above,  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Germantown,  (1777.) 

Nash,  (Frederick,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Newbern,  North  Carolina,  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  Abner 
Nash.  He  resided  mostly  at  Hillsborough.  He  became 
a  judge  of  the  suineme  court  of  North  Carolina  in  1844. 
Died  in  1858. 

Nash,  (John,)  an  English  architect,  born  in  London 
in  1752.  He  was  appointed  in  1S15  inspector  of  the 
royal  buildings.  He  furnished  the  designs  for  the  Hay- 
Market  Theatre,  Buckingham  Palace,  and  the  Pavilion 
of  Brighton,  also  the  plans  of  Regent  Street  and  Re- 
gent's Park.     Died  in  1835. 

Nash,  (Joseph,)  an  English  painter  and  designer, 
born  about  1812.  He  designed  illustrations  for  "The 
Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (183S.)  He  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  painter  of  architecture.     Died  in  1878. 

Nash,  (Richard,)  usually  called  Beau  Nash,  was 
born  at  Swansea,  Wales,  in  1674.  He  entered  the  Mid- 
die  Temple  as  a  student  of  law,  but  had  an  invincible 
aversion  to  study  and  business.  He  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  man  of  fashion,  a  master  of  the  science  of 
gentility,  and  a  paragon  of  effrontery.  His  skill  as  a 
gambler  yielded  him  an  ample  revenue.  In  1704  he 
found  Bath  a  vulgar  and  mismanaged  watering-place, 
infested  with  ill-bred  people.  He  got  himself  appointed 
master  of  ceremonies,  and,  by  enforcing  the  rules  of  good 
breeding  at  balls,  public  assemblies,  etc.,  converted  Bath 
into  a  fashionable  and  elegant  place  of  resort.  His 
person  was  coarse  and  ungainly,  but  his  vivacit)  and 
benevolent  or  prodigal  habits  rendered  him  popular. 
He  is  said  to  have  taken  measures  to  guard  the  unwary 
youth  from  falling  victims  to  the  designs  of  villains. 
During  a  part  of  his  long  period  of  prosperity  and 
supremacy  at  Bath,  he  rode  in  a  six-horse  coach  with  a 
retinue  of  servants.  In  his  old  age  he  was  impoverished 
by  the  act  of  Parliament  which  suppressed  gaming. 
Died  in  1761. 

See  Oliver  Goldsmith,  "  Life  of  Richard  Nash,"  1763;  "Ec 
centric  Personages,"  by  Wm.  Russell,  1866. 

Nash,  (Thomas,)  an  English  wit  and  dramatist,  born 
in  Suffolk  about  1564.  He  was  the  author  of  "The 
Supplication  of  Pierce  Penniless  to  the  Devil,"  (1592,) 
"Dido,"  a  tragedy,  (1594,)  a  comedy  entitled  "Sum- 
mer's Last  Will  and  Testament,"  (1600,)  and  several 
other  woiks,  which  had  great  popularity  in  that  age. 
Died  in  1601. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry;"  Disraeli,  "Ca- 
lamities of  Authors." 


Nash,  (Treadway  Russel,)  an  English  divine  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1725  or  1726.  He  published  "Col- 
lections for  a  History  of  Worcestershire,"  and  a  fine 
edition  of  Hudibras,  and  contributed  several  papers  to 
the  "  Archasologia."     Died  in  181 1. 

Nasif-al-YazajL    See  Naseek-al-Yazajee. 

Nasini,  nS-see'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Sienna  in  1641 ;  died  in 
1716. 

Nasini,  (Giuseppe  Niccol6,)  a  skilful  painter,  born 
near  Sienna  about  1655,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  fresco  many  works,  the  subjects 
of  which  are  mostly  religious.     Died  in  1736. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nasir  Kho'sroo',  or  Aboo  Moo'in-ed-Deen 
Nasir  ben  Khosroo,  an  eminent  Persian  didactic  poet, 
born  at  Koobadeeyan  in  1004  A.D.  He  was  at  first  an 
orthodox  Moslem,  but  became  a  Sheeite.  He  was  a  great 
linguist  and  traveller,  and  was  financial  secretary  to  Ja- 
ghir,  a  brother  of  Togrul  Bey,  (q.v.)  He  wrote  "  Safar- 
nania,"  a  valuable  book  of  travels,  volumes  of  lyrics 
called  "The  Book  of  Enlightenment"  and  "The  Book 
of  Happiness,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1088. 

Nasir  -  ed  -  Deen  -  Mohammed  -  Ibn  -  Hassan,  or 
Nassir-eddyn-Mohammed-Ibn-Ha9an,  nS'sir  ed- 
deen'  mo-hSm'med  ib'n  hS'san,  surnamed  Al-Too'see, 
(or  Al-Thousi,)  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  a  celebrated 
Persian  astronomer,  born  at  Toos,  (Tus  or  Thous,)  in 
Khorassan,  about  1200  a.d.,  became  superintendent  of 
an  observatory  in  Azerbaijan.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Ilchanic  Tables,"  which  are  said  by  Delambre  not  to 
differ  essentially  from  those  of  Ptolemy.     Died  in  1274. 

N&sir-  (or  Nasser-)  Ledeen-  (Ledin-)  lUah,  nS'sir 
le-deen'  il'lah,  (Abool- Abbas-Ahmed,  i'bool  Jb-bls' 
in'med,)  an  Abbasside  caliph,  began  to  reign  at  Bagdad 
in  1 180,  as  successor  of  his  father  Mostadee.  He  founded 
many  colleges,  hospitals,  and  mosques.     Died  in  1225. 

Na'smith,  (David,)  a  Scottish  philanthropist,  born 
in  Glasgow  in  1799,  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in 
promoting  religious  and  benevolent  associations.  He 
founded  in  1826  the  Glasgow  City  Mission,  and,  having 
subsequently  visited  England,  Ireland,  France,  and  the 
United  States  of  America,  he  established  missions  in 
their  principal  cities.  The  London  City  Mission,  which 
began  its  operations  in  1835  ^^'^'^  f°"''  missionaries, 
numbered  in  1856  upwards  of  three  hundred.  Nasmith 
also  founded  the  London  Female  Mission,  the  Adult 
School  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  Dr.  John  Campbell,  "Memoirs  of  David  Nasmith,"  1844. 

Na'smith,  (James,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1740,  published  editions  of  the 
"  Itineraries"  of  Simon  and  William  of  Worcester,  and 
Tanner's  "Notitia  Monastica."     Died  in  1808. 

Na'smyth,  (  Alexander,  )  a  celebrated  Scottish 
painter,  founder  of  the  so-called  Nasmyth  school,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1758.  He  painted  landscapes  and 
portraits  of  great  merit.  Among  the  latter,  that  of  Burns 
is  highly  esteemed,  and  is  said  to  be  the  only  authentic 
likeness  of  the  poet.     Died  in  1840. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen. 
(Supplement.) 

Nasmyth,  (James,)  a  Scottish  engineer  and  inventor, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1808. 
He  commenced  business  for  himself  as  a  mechanical 
engineer,  at  Manchester,  in  1834-  He  invented  a  steam 
hammer,  a  steam  pile-driver,  &c.     Died  May  8,  1890. 

See  Samuel  Smiles,  "  Industrial  Biography,"  etc.,  1864. 

Nasmyth,  (Patrick,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1786.  He  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  a  landscape-painter,  and  had  five  sisters 
who  were  distinguished  in  the  same  department  of  the 
art.     Died  in  1831. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Na'son,  (Elias,)  an  American  author,  born  at  Wren- 
tham,  Massachusetts,  April  21,  1811.  He  graduated  at 
lirovvn  University  in  1835,  and  was  for  several  years  an 
editor  and  teacher.  In  1S49  he  entered  the  Congrega- 
tionalist  ministry.  He  edited  several  hymn-collections, 
published  a  "Life"  of  N.   Howe,  (1851,)  of  Sir  C.  H. 


a,  e, I,  6,  u,  y, /i*//^; i,  fe,  6, same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  \\,^, short;  a,  e,  j.  o,  ol'saire;  f.ii,  fill!,  fit;  ni^t;  nftt;good;  moon; 


NASON 


1801 


NATTIER 


Frankland,  (1865,)  of  Mrs.  Rowson,  (1870,)  of  Henry 
\Vilson,(i872,)  and  of  Charles  Sumner,(i874,)  "Gazetteer 
of  Massachusetts,"  (1873,)  "  History  of  the  Bible,"  (1881,) 
"  Noted  Men  of  Massachusetts,"  and  other  works.  He 
was  also  a  popular  lecturer.     Died  June  17,  1887. 

Nason,  (Henry  Bradford,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
chemist,  born  at  Foxborough,  Massachusetts,  June  22, 
1831.  He  studied  (1852-55)  at  Amherst  College,  and 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Gottingen  in  18^.  He 
was  professor  of  chemistry  in  Beloit  College  from  1858 
to  1866,  and  then  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic  Institute,  at  Troy,  New  \  ork.  He 
has  published  tables  for  laboratory  use,  and  edited  trans- 
lations of  various  hand-books  of  Wohler  and  Elderhorst. 

Nassare,  n^s-si'ri,  (Blas  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Alguezar  in  1689;  died  in 
1751. 

Nassau,  nas'saw,  [Ger.  pron.  nSs'sow,]  House  of, 
a  noble  family,  of  German  origin,  which  produced  many 
great  men,  and  derived  its  title  from  Nassau,  on  the 
Rhine.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  family  acquired 
the  principality  of  Orange,  in  the  southeast  of  France, 
after  which  the  Counts  of  Nassau  took  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Orange.  (See  Orange,  and  William  III.  of  Eng- 
land.) 

Nassau,  (Henry,)  Count  of,  a  Flemish  nobleman, 
inherited  from  his  father  large  estates  in  Brabant,  Flan- 
ders, and  Holland.  In  1515  he  married  the  sister  of 
Philibert,  Prince  of  Orange,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  Rene, 
Henry  was  a  confidential  friend  of  Charles  V.,  whose 
governor  he  had  been  in  that  emperor's  boyhood.  "  It 
was  he,"  says  Motley,  "  whose  influence  placed  the  im- 
perial crown  upon  the  head  of  Charles."  He  was  the 
uncle  of  William  of  Orange,  the  founder  of  the  Dutch 
republic. 

Nassau,  (Maurice  of,)  [Dutch,  Maurits  van  Nas- 
sau, mow'rits  vtn  nSs'sow  ;  Ger.  Moritz  von  Nassau, 
mo'rits  fon  nds'sow,]  one  of  the  greatest  captains  of 
modern  times,  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Dillenburg  in 
November,  1567,  and  was  the  second  son  of  William  the 
Silent,  Prince  of  Orange,  who  founded  the  Dutch  repub- 
lic. About  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  elected  Governor  and 
Captain-General  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  which 
were  then  at  war  with  Spain.  In  1591  he  took  Deventer, 
Zutphen,  and  other  fortified  towns.  He  defeated  the 
Spaniards  in  a  great  pitched  battle  at  Turnhout  in  1597, 
and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Archduke  Albert 
of  Austria  at  Nieuwport  in  1600.  In  the  ensuing  cam- 
paigns his  skill  as  a  tactician  was  exerted  with  uninter- 
rupted success  until  1609,  when  Sparin  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  Dutch,  and  a  truce  of  twelve  years 
was  signed  by  the  two  powers.  The  patriot  Barneveldt, 
by  promoting  this  peace  and  opposing  the  ambitious  pro- 
jects of  Maurice,  incurred  his  enmity,  and  finally  became 
a  victim  of  his  cruelty.  (See  Bakneveldt.)  Maurice 
received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother,  about  1618.  In  162 1  he  renewed  the  war 
against  the  Spaniards,  who  opposed  to  him  the  celebrated 
general  Spinola.  "  His  great  capacity  in  the  military 
art,"  says  Hume,  "  would  have  compensated  the  inferior- 
ity of  his  forces,  had  not  the  Spanish  armies  been  com- 
manded by  Spinola."  Maurice  compelled  his  rival  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Bergen-op-Zoom  in  1622,  but  Spinola 
took. Breda  in  1625.  He  died  in  1625,  and  was  succeeded 
in  the  office  of  Stadtholder  by  his  brother,  Frederick 
Henry,  wno  was  the  grandfather  of  William  Hi.  of  Eng- 
land. Maurice  made  important  improvements  in  the 
military  art,  and  excelled  especially  in  the  reduction  and 
defence  of  fortifiecf  places. 

See  Stolker,  "Prins  Maurits,"  1S27  ;  Oudemans,  "  Hat  Leven 
en  de  Daden  van  Maurits  Prins  van  Oranje-Nassau,"  1832  ;  C.  M. 
VAN  DER  Kemp,  "  Maurits  van  Nassau  Prins  van  Oranje,"  etc., 
•  S44  :  Motley,   "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands." 

Nassau-Siegen,  de,  deh  nis'sow  see'gen,  (Charles 
Henri  Nicolas  Othon,)  Prince,  born  in  Nassau  in 
1745,  gained  distinction  by  his  adventures.  He  served 
in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  entered  the  service 
of  Russia.  He  gained  a  naval  victory  over  the  Turks 
in  1788.     Died  about  1809. 

Nassau-Siegen,  de,  (Jan  Maurits,)  Prince, 
called  the  American,  a  Dutch  commander,  born  in 
1604,  was  a  grandson  of  John,  Count  of  Nassau.     He 


was  appointed  captain-general  of  the  Dutch  possessions 
in  Brazil  in  1636,  and  gained  several  successes  over  the 
Portuguese.  He  returned  to  Holland  in  1644,  and  was 
made  general-in-chief  of  the  cavalry.  He  left  in  manu- 
script a  work  on  the  Animals  of  South  America.  Died 
in  1679. 

See  Van  Kampbn.  "Johann  Moritz  von  Nassau:  eine  Bio- 
prapliie,"  1842;  L.  Driesen,  "  Leben  des  Fiirsten  Moritz  von 
Nassau-Sie[;eu,"  1849. 

Nast,  (Thomas,)  a  distinguished  caricaturist,  born  at 
Landau,  in  Bavaria,  September  27,  1840.  In  1S46  he 
was  brought  to  America,  and  in  early  youth  found  em- 
ployment as  a  draughtsman  for  an  illustrated  newspapefi 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1861-65  ^^  became 
prominent  as  an  effective  political  caricaturist.  He  after- 
wards became  a  lecturer,  and  illustrated  various  books, 
chiefly  with  comic  sketches. 

Nast,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  native  of  Germany,  emi- 
grated in  1828  to  America,  where  he  became  a  preacher 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  has  translated 
numerous  Methodist  works  into  German,  and  published 
several  books  in  that  language. 

Natal,  Bishop  of.     See  Colenso. 

Natale,  ni-t^'li,  [Lat.  Nata'lis,]  (Geronimo,)  a 
Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in  Majorca  in  1507.  He  declined 
the  office  of  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  1558.  He 
wrote  "Commentaries  and  Meditations  on  the  Gospels," 
("  Adnotationes  et  Meditationes  in  Evangelia,"  1594.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1580. 

See  H.  Fi.sQiJET,  "  Notice  sur  Jerome  Natalis,"  1856. 

Natali,  nS-tS'lee,  (Giovanni.)  an  Italian  poet  and 
physician,  born  at  Messina  in  1642 ;  died  about  1730. 

Natali,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  of  the  school 
of  Cremona,  born  in  1652;  died  in  1722. 

Natalis.     See  Natale. 

Natalis,  na-tA'lis,  (Michael,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Liege  about  1609,  worked  at  Rome  and  Paris. 
He  engraved  some  works  of  Titian,  Rubens,  and  Poussin. 
Died  in  1670. 

Na'than,  [Heb.  JHJ ;  Gr.  Naffav,]  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
who  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Kings  David  and  Solomon. 
He  wrote  a  Life  of  David,  which  is  not  extant. 

See  H.  Samuel  xii.  ;  I.  Chronicles  xxix.  29;  I.  Kings  i. 

Nathan,  (Isaac,)  called  also  Mordecai,  a  Jewish 
rabbi  of  the  fifteenth  century,  published  the  first  Hebrew 
Concordance  to  the  Bible.  It  is  entitled  "  Mair  Netib," 
or  "  Light  to  the  Path." 

Na'than,  (Isaac,)  an  English  vocalist  and  musician, 
of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1792.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  singer  and  singing-master,  pro- 
duced some  comic  operas,  and  wrote  "A  Life  of  Madame 
Malibran  de  Beriot,"  (1836.)  He  was  accidentally  killed 
in  Sydney,  Australia,  January  15,  1864. 

Na'than  Ben  Jecliiel,  (b6n  y&k'e-51',)  a  Jewish  rabbi, 
president  of  the  synagogue  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  Tal- 
mudical  Lexicon,  which  was  printed  about  1480.  Died 
in  1 106. 

Nathanael,  (of  Scripture.)     See  Bartholomew. 

Natoire,  nt'twda',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1 700,  studied  under  Lemoine,  whose  un- 
finished works  he  completed.  Some  of  his  best  pictures 
are  at  Versailles  and  the  Hotel  de  Soubise.  Died  near 
Rome  in  1777. 

See  DuMKSNiL,  "Le  Peintre-Graveur  Fran^ais." 

Natter,  nSt'ter,  (Johann  Lorenz,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man gem-engraver,  born  in  Suabia  in  1705.  After  re- 
siding for  a  time  at  Rome,  he  visited  the  principal  courts 
of  Europe,  where  his  works  were  in  great  demand.  His 
imitations  of  the  antique  are  so  perfect  as  scarcely  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  original.  Among  his  best  pro- 
ductions  are  a  medal  in  honour  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole, 
and  a  victorious  Britannia,  on  a  gem.  Natter  published 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Antique  Method  of  engraving  Gems, 
compared  with  the  Modern."  Died  at  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1763. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Natterer,  nit'ter-er,  (Johann,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Laxenburg,  near  Vienna,  in  1787.  He  travellea 
in  Brazil,  and  wrote  several  works  on  reptiles  and  mam- 
mifera.     Died  in  1843. 

Nattier,  nt'tc;^',  (Jean  Marc,)  a  French  portrait- 


*  as  >i;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  yi,gnttHra[;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  litis.     ( JJ^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


NA  TZMER 


NAVARRETE 


painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1685.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  portraits  of  Marshal  Saxe  and  tlie  Duke  of 
Richelieu.  He  was  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts. 
Died  in  1766. 

Natzmer,  von,  fon  nJts'mer,  (Dubislaw  Gneomar,) 
a  Prussian  general,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1654.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  Blenheim,  (1704,)  and  com- 
manded the  Prussian  corps  at  Malplaquet,  (1709.)  Died 
in  1739. 

Naubert,  now'bSRt,  (Christiane  Benedicte  Eu- 
genie,) a  celebrated  romance-writer  of  Germany,  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1756.  Among  her  most  admired  works 
are  "Conradin  of  Suabia,"  "Walter  of  Montbarry,"  and 
"  Thekla  of  Thurn."  The  latter,  it  is  said,  suggested  to 
Schiller  many  tine  passages  in  "  Wallenstein."  Her 
"  Popular  Legends  of  Germany"  are  also  greatly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1819. 

Naubrigensis.     See  Little,  (Wiixiam.) 

Nauclerus,  now-kJa'rus,  (Johann  Vergen,)  a  chron- 
icler, born  in  Suabia  about  1430.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  chronicle,  which  was  printed  in  1516.    Died  abouti5io. 

Nau'cra-tes,  [Nai'/i-pur^^f,]  a  Greek  orator,  was  a  pupil 
of  Isocrates,  and  flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  wrote  on 
rhetoric. 

Nau-cy'des,  [Nay/cii^w,]  a  celebrated  Greek  sculptor, 
born  at  Argos  about  the  95th  Olympiad.  Among  his 
best  productions  were  two  statues  of  Chimon,  a  Mer- 
cury, and  a  bronze  statue  of  Erinna. 

Naudaeus.     See  Naud6,  (Gabriel.) 

Naude,  n5'di',  [Lat.  Naud/e'us,]  (Gabriel,)  a  dis- 
tinguished French  bibliographer  and  savant,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1600.  He  was  chosen  physician-ordinary  to 
Louis  XHI.  in  1633,  and  librarian  to  Cardinal  Richelieu 
in  1642.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Richelieu  (1642)  he 
became  librarian  to  Mazarin.  He  had  extensive  learning 
and  an  acute  understanding,  and  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Gassendi.  His  principal  works  are  an  "  Apology  for 
Great  Men  falsely  accused  of  Magic,"  (1625,)  "  Biblio- 
graphia  Politica,"  (1633,)  and  "  Considerations  on  Coups 
d'Etat."  A  collection  of  anecdotes  entitled  "  Naudseana" 
was  published  in  1701.     Died  in  1653. 

See  Louis  Jacob,  "  Gabrielis  Naiidsi  Tumulus,"  1659  :  Nic^ron, 
"M^moires;"  Sainte-Bkuve,  "  Portraits  litteraires,"  1855  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Naude,  (Philippe,)  a  French  mathematician  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Metz  in  1654.  Having 
removed  to  Berlin,  he  was  appointed,  in  1696,  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  and  subsequently 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  soon  after  its  foundation. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  moral  and  theological 
works,  and  of  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1706.)  Died 
in  1729. 

Naudet,  no'di',  (Joseph,)  a  French  scholar  and  his- 
torian, born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Liscriptions  in  1817,  and  professor  of 
Latin  poetry  in  the  College  de  France  about  1821. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Monarchy  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy,"  (181 1.)     Died  August  13,  1878. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Naudet,  (Thomas  Charles,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1774.  He  travelled  over  a 
considerable  part  of  Europe,  and  made  a  collection  of 
three  thousand  designs.     Died  in  1810. 

Naugerius.     See  Navagero. 

Naumami,  now'mSn,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  near  Kothen  in  1744.  He  published  a 
"History  of  the  Birds  of  North  Germany,"  (1795-1804.) 
Died  in  1826. 

Naumann,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  ornithologist, 
born  near  Kothen  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "  Natural  History  of  German  Birds," 
(1822-44.)     Died  in  1857. 

Naumann,  (Johann  Gottlieb  or  Amadeus,)  a  Ger- 
man coinposer,  born  near  Dresden  in  1741.  He  pro- 
duced several  popular  operas ;  but  his  reputation  rests 
chiefly  on  his  church  music.     Died  in  1801. 

See  Meissner,  "  Bruchstiicke  aus  J.  A.  Naunianns  Lebens^e- 
schichte,"  2  vols.,  1804;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Mu- 
siciens." 

Naumann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  mineral- 
ogist, born  at  Dresden  in  1797,   was  a  son  of  Johann 


Gottlieb,  noticed  above.  He  published  several  suc- 
cessful works  on  mineralogy.     Died  November  26,  1873. 

Naumann,  (Moritz  Ernst  Adolph,)  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  and  a  medical  writer,  was  born  at  Dresden 
in  1798.  He  wrote  an  important  work  on  clinic  medi- 
cine, "  Handbuch  der  medicinischen  Klinik,"  (8  vols., 
1829-39,)  and  other  works.     Died  October  19,  1871. 

Naun'tpn,  (Sir  Rohert,)  an  English  statesman,  rose 
to  be  secretary  of  state  and  master  of  requests  under 
James  L  He  was  the  author  of  "  Fragmenta  Regalia," 
or  an  account  of  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Died 
in  1635. 

Nausea,  now'zi-3,  otherwise  called  Unrath,  oon'rSt, 
and  Eckel,  ^k'kel,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  near  Wurtzburg  about  1480.  He  became  preacher 
to  the  court  at  Vienna  in  1534,  and  Bishop  of  Vienna  in 
1541.  He  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
about  1550. 

See  DuPiN,  "  Bibliollifeque  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Nau-sic'a-a,  [Gr.  Nanawua,]  a  daughter  of  Alcinous, 
King  of  the  Phseacians,  showed  kindness  to  Ulysses 
when  he  was  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Phseacia,  (Corfu.) 
Tradition  adds  that  she  became  the  wife  of  Telemachus. 

Nau-sio'ra-tes,  \^avaiKpim\q,\  a  Greek  comic  poet, 
whose  works  are  not  extant.  He  is  classed  by  son)»* 
critics  among  the  writers  of  the  middle  comedy. 

Nauze,  La.     See  La  Nauze. 

Navagero,  nS-vd-ja'ro,[Lat.  Nauge'rius,](Andrea,) 
an  Italian  scholar  and  eminent  Latin  poet,  born  in  Venice 
in  1483.  He  passed  about  four  years  (1525-28)  at  Madrid 
as  Venetian  ambassador  to  Charles  V.,  and  exercised  an 
important  influence  on  Spanish  literature.  Having  been 
sent  on  a  mission  to  France,  he  died  at  Blois  in  1529. 
His  Latin  and  Italian  poems  are  admired  for  their  ele- 
gance and  purity  of  style. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  Meneghelli, 
"  Elogio  di  A.  Navagero,"  1813. 

Navagero,  (Bernardo,)  a  Venetian  statesman  and 
cardinal,  born  at  Venice  in  1507.  He  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  France  and  Germany,  and  attended  the 
Council  of  Trent.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Pope  Paul  IV." 
Died  in  1565. 

See  L.  Manin,  "Elogio  ^  CardinaJe  Navagero,"  1S14;  Au- 
bery,  "Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Navailles,  de,  deh  nt'vtl'  or  ni'vt'ye,  (Philippe  de 
Montault  de  Benac — deh  miiN'to'  deli  bi'nik',)  Due, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1619.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  marshal  of  France  in  1675.     Died  in  1684- 

See  "M(^moires  de  sa  Vie,"  etc.,  written  by  himself,  1691. 

Navarre  or  Navarrese,  Doctor.    See  Azpilcueta. 

Navarre,  ni-vir'rA,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  captain,  born 
in  Biscay,  was  a  skilful  engineer.  He  invented  or  im- 
proved the  art  of  undermining,  and  took  the  Castello 
del  Ovo  at  Naples  in  1503.  In  15 14  he  entered  the 
service  of  Francis  I.  of  France.     Died  in  1528. 

See  Brant6me,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaiues." 

Navarrete  or  Navarete.     See  Mudo,  El. 

Navarrete,  na-var-ra'ti,  (Domingo  Fernandez,)  a 
Spanish  Dominican,  born  in  Old  Castile,  was  a  mission- 
ary to  China  in  1646.  After  his  return  he  was  created 
Archbishop  of  Saint  Domingo  in  the  West  Indies.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  on  the  moral,  political, 
and  religious  condition  of  the  Chinese,  entitled  "Tra- 
tados  historicos,  etc.  de  la  Monarchia  de  China,"  (1676.) 
Died  in  1689. 

Navarrete,  (Don  Martin  Fernandez,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian  and  geographer,  born  at  Abalos  in 
1765.  He  was  appointed  in  1823  director  of  the  Hydro- 
graphic  Institute  at  Madrid,  and  in  1837  was  made  a 
senator  and  director  of  the  Academy  of  History.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  a  "Collection  of  the  Voyages 
and  Discoveries  made  by  the  Spaniards  since  the  Close 
of  the  Fifteenth  Century."  It  is  eulogized  by  Humboldt, 
and  has  furnished  Irving  with  material  for  his  "  Life  of 
Columbus."  He  also  wrote  a  "  Biography  of  Cervantes," 
and  assisted  in  preparing  a  valuable  "Collection  of  Un- 
published Documents  for  the  History  of  Spain,"  (un- 
finished.) He  was  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Academy, 
and  proposed  a  new  system  of  orthography,  which  was 
adopted  by  that  institution.     Died  in  1844. 


5,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fS.r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NAVARRO 


1803 


NEANDER 


Navarro,  ni-vSn'ro,  (Augustin,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Murcia  in  1754  ;  died  in  1787. 

Navarro,  (Felipe,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Va- 
lencia aljout  1680. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "Dictioiinaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Nave  or  Naeve,  na'feli,  written  also  Nefe,  (Kaspar,) 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1 5 14; 
died  about  1580. 

Navez,  n^'vi',  (FRANgois  Joseph,)  an  eminent  Bel- 
gian historical  painter,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1787,  was 
a  pupil  of  David.  He  worked  mostly  at  Brussels,  and 
painted  many  scriptural  subjects.  He  was  regarded  as 
the  chief  of  the  Belgian  Academic  school.    Died  in  1869. 

Navier,  nt've-A^',  (Pierre  Toussaint,)  a  Freftch 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Saint-Dizier  in  1712,  was 
the  discoverer  of  nitrous  ether.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  published 
several  scientific  works.     Died  in  1779. 

Navieres,  de,  deh  nt've^i r',  (Charles,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Sedan  in  1544;  died  in  Paris  in  1616. 

Naville,  nt'vil',  (FRANgois  Marc  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
writer  on  education  and  moral  philosophy,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1784.  Among  his  works  is  a  " 'Freatise  on 
Legal  Charity,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)     Died  in  1846. 

Nawa'wee,  or  Nawawi,  ni-wd'wee,  an  Arabian 
author  and  saint,  whose  full  name  was  MoHYl  al-Deen 
Aiioo  Zakarya  Yahya  ben  Sharaf-al-Nawawi.  He 
was  born  at  Nawa,  in  Arabia,  in  1233.  He  was  devout, 
learned,  brave,  and  patriotic.  Of  his  many  works  a 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Illustrious  Men,"  and  a 
celebrated  manual  of  jurisprudence,  are  best  known. 
Died  at  Nawa,  December  20,  1277. 

Nay'lor,  (James,)  an  English  enthusiast,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1616.  He  became  an  eloquent  preacher 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  after  he  had  served  in  the 
army  of  the  Parliament,  which  he  left  in  1649.  Having 
fallen  into  delusions  and  received  acts  of  worship  from 
some  fanatical  persons,  he  was  convicted  of  blasphemy 
by  the  Parliament  in  1656.  He  was  branded,  pilloried, 
and  imprisoned  several  years.     Died  in  1660. 

See  Sewel,  "History  of  the  Quakers;"  and  article  in  the 
"Democratic  Review"  for  March,  1846,  (by  Whittier.) 

Nazianzen.    See  Gregory  Nazianzen. 

Ne  or  Ni,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Confucius, 
which  see. 

Neagle,  na'gel,  (John,)  an  American  artist,  chiefly 
known  as  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1799. 
He  practised  his  art  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  married 
a  daughter  of  Sully.  Among  his  works  are  portraits  of 
Washington  and  Henry  Clay.     Died  in  1865. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America ;" 
TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Neal,  (Alice  B.)  See  Haven,  (Alice.) 
Neal,  neel,  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  English  dissenter, 
born  in  London  in  1678.  After  completing  his  studies 
at  Utrecht,  he  became  minister  of  a  congregation  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  London.  His  principal  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Puritans,"  (in  4  vols.,)  and  a  "  History 
of  New  England."     Died  in  1743. 

See  Wilson,  "  History  of  Dissenting  Churches." 
Neal,  (David  Dolloff,)  an  American  artist,  born  at 
Lowell,  Massachusetts,  October  20,  1837.  He  went  to 
Germany  as  an  art-student,  and  in  1863  married  a 
daughter  of  the  painter  Ainmiiller.  He  was,  1867-76, 
a  pupil  of  Piloty.  In  1876  he  won  the  great  medal  of 
the  Munich  Academy.  Ainong  his  pictures  of  interiors 
are  "  On  the  Grand  Canal,  Venice,"  and  "  Saint  Mark's." 
His  later  pictures  are  mostly  portraits,  and  historical  and 
figure-paintings.  Such  are  the  "  Retour  du  Chasse," 
(1873,)  "The  Burgermeister,"  (1873,)  "Mary  Stuart  and 
Rizzio,"  (1876,)  "Oliver  Cromwell  visits  John  Milton," 
(1883,)  "  Nuns  at  Prayer,"  etc.  He  has  chiefly  resided  at 
Munich. 

Neal,  (John,)  an  American  poet  and  litterateur,  born 
at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1793.  His  first  publications  were 
a  series  of  essays  on  the  works  of  Byron,  which  ap- 
peared in  "The  Portico,"  a  monthly  magazine.  These 
were  soon  followed  by  his  novel  entitled  "  Keep  Cool," 
(1817,)  "The  Battle  of  Niagara,"  (1818,)  " Goldau,  the 
Maniac  Harper,"  and  other  poems ;  also  "  Logan," 
(1822,)  "Seventy-Six,"  (1823,)   and   other  novels.     In 


1824  he  visited  England,  where  he  contributed  a  num- 
ber of  able  and  interesting  articles  on  American  litera- 
ture to  "  Blackwood's  Magazine."  After  his  return,  he 
published  the  novels  of  "  Rachel  Dyer,"  (1828,)  "The 
Down-Easters,"  (1833,)  "True  Womanhood,"  (1859,) 
and  several  other  works.  In  1870  appeared  his  "Wan- 
dering Recollections  of  a  Somewhat  Busy  Life."  "The 
elements  of  poetry,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  are  poured 
forth  in  his  verses  with  a  prodigality  and  power  alto- 
gether astonishing ;  but  he  is  deficient  in  the  constructive 
faculty."     Died  at  Portland,  June  20,  1876. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Duvckinck,  "  Cy- 
clopaedia of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Neal,  (Joseph  C.,)  an  American  journalist  and  hu- 
morous writer,  born  at  Greenland,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1807.  Having  settled  in  Philadelphia,  he  became  in  1831 
editor  of  "The  Pennsylvanian,"  and  in  1844  of  a  literary 
journal  entitled  "  Neal's  Saturday  Gazette,"  which  soon 
acquired  extensive  popularity.  He  published  in  1837 
"  Charcoal  Sketches,  or  Scenes  in  a  Metropolis,"  which 
were  received  with  great  favour,  and  were  republished 
in  London.  They  were  followed  by  "  Peter  Ploddy,  and 
other  Oddities,"  (1844,)  and  another  series  of  "Char- 
coal  Sketches."     Died  in  1848. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Ne-al'9es,  [Nm/l/cT/f,]  a  Greek  painter,  born  about 
213  B.C.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Sicyon. 
His  works  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
and  are  eulogized  by  Plutarch  and  Pliny.  One  of  his 
principal  pieces  represents  a  battle  between  the  Egyp- 
tians and  the  Persians  on  the  Nile, 

Neale,  neel,  (John  Mason,)  an  English  theologian 
and  historical  writer,  born  about  1818.  He  published, 
besides  several  books  for  children,  a  "  History  of  the 
Holy  Eastern  Church,"  "Mediaeval  Hymns,"  (transla- 
tions,) "  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church,"  "  History  of 
the  Jansenists,"  etc.     Died  in  i866. 

Neale,  (Leonard,)  D.D.,  an  American  archbishop, 
born  near  Port  Tobacco,  Maryland,  October  15,  1746. 
He  was  educated  in  Saint-Omer,  France,  became  a  priest 
and  Jesuit,  and  in  1779  went  as  a  missionary  to  Deme- 
rara,  but  in  1783  returned  to  Maryland,  and  ministered 
with  zeal  and  success  in  Philadelphia  till  1798,  when  he 
became  president  of  Georgetown  College.  In  i8oo  he 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Gortyna,  and  Coadjutor  of 
Baltimore,  of  which  see  he  was  promoted  to  be  arch- 
bishop in  1815.     Died  at  Georgetown,  June  15,  1817. 

Neander,  ni-dn'der,  (Christoph  Friedrich.) 
(changed  from  Neumann,)  a  German  divine  and  poet, 
born  in  Courland  in  1724.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Spiritual  Songs,"  ("Geistliche  Lieder,")  which  are 
ranked  among  the  best  compositions  of  that  kind  in  the 
language.     Died  in  1802. 

See  "  Bruchstiicke  von  Neanders  Leben,"  Berlin,  1804. 

Neauder,  (Joachlm,)  a  German  hymn-writer  and 
Calvinistic  preacher,  born  at  Bremen  about  1650.  He 
published  "Covenant  Songs,"  ("  Bundeslieder,")  and 
"  Psalms  of  Thanksgiving,"  ("  Dankpsalmen,"  1679.) 
Died  in  16S0. 

Ne-an'der,  [Ger.  pron.  ni-Sn'der,]  (Johann  August 
Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  German  theologian  and  ecclesi- 
astical historian,  of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  at  Gdt- 
tingen  in  1789.  He  became  in  1812  professor  of  theology 
at  Berlin,  where  he  devoted  himself  zealously  to  the 
duties  of  his  office  and  the  advancement  of  Christianity 
by  his  numerous  writings.  Of  these  the  most  important 
is  his  "Universal  Plistory  of  the  Christian  Religion  and 
Church,"  (in  .5  vols.,  1843.)  Among  his  other  produc- 
tions we  may  name  "The  Emperor  Julian  and  his  Times," 
(1812,)  "Memorable  Occurrences  from  the  History  of 
Christianity  and  Christian  Life,"  (3  vols.,  1822,)  "  His- 
tory of  the  Planting  of  the  Apostolic  Church,"  (1832,) 
and  "The  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  in  its  Historical  Rela- 
tions," (1837,)  an  able  refutation  of  the  well-known  work 
of  Strauss.  Neander  was  a  member  of  the  Consistory 
of  the  province  of  Brandenburg.  His  writings  have 
obtained  great  reputation  and  influence  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, as  well  as  in  Germany.  Died  in  Berlin  in  July,  185a 

"  Neander  still  remains  beyond  doubt  the  greatest 
church  historian,  thus  far,  of^  the  nineteenth  century. 


eas^;  ^asj;  gAard;  gas/;  g,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  a, nasal;  vl, trilled;  sasz;  #h  asin//«>.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  2'?.> 


NEANDER 


1804 


NECKER 


Great,  too,  especially  in  this,  that  he  never  suffered  his 
renown  to  obscure  at  all  his  sense  of  the  sinfulness  and 
weakness  of  every  human  work  in  this  world.  With  all 
his  comprehensive  knowledge,  he  justly  regarded  him- 
self as,  among  many  others,  merely  a  forerunner  of  a 
new,  creative  epoch  of  ever-young  Christianity.  .  .  . 
'We  stand,'  he  said,  'on  the  line  between  the  old 
world  and  a  new,  about  to  be  called  into  being  by  the 
ever-fresh  energy  of  the  gospel.  For  a  fourth  time 
an  epoch  in  the  life  of  our  race  is  in  preparation  by 
means  of  Christianity.'"  (Dr.  Schaff's  "History  of 
the  Apostolic  Church.") 

See  Krabbe,  "A.  Neander,"  1852:  "Zum  Gedachtniss  A.  Nean- 
der's,"  Berlin,  1850;  Herzog,  "  Real-Encyklopadie  ;"  \V.  Farrell, 
"Memorial  of  A.  Neander,"  1851;  "North  British  Review"  for 
February,  1851  ;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1S68. 

Neander,  (Michael,)  a  German  Protestant  divine 
and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Lower  Silesia  in  1525,  was 
a  pupil  of  Melanchlhon.  He  wrote  a  number  of  Greek 
and  Latin  treatises.     Died  in  1595. 

See  Reinhard,  "De  Vita  M.  Neander,"  1756;  Niceron,  "M^- 
iiuires;"  Havemann,  "Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Leben  M.  Nean- 
der's,"  1841. 

Neaiider,  (Michael,)  a  learned  German  physician, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1529.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
a  "  Synopsis  of  Weights  and  Measures  according  to  the 
Romans,  Athenians,"  etc.     Died  in  1581. 

Ne-ar'ehus,  [Gr.  l^kapxoq;  Fr.  N^arque,  ni'tRk',]  a 
celebrated  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  a  native 
of  Crete,  or,  as  some  assert,  of  Amphipolis.  About  327 
B.C.  he  set  sail  from  the  Indus  for  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
discovered  on  his  passage  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris.  A  detailed  account  of  this  voyage  is 
given  by  Arrian,  the  accuracy  of  which  has  been 
confirmed  by  Vincent  and  other  modern  geographers. 
Nearchus,  on  his  return,  was  received  with  distinguished 
favour  by  Ale.xander,  who  assured  him  that  he  rejoiced 
more  in  the  success  of  the  expedition  than  in  having 
conquered  Asia.  He  also  received  from  his  sovereign 
a  golden  crown.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Nearchus 
was  made  governor  of  Pamphylia  and  Lycia. 

See  Plutarch,  "Vita  Alexandri ;"  Vinxent,  "Voyage  of  Near- 
chus to  the  Euphrates,"  etc.,  1797;  Gosselin,  "  G^ographie  des 
Grecs." 

Nearque.    See  Nearchus. 

Nebel,  na'bel,  (Daniel,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at 
Heidelberg  in  1664.  He  published  several  works  on 
botany.     Died  in  1733. 

Nebenius,  ni-ba'ne-Cis,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man statesman  and  able  writer  on  political  economy, 
born  near  Landau  in  1784.  He  was  president  of  the 
Council  of  Baden  from  1846  to  1848.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Treatise  on  Public  Credit,"  (1820.)     Died  in  1857. 

Nebi,  nib'ee,  an  admired  Turkish  poet  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  flourished  under  the  reign  of  Mahomet 

Ne'bo,  called  in  Assyrian  Nabiu  or  Nabu,  "the 
prophet,"  a  great  divinity  of  ancient  Babylon.  He  was 
possibly  the  same  as  the  Persian  Mithra.  He  was  by 
the  Accad  people  called  "  the  Creator,"  and  among  the 
Assyrians  was  the  god  of  knowledge  and  books.  He 
was  called  "  the  overseer  of  the  hosts  of  Heaven  and 
Earth." 

Neb-ris-sen'sis,  (Antonius,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
scholar,  whose  proper  name  was  Antonio  de  Lebrixa, 
(di  li-bRee'nS,)  was  born  at  Lebrixa  in  1444.  He  studied 
the  classics  in  Italy,  and,  returning  to  Spain  in  1473,  b^" 
came  to  that  country  what  Erasmus  was  to  Germany  or 
Bude  (Budasus)  to  France.  As  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca,  he  initiated  a  reform  in  the  method  of 
teaching  Latin  and  Greek.  He  published  a  Latin  Lexi- 
con, (1492,)  a  "Lexicon  of  Civil  Law,"  (1506,)  which  is 
highly  commended,  and  grammars  of  the  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew  languages.  About  15 14  he  became  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  Alcala.  "  The  men  to  whom  Spain  chiefly 
owes  the  advancement  of  useful  learning,"  says  Hallam, 
"were  Arias  Barbosa  and  the  more  renowned  Antonio 
de  Lebrixa."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.")    Died  in  1522. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. 

Ne'brus,  [Gr.  NeS/wf,]  an  eminent  Greek  physician, 


flourished  about  580  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Cos.  When  the  Amphictyons  besieged  the 
town  of  Crissa,  in  Phocis,  Nebrus  assisted  in  reducing 
the  town  by  poisoning  the  water. 

Nebti,  n^b'tee,  or  Neph'thys,  an  ancient  goddess  of 
the  Egyptians,  the  sister  and  companion  of  Isis,  and  the 
wife  of  the  monster  Set.  She  was  one  of  the  protectors 
of  the  dead. 

Neb'u-ehad-nez'zar,  [Heb.  nj-'NinDnj ;  Fr.  Na 
buchodonosor,  nS'boo'ko'do'no'zoR',  or  Naboko 
DROSSOR,  nS'bo'ko'dRo'soR',]  King  of  Babylon,  succeeded 
his  father  Nabopolassar.  He  took  Jerusalem  in  606 
B.C.,  and  carried  to  Babylon  many  captives,  among  whom 
was  the  prophet  Daniel.  King  Zedekiah  having  revolted, 
Nebuchadnezzar  took  his  capital  in  588,  destroyed  the 
great  temple  by  fire,  threw  down  the  walls  of  the  city, 
and  transported  the  Jewish  people  to  Babylon.  He 
afterwards  captured  Tyre,  conquered  Egypt,  and  became 
probably  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  that  age  in  the 
world.  Having  become  too  much  elated  by  pride  and 
prosperity,  he  was,  by  divine  visitation,  deprived  of  his 
reason  and  deposed  from  his  throne.  Restored  to  reason 
and  power  a  short  time  before  his  death,  he  published 
a  pious  proclamation  of  his  experience  and  of  his  recog- 
nition of  the  King  of  heaven. 

See  II.  Kings  xxv.  i ;  Daniel  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.  ;  also,  Sam(;el 
Clarke,  "Life  and  Death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,"  1664. 

Necham.    See  Neck  ham. 

Ne'-eho  [Gr.  Ne/cwf,  Nf;^:aw,  or^Nf-^wf]  or  Pha'ra-oh 
Ne'-eho,  King  of  Egypt,  a  son  of  Psammeticus,  reigned 
from  617  to  601  B.C.  He  was  a  warlike  prince,  and 
defeated  Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  in  battle  at  Megiddo, 
but  was  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  606  B.C.  at 
Carchemish. 

See  BuNSEN,  "Egyptens  Stelle  inder  Weltgeschichte." 

Neck,  van,  vtn  n§k,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Naarden  in  1635.  His  master-piece  is  "  Simeon  in  the 
Temple  holding  the  Infant  Jesus  in  his  Arms."  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  17 14. 

Necker,  nek'ker  or  ni'kaiR',  (Albertine  Adrienne 
de  Saussure — deh  so'sur',)  a  Swiss  authoress,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1766,  was  a  daughter  of  the  naturalist,  H.  B. 
de  Saussure.  She  was  married  to  J.  Necker,  a  nephew 
of  the  great  financier,  and  a  cousin  of  Madame  de 
Stael,  of  whom  she  was  an  intimate  friend.  She  wrote  a 
"Notice  of  the  Character  of  Madame  de  Stael,"  (1820,) 
and  "Progressive  Education,"  (2  vols.,  1828-32.)  Died 
in  1841. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litt^raire  de  Gen&ve." 

Necker,  nek'ker,  [Fr.  pron.  ni'kaiR',]  (Jacques,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  financier,  and  prime  minister  of  France, 
born  at  Geneva  in  September,  1732.  On  leaving  col- 
lege he  became  a  clerk  in  a  banking-house  in  Paris,  and, 
having  acquired  a  large  fortune  as  partner  of  the  great 
banker  Thelusson,  he  retired  from  business  in  the  prime 
of  life,  and  aspired  to  public  honours  and  more  brilliant 
financial  achievements.  In  1773  he  gained  the  prize 
offered  by  the  French  Academy  for  a  eulogy  on  Col- 
bert, and  published  a  treatise  on  the  corn-laws,  "Sur  la 
Legislation  des  Grains."  The  disorder  of  the  finances  was 
so  alarming  that,  without  regard  to  official  routine,  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  treasury  in  1776,  and 
director-general  of  the  finances  in  1777.  By  publicity, 
order,  and  economy,  he  restored  the  public  credit  and 
lightened  the  burdens  of  the  people.  His  famous 
compte  rendu  of  17S1  (which  was  the  first  public  exposi- 
tion of  the  revenue  and  expenses  of  the  State)  was  re- 
ceived with  great  favour  ;  but  his  reforms  made  for  him 
many  enemies  at  court  and  elsewhere.  To  defend  him- 
self against  their  intrigues,  he  asked  for  a  seat  in  the 
council,  which  was  refused  because  he  was  a  Protestant. 
He  immediately  resigned,  (17S1,)  and  retired  to  Coppet, 
on  Lake  Leman. 

In  1784  he  published  his  excellent  work  "  On  the  Ad- 
ministration of  the  Finances,"  of  which  eighty  thousand 
copies  were  sold  in  a  few  days.  The  convocation  of 
the  States-General  was  decreed  by  the  royal  council  in 
August,  1788.  The  court  was  convinced  that  the  skill 
of  Necker  was  indispensable  in  the  political  and  financial 
crisis  that  followed.     He  succeeded  Brienne  as  prime 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsatrd;  filr,  fJU,  fit;  niSt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


NECKER 


1805 


NEFF 


minister,  or  controleur-g^n^ral  of  finances,  about  Sep- 
tember I,  1788,  and  the  next  day  the  funds  rose  30  per 
cent.  He  favoured  the  Revolution  by  granting  to  the 
Tiers-£tat  a  double  number  of  deputies.  He  is  censured 
for  this  concession,  and  for  temporizing  in  the  contest 
between  the  Tiers-£tat  and  the  other  orders  after  the 
meeting  of  the  States-General  in  1789.  The  court  having 
adopted  more  violent  measures  than  he  approved,  he 
tendered  his  resignation,  (June  23,)  which  was  not  ac- 
cepted. On  the  nth  of  July  he  was  suddenly  dismissed 
by  a  note  from  the  king,  who  ordered  him  to  leave  the 
kingdom  privately ;  and  the  same  night  he  departed  foi 
Brussels.  Indignant  at  his  dismissal,  the  populace  of 
Paris  rose  in  arms,  stormed  the  Bastille,  and  obtained  a 
bloody  triumjDh  over  the  court.  Necker  was  recalled  on 
the  2ist  of  July,  and,  when  he  entered  Paris,  was  received 
with  enthusiastic  demonstrations  by  the  people.  His 
first  act  was  an  amnesty  for  political  offences.  But  he 
was  too  conservative  to  satisfy  the  popular  party,  and 
resigned  his  office  in  September,  1790.  He  passed  the 
rest  of  his  life  at  Coppet,  where  he  wrote  several  political 
and  religious  treatises.  Died  in  1804.  The  highly-gifted 
Madame  de  Stael  was  his  daughter. 

See  Madame  de  Stael,  "  Vie  priv^e  de  M.  Jacques  Necker," 
1804;  Droz,  "  Histoiie  du  R^ane  de  Louis  XVI  ;"  Thieks,  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  Lanjuinais,  "  Etudes  biographiques 
sur  Antoine  Arnauld,  P.  Nicole  et  J.  Necker,"  1S23;  Sainte-Beuvk, 
"Causeries  du  Lundi  ;"  A.  L.  de  Stael- Holstein,  "Notice  sur 
Necker,"  1S21  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Giin^rale ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1S03,  (by  Sydney  SiMITh.) 

Necker,  (Louis  Albert,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1786,  was  a  son  of  Albertine  A.  de  Saussure- 
Necker.  He  published  "  Le  Regne  mineral  ramene  aux 
Methodes  de  I'Histoire  naturelle,"  (2  vols.,  1835.) 

Nec'ker,  (Noel  Joseph,)  a  botanist,  born  in  Flanders 
in  1729,  gave  special  attention  to  mosses.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  Description  of  the  Wild  Plants 
of  France  and  Belgium,  ("  Delicise  Gallo-Belgicae  Syl- 
vestres,"  2  vols.,  1768,)  and  "  Methodus  Muscorum," 
(1771.)     Died  in  1793. 

See  P.  R.  Willemet,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  N.  J.  Necker,"  1794. 

Necker,  (Susanne  Curchod — kiiR'sho',)  an  accom- 
plished and  literary  Swiss  lady,  born  at  Grassier  in  1739. 
She  was  intimate  in  her  youth  with  Gibbon  the  historian. 
who  wished  to  marry  her ;  but  his  father  opposed  the 
match.  She  was  married  to  M.  Necker  in  1764.  Her 
salon  in  Paris  was  the  resort  of  the  most  eminent  authors, 
including  Buffon,  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert.  She  founded 
a  hospital  in  Paris  which  bears  her  name.  She  died  in 
1794,  leaving  manuscripts  which  her  husband  published 
under  the  title  of  "  Melanges,"  (5  vols.,  1798-1802.) 

See  Gibbon,  "  Memoirs ;"  Grimm,  "  Correspondance ;"  Marmon- 
TEL,  "  Memoires." 

Neck'e-re,  de,  (Leo  Raymond,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born 
at  Wevelgham,  in  Belgium,  June  6,  1800,  was  educated 
at  Roulers  and  Ghent.  In  181 7  he  emigrated  to  America, 
became  a  Catholic  priest  in  1822,  and  soon  was  made  a 
professor  in  the  seminary  at  Saint  Mary's,  Missouri,  and 
superior  of  the  Lazarist  Community  there.  In  1830  he 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  New  Orleans,  where  he  died, 
September  4,  1S33. 

Neck'ham  or  Nec'kam,  written  also  Nechain, 
(Alexander,)  an  English  monk  and  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Saint  Alban's  or  Hartford  about  1150.  He  wrote,  in 
elegant  Latin,  several  works,  among  which  is  a  long 
scientific  and  descriptive  poem,  "  De  Naturis  Rerum." 
Died  in  1227. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria,"  etc. 

Nec-tan'a-bis  or  Nec-tan'e-bes,  [Gr.  Ne/crava/Jif  or 
NeK7rav£/37;f,]  King  of  Egypt,  began  to  reign  about  360 
B.C.  He  waged  war  against  Artaxerxes  III.  of  Persia, 
who  invaded  and  conquered  Egypt  about  350  B.C.  Nec- 
tanabis  was  the  last  king  of  the  Sebennite  dynasty. 

Nec-ta'rJ-us,  [NeKrapwf,]  a  Greek  prelate,  became 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  381  a.d.  His  moderation 
is  said  to  have  been  exemplary.  He  died  in  397,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Chrysostom. 

N6e,  ni,  (FRANgois  Denis,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1732.  He  engraved  many  landscapes  and 
plates  for  illustrated  works,  among  which  is  "Tableaux 
pittoresques  de  la  Suisse."     Died  in  1818. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 


Neeb,  nap,  (Johann,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
near  Hanau  in  1767.  He  published  several  works  on 
philosophy.     Died  in  1843. 

Needham,  need'am,  (John  Turberville,)  F.R.S., 
an  English  naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1713,  was  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest.  He  published  "New  Micro- 
scopical Discoveries,"  (1745,)  and  a  treatise  on  genera- 
tion, in  French,  "  Idee  sommaire,  ou  Vue  generale  du 
Syst^me  physique  et  metaphysique  sur  la  Generation," 
(17S0.)  He  became  director  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Brussels,  where  he  died  in  1781. 

See  HuTTON,  "Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dictionary." 

Needham,  (Marchmont,)  an  English  political  writer 
born  at  Burford  in  1620.  He  supported  the  cause  of  the 
Parliament  in  his  "  Mercurius  Britannicus,"  a  weekly 
journal,  (1643-47,)  and  that  of  the  king  in  his  "Mercu- 
rius Pragmaticus."  In  1649  he  again  changed  sides, 
and  became  editor  of  the  "  Mercurius  Politicus,"  an 
organ  of  the  Independents.  His  most  remarkable  work 
was  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Excellency  of  a  Free  State 
over  a  Kingly  Government."     Died  in  1678. 

See  Wood,  "  Athena  Oxonienses." 

Needham,  (Walter,)  an  English  anatomist,  studied 
at  Oxford,  and  practised  medicine  in  London.  He  be- 
came a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  about  1667.  He 
wrote  an  able  treatise  "  De  Formate  Fcetu."  Died  in 
1691. 

Neefs,  nafs,  or  Neef,  naf,  (Peter,)  the  Elder,  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1565.  He  excelled 
in  perspective,  and  in  representing  the  interiors  of  Gothic 
churches  and  convents,  illuminated.  The  figures  in  his 
pictures  are  generally  painted  by  Breughel,  Teniers,  and 
others.  His  "  Cathedral  of  Antwerp"  is  esteemed  a 
master-piece.  Died  in  165 1.  His  son,  Peter  Martin, 
the  Younger,  imitated  his  father's  style,  but  did  not 
equal  him. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Neele,  neel,  (Henry,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1798,  was  an  attorney.  He  wrote  "Dramatic 
Scenes,"  "  The  Romance  of  History,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1828. 

Nee'ly,  (Henry  Adams,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  in  Fayetteville,  New  York,  May  14,  1830,  graduated 
at  Hobart  College  in  1849,  and  became  a  priest  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  1854.  In  1867  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Maine. 

Neer,  van  der,  vtn  der  nair,  (Aart  or  Arnold,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  about 
1619.  His  moonlight  scenes,  winter  landscapes,  and 
pictures  into  which  water  is  introduced,  are  ranked 
among  the  finest  productions  of  the  kind.  Died  in 
16S3. 

Neer,  van  der,-(EGLON  Hendrik,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1643.  He  studied 
under  Vanloo,  and  attained  eminence  as  a  painter  of 
landscapes,  portraits,  and  historical  pieces.    Died  in  1703. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Neercassel,  van,  vtn  naiR'kis'sel,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
bishop  and  writer,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1623.  He  was  the 
only  Roman  Catholic  bishop  in  Holland.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Amor  Poenitens,  seu  de  recto  Usu 
Clavium,"  (1683.)     Died  in  1686. 

Nees  von  Esenbeck,  nas  fon  a'zen-bSk',  (Chris- 
tian Gottfried,)  a  German  botanist,  born  in  1776. 
He  became  professor  of  natural  history  at  Bonn  about 
1819,  and  afterwards  lectured  at  Breslau.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Botany,"  (2  vols., 
1821,)  and  "  Brvologia  Germanica,"  (2  vols.,  1823-51.) 
Died  in  1858. 

Nees  von  Esenbeck,  (Theodor  Friedrich  Lud- 
WIG,)  a  botanist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
near  Erbach  in  17S7.  He  wrote  several  botanical  works. 
Died  in  1837. 

Neff,  nSf,  (F^Lix,)  a  meritorious  Swiss  missionary, 
called  "the  Apostle  of  the  Alps,"  was  born  at  Geneva 
in  1798.  He  laboured  as  missionary  among  the  Swiss 
mountaineers.     Died  in  1829. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Felix  Neff,  Pastor  of  the  High  Alps,"  etc., 
by  William  S.  Gili.y,  London,  1S32;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  ApriL 
1833,  (by  SOUTHKV.) 


€as  k;  9  as  s;  g  ha-rd;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     (fl^^See  Explanations,  p.  2%. \ 


NEFFTZER 


1806 


NELEE 


Nefftzer,  nSft's^r,  (Auguste,)  a  French  journalist, 
born  at  Colmar  in  1S20.  He  was  assistant  editor  (1844- 
57)  of  the  Paris  "Presse."     Died  in  1876. 

Nefi,  n§f'ee,  a  distinguished  Turkish  satirist,  who 
flourished  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Negelein,  na'geh-lin',  (Joachim,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian and  numismatist,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1675  ;  died 
in  1749. 

Neg'ley,  (James  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  m 
Alleghany  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1826.  In  1861  he 
raised  a  brigade,  which  he  commanded  in  Tennessee  in 
1S62.  He  took  command  of  the  post  of  Nashville  in 
September  of  that  year,  and  led  a  division  at  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862-January  2,  1863.  For  his 
conduct  in  this  battle  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  in  which  capacity  he  served  at  the  battle  of 
ohickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863. 

Negrelli-Moldelbe,  von,  fon  nk-gRel'lee  mol-d§l'- 
beh,  (Alois,)  an  engineer,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1799. 
He  constructed  the  first  railroad  in  Austria,  (finished  in 
1841,)  and  other  railroads.     Died  in  1858. 

Negri.     See  Negro. 

Negri,  na'gRee,  (Francesco,)  a  learned  Italian  eccle- 
siastic of  Ravenna.  He  travelled  in  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  and  returned  home  in  1666.  The  results 
of  his  observations  appeared  in  a  work  entitled  "Travels 
in  the  North."     Died  in  1698. 

Negri,  (Francesco  Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1769.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Apostolo  Zeno,"  (1816,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1827. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Notizie  della  Vita  di  F.  Negri,"  1835;  G.  J. 
FoNTANA,  "Elogio  di  F.  Negri,"  1829. 

Negri,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  artist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1593.  He  founded  two 
Academies, — namely,  the  Indistinti,  devoted  to  the  arts 
of  design,  and  the  Indomiti,  (1640.)     Died  in  1659. 

Negri,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Venice  in  1494.  He  died  in  1577,  leaving  "Orationes 
et  Epistolse,"  (1579.) 

•  Negri,  (Giulio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  biographer, 
born  at  Ferrara  in  1648.  He  rendered  an  important 
service  to  literary  history  by  his  "Storia  degli  Scrittori 
Fiorentini,"  ("  History  of  the  Florentine  Authors,"  1 722.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Negri  or  Neri,  na'ree,  (Pietro  Martine,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Cremona, 
flourished  in  1600. 

Negrier,  ni'gRe-i',  (FRANgois  Marie  Casimir,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Mans  in  17S8.  He  served  in 
Algeria,  and  was  killed  in  Paris  by  the  insurgents  in 
June,  1848. 

Negro,  na'gRo,  or  Negri,  na'gRee,  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  philologist  and  Reformer,  born  at  Bassano  in 
1500,  embraced  Protestantism,  and  removed  to  Ger- 
many,    He  published  several  works.     Died  about  156c. 

See  G.  B.  RoBERTi,  "  Notizie  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  F. 
Negri."  1839. 

Negruzzi,  ni-gRoot'see,  (Constantine,)  a  Moldavian 
poet,  born  in  1809.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
historical  poem.     Died  in  1868. 

Ne-he-mi'ah,  [Heb.  n"Dnj ;  Fr.  N6h6mie,  ni'- 
i'me',]  a  Hebrew  governor  and  writer,  was  cup-bearer 
to  Artaxerxes,  King  of  Persia,  who  appointed  him 
Governor  of  Judea  about  445  B.C.  He  probably  wrote 
*he  book  of  the  Old  Testament  which  bears  his  name. 

Nehemie.     See  Nehemiah. 

Neher,  na'er,  (Bernard,)  a  German  historical  painter, 
born  at  Biberach  in  1806.  He  painted  frescos  at  Munich 
and  in  the  palace  of  the  grand  duke  at  Weimar.  These 
represent  scenes  from  the  dramas  of  Schiller  and  the 
works  of  Goethe. 

Nehlig,  ni-ljg',  (Vici'OR,)  a  French- American  painter, 
born  in  1830,  in  Paris.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cogniet  and 
Abel  de  Pujol,  and  in  1856  came  to  America.  In  1870 
he  was  chosen  a  National  Academician.  Among  his 
pictures  are  "  The  Artist's  Dream,"  "  Pocahontas,"  "  The 
Captive  Huguenot,"  "  Hiawatha  and  Minnehaha,"  "  Ger- 
trude of  Wyoming,"  and  other  scenes  from  American 
history  and  tradition. 

Neidhardt.     See  Gneisenau. 


Neidhart  von  Neuenthal,  nit'haRt  fon  noi'en-til', 
one  of  the  principal  German  lyric  poets  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Bavaria.  The  best  collection 
of  his  songs  is  that  published  by  Beneke  in  his  "Contri- 
butions to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Old  German  Language 
and  Literature." 

Neigebaur,  ni'geh-bowR',  (Johann  Daniel  Ferdi- 
nand,)  a  German  traveller  and  writer,  born  in  Silesia 
in  1783.  He  published  books  of  travel  and  descriptions 
of  Italy,  France,  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  which 
are  said  to  be  well  written.     Died  March  23,  1866. 

Neikter,  nTk'ter,  (Joseph  Frederik,)  a  Swedish 
archaeologist  and  writer,  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence 
at  Upsal  in  1787.     Died  in  1803. 

NeiIl,*(EDWARD  DUFFIELD,)  an  American  author, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  August  9,  1823.  He  graduated  at 
Amherst  College  in  1842,  and  was  for  a  time  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  but  became  an  Episcopalian.  In  1858 
he  became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Minnesota, 
and  in  1872  was  made  provost  of  Jesus  College,  and 
afterwards  president  of  Macalester  College  at  Minneap- 
olis. He  published  a  "History  of  Minnesota,"  "Terra 
Marias,"  "  English  Colonization  in  America,"  and  other 
works. 

Neill,  neel,  (James  George  Smith,)  a  British  general, 
born  about  1810.  He  rendered  important  ser%'ices  in 
India  during  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  and  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Lucknow,  in  September,  1857. 

Neill,  neel,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  hor- 
ticulturist, born  in  1776.  He  followed  the  trade  of  a 
printer  in  Edinburgh,  and  published  a  "  Tour  through 
some  of  the  Islands  of  Orkney  and  Shetland,"  (1806,) 
and  "The  Fruit,  Flower,  and  Kitchen  Garden,"  (1839.) 
Died  in  1851. 

Neil'aon,  (Lilian  Adelaide,)  an  English  actress, 
born  near  Saragossa,  in  Spain,  March  3,  1850.  Till 
1862  she  lived  chiefly  on  the  Continent.  Her  debut  was 
made  at  Margate  in  1865,  where  her  beauty  and  grace 
won  a  very  marked  success.  Her  most  celebrated  part 
was  Juliet.  She  married  Philip  Lee  in  1S72,  was  di- 
vorced in  1877,  '^''"^1  <^'sd  in  Paris,  August  15,  1880. 

Neipperg,  von,  fon  nip'p^RG,  (Albrecht  Adam,) 
Cou.NT,  an  Austrian  general,  born  about  1774.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  several  campaigns,  and  rose  to  a 
high  rank  in  the  army.  He  was  appointed  cavalier 
d^honnetir  to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa  about  1815. 
He  is  said  to  have  married  her  secretly.     Died  in  1829. 

Neipperg,  von,  (Wilhelm,)  an  Austrian  field-mar- 
shal in  the  service  of  Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa,  was 
born  in  1684,  and  was  the  grandfather  of  the  preceding. 
In  1739  he  concluded  the  disadvantageous  peace  of  Bel- 
grade, and  in  1741  was  defeated  by  Frederick  the  Great 
at  Mollwitz.  He  retained  the  favour  of  his  sovereigns, 
however,  and  was  made  imperial  counsellor  of  war,  and 
commander  of  Vienna.     Died  in  1774. 

Neith,  neth,  or  Nit,  nit,  an  ancient  goddess  of  the 
Egyptians,  worshipped  especially  at  Sais,  and  elsewhere 
in  the  Delta.    She  was  sometimes  identified  with  Athena. 

Nekrasoff,  nek-ri'sof,  (Nikolai,)  a  Russian  poet  and 
Nihilist,  born  in  1S21.  He  owned  and  ably  conducted 
the  "  Sovremennik,  ("The  Contemporary,")  a  monthly 
magazine,  by  means  of  which  Nihilistic  opinions  attained 
a  vast  currency  among  the  university  students.  Died  in 
1877. 

Nelaton,  ni'lt't6N',  (Auguste,)  an  eminent  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  graduated  in  1836,  and 
became  professor  of  surgery  to  the  Faculty  of  Medicine, 
Paris,  in  1851.  He  published,  besides  other  treatises. 
"Elements  of  Pathological  Surgery,"  (5  vols.,  1844-61,) 
which  is  called  a  capital  work.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1867.  He  was  employed 
professionally  by  Napoleon  HI.     Died  Sept.  22,  1873. 

Neledinsky  Meletzky,  ni-li-d^n'ske  mi-l§t'skee, 
(YooRii,)  an  eminent  Russian  lyric  poet,  born  in  Mos- 
cow in  1 75 1.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Paul, 
who  conferred  upon  him  a  valuable  estate  and  several 
honorary  distinctions.  His  songs  are  among  the  most 
admired  productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language.  Died 
in  1829. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Nelee.    See  Neleus. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  ikt;  mht;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


NELEUS 


1807 


NEMOURS 


Ne'leus,  [Gr.  Nrj^evc;  Ft.  N6l6e,  ni'li',]  a  mythical 
personage,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Neptune  (or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  of  Cretheus)  and  Tyro.  Neleus  and 
his  i^rother  Pelias  disputed  for  the  throne  of  lolchos, 
which  the  latter  obtained.  Neleus  afterwards  became 
King  of  Pylos  and  the  father  of  Nestor  and  other  sons. 
According  to  some  writers,  he  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Neller,  neKler,  (GeorgChristoph,)  a  German  canon- 
ist and  antiquary,  liorn  in  1710;  died  in  1783. 

Nelli,  neKlee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  satirical  poet  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Sienna.  His  satires 
were  published  in  1546. 

Nelli,  de',  di  nel'lee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Florence  in  1661.  He  wrote  a  "Treat- 
ise on  Architecture,"  (1753.)    Died  in  1725. 

Nelli,  de',  (Giambaitista  Clemente,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1725,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Galileo,"  (1793-) 
Died  in  1793. 

Nel'son,  (David,)  an  American  Presbyterian  divine 
and  eloquent  preacher,  born  near  Jonesborough,  Ten- 
nessee, in  1793.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Dan- 
ville, Kentucky,  in  1828,  and  subsequently  assisted  in 
founding  a  college  in  Marion  county,  Missouri,  of  which 
he  was  appointed  president.  His  work  entitled  "The 
Cause  and  Cure  of  Infidelity"  enjoys  a  high  reputation, 
and  has  passed  through  numerous  editions.  Dr.  Nelson 
was  an  earnest  advocate  for  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
Died  in  1844. 

NePspn,  (Horatio,)  Lord,  a  British  naval  hero  and 
admiral  of  the  first  order,  born  at  Burnham  Thorpe,  in 
Norfolk,  on  the  29th  of  September,  1758,  was  the  son 
of  Rev.  Edmund  Nelson  and  Catherine  Suckling.  He 
was  endowed  with  great  intrejjidity  and  energy,  and  pos- 
sessed a  generous,  impetuous  temper.  He  went  to  sea 
about  the  age  of  thirteen,  served  a  number  of  years  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  took  part  in  several  actions  of  the 
American  war.  In  1779  he  became  a  post-captain,  and 
in  1787  married  the  widow  of  Dr.  Nisbet,  of  the  island 
of  Nevis.  He  obtained  command  of  a  ship  in  the  Medi- 
terranean fleet  in  1793,  contributed  to  the  victory  ovei 
the  Spaniards  at  Saint  Vincent  in  1797,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  the  same  year.  His  next 
enterprise  was  an  attack  on  TeneriiTe,  where  he  was 
repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  his  right  arm. 

In  1798  he  attempted  to  intercept  the  passage  of  the 
French  armament  to  Egypt,  but  missed  it,  until  he  over- 
took it  in  Aboukir  Bay,  where  in  August  he  gained  the 
decisive  battle  of  the  Nile.  For  this  service  he  was  re- 
warded with  the  title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile,  and 
a  pension  of  ^^3000.  While  he  was  employed  on  the 
coast  of  Naples,  (1799,)  he  became  fascinated  by  the 
pernicious  influence  of  Lady  Hamilton,  and  tarnished 
his  fame  by  executing  Prince  Carraccioli  and  other  re- 
publicans, who  were  sacrificed  to  the  vengeance  of  the 
court  of  Naples.  Soon  after  these  events  he  separated 
from  his  wife,  who  was  supplanted  in  his  affections  by 
Lady  Hamilton.  He  was  second  in  command  under  Sir 
Hyde  Parker  of  the  armament  sei.t  against  Copenhagen 
in  1801 ;  but  the  honour  of  the  victory  at  the  battle  of 
the  Baltic  is  ascribed  to  Nelson.  In  the  midst  of  the 
battle,  Parker  having  made  a  signal  to  retreat,  Nelson 
put  a  spy-glass  to  his  blind  eye  and  exclaimed,  "  I  really 
don't  see  the  signal."  "  He  had  won  the  day,"  says 
Southey,  "  by  disobeying  orders."  For  this  success  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount. 

War  against  France  having  been  renewed  in  1803,  he 
took  the  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  hoisted 
his  flag  on  the  Victory,  and  watched  the  French  fleet  off 
Toulon  for  more  than  a  year.  In  May,  1805,  he  sailed 
for  the  West  Indies  in  pursuit  of  Admiral  Villeneuve, 
but  was  disappointed,  and  the  hostile  fleet  returned  safely 
to  Europe,  followed  by  the  English  admiral.  He  then 
went  home  and  proposed  to  suspend  his  active  service, 
but  was  re-appointed  in  September,  1805,  in  accordance 
with  the  general  wishes  of  the  nation,  by  whom  he  was 
more  idolized  than  almost  any  other  man  had  been. 
On  the  2 1st  of  October,  (1805,)  with  twenty-seven  sail 
of  the  line  and  four  frigates,  he  attacked  the  combined 
French  and  Spanish  fleets,  of  forty  ships,  under  Ville- 
neuve. near  Cape  Trafalgar.     Before  the  fight  began,  he 


gave  the  famous  signal,  "  England  expects  every  man  to 
do  his  duty."  The  English  gained  a  complete  victory, 
but  Nelson  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  musket-ball  fired 
from  the  Redoutable,  which  was  in  close  proximity  to 
the  flag-ship,  the  Victory.  He  is  eulogized  by  Southey 
as  "  the  greatest  naval  hero  of  our  own  and  of  all  former 
times." 

See  R.  Southey,  "Life  of  Nelson,"  1813  :  J.  S.  Clarke,  "Life 
of  Admiral  Lord  Nelson,"  1809;  Thomas  Pettigrevv,  "Memoirs 
of  Lord  Nelson,"  1849;  J.  M.  Tucker,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
Lord  Nelson,"  1847:  Joseph  Ai.len,  "Life  of  Viscount  Nelson," 
1853;  John  Charnock,  "Memoirs  of  Lord  Nelson,"  1806;  Al- 
PHONSK  de  Lamartine,  "  Nelson,"  1853;  E.  Forgues,  "  Histoire 
de  Nelson,"  1S60;  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe;"  "Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  February,  1810,  (by  Southey;)  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
September,  1814;  "  I'>lackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1844; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1848. 

Nelson,  (Robert,)  an  English  devotional  writer,  born 
in  London  in  1656.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"The  Whole  Duty  of  a  Christian,"  and  "Practice  of 
True  Devotion."  In  1680  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Arch- 
bishop Tillotson  and  of  Dr.  Halley.     Died  in  1715. 

Nelson,  (Roger,)  an  American  general,  who  served 
in  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  represented  a  district  of 
Maryland  in  Congress  for  several  terms,  (1804-10.)  Died 
in  181 5. 

Nel'son,  (Samuel,)  an  Irish  patriot,  born  in  1759,  was 
editor  of  a  political  journal  called  the  "Northern  Star." 
He  was  imprisoned  six  years,  and  released  after  the 
treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802. 

Nelson,  (Samuel,)  an  American  judge,  born  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  He  became  an  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1845.  He 
concurred  in  the  decision  of  the  court  in  the  Dred  Scott 
case,  (1857.)     Died  December  13,  1873. 

Nelson,  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  York,  in 
Virginia,  in  1738.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, and  after  his  return  was  elected  to  the  Congress 
of  1775.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  brigadier- 
general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  the 
commonwealth.  In  1781  he  succeeded  Jefferson  as. 
Governor  of  Virginia.     Died  in  17S9. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence." 

Nelson,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Maysville,  Kentucky,  in  1825.  He  served  in  the  navy, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  master  in  1854.  In  September, 
1861,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union 
army.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
April,  1862.  He  was  killed  in  a  private  quarrel  at  Louis- 
ville in  September,  1862,  by  Jefferson  C.  Davis. 

Ne-me-sl-a'nus,  [Fr.  N)Jmi6sien,  ni'mi'zeJ^N',] 
(Marcus  Aurelius  Olympius,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Carthage.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  the  emperor  Carus 
in  283  a.d.  His  works  are  lost,  except  fragments  of  a 
poem  on  hunting,  entitled  "Cynegetica,"  the  style  of 
which  is  commended  for  purity. 

Neni6sien.     See  Nemesianus. 

Nem'e-sis,  [Gr.  Ne//eatc,  from  ve/iu,  to  "deal  out," 
to  "distribute;"  Fr.  N^M^sis,  ni'mi'siss',]  a  personage 
of  Greek  mythology,  represented  as  a  daughter  of  Night 
or  Erebus.  She  was  the  goddess  of  retribution,  and  the 
divinity  who  rectified  the  errors  of  partial  and  capricious 
Fortune.  At  Rhammus,  in  Attica,  there  was  a  celebrated 
temple  dedicated  to  Nemesis. 

Ne-me'si-us,  [Ne^owf,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  who 
lived  probably  between  35oand  450  a.d.  He  is  styled 
Bishop  of  Emesa.  He  wrote  an  ingenious  treatise  on 
physiology  and  psychology,  entitled  "  On  the  Nature  of 
Man,"  (Uefil  (pvaeug  avQpuncrv.)  It  contains  a  passage 
which  suggests  an  idea  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Anatomica." 

Nemours,  de,  (Gaston  de  Foix,)  Due.     See  Foix. 

Nemours,  de,  deh  neh-mooR',  (Henri  de  Savoie — 
d?h  st'vwS',)  Due,  a  French  general,  a  son  of  Jacques, 
noticed  below,  (1531-85,)  was  born  in  Paris  in  1572. 
He  joined  the  League  about  15S8,  but  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Henry  IV.  a  few  years  later.     Died  in  1632. 

Nemours,  de,  (Jacques  d'Armaguac — diR'mtn'- 
ytk',)  Due,  born  about  1437,  was  a  son  of  Bernard 
d'Armagnac.     In  1465  he  joined  the  league  of  the  Bicn 


«as^;  9asj,-  %hard;  gAs;':  G,H,K..^iturai;  a, nasal;  Vi.,trilled:  sas«;  %has  inZ/^w.     (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NEMOURS 


1808 


NEREIDS 


public  against  Louis  XI.    He  was  executed,  on  a  ciiarge 
of  treasf)n,  in  1477- 

See  SisMONDi,  "Hisioire  des  Kranfais;"  Harante,  "  Histoire 
des  Dues  de  Boiirgogne." 

Nemours,  de,  (Jacquks  de  Savoy,)  Due,  a  distin- 
guisiied  French  general,  born  in  Champagne  in  1531, 
was  the  son  of  Philip,  Due  de  Genevois  and  de  Ne- 
mours, whose  sister  Louise  was  the  mother  of  King 
Francis  I.  He  fought  against  the  Protestants  in  the 
civil  war,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Saint-Denis,  in  1567.  He  opposed  the  ambitious  designs 
of  the  Guise  family,  and  took  no  part  in  the  civil  war  be- 
tween the  League  and  the  king.     Died  in  1585. 

See  1')KAnt6me,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Nemours,  de,  (Louis  d'Armagnac,)  Due,  a  French 
military  commander,  born  about  1472,  was  a  son  of 
Jacques,  noticed  above.  He  served  in  Italy  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  was  made  Viceroy  of  Naples  by  Louis 
XII.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Cerignola,  while 
opposing  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  (1503.)  He  was  the  last 
of  the  family  of  Armagnac,  and  the  duchy  of  Nemours 
was  given  to  Gaston  de  Foix  in  1505. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais  ;"  Saint-Gelais,  "  His- 
toire de  Louis  XII." 

Nemours,  de,  (Louis  Charles  Philippe  Raphael 
d'Orleans — doR'li'fiN',)  Due,  a  French  prince,  a  son 
of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in  1814.  He  was 
chosen  King  of  Belgium  by  a  congress  of  that  nation  in 
183 1,  but  was  compelled  by  his  father  to  decline  the 
offer.  He  served  in  the  arrny  in  Algeria,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1837.  After  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother  (1842)  he  was  recognized  as  future 
regent  in  case  the  king  should  die  during  the  minority 
of  his  heir,  the  Count  of  Paris.  On  the  abdication  of 
Louis  Philippe  (184S)  he  waived  his  claim  to  the  re- 
gency in  favour  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  whom  he 
attended  when  she  presented  herself,  with  her  son,  before 
ihe  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

See  A.  Pascal,  "  Le  Due  de  Nemours,  son  Pass^  et  son  Avenir 
politique,"  1S42. 

Nemours,  de,  (Marie  d'Orleans,)  Duciiesse, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Longueville,  vk'as  born  in  1625, 
and  married  in  1657  to  Henry  of  Savoy,  Duke  of  Ne- 
mours. She  died  in  1707,  leaving  interesting  "  Memoirs'' 
of  her  life  and  times,  which  were  published  in  1709. 

See  ViLLEFORE,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Longueville;"  Saint- 
Simon,  "  Memoires." 

Nen'ni-us,  one  of  the  early  British  chroniclers,  is 
stated  by  some  writers  to  have  lived  in  the  seventh,  and 
by  others  in  the  ninth,  century.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  History  of  the  Britons,"  ("  Historia  Britonum,"  or 
"  Elogium  Britannise,")  first  published  in  Gale's  "Col- 
lection of  English  Historians,"  (1691.) 

See  Wright,  "  Biographia  Britamiiea  Literaria." 

Neobar,  ni'o'btR^,  (Conrad,)  a  learned  printer,  of 
German  extraction,  was  patronized  by  Francis  I.  in 
Paris.     Died  in  1540. 

Ne'o-phron,  [Neo^f^wv,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
flourished  in  tlie  fifth  century  B.e.  Only  small  frag- 
ments of  his  works  are  extant. 

Neoptoleme.     See  Neoptolemus. 

Ne-op-tol'e-mus,  [Gr.  NeoTrroAwof ;  Fr.  N60PTO- 
Li:ME,  ni'op'to'lim',]  also  called  Pyrrhus,  a  fabulous 
Greek  warrior,  was  a  son  of  Achilles.  He  was  one  of 
the  heroes  concealed  in  the  wooden  horse  at  the  siege 
of  Troy.  According  to  Virgil,  he  killed  Priam  at  the 
capture  of  Troy,  ("^Eneid,"  book  ii.  546.)  In  the  dis- 
tribution of  captives,  he  obtained  Andromache,  widow 
of  Hector. 

Neoptolemus,  a  Macedonian  general  in  the  service 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
he  became  governor  of  Armenia,  and  united  with  An- 
tipater  in  a  hostile  movement  against  Perdiccas  and 
Eumenes.  He  was  killed  in  battle  by  Eumenes,  whom 
he  encountered  in  single  combat,  about  320  B.C. 

Neoptolemus,  Kingof  Epirus,  was  a  cousin-german 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  in  302  B.e. 
He  was  assassinated  by  order  of  the  celebrated  Pyrrhus, 
who  became  king. 

Nepair  or  Neper.    See  Napier,  (John.) 

Nepomucene.    See  Nepomuk. 


NepomucenuB.     Sec  Nepomuk. 

Nepomuk,  na'po-mook',  or  Nepomucky,  ni-po- 

moots'kee,  [Lat.  Nki'OMUCe'nus  ;  Fr.  Ni^POMuefeNK, 
ni'po'mii'sin',]  (John,)  the  patron  saint  of  Bohemia, 
born  at  Nepomuk  about  1330.  Having  given  offence  to 
King  Wenzel,  he  was  drowned,  by  his  orders,  in  the 
Moldau,  (1383.)  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Innocent 
XIII.  in  1721. 

See  Balbinus,  " Vita  Nepomuceni,"  1680;  Johanneaud,  "Jean 
N6pomue6ne,"  1851;  Passi,  "Vita  di  S.  Giovanni  Nepomucene," 
1729. 

Ne'pos,  (Cornelius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian 
of  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Cicero  and  Atticus,  and  dedicated  to  the  latter  his 
"  Vitse  Excellentium  Imperatorum,"  ("  Lives  of  the  Illus- 
trious Generals.")  This  work,  which  is  his  only  one 
extant,  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  and  graceful  sim- 
plicity of  its  style,  and  has  been  generally  adopted  as  a 
class-book  in  schools  and  colleges. 

See  J.  C.  F.  Bakhr,  "  Gesehichte  der  Romisclien  Literatur  •" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 

Nepos,  (Flavius  Julius,)  was  created  Emperor  of  the 
West,  A.D.  473,  by  Leo  X.,  the  Emperor  of  the  East.  He 
concluded  a  peace  with  Euric,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  to 
whom  he  ceded  a  portion  of  Gaul.  In  475  Orestes,  a 
native  of  Pannonia,  marched  against  Nepos,  defeated 
nim,  and  proclaimed  his  own  son  Romulus  Emperor  of 
the  West.     In  480  Nepos  was  assassinated  at  Salona. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Nep'tune,  [Lat.  Neptu'nus,]  the  god  of  the  sea,  a 
Roman  divinity,  identified  with  the  Posei'don  of  the 
Greek  mythology.  He  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Saturn 
and  Rhea,  the  brother  of  Jupiter,  and  the  father  of  Triton. 
His  wife  was  Ani])hitrite.  He  was  regarded  as  equal  in 
dignity  to  Jupiter,  but  inferior  in  power.  The  poets 
feigned  that  he  once  conspired  with  Apollo  and  Juno 
against  Jupiter,  that  he  built  the  walls  of  Troy  for  Lao- 
medon,  and  that  he  resented  the  perfidy  of  that  king  by 
fighting  against  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Nep- 
tune and  Minerva  disputed  for  the  possession  of  Attica, 
or  for  the  honour  of  naming  its  capital,  and  the  gods 
decided  that  the  preference  should  be  given  to  the  one 
who  should  bestow  on  man  the  most  valuable  gift. 
Neptune,  with  a  stroke  of  his  trident,  produced  the  war- 
horse,  and  Minerva  created  the  olive,  which  was  judged 
to  be  the  more  useful  of  the  two.  He  is  also  fabled  to 
have  disputed  with  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva  for  the 
sovereignty  of  several  other  countries.  The  symbol  of 
his  power  was  the  trident,  with  which  he  shook  the  solid 
land  and  controlled  the  stormy  sea.  The  poets  describe 
him  as  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  horses  on  the  surface 
of  the  sea,  the  waves  of  which  subside  at  his  approach, 
and  attended  by  a  retinue  of  marine  monsters  which 
play  around  him.  Besides  his  residence  on  Olympus, 
he  had  a  fine  palace  in  the  depth  of  the  sea  near  '^gae. 

Neptunus.     See  Neptune. 

Nera'tius  (ne-ra'she-us)  Pris'cus,  a  Roman  jurist 
under  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Adrian,  whose  favour 
and  patronage  he  enjoyed.  He  was  the  author  of  nume- 
rous books  on  the  Roman  law,  which  have  been  often 
quoted  by  later  jurists. 

See  SiCKEL,  "De  Neratio  Prisco,"  1788. 

Neraz,  ni'r^z',  (Jean  Claude,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born 
at  Anse,  (Rhone,)  in  France,  January  12,  1829,  studied 
divinity  in  Lyons,  became  in  1853  a  Catholic  priest  in 
Texas,  and  in  1881  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  San  An- 
tonio. 

Nerciat,  de,  d?h  n6R'se'J',(  Andr6  Robert  Andrea,) 
a  French  litt^ratetir,  born  at  Dijon  in  1739.  He  wrote 
several  licentious  novels.  About  1790  he  emigrated  to 
Naples,  and  gained  the  favour  of  Queen  Caroline.  Died 
in  1800. 

N^ree.     See  Nereus. 

N^ree,  ni'ri',  (R.  J.,)  a  French  poet,  lived  in  the 
time  of  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a  drama  entitled  "The 
Triumph  of  the  League,"  (1607.) 

Ne're-ids,  [Gr.  'Nijpiji^sg,  sing.  N;;paf ;  Lat.  Nere'- 
ides  ;  Fr.  Nereides,  ni'ri'ld',]  the  daughters  of  Nereus, 
were  sea-nymphs  or  mermaids  of  Greek  mythology.  The 
number  of  the  Nereids  was  fifty.  Among  them  were 
Amphitrite  and  Thetis,  the  mother  of  Achilles.    The  Ne- 


il, e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  /^«^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  nflt;  good;  moon. 


NEREIS 


i8og 


NERVAL 


reids  were  represented  originally  as  beautiful  maidens, 
and  sometimes  as  half  woman  and  half  fish. 

Ne're-is  or  Ne-re'I-ne,  a  name  given  to  each  of  the 
Nereids,  which  see. 

Ne'reus,  [Gr.  ^Tjpevc  ;  Fr.  N6r6e,  nk'tk',]  a  marine 
divinity  of  classic  mythology,  called  a  son  of  Pontus  and 
the  Earth,  and  the  father  of  the  Nereids.  He  was  repre- 
sented as  a  wise  and  prophetic  old  man  of  the  sea,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  he  lived.  The  poets  feigned  that  he 
could  assume  various  forms,  like  Proteus,  and  would  only 
reveal  the  future  when,  having  exhausted  his  powers  of 
transformation,  he  was  reduced  to  his  original  shape. 
Hercules  is  said  to  have  seized  him  and  extorted  from 
him  some  secret  respecting  the  golden  apples  of  the 
T^Iesperides. 

Neri.    See  Negri,  (Pietro  Martine.) 

Neri,  na'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at 
Florence,  lived  about  1570-90.  He  wrote  a  work  "On 
the  Art  of  making  Glass,"  {1592,)  often  reprinted. 

Neri,  [Lat.  Ne'rius,]  (Filippo,)  called  Saint  Philip 
Neri,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Florence  in  151 5. 
He  founded  about  1548  the  Congregation  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Oratory,  the  members  of  which,  without  taking 
a  monastic  vow,  were  required  to  live  in  the  exer- 
cise of  devotion  and  charity  and  apply  themselves  to 
theological  studies.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
musical  entertainments  called  oratorios,  from  their  being 
performed  in  a  chapel  or  oratorio.  He  died  in  1595, 
and  Baronius,  afterwards  cardinal,  succeeded  him  as 
general  of  the  order.  Neri  was  canonized  by  Gregory 
XV.  in  1622. 

See  F.  W.  Faber,  "Spirit  and  Genius  of  Saint  Philip  Neri," 
1850;  A.  Gai.lonio,  "Vita  beati  Philippi  Nerii,"  Rome,  1600; 
"Vita  Ph.  Nerii,"  Munich,  161 1  ;  L.  Bertrand,  "  Vida  y  Hechos 
de  S.  Felipe  Neri,"  1613;  P.  G.  Bacci,  "Vita  di  S.  Filippo  Neri," 
1622;  A.  Vasquez,  "  S.  Felipe  Neri  Epitome  de  sua  Vida,"  1651 ; 
D.  M.  Manni,  "Raggionamenti  sulla  Vita  di  F.  Neri,"  1786;  "Vie 
de  Saint-Philippe  de  Neri,"  (anonymous,)  1847. 

Neri,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Bologna  about  1660 ;  died  in  1726. 

Neri,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  political  econo- 
mist, of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1707. 
He  was  professor  of  public  law  at  Pisa,  from  which  he 
removed  to  Florence  in  1758.  He  founded  the  Tuscan 
Academy  of  Botany,  and  wrote  on  currency,  etc.  Died 
in  1776. 

See  A.  RiDOt.Fi,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Neri,"  1817. 

N6ricault-Destouches.     See  Destouches. 

Nerius.     See  Neri,  (Filippo.) 

Nerii,  n^R'lee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born 
at  Florence  in  1485,  was  a  senator  and  an  adherent  of 
the  Medici.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Florence  from 
1215  to  1537,"  which  was  first  published  in  1728.  Died 
in  1556. 

See  a  "Life  of  Nerii"  prefixed  to  his  History. 

Ne'ro,  (Caius  Claudius,)  a  Roman  soldier,  who  in 
214  H.c.  commanded  a  force  of  cavalry  in  the  war  against 
Hannibal.  In  212  B.C.  he  commanded  in  Spain  against 
Hasdrubal.  In  207  he  was  one  of  the  consuls,  and  de- 
feated Hannibal,  after  which  he  joined  his  forces  with 
those  of  Marcus  Livius,  his  colleague,  and  on  the  river 
Metaurus  totally  defeated  the  Carthaginian  army  under 
Hasdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  who  was  slain  in 
the  battle.  This  was  one  of  the  most  important  battles 
in  universal  history.  It  virtually  ended  the  second  Punic 
war,  and  saved  Rome.  Nero  cut  off  the  head  of  Has- 
drubal and  threw  it  into  Hannibal's  camp.  Livius  had 
the  honour  of  a  triumph  for  this  victory,  but  historians 
generally  have  given  to  Nero  the  principal  credit. 

Ne'ro,  [Fr.  NjSron,  ni'riN';  It.  Nerone,  ni-ro'ni,] 
(Lucius  Domitius.)  the  sixth  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
born  in  37  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  Domitius  Ahenobarbus 
and  Agrippina,  daughter  of  Germanicus.  His  mother, 
after  becoming  a  widow,  having  married  her  uncle  the 
emperor  Claudius,  the  latter  adopted  Nero  and  gave  to 
him  his  daughter  Octavia  in  marriage,  adding  to  his 
name  that  of  Claudius  Drusus.  On  the  death  of  Clau- 
dius, who  was  poisoned  by  Agrippina,  a.d.  54,  Nero  was 
proclaimed  emperor,  to  the  exclusion  of  Britannicus,  the 
son  of  Claudius.  The  counsels  of  Seneca  and  Burrus, 
who  were  placed  at  the  head  of  government,  had  for  a 
time  a  salutary  effect  upon  Nero,  and  the  first  years  of 


his  rule  were  marked  by  kindness  and  justice  ;  but  his 
evil  passions  eventually  prevailed,  and  the  remainder  of 
his  reign  was  signalized  by  a  series  of  atrocities.  Be- 
coming jealous  of  Britannicus,  he  caused  him  to  be 
poisoned,  and,  having  soon  after  formed  an  attachment 
to  Poppaea,  murdered  his  mother  at  her  instigation  and 
made  her  his  wife.  He  next  caused  Octavia,  whom  he 
had  divorced,  to  be  put  to  death.  In  a.d.  64  Rome  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  a  fire  which  Nero  was  accused  of 
having  kindled.  It  was  said  that  he  amused  himself, 
while  viewing  the  conflagration,  with  reciting  verses 
descriptive  of  the  fall  of  Troy.  In  order  to  remove  sus- 
picion from  himself,  he  charged  the  crime  upon  the 
Christians,  many  of  whom  were  in  consequence  subjected 
to  the  most  cruel  tortures.  A  conspiracy  formed  against 
the  tyrant,  a.d.  65,  was  discovered,  and  many  distin- 
guished citizens  were  executed,  among  whom  were 
Lucan  and  Seneca.  Soon  after  this,  Vindex  and  Galba 
revolted  against  the  emperor,  who,  on  hearing  of  their 
defection  and  that  of  the  praetorian  guards,  destroyed 
himself,  with  the  assistance  of  a  servant,  A.D.  68. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Suetonius,  "Vita  Neronis  ;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs  ;"  Merivai.e,  "  History  of  the 
Romans  under  the  Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;" 
Denis  Diderot,  "  Essai  sur  les  Rfegnes  de  Claude  at  de  N^ron,' 
2  vols.,  1782. 

Nero,  a  Roman  prince,  born  about  7  A.D.,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina.  After  the 
death  of  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  Nero  was  the  next 
heir  to  the  throne.  He  was  put  to  death  in  29  a.d.,  at 
the  instigation  of  Sejanus,  who  contrived  to  excite  the 
suspicion  of  Tiberius  against  Nero. 

Nero,  del,  dSl  na'ro,  or  Negro,  na'gRo,  (Andalone,) 
an  Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1270.  He 
taught  astronomy  at  Rome  and  Naples.  He  is  highly 
praised  by  Boccaccio,  who  was  his  pupil.  Died  after 
1342. 

See  GiNGUEN^.  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Neron.     See  Nero. 

Neroni,  ni-ro'nee,  or  Negi'oni,  ni-gRo'nee,  (Earto- 
LOMMKO,)  called  Riccio,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  ;  died  in  1573. 

Neroulos,  ne-roo'los,  (Yakovakis  Rizos,)  a  modern 
Greek  poet  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  in  Constan- 
tinople in  1778.  He  wrote  several  tragedies,  and  a 
"Modern  History  of  Greece,"  (1828.)  About  1834  he 
became  minister  of  public  instruction  in  Greece,  and  in 
1841  minister  of  foreign  affairs.     Died  in  1850. 

Neruda,  ni-roo'di,  (Johann,)  a  Bohemian  poet,  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  modern  Czech  literature,  was  born 
at  Prague  in  1834.  He  became  a  journalist  and  feuille- 
tonist, and  published  "  Knihy  Versu,"  ("  Book  of  Verses," 
1868,)  and  "Kosmicke  Pisne,"  ("Cosmic  .^oi^s,"  1879.) 

Neruda,  (Wilhelmine,)  the  most  famous  member 
of  a  distinguished  family  of  violinists,  born  at  Briinn,  in 
Moravia,  in  1840.  When  very  young  she  appeared  in 
concerts  given  by  her  family,  which  consisted  of  her 
father,  two  brothers,  and  two  sisters.  In  1864  she  won 
a  great  reputation  in  Paris.  About  the  same  time  she 
married  Ludwig  Normann,  a  Swiss  musician,  and  she  has 
since  appeared  in  London  and  Paris  alternately  every 
season. 

Nerva,  (Cocceius.)     See  Cocceius. 

Ner'va,  (Marcus  Cocceius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  botit 
in  Umbria  in  32  A.D.  He  was  consul  with  Vespasian 
in  71,  and  with  Domitian  in  90  A.D.  On  the  death  of 
Domitian,  in  the  year  96,  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
the  army  and  the  people.  His  administration  was  mild 
and  liberal.  He  recalled  exiles  who  had  been  banished 
by  former  emperors,  and  enforced  penalties  against  in- 
formers. He  made  and  performed  a  vow  that  he  would 
not  put  any  senator  to  death.  His  mutinous  praetorian 
soldiers  compelled  him  to  permit  the  execution  of  the 
assassins  of  Domitian.  He  adopted  Trajan  as  his  son 
and  successor,  and  died  in  98  a.d. 

See  Tit-LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Aorelius  Victor, 
"DeViribus  illustribus :"  J.  J.  de  Barrett,  "Histoire  des  deux 
R^gnes  de  Nerva  et  de  Trajan,"  1790. 

Nerval,  de,  deh  niR'viK,  (Gerard,)  or  Gerard 
Labrunie,  (It'bRii'ne',)  a  French  litth-ateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1808.  He  made  a  good  translation  of  Goethe's 
"Faust,"    (1828,)   wrote   verses,   comedies,    etc.,  aided 


«:  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K.,gvitural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^°'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


114 


NERVES  A 


iSio 


NEUBAUER 


Alexander  Dumas  in  several  works,  and  contributed  to 
the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He  fell  in  love  with 
Jenny  Colon,  an  actress,  and  became  subject  to  a  modi- 
fied form  of  insanity,  which  did  not  much  impair  his 
genius.  Among  his  works  is  "  Les  Illumines,  ou  les 
Precurseurs  du  Socialisme,"  (1852.)  He  died  by  sui- 
cide in  1855.  "That  which  he  wrote,"  says  fidouard 
Thierry,  "  was  simple  and  excellent,  ingenious  and 
perfectly  natural." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gin^rale." 

Nervesa,  n§R-va'si,  (Gaspako,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  born  in  Friuli,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian. 
He  lived  about  1540. 

Nes,  van,  vtn  n§s,  (Jan,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Delft  in  1588;  died  in  1650. 

Nes'bit  or  Nis'bet,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  anti- 
quary, born  in  Edinburgh  in  1672.  He  wrote  a  work 
"'On  Heraldry,"  (2  vols.,  1722-42.)     Died  in  1725. 

Nesimee  or  Nesimi,  nSs'e-mee,  a  celebrated  Turk- 
ish philosopher  and  free-thinker,  flourished  in  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

Wesle,  de.     See  Denesle. 

Nesniond,  de,  deh  n6s'm6N',  (Henri,)  a  French 
prelate  and  eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Bordeaux  about 
1645.  He  became  Bishop  of  Montauban  in  1687,  and 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse  in  1719.  In  1710  he  succeeded 
Flechier  in  the  French  Academy.  He  wrote  agreeable 
verses.     Died  in  1727. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Acad^mie  Fran- 
faise." 

Nesse,  n§ss,  (Christopher,)  an  English  noncon- 
formist minister,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1621.  Having 
been  ejected  in  1662,  he  removed  to  London  in  1675, 
and  preached  in  that  city  about  thirty  years.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  History  and  Mystery  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1690.)  Died 
in  1705. 

See  Wilson,  "  History  of  Dissenting  Churches." 

Ne.5sel,  nes'sel,  (Edmond,)  a  distinguished  Flemish 
physician,  born  at  Liege  in  1658;  died  in  1731. 

Nessel,  nes'sel,  [Lat.  Nesse'lius,]  (Martin,)  a  Ger- 
man teacher  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Moravia  in  1607 ; 
died  about  1680. 

Nesselius.     See  Nessel. 

Nesselrode,  von,  fon  nes'sel -ro'deh,  (Charles 
Robert,)  Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  of  German 
extraction,  was  born  in  December,  1780,  at  Lisbon,  where 
his  father  was  Russian  minister.  He  acquired  in  the 
early  part  of  his  life  the  confidence  of  Alexander  I.,  and 
was  sent  to  Paris  as  councillor  of  the  embassy  in  1807. 
Soon  after  this  date  he  obtained  a  high  office  in  the  de- 
partment of  foreign  affairs.  He  took  an  important  part 
in  the  negotiations  which  united  Russia  and  other  powers 
in  a  coalition  against  Napoleon.  In  181 6  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Having  held  that  post  forty 
years,  under  three  successive  emperors,  he  resigned  in 
1856.     Died  in  March,  1862. 

See  Capefigue,  "  Diplomates  Europdens  :"  Thiers,  "  History 
of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire  ;"  Bai.lkvdier,  "  Histoire  de 
I'Empereur  Nicolas;"  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "  M.  de  Nesselrode,  par  un 
Homrae  de  Rien,"  1844. 

Nessi,  n&s'see,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Como  in  1741.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
treatise  on  Obstetrics,  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages.     Died  in  1821. 

Nes'sus,  [Gr.  Neacof,]  a  Centaur,  who,  according  to 
the  fable,  attempted  to  ravish  Dejanira,  the  wife  of  Her- 
cules, by  whom  he  was  killed  with  a  poisoned  arrow. 
The  tunic  of  Nessus  was  said  to  have  caused  the  death 
of  Hercules. 

Nes'tor,  [Gr.  fiearup ;  It.  Nestore,  nes-to'ri,]  a 
celebrated  Grecian  hero,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Neleus,  a  grandson  of  Neptune,  and  a  king  of  Pylos, 
was  sometimes  called  "  the  Pylian  Sage."  According 
♦o  tradition,  he  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Hercules,  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  the  Lapithae  against  the  Centaurs, 
in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and  in  the  Argonautic  expe- 
dition. He  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  Trojan  war, 
although  he  was  then  past  his  prime  ;  and  he  was  highly 
esteemed  as  a  counsellor  by  Agamemnon  arrd  the  other 
chiefs.     He  is  described  by  Homer  as  excelling  alike  in  | 


courage,  wisdom,  and  eloquence,  and  is  said  to  have 
ruled  over  three  generations  of  men.  He  had  several 
sons,  among  whom  was  Antilochus. 

Nestor,  nSs'tor,  a  Russian  chronicler,  called  "the 
father  of  Russian  history,"  was  born  at  Kief  about  1056. 
Several  editions  of  his  "  Chronicle"  have  been  pub- 
lished, the  best  of  which  is  that  of  Schlozer,  entitled 
"  Russian  Annals,"  ("  Russischer  Annalen,"  1802.)  Died 
about  1 1 16. 

See  Pogodine,  "Recherches  historiques  sur  Nestor,"  1839; 
Gretch.  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Littdrature  Russe." 

Nestore,  nSs-to'ri,  (Dionisio,)  an  Italian  scholar 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  a  native  of  Novara,  was  the 
author  of  a  vocabulary  of  the  Latin  tongue,  entitled 
"  Onomasticon." 

Nes-to'ri-us,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Nestorians, 
was  born  at  Germanicia,  in  Syria,  near  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  Having  become  a  popular  preacher,  he 
was  elected  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  428  a.d.  He 
occasioned  a  schism  by  objecting  to  call  the  Virgin 
Mary  i/ie  mother  o/God.  The  dispute  was  fomented  by 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  who  became  a  violent  adversary 
of  Nestorius.  A  council  was  called  at  Ephesus  by  the 
emperor  Theodosius  in  431  ;  and,  before  the  arrival  of 
John  of  Antioch  and  several  other  bishops,  Nestorius 
was  deposed,  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy.  He  was  after- 
wards banished  to  an  oasis  in  Egypt.  The  Nestorians 
became  numerous  in  the  East,  and  still  exist  as  a  dis- 
tinct sect  in  Koordistan  and  Mesopotamia. 

See  Pluquet,  "Dictionnaire  des  Heresies  ;"  Sartorhjs,  "  De 
Nestorio  Hasresiarcha ;"  L.  Doucin,  '■  Histoire  du  Nestorianisme," 
1697. 

Neto,  ni'to,  (Jose  Sebastiao,)  a  Portuguese  cardinal, 
born  in  1841.  In  1879  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  An- 
gola, in  Africa,  in  1883  he  was  named  Patriarch  of  Lisbon, 
and  in  1884  was  created  a  cardinal-priest. 

Netscher,  n^t'sher,  (Constantin,)  a  Dutch  paintor, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1670,  was  a  son  of  the  following. 
He  painted  portraits  with  success.     Died  in  1722. 

Netscher,  n^t'sher,  (Kaspar,)  an  eminent  German 
painter,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1639.  He  excelled  in 
portraits  and  conversation-pieces,  and  imitated  to  per- 
fection the  lustre  of  velvet  and  satin.  He  is  regarded 
as  equal  in  most  points  to  Terburg  and  Douw.  Died 
in  1684.  His  sons,  Constantin  and  Theodore,  were 
likewise  good  portrait-painters. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  PeintresAllemands,  Hollandais,"  etc. ; 
Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  J.  C.  Weyerman,  "  De 
Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Netscher,  [Fr.  pron.  nSt'shaiR',]  (Theodore,)  a  por- 
trait-painter, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  I5or- 
deaux  about  1664.  He  worked  in  Paris  and  London. 
Died  in  1732. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  eta 

Nettelbladt,  net'tel-blit',  (Daniel,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Rostock  in  17 19,  became  director  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle.  Pie  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  Sys- 
tem of  Universal  Natural  Jurisprudence."    Died  in  1 791. 

Nettelbladt,  von,  fon  net'tel-blit',  sometimes  writ- 
ten Nettlebladt,  (Christian,)  Baron,  a  Swedish  jurist, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1696;  died  in  1775. 

Nettement,  n^t'mfiN',  (Alfred  Franqois,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830," 
(2  vols.,  1833,)  and  a  "History  of  French  Literature 
under  the  Reign  of  Louis  Philippe."     Died  in  1869. 

Net'ter,  (Thomas,)  surnamed  Waldensis,  an  Eng- 
lish monk,  noted  as  an  opponent  of  Wickliff.  He  was 
privy  councillor  and  confessor  to  Henry  V.  He  wrote 
several  theological  works.     Died  in  1430. 

Nettleton,  net'tel-tgn,  (Asahel,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Killingworth,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  revivalist.  Died  in  1844. 

See  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "  Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  Lon- 
don, 1864. 

Neubauer,  noi'bow'^r,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg 
in  1705  ;  died  about  1748. 

Neubauer,  (Franz  Christian,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1760;  died  in  I795. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  §,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fil  1,  f^t;  niSij  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NEUBECK 


iSii 


NEVIL 


Neubeck,  noi'bek,  (Valerius  Wilhei.m,)  a  German 
poet  and  physician,  born  at  Arnstadt  in  1765,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  Fountains  of  Health, 
or  Mineral  Springs,"  ("Die  Gesundbrunnen,"  1794,) 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  didactic  poems  in  the  German 
language.  He  practised  for  many  years  at  Steinau.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  ScHLF.GEU,  "Charaktere  und  Kritiken ;"  Longkeli-ow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Neuenar,  von,  fon  noi'en-au',  [Lat.  Nuena'kius  or 
Nevena'rius,]  (Hermann,)  Count,  a  learned  German 
prelate,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Juliers  in  1491.  He  was 
a  patron  of  literature,  and  wrote  various  works.  Died 
in  1530. 

Neufchateau.     See  Francois  de  NeufchAteau. 

Neuhauss,  van,  vtn  noi'howss,  [Lat.  Neuhu'sius,] 
(Edon,)  a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Steinfurt, 
in  Westphalia,  in  1581.  Among  his  works  are  "Manes 
Nassovii,"  a  poem,  (1620,)  and  "  Fatidica  Sacra,"  (1635- 
48.)     Died  in  1638. 

See  Reiner  Neuhusius,  "Vita  E.  Neuhusii,"  1677. 

Neuhauss,  van,  (Regnier,)  a  poet  and  philologist, 
born  at  Leenwarden  in  1618,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
Died  about  1680. 

Neuhof,  noi'hof,  (Theodor,)  Baron  of,  a  German 
adventurer,  born  in  Westphalia.  In  1735  he  was  in- 
vited by  the  Corsicans,  at  that  time  oppressed  by  the 
Genoese,  to  assume  the  chief  power  in  their  country, 
and  the  following  year  was  crowned  king.  Being  un- 
able, however,  to  maintain  himself  against  the  Genoese 
and  French,  he  took  refuge  in  England,  where  he  died 
in  1756. 

Neuhusius.    See  Neuhauss. 

Neukirch,  noi'k&gRK,  (Benjamin,)  a  German  poet, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1665.  He  published  "Select  Poems," 
satires,  and  a  poetical  translation  of  Fenelon's  "  Tele- 
maque."     Died  iil  1729. 

Neukomm,  von,  fon  noi'kom,  (Sigtsmund,)  a  Ger- 
man musician  and  composer,  born  at  Saltzburg  in  1778, 
was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Haydn.  He  passed  several 
years  in  Paris  in  the  service  of  Talleyrand.  He  was  an 
excellent  organist.  He  composed  a  number  of  oratorios, 
operas,  and  other  works.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  oratorios  of  "  David"  and  "  Mount  Sinai."  Died 
in  1858. 

See  Fi^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Neumann,  noi'mSn,  (Baltitasar.)  a  German  archi- 
tect, born  at  Eger  in  1687.  He  designed  many  churches 
and  palaces.     Died  in  1753. 

Neumann,  (Caspar,)  a  German  theologian  and  He- 
brew scholar,  born  at  Breslau  in  1648.  He  wrote  "  Gene- 
sis LinguEC  Sanctae  Veteris  Testamenti,"  (1696,)  "Pith 
or  Marrow  of  all  Prayers,"  ("  Kern  aller  Gebete,")  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1715. 

See  Tacken,  "  Leben  Neumanns,"  1741. 

Neumann,  (Franz  Ernst,)  a  German  natural  philos- 
opher, born  in  Ukermark  in  1798.  He  became  professor 
of  physics  at  Konigsberg  in  1826,  and  gained  distinction 
by  his  researches  in  crystallography,  the  theory  of  light, 
etc. 

Neumann,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Berlin  in  1787.  He  was  asso- 
ciated with  his  friend  Varnhagen  von  Ense  in  the  com- 
position of  the  "  Almanac  of  the  Muses,"  and  other 
works.  He  translated  Macchiavelli's  "  History  of  Flor- 
ence."    Died  in  1834. 

Neumann,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  at  Hertz,  nearMerseburg,  in  1661.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg.  Died  in  1 709 
Neumann,  new'man,  (John  Nepomucene,)  D.D., 
an  eminent  bishop,  born  in  Srachatic,  Bohemia,  March 
20,  181 1.  He  was  educated  at  Budweis  and  Prague,  was 
ordained  to  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in  1836,  and 
in  1852  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Philadelphia.  Died 
in  Philadelphia,  January  5,  i860.  Bishop  Neumann  was 
distinguished  for  piety,  learning,  and  humility,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Redemptorist  order. 

Neumann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  Orientalist 
and  historian,  born  near  Bamberg  in  1798.  He  published 


numerous  works,  among  which  are  "  Asiatic  Studies," 
(1837,)  a  "History  of  the  British  Empire  in  India," 
(2  vols.,  1857,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  United  States,'" 
(Berlin.  3  vols.,  1865.)     Died  in  March,  1870. 

Neumann,  (Karl  Georg,)  a  German  medical  writer 
and  poet,  born  at  Gera  in  1774.  He  became  professor 
of  medicine  in  Berlin  in  1818.  Among  his  works  is 
"Specielle  Pathologie  und  Therapie,"  (4  vols.,  1837.) 
Died  in  1850. 

Neumann,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  chemist,  born  in 
1682  or  1683,  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Berlin.  He  wrote  a  number  of  scientific  treat- 
ises, which  were  translated  into  English.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.     Died  in  1737. 

See  F.  Hoefek,  "Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Neumark,  noi'maRk,  (Georg,)  a  German  poet  and 
musician,  born  at  MUhlhausen  (Thuringia)  in  1621.  He 
was  living  in  great  destitution  at  Hamburg,  when  his 
talents  attracted  the  notice  of  Rosenkrantz,  the  Swedish 
ambassador,  who  made  him  his  secretary.  He  after- 
wards became  librarian  and  secretary  of  the  archives  at 
Weimar,  where  he  died  in  1681.  He  is  chiefly  celebrated 
for  the  beautiful  hymn  "  Wer  nur  den  lieben  Gott  lasst 
walten,"  a  translation  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
"  Lyra  Germanica." 

Neumayr  von  Flessen-Seilbitz,  noi'miR  fon  flSs'- 
scn  sTl'b!ts,  (Anton,)  a  German  critic  and  able  writer  on 
art,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1772.  He  passed  many  years 
in  Italy,  and  wrote,  in  Italian,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Historical  and  Critical  Memoir  on  Painting,"  (1811,) 
"The  German  Artists,"  (6  vols.,  1819-23,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Albert  Diirer,"  (1823.)     Died  in  1840. 

Neureuther,  noi'roi'ter,  (Eugen,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man designer,  born  at  Munich  in  1806.  Among  his  works 
are  illustrations  of  the  poems  of  Goethe,  Wieland,  and 
other  German  authors.     Died  March  23,  18S2. 

Neuville.     See  Hyde  de  Neuville. 

Neuville,  de,  deh  nuh'vil',  (Alphonse  Mariii 
Adolphe,)  a  French  painter  of  military  subjects,  was 
born  at  Saint-Oiner,  May  31,  1836.  Apart  from  his 
numerous  and  well-known  war-pictures,  he  has  been 
successful  as  an  illustrator  of  books.    Died  in  1885. 

Neuville,  de,  deh  nuh'vil',(CHARLES  FREY,)a  French 
Jesuit,  eminent  as  a  pulpit  orator,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Coutances  in  1693;  died  in  1774. 

Neuville,  de,  deh  nuh've'yi',  (Didier  Pierre  Chi- 
CANAU,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1720.  He 
published  "The  Philosophic  Dictionary,"  (1751,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1781. 

Neuwied,  Prince  of.     See  Maximilian 

Nevada,  ne-vS'da,  (Emma,)  the  stage-name  of  Miss 
Emma  Wixom,  an  American  singer,  born  at  Nevada 
City,  California,  in  1861.  She  first  appeared  upon  the 
stage  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  in  1880,  and 
later  sang  with  great  success  in  the  principal  European 
cities. 

Ne-vay',  (John,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Forfar,  Jan- 
uary 28,  1792.  He  published  several  volumes  of  verse, 
and  died  in  May,  1870. 

Nevenarius.     See  Neuenar. 

Nevers,  de,  deh  neh-vaiR',  (Louis  de  Gonzague-— 
deh  g6N'ztg',)  Due,  a  French  commander,  born  in 
1539.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil 
war,  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  was  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  League.  In  1590  he  entered  the  serviceof 
Henry  IV.,  who  gave  him  command  of  an  army.  Died 
in  1595. 

See  TuRPiN,  "Histoire  de  Louis  de  Gonzague,"  17S9;  Bran- 
t6me,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Nevers,  de,  (Philippe  Julien  Mancini  Mazarini,) 
Due,  born  in  Rome  in  1641,  was  a  nephew  of  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  and  a  brother  of  Hortense  Mancini.  He  en- 
joyed the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  appointed  him 
lieutenant-general  of  Nivernais.  He  wrote  agreeable 
verses,  and  was  noticed  by  Voltaire  in  his  Catalogue 
of  the  writers  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.     Died  in  1707. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires." 

Neveu,  neh-vuh',(MATTHiAS,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter, 
horn  at  Leyden  in  1647,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Douw 
Died  after  1718. 

Nevil.    See  Neville. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  s^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  *h  as  in  this.     (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NEVILE 


1812 


NE  WCOMMEN 


Nevile  or  Nevyle,  nSv'il,  (Alexander,)  an  English 
classical  scholar,  born  in  Kent  in  1544,  was  secretary  to 
Archbishop  Parker.  His  paraphrase  of  the  "CEdipus" 
of  Seneca  is  highly  eulogized  by  Warton.    Died  in  1614. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Nevile  or  Neville,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  l5orn 
in  1620,  embraced  the  republican  cause,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state,  but  resigned  on  the 
usurpation  of  Cromwell.  He  was  the  author  of  "Plato 
Redivivus,  or  a  Dialogue  concerning  Government." 
Died  in  1694. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Nev'ille,  (Henry,)  an  English  actor,  born  in  Man- 
chester, June  20,  1837.  He  went  very  early  upon  the 
stage,  and  won  great  distinction  as  a  versatile  and  able 
comedian.  He  has  also  written  "  The  Stage  :  its  Past 
and  Present,"  and  several  plays. 

Neville,  (Richard  Cornw.m.i.is  and  Richard  Gkif- 
'TIN.)     See  Braybrooke,  Lqrd. 

Neville  or  Nevil,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  at  Canterbury.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1570,  master  of  Trinity  College  in 
1593,  and  Dean  of  Canterbury  in  1597.  He  expended 
;f  3000  or  more  on  a  building  for  Trinity  College,  called 
Nevil's  Court.     Died  in  1615. 

Nev'in,  (John  Williamson,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  divine  and  theological  writer,  of  the  (German) 
Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Franklin  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1S03.  He  became  president  of  the  theologi- 
cal seminary  at  Mercersburg  in  1841,  and  later  was  presi- 
dent of  Franklin  and  Marshall  College.  He  published 
"The  Anxious  Bench,"  (1S4.3,)  "The  Mystical  Presence," 
(1846,)  "History  and  Genius  of  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism," (1847,)  and  "Anti-Christ,  or  the  Spirit  of  Sect 
and  Schism,"  {1848,)  and  translated  several  theological 
works  from  the  German.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  erf  the 
"  Mercersburg  Review,"  and  was  a  distinguished  exponent 
of  the  "Mercersburg  theology."     Died  June  6,  1886. 

Nevin,  (Robert  J.,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman, 
a  son  of  J.  W.  Nevin,  was  born  at  Allegheny,  Pennsyl- 
vania, November  24,  1839.  He  graduated  at  Franklin 
and  Marshall  College  in  1859,  served  in  the  Federal 
army,  1862-65,  graduated  at  the  General  Theological  Sem- 
inary, New  York,  in  1867,  and  was  ordained  a  presbyter 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1869.  He  founded  the  beau- 
tiful church  of  "  Saint  Paul's  within  the  Walls"  at  Rome, 
(Italy,)  and  became  its  rector.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Conference  at  Bonn,"  (1875,)  and  "Saint  Paul's 
within  the  Walls,"  (1878.) 

Nevizan,  ni-vid-zSn'  or  n5v-e-zan',  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  at  Asti.  He  published  "  Sylvje  Nup- 
tialis  Libri  sex,"  (1521,)  a  curious  work,  often  reprinted. 
Died  in  1540. 

New'ber-ry,  (John  Strong,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  geologist,  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut, 
December  22,  1822.  He  graduated  at  Western  Reserve 
College  ill  1846,  and  at  Cleveland  Medical  College  in 
1848.  He  also  studied  at  the  £cole  de  Medecine  and  the 
■ficole  des  Mines,  Paris.  He  was  United  States  geologist, 
1855-60,  served  in  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion. 1861-65,  a"d  in  1866  became  professor  of  geology 
in  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  New  York 
city.  He  was  also  State  geologist  for  Ohio,  1869-79. 
He  is  author  of  many  volumes  of  "  Reports,"  geological 
and  palaeontological,  besides  a  great  number  of  pamphlets 
and  scientific  papers. 

Newborough  or  New^burgh,  nu'bur-eh,  [Lat  Neu- 
brigexsis,]  (William  of,)  an  English  chronicler,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1136,  wrote  a  "  History  of  England," 
(in  Latin,)  beginning  with  the  Norman  conquest  and 
brought  down  to  1197. 
Newcastle.  See  Cavendish,  (William.) 
Newcastle,  nu-kas'el,  (He.nry  Pelham  Clinton,) 
Duke  OF,  bom  in  London  in  181 1,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Henry,  Duke  of  Newcastle.  He  was  styled  Earl  of 
Lincoln  until  the  death  of  his  father,  (1851,)  and  entered 
Parliament  in  1832.  For  a  short  time  in  1846  he  was 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  In  1852  he  became  secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  Lord  Aberdeen's  coalition  ministry. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  in  1854.     As  war 


minister  he  was  so  much  censured  for  the  discomforts 
and  disasters  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea  in  1854  that  he 
resigned,  or  was  removed,  in  1855.  In  June,  1859,  he 
accepted  office  as  colonial  secretary  in  the  Liberal  min- 
istry of  Palmerston.  He  was  the  attendant  and  chief 
counsellor  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  his  visit  to  Canada 
and  the  United  States  in  i860.  Died  in  1864. 
See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  December,  1864. 

Newcastle,  (Henry  Pelham  Fiennes  Pelha.m 
Clinton,)  fourth  Duke  of,  an  English  peer,  born  in 
1785.  He  inherited  the  title  of  duke  at  the  death  of  his 
father.  He  was  a  Tory,  and  an  opponent  of  the  Reform 
bill  of  1832.  He  died  in  185 1,  leaving  a  son,  Henry, 
fifth  Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Newcastle,  (Thomas  Pelha.m,)  Duke  of,  an  Eng- 
lish Whig  minister  of  state,  born  in  1693,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Thomas  Pelham,  of  Sussex.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  John  Hollis,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  who,  dying 
in  1711,  left  a  princely  fortune  to  thesubject  of  this  article. 
In  171 5  he  was  created  Duke  of  Newcastle,  and  in  1724 
appointed  secretary  of  state.  In  1754  he  was  promoted 
to  the  office  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  (or  premier,) 
which  was  then  vacated  by  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Henry  Pelham.  He  resigned  reluctantly  in  November, 
I7i;6,  and,  after  a  ministerial  crisis,  formed  a  coalition 
with  Pitt,  and  was  again  prime  minister,  or  co-ordinate 
chief  minister,  from  1757  until  May,  1762,  when  Lord 
Bute  became  premier.  "  His  love  of  influence,"  says 
Macaulay,  (in  his  Review  of  Walpole's  "Letters  to 
Horace  Mann,")  "  was  so  intense  a  passion  that  it  sup- 
plied the  place  of  talents,  that  it  inspired  even  fatuity 
with  cunning.  .  .  .  All  the  able  men  of  his  time  ridiculed 
him  as  a  dunce,  a  driveller,  a  child  who  never  knew  his 
own  mind  for  an  hour  together  ;  and  he  overreached  them 
all  round."  He  died,  without  issue,  in  1768,  when  the 
title  passed  to  Henry  Clinton,  Earl  of  Lincoln,  who  had 
married  a  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  Pelham. 

See  Macaulay,  Review  of  Thackeray's  "  History  of  Lord  Chat- 
ham," 1834. 

New'comb,  (Simon,)  LL.D.,  an  American  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Wallace,  Nova  Scotia,  March  12,  1835.  He 
graduated  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  in  1858.  In  1861  he  became  a  professor  in 
the  United  States  navy,  and  in  1877  superintendent  of 
the  "Nautical  Almanac."  His  principal  writings  are 
"  Financial  Policy,"  (1865,)  "  A. B.C.  of  Finance,"  (1877,) 
"  Popular  Astronomy,"  (1878,)  and  a  "  Course  of  Mathe- 
matics," (1881.) 

Newcomb,  nfi'kum,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  1675,  became  rector  of  Stopham,  in  Susse.x, 
about  1734.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "The 
Library,"  (1718,)  and  "The  Last  Judgment,"  (1723.) 
Died  about  1766. 

Ne"w'come,  (Peter,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1656,  was  vicar  of  Aldenham,  in  Hertfordshire.  He  pub- 
lished several  volumes  of  sermons,  etc     Died  in  1738. 

NevT-come,  (William,)  a  learned  prelate  and  eminent 
biblical  scholar,  born  in  Bedfordshire  in  1729.  He  be- 
came successively  Bishop  of  Ossory  and  of  Waterford, 
in  Ireland,  and  in  1795  Archbishop  of  Armagh.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Historical  View  of  the  English 
Biblical  Translations,"  and  "  Harmony  of  the  Gospels," 
(1778.)     Died  in  1800. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1779. 

New-com'en,  (Matthew,)  an  English  nonconform- 
ist, was  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
divines.  He  was  one  of  the  five  persons  who  wrote 
"Smectymnus,"  a  controversial  work  against  Bishop 
Hall.     Died  at  Leyden  in  1666. 

Newcommen  or  Newcomen,  nu-kom'en,  (Thom- 
as,) an  English  locksinith,  born  in  Devonshire,  was  one 
of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  In  1705  New- 
commen and  Cawley  (a  glazier  of  that  place)  obtained 
a  patent  for  an  engine  combining  for  the  first  time  the 
cylinder  and  piston,  with  a  separate  boiler.  The  steam 
admitted  below  the  piston  was  condensed  by  the  applica- 
tion of  cold  water,  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere, 
forcing  down  the  piston,  moved  a  working-beam,  to  one 
end  of  which  a  pump-rod  was  attached.  This  engine  was 
much  used  in  mines. 

See  J.  RoBisoN,  "System  of  Mechanical  Philosophy." 


a,  e.  i.  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NEWDIGATE 


1813 


NEWTON 


New'dl-gate,  (Sir  Roger,)  an  English  gentleman  of 
fine  taste  and  classical  attainments,  born  in  Warwick- 
shire in  1 7 19.  He  was  for  many  years  representative 
m  Parliament  for  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  a 
generous  patron  of  that  institution,  to  which  he  gave  the 
Florentine  Museum,  Piranesi's  works,  and  the  cande- 
labra in  the  Radcliffe  Library.     Died  in  1780. 

Ne'wr'ell,  (Harriet,)  wife  of  Samuel  Newell,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1793. 
She  accompanied  her  husband  to  India  in  i8i2,  and  died 
soon  after  their  arrival.  Her  "Memoirs"  were  written 
by  Dr.  Woods,  of  Andover. 

New'ell,  (Robert  Hassell,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1780.  He  edited  the  works  of  Oliver  Gold- 
smith, (1811,)  and  wrote  "The  Zoology  of  the  British 
Poets  corrected,"  etc.,  (1845.)     Died  in  1852. 

NeTwell,  (Samuel,)  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Durham,  Maine,  in  1784.  Having  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College,  he  was  ordained  in  1812,  and  soon  after 
set  sail  for  Calcutta,  accompanied  by  the  Rev.  Adoniram 
Judson.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Mr.  Hall,  "  The 
Conversion  of  the  World,  or  the  Claims  of  Six  Hun- 
dred Millions,"  (1818.)     Died  in  1821. 

New'land,  (John,)  an  English  monk  and  diplomatist, 
was  abbot' of  a  monastery  at  Bristol.  He  was  employed 
by  Henry  VHI.  in  diplomatic  missions.  Died  in  1515. 
'New'land,  [Dutch,  Nieuwland,  nyo'lint,]  (Peter,) 
a  Dutch  mathematician  and  poet,  born  near  Amsterdam 
in  1764.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on 
Navigation."     Died  in  1794- 

Ne-V7'man,  (Francis  W.,)  an  English  author,  brother 
of  John  Henry,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in 
1805.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and,  after  he  left  col- 
lege, passed  three  years  in  the  Turkish  empire,  (1830- 
33.)  In  1840  he  became  professor  of  languages  at  Man- 
chester New  College.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  in  University  College,  London,  in  1846.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  a  "History  of  the  Hebrew  Mon- 
archy," (1847,)  "The  Soul :  its  Sorrows  and  Aspirations," 
(1849,)  "  Phases  of  Faith,  or  Passages  from  the  History 
of  my  Creed,"  (1850,)  "  Lectures  on  Ancient  and  Modern 
History,"  (1851,)  "Crimes  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg," 
(1853,)  "Theism,  Doctrinal  and  Practical,"  (1858,)  "  Eng- 
lish Institutions  and  their  Reforms,"  (1865,)  "  Hand-Book 
of  Modern  Arabic,"  (1866,)  etc. 

Newman,  (John  Henry,)  an  eminent  English  theo- 
logian, born  in  London  in  1801.  He  entered  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  in  1816,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Oriel  College  in  1822.  At  Oriel  College  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  John  Keble  the  poet,  and  with  Dr. 
Whately.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1824,  and  became 
vice-principal  of  Alban  Hall  in  1825,  and  a  tutor  of 
Oriel  College  in  1826.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  vicar 
of  Saint  Mary's,  Oxford,  and  of  Littlemore.  In  1833 
Newman,  Keble,  and  Pusey  initiated  the  "  Oxford  move- 
ment" in  favour  of  High-Church  doctrines,  which  they 
advocated  in  a  series  of  "  Tracts  for  the  Times."  He 
manifested  a  growing  tendency  to  Roman  Catholicism 
in  his  "  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century  :  their  Doctrines, 
Temper,  and  Conduct,"  (1833,)  his  "Tract  No.  90," 
(1841,)  and  his  "Essay  on  the  Development  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine."  He  became  a  member  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  1845,  ^^^  '^'^'^  ^"^^  principal  of  the 
Oratory  of  Saint  Philip  Neri  at  Birmingham  from  1848 
to  1852.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  fined  one  hundred 
pounds  for  a  libel  on  Dr.  Achilli.  He  defended  or  ex- 
plained his  religious  course  in  a  work  entitled  "  Apology 
for  his  Life,"  ("  Apologia  pro  Vita  sua,"  1864.)  He  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  poems,  (1868,)  "The  Grammar  of 
Assent,"  (1870,)  and  "A  Letter  addressed  to  his  Grace 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  on  the  Occasion  of  Mr.  Gladstone's 
Recent  Expostulation,"  (1875.)  He  was  made  a  cardi- 
nal-deacon in  1879.      Died  August  11,  1890. 

New'marcli,  (William,)  an  English  political  econo 
mist,  born  in  1820.  His  most  important  work  was  the 
preparation  of  the  two  concluding  volumes  of  "  Tooke 
and  Newmarch's  History  of  Prices,"  (1856.)  Died  March 
23,  1S82. 

Ne'wr'port,  (Christopher,)  an  Englishman,  com- 
manded the  vessels  which  in  1606  conveyed  the  party 
of  emigrants  that  first  settled  at  [amestown,  Virginia. 


Newport,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  comparative 
anatomist  and  entomologist,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1803. 
He  practised  medicine,  and  devoted  much  time  to  the 
study  of  the  anatomy  of  insects,  on  which  subjects  he 
contributed  to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  a  num- 
ber of  memoirs.  One  of  these  was  "  On  the  Nervous 
System  of  the  Sphinx."  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Entomological  Society  in  1844.     Died  in  1854. 

Newport,  (Sir  John,)  an  Irish  Whig  politician,  born 
at  Waterford  about  1760.  He  became  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1803,  and  controller  of  the  exchequer. 
Died  in  1843. 

New'ton,  (Charles  Thomas,)  a  British  archaeologist, 
born  in  1816.  He  graduated  in  1837  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  was  employed  (1840-52)  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. Becoming  vice-consul  at  Mitylene,  he  made  im- 
portant explorations  in  Asia  Minor.  In  1880  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  archaeology  in  the  University  of 
Oxford.  Among  his  writings  are  a  "  History  of  Discov- 
eries at  Halicarnassus,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1862,)  "Travels  in 
the  Levant,"  (1865,)  "Essays  on  Art  and  Archaeology," 
(1880,)  etc. 

New'ton,  (Gilbert  STUART,)a  distinguished  painter, 
of  English  extraction,  born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in 
1794.  He  painted  numerous  small  pictures  of  great 
merit,  among  which  we  may  name  "Shylock  and  Jes- 
sica" and  "Portia  and  Bassanio."    Died  in  1835. 

Newton,  (Hubert  Anson,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
mathematician,  born  at  Sherburne,  New  York,  March 
19,  1830.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1850,  and 
became  professor  of  mathematics  there  in  1855. 

Newton,  (Sir  Isaac,)  an  illustrious  English  philoso- 
pher and  mathematician,  born  at  Woolsthorpe,  in  Lin- 
colnshire, on  the  25th  of  December,  1642,  (Old  Style.) 
He  was  the  posthumous  and  only  child  of  Isaac  Newton, 
a  farmer,  who  died  in  1642.  His  mother,  whose  original 
name  was  Hannah  Ayscough,  was  married  again  to  the 
Rev.  Barnabas  Smith  in  1645.  He  attended  the  schools 
jf  Skillington  and  Stoke  for  several  years,  and  about 
the  age  of  twelve  entered  the  grammar-school  of  Grant- 
ham. There  he  manifested  much  mechanical  ingenuity 
by  the  construction  of  a  windmill,  a  water-clock,  a  sun- 
dial, and  other  pieces  of  mechanism.  He  also  wrote 
verses  in  his  boyhood.  He  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  as  a  sub-sizar,  in  June,  1661,  before  which 
date  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  been  a  profound 
student  of  mathematics.  It  has  been  stated  that  he 
commenced  the  study  of  Euclid's  "  Elements,"  but  he 
found  the  first  propositions  so  self-evident  that  he  threw 
the  book  aside  as  too  trifling.  "  When  Newton  entered 
Trinity  College,"  says  Brewster,  "  he  brought  with  him 
a  more  slender  portion  of  science  than  at  his  age  falls 
to  the  lot  of  ordinary  scholars."  Among  the  works 
which  he  first  studied  at  Cambridge  were  the  "Optics" 
of  Kepler  and  the  "  Geometry"  of  Descartes.  In  1664  he 
read  Wallis's  "  Arithmetica  Infinitorum,"  and  discovered 
the  method  of  infinite  series,  or  the  binomial  theorem, 
which  enabled  him  to  compute  the  area  of  curves  and 
to  solve  with  ease  problems  which  before  were  insoluble 
or  very  difficult.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1665, 
and  discovered  the  difi'erential  calculus,  or  method  of 
fluxions,  probably  in  the  same  year.  This  important 
method  of  mathematical  investigation  was  discovered 
by  Leibnitz  about  the  same  time,  and  before  Newton 
had  published  anything  on  the  subject.  A  controversy 
arose  between  the  EngHsh  and  foreign  mathematicians 
about  the  priority  of  the  discovery.  Sir  David  Brewster 
gives  this  decision  of  the  question  :  i.  That  Newton 
was  the  first  inventor  of  the  method  of  fluxions ;  that 
the  method  was  incomplete  in  its  notation,  and  that  the 
fundamental  principle  of  it  was  not  published  to  the 
world  till  1687.  2.  That  Leibnitz  communicated  his 
differential  calculus  to  Newton  in  1677,  with  a  complete 
system  of  notation,  and  that  he  published  it  in  1684. 

As  a  precaution  against  the  plague,  he  retired  from 
Cambridge  to  his  native  place  in  tiie  summer  of  1665. 
He  then  and  there  began  to  speculate  on  the  subject  of 
gravity.  It  was  in  the  autumn  of  1665  that  the  apple 
which  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  gravitation  is  said  to 
have  fallen  from  the  tree  at  Woolsthorpe.  "  When  sitting 
alone  in  the  garden,"  says  Brewster,  "and  speculating 


€  as  >t,-  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /V  G,  h,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  ih  as  in  this.     (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. 1 


NE  WTON 


1814 


NEWTON 


on  the  power  of  gravity,  it  occurred  to  him  tliat  as  the 
same  power  by  which  the  apple  fell  to  the  ground  was 
not  sensibly  diminished  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  earth  to  which  we  can  reach,  ...  it  might 
extend  to  the  moon  and  retain  her  in  her  orbit  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  bends  into  a  curve  a  stone  or  cannon- 
ball  when  projected  in  a  straight  line  from  the  surface 
of  the  earth."  He  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
force  of  gravity  by  which  the  planets  were  retained  in 
their  orbits  varied  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  from 
the  sun ;  but,  not  being  prepared  to  verify  this  hypothe- 
sis, he  abandoned  or  deferred  the  subject  for  many  years. 

He  returned  to  Cambridge  in  1666,  and  applied  him- 
self to  the  grinding  of  optic  glasses,  and  began  to  study 
the  subject  of  colours  in  connection  with  the  prismatic 
spectrum.  He  was  elected  a  Minor  Fellow  in  October, 
1667,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  March,  1668,  as 
twenty-third  on  the  list  of  one  hundred  and  forty-eight 
graduates.  He  made  a  small  reflecting  telescope  in  1668, 
and  succeeded  Dr.  Barrow,  as  Lucasian  professor  of 
mathematics,  in  1669.  About  this  date  he  made  the  grand 
discovery  that  light  is  not  homogeneous,  but  consists  of  rays 
of  different  refrangibility.  He  also  perceived  that  this 
different  refrangibility  was  the  real  cause  of  the  imper- 
fection of  refracting  telescopes.  In  1671  he  constructed 
with  his  own  hands  a  second  reflecting  telescope,  which 
is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Society.  New- 
ton read  a  course  of  lectures  on  optics,  at  Cambridge,  in 
1669,  1670,  and  1671.  He  was  the  author  of  the  theory 
of  light  called  the  Emission  theory,  according  to  which 
light  is  composed  of,  or  produced  by,  material  particles 
of  inconceivable  minuteness,  emitted  by  luminous  bodies 
in  all  directions.  On  this  subject  he  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  Hooke  and  Huygens,  who  maintained 
the  undulatory  theory.  In  a  letter  to  Leibnitz,  dated 
December  9,  1675,  he  writes,  "  I  was  so  persecuted  with 
discussions  arising  out  of  my  theory  of  light,  that  I 
blamed  my  own  imprudence  for  parting  with  so  sub- 
stantial a  blessing  as  my  quiet  to  run  after  a  shadow." 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  January, 
1672.  In  December,  1675,  he  communicated  to  that 
body  a  discourse  entitled  a  "Theory  of  Light  and  Col- 
ours." "  The  theory  of  Newton,"  says  Sir  John  Herschel, 
"gives  a  complete  and  elegant  explanation  of  what  may 
be  considered  the  chief  of  all  optical  facts, — the  produc- 
tion of  colours  in  the  ordinary  refraction  of  light  by  a 
prism,  the  discovery  of  which  by  him  marks  one  of  the 
greatest  epochs  in  the  annals  of  experimental  science." 
("Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Phi- 
losophy.") His  optical  discoveries  are  described  in  a 
■work  entitled  "  Opticks,  or  a  Treatise  on  the  Reflexions, 
Refractions,  Inflexions,  and  Colours  of  Light,"  which 
was  published  in  1704,  but  written  many  years  earlier. 
"To  avoid  being  engaged  in  disputes  about  these  mat- 
ters," says  the  author,  "I  have  hitherto  delayed  the 
printing."  The  only  other  optical  work  by  Newton  was 
his  "Lectiones  Opticae,"  (1728,)  which  contains  the  lec- 
tures he  read  at  Cambridge  in  1669-71. 

Newton  had  abandoned  the  subject  of  gravity  in  1665, 
after  an  attempt  to  verify  his  theory  by  a  calculation 
which  failed  because  he  had  employed  an  erroneous 
measure  of  the  earth's  radius.  About  1684  he  resumed 
his  inquiries  and  calculations  in  relation  to  the  moon, 
and  employed  Picard's  more  accurate  measure  of  the 
earth's  diameter.  He  thus  demonstrated  the  great  truth 
that  the  orbit  of  the  moon  is  curved  by  the  same  force 
which  causes  bodies  to  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
According  to  a  doubtful  tradition,  he  became  so  much 
agitated  as  his  calculations  drew  to  a  close,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  ask  a  friend  to  finish  them.  "This  anec- 
dote is  not  supported  by  what  is  known  of  Newton's 
character.."  (Brewster's  "Life  of  Newton.")  He  an- 
nounced this  discovery  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1685  by 
his  treatise  "  De  Motu."  This  was  the  germ  of  his 
greatest  work,  the  "  Principia,"  (composed  in  1685-86,) 
which  Laplace  regarded  as  "pre-eminent  above  all 
other  productions  of  the  human  intellect."  The  full 
title  of  this  work,  which  was  published  by  the  Royal 
Society  or  by  Halley  in  1687,  is  "The  Mathematical 
Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophise  Na- 
turalis  Principia  Mathematica.")     It  consists  of  three 


Books,  of  which  the  first  and  second  are  entitled  "  On 
the  Motion  of  Bodies,"  and  the  third  "  On  the  System 
of  the  World."  "  The  great  discovery,"  says  Brewster, 
"which  characterizes  the  '  Principia'  is  that  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  universal  gravitation,  that  every  particle  of  matter 
in  the  universe  is  attracted  by,  or  gravitates  to,  every  other 
particle  of  matter,  with  a  force  inversely  proportional  U  the 
squares  of  their  distances" 

"  The  glory  of  these  men,"  says  Macaulay,  referring  to 
Wallis  and  Halley,  "  is  cast  into  the  shade  by  the  tran- 
scendent lustre  of  one  immortal  name.  In  Isaac  New- 
ton two  kinds  of  intellectual  power,  which  have  little  in 
common,  and  which  are  not  often  found  together  in  a 
very  high  degree  of  vigour,  but  which  nevertheless  are 
equally  necessary  in  the  most  sublime  departments  of 
natural  philosophy,  were  united  as  they  have  never  been 
united  before  or  since.  ...  In  no  other  mind  have 
the  demonstrative  faculty  and  the  inductive  faculty  coex- 
isted in  such  supreme  excellence  and  perfect  harmony." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap,  iii.) 

In  1687  James  II.  sent  an  illegal  mandamus  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  directing  that  a  certain  monk 
should  be  admitted  a  master  of  arts  without  taking  tho 
oath  of  allegiance.  Newton  took  an  active  and  influen- 
tial part  in  defending  the  privileges  of  the  university  on 
this  occasion.  He  represented  Cambridge  in  the  Con- 
vention Parliament,  January,  1689-February,  1690,  and 
maintained  the  principles  of  civil  and  religious  liberty 
in  that  critical  period  of  revolution.  In  1689  he  became 
acquainted  with  John  Locke,  with  whom  he  associated 
on  friendly  terms  and  corresponded  until  his  death. 
Newton,  though  satiated  with  fame,  had  gained  no  pecu- 
niary benefit  by  his  writings,  and  had  received  no  mark 
of  national  gratitude  for  his  discoveries.  Locke  and 
Charles  Montague  endeavoured  to  procure  for  him  some 
permanent  appointment,  but  without  success. 

In  1692  and  1693  he  wrote  to  Bentley  four  celebrated 
letters  on  the  formation  of  the  sun  and  the  planets,  etc., 
in  which  he  aftirms  that  the  motions  of  the  planets 
could  not  be  jiroduced  by  any  natural  cause  alone, 
but  were  impressed  by  an  intelligent  agent  and  Divine 
power.  A  report  was  circulated,  chiefly  on  the  conti- 
nent, that  Newton  was  insane,  about  1692.  The  story 
that  his  precious  manuscripts  were  burned  through  the 
agency  of  his  little  dog  Diamond,  seems  to  be  equally 
unfounded.  "  He  never  had  any  communion  with  dogs 
or  cats."     (Brewster.) 

In  1694  Newton  was  occupied  by  researches  on  the 
lunar  theory,  and  obtained  from  Flamsteed  his  observa- 
tions on  the  moon.  Letters  were  exchanged  between 
them  in  relation  to  these  observations,  which  became  the 
occasion  of  an  intemperate  and  discreditable  controversy. 
Newton  was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint  in  1695  or 
1696  by  his  friend  Montague,  Earl  of  Halifax,  who  had 
resolved  on  an  important  scheme  of  re-coinage  of  clipped 
and  debased  coin.  The  salary  of  this  office  was  about 
;^6oo.  In  1699  he  was  promoted  to  be  master  of  the 
mint,  with  a  salary  of  from  ;^i20oto  ;,^i5oo.  In  1703  he 
was  returned  to  Parliament  by  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  elected  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  continued  until  his  death  to  occupy  the  latter  po- 
sition, to  which  he  was  annually  re-elected.  He  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Anne  in  1705.  Among  his  important 
works  are  "  The  Chronology  of  Ancient  Kingdoms 
Amended,"  (1728,)  and  "Observations  upon  the  Pro- 
phecies of  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  John," 
(first  published  in  1733.)  "That  the  greatest  philoso- 
pher of  which  any  age  can  boast,"  says  Brewster,  "  was 
a  sincere  and  humble  believer  in  the  leading  doctrines 
of  our  religion  and  lived  conformably  to  its  precepts, 
has  been  justly  regarded  as  a  proud  triumph  of  the 
Christian  faith."  Newton's  religious  opinions,  however, 
were  not  strictly  orthodox :  like  Milton,  he  appears  to 
have  had  a  decided  leaning  towards  Arianism. 

Newton  was  never  married.  His  latter  years  were 
passed  in  London,  where  he  lived  in  a  handsome  style 
and  kept  six  servants.  He  was  extremely  generous  and 
liberal  in  the  use  of  money,  for  which  he  is  said  to  have 
had  a  great  contempt.  On  one  occasion  he  offered  Dr. 
Cheselden,  as  a  fee,  a  handful  of  guineas  out  of  his  coat- 
pocket.     He  was  often  so  absorbed  in  meditation  that 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni&t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NE  WTON 


1815 


NEY 


he  forgot  to  eat,  and  it  was  necessary  for  his  servants 
to  remind  him  of  his  meals.  He  died  at  Kensington  on 
the  20th  of  March,  1727,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  His  collected  works  were  published  by  Bishop 
Horsley  in  5  vols.  4to,  (1779-85.) 

Near  the  end  of  his  life  he  said,  "  I  know  not  what  I 
may  appear  to  the  world,  but  to  myself  I  seem  to  have 
been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the  sea-shore  and 
diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a  smoother 
pebble  or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  whilst  the  great 
ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered  before  me." 

"Though  there  be  few,"  says  Dr.  Chalmers,  "who 
comprehend  or  follow  Newton  in  his  gigantic  walk,  yet 
all  may  participate  in  his  triumphant  feeling  when  he 
reached  that  lofty  summit  where  the  whole  mystery  and 
magnificence  of  nature  stood  submitted  to  his  gaze, — an 
eminence  won  by  him  through  the  power  and  patience 
of  intellect  alone,  but  from  which  he  descried  a  scene 
more  glorious  far  than  imagination  could  have  formed, 
or  than  ever  had  been  pictured  and  set  forth  in  the 
sublimest  visions  of  poetry."  ("Treatise  on  the  Adap- 
tation of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual 
Constitution  of  Man.") 

"Whichever  way  we  turn  our  view,"  says  Sir  John 
F.  W.  Herschel,  "  we  find  ourselves  compelled  to  bow 
before  his  genius,  and  to  assign  to  the  name  of  Newton 
a  place  in  our  veneration  which  belongs  to  no  other  in 
the  annals  of  science.  His  era  marks  the  accomplished 
maturity  of  the  human  reason  as  applied  to  such  objects. 
.  .  .  His  wonderful  combination  of  mathematical  skill 
with  physical  research  enabled  him  to  invent  at  pleasure 
new  and  unheard-of  methods  of  investigating  the  effects 
of  those  causes  which  his  clear  and  penetrating  mind 
detected  in  operation.  Ascending  by  a  series  of  close- 
compacted  inductive  arguments  to  the  highest  a.xioms  of 
dynamical  science,  he  succeeded  in  applying  them  to  the 
complete  explanation  of  all  the  great  astronomical  phe- 
nomena." ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of 
Natural  Philosophy.") 

See  Sir  David  Brewster,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,"  i 
vols.,  1855  :  FoNTENELLE.  "  FJoge  de  Newton,"  1728  ;  Pemberton, 
"Account  of"  Newton's  Philosopliy  ;"  Riot,  article  "  Newton"  in 
the  "  Biographie  Uiiiverselle  ;"  Arago,  "Notices  biographiques," 
tome  iii.  ;  Birch,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society,"  vols.  iii.  and  iv.  ; 
Maclaurin,  "  E.vposition  of  the  Discoveries  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton," 
174^ :  RiGAUD,  "  Historical  Essay  on  the  Principia  of  Newton  ;" 
"Life  of  Newton"  in  the  "  Biographia  Britannica  :"  Paoi.o  Frisi, 
"Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  I.  Newton,"  177S;  Wm.  Whewell, 
"Newton  and  Flamsteed,"  1S36;  Carl  Snell,  "Newton  und  die 
niechanische  Naturwissenschaft,"  1843;  Voltaire,  "  Elements  de  la 
Philosophie  de  Newton  :"  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica :"  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  Ociober,  1832;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  i(<6i 
"North  Britisli  Review"  for  August,  1855:  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  July,  1833. 

NeAvton,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1622,  was  the  author  of  "Geo- 
metrical Trigonometry,"  "Astronomia  Britannica,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1678. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Newton,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
in  1725.  Having  for  many  years  led  a  profligate  life 
as  a  sailor,  and  engaging  in  the  African  slave-trade,  he 
was  converted,  and  distinguished  himself  thenceforth 
by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  religion.  In  1764  he  became 
curate  of  Olney,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of 
Cowper,  and  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  him,  the  "Olney 
Hymns."  He  also  published  a  "  Review  of  Ecclesiastical 
History,"  (1770,)  "  Cardiphonia,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1807. 

Ne'w'ton,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia, graduated  at  West  Point  in  "1842.  He  becaine  a 
brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in  i86i,  and  com- 
manded a  brigade  in  the  battles  before  Richmond,  June, 
1862,  and  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  He 
served  under  General  Sherman  in  Georgia  in  1864,  with 
distinction,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  and 
major-general  in  1865.  Since  the  war  he  has  been  en- 
gaged in  removing  the  obstructions  to  navigation  in 
Hell  Gate.  He  became  lieutenant-colonel  of  engineers 
in  1865,  and  colonel  in  1879. 

Newton,  (Regin.\ld  Heber,)  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  a  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  Richard  Newton,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  October  31,  1840.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.    Ordained  to  the  ministry 


of  the  Episcopal  Church,  his  extreme  "Broad  Church" 
position  attracted  much  attention.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Children's  Church,"  (1872,)  "The  Morals  of 
Trade,"  (1876,)  "Womanhood,"  (1880,)  "Studies  of 
Jesus,"  (1881,)  "The  Right  and  Wrong  Uses  of  the 
Bible,"  (1883,)  and  "The  Book  of  Beginnings,"  (1884.) 
He  has  written  much  on  social  and  industrial  questions. 

Newton,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  about 
1675,  became  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "  Pluralities  Indefensible," 
(1744.)  He  was  the  founder  of  Hertford  College,  Ox- 
ford.    Died  in  1753. 

See  Chalmers;,  "  History  of  Oxford  " 

Newton,  (Richard,)  D.D.,an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Liverpool,  England,  July  25,  1813.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1834,  and  at 
the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in  1839, 
and  held  Episcopalian  pastorships,  chiefly  in  Philadel- 
phia. He  published  twenty-two  volumes,  many  of  then 
containing  sermons  for  the  young,  which  have  had  a  wide 
popularity  and  have  been  translated  into  many  foreign 
languages.     Died  May  25,  1887. 

New^'tpn,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Methodist  clergyman 
born  in  1780.  He  preached  in  London  and  Liverpool, 
and  was  appointed  in  1839  a  delegate  to  the  General 
Conference  of  the  United  States.  He  was  a  popular 
preacher.     Died  in  1854. 

Newton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Lich- 
field in  1704,  rose  'through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Bristol,  (1761.)  He  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  with  notes,  (1749,) 
and  "Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
I754~58>)  which  were  translated  into  German  and  Danish. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Life  of  Thomas  Newton,"  prefixed  to  the  second  edition 
of  his  Works:  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1783. 

Ne^wton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
Essex,  became  master  of  Macclesfield  School.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Saracens,"  (1575,)  of  a 
number  of  Latin  poems,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1607, 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Ne^wton,  (William,)  an  English  architect  and  writer, 
published  an  English  translation  of  Vitruvius,  (2  vols., 
1771.) 

Newton,  (William  Wilberforce,)  an  American 
clergyman,  a  brother  of  R.  H.  Newton,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, November  4,1843.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1865,  and  at  the  Philadelphia  Divinity 
School  in  1868,  and  became  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal 
Church.  Among  his  works  are  "  Essays  of  To-Day," 
(1879,)  "The  Voice  of  Saint  John,"  a  poem,  (1880,) 
"Priest  and  Man,"  a  novel,  (1883,)  "The  Legend  of 
Saint  Telemachus,"  a  poem,  (1882,)  and  some  volumes 
of  sermons  for  children. 

Ney,  nS,  (Francois,)  a  Flemish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Antwerp,  became  general  of  the  order  of  Saint  Francis, 
in  Spain,  in  1607.  He  was  the  principal  agent  of  the 
Spanish  king  in  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
which  recognized  the  independence  of  the  revolted  Dutch 
provinces  in  1609.  Watson  the  historian  speaks  highly 
of  his  talents  and  address. 

See  Grotius,  "Histoire  des  Troubles  des  Pays-Bas." 

Ney,  ni,  (Joseph  Napoleon,)  Prince  of  the  Moskwa, 
(in  French,  "de  la  Moskowa,")  a  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  in  1803,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Marshal  Ney.  He 
served  in  Algeria  in  1837-38,  and  entered  the  Chamber 
of  Peers  in  1841.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which 
he  was  a  partisan  of  Louis  Napoleon.     Died  in  1857. 

Ney,  (Michel,)  Duke  of  Elchingen,  Prince  of  thi 
Moskwa,  a  famous  French  marshal,  born  at  Sarre-Louis 
in  January,  1769,  was  the  son  of  a  cooper.  He  entered 
the  army  as  a  private  in  1787,  became  adjutant-general 
in  1794,  and  a  general  of  brigade  in  1796.  As  general 
of  division,  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  under  Massena, 
in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  in  1799.  In  1800  he  passed 
into  the  armv  of  Moreali,  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  Hohenlinden.  He  obtained  a  marshal's  baton  in  1804. 
For  an  important  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Elchingen, 
in  October,  1805,  he  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  El- 
chingen. His  impetuous  courage  rendered  essential  ser- 
vices at  the  battle  of  Jena,  in  1806.     In  this  year  he  took 


€  as  *;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  H,  y:., guttural ;  N,  jiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NEY 


i8r6 


NICCOL O 


Magdeburg,  the  garrison  of  which  amounted  to  about 
2o,coo  men.  He  commanded  an  army  in  Spain  iii  1809, 
arid  obtained  advantages  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Almeida 
in  1810.  In  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  received 
from  Bonaparte  the  appellation  of  the  "  Bravest  of  the 
Brave."  He  commanded  the  centre  at  the  great  battle 
of  Borodino,  or  the  Moskwa,  from  which  he  derived 
his  title  of  Prince.  In  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  Mar- 
shal Ney  commanded  the  rear-guard,  and  maintained  his 
reputation  by  heroic  conduct  amidst  the  greatest  dis- 
asters. "  It  was  when  danger  was  greatest  and  success 
most  doubtful,"  says  Alison,  "  that  his  courage  was  most 
conspicuous  and  his  coolness  most  valuable."  When 
summoned  to  capitulate,  in  November,  1812,  he  replied, 
"  A  marshal  of  France  never  surrenders  !" 

He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battles  of  Lutzen, 
Bautzen,  and  Dresden,  in  1813,  and  was  defeated  at  Den- 
newitz  by  Bernadotte  in  September  of  that  year.  On  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  in  1814,  Ney  submitted  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  who  permitted  him  to  retain  his  titles  and  mili- 
tary rank.  In  March,  18 15,  he  received  orders  to  lead 
an  army  against  Napoleon,  whom  he  promised  to  bring 
back  in  an  iron  cage.  His  moral  courage,  however,  was 
not  proof  against  the  seductive  offers  of  his  former  chief, 
to  whom  he  transferred  the  army,  as  well  as  his  own 
services.  He  fought  with  his  usual  resolution  at  Water- 
loo, where  he  led  several  charges  of  the  Old  Guard  and 
had  five  horses  shot  under  him.  He  was  tried  for  treason 
by  the  court  of  the  peers,  and  shot  on  the  7th  of  De- 
cember, 1815. 

"  When  the  Parisians  awoke,"  says  Lamartine,  "  and 
found  that  Ney  had  been  executed,  bitter  shame  seized 
on  every  soul.  .  .  .  We  must  say,  however,  in  the  de- 
fence of  the  king  and  the  ministers,  that  they  were  re- 
pugnant, from  moderation,  horour,  and  sensibility,  to 
this  useless,  cruel,  and  shameful  sacrifice.  In  their  eyes, 
and  in  those  of  the  impartial  portion  of  the  world,  Ney 
was  a  great  culprit,  but  his  was  a  glorious  life.  His 
fault  was  among  those  which  are  condemned  but  par- 
doned. He  had  redeemed  it  beforehand  by  exploits 
which  will  be  an  eternal  theme  in  the  camps  of  France." 
("  History  of  the  Restoration.") 

See  "  M^nioires  dii  Mar^chal  Ney,"  published  by  his  family,  1833  ; 
RouvAi.,  "Vie  du  Marechal  Ney,"  1833;  Dumoulin,  "  Histoiie 
du  Proems  du  Marechal  Ney,"  2  vols.,  1815  ;  J.  Nollet-Fabert, 
"fiioge  historique  du  Marechal  Ney,"  1852;  Charlemont,  "Vie 
du  Marechal  Ney,"  1814;  Vergara,  "  Vida  del  Mariscal  Ney," 
1819;    Thiers,    "History   of   the    Consulate    and    the    Empire." 

Ney,  (Michel  Louis  FElix,)  Due  d'Elchingen,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1804.  He  served  several 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  became  a  general  of  brigade 
in  1851.     Died  in  1854. 

Ney,  (Napoleon  Henri  Edgar,)  Prince  of  the 
Moskwa,  a  son  of  Marshal  Ney,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1812.  He  entered  the  army  about  1830,  was  elected  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1850,  became  aide-de-camp 
to  tlie  emperor  in  1852,  and  general  of  brigade  in  1S56 
Died  in  1882. 

Neyen,  ni'en  or  n4'6N',  (Auguste,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torian, born  at  Luxemburg  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
is  "Biographic  Luxembourgeoise,"  (2  vols.,  1861.) 

Neyn,  nin,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  architect, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1597  ;  died  in  1639. 

Neyra.     See  Mendana. 

Nezahualcoyotl,  ni-zS-whil-ko-yotl',  surnamedxHE 
CiReat,  King  of  Tezcuco,  born  in  1403.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  legislator  and  a  patron  of  the  sciences. 
Died  in  1470. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico." 

Ni  or  Ne.     See  Confucius. 

Nibby,  nfeb'bee,  (Antonio,)  an  antiquary,  born  at 
Rome  in  1792.  He  became  professor  of  archaeology  in 
the  College  of  Rome  in  1820.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  the  author  of  severa' 
antiquarian  works.  He  also  published  a  translation  of 
Pausanias,  with  notes.     Died  in  1839. 

Nibelungen-Iiied.     See  Siegfried 

Niboyet,  ne'bwi'yi',  (Eug6nie — nee  Mouchon,) 
a  French  authoress,  born  in  1797.  She  wrote  several 
educational  and  woman's-rights  works  and  novels,  and 
founded  in  1844  a  socialist  journal.     Died  in  1883. 


NiCeenetus,  nT-s?n'e-tus,  [Gr.  Notaivrrof ;  Fr.  Nic6- 
NftiE,  ne'si'n|t',)  a  Greek  epigrammatic  poet,  born  at 
Abdera  or  Samos,  probably  lived  in  the  third  century 
n.c.  .Several  of  his  epigrams  are  inserted  in  Jacobs's 
"Anthology." 

Nicaiae,  ne'kjz',  (Claude,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1623.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Music 
of  the  Ancients,"  "  On  the  Sirens,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  principal  Academies  of  Europe. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  "  Menagiana." 

Nicaise,  ne'kaz',  [Lat.  Nica'sius,]  Saint,  a  Christian 
prelate  and  martyr,  became  Bishop  of  Rheims.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  the  Vandals  when  they  sacked  that  city, 
in  407  a.d. 

See  FisQUET,  "  France  pontificale." 

Ni-can'd?r,  [Gr.  Nt'/cav(5pof;  Fr.  Nicandre,  ne'- 
k6NdR',]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician  and  poet,  born 
near  Colophon,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  175- 
135  B.C.  Of  his  numerous  works  only  two  have  come 
down  to  us  entire.  These  are  two  poems,  entitled 
"  Theriaca"  and  "  Alexipharmaca."  The  latter  treats  of 
venomous  animals  and  the  remedies  for  their  wounds. 
As  a  poet,  he  is  eulogized  by  Cicero,  but  severely  criti- 
cised by  other  writers.  His  works  are  said  to  be  obscure 
and  pedantic.  Among  his  lost  works  was  a  poem  of 
Georgics,  which  Virgil  is  said  to  have  imitated. 

See  Hallkr,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica ;"  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hel- 
lenici." 

Nicander,  a  king  of  Sparta,  of  the  family  of  Pro- 
clidae,  was  a  son  of  Charilaus.    He  reigned  about  780  B.a 

Nicander,  ne-kSn'der,  (Karl  August,)  a  distin- 
guished Swedish  poet,  born  at  Strengnas  in  1799.  In 
1826  he  obtained  the  first  prize  from  the  Swedish  Acad- 
emy for  his  "Death  of  Tasso."  He  visited  Italy  in 
1827,  and  published  on  his  return  "Recollections  of  the 
South."  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  "The 
Runic  Sword,  or  the  First  Knight,"  a  tragedy,  in  verse, 
(1821,)  "King  Enzio,"  (1825,)  and  "  Runor."  These  are 
said  to  be  excellent  models,  both  in  style  and  other 
respects.     Died  in  1839. 

Nicandre.     See  Nicander. 

Ni-ca'nor,  [Gr.  Nwavwp,]  a  Macedonian  officer,  com- 
manded the  foot-guards  of  Alexander  the  Great  at  the 
battles  of  the  Grani'cus,  Issus,  and  Arbela,  He  died 
about  330.     He  was  a  son  of  the  famous  Parmenio, 

Nicanor,  a  Macedonian  general,  who  became  gov- 
ernor of  Cappadocia  in  321  B.C.  As  a  partisan  or  ally 
of  Antigonus,  he  fought  against  Eumenes.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Media  about  316,  and  was  defeated 
in  battle  by  Seleucus  near  the  Tigris  in  312  B.C. 

Nicanor,  a  Greek  general,  commanded  an  army  which 
Demetrius  I.,  King  of  Syria,  sent  to  subjugate  Judea. 
He  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Judas  Maccabaeus. 

Nicanor,  called  Driy/iart'of,  an  eminent  Greek  gram- 
marian of  Alexandria  or  Hierapolis,  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  (i  17-138  A.D.)  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Punc- 
tuation, and  annotations  on  Homer. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graca." 

Nicasius.     See  Nicaise. 

Niccoli,  nik'ko-lee,  or  Nicoli,  ne'ko-le,  [Lat.  Nico'- 
lus,J  (Niccol6,)  a  learned  Florentine,  born  in  1364, 
who  rendered  important  services  to  literature  by  the 
discovery  of  ancient  authors  and  by  transcribing  manu- 
scripts. At  his  death,  in  1437,  he  bequeathed  his  valuable 
library  to  the  public.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
man  in  modern  times  who  founded  a  public  library. 

Niccolini,  nfek-ko-lee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  dramatist,  born  near  Pisa  in  1785.  He 
was  appointed  in  1807  professor  of  history  and  mythol- 
ogy in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Florence.  He  was 
the  author  of  tragedies  entitled  "  Antonio  Foscarini," 
(1827,)  "Polissena,"  "Giovanni  da  Procida,"  (1830,)  and 
"Filippo  Strozzi,"  (1847.)     Died  in  1861. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe :"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale  :"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1836. 

Niccolo,  the  Italian  for  Nicholas,  which  see. 

Niccolo,  ne'ko'lo',  or  Nicolas,  ne'ko'li',  (Isouard,) 
a  French  dramatic  composer,  born  at  Malta  in  I775-  He 
produced  numerous  operas,  among  which  are  "  Joconde" 
and  "  Jeannot  et  Colin."     He  died  in  Paris  in  1818. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  niooni 


NICCOLO 


1S17 


NICHOLAS 


Niccolo  d'Arezzo,  nfek-ko-lo'  dl-r§t'so,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1350.  He  worked  at 
Florence  and  Rome.     Died  in  141 7. 

Niccolo  da  Pisa,  nik-ko-lo'  di  pee'§J,  or  Niccolo 
Pisano,  nfek-ko-lo'  pe-§J'no,  an  eminent  Italian  archi- 
tect and  sculptor,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  church  and 
monastery  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Florence,  and  the 
church  of  San  Antonio  at  Padua.  His  bas-reliefs  in  the 
cathedral  of  Sieima  were  esteemed  superior  to  any  sculp- 
tures of  the  kind  since  the  antique.     Died  about  1278. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Quatrem^re  oh 
QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Architectes." 

Niccolo  del  Abate.    See  Abbate,  (Nicholas.) 

Niccols.     See  Nichols,  (Richard.) 

Nl'ce  or  Ni'ke,  [Gr.  Nkj;,]  the  goddess  of  victory 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  was,  according  to  Hesiod,  the 
daughter  of  Pallas  and  Styx,  and  corresponded  to  the 
Victoria  of  the  Romans. 

Nicenete.     See  Nic/enetus. 

Nicephore.     See  Nicephorus. 

Ni-ceph'o-rus  [Gr.  N«7?(/i6pof ;  Fr.  Nic6phore,  ne'- 
si'foR'^j  I.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  became  leader 
in  802  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  empress  Irene,  who 
had  usurped  the  throne,  and,  having  banished  her,  was 
made  emperor.  In  811  he  was  slain,  while  fighting  the 
Bulgarians. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Nicephorus  II.,  surnamed  Phocas,  a  distinguished 
Byzantine  commander,  married  about  963  the  widow  of 
Romanus  II.,  and  assumed  the  title  of  emperor.  He 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Saracens  in  .Syria  and 
Cilicia,  but  was  assassinated  by  John  Zimisces  in  969. 

Nicephorus  III.,  surnamed  Botani'ates,  a  Byzantine 
officer,  having  in  1078  revolted  against  Michael  Ducas, 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead. 
He  was,  however,  soon  compelled  to  give  up  the  throne 
to  Alexis  Comnenus,  who  banished  him.     Died  in  1081, 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Nicephorus,  [Fr.  Nicephore,  ne'si'foR',]  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  a  Byzantine  historian,  born  about 
758  A.D.,  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  iconoclasts. 
He  obtained  the  office  of  patriarch  in  806,  and  was  de- 
posed in  815  by  Leo  V.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Eastern  Empire  from 
602  to  770A.D.,"  the  Latin  title  of  which  is  "  Breviarium 
Historicum."  He  was  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his 
time.     Died  in  828  a.d. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Blem'mi-das,  a  Greek  ecclesiastic 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  lived  at  Nicasa.  He  wrote 
several  works  "  On  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit." 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Cal-lis'tus,  a  learned  Byzantine 
monk  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Ecclesiastical  History  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  911." 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Greg'o-ras,  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  Byzantine  History,"  in  twentj'-eight 
books,  twenty-four  of  which  are  extant. 

Ni-ggr'a-tus,  [Nw^parof,]  a  Greek  physician  who 
flourished  about  40  B.C.  None  of  his  writings  are  extant ; 
but  he  is  mentioned  by  Pliny,  Dioscorides,  and  others. 

Niceron,  nis'r6N',  ?*  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French 
mathematician  and  optician,  born  in  Paris  in  1613. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Descartes.  He  published  "Thau- 
maturgus  Opticus :  de  iis  quae  spectant  ad  Visionem 
directam,"  (1646.)     Died  at  Aix  in  1646. 

Nic6ron,  ne'si'riN'  .'*  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  noted  French 


*  Some  of  the  best  French  authorities  are  not  consistent  with 
themselves  in  regard  to  the  spelling  of  this  name.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale"  the  name,  whenever  re- 
ferred to,  appears  lobe  invariably  written  with  the  accent  on  the  second 
syllable, — NiciiRON, — but  under  the  biographical  notice  it  is  spelled 
Niceron  which  is  also  the  spelling  of  the  "  Biographic  Universelle." 
But  this  fact  will  not  by  any  means  be  deemed  decisive  by  those  who 
are  aware  of  the  exceeding  negligence  of  most  French  writers  in  re- 
gard to  marking  the  accent.  It  has  become  very  common  in  France 
to  omit  the  accent  in  certain  names  (,e.f;.  Petion)  in  writing,  but  to 
pronounce  the  name  as  if  spelled  with  an  accent.  (.See  note  under 
"  Petion"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biogr.'.phie  Gdni^rale.") 


UttSratnir,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1685.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
Illustrious  Writers,"  (43  vols.,  1727-45,)  a  production 
of  great  value,  partly  original  and  partly  compiled.  He 
died  in  1738,  having  published  thirty-nine  volumes,  to 
which  four  were  afterwards  added.  He  was  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  in  several  colleges. 

See  Goujet,  "  iSloge  de  J.  P.  Niceron,"  in  vol.  xl.  of  his  "  M^- 
moires." 

Ni-ge'tas,  [Gr.  NtK^raf,]  a  Byzantine  physician,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  in  the  eleventh  century.  lie 
left  a  collection  of  surgical  works  in  manuscript,  copies 
of  which  are  preserved  in  Paris  and  Florence. 

Ni-ge'tas  A-com-i-na'tus,  ['A/co/^warof,]  surnamed 
Choni'ates,  a  Byzantine  historian  of  the  twelfth  century, 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Greek  Emperors  from  11 17 
to  1203,"  in  twenty-one  books  ;  also  a  "  Description  of 
the  Monuments  destroyed  by  the  Franks  at  the  Taking 
of  Constantinople."     Died  about  1216. 

Ni-eh'pl,  (John,)  LL.D.,  a  son  of  Prof.  J.  P.  Nichol, 
was  born  at  Montrose,  Scotland,  September  8,  1833.  He 
studied  (1848-55)  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1861  became  professor 
of  English  literature  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He 
published  "Byron,"  (1880,)  "Robert  Burns,"  (1882,) 
"  American  Literature,"  (1882,)  and  other  works  in  prose 
and  verse. 

Ni'Ch'ol,  (John  Pringle,)  a  British  astronomer  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Brechin,  in  Scotland,  in  1804,  was 
educated  for  the  ministry.  He  gained  distinction  as  a 
lecturer  on  science,  and  as  a  writer.  About  1836  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  He  published  popular  works  entitled  "  The 
Architecture  of  the  Heavens,"  (1836,)  "The  Stellar 
Heavens,"  "The  Solar  System,"  and  a  "Dictionary 
of  the  Physical  Sciences."  His  style  is  vigorous  and 
attractive.  He  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  "  Im- 
perial Dictionary  of  Biography."     Died  in  1859. 

Nich'o-las  [Lat.  Nicola'us  ;  Fr.  Nicolas,  ne'ko'li'; 
It.  Niccol6,"  n6k-ko-lo' ;  Ger.  Nikolaus,  nik'o-lowss'] 
I.,  Pope,  succeeded  Benedict  III.  in  858  a.d.  Not  long 
after,  he  was  engaged  in  a  broil  with  Photius,  who  had 
intruded  himself  into  the  patriarchal  see  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  result  was  a  schism  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches.  He  died  in  867,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Adrian  II. 

Nicholas  I.,  (in  Montenegrin,  Nik'i-ta,)  Prince  of 
Montenegro,  (name  in  full  Nikita  Petrovitch  Nie- 
GOSH  or  Nyegoosh,)  was  born  October  7,  1841.  In 
i860  he  succeeded  his  uncle  Danilo.  His  reign  has 
been  signalized  by  bloody  wars  with  Turkey.  The  Con- 
gress of  Berlin,  at  the  end  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of 
1876-78,  more  than  doubled  the  area  of  his  dominions. 
Nicholas  at  that  time  became  an  absolute  and  indepen- 
dent monarch.  He  has  done  much  for  popular  educa- 
tion, and  has  the  reputation  of  being  no  mean  poet. 

Nicholas  II.,  Pope,  (called  Gerard  of  Burgundy,) 
succeeded  Stephen  IX.  in  1059.  Under  his  rule  a 
decree  was  passed  concerning  the  method  of  electing 
popes.  Nicholas  bestowed  upon  Robert  Guiscard  the 
duchy  of  Apulia  and  Calabria  as  a  fief  of  the  Roman  see. 
He  died  in  1061,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  II, 

Nicholas  III.  (Giovanni  Gaetani— gi-i-ti'nee) 
succeeded  John  XXI.  as  pope  in  1277.  He  obtained 
from  the  emperor  Rudolph  of  Germany  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  other  grants  of 
territory,  said  to  have  been  made  by  former  emperors. 
He  died  in  1280,  and  was  succeeded  by  Martin  IV. 

Nicholas  IV.,  Pope,  (called  Jerome  of  Ascoli,) 
succeeded  Honorius  IV.  in  1288.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  He  died  in  1292, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Celestine  V. 

See  J.  Rossi,  (Rubeus,)  "  Vita  Nicolai  Papae  IV.,"  1761. 

Nicholas  V.  (called  Thomas  of  Sarzana)  succeeded 
Eugenius  IV.  in  1447.  Having  persuaded  Felix  V.,  who 
had  been  made  pope  by  the  Council  of  Bale  in  1439,  to 
resign  in  his  favour,  he  thus  restored  peace  to  the  West- 
ern Church.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of  learning, 
and  the  founder  of  the  Vatican  Library.  Died  in  1455, 
aged  about  fifty-seven. 


t;  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  asy.-  G,  H,  vi,ptttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     (St^^See  Explwiations,  p.  23. ) 


NICHOLAS 


1818 


NICHOLSON 


Nicholas  [in  Russian,  Nikolai  Pavlovitch,  ne-ko- 
li'e  (or  ne-ko-lT')  piv'lo-vitch]  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
born  at  or  near  Saint  Petersburg  in  July,  1796,  was  the 
third  son  of  Paul  I.  His  mother  was  Mary  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  He  was  instructed  in  the  languages,  sciences,  etc. 
by  the  philologist  Adelung  and  the  counsellor  Storch. 
Pie  learned  to  speak  French  and  German  fluently.  In 
1817  he  married  a  daughter  of  Frederick  William,  King 
of  Prussia,  who,  on  joining  the  Greek  Church,  changed 
her  name  to  Alexandra.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  I., 
in  December,  1825,  Nicholas  succeeded  him  without  op- 
position from  his  elder  brother,  Constantine,  who  was 
notoriously  unfit  to  reign,  and  who  had  been  induced  by 
Alexander  to  renounce  his  claim  to  the  throne.  His 
accession,  however,  was  the  occasion  of  a  dangerous 
revolt  among  the  troops  of  the  capital,  instigated  by  an 
extensive  conspiracy,  or  secret  society,  the  design  of 
which  was  to  make  a  radical  change  in  the  government 
This  revolt  was  not  suppressed  without  much  blood- 
shed, and  many  nobles  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
were  exiled  to  Siberia.  This  affair  tended  to  confirm 
his  despotic  propensities. 

Among  the  first  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  against 
Persia,  from  which  he  conquered  the  province  of  Erivan 
in  1827.  In  1828  war  broke  out  between  Russia  and 
Turkey.  The  Russian  army,  after  several  successes, 
crossed  the  Balkan  and  took  Adrianople.  Peace  was 
restored  in  September,  1829,  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople, 
in  accordance  with  which  a  large  territory  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea  was  added  to  the  Russian  empire. 
In  November,  1830,  commenced  a  great  insurrection  zi 
the  Poles,  who  were  subjugated  by  the  Russian  aim >s 
under  Diebitsch  and  Paskevitch  and  were  punished  w.th 
great  severity.  In  1832  order  again  reigned  in  Warsaw. 
The  ambition  of  Nicholas  also  involved  him  in  a  long 
war  for  the  conquest  of  Circassia,  which  he  did  not  live 
to  complete.  His  disregard  of  the  claims  of  liberty  and 
justice  was  palpably  e.vhibited  in  his  aiTned  intervention 
against  the  Hungarians,  who  were  subjugated  by  the 
Russian  and  Austrian  armies  in  1849. 

Nicholas  had  long  entertained  ambitious  designs 
respecting  Turkey,  which  at  length  involved  him  in  a 
disastrous  war.  In  the  spring  of  1853  he  demanded  of 
the  Sultan  the  protectorate  of  all  the  Turkish  subjects 
who  professed  the  Greek  religion.  The  Sultan  refused 
to  submit  to  this  demand,  and  P'rance  and  England 
united  to  defend  him  against  the  aggressions  of  Russia. 
Hostilities  commenced  in  October,  1853.  Nicholas,  who 
probably  did  not  expect  that  France  and  England  would 
fight,  was  ill  prepared  for  a  war  of  such  magnitude. 
The  Russian  army  crossed  the  Danube  in  the  spring  of 

1854,  and  besieged  .Silistria  without  success.  The  Eng- 
lish and  French  fleets  entered  the  Black  Sea,  and  landed 
the  allied  armies  in  the  Crimea,  in  September,  1S54. 
The  allies  gained  decisive  victories  at  Alma  and  Inker- 
man,  and  commenced  the  long  and  famous  siege  of 
Sebastopol.  In  the  mean  time  another  English  fleet 
gained  victories  in  the  Baltic,  and  threatened  the  capital 
of  Russia.  Nicholas  was  overtasked  by  the  labours 
which  his  imperious  will  and  despotic  policy  imposed  on 
him  as  sole  director  and  dictator  of  so  vast  an  empire. 
Before  the  end  of  the  war  he  died,  on  the  2d  of  March, 

1855,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  II.  He 
left  four  sons,  Alexander,  Constantine,  Nicholas,  and 
Michael.  Nicholas  I.  was  a  man  of  tall  stature  and 
imposing  presence,  with  great  capacity  of  endurance. 

See  F.  NoRK,  (anagr.im  of  Korn.)  "  Kaiser  Nicolaus  I.."  etc., 
1848;  Adrien  Gilson,  "  Nicolas  I  et  Abdiil-Medjifl,"  1853  ;  •'  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale ;"  E.  Michelsen,  "Life  of  Nicholas, 
Emperor  of  al!  the  Russias,"  1S54  ;  Henry  Christmas,  "  Nicholas 
I.,  Emperor,"  etc.,  1854;  "  Biograpliical  Sl<etches,"  by  H.arriet 
Martine.^u;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1853;  "Jahrbuch 
turn  Conversations- Lexikou"  for  185S. 

Ni-eh'o-las,  (Henry,)  a  fanatic,  born  at  Miinster  or 
Leyden,  founded  about  1540  a  sect  called  "The  Family 
if  Love."     He  pretended  that  he  was  superior  to  Christ 

Ni-eh'o-las,  Saint,  honoured  as  the  guardian  and 
patron  ot  ciiildren,  sclioul-boys,  captives,  merchants,  and 
sailors,  and  of  many  towns  and  countries,  was  a  native 
of  Paiara,  in  Lycia,  and  became  Bishop  of  Myra.  He 
died  in  340.  Many  curious  legends  illustrate  his  benev- 
olence and  good  nature. 


Ni€h'9-las,  (Wilson  Cary,)  an  American  officer  and 
statesman,  served  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was 
elected  a  Senator  from  Virginia  in  1799.  He  became 
Governor  of  that  State  in  1814.     Died  in  1820. 

Nicholas  Damascenus.     See  Damascenus. 

Nicholas  de  Cusa.     See  Cusa. 

Nicholas  de  Lyra.     See  Lyra. 

Nicholas  Paulovitch,  (or  Pavlovitch.)  See 
Nicholas  I.  of  Russia. 

Nicholle  de  la  CroLx,  ne'shol'  deh  IS  kRwJ,  (Louis 
Antoine,)  a  French  geographical  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1704;  died  in  1760. 

Ni-eh'plls,  (Fra.nk,)  a  distinguished  anatomist  and 
physician,  born  in  London  in  1699.  He  married  in 
1743  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Mead,  and  on  the 
death  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane  became  physician  to  George 
II.  He  wrote  several  able  scientific  treatises,  and  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1779. 

Nicholls,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  economist  and 
writer  on  poor-laws,  was  born  in  Cornwall  in  1781.  He 
became  secretary  of  the  poor-lav^'  commission  about  1847. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish Poor-Law,"  (1854.)     Died  in  1865. 

Nicholls,  (William,/  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1664.  Among  his  writings  we 
may  mention  "  A  Defence  of  the  Church  of  England," 
and  "  The  Religion  of  a  Prince."     Died  in  1712. 

See  Wood,  "Athena  Oxonienses." 

Ni-eh'ols,  (Ichabod,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1784. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Natural  Theology," 
and  "  Hours  with  the  Evangelists,"  the  latter  published 
after  his  death.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  mathe- 
matical attainments,  and  was  for  a  time  vice-president 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  Died 
in  1859. 

Ni-eh'ols,  (John,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  at 
Islington  in  1744,  was  a  partner  of  William  Bowyer, 
the  eminent  printer.  He  became  in  1778  one  of  the 
publishers  of  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  was 
subsequently  editor  of  that  journal  for  many  years.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  the  "History  and  An- 
tiquities of  Leicestershire,"  (6  vols.,  1795-1811,)  and 
"Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (8 
vols.,  1812-15.)     Died  in  1826. 

See  A.  Chalmers,  "Memoir  of  J.  Nichols,"  1826;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  1782,  and  November,  1S13. 

Nichols,  (John  Bow'yer,)  an  archasologist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1780.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  business,  and  edited  several  volumes  of  the 
"Illustrations  of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  which  his  father  commenced.     Died  in  1863. 

Nichols,  (John  Gough,)  an  English  antiquary,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  about  1807.  He 
was  editor  of  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  many 
years,  ending  in  1856.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Herald  and  Genealogist."     Died  in  1873. 

Nichols  or  Niccols,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1584.  He  wrote  "The  Cuckow," 
a  poem,  (1607,)  and  published  a  new  edition  of  "The 
Mirror  for  Magistrates,"  (1610,)  to  which  he  added  a 
"  Winter  Night's  Vision,"  and  a  piece  on  the  Life  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

Ni-eh'ol-son,  (.\lfred  Osborn  Pope,)  an  American 
statesman  and  journalist,  born  in  Williamson  county, 
Tennessee,  in  1808.  He  has  been  successively  editor  of 
the  "Western  Mercury,"  the  "Nashville  Union,"  and 
the  "  Washington  Union,"  an  organ  of  President  Pierce. 
In  1857  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  H  j 
hec.mie  chief  justice  of  Tennessee,  and  died  in  1876. 

Ni-eh'ol-son,  (Henry  Alleyne,)  M.D.,  an  English 
zoologist,  born  at  Penrith,  September  8,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Universities  of  Gottingen  and  Edinburgh, 
:ind  held  biological  professorships  in  the  Universities  of 
Toronto,  (1871,)  Durham,  (1874,)  Saint  Andrew's,  (1875,) 
and  Aberdeen,  (1882.)  He  published  various  geological 
works,  a  "Manual  of  Zoology,"  "Manual  of  Palaeon- 
tology," etc. 

Nicholson,  (James,)  an  American  naval  oflScer,  born 
at  Chestertown,  Maryland,  in  1737;  died  about  1804. 
His  brother  Samuel  attained  the  rank  of  commodore, 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


NICHOLSON 


1819 


NICOLAS 


and  became  commander  of  the  frigate  Constitution. 
Died  in  181 1. 

Ni«h'9i-son,  (John,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1821  or  1822.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
war  against  the  Afghans  and  in  the  campaign  against 
the  Sikhs.  In  the  Sepoy  mutiny  he  commanded  a 
column  or  division,  and  performed  an  important  part  in 
the  capture  of  Delhi.  He  died  of  wounds  received  at 
Delhi  in  September,  1857. 

See  J.  W.  Kave,  "  Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  vol.  ii.,  London,  1867. 

Nicholson,  (William.)     See  Nicolson. 

Nicholson,  (William,)  an  English  chemist  and  sci- 
entific writer,  born  in  London  about  1755.  He  published, 
amimg  other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (2  vols., 
1795,)  and  a  "Journal  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry, 
and  the  Arts,"  (5  vols.,  1797-180C.)     Died  in  1815. 

Nicholson,  (William,)  a  British  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1784.  He  lived  mostly 
at  Edinburgh,  and  published  "  Portraits  of  Distinguished 
Living  Characters  of  Scotland,"  (i8i8,)  a  series  of  etch- 
ings.    Died  at  Edinburgh,  August  i6,  1844. 

Nicholson,  (William  RuVus,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  was  born  in  Green  county,  Mississippi,  January 
8,  1822.  He  graduated  at  La  Grange  College,  Alabama, 
in  1840,  was  a  Methodist  clergyman  in  New  Orleans, 
1843-46,  took  orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  1847,  and  held  rectorships  in  Cincinnati,  Boston,  and 
Newark.  In  1874  he  joined  the  "Reformed  Episcopal 
Church"  and  became  minister  of  a  parish  in  Philadel- 
phia. In  1876  he  was  made  a  bishop.  He  published 
various  pamphlets,  controversial  and  expository. 

Nicias,  nish'e-as,  or  Nik'i-as,  [Nt/ciof,]  a  celebrated 
Athenian  general,  was  the  son  of  Niceratus,  who  left 
him  a  large  fortune.  His  moderate  and  cautious  char- 
acter and  conservative  principles  identified  him  with  the 
aristocratic  party.  On  the  death  of  Pericles  he  became 
a  prominent  opponent  of  Cleon,  the  democratic  leader. 
By  prudence  rather  than  by  skill,  he  generally  obtained 
success  in  his  earlier  military  operations  against  the 
Spartans.  In  426  B.C.  he  commanded  a  successful  ex- 
pedition against  Melos,  and  in  425  invaded  Corinth, 
the  army  of  which  he  defeated.  Cleon,  his  principal 
rival,  having  died,  Nicias  exerted  his  influence  in  favour 
of  peace,  and  a  treaty  was  made  between  Athens  and 
Sparta  in  421  B.C.  This  was  called  the  peace  of  Nicias. 
A  long  contest  ensued  between  him  and  Alcibiades,  the 
leader  of  the  democracy,  who  wished  to  renew  the  war, 
and  who  prevailed  in  415,  when  an  expedition  was  sent 
against  Syracuse,  the  ally  of  Sparta.  Nicias,  Alcibiades, 
and  Lamachus  were  chosen  joint  commanders;  but  the 
second  was  recalled  before  the  fleet  arrived  at  Syracuse. 
In  the  spring  of  414  Nicias  blockaded  the  port  of  Syra- 
cuse, seized  the  heights  of  Epipol3e,  and  had  nearly  en- 
closed the  city  on  the  land  side  by  a  wall,  when  Gylippus, 
the  Spartan  general,  arrived.  Nicias  was  disabled  by  ill 
health  and  wished  to  resign,  but  was  compelled  to  retain 
the  command.  The  Athenians  were  defeated  in  several 
actions  on  land  and  water,  and  the  timidity  or  incapacity 
of  Nicias  caused  the  total  loss  of  his  large  army.  He 
was  made  prisoner,  and  put  to  death  in  414  or  413  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Nicias  ;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece," 
vol.  vii.  chaps.  Ivii.,  Iviii.,  lix.,  Ix. ;  Thucvdides,  "  History ;"  Thirl- 
WALL,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Nicias,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  at  Athens, 
flourished  probably  between  350  and  300  B.C.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Antidotus,  and  is  also  called  the  most  eminent 
disciple  of  Euphranor.  According  to  Pliny,  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Praxiteles  to  colour  or  varnish  marble  statues, 
(in  statuis  ciraimlinendis.)  This  was  probably  in  his 
youth,  before  he  had  attained  celebrity.  He  painted  chiefly 
in  encaustic,  and  was  very  skilful  in  representing  female 
figures.  He  excelled  in  design  and  chiaroscuro.  His 
master-piece  was  a  picture  of  the  infernal  regions  as 
described  by  Homer,  "Necromantia  Homeri,"  which, 
says  Plutarch,  he  refused  to  sell  to  Ptolemy  of  Egypt, 
although  he  was  offered  the  enormous  price  of  sixty 
talents.  Among  his  other  works  were  a  "  Calypso,"  a 
"Diana,"  and  a  "  Hyacinthus." 

See  SiLLiG,  "  Catalogus  Artilicum ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Nicias,  physician  to  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  pro- 


€  as  -^;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy.-  g,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


posed  to  Fabricius,  the  Roman  general,  to  poison  his 
master  for  a  sum  of  money.  His  treachery  being  dis- 
closed by  Fabricius,  he  was  put  to  death. 

Ni-co-eh'a-rei,  [Nt/coxupw,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
was  a  son  of  the  poet  Philonides,  and  a  contemporary 
of  Aristophanes.  He  flourished  about  375  B.C.  His 
works  are  lost. 

Nic'o-cles,  [  Gr.  Nuco/cA^f,  ]  King  of  Salamis,  in 
Cyprus,  was  a  son  of  Evagoras  I.  He  began  to  reign 
about  375  B.C.     Isocrates  wrote  a  panegyric  on  him. 

Nicodeme.     See  Nicodemus. 

Nicodemo.    See  Nicodemus. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  [Gr.  NiKodjj/iog ;  Fr.  NiconfeME,  ne'- 
ko'dim' ;  It.  NiCODEMO,  ne-ko-da'mo,]  a  Pharisee  and 
ruler  of  the  Jews. 

See  John  iii.  and  xix.  39. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  [Fr.  Nicodeme,  ne'ko'dim',]  (Adam 
BuRCHARD  Selly,)  a  Russian  monk  and  historian, 
of  Danish  origin.  His  chief  work  is  "  De  Rossorum 
Hierarchia,"  (5  vols.)     Died  in  1746. 

Nic'ol,  (William,)  a  Scottish  natural  philosopher, 
born  about  1768.  He  invented  the  polarizing  prism, 
and  left  important  papers  on  light  and  kindred  subjects. 
Died  at  Edinburgh  in  1851. 

Nicolai,  nee'ko-li',  (Christoph  Friedrich,)  a  cele- 
brated German  litterateur,  born  at  Berlin  in  1733.  Having 
at  an  early  age  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lessing  and 
Moses  Mendelssohn,  he  published,  conjointly  with  the 
latter,  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  "  Library  of  Belles- 
Lettres,"  (1758.)  "The  Universal  German  Library," 
("Allgemeine  Deutsche  Bibliothek,")  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  several  eminent  writers,  came  out  in  1792, 
in  106  vols.  A  continuation  of  this  standard  work  was 
published  in  1805,  making  in  all  162  vols.  Among  his 
other  writings  may  be  named  a  "Description  of  Berlin 
and  Potsdam,"  "  Life  and  Opinions  of  Sebaldus  No- 
thanker,"  (3  vols.,  1773,)  a  "Tour  through  Germany  and 
Switzerland,"  (12  vols.,  1783,)  and  "  Anecdotes  of  Fred- 
erick II.,"  (1788.)  The  conservative  spirit  of  Nicolai's 
criticisms,  and  his  hostility  to  all  innovations  in  German 
literature,  exposed  him  to  the  severe  strictures  of  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  other  writers  of  the  time.     Died  in  181 1. 

See  GocKiNG,  "Nicolai's  Leben  nnd  literarischen  Nachlnss;" 
J.  G.  FiCHTE,  "F.  Nicolai's  Leben  und  sonderbare  Meinungeii," 
i8ii;  Meosel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Ginirale." 

Nicolai,  (Ernst  Anton,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Sondershausen  in  1722.  He  became  professor 
at  Jena  in  1758,  and  wrote  numerous  works.  Died 
in  1802. 

Nicolai,  ne'ko'lf  e',  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian,  born 
at  Monza  in  1594.  He  wrote  several  polemical  works 
against  the  Jansenists,  and  edited  Thomas  Aquinas, 
(1663.)     Died  in  1673. 

Nicolai,  (Juhann,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Ilm 
in  1665.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  Jewish,  Greek, 
and  Roman  antiquities.     Died  in  1708. 

Nicolai,  (Orro,)  a  German  musician,  composer,  and 
conductor,  born  at  Konigsberg,  June  9,  1810.  He  re- 
ceived his  musical  education  in  Berlin  and  Rome.  From 
1841  to  1847  he  was  first  kapellmeister  of  the  Court 
Opera  at  Vienna.  He  produced  operas,  of  which  the 
best-known  are  "II  Templario"  (1840)  and  "The  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor,"  (1849.)     Died  March  n,  1849. 

Nicolai,  (Philipp,)  a  German  Lutheran  theologian, 
bom  at  Mengeringhausen  in  1556.  He  preached  at 
Hamburg,  and  published  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1608. 

Nicolai,  de,  deh  ne'ko'lt'e',  (Antoine  ChrEtien,) 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  1712,  commanded  a 
corps  at  Rossbach,  Crefeld,  and  Minden,  (1758.)  He 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1775.     Died  in  1777. 

Nicolas,  the  French  for  Nicholas,  which  see. 

Nicolas,  ne'ko'ia',  (Auguste,)  a  French  writer  and 
judge,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1807.  His  chief  work  is 
"  Philosophical  Studies  on  Christianity,"  (4  vols.,  1842- 
45,)  which  obtained  great  success. 

Nicolas,  (AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  poet  and  litterateur 
born  at  Besan9on  in  1622 ;  died  in  1695. 

Nicolas,  (Michel,)  a  learned  French  writer  and 
philosopher,  born   at  Nimes   in   1810,  is  a  Protestant 

ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NICOLAS 


1820 


NICOLSON 


minister.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Mon- 
tauban  about  1838.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
a  "Treatise  on  Eclecticism,"  (1840,)  and  a  "Literary 
History  of  Nimes,"  (3  vols.,  1854.)  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Nic'9-las,  (Sir  Nicholas  Harris,)  a  distinguished 
English  antiquary  and  biographical  writer,  born  in  Corn- 
wall in  1799.  Among  his  most  important  works  are 
"Notitia  Historica,"  or  "The  Chronology  of  History," 
(1824,)  a  "Life  of  Chaucer,"  and  the  "History  of  the 
Battle  of  Agincourt."  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries.  He  left  unfinished  a  "  History  of  the 
British  Navy,"  (2  vols.)     Died  in  1848. 

Nicolas,  (Pierre,)  a  French  mathematician  and  Jes- 
uit, born  at  Toulouse  in  1663.  He  wrote  able  works 
on  geometry.     Died  in  1708. 

Nicolas,  (Pierre  Francois,)  a  French  chemist  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1743;  died  in 
1816. 

Nicolas  OF  Amiens,  a  French  scholastic  philosopher 
and  writer,  lived  about  1 180-1200. 

Nicolas  OF  BAle,  a  Swiss  reformer,  born  at  Bale. 
He  joined  a  society  called  "  Friends  of  God,"  and  was 
an  eminent  witness  to  the  spirituality  of  true  religion. 
About  1340  he  was  instrumental  in  the  conversion  of 

iohn  Tauler.     He  went  to  Rome  in  1377,  and  openly  re- 
uked  the  pope.  He  was  burned  at  the  stake  about  1395. 
See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

NicolauB.    See  Nicholas  L,  Pope. 

Nicolaus  Damascenus.     See  Damascenus. 

Nicolaus  Myrepsus.    See  Myrepsus. 

Nic-o-la'us  Praepositus,  (pre-pos'e-tus,)  surnamed 
Salernita'nus,  a  physician  of  the  twelfth  century,  was 
the  founder  of  a  celebrated  medical  school  at  Salerno. 
His  "  Antidotarium"  has  often  been  confounded  with 
the  work  of  Nicolaus  Myrepsus  on  the  same  subject, 

Nicolay,  nee'ko-ll',  (Ludvvig  Heinrich,)  Baron,  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1737.  He  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1769,  preceptor  to  the  grand  duke  Paul,  after- 
wards Emperor  of  Russia,  and  subsequently  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  was  made  a  privy  councillor  in  1801.  His  works 
consist  of  elegies,  epistles,  narrative  poems,  and  fables. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  P.  VON  Gersciiau,  "Aus  dem  Leben  des  H.  L.  Nicolav," 
.834. 

Nicole,  ne'kol',  (Claude,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Chartres  in  161 1,  was  a  cousin-german  of  Pierre  Nicole, 
noticed  below.  He  produced  versions  of  the  Odes  of 
Horace,  the  Elegies  of  Ovid,  and  of  other  classic  poems. 
Died  in  1685. 

Nicole,  (Francois,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1683.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differences,"  (1727.) 
Died  in  1758. 

Nicole,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  theologian  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Chartres  in  1625.  He  was  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  institution  of  Port-Royal,  and  an 
intimate  friend  of  Arnauld.in  conjunction  with  whom  he 
wrote  the  treatise  entitled  "Perpetuity  of  the  Faith  of 
the  Catholic  Church  concerning  the  Eucharist,"  (1664.) 
His  most  important  work  is  a  collection  of  treatises  called 
"Moral  Essays  and  Theological  Instructions,"  (25  vols., 
1671  et  seq.)  One  of  these,  entitled  "On  the  Means 
of  Preserving  Peace,"  is  styled  by  Voltaire  "  a  master- 
piece of  its  kind,  to  which  we  can  find  nothing  equal  in 
antiquity."  Among  his  other  productions  we  may  name 
his  "Treatise  on  Human  Faith,"  (1664,)  and  "  Les 
Imaginaires  et  les  Visionnaires,"  (2  vols.,  1667.)  Died 
in  1695. 

See  Abb^  GoujET,  "Vie  de  Nicole;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Port- 
Royal,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;' 
Nic^RON,  "  Memoires ;"  Besoigne,  "Vie  de  Nicole,"  in  his  "  His- 
toire  de  Port-Royal,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Nicolini,  ne'ko-lee'nee,  the  assumed  name  of  Ernest 
Nicolas,  a  French  vocalist,  born  at  Tours  in  1834. 
After  making  successful  appearances  in  opera  in  Milan, 
Florence,  Paris,  and  London,  he  took  professional  engage- 
ments with  Madame  Adelina  Patti,  whom  he  married  on 
her  divorce  from  the  Marquis  de  Caux. 

Nicolini,  the  stage-name  of  Nicolino  Grimaldi,  a 


famous  Italian  singer,  born  at  Naples  about  1673.  His 
voice  was  originally  a  soprano,  but  sank  to  a  magnificent 
contralto.  After  singing  with  great  success  in  the  prin- 
cipal Italian  cities,  he  went  to  England  in  1708,  where 
he  met  with  an  enthusiastic  reception.  He  is  mentioned 
in  the  "  Spectator"  in  Addison's  humorous  attacks  on 
the  Italian  opera,  and  always  with  praise,  though  no  man 
did  more  than  Nicolini  to  foster  a  taste  for  this  species 
of  opera  among  the  English.  In  171 7  he  left  England 
and  returned  to  Italy,  but  is  lost  sight  of  after  1726. 

Nicolini,  ne-ko-lee'nee,  (GiusepVe,)  an  Italian  ///. 
tirateur,  born  at  Brescia  in  1788.  He  wrote  a  didactic 
poem  "  On  the  Culture  of  Cedars,"  and  translated  the 
tragedy  of  "Macbeth"  into  Italian.     Died  in  1855. 

Nic'oU,  (Henry  J.,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  at  Lums- 
den,  Aberdeenshire,  about  1850.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Aberdeen  University.  He  published  "  Great  Schol- 
ars," (1880,)  "Great  Orators,"  (1880,)  "Thomas  Car- 
lyle,"  (1880,)  "  Great  Movements,"  (1881,)  "  Lord  Byron," 
"Landmarks  of  English  Literature,"  (1883,)  etc.  He 
became  a  journalist  of  Aberdeen,  and  edited  several 
collections  of  poetry. 

Nic'oU,  (Jf^AMES  Craig,)  an  American  artist,  born  in 
New  York  city,  November  22,  1846.  He  has  made  a 
specialty  of  coast-views,  and  has  been  prominent  in  con- 
nection with  the  Water-Colour  Society  and  the  Etching 
Club  of  New  York.  His  best  works  show  high  ideal- 
istic powers. 

Nic'oU,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Perthshire 
in  1814.  He  published  in  1835  ^  collection  of  poems, 
which  were  very  well  received.  In  1836  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Leeds  Times,"  which,  however,  he  did 
not  long  have  charge  of,  as  he  died  the  following  year, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  ' 

See  "Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement :) 
"Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1842. 

NicoUe,  ne'kol',  (Charles  Dominique,)  a  French 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  the  department 
of  Seine-Inferieure  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  in  1821 
rector  of  the  Academy  of  Paris.     Died  in  1835. 

NicoUe,  (Gabriel  Henri,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1767,  and  became  successively  associate 
editor  of  the  "Journal  Fran9ais,"  "  Courrier  Universel," 
and  "L'Eclair."     Died  in  1829. 

Nicollet,  ne'ko'li',  (Joseph  Nicolas,)  a  French  as- 
tronomer and  explorer,  born  in  Savoy  in  1 786,  or,  as  some 
say,  about  1795.  He  obtained  the  place  of  secretary  and 
librarian  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris  in  181 7.  About 
1832  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He  made  a 
scientific  exploration  of  the  region  drained  by  the  Mis- 
souri, Arkansas,  and  Red  Rivers.  He  was  afterwards 
employed  by  the  government  of  the  United  States  to 
explore  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi,  of  which  he 
produced  a  good  map.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  treatise  on  the  geology  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi.    Died  at  Washington  in  1843. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  Quetelht,  "Notice 
sur  J.  N.  Nicollet,"  1844. 

Nic'oUs,  (Jasper,)  an  English  officer,  born  about 
1780,  served  with  distinction  in  India  in  the  campaigns 
of  1817  and  1825,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1841.     Died  in  1849. 

NicoUs,  (Richard,)  Colonel,  an  English  officer, 
who  in  1664  compelled  the  Dutch  Governor  Stuyvesant 
to  surrender  New  Amsterdam,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  New  York.  He  was  appointed  first  English 
governor  of  that  city.  In  the  same  year  he  took  Fort 
Orange,  (or  Williamstadt,)  which  was  afterwards  called 
Albany,  in  honour  of  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany. 

Nicolopoulo,  ne'ko-lo-poo'lo,  (Constantine,)  a 
philologist,  of  Greek  extraction,  born  at  Smyrna  in  1786. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  literature  at  the  Athe- 
naeum in  Paris,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Revue 
encyclopedique."     Died  in  1841. 

Nicolosi,  ne-ko-lo'see,  (Giambattista,)  a  Sicilian 
geographer,  born  at  Paterno  in  1610;  died  in  1670. 

Nic'ol-spn,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1655,  rose  through  various  preferments 
to  be  Archbishop  of  Cashel,  in  Ireland.  He  was  the 
author  of  three  works,  entitled  "The  English  Historical 


5,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  mSon; 


NICOMACHUS 


NIEBUHR 


Library,"  (1696,)  "The  Scottish  Historical  Library," 
(1702,)  and  "The  Irish  Historical  Library,"  (1724.) 
Died  in  1727. 

Ni-com'a-ehus,  [Gr.  fiucofiaxoc;  Fr.  Nicomaque, 
ne'ko'mSk',]  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  in  the  Troade, 
wrote  about  450-420  B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with 
Euripides.     His  works  are  lost,  excej:)!  small  fragments. 

Nicomachus,  a  Greek  physician  of  Macedonia,  who 
flourished  about  400  B.C.,  was  the  father  of  Aristotle, 
and  was  patronized  by  Amyntas  H.,  King  of  Macedonia. 

Nicomachus,  a  son  of  Aristotle,  lived  about  320 
B.C.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  His  mother  was  a 
slave,  named  Herpyllis.  Some  critics  have  ascribed  to 
him  certain  ethical  treatises  which  are  generally  included 
among  the  works  of  Aristotle. 

Nicomachus,  a  Greek  mathematician,  born  at  Gerasa, 
in  Arabia,  lived  probably  between  50  and  150  a.d.  He 
was  a  Pythagorean.  He  wrote  several  works  on  arith- 
metic, one  of  which  is  extant,  and  a  Life  of  Pythagoras, 
which  is  lost. 

Nicomachus  [NtKOfiaxog]  of  Thebes,  an  excellent 
Greek  painter,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  painter  Aris- 
todemus.  He  flourished  about  350-300  B.C.  His  skill 
is  piaised  by  Cicero,  who  classes  him  with  Apelles. 
Among  his  works  noticed  by  Pliny  were  "Apollo  and 
Diana,"  the  "Tyndaridae,"  and  the  "Rape  of  Proser- 
pine." He  was  renowned  for  rapidity  of  execution.  His 
brother  Aristides  was  also  an  eminent  painter. 

See  Cicero,  "  Brutus." 

Nicomaque.    See  Nicomachus. 

Nicomede.     See  Nicomedes. 

Nic-o-me'des  [Gr.  NiKOfiijdrig ;  Fr.  Nicomede,  ne'- 
ko'm^d']  L,  King  of  Bithynia,  began  to  reign  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  278  B.C.  He  was  opposed  by  his 
brother  Zipoetes,  and  took  into  his  service  an  army  of 
Gauls,  by  whose  aid  he  gained  the  victory.  He  founded 
the  great  city  of  Nicomedia.     Died  about  250  B.C. 

See  Droysen,  "  Hellenismus." 

Nic-o-me'des  IL  E-piph'a-nei  [Fr.  Nicomede 
fipiPHANE,  ne'ko'mid'  i'pe'ftn'j  was  a  son  of  Prusias 
II.,  who  sent  him  to  Rome  as  a  hostage.  He  gained 
the  favour  of  the  Roman  senate,  and  excited  the  jealousy 
of  his  father,  who  sent  an  agent  to  assassinate  him.  In- 
formed of  this  design,  Nicomedes  dethroned  and  killed 
Prusias  in  149  B.C.  He  was  afterwards  an  ally  of  the 
Romans.     Died  about  90  B.C. 

See  Justin,  books  xxxiv.,  xxxvii.,  etc. 

Nicomedes  IIL,  surnamed  Philop'ator,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  91  B.C.  In  the 
Mithridatic  war,  which  ensued  soon  after,  he  was  an  ally 
of  Rome,  but,  having  been  defeated,  he  was  driven  from 
his  kingdom.  Bithynia  was  subsequently  restored  to 
Nicomedes,  who,  dying  without  children,  (74  B.C.,)  left  it 
to  the  Romans. 

Nicomedes,  a  Greek  geometer,  the  inventor  of  the 
curve  called  the  "  conchoid,"  flourished  about  100  B.C. 

Ni'con  [Nkwv]  OF  Pergamus,  a  Greek  architect  and 
geometer,  was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Galen.  Died 
about  150  A.D. 

Ni'con,  Saint,  a  monk,  who  preached  in  Armenia 
about  960  A.D.,  and  wrote  a  work  "On  the  Impious  Re- 
ligion of  the  Armenians."     Died  about  998. 

Ni-coph'a-nes,  [N(«0(/>ai'7?f,]  a  Greek  painter,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  works  are 
praised  by  Pliny  in  high  terms. 

Nic'o-phon  or  Nic'o-phron,  [Nt/co(/)(jv  or  Nwcoi^pwv,] 
an  Athenian  comic  poet,  lived  about  400  B.C.  Only 
small  fragments  of  his  plays  are  extant. 

Nicostrate.     See  Nicostratus. 

Ni-cos'tra-tus,  [Gr.  NucoarpaTog ;  Fr.  Nicostrate, 
ne'ko'strtt',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  was  a  son  of 
Aristophanes,  and  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.     His  works  are  lost. 

Nicostratus,  an  Athenian  general,  commanded  in 
the  war  against  the  Spartans  about  425  B.C.  He  was  a 
colleague  of  Nicias  in  the  expedition  to  Chalcidice. 

Nicot,  ne'ko',  (Jean,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at 
Nimes  in  1530.  By  his  merit  and  talents  he  acquired 
the  confidence  of  Henry  II.  and  his  successor,  and  was 
employed  as  secretary  of  the  king.     On  his  return  from 


an  embassy  to  Lisbon,  about  1 560,  he  brought  the  tobicco- 
plant,  wnich  was  then  unknown  in  France,  and  which 
was  named  in  his  honour  Nicotiana  by  the  botanists. 
The  honour  of  producing  the  first  model  of  a  French 
dictionary  is  ascribed  to  him.  It  was  entitled  "  Treasure 
of  the  French  Language,"  (1606.)  Died  in  1600. 
See  V.  HoHFER,  "  Dictionnaire  de  Botanique  pratique." 

Nicou-Choron,  ne'koo'  sho'rdw',  (S  i'ephano  Lours,) 
a  French  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1809.  His  works 
are  chiefly  masses,  oratorios,  and  other  kinds  of  sacred 
music. 

Nicquet,  ne'ki',  (Honorat,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
religious  writer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1585;  died  in  1667. 

Nicuesa,  de,  di  ne-kwa'si,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  ad- 
venturer, born  in  1464,  accompanied  the  expedition  of 
Amerigo  Vespucci  to  the  Gulf  of  Urata  in  1501. 

See  Irving,  "History  of  Christopher  Columbus;"  Gomera, 
"  Historia  general  de  las  Iiidias  " 

Nidda,  von,  fon  nid'dd,  (  Friedrich  Albrecht 
Franz  Krug,)  a  German  poet,  born  near  Querfurt  in 
1776.     He  wrote  tales,  ballads,  etc.     Died  in  1841. 

Nider,  Nieder,  or  Nyder,  nee'der,  (Johannes,)  a 
German  theologian,  was  appointed  by  the  Council  of 
Bale  ( 1 531)  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  the  Hussites, 
Having  tried  argument  without  success,  he  resorted  to 
violent  persecution,  and  was  responsible  for  the  death 
of  thousands.     Died  about  1440. 

Nid'hogg  (NitShoggr)  or  Nidhoger,  [from  «///, 
"malignity,"  and  hoggva,  to  " hew"  or  "cut,"]  in  the 
Norse  mythology,  the  name  of  a  dragon  or  serpent  which 
dwells  in  the  fountain  of  Hvergelmir,*  (or  Vergelmir,) 
in  Niflheim,  and  continually  gnaws  at  the  root  of  the 
life-tree  Yggdrasil.  From  Hvergelmir  flow  the  rivers 
of  Hell.  (See  Hela.)  According  to  some  writers,  Nid- 
hogg  typifies  the  original  evil  principle  which  forms  an 
element  in  the  creed  of  so  many  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
nations. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Kevser's  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen." 

Niebelungen-Lied.    See  Siegfried. 

Niebuhr,  nee'booR,  (Barthold  Georg,)  a  cele- 
brated German  historian  and  critic,  born  at  Copenhagen 
on  the  27th  of  August,  1776,  was  the  son  of  Carstens  Nie- 
buhr, noticed  below.  He  had  a  great  facility  for  learning 
languages,  and  he  read  the  works  of  Shakspeare  in  the 
original  about  the  age  of  seven.  In  1794  he  entered 
the  University  of  Kiel,  where  he  profoundly  studied 
Roman  law,  history,  philosophy,  and  ancient  languages. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  Count  Schimmelmann, 
minister  of  finance  at  Copenhagen,  in  1796,  made  a  tour 
in  Great  Britain  in  1798,  and  became  an  assessor  in  the 
council  of  commerce  at  Copenhagen  in  1800.  In  the 
last-named  year  he  married  Amalie  Behrens.  In  1806 
he  passed  into  the  service  of  Prussia,  as  joint  director  of 
commerce,  and  in  1809  he  became  privy  councillor  and 
member  of  the  commission  of  finances  at  Berlin.  Al- 
though he  perfor;ned  these  various  functions  with  much 
ability  and  success,  he  soon  retired  from  political  life, 
and  in  1810  was  chosen  professor  of  history  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin.  His  lectures  on  Roman  history,  pub- 
lished in  1811-12,  announced  the  important  discoveries 
and  original  ideas  which  have  effected  a  great  revolution 
in  the  principles  of  Roman  history,  and  constitute  his 
chief  title  to  durable  celebrity. 

During  the  war  of  liberation  (1813)  he  attended  the 
head-quarters  of  the  allies,  and  was  employed  in  nego- 
tiating loans.  In  1816  he  went  as  Prussian  ambassador 
to  Rome,  where  he  remained  until  1822  and  pursued 
with  ardour  his  researches  in  the  history  of  ancient 
Rome  and  the  study  of  philology.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Bonn  in  1823,  and  in  1825  opened  there  a  course  of 
lectures  on  history  and  Roman  antiquities.  In  1827  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  a  revised  edition  of  his 
"History  of  Rome,"  ("Romische  Geschichte,")  which 


*  The  etymology  of  this  name  is  uncertain.  1 1  is  probably  derived 
from  a  root  cognate  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  hwerfan  or  hweor/an^ 
to  "turn,"  to"  whirl,"  and^(r/»i,  (or^^/»<r-,)a  "  bunch"  or  "mass," 
thus  signifying  the  "whirling  mass,"  [ofwaters.l  According  to  Key- 
ser,  kzier  means  a  "hot  spring"  or  "cauldron  ;"  but  the  etymology 
is  not  improbably  the  same,  the  term  having  been  applied  to  a  boiling 
spring  on  account  of  the  constant  turning  or  whirling  of  its  waters. 


€as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asy;  o,  H,  Vi,^itiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NIEBUHR 


1822 


NIEMCEWICZ 


is  considered  the  most  original  and  profound  work  on 
ancient  history  that  any  modern  has  produced.  The  third 
and  last  volume  appeared  in  1832.  The  author  died  at 
Bonn  in  [anuary,  1831,  leaving  a  son,  Marcus,  who  held 
a  high  position  in  the  Prussian  civil  service.  Niebuhi 
had  refused  several  titles  of  nobility.  His  character  was 
eminently  truthful,  upright,  and  generous.  He  had 
noble  features,  and  a  graceful  facility  of  elocution.  His 
attainments  as  a  critic  and  philologist  were  of  the  highest 
order.*  He  spoke  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  was 
master  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Persian. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  edition  of  the 
Byzantine  Historians,  (1828,)  "Short  -Historical  and 
Philological  Treatises,"  (1828,)  "Lectures  on  Ancient 
Ethnography  and  Geography,"  and  "  Lectures  on  An- 
cient History."  In  1S38  appeared  an  interesting  col- 
lection of  his  Letters,  with  memoirs  of  his  life,  edited 
by  Madame  Hensler,  ("Lebensnachrichten  iiber  B.  G. 
Niebuhr,"  etc.,  3  vols.)  His  reputation  as  a  historian 
continued  to  increase  after  his  death,  though  several  of 
his  positions  are  controverted  by  eminent  critics.  He 
rejected  as  fabulous  many  stories  which  other  historians 
had  credited,  and  aimed  to  construct  a  fabric  of  rational 
probability  out  of  the  confused  mass  of  traditions,  con- 
jectures, and  mythical  legends.  "  He  would  have  been 
the  first  writer  of  his  time,"  says  Macaulay,  "if  his  talent 
for  communicating  truths  had  borne  any  proportion  to 
his  talent  for  investigating  them."  (Preface  to  "Lays 
of  Ancient  Rome.") 

Sse  "The  Life  and  Letters  of  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  with  Essays  on  his 
Character  and  Influence,"  by  Chevalier  Bunsen,  London,  2  vols., 
1852:  Francis  Lieber,  "Reminiscences  of  B.  G.  Niebuhr,"  1835; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1S33,  and  July,  1852;  "Quar- 
terly Review,"  article  on  "  Early  Roman  History,"  vol.  xxvii.  and  vol. 
rxxii.,  (by  Arnold  ;)  "Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843  :  "  Quar- 
terly Review'  for  September,  1840;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  June,  1828,  and  July,  1831  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July  and 
December,  1852;  "North  American  Review"  for  April,  1823,  (by 
Edward  Everett;)  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1852; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1S43,  (by  G.  H.  Lewes.) 

Niebuhr,  (Carstens  or  Karstens,)  a  German  trav- 
eller of  distinguished  talent  and  energy,  was  born  at 
Liidingworth,  in  Hanover,  in  1733.  He  entered  the 
Danish  service  as  lieutenant-engineer  in  1760,  and  was 
appointed  by  Frederick  V.  in  1761  to  accompany  a  sci- 
entific expedition  to  Arabia.  Soon  after  their  arrival  at 
Mocha,  Von  Haven,  one  of  the  company,  died,  and  within 
a  year  Niebuhr  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  three  re- 
maining companions.  He  now  adopted  the  diet  of  the 
Arabians,  and  his  health,  which  had  previously  suffered, 
continued  good  during  the  rest  of  his  journey.  He  spent 
six  years  in  the  country,  taking  upon  himself  all  the 
labours  of  the  mission,  and  in  1767  returned  to  Den- 
mark. His  "Description  of  Arabia"  came  out  in  1772. 
The  accuracy,  research,  and  freedom  from  exaggeration 
which  characterize  this  production  have  caused  it  to  be 
regarded  as  a  standard  work.  In  1778  he  brought  out 
"  Travels  in  Arabia  and  the  Surrounding  Countries." 
In  addition  to  the  above,  he  edited  and  published 
the  "Flora  Egyptiaco-Arabica,"  and  "  Descriptions  of 
Animals"  by  Forskil,  the  naturalist  of  the  expedition. 
Niebuhr  was  a  councillor  of  state,  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris.     Died  in  1815. 

See  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  "Leben  Carstens  Niebuhr's,"  1817; 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  liii.,  1776,  (Appendix.) 

Niebuhr,  von,  fon  nee'booR,  (Marcus,)  a  son  of 
Barthold  G.  Niebuhr,  was  born  at  Rome  about   181 7. 

*  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  he  who  was  perhaps  the  most 
thorough  and  searching  of  all  historical  critics,  and  whose  intellect, 
as  he  tells  us  himself,  "early  took  a  skeptic.1l  direction,"  felt  himself 
nevertheless  obliged  to  accept  the  Gospel  narratives  as  true  history 
in  all  essential  points.  He  says,  "  He  whose  earthly  life  and  sorrows 
were  depicted  had  for  me  a  perfectly  real  existence,  and  His  whole 
history  had  the  same  reality  even  if  u  were  not  related  with  literal 
exactness  in  any  single  point.  Hence,  also,  the  fundamental  fact  of 
miracles,  which,  according  to  my  conviction,  must  be  conceded,  un- 
less we  adopt  the  not  merely  incomprehensible,  but  absurd,  hypothesis 
that  the  Holiest  was  a  deceiver  and  His  disciples  either  dupes  or  liars, 
and  that  deceivers  had  preached  a  holy  religion,  in  which  self-renun- 
ciation is  everything,  and  m  which  there  is  nothing  tending  towards 
the  erection  of  a  priestly  rule, — nothing  that  can  be  acceptable  to 
vicious  inclinations.  As  regards  a  miracle  in  the  strictest  sense,  it 
really  only  requires  an  unprejudiced  and  penetrating  study  of  nature 
to  see  that  those  related  are  as  far  as  possible  from  absurdity,  and  a 
comparison  with  legends,  or  the  pretended  miracles  of  other  religions, 
to  perceive  by  what  a  diflerent  spirit  they  are  animated."  (Niebuhr's 
"  Letters,"  vol.  i.  p.  340,  Letter  148.) 


He  was  carefully  educated  by  his  father,  who  declared 
his  determination  that  he  should  believe  in  the  letter  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  said,  "  I  shall  nurture 
in  him  from  his  infancy  a  firm  faith  in  all  I  have  lost  or 
feel  uncertain  about."  He  obtained  several  high  offices 
in  the  Prussian  government.  He  was  opposed  to  the 
Liberal  party  in  politics.     Died  in  i860. 

Niederer,  nee'deh-rer,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  teacher,  bom 
at  Appenzell  in  1778,  published  a  treatise  on  the  system 
of  Pestalozzi.     Died  in  1843. 

Niedermeyer,  nee'der-mi'er,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  com- 
poser and  musician,  born  in  the  canton  de  Vaud  in  1802. 
Among  his  works  are  the  opera  of  "  La  Fronde,"  and  a 
number  of  songs  and  religious  pieces.     Died  in  1861. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Niel,  ne-§l',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  marshal,  born  at 
Muret  (Haute-Garonne)  in  1802.  He  served  in  the 
expedition  to  Rome  in  1848,  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1849,  and  general  of  division  in  1853.  As 
general  of  engineers,  he  directed  with  success  the  opera- 
tions at  the  siege  of  Bomarsund,  in  1S54.  In  May,  1855, 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  engineers 
and  artillery  at  Sebastopol.  He  commanded  a  corps  at 
the  battles  qf  Magenta  and  Solferino,  June,  1859.  For 
his  services  at  Solferino  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France.  He  became  minister  of  war  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1867,  and  showed  himself  an  able  administrator. 
Died  in  August,  1869. 

See  Baron  de  Bazancourt,  "  Campagnesde  Crimee  etd'Italie;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nield,  neeld,  (James,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  1744.  He  devoted  much  time  to  the  cause 
of  prison-reform.     Died  in  1814. 

Nielly,  ne'l'le',  (Joseph  Marie,)  Baron,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Brest  in  1751,  served  against  the 
English  in  several  campaigns,  and  became  vice-admiral 
in  1815.     Died  in  1S33. 

Nieiseu,  neel'sen,  (Johan  Moses  Georg,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  lawyer,  born  near  Nyborg  in  1804 ;  died  in  1855 

Nielsen,  (Nikolaus  Peter,)  a  popular  Danish  actor, 
born  in  Seeland  in  1795.     Died  March  13,  i860. 

Niem,  neem,  (Thierry,)  a  German  historian,  borr, 
near  Paderborn,  became  Bishop  of  Cambray  in  1396 
He  wrote  the  "  Lives  of  the  Roman  Pontiff's,"  and  othei 
historical  works,  in  Latin.     Died  about  141 7. 

Niemann,  nee'min,  (Albert,)  a  German  tenor-singer, 
born  at  Erxleben  in  1831.  He  has  won  a  good  reputa- 
tion in  Germany,  but  has  only  once  sung  outside  of  his 
native  country,  on  the  occasion  of  the  unsuccessful  pro- 
duction of  "Tannhauser"  in  Paris  in  1861. 

Niemann,  nee'min,  (August  Christian  Heinrich,) 
a  Danish  publicist  and  writer  on  political  economy,  born 
at  Altona  in  1761  ;  died  in  1832. 

Niemann,  nee'mJn,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
physician,  born  in  Anhalt-Dessau  in  1764,  was  the  authoir 
of  several  medical  works.     Died  in  1846. 

Niemce-wioz,  ne-§m-tsa'vitch,  (Julian  Ursin,)  a 
celebrated  Polish  statesman,  historian,  and  poet,  born 
in  Lithuania  in  1757.  Being  appointed  a  deputy  to  the 
Constitutional  Diet,  he  had  the  principal  share  in  drawing 
up  the  "Constitution  of  the  3d  of  May,"  1791,  and  about 
the  same  time  became  one  of  the  editors  of  a  popular 
journal  called  "Gazeta  Narodowa."  After  the  battle  of 
Maciejowice,  he  was  made  prisoner  with  Kosciusko  and 
confined  in  the  fortress  of  Saint  Petersburg,  frorn  which 
they  were  released  on  the  accession  of  Paul,  in  1791^ 
He  accompanied  Kosciusko  to  America  in  1797,  and  in 
1800  married  Mrs.  Livingston  Kean,  a  lady  of  New  York. 
He  returned  to  Europe  on  the  entrance  of  Napoleon 
into  Poland,  and  when  that  country  was  united  with 
Russia  he  was  appointed  by  the  emperor  Alexander 
president  of  the  committee  of  the  constitution,  and  per- 
petual secretary  of  the  senate.  A  short  time  previous 
to  the  fall  of  Warsaw  he  visited  England,  and  then  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1S41.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Historical  Songs  of  Poland,"  "  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Sigismund  III.,"  "Memoirs  towards  the  Ancient  His- 
tory of  Poland,"  and  "John  of  Tenczyii,"  a  romance. 
He  also  wrote  several  dramas,  which  were  successful, 
and  made  some  translations  from  the  English  poets. 

See  Brockhaos,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 


a,  e,  1, 5,  G,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


N/E  MEYER 


1823 


NIGETTI 


Niemeyer,  nee'ml'er,  (August  Hermann,)  a  Gei 
man  theologian,  born  at  Halle  in  1754.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1799  director  of  the  charitable  institutions 
tounded  by  A.  H.  Francke,  and  became  in  1808  chan- 
cellor and  perpetual  rector  of  the  University  of  Halle. 
He  wrote  educatiowl  and  religious  works  in  prose  and 
verse,  and  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  virtue  and  learn- 
ing.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Fritsch,  "  Ueber  des  verewigten  A.  H.  Niemeyer's  Leben," 
1828;  Jacobs  und  Gruber,  "A.  H.  Niemeyer:  zur  Erinnerung  an 
dessen  Leben,"  1831 ;  A.  H.  Rein,  "  Eriniierungen  an  A.  H.  Nie- 
meyer," 1841. 

Niemojow^ski,  ne-§m-o-yov'skee,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish 
patriot,  born  about  1760,  was  appointed  general  of  the 
palatinate  of  Posnania.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Polotzk,  in  1813. 

Niemojowski,  (Vincent,)  born  near  Kalisch  in 
1784,  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of 
Poland,  and  held  for  a  time  the  post  of  minister  of  the 
interior  at  Warsaw.     Died  in  1834. 

Niepce,  ne-§ps',  (Joseph  Nic^phore,)  a  French 
chemist  and  inventor  of  photography,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Saone  in  1765.  He  served  in  the  army  in  1792- 
95.  About  1814  he  began  his  researches  on  the  action 
of  light  on  prepared  surfaces.  In  1822  he  obtained 
copies  of  engravings  from  polished  metallic  plates  cov- 
ered with  a  bituminous  varnish.  He  gave  the  name  of 
Heliographie  to  this  art.  He  formed  a  partnership  with 
Daguerre  in  1829.  It  is  stated  that  Niepce  was  the 
first  to  fix  permanently  images  formed  by  the  camera. 
Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Riographie  Generale." 

Niepce  de  Seiiiit- Victor,  ne-§ps'  deh  s^n'  vfek'toR', 
(CLAUI5E  F^Lix  Abel,)  a  French  chemist  and  pho- 
tographer, a  nei^hew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near 
ChSlons-sur-Saone  in  1805.  He  entered  the  army,  in 
which  he  gained  the  rank  of  captain.  Having  ap]:)lied 
himself  to  the  task  of  perfecting  the  invention  of  his 
uncle,  he  announced  in  1847  to  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences an  important  discovery  of  a  method  of  obtaining 
images  on  glass  prepared  with  starch  or  albumen.  He 
also  invented  a  process  of  heliographie  engraving  on 
metal  covered  with  a  varnish  which  consists  chiefly  of 
benzine.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  commandant  of  the 
Louvre.  He  explained  his  discoveries  in  numerous 
memoirs,  which  he  published  collectively  under  the 
title  of  "  Photographic  Researches,"  (1855.)  Died  in 
April,  1870. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Niepce  de  Saint- Victor,"  prefixed  to  the  work 
just  named,  by  M.  E.  Lacan;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale ;" 
'  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1866. 

Nieremberg,  nee'rein-b^Rg',  [Lat.  Nierember'gius,] 
(Johann  Eusebius,)  a  learned  Spanish  Jesuit,  of  Ger- 
man extraction,  born  at  Madrid  about  1590.  He  was 
the  author  of  nutnerous  theological  and  miscellaneous 
works,  in  Latin  and  Spanish ;  among  the  principal  of 
these  is  his  "  Historia  Naturae  maxime  peregrinae," 
(1635,)  being  an  account  of  the  natural  history  of  the 
Indies.     Died  in  1658. 

See  "Vie  du  P.  de  Nieremberg,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opera  Par- 
thenica;"  A.  de  Andrada,  "  Vida  del  P.  J.  E.  Nieremberg,"  1658; 
MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Nierembergius.    See  Nieremberg. 

Nieritz,  nee'rits,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  German  litUra- 
teur,  born  at  Dresden  in  1795,  published  several  works 
for  children  and  youth.     Died  February  16,  1876. 

Niethammer,  neet'him'mer,  (Friedrtch  Imma- 
NUEL,)  a  German  philosopher,  born  at  Beilstein,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1766.  He  was  associated  with  Fichte 
as  editor  of  the  "  Philosophisches  Journal"  at  Jena. 
Died  in  1846. 

Nieto,  ne-a'to,  (David,)  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  born 
at  Venice  in  1654;  died  in  1728. 

Nieto,  ne-a'to,  (Don  Vincente,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  1769,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  royalists  in  the 
civil  war  of  1810  in  South  America.  Having  been  made 
prisoner  by  the  patriot  General  Balcarca  in  Upper  Peru, 
he  was  shot  by  his  order  in  1810. 

Nieuhoff,  noi'hof,  (Johann,)  a  German  traveller,  born 
m  Westphalia  in  1630,  visited  China  and  Batavia,  and 
published  in  1666  an  account  of  his  journey,  (in  Dutch,) 
which  was  very  popular  at  the  time  and  was  translated 


into  Latin  and  several  other  languages.  Having  gone 
ashore  at  Madagascar  in  1672,  he  was  lost,  killed,  or 
disappeared  mysteriously. 

See  Macartney,  "Travels  in  India,  China,"  etc. 

Nieulant,  ne-uh'lint,  (Willem,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1584,  studied  at  Rome. 
Among  his  works  are  engravings  of  Italian  landscapes. 
Died  in  1635. 

Nieupoort,ne-uh'poRt,(  Willem  Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
historian  and  jurist,  born  about  1670,  became  professor 
of  law  at  Utrecht.     Died  about  1730. 

Nieuport,  de,  deh  ne-uh'poR',  (Charles  Francois 
Ferdinand  Florent  Antoine,)  Vicomte,  a  distin- 
guished mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1746,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1816  director  of  the  Academy  of  Brussels. 
He  died  in  1827,  leaving  numerous  mathematical  works. 

Nieu-welaiidt,  ne-ul^'eh-iant',  or  Nieulandt,  ne- 
uh'lant,  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish  painter,  was  a  native  of 
Antwerp.  His  works  are  chiefly  landscapes  and  sea- 
views.     Died  in  1601. 

Nieuwelandt,  (Jan,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bori 
at  Antwerp  in  1579.  He  studied  painting  under  his 
father,  and  produced  a  nuinber  of  landscapes  of  superio- 
merit. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nieuwelandt,  van  den,  vtn  den  ne-u<s'''eh-15nt, 
(Willem,)  a  Flemish  artist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1584,  was  a  son  of  Adrian,  noticed  above. 
He  painted  architectural  pieces  of  great  merit,  and 
was  also  a  skilful  engraver.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
popular  tragedy,  entitled  "  Nero,"  and  of  other  works. 
Died  in  1635. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nieuwentyt,  ne-uh'<^en-tlt',  (Bernard,)  a  Dutch 
writer  and  mathematician,  born  in  North  Holland  in 
1654,  became  burgomaster  of  Purmerend.  He  wrote 
treatises  against  the  differential  calculus,  and  a  popular 
work  entitled  "The  Right  Use  of  the  Contemplation  of 
the  World,"  ("  Het  regt  Gebruik  der  Wereltbeschou- 
ingen,"  1715,)  which  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages.    Died  in  1718. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Nieuwerkerke,  de,  deh  ne-uh'<^§r-k?R'keh,  (Al 
FRED  Emilip:n,)  Comte,  a  French  sculptor,  of  Dutch 
extraction,  born  in  Paris  in  181 1.  He  has  executed 
numerous  busts  and  statues,  among  which  we  may  name 
those  of  Descartes  and  Isabella  the  Catholic. 

Nieu-wland,  ne-uh'lSnt,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet  and 
savant,  born  near  Amsterdam  in  1764.  He  displayed  in 
youth  great  precocity  and  aptitude  for  learning  languages 
and  sciences.  He  wrote  several  able  scientific  treatises, 
and  poems  of  great  beauty,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
"Orion."  In  1793  he  became  professor  of  natural  phi- 
losophy, astronomy,  and  mathematics  at  Leyden.  Died 
in  November,  1794. 

See  p.  MiCHELL,  "Jets  ter  Nagedachtenis  van  P.  Nieuwland," 
1794;  J.  H.  van  Swinden,  "  Lykrede  op  P.  Nieuwiand,"  1795;  C. 
L.  Brightwell,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  London,  1S63. 

Nifanius,  ne-fi'ne-iis,  (Christian,)  a  German  theo 
logian,  born  at  Lelingen  in  1639  ;  died  in  1689. 

Niflheim.     See  Hela. 

Nifo,  nee'fo,  [Lat.  Ni'PHUS,]  (Agostino,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  philosopher,  born  in  Calabria  about  1473, 
published  several  Latin  treatises  and  commentaries  on 
Aristotle.  He  was  patronized  by  Leo  X.,  and  was  a 
professor  at  Rome  and  Naples.     Died  about  1538. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Nigel,  nl'jel,  ?  an  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Normandy,  be- 
came treasurer  to  Flenry  I.  of  England,  who  subsequently 
created  him  Bishop  of  Ely.     Died  in  1169. 

Ni'g^r,  (Caius  Pescennius,)  a  Roman  commander, 
and  governor  of  Syria.  On  the  death  of  Pertinax,  193 
A.D.,  he  became  a  competitor  for  the  empire,  with  Sep- 
timius  Severus  and  Clodius  Albinus  for  his  rivals.  After 
his  army  had  been  several  times  defeated  by  the  former 
in  Asia  Minor,  he  was  made  prisoner  and  put  to  death 
in  194  A.D. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Nigetti,  ne-jet'tee,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1560;  died  in  1646. 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NIGHTINGALE 


1824 


NINUS 


Night'in-gale,  (Miss  Florence,)  a  lady  celebrated 
for  her  philanthropy,  the  daughter  of  William  E.  Night- 
ingale, of  Derbyshire,  England,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  1820.  From  her  childhood  she  took  a  deep  interest 
in  schemes  of  benevolence,  and,  after  having  visited  the 
hospitals  and  other  similar  establishments  of  England, 
she  went  to  Germany,  vvith  the  view  of  inspecting  the 
institution  at  Kaiserswerth,  founded  in  1833  by  Fliedner. 
In  1849  she  entered  Kaiserswerth,  in  order  to  qualify 
herself  as  a  hospital  nurse  in  the  training-school  which 
forms  a  pai  t  of  that  establishment.  The  Crimean  war 
having  broken  out  soon  after  her  return  to  England, 
Miss  Nightingale,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  volun- 
tary nurses,  set  out  in  1854  for  the  East,  where,  in  the 
military  hospitals  at  Scutari,  they  devoted  themselves  to 
the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  In  1856  she 
returned  to  England,  where  the  queen  conferred  upon  her 
various  distinctions  in  acknowledgment  of  her  eminent 
services.  Siie  published  a  pamphlet  on  "The  Institu- 
tion at  Kaiserswerth,"  (1850,)  "  Notes  on  Hospitals," 
(1859,)  "  Notes  on  Nursing,"  (i86o,)  "Observations  on 
the  Sanitary  State  of  the  Army  in  India,"  (1863,)  "  Notes 
on  Lying-in  Institutions,"  (1871,)  and  "Life  or  Death  in 
India,"  (1874.) 

Nightingale,  (Joseph,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  in  Lancashire  in  1775.  ^^^  wrote,  among  other 
works,  "  A  Portraiture  of  Catholicism,"  and  "  English 
Topography."     Died  in  1824. 

Night'in-gail,  (Sir  Miles,)  K.C.B.,  an  English  officer, 
served  under  Sir  William  Meadows  in  India  in  1791-92, 
and  was  subsequently  engaged  in  the  continental  war. 
About  1820  he  became  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Suf- 
folk.    Died  in  1829. 

Nigidius.     See  Figulus. 

Nigrisoli,  ne-gRe-so'lee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian physician,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1648,  became  professor 
of  medicine  in  his  native  city.     Died  in  1727. 

Nigroni,  ne-gRo'nee,  (Giulio,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born 
at  Genoa  in  1553  ;  died  in  1625. 

Nihus,  nee'iis,  (Barthold,)  a  German  Catholic  theo- 
logian, born  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1589,  wrote  a 
number  of  controversial  treatises.     Died  in  1657. 

Nike.    See  Nice. 

Nikitin,  ne-ke-tin'  or  ne-ke-teen',  (Athanasius,)  a 
Russian  traveller,  who  visited  Persia  and  Hindostan, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  those  countries,  which  was  dis- 
covered and  published  by  Karamzin.     Died  in  1472. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Litterature  Riisse." 

Nikolai,  nee'ko-lT,  (Izaak,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1536.  He  died  in  1619,  leaving  three  sons, 
all  of  whom  were  artists. 

See  Dhscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nikolaus,  the  German  for  Nicholas,  which  see. 

Nikon  or  Nicon,  nee'kon,  a  Russian  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  near  Novogorod  in  1605.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Patriarch  of  Russia  in  1652;  but  he  afterwards 
lost  favour  at  court,  and  was  deposed.  He  rendered 
great  services  to  Russian  literature  by  correcting  the 
Slavonian  ecclesiastical  works  from  the  Greek  originals  ; 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  compiled  the  "  Russian 
Chronicles,"  published  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  (1792.)     Died  in  1681. 

See  Ivan  Choucherin,  "Vie  du  Patriarche  Nikon,"  1817 
Apollos,  "Vie  du  Patriarche  Nikon,"  1839. 

Nil,  Saint,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  fifth  century,  be- 
longed to  a  noble  family  of  Constantinople.  He  was 
author  of  numerous  theological  works,  only  a  part  of 
which  are  extant. 

Nilakantha,  a  surname  of  Siva,  (which  see.) 

Niles,  nilz,  (Hezekiah,)  an  American  journalist,  and 
founder  of  the  "  Register"  called  by  his  name,  which 
he  edited  for  twenty-five  years  at  Baltimore,  was  born 
about  1777;  died  in  "1839. 

Niles,  (John  Milton,)  an  American  journalist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1787.  He 
became  editor  in  1817  of  the  "Hartford  Times,"  a 
Democratic  journal,  and  in  1840  was  appointed  post- 
master-general by  President  Van  Buren.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1842.  He  wrote  the 
"Lives  of  Perry,  Lawrence,  Pike,  and  Harrison,"  "His- 


tory of  South   America  and  Mexico,"  etc.,  nnd  othc 
work.s.     Died  in  1856. 

Niles,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  divine  and  inventor, 
born  at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1741,  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Vermont  in  1791.  He  was 
the  author  of  religious  and  miscellaneous  works,  and 
wrote  a  popular  war-song,  called  "The  American  Hero." 
Died  in  1828. 

NUes,  (Samuel,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  Brain- 
tree,  Massachusetts,  in  1744.  He  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton College,  and  subsequently  became  minister  of  Abmg- 
ton,  Massachusetts.     Died  in  1S14. 

Niles,  (William  Woodruff,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Hatley,  Lower  Canada,  May  24,  1832, 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  1857,  and  at 
Berkeley  Divinity  School  in  1861,  was  ordained  a  priest 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1862,  was  professor  of  Latin 
in  Trinity  College,  1864-70,  and  in  1870  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  New  Hampshire. 

Nl'leiis  or  Neleus,  [Nft'Anjf,]  a  Greek  physician  o\ 
uncertain  epoch,  probably  lived  before  200  B.C.  H« 
invented  a  machine  for  the  reduction  of  dislocations. 

Nilson,  nll'son,  (Johann  Esaias,)  a  German  paintei 
and  engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1721 ;  died  ni  1788. 

Nilson,  nil'son,  or  Nilsson,  (Sven,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  naturalist  and  physician,  born  near  Landskrona 
in  1787.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Swedish 
Ornithology,"  ("Ornithologia  Suecica,")  "Scandinavian 
Fauna,"  ("Skandinavisk  Fauna,"  1820,)  and  an  antiqua- 
rian treatise  "On  the  Primitive  Inhabitants  of  Northern 
Scandinavia,"  (1838.)     Died  November  30,  1883. 

Nil'sson,  (Christine,)  a  Swedish  singer,  born  near 
Wexio,  August  3,  1843.  She  very  early  gave  proof  of 
vocal  talent,  and  was  carefully  educated  at  Haimstad, 
Stockholm,  and  Paris.  Her  appearance  as  Astrifia- 
menti,  in  "The  Magic  Flute,"  in  1865,  was  marvel- 
lously successful,  and  since  that  time  she  has  sung  with 
very  great  success  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  civilized 
world.  She  was  married  in  1872  to  Auguste  Rouzaud, 
who  died  in  1882. 

Nina,  nee'ni,  a  Sicilian  poetess  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century. 

Nina,  nee'ni,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Recanati,  May  12,  1812,  became  a  doctor  of  theology  at 
Rome,  was  made  a  priest  in  1835,  and  became  an  attache 
and  adviser  in  the  papal  court.  In  1877  he  was  created 
a  cardinal-priest,  and  was  made  prefect  of  the  Council  by 
Leo  XIII.,  and  also  prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Ec- 
clesiastical Immunity.  He  conducted  delicate  negotia- 
tions with  various  governments,  as  with  Russia,  Ger- 
many, and  Belgium,  and  held  the  office  of  papal  secretary 
of  state.     Died  June  27,  1885. 

Ninde,  nind,  (William  Xavier,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
bishop,  born  in  Cortlandville,  New  York,  in  1832.  He 
graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1855,  and  in  1856 
became  a  preacher.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  practical  theology  in  the  Biblical  Institute  at  Evanston, 
Illinois,  and  in  1879  became  its  president.  In  1884  he 
was  elected  a  bishop. 

Nin'i-an,  [Lat.  Ninia'nus,  or  Nyn'ias,]  Saint,  a 
British  bishop,  who  converted  the  Picts  living  south  of 
the  Grampians.  He  lived  probably  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  and  is  said  to  have  died  in  Ireland. 

Ninnin,  ne'niN',  (Henri,)  born  at  Poix,  in  Cham- 
pagne, in  1722,  was  one  of  the  physicians  of  Louis  XV. 
He  published  a  translation  of  the  medical  works  of 
Celsus,  (2  vols.,  1753.)     Died  in  1800. 

Nino,  n^n'yo,  (Andres,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  born 
about  1475,  made  a  voyage  to  the  Moluccas  in  1522. 

Niiio,  (Pedro  Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  sur- 
named  el  Negro,  ("the  Black,")  born  in  Andalusia  in 
1468,  was  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus  in  his 
third  voyage.  He  afterwards  sailed  as  commander  of  a 
caravel,  and  made  several  discoveries  on  and  near  the 
South  American  coast.     Died  about  1505. 

See  Irving,  "  Life  of  Columbus." 

Niiio  de  Guevara.     See  Guevara,  de. 

Ninon.     See  L'Enclos,  de. 

Ni'nus,  [Gr.  Ntvof,]  a  celebrated  ruler  of  antiquity, 
said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li, ^, short;  a,  ?,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fJll,  fit;  m&t;  nftt;  good ;  ni<56n; 


NIOBE 


1825 


NIXON 


flourished  about  2048  B.C.  After  having  conquered  the 
greater  part  of  Asia,  he  built  tiie  city  of  Nineveh,  and  at 
his  death  left  his  kingdom  to  his  warlike  queen  Semi- 
RAMis,  (which  see.) 

Ni'o-be,  [Gr.  Ni6j3r];  Fr.  NiobS,  ne'oTDi',]  a  person- 
age of  classic  mythology,  said  to  have  been  a  daughter 
of  Tantalus,  {or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of  Pe- 
lops,)  and  the  wife  of  Amphi'on.  She  was  celebrated 
for  her  numerous  and  beautiful  offspring,  and  had  seven 
sons  and  seven  daughters,  or,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, six  of  each.  The  poets  relate  that  she  was  so 
proud  of  her  children  that  she  claimed  superiority  over 
Latona,  (Leto,)  who  had  borne  only  two.  Apollo  and 
Diana,  (Artemis,)  exasperated  by  her  arrogance,  slew 
all  her  children.  The  sons  are  said  to  have  fallen  by 
the  arrows  of  Apollo,  the  daughters  by  those  of  Diana. 
Niobe  was  changed  into  a  stone  by  her  excessive  grief. 
Her  story  was  a  favourite  subject  of  the  ancient  poets, 
and  has  been  commemorated  by  an  admirable  group 
of  statuary,  which  is  now  at  Florence,  and  which  is 
variously  ascribed  to  Praxiteles  and  Scopas,  (See  tlie 
"  Iliad,"  book  xxiv.) 

Niou,  ne'oo',  (Joseph,)  a  French  revolutionist,  borr 
at  Rochefort  in  1751,  was  elected  to  the  National  Con 
vention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
Died  in  1828. 

Niphus.    See  Nifo. 

Nisami.     See  Nizamee. 

Nisard,  ne'ztn',  (Jean  Marie  NapoliSon  D6sir6,) 
a  French  critic  and  litteratacr,  born  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Seine  in  1806.  He  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  and  of  "Le  National,"  (1831,) 
and  was  subsequently  appointed  master  of  requests  in 
the  council  of  state,  and  professor  of  Latin  eloquence  in 
the  College  of  France,  (1844.)  lie  was  elected  in  1850 
to  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1852  succeeded  M.  Vil- 
lemain  in  the  chair  of  French  eloquence  in  the  Faculty 
of  Letters.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  his  "  Studies 
o(  Morals  and  Criticism  on  the  Latin  Poets  during  the 
Decline  of  Learning,"  (2  vols.,  1834,)  which  is  highly 
commended  by  Villemain  and  other  critics,  "  History  of 
French  Literature,"  (1844-61,)  esteemed  his  best  pro- 
duction, "Studies  on  the  Revival  of  Letters,"  (1855,) 
"Studies  in  Critical  Literature,"  (1858,)  "Portraits  and 
Studies  in  Literary  History,"  (1874,)  and  "The  Four 
Great  Roman  Historians,"  (1874.)     Died  in  1888. 

Nisard,  (Jean  Marie  Nicolas  Auguste,)  a  French 
scholar,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Chatillon- 
sur-Seine  in  1S05.  He  published  a  translation  of  Horace's 
"  Art  of  Poetry"  and  of  Virgil's  works. 

Nisard,  (Marie  Leonard  Charles,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1808.  He 
published  several  original  works,  and  made  translations 
from  Ovid,  Martial,  and  other  Latin  classics.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Les  Ennemis  de  Voltaire,"  (1853,)  a 
"  History  of  Popular  Books  since  the  Fifteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1854,)  and  "  Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Republique 
des  Lettres  au  quinzieme,  seizi^me  et  dix-septieme  Sie- 
cjes,"  (i860.)     Died  in  1889. 

Nisbet    See  Nesbit,  (Alexander.) 

Nisrocb,  nis'rok,  or  Shal'man,  an  Assyrian  deity, 
formed  like  a  man,  with  wings  and  with  an  eagle's  head. 
He  seems  to  have  been  the  god  of  wedlock  and  of  human 
destiny. 

Nissel,  nis'sel,  [Lat.  Nisse'lius,]  (Johann  Georg,) 
a  German  editor,  born  in  the  Palatinate,  lived  mostly  at 
Leyden.  He  published,  at  his  own  expense,  a  Hebrew 
Bible,  (about  1659,)  which  is  said  to  be  accurate.  Died 
in  1662. 

Nisselius.     See  Nissel. 

Nissole,  ne'sol',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1647.  The  genus  Nissolia  was 
named  in  his  honour  by  Tournefort.     Died  in  1734. 

Ni'sus,  [Gr.  NZcrof,]  in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of 
Pandi'on,  and  a  king  of  Megara.  The  poets  relate  that 
Megara  was  taken  by  Minos  through  the  treachery 
of  Scylla,  a  daughter  of  Nisus,  who  died  because  she 
cut  off  the  purple  or  golden  hair  on  which  his  life  de- 
pended. 

Nisus,  a  Trojan  warrior  and  friend  of  Euryalus,  came 
to  Italy  with  yEneas,  and  was  killed  in  the  war  against 


Turnus.  The  story  of  Nisus  and  Euryalus  forms  the 
subject  of  a  beautiful  episode  of  Virgil's  "iEneid,"book 
ix.,  175-448. 

Nithard,  ne'ttR',  a  French  historian,  born  in  790  A.D., 
was  the  son  of  Angilbert  and  Bertha,  daughter  of  Charle- 
magne. His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Dis- 
sensions between  the  Sons  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,"  (in 
Latin.)     Died  in  853. 

See  "  Histoire  liu^raire  de  la  France,"  vol.  v. 

Ni-to'cris,  [Gr.  N/rwKpff,]  a  queen  of  ancient  Egypt, 
lived  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  who  says  she  was 
the  only  female  in  a  list  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  mon- 
archs  which  the  Egyptian  priests  showed  to  him.  She 
was  celebrated  as  a  heroine  in  the  legends  of  ancient- 
Egypt. 

See  BuNSEN,  "iflgyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte." 

Nitsch,  n!tsh,  (Paul  Frtedrich,)  a  German  archse- 
ologist,  born  at  Glauchau  in  1754,  published  a  "New 
Mythological  Dictionary,"  (1793,)  and  other  learned 
works.     Died  in  1794. 

Nitzsch,  n!tsh,  (Friedrich  August  Berthold,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Bonn,  February 
19,  1S32.  In  1S68  he  became  divinity  professor  at  Gies- 
sen.  He  wrote  "The  System  of  Boethius,"  "Outlines 
of  the  History  of  Christian  Dogma,"  (1870  et  seq.,)  etc. 

Nitzsch  or  Nitzch,  n!tsh,  (Gregor  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1790,  was  a  son  of  Karl  Ludwig,  noticed  below.  Ho 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Kiel  in  1827, 
and  professor  of  archaeology  at  Leipsic  in  1852.  He 
gained  distinction  by  his  speculations  on  the  Homeric 
poems.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Epic  Poetry  of  the 
Greeks,"  (2  vols.,  1852.)     Died  in  1861. 

Nitzsch,  (Karl  Immanuel,)  a  German  theologian,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Borna,  in  Saxony, 
in  1787.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in 
1822,  and  obtained  the  high  office  of  Oberconsistorial- , 
rath  in  1843.  I"  1847  ^^  was  appointed  preacher  to 
the  University  of  Berlin.  His  opinions  were  liberal. 
Died  August  21,  1868.  His  chief  works  are  a  "System 
der  christlichen  Lehre"  and  "  Praktische  Theologie." 

Nitzsch,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German  theologian,  bom 
at  Wittenberg  in  1751,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wfttenberg  about  1790.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  On  the  Salvation  of  the  World,"  ("  Ueber  das 
Heil  der  Welt,"  181 7.)  He  favoured  a  compromise  or 
reconcilement  between  orthodoxy  and  rationalism.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  HoppH,  "  Denkmal  des  verewigten  K.  L.  Nitzsch,"  1837. 

Nitzsch,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  historian,  a 
son  of  Gregor  Wilhelm  Nitzsch,  was  born  at  Zerbst, 
December  22,  1818.  He  graduated  at  Kiel  in  1844,  in 
1858  was  called  to  be  professor  there,  and  in  1862  re- 
ceived a  professorship  at  Konigsberg.  He  has  written 
works  on  various  periods  of  Greek,  Roman,  and  German 
history. 

Nivelle,  ne'v§l',  (Gabriel  Nicolas,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  1687,  was  the  author  of"  The  Cry  of  the 
Faith,"  and  "The  Constitution  Unigenitus  submitted  to 
the  Universal  Church."     Died  in  1761. 

Nivelle  de  la  Chaussee.    See  ChaussAe,  de  la. 

Nivernais,  de,  deh  ne'v^R'n.V,  (Louis  Jules  Bar- 
bon  Mancini  Mazarini — blR'biN'  mSN'se'ne'  mJ'- 
zS're'ne',)  Due,  a  distinguished  French  litterateur  and 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1716.  He  was  employed 
in  several  important  missions,  and  in  1763  negotiated 
the  treaty  between  England  and  France.  He  made 
translations  from  the  Latin,  English,  and  Italian,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  fables,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in 
1798. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,"  Causeries  du  LuTidi ;"  F.  dr  NeupchAthau, 
"  filoge  du  Due  de  Nivernais,"  prefixed  to  his  "  CEuvres  posthumes,' ' 
1807  ;  A.NDRi  DupiN,  "  £loge  du  Due  de  Nivernois,"  \'i^<x 

Nivers,  ne'vaiR',  (Guillaume  Gabriel,)  a  French 
musician  and  writer  on  music,  born  near  Melun  in  161 7. 

Nix'on,  (John,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1725. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Ticonderoga, 


c  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,gnttnral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  «;  th  as  in  this. 


fffi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


NIZA 


1826 


NOAILLES 


Lexington,  and  Bunker  Hill,  and  rose  to  be  brigadier- 
general  in  1776.     Died  in  1815. 

Niza,  di,  de  nid'zi,  (Marco.)  an  Italian  missionary, 
is  said  to  have  first  discovered  the  province  of  Sonora, 
in  New  Mexico,  {1540.) 

Nizam-el-Molouk.     See  Nizam-fx-Moolic 

Nizam-el-Moolk,  ne-zim'  el  moolk,  written  also 
Nizam-el-Mulk  and  Nizam-al-Moulk  or  -Molook, 
a  Persian  statesman,  was  grand  vizier  to  the  Sultan  Alp- 
Arslan.  He  was  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning,  and 
founded  the  College  of  Bagdad.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
work  containing  precepts  for  government.  Died  about 
1092. 

Nizam -ool- Moolk  or  Nizam  - ul  - Mulk,  (or 
-Moulk,)  ne-zim'  ool  moolk,  a  general  and  politician, 
born  at  Delhi,  in  Hindostan,  about  1650.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  daring,  successful,  and  treacherous.  He 
made  himself  master  of  the  Deccan.     Died  in  1748. 

Nizam-ul-Mulk.     See  Nizam-el-Moolk  and  Ni- 

ZAM-OOL-MOOI.K. 

Nizamee,  Nizami,  or  Nisami,  ne-zS'mee,  written 
also  Nidhami,  (Aboo- Mohammed -Ibn-Yoosuf; 
a'boo  mo-him'med  Tb'n  yoo'soof  or  yoo'siif,)  a  cele- 
brated Persian  poet  of  the  twelfth  century.  One  of  his 
principal  poems  furnished  the  subject  of  Gozzi's  drama 
of  "  Turandot,"  which  was  subsequently  imitated  by 
Schiller.     Died  in  1180. 

NizamL     See  Nizamee. 

Nizolius.     See  NizzoLi. 

Nizzoli,  nit'so-lee,  [Lat.  Nizo'lius,]  (Mario,)  an 
Italian  scholar,  and  one  of  the  best  Latin  writers  of  his 
time,  was  born  near  Modena  in  1498.  His  principal 
works  are  "The  Ciceronian  Treasure,"  ("Thesaurus 
Ciceronianus,")  and  an  essay  "  On  the  True  Principles 
of  Philosophising." 

Njord  or  Niord,  nyord,  (NjortSr,)  [etymology  very 
uncertain ;  some  derive  it  from  nordr,  "north,"]  the  god 
of  winds,  and  the  third  in  order  (after  Odin)  ,imong 
the  gods  of  the  Norse  mythology.  He  appears  to  be  a 
personification  of  trade  or  commerce,  and  dwells  in 
Noatun,  (no'i-toon',)  or  "  Ship-town."  His  wife  is  named 
Skadi,  (which  see.)  He  is  particularly  worshipped  by 
sailors  and  fishermen.  He  is  very  rich,  and  can  give 
wealth  in  abundance  to  those  who  invoke  him.  He 
rules  the  course  of  the  wind,  stills  the  ocean,  and 
quenches  fire.  He  was  originally  an  inhabitant  of  Vana- 
heim,  but  was  sent  by  the  Vanir  as  a  hostage  to  th> 
iEsir,  among  whom  he  is  now  numbered. 

See  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Keyser's  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen  ;"  Petersen's  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

No'ah,  [Heb.  n:i;  Gr.  N^e;  Fr.  N06,  no'i',]  the  son 
of  Lamech,  a  patriarch  of  the  tenth  generation  from 
Adam,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  2950  B.c 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  integrity  and  piety  in  an 
age  of  almost  universal  corruption.  (Genesis  vi.  9;  II. 
Peter  ii.  5.)  He  was  six  hundred  years  old  when  the 
great  Deluge  destroyed  all  the  human  race  except  Noah 
and  his  family,  who  were  saved  in  the  Ark  (Genesis  vii., 
▼iiL,  and  ix.)  and  entered  into  a  new  and  everlasting 
covenant.    He  died  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred  and  fifty. 

No'ah,  (MoRDECAi  Manuel,)  an  American  journalist 
and  politician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1785.  He  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  was 
successively  editor  of  "The  National  Advocate,"  "The 
Enquirer,"  "Evening  Star,"  and  "Sunday  Times."  He 
was  appointed  consul  to  Morocco  in  1813.  He  pub- 
lished "Travels  in  England,  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Barbary  States."     Died  in  1851. 

Noaille,  no'ir  or  no'S'ye,  (Jacques  Barth^lemy,) 
a  French  magistrate  and  revolutionist,  of  the  royalist 
party,  born  at  Beaucaire  in  April,  1758  ;  died  in  1828. 

Noailles,  de,  deh  no'tl'  or  no't'ye,  (  Adrien 
Maurice,)  Due,  an  eminent  French  general  and  states- 
man, born  in  Paris  in  1678,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Anne 
Jules,  noticed  below.  He  married  Fran9oise  d'Aubigne, 
a  niece  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  During  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession  he  served  with  distinction  as 
general  and  diplomatist  in  Spain  from  1705  to  1712. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  from  1715  to  1718.  In  1734 
he  became  a  marshal  of  France  and  commander-in-chief 
in  a  war  against  the  Emperor  of  Germany.     He  wrote 


"Political  and  Military  Memoirs,"  (6  vols.,  1777.)  He 
is  represented  as  a  man  of  great  talents  and  many  virtues. 
Died  in  1766. 

See  Mii.LOT,  "Mdmoires  du  Due  de  Noailles,"  1777;  Saint- 
Simon,  "M^moires;"  Voltaire,  "  Si^cle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Mo- 
ri4ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;" 
Chsena,  "  La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Anne  Jules,)  Dug,  an  able  French 
general,  born  in  1650,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  first 
Duke  of  Noailles,  and  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
commanded  in  Catalonia  between  1689  and  1695,  and 
gained  several  advantages  over  the  Spaniards.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1693,  and  became 
Viceroy  of  Catalonia.     Died  in  1708. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  M^moires ;"  De  Courcellks,  "  Dictionnaire 
des  G^n^raux  Frangais  ;"  Cesena,  "  La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Antoine,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in 
1504  ;  died  in  1562. 

Noailles,  de,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  department  of 
Limousin  in  1519.  He  was  employed  by  Henry  II.  in 
missions  to  L:)ndon,  Venice,  and  Constantinople.  Died 
in  1585. 

Noailles,  de,  (Jean  Paul  Franqois,)  Due,  son  of 
Louis,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He 
served  in  the  last  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
was  made  a  knight  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  wrote  several  scientific 
treatises,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  (1777.)  He  was  the  father-in-law  of  General 
La  Fayette.     Died  in  1824. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Histoire  des  Pairs  de  France ;"  A.  dk 
Cesena,  "  La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Louls,)  Due,  born  in  1713,  was  a  son 
of  Adrien  Maurice.  He  was  styled  Due  d'Ayen  before 
his  father's  death.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
campaigns  of  Flanders  and  Germany,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  marshal  in  1775.  Died  in  1793.  When  Louis 
XV.  said  that  the  fermiers-gSnermix  support  the  state, 
the  Due  de  Noailles  replied,  "  Yes,  as  the  rope  supports 
a  man  who  is  hung."         • 

See  Voltaire,  "Precis  du  R^gne  de  Louis  XV,"  chap.  Ixvii. 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  French  cardinal, 
born  in  1651,  was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Noailles, 
and  a  brother  of  Anne  Jules,  noticed  above.  He  suc- 
ceeded Harlay  as  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1695.  In  the 
controversy  which  broke  out  soon  after  between  the 
Jesuits  anB  the  Jansenists,  he  endeavoured  to  act  as 
mediator  ;  but  he  lost  the  confidence  and  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  both  parties.  Plaving  refused  for  a  long 
time  to  accept  the  papal  bull  Unigenitus,  he  gave  in  his 
submission  to  the  pope  in  1728.     Died  in  1729. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  "Histoire  de  Port-Royal;" 
"Gallia  Christiana,"  tomes  i.,  viii.,  and  ix. ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  Joseph  Alexis,)  son  of  Louis 
Marie,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1783.  He 
was  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  Bourbons,  and  fought 
against  Napoleon  in  the  army  of  the  allies  in  1813.  At 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  he  was  one  of  the  ministers- 
plenipotentiary  of  France,  and  in  1815  was  appointed 
minister  of  state  and  a  member  of  the  privy  council. 
Died  in  1835. 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  Marie,)  Vicomte,  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  1756,  was  a  son  of  Marshal  de  Mou- 
chy.  As  a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  he  pro- 
posed, on  the  4th  of  August,  the  suppression  of  feudal 
rights  and  other  privileges  of  the  aristocracy.  He  mar- 
ried the  sister  of  Madame  La  Fayette.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  terror  he  emigrated  to 
the  United  States.  Having  been  sent  by  Napoleon  to 
Saint  Domingo  as  general  of  brigade  in  1803,  he  was 
killed  in  a  naval  engagement  with  the  English,  in  1804. 

See  Baillv,  "Memoires;"  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French 
Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate. " 

Noailles,  de,  (Paul,)  Due,  a  French  littirateitr,  born 
in  Paris  in  1802.  He  has  published  a  "History  of 
Madame  de  Maintenon  and  the  Principal  Events  of  the 
Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (1848,)  and  several  other  works. 
In  1849  he  succeeded  Chateaubriand  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.     Died  May  30,  1SS5. 

See  A.  DE  Cesena,  "  Le  Due  de  Noailles,"  1842. 


a.  e.  i.  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short; a,  e,  j,  <j,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


NOAILLES 


1827 


NOEL 


Noailles,  de,  (Philippe.)     See  Mouchy. 

Noback,  no'bdk,  (Friedrich  Eduard,)  born  at 
Crefeld,  in  Germany,  in  1815,  published  a  "  Systematic 
Manual  of  the  Science  of  Commerce,"  (1848.) 

Noback,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  writer  on  com- 
merce, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kolleda  in 
1810.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  Commercial  Asso- 
ciations," (1842,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1870. 

Nobel,  no'bel,  written  also  Noble,  (Constantin,) 
4  Dutch  navigator,  born  about  1616,  obtained  a  high 
rank  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 
Died  after  1674.  Van  Hoorn  and  Nobel  went  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Peking  in  1665. 

Nobili,  no'be-lee,  (Leopoldo,)  an  Italian  physicist 
and  electrician,  born  in  1784;  died  in  1834. 

See  V.  Antinori,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Professore  L.  Nobili," 
'836. 

Nobili,  de',  dA  no'be-lee,  [Lat.  de  Nobil'ibus,] 
(Roberto,)  a  celebrated  Italian  Jesuit  and  missionary, 
born  at  Monte-Pulciano  in  1577,  was  a  nephew  of  Car- 
dinal Bellarmino.  He  resided  many  years  in  Southern 
India,  where  he  converted  great  numbers  to  Christianity. 
He  wrote  several  religious  treatises  in  different  Indian 
dialects.     Died  in  1656. 

See  JouvENCV,  "  Histoire  des  J^suites;"  Parigi,  "  Notlzie  de 
Cardinale  R.  de'  Nobili,"  etc.,  1836. 

Nobilibus,  de.    See  Nortlt,  de'. 

Noble,  no'b'l,  (Mark,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
became  rector  of  Barming,  in  Kent.  He  published 
"Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Medici,"  (1797,)  "  Lives  of 
the  English  Regicides,"  (1798,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Archa:ologia."     Died  in  1827. 

Noble,  (Matthew,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  about 
1820.  Among  his  works  are  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  at  Manchester,  and  a  statue  of 
Lord  Canning.     Died  June  23,  1876. 

Noble,  (Samuel,)  an  English  theologian  and  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1779.  He  practised  engraving  in  his 
early  life,  and  became  a  .Swedenborgian  minister  about 
1820.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Plenary 
Inspiration  of  the  Scriptin-es,"  and  a  volume  of  Ser- 
mons, (1848.)     Died  in  1853. 

Noble,  Le.     See  Le  Nohle. 

Nobleville.    See  Arnault  de  Nobleville. 

Noblot,  no'blo',  (Charles,)  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  Burgundy  in  1668  ;  died  in  1742. 

Nobrega,  da,  di  no-bRa'gJ,  (Mangel,)  a  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  was  one  of  the  first  band  of  missionaries  that 
laboured  in  Brazil,  where  they  arrived  about  1550.  Died 
in  1570. 

Nobunaga,  no-boo-n5'gS,  (Ota,)  a  Japanese  noble- 
man, born  in  1533.  He  inherited  great  wealth,  and 
deposed  the  line  of  shoguns  who  then  usurped  the  im- 
perial power.  He  persecuted  the  Booddhists  and 
slaughtered  their  priests,  and  also  favoured  the  Jesuits. 
Died  by  suicide  in  1582. 

Nocret,  no'kRi',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Nancy  in  1612  ;  died  in  1672. 

See  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  FraiKjais." 

Nodal,  de,  di  no-dJI',  (Gonzalo  and  BartolomA 
Garcia,)  Spanish  navigators,  born  in  Galicia,  were 
brothers.  They  commanded  two  ships  sent  by  the  King 
of  Spain  in  1618  to  explore  and  fortify  Le  Maire  Strait, 
near  Cape  Horn.  They  discovered  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  latitude  56°  40',  which  they  called  "Diego 
Ramirez,"  and  which  was  the  most  southern  land  marked 
on  maps  for  a  century  or  more. 

See  Dk  Brosses,  "Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  aus- 
trales." 

Nodier,  no'de-i',  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  French 
litterateur,  was  bora  at  Besan^on  in  1783.  He  studied  in 
the  Central  School  of  his  native  city,  and  soon  after 
repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  published  his  "  Painter  of 
Saltzburg,"  (1803,)  and  "The  Exiles,"  romances  in  the 
style  of  Werther.  About  this  time  he  also  wrote  a 
satirical  poem  entitled  "  La  Napoleone,"  for  which  he 
was  subjected  to  a  short  banishment.  Having  spent 
several  years  in  Switzerland  and  lllyria,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "Journal 


des  Debats,"  and  subsequently  took  charge  of  "  La  Quo- 
tidienne."  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XVIII.  Nodier 
obtained  a  title  of  nobility  and  the  cross  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  He  was  a])pointed  in  1824  librarian  of 
the  Arsenal,  in  Paris.  Ills  works  are  numerous  and 
on  various  subjects,  including  many  compositions  of  a 
brilliant  and  original  character.  Among  these  may  be 
named  his  "Entomological  Bibliography,"  (1801,)  "  Dic- 
tionary of  French  Onomatopoeia,"  etc.,  ("Dictionnaire 
raisonne  des  Onomatopees  P'ran9aises,"  1808,)  an  etymo- 
logical treatise  of  great  merit,  and  the  romances  of 
"Jean  Sbogar,"  (1818,)  "Therese  Aubert,"  (1819,)  and 
"  Picturesque  and  Romantic  Travels  in  Ancient  France," 
(1820.)  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "Biographic 
Universelle."  Nodier  had  been  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  about  1S33.  He  died  in  1844,  leaving  a  volume 
of  "  Souvenirs,"  in  which  he  professes  to  narrate  the 
events  of  his  early  life ;  but  they  are  said  to  be  mixed 
with  fiction. 

See  M^RIM^E,  "  filoKe  de  Nodier;"  Sainte-Beuvk,  "Portraits 
Litteraires  ;"  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "  M.  Nodier,  par  un  Homme  de  Rieii," 
1842;  QuSrakd,  "La  France  Littdraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale;"  Nodier,  "Souvenirs,"  etc.,  1832. 

Nodot,  no'do',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  littSrateuTy  who 
lived  about  1680-1700. 

Noe,  the  French  for  NoAH,  which  see. 

Noe,  de,  deh  no'k',  (Ami^d^e,)  Count,  (better  known 
under  his  assumed  name  of  "Cham,"  the  French  spell- 
ing for  Ham,  one  of  the  sons  of  Noah,)  a  French  cari- 
caturist, born  at  Paris,  January  26,  1819.  He  contrib- 
uted numerous  caricatures  to  albums  and  almanacs,  and 
especially  to  the  "  Charivari,"  and  speedily  became  the 
most  popular  of  French  comic  draughtsmen.  Died  at 
Paris,  September  6,  1879. 

Noe,  de,  deh  no'i',  (Marc  An toine,)  a  French  prel- 
ate, born  in  1724,  was  appointed  in  1S02  Bishop  of 
Troves.     He  died  the  same  year, 

Noel,  no'dl',  (Alexis  Nicolas,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter  and  designer,  born  near  Paris  in  1792,  was  a 
pupil  of  David.  He  published  in  1818  a  "Picturesque 
Tour  in  France  and  Germany." 

No'el,  (Rev.  Baptist  Wriothesley,)  an  eminent 
English  dissenting  minister,  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
Gainsborough,  was  born  in  1799.  He  was  in  his  youth 
a  minister  of  the  Anglican  Church,  which  he  left  and 
joined  the  Baptists  about  1849.  He  became  popular  as 
a  preacher  and  as  a  writer  and  a  prominent  promoter  of 
benevolent  enterprises  and  liberal  movements.  Among 
his  works  are  "Christian  Missions  to  Heathen  Nations," 
an  "Essay  on  Christian  Baptism,"  (1849,)  and  "  Letters 
on  the  Church  of  Rome."     Died  January  19,  1873. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1849- 

Noel,  no'Sl',  (Francois,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Hainault  in  165 1,  spent  many  years  as  a  missionary  in 
China.  He  wrote  several  theological  and  scientific 
works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  1729. 

Noel,  (Fran<;ois  Jean  B  ap  iiste,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1783;  died  in  1856. 

Noel,  (FR.^Ngois  Joseph  Michel,)  a  French  litt^- 
rateur  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye 
about  1755.  He  published  a  "  Mythological  Dictionary," 
(2  vols.,  1801-23,)  "Lessons  in  Literature  and  Morals," 
(2  vols.,  1804,)  several  valuable  dictionaries,  and  nume- 
rous other  compilations.  His"  French  Grammar'] (1823) 
passed  through  forty-six  editions.  He  became  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  Venice  in  1793,  minister  to  the  Hague 
in  1795,  inspector-general  of  public  instruction  in  1802, 
and  inspector-general  of  the  University  in  1S08.  He 
retained  the  last  office  under  several  reigns.  Died  in  1841. 

See  Qu^KARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gdn^rale." 

Noel,  (Jean  Bapiiste,)  a  member  of  the  French 
National  Convention,  was  born  at  Remiremont  in  1727. 
He  voted  against  the  death  of  the  king,  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  in  1793. 

Noel,  (Jules,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Quimper 
about  1818.     Died  April  3,  1881. 

Noel,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  1841  he  published  a  volume  of  poems, 
which  included  the  well-known  "  Pauper's  Drive,"  fre- 
quently attributed  to  Hood. 


cas  k;  9  as  s:  |  kard;  g  as^;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ((J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NOEL 


NOLLEKENS 


Noel  de  la  Morinier?  no'§l'  deh  It  mo'rene-aiR', 
(Simon  Barth^i  emv  Joseph,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Dieppe  in  1765,  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"General  History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Fisheries," 
(1815,)  which  was  translated  into  Russian  and  German. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg.     Died  at  Drontheim,  Norway,  in  1822. 

Noel  des  Vergers,  no'gl'  d^  vgu'zhi',  (Joseph 
Marin  Adolpiie,)  a  French  Orientalist  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  made  a  translation  of  Abool- 
feda's  "Life  of  Moiiammed,"  (1837,)  and  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the"Nouvelle  Revue  Encyclope- 
dique,"  "Athenxum  Fran9ais,"  and  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale."     Died  at  Nice,  January  2  1867. 

Noelting.     See  Nolting. 

Noet.     See  Noetus. 

No-e'tus,  [Fr.  Noet,  no'i',]  a  schismatic  among  the 
early  Christians,  flourished  about  240  A.D.,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  native  of  Ephesus.  He  opposed 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  his  views  were  afterwards 
promulgated  by  Sabellius,  one  of  his  disciples. 

See  Fleurv,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 

Nogarist,  no'gt'ri',  (Francois  F6ux,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Versailles  in  1740.  He  was  the 
author  of  poems,  tales,  dramas,  and  prose  essays.  Among 
his  works  are  an  essay  on  natural  history,  entitled 
"L'Ai^ologie  de  mon  Gout,"  (1771,)  which  was  com- 
mended by  Voltaire,  a  translation  or  imitation  of  Aris- 
taenetus,  ("  L'Aristen^te  Fran9ais,"  1780,)  and  "Tales 
in  Verse,"  (5th  edition,  1810.)     Died  in  183 1. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Nogaret,  (Henri.)     See  Candale,  (Henri.) 

Nogaret,  de,  deh  no'gt'ri',  (Guillaume,)  a  Frencn 
statesman,  born  about  1260,  became  chancellor  under 
Philippe  le  Bel.     Died  in  1313. 

Nogaret,  de,  (Jacques  Ramel,)  a  French  statesman, 
born  at  Carcassonne  in  1760.  As  a  member  of  the  Na- 
tional Convention,  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king. 
He  afterwards  entered  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
and  was  minister  of  finance  under  the  Directory  from 
February,  1796,  to  July,  1799.     Died  in  1819. 

Nogaret,  de,  (Jean  Louis.)     See  £pernon,  de. 

Nogari,  no-gi'ree,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1699;  died  in  1763. 

Nogari,  (Paride,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Rome  about  1535  ;  died  about  1600. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nogarola,  no-gd-ro'lS,  (Isotta,)  an  Italian  lady,  cele- 
brated for  her  talents  and  learning,  born  at  Verona  about 
1420  ;  died  in  1466. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Nogarola,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  theologian, 
born  at  Verona  about  1509.  He  translated  several 
Greek  works  into  Latin.  He  took  a  prominent  part  at 
the  Council  of  Trent.     Died  in  1559. 

Noggeratli,  nog'geh-rdt',  (Jakoi!,)  a  German  geolo- 
gist, was  born  at  Bonn,  October  10,  1788,  and  in  1814 
became  professor  in  the  university  of  his  native  town.  He 
wrote  various  books  on  geology,  orography,  agriculture, 
etc.     Died  in  1877. 

Noghera,  no-ga'ra,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  litti- 
ratetir  and  Jesuit,  born  in  the  Valtellina  in  1719.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  translations  of  the  ora- 
tions of  Demosthenes,  (1753.)     Died  in  1784. 

Noguez,  no'gi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Sauveterre  about  1685. 

Nohdeii  or  Noehden,  no'den,  (Georg  Heinrich,) 
a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1 770, 
published  a  "  German-and-English-Grammar,"  (i8oo,j 
and  a  "  German-and-English-Dictionary,"  (1814,)  also 
several  antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1826, 

Nohl,  nol,  (Carl  Friedrich  iLudwig,)  a  German 
musician  and  writer  on  musical  subjects,  born  at  Iser- 
lohn,  in  Westphalia,  December  5,  1831.  He  has  written 
valuable  works  on  Mozart  and  Beethoven. 

Nointel,  de,  deh  nw^N't^K,  (Charles  FRAwgois 
Olier — o'le-i',)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turkey 
in  1670.  He  negotiated  a  treaty  favourable  to  French 
commerce  in  1673.     ^le  owes  his  celebrity  chiefly  to  the 


medals,  inscriptions,  and  specimens  of  ancient  art  which 
he  collected  in  the  Levant.     Died  in  1685. 
See  D'Arvikux,  "  M^moires." 

Noinville,  de,  deh  nwiN'vM',  (Jacques  Bernard 
DuREY,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Dijon  in  1682.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Opera  in 
France,"  {1753.)     Died  in  1768. 

Noir,  le,  leh  nwiR,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jansenist  priest 
and  writer,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1622 ;  died  in  1692. 

Noir6,  nwi'Ri',  (LurnviG,)  a  German  monistic  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Alzey,  March  26,  1829.  He  studied  at 
(jiessen,  and  became  a  teacher  in  the  gymnasium  at 
Mentz.  He  ])ublished  "The  World  as  a  Development 
of  the  Spirit,"  (1874,)  "The  Monistic  Idea,"  (1875,) 
"The  Origin  of  Speech,"  (1877,)  ^nd  other  works  on 
philosophy  and  kindred  studies.     Died  March  26,  1889. 

Noirlieu,  de,  deh  nwjR'le-uh',  (Louis  Francois 
Martin,)  a  French  theologian  and  religious  writer,  born 
at  Sainte-Menehould  in  1792.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  Philosophic  Catechism  for  the  Use  of 
Men  of  the  World,"  (i860.)     Died  June  21,  1870. 

Noirot,  nwS'ro',  (Joseph  Mathias,)  Aub^,  a  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Latrecey  (Haute-Marne)  in  1793. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Lyons  many  years,  and 
his  "  Lectures"  were  published  in  1852.  Died  Jan.  24, 1880. 

Noisette,  nwS'zgt',  (Louis  Claude,)  a  French  horti 
culturist,  born  near  Paris  in  1772,  published  several 
valuable  works  on  pomology,  floriculture,  and  similar 
subjects.     Died  in  1849. 

Nola,  da,  ddno'lS,  (Giovanni  Marliano,)  an  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  near  Naples,  lived  about 
1500-50. 

No'lan,  (Captain  Lewis  Edward,)  a  brave  English 
ofiicer,  served  under  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  in  India  in 
1839.  He  afterwards  had  a  part  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1854,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Balaklava. 

No'lan,  (Michael,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  was  the  author 
of  "Reports  of  Cases  relating  to  the  Duly  and  Office 
of  a  Justice  of  the  Peace,"  and  other  practical  law 
treatises.     Died  in  1827. 

Nolasque.    See  Peter  Nolasque. 

Nolde,  nol'deh,  (Adolph  Friedrich,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Neustrelitz  in  1764,  became  professor 
of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1810.  He  published  several 
medical  works.     Died  in  1813. 

Noldeke,  nol'deh-keh,  (Theodor,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Ilarburg,  March  2,  1836.  He  graduated  at  the 
Gottingen  University  in  1861,  was  a  professor  of  Arabic 
at  Kiel,  1864-72,  and  then  took  a  similar  chair  at  Stras- 
burg.  Died  in  January,  1875.  Among  his  writings  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Koran,"  (i860,)  "  Life  of  Mohammed," 
(1S63,)  "Neo-Syrian  Grammar,"  (1868,)  "  Mandaic 
Grammar,"  (1S75,)  and  works  on  Old  Testament  criti- 
cism, (1868,  1869,)  on  the  Moabite  Stone,  (1870,)  etc. 

Noldius,  nol'de-Os,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  divine 
and  biblical  writer,  born  in  Scania  in  1626;  died  in  1683. 

Noli,  da,  di  no'lee,  (Antonio,)  sometimes  called 
Uso  Dl  Mare,  (oo'so  de  mi'ri,)  a  Genoese  navigator  in 
the  service  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  made  a  voyage 
to  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  where  he  discovered  the 
Cape  Verd  Islands.  Having  joined  the  fleet  of  Cada- 
mosto,  they  pursued  their  discoveries  together.  Noli 
also  accompanied  Cadamosto  in  his  second  voyage,  in 
1456. 

See  Baron  Humboldt,  "  Histoire  de  la  Geographie  du  nouveau 
Continent;"  Walckenaer,  "  Histoire  generale  des  Voyages." 

Nolin,  no'ldN',  (Denis,)  a  French  biblical  critic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1648;  died  in  1710. 

Nolin,  (Jea.n  Baptisie,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1657  ;  died  in  1725. 

Nol'le-kens,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  English  sculptor, 
born  in  London  in  1737,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Francis, 
noticed  below.  In  1760  he  visited  Rome,  where  he  re- 
sided many  years  and  executed  several  works  of  great 
merit.  Among  these  were  busts  of  Garrick  and  Sterne, 
and  a  group  representing  "Timocleus  and  Alexander." 
After  his  return  he  was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician,  in 
1772.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  making  portrait- 
busts,  and  was  extensively  patronized  by  the  nobility  and 
the  fashionable  world.    His  monument  to  Mrs.  Howard, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  j^,  shoii;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m5t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NOLLEKENS 


1829 


NOORT 


at  Corby  Castle,  and  his  statue  of  Venus,  are  ranked 
among  his  master-pieces.  Nollekens  was  noted  for  his 
parsimony,  and  amassed  a  large  fortune.  Died  in  1823. 
See  J.  T.  Smith,  "Nollekens  and  liis  Times,"  1829;  Cunning- 
Ham,  "  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Nollekens,  nol'leh-kens,  (Joseph  Francis,)  a  Flem- 
ish landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1690,  set- 
tled in  London,  where  he  died  in  1748. 

NoUet,  no'li',  (Dominick,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Bruges  in  1640  ;  died  in  1736. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flaniands." 

NoUet,  no'li',  (Jean  Antoine,)  Akh^,  an  eminent 
French  philosopher,- born  at  Pinipre,  in  the  diocese  of 
Noyon,  in  1700.  On  leaving  college  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  natural  philosophy  and  co-operated 
with  M,  Dufay  in  electrical  experiments.  In  1739  he 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  repeated 
his  experiments  before  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  Turin. 
He  published  in  1743  the  first  part  of  his  "  Lectures  on 
Experimental  Physics,"  ("  Le9ons  de  Physique  experi- 
mentale,")  the  clearest  and  most  methodical  work  that 
had  appeared  on  that  subject.  In  this  he  gave  the  first 
populfiT  explanation  of  Newton's  discoveries  in  light. 
He  obtained  by  the  favour  of  the  king  the  chair  of  ex- 
perimental philosophy  in  the  College  of  Navarre  in  1756, 
and  a  brevet  of  master  of  philosophy  and  natural  history 
to  the  princes-royal.  He  published  "Researches  on  the 
Causes  of  Electric  Phenomena,"  {1749,)  and  an  "  Essay 
on  the  Electricity  of  Bodies,"  (1750.)    Died  in  1770. 

See  "  Necrologe  des  Hommes  celebres  de  France;"  "  Nouvell? 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Nolpe,  nol'peh,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1601.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  thf 
"Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  after  Rubens. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaiie  des  Graveurs." 

Nolten,  nol'ten,  (Lat.  Nolte'nius,]  (Johann  Ar- 
nold,) a  German  theologian,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1683 ; 
died  in  1740. 

Nolten  or  Nolte,  nol'teh,  (Johann  Friedrich  )  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Limbeck  in  1694.  He  ptib- 
lished  "Lexicon  Latinas  Linguae  Antibarbarum,"  (1740.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Nolten,  (Rudolph  August,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1703,  published  "  On  the  Genuine  Sources 
of  Russian  History,"  ("  De  genuinis  Historiae  Russica: 
Fontibus,"  1739,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1752. 

See  Ballenstadt,  "Vita  Noltenii,"  1753. 

Noltenius.    See  Nolten. 

Nolting  or  Noelting,  nol'ting,  (Johann  IIeinrich 
Vincenz,)  a  distinguished  scholar  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Schwarzenbek,  in  Denmark,  in  1735.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Hamburg. 
Died  in  1806. 

Nominoe,  no-min'o-i',  written  also  Nomenoi,  an 
Armorican  chief,  who  became  King  of  Bretagne,  was 
born  about  790  or  800  A. D.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
the  Bretons  by  the  emperor  Louis  le  Debonnaire  in  826 
A.D.  After  the  death  of  Louis,  (840,)  he  raised  the 
standard  of  independence,  and  defeated  Charles  the 
Bald,  who  led  an  army  to  reduce  him  to  subjection. 
Died  in  851. 

See  A.  DE  CouRSON,  "  Histoire  des  Peuples  Bretons,"  1846 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Nomsz,  nomz,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1738.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
epic  poem  on  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  (1779,)  and 
tragedies  entitled  "  Maria  van  Lalain,"  "Zoroaster,"  and 
"Duchess  de  Coralli."  The  first  of  these  dramas  was 
very  popular.     Died  in  1803. 

See  Dk  Vries,  "  Histoire  de  la  Po^sie  Hollandaise." 

Noniua    See  Nunez. 

No'nI-us,  (Marcellus,)  a  Roman  grammarian  of  the 
fourth  century,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  De  Proprietate 
Sermonis,"  which  is  valued  for  the  passages  it  contains 
from  Latin  writers  not  extant. 

Nonnos.    See  Nonnus. 

Nonnotte,  no'not',  (Claude  Franqois,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Besan9on  in  171 1,  published,  besides 
other  books  of  little  merit,  a  work  entitled  "  Errors  of 
Voltaire,"  (2  vols.,  1762,)  which  elicited  several  bitter 
rejoinders  from  that  writer.     Died  in  1793. 


Nonnotte,  (Donat,)  a  French  painter,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Besan^on  in  1707  ;  died  in  1785- 

Non'nua  or  Nonuos,  [Noi^of,]  a  Greek  poet,  who 
lived  about  410  a.d.,  was  a  native  of  Panopolis,  in  Egypt, 
and  probably  a  Christian.  His  only  extant  works  are 
a  "  Paraphrase  of  Saint  John,"  and  a  lung  poem  en- 
titled "  Dionysiaca,"  or  the  History  of  Bacchus.  It  is 
bombastic  in  style,  and  is  chiefly  valued  for  the  infor 
mation  it  contams  on  mythological  subjects  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere. 

See  Weichert,  "  Dissertatio  de  Nonno,"  iSio;  S.  Uwarrow, 
"  Nonnos  von  Panopolis,"  1817;  A.  F.  Naeke,  "De  Nonno  Imi- 
tatore  Horaeri,"  1S35. 

Nonnus  or  No'nus,  (Theophanes,)  a  Greek  phy 
sician  of  the  tenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  com 
pendium  of  Medicine,  ("Compendium  totius  Artis 
Medicae,")  which  he  dedicated  to  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  Porphyrogenitus. 

See  Freind,  "  History  of  Physic ;"  Hali.er,  "  Bibliotheca 
Medica,"  etc. 

Noodt,  not,  (Geraert,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
jurists  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1647.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Franeker,  (1679,) 
Utrecht,  (1684,)  and  Leyden,  (1686.)  He  was  also  rector 
of  the  University  of  Leyden.  Among  his  principal 
works,  which  are  written  in  elegant  Latin,  we  may  name 
his  "Probabilia  Juris  Civilis,"  (1674-79,)  and  "On  the 
Rights  of  Sovereign  Power,"  ("De  Jure  Summi  Iip 
peril,"  etc.,  1707.)     Died  in  1725. 

See  Barbevrac,  "  Historica  Vita  Auctoris  Narratio,"  prefixedi>- 
the  collected  works  of  Noodt,  1 735. 

Nooms,  noms,  (Remi,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter  and 
engraver,  surnamed  Zeeman,  ("  Seaman,")  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1612;  died  about  1672. 

Noor-ed-Deen,  Nour-Eddyn,  Noureddin,  or 
Nureddiu,  noor-eddeen',  ("  Light  of  the  Faith,") 
(Mahmood-  (Mahmoud-  or  Mahmud-)  Malek-al- 
Adel,  mSn'mood'  mai'dk-al-i'del,*)  a  celebrated  Sultan 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  was  born  at  Damascus  in  11 16.  In 
1 146  he  successfully  opposed  the  attempts  of  Louis  VII. 
of  France  and  other  crusading  princes  to  recapture 
Edessa  and  possess  themselves  of  Damascus,  which, 
after  he  had  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Syria,  he 
made  the  capital  of  his  dominions.  He  took  advantage 
of  the  dissensions  which  agitated  Egypt  in  1163  to  es- 
tablish his  power  in  that  country,  where  he  appointed 
his  general  Shirakoh  governor  in  1168.  The  most  im- 
portant event  in  the  subsequent  part  of  Noor-ed-Deen's 
reign  was  the  extirpation  of  the  Sheeah  heresy  in  Egypt. 
Noor-ed-Deen  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  virtuous 
of  Oriental  rulers,  and  his  piety  and  integrity  made  him 
the  idol  of  his  subjects,  who  gave  him  the  surname  of 
"  Light  of  the  Faith."     Died  in  1173. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "Histoire  des  Croisades;"  Guillaume  de  Tvr, 
"  Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Noor-ed-Deen,  Noureddin,  or  Nureddin,  (Ma- 
lek-al-Mansoor,  mil'^k-al-mdn'sooR',)  second  Sultan 
of  the  dynasty  of  Tartar  Mamelukes  in  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father  Ibek  in  1257.  He  was  deposed  at  the  end  of 
two  years,  on  account  of  his  youth  and  inexperience,  and 
the  Emir  Kotuz  ruled  in  his  stead. 

Noor-eddin,  Nour-eddin,  or  Nureddin,  (Arslau 
Shah,  ars-lan'  shih,)  Prince  of  Mesopotamia,  was  grand- 
nephew  of  the  celebrated  Noor-ed-Deen,  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  1193.  He  governed  with  wisdom  and 
ability,  and  recovered  much  of  the  power  of  which  his 
family  had  been  deprived.     Died  in  1210. 

Noort,  van,  vtn  noRt,  sometimes  written  Oort, 
(Adam,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1557,  was  a  son  of  Lambert,  noticed  below.  He  was  a 
good  colorist.  His  habits  were  intemperate.  He  was 
the  master  of  Rubens,  who  expressed  a  high  opinion  of 
his  talents.     Died  in  1641. 

See  Wbverman,  "  De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Noort,  van,  (Lamisert,  )  a  Flemish  painter  and 
architect,  born  at  Amersfoort  in  1520.  He  settled  at 
Antwerp,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Ant- 
werp in  1547. 

Noort,  van,  (Oliver,)  the  first  Dutch  navigator  who 
sailed  around  the  world,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1568. 


•  Malek-el-Adel  signifies  "  the  Noble  King." 


€  as  /&,•  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/";  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23. 1 


NOOSHRUTTEE 


1830 


NORMANBY 


An  account  of  his  voyage,  published  in  1602,  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.     Died  after  161 1. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nooshruttee,  or  Nusrati,  noosh'rut'tee,  a  Brahman 
poet,  who  lived  at  the  court  of  Alee  Shah  at  Bijapoor. 
He  wrote  the  "Rose-Garden  of  Love,"  (in  Urdu,  "Gul- 
shan  i  Ishq,")  a  romance,  and  a  very  long  poem  called 
*' Alinamah." 

Noot,  van,  vtn  not,  (Hendrik  Nikolaas,)  leader 
of  the  Belgian  revolution  of  178S,  was  born  at  Brussels 
in  1750.  The  revolt  against  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
being  suppressed  in  1790,  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  country.     Died  in  1827. 

See  Dkwez,  "Histoire  de  la  Belgiqiie." 

Noowairee  or  Nouwairi,  noo-wl'ree.  written  also 
Nowairi  and  Nuwayri,  an  eminent  Arabian  historian 
Dnd  scholar,  born  in  Egypt  about  1283.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  valuable  work  on  history,  chronology,  moral 
philosophy,  and  natural  science. 

See  Haji-Khalfa,  "  Bibliographic  Lexicon." 

Nop,  nop,  (Gerrit,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1570. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  ett 

Nor.     See  NoRVi. 

Nor-ba'nus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  general,  was  tribune 
of  the  people  in  95  u.c,  and  praetor  in  Sicily  about 
the  year  90.  In  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and  Marius 
he  was  a  partisan  of  the  latter.  He  became  consul  in 
"iT^  B.C.,  and  commanded  an  army  which  was  defeated 
by  Sulla  in  Campania.     He  killed  himself  about  81  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "  De  Oraiore." 

Norberg.     See  Nordberg. 

Norberg,  noR'b&RG,  (Matthias,)  a  Swedish  Orien- 
talist, born  in  1747,  became  professor  of  the  Oriental 
languages  at  Lund.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Re- 
ligion and  Language  of  the  Sabaeans,"  (1780,)  in  Latin, 
and  other  learned  works.     Died  in  1826. 

See  LiNDFORS,  "Memoria  M.  Norberg,"  1832;  LindgrAn,  "  Me- 
moria  M.  Norberg,"  1S32. 

Norbert,  PfeRE.  See  Parisot,  (Pierre.) 
Nor'bert,  [Fr.  pron.  noR'bain',]  Saint,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Santen,  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Magdeburg  in  1126.  He  had  founded  in  1 120  a  religious 
association  at  Premontre,  in  the  diocese  of  Laon,  since 
celebrated  as  the  order  of  the  Premonstrants.  He  died 
in  1134,  and  was  canonized  by  Gregory  XHL  in  15S2. 
See  Hugo.  "Vie  de  Saint- Norbert,"  1704;  "Gallia  Christiana." 

Norblin,  noR'bliN',  (Sebastian  Louis  William,) 
son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1796,  and 
studied  painting  under  Regnault.  He  produced  a  num- 
ber of  historical  pictures.  He  gained  the  first  prize  in 
Paris  in  1825. 

Norblin  de  la  Gourdaine,  noR'bl^N'  deh  It  gooR'- 
din',  (Je.'VN  Pierre,)  a  skilful  French  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  near  Montereau  in  1745,  worked  in  Warsaw^ 
♦rom  1774  to  1804.     Died  in  1830. 

Norbury,  Lord.     See  Toler. 

Nordberg,  noRd'b^Rg,  or  Norberg,  noR'bSRg. 
(GicoRG,)  a  Swedish  historian,  and  chaplain  to  Charles 
XH.  of  Sweden,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1677.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  Charles  XII.,"  (2  vols., 
1740,)  which,  though  unattractive  in  style,  is  valued  for 
its  accuracy.     Died  in  1744. 

Norden,  noR'den,  (Frederick  Louis,)  a  Danish  artist 
and  writer,  born  at  Gliickstadt  in  1708.  Having  studied 
in  Italy,  he  was  sent  by  the  government  in  1737  to  de- 
scribe and  copy  the  monuments  of  Egypt.  After  his 
return  he  entered  the  English  service,  and  fought  against 
Spain  in  the  campaign  of  1740.  He  died  in  1742,  leav- 
ing "  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,"  which  were  published 
in  French,  (2  vols.,  1755.)  This  work,  containing  one 
hundred  and  fifty-nine  plates,  was  translated  into  Eng 
lish  and  German. 

See  Meuskl,  "  Bibliotheca  Historica :"  Kraft  og  Nverup. 
"Litteraturlexicon;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1756. 

Nor'den,  (John,)  an  English  engraver  and  writen 
born  in  Wiltshire  about  1548.  He  published  the  "  Spe 
culum  Britanniae,"  etc.,  and  "  The  Surveyor's  Dialogue,' 
(1607.)     Died  about  1626. 


Nordenflycht,  noR'den-flukt',  (Hedwige  Char- 
LoiTE,)  a  Swedish  authoress,  born  in  1718,  published 
poems  entitled  "  The  Passage  of  the  Belts,"  "Victory 
of  the  Duna,"  "  Sweden  Emancipated,"  ("  Den  fralsa 
Swea,")  and  "An  Apology  for  Women,  against  J.  J. 
Rousseau."     Died  in  1763. 

See  HowiTT,  "  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe  ;" 
RuHS,  "Schicksale  der  schonen  Redekiinste  in  Schweden." 

Nordenskjold,  noR'den-skyold',  (Adolf  Erik,) 
Baron,  a  Swedish  navigator,  born  at  Helsingfors,  in 
Finland,  November  18,  1832.  He  was  educated  in  Fin- 
land, went  in  1857  to  Stockholm,  and  became  a  professor 
of  mineralogy.  He  gained  distincjlion  by  the  success  of 
his  numerous  Arctic  expeditions.  In  the  steamship  Vega 
lie  traversed  (1S78-79)  the  Arctic  Ocean,  going  east- 
wardly  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, — a  feat  never 
before  accomplished.  In  1880  he  was  made  a  baron. 
He  has  published  a  volume  of  "  Letters,"  (1S80,)  besides 
re]5orts  of  his  various  voyages. 

Nord'hofi^  (Charles,)  a  German-American  author, 
born  at  Erwitte,  in  Westphalia,  in  1830.  He  was  brought 
to  the  United  States  in  1835,  and  became  a  resident,  for 
some  time,  of  Cincinnati.  He  worked  as  a  printer,  and 
served  several  years  as  a  sailor,  and  was  for  three  years 
of  the  time  in  the  United  States  navy.  In  1853  he  be- 
came a  journalist.  Among  his  works  are  "Man-of-War 
Life,"  "The  Merchant- Vessel,"  "  Whaling  and  Fishing," 
(1S56,)  "  Freedmen  of  .South  Carolina,"  (1863,)  "Amer- 
ica for  Free  Working  Men,"  (1S65,)  "Cape  Cod  and  All 
Along  Shore,"  (1868,)  "California  for  Health,"  etc., 
(1872,)  "Politics  for  Young  Americans,"  (1875,)  "Com- 
munistic Societies  of  the  United  States,"  (1S75,)  ^"'l 
"  God  and  the  Future  Life."  Many  of  his  books  are 
didactic  and  instructive,  being  specially  intended  for  the 
young. 

Nordin,  noR-deen',  (Karl  Gustaf,)  a  Swedish  prel- 
ate, born  at  Stockholm  in  1749,  became  Bishop  of  Her- 
nosand.     Died  in  1812. 

Nores,  di,  de  no'rSs,  (Giasone,)  born  at  Nicosia,  in 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  became  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy at  Padua.  He  was  the  author  of  several  critical 
and  philosophical  works.     Died  in  1 590. 

Norfolk,  Duke  of.  See  Howard,  (Thomas,)  and 
Howard,  (Charles.) 

Norfolk,  nor'fok,  (Henry  Granville  Fitz  Alan 
Howard,)  Duke  of,  was  born  in  London  in  1815.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  before  the 
death  of  his  father,  (1856.)  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  advocated  the  cause  of  his  fellow-believers  in  Parlia- 
ment.    Died  in  1S60. 

Nor'gate,  (Edward,)  an  English  artist,  celebrated 
for  his  skill  in  illuminating  or  colouring  engravings.  His 
performances  are  highly  commended  by  Fuller.  Died 
in  1650. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies  ;"  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Noris,  no'r^ss,  (Henry,)  a  learned  Italian  theologian, 
of  English  extraction,  was  born  at  Verona  in  1631.  He 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Innocent  XII.  chief  librarian 
of  the  Vatican,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1695.  ^^ 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Pelagianism,"  and  several  valuable 
antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1704. 

Noris,  (Matteo,)  a  prolific  Italian  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  Venice  about  1640;  died  about  1710. 

Nor'man-b^,  (Constantine  Henry  Phipps,)  Mar- 
quis of,  an  English  statesman,  son  of  Henry,  first  Earl 
of  Mulgrave,  was  born  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1818  became  a  member  of 
Parliament  for  Scarborough.  He  there  distinguished 
himself  as  the  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation  and 
parliamentary  reform.  In  183 1  he  succeeded  to  the  title 
of  Earl  Mulgrave,  and  in  1832  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Jamaica.  He  became  lord  privy  seal  in  1834,  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1835,  and  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  home  department  from  1839  to  1841.  He 
received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Normanby  in  1838. 
He  was  subsequently  employed  on  embassies  to  France 
and  Italy.  He  published  in  1857  "A  Year  of  Revolu- 
tion, from  a  Journal  kept  in  Paris  in  1848."  Lord  Nor- 
manby was  also  the  author  of  novels  entitled  "Matilda," 
(1825,)  and  "The  Contrast."     Died  in  1863. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  i,  h,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  tit;  m^t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


NORMANBY 


1831 


NORTH 


Normanby,  Earl  of.  See  Mulgrave,  (Henry 
Philip  Phipps.) 

Normand.     See  Le  Normand. 

Normand,  noR'mdN',  (Alfred  Nicolas,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Normand,  (Charles  Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
architect  and  engraver,  born  in  the  department  of 
Somme  in  1765.  He  published  several  professional 
works.     Died  in  1840. 

Normand,  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1704;  died  in  1761. 

Normand,  (Louis  Marie,)  a  French  engraver,  a  son 
of  Charles  Pierre  Joseph,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1789.  He  engraved  the  "Marriage  at  Cana," 
after  Paul  Veronese,  and  published  several  illustrated 
works,  among  which  is  *'  Monuments  Fran9ais,"  etc.,  (2 
parts,  1830-47.) 

Nor'man-d5^,  (Alphonse,)  an  English  chemist  and 
writer,  born  about  1810,  was  a  coadjutor  of  Dr.  Ure, 
He  published  a  "  Hand-Book  of  Chemistry,"  and  "The 
Chemical  Atlas,"  and  invented  a  valuable  apparatus  for 
the  distillation  of  aerated  fresh  water  from  sea-water. 
Died  in  1864. 

Nermann,  noR'min,  (Lars,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
at  Strengnas  in  165  L  He  became  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Upsal  in  1681,  and  in  1703  Bishop  of 
Gothenburg.     He  died  the  same  year. 

See  A.  NoRRELius,  "Vita  L.  Normanni,"  1738. 

Normann-Ehrenfels,  noR'mSn  a'ren-f?ls',  (Karl 
Friedrich  Lebrecht,)  son  of  the  following,  was  born 
in  1784.  He  entered  the  French  service,  and  held  a 
command  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812.  He  after- 
wards fought  for  the  Greeks  in  1822,  and  had  a  share 
in  the  victory  of  Kombotti.     Died  in  November,  1822. 

Normann-Ehrenfels,  (Philipp  Christian,)  Count, 
a  distinguished  statesman,  born  in  Swedish  Pomerania 
in  1756,  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Charles  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  He  rose  to  be  minister  of  state  in  1802,  and  was 
created  a  count  in  1806.     Died  in  1807. 

Normant,  noR'mSw',  (Alexis,)  an  eloquent  French 
advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1697  ;  died  in  1745. 

Normant,  (Antoine,)  a  benevolent  French  manu- 
facturer, born  at  Romorantin  in  1783.  He  was  propri- 
etor of  a  large  manufactory  of  cloth  at  Romorantin. 
Died  in  1849. 

Norn  or  Noma.     See  Nornas. 

Nor'nas  or  Norns,  sometimes  called  in  the  English 
plural  Nor'nies,  [Norse  plural,  Nornir,*]  three  virgins, 
called  Urd,  (Urdr,  or  Urda,)  Verdandi,  and  Skuld,  (or 
Skulld,) — the  Past,  the  Present,  and  the  Future, — who 
preside  over  the  destiny  of  men  and  gods.  They  corre- 
spond to  the  Parcae  (MoZpa«)  of  classic  mythology. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Kkvser,  "ReligioB 
of  the  Nortlimen." 

Nornies,  an  English  plural  form  of  NoRNA  or  Norn 
See  NoRNAS. 

Norns.     See  Nornas. 

Norona,  no-r6n'ya,  (Caspar  Maria  de  Nava  Al- 
varez,) a  Spanish  soldier  and  poet,  born  at  Castellon 
de  la  Plana  in  1760,  served  against  the  French  republic, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  pub- 
lished an  epic  poem  entitled  "  La  Ommiada,"  an  ode  on 
the  death  of  the  poet  Cadalso,  who  fell,  while  fighting 
by  his  side,  at  Gibraltar,  and  a  number  of  lyrics.  Died 
in  18 16. 

Noronha,  no-RAn'yS,  (Affonso,)  a  Portuguese  cap- 
tain, born  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a  nephew  of 
Albuquerque.  He  captured  Socotora  in  1508.  Died  in 
India  in  1540. 

See  Faria  v  Souza,  "  Asia  Portugueza." 

Nor'ris,  (Edwin,)  an  English  ethnologist  and  linguist, 
born  at  Taunton  in  1795.  He  was  appointed  in  1847 
translator  to  the  foreign  office,  and  in  1856  principal  sec- 
retary to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  He  contributed 
valuable  treatises  to  the  "Transactions"  of  that  society 
and  to  the  "  Penny  Cyclopasdia."  He  was  also  editor 
of  the  "  Ethnographical  Library."     Died  Dec.  10,  1872. 


•  The  etymology  is  unknown.     "The  word  Norn,"  says  Thorpe, 
'does  not  occur  in  any  kindred  dialect." 


Norris,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  general,  was  a  son  of 
Lord  Norris  of  Rycot.  He  was  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  sent  him  in  1585  to 
assist  the  Dutch  in  their  war  against  the  Spaniards. 
His  skill  and  bravery  were  conspicuous  in  the  principal 
campaigns,  and  he  won  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
best  English  soldiers  of  the  time. 

See  Motley,  "  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap,  vi.,  and  vol.  iL 
chap.  xiii. 

Norris,  (John,)  an  English  philosopher  and  mystical 
divine,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1657.  He  was  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  an  admirer  of  Plato, 
who  was  his  favourite  author.  About  1690  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  Bemerton,  near  Salisbury.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  Malebranche.  He  published  "An  Idea  of 
Happiness,"  (1683,)  "The  Theory  and  Regulation  of 
Love,"  (1688,)  and  other  works  on  religion  and  philoso- 
phy. His  principal  philosophical  work  is  "An  Essay 
towards  the  Theory  of  the  Ideal  or  Intelligible  World, 
(2  vols.,  1701HD4,)  in  which  he  develops  the  system  of 
Malebranche  and  controverts  the  opinions  of  Locke. 
Died  in  1711. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Norris,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  naval  ofticer  of  high 
rank,  entered  the  navy  in  1689.  He  was  called  Foul- 
Weather  J.A.CK.     Died  in  1749. 

Norris,  (John,)  born  in  Norfolk  in  1734,  bequeathed 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge  one  hundred  and  ninety 
pounds  per  annum  for  the  endowment  of  a  divinity 
professorship  and  prize  essay  which  bear  his  name. 
Died  in  1777. 

Norris,  (John  Pilkington,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Chester,  June  10,  1823.  He  was  educated  at 
Rugby,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  graduating 
in  1846.  He  took  orders  in  the  English  Church  in  1850. 
In  1865  he  became  a  canon-residentiary  of  Bristol,  and 
in  1877  a  rural  dean.  Among  his  works  are  "A  Trans- 
lation of  Demosthenes  De  Corona,"  (1849,)  "On  the 
Education  of  the  People,"  (1S69,)  "  Key  to  the  Gospels," 
(1869,)  "Key  to  the  Acts,"  (1870,)  "New  Testament, 
with  Notes,"  (1880-81,)  etc.  He  also  edited  the  "  Studia 
Sacra"  of  John  Keble. 

Norris,  (Robert,)  an  English  traveller,  visited  Daho- 
mey, and  other  parts  of  Western  Africa,  of  which  he 
published  an  account  in  1789.     Died  in  1792. 

See  Walckenaer,  "  Histoire  gen^rale  des  Voyages." 

Norry,  no're',  (Charles,)  a  French  architect,  born 
near  Paris  in  1756,  accompanied  the  scientific  expedition 
to  Egypt,  and  published  in  1799  a  description  of  some 
of  the  monuments  of  that  country.     Died  in  1832. 

North,  (Christopher.)    See  Wilson,  (John.) 

North,  (Dudley,)  Lord,  an  English  writer  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  1 581,  was  an  adherent  of  the  Parliament 
during  the  civil  war.  He  died  in  1666,  leaving  a  collec- 
tion of  poems  and  prose  works. 

North,  (Dudley,)  Lord,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1604,  wrote  the  "Life  of  Edward,  Lord  North,"  and 
several  other  works.     Died  in  1677. 

See  R.  North,  "Lives  of  the  Norths." 

North,  (Sir  Dudley,)  an  English  merchant  and  able 
financier,  born  in  1641,  was  a  brother  of  Lord-Keeper 
Guildford.  In  his  youth  he  passed  many  years  in  mer- 
cantile pursuits  at  Smyrna  and  Constantinople.  Having 
acquired  wealth,  he  returned  home,  (1680,)  and  became 
a  London  merchant.  "  He  had  meditated  deeply  on  the 
philosophy  of  trade,"  says  Macaulay,  "and  thought  out, 
by  degrees,  a  complete  and  admirable  theory,"  substan- 
tially the  same  as  that  of  Adam  Smith.  He  was  chosen 
a  commissioner  of  customs  and  of  the  treasury,  and 
elected  to  Parliament.  About  1685  he  was  the  person 
on  whom  the  lord  treasurer  chiefly  relied  for  the  conduct 
of  financial  business  in  the  lower  House.  He  wrote  a 
"Voyage  from  Smyrna,  with  an  Account  of  Turkey." 
Died  in  1691. 

See  Roger  North,  "Life  of  Sir  Dudley  North,"  1740-42. 

North,  (Sir  Edward,)  a  distinguished  English  lawyei 
under  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Queen  Mary.  Died 
in  1564. 

North,  (Francis,)  Baron  Guildford  or  Guilford,  com- 
monly styled  Lord-Keeper  Guilford,  was  the  son  of 


c  as  j6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  i).  23. ) 


NORTH 


1832 


NOR  THUMBERLA  ND 


Lord  Dudley  North,  and  was  born  in  1637.  About  1655 
he  entered  as  a  student  the  Middle  Temple.  Soon  after 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  he  went  on  the  Norfolk  circuit, 
wliere  his  family  interest  lay,  and  relied  for  success  on 
sycophantic  arts.  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general 
in  1671,  attorney-general  in  1673,  and  chief  justice  of  the 
common  pleas  in  1675.  He  was  the  obsequious  servant 
of  the  court,  and  an  ultra-royalist,  or  Tory,  in  politics. 
"He  was  a  party,"  says  Macaulay,  "to  some  of  the 
foulest  judicial  murders  recorded  in  our  history."  In 
16S2  he  obtained  the  great  seal,  with  the  title  of  lord 
keeper.  On  the  accession  of  James  H.  (February,  1685) 
the  great  seal  was  left  in  his  custody,  but  he  was  super- 
seded in  his  political  functions  by  his  rival.  Lord  Jeffreys. 
Lord  Guilford  died  in  September,  16S5,  leaving  his  title 
to  his  son  Francis. 

See  Roger  North,  "  Life  of  Francis  North  ;"  Lord  Campbell, 
"  Lives  of  the  Lord  Ch.incellors  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  voL  u., 
(1820  :)  Macaulay.  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap,  li 

North,  (Frederick,)  second  Earl  of  Guildford,  an 
English  Tory  statesman,  better  known  as  Lord  North, 
was  born  in  1733.  He  was  a  son  of  Francis,  Earl  of 
Guildford,  who  died  in  1790,  and  was  a  great-grandson 
of  the  lord  keeper  of  that  name.  Li  1763  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury.  He  became  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1769.  He  was  a  successful  debater,  and,  on  account 
of  his  wit  and  suavity  of  temper,  a  great  favourite  with 
the  House.  He  also  gained  the  extraordinary  favour  of 
the  king  by  his  readiness  to  accept  the  responsibility 
of  prime  minister  in  the  emergency  which  arose  on  the 
resignation  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton  in  1770.  The  prin- 
cipal event  of  his  administration  was  the  American  war, 
which  he  prosecuted  with  great  pertinacity.  Though 
fiercely  assailed  by  Burke,  Fox,  and  Lord  Chatham,  he 
maintained  his  power  with  eminent  tact  and  ability,  and 
was  supported  by  large  majorities  in  the  House,  until 
March,  1782,  when  he  resigned,  after  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis  had  terminated  the  American  war.  He  re- 
tained, however,  the  royal  favour  until  he  entered  into 
the  ill-omened  coalition  with  Fox  against  the  Shelburne 
ministry.  In  March,  1783,  Lord  North  became  secretary 
of  state  in  the  coalition  ministry  of  which  the  Duke  of 
Portland  was  the  nominal  head.  He  was  dismissed  in 
December,  17S3,  when  Pitt  became  premier.  In  1790 
he  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Guildford.  Died  in  1792. 
"  As  a  statesman,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "  his  merits 
are  confessedly  far  inferior  to  those  which  clothed  him 
as  a  debater  and  a  man.  The  American  war  is  the  great 
blot  on  his  fame." 

See  Lord  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  theTime  of  George  III.  ;" 
Macaulay,  "Essays,"  article  "Chatham;"  Lodge,  "  Portraits  of 
Illustrious  Personages." 

North,  (George,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1710,  published  several  treatises  on  numis- 
matics.    Died  in  1772. 

North,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  son  of  Lord  Dudley  North, 
was  born  in  1645.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Cambridge,  and  published  editions  of  several  works  of 
Plato.     Died  in  1683. 

See  Roger  North,  "  Life  of  John  North." 

North,  (Roc.ER,)  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Dudley 
North,  and  a  brother  of  Sir  Dudley  North,  was  born 
about  1650.  He  studied  law,  and  became  steward  of  the 
courts  to  Archbishop  Sheldon.  He  was  author  of  several 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  is  "  The  Lives  of 
Francis  North,  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  Sir 
Dudley  North,  and  Rev.  John  North,"  (1740-42.)  This 
is  written  in  an  affected,  pedantic  style,  but  contains 
valuable  matter.     Died  in  1733. 

See  Roger  North,  "  Lives  of  the  Norths." 

North,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  translated 
"The  Dial  of  Princes"  from  the  French,  and  the  "  Moral 
Philosophy"  of  Doni  from  the  Italian.  He  also  inade 
the  first  translation  of  Plutarch's  "Lives"  into  English, 
(1579.)  He  died  after  1579. 
Northampton,  Earl  of.     See  Howard,  (Henry.) 

Nor-thamp'ton,  (Spencer  Joshua  Alwyne  Comp- 
TON,)  Makquis  of,  an  English  patron  of  science  and 
literature,  was  born  in  1790.  He  became  president  of 
the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1851. 


North'brook,  (Thomas  George  Baring,)  Earl  of, 
an  English  statesman,  a  son  of  Sir  Francis,  Lord  Baring, 
was  born  in  1826,  and  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, in  1846.  He  was  in  Parliament,  1857-66,  in  1866 
succeeded  to  the  peerage,  and,  after  holding  imnorlant 
offices  under  Mr.  Gladstone,  served  (1872-76)  as  Viceroy 
of  India.  In  1880  he  was  made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
In  1884  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  British  com- 
mission governing  Egypt. 

North'cote,  (James,)  an  English  artist,  celebrated  as 
a  portrait  and  historical  painter,  born  at  Plymouth  in 
1746.  Having  studied  under  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  he 
visited  Italy  in  1777,  and,  after  his  return,  was  made  a 
Royal  Academician.  Among  his  best  producti'  ns  are 
"Hubert  and  Arthur"  and  "The  Murder  of  the  Princes 
in  the  Tower."  He  also  published  "The  Life  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,"  (1813,)  and  several  able  treatises  on 
Art.     Died  in  1831. 

Northcote,  (Sir  Stafford,)  an  English  conservative 
politician,  born  in  London  in  1818.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  trade  in  1866,  secretary  for  India  in 
1867,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under  Disraeli  in 
1874.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1875.     Died  January  12,  1887. 

North'end,  (Charles,)  an  American  educator,  born 
at  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  April  2,  1814.  He  was 
educated  at  Amherst  College,  and  attained  distinction  as 
a  teacher.  He  published  "Teacher  and  Parent,"  and 
"The  Teacher's  Assistant,"  besides  various  compila- 
tions, including  a  series  of  school-books,  ("The  National 
Orator,"  "  Little  Speaker,"  etc.) 

Northington,  Lord.     See  Henley,  (Robert.) 

Nor-thum'ber-land,  (  Algernon  Percy,  )  tenth 
Earl  of,  born  in  1602,  was  a  son  of  Henry,  ninth  earl. 
He  was  lord  high  admiral  under  Charles  I.  Died  in  1668, 

Northumberland,  (Algernon  Percy,)  Duke  of, 
a  British  peer,  born  in  1792.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
his  youth,  and  served  against  the  French.  In  1S47  he 
inherited  the  dukedom  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Henry. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  about  1850.  Died 
in  1865. 

Northumberland,  Duke  of.  See  Dudley,  (John.) 

Northumberland,  (Henry  Percy,)  first  Earl  of, 
an  English  commander,  was  a  son  of  Henry  Percy.  His 
mother  was  Mary,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lancaster, 
and  a  great-granddaughter  of  King  Henry  HI.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Wycliffe,  the  Reformer.  In  1377  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Northumberland  by  Richard  II.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  of  the  revolution  which 
raised  Henry  IV.  to  the  throne  in  1399.  In  1402  Percy 
defeated  the  Scotch  under  Douglas  at  Homildon  Hill. 
He  united  with  his  son  Hotspur  in  rebellion  against  the 
king  in  1403,  and  was  killed  in  battle  in  1408. 

Northumberland,  (Henry  Percy,)  second  Earl 
OF,  was  a  son  of  Hotspur.  He  succeeded  his  grand- 
father, the  first  earl,  in  1408,  and  was  restored  to  the 
earldom  by  Henry  V.  In  the  civil  war  of  the  Roses  he 
fought  for  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Saint  Alban's,  in  1455.  ^^'^  son,  the  third  earl, 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Towton,  in  1460. 

Northumberland,  (Henry  Percy,)  ninth  Earl  of, 
surnamed  THE  Wizard,  born  in  1563,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  the  eighth  earl,  who  died  in  the  Tower  in  1585. 
He  commanded  a  ship  in  the  battle  against  the  Invin- 
cible Armada  in  1588.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Thomas 
Percy,  an  accomplice  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  (1605,) 
and,  although  the  earl  himself  was  a  Protestant,  he  was 
confined  many  years  in  the  Tower  on  suspicion.  He 
acquired  the  appellation  of  "  Wizard"  by  his  study  of 
occult  sciences  in  prison.     Died  in  1632. 

See  Lodge,  "  Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages ;"  Clarendon, 
"History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Northumberland,  (Hugh  Percy,)  Duke  of,  born 
in  1742,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Hugh  Smithson,  who  was  au- 
thorized to  take  the  name  of  Percy.  He  entered  the 
army,  served  at  Bunker  Hill,  (i775.)  a"d  gained  the  rank 
of  general.  In  1786  he  inherited  the  title  of  duke.  Died 
in  1817. 

See  HoRKE,  "Peerage;"  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1817. 

Northumberland,  (Hugh  Percy,)  Duke  of,  son 
of  the   preceding,  was  born  in  1785,  and  inherited  his 


i,  e,  T,  t"),  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  vi,  ^, short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  nbt;  gS&d;  m65n; 


NORTON 


1833 


NOSTRADAMUS 


father's  title  in  1517.  He  favoured  the  Tory  party.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  science,  and  was  much  interested 
in  botany  and  horticulture.     Died  in  1847. 

Noi'tpn,  (Andrews,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  Hingliam,  Massachusetts, 
in  1786.  He  graduated  in  1804  at  Harvard  College,  and 
in  1813  succeeded  Dr.  Channing  as  biblical  lecturer  in 
that  instituticn.  He  filled  the  chair  of  Dexter  ])rofessor 
of  sacred  literature  at  Harvard  from  1819  till  1830.  His 
most  important  work  is  entitled  "Evidences  of  the  Gen- 
uineness of  the  Gospels,"  (3  vols.,  1837-44.)  He  was 
for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  General  Repository  and  Re- 
view," published  at  Cambridge,  and  contributed  many 
able  articles  to  the  religious  and  literary  periodicals  of 
the  time.  Among  these  may  be  named  articles  on 
"  Franklin"  and  "  Byron,"  in  the  "North  American  Re- 
view." In  his  theological  views  Dr,  Norton  was  a 
Unitarian  of  the  conservative  school.  He  married  a 
daughtei  of  Samuel  Eliot,  of  Boston.  Died  at  Newport 
in  1853.  He  left  a  "Translation  of  the  Gospels,"  pub- 
Jished  in  1856.  "He  disjjlayed," says  R.  W.  Griswold, 
"exact  and  comprehensive  learning  and  a  style  singu- 
larly clear,  compact,  and  beautiful."  ("Prose  Writers 
of  America.")  He  also  wrote  poems  which  were  much 
admired. 

Norton,  (Asahel  Strong,)  an  American  minister, 
born  at  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in  1766.  He  preached 
At  Clinton,  New  York,  for  many  years.     Died  in  1853. 

Norton,  (Charles  Eliot,)  an  American  author,  a  sor> 
of  Andrews  Norton,  already  noticed,  was  born  at  Cam 
bridge,  Massachusetts,  November  16,  1827.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1S46,  visited  India,  travelling 
extensively  in  the  East,  was  an  editor  of  the  "North 
American  Review,"  1864-68,  and  became  professor  of 
art  history  in  Harvard  College  in  1874.  Among  his 
works  are  "Notes  of  Travel  and  Study  in  Italy,"  (i860,) 
"The  New  Life  of  Dante,"  (1867,)  "Church-Building  in 
the  Middle  Ages  in  Italy,"  (1880,)  etc. 

Nor'ton,  (Caroline  Elizaheth  Sarah,)  an  emi- 
nent English  writer,  born  in  1808,  was  a  granddaughter 
of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan.  She  received  a  superior 
education,  and  in  her  seventeenth  year  wrote  a  volume 
of  poetry  entitled  "The  Sorrows  of  Rosalie,"  which  was 
published  anonymously,  (1829.)  In  1827  she  was  mar- 
ried to  the  Hon.  George  Chappie  Norton ;  but  this 
union  proved  most  unfortunate,  and  a  divorce  took 
place  between  the  parties  in  1836.  She  had  published 
in  1830  her  poem  of  "The  Undying  One,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour.  It  was  succeeded  by  "A 
Voice  from  the  Factories,"  (1836,)  "The  Dream,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1840,)  "  The  Child  of  the  Islands,"  (1845,) 
and  "Aunt  Carry's  Ballads,"  (1847.)  ^he  also  wrote  a 
romance,  entitled  "Stuart  of  Dunleith,"  (1847,)  and 
"Tales  and  Sketches  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1850,)  many 
of  which  are  remarkable  for  their  fidelity  to  nature, 
pathos,  and  intensity  of  feeling.  Among  her  more  recent 
works  are  a  "  Letter  to  the  Queen  on  Lord  Cranworth's 
Marriage  and  Divorce  Bill,"  (1855,)  "Lives  of  the  Sheri- 
dans,"  "Lady  of  La  Garaye,"  (1861,)  and  "Lost  and 
Saved,"  (1863.)  Mrs.  Norton  is  described  by  Mrs.  Sedg- 
wick, in  her  "  Letters  from  Abroad,"  as  the  perfection 
of  intellectual  and  physical  beauty,  uniting  masculine 
force  with  feminine  delicacy.  Died  June  15,  1877.  Her 
second  husband  was  Sir  W.  Stirling-Maxwell. 

See  MoiR,  "  Sketches  of  the  Poetical  Literature  of  the  Past  Half- 
Centiiry,"  1S51  ;  Rowton,  "  Female  Poets  of  Great  Britain,"  (with 
a  portrait;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1S31  ;  "Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  September,  1840,  and  June,  1845  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine" 
for  September,  1S30. 

Norton,  (Lady  Frances,)  an  English  moralist  and 
writer,  born  about  1650,  was  the  wife  of  Sir  George 
Norton.  She  wrote  "  Memento  Mori,"  and  "The  Ap- 
plause of  Virtue,"  (1705.)    Died  in  1720. 

See  Pkudhomme,  "  Biogrnphie  des  Femmes  c^l^bres." 

Norton,  (John,)  an  English  writer  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  published  a  work  entitled  "  The  Scholar's  Vade- 
Mecum." 

Norton,  (John  )  a  learned  Puritan  divine  and  theo- 
logical writer,  bom  in  Hertfordshire,  England,  in  1606, 
emigrated  in  1635  to  America,  and  became  a  minister  at 
Boston.     Died  in  1663. 


Norton,  (John  P.,)  an  American  chemist,  was  ])ro- 
fessor  of  agricultural  chemistry  at  Yale  College.  Died 
in  1851. 

Norton,  (Sidney  Augustus,)  an  American  chemist, 
born  at  North  Bloomfield,  Ohio,  January  11,  1835.  He 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1856,  and  studied  at  Bonn, 
Leipsic,  and  Heidelberg.  In  1873  he  became  profes- 
sor of  chemistry  in  the  Ohio  State  University.  His 
works  include  "Natural  Philosophy,"  (1869,)  "  Physics," 
(1875,)  "Inorganic  Chemistry,"  (1878,)  and  "Organic 
Chemistry,"  (1S84.) 

Norton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Calvinistic  writer, 
born  in  Bedfordshire  in  the  sixteenth  century,  published 
some  tracts  against  popery.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
assisted  Sackville  in  his  tragedy  of  "  Ferrex  and  Porrex." 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry  ;"  Ellis,  "Specimens 
of  the  Early  English  Poets." 

Norvi  (nor've)  or  Nor,  written  also  Narfi,  [etymology 

doubtful,]  a  giant  mentioned  in  the  " Edda"  as  the  first 
of  all  the  inhabitants  (jf  Jotunheim.  He  had  a  daughter 
named  Night,  who  was  married  to  Anar  or  Onar.*  The 
offspring  of  this  union  was  the  Earth.  She  afterwards 
became  the  wife  of  Delling  or  Dellinger,  {i.e.  the  "  Dawn,") 
and  bore  to  him  a  bright  and  beautiful  son  called  Day. 
Then  Odin  took  Night  and  Day  and  placed  them  in 
heaven,  and  gave  them  two  horses  and  two  cars,  that 
they  might  journey  in  succession  round  the  world.  Night 
rides  first  with  her  horse,  called  Rimfaxi  or  Ilrimfaxi, 
(hrim-  (or  hreeni-)  fdk'se, — that  is,  "  Frosty-mane,")  who 
every  morning  bedews  the  earth  with  foam  from  his 
bit.  The  horse  of  Day  is  named  Skinfaxi,  (or  "  Shining- 
mane,")  because  his  radiant  mane  sends  forth  the  light 
which  illuminates  heaven  and  earth. 

See  Mallet,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  fable  vi. ;  Thorpe, 
"Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Norvins,  de,  deh  noR'vAw',  (Jacques  Marquet— 
mtk'ki',)  Baron  de  Montbreton,  (m6N'bKeh-t6N',)  a 
French  litteratetir  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1769. 
He  wrote  a  "  Picture  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1819,) 
a  "  History  of  Napoleon,"  (9th  edition,  4  vols.,  1839,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1854. 

Nor'wood,  (Richard,)  an  English  geometer,  who 
lived  about  1630-50,  was  the  author  of  several  treatises 
on  trigonometry,  navigation,  etc.  He  is  chiefly  celebrated 
for  having  been  one  of  the  first  who  measured  a  degree 
of  the  meridian. 

See  HuTTON,  "Mathematical  Dictionary." 

Nosselt  or  Noesselt,  nos's^lt,  (Johann  August,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  at  Halle  in  1734  ;  died  in  1807. 

Nos'sis,  a  Greek  poetess,  born  at  Locris  or  Locri, 
in  Southern  Italy,  flourished  about  310  li.c.  She  wrote 
graceful  epigrams,  twelve  of  which  are  in  the  Greek 
Anthology. 

See  Bentlev,  "Dissertation  upon  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris." 

Nostitz  iind  Janckendorf,  von,  fon  nos'tits  5ont 
ySn'ken-doRf,  (Goitlob  Adolf  Ernst,)  a  German 
poet,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  ARTHUR  VON 
Nordstern,  was  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1765.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Songs  for  Free-Masons,"  "  Christian 
Emblems,"  and  other  ])oems.     Died  in  1836. 

His  son,  Eduard  Gottlob,  rose  through  various 
offices  to  be  minister  of  the  interior  for  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony. 

Nos-tra-da'mus  or  Notre-Dame,  not'R-dtm',  (Mn 
chel,)  a  famous  French  astrologer  and  physician,  of  Jew- 
ish extraction,  born  at  Saint-Remi,  in  Provence,  in  1503, 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  plague  at  Aix  and  Lyons 
(1546-47)  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  from  the  cures 
he  effected  with  a  medicine  of  his  own  invention.  In 
1555  he  published  a  collection  of  prophecies,  (in  verse,) 
entitled  "  Centuries,"  which  caused  a  great  sensation 
and  obtained  for  him  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Cathe- 
rine de  Medicis.  He  was  invited  by  her  to  Paris,  loaded 
with  favours,  and  charged  to  draw  the  horoscope  of  the 
princes,  her  sons.  He  afterwards  became  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  Charles  IX.  He  died  in  1556.  Several  of 
his  predictions  are  said  to  have  been  fulfilled.  Owing  to 


*  Probably  allied  to  the  Anglo  Saxon  an  and  the  Norse  ^/Vir-,  signi- 
fying "origin,"  and  hence,  as  an  adjective,  "original,"  "primeval." 
See  Bosworth's  "  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary." 


€  as  >&;  9  as  s;  g  hai'd;  g  as  ;;  o,  H,  Vi,gnttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NOTA 


1834 


NOUE 


his  having  foretold  the  downfall  of  Romanism,  his  works 
were  interdicted  by  the  pope,  (1781.) 

See  E.  Jaubert,  "Vie  de  M.  Nostradamus,"  1656:  P.J.  dh 
Haitze,  "Vie  de  M.  Nostradamus,"  1712;  "La  Vie  de  Nostra- 
damus," (anonymous,)  Paris,  1789;  E.  Bareste,  "Nostradamus," 
Paris,  1842;  Th.  Houvs,  "Considerations  sur  ies  Sibyles  et  sur 
Nostradamus,"  1S06. 

Nota,  no'ti,  (Alberto,)  an  Italian  dramatist,  born  al 
Turin  in  1775,  was  the  author  of  several  popular  plays 
of  the  class  called  sentimental  comedy.  Among  these 
may  be  named  "The  Duchess  of  La  ValJiere,"  "The 
Widow  in  Solitude,"  and  "  Domestic  Peace."  They 
have  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  have  been 
translated  into  French,  German,  Spanish,  Swedish,  and 
Russian.     Died  in  1S47. 

See  "Vie  d' Alberto  Nota,"  prefixed  to  the  tenth  edition  of  his 
works;  ScHEDONi,  "Trattenimeiito  sopia  le  Comiiiedie  di  A.  Nota," 
1826  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  182S. 

Nothuagel,  n6t'na-|el,  (Johann  Andreas  Benj.a.- 
MiN,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Saxe- 
Coburg  in  1729;  died  about  1800. 

Nothomb,  no'tdN-',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian  states- 
man, born  at  Messancy  in  1805.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  public  works  in  1837,  and  in  1841  minister  of  the 
interior.  His  "  Historical  and  Political  Essay  on  the 
Belgian  Revolution"  (1833)  was  translated  into  German 
and  Italian.  He  was  president  of  the  Council  from  1843 
to  June,  1845.     Died  September  16,  1881. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiR,  "Galena  des  Conteraporains ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Notker,  surnamed  Bal'bulus,  a  monk  of  Saint  Gall, 
born  about  840.  He  wrote  a  martyrology  and  othei 
works,  but  is  memorable  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  Latin 
hymn-writers  and  the  inventor  of  the  species  of  hymn 
called  "sequences."  He  also  did  much  for  church-music. 
He  died  in  912,  and  was  canonized  in  1513.  His  "Life" 
was  written  by  Ekkehard. 

Notker,  not'ker,  surnamed  Phys'icus,  a  learned  Ger- 
man monk  and  physician  of  the  tenth  century,  was  like- 
wise celebrated  as  an  artist  and  poet.     Died  in  975. 

Notker,  a  German  ecclesiastic,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
emperor  Otho  I.  He  became  dean  of  the  convent  of 
Saint  Gall,  and  Bishop  of  Liege,  (972.)     Died  in  1007. 

Notker,  surnamed  La'beo,  and  called  also  Teu- 
TON'icus,  born  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century, 
entered  the  monastery  of  Saint  Gall,  where  he  was 
appointed  principal  teacher.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
for  learning,  and  made  numerous  translations  from 
the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  His  version  of  the 
Psalms  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  important  monu- 
ments of  early  German  literature.     Died  in  1022. 

Not'man,  (John,)  a  distinguished  architect,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  July  22,  1810.  In  1831  he  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Philadel- 
phia, where  he  continued  to  reside  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  laid  out  the  grounds  of  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery, 
designed  all  the  architectural  embellishments,  and  su- 
perintended their  execution.  He  devoted  himself  par- 
ticularly to  church  architecture,  in  which  department  he 
had  few  if  any  superiors  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  thorough  acquaintance  with  me- 
diasval  architecture.  He  possessed  great  enthusiasm  for 
his  art,  as  well  as  poetic  sensibility,  and  in  his  works  he 
seemed  to  address  himself  not  so  much  to  the  senses  as 
to  the  soul.  He  died  March  3,  1865.  Among  his  chief 
works  may  be  mentioned  Saint  Mark's  Church,  in  Lo- 
cust Street,  regarded  as  among  the  very  best  specimens 
of  the  Gothic  style  in  America,  the  facade  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  on  Logan  Square,  and  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Trinity,  near  Walnut  and  Nineteenth  Streets, 
of  which  the  noble  doorway  is  especially  admired. 

Notre,  Le.    See  Lenotre. 

Notre-Dame,  (Michel.)     See  Nostradamus. 

Notre-Dame,  de,  deh  not'R'dtm',  (C^sar.)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Salon  in  1555,  was  a  son  of  Michel  Nos- 
tradamus. He  obtained  the  title  of  gentleman  of  the 
chamber  to  Louis  XHI.  He  wrote  several  poems,  and 
a  "  History  of  Provence,"  (1614.)     Died  in  1629. 

Nott,  (Abraham,)  an  American  jurist  and  politician, 
born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  in  1767,  settled  in  South 
Carolina,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1800.  Died 
in  1830. 


Nott,  (Eliphalet,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  1773.  He 
was  for  many  years  ])astor  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
at  Albany,  ancl  in  1804  became  president  of  Union 
College,  Schenectady,  New  York.  He  filled  this  post 
for  nearly  sixty  years,  and  was  greatly  instrumental  in 
promoting  the  prosperity  and  reputation  of  the  college. 
He  published  "Counsels  to  Young  Men,"  "Lectures 
on  Temperance,"  etc.     Died  in  1866. 

Nott,  (Henry  Junius,)  son  of  Abraham  Nott,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1797.  He  graduated  at  South  Caro- 
lina College,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  logic 
and  the  philosophy  of  language  in  that  institution.  He 
published  "Novelettes  of  a  Traveller,"  etc.,  and  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Southern  Review."  He  was 
wrecked  in  the  steamer  Home  in  1837. 

Nott,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  scholar,  and  physi- 
cian, born  at  \Vorcester  in  1751.  He  made  translations 
from  the  Latin  and  Italian,  and  from  the  Persian  of 
Hafiz ;  he  also  published  an  original  poem,  entitled 
"Alonzo."    Died  in  1826. 

Nott,  (JosiAH  Clark,)  brother  of  Henry  Junius, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina, 
in  1804,  and  graduated  as  a  physician  in  Philadelphia. 
He  published  "The  Physical  History  of  the  Jewish 
Race,"  "Types  of  Mankind,"  (1854,)  and  "Indigenous 
Races  of  the  Earth,"  (1857,)  the  last  two  conjointly  with 
G.  R.  Gliddon.     He  died  March  31,  1873. 

Nott,  (Sir  William,)  a  distinguished  officer,  born  in 
Carmarthen,  in  Wales,  in  1782,  served  in  the  Afghan 
war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general.  Died  in 
1845. 

Nottebohm,  not'te-bom',  (Martin,)  a  German  com 
poser,  teacher,  and  writer  on  music,  born  in  Westphalia, 
November  12,  1817.  His  most  valuable  publications  are 
his  critical  researches  on  Beethoven's  works. 

Nottingham,  Earl  uf.     See  Finch,  (Daniel.) 

Nottingham,  not'ting-am,  (Heneage  Finch,)  first 
Earl  of,  an  English  lawyer  and  statesinan,  born  in 
Kent  in  1621.  He  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  about 
1635,  studied  law  in  the  Inner  Teinple,  and  became  an 
eloquent  lawyer.  On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
(1660)  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and  took  part 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  regicides.  He  was  chosen  in 
1661  to  represent  the  University  of  Oxford  in  Parlia- 
ment, became  attorney-general  in  1670,  and  lord  chan- 
cellor of  England  in  December,  1675.  In  1681  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Nottingham.     Died  in  16S2. 

See  Lord  Campbeli.,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England  ;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Nouailher,  noo'i'iy,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
painter  and  enameller,  born  in  1742  ;  died  in  1S04. 

None,  dela,  deh  It  noo,  (FRANgois,)  called  Bras  de 
Fer,  (bRi  deh  f§R,)  i.e.  "  Iron-arm,"  a  celebrated  French 
commander  and  Huguenot,  was  born  near  Nantes  in  1 53 1. 
He  commanded  the  rear-guard  at  the  battle  of  Jarnac, 
in  1569,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Moncontour.  Having 
lost  his  left  arm  at  the  siege  of  Fontenay,  he  supplied  its 
place  by  an  iron  arm.  In  1573  he  took  command  of  the 
insurgents  at  La  Rochelle,  which  he  defended  for  four 
years.  After  peace  had  been  concluded  between  Henry 
of  Navarre  and  the  Catholics,  La  Noue  went  in  1578  to 
Flanders,  where  he  fought  against  the  Spaniards  and 
soon  became  general-in-chief.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
in  1580,  and  detained  as  such  for  five  years.  Having 
joined  the  army  of  Henry  IV.,  he  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Ivry,  (1590,)  and  was  killed  at  Lamballe  in  1591.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  virtue  and  talents.  His  "  Po- 
litical  and  Military  Discourses"  (1587)  entitle  him  to  a 
place  aiTiong  the  best  prose  writers  of  his  tiine. 

See  Brantomr,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines;"  Davila,  "  His- 
torv  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France:"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
gais  ;"  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographio 
Generale ;"  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  Motley,  "United 
Netherlands,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

None,  de  la,  (Odet,)  Seigneur  de  Teligny,  a  French 
officer  and  poet,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  fought 
for  Henry  IV.,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de- 
caiTtp,  with  the  title  of  counsellor  to  the  king.  He  wrote 
an  essay  called  a  "Paradox  that  Adversity  is  more 
necessary  than  Prosperity,"  (1588,)  and  "Christian 
Poems,"  ("  Poesies  chretiennes,"  1594.)    Died  in  1618. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  Jf,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  nigt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NOUE 


1835 


NOVIKOF 


Noue,  La.    See  Lanoue. 

Nouet,  noo'i'.  (Jacques.)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Mans  in  1605,  wrote  a  number  of  moral  and  religious 
works.     Died  in  >68o. 

Nouet,  (Nicolas  Antoine,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1740 ;  died  in  181 1. 

Nougarede  de  Fayet,  noo'gi'rkl'  deh  fl'yi',  (An- 
dr6  Jean  Simon,)  Baron,  a  French  jurist  and  magis- 
trate, born  at  Montpellier  in  1765,  published  several 
legal  and  historical  works.     Died  in  1845. 

Nougarede  de  Fayet,  (Augusts,)  a  French  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  181 1,  lie 
wrote  a  number  of  legal  and  miscellaneous  treatises. 
Died  in  1853. 

Nougaret,  noo'gt'rV,  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
voluminous  and  mediocre  French  writer,  born  at  La 
Rochelle  in  1742,  was  the  author  of  poems,  tales,  dramas, 
and  historical  works.     Died  in  1823. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Noulleau,  noo'16',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  theological  writer,  born  at  Saint-Brieuc  in 
1604;  died  in  1672. 

Noureddin  or  Nour-Eddyn.   See  Noor-ed-Deen. 

Nourisson,  noo'ri'sAN',  (Jean  F^lix.)  a  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Thiers,  July  18,  1825.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1S50.  In  1870  lie  was  chosen  to 
the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  In  1874 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  modern  philoso])hy  in  the 
College  de  France.  Among  his  writings  are  "  Essai  sur 
la  Philosophic  de  Bossuet,"(i852,)"Les  Peres  de  I'figlise 
latine,"  (185S,)  "  Ilistoire  et  Philosophic,"  (i860,)  "La 
Philosophie  de  Leibniz,"  (i860,)  "La  Philosophie  de 
Saint-Augustin,"  (1S65,)  "La  Nature  humaine,"  (1865,) 
"Spinoza,"  etc.,  (1866,)  "La  Politique  de  Bossuet," 
(1867,)  "Machiavel,"  (1875,)  etc. 

Nourrit,  noor'e',  (  Adolphe,)  a  popular  French  singer 
and  actor,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1802 ;  died  in  1839. 

Nova,  de,  di  no'vi,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  navigator, 
born  in  Galicia.  entered  the  service  of  Emanuel,  King 
of  Portugal.  He  sailed  for  the  Indies  in  1501,  and  dis- 
covered on  his  route  the  Isle  of  Conception,  and  another 
at  no  great  distance,  to  which  he  gave  his  name.  On  his 
return,  in  1502,  he  discovered  Saint  Helena. 

Novalis,  no-vi'lis,  the  assumed  name  of  (Friedrich) 
Von  Hardenberg,  (fon  hau'den-b^Rc',)  a  celebrated 
German  philosopher  and  mystical  writer,  born  at  Wider- 
stadt.  Saxony,  May  2,  1772.  He  was  a  son  of  Baron 
von  Hardenberg,  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Herrnhuters 
or  Moravians.  He  studied  successively  at  the  Univer- 
sities of  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg.  Among  the 
Ultimate  friends  of  his  early  youth  were  Frederick  Schle- 
gel,  Fichte,  and  Schelling.  About  1797  he  produced  his 
"  Hymns  to  the  Night."  He  was  affianced  to  Julia  von 
Charpentier  in  1798,  but  their  marriage  was  prevented 
by  his  death.  About  this  date  he  wrote  the  "  Disciples 
at  Sais."  His  constitution  had  always  been  delicate.  He 
died  of  consumption,  at  Weissenfels,  in  March,  1801. 
His  most  extensive  work  is  a  mystical  romance  entitled 
"  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen,"  which,  however,  he  left 
unfinished.  It  is  enveloped  in  a  rather  obscure  sym- 
bolism, and  displays  a  wild  and  eccentric  imagination. 
He  also  wrote  a  remarkable  work  called  "Christianity 
in  Europe." 

See  a  "  Biography  of  Novalis,"  byTiECK,  prefixed  to  his  collected 
works,  ("Novalis  Schriften,")  2  vols.,  1802:  Carlyle,  "Miscel- 
lanies," article  "  Novalis  ;"  Madame  de  Stael,  "  De  1' Allemagne  ;" 
Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nerale." 

Novara,  no-vi'ri,  (Domenico  Maria,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1464,  taught  astronomy 
at  Bologna,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils  the  cele- 
brated Copernicus.     Died  in  15 14. 

Novarini,  no-v4-ree'nee,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Verona  in  1594,  wrote  "Commentaries 
on  the  Gospels,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1650. 

Novat.    See  Novatus. 

Novatian,  no-va'she-an,  [Lat.  Novatia'nus  ;  Fr. 
NovATiEN,  no'vt'se^N',1  the  founder  of  a  sect  called 
Novatians.  He  became  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  at 
Rome,  and  insisted  on  a  rigorous  enforcement  of  the 
discipline  against  the  Lapsi, — i.e.  those  members  of 
the  Church  who  under  the  pressure  of  persecution  had 


relapsed  into  idolatry  or  had  been  guilty  of  apostasy. 
On  this  question  the  Church  was  divided  into  two  par- 
ties, which  in  251  a.d.  elected  two  rival  bishops  of  Rome, 
Novatian  and  Cornelius,  the  latter  of  whom  advocated 
greater  laxity  or  charity  in  the  treatment  of  the  weak 
brethren.  Novatian  was  condemned  by  a  general 
Council  held  at  Rome,  and  his  rival  obtained  the  office. 
The  Novatians  became  numerous,  and  existed  for  more 
than  a  century  as  a  separate  sect.  Some  writers  con- 
found him  with  Novatus,  mentioned  below. 

See  Fi.EURV,  "  Histoire  eccldsiastique ;"  Pluqukt,  "Diction- 
naire  des  Heresies." 

Novatianus.    See  Novatian. 

Novatien.     See  Novatian. 

No-va'tus,  [Fr.  Novat,  no'vi',]  a  presbyter  of  Car- 
thage, called  a  heresiarch  by  Catholic  writers,  was  an 
adversary  of  Cyprian.  He  was  excommunicated  in  251 
A.D., — probably  because  he  resisted  the  assumption  of 
the  bishops  who  wished  to  domineer  over  the  Church; 
for  he  is  not  charged  with  dogmatical  heresy. 

See  Fleury,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 

Novella,  no-vel'ld,  a  learned  and  beautiful  Italian  lady, 
born  at  Padua  in  1312,  was  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
jurist  Giovanni  d'Andrea.  She  was  profoundly  versed 
in  philosophy  and  jurisprudence,  and  was  accustomed, 
in  her  father's  absence,  to  lecture  in  his  place.  She  is 
said  to  have  lectured  with  a  curtain  drawn  before  her 

"  Lest  the  students 
Should  let  their  young  eyes  wander  o'er  her. 
And  quite  forget  their  jurisprudence." 

Died  in  1366. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Novell!,  no-vel'lee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Castel-Franco  in  1600,  worked  at  Florence.  A 
statue  of  Mary  Magdalene  is  called  his  master-piece. 
He  also  made  telescopes  so  superior  that  Torricelli  said 
of  him,  "  Behold,  another  Galileo  flourishes  !"  ("  En 
virescit  Galilreus  alter  !")     Died  in  1662. 

See  Baldinucci,  "Notizie." 

Novelli,  (PiETRO,)  called  II  Morrealese,  (il  nior« 
ri-S-li'sa,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Mor- 
reale  in  1608.  He  adorned  the  churches  of  Palermo 
with  many  oil-paintings.  He  also  painted  some  frescos. 
According  to  E.  Breton,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale,"  he  was  the  greatest  painter  that  Sicily  ever 
produced.     Died  in  1647. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
nario." 

Novell!,  (PiETRO  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1729;  died  in  1804.  His  son 
Francesco,  born  in  1764,  was  an  engraver. 

Novello,  no-vel'lo,  (Clara,)  Countess  Gigliucci,  (j^l- 
yoot'chee, )  a  famous  singer,  a  daughter  of  Vincent 
Novello,  was  born  in  London  in  1818.  She  performed 
in  Paris  and  London.  She  was  married  to  Count  Gi- 
gliucci in  1843. 

Novello,  (Vincent,)  an  eminent  musician,  born  in 
London  in  1781,  was  the  son  of  an  Italian.  He  com- 
posed music  for  the  Church,  and  published  several  col- 
lections of  the  works  of  other  composers.  He  was  the 
father  of  Mary  Cowden  Clarke,  and  Clara,  Countess 
Gigliucci.     Died  in  1861. 

See  "  Life  of  V.  Novello."  by  his  daughter,  Mks.  Clarke. 

Noverre,  no'vaiR',  (Jean  Georges,)  born  in  Paris  ia 
1727,  is  celebrated  for  the  improvements  he  introduced 
into  the  ballet  and  the  art  of  dancing.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Letters  on  the  Imitative  Arts,"  etc.,  (1807,) 
and  several  dramatic  works,  and  was  appointed  chief 
ballet-master  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  Paris. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  April,  1786. 

Noves,  de,  deh  nov,  (or  no'vSs,)  (Laura,)  a  French 
lady,  celebrated  as  the  subject  of  Petrarch's  sonnets, 
was  born  near  Avignon  in  1307  ;  died  in  1348. 

See  De  Sadb,  "M^moires  sur  P^trarque,"  1744. 

Novikof,  Novikov,  or  Noviko"w,  nov'e-kof,  (Ni- 
kolai IvANOVnCH,)  a  Russian  litterateur,  born  near 
Moscow  in  1744.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon  of  Russian 
Authors,"  and  a  work  entitled  "The  Painter,"  which 
was  very  successful.     He  established  in  Moscow  a  Ty- 


€  as  (J;  5  as  .f;  g  hard;  g  as ;;  G,  H,  K,^(Uural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NO  VI  us 


1836 


NUMERIAN 


pographical  Society  for  the  cheap  printing  of  valuable 
books,  and  contributed  in  many  ways  to  promote  the 
cause  of  education.     Died  in  18 18. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Russe." 

No'vi-us,  (Q.,)  a  Latin  comic  poet,  lived  about  80 
B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with  Sulla  the  dictator.  He 
wrote  plays  called  Atellane. 

Nowell,  no'el,  (Alkxander,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  Lancashire  about  1508,  was  a  zealous  pro- 
moter of  the  Reformation.  On  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary  he  went  into  exile.  He  became  Dean  of  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  in  1560,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  Convocation  of  1563,  at  which  the  articles  of  re- 
ligion were  revised.  Ills  most  important  work  is  his 
"Catechism,"  which  was  published  in  Latin  in  1570 
and  in  English  about  1571.  This  is  the  "Larger  Cate- 
chism" adopted  by  the  Anglican  Church.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  for  learning  and  candour.    Died  in  1602. 

See  Churton,  "  Life  of  Alexander  Nowell,"  1809. 

Novrell,  (Lawrence,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, graduated  at  Oxford  in  1544.  He  became  Dean 
of  Lichfield  in  1559.  He  compiled  a  Saxon  Vocabulary, 
which  he  gave  to  William  Lambarde  in  manuscript.  Died 
in  1576. 

Nox  or  Nyx,  [Gr.  NiJI;  Fr.  Nuit,  nu'e' ;  It.  NoTTE, 
not'ti,]  one  of  the  most  ancient  deities  in  classic  my- 
thology, is  a  personification  of  Night.  She  was  supposed 
to  be  the  daughter  of  Chaos,  the  brother  of  Erebus,  and 
the  mother  of  Day,  ( Heniera.)  Among  her  offspring 
were  Death,  Sleep,  Momus,  Nemesis,  and  the  Parcas. 

Noy,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer,  born 
about  1577.  He  was  appointed  attorney-general  in  1631, 
and  thenceforth  became  the  advocate  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative, though  he  had  previously  been  one  of  its 
strongest  opponents.  It  was  at  his  suggestion  that  King 
Charles  I.  levied  the  tax  of  ship-money,  which  was 
one  of  the  exciting  causes  of  the  civil  war.  He  wrote, 
among  other  legal  works,  "  The  Complete  Lawyer,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Rights  of  the  Crown."  Died  in  1634. 

See  Clarendon,  "Memoirs:"  Fuller,  "Worthies." 

Noydens,  no-e-dSns',  ?  (Benito  Remigio,)  a  Spanish 
philologist,  born  in  Aragon  about  1630,  published  a 
Spanish  Dictionary,  (1674.)     Died  in  1685. 

Noyer,  du.     See  Dunoyer. 

Noyes,  noiz,  (George  Rapall,)  D.D.,  an  American 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts, 
in  179S.  He  was  elected  in  1840  Hancock  professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Oriental  languages,  and  Dexter  lecturer  on 
Biblical  literature,  at  Harvard  College.  He  published 
translations  of  the  Psalms,  the  book  of  Job,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Bible,  and  contributed  to  the  "Christian 
Examiner."     Died  in  1868. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1832 

Noyes,  (John  Humphrey,)  an  American  religion- 
ist, born  at  Brattleborough,  Vermont,  September  3, 
181 1.  His  father  was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  his 
mother  was  an  aunt  of  President  R.  B.  Hayes.  J.  H. 
Noyes  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1830,  read 
law,  and  studied  divinity  at  Andover  and  New  Haven, 
where  he  was  licensed  as  a  Congregational  preacher.  In 
1834  he  announced  his  new  doctrine  of  Perfectionism. 
He  was  the  founder  and  president  (184S-80)  of  the 
"  Oneida  Community"  of  Perfectionists,  living  for  a  part 
of  the  time  in  the  Wallingford  (Connecticut)  Community, 
and  after  1880  at  Niagara  Falls,  where  the  Community 
(reorganized  as  a  stock  company)  has  extensive  works. 
Mr.  Noyes's  more  important  books  are  "The  Way  of 
Holiness,"  (1838,)  "The  Berean,"  (1S47,)  "Bible  Com- 
munism," (1853,)  "History  of  American  Socialisms," 
{1870,)  and  "  Home  Talks,"  (1875.)     D.  April  13,  1S86. 

Noyes,  (William  Curtis,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Rensselaer  county,  New  York,  in  1805.  He  practised 
law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  where  he  died  in  December, 
1864. 

Nucci,  noot'chee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  painter, 
of  the  Roman  school,  was  born  at  Gubbio  about  1520; 
died  in  1587. 

Nack,  nook,  (Anton,)  a  skilful  German  anatomist 
and  physician,  born  about  1660.  He  was  professor  of 
surgery  and  anatomy  at  Leyden,  and  subsequently  presi- 


[  dent  of  the  College  of  Surgeons.  He  made  several  valu- 
able discoveries  relative  to  the  lyinphatic  vessels  and 
glands,  and  published  a  treatise  "On  the  New  Salival 
Duct,"  and  one  "On  the  Motion  of  the  Circular  Bile." 
Died  in  1692. 

Nuenarius.     See  Neuenar. 

Nu'gent,  the  name  of  a  noble  family,  originally  from 
Normandy,  who  settled  in  Ireland  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Richard  Nugent  was  created  by  King  James  I.  Earl  of 
Westmeath  in  162 1.  George  Thomas  John  Nugent, 
born  in  1785,  became  Marquis  of  Westmeath  in  1822. 
He  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Orange  party.  Sir 
George  Nugent,  grandson  of  Viscount  Clare,  born  in 
1757,  served  in  America  and  the  Netherlands.  He  was 
successively  appointed  Governor  of  Jamaica  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in 
1846  field-marshal.  Died  in  1849.  His  brother,  Sir 
Charles  Edmund  Nugent,  served  with  distinction 
under  Rodney,  and  was  created  admiral  of  the  blue  in 
1808.  In  1833  he  received  the  title  of  admiral  of  the 
fleet.     Died  in  1844. 

Nugent,  (Christopher,)  an  Irish  physician  of  con- 
siderable reputation,  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Edmund  Burke.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  principal  work  is  an  "Essay  on  Hydrophobia," 
(1753.)     Died  in  1775. 

Nugent,  (George  Nugent  Grenville,)  Lord,  an 
English  writer  and  liberal  statesman,  a  son  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Buckingham,  was  born  in  1788.  On  entering 
Parliament,  in  1812,  he  became  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  cause  of  the  Greeks,  and  was  also  conspicuous  in 
the  defence  of  Queen  Caroline.  In  1830  he  was  made 
lord  of  the  treasury,  and  soon  after  lord  high  commissary 
of  the  Ionian  Islands.  He  returned  to  England  in  1835, 
and  died  in  1850  or  1851.  He  published  very  interesting 
"  Memorials  of  John  Hampden,"  and  wrote,  in  conjunction 
with  his  wife,  "  Legends  of  Lilies,  by  the  Lord  and  Lady 
thereof." 

Nugent,  (Comte  Laval  de  Westmeath,)  a  general, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1777.  He  entered  the  Austrian  army 
at  an  early  age.  He  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
troops  of  Murat  in  1815.  About  1849  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  feld-marechal.     Died  August  22,  1862. 

Nugent,  (Robert  Craggs,)  Earl,  a  poet  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Ireland.  He  married  in  1736  Anne 
Craggs,  a  daughter  of  Secretary  Craggs,  who  was  a 
friend  of  Addison.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1741,  and  became  a  lord  of  the  treasury.  About  1776 
he  obtained  the  title  of  Earl  Nugent.  Died  in  1788. 
He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1739. 

Nugent,  (Thomas,)  LL.D.,  a  learned  writer  and  com- 
piler, was  a  native  of  Ireland.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Travels  through  Germany,"  (1768,)  and 
a  "French-and-English  Dictionary,"  (1774,)  often  re- 
printed.    Died  in  1772. 

Nu'ma  Pom-pill-us,  the  second  king  of  Rome, 
celebrated  in  Roman  legends  or  fables  as  the  author  of 
the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Romans.  According  to 
these  legends,  Numa  was  a  Sabine,  and  was  elected 
king  as  successor  to  Romulus.  Instructed  by  the  Ca- 
mena  Egeria,  he  prescribed  the  rites  of  public  worship, 
and  appointed  pontiffs,  augurs,  flamens,  and  vestals. 
His  reign  was  pacific  and  prosperous.  There  was  a 
prevalent  tradition  among  the  ancients  that  Numa  de- 
rived his  wisdom  from  Pythagoras. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Lives:"  Niebuhr,  "Rbmische  Geschichte;" 
J    Meyer,  "  Delineatio  Vita  Numa;  Pompilii,"  1765. 

Nu-me'nI-us,  \^ov\iTivin^,\  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Apamea,  in  Syria,  is  called  a  Pythagorean,  or  rather  a 
professor  of  a  Platonico-Pythagorean  philosophy.  He 
lived  in  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and  was  favour- 
ably mentioned  by  Origen.  He  attempted  to  reconcile 
the  great  Greek  schools  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Brah- 
mans.  Magi,  and  Jews,  and  to  restore  the  philosophy  of 
Plato  to  its  original  purity.     His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  J.  Simon,  "  Histoire  de  I'Elcole  d'AIexandrie ;"  Rittkk, 
"  History  of  Philosophy." 

Nu-me'rI-an,  [Lat.  Numeria'nus  ;   Fr.  NumArien, 

nU'mfi'reJ,N',f  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  son  of  Cams,  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Emperor  of  Rome  in  284  A.D.,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  brother  Carinus.     He  was  afterwards  put 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  j?,  s/iorl;  a,  e,  j,  o,  ohmr^;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


NUMERIEN 


1837 


NYMPH^E 


to  death  in  the  same  year,  as  is  supposed,  by  his  father- 
in-law,    Arrius,   and   Diocletian    was   chosen   emperor. 
Numerianus  was  famed  as  an  orator  and  a  poet.     His 
character  is  said  to  have  been  excellent. 
See  Vopiscus,  "Numerianus." 

Num^rien.     See  Numerian. 

Nu-me-si-a'nus  or  No-mis-i-a'nus,  a  physician  of 
Corinth,  flourished  in  the  second  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  He  numbered  the  celebrated  Galen  among 
his  pupils. 

Numitor.    See  RoMULtrs. 

Nunes-Barreto,  noo'nSs  bar-ra'to,  (Belchior,)  a 
Portuguese  missionary,  born  at  Oporto  in  1520.  He  was 
employed  many  years  in  India,  and  wrote  interesting 
letters  on  Oriental  affairs.     Died  in  1571. 

Nunez,  noon'ySth,  (Alvarez,)  surnamed  Cabeqa  dk 
Vaca,  (ki-ba'thi  di  vd'kJ,)  a  Spanish  explorer,  was  the 
second  in  command  of  a  party  which  discovered  or  ex- 
plored Florida  in  1528.  He  was  appointed  adelantado 
of  Rio  de  la  Plata  about  1540.     Died  in  1564. 

See  CoMARA,  "  Historia  general  de  las  Indias;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Nunez,  [Lat.  No'nius,]  (Fernando  de  Guzman,)  a 
distinguished  Spanish  scholar  and  promoter  of  classical 
learning,  was  born  at  Valladolid  about  1470.  He  was 
descended  from  the  noble  family  of  Guzman,  and  was 
surnamed  Pincianus,  from  Pincium,  the  Latin  name  of 
Valladolid.  After  having  studied  Greek  in  Italy,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  professors  of  that  language  in  the 
University  of  Alcaia.  He  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of 
ancient  languages  and  rhetoric  at  Salamanca.  Nunez 
had  a  share  in  the  celebrated  "  Complutensian  Poly- 
glot" of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  in  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Septuagint.  He  also  published,  among  other  works, 
an  excellent  edition  of  Seneca.     Died  in  1553. 

Nunez,  [Lat.  No'nius  or  Non'nius,]  (Luis,)  a  Flem- 
ish or  Spanish  medical  writer,  born  about  1555,  lived 
at  Antwerp.  He  was  eminent  for  learning,  and  wrote 
several  works,  among  which  is  a  treatise  on  diet,  "  Diae- 
teticon,  sive  de  Re  Cibaria,"  (1627.)     Died  after  1645. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotlieca  Hispana." 

Nunez,  noo'nSz,  or  No'nI-us,  (Pedro,)  an  eminent 
Portuguese  mathematician,  born  in  1492.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  very  able  treatises  on  navigation,  geometry, 
and  the  projection  of  maps  ;  and  the  improved  scale 
which  he  invented  for  reading  an  observed  angle  is 
still  called  by  his  name.  He  is  also  said  to  be  the  in- 
ventor of  the  loxodromic  curve.  Nunez  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Coimbra,  and  royal  cosmographer. 
Died  in  1577. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Math^matiques ;"  Barbosa  Ma- 
CHADO,  "  Bibliotlieca  Lusitana." 

Nuiiez  de  Balboa.    See  Balboa,  de. 

Nuiiez  de  Villavicencio,  noon'y^th  di  vJKyi-ve- 
th§n'the-o,  written  also  Nunnez  de  Villavicencio,  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1635,  was  a  pupil 
of  Murillo.     Died  in  1700. 

Nunning,  ndSn'ning,  (Jodocus  Hermann,)  a  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Schuttorp  in  1675  ;  died  in  1753. 

Nunziante,  noon-ze-dn'ti,  (Vito,)  Marquis,  an  Ital- 
ian general,  born  at  Campagna  in  1775.  He  commanded 
the  army  which  the  King  of  Naples  sent  in  1820  against 
his  insurgent  subjects,  but  was  abandoned  by  that  army. 
He  became  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Neapolitan 
armies  in  183 1.     Died  in  1836. 

See  F.  Palermo,  "  Vita  e  Fatti  di  V.  Nunziante,"  1839. 

Nureddin.     See  Noor-ed-Deen. 

Nus,  niis,  (EucfexE,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Sa6ne  in  1816. 

Nushirwan  or  Nuschirwan.    See  Khosroo. 

Nut,  noot,  the  heaven-goddess  of  the  old  Egyptians, 
and  the  consort  of  the  god  Seb.  She  was  of  human 
form,  and  was  identified  with  Rhea,  (q.  v.) 

Nut'tall,  (Thomas,)  an  English  botanist  of  high  repu- 
tation, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1786.  He  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  about  1808,  after  which  he  explored  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Missouri  River,  and  published 
his  valuable  "  Genera  of  North  American  Plants,"  (1818.) 
He  was  professor  of  natural  history  at  Harvard  from 
1822  to  1834.    He  performed  an  excursion  to  the  Rocky 


Mountains  and  Columbia  River  about  1834.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Manual  of  the  Ornithology  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,"  (2  vols.,  1834.)     Died  in  1859. 

Nuvolone,  noo-vo-lo'ni,  (Carlo  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1608.  He  imitated  the 
style  of  Guido  so  successfully  that  he  was  surnamed  THE 
GuiDO  of  Lomhardy.  Among  his  master-pieces  is 
"The  Miracle  of  Saint  Peter  at  the  Beautiful  Gate." 
Died  in  1661. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nuvolone,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Milan  in  1619,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
sometimes  called  Panfilo.     Died  in  1703. 

Nuvolone,  (Panfilo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Cremona,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  worked 
at  Milan,     Died,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  1651. 

Nuvrayri.    See  Noowairee. 

Nuzzi,  noot'see,  (Mario,)  called  Mario  de'  Fiort, 
(mS're-o  di  fe-o'ree,)  a  celebrated  Italian  flower-painter, 
born  near  Naples  in  1603.  His  pictures  enjoyed  a  great 
reputation  in  his  time,  and  commanded  high  prices. 
Died  in  1673. 

Nyberg,  nu'b?Rg,  (Julia  Christina,)  a  Swedish 
poetess,  whose  assumed  name  was  Euphrosyne,  was 
born  in  1785.     Died  April  18,  1854. 

Nyct^e.     See  Nycteus. 

Nyc'teiis,  [Gr.  Nvkt€v(  ;  Fr,  Nyct^e,  nfek'ti',]  a 
fabulous  king  of  Thebes,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Neiitune  and  the  father  of  Antiope. 

Nyder.    See  Nider. 

Nye,  ni,  (Philip,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  about  1596,  was  distinguished  for  his  hostility  to 
the  cause  of  Charles  I.  In  1647  he  attended  as  chap- 
lain  the  commissioners  sent  to  treat  with  that  monarch 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  died  in  1672,  leaving  numerous 
controversial  treatises. 

Nyegush,  nyi-coosh',  or  Niegosh,  (Peter  Petro- 
VlTCH,)  the  last  Prince-Bishop  of  Montenegro,  was  born 
in  1813,  began  to  rule  in  1830,  established  a  printing- 
press  in  1834,  and  died  in  1851.  He  nominated  Danilo 
I.,  his  nephew,  as  his  successor ;  but  Danilo,  while  he 
accepted  the  dignity  of  prince  and  made  it  hereditary  in 
his  family,  decli)ied  the  office  of  bishop.  Peter  has  been 
called  the  greatest  poet  of  the  South  Slavic  (Serb)  na- 
tionalities. His  "  Gorski  Vyenac"  ("  Mountain  Wreath") 
is  extremely  popular  among  the  South  Slavic  peoples. 

Nyerup,  nii'er-Cip,  (Rasmus,)  an  eminent  Danish 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Fiinen  in  1759.  He  was 
appointed  in  1796  professor  of  the  history  of  literature 
and  librarian  of  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  his 
"Symbols  to  Illustrate  Teutonic  Literature,"  (1787,)  and 
"Historical  and  Statistical  Account  of  the  Condition  of 
Denmark  and  Norway  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Times," 
(4  vols.,  1802-06.)  In  conjunction  with  Rahbek  and 
Abrahamson,  he  published  in  1812  an  edition  of  old 
Danish  heroic  songs,  with  historical  explanations.  He 
published,  conjointly  with  Kraft,  a  work  on  Danish,  Nor- 
wegian, and  Icelandic  biography,  entitled  "  Almindeligt 
Litteraturlexicon  for  Danmark,  Norge  og  Island,"  (2 
vols.,  1819.)     Died  in  1829. 

See  C.  Moi.nECH,  "  Mindeord  over  R.  Nyerup,"  1830;  "R.  Ny- 
erup's  Levnetslob  beskrevet  alham  selv,"  1820:  Kraft  og  Nvkrup, 
"  Litteraturlexicon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nymann,  nee'min,  (Gregor,)  a  Gerriian  physiologisti 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1594.  He  published  "  De  Vita 
Foetus  in  Utero,"  {1628,)  which  is  commended.  Died 
in  1638. 

Nymphae,  nim'fe,  [Gr.  'Svfi<f>(u;  Fr.  Nymphes,  nJMf,] 
the  name  of  a  numerous  class  of  female  divinities  with 
which  the  imagination  of  the  ancient  Greeks  peopled 
the  groves,  the  mountains,  the  lakes,  the  rivers,  the 
fountains,  and  the  valleys.  They  maybe  described  as 
personifications  of  the  genial  and  beneficent  powers  of 
nature.  Among  their  common  attributes  were  youth 
and  beauty.  They  were  divided  into  several  classes  or 
species,  namely,  Oceanides  and  Nereides,  sea-nymphs ; 
Oreades,  mountain-nymphs ;  Naiades,  fresh-water 
nymphs;  Diyades,  wood-nyn)phs,  or  nymphs  of  trees; 
Limniades,    nymphs  of  lakes ;    and   Napsese,    nymphs 


■  as  k:  9as  s;  %hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  s^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled :  5  as  3,-  th  as  in  this.     1  iJ:^^See  Exulanations.  d.  it,.) 


NYMPHES 


183S 


OBERLIN 


of  forests  and  groves.  The  poets  feigned  that  the 
Nymphs  were  the  nurses  of  Bacchus,  Jupiter,  and  Pan. 
(See  OcEANiDES,  Nereids,  Oreads,  etc.) 

Nymphes.     See  Nymph.^ 

N^^m'phis,  [Ni)//(^£f,]  a  Greek  historian,  a  native  of 
the  Pontic  Heraclea,  lived  about  250  B.C.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  Successors," 
and  two  other  works.     None  of  these  are  extant. 

Nymphodore.    See  Nvmphodorus. 

Nym-pho-do'rus,  [Gr.  Nv//^fM5<jpof ;  Fr.  Nympho- 
dore, niM'fo'doR',]   a  Greek    surgeon,   mentioned   by 


Celsus  and  Galen,  lived  probabiy  in  the  third  century 
B.C.  He  invented  a  machine  for  the  induction  of  dislo- 
cations. 

Nymphodorus,  a  Greek  historian  of  Amphipolis, 
whose  epoch  is  unknown.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  laws 
and  customs  of  Asia,  called  N6/ii/m  'Aaiac. 

Nysten,  nls'ten,  (Peter  Hubert,)  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  at  Liege  in  1771.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Medicine  and  its  Accessory  Sciences,"  (1810,) 
and  "  Researches  in  Physiology  and  Pathological  Chera 
istry,"  (1811.)     Died  in  1818. 


O. 


O,  d',  do,  (Francois,)  Marquis,  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Paris  in  1535.  He  became  superintendent  of 
the  finances  in  1578.     Died  in  1594. 

Oakeley,  ok'le,  (Frederick,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Shrewsbury,  Sejitember  5,  1S02.  In  1824  he 
graduated  as  B.A.  at  Oxford,  and  received  several  pre- 
ferments in  the  English  Church,  but  in  1845  he  became 
a  Romanist,  and  was  afterwards  a  priest.  In  1852  he 
was  appointed  Canon  of  Westminster.  He  wrote  many 
works,  especially  after  his  conversion  to  Romanism. 
Died  January  29,  1880. 

Oakeley,  (Sir  Herbert  Stanley,)  Mus.  Doc,  an 
English  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Ealing  in  1830. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Leipsic,  and  in  1865 
became  professor  of  music  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  is  an  organ-player  of  exceptional  ability, 
and  is  also  known  as  a  composer  of  songs  and  hymns. 

Oakes,  6ks,  (John  Wright,)  an  English  painter,  born 
near  Middlewich,  in  Cheshire,  in  1S22.  He  won  distinc- 
tion as  a  painter  of  landscapes,  and  particularly  of  coast- 
scenery. 

Oakes,  oks,  (Urian,)  a  learneo  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  England  in  163 1,  emigrated  to  America,  and 
settled  as  minister  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  167 1. 
He  became  president  of  Harvard  College  in  1680.  Died 
in  1681. 

Oates,  ots,  (Titus,)  a  notorious  impostor,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  famous  Popish  Plot,  was  born  in  or  near 
London  about  1650.  He  became  a  clergyman  of  the 
Anglican  Church,  was  deprived  of  his  living  for  vicious 
conduct,  and  turned  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  passed 
some  time  in  a  Jesuit  college  at  Saint-Omer,  from  which 
he  was  expelled  in  1677.  In  1678  he  appeared  as  an 
informer,  and  swore  that  the  pope  and  Jesuits  had  con- 
spired to  massacre  the  prominent  Protestants,  make 
themselves  masters  of  the  kingdom,  and  establish  popery. 
His  story  was  generally  credited,  and  produced  a  furious 
excitement.  Many  Catholics  were  put  to  death  for 
alleged  complicity  in  the  plot.  Oates  received  a  pension 
of  ^  1200.  After  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  was 
convicted  of  perjury,  severely  whipped,  and  imprisoned 
from  1685  to  1689.     He  died  in  1705. 

See  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Burnet,  "Kistory  of  his 
Own  Times:"  Home,  "  History  of  England;"  Evelyn,  "Diary." 

Ob-a-di'ah,  [Heb.  n'13^',]  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew 
prophets,  lived  probably  about  590  B.C.  Nothing  is 
known  respecting  the  events  of  his  life.  His  prophecy 
is  comprised  in  a  single  chapter. 

Obeidah.     See  Aboo-Ubeydah. 

O'Beirne,  o-beern',  ?  (Thomas  Lewis,)  an  Irish  prel- 
ate and  writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Longford  in  1748. 
He  accompanied  Lord  Howe  to  America,  as  his  chaplain, 
'•^  I775>  '*"d  was  created,  after  his  return.  Bishop  of 
Meath.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Crucifi.xion,"  (1776,)  and  of  several  prose  works.  Died 
in  1823. 

Obelerio,  o-bi-la're-o,  a  Venetian  doge,  bom  about 
760,  began  to  rule  in  804  a.d.,  soon  after  which  Venice 
was  invaded  by  Pepin,  King  of  the  Lombards.  He  was 
exiled  in  809,  and  died  in  831  A.D. 

Obentraut,  von,  fon  o'ben-tRowt',  (Jghann  Mi- 
chael,) a  German  general,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in 
1574.  He  fought  for  Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  and 
was  second  in  command  of  the  army  which,  under  Ernst 


of  Mansfeld,  gained  advantages  over  Spinola  and  Tiliy 
in  Flanders.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at  Kalemberg  in 
1625. 

See  Schiller,  "History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  C.  G.  db 
Koch,  "Tableau  des  Revolutions  de  I'Europe." 

O'ber,  (Frederick  Albion,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  February  13,  1849.  In 
1S74  he  explored  the  Okeechobee  region  of  Florida.  He 
made  extended  explorations  in  the  smaller  West  India 
islands,  1877-80,  (where  he  discovered  twenty-two  new 
species  of  birds,)  and  afterwards  travelled  extensively  in 
Yucatan  and  Mexico.  His  principal  works  are  "Camps 
in  the  Caribees,"  (1879,)  "Young  Folks'  History  of 
Mexico,"  (1882,)  "Travels  in  Mexico,"  (1884.) 

Obereit,  o'beh-rit',  (Jakob  Hermann,)  a  German 
or  Swiss  alchemist  and  mystic,  born  in  Aargau  in  1725, 
practised  medicine  in  his  early  life.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Defence  of  Mysticism,"  (1775,)  and 
"Promenades  de  Gamaliel,  Juif  Philosophe,"  (1780.) 
Died  at  Jena  in  1798. 

Oberhauser,  o'ber-hoi'zer,  (Benedict,)  a  German 
canonist,  born  in  Upper  Austria  in  1719  ;  died  in  1786. 

See  "Memoria  B.  Oberhauseri,"  Saltzburg,  17S6. 

Oberhauser,  (Georg,)  a  manufacturer  of  micro- 
scopes, was  born  at  Anspach,  in  Bavaria,  in  1798.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  about  181 5,  and  made  some 
improvement  in  the  form  of  microscopes.  Between  1831 
and  1856  he  constructed  a  great  number  of  these  instru- 
ments, which  were  largely  exported.     Died  in  1868. 

Oberkampf,  o'ber-kimpf,  (Christoph  Philipp,)  a 
distinguished  German  artisan,  born  at  Weissenbach  in 
1738.  Having  removed  to  France,  he  established  at 
Jouy  the  first  manufactory  of  printed  cottons,  (1759.) 
He  brought  this  art  to  a  degree  of  excellence  hitherto 
unknown,  and  conferred  an  immense  benefit  upon  his 
adopted  country.  He  received  from  Napoleon  the  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honour.     Died  in  1815. 

OberUn,  o'ber-lin,  (Ger.  pron.  o'b§R-leen';  Fr.  pron. 
o'b^R'liN',]  (Jean  Frederic,)  an  eminent  philanthropist 
and  reformer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1740.  In  compliance 
with  his  father's  wishes,  he  studied  theology,  instead  of 
embracing  the  military  profession,  for  which  he  had  a 
strong  inclination.  He  became  in  1766  Protestant  pastor 
of  the  Steinthal,  or  Ban  de  la  Roche,  a  barren  and  rocky 
valley  in  Alsace,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  owing  to  their 
country  having  been  repeatedly  laid  waste  during  the 
French  and  German  wars,  were  in  a  state  of  wretched 
poverty  and  ignorance.  Oberlin  now  devoted  himself 
to  the  reform  which  had  been  begun  by  his  predecessor, 
Stouber,  and,  by  his  energy  and  mildness,  succeeded  in 
overcoming  the  prejudices  of  the  people,  who  at  first 
opposed  all  innovations.  Besides  great  improvements 
in  agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts,  he  introduced 
many  new  employments,  such  as  cotton-spiiming,  weav- 
ing, and  straw-plaiting.  He  founded  schools,  to  which 
he  gave  competent  teachers,  originated  infant-schools, 
and  took  upon  himself  the  principal  religious  instruction 
of  his  parishioners.  So  highly  was  Oberlin  esteemed 
for  the  excellence  of  his  character,  and  so  deep  was  the 
sense  of  the  benefits  he  had  conferred,  that  during  the 
troubles  of  the  French  Revolution  the  I'an  de  la  Roche 
remained  undisturbed ;  and  he  received  from  Louis 
XVIII.  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour,  (1819.)  After 
the  death  of  his  wife,  (1784,)  Oberlin  was  assisted  in  his 


a.  e,  1, 


T,  o,  u,  y,  /^«<^,-  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior/:  a,  e,  i,  o,  oisa/re;  fSr,  fail,  fAt;  mgt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


OBERLIN 


1839 


OCEAN  US 


benevolent  labours  by  his  housekeeper,  Louisa  Schepler, 
formerly  a  servant  in  his  family.  She  obtained  from  the 
French  Academy,  in  1829,  one  of  the  Montyon  Prizes 
of  Virtue,  (five  thousand  francs.)  Oberlin  died  in  1826, 
after  a  short  illness,  at  the  age  of  eighty -six. 

See  August  Neander,  "  Ziige  aus  dem  Leben  iind  Wirken  des 
Pastors  Oberlin,"  1835;  Paul  Merlin,  "  Le  Pasteur  Oberlin,"  1833; 
RoTHERT,  "  Leben  j.  F.  Oberlins,"  1847:  "Tlie  Ban  de  la  Roche 
and  its  Benefactor,"  London,  1820;  "  Le  Pasteur  Oberlin,  Souvenir 
d'Alsace,"  1824;  H.  Lutteroth,  "  Notice  sur  J.  F.  Oberlin,"  1826; 
D.  E.  Stoeber,  "Vie  de  J.  F.  Oberlin,"  1S34;  G.  H.  von  Schu- 
bert, "  Ziige  aus  dem  Leben  Oberlins,"  1834  ;  "  Memoirs  of  J.  F. 
Oberlin,"  London,  8th  edition,  1838. 

Oberlin,  (J6r6mie  Jacques,)  a  scholar  and  antiquary 
of  high  reputation,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1 735,  was  a 
brother  of  Jean  Frederic,  noticed  above.  He  became 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  (1782.)  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Tables  of  Roman  Rites,"  ("  Rituum  Romanorum 
Tabulae,"  etc.,  1774,)  and  "On  the  Amatory  Poets  of 
Alsalia  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  De  Poetis  Alsatiae  Ero- 
ticis  Medii  .^vi,"  1786.)  lie  also  published  excellent 
editions  of  Horace,  Tacitus,  and  other  Latin  classics. 
Died  in  1806. 

See  WiNCKLER,  "  Noticp  siir  la  Vie  de  J.  J.  Oberlin,"  1807 ;  D.  E. 
Stoeber,  "  Biographische  Notiz  iiber  J.  J.  Oberlin,"  1807 ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Ginerale." 

Oberthiir,  o'ber-tiiR',  (Charles,)  a  German  per- 
former on,  and  composer  for,  the  harp,  born  at  Munich, 
March  4,  1819.     Since  1844  he  has  resided  in  England. 

Oberweg.    See  Overweg. 

Obrecht,  o'bR^Kt,  (Elias,)  an  antiquary,  brother  of 
Ulrich,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1654. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  Roman  antiquities.  Died 
in  1698. 

Obrecht,  (Georg,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Stras- 
burg in  1547  ;  died  in  1612. 

Obrecht,  (Ulrich,)  a  learned  jurist,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1646.  lie  published 
a  number  of  legal  works,  and  editions  of  Latin  classics. 
Died  in  I70L 

Obregon,  o-bRi-g6n',  (Bernardino,)  a  Spaniard, 
born  near  Burgos  in  1540,  founded  an  order  of  monks 
devoted  to  the  service  of  the  sick  in  hospitals.  Died 
/n  1599. 

Obrenovitch  or  ObrenoTwitsch,  o-bri-no'vitch, 
(Milosch,)  styled  Prince  of  Servia,  born  in  1780,  was 
originally  a  Servian  peasant.  He  became  about  1815  a 
leader  of  the  Servian  insurgents,  and  gained  several  vic- 
tories over  the  Turks.  In  1816  or  1817  he  was  elected 
prince.  He  afterwards  made  a  compromise  with  the 
Sultan,  who  permitted  him  to  govern  Servia  as  tributary 
to  the  Turkish  empire.  His  tyranny  having  provoked 
his  subjects  to  revolt,  he  abdicated  in  1839.  He  was 
restored  in  January,  1859,  and  died  in  i860. 

See  FossART,  "  Das  Leben  des  Fiirsten  Milosch  und  seine 
Kriege,"  1836. 

O'Bri'en,  an  Irish  family  of  rank,  descended  from  the 
famous  chieftain  Brian  Boroimhe,  who  was  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Clontarf,  in  1014.  MuRROUGH  O'Brien  was 
created  in  1800  Marquis  of  Thomond.  Died  in  1808.  His 
nephew,  James  O'Brien,  Marquis  ofThomond,  served  as 
a  naval  officer  against  the  French,  and  in  1847  was  made 
an  admiral.  Sir  Lucius  O'Brien,  born  in  iSoo,  became 
lord  lieutenant  of  Clare  in  1843.  He  was  twice  chosen  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Clare,  and  was  a  zealous  ad- 
vocate of  conservative  principles.  His  brother,  William 
Smith  O'Brien,  bom  in  1803,  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  the  county  of  Limerick  in  1832.  Here  he  became 
an  earnest  coadjutor  of  O'Connell  in  the  Repeal  move- 
ment. He  was  afterwards  the  leader  of  a  party  called 
"  Young  Ireland,"  which,  not  satisfied  with  the  legal 
agitation  of  O'Connell,  advocated  a  forcible  separation 
from  England.  Soon  after  the  French  revolution  of 
1848  he  visited  Paris,  but,  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of 
assistance  from  France,  he  returned  to  Dublin,  where  he 
summoned  a  national  convention  of  three  hundred  mem- 
bers. This  assembly  was  prohibited  by  the  government, 
and  O'Brien,  with  other  leaders,  was  arrested.  He  was 
condemned  to  death  ;  but  this  sentence  was  afterwards 
commuted  to  banishment,  and  in  1849  he  was  sent  to 
Australia.  He  was  subsequently  pardoned.  Died  in  1864- 


O'Brien,  (Fitz-James,)  an  American  littSrateur,  of 
Irish  birth.  Born  in  1829,  he  emigrated  to  this  country 
in  1852,  and  soon  became  a  well-known  contributor  to 
magazine  literature.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebel- 
lion he  enlisted  in  the  Union  army,  and  in  February,  1862, 
died  of  a  wound  received  in  battle.  A  collection  of  his 
tales  and  poems,  with  a  biographical  sketch,  was  issued 
by  William  Winter. 

O'Brien,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  scholar,  born  in  the 
county  of  Kerry  about  1800.  He  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  in  1831.  He  published  the  "Round 
Towers  of  Ireland,"  (1834.)  Died  at  Ilanwell,  England, 
June  28,  1835. 

Obry,  o'bRe',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Albert  (Somme)  in  1793.  He  resided  for  many 
years  at  Amiens,  where  he  died,  March  4,  1871. 

Ob'se-quens,  (Julius,)  a  Roman  writei,  of  whose 
personal  history  nothing  is  known.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  "  De  Prodigiis,"  in  which  he  records 
the  wonderful  occurrences  from  the  foundation  of  Rome 
to  the  time  of  Augustus.  Some  parts  of  it  which  were 
lost  have  been  supplied  by  Lycosthenes,  (Woolfhart.) 

Obsopceus.     See  Opsopceus. 

O'Callaghan,  o-kal'ia-Han,  (Edmund  Bailey,)  M.D., 
LL.D.,  an  Irish-American  historian,  born  at  Mallow,  in 
Ireland,  about  1803.  He  was  educated  partly  in  Paris 
and  partly  in  Quebec,  where  he  was  licensed  to  practise 
medicine  in  1827.  He  was  for  a  time  a  journalist  and 
politician  of  Montreal,  and  after  1837  lived  chiefly  in 
New  York  and  Albany.  Among  his  numerous  publica- 
tions are  a  "History  of  New  Netherland,"  (1845-48,) 
"  Documentary  History  of  New  York,"  (4  vols.,  1849-51,) 
"Laws  and  Ordinances  of  New  Netherland,"  (1869,) 
etc.     Died  in  the  city  of  New  York,  May  29,  1880. 

Ocaria,  de,  di  o-kin'yi,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  religious  poems. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ocaritz,  d',  do-ki-rhs',  ?  ( Jos6, )  Chevalier,  a 
Spanish  diplomatist,  born  in  the  province  of  Rioxa  in 
1750.  He  was  charge-d'affaires  at  Paris  in  1792,  and 
made  great  efforts  to  save  the  life  of  Louis  XVI.  In 
1805  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turkey.  Died  at 
Varna  in  1S05. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

O'Car'o-Ian,  (Turlough,)  a  famous  Irish  bard  and 
musical  composer,  born  in  1670,  was  a  skilful  performer 
on  the  harp.     Died  in  1738. 

Oc'cam  or  Ockham,  ok'kam,  (William,)  an  Eng- 
lish philosopher  and  eminent  logician,  surnamed  the 
Invincible  Doctor,  born  in  Surrey  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  the  founder  of  a  sect  called  by  his  name. 
He  studied  theology  under  Duns  Scotus,  whose  tenets 
of  Realism  he  opposed,  and  aimed  to  restore  those  of 
Nominalism.  He  was  excom.municated  by  Pope  John 
XXII.  for  his  bold  defence  of  the  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria  against  the  encroachments  of  the  papal  power. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  treatise  "  On  the  Power 
Df  the  Sovereign  Pontiff."     Died  at  Munich  in  1347. 

See  B.  Hauk^au,  "De  la  Philosophie  scolastique." 

Occleve.     See  Hoccleve. 

Occo,  ok'ko,  (Adolf,)  a  German  physician  and  nu- 
mismatist, born  at  Augsburg  in  1524.  He  published 
"The  Coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors,"  ("Imperatorum 
Romanorum  Numismata,"  1579,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1604. 

See  Brucker,  "Vita  A.  Occoni." 

Oc'com,  (Samson,)  a  converted  Indian,  born  in  New 
London  county,  Connecticut,  about  1723,  became  cele- 
brated as  a  preacher  among  his  people,  and  in  1766 
visited  England.     Died  in  1792. 

Ocean.     See  Ocean  u.s. 

O-ce-anl-des,  [Gr.  'iiAceavMff  ,•  Fr.  Oc6anides,  o'si'- 
i'n^d',]  sea-nymphs  or  ocean-nymphs,  daughters  of 
Oceanus  and  Tethys.  They  were  supposed  to  have 
been  several  thousand  in  number.     (See  NVMPH/E.) 

O-ce'a-nus,  [Gr.  'Qxcnvof  ,•  Fr.  Oc6an,  o'si'6N',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  the  god  of  the  river  Oceanus,  by 
which  the  ancient  Greeks  supposed  the  earth  to  be  sur- 
rounded.    According  to  Hesiod,  he  was  the  first-born 


*:as>6;  9asj;  gkard;  gas/;  G,H,Vi,gutti(ral;  ^, nasal;  ^,trilUd;  sasa;  thasinM/j.     (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OCELLUS 


1840 


O'  CONNOR 


of  the  Titans,  the  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  (or  Coelus  and 
Terra,)  the  husband  of  Tethys,  and  a  parent  of  the 
Oceanides  and  of  several  thousand  rivers. 

O-cel'lus  Lu-ca'nus,  so  named  from  his  birthplace, 
Lucania,  in  Italy,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  disciple  of 
Pythagoras,  and  to  have  flourished  about  500  B.C.  His 
treatise  "On  the  Nature  of  the  Universe"  is  the  only 
one  of  his  works  extant.  It  maintains  the  doctrine  of 
the  eternity  of  the  world. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale," 

Oceola.    See  Osceola. 

Ocheda,  o-kaMi,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Tortona  in  1757,  became  librarian  to  Lord  Spen- 
cer in  1790.  He  wrote  essays  on  philosophy.  Died  in  183 1. 

Ochin.    See  Ochino. 

Ochino,  o-kee'no,  [Lat.  Ochi'nus  ;  Fr.  OcHiN, 
o'shlN',]  (Bernardino,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Italian  Protestants,  was  born  at  Sienna  in  1487.  He 
became  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  chosen  general  of 
the  order  of  Capuchins  in  1538.  It  is  also  stated  that 
he  was  confessor  to  Pope  Paul  III.,  and  was  venerated 
as  a  saint.  Having  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Juan 
Valdez,  a  Reformer,  he  avowed  his  conversion  to  the 
Protestant  faith,  and  escaped  to  Geneva  in  1542.  In- 
vited by  Cranmer,  he  went  to  England  in  1547,  and 
preached  in  London  until  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
m  1553,  after  which  he  lived  at  Zurich.  He  became  a 
Unitarian,  and  was  banished  from  Zurich  about  1562. 
Died  in  Moravia  in  1564.  He  had  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  and  other  works  on  theology. 

See  Marchand,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Bavlb.  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale;"  Bkn- 
rath's  '•  Life  of  Ochino,"  translated  by  Helen  Zimmern,  1876. 

Ochinus.    See  Ochino. 

Ochoa,  de,  di  o-cho'i,  (Don  Eugenio,)  a  Spanish 
writer  and  translator,  born  in  Madrid  about  181 5.  He 
wrote  various  works  in  prose  and  verse,  and  translated 
nany  from  the  French  and  English.     Died  in  1872. 

Ochosia3  or  Ochozias,*  the  French  form  of  the 
name  Ahaziah,  which  see. 

Ochoziah  or  Ochozias.    Se«  Ochosias. 

Ochs,  oks,  (Peter,)  a  Swiss  statesman  and  jurist, 
born  at  Bale  in  1749,  was  chancellor  and  grand  tribune 
of  Bale.  He  was  created  by  Napoleon  a  councillor  of 
state,  and  director  of  the  Helvetic  republic.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Bale,"  ("Geschichte  von  Basel,"  6  vols., 
1785-1822,)  and  also  published  several  dramas.  Died 
in  1821. 

Ochsenbein,  ok'sen-bTn',  (Ulrich,)  a  Swiss  poli- 
tician and  general,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  181 1. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  radical  party,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Federal  Diet  in  1847.  ^^^  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  war  against  the  seven  Catholic  cantons, 
which  formed  a  separate  confederacy,  called  the  "  Sun- 
derbund,"  in  1847. 

Ochterlony,  oK'ter-lo'ne,  (Sir  David,)  a  British  gene- 
ral, born  in  1758.  He  served  in  India,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaign  of  Nepaul  in  1815-16.  Died 
in  1825. 

Ockenfusa.    See  Oken. 

Ockenhein.     See  Okeghem. 

Ock'ley,  (Simon,)  an  English  divine  and  Oriental 
scholar,  born  at  Exeter  in  1678,  became  professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  171 1.  He 
published  in  1718  his  "  History  of  the  Saracens,"  a  valu- 
able work,  which  is  commended  by  Gibbon.  He  also 
translated  the  second  Apocryphal  Book  of  Esdras  from 
the  Arabic  version,  and  wrote  an  "Introduction  to  the 
Oriental  Tongues,"  (1706.)     Died  in  1720. 

See  Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

O'Con'nell,  (Daniel,)  a  famous  Irish  orator  and 
political  agitator,  born  near  Cahirciveen,  Kerry,  in  Au- 
gust, 1775,  was  educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic  at  Saint- 
Omer,  in  France.  He  entered  Lincoln's  Inn  as  a  student 
of  law  in  1794,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1798.  He 
quickly  attained  the  foremost  rank  in  his  profession,  and 
became  pre-eminent  as  the  advocate  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation,— i.e.  the  relief  of  Catholics  from  political  dis- 
tbilities.     In  the  promotion  of  this  cause  he  entirely 


•  Cowley — following,  it  wonlH  neem,  the  French  spelling — writes 
lie  name,  in  English,  Ochoziati.  (See  "Davideis,"book  ii.,  line  595.) 


discouraged  a  resort  to  physical  force.  He  married  hi3 
cousin,  Mary  O'Connell,  about  1802.  In  1823  he  founded 
the  Catholic  Association.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Parliament  for  Clare  in  1828,  and  refused  to  take  the 
oath  which  was  designed  expressly  to  exclude  Roman 
Catholics  from  the  House.  This  affair  caused  a  violent 
excitement  and  agitation,  which  resulted  in  the  passage 
of  the  bill  for  Catholic  emancipation  in  1829,  and  O'Con- 
nell then  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
represented  Dublin  in  Parliament  from  1832  to  1835, 
and  from  1837  to  1841.  Having  given  up  his  lucrative 
practice  to  devote  himself  to  legislative  duties,  he  was 
indemnified  by  an  annual  subscription  raised  by  his  polit- 
ical friends  under  the  name  of  "rent."  About  1840  he 
commenced  an  agitation  for  the  repeal  of  the  union,  on 
which  subject  he  made  speeches  at  monster  meetings  in 
Ireland  in  1842  and  1843.  He  was  arrested,  tried,  and 
found  guilty  of  sedition  or  conspiracy,  for  which  he  was 
sentenced  m  1844  to  imprisonment  for  one  year,  and 
fined  two  thousand  pounds.  This  judgment  was  reversed 
by  the  House  of  Lords.  He  supported  the  Whig  min- 
istry which  came  into  power  in  1846,  after  which  he 
witnessed  a  decline  of  his  influence  in  Ireland  and  the 
rise  of  dissensions  among  his  followers.  He  died  at 
Genoa  in  May,  1847, '"  ^^^  course  of  a  journey  to  Rome. 
See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Dnniel  O'Cnnnell,"  by  his  son  John,  3 
vols.,  1846 ;  Fagan,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Daniel  O'Connell,"  2  vols., 
1848;  ScHippER,  "  O'Connell'sLebcn,"  1844  :C70ND0N,  "Biographic 
de  D.  O'Connell,"  1847;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale  :"  L.  DB 
LoM^NiE,  "  M.  O'Connell,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  May,  1S41. 

O'Con'nor,  (Arthur,)  an  Irish  general,  born  at  Ban- 
don,  near  Cork,  in  1767,  was  a  Protestant.  He  joined 
the  society  of  United  Irishmen,  who  sent  him  on  a  secret 
mission  to  France,  where  he  negotiated  with  General 
Iloche  about  the  liberation  of  Ireland.  In  1797  or  1798 
he  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  acquitted.  He 
entered  the  French  service,  and  became  a  general  of 
division  in  1804.  About  1807  he  married  Elisa,  a 
daughter  of  the  famous  Condorcet.     Died  in  1852. 

See  Thomas  Moore,  "  Life  and  Death  of  Lord  Edward  Fitz- 
gerald," 1831 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

O'Connor,  (Feargus,)  the  celebrated  leader  of  the 
English  Chartists,  was  born  near  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in 
1796.  In  1832  he  became  a  member  of  Parliament  for 
the  county  of  Cork,  and  acquired  great  popularity  with 
the  radicals.  Dissatisfied  with  the  moderate  policy  of 
O'Connell,  he  advocated  the  rights  of  the  working-class, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  uniting  into  a  numerous  party 
called  Chartists.  In  1838  they  summoned  a  national 
convention  in  London,  in  order  to  prepare  for  a  general 
insurrection.  In  November,  1839,  after  a  sanguinary 
conflict  at  Newport,  the  Chartists  were  dispersed  by  the 
government  troops,  and  many  of  their  leaders  taken 
and  transported.  O'Connor,  however,  who  had  carefully 
avoided  any  infringement  of  the  law,  escaped,  and  soon 
after  founded  a  journal  called  "The  Northern  Star," 
which  obtained  an  immense  circulation.  In  1843  he 
returned  to  Ireland,  where  he  engaged  with  ardour  in  the 
repeal  agitation,  and  in  1847  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Nottingham.  After  the  French  revolution  of  1848 
he  called  another  convention,  and  presented  to  the 
House  of  Commons  a  monster  petition  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  national  charter,  which  produced  no  effect. 
Disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  reform  both  in  England 
and  Ireland,  O'Connor  fell  into  a  state  of  hopeless 
lunacy,  and  in  1852  he  was  taken  to  an  insane- asy him. 
Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1848. 

O'Con'npr,  (jAXres,)  D.D.,a  bishop,  born  at  Queens- 
town,  Ireland,  September  10,  1823,  was  educated  in 
Philadelphia  and  at  Rome,  graduating  in  184S,  was  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest  and  tlieological  professor  in 
Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia,  1S57-76,  and  in  1S76  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Dibona  and  ar«i  ointed  Vicar- 
Apostolic  of  Omaha,  Nebraska.     Died  in  1890. 

O'Connor,  (Michael,)  D.D.,  a  bishou.  born  at  Cork, 
in  Ireland,  September  27,  1810.  He  was  educated  at 
Rome,  and  in  1838  was  placed  in  charge  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  seminary  near  Philadelphia.  In  1S43  he  was 
consecrated   Bishop  of  Pittsburg.     He  was   appointed 


\,G,\,o,\\,y,!ong;ii,k,  6, same, less  prolonged;  di, t,\,o,\\,y, short ;^.,e.\,(), obscure;  (iir,  fill,  f4t;  iii§t;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


a  CONNOR 


I84I 


ODESCALCHI 


Bishop  of  Erie  in  1853,  but  was  translated  to  his  former 
see  in  1S54.  In  i860  he  resigned  his  episcopal  office  and 
became  a  Jesuit.  Died  at  Woodstock,  Maryland,  October 
18,  1872. 

O'Connor,  (Thomas  Power,)  an  Irish  author,  born 
at  Athlone  in  1848.  He  was  educated  at  a  Catholic 
college  at  Athlone,  and  graduated  B.A.  from  the  Queen's 
University.  He  followed  journalism  in  Dublin  and 
London,  and  in  1880  entered  Parliament  for  Galway  as 
a  Home  Ruler.  His  severely  critical  "  Life  of  Lord 
Beaconsfield"  has  much  literary  merit. 

O'Connor,  (William  Douglas,)  an  American  novel- 
ist, born  in  Boston,  January  2,  1832.  He  followed  jour- 
nalism in  Boston  and  Philadelphia,  and  wrote  "  Harring- 
ton," (a  romance,  i860,)  "The  Ghost,"  (1856,)  and  other 
stories  and  poems.  In  1S61  he  entered  the  employ  of 
the  government  and  became  assistant  superintendent  of 
the  "Life-Saving  Service."     Died  May  9,  1889. 

O'Con'yr,  (Charlj^j.)  a  distinguished  American  law- 
yer, the  son  of  an  Irish  gentleman,  was  born  in  New  York 
in  1S04.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1826,  and  attained 
the  highest  professional  rank.  A  zealous  defender  of 
purely  Democratic  politics,  he  never  was  a  strictly  party 
man.  He  was  a  Catholic  in  religion,  and  a  gentleman 
of  the  noblest  private  character.  Died  at  Nantucket, 
Massachusetts,  May  12,  1884. 

O'Conor,  (Charles  Patric,)  an  Irish  poet,  born 
about  1836,  in  the  South  of  Ireland,  of  extremely  desti- 
tute parents.  Having  removed  to  England,  he  became 
a  lecturer  and  writer.  Among  his  works  are  "Songs  of 
a  Life,"  "  New  Irish  Melodies,"  "  Songs  for  Soldiers," 
and  some  tales  of  Irish  life. 

Oc-ta'vi-a,  [Fr.  Octavie,  ok'tS've',!  a  Roman  lady, 
born  about  70  B.C.,  was  a  daughter  of  C.  Octavius,  and 
a  sister  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  She  was  married 
first  to  Marcellus,  who  died  in  41.  Soon  after  his  death 
she  became  the  wife  of  Mark  Antony.  This  marriage 
was  intended  to  confirm  amicable  relations  between 
Antony  and  Augustus.  By  her  beauty  and  virtue  she 
obtained  a  favourable  influence  over  Antony  for  a  short 
time.  She  accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  against 
the  Parthians  as  far  as  Corcyra ;  but,  supplanted  in  the 
affections  of  Antony  by  Cleopatra,  she  was  sent  back  to 
Italy.  In  32  B.C.  he  sent  her  a  bill  of  divorce.  She 
died  in  II  B.C.,  leaving  several  daughters.  Her  son,  M. 
Marcellus,  died  before  her.     (See  Marcellus.) 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives,"  article  "Antony:"  Dion  Cassius, 
"  History  of  Rome,"  books  xlvii.-li. ;  Saint-R^al,  "Vie  d'Octavie, 
Sceur  d'Auguste,"  1761. 

Octavia,  a  Roman  empress,  born  in  42  A.D.,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Claudius  and  Messalina.  She 
was  married  in  53  to  Nero,  who  became  emperor.  He 
divorced  her  in  62  A.D.,  and  a  few  months  later  put  her 
to  death. 

Octavian  or  Octavianus.  See  Augustus,  (Em- 
peror of  Rome.) 

Octavie.    See  Octavia. 

Octavius.    See  Augustus, 

Oc-ta'vl-us,  (Caius,)  the  father  of  the  emperor  Au- 
gustus. He  married  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Julia,  who  was 
a  sister  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  became  praetor  in  61  B.C., 
and  was  proconsul  in  Macedonia  in  60.  Died  in  58  B.C. 
His  official  conduct  was  highly  commended  by  Cicero. 
Velleius  Paterculus  characterizes  him  as  "gravis,  sanc- 
tus,  innocens,  dives."  He  had  a  daughter,  Octavia, 
noticed  above. 

Octavius,  (Cnetus,)  a  Roman  officer,  was  elected 
praetor  in  168  B.C.,  and  commanded  a  fleet  sent  against 
Perseus,  King  of  Macedon,  whom  he  took  prisoner.  He 
was  consul  in  165  with  Manlius  Torquatus,  and  was 
assassinated  at  Laodicea  in  162  B.C. 

Octavius,  (Cneius,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  partisan  of  Sulla.  He  became  consul  in  87  B.C. 
as  the  colleague  of  L.  Cornelius  Cinna,  who  was  a 
partisan  of  Marius.  The  soldiers  of  Cinna  entered 
Rome  and  killed  Octavius  in  87  B.C. 

Octavius,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  officer,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  senate  in  the  civil  war  against  Caesar.  At  the 
battle  of  Actium  (31  B.C.)  he  commanded  a  division  of 
the  fleet  of  Antony. 


O'Cur'ry,  (Eugene,)  an  Irish  Celtic  scholar,  born  at 
Dunaha,  county  of  Clare,  in  1796.  He  was  employed 
as  an  antiquarian  in  the  ordnance  survey,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  to  be  able  to  decipher  the  old  Brehon  laws. 
He  published  "  Lectures,"  (1861,)  and  various  transla- 
tions, and  in  1854  was  appointed  professor  of  Irish  his- 
tory and  archaeology  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Dublin. 
Died  at  Dublin,  July  30,  1S62. 

Odazzi,  o-dit'see,  (Gtovannt,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Rome  about  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Ciro  Ferri. 
Died  in  1731. 

Oddi,  od'dee,  (Muzio,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born  at 
Urbino  in  1569.  He  wrote  "On  Sun-Dials  or  Clocks," 
("Degli  Orologi  solari  nelle  Superficie  plane,"  1614.) 
Died  in  1639. 

Oddi,  degli,  dil'yee  od'dee,  (Marco,)  an  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  at  Padua  in  1526;  died  in  1 591. 

Oddi,  degli,  (Odd,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Padua,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Padua,  and  wrote  several  medical 
works.     Died  in  1559. 

Oddi,  degli,  (Sforza,)  an  Italian  poet  and  jurist, 
born  at  Perugia  in  1540;  died  in  161 1. 

O-dell',  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Buckinghamshire,  was  the  author  of  comedies  entitled 
"The  Chimera"  and  "The  Prodigal."     Died  in  1740. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Odenath.     See  Odenatus. 

Odenathus.    See  Odenatus. 

Od-e-na'tus  or  Cd-e-na'thus,  [  Fr.  Odenath, 
o'deh-n3t',]  Prince  of  Palmyra,  the  husband  of  Zenobia, 
was  an  able  general.  After  the  emperor  Valerian  had 
been  defeated  and  captured  by  the  Persians,  (260  a.d.,) 
Odenatus  raised  an  army,  drove  .Sapor,  the  Persian  king, 
from  Syria,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Pal'.nyra. 
He  also  invaded  Persia,  and  pursued  the  King  of  Persia 
to  Ctesiphon.  For  these  services  he  received  the  title 
of  Augustus  from  Gallienus,  who  recognized  him  as  his 
colleague  in  264.  He  was  assassinated  in  266  or  267  A.D. 
(See  Zenobia.) 

See  Trrhellius  Pom.io,  "  Trigjinta  Tyranni ;"  G.  Hoyns,  "  Dis- 
sertatio  de  Zenobiae  atque  Odenathi  Rebus,"  1847. 

Odenheimer,  o'den-hi'mer,  (William  Henry,) 
D.D.,  D.C.L.,an  American  bishop,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
August  II,  1817,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1835,  and  in  1841  was  ordained  a  priest  of 
the  Episcopal  Church.  He  was  rector  of  Saint  Peter's, 
Philadelphia,  from  1841  to  1869,  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  New  Jersey.  In  1874  he 
took  the  new  diocese  of  Northern  New  Jersey.  Died 
at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  August  14,  1S79.  Among 
his  writings  are  "  Origin  and  Compilation  of  the  Prayer- 
Book,"  "The  True  Catholic  no  Romanist,"  "Thoughts 
on  Immersion,"  "Devout  Churchman's  Companion," 
"Jerusalem  and  its  Vicinity,"  and  other  works. 

Oderborn,  o'der-boRn',  (Paul,)  a  Lutheran  minister, 
born  in  Pomerania,  lived  about  1585.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  the  Russian  religion  and  customs,  "De  Russorum 
Religione,  Ritibus,"  etc.,  (1581.) 

Oderic.     See  Oderico. 

Oderico  (o-di-ree'ko)  [Fr.  Oderic,  o'deh-rfek']  OP 
Pordenone  or  Poktenau,  an  Italian  monk,  born  at 
Pordenone,  in  the  P'riuli,  in  12S6,  travelled  over  a  con- 
siderable part  of  Asia  as  a  missionary.  His  "Life  and 
Travels"  were  published  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  133 1. 

See  Venni,  "Elogio  storico  del  B.  Oderico,"  Venice,  1761. 

Oderico,  (Gasparo  Ludovico,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
and  librarian  of  the  University  of  Genoa,  born  in  1725. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  learned  treatises  on  nu- 
mismatics and  inscriptions,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Institute.     Died  in  1803. 

See  Carrega,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  L.  Oderico,"  Genoa,  1S04. 

Oderigo  da  Oubbio.    See  Gubbio. 

Ode.scalchi,  (Benedetto.)     See  Innocent  XI. 

Odescalchi,  o-des-kill'kee,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian nobleman,  eminent  for  his  philanthropy,  was  a  cousin 
of  Pope  Innocent  XL  He  founded  several  institutions 
for  the  sick  and  the  friendless,  and  at  his  death,  in  16701 
left  all  his  property  for  their  benefit 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  \i,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  thii. 

116 


(iJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ODESCALCHI 


1^42 


O DING  TON 


Odescalchi,  (Tommaso,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  almoner  to  Pope  Innocent  XI.  In  1686  he  founded 
an  asylum  for  the  education  and  employment  of  poor 
children.     Died  in  1692. 

Odevaere,  o-deh-vS'reh,  (Josephus  Dionysius,)  a 
celeljrated  Belgian  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1778.  Hav- 
ing studied  under  David  in  Paris,  he  visited  Rome,  where 
he  executed  two  large  frescos  in  the  Quirinal  palace, 
and  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Lawrence,"  now  in  a 
church  of  Bruges.  He  was  appointed  court  painter  to 
William  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands,  in  1815.  Among 
his  best  works  may  be  named  the  "  Peace  of  Utrecht" 
and  the  "  Battle  of  Nieuport."  Died  in  1S30. 
■  Odier,  o'de-i',  (Louis,)  a  distinguished  physician, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1748.  He  finished  his  studies  at 
Edinburgh  under  Dr.  Cullen,  and,  on  his  return,  intro- 
duced vaccination  into  France  and  Switzerland.  He 
was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France, 
and  filled  several  important  offices  in  his  native  city. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Manual  of  Practical  Medicine," 
and  published,  about  179S,  in  the  "  Biolioth^que  Bri- 
tannique,"  a  translation  of  one  of  Jenner's  treatises 
on  vaccination.     Died  in  1817. 

See  Maunoir,  "Notice  de  la  Vie  et  des  Sicrits  de  L.  Odier," 
1818;  Pierre  Provost,  "  Notice  de  la  Vie  de  L.  Odier,"  1818. 

Odier,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1803  ;  died  in  1859. 

Odillon  BaiTot.     See  Barrot. 

Odilo  (o'de'lo')  or  Odilon  de  MerccBur,  o'de'ldN' 
deh  m^R'kuR',  Saint,  a  French  monk,  born  in  962,  was 
eminent  for  learning.  He  was  elected  Abbot  of  Cluny, 
which,  under  his  direction,  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  monasteries  of  Europe.  Died  in  1048  or 
ro49. 

See  "  Histoire  lltt^raire  de  la  France  ;"  "  Gallia  Christiana." 

Odilon.     See  Odilo. 

O'din  or  OtSinn,  (o'thin,)  written  also  Othin,  [called 
by  the  Germans  Wo'dan  or  Wo'den  ;  Old  German, 
WuoTAN,  derived  from  vafia,  to  "  wade,"  to  "go,"  to 
"pervade,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  greatest  of  all 
the  gods,  corresponding  in  the  main  to  the  Zeus  or 
Jupiter  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  His  name  is  sup- 
posed to  signify  "mind"  or  "sjjirit."  As  the  father  of 
the  yEsir,  (the  ruling  gods  of  heaven  and  earth,)  he  is 
styled  All-father,  (Al-foSr  or  Al  faSir,)  although  he  him- 
self was  the  son  of  Bor,*  and  the  grandson  of  Buri.t 
He  is  also  called  Val-father,  (Val  foSr,  i.e.  "father  of  the 
fallen,")  because  all  who  fell  in  battle  were  supposed  to 
belong  in  an  especial  manner  to  him.  Hence  his  hall  is 
called  Valhalla,  (or  Valholl,)  the  "hall  of  the  fallen"  or 
"slain."  Valhalla  is  situated  in  Odin's  mansion,  called 
Gladheim  or  Gladsheim,  (the  "home  or  habitation  of 
gladness.")  The  roof  of  the  hall  is  formed  of  spears  and 
shields.  The  hall  itself  is  surrounded  by  a  roaring  river 
called  Thund,  and_  has  five  hundred  and  forty  gates, 
through  each  of  which  eight  hundred  men  can  go  abreast. 
Here  are  assembled  all  the  chosen  warriors  ( Einkeriar ) 
who  have  fallen  in  battle  ;  it  is  their  pastime  to  fight  and 
slay  each  other  every  day,  but  the  wounded  are  quickly 
healed,  and  the  dead  are  restored  to  life.  They  then 
ride  back  to  Valhalla,  where  they  refresh  themselves  by 
qrinking  mead  (or  beer)  with  the  gods  and  feasting  on 
the  flesh  of  the  boar  Sashrimnir.  The  Valkyries  (Val- 
kyrjur  or  Valkyriur)  wait  upon  the  warriors,  furnish- 
ing them  with  drink  and  food,  (see  Valkyria;)  but 
Odin  himself  lives  on  wine  alone.  Near  Valhalla  is 
Vingolf,  the  hall  where  the  goddesses  assemble.  Odin's 
throne  was  called  Hlidskjalf  (hlid'ske-Slf)  or  Lidskialf, 
whence  his  eye  is  said  to  survey  the  whole  world. 

Regardiivg  Odin  as  the  living  spirit  which  pervades 
the  universe,  the  Norse  poets  have  represented  living 


•  In  like  manner  Jupiter  was  called  "  Father  of  the  gods  and  king 
men,"  ("Divum  pater  atque  hominum  rex,")  altlioueh  the  son  of 
Saturn,  (or  Cronos,)  who  again  was  the  son  of  CceIus  (Uranus)  and 
Terra,  (Ge.)    . 

t  BuRi,  (boo're,)  written  also  Pure,  [i.e.  "  producing,"  because,  be- 
ing the  first  of  the  gods,  he  was  the  progenitor  of  all  the  others,]  is 
described  as  a  mighty  and  beautiful  being  in  human  form,  who  came 
into  existence  soon  after  the  mythic  cow  Audhumla  began  to  lick  the 
frost-covered  rocks  of  the  primeval  chaos.  He  had  a  son  named  P.or 
(boR)  or  Bore,  [i.e.  "born"  or  "produced,"  and  hence  "  son,"]  who 
:s  said  to  have  married  the  daughter  of  the  giant  Bolthom,  and  to 
have  had  by  her  three  sons, — Odin,  Vili,  and  Ve, 


of 


nature  under  the  symbol  of  the  ash-tree,  (Ygg'drasil  or 
Ig'drasil,)  that  is,  the  seat  or  abode  of  Odin. J  "All 
life,"  says  Carlyle,  "is  figured  by  them  [the  Northmen] 
as  a  tree.  Igdrasil,  the  A.sh-tree  of  Existence,  has  its 
roots  deep  down  in  the  kingdom  of  Hela,  (or  Death,)  its 
trunk  reaches  up  heaven-high,  spreads  its  boughs  over 
the  whole  universe.  ...  At  the  foot  of  it,  in  the  Death- 
kingdom,  sit  Three  Nomas,  Fates, — the  Past,  Present, 
Future, — watering  its  roots  from  the  sacred  Well.  .  .  . 
Its  boughs  are  histories  of  nations.  The  rustle  of  it  is 
the  noise  of  human  existence.  ...  I  find  no  similitude 
so  true  as  this  of  a  tree.  Beautiful ;  altogether  beautiful 
and  great.  The  'machine  of  the  universe,' — alas,  do 
but  think  of  that  in  contrast !" 

Although  Odin  (Spirit  or  Thought)  was  the  principa 
creator  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  he  was  assisted  by 
his  brothers  Vili  (Will)  and  Ve,  ( I  loliness.)  "  The  gods, 
having  got  the  giant  Ymir  slain,"  says  Carlyle,  "deter- 
mined on  constructing  a  world  with  him.  His  blood 
made  the  sea,  his  flesh  was  the  land,  and  the  rocks  his 
bones  ;  of  his  eyebrows  they  formed  Asgard,  .  .  .  his 
skull  was  the  great  blue  vault  of  immensity,  and  the 
brains  of  it  became  the  clouds.  What  a  Hyper-Brob- 
dignagian  business  !"  It  is,  however,  only  in  the  creation 
of  the  world  that  Vili  and  Ve  are  mentioned ;  they  ap- 
pear afterwards  to  have  become  blended  or  absorbed 
in  Odin,  the  all-embracing  World-Spirit.  Among  Odin's 
possessions  may  be  mentioned  a  horse  of  wondrons 
powers,  with  eight  legs,  called  Sleipnir,  on  which  he 
rides  over  land  and  sea ;  and  Gungnir,  (giing'nir,)  a 
spear,  which  never  failed  to  strike  whatever  it  was  aimed 
at.  He  has  also  two  ravens,  named  Hugin  and  Munin, 
which  he  sends  forth  over  the  whole  world  to  get  intel- 
ligence. In  addition  to  his  other  attributes,  Odin  was 
su|)posed  to  possess  marvellous  powers  as  a  magician. 

Odin  is  to  be  considered  to  represent  energy  and 
courage  rather  than  knowledge.  Hence  it  is  said  that 
he  once  went  to  Mimir's§  well,  at  the  root  of  Yggdrasil, 
for  a  drink  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge,  but,  in  order 
to  obtain  it,  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  deposit  one  of 
his  eyes  as  a  pledge,  whence  he  is  usually  represented 
as  one-eyed. 

War  being  almost  the  sole  occupation  of  the  ancient 
Northmen,  Odin,  their  principal  deity,  became  of  neces- 
sity the  god  of  war,  his  character  in  this  respect  nearly 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  Mars  (Ares)  of  classic  my- 
thology.ll  He  is  represented  as  having  first  introduced 
war  and  slaughter  among  mankind.  Again,  he  differed 
from  Jupiter  in  not  wielding  the  thunderbolt,  this  weapon 
belonging  to  Thor ;  but,  in  a  region  where  thunder- 
storms are  comparatively  unfrequent,  the  possession  of 
the  thunderbolt  was  less  essential  to  the  dignity  of  the 
hief  of  the  gods  than  in  the  countries  where  Olympian 
Zeus  was  worshipped.     (.See  Thor.) 

Odin  is  not  immortal  in  the  fullest  sense ;  at  Ragna- 
rock  (the  final  destruction  of  the  ^Esir  and  the  world), 
he  is  fated  to  be  destroyed  by  the  wolf  Fenrir,  the  off- 
spring of  Loki.    (See  LoKl.) 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. :  "Religion  of  the 
Northmen,"  by  Rudolph  Kevser,  translated  by  Barclay  Pen- 
nock,  New  York,  1854  ;  Mai.let,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  section  "Icelandic 
Language  and  Poetry ;'_'  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi,"  p.  30 
et  seq. 

Odin,  o'd&N',  (John  Mary,)  an  archbishop,  born  at 
Ambierle,  in  France,  February  25,  1801.  He  became  a 
Lazarist  in  his  youth,  studied  at  Paris,  came  in  1822  to 
the  Unite<]  States,  and  became  a  teacher  and  student  in 
the  Lazarist  house  at  the  Barrens,  in  Missouri.  In  1824 
he  entered  upon  the  laborious  life  of  a  travelling  mis- 
sionary, and  was  afterwards  president  of  the  college  at 
the  Barrens.  He  was  consecrated  in  1842  Bishop  of 
Claudiopolis,  and  became  Vicar-Apostolic  of  Texas.  In 
1847  he  was  installed  as  Bishop  of  Galveston,  the  first 
of  the  title,  and  in  i86i  he  was  appointed  Archbishop 
of  New  Orleans.     Died  at  Ambierle,  May  25,  1870. 

O'ding-tpn,  (Walter,)  a  learned  English  monk  under 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  called  Walter  of  Eves- 

%  Vgg  or  Yggr  {i.e.  the  "  terrible")  is  one  of  the  many  names  of 
Odin.     Drasill ox  dr'dsidl  is  said  to  signify  "chariot"  or  "  seat." 
2  Mimir  signifies  the  "  knowing  one." 
\  Saxo  Gramniaticus,  writing  in  Latin,  calls  Odin  Mars. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y.  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolongedj  a,  e,  T,  o,  Ci,  jf^ short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  m65n; 


ODIOT 


1843 


ORDER 


HAM,  from  the  monastery  of  that  name  in  Worcester- 
shire. He  was  the  author  of  valuable  works  on  music, 
astronomy,  and  mathematics. 

Odiot,  o'deV,  (Jean  Raptiste  Claude,)  a  French 
goldsmith,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  His  works  had  a 
European  reputation.     Died  in  1850. 

Od'liiig,  (William,)  an  English  chemist,  born  at 
Southwark,  September  5,  1S29.  He  studied  medicine 
at  Guy's  Hospital,  graduated  as  M.B.  of  the  University 
of  London  in  185 1,  and  became  professor  of  chemistry  in 
the  Royal  Institution  in  1868,  and  at  the  University  of 
Oxford  in  1872.  He  published  various  treatises  on 
chemistry,  besides  papers  on  chemical  theory,  etc. 

Odo,  o'do',  or  Odon,  o'dAN',  [Lat.  Odoar'dus,]  a 
French  prelate  of  great  learning  and  influence,  was  born 
at  Orleans.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  Cambray  in  1105. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology,  which  have  been 
printed.     Died  in  11 13. 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

O'do,  [Fr.  Odon,  o'd6N',]  Saint,  an  English  ecclesi- 
astic, was  patronized  by  King  Alfred  and  his  immediate 
successors,  and  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by 
King  Edmund  in  944.     Died  in  958. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  ch.  vii. 

Odo  or  Odon,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Cluny  or  Clugny, 
was  born  in  France  about  S79  a.d.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  reformer  of  monastic  discipline.     Died  in  943. 

See  B.  HAURitAU,  "  Histoire  litt^raire  du  Maine." 

Odo  or  Odon  de  Conteville,  o'dAw'  deh  kANt' 
\h\',  born  in  Normandy  in  1032,  was  a  half-brother  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bayeux 
in  1049.  After  the  conquest  of  England  he  obtained 
the  title  of  Earl  of  Kent  and  Hereford,  and  was  grand 
justiciary.  He  is  said'  to  have  been  cruel  and  arrogant. 
Died  in  1097. 

See  Provost,  "  Histoire  de  Guillaume  le  Conqu^rant ;"  "  Gallia 
Christiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Odo  of  Kent,  Abbot  of  Battle,  an  English  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Kent,  was  a  friend  of  Thomas  k  Becket. 
He  wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1200. 

Od-o-a'cer,  jGr.  '0(iua/f,wf ;  Fr.  Odoacre,  o'do'tkR',] 
a  Gothic  military  commander  in  the  service  of  the  West- 
ern Roman  empire.  Soon  after  the  deposition  of  the 
emperor  Julius  Nepos  by  Orestes,  who  had  usurped  the 
throne  in  the  name  of  his  son  Romulus,  Odoacer  ad- 
vanced to  Pavia,  took  Orestes  prisoner,  and  caused  him 
to  be  executed,  in  475  a.d.  Having  banished  Romulus, 
he  was  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  by  his  army ;  but  he 
refused  the  imperial  titles,  and  the  Western  Empire  was 
thenceforth  considered  at  an  end.  In  4S8,  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  invaded  Italy,  and  besieged 
Odoacer  in  Ravenna.  After  a  brave  and  protracted  re- 
sistance, he  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  was  exe- 
cuted in  493,  by  order  of  Theoduric,  who  proclaimed 
himself  king. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lb 
Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Jornandes,  "  De  Rebus  Goth- 
icis;"  Procofius,  "Bellum  Gothicum;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Odoacre.    See  Odoacer. 

Odoardus.     See  Odo. 

O-do-fre'dus,  an  Italian  jurist  of  high  reputation, 
born  at  Bologna ;  died  in  1265. 

Odolant-Desnos,  o'do'lfiN'  dji'no',  (Joseph,)  a 
French  savant,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1797,  wrote  several 
scientific  and  descriptive  works. 

Odolant-Desnos,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Alen^on  in  1722,  was  grand- 
father of  the  preceding.     Died  in  i8oL 

Odon.    See  Odo. 

O'Don'nell,  (Leopold,)  Count  of  Lucena  and  Duke 
of  Tetuan,  a  Spanish  general,  of  Irish  extraction,  was 
born  in  1808  or  1809.  He  fought  for  the  queen  against 
the  Carlists  in  the  civil  war  which  began  about  1833,  and 
defeated  Cabrera  at  Lucena  in  1839.  He  became  the 
enemy  of  Espartero,  whom  he  drove  from  power  in  1843. 
In  1854  he  insdgated  a  revolt  which  resulted  in  a  change 
of  the  ministry,  and  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war. 
He  was  prime  minister  from  July  to  October,  1856,  and 
was  restored  to  the  same  office  in  June,  1858.     He  com- 


manded with  success  in  a  war  against  Morocco  in  1859- 
60.     He  died  in  exile  at  Biarritz  in  1867. 

O'Don'nell  or  O'Don'el,  (Roderick,)  was  created 
Earl  of  Tyrconnel  by  James  I.  in  1603.  Several  of  his 
descendants  espoused  the  cause  of  James  II.,  and,  after 
his  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  settled  in  Austria, 
where  they  rose  to  distinction  in  the  State  and  the  army. 
Charles  O'Donnell  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  became  field-marshal  lieutenant,  and  in  1768  was 
made  Governor-General  of  Transylvania.  Died  in  1770. 
Maurice  O'Donnell  married  Christine,  daughter  of 
the  Prince  of  Ligne,  and  rose  to  be  chamberlain  and 
field-marshal  lieutenant.  Died  in  1843.  Joseph  Henry 
O'Donnell  entered  the  Spanish  service  about  1795, 
and  gained  several  advantages  over  the  French.  For 
his  victory  at  L'Abispal  he  received  the  title  of  Count 
of  Abispal.  Having  subsequently  incurred  the  sus- 
picions of  the  constitutional  party,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  command,  and  took  refuge  in  France,  where  he 
died  in  1834. 

O'Don'o-van,  (John,)  an  Irish  archneologist  and 
eminent  Celtic  scholar,  born  in  Kilkenny  county  about 
1808.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  "The  Annals 
of  Ireland,  by  the  Four  Masters,  from  the  Earliest  His- 
toric Period  to  A.D.  1616,"  etc.,  (3  vols.  410,  1848-51.) 
Died  in  1861. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Odoran,  o'do'rSN',  or  Odoranne,  o'do'rtn',  a  French 
monk  of  Sens,  born  in  985.  He  wrote  a  general  chron- 
icle from  675  to  1032.     Died  after  1045. 

Odorico  da  Pordenone.     See  Oderico. 

O-dys'seus,  [Gr.  'Oitvoad'q;  Fr.  Odyss^e,  o'de'si',] 
the  Greek  name  of  the  hero  of  Homer's  "Odyssey." 
(See  Ulysses.) 

OElagre.     See  CEagrus. 

GSagrus,  ee'a-grus,  [  Gr.  Otiypof  ,*  Fr.  CEagrk, 
i'tgR',]  a  semi-fabulous  king  of  Thrace,  was  the  father 
of  Orpheus  and  Linus. 

CEcolampade.     See  CEcolampadius. 

CGcolampadius,  ek-o-lam-pa'de-us,  [Ger.  pron, 
a-ko-lim-p.^'de-us ;  Fr.  OScolampade,  i'ko'lSN'pSd'; 
Ger.  Oekolampad,  o-ko-lSm-pit',]  an  eminent  German 
Reformer,  whose  original  name  was  Hausschein  or 
HusGEN,  was  born  in  Franconia  in  1482.  He  studied 
theology  at  Heidelberg,  and  became  in  1515  pastor  of 
a  church  at  Bale,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  strongly  de- 
nounced the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Church.  About  1522 
he  openly  declared  in  favour  of  the  Reformed  faith,  and 
in  1524  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Bale.  In 
the  controversy  between  Luther  and  Zuinglius  concern- 
ing the  real  presence,  he  adopted  the  views  of  the  latter. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous  theological  works,  among 
which  may  be  named  his  Commentaries  on  Isaiah,  Jol^ 
Daniel,  and  Jeremiah,  a  treatise  "On  the  Passover," 
("  De  Ritu  Paschali,")  and  "Annotations  on  Genesis." 
lie  was  one  of  the  most  profound  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  was  remarkable  for  the  moderation  and  general 
excellence  of  his  character.     Died  in  1531. 

See  W.  Capito,  "Vita  J.  Oecolampadii,"  1793;  Grvn.«us,  "  Vita 
J.  Oecolampadii,"  1536;  S.  Hess,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Dr.  J. 
Oecolampadius,"  1793;  Wagner,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Oeco- 
lampadius,"  1804  ;  J.  J.  Herzog,  "Das  Leben  J.  Oekolampads,"  a 
vols.,  1843;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

CBcumenius,  ek-u-mee'ne-us.  Bishop  of  Tricca,  in 
Thessaly,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  ninth  or 
tenth  century.  He  wrote  Commentaries  on  the  Acts, 
on  Saint  Paul'-s  Epistles,  and  on  the  Apocalypse. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria," 

Oeder,  6'der,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  German  exegetical 
writer,  the  father  of  the  following,  was  born  near  Anspach 
in  1694.  He  published  several  commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures.     Died  in  1760. 

Oeder,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  distinguished  German 
botanist,  born  at  Anspach  in  1728.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen  under  Haller,  through  whose  influence  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  at  Copenhagen  in  1752. 
His  most  important  work  is  his  si)lendid  "  Flora  Danica," 
(3  vols.,  1762-72,)  illustrated  with  upwards  of  sixteen 
hundred  figures  of  plants.  It  was  afterwards  continued 
by  Miiller.  The  9th  and  last  volume  was  issued  in  1814. 
Oeder  also  wrote  several  able  treatises  on  political  econ- 
omy and  finance.     Died  in  1 791. 


cas  k;  5  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  Yi,^Utural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (fil^^See  Explanations,  p.  2 V) 


(EDIPE 


1844 


OERSTED 


Qjdipe.    See  OEniPUS. 

OEjdipus,  Jd'e-pus,  [Gr.  0«5t77<wf;  Fr.  CEdipe,  i'dtp',] 
a  son  of  Laius,  King  of  Thebes,  and  Jocasta,  was  cele- 
brated in  Greek  mythology  and  tragic  poetry  as  a  type 
or  instance  of  the  fatality  which  man  cannot  escape. 
According  to  the  legend,  an  oracle  warned  Laius  that  if 
he  ever  had  a  son,  that  son  should  kill  his  father  and 
marry  his  mother.  Laius  therefore  exposed  his  first- 
born son  soon  after  his  birth,  in  order  that  he  might 
perish  ;  but  he  was  found  by  a  shepherd  of  Polybus,  King 
of  Corinth,  was  named  CEdipiis,  and  brought  up  as  the 
son  of  Polybus.  Having  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi, 
he  was  informed  that  he  should  commit  parricide.  In 
the  course  of  a  journey  he  met  Laius  in  the  road,  with 
attendants,  who  provoked  a  quarrel,  in  which  CEdipus 
killed  the  King  of  Thebes.  Soon  after  this  event  the 
throne  of  Thebes  and  the  hand  of  Jocasta,  the  queen, 
were  offered  to  him  who  should  solve  the  riddle  of  the 
Sphinx.  (See  Sphinx.)  CEdipus  solved  the  riddle,  ob- 
tained the  throne,  and  became  father  of  several  children 
by  Jocasta.  He  afterwards  discovered  his  gailt,  and 
suffered  penalties  and  misfortunes  of  which  contradictory 
accounts  are  given  by  different  writers. 

See  Sophocles,  "CEdipus  Tyrannus ;"  "The  Odyssey,"  book 
xi. ;  Euripides,  "  Phoenissae  ;"  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

CSdman,  od'mSn,  (Samuel,)  a  Swedish  savant  and 
theologian,  born  in  Smiland  in  1750.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Upsal  in  1806,  and  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  the  Scriptures.     Died  in  1829. 

OedumlcL     See  Audhumla. 

Oefele,  o'feh-leh,  (Franz  Ignaz,)  a  skilful  German 
painter,  born  at  Posen  in  1721  ;  died  in  1797. 

CEgir,  [from  oga,  to  "shudder  at,"  to  "dread,"]  or 
Hler,  hlair,  i.e.  the  "  Shelterer,"  [from  hie,  "lee,"]  the 
god  of  the  sea  or  ocean.  His  wife  Ran  has  a  net,  with 
which,  it  is  said,  she  catches  seafarers.  Their  nu- 
merous daughters  are  the  waves  of  the  ocean.  CEgir 
and  Hler  appear  to  have  been  originally  regarded  as 
two  distinct  personages, — the  former  ruling  over  the 
stormy,  the  latter  over  the  tranquil,  sea.  Ran  (signifjring 
•'robbery,"  or  "one  who  robs  or  bereaves")  represents 
the  tendency  of  the  sea  to  rob  men  of  life  and  of  their 
most  precious  treasures.  It  is  related  in  one  of  the  Norse 
legends  that,  the  ^sir  having  once  paid  a  visit  to  QEgir, 
he  was  in  want  of  a  kettle  large  enough  to  brew  beer 
for  them.  Thereupon  Thor  and  Tyr  went  to  the  dwell- 
ing of  the  giant  Hymir,  who  had  a  very  s]iacious  kettle, 
a  mile  deep,  Thor  grasped  the  kettle  by  the  rim  and 
threw  it  over  his  head,  so  that  the  rings  came  down  to  his 
feet,  almost  hiding  him  from  view.  After  that,  CEgir  and 
the  yEsir  had  an  ample  supply  of  beer  for  their  banquets. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  67-69;  Key.ser, 
"Religion  of  the  Northmen  ;"  Pkter.sen,  "  Nordisk  Mj-thologi." 

Oehlenschlager  or  Ohlenschlager,  b'len-shla'ger, 
(Adam  Gottlob,)  an  eminent  Danish  poet,  born  in  a 
suburb  of  Copenhagen  on  the  14th  of  November,  1779, 
was  the  son  of  a  German  who  had  settled  in  Denmark. 
He  began  at  an  early  age  to  write  plays,  which  he  would 
act  in  company  with  his  sister  and  young  associates.  His 
enthusiasm  for  the  drama  introduced  him  to  the  notice 
and  friendship  of  Rahbek  and  Rosing.  He  was  after- 
wards attracted  to  the  study  of  Scandinavian  antiquities 
and  historical  legends,  which  furnished  material  for 
some  of  his  most  popular  dramas.  He  publisiied  in 
1805  a  collection  of  poems,  including  the  dramatic  tale 
of  "  Aladdin,"  which  displays  the  splendid  colouring  of 
Oriental  fiction.  The  same  year  he  visited  Germany, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Goethe,  Tieck,  and 
other  celebrated  writers  of  the  time.  While  there  he 
composed  several  dramas  in  Danish,  which  he  translated 
into  German  and  submitted  to  the  criticism  of  his 
friends.  From  Germany  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  and 
thence  to  Rome,  returning  to  Copenhagen  in  1810.  He 
had  written  during  his  absence  his  tragedies  of  "Pal- 
natoke,"  (1809,)  "Axel  and  Valborg,"  (1810,)  and  "Cor- 
reggio,"  which  are  ranked  among  his  best  productions. 
He  was  appointed  soon  after  his  return  professor  of 
aesthetics  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  the  same 
year  married  Christiana  Heger,  a  sister  of  Rahbek's 
wife.    Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  works  are 


the  dramas  of  "  Hakon  Jarl,"  "  Staerkodder,"  "  Hagbarth 
and  Signa,"  (1814,)  "The  Normans  at  Byzantium," 
"Charlemagne,"  "  Tordenskiold,"  and  "  Amleth,"  also 
the  poems  entitled  "  Helge,"  (1814,)  "Hroar's  Saga," 
{i8i7,)and  his  splendid  epic,  "The  Gods  of  the  North," 
("  Nordens  Guder,"  1819.)  He  died  in  January,  1850,  and 
his  funeral  was  solemnized  with  great  magnificence  bv 
his  countrymen,  by  whom  he  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  great  national  poet  of  Denmark.  "  Few  men,"  says 
M.  Marmier,  "  have  been  endowed  with  a  genius  as  fer- 
tile and  as  facile  as  that  of  Oehlenschlager.  The  verses 
fall  from  his  pen  like  water  from  a  fountain.  Hence 
his  style  is  charming  in  its  grace,  flexibility,  and  abandon, 
but  it  is  frequently  very  negligent." 

See  his  Autobioiiniphy,  "A.  Ohlenschlacer's  Levnet,"  a  vols., 
1831  ;  Marmier,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litt^ratiire  Danoise  :"  Le  FfevRE- 
Deumier,  "  Oehlenschlager  le  Poete  national  du  Danemarck,"  1854 ; 
C.  MoLBECH,  "  Stiidler  over  Ohlenschlagers  Poesie,"  1850;  Erslew, 
"  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  :"  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe :"  Hewitt,  "  Literature 
and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe;"  "Blackwood's  .Magazine"  for 
December  and  April,  1820,  and  March,  1827  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  June,  1830^  article  "  Danish  and  Norwegian  Literature  ;" 
also  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly"  for  July.  1831. 

Oekolampad.     See  CEcolampadius. 

Oelrichs,  61'r!ks,  (Joilvn.n,)  a  German  writer  and 
clergyman,  born  at  Bremen  in  1724.  Among  his  works 
are  contributions  to  the  literary  history  of  Germany, 
Belgium,  etc     Died  in  1801. 

Oelrichs,  [Lat.  CElrich'sius,]  (Johann  Karl  Con- 
rad,) a  German  scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1722,  was 
appointed  in  1784  counsellor  of  legation  at  the  court  of 
Prussia.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical  and  Literary 
Miscellanies,"  (1760,)  and  other  works  on  history  and 
bibliography.     Died  in  1798. 

See  Meierotto,  "Vita  CEIrichsii,"  1799. 

Qilrichsius.     See  Oelrichs. 

CEnee.     See  CEneus. 

CEneus,  ee'nus,  [Gr.  Olvnx;  Fr.  CEn^e,  ft'ni',|  a 
king  of  Calydon,  married  Althaea,  and  was  the  father 
of  i^Ieleager,  Tydeus,  and  other  children.  According  to 
the  fable,  he  offended  Diana,  who  sent  a  wild  boar  to 
ravage  his  dominions.  This  boar  was  the  object  of  the 
famous  Calydonian  hunt.  CEneus  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  whom  Bacchus  taught  to  cultivate  the  vine. 

GBuomas.     See  CEnomaus. 

CEnomaus,  e-no'ma-us,  [Gr.  Olvd/iaoc;  Fr.  CEnomas, 
i'no'mSs',]  a  king  of  Pisa,  in  Elis,  was  called  a  son 
of  Mars.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  promised  to  give 
his  daughter  Hippodami'a  to  the  man  who  should  con- 
quer him  in  a  chariot-race,  with  the  annexed  condition 
that  every  one  who  tried  and  failed  must  suffer  death. 
After  many  suitors  had  failed  and  perished,  Pelops 
gained  the  victory,  and  CEnomaus  killed  himself. 

CEnomaus,  [0/v6//aof,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Cynic  school,  born  at  Gadara,  lived  about  120-40  a.tk 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  in  which  he 
e-xposed  the  impostures  of  Oracles.  His  works  are  not 
extant. 

CEnone,  e-no'ne,  [Gr.  Oivuvr) ;  Fr.  Oenone,  i'non',] 
a  nymph  of  Mount  Ida,  who  was  said  to  have  received 
from  Apollo  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  to  have  been 
married  to  Paris  before  he  was  known  to  be  a  son  of 
Priam. 

CEnopides,  e-nop'e-d^z,  [OlvoTridTji,]  a  Greek  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Chios,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He  is 
said  to  have  derived  his  knowledge  frgm  the  Egyptian 
priests.  ./Elian  attributes  to  him  the  invention  of  the 
cycle  of  fifty-nine  years  to  make  the  lunar  year  coincide 
or  accord  with  the  solar  year.  He  was  acquainted  with 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 

CEnopion,  e-no'pe-on,  [Gr.  Olvnniuv ;  Fr.  Oenope, 
i'nop',  or  Oenopion,  i'no'pe'6N',]  in  classic  mythology, 
a  son  of  Bacchus,  and  King  of  Chios,  (Scio.)  His  daugh- 
ter Merope,  it  is  said,  was  ravished  by  Orion.  (See 
Orion.) 

Oernhielm  or  Ornhielm,  oRn'he-?lm',  (Claudiijs 
Akrhenius,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  at  Linkoping  in 
1627.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "On  the  Mon- 
archies of  the  World,"  ("De  Monarches  Orbis,"  1683.) 
Died  in  1695. 

Oersted  or  Orsted,  oR'stSd,  (Anders  Sandoe,)  an 
eminent  Danish  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Rudkjo- 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y, /ong;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sior/;  a,  e,  j,  9,  oliscttrd;  lar,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  ndl;  good;  moon; 


OERSTED 


1845 


a  FLAHERTY 


bing  in  1778.  He  married  Sophia,  a  sister  of  the  famous 
poet  Oehlenschlager,  in  1802.  He  published  numerous 
legal  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Eunomia,"  (4  vols., 
1815-22.)  In  1841  or  1842  he  became  a  minister  of 
state,  and  opposed  the  liberal  or  popular  measures.  He 
resigned  in  1848,  and  was  appointed  prime  minister  in 
1853.  His  policy  having  been  condemned  by  the  Diet, 
he  was  removed  about  the  end  of  1854.  He  published 
a  "History  of  my  Life  and  Times,"  (4  vols.,  1851-56.) 
Died  in  i860. 

See  Erslew.  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Oersted,  (Anders  Sandoe,)  a  naturalist,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rudkjobing  in  1816.  He 
travelled  in  the  West  Indies,  and  published  several 
works  on  natural  history.     Died  September  3,  1872. 

Oersted,  (Hans  Christian,)  a  celebrated  Danish 
natural  philosopher,  the  founder  of  the  science  of  electro- 
magnetism,  was  born  at  Rudkjobing,  in  the  island  of 
Langeland,  on  the  14th  of  August,  1777.  He  was  edu- 
cated with  his  brother,  Anders  Sandoe,  the  jurist,  at  the 
University  of  Copenhagen.  In  1806  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  physics  in  that  institution.  He  produced  in 
1812  an  "Essay  on  the  Identity  of  Chemical  and  Elec- 
trical Forces."  In  1820  he  announced  his  great  dis- 
covery of  the  relation  between  magnetism  and  electricity, 
in  a  short  work  entitled  "  Experimenta  circum  Effectum 
Conflictus  electrici  in  Acum  magneticum."  The  electric 
telegraph  is  one  of  the  most  direct  practical  results  of 
this  discovery.  He  demonstrated  that  the  electric  cur- 
rent, according  to  a  uniform  law,  "exercises  determined 
and  similar  impressions  on  the  direction  of  a  magnetic 
needle"  near  which  it  passes.  This  discovery  was  re- 
ceived with  great  enthusiasm,  as  the  revelation  of  an 
important  fact  which  had  long  escaped  the  researches 
of  so  many  sagacious  minds.  "Of  all  the  philosophers 
who  had  speculated  on  this  subject,"  says  Sir  John  Her- 
schel,  "none  had  so  pertinaciously  adhered  to  the  idea 
of  a  necessary  connection  between  the  phenomena  as 
Oersted.  Baffled  often,  he  returned  to  the  attack,  and 
his  perseverance  was  at  length  rewarded  by  the  complete 
disclosure  of  the  wonderful  phenomena  of  electro-mag- 
netism." ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natu- 
ral Philosophy.") 

"The  desideratum  of  a  clear  expression  of  the  manifest 
alliance  between  electricity  and  magnetism,"  says  James 
David  Forbes,  "had  been  so  long  and  so  universally 
felt  that  the  discovery  placed  its  author  in  the  first  rank 
of  scientific  men.  There  was  not  even,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  a  suspicion  that  he  had  been,  however  remotely 
or  dimly,  anticipated.  The  prize  of  the  French  Institute, 
which  had  been  awarded  to  Davy  for  his  galvanic  dis- 
coveries, was  bestowed  upon  Oersted."  (Sixth  Disser- 
tation of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  vol.  i.)  "I 
scarcely  know,"  says  Niebuhr,  "another  natural  philoso- 
pher with  so  much  intellect  and  freedom  from  prejudice 
and  esprit  de  corps."  Oersted  received  for  this  discovery 
the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and 
was  created  a  knight  of  the  order  of  Danebrog.  He 
also  made  discoveries  in  chemistry,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  that  science.  Among  these  are  "  Materialien 
zu  einer  Chemie  des  igten  Jahrhunderts,"  (1803,)  and 
"  Tentamen  Nomenclaturae  chemicae,"  (1814.)  He  wrote 
a  poem  called  "The  Balloon,"  ("  Lufskibet,"  1836.) 
His  writings  have  contributed  greatly  to  popularize 
science.  A  selection  of  his  works  was  published  in  1850, 
under  the  title  of  "The  Spirit  in  Nature,"  ("  Der  Geist 
in  der  Natur,")  preceded  by  a  biographical  notice  of 
Oersted  by  P.  L.  Moller.     Died  in  March,  185 1. 

See  "  H.  C.  Oersteds  Leben,"  by  Hauck  and  Forchhammer, 
(from  the  Danish,)  1853;  Becquerec,  "Resume  de  I'Histoire 
d'filectricit^,"  etc.,  1858;  Cali.isen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller- 
Lexikon  ;"  "'  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Memoir  of  Oersted," 
by  Eli8  de  Beaumont,  in  the  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  1868. 

Oertel,  iiii'tel,  (Philipp  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  writer  of  stories,  born  at  Horn,  (whence  his 
pseudonym  of  W,  O.  von  Horn,)  August  15,  1798. 
He  was  a  Protestant  minister,  and  the  author  of  many 
popular  tales.     Died  at  Wiesbaden,  October  14,  1867. 

Oertel,  van.    See  Ortelius. 

Oeser  or  Oser,  o'zer,  (Adam  Friedrich,)  a  distin- 
guished  painter  and    sculiitor,  of  German    extraction. 


born  at  Presburg,  in  Hungary,  in  1 71 7.  He  studied  .n 
1739  at  Dresden,  where  he  formed  an  intimacy  with 
VVinckelmann.  He  was  subsequently  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Architecture,  Painting,  and  Design  at  Leip- 
sic.  Among  his  pupils  here  was  the  celebrated  Goethe, 
who  entertained  a  great  regard  for  him.  His  best  paint- 
ings are  in  fresco  ;  and  a  number  of  them  adorn  the 
church  of  Saint  Nicholas  at  Leipsic  His  monument 
to  Queen  Matilda  of  Denmark  is  one  of  his  most  ad- 
mired pieces  of  sculpture.     Died  in  1799. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruhbr,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Nagler, 
'Aligemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Oeser  or  Oser,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1 751,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1792. 

Oesterley  or  Osterley,  os'ter-ll',  (Kari,,)  a  German 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1805.     He  became  court  painter  at  Hanover.  ., 

Oetinger,  o'ting'er,  sometimes  written  Ottinger, 
(Friedrich  Christoph,)  a  learned  German  theologian, 
and  prominent  leader  of  the  Pietists,  was  born  in  Wur- 
temberg  in  1702.  He  wrote  a  number  of  commentaries 
on  the  Scriptures,  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Age  of 
Gold,"  and  "  Ancient  Philosophy."  He  also  translated 
several  of  the  works  of  Swedenborg,  of  whom  he  was 
a  warm  admirer,  and  whom  he  much  resembled  in  purity 
of  character  and  religious  fervour.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Count  Zinzendorf,  whom  he  assisted  in  anew  translation 
of  the  Scriptures.     Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Neues  Gelehrtes-Europa  ;"  Auberlen,  "  Die  Theosophie 
F.  C.  Oetinger's  nach  ihren  GrundzUgen,"  1847. 

Oetter  or  Otter,  bt'ter,  (Samuel  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man antiquary,  born  at  Goldcronach  in  1720.  He  wrote 
on  history  and  antiquities.     Died  in  1792. 

Oettinger  or  Ottinger,  ot'ting'er,  (Eduard  Marie,) 
a  German  journalist  and  novelist,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1808.  He  edited  several  satirical  journals,  and  published 
a  number  of  novels,  among  which  is"Onkel  Zebra."  (7 
vols.,  1843.)  He  also  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Rossini," 
(1847,)  which  is  said  to  be  a  romance  rather  than  a 
biography,  and  "  Bibliographie  biographique  univer- 
selle,"  (2  vols.,  1850-54,)  the  most  complete  work  on 
that  subject.     Died  June  26,  1872. 

See  A.  DE  Reume.  "  Notice  bio-bibliographique  sur  M.  E.  M. 
Oettinger,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Ofalia,  o-fa'le-a,  (Don  Narciso  de  Heredia,) 
Count,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  in  1771,  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior  under  Zea  Bermudez  in  1832.  He 
was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  VII.  executor  of  his  will 
and  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency.  He  was  presi 
dent  of  the  council  of  ministers  in  1837.     Died  in  1845. 

O'Far'rill,  (Don  Gonzalo,)  a  Spanish  general,  born 
at  Havana  in  1 754,  became  minister  of  war  under  Joseph 
Bonaparte.     Died  in  Paris  in  183 1. 

Of  fa,  a  Saxon,  who  succeeded  Ethelbald  as  King  of 
Mercia'  in  755  a.d.  Having  murdered  Ethelbert,  King 
of  East  Anglia,  he  took  possession  of  his  kingdom. 

Offenbach,  of'fen-baK',(jACQUES,)  a  popular  composer 
of  comic  operas,  born  at  Cologne  in  1819,  studied  in  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  the  "  Grand  Duchess  of  Gerolstein," 
"  Orpheus  in  the  Lower  Regions,"  "  La  Belle  Helene," 
"Blue-Beard,"  "La  Vie  Parisienne,"  "La  Bavarde  de 
Saragosse,"  "  La  Perichole,"  "  Les  Brigands,"  "  Le  Cor- 
saire  Noir,"  "  La  Jolie  Parfumeuse,"  "  Voyage  dans  la 
Lune,"  and  "  Le  Docteur  Ox."     Died  October  5,  1880. 

Offer,  (George,)  an  English  writer,  and  a  bookseller 
in  London,  was  born  about  1786.  He  published  a  "Life 
of  John  Bunyan,"  (1853.)     Died  in  1864. 

O'Fihely,  o-fee'le, .?  (Maurice,)  an  Irish  prelate  and 
scholar,  who  was  made  Archbishop  of  Tuam  by  Pope 
Julius  II.  in  1506.  He  was  eminent  for  his  learning,  and 
was  surnamed  Flos  Mundi,  ("  Flower  of  the  World.") 
Died  in  15 13. 

O-fil'I-us,  (AuLUS.)  a  Roman  jurist  of  high  reputa- 
tion, was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  and  a  pupil  of  Sulpicius. 
His  writings  are  cited  in  the  Digest.  Among  his 
pupils  were  Capito  and  Labeo. 

O'Flaherty,  o-fl4'her-te,  (Roderic,)  born  at  Moycul- 
lin,  Ireland,  in  1630,  published  in  1685  a  Latin  "  History 
of  Ireland  from  the  Deluge  to  the  Year  1684."  Died 
in  1 718. 


c  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  o,  H,  v.,guttural;  N,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


a  FLANAGAN 


1846 


aHARA 


O'Plan'a-gan,  (James  Roderick,)  an  Irish  author, 
born  at  Fe'rmoy,  September  i,  1814.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1838.  He  published  "Impressions  at  Home 
and  Abroad,"  (2  vols.,  1837,)  "Bar  Life  of  O'Connell," 
(1866,)  "  Bryan  O'Regan,"  (a  novel,  1S66,)  "  Lives  of  the 
Lord  Chancellors  of  Ireland,"  (2  vols.,  1870,)  "Captain 
O'Shaughnessy's  Sporting  Career,"  (1873,)  "The  Irish 
Bar,"  (1879,)  "History  of  the  Irish  People,"  and  other 
works. 

Ofterdingen,  von,  fon  ofter-ding'en,  (Heinrich,)  a 
famous  German  minstrel  or  minnesinger-  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  favourite  of  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  authoi 
of  the  "Nibelungenlied;"  but  of  this  there  appears  to 
he  little  evidence. 

See  Hagen,  "Museum  fur  Alt-Deutsclie  Literatur  und  Kunst," 
i8ia 

Og'den,  (Aaron,)  born  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jer- 
sey, in  1756,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and 
was  elected  Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1S12.     Died  in 

1839. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,' 
vol.  i. 

Ogden,  (Davtd  B.,)  a  distinguished  American  lawyer 
and  resident  of  New  York  City,  was  born  in  1769.  He 
removed  from  New  Jersey  to  New  York  in  1802.  Died 
in  1849. 

Ogden,  (Jacob,)  an  American  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1721  ;  died  in 

1779- 

Ogden,  (Matthias,)  an  American  brigadier-general 
in  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  died  at  Elizabethtown, 
New  Jersey,  in  1791. 

Og'den,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Manchester  in  1716.  He  became  Woodwardian  pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge  in  1764,  and  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons.     Died  in  1778. 

Og6,  o'zhi',  (Vi.NCENT,)  a  Creole  of  Saint  Domingo, 
who,  having  in  vain  solicited  the  French  National  As- 
sembly to  grant  equal  rights  to  the  coloured  people, 
became  in  1790  the  leader  of  an  insurrection,  with  a 
view  of  gaining  his  object  by  force  of  arms.  His  party 
were  soon  overpowered  by  the  French  troops,  and 
Oge,  together  with  his  lieutenant,  Chavannes,  who  had 
been  guilty  of  the  principal  outrages,  was  executed  in 
1791. 

See  Dalmas,  "Revolution  de  Saint-Domingue ;"  Mai.e.vfant, 
"  Histoire  des  Colouies." 

Oggione,  d',  d6d-jo'ni,  (Marco,)  written  also  Ug- 
gione,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  in  the  Milanese 
about  1470,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whose 
style  he  imitated  successfully.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  his  "  Three  Archangels,"  and  an  altar-piece  at  Milan. 
His  most  important  works  are  two  copies  of  "The  Last 
Supper"  of  Da  Vinci,  one  of  which  is  in  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  London.  The  excellence  of  these  pictures, 
and  the  destruction  by  time  of  the  original,  have  caused 
them  to  be  greatly  prized.     Died  in  1530. 

Ogier.     See  Holger  the  Dane. 

Ogier,  o'zhe-i',  (Charles,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
in  Paris  in  1595^^  He  published  notes  of  his  travels  in 
Denmark,  Sweden,  etc.,  "  Ephemerides,  sive  Iter  Dani- 
cum,  Suecicum  et  Polonicum,"  (1656.)     Died  in  1654. 

Ogier,  (Francois,)  a  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  an 
"Apology  for  M.  de  Balzac,"  (1627,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1670. 

O'gil-by  or  Ogleby,  o'gel-be,  (John,)  a  Scottish  Ut- 
Uraleur  and  printer,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1600,  was 
noted  for  the  variety  and  versatility  of  his  talents.  In 
1633  he  accompanied  Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strafford,  to 
Ireland,  in  the  capacity  of  dancing-master  and  copyist. 
After  his  return  to  England  he  published,  in  1650,  a 
poetical  translation  of  Virgil,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
James  Shirley,  afterwards  translated  the  "Iliad"  and 
•'Odyssey"  into  English  verse,  having  learned  Greek  for 
that  purpose  when  upwards  of  fifty  years  of  age.  These 
versions  were  very  popular  at  that  time,  and  possessed 
great  typographical  beauty.  Ogilby  was  also  appointed 
royal  cosmographer,  and  published  a  number  of  geo- 
graphical works.     Died  in  1676. 


Ogilvie,  o'gil-ve,  (James,)  a  Scottish  orator  and 
teacher  of  elocution,  born  about  1760,  or,  as  others  say, 
1775.  H^  delivered  lectures  as  models  of  oratory  in 
the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  received  much 
applause.     He  died  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1820. 

Ogilvie,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  writer,  born 
in  1733.  Among  his  works  are  "Britannia,"  an  epic 
poem,  (iSoi,)  and  an  "Examination  of  the  Evidenc* 
of  Prophecy  in  Favour  of  Christianity,"  (1803.)  Died 
in  1814. 

Ogilvie,  (John,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  lexicographer, 
born  in  1797.  He  prepared  the  "Imperial  Dictionary." 
Died  November  21,  1867. 

Oginski,  o-gin'skee,  (Michael  Casimir,)  a  Polish 
nobleman,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1731.  He  constructed  a 
canal  in  Poland.     Died  in  1803. 

Oginski,  (Michael  Cleophas,)  a  Polish  composer, 
born  at  Warsaw  in  1765,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding. 
He  settled  in  Italy  about  1815,  and  gained  distinction 
as  a  musical  composer.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Poland 
from  1788  to  1815,"  (2  vols.,  1826.)     Died  in  1831. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Ogive.    See  Edgiva. 

Ogleby.    See  Ogilby. 

Oglesby,  o'gels-be,  (Richard  J.,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Kentucky  in  1824.  He  removed  to  Illinois, 
and  practised  law  in  that  State.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1861,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Corinth,  October  4, 
1862.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Illinois  for  four 
years,  (1S65-68,)  and  again  in  1872.  In  1873  he  was  sent 
to  the  United  States  Senate. 

Oglethorpe,  o'gel-thorp,  (James  Edward,)  an  Eng- 
lish general,  born  in  London,  June  i,  1689.  He  served 
for  a  time  under  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  in 
Germany,  and  obtained  in  1733  the  royal  charter  for 
founding  a  colony  in  North  America,  which  he  called 
Georgia  in  honour  of  the  reigning  king.  Having  passed 
several  years  in  Georgia,  he  returned  to  England  in 
1743,  and  commanded  an  army  against  the  Pretender  in 
1745.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1785.  The  virtues  and  talents  of  General  Ogle- 
thorpe have  been  celebrated  by  Pope,  Thomson,  and 
Dr.  Johnson. 

See  "Memoirs  of  James  Oglethorpe,"  by  Robert  Wright, 
London,  1867  ;  Hildreth,  "  History  of  ihe  United  States,"  vol.  ii. 
chap.  xxiv. ;  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  chap.  xxiv. 

O'Gor'man,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  b.>rn  in  Ireland 
in  1814.  In'iS59  he  was  consecrated  Roman  Catholic 
Bishop  of  Rhaphanea  and  made  Vicar-Apostolic  of  Ne- 
braska.    Died  at  Omaha,  July  4,  1S74. 

Og'y-ges  or  Og'^-gus  [Gr.  'C>t>w,  'Q/fyof,  or 
^py'/f  /  Fr.  OcYGfes,  o'zhe'zh^s']  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  king  or  ruler  of  Thebes,  which  was  sometimes 
called  Ogygia.  According  to  some  writers,  he  was  also 
King  of  Attica,  and  the  father  of  Eleusis.  In  his  reign 
occurred  a  great  inundation  of  Greece  or  Bceotia,  which 
is  called  the  Ogygian  deluge  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  anterior  to  that  of  Deucalion. 

Ogygus.     See  Ogyges. 

O'HalTo-ran,  (Sylvesier,)  an  Irish  antiquary  apu 
surgeon,  born  in  1728.  He  became  surgeon  of  the  Lim- 
erick Hospital.  He  published  an  "Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  (1772,) 
and  a  "General  History  of  Ireland,"  (2  vols.,  1772.) 
Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  January  and  February,  1779. 

O'Hara,  o-hi'ra,  (James,)  a  native  of  Ireland,  emi- 
grated in  1772  to  America,  where  he  became  quarter- 
master-general under  General  Wayne.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  Pittsburg.     Died  in  1819. 

O'Hara,  (Kane,)  a  popular  Irish  dramatist,  wrote, 
among  other  plays,  "The  Golden  Pippin,"  "The  Two 
Misers,"  and  "Midas."     Died  in  1782. 

O'Hara,  o-hi'ra,  (Theodore,)  an  American  poet 
born  in  Kentucky  about  1S20.  He  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and  was  (1861-65)  in  the  Confederate  army, 
acting  at  first  as  colonel  of  Alabama  troops,  and  then  as 
chief  of  staft"  to  General  Breckinridge.  Died  in  Ala- 
bama in  1867.  He  is  best  known  for  his  poem  "The 
Bivouac  of  the  Dead." 


a,e,  1, 6,  Q,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, :,  o,  li,  5^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit:  mlv,  nflt;  good;  moou; 


OHLENSCHLA  GER 


f847 


OLAF 


Ohlenschlager.    See  Oehlenschlager. 

bhlmiiller,  ol'm'Sl'ler,  (Joseph  Daniel,)  an  eminent 
German  architect,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1791.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  national  monument  at  Upper  Wittels- 
bach,  the  chapel  at  Kiefersfelden,  and  the  Gothic  church 
near  Munich.  The  last-named  structure  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  its  style  erected 
in  modern  times.     Died  in  1839. 

Ohm,  6m,  (Georg  Simon,)  a  German  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Erlangen  in  1 787.  He  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Jesuits'  College  of  Cologne  in 
181 7.  He  gained  distinction  by  the  discovery  of  the 
laws  of  electric  currents,  on  which  he  published  in  1827 
a  work  called  "Die  galvanische  Kette  mathematische 
bearbeitet."  He  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London  in  1841.  Died  at  Munich 
in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Ohm,  (Martin,)  a  German  mathematician,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Erlangen  in  1792,  and 
became  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at  Berlin 
in  1839.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  a  Perfect 
System  of  Mathematics,"  etc.     Died  in  1872. 

Ohmacht,  o^m^Kt,  (Landolin,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  near  Rotweil  in  1760,  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Klop- 
stock,  and  of  Lavater.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
"Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  "Neptune,"  a  "Flora,"  a 
monument  to  General  Kleber,  and  a  bust  of  Klopstock. 
Died  in  1834. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux- Arts,"  1831. 

Ohsson,  6'son,  (Constantine,)  Baron  of,  born  at 
Constantinople  about  1780,  was  the  son  of  Mouradja 
d'Ohsson,  an  Armenian,  (see  Mouradja  d'Ohsson.) 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Mongols,"  (1835,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Caucasians  in  the  Tenth  Century." 
He  also  finished  his  father's  "  Picture  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire."     Died  at  Berlin  in  1851. 

Oicouomos  or  djconomos,  e-kon'o-mos,  (CoN- 
stantin,)  a  learned  Greek  priest  and  writer,  born  in 
Thessaly  in  1780.  He  taught  Greek  at  Smyrna  for  ten 
years,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Saint  Petersburg  and 
at  Athens.  He  wrote  several  works  on  language,  and 
"De  la  Version  des  Septante,"  (4  vols.,  1843-50.)  Died 
in  1857. 

See  SiviNi,  "M^moire  compost  i  la  H5te  sur  Oiconomos,"  1857 
Oilee.     See  Oileus. 

Oileus,  o-i'lus,  [Gr.  '00^^;  Fr.  Oil^e,  wS'li',]  a 
king  of  the  Locrians,  and  the  father  of  Ajax  the  Less. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  Argonautse. 

Oisel,  oi'zel,  [Lat.  Oise'lius,]  (Jakoi5,)  written  also 
Ouzel,  ow'zel,  a  Dutch  critic  and  jurist,  born  at  Dant- 
zic  in  163 1.  He  became  professor  of  public  law  at 
Groningen  in  1667.  He  edited  Aulus  Gellius,  and 
published  a  work  on  numismatics,  called  "Thesaurus 
selectorum  Numismatum  antiquorum,"  (2  vols.,  1677.) 
Died  in  1686. 

See  NiCERON,  "M^moires;"  Morhof,  "Polyhistor." 
Oisel,  (Philip,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1671.  He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew 
scholar  and  a  Protestant  minister.  He  published  sev- 
eral theological  works.  Died  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
in  1724. 
Oiselius.    See  Oisel. 

Oi'sin,  a  noted  Irish  poet,  who  probably  lived  in  the 
last  part  of  the  third  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century  a.d.  He  was  son  of  Finn,  a  famous  hero,  and 
probably  was  the  original  of  Ossian,  the  son  of  Fingal. 
(See  Ossian.)  Two  poems  ascribed  to  Oisin  are  still 
extant. 

Ojeda,  de,  dk  o-Ha'nl,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  explorei 
and  lieutenant  of  Columbus,  was  born  at  Cuenca  about 
1465  or  1470.  He  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second 
voyage  to  America  in  1493,  ^"'i  commanded  an  ex- 
pedition which  Columbus  sent  to  explore  the  interior 
of  Hispaniola,  where  he  captured  the  chief  Caonabo. 
Having  returned  to  Spain,  he  obtained  command  of  an  ex- 
ploring expedition  sent  out  in  1499.  Among  his  officers 
or  passengers  was  Amerigo  Vespucci.  He  discovered  a 
part  of  the  new  continent,  which  he  named  Venezuela, 
and  returned  to  Spain  in  1500.     In  1508  he  attempted 


to  colonize  New  Andalusia,  and  to  conquer  the  natives, 
but  was  not  successful. 

See  OviEDo,  "  Cronica  de  las  Indias;"  Irving,  "History  of 
Columbus;"  Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Domingue ;"  Her- 
RERA,  "  Historia  general  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

O'Keefe,  o-keef,  (John,)  an  Irish  dramatist,  born  at 
Dublin  in  1747.  The  number  of  his  plays  amounted  to 
upwards  of  sixty,  and,  though  their  merits  are  not  of  a 
high  order,  they  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Among  the 
most  admired  we  may  name  "  The  Agreeable  Surprise" 
and  "  Wild  Oats."     Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Recollections  of  the  Life  of  John  O'Keefe,"  by  himself, 
1826. 

Okeghem,  o'Keh-hSm,  written  also  Ockenhein, 
(Jan,)  an  eminent  Flemish  musician  and  composer,  born 
in  Hainault  about  1430;  died  after  i5oo._ 

Oken,  o'ken,  or  Ockenfuss,  ok'ken-fooss',(LoRENZ,) 
an  eminent  German  naturalist  of  the  transcendental 
school,  was  born  at  Bohlsbach,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  Au- 
gust, 1779.  He  abridged  the  original  name  of  his  family, 
Ockenfuss,  into  Oken.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and 
became  a  privat-docent  in  that  university.  In  a  remark  • 
able  work,  entitled  "  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
the  Theory  of  the  Senses,  and  the  Classification  of  Ani- 
mals," ("Grundriss  der  Naturphilosophie,"  etc.,  1802,) 
he  gave  the  outlines  of  a  scheme  that  he  afterwards  de- 
voted himself  to  perfect,  and  advanced  the  idea  that  "  the 
animal  classes  are  virtually  nothing  else  than  a  represen- 
tation of  the  organs  of  sense."  He  accordingly  divided 
the  animal  kingdom 'into  five  classes.  He  was  an  adi 
vocate  of  the  theory  of  development  in  its  largest  sense. 
Among  his  doctrines,  as  quoted  by  Professor  Hitchcock, 
are  the  following  :  "  Plants  and  animals  can  only  be 
metamorphoses  of  infusoria.  No  organism  has  been 
created  of  larger  size  than  an  infusorial  point ;  whatever 
is  larger  has  not  been  created,  but  developed.  .  .  .  The 
mind,  just  as  the  body,  must  be  developed  out  of  these 
animals,  [infusoria.]  .  .  .  Everything  that  is,  is  material." 
("The  Religion  of  Geology,"  p.  299.)  He  produced  in 
1805  a  treatise  on  Generation,  in  which  he  maintained 
that  "  all  organic  beings  originate  from  and  consist  of 
cells  or  vesicles."  In  1807  he  was  appointed  extraor- 
dinary professor  of  medical  sciences  in  the  University 
of  Jena,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  lec- 
tures on  zoology,  physiology,  etc.  He  developed  his 
peculiar  system  of  natural  science  in  his  "Manual  of 
Natural  Philosophy,"  (1809.)  From  i8i6to  1848  he  was 
editor  of  the  "  Isis,"  a  journal  of  natural  history.  In  1832 
he  obtained  a  professorship  at  Zurich,  where  he  died  in 
1851.  Among  his  works  is  a  "General  Natural  History," 
(13  vols.,  1833-41.) 

See  CALt.iSEN,  "Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica  ;"  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Okolampadius.     See  GEcolampadius. 

Okolski,  o-kol'skee,  (Simon,)  a  Polish  historian  and 
ecclesiastic  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  Orbis  Polonus,"  (3  vols.,  1641-45,) 
which  treats  of  the  origin  of  the  Sarmatians,  etc. 

Okoonef,  Okounev,  Okounef,  Okmiev,  Okou- 
new,  or  Okunew,  o-koo-ngf,  (Nikolai  Alexandro- 
viTCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  writer  on  military  science, 
born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1792,  served  in  the  campaign 
of  1829  against  the  Turks.  He  became  in  1840  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Reflections  on  the  System  of  Modern  War,"  (1823,) 
and  a  "History  of  the  Second  Epoch  of  the  Polish 
Campaign  of  1831."     Died  in  1851. 

Okounev.    See  Okoonef. 

Okune-w.    See  Okoonef. 

Olaf,  o'laf,  or  O-la'us,  L,  or  Olof,  o'lof.  King  of 
Norway,  born  in  956,  was  surnamed  Trygvason.  He 
was  a  corsair  or  sea-rover  in  his  youth,  and  became  king 
about  996.  He  is  said  to  have  established  Christianity 
in  his  kingdom.     Died  in  1000. 

See  ToLLSTORP,  "  Norske  Konungen  Olof,"  etc.,  1847. 

Olaf  or  Olaua  IL,  called  the  Saint,  obtained  the 
throne  of  Norway  about  1018.  He  waged  war  against 
Canute,  King  of  Denmark.     Died  in  1030. 

See  Hagerup,  "Om  Oluf  den  Hellige,"  1805. 

Olaf  or  Olaus  III.  became  King  of  Norway  about 


f.  as  (4,-  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jii^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OLAF 


1848 


OLEARIUS 


1068.  He  ordered  that  one  slave  should  be  liberated  in 
each  district  every  year,  and  made  other  reforms.  Died 
in  1093. 

Olaf  IV.,  born  in  1098,  was  a  son  of  Magnus  III. 
of  Norway.     Died  in  11 16. 

Olaf  v.,  a  son  of  Haqnin  VII.,  King  of  Norway,  was 
Dorn  in  1371,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1380.  Died 
in  1387. 

Olafsen,  o'lif-sen,  (Eggert,)  a  naturalist  of  Iceland, 
born  in  1721.  He  published,  among  other  treatises, 
"A  Historical  Account  of  the  Nature  and  Constitution 
of  Iceland,"  and  poems  in  Latin  and  Danish.  Died 
about  1770. 

Olalius  or  Olaus,  o-la'us,  (Nicolas,)  a  learned  Hun- 
garian prelate,  born  at  Hermannstadt  in  1493,  rose  to 
be  chancellor,  and  Archbishop  of  Strigonia,  (1552.)  He 
wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Origin  of  the  Hungarians," 
and  a  "History  of  Attila."     Died  in  1568. 

Olaus.     See  Olaf. 

Olaus  Magnus.    See  Magnus,  (Olaus.) 

Olavides,  o-lS-vee'D§s,  or  Olavide,  o-lS-vee'Di,  [Fi. 
Olavid6,  o'lS've'di',]  (Pablo  Antonio  Josfi,)  Count 
of  Pilos,  was  born  at  Lima,  in  South  America,  about  1725. 
He  was  appointed  intendant-general  of  Andalusia,  and 
colonized  a  part  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  by  introducing  into 
it  an  agricultural  and  manufacturing  population.  He  was 
subsequently  imprisoned  for  a  time  in  the  Inquisition  on 
a  charge  of  heresy,  but,  having  made  his  escape,  he  took 
refuge  in  France.  He  died  in  Sp^iin  in  1803,  leaving  a 
religious  work,  entitled  "Triumph  of  the  Gospel,"  ("El 
Evangelio  en  Triunfo.") 

See  L.  Brightweli.,  "  By-Pa tlis  of  Eiograpliy :"  J.  F.  BouR- 
GOING,  "Tableau  de  TEspagne  moderne,"  1S07;  A.  Hennings, 
"Olavides,"  1779;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Olbers,  ol'bers,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm  Mathias,)  an 
eminent  German  astronomer  and  physician,  born  at 
Arbergen,  near  Bremen,  in  October,  1758.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Gottingen,  and  practised  at  Bremen,  where 
he  constructed  a  private  observatory.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction by  his  observations  on  the  comet  of  1779,  and 
discovered  an  improved  method  of  calculating  the  orbits 
of  comets.  He  published  about  1797  a  treatise  on  this 
method,  which  is  considered  a  very  important  contribu- 
tion to  astronomy.  In  March,  1802,  Olbers  discovered 
a  new  asteroid,  which  he  named  Pallas,  the  orbit  of  which 
is  nearly  as  distant  from  the  sun  as  that  of  Ceres.  He 
adopted  the  hypothesis  that  Ceres  and  Pallas  were  frag- 
ments of  a  large  planet  which  had  been  broken  by  an 
internal  convulsion,  and  predicted  that  other  asteroids 
would  be  found.  In  1804  Harding  discovered  Juno,  and 
in  March,  1807,  Olbers  discovered  the  fourth  asteroid, 
which  he  named  Vesta.  The  mean  distance  of  their 
orbits  from  the  sun  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
orbits  of  Ceres  and  Pallas.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1804.  In  1815  he 
discovered  a  comet  which  is  called  by  his  name,  and 
which  performs  a  revolution  in  about  seventy-four  years. 
Among  the  pupils  of  Olbers  are  Bessel  and  Gauss.  He 
died  at  Bremen  in  1840. 

See  De  Zach,  "Allgemeine  geographischen  Ephemeriden:'' 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Oldcastle.     See  Cobham,  Lord. 

Oldenburg,  ol'den-booRc',  House  of,  an  ancient 
and  noble  family,  from  which  the  Emperors  of  Russia, 
the  Kings  of  Denmark,  and  one  of  the  dynasties  of 
Sweden  are  descended.  Theodoric  (  Dietrich  )  of 
Oldenburg  obtained  by  marriage  Sleswick  and  Holsteln. 
Died  about  1440.  His  son  Christian  became  King  of 
Denmark  in  1448,  and  King  of  .Sweden  in  1458.  Adolf. 
a  grandson  of  Christian,  was  the  founder  of  the  house 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  and  an  ancestor  of  the  present 
imperial  family  of  Russia. 

01d'?n-burg,  (Henry,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  at  Bremen  about  1626.  Having  settled  in  England, 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Milton  and  Robert  Boyle, 
with  whom  he  afterwards  corresponded.  On  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Royal  Society,  in  1662,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  its  secretaries.  He  published  the  "Transactions"  of 
the  Society  from  1664  to  1677,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  political  and  theological  works.  He  sometimes 
signed  his  name  Grubendol.     Died  about  1678. 


Oldenburger,  ol'den-booR'ger,  (Philipp  Andreas,) 
a  German  jurist  and  j^ublicist,  born  in  Brunswick  or  in 
the  duchy  of  Celle.  He  was  professor  of  public  law 
at  Geneva,  and  published  several  works,  among  which 
is  "  Pandectae  Juris  public!  Germanici,"  (1670.)  Died 
in  1678. 

Oldendorp,  oKden-doRp',  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Hamburg  about  1480.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Law  of  Nature 
and  of  Nations,"  ("  Isagoge  seu  Introductio  Juris  Naturae 
Gentium  et  Civilis,"  1549.)     Died  in  1567. 

Oldermann,  ol'der-min,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Saxony  about  1686.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Helmstedt.     Died  in  1723. 

Old'field,  (Anne,)  a  celebrated  English  actress,  born 
in  London  in  1683.  She  excelled  both  in  tragedy  and 
comedy,  and  her  talents  are  eulogized  in  the  "Tatler." 
Died  in  1730. 

See  "  Life  of  Anne  Oldfield,"  London,  1731 ;  Baker,  "  Biographia 
Draniatica." 

Oldham,  old'am,  (Hugh,)  an  English  bishop,  born 
probably  near  Manchester,  was  a  patron  of  learning. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1504.  He  founded  a 
free  school  at  Manchester,  and  added  to  the  endowment 
of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.     Died  in  15 19. 

Oldham,  (John,)  an  English  satirical  poet,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1653.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dryden, 
who  has  eulogized  him  in  some  of  his  verses.  He  wrote 
"  Pindaric  Odes,"  and  "  Four  Satires  against  the  Jesuits," 
and  made  translations  from  Juvenal.  "  His  poems,"  says 
Hallam,  "  are  spirited  and  pointed,  and  he  ranks  perhaps 
next  to  Dryden."     Died  in  1683. 

See  E.  Thompson,  "  Life  of  John  Oldham,"  and  a  Memoir,  by 
Robert  Bell,  prefixed  to  Oldham's  Poems,  1854. 

Oldham,  old'am,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  geologist,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1816.  Among  his  palasontological  researches 
and  discoveries  the  "  Oldhamia"  will  be  always  associated 
with  his  name.     Died  July  17,  1878. 

Old'is-'worth,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  trans- 
lator, born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  one  of  the 
first  writers  for  the  "Examiner."  He  translated  the 
Odes  of  Horace  into  verse,  and  wrote  a  few  poems,  and 
other  works,  among  which  is  "Timothy  and  Philotheus," 
(3  vols.,  1709-10.)     Died  in  1734. 

Old-mix'on,  (John,)  an  English  historical  and  po- 
litical writer,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1673.  He  wrote 
a  "Critical  History  of  England,"  (3  vols.,  1730-39,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Stuarts,"  and  other  works  of  little  merit, 
m  which  he  manifests  a  decided  partiality  to  the  Whigs. 
In  his  "  Prose  Essay  on  Criticism"  he  attacked  Pope, 
who  took  revenge  in  the  "Dunciad."     Died  in  1742. 

See  CiBBEB,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Baker,  "Biographia  Dra- 
matica." 

Oldoini,  ol-do-ee'nee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  biogra- 
pher, born  at  La  Spezia  in  1612.  He  wrote  memoirs 
of  several  popes,  cardinals,  etc.     Died  after  t6So. 

Oldys,  ol'dis  or  51dz,  (William,)  an  English  biogra- 
pher and  bibliographer,  born  about  1690.  He  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  prefixed  to  Raleigh's  "  His- 
tory of  the  World,"  (1738,)  and  a  number  of  biographies 
in  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  under  the  signature  "  G." 
He  also  published  "The  British  Librarian,  exhibiting 
a  Compendious  View  of  all  Unpublished  and  Valuable 
Books,"  (1737,)  which  is  esteemed  for  its  accuracy.  Died 
•n  1761. 

Olearius,  o-li-S're-fis,  or  Olschlager,  ol'shla'ger, 
(Adam,)  a  distinguished  German  writer  and  traveller, 
born  at  Aschersleben  about  1600,  was  court  mathema- 
tician and  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein.  In  1633 
he  accompanied  an  embassy  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Hol- 
stein to  Russia,  and  some  years  after  visited  Persia  in 
the  same  capacity.  After  his  return  he  published,  in 
1639,  a  very  interesting  account  of  his  travels  in  the  East. 
He  also  translated  from  the  Persian  the  "  Rose-Garden" 
of  Saadee,  (Sadi.)     Died  in  1671. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires:"  MiiLLER,  "Cimbria  Literata;" 
"Nouve^e  Biographic  Generale." 

Olearius,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Halle  in  1604.  He  preached  in  his  native  city, 
and  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  1685. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  j?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  lit;  mSt;  nflt;  g66cl;  nioonj 


OLEARIUS 


1849 


OLIVE 


Oleariua,  (Gottfried,)  a  theologian  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1672,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Logical  Analysis  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews," (1706.)     Died  in  1715. 

Olearius,  (Johann,)  a  German  divine,  born  in  1639, 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  theological  treatises,  and  was  for  a  time  editor  of 
the  "Acta  Eruditorum."  Died  in  1713.  He  was  a  son 
of  Gottfried,  noticed  above,  (1604-85.) 

Olearius,  (Johann  Christopic,)  a  German  historian 
a.id  numismatist,  born  at  Halle  in  1668,  was  a  son  of 
Johann  Gottfried.  He  became  Protestant  Bishop  at  Arm- 
stadt  in  1736.  He  wrote  numerous  works.  Died  in  1747. 

See  J.  C.  Otto,  "  In  Exseqiiias  Olearii,"  1747 ;  Ersch  und  Gru- 
BKR,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Olearius,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  born  at  Halle  in 
1635,  was  a  brother  of  Johann,  noticed  above.  He  was 
pastor  at  Halle,  and  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Abacus 
Patrologicus,"  (1673.)     R'ed  in  171 1. 

O'Leary,  o-lee're,  (Arthur,)  an  Irish  Catholic  clergy- 
man, born  at  Cork  in  1729,  was  the  author  of  several 
controversial  works.     Died  in  1802. 

Oleaster,  o-li-^s'ter,  (Jerome,)  a  Portuguese  monk 
and  linguist,  born  at  Lisbon.  He  was  versed  in  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  and  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  Isaiah," 
(1623.)     Died  in  1563. 

O'leg,  [Russ.  pron.  o-l?g'  or  o-lfK',]  Prince  of  Russia, 
was  a  native  of  Scandinavia,  from  which  he  emigrated 
about  862  a.d.  He  was  a  relative  of  Rurik,  who,  dying 
in  879,  appointed  Oleg  guardian  of  his  minor  son,  Igor. 
Oleg  usurped  the  sovereignty,  and  extended  his  do- 
minions by  conquest.     Died  in  912. 

See  Karamzin,  "  History  of  the  Russian  Empire." 

O'lf n,  [Gr.  'SiA^v,]  a  mythical  Grecian  bard,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  the  most  ancient  lyric  poet  of  that 
nation,  and  was  called  a  prophet  of  Apollo,  whose  wor- 
ship he  introduced  into  Delos.  He  was  sujiposed  to 
have  been  born  in  Lycia,  and  to  have  lived  before  the 
time  of  Orpheus. 

Olenschlager,  von,  fon  o'len-shUVger,  (Johann 
Daniel,)  a  German  publicist,  born  at  Frankfort  in  171 1. 
He  wrote  on  the  public  law  of  the  German  empire.  Died 
in  1778. 

Oleszczyuski,  o-l?sh-chins'kee,  (Antony,)  a  Polish 
engraver,  born  in  Lublin  in  1796.  He  studied  and  worked 
in  Paris.  Among  his  subjects  are  portraits  of  eminent 
Poles.     Died  February  28,  1879. 

Olevianus,  o-li-ve-S'nCis,  (Kaspar,)  one  of  the  early 
Reformers,  was  born  in  Treves,  August  10,  1536.  He 
studied  law  at  Paris  and  theology  at  Geneva,  and  adopted 
the  views  of  Calvin.  He  afterwards  resided  successively 
at  Treves,  Heidelberg,  and  Herborn.  He  published  sev- 
eral theological  works,  including  sermons  explanatory  of 
Paul's  Epistles.     Died  in  March,  1587. 

See  PiERER,  "  Universal- Lexikon." 

Ol'ga,  Saint,  a  Russian  lady,  was  married  about  903 
A.D.  to  Igor,  a  son  of  Rurik,  Prince  of  Russia.  On  the 
death  of  Igor  (945)  she  became  regent.  She  afterwards 
adopted  the  Christian  religion.     Died  in  969. 

Oli.     See  Olid. 

Olid,  de,  di  o-lio',  or  Oli,  o-lee',  (Cristoval,)  a 
Spanish  officer,  born  about  1492.  He  served  under 
Cortez  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  (1519-21,)  and  after- 
wards attempted  to  make  himself  independent.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  soldiers  of  Cortez,  and  executed 
in  Honduras  in  1524. 

See  Pkescott,  "Conquest  of  Mexico;"  Oviedo,  "  Historia  de 
las  Indias." 

Olier,  o'le-i',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  reformerTborn  in  Paris  in  1608.  He  founded  the 
congregation  of  Saint-Sulpice,  and  several  charitable 
institutions.  He  also  formed  a  society  for  the  preven- 
tion of  duels,  and  wrote  a  number  of  devotional  works. 
Died  in  1657. 

See  GiRV,  "Vie  de  M.  Olier,"  16S7:  Nagot,  "Vie  de  M.  Olier," 
1818;  De  Bretonvilliers,  "Menioires  sur  M.  Oiier,"  2  vols., 
1S41  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nt5rale." 

O'lin,  (Stephen,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  Method- 
ist divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Leicester,  Vermont, 
in  1797,  became  president  of  the  Wesleyan  University, 


Middletown,  Connecticut.  He  died  in  1851,  leaving  a 
collection  of  sermons,  "Travels  in  the  East,"  "Greece 
and  the  Golden  Horn,"  etc.  His  "Life  and  Letters" 
were  published  in  1853. 

Oliphant,  (Carolina.)     See  Nairne. 

Ol'i-phant,  (Laurence,)  an  English  traveller  and 
writer  of  books  of  travel,  etc.,  was  born  in  1829.  He  pub- 
lished in  1853  "  The  Russian  Shores  of  the  Black  Sea," 
which  was  received  with  favour.  He  afterwards  travelled 
in  North  America  and  the  Caucasus,  and  published  sev- 
eral books,  one  of  which  is  called  "  Minnesota."  About 
1857  he  went  to  China  as  secretary  of  Lord  Elgin.  He 
wrote  a  "Narrative  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission  to 
China  and  Japan,"  (1859,)  "Piccadilly,  a  Fragment  of 
Contemporaneous  Biography,"  (1870,)  "Tender  Recol- 
lections of  Irene  Macgil'licuddy,"  (1878,)  "  Altiora  Peto," 
(1833,)  "Masollam,"  (1886,)  etc.     Died  Dec.  23,  1888. 

Ol'I-phant,  (Margaret  O,  W.,)  a  Scottish  authoress, 
born  about  1820.  She  published  a  number  of  novels 
and  much  well-written  biography,  literary  history,  and 
criticism.  Some  of  her  best  books  are  "  Passages  in  the 
Life  of  Mrs.  Margaret  Maitland,"  (1849,)  "Chronicles 
of  Carlingford,"  "  Salem  Chapel,"  "Memoirs  of  Edward 
Irving,"  (1862,)  "Memoir  of  the  Count  de  Montalem- 
bert,"  (1872,)  "  Rose  in  June,"  (1874,)  "  Phoebe  Junior," 
(1876,)  "The  Literary  History  of  England  in  the  Eigh- 
teenth and  Nineteenth  Centuries,"  (1881,)  and  "  The 
Little  Pilgrim,"  (1882.) 

Oliphant,  (Thomas  Lawre-nce  Kington,) an  English 
author,  born  near  Bristol,  August  16,  183 1.  He  studied 
at  Eton,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  became  a 
barrister.  His  works  include  a  "  Life  of  Frederick  II.," 
(1862,)  "Sources  of  Standard  English,"  (1873,)  "The 
Duke  and  the  Scholar,"  (1875,)  ^'c. 

Oliva,  de,  di  o-lee'va,  (Fernan  Perez,)  a  Spanish 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Cordova  in  1497,  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  University  of  Salamanca,  (1528,)  of 
whic'n  he  subsequently  became  rector.  He  died  about 
1530,  having  previously  been  appointed  by  Charles  V. 
preceptor  to  his  son  Philip.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Dialogue  on  the  Dignity  of  Man,"  and  other  prose 
essays,  which  are  esteemed  the  first  models  of  a  pure 
and  classical  style  in  the  Spanish  language.  He  was 
not,  however,  according  to  Ticknor,  a  man  of  genius  in 
the  true  sense  of  this  word.  His  works,  including  a 
number  of  poems  and  dramas,  were  published  by  his 
nephew,  Ambrosio  de  Morales,  (1586.) 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova ;"  Ticknor,  "  Hi» 
tory  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Olivares,  de,  di  o-le-vi'rSs,  (Enrique  de  Guzman 
— di  gooth-min',)  second  Count,  a  Spanish  general,  born 
in  1530.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  .Saint-Quentin, 
in  1558,  and  became  major-domo  of  Philip  II.  in  1562. 
He  was  afterwards  Viceroy  of  Naples.     Died  in  1599. 

See  Herkera,  "  Historia  general." 

Olivares,  de,  or  Olivarez,  o-le-v3'r5th,  (Gaspar  de 
Guzman,)  Duke  of  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda,  a  cele- 
brated Spanish  statesman,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1587. 
The  heir  of  a  wealthy  family,  he  early  obtained  distinc- 
tion at  the  court  of  Philip  HI.,  and  so  thoroughly  in- 
sinuated himself  into  the  favour  of  his  son  that,  on  the 
accession  of  the  latter  as  Philip  IV.,  in  162 1,  Olivares 
soon  found  himself  in  possession  of  the  most  important 
offices  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  appointed  successively 
first  minister  of  state,  grand  chancellor  of  the  Indies, 
treasurer-general  of  Aragon,  captain-general  of  the 
cavalry,  and  Governor  of  Guipuscoa.  During  his  ad- 
ministration Spain  carried  on  war  against  France  and 
the  Netherlands,  and  Olivares  found  in  Richelieu  an 
adversary  who  was  more  than  his  equal.  The  Spanish 
armies  suffered  reverses,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  king- 
dom declined.  He  was  dismissed  from  power  in  1643, 
and  was  banished  to  Toro,  where  he  died  July  22,  1645. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Luis  de  Haro. 

SeeCoMTE  DE  la  Rocca,  "  Histnire  du  Ministiredii  Comte-Diic 
d'Olivares,"  1673;  Malvezzi,  "  Ritratto  de'  Conte-Diica  di  San 
Lucar,"  1636:  "Caduta  del  Conte  d'Olivares,"  Lyons,  1644;  "  Life 
of  Count  Olivares,"  London,  1836. 

Olivarez.     See  Olivares. 

Olive,  o'lfiv',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  monk  and 
writer,  born  at  Serignan  in  1247.     He  was  zealous  for 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h.  k.  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  2^.) 


OLIVECRANTZ 


18^0 


OLLIVIER 


the  enforcement  of  strict  monastic  discipline.     After  his 
death  he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  by  a  council  held 
in  1312,  and  by  Pope  John  XXII.     Died  in  1298. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdn^rale," 

Olivecrantz,  o-lee'veh-kkints',  ?  (Johan  Paui.in,)  a 
Swedish  statesman  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Strengn'ds  in 
1633.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Revel  in  16S0, 
and  supreme  judge  of  Gothland.  He  gained  the  favour 
of  Queen  Christina,  who  corresponded  with  him  after 
her  abdication.     Died  in  1707. 

Ol'I-ver,  (Andrew,)  an  American  magistrate,  born 
in  1707,  was  appointed  in  1770  lieutenant-governor  of 
Massachusetts.  Having  become  obnoxious  to  the  colo- 
nists by  favouring  the  designs  of  the  British  government, 
they  petitioned  for  his  removal,  as  well  as  for  that  of  his 
brother-in-law.  Governor  Hutchinson.     Died  in  i774- 

Oliver,  (Daniel,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician and  scholar,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1787, 
published  "First  Lines  of  Physiology."     Died  in  1842. 

Ol'i-ver,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  English  antiquary  and 
writer,  born  about  1782.  He  published  several  works 
on  Freemasonry.     Died  in  1867. 

Oliver,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  English  artist,  born  in 
1556,  excelled  in  miniature-painting.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces are  portraits  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  Died  in  1617.  His 
son  Peter,  born  about  1600,  became  equally  celebrated 
for  his  portraits,  and  also  produced  a  number  of  historical 
pictures.     Died  about  1654  or  1664. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Oliver,  (Peter,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  brothtr 
of  Andrew,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  17 13,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College.  lie  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  Massachusetts.     Died  in  1791. 

Oliver,  (WiLLlA>r,)  of  Bath,  an  English  physician, 
wrote  on  the  Bath  mineral  waters.     Died  in  1764. 

Oliver  of  Malmesbury,  an  English  monk  and  able 
mathematician  of  the  eleventh  century.  His  works,  if 
he  wrote  any,  are  lost. 

Olivet,  d',  do'le'vi',  (Joseph  Thoulier,)  Abb6,  a 
celebrated  French  critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Salins  in 
April,  1682.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  an  early 
age,  but  he  renounced  it  about  1714.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1723,  and  subsequently  visited 
England,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Pope.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Treatise  on  French  Prosody," 
"  which,"  savs  Voltaire,  "  will  subsist  as  long  as  the  Ian 
guage,"and  "Essays on  Grammar," (1732.)  Healso  wrote 
a  continuation  of  the  "  History  of  the  French  Academy," 
begun  by  Pellisson,  and  made  excellent  translations  of 
Cicero's  "  De  Natura  Deorum"  and  his  "  Orations  against 
Catiline,"  and  of  the  "  Philippics"  of  Demosthenes.  His 
ed'tion  of  Ciceio's  works  (9  vols.  4to,  1742)  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  that  has  appeared.  The  Abbe  d'Olivet 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Boileau  and  Voltaire,  the  latter 
of  whom  he  assisted  and  directed  in  his  studies.  Died 
in  1768. 

See  Mairet,  "filoge  historique  de  I'Abbe  d'Olivet,"  1839; 
D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  des  Menibres  de  TAcademie  Franfaise;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Olivetan,  o'l^v'tfiN',  (Pierre  Robert,)  a  French 
Protestant,  born  at  Noyon  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  of  his  countrymen  who 
translated  the  Bible  from  the  original  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
It  is  asserted,  however,  by  some  writers  that  he  only 
retouched  the  version  of  Lefevre  d'fitaples.  This  work 
was  first  published  in  1535,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
revised  by  Calvin,  who  was  a  relative  of  Olivetan.  Died 
in  1538. 

See  S^NEBIER,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Oliveyra,  o-le-va^-rjl,  (Francisco  Xavier,)  a  Por- 
tuguese gentleman, "was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1702.  Being 
sent  as  secretary  of  the  emljassy  to  Vienna  in  1732,  he 
was  converted  to  Protestantism.  He  published  a  "  Dis- 
course to  his  Countrymen  on  the  Earthquake  at  Lisbon," 
(17^6,)  and  "Familiar  Letters."     Died  in  1783. 

Olivier,  o'le've-i',  (Claude  M.vthieu,)  a  French 
litterateur,  was  born  at  Mrtrseilles  in  1701.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  University  of  Marseilles.  As 
counsellor  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  he  gained  a  great 


reputation  as  a  pleader.  He  published  a  "  Dissertation 
on  the  Critias  of  Plato,"  and  a  "  History  of  Philip,  King 
of  Macedon,"  (2  vols.,  1740.)     Died  in  1736. 

Olivier,  (Fran(;ois,)  a  French  judge  and  statesman, 
born  in  Paris  in  1497.  He  became  chancellor  of  France 
in  1545.     Died  in  1560. 

Olivier,  (Guillaume  Antoine,)  an  eminent  French 
naturalist,  born  near  Toulon  in  1756.  In  1792  he  accom- 
panied Bruguiere  on  a  scientific  expedition  to  Persia  and 
Turkey,  where  they  made  a  valuable  collection  of  objects 
in  natural  history.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1800.  He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Natural  History  of  Insects,  Butterflies,  Crustaceans," 
etc.,  (7  vols.,  1789-1825,)  "Travels  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  Egypt,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1801,)  and  several  other 
works.     Died  in  181 4. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoges  historiques ;"  Silvestre,  "  Notice  sur  G. 
A.  Olivier,"  1815. 

Olivier,  o'le've-i',  (Juste  Daniel,)  a  Swiss  poet, 
born  in  the  canton  of  Vaud  in  1807.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Paris  in  1842,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
poems,  "Chansons  lointaines."     Died  January  7,  1876. 

Olivier,  (Nicolas  Theodore,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Evreux  in  1841.     Died  in  1854. 

See  A.  DE  BouCLON,  "  Histoire  de  Monseigneur  Olivier,"  1S55. 

Olivier,  (S^raphin,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1538,  was  auditor  de  rota  at  Rome  for  many 
years.     Died  in  1609. 

Olivier,  d',  do'le've-i',  (Gabriel  Raimond  Jean  de 
DiEU  FrancJOIS,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Carpentras  in 
1753.     He  published  many  legal  works.     Died  in  1823. 

Olivieri,  o-le-ve-a'ree,  (Pietro  Paulo,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Rome  in  1551  ;  died  ir 

1599- 

Olivieri  degli  Abbati,  o-le-ve-a'ree  dil'yee  3b-bi'- 
tee,  (Annibale,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Pesaro 
in  1708.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Marmora 
Pisaurensia  Notis  illustrata,"  (1737.)     Died  in  1789. 

Ol'lier,  (Edmund,)  an  English  author,  born  in  London, 
November  26,  1826.  His  works  include  several  histories, 
"  .\  History  of  the  United  States,"  (3  vols.,  1875-77,) 
"  Poems,  chiefly  from  the  Greek,"  (1867,)  "British  Por- 
trait-Painters," (1873,)  etc.     Died  April  19,  1886. 

Ollivier,  o'le've-i',  (Charles  Prosper,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Angers  in  1796;  died  in  Paris 
in  1845. 

Ollivier,  (Dfi.MOSTHtNE,)  a  French  democrat,  born 
at  Toulon  in  1799,  was  the  father  of  fimile,  noticed  be- 
low. He  founded  at  Marseilles  in  1831  a  journal  called 
"  Le  Peuple  Souverain,"  and  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  in  1848.  He  was  banished  about  De- 
cember, 1851,  and  returned  in  i860.      Died  in  1S84. 

Ollivier,  (Emile,)  a  French  advocate  and  orator,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1825.  He  practised  law  with  success  in 
Paris,  and  was  elected  to  the  legislative  body  by  the 
voters  of  that  city  in  1857.  He  was  re-elected  in  1863, 
He  acted  with  the  Liberal  party  for  many  years,  but 
became  in  1S69  an  adherent  of  Napoleon,  who  in  De- 
cember of  that  year  appointed  him  prime  minister,  and 
requested  him  "to  name  persons  who  will,  associated 
with  yourself,  form  a  homogeneous  cabinet,  faithfully 
representing  the  legislative  majority."  He  took  the 
position  of  minister  of  justice  in  the  new  cabinet  formed 
(January  2,  1870)  partly  of  the  leaders  of  the  Left  Centre 
and  partly  of  those  of  the  Right  Centre.  The  formation 
of  this  coalition  ministry  was  regarded  as  an  important 
event,  and  as  the  beginning  of  a  constitutional  regime. 
The  Corps  Legislatif,  after  an  excited  debate,  adopted  a 
resolution  of  confidence  in  the  minister,  April  5,  1870, 
by  a  vote  of  227  to  43.  The  most  liberal  members  of 
the  cabinet  resigned  about  the  ist  of  May,  1870 ;  but 
the  policy  of  Napoleon  and  Ollivier  was  approved  by 
a  majority  of  the  popular  votes.  May  8.  Ollivier  was 
elected  to  the  F'rench  Academy  in  April,  1870.  He 
resigned  the  office  of  prime  minister,  August  9,  1870. 

Ollivier,  (Francois  Antoine  josErn,)  a  French 
judge,  born  at  Loriol  in  1762  ;  died  in  1839. 

Ollivier,  (Jules,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Valence  in 
1804,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  the 
antiquities  of  Dauphine.     Died  in  1841. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ft,  y,  long;  \,  h.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  shoi-t;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscm-e;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  nifit;  nflt;  good;  mSSn; 


OLMO 


1851 


OMAR 


Olmo,  del,  dSl  ol'mo,  (Jos6  Vincent,)  a  Spanish 
antiquary,  born  at  Valencia  in  161 1.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  curious  account  of  a  grand  auto  de  fe  of 
1680.     Died  in  1696. 

Olmutz,  von,  fon  ol'moots,  (Wenzel,)  a  Germap 
engraver  and  designer,  flourished  about  1500. 

Olmsted,  6m's"ted  or  um'sted,  (Denison,)  LL.D.,  an 
American  chemist  and  geologist,  born  at  East  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  1791.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
and  became  in  181 7  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
and  geology  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina.  He 
made  the  first  geological  survey  of  that  State.  In  1825 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy at  Yale  College.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"School  Philosophy,"  "Rudiments  of  Natural  Philoso- 
phy and  Astronomy,"  (1842,)  "Letters  on  Astronomy," 
and  other  valuable  text-books.     Died  in  1859. 

Olmsted,  (Frederick  Law,)  an  American  agricul- 
tural writer  and  architect,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
in  1822.  He  visited  England  in  1850,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  "Walks  and  Talks  of  an  American 
Farmer  in  England,"  (1852,)  "A  Journey  in  the  Seaboard 
Slave  States,"  {1856,)  "A  Journey  through  Texas,"  (iSqy,) 
"A  Journey  in  the  Back  Country,"  (i860,)  and  "The 
Cotton  Kingdom,"  (1861.)  In  1857  Mr.  Olmsted  was 
appointed  chief  engineer  and  architect  of  the  New  York 
Central  Park. 

Ol'uey,  (Edward,)  LL.D.,  an  American  instructor, 
born  in  Moreau,  New  York,  July  24,  1827,  removed  in 
early  youth  to  Weston,  Wood  county,  Ohio.  In  1853 
he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  Kalamazoo  Col- 
lege, and  in  1863  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of  Michigan.  He  is  well  known  as 
the  author  of  a  series  of  text-books.     Died  Jan.  16,  1887. 

Oluey,  (Jesse,)  an  American  educator,  born  at  Union, 
Connecticut,  October  12,  179S.  He  published  school- 
books,  including  a  geography,  (1828,)  atlas,  arithmetic, 
reading-books,  etc.,  a  "  History  of  the  United  States," 
and  a  volume  of  poems.  Died  at  Stratford,  Connecticut, 
July  30,  1872. 

Olof.     See  Olaf. 

Olozaga,  ol-o-th^gd,  (Don  Salustiano,)  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  at  Logrono  about  1803.  He  was  the 
chief  of  the  monarchical  opposition  after  the  fall  of 
Mendizabal  in  1836,  and  chairman  or  reporter  of  the 
committee  on  the  constitution  in  1837.  After  the  re- 
moval of  Lopez,  in  1843,  '^^  ^'^^  commissioned  to  form 
a  new  cabinet ;  but  he  was  soon  driven  from  power  by 
Narvaez.  He  was  elected  in  1855  a  deputy  to  the 
Cortes,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  Progresistas.  He 
was  appointed  president  of  the  council  of  state  in 
April,  1870.     Died  September  26,  1873. 

Olschlager.     See  Olearius. 

Olshausen,  ols'how'zen,  (Hermann,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Oldeslohe  in  1796.  In  1827 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Konigsberg. 
He  published  a  "  Biblical  Commentary  on  all  the  New 
Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1830-40,)  which  has  been  highly 
commended,  and  other  religious  treatises.  Died  a* 
Erlangen  in  1839. 

Olshausen,  (Justus,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Holstein  in  1800.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Copenhagen  in  1845,  and  be- 
came professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Konigsberg 
in  1853.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Pehlevi 
Legends  on  the  Coins  of  the  Last  Sassanides,"  (1843.) 
Died  in  1SS2. 

Olshausen,  (Theodor,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Gliickstadt  in  1802.  In  1830  he  founded  at 
Kiel  a  patriotic  journal,  entitled  the  "  Correspondenz- 
blatt,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  independence  of  Hol- 
stein. In  1848  he  was  a  deputy  to  the  Assembly,  and 
in  1849  established  the  "North  German  Free  Press"  at 
Hamburg.  He  was  exiled  in  1851  by  the  Danish  gov- 
ernment.    Died  at  Hamburg,  March  20,  1869. 

Oltmanns,  olt'mins,  (Jaubo,)  a  German  geometer, 
born  at  Wittmund  in  17S3.  He  wrote  the  astronomical 
part  of  Humboldt's  "Travels  in  America,"  (1808-10.) 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1833. 

Olug-  (or  Oloog-)  Beg,  o'loog  bgg,  written  also 
Ooloogh-,  Oulough-,  and  Ulugh-Beg,  (Meer'za  Mo- 


ham'med,)  an  eminent  Mongol  astronomer,  a  grandson 
of  Tamerlane,  and  King  of  Transoxana,  was  born  in 
1394.  He  began  to  reign  in  1446,  and  was  killed  by  his 
son  in  1459. 

O-l^b'ri-us,  (Anicius,)  a  Roman  emperoi  He  be 
came  consul  in  464  a.d.,  and  married  Placidia,  the  widow 
of  Valentinian  HI.  Through  the  influence  of  Genseric 
or  Ricimer,  he  succeeded  Anthemius,  who  was  killed  in 
472.     He  died  in  the  same  year. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Olympe.    See  Olympus. 

O-lym'pi-as,  [Gr.  'OAi^/iTridf,]  Queen  of  Macedon, 
was  a  daughter  of  Neoptolemus,  King  of  Epirus.  She 
was  married  about  357  B.C.  to  Philip  II.  of  Macedon, 
and  became  the  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She 
is  said  to  have  been  a  woman  of  violent  temper.  Philip 
soon  became  alienated  from  her,  and  divoiced  her.  After 
the  accession  of  her  son  Alexander,  she  put  to  death 
Cleopatra,  the  second  wife  of  Philip.  She  was  put  to 
death  by  Cassander  in  316  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Vita  Alexandri." 

Olympiodore.    See  Olympiodorus. 

0-lynx-pi-o-do'ru3,  [Gr.  'OXvuniodupoc ;  Fr.  Olym- 
piodore, o'liN'pe'o'doR',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at 
Thebes,  in  Egypt,  wrote  a  "  Chronicle"  of  his  time,  from 
407  to  425  A.D.,  being  a  continuation  of  that  of  Eunapius. 
There  are  fragments  of  this  work  extant  in  the  "  Myrio- 
biblon"  of  Photius. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grseca." 

Olympiodorus  II.,  called  the  Younger,  a  Peiipa- 
tetic  philosopher,  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the 
sixth  century,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria.  His  chief  work 
is  a  Commentary  on  the  "  Meteorologica"  of  Aristotle.^ 

Olympiodorus  III.,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  born  in 
Alexandria,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  sixth  century. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  "  Phaedon,"  the  "  Phile- 
bus,"  the  "Gorgias,"  and  the  "First  Alcibiades"  of 
Plato;  also  a  "Life  of  Plato."  As  an  interpreter  of 
Plato  he  is  much  esteemed. 

Olympiodorus,  a  Greek  commentator  on  the  Scrip- 
tures,  was  a  deacon  of  Alexandria,  and  lived  probably  in 
the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century. 

Olympus,  (the  habitation  of  the  Grecian  gods.)  See 
Zeus. 

O-lym'pus,  [Gr.  'OXv/ztoc  ,•  Fr.  Olympe,  o'IAmp',]  a 
celebrated  Greek  or  Phrygian  musician,  supposed  to 
have  lived  about  65c  B.C.  He  naturalized  in  Greece  the 
music  of  the  flute,  and  invented  the  system  or  genus  of 
music  called  enharmonic. 

See  MiJLLER,  "  History  of  Greek  Literature :"  Plutarch,  "  De 
Musica." 

Olzofski  or  Olzowski,  ol-zof'skee,  (Andrew,)  a 
Polish  prelate,  born  about  1618.  He  wrote  several 
political  treatises.  After  the  election  of  Sobieski  (1674) 
he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate 
of  Poland.     Died  in  1678. 

Omaiadae.     See  Omeyyades. 

Omaides.     See  Omeyyades. 

Omajjaden.    See  Omeyyades. 

Omajjah  or  Omajja.     See  Omeyyah. 

Omalius  d'Halloy,  d',  do'mt'le'iis'  dflwi',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Julien,)  a  Belgian  geologist,  born  at  Liege  in 
1783,  published  several  works  on  geology.    Died  in  1875. 

O'mar  (or  O'mer)  I.,  written  also  Oomur  or  Umar, 
oo'mar,*  ( Aboo-Hafsah-Ibn-ool-Khatab  or  Abu- 
Hafsah-Ibnul-Khattab,  i'boo  hifsah  !b'no61  Kit- 
tSb',)  the  second  caliph  or  successor  of  Mohammed  the 
Prophet,  was  a  cousin  in  the  third  degree  to  Abdallah, 
the  father  of  that  legislator.  After  he  had  attempted  to 
kill  Mohammed,  Omar  was  converted  to  Islamism,  about 
615  A.d.  He  succeeded  Aboo-Bekr  in  the  year6H-  His 
army  took  Damascus  in  635,  defeated  the  Greeks  at  Yar- 
mook  or  Yermuk,  and  besieged  Jerusalem.  This  city  in 
637  or  638  was  surrendered  to  Omar,  who  treated  the 
Christians  with  great  lenity.  On  the  site  of  Solomon's 
temple  he  built  the  magnificent  mosque  which  bears  his 
name.  About  638  he  completed  the  conquest  of  Syria 
and  of  Persia,  (see  Yezdejerd,)  and  founded  the  city  of 
Koofah.  Amroo,  one  of  Omar's  generals,  subdued  Egypt 
in  640  or  641,  and  consumed  by  fire  the  great  library  at 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gi(t(ural;  N,  nasa!;  R,  tril/ed;  §  as  z;  ih  as  in  //«>.     (jE^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OMAR 


1852 


OMRl 


Alexandria,  after  the  caliph  had  decided,  as  we  are  told, 
that  "if  the  books  accord  with  the  Koran,  they  are  un- 
necessary ;  and  if  they  are  contrary  to  the  Koran,  they 
are  pernicious,  and  should  be  destroyed."  He  was  assas- 
sinated by  a  Persian  slave,  Firooz,  in  his  capital,  Medina, 
in  644  A.n.,  at  the  ac;e  of  sixty-three,  and  was  succeeeded 
by  Othman.  Omar  is  praised  for  wisdom,  justice,  and 
moderation,  and  is  said  to  have  contributed  more  to  the 
progress  of  his  religion  than  Mohammed  himself  His 
name  is  greatly  venerated  by  the  orthodox  sect  of  Mos- 
lems, called  Sunnites. 

See  Simon  Ocki.ev,  "  History  of  the  Saracens,"  170S-18:  Gib- 
bon, "  History  of  ilie  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire," 
vol.  ix. ;  Irving,  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors;"  Weil,  "  Ge- 
scliiclite  der  Khalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap  ii.  ;  Aboolfrda,  "Annales 
Moslemici  ;"  O.  von  Platkn,  "  Geschichte  der  Todtung  des  Cha- 
Ufen  Omar;"  "  Nouvelle  Kiographie  Generale." 

Omar  (or  Omer)  II.,  the  eighth  caliph  of  the  Omeyyade 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Abd-el-Azeez,  (Abdelaziz,)  and 
the  nephew  of  Abd-el-Malek.  He  was  also  a  great-grand- 
son of  Omar  I.,  whom  he  resembled  in  his  virtues.  He 
succeeded  his  cousin  Solyman  in  717  A.D.  He  suppressed 
the  maledictions  which  in  former  reigns  were  pronounced 
in  the  mosques  against  the  descendants  of  Alee.  The 
princes  of  his  own  race,  fearing  that  he  should  bequeath 
the  empire  to  one  of  the  race  of  Alee,  poisoned  him  in 
720  A.D. 

Omar,  a  Moorish  physician,  born  at  Cordova  in  990 
A.D.,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  surgery,  and  was  also 
a  jirofound  mathematician.     Died  in  loSo. 

Omar,  an  eminent  physician,  astronomer,  and  mathe- 
matician, supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Hadramaut, 
in  Arabia.     He  settled  in  Spain,  where  he  died  in  107 1. 

Omar,  ( Al-Mutawakkel-Billah,  SI  mo6-ta-wSk'kel 
bll'lah,)  the  last  king  of  Badajoz  of  the  Beni-al-Aftas, 
began  his  reign  in  1082  A.n.  In  conjunction  with  his 
ally,  Yoosuf,  King  of  Morocco,  he  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  Christian  army  at  Zalaca  in  1086  A.D.  Yoosuf 
soon  after  made  war  upon  Omar,  took  him  prisoner,  and 
had  him  put  to  death  about  1090,  after  having  promised 
to  spare  his  life. 

Omar-Ibn-Hafsoon,  (or  -Hafssun,)  o'niar  Tb'n  hSf- 
Boon',  a  famous  Moorish  chieftain,  was  a  native  of  Ronda, 
In  Spain.  In  859  a.d.  he  headed  a  rebel  army,  with 
which  he  laid  waste  the  kingdom  of  Cordova  and  other 
parts  of  the  empire.  After  having  for  a  long  time  main- 
tained himself  against  Mohammed,  King  of  Cordova,  he 
was  totally  defeated  by  him  at  Aybar  in  882,  and  died 
in  883  A.D. 

Omar  Khayyam,  khl-ydm',  i.e.,  "  Omar  the  Tent- 
maker,"  a  Persian  author  and  mathematician,  (named  in 
full  Ghiyath-ud-dken  AiiULKAiii  Omak  bin  Ibka- 
HEEM  AL  Khayyamee,)  was  born  at  Nishapoor  about 
1025.  He  was  a  friend  of  Nizain-ul-Moolk,  and  of  Has- 
san, who  founded  the  sect  of  Assassins.  He  was  the 
writer  of  a  treatise  on  algebra,  and  the  founder  of  the 
Seljook  era  in  chronology,  but  is  especially  noted  as  the 
author  of  "Rubaiyat,"  a  collection  of  some  five  hundred 
poetical  epigrams,  full  of  wit,  pessimism,  and  philosophic 
mysticism.  In  1S83  E.  H.  Whinfield  published  the  te-xt 
with  an  English  translation.  Edward  Fitzgerald's  trans- 
lation (of  which  an  American  edition  has  admirable 
illustrations  by  E.  Vedder)  is  well  known,  Omar  died 
at  his  native  town  in  1123. 

O'mar  (or  O'mer)  Pasha,  (pi'shi',)  Dey  of  Algiers, 
began  to  reign  in  April,  181 5,  after  a  revolution  in  which 
his  predecessor  had  been  killed.  In  1S16  the  English 
admiral  Exmouth,  after  failing  in  his  efforts  to  procure  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  Algiers  by  negotiation,  bombarded 
that  city  with  success.  Omar  was  forced  to  submit  to 
the  treaty  dictated  by  the  victor.  In  September,  1817, 
he  was  killed  by  his  own  mutinous  troops. 

Omar  (or  Omer)  Pasha,  o'mer  pS'shd',  (Michael 
Lat'tas,)  a  Turkish  commander,  born  in  Croatia  about 
1805.  About  1828  he  removed  to  Turkey,  changed  his 
name  to  Omer,  and  adopted  the  Moslem  religion.  He 
became  a  colonel  in  the  army  in  1839,  and  a  pasha  about 
1845.  He  suppressed  a  revolt  in  Bosnia  in  1850-51. 
When  the  Crimean  war  broke  out,  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Turkish  army.  He  defeated 
the  Russians  at  Oltenitza,  November,  1853,  and  at  Kalafat 


in  1854.  In  the  early  part  of  1855  he  led  an  army  to  the 
Crimea  and  formed  a  junction  with  the  Anglo-French 
army  at  Sebastopol.  In  1868  he  suppressed  a  formidable 
insurrection  in  Crete.     Died  in  1871. 

O'Meara,  o-ma'ra,  (Barky  Edward,)  the  favourite 
physician  of  Napoleon  at  Saint  Helena,  was  born  in  Ire- 
land about  1780.  Being  on  board  the  Bellerophon  when 
the  emperor  was  made  prisoner,  the  latter  requested  that 
O'Meara  might  accompany  him  as  his  surgeon.  He  re- 
mained in  Saint  Helena  till  1818,  when  he  was  recalled. 
In  1822  he  published  his  "Napoleon  in  Exile;  or,  A 
Voice  from  Saint  Helena,"  which  had  great  popularity, 
and,  though  not  entirely  imj^artial,  it  is  esteemed  a  valu- 
able contribution  to  Napoleoi^'s  history.     Died  in  1836. 

See  LasCasas,  "  M($morial  de  Sainte-Hdline;"  "  Monthly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1822. 

Omeiadae.     See  Omeyyades. 

Oraier.     See  Omar. 

Omero,  the  Italian  for  Homer,  which  see. 

Omeyyades  or  Omeyyads,  o-ma'yadz,  [Fr.  pi  on. 
o'm.Vyid',]  sing.  Omeyyade  or  Ome'iade,  o-ma'yad ; 
written  less  correctly  Omma'iades  and  Ommyiades, 
[Ger.  Omejjaden,  o-mi-ya'den,  or  Om.ajjaden,  o-mi- 
yd'den ;  Lat.  Ome'i'ad.I!  or  Omai'iad^,]  the  name 
of  a  famous  dynasty  of  caliphs,  founded  (660  a.d.)  by 
Moaweeyeh,  the  great-grandson  of  Omeyyah,  (or  Umey- 
yah,)  who  was  cousin-german  to  Abd-el-Mo6t'alib,  the 
grandfather  of  Mohammed ;  whence  the  Omeyyade 
princes  are  commonly  styled  "  Benee-  (Beni-)  Omeyyah," 
{i.e.  "Sons,  or  descendants,  of  Omeyyah.")  The  imme- 
diate successors  of  Moaweeyeh  continued  to  reign  at 
Damascus  until  749  A.D.,  when  their  power  was  over- 
thrown, and  all  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Omeyyah,  (it 
is  said,)  except  two,  were  put  to  death  by  order  of 
Abool-Abbas-Abdallah,  (surnamed  As-Seffah,  or  "the 
shedder  of  blood,")  the  founder  of  the  new  dynasty  of 
Abbassides.  Of  the  two  Omeyyade  princes  who  escaped 
the  vengeance  of  As-Seffah,  one  fled  to  a  remote  part 
of  Arabia;  the  other,  named  Abd-er-Rahman-Ibn-Moa- 
weeyeh,  went  first  to  Egypt,  thence  to  Spain,  and  estab- 
lished at  Cordova  (756  a.d.)  a  dynasty  which  was  destined 
to  rival  in  splendour  and  magnificence  that  of  the  Ab- 
basside  caliphs  in  the  East.  The  power  and  glory  of 
the  Benee-Omeyyah  in  Spain  culminated  in  the  reign  of 
Abd-er-Rahman  I.,  who  was  the  first  of  his  line  who 
assumed  the  title  of  caliph  ;  but  they  began  soon  after  to 
decline,  and  they  may  be  said  to  have  terminated  with 
the  reign  of  Hisham  II.,  in  1013. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  Gavangos,  2  vols.  4to,  London,  1840-43; 
HammerPurgstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber." 

Omeyyah,  o-ma'yah,  written  also  Omeyyeh,  Om- 
maya,  Umeyyah,  and  in  various  other  modes,  was  a 
cousin  of  Mohammed's  grandfather,  Abd-el-Moot'alib. 
His  great-grandson,  Moaweeyeh,  was  the  first  caliph  of 
the  illustrious  dynasty  of  the  Benee-Omeyyah.  (See 
Omeyyades.) 

Omma'ides.     See  Omeyyades. 

Ommajjaden,  (more  correctly,  Omajjaden.)  See 
Omeyyades. 

Ommaya.     See  Omeyyah. 

Ommeganck,  om'meh-gilnk',  (Balthasar  Paul,)  a 
distinguished  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1755.  He  also  excelled  in  painting  animals,  particularly 
sheep.  He  was  a  corresj^onding  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris,  and  chevalier  of  the  order  of  the 
Belgic  Lion.     Died  in  1826. 

See  A.  VoisiN,  "  £loge  du  Peintre  B.  P.  Ommeganck,"  1826. 

Ommiades  or  Ommiad8e.     See  Omeyyades 

Ommiyades  or  Ommyiades.    See  Omeyyades. 

Ommiyah.     See  Omeyyah. 

Om'pha-le,  [Gr.  '0//^a?.7/,]  a  queen  of  Lydia,  cele- 
brated for' her  connection  with  the  story  of  Hercules. 
She  is  said  to  have  been  mistress  of  the  kingdom  after 
the  death  of  Tmolus,  her  husband.  According  to  the 
fable,  Hercules  sold  himself  as  a  slave  to  Omphale, 
assumed  the  female  attire,  and  assisted  her  servants  in 
spinning. 

Om'ri,  [Heb.  '"^^.i'.]  King  of  Israel,  began  to  reign 
about  930  B.C.     He  reigned  eleven  years,  and  founded 


I,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  !oi:^:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  J?,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsatre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


ONAR 


1853 


OORT 


the  capital  city  of  Samaria.     He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Ahab. 

Onar.     See  Norvi. 

O-na'tas,  [Gr,  'Ovaraf,]  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  ^gina,  was  the  son  of  Micon,  and 
flourished  about  460  B.C.  Among  his  best  works  were 
statues  of  Apollo,  Hercules,  and  Mercury,  and  a  picture 
of  the  expedition  of  the  Argives  against  Thebes.  His 
skill  as  a  sculptor  is  highly  extolled  by  Pausanias. 

Onck'en,  (Johann  Gerhard,)  a  German  minister, 
born  at  Varel,  in  Oldenburg,  January  26,  1800.  He  re- 
moved to  England,  whence  in  1823  he  returned  to  Ger- 
many as  an  Independent  minister  and  preacher.  In  1834 
he  became  a  Baptist.  Pie  laboured  for  many  years  ii 
propagating  the  Baptist  faith  in  Germany  with  great 
success.     IJied  at  Zurich,  January  2,  1884. 

Ondegardo,  de,  di  on-di-gaR'do,  (Polo,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  historian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  historical  memoirs  of  Peru,  entitled  "  Rela- 
ciones,"  which  are  still  in  manuscript. 

On'der-donk,  (Benjamin  T.,)  born  in  the  city  of  New 
York  in  1791,  became  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Eastern  New 
York  about  1830,  and  was  suspended  for  disgraceful 
conduct  in  1845.     Died  in  1861. 

Onderdonk,  (Henry  Ustick,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  a  brother  of  Dr.  B.  T.  Onderdonk,  already  no- 
ticed, was  born  in  New  York  city,  March  16,  1789.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1805,  studied  medi- 
cine in  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  at  the  latter  place 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1810.  In  1816  he  was 
made  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1827  he 
was  consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  1836  succeeded  Bishop  White  as  diocesan.  Bishop 
Onderdonk's  churchmanship  was  of  a  kind  not  popular 
in  his  diocese,  and  from  1844  to  1856  he  was  suspended 
from  episcopal  functions  on  the  charge  of  intemperance. 
He  was  the  author  of  various  theological  and  religious 
works,  and  of  some  good  hymns  and  poems.  Died  in 
Philadelphia,  December  6,  1858. 

O'Neall,  o-neeK,  (John  Bei.ton,)  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  near  Bush  River,  South  Carolina,  in 
1793,  rose  through  various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of 
his  native  State.  He  became  in  1841  president  of  the 
State  Temperance  Society.  He  wrote  "  Biographical 
Sketches  of  the  Bench  and  Bar  of  South  Carolina,"  and 
other  works.     Died  December  27,  1863. 

O'Neil,  o-neel',  (Henry,)  an  English  historical  and 
genre  painter,  born  about  1818.  Among  his  works  are 
"  By  the  Rivers  of  Babylon,"  "  A  Scene  from  Hamlet," 
"Eastward  Ho!  August,  1857,"  "Home  Again!  1858," 
and  "Mary  Stuart's  Farewell  to  France."  Died  in  1880. 
O'Neill,  (Hugh,)  Earl  of  Tyrone,  an  Irish  chieftain, 
who  in  1587  received  the  earldom  as  lineal  heir  to 
Con,  the  first  earl,  to  whom,  however,  his  relationship 
was  doubtful.  In  1593  he  was  acknowledged  as  "The 
O'Neill."  He  formed  an  alliance  with  the  O'Donnells 
and  made  war  upon  the  English.  The  pope  sent  him 
a  crown  of  peacocks'  feathers.  O'Neill  outwitted  and 
outgeneralled  the  Earl  of  Essex,  but  in  1601  he  was 
compelled  to  surrender  to  Mountjoy.  He  was,  however, 
pardoned,  and  retained  the  earldom.  Being  accused  of 
treason,  he  left  the  country  in  1607,  and  died  at  Rome  in 
1616.  He  was  the  last  of  the  great  Celtic  chieftains  or 
princes  of  Ireland,  and  his  death  was  followed  by  the 
"  Plantation  of  Ulster"  and  the  ruin  of  the  Catholic 
cause  in  the  North  of  Ireland. 

O'Neill,  or  O'Neal,  (Shan,  Shane,  or  John,)  an 
Irish  chieftain,  son  and  lawful  heir  of  Con  O'Neill,  Earl 
of  Tyrone.  Con,  however,  declared  his  supposed  ille- 
gitimate son  Matthew  his  heir.  But  the  O'Neill  sept 
in  1559  chose  Shan  as  the  true  O'Neill.  From  that  time 
till  his  death,  Ulster  was  the  scene  of  almost  continual 
warfare  and  excess.  Shan  always  acknowledged  Queen 
Elizabeth,  but  everywhere  fought  the  Scots  and  the 
O'Donnells,  displaying  great  energy  and  ability.  He  was 
finally  overmatched  by  Sidney,  was  hunted  from  place  to 
place,  and  was  at  last  murdered  by  the  O'Donnells,  June 
2,  1567. 

On^sicrite.     See  Onesicritus. 
On-e-sic'rI-tus,  [Gr.  'OvrjaiKpiroc  ;  Fr.  On^sicrite, 
o'nA'ze'kRf't',]  a  Greek  historian,  lived  about  350-330 


B.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic  He  fol- 
lowed Alexander  the  Great  in  his  expedition  to  Asia, 
and  was  chief  pilot  of  the  fleet  which  descended  the 
Indus.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Alexander,"  which  is 
lost.  He  was  censured  by  Aulus  Gellius  and  other 
ancient  critics  for  mixing  fables  with  his  narrative. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis ;"  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Suidas,  "Onesicritus." 

Ongaro,  on-gi'ro,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Padua  or  Adria  about  1569.  He  wrote  "Alceo,"  a 
pastoral  or  piscatorial  poem,  in  which  he  substituted 
fishermen  for  shepherds.     Died  in  1599. 

Onk'e-los,  a  learned  Chaldee  writer,  of  uncertain 
era,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Babylon  and 
contemporary  with  Gamaliel.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
Targum,  or  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  the  Pentateuch, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  accuracy. 

Onomacrite.     See  Onomacritos. 

On-o-mac'ri-tos,  [Gr.  'OvofiuKpiTog ;  Fr.  Onoma- 
crite, o'no'mt'kR^t',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  sooth- 
sayer, lived  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He  was  banished 
by  Hipparchus  from  Athens  for  having  falsified  or  inter- 
polated the  oracles  of  Musseus  for  political  purposes. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  author 
of  much  that  is  attributed  to  Orpheus. 

See  EiCHHOFF,  "  Commentatio  de  Onomacrito,"  1840;  K.  O. 
MULLER,  "  History  of  Greek  Literature." 

On-o-mar'«hu3,  [Gr.  'Ovofxapxoc;  Fr.  Onomarque, 
o'no'mtRk',]  a  general  of  the  Phocians  in  the  Sacred 
war.  He  obtained  the  chief  command  in  353  B.C.,  and 
seized  the  sacred  treasures  of  Delphi.  He  defeated 
Philip  of  Macedon  in  two  battles,  but  was  defeated  and 
killed  by  that  king  in  352  B.C. 

Onomarque.     See  Onomarchus. 

On-o-san'der,  [Gr.  'OvocaixYoi ;  Fr.  Onosandre, 
o'no'z5NdR',]  one  of  the  principal  military  writers  of 
antiquity,  lived  at  Rome  under  the  reigns  of  Claudius 
and  Nero.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  tactics, 
entitled  "Strategeticos,"  (written  in  Greek,)  which  has 
been  translated  into  Latin,  French,  and  Italian.  He 
was  a  Platonic  philosopher,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on 
the  "Republic"  of  Plato,  which  is  not  extant. 

See  ScuoELL,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Grecque." 

Onosandre.     See  Onosander. 

Ons-en-Bray,  (Louis  L60N  Pajot.)     See  Pajot. 

Onsenoort,  van,  vfin  on'sehnoRt',  (Antoon  Ge- 
raard,)  a  Dutch  surgeon  and  oculist,  born  at  Utrecht 
in  1782.  He  wrote  several  professional  works.  Died 
in  1 841. 

See  F.  CuNiER,  "Notice  sur  A.  G.  van  Onsenoort,"  184J. 

Oni'low,  (Arthur,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
about  1690.  He  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1727.  "During  thirty-three  years,"  says 
Lord  Mahon,  "  he  filled  that  chair  with  higher  merit, 
probably,  than  any  one  either  before  or  after  him, — with 
unequalled  impartiality,  dignity,  and  courtesy."  He  re- 
tired from  the  chair  and  from  public  life  in  1761.  Died 
in  1768.     His  son  was  created  Earl  Onslow  about  1800. 

Onslow,  (Georoe,)  an  eminent  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Clermont,  in  France,  in  1784.  was  de- 
scended from  an  English  family  of  rank.  His  works 
include  symphonies,  duets,  quintets,  sonatas,  and  operas. 
His  opera  "  Le  Colporteur"  was  performed  with  great 
success.     Died  in  1853. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvrlle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Onslow,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1 74 1.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the  Dutch,  as 
vice-admiral,  in  1797.     Died  in  181 7. 

Onuphrius.     See  Panvinius. 

Ooloogh-Beg.     See  Olug-Beg. 

Oomur.     See  Omar.  _  -  ,  ,. 

Oorkhan  orUrkhan,  oor'kSn',  written  also  Orknan, 
(sometimes  surnamed  Ghazee  or  Ghazy,  gi'zee,)  a 
Turkish  Sultan,  was  the  son  of  Osman  (Othman)  I.,  the 
founder  of  the  present  Turkish  dynasty.  He  began  to 
reign  at  Prusa  in  1326,  and  made  extensive  conquests 
from  the  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor.  He  is  said  to  have  had 
superior  military  and  political  talents.  He  died  in  1360, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Amurath  (or  Moorad,)  I. 

Oort,  van,  (Adam.)     See  Noort,  van. 


€as/i;  9asf;  gAarrf;  gas/;  G,  H,  K.,gt(ttural;  ^, nasal;  v.,trillfd;  sass;  th  asin  this.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OOST 


1854 


OPPEDE 


Oost,  van,  vin  ost,  (Jacob,)  the  Elder,  one  of  the 
most  admired  painters  of  the  Flemish  school,  was  born 
at  Bruges  in  1600.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  formed 
his  style  on  the  model  of  Annibal  Caracci.  His  works 
are  numerous,  and  are  principally  on  sacred  subjects. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  a  "Nativity,"  "Virgin  and  Child,  with  Saints," 
and  "The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  Virgin 
and  Apostles."  His  copies  of  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck 
are  so  perfect  as  to  deceive  the  most  skilful  connoisseurs. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Gendrale." 

Oost,  van,  (Jacob,)  the  Younger,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  about  1637.  He  studied  under  his 
father,  and  afterwards  visited  Italy  and  France,  where 
he  resided  many  years.  He  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  portrait-painters  of  his  time,  and  also  executed  his- 
torical works  of  great  merit,  one  of  which,  the  "Martyr- 
dom of  Saint  Barbara,"  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece. 
Died  in  1713. 

Oosterwyck,  van,  vtn  os'ter-wik',  (Maria,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  near  Delft  in 
1630.  She  is  placed  in  the  first  rank  of  painters  of  the 
subjects  above  named.     Died  in  1693. 

Oosterzee,  van,  vSn  6s'ter-za,  (Jan  Jakob,)  a  Dutch 
theologian,  born  at  Rotterdam,  April  i,  1817.  Educated 
at  Utrecht,  he  became  in  1S44  chief  pastor  at  Rotterdam, 
where  he  acquired  great  fame  as  a  preacher  and  scholar. 
In  1862  he  accepted  a  professorship  of  divinity  at  Utrecht. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Jesus,"  (1863-65,)  "  The 
Theology  of  the  New  Testament,"  (1869,)  "Christian 
Dogmatics,"  (1874),  "Practical  Theology,"  (1S77-78,) 
etc.  Most  of  these  works  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish. Van  Oosterzee  was  of  the  orthodox  school.  Died 
in  1882. 

Oovarof,  oo-vJ'rof,  (Sergei  Semenovitch,)  Count, 
a  Russian  statesman,  born  at  Moscow  in  1785.  His 
great  work  was  done  as  minister  of  education,  in  which 
capacity  he  founded  many  schools,  and  laid  a  foundation 
for  the  scientific  knowledge  of  the  Asiatic  languages  of 
the  empire.  He  wrote  on  philology  and  criticism,  and  on 
literary  and  political  topics.  Died  at  Moscow  in  Sep- 
tember, 1855. 

Oovarof;  Ouvarof,  or  Uwarow,  oo-vS'rof,  written 
also  Ouvarov,  (Theodore,)  a  Russian  general,  born 
about  1770.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Borodino.     Died  in  1824. 

Operman,  o'per-min'.  Count,  a  German  general  and 
engineer,  entered  the  Russian  service  about  1783.  Died 
in  1832. 

O-phe'li-on,  ['Q^fAiuv,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  His 
works  are  not  extant. 

Ophelte.     See  Opheltes. 

O-phel'tes,  [Gr. 'O^eAr^f ;  Fr.  Ophelte,  o'f?lt',]  a 
son  of  Lycurgus,  King  of  Nemea,  was  killed  in  infancy 
by  a  serpent,  having  been  left  alone  on  the  grass  by 
his  nurse,  Hypsipyle,  while  she  went  to  guide  Adrastus 
to  a  spring. 

Opie,  o'pe,  (Amelia,)  a  popular  English  writer,  wife 
of  John  Opie,  noticed  below,  and  daughter  of  Dr.  James 
Alderson,  was  born  at  Norwich  in  1769.  Her  first  pub- 
lications were  a  volume  of  poems,  and  a  tale  entitled 
"  Father  and  Daughter,"  which  were  very  well  received, 
and  were  succeeded  by  the  novel  of  "  Adeline  Mow- 
bray," (1804,)  "  Simple  Tales,"  (1805,)  "The  Orphan," 
"Valentine's  Eve,"  "Madeline,"  and  other  works  of 
fiction,  distinguished  for  their  pathos  and  for  their  ele- 
vated moral  and  religious  tone.  In  1825  Mrs.  Opie 
became  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  pub- 
lished the  same  year  her  "  Illustrations  of  Lying." 
Having  visited  Paris  in  1830,  she  wrote  an  interesting 
account  of  the  revolution  of  July.  Among  the  most 
important  of  her  other  works  may  be  named  "  Detrac- 
tion Displayed,"  (1828,)  and  "Lays  for  the  Dead,"  (1833.) 
She  had  also  published  her  husband's  "Lectures  on 
Painting,"  with  a  memoir,  (1809.)     Died  in  1853. 

See  Miss  C.  Hrtghtwell,  "Memorials  of  the  Life  of  Amelia 
Opie,"  1854;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1806;  "Monthly  Re- 
view" for  August,  1S20;  H.  Martineau,  "Biographical  Sketches," 
1869. 


Opie,  (John,)  a  distinguished  English  painter,  born 
near  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  in  1761.  Some  of  his  portraits 
and  sketches  attracted  the  notice  of  Dr.  VVolcott,  the 
satirist,  who  took  the  young  artist  under  his  protection 
and  introduced  him  into  London  society,  where  he  en- 
joyed for  a  time  the  patronage  of  the  fashionable  world. 
He  married  as  his  second  wife,  in  1798,  Miss  Amelia 
Alderson,  who  afterwards  obtained  great  popularity  as 
a  writer.  Opie  gave  particular  attention  to  historical 
subjects,  and  painted  "The  Death  of  Rizzio,"  "Jeph- 
thah's  Vow,"  and  "  Belisarius."  He  succeeded  Fuseli 
as  professor  of  painting  in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1806. 
Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February,  1810. 

O-pil'i-us,  (Aurelius,)  a  Latin  grammarian,  who 
taught  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Rome.  He  went  into 
voluntary  exile  in  92  B.C.  as  a  companion  of  his  intimate 
friend  Rutilius  Rufus,  who  had  been  banished. 

Opilius  Macrinus.     See  Macrinus. 

O-pim'I-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  politician,  was  a 
leader  of  the  aristocratic  party,  and  adversary  of  Caius 
Gracchus.  He  became  consul  in  121  B.C.,  and  a  violent 
contest  then  ensued  between  the  senate  and  the  party 
of  Gracchus.  Having  been  authorized  by  the  senate 
to  decide  the  question  by  force,  Opimius  killed  Grac- 
chus and  about  three  thousand  of  his  partisans.  Ac- 
cording to  Cicero,  ("  In  Catilinam,  Oratio  I.,")  Gracchus 
was  killed  on  suspicion  of  sedition.  Opimius  was  cor- 
rupted by  Jugurtha  in  112,  fell  into  disgrace,  and  passed 
his  latter  years  in  exile.     Died  about  100  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "C.  Gracchus;"  Sallust,  "Jugurtha." 

Opis.    See  Ops. 

Opitius.     See  Opitz. 

Opitz,  o'pits,  [Lat.  Opi'tius,]  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
Orientalist,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1642,  was  professor  of 
Greek  and  of  divinity  at  Kiel.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Bible  in  Hebrew,"  ("  Biblia  Hebraica," 
1709.)     Died  in  1712. 

See  Hetzel,  "Geschichte  der  Hebraischen  Sprache." 

Opitz,  [Lat.  Opi'tius,]  (Martin,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man critic  and  writer,  born  at  Bunzlau,  in  Silesia,  in 
1597,  is  called  the  founder  of  the  modern  school  of  Ger- 
man poetry.  He  was  crowned  as  poet-laureate  by  the 
emperor  in  1628,  and  was  appointed  in  1638  historiogra- 
pher to  Ladislaus  IV.,  King  of  Poland.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  a  "Poem  of  Consolation  amid  the  Dis- 
asters of  War,"  (1621.)  He  also  translated  the  Psalms, 
the  "Antigone"  of  Sophocles,  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1639.  His  essay  on  German  versification  ("  Biichlein 
von  der  Deutschen  Poeterei,"  loth  edition,  1668)  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  purity 
of  the  German  language,  into  which  he  introduced  a 
new  prosody.  "He  is  reckoned,"  says  Hallam,  "the 
inventor  of  a  rich  and  harmonious  rhythm.  .  .  .  No 
great  elevation,  no  energy  of  genius,  will  be  found  in 
this  German  Heinsius  and  Malherbe.  Opitz  displayed, 
however,  another  kind  of  excellence.  He  wrote  the 
language  with  a  purity  of  idiom  in  which  Luther  alone, 
whom  he  chose  as  his  model,  was  superior."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  GoTTSCHED,  "Lob-  und  Gedachtnissrede  auf  M.  Opitz," 
1739;  Lindner,  "  Nachricht  von  des  weltberiihmten  Schlesiers  M. 
Opitzen,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1740;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie." 

Opoix,  o'pwi',  (Christophe,)  a  French  savant,  born 
at  Provins  in  1745,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
of  1792-95.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works.  Died 
in  1S40. 

See  Ramon',  "Notice  sur  C.  Opoix,"  1841. 

Oporin,  o-po-reen'  or  o'po'riN',  [Lat.  Opori'nus,) 
(JoHANN,)  a  learned  Swiss  printer,  whose  original  name 
was  Herbst,  born  at  Bale  in  1507.  He  became  professor 
of  Greek  in  his  native  city,  where  he  afterwards  estab- 
lished a  printing-house.  He  published  many  excellent 
editions  of  the  classics,  corrected  by  himself,  and  wrote 
annotations  on  Cicero  and  Demosthenes.    Died  in  1568. 

See  Heinzel,  "De  Ortu,  Vita  et  Obitu  Oporini." 

Oporinus.    See  Oporin. 

Oppede,  d',  do'pid',  (Jean  de  Maynier — d?h  mi'- 
ne-i',)  Baron,  a  French  judge,  born  at  Aix  in  1495, 
was  notorious  for  his  cruel  persecution  of  the  Vaudois, 


a,  e.  i,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscnre;  far,  fill,  fit;  mStj  n6t;  good;  moon; 


OPPENORD 


i8'55 


ORANGE 


who  were  massacred,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex, 
about  1546.     Died  in  1558. 

See  Gauffridi,  "  Histoire  de  la  Provence." 

Oppenord,  op'noR',  (Gilles  Marie,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  in  1672;  died  in  1742. 

Oppert,  op'p^Rt,  (Julius,)  a  German  Orientalist,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1825.  lie 
studied  Arabic,  Sanscrit,  etc.,  and  was  naturalized  as  a 
citizen  of  France.  He  was  sent  by  the  French  govern- 
ment, with  F".  Fresnel  and  F.  Thomas,  on  a  scientific 
mission  to  Mesopotamia  in  1851,  and  began  in  1857  to 
publish  an  account  of  the  same,  entitled  "Expedition 
scientifique  en  Mesopotamie."  He  is  distinguished  as  a 
decipherer  of  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  History  of  Chald^a  and  Assyria"  and  a  "  Sanscrit 
Grammar." 

Op'pi-an  or  Op-pi-a'nus,  [Gr.  'On-marof;  Fr.  Op- 
PIEN,  o'pe;;3,N',]  a  Celebrated  Greek  poet,  born  at  Ana- 
zarba,  in  Cilicia,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  Two  poems,  entitled  "On 
the  Chase,"  ("  Cynegetica,")  and  "  On  Fishing,"  ("  Ha- 
lieutica,")  are  ascribed  to  him.  The  great  superiority 
of  the  latter  production  to  the  former  has  led  to  the 
supposition  that  they  were  written  by  different  persons. 
The  author  of  the  "  Halieutica"  is  compared  by  Scaliger 
to  Virgil  for  the  harmony  and  graces  of  his  style.  It  is 
said  that  Oppian  was  presented  by  the  emperor  Caracalla 
with  a  gold  piece  for  every  verse  in  his  "Halieutica." 
Both  poems  display  considerable  knowledge  of  natural 
history,  mingled  with  many  errors  and  absurdities. 

See  the  article  "Oppianus"  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  "  En- 
cyklopaedie,"  by  F.  Ritter  ;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graca ;" 
ioHRTSCH,  "  De  Oppiano  Poeta  Cilice,"  1749;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gendrale." 

Oppianus.      See  Oppian. 

Oppien.     See  Oppian. 

Op'pJ-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  writer,  who  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Julius  Caesar.  It  is  stated  that  he  was 
cognizant  of  all  the  projects  and  plans  of  that  dictator, 
whose  private  affairs  he  managed.  He  wrote  biographies 
(which  are  not  extant)  of  several  eminent  Romans.  The 
book  of  Caesar's  "Commentaries"  which  treats  on  the 
war  in  Africa  is  attributed  to  Oppius  by  some  critics. 

See  Drumann,  "Geschichte  Roms :"  Vossius,  "De  Historicis 
Latinis  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Ops  or  O'pis,  a  Roman  goddess  of  plenty  and  fertility, 
was  identified  with  the  Rhea  of  the  Greek  mythology, 
and  was  also  called  Tellus.  She  was  supposed  to  be 
the  wife  of  Saturn,  and  was  worshipped  as  the  protec- 
tress of  agriculture.  Opes,  the  plural  of  Ops,  signifies 
"  riches,  power,  help." 

Opsopoeiis  or  Obsopous,  op-so-po'6s,  (Johann,)  a 
German  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Bretten  in  1556, 
became  professor  of  physiology  and  botany  at  Heidel- 
berg. He  published  an  edition  of  the  "Siljylline  Ora- 
cles," and  of  several  works  of  Hippocrates.  Died  in 
1596. 

Opsopoeus  or  Obsopous,  (Vincenz,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Franconia  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  "On  the  Art  of 
Drinking,"  ("  De  Arte  Bibendi,")  and  made  translations 
from  Diodorus  and  other  Greek  writers.     Died  in  1539. 

Opstal,  van,  vtn  op'stil,  (  Gaspard  Jacques,  )  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660.  He  painted 
religious  and  mythological  subjects.     Died  about  1724. 

Opstraet,  op'stRSt,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Beringhen  in  165 1,  was  the  author  of  several 
religious  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  "  The  Chris- 
tian Theologian."     Died  in  1720. 

Optat.     See  Optatus. 

Optatianus,  op-ta-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Optatien,  op'tt'- 
se^N',]  (Puiu.ius  Porphyrius,)  a  degenerate  Latin 
poet,  flourished  about  325  A.D.  lie  wrote  a  Panegyric 
on  Constantine  the  Great,  the  style  of  which  is  very  bad. 
His  writings  are  full  of  puerilities  and  absurd  conceits. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Opta_tien.     See  Optatianus. 

Op-ta'tus,  [Fr.  Optat,  op'tt',]  a  saint  of  the  Romish 
calendar,  born  in  Africa  about  315.  He  was  Bishop 
of  Milevia  or  Melevia,  and  is  favourably  mentioned  by 


Saint  Augustine.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  Dona- 
tists,  which  is  extant.     Died  after  386  A.n. 

See  E.  DuPiN,  "Vie  de  Saint-Optat,"  prefixed  to  his  works, 
Paris,  1700. 

Opzoomer,  op'zo'mer,  (  Carl  Willem,)  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  jurist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Rotter- 
dam in  1821,  was  the  author  of  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Books  of  Civil  Law  in  Holland,"  and  a  treatise  "On 
Conservatism  and  Reform,"  (1852.)  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Utrecht  in  1846. 

Or'ange,  (Frederik  Hendrik  van  Nassau — vtn 
nis'sow,)  Prince  of,  born  at  Delft  in  1584,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  William  I.  of  Orange,  surnamed  "the 
Silent."  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Co- 
ligni.  He  served  in  the  army  under  his  half-brother, 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  and  succeeded  him  as  Stadtholder 
of  the  United  Provinces  in  1625.  He  prosecuted  with 
ability  the  war  against  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  he 
took  Maestricht  in  1632  and  Breda  in  1637.  As  a  gen- 
eral, he  was  prudent  and  mostly  successful.  He  died  in 
1647,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William  II.,  who 
died  in  1650,  aged  twenty-four.  The  latter  had  married 
Mary,  a  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  left  a 
son,  who  became  William  III.  of  England. 

See  Arnold  Montanus,  "Leven  en  Bedrijf  van  Frederik  Hen- 
drik," 1652:  CoMMELiN,  "  Leven  van  Fred.  Hendrik  van  Nassauw," 
1651-sq:  Zeeman,  "Leven  van  Fr.  Hendrik  Prins  van  Oranje," 
1832;  D'AuBERY,  "Memoires." 

Orange,  (Maurice,)  Prince  of.     See  Nassau. 

Or'ange,  (Fr.  pron.  o'rdNzh',]  (Philikekt  de  Cha- 
lons— sh4'l6N',)  Prince  of,  a  distinguished  commander, 
born  in  Burgundy  in  1502,  was  the  son  of  the  Baron  of 
Arlay.  He  entered  the  service  of  Charles  V.  about  1521, 
and  fought  against  the  French.  When  Constable  Bourbon 
was  killed  in  the  assault  on  Rome,  in  1527,  he  succeeded 
to  the  command  of  the  army,  and  compelled  the  pope  to 
subscribe  the  conditions  which  he  dictated.  He  became 
Viceroy  of  Naples  in  1528,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Florence,  in  1530.  His  nephew,  Rene  of  Nassau,  be- 
came his  heir. 

See  La  Pise,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  d'Orange." 

Orange,  (William  [Prince]  of,)  [Lat.  Guiliiel'- 
Mus  (or  Guiliel'mus)  Auri'acus  ;  Fr.  Guillaume 
d'Orangh,  ge'yom'  do'rSNzh' ;  Ger.  Wiliielm  von 
Oranien,  <vil'h§lm  fon  o-ri'ne-en ;  Dutch,  Willem 
VAN  Oranje,  wiK16m  vtn  o-rSn'yeh,]  called  also  Wil- 
liam the  Silent,  [  Fr.  Guillau.me  le  Taciturne, 
ge'yom'  leh  tt'se'tiirn',]  the  illustrious  founder  of  the 
Dutch  republic,  was  born  at  Dillenburg,  in  Nassau,  in 
April,  1533.  \\&  was  the  eldest  son  of  William,  Count 
of  Nassau,  and  was  descended  from  an  ancient  sovereign 
family,  one  of  whose  members,  Adolph  of  Nassau,  had 
occupied  the  imperial  throne.  From  his  cousin-gernian 
Rene,  who  died  in  1544,  he  inherited  princely  estates  in 
Brabant,  Flanders,  and  Holland,  besides  the  small  prin- 
cipality of  Orange,  in  the  southeast  of  France.  He  was 
educated  as  a  Protestant  by  his  parents;  but  about  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  became  a  page  of  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  who  quickly  discerned  his  excellent  qualities  and 
admitted  him  into  his  secret  councils.  Charles  testified 
his  confidence  in  the  young  prince  by  appointing  him 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  1554,  in  the  absence  of 
the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  leaned  on  his  shoulder  at  the 
ceremony  of  his  own  abdication,  in  1555.  William,  who 
was  regarded  as  the  greatest  Flemish  subject  of  Spain, 
was  one  of  the  hostages  given  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  to 
Henry  II.  of  France  in  1559  for  the  execution  of  the 
treaty  of  Cateau  Cambresis.  Henry  II.,  in  conversation 
with  his  hostage,  (whom  he  supposed  to  be  a  Catholic 
and  to  be  privy  to  the  secrets  of  the  Spanish  court,)  im- 
prudently revealed  to  him  a  plot  which  those  two  kings 
had  formed  to  massacre  all  their  Protestant  subjects. 
"  William  earned,"  says  Motley,  "  the  surname  of  'The 
Silent,'  from  the  manner  in  which  he  received  these 
communications  from  Henry  without  revealing  to  the 
monarch,  by  word  or  look,  the  enormous  blunder  which 
he  had  committed.  His  purpose  was  fixed  from  that 
hour."  He  was  a  Catholic  nominally  and  in  outward 
observance,  but  had  then  no  dogmatic  zeal, — perhaps 
no  interest  in  questions  of  theology.  Humanity  and 
patriotism,  however,  determined  him  to  counteract  the 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  f  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,g7ittural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jj^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


ORBIGNY 


1856 


ORDINAIRE 


cruel  and  tyrannical  designs  of  the  court.  He  acted  with 
characteristic  caution  and  secrecy  in  his  opposition  for 
several  years,  and  continued  to  serve  as  Stadtholder 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht,  and  councillor  of 
state.  A  mutual  but  dissembled  enmity  existed  between 
him  and  Philip  W.  In  1566  a  great  insurrection  was 
provoked  by  the  attempt  of  Philip  to  establish  the  In- 
quisition in  all  its  rigour  in  the  Netherlands.  William 
refused  to  take  a  new  oath  of  unlimited  obedience,  and 
offered  to  resign  all  his  offices,  in  1567.  In  the  same 
year  the  famous  Duke  of  Alva  was  sent  with  an  army, 
and  with  supreme  civil  power  as  governor,  to  complete 
the  subjection  of  the  revolted  provinces.  In  this  crisis, 
Egmont,  whohad  been  the  friend  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
refused  to  co-operate  with  him  in  resistance  to  the  im- 
pending invasion.  By  hastily  retiring  to  Nassau,  Orange 
escaped  the  doom  which  had  been  pronounced  on  him 
at  Madrid.  In  February,  1568,  a  sentence  of  the  Inqui- 
sition condemned  to  death  as  heretics  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Netherlands,  with  a  few  excei)tions.  (Motley.) 
Having  raised  a  large  army,  William  entered  Brabant  in 
156S,  and  offered  battle  to  Alva,  who  declined  to  fight. 
At  the  end  of  the  campaign.  Orange  was  forced  to  dis- 
band his  army  for  want  of  money  to  pay  them.  In  1572 
many  cities  of  Holland  raised  the  standard  of  Orange, 
and  the  contest  was  maintained  with  desperate  resolution 
through  long  years  of  adversity.  He  founded  a  famous 
rejjublic  by  the  union  of  the  seven  Protestant  provinces 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen, 
Overyssel,  and  Guelderland,  in  1579,  and  was  chosen 
Stadtholder.  In  1584  he  was  assassinated  by  Balthazar 
Gerard,  a  fanatical  Catholic.  He  left  three  sons,  Philip, 
Maurice,  (see  Nassau,)  and  Fiederick  Henry,  the  first 
of  whom  was  seized  by  Alva  in  156S,  sent  to  Spain  as  a 
hostage,  and  detained  many  years  in  captivity. 

"His  enemies,"  says  Motley,  "never  contested  the 
subtlety  and  breadth  of  his  intellect,  his  adroitness  and 
capacity  in  conducting  state  affairs,  and  the  profoundness 
of  his  views.  In  many  respects  his  surname  of  'the 
Silent'  was  a  misnomer.  William  of  Orange  was  neither 
'silent'  nor  'taciturn  ;' — yet  these  are  the  epithets  which 
will  be  forever  associated  with  the  name  of  a  man  who 
in  private  was  the  most  affable,  cheerful,  aitd  delightful 
of  companions,  and  who  on  a  thousand  public  occasions 
was  to  prove  himself,  both  by  pen  and  speech,  the  most 
eloquent  man  of  his  age."  To  William  the  Silent  is 
due  the  hpnour  of  being  the  first  among  European  states- 
men to  make  a  practical  application  in  government  of 
the  principle  of  religious  toleration. 

See  Motley,  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  passim,  (especially 
the  remarks  at  the  close  of  the  third  volume  ;)  Grotius,  "  Annales  /' 
Strada,  "De  Belle  Belcico  ;"  Hooft,  "  Nederlandsche  Historie;" 
De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  'I'emporis;"  Beaufort,  "  Leven  van  Wil- 
lem  I.,  Prins  van  Oranje,"  3  vols.,  1732;  Eugene  Mahon,  "Guil- 
laume  le  Tacitume,"  1S52;  J.  B.  Champagnac,  "  Guillaume  le 
Tacitunie  et  sa  Dynastie,"  1S51  ;  Spaxdaw,  "  Lofrede  op  Willem 
den  Ersten,"  etc.,  1821  ;  Amelot  de  la  Hous.save,  "  Histoire  de 
Philippe  Guillaume  de  Nassau,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1754:  Meursius, 
"  Guillelmus  Auriacus,"  1621;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
R.  Burton,  "  History  of  the  House  of  Orange,''  1693. 

Orbigny,  d',  dok'bJn'ye',  (Alcide  Dessalines,)  an 
eminent  French  naturalist,  born  at  Coueron  (Loire-In- 
f^rieure)  in  1802.  He  was  sent  on  a  scientific  mission 
to  South  America  in  1826  by  the  managers  of  the  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History.  He  spent  eight  years  in  the 
exploration  of  Brazil,  Chili,  Peru,  Bolivia,  etc.,  and  pub- 
lished the  results  in  an  imj^ortant  work  entitled  "  Travels 
in  South  America,"  (9  vols.  4to,  1834-47.)  In  1853  he 
obtained  a  new  chair  founded  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
for  the  study  of  organic  remains.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  "The  Palneontology  of  France,"  ("  Paleonto- 
logie  Fran9aise,"  14  vols.,  1840-54,  with  1430  plates,) 
and  "  Cours  elementaire  de  Paleontologie  et  de  Geologie 
stratigraphiques,"  (3  vols.,  1S49-52.)    Died  in  1857. 

See  Damour,  "  Discours  aux  Fun^railles  d'A.  d'Orbignv ;" 
"Notice  analytique  sur  les  Travaux  d'AIcide  d'Orbigny,"  1S56; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

_  Orbigny,  d',  (Charles  Dessalines,)  a  French  geolo- 
gist, a  brother  of  the  preceding,  w.is  born  at  Coueron  in 
1806.  _  He  published  a  "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Natu- 
ral History,"  (24  vols.,  1839-49,)  in  which  he  was  aided 
by  Arago,  Jussieu,  and  other  savants  ;  also,  several  works 
on  geology.     Died  February  15,  1876. 


Or-bill-ua  Pu-pillus,  a  Roman  grammarian  and 
teacher,  famed  for  his  severe  discipline.  He  taught 
languages  at  Rome,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils 
the  poet  Horace,  who  has  immortalized  him  under  the 
name  of  "the  flogging  (plaf^ositm)  Orbilius." 

See  Horace,  "Epistoije;"  Suetonius,  "De  illustribus  Grara- 
maticis." 

Orcagna,  oR-kJn'ya,  (Andrea  m  Cione,)  an  emi- 
nent Florentine  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor,  some- 
times called  Orgagna,  born  about  1325.  He  built  the 
Loggia  di  Lanzi  at  Florence,  which  was  commended  by 
Michael  Angelo  as  a  model  of  elegance.  Among  his 
master-pieces  in  painting  are  the  frescos  of  the  "  Last 
Judgment,"  and  the  "Triumph  of  Death," in  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa.     Died  about  1385. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  Architects,"  etc.  ;  Quatrh- 
m6re  de  Quincy,  "  Vies  des  plus  ilhistres  Architectes  ;"  Baldinucci, 
"  Notizie  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Or'chard-spn,  (Willia.m  Quiller,)  a  Scottish 
painter,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1S35.  In  1863  he  re- 
moved to  London,  where  in  1868  he  was  made  an  asso- 
ciate and  in  1877  a  full  Academician.  His  figure-paint- 
ings are  very  numerous,  and  are  highly  valued. 

Or'cus,  the  Roman  god  of  the  lower  regions,  identi- 
fied with  the  Pluto  or  Hades  of  the  Greek  mythology. 
(See  Pluto.) 

Ord,  (Craven,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1756. 
He  furnished  materials  to  Gough  and  John  Nichols  for 
their  works.     Died  in  1832. 

Ord,  (Edward  O.  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Maryland  in  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1851,  and  served  several  years 
in  California  and  Oregon.  He  was  appointed  a  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  about  .September,  1861,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Dranesville,  Virginia,  December  20 
of  that  year.  In  May,  1862,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  major-general.  He  served  under  General  Grant  at 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Vicksburg,  July,  1863,  soon 
after  which  he  was  sent  to  Louisiana.  He  obtained 
command  of  the  eighteenth  corps  in  July,  1864,  and  led 
the  same  in  a  successful  operation  against  Fort  Ilarrison, 
near  Richmond,  in  September  of  that  year.  He  suc- 
ceeded General  Butler  as  commander  of  the  department 
of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  in  January,  1865.  He 
commanded  a  corps  in  the  final  assault  on  Peteri^burg, 
April  2,  1S65,  and  his  command  contributed  greatly  to 
the  success  gained  on  the  6th  of  that  month  near  the 
Appomattox.  He  was  commander  of  the  fourth  military 
district,  comprising  Mississippi  and  Arkansas,  from  .April 
1867,  to  December  of  that  year.     Died  July  22,  1883. 

Ord,  (John  W.,)  an  English  poet  and  medical  writer 
born  in  181 1.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
"England:  an  Historical  Poem."     Died  in  1853. 

Ordaz,  oR-dSth',  (Don  Diego,)  a  Spanish  captain 
and  explorer,  served  under  Cortez  in  the  conquest  of 
Mexico.  He  was  the  first  white  man  that  ascended 
Popocatepetl.  Having  been  authorized  by  Charles  V. 
to  conquer  the  country  between  Cape  Vela  and  the  Bay 
of  Venezuela,  he  ascended  the  river  Orinoco  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  leagues  about  1531.     Died  in  1533. 

See  Prescott,  "  Conquest  of  Mexico ;"  Las  Casas,  "  Historia 

de  las  Indias." 

Ordener,  oRd'ni',  (Michel,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Saint- Avoid  (Moselle)  in  1755.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  of  division  for  his  services  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.) 
Died  in  i8ii. 

Orderic  Vital     See  Ordericus  Vitalis. 

Or-de-ri'cus  Vi-ta'lis,  [Fr.  Orderic  Vitai.,  or'deh- 
rik'  ve'ttl',]  one  of  the  most  distinguished  early  English 
historians,  born  near  Shrewsbury  in  1075,  was  descended 
from  a  French  family.  In  1 107  he  was  ordained  a  priest. 
He  was  the  author  of  "The  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
England  and  Normandy"  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to 
1 141,  which,  according  to  Guizot,  contains  more  valuable 
information  on  the  history  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  than  any  other  single  work.    Died  about  1141. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ordinaire,  or'de'niR',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Salins  in  1736,  published  a  "Natural 
History  of  Volcanoes,"  (1802,)  which  is  commended. 
Died  in  1808. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  li,  y,  s/iorl;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  niooij: 


OREADES 


1857 


ORGETORIX 


Oreades.    See  Oreads. 

O're-ads,  [Gr.  'OpetatSef;  Lat.  Ore'ades  ;  Fr.  OrB- 
ADES,  o'ri'Jd',1  mountain-nymphs  of  classic  mythology, 
derived  their  name  from  the  Greek  opo^,  a  "mountain." 
They  attended  Diana  in  hunting-excursions. 

Oregio,  o-ra'jo,  [Lat.  Ore'cius,]  (Agostino,)  a 
learned  Italian  cardinal  and  theologian,  horn  at  Santa 
Sofia,  in  Tuscany,  in  1577.  He  was  the  author  of 
treatises  "  On  the  Trinity"  and  "  On  the  Work  of  Six 
Days."     Died  in  1635. 

See  Oldoini,  "  Vitae  Pontificiiin  et  Cardinaliiim." 

Oregius.    See  Oregio. 

Oreglia  di  Santo  Stefano,  o-Ri'le-S  de  sSn'to 
stef'S-no,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at  Bena,  July 
9,  1828,  became  Archbishop  of  Damietta  in  partibtts, 
and  in  1873  ^'^^^  created  a  cardinal-priest  and  was  made 
prefect  of  the  congregation  of  indulgences  and  holy 
relics.  In  1884  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  cardinal-bishop 
and  appointed  Bishop  of  Palestrina. 

O'Reilly,  o-rl'le,  (Alexander,)  a  Spanish  general,  of 
Irish  descent,  born  near  Chinchilla  in  1725.  He  fought 
for  the  French  at  Minden  (1759)  and  Corbach,  (1760,) 
soon  after  which  he  returned  to  the  Spanish  service.  He 
took  possession  of  Louisiana  in  1768,  and  afterwards 
commanded  an  expedition  against  Algiers.  Died  in  1794. 

See  BOURGOING,  "Tableau  de  I'Espagne  moderne." 

O'Reilly,  o-ri'le,  (Andrew,)  a  general,  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1740.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service,  and 
fought  against  the  French  in  many  campaigns.  He 
commanded  a  corjjs  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.)    Died  in  1832. 

O'Reilly,  (Bernard,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  in  the 
county  of  Longford,  Ireland,  in  1803.  He  came  in  1825 
to  America,  studied  at  Montreal  and  Baltimore,  and  in 
1831  took  priest's  orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
In  1847  he  became  Vicar-General  of  the  diocese  of  Buf- 
falo. In  1850  he  was  consecrated  as  Bishop  of  Hartford. 
He  was  lost  at  sea,  on  the  steamer  Pacific,  in  1856. 

O'Reilly,  (John  Boyle,)  LL.D.,  an  Irish-American 
poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Castle  Dovvth,  county  of 
Meath,  Ireland,  June  25,  1844.  In  June,  1866,  he  was 
tried  in  Dublin,  convicted  of  high  treason,  and  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  life,  but  the  sentence  was  commuted 
to  twenty  years  of  penal  servitude.  In  1869  he  escaped 
from  West  Australia  to  the  United  States,  went  to  Bos- 
ton, and  became  editor  and  joint  proprietor  of  "The 
Pilot."  His  principal  books  are  "  Songs  from  the 
Southern  Seas,"  (1872,)  "Songs,  Legends,  and  Ballads," 
(1S76,)  "  Moondyne,"(i877,)  and  "Statues  in  the  Block," 
(1881.)    Died  August  10,  1890. 

Orellana,  o-rSl-yi'nJ,  (Francisco,)  a  celebrated  navi- 
gator, born  at  Truxillo,  in  Spain,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
In  1 531  he  set  sail  with  the  brothers  Pizarro  for  Peru 
Having  heard  from  the  natives  of  a  country  in  the  east 
producing  gold,  silver,  and  sj^ices,  he  set  out  in  1540,  in 
company  with  Gonsalez  Pizarro,  on  an  exploring  expe- 
dition. After  following  the  course  of  the  Napo,  a  branch 
of  the  Marafion,  for  about  two  hundred  leagues,  their 
provisions  failed,  and  Orellana  was  directed  to  proceed 
down  the  river,  obtain  supplies,  and  return  immediately. 
Instead  of  this,  he  continued  his  course  along  the  main 
stream,  though  suffering  severely  from  famine  and  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Indians.  In  August,  1541,  he  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Maranon,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Amazon,  from  the  warlike  women  whom  he  states  he 
encountered  on  its  shores.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he 
obtained  from  Charles  V.  letters  patent  for  colonizing 
the  country  he  had  discovered ;  but  soon  after  reaching 
the  Amazon,  in  1549,  he  was  attacked  with  fever,  and 
died  in  1550. 

See  A.  VON  Humboldt,  "Voyages  aux  Regions  ^quinoxiales  du 
oouveau  Continent." 

Orelli,  0-rel'lee,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  distinguished 
Swiss  critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Zurich  in  1787.  In 
1819  he  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  hermeneutics 
in  his  native  city.  He  published  excellent  editions  of 
Cicero,  (8  vols.,  1826-37,)  Horace,  (2  vols.,  1844,) 
Tacitus,  (2  vols.,  1846-48,)  and  other  Roman  classics. 
In  conjunction  with  I3aiter,  he  published  an  edition  of 
Plato,  (4  vols.,  1839-41.)  His  "  Onomasticon  Tulli- 
anum,"  (3  vols.,  1837,)  containing  a  life  of  Cicero,  a 


lexicon  of  proper  names,  several  indexes,  etc.,  is  a  work 
of  great  value  for  the  history  of  the  period  in  which 
Cicero  lived.     Died  in  1849. 

See  "  Lebensabriss  von  J.  C.  von  Orelli,"  Zurich,  1831 ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Gi^n^rale." 

Oresme,  o'rim',  (Nicolas,)  a  learned  French  prelate, 
was  a  native  of  Normandy.  He  was  appointed  suc- 
cessively grand  master  of  the  College  of  Navarre,  and 
Bishop  of  Lisieux,  (1377.)  He  translated  the  "Ethics" 
and  "  Politics"  of  Aristotle  into  French,  and  published 
several  scientific  treatises.     Died  in  1382. 

Oreste.    See  Orestes. 

O-res'tes,  [Gr.  'Opearw ;  Fr.  Oreste,  o'rSst',]  a  son 
of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra,  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Pylades.  The  poets  relate  that  he  avenged  the  death 
of  his  father  by  killing  his  own  mother  and  i^gisthus  ; 
that  after  this  act  he  became  insane,  and  was  tormented 
by  the  Furies  ;  that  he  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi, 
and  was  told  that  he  might  be  relieved  if  he  would 
go  to  Taaris  and  bring  away  the  image  of  Diana;  that 
he  and  Pylades  went  to  Tauris,  where  they  were  taken 
captives,  and  would  have  been  sacrificed,  but  they  were 
saved  by  Iphigenia,  who  was  a  sister  of  Orestes  and 
was  the  priestess  of  Diana  at  Tauris.  With  her  aid, 
he  succeeded  in  his  enterprise,  and  afterwards  became 
King  of  Mycenae. 

See  Euripides,  "Orestes;"  Sophocles,  "  Electra  ;"  ^schylus, 
"  Eumenides." 

Orestes,  [Fr.  Oreste,  o'rest',]  a  Roman  commander, 
who  became  secretary  to  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  about 
446.  Having  deposed  the  emperor  Julius  Nepos,  (475 
A.D.,)  he  assumed  the  chief  power,  as  Regent  of  Italy,  in 
the  name  of  his  infant  son,  Romulus  Augustulus.  Being 
besieged  soon  after  in  Pavia  by  Odoacer,  he  was  made 
prisoner  and  put  to  death  in  August,  476  a.d. 

See  GnmON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Orfanel,  oR-fJ-nSl',  (Jacinto,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  at  Jana  in  157S.  He  laboured  in  Japan  about 
fifteen  years,  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  progress  of 
Christianity  in  that  country,  (1633.)  He  was  put  to 
death  by  the  Japanese  in  1622. 

Orfeo.     See  Orfheus. 

Oiffyre,  oR'fe'ri',  or  Orffyreus,  oRf-fe-ra'us,  (Jo- 
hann Ernst  Elias,)  a  German  mechanician,  born  at 
Zittau  in  1680.  His  proper  name  was  Bessler.  Died 
in  1745. 

Orfila,  or'fe-la,  [Fr.  pron.  oR'fe'LV,]  (Mathieu  Jo- 
seph BoNAVENTURE,)  an  eminent  physician  and  chem- 
ist, born  at  Mahon,  in  the  island  of  Minorca,  in  1787. 
Having  been  made  a  French  citizen  in  1818,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  and  toxicology 
m  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  Paris  in  1819.  In  1823  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  same  institution, 
which  he  continued  to  occupy  for  thirty  years.  He  was 
created  successively  by  Louis  Philippe  grand  officer  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  dean  of  the  Medical  Faculty,  and 
member  of  the  Council  of  Hospitals.  Among  his  most 
important  works  are  his  "Treatise  on  Poisons,  or 
General  Toxicology,"  (1813  ;  4th  edition,  2  vols.,  1843,) 
"  Elements  of  Chemistry  applied  to  Medicine  and  the 
Arts,"  (2  vols.,  1817-43,)  "Treatise  on  Juridical  Exhu- 
mations," (2  vols.,  1830,)  and  "Treatise  on  Medical 
Jurisprudence,"  (4  vols.,  1847.)  Orfila  was  an  accom- 
plished and  popular  lecturer,  and  enjoyed  the  highest 
reputation  as  a  writer  on  toxicology  and  legal  medicine. 
He  died  in  1853,  leaving  large  sums  to  the  Academy  of 
Medicine  and  the  School  of  Pharmacy,  for  the  promo- 
tion of  science.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  the 
anatomical  museum  in  Paris  called  the  Musee  Orfila. 

See  Meniere,  "N^crologie:  M.  Orfila,"  1853;  Sachaile,  "Lei 
M(?decins  de  Paris  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Monthly 
Review,"  vol.  Ixxxv.,  1818,  (Appendix.) 

Orford,  Earl  of.  See  Walpolk,  (Robert,)  Wal- 
poT.K,  (Horace,)  and  Russell,  (Edward.) 

Or-get'o-rix,  a  rich  and  powerful  chief  of  the  Helvetii, 
whose  intrigues  are  recorded  in  Caesar's  "Commenta- 
ries," book  i.  He  aspired  to  the  sovereign  power,  and 
persuaded  the  Helvetii  to  emigrate  to  Gaul.  A  judicial 
process  was  instituted  against  him  for  his  ambitious 
projects;  but  before  the  decision  he  died, — as  was  sup- 
posed, by  his  own  hand, — about  62  B.C. 


e  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  m, piltttral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

"7 


ORIANI 


1858 


ORLEANS 


Oriani,  o-re-i'nee,  (Barnaba,)  an  eminent  Italian 
astronomer,  born  near  Milan  in  1752.  Having  visited 
London  in  1786,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  llerschel, 
with  whom  he  afterwards  maintained  a  regular  corre- 
spondence. On  his  return,  he  assisted  Reggio  and  De 
Cesaris  in  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meridian  and  exe- 
cuting the  triangulation  for  a  new  map  of  Italy.  When 
the  astronomer  Piazzi,  in  1801,  discovered  Ceres,  which 
he  mistook  for  a  comet,  Oriani,  by  calculating  its  orbit, 
recognized  it  as  a  planet;  and  he  was  the  first  to  deter- 
mine the  orbit  of  Uranus.  After  Napoleon  was  crowned 
at  Milan,  he  created  Oriani  a  count,  and  senator  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Italian  Institute.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Tables 
of  Uranus,"  (1785,)  "Theory  of  the  Planet  Mercury," 
(1798,)  and  "Spherical  Trigonometry,"  (1806.)  The  last- 
named  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  admirable  treatises 
of  the  kind.  Oriani  was  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France  and  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  Gabba,  "Elogio  di  Oriani,"  1834;  "  Nouvelle  Biograohie 
G^n^rale." 

Oribase.    See  Oribasius. 

Oribasius,  or-e-ba'she-us,  [Fr.  Oribase,  o're'btz',]  a 
celebrated  physician,  was~a  native  of  Sardis,  in  Lydia, 
or  of  Pergamus.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  em- 
peror Julian,  who  made  him  his  physician  and  in  361 
A.D.  appointed  him  quaestor  of  Constantinople.  On  the 
death  of  Julian,  (363,)  Oribasius  was  banished  by  Valen- 
tinian  and  Valens,  but  was  recalled  about  370  on  account 
of  his  medical  skill.  Of  his  principal  work,  entitled 
"Medicinalia  Collecta,"  (in  seventy  books,)  less  than  half 
is  extant.  It  was  written  at  the  request  of  the  emperor, 
and,  though  principally  a  compilation  from  Galen  and 
other  physicians,  contains  some  important  original  mat- 
ter. It  is  also  highly  valued  for  its  explanations  of  many 
passages  in  Galen's  writings,  and  for  the  extracts  it  con- 
tains from  works  not  extant.  Oribasius  was  the  first  who 
described  the  salivary  glands  ;  he  also  advanced  new  ideas 
on  dietetics  and  gymnastics.     Died  about  400  a.d. 

See  Freind,  "History  of  Physics;"  Hai.ler,  "  Bibliolheca 
Medica  ;"  Kabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grseca;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Oricellarius.     See  Rucellai. 

Orichovius.     See  Orzechowskf. 

O'ri-ent,  [Lat.  Orten'tius,]  Saint,  a  Latin  poet,  who 
became  Bishop  of  Auch  (Augusta)  about  410  A.D.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  poem,  entitled  "  Commonitorium,"  which 
has  been  printed.     Died  in  439  A.n. 

Oriente,  do,  do  o-re-§n'ti,  (Fernao  Alvarez,)  a 
Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Goa  about  1550. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Orientius.    See  Orient. 

Or'I-gen,  IGr.  flptym/c;  Lat.  Orig'enes;  Fr.  Ori- 
GfeNE,  o're'zhan',]  one  of  the  most  remarkable,  eloquent, 
and  influential  of  the  early  Christian  writers  styled  the 
Fathers,  was  born  in  Egypt  about  186  A.D.  He  was  the 
son  of  Leonides,  a  Christian  martyr  of  Alexandria,  and 
bore  the  additional  name  of  Adamantius.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  became  versed  in 
grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  geometry,  music,  and  philoso- 
phy. At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  appointed  by  Bishop 
Demetrius  to  the  office  of  catechist,  the  duties  of  which 
he  performed  with  zeal  and  self-denial.  He  became 
very  ascetic  in  his  course  of  life,  and  mortified  himself 
by  a  form  of  self-mutilation  which  he  supposed  to  be 
recommended  in  Matthew  xix.  12.  Having  learned  the 
Hebrew  language,  he  devoted  himself  to  biblical  studies. 
While  passing  through  Palestine  on  a  journey,  about 
228  or  230,  he  was  ordained  a  presbyter  at  Cassarea. 
This  is  said  to  have  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Deme- 
trius, Bishop  of  Alexandria,  who  excommunicated  him 
and  induced  the  Bishop  of  Rome  and  of  other  churches 
to  concur  in  this  sentence.  In  231  Origen  removed  to 
Cassarea,  where  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
preacher  and  commentator  on  Scripture. 

That  he  might  be  better  qualified  to  make  proselytes, 
he  studied  the  Greek  philosophy,  of  which  he  adopted 
the  more  noble  and  beautiful  dogmas,  and  attempted  to 
harmonize  Platonism  with  Christianity.  He  made  an 
innovation  (which  many  think  dangerous)  in  the  mode 
of  interpreting  Scripture.  His  desire  to  find  a  mystical 
sense  led  him  frequently  into  a  neglect  of  the  historical 


sense.  In  235  he  sought  refuge  from  persecution  in 
Cappadocia.  He  compiled  about  this  time  a  valuable 
edition  of  the  Old  Testament,  entitled  "  Hexapla,"  which 
exhibits  in  six  columns  the  Hebrew  text  and  various 
Greek  versions.  Fragments  of  the  "  Hexai)la"  have  been 
preserved  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers.  He  afterwards 
wrote  an  able  defence  of  Christianity  against  Celsus, 
an  Epicurean  philosopher,  which  is  still  extant.  Decius 
having  renewed  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  250 
A.n.,  Origen  was  imprisoned  and  subjected  to  torture, 
but  survived,  and  was  released  a  short  time  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Tyre  in  253.  The  greater  part 
of  his  numerous  works  are  lost.  His  opinions  gave 
rise  to  a  great  controversy  long  after  his  death.  He  held 
the  doctrine  of  the  universal  restoration  of  sinners,  and 
was  charged  with  teaching  the  heretical  notions  which, 
after  his  time,  prevailed  under  the  name  of  Arianism. 
His  defenders  affirmed  that  the  passages  on  which  this 
charge  was  founded  had  been  interpolated  in  his  works. 
About  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  Origenism  prevailed 
in  Egypt  and  Syria ;  but  it  was  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Constantinople,  in  553  A.D. 

See  EusEBius,  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  Neandkr,  "History 
of  the  Church;"  Huet,  "  Origeniana ;"  E.  R.  Reuepenning, 
"Origenes,  Darstellung  seines  Lebens  und  seiner  Lehre,"  2  vols., 
1841-46;  RiNGBERG,  "  Vita  Origenis  Adamantii,"  1792  ;  Karsten, 
"Dissertatio  de  Origene,"  1824;  G.  Thomasius,  "Origenes  Beitrag 
lurDogmengeschichte,"  etc.,  1837;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;" 
Dr.  Hoefer,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Origen,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  was  a  disciple  and 
friend  of  Porphyry,  and  predecessor  of  Plotinus  in  the 
chair  of  philosophy.  He  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
third  century. 

Origene.    See  Origen. 

Origenes.     See  Origen. 

Origny,  d',  do'rin'ye',  (Abraham  Jean  Baptiste 
Antoine,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Rheims  in  1734. 
He  published  "  Dictionnaire  des  Origines,"  (6  vols.. 
1776-78.)     Died  in  1798. 

Origny,  d',  (Pierre  Adam,)  a  French  historian  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Rheims  in  1697.  His  principal  works 
are  entitled  "Ancient  Egypt"  and  "Chronology  of  the 
Kings  of  the  Egyptian  Empire."     Died  in  1774. 

O-ri'on,  [Gr.  'Opluv ;  It.  Orione,  o-re-o'ni,]  a  cele- 
brated giant  and  hunter  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  son 
of  Hyrieus.  He  loved  Merope,  adaughter  of  OEnopion, 
and  once,  when  intoxicated,  offered  violence  to  her.  Her 
father  resented  this  act  by  depriving  him  of  his  eyes. 
He  was  befriended  by  Vulcan,  was  guided  by  Cedalion 
to  the  Sun-God,  and  recovered  his  sight.  He  was  killed 
by  Diana,  whose  motive  is  variously  represented,  and 
was  placed  among  the  stars.  According  to  one  legend, 
Diana  loved  him,  and  wished  to  marry  him,  against  the 
will  of  Apollo,  who  one  day  questioned  her  ability  to 
hit  a  distant  object  on  the  sea.  She  discharged  a  shaft 
and  pierced  the  mark,  which  proved  to  be  the  head  of 
Orion,  who  was  swimming  or  wading  in  the  sea. 

Orion,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  Thebes,  in  Egypt, 
lived  about  450  A.D.  He  composed  a  "  Lexicon  Etymo- 
logicum,"  which  was  published  by  Sturz  in  1820. 

Orlandi,  or-lSn'dee,  (Pellegrino  Antonio,)  an  Ital 
ian  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna  in  1660.  He  published 
a  "Dictionary  of  Artists,"  (1704,)  and  a  "History  of 
Bolognese  Writers,"  (1714.)     Died  in  1727. 

Orlandin.     See  Orlandini. 

Orlandini,  oR-lin-dee'nee,  or  Orlandm,  oR-lJn- 
deen',  (N1CCOL6,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at 
Florence  in  1554.  He  wrote  a  Life  of  Loyola,  entitled 
"  Historia  Societatis  Jesu  Pars  I.,  sive  Ignatius,"  (1615.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1606. 

Orlando  di  Lasso.     See  Lasso,  di. 

Orlandus  Lassus.     See  Lasso,  di. 

Orlay,  van,  (Bernard.)     See  Orley. 

Orleans,  (Charles,)  Duke  of.  See  Charles  d'Uk- 
l6ans. 

Or'le-ani,  Duke  of,  [Fr.  Due  d'Orl^ans,  diik 
doR'li'SN',]  (Ferdinand  Philippe  Louis  Charles 
Henri,)  a  French  prince-royal,  born  at  Palermo  in 
1810,  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  Henri  IV.,  and  in  1832 
received  a  medal  for  his  services  to  patients  who  had 
the  cholera  in  the  hospital.    In  1837  he  married  Helena 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nftt;  good;  moon* 


ORLEANS 


1S59 


ORLEY 


of  Mecklenburg.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  general  fn 
Algeria  in  several  campaigns  between  1835  and  1840.  He 
was  thrown  from  his  carriage  and  killed,  near  Neuilly,  in 
July,  1842.  He  left  two  sons,  the  Count  of  Paris  and  the 
Due  de  Chartres. 

See  Adrien  Pascal,  "Vie  militaire,  politique  et  priv^e  du  Due 
d'Orl^ans,"  1842  ;  Julks  Janin,  "  Le  Prince  royal,"  1842  ;  Lindai.l, 
"  Biographie  du  Due  d'Orleans,"  1842;  J.  Mendelssohn,  "Ferdi- 
nand Pliilipp  Herzog  von  Orleans,"  1842;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gdn^rale." 

Orleans,  Maid  of.     See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Orleans,  d',  (Gaston  Jean  Baptiste  de  France,) 
Due,  a  younger  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  Marie  de  Medicis, 
was  born  at  Fontainebleau  in  1608.  He  was  created 
Due  d'Orleans  in  1626,  and  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Montpensier.  In  1630  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdom.  He  quarrelled  with  Richelieu, 
by  whom,  according  to  Voltaire,  he  was  persecuted.  In 
1632  he  raised  an  army  against  the  king,  Louis  XIII., 
and  was  supported  by  the  Duke  of  Montmorency.  The 
latter  having  been  defeated  in  battle,  Gaston  made  peace 
with  tlie  court,  and  was  pardoned ;  but,  when  he  learned 
that  Montmorency  was  punished  with  death,  he  left 
France  in  anger.  In  1642  he  engaged  in  a  conspiracy 
with  Cinq-Mars  and  others  against  Richelieu,  who 
detected  the  plot  and  induced  Gaston  to  betray  his 
accomplices  or  give  evidence  against  them.  At  the 
death  of  I,ouis  XIII.,  (1643,)  Gaston  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general,  and  he  commanded  in  several  cam- 
paigns against  the  Spaniards.  He  took  Gravelines  in 
1644,  and  Courtrai  in  ,1646.  In  the  civil  war  of  the 
Fronde  (164S-52)  he  displayed  his  usual  inconstancy, 
and  supported  both  sides  by  turns.  He  died,  without 
male  issue,  in  1660. 

See  Retz,  "  M^nioires;"  Richelieu,  "  M^moires." 

Orleans,  d',{  H^l^ne  Louise  Elisabeth,)  Duchesse. 
born  at  Ludwigslust  in  1814,  was  a  daughter  of  Frederick 
Lewis,  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  She 
married  the  prince-royal  of  France  in  1837.  After  the 
abdication  of  Louis  Philippe,  February,  1848,  she  pre- 
sented herself,  with  her  minor  son,  the  Count  of  Paris, 
before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful effort  to  obtain  the  regency.  She  died  at  Richmond, 
in  England,  in  1858. 

See  "La  Vie  de  la  Duchesse  d'Orleans,"  (anonymous,)  Pans 
i8s8. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis.)     See  D'Orleans. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis,)  Due,  the  second  son  of  Charles 
V.  of  France,  and  the  head  of  the  first  house  of  Orleans, 
was  born  in  1371.  He  married  Valentina  Visconti,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Milan.  After  his  brother, 
Charles  VI.,  was  rendered  by  insanity  incapable  of  reign- 
ing, the  kingdom  was  divided  into  two  factions,  of  which 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  were 
the  rival  chiefs.  In  1407  the  former  was  assassinated  in 
Paris  by  Jean  Sans  Peur,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  A  civil 
war  followed  between  the  Burgundians  and  Armagnacs, 
the  latter  of  whom  were  partisans  of  the  house  of  Orleans. 
Louis  of  Orleans  left  two  sons,  Charles  and  Jean.  (See 
Charles  d'Orleans,  and  Dunois.)  Louis,  third  Duke 
of  Orleans,  the  son  of  Charles  just  named,  became  king, 
as  Louis  XII. 

See  Anselme,  "  Histoire  g^nealogique  de  la  Maison  de  France 
aiix  Dues  d'Orleans." 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis,)  Due,  a  son  of  Philippe,  (1674- 
1723,)  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1703,  and  was  noted 
for  his  Christian  virtues.  He  retired  to  a  monastery  in 
1742,  devoted  much  time  to  literature,  and  died  in  1752, 
leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  noticed  in  the  next  article. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis  Philippe,)  Due,  a  grandson  of 
the  regent  d'Orleans,  and  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1725.  He  was  the  grandfather  of  Louis 
Philippe,  King  of  the  French.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion at  Dettingen  in  1743,  was  made  lieutenant-general 
in  1744,  and  fought  at  Fontenoy  and  at  Hastenbeck  in 
1757.  He  died  in  17S5,  leaving  a  son,  Louis  Philippe 
Joseph,  surnamed  Egalite. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis  Philippe  Joseph,)  Due,  sur- 
named Egalit6,  born  at  Saint-Cloud  in  1747,  was  the 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  was  the  first  prince  of  the 
blood.  He  was  styled  thp  Due  de  Chartres  during  the 
life  of  his  father,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the  Due 


de  Penthi^vre.  His  fortune  was  immense.  He  courted 
popularity  with  success,  and  became  alienated  from  the 
royal  family,  who  appear  to  have  treated  him  ill.  He 
signalized  his  courage  in  a  sea-fight  against  the  English 
near  Ushant  in  1778.  His  Palais  Royal  in  Paris  became 
the  focus  of  the  ideas  which  caused  the  Revolution,  and 
he  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  popular  party. 
In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the  States-General,  and,  with 
the  minority  of  the  noblesse,  joined  the  Tiers-Etat.  The 
insurgents  of  July  assumed  the  colours  of  his  livery, — 
red,  white,  and  blue.  Some  historians  affirm  that  he 
instigated  the  attacks  on  the  royal  palace,  and  aspired 
to  the  throne.  Lamartine  defends  him  from  this  charge, 
but  admits  that  he  remains  an  enigma  to  posterity. 
"Through  lack  of  audacity  or  of  ambition,"  says  he, 
"  the  Duke  of  Orleans  never  took  the  attitude  of  the  role 
that  opinion  assigned  to  him.  He  respected  or  he  de- 
spised the  throne.  Either  of  these  sentiments  exalts  him 
in  the  eyes  of  history."  His  popularity  declined.  Wish- 
ing to  be  reconciled  to  the  king,  he  went  to  court  in  1 791, 
but  was  insulted  by  the  courtiers.  He  then  allied  him- 
self with  Danton  for  the  subversion  of  the  monarchy, 
renounced  his  title,  assimied  the  name  of  Egalit6,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  By  order  of  the  Con- 
vention, he  was  imprisoned  at  Marseilles  in  April,  1793, 
and  in  November  of  that  year  he  was  executed  at  Paris 
by  the  Jacobins,  apparently  without  any  just  grounds. 
His  son,  Louis  Philippe,  became  King  of  the  French. 

See  A.  DucoiN,  "  fitudes  r^volutionnaires:  Philippe  d'Orleans 
figalit^,"  1845;  F.  Backhaus,  "  Ludwip;  Pliilipp  Joseph  Orleans," 
etc.,  1843  ;  W.  Cooks  Taylor,  "Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Orleans," 
1849:  Thiers.  "History  ot  the  French  Revolution;"  Easchbt 
"Histoire  de  Philippe  Egalite." 

Orleans,  d',  (Marie.)     See  Marie  d'Orleans. 

Orleans,  d',  (Philippe,)  Due,  the  founder  of  the 
present  house  of  Orleans,  was  born  in  1640.  He  was 
the  only  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  a  nephew  of  Gas- 
ton, Duke  of  Orleans,  whose  title  he  received  in  1660. 
He  married  Henrietta,  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  Eng- 
land, in  1661.  In  1672  he  joined  the  army,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  campaigns  against  the  Dutch. 
He  defeated  the  Prince  of  Orange  (afterwards  William 
III.)  at  the  battle  of  Cassel,  in  1677.  His  daughter 
Marie  Louise  became  the  queen  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain. 
He  died  in  1701,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  Philippe, 
Regent  of  France. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires;"  Voltaire,  "  Sifecle  de  Louis 
XIV  :"  W.  Cooke  Taylor,  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Orleans," 
3  vols.,  1849. 

Orleans,  d',  (Philippe,)  Due,  Regent  of  France,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Cloud  in  1674. 
He  received  at  his  birth  the  title  of  Due  de  Chartres. 
He  was  endowed  with  superior  talents,  and  made  much 
progress  in  learning;  but  his  lieart  was  corrupted  by  his 
tutor,  the  Abbe  Dubois.  He  entered  the  army  at  tiie 
age  of  seventeen,  and  displayed  courage  and  skill  at 
Steenkerke  and  Neerwinden.  In  1706  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  army  of  Italy,  and  was  defeated  at 
Turin  by  Prince  Eugene.  He  had  better  success  in 
Spain  in  1707  and  1708.  At  the  death  of  Louis  XIV., 
in  1715,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  became  regent,  with  nearly 
absolute  power,  and  in  many  respects  reversed  the  policy 
of  the  government.  His  regency,  though  less  despotic 
than  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  a  period  of  great 
profligacy  in  politics  and  morals.  (See  Louis  XV.) 
The  regent  himself  set  the  example  of  irreligion  and 
licentiousness.     He  died  in  December   1723. 

See  L.  B.  Neel,  "  Histoire  de  Louis,  Due  d'Orleans,"  1753  , 
Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  La  Motte,  "Vie  du  Due  d'Orleans," 
1737:  Makmontel,  "  Histoire  de  la  R^gence,"  1805;  CArEFiGUB, 
"Histoire  de  Philippe  d'OrMans,  Regent  de  France,"  2  vols.,  183S  ; 
Lemontev,  "Histoire  de  la  Regence,"  2  vols.,  1832;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Orleans,  d',  (Pierre  Joseph.)     See  Dorl^ans. 

Orley  or  Orlay,  vah,  vtn  ou'li,  (liERNARD,)  also 
called  Barent  of  Brussels,  an  eminent  Flemish  painter, 
born  in  1490.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  in 
several  of  whose  works  he  had  a  part.  On  his  return  to 
Brussels  he  was  employed  by  Charles  V.  to  execute  a 
number  of  models  for  tapestry,  which  were  chiefly 
hunting-scenes  and  landscapes  of  remarkable  beauty. 
Among  his  best  historical  pieces  are  a  "  Holy  Family," 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  ^ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23J 


ORLEY 


i860 


ORMOND 


a  "Last  Judgment,"  and   "The  Saviour  Lamented  by 
his  Friends."     Died  about  1560. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  Michiels, 
"Histoire  de  la  Peiiitiire  Flaniande,"  1S45 ;  Wevekman,  "De 
Schilderkonst  der  Nederlaiiders." 

Orley  or  Orlay,  van,  (Richard,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1652,  was  also  an  engraver.  His 
design  is  said  to  be  correct.  Died  at  Brussels  in  1732. 
His  brother  Jan,  born  about  1656,  was  a  historical 
painter  and  engraver. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlo-w,  oR-lof ,  (Alexis,)  Count,  a 
Russian  admiral,  born  about  1736.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  large  stature,  personal  strength,  and  audacity. 
In  1762  he  was  an  accomplice  in  the  conspiracy  which 
made  Catherine  autocrat  of  Russia  in  place  of  her  hus- 
band, Peter  HI.,  whom  he  strangled  with  his  own  hands. 
He  became  an  admiral,  though  he  had  not  served  in  the 
marine,  and  commanded  a  naval  e.xpedition  sent  against 
the  Turks,  who  were  defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Chesme 
in  1770.  It  is  said  that  he  ordered  a  Russian  frigate  to 
be  blown  up  in  1772,  merely  to  furnish  a  model  to  the 
painter,  Hackert,  whom  he  employed  to  paint  the  battle 
of  Chesme.     He  died  in  1808. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlo-w,  (Alexis,)  Count,  a  famous 
Russian  diplomatist  and  general,  born  in  1787,  was  a 
son  of  Feodor,  noticed  below.  He  entered  the  army 
in  his  youth,  and  served  as  adjutant  to  the  grand  duke 
Constantine  in  the  war  against  Bonaparte.  In  1825  he 
commanded  a  regiment  of  guards  in  the  capital,  and 
gained  the  favour  of  the  Czar  Nicholas  by  his  zeal  and 
efficiency  in  suppressing  a  great  revolt  of  the  troops. 
He  was  created  a  count,  and  received  a  high  command 
in  the  army.  In  1829  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Adri- 
anople,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte.  He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  sent 
in  1833  to  aid  the  Sultan  against  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt, 
and  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Unkiar-Skelesi.  He  was 
the  intimate  companion  of  Nicholas  in  his  journey  to 
England,  Italy,  and  other  countries.  In  1856  he  was 
the  representative  of  Russia  at  the  Congress  of  Paris, 
and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  \i\x\\  France  and  England. 
He  became  in  1856  president  of  the  Grand  Council  of 
the  empire  and  ministry, — the  highest  functionary  of 
Russia.     Died  in  May,  1861.     He  left  one  son. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlo-w,  (Feodor,)  a  Russian  officer, 
born  in  1741,  was  a  brother  of  Alexis  first  above  no- 
ticed, and  father  of  the  preceding.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  from  whom  he 
took  Navarino  in  1770,  and  afterwards  rose  to  the  rank 
of  general-in-chief.     Died  in  1796. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlovr,  {Gregory,)  a  Russian  cour- 
tier and  genera],  born  about  1734,  was  a  brother  of 
Alexis  first  above  noticed.  He  served  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
actors  in  the  revolution  which  raised  Catherine  II.  to 
the  throne  in  July,  1762.  About  that  time  he  became 
the  favourite  paramour  of  Catherine,  and  was  appointed 
grand  master  of  the  artillery.  It  is  stated  that  she  pro- 
posed a  secret  marriage  with  him,  but  his  ambition  to 
reign  with  her  as  her  acknowledged  consort  induced  hiru 
to  decline  the  offer.  She  was  offended  by  this  refusal, 
and  supplied  his  place  by  a  new  favourite  about  1772. 
Died  in  1783. 

See  Frf.udenreich,  "Die  Familie  Orloff  als  Morder  der  Rus- 
sischen  Kaiser,"  1832. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (Gregory,)  Count,  born 
in  1777,  was  a  nephew  of  Alexis  first  above  noticed.  He 
lived  many  years  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  published,  in 
French,  "Travels  in  Part  of  France,"  (1824,)  and  "Me- 
moirs, Historical,  Political,  and  Literary,  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Naples."     Died  in  1826. 

Orlof,  (Michael,)  born  in  17S5,  was  a  son  of  Feodor, 
noticed  above.  He  served  in  several  campaigns  against 
Bonaparte,  and  in  1814  was  one  of  the  allied  generals 
who  received  the  capitulation  of  Paris.  Having  taken 
part  in  the  secret  associations  formed  in  the  Russian 
army  in  the  latter  part  of  Alexander's  reign,  he  was  dis- 
graced in  1825,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  a  private 
station.     Died  in  1841. 

Orlofski,  Orlovski,  or  Orlowski,  oR-lof'skee, 
(Boris  Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  born  in  1793,  1 


was  sent  by  the  government  in  1822  to  Italy,  where  ne 
studied  under  Thorwaldsen.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  a  statue  of  "  Paris  with  the  Apple,"  (of  Discord,) 
and  a  colossal  bust  of  the  emperor  Alexander  I.  Died 
in  1837. 

Orlov.     See  Orlof. 

Orlow.     See  Orlof. 

Orme,  orm,  (Rohert,)  a  distinguished  historian,  of 
English  extraction,  born  in  1728  at  Anjengo,  in  Ilin- 
dostan.  He  was  api^ointed  in  1754  a  member  of  the 
Council  at  Fort  Saint  George,  and  was  afterwards  made 
a  commissary  and  accountant-general.  In  this  capacity 
he  contributed  greatly  to  establish  British  power  in 
India,  and  on  his  recommendation  the  celebrated  Clive 
obtained  the  military  command  in  that  country.  He 
became  historiographer  to  the  East  India  Company,  and 
in  1778  published  his  "  History  of  the  Military  Trans- 
actions of  the  British  in  Hindostan."  He  also  wrote 
"  Historical  Fragments  of  the  Mogul  Empire  of  the 
Mahrattas,"  (1782.)     Died  in  1801. 

See  "  Edinburgli  Review"  for  January,  1807. 

Orme,  orm,  (William,)  a  Scottish  minister  and  biog- 
rapher, born  at  Falkirk  about  1787.  He  published  a 
"Life  of  John  Owen,  D.D.,"  (1820,)  "Bibliotheca  Bib- 
lica,"  a  select  list  of  books  on  sacred  literature,  etc, 
(1824,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  a  "Life  of  Richard 
Baxter,"  (1830.)     Died  in  1830. 

Ormea,d',  doR-ma'i,  (Carlo  Francesco  Vincenzo 
Ferrero — fSr-ra'ro,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  statesman, 
born  at  Mondovi.  He  was  the  chief  minister  of  Charles 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  from  1730  until  his  death. 
Died  in  1745. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Si^cla  de  Louis  XV." 

Ormesson,  d',  doa'mi'sdx',  (Henri  Francois  de 
Paule  le  FfevRE,)  a  French  financier,  born  in  1751. 
He  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the  finances  in 
1783,  and  removed  a  few  months  later.  He  was  very 
incompetent  for  that  office.     Died  in  1807. 

Ormesson,  d',  (Louis  Franqois  de  Paule  le 
Fi;vRE,)  a  French  judge,  born  in  17 18,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  nephew  of  Chancellor  d'Aguesseau. 
He  became  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
in  1788.     Died  in  1789. 

Or'mpnd,  (James  Butler,)  first  Duke  of,  an 
eminent  statesman,  born  of  an  ancient  Irish  family  in 
London  in  1610,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas  Butler, 
Viscount  Thurles.  On  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
in  1632,  he  succeeded  him  as  Earl  of  Ormond.  The 
next  year  he  went  to  Ireland,  and  became  the  friend  and 
confidential  adviser  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford.  In  1641  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  designed 
to  suppress  the  Irish  rebellion.  He  showed  himself  an 
able  general,  and  defeated  the  rebels  at  Kilrush  and 
Ross.  He  adhered  constantly  to  the  king  during  the 
civil  war,  and  in  1644  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  then  a  prey  to  fierce  factions.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  Dublin  to  the  English  Parliament  in 
1647,  ^^^  retired  to  France. 

Ormond  was  a  favoured  companion  and  adviser  of 
Charles  II.  in  his  exile,  and  soon  after  his  restoration 
he  was  created  Duke  of  Ormond.  In  1662  he  was  again 
chosen  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  he  governed 
with  wisdom  until  1668.  In  1670  he  was  seized  in  Lon- 
don by  a  ruffian  named  Blood,  who  bound  him  and 
designed  to  hang  him  at  Tyburn  ;  but  the  duke  was 
rescued  by  his  servants.  He  Jied  in  1688.  He  had  a 
son  who  was  Earl  of  Ossory,  and  a  daughter  who  was 
married  to  the  Earl  of  Chesterfield.  "  His  claims  on 
the  royal  gratitude,"  says  Macaulay,  "  were  superior 
to  those  of  any  other  subject." 

See  Thomas  Carte,  "  History  of  the  Life  of  James,  Duke  ot 
Ormond,"  3  vols.,  1736;  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Claren- 
don, "  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Ormond,  (James  Butler,)  second  Duke  of,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1665,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Ossory.  He  succeeded  to  the  duke- 
dom in  1688,  and  in  the  same  year  joined  the  standard 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  afterwards  treated  him 
with  favour  and  confidence.  He  commanded  the  Life 
Guards  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690,)  and  fought 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  ihorl;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fAt;  mit;  n5l;  good;  moon; 


ORMUZD 


1861 


ORSATO 


several  ensuing  campaigns  in  Flanders.  From  1 703 
to  1706  he  was  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  and  in  1712  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army  in 
place  of  Marlborough.  In  compliance  with  secret  orders 
from  the  ministry,  he  declined  to  co-operate  with  the 
allies  against  the  French  in  Flanders.  For  this  offence 
he  was  impeached  by  the  Whigs  in  1715,  and,  having 
escaped  to  France,  was  attainted.  He  then  became  a 
partisan  of  the  Pretender,  and  obtained  command  of  an 
armament  which  Spain  sent  against  England,  and  which 
was  dispersed  by  a  storm.     He  died  in  exile  in  1745- 

Ortuuzd,  or'miizdor  or'moozd,  [Gr.  'Si/jo/^datJ/yf  /  Lat. 
Okomas'des,  the  Ahura-Mazda  of  the  Zend-Avesta,] 
written  also  Orniusd  and  Hormuzd,  in  the  religion 
of  the  ancient  Persians,  the  principle  of  light,  purity, 
truth,  and  goodness,  as  opposed  to  Ahriman,  (ih're- 
min',)  [in  Latin,  Arima'nes  or  Arima'nius,]  the  prin- 
ciple of  evil  and  darkness.  Ormuzd  was  considered  to 
be  the  creator  of  whatever  was  good  or  beautiful  in 
the  universe.  He  not  only  created  the  world  of  light, 
including  the  firmament  and  all  the  heavenly  luminaries, 
but  also  various  orders  of  celestial  or  angelic  beings, 
among  which  were  the  Amshaspands,  presiding  over 
the  various  kingdoms  of  the  universe :  one,  for  ex- 
ample, is  the  king  of  light,  another  the  spirit  of  fire  and 
of  life  ;  after  these  are  the  king  of  metals,  the  king  of 
the  seasons,  and,  lastly,  the  creator  and  protector  of 
trees,  flocks,  and  herds.  Among  the  Amshaspands  is 
reckoned  also  Sapandomad,  the  daughter  of  Ormuzd, 
and  the  mother  of  the  human  race.  The  next  order 
of  beings  are  the  Izeds,  who  have  charge  of  particular 
portions  of  nature.  Some  of  these  are  male  and  some 
female.  Of  the  Izeds,  the  most  worthy  of  mention  is 
Mithra  or  Mithras,  the  god  of  day,  who  presides  over 
the  light  which  mortals  enjoy  on  earth.  He  is  often 
identified  with  the  sun  ;  but  he  is  more  properly  regarded 
as  a  being  distinct  and  separate  from  the  latter.  Below 
the  Izeds  are  the  Fervers,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
original  patterns  or  prototypes  of  all  inferior  beings. 
They  are  emanations  from  the  essence  of  Ormuzd.  Ac- 
cording to  Zoroaster,  an  incomprehensible  being  named 
Zeruane-  (or  Zervane-)  Akerene  (or  "time  without 
bounds")  created  both  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.  The  latter 
was  originally  pure,  but,  becoming  envious  of  Ormuzd, 
he  created  orders  of  evil  beings  (Devs,  or  demons)  cor- 
responding to  the  celestial  orders  of  Ormuzd.  And  in 
every  part  of  the  universe,  even  to  the  minutest  particle 
of  matter,  the  principle  of  Evil  opposes  the  principle  of 
Good.  But  after  a  certain  period  the  power  of  Ahriman 
will  be  utterly  overthrown,  and  all  evil  will  come  to  an 
end.  Some  say  Ahriman  will  be  destroyed;  others,  that 
he  will  continue  to  exist,  without  the  power  to  do  evil. 

See  GuiGNlAUT,  "  Religions  de  rAiitiqiiite,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 

Oruaiio,  d',  doR-ni'no,  called  Sampierro,  (sJm-pe- 
Sr'ro,)  a  general,  born  in  Italy  in  1497,  entered  the 
French  army  in  1533.  In  1553  he  defeated  the  Genoese 
in  Corsica,  which  was  annexed  to  France  in  1557.  Henry 
II.  having  restored  it  to  the  Gehoese  about  1560,  U'Or- 
nano  invaded  that  island  in  1564  and  conquered  part  of 
it.     He  was  assassinated  in  1567. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Ornano,  d',  (Alphonse,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1548.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the 
civil  wars  of  France,  and  afterwards  rendered  military 
services  to  Henry  IV.,  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France.  Died  in  i6io.  His  son,  Jean  Bap- 
TISTE,  born  in  1583,  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He 
was  imprisoned  by  Richelieu,  and  died  in  prison  in  1626. 

See  Db  Thou,  "Memoires." 

Ornano,  d',  (Philippe  Antoine,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1784.  His  mother  was  Isa- 
belle  Bonaparte.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  for 
his  conduct  at  Jena,  (1S06,)  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  181 1.  As  a  general  of  division,  he  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Borodino,  (1812,)  and 
commanded  the  cavalry  of  the  guard  at  Dresden,  Baut- 
zen, and  Leipsic,  in  1813.  He  obtained  the  dignity  of 
senator  in  1852,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1861. 
Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale.  ' 

Orobio,  o-ro'be-o,  (Baltasar,)   a  learned  Spanish 


[ew,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Salamanca.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Certamen  Philo- 
sophicum,"  being  a  refutation  of  the  doctrines  of  Spi- 
noza.    Died  in  1687. 

O-ro'des  I.,  King  of  Parthia,  a  son  of  Phraates  III., 
began  to  reign  about  56  B.C.  He  is  also  styled  Arsaces 
XIV.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Roman  gen- 
eral Crassus,  who  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the 
Parthians,  near  Carrhae,  in  53  B.C.  About  40  B.C.  he  sent 
an  army  under  his  son  Pacorus  to  fight  against  Mark 
Antony.     (See  Pacorus.) 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Plutarch,  "Antony  ' 
Saint-Maktin,  "  M^inoires  historiques,  etc.  sur  rArni^ni*-  " 

Oromasdes.     See  Ormuzd. 

Oronce.     See  Fine. 

Orontius.     See  Fine. 

Orose,  (Paul.)     See  Orosius  Paulus. 

O-ro'sI-us  Pau'lus,  |Fr.  Paul  Orose,  pol  o'roz',]  a 
Latin  historian  and  Christian  presbyter,  who  lived  about 
410-30  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Tarragona,  in  Spain.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Saint  Augustine  and  Saint  Jerome,  and 
in  several  theological  treatises  opposed  the  doctrines 
of  Origen  and  Pelagius.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Historiarnm  Libri  VII.  adversos  Paganos,"  being  a 
defence  of  Christianity  against  pagan  writers,  who  as- 
serted that  since  the  overthrow  of  the  old  religion  the 
world  had  suffered  greater  calamities.  This  history, 
though  deficient  in  accuracy,  contains  much  important 
information,  and  quotes  from  various  authors  whose 
writings  are  not  extant.  Among  the  translations  of  this 
work  is  one  made  by  Alfred,  King  of  England. 

See  Ceillier,  "  Histnire  des  Auteiirs  eccMsiastiques ;"  Bahr, 
"  Geschiclite  der  Roiiiischen  Literatiir  :"  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis 
Latinis  ;"  Morner,  "  De  Orosii  Vita,"  1844. 

Orphee.     See  Orpheus. 

Orpheus,  or'fus  or  or'fe-us,  [Gr.  'Op(j>evg ;  Fr.  OrphAe, 
oR'fi';  It.  Orfeo,  oR-fa'o,]  a  mythical  or  semi-fabulous 
personage,  who  was  celebrated  in  the  legends  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  as  a  poet,  musician,  and  inventor.  His 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  poems  of  Homer  or  Hesiod, 
but  is  mentioned  by  Ibycus,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 
Plato  refers  to  Orpheus  and  his  works,  calls  him  the  son 
of  Giiagrus,  and  ascribes  to  him  the  origin  of  religious 
mysteries.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Thrace  not 
long  before  the  Trojan  war,  or  about  1200  B.C.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  Apollo  presented  him  with  a  lyre, 
with  which  he  enchanted  wild  beasts,  trees,  etc.,  lulled 
asleep  the  dragon  that  guarded  the  golden  fleece,  and 
rendered  other  imjjortant  services  in  the  Argonautic 
expedition.  Virgil  has  commemorated  in  an  admirable 
episode  of  his  "Georgics"  (book  iv.)  the  descent  of  Or- 
pheus to  the  infernal  regions  after  his  lost  Eurydice. 
(See  Eurydice.)  The  poets  relate  that  he  was  torn  in 
pieces  by  Thracian  women  in  their  Bacchanalian  orgies, 
Decause  he  neglected  their  sex  or  treated  their  charms 
with  contempt. 

See  Tiedemann,  "  Griechenlands  erste  Philosophen  ;  oder  Le- 
ben  uiid  Systenie  des  Orplieus,"  etc.,  1780  ;  Grots,  "  History  of 
Greece;"  Ulrici,  "  Gescliiclite  der  Hellenischen  Dichtkuust." 

Orr,  (James  L.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  politician, 
born  at  Craytonville,  Soutii  Carolina,  in  1S22.  He 
represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1848  to  i860.  He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  by  the  Democrats  in  December,  1857. 
In  the  Convention  of  South  Carolina  held  December, 
i860,  he  voted  for  secession.  He  was  one  of  three  com- 
missioners sent  by  South  Carolina  to  Washington  to 
negotiate  in  the  winter  of  1860-61.  In  1S62  he  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  Confederate  States,  and  in  1865  Gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina.     Died  May  5,  1873. 

Orrente,  or-r§n'ti,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  Murcia  about  1550.  Among  his  finest  productions 
are  a  "  Saint  Sebastian"  and  a  "Nativity."  Died  in  1644. 

Orrery,  Earl  of.  See  Boyle,  (Robert,)  and  Boyle. 
(Charles.) 

Orrizonte.    See  Bloemen,  van,  (John  Francis.) 

Orry,  o're',  (Philibert,)  Count  de  Vignori,  a  French 
financier,  born  at  Troyes  in  1689.  He  was  controller- 
general  of  the  finances  from  1730  to  1745.     Died  in  1747. 

Orsato,  oR-sd'to,  (Gia.mbattista,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary and  physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1673  ;  died  in  1 720. 


€  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ORSATO 


1862 


ORZECHOWSKI 


Orsato,  [Lat.  Ursa'tus,]  (Sertorio,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Padua  in  1617.  lie  published,  among 
other  treatises,  "  De  Notis  Romanorum  Commenta- 
rius,"  (1672,)  or  an  explanation  of  the  abbreviations  used 
by  the  Romans,  and  a  "History  of  Padua,"  (1678.) 
The  former  work  is  highly  esteemed  by  antiquaries. 
Died  in  1678. 

See  Fabkoni,  "  Vitae  Itnlorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Orsay,  d',  dor'si',  [Fr.  pron.  dok'si',]  (Ai.kked  Guil- 
LAUME  Gabriel,)  Count,  an  artist  and  leader  of  fashion, 
distinguished  for  his  rare  accomplishments  and  his  fasci- 
nating manners,  was  born  in  France  in  1798.  He  married 
in  1827  Lord  Blessington's  daughter,  from  whom  he 
separated  a  few  years  later.  He  becaine  an  intirnate 
friend  of  Lady  Blessington,  in  whose  house  he  lived 
many  years,  (in  London.)  His  wit,  his  amiable  temper, 
and  his  brilliant  personal  qualities  rendered  him  a  general 
favourite.  Among  his  friends  were  Lord  Byron,  (of 
whom  he  produced  a  good  portrait,)  Sir  Edward  Bulwer, 
and  Napoleon  III.     l3ied  in  1852. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  September,  1852;  Dk.  R.  R. 
Madden,  "  Literary  1-ife  and  Correspondence  of  the  Countess  of 
Blessington,"  3  vols.,  London,  1855. 

Orseolo, oR-si-o'lo,  or  Urseolo, ooR-si-o'lo,  (Ono,) 
Doge  of  Venice,  was  a  son  of  Piero  II.,  noticed  below. 
He  was  elected  doge  in  1009,  and  was  banished  in  1026. 
Died  in  1032. 

Orseolo  or  Urseolo,  (Piero  I.,)  was  elected  Doge 
of  Venice  in  976.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Sara- 
cens in  Apulia,  and  established  a  regular  financial  sys- 
tem.    Died  in  987. 

Orseolo  or  Urseolo,  (Piero  II.,)  an  able  Venetian 
commander,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  became  Doge  of 
Venice  in  991.  He  conquered  Dalmatia,  and  annexed 
it  to  the  republic.     Died  in  1009. 

See  Daru,  "  Hisloire  de  Venise." 

Orsi,  oR'see,  (Giovanni  Giuseppe,)  Marquis,  an 
Italian  author,  born  at  Bologna  in  1652,  wrote  verses 
and  several  prose  v/orks,  among  which  is  "  De  Moralibus 
Criticse  Regulis  Monita,"  (1706.)     Died  in  1733. 

Orsi,  (Giuseppe  Agostino,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born 
at  Florence  in  1692.  His  principal  work  is  an  "Eccle- 
siastical History  of  the  First  Si.x  Centuries  of  the  Church." 
(20  vols.,  1746  et  seq.)     Died  in  1761. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitx  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Orsi,  (Lelio,  or  Lelio  da  Novellara — dS  no-vel- 
IS'ri,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  Lombardy  in  151 1. 
His  copy  of  Correggio's  "Night"  is  greatly  admired. 
Died  in  1587. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Orsini,  oR-see'nee,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  and 
powerful  Italian  family,  which  for  many  years  was  hos- 
tile to  the  house  of  Colonna.  Giovanni  Gaetani  Or- 
sini was  made  pope  in  1277,  under  the  name  of  Nicholas 
III.  In  1503  Francesco  and  Paolo  Orsini  were  assas- 
sinated by  order  of  Caesar  Borgia,  and  about  the  same 
time  Cardinal  Orsini  was  poisoned  at  Rome  by  Pope 
Alexander  VI. 

Orsini,  (Felice,)  an  Italian  revolutionist,  born  at 
Meldola  in  1819.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolu- 
tionary movements  of  1848,  after  which  he  continued  to 
conspire  against  the  government.  He  was  confined  in 
prison  at  Mantua  about  1854,  but  escaped  in  1856  and 
went  to  England.  He  was  the  chief  of  a  band  of  con- 
spirators who  attempted  to  assassinate  Napoleon  III.  in 
January,  1858,  by  bombs  or  explosive  apparatus.  He 
was  executed  in  March,  1858. 

Orsini,  (Fulvio.)     See  Ursinus  Fulvius. 

Orsini,  Pope.     See  Benedict  XIII. 

brsted.     See  Oersted. 

Orta,  (Garcia  da.)     See  Horto. 

Ortega,  oR-ta'g5,  (Casimir  Gomez,)  a  Spanish  bot- 
anist, born  at  Madrid  in  1730.  He  published  an  "Ele- 
mental Course  of  Botany,"  and  other  treatises  of  the 
kind.  The  name  of  Ortegia  has  been  given  to  a  genus 
of  plants.     Died  in  1810. 

Ortelius,  van,  v^w  or-ta'le-iis,  Ortel,  or  Oertel, 
OR'tel,  (Abraham,)  an  eminent  geographer  and  mathe- 
matician, apparently  of  German  extraction,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1527.  After  travelling  in  England  and  on 
the   continent,  he    published   in    1570   his  "Universal 


Geography,"  ("Theatrum  Orbis  Terrarum,")  and  in 
1575  was  appointed  geographer  to  Philip  II.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Mercator,  Justus  Lipsius,  and  other 
eminent  men  of  the  time.  Besides  the  above-mentioned 
work,  which  is  still  highly  valued,  and  which  obtained 
for  its  author  the  name  of  the  "  Ptolemy  of  his  age," 
Oertel  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1598. 
See  F.  SwRERT,  "  Insignium  ejus  yEvi  Poetarum  Lacrymae  in 
Obitum  A.  Ortelii,"  1601. 

Ortigue,  d',  doR'tfeg',  (Joseph  Louis,)  a  French  jour- 
nalist and  writer  on  n)usic,  born  at  Cavaillon  in  1802. 
He  became  professor  de  chant  at  the  College  Henri  IV., 
Paris,  in  1839.      Died  November  20,  1866. 

Ortigue,  d',  (Pierre,)  a  French  novelist,  born  at  Apt 
in  1610.  He  wrote  several  novels,  and  "  The  Art  of 
Pleasing  in  Conversation,"  (1688.)    Died  in  1693. 

Ortiz,  0R-t6th',  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  historian  and 
theologian,  born  at  Toledo,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Ortolan,  or'io'ISn',  (  Joseph  Louis  Elz^ar,  )  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Toulon  (Var)  in  1802.  He  pub- 
lished in  1827  his  principal  work,  a  "Historical  Expli- 
cation of  the  Institutes  of  Justinian,"  (3  vols.,)  which  is 
considered  classic.     Died  in  1873. 

Or'tpn,  (Edward,)  LL.D.,  an  American  geologist, 
born  at  Delhi,  New  York,  March  9,  1829,  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  in  1848,  studied 
at  the  Lane  and  Andover  Theological  Seminaries  and 
at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  was  professor  of  nat- 
ural science  in  the  New  York  State  Normal  School, 
Albany,  1856-59,  in  Antioch  College,  1865-69,  president 
of  Antioch  College,  1872-73,  president  of  the  Ohio  State 
University,  1873-81,  and  in  1881  became  State  geologist 
of  Ohio  and  professor  of  geology  in  the  State  University. 
He  is  author  of  volume  v.  of  the  "  Geology  of  Ohio,"  and 
of  five  "  Reports"  on  the  State  survey. 

Orton,  (James,)  an  American  scientist,  born  at  Seneca 
Falls,  New  York,  April  21,  1830.  He  graduated  at  Wil- 
liams College  in  1855,  and,  after  studying  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  was  in  i860  ordained  a  Con- 
gregationalist  clergyman.  In  1S67  he  headed  a  party 
of  students  from  Williams  College  in  a  South  American 
exploring  expedition.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  in  Vassar  College.  In  1873  he 
went  upon  another  South  American  expedition,  and  died 
on  Lake  Titicaca,  September  24,  1877.  Among  his  books 
are  "  Proverbialist  and  Poet,"  (1852,)  "The  Andes  and 
the  Amazons,"  (1870,)  "Underground  Treasures,"  (1872,) 
"The  Liberal  Education  of  Women,"  (1S73,)  "Compara- 
tive Zoology,"  (1875,)  etc. 

Or'ton,  (Job.)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  at  Shrewsbury  in  1717.  He  preached  at  Shrews- 
bury about  twenty-four  years,  and  removed  to  Kid- 
derminster about  1766.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Dr. 
Doddridge,"  "  Sacramental  Meditations,"  and  other  re- 
ligious works.     Died  in  1783. 

Orton,  (Reginald,)  an  English  surgeon  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  1810.  He  practised  at  Sunderland, 
where  he  died  in  September,  1862. 

Orts,  oRts,  (Charles,)  a  Belgian  politician,  (Liberal,) 
born  at  Brussels  about  1815  ;  died  November  4,  1880. 

Orus.    See  Horus. 

OrvUle,  d',  doR'vfeK,  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  distin- 
guished critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1696, 
was  descended  from  a  French  family.  After  having 
visited  England,  Italy,  and  Paris,  where  he  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Bentley,  Muratori,  Montfaucon,  and  other 
eminent  men,  he  became  professor  of  humanities  at 
Amsterdam  about  1730.  He  published  a  number  of 
valuable  criticisms  on  the  classics,  and  a  "  Dissertation 
on  the  Inscriptions  of  Delos,"  which  is  particularly 
esteemed.     Died  in  1751- 

Orvilliers,  d',  doR'vi'ye-i',  (Louis  Guillouet,) 
Count,  a  French  admiral,  \vas  born  at  Moulins  in  1708. 
He  commanded  a  large  fleet  which  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  the  English  under  Keppel,  near  Ushant, 
in  1778.     Died  after  1791. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Orzechowski,  oR-zi-Kov'skee,  [Lat.  Oricho'vius,] 
(Stanislaus,)  a    Polish  orator  and   historian,  born  in 


a,  6, 1, 3,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


OS 


1863 


OSIANDER 


1513,  studied  theology  under  Luther  at  Wittenberg. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Annals  of  Poland 
from  the  Death  of  Sigismund,"  ("Annales  Poloniae," 
'itc,  i6n.)     Died  in  1567. 

Os,  van,  v'iw  oss,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  artist,  born  at  Mid- 
delharnis  in  1744,  excelled  as  a  fruit-  and  flower-painter. 
He  was  regarded  as  the  most  successful  imitator  of  Van 
Huysum.  Died  in  1808.  His  son  Pieter  Gerardus, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1776,  painted  landscapes  with 
animals  of  various  kinds,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces. Died  in  1839.  Geokg  Jacob  Jan,  younger 
brother  of  Pieter,  was  born  in  1782,  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  flower-painter.  He  visited  France  in 
1812,  where  he  painted  for  the  porcelain-manufactory  at 
Sevres.  In  1850  one  of  his  flower-pieces  sold  at  Am- 
sterdam for  four  thousand  five  hundred  florins. 

Osaibiei,  o-sT'be-i,  or,  more  fully,  Ibn-Abi-Osaibia, 
ib'n  S'bee  o-sl'be-i,  written  also  Osaiba,  an  Arabian 
physician,  born  in  1203.  He  practised  at  Sarchad,  in 
Syria,  and  wrote  "  Pontes  Relationum  de  Classibus 
Medicorum,"  which  contains  biographical  notices  of 
many  ancient  physicians,  and  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1269. 

Osann,  o-zin',  (Emil,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Weimar  in  1787,  was  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  Hufe- 
land.  After  filling  various  professorships,  he  became  in 
1838  privy  councillor  of  medicine  at  Berlin.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  mineral  waters.     Died  in  1842. 

Osann,  (Friedrich  Goithilf,)  a  German  antiquary 
and  philologist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1794.  In  1825  he 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Giessen. 
Among  his  most  important  works  we  may  name  hib 
"Contributions  to  the  History  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1835-39.)     Died  in  1858. 

Osbeck,  os'bSk,  (Peter,)  a  Swedish  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  near  Gottemburg  in  1723.  He  published 
a  "Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  the  East  Indies,"  (1757,) 
which  is  a  work  of  merit.     Died  in  1805. 

Os'born,  (John,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
1766.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  in  the  city  of  New 
York.     Died  in  1819. 

Osboru,  (Selleck,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist, 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1783  ;  died  in  1826. 

Os'born,  (Sherard,)  Captain,  a  British  naval  officer 
and  writer,  born  about  1822.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  Career,  Last  Voyage,  and  Fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin."     Died  May  6,  1S75. 

Osborne,  oz'burn,  (Francis,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Bedfordshire  about  1589,  was  an  adherent  of  Ciom- 
well  in  the  civil  war.  His  "Advice  to  a  Son,"  published 
in  1659,  was  very  popular  at  the  time.  He  also  wrote 
several  historical  and  biographical  works.    Died  in  1659. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Osborne,  oz'burn,  (George,)  a  composer  and  pianist, 
born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1806. 

Osborne,  (Ralph  Bernal,)  an  English  Liberal  mem- 
ber of  Parliament,  noted  for  his  wit.  He  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1841,  and  was  returned  for  Middle- 
sex in  1847,  for  Dover  in  1857,  for  Liskeard  in  1859,  and 
for  Waterford  in  1870.     Died  January  4,  1882. 

Osborne,  (Sir  Thomas.)     See  Danby,  Earl  of. 

Os'car  or  Os'kar  I.,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in  Paris  in 
1799,  was  the  son  of  General  Bernadotte,  (Carl  XIV.  of 
Sweden.)  He  married  Josephine,  a  daughter  of  Eugene 
de  Beauharnais,  in  1823,  and  acted  as  regent  during 
the  illness  of  his  father  in  1828.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  March,  1844.     His  reign  was  pacific.     Died  in  1859. 

See  G.  H.  Mellin,  "Oscar  I.  Historia,"  1844;  "Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  February,  1848. 

Oscar  IL,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  a  son  of  Oscar 
I.,  was  born  January  21.  1829.  In  1872  he  succeeded 
his  brother,  Charles  XV.  His  queen,  Sophia  Wil- 
helmina  Marianna  Henrietta,  is  a  daughter  of  William, 
Duke  of  Nassau.  The  king  has  translated  Goethe's 
"  Faust"  into  Swedish,  and  has  written  a  "  Life  of  Charles 
XII.,"  and  "  Poems  and  Leaflets,"  (1880.) 

Os-ge-oTa  or  As-se-ho'lar  Nik-kan-o'chee,  some- 
times written  Oceola,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Semi- 
roles,  born  in  Florida  in  1803.  His  wife  having  been 
claimed  as  a  slave,  and  carried  off  by  order  of  a  slave- 
holder, in  1835,  Osceola  declared  war  against  the  whites, 


and,  after  fighting  two  years  with  varying  success,  wa» 
taken  prisoner  and  confined  in  Fort  Moultrie,  where 
he  died  in  1837. 

See  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Early  Days,  etc  of  Osceola  Nikkanochee," 
by  his  guardian. 

Osculati,  os-koo-l^tee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  natu- 
ralist and  traveller,  born  at  Vedano,  in  Lombardy,  in 
1808.  He  visited  many  countries  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
South  America,  between  1S30  and  1848.  He  published 
a  work  called  "  Exploration  of  the  Equatorial  Region 
near  the  Napo,"  (1854.) 

Os^e,  the  French  for  Hosea,  which  see. 

Oserof,  Oserov,  or  Osero-w,  o's^r-of,  (Vladislaf 
Alexandrovitch,)  a  Russian  dramatist,  born  in  1770. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Polixena," 
"Fingal,"  and  "The  Death  of  Olga."  He  also  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  lyric  poems.     Died  in  1816. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Russe." 

Os'good,  (David,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congrega- 
tional divine,  born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1747, 
settled  as  pastor  at  Medford,  where  he  preached  many 
/ears.     Died  in  1822. 

Osgood,  (Emma  Aline,)  an  American  singer,  born 
in  Boston  about  1852.  She  married  Dr.  Osgood,  a  phy- 
sician. Since  1875  she  has  principally  lived  in  England, 
where  she  acquired  great  fame  as  an  oratorio-singer. 

Osgood,  (Frances  Sargent,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Boston  about  181 2.  At  an  early  age  she  con- 
tributed a  number  of  poems  to  the  "  Juvenile  Miscellany," 
edited  by  Mrs.  L.  M.  Child,  and  subsequently  wrote  for 
the  "  Ladies'  Magazine."  She  was  married  in  1835  to 
Mr.  S.  S.  Osgood,  a  distinguished  artist.  While  re- 
siding with  her  husband  in  London,  she  published  a  col- 
lection of  poems  entitled'"  A  Wreath  of  Wild  Flowers 
from  New  England,"  which  were  favourably  received. 
After  her  return  she  edited  the  souvenirs  entitled  "The 
Floral  Offering"  and  "The  Poetry  of  Flowers."  Died 
in  1850. 

Osgood,  (Kate  Putnam,)  an  American  poetess,  born 
at  Fryeburg,  Maine,  in  1840.  Among  the  poems  she 
has  contributed  to  magazines  is  the  well-known  "Driving 
Home  the  Cows." 

Osgood,  (Samuel,)  born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts, 
in  1748,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1781.  He  was  ap- 
pointed first  conmiissioner  of  the  treasury,  (1785,)  post- 
master-general, (1789,)  and  naval  officer  for  the  port  of 
New  York,  (1803.)     Died  in  1813. 

Osgood,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  critic  and 
divine,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1812, 
became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah,  (Unitarian,) 
New  York,  in  1849.  He  published  "  Studies  in  Chris- 
tian Biography,"  (1851,)  "God  with  Men,"  (1854,)  and 
"Milestones  in  our  Life-Journey,"  (1855.)  He  also 
made  translations  from  the  German,  and  contributed  to 
me  "  North  American  Review,"  "  Christian  Examiner," 
and  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra."  In  1870  he  left  the  Unitarians 
and  became  an  Episcopalian  clergyman.  Died  April 
14,  1880. 

O'Shaughnessy,  o-shaw'nes-se,  (Arthur  William 
Edgar,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  London,  March  14, 1846. 
For  a  large  part  of  his  short  life  he  was  employed  as  a 
naturalist  in  the  British  Museum.  His  wife,  Eleanor,  (a 
sister  of  Philip  B.  Marston,)  was  known  as  a  writer. 
His  principal  works  are  "  An  Epic  of  Women,"  etc., 
(1870,)  "Lays  of  France,"  (1872,)  "Music  and  Moon- 
light," (poems,  1874,)  "Fayland,"  (prose,  1S76,)  "Crea- 
tion," (1878,)  "Songs  of  a  Worker,"  (1881,)  etc.  Died 
in  London,  January  30,  i8Sr. 

Osiander,  o-ze-dn'der,  (Andreas,)  originally  Hose- 
mann,  a  German  theologian,  and  one  of  the  first  schol- 
ars of  his  time,  was  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1498.  He 
was  a  devoted  adherent  of  Luther,  and  was  present  at  the 
Conference  of  Marburg  in  1529,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg in  1530.  He  became  subsequently  professor  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  About  1549 
he  engaged  in  a  controversy  on  the  nature  of  repentance 
and  other  points  of  doctrine  with  Martin  Chemnitz  and 
Melanchthon.  He  died  in  1552,  leaving  a  number  of 
theological  and  controversial  treatises. 

See  WiLKEN,  "Andreas  Osianders  Leben,"  1844;  M.  Adam, 
"Vitas  Theologorum  Germanorum." 


«  as  >6;  g  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,guUural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     { 3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OSIANDER 


1864 


OSS  I NG  TON 


Osiander,  (Andreas,)  a  son  of  Lucas,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  1562.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Tubingen,  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1617. 

Osiander,  (Johann  Adam,)  born  at  Tubingen  in 
1626,  was  professor  of  theology  in  that  city.  He  wrote 
a  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  (1676-78,)  and  on 
other  books  of  Scri])ture.     Died  in  1697. 

Osiander,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  philologist,  born  at 
Tubingen  in  1701,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1756. 

Osiander,  (Lucas,)  the  Ei.dkr,  a  son  of  Andreas, 
(1498-1552,)  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1534.  He  was 
appointed  in  1567  court  preacher  to  Duke  Frederick  of 
Wiirtemberg,  and  published  several  polemical  treatises. 
Died  in  1604. 

Osiander,  (Lucas,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Stuttgart  about  1570.  He  became 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Tubingen.  His  writings 
are  chiefly  controversial.     Died  in  1638. 

Osinski,  o-s^ns'kee,  (Lewis,)  a  distinguished  Polish 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  in  1775.  He  published  in  1804 
an  excellent  translation  of  Corneille's  tragedies  into 
Polish.  Among  his  poems,  which  are  highly  esteemed, 
we  may  name  the  "Ode  to  Copernicus."    Died  in  1S38. 

Osio,  o'se-o,  [Lat.  O'sius,]  (Felice,)  an  Italian  litti- 
ratetir,  born  at  Milan  in  1587,  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  University  of  Padua  in  162 1.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Eulogy  of  Illustrious  Writers," 
and  a  number  of  "Orations."     Died  in  163 1. 

O-si'ris,  [Gr.  'OaipLg,\  the  god  of  the  Nile,  and  one 
of  the  principal  divinities  of  Egypt,  was  said  to  be  the 
husband  of  Isis  and  father  of  Horus.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  author  of  Egyptian  civilization,  and  the  first  who 
taught  the  arts  and  sciences  to  that  nation.  Tradition 
adds  that  he  visited  and  civilized  India,  Arabia,  and 
other  countries,  and  after  his  return  was  murdered  by 
Typhon.  He  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  the 
bull  Apis,  into  which  it  was  supposed  his  soul  migrated 
when  he  was  slain  by  Typhon.  Osiris  and  Isis  are  U, 
be  regarded  as  different  manifestations  of  one  divine 
principle,  the  former  representing  the  beneficent  power 
of  nature  in  activity,  the  latter  in  passivity,  so  that 
neither  is  complete  without  the  other  ;  and  hence  Osiris, 
according  to  some,  represented  the  life-giving  power  of 
the  sun,  and  Isis  the  fertility  of  the  earth. 

See  Plutarch,  "Treatise  on  Isis  and  Osiris;"  Guigniaut, 
"Religions  de  rAntiqiiite,"  Paris,  1825,  book  iii.  chap.  ii. ;  "  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.)  . 

Osirtesen  I.,  called  also  Sesertesen  and  User- 
tesen,  an  Egyptian  king  of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  He 
conquered  Ethiopia,  repelled  the  negroes  and  Asiatics, 
founded  the  great  temple  of  Karnak,  and,  according  to 
some  authors,  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  Pharaohs 
under  whom  Joseph  was  in  power,  his  chief  officer,  Ameni, 
somewhat  resembling  that  patriarch  ;  but  if  Lenormant's 
appro.ximate  date  be  correct,  which  assigns  his  dynasty 
to  the  thirty-first  century  B.C.,  the  identification  cannot 
be  made  good.  Indeed,  the  later  Egyptologists  appear 
to  reject  it  very  generally. 
Osius.     See  Osio. 

O'sl-us,  Bishop  of  Cordova,  born  in  Spain  in  256 
A.D.,  enjoyed  the  favour  and  confidence  of  Constantine 
the  Great,  who,  on  his  recommendation,  convoked  the 
Council  of  Nice.  He  was  afterwards  induced  by  the 
threats  of  the  emperor  Constantius  to  subscribe  to  the 
Arian  confession  of  faith,  for  which  he  subsequently 
testified  sincere  repentance.  Died  about  358  a.d. 
Oskar.  See  Oscar. 
Osman.    See  Othman. 

Osman,  os-mSn',  I.,  written  also  Othniin,  Otman, 
and  Ottoman,  the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  was 
the  son  of  Ortogrul  or  Ertogrul,  a  Toorkoman  chief,  who 
founded  a  colony  near  the  river  Sangar,  in  Asia  Minor. 
Having,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  (1280,)  become  chief 
of  the  tribe,  he  first  invaded  Greece  in  1299,  and  within 
a  few  years  possessed  himself  of  a  large  portion  of  that 
country  and  the  whole  of  the  province  of  Bithynia. 
Osman  never  assumed  the  title  of  Sultan,  though  he  had 
money  coined  and  public  prayers  given  in  his  name. 
As  a  ruler,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  wisdom,  hu- 


manity, and  military  talents.  He  died  in  1326,  leaving  a 
valuable  work  containing  maxims  for  government.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Oorkhan,  (Orkhan.) 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Ge=c1iiclite  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Osm^n  or  Othman  II.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in 
1604,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Ahmed  I.  He  began  to 
reign  in  1618,  and  was  assassinated  in  1622. 

bsmSn  or  Othman  III.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in 
1696,  was  a  younger  son  of  Mustafa  II.  He  succeeded 
his  brother,  Mahmood  I.,  in  1754.     Died  In  1757. 

Osman  (os-niin')  Pasha,  (Ghazee,)  a  Turkish  sol- 
dier, born  at  Tokat  in  1832.  He  was  educated  at  the 
military  school  of  Constantinople,  and  entered  the  army 
in  1853.  He  was  eminent  for  bravery  in  the  Crimean 
war,  and  in  the  Cretan  war,  (1866-69.)  ^'^  ^'^^  Servian  and 
Russian  wars  he  was  a  field-marshal.  With  a  splendid 
army  he  defeated  the  Russians  in  three  pitched  battles, 
rescued  Plevna,  (for  the  time  being,)  and  was  honoured 
by  the" title  of  Ghazee,  "the  Victorious."  But  on  De- 
cember 10,  1877,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  Plevna 
without  conditions.  After  the  peace  of  1878  he  was 
several  times  war-minister,  and  held  other  important 
positions. 

Osmond,  d',  dos'niAN',  (Ren6  Eustache,)  Marquis, 
a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Hayti  in  1751.  He  was 
sent  by  Louis  XVIII.  as  ambassador  to  England  in 
815.     Died  in  1838. 

Os'mun,  (Thomas  Embley,)  an  American  author, 
known  as  Alfred  Ayues,  was  born  in  Summit  county, 
Ohio.  .  His  principal  books  are  "The  Orthoepist," 
(1880,)  "The  Verbalist,"  (1881,)  "The  Mentor,"  (1884,) 
and  of  Cobbett's  Grammar. 

Os'mund  or  Os'mond,  Saint,  a  celebrated  ecclesi- 
astic, born  in  Normandy,  accompanied  William  the  Con- 
queror to  England  in  1066,  and  was  created  successively 
chancellor,  and  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  In  1099  he  rebuilt 
the  cathedral  of  Salisbury,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire.  Pie  was  the  compiler  of  the  liturgy  called  the 
"  Usages  of  Sarum."     Died  in  X099. 

See  Butler,  "Lives  of  the  Saints." 

Osorio,  o-so're-o,  [Lat.  Oso'rius,]  (Jeronymo,)  a 
learned  Portuguese  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1506, 
was  Bishop  of  Silves.  Among  his  works  (written  in 
Latin)  are  a  "  History  of  the  Achievements  of  King 
Emanuel,"  and  a  "  Letter  to  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Eng- 
land," (1555,)  on  the  Catholic  religion.     Died  in  1580. 

See  the  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  (1820.) 

Osorius.     See  Osorio. 

Ossa,  de,( Jacques.)     See  John  XXII. 

Ossat,  d',  do'st',  [Lat.  Ossa'tus,]  (Arnaud,)  an  able 
French  diplomatist  and  cardinal,  born  near  Auch  in 
1536.  Having  accompanied  the  ambassador  Paul  de 
Foix  to  Rome  as  his  secretary,  (1574,)  he  assisted  in 
promoting  a  reconciliation  between  Henry  IV,  and  the 
pope.  He  published  a  collection  of  "Letters,"  which 
are  esteemed  models  of  diplomatic  sagacity,  and  are 
highly  commended  by  Lord  Chesterfield.  De  Thou 
dedicated  to  Cardinal  d'Ossat  his  poem  on  the  death 
of  Henry  HI.     Died  in  1604. 

See  D'Arconville,  "Vie  du  Cardinal  d'Ossat,"  1771;  "Gallia 
Christiana  ;"  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^- 
rale." 

Ossatus.     See  Ossat,  d'. 

Osselin,  os'liw',  (Charles  Nicolas,)  a  French  Ja- 
cobin and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  became  in 
1792  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  enacting  laws  against  the  emigrants. 
He  was  guillotined  in  June,  1794. 

Ossenbeeck,  os'sen-bak',  a  skilful  Dutch  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1627.  lie 
worked  many  years  in  Italy,  and  adopted  the  Italian 
style.     Died  in  1678. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Ossian,  osh'e-an,  a  semi-fabulous  Scottish  bard  and 
hero  of  the  third  century,  was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Fin- 
gal,  King  of  Morven.  A  pretended  translation  of  his 
poems,  which  was  published  by  James  Macpherson  in 
1765,  gave  rise  to  a  spirited  controversy  among  the 
English  literati  concerning  the  genuineness  of  these 
productions.     (See  Macpherson,  and  OisiN.) 

Ossiugton,  Lord.     See  Denison,  (John  E.) 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  lotig;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  %,  j,  9,  obscure;  i&x,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


OSSOLI 


1865 


OSTERMANN 


Ossoli,  os'so-lee,  (originally  Sarah  Margaret  Ful- 
ler,) Marchioness,  an  American  lady,  whose  talents, 
rare  individuality  of  character,  and  untimely  death  have 
given  to  her  history  a  peculiar  and  tragic  interest,  was 
born  at  Cambridgeport,  in  Massachusetts,  May  23,  1810. 
Under  the  care  of  her  father,  a  lawyer  and  member  of 
Congress,  she  was  early  and  thoroughly  instructed  in 
the  classics.  It  is  related  that  he  used  to  say  of  her, 
while  still  a  child,  that  she  "  knew  more  Latin  and  Greek 
than  half  the*  professors."  At  a  very  early  age  she 
bad  also  made  great  proficiency  in  French  and  Italian. 
After  the  death  of  her  father,  in  1S35,  ^^^  became  teacher 
of  languages  in  Boston,  and  subsequently  principal  of 
a  school  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  In  1839  she 
published  a  translation  of  Eckermann's  "Conversations 
with  Goethe."  She  became  in  1840  editor  of  "The 
Dial,"  a  periodical  instituted  for  the  advocacy  and  dif- 
fusion of  Transcendentalism  in  .'Vnierica,  and  for  which 
she  wrote  a  number  of  admirable  articles  on  literature 
and  art.  Her  critique  on  Goethe  especially,  in  the 
second  volume  of  the  "  Dial,"  has  been  greatly  and 
deservedly  praised.  "  Nowhere,"  says  Mr.  Emerson, 
"did  Goethe  find  a  braver,  more  intelligent,  or  more 
sympathetic  reader."  Her  "  Summer  on  the  Lakes,"  a 
vivid  and  truthful  picture  of  prairie-life,  was  published 
in  1843.  Soon  after,  slie  took  charge  of  the  literary 
department  of  the  New  York  "Tribune."  In  1846  she 
visited  England,  where  she  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Carlyl^  and  other  eminent  men.  From  London  she 
journeyed  through  France  to  Italy.  At  Rome  she  acci- 
dentally became  acquainted  with  the  Marquis  Ossoli,  to 
whom,  though  many  years  younger  than  herself,  she 
was  married  in  December,  1847.  She  took  the  deepest 
interest  in  the  cause  of  Italian  liberty,  and  during  the 
siege  of  Rome,  in  1849,  devoted  herself  with  untiring 
assiduity  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  In  May, 
1850,  she  and  her  husband  set  sail  for  America;  but,  a 
violent  storm  having  arisen  when  they  were  near  the 
coast  of  the  United  States,  the  vessel  struck  on  Fire 
Island  beach.  Long  Island,  in  the  morning  of  the  19th 
of  July,  and  a  few  hours  after  went  to  pieces.  Among 
those  who  perished  were  the  Marquis  and  Marchioness 
Ossoli  and  their  child. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli,"  by  R.  W.  Emerson, 
William  H.  Channing,  and  James  F.  Clarke,  Boston,  1851  ;  Al- 
LIBONE,  "Dictionary  ol  Amhois;"  Julia  Ward  Howe,  "Margaret 
Fuller;"  T.  W.  Higginson,  "Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli." 

Ossolinski,  os-so-16n'skee,  (George,)  a  Polish  states- 
man, born  in  1595.  He  rose  to  be  grand  chancellor  of 
the  kingdom  of  Poland,  in  which  capacity  he  presided 
over  the  religious  conference  at  Thorn,  where  Vladislaus 
lY.  sought  to  unite  the  Catholics  and  Protestants.  He 
was  also  created  by  Ferdinand  II.  a  prince  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire.     Died  in  1650. 

Ossolinski,  (Jozf.f  Maximilian,)  Count  of  Ten- 
czyn,  a  Polish  litterateur,  born  in  1748.  He  removed  to 
Vienna  in  17S9,  and  was  appointed  by  Francis  I.  super- 
intendent of  the  Royal  Library.  He  was  the  author  of 
historical  and  critical  treatises,  and  of  a  number  of  tales, 
and  founded  at  Lemberg  the  Institute  called  by  his 
name.     Died  in  1826. 

Ossonne.     See  Ossuna. 

Os'so-ry,  (Thomas  Butler,)  Earl  of,  a  gallant 
commander,  born  probably  in  Ireland  in  1634,  was  a  son 
of  the  first  Duke  of  Ormond,  His  biographer  Lodge 
calls  him  a  "model  of  almost  universal  perfection." 
Soon  after  the  restoration  of  1660  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1666  he  was  created  an 
English  peer,  as  Lord  Butler.  Having  served  with 
distinction  in  several  sea-fights  against  the  Dutch,  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral  about  1674.  In 
1677  he  commanded  the  English  troops  that  fought  for 
the  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  battle  of  Mons.  Died  in 
1680.     His  son  became  Duke  of  Ormond. 

See  Lodge,  "Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages." 

Ossufia  or  Ositiia,  os-soon'yS,  [Fr.  Ossonne  or 
OssoNE,  o'son',]  (Don  Pedro  Tellez  y  Giron  —  tSl- 
yStl/  e  He-rAn',)  Duke  of,  a  celebrated  Spanish  states- 
man, born  at  Valladolid  in  1579.  After  completing  his 
studies  at  Salamanca,  he  repaired  to  the  court  of  Philip 
II.,  from  which,  in  consequence  of  indulging  his  caustic 


wit,  he  was  banished.  Having  spent  some  time  in  France 
and  Portugal,  he  returned  to  Sjjain  on  the  death  of  Philip 
II.,  but  he  again  had  the  misfortune  to  be  e.xiled  from 
the  court.  He  was  recalled  to  Spain  in  1607,  and  was 
created  a  member  of  the  council  and  knight  of  the 
golden  fleece.  Through  his  influence  the  independence 
of  Holland  was  acknowledged  in  the  treaty  of  1609,  and 
he  opposed  warmly,  though  unsuccessfully,  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors,  which  took  place  about  this  titne.  In 
1611  he  wassent  as  viceroy  to  Sicily,  and  in  1616  filled 
the  same  office  at  Naples,  where  he  defended  the  people 
against  the  oppressions  of  the  nobles  and  the  clergy. 
He  gained  a  signal  victory  in  161 7  over  the  Venetians, 
who  had  claimed  exclusive  rule  over  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
Having  refused  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  into  Naples 
when  required  to  do  so  by  Philip  III.,  and  being  sus- 
pected of  aspiring  to  supreine  power,  Ossuiia  was  super- 
-seded  by  Cardinal  Borgia  in  1620.  He  died  in  prison 
in  1624,  after  three  years'  imprisonment  in  Spain. 

See  Gregorio  Leti,  "Vitadi  P.  Giron,  Ducad'Ossunna,"  3  vols., 
1698;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Ostade,  van,  vSn  os'ti'deh,  (Adrian,)  a  celebrated 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Haarletn  in  1610,  was  a 
pupil  of  Rembrandt  and  of  Frans  Hals.  His  subjects 
were  generally  taken  from  low  life,  such  as  tavern  scenes, 
peasants  drinking  and  smoking,  and  the  interiors  of  cot- 
tages. His  pictures  are  exceedingly  spirited  and  true  to 
nature,  and  are  distinguished  for  splendour  and  trans- 
parency of  colouring.  Among  his  best  pieces  are  "The 
P^ish-Market,"  "A  Smoker  "Lighting  his  Pipe,"  and 
"  The  Family  of  Adrian  van  Ostade."  He  worked  many 
years  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1685. 

See  Wevhrm an,"  De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders  ;"  Charlks 
Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres;"  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres 
Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ostade,  van,  (Isaac,)  a  painter,  the  youngest  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1621.  His 
style  resembled  that  of  Adrian,  whose  pupil  he  was.  He 
worked  at  Amsterdam,  and  painted  landscapes  which 
are  greatly  admired.  He  excelled  in  representing  ani- 
mals and  in  village  scenes.  His  death  occurred  October 
16,  1649. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.; 

"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Osten-Sacken,  os'ten-sSk'ken,  (Dmitri,)  a  Russian 
general,  born  in  1790,  served  under  Paskievitch  in  the 
war  against  the  Persians,  (1826-29,)  and  afterwards  fought 
with  distinction  against  the  Poles  in  1831.  He  defended 
Odessa  against  the  allies  in  May,  1854.     Died  in  1864. 

Osten-Sacken,  von  der,  fon  der  os'ten-sik'ken, 
(Fabian  Wilhelm,)  Prince,  a  Russian  field-marshal, 
born  in  Livonia  in  1752.  He  served  under  Suwarow 
against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  181 2- 15.  In  181 8  he  succeeded  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  first  army 
and  in  1826  was  made  a  field-marshal.     Died  in  1837. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Osterhaus,  os'ter-howss',  (Peter  J.,)  a  general,  born 
in  Prussia,  entered  the  service  of  the  United  States  in 
1861,  commanded  a  division  or  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  June  of  that  year.  He  took  part  in  the  assault 
on  Vicksburg,  May  22,  1863,  and  commanded  a  corps  of 
Sherman's  army  in  tlie  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah, 
November-December,  1864. 

Osterley.     See  O  ester  ley. 

Ostermann,  os'ter-m^n',  (Heinrich  Johann  Fried- 
rich,)  a  celebrated  diplomatist,  born  in  Westphalia  in 
1686,  assumed  the  name  of  Andrei  Ivanovitch.  In 
1704  he  entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia, 
for  whom  he  negotiated  the  peace  of  Nystadt  in  1 72 1. 
After  filling  various  high  offices  under  Peter,  he  was,  on 
the  death  of  that  monarch,  patronized  by  the  empress 
Catherine  I.,  who  made  him  vice-chancellor,  and  by  her 
will  appointed  him  governor  to  her  son  Peter  II.  and  a 
member  of  the  council  of  regency.  In  1730  he  was 
created  a  count  by  Peter  II.  After  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  (1741)  he  was  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died 
in  1747. 

See  Hempel,  "  Leben  und  Fall  des  Grafen  von  Ostermann,"  1741. 

Ostermann-Tolstoi,    os't?r-mJn'  toKstoi,   (Alex- 


€  as  ^;  f  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;  o,  H,  yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (iJ^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23, ) 


OSTERVALD 


iS66 


OTHO 


ANDER  IVANOViTCH,)  CouNT,  a  Russian  general,  l)oin 
at  Saint  Petersburg  about  1770.  He  served  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1806  and  1812,  and  distinguished  himself 
particularly  at  the  battle  of  Kulm,  (1813.)  He  was 
afterwards  made  general-in-chief  of  engineers  by  the 
emperor  Alexander.     Died  in  1837. 

See  Thieks,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire." 

Ostervald,  os'ter-vilt',  (Jean  FR^DiftRic,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  divine,  eminent  for  learning  and  piety,  born 
at  Neufchatel  in  1663.  He  published  an  "Abridgment 
of  the  History  of  the  Bible,"  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in 
French,  which  is  called  by  his  name,  "  Christian  Ethics," 
and  a  "Catechism."  He  preached  many  years  at  Neuf- 
chatel.    Died  in  1747. 

Ostrog,  os'tRog,  (CoNSTANTiNE,)  DuKE  OF,  a  Polish 
nobleman,  distinguished  himself  by  h's  hostility  to  the 
Jesuits  and  to  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches.  He  endeavoured  at  the  Synod  of  Thorn  to 
effect  a  union  with  the  Protestants  of  Poland.  He  pub- 
lished in  1 58 1  the  old  Slavonian  translation  of  the  Bible 
called  by  his  name.     Died  in  1608. 

Ostrog,  (CoNSTANTiNE  Vasilii,  )  was  created  by 
Sigismund,  King  of  Poland,  grand  commander  of  Lithu- 
ania, and  in  15 14  obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Russians  at  Orsza. 

Ostrovsky  or  Ostrowski,  os-trof'skee,  (A.  N.,)  a 
popular  Russian  dramatist  of  the  present  age.  He 
began  his  literary  career  about  1850.  His  works  were 
published  in  4  vols.,  1859-67'.     Died  in  1S82. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1868. 

Osuna.     See  Ossuna. 

Oswald,  os'<^'alt,  (Erasmus,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician and  biblical  writer,  born  in  Austria  in  151 1.  He 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Tubingen  and  at  Freiburg, 
He  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Hebrew.  Died 
in  1579. 

Os'wald,  Saint,  King  of  Northumbria,  born  in  604 
or  605  A.D.  He  defeated  Cadwalla,  King  of  Wales,  and 
was  killed  in  a  battle  against  Penda,  King  of  Mercia,  in 
642  A.D. 

Os-j^-man'dy-as,  an  ancient  EgyiHian  king,  to  whom 
the  Memnonium  and  other  magnificent  .structures  of 
Thebes  are  attributed,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished 
about  2000  B.C.  His  name,  according  to  Strabo,  is  only 
a  variation  of  Ismandes.  He  is  also  famed  for  his  con- 
quests over  the  Bactrians,  and  his  exploits  were  repre- 
sented on  the  walls  of  an  immense  temple  which  he  built 
at  Thebes.  This  edifice,  which  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  antiquity,  contained  the  first  library  of 
which  we  have  any  account. 

Ot-a-cil'i-a  Se-ve'ra,  (Marcia,)  wife  of  the  Roman 
emoeror  M.  Julius  Philippus,  lived  about  250  a.d. 

O'tey,  (James  Hervey,)  D. D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  at  Liberty,  Virginia,  January  27,  iSoo,  graduated  at 
the  University  of  North  Carolina  in  1820,  in  1S27  was 
ordained  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  in  1834 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Tennessee,  the  first  of  the 
title.     Died  April  23,  1863. 

Otfried,  ot'fR^t,  [Lat.  Otfri'dus,]  a  learned  German 
monk  of  tlie  ninth  century,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Franconia.  His  poetical  version  of  the  Gospels, 
published  about  868,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
valuable  monuments  of  the  old  German  language. 

Otfridus.     See  Otfried. 

Other.    See  Ottar. 

Othmaii,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  Osman. 

Othmau-Ibn-Affan,  oth'min'  ib'n  iffSn',  the  third 
of  the  caliphs  who  succeeded  Mohamtned,  was  a  distant 
relative  and  a  devoted  follower  of  the  prophet.  He 
was  invested  with  the  caliphate  in  644  a.d.  He  made 
extensive  conquests  in  Persia,  Africa,  and  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  but  he  rendered  himself  unpopular  by  the  favours 
he  lavished  upon  his  relatives  and  friends.  Through 
the  intrigues  of  Ayeshah,  widow  of  the  prophet,  and  a 
number  of  disaffected  nobles,  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  his  life,  and  he  perished  by  the  hand  of  Mo- 
hammed, son  of  the  caliph  Aboo-Bekr,  in  656  a.d.  0th- 
man  was  married  successively  to  two  daughters  of  the 
prophet  Mohammed. 

SeeOcKLEV,  "  History  of  the  Saracens  ;"  Irving,  "  Mahomet  and 
(lis  Successors;"  Weiu  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 


Othman-Ibn-Yahya-Alkaisee,  (-Alcaisi,)  cth'- 
mli/  Tb'n  yd'he-i  al-ki'see,  a  Spanish  Arab  of  distin- 
guished talents  and  learning,  was  born  at  Malaga  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  rose  to  be  governor  of  that  city. 
He  wrote  treatises  "De  Hjereditate"  and  "DeMensuris 
Hispanis,"  and  a  work  entitled  "Grammatical  Ques- 
tions," ("Qusesita  Grammatica.")     Died  in  1334. 

O'tho,  [Fr.  Othon,  o't6.N',)  (Marcus  Salvius,)  Em- 
peror of  Rome,  born  about  32  a.d.,  was  descended  from 
a  patrician  family.  He  was  for  a  time  an  intimate  asso- 
ciate of  Nero,  until  the  attachment  of  the  latter  for  Pop- 
paea,  Otho's  wife,  caused  a  rupture  between  them.  He 
supported  Galba  in  his  revolt  against  Nero,  in  68  a.d., 
but,  disappointed  that  the  former  did  not  appoint  hina 
his  successor,  he  conspired  with  the  guards,  took  the 
life  of  Galba,  and  assumed  the  supreme  power.  He  soon 
after  marched  against  Caecina,  a  general  of  Yitellius, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  in 
Germany.  His  army  having  been  totally  defeated  near 
Bebriacum,  Otho  destroyed  himself  in  April,  69  a.d., 
and  was  succeeded  by  Vitellius.  Otho  was  a  man  of 
profligate  character. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Otho;"  Mkrivai.k.  "  Tlie  Romans 
under  the  Empire  ;"  Suetonius,  "Otho;"  W.  E.  Weber,  "Kaiser 
M.  Salvius  Otho,"  1815;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

O'tho  [Fr.  Othon,  o'tiN' ;  Ger.  Ot'to]  L,  the 
Great,  son  of  Henry  L,  was  born  in  912  a.d.,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  Emperor  of  Germany  in  936.  Soon 
after  his  accession  he  was  involved  in  a  protracted  war 
with  Boleslaw,  Duke  of  Bohemia,  whom  he  compelled  to 
acknowledge  his  supremacy,  (950.)  He  repressed  the 
arrogance  of  the  feudal  barons,  founded  numerous  bish- 
oprics, and  was  zealous  in  his  efforts  to  propagate  Chris- 
tianity. He  defeated  Harold,  King  of  the  Danes,  whom 
he  obliged  to  be  baptized  and  to  become  tributary  to 
Germany.  In  951  he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Ital- 
ians against  the  usurjjer  Berengarius,  who  had  murdered 
King  Lotharius  and  imprisoned  Adelaide,  his  queen, 
whom  Otho  married  the  same  year.  He  was  crowned 
emperor  at  Rome  by  Pope  John  XII.  in  962,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Cassar.  The  pope,  having  soon  after 
conspired  with  the  enemies  of  Otho,  was  deposed  by  him, 
and  Leo  VIII.  elected  in  his  place.  In  972  his  son, 
Otho  II.,  whom  he  had  previously  caused  to  be  crowned 
at  Rome,  married  the  princess  Theophania,  daughter  of 
Nicephorus  Phocas,  Emperor  of  the  East.  Otho  died 
in  973-  "  I'-S  deserves,"  says  Sismondi,  "  more  than 
Charlemagne  the  name  of  Great,  because  his  reign  had 
a  much  more  salutary  influence  on  the  nations  whom  he 
subjected."  Other  historians,  however,  have  expressed 
a  different  opinion. 

See  Vrhse,  "  Leben  Otto  des  Grossen,"  1829  ;  Boehmer,  "  Re 
gesta  Ottonum;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Otho  (Otto)  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in  955, 
succeeded  his  father,  Otho  I.,  in  973.  King  Lothaire 
of  France,  having  renewed  his  pretensions  to  Lorraine, 
was  opposed  and  signally  defeated  by  Otho.  In  980  he 
concluded  a  treaty  by  which  the  investiture  of  Lower 
Lorraine  was  given  to  Charles,  the  brother  of  Lothaire, 
on  condition  of  his  doing  homage  to  the  German  em- 
peror. He  afterwards  attempted  the  conquest  of  Cala- 
bria and  Apulia,  but  was  defeated  in  982  by  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Greeks  and  Saracens.  He  died  in  983, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Otho  III. 

See  Dietmar,  "  Chronlcon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Otho  (Otto)  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  three  years  of  age  at  his  father's  death. 
He  was  crowned  at  Rome  by  Pope  Gregory  V.  in  996. 
While  he  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Slavi,  Crescen- 
tius,  a  Roman  patrician,  deposed  Gregory  V.  and  elected 
in  his  stead  a  Greek  under  the  name  of  John  XVI.  Otho 
advanced  into  Italy,  (998,)  defeated  Crescentius  and  put 
him  to  death,  and  restored  the  former  pope.  He  died, 
without  issue,  in  1002,  and  was  succeeded  by  Henry  11. 
of  Bavaria. 

See  Richer,  "Chronicon;"  F.  D.  Ring,  "Kaiser  Otto  III.;" 
BoEHMEK,  "Re  gesta  Ottonum;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  * 

Otho  (Otto)  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  about 
1 1 74,  was  the  son  of  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
and  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England.    He  was 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  wbi;  good;  moon; 


OTHO 


1867 


OTTLEY 


educated  at  the  'court  of  his  uncle,  Richard  Coeur-de- 
Lion,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  wars  against  Philip 
Augustus  of  France.  In  1197  he  was  chosen  emperor 
by  a  portion  of  the  electors,  while  others  declared  for 
Philip,  Uuke  of  Suabia,  which  gave  rise  to  a  ten  years' 
war.  Pope  Innocent  III.  having  favoured  the  preten- 
sions of  Otho,  he  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  1209,  and  in 
return  for  this  favour  conceded  to  the  papal  see  the  right 
of  investiture.  Otho  soon  ciuarrelled  with  the  pope,  at 
whose  instigation  many  German  princes  and  prelates 
revolted  in  1212  and  elected  P'rederick  of  Ilohenstaufen 
as  emperor.  Otho  was  defeated  at  the  great  battle  of 
Bouvines,  in  1214,  by  Philip  Augustus  of  France.  He 
died  in  1218. 

See  Abel,  "  Konig  Philipp,"  1852,  and  "  Kaiser  Otto,"  1S56  ;  Wi- 
CHRKT,  "  De  Ottonis  I V.  et  Pliilippi  Suevi  Certaminibus,"  etc.,  1834; 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

O'tho  or  Ot'to,  King  of  Greece,  born  in  181 5,  was 
a  son  of  Lewis  I.,  King  of  Bavaria,  lie  was  elected 
king  by  the  Greeks  in  1832,  and  their  choice  was  con- 
firmed by  a  treaty  between  France,  England,  and  Russia. 
He  married  Amalia,  a  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Oldenburg,  in  1836.  His  reign  was  unpopular,  and  was 
disturbed  by  insurrections.  He  abdicated  in  October, 
1862.     Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1854,  and  November, 
1863. 

O'tho,  (Lucius  Salvius,)  a  Roman  commander,  the 
father  of  the  emperor  Otho,  was  a  favourite  of  Tiberius. 
He  was  consul  in  33  a.d.,  and  afterwards  proconsul  in 
Africa.  He  detected  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
Claudius. 

Otho,  o'to,  (Venius,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Ley- 
den  in  1556,  was  one  of  the  instructors  of  Rubens.  lie 
worked  some  years  at  Rome.     Died  in  1634. 

Otho  OF  Brandenburg,  a  German  poet,  and  Mar- 
grave of  Brandenburg,  was  called  Otho  with  the 
Arrow.    Died  in  1304. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Otho  (or  Otto)  von  Freisingen,  o'to  fon  fRi'zing'en, 
one  of  the  early  German  chroniclers,  was  the  son  of 
Leopold  IV.,  Margrave  of  Austria,  and  Agnes,  daughter 
of  the  emperor  Henry  TV.  In  1137  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Freisingen  by  his  half-brother,  the  emperor 
Conrad  HI.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Chronicle  of  the 
World  from  the  Creation  to  his  Own  Time,"  in  seven 
books.  The  first  part  is  chiefly  a  comiMlation  from  other 
historians,  but  the  last  contains  information  of  great 
value  relative  to  German  history,  being  drawn  frora  the 
most  authentic  sources.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa."     Died  in  1158. 

Othon.    See  Otho. 

O'tis,  (Harrison  Gray,)  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  born  in  Boston  in  October,  1765,  was  a  nephew 
of  James,  noticed  belovir,  and  a  son  of  Samuel  Allyne 
Otis.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1783,  jjrac- 
tised  law  in  Boston,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1796.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  Federal  party, 
and  was  highly  distinguished  for  his  graceful  eloquence. 
He  was  president  of  the  senate  of  Massachusetts  for 
several  years  between  1805  and  1812,  was  a  member  ol 
the  Hartford  Convention  in  1814,  and  was  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  from  1817  to  1822.  In  1820  he  made 
a  speech  in  the  Senate  against  the  extension  of  slavery. 
He  retired  from  public  life  in  1832.  Died  in  Boston  in 
October,  1848. 

Otis,  (  James,)  a  celebrated  American  orator  and 
patriot,  born  at  West  Barnstable,  in  Massachusetts, 
on  the  5th  of  February,  1725,  was  a  son  of  James  Otis, 
a  judge  and  lawyer.  lie  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1743,  studied  law,  and  became  a  resident  of  Boston 
about  1750.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  classical  litera- 
ture, and  in  1760  published  an  able  work  entitled  "  Rudi- 
ments of  Latin  Prosody,  with  a  Dissertation  on  Letters," 
etc.  He  acquired  distinction  in  1761  by  an  argument 
against  the  writs  of  assistance  for  which  the  officers  of 
the  customs  had  applied.  Referring  to  this  speech,  John 
Adams  said,  "Otis  was  a  flame  of  fire:  with  a  prompti- 
tude of  classical  allusions,  a  depth  of  research,  a  rapid 
Bummaiy  of  historical  evei\ts  and  dates,  a  profusion  ot 


legal  authorities,  a  prophetic  glance  of  his  eyes  into 
futurity,  and  a  rapid  torrent  of  impetuous  eloquence 
he  hurried  away  all  before  him.  American  independence 
was  then  and  there  born.  Every  man  of  an  immense, 
crowded  audience  appeared  to  me  to  go  away,  as  I  did, 
ready  to  take  up  arms  against  writs  of  assistance."  The 
judges  suspended  or  evaded  the  decision  of  the  question. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  in  1762,  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  popular  party.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Congress  which  met  at  New  York  in  1765, 
and  which  was  called  "  the  Stamp-Act  Congress."  He 
wrote  several  pamphlets  in  defence  of  the  colonies  against 
the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  British  ministry.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1769,  he  was  assaulted  by  several  ruffians  of  the 
opposite  party,  and  received  a  severe  wound  in  the  head, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  became  partially  deranged, 
or  permanently  disqualified  for  usefulness.  A  man  named 
Robinson  was  sentenced  to  pay  ;^2000  for  this  assault, 
but  the  fine  was  remitted  by  Otis.  He  had  married  Ruth 
Cunningham,  of  Boston.  He  was  killed  by  lightning  at 
Andover  in  May,  1783. 

See  William  Tudor,  "T.ife  of  James  Otis,"  1823;  Francis 
BowEN,  "  Life  of  James  Otis,"  in  Sparks's  "  American  15iography," 
vol.  ii.,  2d  series;   "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1823. 

Otis,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, born  in  1728,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Died 
in  t8io. 

Otis,  (Samuel  Allyne,)  a  younger  brother  of  James 
Otis,  and  father  of  Harrison  Gray  Otis,  noticed  above, 
became  a  member  of  Congress  in  1788,  and  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  twenty-five 
years,  from  1789  to  1814.  Died  at  Washington  in  1814. 
aged  seventy-three. 

Otranto,  Duke  ok.     See  Fouch^. 

Ott,  ot,  (JoHANN  Baptist,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1661.  He  became  professor  of  He- 
brew at  Zurich  about  1702,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian 
treatises. 

Ott,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  divine  and  Orien- 
talist, the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich  in  161 7.  He  became  professor  of  eloquence 
and  Hebrew  at  Zurich  about  1654.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  theology,  etc.     Died  in  1682. 

Ottar,  ot'tSr,  written  also  Other  and  Ohther,  a  Noi-- 
wegian  traveller,  who  flourished  in  the  ninth  century, 
visited  the  court  of  Alfred,  King  of  England.  Having 
given  to  that  monarch  an  account  of  his  voyages  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  it  was  inserted  by  him  in  his  Anglo- 
Saxon  version  of  Orosius.  This  narrative  possesses 
great  interest,  as  giving  the  earliest  information  respect- 
ing those  countries. 

Otter,  ot'ter,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  philologist,  born  at 
Christianstadt  in  1707.  After  a  residence  of  ten  years 
in  Asia  and  Turkey,  he  was  appointed  interpreter  for  the 
Oriental  tongues  at  the  Royal  Library  in  Paris,  and  in 
1746  was  made  professor  of  Arabic.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Turkey  and  Persia."     Died  in  1748. 

Otterbein,  ot'ter-bTn',  (Philip  William,)  born  at 
Dillenburg,  Germany,  in  1726,  emigrated  in  1752  to 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  founded  the  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ.     Died  in  1813. 

Otthoboni,  ot'to-bo'nee,  (Cardinal  Pietro,)  a 
nephew  of  Pope  Alexander  VIII.,  was  born  in  1668, 
and  elevated  to  the  purple  in  1690.  He  is  known  as  a 
munificent  patron  of  art  and  music,  and  the  possessor 
of  a  unique  library,  a  portion  of  which,  after  his  death 
in  1740,  was  purchased  for  the  Vatican. 

Ottin,  o'tiN',  (Auguste  Louis  Marie,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He  gained  the  grand 
prize,  and  a  medal  of  tiie  first  class.     Died  in  1890. 

dttinger.     See  Oettinger. 

Ott'ley,  (William  Young,)  an  English  artist,  con- 
noisseur,  and  able  writer  on  art,  born  in  1771.  He  re- 
sided for  many  years  in  Italy,  where  he  made  a  large  and 
choice  collection  of  paintings  and  engravings.  After  his 
return  he  published  a  superb  work  entitled  "The  Italian 
School  of  Design  ;  being  Fac-Similes  of  Original  Draw- 
ings by  Eminent  Italian  Painters  and  Sculptors,"  (3  vols., 
1808-23.)  jf"  '^33  ^^  became  keeper  of  the  prints  in 
the  British  Museum.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.     Among  his 


esisk;  qass;  ^kard;  gasy/Gi  H,Vi,gtittural;  a, nasal;  v.,trilUd;  sasz;  th  asin/z^/j.     (2[^^See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


OTTMER 


1868 


OUDINOT 


chief  works  is  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Early 
History  of  Engraving  on  Copper  and  on  Wood,"  (2 
vols.,  i8i6.)     Died  in  1836. 

Ottmer,  ot'mer,  (Karl  Theodok,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Brunswick  in  iSoo.  In  1824  he 
completed  the  new  theatre  at  Berlin,  and  a  few  years 
later  the  Academy  of  Singing  in  the  same  place.  His 
greatest  work  is  the  palace  of  William,  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, finished  in  1837,  an  edifice  of  great  size  and  re- 
markable elegance,  at  Brunswick.     Died  in  1843. 

Otto,  the  German  for  Otho,  whicli  see. 

Ot'to,  (Carl,)  a  Danish  medical  writer,  born  in  Saint 
Thomas,  West  Indies,  in  1795.  He  became  professor 
of  pharmacy  at  Copenhagen  in  1840.     Died  in  1879. 

Ot'to,  (EvERARD,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Hamm 
in  1685.  He  published  "Treasury  of  Roman  Law," 
("Thesaurus  Juris  Romani,"  4  vols.,  1725-29.)  Died 
at  Bremen  in  1756. 

Otto,  (Friedrich  Julian,)  a  German  savant,  born  in 
Saxony  in  1809.  He  was  appointed  successively  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  (1S35)  and  member  of  the  College 
of  Health  at  Brunswick,  (1836.)  He  published  a  "Manual 
for  the  Rational  Practice  of  Agriculture,"  (1849-50,)  and 
several  chemical  works.     Died  January  12,  1870. 

Otto,  o'to',  (Louis  GuiLLAUME,)  C'omte  de  Mosloy, 
(mo'lwa',)  a  distinguished  diplomatist,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Baden  in  1754.  Having  studied  at  Strasburg, 
he  accompanied  the  French  minister  Luzerne  to  the 
United  States  in  1779.  After  his  return  he  was  sent,  in 
1800,  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  London,  and  in  1809 
was  appointed  by  Napoleon  to  negotiate  his  marriage 
with  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  having  previously 
been  made  Count  of  Mosloy  and  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour.  In  1813  he  became  minister  of  state. 
Died  in  1817. 

See   Thiers,    "History  of    tlie    Consulate   and  the   Empire." 

Ot'to-Pe'ters,  (-pa'ters,)  (Louise,)  a  German  author- 
ess, was  born  at  Meissen,  March  26,  1819,  and  in  1858  was 
married  to  August  Peters,  an  author.  She  wrote  many 
novels,  often  of  an  ultra-republican  and  revolutionary 
character. 

Ottocar,  ot'to-kiR',  (Ottokar,)  11,  King  of  Bohemia, 
was  a  son  of  Wenceslas  I.,  and  began  to  reign  in  1253. 
He  obtained  Austria  and  Styria  by  marriage,  and  extended 
his  dominions  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Adriatic.  His 
ambition  to  be  emperor  involved  him  in  a  war  with 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.     He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1278. 

Ottokar  or  Ottocar,  ot'to-kiii',  [Lat.  OrrocA'RUS,] 
a  German  poet  and  chronicler,  born  in  Styria  about 
1250.  He  wrote,  between  1300  and  13 16,  a  rhymed 
chronicle  of  Austria  and  Styria. 

See  T.  Jacobi,  "De  Ottocaro  Chronico  Austriaco." 

Ottokar,  (Amadeus,)  the  assumed  name  of  Georg 
Friedrich  Daumer.     See  Daumer. 

Ottokar  von  Horneck.     See  Horneck,  von. 

Ot'-way,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1772;  died  in  1846. 

Ot"way,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  dramatist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  165 1.  Having  been  unsuccessful  as 
an  actor,  he  applied  himself  to  dramatic  writing,  and  in 
1675  published  his  tragedy  of  "Alcibiades."  This  was 
soon  followed  by  "  Don  Carlos,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour.  In  1677  he  obtained  from  the  Earl 
of  Plymouth  a  situation  as  cornet  of  dragoons  in  the 
army  of  Flanders  ;  but,  soon  becoming  dissatisfied  with 
military  life,  he  again  gave  his  attention  to  the  drama. 
In  1680  the  tragedy  of  "  The  Orphan"  appeared,  and  in 
1682  his  "  Venice  Preserved."  These  two  are  charac- 
terized by  Hallam  as  "  having  a  deep  pathos,  a  dramatic 
eloquence  rapid  and  flowing,  and  sometimes  very  grace- 
ful poetry;"  and  he  adds,  "The  'Venice  Preserved'  is 
more  frequently  represented  than  any  tragedy  after  those 
of  Shakspeare."  Among  Otway's  other  plays  we  may 
cite  "Caius  Marius,"and  a  comedy  called  "The  Soldier's 
Fortune."  He  also  translated  and  remodelled  the  "  Titus 
and  Berenice"  of  Racine,  and  Moliere's  "  Fourberies  de 
Scapin."  He  died  in  1685,  in  a  state  of  extreme  desti- 
tution ;  and  some  accounts  state  that  his  death  was 
caused  by  hunger. 

See  JoHN.soN,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and  "  Life  of  Otway,"  pre- 
fixed to  the  edition  of  his  works,  1S13. 


Oudaen,  ow'dSn,  (Joachim,)  a  Dutch  tragedian,  born 
in  1628;  died  in  1692.  His  best-known  plays  are  "Jo- 
hanna Gray"  (1648)  and  "  Konradyn,"  (1649.) 

Oudenaerde.    See  Audenaerde. 

Oudeiidorp,  van,  vtn  ow'den-doRp',  (Frans,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1696,  was 
for  many  years  professor  of  history  and  rhetoric  in  his 
native  city.  He  published  excellent  editions  of  Julius 
Obsequens,  Lucan,  Suetonius,  and  other  classics,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Use  of  Ancient 
Inscriptions."    Died  in  1761. 

Oudet,  oo'di',  (Jacques  Joseph,)  a  French  officer, 
born  at  Meynal  in  1773,  '^^'^  ^  zealous  republican.  He 
was  an  active  member  of  the  secret  society  called /'/4»7(<- 
delphes.     He  was  killed  at  Wagram  in  1809. 

.See  NoDiER,  "  Histoire  des  Soci^t^s  secrites,"  1814. 

Oudin,  oo'ddN',  (Casimir,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Mezieres  in  1638.  He  published  a  "Commen- 
tary on  Ancient  Ecclesiastical  Writers,"  and  several 
other  works.     Died  in  171 7. 

Oudin,  (Francois,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
Champagne  in  1673.  He  wrote  a  number  of  elegant 
Latin  poems,  and  theological  and  biographical  treatises. 
Died  in  1752. 

Oudin6,  oo'de'ni',   (Eugene   Andr6,)   an   eminent 
French  sculptor  and  engraver  of  medals,  born  in  Paris 
in  1810.     He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1831,  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in   1839  for  engraving,  and  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  for  sculpture  in  1843.     Among 
his  engraved  works  is  a  medal  entitled  the  "  Apotheosis 
of  Napoleon  I."     Died  in  1S87. 
I      Oudinet,  oo'de'ni',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Rheims  in  1643,  was  appointed  keeper 
i  of  the  medals  in  the  Royal  Cabinet  in  Paris.     In  1 701 
'  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
I  He  published  several  valuable  treatises  on  medals.  Died 
in  1 7 12. 

Oudinot,  oo'dee'no',  (Achillk  FRANgois,)  a  Franco- 
American  painter,  born  at  Daniigny,  (Orne,)  April  18, 
1820.  He  was  educated  at  the  communal  college  of 
Alen9on.  He  studied  architecture  and  designing,  by 
means  of  which  he  maintained  himself  in  later  years 
while  carrying  on  his  studies  in  painting.  He  served  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  in  the  Franco-German  war, 
1870-71.  Under  the  Commune  he  was  conservator  of 
the  museums  of  the  Louvre.  He  designed  and  con- 
structed the  admirable  Daubigny  studio,  and  made 
many  of  its  interior  decorations  and  paintings.  He  also 
won  distinction  as  a  glass-painter.  In  1876  he  came  to 
the  United  States,  and  he  has  since  lived  in  Boston  as  an 
American  citizen.  He  has  painted  many  evening-,  forest-, 
and  river-scenes,  and  has  exerted  an  excellent  influence 
as  a  teacher.  He  has  received  several  medals,  chiefly 
foreign. 

Oudinot,  oo'de'no',  (Charles  Nicolas  Victor,) 
Due  de  Reggio,  a  general,  a  son  of  the  following,  was 
born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1 79 1.  He  served  as  captain  in 
the  Russian  campaign,  (1812,)  and  became  a  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1822.  He  commanded  the  French  army  sent 
in  1849  to  Rome  to  protect  the  pope  against  his  subjects. 
Having  occupied  the  city  after  a  short  siege,  July,  1849, 
he  returned  to  France.  He  opposed  Louis  Na)>oleon  in 
the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  1S51,  after  which  he  was 
not  employed  in  public  service.     Died  in  1863. 

Oudinot,  (Nicolas  Charles,)  Due  de  Reggio,  (r|'- 
zho',)  a  distinguished  French  general,  was  born  at  Bar- 
sur-Ornain  in  1767.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel 
in  1793,  and  resisted  about  10,000  Austrians  with  one 
regiment  for  eight  hours  in  1794.  For  this  service  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  general  of  brigade.  He 
took  Treves  in  1794,  and  received  five  wounds  in  an 
action  near  Mannheim  in  October,  1795.  In  1799  he 
became  a  general  of  division,  and  chief  of  the  staff  in 
the  army  of  Massena,  under  whom  he  served  at  the 
siege  of  Genoa,  in  1800.  Having  received  command  of 
ten  battalions  of  grenadiers  in  1805,  he  performed  a 
prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Vienna,  and  took  a 
bridge  over  the  Danube  which  was  defended  by  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  pieces  of  cannon.  He  renderea 
important  services  at  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and  gained  a 
victory  at  Ostrolenka  in  1807.     At  the  battle  of  Fried- 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  &,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  sAort;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fjr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moouj 


OUDOT 


1869 


OVERBECK 


land,  June,  1807,  he  resisted  for  a  number  of  hours  an 
army  of  about  75,000  Russians,  and  gave  time  to  the 
rest  of  the  French  army  to  gain  the  victory.  He  main- 
tained his  reputation  in  1809  at  Landshut,  Lobau,  Vienna, 
and  Wagram.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France  in  July,  1809,  and  received  the  title  of  Due 
de  Reggie  in  the  same  year.  In  18 13  he  served  at  Lut- 
zen  and  Bautzen,  and  was  defeated  by  Bernadotte  at 
Gross-Beeren.  During  the  Hundred  Days  he  adhered 
to  Louis  XVni.,  who  gave  him  a  high  command  in 
1815.  He  commanded  a  corps  of  the  army  wl^ich  in- 
vaded Spain  and  took  Madrid  in  1823.     Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais  ;"  L.  de  Lom^nie, 
"  M.  le  Mardchal  Oudinot,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844  :  J-  NoL- 
LKT-Fabert,  "  Histoire  de  N.  C.  Oudinot,"  1850;  "  Nouveile  Bio- 
graphie  Gen^rale." 

Oudot,  oo'do',  (Francois  Julien,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Ornans  (Uoubs)  in  1804.  He  obtained  a  chair 
of  civil  law  in  Paris  about  1837. 

Oudry,  oo'dke',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  artist, 
particularly  distinguished  as  a  painter  of  animals,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1686.  He  studied  under  Largilliere, 
and  attained  considerable  skill  in  portrait  and  historical 
painting,  but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  hunting-scenes  and  animal  pieces.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  King  of  Denmark  and  Louis  XV.  of 
France  ;  and  one  of  his  best  pictures  represents  the  latter 
on  horseback  with  a  dozen  nobles  of  his  court.  Oudry 
was  also  a  skilful  engraver,  and  furnished  one  hundred 
and  fifty  designs  for  the  splendid  edition  of  La  Fontaine's 
Fables  published  in  1755.     Died  in  1755. 

See  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peiutre-Graveur  Francais." 

Ouel  le  Bon,  the  French  for  Howel  the  Good, 
which  see. 

Oughtred,  ot'red,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and 
eminent  mathematician,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in 
^573-  ^^  wrote  "The  Description  and  Use  of  the 
Double  Horizontal  Dyall,"  "  Clavis  Mathematica,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  Trigonometry."  He  is  styled  by  Fuller 
"the  prince  of  mathematicians."     Died  in  1660. 

Ouless,  00-less',  (Walter  William,)  a  British 
painter,  born  at  Saint  Helier,  Jersey,  September  21, 1848. 
He  was  educated  at  Victoria  College,  in  Jersey,  and  at 
the  Royal  Academy.  Li  1872  he  devoted  himself  to 
portrait-painting,  in  which  he  won  high  distinction. 

Oultreman,  d',  dootR'mdw',  [Lat.  Oultreman'nus,] 
(Henri,)  a  Flemish  writer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1546, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Town  and  County 
of  Valenciennes  from  its  Origin  to  the  End  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century."     Died  in  1605. 

Oultreman,  d',  (Pierre,)  a  historian,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1591.  He  wrote 
%  "Life  of  Peter  the  Hermit,"  (1632,)  and  a  History 
of  Baldwin  and  Henry,  Emperors  of  Constantinople, 
("Constantinopolis  Belgica,"  etc.,  1643.)    Died  in  1656. 

Oultremannus.     See  Oultreman. 

Oury,  oo'ree  or  oo'ree',  (Anna  Carolina,  nee  de 
Belleville),  a  celebrated  pianist  and  composer,  born  in 
Bavaria,  of  French  parentage,  in  1S06.  In  1S31  she  mar- 
ried M.  Oury,  a  violinist,  with  whom  she  made  a  tour  of 
the  European  cities.  In  1839  the  couple  settled  in  Eng- 
land.    Madame  Oury  retired  in  1866,  and  died  in  1880. 

Ousel,  (Philip.)     See  Oisel. 

Ouseley,  ooz'lee,  (Sir  Frederick  Arthur  Gore,) 
an  English  musician,  a  son  of  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  London  August  12,  1825,  He  com- 
posed several  anthems,  and  wrote  treatises  on  "  Har- 
mony," (1869,)  "Counterpoint  and  Fugue,"  (1869,)  etc. 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Oxford. 
Died  April  6,  1889. 

Ouseley,  ooz'lee,  (Gideon,)  an  Irish  Methodist  min- 
ister, born  at  Dunmore  in  1762.  He  laboured  as  a  mis- 
sionary among  the  Irish.     Died  in  1839. 

Ouseley  or  Ousely,  (Sir  Gore,)  a  diplomatist,  born 
in  Ireland  in  1769.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Persia  about  1810,  and  published  "  Biographical  Notices 
of  Persian  Poets,"  (1846.)     Died  in  1844. 

Ouseley  or  Ousely,  (Sir  William,)  Viscount  Clara- 
mont,  an  Orientalist,  brother  of  the  precedin"^,  was  born 
in    1771.     He    published   "Travels    in   Various  Coun- 


tries of  the  East,  more  particularly  Persia,"  (1831.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Outhier,  oo'te-i',  (Reginald  or  Renauld,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  m  Poligni  in  1694.  In  1736  he  accom- 
panied Maupertuis  and  other  savants  on  a  scientific 
expedition  to  Lapland,  of  which  he  afterwards  published 
an  interesting  account.  He  was  a  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Berlin.     Died  in  1 774. 

Outram,  oo'tram,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  Derbyshire  in  1803,  was  a  son  of  Benjamin 
Outram,  an  eminent  civil  engineer,  who  died  in  1805. 
He  went  to  India  about  1820,  served  in  the  war  against 
Dost  Mohammed,  and  became  British  resident  at  Hy- 
derabad and  Lucknow.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  a  successful  expedition  against  Persia. 
During  the  Sepoy  mutiny  of  1857  he  returned  to  India, 
and  superseded  Havelock  as  commander  of  the  army 
at  Lucknow.     (See  Havelock.)     Died  in  1863. 

Outram,  written  also  Owtram,  (William,)  a  learned 
English  theologian,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1625.  He 
became  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1670.  He  was 
versed  in  rabbinical  learning  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers.  His  chief  work  is  a  treatise  on  sacrifices,  "De 
Sacrifices  Libri  duo,"  (1677.)     Died  in  1679. 

Ouvarof.     See  Oovakof. 

Ouvrard,  oo'vrSr',  (Gabriel  Julien,)  a  French 
financier,  born  near  Clisson  in  1770.  He  was  a  bold 
and  successful  speculator,  and  enriched  himself  by  his 
operations  as  contractor  during  the  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution. He  was  prosecuted  by  Napoleon  I.,  and  im- 
prisoned some  years.     Died  in  1846. 

See  his  autobiograpbic  "  M^moires  sur  ma  Vie,"  3  vols.,  1826; 
"  Biograpliie  Uiiiverselle." 

Ouvrard,  (Ren6.)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Chinon  about  1620,  published  treatises  on  music,  the- 
ology, and  mathematics.  He  was  intimate  with  Arnauld 
and  other  writers  of  Port-Royal.     Died  in  1694. 

Ouvrie,  oo'vRe-i',  (Pierre  Justin,)  a  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  in  Paris  in  1806,     Died  in  1879. 

Ouwater,  van,  vtn  ow'wJ'ter,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1444,  was  one  of  the  first 
artists  in  Holland  who  painted  in  oil.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces are  "The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus"  and  "The 
Descent  from  the  Cross."  The  latter  was  warmly 
eulogized  by  Albert  DUrer.     Died  in  1515. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peititres  Flaniands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ovalle,  de,  di  o-vSl'yi,  (Alfonso,)  sometimes  writ- 
ten Ovaglie,  a  Jesuit,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  in 
Chili  in  1601.  lie  published  in  1646  a  "Historical  Ac- 
count of  the  Kingdom  of  Chili  and  the  Jesuit  Missions 
in  that  Country."     Died  in  1651. 

Ovando,  o-vdn'do,  (Nicolas,)  a  Spanish  officer,  and 
commander  of  the  order  of  Alcantara,  succeeded  Boba- 
dilla  as  governor  of  Hispaniola  in  1501.  While  his  rule 
over  the  Spanish  colonists  was  marked  by  justice  and 
kindness,  he  has  incurred  lasting  reproach  by  the  cruel- 
ties he  perpetrated  on  the  Indians,  a  great  number  of 
whom  were  massacred  at  Xaragua  by  his  orders.  He 
also  treated  Columbus  with  great  injustice,  and  availed 
himself  of  every  opportunity  of  thwarting  his  designs. 
He  was  recalled  to  Spain  in  1508,  and  succeeded  by 
Diego  Columbus,  son  of  the  celebrated  admiral.  Died 
in  1518,  aged  about  fifty-eight. 

See  Charlevoix,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Domingue ;"  Oviedo, 
"  Cronica  de  las  Indias." 

O'ver-all,  (John,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in 
1559.  He  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop 
of  Norwich  in  1619.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"The  Convocation-Book,"  in  which  he  maintains  the 
divine  origin  of  government.  Bishop  Overall  was  es- 
teemed the  best  scholastic  divine  of  his  time  in  England. 
He  was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Grotius  and 
Gerard  Vossius.     Died  in  1619. 

Overbeck,  o'ver-b?k',  (Friedrich,)  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  German  painters  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
was  born  at  Lubeck  in  1789.  After  having  studied  for 
a  time  at  Vienna,  in  iSio  he  visited  Rome,  where,  with 
Cornelius,  Schnorr,  and  other  German  artists,  he  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  what  has  been  styled  the  roman- 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K., giMiiral ;  N,  uasal;  k,  IrilleJ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2!:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OVERBECK 


1870 


OVINGTON 


tic  or  symbolic  school  of  painting  in  Germany.  Among 
his  earliest  productions  were  the  frescos  at  the  villa  of 
the  consul-general  Bartholdy,  representing  "Joseph  sold 
into  Captivitv,"  and  "The  Seven  Years  of  Famine."  In 
1817  he  adorned  the  villa  of  Marquis  Massimi  with  five 
large  frescos  taken  from  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered. "■ 
His  magnificent  fresco  at  Assisi,  representing  "The 
Miracle  of  Roses  of  Saint  Francis,"  is  esteemed  his 
master-piece  in  that  department.  Among  his  best  oil- 
paintings  are  "The  Entrance  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem," 
in  the  Marienkirche  at  Lubeck,  "Christ  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives,"  "The  Death  of  Saint  Joseph,"  and  the  large 
picture  in  the  Stadelschen  Institut  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  entitled  "The  Influence  of  Christianity  in  the 
Arts."  He  has  also  produced  a  ntnnber  of  elegant  de- 
signs, among  which  are  "Forty  Illustrations  from  the 
Gospels,"  since  engraved  by  Keller,  P.artoccini,_  and 
others.  Regarding  "art  as  the  handmaid  of  religion, 
Overbeck  has  almost  exclusively  chosen  scriptural  sub- 
jects, and  his  works  are  characterized  by  deep  devotional 
feeling,  simplicity,  and  touching  sweetness  of  expression. 
According  to  some  writers,  Overbeck's  influence  and 
reputation  in  Germany  have  considerably  declined  of 
latter  time.     Died  in  1869. 

See  Raczvnski,  "  Histoire  de  I'Art  Allemand  moderne  ;"  N  agi.er, 
"Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon ;"  BROCtrnAUS,  "  Conversations- 
Lexikon." 

Overbeck,  (Johannes  Adolf,)  a  German  scholar, 
a  nephew  of  Friedrich  Overbeck,  was  born  at  Antwerp, 
March  7,  1826.  He  took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Bonn 
in  1850,  in  1853  became  an  extraordinary  professor  at 
^.eipsic,  and  in  1859  full  professor,  and  director  of  the 
Archaeological  Museum.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Gal- 
lery of  the  Heroic  Creations  of  Greek  Art,"  (1851-53,) 
"  History  of  Greek  Plastic  Art,"  {1857-58,)  and  "Art- 
Mythology  of  Greece,"  (1871-73.) 

Overbeek,  van,  vtn  o'ver-bak',  (Bonaventure,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1660.  He  went 
to  Rome,  and  made  numerous  designs  of  the  antiquities 
of  that  city.  Having  returned  to  Holland,  he  died  in 
1706,  leaving  a  work  entitled  "  Reliquiae  antiquae  Urbis 
Romas,"  (1707-09.) 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Overbury,  o'ver-ber-e,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English 
author  and  courtier,  born  at  Compton-Scorfen,  Warwick- 
shire, in  1581.  By  his  talents  and  learning  he  acquired 
Influence  with  Carr,  who  became  the  favourite  of  James 
I.  and  was  created  Earl  of  Somerset.  For  advising 
against  the  marriage  of  Carr  with  the  infamous  Countess 
of  Essex,  Overbury  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  (16 13.) 
After  a  confinement  of  several  months,  he  was  poisoned 
by  order  of  Somerset  and  his  wife,  who  were  convicted 
of  the  crime  but  pardoned.  He  left  a  popular  poem 
called  "The  \Vife,"  (1614,)  and  a  prose  work  entitled 
"  Characters,"  which  is  praised  for  wit  and  ingenuity. 
"'The  Fair  and  Happy  Milkmaid,'  often  quoted,"  says 
Hallam,  "is  the  best  of  his  characters." 

See  E.  F.  Rimbault,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,"  1856; 
Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  ch.  xi.  ;  "  Re- 
•rospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1820.) 

O'ver  de  Lin'den,  (Cornelis,)  a  Frisian  writer,  born 
in  181 1.  He  was  a  ship-carpenter,  and  worked  in  the 
royal  dock-yards  at  the  Helder.  He  wrote  the  famous 
"  Oera  Linda  Boek,"  in  the  Frisian  tongue.  This  strange 
book  was  a  forgery :  the  author  pretended  that  it  was  in 
part  copied  in  1256  from  ancient  documents,  and  for  a 
time  it  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention.  Over  de  Lin- 
den died  in  1S75. 

Overskov,  o'ver-skov',  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  drama- 
tist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1798.  He  produced  nume- 
rous comedies  and  operas  ;  also  a  "  History  of  the  Danish 
Theatre,"  (1854-56.)     Died  November  7.'i873. 

O'ver-stpne,  (Samuel  Jones  Loyd,)  first  Baron,  an 
English  banker,  born  in  London  in  1796.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1850.  He  had  previously  gained  some 
distinction  as  a  financier.     He  died  November  17,  1883. 

Overweg,  o'ver-<^5G',  (Adolf,)  a  German  traveller, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1822.  He  was  associated  with  Mr. 
Richardson  and  Dr.  Barth  in  a  journey  of  exploration 
to  Lake  Tchad,  in  Africa.  They  left  Tripoli  in  March, 
1850,  and  Overweg,  with  Dr.  Barth,  reached  Lake  Tchad 
in  185 1.     He  launched  a  boat  on  the  lake  and  visited 


the  islands  in  it.  He  died  of  fever  at  Kuka,  in  Central 
Africa,  in  September,  1852. 

Ov'id,  jLat.  Ovid'ius  ;  It.  OviDio,  o-vee'de-o  ;  Fr. 
OviDE,  o  v6d',]  or,  m.ore  fully,  Pub'liu3  Ovid'ius 
Na'so,  a  popular  Roman  poet,  was  born  at  Sulmo, 
(.Sulmona,)  about  ninety  miles  east  of  Rome,  in  43  B.C. 
He  studied  rhetoric  in  Rome  under  Arellius  Fuscus  and 
Porcius  Latro,  and  made  himself  master  of  Greek  at 
Athens.  His  poetical  genius  was  manifested  in  early 
youth,  and  afterwards  diverted  him  from  the  practice  of 
law,  which,  in  comjiliance  with  his  father's  will,  he  began 
to  study.  He  held,  however,  several  civil  or  judicial 
offices  at  Rome,  and  became  one  of  the  Decemviri.  He 
sought  and  obtained  the  acquaintance  of  Propertius, 
Horace,  Macer,  and  other  poets.  He  also  enjoyed  for  a 
time  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  Among  his 
earliest  productions  were  three  books  of  "Amores." 
Before  the  age  of  fifty  he  had  published  "The  Art  of 
Love,"  ("  Ars  Amatoria,")  "Medea,"  a  tragedy,  and 
"  Heroic  Epistles,"  ("  Heroides.")  He  had  also  nearly 
finished  his  celebrated  "Metamorphoses,"  ("Metamor- 
phoseon  Libri  XV.,")  which  display  great  poetical 
genius.  In  the  year  8  A.D.  he  was  suddenly  banished 
by  Augustus  to  Tomi,  on  the  Euxine,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  penal 
measure  was  the  publication  of  his  immodest  poem 
"The  Art  of  Love  ;"  but  this  is  believed  to  have  been 
a  mere  pretext,  as  that  poem  was  published  about  ten 
years  earlier.  Ovid  in  his  later  writings  alludes  to  some 
offence  which  he  mysteriously  conceals,  and  for  which 
he  admitted  that  he  deserved  to  suffer.  This  question 
appears  to  have  baffled  the  ingenuity  and  curiosity  of 
scholars.  He  has  been  censured  for  the  abject  terms 
in  which  he  petitioned  Augustus  for  a  pardon,  which 
was  inexorably  refused.  He  died  at  Tomi  in  18  a.d., 
which  was  also  the  year  of  Livy's  death.  His  "  Me- 
dea," which  some  ancient  critics  esteemed  his  most 
perfect  work,  is  lost.  During  his  exile  he  wrote,  besides 
other  minor  poems,  "Twelve  Books  of  Fasti, '  ("Fasto- 
rum  Libri  XII.,")  six  of  which  have  come  down  to  us. 
This  is  a  poetical  Roman  calendar,  and  has  historical 
value  as  well  as  literary  merit.  Ovid  was  thrice  married, 
and  divorced  his  first  wife  and  his  second.  He  also  loved 
and  courted  a  woman  of  high  rank,  whom  he  celebrated 
under  the  fictitious  name  of  Corinna.  Some  writers 
suppose  she  was  Julia  the  daughter,  or  Julia  the  grand- 
daughter, of  the  emperor  Augustus.  The  best  English 
translation  of  Ovid  is  "  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  in  Fifteen 
Books,  translated  by  the  Most  Eminent  Hands,"  London, 
1 717.  Among  these  translators  were  Dryden,  Addison, 
Congreve,  and  Garth. 

See  Masson,  "Vita  P.  Ovidii  Nasonis,"  1708;  C.  Rosmini, 
"Vita  di  Publio  Ovidio  Naso,"  1789:  Villenave,  "Vie  d'Ovide," 
Paris,  1S09;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ovide.     See  Ovnx 

Ovidio.     See  Ovid. 

Ovidius.    See  Ovid. 

Oviedo,  de,  di  o-ve-a'DO,  (Andres,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  born  at  Ilhescas.  He  was  seat 
to  Abyssinia  about  1556.     Died  in  1577. 

Oviedo  y  Valdes,  de,  di  o-ve-a'Do  e  vSl-d^s',  (GoN- 
SALO  Fernandez,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  historian,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1478,  became  at  an  early  age  one  of  the 
pages  at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  In  1513 
he  visited  the  West  Indies,  where  he  resided  many 
years,  and  obtained,  among  other  important  offices,  that 
of  historiographer  of  the  Indies.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "General  History  of  the  West  Indies,"  (1st  vol., 
1535,)  which,  though  containing  many  errors,  displays 
exte'nsive  learning  and  has  been  of  great  value  to  sub- 
sequent historian's.  The  last  volume  of  it  remains  in 
manuscript.  He  also  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Natural  History  of  the  Indies,"  and  wrote  a  valuable 
work,  which  is  still  in  manuscript,  entitled  "  Quinqua- 
genas,"  or  Fifty  Dialogues.     Died  in  1557. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanisli  Literature,"  vol.  i. :  Pres 
COTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii._  book  iv.,  and 
his  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Is.ibella,"  vol.  i.  part  5. 

Ovington,  uv'ing-tgn,  ?  (John,)  an  English  ecclesi- 
astic and  traveller,  was  chaplain  to  King  James  H.  In 
1689  he  sailed  to  the  East  Indies,  and  spent  several  jrears 
in  Surat.     He  published  in  1698  his  "  Voyage  to  Surat 


K e. T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i, h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e,  1, 6, u, >?, short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  ob.cure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


OWEN 


1871 


OWEN 


in  the  Years  1689-93,"  etc.,  which  was  translated  into 
French. 

Owen.     See  Goronwy-Owen, 

O'Tven,  (David  Dale,)  brother  of  Robert  Dale,  no- 
ticed below,  was  born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1807. 
In  1848  he  was  appointed  to  conduct  the  geological 
survey  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota.  The  result 
of  his  observations  was  published  in  a  quarto  volume, 
with  maps  and  illustrations,  {1852.)  He  was  appointed 
in  1857  State  geologist  of  Arkansas.     Died  in  i860. 

O'wen,  (George,)  an  English  j^hysician,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire, took  his  degree  in  1527.  He  became  phy- 
sician to  Henry  VIII.     Died  in  1558. 

Cwen,  (Henry,)  a  learned  Welsh  divine  and  theo- 
logical writer,  born  in  Merionethshire  about  1716.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "Remarks  on  the  Four 
Gospels,"  and  "An  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Criticism." 
Died  in  1795. 

O'wen,  [Lat.  Audoe'nus,]  (John,)  one  of  the  best 
Latin  poets  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Caernar- 
vonshire, in  Wales,  about  1560.  His  "Epigrammata," 
published  in  1612,  are  remarkable  for  elegance  and 
correctness  of  language  and  caustic  wit.  They  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages.     Died  in  1622. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Owen,  (John,)  an  excellent  English  nonconformist 
divine  and  Puritan,  born  at  Stadham,  in  Oxfordshire,  in 
1616,  was  a  son  of  Henry  Owen,  a  minister.  He  was 
pHiicated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted 
about  1637.  After  that  date  he  was  chaplain  to  Sir 
Philip  Dormer  and  to  Lord  Lovelace.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  in  1641  or  1642,  and  published  his 
"Display  of  Arminianism,"  (1642.)  In  the  civil  war  he 
was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  popular  cause.  He  mar- 
ried early,  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Coggeshall 
about  1644,  and  united  himself  in  fellowship  with  the 
Independents.  He  published  "Salus  Electorum,  San- 
guis Jesu  ;  or  the  Death  of  Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ." 
In  January,  1649,  he  preached  a  sermon  before  the  House 
of  Commons  on  the  day  after  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 
This  sermon  was  characterized  by  a  more  liberal  and 
tolerant  spirit  than  that  which  prevailed  in  his  time.  He 
was  appointed  chaplain  to  Cromwell  in  1649,  and  Dean 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1651.  He  was  vice-chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Oxford  about  five  years,  1652- 
56.  In  1655  he  wrote  a  work  against  Socinianism,  called 
"Vindiciae  Evangelicas."  After  the  restoration  of  1660, 
Owen  preached  in  London  for  a  number  of  years,  and 
wrote  many  works,  among  which  are  an  "  Exposition  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,"  (1668,)  a  "Discourse  on 
the  Holy  Spirit,"  (1674,)  and  "The  Doctrine  of  Justifi- 
cation," (1677.)     Died  in  1683. 

"  As  a  theological  thinker  and  writer,"  says  the  Rev. 
Andrew  Thomson,  "  he  holds  his  own  distinctly-defined 
place  among  those  Titanic  intellects  with  which  his  age 
abounded.  Surpassed  by  Baxter  in  point  and  pathos, 
by  Howe  in  imagination  and  in  the  higher  philosophy, 
...  he  is  unrivalled  in  his  power  of  unfolding  the  rich 
meanings  of  Scripture.  In  his  writings  he  was  pre- 
eminently the  great  theologian,  and  in  his  practical 
counsels  the  Nestor,  of  the  Puritans."  ("  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.") 

See  W.  Orme,  "Life  of  John  Owen,"  1820;  Rev.  A.  Thomson, 
"Life  of  John  Owen,"  new  edition,  1856;  "  Biographia  Britannica;" 
Wood,  "Athena  Oxonienses;"  Wii_so.v,  "Dissenting  Cliurches;" 
BuRN'ET,  "H  storyof  his  Own  Times;"  Ar.LiRONE,  "  Dictionary  of 
Authors;"  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1851. 

Owen,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
about  1765.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  members,  and 
the  princij^al  secretary  during  his  lifetime,  of  the  Bible 
Society.  He  wrote,  among  other  treatises,  "  The  Chris- 
tian Monitor  for  the  Last  Days,"  and  a  "  Vindication 
of  the  Bible  Society."     Died  in  1822. 

Owen,  (Lewis,)  a  Welsh  theologian,  born  in  Merion- 
ethshire in  1572.  He  wrote  a  book  against  the  Jesuits, 
"  Speculum  Jesuiticum,"  (1629.) 

Owen,  (Richard,)  an  English  zoologist,  anatomist, 
and  palaeontologist  of  great  eminence,  was  born  at  Lan- 
caster in  1S04.  He  studied  medicine,  and  entered  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1824.  In  1825  he  became 
a  pupil  of  John  Abernethy,  at  Saint  Bartholomew's 
Hospital,  London.    Through  the  influence  of  Abernethy 


he  was  appointed  assistant  curator  of  the  Hunterian 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons.  He  expended 
immense  labour  in  the  production  of  a  catalogue  of  this 
collection,  and  succeeded  Clift  as  curator  of  the  museum. 
He  published  an  excellent  "  Memoir  on  the  Pearly  Nau- 
tilus, (Nautilus  Pompilius,")  (1832,)  and  a  "Descriptive 
and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Physiological  Series 
of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  Hunterian  Museum,"  (5 
vols.,  1833-40.)  He  married  in  1835  a  daughter  of  Mr. 
Clift,  above  mentioned.  About  1836  he  succeeded  Sir 
Charles  Bell  as  Himterian  professor  at  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons,  and  gave  a  series  of  lectures  on  com- 
parative anatomy,  which  were  published  in  1843.  ^^^ 
contributed  numerous  treatises  or  monographs  on  phys- 
iology and  anatomy  to  the  "Transactions  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Society"  and  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology."  Professor  Owen  has  rendered  important 
services  to  palaeontology,  and  has  exhibited  remarkable 
skill  in  the  anatomy  and  reconstruction  of  extinct  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  Cheirotherium,  the  Glyptodon,  Mylo- 
don,  and  Plesiosaurus.  He  discovered  a  gigantic  fossil 
bird,  the  Dinornis.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Odon- 
tography," (2  vols.,  1840,)  a  "  History  of  British  Fossil 
Mammals  and  Birds,"  (1846,)  and  "On  the  Archetype 
and  Homologies  of  the  Vertebrate  Skeleton,"  (1848.) 
He  received  the  royal  medal  in  1848,  and  the  Copley 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1851.  In  1856  he  ceased 
to  be  Hunterian  professor,  and  became  director  of  the 
natural  history  departments  of  the  British  Museum. 
He  is  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  French 
Institute.  In  addition  to  the  works  above  named,  he 
has  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Nature  of  Limbs," 
(1849,)  "On  Parthenogenesis,"  (1849,)  a"d  "On  the 
Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  (3  vols.,  1866-68.)  In  1876 
was  published  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  his 
work  "  On  the  Fossil  Reptilia  of  South  Africa,"  with 
70  plates,  and  in  1877  aj^peared  his  work  "On  the  Fossil 
Mammals  of  Australia,  and  on  the  Extinct  Marsupials 
of  England,"  (2  vols.,  with  132  plates.)  He  was  one  of 
the  first  who  used  the  microscope  in  the  investigation 
of  the  structure  of  animals,  and  was  the  first  who  em- 
ployed the  word  "homology"  or  "homologue"  in  cotn- 
parative  anatomy.  He  admits  the  mutability  of  species, 
but  opposes  the  Darwinian  theory  of  Natural  Selection, 
for  which  he  substitutes  his  "hypothesis  of  Derivation." 
He  says,  "Every  species  changes,  in  time,  by  virtue  of 
inherent  tendencies  thereto.  '  Natural  Selection'  holds 
that  no  such  change  can  take  place  without  the  influence 
of  altered  external  circumstances  educing  or  selecting 
such  change."  ("  On  the  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  3d 
vol.  chap,  xl.)  Humboldt  is  said  to  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  Owen  was  the  greatest  anatomist  of  his  age. 

O'wen,  (Robert,)  a  socialist  and  philanthropist,  born 
at  Newton,  in  Wales,  in  1771,  was  a  son  of  poor  parents. 
He  married  about  1800  a  daughter  of  David  Dale,  who 
owned  cotton-mills  at  New  Lanark,  on  the  Clyde.  Owen 
managed  these  mills  for  a  time  with  success,  and  gave 
much  attention  to  the  comfort  of  the  operatives  and  the 
education  of  their  children.  He  published  in  1812  a 
"New  View  of  Society,"  and  afterwards  "The  Book  of 
the  New  Moral  World,"  in  which  he  advocated  a  modi- 
fied system  of  community  of  property.  About  1824  he 
purchased  a  large  tract  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana,  and 
there  tested  by  experiment  his  socialist  theory,  which 
was  entirely  unsuccessful.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1827,  and  continued  to  propagate  his  projects  of  reform 
by  lectures  and  writings.  His  doctrines  were  adopted 
bv  a  large  number  of  people,  who  were  called  Owenites. 
E)ied  in  1858. 

See  "  Robert  Owen  and  his  Social  Philosophy,"  by  W.  L.  Sar 
GANT,  London,  i860;  "Life  of  Robert  Owen,"  (by  F.  K.  Packard,) 
Philadelphia,  1866:  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  H.  Martineao; 
Rkvbaud.  "  fitndes  sur  les  Reformateurs  contemporains ;"  "  Robert 
Owen  the  Founder  of  Socialism  in  England,"  1869,  by  Arthur  John 
Booth  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1819  ;  "  Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  December,  1830  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1S60. 

O'wen,  (Rohert  Dale,)  a  distinguished  political  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Glasgow,  November  9,  1800.  He  came  at  an  early 
age  to  America,  settled  in  Indiana,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1843.  ^^  ^^'^^ 
:harge-d'affaires  to  Naples  in  1853.    He  published  "  New 


e.is  ^,*  5  as  J  •  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K  gtitttiral:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OWEN 


1872 


OZERE  TSKOESKO 


Views  of  Society,"  (1825,)  "Hints  on  Public  Architec- 
ture," (1849,)  "Footfalls  on  the  I?oundaries  of  another 
World,"  (1859,)  "The  Wrong  of  Slavery,  the  Right  of 
Emancipation,"  etc.,  (1864,)  "Beyond  the  Breakers," 
(1870,)  "The  Debatable  Land  between  this  World  and 
the  Next,"  (1S71,)  and  "Threading  my  Way,  or  Twenty- 
Seven  Years  of  Autobiography."     Died  June  24,  1877. 

Owen,  (Thomas,)  an  English  judge,  born  in  Shrop- 
shire, gained  a  high  reputation  as  judge  of  the  common 
pleas.     Died  in  1598. 

Owen,  (William,)  an  able  English  painter  of  por- 
traits and  history,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1769.  Me  was 
patronized  by  the  prince-regent,  afterwards  George  IV. 
Died  in  1824. 

Owen  Glendower.     See  Glkndower. 

Owen  Meredith.     See  Bulwkr. 

Owenson.     See  Morgan,  Lady. 

Owtram,  (William.)     See  Outram. 

Ox'en-den,  (Ash ion,)  D.D.,  a  Canadian  bishop, 
born  a.t  Broome  Park,  Kent,  England,  in  1808.  He  grad- 
uated at  University  College,  Oxf(jrd,  in  1S31,  and  took 
priest's  orders  in  the  English  Church  in  1834.  In  1869 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Montreal,  and  became 
Metropolitan  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  Canada.  In 
1S78  he  resigned  his  position  and  returned  to  England. 
Me  published  many  religious  books. 

Ox'en-ford,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist  and  trans- 
lator, born  "near  London  in  1812.  Among  his  original 
dramas  are  "My  Fellow-Clerk,"  (i83:;,)  and  "  A  Day 
Well  Spent,"  (1836.)  Hetranslated  Moliere's  "TartufTe," 
and  the  "Conversations  of  Goethe,"  by  Eckermann,  and 
other  works,  from  the  German.     Died  Feb.  21,  1877. 

Oxenham,  ox'en-am,  (John,)  an  English  seaman, 
served  under  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1572.  He  soon  after 
sailed  with  one  shi]j  for  the  eastern  shore  of  Darien, 
and  crossed  over  to  Panama  and  the  Pearl  Islands,  where 
he  was  taken  and  put  to  death  by  the  Spaniards. 

See  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1S45. 

Oxenstiern,  oks'en-stern',  or  Oxenstierna,  oks'en- 
.  sh§R'nl,  (Axel,)  Count,  chancellor  of  Sweden,  and  one 
of  the  greatest  statesmen  of  the  seventeenth  century  or 
of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Fano,  in  Upland,  June 
16,  1583.  He  was  educated  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  chosen  a  senator,  after 
having  been  employed  in  important  negotiations.  In 
161 1  Gustavus  Adolphus  appointed  him  chancellor  of 
Sweden,  or  prime  minister.  The  prudence,  zeal,  and 
profound  combinations  of  Oxenstiern  contributed  greatly 
to  the  success  of  the  Swedish  hero.  After  Gustavus 
was  killed,  in  1632,  the  chancellor  was  invested  with  full 
power  by  the  senate,  and  prosecuted  the  war  against 
the  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  was  recognized  as  the 
head  of  the  Protestant  league,  which  gained  several  vic- 
tories under  his  direction.  During  the  minority  of  Queen 
Christina  he  governed  Sweden  with  ability,  restored  the 
finances  to  good  order,  and  patronized  learning.  He 
was  prime  minister  after  Christina  began  to  reign,  (1645,) 
and  strenuously  opposed  her  abdication.  He  died  in 
August,  1654.  Oxenstiern  was  the  author  of  the  often- 
quoted  observation,  addressed  to  his  son,  "  You  do  not 
know,  my  son,  with  how  little  wisdom  the  world  is 
governed,"  ("Nescis,  mi  fill,  quantilla  prudentia  homi- 
nes regantur.")  He  was  the  reputed  author  of  the 
second  volume  of  "  Historia  Belli  Sueco-Germanici," 
("  History  of  the  Swedish-German  War,")  of  which 
Chemnitz  wrote  the  first  volume.  He  was  considered 
an  equal  match  for  Richelieu  in  diplomacy.  He  had 
two  sons,  John  and  Erik,  who  obtained  high  offices  in 
the  public  service. 

See  J.  F.  LuNDBi.AD,  "  Svensk  PliUarch,"  2d  vol.,  1826-31; 
JoHAN  Gezei.ius,  "  Amiiinelse-Tal  ofver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1774; 
C.  P.  Hagberc,  "  Areminne  bfver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1808;  Puffen- 
DORF,  "De  Rebus  Suecicis ;"  Geijkr,  "  Histoire  de  la  Su^de ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  RrcHELiEU,  "Meinoires;"  E. 
Gyllenstolpe,  "Areminne  bfver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1777. 

Oxenstiern,  (Benedict,)  an  able  Swedish  statesman, 
of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1623. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Warsaw  by  Charles  X., 
after  whose  death  (1660)  he  returned  to  Sweden  and 
had  great  influence  in  the  government.  About  1672  he 
obtained  the  confidence  of  Charles  XL,  who  appointed 


him  chancellor  and  chief  minister.  The  pacific  system 
of  Oxenstiern  was  disturbed  by  the  death  of  Charles  XL, 
in  1697.  After  Charles  XII.  had  defeated  the  Danes 
and  conquered  Poland,  Oxenstiern  advised  him  to  make 
peace,  in  a  memoir  which  is  called  a  master-piece  of 
wisdom.     Died  in  1702. 

See  ScHi.SzER,  "  Schwedische  Biograpliie." 

Oxenstiern,  (Erik,)  a  son  of  the  celebrated  states- 
man, was  born  in  1624.  He  became  a  senator  in  1652, 
and  vice-chancellor  in  1654,  soon  after  which  he  con- 
ducted negotiations  with  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
Died  in  1656. 

Oxenstiern,  (Johan,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Stockholm  in  161 1.  He  entered  the  army, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  About  1639  he  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator.  He  was  employed  for 
several  years  as  minister-plenipotentiary  in  Germany, 
and  represented  Sweden  in  the  negotiations  which  re- 
sulted in  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1648.)  Died  at 
Wpiinar  in  ifi??. 

Oxenstierna.    Sec  Oxenstiern. 

Oxenstierna,  oks'en-sh§R'ni,  (Gabriel Thureson,) 
a  Swedish  diplomatist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1641.  He 
wrote,  in  French,  a  "Collection  of  Thoughts,"  ("Recueil 
de  Pensees,"  1725.)     Died  in  1707. 

Oxford,  Earl  of.  See  De  Vere,  (Edward,)  and 
Harley,  (Robert.) 

Ox'lee,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  Sep- 
tember 25,  1779.  He  was  a  clergyman  of  the  Established 
Church,  specially  distinguished  as  an  Orientalist,  and  as 
the  author  of  "The  Christian  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
and  Incarnation,"  (1815  ;  3d  vol.,  1850,)  a  work  of  vast 
scholarship.     Died  January  30,  1854. 

Ox-y-ar'tes  or  Ox-ar'tei,  [Gr.  'O^oprT/f,]  aBactrian 
chief,  whose  daughter  Roxana  was  married  to  Alexander 
the  Great.  This  king  appointed  him  satrap  of  Paropa- 
misus.      Died  after  316  B.C. 

Ozanani,  o'zt'nSN',  (Antoine  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
scholar  and  elegant  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1813.  He 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  studied  law.  In 
1844  he  succeeded  Fauriel  as  professor  of  foreign  litera- 
ture at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.  He  attained  eminence  as 
a  lecturer,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Dante 
and  the  Catholic  Philosophy  in  the  Thirteenth  Century," 
(1839,)  and  "fitudes  Germaniques  pour  servir  a  I'His- 
toire  des  Francs,"  (2  vols.,  1847-49.)  Died  in  Septem- 
ber, 1853. 

See  Lacordaire,  "Notice  sur  A.  F.  Ozanam,"  prefixed  to  his 
collected  works,  8  vols.,  1855;  Legeay,  "  I?tude  biographique  sur 
Ozanam,"  1854;  J.  J.  Ampere,  "Notice  biographiqne  sur  A.  F. 
Ozanani,"  1853  ;  Collombet,  "  Biographie  de  F.  Ozanam,"  1853. 

Ozanam,  (J.  A.  F.,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Bresse  in  1772,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Epidemic  Diseases,"  (5  vols., 
1817-23.)     Died  at  Lyons  in  1836. 

Ozanam,  (Jacques,)  a  distinguished  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bouligneux  in  1640.  Among  his  nu- 
merous and  useful  treatises  are  "Mathematical  Diction- 
ary," (1691,)  "Mathematical  and  Physical  Recreations," 
(1694,)  and  "  Theoretical  and  Practical  Perspective," 
(171 1.)  He  taught  mathematics  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1717. 

Ozaneaux,  o'zt'no',  (Jean  George,)  a  French  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  France."  (2  vols.,  1846,)  which  gained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy,  and  "Erreurs  poetiques," 
(3  vols.,  1849.)     Died  in  1S52. 

Ozanne,  o'zSn',  (Nicolas  Marie.)  a  French  designer 
and  engraver,  born  at  Brest  in  172S  ;  died  in  Paris  in 
1811. 

O-zell',  (John,)  an  English  Utteratair,  of  French  ex- 
traction, was  contemporary  with  Pope,  who  has  given 
him  a  place  in  the  "  Dunciad."  He  made  translations 
from  Racine,  Moliere,  and  Boileau,  and  from  several 
Italian  and  Spanish  writers.     Died  in  1743. 

See  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Ozeretskofsko  or  Ozeretzkovsko,  o-zeh-rSt-skof- 
sko,  sometimes  written  Ozeretzkoffsky,  (Nicholas,) 
a  Russian  scientific  writer,  born  about  1750.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  et(i 
Died  about  1827. 


a, e, 1, 6,  u,  y, /o«^; i, i.  A, same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,y, short;  a, e,  i,  q, obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


PAALZOIV 


1873 


PA  CIA  UD I 


P. 


Faalzow,  von,  fon  plU'so,  (Auguste,)  a  German 
lady,  born  at  Berlin  in  1788,  was  a  sister  of  the  painter 
Wach.  She  was  the  author  of  a  popular  romance, 
entitled  "Godwie  Castle,"  (1836,)  and  other  fictitious 
works.     Died  in  1847. 

Paas.     See  Pass. 

Paa'w,  (CoRNELis.)     See  Pauw. 

Paaw,  pi'oo  or  pow,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1564,  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  Leyden,  where  he  also  founded  the  botanic 
garden.  He  published  several  valuable  treatises  on 
botany  and  anatomy.     Diedini6i7. 

Pabodie,  pab'o-de,  (William  Jewett,)  an  American 
poet,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  about  1812. 
He  has  published  "  Calidore,  a  Legendary  Poem,"  and 
a  number  of  smaller  pieces.     Died  in  1870. 

Pabst,  pSpst,  (IIeinkich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
agriculturist,  born  near  Lauterbach,  in  Hesse,  in  1798. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Rural 
Economy,"  (5th  edition,  i860.)     Died  in  1868. 

Pabst,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Lindau,  in  Thuringia,  in  1785.  Among  his 
works  is  "Man  and  his  History,"  (1830.)     Died  in  1837. 

Pa'ca,  (William,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Ameri- 
can Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Harford 
county,  Maryland,  in  1740.  He  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
gress of  1774,  and  continued  in  this  office  till  1778.  He 
became  Governor  of  Maryland  in  1782,  and  in  1789  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  district  court  of  the  United  States 
for  Maryland.     Died  in  1799. 

See  Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Pacatianus,  pa-ka-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Pacvtien,  pt'- 
kS'se^l^N',]  (Titus  Claudius  Marcellus,)  a  Roman 
emperor,  whose  existence  is  indicated  only  by  medals. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  assumed  the  title  in  249  A.D. 

Pacatien.     See  Pacatianus. 

Pacatus.     See  Drepanius. 

Pacca,  pdk'ki,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Benevento  in  1756.  Pie  became  papal  secretary 
of  state  (/>.  prime  minister)  in  1808,  and  was  imprisoned 
about  three  years  by  Napoleon,  (1809-12.)  Died  in  1844. 
He  wrote  "  Historical  Memoirs,"  which  have  been  pub- 
lished, (London,  1850.) 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Notice  sur  le  Cardinal  B.  Pacca," 
1846. 

Paccard,  pt'ktR',  (Alexis,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1813.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1841. 
Died  in  1S67. 

Pacchia,  del,  dll  pJk-kee'd,  (Girolamo,)  an  able 
painter  of  Hungarian  parentage,  born  probably  at  Sienna, 
Italy,  in  1477.  His  excellent  frescos  and  oil-paintings 
were  long  ascribed  to  Pacchiarotto.  Pacchia  left  Sienna 
in  1535,  and  no  later  events  regarding  him  are  known  to 
be  on  record. 

Pacchiarotto,  pik-ke-S.-rot'to,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Sienna  in  1474.  To  escape  the  penalty 
of  a  political  conspiracy  he  left  Sienna  in  1539.  He  was 
an  inferior  artist,  but  had  once  a  high  fame,  being  credited 
with  Pacchia's  excellent  work.     Died  about  1540. 

Pacchierotti,  p5k'ke-i-rot'tee,  (Gasparo,)  an  Ital- 
ian vocalist,  one  of  the  most  famous  sopranos  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  born  in  1744,  at  Fabriano,  near 
Ancona.  After  winning  a  great  reputation  in  his  native 
country,  he  visited  London  and  Paris,  and  was  received 
with  enthusiasm.     Died  at  Padua  in  182 1. 

Pacchioni,  p^k-ke-o'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  able  Italian 
anatomist,  born  at  Reggio  in  1665.  He  removed  to 
Rome  about  1700,  and  was  associated  in  the  scientific 
labours  of  Lancisi.  Died  at  Rome  in  1726.  His  writings 
were  published  under  the  title  of  "  Opera  Omnia,"  (1741.) 

Paccioli,  pSt-cho'Iee,  or  Pacioli,  pi-cho'Iee,  (Luca,) 
an  Italian  mathematician  and  monk,  born  at  Borgo  San 
Sepolcro  about  1450,  was  often  called  Luca  di  Borgo 
or  de  Burgo.     He  taught  at  Perugia,  Rome,  Naples, 


Pisa,  and  Venice.  His  chief  work  is  "  Summa  de  Arith- 
metica,  Geometria,  Proportioni,"  etc.,  (1494,) — the  first 
printed  book  in  which  the  method  of  keeping  accounts 
by  double  entry  was  explained.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
"On  Divine  Pro])ortion,"  ("  De  Divina  Proportione," 
1509,)  the  plates  of  which  were  engraved  by  his  friend 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.     He  was  living  in  1509. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pace,  [Lat.  Pa'ceus,]  (Richard,)  an  English  nego- 
tiator and  priest,  born  in  or  near  Winchester  about  1482. 
He  was  employed  in  important  missions  by  Henry  VIII., 
and  sent  to  Rome  about  1521  by  Wolsey  to  urge  his 
claims  to  the  papacy.  He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  who 
addressed  several  letters  to  him.  Pace  obtained  the 
deanery  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  about  1520,  and  other 
benefices.  He  incurred  the  ill  will  of  Wolsey,  by  whom 
he  was  confined  in  the  Tower  for  two  years,  and  became 
insane.     Died  in  1532. 

Pacetti,  pi-chet'tee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  in  Rome  about  1760,  became  professor  of  sculpture 
in  Milan.     Died  in  1S27. 

Paceus.     See  Pace,  (Richard.) 

Pache,  pSsh,  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1746.  He  was  controller  of  the  king's 
household  under  the  ministry  of  Necker.  In  October, 
1792,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  the  influence 
of  the  Girondists,  who  removed  him  in  February,  1793, 
because  he  had  joined  the  Jacobin  party.  He  was 
elected  mayor  of  Paris  in  the  spring  of  1793,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  ruin  of  the  Girondists.  Died 
in  1823. 

Pacheco,  pS-cha'ko,  (Francisco,)  an  eminent  Span- 
ish painter  and  writer,  born  at  Seville  in  1571,  was  a 
pupil  of  Luis  Fernandez.  He  opened  an  academy  in 
Seville  in  161 1,  and  was  appointed  painter  to  King 
Philip  IV.  after  1625.  He  designed  well,  and  is  com- 
mended for  simplicity,  but  he  was  not  a  good  colorist. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "The  Last  Judgment," 
"Daedalus  and  Icarus,"  and  "The  Archangel  Michael 
expelling  Satan  from  Paradise."  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  art  of  painting,  entitled  "  Arte  de  la  Pintura,"  (1649,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  pupils  were 
Alonzo  Cano  and  Velasquez.     Died  in  1654. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Cean-Ber- 
MUDEZ,  "  Diccionario  Historico." 

Pacheco,  (Maria.)     See  Padilla. 

Pa'-ehes,  [(.rr.  Haxv:,]  an  Athenian  general,  com- 
manded  the  army  which  took  Mitylene  in  427  B.C. 

Pa-eho'mi-us,  [Gr.  naxCifuoi  ;  Fr.  Pacome,  pt'kom',] 
an  Egyptian  ascetic  of  the  fourth  century,  was  born  in 
the  Thebaid.  He  is  reputed  the  founder  of  regular 
monastic  communities,  or  the  first  who  prescribed  fixed 
rules  of  life  to  the  monks  and  nuns.  He  founded  a 
monastery  at  Tabenna,  on  the  Nile,  and  became  so  noted 
for  his  piety  that  many  others  were  built  in  the  vicinity 
by  his  disciples.     Died  about  348  A.D. 

Pachymere.     See  Pachymeres. 

Pa-ehym'e-rei,  [Gr.  Teupyioc  6  Tlaxviitpvc ; ^  Fr. 
Pachymere,  pS'she'maiR',]  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  the  later  Byzantine  historians,  was  born  at  Nicaea 
about  1242.  He  lived  in  Constantinople,  and  was  chief 
justice  of  the  imperial  court.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
important  works,  a  "  Historia  Byzantina,"  which  com- 
prises the  reigns  of  Michael  Palseologus  and  his  son 
Andronicus.  It  is  written  with  dignity,  and  is  highly 
prized  for  its  fidelity.     He  died  probably  after  13 10. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grjeca." 

Pacian,  pa'she-an,  [Sp.  pron.  pS-///e-3n';  Lat.  Pa- 
CIANUS,  pa-she-a'nus  ;  Fr.  Pacien,  pt'sej^w',]  a  Spanish 
saint  and  writer,  who  flourished  about  375  A.D.,  and  was 
Bishop  of  Barcelona. 

Pacianus.    See  Pacian. 

Paciaudi,  pi-chow'dee,  (Paolo  Maria,)  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Turin  in  17 10,  entered  the 
order  of  Theatines.    He  published,  besides  other  works. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  m, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z,-  th  as  in  this. 

118 


(Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23./ 


PACICHELLI 


1874 


PADOUANINO 


a  "  History  of  the  Grand  Masters  of  the  Order  of  Malta," 
(3  vols.,  1760,  unfinished,)  and  "  Peloponnesian  Monu- 
ments," ("  Monumenta  Peloponnesiaca,"  1761.)  He 
became  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Parma  about  1762. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  FABKONt,  "Vitae  Italoruiu  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  Dacier,  "  filoge  de  Paciaudi." 

Pacichelli,  pi-che-kel'lee,  (GlAMHArriSTA,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  at  Pistoia  about  1640.  He  wrote  "The 
Kingdom  of  Naples,"  {"  II  Regno  di  Napoli,"  3  vols., 
1703.)     Died  in  1702. 

Pacien.     See  Pacian. 

Pacifico.     See  Pacificus. 

Pa-gifl-cus  Max'i-mus,  [  It.  Pacifico  Massimo 
p5-chee'fe-ko  mSs'se-mo,]  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ascoli 
in  1400.  He  wrote  many  poems,  which  were  published 
in  1489,  under  the  title  of  "Jocose  and  Festive  Elegies," 
("Elegias  Jocosae  et  Festivas.")     Died  about  1500. 

Pacini,  pi-chee'nee,  (  Giovanni,  )  a  popular  com- 
poser, born  at  Syracuse,  Sicily,  February  19,  1796.  He 
composed  with  a  marvellous  facility  many  operas,  among 
which  are  "  Adelaide  e  Comingio,"  (1S18,)  and  "  Niobe," 
(1826.)     Died  December  6,  1867. 

Pacio,  pi'cho,  sometimes  written  Pace,  [Lat.  Pa'- 
CILTS  a  Ber'iga,]  (Giulio,)  an  eminent  Italian  jurist 
and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1 550.  Having 
been  converted  to  the  Protestant  religion,  he  went  into 
e.xile,  and  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Heidelberg 
and  Sedan.  About  1616  he  obtained  a  chair  of  law 
at  Valence,  in  France.  He  wrote  "On  the  Method  of 
Law,"  ("  De  Juris  Methodo,"  1597,)  "On  Contracts," 
("  De  Contractibus,")  and  other  works.  Died  at  Va- 
lence in  1635. 

See  Berriat  Saint-Prix,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Pacius." 
1840;  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

PacioLL     See  Paccioli. 

Pacius  a  Beriga.     See  Pacio. 

Pack,  (Richardson,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Sui- 
folk  about  1680.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
army.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems,  (1718,)  a  "Life 
of  Pomponius  Atticus,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1728. 

Pack'ard,  (Ai.pheus  Spring,)  D.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  at  Chelmsford,  Massachusetts,  December 
23,  1798.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1816, 
was  a  tutor  there,  1819-24,  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek, 
1824-65,  and  in  1865  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
and  revealed  religion  in  the  same  college.  His  principal 
works  are  editions  of  Xenophon's  "  Memorabilia,"  (1839- 
1841,)  and  a  Life  of  Rev.  Dr.  Jesse  Appleton.  Died  at 
Squirrel  Island,  Maine,  July  13,  1884. 

Packeird,  (Alpheus  Spring,)  Jr.,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  February  19, 
183-9.  He  graduated  in  1S61  at  Bowdoin  College,  and 
served  as  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the  army  in  1864-65, 
was  afterwards  lecturer  on  natural  history  in  various 
schools,  and  director  of  the  museum  of  the  Peabody 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Salem.  In  1878  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  and  geology  in  Brown  University.  For 
five  years  he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Ento- 
mological Commission  ;  and  he  has  been  attached  to 
various  State  and  United  States  geological  and  other 
surveys.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Guide  to  the  Study 
ef  Insects,"  {1867,)  "Our  Common  Insects,"  (1872,) 
"Outlines  of  Comparative  Embryology,"  (1S76,)  "  Half- 
Ilours  with  Insects,"  (1877,)  "  Zoology  for  Schools  and 
Colleges,"  (1879,)  "  Briefer  Zoology,"  (1883,)  etc. 

Pac6ine.     See  Pachomius. 

Pac'o-riis,  [Gr.  HaKopof,]  the  eldest  son  of  Orodi^s, 
King  of  Parthia,  was  born  about  66  B.C.  At  an  eaily 
age  he  was  associated  with  his  father  on  the  throne.  In 
51  B.C.  he  led  an  army  into  Syria,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  Caius  Cassius.  After  the  battle  of  Philippi,  the  Par- 
thian king  sent  to  Syria  another  expedition,  commanded 
by  Pacorus  and  Titus  Labieiuis,  a  Roman,  who  gained  a 
victory  over  an  officer  of  Antony.  After  Pacorus  had 
subjected  Syria,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  army 
of  Ventidius,  in  38  li.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Pacorus,  a  king  of  Parthia,  who  reigned  in  the  time 
of  Domitian  and  Trajan.     Little  is  known  respecting 


Pacthod,  ptk'to',  (Michei,  Marie,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Savoy  in  1764.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  on  the  field  of  Espinosa,  (1808,)  and 
commanded  in  Naples  and  Illyria  from  1810  to  1812. 
Died  in  1830. 

Pacuvio.     See  Pacuvius. 

Pa-cu'vl-us,  [It.  Pacuvio,  pi-koo've-o,]  (Marcu.s,) 
an  eminent  Roman  tragic  poet  and  painter,  born  at 
Brundusium  about  220  u.c,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet 
Ennius.  According  to  the  judgment  of  Quintilian  and 
other  ancient  critics,  his  dramas  had  some  merit.  His 
works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety.  His  epitaph,  composed  by  himself,  has 
been  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius. 

See  Vossius,  "DePoetis  Latiiiis;"  Annibai.e  db  Lbo,  "Dis- 
sertazione  intorno  la  Vita  di  M.  Pacuvio,"  1763  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
pMe  G^ndrale." 

Pad'dock,  (Benjamin  Henry,)  S.T.D.,  an  American 
bisho]^,  a  brother  of  Bishop  J.  A.  Paddock,  was  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  February  29,  1828.  lie  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  1848,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  (Episcopalian)  in  1852,  took 
priest's  orders  in  1853,  held  various  pastorates,  and  in 
1873  became  Bishop  of  Massachusetts.     Died  in  1891. 

Paddock,  (John  Adams,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  January  19,  1825.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  1845,  and  at 
the  General  (Episcopalian)  Seminary,  New  York,  in 
1849.  He  took  priest's  orders  in  1850,  and  held  pastor 
ates,  chiefly  in  Brooklyn.  In  1880  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Washington  Territory. 

Paderna,  pS-d^R'na,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  was  born  in  1649. 
His  landscapes  are  highly  praised.     Died  in  1 708. 

Padilla,  de,  di  pl-D^l'ya,  (Francesco,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  at  Antequera  in  1527,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  following.  He  wrote  an  "Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Spain."     Died  in  1607, 

Padilla,  de,  (Don  Juan  Lopez,)  a  Spanish  patriot 
and  general,  born  in  Castile,  was  a  son  of  a  nobleman. 
He  became  in  1520  the  leader  of  the  malcontents  whom 
the  extortions  and  misrule  of  the  Flemish  ministers  of 
Charles  V.  provoked  to  revolt.  The  insurgents  elected 
a  council  called  Junta  de  las  Comunidades.  Padilla  de- 
feated the  royal  troops  at  Segovia,  took  Valladolid,  the 
capital  of  Spain,  and  deposed  the  regent,  Adrian  of 
Utrecht.  Dissensions  arose  among  the  popular  party, 
Padilla  was  deprived  of  the  command,  and  his  successor 
was  defeated.  About  the  end  of  1520  he  was  restored 
to  the  command.  He  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
at  Villalar  in  April,  1521,  and  executed  the  next  day. 

See  Robertson,  "  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  book  iii. 

Padilla,  de,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at 
Antequera  about  1485.  He  was  eminent  for  learning, 
and  received  the  title  of  historiographer  to  Charles  V. 
He  left  in  manuscript  a  "General  History  of  Spain," 
and  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Spain,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1669.     Died  in  1540. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Padilla,  de,  (Dona  Maria  Pacheco,)  the  wife  of 
Juan  Lopez,  noticed  above,  was  a  woman  of  great  energy 
and  talents,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  popular  cause. 
After  her  husband's  death  she  took  his  place  as  leader, 
and  made  heroic  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to  defend 
Toledo  against  the  royalists.  She  escaped  to  Portugal, 
where  she  remained  until  her  death. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espana." 

Padilla,  de_,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Linares, 
was  a  friend  of  Cervantes.  He  published  "Pastoral 
Eclogues,"  (1582,)  and  other  poems.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  pastoral  poets  of  his  time.     Died  about  1600. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Pad'ma',  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  piid'mi',]  written 
also  PedmS,  \{xom  piidind,z.  "lotus,"]  one  of  the  names 
of  Lakshm!,  (which  see.) 

Padouan  or  Padovano.     See  Cavino. 

Padouanino.     See  Leoni,  (Ottavio.) 

Padouanino,  p3-doo-5-nee'no,  (Francesco,)  an  ex- 
cellent Italian  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born 
at  Padua  in  1552.     He  was  correct  in  design  and  fertile 


a.  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  loii<^-  i,  h.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  f4t;  m?t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


PAD  OVA  NO 


^S7S 


PAGE 


in  invention.  Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  the  de- 
liverance of  two  persons  who  were  condemned  to  death. 
Died  in  1617. 

His  son  Ottavio  was  a  skilful  portrait-painter.  He 
died  about  1634,  at  the  age  of  fifty-two. 
Padovano.  See  Leoni,  (Luigi  and  Ottavio.) 
Paean,  pee'an,  [Gr.  UaLuv,  llacfiiov,  or  UaiiJv ;  Fr. 
P6an,  pi'6N',]  a  name  applied  to  Apollo,  and  also  a 
surname  of  iEsculapius,  the  god  who  had  the  power  of 
healing.  It  was  afterwards  applied  to  hymns  sung  in 
honour  of  Apollo,  and  to  martial  songs  by  which  a 
victory  was  celebrated. 

Paelinck,  pd'link,  (Joseph,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
near  Ghent  in  1781.  He  worked  at  Rome  five  years. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Discovery  of  the  Cross." 
Died  at  Brussels  in  1839. 

Peeonius,  pe-o'ne-us,  [ITatwrwc,]  of  Ephesus,  aGreek 
architect,  probably  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  completed 
(with  Demetrius)  the  great  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 
Paeonius  of  Mendk,  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor,  of 
whom  little  is  known,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
430  B.C.  He  adorned  with  statues  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
at  Olympia. 

Paer,  pS-aiR',  (Ferdinando,)  an  eminent  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Parma  in  1771.  Having  produced 
some  successful  operas,  he  was  appointed  chapel-master 
at  Dresden  in  1801.  He  entered  the  service  of  Napoleon 
in  1807  as  imperial  composer,  and  was  employed  to  direct 
the  music  of  the  court  theatre.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Institute  in  183 1.  Among  his  most  admired  operas  are 
"Griselda,"  (1796,)  "Achille,"  (1806,)  and  "Agnese." 
(181 1.)     Died  at  Paris  in  1839. 

See  F^TIR,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Muslciens;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^n^ralc." 

Paesiello.    See  Paisiello. 

Paez,  pS-Ss',  (Francesco  Alvarez,)  a  Portuguese 
monk,  asserted  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  in  a 
treatise  "  De  Planctu  Ecclesiae."     Died  in  1532. 

Paez,  pi-Sth',  (Fra.ncisco,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born 
at  Olmedo,  in  Spain,  in  1564.  He  entered  Abyssinia  in 
1603,  learned  a  native  dialect,  and  converted  the  king, 
Za-Denghel.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  one  of  the 
sources  of  the  Nile  in  1618.  He  died  in  Abyssinia  in 
1622,  (as  is  supposed,)  leaving  a  History  of  Abyssinia 
in  manuscript,  and  some  letters. 

Paez,  pJ-Sth',  (]ost  Antonio,)  a  South  American 
general,  born  at  Varinas  about  1785.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  army  of  Bolivar  against  the  Spaniards. 
The  victory  at  the  great  battle  of  Carabobo,  or  Carabolo, 
in  1821,  is  ascribed  to  him.  In  1830  he  was  elected 
President  of  Venezuela  for  four  years.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1838  or  1839,  and  was  appointed  dictator  in  1846. 
Having  failed  in  an  armed  contest  with  Monagas  in 
1848,  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  exiled  in  1850.  He  was 
Venezuelan  minister  to  the  United  States  in  i860  and 
1 861.     Died  in  New  York,  May  6,  1S73. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Aiitobiografia  del  }osi  Antonio  Paez,* 
1867;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1827. 

Pagan,  de,  deh  pt'gSw',  (Blaise  FRANgois,)  Count, 
an  eminent  French  engineer  and  geometer,  was  born  at 
Avignon  in  1604.  He  distinguished  himself  by  skill  and 
courage  in  the  war  against  the  French  Protestants,  and 
directed  the  siege  of  Nancy,  in  1633.  He  had  just  been 
made  a  marechal-de-camp,  in  1642,  when  he  was  deprived 
of  sight  by  disease.  Continuing  to  apply  himself  with 
success  to  mathematics,  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
his  writings..  In  1645  he  published  in  his  "Treatise  on 
Fortifications"  ("Traite  des  Fortifications")  a  new  sys- 
tem of  fortification,  which  quickly  superseded  all  others. 
He  is  reputed  one  of  the  greatest  masters  and  improvers 
of  the  art  on  which  that  work  treats.     Died  in  1665. 

See  Perrault,  "  Hcmmes  illustres." 

Paganel,  pt'gt'n^l',  (Camille  Pierre  Alexis,)  a 
litthateiir,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  six  times  between  1834  and  1846, 
and  voted  with  the  Centre,  Among  his  works  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (1830.)     Died  in  1859. 

Paganel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  politician,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1745. 
He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792- 
95.     He  voted,  however,  for  the  death  and  reprieve  of 


the  king.     He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  French  Revolu- 
tion," (3  vols.,  1810.)     Died  in  1826. 

Pagani,pa-gi'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  in  1531.  He  painted  frescos  in  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1561. 

Pagani,  (Gregorio,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1558.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cigoli, 
whose  style  he  imitated,  was  an  excellent  colorist,  and 
was  one  of  the  best  masters  that  Florence  possessed 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  master-piece, 
"  The  Discovery  of  the  Cross,"  was  destroyed  by  fire. 
His  extant  works  are  not  numerous.     Died  in  1605. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pagani,  (Paolo,)  a  painter,  born  in  the  duchy  of 
Milan  in  1661.  He  worked  in  Venice  with  success. 
The  gallery  of  Dresden  contains  his  picture  of  a  Mag- 
dalene in  meditation.     Died  in  1716. 

Pagani-Cesa,  pj-gi'nee  cha'si,  (Giuseppe  Urbano,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Belluno  in  1757.  He  wrote  "  La 
Villegiatura  di  Clizia,"  (1802,)  and  other  poems  of  some 
merit.  He  also  produced  a  mediocre  version  of  Virgil's 
"  ^neid,"  (1822.)     Died  in  1835. 

Paganini,  pi-gd-nee'nee,  (NiccOL^,)  a  celebrated  Ital- 
ian performer  on  the  violin,  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1784. 
He  received  lessons  from  Rolla,  Ghiretti,  and  Paer, 
and  is  said  to  have  composed  a  sonata  of  merit  at  the 
age  of  nine,  about  which  time  he  began  to  perform  in 
public  concerts,  and  by  his  wonderful  powers  produced 
the  most  extraordinary  excitement  among  the  audience. 
When  not  yet  fifteen,  he  escaped  from  the  control  of  his 
father,  and  commenced  business  on  his  own  account. 
But,  unhappily,  the  admiration  and  flatteries  which  he 
received,  and  the  control  of  large  sums  of  money,  which 
he  procured  almost  without  effort,  exerted  a  most  in- 
jurious effect  on  his  moral  character,  and  he  fell  into 
habits  of  gambling  and  into  the  practice  of  other  vices. 
About  1S02  he  retired  for  a  time  from  public  view  ;  but 
his  former  habits  of  life,  and  the  necessity  of  excitement, 
soon  induced  or  compelled  him  to  return.  After  he  had 
given  concerts  in  the  great  cities  of  Italy,  he  visited  Vienna 
in  1828,  and  was  received  with  the  wildest  enthusiasm, 
His  performances  created  a  furor  wholly  unparalleled 
in  the  history  of  music.  He  gained  enormous  sums  of 
money  in  Paris  and  London.  His  marvellous  perform- 
ance on  a  single  string  excited  especial  astonishment. 
He  composed  sonatas,  etc.  for  the  violin,  which  display 
an  inventive  genius.  Died  at  Nice  in  1S40.  With  all 
his  rare  gifts,  he  is  said  to  have  been  sensual,  extremely 
avaricious,  and  excessively  vain. 

Sec  ScHOTTKV,  "  Paganini's  Leben  und  Treiben,"  Prague,  1830, 
CoNESTABiLE,  "  Vita  del  celebre  N.  Paganini;"  J.  Imrert  de  la 
PHALfegUE,  "  Notice  sur  N.  Paganini,"  Paris,  1830  ;  G.  E.  Anders, 
"  Paganini,  sa  Vie,  sa  Personne,"  etc.,  1831  ;  Fr.  Favolle,  "  Paga- 
nini et  Beriot,"  1S31 ;  F'^Tis  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musi- 
ciens ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1831. 

Pagano,  pi-g5'no,  (Francesco  Maria,)  a  political 
writer,  born  at  Brienza,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in 
174S.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  law  at  Naples  in  1787. 
His  principal  work  is  "Political  Essays,"  ("Saggi  po- 
litici,"  1792.)  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  Neapolitan  re- 
public formed  in  1798.  Having  been  taken  prisoner  by 
the  royalists,  he  was  executed  in  iSoo. 

Paganucci,  pi-gi-noot'chee,  (Jean,)  a  French  mer- 
chant, born  at  Lyons  in  1729,  wrote  an  excellent  "Mer- 
chants' Manual,"  ("  Manuel  des  Negociants,"  3  vols., 
1762J     Died  in  1797. 

Page,  (Emily  R.,)  an  American  poetess,  born  at  Brad- 
ford, Vermont,  in  183S.  She  wrote  a  number  of  fugitive 
pieces,  among  which  "The  Old  Canoe"  has  achieved 
wide  popularity.     Died  in  i860. 

Page,  (John,)  an  American  patriot  and  Governor, 
born  in  Gloucester  county,  Virginia,  in  1743.  He  ren- 
dered im])ortant  services  during  the  Revolution,  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  Virginia  for  eight  years, 
(1789-97,)  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in 
1802.  He  was  a  ]>ersonal  friend  of  Thomas  Jefferson. 
Died  at  Richmond  in  1808. 

Page,  (Thomas  Jefferson,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Virginia  about  1815.  He  was  appointed 
a  commander  in  the  United  States  navy  in  1855,  and 
became  a  commodore  in  the  Confederate  service. 


cas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy/  c,  H,  T/i,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAGE 


1S76 


PAIL  LET 


page,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Harrow 
in  1590,  was  master  of  a  free  scliool  at  Reading.  He 
wrote  "The  Peace-Maker,  or  a  Brief  Motive  to  Unity." 
Died  in  1663. 

Page,  (William,)  an  American  painter,  born  at  Al- 
bany in  181 1.  He  studied  for  a  time  under  S.  F.  B. 
Morse,  in  New  Yorl<,  and  subsequently  produced  several 
portraits  and  historical  pieces  which  established  his 
reputation.  He  visited  Rome  about  1850,  and  returned 
in  i860  to  New  York.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
the  "  Flight  into  Egypt,"  "  Moses  and  Aaron  on  Mount 
Horeb,"'and  "  The  Infant  Bacchus."    D.  Sept.  30,  1885. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Pagenstecher,  pi'gen-st?K'er.  (.\lexandf.r  Ar- 
nold,) a  German  jurisconsult,  born  at  Bentheim  in 
1659.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Groningen,  and 
wrote  many  works.     Died  in  1716. 

Pages.     See  GARNiER-PAcfes. 

Pages,  pt'zhgs',  (Francois  Xavier,)  a  French  litU- 
taleur,  born  at  Aurillac  in  1745.  He  published,  besides 
many  novels,  "  Historical  Tableaux  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution," (3  vols.,  1701-1804.)     Died  in  1802. 

Pag^s,  (Pierre  Marie  FRANgois,)  a  French  voyager, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1748,  was  a  captain  in  the  navy. 
He  published  in  17S2  "  Voyages  around  the  World  and 
towards  the  Poles  in  1 767-1 776."  He  was  massacred 
be  the  negroes  in  Saint  Domingo  in  1793. 

Pages  de  I'Ariege,  pt'zh^s'  deh  It're'izh',  (Jean 
Pierre,)  a  French  jiolitical  writer,  born  in  Ariegc  in 
17S4.  He  was  an  editor  of  several  Liberal  journals  of 
Paris  after  the  restoration.  In  184S  he  was  elected  tc 
the  Constituent  Assembly.    He  published  several  works. 

Pag'et,  (Lord  Clarence  Edward,)  a  British  ad- 
miral, a  brother  of  the  Marquis  of  Anglesey,  was  born 
in  181 1.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  navy,  and  com- 
manded the  Princess  Royal  in  the  Baltic  in  1854.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Liberals  in  1847,  and 
again  in  1857.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  secretary  to 
the  Admiralty.     He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1S65. 

Paget  or  Pag'it,  (Eusegius,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister  and  writer,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about 
1542.  He  became  rector  of  Saint  Anne  and  Saint 
Agnes,  London,  in  1604.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History 
of  the  Bible."  Died  in  1617.  His  son  Ephraim,  (1575- 
1647,)  a  noted  linguist,  wrote  a  "Christianographia." 

Paget,  (George  Frederick  Augustus,)  Lord,  a 
brother  of  Clarence  Edward,  was  born  in  1818.  He  be- 
came colonel  of  dragoons  in  1854,  and  general  in  1877. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  Balaklava,  (1854.)  Died 
June  30,  1880. 

Paget,  (Henry  William,)  Lord.     See  Anglesey. 

Paget,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  physiologist  and  sur- 
geon of  high  reputation,  was  born  in  Great  Yarmouth 
in  1814.  He  was  admitted  into  the  College  of  Surgeons 
in  1836,  and  afterwards  became  Hunterian  professor  of 
surgery.  He  wrote  articles  for  several  medical  journals. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology," 
(1853, 1863,  and  1868.)     He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1871. 

Paget,  (William,)  Baron,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  London  in  1506.  He  became  one  of  the  secre- 
taries of  state  in  1543.  Designated  by  Henry  VIII.  as 
one  of  the  executors  of  his  will,  Paget  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  events  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  was 
keeper  of  the  seals  in  the  following  reign.  In  1561  he 
.advised  Elizabeth  to  make  an  alliance  with  the  King  of 
Navarre  and  the  Huguenots  rather  than  the  King  of 
Sjiain.     Died  in  1563. 

Paggi,  pjid'jee,  or'Pagi,p5'jee,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1554,  was 
a  pupil  of  Luca  Cambiaso.  He  worked  about  twenty 
years  at  Florence,  and  returned  to  Genoa  in  1600,  after 
which  he  adorned  the  churches  of  that  city  with  many 
paintings.  He  was  the  master  of  a  school  in  which  sev- 
eral able  artists  were  formed,  and  excelled  as  a  colorist. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Tlie  Transfiguration"  arid 
"  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents."     Died  in  1627. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Soprani,  "Vitede' 
Pittori  Genovesi." 

Pagi,  pS'zhe',  (  Antoine,)  a  French  chronologist,  born 
in  Provence  in  1624.     His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 


"  Historical  and  Chronological  Criticism  on  the  Ec- 
clesiastical Annals  of  Baronius,"  ("Critica  historico- 
chronologica  in  Annales  Ecclesiasticos  Baronii,"  4  vols., 
1705.)     Died  in  1699. 

Pagi,  (Francois,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Lam- 
besc  in  1654,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  Died 
in  1721. 

Pagi,  L'Abi)6,  a  French  historian,  born  at  Martigue 
about  1690.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Revolu- 
tions of  the  Low  Countries,"  (1727.) 

Pagit.     See  Paget,  (Eusebius.) 

Paglia,  pil'yS,  (Antonio,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1680.  He  was  a  skilful  imitator  of  the 
old  masters.  He  worked  in  Brescia,  the  churches  of 
which  contain  many  of  his  pictures.     Died  in  1747. 

Paglia,  (Francesco,)  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1636,  was  a  pupil  of  Guercino.  He 
excelled  in  portraits  and  in  the  science  of  clair-obscur. 
He  died  soon  after  1700. 

Pagnerre,  pSn'yaiR',  (Laurent  Antoine,)  a  French 
republican,  born  in  Seine-et-Oise  in  1805.  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  to  the  mayor  of  Paris,  Gamier-Pages, 
in  February,  1848,  secretary-general  of  the  provisional 
government  on  the  ist  of  March,  and  director  of  the 
Comptoir  national  d'Escompte  on  the  9th  of  March.  He 
was  the  first  proposer  of  this  institution,  which  rendered 
great  services  to  the  public  in  that  crisis.    Died  in  1854. 

Pagnest,  ptg'ni',  (.A.mable  Louis  Claude,)  a  French 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1790;  died  in  1819. 

Pagnini,  pin-yee'nee,  (Lat.  Pagni'nus,]  (Luca  An- 
tonio,) an  Italian  classical  scholar  and  monk,  born  at 
Pistoia  in  1737.  He  wrote  Greek  and  Latin  epigrams, 
"  Epigrammi  morali  cento,"  (1799,)  which  were  admired, 
and  produced  good  translations  of  Anacreon,  (1766,) 
Theocritus,  (1780,)  Hesiod,  (1797,)  and  Horace's  "  Sa- 
tiresand  Epistles,"  (1814.)  He  corresponded  with  Alfieri, 
Frugoni,  and  Cesarotti.  In  1806  he  became  professor  of 
Latin  at  Pisa.     Died  in  1814. 

See  CiAMPi,  "Elogium  L.  A.  Pagnini,"  1814;  Tipaldo,  "Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italiani  illiistri." 

Pagnino,  pin-yee'no,  [Lat.  Pagni'nus,]  (Sante,)  an 
Italian  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Lucca  about  1470.  He 
entered  the  order  of  Dominicans,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Lyons  in  1525.  He  produced  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Bible  from  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek,  (1528,)  which 
was  highly  commended  by  Buxtorf,  Huet,  and  other 
critics.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Hebrew-Latin  Dic- 
tionary," (1529.)     Died  about  153S. 

See  A.  P^RiCAUD,  "Notice  sur  S.  Pagnino,"  1830;  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Itaiiana." 

Pagninus.    See  Pagnino. 

Pahlen,  von  der,  fon  dhr  pj'len,  (Peter,)  Baron  or 
Count,  a  Russian  general,  born  about  1744.  He  gained 
the  favour  of  the  Czar  Paul,  who  appointed  him  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  assassination  of  Paul,  in  1801,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  chief  of  that  conspiracy.  He  retired  to 
his  estate  in  Livonia,  where  he  died  in  1826. 

Pahlen,  von  der,  (Peter,)  Count,  a  Russian  gen- 
eral, and  son  of  the  preceding,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812  and  1813.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Paris  from  1835  ^^  1842. 

Paice.    See  Pace,  (Richard.) 

Pailleron,  pS'yeh'r6N',  (Edouard,)  a  French  poet 
and  dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1834.  His  earlier 
works, — "  Le  dernier  Quartier,"  (1S63,)  "  Le  second 
Mouvement,"  (1865,)  etc., — marked  by  elegance  of  dic- 
tion, were  less  successful  than  his  later,  poorer,  and  more 
sensational  j^lays, — "  FauxMenages,"  (1S69.)  etc., — many 
of  which  are  enlivened  by  brilliant  wit. 

Paillet,  pit'yA',  (  Alphonse  Gabriel  Victor,)  an 
eminent  French  advocate,  born  at  Soissons  in  1795. 
settled  in  Paris  about  1826,  and  acquired  a  very  high 
reputation  for  eloquence  and  probity.  He  displayed 
consummate  art  in  the  statement  and  exposition  of  facts. 
In  1849  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
Died  in  1855.  "Nature  had  given  him,"  says  the  "Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,"  "in  a  just  measure  and  in  perfect 
equilibrium,  all  the  qualities  which  are  requisite  to  form 
a  great  advocate." 
1       See,  also,  J.  Larnac,  "  filoge  de  M.  Paillet,"  1837. 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y.  Icni^:  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,6,  li.y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon: 


PAILLIET 


1S77 


PAISIELLO 


Pailliet,  pt'ye-i',  or  Paillet,  pt'yV,  (Jean  Bap- 
TiSTE  Joseph,)  a^T^ench  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1789. 
He  publislied  a  "Manual  of  French  Law,"  (9th  edition, 
1836,)  which  was  perhaps  more  popular  than  any  other 
similar  book.  He  also  wrote  other  works.  Died  about 
i860. 

Paillot  de  Montabert,  pfyo'  deh  mAN'tS'baiR', 
(Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Troyes  in 
1771.  He  wrote  a  "Complete  Treatise  on  Painting," 
(9  vols.,  1829.)     Died  in  1849. 

Paine,  pan,  (Eleazar  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ohio  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  about  September,  1861, 
and  served  in  Tennessee  and  Mississippi.    Died  in  1882. 

Paine,  (Elijah,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Brooklyn,  Connecticut,  in  1757.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1794,  and  in  i8oi  became  judge 
of  the  United  States  court  for  Vermont.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
and  of  other  learned  institutions.     Died  in  1842. 

Paine,  (Elijah,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Williamstown,  Vermont,  in  1706,  and  rose  to  eminence  as 
a  jurist.  He  published,  in  conjunction  with  John  Duer, 
"  Practice  in  Civil  Actions  and  Proceedings  in  the  State 
of  New  York,"  (1830.)     Died  in  1853. 

Paine,  (John  Knowles,)  an  American  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Portland,  Maine,  January  9,  1839.  He 
finished  his  musical  education  at  Berlin.  In  1862  he  was 
appointed  instructor  of  music  at  Harvard,  and  in  1876 
was  raised  to  a  full  professorship  there.  He  has  pro- 
duced "  Saint  Peter,"  an  oratorio,  a  mass,  hymns,  songs, 
romances,  etc. 

Paine,  (Martyn,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Williamstown,  Vermont,  in  1794,  and 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1813.  He  afterwards 
settled  in  New  York,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation 
and  extensive  practice.  In  1841  he  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  University  Medical  College,  in  which  he  filled  the 
chair  of  therapeutics  and  materia  medica.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  The  Cholera  Asphyxia  of  New 
York,"  "Medical  and  Physiological  Commentaries," 
(1840,)  and  "Institutes  of  Medicine,"  (1847.)  The  two 
last-named  have  a  very  high  reputation.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "  Theoretical  Geology."  Died  in  New  York 
city,  November  10,  1877. 

Paine,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Person 
county,  North  Carolina,  November  12,  1799.  He  became 
a  preacher  in  1818,  was  president  of  La  Grange  College, 
1830-46,  was  made  a  bishop  in  1846,  and  died  October 
20,  1882.     He  published  a  "Life  of  McKendree." 

Paine,  (Robert  Treat,)  an  American  jurist  and  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Boston  in  1731.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  for  about 
four  years,  (1774-78.)  In  1780  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee which  formed  the  State  Constitution  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  in  1790  became  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  that  State.     Died  in  1814. 

See  Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Paine,  (Robert  Treat,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Taunton,  Massachusetts,  in  1773.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1792,  and,  having  subsequently 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  very  popular  political  song,  entitled 
"  Adams  and  Liberty,"  and  of  other  works,  in  prose  and 
verse.     Died  in  iSii. 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  75 

Paine,  (Thomas,)  a  political  and  deistical  writer, 
born  at  Thetford,  in  Norfolk,  England,  in  January,  1737. 
His  father  was  a  Quaker,  and  brought  up  his  son  to  his 
own  trade,  that  of  stay-maker.  Paine  married  young, 
and  settled  in  1759  at  Sandwich.  Having  lost  his  wife 
about  1761,  he  removed  to  London,  where  for  a  short 
time  he  was  employed  as  a  school-teacher.  After  seve- 
ral changes  of  business  and  residence,  he  emigrated  to 
America  in  1774,  with  a  letter  of  recommendation  from 
Dr.  Franklin,  whom  he  met  in  London.  He  became 
editor  of  the  "  Pennsylvania  Magazine,"  and  gave  an 
impulse  to  the  Revolution  by  his  famous  pamphlet  called 


"Common  Sense,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  policy  of 
separation  and  indej^endence.    It  was  issued  in  January, 

1776,  and  appears  to  have  contributed  in  an  extraordi- 
nary degree  to  the  advancement  of  republican  ideas. 
He  enlisted  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army  in  the  autumn 
of  1776.  To  counteract  the  depression  of  spirits  which 
jirevailed  in  the  winter  of  1776-77,  he  published  "The 
Crisis,"  a  periodical,  which  appeared  at  irregular  in- 
tervals for  some  years  and  was  very  successful.  The 
phrase  "These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls"  was 
first  used  in  the  "  Crisis."  He  was  secretary  to  the 
committee  on   foreign  affairs  in   Congress  from  April, 

1777,  to  January,  1779,  and  went  to  France  in  17S1,  with 
Colonel  Laurens,  to  negotiate  a  loan  for  the  United 
States.  His  services  in  the  Revolution  were  rewarded 
by  Congress  in  1785  with  a  present  of  three  thousand 
dollars,  and  the  State  of  New  York  gave  him  three 
hundred  acres  of  land. 

In  1787  he  visited  France,  from  which  he  passed  to 
England.  He  invented  an  iron  bridge,  and  procured  the 
construction  of  such  a  bridge  at  Rotherham,  in  York- 
shire. He  returned  to  Paris  in  1789,  and,  in  answer  to 
Burke's  "Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution,"  wrote 
his  "  Rights  of  Man,"  (1791,)  which  obtained  great  popu- 
larity. In  September,  1792,  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  French  National  Convention  by  the  citizens  of 
the  Pas-de-Calais.  He  acted  with  the  Girondists,  and, 
in  the  trial  of  the  king,  voted  for  his  banishment.  About 
the  end  of  1793  he  was  expelled  from  the  Convention,  as 
a  foreigner,  by  the  Jacobins,  who  also  issued  a  decree 
that  all  natives  of  England  found  in  France  should  be 
imprisoned.  He  was  accordingly  cast  into  prison,  and 
narrowly  escaped  death  in  the  reign  of  terror.  In 
November,  1794,  he  was  released,  through  the  influence 
of  James  Monroe,  (afterwards  President  of  the  United 
States,)  and  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Convention.  He 
produced  in  1795  a  deistical  work  entitled  "The  Age  of 
Reason,"  which  gave  great  offence  to  many  of  his  polit- 
ical friends.*  This  work,  although  characterized  by  a 
certain  vigour  as  well  as  flijjpancy  of  style,  and  though 
from  its  very  indecency  calculated  to  obtain  currency 
among  the  less  refined  portion  of  society,  yet,  being 
conspicuously  wanting  in  a  spirit  of  candour,  and  betray- 
ing an  utter  deficiency  in  true  scholarship,  is  likely  to  exert 
but  little  influence  upon  intelligent  and  reflecting  minds, 
and  least  of  all  on  those  whose  learning  qualifies  them 
to  judge  of  the  ignorance  of  the  writer  and  the  essential 
shallowness  of  most  of  his  arguments.  He  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1802,  and  passed  his  latter  years 
in  private  life  and  comparative  obscurity.  He  became 
intemperate  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Died  in  New 
York  in  June,  1809. 

See  Cheetham,  "  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1S09  ;  Carlilh, 
"Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1S14;  G.  Chalmers,  "Life  of  Thoma» 
Paine,"  1791;  G.  Vale,  "Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1841;  W.  1 
Sherwin,  "Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1819;  William  Cobbett 
"Life  of  Thomas  Paine;"  Duvckinck,  "  Cyclopedia  of  America/. 
Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  Julv,  1843  ;  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  July  and 
December,  1859;  "Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1791,  and  March, 
1792  ;  "  New  American  Cyclopedia." 

Paint'er,  (William,)  an  English  writer  or  translator, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  He  published  "The 
Palace  of  Pleasure,  beautified,  adorned,  and  well  fur- 
nished with  Pleasant  Histories  and  Excellent  Novels," 
etc.,  (2  vols.,  1566-69.)     Died  after  1590. 

Paisiello,  pi-se-el'lo,  or  Paesiello,  p5-i-se-erlo, 
(GiovAN.M,)  a  celebrated  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Tarento  in  1741,  studied  five  years  under  Durante  at 
Naples.  About  1764  he  produced  operas  entitled  "La 
Pupilla"  and  "  II  Mondo  alia  Rovescio,"  which  extended 
his  reputation  throughout  Italy.  He  was  chapel-master 
to  the  King  of  Naples  from  1786  to  1798.  Having  been 
invited  by  Bonaparte,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1802,  and 
officiated  as  chapel-master  for  two  years.  He  leturned 
to  Naples  in  1804.  Among  his  popular  operas  are  "  King 
Theodore,"  ("  II  Re  Teodoro,")  "  The  Barber  of  Seville," 
•' Frascatina,"  "La  Locanda,"  " Pirro,"  and  "lo  son 
Lindoro,"  (or  "  Hope  told  a  Flattering  Tale.")  "He  is 
superior   to   his   rivals,"  says    Denne-Baron,    "  in   the 

•  See  an  interesting  letter  from  Franklin  to  Paine  on  this  subject, 
in  Sparks's  edition  of  Franklin's  works,  vol.  x.  p.  281. 


eas>i,-  9  as  J,-  'ghard;  g2i^j;  G,H,K,gitttural;  ii,ttasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  t^hasin/Aw,     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FAITONI 


1878 


PALAMEDES 


suavity  of  his  melody  and  the  charm  of  his  expression." 
His  works  display  verve,  originality,  an  extreme  fertility 
of  invention,  and  a  grace  and  elegance  which  are  almost 
unequalled.     Died  in  1816. 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DB  QuiNCY,  *' Noticc  siir  Paisiello  ;"  Fins, 
"  BioKrapliie  Universelle  des  Musicieiis ;"  Lksueur,  "Notice  sur 
G.  Paisiello,"  1816;  ScHizzi,  "  Raggionamento  della  Vita  di  G.  Pai- 
siello," 1S37  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Paitoni,  pl-to'nee,  (Giacomo  Maria,)  an  Italian 
monk  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  about  1710. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  accurate  work  entitled 
"  Library  of  Ancient  Latin  and  Greek  Authors,"  etc., 
("Biblioteca  dcgli  Autori  antichi  Greci  e  Latini  vol- 
gari/.zati,"  5  vols.,  1767.)     Died  in  1774. 

Paixhans,  paks'anz  or  pAk'sSw',  (Henri  Joseph,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Metz  in  17S3.  He  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Moskwa,  (1812.)  He  represented  Metz  in  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  many  years,  ending  in  1S48,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He  made  improvements 
in  artillery  and  projectiles,  which  bear  his  name,  and 
published  several  works  on  artillery  and  the  art  of  war. 
The  Paixhan  guns  were  first  used  in  France  about  1824. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1828. 

Pajol,  pt'zhol',  (Claude  Pierre,)  Comte,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1772.  He  signalized  him- 
self at  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  was  made  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1807,  and  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1812.  His  defence  of  Montereau  was  praised  by  Na- 
poleon, who  appointed  him  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour  in  1814.  He  fought  against  Charles  X.,  and  was 
second  in  command  of  the  Parisian  troops  in  July,  1830. 
Died  in  1S44. 

Pajon,  pt'zhiN',  (Claude,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Romorantin  in  1626.  He  preached  at 
Orleans,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings, 
among  which  is  a  defence  of  the  Protestant  faith  against 
Nicole,  entitled  "Examen  des  Prejuges  legitimes,"  (de 
Nicole,)  (1675.)     Died  in  1685. 

Pajot,  pt'zho',  (Louis  LliioN,)  Comte  d'Ons-en-Bray, 
(diw  s6n  bRi,)  a  French  mechanician  and  collector,  born 
in  Paris  in  1678.  He  collected  a  rich  cabinet  of  machines 
and  rare  works  of  art,  etc.  He  invented  an  anemometer, 
and  wrote  several  scientific  treatises.  In  1708  he  became 
director-general  of  the  post-office.     Died  in  1754. 

Pajou,  pS'zhoo',  (AuGUSTiN,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1730,  was  a  pupil  of  Lemoyne.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1748,  and  went  as  royal  pensioner  to 
Rome,  where  he  remained  twelve  years.  He  enjoyed 
great  celebrity  in  France  in  his  time.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  of  Pascal,  Descartes,  Fenelon,  Turenne,  and 
Rossuet.     Died  at  Paris  in  1809. 

See  Lebreton,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Pajou,"  1810; 
Biographie  Universelle." 

Pajou,  (Jacques  Augustin,)  a  historical  painter,  a  son 
<'ii  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1766  ;  died  in  1828. 

Pakenham,  pa'ken-am,  (Sir  Edward,)  a  British 
general,  who  commanded  the  army  which  attacked  New 
Orleans  and  was  defeated  by  General  Jackson,  January 
8,  1815.  He  was  killed  in  this  action.  He  was  a  brother- 
in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Pakenham,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  British  admiral,  born  in 
1758.  As  captain  of  a  ship  of  seventy-four  guns,  he  took 
part  in  Lord  Howe's  victory  over  the  French  in  June, 
1794.     He  became  admiral  about  1810.     Died  in  1836. 

Pakht,  pdKt,  Pasht,  or  Sek'het',  a  goddess  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  the  wife  of  Phthah,  and  mother  of  Im- 
hotep.  She  is  often  confounded  with  Bast,  (q.  v.,)  but 
seems  to  have  been  properly  distinct  from  that  goddess, 
though  some  regard  them  as  representations  of  a  being 
with  a  twofold  nature.  Bast  was  worshipped  at  Bubastis, 
Pakht  chiefly  at  Memphis. 

Pa'king-ton,  (Dorothy,)  a  learned  English  lady, 
was  a  daughter  of  Lord  Coventry,  and  wife  of  Sir  John 
Pakington.  Died  in  1679.  She  was  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  "The  Whole  Duty  of  Man." 

Pakington,  (Sir  John  Somerset,)  an  English  con- 
servative politician,  a  son  of  William  Russell,  of  Powick 
Court.  Worcestershire,  was  born  iu  1799.     He  assumed 


the  name  of  his  uncle  about  1830.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1837,  and  was  colonial  secretary  for  a  short  time 
in  1852.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  185S-59, 
and  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  in  1867,  but  resigned 
in  the  following  year.     Died  April  9,  1880. 

Palacky,  pd-lits'kee,  sometimes  Anglicized  in  pro 
nunciation  as  pi-lak'kee,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  Bohe- 
mian historian  and  critic,  born  at  Hodslawitz  in  June, 
1798,  was  a  Protestant.  He  was  appointed  historiogra- 
pher of  Bohemia  about  1830,  and  edited  the  "Journal  of 
the  Bohemian  Museum"  from  1S27  to  1837.  He  was  an 
active  supporter  of  liberal  principles  in  1848,  and  pre- 
sided over  a  Congress  of  Slavonians  at  Prague  in  that 
year.  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  "  History  of 
Bohemia,"  in  German,  (8  vols.,  1836-60.)    Died  in  1876. 

Paladines.     See  Palladines, 

Paladini,  pa-15-dee'nee,  (Arcangei.a,)  a  painter  and 
poetess,  born  at  Pisa  in  1599  ;  died  in  1622. 

Paladini,  (Filippo,)  an  able  Florentine  painter,  born 
about  1544,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His  picture 
of  the  "Death  of  John  the  Baptist"  is  admired.  Died 
in  1614. 

Palaemon,  pa-lee'mon,  [Gr.  UaXai/iuv  ;  Fr.  Pal6mon, 
pt'li'miN',]  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the  son  of  Athamas 
and  Ino,  was  first  called  Melicerta.  He  was  regarded 
as  a  marine  divinity,  and  the  Isthmian  games  were  insti- 
tuted in  his  honour.  He  was  identified  with  the  Roman 
Portumnus.     (See  Melicekia.) 

Pal^mon,  pa-lee'mon,  (Quintus  Remmius.)  a  Ro- 
man grammarian,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Tiberius, 
about  45  A.D. 

Palseologns,  pa-le-ol'o-gus,  [Gr.  llalaioloyoi ;  Fr. 
Pal^ologue,  pt'li'o'log',]  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Byzantine  family  which  acquired  distinction  in  the  elev- 
enth century.  They  reigned  in  Constantinople  from 
1260  until  1453,  when  that  capital  was  taken  by  the 
Turks.  (See  Andronicus  II.,  Constantine  XIII., 
Manuel  II..  John  VI.,  and  John  VII.) 

Paleephatus,  pa-lgf'a-tus,  a  Greek  historian  of  Aby- 
dos,  was  a  friend  of  Aristotle,  and  lived  about  350  B.C. 
According  to  Suidas,  he  wrote  on  Attica,  Arabia,  and 
Cyprus. 

Palaephatus,  a  Greek  writer  of  an  uncertain  period, 
to  whom  Suidas  attributes  an  "  Explanation  of  Things 
related  in  Mythology."  By  some  critics  this  is  identified 
with  an  extant  work  "On  Things  Incredible,"  [Trepl  tuv 
diriaruv.)  Suidas  also  mentions  an  Athenian  epic  poet 
of  this  name,  who  lived  before  Homer. 

Palafox,  de,  di  pi-lS-fin',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  bishop 
and  writer,  born  in  Aragon  in  1600.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Osma  in  1653.  He  wrote,  besides  works  of  devotion, 
"  The  Shepherd  of  Christmas  Eve,"  ("  Pastor  de  Noche 
Buena,"  1655,)  and  "  The  Conquest  of  China  by  the  Tar- 
tars," (1678.)     Died  in  1659. 

See  DiNOUART,  "Vie  de  J.  de  Palafox,"  1767;  Champion, 
"Histoire  de  J.  de  Palafox,"  16S8. 

Palafox  y  Meizi,  pd-lS-ffiH'  e  meV^/iet,  (Jos6,)  com- 
monly called  simply  Palafox,  (which  in  pronunciation 
is  usually  Anglicized  as  pil'a-foks',)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1780.  He  became  in  his  youth  a 
member  of  the  military  household  of  the  king.  When 
an  attack  on  Saragossa  by  the  French  was  expected,  in 
1808,  he  was  nominated  captain-general  by  popular  ac- 
clamation. He  defended  that  city  obstinately  for  sixty 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  term  the  French  retired,  August, 
1808.  Another  force,  under  Lannes,  renewed  the  siege 
in  November,  and  Palafox  was  forced  to  capitulate  in 
February,  1809.  He  supported  the  popular  cause  against 
Ferdinand  VII.  in  1820.  About  1836  he  was  made  Duke 
of  Saragossa.     Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Pal'a-mas,  [naAa/x<if,]  (Gregorius,)  a  Greek  monk 
and  mystical  writer,  lived  about  1350.  He  was  the 
leader  of  a  sect  or  party  called  Palamites,  whose  claims 
to  mystical  light  caused  a  great  controversy. 

Palamede.     See  Palamedes. 

Pai-a-me'des,  [Gr.  UaXafiT/ihjc ;  Fr.  Palamede,  pf- 
lS'mid',1  a  ])er.sonage  of  classic  mythology,  supposed  to 
have  been  tlie  inventor  of  scales,  measures,  chess,  dice, 
and  several  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  Having  joined 
the  expedition  against  Troy,  he  exposed  by  an  ingenious 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long: i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/wri;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PAL  A  PRAT 


1S79 


PALEY 


stratagem  the  feigned  insanity  of  Ulysses,  and  thereby 
incurred  his  enmity.  The  poets  relate  that  Ulysses 
concealed  in  the  tent  of  Palamedes  a  sum  of  money 
and  a  forged  letter  from  Priam,  on  the  evidence  of  which 
Palamedes  was  convicted  of  treason  and  put  to  death. 

See  Virgil,  "iEneid,"  book  ii.  82. 

Palaprat,  pi'lt'pRt',  (Jean  de  Bigot,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1650.  He  was  sec- 
retary to  the  grand  prior  of  Vendome,  and  was  noted 
for  wit.  He  wrote  dramas  entitled  "The  Secret  Re- 
vealed" and  "The  Prude  of  the  Time,"  ("La  Prude  du 
Temps,")  and  assisted  Brueys  in  the  composition  of 
several  plays.     Died  in  1721. 

Pal-a-ti'nus,  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to 
Apollo,  to  whom  a  temple  was  erected  on  Mount  Pala- 
tine. 

Palazzi,  pi-lit'see,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Venice  about  1640.  He  wrote  many  mediocre 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  German  Em- 
pire," (9  vols.,  1671-79.)     Died  about  1702. 

Paleario.    See  Paleakius. 

Pal-e-a'ri-us  or  Paleario,  pS-li-^re-o,  (AoNius  or 
AONIO,)  a  good  Italian  writer  and  scholar,  was  born  in 
the  Campagna  of  Rome  about  1500.  His  proper  name 
was  Della  Paglia,  (pSl'yi.)  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  Latin  poet,  and  became  professor  of  eloquence  at 
Milan  in  1555.  His  Latin  poem  on  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  (1536)  was  commended  by  Sadolet.  Having 
been  converted  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  or 
advocated  religious  liberty,  he  was  tried  for  heresy  and 
hung  at  Rome  in  1570. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Aonio  Paleario,"  by  M.  Young,  2  vols., 
i860;  GlTRLlTT,  "  Leben  des  A.  Palearius,"  1S05;  Bavlk,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron,  "M^moires." 

Palemon.     See  Pal^emon. 

Palencia,  de,  (Alfonso.)  See  Alfonso  de  Pa- 
lencia. 

Palencia,  de,  di  p3,-l§n'the-l,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish 
soldier  and  writer,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
served  in  the  army  in  Peru,  and  published  in  1571  a 
"  History  of  Peru." 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 
book  V. 

Paleologue.     See  Pal/eologus. 

Paleotti, pa-li-ot'tee,  (Gabriel,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1524.  He  was  sent  to  the  Council 
of  Trent  by  Pius  IV.,  and  became  a  cardinal  in  1565. 
Among  his  works  is  "De  Bono  Senectutis,"  (1598.) 
Died  in  1597. 

Pa'lei,  [Fr.  PALifes,  pt'lgs',]  a  divinity  who  presided 
over  cattle,  shepherds,  and  pastures  among  the  ancient 
Romans.  Pales  was  represented  by  some  as  a  male  and 
by  others  as  a  female  deity,  and  was  the  personification 
of  the  same  idea  as  Pan  among  the  Greeks. 

Palestrina,  da,  dS  pi-l^s-tKee'ni,  (Giovanni  Pier- 
LUIGI,)  an  Italian  comjioser  of  great  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Palestrina,  (the  ancient  Praeneste,)  near  Rome,  about 
1524.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Claude  Goudimel,  a 
Frenchman.  In  1551  lie  was  appointed  chapel-master 
to  Pope  Julius  HI.  He  produced  in  1554  his  first  work, 
four  masses  for  four  voices,  and  obtained  a  place  among 
the  singers  of  the  pontifical  chapel,  from  which  Paul 
IV.  removed  him  because  he  was  married.  From  1561 
to  1571  he  was  chapel-master  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore.  During  this  period  the  pope  resolved  to  reform 
the  music  of  the  Church  or  to  banish  it.  Palestrina 
was  directed  to  compose  a  mass  which  should  be  con- 
formed to  a  pure  orthodox  standard.  The  result  was 
the  famous  mass  for  six  voices,  called  the  "  Mass  of 
Pope  Marcellus,"  (1565,)  which  was  received  with  great 
admiration  and  determined  his  superiors  to  retain  music 
in  the  Roman  Church.  "The  unrivalled  genius  of  Pa- 
lestrina," says  Denne-Baron,  referring  to  this  mass, 
"  created  the  only  kind  of  music  which  comports  with 
the  majesty  of  the  Church  ;  and  among  the  productions 
of  succeeding  composers  nothing  has  equalled  the  power, 
the  profound  and  simple  accent,  the  mystic  tenderness, 
the  ravishing  sweetness,  of  his  chants."  ("  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale.")  In  1 57 1  he  was  appointed  chapel- 
master  in  Saint  Peter's.     Died  in  1594. 

See   WiNTERFEi.D,   "J.   Pierluigi  von    Palestrina,"   etc.,   1832. 


Paletta,  pa-let'ta,  or  Palletta,  p51-15t'ti,  (Giovanni 
Battista,)  an  Italian  anatomist  and  writer,  born  in  the 
valley  of  Ossola,  in  Piedmont,  in  1747.  He  became 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  grand  hospital  of  Milan  in  1787. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Pathological  E.xercises,"  ( "  Exer- 
citationes  Pathologicae,"  2  vols.,  1820.)     Died  in  1832. 

See  G.  Ferrario,  "Vita  del  Professore  G.  B.  Paletta,"  1833. 

Pa'ley,  (Fkedkrick  Aithorp,)  an  English  scholar,  a 
grandson  of  the  distinguished  William  Paley,  was  born 
at  Easingwold  in  1816,  and  graduated  in  1838  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1840  he  became  a  Ro- 
man Catholic,  and  in  1874  was  appointed  a  professor  of 
classical  literature  in  the  University  College  at  Kensing- 
ton. Besides  editing  many  Greek  and  some  Latin  texts, 
he  published  a  "  Manual  of  Gothic  Architecture,"  (1846,) 
and  other  writings,  chiefly  on  church  architecture  and 
kindred  subjects.      Died  in  1888. 

Paley,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  writer,  born 
at  Peterborough  in  1743.  He  graduated  in  1763  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge, — where  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  his  application,* — took 
holy  orders,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  his  college  in 
1766.  He  was  subsequently  employed  as  a  tutor  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  rector  of  Musgrove,  in  West- 
moreland, in  1775,  soon  after  which  date  he  married. 
In  17S2  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Carlisle.  He 
published  in  1785  "The  Principles  of  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy,"  regarded  by  some  as  the  most  important 
of  all  his  works.  As  a  writer  he  excels  in  logical  power 
and  in  clearness  of  style.  He  denies  the  existence  of  a 
moral  sense,  and  adopts  the  maxim  that  "  whatever  is 
expedient  is  right."  He  was  liberal  in  theology,  was 
a  friend  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  earnestly 
advocated  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  In  1790  he 
produced  an  admirable  work  entitled  "  Horae  Paulinae, 
or  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture  History  of  Saint  Paul 
evinced."  He  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  Saint 
Paul's  in  1794,  and  was  presented  to  the  sub-deanery  of 
Lincoln  Cathedral.  About  1795  he  obtained  the  rec- 
tory of  Bishop-Wearmouth.  His  other  principal  works 
are  "  A  View  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (3  vols., 
1794,)  one  of  the  best  works  ever  written  on  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats,  and  "  Natural  Theology,  or  Evidences 
of  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of  the  Deity,"  (1802,) 
which  has  a  very  high  reputation  and  has  often  been 
reprinted.  Paley's  utilitarianism  and  alleged  laxity  of 
view  respecting  certain  questions  in  morals,  and  in  a  no 
less  degree  his  liberalism  in  politics,  were  distasteful  to 
George  III.,  who  refused  positively  to  appoint  him  to  the 
episcojjate,  on  his  nomination  by  the  prime  minister. 
Died  May  25,  1805, 

"This  excellent  writer,"  says  Mackintosh,  "who,  after 
Clarke  arid  Butler,  ought  to  be  ranked  among  the 
brightest  ornaments  of  the  English  Church  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  is  in  the  history  of  philosophy  naturally 
placed  after  Tucker,  to  whom,  with  praiseworthy  libe- 
rality, he  owns  his  extensive  obligations.  .  .  .  His  style 
is  as  near  perfection  in  its  kind  as  any  in  our  language. 
.  .  .  The  most  original  and  ingenious  of  his  writings  is 
the  'Horae  Paulinae.'  'The  Evidences  of  Christianity' 
are  formed  out  of  an  admirable  translation  of  Butler's 
'  Analogy'  and  a  most  skilful  abridgment  of  Lardner's 
'  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History.'  .  .  .  His  '  Natural 
Theology'  is  the  wonderful  work  of  a  man  who  after 
sixty  had  studied  anatomy  in  order  to  write  it ;  f  and  it 


*  It  is  said  that  during  the  early  part  of  his  term  at  Cambridge 
he  spent  his  time  in  agreeable  idleness.  One  of  his  companions 
called  on  him  early  one  morning,  and  told  him  he  had  been  unable  to 
sleep,  from  the  conviction  that  he  (Paley)  was  squandering:  talents 
which,  if  properly  directed,  might  be  most  useful  to  himself  and  to 
the  world,  concluding  with  these  words:  "  If  you  persist  In  your 
indolence,  I  must  renounce  your  society."  The  result  was  tliat  Palev 
entirely  changed  his  course  of  life. 

t  We  do  not  attach  any  very  great  importance  to  the  charge  of 
'stupendous  plagiarism"  brought  against  Paley  for  what  he  has 
borrowed  from  Dr.  Nieuwentyt.  (See  the  article  on  this  subject  in 
the  "London  Athen.-Eum,"  published  in  August,  1S48.)  Macaulay 
well  remarks  that  "the  reasoning  by  which  Socrates,  in  Xeiiophon's 
hearing,  confuted  the  little  atheist  Aristodemus  is  exactly  the  reason- 
ing of  Paley's  '  Natural  'theology.'  "  (See  article  on  "  Ranke's  His- 
tory of  the  Popes,"  in  Macaulay's  "  Essays.")  If,  then,  Paley's  line 
of  argument  is  exactly  like  that  of  Socrates,  and  also  the  same  as 
that  employed  by  Dr.  Nieuwentyt,  it  is  at  least  possible  that  Dr.  Nieu- 
wentyt may  have  derived  some  of  his  ideas  and  arguments — if  not  his 


•cas^;  (jasj;  ^kard:  gasy.G,  \i,Vi,ptttnral;  u,  nasal;  Vi,  trilled:  sas«;  thasin////J,     ([[[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  > 


PALFREY 


l8So 


PALIKA  O 


could  only  have  been  surpassed  by  a  man  who  to  great 
originality  of  conception  and  clearness  of  exposition 
added  the  advantage  of  a  high  place  in  the  first  class 
of  physiologists.  ...  It  cannot  be  denied  that  Paley 
was  sometimes  rather  a  lax  moralist, — especially  on 
public  duties."  (See  Mackintosh's  "  Progress  of  Ethical 
Philosophy.") 

"On  one  great  topic — that  of  Christian  evidence — 
he  has  shed  new  light.  By  felicity  of  arrangement  and 
illustration,  he  has  given  an  air  of  novelty  to  old  argu- 
ments, whilst  he  has  strengthened  his  cause  by  important 
original  proofs.  His  '  Horse  Paulinae'  is  one  of  the 
few  books  destined  to  live.  Paley  saw  what  he  did 
see  through  an  atmosphere  of  light.  He  seized  on  the 
strong  points  of  his  subject  with  an  intuitive  sagacity, 
and  has  given  his  clear  bright  thoughts  in  a  style  which 
has  made  them  the  property  of  his  readers  almost  as 
perfectly  as  they  were  his  own.  ...  He  was  character- 
ized by  the  distinctness  of  his  vision.  He  was  not,  we 
think,  equally  remarkable  for  its  extent.  He  was  popular 
rather  than  philosophical.  He  was  deficient  in  that 
intellectual  thirst  which  is  a  chief  element  of  the  philo- 
sophical spirit.  He  had  no  irrepressible  desire  to  sound 
the  depths  of  his  own  nature,  or  to  ascend  to  wide  and 
all-reconciling  views  of  the  works  and  ways  of  God. 
Moral  philosophy  he  carried  backward ;  nor  had  he 
higher  claims  in  religious  than  in  ethical  science.  His 
sermons  are  worthy  of  all  praise,  not,  indeed,  for  their 
power  over  the  heart,  but  for  their  plain  and  strong 
expositions  of  duty  and  their  awakening  appeals  to  the 
conscience."  (See  "  Remarks  on  the  Character  and 
Writings  of  Fenelon,"  in  Channing's  "Discourses.") 

See  G.  W.  Meadlev,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  ofW.  Paley,"  i8og: 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  :"  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1813;  "Monthly  Review"  for  August  and  December,  1785. 

Pai'frey,  (John  Gorham,)  LL.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  historian,  born  at  Boston  in  1796.  Having  gradu- 
ated in  181 5  at  Harvard  College,  he  studied  theology, 
and  was  appointed  in  1831  Dexter  professor  of  sacied 
literature  at  Harvard.  He  became  in  1836  editor  of  the 
"North  American  Review."  He  published  "  Lectures 
on  the  Jewish  Scriptures  and  Antiquities,"  (4  vols., 
183S-52,)  "Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (1843,)  "Review 
of  Lord  Mahon's  History  of  England,"  (1852,)  and  "The 
Relation  between  Judaism  and  Christianity,"  (1854.)  He 
was  elected  in  1847  to  Congress,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  an  advocate  of  emancipation,  having  pre- 
viously liberated  a  number  of  slaves  bequeathed  to  him 
bv  a  relative  in  New  Orleans.  In  1851  he  became  asso- 
ciate editor  of  "The  Commonwealth,"  a  leading  journal 
of  the  Free-Soil  party.  In  1859  et  seq.  appeared  his 
M  History  of  New  England  during  the  Stuart  Dynasty," 
(4  vols.,)  followed  by  an  abridgment  of  the  same,  entitled 
"A  History  of  New  England  from  the  Discovery  by 
Europeans  to  the  Revolution  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury." Died  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  April  25, 1881. 

Palfrey,  (William,)  an  American  patriot,  born  at 
Boston  in  1741.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  move- 
ments which  preceded  the  Revolution,  and  visited  Eng- 
land in  1 77 1.  In  March,  1776,  he  became  an  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Washington.  He  was  appointed  paymaster- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  in  April, 
1776.  Having  been  appointed  consul-general  in  France 
by  a  unanimous  vote  of  Congress  in  November,  1780, 
he  embarked  in  a  ship  which  was  never  heard  of  after 
she  left  the  Capes. 

Palfy,  pSl'fe,  (Albert,)  a  Hungarian  littirateur  and 
publicist,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1813.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  the  republican  movement  in  1848,  he 
founded   a   daily  paper   called  "The   15th  of  March," 


particular  illustrations— from  Socrates.  We  should  be  very  sorry  to 
Ray  anything  to  encourage  plagiarism  ;  but  those  who  are  best  ac- 
quainted with  what  has  been  done  in  this  department  of  philosophy 
will  probably  be  most  ready  to  admit  the  impossibility  of  any  one 
claiming  justly  absolute  originality,  or  anything  near  it,  in  this  great 
tield  of  thought.  The  chief  merit  of  Paley,  who  does  not  appear  to 
have  made  any  especial  jiretension  to  originality  as  respects  the  in- 
dividual ideas  or  illustrations  of  his  subject,  consists  in  the  admirable 
skill  and  ability  with  which  he  combines  and  presents  the  whole 
argument.  Without  being  the  creator,  or  even  the  first  discoverer, 
of  many  of  the  different  points  of  evidence  adduced  by  him,  he  may 
be  said  to  marshal  them  as  a  consummate  general  marshals  his  forces, 
■o  as  to  render  them  in  combination  irresistible. 


which  obtained  great  popularity  and  had  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  the  Hungarian  revolution.  In  1849  the  journal 
was  confi.scated,  and  its  editor  for  a  time  imprisoned. 
Palfy  is  the  author  of  several  novels,  which  rank  among 
the  best  in  Hungarian  literature. 

PAIfy,  (JAnos,)  Count  of,  a  Hungarian  field-marshal, 
born  in  1659,  served  under  Prince  Eugene  in  the  Italian 
campaigns  of  1 701-2,  and  subsequently  against  the  Turks. 
He  was  appointed  in  1741  commander-general  in  Hun- 
gary, where  he  was  a  zealous  adherent  of  Maria  Theresa. 
Died  in  1751. 

Palfyn,  pSl-fin',  sometimes  written  Palfin,  (Tean,)  a 
skilful  Flemish  anatomist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1650.  He 
lectured  on  surgery  at  Ghent,  made  some  improvements 
in  that  art,  and  published  a  valuable  work  on  "  Surgical 
Anatomy,"  (1710.)    Died  in  1730. 

See  De  Mersseman,  "  Notice  sur  J.  Palfyn."  1844- 
.  Pai'grave,  (Sir  Francis,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  historian, 
born  in  London  in  1788.  His  family  name  was  CoHEN, 
which  he  exchanged  for  that  of  Palgrave.  In  1S27  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  published  in  the  "  Family 
Library,"  in  1831,  "The  History  of  England:  Anglo- 
Saxon  Period,"  and  in  1832  "  The  Rise  and  Progress  of 
the  Engii-^h  Commonwealth:  Anglo-.Saxon  Period,"  (3 
vols.,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  A  few  years 
later  he  was  appointed  deputy  keeper  of  her  Majesty's 
public  records.  Among  his  jjrincipal  works  is  a  "His- 
tory of  Normandy  and  England,"  (ist  vol.,  1851  ;  2d  vol., 
1857.)     Died  in  July,  1S61. 

See   "  Edinburgh  Review"  for   July,   1832,   and  October,   1837. 

Palgrave,  (Francis  Turner,)  LL.D.,  an  English 
poet,  eldest  son  of  Sir  Francis  Palgrave,  was  born  in 
London,  September  28,  1824.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  was  for 
a  time  vice-principal  of  a  training  college  for  school- 
masters. He  published  "  Idylls  and  Songs,"  (1854,)  "  Es- 
says on  Art,"  (1866,)  "Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,"  (1867,) 
"Hymns,"  (1867,)  "Lyrical  Poems,"  (1871,)  and  other 
works.  He  edited  the  well-known  "  Palgrave's  Golden 
Treasury,"  an  excellent  compilation  of  English  lyrics. 

Palgrave,  (William  Gifford,)  an  English  author,  a 
son  of  Sir  F.  Palgrave,  was  born  at  Westminster,  Jan- 
uary 24,  1826,  and  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse, 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  graduating  B.A.  in  1846. 
After  serving  in  the  Bengal  army  for  a  time,  he  became 
a  Jesuit  and  a  priest.  In  this  capacity  he  was  for  many 
years  a  missionary  in  the  Levant.  In  1S62-63  he  trav- 
ersed a  large  part  of  Arabia,  in  the  service  of  the  Jesuits 
and  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  HI.  He  afterwards  (1865) 
entered  the  British  consular  service,  and  was  sent  to 
many  parts  of  the  world.  In  1880  he  became  British 
consul-general  at  Bangkok,  Siam,  and  in  18S4  British 
minister  to  Uruguay.  Among  his  works  are  "  Lectures 
on  the  Massacres  of  the  Christians  in  Syria,"  (1861,) 
"  Narrative  of  a  Year's  Journey  through  Central  and 
Eastern  Arabia,"  (2  vols.,  1865,  a  work  of  rare  value,) 
"Essays  on  Eastern  Questions,"  (1872,)  "Hermann 
Agha,"  (a  novel,  1872,)  a  well-written  work  on  "  Dutch 
Guiana,"  (1876,)  etc.     Died  September  30,  1888. 

Palice.    See  Chabannes,  de,  (Jacques.) 

Palice,  de  la,  deh  It  pj'lfess',  (Jacques  de  Cha- 
bannes— deh  shS'btn',)  Seigneur,  an  able  French 
general,  whom  Charles  VIII.  appointed  lieutenant  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  about  1498.  He  was  wounded 
at  Agnadel  in  1509.  When  Nemours  fell  at  Ravenna,  in 
1512,  the  army  demanded  La  Palice  for  their  general. 
He  was  defeated  at  Guinegate  in  15 13,  obtained  a  mar- 
shal's baton  in  1515,  and  served  under  Lautrec  in  the 
Milanese  in  1521.  In  1523  he  opposed  Constable  Bour- 
bon  with  success  in  Provence.  He  was  killed  at  Pavia 
in  1525. 

Palikao,  de,  deh  pt'li'kt'6',  (Chaklko  Guillaumk 
Marie  ApollinaIre  Antoine  Cousin-Montauban,^ 
Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris,  June  24,  1796. 
He  entered  the  army  very  young,  and  in  1855  became  a 
division-general.  The  victory  he  won  with  the  Anglo- 
French  army  at  Palikao,  in  China,  (September  21,  i860,) 
gave  him  his  title.  In  the  early  part  of  the  German  war 
of  1870  he  became  prime  minister  and  war  minister,  but 
after  the  battle  of  Sedan  he  fled  the  country.  Died 
January  8,  1878. 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  4,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  J,  sAori;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PALINGENIO 


PALLAS 


Palingenio.    See  Manzolli. 

Palingenius  Stellatus.    See  Manzolli. 

Palinure.    See  Palinurus. 

Pal-I-nu'rus,  [Gr.  'G.aTiLvovpoq;  Fr.  Palinure,  pt'le'- 
niiR',]  the  pilot  or  helmsman  of  the  ship  which  carried 
^ncas  in  his  sea-voyage. 

Palliser,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  soldier  and  in- 
ventor, born  in  Dublin,  June  i8,  1830.  He  served  in 
the  army  from  1855  to  1871,  and  invented  field-guns, 
projectiles  for  piercing  the  iron  armour  of  forts  and 
ships,  etc.  He  was  knighted  in  1873.  Died  February 
4,  1882. 

Palisot  de  Beauvois,  pt'le'zo'  deh  bo'vwJ',  (Am- 
BROiSE  Marie  FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  P'rench  botanist 
and  zoologist,  born  at  Arras  in  1752.  He  explored  Benin 
and  a  part  of  Guinea  in  17S6-87,  after  which  he  visited 
Saint  Domingo.  Escaping  from  the  revolted  slaves,  who 
were  about  to  kill  him,  he  took  refuge  in  Philadelphia  in 
1793,  after  which  he  made  a  scientific  excursion  in  the 
interior.  He  returned  to  France  in  1798,  and  succeeded 
Adansonin  the  Institute  in  1806.  He  published  a  "Flora 
of  Owara  and  Benin,"  (2  vols.,  1804-21,)  "Insects  col- 
lected in  Africa  and  America,"  (1805-21,)  and  other 
works.  His  "  Flora  of  Owara,"  etc.  is  described  by 
Dapping  as  "  a  beautiful  work,  rich  in  discoveries." 
Died  in  1820. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Palisot  de  Beauvois,''  1820:  Thi^baut 
DE  Bkrneaud,  "  filoge  historique  de  Palisot  de  Beauvois,"  1821. 

Palissot,  pfle'so',  (Charles  de  Montenoy — moN'- 
teh-nwi',)  a  French  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Nancy 
in  1730.  A  caustic  and  satirical  temper  involved  him 
deeply  in  literary  quarrels,  especially  against  the  En- 
cyclopedists. He  ridiculed  Rousseau  in  his  comedy 
entitled  "The  Circle,"  ("Le  Cercle,"  1755,)  and  Diderot 
in  "  Little  Letters  on  Great  Philosophers,"  ("  Petites 
Lettres  sur  de  grands  Philosophes,"  1757.)  His  comedy 
of  "The  Philosophers"  ("  Les  Philosophes,"  1760)  was 
very  successful ;  but  his  satirical  poem  the  "Dunciade" 
(1764)  was  a  failure.     Died  in  1814. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographle  G^n^rale." 

Pal'is-sj^,  [Fr.  pron.  pt'le'se',]  (Bernard,)  a  cele- 
brated French  potter  and  enameller,  born  near  Agen 
(Lot-et-Garonne)  about  1506.  He  studied  natural  his- 
tory, chemistry,  and  other  sciences.  He  expended  many 
years  in  experiments  on  the  art  of  enamelling  stone- 
ware or  pottery,  and,  after  great  trials  and  sufferings,  at 
last  succeeded,  in  1555.  During  this  period  he  was 
converted  to  the  Reformed  religion,  for  which  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned.  About  156'^  he  was  invited  to 
Paris,  employed  by  the  king,  and  lodged  at  the  Tuileries. 
By  the  favour  of  his  noble  or  royal  patrons,  he  escaped 
the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  in  1572.  In  1575  he 
opened  a  course  of  lectures  on  physics  and  natural  his- 
tory at  Paris.  He  was  the  first  in  France  who  applied 
sound  methods  and  demonstrations  in  explaining  the 
phenomena  of  nature.  He  ornamented  his  ware,  called 
rustiques  figulines,  with  accurate  coloured  figures  of  ani- 
mals. Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Origin 
of  Fountains,  and  on  the  Nature  of  Metals,  Salts,  Stones," 
etc.,  (1580.)  He  died  in  1589,  in  the  Bastille,  where  he 
was  confined  for  his  religious  principles.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished no  less  for  his  virtue  than  for  his  talents. 

SeeALFRKD  DuMESNiL,  "  Bernard  Palissy,"  Paris,  1851  ;  Henrv 
MoRLEV,  "The  Life  of  B.  Palissy,  his  Labours  and  Discoveries," 
London,  2  vols.,  1852;  Camille  Duplessis,  "  fitude  sur  Palissy," 
1855  ;  "  Biographic  Universelle  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Palitzsch,  pi'litsh,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  near  Dresden  in  1723,  was  a  cultivator 
of  the  soil.  He  discovered  with  the  naked  eye  Halley's 
comet  in  December,  1758,  before  it  had  been  seen  by 
any  telescopic  observer.     Died  in  1788. 

Pal'Ia-das,  [IlaAAadaf,]  a  Greek  poet,  lived  about  400 
A.D.  He  wrote  many  epigrams,  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology.  He  ridicules  some  Christians  who  con- 
verted statues  of  the  gods  into  images  of  the  saints. 

Pallade.     See  Palladius. 

Palladines  or  Paladines,  de,  deh  pt'lt'din',  (D'Au- 
RELLES,)  a  French  general,  born  about  1804.  He  served 
in  the  Crimean  war,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in 
1867.  He  commanded  the  army  of  the  Loire,  which  de- 
feated the  Germans  near  Orleans,  November  10,  1870. 


Palladino  da  Teramo.     See  Teramo,  da. 

Pcdladio,  pal-ia'de-o,  [Lat.  Palla'dius,]  (Andrea,) 
an  illustrious  architect,  born  at  Vicenza,  in  Italy,  in  1518. 
It  is  not  known  who  was  his  master ;  but  he  states  in 
one  of  his  works  that  he  chose  Vitruvius  as  his  guide  in 
architecture.  He  found  a  liberal  patron  in  Trissino  the 
poet,  and  visited  Rome  several  times  to  study  the  monu- 
ments of  antiquity.  Having  settled  in  Vicenza,  he  ex- 
hibited his  superior  talents  in  the  design  of  the  Palazzo 
della  Ragione.  He  adorned  his  native  city  with  many 
private  residences  or  villas,  and  built  on  the  Brenta 
the  Foscari  palace,  which  was  much  admired.  The 
Villa  Capra,  or  Rotonda,  near  Vicenza,  and  the  Teatro 
Olimpico,  in  that  city,  are  considered  among  his  master- 
pieces. He  built  several  fine  edifices  in  Venice,  among 
which  is  the  church  of  II  Redentore,  begun  about  1577. 
In  1570  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Architecture," 
which  was  often  reprinted.  He  died  in  1580.  "He 
combines,"  says  Castellan,  "  in  the  style  of  his  edifices, 
simplicity  and  grandeur.  .  .  .  He  seems  to  have  derived 
from  the  ancients  the  quintessence  of  their  taste." 
( "  Biographie  Universelle.")  It  is,  however,  proper 
to  observe  that  while  perhaps  no  other  architect  has 
enjoyed  a  higher  or  more  universal  reputation  for  genius 
and  taste,  so  that  the  term  "  Palladian"  has  been  exten- 
sively used  throughout  Europe  as  equivalent  to  beautiful 
and  excellent  in  architecture,  his  designs,  in  the  opinion 
of  many  critics,  are  very  far  from  being  faultless.  For 
some  severe  strictures  on  the  style  of  Palladio,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  "Architecture,"  by 
Professor  Hosking,  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

See  P.  GuALDO,  "Vita  di  A.  Palladio,"  1749;  T.  Temanza 
"Vita  di  A.  Palladio,"  1763;  A.  Rigato,  "Osservazioni  sopra  A 
Palladio,"  iSii ;  A.  Magkini,  "Memorie  intorno  la  Vita  e  le  Opere 
di  A.  Palladio,"  1845  ;  Milizia,  "  Memorie  degli  Archltetli  antichi  e 
raoderni;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Palladio,  (Biagio  Pallai,)  called  Blosio,  (blo'se-o,) 
a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Castelvetro,  in  Italy.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Foligno  in  1540.     Died  in  155a 

Palladium.     See  Minerva. 

Palladius.     See  Palladio. 

Pal-la'di-us,  [na?Jld(5wf,J  surnamed  Iatrosophis'ta, 
a  Greek  medical  writer  of  an  uncertain  epoch.  As  he 
quotes  Galen,  he  must  have  lived  after  200  A.D.  He  left 
a  short  treatise  on  Fevers,  (rrfpt  ■KvpnCfv  avvToi^og  avvoipi(:,) 
and  scholia  on  Hippocrates'  book  on  Fractures.  Both 
of  these  are  extant. 

Fcdladius,  Bishop  of  Helenopolis,  in  Bithynia,  is 
supposed  to  have  flourished  about  400  a.d.  He  wrote 
a  work,  in  Greek,  called  the  "  Lausiac  History,"  which 
contains  biographies  of  some  ascetics  or  saints  of  Pales- 
tine and  Egypt. 

Palladius,  [Fr.  Pallade,  pt'ltd',]  a  bishop,  who 
was  sent  by  Pope  Celestine  to  convert  the  Irish  or 
Scotch  (Scotos)  about  431  a.d.  He  is  honoured  as  a 
saint  both  by  the  Irish  and  the  Scottish  Romanists. 

Palladius  of  Methone,  a  Greek  Sophist,  lived  about 
325  a.d.     He  wrote  on  the  Festivals  of  the  Romans. 

Palladius,(RuTiLius  Taurus  ^milianus,)  a  Roman 
writer  on  agriculture,  lived  probably  between  300  and 
400  A.D.  His  work  "  On  Agriculture"  ("  De  Re  Rnstica") 
was  popular  in  the  middle  ages,  and  is  still  extant. 

Pallajuolo.     See  Pollajuolo. 

Pal'las,  [Gr.  IlaAAaf,]  an  appellation  of  the  goddess 
Minerva  or  Athena.  (See  Minerva.)  In  Homer  this 
name  always  appears  united  with  Athena,  as  Palla.s 
Athena. 

Pal'las,  a  favourite  of  the  Roman  emperor  Claudius, 
was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  He  was  an  accomplice  of 
Agrippina  in  the  crime  of  poisoning  Claudius.  Died 
in  63  A.D. 

Pallas,  a  son  of  Evander,  King  of  Arcadia,  was  an 
ally  of  ^neas  in  the  war  against  Turnus.  He  was  re- 
nowned for  his  courage,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
.i^neas.     He  was  killed  by  Turnus. 

See  Virgil's  "i'Eneid,"  book  viii.  104,  x.  365-4S9. 

Pallas,  a  son  of  Pandi'on,  King  of  Athens,  and  a 
brother  of  ^geus.  He  was  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
Theseus. 

Pallas,  pdl'lSs,  (Peter  Simon,)  a  distinguished  Prus- 
sian naturalist  and  traveller,  born  in  Berlin  in  1741.    He 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,_i;7t.'iura/:  n,  nusa/;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FALLAVICINI 


PALMER 


was  educated  for  the  medical  profession  at  Gottingen 
and  Leyden,  and  made  himself  master  of  Latin,  French, 
and  English.  He  acquired  reputation  by  his  "  Miscel- 
lanea Zoolojiica,"  (1766.)  and  at  the  invitation  of  Cathe- 
rine II.  he  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg  in  1767.  He  wrote  for 
the  Academy  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Fossil  Bones  of  the 
Huge  Quadrupeds  found  in  Siberia."  Pallas  was  one  of 
the  many  scientific  men  whom  the  empress  sent  in  1768 
to  explore  Siberia.  He  devoted  his  attention  in  this 
great  enterprise  to  zoology,  botanv,  and  geology,  and, 
after  extending  his  researches  to  the  frontier  of  China, 
returned  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1774.  His  "Travels 
through  Different  Provinces  of  the  Russian  Empire" 
(in  German,  1771-76)  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  exact 
descriptions  and  just  observations.  He  discovered  in 
the  mountain-ranges  of  Siberia  the  general  law  of  the 
succession  of  the  three  primitive  orders  of  rocks, — the 
granitic,  the  schistose,  and  the  calcareous.  "This  great 
fact,"  says  Cuvier,  "expressed  in  his  Memoir  read  to 
the  Academy  in  1777,  has  given  birth  to  all  modern 
geology."  He  displayed  his  superior  genius  in  many 
other  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Mon- 
golian Nations,"  "  Essays  on  the  North  in  Relation  to 
Physical  Geography,  Ethnography,"  etc.,  (1781-96,)  and 
"Flora  Rossica,"  (a  "  Flora  of  Russia,"  1785.)  In  1795 
he  removed  for  his  health  to  the  Crimea,  the  climate  of 
which  had  appeared  pleasant  to  him  as  he  formerly 
passed  through  it.  Although  he  was  disappointed  by 
finding  the  climate  extremely  variable,  he  remained  there 
about  fifteen  years,  after  which  he  removed  to  Berlin, 
where  he  died  in  i8u.  He  left  unfinished  a  great  work 
on  the  Zoology  of  the  Russian  Empire,  of  which  3  vols, 
were  published,  entitled  "  Fauna  Asiatico-Rossica."  He 
was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Institute. 

See  RcDOLPHi,  "  Essai  historique  sur  Pallas,"  1812 ;  Cuvier, 
"  Eloges  historiques;"  Meusel,  "  Gelelirtes  Deutschland  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale;"  •'Moiuhiy  Review"  for  January,  1S05. 

Pallavicini,  pil-li-ve-chee'nee,  or  Pelaviciiio,  pi- 
IS-ve-chee'no,  (Ouerto,)  Marquis,  an  able  general,  born 
at  Piacenza.  He  became  the  ally  of  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick against  Gregory  IX.  in  1234,  after  which  he  gained 
victories  over  the  Guelphs  and  made  himself  master  of 
a  large  part  of  Northern  Italy.  His  power  was  subverted 
by  Charles  of  Anjou  in  1266.     Died  in  1269. 

Pallavicini  or  Pallavicino,  pil-ld-ve-chee'no,  (Pie- 
TRO  Sforza,)  an  Italian  historian  and  cardinal,  was  born 
at  Rome  in  1607.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  style,  "Dello 
Stilo,"  (1662,)  and  other  works,  the  best-known  of  which 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent,"  (2  vols.,  1656, 
and  3  vols.,  1664.)  It  is  said  to  be  well  written.  Died 
in  1667. 

See  Ireneo  -Affo,  "Memorie  della  Vita  del  Cardinals  S.  Palla- 
vicino," 1794;  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pallavicini,  (Stefano  Benedetto,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Padua  in  1672.  He  became  a  resident  of  Dres- 
den in  his  youth.  He  produced  several  original  poems, 
and  a  version  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  (1736,)  wliich  is 
elegant,  but  rather  free.     Died  at  Dresden  in  1742. 

Pallavicini  della  Priola,  pil-la-ve-chee'nee  del'li 
puee'o-li,  (Emilio,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Ceva  in  1823.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
against  Austria  in  1859.  He  commanded  the  force  which 
captured  Garibaldi  at  Aspromonte  in  August,  1S62. 

Pallavicino.     See  Pallavicini. 

Pallavicino,  pdl-li-ve-chee'no,  (Ferrante,)  an  Ital- 
i.-in  monk  and  satirical  writer,  born  at  Piacenza  about 
1618.  He  wrote  licentious  works,  and  satires  against 
Pope  Urban  VIII.  and  the  Barberini.  Having  impru- 
dently entered  the  papal  territory,  he  was  seized  and 
beheaded  at  Avignon  in  1644. 

Palliere,  pt'le^iR',  (Vincent  L6on,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  17S7.  He  gained 
the  first  prize  at  Paris  in  1S12,  and  went  to  Rome,  with  a 
pension.  Among  his  works  is  "  Homer  dictating  his 
Poems."     He  died  prematurely  in  1820. 

Palliot,  pt'leV,  (Pierre,)  a  French  genealogist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1608  ;  died  at  Dijon  in  169S. 

Pal'lis-er,  (Sir  Hugh,)  a  British  admiral,  born  about 
1720.  He  was  second  in  command  under  Keppel  at 
the  battle  off  Ushant,  in  1778,  and   was  then  involved 


in  a  dispute  with  Kcj-'pel,  which  was  referred  to  a  court 
of  inquiry.  Palliser  was  censured  by  this  court.  Died 
in  1796. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  Hugh  Palliser,"  by  R.  M.  Hunt,  London,  1844. 

Palloni,  pil-lo'nee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  in  1770,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Flor- 
ence. He  was  ennobled  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany. 
Died  in  1S30. 

Palluel.     See  Crett^  de  Palluel. 

Palm,  ])dlm,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Hanover  in  1697,  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1743. 

Palm,  (JtjiiANN  PiiiLiPP,)  a  German  publisher,  born  at 
Schorndorf  in  1766,  lived  in  Nuremberg.  For  the  publi- 
cation of  a  ])amphlet  against  Bonaparte,  he  was  tried  by 
a  French  military  commission,  and  shot,  in  August,  1806. 

Palm,  van  der,  vin  der  pilm,  (Johannes  IIen- 
RlCUS,)  an  eminent  Dutch  historian.  Orientalist,  and 
politician,  born  in  1765.  His  great  work  is  the  brilliant 
"  Gedenkschrift  van  Nederlands  llerstelling,"  a  patriotic 
history.     Died  in  1840 

Palma,  pai'md,  (Jacopo,)  styled  II  Vecchio,  (h\  v5k'- 
ke-o,)  or  the  Elder,  an  eminent  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  near  Bergamo.  His  birth  is  variously  dated 
from  about  1480  to  1520.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
pupil  of  Titian.  He  excelled  in  vivacity  and  softness  of 
colouring.  The  galleries  of  Europe  contain  a  great  many 
works  attributed  to  him.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
a  "Last  Supper"  and  a  Madonna  at  Vicenza.  His  works 
exhibit  good  taste  in  composition,  and  such  a  union  of 
tints  that  no  trace  of  the  brush  is  perceptible.  Died  at 
the  age  of  forty-eight. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Rodolfi,  "Vita  degli  fl- 
lustri  Pittori  Veneti  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Palma,  (Jacopo,)  the  Younger,  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1544.  He  imitated 
Titian  and  Tintoretto,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
In  the  opinion  of  some  writers,  he  combined  the  best 
l^rinciples  of  the  Roman  and  Venetian  schools.  "The 
distinctive  mark  of  his  talent,"  says  the  "Biographic 
Universelle,"  "is  facility.  His  tints  are  fresh  and  trans- 
parent, and  more  agreeable  than  those  of  Tintoretto." 
He  is  charged,  however,  with  depraving  the  style  of  the 
Venetian  school.  Among  his  works  are  an  "Annuncia- 
tion" and  "The  Plague  of  the  Serpents."    Died  in  1628. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Palmaroli,  piil-m^-ro'lee,(PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
distinguished  for  his  skill  in  transferring  frescos  to  can- 
vas. He  practised  this  art  first  with  success  in  181 1. 
He  transferred  and  restored  many  pictures  of  the  old 
masters  in  Rome.     Died  in  1828. 

Palmblad,  i^ilm'bldd,  (Wilhelm  Fredrik,)  a  Swe- 
dish editor  and  writer,  born  near  Soderkoping  in  1788. 
He  edited  several  literary  periodicals,  one  of  which  was 
the  "  Phosphorus,"  and  became  a  member  of  a  new 
school,  called  Phosphorists,  who  preferred  German  lit- 
erature and  influence  to  the  French.  He  was  professor 
of  history  and  of  the  Greek  language  at  Upsal.  His 
chief  [production  is  a  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Swedes,"  (23  vols.,)  a  work  of  much  merit,  com- 
menced about  1835  and  finished  in  1857.  He  wrote  a 
successful  novel,  called  "Aurora  Konigsmark,"  (6  vols., 
1846-51.)     Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon  ofv-er  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Palniegiani,  pdl-mi-ji'nee,  or  Palmezzano,  pil- 
mlt-si'no,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Fori!  in  the  fifteenth  century.  His  works  are  dated 
from  1 5 13  to  1537. 

Palmella,  pal-mel'li,  (Pedro  de  Souza-Holstein 
— so'zi  ol-stan',  ?)  Duke  of,  a  liberal  Portuguese  states- 
man, born  at  Turin  in  1786.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  and  president  of  the  council  by 
John  VI.  of  Portugal  in  1823.  He  was  an  adherent  of 
Don  Pedro  in  his  contest  against  Don  Miguel,  (1830-33.) 
After  the  accession  of  Queen  Maria  (1834)  he  became 
prime  minister.     Died  in  1850. 

Palmer,  pi'mer,  (.-Vlonzo  Benjamin,)  M.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  physician,  born  at  Richfield,  New  York, 
October  6,  1815.     He  studied  medicine  in  the  New  York 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PALMER 


1883 


PALMERSTON 


College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  graduating  in  1839. 
He  afterwards  studied  in  Philadelphia,  in  New  York, 
and  in  Europe.  In  1850  he  removed  to  Chicago,  and  in 
1852  became  professor  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  in 
which  he  held  the  chair  of  anatomy,  (1852-54,)  that  of 
materia  medica  and  therapeutics,  (1854-60,)  and  that  of 
pathology  and  practice  after  i860,  besides  for  several 
years  holding  professorships  in  otlier  medical  schools. 
His  principal  work  is  "The  Science  and  Practice  of 
Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1882.)  He  also  jjublished  a  polemic 
on  "Homoeopathy,"  (1880;  2d  edition,  1S82,)  and  many 
professional  papers  and  pamphlets.    Died,  Dec.  23,  1887. 

Palmer,  (Benjamin  Morgan,)  D.D.,  LL.U.,  an 
American  Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  January  25,  1818.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Georgia  in  1838,  and  was  for  some  time 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  theological  semi- 
nary at  Columbia,  South  Carolina.  lie  published  a 
"Life  of  Dr.  Thornwell,"  "The  P\-imily  in  its  Civil  and 
Churchly  Aspects,"  two  volumes  of  sermons,  etc. 

Pal'mer,  (Christian  David  Friedrich,)  a  German 
Protestant  divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Winnenden, 
Wiirtemberg,  January  27,  181 1.  He  studied  at  Tubin- 
gen, and  was  in  1851  appointed  professor  of  practical  the- 
ology there.  He  published  "  Evangelical  Homiletics," 
"Catechetics,"  "  Poedagogics,"  "Pastoral  Theology," 
and  other  works.  Died  at  Tubingen,  May  29,  1875. 
.  Palmer,  (Edward  Henry,)  an  accomplished  English 
linguist,  born  in  Cambridge,  August  7,  1S40.  After  his 
graduation  at  Cambridge  in  1867  he  travelled  extensively 
in  the  East.  He  became  Arabic  professor  at  Cambridge 
in  1871,  and  in  1882  was  sent  as  British  agent  to  restrain 
the  tribes  of  North-Western  Arabia  during  the  war 
with  Arabi  Pasha  in  Egypt.  He  was  killed  by  the  Arabs 
in  August,  1882.  Palmer  was  a  man  of  vast  attainments, 
and  had  the  finest  natural  gifts.  Among  his  books  are 
"The  Negah,  or  South  Country  of  Scripture,"  (1871,) 
"The  Desert  of  the  Exodus,"  (1871,)  and  various  poet- 
ical translations  into  and  from  the  Persian,  etc. 

Palmer,  pi'mer,  (Erastus  Dow,)  a  distinguished 
American  sculptor,  born  in  Onondaga  county.  New 
York,  in  1S17.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an 
"Indian  Girl  Contemplating  a  Crucifix,"  "The  White 
Captive,"  the  "Sleeping  Peri,"  and  the  "Landing  of 
the  Pilgrims."  He  has  also  executed  a  number  of  por- 
traits, busts,  and  bas-reliefs. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Palmer,  pS'mer,  (Herbert,)  an  English  Puritan  min- 
ister, born  in  Kent  in  1601.  He  preached  at  Canter- 
bury, Cambridge,  and  London,  and  published  a  popular 
work  entitled  "  Memorials  of  Godliness,"  (1644.)  Died 
in  1647. 

Palmer,  (Innis  N.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1S46.  lie  fought 
as  brigadier-general  in  the  Union  army  at  Fair  Oaks, 
and  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  He  commanded  in 
the  district  of  North  Carolina  from  April,  1864,  to 
March,  1865. 

Palmer,  (James  S.,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  born 
in  New  Jersey,  entered  the  navy  in  1825.  He  com- 
manded the  Iroquois  in  the  passage  of  the  batteries  of 
Vicksburg,  June,  1862,  and  was  captain  of  Farragut's  flag- 
ship when  she  ran  past  the  batteries  of  Port  Hudson,  in 
March,  1863.  Having  gained  the  rank  of  commodore, 
he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  Western  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron  about  the  end  of  1864.  Died  in 
December,  1867. 

See  J.  T.  Headlev,  "  Farragut  ai.d  our  Naval  Commanders." 

Palmer,  (John,)  an  English  Unitarian  minister,  born 
in  1729,  preached  in  London  many  years.     Died  in  1790. 

Palmer,  (John,)  the  projector  of  mail-coaches  in  Eng- 
land, was  born  at  Bath  in  1742.  He  obtained  the  office 
of  controller-general  of  the  post-office,  but  was  removed 
in  1792.     Died  in  1818. 

Palmer,  (John,)  an  English  actor,  born  in  London 
about  1 740;  died  in  1798. 

Palmer,  (John  McAuley,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Scott  county,  Kentucky,  in  1817,  was  a  lawyer 
before  the  civil  war,  and  practised  in  Illinois.  He  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  December, 


i86i,  and  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862-January  2,  1863.  For  his 
services  in  this  action  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Chicka- 
mauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863,  and  commanded  a 
corps  under  Sherman  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta, 
May-September,  1864.  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
Illinois  by  the  Republicans  in  November,  1868. 

Palmer,  (Phebe,)  an  American  author,  born  in  New 
York  city,  December  iS,  1807.  She  married  Dr.  W.  C. 
Palmer  in  1827.  She  became  a  revivalist  speaker  of  the 
Methodist  denomination,  and  published  "The  Way  of 
Holiness,"  "Faith  and  its  Effects,"  "Four  Years  in  the 
Old  World,"  and  other  works.  She  wrote  also  various 
hymns,  etc.     Died  in  1874. 

Palmer,  (Ray,)  an  American  poet,  bom  at  Little 
Compton,  Rhode  Island,  November  12,  1808,  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1830,  and,  having  studied  divinity  in 
New  Haven,  was  in  1835  ordained  a  Congregationalist 
minister.  He  has  published  various  devotional  and  re- 
ligious books,  and  several  volumes  of  poems  and  hymns, 
of  which  some  are  widely  popular.  Among  his  books 
are  "  Spiritual  Improvement,"  (1839  ;  reissued  as  "Closet 
Hours,"  1851,)  "Remember  Me,"  (1855,)  "Complete 
Poetical  Works,"  (1876,)  "Voices  of  Hope  and  Glad- 
ness," (1880,)  etc.     JDied  March  29,  1887.] 

Palmer,  (Sir  Roundell,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  legislator,  born  at  Mixbury,  Oxfordshire,  in  181 2. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837,  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1847,  and  appointed  solicitor-general  in  i86i.  He 
was  attorney-general  from  1863  to  June,  1866.  He  is 
one  of  the  ablest  debaters  of  the  Liberal  party  in  Par- 
liament. He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Richmond 
ini86i,in  1865,  and  in  1868,  and  in  1872  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  of  England,  and  raised  to  the  peerage  by 
the  title  of  Baron  Selborne  of  Selborne.  In  1877  he  was 
elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's. 

Peilmer,  (Samuel,)  an  English  etcher  and  painter, 
born  at  Walworth,  in  Surrey,  in  1805.  He  won  success 
in  oil-  and  water-colours,  but  his  chief  fame  is  derived 
from  his  etchings  and  illustrative  drawings.    D.  in  1881. 

Palmer,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  a  brother  of 
Lord  Selborne,  (see  Palmer,  Roundell,)  was  born  at 
Mixbury,  July  12,  1811.  In  1830  he  graduated  as  B.A. 
at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  became  an  Anglican 
priest,  but  in  1856  he  joined  the  Romanists.  He  published 
various  theological  works.    Died  at  Rome,  April  5,  1879. 

Palmer,  (William  Pitt,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Stockbridge,  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1805. 
He  passed  a  large  part  of  his  mature  life  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  vv'as  successively  a  medical  student,  a 
teacher,  a  writer  for  public  journals,  and  a  clerk  in  a 
public  office.  He  wrote  a  hymn  or  ode  entitled  "  Light," 
and  other  short  poems.     Died  May  2,  1884. 

Palmerston,  pj'mer-ston,  (Henry  John  Temple,) 
Viscount,  an  eminent  English  prime  minister,  born 
at  Broadlands,  near  Romsey,  in  Hampshire,  on  the  20th 
of  October,  1784.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  Tem- 
ple, second  Viscount  Palmerston,  and  was  descended 
from  an  ancient  family,  of  which  the  famous  Sir  William 
Temple  was  a  member.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Edinburgh,  and  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  At 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1802,  he  succeeded  to  the 
estate  and  title  of  viscount,  (in  the  Irish  peerage.)  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  by  the  Tories  in 
1807,  and  was  appointed  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the 
same  year.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  talenia 
for  business  and  his  political  tact.  In  1809  he  became 
secretary  at  war  in  the  ministry  of  Percival,  and  in  1811 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  which  he  continued  to  represent  for  about 
twenty  years. 

He  retained  the  office  of  secretary  at  war  during  the 
long  administration  of  Liverpool  (1812-27)  and  under 
the  ministries  of  Canning  and  Goderich.  As  an  advocate 
of  Catholic  emancipation,  he  declined  to  serve  under  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  and  resigned  office  in  1828.  Before 
this  date  he  had  become  3n  eminent  debater,  especially 
on  foreign  affairs,  in  respect  to  which  he  favoured  the 
policy  of  Canning.  Although  he  had  hitherto  been  a 
Tory,  he  accepted  office  as  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in 


€as>i,-  gasj;  ghard:  gas/;G,  H,K,guttural;  a, nasal;  R,trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in /■//;>.     (JJ^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PALMEZZANO 


1884 


PAMPHILUS 


the  Whig  ministry  formed  in  November,  1830.  Having 
resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  Noveml)er,  1834,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  same  office  in  the  Melbourne  ministry 
in  April,  1835,  and  held  it  until  the  accession  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  in  September,  1841.  During  this  term  of 
official  service  he  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  settlement 
of  the  Eastern  question.  He  induced  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia  to  unite  with  England  in  a  treaty  signed  in 
London  in  July,  1840,  and  to  resist  the  progress  of  Me- 
hemet  AH  in  Syria.  France,  which  favoured  Mehemet 
Ali,  was  thus  ignored  in  the  settlement  of  the  question. 
He  married  about  1839  the  first  Lord  Melbourne's 
daughter,  who  was  the  widow  of  Earl  Cowper.  On 
the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Lord  John  Russell, 
in  1846,  Palmerston  again  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  pursued  the  policy  of  neutrality  towards  the 
revolutionary  movements  by  which  Europe  was  con- 
vulsed in  1848  and  1849,  but  he  promptly  recognized  the 
French  republic,  and  favoured  Napoleon's  cotip  cfitat 
in  1 85 1.  In  consequence  of  a  disagreement  with  Lord 
John  Russell,  he  was  removed  in  December  of  that  year. 
In  December,  1852,  Lord  Aberdeen  formed  a  coalition 
ministry,  in  which  Palmerston  was  secretary  for  the  home 
department,  while  the  ministry  "drifted"  into  war  against 
Russia.  He  succeeded  Lord  Aberdeen  as  prime  min- 
ister in  February,  1S55,  and  formed  a  cabinet  chiefly 
of  Whigs  or  Liberals.  Peace  was  restored  with  Russia 
in  March,  1856.  Having  been  defeated  in  Parliament 
on  the  subject  of  the  Chinese  war  in  March,  1857,  he 
appealed  to  the  country,  which  sustained  his  policy  by 
a  large  majority.  He  failed  in  his  effort  to  pass  the 
Conspiracy  bill  occasioned  by  Orsini's  conspiracy  against 
Napoleon  HI.,  and  was  compelled  to  resign  in  February, 
1858.  In  June,  1859,  he  succeeded  Lord  Derby  as  the 
head  of  a  ministry  in  which  Russell  was  foreign  secretary 
and  Gladstone  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  con- 
tinued to  be  prime  minister  until  his  death,  October  18, 
1865.  He  had  no  children.  Palmerston  retained  in 
his  old  age  much  of  the  vigour  and  vivacity  of  youth. 
He  was  an  excellent  master  of  parliamentary  science 
and  jjolitical  tactics,  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of 
popularity.  He  represented  Tiverton  in  the  House 
of  Commons  from  1835  to  his  death. 

See  G.  H.  Franxis,  "Opinions  and  Policy  of  Viscount  Palmer- 
ston as  Minister,  Diplomatist,  and  Statesman,"  1852;  "Thirty  Years 
of  Foreign  Policy:  a  History  of  the  Secretaryships  of  Earl  Aberdeen 
and  Lord  Palmerston,"  1855 :  Comte  de  Ficquelmont,  "  Lord 
Palmerston,  I'Angleterre  et  le  Continent,"  1852;  L.  de  Lom^nie, 
"  Lord  Palmerston,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842;  Harriet  Mar- 
TlNEAi',  "  Biographical   Sketches,"  1870. 

Palmezzano.     See  Palmegiant. 

Palmieri,  pil-me-a'ree,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  and  animals,  born  at  Genoa  in  1674;  died 
in  1740. 

Palmieri,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  economist,  born  in 
the  province  of  Otranto  in  1721.  He  was  director- 
general  of  the  finances  at  Naples.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Art  of  War,"  ( 1 761,)  and  "  Thoughts  on  Economy," 
("Pensieri  economici,"  1789.)     Died  in  1793. 

Palmieri,  (Luigi,)  an  emment  Italian  vulcanist  and 
meteorologist,  born  at  Faicchio,  near  Benevento,  April 
22,  1807.  He  held  professorships,  chiefly  at  Naples. 
His  reports  on  the  eruptions  of  Vesuvius,  and  on  the 
meteorological  observations  made  at  the  Vesuvian  sta- 
tion, are  of  much  value.  He  invented  a  rain-gauge,  a 
seismometer,  an  electrometer,  etc. 

Palmieri,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Florence  in  1405.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  General  Chroni- 
cle from  the  Creation  to  his  Own  Time."    Died  in  1475. 

Palmieri,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at 
Pisa  in  1423.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  chronicle 
of  Matteo  Palmieri  from  1449  to  1481,  (1483.)  Died  in 
1483- 

Palmquist,  pSlm'kwist,  (Fredertk,)  a  Swedish  ma- 
thematician, born  in  1720;  died  in  1771. 

Palmquist,  (Magnus,)  Baron,  a  Swedish  military 
officer,  born  in  1660.  He  was  very  skilful  in  fortifica- 
tions, and  was  president  of  the  Council  of  Mines.  Died 
in  1729. 

Palombi,  pj-lom'bee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Spoleto  in  1753,  wrote  "II  Medoro  coronato  " 
{1828.)     Died  in  1826. 


Palomino  de  Castro  y  Velasco,  pj-lo-mee'no  di 
kSs'tro  e  vi-lJs'ko,  (Don  Acisi.o  Antonio,)  a  celebrated 
Syjanish  painter,  born  near  Cordova  in  1653.  His  name 
is  sometimes  written  Pai.omino  de  Velasco.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Juan  de  Valdes  Leal.  Having  painted  the 
story  of  Psyche  for  Charles  II.,  he  obtained,  at  an  early 
age,  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king.  His  chief  merits 
are  correct  design,  beautiful  colour,  and  excellence  in 
perspective.  "The  Confession  of  Saint  Peter"  is  called 
one  of  his  best  works.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded 
on  his  treatise  on  painting,  entitled  "El  Museo  pictorico 
y  Escala  optica,"  (2  vols.,  1715,)  and  his  "Lives  of 
Spanish  Painters"  contained  in  his  "  Parnaso  Espanol 
pictorico,"  (l  vol.,  1724.)     Died  at  Madrid  in  1726. 

See  QuiLLiKT,  "Dictioimaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols;"  Cean- 
Bfrmudez,  "Diccionario." 

Palotta,  pi-lot'tJ,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Palermo  about  1680.  In  1733  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  appointed  him  one  of  the  court 
composers  at  Vienna,  where  he  died  in  1758. 

P&ls'grave,  (John,)  an  English  grammarian,  born  in 
London.  He  gave  lessons  in  French  to  Mary,  a  sister 
of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1514,  and  published  a  French  gram- 
mar, (1530.)  This  is  the  most  ancient  printed  work  on 
that  subject  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  according 
to  Barbier,  who  praises  his  sagacity  and  taste.  Died 
in  1554- 

Palu,  de  la,  deh  It  pt'lii',  [  Lat.  Paluda'nus,  ] 
(Pierre,)  a  French  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Varam- 
bon  about  1280.  He  was  appointed  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem about  1330,  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1342. 

Paludan-Miiller,  pil'00-dtn'  mll'ler,  (Caspar 
Peter,)  a  Danish  historian,  a  brother  of  Frederic,  was 
horn  in  1805.  He  published  several  works  on  Danish 
history,  and  "Researches  on  Machiavel,"  (1839.) 

Paludan-Miiller,  (  Frederic,  )  a  popular  Danish 
poet,  born  in  Fiinen  in  1809.  He  produced  in  1832 
"Cupid  at  Court,"  a  comedy,  and  in  1833  a  poem  called 
"The  Danseuse,"  ("Dandserinden,")  which  is  much  ad- 
mired. His  most  remarkable  work,  perhaps,  is  "  Adam 
Homo,"  (1841-49,)  a  humorous  poem.  He  is  commended 
for  happy  images,  noble  ideas,  and  force  of  sentiment, 
but  is  deficient  in  invention  as  a  dramatist     Died  1876. 

Paludanus.     See  Palu. 

Paludanus,  pi-lii-di'nus,  (Bernard  Ten  Broek— 
t5n  bRook,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and  traveller,  born  at 
Steenwyk  in  1550;  died  in  1633. 

Paludanus,  (  Jean  van  den  Broek,  )  a  Flemish 
theologian,  born  at  Malines  in  1565.  He  was  professor 
at  Louvain,  and  author  of  several  works.     Died  in  1630. 

Pamard,  pt'mtR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Antoine,)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  at  Avignon  in  1763 ;  died  in  1S27. 

Patnele,  de, deh  pt'miK,  [Lat.  Pame'lius,]  (Jacques,) 
a  Flemish  priest,  born  at  Bruges  in  1536.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Cyprian  (1568)  and  Tertullian,  (1579,)  and 
wrote  "  Liturgica  Latinorum,"  (1571.)     Died  in  1587. 

Pamelius.    See  Pam^le. 

Pam'me-nes,  [na/i^7;f,]  a  Theban  general,  was  a 
friend  of  Epaminondas.  Philip  of  Macedon  was  in  the 
custody  of  Pammenes  while  he  was  a  hostage  at  Thebes. 
Pammenes  commanded  an  army  sent  to  Megalopolis 
in  352  B.C. 

Pammenes,  an  Athenian  orator  and  teacher  of 
rhetoric,  lived  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  who  extols  his 
'-loquence  in  high  terms. 

Pam'phi-la,  [Gr.  X\.a[i<^L7.ri^  a  Roman  or  Greek  histo- 
rian, lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  She  wrote  a  historical 
work  entitled  ii7rO(Ui^//ara  laropiKa,  which  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  some  ancient  critics.     It  is  not  extant. 

PampiUe.     See  Pamphilus. 

Pam'phl-lus,  [n«,//iii'Aof,]  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Greek  painters,  was  a  native  of  Amphipolis,  and  flour- 
ished between  390  and  350  R.c.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Eupompus,  whom  he  succeeded  as  the  master  of  the 
Sicyonian  school  of  painting.  As  a  teacher  of  art,  he  was 
probably  surpassed  by  none  of  the  ancients.  His  school 
was  remarkable  for  the  importance  which  the  master 
attached  to  general  learning  and  the  great  attention  he 
paid  to  accuracy  in  drawing.     Pliny  says  that  he  was 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /an^;  k,  k.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  %  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


PAMPHILUS 


PANDULPHUS 


the  first  artist  who  was  well  versed  in  all  sciences,  and 
that  he  thought  geometry  necessary  to  the  perfection  of 
his  art.  He  excelled  in  composition,  and  in  what  Quin- 
tilian  calls  ratio,  or  proportion.  Pliny  mentions  four  of 
his  works,  among  which  was  "  Ulysses  on  his  Raft." 
Apelles  and  Melanthius  were  his  ijupils. 

Pamphilus,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  lie  was 
the  author  of  a  "Greek  Lexicon." 

Pamphilus,  [Fr.  Pamphile,  pftN'fJK,]  Saint,  an  emi- 
nent martyr,  born  at  Berytus,  (Beyroot,)  in  Syria,  about 
245  A.D.  He  became  presbyter  of  Caesarea,  in  Pales- 
tine, where  he  founded  a  large  and  renowned  public 
library.  He  was  eminent  for  learning  and  piety.  Hav- 
ing a  high  esteem  for  the  works  of  Origen,  he  tran- 
scribed nearly  all  of  them  with  his  own  hand.  Pamphilus 
and  Eusebius  composed  jointly  an  "Apology  for  Origen." 
He  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Maximin,  at 
Cajsarea,  in  309  a.d.  Eusebius  testified  his  friendship 
and  honour  for  him  by  adopting  the  name  of  Pamphiu. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "  De  Scriptoribiis  Ecclesiasticis  ;"  Baronius, 
"  Annales." 

Pan,  [Gr.  Ildv,]  the  god  of  flocks,  shepherds,  and 
pastures,  in  classic  mythologv,  was  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Mercury,  and  was  sometimes  identified  with  the  Roman 
Lupercus.  He  combined  the  form  of  a  man  with  that  of 
a  goat,  having  horns  and  feet  like  the  latter  animal.  He 
was  fond  of  music  and  riotous  noise,  and  was  the  inventor 
of  the  syrinx,  the  pastoral  pipe  or  flute.  The  principal 
seat  of  his  worship  was  Arcadia.  He  was  regarded  by 
some  philosophers  as  the  symbol  of  the  universe  ;  for 
Pan  signifies  "all."  Panic  terrors  were  ascribed  to 
Pan,  who  sometimes  appeared  to  travellers  and  sur- 
prised them  with  a  sudden  alarm.  The  Romans  ob- 
served an  annual  festival,  called  Litfercalia,  in  honour 
of  Pan,  whose  priests  were  styled  Lupcrci. 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology  ;"  "  Biographie  Univeiseile,"  (P.irlie  niythologique.) 

Pan-a-9e'a,  [Gr.  Havuxiia;  Fr.  Panache,  pS'nt's.V,] 
(i.e.  the  "all-healing,")  a  daughter  of  i^sculapius,  is 
simply  a  personification  of  the  healing  power. 

Pahacee.    See  Panacea. 

Panaenus,  pa-nee'nus,  [Iluvatvof,]  an  eminent  Athe- 
nian painter,  who  lived  about  450  u.c,  was  a  brother  of 
Phidias,  according  to  Pausanias,  or  his  nephew,  accord- 
ing to  Strabo.  He  aided  Phidias  in  the  decoration  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  in  which  he  painted, 
among  other  subjects,  "Atlas  Ui)holding  Heaven,"  and 
the  "Combat  of  Hercules  with  the  Nemean  Lion."  His 
master-piece  was  a  series  of  pictures  of  the  battle  of 
Marathon  in  the  Pojcile  at  Athens. 

Paiiaetius,  pa-nee'she-us,  [Harainof,]  a  Greek  Stoic 
or  Eclectic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rhodes,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and  perhaps  of  Carneades. 
About  140  or  150  B.C.  he  visited  Rome,  taught  philos- 
ophy to  Scipio  Africanus  and  Laelius,  and  enjoyed  the 
intimate  friendship  of  the  former.  He  was  afterwards 
the  head  of  the  Stoic  school  at  Athens,  and  died,  at  an 
advanced  age,  before  iii  B.C.  He  is  the  representative 
of  a  moderate  stoicism,  and  appears  to  have  rejected 
the  principle  of  apathy.  None  of  his  works  are  extant. 
Among  them  was  a  treatise  "  On  Duties,"  to  which 
Cicero  was  indebted  for  many  principles  of  his  book 
"DeOfficiis."  Cicero  avowed  this  fact,  and  expressed 
a  very  high  esteem  for  Panaetius. 

See  SuinAs,  "  Panaetius ;"  Van  Lijnden,  "  Disputatio  historico- 
critica  de  Panjetio,"  1802;  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Panard,  pt'ntR',  (Chari.es  Francois,)  a  French 
chansonnier  and  dramatist,  born  near  Chartres  about 
1694.  He  wrote  successful  songs,  vaudevilles,  comedies, 
and  pleasant  satires.     Died  in  1765  or  1769. 

Panartz,    See  Pannartz. 

Panchamuki,  one  of  the  names  of  Siva,  which  see. 

Panciroli,  pSn-che-ro'lee,  (Guido,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Reggio  in  1523.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Roman  law  at  Turin  (1571-82)  and  at  Padua. 
Among  his  important  works  is  one  on  illustrious  jurists, 
"  De  Claris  Legum  Interpretibus,"  (1637  ;)  also  one  en- 
titled "Rerum  Memorabilium  Libri  duo,"  (1599,)  which 
treats  of  ancient  arts  and  inventions  of  which  the  secret 
is  lost.     Died  in  1599. 


Panckoucke,  pflN'kook',  (Andr6  Joseph,)  a  French 
bookseller  and  compiler,  born  at  Lille  in  1700.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Philosophic  Manual,"  (2  vols.,  1748,)  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  French  Proverbs,"  (1749,)  and  other  works. 
He  also  wrote  "The  Rattle  of  Fontenoy,"  in  burlesque 
verse,  a  parody  on  Voltaire's  poem  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1753. 

Panckoucke,  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Lille  in  1736,  was  an  eminent  publisher 
in  Paris,  and  a  writer  of  some  merit.  He  was  the  pro- 
prietor or  editor  of  the  "Mercure  de  France,"  for  which 
he  procured  15,000  subscribers.  About  1781  he  formed 
the  plan  of  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique,"  a  very  large 
and  important  work.  He  founded  the  "Moniteur,"  a 
daily  journal,  in  1789.  He  translated  Lucretius,  (1768.) 
and  "Orlando  Furioso,"  (1798.)  He  corresponded  with 
Bufi"on,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau.     Died  in  1798. 

See  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Panckoucke,  (Charles  Louis  Fleury— fluh're',) 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  publisher  and  translator.  He 
was  the  publisher  of  a  "  Dictionary  of  Medical  Sciences," 
(60  vols.,)  and  of  a  collection  of  Latin  classics,  with 
translations,  entitled  "Latin-French  Library,"  ("Biblio- 
theque  Latine-Fran9aise,"  174  vols.,  1828  et  sea.)  He 
translated  Tacitus,  (7  vols.,  1S30-38.)     Died  in  1844. 

Pan'coast,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Burlington  county,  New  Jersey,  in  lSo'5.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1828, 
and  for  many  years  held  professorships  of  surgery  and 
of  anatomy  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  published  "Operative  Surgery,"  (1852,) 
etc.     Died  March  7,  1882. 

Pancratius,  pan-kra'she-us,  one  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians, suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian. 

Pandare.     See  Pandarus. 

Pan'da-rus,  [Gr.  liavdapog;  Fr.  Pandare,  pftN'dtR',] 
a  semi-fabulous  warrior,  who  fought  against  the  Greeks 
in  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  an  excellent  archer.  He  was 
killed  by  Diomede. 

Pan-di'on,  [Gr.  TLavSluv,']  a  son  of  Cecrops,  became 
King  of  Athens,  but  was  expelled  from  that  country  and 
afterwards  ruled  over  Megara.  He  was  the  father  of 
/Egeus,  Pallas,  and  other  sons. 

Pandion,  a  mythical  king  of  Athens,  was  a  son  of 
Erichthonius,  and  the  father  of  Erechtheus,  Philomela, 
and  Procne.  It  was  fabled  that  Ceres  and  Bacchus  came 
to  Attica  in  the  reign  of  Pandion. 

Pandolfe.     See  Pandolfo. 

Pandolfi,  pin-dol'fee,  (Giangiacomo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Pesaro,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Zuccaro.  He 
flourished  about  1630. 

Pandolfini,  pin-dol-fee'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian 
statesman,  economist,  and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in 
1360  ;  died  in  1446. 

Pandolfo,  piln-doKfo,  [Fr.  Pandolfe,  pftN'dolF; 
Lat.  Pandui/phus,]  Prince  of  Benevento  and  Capua, 
began  to  reign  in  961.  He  was  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful princes  of  Italy.     Died  in  981  A.D. 

Pan-do'ra,  [Gr.  T\.av6upa,  from  wdv,  "every,"  and 
iupov,  "gift;"  Fr.  Pandore,  pftN'doR',]  the  name  given 
in  the  Greek  mythology  to  the  first  woman,  who  was 
endowed  by  Minerva  and  Venus  with  every  attractive 
quality, — whence  her  name,  which  signifies  possessing 
"every  gift."  Jupiter  gave  her  a  beautiful  box,  which 
she  was  to  present  to  the  man  who  should  marry  her. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Epimetheus,  who  opened  the 
box,  whereupon  there  issued  from  it  the  numerous  evils 
that  have  since  infested  human  life.  Pandora  closed  the 
box  in  time  to  prevent  the  escape  of  Hope.  According 
to  one  account,  Pandora  herself,  prompted  by  curiosity, 
opened  the  box,  though  she  had  been  forbidden  to  do 
so.  Another  legend  tells  us  that  Pandora's  box  con- 
tained various  blessings,  which  escaped  when  she  opened 
it,  and  could  never  be  recovered, — Hope  alone  remaining 
in  the  casket. 

See  ScHOEMANN,  "De  Pandora  Commentatio,"  i8;3;  "Biogra- 
phic Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Pandore.    See  Pandora. 
Pandulphus.    See  Pandolfo. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  s^tt.iral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (g^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PANEBIANCO 


PANVINIO 


Panebianco,  pd-nA-be-Si/ko,  (Antonio  Makia,)  an 
Italian  cardinal,  born  at  Terranova,  August  14,  1S08, 
entered  the  conventual  order  of  Friars  Minor,  and  in 
1861  was  created  a  cardinal-priest,  and  one  of  the  heads 
of  the  episcopal  examinations  in  theology. 

Panel,  pt'nSl',  (Alexandre  Xavier,)  a  French  nu- 
mismatist, born  at  Nozeroy  in  1699.  lie  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Royal  College  at  Madrid,  and  wrote  many 
works  on  ancient  coins  and  other  antiquities.  Died 
in  1777. 

Panetti,  p3-net'tee,  (Domenico,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1460 ;  died  in  1530. 

Panfili.     See  Innocent  X. 

Pan-hel-le'nI-us,  [Gr.  IlaveXX^wf,]  [i.e.  "  the  god 
worshipped  by  all  the  Hellenes  or  Greeks,")  a  surname 
of  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

Panicale,  da,  di  pS-ne-kS'li,  (Masolino,)  a  painter 
of  the  Florentine  school,  born  in  1378.  Some  of  his 
frescos  still  exist  at  Florence.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
artists  that  attained  skill  in  chiaroscuro.  According  to 
Vasari,  he  died  in  1440. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Panigarolci,  pi-ne-gi-ro'ld,  (Francesco,)  the  most 
eloquent  Italian  i5ul|Mt  orator  of  his  time,  was  born  at 
Milan  in  1548.  lie  entered  the  order  of  Cordeliers,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Asti  in  1587.  In  15S9  he  perverted 
his  talents  by  advocating  in  Paris  the  cause  of  the  League 
against  Henry  IV.  He  left  many  volumes  of  Italian  and 
Latin  sermons,  which  have  nearly  passed  into  oblivion, 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1594. 

See  BoNGRATiA  DE  Varenna,  "Vita  di  Panigarola,"  1617; 
Ughelli,  "  Italia  sacra." 

Panin  or  Panine,  pi-neen',  ?  (Nikita  Ivanovitch,) 
a  Russian  statesman,  born  in  17 18.  He  became  governor 
of  the  grand  duke  Paul  in  1760,  and  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  by  Catherine  on  the  abdication  of 
Peter  HI.,  (1762.)     Died  in  1783. 

See  "Vie  du  Comte  de  Paiiine,"  London,  17S4. 

PSnini,  pi'nT-ni,  the  most  celebrated  of  Sanscrit 
philologists,  lived  at  a  very  remote  and  uncertain  period, 
lie  is  said  to  have  been  a  grandson  of  the  legislator 
Devala.  He  is  considered  by  some  as  the  creator  of 
grammatical  science  and  the  inventor  of  the  analytic 
processes  to  which  linguistics  owes  its  discoveries.  The 
rules  of  his  grammar  amount  to  three  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-six. 

Panini,  pd-nee  nee,  or  Paniiini,  pSn-nee'nee,  (Gio- 
vanni Paolo,)  an  able  painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
born  at  Piacenza  about  1694.  He  was  very  skilful  in 
perspective,  and  was  an  excellent  painter  of  architecture 
and  landscapes,  which  he  adorned  with  graceful  figures. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Vesta 
at  Tivoli,"  "The  Traders  driven  from  the  Temple."  and 
views  of  ruins  at  Rome.     Died  at  Rome  in  1764. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Panis,  pt'ntss',  (Etienne  Jean,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  in  Perigord  in  1757.  He  was  accessory  to  the 
outrages  of  his  party  in  Paris,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  He  joined  the  enemies  of  Robes- 
pierre on  the  9th  Thermidor.     Died  in  1833. 

Panizzi,  pi-n5t'see  or  pi-n6t'see,  (Sir  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  bibliographer  and  littirateur,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Modena  in  1797.  He  became  assistant  librarian  of 
the  British  Museum  in  1831,  and  principal  librarian  of 
that  institution  in  1856.  He  resigned  this  position  in 
July,  1865.  He  published  editions  of  "Orlando  Furi- 
oso,"  (1830-34,)  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1879. 

Paiimure,  pan'mur  or  pan-mur',  (Fox  Maule,)  Lord, 
and  Earl  Dalhousie,  a  British  politician,  a  son  of  the 
first  Baron  Panmure,  was  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1801. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Whigs  about  1S35, 
and  was  secretary  of  war  from  July,  1S46,  to  February, 
1852.  He  held  the  satne  office  under  Palmerston  from 
1855  to  February,  1858.  He  was  a  cousin  of  the  late  Earl 
of  Dalhousie,  whose  title  he  inherited.  Died  May  14,  1874. 

Pannard.     See  Panard. 

Pannartz,  pin'nints,  (Arnold,)  a  German  pnr.te:, 
who  was  employed  at  Mentz  by  Gutenberg.  He  re- 
moved to  Italy  in  1462,  and  established  a  press  at  Su- 
biaco.     Died  in  1476. 


Pannini.     See  Panini. 

Pannonius.     Sec  Cisinge,  de. 

Pan-no'ui-us,  (Janus.)  a.  Hungarian  bishop  an<3 
Latin  poet,  born  in  1434;  died  in  1472. 

Panofka,  pi-nof  ki,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  composer 
and  violinist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1807,  resided  for  many 
years  in  Paris  and  London,  and  died  atCarlsruhe  in  1887. 

Panofka,  (Theodor,)  a  German  archaeologist,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1801.  He  published  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  "  De  Rebus  Samiorum,"  (1822,)  and 
"Pictures  of  the  Life  of  the  Ancients,"  ("Bilder  Antiken 
Lebens,"  1843.)  He  became  professor  in  the  University 
of  Berlin  in  1844.     Died  in  1858. 

Pan'o-pe,  [Gr.  llavoTTj;,]  in  classic  mythology,  was 
one  of  the  Nereids,  and  was  invoked  by  mariners. 

Panormita,  pd-noR-mee'tS,  (Antonio  Beccadelli 
— b^k-ki-del'lee,)  a  distinguished  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Palermo  (the  Panormus  of  the  ancients)  in  1394.  He 
was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  by  Alphonso, 
King  of  Naples,  whom  he  served  as  an  ambassador.  He 
wrote  obscene  epigrams,  which  were  admired  for  wit 
and  elegance  of  style,  and  other  works,  among  which 
is  "Familiar  Letters,"  etc.,  ("Epistola;  familiares  ac 
Campanje,"  1553.)     Died  in  1471. 

See  F.  CoLANGELO,  "Vita  di  A.  Beccadelli,"  1821;  Nic^ron, 
"  M^moires." 

Pan'sa,  (C.  Vibius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was  a 
partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  war  against  Pompey.  As  a 
colleague  of  Hirtius,  he  obtained  the  consulship  in  43 
B.C.  Hirtius  and  Pansa  joined  the  party  of  the  senate 
and  marched  against  Antony,  and  were  both  killed  in 
battle  near  Modena  in  43  B.C. 

Pansa,  pin's3,  (Muzio,)  an  Italian  philosopher  and 
writer,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  about  1560.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  "  The  Library  of  the  Vatican,"  ("  Delia  Libre- 
ria  Vaticana,"  1590.) 

Panseron,  pSNss'r^N',  (Auguste,)  a  French  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  ^^  gained  the 
grand  prize  in  1813,  and  became  professor  de  chant 
at  the  Conservatory  of  Paris  in  1824.  He  composed 
operas,  masses,  and  requiems.  His  reputation  is  founded 
chiefly  on  a  great  number  of  popular  ballads,  (romances, ) 
among  which  are  "  Au  Revoir,"  "  Vogue  ma  Nacelle," 
and  "  The  Dream  of  Tartini."     He  died  in  1859. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Uiiiverselle  des  Musiciens." 

Panseron,  (Pierre,)  a  French  architect,  born  near 
Provins  about  1730.  He  published  several  good  works, 
one  of  which  is  entitled  "  New  Elements  of  Architec- 
ture," (3  vols.,  1775-S0.) 

Pantsenus,  pan-tee'nus,  [Gr.  ViavToivoq;  Fr.  Pan- 
TfeNE,  p6N'tin',|  a  Christian  philosopher,  born  about 
155  A.D.,  was  a  Stoic  before  his  conversion.  He  became, 
about  180,  the  head  of  the  celebrated  school  at  Alexan- 
dria, where  Saint  Clement  was  one  of  his  pupils.  Ac- 
cording to  an  ancient  tradition,  he  preached  in  India. 
His  works,  if  he  wrote  any,  are  not  extant.  Died  about 
2x6  a.d. 

Pan-tag'a-thus,  (Ocfavius,)  [It.  Pantagato,  (Ot- 
tavio,)]  an  Italian  monk  of  great  erudition,  born  at 
Brescia  in  1494.  He  left  some  works  in  manuscript. 
Died  in  1567. 

Pantaleon,  pfiN'tt'ii'dN',  written  also  Pantaleo, 
(Henri,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  at  Bale  in  1522,  became 
professor  of  dialectics  and  physics  in  his  native  city.  He 
obtained  a  wide  reputation  by  his  writings,  among  which 
is  a  work  on  the  illustrious  men  of  Germany,  ("  I^roso- 
pographia  Virorum  illustrium  Germanise,"  3  vols.,  1566.) 
Died  in  1595. 

Pantene.    See  PANTiE.vus. 

Pan  tin,  pSN'tiN',  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Thiel  about  1555;  died  in  1611. 

Pantoja,  pin-to'ui,  (Juan  de  Lacruz,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Valencia  about  1 550,  was  a  pupil  of 
Coello.  He  worked  at  the  Escurial  for  Philip  II.  He 
excelled  in  design  and  in  the  expression  of  his  figure.s. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds." 
Died  in  16 10. 

Paiivinio,  pin-vee'ne-o,  (Onufrio,)  [Lat.  Panvin'- 
lUS  ONu'ruRiUS,]  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Verona  in  1529.     He  collected  many  inscriptions  and 


i.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /(7m;v;  4_  ^^  ^^  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  shoii:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsciire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PANVINJUS 


1887 


PAPILLON 


medals,  and  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Farnese.  Among 
his  numerous  treatises  are  "  Festivals  and  Triumplis  of 
the  Romans,"  ("  Fasti  et  Triumphi  Romanorum,"  1557,) 
"On  the  Roman  Republic,"  ("  De  Republica  Romana," 
1581,)  and  "On  the  Circus  Games,"  ("  De  Ludis  Cir- 
censibus,"  1600.)  He  was  one  of  the  first  who  applied 
criticism  to  history,  and  confirmed  iiis  statements  by 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.     Died  at  Palermo  in  1568. 

See  D.  W.  Momer,  "  Disputatio  circularis  de  Onuphrio  Pan- 
inio,"  1697  ;  M  affei,  "  Verona  illustra  ;"  Nici^ron,  "  Mdmoires." 

Panvinius.     See  Panvinio. 

Pa-ny'a-sis,  [Gr.  Iltzvvactf,]  a  Greek  poet  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  was,  according  to  Suidas,  an  uncle  of  He- 
rodotus. He  wrote  an  epic  poem  entitled  "  Heraclea," 
which  is  not  extant.  In  the  Alexandrian  canon  he  was 
ranked  among  the  great  epic  poets.    Died  about  460  n.c. 

See  Ersch  und  Cruder,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Muller, 
"  Hlstoire  de  la  Litt^raHire  Grecque ;"  Funckk,  "Dissertatio  de 
Panyasidis  Vita  ac  Poesi,"  1837. 

Panzacchia,  pdn-zik'ke-5,  (Maria  Elena,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  I^ologna  in  1668  ;  died  in  1709. 

Panzer,  pint'ser,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  in  Bavaria  in  1794.  He  wrote  "The  Traditions 
and  Customs  of  Bavaria,"  (2  vols.,  1848-55.)  Died  in 
1854. 

Panzer,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  an  eminent  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Sulzbach  in  1729.  He  preached 
at  Nuremberg,  to  which  he  removed  in  1760.  His  most 
important  work  is  one  in  Latin,  entitled  "Annals  of 
Typography  from  the  Origin  of  Printing  to  1536,"  (11 
vols.,  1 793-1803,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete 
treatise  on  that  subject.     Died  in  1804. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Meusel, 
"Gelehrtes  Deutscliland." 

Paoli,  pd'o-lee,  almost  pow'Iee,  (Giacinto,)  a  Cor- 
sican  general,  born  at  Bastia  in  1702.  He  commanded 
with  success  against  the  Genoese  about  1734,  and  after- 
wards opposed  the  French  until  1739,  when  he  was  com- 
pelled to  submit.  He  retired  to  Naples,  where  he  died 
in  1768. 

Paoli,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Lucca  about  1720,  was  a  nephew  of  Sebastiano. 
Among  his  works  is  an  account  of  the  ruins  of  Paestum, 
(1784.)     Died  about  1790. 

Paoli,  (Sebastiano,)  a  learned  Italian  antiquary  and 
monk,  born  near  Lucca  in  1684.  He  wrote,  besides 
many  other  treatises,  "  On  the  Poetry  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers  in  the  First  Century,"  (1714,)  and  "On 
the  Diplomatic  Code  of  the  Order  of  Malta,"  ("  Codice 
diplomatico  dell'Ordine  di  Malta,"  2  vols.,  1733-37.) 
Died  in  1751. 

Paoli,  di,  de  pi'o-lee,  (Pasquale,)  a  celebrated  Cor- 
sican  general,  born  at  Rostino  in  1726,  was  a  son  of 
Giacinto,  (noticed  above,)  who  took  him  to  Naples  in 
1740.  In  1755  he  was  chosen  general-in  chief  of  the  Cor- 
sicans,  who  had  revolted  against  the  Genoese.  He  gained 
many  victories,  rendered  himself  master  of  nearly  all  the 
island,  and  organized  a  government  with  a  representative 
system.  In  1768  the  Genoese,  bafiled  in  their  efforts  to 
reduce  Corsica,  ceded  it  to  the  French,  whose  army 
Paoli  defeated  twice  in  that  year.  He  was  defeated  in 
a  decisive  battle  at  Ponte  Nuovo  in  1769,  and  retired  to 
England.  In  1789  he  was  recalled  from  exile  by  the 
National  Assembly,  and  received  from  Louis  XVI.  the 
title  of  lieutenant-general,  with  the  command  of  Corsica. 
He  assumed  an  attitude  of  hostility  to  the  dominant 
party  in  France  in  1793,  and  became  an  ally  or  partisan 
of  the  English,  to  whom  he  transferred  the  sovereignty 
of  the  island  in  1794.  Having  been  deprived  of  his 
command  by  the  British,  he  left  Corsica  in  1795  or  1796. 
He  died  near  London  in  1807. 

See  BoTTA,  "  Storia  d' Italia  ;"  Boswell,  "  Journal  of  a  Tour  to 
Corsica;"  Arrighi,  "Vie  de  Pascal  Paoli;"  Pompki,  "iStat  de  la 
Corse,"  1821  ;  Karl  L.  Ki.ose,  "  Leben  P.  Paoli's,"  1853;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Paolini,  p6w-lee'nee,  (Pietro  or  Luca  Pietro,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1603.  He  painted 
religious  subjects.     Died  in  1681. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting,"  etc. 

Paolo,  the  Italian  for  Paul,  which  see. 
Paolo  Sarpi.     See  Sarpi. 


Paolo  Veronese.     See  Cagliarl 

Paolucci,  pow-loot'chee,  (Sigismondo,)  an  Itanan 
poet,  born  in  (jmbria  about  1510.  He  wrote  canzoni, 
which  were  admired,  and  celebrated  the  African  expe- 
dition of  Charles  V.  in  "  The  African  Nights,"  ("  Le  Notti 
d'Africi,"  1535.)     Died  in  1590. 

Paon,  du,  dii  pt'AN',  sometimes  called  Le  Paon,  a 
French  painter  of  battles,  born  near  Paris  about  1740. 
He  was  a  pupil  and  rival  of  Casanova,  whom  he  ex- 
celled in  design  and  in  fidelity  as  an  imitator  of  nature. 
Died  in  1785. 

Papa,  del,  d^l  pi'pi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  at  Empoli  in  1649.  Me  was  physician  to 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.     Died  in  1735. 

Papacino.     See  Anton  i,  d'. 

Papadopoli,  pd-pi  dop'o-lee,  (Niccol6  Comneno,) 
a  learned  priest,  born  in  Candia  in  1655.  He  became 
in  1688  professor  of  canon  law  at  Padua,  and  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  University  of  Padua,"  (2  vols.,  1726.) 
Died  in  1 740. 

Pape,  pi'peh,  (Johann  Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Culm,  January  3,  1807.  In  1837  he 
became  professor  in  a  gymnasium  in  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished an  "Etymological  Greek  Dictionary,"  (1836,)  a 
much  larger  Greek  dictionary,  (3  vols.,  1842  ;  afterwards 
enlarged,)  and  a  "German-Greek  Dictionary,"  (1845.) 
Died  February  23,  1854. 

Pape,  de  la,  deh  Xt  ptp,  (Gui,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Lyons  about  1400 ;  died  about  1475. 

Papebroch,  pi'peh-bRoK',  or  Papebroeck,  pd'peh- 
bRook',  (Daniel,)  a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1628.  He  compiled  a  number  of  volumes 
of  the  "  Acta  -Sanctorum"  commenced  by  Bollandis. 
Died  in  1714. 

Papebroeck.    See  Papebroch. 

Pape-Carpantier,  p3p-kdR'p6.M'te-i',  (Marie,)  an 
eminent  French  educator,  born  at  La  Fl^che  (Sarthe)  in 
181 5.  She  published  "  Preludes,"  (in  verse,)  "  Les  Con- 
seils,"  "  L'Enseignement  pratique,"  "  Lefons  de  Choses," 
"Lectures,"  and  other  excellent  works  on  education. 
She  was  founder  of  the  "ficole  normale  pour  les  Direc- 
trices des  Salles  d'Asile,"  of  which  for  twenty-five  years 
she  was  the  president.     Died  in  1878. 

Papencordt,  pd'pen-koRt',  (Felix,)  a  German  his 
torian,  born  at  Paderborn  in  181 1.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  History  of  the  Domination  of  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,"  (1837,)  and  a  "Life  of  Cola  di  Rienzo,"  (1841.) 
Died  in  1841. 

Papendrecht,  van,  vSn  pd'pen-dR^Kt',  (Cornelis 
Paul  Hoynck,)  a  Dutch  historian  and  priest,  born  at 
Dort  in  1686.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of 
Utrecht,"  (1725,)  and  "  Analecta  Belgica,"  (3  vols.,  1743.) 
Died  in  1753. 

Papety,"  ptp'te',  (Dominique  Louis  F^r^ol,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Marseilles  in  181 5.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1S36.  Among  his  works  is  "Dream 
of  liappiness,"  ("  Reve  de  Bonheur.")     Died  in  1849. 

Papi,  pd'pee,  (Lazzaro,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
translator,  born  near  Lucca  in  1763.  He  translated 
"Paradise  Lost"  into  Italian.     Died  in  1834. 

Pa'pl-as,  [Gr.  namaf,]  Saint,  was  Bishop  of  Hie- 
rapolis,  in  Phrygia,  ii  the  second  century.  He  wrote  an 
"  Exposition  of  the  Words  of  the  Lord,"  which  is  not 
extant.  According  to  Irenaeus,  he  had  seen  and  heard 
the  apostle  John.  Several  writers  state  that  he  suffered 
martyrdom  in  163  a.d. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Papillon,  pt'pe'y^N',  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1639;  died  in  1710.  His  son  Jean, 
born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1661,  was  a  skilful  engraver 
and  designer.  He  especially  excelled  in  designing  horses. 
Died  in  1723. 

Papillon,  (Jean  Michel,)  an  eminent  engraver  on 
wood,  born  inParis  in  169S,  was  a  nephew  of  the  pre. 
ceding.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Wood-Engraving," 
(1766.)     Died  in  1776. 

Papillon,  (Philibert,)  a  French  biographer  and 
priest,  born  at  Dijon  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  good  work 
on  Burgundian  authors,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  de 
Bourgogne,"  (2  vols.,  1742.)     Died  in  1738. 


c  as  /{■,•  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g asy;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  ikis.     (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAPILLON 


i88S 


PARA  CELSUS 


Papillon,  (Thomas,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  15 14, 
gained  distinction  as  a  writer  on  law.    Died  in  1596. 

Papin,  pap'in,  [Fr.  pron.  pi'p^N',]  (Denis,)  a  French 
natural  piiilosopher,  born  at  lilois  in  1647.  He  was  tlie 
associate  of  Robert  Boyle  in  scientific  exjieriments  in 
England,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  i68r.  He  invented  an  apparatus  for  softening  bones, 
called  "Papin's  Digester,"  and  is  ranked  among  the 
inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  "  Pajjin,"  says  F.  Arago, 
"first  conceived  the  idea  of  a  steam-engine  with  a  piston." 
To  escape  persecution  as  a  Protestant,  he  went  intoe.\ilc 
in  1685,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics  at  Marburg. 
Died  about  1712. 

See  "Noiivelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Papin,  (Isaac,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Blois  in 
1657,  was  a  nephew  of  Claude  Pajon,  and  was  educaterl 
as  a  Protestant.  He  wrote  "Essays  on  Theology," 
(1687,)  which  subjected  him  to  the  enmity  of  Jurien. 
In  1690  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Died 
in  1709. 

Papineaii,  pt'peno',  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  Canadian 
revolutionist,  born  near  Montreal  in  1787.  In  1814  he 
represented  Montreal  in  the  Canadian  Parliament,  and 
in  1815  became  Speaker  of  the  House.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  liberal  or  radical  party,  which  revolted  in  1837. 
After  the  defeat  and  dispersion  of  the  insurgents,  he 
took  refuge  in  the  United  States.     Died  in  1871. 

Papini,  pS-pee'nee,  (GuiDO,)  an  Italian  violinist  and 
composer  for  his  instrument,  born  at  Camagiore,  near 
Florence,  in  1S47.  He  has  performed  in  the  principal 
Italian  cities,  in  London,  and  in  Paris. 

Pa-pin'i-an,  [Lat.  ^.mii/ius  Papinia'nus  ;  Fr.  Pa- 
PINIEN,  pfpe'iie-ix',]  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  lie  was  aJvo- 
cahisfisci  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  after  the 
accession  of  Severus  was  lihcUonim  vta^^istcr  and  preto- 
rian  prefect,  (203  a.d.)  He  was  put  to  death,  by  order 
of  Caracalla,  in  212,  probably  because  he  had  condemned 
the  execution  of  Geta.  The  Digest  contains  extracts 
from  his  "  Quaestiones,"  "  Responsa,"  and  "  Defini- 
tiones."  He  was  considered  by  some  persons  as  the 
greatest  jurist  of  antiquity.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
for  integrity. 

See  EvERHARD  Otto,  "  Papinianiis,"  etc.,  1718;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  G.  L.  Mencke,  "  Papini- 
anus,"  1715. 

Papinianus.     See  Papinian. 

Papiuien.     See  Papinian. 

Papire-Masson.     See  Massox,  (Jean  Papire.) 

Pa-pir'i-us,  (Justus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  Digest  contains  extracts 
from  his  "Constitutions." 

Papirius,  (Sextus,)  the  author  of  a  supposed  collec- 
tion of  the  "  Leges  Regiae,"  (laws  enacted  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Roman  kings,)  which  was  called  "Jus  Pa- 
piriannm."  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of 
Tarquinius  Superbus.  Nothing  certain  is  known  about 
his  compilation. 

See  Pyters,  "  Dissertatio  de  Papirio,"  1S25. 

Pa-plr'i-us  Cras'sus,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  commander, 
was  appointed  dictator  in  339  B.C.,  to  conduct  the  war 
against  the  Latins,  and  was  twice  elected  consnl,  336 
and  330  B.C. 

Pa-plrl-us  Cur'sor,  (Lucius,)  a  famous  Roman 
general,  whom  Livy  represents  as  one  of  the  ablest  men 
of  his  time.  He  was  appointed  dictator  to  conduct  the 
war  against  the  Samnites,  in  332  B.C.  Fabius  Maximus, 
who  was  master  of  the  horse,  in  the  absence  of  his  chief 
and  in  disobedience  to  his  orders,  attacked  and  defeated 
the  enemy.  For  this  offence  Papirius  ordered  him  to  be 
punished  with  death  ;  but  Fabius  appealed  to  the  people, 
and  was  pardoned  or  acquitted.  Papirius  prosecuted 
the  war  with  success  until  the  Samnites  sued  for  peace. 
He  was  elected  consul  about  320,  and  soon  after  defeated 
the  Samnites  at  Luceria.  In  313  he  was  chosen  consul 
for  the  fifth  time,  and  in  308  B.C.  was  made  dictator  for 
another  war  against  the  Samnites,  over  whom  he  gained 
a  signal  victory.  History  is  silent  respecting  the  sub- 
sequent events  of  his  life.  His  son,  of  the  same  name, 
was  elected  consul  in  293,  and  again  in  272  B.C.  He 
defeated  the  Samnites, 


Papirius  Massonus.     See  Masson,  (Papire.) 

Papon,  pS'p6N',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  historian 
and  priest,  born  near  Nice  in  1734.  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  Provence,"  (4  vols.,  1777-86,)  which  is  com- 
mended, and  a  "History  of  the  French  Revolution  from 
1789  to  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799,"  (6  vols.,  1815.)  Died 
in  1803. 

Pappenheim,  pap'pen-h!m',  (Eugenie,)  an  Austrian 
soprano-singer.  She  appeared  successfully  in  the  prin- 
cipal German  cities,  in  London,  and  in  the  United  States. 
She  later  became  a  member  of  the  German  theatre  at 
Pesth. 

Pappenheim,  von,  fon  pip'pen-him',  (Gottfried 
Heinrich,)  Count,  a  celebrated  German  general,  born 
at  Pappenheim  in  1594,  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic. 
After  he  had  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of 
]5avaria,  and  received  several  wounds  at  Prague,  (1620,) 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  emj^eror,  about  1630,  as 
field-marshal.  The  victory  of  the  Imperialists  at  Magde- 
burg (1631)  is  ascribed  to  him.  He  commanded  a  corps 
under  Wallenstein  in  1632,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Lutzen,  in  November  of  that  year. 

See  FoRSTER,  "  Wallensteins  Briefe;"  Schille?^,  "  History  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Pap'pus,  [Gr.  n«T7ror,]  an  eminent  Greek  geometer 
of  Alexandria,  flourished  about  380  or  400  A.D.  He  left 
a  work  entitled  "Mathematical  Collections,"  i^\aQr\y.a.- 
TiKol  2wa)(j}-rtt,)  which  is  extant,  and  of  which  Com- 
mandino  published  a  Latin  version  in  1588.  Pappus 
first  gave  the  example  of  the  quadrature  of  a  curved 
surface.  He  also  furnishes  important  information  of 
the  analytic  methods  of  the  ancients.  He  wrote  other 
works,  which  are  lost. 

See  Mont  ucla,  "  Histoire  des  Math^matiques  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gdn^rale." 

Pappus,  pjp'pi'is,  (JoHANN,)  a  Lutheran  minister  and 
writer,  born  at  Lindau,  on  Lake  Constance,  in  1549.  He 
preached  at  Strasburg.     Died  in  1610. 

Paquot,  pt'ko',  (Jean  NoiiL,)  a  Flemish  biographer, 
born  at  Florennes  in  1722,  was  a  priest  and  a  professor 
of  Hebrew.  His  chief  work  is  "  Memoirs  towards  the 
Literary  History  of  the  Low  Countries,"  ("Memoires 
pour  servir  h.  I'Histoire  litteraire  des  Pays-Bas,"  18 
vols.,  1763-70,)  which  contains  biographies  of  Dutch  and 
Flemish  authors.     Died  in  1803. 

Pa'ra,  called  also  Bab,  King  of  Armenia,  was  the  son 
and  heir  of  Arsaces  III.,  who  was  deposed  by  Sapor, 
King  of  Persia.  By  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  Para  ob- 
tained the  throne  about  365  A.D.  He  was  killed  by  the 
order  of  the  Roman  emperor  Yalens  about  375  a.d. 

Para  du  Phanjas,  pi'rt'  dii  fSN'zhis',  (pRANgors,)  a 
French  Jesuit  and  philosopher,  born  in  Dauphine  in 
1724.  He  published  "Elements  of  Metaj^hysics,  Sacred 
and  Profane,"  (1767,)  and  "  Principes  du  Calcul  et  de  la 
Geometrie,"  (1773.)     Died  in  1797. 

Parabosco,  pi-RJl-bos'ko,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  musician,  born  at  Piacenza.  He  was  author  of 
"Progne,"  a  tragedy,  (154S,)  several  comedies,  and  tales 
entitled  "Diversions,"  ("I  Diporti,"  1552.)  His  works 
were  received  with  favour.     Died  at  Venice  in  1557. 

Paracelse.    See  Paracelsus. 

Par-a-oel'sus,  [Fr.  Paracei.se,  p3'rS's61ssM  (Phi- 
Mppus  'Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bomhastus  von 
Hohenheim — fon  ho'en-him',)  a  famous  alchemist  and 
ch.nrlatan,  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Einsiedeln,  in 
Switzerland,  in  1493.  In  his  youth  he  acquired  a  pro- 
ficiency in  the  jargon  of  alchemists,  magicians,  and 
quacks,  whom  he  consulted  in  nearly  every  part  of 
Europe.  Having  performed  some  famous  cures,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  medicine  at  Bale  in  1526.  He 
there  burned  the  works  of  Galen,  styled  himself  the  mon- 
arch of  medicine,  and  pretended  to  have  discovered  a 
medicine  capable  of  prolonging  life  indefinitely,  (called 
the  Elixir  of  Life.)  He  became  intemperate,  and  in  1527 
or  152S  resumed  a  vagabond  life.  In  his  medical  prac- 
tice he  introduced  mercury  and  opium  into  general  use. 
He  died  poor,  at  Saltzburg,  in  1541.  He  had  published 
but  little  in  his  lifetime.  After  his  death  many  volumes 
ascribed  to  him  appeared  at  various  times  between  1575 
and  1658.  His  medical  reputation  is  founded  on  the 
importance  which  he  gave  to  pharmaceutical  chemistry. 


a,  e. T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  9,  oh  cure;  fir,  fjlll.  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PARA  DIN 


1889 


FARE/A 


Mis  dogmatic  and  fantastic  pseudo-philosophy  found 
many  admirers,  especially  in  Germany. 

See  M.  B.  Lbssing,  "Paracelsus;  sein  Leben  und  DenVen,"  Ber- 
lin, 1839  ;  Franck,  "  Sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  Paracelse  ;"  Marx, 
"Zur  Wiirdigung  des  Tlieo.  von  Hohenheim,"  1842;  Hoefer, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  ;"  Bremer,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  Paracelsi," 
1836;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Paradin,  pt'rt'di.N',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  priest 
and  historian,  born  near  Chalons  about  15 10.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  his  own  Time,"  (1550,)  and 
"Annals  of  Burgundy,"  (1566.)     Died  in  1590. 

Paradia  de  Moiicrif.     See  Moncrif. 

Paradis  de  Raymondis,  pt'rt'de'  deh  ri'mdN'diss', 
(Jean  Zacharie,)  a  French  moralist,  born  at  Bourg-en- 
Bresse  in  1746.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Morality  and 
Happiness,"  (2  vols.,  1784.)     Died  in  1800. 

Paradis,  von,  fon  pi'Ki'di',  (Marie  THERfesE,)  a 
German  pianist,  organist,  and  composer,  born  in  Vienna 
in  1759.     She  was  blind  from  childhood.     Died  in  1824. 

Paradisi,  pi-ri-dee'see,  (Agostino,)  Count,  an  Ital- 
ian poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Vignola  in  1736. 
He  was  professor  of  civil  economy  and  of  history  at 
Modena.  He  wrote  versi  sciolti,  ("blank  verse,")  which 
were  received  with  favour,  and  an  excellent  "Eulogy  on 
Montecuccoli,"  (1776,)  in  prose.  He  translated  some 
tragedies  of  Voltaire  into  Italian.     Died  in  1783. 

See  ScHEDONi,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  A.  Paradisi,"  1789. 

Paradisi,  (Giovanni,)  Count,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Reggio  in  1760.  Bonaparte  appointed  him 
a  director  of  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1797,  and  council- 
lor of  state  in  1804.  He  presided  over  the  Italian  senate 
from  1809  to  1814.     Died  in  1826. 

Paradol.     See  Prevost-Paradol. 

Parasus.    See  Par6. 

Paramo,  de,  di  p^'ri-mo,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  theo- 
logian, born  near  Toledo  about  1545.  He  wrote  "  On 
the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Inquisition,"  (1598,)  said 
to  be  one  of  the  most  curious  works  on  that  subject. 

Parana,  de,  di  pi-ra-nS',  (Honorio  Hermeto  Car- 
NEiRO  Leao,)  Marquis,  a  Brazilian  minister  of  state, 
born  at  Jacahy,  January  11,  1801.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  conservative  party,  and  became  president  of  the 
council  in  1853.     Died  in  1856. 

.  PSr-a-su-ra'ma,  [Hindoo  pron.  piir'a-soo-rS'ma  and 
piir'a-soo-rlm',  from  the  Sanscrit  pdrdsti  or  pdrashn,  an 
"axe,"  and  rAma,  one  "who  delights  in,"]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  the  sixth  avatar  of  Vishnu.  He 
was  born  as  the  son  of  Jamadagni.  His  mission  appears 
to  have  been  to  subdue  or  destroy  the  Kshatriya  (or 
warrior)  race,  who  had  become  arrogant  through  their 
unlimited  power.  He  seems  to  have  used  his  terrible 
battle-axe  with  considerable  effect,  as  some  of  the  ac- 
counts represent  the  whole  earth  as  filled  with  the  blood 
of  his  enemies. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Wilson,  "Sanscrit Dictionary." 

Paravey,  de,  deh  pt'rt'vi',  (Charles  Hippolvte,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Ardennes  in  1787.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  Oriental  antiquities.    Died  187 1. 

Paravia,  pS-rd-vee'd,  (Pietro  Alessandro,)  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur,  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1797.  He  became 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Turin  in  1832.  He  gained 
distinction  by  articles  on  national  literature  in  the  jour- 
nals, by  a  version  of  the  "  Letters  of  Pliny  the  Younger," 
{1830,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1857. 

Parcae,  par'se,  or  Moirae,  moi're,  [Fr.  Les  Parques, 
1^  p^Rk,]  the  Fates  of  classic  mythology,  were  said  to 
be  daughters  of  Night,  (Nox.)  According  to  Hesiod, 
they  were  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Themis,  and  were 
named  Clotho,  Lachesis,  and  Atropos.  Homer  rec- 
ognizes one  Fate,  (Afoira,)  who  spins  out  the  thread  of 
human  life  and  destiny.  Other  mythographers  feigned 
that  Clotho  held  the  distaff,  Lachesis  spun  the  thread 
of  each  person's  life,  and  Atropos  cut  it  off,  as  expressed 
in  the  following  hexameter  line  : 

"  Clotho  colum  retinet,  Lachesis  net  et  Atropos  occat." 

Parcelles,  plR's^l',  (Jan,)  an  able  Dutch  painter  of 
marine  views,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1597.  He  painted 
storms  at  sea  and  shipwrecks  with  great  success  and 
rapidity.  He  died  at  Leyerdorp  in  1641.  His  son 
Julius,  born  about  1628,  was  a  skilful  marine  painter, 
and  nearly  equalled  his  father. 


Parcieux,  de.    See  Deparcieux. 

Pardessus,  pta'd^'sii',  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Blois  in  1772.  He  sat  in  the  Corps 
Legislatif  from  1807  to  181 1.  He  published  a  "  Treatise 
on  Servitudes,"  (1806,)  which  has  passed  through  eight 
or  more  editions,  a  capital  work  entitled  "  Lectures  on 
Commercial  Law,"  (4  vols.,  1813-37,)  and  an  important 
"  Collection  of  Maritime  Laws  anterior  to  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  (6  vols.,  1828-45.)     Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pardies,  ptR'de',  (Ignace  Gaston,)  an  able  French 
geometer,  born  at  Pau  in  1636.  He  lectured  at  the 
College  of  Louis  le  Grand,  in  Paris,  and  corresponded 
with  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Among  his  works  are  "  Elements 
of  Geometry,"  (1671,)  and  "Statics,  or  the  Science  of 
Moving  Forces,"  (1673.)     Died  in  1673. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Par'do,  (Manuel,)  a  Peruvian  president,  was  a  dis- 
tinguished lawyer  and  political  economist,  filled  many 
offices,  including  that  of  minister  of  finance,  and  was 
chosen  President  in  1872  as  leader  of  the  "civilian,"  or 
progressive,  party.  The  tragedy  of  the  brief  dictator- 
ship of  Gutierrez,  the  murder  by  the  latter  of  President 
Balta,  and  his  own  death  at  the  hands  of  an  infuriated 
mob,  (July,  1872,)  formed  the  prelude  to  Pardo's  inaugu- 
ration, August  2.  He  favoured  public  improvements 
with  a  lavish  hand,  and  sujjpressed  two  revolutions 
headed  by  Pierola.  Retiring  from  office  at  the  expiration 
of  his  term  in  1876,  he  was  chosen  President  of  the 
Senate.  He  was  assassinated  at  the  door  of  the  Senate- 
house,  November  16,  1878,  by  a  sergeant  of  the  Lima 
garrison. 

Par'doe,  (Julia,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Beverley,  Yorkshire,  about  1808.  After  a  visit  to  Por- 
tugal, she  produced  a  successful  work  entitled  "Traits 
and  Traditions  of  Portugal."  Among  her  other  popular 
works  are  "The  City  of  the  Sultan,"  (1836,)  "The  Ro- 
mance of  the  Harem,"  (1839,)  "The  City  of  the  Maygar," 
(1840,)  and  novels,  entitled  "  Reginald  Lyle,"  and  "The 
Jealous  Wife,"  (1855.)     Died  in  1862, 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1852. 

Par'dpn,  (George  Frederick,)  an  English  author, 
born  in  London  in  1824.  He  was  bred  a  printer,  but 
became  an  editor  of  newspapers  and  books.  He  also 
wrote  many  tales,  chiefly  for  the  young,  books  on  sports 
and  games,  guide-books,  etc.  Died  at  Canterbury, 
August  5,  1884. 

Par6,  par're,  [Fr.  pron.  p^'ri';  Lat.  Par.'e'us,]  (Am- 
broise,)  an  excellent  French  surgeon,  born  at  Laval 
(Mayenne)  in  1509,  (or  in  1517,  according  to  some 
authorities,)  is  styled  "the  Father  of  French  surgery." 
His  parents  were  poor,  and  his  education  was  defective. 
Having  studied  in  Paris,  he  became  a  surgeon  in  the 
army  in  1536,  and  surgeon-in-ordinary  to  Henry  II.  in 
1552.  He  reformed  the  treatment  of  gun-shot  wounds, 
which  previously  were  cauterized  with  boiling  oil,  and 
substituted  the  ligature  of  arteries  for  cauterization. 
He  served  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  HI.,  as 
chief  surgeon.  Brantome  says  that  during  the  Massacre 
of  Saint  Bartholomew  the  king  sent  for  Pare  (who  was 
a  Protestant)  and  kept  him  in  his  own  room  for  safety. 
He  wrote  many  professional  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Malgaigne,  (3 
vols.,  1840.)     Died  in  1590. 

See  ViMONT,  "  Eloge  de  Pnr^,"  1814:  Willaume,  "Recherchet 
biographiques  sur  A.  jpare,"  183S;  "Retrospective  Review,"  1827; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Paredes.     See  Garcia  de  Paredes. 

Paredes,  pd-ra'des,  (Mariano,)  a  Mexican  general, 
born  about  1790.  He  fought  against  Santa  Anna  in  1844, 
and  was  elected  President  of  Mexico  in  June,  1845.  I" 
August,  1846,  he  was  driven  from  power  by  Santa  Anna 
and  Bravo.     Died  in  1849. 

Pareja,  de,  di  pS-ra'Hj,  (Juan,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1608,  was  a  pupil  of  Velas- 
quez, whom  he  served  as  a  slave  in  his  youth.  According 
to  some  writers,  he  was  born  in  the  West  Indies.  Having 
acquired  skill  by  secret  study  and  practice,  he  was  libe- 
rated by  Velasquez.  He  painted  portraits  with  success. 
His  master-piece  is  "The  Calling  of  Saint  Matthew," 
Died  in  1670. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


119 


PARENT 


1890 


PARIS 


Parent,  p3'i6n',  (Antoine,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1666.  He  wrote  "  Researches  into  Phys- 
ics and  Mathematics,"  (2  vols.,  1 705,)  and  other  worits. 
Died  in  1716. 

Parent  du  Chatelet,  pt'rflN'  dit  shjt'li',  (Alexan- 
dre Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physician  and  writer  on 
hygiene,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  wrote  valuable 
works  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Common  Sewers  of  Paris," 
("Essai  sur  les  Cloaques  ou  figouts  de  Paris,"  1824,) 
"Hygiene  piiblique,"  (2  vols.,  1836,)  and  "On  Prostitu- 
tion in  the  City  of  Paris,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)    Died  in  1836. 

Parepa-Rosa,pS-ra'pSro'sd,  MadamkEupkkosyne, 
a  distinguished  vocalist  and  actress,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
May  7,  1836.  She  made  her  first  appearance  at  Malta, 
as  "  Amina,"  when  sixteen  years  of  age.  She  appeared  in 
opera  in  1857  at  the  London  Lyceum,  and  subsequently 
jjerformed  with  brilliant  success  in  Boston,  New  York, 
and  Philadelphia.  Her  voice  had  extraordinary  com- 
pass and  power.  In  1867  she  married  Carl  Rosa,  (1842- 
1889,)  her  manager.     She  died  in  London,  Jan.  21,  1874. 

Par'et,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop,  born 
in  New  York  city,  September  23,  1S26.  He  graduated 
at  Hobart  College  in  1849,  and  held  various  rectorships, 
notably  one  in  Washington,  D.C.  In  1884  he  wras  chosen 
Bishop  of  Maryland,  (Episcopalian.) 

Pareus,  pj-ra'tis,  (  Daniel,  )  a  philologist,  born  at 
Neuhausen  in  1605,  was  a  son  of  Phiiipp,  noticed  below. 
He  published  "  Historia  Palatina,"  (1633,)  and  editionsof 
Lucretius,  Quintilian,  and  other  classics.     Died  in  1635, 

Pareus,  (David,)  an  eminent  German  divine  of  the 
Reformed  Church,  born  in  Silesia  in  1548.  Hi's  German 
name  was  Wangler.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Heidelberg  in  1584.  His  principles  were  Calvinistic. 
He  published  the  "Neustadt  Bible,"  (1587,)  Commen- 
taries on  Scripture,  and  other  works.  Died  at  Heidelberg 
in  1622. 

See  J.  P.  Pareus,  "  Narratio  de  Vita  D.  Parei,"  1633 ;  Ersch 
ond  Gruher,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Parens,  (Philipp  or  Johann  PHiLiPP,)a  philologist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Worms  in  1576. 
He  was  rector  of  the  colleges  of  Neustadt  and  Hanau. 
He  published  "Selections  from  Plautus,"  ("  Electa  Plau- 
tina,"  1597,)  an  edition  of  the  comedies  of  Plautus,  with 
notes,  (1610,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1648. 

Parfaiet,  ptR'fi',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1698.  He  was  author  of  a  "History  of  the 
French  Theatre,"  (15  vols.,  1734-49,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1753. 

Paride.     See  Parts. 

Parieu,  de,  deh  pt're-uh',  (Marie  Louis  Pierre 
F^LIX  Esquirou,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Aurillac 
in  1815.  He  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from 
October,  1849,  to  February,  1851.  In  1851  he  became 
president  of  the  section  of  finances  an  conseil  d' itat. 

Parigi,  pi-ree'jee,  (Giulio,)  a  Florentine  architect 
and  etcher,  born  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  designed 
some  public  edifices  of  Florence,  and  opened  an  academy 
of  art  in  that  city.  Among  his  pupils  was  Callot,  the 
engraver.  Died  in  1635.  His  son  Alfonso  was  an 
architect.  He  built  the  Scarlati  palace  in  Florence, 
Died  in  1656. 

Parijata,pil'rT-ja'ta,  [from  the  Sanscrit /<f;-/;  "above," 
and  y^Af,  "produced,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  one 
of  the  trees  of  the  paradise  of  Indra,  said  to  produce  as 
fruit  whatever  was  desired.    (See  KOrma.) 

Parini,  p3.-ree'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  popular  Italian 
poet,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1729.  He  became  a  good 
Greek  scholar,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  critic  by 
his  E.xamination  of  Bandiera's  work,  "  Pregiudizi  delle 
umane  Lettere,"  (1756.)  His  principal  work  is  "The 
Day,"  ("  II  Giorno,")  an  ironical  didactic  poem,  of  which 
the  first  part,  "The  Morning,"  ("II  Mattino,")  was  pub- 
lished in  1763.  It  is  a  satire  on  the  manners  and  morals 
of  the  Italian  nobility.  He  also  wrote  lyrical  poems, 
which  are  much  admired.  He  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence at  the  College  of  Brera,  Milan,  in  1769.  Parini 
is  reputed  one  of  the  must  eminent  Italian  poets  of  his 
time.     Died  at  Milan  in  1799. 

See  Ix)NGFEi.Low,  "  Poets  and  Poefryof  Europe  ;""  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing;  Reina,  "Vie  de 
Panni."  iSoi ;  Cesarb  CANTij,  "  Parini  et  la  Soci^t^   Lombarde. 


PSr'is,  [Gr.  Ilaptc;  It.  Paride,  pi're-di,]  a  son  ol 
Priam,  a  Trojan  prince,  was  celebrated  for  his  beauty, 
gallantry,  accomplishments,  and  adventures.  He  was 
sometimes  called  Alexander.  According  to  poetical 
tradition,  he  seduced  Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  and 
thus  provoked  the  Greeks  to  wage  the  war  which  ended 
in  the  destruction  of  Troy.  The  death  of  Achilles  is 
ascribed  by  some  poets  to  a  shaft  from  the  bow  of  Paris, 
The  decision  by  which  he  awarded  the  prize  of  beauty 
to  Venus,  when  Juno  and  Minerva  were  competitors, 
was  a  favourite  theme  of  ancient  writers,  who  relate  the 
following  story :  All  the  gods  and  goddesses  were  in- 
vited to  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  except  Dis- 
cord, who  threw  among  the  guests  a  golden  apple,  on 
which  was  inscribed  "  For  the  most  beautiful."  Juno, 
Minerva,  and  Venus  disputed  for  this  apple,  and  referred 
the  decision  of  their  claims  to  Paris,  who  was  then  a 
shepherd  on  Mount  Ida.  To  influence  his  judgment, 
Juno  promised  to  give  him  power,  Minerva  martial 
glory,  and  Venus  the  most  beautiful  of  women.  He 
decided  in  favour  of  Venus,  and  received  from  her 
Helen  as  his  reward. 

_  See  Homer's  "  Iliad  ;"  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography  and  Mythology;"  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (Partie 
mythologique.) 

Paris,  pi're',  (Alexis  Paulin,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  translator,  born  at  Avenay  (Marne)  in  1800.  He 
wrote  an  "Apology  for  the  Romantic  School,"  (1824,)  and 
several  essays  on  mediaeval  literature.  He  produced  a 
version  of  Byron's  Complete  Works,  (1830-32.)  In  1837 
he  was  elected  to  the  Institute. 

Paris,  Brothers,  French  financiers,  born  in  Dau- 
phine :  they  were  named  Antoine,  Claude,  Jean, 
and  Joseph,  who  was  called  Duvernev.  Joseph  was 
born  in  1684.  On  the  collapse  of  Law's  system  they 
were  employed  to  restore  order  in  the  public  finances, 
Voltaire  extols  the  admirable  talent  which  they  exhibited 
in  this  operation.     Duverney  died  in  1770. 

See  Marquis  de  Luchet,  "  Histoire  de  MM.  Paris,"  1776. 

Paris,  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  composer,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1804.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  Paris 
in  1826.     He  has  composed  operas  and  sacred  music. 

Paris,  (Francois,)  a  French  priest  and  devotional 
writer,  born  at  Chatillon,  near  Paris.  He  wrote  edify- 
ing works,  among  which  are  a  "  Martyrology,"  (1694,) 
and  "  The  Gospel  Explained,"  (4  vols.,  1693-98.)  Died 
in  1718. 

Paris,  (Francois,)  a  French  ascetic  priest,  born  in 
Paris  in  1690;  died  in  1727.  Crowds  resorted  to  his 
tomb,  attracted  by  a  report  that  miracles  were  per- 
formed there. 

Paris,  (Francois  Edmond,)  a  French  naval  officer, 
born  at  Brest  in  1806.  He  wrote  several  works  on  navi- 
gation, and  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Steam  Navy,"  ("  Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Marine  i  V^apeur,"  1848.)  He  became  a 
rear-admiral  in  1858. 

Paris,  (Gaston  Bruno  Paulin,)  a  French  scholar,  a 
son  of  A.  P.  Paris,  was  born  at  Avenay,  August  g,  1839. 
He  was  educated  at  Paris,  Gottingen,  and  Bonn,  and 
succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  mediaeval  literature 
in  the  College  de  France.  Among  his  works  is  "  His- 
toire poetique  de  Charlemagne,"  (1866,)  a  treatise  of  high 
value.  He  has  edited  a  large  number  of  "Chansons  de 
Gestes"  in  early  French,  besides  other  writings  of  the 
mediaeval  times. 

His  uncle,  Antoine  Louis  Paris,  a  brother  of  A.  P, 
Paris,  was  born  at  fipernay,  August  14,  1802.  He  won 
distinction  as  editor  of  old  manuscripts  and  author  of 
works  on  mediaeval  history. 

Par'is,  (JoUN  Ayrton,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Cambridge  in  17S5.  He  practised 
some  years  at  Penzance,  from  which  he  removed  to 
London  about  181 7.  In  1819  he  published  a  good 
"Pharmacologia,"  (8th  edition,  1833.)  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1844.  Among 
his  works  are  a  well-written  "Memoir  of  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,"  (1810,)  a  "Treatise  on  Diet,"  (1821,)  and  "Med- 
ical Chemistry,"  (1824.)     Died  in  December,  1S56, 

Paris,  (Matthew.)     See  Matthew  Paris, 

Paris,  (Philippe  Nicolas  Marie,)  one  of  the  guards 
of  Louis  XVI.,  born  in  Paris  in  1763,    He  killed  Lepel- 


a.  e, i;  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  mSon; 


PARIS 


PARKER 


letier  de  Saint-Fargeau  in  1793,  because  he  haa  voted  foi 
the  death  of  the  king.  When  the  officers  of  justice  were 
about  to  arrest  him,  he  shot  himself,  (January,  1793.) 

Paris,  (Pierre  Adrien,)  a  French  architect,  born  at 
Besan9on  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  designer  to  the 
cabinet  of  the  king  in  1778.  Among  his  works  is  the 
portal  of  the  cathedral  of  Orleans.  He  left  in  manu- 
script a  valuable  "Collection  of  Designs,"  and  other 
work.?.     Died  in  1819. 

Paris,  de,  deh  pt're',  (Lours  Philippe,)  Comte,  a 
French  prime,  born  in  1838.  His  father,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  who 
abdicated  in  favour  of  the  Count  of  Paris  in  February, 
1848,  but  his  title  was  not  recognized  by  the  revolution- 
ists. He  served  a  campaign  in  Virginia,  on  the  staff  of 
General  McClellan,  in  the  spring  of  1862,  and  returned 
to  Europe  about  July  i  of  that  year.  He  wrote,  in  French, 
a  "  History  of  the  Civil  War  in  America,"  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  L.  F.  Tasistro  and  published 
in  the  United  States. 

Pariseau,  pt're'zo',  (Pierre  Germain,)  a  French 
dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1753.  He  wrote 
comedies  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  was 
guillotined  in  1794. 

Pariset,  pt're'zi',  (  Stienne,  )  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Grand,  a  village  among  the  Vosges,  in 

1770.  He  was  chosen  physician  of  the  Hopital  de 
Bicetre  in  1814.  In  1842  he  became  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Academy  of  Medicine.  He  wrote  eloquent  eulo- 
gies on  members  of  this  academy,  (printed  in  2  vols., 
1845,)  treatises  on  contagious  diseases,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1847. 

See  Sachaile,  "  Les  Mddecins  de  Paris;"  Saintb-Beovh, 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Parisetti,  pd-re-set'tee,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  writer  of 
Latin  poetry,  was  born  at  Reggie  in  1503.  He  wrote 
"Theopeia,"  (1550,)  and  other  poems,  which  were  praised 
by  Sadolet  and  Bembo.     Died  in  1570. 

Par'ish,  (Elijah,)  an  American  Congregational  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1762.  He 
published  a  "History  of  New  England,"  "System  of 
Modern  Geography,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1S25. 

Parisio.    See  Parrhasius,  (Aulus  Janus.) 

Parisis,  pS're'ziss',  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1795.  ^^^  became  Bishop  of  Arras 
in  1 85 1.     He  died  March  6,  1866. 

Parisot,  pt're'zo',  (Pierre,)  a  French  monk,  born  at 
Bar-le-Duc  ni  1697,  took  the  name  of  PfeRE  Norbert. 
He  opposed  the  Jesuits,  and  wrote  against  them  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  East  Indian  Missions,"  (1744.)  Died  in  1769. 

Parisot,  (Valentin,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Ven- 
dome  in  1800.  He  became  professor  of  foreign  litera- 
ture at  Grenoble  and  at  Douai,  (1854.)  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  a  "Life  of 
Fourier,"  (1857,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1861. 

Parisot-V alette.     See  Valette. 

Park,  (Anduew,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Renfrew, 
March  7,  1807,  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  He  published  "The  Vision  of  Mankind," 
"  The  Bridegroom  and  the  Bride,"  (1S34,)  "  Silent  Love," 
(1843,)  "Egypt  and  the  East,"  (travels,  1857,)  and  many 
other  works.     Died  at  Glasgow,  December  27,  1863. 

Park,  (Edwards  A.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1808,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1826,  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1831.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1836  Bartlett  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1847  Abbott  pro- 
fessor of  Christian  theology  in  that  institution.  He  made 
several  translations  from  the  German,  and  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra."  He  published  "The 
Rise  of. the  Edwardsian  Theory  of  the  Atonement,"  etc. 

Park,  (MuNGO,)  an  eminent  and  enterprising  explorer 
of  Africa,  was  born  near  Selkirk,  Scotland,  in  September, 

1 77 1.  He  chose  the  profession  of  surgeon,  and  studied 
botany  in  his  youth.  As  agent  of  the  African  Associa- 
tion, he  undertook  in  May,  1795,  to  explore  the  course 
of  the  Niger.  Departing  from  a  point  on  the  Gambia, 
he  reached  the  Niger  at  Sego  in  July,  1796,  and  ascended 
the  river  to  Bammakoo.  lie  returned  to  England  in  the 
autumn  of  1797,  and  published,  in  1799,  "Travels  in  the 


Interior  of  Africa,"  which  excited  great  interest.  Park 
was  chosen  to  command  an  expedition  sent  to  renew  the 
enterprise,  and  left  Pisania,  on  the  Gambia,  about  the  4th 
of  May,  1805,  with  forty-five  men,  intending  to  descend 
the  Niger  in  boats  to  its  mouth.  He  perished  (probably 
by  drowning)  a  short  distance  below  Yaouri,  near  the 
end  of  1805.  The  journal  of  his  last  expedition  was 
published  in  181 5. 

See  Kennell,  "  Life  of  Mungo  Park,"  iSiq;  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
grapliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1815. 

Park,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poet,  born 
about  1760;  died  in  1834. 

Parke,  park,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  musician, 
born  in  1745,  performed  on  the  hautboy ;  died  in  1829. 

Parke,  park,  (John  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  about  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
[849.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Roanoke  Island  and 
Newbern  in  February-March,  1862,  was  made  major- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  served  at  the  siege  of  Vicks- 
burg,  May-July,  1863.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  the 
siege  of  Petersburg,  1865,  and  became  lieutenant  of 
engineers  in  1879. 

Par'ker,  (Foxhall  A.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York  city,  August  5,  1821.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1837.  During  the  war  of  1861-65  he  won 
great  distinction.  His  writings  include  "  Fleet  Tactics 
under  Steam,"  (1863,)  "  Squadron  Tactics  under  Steam," 
(1863,)  "The  Naval  Howitzer  Afloat,"  (1865,)  "The 
Naval  Howitzer  Ashore,"  (1866,)  and  "  Elia,  or  Spain 
Fifty  Years  Ago,"  (1866,  from  the  Spanish.)  Died  at 
Annapolis,  Maryland,  June  10,  1879. 

Parker,  (Francis  Wayland,)  a  distinguished  teacher, 
was  born  in  Bedford,  (now  Manchester,)  New  Hamp- 
shire, October  9,  1837.  His  early  manhood  was  spent 
in  teaching  in  the  public  schools,  (principally  of  New 
England,)  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he 
enlisted  as  private  in  the  Fourth  New  Hampshire  Regi- 
ment, from  which  he  was  mustered  out  as  brevet  colonel 
in  1865.  He  subsequently  resumed  his  chosen  profes- 
sion of  teacher,  studied  for  two  years  in  Germany,  wa.s 
superintendent  for  five  years  of  the  schools  of  Quincy, 
Massachusetts,  and  supervisor  of  the  Boston  schools  for 
two  years,  and  on  January  i,  1883,  became  principal  of 
the  Cook  county  Normal  School,  near  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Par'ker,  (Henry,)  Lord  Morley,  was  born  in  North- 
amptonshire in  1476.  He  wrote  verses  and  dramas  in 
his  youth.  He  was  one  of  the  barons  who  by  letter 
warned  Pope  Clement  that  he  would  lose  his  supremacy 
in  England  if  he  opposed  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIIL 
Died  in  1556. 

Par'ker,  (Henry  W.,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Danby,  Tompkins  county,  New  York,  in  1825.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  "Poems,"  (1850,)  and  contributed  to 
the  "  North  American  Review."  In  1864-65  he  studied 
the  sciences  at  Harvard  University,  and  was  subsequently 
connected  with  Iowa  College. 

Parker,  (Sir  Hyde,)  an  English  vice-admiral,  served 
with  distinction  against  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and 
in  1 781  defeated  the  Dutch  admiral  Zoutman  at  Dog- 
gerbank.  Being  appointed  in  1783  commander  of  the 
British  fleet  in  the  East  Indies,  he  perished  by  ship- 
wreck on  the  passage. 

Parker,  (Isaac,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Boston 
in  1768,  became  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Massachusetts  in  1814.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
scholar.     Died  in  1830. 

Parker,  (Joel,)  LL.D.,  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Jaffrey,  New  Hampshire,  January  25,  1795.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1811.  In  1838  he  was  made 
chief  justice  of  the  New  Hampshire  Supreme  Court,  and 
in  1848  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  law-school 
of  Harvard  University.  His  published  writings  were 
mostly  on  the  legal  aspects  of  various  political  questions. 
Died  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  August  17,  1S75. 

Parker,  (Joel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Bethel,  Vermont,  August  27,  1799.  He 
graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in  1S24,  and  held  pas- 
torates in  New  York  city  and  elsewhere.  He  published 
eight  volumes  of  religious  and  pastoral  writings.  Died 
in  New  York,  May  2,  1873. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  o,  H,  K,£:uifura/;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARKER 


1892 


PARKER 


Parker,  (Joel,)  LL.D.,  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Monmouth,  New  Jersey,  November  24,  1816.  He  grad- 
uated at  I'rinceton  College  in  1839,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1842.  He  was  ciiosen  Governor  of  New 
Jersey  in  1862,  and  again  in  1876,  and  was  afterwards  a 
judge  in  the  State  courts.     Died  January  2,  1888. 

Parker,  (John  Henry,)  an  "English  archaeologist, 
born  in  1806.  Among  his  works  are  "Glossary  of  Ar- 
chitecture," (1836,)  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Gothic 
Architecture,"  (1849,)  and  "Archaeology  of  Rome,"  {9 
vols.,  1874-77,)  the  latter  being  the  fruits  of  Mr.  Parker's 
excavations  at  Rome.     Died  in  January,  1S84. 

Parker,  (Linus,)  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Rome,  New  York, 
in  1829.  He  became  a  resident  of  New  Orleans,  entered 
the  ministry  about  1849,  and  in  1882  was  made  a  bishop. 
Died  at  New  Orleans,  March  5,  1885. 

Parker,  (Martyn,)  an  English  poet  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  only  remembered  as  the  author  of  a  song, 
"Ye  Gentlemen  of  England,"  (1630,)  which  suggested 
to  Campbell  his  far  nobler  lyric,  "  Ye  Mariners  of  Eng- 
land." 

Paiker,  (Matthew,)  a  learned  and  meritorious  Eng 
lish  prelate,  born  at  Norwich  in  1504,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  became  dean  of  the  College  of  .Stoke 
Clare  in  1535,  chaplain  to  Henry  VIH.  in  1537,  master 
of  Bene't  College  in  1544,  and  Dean  of  Lincoln  in  1552. 
On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  (1553)  he  was  deprived 
of  his  benefices,  because  he  was  a  Protestant,  or  because 
he  was  married.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury by  Elizabeth  in  1559.  A  revised  version  of  the 
13ible  (called  the  Bishops'  Bible)  was  published  under 
his  direction  in  1568.  He  presented  many  valuable 
manuscripts  to  his  college  at  Cambridge.    Died  in  1575. 

See  J.  Strvph,  "Life  of  Arclibishop  Parker,"  1711  ;  Burnet, 
"  History  of  the  Reforni.^tioii ;"  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Arch- 
bisliops  of  Canterbury." 

Parker,  (Nathan,)  a  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Reading,  Massachusetts,  in  1782.  He  became  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1808. 
Died  in  1833. 

Parker,  (Sir  Peter,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1716,  served  in  the  American  war,  and  in  1782  took 
prisoner  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse.  He  was  created 
admiral  of  the  fleet.     Died  in  181 1. 

Parker,  (Peter,)  an  American  missionary  and  phv- 
sician,  born  at  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  June  iS, 
1804.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  183 1,  studied 
medicine  and  divinity,  and  in  1854  went  to  China  as  a 
missionary  physician.  His  work  in  this  capacity  was 
of  very  great  importance.  In  1857  he  returned  to  the 
United  States.     Died  January  10,  i888. 

Parker,  (Richard,)  an  English  sailor,  born  at  Exeter, 
was  the  ringleader  of  a  mutiny  at  the  Nore  in  May, 
1797.  He  blockaded  the  port  of  London,  and  received 
the  title  of  admiral  from  the  mutineers.  He  was  hung 
in  June,  1797. 

Parker,  (Robert,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
became  Fellow  of  a  college  at  Cambridge  in  1584.  He 
preached  at  Amsterdam  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and 
wrote  several  works. 

Parker,  (Samuel,)  an  English  bishop,  born  at  North- 
ampton in  1640.  He  was  appointed  prebendary  of 
Canterbury  in  1672,  and  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1686.  It 
appears  that  he  received  this  preferment  from  James  11. 
because  he  favoured  the  cause  of  popery  and  absolutism. 
He  died  in  1687,  leaving  several  theological  works,  and 
memoirs  of  his  own  times,  entitled  "  De  Rebus  sui  Tem- 
poris  Commentarius,"  (1726.) 

See  Wood,  "  Atbenae  Oxonienses." 

Parker,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop,  born 
at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  August  17,  1744,  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  College  in  1764,  In  1774  he  was  or- 
dained a  priest  of  the  English  Church.  In  1804  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Massachusetts, 
(Episcoi^alian.)     Died  December  6,  1804- 

Parker,  (Theodore,)  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  rationalistic  theologian,  was  born  at  Lex- 
ington, Massachusetts,  on  the  24th  of  August,  1810. 
His  education  was  begun  on  his  father's  farm,  and  there 
he  continued  to  carry  on  his  studies  even  after  he  had 


entered  his  name  at  Harvard  in  1830.  He  appears  to 
have  visited  Cambridge  only  for  the  pu. pose  of  partici- 
pating in  the  examinations.  Being  a  non-resident,  he 
was  not  entitled  to  a  degree  ;  but  subsequently  (in  1840) 
the  honorary  title  of  A.M.  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  university.  In  1834  he  entered  the  theological 
school,  in  which  he  remained  about  two  years.  He  first 
began  to  preach  at  Barnstable  in  1836.  In  April  of  the 
following  year  he  married  Miss  Lydia  D.  Cabot,  and 
soon  after  was  settled  as  Unitarian  minister  at  West 
Roxbury.  His  views  had  previously  been  but  little  in 
advance  of  the  average  Unitaria'nism  of  the  time  ;  but 
his  growing  acquaintance  with  the  German  rationalists 
De  Wette,  Eichhorn,  Paulus,  Bauer,  and  others  was  not 
long  in  producing  an  important  change  in  his  theologicai 
opinions, — a  change,  'we  need  scarcely  say,  which  he  was 
at  no  pains  to  conceal.  His  new  doctrines  gave  great 
offence  to  some  of  the  more  conservative  of  the  New 
England  Unitarians ;  and  after  his  discourse  (preached 
at  .South  Boston  in  1841)  on  the  "Transient  and  Perma- 
nent in  Christianity,"  in  which  he  assumed  the  absolute 
humanity  of  Christ,  His  inspiration  differing  in  no  essen- 
tial respect  from  that  of  other  men,  the  opposition  to 
him  became  much  more  decided.  This  opposition  was 
conspicuously  manifested  on  the  occasion  of  his  ex- 
changing pulpits  with  other  Unitarian  ministers,  .some 
of  whom  were  severely  censured  by  many  of  their  breth- 
ren, who  held  that  by  such  an  interchange  of  courtesies 
they  gave  a  direct  sanction  to  the  new  heresies.  Parker's 
translation  of  De  Wette's  "  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament"  appeared  in  the  early  part  of  1843  »  later 
in  the  same  year  he  visited  Eurojje,  returning  in  the 
summer  of  1844.  Soon  after  his  return  he  began  to 
preach  in  Boston,  at  the  Melodeon,  where  he  was  regu- 
larly installed  in  1846.  He  was  the  principal  editor  of 
the  "  Massachusetts  Quarterly,"  which  was  commenced 
in  1847  and  continued  three  years.  In  addition  to  his 
duties  as  minister,  and  his  laborious  intellectual  pursuits, 
which  extended  to  almost  every  department  of  human 
knowledge,  he  gave  numerous  lectures  on  various  sub- 
jects. But  the  question  which  seems  to  have  enlisted 
most  fully  all  the  faculties  of  his  ardent  and  powerful 
mind  was  Southern  slavery,  with  its  attendant  iniquities 
and  abominations.  His  health  having  become  greatly 
impaired  by  his  unceasing  and  intense  activity,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1859,  he  visited  the  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  the  following  summer  went  to 
Europe,  spending  the  winter  of  1859-60  at  Rome.  He 
left  Rome  in  April,  i860,  and  with  difficulty  reached 
Florence,  where  he  died  on  the  loth  of  May.  Of  his 
extensive  collection  of  books,  he  left  the  principal  part, 
amounting  to  11,190  volumes  and  2500  pamphlets,  to 
the  Boston  Public  Library.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works,  edited  by  Frances  Power  Cobbe,  was  published 
in  London  in  1863-65,  in  12  vols. 

See  "Life  of  Theodore  Parker,"  by  John  Weiss,  2  vols.,  1864; 
"  Life  of  Tlieodore  Parker,"  by  Albert  R^vii.i.e,  1865:  Allibone, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors  :"  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia:"  "West- 
minster Review"  for  April,  1847,  article  "Dr.  Strauss  and  Theodore 
Parker,"  (by  the  Rkv.  James  Martineau  :)  Miss  Cobbe,  "The 
Story  of  Theodore  Parker." 

Parker,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Macclesfield,  an  English 
judge,  born  at  Leek  in  1666.  He  became  lord  chancellor 
in  1718.  He  was  accused  of  selling  some  offices  in 
the  court  of  chancery,  and  of  other  corrupt  practices,  of 
which  he  was  convicted  in  1725,  and  was  fined  heavily. 
Died  in  1732. 

Parker,  (Willard,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  physician  and  surgeon,  born  in  Lyndeborough, 
New  Hampshire,  September  2,  1800.  He  graduated  in 
arts  at  Harvard  College  in  1826,  and  in  medicine  in  1830. 
He  held  various  professorships  of  anatomy,  surgery,  etc., 
in  different  colleges,  but  chiefly  in  New  York  city,  where 
he  attained  a  very  extensive  practice  as  a  pliysician. 
Died  in  New  York  city  in  1884. 

Parker,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1781,  was  a  relative  of  Lord  Macclesfield. 
He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1830,  and  a  lord  of  the 
admiralty  in  1S34.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  operations  against  China.  He 
took  Chusan  and  Ning-po,  entered  the  Yellow  River  or 
Blue  River,  and  compelled  the  Chinese  to  sign  the  treaty 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  0,  oh.'cure;  fXr,  f Jll,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PARKES 


1893 


PARNELL 


of  Nanking.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1851.     Died  in  1866. 

Parkes,  parks,  (Joseph,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  at 
Warwick  in  1796.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,"  (182S,)  and  "The 
Equity  and  Real  Property  Laws  of  the  United  States 
of  North  America,"  (1830.)  He  distinguished  himself 
as  an  advocate  of  parliamentary  reform  previous  to  1832. 
Died  in  1865. 

Parkes,  (Josfah,)  a  civil  engineer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Warwick  in  1793.  He  became 
draining-engineer  under  the  board  of  works,  in  which 
capacity  he  rendered  important  service  to  the  public. 
He  published  "  Essays  on  the  Philosophy  and  Art  of 
Land  Drainage,"  (1848,)  a  "Treatise  on  Climate,  Soils," 
etc.,  and  other  works. 

Parkes,  (Samuel,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire in  1759.  He  manufactured  chemical  products 
in  London.  He  published  a  "Chemical  Catechism," 
(1806,)  and  "Chemical  Essays,  principally  relating  to 
the  Arts  and  Manufactures,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1815.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Park'hurst,  (John,)  an  English  bishop,  born_  in 
Surrey  in  1 51 1.  He  adhered  to  the  Reformed  religion, 
and  went  into  exile  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  In  1560  he 
became  Kishop  of  Norwich.  lie  wrote  some  Latin  epi- 
grams, (1560  and  1573.)     Died  in  1574. 

Parkhurst,  (John,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1728.  He  officiated  without  salary 
as  curate  at  Catesby  for  many  years.  In  1762  he  pub- 
lished a  "Hebrew-and-English  Lexicon  without  Points," 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  His  "  Greek-and-English 
Lexicon"  (1769)  was  reprinted  and  extensively  used. 
He  also  wrote  "The  Divinity  and  Pre-Existence  of  Jesus 
Christ  demonstrated  from  Scripture,"  (17S7.)  Died  in 
1797. 

Park'in-son,  (John,)  a  botanist  and  apothecary,  born 
in  London  in  1567.  He  received  from  Charles  I.  the 
title  of  "Botanicus  Regius  Primarius."  He  published 
"  Paradisus  Terrestris,  or  a  Garden  of  all  Sorts  of  Pleas- 
ant Flowers,"  (1629,)  with  109  figures,  and  "Theatrum 
Botanicum,"  (1640.)     Died  about  1650. 

Parkinson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician 
and  parson,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1745.  He  published 
a  "  System  of  Mechanics."     Died  in  1S30. 

Park'man,  (Francis,)  an  American  writer,  born  at 
Boston  in  1823,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1844, 
passed  a  year  in  Europe,  made  a  trip  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  published  "The  California  and  Oregon  Trail," 
(1849,)  "  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,"  etc., 
(1851,)  "The  Old  Regime  in  Canada,"  (1S64,)  "The 
Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World,"  (1S65,)  "The 
Jesuits  in  North  America,"  (1S66,)  "The  Discoverv  of 
the  Great  West,"  (1S69,)  "Count  Frontenac  and  New 
France  under  Louis  XIV.,"  (1878,)  and  "  Montcalm  and 
Wolfe,"  (2  vols.,  1S84.)  Ilis  works  have  enjoyed  a  great 
and  deserved  popularity. 

Parlatore,  paR-ld-to'ri,  (Filtppo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1816.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  botany 
at  Florence  in  1842.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Memoir 
on  Organography,  Vegetable  Morphology,"  etc.,  (1841,) 
"Comparative  Botany,"  (1843,)  and  "Travels  in  North- 
ern Europe,"  (1844.)  Died  in  Florence,  September  24, 
1877. 

Parma,  Duke  of, 

Parma,  Duke  of. 

R^GIS.) 

Parmenide.     See  Parmenides. 

Par-men'I-dei,  [Gr.  Wap^icvi^q;  Fr.  Parmenide, 
ptK'mi'nid',]  a  distinguished  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Eleatic  school,  was  born  at  Elea,  in  Italy.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Xenophanes.  Plato  informs 
us  that  Parmenides,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  visited 
Athens  in  company  with  Zeno,  who  was  twenty-five 
years  younger,  and  became  acquainted  with  Socrates. 
The  date  of  this  event  is  supposed  to  have  been  about 
450  B.C.  He  developed  his  philosophy  in  a  didactic 
poem  "On  Nature,"  of  which  some  fragments  have 
come  down  to  us.  Plato  speaks  of  him  with  veneration, 
ind  Aristotle  preferred  him  to  the  other  masters  of  the 


See  Farnese. 
See  CAMBAC^Rfes,  (Jean  Jacques 


Eleatic  school.     Zeno  of  Elea  was  one  of  his  disciples, 
among  whom  some  writers  also  reckon  Empedocles. 

See  F.  RiAUX,  "  Essai  sur  Parmt;nide  d'filee,"  1840;  Ritter, 
"  History  of  Pliilosophy  :"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "  Hiographical  History  of 
Philosophy:"  Plato,  "Parmenides;"  C.  A.  PiRandis,  "Commen- 
tationum  Eleaticartim  Xenoiihanis,  Parmenidis,  Pars  I.,"  1815; 
Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Par-me'nl-o,  [Gr.  nap//mwv;  Fr.  Parm6nion,  pSR'- 
mi'ne'AN',]  an  eminent  Macedonian  general,  the  son 
of  Philotas,  was  born  about  400  B.C.  He  enjoyed  the 
highest  place  in  the  confidence  of  Philip  as  a  councillor 
and  general.  Parmenio  and  Attalus  cominanded  an  army 
which  Philip  sent  to  invade  Persia  in  336.  He  rendered 
important  services  in  Alexander's  expedition  against 
Persia,  and  appears  to  have  been  regarded  as  second 
in  command  to  the  king.  He  commanded  the  left  wing 
at  the  battles  of  the  Grani'cus  and  Issus,  (333,)  and  of 
Arbela,  (331.)  His  son,  Philotas,  was  accused  of  com- 
plicity in  a  ]3lot  against  the  life  of  Alexander,  and,  though 
he  was  proljably  innocent,  he  was  induced  by  torture  to 
make  a  confession  of  guilt  which  implicated  Parmenio, 
who  was  put  to  death  in  330  B.C.  His  death  is  considered 
to  have  left  one  of  the  darkest  stains  on  the  character 
of  Alexander. 

See  Arrian,  "  Anabasis;"  Grotk,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Thiri- 
WAi.L,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Parmenio  or  Parmenion,  a  Greek  architect,  em- 
ployed by  Alexander  the  Great  at  Alexandria. 

Parmenion.     See  Parmenio. 

Parmentier,  pSR'm5N'te-i',  (Antoine  Augustin,) 
an  eminent  French  ])hilanthropist  and  writer  on  rural 
economy,  born  at  Montdidier  in  1737.  He  became  an 
apothecary  of  Paris,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
efforts  to  promote  the  cultivation  and  use  of  the  potato, 
against  which  the  people  were  prejudiced.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  the  potato,  chestnut,  and  maize.  In  1790 
he  published  "  Rural  and  Domestic  Economy,"  (8  vols.) 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  About  1803  he 
became  inspector-general  of  health,  (inspecteur-general du 
service  de  same.)     Died  in  1813. 

Parmentier,  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1658.  He  resided  mostly  in  England,  and  was 
employed  by  William  III.  to  adorn  his  palace  at  Loo. 
Among  his  works  is  "Diana  and  Endymion."  Died 
in  London  in  1730. 

Parmentier,  (Jehan,)  a  French  navigator,  born  at 
Dieppe  in  1494.  He  is  reputed  the  first  European  who 
navigated  to  Brazil,  and  the  first  who  explored  the  In- 
dian Sea  as  far  as  Sumatra.    He  died  at  Sumatra  in  1530. 

Parmesan,  Le.     See  Mazzola. 

Parmigiano,  IL     See  Mazzola. 

Par'nell,  (Charles  Stewart,)  an  Irish  statesman, 
born  at  Avondale,  county  of  Wicklow,  in  1846,  of  a 
Protestant  family.  His  mother  was  the  daughter  of  the 
American  admiral  Charles  Stewart.  He  was  educated 
at  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1874  was  chosen 
high  sheriff  of  Wicklow.  In  1875  he  entered  Parliament 
for  Meath,  and  in  1880  for  Cork.  He  was  chosen  pres- 
ident respectively  of  the  Irish  National  Land  League 
(1S79)  and  of  the  National  League  (1884),  and  was  for 
years  the  principal  leader  of  the  Home  Rule  movement, 
in  the  interest  of  which  he  visited  America,  where  he 
raised  a  fund  of  $350,000.  In  1881-82  he  was  imprisoned 
for  sedition  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  who  afterwards  became 
an  advocate  of  Home  Rule.  On  his  birthday  in  1S89  he 
was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  Edinburgh,  an  event 
which  was  speedily  followed  by  a  disgraceful  divorce 
case  in  which  he  was  co-respondent  with  a  Mrs.  O'Shea, 
whom  he  afterwards  married.     Died  October  6,  1891. 

Parnell,  (Henry  Brooke.)    See  Congleton,  Lord. 

Par'nell,  (Thomas,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  Dublin 
in  1679.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1700.  In  1705  he  became 
Archdeacon  of  Clogher.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Fin- 
glass,  near  Dublin,  in  1 7 16,  and  died  in  July,  1717. 
Among  his  best  poems  are  a  "  Hymn  to  Contentment," 
"  The  Hermit,"  a  night-piece  on  "  Death,"  and  an  "  Alle- 
gory on  Man."  He  wrote  several  essays  in  the  "Spec- 
tator," and  other  works  in  prose. 

See  Goldsmith,  "  Life  of  Parnell."  prefixed  to  Pamell's  Poems; 
Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  Hritish  Poets." 


€  as  /6/  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  nsj:  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARNY 


1894 


PARRISH 


Peirny,  de,  deh  piR'ne',  (Evariste  Desire  Des- 
forges — di'foRzh',)  Chevalier  and  Vicomte,  a  popular 
French  poet,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1753,  was 
styled  "  the  French  Tibullus."  He  was  educated  in 
France,  chose  the  military  profession,  and  returned  to 
his  native  island  in  1773.  A  disappointed  passion  for  a 
Creole  named  Eleonore  inspired  his  first  and  most  grace- 
ful and  natural  poetical  compositions,  "  Amatory  Poems," 
("Poesies  erotiques,"  1775,)  which  were  received  with 
great  favour.  He  went  to  India  as  aide-de-camp  to  the 
governor-general  in  1785,  but  returned  to  France  in  1786 
and  resigned  his  commission.  After  the  Revolution  he 
served  the  public  as  clerk  in  one  of  the  bureaux  of 
the  government.  His  later  poems,  "  The  War  of  the 
Gods,"  ("  La  Guerre  des  Dieux,"  1799,)  "  Paradise  Lost," 
and  "  Les  Galanteries  de  la  Bible,"  were  generally  cen- 
sured for  their  impiety,  and  have  little  literary  merit. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1803. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  P.  F.  TissoT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  de 
Parny,"  1S26;  Saintk-Beuve,  "Portraits  littdralres;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Parocchi,  pd-r6k'kee,  (Lucido  Maria,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Mantua,  August  13,  1833.  He  became 
a  bishop  in  1871,  and  Archbishop  of  Bologna  in  1877, 
and  was  made  a  cardinal-priest  in  the  same  year.  He 
afterwards  attained  the  dignity  of  cardinal-vicar  of  Rome. 

Parodi,  pi-ro'dee,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Genoa  in  1668,  was  also  a  sculptor. 
He  imitated  the  styles  of  Tintoretto  and  Paul  Veronese. 
His  chief  work  is  in  the  Negroni  palace,  Genoa.  It 
represents  "Hercules  killing  the  Nemean  Lion,"  and 
other  fabulous  subjects.  A  statue  of  Adonis,  which  be 
made  for  Prince  Eugene,  is  admired.     Died  in  1740. 

Parodi,  (Filippo,)  an  able  sculptor,  born  at  Genoa 
about  1640,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His  works 
may  be  seen  at  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Lisbon.  Died  about 
1708.  His  son  Batpista,  born  in  1674,  was  a  distin- 
guished painter  and  a  brilliant  colorist.     Died  in  1730. 

Pcirodi,  Madame,  a  celebrated  Italian  singer,  born 
about  1830.  She  has  performed  with  great  applause  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

Paroletti,  de,  di  pi-ro-let'tee,  (Victor  Modeste,) 
Chevalier,  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Turin  in  1765. 
He  sat  in  the  French  legislative  body  from  1807  to  181 1. 
Among  his  works  is  "Turin  and  its  Curiosities,"  (1819,) 
and  "Lives  of  Sixty  Illustrious  Piedmontese,"  (1826.) 
Died  in  1834. 

Parolini,  p5-ro-lee'nee,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  paintei 
of  history,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Cailo 
Cignani.     Died  about  1735. 

Paroy,  de,  deh  pS'Rwd',  (Jean  Philippe  Guy  le 
Gentil — leh  zhSN'tfeK,)  Marquis,  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1750.  His  engraving  of 
"La  moderne  Antigone"  (1800)  was  very  successful. 
Died  in  1822. 

Parque-Castrillo,  del,  d§l  paR^ki  kSs-trfeKyo,  Duke, 
a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1755.  He  com- 
manded an  army  which  opposed  the  French  invaders 
in  1809-13.     Died  in  1832. 

Parques,  Les.     See  Parc^. 

Parr,  (Catherine.)    See  Catherine  Parr. 

Parr,  (Harriet,)  an  English  author,  known  by  the 
literary  name  of  Holme  Lee,  was  born  at  York  in 
1828.  Besides  many  novels,  she  has  published  a  "Life 
of  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  (1866,)  and  other  works,  in  prose  and 
verse. 

Parr,  (Richard,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
born  in  the  county  of  Cork,  Ireland,  in  1617,  was  chap- 
lain to  Archbishop  Usher,  of  whom  he  wrote  a  Life, 
(1686.)     Died  in  1691. 

Parr,  (Samuel,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic,  re- 
nowned for  his  learning  and  colloquial  powers,  was  born 
at  Harrow-on-the-Hill,  Middlesex,  in  1747.  He  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1765,  but  left  it  with- 
out a  degree,  and  was  an  usher  in  Harrow  School  from 
1767  to  1772.  He  was  afterwards  master  of  schools  at 
Colchester  and  Norwich,  and  obtained  about  1785  the 
living  of  Hatton,  in  Warwickshire.  His  promotion  was 
hindered  by  his  rather  violent  partiality  to  the  Whig 
principles,  and  the  richest  benefice  he  enjoyed  was  a 


prebend  in  Saint  Paul's,  London.  He  published  several 
sermons,  "Characters  of  the  Late  Charles  J.  Fox,  se- 
lected and  in  part  written  by  Philopatris  Varyicensis," 
(2  vols.,  1825,)  and  other  works,  none  of  which  is  of 
great  extent  or  importance.  Died  in  1825.  Macaulay 
calls  Parr  the  greatest  scholar  of  that  age,  and  speaks 
of  "his  labours  in  that  dark  and  profound  mine  from 
which  he  had  extracted  a  vast  treasure  of  erudition, — a 
treasure  too  often  buried  in  the  earth,  too  often  paraded 
with  injudicious  and  inelegant  ostentation,  but  still 
precious,  massive,  and  splendid."  ("  Essay  on  Warren 
Hastings.") 

See  "  Life  of  S.  Parr,"  by  John  Johnstone;  William  Field, 
"  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Dr.  Parr,"  2  vols.,  1828  ;  "  Dr.  Parr  and  his 
Contemporaries,"  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  May, 
and  June,  1831 ;  "  Parriana,  or  Notices  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Parr," 
London,  182S. 

Parr,  (Thomas,)  an  Englishman  of  great  longevity, 
was  born  in  Shropshire  in  1483.  He  was  a  cultivator  of 
the  soil,  and  was  married  about  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty.  It  is  said  that  he  was  able  to  work  after 
he  was  one  hundred  and  thirty  years  old.    Died  in  1635. 

Parradin.     See  Paradin. 

Parreuin,  ptR'niN',  or  Parennin,  pt'ri'niN',  (Domi- 
nique,) a  French  missionary,  born  near  Pontarlier  in 
1665.  In  1698  he  went  to  China,  where  he  obtained 
the  favour  of  the  emperor.  He  translated  some  French 
works  into  Chinese.  His  letters  to  Fontenelle  and 
others  were  published.     Died  at  Peking  in  1741. 

Parrhasius,  par-ra'she-us,  [  na/5/>daiOf,  ]  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Greek  painters,  was  born  at  Ephesus, 
and  was  the  pupil  of  his  father,  Evenor.  Though  he 
belonged  to  the  Ionic  school,  he  practised  his  art  chiefly 
at  Athens.  He  flourished  about  400  B.C.  His  peculiar 
merits  consisted  in  accuracy  of  design,  truth  of  propor- 
tion, and  power  of  expression.  In  pictures  of  gods  and 
heroes  he  established  a  canon  of  proportion  which  was 
recognized  by  succeeding  artists.  Quintilian  styled  him 
the  legislator  of  his  art.  In  a  trial  of  skill  between  him 
and  his  rival  Zeuxis,  the  latter  painted  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
which  the  birds  took  for  reality.  Flushed  with  this  evi- 
dence of  his  success,  Zeuxis  called  on  his  rival  to  draw 
aside  the  curtain  and  show  his  picture.  The  picture  of 
Parrhasius  was  the  curtain  itself,  which  Zeuxis  had  mis- 
taken for  real  drapery.  Ainong  his  master-pieces  were 
"  Ulysses  Feigning  Insanity,"  and  an  allegorical  picture 
of  the  Athenian  people,  or  the  Demos  personified. 

See  Carlo  Dati,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  antichi,"  1667;  K.  O.  MuL- 
LER,  "  Handbuch  der  Archaeologie  der  Kunst ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Gendrale." 

Parrhasius  or  Parisio,  pS-ree'se-o,  (AULUS  Janus,) 
an  Italian  grammarian,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1470.  He 
taught  eloquence  at  Milan  and  Rome,  and  wrote  notes 
on  Horace,  Cicero,  and  Ovid.  His  chief  work  is  named 
"De  Rebus  per  Epistolam  quaesitis,"  (Paris,  1567,)  in 
which  he  explains  passages  of  ancient  authors.  Died 
in  1534. 

Par'ris,  (  Albion  K.,)  an  American  Governor  and 
judge,  born  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1788.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  Maine  five  times,  (1822-27,)  became 
United  States  Senator  in  1827,  and  was  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Maine  from  1828  to  1836.    Died  in  1857. 

Parish,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  physician 
of  Philadelphia,  was  born  in  that  city,  September  2,  1779. 
His  parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
and  he  was  educated  in  strict  conformity  with  the  princi- 
ples and  habits  of  that  sect.  In  early  life  he  received 
strong  religious  impressions,  by  which  he  was  preserved 
from  the  temptations  incident  to  a  lively  and  ardent 
temperament.  He  had  a  good  English  education,  and 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  French.  Later 
in  life,  like  George  Fox,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
Hebrew,  that  he  might  the  better  understand  the  Scrip- 
tures. But  his  tastes  were  rather  scientific  than  literary, 
and  inclined  him  to  the  medical  profession,  the  study  of 
which  he  commenced,  after  he  had  completed  his  twenty- 
first  year,  in  the  office  of  Dr.  Caspar  Wistar,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  He  took  his  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Medicine  in  1805,  and  soon  after  entered  with  zeal 
upon  the  duties  of  his  profession.  In  the  winter  of 
1807-S  he  became  favourably  known  to  the  public  by  a 
popular  course  of  lectures  on  chemistry,  then  a  novelty 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short:  a,  e,  |,  o.  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon^ 


PARROCEL 


1895 


PARSONS 


m  Philadelphia.  In  1808  he  married  Susanna  Cox, 
whose  father,  John  Cox,  of  Burlington,  was  a  well-known 
and  estimable  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  There 
has,  perhaps,  been  no  example  in  Philadelphia  of  a  more 
rapid  professional  success  than  that  which  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Dr.  Parrish.  To  this  result  his  devotion  to  his  medical 
duties,  and  the  remarkable  kindliness  of  his  disposition, 
which  showed  itself  not  merely  in  his  manners  but  in  in- 
numerable acts  of  benevolence,  powerfully  contributed. 
Later  in  life  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  as  a  surgeon, 
and  was  deemed  worthy  to  succeed  Dr.  Physick  as  sur- 
geon to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  to  which  position  he 
was  elected  in  1816,  and  which  he  continued  to  hold,  with 
the  highest  credit  to  himself,  for  thirteen  years.  Apart 
from  his  profession.  Dr.  Parrish  took  a  deep  interest  in 
all  benevolent  enterprises,  and  in  every  movement  cal- 
culated to  relieve  the  distresses  or  promote  the  happiness 
of  mankind.  He  was  long  a  member,  and  ultimately 
president,  of  the  old  Pennsylvania  Abolition  Society,  in 
which  office  he  had  been  preceded  by  Drs.  Wistar,  Rush, 
and  Franklin.  He  died  March  18,  1840.  Among  Dr. 
Parrish's  numerous  pupils  not  a  few  have  become  distin- 
guished in  medicine  or  surgery,  or  in  general  science.  It 
may  suffice  to  cite  the  names  of  Dr.  S.  G.  Morton,  Dr. 
G.  B.  Wood,  Dr.  Carson,  and  Dr.  G.  W.  Norris. 

Of  Dr.  Parrish's  sons,  the  second,  Isaac,  attained  a 
high  reputation  as  a  physician,  and  especially  as  a  surgeon. 
He  died  in  1852. 

See  "Memoir  of  Dr.  Joseph  Parrish,"  read  before  the  Medical 
Society  of  Philadelphia,  by  George  B.  Wood,  M.D.,  October,  1840; 
Jannev,  "History  of  Friends,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  126-129;  and  "Memoir 
of  Dr.  Isaac  Parrisli,"  read  before  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Phila- 
delphia, February,  1853,  by  Samuel  Jackson,  M.D. 

Parrocel,  pt'ro'sSK,  (Barth6lemi,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Montbriscn.  He  worked  in  Spain  and  Rome 
with  success.     Died  in  France  in  1660. 

Parrocel,  (Charles,)  a  skilful  painter  of  battles,  born 
in  Paris  in  1688,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  patronized  by  Louis  XV.,  whom  he  attended  in  the 
campaigns  of  1744  and  1745.     Died  in  1752. 

Parrocel,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  painter  of  battles, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Provence  in  1648. 
He  worked  at  Paris,  where  he  settled  in  1675,  and  was 
employed  by  Louvois  and  Louis  XIV.  to  adorn  the  royal 
palaces.     He  also  left  many  etchings.     Died  in  1704. 

Parrocel,  (Pierre,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Avignon  in  1664.  He  was  an  able  painter  of 
history,  and  worked  in  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  "The 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin."  Died  in  1739.  His  son, 
Joseph  Ignace,  born  in  1705,  painted  religious  and 
pastoral  subjects,  and  received  the  title  of  painter  to  the 
king.     Died  in  1781. 

Parrot,  pt'ro',  (Christophe  Fr6d6ric,)  a  writer  on 
physical  science,  bornatMontbeliard,  in  France,  in  1751 ; 
died  about  1810. 

Parrot,  (George  Fr6u6ric,)  a  distinguished  writer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Montbeliard  in 
1767.  He  became  professor  of  physics  at  Dorpat  in 
1800,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1826.  Among  his  works  is  "Outlines 
(Grundriss)  of  Theoretical  Physics,"  (2  vols.,  1809-xi.) 
Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1852. 

Parrot,  (Johann  Jakob  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a 
traveller,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Carlsruhe 
in  1792.  He  published  "Travels  in  the  Crimea  and 
Caucasus,"  (2  vols.,  1815-18,)  a  "Journey  to  Ararat," 
(1834,)  and  other  works.  He  ascended  Mount  Ararat 
about  1830.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Dorpat 
Died  in  1841. 

Par'r9tt,  (Robert  Parker,)  an  American  soldier, 
born  at  Lee,  New  Hampshire,  October  5,  1804.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1824,  and  until  1829  was  an 
assistant  professor  there.  In  1836  he  left  the  army  and 
became  a  cannon-founder  at  Cold  Spring,  New  York. 
He  invented  the  rifled  artillery  which  was  called  by  his 
name.  He  was  a  judge  of  common  pleas,  1844-47.  l^ied 
at  Cold  Spring,  New  York,  December  24,  1877. 

Par'ry,  (Caleb  Hillier,)  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Bath  in  1756.  He  practised  many  years  at  Bath,  and 
published  several  works,  among  which  is  "  Elements  of 
Pathology,"  (1816.)  Sir  William  Edward  Parry  was  his 
Bon.     Died  in  1822. 


Par'r^,  (John,)  a  Welsh  musician  and  musical  archae- 
ologist of  the  eighteenth  century.  His,  playing  on  the 
harp  was  much  admired  in  London.  He  published  two 
collections  of  old  music, — "  Ancient  British  Music  of  the 
Cambro-Britons,"  (1742,)  and  "A  Collection  of  Welsh, 
English,  and  Scotch  Airs." 

Parry,  (John,)  a  Welsh  musician  and  composer,  born 
at  Denbigh  in  1776.  In  1807  he  settled  in  London,  and 
soon  became  known  as  a  composer  of  dramatic  music. 
He  was  author  of  "  The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Harp," 
and  editor  of  a  collection  of  Welsh  melodies  under  the 
title  of  "The  Welsh  Harper."     Died  April  8,  1851. 

Parry,  (Joseph,)  Mus.  Doc,  a  Welsh  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Merthyr  in  1841.  His  oratorio 
"Emanuel"  (1880)  was  received  with  favour. 

Parry,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
in  1722,  was  rector  of  Wichampton.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels." 
Died  in  1780. 

Parry,  (Sir  William  Edward,)  an  English  navigator, 
(usually  called  Sir  Edward  Parry,)  born  at  Bath  in 
1790,  was  a  son  of  Caleb  H.  Parry,  noticed  above. 
He  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  war  against  the  United 
States  in  1814,  and  accompanied  Captain  Ross  in  an 
exploring  voyage  in  1818.  He  obtained  command  of  an 
expedition  for  the  discovery  of  a  Northwest  Passage,  and 
sailed  with  the  Hecla  and  Griper  in  May,  1819.  Having 
passed  through  Lancaster  Sound,  he  explored  a  con- 
tiguous strait,  which  he  named  Barrow's  Strait,  and 
gained  a  reward  of  ;^5000  offered  to  the  navigator  who 
should  penetrate  beyond  the  meridian  of  1 10°  W., 
(within  the  Arctic  circle.)  He  passed  the  winter  at 
Melville  Island,  returned  home  in  November,  1820,  and 
wrote  a  journal  of  his  voyage,  published  in  1821. 

Captain  Parry  renewed  the  enterprise  in  1821,  without 
success.  He  performed  a  third  voyage  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  1824,  with  the  Hecla  and  Fury,  the  latter  of 
which  was  wrecked,  but  failed  to  find  the  Northwest  Pas- 
sage. In  1827  he  attempted  to  reach  the  North  pole 
from  Spitzbergen  by  boats  and  sledges  drawn  over  the 
ice.  Having  advanced  to  a  point  82°  45'  N.,  he  was 
forced  by  an  adverse  current  to  return.  A  journal  of  his 
second  voyage  was  published  in  1824,  a  journal  of  the 
third  voyage  in  1826,  and  a  "Narrative  of  an  Attempt 
to  reach  the  North  Pole"  in  1828.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1852.  Died  at  Ems,  in  Ger- 
many, in  1855. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  W.  E.  Parry,"  by  his  son,  Edward  Park* 
1857;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1821,  and  October,  1823; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1821. 

Parseval-Deschdnes,  ptRs'vtK  di'shfn',  (Alex- 
andre Ferdinand,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Paris 
in  1790.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1840,  and  vice- 
admiral  in  1846.  In  1854  he  commanded  the  fleet 
which  co-operated  with  the  British  against  the  Russians 
in  the  Baltic.  He  was  made  an  admiral  in  1854.  Died 
June  12,  i860. 

Parseval-Grandmaison,  ptRs'viK  gRfiN'mi'ziN', 
(Franqois  Auguste,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in 
1759.  He  went  to  Egypt  with  the  army  in  1798  as  poet 
of  the  expedition,  and  was  one  of  the  friends  whom 
Bonaparte  received  on  board  of  the  ship  which  conveyed 
him  to  France.  He  wrote  a  "Dithyramb  on  the  Mar- 
riage of  Napoleon,"  (1810,)  "  Philippe  Auguste,"  a  heroic 
poem,  (1825,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1834. 

Par'sons,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Barnstaple  in  1705.  He  practised  in 
London,  contributed  several  treatises  on  physiology,  etc. 
to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  wrote  an  anti- 
quarian work  called  "The  Remains  of  Japhet,"  (1767.) 
Died  in  1770. 

Parsons,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  medicine 
or  anatomy  at  Oxford  about  1780.     Died  in  1785. 

Par'sons,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
clergyman  and  scholar,  born  at  West  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1705.  He  preached  for  many  years  at  New- 
buryport,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1776. 

Parsons,  (Moses,)  an  eminent  American  preacher, 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1 7 16,  graduated  at  Harvard. 


■cas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  f,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ({[[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARSONS 


1896 


PARVATI 


He  was  minister  at  Byfield,  Massachusetts.     Died  in 

1783- 

Parsons,  (Philip,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Dedham  in  1729,  was  vicar  of  Wye.  He  wrote  "New- 
marltet,  an  Essay  on  the  Turf,"  (1774,)  "Simplicity,"  a 
poem,  (1784,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1812. 

Parsons,  [Lat.  Pukso'nius,]  (Rohert,)  an  English 
Jesuit,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1546,  was  remarkable 
for  his  subtlety  as  a  disputant  and  his  talent  for  intrigue. 
As  an  emissary  of  the  court  of  Rome,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land with  Campian  about  1580,  and  attempted  to  foment 
a  rebellion.  He  published  several  seditious  writings. 
He  was  turbulent,  audacious,  and  unscrupulous.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1610. 

Parsons,  (Samuel  Holden,)  an  American  general 
and  lawyer,  born  at  Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  1737,  was  a 
son  of  Jonathan,  noticed  above.  He  is  said  to  have  first 
suggested  a  general  Congress.     Died  in  Ohio  in  1789. 

Parsons,  (Theophilus,)  an  eminent  American  jurist, 
born  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  the  24th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1750.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1769, 
and  studied  law  at  Falmouth,  (now  Portland,)  in  Maine, 
where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1774  ;  but  he  after- 
wards removed  to  Newburyport.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  which,  in  1779,  framed  the  State  Consti- 
tution of  Massachusetts,  and  was  also  a  member  of  the 
convention  called  to  ratify  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
.States  in  1789.  In  iSoo  he  removed  to  Boston.  He  was 
appointed  in  1806  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts,  in 
which  office  he  displayed  signal  ability.  As  a  lawyer, 
"he  had,"  according  to  Justice  Story,  "no  equal  in 
Massachusetts;"  and  he  probably  had  few,  if  any,  supe- 
riors in  the  United  States.  A  collection  of  his  judicial 
opinions  was  published,  under  the  title  of  "Commen- 
taries on  the  Law  of  the  United  States."     Died  in  1813. 

Parsons,  (Tiieophilus,)  an  eminent  jurist,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts, 
in  1797.  He  giaduated  in  1815  at  ILirvard  College, 
where  he  became  in  1847  Dane  professor  of  law.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Contracts," 
(1853,)  "Elements  of  Mercantile  Law,"  (1856,)  "The 
Laws  of  Business  for  Business  Men,"  (1857,)  "Treatise 
on  Maritime  Law,"  (1859,)  "  Memoir  of  Chief-Justice 
Parsons,"  (1859,)  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Promissory 
Notes  and  Bills  of  Exchange,"  (1862,)  "Laws  of  Part- 
nership," (1867,)  "  Deus  Homo,"  (1867,)  "Treatise  on 
Marine  Insurance,"  (1868,)  "The  Infinite  and  the  Finite," 
(1872,)  and  "The  Rights  of  a  Citizen  of  the  United 
States,"  (1S75.)     He  died  January  26,  1882. 

Parsons,  (Thomas  William,)  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Boston  in  1S19.  He  produced  in  1843  a  version 
of  "The  First  Ten  Cantos  of  Dante's  Inferno,"  which 
was  pronounced  "  the  most  successful  reproduction  of  the 
spirit  and  power  of  the  Divina  Commedia  in  the  English 
language.  .  .  .  His  '  Hudson  River' is  the  noblest  tribute 
any  stream  on  this  continent  has  received  from  a  poet, 
and  his  lines  'On  the  Death  of  Daniel  Webster'  are  far 
better  than  anything  else  ever  written  in  verse  on  the 
death  of  an  American  statesman."  (Griswold's  "  Poets 
and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  559.)  He  published  a  vol- 
ume of  poems  in  1854. 

Parsons,  (William,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born 
in  1736,  was  also  a  painter.     Died  in  1795. 

Parthenay,  de.     See  Desroches  de  Parthenay. 

Parthenay,  de,  deh  ptRt'ni',  (Catherine,)  Vi- 
comtesse  de  Rohan,  a  spirited  and  gifted  French  lady, 
born  in  Bas-Poitou  in  1554,  was  a  lluguenot.  She  dis- 
tinguished herself  at  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle,  in  1627. 
She  published  some  poems.  The  famous  Duke  of 
Rohan  was  her  son.     Died  in  163 1. 

See  MoriJri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Dk  Thou,  "  Historia 
8ui  Teinixiris." 

Par-the'ni-us  [llnp^mof]  of  Nicaea,  a  Greek  poet, 
who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  B.C.  Suidas  states 
that  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Romans  in  the  wai 
against  Mithridates.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cornelius 
Callus,  and  a  preceptor  of  Virgil.  He  wrote  "  Meta- 
morphoses," elegies,  and  other  poems,  which  are  all  lost 
except  one  named  Trtpt  ipuriKuv  iiadiJiiuTuv,  ("On  Ama- 
tory Affections.") 

See   Fabricius,    "  Hibliotheca   Gra«ca." 


ParthenopeeuB,  par-then-o-pee'us,  I  Gr.  llap^evo 
naiog ;  Fr.  Partu6nop6e,  pSR'ti'no'pi',]  a  mythical 
personage,  called  a  son  of  Milanion  and  Atalanta.  He 
was  one  of  the  seven  heroes  under  the  command  of 
Adrastus  engaged  in  the  expedition  against  Thebes, 
where  he  was  killed. 

Par-then'o-pe,  [Gr.  UapOevoTTT) ;  Fr.  Parth^nope, 
ptK'tk'nop',]  a  famous  Siren,  from  whom  the  city  of 
Naples  derived  its  ancient  name. 

Parthenopee.    See  Parthenop/eus. 

Par'th?-nos,  [Gr.  Ylapdevoc;  Fr.  ParthAnos,  ptR'- 
ti'nos',]  (i.e.  "the  Virgin,")  a  surname  given  by  the 
Athenians  to  Minerva,  in  whose  honour  they  built  the 
Parthenon.     (See  Minerva.) 

ParticellL    See  Emery. 

Par'tpu,  (Ernest,)  an  American  artist,  of  late  a  resi- 
dent of  London,  England,  was  born  at  1 1  udson,  New  York, 
March  17,  1845.  When  twenty  years  old,  he  took  a 
studio  in  New  York,  and  in  1873  he  removed  to  London. 
Among  his  pictures  are  "The  High  Hall  Garden,"  "  Au 
Bord  de  I'Eau,"  "  The  Waning  of  the  Year,"  and  "  Wood- 
land Home." 

Par'tpu,  (James,)  an  able  and  popular  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Canterbury,  England,  in  1822,  became 
a  resident  of  New  York,  where  he  was  for  a  time  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  "  Home  Journal."  He  published 
a  "  Life  of  Horace  Greeley,"  (1855,)  "Lite  of  Aaron 
Burr,"  (1857,)  "Life  of  Andrew  Jackson,"  (i860,)  a"  Life 
of  General  Butler,"  (1863,)  "Life  and  Times  of  Benja- 
min Franklin,"  (1864,)  "Life  of  John  Jacob  Astor," 
(1865,)  "Famous  Americans  of  Recent  Times,"  (1867,) 
"Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson,"  (1874,)  "Caricature  in  all 
Times  and  Lands,"  (1878,)  and  "Life  of  Voltaire,"  (1881.) 
He  contributed  to  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  and  the 
•'North  American  Review."     Died  October  17,  1891. 

Parton,  (Sarah  Payson  Willis,)  the  wife  of  the 
preceding,  and  sister  of  the  poet,  N.  P.  Willis,  was  born 
at  Portland,  Maine,  in  181 1.  She  published,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Fanny  Fern,  "  Fern  Leaves,"  (1853,) 
"  Little  Ferns,"  (1853,)  "  Ruth  Hall,"  (1854,)  "  The  Play- 
Day  Book,"  (1856,)  "Fresh  Leaves,"  (1857,)  and  "Rose 
Clark,"  (1857.)  Her  works  obtained  great  popularity  in 
the  United  States,  and  were  republished  in  England. 
She  died  October  10,  1872. 

Part'ridge,  (Alden,)  an  American  teacher  of  mili- 
tary schools,  born  at  Norwich,  Vermont,  about  1785. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1806.  He  was  the 
leader  of  a  party  which  surveyed  and  determined  the 
northeast  boundary  of  the  United  States,  in  1819.  He 
opened  military  schools  at  Norwich,  Vermont,  (1820,) 
Middletown,  Connecticut,  (1S25,)  Portsmouth,  Virginia, 
(1840,)  and  elsewhere.     Died  in  1854. 

Part'ridge,  (Samuel  William,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1810.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Our 
English  Months,  a  Poem  on  the  Seasons  in  England." 

Paruta,  pJ-roo'ti,  (Filippo,)  an  antiquary,  born  at 
Palermo.  He  wrote  "  Sicily  Described  by  Medals," 
("La  Sicilia  descritta  con  Medaglie,"  1612,)  reprinted 
in  1649  and  1697.     Died  in  1629. 

Paruta,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  historian  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Venice  in  1540.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  the  pope  in  1592,  before  which  he  had 
held  several  high  offices.  In  1596  he  became  procurator 
of  Saint  Mark,  the  highest  functionary  in  the  state  ex- 
cept one.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Perfection  of  Political 
Life,"  ("  Delia  Perfezione  della  Vita  politica,"  1579,) 
which  was  translated  into  English  and  French,  and  a 
"  History  of  Venice  from  1513  to  1551,"  ("Storia  Vene- 
ziana,"  1605,)  which  is  highly  commended.  "  He  was 
the  first,"  says  Daru,  "  who  introduced  the  details  of 
civil  history  into  his  narrative."  His  "  Political  Dis- 
courses" ("  Discorsi  politici,"  1599)  are  judicious,  and 
sometimes  profound.     Died  in  1598. 

See  A.  Zbno,  "Vita  di  P.  Paruta,"  17:^8  :  A.  M.  Mkneghelli, 
"  Elosiodi  P.  Paruta,"  181 2  ;  Nic^ron,  "M^moires." 

PSrvati,  paR'va-tee',  {i.e.  the  "mountain  [goddess,"]) 
[from  the  Sanscrit /Jrz'J/*?,  a  "mountain,"]  in  the  Hin- 
doo mythology,  the  name  of  the  consort  or  Sakti  of  Siva, 
was  supposed  to  be  the  daughter  of  Himala,  the  sove- 
reign of  the  snowy  mountains  in  the  north  of  India. 
She  is  known  by  a  multitude  of  names,  according  to  het 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  />'«^,'  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  sAoii;  ^,  ^,  j,  o,  oi>scure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mfel;  n6t;  good;  niooiij 


PARYSATIS 


1897 


PASCAL 


various  characters,  such  as  BHAVANf,  corresponding  to 
the  "  Venus  genetrix"  of  the  Romans  ;  Durga,  so  called 
in  her  character  of  active  or  militant  virtue  ;  KalI,  {i.e. 
"  black"  or  "  terrible,")  applied  to  her  in  her  most  terrible 
form,  when  she  appears  as  the  destroyer  of  the  enemies 
of  the  gods ;  and  PARVAit,  as  the  devoted  wife  and 
inseparable  companion  of  Siva.  She  (like  Juno)  may  be 
regarded  as  a  personification  of  femineity.     (See  SlVA.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantlieon  ;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Pa-rys'a-tis,  [Gr.  Onpiiaarif,]  a  Persian  queen,  was  a 
daughter  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  and  the  wife  of  her  brother, 
Darius  Ochus,  over  whom  she  had  great  influence.  She 
abused  her  power  by  the  execution  of  a  number  of  per- 
sons, among  whom  were  two  brothers  of  Darius.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Artaxerxes  Miiemou  and  of  Cyrus 
the  younger. 

Pas.     See  Pass. 

Pas,  de,  (Antoine.)     See  FEUQUifeRES,  de. 

Pascal.    See  Paschal  1. 

Pascal,  pis'ktl',  (Adrien,)  a  French  military  writer, 
born  about  181 5.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Military  Life  of  Louis  Philippe,"  (1841,)  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Army,  and  of  all  the  Regiments,  from  the 
Thirteenth  Century  to  our  Times,"  (4  vols.,  1845-49,) 
and  a  "History  of  Napoleon  IH.,"  (1853.)     Died  1863. 

Pascal,  pas'kal,  [Fr.  pron.  pSs'kSK ;  Lat.  Pascha'lis,] 
(Blaise,)  a  celebrated  French  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician, was  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand,  in  Auvergne, 
on  the  19th  of  June,  1623.  He  was  the  only  son  of 
Etienne  Pascal,  president  of  the  court  of  aids,  and  An- 
toinette Begon.  He  was  very  inquisitive  in  his  early 
childhood,  and  showed  an  extraordinary  aptitude  for 
geometry ;  but  his  father,  who  directed  his  education, 
wished  him  to  study  the  ancient  languages,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  geometry,  and  carefully  concealed  from  him 
all  works  on  that  scien..e.  In  his  twelfth  year,  however, 
he  was  surprised  in  the  act  of  demonstrating  proposi- 
tions, having  privately  discovered  or  learned  the  elements 
of  geometry  without  the  aid  of  books.  His  father  then 
ceased  to  restrain  him  from  the  study  of  the  science  to 
which  he  was  so  powerfully  attracted.  It  is  stated  that 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sec- 
tions which  astonished  Descartes.  He  made  rapid  pro- 
gress in  mathematics,  and  soon  began  to  associate  with 
Mersenne  and  Roberval.  About  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
invented  an  ingenious  calculating-machine.  His  consti- 
tution was  always  delicate,  and  his  health  was  probably 
impaired  by  excessive  application  to  study.  After  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  was  a  continual  sufferer.  In  1648  he 
made  with  the  barometer,  on  the  mountain  called  Puy  de 
Dome,  a  celebrated  ex])eriment,  which  established  the 
theory  of  atmospheric  pressure  and  exploded  the  ancient 
error  that  nature  abhors  a  vacuum.  He  wrote  two  treat- 
ises entitled  "On  the  Equilibrium  of  Fluids,"  and  "  On 
the  Weight  of  the  Atmosphere."  In  the  experiment 
just  mentioned  he  was  assisted  by  M.  Perier,  his  brother- 
in-law.  Impressed  by  powerful  religious  convictions,  he 
renounced  in  1649  the  brilliant  prospect  of  temporal  re- 
nown towards  which  his  genius  was  conducting  him,  and 
turned  his  attention  from  scientific  pursuits.  In  1654  he 
narrowly  escaped  from  a  dangerous  accident  to  which  he 
was  exposed  by  his  unruly  horses  as  he  was  riding  in  a 
carriage  on  the  Pont  de  Neuilly.  This  event  confirmed 
his  resolution  to  devote  himself  to  religious  duties  and 
a  life  of  retirement.  He  became  very  abstemious  in  his 
diet,  denied  himself  many  innocent  enjoyments,  and 
subjected  himself  to  a  severely  ascetic  discipline.  It  is 
stated  that  he  beggared  himself  by  his  prodigal  bene- 
factions to  the  poor,  and  that  he  wore  beneath  his  clothes 
a  girdle  of  iron  armed  with  sharp  points  as  an  instru- 
ment of  self-imposed  j^enance.  He  entered  the  cloister 
of  Port-Royal,  to  which  his  sister  Jacqueline  had  retired 
several  years  before,  and  there  enjoyed  the  society  of 
Arnauld,  Le  Saci,  Nicole,  Saint-Cyran,  (Duvergier,)  and 
other  Jansenist  writers. 

In  1656  he  produced  his  celebrated  "  Provincial  Let- 
ters," the  full  title  of  which  is  "  Lettres  ecrites  par  Louis 
de  Montalte  a  un  Provincial  de  ses  Amis  et  aux  Jesuites 
sur  la  Morale  et  la  Politique  de  ces  Peres,"  ("  Letters 
written  by  Louis  de  Montalte  to  the  Jesuits,"  etc.) 
"Pascal,"  says  Hallam,  "by  his  'Provincial  Letters," 


did  more  to  ruin  the  name  of  Jesuit  than  all  the  con- 
troversies of  Protestantism  or  all  the  fulminations  of 
the  Parliament  of  Paris.  .  ,  .  He  has  accumulated  so 
long  a  list  of  scandalous  decisions,  and  dwelt  upon 
them  with  so  much  wit  and  spirit,  and  yet  with  so 
serious  a  severity,  that  the  order  of  Loyola  became  a 
byword  with  mankind."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")  Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that 
"  Moli^re's  best  comedies  do  not  excel  these  Letters  in 
wit,  nor  the  compositions  of  Bossuet  excel  them  in  sub- 
limity." The  most  competent  French  critics,  including 
Voltaire  and  D'Alcmbert,  concur  in  the  judgment 
that  the  "  Provincial  Letters"  contributed  more  than 
any  other  composition  to  form  and  polish  the  French 
language.  There  is  not  a  single  tvord  in  these  Letters 
that  has  become  obsolete.  "The  severely  pure  and 
simple  taste,"  says  Henry  Rogers,  "  which  reigns  in 
Pascal's  style  seems,  when  we  reflect  on  those  vices 
which  more  or  less  infected  universal  letters,  little  less 
than  a  miraculous  felicity.  .  .  ,  Upon  all  the  great  fea- 
tures of  his  moral  character  one  dwells  with  the  serenest 
delight.  Greatly  as  he  is  to  be  admired,  he  is  yet  more 
to  be  loved.  His  humility  and  simplicity,  conspicuous 
as  his  genius  and  acquisitions,  were  those  of  a  very 
child."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1847.)  In 
one  instance  he  relapsed  into  the  study  of  the  abstract 
sciences  which  he  had  renounced.  About  1658  he  di- 
verted his  attention  from  the  pain  which  deprived  him 
of  sleep  by  entertaining  a  luminous  idea  which  presented 
itself  to  him  and  led  him  to  some  important  discoveries 
in  relation  to  the  problem  of  the  cycloid.  Before  he 
made  these  public,  he  challenged  the  mathematicians  of 
Europe  to  solve  the  problem,  and  offered  a  prize  to  him 
who  should  succeed.  Several  persons  competed  for  the 
prize,  but  the  judges  decided  that  none  of  their  solutions 
fulfilled  the  conditions  of  the  challenge.  He  [)ublished 
in  1659  a  Treatise  on  the  Cycloid,  ("Traite  general  de 
la  Roulette.")  He  meditated  and  began  to  compose  an 
extensive  and  systematic  work  on  the  fundamental  truths 
of  religion  and  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  which  he 
did  not  live  to  finish ;  but  he  left  in  manuscript  nume- 
rous detached  sentences  which  are  supposed  to  be  frag 
ments  of  that  work.  They  were  published  in  1670,  undev 
the  title  of  "Thoughts  of  Pascal,"  ("  Pensces  de  Pascal,") 
not  without  suppressions  and  alterations.  A  more  cor- 
rect edition  was  published  by  M.  Prosper  Faugere  in 
1844.  "The  Thoughts  of  Pascal,"  says  Hallam,  "are 
to  be  ranked,  as  a  monument  of  his  genius,  above  the 
'  Provincial  Letters,  though  some  have  asserted  the 
contrary.  They  burn  with  an  intense  light ;  condensed 
in  expression,  sublime,  energetic,  rapid,  they  hurry  away 
the  reader,  till  he  is  scarcely  able  or  willing  to  distin- 
guish the  sophisms  from  the  truth  thev  contain.  For 
that  many  of  them  are  incapable  of  bearing  a  calm 
scrutiny  is  very  manifest  to  those  who  apply  such  a 
test.  The  notes  of  Voltaire,  though  always  intended  to 
detract,  are  sometimes  unanswerable  ;  but  the  splendour 
of  Pascal's  eloquence  absolutely  annihilates,  in  effect 
on  the  general  reader,  even  this  antagonist."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Among  his  works  are  "  New  Experiments  on  the  Va- 
cuum," ("Nouvelles  Experiences  touchant  le  Vide,") 
"  History  of  the  Cycloid,"  ("  Histoire  de  la  Roulette,") 
and  "  De  I'Esprit  geometrique."  He  endured  with  for- 
titude the  maladies  which  in  his  latter  years  were 
aggravated  by  his  ascetic  habits,  and  died  in  Paris  on 
the  19th  of  August,  1662.  His  complete  works  were 
published  by  Bossut,  (in  5  vols.  8vo,  1779.)  Prosper 
Faugere  published  in  1844  two  volumes  of  "Thoughts, 
Fragments,  and  Letters  of  Blaise  Pascal,"  many  of 
which  had  never  before  been  printed.  "  His  intellectual 
powers,"  says  Macaulay,  "  were  such  as  have  rarely  been 
bestowed  on  any  of  the  children  of  men  ;  and  the  vehe- 
mence of  the  zeal  which  animated  him  was  but  too  well 
proved  by  the  cruel  penances  and  vigils  under  which 
his  macerated  frame  sank  into  an  early  grave.  His 
spirit  was  the  spirit  of  Saint  Bernard  ;  but  the  delicacy 
of  his  wit,  the  purity,  the  energy,  the  simplicity  of  his 
rhetoric,  had  never  been  equalled,  except  by  the  great 
masters  of  Attic  eloquence.  All  Europe  read  and 
admired,  laughed  and  wept.     The  Jesuits  attempted  to 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  u,  yi,pUtural;  N,  nasal;  u,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  Ihis.     {^g^'ite.  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PASCAL 


1898 


PASOR 


reply,  but  their  feeble  answers  were  received  with  shouts 
of  mockery."     ("History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  p.  18.) 

See  BossuT,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  Pascal,"  1781  ;  Andrieux, 
"filoge  de  Pascal,"  1S13:  Raymond,  "  filoge  de  Pascal,"  1S16; 
FAUcftRE,  "  filoge  de  Pascal;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Port-Royal;" 
Bordas-Demoulin,  "Genie  et  ficrits  de  Pascal,"  1847;  Cousin, 
"  Des  Pens^es  de  Pascal,"  1844  :  Vinet,  "  Etudes  sur  Pascal,"  184S ; 
Abb^  Maynard,  "Pascal,  sa  Vie  et  son  Caractire,"  2  vols.,  1850; 
"Vie  de  Pascal,"  by  Madame  Perier,  his  sister;  "Lives  of  the 
Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Sheli,ey;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  December,  1840;  "North  British  Review"  for 
November,  1S61. 

Pascal,  (pR.'^Ngois  Michel,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  about  1815.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  second 
class  in  1848.     Died  in  1882. 

Pascal,  (Jacqueline,)  a  sister  of  Blaise  Pascal,  was 
born  at  Clermont  in  1625.  She  was  beautiful  and  highly 
gifted.  About  the  age  of  ten  she  began  to  write  verses, 
some  of  which  were  printed  in  1638.  The  poet  Corneille, 
who  often  visited  the  family  of  Pascal,  aided  in  the  de- 
velopment of  her  poetic  talent.  She  became  religious  in 
1646,  and  entered  the  convent  of  Port-Royal  in  1652. 
She  wrote  a  powerful  letter  on  the  formulary  which  the 
nuns  were  required  to  sign,  and  which  condemned  Jan- 
senism. She  died  in  1661.  "  To  annihilate  self,"  says 
M.  Vinet,  "and  then  to  efface  the  most  minute  traces  of 
that  very  annihilation,  had  been  the  task  of  this  heroic 
girl  for  years.  She  had  deemed  it  her  especial  duty  to 
mortify  her  noble  intellect ;  but  she  was  unable  to  destroy 
it :  it  still  clung  to  her.  And,  though  every  thing  which 
she  achieved  or  wrote  bears  the  stamp  of  mental  supe- 
riority, there  is  nothing  comparable  in  this  respect  to 
the  'Letter  on  the  Formulary.'" 

See  "Jacqueline  Pascal,  or  a  Glimpse  of  Convent-Life  at  Port- 
Royal,"  from  the  French  of  Victor  Cousi.n,  M.  P.  Faug4re,  and 
M.  Vinet. 

Pascal,  (Jean  Baptiste  Etienne,)  a  French  anti- 
quary and  priest,  born  at  Marvejols  in  1789.  He  wrote 
"  Gabalum  Christianum,"  (1853,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1859. 

Pascal- Vallongue,  pts'kSl'  vt'h^Ng',  (Joseph  Se- 
cret,) a  French  general,  born  at  Sauve  (Gard)  in  1763. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  Germany  and  Italy  during 
the  empire,  and  was  killed  at  Gaeta  in  1806. 

Pasch,  pdsh,  [Lat  Pas'chius,]  (Georg,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Dantzic  in  i66l  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Kiel  about  1702.  Among  his  works 
is  "Tractatus  de  novis  Inventis  quorum  cultui  facem 
protulit  antiquitas,"  (1695.)     Died  in  1707. 

Pasch,  pash,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  landscape  and  ma- 
rine painter,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1706  ;  died  in  1769. 

PaschaL     See  Pasquali. 

Pas'-ehal  [  It.  Pasquale,  pSs-kwS'li ;  Fr.  Pascal, 
pts'ktl' ;  Lat.  Pascha'lis]  I.,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome, 
was  elected  as  successor  to  Stephen  V.  in  817  A.D.  He 
crowned  the  emperor  Lothaire  in  823.     Died  in  824. 

Paschal  II.,  Pope,  (Rainieri,)  born  near  Viterbo, 
succeeded  Urban  II.  in  1099.  He  maintained  a  contest 
on  the  subject  of  investitures  with  the  emperor  Henry 
v.,  who  marched  with  an  army  to  Rome  in  i  x  10,  arrested 
the  pope  after  a  violent  resistence,  and  extorted  from 
him  a  concession  of  the  right  of  investiture.  This  con- 
cession of  Paschal  was  condemned  by  a  council  which 
he  convoked.  He  was  too  feeble  and  irresolute  to  main- 
tain the  supremacy  of  the  papal  power.  He  died  in  1118, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Gelasius  II. 

Paschal  m.,  Anti-Pope,  (Guido  di  Crema,  gwee'- 
do  de  kRa'mi,)  was  elected  in  1164  or  1165  in  opposition 
to  Alexander  HI.,  and  was  recognized  by  the  emperor 
Frederick  I.     He  died  at  Rome  in  1168. 

Paschalis.    See  Pascal,  (Blaise.) 

Paschalis,  (Popes.)     See  Paschau 

Paschius.     See  Pasch. 
_  Pascoli,  pis'ko-lee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Perugia  in  1669.     He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  in  Rome,  and  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1757. 

Pascoli,  (Leone,)  an  Italian  biographer,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Perugia  in  1674.  He  wrote 
"  Lives  of  Perugian  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects," 
(1732,)  and  "The  Lives  of  Modern  Painters,  Sculptors, 
and  Architects,"  (2  vols.,  1736,)  both  in  Italian.  Died 
in  1744. 


Peial-cles,  a  Greek  philosopher,  lived  probably  be- 
tween 400  and  350  B.C.  He  was  at  one  time  the  head 
of  the  school  of  Megara. 

Pasinelli,  pi-se-nel'lee,  or  Passinelli,  pis-se-nel'lee, 
(Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1629, 
was  a  pupil  of  Cantarini.  He  imitated  the  noble  man- 
ner of  Paul  Veronese,  whom,  it  is  said,  he  equalled  in 
design.  "His  colour  is  so  fresh  and  brilliant,"  says  the 
"Biographic  Universelle,"  "that  one  might  take  his 
works  for  the  productions  of  the  best  time  of  the  Venetian 
school."  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Entrance 
of  Christ  into  Jerusalem,"  and  a  "  Holy  Family."  Died 
in  1700. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pasini,  pl-see'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  linguist, 
born  about  1690.  He  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar, 
(1721,)  and  a  "Latin-Italian  Dictionary,"  (" Vocabolario 
Italiano  e  Latino,"  1731,)  often  reprinted.  Died  about 
1770. 

Pa-siph'a-e,  [Gr.  TlaaKpari;  Fr.  Pasipha6,  pt'ze'ft'i',] 
a  fabulous  personage,  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Helios, 
a  sister  of  Circe,  and  the  wife  of  Minos.  Among  her 
children  were  Androgeos,  Ariadne,  Phasdra,  and  the 
Minotaur,  the  last  of  whom  was  fabled  to  be  the  offspring 
of  a  bull. 

Pa-sit'e-lea,  [Uaani^ric,]  an  excellent  statuary  and 
silver-chaser,  of  Greek  origin,  who  lived  at  Rome.  He 
was  a  minor  when  he  obtained  the  right  of  Roman  citi- 
zenship, about  90  B.C.  He  improved  the  artof  modelling. 
Pliny  represents  him  as  a  great  artist,  and  mentions  one 
of  his  works, — an  ivory  statue  of  Jupiter.  He  was  also 
an  eminent  writer  on  art.  He  appears  to  have  been 
living  in  30  B.C. 

Paskevitch  or  PaskevTitsch,  pSs-ka'vitch,  written 
also  Paskievitch,  (Ivan  Feodorovitch,)  Prince  of 
Warsaw,  (in  French,  "  Prince  de  Varsovie,")  a  cele- 
brated Russian  general,  born  at  Poltava  in  1782.  He 
served  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  received  several  wounds 
at  Brailof,  (1809,)  and  obtained  command  of  a  brigade 
in  1811.  In  1812  he  distinguished  himself  at  Borodino, 
and  gained  advantages  over  the  French  in  several  actions. 
Having  been  selected  to  conduct  an  army  against  the 
Persians  in  1825,  he  gained  a  victory  at  Elizabethpol, 
and  took  Erivan  in  1827.  For  his  successes  in  a  war 
against  the  Turks  (1828-29)  he  obtained  the  rank  of 
field-marshal.  In  183 1  he  took  the  command  against 
the  revolted  Poles,  and  ended  the  war  by  the  capture 
of  Warsaw.  For  these  services  he  was  created  Prince 
of  Warsaw  and  made  Governor-General  of  Poland.  He 
was  successful  in  his  operations  against  the  Hungarians 
in  1849,  but  failed  at  the  siege  of  Silistria,  in  1854.  Died 
in  1856. 

See  Toi^TOi,  "  Essai  bioarraphique  sur  le  Prince  de  Varsovie," 
1835;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pasley,  (Sir  Charles  William,)  an  English  en- 
gineer, general,  and  writer,  born  about  1780.  He  served 
at  the  battles  of  Corunna  and  Flushing,  (1809,)  and  be- 
came a  lieutenant-colonel  about  1814.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  A  Course  of  Militaiy  Instruction 
for  the  Royal  Engineer  Department,"  (1817,)  "Obser- 
vations on  Limes,  Calcareous  Cements,  Mortars,"  etc., 
(1838,)  and  "Rules  for  conducting  the  Practical  Opera- 
tions of  a  Siege,"  (1843.)  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1851.     Died  in  1861. 

Pasolini,  pi-so-lee'nee,  Count,  a  liberal  Italian 
statesman  of  high  reputation.  He  was  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  the  cabinet  of 
Farini  from  December  i,  1862,  until  March  24,  1S63. 

Pasolini,  (Serafino,)  an  Italian  friar,  born  at  Ra- 
venna in  1649.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  Ravenna, 
"Lustri  Ravennati,"  (7  parts,  1678-1713.)  Died  in  1715. 

Pasor,  pi'zor,  (Georg,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Herborn  in  1570.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Franeker  in  1616,  and  published  a  good  "  Greek-Lat?n 
Lexicon,"  (1622,  often  reprinted.)  He  wrote  other  works 
for  students.     Died  in  1637. 

Pasor,  (Matthaus,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Herborn  in  1599.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Oxford,  England,  from  which  he  removed  to 
Groningen  in  1629.  He  left  a  Journal,  which  was  pub« 
lished  in  1658.     Died  in  1658. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/ior/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  ni6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PAS  QUA  LI 


1899 


PASSIONEI 


Pasquali,  pis-kwi'lee,  written  also  Paschal,(CARLO,) 
a  negotiator  and  antiquary,  born  at  Coni,  Piedmont,  in 
1547.  He  served  Henry  IV.  of  France  as  ambassador 
to  England  in  1589.  He  wrote  many  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Ambassador,"  ("  Legatus,"  1598,)  and 
"Coronse,"  a  treatise  on  crowns,  (1610.)     Died  in  1625. 

See  Mansueti,  "C.  Paschal,  illustre  Piemontese,"  1844;  Nic6- 
RON,  "M^moires." 

Pasqualini,  pJs-kwi-lee'nee,  or  Pascalini,  pSs-kS- 
lee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  near  Bologna  about  1600. 

Pasqualino,  pJs-kwi-lee'no,  or  Pasquelino,  p5s- 
kwi-lee'no,  (Pasquale  Rossi,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Vicenza  in  1641.  His  design  is  correct  and  his  colour- 
ing true.     Died  in  1700. 

Pasquier,  pts'ke^',  (Etienne,)  a  French  historian 
and  lawyer,  born  in  1529,  in  Paris.  He  gained  distinction 
by  a  great  speech  for  the  University  of  Paris  in  a  suit  or 
contest  against  the  Jesuits  in  1564.  He  opposed  the  fac- 
tion of  the  League,  and  served  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV. 
with  honour  as  advocate-general.  His  chief  works  are 
"  Researches  on  France,"  ("  Recherches  de  la  France,") 
—in  which  the  origin  and  history  of  civil  and  religious  in- 
stitutions, customs,  etc.  are  traced  with  ability, — and  his 
interesting  Letters,  The  first  part  of  his  "  Recherches" 
appeared  in  1560.     Died  in  1615. 

See  DupiN,  "  Eloge  de  Pasquier,"  1843;  L.  FEUcfeRH,  "  Essai 
sur  laVieetles  Ouvrages  d'fitieiine  Pasquier,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  Pasquier's  select  works,  2  vols.,  1849;  C.  Giraud,  "Notice  sur 
fi.  Pasquier,"  1848. 

Pasquier,  de,  deh  pis'ke^',  (Etienne  Denis,)  Due, 
a  French  statesman,  born  in  1767,  in  Paris.  He  became 
master  of  requests  in  1806,  and  prefect  of  police  in  1810. 
At  the  restoration  of  1815  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
state  and  privy  councillor,  and  united  with  the  moderate 
royalists.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals  under  Richelieu 
from  January,  1817,  to  December,  1818,  and  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  from  November,  1819,  to  December,  1821. 
During  this  period  he  made  many  eloquent  speeches  in 
the  Chamber,  and  defended  his  policy  with  admirable 
adroitness  and  sang-froid.  He  was  the  virtual  chief  of 
the  cabinet  after  the  retirement  of  Decazes,  in  February, 
1820.  Pasquier  was  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers 
from  1830  to  1848.  In  1837  he  obtained  the  title  of 
Chancellor  of  France.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Aca- 
demie  Fran9aise  in  1842,  and  received  the  title  of  duke 
in  1844.     Died,  without  issue,  in  1862. 

See  LoM^NiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains,"  tome  vi. ;  "  Nou- 
trelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Pass,  van,  vtn  pSss,  or  Paas,  van,  vtn  piss,  written 
also  Passe,  (Crispin,)  an  eminent  Dutch  designer  and 
engraver,  born  in  Zealand  about  1536,  or,  as  some  say, 
1560.  He  worked  at  Paris  and  other  foreign  cities.  His 
works  are  highly  finished.  Among  them  are  numerous 
portraits,  and  the  plates  of  the  "Manege  royal,"  (1618.) 
He  was  alive  in  1628. 

Pass,  van,  (Crispin,)  the  Younger,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1570,  was  an  able  engraver,  and  a  son  of  the 
preceding.     Died  after  1655. 

Pass,  van,  (Madeleine,)  a  skilful  engraver,  daughter 
of  Crispin  the  Elder,  was  born  in  1576.  "  Her  land- 
scapes," says  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  "entitle  her 
to  a  rank  among  the  ablest  engravers."  A  print  of  the 
"Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins"  is  called  her  master-piece. 

Pass,  van,  (Simon,)  an  engraver,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1580.  He  worked  in  London 
with  a  high  reputation.  "  The  Pilgrims  of  Emmaus"  is 
Called  one  of  his  best  works. 

Pass,  van,  (Willem,)  born  at  Utrecht  about  1585, 
was  a  son  of  Crispin  the  Elder,  whom  he  imitated.  He 
removed  to  England,  and  engraved  portraits  after  Van 
Dyck  with  great  success. 

Passaglia,  pis-sJl'yi,  (Carlo,)  Abp;^,  an  Italian 
theological  writer  of  the  present  age.  He  wrote  about 
1861  a  pamphlet  in  which  he  advised  the  pope  to  resign 
his  temporal  power.  In  1863  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Italian  Parliament.     Died  in  18S7. 

Passarotti,  pjs-si-rot'tee,  written  also  Passerotti, 
(Bartolommeo,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna  about  1535,  was  a  pupil  of 
Vignola.  He  was  master  of  a  school  in  Bologna,  which 
produced  som«  able  artists.     He  excelled  in  portraits. 


Among  his  works  is  "  The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Paul." 
Died  about  1594. 

His  sons,  TiBURZio,  Ventura,  and  Aurelto,  were 
also  painters.  Tiburzio  was  born  in  1575,  and  died  in 
1612. 

Idea  del  Tem- 


See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters 
pio  della  Pittura." 


Lomazzo, 


Passavant,  pt'st'v5N',  ?  (Johann  David,)  a  German 
painter  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1787.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  valua- 
ble memoir  entitled  "On  Raphael  of  Urbino  and  his 
Father,"  (1839,)  "On  Christian  Art  in  Spain,"  (1S53,) 
and  a  good  history  of  engraving,  entitled  "  Le  Peintre- 
Graveur,"  (2  vols.,  1S60.)  A  French  version  of  his 
"  Life  of  Raphael"  was  published  in  i860.  Died  in  1861. 

See  Nagler,  "Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Passavanti,  pds-s^-vln'tee,  (Jacopo,  )  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence,  gained  celebrity  by  his  "  Mirror 
of  True  Penitence,"  ("  Specchio  della  vera  Penilenza.") 
Died  in  1357. 

Passe.    See  Pass. 

Passemant,  pSs'mftN',  (Claude  Simeon,)  a  skilful 
optician  and  mechanician,  born  in  Paris  in  1702.  He 
made  telescopes,  time-pieces,  and  other  astronomical 
instruments,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  fabrication  of 
telescopes,  (1738.)     Died  in  1769. 

Passerat,  pSs'rt',  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  and  excellent 
Latinist,  born  at  Troyes  in  1534.  He  succeded  Ramus 
as  professor  of  Latin  at  Paris,  (1572.)  He  co-operated 
with  Rapin,  Leroy,  Durant,  and  other  friends  in  the 
"  Satyre  Menippee,"  a  famous  satire  against  the  League. 
He  composed  graceful  verses  in  French  and  Latin. 
Died  in  1602. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires." 

Passeri,  pis-sa'ree,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  biographer,  born  at  Rome  about  1610,  was 
a  friend  of  Domenichino.  He  became  president  of  tho 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke,  but  was  an  artist  of  only 
moderate  ability.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
"  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects  who  died 
at  Rome  from  1641  to  1673,"  (1772,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed  for  accuracy.     Died  in  1679. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Passeri,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  learned  Italian 
antiquary,  born  near  Rome  in  1694,  chose  the  profes- 
sion of  law.  In  1741  he  exchanged  that  for  the  church. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Earthen  Lamps," 
("Lucernse  Fictiles,"  3  vols.,  1739-51.)  and  "Pictures 
on  the  Vases  of  the  Etruscans,"  ("  Picturae  Etruscorum 
in  Vasculis,"  3  vols.,  1767-75.)     Died  in  1780. 

See  A.  Olivieri,  "  Memorie  di  G.  B.  Passeri,"  1780. 

Passeri,  (Giuseppe,)  an  able  painter,  born  in  Rome 
in  1654,  was  a  nephew  of  Giovanni  Battista,  (1610-79,) 
and  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.  He  adorned  many 
churches  of  Rome  with  his  works.  "The  Last  Judg- 
ment" is  called  one  of  his  master-pieces.     Died  in  171 5. 

Passeroni,  pis-si-ro'nee,  (Gian  Carlo,)  a  popular 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Condamine,  near  Nice,  in  1713. 
He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1738,  and  lived  mostly  at 
Milan.  Having  learned  to  be  content  with  little,  he 
declined  the  bounty  of  the  rich.  He  wrote  burlesque 
satirical  and  humorous  poems,  which  are  admired  for 
their  graceful  simplicity  and  originality.  They  are  en- 
titled "II  Cicerone,"  (1750,)  and  "iEsopian  Fables," 
("Favole  Esopiane,"  6  vols.,  1786.)     Died  at  Milan  in 

1803. 

See  C.  G.  Scotti,  "  Elogio  di  Passeroni.]*  1814  :  Ugoni,  "  Lette- 
ratura Italiana;"  Tipaldo,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Passerotti.    See  Passarotti. 

Passignano,  da,  di  pSs-sin-ya'no,  (Domenico,)  or 
Domenico  Cresti,  (kR§s'tee,)  Cavaliere,  a  painter  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  in  Tuscany  aooul  1555.  He 
worked  at  Venice,  Rome,  and  Florence.  At  Rome  he 
painted  "The  Crucifixion  of  Saint  Peter,"  and  other 
works  for  several  popes.  He  contributed  to  reform  the 
Florentine  school  in  respect  to  colouring.  It  is  said  that 
Luigi  Caracci  was  one  of  his  pupils.     Died  in  1638. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Passionei,  pJs-se-o-na'ee,  (Domenico,)  a  learnec 
Italian  cardinal  and  patron  of  learning,  born  at  Fossom 


«  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  v.,gtMnral;  N,  7tasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PASSOS 


1900 


PATERCULUS 


brone  in  1682.  He  was  versed  in  classical  literature 
anc'.  in  the  study  of  antiquities,  and  corresponded  with 
many  foreign  scliolars,  among  whom  were  Montfaucon 
and  Gronovius.  He  was  appointed  nuncio  to  Vienna  in 
1730,  secretary  for  briefs  in  1738,  and  librarian  of  the 
Vatican  in  1755.  His  hostility  to  the  Jesuits  was  well 
known.  He  wrote  a  funeral  oration  on  Prince  Eugene, 
(1737.)     Died  in  1761. 

See  GoujKT,  "  filoge  du  Cardinal  Passionei,"  1763  ;  L.  Galetti, 
Memorie  per  la  Vita  del  Cardinale  Passionei,"  Rome,  1762. 

Passos,  p3.s's6s,  (Manoel  da  Silva,)  a  Portuguese 
politician,  born  near  Oporto  in  1802.  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  radical  or  liberal  party,  which  made  a  successful 
insurrection  in  September,  1836,  and  then  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior.     Died  at  Santarem  in  1862. 

Passot,  pts'so',  (Gabriel  Aristide,)  a  French  min- 
iature-painter, born  at  Nevers  about  1798.  He  gained 
a  first  medal  in  1841,  and  the  second  medals  in  1837 
and  1848.     Died  September  n,  1875. 

Passovius.     See  Passow. 

Passow,  pds'so,  [Lat.  Passo'vius,]  (Franz  Ludwig 
Kari  Friedrich,)  a  distinguished  German  scholar, 
born  at  Ludwigslust,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  in  1786. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic  under  Hermann,  and  in  1815 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Breslau.  He 
published  "  Elements  of  Greek  and  Roman  Literature 
and  Art-History,"  an  excellent  "Lexicon  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (1819-24,)  and  editions  of  Persius,  Musaeus, 
and  other  classics.     Died  in  1833. 

See  Wachler,  "Passows  Leben  und  Briefe,"  1839:  Linge,  "  De 
Passovii  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1839;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie. " 

Passy,  pt'se',  (PIippolyte  Philibert,)  a  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  Seine-et-Oise  in  1793.  He 
entered  the  Chamber  of  Dejjuties  in  1830,  and  became 
a  leader  of  the  Left  Centre.  Commissioned  by  the 
king  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  May,  1839,  he  reserved  for 
himself  the  portfolio  of  finance  under  the  presidency 
of  Soult.  lie  retired  from  office  in  March,  1840,  and 
was  again  minister  of  finance  from  December,  1848,  to 
October,  1849.     He  died  June  i,  18S0. 

Pasta,  pds'tS,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Bergaino  in  1706.  He  published  several  professional 
works,  and  "  The  Celebrated  Pictures  of  Bergamo," 
("  Le  Pitture  notabili  di  Bergamo.")     Died  in  1782. 

Pasta,  pis'ti,  (Giuditta,  nie  Nigri,)  an  Italian 
soprano-singer,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Como  in 
1798.  She  made  her  first  public  appearance  in  1815,  and 
for  a  time  sang  with  little  success  in  several  Italian  cities, 
in  Paris,  and  in  London.  In  1819  she  was  more  success- 
ful in  Venice  ;  but  her  great  career  began  at  Verona 
during  the  Congress  of  1822.  She  then  stepped  at  once 
to  the  first  place  among  soprano-singers,  and  was  eagerly 
welcomed  in  all  the  cities  she  visited.  In  1835  her  voice 
began  to  fail  her,  but  her  last  ])ublic  appearance  was 
made  in  1840,  at  Saint  Petersburg.  She  died  at  her 
villa  on  Lake  Como,  April  i,  1865. 

Pasta,  (Giuseppe,)  a  medical  writer,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1742,  was  a  cousin  of  Andrea,  noticed  above.  His 
•'Galateo  dei  Medici"  (1791)  was  often  reprinted.  Died 
in  1823. 

Pasteur,  pts'tUR',  (Jan  David,)  a  Dutch  naturalist, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1753.  He  wrote  a  "Natural  History 
of  Mammifera."     Died  in  1804. 

Pasteur,  pts'tUR',  (Louis,)  an  illustrious  French 
chemist  and  biologist,  born  at  Dole,  December  27,  1822. 
He  was  educated  at  Besan9on,  and  at  the  Ecole  Normale, 
Paris,  and  in  1848  was  made  professor  of  physic  at  Stras- 
burg.  He  afterwards  was  successively  dean  of  the  faculty 
at  Lille,  director  in  the  ficole  Normale,  and  professor  in 
the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  Besides  many  discoveries  in 
physics  and  chemistry,  he  has  given  great  attention  to 
the  study  of  microbes  and  ferments,  to  wine-making,  the 
prevention  of  silk-worm  diseases,  of  hydrophobia,  etc., 
and  in  connection  with  these  studies  he  has  made  dis- 
coveries of  high  importance. 

Pastoret,  pts'to'r4',  (AMtD^K  David,)  a  French 
legitimist  iiolitician,  poet,  and  historian,  born  in  Paris 
in  1791.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state  in  1824,  and 
senator  in  1852.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Fall  of  the  Sreek  Empire,"  (1829.)     Died  in  1857. 


Pastoret,  de,  deh  pJs'to'rA',  (Claude  Emmanuel 
Joseph  Pierre,)  Marquis,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1756.  He  was  a  royalist 
member  of  the  Assembly  in  1791,  emigrated  in  1792, 
and  was  created  a  peer  of  P'rance  in  1814.  In  1820  he 
succeeded  Volney  as  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Legislation,''  (il  vols.,  1817-37,) 
and  other  works.  His  treatise  "On  Penal  Laws"  (1790) 
gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy.  Died 
in  1840. 

See  MiCHKi.  Berr,  "  Notice  bineraphique  siir  le  Comte  Pastoret," 
1841  ;  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  IJiographie 
G^n^rale." 

Pastorius  von  Hirtemberg,  p5s-to're-Cis  ffin  hd€R'- 
tem-b^KG',  (Joachim,)  a  historian,  born  in  Silesia  in 
1610.  He  received  from  Casimir  V.  the  title  of  iiisto- 
riographer  of  Poland.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
an  "  Epitome  of  Polish  History,"  in  Latin,  (1641,)  and 
"  Scythian  and  Cossack  War,"  ("  Bellum  Scythico-Cosac- 
cicum,"  1652.)     Died  in  1681. 

Pastrengo,  da,  di  pis-tRen'go,  (Guglielmo,)  a 
learned  Italian  writer  and  jurist,  born  near  Verona,  was 
a  friend  of  Petrarch.  He  wrote  a  biographical  dictionary 
called  "  De  Viris  illustribus,"  which  was  printed  in  1547. 
Died  about  1365. 

Pasumot,  pa'zu'mo',  (Franqois,)  a  French  geogra- 
pher and  antiquary,  born  at  Beaune  in  1733.  He  wrote 
"  Geographical  Memoirs  on  some  Antiquities  of  Gaul," 
(1765,)  and  "  Scientific  Travels  among  the  Pyrenees," 
(1797')  which  are  works  of  much  merit.     Died  in  1804. 

P^t&la,  pS-ti'la,  [etymology  obscure,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  the  lower  regions,  or  Hell,  re- 
garded as  the  abode  of  the  dead  and  the  habitation  of 
the  nagas,  or  serpents.     (See  Yama.) 

Patarolo,  pd-ti-ro'Io,  ?  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  litlSra' 
tair,  born  at  Verona  in  1674.  He  founded  the  first 
botanic  garden  of  Venice.     Died  in  1757. 

Pataud,  pt'to',  (Jean  Jacques  FRANgois,)  a  French 
writer  of  history  atid  biography,  was  born  at  Orleans  in 
1752  ;  died  in  1817. 

Patel,  pS't^K,  (Pierre,)  an  excellent  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  about  1650.  He  imitated  Claude 
Lorrain  with  some  success.  The  forms  of  his  trees  are 
elegant,  the  buildings  are  designed  with  taste,  and  the 
distances  are  admira!)ly  rendered.  His  touch  is  firm 
and  light,  his  colour  generally  clear  and  true.  Accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  he  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  I703. 
Others  date  his  death  about  1676.  His  son  Pierre  was 
a  landscape-painter  of  inferior  ability. 

See  Robert  Dumesnil,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Patenter,  de,  deh  pS'teh-ne-i',  or  Patiner,  pt'te'ni', 
(Joachim,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Dinant 
about  1490.  He  worked  at  Antwerp,  and  had  a  high 
reputation.  Albert  Diirer  painted  his  portrait  in  1520, 
and  is  said  to  have  admired  his  works.  "His  perspec- 
tives," says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "are  charm- 
ing, and  his  figures  touched  in  an  exquisite  manner." 
Died  about  1545. 

Pater,  pS'ti',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Valenciennes  in  1695,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator 
of  Watteau.     Died  in  Paris  in  1736. 

Pater,  pi'ter,  (Paul,)  a  mathematician,  born  in  1656, 
was  professor  at  Dantzic.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  art 
of  printing,  (1710,)  and  a  work  "On  the  Caspian  Sea," 
("  De  Mari  Caspio,"  1723.)     Died  in  1724. 

Pa'ter,  (Walter  H.,)  a  British  critic  of  the  "aesthetic' 
school,  born  in  1838.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
became  a  Fellow  of  Brasenose  College.  His  "  Studies 
in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance,"  (1S73,)  though  an 
elaborate,  refined,  and  thoughtful  work,  has  met  with 
much  severe  criticism.  His  stand-point  is  that  of  the 
Epicurean,  and  his  plea  is  for  "  art  for  art's  sake." 

Pa-ter'cu-lus,  (C.  Velleius,)  a  Roman  historian, 
born' about  20  n.C.  He  entered  the  army  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  became  a  military  tribune.  He  served 
under  Tiberius,  in  Germany,  as  prefect  or  legatus,  be- 
tween 4  and  12  A.D.,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  future 
emperor.  On  the  accession  of  Tiberius,  in  the  year  14, 
he  was  chosen  ijraetor.  He  wrote  a  valuable  historical 
compendium,  ("  Historiae  Romanae,")  the  object  of  which 
is  to  give  a  brief  view  of  universal  history,  in  connection 


a  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,/w/^vi,^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  \.\,y, short;  a,  e,  j,  o.o/'Sfiirc-;  Idr,  f;\ll,  lAt;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PATERSON 


1901 


PA  TRIM 


with  that  of  Rome.  He  is  considered  impartial,  except 
where  he  speaks  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  whom  he 
flatters  extravagantly.  His  style  is  admired  for  clear- 
ness, conciseness,  and  energy.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  soon  after  30  a.d. 

See  Moi.LER,  "Disputatio  de  Vellejo  Paterciilo,"  1685:  Sprck- 
ERT,  "Dissertation  de  la  Sincerity  de  Vellejus  Paterculus,"  1848. 

Pat'er-son,  (Samuel,)  an  English  bibliographer,  born 
in  London  in  1728,  was  librarian  to  Lord  Shelburne. 
He  published  a  "Universal  Library,"  ("Bibliotheca 
Universalis,"  1786.)     Died  in  1802. 

Pat'er-spn,  (William,)  a  iianker  and  projector,  born 
in  Scotland  about  1658.  He  is  the  reputed  founder  of 
the  Bank  of  England,  established  in  1694.  He  projected 
the  Darien  expedition,  and  was  one  of  the  directors  of 
a  company  which  planted  a  colony  at  Darien  in  1698. 
This  enterprise  was  a  failure.  He  was  an  advocate  of 
free  trade. 

See  his  "  Life,"  by  Bannister. 

Pa'tey,  (Janet  Monach,  «/<•  Why  took,)  an  English 
contralto-singer,  born  in  London,  of  Scotcii  parentage, 
in  1842.  In  1866  she  was  married  to  John  George  Patey, 
a  well-known  barytone,  born  in  1835.  ^"  '^7'  ^'"'^  ^'^" 
ited  America  on  a  concert  tour,  with  her  husband,  Edith 
Wynne,  Cummings,  and  Santley,  and  was  favourably 
received. 

Paticchl,  pd-tfek'kee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Rome  in  1762.  He  had  a  rare  facility  of  in- 
vention, and  a  superior  talent  for  the  imitation  of  the 
great  masters.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Translation 
of  Elijah."     Died  ini  788. 

Patin,  pd't^N',  [Lat.  Pat/nus,]  (Charles,)  a  phy- 
sician and  numismatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1633,  was  a  son 
of  Gui  Patin,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  at  Padua  in  1677.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Medals,"  (1665,)  often  reprinted, 
and  "Brass  Coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors  Described," 
("  Imperatorum  Romanorum  Numismata  ex  ^re  de- 
scripta,"  1671.)     Died  at  Padua  in  1693. 

Patin,  (Gui,)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  wit,  was  born  near  Beauvais 
in  1601  or  1602.  He  became  professor  at  the  College  de 
France,  Paris,  in  1654,  and  wrote  several  medical  works. 
His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  Letters,  (7  vols., 
1692,)  whicli  contain  curious  details,  bon-mots,  and  anec- 
dotes.    Died  in  1672. 

See  "  Patiniana,"  1703;  Revhit.l^  Parish,  "Biographic  de  Guy 
Patin  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Caiiseriesdu  Liindi  ;"  Bavi.e,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale." 

Patin,  (Henri  Joseph  Guillaume,)  a  French  writer 
and  critic,  born  in  Fans  in  1793.  He  was  chosen  to 
supply  the  place  of  Villemain  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1830, 
and  succeeded  Lemaire  as  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in 
1833.  In  1842  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy. His  most  important  work  is  "Studies  on  the 
Greek  Tragic  Poets,"  (3  vols.,  1841-43.)     Died  in  1876. 

Patiiio  or  Patinho,  p5-tin'yo,  (Balthasar,)  Mar- 
quis de  Castellar,  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Milan. 
He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1730,  and  died 
Ihere  in  1733. 

Patino  or  Patinho,  (Jos6,  or  Giuseppe,)  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1667.  He  became 
minister  of  the  marine  and  of  the  Indies  in  1726,  and 
was  the  most  powerful  minister  of  Spain  after  the  death 
of  La  Paz,  in  1734.     Died  in  1736, 

Patinus.     See  Patin. 

Patkul,  pJt'kiil,  (JoHANN  Reiniiold,)  a  Livonian 
patriot,  born  about  1660.  He  was  condemned  to  death 
by  the  Swedish  court  for  sedition  or  treason  in  1694,  but 
escaped,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  Russian  Czar,  who 
Bent  him  as  ambassador  to  the  King  of  Poland.  He  ob- 
tained in  1702  command  of  a  corps  which  fought  against 
the  Swedes.  In  accordance  with  a  treaty  dictated  by 
Charles  XII.  to  the  King  of  Poland,  Patkul  was  de- 
livered to  the  former,  and  executed  in  1707. 

See  "  Letzte  Stunden  Patkuls,"  Cologne,  1714;  "Anecdotes  con- 
cerning J.  R.  Patkul,"  London,  1761. 

Pat'more,  (Coventry,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Woodford,  Esse.x,  in  1823.  He  published  in  1853  "  Ta- 
merton  Church  Tower,  and  other  Poems,"  and  in  1854-62 
"The  Angel  in  the  House,"  in  four  parts, — "The  Be- 


trothal," "The  Espousal,"  "Faithful  Forever,"  and 
"  The  Victories  of  Love."  "  His  '  Angel  in  the  House,' " 
says  Ruskin,  "  is  a  most  finished  piece  of  writing,  and 
the  sweetest  analysis  we  possess  of  quiet,  modern  do- 
mestic feeling."  He  was  assistant  librarian  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  from  1846  to  about  1868.  He  also  published 
"A  Garland  of  Poems  for  Children,"  (1862,)  "The  Un- 
known Eros,"  (1877,)  "A  Memoir  of  Barry  Cornwall," 
and  "Amelia,"  etc.,  (1878.) 

Pat'on,  (Andrew  A.,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Researches  on  the  Danube  and  the 
Adriatic."     Died  April  5,  1874. 

Pat'on,  (Sir  Joseph  Noel,)  a  Scottish  painter  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Dimfermline  in  1823.  He  obtained 
a  premium  of  ;^200  for  a  cartoon  of  "  The  Spirit  of  Re. 
ligion,"  (1845.)  -^f  ^^^  Westminster  Hall  competition, 
in  1847,  1^6  received  a  second-class  prize  (;^3oo)  for  his 
"Christ  bearing  the  Cross"  and  "The  Reconciliation 
of  Oberon  and  Titania."  Among  his  works,  which  are 
finely  finished,  are  "Luther  at  Erfurt,"  and  "Pursuit  of 
Pleasure,"  (1855,)  which  was  sold  for  two  thousand 
guineas.     He  was  knighted  in  1867. 

Pa'ton,  (Mary  Anne,)  a  British  soprano-singer,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  1802.  She  was  distinguished  for  her 
precocity  in  musical  acquirements,  and  when  a  mere 
child  appeared  frequently  in  public.  In  1822  she  made 
her  debut  on  the  operatic  stage,  and  achieved  a  great 
success.  In  1824  she  married  Lord  William  Pitt  Len- 
nox ;  but  the  union  was  not  a  happy  one,  and  she  obtained 
a  divorce  in  1831.  Shortly  afterwards  she  married  Mr. 
Joseph  Wood,  a  tenor-singer.     Died  July  21,  1854. 

Paton,  (Richard,)  an  English  painter  and  etcher, 
born  about  1720.  He  excelled  in  naval  battles  and  other 
marine  pieces.  Among  his  works  is  the  "  Defeat  of  De 
Grasse  in  1784." 

Patouillet,  pt'too'yi',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  bom 
at  Dijon  in  1699,  wrote  several  controversial  treatises 
against  the  Jansenists  and  the  philosophers.  He  was 
one  of  the  Jesuits  against  whom  Voltaire  directed  his 
sarcasm  and  ridicule.     Died  in  1779. 

Patrat,  pS'tRt',  (Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Aries  in  1732.  He  wrote  comedies  which  were  re- 
ceived with  favour.     Died  in  1801. 

Patrice.     See  Patrick,  Saint. 

Patricius.     See  Patrick,  Saint,  and  Patrizzl 

Pat'rick,  [Lat.  Patri^'ius;  Fr.  Patrice,  pt'tR^ss',") 
Saint,  the  apostle  and  patron  saint  of  the  Irish,  was 
born  at  Bannevan,  a  small  village  of  Tabernia,  in  Scot- 
land, about  372  A.D.  He  is  sui)])osed  to  have  been  one 
of  the  first  that  preached  Christianity  in  Ireland.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  454  to  493.  A  "  Confes- 
sion" or  autobiography,  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  him,  is  extant.  The  Irish  observe  the  17th  of  March 
in  his  honour. 

See  BtJTLER,  "Lives  of  the  Saints,"  1779:  J.  H.  Todd,  "Life 
of  Saint  Patrick,"  1863;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1867. 

Pat'rick,  (Marsena  R.,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Jefferson  county,  New  York,  in  181 1.  He  served  in 
the  Mexican  war,  and  in  1862  became  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  the  Union  army. 

Pat'rick,  (Samuel.)  an  English  philologist,  was  one 
of  the  masters  of  the  Charter-House.  He  published 
editions  of  Hederich's  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1727,)  and 
Ainsworth's  "Latin  Lexicon."     Died  in  1748. 

Patrick,  (Simon,)  an  eminent  English  divine,  born 
at  Gainsborough  in  1626.  He  became  rector  of  Saint 
Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  in  1662,  Dean  of  Peterborongli 
in  1679,  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1689,  and  Bishop  of  Ely 
in  1691.  He  wrote  a  Paraphrase  and  Commentaries  on 
the  Old  Testament,  which  are  highly  esteemed,  and 
other  devotional  works,  among  which  are  "The  Heart's 
Ease,"  (1659,)  "Parable  of  the  Pilgrim,"  (1668,)  and 
"Christian  Sacrifice,"  (1671.)     Died  in  1707. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1839;  Burnet,  "History  of  his  Owii 
Times;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Patrin,  pt'tR^N',  (EucfeNE  Louis  Melchior,)  a 
French  mineralogist,  born  near  Lyons  in  1742.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1 790,  and  voted  for  the 
exile  of  the  king.     His  chief  works  are  a  "Journey  to 


C  as  ^;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     ( ^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PATRIX 


1902 


PA  TTON 


the  Altai  Mountains,"  (1783,)  and  a  "Natural  History 
of  Minerals,"  (5  vols.,  1801.)     Died  in  1815. 

Patrix,  pt'tR^ks',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Caen  in  1583;  died  in  1671. 

Patrizzi,  pi-tr^t'see,  written  also  Patrizi,  [Lat. 
PATRiq'ius,]  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Sienna,  be- 
came in  1460  secretary  ^o  Pope  Pius  II.  Among  his 
works  is  an  "Account  of  the  Councils  of  ]5ale  and 
Florence,"  ("Summa  Conciliorum  Basiliensis  et  Floren- 
tine")    Died  in  1496. 

Patrizzi,  [Lat.  PATRig'ius,]  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1529.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  philosophy  at  Rome  about  1592,  and  taught  the 
philosophy  of  Plato  under  the  patronage  of  Pope  Clem- 
ent VIII.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  doctrines 
of  Aristotle.  Among  his  works  are  "Peripatetic  Dis- 
cussions," ("Discussiones  peripateticae,"  1571.)  and 
"Military  Parallels,"  (" Parallel!  militari,"  1594.)     Died 

in  1597-  .    .     -.. 

See   GiNGUEN^,    "Histoire   Littdraire    d'ltalie ;"     Tirabosciii, 

"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Patrocle.     See  Patroclus. 

Pa-tro'clei,  [ITarpo/cA^f,]  a  Greek  statuary,  mentioned 
by  Pliny  and  Pausanias,  lived  probably  about  400  n.c. 

Patrocles,  a  Macedonian  general,  was  appointed 
commander  at  Babylon  by  Seleucus  I.  about  312  B.C. 
He  was  commander-in  chief  of  the  army  of  Antiochus  I. 
about  2S0  B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  geography  of 
India,  etc.,  which  is  not  extant. 

Pa-tro'clus,  [Gr,  W-inpoKXaq;  Fr.  Patrocle,  pt'- 
tRokV,]  a  Greek  hero,  a  son  of  Menoetius,  and  the  dearest 
friend  of  Achilles,  with  whom  he  fought  at  the  siege  of 
Troy.  Having  borrowed  the  armour  of  Achilles,  he  slew 
a  multitude  of  Trojans,  but  was  killed  by  Hector,  aided 
by  Apollo. 

See  the  "  Iliad." 

Pa'tron,  [Gr.  Ilarpuv,]  an  Epicurean  philosopher, 
lived  at  Rome,  associated  with  Cicero,  and  was  a  friend 
of  Atticus.  He  afterwards  went  to  Athens,  and  became 
the  head  of  the  Epicurean  school  in  52  B.C. 

Patru,  pi'tRii',  (Olivier,)  an  eminent  French  advo- 
cate, born  in  Paris  in  1604.  He  made  some  reforms  in 
forensic  eloquence,  and  polished  his  style  with  minute 
attention.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  critic,  and  has 
been  compared  to  Quintilian.  In  1640  he  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy.  The  speech  which  he  made 
at  his  reception  became  a  precedent  for  all  such  occasions. 
His  works  were  published  in  1681.     Died  in  1681. 

See  Peronne,  "  Barreau  de  Paris;  filoge  d'O.  Patru,"  1851; 
Nic^RON,  "  M^moires." 

Patte,  pit,  (Pierre,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris 
in  1723.  He  wrote  several  works  on  architecture.  Died 
in  1814. 

Pat'ten,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine  under  the  reign 

of  Queen  Anne,  born  in  Northumberland,  was  the  author 

of  a  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  of  1715,"  (London,  1745.) 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  (1825.) 

Patten,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  graduated 

at  Oxford  in  1754.     Died  in  1790. 

Pat't?r-son,  (Daniel  T.,)  a  distinguished  naval  offi- 
cer, born  in  the  State  of  New  York,  served  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  in  1814  commanded  the  naval  forces  at  New 
Orleans.  He  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  the 
part  he  took  in  the  defence  of  that  city.     Died  in  1839. 

Patterson,  (Francis  Engle,)  an  American  general, 
son  of  General  Robert  Patterson,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1821.  He  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and,  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  fought 
under  General  McClellan  in  1862  in  his  campaign  against 
Richmond.  He  was  killed  by  the  accidental  discharge 
of  his  pistol  in  November  of  that  year. 

Patterson,  (Robert,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Ireland  in  1743, 
emigrated  to  America,  and  was  appointed  in  1779  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  became  director  of  the  United  States  Mint  in  1805, 
and  was  also  president  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society.     Died  in  1824. 

Patterson,  (Robert,)  a  general,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1792,  emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in 
his  youth,  and  became  a  merchant.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Cerro  Gordo  in  1847.     I"  June,  1861,  he  ob- 


tained command  of  an  army  of  about  20,000  men,  which 
he  moved  across  the  Potomac  on  the  2d  of  July.  He 
was  instructed  to  defeat  or  hold  in  check  the  army  of 
General  J.  E.Johnston  near  Winchester,  but  he  failed  to 
effect  this  object,  while  Johnston  marched  to  Bull  Run 
and  decided  the  victory  of  July  21.  General  Patterson 
was,  in  consequence,  severely  censured  by  many.  On 
the  i8th  of  July,  General  Scott  had  written  to  him,  "  I 
have  certainly  been  expecting  you  to  beat  the  enemy.  .  .  . 
You  have  been  at  least  his  equal,  and,  I  suppose,  supe- 
rior, in  numbers."  General  vScott,  however,  appears 
not  to  have  been  aware  of  the  actual  strength  of  John- 
ston's army,  which  is  now  admitted  to  have  been  superior 
to  that  of  his  opponent  in  the  field.  General  Patterson 
was  honourably  discharged  when  the  term  of  service  of 
his  troops  had  expired.     Died  August  7,  i88i. 

Pat'ter-spn,  (Robert  Hogarth,)  a  British  author, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1821.  He  published  "The  New 
Revolution,"  (i860,)  "  Essays  in  History  and  Art,"  (1861,) 
"The  Economy  of  Capital,"  (1864,)  "The  Science  of 
Finance,"  (1867,)  "The  State,  the  Poor, and  the  Country," 
(1870,)  etc.,  and  was  prominent  as  a  conservative  jour- 
nalist.    Died  December  16,  1886. 

Patterson  or  Paterson,  (William,)  an  American 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  New  Jersey,  or  at  sea, 
about  1744.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  representing 
New  Jersey  in  the  Convention  which  formed  the  federal 
Constitution  in  17S7.  He  was  a  United  States  Senator 
in  17S9-90,  and  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1791 
to  1794.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  upright  judge.     Died  in  1806. 

Pat'te-son,  (John  Coleridge,)  an  English  mission- 
ary, a  grand-nephew  of  the  poet  Coleridge,  was  born  in 
London,  April  i,  1827.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  1854  he  went  with  Sel- 
wyn  as  a  missionary  to  New  Zealand,  and  in  1861  was 
consecrated  Missionary  Bishop  of  Melanesia,  in  which 
capacity  he  laboured  with  great  devotion.  Having  landed 
on  the  island  of  Nukapu,  he  was  murdered  by  the  natives, 
September  20,  1871.  (See  his  "Life,"  by  his  cousin,  C. 
M.  Yonge,  1874.) 

Patti,  pSt'tee,  (Adelina  Maria  Clorinda,)  a  popu- 
lar operatic  singer,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in 
Madrid  in  1843.  ^'i^  performed  at  New  York  in  1859, 
and  in  1861  made  her  first  appearance  in  London,  and 
became  at  once  a  distinguished  favourite  with  the  public 
She  was  received  with  equal  applause  in  the  chief  cities 
of  the  continent.  Her  voice  is  a  high  soprano.  In  1868 
she  was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux,  from  whom 
she  was  subsequently  divorced. 

Patti,  (Carlotta,)  an  excellent  singer,  a  sister  of  the 
preceding,  performed  with  success  at  concerts  in  Europe 
and  America.  She  married,  September  3,  1879,  Ernes* 
de  Munck,  of  Weimar.     Died  June  28,  1889. 

Pat'ti-spn,  (Dorothy  Wyndlow,)  better  known  as 
Sister  Dora,  an  English  philanthropist,  born  at  Haux- 
well,  Yorkshire,  January  16,  1832.  In  1864  she  joined 
the  Anglican  Sisterhood  of  Good  Samaritans,  and  in 
1865  was  sent  to  Walsall  as  a  hospital-nurse,  where  she 
remained  for  the  principal  part  of  her  life,  though  she 
finally  withdrew  from  the  sisterhood  in  1874.  Died  at 
Walsall,  December  24,  1878.  The  best  account  of  her 
life  and  remarkable  labours  is  "  Sister  Dora,  a  Biog- 
raphy," by  Margaret  Lonsdale. 

Pattison,  (Mark,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Hornby  in  1813.  He  was  educated  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1840  was  made  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  Col- 
lege. He  was  author  of  one  of  the  once-famous  "  Essays 
and  Reviews,"  and  published  a  life  of  Casaubon,  (1875,) 
"  Life  of  Milton,"  (1880,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1884. 
Pat'ti-son,  (Robert  Everett,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  at  Benson,  Vermont,  in  1800,  became 
in  1846  president  and  professor  of  Christian  theology  at 
the  Baptist  Theological  Institute,  Covington,  Kentucky. 
Died  at  Saint  Louis,  November  21,  1874. 

Pat'ti-spn,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Sus- 
sex in  1706;  died  in  1727. 

Pat'tpu,  (Francis  Landey,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  emi- 
nent divine,  born  in  Bermud.-»,  January  22,  1843.  He 
was  educated  at  University  and  Knox  Colleges,  Toronto, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  fi,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  s/!ort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  odsatrc;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PA  TTON 


1903 


PAUL 


and  at  Fiinceton  Theological  Seminary.  After  holding 
various  Presbyterian  pastorates,  he  was  called  in  1872  to 
be  professor  of  didactic  theology  in  the  seminary  at 
Chicago.  In  18S1  he  became  professor  in  the  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  at  Princeton,  and  in  188S  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  Princeton  College.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  Inspiration,"  a  "Summary  of  Christian  Doctrine," 
"Doctrine  of  a  Future  Retribution,"  etc. 

Patton,  (Jacob  Harris,)  an  American  author,  born 
in  Fayette  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1820.  He  grad- 
uated at  Jefferson  College  in  1839,  and  at  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  1846.  His  principal  works  are 
"History  of  the  United  States,"  (1859,)  "Natural  Re- 
sources of  the  United  States,"  (1879,)  "History  of  the 
American  People,"  (2  vols.,  1882,)  "The  Yorktown  Me- 
morial," (1882,)  and  "  The  Democratic  Party,  its  History 
and  Influence,"  (1884.) 

Patu,  pi'tii',  (Claude  Pierre,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1729;  died  in  1757. 

Patuzzi,  pi-toot'see,  (Giovanni  Vincenzo,)  an  Ital- 
ian theologian,  born  at  Conegliano  in  1700,  was  a  Do- 
minican friar.  Among  his  works  is  "Moral  Theology," 
(7  vols.,  1790.)     Died  in  1769. 

Patzke,  pits'keh,  (Johann  Samuel,)  a  German  min- 
ister and  poet,  born  near  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1727. 
He  became  a  popular  preacher  at  Magdeburg.  He 
published  sermons,  hymns,  dramas,  and  a  translation 
of  Tacitus,  (6  vols.,  1765-77.)     Died  in  1787. 

Paucton,  pok'tiN',  (Alexis  Jean  Pierre,)  a  Frencl' 
mathematician,  born  in  Maine  in  1732  or  1736.  He 
wrote  an  excellent  work  named  "  Metrologie,  or  a  Treat- 
ise on  the  Measures,  Weights,  and  Coins  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Nations,"  (1780.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Pauditz,  pow'dits,  (Christoph,)  a  painter,  born  in 
Lower  Saxony  about  1618,  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt, 
He  was  patronized  by  Albert  Sigismund,  Duke  of  Ba 
varia.     He  painted  history  and  genre.     Died  in  1646. 

Paul,  [Gr.  navAof  ,•  Lat.  Pau'lus  ;  Fr.  Paul,  pol ; 
It.  Paolo,  pow'lo;  Ger.  Paulus,  pow'lils  ;  Sp.  Parlo, 
pi'Blo,]  Saint,  the  great  Ajjostle  of  the  Gentiles,  origin- 
ally called  Saul,  was  a  native  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of  Ci- 
licia.  He  was  a  Jew  and  a  Roman  citizen  by  birthright, 
and  a  rigid  Pharisee  by  education.  He  probably  studied 
Greek  literature  at  Tarsus,  which  was  then  a  celebrated 
seat  of  learning,  and  he  learned  the  trade  of  a  tent- 
maker.  He  afterwards  received  instruction  in  the  law 
from  Gamaliel,  an  eminent  rabbi  and  jurist  at  Jerusalem. 
(Acts  xxii.  3.)  He  became  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
Jewish  religion  and  a  violent  persecutor  of  the  Christians. 
The  first  passage  of  Scripture  in  which  he  is  mentioned 
is  Acts  vii.  58,  narrating  the  death  of  the  martyr  Stephen, 
to  which  Saul  was  accessory.  During  a  journey  from 
Jerusalem  to  Damascus,  about  36  A.D.,  he  was  miracu- 
lously converted  and  ordained  an  apostle  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  (Acts  ix.)  He  went  from  Damas- 
cus into  Arabia,  and  had  an  interview  with  Saint  Peter 
at  Jerusalem  about  the  year  39,  after  which  he  preached 
for  several  years  in  Syria  and  Cilicia.  He  passed  a 
whole  year  at  Antioch,  where  he  "  taught  much  people." 
About  45  A.D.  Saul  and  Barnabas  depaited  from  Antioch 
on  an  extensive  mission  to  the  Gentiles.  They  traversed 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  from  which  they  passed  into  Asia 
Minor,  and  Paul  preached  a  memorable  sermon  at 
Antioch  in  Pisidia.  Though  violently  persecuted,  they 
converted  many  at  Antioch,  Iconium,  and  Lystra,  and 
returned  in  47  A.D.  to  Antioch  in  Syria,  where  they 
abode  a  long  time.  In  the  course  of  a  second  apostolic 
journey  he  founded  churches  at  Philippi  and  Thessa- 
lonica,  and  uttered  a  remarkable  discourse  at  Athens. 
He  also  made  many  converts  at  Corinth,  where  he  re- 
mained a  year  and  a  half,  and  where  he  wrote  the  Epis- 
tles to  the  Thessalonians.  Much  diversity  of  opinion 
prevails  among  the  learned  about  the  date  of  the  prin- 
cipal events  of  his  life.  The  divine  origin  of  his  doctrine 
was  attested  by  many  miracles,  by  "  signs,  and  wonders, 
and  mighty  deeds."     (II.  Cor.  xii.  12.) 

After  he  had  visited  Jerusalem  the  fourth  time  since 
his  conversion,  he  commenced  a  third  apostolic  tour. 
He  laboured  for  about  two  years  at  Ephesus,  and  after- 
wards revisited  the  churches  of  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
About  the  year  59  he  was  again  at  Jerusalem,  the  popu- 


lace of  which  assailed  him,  and  would  have  killed  him, 
but  an  officer  took  him  into  custody  and  sent  him  to  the 
Roman  governor  Felix,  at  Csesarea.  He  was  confined 
in  prison  there  for  a  long  time,  defended  himself  by  a 
noble  and  eloquent  speech  before  King  Agrippa,  and 
appealed  to  Caesar.  He  was  taken  by  sea  to  Rome, 
where  he  "dwelt  two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired 
house,"  and  preached  the  gospel  without  hindrance.  We 
have  no  authentic  record  of  his  death  ;  but,  according  to 
tradition,  he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  about  66  A.D 

"In  perusing  the  history  and  writings  of  Saint  Paul," 
says  W.  K  Alexander,  "it  is  impossible  not  to  be  struck 
with  the  amazing  energy  of  thought  and  action  by  which 
he  was  characterized.  .  .  .  Removed  alike  from  the 
extremes  of  fanaticism  on  the  one  hand  and  apathy  on 
the  other,  his  whole  life  was  a  noble  instance  of  the 
consecration,  on  sound  and  elevated  principles,  of  the 
highest  powers  and  the  most  indefatigable  energies  to 
a  work  in  which  he  had  no  personal  interest  apart  from 
that  of  his  fellow-Christians.  ...  In  his  peculiar  ca- 
pacity as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Christian  Church 
and  an  inspired  expositor  of  divine  truth,  he  stands 
without  a  rival  in  his  claims  upon  our  gratitude  and  rev- 
erence,"   ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  article  "  Paul.") 

See  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  chaps,  xi.,  xiii.-xxviii.  ;  Epistles 
of  Saint  Paul;  Neander,  "  History  of  the  Church;"  Lewins, 
"Life  and  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  2  vols.,  London,  1851;  Cony- 
BEAREand  HowsoN,  "Life  of  Saint  Paul,"  2  vols.,  1850;  Schrader, 
"Der  Apostel  Paulus,"  s  vols.,  1829-36;  Hemsen,  "  Der  Apostel 
Paulus,"  1850 ;  Baur,  "Paulus,"  1845;  LIttzelberger,  "Paulus 
und  Johannes,"  1839;  Ernest  Renan,  "Saint-Paul,"  1S69. 

Paul  [Lat.  Pau'lus  ;  It.  Paolo,  pow'lo]  I.,  a  native 
of  Rome,  was  elected  pope,  as  successor  to  Stephen  III., 
in  757  A.D.  Died  in  767  or  768.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Stephen  IV. 

Paul  II.,  Pope,  (Pietro  Barbo — ban'bo,)  a  native  of 
Venice,  and  a  nephew  of  Eugene  IV.,  was  born  in  1418. 
He  succeeded  Pius  II.  in  1464.  He  was  unfavourable  to 
human  learning,  and  suppressed  an  academy  of  literati 
which  was  formed  in  Rome.  He  was  the  first  who  gave 
the  cardinals  the  privilege  to  wear  purple.  He  died  in 
1471,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sixtus  IV. 

See  MiCHEt.  Canese,  "Vie  de  Paul  H,"  1740. 

Paul  III.,  Pope,  (Alessandro  Farnese — far-na'si,) 
was  born  at  Canino  about  1466.  He  succeeded  Clement 
VII.  in  1534.  He  approved  the  newly-formed  order  of 
the  Jesuits  about  1540.  To  oppose  the  progress  of 
Luther,  he  convoked  a  council,  which,  after  a  delay  of 
several  years,  met  at  Trent  in  1545.  Before  the  last 
date  he  excommunicated  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  He 
sent  about  12,000  troops  to  fight  for  Charles  V.  against 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  and  obtained  for 
his  grandson,  Ottavio  Farnese,  the  hand  of  Margaret, 
a  daughter  of  the  emperor.  Paul  protested  against  the 
interim  treaty  of  peace  which  Charles  V.  granted  to  the 
Protestants  in  1547.  He  died  in  November,  1549,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Julius  III. 

See  QuiRiNi,  "  Imago  Pontificis  Pauli  III. ;"  Onufrio  PANVrNio, 
"Vita  Pauli  III. ;"  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  Robertson, 
"History  of  Charles  V.,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Paul  IV.,  Pope,  (Gian  Pietro  Caraffa— ka-rSffS.) 
born  at  Capriglio  about  1476,  was  elected  pope  in  1555. 
He  was  intolerant  and  tyrannical.  He  quarrelled  with 
Philip  H.  of  Spain,  whose  army  under  the  Duke  of  Alva 
blockaded  Rome  in  1557  and  compelled  the  pope  to 
sue  for  peace.  He  refused  to  recognize  Elizabeth  as 
Queen  of  England,  and  by  his  arrogant  course  promoted 
the  triumph  of  Protestantism  in  England.  He  died  in 
1559,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  IV.,  who  put  to  death 
two  nephews  of  Paul  IV.  for  their  crimes. 

See  Bromato,  "Vita  di  Paolo  IV.,"  T74S  :  Ranke,  "  History  of 
tlie  Popes;"  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  iii.  books 
xi.  and  xii. 

Paul  v.,  Pope,  (Camillo  Borghese— boR-ga'si,) 
born  at  Rome  in  1552,  succeeded  Leo  XI.  in  1605.  He 
was  involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Venetians  respecting 
the  trial  of  ecclesiastics  by  lay  tribunals,  the  foundation 
of  religious  houses,  etc.,  and  placed  Venice  under  in- 
terdict in  1606.  The  senate  of  Venice  retaliated  by 
banishing  the  Jesuits.  Through  the  mediation  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  a  compromise  was  effected  in  1607.  He 
died  in  1621,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XV. 


"z&k;  qass;  ghard;  gasy;  G,  H.  Vi.^ttural;  N,>tasa/;  v^,  trilled;  sasa;  th  as  in ///;>.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAUL 


1904 


PAULINUS 


Paul  (Russ.  Pavlof,  pJv'lof]  I.,  (Petrovitch,  pa- 
tRo'vitch,)  Emperor  of  Russia,  born  in  1754,  was  the  son 
of  Peter  III.  and  Catiierine  II.  After  the  assassination 
of  his  father  by  order  of  Catherine,  Paul  was  treated  by 
her  with  great  severity,  and  deprived  of  all  participation 
in  public  affairs.  He  married  Mary  of  Wiirtemberg  in 
1776.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1796,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  for  a  time  by  his  liberal  policy  towards 
Poland,  and  in  1798  joined  the  coalition  against  P'rance. 
He  sent  an  army  under  Suwarow  (Soovorof)  to  Italy 
to  fight  against  the  French.  (See  Suwarow.)  In  a  fit 
of  caprice,  he  left  his  former  allies,  and  attempted  to  form 
a  coalition  against  England,  in  1800.  His  numerous  acts 
of  folly  and  tyranny  at  length  caused  a  conspiracy  to 
take  his  life,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Count  Pahlen. 
Under  pretence  of  compelling  him  to  sign  an  abdicatior 
of  the  throne,  the  conspirators  forced  their  way  into  his 
chamber  and  put  him  to  death,  (March,  1801.)  tlis  death 
was  not  regretted  by  his  subjects.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Alexander  I.  He  left  three  other  sons,  Con- 
stantine,  Nicholas,  and  Michael,  and  several  daughters. 

See  Von  Tannenberg,  "  Leben  Pauls  I.,"  1804;  P.  R.  Auguis, 
"  Histoirr  de  Catherine  II  et  de  Paul  I,"  1813. 

Paul,  powl,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  Duke  of  Wiir- 
temberg, a  German  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at 
Carlsruhe  in  1797.  He  visited  North  America,  the 
southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  Egypt,  and  made  valuable 
collections  of  objects  in  natural  history.     Died  in  i860. 

Paul,  (Gabriel  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Missouri  about  1814,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1834. 
He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1S46-47,) 
and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in 

1862.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  Gettysburg,  July, 

1863,  losing  both  his  eyes. 

Paul,  (Saint  Vincent  de.)     See  Vincent. 

Paul  [Sp.  Pablo,  pi'Blo]  de  Burgos,  (d.\  booR'g6s,) 
or  Paul  de  Santa  Maria,  (disin'tS  mSree'il,)  a  Span- 
ish bishop,  born  at  Burgos  about  1350,  was  converter! 
from  Judaism  to  Christianity.     Died  in  1435. 

Paul  (or  Paulus)  [Gr.  T\av'}joq\  of  Samosata,  [Fr, 
Paul  de  Samosate,  pol  deh  st'mo'ztt',]  a  noted  here- 
siarch  of  the  third  century.  He  was  chosen  Bishop  of 
Antioch  about  260  a.d.,  and  soon  provoked  general 
censure  by  his  rapacity,  arrogance,  and  affectation  of 
worldly  pomp.  He  was  also  charged  with  heretical 
opinions  respecting  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  was  de- 
posed by  a  council  in  269.  According  to  Epiphanius,  he 
denied  the  distinct  personality  of  Christ.  By  the  favour 
of  Queen  Zenobia,  Paul  kept  possession  of  the  church 
at  Antioch  until  about  272  a.d.  His  opinions  were 
afterwards  maintained  by  a  small  sect  called  Pauliani. 

Paul  the  Silentiary,  a  Greek  poet,  who  was  chief 
of  the  Silentiarii  in  the  palace  of  Justinian.  He  wrote, 
about  562  A.D.,  a  description  of  the  church  of  Saint 
Sophia  at  Constantinople,  in  verse. 

Paul  Veronese.    See  Cagi.iari,  (Paolo.) 

Pau'la,  Saint,  a  Roman  lady,  noted  for  ascetic  piety, 
born  in  347  a.d.,  was  descended  from  the  Scipios.  She 
was  a  disciple  of  Saint  Jerome.    Died  in  Palestine  in  404. 

Paul'ding,  (Hiram,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  a  son 
of  John  Paulding,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Westches- 
ter county,  New  York,  about  1800.  He  became  a  captain 
in  1844,  and  arrested  Walker  the  filibuster  at  Punta 
Arenas  in  1857.  For  this  act  he  was  censured  by  Presi- 
dent Buchanan,  who  released  Walker.  In  April,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  navy-yard  of  Norfolk, 
and  burned  the  shipping  and  other  public  property 
which  it  seemed  impossible  to  defend.  The  ships-of-war 
had  been  scuttled  before  he  took  command  there.  He 
commanded  the  Brooklyn  Navy- Yard  from  1862  to  1865. 
Died  October  20,  1878. 

See  Headi.ev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867; 
Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  1S66. 

Paulding,  (James  Kirke,)  a  popular  American  novel 
5st  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Pawling,  Dutchess 
county.  New  York,  in  August,  1779.  He  published  in 
1807,  conjointly  with  Washington  Irving,  a  series  of 
witty  and  satirical  papers,  entitled  "Salmagundi,"  which 
were  greatly  admired  at  the  time.  His  s'atire  entitled 
"The  Diverting  History  of  John  Bull  and  Brother 
Jonathan"  appeared  in  1816,  and  was  followed  by  "The 


Backwoodsman,"  a  poem,  (1818,)  "John  Bull  in  America, 
or  the  New  Munchausen,"  (1824,)  "Merry  Tales  of  the 
Three  Wise  Men  of  Gotham,"  (1826,)  and  "The  Dutch- 
man's Fireside,"  the  most  admired  of  his  novels,  (1831.) 
His  more  recent  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Washington," 
and  the  novel  entitled  "  The  Old  Continental,"  (1846.) 
Mr.  Paulding  was  appointed  in  1S37  secretary  of  the 
navy  by  President  Van  Buren.     Died  in  i860. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Duvckinck,  "Cy» 
clopsdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Ali.ibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Paulding,  (John,)  one  of  the  American  soldiers  who 
in  1 7S0  captured  Major  Andre.  A  monument  was  erected 
to  him  near  Peekskill.     Died  in  1818. 

Paulet,  po'li',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Anfluze  in  1740.  He  wrote  a  good  "Treatise 
on  Mushrooms,"  (2  vols.,  1793,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1826. 

Pau'let  or  Paw'lett,  (William,)  Marquis  of  Win- 
chester, an  English  courtier,  born  about  1476.  He  held 
a  place  at  court  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
successors.     Died  in  1572. 

See  his  "  Life,"  by  Rowland  Brouchton. 

Pau'lett,  (WiLLiA.M,)  Lord,  an  English  politician, 
born  in  1666,  represented  Lymington  in  Parliament. 
Died  in  1729. 

Pauli,  pow'lee,  (Georg  Reinhold,)  a  German  histo- 
rian, born  at  Berlin,  May  25,  1823, was  educated  at  Berlin 
and  Bonn.  He  was  Baron  Bunsen's  secretary  in  England, 
1849-52,  became  professor  of  history  at  Bonn  in  1S55,  at 
Rostock  in  1857,  at  Tiibingen  in  1859,  at  Marburg  in  1867, 
and  at  Gottingen  in  1870.  Among  his  works  are  "  Konig 
Alfred  und  seine  Stellung  in  der  Geschichte  Englands," 
("King  Alfred  and  his  Position  in  the  History  of  Eng- 
land," 1851,)  a  continuation  in  three  volumes  (1853-58) 
of  Lappenberg's  "Geschichte  von  England," an  edition  of 
Gower's  "  Confessio  Amantis,"  and  other  works,  chiefly 
relating  to  English  history.     Died  June  3,  18S2. 

Pauli,  pow'lee,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Saalfeld,  in  Prussia,  in  1723,  became 
professor  of  history  at  Halle.  .A^mong  his  works  is 
"  Preussische  Staatsgeschichte,"  (8  vols.,  1760-69.)  Died 
in  1778. 

Pauli  or  Paulli,  powl'lee,  (Simon,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  at  Rostock  in  1603,  became 
first  physician  to  Frederick  HI.  of  Denmark.  He  wrote 
"  Flora  Danica,"  (164S.)     Died  in  1680. 

Paulian,  p6'le-5N',  (Aim6  Henri,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Nimes  in  1722.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
natural  science.  His  "Dictionary  of  Physics"  ("Die- 
tionnaire  de  Physique,"  3  vols.,  1761)  was  often  re- 
printed.    Died  in  iSoi. 

Paulin.     See  Paulinus. 

PauUn  de  Saint  -  Barth^lenii.     See   Paulinus, 

(JOHANN   PHILIPP  WeREDIN.) 

Pau-li'nus,  [Gr.  noD/ivor,]  Bishop  of  Tyre,  was  a 
friend  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Tyre  before  313  a.d.,  and  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
Antioch  about  325.   He  was  charged  with  being  an  Arian. 

Paulinus  of  Antioch  was  a  leader  of  the  Eusta- 
thian  party.  He  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Antioch  about 
362  A.D.  Meletius  was  at  the  saine  time  the  bishop  of 
the  opposite  party.     Died  about  38S. 

Pau-li'nus,  an  Italian  missionary,  sent  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory to  England,  is  said  to  have  converted  King  Edwin 
of  NorthuiTibria.  He  became  Archbishop  of  York  about 
627.     Died  in  644. 

Pau-li'nus,  |Fr.  Paulin,  p6'14n',]  (Pontius  Mero- 
Pius,)  Saint,  Bishop  of  Nola,  was  born  at  Burdigala 
(Bordeau.x)  about  353  a.d.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  poet 
Ausonius,  and  became  consul  at  Rome  in  378.  Having 
been  converted  to  Christianity,  he  renounced  the  world, 
and  was  elected  Bishop  of  Nola  in  409  AD.  He  wrote 
letters  and  poems,  which  are  extant.     Died  in  431. 

See  F.  A.  Gervaise,  "Vie  de  S.  Paulin,"  1743:  Rabanis,  "is. 
Paulin  de  Nole,"  1841  ;  Tillemont,  "  MiSmoires  ecclesiasliques." 

Paulinus,  Saint,  Patriarch  of  Aquileia,  born  in 
Friuli  or  .\ustrasia  about  728  A.D.,  was  noted  as  a  zeal- 
ous defender  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.    Died  in  804. 

Paulinus,  p6w-lee'niis,  (Johann  Philipp  Weredin,) 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f Jll,  fit;  nigt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PAULLI 


1905 


PAUSANIAS 


or  Paulin  de  Saint-Barthelemi,  a  German  Orien- 
talist, was  born  at  Hof,  near  Mannersdorf,  in  Austria, 
in  1748.  He  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Malabar  in 
1774,  and  learned  the  Sanscrit  language.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Sanscrit  Grammar,"  (1790,) 
and  the  "  Liturgical,  Mythological,  and  Civil  System  of 
the  Brahmans,"  ("  Systema  Brahmanicum  liturgicum, 
mythologicum  et  civile,"  1791.)     Died  at  Rome  in  1806. 

Paulii.    See  Fault. 

Paullini,  powl-lee'nee,  (Christian  Franz,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Eise- 
nach in  1643  ;  died  in  17 12. 

Paulmier  de  Grentemesnil,  po'me-i'  deh  gRftM'- 
ml'n6K,  (JULIEN  LE,)  a  Protestant  French  physician, 
born  in  the  Cotentin  in  1520.  He  practised  in  Paris, 
and  is  said  to  have  cured  Charles  IX.  of  inability  to 
sleep,  (insomttia.)     Died  in  1598. 

Paulmier,  le,  leh  po'me-i',  [  Lat.  Palme'rius,  ] 
(Jacques,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in  Auge  in  1587, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  served  against  the 
Spaniards  under  Maurice  about  eight  years,  (1620-28.) 
He  wrote  "Exercises  on  the  Best  Greek  Authors," 
("Exercitationes  in  optimos  Autores  Grascos,"  i668,)  a 
work  of  some  merit,  and  a  "Description  of  Ancient 
Greece,"  (in  Latin,  1678.)     Died  in  1670. 

Paulmy.    See  Argenson,  (Marc  Antoine  Ren6.) 

Paulo,  (Marco.)     See  Polo. 

Paulus.     See  Paul. 

Pau'lus  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by 
the  orthodox  or  Homoousians,  in  336  a.d.  The  Arians 
at  the  same  time  elected  Macedonius.  Paulus  was  ban- 
ished by  the  emperor,  but  was  restored  in  342,  and  was 
supported  by  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  in  exile 
about  350. 

Paulus,  pow'ias,  (Heinrich  Ererhard  Gottlob,) 
a  German  theologian,  distinguished  as  the  leader  of  the 
old  rationalistic  school  in  Germany,  was  born  near  Stutt- 
gart in  1 761.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Jena  in  1789,  and  subsequently  of  exegesis  and  eccle- 
siastical history  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  Philological,  Critical,  and  llistorical  Commentary  00 
the  New  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1800-04,)  "  Exegetic 
Manual  on  the  First  Three  Gospels,"  (1830,)  and  other 
similar  works.  He  died  in  185 1.  His  wife,  Caroline, 
and  his  daughter,  Emilie,  were  also  distinguished  as 
writers.     The  latter  was  married  to  A.  W.  Schlegel. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Pau'lus,  (Julius,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Roman  jurists.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  not  known. 
Having  been  exiled  by  Elagabalus,  he  was  recalled  by 
Alexander  Severus  about  222  a.d.  and  appointed  pre- 
torian  prefect.  He  was  remarkable  for  fertility  as  a 
writer  and  for  the  extent  of  his  legal  learning.  The 
excerpts  from  Paulus  in  the  Digest  are  more  numerous 
than  those  from  any  other  jurist  except  Ulpian.  His 
great  work  is  "  Ad  Edictam,"  in  eighty  books.  He  also 
wrote  twenty-six  books  of  "Qu.Testiones,"  and  twenty- 
three  books  of  "Responsa."     Died  about  235  a.d. 

See  RiTTERHUsius,  "Vita  J.  Pauli ;"  Erscii  und  Grubsr,  "All- 
t^emeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Paulus,  (L.  vEmilius,)  TFr.  Paul-Emile,  pol  i'mJl'; 
It.  Paolo  Emilio,  pow'Io  a-mee'le-o,]  a  Roman  general 
of  a  patrician  family,  was  consul  for  the  first  time  in 
219  R.C.  He  was  again  elected  consul  for  the  year  216, 
by  the  aristocratic  party.  Against  his  advice,  his  rash 
colleague,  Terentius  Varro,  offered  battle  to  Hannibal 
at  Cannae,  where  /Emilius  Paulus  was  killed,  in  216  B.C. 
His  brave  conduct  on  this  occasion  is  applauded  by 
Horace.  ("Carmina,"  Lib.  I.,  Ode  12.)  His  daughter 
^Emilia  was  the  wife  of  Scipio  the  Great,  surnaraed 
Africanus. 

See  Livv,  "  Histoi-y  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.  and  xxiii. 

Paulus,  (Lucius  ^Emilius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  230  B.C.,  and  was  the  most  celebrated 
member  of  his  family.  He  was  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
old  Roman  aristocracy,  and  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Scipio  Africanus,  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal.  Elected 
pr.-ctor  for  the  year  191  B.C.,  he  obtained  as  his  province 
Farther  Spain,  where  he  defeated  the  Lusitani  in  a  great 
battle.  In  the  year  189  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  in  182 
was  elected  consul,  after  having  been  defeated  at  several 


elections.  With  a  view  to  finish  the  Macedonian  war, 
the  people  elected  him  consul  in  168  B.C.  He  gained  in 
the  same  year  a  decisive  victory  over  Perseus  at  Pydna, 
and  afterwards  took  that  king  prisoner.  He  returned  to 
Rome  in  167,  and  obtained  the  honour  of  a  triumph,  with 
the  surname  of  Macedonicus.  He  died  in  160  B.C., 
leaving  a  high  reputation  for  honour  and  integrity. 
Plutarch  has  written  his  life  and  drawn  a  comparison 
between  him  and  Timoleon.  One  of  his  sons  was  adopted 
by  the  son  of  the  great  Scipio  above  named,  and  became 
afterwards  celebrated  as  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger. 

See  Livv,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxiv.-xl.  ;  Plutarch, 
"Paulus  yEmillus  ;"  Aurf.i.ius  Victor,  "  De  Viris  illustribus." 

Paulus,  pow  lus,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born 
at  Axel  in  1754.  He  was  president  of  the  Assembly 
which  abolished  the  office  of  Stadtholder  in  1795.  He 
wrote  a  "Memoir  on  Equality  among  Men,"  (1792.) 
Died  in  1796. 

Pau'lus  ^giiie'ta,  (gje-ne'ta,)  [Fr.  Paul  d'Egine, 
pol  di'zhin',]  a  celebrated  Greek  medical  writer,  of 
whose  personal  history  little  is  known,  except  that  he 
was  born  in  the  island  of  .('Egina.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  He  trav- 
elled extensively,  and  wrote  several  medical  works,  one 
of  which,  called  "  De  Re  Medica  Libri  septem,"  is  still 
extant.  It  is  mostly  compiled  from  Galen  and  other 
writers.  The  sixth  book  ("On  Surgery")  is  the  most 
valuable  and  original  part  of  the  work. 

See  Sprengel,  "  Histoire  de  la  Mddecine ;"  Haller,  "  Biblio- 
llieca  Medica." 

Paulus  ^milius.     See  Emilio,  (Paolo.) 

Pau'lus  Di-ac'o-nus,  [Fr.  Paul  Diacre,  pol  de'- 
SkR',]  ("  Paul  the  Deacon,")  a  mediaeval  historian,  some- 
times called  Warnefridus,  was  born  at  Friuli  (Forum 
Julii)  about  735  a.d.  He  passed  some  years  at  the  court 
of  Charlemagne.  He  wrote  Latin  verses,  and  a  valuable 
"  History  of  the  Lombards,"  in  a  clear  and  elegant  style. 
Died  about  798  a.d. 

Paumgarten,  von,  fon  powm'gaR'ten,  (Maximilian 
SiGiSMUND  Joseph,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born 
in  Styria  in  1767.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Aspern 
and  Wagram,  (1809.)     Died  in  1S27. 

Paur,  povvR,  (  Theodor,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Neisse,  in  Silesia,  in  1805.  He  became  professor  in  the 
College  of  Neisse  in  1842. 

Pau-sa'ui-as,  [naiwavfaf,]  a  Spartan  general,  was  the 
son  of  Cleombrotus,  and  a  nephew  of  Leonidas,  who  fell 
at  Thermopylae.  In  479  B.C.  he  became  guardian  of  his 
cousin  Pleistarchus,  for  whom  he  exercised  the  functions 
of  royalty  for  several  years.  He  commanded  the  Greek 
army  which  defeated  the  Persians  under  Mardonius  at 
Platasa  in  479.  In  477  the  confederate  Greeks  sent  out 
a  fleet  under  Pausanias,  who  captured  Byzantium. 
Having  formed  ambitious  and  treasonable  designs,  he 
made  secret  overtures  to  the  King  of  Persia.  He  also 
offended  the  allies  by  his  arrogant  and  domineering  con- 
duct, and  was  recalled  to  Sparta.  His  intrigues  with 
the  Persian  court  were  detected  a  few  years  later  by  the 
Ephori,  who  ordered  his  arrest.  He  then  took  refuge 
in  a  temple,  where  he  died  of  starvation,  about  468  B.C. 

See  Herodotus,  "  Histniy;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Pausanias;" 
Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Pausanias,  King  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  Pleistonax, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  444  B.C.,  being  then  an  infant. 
During  the  contest  between  Thrasybu'lus  and  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  (403  B.C.)  he  intervened  in  favour  of  the  former. 
Died  about  380  B.C. 

Pausanias,  a  Greek  traveller  and  author,  who  flour- 
ished between  150  and  200  A.D.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  in  Lydia  ;  but  nothing  is  known  respecting  him 
except  what  we  learn  from  his  writings.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  a  valuable  "Itinerary  or  Description  of  Greece," 
fE/lAu(5of  Uepiiiyjiatc.)  His  description  of  places  is  minute 
and  accurate,  but  mainly  relates  to  objects  of  antiquity 
and  works  of  art.  If  he  mentions  mountains  and  rivers, 
it  is  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  legends  or  myths  connected 
with  them.  He  describes  pictures,  statues,  etc.  with 
simplicity,  and  makes  no  pretensions  to  be  a  critic 
His  work  is  the  more  highly  prized  for  this  reason. 
"With  the  exception  of  Herodotus,"  says  George  Long, 
"there  is  no  writer  of  antiquity  who  has  comprehended 


€as-4;  qass;gAard;  gas;;G,  H,K,gitniiral;  ii,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  ih  asm  this.     (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PA  US/AS 


1906 


PAYN 


so  many  valuable  facts  in  a  small  volume.  The  work  of 
Pansanias  is  full  of  matter, — mythological,  historical, 
and  artistic ;  nor  does  he  omit  matters  physical  and  eco- 
nomical." His  work  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  Thomas  Taylor. 

See  KoENiG,  "  De  Pausaiiij;  Fide  et  Aiictoritatein  Historia,"  etc. 
1832;  SiBBELls,  "QusstioinPausanisPeriegets  Patria,"  etc.,  1819! 

Pausias,  pau'she-as,  \  Uavalaq,  ]  an  excellent  Greek 
painter  of  Sicyon,  flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Pamphilus,  and  a  contemporary  of  Apelles. 
He  excelled  in  painting  in  encaustic  with  the  cestrtitn, 
(graving-tool.)  Pliny  calls  him  "primum  in  hoc  genere 
nobilem."  The  favourite  subjp.cts  of  Pausias  were  small 
panel-pictures,  chiefly  of  boys.  He  was  the  first  who 
decorated  the  ceilings  and  walls  of  houses  with  encaustic 
paintings.  Among  his  master-pieces  was  "The  Sacri- 
fice of  an  O.Y,"  in  which  the  effects  of  foreshortening 
and  chiaroscuro  were  displayed  with  great  success. 

Pau'son,  [Tlavoijv,]  a  Greek  painter  of  uncertain 
epoch,  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  who  says  that  Polygno- 
tus  painted  figures  more  beautiful  than  nature,  Dionysius 
represented  them  as  they  are,  and  Pauson  made  them 
appear  inferior  to  the  reality. 

Pautet,  po'ti',  (Jules,)  a  French  writer  of  prose  and 
verse,  born  at  Beaune  in  1799;  died  in  1870. 

Pauthier,  po'te-i',  (Jean  Pierre  Guillaume,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Mamirolle  in  1801.  He 
published  a  French  version  of  "Childe  Harold,"  (1828- 
30,)  "The  Four  Books  of  the  Moral  and  Political  Philos- 
ophy of  the  Chinese,"  (4th  edition,  1852,)  "La  Chine," 
(1837,)  a  "History  of  the  Political  Relations  of  China 
with  the  Western  Powers,"  (1859,)  etc.     Died  in  1873. 

Pautre,  Le.     See  Lepautre. 

Pau-TO-  or  Paa-w,  (Pieter.)     See  Paaw. 

Pauw,  van,  vtn  pow,  (Coknelis,)  a  Dutch  writer, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1739,  was  a  great-nephew  of  the 
famous  De  Witt.  He  became  canon  of  Xanten.  He 
displayed  ingenuity  and  penetration  in  his  works,  among 
which  are  "  Philosophical  Researches  on  the  Egyptians 
and  Chinese,"  (2  vols.,  1774,)  and  "Philosophical  Re- 
searches on  the  Greeks,"  (2  vols.,  1788.)  Died  in  1799. 
Many  of  his  ideas  are  considered  paradoxical, 

Pauw,  van,  (Jan  Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Utrecht.  He  published  editions  of  Anacreon, 
iEschylus,  and  Theophrastus ;  also  notes  on  Pindar. 
Died  in  1749. 

Pau-wels,  pow'elss,  (Ferdinand,)  a  Belgian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Eckeren,  April  13,  1830.  In  1876  he 
was  called  from  the  Weimar  Art  School  to  Dresden  as 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Many  of  his 
pictures  have  scriptural  or  ecclesiastical  subjects. 

Pavaka,  pi'va-ka,  [i.e.  "  purifying,"  or  the  "  purifier,"] 
one  of  the  names  of  Agnt,  which  see. 

Pav'a-na  or  Pav'an,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  puv'a- 
na  or  puv'an,]  written  also  Pawana  and  PuTwun,  a 
Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "air"  or  "wind,"  and  forming 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology  the  name  of  the  god  or  regent 
of  the  winds,  answering  in  several  respects  to  the  yEolus 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  He  was  also  regarded  as 
the  regent  of  the  northwest  quarter  of  the  heavens. 
According  to  some,  Pavana  was  the  father  of  the  cele- 
brated monkey  king,  Hanuman,  which  see. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Pavesi,  pS-va'see,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Crema  in  1778.  He  composed  many  operas, 
among  which  are  "  Tancredi,"  (1812,)  and  "The  Her- 
mit," C'll  Solitario,"  1826.)     Died  about  1846. 

Pavie,  pt've',  (Theodore,)  a  F"rench  Orientalist,  born 
at  Angers  in  181 1.  He  became  professor  of  Sanscrit  at 
the  CoHege  de  France  in  1852,  published  a  "Voyage  to 
the  United  States,"  (1827,)  and  translated  some  works 
from  Sanscrit,  Chinese,  etc. 

Pavilion,  pt've'yAN',  (Etienne,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1632,  was  a  nephew  of  Nicolas.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1691,  although 
his  verses  scarcely  reach  mediocrity.     Died  in  1705. 

Pavilion,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  prelate  and  Jansenist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1597,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Aleth  in 
1637.  He  produced  a  Ritual  which  was  condemned  at 
Rome  but  was  widely  used  in  France.     Died  in  1677. 

Pavilion,  du.  du   pt've'yAN',  (Jean  Franqois  du 


Cheyron — dii  shi'rAN',)  Chevalier,  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1 730.  He  made  important 
improvements  in  signals,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Naval  Tactics,"  (1778,)  which  is  commended.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  with  the  British  near  Dominique  in  1782, 

Pavius.     See  Paaw,  (Pieter.) 

Pavlof,  Pavlov,  or  Pawlow,  pJv'lof,  (Nicholas 
Philippovitch,)  a  Russian  poet  and  novelist,  born  in 
Moscow  in  1802.  He  wrote  lyric  poems  and  dramas. 
Died  in  1854. 

Pavon,  p3.-v6n',  (Don  Jos^,)  a  Spanish  botanist,  born 
in  the  last  century.  He  went  .ibout  1778  to  Peru,  in  the 
exploration  of  which  he  spent  many  years,  and  aided 
Ruiz  in  the  composition  of  a  "  Flora  Peruviana  et  Chi- 
lensis."     Died  in  1844. 

PavT'aka.     See  Pavaka. 

Pawana.     See  Pavana. 

Pawlett.    See  Paulett,  (William.) 

Pax,  the  Latin  of  Eirene,  which  see. 

Pax'tpn,  (Edward  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia.  He  served  as  brig- 
adier-general of  the  Confederate  army  at  Antietam, 
September,  1862,  and  was  killed  at  Chancellorsville, 
May  2,  1863. 

Pax'ton,  (Sir  Joseph,)  an  English  architect  ana 
gardener,  born  near  Woburn,  Bedfordshire,  in  1803. 
Having  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire 
as  a  gardener,  he  reinodelled  after  his  own  designs  the 
magnificent  gardens  and  parks  at  Chatsworth,  and 
gained  distinction  as  an  architect  by  the  erection  of  a 
vast  conservatory  at  that  place.  The  Crystal  Palace 
built  for  the  World's  Fair  of  1851  was  designed  and 
superintended  by  Mr.  Paxton,  who  was  knighted  for 
this  service.  He  was  also  the  architect  of  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  which  is  much  admired.  He 
published  "  The  Cottage  Calendar,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1S65. 

Paya  y  Rico,  pS-yi'  e  ree'ko,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish 
cardinal,  born  at  Benejama,  December  20,  i8n,  was 
made  a  bishop  in  1858,  Archbishop  of  Tompostela  in 
1874,  and  cardinal-priest  in  1877. 

JPayen,  pi'ySw',  (Anselme,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1795.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  in 
Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Course  of  Elementary  and  Industrial  Chemistry," 
(2  vols.,  1831.)     Died  May  13,  1871. 

Payen,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1800  ;  died  February  7,  1S70.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  mineral  waters. 

Payer,  pt'yi',  (Jean  Baptispe,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Asfeld  (Ardennes)  in  1818.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  botany  at  the  Normal  School  in  Paris  in  1841, 
and  supplied  the  place  of  Mirbel  at  the  Sorbonne,  (1841- 
48.)  He  was  secretary  to  Lamartine  in  184S,  and  became 
professor  of  botany,  etc.,  in  1852.  His  chief  work  is 
a  "  Treatise  on  Comparative  Vegetable  Organogeny." 
Died  September  5,  i860. 

Payer,  pi'er,  (Julius,)  an  Austrian  explorer,  born  at 
Schonau,  September  i,  1842.  He  became  an  army  officer, 
and  a  professor  of  history  in  the  military  school.  He 
was  later  employed  in  geodetic  work  in  the  Al|)s.  In  1869 
he  visited  Greenland  with  Koldewey,  and  went  to  Spitz- 
bergen  with  Weyprecht.  He  went  in  1872-74  to  Nova 
Zembla  and  P>anz  Joseph  Land  on  the  steamer  Tegethof. 
His  principal  book  is  an  account  of  the  last-named 
voyage. 

Paykull,  de,  deh  pl'kul,  ?  (Gustaf,)  Baron,  a  Swed- 
ish naturalist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1757.  He  became 
first  secretary  to  the  king  in  1794,  and  marshal  of  the 
court  in  1815.  He  wrote  monographs  on  Swedish  cole- 
optera,  and  several  dramas.     Died  in  1826. 

Payn,  (James,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at  Chelten- 
ham in  1830.  He  studied  at  Eton  and  Wocjiwich,  and 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1854.  He 
]3ublished  "Stories  from  Boccaccio,"  "Poems,"  (1855,) 
"A  Family  Scapegrace,"  "  Lost  Sir  Massingberd,"  "  By 
Proxy,"  "High  Spirits,""  For  Cash  Only,"  (18S2,)  "Kit, 
a  Memory,"  (1883,)  "Thicker  than  Water,"  (1S83,)  and 
many  other  works.  For  many  years  he  was  the  editor 
of  "Chambers's  Journal."  His  "  Literary  Recollections" 
(1S85)  attracted  much  attention. 


a,  e,  5,  6,  u,  y,  lon^:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  Qr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


PAYNE 


1907 


PEALE 


Payne,  pan,  (John,)  an  English  engraver  and  de- 
signer, born  in  London  in  1608.  He  engraved  portraits 
with  success.     Died  in  1648. 

Payne,  pan,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop,  born 
in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  January  9, 1815,  grad- 
uated at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1833,  and  at  the 
theological  school  near  Alexandria  in  1836,  in  which  year 
he  sailed  for  Liberia  as  a  missionary.  In  1S51  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Cape  Pal  mas,  (Episcopalian,)  but 
he  returned  in  1871  to  the  United  States,  and  died  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  October  23,  1874. 

Payne,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London, 
August  23,  1842.  In  1867  he  became  a  solicitor.  Among 
his  works  are  "The'  Masque  of  Shadow,"  (1870,)  "In- 
taglios," (1871,)  "Songs  of  Life  and  Death,"  (1872,) 
"  Lautrec,"  (1878,)  a  translation  of  the  "Poems  of 
Francis  Villon,"  (1878,)  "  New  Poems,"  (1880,)  "  Francis 
Villon:  a  Biographical  Study,"  (1881,)  "The  Arabian 
Nights,"  (9  vols.,  in  prose  and  verse,  1882  et  seq.,)  etc. 
He  also  wrote,  but  never  published,  a  translation  of 
Dante's  "  Divina  Commedia." 

Payne,  pan,  (John  Howard,)  an  American  actor 
and  dramatic  poet,  born  in  New  York  in  1792.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Park 
Theatre,  in  the  character  of"  Young  Norval,"  with  bril- 
liant success.  He  visited  London  in  1813,  and  founded 
there  a  theatrical  journal  called  "The  Opera-Glass." 
He  was  the  author  of  several  dramas,  but  he  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  beautiful  and  popular  song  of  "  Home, 
Sweet  Home."  Mr.  Payne  was  appointed  in  1851  consul 
to  Tunis.     Died  in  1852. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  January,  i8ig. 

Pays,  (Ren6  le.)     See  Le  Pays. 

Pay'son,  (Edward,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1783.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Discourse  before  the  Bible  Society  of 
Maine,"  and  a  number  of  sermons.     Died  in  1827. 

Paz,  de,  di  pith,  (Jago  Alvarez,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit 
and  religious  writer,  born  at  Toledo  in  1560;  died  in 
1620. 

Pazmany  or  Pazniani,  poz'mSn,  (Peter,)  a  Hun- 
garian cardinal  and  writer  on  theology,  born  near  Pres- 
burg  in  1570 ;  died  in  1637. 

Pazzi,  pi.t'see,  (Cosimo,)  an  Italian  prelate,  born  in 
1467,  was  a  nephew  of  Leo  X.,  and  a  relative  of  Jacopo 
Pazzi.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Florence  in  150S. 
He  translated  Maximus  Tyrius  into  Latin,  (1517.)  Died 
in  I5i5._ 

Pazzi,  (Jacopo,)  was  the  head  of  a  rich  Florentine 
family  which  was  hostile  to  the  Medici.  He  was  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  a  conspiracy  formed  (in  the  name  of 
liberty)  against  them  in  1478.  The  attempt  to  kill  Lo- 
renzo de'  Medici  having  failed,  Pazzi  and  his  accom- 
plices were  taken  and  hung. 

Peabody,  pee'bo-de,  (Rev.  Andrew  P.,)  D.D.,  an 
American  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Beverly,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1811.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826, 
and  subsequently  studied  theology  at  Cambridge.  He 
became  in  1833  pastor  of  the  South  Congregational 
Church  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1854 
assumed  the  editorship  of  the  "North  American  Review." 
He  is  the  author  of  "Lectures  on  Christian  Doctrine," 
(1844,)  of  which  numerous  editions  have  been  published, 
and  "Sermons  of  Consolation,"  (1846  ;  3d  edition,  1S57.) 
He  has  also  contributed  to  the  "New  England  Maga- 
zine," "American  Monthly,"  and  "Christian  Examiner." 
In  i860  he  became  preacher  and  Plummer  prqfessor 
of  Christian  morals  at  Harvard, — a  position  which  he 
has  filled  with  the  highest  credit  to  himself  and  the 
institution. 

See  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Peabody,  (Elisabeth  Palmer,)  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  at  Billerica,  Massachusetts,  May  16,  1804. 
In  youth  she  began  a  remarkably  successful  career  as  a 
teacher.  Her  princiitial  writings  are  "Self-Education," 
(1S28,  a  translation  from  De  Gerando,)  "A  Record  of 
Mr.  Alcott's  School,"  (1835  ;  3d  edition,  1880,)  "Remi- 
niscences of  William  Ellery  Channing,"  "United  States 


"Manual  of  Universal  History,"  and  many  pamphlets 
and  papers  of  much  importance,  chiefly  upon  educational 
iubjects. 

Peabody,  (Ephraim,)  an  American  divine  and  poet, 
born  at  Wilton,  New  Hampshire,  in  1807;  died  in  1856 

Peabody,  (George,)  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  in  Danvers,  Massachusetts,  in  February,  1795,  was 
the  son  of  poor  parents.  He  engaged  in  trade  in  Balti- 
more, and,  after  many  years  of  prosperity,  removed  to 
England  in  1837.  He  became  a  banker  and  broker  in 
London,  and  amassed  an  ample  fortune.  His  banking- 
house  was  for  many  years  the  head-quarters  of  Ameri- 
cans in  London.  About  1856  he  gave  $300,000  or  more 
to  found  a  literary  and  scientific  institute  in  Baltimore. 
In  1862  he  presented  to  the  city  of  London  ;^  150,000,  to 
be  expended  in  the  erection  of  lodging-hou.ses  for  the 
working-classes,  for  which  purpose  he  added  ;^i 50,000 
more  in  1866.  He  also  gave  to  Harvard  University 
$150,000  for  a  museum,  etc.,  and  in  1867  gave  two  mil- 
lion dollars  to  found  common  schools  in  the  Southern 
United  States.  Died  in  London  in  1869.  His  remains 
were  conveyed  with  great  pomp  to  the  United  States 
in  the  British  ship-of-war  Monarch. 

Peabody,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  patriot  and 
physician,  born  at  Topsfield,  Massaclnisetts,  in  1741. 
He  served  as  colonel  of  the  army  in  1778,  and  was  sent 
as  a  delegate  to  Congress  in  1779.  He  filled  several 
other  high  offices.     Died  in  1823. 

Peabody,  (Oliver  W.  B.,)  twin-brother  of  W.  B. 
O.  Peabody,  noticed  below,  was  associate  editor  of  the 
"North  American  Review,"  and  in  1842  became  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  Jefferson  College,  Loui- 
siana.    Died  in  1847,  aged  fifty-seven. 

Peabody,  (Rev.  William  B.  O.,)  an  American  poet 
and  Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1799.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1816, 
and  in  1820  became  pastor  at  Springfield,  Massachu- 
setts. Besides  a  number  of  small  poems,  he  contributed 
many  able  articles  to  the  "  North  American  Review" 
and  the  "Christian  Examiner,"  and  wrote  the  "Life  of 
Alexander  Wilson"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography." 
Died  in  1847. 

Peach'am,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Hertfordshire  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Minerva  Britannica,  or  a  Garden 
of  Heroical  Devises,"  (1612,)  and  "The  Complete  Gen- 
tleman," (1622,)  which  was  once  popular. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  (1853.) 

Pea'cock,  (Edward,)  an  English  author,  born  near 
Ihigg,  in  Lincolnshire,  December  22,  183 1.  He  pub- 
lished various  novels, — "Ralph  Skirlaugh,"  (1870,) 
"Mabel  Heron,"  (1872,)  "John  Markenfield,"  (1874,) 
etc., — and  many  antiquarian  works. 

Pea'cock,  (George,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Denton  about  1790.  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Cambridge,  and  Dean  of  Ely.  He  wrote  seve- 
ral works.     Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  185S. 

Peacock  or  Pe'cock,  (Reynold  or  Reginald,)  » 
liberal  English  prelate,  born  about  1390.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1449.  Having  questioned  or 
denied  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  or  Church  of  Rome, 
he  was  deposed  in  1457.  He  was  opposed  to  persecu- 
tion for  opinion.     Died  about  1460. 

See  Rev.  John  Lewis,  "  Life  of  R.  Peacock,"  1744. 

Peacock,  (Thomas  Love,)  an  English  humourist  anj 
poet,  born  at  Weymouth  in  1785.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Palmyra,"  a  poem,  (1S06,)  "The  Genius 
of  the  Thames,"  (1812,)  "Headlong  Hall,"  a  humorous 
and  satirical  novel,  (1816,)  and  "Crotchet  Castle," 
(1822,)  which  are  highly  commended.  In  1819  he  was 
appointed  to  a  situation  in  the  Examiners'  Office  at  the 
India  House.     Died  in  1S66. 

See  "  Recent  Humourists,"  in  the  "  North  British  Review"  for 
September,  1866. 

Peale,  peel,  (Charles  Wilson,)  an  American  painter 
ind  naturalist,  iDorn  at  Charlestown,  Maryland,  in  1741. 
He  studied  for  a  time  in  England  under  West,  and, 
after  his  return,  settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  soon 


History,"  (1859,)  "A   Kindergarten    Guide,"  (i860,)  a  |  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter.     He 
€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  zsj:  o,  H.  K.  i^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JC^^See  Explanations,  p.  2^.1 


PEALE 


1908 


PECK 


afterwards  formed  in  that  city  a  museum  of  natural 
curiosities  called  by  his  name  and  containing  the  skele- 
ton of  a  mammoth.  He  was  also  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  to  which  he  contributed 
numerous  pictures.     Died  in  1827. 

SeeTucKKRMAN,  "Book  of  tlie  Artists." 

Peale,  (Rembrandt,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1778,  studied 
painting  under  West,  and  subsequently  devoted  him- 
self to  portrait-painting  in  Paris.  After  his  return  to 
I'hiladelphia,  he  produced,  among  other  works,  the 
"Court  of  Death,"  and  "The  Roman  Daughter."  Died 
in  i860. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chap.  iv. ;  Tucker.man,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Pean.    See  P>ean. 

Pearce,  peerss,  (James  A.,)  an  American  Senator 
and  lawyer,  born  at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  in  1805.  Hfe 
represented  a  district  of  Maryland  in  Congress  from 
1835  to  1S39,  and  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
from  1843  'o  1862.     Died  in  December,  1862. 

Pearce,  peerss,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  traveller  or 
adventurer,  born  at  Acton  in  1780.  He  spent  several 
years  in  Abyssinia,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account.  Died 
in  1820. 

Pearce,  (Zachary,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
critic,  born  in  or  near  London  in  1690.  While  he  was 
a  student  at  Cambridge  he  wrote  two  papers  for  the 
"  Spectator,"  (Nos.  572  and  633,)  and  edited  Cicero  "  De 
Oratore,"  (1716.)  He  became  vicar  of  Saint  Martin's- 
in-the-Fields,  London,  in  1723,  Dean  of  Winchester  in 
1739,  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1748,  and  Bishop  of  Rochester 
1111756.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  Commentary,  with 
Notes,  on  the  Four  Evangelists  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,"  (2  vols.,  1777,)  which  was  received  with  favour. 
He  edited  Longinus  "  On  the  Sublime,"  (1724.)  Died 
in  1774. 

Pear'sall,  (Richard,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Kidderminster  in  1698.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Taunton,  and  wrote  "  Contemplations  on  the 
Ocean."     Died  in  1762. 

Pear'son,  (Edward,)  an  English  Arminian  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Ipswich  about  175S.  He  became  rector  of 
Rempston,  in  Nottinghamshire,  about  1798,  and  master 
of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  in  1808.  He 
wrote  treatises  against  Paley's  theory  of  Moral  Obliga- 
tion, and  others  against  Calvinism.  Some  of  his  sermons 
were  published.    "Died  in  1811. 

See  \V.  P.  Hunt,  "Memoir  of  tlie  Life  of  E.  Pearson,"  1845. 

Pear'spn,  (Eliphalet,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scholar, 
born  in  New  England  in  1752,  became  professor  of  He- 
brew and  Oriental  languages  at  Harvard  College,  and 
subsequently  of  sacred  literature  at  Andover.  Died 
in  1826. 

Pearson,  (George,)  an  English  physician  and  chem- 
ist, born  in  1 751.  He  practised  and  lectured  at  Saint 
George's  Hospital,  London,  and  wrote  on  the  cow-pox, 
etc.     Died  in  1828. 

Pearson,  (John,)  an  eminent  bishop  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  was  born  at  Snoring,  Norfolk,  in  1613.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  obtained  in  1650  the 
living  of  Saint  Clement,  London.  The  sermons  which 
he  preached  there  were  published  in  his  "  Exposition 
of  the  Creed,"  (1658,)  a  work  of  high  reputation,  which 
has  been  reprinted  and  used  as  a  text-book  for  students. 
He  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  t66i, 
and  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1672.  Died  in  16S6.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  most  learned  Englishmen  of  his 
time  in  ancient  languages,  history,  etc. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Pearson,  (Joh.n,)  an  English  surgeon  and  writer, 
born  in  1758,  practised  in  London.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Principles  of  Surgerj',"  (17S8,)  and 
a  "  Life  of  William  Hey."     Died  in  1826. 

Pearson,  (Margaret  Egi.inton,)  an  English  painter 
on  glass,  was  a  daughter  of  Samuel  Paterson,  noticed 
in  this  work.     Died  in  1823. 

Pearson,  (Richard,)  an  English  medical  writer,  borr 
in  Birmingham  in  1765.  Among  his  works  is  "The- 
s.Turus  Medicaminuni."  (1810.)     Died  in  1836. 


Pease,  (Calvin,)  D.D.,  an  American  educator,  born 
at  Canaan,  Connecticut,  August  12,  1813.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1838.  He  was  made 
professor  of  the  classical  languages  in  the  same  institu- 
tion in  1842,  and  became  its  president  in  1855.  He  did 
much  in  improving  the  public-school  system  of  Vermont. 
In  1855  he  was  ordained  a  Congregational  minister,  and 
for  a  time  he  held  a  Presbyterian  pastorate.  Died  at 
Burlington,  Vermont,  September  17,  1863. 

Pecchia,  pek'ke-S,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Naples  in  1715.  He  wrote  a  "  Civil  and  Political 
History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (3  vols.,  1778.) 
Died  in  1784. 

Pecchio,  pek'ke-o,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
political  economist,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1785.  He 
was  councillor  of  state  for  the  section  of  finances  (at 
Milan)  from  1810  to  1814.  He  became  a  political  exile 
in  1821,  after  which  he  lived  mostly  in  England.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Public  Economy  in  Italy," 
("Storia  dell'Economia  pubblica  in  Italia,"  1829,)  which 
presents  an  able  critical  analysis  of  Italian  works  on 
political  economy,  and  "Observations  of  an  Exile  on 
England,"  (1831.)  He  was  an  elegant  writer,  and  had 
a  good  talent  for  observation.    Died  at  Brighton  in  1835. 

See  Ugoni,  "Vila  di  G.  Pecchio,"  1836. 

Pecci,  jj&t'chee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  was 
lj(^rn  at  Carpineto,  December  13,  1807,  and  in  1879  was 
made  a  cardinal-deacon  by  his  brother.  Pope  Leo  XIII., 
and  became  one  of  the  cardinals-palatine.    Died  in  iS9o. 

P6chantr6,  pi'shSN'tRi',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  dra- 
matic poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1638.  He  wrote  trage- 
dies named  "  Geta"  (1687)  and  "Jugurtha,"  (1692.) 
Died  in  1708. 

PechUn,  pgK'lin,  (Jan  Niklaas,)  an  able  Dutch  phy- 
sician, born  at  Leyden  in  1646.  He  wrote  Latin  poems, 
a  treatise  on  Tea,  entitled  "Theophilus  Bibaculus," 
(1684,)  and  other  works.     Died  at  Stockholm  in  1706. 

Pechmeja,  pSsh'mld'zhS',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer 
of  fiction,  born  at  Villefranche  in  1741.  He  wrote  a 
romance  named  "Telephe,"  (1784,)  which  had  a  tran- 
sient vogue.     Died  in  1785. 

Peck,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at  Stam- 
ford, Lincolnshire,  in  1692.  He  obtained  in  1736  a 
prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Lincoln.  Among  his  works 
are  "Desiderata  Curiosa,"  (2  vols.,  1732-35,)  "Memoirs 
of  the  Life  and  Poetical  Works  of  John  Milton,"  (1740,) 
and  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell,"  (1740.) 
Died  in  1743. 

Peck,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist  divine 
and  theological  writer,  born  in  1797.  He  published 
"Lives  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists,"  "Christian 
Perfection,"  and  other  works.     Died  May  20,  1876. 

Peck,  (George  Wesley,)  LL.D.,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Kingston,  Luzerne  county,  Pennsylvania, 
February  7.  1849.  He  graduated  at  Syracuse  University 
in  1878,  and  was  president  of  Hedding  College  from  1878 
to  1882.  He  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1874.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "Life  of 
Bishop  Peck,"  and  of  other  works. 

Peck,  (Jesse  Truesdell,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  bishop,  born  at  Middlefield,  New  York,  April 
4,  1811.  He  was  educated  at  Cazenovia  Seminary,  and 
began  to  preach  in  1829.  He  was  jjrincipal  of  the  Troy 
Conference  Seminary,  1S41-48,  president  of  Dickinson 
College,  1848-52,  and  in  1872  was  consecrated  a  bishop. 
His  principal  works  are  "The  Central  Idea  of  Chris- 
tianity," (1855,)  "The  True  Woman,"  (1857,)  "What 
Must  J  Do  to  be  Saved  .?"  (1858,)  and  "Tlie  Great  Re- 
Dublic,"  (1868.)  Died  at  Syracuse,  New  York,  May  17, 
1SS3. 

Peck,  (John  J.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Onon- 
daga county.  New  York,  in  1821,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843.  ^^  commanded  a  brigade  at  Williams- 
burg and  Fair  Oaks  in  May,  1862,  soon  after  which  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  rejjulsed  General  Longstreet,  who  attacked  him  at 
SuiTolk,  in  April,  1863.     Died  April  21,  1878. 

Peck,  (John  Mason,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine  and  missionary,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut, 
in  1789.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Societv  in  1831,  having  previously 


a,  e,  T, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  sliort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  ohs'-ure;  Idr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PECK 


1909 


PEEL 


edited  "The  Pioneer,"  the  first  Baptist  journal  of  the 
West,  (1829.)  In  1835  he  founded  Shurtleff  College,  at 
Upper  Alton,  Illinois.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Phila- 
delphia as  corresponding  secretary  and  general  agent  of 
the  American  Baptist  Publication  Society.  He  wrote 
the  "  Life  of  Daniel  Boone"  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biog- 
raphy," and  several  other  works.     Died  in  1858. 

Peck,  (PiETER,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  in  Zealand  j  died 
at  Malines  in  1589. 

Peck,  (Wri.LiAM  Dandridge,)  an  American  natural- 
ist, born  at  Boston  in  1763.  He  became,  in  1805,  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Harvard  College.  Died  in 
1822. 

Peckham,  pek'am,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
about  1240.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1278.  His  "  Perspectiva  Communis"  (1504)  has 
been  often  printed.     Died  in  1292. 

Peclet,  peh-kli',  (Jean  Claude  EucfeNE,)  a  French 
writer  on  physical  science,  born  at  Besan^on  in  1793.  He 
was  professor  of  physics  at  the  Central  School  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures.  He  wrote  a  "  Course  of  Physics," 
(1826,)  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Heat  and  its  Applications 
to  the  Arts,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)     Died  in  1857. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Littdraire." 

Pecock,  (Reynold.)  See  Peacock. 
Pecquet,  pi'ki',  (Antoine,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1704,  Among  his  works  is  a  satire  called 
*'  Secret  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  Persia,"  ("Me- 
moires  secrets  pour  servir  k  I'Histoire  de  la  Perse," 
itc,  1745.)     Died  in  1762. 

Pecquet,  (Jean,)  a  French  anatomist,  born  at  Diep])e 
in  1622.  He  gained  a  European  reputation  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  thoracic  duct  and  the  reservoir  of  chyle. 
He  wrote  "  On  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  and  Motion 
of  the  Chyle,"  ("De  Circulatione  Sanguinis,"  etc.,  165 1,) 
and  "  De  Thoracis  Lacteis,"  (1651.)  Died  in  1674. 
See  "  Biographie  M^dicale." 

Pecqueur,  pi'kuR',  (Constantin,)  a  French  writer 
on  social  and  political  economy,  was  born  at  Arleux 
(Nord)  in  1801.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Saint-Simon  and 
Fourier.  Among  his  works  is  a  prize  essay  entitled 
"  Social  Econoniy  of  the  Interests  of  Commerce,  In- 
dustry," etc.,  ("  Economic  sociale  des  Interets  du  Com- 
merce, de  ITndustrie,"  etc.,  1838.)     Died  in  1859. 

Pecqueur,  (On6siphore,)  a  French  mechanician, 
born  in  1792,  invented  an  arithmetical  machine,  a  dyna- 
mometer, and  other  machines.     Died  in  1852. 

Pe'deu,  (Alexander,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  religiou-; 
leader,  born  near  Sorn,  Ayrshire,  in  1626.     He  was  the 
minister  of  New  Luce,  but,  with  other  Canieronians,  was 
ejected.    He  was  one  of  the  prisoners  of  the  Bass.    Lib- 
erated in  1678,  he  carried  on  his  spiritual  ministrations 
in  secrecy,  and  died  in  1686.     He  was  reputed  to  have 
supernatural  gifts  ;  and  "  Peden's  Prophecies"  was  a  little 
book  long  popular  with  the  Scottish  peasantry. 
Pediauus.     See  Asconius. 
Pedma.    See  Pad.ma. 
Pedo.     See  Albinovanus. 
Pedro,  DoM,  (of  Brazil.)     See  Peter. 
Pedro  of  Aragon.    See  Peter. 
Pedrusi,   pi-dRoo'see,   (Paolo,)  an   Italian  numis- 
matist, born  at  Mantua  in  1644;  died  in  1720. 

Peel,  (Frederick,)  a  son  of  the  statesman  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  was  born  in  London  in  1823.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Leominster  in  1849,  and  re-elected  for 
Bury  in  1852  and  1859.  In  politics  he  is  called  Liberal 
Conservative.  He  was  under-secretary  for  the  colonies 
from  1852  to  February,  1855,  under-secretary  of  war  from 
the  latter  date  to  1857,  and  secretary  to  the  treasury 
from  i860  to  1865. 

Peel,  (Jonathan,)  a  British  general,  a  younger  son 
of  the  first  Sir  Robert,  was  born  in  1799.  He  entered 
the  army  young,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  In  1826  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Nor- 
wich. He  was  surveyor-general  of  the  ordnance  from 
1841  to  1846,  and  secretary  at  war  in  the  Derby  ministry 
from  February,  1858,  to  June,  1859,  and  again  from  July, 
1866,  to  March,  1867.      Died  February  13,  1879. 

Peel,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  manufacturer  and 
millionaire,  born  near  Lancaster  in  1750,  was  the  father 


of  Robert  Peel,  prime  minister.  He  became  in  1773  a 
partner  in  a  large  manufactory  of  cotton  at  Bury,  By 
his  sagacity,  enterjjrise,  and  remarkable  aptitude  for 
business,  he  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  He  repre- 
sented Tamworth  in  Parliament  from  1790  to  1820,  and 
was  a  supporter  of  the  ministry  and  Tory  party.  He 
had  six  sons  and  five  daughters.     Died  in  1830. 

Peel,  (Sir  Roceri",)  a  celebrated  English  statesman, 
born  near  Bury,  in  Lancashire,  on  the  5th  of  February, 
1788,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow  (where  Lord  Byron  was  his  class- 
fellow)  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  gained 
the  honour  of  "double  first-class," — i.e.  pre-eminence 
both  in  classics  and  mathematics.  He  left  college  in 
1808,  and  entered  Parliament  as  a  member  for  Cashel, 
and  a  supporter  of  the  Tory  ministry,  in  1809.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1810,  he  seconded  the  address  to  the  throne,  and 
made  his  first  speech.  He  was  appointed  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  181 1,  and  chief  secretary  for  Ireland 
in  1812.  In  1815  he  challenged  O'Connell  for  offensive 
remarks  in  a  public  speech  ;  but  the  intended  duel  was 
prevented  by  the  police.  His  opponents  nicknamed 
him  Orange  Peel,  in  allusion  to  his  hostility  to  the 
Catholics.  He  made  a  speech  against  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic claims  in  1817.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  the  University  of  Oxford,  in  preference  to  Canning, 
and  resigned  his  office  of  secretary.  He  succeeded  Mr. 
Horner  as  chairman  of  the  Bullion  committee  in  1819, 
and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  financier  by  pro- 
curing the  passage  of  an  act  for  the  resumption  of  cash 
payments.  He  married  in  1820  Julia,  a  daughter  of 
General  Sir  John  Floyd. 

In  January,  1822,  he  became  secretary  for  the  home 
department  in  the  ministry  of  Lord  Liverpool.  For 
several  years  ensuing.  Canning  and  Peel  were  the  most 
able  and  prominent  members  of  the  ministry.  Although 
Peel  was  less  brilliant  as  an  orator  than  his  colleague,  he 
vvas  more  solid  and  practical,  and  had  equal  or  greatei 
mfluencewith  his  party.  When  Canning  became  prime 
minister,  in  April,  1827,  Mr.  Peel  retired  from  office.  He 
accepted  the  jjlace  of  home  secretary  in  the  new  minis- 
try formed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  January,  182S, 
and  made  a  powerful  speech  in  favour  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation (which  he  had  long  opposed)  in  March,  1829. 
By  his  change  on  this  question  he  lost  his  seat  as  repre- 
sentative of'^Oxford,  in  1829.  The  obstinate  resistance 
of  the  Tory  ministry  to  parliamentary  reform  caused 
them  to  be  defeated  and  driven  from  power  in  Novem- 
ber, 1830.  Earl  Grey  then  formed  a  Whig  ministry,  and 
Sir  Robert  became  the  leader  of  the  opposition.  At 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1830,  he  inherited  an  immense 
fortune  and  the  title  of  baronet.  He  opposed  the  Retonn 
bill,  (1831-32,)  but  declined  to  co-operate  with  Welling- 
ton in  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  when  Lord  Grey 
resigned,  in  1832.  In  1833  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Tamworth,  which  he  continued  to  represent  until  1 850. 
Sir  Robert  at  this  period  was  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  Conservative  party,  which  he  had  organized,  and  the 
principles  of  which  were  modified  Toryism.  The  Whig 
ministry  having  been  dismissed,  Peel  and  Wellington 
united  to  form  a  cabinet,  in  which  the  former  became  first 
lord  of  the  treasury,  {i.e.  prime  minister,)  in  December, 
1834.  Failing  to  obtain  the  support  of  a  majority  of  the 
new  Parliament  elected  at  this  period,  Sir  Robert  was 
compelled  to  resign,  in  April,  1835,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Melbourne.  On  the  resignation  of  Melbourne, 
in  May,  1839,  Sir  Robert  vvas  sent  for  by  the  queen,  but 
he  failed  to  become  prime  minister,  because  he  insisted 
on  the  removal  of  certain  ladies  of  the  bed-chamber. 
The  general  election  of  1841  gave  the  Conservatives  a 
large  majority  in  Parliament.  Lord  Melbourne  resigned 
in  August  of  that  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  In  the  new  cabinet  Lord  Lyndhurst  was  lord 
chancellor.  Lord  Aberdeen  foreign  secretary.  Lord  Stan- 
ley colonial  secretary,  Sir  James  Graham  home  secre- 
tary, and  Lord  Ellenborough  secretary  at  war.  Peel 
himself  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  The  important 
events  of  his  administration  were  the  settlement  of  the 
questions  of  the  corn-laws,  tariff,  and  income-tax.  In 
1842  he  proposed  a  sliding-scale,  according  to  which  the 
duty  on  grain  should  be  reduced  in  proportion  as  the 


«  as  /6;  (  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  yi,pittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PEEL 


1910 


PEL A  GIUS 


price  increased.  This  bill  became  a  law.  He  imposed 
an  income-tax  of  "]({.  in  the  pound  to  supply  the  deficit 
in  the  revenue,  and  passed  a  new  tariff  bill,  by  which 
many  articles  were  admitted  free  and  the  duties  on  others 
were  reduced,  (1842.)  A  powerful  pressure  against  the 
duty  on  breadstuffs  was  produced  by  the  Anti-Corn-Law 
League,  whose  interests  were  advocated  by  Cobden  and 
Bright  in  public  speeches.  The  case  was  rendered  more 
urgent  by  the  potato-rot  in  Ireland  in  1845.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1845,  Sir  Robert  announced  himself  in  favour  of 
the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws;  but  some  of  his  colleagues 
opposed  the  measure.  Peel  then  resigned,  and  Lord 
John  Russell  was  called  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  but  did 
not  succeed.  About  the  20th  of  December,  Sir  Robert 
resumed  office  with  his  former  colleagues,  except  Lord 
Stanley,  who  retired.  The  Tory  party  was  divided  on 
this  question  into  Peelites  and  Protectionists.  By  the 
united  votes  of  the  Peelites  and  Liberals,  the  corn-laws 
"were  repealed,  after  an  eloquent  speech  by  Sir  Robert 
in  favour  of  the  repeal,  in  January,  1846.  Having  been 
defeated  on  the  Irish  Coercion  bill,  he  resigned,  June  29, 
1846,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  John  Russell.  He  had 
acquired  great  popularity,  which  continued  unabated,  and 
he  would  probably  have  been  called  again  to  the  direction 
of  affairs  if  he  had  lived  a  few  years  longer.  On  the 
29th  of  June,  1850,  he  was  thrown  from  his  horse  and  re- 
ceived injuries  of  which  he  died  on  July  2  of  that  year. 

See  Taylor  and  Mack  ay,  "  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Life  and  Times," 
4  vols.,  1846-51;  Thomas  Doubleday,  "The  Political  Life  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,"  2  vols.,  1856;  Kuenzkl,  "Das  Leben  und  die  Reden 
Sir  R.  Peels,"  2  vols.,  1830:  GuizoT,  "Sir  Robert  Peel,"  1859; 
Lawrence  Peel,  "Life  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,"  i860;  see,  also,  his 
posthumous  Memoirs,  edited  by  Lord  MAHONand  Mr.  Cardweil; 
George  H.  Francis,  "  The  Late  Sir  Robert  Peel ;  a  Critical  Biog- 
raphy," 1852;  L.  DB  LoMiiNiE,  "Sir  Robert  Peel,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1842  ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1842,  and  Octo- 
ber, 1846;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1850,  and  Sep- 
tember, 1S60;  "Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843,  and  July, 
1852;  "  Macmillan's  Magazine"  for  1S69,  (by  Goldwin  Smith.) 

Peel,  (Sir  Robert,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1822.  He  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  Tamworth  in  1850,  and  voted  with  the  Liberal 
party.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
admiralty  by  Lord  Palmerston.  Having  resigned  this 
place  in  1857,  he  became  secretary  for  Ireland,  without 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  in  1861.  He  retired  from  that 
office  about  1864,  and  voted  with  the  Tories  against  the 
Reform  bill  in  April,  1866. 

Peel,  (Sir  William,)  a  naval  officer,  born  in  1824, 
was  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  prime  minister. 
He  served  with  distinction  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol, 
in  1855.  As  captain  of  the  naval  brigade,  he  fought 
against  the  Sepoy  mutineers  in  India  in  1857.  Died  at 
Cavvnpore  in  1858. 

Peel,  (William  Yates,)  born  at  Bury  in  1789,  was  a 
son  of  the  first  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  brother  of  the  cele- 
brated statesman.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member  of 
Parliament,  which  he  entered  in  181 7.  He  became  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1830,  and  again  in  1834.    Died  in  1858. 

Peele,  peel,  (Geokge,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Devonshire,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1579.  He  be- 
came a  resident  of  London,  and  had  the  title  of  city 
poet.  His  talent  was  much  inferior  to  that  of  Marlowe. 
Among  his  plays  are  "The  Old  Wives  Tale"  and  "The 
Battle  of  Alcazar."  Died  about  1598.  His  works  were 
published  by  Dyce  in  1828,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life. 

Peerlkamp,  paRl'kimp,  (Hofman  Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Groningen  in  1786.  He 
published  several  biographical  works  in  Latin,  and  valu- 
able editions  of  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  Horace's  "  Odes," 
and  "  Letters  to  Piso."     Died  in  1865. 

Peet,  (Harvey  Prindle,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Litchfield 
county,  Connecticut,  in  1794,  became  president  of  the 
Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  New  York,  (1845.) 
He  published  a  "  Course  of  Instruction,"  "  Scripture  Les- 
sons," and  other  works  for  deaf-mutes.     Died  in  1873. 

Pegase.     See  Pegasus. 

Peg'a-su3,  |Gr.  Tiriyaooq ;  Fr.  P6gaSE,  pi'gtz',]  a 
winged  horse  of  classic  mythology,  was  supposed  to  be 
the  offspring  of  Neptune  and  Medusa.  The  poets  relate 
that  he  carried  Bellerophon  in  his  fight  with  Chimaera, 
that  with  a  stroke  of  his  hoof  he  produced  the  foun- 
tain Hippocrene  on   Mount  Helicon,  that  he  was  the 


favourite  of  the  Muses,  and  that  he  finally  became  a 
constellation  in  the  heavens. 

Pegge,  pSg,  (Samuel,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1 704.  He  obtained  the  living  of  God- 
niersham  in  1731,  and  that  of  Whittington  in  1751.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  Life  of  Robert  Grosseteste,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,"  (1793.)     Died  in  1796. 

Pegge,  (Samuel,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1731.  He  wrote  "Curialia,"  and  "  Anecdotes  of  the 
English  Language."     Died  in  1800. 

Pe'gram,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in  South 
Carolina.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855.  He 
served  in  the  Confederate  army  in  several  battles  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  was  killed  at  Hatcher's  Run,  near  Petersburg, 
February  6,  1865. 

Peignot,  pin'yo',  (  Stienne  Gabriel,  )  a  learned 
French  bibliographer,  born  at  Arc-en-Barrois  in  1767. 
He  was  principal  of  colleges  at  Vesoul  and  Dijon.  He 
wrote  many  antiquarian  treatises,  biographies,  and  works 
on  bibliography.  His  "  Dictionary  of  Bibliology"  ("  Die- 
tionnaire  raisonne  de  Bibliologie,"  2  vols.,  1802)  is  said 
to  be  important.     Died  in  1849. 

Peile,  peel,  (Rev.  Thomas  W.,)  an  English  classical 
scholar,  born  about  1806,  graduated  at  Cambridge.  He 
published  "  Annotations  on  the  Apostolical  Epistles," 
(6  vols.,  1848-52.) 

Peirce,  peerss,  (Benjamin,)  LL.D.,  an  able  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1809,  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1829,  became  tutor  there  in 
1831,  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  in  1833,  and 
Perkins  professor  in  1842.  From  1867  to  1874  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  coast  survey.     Died  Oct.  6,  1880. 

Peirce,  (Bradford  Kinney,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
clergyman,  born  at  Royalton,  Vermont,  February  3,  1819. 
lie  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1841,  and  be- 
came prominent  as  a  preacher,  editor,  and  philanthro- 
pist. Among  his  books  are  "The  Eminent  Dead," 
"Trials  of  an  Inventor,"  "  Half-Century  with  Juvenile 
Delinquents,"  "The  Young  Shetlander,"  etc. 

Peirce,  (Cyrus,)  an  American  teacher,  born  at  Walt- 
ham,  Massachusetts,  in  1790,  became  principal  of  the 
first  American  normal  school,  founded  at  Lexington, 
Massachusetts,  in  1839.  He  published  an  essay  entitled 
"  Crime  :  its  Cause  and  Cure,"  and  a  "  Letter  on  Normal 
Schools."     Died  in  1859. 

Peirce,  peerss,  (James,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  London  in  1673.  He  published  ser- 
mons and  controversial  works.     Died  in  1726. 

Peiresc,  de,  deh  pi'r^sk',  (Nicolas  Claude  Fabri 
— fi'bRe',)  an  eminent  French  antiquary,  scholar,  and 
patron  of  learning,  was  born  at  Beaugensier,  in  Provence, 
in  1580.  He  studied  law  at  Padua,  and  became  a  coun- 
sellor of  the  parliament  of  Aix.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Gassendi.  In  visits  to  Italy,  England,  etc.,  he 
collected  many  books,  medals,  and  si)ecimens  of  nature 
and  art,  which  he  freely  distributed  to  his  friends.  He 
maintained  an  active  correspondence  with  many  French 
and  foreign  savants.  He  wrote  to  his  friends  at  Rome 
in  favour  of  Galileo  when  the  latter  was  in  prison. 
Many  of  his  letters  have  been  published.  It  was  at 
Peiresc's  suggestion  that  Grotius  wrote  his  work  "De 
Jure  Belli  et  Pacis."     Died  at  Aix  in  1637. 

See  Gassendi,  "Vita  N.  C.  F.  de  Peiresc,"  1641 ;  Requibr 
"Vie  de  Peiresc,"  1770;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Peirithous.     See  Pirithous. 

Peirouse.     See  La  Peyrouse. 

Peisander.     See  Pisander. 

Peisistratus.     See  Pisistratus. 

Pe'kah,  [Heb.  np3,]  King  of  Israel,  usurped  the 
throne  in  758  B.C.  In  alliance  with  the  King  of  Syria, 
he  waged  war  against  Jotham  and  Ahaz,  Kings  of  Judah. 
He  was  killed  by  Hosea  in  738  or  739. 

Pek-a-hi'ah,  [Heb.  TTTIDi),]  King  of  Israel,  began  to 
reign  about  760  B.C.      He  was  killed  by  Pekah,  760  B.C. 

Pelage.     See  Pelagius. 

Pe-la'gl-us,  [Gr.  IleAayfOf;  Fr.  Pelage,  pi'lizh',]  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Pelagians,  or  rather  the  chief 
advocate  of  a  system  of  doctrines  called  Pelagianism, 
was  born  probably  in  Britain.  He  began  to  propagate 
his  doctrines  at  Rome  about  400  A.D.,  and  formed  a 
friendship  with  Celestius,  who  became  his  ardent  discipie. 


4,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  7,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,. short;  a,  ^,  i,  g,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PELAGIUS 


1911 


PELISSIER 


He  was  an  admirer  of  Origen,  and  an  adversary  of  Saint 
Augustine  in  relation  to  grace  and  election.  Pelagius 
rejected  the  dogmas  of  original  sin  and  absolute  predes- 
tination. Me  maintained  that  the  effects  of  Adam's  firsi 
sin  were  confined  to  himself,  and  that  man's  salvation 
depends  on  his  own  exertions.  He  was  condemned  by 
several  councils,  and  was  banished  from  Italy  in  418. 
The  eminent  purity  of  his  life  was  freely  admitted  by 
his  opponents.  A  system  called  Semi-Pelagianism  pre- 
vailed widely  in  the  middle  ages,  and  has  many  adherents 
at  the  present  day.  As  the  numerous  works  of  Pelagius 
are  nearly  all  lost,  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  exactly  what 
doctrines  he  taught.  His  adversaries  complained  of 
the  haze  of  subtle  dialectics  with  which  he  involved 
every  subject  of  dispute.  Among  his  extant  works  is  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul." 

See  NoRRis,  "  Historia  Pelasjiana ;"  L.  Patouii.let,  "Vie  de 
Pelage,"  1751  ;  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Saint 
Augustine,  "  De  Gratia  Cliristi"  and  "  De  Peccato  Original! ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Pe-la'gI-U3  [Fr.  P6lage,  pi'ltzh']  I.,  a  native  of 
Rome,  became  pope  in  555  a.d.,  after  the  death  of 
Vigilius.  He  died  in  559  or  560,  and  was  succeeded  by 
John  HI. 

Pelagius  II.,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  born  about 
520.  He  succeeded  Benedict  I.  in  578  a.d.  He  died 
in  590,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  the  Great. 

Pe-la'gi-us  or  Pelayo,  pi-li'yo,  [Fr.  P6lage,  pi'- 
itzh',]  King  of  Asturias,  was  a  descendant  of  the  Gothic 
kings  of  Spain.  He  fought  with  success  about  718  A.D. 
against  the  Moors,  who  had  conquered  the  greater  part 
of  Spain,  and  founded  a  small  kingdom,  which  he  left 
to  his  son-in-law,  Alfonso.     Died  about  738  A.D. 

Pelasgue.     See  Pei.asgus. 

Pe-Ias'gus,  [Gr.  IlfAacryof ;  Fr.  PELASGUE,  pi'ltsg',] 
a  mythical  personage,  supposed  to  have  been  the  ances- 
tor of  the  Pelasgi,  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece. 

Pelavicino.     See  Pallavicini. 

Pelayo.     See  Pelagius,  (of  Asturias.) 

Pelee.     See  Peleus. 

Pelet,  peh-li',  (Jean  Jacques  Germain,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1778.  He 
served  with  distinction  as  aide-de-camp  of  Massena  in 
Italy,  Austria,  and  Portugal,  (1805-12,)  and  commanded 
a  brigade  at  Waterloo.  In  1830  he  became  a  lieutenant- 
general.  He  was  a])pointed  a  senator  in  1S52.  He 
published  "  Memoirs  of  the  War  of  1809,"  (4  vols.,  1S24,) 
and  other  able  military  works.     Died  in  1858. 

Pelet  de  la  Lozere,  peh-li'  deh  It  lo'zain',  (Jean,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  legislator,  born  at  Saint-Jean-du-Gard 
in  1759,  was  distinguished  for  his  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion. He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  (by  seventy-one  de- 
partments) in  1795.  During  the  empire  he  was  coun- 
cillor of  state.     Died  in  1842. 

His  son,  Privat  Joseph  Claramond,  born  in  1785, 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1827.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  an  orator  of  the  Left  Centre. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  in  1840.     Died  in  1871. 

Peletier,  pel-te-i',  sometimes  written  Pelletier, 
(Jacques,)  a  poet  and  mathematician,  born  at  Mans,  in 
France,  in  1517.  He  lived  at  many  places,  and  followed 
various  pursuits.  In  1572  he  became  principal  of  the 
College  of  Mans.  He  translated  Horace's  "De  Arte 
Poetica"  into  verse,  (1544,)  and  wrote  original  poems 
of  some  merit.     Died  in  1582. 

Peletier,  Le,  leh  pel-te-i',  (Claude,)  a  French  magis- 
trate, born  in  Paris  in  1630  or  1631.  He  was  provost  of 
the  merchants  in  1668,  and  constructed  the  quai  in  Paris 
which  bears  his  name.  In  1683  he  succeeded  Colbert 
as  controller-general  of  finance.  He  found  himself 
unequal  to  the  task  of  raising  funds  for  a  long  war,  and 
resigned  in  1689.  Voltaire  calls  him  a  good  and  just 
man.     Died  in  171 1. 

Peletier  de  Sousi,  Le,  leh  pel-te-i'  deh  soo'ze', 
(Michel,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1640.  He  spoke  many  languages,  ancient  and  modern, 
and  wrote  memoirs  on  medals  and  inscriptions.  He 
served  as  intendant  of  finance  from  1683  to  1701,  and 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency  at  the 
death'of  Louis  XIV,     Died  in  1725. 

Peleus,  pee'lus  or  pee'le^s,  [Gr.  '^n'k.Evq  ;  Fr.  PiSi.^k. 


pi'li',]  King  of  Thessaly,  was  a  son  of  ^Eacus,  and 
married  the  sea-nymph  Thetis,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Achilles.  The  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis 
is  said  to  have  been  attended  by  ^11  the  gods  and  god- 
desses except  Discord.  According  to  tradition,  he  took 
part  in  the  Argonautic  ex])edition,  but  was  prevented 
by  his  great  age  from  joining  in  the  siege  of  Troy. 

Pe'leus,  [Fr.  Pilieu,  pe'le-uh',]  (Julien,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  at  Angers.  He  was  aj^pointed  councillor 
of  state  and  historiographer  by  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a 
"History  of  Henry  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1616.)  Died 
about  1625. 

Pelhani.     See  Newcastle,,  Duke  of. 

Pelham,  p§Kam,  (Henry,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1694,  was  a  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle. 
He  became  paymaster  of  the  army  in  1730,  and  an  op- 
ponent of  Walpole.  On  the  defeat  of  Walpole,  in  1742, 
he  obtained  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  A 
rivalry  between  him  and  Lord  Carteret  resulted  in  the 
removal  of  the  latter  in  1743  or  1744,  after  which  Pelham 
and  his  brother  were  the  chief  ministers  until  1754. 
"Henry  Pelham,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  by  no  means  a 
contemptible  person.  His  understanding  was  that  of 
Walpole  on  a  somewhat  smaller  scale.  Though  not  a 
brilliant  orator,  he  was,  like  his  master,  a  good  debater, 
a  good  parliamentary  tactician,  a  good  man  of  business. 
,  .  .  For  the  first  time  since  the  accession  of  the  Stuarts, 
there  was  no  opposition."     Died  in  1754. 

See  Macaulav's  Review  of  "  Walpole's  Letters  to  Sir  Horace 
Mann,"  1833;  Wii.i.iam  Coxe,  "Memoirs  of  the  Administration  of 
the  Rt.  Hon.  Henry  Pelham,"  2  vols.,  1829. 

Pelham,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Chichester,  was  born  in 
or  near  London  in  1756.  He  was  elected  about  1780  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  which  he  voted  with  the 
Tories.  He  was  home  secretary  from  April,  1801,  to 
1803,  and  inherited  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chichester  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1805.     Died  in  1826. 

Pelhestre,  peh-15stR',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Rouen  in  1635  ;  died  in 
1710. 

Pe-li'a-des,  (singular,  Pe'li-as,)  a  name  applied  to 
the  daughters  of  Pelias,  which  see. 

Pe'li-as,  [Gr.  XVeXiaq;  Fr.  P6lias,  pi'le'ts',]  a  son 
of  Neptune  and  Tyro  or  of  Cretheus  and  Tyro,  was  a 
brother  of  Neleus.  He  usurped  the  throne  of  lolcos 
from  ^son,  a  son  of  Cretheus,  and  sent  Jason  to  Col- 
chis to  bring  the  golden  fleece.  He  was  the  father  of 
Acastus,  Alcestis,  and  several  other  daughters.  The 
poets  relate  that  Pelias  was  cut  to  pieces  by  his  daugh- 
ters, called  Peliades,  at  the  instigation  of  Medea,  who 
promised  to  restore  him  to  youth. 

Pelides.    See  Achilles. 

Peligot,  pi'le'go',  (EucfeNE  Melchior,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  in 
1841,  and  commander  in  the  legion  of  honour  in  1878. 

Pelissier,  pi'le'se-i',  (Amahle  Jean  Jacques,)  Duo 
de  Malakoflf,  (deh  mt'lfkof',)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Maromme  (Seine-Inferieure)  in  1794.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1815,  and  served  as  aide-de-camp  of  General 
Durrieu  in  the  Morea  in  1828-29.  About  the  end  of 
1839  he  was  sent,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  to 
Algeria,  where  he  took  part  in  many  actions.  He  com- 
manded the  left  wing  at  Isly,  in  1844,  and  in  1845  fi'^ed 
an  indelible  stain  upon  his  memory  by  suffocating  a  party 
of  Arabs  in  a  cavern,  at  the  mouth  of  which  he  ordered 
a  large  fire  to  be  built.  In  1850  he  became  a  general  of 
division.  He  was  Governor-General  of  Algeria  admterim 
in  1S51.  In  January,  1855,  he  was  ordered  to  the  Crimea, 
to  command  the  first  corps  of  the  army  which  co-operated 
with  the  British  in  the' siege  of  Sebastopol.  He  suc- 
ceeded Canrobert  as  general-in-chief  on  the  i6th  of  May, 
1855.  A  victory  was  gained  by  the  allies  on  the  Tcher- 
naia  in  August,  and  the  French  carried  by  storm  the 
fort  of  Matakoff  on  the  8th  of  September.  For  this 
success  Pelissier  received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1855,  and 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Malakoff  in  1856.  He  was  ambas- 
sador to  England  in  1858,  and  during  the  war  in  Italy 
in  1859  he  commanded  the  army  of  observation  which 
defended  the  eastern  frontier.  In  November,  1S60,  he 
became  Governor-General  of  Algeria.     Died  in  1864. 


•p  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (iJ:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PELISSON 


1912 


PELLICER 


Pelisson.    See  Pei.lisson. 

Pell,  (John.)  an  eminent  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Sussex  in  1610,  studied  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford. 
He  became  professor  at  Amsterdam  in  1643,  and  was 
sent  by  Cromwell  as  agent  to  the  Protestant  Swiss 
cantons  in  1654.  Me  returned  home  in  1658,  became 
rector  of  Fobbing,  Essex,  in  1661,  and  rector  of  Laing- 
don  in  1673.  He  published  a  refutation  of  Longomon- 
tanus's  discourse  "On  the  True  Measure  of  the  Circle," 
("De  vera  Circuli  Mensura,"  1644,)  an  "Idea  of  the 
Mathematics,"  and  other  works.  It  was  to  Pell  that 
Newton  first  explained  his  invention  of  fluxions.  Died 
in  1685. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathdmatiques." 

Pellat,  pi'ia',  (Chari.es  Auguste,)  an  able  Fiench 
jurist,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1793.  He  obtained  the  chair 
of  Pandects  in  Paris  in  1829,  and  published  several  suc- 
cessful works  on  Roman  law.      Died  Nov.  14,  1871. 

Pellegrin,  p5rgRiN',(SiM0N  Joseph,)  Abb6,  a  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1663.  He 
gained  a  prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  poetry  in 
1 704.  His  best  works  are  "  The  New  World,"  a  comedy, 
(1723,)  and  "  Pelopee,"  a  tragedy,  (1733,)  which  were  suc- 
cessful.    Died  at  Paris  in  1745- 

Pellegrini,  p^l-li-gree'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Venice  in  1675.  He  worked 
in  England  and  Paris,  and  settled  at  Venice.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "The  Brazen  Serpent."  "  He  was 
ingenious,"  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "and 
pa'inted  with  great  facility."     Died  in  1741. 

Pellegrini,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Rome,  August  11,  1812,  was  created  a  cardinal-deacon 
in  1877.     Died  in  1887. 

Pellegrini,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Capua  in  1598.  He  spent  much  time  in  collecting  an- 
cient documents  for  the  history  of  Italy,  and  published 
a  valuable  "  History  of  the  Princes  of  Lombardy," 
("  Historia  Principum  Longobardorum,"  1643.)  Died 
in  1663. 

Pellegrini,  (Domenico,)  an  architect  and  engraver, 
born  in  1541,  was  a  brother  of  Pellegrino,  noticed  below. 
He  designed  the  palace  de  Magnani  at  Bologna,  and 
other  fine  edifices  of  that  city.  His  etchings  are  prized 
by  amateurs.     Died  in  1582. 

Pellegrini,  (Giuseppe  Luigi,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Verona  in  17 18,  was  distinguished  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  He  published  "  Latin  and  Italian  Poems," 
("  Poesie  Latine  ed  Italiane,"  1791.)     Died  in  1799. 

Pellegrini,  (Pellegrino,)  called  also  Tibaldi,  te- 
bSl'dee,  an  eminent  painter  and  architect,  born  in  the 
Milanese  in  1527.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  appears  to 
have  taken  Michael  Angelo  as  his  model.  He  acquired 
a  grandeur  of  style  which  was  less  extravagaiit  than  that 
of  Michael  Angelo.  Among  his  best  paintings  are  the 
frescos  in  the  Poggi  Chapel,  representing  John  the  Ba])- 
tist  baptizing,  and  other  subjects.  He  was  appointed  in 
1570  chief  architect  of  the  Duomo  (cathedral)  of  Milan, 
and  designed  the  facade  of  that  great  Gothic  structure, 
which  was  commenced  about  1387.  His  design  was 
censured  by  many  artists,  but  was  partially  executed. 
He  worked  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  the  Escurial,  both 
as  painter  and  architect.  He  died  at  Milan  about  1595 
or  1600. 

See  Zanotti,"  Vita  di  Tibaldi;"  VASAKi,"Livesof  the  Painters;" 
QuATREMfeRE  DK  QuiNCV,  "  Dictioiinaire  d' Architecture." 

Pelleport,  p^l'poR',  (Pierre,)  Vicomte,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Haute-Garonne  in  1773.  He  fought  at 
Jena,  (1806,)  at  Eylau,  (1807,)  obtained  the  rank  of 
colonel  at  Essling,  and  the  title  of  baron  at  Wagram, 
(1809.)     Died  in  1855. 

Pellerin,  p§l'rS.N',  (Joseph,)  a  French  numismatist 
and  linguist,  born  near  Versailles  in  1684.  He  became 
commissioner  of  the  navy  in  1718,  and  chief  clerk  some 
years  later.  He  formed  a  cabinet  of  32,500  medals, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  richest  that  ever  belonged 
to  a  private  person,  and  published  a  description  of  them, 
entitled  "  Collection  of  Medals  of  Kings,  Nations,  and 
Cities,"  ("  Recueil  de  Medailles  de  Rois,  Peuples  et 
Villes,"  10  vols.,  1762-78.)  He  adopted  an  improved 
Bystem  of  classification.     Died  in  1782. 


Pellet,  pi'iy,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  poet  and 
advocate,  born  at  Epinal  in  1782  ;  died  in  1830. 

Pelletan,  p61't6N',  (Eugene,)  an  able  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Charente-Inferieure  in  1813.  His  father 
was  a  Protestant  minister.  He  was  connected  with  the 
"  Presse"  and  other  paper-s,  and  wrote  a  number  of  pop- 
ular works,  among  which  are  "The  Profession  of  Faith 
of  the  Nineteenth  Centurv,"  (1853,)  "The  Pastor  of  the 
Desert,"  (1855,)  "The  New  Babylon,"  (1862,)  and 
"  Eli.see,"  (1877.)  He  was  elected  to  the  corps  legislatif 
in  1869,  became  a  member  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment in  September,  1870,  and  a  senator  in  1876.  Died 
in  1884. 

Pelletan,  (Philippe  Jean,)  a  French  surgeon  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  suc- 
ceeded Desault  as  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  Hotel-Dieu 
in  Paris,  and  was  consulting  surgeon  to  Napoleon  I. 
He  lectured  in  Paris  about  thirty  years,  with  such  elo- 
quence that  he  was  called  the  "  Chrysostom  of  surgeons.' 
Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Biographie  M^dicale ;"  Qu^rakd,  "  La  France  Litteraire;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Genirale." 

Pelletan,  (Pierre,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  17S2,  and  was  a  distinguished  physician.  He 
became  professor  o{  physique  medicale  at  Paris  in  1823 
In  1843  he  resigned  this  chair.  He  published  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Medical  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1823.)  Died 
in  1846. 

Pelletier.    See  Peletier,  Le,  (Claude.) 

Pelletier,  pSl'te-i',  (Bertrand,)  an  eminent  French 
chemist,  born  at  Bayonne  in  1761.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  in  1795, 
and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  wrote  for  the  "  An- 
nales  de  Chimie,"  and  made  some  important  discoveries. 
"  He  showed  himself  a  man  of  genius,"  says  Fournier- 
Pescay,  "  in  his  researches  on  phosphorus  and  on  its 
combinations  with  metals."  Died  in  1797.  His  col- 
lected works  were  published,  under  the  title  of  "Me- 
moirs and  Observations,"  (2  vols.,)  in  1798. 

Pelletier,  pSl'te-i,  (Caspar,)  a  Dutch  physician  and 
botanist,  was  born  at  Middelburg  ;  died  in  1659. 

Pelletier,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Eclaron  (Haute-Marne)  in  1777.  He  became  general 
of  brigade  in  1809,  obtained  command  of  the  artillery, 
and  served  with  credit  at  Moskvva,  (1812.)  Died  in 
1862. 

Pelletier,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  chemist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1788,  was  a  son  of  Bertrand,  noticed  above.  He  dis- 
played a  rare  talent  for  observation  and  analysis,  and 
discovered  several  vegetable  salifiable  bases.  The  im- 
portant discovery  of  quinine  (1820)  was  made  by  Pelle- 
tier and  Caventou,  who  was  his  associate.  For  this 
service  the  Academy  of  Sciences  gave  him  a  prize  of 
ten  thousand  francs  in  1S27.  He  published  a  "Memoir 
on  Quinine,"  (1821,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1842. 

Pelletier,  Le,  (Jean.)     See  Lepelletier. 

Pellew,  (Edward.)     See  Exmouth,  Lord. 

Pel'lew,  (George,)  D.D.,  a  younger  son  of  Lord 
Exmouth,  was  born  in  1793.  He  became  Dean  of  Nor- 
wich in  1828.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Seven  Ages 
of  a  Christian  Life,"  (1855.)      Died  October  13,  1866. 

Pellican,  peKle-kin',  [  Lat.  Pellica'nus;  Ger. 
KiJRSCHNER,  kiiRsh'ner,]  (Conrad,)  a  learned  Reformer 
and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Ruffach,  in  Alsace,  in  1478. 
He  took  the  monastic  vows,  learned  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  and  became  superior  of  the  convent  at  Ruffach 
about  1517.  Having  been  converted  to  the  doctrines 
of  Luther,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Zurich  in  1526.  He  was  intimate  with  Erasmus.  Among 
his  works  are  Latin  Commentaries  on  the  Bible,  (5  vols, 
fol.,  1534-38,)  which  are  highly  esteemed.  "Pellican," 
says  Richard  Simon,  "is  more  exact  than  the  other 
Protestants.  ...  He  aimed  to  be  useful  to  his  readers 
rather  than  to  display  his  raM/«i?^fif."  He  also  pubiishec 
a  Hebrew  Grammar.     Died  in  1556. 

See  "  Chronicon  Vitas  ipsius  ab  ipso  con  script  urn,"  inserted  in 
Melchior  Adam's  "Vitae  Theolosorum  Germanorum  ;"  Johanm 
Fabricius,  "Oratio  historica  de  Vita  C.  Pellicani,"  1608:  Salomon 
Hess,  "  C.  Pellicans  Jugendgeschichte,"  1795. 

Pellicanus.     See  Pellican. 

Pellicer,    p?l-ye-thaiR',    (Jos6    de    Ossau — di   os- 


i,  e,  1, 0, 11,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a.  e,  i,  6,  li,  y, short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mft;  nfit;  gd&d;  md&n; 


PELLICER 


1913 


PEMBERTON 


sow',]  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1602; 
died  in  1679. 

Pellicer,  (Juan  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  antiquary,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1738.  He  wrote  "  Ensayo  de  una  Bibli- 
oteca  de  Traductores  Espaiioles,"  ("Library  of  Spanish 
Translations,"  1778,)  and  published  a  good  edition  of 
"Don  Quixote,"  (1797.)     Died  in  1806. 

Pellicier  or  Pellissier,  pi'le'se-i',  (Guillaume,)  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Languedoc  about  1490. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Montpellier,  and  was  employed 
in  important  missions  by  Francis  I.  His  vast  erudition 
is  extolled  by  De  Thou  and  Turnebus.    Died  in  1568. 

Pellico,  pel'le-ko,  (Silvio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Saluzzo,  Piedmont,  in  1788,  He  became  in  1810  teacher 
of  French  in  a  college  of  Milan,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Ugo  Foscolo  and  Monti.  He  pro- 
duced "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  a  tragedy,  which  was 
performed  with  great  applause.  In  Milan  he  became 
acquainted  with  Lord  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael,  and 
Lord  I'rougham.  He  was  the  princijjal  founder  of  "  II 
Conciliatore,"  a  literary  periodical,  first  issued  in  1818, 
which  was  quickly  suppressed  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment. In  October,  1820,  he  was  arrested  as  a  member 
of  a  secret  society,  and  in  1822  was  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  fifteen  years  carcere  duro.  He  was  con- 
fined in  the  citadel  of  Spielberg,  at  Briinn,  in  Moravia, 
until  August,  1830,  and  then  released.  He  afterwards 
wrote  a  narrative  of  his  sufferings,  entitled  "  My  Prisons," 
("  Le  mie  Prigioni,"  1831.)  which  excited  great  sympathy 
and  was  translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
His  prose  treatise  "  On  the  Duties  of  Man"  is  praised 
for  its  good  morality.     Died  at  Turin  in  1854. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "  M.  S.  Pellico,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,' 
1842  ;  V.  Chiala,  "  Vita  di  S.  Pellico."  1S52  ;  "  Nouvelle  Riographie 
Gen^rale  ;"  Longpri.i.ow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and  October,  1S33. 

Pellisson,  pi'le's6N',  or  Pellisson-Fontanier,  \>\'- 
Ic'sAn'  fAN'ti'ne-4',  (Paul,)  a  French  author,  born, 
of  Protestant  parents,  at  Beziers  in  1624.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  French  Academy,"  (1653,)  which  ob- 
tained such  success  that  this  society  nominated  him  a 
titular  member  and  voted  that  he  should  be  admitted 
to  the  first  vacant  seat.  In  1657  he  became  chief  clerk 
of  Fouquet,  minister  of  finance.  He  was  confined  for 
four  years  (1661-65)  in  the  Bastille  on  account  of  his 
connection  with  Foucjuet.  Having  been  selected  by 
Louis  XIV.  to  write  the  history  of  his  reign,  he  abjured 
Protestantism  in  1670,  entered  into  holy  orders,  and 
obtained  several  benefices.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Louis  XIV.,"  (3  vols.,  1749,)  and  other  works.  His 
writings  were  more  admired  in  his  own  time  than  at 
present.     Died  in  1693. 

See  FitNELON,  "  £loge  de  Pellisson;"  Voltaire,  "  Siicle  de 
Louis  XIV." 

Pelloutier,  pi'loo'te-i',  (Simon,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1694.  He  became  minister  of  a  Prot- 
estant church  at  Berlin  in  1725,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  that  city  in  1743.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Celts,  Gauls,  and  Germans 
from  Fabulous  Yimes  to  the  Capture  of  Rome  by  the 
Gauls,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1740-50,)  which,  says  the 
"Journal  des  Savants,"  "is  extremely  curious  and  agree- 
able."    Died  at  Berlin  in  1757. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Pe-lop'I-das,  [  Gr.  Y\.iK.o-;ii6aq,  J  an  eminent  Theban 
statesman  and  general,  was  a  son  of  Ilippoclus.  He 
inherited  a  large  fortune,  of  which  he  made  a  liberal 
use,  and  became  an  intimate  and  constant  friend  of 
Epaminondas,  who  saved  his  life  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea,  (385  i!.c.)  As  a  leader  of  the  popular  party,  he 
went  into  exile  when  the  Spartans  made  themselves 
masters  of  Thebes,  in  382.  He  was  the  master-spirit  of 
the  small  band  of  patriots  who  surprised  by  night  and 
expelled  the  Spartans  and  aristocrats  from  Thebes  in 
379  B.C.  "It  is  not  easy,"  says  Plutarch,  "to  find  an 
instance  so  remarkable  of  the  few  overcoming  the  many, 
merely  by  courage  and  conduct.  .  .  .  The  war  which 
humbled  the  pride  of  the  Spartans  and  deprived  them 
of  empire  took  its  rise  from  that  night."  Pelopidas  was 
chosen  general-in-chief,  and  in  375  gained  at  Tegyrae  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Spartans,  who  then  lost  their 


prestige  of  invincibility.  He  was  captain  of  the  Sacred 
band  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  where  he  gained  as  much 
honour,  says  Plutarch,  as  Epaminondas,  the  commander- 
in-chief.  In  369  B.C.  Pelopidas  and  his  friend  com- 
manded jointly  an  army  which  entered  Peloponnesus, 
forced  Argos  and  Arcadia  to  renounce  the  alliance  of 
the  Spartans,  and  ravaged  a  large  part  of  Laconia  in  a 
winter  campaign.  (See  Epaminondas.)  He  acted  as 
mediator  between  two  sons  of  Amyntas,  King  of  Mace- 
don,  and  carried  as  a  hostage  to  Thebes  another  prince, 
who  was  afterwards  famous  as  Philip  of  Macedon.  Having 
been  sent  as  ambassador  to  Persia  in  367,  he  was  re- 
ceived with  great  honour  by  the  king  and  courtiers,  who 
said,  "This  is  the  man  who  deprived  the  Spartans  of 
the  empire  of  the  sea  and  land ;"  and  he  induced  Ar- 
taxerxes  to  recognize  the  liberty  of  all  the  Greek  states. 
He  commanded  an  expedition  against  Alexander,  tyrant 
of  Phera:,  in  a  battle  with  whom  he  was  killed  in  364  B.C., 
as  he  too  rashly  urged  the  retreating  enemy. 

See  "  Life  of  Pelopidas,"  by  Plutarch,  who  compares  him  to 
Marcellus,  and  says  that  Pelopidas  was  "inclined  to  every  virtue  ;" 
Cornelius  Nepos,  "Pelopidas;"  Thirlwall,"  History  of  Greece." 

Pe'lops,  [Gr.  Ile/loi/;;  Fr.  P^lops,  pi'lops',]  a demi-god 
of  Greek  mythology,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Tanta- 
lus, a  grandson  of  Jupiter,  and  a  king  of  Pisa.  Among 
his  children  were  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  whose  mother 
was  Hippodami'a,  a  daughter  of  CEnomaus.  (SeeCENO- 
MAUS.)  The  poets  relate  that  Tantalus  once  entertained 
the  gods  at  his  house,  and  offered  them  the  flesh  of 
Pelops,  whom  he  killed  and  boiled,  that  all  the  guests 
refused  to  partake  of  that  dish,  except  Ceres,  who  ate 
one  shoulder,  and  that  Pelops  was  restored  to  life  by 
Mercury,  with  an  ivory  shoulder  in  place  of  that  which 
was  devoured.  Tradition  adds  that  during  the  siege  of 
Troy  an  oracle  declared  that  this  city  could  not  be  taken 
unless  one  of  the  bones  of  Pelops  was  brought  to  the 
camp  of  the  Greeks,  According  to  another  legend,  the 
Palladium  at  Troy  was  made  of  the  bones  of  Pelops, 
The  southern  peninsula  of  Greece  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  from  him  the  name  Peloponnesus,  (or  "island 
of  Pelops.") 

Pelouze,  peh-looz',  (ThiIophile  Jules,)  a  French 
cheinist,  born  at  Valognes  (Manche)  in  1807,  was  a  pupil 
of  Gay-Lussac.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  chemistry  at 
Lille  in  1830,  soon  after  which  he  became  the  assistant 
(sHppleant)  of  Gay-Lussac  in  the  Polytechnic  School. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1837,  and  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  Commission  des  Monnaies  (or 
director  of  the  Mint)  in  1848.  His  labours  and  memoirs 
place  him  in  the  first  rank  of  contemporary  chemist.s 
Pelouze  and  Fremy  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Cheni 
istry,"  (6  vols.,  1853-56.)     Died  in  1867. 

Pels,  pSls,  (Andreas,)  a  Dutch  poet,  who  founded  a 
school  or  literary  society  which  favoured  the  imitation 
of  French  models.  He  wrote  "The  Death  of  Dido,"  a 
tragedy,  (1668,)  and  translated  into  Dutch  verse  Horace's 
"Art  of  Poetry,"  (1667.)     Died  in  16S1. 

Peltau,  de,  deh  pSKtin,  or  Pelte,  pel'teh,  [Lat.  Pel- 
ta'nus,]  (Theodore  Antoine,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Pelte.  He  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Book  of 
Proverbs,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1584. 

Peltaiius.     See  Peltan. 

Peltier,  pSl'te-a',  or  Pelletier,  (Jean  Gabriel,)  a 
French  journal ist^born  at  Nantes,  lie  began  to  issue 
in  London,  in  1800,  "  L'Ambigu,"  in  which  he  attacked 
Bonaparte  with  virulence.  He  was  tried  for  libel  in 
1803,  was  defended  in  a  famous  speech  by  Sir  James 
Mackintosh,  and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  small  fine. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1S25. 

Peliise,  de,  Comte.     See  Monge. 

Pelzel,  pSlt'sel,  (Frans  Martin,)  a  Bohemian  his- 
torian,  born  at  Reichenau  in  1735,  wrote  a  "History 
of  Bohemia,"  (1774,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1801. 

Peni'ber-ton,  (Ebenezer,)  an  able  American  divine, 
born  about  1672,  preached  in  Boston.     Died  in  1717. 

Pemberton,  (Ebenezer,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
teacher,  born  in  1746.  He  was  tutor  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege, and  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Massachusetts. 
Died  in  Boston  in  1S35. 

Pem'b^r-tpn,  (Henry,)  an  English  chemist,  anat- 
omist, and  geometer,  born  in  London    in  1694,  was  a 


«  as /i,'  9 as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h,  T/i,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( li^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PEMBERTON 


1914 


PENN 


pupil  and  friend  of  Boerhaave.  He  became  a  professor 
of  physic  in  Gresham  College,  (Oxford,)  where  he-  gave 
lectures  on  chemistry,  (published  in  1771.)  Among  his 
works  are  a  "  View  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Philosophy," 
(1728,)  and  "Lectures  on  Physiology,"  (1733.)  He 
edited  Newton's  "  Principia,"  (1726.)     Died  in  1771. 

Pemberton,  (John  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1837.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  be- 
came a  captain,  and  resigned  his  commission  in  April, 
1861.  Having  taken  arms  against  the  Union,  he  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  commanded 
at  Vicksburg  during  the  long  siege  of  that  place.  He 
w.is  defeated  by  General  Grant  at  Champion  Hill,  May 
16,  and  retired  to  Vicksburg,  which  he  surrendered,  with 
more  than  25,000  prisoners,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1863. 
He  died  near  Philadelphia.  July  13,  1881. 

Pemberton,  (T.  Eugar,)  an  English  novelist,  born 
at  Birmingham  Heath,  July  i,  1849.  ^^  inherited  ex- 
tensive business  interests.  He  has  published  "Charles 
Lysaght,"  (1873,)  "  Under  Pressure,"  (1874,)  "  Dickens's 
London,"  (1875,)  "  A  Very  Old  Question,"  (1877,)  "  Born 
to  Blush  Unseen,"  (1879,)  and  a  number  of  farces. 

Pemble,  pem'bel,  (William,)  a  learned  English  Cal- 
vinistic  minister,  born  in  Kent  about  1590-  H'S  works 
were  published  in  1635.     Died  in  1623. 

Pembroke,  (Anne,)  Countess  of.     See  Clifford. 

Pembroke,  Eakl  of.     See  Herbert. 

Pembroke,  (Mary,)  Countess  of.  See  Sidney. 
(Mary.) 

Pembroke,  pem' brook,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
painter,  born  in  1702;  died  in  1730. 

Pena,  peh-nd',  (Pierkk,)  a  French  botanist  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Narbonne,  or  in  the 
diocese  of  Aix.  He  was  intimate  with  Lobel,  to  whom 
he  furnished  materials  for  his  work. 

Penalosa,  de,  di  pin-yi-lo'si,  (Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Baeza  in  1581  ;  died  in  1636. 

Pe-na'tes,  [Fr.  Penates,  pi'ntt',]  the  household 
gods  of  the  Romans,  so  called,  probably,  because  their 
images  were  kept  in  the  penetralia,  the  innermost  part 
or  centre  of  the  house.  The  number  of  these  gods  or 
genii  was  indefinite.  The  Lares  were  included  among 
the  Penates,  and  were  sometimes  represented  as  iden- 
tical with  them.  Vesta  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
Penates,  which,  according  to  some  authors,  were  per- 
sonifications of  the  powers  of  nature. 

Penaud,  peh-no',  (Charles.)  a  French  rear-admiral 
born  in  1800,  commanded  the  squadron  which  operated 
against  Russia  in  the  Baltic  in  1855.     Died  in  1864. 

Pencz  orPentz,  pfints,  written  also  Pens  and  Peins, 
(Gregor,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  was  born 
at  Nuremberg  about  1500.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  a  "Crucifixion,"  in  the  gallery  at  Augsburg,  and  a 
"Judith,"  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  His  engravings 
are  numerous  and  of  great  merit.     Died  about  1554. 

Pen'der,  (William  D.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  North  Carolina,  graduated  at  West  Point  about  1854. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Lee's  army  at  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  where  he  was  killed,  July  3,  1S63. 

Pendleton,  pen'del-ton,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent 
American  statesman  and  judge,  born  in  Virginia  in  1721. 
He  was  elected  to  the  General.  Congress  in  1774  and  in 
1775.  In  1776  he  was  president  of  the  Virginia  Con- 
vention, and  was  the  author  of  the  resolutions  by  which 
that  body  instructed  their  delegates  in  Congress  to  vote 
for  a  declaration  of  independence.  He  was  appointed 
presiding  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  about  1779.  He 
was  president  of  the  convention  which  met  in  Virginia 
in  1788  to  consider  the  new  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  he  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  same.  His 
ability  as  a  debater  was  highly  extolled  by  Thomas 
Jefferson.     Died  at  Richmond  in  1803. 

Pendleton,  (George  H.,)  an  American  politician,  a 
son  of  Nathaniel  Greene  Pendleton,  formerly  a  member 
of  Congress,  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  July,  1825. 
He  became  a  lawyer,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Senate  of  Ohio  in  1854.  He  represented  the  first  dis- 
trict of  Ohio  in  the  National  House  of  Representatives 
from  December,  1857,  till  March,  1865.  He  acted  in 
Congress  with  the  Democrats  who  opposed  the  coercion 


of  the  secessionists,  and  was  nominated  as  candidate  for 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  by  the  Democratic 
Convention  in  August,  1864.  He  received  twenty-one 
electoral  votes  out  of  two  hundred  and  thirty-three, 
which  was  the  whole  number.  About  1867  he  began  to 
advocate  the  payment  of  the  ])ublic  debt  in  paper  money, 
— "greenbacks."  As  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  he 
received,  at  the  National  Democratic  Convention,  July 
8,  1868,  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  and  one  half  votes  out 
of  three  hundred  and  seventeen,  on  the  eighth  ballot. 
He  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1869,  but  was  not  elected.  In  1885  he  was  appointed 
United  States  minister  to  Germany.    Died  Nov.  24,  1889. 

Pendleton,  (Henry,)  an  American  jurist,  and  resi- 
dent of  South  Carolina,  was  one  of  the  judges  appointed 
to  make  a  digest  of  the  laws  of  that  State.    Died  in  1788. 

Pene,  de,deh  pin,  (Henri,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1830.  He  wrote  for  the  "  Figaro,"  and 
offended  the  military  by  some  remarks,  for  which  he  was 
challenged  by  several  subaltern  officers  in  succession, 
(1858.)  In  the  second  duel  he  was  desperately  wounded, 
so  that  for  a  time  he  was  not  expected  to  live.    D.  1888. 

Pe-nel'o-pe,  \Q>x.Wjive7m-::ii  ox  VifvtM)T:r] ;  Fr.  P6n6- 
LOI'E,  ]oi'ni'lop',]  the  wife  of  Ulysses,  King  of  Ithaca,  and 
a  cousin  of  Helen,  was  renowned  for  conjugal  fidelity. 
During  the  long  absence  of  her  husband  she  evaded 
the  importunity  of  her  suitors  by  a  promise  to  decide 
which  she  would  accept  when  she  had  finished  a  shroud 
for  the  aged  Laertes.  She  ravelled  at  night  what  she 
had  woven  by  day,  and  thus  postponed  the  decision 
until  the  return  of  Ulysses.  She  was  the  mother  of 
Telemachus, 

Penguilly  rHaridon,  de,  deh  pSN'ge'ye'  li're'd(I)N', 
(Oci'AVK,)  ai^ainter,  born  in  Paris  in  181 1  ;  died  in  1870. 

Penhoiiet,  peh-noo'i',  (Akmand  Louis  Bon  Mau- 
det,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1764. 
He  wrote  "  Researches  on  Bretagne,"  (1814,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1839. 

Penicaud,  pi'ne'ko',  (Pierre,)  a  French  enanieller 
and  painter  on  glass,  born  in  15 15,  worked  at  Limoges. 
He  was  an  able  artist. 

Pen'ick,  (Charles  Clifton,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Charlotte  county,  Virginia,  December  9, 
1843,  ^"^s  educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College,  served 
from  1861  to  1865  as  an  officer  of  the  Confederate  army, 
graduated  at  the  theological  seminary  near  Alexandria, 
was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1870, 
and  in  1877  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Cape  Palmas,  in 
Liberia.     He  resigned  the  episcopate  in  1883. 

Pen'ing-ton,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  born  about  1618.  His  father 
was  lord  mayor  of  London  and  a  member  of  the  I-ong 
Parliament.  He  married  Mary,  the  widow  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Springett,  (whose  daughter  became  the  wife  of 
William  Penn,)  and  resided  at  Chalfont,  Bucks.  During 
the  reign  of  Charles  H.  he  was  imprisoned  six  times 
for  his  religious  princij^les.  "  He  grew  rich  and  fruitful 
in  all  heavenly  treasure,"  says  William  Penn, — "full  of 
love,  faith,  mercy,  patience,  and  long-suffering.  Inst)much 
that  I  may  say  he  was  one  of  a  thousand ;  zealous,  yet 
tender,  wise,  yet  humble.  .  .  .  One  that  ever  loved  power 
and  life  more  than  words."  Died  in  1679.  He  left  "Let- 
ters" and  other  writings,  which  are  highly  prized. 

See  "The  Penns  and  Peningtons  of  the  Seventeenth  Century," 
by  Maria  Webb,  London,  1867. 

Penn,  (Granville,)  an  English  author,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1 761,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Penn,  and  a 
grandson  of  William  Penn.  He  was  a  clerk  in  the 
British  war  oftice.  Among  his  works  are  "  Remarks 
on  the  Eastern  Origin  of  Mankind  and  of  the  Arts  of 
Cultivated  Life,"  and  a  "Life  of  Admiral  Penn," 
(1833.)     Uied  in  1844. 

Penn,  (John,)  an  American  patriot,  and  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Caroline 
county,  Virginia,  in  1741.  Having  removed  in  177410 
North  Carolina,  he  was  elected  in  1775  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress.     Died  in  1788. 

Penn,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mechanical  engi- 
neer, born  at  Greenwich  in  1805,  was  the  inventor  and 
constructor  of  well-approved  steam-engines  for  ships. 
Died  at  Lee,  September  23,  1S7S. 


a,  e,  T,  <),  \\,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nit;  good;  moon; 


PENN 


1915 


PENN 


Penn,  (Sir  William,)  an  able  English  admiral,  fathei 
of  William  Penn,  was  born  at  Bristol  in  1621.  He 
became  a  rear-admiral  about  1644,  obtained  the  rank 
of  admiral  in  1653,  and  commanded  the  fleet  which 
co-operated  with  Venables  in  the  capture  of  Jamaica 
from  the  Spaniards  in  1655.  He  promoted  the  restora- 
tion of  Charles  H.  In  1660  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Kinsale.  He  was  commander-in-chief,  under  the 
Duke  of  York,  of  the  fleet  which  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Dutch  in  1665.  He  retired  from  the  service  in  1669, 
and  died  at  Wanstead,  Essex,  in  1670. 

See  Granville  Penn,  "  Memorials  of  the  Life  of  Admiral  Sit 
William  Penn,"  1833. 

Penn,  (WilliaiM,)  the  founder  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  Christian  philanthropists. 
was  born  in  London  on  the  14th  of  October,  1644.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Captain  (afterwards  Admiral)  Penn 
and  Margaret,  the  daughter  of  John  Jasper,  a  merchant 
of  Rotterdam.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  the  Chig- 
well  School,  in  Essex.  While  here,  before  he  was  eleven 
years  old,  his  mind  was  deeply  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  religion,  and  he  believed  that  he  was  even 
then  divinely  called  to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  service 
of  God.  When  about  fifteen,  he  was  sent  to  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  John 
Locke,  afterwards  so  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the 
"Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding."  While  at  the 
university,  Penn  appears  to  have  applied  himself  dili- 
gently to  his  studies,  and  to  have  made  rapid  progress 
not  only  in  the  classics  but  likewise  in  several  of  the 
modern  languages.  He  is  said  also  to  have  devoted 
much  of  his  attention  to  theology  and  history.  Nor  did 
he  neglect  the  cultivation  of  his  physical  powers.  With 
a  handsome  person,  in  which  were  united  strength  and 
grace,  he  appears  to  have  been  well  fitted  to  excel  in 
those  out-door  exercises  which  were  then  and  are  still 
in  vogue  among  the  students  of  Oxford.  He  was,  we 
are  told,  a  skilful  boatman  as  well  as  an  adventurous 
sportsman.  But,  while  he  was  thus  applying  himself 
with  youthful  zeal  to  the  pursuits  deemed  appropriate  to 
young  gentlemen  of  his  condition,  a  new  influence  arose, 
which  was  destined  to  change  entirely  the  current  of  his 
future  life.  Thomas  Loe,  who  had  formerly  belonged 
to  the  university,  but  now  one  of  the  new  sect  of  Friends 
or  Quakers,  preached  at  Oxford.  The  views  which  he 
promulgated  made  a  powerful  impression  on  the  mind 
of  Penn.  He,  with  several  other  students  who  had 
beheld  with  displeasure  the  recent  attempt  to  intro- 
duce into  the  university  certain  -forms  and  observances 
which  they  considered  to  be  little  better  than  papistical 
mummeries,  absented  themselves  from  the  established 
worship,  and  began  to  hold  meetings  among  themselves, 
conducting  their  devotional  exercises  in  their  own  way. 
Thereupon  they  were  fined  by  the  heads  of  the  college 
for  nonconformity  ;  but  this,  instead  of  deterring  them 
from  the  course  they  had  taken,  only  added  fuel  to  their 
zeal.  It  happened  soon  after  that  an  order  came  down 
from  the  king  that  the  surplice  should  be  worn  by  the 
students,  according  to  the  custom  of  former  times.  This 
so  exasperated  some  of  them,  among  whom  Penn  appears 
to  have  taken  a  leading  part,  that  they  not  only  refused 
to  wear  the  surplice  themselves,  but,  falling  upon  those 
who  appeared  in  surplices,  they  forcibly  tore  off  from 
them  the  offensive  badge.  For  this  flagrant  and  open 
violation  of  the  laws  of  the  university,  Penn  and  sev- 
eral of  his  associates  were  expelled. 

This  disgrace  was  a  bitter  mortification  to  the  admiral, 
a  worldly  and  ambitious  man,  who  had  built  the  greatest 
hopes  on  his  eldest  and  favourite  son.  When  William 
returned  home,  his  father  received  him  with  cold  and 
stern  disapprobation.  His  son,  although  for  the  time 
carried  away  with  a  fanatical  zeal,  was  perfectly  sincere, 
and,  finding  his  conduct  not  disapproved  by  some  men 
of  note  who  were  jealous  of  what  they  considered  the 
encroachments  of  po])ery,  would  not  admit  that  he  had 
done  wrong  in  resisting  the  authority  of  the  king  with 
respect  to  the  surplice.  His  father,  having  tried  in  vain 
to  reclaim  him  by  argument,  proceeded  next,,  like  one 
accustomed  to  arbitrary  power,  to  blows,  and  at  last,  it 
is  said,  turned  him  out-of-doors.  It  was  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  the  admiral,  who  really  loved  his  son  and 


was  proud  of  his  abilities,  began  to  relent ;  and  at  the 
intercession  of  his  mother,  an  amiable  and  excellent 
woman,  William  was  forgiven  and  recalled. 

With  a  view  to  dissipate  his  son's  religious  impres- 
sions, the  admiral  at  length  resolved  to  send  him  to 
France,  in  company  with  some  other  young  gentlemen  of 
rank  who  were  about  to  set  out  on  a  tour  across  the  con- 
tinent. At  Paris  he  was  introduced  to  a  brilliant  circle, 
including  some  of  the  most  distinguished  young  noble- 
men of  England,  and  was  presented  to  the  king,  Louis 
XIV.,  at  whose  court  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  frequent 
and  welcome  guest.  During  his  stay  in  the  French 
capital,  as  he  was  returning  one  night  from  a  party,  a 
man,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  total  stranger,  under 
some  imaginary  affront,  drew  his  rapier  upon  him,  and, 
in  an  angry  tone,  bade  him  defend  himself.  Penn  expos- 
tulated with  him,  but  in  vain  ;  so  that  at  last,  to  protect 
himself,  he  was  fain  to  use  his  sword.  His  hot-headed 
antagonist  was  quickly  disarmed  ;  but,  instead  of  taking 
any  advantage  of  his  vanquished  foeman,  he  courteously 
returned  him  his  rapier,  much  to  the  surprise,  it  api:)ears, 
of  the  bystanders,  who  naturally  enough  supposed  that 
he  would  have  used  the  opportunity  thus  afforded  to 
take  ample  revenge  upon  one  who  had  so  causelessly 
attacked  him. 

After  leaving  Paris  he  spent  several  months  at  Saiimur, 
reading  the  works  of  the  Fathers  and  studying  theology 
under  the  instruction  of  Moses  Amyrault,  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  learned  of  the  French  Protestant  di- 
vines. He  afterwards  commenced  a  tour  through  Italy, 
but  on  reaching  Turin  he  received  a  letter  from  his 
father,  recalling  him  to  England,  that  he  might  take 
charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  family  while  the  admiral  was 
engaged  abroad  in  the  war  against  Holland.  The  ap- 
pearance of  young  Penn  on  his  return  from  his  conti- 
nental tour  was  well  calculated  to  fill  a  father's  heart 
with  joy  and  pride.  He  had  grown  into  a  tall,  graceful, 
and  handsome  man,  with  a  countenance  of  singular  gen- 
tleness and  sweetness,  yet  expressing  both  intelligence 
and  resolution.  His  sojourn  in  the  gayest  and  most 
brilliant  capital  of  Europe  appears  to  have  completely 
effaced  those  serious  impressions  which,  in  his  father's 
judgment,  were  so  unsuited  to  a  youth  of  his  rank  and 
accomplishments.  All  the  hopes  which  the  admiral 
had  formerly  cherished  of  the  future  distinction  of  his 
son  were  now  revived.  That  his  son  might  not  relapse 
into  his  former  seriousness,  he  resolved  to  keep  him 
constantly  employed.  With  this  view,  he  had  him  entered 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  as  a  student  of  law. 

In  the  early  part  of  1665,  Admiral  Penn,  accompanied 
by  the  Duke  of  York,  then  lord  high  admiral  of  Eng- 
land, gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Dutch,  com- 
manded by  Admiral  Opdam.  The  duke  had  the  good 
sense  to  intrust  all  the  important  movements  of  the 
fleet  to  the  direction  of  Admiral  Penn,  who  had  the  title 
of  Great  Captain  Commander.  The  plague  having  broken 
out  in  London,  it  appears  to  have  affected  William  Penn, 
as  it  did  thousands  of  others,  and  to  have  awakened  in 
his  mind  the  most  serious  thoughts.  His  father,  fearing 
lest  he  should  lose  the  fruit  of  all  his  former  care, 
resolved  to  send  his  son  with  letters  to  the  gay  and 
brilliant  court  of  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  Viceroy  of  Ire- 
land, with  whom  Admiral  Penn  was  on  terms  of  intimate 
friendship.  Soon  after  his  son's  arrival,  a  mutiny  occurred 
among  the  troops  at  Carrickfergus.  Penn  volunteered  his 
services  in  reducing  them  to  obedience,  and,  in  the  siege 
that  followed,  won  by  his  courage  and  coolness  general 
applause;  and  the  viceroy  himself  wrote  to  the  admiral, 
expressing  his  great  satisfaction  with  young  Penn's  con- 
duct, at  the  same  time  proposing  that  he  should  join  the 
army.  He  himself  was  at  first  so  much  elated  by  the 
distinction  he  had  acquired,  that  he  resolved  to  become 
a  soldier,  and,  under  the  influence  of  this  new  ambition, 
caused  himself  to  be  painted  in  military  costume.  "It 
is,"  says  Dixon,  "a  curious  fact  that  the  only  genuine 
portrait  of  the  great  apostle  of  peace  existing  represents 
him  armed  and  accoutred  as  a  soldier."  The  admiral, 
however,  disapproving  his  son's  project,  sent  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  large  estates  which  he  possessed  in 
the  south  of  Ireland.  While  on  business  at  Cork,  Wil- 
liam Penn  had  an  opportunity  of  again  hearing  Thomas 


*v>.k;  5  as  J,-  \hard;  gzsj;  G,  H,  K,gnttural;  ii,itasai;  v.,  trilled;  sass;  ^h  as  mthis.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PENN 


1916 


PENN 


Loe,  by  whose  preaching  he  had  been  so  strongly  im- 
pressed some  years  before.  His  early  convictions  were 
revived ;  and  froni  that  time  he  felt  it  to  be  his  impera- 
tive duty,  in  defiance  of  ridicule  and  persecution,  to 
join  his  lot  with  the  despised  Quakers.  Being  at  a 
meeting  at  Cork  in  1667,  he  was  arrested,  with  several 
other  Quakers,  and  taken  to  prison.  While  here,  he 
wrote  to  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  setting  forth  the  injustice 
of  his  im])risonment  and  advocating  universal  toleration 
in  faith  and  worship.  On  receiving  his  letter,  Lord  Or- 
rery gave  an  order  for  his  immediate  release.  A  rumour 
that  Penn  had  become  a  Quaker  reached  his  father.  lie 
immediately  ordered  him  home.  When  the  admiral,  on 
seeing  his  son,  observed  that  he  was  still  dressed  like  a 
gentleman,  that  he  wore  lace,  plume,  and  rapier,  he  felt 
reassured,  and  began  to  hope  that  he  had  been  misin- 
formed. But  these  hopes  were  soon  dispelled.  His  son 
candidly  acknowledged  to  him  that  his  religious  convic- 
tions had  undergone  a  radical  change,  and  that  he  was 
now  a  Quaker.  The  disapjjointment  and  vexation  of  the 
admiral  were  extreme.  Yet,  in  the  hope  of  winning 
back  his  son,  he  made  use  of  every  argument,  and  even 
condescended  to  entreat  and  implore  ;  but  all  in  vain. 
The  refusal  of  his  son  to  uncover  in  the  presence  of  his 
superiors  in  rank  was  especially  mortifying  to  him.*  Al- 
though his  arguments  and  entreaties  had  proved  alike 
unavailing,  he  was  unwilling  to  abandon  all  hope.  As  a 
last  resort,  he  proposed  a  compromise  :  he  would  yield 
to  the  scruples  and  wishes  of  his  son  in  every  other  re- 
spect, if  the  latter  would  only  consent  to  take  off  his  hat 
in  his  father's  presence  and  in  that  of  the  king  and  the 
Duke  of  York.  William  asked  time  to  consider  this 
proposition.  After  some  time  spent  in  reflection  and 
earnest  prayer,  he  announced  to  his  father  that  he  was 
unable  to  comply  with  his  wishes.  Thereupon  the  in- 
dignant admiral  again  expelled  him  from  the  house.  For 
some  months  he  was  dependent  upon  the  hospitality  of 
his  friends,  and  upon  such  pecuniary  aid  as  his  mother 
could  from  time  to  time  find  an  opportunity  of  sending 
him.  At  length  his  father  relented  so  far  as  to  allow 
him  to  return  home  ;  but  he  still  refused  to  see  or  hold 
any  intercourse  with  him.  About  this  time  (1668)  Wil- 
liam Penn  first  began  to  preach  and  to  write  in  defence 
of  the  new  doctrines  which  he  had  embraced.  His  first 
work,  entitled  "Truth  Exalted,"  was  addressed  to  kings, 
priests,  and  people,  whom  he  earnestly  exhorted  to  re- 
examine the  foundation  of  their  faith  and  worship,  and 
to  inquire  how  far  they  were  built  upon  the  authority  of 
God,  or  whether  they  did  not  rest  in  a  great  measure  on 
the  mere  notions  of  men.  A  number  of  publications, 
mostly  controversial,  followed.  One  of  tb.ese,  entitled 
"The  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,"  attracted  much  at- 
tention. Pepys  considered  it  too  good  to  be  the  pro- 
duction of  so  young  a  man.  In  this  work  Penn  had 
attempted,  among  other  things,  to  refute  "the  Notion 
of  one  God  subsisting  in  three  distinct  and  separate 
Persons."  For  this  "heresy"  he  was  a]:)prehended  and 
sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  kept  in  solitary  con 
finement  for  more  than  eight  months.  While  in  the 
Tower,  a  report  reached  him  that  the  Bishop  of  London 
had  resolved  that  he  should  recant,  or  die  in  prison. 
Penn  replied,  with  the  spirit  of  a  martyr  and  a  hero, 
"  that  his  prison  should  be  his  grave  before  he  would  re- 
nounce his  just  opinions  ;  for  that  he  owed  his  conscience 
to  no  man."  During  his  confinement  in  the  Tower  he 
composed  "No  Cross,  No  Crown,"  perhaps  the  most 
popular  of  all  his  larger  works.  He  also  wrote  to  Lord 
Arlington,  then  principal  secretary  of  state,  on  the  in- 
justice and  absurdity  of  attempting  to  coerce  men's 
religious  opinions.  Learning  that  the  views  advanced 
in  his  "Sandy  Foundation  Shaken"  had  been  misre])re- 
sented,  he  wrote  "  Innocency  with  her  Open  Face,"  in 
which  he  showed  that  to  deny  the  existence  in  the  God- 
head of  "three  DISTINCT  and  separate  persons"  did 
not  necessarily  involve  a  denial  of  Christ's  eternal 
divinity,  which  he  acknowledged  to  the  fullest  extent. 
In  this  Penn  took  substantially  the  same  ground  as  was 
afterwards  taken  by  Barclay  and  many  other  of  the  lead- 


•  For  a  brief  explanation  of  the  views  of  the  Quakers  with  respect 
to  taking  off  the  hat,  and  some  other  of  their  prominent  peculiarities, 
see  the  article  on  Geokge  Fox. 


ing  Quakers.  They  felt  that  in  speaking  of  the  great 
and  awful  mysteries  of  the  Divine  nature  there  was  a 
sort  of  presumption  in  going  beyond  the  words  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  They  accordingly  rejected  the  term 
"Trinity,"  as  not  found  in  the  Scriptures,  and,  on  still 
stronger  grounds,  as  they  conceived,  they  refused  to 
accept  the  doctrine  of  "three  distinct  and  separate 
persons"  in  the  Godhead,  as  being  neither  expressed 
nor  necessarily  implied  in  the  language  of  inspiration. 
The  manly  behaviour  of  his  son  while  in  prison  ap- 
pears to  have  strongly  excited  the  respect  and  sympathy 
of  the  admiral.  He  used  his  influence  at  court,  and, 
after  a  time,  William  Penn  was  set  at  liberty. 

In  1669,  at  the  desire  of  his  father,  who  intimated  his 
wishes  to  his  son  through  Lady  Penn,  William  went 
Bgain  to  Ireland,  to  take  charge  of  the  estates  belonging 
to  the  admiral  in  that  island.  He  remained  there  about 
eight  months,  when  he  was  recalled  on  account  of  his 
father's  failing  health.  His  sister  Margaret  had  been 
married,  and  his  younger  brother  Richard  was  then 
travelling  in  Italy.  Feeling  that  his  days  were  drawing 
to  a  close,  the  admiral  was  anxious  to  be  reconciled  to 
his  eldest  son,  who  appears,  before  the  recent  disagree- 
ment, to  have  always  been  his  favourite.  As  soon  as 
William  returned  to  England,  the  reconciliation  took 
place,  to  the  joy  of  all  parties,  especially  of  his  mother. 
In  August  of  the  same  year,  William  Penn  preached  at 
a  meeting  in  Grace  Church  Street,  where  he  and  William 
Mead  were  arrested  by  warrants  from  the  mayor  of  Lon- 
don. "  The  trial  which  followed  was,"  says  Dixon, 
"  perhaps  the  most  important  trial  that  ever  took  place 
in  England.  Penn  stood  before  his  judges,  in  this  cele 
brated  scene,  not  so  much  as  a  Quaker  pleading  for  tht 
rights  of  conscience,  as  an  Englishman  contending  foi 
the  ancient  and  imprescriptible  liberties  of  his  race." 
The  jury  having  brought  in  a  verdict  favourable  to  the 
prisoners,  the  recorder  said  they  should  be  locked  up, 
without  meat,  drink,  fire,  and  tobacco,  "  till  we  have  a 
verdict  the  court  will  accept, — or  you  shall  starve  for  it." 
Though  repeatedly  menaced  with  starvation  and  other 
cruelties,  such  as  slitting  their  noses,  (a  barbarous  but 
not  uncommon  punishment  for  offenders  in  those  days,) 
the  jury  still  persisted  in  their  verdict.  They  were  kept 
for  two  days  and  nights  without  food,  drink,  or  fire ;  but 
this,  as  well  as  the  threats  of  the  court,  proving  in- 
effectual, they  were  at  last  fined  for  their  obstinacy,  and, 
on  refusing  to  pay  their  fines,  were  sent  to  prison.  "  For 
centuries,"  says  Dixon,  "  it  had  remained  an  unsettled 
question  of  law,  whether  the  jury  had  or  had  not  a  right 
so  far  to  exercise  its  own  discretion  as  to  bring  in  a  ver- 
dict contrary  to  the  sense  of  the  court."  This  important 
question  was  now  to  be  decided.  Bushel  and  his  fellow- 
jurors,  at  Penn's  suggestion,  brought  an  action  against 
the  mayor  and  recorder  for  unjust  imprisonment.  The 
case  was  brought  before  the  court  of  common  pleas,  con- 
sisting of  twelve  judges,  and  decided  ail-but  unanimously 
in  favour  of  the  jurymen,  who  were  accordingly  set  at 
liberty  and  left  their  prison  in  triumph.  Although  Penn 
and  Mead  had  been  declared  not  guilty  by  the  verdict 
of  the  jury,  yet  they  were  still  detained  in  prison,  be- 
cause they  refused  to  pay  the  fines  which  the  mayor  and 
recorder  had  arbitrarily  and  most  unjustly  imposed  on 
them  for  contempt  of  court.  At  length,  as  the  admiral, 
froiTi  his  increasing  illness,  became  more  and  more  anx- 
ious to  have  his  son  with  him,  he  sent  privately  and  paid 
the  fines  both  for  him  and  his  friend.  He  also  sent  a 
dying  request  to  the  Duke  of  York  that  he  would  be  a 
friend  to  his  son  in  the  trials  and  sufferings  to  which, 
while  the  persecuting  laws  of  England  continued  in 
force,  he  foresaw  he  would  necessarily  be  exposed.  On 
his  death-bed  the  admiral  expressed  entire  satisfaction 
with  the  course  his  son  had  pursued.  He  said  to  him, 
among  other  things,  "  Let  nothing  in  this  world  tempt 
you  to  wrong  your  conscience.  Have  a  care  of  sin  :  it 
IS  that  which  is  the  sting  both  of  life  and  death."  On 
his  father's  decease,  William  Penn  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  an  estate  yielding  an  annual  income  of  about 
fifteen  hundred  pounds,  a  sum  which  was  probably  equal 
to  twice  or  three  times  the  same  numerical  amount  at  the 
present  day.  Rarely,  if  ever,  has  wealth  fallen  into  better 
hands.     "There  is   abundant   evidence,"  says  Janney, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  ^,  ?,  j,  9,  obscttre;  ikx,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PENN 


1917 


PENN 


"  that  throughout  life  he  made  use  of  his  wealth  for  the 
benefit  of  otliers,  rather  than  to  promote  his  own  ease 
and  indulgence." 

The  persecution  against  the  Quakers  continuing,  Penn 
published  a  number  of  books  and  tracts  in  vindication 
of  the  peculiar  views  of  the  society,  and  in  defence  of 
the  great  principle  that  in  matters  of  faith  men  are  ac- 
countable to  Heaven  only,  and,  provided  their  moral 
conduct  is  blameless,  no  human  government  has  a  right 
to  inquire  into  or  exercise  any  control  over  the  religious 
opinions  of  its  subjects.  The  following  are  the  titles  of 
some  of  the  most  important  of  these  publications  :  "A 
Seasonable  Caveat  against  Popery,"  (1670,)  "The  Great 
Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience  Debated  and  Defended," 
(1671,)  "Trutii  Rescued  from  Imjjosture,"  (1671,)  "The 
Spirit  of  Truth  Vindicated,"  (1672,)  "Quakerism  a  New 
Nickname  for  Old  Christianitv,"  etc.,  "  England's  Pres- 
ent Interest  Considered,"  (1674,) — a  most  able  work  in 
defence  of  freedom  of  conscience  and  the  rights  of  Eng- 
lishmen. Several  of  his  smaller  works,  as  well  as  "The 
Great  Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience,"  were  written 
while  he  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate  in  1671.  In  1672, 
when  Penn  was  in  his  twenty-eighth  year,  he  married 
Gulielma  Maria  Springett,  daughter  of  Sir  William 
Springett,  who  as  a  colonel  had  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  service  of  the  Parliament,  and  who  died 
during  the  civil  wars,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-three. 
His  widow  was  afterwards  married  to  Isaac  Penington, 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  early  Quakers.  In 
1677,  William  Penn,  accompanied  by  Robert  Barclay  and 
others,  inade  a  journey  into  Holland  and  Germany,  and 
visited  the  princess  Elizabeth  of  the  Rhine,  the  grand- 
daughter of  James  I.  and  sister  of  the  famous  Prince 
Rupert.  She  received  them  with  great  kindness.  Hav- 
ing previously  met  with  Penn,  she  was  not  unacquainted 
with  the  religious  views  of  the  Quakers,  which  she 
appears  to  have  regarded  with  much  favour. 

Penn  did  not  think  that  it  was  the  duty  of  a  Christian 
to  withdraw  himself  wholly  from  public  affairs,  but  rathei 
to  strive  in  every  way  to  promote  the  freedom,  enlight- 
enment, and  happiness  of  mankind.  The  true  friends 
of  liberty  everywhere  found  in  him  a  sympathizer  and  a 
friend.  A  little  ])revious  to  the  election  of  1679,  when 
the  celebrated  Algernon  Sidney  offered  himself  as  a 
candidate  for  Parliament,  Penn  issued  a  pamphlet  show- 
ing the  importance  of  electing  to  the  great  legislative 
body  of  the  kingdom  wise  men  and  such  as  feared  God 
and  hated  covetousness.  He  not  only  felt  the  deepest 
interest,  but  he  himself  bore  a  very  active  part,  in  the 
canvass  for  Sidney,  the  representative  and  devoted 
champion  of  political  freedom.  Sidney  was  triumph- 
antly elected,  in  spite  of  much  unfair  opjjosition.  But 
soon  after  the  assetnbling  of  the  new  Parliament  it  was 
dissolved  by  the  king,  and  another  election  became 
necessary.  Sidney  was  again  duly  returned,  but  he  was 
prevented  from  taking  his  place  in  Parliament  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  royalist  party.  It  was  a  bitter  disap- 
pointment to  Penn  ;  but,  in  proportion  as  he  lost  hope  of 
freedom  in  England,  he  bent  his  thoughts  more  earnestly 
towards  realizing  the  dream  of  his  youth, — the  founding 
o(  a  new  and  more  jjerfect  commonwealth  amid  the 
forests  of  North  America.  In  1675  '^^  had  been  chosen 
umpire  to  settle  a  dispute  between  Edward  Byllinge  and 
John  Fenwick  (both  Quakers)  respecting  their  claims 
to  a  tract  of  land  known  as  West  Jersey.  He  decided 
in  favour  of  Byllinge  ;  but  the  latter,  having  become 
much  embarrassed  in  his  affairs,  in  order  to  satisfy  his 
creditors  gave  up  to  them  his  interest  in  the  territory. 
At  the  earnest  solicitation  of  Byllinge,  Penn  was  asso- 
ciated with  the  creditors  as  a  joint  trustee.  Within  the 
ne.xt  two  or  three  years  several  vessels  came  to  West 
Jersey,  with  about  eight  hundred  emigrants,  of  whom  the 
greater  number  were  Quakers.  Through  the  influence 
of  Penn  there  was  adopted  a  very  liberal  constitution, 
among  the  provisions  of  which  were  the  right  of  free 
worship  and  the  right  of  the  people  (with  only  very  slight 
restrictions)  to  legislate  for  themselves.  There  was  to 
be  no  imprisonment  for  debt:  the  property  of  the  debtor 
being  given  up  to  his  creditors,  he  himself  was  to  go 
free.  Penn  had  inherited  from  his  father  a  claim  against 
the  government  of  ;^i6,ooo.     In  16S0  he  obtained  from 


the  king,  in  payment  of  that  claim,  an  extensive  tract  of 
land  immediately  west  of  the  river  Delaware  and  north 
of  Maryland.  In  the  patent  given  by  the  king  the  name 
"  Pennsylvania,"  contrary  to  Penn's  wishes,  was  applied 
to  the  territory.  He  had  previously  suggested  Sylvatiia, 
on  account  of  its  being  then  a  land  of  forests.  Penn 
offered  twenty  guineas  to  one  of  the  secretaries  to  have 
the  name  changed,  but  he  was  refused.  He  even  applied 
to  the  king ;  "  for,"  says  he,  "  I  feared  lest  it  should  be 
looked  on  as  a  vanity  in  me."  But  the  king  said  it 
should  remain  as  it  was,  the  Penn  having  been  added 
in  honour  of  the  admiral.  The  patent  conferred  upon 
the  people  and  governor  a  legislative  power,  so  that 
no  law  could  be  made  nor  money  raised  without  the 
people's  consent,  and  they  could  pass  what  laws  they 
pleased,  provided  they  did  not  interfere  with  the 
allegiance  which  all  the  colonies  owed  to  the  crown. 
Aided  by  the  counsels  of  Algernon  Sidney  and  others, 
he  drew  up  a  masterly  scheme  of  government,  the  wis- 
dom of  which  has  been  amply  vindicated  by  the  expe- 
rience of  two  hundred  years.  The  constitution  which 
Penn  gave  to  his  ccDlony  will  compare  advantageously 
not  merely  with  the  plan  of  government  formed  by  Locke 
for  Carolina,  but  with  any  of  the  systems  of  the  wisest 
lawgivers  that  have  ever  lived.  "  To  understand,"  says 
Dixon,  "  how  much  Penn  was  wiser  than  his  age,  .  .  . 
he  must  be  measured  not  only  against  unlettered  men 
like  P'ox,  but  against  the  highest  types  of  learning  and 
liberality  which  it  afforded.  Between  John  Locke  and 
William  Penn  there  is  a  gulf  like  that  which  separates 
the  seventeenth  and  the  nineteenth  century.  Locke 
never  escaped  from  the  thraldom  of  local  ideas." 

About  the  beginning  of  September,  1682,  Peim  set  sail 
in  the  ship  Welcome,  and  on  the  27th  of  October  cast 
anchor  in  Delaware  Bay,  off  New  Castle.  He  was  re- 
ceived by  the  inhabitants  of  that  town  with  the  greatest 
enthusiasm.  Soon  after  he  proceeded  to  the  site  of 
Philadelphia,  then  covered  for  the  most  part  with  lofty 
trees.  About  the  end  of  November,  1682,  was  held  the 
famous  treaty  with  the  Indians,  under  a  magnificent 
elm-tree,  in  what  is  now  Kensington.  Of  this  treaty, 
Voltaire  says  it  was  "the  only  league  between  the  abo- 
rigines and  the  Christians  which  was  never  sworn  to 
and  never  broken." 

Referring  the  reader  to  other  works  for  a  more  particu- 
lar account  of  the  early  colony,  we  shall  for  the  future 
confine  ourselves  chiefly  to  the  personal  history  of  Penn. 
In  1684,  having  committed  the  government  to  the  provin- 
cial council,  he  embarked  for  England,  leaving  behind 
him  in  the  colony  a  white  population  of  about  7000  per- 
sons. He  set  sail  on  the  12th  of  August,  and  on  the  6th 
of  October  landed  in  Sussex,  within  seven  miles  of  his  own 
liouse,  after  an  absence  from  his  family  of  rather  more 
than  two  years.  He  soon  after  visited  the  king  and  the 
Duke  of  York,  by  both  of  whom,  he  says,  he  was  received 
very  graciously.  The  first  use  he  made  of  his  influence 
at  court  was  to  intercede  for  the  persecuted  Quakers, 
against  whom  the  recent  oppressive  enactments  were  at 
that  time  enforced  with  a  merciless  rigour.  Their  con- 
scientious scruples  against  swearing  exposed  them  to 
peculiar  hardships.  When  evil-disposed  persons  charged 
them  with  being  disaffected  to  the  government,  they 
might  in  many  instances  have  delivered  themselves  from 
the  hands  of  their  persecutors  by  simply  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance  and  supremacy  ;  but  this  their  religious 
convictions  would  not  jiermit  them  to  do. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  here  to  do  more  than  allude  to 
the  charges  made  by  Macaulay  against  the  character  of 
Penn,  as  those  charges  have  already  been  completely 
and  unanswerably  refuted,*  and  are  now  rejected  by  all 
candid  and  intelligent  persons  who  have  taken  the  trou- 
ble to  give  them  a  careful  examination.  But  another 
accusation,  scarcely  less  formidable,  though  somewhat 
vague,  has  found  supporters  among  men  of  great  intel- 
ligence and  respectability, — namely,  that  the   fact  that 


*  For  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  we  confidently  appeal  to  all 
who  have  dispassionately  and  attentively  read  the  evidence  in  tha 
case.  See,  on  this  subject,  Dixon's  "Life  of  Penn;"  W.  E.  FoR- 
ster's  "  William  Penn  and  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay,"  1850;  J. 
Facet's  "New  Examen,"  London,  1861  ;  and  the  "Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1S68. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  K,  ti-i.kd;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tJiii.     (Ji^^Set  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PENN 


1918 


PENN  ELL 


he  believed  Providence  had  given  him  for  the  most  Im- 
portant ends, — the  promotion  of  justice  and  mercy. 

In  1686,  chiefly  through  Penn's  influence,  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  by  which  more  than  twelve  hundred  im- 
prisoned Quakers  were  set  at  liberty.  Another  proclama- 
tion in  1687  gave  liberty  of  conscience  to  all,  unrestricted 
l)y  any  tests  or  penalties.  After  the  accession  of  William 
III.,  in  1688,  Peiin,  having  incurred  suspicion  on  account 
of  his  intimacy  with  James,  was  tried  before  the  royal 
council  for  treason  ;  but,  no  evidence  being  found  against 
him,  he  was  discharged.  He  was  subsequently  tried  for 
conspiracy,  and  was  again  honourably  acquitted.  In  the 
early  part  of  1694  he  lost  his  wife  Gulielma ;  about  two 
years  after  he  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Hannah  Cal- 
lowhill.  In  1696  his  eldest  son,  Springett  Penn,  died 
of  consumption.  He  made  in  1699  a  second  visit  to 
America.  But,  learning  not  long  after  his  arrival  in  the 
colony  that  there  was  a  measure  before  the  House  of 
Lords  for  bringing  all  the  proprietary  governments  under 
the  crown,  he  returned  to  England  in  1701.  Happily, 
the  obnoxious  measure  was  soon  after  abandoned. 

In  consequence  of  the  bad  management  and  dishonesty 
of  some  of  the  agents  to  whom  he  had  intrusted  the 
care  of  his  property,  he  sustained  great  losses,  and  be- 
came so  involved  as  to  be  unable  to  pay  the  claims  of 
his  creditors.  He  preferred  to  go  to  prison  rather  than 
attempt  to  satisfy  certain  unjust  and  extortionate  claims 
which  the  very  agent  who  had  mismanaged  his  affairs 
brought  against  him.  By  the  intervention  of  some  of 
his  friends,  a  compromise  was  effected,  and  he  was  at 
length  released.  It  was  a  great  sorrow  to  him  in  his 
latter  years  that,  although  he  had  never  spared  himsell 
or  his  means  to  promote  the  interests  of  his  colony, 
when  he  desired  of  the  colonial  legislature  a  moderate 
loan  to  relieve  him  from  his  difficulties  it  was  refused. 
Worn  out  at  length  with  the  incessant  labours  and  cares 
of  a  life  spent  almost  wholly  in  the  service  of  others,  he 
died,  from  the  effects  of  paralysis,  in  I7i8._  _ 

For  a  full  account  of  William  Penn's  writings,  and  of 
those  which  relate  to  him,  see  Joseph  Smith's  "Cata- 
logue of  Friends'  Books,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  2S2-326. 

See  W.  Hepworth  Dixon,  "  Biographical  History  of  William 
Penn,"  1851  ;  S.  Jannky,  "  Life  of  William  Penn,"  i  vol.  8vo,  1852; 
T.  Clarkson,  "Life  of  William  Penn,"  2  vols.  8vo,  1S13;  J.  Mar- 
mLLAC.  "Vie  de  G.  Penn,"  2  vols.,  1791;  H.  van  Lil,  "  Leven, 
Gevoelens  en  Lotgevallen  van  W.  Penn,"  2  vols.,  1826 ;  Jacob  Post, 
"  Popular  Memoir  of  W.  Penn,"  1S50 :  M.  L.  Weems,  "  Life  of  W. 
Penn,"  1829  ;  W.  A  Teller,  "  Lebensbeschreibiing  des  beriihmten 
VV.  Penn,"  1779;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1850,  (article 
"  William  Penn  and  Lord  Macaulav  ;")  "  The  Penn  and  Logan  Cor- 
respondence," published  by  the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society, 
1870. 

Penuafort.    See  Raymond  de  Penafout. 

Pen'nant,  (Thomas,)  an  English  naturalist  and  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Downing,  in  Flintshire,  in  1726.  He 
published  in  1 761  the  first  volume  of  a  large  work  on 
British  Zoology,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  and 
German  and  often  reprinted.  A  tour  on  the  continent 
in  1765  procured  for  him  the  acquaintance  of  Buffoii, 
Haller,  and  Pallas.  In  1771  he  published  a  "Synopsis 
of  Quadrupeds,"  an  enlarged  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1781  as  a  "  History  of  Quadrupeds."  This  work  was 
described  by  Cuvier,  about  1823,  as  "still  indispensable." 
Among  his  other  works  are  the  "  Genera  of  Birds," 
(1773,  unfinished,)  a  "Second  Tour  in  Scotland  ar.d  a 
Voyage  to  the  Hebrides,"  (2  vols.,  1774-76,)  and  "Arctic 
Zoology,"  (3  vols.,  1784-87,)  which  Cuvier  commends 
2lS.  precietix  to  naturalists.     Died  in  1798. 

See  "  The  Literary  Life  of  T.  Pennant,"  by  himself,  1793;  Cuvier, 
"Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles  ;"  "  .Montlily  Review"  for  January 
and  February,  1772,  and  September  and  October,  iSoi. 

Pennecuik  or  Pennicuick,  pen'ne-kuk',  .'  (Alex- 
ander,) a  Scottish  physician  and  writer  on  various 
subjects,  born  in  1652  ;  died  in  1722. 

Pennefather,  pln'fS-ther, .'  (Sir  John  Lysaght,)  a 
British  general,  born  in  1800.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion as  brigadier  in  India  in  1843.  I"  ''^^  Crimean  war 
he  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  Alma,  and  a  division  at 
Inkerman,  November,  1854.     He  died  in  1872. 

Peu'iieil,  (Henky  Cholmondely — chum'le,)  an  Eng- 
lish author,  born  in  1836.  He  was  early  placed  in  the 
civil  service,  and  became  a  fisheries  inspector,  and  in 
1S75  ^^-is  sent  out  to  Egypt  as  chief  of  the  department 
of  internal  commerce.     His  poetical  and  literary  works 

5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ilr,  fdll,  fit;  ni^t;  nflt;  good;  moon: 


Penn  enjoyed  such  favour  with  James  II.,  and  that  he 
continued  at  court  after  he  had  every  opportunity  of 
knowing  the  character  of  that  monarch,  proves  him  to 
have  been  either  lax  in  principle  or  deficient  in  the  firm- 
ness of  true  virtue.  If  this  reasoning  be  correct,  then 
we  ought  to  applaud  the  conduct  of  the  early  Christian 
ascetics,  who  held  that  the  best  mode  of  preserving 
one's  soul  unspotted  and  preparing  it  for  heaven,  was  to 
abandon  all  intercourse  with  a  corrupt  world.  But  the 
most  virtuous  and  enlightened  men  of  modern  times 
have  usually  taught  a  very  different  doctrine, — that  they 
who,  without  partaking  of  its  sins,  mingle  with  the  world 
for  the  purpose  of  reforming  it,  are  far  more  praise- 
worthy than  those  who,  leaving  it  to  its  fate,  seek  shelter 
for  their  feeble  virtue  in  inactivity  and  selfish  seclusion. 
If  it  shall  be  clearly  shown  that  while  at  court  Penn  was 
guilty  of  a  single  act  inconsistent  with  the  character  of 
an  honest  man  and  a  true  lover  of  his  country,  we  shall 
then  be  prepared  to  abandon  his  defence  ;  but  if  the 
whole  charge  against  him  limits  itself  simply  to  this, 
that  he  had  favour  and  influence  with  a  corrupt  and 
tyrannical  monarch,  when  it  is  well  known  that  he  often 
exerted  that  influence  successfully  to  restrain  the  injus- 
tice, or  to  soften  tlie  severity,  of  James,  and  when  there 
is  not  a  shadow  of  evidence  that  he  ever,  even  in  a  soli- 
tary instance,  exerted  it  for  any  unworthy  purpose, — if 
this,  we  repeat,  be  the  whole  extent  of  the  charge  against 
him,  we  cannot  but  regard  such  an  accusation  as  con- 
ferring on  the  accused  the  highest  honour. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  Admiral  Penn  had 
made  a  dying  request  to  the  Duke  of  York  (afterwards 
James  II.)  that  he  would  be  a  friend  and  protector  to 
his  son.  It  is  but  just  to  say  that  James,  who  seems  to 
have  cherished  the  warmest  regard  for  the  admiral,  not 
only  never  forgot  his  friend's  request,  but  appears  to 
have  observed  it  with  the  most  scrupulous  fidelity.  It 
was  but  natural  that  William  Penn  should  be  sincerely 
attached  to  a  prince  who  had  been  his  father's  friend 
and  was  to  him  a  generous  and  faithful  guardian.  He 
doubtless  gave  James  far  more  credit  for  liberality  and 
sincerity  than  he  deserved.  But  his  gratitude  and  affec- 
tion towards  a  bigoted  and,  in  some  respects,  an  un- 
scrupulous prince,  appears  never  for  a  single  moment 
to  have  warped  him  from  the  path  of  rectitude. 

It  would  have  been  indeed  wonderful  if,  in  the  vio- 
lent party  excitements  of  those  times,  his  character  had 
wholly  escaped  suspicion  and  calumny.  But  the  various 
charges  made  against  him  are  found,  on  examination,  to 
be  unsupported  by  a  particle  of  real  evidence.  To  have 
absented  himself  from  court  at  that  time,  when  it  was 
in  his  power  to  do  so  much,  not  only  for  his  persecuted 
brethren,  but  for  all,  of  whatever  name,  who  suffered 
from  unjust  laws  or  from  the  unjust  suspicions  of  the 
government,  would  have  been  a  most  culpable  abandon- 
ment of  duty.  Yet  the  fact  that  he  did  not  thus  absent 
himself  has  been  the  principal,  if  not  the  only,  ground 
of  all  the  charges  which  the  envious  or  the  misinformed 
have  circulated  against  him.  During  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  Penn  obtained  for  himself  and  his  friends  many 
favours  from  his  sovereign  through  the  mediation  of  the 
Duke  of  York  ;  but  after  the  accession  of  James  II.  his 
influence  at  court  became  very  great.  He  removed  his 
residence  to  Holland  House,  at  Kensington.  "  His  in- 
fluence with  the  king,"  says  Dixon,  "  was  well  known, 
and  cTery  mail  loith  a  7-eal grin>aiice  fo7tnd  in  him  a  conn- 
idloj-  and  a  friend.''''  "  If  any  fault,"  says  the  same  writer, 
in  another  place,  "can  be  found  with  his  conduct,  it  is 
that  his  charity  was  a  little  too  universal,  a  little  too 
indiscriminate."  As  his  sympathies  were  chiefly  with 
the  liberal  party,  he  had  often  occasion  to  intercede  for 
tnercy  or  indulgence  to  those  who  were  regarded  by  the 
king  as  his  most  determined  enemies.  And,  though  he 
often  failed  in  obtaining  his  request,  he  ajipears  never  to 
have  omitted  an  opportunity  of  interceding  when  there 
was  the  slightest  chance  of  success.  He  sometimes 
excited  the  violent  anger  of  James  by  his  zeal  in  behalf 
of  the  friends  of  liberty.*  But  nothing  could  deter  him 
from  exercising  that  influence  with  his  sovereign  which 

•  For  a  curious  instance  of  this  kind,  see  Dixon's"  Life  of  Penn,' 
pp.  239-40. 


PENNE  THORNE 


1919 


PEP  0  LI 


include  "Puck  on  Pegasus,"  (1861,)  "Crescent,"  (i866,| 
"Modern  Babvlon,"  (1873,)  "The  Muses  of  Mayfair," 
(1874,)  "  Pegasus  Resaddled,"  (1877,)  etc.  He  also  wrote 
"The  Angler-Naturalist,"  (1864,)  "Book  of  the  Pike," 
(1866,)  "Fishing  Gossip,  (1S67,)  "Modern  Practical 
Angler,"  (1873,)  and  other  works. 

Pennethorne,  pSn'thorn,  ?  (James,)  an  English  archi- 
tect, born  at  Worcester  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Nash 
and  Pugin.  He  designed  many  public  buildings  of 
London,  among  which  are  the  Museum  of  Practical 
Geology,  the  General  Record  Repository,  and  an  ad- 
dition to  Somerset  House.  He  was  appointed,  several 
years  since,  architect  and  surveyor  of  her  Majesty's 
parks,  palaces,  etc.     Died  in  1871. 

Pennethorne,  (John,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  studied  the  principles  of  Grecian  architecture 
at  Athens,  and  wrote  a  small  work  on  "  The  Elements 
and  Mathematical  Principles  of  the  Greek  Architects  " 
(1844) 

Penney,  (William.)     See  Kinloch. 

Penni,  pen'nee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  n.  Fattore,  ("the  Steward,") 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1488.  He  was  in  his  youth  the 
steward  of  Raphael,  who  was  his  friend.  He  aided  Ra- 
phael in  painting  the  cartoons  of  the  Vatican,  and,  after 
the  death  of  his  master,  he  and  Giulio  Romano  finished 
a  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  designed  by  Raphael.  He 
excelled  in  landscapes.     Died  at  Naples  in  152S. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Penni,  (Luca,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  vv.is  born  at  Florence  about  1500.  He 
worked  for  Henry  VHI.  in  England,  and  with  II  Rosso 
in  Paris. 

Pennington.     See  Penington. 

Pen'ning-tpn,  (William,)  an  American  Governor, 
born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1797.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1837,  and  re-elected  four  or 
five  times  between  that  year  and  1843.  He  became  a 
member  of  Congress  in  December,  1859,  and,  after  a 
long  contest,  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  by  the 
Republicans  in  Febru?ry,  i860.  Died  in  February,  1862. 

Pen'n;^,  (Edward,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  1 7 14.  He  was  a  professor  in  the  Royal 
Academy,     Died  in  1791. 

Pen'rose,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Berk- 
shire in  1743.  He  was  successively  curate  of  Newbury 
and  rector  of  Beckington.  Died  in  1779.  His  poems 
were  published  in  1781. 

Pen-rud'dock,  (John.)  Colonel,  an  English  royal- 
ist, was  one  of  the  leaders  of  an  insurrection  against 
Cromwell  in  1655.     He  was  beheaded  in  the  same  year. 

Pen'ry,  Pen'rl,  or  Ap  Hen'ry,  (John,)  a  Welsh 
religionist,  called  Martin  Mar-Prelate,  was  born 
in  1559.  According  to  Anthony  Wood,  he  became  a 
Brownist  or  Anabaptist,  and  wrote  against  the  Anglican 
Church  a  tract  entitled  "Martin  Mar-Prelate."  He  vva.« 
unjustly  condemned  for  sedition  or  felony,  and  executed, 
Jn  1593- 

See  "  John  Penry,  the  Pilgrim  Martyr,"  by  J.  Waddington  1854 

Penthee.    See  Pentheus. 

Penthesilee.     See  Penthesii.eia. 

Pen-the-si-le'ia  or  Pen-the-si-le'a,  [Gr.  Yiniiol- 
Xeia;  Fr.  Penth6s1l6e,  pSN'ti'ze'li',]  tlie  queen  of  the 
Amazons.  According  to  some  traditions,  she  fought 
against  the  Greeks  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  was  killed 
by  Achilles,  who  admired  too  late  her  beauty  and  valour 
and  lamented  her  fate. 

Pen'theiis,  [Gr.  Hcvdevg ;  Fr.  Penthi^e,  pfiN'ti',]  a 
mythical  person,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Echion,  and  King  of 
Thebes.  He  was  killed  by  his  mother  and  other  women 
because  he  opposed  the  worship  of  Bacchus  and  ascended 
a  tree  to  witness  furtively  their  revels  and  orgies. 

Penthi^vre,  de,  deh  p6N'te'AvR',(Louis  Jean  Marif 
DE  Bourbon,)  Due,  a  French  nobleman,  born  in  1725, 
was  a  son  of  the  Count  of  Toulouse.  He  served  as 
general  at  Fontenoy,  (1745.)  He  was  noted  for  his  libe- 
rality or  benevolence.  His  daughter  was  the  mother  of 
King  Louis  Philippe.     Died  in  1793. 

Penzance,  pen-zanss',  (James  Plaisted  "Wilde,) 
Lord,  an  English  judge,  a  iSrother  of  Lord  Truro,  was 


born  in  London,  July  12,  1816.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  gradu- 
ating as  A.B.  in  1838.  In  1839  he  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  the  Inner  Temple,  was  made  a  Queen's  counsel  in 
1855,  and  was  knighted  in  1880.  He  was  judge  of  the 
court  of  probate  and  divorce,  1863-72,  was  ennobled  and 
made  Baron  Penzance  in  1S69,  and  in  1875  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  public  worship  regulation  court  and  of  the 
provincial  (ecclesiastical)  courts. 

Penzel,  p^nt'sel,  (.Abraham  Jacob,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Dessau  in  1749,  was  professor  of 
poetry  at  Laybach.  He  translated  Strabo's  "Geog- 
raphy" into  German,  (1777,)  and  wrote  several  treatises. 
Died  in  1819. 

Peon  y  Contreras,  pi-on'  h  kon-tri'ris,  (Jos6,)  a 
Mexican  poet,  born  in  Merida,  Yucatan,  in  Januar\', 
1843.  He  became  a  physician,  and  acquired  national 
fame  as  an  alienist.  His  dramas  are  numerous,  and 
some,  like  "  Hasta  el  Cielo"  and  "  La  Hija  del  Rey,"  are 
very  popular.  His  "  Romances  historicos  mejicanos" 
are  marked  by  rich  fancy  and  brilliant  diction. 

Pepagomenns.    See  Demetrius  Pepagomenus. 

Pepe,  pa'pi,  (Florestan,)  a  Neapolitan  general,  born 
at  Squillace  in  1780,  entered  the  French  service  about 
1806,  served  in  Spain  and  Russia,  and  received  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  from  Murat  in  1815.  Died 
at  Naples  in  185 1. 

Pepe,  (Gabriello,)  an  Italian  officer,  cousin  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1781.  He  served  in  the  French 
army  during  the  empire.  About  1822  he  fought  a  duel 
at  Florence  with  Lamartine,  who  had  offended  him  by 
some  verses  which  Pepe  regarded  as  injurious  to  the 
Italian  people.     Died  in  1849. 

Pepe,  (Guglielmo,)  a  general,  born  in  1783,  was  a 
brother  of  Florestan,  noticed  above.  He  joined  the 
French  party  in  1799,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1813.  In  1820  he  was  chosen  commander- 
in-chief  by  the  insurgents  who  rose  against  the  King  of 
Naples.  His  army  was  defeated  or  dispersed  by  the 
Austrians  in  1821,  and  he  escaped  to  England.  In 
1848  King  Ferdinand,  constrained  by  public  opinion, 
gave  him  command  of  an  army  sent  to  aid  the  pet^ple 
of  Lombardy.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Revo- 
lutions and  Wars  of  Italy  in  1847-49,"  (iS^o.)  Died 
in  1855. 

Pepin.    See  Pepyn,  (Martin.) 

Pepin,  pep'in  or  pip'in,  [Fr.  pron.  peh-p4N',)  a  son 
of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  was  born  about  802  A.D.,  and 
was  made  King  of  Aquitania  about  817.  He  joined  his 
brothers  Lothaire  and  Louis  in  a  revolt  against  his  father 
in  830.  He  died  in  838  A.D.,  leaving  a  son  Pspin,  who 
contested  the  succession  with  Charles  the  Bald  and  was 
defeated. 

See  "  Notivelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 

Pepin,  King  of  Italy,  a  son  of  Charlemagne,  was  born 
in  776  A.D.,  and  crowned  by  the  pope  in  781.  He  died 
in  810,  leaving  a  son  ]?ernard. 

Pepin,  peh-piN',  (Alphonse,)  a  French  historical 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Paris.  Among  his  works 
is  "Two  Years  of  Rule,"  ("Deux  Ans  de  Regne,"  1830- 
32.)     Died  in  1842. 

Pepin  le  Bref,  peh-p^N'  leh  bRSf,  King  of  the  Franks, 
was  a  son  of  Charles  Martel,  at  whose  death  he  obtained 
Neustria  and  Burgundy.  Having  propitiated  the  favour 
of  the  pope,  he  confined  the  -^nminal  king,  Childeric  III., 
in  a  monastery  in  751  A.D.,  and  usurped  the  throne.  He 
assisted  the  pope  in  a  war  against  the  Lombards,  and 
waged  war  with  success  against  the  Saxons.  He  died  in 
768  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charlemagne. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Francais;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Pepin  le  Gros,  peh-piN'  leh  gRo,  or  Pepin  d'H6- 
ristal,  (dA'ris'tSl',)  an  ambitious  French  nobleman,  be- 
came Duke  of  Austrasia  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert  II. 
About  680  A.D.  he  assumed  royal  power  as  mayor  of 
the  palace,  and  defeated  Thierri  III.,  King  of  Neustria. 
He  permitted  Thierri  to  retain  the  title  of  king,  and 
the  latter  was  the  first  of  a  succession  of  rois  fainiants, 
("do-nothing  kings.")  Pepin  died  in  714  A.D.,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Martel. 

Pepoli,  pa'po-lee  or  p§p'o-lee,  (  Alessandro  Ercole,) 


eas  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,     (fll^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.} 


PEP  0 LI 


1920 


PERCIVAL 


an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Venice  in  1757.  Me  pub- 
lished a  number  of  dramas,  or  dramatic  essays,  entitled 
"  Efforts  of  Italy,"  ("Tentativi  dell'Italia,"  6  vols.,  178S.) 
Died  in  1796. 

Pepoli,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  littirateur,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1801.  lie  was  exiled  for  political  reasons,  and  was 
professor  of  Italian  literature  in  the  London  University 
from  1839  to  1848.  He  composed  for  Bellini  the  words 
of  "  I  Puritani,"  an  opera,  and  wrote  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse. 

Pepoli,  (GioACCHiNO  Napoi.eone,)  Marquis  of,  an 
Italian  statesman,  born  at  Bologna,  November  6,  1S25. 
His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Murat,  and  of  Caroline, 
sister  of  Napiileon  I.  I'epoli  in  1S44  married  his  cousin 
P'rederica  Wilhelmina,  Princess  of  Hohenzollern-Sigma- 
ringen.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the  papal  govern- 
ment, and  in  1S64  his  influence  with  his  relatives  the 
Hohenzollerns  and  the  Bonapartes  did  much  to  smooth 
over  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  new  Italian  kingdom. 
Died  March  26,  1S81. 

Pep'per,  (George  Dana  Boardman,)  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Ware,  Massa- 
chusetts, February  5,  1833,  graduated  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege in  1S57,  and  at  the  Ne\vtoi>  Theological  School  in 
i860,  held  a  Baptist  pastorate,  1860-65,  was  professor 
of  church  history  at  Newton,  1865-67,  professor  of  the- 
ology at  the  Crozer  Seminary,  1868-S2,  and  in  1882  was 
appointed  president  of  Colby  University,  in  Maine.  His 
principal  work  is  "Outlines  of  Theology." 

Pepper,  (William,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Philadelphia,  August  21,  1843,  son  of  a 
distinguished  physician  of  the  same  name.  He  gradu- 
ated in  arts  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1862, 
and  in  medicine  in  1864.  In  1S76  he  became  a  professor 
of  clinical  medicine  in  the  same  institution.  In  iSSo  he 
was  made  provost  of  the  University.  He  has  contrib- 
uted largely  to  professional  literature,  his  best-known 
works  being  the  treatise  on  "  Diseases  of  Children,"  pre- 
pared by  him  in  conjunction  with  the  late  Dr.  J.  Forsyth 
Meigs,  and  an  extended  report  on  the  mineral  springs 
of  the  United  States. 

Pep'per-ell,  (Sir  Willl\m,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Elaine  in  1696,  commanded  at  the  siege  of 
Louisburg,  in  1745.  He  was  made  a  baronet  for  his 
services,  and  in  1759  was  appointed  lieutenant-general. 
Died  in  1759. 

See  Parsons,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Pepperell,"  1856. 

Pepusch,  pa'poosh,  (Johanx  Christoph,)  a  German 
musical  composer  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1667. 
He  settled  in  England  about  1700,  and  received  from 
the  University  of  Oxford  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music. 
He  was  also  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His 
"Treatise  on  Harmony"  (1731)  still  enjoys  a  high  repu- 
tation.    Died  in  1752. 

Pepyn,  pi-pin',  sometimes  written  Pepin,  (Martin,) 
a  Flemish  i^ainter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1570.  He 
worked  at  Rome  for  some  years,  and  painted  religious 
subjects.  His  works  are  highly  praised.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1641. 

Pepys,  (Charles  C.)     See  Cottenham. 

Pepys,  p^ps,  (Lady  Charlotte  Maria,)  a  daughter 
of  Lord-Chancellor  Cottenham,  is  the  author  of  "  Quiet 
Moments,"  "  Female  Influence,"  and  other  works. 

Pepys,  (Samuel,)  an  English  gentleman,  gossip,  and 
connoisseur,  celebrated  as  the  writer  of  a  diary,  was 
born  in  1632,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was 
appointed  clerk  of  the  acts  of  the  navy  in  1660,  and 
retained  this  important  position  until  1673.  His  official 
duties  brought  him  into  the  favourable  notice  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  who  was  lord  high  admiral.  He  was 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  for  about  four  years,  ending 
at  the  revolution,  {1688.)  In  1684  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was  well  versed  in  naval 
affairs,  and  was  a  connoisseur  in  the  fine  arts.  His 
reputation  is  founded  on  his  "  Memoirs,  comprising  a 
Diary  from  1659  to  1669,"  which  was  published  in  1825. 
Died  in  1703. 

See  "  EHinbnreh  Review"  for  November,  1823,  and  October, 
1849;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  (or  October,  1S49. 

Pepys,  (William  Haseldine,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
chemist  and  philosopher,  born  in  London  in  1775.     He 


was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Askesian  Society,  and 
an  active  member  of  the  London  Institution  and  of 
the  Geological  Society.  His  skill  in  the  construction 
of  chemical  apparatus  contributed  to  the  progress  of 
science.  He  was  associated  with  William  Allen  in 
successful  researches  on  resjiiration,  and  was  a  friend 
of  Sir  Humphry  Da\'y.     Died  in  1856. 

Peranda,  pi-rin'd<^,  (Santo,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1566,  was  a  pupil  of  Jacopo  Palma. 
He  learned  to  design  correctly  at  Rome,  and  painted 
many  good  portraits.  Among  his  best  works  are  "The 
Children  of  Niobe,"  and  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 
Died  in  1638. 

Perard-Castel,  peh'rtR'  kts'tSK,  (Fran^ots,)  a 
French  canonist,  born  at  Vire  in  1647  ;  died  in  1687. 

Perau,  peh-ro',  (Gabriel  Louis  Calahre,)  a  French 
biographer  and  editor,  born  in  Paris  in  1700.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Bossuet,  (20  vols.,  1743-53,)  and  continued 
the  "Lives  of  Illustrious  Men  of  France,"  begun  by 
D'Auvigny,  to  which  Perau  added  thirteen  volumes, 
(1754-60.)     Died  in  1767. 

Perceval.    See  Caussin  de  Perceval. 

Per'ce-val,  (John,)  Earl  of  Egmont,  was  born  at 
Barton,  Yorkshire,  in  1683.  He  was  one  of  the  princi- 
pal founders  of  a  colony  planted  in  Georgia  about  1732. 
He  wrote  several  small  works.     Died  in  1748. 

Perceval,  (John,)  second  Earl  of  Egmont,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  171 1.  He  entered  the  House 
of  Lords,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Lovel  and  Holland,  in 
1762,  and  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from  1763  to 
1766.  He  wrote  a  successful  pamphlet  named  "  Faction 
detected  by  the  Evidence  of  Facts."     Died  in  1770. 

Perceval,  (Spencer,)  a  minister  of  state,  born  in 
London  in  1762,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied 
law,  and  practised  with  success  on  the  Midland  circuit. 
Having  been  returned  to  Parliament  in  1796,  he  became 
a  supporter  of  ISIr.  Pitt,  and  an  able  speaker.  He  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  1801,  and  attorney-general 
in  1802.  At  the  death  of  Pitt  (1806)  he  went  out  of 
office.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1807, 
and  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime  minister)  at  the 
death  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  (1S09.)  He  opposed 
reform  and  liberal  measures,  and  pursued  the  foreign 
policy  of  Pitt.  On  the  nth  of  May,  1812,  he  was  as- 
sassinated with  a  pistol  in  the  lobby  of  the  House  of 
Commons  by  John  Bellingham,  a  merchant,  who  had 
resolved  to  kill  some  member  of  the  ministry  because 
they  had  rejected  or  neglected  a  private  claim  which  he 
had  preferred. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  i.  chap,  xviii.  ; 
Charles  V.  Williams,  "Life  of  the  Risht  Hon.  S.  Perceval," 
1S12;  Henri  de  Lasallk,  "  Essai  biographique  sur  M.  Perceval," 
18.2. 

Perche,  p?R'shi',  (Napoleon  Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  arch- 
bishop, born  at  Angers,  in  France,  January  10,  1S05,  be- 
came a  Catholic  priest,  and  removed  in  1837  to  the  United 
States.  In  1870  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Abdera, 
and  coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of  New  Orleans,  and 
n  the  same  year  succeeded  as  archbishop.  Died  De- 
cember 26,  1SS3. 

Percheron,  p5Rsh'r6N',  (Achille  Remy,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  published  several 
works  on  entomology.     Died  June  3,  1869. 

Percier,  p§R'se-i',  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  French 
architect,  born  in  1764,  in  Paris,  was  a  pupil  of  Gisors. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  gained  a  prize,  which  enabled 
him  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Rome.  He  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  the  architect  Fontaine,  with  whom  he  was 
constantly  associated  in  his  professional  labours  until 
his  death.  They  were  employed  by  Bonaparte  to  restore 
and  complete  the  palaces  of  the  Tuileries  and  the  Louvre. 
Among  their  works  are  the  triumphal  arch  of  the  Car- 
rousel, and  the  northern  wing  of  the  court  of  the  Tuile- 
ries. By  their  skill  and  taste  in  design  they  produced 
in  their  art  a  reformation  similar  to  that  wfiich  David 
effected  in  painting.  They  published  some  excellent 
works,  among  which  is  "  The  Palaces,  Mansions,  and 
other  Modern  Edifices  designed  at  Rome,"  (1798.)  (See 
Fontaine,  Pierre  Franqois.)     Percier  died  in  1S38. 

Per'ci-val,  (James  Gates.)  an  eminent  American 
poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Berlin,  Connecticut,  in  179^. 


■;  ^,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


(^  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  loftg;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  0,  ii,  y,  short 


PERCIVAL 


1921 


PEREIRA 


He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1815,  and,  having  sub- 
sequently studied  medicine,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in 
1823.  lie  published  in  1822  his  "  Prometheus,"  a  poem 
in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  also  two  volumes  of  miscella- 
neous poetry  and  prose.  He  was  appointed  in  1824 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point.  In  1827  he  was  employed  by  Dr.  Webster  to 
revise  the  manuscript  of  his  large  Dictionary,  and  in 
1835  was  appointed  conjointly  with  Professor  C.  U. 
Shepard  to  make  a  geological  survey  of  Connecticut,  a 
report  of  which  he  published  in  1842.  He  brought  out 
in  1843  "The  Dream  of  a  Day,  and  other  Poems."  He 
was  appointed  in  1854  State  Geologist  of  Wisconsin  ; 
but  while  preparing  his  second  report  his  health  declined, 
and  he  died  in  May,  1856.  He  had  published  in  1833 
an  excellent  translation  of  Malte-Rrun's  "Geography." 

See  "  I-ife  and  Letters  of  James  G.  Percival,"  by  J.  H.  Ward, 
i860;  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1822,  (by  Edward 
EvEKKTT,)  April,  1826,  and  July,  1S60. 

P?r'cl-val,  (Thomas,)  a  popular  English  medical  and 
moral  writer,  born  at  Warrington  in  1740.  He  settled 
in  1767  at  Manchester,  where  he  practised  with  success, 
and  founded  the  "Manchester  Philosophical  Society" 
about  1780.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Essays, 
Medical  and  Experimental,"  (3  vols.,  1767-78,)  "A 
Father's  Instructions,  consisting  of  Moral  Tales,"  etc., 
(178S,)  and  "Medical  Ethics,"  (1803.)  He  was  a  dis- 
senter from  the  Anglican  Church.     Died  in  1804. 

See  "  Life  of  T.  Percival,"  by  his  son,  prefixed  to  his  works,  1807. 

Percy.    See  Northumberland. 

Per'c^,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  English 
family,  descended  from  William  de  Percy,  who,  in  the 
reign  of  William  the  Conqueror,  possessed  several 
manors  in  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and  York.  He  was 
probably  a  Norman.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  a  Henry 
DE  Percy  acquired  Alnwick  and  other  estates  in  North- 
umberland. Another  Henry  de  Percy,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  married  Mary  Plantagenet,  a  great-grand- 
daughter of  King  Henry  iH.,  and  had  two  sons,  Henry, 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  and  Thomas,  Earl  of  Worces- 
ter. Henry  Percy,  surnamed  Hotspur,  ason  of  Henry 
last  named,  rebelled  against  Henry  IV.,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  {1403.)  A  son  of  Hotspur 
was  restored  to  the  earldom,  fought  for  the  house  of 
Lancaster,  and  fell  at  Saint  Alban's,  in  T455,  leaving 
several  sons,  who  were  killed  in  the  war  of  the  Roses. 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  a  Percy,  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land, was  executed  for  rebellion,  (1572.) 

Percy,  pSa'se',  (Pierre  Francois,)  Baron,  an  emi- 
nent French  surgeon,  born  in  Frauche-Comte  in  1754. 
He  became  about  1792  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  armies 
of  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle,  and  organized  in  concert 
with  Larrey  a  corps  t/iol>ilc  of  surgeons  with  ambulances. 
Attached  to  the  grand  army,  he  served  in  all  tiie  cam- 
paigns of  the  empire,  except  those  of  Russia  and  Saxony. 
He  was  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  Paris,  and 
wrote  several  able  treatises  on  surgery.     Died  in  1825. 

See  A.  F.  Silvestrh,  "  Notice  biograpliique  sur  Percy,"  1825; 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Percy,"  by  his  nephew  Laurent,  1827  ; 
"  Biographie  M^dicale." 

Percy,  (Thomas,)  an  Englishman  of  noble  family, 
was  one  of  the  leading  conspirators  in  the  famous  Gun- 
powder Plot,  (1604-05.)  He  was  executed  in  the  early 
part  of  1606. 

Percy,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Shropshire  in  1728.  He  became 
vicar  of  Easton  Maudit  in  1756,  chajjlain  to  the  king  in 
1769,  Dean  of  Carlisle  in  1778,  and  Bishop  of  Dromore, 
Ireland,  in  1782.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  in- 
teresting work,  entitled  "  Reliques  of  Ancient  English 
Poetry,"  (1765,)  which  has  enjoyed  a  great  popularity. 
He  translated  from  the  French  Mallet's  "Northern 
Antiquities,"  (1770.)  Among  his  works  are  a  "Key 
to  the  New  Testament,"  (1765,)  and  "The  Hermit  of 
Warkworth,"  a  poem,  (1770.)  Died  in  181 1.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson. 

Perczel,  p§Rt'sel,  (Moricz,)  a  distinguished  Hunga- 
rian general,  born  at  Tolna  in  1814.  He  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Austrians  in  184S,  but  after  the  defeat 
of  Temesvar  he  took  refuge  in  Turkey,  and  afterwards 
settled  in  the  island  of  Jersey.  In  1867  he  returned  to 
Hungary  and  became  a  member  of  Parliament  at  Vienna. 


Per-dic'cas  [Gr.  llepJJK/caf]  I.,  Kingof  Macedon,  was, 
according  to  Herodotus,  the  founder  of  the  Macedonian 
monarchy.    He  is  suppo.sed  to  have  lived  about  750  B.C. 

Perdiccas  II.,  King  of  Macedon,  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Alexander  I.  He  waged  war  against  the 
Athenians.     Died  about  413  B.C. 

Perdiccas  III.,  a  son  of  Amyntas  II.  of  Macedon, 
began  to  reign  about  364  B.C.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
against  the  Illyrians  in  359,  and  was  succeeded  by  hi.s 
brother,  Philip  II. 

Perdiccas,  [Gr.  TlepiVLKKa^,]  a  prominent  Macedonian 
general,  who  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of 
Alexander  the  Great  in  his  invasion  of  Asia,  was  a  son 
of  Orontes.  It  is  reported  that  Alexander,  on  his  death- 
bed, gave  his  royal  signet  to  Perdiccas,  as  if  to  designate 
him  for  the  office  of  regent.  Having  obtained  command 
of  the  household  troops  who  guarded  the  young  king, 
he  exercised  the  power  of  regent,  or  chief  minister,  and, 
to  secure  the  succession  of  Roxana's  son,  put  her  rival 
Statira  to  death.  He  also  put  to  death  his  rival  Me- 
leager.  He  failed  in  a  matrimonial  intrigue  in  relation 
to  Cleopatra,  a  sister  of  Alexander,  and  became  the 
enemy  of  Antigonus  and  Antipater,  who  formed  with 
Ptolemy  a  coalition  against  him.  Perdiccas  found  an 
able  adherent  or  ally  in  Eumenes,  (who  opposed  Antip- 
ater and  Antigonus  in  Asia  Minor,)  and  marched  against 
Ptolemy  in  Egypt.  He  met  with  a  reverse  near  the 
Nile,  and  was  killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers,  in  321 
B.C.,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  crafty,  cruel,  and  am- 
bitious man. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis;"  Justin,  books  xii.  and  xiii. :  Drov- 
SEN,  "  Gescliichte  Alexanders." 

Per'dix,  [Gr.  X\ep(\^,]  a  nephew,  or,  as  some  say,  a 
sister,  of  Daedalus,  was  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the 
saw,  the  compasses,  and  other  implements.  According 
to  the  fable,  Perdix  was  changed  into  a  partridge. 

Pereda,  de,  di  p.\-ra'Dil,  (AsroNro,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1599.  He  painted 
history  and  genre  with  success,  and  was  jxitronized 
by  the  Duke  of  Olivarez.  He  excelled  in  colouring. 
Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  "Human  Vanity." 
Died  in  1669. 

Perefixe,  de,  deh  pi'ri'fiks',  (Hardouin  de  Beau- 
mont,) a  French  historian,  born  at  Beaumont  in  1605. 
He  was  appointed  preceptor  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1642, 
succeeded  Balzac  in  the  French  Academy  in  1654,  and 
wrote  a  "History  of  Henry  IV.,"  (1661,)  which,  says 
M.  Weiss,  will  assure  him  a  durable  reputation.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1662,  and  required  the 
Port-Royalists  to  subscribe  the  formulary  of  Pcjpe  Alex- 
ander VII.     Died  in  December,  1670,  or  January,  1671. 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana,"  tome  vii. 

Peregrine  (or  Peregrini)  da  Cesena,  p.\-r.\-gRee'- 
no  (or  pi-ri-gKee'nee)  dl  chi-sa'na,  a  celebrated  Italian 
engraver  and  worker  in  niello,  flourished  about  1500  or 
1520.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  Nagler  gives  a  list 
of  many  prints  ascribed  to  him. 

Per-e-gri'nu.s  Pro'te-us,  a  Greek  Cynic  philosopher, 
notorious  for  his  vices  and  licentious  life,  was  born  at 
Parium,  on  the  Hellespont,  and  lived  in  the  reign  of 
the  Antonines.  He  committed  suicide  by  fire  at  the 
Olympic  games,  in  165  A.D. 

See  "  De  Morte  Peregrini,"  by  Luci  an,  (who  witnessed  his  death.) 

Pereira,  pi-ra^-rJi,  (Bartholomeu,)  a  Portuguese 
epic  poet,  flourished  about  1640,  and  wrote  "Paciecis." 

Pereira,  pi-ra^-r5,  (Gomez,)  a  Spanish  physician 
and  writer,  who  lived  about  1570. 

Pereira,  ]  Fr.  Pereike,  peh-r^R',]  (Jacob  Rodri- 
guez,) a  Spaniard,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1715,  is 
called  the  first  instructor  of  deaf-mutes.  He  removed 
to  Bordeaux  about  1742,  and  exhibited  a  pupil  before 
the  king,  who  granted  him  a  pension  in  1751.  Died 
in  1780. 

Pereira,  pe-ree'ra  or  pa-ra'ra,  (T<inathan,)  an  Eng- 
lish physician  and  pharmacologist,  born  in  London  in 
1804.  He  published  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Ele- 
ments of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,"  (2  vols., 
1839,)  regarded  as  the  most  comprehensive  and  com- 
plete treatise  on  materia  medica  in  the  English  language, 
and  a  treatise  "On  Food  and  Diet,"  (1842,)  which  is 
highly  commended.    In  1846  he  vvas  appointed  assistant 


cas/i-.-^asj;  g /-t./n/;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,i,^uU/(rti/;  N,  r/asa/;  K,tri:Uil;  sasz;  th  as  mthis.     (Jl^='See  Explanations,  p.  2^) 


PEREIRA 


1922 


PERICLES 


physician  to  the  London  Hospital.  He  became  full  pliy- 
sician  to  the  same  hospital  in  185 1.     Died  in  1853. 

Pereira,  (Manoei.,)  a  Portuguese  sculptor  of  high 
reputation,  was  horn  in  1614.  He  worked  in  Spain, 
and  died  at  Madrid  in  1667. 

Pereira  or  Pereyra,  (Nuno  Alvarez  or  Nui5E7-  Al- 
varez,) a  general  and  statesman,  called  '  the  Portuguese 
Cid,"  was  born  in  1360.  He  gained  victories  over  the 
Spaniards.     Died  in  143 1. 

See  A.  DE  EscoRAR,  "  Heroe  Pnrtiigiiez.  Vida  del  Senor  N.  A. 
Pereyra,"  1670;  Da  Costa,  "DeVita  et  Rebus  gestis  N.  A.  Pe- 
reira," 1723. 

Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  pA-ra'e-ri  di  fe-gi-e-ra'do, 
(Anto.n'IO,)  a  learned  Portuguese  writer,  born  at  Macao 
in  1725.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  Jesuits,  and  he 
wrote  an  able  work  against  the  temporal  power  of  the 
pope,  entitled  "Theological  Essays,"  ("Tentativa  Theo- 
logica,"  1766.)  He  published  a  Latin  Grammar,  (1752,) 
a  Portuguese  version  of  the  Hible,  (23  vols.,  1778-90,) 
and  other  works.     Died  at  Lisbon  in  1797. 

Pereire.     See  Perkika,  (Jacob  RodkigueZ.) 

Pereire,  peh-rSR',  (fiMii.E  and  Isaac,)  French  finan- 
ciers, grandsons  of  Jacob  Rodriguez,  noticed  above,  were 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1800  and  1806  respectively.  They 
gained  distinction  as  originators  of  the  railway  from 
Paris  to  Saint-Germain  in  1835,  and  other  railroads. 
They  were  the  chief  founders  of  the  Credit  Mobilier,  a 
joint-stock  company,  with  a  capital  of  sixty  million 
francs,  which  was  established  in  1852.  Emile  died  Jan- 
uary 6,  1S75,  and  Isaac  died  July  12,  1S80. 

Perelle,  peh-r?l',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  designer  and 
etcher,  born  at  Vernon-sur-Seine  ;  died  in  1675.  His 
sons,  Nicolas  and  Adam,  were  engravers. 

Perenna.     See  Anna  Perenna. 

Peres,  pi'rSs',  (Jean  Bai'TISte,)  a  French  litterateur, 
who  wrote  a  curious  work,  entitled  "  How  Napoleon 
never  Existed,"  etc.,  ("Comme  quoi  Napoleon  n'a  ja- 
mais existe,  ou  grand  Erratum,"  etc.,  1817,  often  re- 
printed.)    Died  in  1840. 

Pereyra,  i)i-ra^  rJ,  (DiOGO,)  a  skilful  Portuguese 
landscape-painter,  was  born  about  1570.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  the  "Burning  of  Troy,"  and  the  "Com- 
bustion of  Sodom."     Died  in  1640. 

Pereyra,  (Manoel,  and  Nunc  Alvarez.)  See  Pe- 
reira. 

Perez,  pa'rdth  or  pee'rez,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
courtier,  born  about  1540,  was  a  son  of  Gonzalo  Perez, 
'who  was  secretary  of  state  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip 
II.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1567,  and  obtained 
the  confidence  and  favour  of  the  king,  who  used  him 
as  his  instrument  in  the  assassination  of  Escovedo,  the 
intriguing  secretary  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  (1578.) 
Soon  after  this  event.  Perez  and  the  princess  Eboli  were 
arre.sted  by  order  of  Philip,  who,  it  appears,  induced 
Perez  to  give  up  all  the  papers  which  would  implicate 
him  in  the  death  of  Escovedo.  Subjected  to  the  rack, 
Perez  confessed  his  own  share  in  that  crime,  and  ac- 
cused the  king  of  complicity  in  it.  About  1590  he 
escaped  from  prison,  and  sought  refuge  at  Saragossa, 
the  citizens  of  which  rose  in  arms  to  protect  him  and 
assert  their  own  civil  rights.  He  escaped  to  France, 
published  an  account  of  his  sufferings,  (1594,)  and 
received  a  pension  from  Henry  IV.  Died  at  Paris  ir. 
1611,  or,  as  others  say,  1616. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.  ;"  Antonio  Perez, 
"  Memorial  y  Relaciones,"  1598;  S.  Bermudez  de  Castro,  "An- 
tonio Perez."  Madrid,  1S41  ;  Mignkt,  "Antonio  Perez,  et  Philippe 
II,"  1S4S;  Motley,  "The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic;"  "  Kraser's 
Magazine"  for  December,  1S67. 

Perez,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  painter,  who  lived  about 
1550,  was  one  of  the  three  founders  of  the  Academy  of 
Seville. 

Perez,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Alfaro,  on 
the  Ebro,  in  1583.  He  became  professor  of  civil  law  at 
Louvain  in  1628,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  at 
Louvain  in  1672. 

Perez,  pa'redz,  (Davide,)  a  composer,  of  Spanish 
origin,  born  at  Naples  in  171 1.  He  composed  several 
popular  operas,  among  which  is  "  Semiramide."  Died 
in  1778. 

Perez,  pa'rSs,  (Don  Jos6  Joaquin,)  an  able  Chilian 
statesman,  born  at  Santiago  de  Chili  in  1801.     He  was 


chosen  a  deputy  to  Congress  in  1833,  and  was  appointed 
minister  of  finance  in  1844.  In  1849  he  became  foreign 
minister.  He  was  afterwards  a  senator,  and  held  other 
high  offices.  In  the  sumtner  of  1861  he  was  elected 
president  for  five  years,  and  in  1866  he  was  re-elected. 

Perez,  [Lat.  Petre'ius,]  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1512,  wrote  an  admired  Latin  poem 
named  "  Magdalena,"  (1552,)  and  other  work.s.  Died 
in  1545. 

Perez  de  Pineda,  pa'r^th  di  pe-na'ni,  (Francisco,) 
a  painter,  born  at  Seville,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of 
Murillo.     Died  about  1682. 

Perez  Galdos,  pa'iSth  gil'd6s,  (Benito,)  a  Spani.sh 
novelist,  born  at  Las  Palmas,  in  the  Canary  Islands, 
in  1845.  Among  his  many  and  very  successful  romances 
are  "  La  P'ontana  de  Oro,"  (1871,)  "  Bailen,"  (1873-75,) 
"Cadiz,"  (1874,)  "Dona  Perfecta,"  "Gloria,"  "Mari- 
nela,"  "  La  Familia  de  Leone  Roch,"  etc.  Perez  Galdos, 
after  his  first  literary  successes,  removed  to  Madrid,  and 
soon  took  rank  as  one  of  the  best  of  Spanish  novelists. 

Perfetti,  p?R-fet'tee,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  im- 
provisator, born  at  Sienna  in  1681.  He  exercised  in 
public  his  talent  of  extempore  versification  on  all  sub- 
jects. He  is  said  to  have  been  the  best  improvisator  of 
Italy  in  his  time.     Died  in  1747. 

Pergamini,  pfR-gA-tnee'nee,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Fossombrone,  lived  about  1600.  He 
published  a  good  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1602.) 

Pergola,  della,  del'ld  p6R'go-15,  (.-Vngelo,)  an  able 
Italian  general,  born  near  the  line  between  Tuscany  and 
the  Romagna.  He  served  the  Duke  of  Milan  against 
the  Florentines.     Died  in  1427. 

Pergolese.     See  Pergolesi. 

Pergolesi,  p^R-go-li'see,  or  Pergolese,  p^R-go-la'si, 
[Fr.  Pergolese,  p^R'go'lAz',]  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  composer,  born  at  Jesi  about  1708, 
(some  say  in  1704.)  He  studied  at  Naples  under  Gae- 
tano  Greco  and  Durante.  In  1731  he  produced  a  dra- 
matic work  called  "The  Servant  Slistress,"  ("  La  Serva 
Padrona,")  which  was  warmly  applauded.  He  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  sacred  music.  Among  his  wotks  is  a 
celebrated  and  pathetic  "  Staliat  Mater,"  for  two  voices, 
"  Dixit  Dominus,"  a  motet,  and  "  Salve  Regina,"  a  motet 
His  death  is  variously  dated  1736,  1737,  and  1739. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Miisiciens;"  C.  I'lasis 
"  Biografia  di  Pergolese;"  Tipaldo,  "  ljio;;ralia  degti  Italian!  illus- 
tri ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Peri,  pa'ree,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Florence  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
He  composed  the  music  of  "  Dafne,"  (1594,)  and  "The 
Death  of  Eurydice,"  lyrical  dramas.  He  entered  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  in  1601. 

Per-I-an'der,  [Gr.  We\nav^\^r,q ;  Fr.  P^riandre,  pi' 
re'6NdR',|  tyrant  of  Corinth,  began  to  reign  about  625 
B.C.  He  is  usually  reckoned  among  the  Seven  Sages  of 
Greece, — probably  on  account  of  his  skill  and  success  in 
kingcraft.  His  rule  was  at  first  mild,  but  became  severe 
and  arbitrary.  It  is  reported  that  he  consulted  the  tyrant 
>t  Miletus  in  relation  to  the  best  mode  of  maintaining 
his  power,  and  that  that  tyrant  answered  by  cutting  off 
the  tallest  ears  in  a  field  of  corn.  Periander  followed 
this  advice  by  depressing  the  noble  and  rich.  Died  about 
5 85  B.C. 

See  Herodotus,  "History;"  Aristotle,  "  Polltica ;"  ScHU- 
«FRT.  "  Periander  von  Korinth,"  1765. 

Periander,  pi-re-iln'der,  (Gilles,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Brussels  about  1545,  wrote  the  "Mirror  of  the  Owl," 
("  Noctuae  Speculum,"  1567.) 

Periandre.     See  Periander. 

Pericaud,  pi're'ko',  (Marc  Antoine.)  a  French 
antiquary  and  biographer,  born  at  Lyons  in  17S2.  He 
published  works  on  the  antiquities  of  Lyons,  and  wrote 
articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle."  In  1827  he 
was  made  keeper  of  the  library  of  Lyons.     Died  in  1S67. 

Per'i-cles,  [Gr.  [leptK?.f/r ;  Ger.  Perikles,  pa're-klJs, | 
an  illustrious  Athenian  statesman,  and  one  of  the  great- 
est orators  that  ever  lived,  was  a  son  of  Xanthip|>us,  who 
defeated  the  Persians  at  Mycale.  His  m<ither,  .'Vgariste, 
was  a  niece  of  Clisthenes.  He  studied  various  arts  and 
sciences  under  Damon  the  musician,  Zeno  of  Elea,  and 
Anaxagoras.  "The  philosopher,"  says  I'lutarch,  "  who 
gave  him  that  force  and  sublimity  of  sentiment  superior 


a.  e.  i,  6,  -v,  y,  /mj;-:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;^,  e,  j,  o,  obsatre;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PERICLES 


1923 


PERINGSKIOLD 


to  all  tlie  demngngues,  who  formed  him  to  that  admi- 
rable dignity  of  manners,  was  Anaxagoras."  He  l<ept 
himself  aloof  from  public  affairs  for  soine  years  after  he 
had  arrived  at  manliood.  About  470  B.C.  he  began  his 
public  career  as  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party,  and, 
lest  he  should  make  himself  too  cheap  atnong  the  people, 
reserved  himself  for  great  occasions.  He  had  a  grace- 
ful figure,  a  sweet  voice,  and  complete  self-command. 
"  Adorning  his  orations  with  the  rich  colours  of  philos- 
ophy," says  Plutarch,  "adding  the  loftiness  of  imagina- 
tion and  all-commanding  energy  with  which  philosophy 
supplied  him,  to  his  native  powers  of  genius,  and  using 
whatever  he  found  to  his  purpose  in  the  study  of  nature, 
he  far  excelled  all  other  orators." 

He  gained  popularity  by  a  law  that  the  people  should 
enjoy  theatrical  amusements  at  the  public  expense,  and 
deprived  the  Areopagus  of  the  judicial  power  which  ren- 
dered it  a  dangerous  engine  of  the  aristocracy,  (461  n.c.) 
About  this  date  he  used  his  influence  to  procure  the 
ostracism  of  Cimon,  the  leader  nf  the  conservative  or 
aristocratic  party.  Pericles  displayed  courage  at  the 
battle  of  Tanagra,  in  457,  and  proposed  the  decree  that 
Cimon  should  be  recalled  from  exile.  After  the  death 
of  Cimon  and  the  ostracism  of  Thucydides,  (444  h.c.,) 
Pericles  directed  the  government  with  undisputed  su- 
premacy. "He  became  sole  master  of  Athens,"  says 
Plutarch  ;  "he  kept  the  public  good  in  his  eye,  and  pur- 
sued the  strait  path  of  honour."  He  commanded  in  the 
Samian  war,  which  ended  in  the  conquest  of  Samos  in 
440  R.C.,  and  extended  the  influence  (if  Athens  by  plant- 
ing colonies  at  Chalcis,  Sinope,  Thinii,  and  other  places. 
He  expended  the  public  money  profusely  in  the  erection 
of  magnificent  temples  and  monuments,  which  have 
never  been  equalled  as  models  of  art  and  taste.  Under 
his  auspices  the  Parthenon  was  built  and  was  adorned 
with  the  sculptures  of  Phidias.  The  age  of  Pericles  was 
the  most  brilliant  period  of  Grecian  art  and  dramatic 
literature.  He  silenced  those  who  murmured  at  his  ex- 
travagance in  building,  by  an  offer  to  pay  the  expense 
out  of  his  own  purse  on  condition  that  his  name  alone 
should  be  inscribed  on  the  new  edifices. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Pericles  was  not  less  far-sighted 
than  his  internal  policy.  He  constantly  opposed  the 
ambitious  schemes  of  foreign  conquest  which  the  Athe- 
nians were  prone  to  entertain,  and  took  effectual  measures 
to  render  the  maritime  power  of  Athens  superior  to  that 
of  any  other  state.  The  long  walls  which  connected 
Athens  with  the  sea,  and  protected  it  from  the  attack  of 
an  army  by  land,  formed  an  important  part  of  his  foreign 
policy,  continuing  on  a  gigantic  scale  the  plans  of  Themis- 
tocles.  This  measure  excited  great  alarm  among  the  Spar- 
tans and  their  allies.  Under  his  administration  Athens 
became  an  imperial  state,  with  an  extensive  list  of  allies, 
partly  free  and  partly  tributary,  and  attained  the  maxi- 
mum of  her  power.  To  subvert  this  power,  the  Spartans 
organized  a  league  and  involved  all  Greece  in  the  great 
Peloponnesian  war,  which  began  in  431  is.C  The  mova- 
ble property  of  the  Athenians  was  conveyed  within  the 
walls  of  the  capital,  and,  while  the  enemy  ravaged  Attica, 
the  fleet  of  Pericles  made  reprisals  on  the  coast  of  the 
Peloponnesus. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  campaign,  Pericles  pronounced 
a  long  and  inimitable  funeral  oration  on  those  who  had 
fallen  in  battle.  "The  eleven  chapters  of  Thucydides 
which  comprise  this  funeral  speech,"  says  Grote,  "are 
among  the  most  memorable  relics  of  antiquity,  consider- 
ing that  under  the  language  and  arrangement  of  the 
historian  .  ,  ,  we  possess  the  substance  and  thoughts 
of  the  illustrious  statesman.  .  .  .  After  a  few  words  on 
the  magnitude  of  the  empire,  and  on  the  glorious  efforts 
as  well  as  endurance  whereby  their  forefathers  and  they 
had  acquired  it,  Pericles  proceeds  to  sketch  the  plan  of 
life,  the  constitution,  and  the  manners  under  which  such 
achievements  were  brought  about."     (Chap,  xlviii.) 

In  the  second  year  of  the  war  a  great  plague  raged  at 
Athens.  The  people  became  so  demoralized  that  they 
deprived  Pericles  of  command  and  punished  him  with 
a  fine.  He  had  recovered  his  influence  a  short  time 
when  he  died,  in  the  autumn  of  429  B.C.  "As  a  military 
commander,"  says  Grote,  "though  noway  deficient  in 
personal  courage,  he  rarely  courted  distinction,  and  was 


princijially  faiTious  for  his  care  of  the  lives  of  the  citizens. 
His  private  habits  were  sober  and  recluse,  .  .  .  while 
the  tenderest  domestic  attachment  bound  him  to  the 
engaging  and  cultivated  Aspasia."  (See  Aspasia.)  To 
use  the  language  of  a  writer  in  the  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  "he  wielded  the  powers  of  his  majestic 
intelligence  and  the  stores  of  his  spacious  imagination 
with  consummate  ease  and  mastery." 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives;"  TnucvotDES,  "History;"  Grote, 
"History  of  Greece,"  cliaps.  xlv.,  xlvi.,  xlvii.,  xlviii.,  and  xlix.  ; 
KuFFNER,  "  Perikles  der  Olympier;  bio-rapl\isclie  Darstelhing,"  a 
vols.,  1X09;  Clarissk,  "  Vita  Periclis,"  Utreclit,  1835 ; 'I'hiri.wall, 
"History  of  Greece;"  F.  von  Raumkr,  "Perikles  und  Aspasia," 
1810;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdii^rale." 

Pe-ric'ly-tus,  a  Greek  scul|)tor,  of  whom  little  is 
known,  lived  probably  about  420  B.C.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Pausanias  as  a  pupil  of  Polycletus. 

Perier.    See  Perkier. 

Perier,  p,\'re-S',  (.\uguste  Casimir  Victor  Lau- 
rent,) a  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  181 1,  was  a  son  of 
Casimir,  noticed  below.  He  was  elected  a  dejiuty  in 
1846,  and  sat  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1849.  He 
voted  with  the  majority,  and  protested  against  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  1851.  He  wrote  for  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  on  finance,  etc.     Died  June  6,  1876. 

Perier,  (Casimir,)  a  French  minister  of  state,  was 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1777.  He  became  about  1800  a 
partner  of  his  brother  .Scipion  in  a  banking-house,  (in 
Paris,)  which  engaged  in  large  industrial  enterprises  and 
was  prosperous.  In  1S17  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  ojiposition.  He 
gave  an  active  support  to  the  popular  cause  in  the  revo- 
lution of  1S30,  and  succeeded  Lafitte  as  prime  minister 
(president  of  the  council)  on  the  13th  of  March,  1831. 
He  intervened  with  an  army  to  aid  the  revolted  Belgians, 
but  resisted  the  pojDular  [Pressure  which  would  have  in- 
volved France  in  a  war  against  the  allied  powers  for  the 
liberty  of  the  Poles.     Died,  of  cholera,  in  May,  1832, 

See  I.OM^.N'iE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  GutzoT,  "  M^- 
moire?  ;"  "  Nouvelle  I'.iographie  G^nerale  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  July  and  August,  1838. 

Perier,  (Jacques  Constantin,)  a  French  mechanician 
and  constructor  of  steam-engines,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1742  ;  died  in  1818. 

Periers,  des.     See  Desperier-S. 

Peries,  pi're'^s',  (Jean  Vincent,)  a  French  litfera- 
teur,  born  in  1785.  He  produced  a  translation  of  the 
complete  works  of  Machiavgl,  (12  vols.,  1823-26,)  which 
is  commended.  He  wrote  many  notices  of  artists  for 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle."     Died  in  Paris  in  1829. 

P^rignon,  pi'r^n'yiN',  (Ai.exis,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1844. 

Perignon,  (Pierre,)  a  French  monk,  born  at  Samt- 
Menehould  about  1640.  He  was  prucureur  of  the  abbey 
of  Hautvilliers,  and  is  said  to  have  rendered  a  great 
service  to  Champagne  by  perfecting  the  quality  of  its 
wine.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  culture  of  the  grape 
and  the  fabrication  of  wine.     Died  in  1715. 

Perignon,  de,  deh  pi'r^n'y6N',  (Dominique  Cathe- 
rine,) MakcjUis,  a  French  general,  born  near  Toulouse 
in  1754.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1793,  suc- 
ceeded Dugommier  as  general-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Spain,  and  gained  a  victory  at  Escola  in  November,  1794. 
He  negotiated  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Spain  at  Madrid 
in  1796.  In  1804  he  became  a  marshal  of  France.  Died 
in  181 8. 

Perigord.    See  Talleyrand. 

Perikles.     See  Pericles. 

Peril!,  pi'riN',  (Henri  Charles  Xavier,)  a  Belgian 
economist,  born  at  Mons  in  1815,  wrote  "On  Riches  in 
Christian  Societies,"  (1861,)  "The  Laws  of  Christian 
Society,"  (1875,)  and  "Christian  Socialism,"  (1879.) 

Perin,  pi'riN',  (L16  Louis,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1753,  excelled  in  miniatures.  Died 
in  1817. 

Perin,  (Ren6,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in 
1774.  He  wrote  dramas,  biograjjhies,  and  other  works, 
lie  published  "  The  Thoughts  and  Maxiins  of  Rousseau," 
(1820,)  and  "The  Thoughts  and  Maxiins  of  Voltaire," 
(2  vols.,  1821.)     Died  in  1858. 

Peringskiold,  pii'rings-chold',  (Johan,)  a  Swedish 


eas k:  9 as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/.-  o,  h,  K,i:^iiltiiral:  N,  nasal:  u,  tiill,d:  s as  z:  th  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  2"^.] 


FERINO 


1924 


PER  ONI 


antiquary,  born  at  Strengnas  in  1654.  His  original  name 
was  Peringer.  He  published  "Monuments  of  Upland," 
("Moiiumenta  Uplandica,"  2  vols.,  1 710-19,)  and  other 
works,  of  some  value.     Died  in  1720. 

Perino  del  Vaga,  pi-ree'no  dSl  vi'gj.  written  also 
Pierino  (pe-i-ree'no)  del  Vaga,  an  Italian  painter, 
whose  proper  name  was  Pietko  Buonaccousi,  (boo-An- 
ik-kor'see,)  was  born  in  Tuscany  in  1500  or  1501.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  decora- 
tion of  the  Vatican.  According  to  Vasari,  he  was  the 
greatest  designer  of  the  Florentine  school  after  Michael 
Angelo.  About  152S  he  removed  from  Rome  to  Genoa, 
where  he  painted  admirable  frescos  in  the  palace  of  Ad- 
miral Doria.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Creation  of 
Eve,"  a  fresco,  a  "Holy  Family,"  (in  oil,)  and  "The 
Combat  of  Horatius  Codes."     Died  at  Rome  in  1547. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Perion,  pi're'6.\',  (Joachim,)  a  French  monk  and 
linguist,  born  in  Touraine  about  1500.  He  wrote  "Tiie 
Lives  of  the  Apostles,"  (1551,)  and  translated  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  (7  vols.,  1540-59.)     Died  in  1559. 

Per'it,  (Pel.atiah,)  an  American  merchant,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  17S5.  lie  settled  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1809,  acquired  a  fortune  by  trade,  and 
became  president  of  tlie  chamber  of  commerce  in  1853. 
He  was  distinguished  for  active  benevolence.  Died  in 
March,  1864. 

Perizonius,  pi-re-zo'ne-us,  (James  Voorbroek — 
TOR'bRook,)  an  eminent  Dutch  philologist  and  critic, 
born  at  Dam,  in  the  province  of  Groningen,  in  October, 
165 1.  He  studied  under  Graevius  at  Leyden,  became 
rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Delft  in  1674,  and  professor 
of  history,  etc.'at  Franeker  in  1681.  In  1685  he  pub- 
lished an  excellent  critical  work  on  the  ancient  writers 
of  Roman  history,  entitled  "  Animadversiones  Ilistori- 
cae,"  etc.  He  was  professor  of  history  and  the  Greek 
language  at  Leyden  from  1693  to  171 5,  and  wrote  many 
dissertations  on  classical  subjects.     Died  in  171 5. 

See  "Life  of  Perizonius,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Opuscula  minora,"  2 
vols.,  1740;  WiLHELM  Kra.mer,  "  Elogium  J.  Perizonii,"  1828. 

Per'kins,  (Charles  Callahan,)  an  American  art- 
critic,  born   in   Boston,   Massachusetts,   March    i,  1823. 
He  graduated  at   Harvard  College  in  1843.     His  prin- 
cipal  works   are  "Tuscan    vSculptors,"  (1864,)  "Italian 
Sculptors,"  (1S68,)  "  Raphael  and  Michelangelo,"  (1878,) 
"  Sepulchral  Monuments  in  Italy,"  (1883,)  "  History  of  the  I 
Handel  and  Haydn  Society,"  (ist  part,  1883,)  and  "Lifej 
and  Works  of  Ghiberti,"  (1883.)    He  was  president  of  the  , 
Boston  Art  Club  and  of  the  Handel  and  Haydn  Society,  ' 
a  member  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  a  corresponding  j 
member  of  the  French  Institute.      Died  .Aug.  25,  1886.    i 

Per'kini,  (Elisha,)  an  American  physician,  known  I 
as  the  inventor  of  the  "Metallic  Tractors,"  was  born  in  ' 
Connecticut  in  1740.     He  practised  at  Plainfield,  Con- ^ 
necticuL     His  metallic  tractors,  and  his  system,  called 
Perkinism,  were   in    high   repute  for  a  time,  but   soon 
sunk  into  neglect.  He  died  in  1799. 

Perkins,  (George  Roberts,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Otsego  county, 
New  York,  in  1812,  was  appointed  in  1858  deputy  State 
engineer  and  surveyor  of  the  State  of  New  YorL  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Alge- 
bra," (1841,)  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1S47,)  "Trigo- 
nometry and  Surveying,"  (1851,)  and  "  Plane  and  Solid 
Geometry."     He  died  August  22,  1876. 

Perkins,  (Jacoh,)  an  American  mechanician  and  in- 
ventor, born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1766. 
Among  his  principal  inventions  are  a  machine  for  cut- 
ting and  heading  nails  at  once,  a  gun  in  which  steam 
was  successfully  used  for  propelling  instead  of  powder, 
the  bathometer,  for  measuring  the  depth  of  water,  and 
the  i)leometer,  to  mark  the  speed  with  which  a  vessel 
moves.  He  also  substituted  steel  for  copper  plates  in 
engraving  bank-notes.     Died  in  1849. 

See  Henry  Howe,  "Lives  of  Eminent  American  Mechanics," 
1847. 

Perkins,  (James  H.,)  an  American  writer,  born  about 
1810,  was  a  son  of  Samuel  G.  Perkins,  of  Boston.  He 
contributed  to  the  "North  American  Review."  Died  at 
Cincinnati  in  1849. 


Perkins,  (Justin,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  at  West  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  March  12,  1805. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1829,  and  studied 
in  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  Congregationaiist  ministry,  and  for  thirty-six  years 
(1833-69)  was  a  missionary  to  the  Nestorians  in  and  neai 
(^oroomeeyah,  in  Persia.  Among  his  works  are  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  the  modern  Nestorian  dialect  of 
the  Syriac,  "  A  Residence  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia," 
(1843,)  "Missionary  Life  in  Persia,"  (1861,)  etc.  Died 
at  Cliicopce,  Massachusetts,  Deceniber  31,  1869. 

Perkins,  (Nathan,)  an  American  theologian,  bom 
at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1749.  He  served  as  min- 
ister at  West  Hartford  about  si.\ty-five  years.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Sermons,  (1795,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1838,  aged  eighty-eight. 

Perkins,  (Simon,)  an  American  general,  bom  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  about  1770.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  1812-14.     Died  in  Warren,  Ohio,  in  1844. 

Perkins,  (Thomas  Handasyd,)  a  wealthy  American 
merchant,  born  at  Boston  in  1764.  He  gave  his  house 
and  grounds  on  Pearl  Street,  Boston,  valued  at  fifty 
thousand  dollars,  for  the  Massachusetts  Asylum  for  the 
Blind,  called  also  the  Perkins  Institution.  He  likewise 
gave  large  sums  to  the  Boston  Athenaeum  and  General 
Hospital.     Died  in  1854. 

Per'kini,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  Calvinistic 
divine,  born  at  Marston,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1558.  He 
preached  in  Saint  Andrew's,  a  parish  of  Cambridge. 
Among  his  works,  which  were  highly  praised  by  Bishop 
Hall,  are  "  Foundation  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and 
commentaries  on  several  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
Died  in  1602.  His  works  were  translated  into  French, 
German,  Italian,  and  Spanish. 

Perkins,  (William,)  an  Englishman,  celebrated  for 
longevity,  died  in  New  Hampshire  in  1732,  at  the  age  of 
one  hundred  and  sixteen  years. 

Permoser,  p§R'mo-zer,  (  Balthasar,  )  a  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Kammer,  in  Bavaria,  in  1651.  He 
worked  for  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Berlin,  from  which  he 
removed  to  Dresden  in  1710.  Among  his  works  are  ar\ 
"  Ecce  Homo,"  and  a  statue  of  Prince  Eugene.  Died 
in  1732. 

Perne,  piRn,  (Francois  Louis,)  a  French  musician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772.  He  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  the  Conservatory  in  1816.  lie  wrote  on  the 
musical  notation  of  the  Greeks.     Died  in  1832. 

Pernetti,  pCR'ni'te',  or  Pernety,  p^rn'te',  (Jacques,) 
a  French  ])riest  and  mediocre  writer,  born  in  Forez  in 
1696  ;  died  in  T777. 

Pernety,  p^Rn'te',  (Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Roanne  in  1716.  He  became  libra- 
rian of  P'rederick  the  Great  some  time  after  1766,  and 
returned  to  France  in  1783.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and 
Engraving,"  (1757,)  and  a  "Voyage  to  the  Falkland 
Islands,"  (2  vols.,  1769.)     Died  in  iSoL 

Pernety,  (Josf.ph  Marie,)  Vicomte,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Lyons  in  1766.  He  served  as  colonel  at 
Austerlitz  and  Jena.  As  general  of  division,  he  con- 
tributed to  the  victories  of  Wagram,  Borodino,  (1812,) 
and  Dresden,  (1813.)     Died  in  1856. 

Pernot,  p^R'no',  (.\lexandre  Francois,)  a  French 
landsc.ipe-])ainter,  born  at  Vassy  (Haute-Slarne)  in  1793. 
He  gained  a  first  medal  in  1839.     Died  in  1865. 

Perofski  or  Pero^wski,  pi-rov'skee,  (Leo.v  Alexie- 
viTCit,)  a  Russian  general  and  politician,  born  in  1791. 
He  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1841,  and  wa» 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Council  of  the  Empire  about 
1852.     Died  in  1856. 

Peron,  pi'rAN',  (Francois,)  a  French  naturalist,  bom 
at  Cerilly  (Altier)  in  1775.  He  accompanied  Baudin  in 
his  expedition  to  the  South  Sea  in  1800,  as  jihysician 
and  zoologist,  collected  more  than  loo.cyx  specimens  ot 
animals,  and  wrote  a  "  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  Southern 
Lands,"  ("  Voyage  de  Decouvertes  aux  Terres  aus- 
trales,"  4  vols.,  i8ii-i6,)a  work  of  much  meriL  Died 
in  1810. 

See  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1810. 

Peroni,  ])i-ro'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
horn  .11   rnrniM  nboiit  1700;  died  in  1776. 


5,  e.  T,6,  t-i,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,6,  u,  5=,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o.  oh^nire:  fSr,  1311,  TAt;  niJt;  nSt;  good;  m5?Vn: 


PEROTTI 


1925 


PERRIN 


Perotti,  pi-rot'tee,  (Niccol6,)  an  eminent  Italian 
grammarian,  born  in  Umbria  in  1430.  He  became  Arch- 
bisiiop  of  Siponto,  or  Manfredonia,  in  1458.  He  wrote 
a  Latin  grammar,  (1473,)  "  Cornucopia,  or  Commentaries 
of  the  Latin  Language,"  ("Cornucopia,  sive  Commen- 
taria  Linguce  Latinat;,"  1489,)  and  other  worl<s.  He 
translated  into  Latin  the  first  five  books  of  Polybius. 
Died  in  1480. 

Perouse,  pi'rooz',  (Jean  Francois  Galaup  de  la — 
gt'16'  deh  1^,)  an  eminent  French  navigator,  born  at  or 
near  Albi  (Tarn)  in  1741.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  in 
1756,  became  lieutenant  in  1775,  and  fought  against  the 
English  in  the  American  war,  (1778-83.)  In  1782  he 
took  the  British  fort  York,  on  the  west  coast  of  Hudson 
Bay.  He  was  selected  by  the  government  to  command 
an  exploring  expedition,  and  sailed  with  the  Boussole 
and  Astrolabe  in  August,  17S5.  Having  doubled  Cape 
Horn,  he  sailed  northward  to  the  sixtieth  degree,  and 
explored  the  coast  between  that  point  and  California. 
In  the  autumn  of  1786  he  crossed  the  ocean  to  Macao. 
He  explored  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  from  China  to 
Avatsha  in  Kamtchatka,  from  which  i>oint  he  sailed  to 
Botany  Bay.  The  last  letter  received  from  him  by  his 
friends  was  dated  at  Botany  Bay,  February  7,  1788. 
About  1826  it  was  ascertained  that  he  and  his  party 
perished  by  shipwreck  at  Vanicoro,  (or  Wanicoro). 

See  Pierre  Dillon,  "Relation  de  la  Decouverte  dii  Sort  de  La 
Perouse,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1836;  "  Nouvelle  Hiosiaphie  Generale ;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  November  and  December,  179S. 

Pe-r6wne',  (John  James  Stewart,)  U.D..  an  Eng- 
lish scholar,  born  at  Burdwan,  in  Bengal,  March  13, 
1823.  He  graduated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1845,  was  made  a  Fellow  of  Corpus  Christi  in 
1849,  and  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  in  1S73,  ^^'^^  vice-principal 
of  Saint  David's  College,  Lampeter,  1S62-72,  canon  of 
Llandaff,  1869-78,  and  in  1878  became  Dean  of  Peter- 
borough. In  1875  '^^  ^^'^s  appointed  Hulsean  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cainbridge,  Among  his  works  are  tiie 
"  Book  of  Psalms,"  (a  new  translation,  with  notes,)  various 
volumes  on  theology,  etc.  He  is  noted  as  a  Hebrew  and 
Arabic  scholar. 

Perow^ski.     See  Perokski. 

Per-peu'na  or  Per-per'na,  (M.  Vento,)  a  Roman 
officer,  was  a  partisan  of  Marius  in  the  civil  war.  lie 
served  under  Sertorius  in  Spain  about  five  years. 
He  was  one  of  the  assassins  of  Sertorius,  who  was 
killed  in  72  B.C.  After  the  death  of  Sertorius  he  was 
defeated  by  Pompey  in  Spain,  taken  prisoner,  and  put 
to  death,  (72  B.C.) 

Perperna.     See  Perpenna. 

Perpiniau,  p^R-pe-ne-in',  [Lat.  Perpinia'nus,]  (Pe- 
dro Juan,)  a  Spanish  scholar,  born  in  the  province  of 
Valencia  in  1530.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence  at 
Rome.  His  "Eighteen  Orations,"  (" Orationes  duo- 
deviginti,"  1587,)  arguments  for  the  old  religion,  were 
very  popular.     Died  at  Paris  in  1566. 

See  Lazeri,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  P.  J.  Perpiniani,"  1749. 

Perpinianus.     See  Perpinian. 

Perquit,  p^R'ke',  (S^bastien  Birgy,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  in  the  department  of  Bas-Rhin  in  1768.  He 
served  with  distinction  during  the  first  empire.  Died 
in  1856. 

Perrache,  pi'rtsh',  (Michel,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1686;  died  in  1750. 

Perraud,  pi'ro',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Monay  (Jura)  in  1821.  He  obtained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1855.      Died  November  2,  1876. 

Perrault,  pi'ro',  (Charles,)  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris  in  i62'8.  Having  obtained  the  favour  of  Col- 
bert, he  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the  king's 
buildings,  (Ihitiments.)  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1671.  He  scandalized  the  admirers  of 
ancient  classic  authors  by  his  "  Parallel  between  the 
Ancients  and  Moderns,"  (4  vols.,  1688-98,)  which  was  the 
signal  of  a  long  literary  contest.  This  work  was  refuted 
by  Boileau  in  his  "Reflections  on  Longinus."  Among 
his  other  works  is  one  entitled  "  The  Illustrious  Men  of 
the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (1696-1701.)  "  Perrault  would 
probably  have  been  surprised,"  says  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale,"  "if  any  one  had  predicted  to 
him  that  he  should  owe  his  immortality  exclusively  to 


his  'Fairy-Tales,'  (' Contes  des  Fees,'  1697,)"  which 
obtained  great  success  in  the  nursery.     Died  in  1703. 

See  "  M^moires  de  Perrault,"  first  published  in  1759;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lmidi,"  tome  v.;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G6n^rale." 

Perrault,  (Claude,)  a  celebrated  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1613,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  the  design  of  the  fa9ade  of 
the  Louvre.  Colbert  having  invited  the  artists  of  France 
to  compete  for  this  work,  the  design  of  Perrault  was 
preferred.  The  colonnade  of  the  Louvre,  commenced  in 
1666  and  finished  in  1670,  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  structures  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was 
also  the  architect  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Vitruvius,  (1673,)  ^""^  other  works. 
Died  in  i688. 

See  FoNTENAV,  "  Dictionnaire des  Artistes;"  Cicognara,  "Storia 
della  Scultiira  ;"  Qljatrem^rk  de  Qui.ncv,  "Vies  des  plus  illustre* 
Architectes." 

Perray.     See  Duperray. 

Peireau,  pi'ro',  (Jean  Andr6,)  a  French  writer  and 
jurist,  born  at  Nemours  in  1749.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Tribunal,  (1800-04,)  and  one  of  the  rapporteurs  of 
the  Code  Civil.  Among  his  works  are  "  Elements  of 
Natural  Legislation,"  (1801,)  and  "Elements  of  Roman 
Civil  Law,"  ("Juris  civilis  Romani  Elementa,"  1809.) 
Died  in  1813. 

Perreciot,  p6R'se-o',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Roulans  in  1728.  He  wrote  "On  the 
Civil  State  of  Persons,  etc.  among  the  Gauls,  from  the 
Celtic  Times  to  the  Adoption  of  the  Common  Laws," 
(Couhnnes,)  (1784-86.)     Died  in  1798. 

Perr^e,  pi'ri',  (Jean  Baptiste  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  I'icardy  in  1761.  He  was  killed  in  2 
battle  against  Nelson  in  1800. 

Perrein,  pi'rix',  (Jean,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
in  1750.  He  travelled  in  Africa  and  North  America. 
Died  at  New  York  in  1805. 

Perrenot.     See  Granvelle. 

Perreus,  pS'rSN',  (Francois  Tommy,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Bordeaux,  September  20,  1S22.  He 
studied  at  the  Ecole  Normale,  and  held  various  profes- 
sorships, among  them  that  of  French  letters  in  the  ficole 
Polytechnique.  Among  his  works  are  "Jerome  Savo- 
narole,"  (1854,)  "fitienne  Marcel,"  (i860,)  "La  Demo- 
cratic en  France  au  moyen  Age,"  (1873,)  "^^^  ^^^  ^^^Y 
important"  Histoire  de  Florence,"  (1877  ;  6th  vol.,  1884,) 
a  work  of  high  authority. 

Perret,  pi'ri',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  cutler  and 
writer,  born  at  Beziers  in  1730.  He  invented  surgical 
instruments,  and  wrote  "On  the  Art  of  Shaving  One- 
self," (1769.)     Died  in  1784. 

Perrier.     See  P^riek. 

Perrier  or  Perier,  pi're-A',  (Francjois,)  a  painter  and 
engraver,  was  born  in  Burgundy  about  1590.  He  worked 
at  Rome  and  Paris,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  the  latter  city.  He  painted  the  Hotel  de  la 
Vrilliere,  at  Paris.  His  engravings  of  antique  statues, 
etc.  are  commended.     Died  at  Paris  about  1654. 

Perriniezzi,  p§r-re-mct'see,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an 
Italian  prelate  and  writer,  born  in  Calabria  in  1670; 
died  in  1740. 

Perrin,  p-VriN',  (Alphonse,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  landscapes,  born  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Perrin,  (Claude.)     See  Victor,  Duke  of  Belluno. 

Perrin,  (Jean  Paul,)  a  French  historian  and  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Lyons  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Vaudois,"  (1619.) 

Perrin,  (Maximilien,)  a  French  novelist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1796.     Died  March  21,  1879.  _ 

Perrin,  (Narcisse,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Persia,  entitled 
"La  Perse,"  (7  vols.,  1823.) 

Perrin,  (Olivier  Stanislas,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Rostrenen  in  1761  ;  died  in  1S32. 

Perrin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  writer  of  French  operas.  He 
produced  a  musical  drama,  entitled  "  Pastorale,"  in  1659, 
and  obtained  letters-patent  to  open  an  academy  of  music 
in  Paris  in  1669.     Died  in  1680. 

Perrin  des  Vosges,  pi'riN'  d^  vozh,  (Jean  Bap- 


€  as  -4.-  f  as  J,-  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,^uUura/;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.  > 


PERRON 


1926 


PERSEUS 


riSTE,)  a  J'rench.nan,  born  at  Ei^inal.  He  rtas  elected 
•n  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  oi)posed  the 
excesses  of  the  royalists  and  terrorists.  lie  sat  in  the 
Council  of  Elders  in  1798,  and  was  the  first  president 
of  the  corps  legislatif,  about  1800.     Died  in  1815. 

Perron,  Du.     See  Dui'krkon. 

Perrone,  p5r-ro'ni,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian 
theologian,  born  at  Chieri  (Piedmont)  in  1794.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Theological  Lessons," 
("  Praelectiones  Theologicie,"  9  vols.,  1835  et  seq.,)  which 
ran  through  twenty-five  editions.  He  became  rector  of 
the  Roman  College  in  1853.      Died  August  29,  1876. 

Perronet,  pi'ro'ni',  (Jkan  Rodoi.phe,  )  an  able 
French  engineer  and  architect,  born  at  Suresne,  near 
Paris,  in  1708.  He  became  first  engineer  of  the  roads 
and  bridges  of  France  about  1750,  and  organized  the 
£cole  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  which  was  frequented  by 
students  from  foreign  countries.  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  bridges  of  Neuiliy,  Nemours,  and  Pdnt  Louis 
XVI,  Paris.  He  invented  a  number  of  machines.  Died 
in  1794.  "Perronet,"  says  A.  Jadin,  "was  for  bridges 
one  of  those  creative  geniuses  whose  appearance  makes 
an  epoch."     ("  Nouvelle  Biograjjhie  Generale.") 

See  Bertrand,  "Notice  sur  Perronet;"  Prony,  "  Noiice  liisto- 
rique  siir  Perronet,"  1829. 

Perrot.     See  Ablancourt,  d'. 

Perrot,  pi'ro',  (Charles,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister, born  in  1 541,  preached  at  Geneva,  and  advocated 
toleration.     Died  in  1608. 

Perrot,  (Ferdinand  VicroR,) a  French  painter,  born 
at  Paimboeuf  in  1808.  He  removed  in  1840  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  imperial 
family.     Died  in  1841. 

Per'rot,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  courtier  or  states- 
man, born  about  1527,  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  1583.     Died  in  1592. 

Perrottet,  pi'ro'ti',  (G.  Samuel.)  a  French  bot- 
anist, born  in  1793.  He  wrote  narratives  of  voyages 
to  Senegal  and  other  places,  and  a  "  Flora  of  Sene- 
gambia,"  (1831.) 

Per'ry,  (Arthur  Laiha.m,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican economist,  born  at  Lyme,  New  Hamj^shire,  February 
27,  1830,  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1852.  In  1853 
he  became  professor  of  history  and  political  economy  in 
Williams  College.  His  principal  works  are  "Elements 
of  Political  Economy,"  (1865,)  of  which  his  "Political 
Economy"  (1883)  was  the  eighteenth  edition,  and  "In- 
troduction to  Political  Economy,"  (1877;  3d  edition, 
18S2.)  Prof,  Perry  is  a  clergyman  of  the  Congregation- 
alist  Church.  He  has  for  many  years  been  one  of  the 
most  earnest  of  the  American  advocates  of  free  trade. 

Per'ry,  (George,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1793.  His  oratorios  "  The  Death 
of  Abel,"  "The  Fall  of  Jerusalem,"  etc.,  are  his  best- 
known  works.      I^ied  March  4,  1862. 

Per'ry,  (James,)  an  able  British  journalist,  born  at 
Aberdeen  in  1756.  He  became  a  resident  of  London 
about  1776,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  reporter  for 
the  "General  Advertiser."  He  was  afterwards  editor 
of  the  "Gazetteer"  and  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  a 
Whig  organ,  which  he  edited  more  than  twenty  years. 
He  improved  the  method  of  reporting  speeches,  by 
employing  a  succession  or  relay  of  reporters  on  the 
same  speech.     Died  in  1821. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1S66. 

Perry,  (John,)  an  English  engineer,  born  about  1670. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  as  engineer, 
in  1698,  and  published  a  work  called  "The  State  of 
Russia  under  the  Present  Czar,"  (1716.)  Died  in  Eng- 
land in  1733. 

Per'ry,  (Matthew  Calbraith,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1795, 
was  a  brother  of  Commodore  Perry.  1  le  served  in  the 
Mexican  war  of  1847,  and  in  1852  commanded  the  expe- 
dition to  Japan,  which  opened  the  way  to  intercourse 
l>etween  that  country  and  the  United  States.  An  account 
of  this  voyage  was  published,  in  3  vols.,  in  i8i;6.  Died 
in  1858. 

Perry,  (Oliver  Hazard,)  a  distinguished  American 
commodore,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in   1785. 


On  the  13th  of  Septemlier,  1813,  as  commander  ol  a 
squadron  on  Lake  Erie,  he  defeated  the  British  under 
Commodore  Barclay,  after  an  engagement  of  three  hours. 
For  this  brilliant  victory  he  was  made  a  captain  and 
received  from  Congress  a  gold  medal.  Having  been 
appointed  commander  of  a  squadron  bound  for  the  coast 
of  Columbia,  he  died  of  yellow  it\t.r,  in  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  in  August,  1819. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Perry,  (Siei'IIen  Joseph,)  an  English  priest  and 
physicist,  born  in  London,  August  26,  1833.  He  was 
educated  at  Douai,  Rome,  and  Stonyhurst,  in  which  last- 
named  college  he  became  director  of  the  observatory. 
In  1853  he  joined  the  Jesuits.  He  was  sent  on  many 
scientific  expeditions  by  the  British  government,  and 
wrote  many  valuable  reports  and  papers,  chiefly  on 
magnetic,  meteorological,  and  astronomical  subjects. 
Died  December  27,  1889. 

Perry,  (Sir  Thomas  Erskine,)  an  English  legal 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1806.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1828.  He  published  seven  volumes  of  law 
reports,  known  as  "  Neville  and  Perry"  and  "  Perry  and 
Davison,"  and  other  works.     Died  April  22,  1882. 

Perry,  (Thomas  Sekgeant.)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Newport,  Rhoile  Island,  January  23,  1845,  g^-^'J* 
nated  in  1866  at  Harvard  College,  and  studied  at  the 
Sorbonne  aixl  the  College  de  France  and  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  lierlin.  He  held  tutorships  in  Harvard  College, 
1868-83,  ^"^  published  "  Life  of  Francis  Lieber,"  (1882,) 
"  English  Literature  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (18S3,) 
"  From  Opitz  to  Lessing,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Perry,  (William  Stevens,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican bishop,  born  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  January 
22,  1832,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1854,  and  was 
made  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1S58.  He 
was  professor  of  history  in  Hobart  College,  1871-73,  and 
in  1876  became  jiresident  of  that  college,  but  in  the  same 
year  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Iowa,  the  consecrator 
being  his  uncle,  Bishop  Stevens,  of  Philadelphia.  Bishop 
Perry  has  published  many  works,  very  generally  bearing 
upon  the  history  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States.  A  part  of  these  were  prepared  by  him  conjointly 
with  Dr.  F.  L.  Hawks.  Among  his  principal  works 
is  "  Historical  Collections  of  the  American  Colonial 
Church,"  (1871  ;  5th  vol.,  1S78.) 

Perseeus,  per-see'us,  [IlfpuaZof,]  a  Greek  philosopher, 
surnamed  Cittie'us  because  he  was  born  at  Cittium,  in 
Crete.  He  was  a  favourite  disci)5le  of  Zeno  the  Stoic, 
and  flourished  about  260  B.C.  He  was  patronized  by 
Antigonus  Gonatas,  who  appointed  him  governor  or 
commander  at  Corinth.  According  to  Pausanias,  he 
was  killed  at  the  capture  of  Corinth,  in  243  B.C.  He 
wrote  several  works,  which  are  lost. 

Persano,  de,  di  p§R-sS'no,  (Carlo  Pelion,)  Count, 
an  Italian  admiral,  born  at  Vercelli,  March  11,  1806. 
He  became  a  naval  officer  in  1824,  a  vice-admiral  in 
i86q,  and  a  full  admiral  in  1S62.  In  1866  the  Austrian 
admiral  Tegethof,  with  a  vastly  inferior  force,  surprised 
Persano's  fleet  off  the  island  of  Lissa  and  completely 
defeated  it.  Persano  was  degraded  from  his  positions  as 
admiral  and  senator  in  consequence  of  this  defeat. 

Perse.     See  Persius. 

Persee.     See  Perseus. 

Per-seph'o-ne,  |Gr.  Tlepae^vri ;  Fr.  Persephone, 
p^R'si'fon',]  the  Greek  name  of  Proserpine,  which  see. 

Perses.     See  Perseus,  King  of  Macedonia. 

Per'seus,  [Gr.  flf/wtif ;  Fr.  Peks6e,  p§r's\',]  a 
famous  hero  and  demi-god  of  classic  mythology,  was 
called  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae.  (See  Danai^-.)  Ac- 
cording to  the  fable.  King  Polydectes  extorted  from 
him  a  rash  promise  to  bring  to  him  the  head  of  Medusa. 
To  equip  him  for  this  enterj^rise,  .Minerva,  Mercury, 
and  the  Nymphs  gave  him  winged  sandals,  a  helmet 
which  rendered  him  invisible,  and  a  mirror  by  means 
of  which  he  could  see  the  image  of  the  Gorgon  and 
avoid  the  petrifying  efl'ect  of  looking  at  the  reality. 
After  he  had  cut  off  her  head,  he  flew  through  the  air 
to  Ethiopia,  where  he  rescued  Andromeda  from  a  sea- 
monster  and  married  her. 

Per'seus  or  Per'sei,  [Gr.  Uej>oevi ;  Fr.  Pers6e, 
pSR'si',]  the  last  king  of  Macedonia,  was  the  eldest  son 


a.  e,  T,  o,  n,  y,  /•'«;'.•  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  jirolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  \\,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  filr,  filll,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


PERSEUS 


1927 


PERUGINO 


of  Philip  v.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  179  B.C.  Before 
this  date,  by  perfidy  and  intrigues,  he  had  procured  the 
death  of  his  brother  Demetrius.  He  began  early  to  pre- 
pare for  a  renewal  of  hostilities  against  the  Romans,  who 
declared  war  against  him  in  171  B.C.  Several  campaigns 
were  fought,  without  decisive  results,  until  L.  Aunilius 
Paulus  took  command,  in  168  B.C.  He  defeated  Per- 
seus with  great  loss  at  Pydna,  in  June,  168,  after  which 
the  whole  kingdom  submitted  to  the  victors.  Perseus 
escaped  from  this  battle,  but  was  soon  taken  prisoner, 
and  was  kept  in  captivity  at  Alba  until  his  death,  about 
164  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxvii5.-xlv. 

Perseus,  a  Greek  painter  and  disciple  of  Apelles, 
flourished  about  300  B.C.      He  is  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

Persian!,  p^R-se-i'nee,  (Fanny  Tacchinardi — tdk- 
ke-naR'dee,)  an  Italian  operatic  singer,  born  in  Rome  in 
1818.     She  married  a  composer  named  Persiani  about 

1835.  Died  in  1867. 

Persigny,  (per-seen'ye,)  de,  |  Fr.  pron.  deh  ji^K'sfen'- 
ye',]  (Jean  Gilisert  Victor  de  Fialin — deh  fe't'liN',) 
CoMTK,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Loire  in  1808.  He  became  about  1833  a  zealous 
partisan  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
instigator  of  the  attempt  made  by  him  at  Strasbourg  in 

1836.  In  1S40  he  was  arrested  with  Louis  Napoleon  at 
Boulogne,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  twenty 
years.  He  was,  however,  released  before  the  revolution 
of  1848,  and  renewed  his  intrigues.  In  January,  1852, 
he  obtained  the  otilice  of  minister  of  the  interior,  which 
he  resigned  in  June,  1854.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  London  in  1855,  was  reap]3ointed  minister  of  the  in- 
terior in  November,  i860,  and  removed  in  June,  1863. 
Died  in  1872.  M.  Delaroa  published  in  1866  a  work 
entitled  "  Le  Due  de  Persigny  et  TEmpire." 

See  H.  Castille,  "  Le  Comte  de  Persigny ;"  E.  de  Mirhcourt, 
"M.  de  Persigny." 

Persil,  p^r's^K,  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  politician 
and  advocate,  born  at  Condom  in  1785.  He  was  minister 
of  justice  in  1834  and  1835.  He  published  a  good  work, 
entitled  "Regime  hypothecaire,"  (1809.)     Died  in  1870. 

Persio,  p^R'se-o,  (Ascanio,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Matera  about  1550.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Conformity  of  the  Italian  Language  with  the  Greek," 
etc.,  (1592.)  His  brother  Antonio  wrote  several  works 
on  philosophy.     Died  after  1608. 

Persius,  per'she-us,  [Fr.  Perse,  p5Rss,]  or,  more  fully, 
Au'lus  Per'sius  Plac'cus,  [It.  Aulo  Persio  Flacco, 
ow'lo  pSR'se-o  flSk'ko,]  a  celebrated  Roman  satirical 
poet,  was  born  of  an  equestrian  family  at  Volaterrae, 
in  Etruria,  in  34  A.D.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cornutus 
the  Stoic,  to  whom  he  became  attached  by  an  intimate 
friendship,  which  lasted  until  the  death  of  Persius.  He 
associated  with  Lucan  and  Seneca.  His  moral  character 
appears  to  have  been  excellent.  lie  died  prematurely 
in  November,  62  A.D.,  leaving  six  satires,  extending 
altogether  to  only  six  hundred  and  fifty  hexameter  lines. 
Though  his  language  is  obscure,  his  style  unpolished, 
and  his  delineations  of  men  and  manners  greatly  inferior 
to  those  of  Horace  and  Juvenal,  his  sententious  satires 
have  been  very  popular  in  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  mod- 
ern times.  His  object  is  to  inculcate  the  morality  of 
the  Stoics.  Among  the  chief  merits  of  his  satires  is 
the  moral  beauty  of  his  doctrines.  His  dialogues  are 
remarkably  spirited,  and  display  much  dramatic  power. 
The  best  English  versions  of  Persius  are  those  by  Dryden, 
GifFord,  Brewster,  and  Howes.  Among  the  best  editions 
of  the  text  are  those  of  Isaac  Casaubon,  (Paris,  1605,) 
Konig,  (Gottingen,  1S03,)  O.  Jahn,  (Leipsic,  1843,)  ^n^^ 
Gildersleeve. 

See  "A.  Persii  Flacci  Vita,"  attributed  by  some  scholars  to  Sue- 
tonius; G.  Massa,  "Osservazioni  e  Racconto  della  Vita  di  A.  Per- 
sio Flacco,"  1666;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary:'' 
"Noiivelle  Biographie  G^nerale ;"  N.  J.  Sius,  "Dissertation  sui 
Perse,"  1783. 

Person,  pSr'sAn',  (F6lix,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Caen  in  1795.  He  published  several  books  on  the  breed- 
ing of  horses.     Died  Marcli  6,  1876. 

Persona,  pJu-so'nl,  (Ckistoforo.)  an  Italian  Hel- 
lenist, born  at  Rome  in  1416.  He  translated  into  Latin 
some  works  of  Athanasius,  Origen,  and  Chrysostom. 
Died  in  1485. 


Persona,  p5R-so'nl,  (Gobelin,)  a  German  chronicler, 
born  in  Westphalia  in  1358;  died  after  1418. 

Persoon,  p^R-son',  (Christian  Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  about  1770.  He  settled  at  Paris  about  1803, 
and  published,  besides  several  interesting  works  on 
cryptogamous  plants,  "Synopsis  of  Plants,"  ("Synopsis 
Pfantarum,"  2  vols.,  1805-07.)     Died  in  1836. 

Persoz,  p^r'so',  (Jea^n  Francois,)  a  chemist,  born  in 
Switzerland  in  1805.  He  obtained  a  chair  in  the  Con- 
servatoire des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris,  in  1852.  He  has 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Printing  of  Tissues,"  (4 
vols.,  1846,)  and  other  works.      Died  in  1867. 

Persuis,  de,  deh  p^R'sii-e',  (Louis  Luc  Loiseau,)  a 
French  composer,  born  at  Metz  in  1769.  He  composed 
operas  and  ballet-music.     Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Perthes.     See  Boucher  de  Perthes. 

Perthes,  p^R'tSs,  (Friedrich  Christoph,)  a  learned 
German  bookseller  and  publisher,  born  at  Rudolstadt 
in  1772.  He  opened  a  bookstore  in  Hamburg  in  1796, 
married  a  daughter  of  the  editor  Claudius,  and  made 
acquaintance  with  many  literary  men,  among  whom  were 
Voss,  Stolberg,  Niebuhr,  and  the  Schlegels.  In  1822 
he  removed  to  Gotha,  where  he  published  the  "Alma- 
nach  de  Gotha."  He  died  in  1843,  and  was  succeeded 
in  his  business  by  his  son  Justus. 

See  "  F.  Perthes  Leben,"  by  his  son  ClemknsTheodor,  2  vols., 
1848;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1856. 

Perti,  p^R'tee,  (Giacomo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Bologna  in  1661.  He  composed  success- 
ful operas.     Died  in  1756. 

Perticari,  p§R-te-kd'ree,  (GiULlo,)  Count,  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  in  the  Romagna  in  1779.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  the  poet  Monti  in  1812.  His  works,  which 
form  "two  volumes  of  the  "  Biblioteca  Scelta,"  (Milan, 
1831,)  are  commended.     Died  in  1822. 

See  MoNTANARl,  "  Biografia  di  G.  Perticari,"  1836. 

Per'ti-nax,  (Helvius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  at 
Alba  Pompeia,  on  the  Tanaro,  in  126  a.d.,  was  a  son 
of  a  dealer  in  charcoal.  He  was  a  teacher  of  grammar 
before  he  entered  the  army.  As  prefect  of  a  cohort,  he 
served  with  distinction  against  the  Parthians.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  senate,  and  obtained  command  of  a 
legion  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  _  In  179  A.D.  he 
was  consul.  He  suppressed  a  mutiny  in  Britain  in  the 
reign  of  Commodus,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
serTate  at  the  death  of  Commodus,  in  January,  193  A.D. 
By  the  announcement  of  important  reforms,  and  his 
efforts  to  restore  discipline,  he  made  enemies  among  the 
courtiers  and  praetorians,  who  murdered  him  in  his 
palace  in  March,  193  a.d. 

See  Capitoi.ino';.  "  Pertinax ;"  DtoM  Cassiu<;,  "History  of 
Rome:"  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Pertusier,  de,  deh  pi R'tu'ze-i',  (Charles,)  a  lit- 
tiratenr,  born  at  Baume-les-Dames,  in  France,  in  1779; 
died  in  1836. 

Perty.  p^R'tee,  (Joseph  Anton  Maximilian,)  a 
German  zoologist,  born  at  Ohrnbau,  in  Bavaria,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1804.  In  1833  he  became  professor  of  zoology 
in  the  Berne  University.  He  published  various  works 
on  biological  science.     Died  at  Berne,  August  8,  1884. 

Pertz,  p^Rts,  (Gkorc,  Heinrich,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Hanover  in  1795.  He  became  royal  librarian 
and  councillor  of  the  archives  in  his  native  city,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  His 
most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Historical  Monuments 
of  Germany,"  ("  Monumenta  Germanise  historica,"  13 
vols.,  1854.)     Died  October  7,  1876. 

Perugin,  Le.     See  Perugino. 

Periieino,  pi-roo-jee'no,  [called  in  French  Le  P^- 
RUr.iN,  leh  pi'rii'zhiNM  originally  Pietro  Vanucci, 
(vi-noot'chee,)  written,  also,  Vannucci  and  Vanuzzi, 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Castello  della  Pieve 
in  1446.  He  painted  some  frescos  for  Sixtus  V.  in  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  about  1480,  after  which  he  worked 
at  Florence  and  Perugia,  from  which  circumstance  he 
received  his  surname  IL  Perugino,  or  "the  Perugian." 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  surpassed  most  of  his 
contemporaries  in  the  gracefulness  of  his  heads  and 
fi<Tures.  His  style,  however,  is  considered  rather  dry. 
Among  his  best  works  are  an  "  Infant  Christ  with  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G.  H.  K.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  a,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jj^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PER  UN 


1928 


PE7AU 


Virgin,"  in  the  Albani  palace,  Rome,  the  frescos  of 
Scriptural  subjects  in  the  Sala  del  Cambio  at  Perugia, 
and  an  oil-picture  of  "The  Holy  Family,"  and  a  "  Dead 
Christ,"  in  the  Pitti  jjalace,  Florence.  lie  was  the 
master  of  Raphael.     Died  in  1524. 

SeeVASARi,  "Lives  of  tlie  Painters;"  H.  OusiNl,  "  Vita  di  Pietro 
Perugino,"  1804;  Lanzc,  "History  of  Paintinfi  in  Italy;"  Mrs. 
fA.MEsoN,  "Memoirs  o(  Early  Italian  Painters;"  A.  Mkzzanottk, 
''Comnientariostorico  della  Vita  di  P.  Vannucci,"  1836. 

Peiun,  pi'roon',  the  thunder-god  of  the  ancient  .Slavic 
tribes,  identified  by  some  with  the  Paraiijya  of  the  Vedas. 
Many  of  the  Slavi  regarded  Pcrun  as  the  supreme  god. 
His  images  were  of  wood,  with  a  head  of  silver  and 
a  beard  of  gold. 

Peruzzi,  pi-root'see,  (Baldassark,)  an  able  Italian 
architect  and  painter,  born  near  .Sienna  in  1481.  He 
painted  some  frescos  at  Rome,  and  attained  great  skill 
in  perspective  and  scene-painting.  His  fresco  of  the 
"  Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  the  Villa  Belcaro,  is  called 
his  master-piece.  He  designed  the  beautiful  Palazzo 
Massimi,  Rome,  and  the  celebrated  Palazzo  Farnesina, 
in  which  he  painted  "Perseus  and  Medusa."  Having 
been  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  about  1520,  he 
made  a  design  for  that  church  ;  but  it  was  not  executed. 
His  works  are  characterized  by  grandeur,  purity  of  de- 
sign, and  nobleness  of  expression.     Died  in  1536. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy  ;"  QuATREivifeRE  de  Quincy,  "Vies  des  plus  lUus- 
tres  Architectes." 

Peruzzi,  (Uealdino,)  an  Italian  statesman,  born  at 
Florence,  of  an  old  and  rich  family  of  patrician  bankers, 
Ajiril  2,  1822.  He  was  educated  at  Sienna  and  Paris. 
He  became  a  Liberal  statesman,  and  was  goiifaloniere 
of  Florence  from  1S48  to  1850.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  formation  of  the  Italian  kingdom,  in  which  he  was 
minister  of  public  works  in  1S61-62,  and  of  the  interior 
until  1S64,  and  was  afterwards  syndic  of  Florence. 

Peruzzini,  pi-root-see'nee,   (Giovanni,)  an    Italian 
historical  painter,  born  in  1629  ;  died  at  Milan  in  1694. 
Pesarese,  II.     See  Cantakini,  (Simone.) 
Pesaro,  pa'sS-ro  or  p§s'i-ro,  (Giovanni,)   an   able 
Venetian   diplomatist,  born   in    1589.      He  was  elected 
doge  in  1658.     Died  in  1659. 

Pescaire,  de,  Marquis.     See  Avalos,  d'. 
Pescara,  de,  Marquis.     See  Avalos,  d'. 
Pescatore,  p$s-ki-to'ri,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at   Ravenna.     He  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso,"  (1548,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1558. 

Pesce,  pa'shi,  (Nicola  or  Cola,)  a  Sicilian,  who 
was  noted  as  a  swimmer  and  diver,  lived  about  1360- 
80.  It  is  said  that  he  dived  into  the  whirlpool  of 
Charybdis  and  brought  up  a  gold  cup  which  PVederick 
II.  had  thrown  there  to  test  his  skill. 
Pescennius  Niger.  See  Niger. 
Peschel,  p^sh'el,  (Oskar  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
geographer,  born  at  Dresden,  March  17,  1826.  He  was 
educated  in  Leipsic  and  Heidelberg,  and  became  a  jour- 
nalist. In  1871  he  was  made  professor  of  geography  in 
Leipsic.  Died  August  31,  1S75.  He  wrote  some  valu- 
able geographical  treatises. 

Peschka,  p^sh'kd,  (Minna,  nk  Leutner,)  an  Aus- 
trian soprano-singer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1839.  She  made 
her  operatic  dibut  at  Breslau  in  1856.  In  i86i  she  mar- 
ried Dr.  Peschka,  of  Vienna.  She  appeared  in  the  prin- 
cipal German  cities,  and  in  1872  visited  England  and 
America,  where  she  was  well  received.     Died  in  1890. 

Peselll,  pi-seKlee.orPesellino,  pi-s51-lee'no,(FRAN. 
CESco,)  a  painter,  born  in  1426,  was  a  son  of  Pesello, 
noticed  below.     Died  in  1457. 

Peselli,  (1-'rancesco  Pesello,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1380.  He  painted  animals  with 
succes.s.     Died  in  1457. 

Peselli,  (Pesello,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history  and 
animals,  born  at  Florence  in  1404;  died  in  1481. 

Pesh-da'dl-an  or  Pish-da'di-an,  |from  the  Persian 
phhd&d  ox  pishdAd,  i.e.  "  lawgiver,"']  the  name  of  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  ancient  Persian  dynasties,  so  called, 
according  to  Sir  William  Jones,  from  Hoosheng,  (Hfi- 
sheng,)  who  was  distinguished  for  his  justice  and  was 
surnamed  Peshdad,  or  the  "lawgiver."  Kaioomers, 
the  grandfather  of  Hoosheng,  is  commonly  called  the 


founder  of  the  Peshdadian  dynasty,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  established  a  code  of  laws  and  a  regu- 
lar government  in  Persia.  To  this  line  of  Persian  kings 
belonged  the  famous  Jemsheed,  (or  Jamschid,)  who 
occupies  so  prominent  a  place  in  the  ancient  legends  ol 
the  East. 

See  Atkinson,  "Abridgment  of  the  ShSh  N.lmeli  of  Firdaust," 
London,  1S32  ;  "  A  Sliort  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  tlie  workt 
of  Sir  William  Jones. 

Pesmes,  de,  deh  pfm,  (Francjois  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
general,  called  Saint-Saphorln,  (sd.\  st'fo'riN',)  was 
born  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  in  1668.  He  was  sent  by 
the  Swiss  government  to  the  Congress  of  Utrecht,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  alliance  in  1714.  He  entered  the 
service  of  George  I.  of  England  in  1716  as  a  general, 
and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Vienna.     Died  in  1737. 

Pesne,  i^in,  (Antoine,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1683.  He  worked  at  Berlin,  to  which  he  was 
invited  by  the  king.  He  painted  many  portraits  and 
historical  pieces,  and  received  the  title  of  first  painter 
to  the  king.     Died  in  Berlin  in  1757. 

Pesne,  (Jean,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen  about  1624.  He  en- 
graved many  admirable  prints  after  Nicolas  Poussin, 
whose  style  and  sjiirit  he  reproduced  with  great  success. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1700. 

Pes.selier,  p£s'le-i',  (Charles  Etienne,)  a  French 
litterateur,  was  born  in  Paris  in  17 12.  He  wrote  com- 
edies, fables,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1763. 

Pessuti,  pSs-soo'tee,  (  Giovacchino,  )  an  Italian 
inathematician,  born  at  Rome  in  1743.  He  obtained 
in  1787  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  the  Roman  Col- 
lege of  Sapienza.  He  wrote  treatises  on  hydraulics  and 
on  the  occultation  of  fixed  stars  by  the  moon,  (1802.) 
Died  in  1814. 

Pestalozzi,  p§s-ti-lot'see,  (Joiiann  Heinuich,)  » 
Swiss  teacher  and  educational  reformer  of  great  merit 
and  influence,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1746.  He  received 
a  liberal  education,  and  became  a  cultivator  of  the  soil, 
but  in  this  occupation  he  was  not  successful.  He  wrote 
a  po]3ular  novel,  "  Leinhardt  und  Gertrud,"  (4  vols., 
1781,)  designed  to  promote  the  better  education  of  the 
poor,  and  "  Inquiries  into  the  Process  of  Nature  for  the 
Development  of  the  Human  Race,"  (1797.)  In  1798  he 
opened  a  school  for  orphans  at  Staiiz,  where  he  adopted 
a  system  of  mutual  instruction.  Having  been  driven 
from  Stanz  by  the  Austrians  in  1799,  he  removed  to 
Burgdorf,  where  his  school  prospered  and  acquired  a 
wide  reputation.  In  1804  he  removed  to  Yverdun. 
He  was  distinguished  for  energy,  philanthropy,  and 
originality,  but  was  deficient  in  practical  ability  to 
manage  a  large  institution.     Died  in  1827. 

See  liis  Aiitobiosrapliy,  entitled  "The  Fortunes  of  my  Life,"  1S26; 
OiTEL,  "J.  H.  Pestalozzi's  Leben,"  1.S46;  Life,  by  \'oN  Raumer, 
1855;  Bandlin,  "  Pestalozzi,  seine  Zeit,  seine  Wirkungen,"  1S43; 
P.LOCHMANN',  "  H.  Pestalozzi,"  Dresden,  1846;  Ahrends,  "Pesta- 
lozzi, sein  Leben  und  sein  Wirken,"  1S46;  E.  Bibhr,  "  lieitrag  zur 
Biographie  J.  H.  Pestalozzi,"  1S27;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gia& 
rale ;"    "  Edinburgh    Review"    for    January,   1828. 

Pestel,  pSs'tel,  (Friedrich  Wilhel.m,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Rinteln  in  1724  ;  died  at  Leyden  in  1805. 

Pestel,  p&s'tel,  (Paul,)  a  Russian  revolutionist,  born 
in  1794,  was  a  leader  of  a  secret  society  or  conspiracy 
which  designed  to  substitute  liberal  institutions  for 
absolutism  in  Russia.     He  was  hung  in  1826. 

Petagiia,  pi-tin'yd,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Naples  in  1734.  He  was  professor  of  botany 
in  the  University  of  Naples,  and  published  "Botanic 
In.«titutes,"  ("  Institutiones  Botanicse,"  5  vols.,  1785.) 
Died  in  1810. 

Petau,  peh-to',  or  Petavu,  peh-tS'vii',  [Lat.  Peta'- 
vius,]  (Denis,)  a  French  scholar  and  Jesuit  of  great 
learning,  born  at  Orleans  in  1583.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Paris  from  1621  to  1644.  He  published  a 
great  work  on  chronology,  "  De  Doctrina  Temijorum," 
(2  vols.,  1627,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "Theologica  Dogmata,"  (5  vols.,  1644-50.) 
He  wrote  against  Salmasius.     Died  in  Paris  in  1652. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Henri  dh 
Valois,  "Oratio  in  Obitum  D.  Petavii,"  1653;  Leon  Allatius, 
"Melissolyra   de    Laudibus   D.    Petavii,"    1653. 

Petau,  (Paul,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Orleans  in  1568. 
He  wrote  on  medals,  etc.     Died  in  1614. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y.  s/u>rt;  .7,  e,  j,  9,  oiscnre;  fir,  fill,  (kt;  nigt;  nflt;  good;  moonj 


PETAVIUS 


1929 


PETER 


Petaviiis.    See  Petau,  (Denis.) 

Petavu.     See  Petau. 

Pe'ter,  [Gr.  Vikrpoq;  Lat.  Pe'trus  ;  Fr.  Pierre,  pe-aiR^; 
Ger.  Peter,  pa'ter ;  Ital.  Pietro,  pe-a'tKo ;  Span. 
Pedro,  pa'DRo,]  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was 
born  at  Bethsaida,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  was  a 
brother  of  Andrew.  His  original  name  was  SiMON  ; 
but  when  he  became  a  disciple  of  Christ  he  received 
the  name  of  Peter,  which  in  Greek  signifies  a  "rock." 
He  was  sometimes  called  Cephas.  His  occupation  was 
that  of  a  fisherman.  He  was  a  man  of  ardent  tempera- 
ment, affectionate  and  generous.  He  was  favoured  with 
special  manifestations  of  his  Master's  confidence,  and 
performed  a  more  prominent  part  in  the  sacred  history 
than  any  other  of  the  twelve  disciples.  Peter  and  An- 
drew were  the  first  of  the  apostles  in  the  order  of  time. 
On  several  occasions  Peter  acted  as  spokesman  for  his 
fellow-apostles  ;  and  it  is  supposed  by  many  that  he 
possessed  some  pre-eminent  authority.  When  the  Lord 
Jesus  was  arrested,  Peter  drew  a  sword  and  cut  off  the' 
ear  of  the  high-priest's  servant ;  but,  in  the  severe  crisis 
that  followed,  his  faith  and  courage  failed,  so  that  he 
denied  his  Master.  Having  recovered  from  this  lapse 
by  hearty  rej^entance,  he  became  a  zealous  and  powerful 
minister,  and  spoke  with  great  effect  at  Jerusalem  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost.  He  raised  Tabitha,  or  Dorcas,  from 
the  dead,  and  performed  other  miracles.  He  received  a 
divine  mission  to  preach  the  gospel  to  Cornelius,  a  gen- 
tile. About  44  A.D.  he  was  cast  into  ])rison  by  Herod 
the  king,  but  lie  was  delivered  by  an  angel.  The  last 
passage  of  sacred  history  which  mentions  Saint  Peter 
is  the  account  of  a  council  held  at  Jerusalem  about  50 
A.D.  (Acts  XV.)  Tradition  adds  that  he  preached  in 
Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Bithynia,  and  Pontus,  and  that  he 
suffered  martyrdom  in  Ron>e  about  65  A.D.  He  wrote 
two  epistles,  which  are  included  in  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  are  highly  prized. 

See  Matthew  x.  2,  xvi.  16-ig,  xvii.,  xxvi.  33-75  ;  Mark  i.  16,  zq, 
ix.  2,  5,  X.  28,  xiv.  29,  33,  54,  66-72;  Luke  v.,  vi.  14,  xviii.  28, 
xxii.  31-34,  54-62,  xxiv.  12:  John  i.  40-44,  vi.  68,  xiii.  6-9,  24,  37, 
xviii.  10,  15-18,  25-27,  XX.  2-6,  xxi.  2-21  :  Actsi.,  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  v.,  viii. 
14,  20,  ix.  32-43.  X.  5-48,  xi.  passhn,  xii.  3-17,  and  xv.  7.  Also, 
L.  CuccaGjNI,  "Vita  di  San  Pietro."  1777. 

Pe'ter,  (or  Pedro,  pa'dRo,)  often  called  Dom  Pedro, 
(Antonio  Joz6  de  Alcantara — di  Sl-kdn'ti-rS,)  Em- 
peror of  Brazil  and  King  of  Portugal,  a  son  of  John  VI. 
of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Queluz  in  179S.  On  the  con- 
quest of  Portugal  by  the  French,  in  1807,  he  was  taken 
by  his  father  to  Brazil.  He  married  Maria  Leopoldina 
of  Austria  about  1816,  and  became  Regent  of  Brazil 
in  1821.  A  revolution  having  rendered  Brazil  indepen- 
dent of  Portugal,  Dom  Pedro  was  proclaimed  emperor 
on  the  I2th  of  October,  1822.  He  was  recognized  as 
such  by  the  Portuguese  government  in  1S25.  At  the 
death  of  his  father  (1826)  he  inherited  the  throne  of 
Portugal,  which  he  soon  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
daughter.  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria.  The  disaffection  of 
his  subjects  became  so  violent  that  he  abdicated  the 
crown  of  Brazil  in  favour  of  his  son  in  1831,  and  re- 
turned to  Portugal,  from  which  he  expelled  his  brother, 
Dom  Miguel,  who  had  usurped  the  royal  power.  Died 
in  1834. 

See  Eduard  Gkosse,  "Dom  Pedro  I.,  oder  Geschichte  der 
neuesten  Revolution  vun  Urasilien  und  Portugal,"  1836;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Peter  or  Pedro  II.  de  Alcantara,  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  born  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  December,  1825,  is  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  who  abdicated  in  his  favour  in  1831. 
He  began  to  act  as  emperor  on  the  23d  of  July,  1S40, 
when  he  was  declared  of  age.  In  1843  he  married 
Theresa  Christina  Maria,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies.  He  cultivates  literature,  and  has  the 
re])utation  of  a  liberal  and  popular  ruler. 

Peter,  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  See  Courtenay, 
DE,  (Pierre.) 

Peter  [Russ.  Pi^tr,  pe-6tr']  I.,  or  Peter  the  Great, 
[Fr.  Pierre  le  Grand,  pe-aiu'  leh  gR6N  ;  Ger.  Peter 
DER  Gkosse,  pa'ter  dgr  gRos'seh  ;  It.  Pietro  IL  Grande, 
pe-a'tRo  k\  gKin'di;  Lat.  Pe'trus  Mag'nus,]  Czar  of 
Russia,  born  at  Moscow,  June  10,  1672,  was  the  third  son 
of  Alexis  Mikhailovitch.  His  mother  was  Natalia,  the 
second  wife  of  Alexis.    Feodor,  the  eldest  son  of  Alexis, 


having  died  without  issue,  in  1682,  Peter  was  recognized 
as  his  successor,  in  preference  to  Ivan,  who  was  a  feeble- 
minded youth.  Their  ambitious  sister  Sophia,  however, 
fomented  a  bloody  mutiny  among  the  strelitzes,  and 
procured  the  proclamation  of  Ivan  and  Peter  as  joint 
sovereigns.  Sophia  acted  as  regent  until  1689,  when 
she  was  confined  in  a  convent  and  Peter  began  to  reign 
as  sole  autocrat.  He  married  Eudoxia  Feodorovna  in 
1689.  Some  years  before  this  date  he  had  received 
scientific  instruction  from  Le  Fort,  a  native  of  Geneva, 
who  became  one  of  his  advisers  or  ministers  after  hia 
accession. 

Peter  had  received  from  nature  violent  passions  and 
an  indomitable  energy.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign 
he  determined  to  reform  the  institutions,  governmental 
system,  and  customs  of  Russia,  which  was  far  behind 
other  countries  of  Europe  in  civilization.  His  first  care 
was  to  organize  an  army  with  the  European  discipline; 
and  he  set  the  examiile  by  entering  the  army  himself  as 
a  private  soldier.  He  also  gave  much  attention  to  the 
construction  of  a  navy,  and  learned  practical  seamanship 
by  cruising  on  the  White  Sea.  He  procured  the  ser- 
vices of  many  foreign  engineers,  shipwrights,  artisans, 
etc.  In  1696  he  captured  Azof  from  the  Turks  by  the 
aid  of  his  new  navy. 

Prompted  by  an  irrepressible  activity  and  desire  of 
knowledge,  in  1697  he  visited  Western  Europe  incognito, 
accompanied  by  several  of  his  favourite  officers  or  min- 
isters, who  were  accredited  as  ambassadors  to  Holland. 
He  took  a  lodging  in  a  small  house  at  Saardam,  where 
he  worked  for  wages  as  a  ship-carpenter,  under  the  name 
of  Pieter  Timmerman. 

In  January,  1698,  he  went  to  England,  where  he  passed 
about  three  months.  Here,  says  Macaulay,  "his  stately 
form,  his  intellectual  forehead,  his  piercing  black  eyes, 
his  Tartar  nose  and  mouth,  his  gracious  smile,  his  frown, 
black  with  all  the  stormy  rage  and  hate  of  a  barbarian 
tyrant,  .  .  .  were  during  some  weeks  popular  topics  of 
conversation."  He  returned  to  his  capital,  Moscow, 
after  an  absence  of  seventeen  months,  and  jiunished 
with  great  severity  the  strelitzes,  who  had  rebelled  while 
he  was  absent.  He  established  naval  and  other  schools, 
caused  useful  works  to  be  translated  into  Russian,  re- 
quired his  subjects  to  trade  with  foreigners,  and  made 
various  other  innovations,  against  which  a  great  number 
of  his  subjects  were  deeply  prejudiced.  He  also  dis- 
banded the  strelitzes,  who  had  served  as  a  body-guard 
of  the  Czars.  In  1700  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Kings  of  Poland  and  Denmark  against  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  who  defeated  the  Russians  at  Narva  in  the 
same  year.  Peter  founded  Saint  Petersburg  in  1703, 
and  prosecuted  vigorously  the  war  against  Charles,  who 
was  defeated  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Pultowa,  in  1709. 
(See  Charles  XII.)  In  1711  he  married  Catherine, 
a  girl  of  obscure  origin,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  at 
Marienburg.     (See  Catherine  I.) 

The  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  having  been  re- 
newed, Peter  conducted  an  army  in  person  across  the 
Pruth  into  the  dominions  of  the  Sultan.  Hemmed  in 
by  the  Turkish  army,  and  unable  to  obtain  a  regular 
supply  of  provisions,  he  was  reduced  to  a  dangerous 
situation,  from  which,  it  is  said,  the  empress  Catherine 
rescued  him  by  overtures  of  peace  and  rich  presents  to 
the  grand  vizier.  Peter  obtained  peace  by  restoring  Azof 
and  Taganrog  in  July,  1711,  after  which  he  pro.secuted 
with  success  the  war  aganist  the  Swedes  in  Pomerania 
and  conquered  Finland.  He  transferred  the  senate  to 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1713,  soon  after  which  the  imperial 
palaces  of  that  city  were  finished.  In  1716  he  visited 
Germany,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  France.  During  his 
visit  to  Copenhagen  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  combined  fleets  of  Russia,  Holland,  England, 
and  Denmark. 

Alexis,  the  eldest  son  of  Peter,  had  constantly  opposed 
his  projects  of  reform,  and  had  selected  his  favourites 
and  advisers  among  the  enemies  of  his  father's  policy. 
Having  remonstrated  without  effect  against  this  conduct, 
Peter  compelled  him,  in  February,  1718,  to  renounce  the 
succession.  Alexis  was  then  tried  for  conspiracy  by  a 
council  of  judges  and  bishops,  who  condemned  him  to 
death.  The  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Alexis, 


f  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  asy.-  G,  H,  K,<;;-itttural;  N,  uasal:  R,  trHled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     { 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23. 


PETER 


1930 


PETER 


attested  as  they  appear  to  be  by  unimpeachable  wit- 
nesses, seem  to  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  he  was 
poisoned  by  order  of  his  father.     (See  Alexis.) 

In  1719  Peter  was  afflicted  by  the  death  of  his  second 
son,  Peter,  the  heir-apparent  and  the  issue  of  Catherine. 
He  made,  in  September,  1721,  at  Nystad,  (or  Neustadt,) 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of  Sweden,  who  ceded 
to  him  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  Carlia,  and  Viborg. 
Finland  was  restored  to  Sweden  by  this  treaty.  Having 
thus  fortunately  ended  a  war  of  twenty  years,  he  assumed, 
at  the  request  of  the  senate,  the  titles  of  "  Peter  the  Great, 
Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  and  Father  of  his  Country." 
He  afterwards  directed  iiis  attention  to  internal  improve- 
ments, and  founded  the  Academy  of  Sciences  about  1724. 
The  public  offices  and  tribunals  had  been  removed  in 
1721  to  Saint  Petersburg,  the  papulation  of  which  he 
had  rapidly  increased  by  arbitrary  measures.  Among 
his  favourite  ministers  and  courtiers  were  Mentchikof 
and  Galitzin.  He  died  at.  Saint  Petersburg  on  the  28th 
of  January  or  the  8th  of  February,  1725,  leaving  two 
daughters,  Elizabeth,  who  became  empress,  and  Anna. 
Catherine  reigned  until  her  death,  in  1727,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Peter  H.,  a  son  of  Ale.xis. 

See  John  Mottlkv,  "  Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  ;?  vols.,  1739; 
M  AUVH.1.0N,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  ler,"  1742  ;  Ai.ex.  GoRtxjN,  "  His- 
tory of  Peter  the  Great,"  1755  ;  Voltaire.  "  Histoire  de  Russiesoui 
Pierre  le  Gmiid,"  1759-63  :  Claudius,  "  Peter  der  Grosse,"  3  vols., 
1798-1818;  GoLiKOW,  '•Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (in  Russian,)  12 
vols.,  1788-1^8;  Rahener,  "  Leben  Petri  L,"  1725;  Von  Halem, 
"  Leben  Peters  des  Grossen,"  3  vols.,  1803-05;  Grosse.  "  Peiet 
der  Grosse,"  1836:  Ph.  de  SSgur,  "  Histoire  de  Riissie  e;  de  Pierre 
le  Grand,"  1829  ;  Reiche,  "  Peter  der  Grosse  nnd  seine  Zeit."  1S41  ; 
Kkwjamin  Bergmann,  "  Peter  der  Grosse  als  Menscli  iind  Regent," 
5  vols  ,  1S23-26;  "North  .American  Review"  for  October,  1845.  (by 
J    LoTHRor  Motley  ;)  Schi^yi.ek's  "'  Life  of  Peter  the  Great  " 

Peter  II.,  (Alexievitch.)  a  grandson  of  Peter  the 
Great,  was  born  in  1714  or  171 5.  He  began  to  reign  in 
May,  1727.  His  accession  was  promoted  by  Mentchikof, 
who  expected  to  have  great  power  or  influence  during 
his  minority.  Ivan  Dolgoruki,  however,  became  tne 
favourite  of  Peter,  who  banished  Mentchikof  to  Siberia. 
Peter  died  in  January,  1730,  and  was  succeeded  by  Anna 
Ivanowna. 

Peter  III.,  (Feodorovitch,)  Emperor  of  Russia, 
burn  in  172S,  was  a  grandson  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  a 
son  of  Anna,  who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp.  He  was  recognized  as  heir  to  the  throne  by 
Elizabeth  in  1742,  and  married,  in  1745,  Sophia  Augusta 
of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Catherine. 
He  succeeded  his  aunt  Elizabeth  in  January,  1762. 
Among  his  first  acts  was  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Frederick 
the  Great.  Having  provoked  the  enmity  of  the  nobles 
and  clergy  by  some  innovations,  he  was  dethroned  and 
strangled  in  July,  1762,  by  conspirators,  of  whom  his 
wife  was  an  accomplice.    (.See  Catherlne  II.) 

See  Ranft,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Kaisers  Peter  IIL,"  1773; 
Thiebault  de  Laveaux,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  lU,"  3  vols.,  1798; 
Goldern,  "Biographie  Peters  IIL,"  1792;  Helbig,  "  Biographie 
Peters  IIL,"  2  vols.,  180S-09. 

Peter  (or  Pedro,  pa'oRo)  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  was  a 
son  of  Sancho  Ramirez.     Died  in  1104. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  II.,  King  of  Aragon,  born  in  1174, 
was  a  son  of  .Alfonso  II.      Died  in  1213. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  III,  surnamed  the  Great,  King 
of  Aragon,  was  born  in  1236,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
James  I.,  in  1276.  He  had  married  about  1262  Con- 
stance, a  daughter  of  Manfred,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
After  the  death  of  Manfred,  Peter  asserted  his  claim  to 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  who 
had  possession  of  it  and  wh(j  was  supported  by  the 
pope.  The  interest  of  Peter  was  promoted  by  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  French  at  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  March  30, 
1282,  and  by  several  naval  victories  gained  by  his  ad- 
rriiral,  Roger  di  Loria,  over  the  fleet  of  Charles.  He 
died  in  1285,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfonso  III. 

See  ZuRiTA,  "  Anales  de  Aragon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gend- 
rale." 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  IV.,  surnamed  the  Cekemo.nious, 
King  of  Aragon,  born  in  1317,  was  the  son  of  Alfonso 
IV.  He  began  to  reign  in  1336.  Died  in  1387. 
^  Peter  (or  Pedro)  I.,  surnamed  the  Cruki.,  King  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  born  about  1334,  succeeded  his  father, 
Alfonso  XL,  in  1350.  He  married  Blanche  de  Bourbon, 
a  French  princess,  in  1353,  but  he  soon  imprisoned  her 


and  married  Juana  de  Ca.stro,  whom  he  also  maltreated. 
The  frieiuls  of  these  ladies  revolted  without  success,  anil 
Blanche  was  ])ut  to  death  by  order  of  Peter.  About 
1366  he  was  driven  out  of  Castile  by  Du  Guesclin  and 
others,  who  supported  Pedro's  brother,  Henry  de  Trans- 
tamare,  as  king.  Peter  was  restored  by  the  English 
Black  Prince  in  1367,  and  was  a.ssassinated  by  Henry  de 
Transtamare  in  1369. 

See  Lopez  de  Avala,  "  Cronica  de  los  Reyes  Pedro  I.,"  etc.. 
1591  ;  Cou.N'T  DE  LA  RoCA,  "El  Rey  Don  Pedro  defendtdo,"  1648; 
Dillon,  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Peter  ilie  Cruel,"  2  vols.,  i7'<8; 
Prosper  M^rimiIe,  "Histoire  de  Don  Pedro,  Roi  de  Cas-ille," 
2  vols.,  1S48;  Froissart,  "Clironicles ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogiaphie 
Gencrale." 

Peter  (Pedro)  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1320, 
was  a  son  of  Alfonzo  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1357. 
Died  in  1367. 

Peter  (Pedro)  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  a  younger  son 
of  John  IV.,  was  born  in  1648.  Having  deposed  his 
brother,  Alfonzo  VI.,  in  1667,  he  became  regent.  He 
reigned  as  king  from  1683  until  his  death,  in  1706. 

Peter  or  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal.  See  Peter  I., 
Emperor  of  Brazil. 

Peter  or  Pedro  V.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  at  Lisbon 
in  September,  1837,  was  a  son  of  Queen  Donna  Maria  da 
Gloria,  and  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded 
his  mother  in  November,  1853,  under  the  regency  of  his 
father,  and  assumed  the  functions  of  royalty  in  Septem- 
ber or  November,  1855.  He  was  a  popular  prince.  He 
died  in  November,  1861,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Louis  I. 

Peter  (or  Pierre,  pe-aiR')  I.,  surnamed  Mauclerc, 
Duke  of  Brittany,  and  Count  de  Dreux,  was  a  grandson 
of  Louis  VI.  of  France.  He  married,  about  1212,  Alix 
de  Thouars,  the  heiress  of  Brittany.  He  served  under 
Louis  IX.  in  the  crusade  of  1249,  and  died  in  1250. 

Peter  (Pierre)  II.,  Duke  of  Brittany,  succeeded  his 
brother,  Francis  I.,  in  1450.     Died  in  1457. 

Peter,  [Gr.  Ilerpof,]  Bishojj  of  Alexandria,  succeeded 
Theonas  in  300  A.D.  He  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of 
Maximinus  II.,  in  311.     He  is  eulogized  by  Eusebius. 

Peter  or  Pe'trus  of  Ale.xa.ndria,  the  companion 
and  successor  of  Athanasius.  Having  been  designated 
by  the  latter,  he  was  elected  bishop  by  the  orthodox 
party  in  373  a.d.,  but  was  quickly  deposed  by  the  Arians. 
He  was  restored  in  378,  and  died  in  381  a.d. 

Peter  of  Blots,  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Blesen'sis,]  an  emi- 
nent French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Blois.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archdeacon  of  Bath  by  Henry  II.  of  England. 
He  died  in  1200,  leaving  many  letters  and  other  works, 
which  have  been  printed,  (1519  and  1667.) 

Peter  or  Pe'trus  of  Sebas'te,  a  bishop,  born  in 
Cappadocia  about  350  a.d.,  was  a  brother  of  Basil  the 
Great,  bv  whom  he  was  ordained  a  presbyter.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  about  38a 
Died  after  390  A.D. 

Peter,  [Lat.  Pe'trus,]  surnamed  Chrysol'ogus,  a 
Bishop  of  Ravenna,  who  died  in  450  A.n. 

Peter  de  Bruys,  (deh.bRii-e',)  a  French  preacher, 
who  began  about  1 1 10  to  speak  against  the  corruptions 
of  the  Church.  He  is  said  to  have  rejected  masses,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  other  ordinances.  He  was  burned 
at  the  stake  in  1130. 

See  HoDGSO.v,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  T867. 

Peter  Comestor.     See  Comestor. 

Peter  the  Deacon,  an  Italian  chronicler,  born  at 
Rome  in  1107  ;  died  after  1 159. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  [Fr.  Pierre  i.'Ermite,  pe-aia' 
leR'mit';  It.  PiETRO  l'Eremita,  pe-a'tRo  li-ri-mee'td, | 
a  famous  enthusiast,  agitator,  and  crusader,  was  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Amiens  about  the  middle  ()f  the  eleventh 
century.  He  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  about 
1094,  and  was  filled  with  indignation  by  the  oppressions 
to  which  the  pilgrims  were  subjected.  On  his  return 
he  received  a  commission  from  Pope  Urban  II.  to  preach 
a  crusade  against  the  infidels.  He  traversed  France 
and  other  countries  barefoot,  and  by  his  fervent  a|>peals 
enlisted  a  host  of  crusaders  and  outlaws  estimated  at 
nearly  100,000.  He  led  them  as  far  as  Constantinople, 
and,  after  the  defeat  of  this  rabble  near  Nice,  he  accom- 
panied Godfrey  to  Jerusalem.  Nearly  all  of  the  rabble 
perished  miserably.     He  died  in  Flanders  in  III 5. 


a.  e,  i, .-,.  n,  y,  lon^:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y.  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsatre;  fir,  fill,  f4t;  n.gt;  nflt;  gofxi;  moon; 


PETER 


1931 


PETERSEN 


Pe'ter  Lom'bard,  a  distinguished  Italian  theologian, 
born  in  the  district  of  Novara.  He  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Paris  in  11 59.  He  produced  a  celebrated  compilation 
of  sentences  from  the  Fathers,  (''  Sententiarum  Lihri 
IV.,")  which  was  much  used  as  a  text-book,  and  often 
reprinted  and  commented  on.  Died  about  1160.  He 
is  often  called  "the  Master  of  the  Sentences." 

Peter  Martyr.     See  Anoiiiera.  dk. 

Pe'ter  Mar'tyr,  |Ital.  Piftro  Martire,  pe-a'tRo 
maR'te-ri,]  or  Pieiro  Vermigli,  (veR-miKyee,)  an  emi- 
nent Protestant  theologian,  was  bi)rn  at  Florence  in  1500, 
and  educated  in  the  Catholic  faitii.  Having  been  con- 
verted to  the  Reformed  religion,  he  repaired  in  1542  to 
Zurich,  where  he  acquired  the  friei  ■Iship  of  Bullinger. 
I  [e  afterwards  became  j^rofessor  of  theology  at  Stras- 
hurg,  having  the  celebrated  Bucer  for  his  colleague.  At 
the  invitation  of  Edward  VI.,  he  visited  England,  and 
was  appointed  in  1549  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  left  England,  and 
was  invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  theology  at  Zurich.  As  a 
Protestant  writer  he  is  esteemed  second  only  to  Calvin, 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  surpassed  in  learning,  and  his 
virtues  and  eloquence  were  euhjgi/ed  by  Catholics  as 
well  as  Protestants.  He  was  the  author  of  several  com- 
mentaries on  the  Scriptures,  and  other  theological  works. 
Died  at  Zurich  in  1562. 

See  M'CRtB,  "  History  of  tlie  Reformation  in  Italy;"  Schujssbr, 
"Leben  Peter  Martyrs,"  1S09;  Wood,  "Alliem  Oxoiilenses ;" 
Schmidt,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Martyr  Vermigli,"  Strasbourg,  1835. 

Pe'ter  Mon'gus,  [Gr.  Ilfr/iof  h  Moyjof, |  became  Mo- 
nophysite  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  477  A.D.  Having 
been  deposed  by  the  emperor  Zeno,  he  was  restored  in 
482.  By  a  comjiromise  or  temporizing  policy  he  retained 
his  oflice  until  he  died,  in  490. 

Peter  Nolasque  (no'ltsk')  or  Nolasco,  (no-lSs'ko,) 
the  founder  of  the  Order  of  Mercy,  (for  the  redemption 
of  captives  taken  by  the  Moors,)  was  born  in  Languedoc 
about  1 189;  died  in  1256. 

Peter  the  Venerable,  a  French  monk,  born  about 
1092,  became  Abbot  of  Clugny.     Died  in  11 56. 

Peter,  pa'ter.  (Wenceslaus,)  a  Bohemian  painter, 
born  at  Carlsbad  in  1742.  He  worked  at  Rome,  and 
was  a  skilful  painter  of  animals.  Died  at  Rome  in  1829. 

Peterborough.     See  Mordaunt. 

Pe'ter-kin,  (George  William,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Clear  Spring,  Washington  county,  Mary- 
land, March  21,  1841,  served  in  the  Confederate  army, 
1S61-65,  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Virginia,  and 
at  the  Alexandria  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  1868,  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and 
held  rectorships  in  Virginia  and  Baltimore.  In  1878  he 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  West  Virginia,  the  first  of 
that  title. 

Petermann,  pa'ter-min',  (August  Hki.nrich,)  a 
German  geographer,  born  near  Nordhausen  in  1S22.  He 
aided  Johnston,  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  "  Physical  Atlas," 
and  T.  Miiner  in  the  "  .Vtlas  of  Physical  Geography." 
He  became  about  1854  editor  of  a  monthly  journal 
devoted  to  geographical  discovery,  published  at  Gotha. 
He  wrote  or  edited  "  An  Account  of  the  Expeditions  to 
Central  Africa."     Died  September  25,  1878. 

Petermann,  pa'ter-man',  (Julius  Heinrich,)  D.D., 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Glauchau,  in  Saxony,  August 
12,  1801.  He  was  educated  at  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and 
Venice,  receiving  the  doctorate  in  1829.  In  1837  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Oriental  literature  in  Berlin  Uni- 
versity. Among  his  works  are  grammars  of  most  of  the 
Semitic  languages,  and  of  other  tongues,  besides  "  Travels 
in  the  East,"  (1S60,)  and  other  works  of  value.  Died 
June  30,  1876. 

Peterneefs.    See  Neefs,  (Peter.) 

Peters,  pa'ters,  (Bonaventure,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1614.  was  the  best  marine  painter 
of  his  time.  His  favourite  subjects  were  storms  and 
shipwrecks.  He  also  painted  views  of  the  sea  in  a 
calm.      Died  at  Antwerp  in  1652. 

Pe'ters,  (Charles,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Corn- 
wall. He  became  rector  of  Saint  Mabyn  in  1727,  and 
wrote  a  "  Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Job." 
Died  in  1777.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was  published 
after  his  death. 


Peters,  pa'ters,  (Chrisiian  August  Friedkich.)  a 
German  astronomer,  born  at  Hamburg,  September  7. 
1806.  He  became  in  1839  a  director  of  the  observatory 
at  Pulkova,  in  1849  professor  of  astronomy  at  Konigs- 
i)erg,  and  in  1854  director  at  Altona,  in  which  year  he 
i)egan  to  edit  that  important  work,  "  Die  astronomischen 
Nachrichten."     Died  in  18S0. 

Peters,  (Christian  IIk.nky  Frederick,)  a  German- 
American  astronomer,  born  at  Coldenbtittei,  in  -Sleswick, 
September  19,  1813.  He  was  educated  in  Berlin,  and 
travelled  extensively  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  after 
which  he  was  employed  on  the  United  States  coast  sur- 
vey. In  1858  he  was  ci)osen  professor  of  mathematics  at 
llamiiton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  and  director  of 
the  Litchfield  observatories.  Dr.  Peters  discovered  a 
large  number  of  asteroids,  and  performed  a  vast  amount 
ot  important  astronomical  work.     Died  July  19,  1890. 

Peters,  (Francis  Lucas,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Mechlin  (Malines)  in  1606 ;  died  at 
i]russels  in  1654. 

Peters,  (Gerard.)     See  Pieters. 

Peters  or  Peter,  (Hugh,)  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1599-  lie  preached  in 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  several  years,  between  1635  and 
1641.  On  his  return  to  England  he  became  a  ])ar- 
tisan  of  the  Parliament,  acquired  much  influence,  and 
was  a  preacher  to  the  army  which  fought  against  the 
king.  1  le  wa.s  tried  for  treason  and  hung  by  the  royalists 
in  1660.  His  reputation  is  defended  by  some  respectable 
writers. 

See  S.  Peters,  "  History  of  Hugh  Peters,"  1807  ;  Brook,  "  Lives 
of  the  Puritans  " 

Peters,  (Jan,)  an  excellent  Flemish  marine  painter, 
a  brother  of  Bonaventure,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1625.  His  figures  are  well  designed  and 
his  landscapes  finely  touched.  Among  his  master-pieces 
is  the  "  Port  of  Oran."     Died  in  1677. 

Pe'ters,  (John  Charles,)  M.D.,  an  American  homoe- 
opathic physician,  born  in  New  York  in  1819,  has  pub- 
lished a  "  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Head,"  a  "  Treatise 
on  Diseases  of  the  Eyes,"  and  other  medical  works,  and 
was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  North  American  Journal 
of  Homoeopathy." 

Peters,  (Phillis  Wheatley.)     See  Wheatley. 

Peters,  (Richard,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1744.  He  was  appointed  in  1776  secretary 
of  the  board  of  war,  and  was  afterwards  judge  of  the 
United  States  district  court  for  Pennsylvania.  Died 
in  1828.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  dry  humour,  ready 
wit,  etc. 

Peters,  (Sa.mufl,)  an  Episcop.al  divine,  born  at 
Hebron,  Connecticut,  in  1735.  During  the  Revolution 
he  sided  with  the  Tories,  and  took  refuge  in  England, 
where  he  published  a  "  General  I  listory  of  Connecticut," 
by  some  condemned  as  libellous,  by  others  considered 
satirical.  He  is  himself  satirized  in  Trumbull's  "  McFin- 
gal"  under  the  name  of  "Parson  Peter."     Died  in  1826. 

Peters,  (Samuel  Jarvis,)  an  American  merchant, 
born  in  Canada  in  1801,  settled  in  New  Orleans,  and 
liecame  president  of  the  State  Bank  of  Louisiana.  Died 
in  1855. 

Peters,  (Wilhelm  Karl  Hartwig,)  a  German  zool 
ogist,  a  brother  of  Prof.  C.  H.  F.  Peters,  was  born  at  Col- 
denbtittei, April  22,  1815,  and  was  educated  in  medicine 
and  science  at  Copenhagen  and  Berlin.  He  travelled  ex- 
tensively in  the  South  of  Europe,  and  was  later  (1S42-48) 
employed  in  explorations  in  the  East  of  Africa,  under 
the  Prussian  government's  supervision.  For  a  long  time 
he  was  anatomical  prosector  at  Berlin,  where  in  1857  he 
became  professor  of  zoology.  His  principal  work  is 
"  Naturwissenschaftliche  Reise  nach  Mossambique," 
(4  vols.,  1852-68.)     Died  at  Berlin,  April  23,  1884. 

Petersen,  pa'ter-sen,  (  Frederik  Christian,  )  a 
Danish  scholar,  and  professor  of  philology  at  Copen- 
hagen, was  born  in  Seeland  in  1786.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Greek  Literary  History," 
and  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Archaeology," 
(1825.)     Died  October  20,  1859. 

Petersen,  (Niels  Matthias,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Sanderum,  in  the  isle 
of  Funen,  in  1 79 1.     He  was  a  fellow-student  of  Rask, 


€  as  k:  ^-  as  s;  g  harj.  g  asy',  g,  H,  K.,g7ti(ural;  N,  nasai;  R,  trilica,  s  as  s,  tn  us  m  tha,     [  J^^.See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


F ETHER 


1932 


PETIT 


who  became  his  friend.  He  published  in  1829  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  Swedish  Lan- 
guages," (2  vols.,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Tn  1S45 
he  became  professor  of  Northern  literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Copenhagen.  Among  his  important  works 
are  a  "History  of  Denmark  in  Heathen  Times,"  (3 
vols.,  1834-38,)  and  "Contributions  to  the  History  of 
Danish  Literature,"  (ist  vol.,  1853.)  He  died  in  Copen- 
hagen in  May,  1862. 

.'^ee  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Pe'ther,  (.Abraham,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Chichester  in  1756,  was  a  son  of  William  Pether, 
noticed  below.  He  painted  moonlight  scenes  with  suc- 
cess.    Died  in  1812. 

His  son  Sebastian,  born  about  1790,  was  also  a 
landscape-painter.     Died  in  1S44. 

Pether,  (William,)  an  English  engraver  in  mezzotint, 
and  painter,  born  about  1730,  flourished  about  1770. 
He  engraved  some  works  of  Rembrandt,  and  some  of 
his  own  designs. 

Pethion.    See  Petion,  (J^RdME.) 

P^tiet,  p4'te-i',  (Claude,)  a  French  administrator, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1749.  He  was  minister 
of  war  from  February,  1796,  to  July,  1797,  and  governor 
of  Lombardy,  (1800-02.)     Died  in  1806. 

Petigny,  de,  deh  pi't^n'ye',  (Francois  Jules,)  a 
French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  received 
a  prize  of  nine  thousand  francs  for  his  "Studies  on  the 
Histoiy,  Laws,  and  Listitutions  of  the  Merovingian 
Period,"  (2  vols.,  1842-44.)     Died  in  1858. 

Pet'i-gru,  (James  Louis,)  an  eminent  American 
lawyer  and  statesman,  born  in  Abbeville  district,  South 
Carolina,  about  1789.  He  practised  law  at  Charleston, 
and  was  attorney-general  of  South  Carolina  from  1822 
to  1830.  He  differed  from  the  large  majority  of  the 
people  of  his  State  on  the  subject  of  nullification  about 
1831.  He  also  opposed  the  secession  movement  of 
1860-61.     Died  in  1863. 

Petion,  pi'te-6N',  (Alexandre,)  the  first  President 
of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  was  born  at  Port-au-Prince  in 
1770.  His  father  was  a  wealthy  colonist,  his  mother  a 
mulatto.  He  was  sent  to  France  to  be  educated,  and 
served  at  an  early  age  in  the  French  army.  Afterwards, 
when  the  Revolution  broke  out,  he  took  an  active  ])art 
in  the  rising  of  the  coloured  people,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  an  officer  of  artillery.  His  humane  disposi- 
tion and  pleasing  manners  gained  for  him  the  favour  of 
all  classes  ;  and  during  the  period  of  terror  he  succeeded 
in  protecting  many  of  the  colonists.  When  the  blacks, 
under  Toussaint,  began  to  proscribe  the  whites  and 
mulattos,  Petion  resisted  them  by  arms,  but  he  was  soon 
forced  to  fly  from  the  island.  Returning  with  General 
Le  Clerc,  he  fought  for  some  time  under  the  French 
standard  ;  but,  disgusted  at  length  by  the  cruelties  of  the 
French,  and  especially  by  their  treachery  towards  Tous- 
saint and  their  attempt  to  re-establish  slavery,  he  again 
joined  Dessalines,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  was 
elected  President  of  the  southern  and  western  portion 
of  the  island,  while  Christophe,  who  had  been  general- 
in-chief  under  Dessalines,  became  ruler  of  the  northern 
part.  Petion  was  a  man  of  sincere  and  dee])  religious 
convictions.  As  a  ruler  he  was  distinguished  for  the 
republican  simplicity  of  his  manners  and  mode  of  life, 
as  well  as  for  his  humanity  and  impartial  justice.  But 
the  anxieties  caused  by  the  difficulties  of  his  |:)osition,  in 
the  midst  of  a  population  hitherto  wholly  unaccustomed 
to  self-control, — anxieties  which  were  still  further  in- 
creased, on  his  part,  by  an  extreme  and  almost  morbid 
conscientiousness, — proved  too  much  for  his  health.  He 
died,  universally  lamented,  on  the  29th  of  March,  1818 
As  a  military  officer,  he  was  remarkable  for  skill  and 
serene  courage.  For  some  very  interesting  particulars 
respecting  President  Petion,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
numbers  48  and  49  of  volume  xxxix.  of  "  The  Friend,'" 
(1866,)  published  in  Philadelphia.  The  article  in  ques- 
tion is  from  the  pen  of  Stephen  Grellet. 

See  Saint-Remi,  "Potion  et  Haiti,"  Paris,  5  vols.,  1854-58. 

Petion   (or  Pethion)   de  Villeneuve,   pk'te-6N'* 

*  We  are  informed  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^ni^rale"  that, 
ilthoiisli  Petion  sen'-'fally  wrote  his  name  without  the  accent,  it  wa« 
always  pronminced  Petion. 


deh  vil'nuv',  (Ji:RoME,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at 
Chartres  in  1753.  He  was  a  radical  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1790.  His  abilities  were  mediocre. 
He  was  one  of  the  three  deputies  sent  to  conduct  the 
king  from  Varennes  to  Paris  in  1791,  and  was  censured 
for  his  harshness  or  rudeness  to  the  royal  captives.  In 
November,  1791,  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Paris,  in 
preference  to  La  Fayette,  who  was  supported  by  the 
moderate  reformers.  He  ajipears  to  have  been  remiss 
in  his  duties  during  the  massacres  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember, 1792.  Having  been  elected  to  the  Convention, 
he  acted  with  the  Girondists,  and  was  proscribed  about 
the  1st  of  June,  1793.  He  escaped  to  the  department 
of  the  Gironde,  where  he  was  found  dead  in  a  field  in 
June,  1794.  The  manner  of  his  death  was  not  ascer- 
tained. 

See  Krcnault-Warin,  "Vie  de  J.  Petion,  Maire  de  Paris, 
1796;  Lamaktine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  peh-te'  deh  It  kRvvS,  (Alexandre 
I-ouis  Marie,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1698,  was  a  son  of  Fran9ois,  (1653-1713.)  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  in  the  Royal  College.      Died  in  1751. 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  (Francois,)  a  French  Oriental- 
ist, b(jrn  in  1622.  He  was  interpreter  to  the  king,  and 
published  a  "History  of  Genghiz-Can,"  (Jengis  Khan,) 
(1 710.)     Died  in  1695. 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  (Fran^ols,)  an  Orientalist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1653,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  at  Aleppo,  Isi^ahan,  and 
Constantinople.  As  interpreter,  he  rendered  important 
services  in  the  negotiations  between  the  French  court 
and  the  Sultan  and  the  Dey  of  Algiers.  In  1695  he 
became  interpreter  to  the  king.  He  translated  from 
the  Persian  "The  Thousand  and  One  Days,"  (5  vols., 
1710-12,)  and  a  "History  of  Taimoor,"  (Tamerlane,) 
(4  vols.,   1722.)     Died  in  1713. 

See  Qi;iRARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Petit,  peh-te' or  p'te,  (Alexis  TH^RfesE,)  a  French 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Vesoul  in  1791,  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Arago.  He  became  a  teacher  of  phys- 
ics in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  iSio,  and  titular  pro- 
fessor in  the  saiiie  in  1815.  He  wrote  an  able  "Memoir 
on  the  Use  of  the  Principle  of  Living  Forces  in  the 
Calculation  of  Machines,"  (1818.)     Died  in  1820. 

See  J.  B.  P.10T,  "  Notice  sur  Petit,"  1821. 

Petit,  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French  physician,  born 
at  Orleans  in  17 18.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  Paris,  in  1768,  and  attracted  a 
large  concourse  of  auditors.  He  published  "  Palfyn's 
Surgical  Anatomy,  with  Notes,"  ("Anatomie  chirurgi- 
cale  de  Palfyn,  avec  des  Notes,"  1753.)     Died  in  1794. 

Petit,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  celebrated  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris  in  1674.  He  served  as  army  surgeon  from  1692 
to  1700,  and  then  returned  to  Paris.  His  success  was 
great  as  a  lecturer  and  a  jiractitioner.  He  was  for  some 
years  the  most  celebrated  surgeon  in  Europe.  "  The 
services  which  he  rendered  to  surgery."  says  a  French 
writer,  "  are  immense."  He  was  one  of  the  fijunders  of 
the  Academy  of  Surgery,  (1731.)  His  chief  work  is  an 
excellent  "Treatise  on  Surgery,"  ("Traite  des  Maladies 
chirurgicales,"  etc.,  3  vols.,  1774.)     Died  in  1750. 

See  A.  Louis,  "  £loge  de  J.  L.  Petit,"  1750;  "Biographie  M^- 
dicale." 

Petit,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  historical  and  marine 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  gained  a  first  medal 
in  1841.      Died  August  13,  1876. 

Petit,  (Jean  Martin,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1772.  He  served  as  lieutenant-general  at 
Waterloo.     Died  in  1856. 

Pet'it,  (Lewis  Hayes,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  gentle- 
man and  patron  of  literature,  was  born  in  1774;  died 
in  1849. 

Petit,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  physician  and 
skilful  surgeon,  born  at  Lyons  in  1766.  He  wrote 
"  Essai  sur  la  NIedecine  du  Coeur,"  (1806,)  and  several 
poems.     Died  in  i8u. 

See  P.AUMKS,  "  filoge  de  M.  A.  Petit,"  i8ij. 

Petit,  (Pierre,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Montlu9on  (AUier)  about  1596.  He  obtained  the  offices 
of  engineer,  counsellor  to  the  king,  and  intendant-gene- 
ral  of  fortifications.     He  formed  a  friendship  with  Pas- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  shorl;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  nflt;  good;  moon* 


PETIT 


1933 


I'ETRARCH 


cal,  whom  he  aided  in  experiments  on  the  vacuum  and 
barometer,  (1646-47.)  Among  his  wori<s  are  a  treatise 
"On  the  Use  of  the  Compass  of  Proportion,"  (1634,) 
and  "Observations  on  the  Vacuum,"  (1647.)  He  was  a 
Cartesian.     Died  in  1677. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Mori^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Petit,  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1617.  Among  his  poems  (in  Latin)  are  "On 
Tears,"  ("  De  Lacryniis  Libri  tres,"  1661,)  "Chinese 
Tea,"  ("Thea  Sinensis,"  1685,)  "On  the  Amazons," 
("  De  Amazonibus,"  1685,)  and  "On  the  Sibyl,"  ("De 
Sibylla,"  1686.)  He  was  one  of  the  Latin  poets  who 
formed  the  "  Pleiade"  of  Paris.     Died  in  16S7. 

Petit,  (Samuel,)  a  learned  French  Orientalist,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1594,  was  a  Protestant  minister.  It  is  said 
that  he  could  speak  Hebrew  with  ease.  He  wrote  on 
Jewish  and  Greek  antiquities,  chronology,  etc.  His 
friendship  was  sought  by  Peiresc,  Selden,  Gassendi, 
Vossius,  and  Gronovius.     Died  in  1643. 

Petit,  du,  diip'te',  (Francois  Pourfour,)  a  learned 
French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1664.  He  was  suc- 
cessful in  the  treatment  of  cataract,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  eyes.     Died  in  1741. 

Petit-Didier,  peh-te'  de'de-i',  (Mathieu,)  a  learned 
French  monk,  was  born  in  Lorraine  in  1659.  lie  wrote 
"  Remarks  on  the  First  Volumes  of  Duj^in's  Biblio- 
th^que  Ecclesiastique,"  (3  vols.,  1691-96,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1728. 

Petit-Pied,  peh-te'  pe-i',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  1665.  He  was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
and  wrote  many  works  in  favour  of  Jansenism.  Died 
in  1747. 

Petit-Radel,  peh-te'  rt'd^l',  (Louts  Charles  Fran- 
(JOIS,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1756.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  keeper  of  the  Mazarin 
Library.  He  published  "Explanations  of  the  Antique 
Monuments  of  the  Museum,"  (4  vols.,  1804-06,)  and 
"Researches  on  Cyclopean  Monuments,"  (1841.)  Died 
in  1836. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Petit-Radel,  (Louis  Francois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1S18. 

Petit-Radel,  (PuinrrE, )  a  surgeon  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1749,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  obtained  in  1798  the  chair  of  surgical  clinic. 
He  published  "Medical  Institutes,"  ('.'Institutions  de 
Medecine,"  2  vols.,  1801,)  and  compiled  the  "  Dictionary 
of  Surgery,"  (3  vols.,  1 790,)  which  forms  part  of  the 
"Encyclopedie  Methodique."    Died  in  181 5. 

See  "  Riographie  Medicale." 

Petit-Thouars.    See  Du  Petit-Thouars. 

Petitain,  peh-te'tiN',  (Louis  Germain,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He  wrote  some  works 
of  fiction.     Died  in  1820. 

Petitot,  peh-te'to',  (Claude  Bernard,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Dijon  in  1772.  He  translated  the 
dramatic  works  of  Alfieri,  (4  vols.,  1802,)  and  edited 
the  works  of  Racine,  (5  vols.,  1805,)  and  the  works  of 
Moliere,  (6  vols.,  1813.)     Died  in  1825. 

Petitot,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  painter  on  enamel,  born, 
of  French  parents,  at  Geneva  in  1607.  He  visited  Eng- 
land, where  he  obtained  from  the  chemist  Mayern  some 
important  secrets  respecting  colours,  and  was  patronized 
by  Charles  I.  He  painted  portraits  of  the  royal  family, 
and  co])ied  some  works  of  Van  Dyck.  About  1650  he 
returned  to  France.  He  received  a  pension  from  Louii 
XIV.,  whose  portrait  he  painted  many  times.  I3y  order 
of  the  king,  Bossuet  attempted  to  convert  Petitot  to 
the  Romish  Church,  but  failed.  His  master-piece  is  a 
whole-length  portrait,  in  enamel,  of  the  Countess  of 
Southampton,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  about  nine 
inches  by  five.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  delicacy 
of  design  and  harmonious  richness  of  colour.  Died  at 
Vevay  in  1691, 

See  L.  Rrightwell,  "  By-Pathsof  Biography  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale." 

Petitot,  (Louis  Messidor  Lebon,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  I'aris  in  1794.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1814,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.     Among  his 


works  are  many  marble  busts  of  Frenchmen.  His  capital 
work  is  a  colossal  monument  to  Louis  Bonaparte  at 
Saint-Leu.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died 
in  June,  1S62. 

Petitot,  (Pierre,)  a  sculptor,  born  at  Langres  in 
1751,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1840. 

Pet'i-ver,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  botanist,  was 
an  apothecary  of  London.  He  furnished  materials  for 
Ray's  "  History  of  Plants,"  published  "  Pterigraphia 
Americana,"  (1712,)  and  other  works,  and  formed  a 
rich  collection  of  plants,  minerals,  and  animals.  Died 
in  1718. 

Pe'to,  (Sir  Samuel  Morton,)  an  English  engineer 
and  contractor,  born  in  Surrey  in  1809.  He  constructed 
the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  in  Canada,  with  the  tubular 
bridge  near  Montreal,  and  several  railways  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Finsbury  in  1859.  Sir  S.  Morton  Peto  visited  the  United 
States  in  1865,  and  published  "The  Resources  and  Pros- 
pects of  America,"  (1866.)     Died  November  13.  1889. 

Petofi  or  Petoefi,  pi-to'fee,  (Sandor,  or  Alexan- 
der,) a  Hungarian  poet  and  litterateur,  born  in  Little 
Cumania  in  1822.  He  published  in  1847  ^  number  of 
patriotic  songs,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity  and  had 
a  powerful  influence  in  exciting  the  revolutionary  feeling 
of  his  countrymen.  He  also  wrote  several  dramas  and 
prose  works.  His  lyrics  and  odes  display  uncommon 
genius,  and  have  procured  for  him  the  name  of  "the 
Hungarian  Burns."  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Schassburg,  (1849.) 

See  Khrtbeny,  "Petoefy  der  Ungarische  Nationaldichter ;" 
Chassin,  "  Petoefy  et  ses  Qiuvres,"  1861. 

Petrarca.     See  Petrarch. 

Pe'trar<;h,  [It.  Petrarca,  pi-tRaR'k5;  Fr.  Pe- 
trarque,  pi'tRaRk';  Lat.  Petrar'cha,]  (Francesco,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany, 
on  the  20th  of  July,  1304.  His  father,  a  friend  of  Dante, 
was  banished  from  Florence  in  1302  for  his  political 
princijjles,  and  removed  in  1313  to  Avignon,  which  was 
then  the  residence  of  the  pope.  He  was  sent  to  study 
law  at  Montpellier,  where  he  remained  about  four  years, 
(1318-22;)  but  he  preferred  the  study  of  the  classic  au- 
thors, especially  Cicero  and  Virgil.  He  made,  however, 
some  progress  in  law  under  Cino  da  Pistoia  at  Bologna. 
His  fine  personal  and  inental  endowments  procured  for 
him  admission  into  the  brilliant  society  of  Avignon.  He 
was  so  handsome  as  to  attract  observation  as  he  walked 
in  the  streets.  He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Colonna, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Giacomo  Colonna,  a 
brother  of  the  cardinal. 

In  1327  his  heart  for  the  first  time  was  touched  by  a 
violent  and  profound  passion.  He  has  recorded  the 
place,  the  day,  and  the  liour  in  which  he  first  saw  Laura 
de  Sade,  a  daughter  of  Audibert  de  Noves,  and  the  wife 
of  Hugh  de  Sade, — a  lady  distinguished  by  her  rank, 
but  more  by  her  beauty  and  modesty.  With  consum- 
mate tact,  she  contrived,  by  a  mixture  of  reserve,  discre- 
tion, and  sympathy,  to  preserve  him  and  herself  from  the 
fatal  consequences  of  his  wayward  passion.  "She  took 
my  heart  into  her  hand,"  he  writes,  "saying,  'Speak  no 
word  of  this.'  "  By  her  pure  and  excellent  example  his 
passion  appears  to  have  been  purified  and  exalted;  but 
his  admiration  of  her  never  abated,  and  the  whole  tenor 
of  his  life  was  changed  by  her  influence.  He  sought  re- 
lief by  the  composition  of  the  sonnets  and  canzoni  which 
have  rendered  the  name  of  Laura  immortal.  She  ac- 
cepted this  homage,  which  the  usage  of  that  age  sanc- 
tioned, and  was,  ])erhaps,  proud  of  his  admiration.  He 
pa.ssed  much  time  in  collecting,  collating,  and  copying 
ancient  manuscripts.  We  owe  to  him  the  preservation 
of  many  Latin  authors  which  were  buried  in  the  dust  of 
monastic  libraries.  About  1335  he  visited  Rome,  the 
ruins  of  which  made  a  deep  impression  on  him.  He 
also  travelled  in  France,  Germany,  and  Spain.  He  dis- 
covered two  orations  of  Cicero  at  Liege,  the  "  Institu- 
tions" of  Quintilian  at  Arezzo,  and  Cicero's  "Familiar 
Letters"  at  Verona.  Petrarch  corresponded  with  the 
most  eminent  scholars  of  his  time,  founded  the  library 
of  Saint  Mark  at  Venice,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
revivers  of  classical  literature  in  Italy. 


*•  as/'.-  9as.r.-  %hard;  gas;;  G,M,K,_^ittura/:  N,  nasal;  v.,triUe.i;  sas  2;  %\\  asin///M.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.; 


PETRARCH  A 


1934 


PE I ROXE 


About  1336  he  retired  to  Vaucluse,  a  romantic  valley 
near  Avignon,  where  he  passed  several  years  in  solitude 
and  in  vain  efforts  to  forget  his  unhappy  passion.  Here 
he  meditated  a  great  woik  which  should  be  worthy  of 
his  genius,  and  commenced  a  Latin  epic  poem,  of  which 
Scipio  Africanus  was  the  hero.  Tliis  poem,  entitled 
"Africa,"  is  inferior  to  his  Italian  sonnets.  In  1340  he 
accejJted  an  invitation  from  the  Roman  senate  to  come 
to  Rome  and  receive  the  laurel  crown  of  ])oetry.  He 
was  crowned  at  the  Capitol  in  1341.  Petrarch  ajipears 
to  have  had  much  influence  with  several  potentates  of 
his  time.  He  exerted  his  eloquence  to  induce  successive 
po])es  to  transfer  the  papal  court  from  Avignon  to  Rome. 
He  was  the  colleague  of  the  famous  Rienzi  in  an  embassy 
sent  by  the  Romans  to  Clement  VI.  for  that  purpose. 
He  became  Archdeacon  of  Parma,  and  canon  of  several 
cathedrals.  His  love  of  independence  caused  him  to  de- 
cline the  office  of  apostolic  secretary  and  the  dignity  of 
bishop.  In  1342  he  met  Laura,  whose  beauty  had  faded, 
and  who  was  not  hajipy  in  her  domestic  relations.  Her 
husband  was  jealous  and  ill-tempered.  Laura  sang  to 
Petrarch,  and  parted  from  him  with  emotion  and  regret. 

The  death  of  Laura,  which  occurred  in  1348,  inspired 
a  new  series  of  beautiful  and  exquisite  sonnets,  the 
melody  and  pathos  of  which  have  ])robably  never  been 
surjiassed.  It  is  reported  that  she  died  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  day  and  hour  that  he  first  saw  her. 
between  1350  and  1360  he  resided  at  the  court  of  Vis- 
conti.  Lord  of  Milan,  who  employed  him  in  diplomatic 
missions  to  Venice,  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and 
to  the  King  of  France.  Among  his-  intimate  friends 
at  this  period  was  Boccaccio.  In  1370,  for  the  sake 
of  retirement  and  the  restoration  of  his  health,  he  fixed 
his  residence  at  Arqui,  among  the  Euganean  Hills, 
north  of  Padua.  He  was  found  dead  in  his  library  at 
Arqua  on  the  19th  of  July,  1374.*  He  left,  besides  other 
prose  works  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "On  Contempt  of  the 
World,"  ("De  Contemptu  Mundi,")  and  many  epistles, 
which  are  highly  prized  as  memorials  of  important  events 
which  he  witnessed.  He  had  composed  in  praise  of 
Laura  above  three  hundred  sonnets  and  fifty  canzoni. 
Among  his  most  perfect  productions  is  "  The  Triumph 
of  Death,"  ("Trionfo  della  Morte,")  a  poem,  in  which 
he  describes  the  death  of  Laura.  The  most  complete 
edition  of  Petrarch's  works  is  that  published  at  Bale,  (2 
vols,  fob,  1581.)  It  contains,  besides  his  Italian  and 
Latin  poems,  and  the  works  already  named  in  this  notice, 
"De  Vera  .Sapientia,"  "  De  Officio  et  Virtutibus  Impe- 
ratoris,"  and  "  Vitarum  Virorum  Illustrium  Epitcrne." 

"The  peculiar  charm  of  Petrarch's  character,"  says 
one  of  his  biographers,  "is  warmth  of  heart  and  a  native 
ingenuousness  of  disposition,  which  readily  laid  bare 
his  soul  to  those  around."  lie  was  a  believer  in  re- 
vealed religion ;  but  he  often  protested  openly  agains 
the  corruptions  of  the  papal  court. 

See  L.  IIkccadei.li,  "  Vita  di  Petrarca,"  (translated  into  EngHsk 
by  W.  PvE,  1766;)  L.  Aretino,  "Vita  di  Petrarca,"  1672;  Ferndw, 
"  F.  Petrarca,  nehst  dem  Leben  des  Dichters,"  1818;  Tomasini, 
"  Petrarcha  Rediviviis,"  1635  and  1650;  AbbS  deSade,  "M^nioires 
pour  la  Vie  de  P^trarque,"  3  vols.,  1764-67;  Fabroni,  "  Petrarchje 
Vita,"  lygg;  Levati,  "  Viaggi  di  F.  Petrarca,"  5  vols.,  1820:  Uco 
FoscoLO,  "  Essay  on  Petrarch  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  1S25  ;  Thomas  Campbell,  "Life  of  Petrarch,"  1841; 
"  Lives  of  Eminent  Men  of  Italy,"  in  Lardn'er's  "  Cabinet  of  Biog- 
raphy ;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall,"  chap.  Ixx.  ;  S.  Dob.son, 
"  Li4  of  Petrarch,"  2  vols.,  1775:  Meinart,  "Franc.  Petrarca's 
nio^rafie,"  1794;  Lord  Woodhouselee,  "Essay,  Historical  and 
Critical,  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Petrarch,"  1810;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  :"  Prescott,  "Miscellanies," 
p.  616;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1843. 

Petrarcha.     See  Petrarch. 
Petrarque.     See  Pktrarch. 

Petrazzi,  pi-tuit'see,  (Astolfo,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  Siennese  school,  was  born  in  1579  ;  died  in  1653. 


*  His  epitaph,  as  given  by  some  writers,  is  a  curious  specimen  of 
I.<atin  versification, — rhyming  hexameters: 

"  Frigida  Franci.sci  lapis  iiic  tegit  ossa  Petrarchas. 
Suscipe  Virgo  Parens  animam  :  Sate  Virgine  parce  ; 
Fessaque  jam  terns  coeli  requiescat  in  arce." 
(See  "  liibliotheca  Vetus  et  Nova,"  by  G.  ^L    Kon'IG,  Altdorf, 
1678.) 

The  fbllowing  is  a  nearly  literal  translation:  "This  stone  covers 
the  cold  bones  of  Francis  Petrarrh.  Virgin  Mother,  receive  his 
Boul ;  O  thou  Son  of  the  Virgin,  have  mercy ;  and  may  fhis  soul,] 
weary  with  earth,  now  find  repose  in  the  citadel  of  heaven." 


Petre,  pSt'tr  or  pe'ter,  (Edward,)  an  English  Jesuit, 
born  about  1 631.  Me  was  confessor  or  clerk  of  the  closet 
to  James  II.,  over  whom  he  is  said  to  have  exerted  an 
evil  influence  in  political  affair.s.     Died  in  1699. 

Petre,  (Sir  Wii.m.am,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Devonshire.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College, 
Oxford,  in  1523,  and  afterwards  master  of  requests. 
About  1543  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state.  He 
held  a  high  office  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  was 
secretary  of  state  during  the  reign  of  Mary.  Died  in  1572. 

Pe-tre'I-u.s,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  general,  to  whom 
the  victory  over  Catiline  (62  R.C.)  is  ascribed.  He  was 
a  partisan  of  the  senate  in  the  civil  war,  fought  against 
Caesar  at  Pharsalia,  and  commanded  (with  Afranius) 
in  Spain,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Cjcsar  in  49  B.C. 
He  killed  himself  in  Africa  in  46  k.c,  or  was  killed  by 
Juba  in  accordance  with  an  agreement  that  they  should 
kill  each  other. 

Petrella,  pi-trel'l5,  (Enrico,)  an  Italian  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Palenno  in  1813.  He  produced  a  number 
of  operas,  chief  among  which  are  "  Le  Precan/.ione," 
"lone,"  (1856,)  "  Giovanna  II  di  Napoli,"  (1869,)  and 
"I  Promessi  Sposi,"  (1869.)     Died  in  1877. 

Petrettini,  pi-tr?ttee'nee,  (Spiridion,)  an  Italian 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Corfu  in  1777,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Venice.  He  translated  Velleius  Patercnlus  mto 
Italian.     Died  in  1833. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  fin  Flemish,  Peeters,  ])a'ters,l  (Bar- 
THOI.OMKW,)  a  Flemish  theologian,  born  in  Brabant 
about  1545.  He  was  professor  at  Louvain  and  Douai. 
Died  in  1630. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  rural  econo 
mist,  born  at  Deux-Ponts  in  1767.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  raising  of  sheep,  and  made  improvements 
in  the  rtiral  economv  of  Germany.     Died  in  1842. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (Christiern,)  a  Danish  divine,  who 
published  in  1529  a  Danish  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  or  Peterson,  pa'ter-son,  (Lars,)  the 
first  Protestant  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  was  born  at 
Oerebro  in  1499.  He  studied  under  Luther  at  Witten- 
berg, and  became  archbishop  in  153 1.  With  the  aid  of 
his  brother  Olaus  and  L.  Andreac,  he  produced  a  Swedish 
translation  of  the  Bible,  (1541.)  He  published  several 
works  of  theology.     Died  in  1573. 

See  "  I'iographi.skt-Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Petri,  (Olaus,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1497,  and  was  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Reformed 
religion.  He  became  first  minister  of  Stockholm  in 
1539.    He  published  some  religious  works.   Died  in  1552. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (Suffrid  or  Suffridus,)  a  Dutch 
philologist,  born  in  Friesland  in  1527.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  law  at  Cologne  in  1577.  He  was  very  learned, 
but  was  deficient  in  taste  and  critical  ability.  Among 
his  works  are  "Orations  on  the  Utility  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (1566,)  and  "On  the  Writers  of  Friesland," 
("  De  Scriptorihus  Frisiae  Decades,"  1593.)  Died  at 
Cologne  in  1597. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memnires  ;"  Vossil's,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Petrie,  pee'tre,  (Dr.  Geukck,)  an  Irish  antiquary,  born 
at  Dublin  in  1791,  was  the  author  of  an  "Essay  on  the 
Round  Towers  of  Iieland,"  which  obtained  fi.>r  him  the 
gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  He  also  pub- 
lished an  "  Essay  on  the  Military  Antiquities  of  Ireland." 
Died  in  iS66. 

Petrie,  pee'tre,  ?  (Henry,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1768,  became  keeper  of  the  chancery  records  in  the 
Tower.  He  collected  materials  for  the  history  of  Great 
Britain,  of  which  two  volumes  were  published,  (1S30-48.) 
Died  in  1S42. 

Petrini,  pi-tRee'nee,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
translator,  born  at  Palestrina  in  1722.  Among  his  works 
is  a  good  version  of  Horace's  "  De  Arte  Poetica,"  (1777.) 
Died  in  1803. 

Petrof,  Petrov,  or  Petrow,  pa'tRof,  (Vassim  Pe- 
rROViTCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  at  Moscow  in  1736.  He 
wrote  odes  and  other  poems,  which  have  some  merit, 
and  translated  Virgil's  "/Ilneid"  into  Russian,  (1781-86.) 
He  became  imperial  librarian  about  1775.     Died  in  1799. 

Petrone.     See  Petronius  Arbiter. 


\y  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  4,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  t'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nftt; 


'OotI;  moon 


PETRONI 


1935 


PEYER 


Petroni  or  Petronj,  pi-tRo'nee,  (Stefano  Egidio,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  near  Perugia  in  1770,  Among  his 
wori<s  is  "The  NaiJolennid  :  a  Lyrical-Numisinatical 
Poem,"  ("  La  Napoleonide ;  Po^me  lyrique-numisma- 
tiqne,"  1810.)     Died  about  1845. 

Pe-tro'ni-us,  |  Fr.  P^trone,  pi'tRon',]  or,  more  fully, 
Petro'iiius  Ar'biter,  a  licentious  Latin  writer,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  He  described 
the  vices  of  his  time  in  a  satire  or  novel,  in  mingled 
prose  and  verse,  entitled  "Satyricon,"  fragments  of 
which  are  extant.  His  style  is  classical,  and  the  work 
displays  much  talent,  but  is  extremely  licentious.  The 
author  of  this  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Petronius, 
a  refined  voluptuary  who  figured  at  the  C'Uirt  of  Nero  as 
arbiter  elef;anticp,  (umpire  of  fashion  and  taste,)  and  who 
killed  himself  in  66  a.d. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Aniiales,"  book  xvi.  :  J.  C.  von  Orelli,  "Lec- 
tiones  Petroniaiije,"  1836;  Dunlop,  "  History  of  Fiction." 

Petrunti,  pi-tRoon'tee,  (Francesco,)  a  skilful  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Campobasso  in  1785.  Me  practised  at 
Naples,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Sufgery,"  (2  vols., 
1822.)     Died  in  1839. 

Petrus,  the  Latin  for  Peter,  which  see. 

Petrus  Aponis.    See  Arano,  (Pietro  di.) 

Petrus  Blesensis.     See  Peter  of  Bi.ois. 

Pe'trus  Patricius  (pa-trish'e-us)  et  Mag'Is-ter,  a 
Byzantine  historian  of  the  sixth  century,  was  born  at 
Thessalonica.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of  the 
empire  under  Tiberius  and  several  of  his  successors, 
some  portions  of  which  have  been  preserved. 

Pettenkofer,  von,  fon  pet'ten-ko'fer,  (Max,)  a  Ger- 
man chemist,  born  at  Lichtenheim,  in  Bavaria,  December 
3,  1818.  Educated  at  Munich,  he  was  employed  in  the 
mint,  1845-47,  was  professor  of  medical  chemistry  (1847 
-50)  at  Munich,  was  then  made  pharmacist  to  the  Bava- 
rian court,  and  in  1865  became  professor  of  hygiene  in  the 
university.  In  chemistry,  hygiene,  and  pathology  he  made 
important  discoveries.  He  published  many  professional 
and  scientific  papers. 

Petter,  pet'ter,  (Anton,)  a  German  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1783.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  for 
his  "  Death  of  Aristides,"  and  became  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Vienna  in  1830.  He  painted  many  clas- 
sical subjects.  He  excelled  in  harmony  and  brilliancy 
of  colouring.     Died  May  14,  185S. 

Pet'tie,  (John,)  an  eminent  I>rilish  artist,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1839.  In  1862  he  went  to  London,  and  in 
1873  was  elected  to  the  Royal  Academy.  Many  of  his 
pictures  are  upon  antiquated  or  mediieval  subjects,  and 
some  are  quaintly  humorous. 

Pettigrew,  pet'te-gru,  (James  Bell,)  M.D.,  a  Scot- 
tish physician,  born  at  Roxhill,  May  26,  1834.  He  was 
educated  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  graduating  in  iS6l. 
He  went  to  London,  where,  after  a  brilliant  career  as  a 
lecturer  on  anatomy  and  physiology,  he  was  made  a 
F'ellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  most  noted  works  are 
"On  the  Physiology  of  Wings,"  (1870,)  and  "Animal 
Locomotion,"  (1873.)  In  1875  ^^  was  called  to  a  pro- 
fessorship in  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's. 

Pettigre'iw,  pet'te-gru,  (Thomas  Joseph,)  an  English 
surgeon,  antiquary,  and  biographer,  born  in  London  in 
1790.  He  was  admitted  to  the  College  of  Surgeons  in 
1812.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "History 
of  Egyptian  Mummies,"  (1834,)  a  "Medical  Portrait- 
Gallery,  or  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons," a  "Life  of  Lord  Nelson,"  and  a  work  "On 
Superstitions  connected  with  the  Practice  of  Medicine," 
(1844.)     Died  in  1865. 

Pettiti,  p§t-tee'tee.  Count,  an  Italian  general,  was 
second  chief  of  the  staff  in  the  army  led  by  the  king 
against  the  Austrians  in  June,  1S66. 

Pettrich,  p§t'tR!K,  (Franz,)  a  Bohemian  sculptor, 
born  in  1770,  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Dresden.  Died  in  1844.  His  son  FERniNANn,  born 
at  Dresden  in  1798,  studied  under  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome. 
He  has  produced  several  works  of  superior  merit. 

Pet'tus,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Suf- 
folk. He  became  deputy  governor  of  the  royal  mines, 
and  published  "The  History,  Laws,  and  Places  of  the 
Chief  Mines  in  England  and  Wales,"  (1670.)  Died 
about  1690. 


Petty,  (Henry.)     See  Lansdowne. 

Petty,  (W  ILLTAM.)     See  Shelburne. 

Pet't^,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  English  political 
economist,  was  born  at  Romsey,  in  Hampshire,  in 
1623.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Oxford  in 
1650,  and  physician  of  the  army  in  Ireland  in  1652.  He 
served  Henry  Cromwell  as  secretary  while  he  was  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  about  1655.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  his  writings  on  commerce  and  political 
economy,  on  which  subjects  he  was  in  advance  of  his 
age.  Among  his  worko  are  a  "Treatise  on  Taxes  and 
Contributions,"  (1662,)  "Political  Arithmetic,"  (1682,) 
and  "The  Political  Anatomy  of  Ireland,"  (1692.)  One 
of  his  sons  became  Baron  Shelburne.     Died  in  1687. 

See  a  "  Notice  of  Sir  William  Petty,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Political 
Aritliinetic,"  by  his  son  :  Woou,  "Athens  (Jxonienses." 

Pet'tyt  or  Pet'yt,  (William,)  an  English  writer  on 
law,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1636.  He  was  keeper  of  the 
records  of  the  Tower.  Among  his  works  is  "  Parliament- 
ary Law,"  ("Jus  Parliamentarium,"  1739.)     Died  in  1707. 

Peucer,  poits'er,  [I-at.  Peuce'kus,]  (Kaspar,)  a 
German  scholar  and  physician  of  high  reputation,  born 
at  Bautzen  in  1625,  married  a  daughter  of  Melanchlhon. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Wittenberg  about 
1559.  Having  offended  the  Lutherans  by  advucating 
some  doctrines  of  Melanchthon,  he  was  confined  in  prison 
about  eleven  years,  (1574-85,)  and  treated  with  rigour. 
He  wrote  numerous  works  on  geometry,  theology,  and 
medicine;  also  an  account  of  his  imprisonment,  "His- 
toria  Carcerum  Peuceri,"  (1604.)     Died  in  1602. 

See  Leopold,  "  Lebensbeschreibimg  Fencers,"  1745  ;  flElMnuRG, 
"  De  Casp.  Peucero,"  1842;  Nickkon,  "  Memoires  ;"  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeiiie  Encykloiiaedie." 

Peucerus.     See  Peucek. 

Peu-ges'tas  or  Peu-kes'tas,  [Gr.  Ilcv/cf (rraf ,  |  an  otti- 
cer  of  Alexander  the  Great,  lie  attended  that  prince's 
person  in  the  expedition  against  Persia,  and  gained  his 
favour  in  a  high  degree.  He  was  appointed  satrap  of 
Persia  in  331  or  330  n.c,  and  joined  Alexander's  army 
at  Babylon  with  about  20,000  Persians  in  323.  Having 
co-operated  with  Eumenes  against  Antigonus,  he  was 
deprived  of  his  satrapy  by  the  latter  in  316  R.c. 

Peuchet,  puh'shi',  (Jacques,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1758.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Statistics  of  France  and  its  Colonies,"  (7  vols., 
1803,)  "Commercial  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheque  commer- 
ciale,"  12  vols.,  1802-06,)  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  Political 
Economy,"  (4  vols.,  1810.)     Died  in  1830. 

Peukestas.     See  Peucestas. 

Peurbach.     See  Purhacil 

Peut,  puh,  (Francois  Marie  TIirroLA'TE,)  a  French 
publicist  and  economist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1809.  He 
published  several  journals  and  pamphlets. 

Peuteman,  puh'teh-mJn',  (Niki.aas  or  Pieter,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1654.  He 
painted,  with  success,  still  life,  cemeteries,  and  allegori- 
cal subjects.  His  death  was  hastened  by  fright.  As  he 
was  working  in  an  anatomical  cabinet,  he  fell  asleep 
among  some  skeletons.  On  awaking,  he  was  horrified 
by  seeing  them  move  rajiidly  and  jostle  against  each 
other.  This  was  the  effect  of  the  earthquake  of  Sep- 
tember 18,  1692.     He  died  the  same  month. 

Petttinger,  pu'tin-ger,  [Ger.  pron.  poi'ting'er;  Lat. 
Peutinoe'rus,]  (Conrad,)  an  eminent  German  scholar 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1465.  He  was  secre- 
tary of  the  city  of  Augsburg,  and  councillor  to  the  empe- 
ror Maximilian.  He  was  a  diligent  collector  of  statues, 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.,  and  is  called  the  founder  in 
Germany  of  the  science  of  Roman  and  German  antiqui- 
ties. He  published  "Convivial  Discourses,"  ("Sermones 
conviviales,"  1506,)  "Old  Rotnan  Inscriptions,"  ("Tn- 
scriptiones  vetustaj  Romanae,"  1520,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1547. 

See  J.  C.  Wendler,  "De  Vita  et  Meritis  Petitinjien  :"  Lotter, 
"Vita  Peiitln.qeri,"  1729:  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Peutingerus.     See  Peutinger. 

Peyer,  pi'er,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  Swiss  anatomist, 
born  at  Schaffliausen  in  1653.  '^^  was  professor  of 
logic  and  physical  sciences  at  his  native  place,  and 
wrote  several  works  on  anatomy.  He  was  the  first  who 
described  accurately  the  small  bodies  called  Peyer's 
glands.     Died  in  1712. 


f  as  k:  <i  as s;  g  kitrd;  g  as  ;';  G,  H,  K.,g7itlural;  N,  11  isai;  r,  trilled:  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji^^See  Explanations,  [).  23. ) 


PEYRARD 


1936 


PFEFFERKORN 


Peyrard,  pi'raR',  (Francois,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Vial  (Ilaute-Loire)  in  1760.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  Nature  and  its  Laws,"  (4th  edition, 
1794,)  and  other  works.  His  translations  of  the  works 
of  Archimedes  (1807)  and  of  Euclid  (3  vols.,  i8l4--l8) 
are  said  to  be  the  best  in  the  French  language.  Died 
in  1822. 

Peyrat,  pi'rS',  (Alphonsk,)  a  French  journalist  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1812.  He  became 
an  assistant  editor  of  Girardin's  "  Presse"  about  1844. 
He  wrote  against  the  second  empire,  and  also  published 
"History  and  Religion,"  (1858,)  "History  of  Jesus," 
(1S64,)  etc.     Died  January  3,  1891. 

Peyrat,  (Napoleon,)  a  French  author  and  Pro- 
testant clergyman,  born  at  Bordes-sur-Aube  in  1809 
He  published  "  Les  Reformateurs  de  la  France  et  de 
ritalie,"  (i860,)  "  Histoire  des  Aibigeois,"  (3  vols.,  1870- 
72,)  and  other  prose  works  ;  but  his  chief  reputation  rests 
on  "  Roland,"  a  short  poem  of  great  spirit  and  excel- 
lence. He  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Napol  le 
Pyreneen." 

Peyre,  p5R,  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1763,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  pub- 
lished some  works  on  architecture.  Died  in  1823. 
See  QuATREMftKE  DK  QuiNCY,  "  Noticc  sur  A.  F.  Peyre,"  1824. 
Peyre,  (AxTOiNE  Marie,)  an  architect,  born  in  Paris 
in  1770,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  was  ap- 
pointed architect  of  the  Palais  de  Justice  in  1809.  Among 
his  works  are  the  Salle  de  Spectacle  of  Soissons,  and  the 
restorations  or  additions  to  the  Palais  de  Justice  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1843. 

Peyre,  (NIarie  Joseph,)  a  French  architect,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1730.  He  pub- 
lished "Architectural  Works,"  ("OEuvres  d'Architec- 
ture,"  1765.)  Peyre  and  Wailly  were  architects  of  tlie 
theatre  of  Paris  called  the  Odeon.     Died  in  17S5. 

Peyrere,  de  la,  deh  It  pi'raiR',  (Isaac,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1594.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  one  entitled  "  Pre-Adamites,"  ("  Pras- 
adamitas,"  1655,)  in  which  he  maintained  that  some  men 
were  created  before  Adam.     Died  in  1676. 

Peyrillie,  pi'K^l'  or  pi-re'ye,  (Bernard,)  a  French 
physician,  was  born  at  Pompigiian  in  1737  ;  died  in  1804. 
Peyron,  pi'r6N',  (Jean  Francois  Pierre,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1744. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1773,  studied  the  antique 
in  Rome,  and  promoted  the  reformation  of  the  F"rench 
school.     Died  in  1814. 

Peyron,  pi'r6N',  (Victor  AM^nfiE,)  Abpi£,  an  Ori- 
entalist, born  at  Turin  in  1785.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon 
of  theCoiitic  Language,"  (1835,)  etc.  Died  April  27,  1870. 
Peyronie.  See  La  Peyronie. 
Peyronnet,  de,  deh  pi'ro'n.V,  (Charles  Ignace,) 
CoLTNT,  a  French  politician  and  lawyer,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  177S.  He  was  minister  of  justice  from  182 1  to 
January,  1828,  and  became  minister  of  the  interior  in 
May,  1830.  He  procured  in  1825  the  passage  of  a  very 
unpopular  and  odious  law  against  sacrilege.  Having 
been  convicted  of  treason  in  1830,  he  was  imprisoned 
six  years  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.     Died  in  1854. 

Peyssonel,  pi'so'nSl',  (Charles,)  an  antiquary, 
father  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1700. 
He  exijlored  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  where  he  col- 
lected marbles.  He  wrote  a  "Memoir  on  the  Kings 
of  Bosphorus,"  and  "Travels  in  the  Levant."  Died 
in  1757. 

Peyssonel,  (Charles,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1727.  He  was  consul  at  Smyrna 
and  in  the  Crimea.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Numbers,"  ("Les  Numeros,"  4  vols.,  1784,)  and 
"The  Political  Situation  of  France,  and  its  Relations 
with  all  the  Powers  of  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1790.)  Died 
in  1790. 

Peyton,  pa'ton,  (Bailltf.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
orator,  born  in  Sumner  county,  Tennessee.  He  repre- 
sented a  district  of  Tennessee  in  Congress  from  1833  to 
1837,  voted  with  the  Whigs,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Chili  about  18^0.     Died  August  19,  1878. 

Peyton,  (John  Lewis,) "an  American  author,  born 
in  Augusta  county,  Virginia,  September  15,  1S24.     He 


studied  at  the  Virginia  Military  Academy,  and  in  1845 
graduated  as  LL.B.  from  the  University  of  Virginia.  In 
i86i  he  raised  and  ecjnipped  a  regiment  for  the  Confed- 
erate service,  and  in  that  year  became  agent  of  North 
Carolina  in  Euroj^e.  In  1S76  he  returned  to  the  United 
States.  He  published  "The  American  Crisis,"  (1866,) 
"The  Adventures  of  my  Grandfather,"  (1S67,)  "Over 
the  AUeghanies  and  Across  the  Prairies,"  (1869,)  a 
"  History  of  Augusta  County,"  "Memoirs  of  W.  M.  Pey- 
ton" (1870)  and  of  A.  M.  Peyton,  (1876,)  and  several 
other  works. 

Pezarese,  H,  a  name  of  the  painter  Cantarini.  (.See 
Cantarinl) 

Pezay,  de,  deh  ])eh-zi',  (Alexandre  Fr6d6ric 
Jacques  Masson — mt's6N',)  Marquis,  a  French  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  born  at  Versailles  in  1741.  H2  gave 
lessons  in  tactics  to  Louis  XVI.  Among  his  works  are 
"Series  of  Trifles,"  ("Suite  des  Bagatelles,"  1767,)  and 
"Helvetian  Evenings,"  ("Les  Soirees  Helvetiennes," 
1771.)  Voltaire  addressed  to  him  some  verses.  Died 
in  1777. 

Pezenas,  pSz'ni'  or  peh-zeh-na',  (Esprit,)  a  French 
Jesuit  and  mathematician,  born  at  Avignon  in  1692. 
He  published  "  Memoirs  on  Mathematics  and  Physics," 
(5  vols.,  1756,)  an  "Astronomy  for  Mariners,"  (1766,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1776. 

Pezet,  pi-th§t',  (General  Juan  Antonio,)  a  Peruvian 
statesman,  who  became  vice-president  of  Peru  in  Octo- 
ber, 1S62,  and  at  the  death  of  San  Ramon  succeeded  to 
the  presidency,  in  April,  1863.  He  was  removed,  or 
ceased  to  be  president,  about  the  end  of  1865. 

Pezron,  j^^z'rbN',  (ftvuL,)  an  able  French  chronolo- 
gist  and  philologist,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1639.  He  wrote 
"The  Antiquity  of  the  World  (des  Temps)  Restored 
and  Defended,"  (16S7,)  in  which  he  argued  that  the 
world  was  created  5872  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
Died  in  1706. 

Pfaff,  pfdf,  (Christoph  Matthaus,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1686, 
was  a  man  of  great  erudition.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  TUbingen  in  1717,  and  received  the  title  of 
count  palatine  in  1724.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  "  Institutions  of  Dogmatic  and 
Moral  Theology,"  (1719,)  remarkable  for  mental  inde- 
pendence, and  "Introduction  to  the  Literary  History  of 
Theology,"  (1720.)  He  became  dean  of  the  faculty  at 
Giessen  in  1756.     Died  in  1760. 

See  Leporin,  "  Nacliriclit  von  C.  M.  Pfaffens  Leben,"  etc.,  1726; 
HiRsCHiNG.  "  Historisch-literarisclies  Handbuch." 

PfafF,  (Johann  Christoph,)  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Wurteniberg  in  163 1.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Tiibingen,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1720. 

Pfaff,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  mathematician,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1765.  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Halle  in  1810.  Among  his  works  are  "Ana- 
lytic Essays  mostly  relating  to  the  Integral  Calculus," 
etc.,  (1797.)     Died  at  Halle  in  1825. 

Pfaff,  (Karl,)  a  German  historian,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, published  a  "  History  of  Wiirtemberg,"  (2  vols., 
1818-2J,)  and  other  histories. 

Pfanner,  pfln'ner,  (Tobias,)  a  German  historian,  bom 
at  Augsburg  in  1641.  He  was  keeper  of  the  archives  at 
Gotha.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,"  (1679.)     Died  in  1716. 

Pfeffel,  pfgf'fel,  (Christian  Friedrich  von  Krie- 
gelstein — fon  kRee'gel-stin',)  a  historian,  born  at  Col- 
mar,  Upper  Rhine,  in  1726.  His  chief  work  is  a 
"Chronological  Epitome  of  the  History  of  the  Public 
Law  of  Germany,"  in  French,  (1754;  5th  edition,  1766.) 
Died  in  1807. 

Pfeffel,  (Gottlieb  Konrad,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man fabulist  and  poet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Colmar  in  1736,  became  blind  while  pursuing  his 
studies  at  Halle.  He  was  appointed  in  1803  i)resident 
of  the  Evangelical  Consistory  at  Colmar.    Died  in  1809. 

See   RiKDRR,  "  G.   C.   PfefTel ;   biographischer  Versuch."   1820 

Pfefferkorn,  pfSf'fer-koRn',  (Johann,)  a  German  Jew, 
who  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and,  in  excess  of  zeal, 
advised  the  emperor  to  burn  all  Jewish  books  except  the 
Bible.     He  lived  about  1500. 


a.  e,i,o,  u,  y, /<?M^.- i, i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e, T,  6,  (i, y,  J^t>r/;  a,  e,  |,  9,  t'AirM'v;  fir,  fill,  f4t;mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PFEIFFER 


»937 


PHANIAS 


Pfeiffer,  pflFfer,  (Augustus,)  a  German  scholar,  and 
professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Leipsic,  was  born  in 
Lower  Saxony  in  1640.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works 
in  relation  to  Jewish  antiquities  and  Biblical  criticism. 
Died  in  1698. 

Pfeiffer,  (Burchard  Wilhelm,)  a  German  jurist  and 
publicist,  born  at  Cassel  in  1777.  He  ]:)ublished  "Prac- 
tical Deductions  concerning  all  Parts  of  Jurisprudence," 
(8  vols.,  1S25-46,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1852. 

Pfeiffer,  fl'fer,  (Carl,)  a  skilful  architect,  born  in 
Brunswick,  Germany,  in  1834.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
came  to  the  United  States,  and  passed  several  yei-rs  as 
assistant  architect  in  Ohio  and  other  parts  of  the  West. 
He  afterwards  spent  four  years  in  the  same  capacity  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  In  1864  he  commenced  business 
on  his  own  account,  and  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  an  excellent  architect.  Among  the  buildings  designed 
and  erected  by  him  are  the  church  of  the  Messiah,  the 
Roosevelt  Hospital,  and  the  mansion  of  Mr.  Barroda, 
one  of  the  largest  houses  in  New  York,  and,  for  its 
admirable  arrangement,  probably  unsurpassed,  if  not 
unequalled,  by  any  other  private  dwelling  in  the  United 
States.  Plis  plans  were  accepted  for  the  City  Hospital 
and  other  public  buildings  belonging  to  New  York  city, 

Pfeiffer,  pflf'fer,  (Fran<;ois  Louis,)  a  Swiss  general, 
born  at  Lucerne  in  17 16.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  French  army,  (1734-75.)     Died  in  1802. 

Pfeiffer,  pfTf'fer,  (Emily,)  an  English  poetess.  Since 
1873  she  has  published  numerous  volumes  of  verse, 
which  have  won  much  j^raise.  Her  sonnets  are  es- 
pecially fine.     Died  in.  1890. 

Pfeiffer,  (Ida,  ((«/^Reyer,)  a  celebrated  German  trav- 
eller, born  in  Vienna  in  1797.  She  set  out  in  March, 
1842,  for  Asia  Minor,  where  she  spent  nearly  a  year,  and 
in  1845  made  the  tour  of  .Sweden,  Norway,  and  Iceland. 
In  1846  she  undertook  a  journey  round  the  world,  which 
she  accomplished  in  a  little  more  than  two  years,  after 
encountering  great  hardships  and  dangers.  She  pub- 
lished in  1850  "A  Woman's  Journey  round  the  World, 
from  \'ienna  to  Brazil,  Chili,  Tahiti,  China,  Hindostan," 
etc.  In  1S51  she  entered  upon  a  second  journey,  having 
received  for  this  purpose  a  sum  of  money  from  the  Aus- 
trian government.  Her  account  of  this  expedition  ap- 
l)eared  in  1855,  under  the  title  of  "A  Second  Voyage 
round  the  World,  from  London  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Borneo,  the  Moluccas,  California,  Peru,  and  the 
United  States."     Died  in  1S58. 

Pfeiffer,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  economist, 
born  at  Berlin  in  171S.  He  wrote  many  works  on  rural 
and  political  economy,  among  which  is  a  "Treatise  on 
all  the  Economical  Sciences,"  (4  vols.,  1770-78.)  Died 
in  17S7. 

Pfeiffer,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  general,  born  at  Lucerne  in 
1530.  He  fought  for  Charles  IX.  of  France  against  the 
Huguenots.     Died  in  1594. 

Pfeiffer,  (Louis  Georg  Karl,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  physician,  a  son  of  Burchard  Wilhelm,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Cassel  in  1805.  He  published  a  number 
of  treatises  on  botany  and  conchyliology,  among  which 
may  be  named  "  Monograph  of  Living  Snails,"  ("  Mono- 
graj^hia  Heliceorum  Viventium,"  3  vols.,  1847-53,)  ^"^ 
a  "  Flora  of  Hesse,"  (2  vols.,  1847-55.)     Died  in  1877. 

Pfenninger,  pf?n'ning-er,  (Henri,)  a  Swiss  engraver, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1749.  fie  engraved  portraits  for 
Lavater's  "  Physiognomy,"  which  are  admired.  Died 
in  1815. 

Pfenninger,  (Matthias,)  a  Swiss  designer  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Zurich  in  1739.  He  engraved  Swiss 
landscapes  with  skill.     Died  about  1810. 

Pfinzing  or  Pfintzing,  pf!nt'sing,  (Melchior,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1481.  He  com- 
posed a  dull  poem  called  "The  Adventures  of  Theuer- 
dank,"  (1517.)  This  edition  was  adorned  with  more 
than  one  hundred  fine  engravings,  and  was  a  master- 
piece of  typography.     Died  in  1535. 

Pfister,  pfls'ter,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  printer,  born 
about  1420.  He  made  use  of  movable  types ;  but  it  is 
not  known  whether  he  was  an  assistant  of  Gutenberg  or 
invented  them  himself.  His  principal  work  is  a  Latin 
■?6-line  Bible,  in  3  vols.  fol.     Died  about  1470, 


Pfister,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  historian, 
born  near  Marbach  in  1772.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Suabia,"  (5  vols.,  1803-27,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Ger- 
mans," (5  vols.,  1830-35.)  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  died  in  1835. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Pfizer,  pflt'ser,  (Gustav,)  a  German  critic  and  littira- 
tear,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1807.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "  Life  of  Martin  Luther,"  an  "  Essay  on 
Uhland  and  Riickert,"  (1837,)  and  a  "  History  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  for  the  Young,"  (1846.) 

See  LoNCrRLLow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Pfizer,  (  Paul  Achatius,  )  a  German  publicist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in 
1801.     Died  at  Tiibingen,  July  30,  1867. 

Pforr,  pfoR,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man painter  of  animals,  was  born  at  Upfen,  in  Saxony, 
in  1745.  He  painted  horses,  hunting-scenes,  battles,  etc. 
with  much  skill.     Died  in  1798. 

PhadL     See  Fadl. 

Phaeax,  fee'aks,  [<l>aja|,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sicily  in  422  B.C.  He  is  men- 
tioned by  Plutarch  as  one  of  the  two  persons  capable 
of  competing  in  some  degree  with  Al:ibiades, — i.e.  when 
the  latter  first  entered  the  public  service. 

Phaedon,  fee'don,  or  Phaedo,  fee'do,  [4>a«(5uv,]  a 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Elis.  He  came  to  Athens 
about  400  B.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  after  whose 
death  he  founded  a  school  of  philosophy  at  Elis.  His 
writings  have  not  come  down  to  us.  The  name  of  Phae- 
don  is  the  title  of  a  celebrated  dialogue  of  Plato. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius  ;  Suidas,  "  Phaedon." 

Phaedra,  fee'dra,  [Gr.  '^ahSpa  ;  Fr.  PnfeDRE,  fSdR,]  h 
daughter  of  Minos  and  Pasiphae,  was  the  wife  of  The- 
seus, King  of  Athens.  She  is  said  to  have  indulged  a 
guilty  passion  for  her  step-son  Hippolytus,  and  to  have 
caused  his  death  by  a  false  accusation. 

Phaedrus,  fee'drus,  [Gr.  ^aUpog ;  Fr.  Ph^dre,  fldR,] 
a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero. 
He  was  the  head  of  the  Epicurean  school  at  Athens  from 
80  to  70  B.C.,  and  wrote  a  work  which  Cicero  used  freely 
in  composing  the  first  book  of  his  "Natura  Deorum." 

Phaedrus,  a  Latin  fabulist,  who  wrote  about  20  or  30 
A.n.,  was  originally  a  slave.  He  was  probably  born  in 
Thrace  or  Macedonia.  It  is  supposed  that  he  belonged 
to  Augustus,  and  was  liberated  by  him.  He  left  ninety- 
seven  fables  in  iambic  verse,  the  subjects  and  ideas  of 
which  are  partly  borrowed  from  /Esop.  They  are  ad- 
mired for  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  style. 

See  LiNnNER,  "  Bemerkungen  iiber  den  Phaedrus,"  1782; 
ScHWABE,  "Vita  Phxdri,"  1S06. 

Pha'er,  (Thomas,)  a  Welsh  poet  and  physician,  born 
in  Pembrokeshire.  He  translated  the  first  nine  books 
of  Virgil's  "  i^neid"  into  English  verse.     Died  in  1560. 

Pha'e-thou  or  Pha'e-ton,  [Gr.  <l>aido)v;  Fr.  Pha^- 
thon,  fl'i't^N',]  a  mythical  personage,  called  a  son  of 
Helios  (the  Sun)  or  Phoebus.  His  name  signifies  "  the 
Shining."  The  poets  feigned  that,  in  his  youthful  pre- 
sumption, he  persuaded  his  father  to  permit  him  to  guide 
for  one  day  the  chariot  of  the  sun,  that  he  was  unable 
to  control  the  fiery  coursers,  which  ran  out  of  the  right 
course  and  came  too  near  the  earth,  that  Jupiter  killed 
Phaethon  with  a  thunderbolt,  and  he  fell  into  the  river  Po. 

Phalanthe.    See  Phalanthus. 

Pha-lan'thits,  [Gr.  '^aXavdoc ;  Fr.  Phalanthe,  ff- 
IftNt',]  a  Spartan  chief,  who  founded  a  Greek  colony  at 
Tarentum  about  708  B.C.,  and  subdued  the  natives  of  the 
adjacent  country. 

Phal'a-ris,  [Gr.  ^uAapic,]  a  ruler  of  Agrigentum,  in 
Sicily,  notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He  began  to  reign 
about  570  B.C.,  according  to  Eusebius  and  Suida.s.  lie 
rendered  his  name  infamous  by  burning  his  victims  in 
a  brazen  bull.  Tradition  adds  that  he  was  deposed  by 
Telemachus,  the  ancestor  of  Theron,  and  suffered  the 
same  cruel  death  which  he  had  inflicted  on  others.  Cer- 
tain epistles  ascribed  to  Phalaris  were  the  subjects  of 
a  celebrated  controversy  between  Boyle  and  Bentley, 
who  demonstrated  them  to  be  spurious. 

See  SuiDAs,  "  Phalaris  ;"  Cicero,  "  De  Officiis,"  ii.  and  Hi. 

Phalereus.    See  Demetrius  Phalereus. 
Pha'nI-as  [^avfaf]  or  Phaenias,  fee'ne-as,  [^aiviac,] 


eas  i;  9  as  j;  |  AarJ;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  "S., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R.  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

12a 


PHANOCLES 


1938 


PHIDIAS 


a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  Lesbos,  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  disciples  of  Aristotle,  and  was  a  friend  of 
Theophrastus.  He  wrote  many  works  on  logic,  history, 
etc. 

See  VossiKS,  "De  Historicis  Graecis;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Grasca." 

Phan'o-clea,  [4>ai'o/c/l^f,]  a  Greek  elegiac  poet,  who 
lived  probably  between  350  and  300  n.c.  He  wrote  a 
poem  called  'Epwrtf  ft  KaAot,  of  which  a  fragment  is 
extant.     This  is  much  admired  by  some  critics. 

See  Smith,  "Greek  and  Roman  Hiography,"  etc. 

Phan-o-de'mus,  [<l'av6(5;;//of,l  an  Athenian  historian 
of  uncertain  period.  He  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Attica,  entitled 
'Arft'f,  of  which  fragments  are  extant. 

Pha'on,  [Gr.  ^uuv,]  a  mariner  or  boatman  cf  Lesbos, 
celebrated  as  a  favourite  of  Sappho.  According  to  the 
fable,  Venus  endowed  him  with  youth  and  beauty  because 
he  once  carried  her  across  the  water  without  charge. 

Phar'a-mond,  a  king  of  the  Franks,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  reigned  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. His  history  is  involved  in  obscurity,  and  is  the 
subject  of  some  romances.  The  first  historian  who 
mentions  him  is  Prosper  Tyro. 

Pharaoh  Hophra.     See  Apries. 

Pharaoh  Necho.     See  Necho. 

Pharnabaze.     See  Pharnahazus. 

Phar-na-ba'zus,  [Gr.  •fapvu^fiC'Tf  ;  Fr.  Pharnabaze, 
flR'nt'btz',1  a  Persian  satrap,  governed  the  provinces 
near  the  Hellespont,  under  Darius  H.  He  was  an  ally 
of  the  Spartans  in  the  war  against  the  Athenians,  and 
was  defeated  by  .'Mcibiades,  near  Abydos,  in  409  B.C.  He 
was  defeated  in  395  by  t^e  Spartans,  under  Agesilaus, 
who  had  invaded  his  province.  Pharnabazus  and  Iphic- 
rates  commanded  an  expedition  to  Egypt  in  374,  which 
was  a  failure. 

See  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica,"  books  i.,  iii.,  and  iv. 

Pharnace.     See  Pharxaces. 

Phar'na-ces  [Gr.  <l'apm«)7f ;  Fr.  Pharnace,  IIr'- 
nSs'j  I.,  King  of  Pontus,  was  a  son  of  Mithridates  IV., 
whom  he  succeeded  about  190  B.C.  He  invaded  Galatia 
Ml  181,  and  was  opposed  with  success  by  Eumenes.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Mithridates  V. 

Pharnaces  II.,  King  of  Pontus,  was  a  son  of  Mithri- 
dates the  Great.  He  conspired  against  his  father  after  his 
defeat  by  the  Romans,  (about  63  B.C.,)  and  was  supported 
by  the  army.  He  made  peace  with  Pompey,  who  recog- 
nized him  as  King  of  the  Bosphorus.  During  the  civil 
war  of  Rome  he  seized  Pontus,  and  provoked  the  hos- 
tility of  Caesar.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  and 
killed  in  battle  in  47  B.C. 

Phavorinus  Varinus.     See  Guarino. 

Phedre.     See  Ph^dra  and  Ph/Edrus. 

Pheidias.     See  Phidias. 

Pheidon.    See  Phidon. 

Phelippeaux,  de,  deh  feh-le'po',  or  Philippeaux, 
fe'le'po,  (Antoine  le  Picard — leh  pe'kSR',)  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Poitou  in  1768.  He  emigrated  in  1791, 
fought  against  the  republic,  and  procured  the  escape  of 
Sir  Sidney  Smith  from  prison,  (1797.)  Having  entered 
the  British  service,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the 
defence  of  Acre,  where  he  directed  the  artillery,  in  1799. 
Died  at  Acre  the  same  year. 

Phelps,  (.\lmira  Hart  Lincoln,)  an  American 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Berlin,  Connec- 
ticut, in  1793.  She  was  for  many  years  associated  with 
her  sister,  Mrs.  Emma  Willard,  as  teacher  of  the  P'emale 
Seminary,  Troy,  New  York,  and  in  1841  took  charge  of 
the  Patapsco  Institute,  Maryland.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "  Familiar  Lectures  on  Botany,"  "  Geology 
for  Beginners,"  (1832,)  "Lectures  on  Natural  Philoso- 
phy," {1835,)  and  "  Hours  with  my  Pupils,"  (1859.)  Died 
July  15,  1884. 

Phelps,  (Anson  Greene,)  an  American  merchant, 
born  at  Simsbury,  Connecticut,  in  1781,  became  president 
of  the  New  York  Blind  Asylum,  and  of  the  American 
board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions.  He  died 
in  1853,  bequeathing  to  various  charitable  institutions 
the  sum  of  $371,000. 

Phelps,  (Austin,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman, 
born   in  West   Brookfield,    Massachusetts,   January   7, 


1821,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1837,  was  pastor  of  the  Pine  Street  Congregational 
Church,  Boston,  from  1842  to  1848,  and  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  in  the  Andover  Theological  .Seminary 
from  184S  to  1879.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Still 
Hour,"  "The  Solitude  of  Christ,"  "Studies  of  the  Old 
Testament,"  "The  Theory  of  Preaching,"  "Men  and 
Books,"  "English  Style  in  Public  Discourse,"  "The 
New  Birth,"  etc.  He  was  the  father  of  Miss  Elizabeth 
Stuart  Phelps  (Mrs.  Ward).     Died  October  13,  1890. 

Phelps,  (Elizabeth  Stuart,)  an  American  writer, 
a  daughter  of  Professor  Moses  Stuart,  D.D.,  was  born 
at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  181 5.  She  published  a 
number  of  moral  and  religious  tales,  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  Among  these  we  may  name  "The 
Kitty  Brown  Series,"  (1850,)  "The  Sunny  Side,"  (185 1,) 
"  Peep  at  Number  Five,"  (1851,)  and  "The  Angel  over 
the  Right  Shoulder,"  (1851.)     Died  in  1852. 

Phelps,  (Elizabeth  Stuart,)  a  daughter  of  the 
foregoing.  She  was  born  at  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
August  31,  1844.  Her  books,  principally  stories,  are 
"The  Gates  Ajar,"  (1868,)  "  Men,  Women,  and  Ghosts," 
"The  Story  of  Avis,"  (1877,)  "Poetic  Studies."  "Sealed 
Orders,"  "  Hedged  In,"  "  The  Silent  Partner,"  "  Is  God 
Good?"  "Friends — a  Duet,"  "Dr.  Zay,"  and  others, 
several  of  them  collections  of  short  tales. 

Phelps,  (John  S.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  in  1814.  He  emigrated 
to  Springfield,  Missouri,  in  1837,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1844.  He  also  represented  the  sixth  dis- 
trict of  Missouri  in  Congress  for  several  terms,  and  was 
appointed  military  Governor  of  Arkansas  by  President 
Lincoln  in  1S62.     Died  November  20,  1886. 

Phelps,  (John  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Guilford,  Vermont,  in  1813,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1836.  He  became  a  captain  in  1850,  and  resigned  his 
commission  in  1859.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1 861,  and  served  under  General  Butler  in  the 
expedition  against  New  Orleans.  In  December,  1861, 
he  issued  a  proclamation  against  slavery,  which  was 
disapproved  by  General  Butler.  He  resigned  in  July 
or  August,  1862.      Died  nt  Guilford,  February  2,  iSSt;. 

Phelps,  (Samuel,)  an  English  actor,  born' at  Devon 
port  in  1806.  He  made  his  debut  in  York  in  182S,  was 
engaged  by  Macready  for  the  Covent  Garden  Theatre  in 
1S37,  and,  after  brief  engagements  elsewhere,  became 
the  favourite  tragic  actor  at  Sadler's  Wells.  Died  No- 
vember 6,  1878. 

Phelps,  (William  Walter,)  an  American  Con- 
gressman, born  in  New  York,  August  24,  1839.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  i860,  and  at  the  Columbia 
College  Law  School  in  1S63.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  New  Jersey,  1872-75,  was  again  elected 
in  1883  and  in  1884,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  chosen  a 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Phelypeaux.  See  Maurepas  and  Pontchartrain. 

Pherecrate.     See  Pherecrates. 

Phe-rec'ra-tes,  [Gr.  4>epfKpa-)7f ;  Fr.  Ph6r6crate, 
ft'ri'kR^t',]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  wrote 
about  430  B.C.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Plato  and 
Aristophanes.  Small  fragments  of  his  plays  are  extant. 
He  invented  a  new  metre,  called  Pherecratic  His  dic- 
tion is  elegant,  and  his  plots  are  ingenious. 

See  Meinekk,  "  Fragmenta  Comiconim  Graecorum." 

Ph6r6cyde.     See  PiiERECVnES. 

Pher-e-gy'des,  [Gr.  <^epeKv6ri^ ;  Fr.  Pii^RtcYDE,  fl'. 
ri'sW,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Syros  about  600 
or  570  B.C.,  was  the  teacher  of  Pythagoras.  He  is  said 
to  have  taught  the  doctrine  of  Metempsychosis,  or  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul. 

Pherecydes,  an  Athenian  historian,  a  contemporary 
of  Herodotus,  lived  Ijetween  490  and  450  B.C.  His  chief 
work  was  a  mythological  history,  in  ten  books,  sometimes 
entitled  Avruxdovcc. 

Phid'I-as,  written  also  Pheidias,  [«^«(5iaf,]  regarded 
by  many  as  the  greatest  sculptor  and  statuary  that  ever 
lived,  was  a  son" of  Charmidas  or  Charmides.  He  was 
probably  born  at  Athens  between  500  and  485  B.C.  The 
details  of  his  personal  history  are  very  deficient,  consid- 
ering his  renown.  His  principal  master  was  Ageladas, 
a  sculptor  of  Argos.     Among  his  earlier  works  were  a 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /o>i^:  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsatrc;  fJlr,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PHI  DON 


1939 


PHILINUS 


colossal  bronze  statue  of  Athena  Promachos,  dated  about 
460  B.C.,  which  stood  on  the  Acropolis  for  many  centuries, 
and  an  ivory  or  chryselephantine  statue  of  Athena  at 
Pellene.  Having  formed  a  new  style,  characterized  by 
sublimity  and  ideal  beauty,  he  obtained  the  friendship 
and  patronage  of  Pericles,  who  about  444  B.C.  began  to 
adorn  the  Acropolis  with  works  of  art.  "  Phidias  was 
appointed  by  Pericles  superintendent  of  all  the  public 
edifices,"  says  Plutarch,  "although  the  Athenians  had 
other  eminent  architects." 

The  sculptured  ornaments  of  the  Parthenon,  executed 
by  Phidias  and  his  disciples,  exhibited  a  perfection 
which  has  never  been  surpassed,  if  equalled,  by  other 
artists.  He  formed  with  his  own  hand  the  colossal 
statue  of  Minerva  which  was  enclosed  within  the  Par- 
thenon and  was  dedicated  in  438  B.C.  It  was  chrysele- 
phantine,— that  is,  the  naked  parts  were  made  of  ivory 
and  the  drapery  of  gold.  The  height  of  this  statue  was 
nearly  forty  feet.  It  was  his  most  celebrated  work  at 
Athens.  His  other  master-piece  was  a  colossal  ivory 
and  gold  statue  of  Jujjiter  at  Olympia,  (Elis,)  which  was 
enclosed  in  the  temple  dedicated  to  that  god.  He  was 
represented  seated  on  a  throne,  holding  in  his  right 
hand  a  statue  of  Victory.  This  figure,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  Greeks,  expressed  and  realized  their  highest  ideal 
of  supreme  majesty  and  divine  complacency.  It  was 
destroyed  by  fire  at  Constantinople  about  475  A.D. 
Some  of  the  Elgin  marbles  in  the  British  Museum  are 
considered  to  be  works  of  Phidias. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  Phidias  was  accused  of 
defrauding  the  state  of  part  of  the  gold  appropriated  to 
the  statue  of  Minerva  ;  but,  as  Pericles  ordered  the  gold 
to  be  taken  off  and  weighed,  this  charge  was  abandoned  ; 
for  Phidias,  by  the  advice  of  Pericles,  had  artfully  con- 
trived that  the  gold  could  be  easily  taken  off.  According 
to  Plutarch,  he  died  in  prison,  into  which  he  was  thrown 
on  a  charge  of  impiety,  because  he  had  sculptured  on 
the  shield  of  Minerva  images  of  himself  and  Pericles. 
Some  writers  ascribe  liis  death  to  poison,  and  others 
doubt  the  truth  of  the  statement  that  he  was  imprisoned. 
His  death,  however,  occurred  about  432  B.C. 

"The  three  greatest  architects  hitherto  known  in  the 
world,"  says  Ruskin,  "  were  Phidias,  Giotto,  and  Michael 
Angelo, — with  all  of  whom  architecture  was  only  their 
play,  sculpture  and  painting  their  work."  In  the  course 
of  his  remarks  on  Repose  as  a  test  of  greatness  in  works 
of  art,  Ruskin  says,  "We  shall  see  by  this  light  three 
colossal  images  standing  up  side  by  side,  looming  in 
their  great  rest  of  spirituality  above  the  whole  world- 
horizon, — Phidias,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Dante." 

See  K.  O.  MuLLER,  "De  Phidia  Vita  et  Operibus  Commenta- 
riones   tres,"   1827, 

Phi'don  or  Phei'don,  [Or.  ^Muv^  a  king  of  Argos 
and  descendant  of  Hercules,  is  said  to  have  changed  the 
government  of  that  state  to  a  despotism  about  750  B.c 
He  was  the  reputed  inventor  of  weights  and  measures, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  prince  who  coined 
silver  money.  He  was  deprived  of  power  or  defeated 
by  the  .Spartans  and  Eleians. 

Phi'la,  [Gr.  ¥Ox.a^  a  daughter  of  Antipater,  the  Re- 
gent of  Macedonia,  was  distinguished  for  her  virtue 
and  wisdom.  She  was  married  to  Craterus,  and  after 
his  death  to  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus.  Died 
in  287  B.C. 

Philaeni,  fe-lee'nT,  [Gr.  ^'Ckaivoi^  two  Carthaginians 
2-nd  brothers,  whose  name  was  rendered  memorable  by 
an  act  of  patriotic  devotion.  When  the  boundary  be- 
tween Carthage  and  Cyrene  was  disputed,  the  parties 
agreed  that  two  men  of  each  state  should  start  at  the 
same  time  and  walk  or  run  towards  the  other,  and  that 
the  place  where  they  met  should  be  the  boundary.  The 
Philaeni  traversed  a  greater  space  than  the  Cyrenians, 
who  accused  the  former  of  unfairness.  The  Philaeni 
then  offered  to  prove  their  honesty  by  a  sacrifice  of  their 
lives,  and  were  buried  alive  in  the  sand. 

Phl-la'gri-us,  \^L}M.yqioz,\  a  Greek  medical  writer  of 
Thessalonica,  lived  probably  in  the  third  century  of  our 
era.     His  works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments. 

Phl-lam'mon,  [4>i?/iu,«wi',]  a  mythical  Greek  poet 
and  musician,  was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo, 
the  inventor  of  choral  music,  and  the  institutor  of  the 
Delphian  worship  of  Apollo. 


Philander.    See  Philandrier. 

Philandrier,  fe'l6N'dKe-i',  [  Lat.  Phtlan'der,  J 
(GuiLLAU.ME.)  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Seine  in  1505.  He  published  "Notes  on  Quintilian," 
(1535,)  and  "Annotations  on  Vitruvius,"  (I544-)  Died 
in  1565. 

Philarete.    See  Philarrtus. 

Philarete,  fe'lt'rit',  or  PhMar'e-tus,  (Vasil  Dro- 
SOF,)  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  was  born  near  Moscow 
in  1782.  He  became  I'>ishop  of  Revel  in  1817,  and 
Archbishop  of  Moscow  in  1820.  He  published  "Com- 
mentaries on  Genesis,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1867. 

PM-lar'e-tus,  [  Fr.  PHiLARfei  r,  fe'lt'rit',]  the  reputed 
author  of  a  small  Greek  treatise  "  On  the  Pulse,"  which 
is  sometimes  attributed  to  Philotheus. 

Phi'le  or  Phi'les,  (Manuei,,)  a  Byzantine  poet,  born 
at  Ephesus  about  1275.  He  wrote,  in  barbarous  Greek 
verse,  a  curious  work,  llcp^  (,Ci'jv  WwrT/rof,  ("On  the 
Nature  of  Animals,")  which  is  extracted  mostly  from 
/tlian's  "Natural  History."     Died  about  1340. 

Phil'e-as,  [•I't/ttac]  a  Greek  geographer,  born  at 
Athens,  lived  ])robably  several  centuries  before  Christ. 
He  is  quoted  by  Dicasarchus.   He  wrote  a  "  Periplus." 

Philelphe  and  Philelphus.     See  Filelfo. 

PM-le'inon,  \^ikrinuv,\  an  eminent  Athenian  comlL 
poet,  was  born  at  Soli  in  Cilicia,  or  at  Syracuse,  about 
360  B.C.  He  was  a  rival  of  Menander,  and  was  the  first 
poet  of  the  new  comedy  in  order  of  time.  He  began 
to  exhibit  comedies  about  330  B.C.,  and  obtained  great 
favour  with  the  Athenians.  He  gained  several  victories 
over  Menander  in  dramatic  contests.  Fragments  of  his 
works  are  extant.  He  was  a  witty  and  elegant  writer. 
Died  about  262  B.C.  His  son,  Philemon,  was  also  a 
comic  poet,  but  less  famous. 

See  SuiDAS,  "  Philemon  ;"  Meinekr,  "  Menandri  et  Philemonis 
Reliquis,"  and  "  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Grscorum ;"  Haupt- 
MANN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Philenione,"  1745. 

Philemon,  a  Greek  grammarian,  who  lived  probably 
between  600  and  700  A. D.,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Lexicon 
Technologicon,"  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Philemon,  one  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was  a 
friend  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  addressed  to  him  an 
epistle,  which  is  included  in  the  canon  of  Scripture. 

Philepicus.     See  Philippicus. 

Philetaerus,  fil-e-tee'rus,  [<^iA£^a^^f.]  an  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy.  Little  is  known  of 
his  life  or  works. 

Philetaerus,  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Pcrgamus. 
He  became  king  about  280  B.C.,  and  died  about  262  b.c 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  nephew  Eumenes. 

Phi-le'tas  [•^tAr/mf]  of  Cos,  an  eminent  Greek  poei 
and  critic,  who  flourished  between  350  and  290  b.c.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  He  wrote 
elegies  and  epigrams,  and  prose  works  on  granmiar. 
Fragments  of  his  poems  have  come  down  to  us.  1  le  was 
a  favourite  model  of  the  poet  Theocritus. 

See  ERScmmd  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  N.  Bach, 
"  Prograinma  de  Pliileta  Coo,"  1S28. 

PhU'e-ns,  sometimes  written  Phiteus,  Pytheus,  or 
Phileos,  an  eminent  Greek  architect,  who  lived  about 
25  B.C.  He  designed  two  magnificent  edifices  in  Asia 
Minor, — viz.,  the  Mausoleum  and  the  temple  of  Athena 
Polias  at  Priene.  His  colossal  group  containing  a  statue 
of  Mausolus  is  one  of  the  great  treasures  of  the  British 
Museum. 

Phil'I-bert  [Fr.  pron.  fe'le'baiR';  It.  Filiberto,  fe-lc- 
b§R'to;  Lat.  Philiber'tus]  L,  Duke  of  Savoy,  a  son 
of  Aniadeus  IX.,  was  born  in  1464;  died  in  14S2. 

Philibert  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  a  son  of  Philip  II., 
was  born  in  14S0.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1497, 
and  died  in  1504,  leaving  the  dukedom  to  his  brother, 
Carlo  HI. 

Philidor.     See  Danican. 

Philieul,  fe'le-uK,  (Vasquin,)  a  French  littJraUur, 
was  born  at  CarpeTitras  in  1522.  He  published  "  Laure 
d'Avignon,"  (154S,)  and  "  Toutes  les  CEuvres  vulgaires 
de  F.  Petrarque,"  (1555)     Died  about  1582. 

Phl-li'nus,  [<^£/iyof,l  a  Greek  physician,  born  in 
Cos,  was  a  pupil  of  Ilerophilus.  He  lived  about  250 
B.C.,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  botany,  which  is  not  extant. 
He  was  the  reputed  founder  of  the  sect  of  Empirici. 


€  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  g,  H,  Vi,g}ittural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  aj.) 


PHILINUS 


1940 


PHILIP 


Philinus,  an  Athenian  orator,  a  contemporary  of 
Demosthenes. 

Philinus,  a  Greek  historian,  who  accompanied  Han- 
nibal in  Ills  campaign  in  Italy,  and  wrote  a  History  of 
the  First  and  Second  Punic  Wars,  which  is  not  extant. 
He  was  a  native  of  Sicily. 

Phil'ip  [Gr.  4>iXt7r7rof]  I.,  King  of  Macedonia,  a  son 
of  Argaeus,  reigned  in  the  ninth  century  B.C.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Aeropus. 

Philip  [Gr.  ^fXiTTTTOf ;  Lat.  Phiup'pus;  Fr.  Philippe, 
fe'i^p';  It.  FILIPPO,  fe-lfep'po;  Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lce'pi; 
Ger.  Philipp,  fil'ip]  II.,  a  famous  king  of  Macedonia, 
a  younger  son  of  Amyntas,  was  born  in  382  K.C.  In  his 
youth  he  passed  several  years  at  Thebes  as  a  hostage, 
and  enjoyed  the  society  of  Epaminondas.  He  succeedec* 
his  brother  Perdiccas  in  359,  and  married  Olympias, 
a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Ejiirus.  During  the  Social 
war,  which  began  in  358  B.C.,  he  extended  his  do- 
minions by  the  capture  of  Amphipolis,  Potidaea,  and 
Pydna  from  the  Athenians.  He  availed  himself  of 
another  civil  war,  called  the  Sacred  war,  to  pursue  his 
ambitious  projects  against  the  independence  of  the 
Grecian  states,  and  became  the  ally  of  the  Thebans 
against  the  Phocians  and  Athenians.  In  347  B.C.  he 
besieged  Olynthus  with  success,  and  made  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Athens.  By  the  conquest  of  Phocis,  in  346, 
he  acquired  a  vote  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council.  The 
continued  aggressions  of  Philip  again  involved  him  in 
a  war  with  the  Athenians,  who  were  stimulated  by  the 
powerful  appeals  of  Demosthenes,  and  who  in  339  B.C. 
compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege  of  Perinthus  and 
Byzantium.  A  league  was  then  formed  against  him  by 
the  Athenians,  Thebans,  and  others.  The  decisive  battle 
of  Chaeronea,  where  Philip,  commanding  in  person, 
defeated  the  allies  in  338  B.C.,  rendered  him  master  of 
Greece.  He  treated  the  Athenians  with  clemency.  He 
called  a  general  congress  of  deputies  from  the  Greek 
states,  who  resolved  to  unite  in  an  aggressive  war 
against  Persia,  and  appointed  Philip  commander-in-chief 
During  the  preparations  for  this  enterprise  he  was  as- 
sassinated, in  336  B.C.,  at  the  celebration  of  a  marriage 
between  his  daughter  Cleopatra  and  the  King  of  Epirus. 
The  assassin  was  Pausanias,  a  soldier  of  his  own  body- 
guard, who  had  been  insulted  by  Attalus,  an  uncle  of 
Philip's  queen,  and  whose  claim  for  redress  had  been 
neglected  by  the  king.  Philip  possessed  great  military 
and  political  talents,  with  some  virtues,  among  which 
we  may  name  generosit)'.  He  was,  on  the  other  hand, 
sensual,  unscrupulous,  and  perfidious. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Demoslhenes  ;"  Leland,  "  History  o( 
the  Life  and  Reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon,"  1758;  Grotr,  "  History 
of  Greece,"  vol.  xi. ;  Bury,  "  Histnire  de  Philippe  et  d' Alexandre  le 
Grand,"  1760:  Bruckner,  "  Knnig  Philipp  Sohn  des  Amyntas," 
1S37:  Thiri.wai.l,  "  History  of  Greece;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte 
de.s  Verfalls  der  Griecliischen  Staaten." 

Philip  III.  OF  Macedon.  This  title  was  given  to 
Arrhidaeus,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Philip  II.  (See  Ar- 
RiitnyEus.) 

Philip  IV.  OF  Macedon,  a  son  of  Cassander,  reigned 
only  a  few  months,  and  died  in  296  B.C. 

Philip  V.  OF  Macedon,  bom  about  235  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Demetrius  II.  He  succeeded  his  uncle,  Anti- 
gonus  Doson,  in  220  B.C.  Having  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Achaean  league  he  displayed  superior 
military  talents,  and  defeated  the  /Etolians  and  vSpartans, 
(218-217.)  T'^-  success  of  Hannibal  at  Cannae  tempted 
Philip  to  form  an  alliance  with  him  against  the  Romans 
in  215  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  poisoned  Aratus,  who 
had  been  his  friend.  The  Romans,  having  recovered 
their  ascendency,  sent  an  army  against  Philip,  who  was 
defeated  completely  by  T.  Q.  Flamininus  at  Cynos- 
cephalae  in  197  B.C.  He  died  in  179  B.C.,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Perseus.  Philip  was  an  able  monarch, 
but  was  cruel  and  tyrannical. 

See  LiVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.-xl. 

Philip  or  Philip'pus,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
Cleoiiatra,  became  tetrarch  of  Gaulonitis,  Trachonitis, 
and  Bataniea.     Died  about  34  a.D. 

Philip  [Lat.  PiiiLip'rus]  of  Acarnania,  a  physician, 
was  a  friend  of  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  he  cured  of  a 
fever  caused  by  bathing  in  the  river  Cyditus,  333  B.C.  On 
this   occasion   Parmenio  warned  the  king  by  letter  that 


Philip  was  bribed  (by  Darius)  to  poison  him.  The  king, 
however,  confiding  in  his  fidelity,  drank  the  medicine 
aji  he  showed  the  letter  to  Philip.     (See  Alexander.) 

Philip,  Emperor  of  Rome.     See  Philippus. 

Phil'ip,  [Gr,  ^'ikm-noq;  Lat.  Pmilip'pus  ;  Fr.  Phi- 
lippe, fe'l^p',]  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was  a 
native  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  He  witnessed 
the  miracle  of  the  loaves  and  fishes,  (John  vi.  5-7.)  The 
evangelist  John  records  an  interview  between  him  and 
certain  Greeks,  in  chajjter  xii.  21.  According  to  tra- 
dition, he  preached  in  Phrygia,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Hierapolis. 

Philip,  [Ger,  Philipp,  fil'ip,]  Duke  of  Suabia,  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  a  son  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  was 
born  about  11 70.  He  was  elected  emperor  in  II98,  but 
his  title  was  contested  by  Otho  IV.,  and  a  civil  war  en- 
sued. The  pope  favoured  Otho,  and  excommunicated 
Philip,  but  was  afterwards  reconciled  to  him.  Philip 
was  assassinated  in  1208. 

Philip  [Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lee'pi]  I.,  surnamed  the 
Handsome,  King  of  Castile,  a  son  of  Maximilian  I., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Bruges  in  1478.  His 
mother  was  Mary  of  I3urgundy,  from  whom  he  inherited 
the  seventeen  provinces  of  the  Low  Countries.  He  was 
styled  Archduke  of  Austria  in  his  youth.  In  1496  he 
married  Joanna,  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
(of  Castile  and  Aragon.)  On  the  death  of  Isabella 
(1504)  the  crown  of  Castile  was  inherited  by  Joanna, 
but,  in  consequence  of  her  mental  imbecility,  or  insanity, 
Philip  exercised  the  royal  power.  He  died  at  Burgos 
in  September,  1506,  leaving  two  sons,  who  became 
emperors  as  Charles  V.  and  Ferdinand  I. 

See  Mariana,  "De  Rebus  Hispanicis;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^n^rale." 

Philip  [Fr.  Philippe,  fe'l^p']  I.,  King  of  France,  a 
son  of  Henry  I.  and  Anne  of  Russia,  was  born  in  1052. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  1060,  when  Baldwin,  Count 
of  Flanders,  became  regent.  He  abandoned  himself  to 
disgraceful  sensuality.  In  1092  he  married  Bertrade, 
the  wife  of  Foulques,  Count  of  Anjou,  who  was  still 
living.  Philip  was  excommunicated  for  this  offence.  He 
was  involved  in  a  war  with  William  Rufus  of  England 
during  the  first  crusade.  Me  died  in  iioS,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VI. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais ;"  Michelet,  "  Histoire 
de  France;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Philip  II.  OF  France.     See  Philip  Augustus. 

Philip  (Philippe)  III.,  surnamed  the  Bold,  (le 
Hardi,  leh  y^SR'de';  Lat.  Philip'pus  Au'dax,]  born  in 
1245,  was  the  second  son  of  Louis  IX.,  whose  eldest  son 
died  in  infancy.  He  married  Isabella  of  Aragon  in  1262, 
and  accompanied  his  father  in  the  crusade  to  Tunis  in 
1269.  At  the  death  of  Louis,  in  1270,  Philip  became 
king.  Having  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of 
Tunis,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1271.  Although  he  was  a 
prince  of  little  talent  and  of  a  weak  character,  the  royal 
domain  and  power  were  increased  during  his  reign. 
Among  the  chief  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  against 
Peter  of  Aragon.  With  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  who 
had  offered  the  crown  of  Aragon  to  Charles,  a  son  of 
Philip,  the  latter  invaded  Catalonia  in  1285,  but  was 
soon  forced  to  retreat.  He  died  at  Perpignan  in  October, 
1285. 

See  GuiLLAUMK  de  Nangis,  "Gesta  Philippi  Audacis;"  "Nou« 
velle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Philip    IV.,   often    called   Philip   the  Fair,    [Fr 

Philippe  le  Bel,  fe'l^p'  leh  b^l ;  Ger.  Philipp  der 
Schone,  fil'ip  dSr  sho'neh.j  a  son  of  Philip  III.  and 
Isabella  of  Aragon,  was  born  in  126S.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  1285,  before  which  he  had  married  Jeanne 
of  Navarre  and  acquired  Navarre  as  her  dowry.  He 
was  ambitious  to  increase  the  royal  power,  and  un- 
scrupulous in  the  choice  of  means.  His  favourite  ad- 
visers were  lawyers,  who  taught  him  how  to  substitute 
despotism  for  the  feudal  system.  In  1292  or  1293  he 
summoned  Edward  I.  of  England  to  appear  at  Pans 
and  answer  for  the  hostile  acts  of  some  of  his  sub- 
jects. Edward  sent  his  brother  Edmund,  who  offered 
reparation,  and  delivered  to  Philip  six  fortresses  in 
Guienne,  (1294.)  Having  occupied  all  Guienne  by  his 
troops,  Philip  condemned  Edward  as  contumacious,  and 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y, /o«^;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,y,s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  (},ol>sciire;  fSr,  fc\ll,  fit;  m5t;ndt;  good;  moon 


PHILIP 


1941 


PHILIP 


declared  his  domains  in  France  confiscated.  In  the 
war  that  ensued,  Edward  recovered  part  of  Guienne. 
To  raise  funds  for  his  wars,  Philip  debased  the  coin,  and 
extorted  money,  by  ]5ersecution,  from  the  Jews.  He  in- 
vaded Flanders  about  1300,  but  was  successfully  opposed 
by  the  Flemings.  By  a  treaty  of  1303  he  restored  all 
Guienne  to  Edward  I.  Some  years  before  this  date  a 
quarrel  arose  between  Philip  and  the  pope,  Boniface, 
whose  person  was  outraged  by  the  agents  of  Philip  at 
Agnani  in  1303.  In  consequence  of  Philip's  audacious 
and  successful  efforts  to  humble  the  papacy,  the  court 
of  the  po])e  was  transferred  to  Avignon  in  1308.  Among 
the  last  acts  of  his  reign  was  his  cruel  persecution  and 
suppression  of  the  order  of  Templars.  He  died  in  13 14, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  X. 

See  Lessmann,  "  Koiiig  Philipp  der  Schone,"  1829:  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^iidrale." 

Philip  (Philippe)  V.,  surnamed  le  Long,  (leh  16n,) 
the  second  son  of  Philip  IV.,  was  born  about  1293.  He 
became  king  at  the  death  of  Louis  X.,  in  13 16.  Louis 
X.  had  left  a  daughter,  who  was  excluded  from  the 
throne.  The  important  question  of  succession  was 
decided  on  this  occasion,  and  the  Salic  law  became 
thenceforth  one  of  the  bases  of  the  French  consti- 
tution. The  events  of  his  reign  were  not  remarkable. 
He  renewed  the  persecution  of  the  Jews,  many  of 
whom  were  massacred.  He  died  in  1322,  leaving  four 
daughters,  but  no  son,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Charles  IV. 

Philip  (Philippe)  VI.,  or  Philippe  de  Valois,  fe'- 
lip'  deh  vS'lwd',  born  in  1293,  was  a  son  of  Charles  de 
Valois,  who  was  a  brother  of  Philip  IV.  He  succeeded 
his  cousin,  Charles  IV.  le  Bel,  in  1328,  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  royal  house  of  Valois.  He  was  an  in- 
capable and  prodigal  prince.  His  reign  commenced  a 
period  of  disasters  and  confusion.  He  became  involved 
in  war  with  Edward  III.  of  England,  who  possessed 
Guienne  and  claimed  to  be  the  rightful  heir  of  the 
French  throne,  through  his  mother  Isabelle.  Philip  was 
defeated  with  great  loss  at  Crecy  in  1346,  and  lost  Calais, 
an  important  strategic  point,  in  1347,  soon  after  which  a 
truce  was  concluded.  He  died  in  1350,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  John. 

See  Froissart,  "  Chronicles ;"  De  Choisv,  "  Histoire  de  Phi- 
lippe de  Valois,"  16SS;  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Philip,  [Fr.  Philippe,]  King  of  Navarre,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Philip  III.  of  France.  He  married  in  1318 
Jeanne,  a  daughter  of  Louis  X.,  who  was  heiress  of  the 
throne  of  Navarre.  He  died  in  1343,  leaving  a  son, 
Charles  the  Bad. 

Philip  I.  OF  Spain.     See  Philip  I.  of  Castile. 

Philip  [Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lee'pi;  It.  Filippo,  fe-lip'po] 
II.,  King  of  Spain,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  and  Isabella  of  Portugal.  He  was  born  at  Valladolid 
on  the  2 1st  of  May,  1527.  By  education  and  character,  as 
ATcll  as  birth,  he  was  a  Spaniard,  and  a  thorough-paced 
bigot.  He  married  in  1543  Maria  of  Portugal,  who  died 
about  three  years  later.  In  1548  he  visited  Brussels, 
where  Charles  V.  held  his  court.  In  1554  he  went  to 
London  to  celebrate  his  marriage  with  Mary  Tudor, 
Queen-Regnant  of  England,  who  was  about  eleven  years 
older  than  he.  Having  parted  from  her  in  September, 
1555,  he  went  to  Brussels  to  meet  his  father,  who,  on  the 
25th  of  October,  1555,  abdicated  in  his  favour  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  Netherlands.  Before  the  end  of  the  year, 
Philip  became  King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies  by  the 
abdication  of  his  father,  and  master  of  an  empire  "on 
which  the  sun  never  set."  His  favourite  minister,  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign,  was  Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  Count 
of  Melito  and  Prince  of  Eboli.  Philip  found  himself, 
against  his  will,  in  a  position  of  hostility  to  the  pope, 
Paul  IV.,  who  in  December,  1555,  made  a  treaty  with 
the  King  of  France,  in  order  to  drive  the  Spaniards  out 
of  Italy.  In  1557  his  army  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  French  at  Saint-Quentin.  This  war  was  ter- 
minated by  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  in  1559,  and 
Philip,  having  appointed  Margaret  of  Parma  Regent  of 
the  Netherlands,  returned  to  Spain,  which  he  never 
quitted  again. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Mary  Tudor  (1558)  he  mar- 
ried  Elizabeth   or    Isabelle    of  France,  a  daughter  of 


Henry  II.,  who  had  been  betrothed  to  his  son,  Don 
Carlos.  He  transferred  his  court  from  Toledo  to  Madrid, 
which  became  about  1560  the  permanent  capital  of 
Spain.  One  of  the  first  measures  of  his  reign  was  to 
re-enact  the  atrocious  edict  of  1550,  condemning  to 
death  every  one  who  should  jirint,  write,  copy,  keep, 
buy,  sell,  or  give  any  book  made  by  Luther  or  Calvin, 
and  all  lay  persons  who  should  read  or  teach  the  Scrip- 
tures. His  systematic  efforts  to  suppress  religious  liberty 
by  the  torments  of  the  Inquisition,  in  all  his  dominions, 
provoked  a  general  revolt  of  the  Flemings  and  Dutch 
in  1566.  (See  Orange,  William  of.)  In  August,  1567, 
the  Duke  of  Alva  arrived  in  Flanders  with  an  army,  and 
with  unlimited  power  to  subdue  and  punish  the  insur- 
gents. Among  the  victims  of  his  bloody  regime  were 
the  Counts  of  Egmont  and  Horn,  executed  in  June,  1568. 
"  The  execution  of  Egmont,"  says  Motley,  "  remains  an 
enduring  monument  not  only  of  Philip's  cruelty  and  per- 
fidy, but  of  his  dulness.  The  king  had  everything  to 
hope  from  him,  and  nothing  to  fear."  Alva  defeated  the 
insurgents  in  several  battles,  and  massacred  thousands 
of  non-combatants  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages,  but  was 
baffled  by  the  indomitable  spirit  of  the  people,  and  was 
recalled  m  1573.  "  It  was  beyond  the  power  of  man's 
ingenuity  to  add  any  fresh  features  of  horror  to  the 
religious  persecution  under  which  the  provinces  were 
groaning."  (Motley.)  In  1568  the  king's  eldest  son, 
Don  Carlos,  died  mysteriously  in  prison,  where  he  had 
been  confined  for  some  months.  According  to  De  Thou 
and  other  writers,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  ordei 
of  Philip. 

The  effort  to  subdue  the  Netherlands  was  continued 
by  Don  John  of  Austria  and  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma, 
without  success.  This  long  war  exhausted  the  finances 
of  Philip  and  hindered  his  jirojects  for  the  conquest  of 
France  and  England.  In  1580  he  obtained  the  crown 
of  Portugal  as  successor  of  his  uncle  Henrique,  who  died 
without  issue.  He  instigated  the  French  to  rebel  against 
Henry  IV.,  and  furnishedsubsidies  to  the  factious  League. 
For  the  invasion  of  England  he  equipped  a  fleet  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty  or,  according  to  some  writers,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  vessels,  which  sailed  in  May,  1588, 
and  was  called  "the  Invincible  Armada."  After  this 
fleet  had  passed  through  the  Strait  of  Dover,  it  was 
damaged  by  English  fire-ships,  and  attacked  on  the  8th 
of  August  by  Admiral  Howard,  who  sunk  and  captured 
many  ships.  The  Spanish  admiral  retreated  northward, 
and  near  the  Orkneys  encountered  a  violent  storm,  which 
dispersed  his  fleet.  About  fifty  of  his  vessels  were 
wrecked.  (See  Elizabeth.)  The  war  between  Spain 
and  England  continued  many  years.  Philip  died  on  the 
13th  of  September,  1598,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Philip  IH. 

In  person,  Philip  was  meagre  and  below  the  middle 
height.  He  had  a  fair  complexion,  blue  eyes,  aquiline 
nose,  and  a  very  prominent  lower  jaw.  His  temper  was 
morose,  his  manners  reserved  and  repulsive,  but  he  had 
great  ambition  and  indefatigable  industry. 

See  Watson,  "  History  of  Pliilip  II.,"  1777 ;  Motlev,  "History 
of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  1846;  Prescott,  "  History  of 
Philip  II.,"  3  vols.,  1855-5S:  Campana,  "Vita  del  Don  Filippo," 
1605:  Cabrera,  "Felipe  II.  Rey  de  Espana,"  1619;  C6rdova, 
"  Vida  de  Felipe  II.,"  1662;  A.  Dumesnil,  "Histoire  de  Philippe 
II,"  1822;  G,  Leti,  "Vita  del  Re  Filippo  II.,"  1679;  SA^J  Miguel, 
"Historia  del  Rey  Felipe  H.,"  4  vols.,  1844-45;  Antonio  de  Her- 
RERA,  "Historia  del  Mundo  en  el  Reynado  del  Rey  Don  Phelipe 
II.,"  3  vols.,  1606;  Cardinal  Granvelle's  "State  Papers." 

Philip  (Felipe)  III.  of  Spain,  a  son  of  Philip  II., 
was  born  at  Madrid  in  April,  1578.  His  mother  was 
Anne  of  Austria.  He  began  to  reign  in  September, 
1598.  He  was  timid,  indolent,  and  incapable,  but  de- 
voted to  the  intolerant  policy  of  his  father.  Passing  his 
time  chiefly  in  hunting,  in  acts  of  devotion,  or  formalities 
of  etiquette,  he  abandoned  the  direction  of  aff'airs  to  his 
favourite,  the  Duke  of  Lenna.  This  minister  prosecuted 
the  war  against  the  revolted  provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands until  the  exhaustion  of  his" finances  forced  him, 
in  1609,  to  grant  a  truce  of  twelve  years  (see  Maurice 
OF  Nassau)  and  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the 
Seven  United  Provinces.  The  issue  of  this  long  con- 
test demonstrated  that  Spain  was  no  longer  the  most 
powerful  kingdom  of  Europe.     The  prosperity  of  Spain 


€  as  -^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H.  K.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHILIP 


1942 


PHILIPOA 


was  qreatlv  impaired  by  the  cruel  expulsion  of  the  Moors, 
in  1610.  The  number  of  these  exiles  is  estimated  at 
about  one  million.  Philip  had  married  Margaret  of 
Austria.  He  died  in  March,  1621,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  son,  Philip  IV. 

See  Watson,  "History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  III.,"  t^%i■. 
Cbspkdbs,  "  Hi.storia  de  Don  Felipe  III.,"  1631;  Avii.a,  "  Ilis- 
toria  <le  la  Vida  de  Don  Felipe  HI,"  1660;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gt'nerale." 

Philip  (Felipe)  IV.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  April,  1605,  and  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age 
of  sixteen.  lie  submitted  himself  to  the  control  and 
ascendency  of  his  favourite  the  Duke  of  Olivarez.  He 
renewed  the  war  against  the  Dutch  United  Provinces 
at  the  expiration  of  the  truce,  (1621,)  and  formed  with 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  a  league  against  the  Protest- 
ants. His  intrigues  involved  Euroj^e  in  a  long  war,  in 
which  the  Spaniards  fought  against  the  Dutch,  Swedes, 
French,  and  English.  In  maritime  war  the  Dutch  ob- 
tained a  decided  superiority.  On  land  the  Spaniards 
were  defeated  by  the  French  at  Rocroy  {1643)  and  other 
places.  Portugal  revolted  in  1640,  and  was  finally  sepa- 
rated from  the  Spanish  monarchy.  By  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia  (1648)  Spain  made  peace  with  her  enemies, 
except  the  French,  who  continued  the  war  until  1659. 
The  results  of  these  wars  were  disastrous  to  Spain, 
which  lost  several  colonies,  islands,  and  cities.  Philip 
was  twice  married;  in  1615  he  espoused  Elizabeth  of 
France,  and  in  1649  Marie  Anne  of  Austria.  He  died 
in  September,  1665,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Charles  II. 

See  Cespedes  y  Menezks,  "  Historia  de  Don  Felipe  IV.,"  163: ; 
Malvezzi,  "  Successes  de  la  Monarquia  de  Espana  en  el  Tiempo  de 
Felipe  IV.,"  1640;  Dunlop,  "Memoirs  of  Spain  during  the  Reign 
of  Philip  IV.,"  2  vols.,  1834. 

Philip  [Fr.  Philippe;  Sp.  FeltpeI  V.,  King  of 
Spain,  born  at  Versailles  in  December,  1683,  was  a 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  second  son  of  Louis, 
Dauphin  of  France.  In  his  youth  he  was  styled  the 
Duke  of  Anjou.  He  was  appointed  heir  to  the  throne 
of  Spain  and  the  Indies  by  the  will  of  Charles  II.,  who 
died,  without  a  direct  heir,  in  November,  1700.  His 
title  was  contested  by  the  archduke  Charles  of  Austria, 
whose  claim  was  enforced  by  the  armies  of  England, 
Holland,  and  Austria  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succes- 
sion, which  began  in  1702.  Philip  was  supported  by  the 
French  and  the  majority  of  the  Spaniards,  who  gained  a 
decisive  victory  at  Almanza  in  1707.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  {1713)  he  was  recognized  as  King  of  Spain; 
but  he  gave  up  Flanders  and  Naples  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  He  married  Elizabeth  Farnese  of  Parma  in 
1714,  and  chose  Cardinal  Alberoni  as  prime  minister. 
Under  the  influence  of  a  religious  melancholy,  he  abdi- 
cated in  favour  of  his  son  Louis  in  1724;  but  the  death 
of  Louis  a  few  months  later  induced  him  to  resume  the 
royal  power.  He  died  in  July,  1746,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Ferdinand  VI. 

See  W.  CoxE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of 
Bourbon,"  3  vols,,  1813;  Carvaj,\l,  "La  Espana  de  los  Borbones," 
4  vols.,  1844;  F.  X.  CoNDE,  "  Elogio  de  Felipe  V.,"  1779;  A.  ViOL- 
LET,  "  Histoire  des  Bourbons  en  Espagne,"  1843;  Saint-Simon, 
"M^moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

PhiUp,  [Ger.  Philipp,  fil'ip,]  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
surnamed  DER  Grossmuthige,  (d^r  gRos-mul'io-eh,) 
("the  Magnanimous,")  born  at  Marburg  in  1504,  was 
an  able  prince,  and  a  constant  friend  of  the  Protestant 
cause.  He  began  to  reign  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and 
introduced  the  Lutheran  religion  into  Hesse  in  1526.  In 
1 53 1  he  foimed  with  the  Protestant  princes  the  league 
of  Schmalkalden,  which  waged  war  against  Charles  V.  ; 
but  he  was  forced  to  submit  in  1547  to  Charles,  who 
kept  him  a  prisoner  for  five  years.  Philip  was  inclined 
to  toleration  in  religion.     Died  in  1567. 

See  HoFF.MEisTER,  "  Leben  Philipp  des  Grossmiitbigen,"  1S46; 
Rommel,  "Philipp  der  Grossmuthige,"  4  vols.,  1828-35;  RiNCK, 
"Erinnerungen  an  Philipp  den  Grossmuthigen,"  1852. 

Philip,  [It.  FiLiPPO,  fe-l^p'po,]  Duke  of  Parma,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1720,  was  the  second  son  of  Philip  V.  of 
Spain.  He  invaded  Italy  with  a  Spanish  army  in  1742, 
and  attempted  to  obtain  a  throne  by  conquest,  but  failed. 
The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  gave  him  the 
duchy  of  Parma.     Died  in  1765. 

Philip,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief,  commonly  called 


King  Philip.  He  began  a  war  with  the  English  in 
1675,  but  was  killed  the  following  year. 

Philip  the  Bold,  [Fr.  Philippe  le  Hardi,  fe'lip' 
leh  /itR'de',]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  born  in  1342,  was  a 
younger  son  of  John,  King  of  France.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  French  princes  during  the  minority 
of  Charles  VI.,  and  was  a  rival  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
He  acted  as  regent  while  Charles  VI.  was  disabled  by 
insanity.  He  died  in  1404,  and  left  the  dukedom  to  his 
son,  Jean  .Sans  Peur. 

Philip  the  Deacon,  one  of  the  primitive  Christian 
ministers,  was  one  of  seven  men  appointed  to  a  special 
service,  (Acts  vi.  5.)  He  jjreached  in  Samaria,  and  in- 
structed the  treasurer  of  Queen  Candace  of  Ethiopia. 
(See  Acts  viii.  5-40,  and  xxi.  8.) 

See  John  i.  43-44,  xiv.  8,  9;  Matthew  x.  3;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke 
vi.  14  ;  Acts  i.  13. 

Philip  the  Fair.    See  Philip  IV.  ok  France. 

Pliilipthe  Good,  [Fr.  Philippe  le  Bo.n,  fe'lip' leh 
bi.N,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  son  of  Jean  Sans  Peur,  was 
born  at  Dijon  in  1396.  As  a  partisan  or  ally  of  Henry 
V.  of  England,  he  fought  against  Charles  VII.  of  France 
from  1422  to  1435.  At  the  latter  date  he  entered  into 
alliance  with  Charles.  Some  years  before  this  event  he 
had  invaded  the  territory  of  Jacqueline,  Countess  of 
Hainanlt,  and  compelled  her  to  recognize  him  as  her  heir 
in  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Hainault.  He  had  inherited 
Flanders  and  Artois  in  addition  to  Burgundy.  He  in- 
stituted the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  His  wife  was 
Isabella,  a  daughter  of  John  I.  of  Portugal.  He  died  in 
1467  or  1457,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  the 
Bold.  Philip  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  sovereigns 
of  his  time,  but  had  little  claim  to  the  epithet  of  "  Good." 
"  He  was  certainly  neither  a  good  nor  a  great  prince," 
says  Motley  :  "  he  was  an  adroit  di.ssembler,  a  practical 
politician." 

See  Perkeel,  "  fipisodes  du  Rfegne  de  Philippe  le  Ron,"  1847; 
CoMiNES,  "Memoires;"  Froissart,  "Chronicles;"  Barante, 
"  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Philip  of  Orleans.     See  Orleans. 

Phil'ip  Au-gus'tus,  [Fr.  Philippe  Auguste,  fe'I^p' 
o'giist' ;  Lat.  Philip'pus  Augus'tus,]  called  PhUip  n., 
King  of  France,  born  in  1 165,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VII., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1180.  He  married  Isabella  of 
Plainault,  a  niece  of  the  Count  of  Flanders.  In  the  first 
part  of  his  reign  he  banished  the  Jews  and  confiscated 
their  property.  He  aided  and  abetted  the  sons  of  Henry 
II.  of  England  in  rebellion  against  their  father.  Having 
taken  the  cross  in  1188,  he  raised  an  army  and  united 
with  Richard  I.  of  England  in  a  crusade.  They  embarked 
at  Genoa  and  Marseilles  in  1 190,  passed  the  winter  in 
Sicily,  and  arrived  at  Acre  in  the  spring  of  1191.  Dis- 
sensions or  jealousies  having  arisen  between  Philip  and 
Richard,  the  former,  on  the  pretext  of  ill  health,  aban- 
doned the  enterprise,  and  arrived  at  Paris  in  December, 
I191.  (See  Richard  I.)  A  war  ensued  between  Philip 
and  the  English  king  for  the  ]50ssession  of  Normandy, 
and  lasted  until  the  death  of  Richard,  in  1199.  The 
crimes  and  incapacity  of  John  of  England  afforded  a 
favourable  opportunity  to  the  ambition  of  Philip,  who 
extended  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Normandy, 
Anjou,  and  Touraine,  (1204-06.) 

In  1213,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  who 
had  deposed  John,  Philip  prepared  to  invade  England. 
He  was  forced  to  renounce  this  enterprise  by  the  abject 
submission  of  John  to  the  pope,  and  by  the  loss  of  his 
fleet,  which  was  defeated  by  the  English.  He  invaded 
Flanders,  the  chief  towns  of  which  surrendered  to  his 
army,  and  gained  in  1214  a  decisive  victory  over  the  em- 
peror Otho  IV.  and  the  Flemings  at  Bouvines,  where 
he  commanded  in  person.  He  died  in  1223,  leaving  his 
throne  to  his  son,  Louis  VIII. 

SeeRiGORD,  "  DeGestisPhilippi  Augusti ;"  Baudot  de  JuiLLV, 
"Histoire  de  Philippe  Auguste,"  1702;  Capefigi'b,  "  Histoire  de 
Philippe  Auguste,"  4  vols.,  1829:  Sis.mondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
^ais  ;"  Rv.MER,  "  Fcedera  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Philipon  de  la  Madelaine,  fe'lfe'p6N'  deh  It  mtd'- 
lin',  (L(juis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1734.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Homonyms," 
("  Dictionnaire  des  Homonymes,"  1799,)  a  "Dictionary 


a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PHILIPOT 


1943 


PHILIPS 


of  the  French  Language,"  (1809,)  and  other  works, 
which  were  received  with  favour.     Died  in  1818. 

Phil'I-pot,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary  and  herald, 
born  in  Kent.  Among  the  works  attributed  to  him 
is  "  Villare  Cantianum,  or  Kent  Surveyed."  Died  in 
1645. 

PhMip'pa  OK  IIainault,  a  daughter  of  William, 
Earl  of  IIainault,  was  married  to  Edward  III.  of  Eng- 
land aboait  1326.  She  saved  the  lives  of  six  citizens  of 
Calais,  whom  Edward  intended  to  put  to  death.  Died 
in  1369. 

Philippar,  fe'le'ptR',  (Francois  Aken,)  a  French 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Peuving,  Austria,  in  1801. 
He  became  director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Versailles 
in  1841.     Died  in  1S49. 

Philippe,  the  French  of  Philippus,  which  see. 

Philippe,  (Kings  of  France.)     See  Philip. 

Philippe  de  Mons,  fe'lip'  deh  m6.N',  a  Belgian  com- 
poser, born  at  Mons  about  1522.  He  composed  masses, 
motets,  etc.,  and  was  the  most  famous  Belgian  composer 
of  his  time,  except  Orlando  de  Lasso. 

Philippe  de  Neri.     See  Neri. 

Philippe  de  la  Sainte-Trinit6,  fe'lip'  deh  1$  siNt 
tRe'ne'ti',  (Esprit  Julien,)  a  French  missionary,  born 
in  the  Comtat  in  1603.  He  preached  in  Syria,  Persia, 
etc.,  and  published  "  Itinerarium  Orientale,"  (1649.) 
Died  in  1671. 

Philippe  le  Bon.    See  Philip  the  Good. 

Philippe  le  Hardi.    See  Philip  the  Bold. 

Philippeaux.     See  Phelippeaux. 

Philippeaux,  fe'le'po',  (Pierre,)  a  French  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  the  department  of  Orne  in  1759.  He 
was  elected  in  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  and  an  appeal  to  the 
people.  He  was  proscribed  by  Saint-Just,  arrested  as 
an  accomplice  of  Danton  in  March,  1794,  and  guillotined 
in  the  ensuing  month. 

Philippi,  fe'le'pe',  (Henri,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Saint-Hubert,  in  the  Ardennes,  about  1575.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  Chronology.     Died  in  1636. 

Phi-lip'pi-cu3  or  Phl-lep'i-cus,  also  called  Bar- 
DANKS,  Emperor  of  Constantinoi^le,  was  a  son  of  Ni- 
cephorus  Patricius.  He  began  to  reign  in  711  A.D., 
and  was  deposed  in  713.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Mono- 
ihelism. 

Philippide.     See  Philippides. 

Phl-lip'pi-dea,  [Gr.  ^CKltztMik  ;  Fr.  Philippide,  fe'- 
le'p^d',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  flourished  about  300  or 
330  B.C.  His  works  are  not  extant.  He  was  considered 
one  of  the  best  poets  of  the  new  comedy.  He  is  said  to 
have  died  of  joy  because  one  of  his  plays  had  gained  the 
prize.  His  character  is  eulogized  by  Plutarch  in  the  life 
of  Demetrius. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graca." 

Philippon.     See  Philipon. 

Philippon,  fe'le'pAw',  (Armand,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1761.  He  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  Badajos,  in  181 1  and  1812.     Died  in  1836. 

Philippoteaux,  fe'le'po'to',  (FifeLix  Henri  Em- 
manuel,) a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Sedan 
in  1815.  He  obtained  a  first  medal  in  1840.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  the  "  Last  Banquet  of  the  Gi- 
rondists," (1S50,)  "The  Battle  of  the  Alma,"  (1877,)  ^'c. 
Died  in  1884. 

Philippson,  fil'lip-spn,  (Ludwig,)  a  Jewish  rabbi, 
born  in  Dessau,  in  Anhalt,  December  27,  181 1.  He 
was  chosen  a  rabbi  in  1840,  after  seven  years'  service  as 
an  instructor.  He  published  "  Benedict  Spinoza  as  a 
Man,"  "  Sepphoris  and  Rome,"  (1866,)  "Questions  of 
Universal  Interest  in  Politics  and  Religion,"  (1868-69,) 
and  other  works. 

Philippus  oK  Acarnania.     See  Philip  of  Acar- 

NANIA. 

Phi-lip'pus,  an  impostor,  whose  proper  name  was 
Andriscus,  pretended  to  be  a  son  of  Perseus,  King  of 
Macedon.  He  obtained  some  success,  but  was  expelled 
by  the  Roman  general  Q.  Cascilius  Metellus. 

Philippus,  a  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.,  became  King 
of  Syria  about  88  B.C.,  after  fighting  against  Antio- 
chus X. 


Philippus  OF  Thessaloni'ca,  an  epigrammatic  poet, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  100  a.d.  He  com- 
posed many  epigrams,  which  are  in  the  Greek  Antho'- 
ogy,  and  compiled  a  "  Greek  Anthology." 

Philippus,  a  physician,  who  lived  about  150  A.D.  and 
belonged  to  the  sect  of  Empirici.  He  is  mentioned  by 
Galen,  his  contemporary. 

Philippus,  [Fr.  Philippe,  fe'lfep',]  (L.  Marcius,)  a 
Roman  general,  who  became  consul  in  186  B.C.  and 
again  in  169.  At  the  latter  date  he  obtained  the  conduct 
of  the  Macedonian  war.  He  invaded  the  territory  of 
Perseus,  King  of  Macedonia,  without  important  results. 
He  was  censor  in  164  B.C. 

Philippus,  (L.  Marcius,)  a  Roman  orator,  who  be- 
longed to  the  popular  party.  He  was  consul  in  91  B.C. 
with  Sextus  Julius  Caesar,  and  was  an  enemy  of  M.  Livius 
Drusus,  the  tribune  of  the  people,  by  whose  order  Philip- 
pus was  dragged  to  prison  in  the  year  just  named.  In 
86  B.C.  he  was  censor.  He  remained  neutral  in  the  war 
between  Marius  and  Sulla,  and  was  afterwards  a  friend 
of  Pompey.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  orators 
of  his  time,  and  was  noted  for  his  sarcastic  wit.  Horace 
refers  to  him  in  his  Epistle  i. :  "  Strenuus  et  fortis  causis- 
que  Philippus  agendis  clarus."     He  died  after  76  B.C. 

Philippus,  (L.  Marcius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  consul  in  56  B.C.  He  married  Atia,  a  niece  of  Julius 
Caesar,  and  thus  became  the  stepfather  of  the  emperor 
Augustus.  He  was  neutral  in  the  civil  war  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey. 

Philippus,  (M.  Julius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  was  a 
native  of  Trachonitis.  He  obtained  the  imperial  power 
by  the  murder  of  Gordian,  in  244  a.d.  The  senate 
confirmed  the  choice  of  the  army.  He  made  peace  with 
Persia  in  244.  In  248  or  247  a.d.  he  celebrated  the 
thousandth  anniversary  of  the  origin  of  Rome.  He  was 
killed  at  Verona  in  249  a.d.,  in  a  battle  against  Decius, 
who  had  usurped  the  title  of  emperor.  According  to 
Eusebius  and  other  writers,  Philippus  was  a  Christian. 

His  son,  M.  Julius  Philippus,  who  had  been  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  empire,  (247  a.d.,)  was  killed  by 
the  partisans  of  Decius,  in  249  a.d. 

Philippus  Augustus.    See  Philip  Augustus. 

Phil'ips,  (A.MBROSE,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  probably  in  Leicestershire  about  1670.  Among 
his  early  productions  were  six  Pastorals,  (about  1708,) 
and  a  "  Letter  from  Copenhagen,"  in  verse,  (1709,)  which 
was  praised  by  Steele  and  others.  His  tragedy  "The 
Distressed  Mother"  was  performed  with  applause  in 
1712.  It  was  highly  commended  in  the  "Spectator" 
by  Addison  and  Steele,  who  were  friends  of  the  author. 
He  was  an  adherent  of  the  Whig  party,  and  an  object 
of  Pope's  ill-natured  satire.  He  made  a  translation  of 
Sappho's  "  Hymn  to  Venus,"  which  Addison  printed  in 
the  "  Spectator,"  No.  223.  His  version  of  Sappho's 
"  Ode  to  Lesbia"  is  praised  by  Addison,  as  "  written  in 
the  very  spirit  of  Sappho."  (See  "  Spectator,"  No.  229.) 
He  became  secretary  to  Dr.  Boulter,  Primate  of  Ireland, 
in  1723,  and  for  some  time  represented  the  county  of 
Armagh  in  the  Irish  parliament.  In  1733  he  became  a 
judge  of  the  prerogative  court  in  Ireland.  Died  in  1749. 
The  term  "  namby-pamby"  is  said  to  have  been  first 
applied  to  his  style. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Philips,  (Catherine,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in 
London  in  1631.  Her  maiden  name  was  Fowler.  She 
translated  Corneille's  tragedy  of  "  Pompey,"  and  wrote 
poems,  which  were  published  in  1667.  She  was  called 
by  her  admirers  "  the  Matchless  Orinda."   Died  in  1664. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  Costello. 

Philips  or  Philipps,  (Fabian,)  an  English  political 
writer,  born  at  Prestbury  in  1601,  was  a  lawyer  aid  a 
partisan  of  Charles  I.     Died  in  1690. 

Philips,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Bampton, 
Oxfordshire,  in  1676.  His  first  successful  work  was 
"The  Splendid  Shilling,"  a  mock-heroic  poem,  (1703.) 
He  produced  in  1705  "Blenheim,"  a  poem  in  imitation 
of  the  style  of  Milton.  His  principal  work  is  a  poem 
"On  Cider,"  (1706,)  in  which  he  imitated  Virgil's 
"Georgics"  with  some  success.     Died  in  1708. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 


eas>6.'  jasj;  ^hard;  gasy;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  a,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  sass;  th  as  mt/tis.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


PHILISCUS 


1944 


PHILLIPS 


Phl-lis'cus,  ["tiXiff/cof,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  ot 
the  middle  comedy,  wrote  probably  about  400  n.c.  The 
titles  of  some  of  his  plays  are  given  by  Suidas. 

Philiscus  OK  /Egina,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  who, 
according  to  Suidas,  was  a  disciple  of  Diogenes  the 
Cynic,  and  taught  grammar  to  Alexander  the  Great. 

Philiscus  OF  CoucYRA,  lived  about  290  B.C.,  and  was 
one  of  the  seven  poets  that  formed  the  "Tragic  Pleiad." 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Philiscus  OF  Rhodes,  a  sculptor,  who  is  believed  to 
have  flourished  about  146  n.C.  ;  though  some  suppose 
him  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  His  works 
were  placed  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Rome,  for  which 
they  were  probably  originally  designed.  Meyer  identifies 
the  statue  at  Florence  called  Apollino  with  the  Apollo 
of  Philiscus. 

Phl-lis'tl-on,  ["I'tAicrrtur,]  a  Greek  physician,  born 
in  Sicily  or  Italy,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
He  was  the  teacher  of  Eudoxus  the  physician  and 
astronomer. 

Phi-lis'tus,  [Gr.  *fAiarof,]  an  eminent  Syracusan  his- 
torian and  politician,  born  about  435  B.C.  He  aided 
Dionysius  to  obtain  power  in  Syracuse  about  405  B.C.. 
soon  after  which  he  was  keeper  of  the  citadel.  About 
396  he  was  banished,  because  he  married  a  niece  of 
Dionysius  without  his  consent.  He  was  recalled  from 
exile  by  Dionysius  the  Younger,  over  whom  he  acquired 
much  mfluence.  He  used  this  influence  against  Plato 
and  Dion,  and  "employed  his  talents,"  says  Plutarch, 
"in  defence  of  the  despotic  policy."  Having  been  de- 
feated in  a  naval  battle  by  the  party  of  Dion,  in  356  B.C., 
he  was  killed,  or  killed  himself  to  avoid  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  victors.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Sicily," 
which  is  lost.  His  style  resembled  that  of  Thucydides. 
Cicero  characterizes  him  as  "creber,  acutus,  brevis,  paene 
pusillus  Thucydides." 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Goeller, 
"Vita  Philisti,"  in  his  "DeSitu  et  Origine  -Syracusarum." 

Phil'li-more,  (John  George,)  M.P.,  an  English 
writer  on  law,  born  in  1809.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Law  of  Evidence,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1865. 

Phillimore,  (Sir  Robert  Joseph,)  Bart.,  an  English 
lawyer,  born  in  London,  November  5,  1810.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, graduating  in  1831.  He  was  appointed  an  advo- 
cate of  doctors'  commons,  and  was  afterwards  admitted 
as  a  barrister  and  Queen's  counsel.  He  was  chosen 
judge  of  the  cinque  ports,  1855,  advocate-general  in  admi- 
ralty, 1862,  and  judge  of  the  high  court  of  admiralty,  and 
of  the  arches  court,  in  1867.  He  was  judge-advocate  gen- 
eral, 1871-73,  and  in  1880  retired  from  the  bench.  His 
principal  works  are  "  Memoirs  of  George  Lord  Lyttle- 
ton,"  "  Russia  and  Turkey,"  and  "  Ecclesiastical  Law  of 
the  Church  of  England."     Died  in  1885. 

Phil'lip,  (Arthur,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in 
London  in  1738,  was  the  first  governor  of  Botany  Bay. 
Died  in  1814. 

Phil'lip,  (John,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  at  Aberdeen 
about  1815,  became  a  resident  of  London.  Having 
visited  Spain  about  1852,  he  painted  numerous  success- 
ful pictures  of  Spanish  life.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Scotch  Fair,"  "The  Letter-Writer  of  Seville,"  "El 
Pasco,"  "The  Spanish  Contrabandistas,"  and  "The 
House  of  Commons."  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade- 
mician in  1859  or  i860.     Died  in  1867. 

Phil'lips,  (Adelaide,)  a  noted  singer,  born  in  Bristol, 
England,  in  1833.  When  seven  years  old,  she  was  taken 
to  Boston,  Massachusetts,  which  was  her  residence 
throughout  the  remainder  of  her  life.  Her  voice  was  a 
fine  contralto.     Died  October  4,  1882. 

Phillips,  (Catharine.)     See  Philips. 

PhilTips,  (Charles,)  an  Irish  barrister,  born  at 
Sligo  about  1788.  He  practised  with  success  in  criminal 
cases  in  London,  and  gained  a  wide  reputation  by  his 
speeches,  the  style  of  which  is  rather  florid.  He  was 
for  many  years  a  commissioner  of  the  insolvent  debtors' 
court  in  London.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Recollections  of  Curran  and  some  of  his  Contempo- 
raries," (1818.)     Died  in  1859, 


_  See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November.   1817;  "  Monthly  Re- 
view" for  December,  1819. 


Phil'lips  or  Philipps,  (Edward,)  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  the  poet  Milton,  was  born  in  London  in  1630. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Milton,"  (1694,)  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Theatrum  Poetarum,"  or  a  com- 
plete collection  of  the  most  eminent  poets  of  all  ages, 
with  observat'i-ns,  etc.,  (1675.)  ^^  '•''  supposed  that  he 
was  assisted  by  Milton  in  this  work,  which  is  highly 
esteemed.     Died  about  1680. 

See  William  Godwin,  "Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Phillips." 

Phillips,  fil'lips,  (Georg,)  a  Prussian  historian,  born 
at  Konigsberg  in  1804.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic  of 
the  ultramontane  party.  In  185 1  he  became  professor 
of  the  history  of  law  at  Vienna.  Among  his  works  are 
a  "History  of  Germany,"  (1834,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Canon  Law,"  ( Kirchenrechty)  (5  vols.,  1845-51.)  Died 
in  i860. 

Phillips,  (John,)  a  brother  of  Edward,  noticed  abore, 
was  a  pupil  of  Milton.  He  wrote  "  Marunides,"  a  paro  ly 
of  part  of  Virgil's  "^neid,"  (1672,)  a  "  Defence  of  Mil- 
ton," ("  Miltoni  Defensio,")  and  a  few  other  works. 

See  "  Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Phillips,  Nephews  and  Pupils 
of  John  Milton,"  by  William  Godwin,  London,  1815. 

Phillips,  (John,)  a  nephew  of  William  Smith  the 
geologist,  was  born  December  25, 1800.  He  assisted  this 
uncle  in  the  explorations  and  surveys  which  he  made 
in  order  to  prepare  geological  maps  of  England.  He 
lectured  on  his  favourite  science  with  success  at  various 
places.  In  1844  he  obtained  the  chair  of  geology  at 
Dublia.  He  wrote  articles  on  geology,  etc.  for  the 
"  Penny  Cyclopaedia"  and  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica."  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Geology," 
(2  vols.,  1837,)  and  "  Palaeozoic  Fossils  of  Cornwall, 
Devon,  and  West  Somerset,"  (1841.)  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  geology  at  Oxford  in  1853,  and  president  of 
the  Geological  Society  in  1S58.     Died  April  25,  1874. 

Phil'lips,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  merchant,  born 
at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1719,  founded  an  academy 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  called  by  his  name,  and  gave 
a  large  sum  to  Phillips  Academy,  at  Andover.  Died 
in  1795. 

Pliillips,  (Laurence  Barrett,)  an  English  etcher, 
born  in  London,  January  29,  1842.  He  became  a  suc- 
cessful manufacturer  of  chronometers,  and  won  distinc- 
tion as  an  inventor  and  an  author.  His  best-known  work 
is  a  "  Dictionary  of  Biographical  Reference,"  (1873.)  His 
etchings  are  highly  commended. 

Phillips,  (Morgan,)  or  Philip  Morgan,  a  Welsh 
Catholic  writer,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1537.  He  was 
so  skilful  in  disputation  that  he  was  called  "  Morgan  the 
Sophister."  He  wrote  in  1571  an  answer  to  Knox's 
"  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  Regiment  of  Women." 

Phillips,  (Philip,)  an  American  singer,  born  in  Chau- 
tauqua county.  New  York,  August  13,  1834.  His  life 
has  been  mainly  devoted  to  singing  at  religious  meetings 
and  to  the  publication  of  devotional  music. 

Phillips,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1767  or  1768.  He  published  the  "Monthly 
Magazine,"  which  advocated  liberal  politics,  and  other 
works.     Died  about  1S40. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Public  and  Private  Life  of  Sir  Richard 
Phillips." 

Phillips,  (Richard,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist  and 
pharmacist,  born  in  1 778.  He  learned  his  profession 
with  William  Allen,  of  Plough  Court,  London,  and  ac« 
quired  great  skill  as  an  analytic  chemist.  He  wrote 
articles  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy  for  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopaedia."  He  lectured  on  chemistry  at  the  London 
Hospital,  and  became  president  of  the  Chemical  Society 
about  1850.     Died  in  185 1. 

Phillips,  (Samuel,)  nephew  of  John  Phillips,  noticed 
above,  (1719-95,)  was  born  at  North  Andover  in  1751, 
and  rose  through  numerous  offices  to  be  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  the  founder  of 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover.     Died  in  1802. 

Phillips,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1815.  He  published  "Caleb  Stukely,"  a  novel, 
and  wrote  tales  for  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  and  other 
periodicals.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  London 
"Times,"  for  which  he  wrote  able  literary  criticisms  and 
reviews.  In  1852  and  1854  he  published  two  volumes 
of  "  Essays  from  the  Times."     Died  in  1854. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  Ions;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  o,  o/^scure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PHILLIPS 


1945 


PHILOCLES 


Phillips,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Catholic  priest,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1708.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Reginald  Pole,"  (1764.)     Died  at  Liege  in  1774. 

Phillips,  (Thomas,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Dudley,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1770.  He  was  professor 
of  painting  in  the  Royal  Academy  from  1824  to  1832. 
Among  his  works  are  portraits  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
Lord  Byron,  the  poets  Scott,  Coleridge,  and  Southey, 
Lord  Brougham,  Sir  Francis  Chantrey,  and  Major  Den- 
ham.     Died  in  1845. 

Phillips,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Worcestershire  in  1792.  He  formed  a  great  collection 
of  manuscripts,  and  wrote  antiquarian  treatises.  Died 
February  6,  1872. 

Phillips,  (Watts,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
London  in  1829.  He  began  life  as  a  writer  and  carica- 
turist on  a  comic  weekly  called  "Diogenes."  In  1856 
his  play  of  "Joseph  Chavigny"  was  produced  at  the 
Adelphi  Theatre,  and  it  was  quickly  followed  by  a  num- 
ber of  successful  dramas,  among  which  may  be  named 
"The  Dead  Heart,"  "The  Poor  Stroller,"  "Camilla's 
Husband,"  "  Nobody's  Child,"  "  On  the  Jury,"  etc.  Died 
in  London,  December  2,  1874. 

Phillips,  (Wendell,)  an  American  reformer,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  uncompromising  hostility  to  the  in- 
stitution of  slavery  and  to  oppression  in  every  form,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  November  29,  181 1.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  183 1,  studied  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1834.  His  sympathies  were  strongly 
aroused  by  the  persecution  of  the  early  abolitionists, 
more  particularly  during  the  Boston  mob,  lieaded  by 
"gentlemen  of  property  and  standing,"  in  October,  1835, 
when  Garrison  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  In  1836 
he  joined  the  abolitionists,  relinquishing  the  practice  of 
law  because  he  was  unwilling  to  act  under  an  oath  to 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1837  a  meeting 
of  the  citizens  of  Massachusetts  was  called  in  Faneuil 
Hall  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  public  condemnation 
of  the  murder  of  Lovejoy,  who  fell  (November  7)  at 
Alton,  Illinois,  in  defence  of  the  freedom  of  the  press. 
The  pro-slavery  feeling  in  Boston  was  at  that  time  very 
strong,  and  the  ol)ject  of  the  meeting  was  in  imminent 
danger  of  being  defeated  through  the  influence  of  Attor- 
ney-General Austin,  who  asked  how  Mr.  Lovejoy  had 
merited  the  distinction  of  being  thus  commemorated,  and 
whether  he  had  not  died  "as  the  fool  dieth."  At  the 
conclusion  of  his  speech,  Wendell  Phillips  arose,  and,  in 
a  burst  of  indignant  and  powerful  eloquence,  rebuked 
the  craven  and  sordid  spirit  of  those  who  sought  to 
defend  or  excuse  that  great  crime  against  the  liberty  of 
the  press  and  the  rigiits  of  humanity.  Dr.  Channing, 
who  had  been  chiefly  instrumental  in  calling  the  meeting 
on  that  occasion,  often  referred  to  the  speech  of  young 
Phillips  before  that  vast  assembly,  many  of  whom  were 
bitterly  hostile  to  freedom,  as  "morally  sublime."  Be- 
lieving that  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  was 
an  unrighteous  compact  between  freedom  and  slavery, 
Mr.  Phillips  refused  to  recognize  its  authority  by  voting 
or  in  any  other  manner,  and  maintained  that  a  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Union  would  be  the  most  effectual  mode  of 
giving  freedom  to  the  slaves.  In  1865  he  succeeded  Mr. 
Garrison  as  president  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  which  position  he  held  until  the  dissolution  of 
the  society,  April  9,  1870.  Mr.  Phillips  was  for  many 
years  an  advocate  of  woman  suffrage,  prohibition,  prison 
reform,  and  a  greenback  currency,  and  he  made  many 
public  utterances  in  support  of  these  movements.  He 
was  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  one  of  the  most  elo- 
quent of  American  orators.  Collections  of  his  letters, 
speeches,  and  addresses  were  made  in  1863  and  1869, 
and  it  is  understood  that  a  third  volume  will  be  issued 
posthumously.     He  died  February  2,  1S84. 

Phillips,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mineralogist 
and  geologist,  born  in  London  in  1773,  was  a  brother  of 
Richard,  noticed  above,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  accurate 
measurement  of  crystals  by  means  of  the  reflective 
goniometer.  He  published  "Outlines  of  Mineralogy 
and  Geology,"  (4th  edition,  1826,)  and  an  "Introduction 
to  the  Knowledge  of  Mineralogy,"  (1816.)  He  aided 
Conybeare  in  an  important  work, — "The  Geology  of 
England  and  Wales,"  (1822.)     Died  in  1828. 


Phill'potts  or  Phil'potts,  (Henry,)  an  English 
bishop,  was  born  at  Bridgevvater  in  1777  or  1778,  and 
educated  at  Oxford.  He  obtained  the  living  of  .Stanhope, 
became  Dean  of  Chester  in  1828,  and  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1830.  He  acted  with  the  Tory  party  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  in  opposing  many  measures  of  reform.  He 
wrote  many  controversial  works,  among  which  is  a 
"Letter  on  Catholic  Emancipation,"  (1827.)  He  was 
regarded  as  the  head  of  the  extreme  High-Church  party 
'\\\  the  House  of  Lords.     Died  in  September,  1869. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1852 ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1S27. 

Phi'lo  or  Phi'lon,  [4><A(jv,]  a  son  of  Antipater,  a  Greek 
statuary,  who  lived  about  330  B.C.  He  made  a  statue 
of  Zeus  Ourios,  which  stood  on  the  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea,  near  Chalcedon. 

Philo  or  Philon,  an  excellent  Greek  architect,  worked 
at  Athens  about  320  B.C.  He  built  the  portico  of  twelve 
Doric  columns  of  the  great  temple  at  Eleusis. 

Philo,  a  physician  of  the  sect  of  Methodic!,  is  mei\ 
tioned  by  Galen.    The  time  in  which  he  lived  is  unknown. 

Philo  orPhilou  the  Academic,  a  philosopher,  born 
at  Larissa,  was  a  disciple  of  Clitomachus.  He  taught 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
who  was  one  of  his  auditors  or  pupils. 

Philo,  (Philon,)  ["tiAuv,]  an  ancient  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  lived  probably  about  the  time 
of  Augustus.  He  wrote,  in  Greek  verse,  directions  for 
compounding  an  antidote  called  Philonium,  which  are 
preserved  by  Galen. 

Philo,  (Q.  PuBLlLius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was 
consul  in  339  B.C.  He  procured  the  passage  in  that 
year  of  the  important  Publilian  laws,  which  increased 
the  power  of  the  plebeians.  He  was  re-elected  consul 
m  327  and  in  320  B.C.  In  the  latter  year  he  defeated  the 
Samnites. 

Philo,  (Philon,)  [Gr.  <l>«A(jv,]  called  also  Philo  By- 
zantius,  (be-zan'she-us,)  a  Greek  mechanician,  who  lived 
in  the  second  century  B.C.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Military  Machines  and  Missiles,"  part  of  which  is  ex- 
tant,— i.e.  the  fourth  and  fifth  books, — and  a  treatise  on 
mechanics. 

Philo  [Fr.  Philon,  fe'lAN'j  of  Byblos,  (Heren- 
NIUS,)  a  Greek  historian  and  grammarian,  who  lived 
between  50  and  125  a.d.  Among  his  numerous  works 
was  an  account  of  the  reign,  or  part  of  the  reign,  of 
Hadrian.  Suidas  says  he  wrote  peri  t'es  basileias  Adi-ianou. 
Philo  made  a  translation  of  the  Ilistory  of  Sanchoniathon, 
a  Phoenician. 

Phi'lo(orPlu'lon)Judae'us,(ju-dee'us,)[Fr.  Philon 
LE  JuiF,  fe'16N'  leh  zhii-^f',]  ("Philo  the  Jew,")  a  Greek 
philosopher,  born  at  Alexandria,  lived  between  20  B.C. 
and  50  A.D.  He  was  a  member  of  the  sacerdotal  family, 
and  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  eloquence.  He 
was  a  man  of  mature  age  when  he  was  sent  by  the  Jews 
of  Alexandria  on  an  embassy  to  Caligula,  (40  A.D.)  It 
appears  that  he  was  a  believer  in  the  Platonic  philoso- 
phy. He  wrote  many  works  on  the  Jewish  religion,  on 
the  interpretation  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  other  subjects. 
He  is  partial  to  figurative  or  allegorical  interpretations. 

See  J.  Bryant,  "Tlie  Sentiments  of  Philo  Jtidaeus,"  ijgS;  Jo- 
SBPHUS,  "Jewisli  Antiquities;"    Fabricius.  "  Bibliotheca  Grsca.  " 

Phi'lo  or  PhiTon  Thy-a-nen'sis,  an  able  geome- 
trician, whose  period  is  unknown.  He  wrote  on  curved 
lines,  and  lived  before  100  A.D. 

Phi-lo€h'a-res,  a  Greek  painter,  mentioned  by  Pliny. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  brother  of  ^s- 
"hines,  who  lived  about  340  B.C. 

Phi-lo-eh'o-rus,  [<l>t/l6,Yopof,]  a  distinguished  Athenian 
writer,  who  states  that  he  held  an  office  at  Athens  in  306 
B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  antiquities,  legends,  and 
history  of  Athens,  entitled  "  Atthis,"  of  which  many  frag- 
ments are  extant.  Suidas  says  he  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Antigonus.  According  to  some  writers,  he 
flourished  between  306  and  260  B.C. 

Phil'o-cles,  [4>t/'.o«?%,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  born 
about  468  B.C.,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  /Eschylus,  whom 
he  imitated.  In  429  he  gained  a  victory  over  Sophocles, 
who  on  that  occasion  exhibited  his  much-admired  "  Qidi- 
pus  Tyrannus."  None  of  the  works  of  Philocles  have 
come  down  to  us. 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  \i,giUtural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jf^^See  Explar.  Ations,  p.  23.) 


PHILOCLES 


1946 


PHJLPOT 


Philocles,  an  Athenian  architect,  (of  Acharnae,)  de- 
signed the  admirable  Ionic  temple  of  Athena  Polias, 
built  about  333  B.C. 

Philocrate.    See  Philocrates. 

PhMoc'ra-tei,  [Gr.  *£?.o/cpu77/f ;  Fr.  Philocrate, 
fe'lo'kRit',]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  was  one  of  the 
chief  negotiators  of  the  peace  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
in  346  n.c.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Demosthenes,  and 
favoured  the  Macedonian  party.  Having  been  accused 
of  treason,  he  went  into  exile  about  342  B.C. 

Philoctete.     See  Philoctetes. 

Phll-oc-te'tei,  [Gr.  'i'lAoK-rjTi^^ ;  Fr.  PHiLocrfeTE, 
fe'lok't<\t',|  a  celebrated  Greek  archer,  who,  during  the 
Trojan  war,  was  left  on  the  island  of  Lemnos,  because 
he  was  wounded  in  the  foot  by  a  serpent  or  a  poisoned 
arrow.  He  is  the  subject  of  many  legends,  one  of  which 
ascribes  the  death  of  Paris  to  a  shaft  from  his  bow.  He 
was  said  to  have  been  a  friend  of  Hercules,  who  be- 
queathed to  him  his  bow  and  his  poisoned  arrows. 

See  Sophocles,  "  Philoctetes,"  a  tragedy. 

Philodeme.    See  Philodemus. 

Phll-o-de'mus,  [Gr.  <i>i?MTiuog;  Fr.  Philodeme,  fe'- 
lo'dim',]  a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher  and  poet,  born 
in  Palestine.  He  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
who  mentions  him  in  a  speech  against  Piso.  Cicero 
condemns  his  conduct,  but  recognizes  his  literary  merit. 
He  wrote  epigrams,  fragments  of  which  are  extant  in 
the  Greek  Anthology. 

Phil-o-la'us,  [Gr.  <I>iA6Aaof,]  a  Pythagorean  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Crotona  or  Tarentum,  was  a  disciple  of 
Archytas.  He  flourished  about  375  or,  according' to 
some  authorities,  450  B.C.,  and  wrote  on  physics.  Plato, 
it  is  said,  purchased  some  of  his  writings  at  a  high  price, 
and  derived  from  them  materials  for  his  "  Timaeus." 

See  August  Rockh,  "  Philolaos  des  Pythagoraers  Leben,"  1819; 
Ersch  und  Gkubek,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Phn'o-me'la,  [Gr.  •^Lkojiijla ;  Fr.  PmLOMfeLE,  fe'lo'- 
niV/,[  a  daughter  of  Pandi'on,  and  a  sister  of  Procne. 
The  poets  related  that  she  was  ravished  by  Tereus, 
and  afterwards  metamorphosed  into  a  nightingale. 

See  Ovid,  "Metamorphoses." 

Philomele.    See  Philomela. 

Philon.     See  Philo. 

Phi-lon'i-des,  [•iikuvidrig,']  an  Athenian  comic  poet 
of  the  old  comedy,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He 
is  chiefly  distinguished  as  one  of  the  persons  in  whose 
name  the  early  plays  of  Aristophanes  were  produced. 
In  the  opinion  of  some  critics,  he  was  one  of  the  actors 
to  whom  Aristophanes  committed  his  chief  characters. 

Philopemen.     See  Philopcemen. 

Philopcemen,  fil-o-pee'men,  [Gr.  ^ikmroifirjv ;  Fr. 
Philopemen,  fe'lo'pi'mON',]  an  eminent  Greek  general 
and  statesman,  born  at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  about 
252  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Craugis.  He  was  instructed  by 
Demophanes  and  Ecdemus,  and  chose  Epaniinondas 
for  his  model.  His  favourite  study  was  the  art  of  war. 
His  name  occurs  in  222  B.C.  as  one  of  the  few  who  re- 
sisted Cleomenes,  the  Spartan,  when  he  attacked  Mega- 
lopolis by  night.  The  defeat  of  Cleomenes  at  Sellasia 
(221  B.C.)  was  ascribed  to  Philopcemen.  He  was  ap- 
pointed general  of  the  cavalry  about  210  B.C.,  and  made 
reforms  in  discipline  and  tactics.  In  208  he  was  elected 
strategus  or  general-in-chief  of  the  Achaean  League.  His 
reputation  was  greatly  exalted  by  a  victory  over  the 
Spartan  Machanidas  at  Mantinea.  He  defeated  Nabis, 
tyrant  of  Sparta,  in  201  B.C.,  and  again  about  192.  In 
188  B.C.  he  was  appointed  commander  in  a  war  against 
Sparta,  which  had  seceded  from  the  Achaean  League. 
He  made  himself  master  of  the  Spartan  cai>ital,  razed 
the  walls,  put  to  death  the  prominent  men,  and  abolished 
the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  For  these  acts  of  severity  he  was 
censured  by  the  Roman  senate.  In  an  attempt  to  reduce 
Messene  to  allegiance  by  arms,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Messenians,  and  compelled  to  drink  poison,  in 
182  B.C.  He  has  been  styled  the  last  of  the  Greeks 
His  memory  was  cherished  with  great  veneration.  Ac- 
cording to  Pausanias,  "  Miltiades  was  the  first,  and  Phi- 
lopcemen the  last,  benefactor  to  the  whole  of  Greece." 
See  Pi.UTARCH,  "Lives;"  Polybius,  "History." 

PM-lop'o-nu3,  (Joannes,)  [Gr.  'luuwjjc  ^  *i/W^ovof,] 


stirnamed  Grammat'icus,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria, 
whose  reputation  was  greater  than  his  merit.  His  name 
is  chiefly  memorable  for  his  connection  with  the  capture 
of  Alexandria  by  Amroo,  639  a.d.  It  is  reported  that 
he  requested  the  victor  to  grant  him  the  great  '.ibrary 
of  that  city,  and  that  his  request  was  refused. 

Philostorge.     See  Philostorgius. 

PhU-o-stor'gl-us,  [Gr.  4>£AO(jr6/jytof ;  Fr.  Piulo 
storge,  fe'lo'stoRzh',1  an  Arian  writer,  born  in  Cappa- 
docia  about  360  a.d.  He  wrote  an  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  period  from  300  to  425  a.d.,  which  is  lost.  An 
extract  from  it  is  preserved  in  a  work  of  Photius. 

Philostrat  and  Philostra.     See  Philostratus. 

Phi-los'tra-tus,  [Gr.  <iH/MaTpa7og ;  Fr.  Philostraie, 
fe'lo'stRtt' ;  Ger.  Philostrat,  fee'los-tRlt,]  (Flavius,) 
a  Greek  biographer,  born  in  Lemnos  about  175  or  180 
A.D.  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where  he  taught 
rhetoric  in  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus.  At  the  re- 
quest of  the  empress,  Julia  Domna,  he  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyana."  This  work,  which  has  exercised 
the  ingenuity  of  many  commentators,  was  printed  in 
1502.  Among  his  extant  works  are  "The  Lives  of  the 
Sophists,"  and  a  description  of  a  collection  of  paintings, 
which  displays  richness  of  fancy  and  beauty  of  style.  He 
was  alive  in  the  reign  of  Philip,  (244-249  A.D.) 

See  RiTTHR,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Grasca;"  Rf.hfues,  "  Lfeber  den  Jiingem  Philostrat,"  etc.,  iSoo; 
"Nouvelle  iiiographie  Gdndrale." 

Philostratus  the  Lemnian,  a  Sophist,  born  about 
190  A.D.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  the  Philos- 
tratus noticed  above,  who  was  his  friend  and  prai.ses 
his  rhetorical  skill.    Suidas  ascribes  to  him  a  work  called 

PM-lo'tas,  [Gr.  <l>£?.(j-af,]  a  general  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  a  son  of  Parmenio.  He  commanded  the 
Macedonian  cavalry,  or  royal  guards,  in  the  expedition 
against  Persia,  and  stood  high  in  the  favour  of  the  king. 
Plutarch  extols  his  valour  and  generosity,  but  adds  that 
"the  loftiness  of  his  port  was  altogether  extravagant." 
He  received  information  of  a  plot  against  Alexander,  but 
neglected  to  mention  it.  His  enemy  Craterus  used  this 
circumstance  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  king.  Phi- 
lotas  was  tortured  until  he  confessed  his  complicity,  and 
was  put  to  death  in  330  B.C.  His  guilt  may  reasonably 
be  doubted. 

See  .Arkian,  "Anabasis." 

Philotas,  a  physician  of  Amphissa,  in  Locris,  born 
about  50  or  60  B.C.  He  once  supped  with  Antyllus,  (a 
son  of  Antony,)  who  was  so  pleased  with  a  syllogism  of 
Philotas  that  he  gave  him  a  rich  present,  (30  B.C.) 

Phi-lo'the-us,  [^ilodEoQ,]  (Coccinus,)  a  Greek  writer, 
was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1355.  He  had 
a  high  reputation,  and  wrote  a  number  of  works,  some 
of  which  have  been  printed.     Died  about  1373. 

Phil-o-ti'mus,  [<^LkuTL^og,\  an  eminent  Greek  phy- 
sician, who  lived  probably  about  300  B.C.,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Herophilus.  His  works  are  mentioned 
by  Galen. 

Philoxene.    See  Philoxenus. 

Phi-lox'e-uus,  [Gr.  •ii^jo^cvog ;  Fr.  Philoxene,  fe'- 
loks'iu',]  an  eminent  Greek  dithyrambic  poet,  born  at 
Cythera  about  435  B.C.  He  passed  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  who  treated  him  with 
favour  and  afterwards  sent  him  to  prison.  His  chief 
poems  were  "Cyclops  or  Galatea,"  and  "The  Feast" 
or  "Dinner,"  (KdTtvov,)  which  were  much  admired. 
Fragments  of  them  are  extant.     He  died  in  380  B.C. 

See  Berglein,  "  De  Philoxeno  Cytherio  Poeta,"  1843;  Kling- 
E.VDER,  "Dissertatio  de  Philoxeno  Cytherio,"  1845. 

Philoxenus,  an  able  Greek  painter  of  Eretria,  was 
a  pupil  of  Nicomachus  of  Thebes.  He  was  noted  for 
rapidity  of  execution.  His  picture  of  a  battle  of  Alex- 
ander with  Darius  is  highly  praised  by  Pliny.  He  lived 
about  325  B.C. 

Philoxenus,  an  Egyptian  surgeon,  mentioned  by 
Celsus  as  the  author  of  several  valuable  works  on 
surgery.     He  probably  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 

Phil'pot,  (John,)  an  English  Protestant  minister, 
born  at  Compton,  was  tried  for  heresy,  and  burned  at 
Smithfield  in  1555.     He  left  several  works  on  theology. 


a.  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y, short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mli;  nfit;  good;  mo5n; 


PHILPOTTS 


1947 


PHRADMON 


Philpotts,  (Henry.)     See  Phillpotts. 

Phinee.     See  Phineus. 

Phi'neus  or  Phin'e-us,  [Gr.  'ttvcir ;  Fr.  Phinee, 
fe'ni',]  a  blind  soothsayer  of  classic  mythology,  supposed 
to  be  a  son  of  Agenor,  (or  of  Neptune.)  According  to  the 
ancient  fabulists,  he  treated  his  children  with  extreme 
severity,  and  the  gods,  to  punish  him,  sent  the  Harpies, 
who  annoyed  him  exceedingly,  by  snatciiing  and  soiling 
his  food,  until  he  was  relieved  by  the  Argonauts.  In 
return  for  this  service,  he  gave  them  i^ropheiic  counsel  to 
direct  them  in  their  enterprise.  The  story  of  Phineus 
is  related  with  much  variation  by  different  authors,  some 
of  whom  call  him  King  of  Salmydessus  in  Thrace. 

Phintias.     See  Damon. 

Phipps,  (CoNSTANTiNE.)     See  Mulgrave. 

Phipp.g,  (CoNSTANTiNK  Henry.)     See  Nokmanby. 

Phipps  or  Phips,  (Sir  William,)  an  American  ma- 
gistrate, born  in  Maine  in  1651,  became  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1692.  His  "  Life,"  by  F"rancis  Bowen, 
is  included  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  vii. 
He  commanded  an  expedition  against  Port  Royal,  which 
fee  captured  in  1690.     Died  in  1695. 

See  Cotton  Mathkr,  "  Life  of  Sir  William  Phipps." 

Phle'gon,  [>I>Af)'(ji',]  a  chronologer,  born  at  Tralles,  in 
Lydia,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century.  He 
was  a  freedman  of  the  emperor  Hadrian.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  called  'OXufL-nioviKuv  km  xp^^'-'^'^  crvva- 
yu}7i.  It  is  not  extant.  Saint  Jerome  cites  him  as  a  wit- 
ness to  confirm  the  gospel  narrative  in  relation  to  the 
miraculous  darkness  which  occurred  at  the  death  of 
Christ.  Phlegon  states  that  in  the  fourth  year  of  the 
202d  Olympiad  there  was  a  great  eclipse  ot  the  sun  at 
the  sixth  hour,  and  an  earthcjuake  in  Bithynia. 

Phlegyas,  flee'jc^s,  [Gr.  <i'?ityvac ;  Fr.  PllL^GYAS, 
fli'zhe'd',1  a  fabuloirs"  personage,  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Mars,  a  king  of  the  I.apiiha:,  and  the  father  of  Coronis. 
Having  set  fire  to  the  temple  of  Apollo,  he  was  killed 
and  doomed  to  a  severe  punishment  in  Tartarus. 

Pho'cas,  [Gr.  4>w«uc,]  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  usurped 
the  empire  of  Constantinople  in  602  A.D.  He  waged 
war  against  Persia,  in  which  he  suffered  great  losses.  He 
rendered  himself  odious  by  his  cruelty,  and  was  deposed 
and  put  to  death  by  Heracli'us  in  610  a.d. 

Phocion,  fo'she-on,  or  Phokion,  fo'ke-on,  [Gr. 
$w/ctwv,|  an  Athenian  statesman  and  general,  born  about 
402  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of  Plato  and  Xenocrates.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  of  Naxos,  in  376.  In  340  he  com- 
manded an  army  which  operated  with  success  against 
Philip  at  Byzantium.  He  opposed  Demosthenes  on  the 
question  of  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  was  the 
leader  of  the  conservative  or  aristocratic  party.  Accord- 
ing to  Plutarch,  he  was  elected  general  forty-five  times. 
In  his  speeches  he  was  remarkable  for  conciseness  and 
sententious  brevity.  Demosthenes  used  to  say,  when 
Phocion  arose  to  si)eak,  "  Here  comes  the  pruner  of  my 
periods."  Many  of  his  witty  sayings  are  recorded  by 
Plutarch.  He  compared  the  speeches  of  a  certain  orator 
"to  cypress-trees,  which  are  high  and  stately,  but  bear 
no  fruit."  He  opposed  the  war  against  Antipater  in 
323  B.C.  Having  been  unjustly  condemned  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  popular  party  in 

317  B.C. 

"The  influence  of  Phokion  as  a  public  adviser,"  says 
Grote,  "during  the  period  embraced  in  this  volume  down 
to  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  was  eminently  mischievous 
to  Athens, — all  the  more  mischievous,  partly  (like  that 
of  Nikias)  from  the  respectability  of  his  personal  quali- 
ties, partly  because  he  espoused  and  sanctioned  the 
most  dangerous  infirmity  of  the  Athenian  mind."  ("  His- 
tory of  Greece,"  chap.  Ixxxvii.) 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Phocion;"  Cornelius  Nhpos,  "Pho- 
cion ;"  DioDORUS  SicuLUS.  books  xvi.-xviii.  ;  Thiklwall,  "  History 
of  Greece  ;"  G.  Less,  "  Res  a  Phocione  in  Republica  .Atheniensi 
gestae,"  17S7;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Ginerale." 

Pho-9yl'i-des  [•^uKv/uihig]  of  Milefus,  a  Greek 
poet,  who  flourished  about  540  B.C.  He  wrote  didactic 
and  elegiac  poems,  of  which  small  fragments  are  extant. 

Phcebe,  fee'be,  [Gr.  ^oiG^;  Fr.  Ph6b4,  fi'bi',]  a  sur- 
name of  Artemis  or  Diana,  goddess  of  the  moon.  (See 
Diana.) 


Phcsbidas,  feb'e-das,  [Gr.  <l>(«5«laf,]  a  Spartan  gene- 
ral, who  commanded  in  the  Olynthian  war,  (382  B.C.) 
He  seized  by  treachery  the  Cadmeia  of  Thebes.  He  was 
killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Thebans  about  378  B.C. 

Phcsbus,  fee'bus,  [Gr.  •I'ottof ;  Fr.  Ph^bus,  fi'biis',] 
a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  Apollo  as  god  of  the 
sun.     (See  Apollo.) 

Phoenix,  fee'niks,  [Gr.  <l>omf ;  Fr.  Ph^nix,  fi'n^ks',] 
a  mythological  personage,  whom  tradition  represents  as 
King  of  tlie  Dolopes,  and  preceptor  of  Achilles,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  the  siege  of  Troy.  The  invention 
of  the  alphabet  was  ascribed  to  him. 

Phcsnix,  [Gr.  (toiMf,]  a  son  of  Agenor,  and  brothei 
of  Cadmus.  It  was  fabled  that  he  went  to  Africa  to 
search  for  his  sister  Europa,  and  settled  in  a  countrj 
wiiich  was  from  him  called  Phoenicia. 

Phoenix  is  also  the  name  of  a  fabulous  biid,  cele- 
brated among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Orientals.  Accord- 
ing to  one  tradition,  it  attained  the  age  of  five  hundred 
years  or  more,  and  burned  itself  on  a  funeral  pile,  from 
the  ashes  of  which  another  Phoenix  arose. 

Phokion.    See  Phocion. 

Phor'gys  or  Phor'cus,  [Gr.  4>6i>kvc  or  <i>upKoc,]  the 
old  man  of  the  sea,  in  classic  mythology,  was  said  to 
be  the  father  of  the  Gorgons,  the  Graeae,  and  the  lies- 
perides.  The  first  and  second  of  these  were  called 
Phor'cydes  or  Phor'cides,  [Gr.  4>op/c('(5£f . | 

Phor'nii-on,  [Gr.  <J>op/z/'wv,]  an  able  Athenian  general, 
who  blockaded  Potidaea  in  432  B.C.  He  gained  a  deci- 
sive victory  over  the  Peloponnesian  fleet  near  Naupactus, 
in  429.     Died  in  428  B.C. 

Phormion  ok  Ephesus,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher, 
who  is  said  to  have  excited  the  disgust  of  Hannibal  by 
discoursing  in  his  presence  for  several  hours  on  the 
military  art. 

Phoronee.     See  Phoroneus. 

Pho-ro'neus,  [Gr.  'i>opuvn<g;  Fr.  Phoroni^e,  fo'ro'- 
ni',]  a  son  of  Inachus,  and  a  Idng  of  Argolis,  was  the 
father  of  Agenor,  Pelasgus,  and  Niobe.  According  to 
tradition,  he  discovered  the  use  of  fire. 

Photius,  fo'she-us,  [Gr.  'i'uTwc,]  an  ambitious  and 
highly-gifted  Byzantine  prelate  and  writer,  was  born  of 
a  noble  family  probably  at  Constantinople.  He  was  a 
man  of  sound  judgment  and  of  profound  and  various 
erudition.  After  he  had  held  several  high  civil  offices, 
he  was  proto-secretarius  under  Michael  HI.  He  be- 
came in  857  or  85S  A.D.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
place  of  Ignatius,  who  w.as  deposed  by  Bardas.  The 
cause  of  Ignatius  was  supported  by  Pope  Nicholas,  who 
anathematized  Photius  in  862  or  863.  A  council  as- 
sembled by  Photius  excommunicated  the  pope,  and  thus 
originated  the  great  schism  between  the  Western  and 
Eastern  Churches.  In  867  the  emperor  Basil  I.  ban- 
ished Photius  and  restored  Ignatius,  whose  rights  were 
confirmed  by  an  oecumenical  council  in  869.  Photius 
gained  the  favour  of  Basil,  and  on  the  death  of  Igna- 
tius, in  877,  was  restored  to  his  see,  and  was  recognized 
by  the  pope,  John  VIII.  A  dispute  about  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Bulgaria,  however,  revived  the  schism  between 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches.  Photius  was  banished 
by  the  emperor  Leo  VI.  in  886  a.d.,  and  died  in  exile  a 
few  years  later.  He  is  treated  with  more  favour  by  Prot- 
estant writers  than  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  He  was  a 
voluminous  author.  His  most  important  w^ork,  "  Myrio- 
biblion,  seu  Bibliotheca,"  is  a  review  or  critical  analysis 
of  ancient  Greek  authors,  and  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  precious  monuments  of  ancient  literature.  He  also 
left  a  Greek  Lexicon,  which  was  published  in  1808. 

See  Klose,  "  Geschichte  und  Lehre  des  Marcelliis  und  Pliotius," 
1837;  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire:"  J.  G.  Philh-pi, 
"Commentatlo  de  Photio,"  1699;  Cn.  Faucher,  "  Hisloire  de  Pho- 
tius," 1762;  Maultkot,  "  Histoire  d^  Saint-Ignace  et  de  Photius," 
1791;    Fontani,  "De  Photio  Novae  Roma  Episcopo." 

Phraates.     See  Ausaces. 

Phra-a'tes,  King  of  Parthia,  a  son  of  Orodes,  began 
to  reign  in  37  B.C.  He  restored  to  Augustus  in  20  B.C. 
the  prisoners  and  ensigns  taken  from  Crassus  in  53  B.C. 

Phrad'iuon  [4>/)m5//wv]  of  Argos,  a  Greek  statuary, 
who  lived  about  425  B.C.  He  produced  an  Amazon  for 
the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  in  competition  with 
other  eminent  artists,  several  of  whom  were  more  suc- 
cessful than  he  in  this  trial  of  skill. 


<  as  >J;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  yi,gnUnral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


PHRANZA 


1948 


PIALI 


Phran'za  or  Phran'zes,  [Gr.  *prtvr(v  or  <fpavr^7?f,] 
the  last  IJyzantine  historian,  was  born  in  1401.  lie 
served  the  emperor  Constantine  XIII.  as  a  diplomatist 
and  soldier,  and  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 
He  wrote  a  "  Chronicon,"  or  History,  of  the  period  from 
1260  to  1477,  which  is  higlily  prized. 

Phra-or'tes,  [Gr.  ^^inunnri(i,\  King  of  Media,  reigned 
from  656  to  634  H.c.  He  conquered  Persia  and  other 
parts  of  Asia.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Nineveh, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cyaxares. 

Phreas  or  Freas,  frees,  .'  (John,)  a  learned  English- 
man, born  in  London,  studied  medicine  under  Guarini 
at  Ferrara.  He  produced  some  translations  and  poems. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1465. 

Phry-gil'lus,  a  very  ancient  and  celebrated  engraver 
of  precious  stones,  was  probably  a  native  or  citizen  of 
Syracuse. 

Phry'ne,  [<t>pw7?,]  an  Athenian  courtesan,  born  at 
Thespias,  in  Boeotia,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  n.c. 
She  was  the  model  of  the  statues  of  Venus  produced 
by  Praxiteles. 

Phryn'i-ehus,  [^pwttof)]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
was  a  disciple  of  Thespis.  He  exhibited  a  play  in  511 
B.C.,  and  made  important  improvements  in  the  drama. 
He  introduced  masks  representing  females,  but  admitted 
only  one  actor.  The  chorus  retained  the  principal  place 
in  his  dramas.  He  gained  a  prize  in  476  B.C.  for  his 
"Phoeuician  Women."     His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grica ;"  K.  O.  Muller,  "History 
of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece  ;"  J.  G.  Drovsen,  "  Phrynichos, 
iGschylos  und  die  Trilogie,"  1841. 

Phrynichus,  a  distinguished  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
.he  old  comedy,  flourished  about  430  n.c.  His  vigour 
and  elegance  are  attested  by  the  small  fragments  of  his 
works  which  are  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotlieca  Graca  ;"  Meineke,  "  Fragmenta 
Comicorum  Gncorum." 

Phrynichus,  an  Athenian  general,  had  a  high  com- 
mand in  412  B.C.  He  co-operated  with  Theramenes 
and  Antiphon  in  the  revolution  by  which  the  Four 
Hundred  came  into  ])ower,  in  411  B.C. 

Phrynichus,  a  Greek  grammarian,  (called  Arrha- 
Bius  by  Photius,)  lived  about  180  A.D.  He  wrote 
"  Eclogues  of  Attic  Names  and  Verbs,"  ("  Eclogae 
Nominum  et  Verborum  Atticorum,")  in  which  he  taught 
the  use  of  words  as  sanctioned  by  writers  of  the  pure 
Attic  diction.     This  work  has  been  printed. 

Phryn'nis  [Gr.  <I>pL'vwf]  or  Phry'nis,  an  eminent 
dithyrambic  poet,  born  at  Mitylene,  lived  about  425  B.C. 

Phtha,  fthd,  or  Ptah,  ptd,  the  great  god  of  the  people 
of  ancient  Memphis,  in  Egypt.  He  is  said  to  have  stood 
for  the  abstract  idea  of  intellectual  force.  He  is  fre- 
quently identified  with  Hephsestos,  or  Vulcan,  since  he 
was  the  artificer  of  the  gods. 

Phul  or  Pul,  King  of  Assyria,  reigned  from  759  to 
742  B.C.     Menahem,  King  of  Israel,  was  tributary  to  him. 

See  IL  Kings  xv.  iq. 

Phull,  fool,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  Baron,  born  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  the  Russian 
service,  and  was  the  author  of  several  military  works. 
Died  in  1826. 

Phy-lar'ehus,  [Gr.  'i!v>.apxoi\  Fr.  Phylarque,  fe'- 
ItRk',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Athens  or  Naucratis, 
in  Egypt,  lived  about  215  B.C.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Greece  from  272  to  220  B.C.,  of  which  only  fragments  are 
extant.  His  style  was  graphic  and  animated.  Plutarch's 
lives  of  Cleomenes  and  Agis  are  said  to  be  copied,  or 
taken  without  much  change,  from  Phylarchus. 

See  J.  F.  Thoms,  "  Dissertatio  de  Pliylarchi  Vita  et  Scriptis," 
1835;  Voss,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Phylarque.     See  Phylarchus. 

Phyl'lis,  [Gr.  <^v/l?if,]  in  classic  mythology,  a  daugh- 
ter of  Sithon,  King  of  Thrace,  was  betrothed  to  Demo- 
phoon,  a  son  of  Theseus.  The  poets  feigned  that  she 
killed  herself  because  he  failed  to  come  at  the  appointed 
time,  and  she  was  changed  into  an  almond-tree. 

Phj^-rom'a-ehua,  [<I>iip6,ua,\'of , |  an  able  Athenian 
sculptor,  lived  about  410  B.C.  He  made  the  bas-reliefs 
on  the  frieze  of  the  temple  Athena  Polias.  He  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  the  Pyromachus  mentioned  by  Plinv. 

Ph^s'ick,  (Philip  Sync,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 


of  American  surgeons,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1768. 
His  father,  Edmund  Physick,  was  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  under  the  colonial  government  of  Pennsylvania,  and, 
after  the  Revolution,  had  charge  of  the  estates  of  the 
Penn  family.  In  1785  he  took  the  degree  of  A.  B.  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Soon  after,  he  commenced 
the  study  of  medicine  under  Dr.  Adam  Kuhn.  It  is 
said  that  the  first  time  he  witnessed  the  amputation  of  a 
limb  he  fainted,  and  was  obliged  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
room  ;  but  he  afterwards  succeeded  so  completely  in 
conquering  this  weakness  of  the  nerves  as  to  equal,  if 
not  surpass,  any  other  surgeon  of  his  time  in  steadine.ss 
of  hand  and  perfect  self-possession  while  performing 
an  imjiortant  operation.  During  his  attendance  at  the 
Philadelphia  College  of  Medicine,  he  had  for  his  in- 
structors Dr.  Shippen  and  Dr.  Rush,  who,  with  Dr. 
Kuhn,  were  lecturers  in  that  institution.  Early  in  the 
year  1789  Mr.  Edmund  Physick,  accompanied  by  his 
son,  visited  London,  where  the  young  student  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  celebrated  John  Hunter,  by  whose 
recommendation  he  was  subsequently  appointed  to  the 
post  of  house-surgeon  at  Saint  George's  Hospital.  In 
one  of  Hunter's  papers  he  compliments  Dr.  Physick  on 
the  accuracy  of  some  physiological  experiments  which 
he  had  performed  while  house-surgeon  at  the  hospital ; 
and  such  were  the  esteem  and  confidence  which  the  great 
anatomist  entertained  for  him  that  he  actually  invited 
him,  we  are  told,  to  remain  in  London  and  take  a  share 
in  his  own  extensive  professional  business.  But  this 
offer  Dr.  Physick  thought  proper  to  decline.  Having 
in  I79rrcceived  his  license  from  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  in  London,  he  repaired  to  Edinburgh,  where 
he  attended  the  medical  lectures  of  the  University,  and 
in  May,  1792,  took  his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine. 
He  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  September  of  the  same 
year.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  faithful  atten- 
tion to  his  professional  duties  during  the  frightful  mor- 
tality caused  by  the  yellow  fever  in  1793.  '^^e  alarm 
was  so  great  on  that  occasion  that  not  only  nearly  all 
the  citizens,  who  had  it  in  their  power  to  go  away,  fled 
from  the  city,  but  many  of  the  physicians  left  also.  Dr. 
Physick  himself  had  an  attack  of  fever;  but  it  appears 
to  have  been  comparatively  light.  In  1798  he  received 
a  flattering  testimonial  to  his  courage  and  faithfulness 
during  the  epidemic*  of  that  and  preceding  years,  from 
the  managers  of  the  Marine  and  City  Hospitals,  ac- 
companied by  a  present  of  plate  valued  at  more  than 
a  th'iusand  dollars.  In  1800  he  commenced,  in  Phila- 
delphia, a  course  of  lectures  on  surgery,  which  were 
continued  for  several  years.  His  success  induced  the 
trustees  of  the  University  to  establish  a  professorship 
of  surgery  in  the  medical  department  of  that  institution, 
and  to  appoint  Dr.  Physick  to  the  new  chair.  In  1819 
he  was  transferred  from  the  chair  of  surgery  to  that  of 
anatomy,  made  vacant  by  the  death  of  Dr.  Dorsey.  He 
resigned  this  position  in  1831  ;  and  the  trustees  of  the 
University,  on  accepting  his  resignation,  unanimously 
elected  him  "  Emeritus  professor  of  surgery  and  anat- 
omy." In  1825  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Royal  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  was,  it  is  said,  the 
first  American  who  received  this  honour.  He  closed 
his  long  and  useful  life  on  the  15th  of  December,  1837. 
He  had  married  in  iSoo  Miss  Emlen,  of  Burlington,  by 
whom  he  had  four  children. 

See  Gross,  "Medical  Biography,"  pp.  351-459:  "Memoir  of  Dr. 
Physick,"  by  his  sor.in-law,  Dr.  Jacob  Randolph  ;  "  Necrological 
Notice  of  Dr.  Physick,"  by  Dr.  Wm.  E.  Horner;  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv. 

Pia,  pe't',  (Philippe  Nicolas,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1721.  He  introduced  reforms  in  public 
hygiene,  and  invented  methods  or  apparatus  for  restoring 
the  drowned.     Died  in  1799. 

Piacentini,  pe-i-ch§n-tee'nce,  (DioNisio  Gregorio,) 
an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Viterbo  in  1684.  He  pub- 
lished an  "Epitome  of  Greek  Palaeography,"  (1735.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Piacentino.     See  Placentinus. 

Piacenza,  Duke  of.    See  Lebrun,  (Charles  Fr.) 

Piali  Pasha,  pe-i'lee  pd'shi',  an  admiral,  born  in 
Hungary  about  1520.     He  became  capudan  pasha  in 


•  Yellow  fever. 


A,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, lojtg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fSt;  niSt;  u6t;  good;  moon; 


PIANKHI 


1949 


PICCINI 


^he  service  of  the  Sultan,  who  sent  him  in  1555  to  aid 
Francis  I.  of  France.  He  gained  in  1560  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  fleet  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  his  allies. 
In  1570  he  commanded  a  fleet  which  Selim  II.  sent 
against  Cyprus.     Died  in  1571. 

Piankhi,  a  king  of  Ethiopia,  who  conquered  Egypt  at 
the  close  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty,  after  a  bloody 
contest.     Tiiereafter  he  ruled  Egypt  with  great  clemency. 

Piarron.     See  Chamousset,  de. 

Pi'att,  (John  James,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
James's  Mills,  (now  Milton,)  Dearborn  county,  Indiana, 
March  i,  1835.  He  studied  at  Kenyon  College  and 
Capitol  University,  Ohio,  and  became  a  printer  and 
journalist.  He  was  librarian  to  the  United  States  House 
of  Representatives  from  1S70  to  1S75,  ^"<i  i"  'S82  was 
appointed  United  States  consul  at  Queenstown,  Ireland. 
He  has  published  "Poems  of  Two  Friends,"  (i860,  by 
himself  and  W.  D.  Howells,)  "  Nests  at  Washington," 
1864,  partly  by  Mrs.  Piatt,)  "  Poems  in  Sunshine  and 
Twilight,"  (1866,)  "  Western  Windows,"  (1869,)  "Poems 
of  Heart  and  Home,"  (1878,)  and  "Idyls  and  Lyrics  of 
the  Ohio  Valley,"  (1884.) 

Piatt,  (Sarah  Morgan  Bryan,)  an  American  poet, 
wife  of  John  J.  Piatt,  was  born  near  Lexington,  Ken- 
tucky, August  II,  1836,  and  graduated  at  Henry  Female 
College,  New  Castle,  Kentucky,  in  1S57.  Among  her 
works  are  "A  Woman's  Poems,"  (1871,)  "A  Voyage  to 
the  Fortunate  isles,"  (1874,)  "That  New  World,"  etc., 
(1876,)  "Poems  in  Company  with  Children,"  (1877,) 
"Dramatic  Persons  and  Moods,"  (1879,)  etc. 

Piazza,  pe-^lt'sS,  (Andrea,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Castelfranco ;  died,  at  an  advanced  age, 
in  1670. 

Piazza,  (Calisto,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
called  Calisto  da  Lodi,  was  born  at  Lodi.  He  was 
a  pupil  and  successful  imitator  of  Titian,  and  was  a 
good  colorist.  His  works  are  dated  1524-56.  He  ex- 
celled in  fresco.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  The  Mar- 
riage at  Cana,"  a  fresco  at  Milan. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "Vite  degli 
Pittori  Veneti." 

fiazza,  (Girolamo  Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  Prot- 
estant, who  taught  French  and  Italian  at  Cambridge, 
England,  and  published  "An  Account  of  the  Inqui- 
sition," (1722.)     Died  about  1745. 

Piazza,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Castel- 
franco in  1557.  He  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Ru- 
dolph II.  and  by  Pope  Paul  V.  Ilaving  become  a 
monk,  he  took  the  name  of  CosiMO.     Died  in  1621. 

Piazza,  (Vincenzo,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
born  in  the  Romagna  in  1670.  Among  his  works  is  the 
"Capture  ot  Bona,"  ("Bona  espugnata,"  1694.)  Died 
at  Parma  in  1745. 

Piazzetta,  pe-it-set't^,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  dis- 
tinguished painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1682.  He  was 
skilful  in  chiaro-oscuro.  His  master-piece  is  "The  Be- 
heading of  John  the  Baptist."  The  shades  of  his  pictures 
have  become  too  dark,  from  the  effect  of  time.  Died 
in  1754. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Piazzi,  pe-St'see,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  astronomer, 
born  at  Ponte,  in  the  Valtelline,  Switzerland,  in  July, 
1746.  He  entered  the  monastic  order  of  Theatms,  and 
studied  under  Tiraboschi  and  Lesueur.  In  1780  he 
became  professor  of  the  higher  mathematics  at  Palermo, 
where  he  founded  an  observatory.  He  visited  Paris 
and  London  in  1787  and  1788.  In  1S03  he  published  a 
"  Catalogue  of  Fixed  Stars,"  which  obtained  for  him  a 
high  reputation  as  an  accurate  observer.  He  discovered, 
on  the  1st  of  January,  iSoi,  the  first  of  the  asteroids,  or 
small  planets,  whose  orbit  is  between  the  orbits  of  Mars 
and  Jupiter.  He  gave  it  the  name  of  Ceres.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Discourse  on  Astronomy,"  (1790.)  He 
became  director  of  an  observatory  at  Naples  in  1817. 
Died  at  Naples  in  1826. 

See  ScROFANi,  "Elogio  del  Piazzi,"  1826;  Tipaldo,  "Biografia 
degli  Italian!  illustri,"  vol.  i. 

Pibrac,  de,  deh  pe'bRtk',  [Lat.  Pibra'chius,]  (Gui 
du  Faur — dii  foR,)  Seigneur,  a  French  poet,  orator, 
and  lawyer,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in   1529.     He  was 


.sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Council  of  Trent  by  Charles 
IX.  in  1562,  and  obtained  the  office  of  president  d,  mor- 
tier  in  1577.  He  wrote  a  popular  poem  called  "Fifty 
Quatrains,  containing  Useful  Precepts,"  etc.,  (1574,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1584. 

See  Paschal,"  Vidi  Fabricii  Pibrachii  Vita,"  1584;  LipiNK  db 
Grainvillh  and  L'AbbS  Sepher,  "  Meinoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Pi- 
brac," 1761  ;  Mayer,  "Discours  bistorique  et  critique  sur  Pibrac," 
1778;  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gendrale." 

Pibrachius.     See  Pibrac. 

Pic  de  la  Mirandole.     See  Pico. 

Picard,  pe'kSk',  (Ernest,)  a  French  advocate  and 
radical  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislative  body  by  the  voters  of  Paris  in  1858,  in 
1863,  and  in  1S69.  He  became  minister  of  finance  Sep- 
tember 4,  iSlyo.     Died  May  13,  1877. 

Picard,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  astronomer,  born 
at  La  Fleche,  July  21,  1620.  He  was  a  priest  and  prioi 
of  Ville,  in  Anjou,  when  he  observed  with  Gassendi 
the  solar  eclipse  of  August  25,  1645.  He  succeeded 
Gassendi  as  professor  in  the  College  de  France  in  1655. 
He  was  the  first  who  applied  the  telescope  to  the  meas- 
urement of  angles,  and  was  the  inventor  of  the  Itmettt 
d'ipreitve.  He  is  said  to  have  invented  the  transit  in- 
strument. His  most  important  work  was  the  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  of  Paris  between  Amiens 
and  Malvoisine  in  1669-70,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account, 
entitled  "La  Mesure  de  la  Terre,"  (1671.)  "When  he 
had,"  says  Delambre,  "so  good  reason  to  regard  himself 
as  the  first  astronomer  of  France,  and  even  of  Europe, 
he  used  his  influence  with  Colbert  to  attract  to  France 
Cassini,  whose  reputation  was  already  established." 
Died  in  1682. 

See  CoN'DORCET,  "  filoge  de  Picard;"  Arago,  "Notices  bio- 
graphiques,"  tome  iii.  ;  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomia 
modeme. " 

Picard,  (Louis  BenoIt,)  a  popular  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  produced  in  1792  a  comic 
opera  called  "  Visitandines,"  which  had  great  success. 
Among  his  popular  comedies,  in  verse,  are  "The  Col- 
lege Friends,"  ("  Les  Amis  de  College,"  1795,)  "  Ordi- 
nary and  Mean,"  ("Mediocre  et  Ratiipant,"  1797,)  and 
"  The  Ambitious  Husband."  He  wrote  dramas,  in  prose, 
entitled  "The  Small  Town,"  ("La  petite  Ville,"  1801,) 
and  "The  Puppets,"  ("Les  Marionnettes,"  1805.)  In 
1807  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  He 
delineates  the  manners  of  his  time  with  much  success, 
and  displays  a  rich  fund  of  witty  sallies.     Died  in  1828. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Picart,  pe'kSR',  (BenoTt,)  a  French  historical  writer 
and  monk,  born  at  Toul  in  1663.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  City  and  Diocese  of  Toul,"  (1707,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1720. 

Picart,  (Bernard,)  a  French  designer  and  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1673.  ^^^  '^'^'^  ^  talent  for  the  imi- 
tation of  various  masters,  and  obtained  a  high  reputation. 
Having  removed  to  Amsterdam  in  1710,  he  worked  for 
the  booksellers,  and  lapsed  into  a  degenerate  manner. 
He  engraved  after  his  own  designs,  and  after  Poussin, 
Le  Brun,  and  others.     Died  in  1733. 

Picart,  (Etienne,)  an  eminent  engraver,  called  Lk 
Romain,  born  in  Paris  in  1631,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  worked  some  years  at  Rome,  and  settled 
at  Amsterdam  in  17 10.  His  works,  which  consist  of 
portraits  and  history,  display  more  firmness  than  har- 
mony.    Died  at  Amsterdam  in  172 1. 

Piccart,  pik'kdRt,  (Michael,)  a  learned  German 
philologist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1574. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Altdorf,  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Political  Works  of  Aristotle,"  (1615,)  which  is  com- 
mended.    Died  in  1620. 

Picchena,  pik-ka'nS,  (Curzio,)  an  Italian  philolo- 
g'st,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1550.  He  published  a 
good  edition  of  Tacitus,  (1607.)     Died  in  1629. 

Piccini,  p^tchee'nee,  (LuiGl,)  a  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Naples  in  1766,  was  a  son  of  NiccolcS.  He 
composed  operas  which  obtained  little  success.  He  was 
chapel-master  to  the  King  of  Sweden  from  1796  to  1801. 
Died  in  1827. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as ;;  o,  H,  Yi,guttural:  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tJiis.     (jJI^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PJCCINl 


1950 


PICKENS 


Piccini,  pdt-chee'nee,  or  Piccinni,  p^t-cheen'nee, 
(N1CCOL6,)  a  popular  Italian  composer,  horn  at  Kari,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1728.  He  studied  under  Leo  and 
Durante  at  Naples.  His  serious  opera  "  Zenobia"  (1756) 
obtained  a  complete  success.  His  reputation  was  widely 
extended  by  the  comic  opera  "Good  Little  Daughter," 
("La  buona  Figliuola,"  1760,)  which  some  consider  his 
master-piece.  In  1776  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he 
produced  the  operas  of  "  Roland,"  (1778,)  "  Atys,"  etc. 
A  great  commotion  and  wordy  warfare  was  raised  by 
the  rivalry  between  Piccini  and  Gluck.  The  French 
literati  and  the  general  public  were  divided  into  two  par- 
ties, the  Piccinists  and  the  Gluckists.  Piccini  became 
singing-master  to  the  queen  Marie  Antoinette  about 
1780.  He  returned  to  Naples  in  1791.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  are  "  Olimpiade,"  and  the  French 
opera  of  "Didon,"  {1783.)  Died  at  Passy,  near  Paris, 
in  1800. 

See  GiNGUHNii,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouyrages  de  Piccinni," 
1800;  FiiTis,  "  Biographic  Universelie  des  Miisiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  G^ii^rale." 

Piccinino,  p4t-che-nee'no,  (Niccol6,)  an  able  Ital- 
ian general,  born  at  Perugia  in  1375.  He  served  some 
years  under  Braccio  da  Montone.  In  1425  he  entered 
the  service  of  F"ilippo  Maria  Visconti,  of  Milan,  to  whom 
he  remained  loyal  to  his  death.  I  le  defeated  Carmagnola 
and  the  Venetians  in  1431,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Florentines  and  Venetians  near  Imola  in  1434. 
Died  in  1444. 

See  SiSMONDl,  "  Histoire  des  R^publiques  Italiennes." 

PiccinuL    See  Piccini. 

Piccinui,  p^t-cheen'nee,  ?  (Alexandrk,)  a  French 
composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1779,  was  a  grandson  of 
Niccolo  Piccini,  noticed  above. 

Piccolomiiii.     See  Pius  II. 

Piccolomini,  pik-ko-lom'e-nee,  (Ai.essandro,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  prelate,  eminent  for  learning,  was 
born  at  Sienna  in  1508.  He  was  the  first  who  wrote  on 
philosophy  in  the  Italian  language.  In  1574  he  "'^s 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Patras.  Among  his  works  are 
a  treatise  "On  the  Sphere  of  the  World,"  (1540,)  and 
"Commentaries  on  Aristotle,"  (1575.)     Died  in  1578. 

See  Fabiani,  "Vita  di  Piccolomini,"  1749. 

Piccolomini,  (Alfonso,)  Duke  of  Monte  Marciano, 
an  Italian  condottiere,  born  about  1550.  He  was  the 
leader  of  an  army  of  brigands.  In  15S1  he  defeated 
the  army  of  the  pope.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  hung,  in  1591. 

Piccolomini,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born 
at  Sienna  in  1520,  was  a  professor  of  philosophy.  He 
wrote  "Universal  Philosophy  of  Morals,"  etc.,  ("Uni- 
versa  Philosophia  de  Moribus,"  etc.,  1583,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1604. 

Piccolomini,  (Giacomo,)  a  cardinal,  whose  proper 
name  was  Ammanati,  was  born  near  Lucca  in  1422. 
He  left  "Commentaries  and  Eisistles,"  (" Commentan'i 
et  Epistolas,"  1506.)     Died  in  1479. 

Piccolomini,  (Maria,)  an  Italian  operatic  singer, 
born  at  Sienna  about  1835.  She  performed  in  London 
about  1856,  and  in  Paris.  In  1861  she  married  and  re- 
tired from  the  stage. 

Piccolomini,  (Ottavio,)  an  Austrian  general,  of 
Italian  origin,  was  born  in  1599.  He  led  a  regiment  at 
the  battle  of  Lutzen,  in  1632,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
agents  in  the  conspiracy  which  procured  the  ruin  of 
Wallenstein.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Nord- 
lingen,  (1634,)  and  was  defeated  by  Torstensoii  in  Silesia 
in  1641  or  1642.  In  1643  he  entered  the  service  of 
Spain,  and  obtained  the  chief  command  in  Flanders. 
He  became  a  field-marshal  of  the  Austrian  army  in  1648. 
Died  in  Vienna  in  1656. 

See  Crasso,  "  Elosjii  di  Capitani  illnstri ;"  Schiller,  "  History 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,"  and  his  tragedy  of  "Wallenstein." 

Pichat,  pe'sh3',  (L60N  Laurent,)  a  French  poet, 
critic,  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1823.  He  became 
in  1854  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "  Revue  de  Paris," 
which  was  suppressed  by  government  in  1858.  Among 
his  works  are  political  verses  entitled  "Free  Words," 
("Libres  Paroles,"  1847,)  ^"d  "La  Paienne,"  a  novel, 
(i8S7-) 


Pichat,  (MiCHEi,,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at 
Vienne  in  1786.  Among  his  works  is  "Leonidas,"  a 
drama,  (1S25.)     Died  in  1828. 

Pichegru,  ptsh'gRoo  or  pfesh'gRii',  (Chari.es,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Arbois  (Jura)  in  1761.  He  en- 
tered the  army  in  1783,  and  became  a  zealous  partisan  of 
the  Revolution  in  1789.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  in  1793,  and  obtained  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine  in  October  of  that  year.  About  the  end 
of  the  same  year  he  became  general-in-chief  of  the  united 
armies  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle.  He  was  a  favotir- 
ite  of  the  Jacobins  at  this  period.  In  February,  1794, 
he  succeeded  Jourdan  as  commander  of  the  army  of 
the  North,  with  which,  by  rapid  and  skilful  movements, 
he  gained  advantages  at  Cassel,  Courtrai,  and  Menin. 
In  the  winter  of  1794-95  he  crossed  the  Waal  on  the 
ice  and  reduced  Holland  to  submission.  Having  taken 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  1795,  he  incurred 
suspicion  of  treason,  and  was  superseded  by  Moreau  in 
1796.  He  continued  to  intrigue  against  the  Directory, 
by  which  he  was  transported  to  Cayenne  in  September, 
1797  ;  but  he  escaped  from  that  place  in  1798.  He  con- 
spired with  Cadoudal  and  others  against  Bonaparte,  and 
was  arrested  by  the  police  in  Paris  in  February,  1804. 
Before  his  trial  was  finished,  he  was  found  dead  in  prison, 
in  April,  1804. 

See  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "  Histoire  du  G^ndral  Pichegru,"  1801 ; 
Faucme-Borel,  "Notices  sur  Pichegru  et  Moreau,"  1807 ;  Gas- 
sier, "Vie  du  G^n^ral  Pichegru,"  18x4;  Savary,  Dug  de  Rovigo, 
"M6iU)ires  sur  la  RIort  de  Picliegru,"  1825;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Pichler,  pTK'ler,  (Caroline,)  originally  named  Von 
Greiner,  (fon  gRi'ner,)  a  popular  German  novelist,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1769.  She  was  married  in  1796  to  Andreas 
Pichler,  and  in  1802  produced  "  Idyllen."  .She  illustrated 
the  salutary  influence  of  Christianity  in  "  Agathocles," 
a  novel,  (180S,)  which  was  much  admired.  In  1814 
she  published  "  The  Count  von  Hohenburg,"  the  first 
of  numerous  historical  novels,  the  subjects  of  which 
are  taken  from  the  national  history.  Among  her  later 
works  are  "  Pictures  of  the  Times,"  ("  Zeitbilder,"  2 
vols.,  1S40,)  and  "Memoirs  of  my  Life,"  (4  vols.,  1844.) 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1843. 

Pichler  or  Pikler,  (Johann,)  a  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1734,  and  was  probably  the  most 
skilful  engraver  of  gems  of  his  time.  He  lived  at  Rome, 
and  engraved  several  pictures  after  Raphael.  Among 
his  works  are  many  portraits  of  modern  persons,  of  which 
the  resemblance  was  the  least  merit.  He  was  also  a 
painter.     Died  at  Rome  in  1791. 

See  Jean  Gerard  dk  Rossi,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  J,  Pikler, 
Rome,  1792. 

Pichler,  (Johann  Anton,)  a  celebrated  engraver  of 
gems,  born  at  Brixen,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1697.  He  worked 
at  Naples  and  Rome.     Died  in  1779. 

Pichon,  pe'shAN',  (  Pierre  Auguste,  )  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Sorreze 
(Tarn)  in  1805.  He  received  a  first  medal  (for  history) 
in  1846. 

Pichon,  (Thomas,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Vire 
in  1700.  He  was  the  second  husband  of  Madame  Le 
Prince  de  Beaumont.  He  published  a  work  "  On  the 
Natural  and  Civil  liistorv  of  Ca]3e  lireton,"  (  1760.) 
Died  in  1781. 

Pichon,  (Thomas  Jean,)  a  French  writer  and  priest, 
born  at  Mans  in  1731  ;  died  in  1812. 

Pichot,  pe'sho',  (Am6d6e,)  a  French  litti'rateur,  born 
at  Aries  in  1796.  He  became  in  1843  chief  editor  of  the 
"Revue  Britannique."  Among  his  works  are  "Travels 
in  England,"  (1825,)  and  a  "Chronicle  of  Charles  V.," 
(1853.)     Died  at  Paris,  February  12,  1877. 

Pick'en,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  writer  of  fiction,  born 
at  Paisley  in  1788.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Domi- 
nie's Legacy."     Died  in  1833. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Pick'ens,  (Andrew,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  at  Paxton,  Peimsylvania,  in  1739.  He 
i;o-operated  with  General  Marion  in  his  partisan  warfare 
against  the  British,  and  commanded  the  militia  at  the 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fdr,  f,^ I )  fdt;  mH;  nflt;  good;  nioonj 


PICKENS 


1951 


PICTET 


battle  of  Cowpens.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1794.     Died  in  181 7. 

Pickens,  (Francis  W.,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Saint  Paul's  parish,  South  Carolina,  in 
1807.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1834  to 
1844.  He  was  appointed  in  1857  minister  to  Russia, 
and  in  December,  i860,  was  elected  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  for  two  years.     Died  January  25,  1869. 

Pick'er-ing,  (Charles,)  M.D.,  an  American  natu- 
ralist, a  grandson  of  Timothy  Pickering,  was  born  in 
Susquehanna  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1805.  Having 
travelled  in  India  and  Eastern  Africa,  he  published,  after 
his  return,  the  "  Races  of  Man  and  their  Geographical 
Distribution,"  (1848,)  and  "Geographical  Distribution 
of  Animals  and  Man,"  (1854.)     Died  in  1878. 

Pickering,  (Henry,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Newburgh,  New  York,  in  17S1  ;  died  May  S,  1838. 

Pickering,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1777,  was  a 
son  of  Timothy  Pickering.  He  was  the  founder  and 
first  president  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and 
president  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences. He  published  a  "  Greek-and-English  Lexicon," 
(1826,)  "Remarks  on  the  Indian  Languages  of  North 
America,"  (1836,)  and  -'  Vocabulary  of  Americanisms." 
Died  in  1846. 

Pickering,  (Timothy,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  17th  of  July,  1745.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1763,  studied  law,  and 
became  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas  in  1775.  In  the 
autumn  of  1776  he  joined  the  army  of  Washington  as 
colonel.  He  was  appointed  adjutant-general  in  1777, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and  Ger- 
mantown,  October,  1777.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  board  of  war  by  Congress  in  November,  1777,  and 
quartermaster-general  in  August,  17S0,  as  successor  to 
General  Greene.  He  performed  the  arduous  duties  of 
this  office  until  1785.  During  the  Revolution  he  kept 
a  journal  of  public  events.  He  was  identified  with  the 
Federal  part}',  and  was  appointed  postmaster-general 
by  Washington  in  August,  1791,  and  secretary  of  war  in 
January,  1794.  In  December,  1795,  he  became  secre- 
tary of  state.  He  was  continued  in  the  department 
of  state  by  President  Adams,  but  did  not  obtain  his 
confidence  or  approve  his  measures.  He  was  removed 
from  that  office  in  May,  1800,  and  settled  on  a  farm 
which  was  situated  near  Salem,  and  which  he  cultivated 
with  his  own  hands.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in 
1803,  and  continued  to  serve  in  the  Senate  until  1811. 
From  1814  to  181 7  he  was  a  member  of  the  national 
House  of  Representatives.  He  had  a  fair  reputation 
for  ability  and  moral  character.  He  died  at  Salem  in 
January,  1829,  leaving  several  sons. 

See  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Timothy  Picl<erinp,"  by  his  son 
OcTAVius,  2  v(j1s.,  1S67  ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin- 
guished Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Pick'ers-gill,  (Frederick  Richard,)  an  eminent 
painter  of  history,  born  in  London  in  1820.  He  gained 
a  prize  of  one  hundred  pounds  for  his  "Death  of  King 
Lear,"  (1843,)  and  a  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds  for 
his  "  Burial  of  Harold,"  (1847,)  which  was  purchased  for 
the  House  of  Lords.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade- 
mician in  1857.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  Samson 
Betrayed,"  (1850.) 

Pickersgill,  (Henry  William,)  an  English  por- 
trait-painter, born  about  1782.  He  painted  many  emi- 
nent authors,  statesmen,  etc.,  and  won  a  high  reputation. 
He  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1S25.   Died  in  1875 

Pick'ett,  (Albert  James,)  an  American  writer,  born 
in  Anson  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1810,  was  the  authoi 
of  a  "  History  of  Alabama,"  (1S51.)     Died  in  1858. 

Pickett,  (George  E.,)  a  Confederate  general,  born 
at  Richmond,  Virginia,  January  25,  1825.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  Military  Academy  in  1846,  and  served 
with  great  credit  in  the  Mexican  war.  In  1861  he  left 
the  United  States  service  and  entered  that  of  the  Con- 
federates. He  became  a  general  of  di^Msion,  and  was 
throughout  the  war  of  1861-65  distinguished  for  bravery 
and  activity.     Died  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  July  30,  1875. 


Pico  della  Mirandola,  pee'ko  del'ia  me-r.in'do-li, 
[Fr.  Vic  de  la  Mirandole,  pik  deh  It  me'rfiN'dol',] 
(Giovanni,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  philosopher,  born 
in  1463.  He  had  a  prodigious  memory  and  great  learn- 
ing, but  was  rather  superficial  as  a  thinker.  He  offered 
to  dispute  at  Rome  with  all  comers  on  a  great  number 
of  theses,  "On  all  Things  that  may  be  known,"  ("  De 
Omni  Re  Scibili,")  to  which  Voltaire  added  "and  Some 
Things  besides,"  ("  et  de  Quibusdam  aliis.")  Died  in 
1494.     He  left  several  works  on  theology,  etc. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Pico  della  Mirandola,"  by  his  nephew,  Giovanni 
Francesco  della  Mirandola;  Nic^ron,  "M^nioires;"  Gin- 
GtiENii,  "Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  "  Nouvelle  liiographie 
Gt5nerale." 

Pico  (or  Picus)  della  Mirandola,  (Giovanni  Fran- 
cesco,) Prince,  an  Italian  writer,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  about  1469.  He  wrote  several  workn 
on  theology,  and  a  "  Life  of  Savonarola,"  (1530.)     Died 

'"  '533- 

Picot,  pe'ko',  (Franqois  £douard,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  gained  a  first 
medal  in  1819.  The  palaces  of  the  Louvre  and  of  Ver- 
sailles contain  some  of  his  works.    Died  March  15,  1868. 

Picot,  pe'ko',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  in  1777. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  history  at  Geneva. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Gauls,"  (3  vols.,  1804,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Geneva,"  (3  vols.,  1811.) 

Picot,  (Michel  Joseph  Pierre,)  a  French  writer, 
born  near  Orleans  in  1770.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Memoir  contributory  to  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1806.) 
Died  in  1841.  He  wrote  many  articles  for  the  "Bio- 
graphic Universelle." 

Picot,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  writer,  and  professor  of  the- 
ology, born  at  Geneva  in  1746,  was  the  father  of  Jean, 
noticed  above.  He  published  "  On  the  Manifold  Utility 
ofMountains,"("DemultipliciMontiumUtilitate,"  1790,) 
and  Sermons,  (1823.)     Died  in  1822. 

Picou,  pi'koo',  (Henri  Pierre,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Nantes,  February  27,  1824.  He  painted  with 
much  success,  his  specialty  being  historical,  antique,  and 
mythological  pictures. 

Pictet,  p^k'ti',  (Benedict,)  an  eloquent  Swiss  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Geneva  in  1655.  He  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Geneva  in  1702,  and  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1714.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Christian  Morality,"  (8  vols.,  1695-98,)  "  Theologia 
Christiana,"  (2  vols.,  1696,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Church 
and  the  World  in  the  Eleventh  Century,"  (1712.)  Died 
at  Geneva  in  1724. 

Pictet,  (Francois  Jules,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  l)orn  at 
Geneva  about  1790.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
and  zoology  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Itinerary  to  the  Valleys  around  Mont  Blanc,"  (1818; 
3d  edition,  1840,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  PaljEontology,"  (4 
vols.,  1845.)     Died  May  15,  1872. 

Pictet,  (Jean  Louis,)  an  astronomer,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1739.  He  was  employed  by  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  Siberia, 
and  wrote  "  Observations  on  the  Transit  of  Venus  in 
1769."     Died  at  Geneva  in  1781. 

Pictet,  (Marc  Auouste,)  a  Swiss  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Geneva  in  1752,  was  a  brother  of  Charles, 
(de  Rochemont,)  noticed  below.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Saussure,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of  philosophy 
in  1786.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay 
on  Fire,  (or  Heat,")  (1791,)  and  "Travels  in  England 
and  Scotland,"  (1S03.)  He  founded  in  1796  a  periodical 
entitled  "  Bibliotheque  Britannique,"  and  changed  the 
name  in  1816  to  "  Bibliotheque  Universelle,"  which  still 
exists.  He  gave  special  attention  to  meteorology.  Died 
in  1825.  , 

See  Vauciier,  "Ndcrologie  de  M.  A.  Pictet,"  1825. 

Pictet  de  Rochemont,  p^k'ti'  deh  rosh'miN', 
(Charles,)  a  Swiss  rural  economist,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1755.  As  envoy-extraordinary,  he  attended  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  in  1814,  and  that  of  Paris  in  1815.  He  wrote 
a  "  Picture  of  the  Present  Condition  of  the  United  States 
of  America,"  (1796,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Agriculture." 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Bibliotheque  Univer- 
selle."    Died  in  1824. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,g^(ttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


PICTON 


1952 


PIER  ON 


Pic'tpn,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Pembrokeshi-e  about  1758.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  Spain,  at  Badajos,  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  Vitoria. 
Having  obtained  command  of  a  division,  he  was  killed 
at  Waterloo  in  1815. 

See  H.  B.  Robinson,  "Memoirs  of  SirThomas  Picton,"  1835. 

Pictor.     See  Fabius  Pictor. 

Picumne.     See  Picumnus. 

Pl-cum'nus  and  Pi-lum'nus,  [Fr.  Picumne,  pe'- 
kiimn',  and  PiLUMNE,  pe'liimn',]  two  Roman  or  Latin 
gods  of  matrimony,  were  regarded  as  brothers.  To  Pi- 
cumnus  was  ascribed  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  ma- 
nuring land. 

Pi'cus,  [Gr.  ITtKof,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Latiuni  and 
prophetic  divinity,  was  represented  as  a  son  of  Saturn, 
the  husband  of  Canens,  and  the  father  of  Faunus.  Ac- 
cording to  the  fable,  Circe  was  enamoured  of  him,  and 
changed  him  into  a  woodpecker  (picits)  because  her 
passion  was  not  requited. 

Picus  della  Mirandola.     See  Pico. 

Pidou  de  Saint-Olon,  pe'doo'  deh  siNt'o'l^N', 
(Francois,)  a  French  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in 
Touraine  in  1646.  He  wrote  "An  Account  of  the  Em- 
pire of  Morocco,"  (1694.)     Died  in  1720. 

Pie,  pe,  (Louis  Francois  D6s[r6  Sdouard,)  a 
French  cardinal,  born  at  Pontgouin,  September  26,  1815. 
In  1849  he  became  Bishop  of  Poitiers.  In  the  Vatican 
Council  of  1870  he  was  the  most  active  of  the  French 
infalliblists.  In  1879  he  was  made  a  cardinal-priest. 
Died  at  Angouleme,  May  17,  1880.  He  was  author  of 
various  theological  works. 

Piel,  pe'§l',  (Louis  Alexandre,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Lisieux  in  1808.  He  restored  the  church  of 
Saint-Nicolas  at  Nantes,  and  other  churches,  and  wrote 
several  professional  works.     Died  in  1841. 

Piemont,  pe'i'mAN',  (Niklaas  Opgang,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1659.  He 
worked  some  years  in  Rome.     Died  in  1709. 

Pierce,  perss  or  peerss,  (Benjamin,)  born  in  New 
Hampshire  in  1757,  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
in  1827  and  1829.  He  was  the  father  of  President 
Franklin  Pierce.     Died  in  1839. 

Pierce,  peerss,  (Edward,)  an  English  painter  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  I. 
and  Charles  II.  Died  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Pierce,  (Franklin,)  the  fourteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Hillsborough,  New  Hamp- 
shire, on  the  23d  of  November,  1S04.  He  was  a  son 
of  General  Benjamin  Pierce,  v^'ho  was  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine, 
in  1824,  studied  law  under  Levi  Woodbury,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827.  He  practised  first  at  Hills- 
borough. In  1833  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
by  the  Democrats.  Having  been  re-elected,  he  served 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  until  1837,  and  in  that 
year  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  New  Hampshire.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Concord  about  1838,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the 
Senate  in  1842,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
practice  of  law.  He  had  married  about  1834.  He 
favoured  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States, 
(1844-45,)  ^'""^^  served  in  the  Mexican  war  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general,  (1846-47.) 

At  the  National  Democratic  Convention,  June,  1852, 
the  prominent  candidates  for  the  Presidency  were  Cass, 
Buciianan,  and  Douglas.  After  thirty-five  ballots  with- 
out decisive  result,  the  name  of  General  Pierce  was  pro- 
posed, and  he  was  nominated  on  the  forty-ninth  ballot. 
His  Whig  competitor  was  General  Winfield  Scott. 
General  Pier'^e  was  elected  President,  receiving  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  electoral  votes  out  of  two  hundred 
and  ninety-six,  which  was  the  whole  number.  He  ap- 
pointed W.  L.  Marcy  secretary  of  state,  James  Guthrie 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  Jefferson  Davis  secretary  of 
war,  Robert  McClelland  secretary  of  the  interior,  J. 
Dobbin  secretary  of  the  navy,  aad  Caleb  Gushing  attor- 
ney-general. In  his  inaugural  address  he  denounced  the 
agitation  of  slavery.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
administration  were  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compro- 


mise and  the  passage  of  the  Nebraska-Kansas  bill,  which 
he  approved  and  signed  in  1854,  and  which  produced 
great  excitement  in  the  Free  States,  and  the  bombard- 
ment and  destruction  of  Greytown,  in  Central  America, 
(July,  1854,)  by  Captain  Hollins,  acting  under  the  in- 
structions of  the  United  States  Government.  In  August, 
1854,  Mr.  Pierce  directed  the  American  ambassadors,  J. 
Buchanan,  J.  Y.  Mason,  and  P.  Soule,  to  meet  in  some 
European  city  and  confer  on  tiie  best  means  of  acquiring 
Cuba.  They  met  at  Ostend  and  issued  a  document  called 
the  "Ostend  Manifesto,"  the  purport  of  which  was  that  if 
Spain  would  not  sell  Cuba  the  Americans  would  take  it  by 
force.  He  used  his  official  influence  to  promote  the  de- 
signs of  the  pro-slavery  party  in  Kansas.  In  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  of  1856,  J.  Buchanan  and  Presi- 
dent Pierce  were  the  chief  competitors.  Pierce  received 
one  hundred  and  twenty-two  votes  on  the  first  ballot,  but 
failed  to  obtain  the  nomination.  He  retired  to  private 
life  in  March,  1857.  In  a  letter  to  his  friend  Jefferson 
Davis,  dated  January  6,  i860,  he  says,  "I  have  never 
believed  that  actual  disruption  of  the  Union  can  occur 
without  blood  ;  and  if,  through  the  madness  of  Northern 
abolitionists,  that  dire  calamity  must  come,  the  fighting 
will  not  be  along  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  merely.  It 
will  be  within  our  own  borders,  in  our  own  streets, 
between  the  two  classes  of  citizens  to  whom  I  have 
referred.  Those  who  defy  law  and  scout  constitutional 
obligations  will,  if  we  ever  reach  the  arbitrament  of 
arms,  find  occupation  enough  at  home."  He  delivered 
an  oration  at  Concord  in  the  summer  of  1863,  in  which 
he  opposed  the  coercion  of  the  seceded  States,  and 
called  Vallandigham  "that  noble  martyr  of  free  speech." 
Died  in  1869. 

Pierce,  (George  Foster,)  D.D.,  an  American  Meth- 
odist divine,  born  in  Greene  county,  Georgia,  in  iSll. 
He  was  elected  ]:)resident  of  Emory  College,  Georgia,  in 
1848,  and  in  1854  was  appointed  a  bishop.  Died  Sep- 
tember 3,  1884. 

Pierce,  (Henry  Niles,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Islmd,  October  19, 
1820,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1842,  became  a 
presbyter  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1S49,  held  rector- 
ships in  Texas,  Alabama,  and  Illinois,  and  in  1870  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Arkansas.  Among  his  works  is 
"The  Agnostic,  and  other  Poems,"  (1883.) 

Pierer,  pee'rer,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1794.  His  principal 
publication  was  the  "  Encyclopaedic  Dictionary,"  ("  En- 
cyklopadischen  Worterbuch,"  26  vols.,  1824,)  begun  by 
his  father.  A  fourth  edition  appeared  in  1857-65,  in 
nineteen  vols.,  under  the  title  of  "  Universal-Lexikon." 
Died  in  1850. 

Pierer,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Altenburg  in  1767.  He  founded  the  "General 
Annals  of  Medicine."     Died  in  1832. 

Pi-er'i-des,  [Gr.  riffpIJef  ;  Fr.  Pi^rides,  pe'i'r^d',] 
a  surname  of  the  Muses,  which  they  received  because 
they  were  born  in  Pieria. 

Pierino  del  Vaga.    See  Perino. 

Piermariui,  pe-fiR-mi-ree'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  architect,  born  at  Foligno  in  1734.  He  be- 
came architect  to  the  Archduke  of  Milan  in  1769.  He 
designed  at  Milan  many  grand  public  edifices,  among 
which  are  the  magnificent  theatre  Delia  Scala,  the  Monte 
di  Pieta,  the  Porta  Orientale,  and  the  imposing  fajade 
of  the  Palazzo  Belgiojoso.     Died  in  180S. 

Pierola,  de,  di  pi-a'ro-ld,  (Nicolas,)  a  Peruvian 
soldier,  born  at  Arequipa,  January  5,  1839.  He  became 
a  lawyer  and  politician,  and  in  1869  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  finance,  but  was  impeached  for  malfeasance,  and, 
though  acquitted,  went  into  exile.  He  led  expeditions 
against  his  native  country  in  1874  and  in  1S77,  but  in  the 
latter  year  was  taken  prisoner  and  then  banished.  After 
the  downfall  of  Peru  in  the  war  with  Chili,  and  the  re- 
tirement of  President  Prado  in  1879,  Pierola  assumed 
the  presidency,  and  continued  hostilities  in  a  desultory 
way  until  1881.  In  that  year  he  abandoned  Lima,  and 
in  18S2  left  the  country. 

Pieron,  pe'i'rdN',  (Charles  Philippe  Ren6,)  a 
French  judge,  born   at  Arras   in    1793,  was   a   liberal 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fUr,  fdll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PIERPONT 


1953 


PIGEAU 


raembei  of  the  Chambei  of  Deputies  from  1834  to  1848. 
Died  August  9,  1857. 

Pierpont,  peer'pflnt,  (John,)  an  American  poet  and 
Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in 
April,  1785,  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1804, 
and  afterwards  studied  law,  which,  however,  he  soon 
abandoned.  He  published  in  i8i6  his  "Airs  of  Pales- 
tine," which  immediately  established  his  reputation.  In 
the  same  year  he  studied  theology  at  Harvard,  and  in 
1819  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  HoUis  Street  Church, 
Boston.  In  1835  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  also 
visiting  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Mr.  Pierpont  was 
a  prominent  advocate  of  temperance,  anti-slavery,  and 
other  reforms.  In  1845  he  became  minister  of  the 
Unitarian  church  of  Medford.  "  Many  of  his  hymns, 
odes,  and  other  brief  poems,"  says  Griswold,  "  are 
remarkably  spirited  and  melodious."     Died  in  1866. 

See  R.  W.  Gkiswoi.d,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1840;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for 
December,  1866. 

Pierquin,  pe-aiR'kiN',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Charleville  in  1672  ;  died  in  1742. 

Pierquin  de  Gembloux,  pe-aik'kiN'  deh  zh6N'- 
bloo',  (Claude  Charles,)  a  French  antiquary  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1798.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  French  antiquities,  medicine,  philology, 
and  other  subjects.     Died  in  1863. 

Pierre,  pe-aiR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie,)  a  French 
painter,  who  was  born  in  Paris  in   1713.     He  became 
first  painter  to  the  king  in  1770.     He  was  remarkable 
for  facility.     Died  in  1789. 
Pierre,  the  French  for  Peter,  which  see. 
Pierre,  Saint.     See  Saint-Pierre. 
Pi/erre  d'Auvergne,     See  Auvergne,  d'. 
Pierre  de  Montereau,  pe-aiR  deh  niANt'ro',  a  French 
architect,   was   patronized   by   Louis   IX.,  for  whom   he 
built  La  Sainte-Chapelle,  (124S.)     His  works  are  mostly 
in  the  flamboyant  ogival  style.     Died  in  1266. 
Pierre  des  Vignes.     See  Pietro  delle  Vigne. 
Pierrepont,  peer'pont,  (Ldwards,)  LL.D.,  an  Atner- 
ican  lawyer,  born  at  North    Haven,  Connecticut,  March 
4,  1817.      He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1S37,  and  at 
the  New  Haven   Law  School   in  1840.      He  was  a  judge 
in  New  York  city,   1S57-60,   United  States  minister  to 
Russia,  1873-75,  attorney-general  of  the  United  States, 
1875-76,  minister  to  Great  Britain,  1876-77,  and  for  a 
time  acted  as  British  consul-general  at  New  York. 

Pierron,  pe-i'r(!)N',(EuGfeNE  Athanase,)  a  French 
actor  and  dramatist,  born  near  Meulan  in  1819  ;  died  1S65. 
Pierron,  (Pierre  Alexis,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born 
in  Haute-Saone  in  1814.  He  produced  a  version  of 
/Eschylus,  (1841,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  Academy, 
and  of  Plutarch's  "  Lives,"  (1843.)     Died  in  1878. 

Pierrot,  pe-i'ro',  (Jules  Amable,)  a  French  classi- 
cal scholar,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  published 
a  "Course  of  French  Eloquence,"  (2  vols.,  1822.)  Died 
in  1845. 

Pierson,  peer'son,  (Abraham,)  an  American  divine, 
and  first  president  of  Yale  College,  born  about  1648. 
He  preached  at  Killingworth  and  Saybrook.  Died  in 
1707. 

Pierson,  peeR'son,  (Christoph,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1631.  He  settled  at  Gouda  in 
1679.  His  design  and  colour  are  commended.  He 
painted  history,  still  life,  dead  game,  etc.  with  success. 
Died  in  1714. 

Pierson,  peer'spn,  (Henry  Hugo,)  an  English  musical 
composer,  born  at  Oxford  in  1815.  His  real  name  was 
Pearson,  but  he  changed  it  in  1845,  when  lit-  went  to 
Germany,  which  he  virtually  adopted  as  his  residence. 
His  Ijest  works  are  "Jerusalem,"  an  oratorio,  (1852,) 
and  tlie  music  for  the  second  part  of  "Faust,"  (1S54.) 
Died  at  Leipsic,  January  28,  1873. 

Pierson,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  in  Friesland 
in  1631.  He  proj^osed  corrections  of  the  texts  of  Greek 
and  I.atin  authors  in  "  Verisimilium  Libri  duo,"  (1752.) 
Died  in  1759. 
Pieters,  (Bonaventure.)  See  Peters. 
Pieters,  pee'ters,  or  Peters,  pa'ters,  (Geraard,)  an 
able  Dutch  painter,  horn  at  Anisteniam  about  1580.   He 


worked  at  Rome,  and  returned  to  his  native  city.     Ht 
painted  portraits,  conversation-pieces,  and  interiors. 

Pieters,  pee'ters,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1648.  He  removed  to  England,  and  was 
employed  by  Kneller  to  paint  draperies  and  accessories 
of  portraits.  It  is  said  that  he  counterfeited  some  works 
of  Rubens  with  skill. 

Pietri,  pe-a'tRee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  about  1665,  worked  in  Rome,  where  he 
died  in  1716. 

Pietro  da  Cortona.     See  Cortona. 

Pietro  della  Francesca.     See  Francesca. 

Pietro  delle  Vigne,  pe-a'tRo  del'lk  vin'yJi,  |Lat. 
Pe'trus  de  Vin'eis  ;  Fr.  Pierre  des  Vignes,  pe-ain' 
di  v6n,]  a  distinguished  Italian  minister  of  state,  was 
chancellor  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  Died  in  1249. 
His  "Letters,"  printed  in  1566,  have  some  historical 
value. 

Pietro,  di,  de  p^-a'tro,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Rome,  January  10,  1S06,  was  created  one  of  the 
cardinal-bishops  in  1856,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Ostia  and  of  Velletri,  becoming  ^x^T^V/i?  dean  of  the  Sacred 
College,  and  camerlengo  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church, 
or  head  of  the  apostolic  chamber.  He  was  also  prefect 
of  the  congregation  of  ceremonies.  Died  at  Rome,  March 
7,  1884. 

Pieyre,  pe-aiu',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1752.  He  composed  the 
"School  for  Fathers,"  ("  ficole  des  Peres,")  a  comedy, 
(1782.)  He  was  preceptor  of  the  Due  de  Chartres, 
(Louis  Philippe.)     Died  in  1830. 

Pigafetta,  pe-g5-fet'ta,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  voy 
ager  and  geographer,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1492.  He 
sailed  as  a  volunteer  with  the  expedition  of  Magellan, 
who  departed  from  Seville  in  August,  1519.  He  wit- 
nessed the  affray  in  which  Magellan  lost  his  life,  and 
wrote  a  daily  journal  of  this  voyage.  In  company  with 
Cano,  he  returned  to  Spain  in  1522,  having  performed  the 
first  voyage  around  the  world.  A  complete  copy  of  his 
narrative,  "  First  Voyage  around  the  World,"  ("  Primo 
Viaggio  intorno  al  Globo,")  was  found  by  Amoretti  at 
Milan,  and  was  published  in  1800.  An  abridgment,  in 
French,  had  been  published  in  the  sixteenth  centin-y. 

Pigafetta,  (FiLiPPO,)an  Italian  traveller  and  military 
engineer,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1533.  He  was  sent  by 
Sixtus  V.  to  Persia  to  negotiate  an  alliance  against  the 
Turks.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  History  and  Use 
of  the  Compass,"  (1586,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1603. 

Pigalle,  pe'gSK,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1714,  was  a  ])upil  of  J.  B, 
Lemoyne.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  to 
Paris  produced  a  statue  of  Mercury,  which  opened  to 
him  the  doors  of  the  Academy  in  1744.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  Louis  XV.,  and  received  the  title  of  sculptor 
to  the  king.  His  master-piece  is  a  monumental  group 
in  honour  of  Marshal  Saxe  at  Strasbourg.  He  imitated 
nature  with  fidelity,  or,  as  some  say,  with  servility,  and 
had  the  sentiment  of  the  true  rather  than  of  the  beautiful. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  P.Takb^.,  "La  Vie  et  les  CEiivres  dej.  B.  Pigalle;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Gtinerale." 

Piganiol  de  la  Force,  pe'gS'ne-ol'  deh  It  foRss, 
(Jean  Aimar,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Auvergne 
in  1673.  He  published  a  "  Historical  and  Geographical 
Description  of  France,"  (5  vols.,  17 15,)  which  was  the 
best  work  on  that  subject,  and  other  works.     Died  in 

1753- 

Pigault-Lebrun,  pe'g5'leh-bRuN',  originally  Pigault 
de  L'^pinoy,  (deh  li'pe'nwi',)  (Charles  Antoine 
Guillaume,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born  at  Calais 
in  1753.  He  wrote  many  successful  novels,  among  which 
is  "The  Child  of  the  Carnival,"  ("  L'Enfant  du  Carna- 
val,"  1792.)  He  held  an  office  in  the  Custom- House, 
Paris,  from  1806  to  1824.  Parisot  calls  him  "the  most 
famous  romancer  of  the  imperial  epoch."  His  works 
display  much  fertility,  of  imagination  and  an  abundant 
stock  of  gaiety.     Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Pigeau,   pe'zho',  (  Eustache   Nicolas,  )   a   French 


c  as  k:  9as  j; 


;  hard:  g  as/.-  o,  h,  K.,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 

123 


PIGHIUS 


1954 


PILL  ON 


jurist,  born  near  Senlis  in  1750.  He  published  "  Intro- 
duction \  la  Procedure  civile,"  (1784;  5th  edition,  1833,) 
which  is  regarded  as  a  classic  work.     Died  in  1818. 

Pighius,  pee'ge-Cis,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch  Catholic  theo- 
logian, born  at  Kempen  about  1490,  was  the  author  of 
several  controversial  works  against  the  Protestants.  He 
also  wrote  on  mathematics.     Died  in  1542. 

See  Baylk,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NiciiiiON, 
"  M^moires." 

Pighius,  (Stephanus  Vinand,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Kempen  in  1520,  was  a  nephew 
of  Albert.  He  was  librarian  to  Cardinal  Granvelle.  He 
published  a  work  of  great  research,  entitled  "  Roman 
Annals,"  ("Annales  Komanorum,"  1599-1615,)  in  3 
vols.,  only  one  of  which  was  published  during  his 
lifetime.     Died  in  1604. 

Pigna,  pin'yi,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1530.  He  wrote  "The 
Prince,"  ("II  Principe,"  1560,)  to  refute  the  famous 
work  of  Machiavel,  a  "  History  of  the  Princes  of  Este," 
(1570,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1575. 

Pignatelli.    See  Innocent  XII. 

Pignone,  p^H-y6'ni,  (Simone,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  about  1614.  He  was  a  good  colorist.  Among 
his  works  is  a  picture  of  "  Saint  Louis  of  France." 
Died  in  1698. 

Pignoria,  pfen-yo're-i,(LORENZO,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  priest,  born  at  Padua  in  1 571.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Egyptian  Characters,"  ( " Characteres 
/Egyptii,"  1608,)  and  "The  Origin  of  Padua,"  (1655.) 
Died  in  163 1. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires." 

Pignotti,  p^n-yot'tee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
poet,  and  physician,  born  at  Figlini,  in  Tuscany,  in  1739. 
He  became  in  1774  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
Pisa,  where  he  remained  many  years.  He  wrote  Fables 
in  verse,  (1779,)  which  were  received  with  much  favour. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  Tuscany,  with  Essays 
on  Sciences,  Letters,  and  Arts,"  (9  vols.,  1813,)  which 
has  some  merit.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pisa  in  1809.     Died  in  1812. 

See  Aldobrando  Paolini,  "  Elogiostorico-filosoficodi  Pignotti," 
1817  ;  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  deg)i  Italian!  illustri." 

Pigoreau,  pe'go'ro',  (Alexandre  Nicolas,)  born  in 
Paris  in  1765,  published  a  "Dictionnaire  des  Roman- 
ciers,"  or  a  biographical  and  bibliographical  dictionary  of 
romance-writers  of  all  ages  and  countries.    Died  in  185 1. 

Pig'ott,  (Sir  Arthur,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1750.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1805.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Edmund  Burke.     Died  in  1819. 

Pigray,  pe'gRi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  surgeon,  who 
received  the  title  of  first  surgeon  to  Henry  IV.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  professional  works.  Died  in 
1613 

Piia  de,  deh  pe'iss',  (Antoine  Pierre  Augustin,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  song-writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1755.  He  wrote  some  popular  vaudevilles,  etc.  Died 
in  1832. 

Pike,  (Albert,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist, 
born  at  Boston  in  1809.  At  an  early  age  he  removed  to 
the  Southwest,  and  in  1834  became  editor  of  the  "Ar- 
kansas Advocate"  at  Little  Rock,  Arkansas.  He  pub- 
lished "  Prose  Sketches  and  Poems,"  "  Hymns  to  the 
Gods,"  etc.  He  commanded  a  body  of  Indians  fighting 
against  the  Union  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  after 
the  civil  war  was  editor  of  the  "Memphis  Appeal." 
Died  April  2,  1891. 

Pike,  (Zebulon  Montgomery,)  an  American  officer 
and  traveller,  born  in  New  Jersey  in  1779.  He  set  out 
in  1805  to  explore  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
subsequently  visited  the  interior  of  Louisiana.  He  rose 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  war  of  181 2,  and 
was  killed  during  the  attack  upon  York,  (now  Toronto,) 
in  1813. 

See  Henry  Whiting,  "  Life  of  Zebulon  M.  Pike,"  in  Sparks's 
"  American  Biography,"  vol.  v.,  second  series. 

Pikler.    See  Pichler. 

Pilate,  (L60NCE.)     See  Leo  Pilatus. 

Pi'late,  (Pontius,  pon'she-us,)  I  Lat.  Pon'tius  Ph.a'- 
TUS ;  Fr.  Ponce  Pilate,  p6Nsspe'lat',  a  Roman  governor 
of  Tudea,  before  whom  Christ  was  arraigned  by  the  Jews, 


and  who,  against  his  own  convictions,  consented  to  their 
iniquitous  design.  (See  Matthew  xxvii.,  Mark  xv.,  Luke 
xxiii.,  John  xviii.  and  xix.)  According  to  Eusebius  and 
others,  Pilate  was  banished,  and  killed  himself,  about 
38  A.D. 

Pilati,  pe-l^'tee,  (Carlo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  pub- 
licist, born  at  Tassulo,  near  Trent,  in  1733.  He  wrot« 
several  treatises  on  natural  and  civil  law,  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  German  Empire  and  Italy  from  the  Time  of 
Carolingi  to  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (2  vols.,  1769-72.) 
Died  in  1802. 

Piiatre  de  Rozder,  pe'litR'  deh  ro'ze-i',  (Jean 
FRANgois,)  a  French  aeronaut,  born  at  Metz  in  1756. 
He  ascended  in  a  balloon  filled  with  heated  air  in  No- 
vember, 1783,  and  attempted  to  cross  the  Channel  in  a 
balloon  of  hydrogen  gas  surmounting  a  cylinder  filled 
with  heated  air.  This  apparatus  fell  to  the  ground  near 
Boulogne,  and  Pilatre  and  his  companion  were  killed,  in 
June,  1785. 

See  TouRNON  de  la  Chapelle,  "Vie  et  Mdmoires  de  Pilatre 
de  Rozier,"  1786. 

Pilatus.     See  Pilate,  (Pontius.) 

Piles,  de,  deh  p61,  (Roger,)  a  French  painter,  diplo- 
matist, and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Clameci  (Nievre)  ii 
1635.  He  went  with  Amelotde  la  Houssaye  to  Venice, 
as  secretary  of  legation,  in  1682,  and  was  sent  to  the 
Hague  by  Louvois  about  1692,  to  negotiate  in  secret 
while  he  seemed  to  be  employed  in  painting.  He  wrote 
"The  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  (1699,)  and  several  treat- 
ises on  painting,  which  display  good  taste.  He  painted 
good  portraits  of  Boileau  and  Madame  Dacier.  Died 
in  1709. 

Pilk'ing-ton,  (James,)  born  in  Lancashire,  England, 
in  1520,  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in  1561,  and  pub- 
lished commentaries  on  Scripture.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  promoter  of  the  study  of  the  Greek  language.    Died 

in  1575- 

Pilkington,  (Letitia  van  Lew'in,)  an  authoress, 
born  in  Dublin  in  17 12,  was  the  wife  of  the  Rev.  Mat- 
thew Pilkington,  noticed  below.  She  wrote  poetry,  and 
"  Memoirs  of  her  own  Life,"  (1749.)     Died  in  1750. 

Pilkington,  (Mary,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Cambridge  in  1766;  died  about  1840. 

Pilkington,  (Matthew,)  an  English  biblical  scholar, 
was  prebendary  of  Lichfield.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Rational  Concordance ;  or,  An  Index 
to  the  Bible,"  (1749.)     Died  in  1765. 

Pil'lans,  (James,)  a  British  scholar,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1777.  He  became  professor  of  humanity  irj 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1820,  and  filled  that 
chair  about  forty-three  years.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Lectures  on  the  Proper  Objects  and 
Methods  of  Education,"  (1S36,)  and  "  Rationale  of  Dis- 
cipline," (1852.)     Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1864. 

Pille,  pfel,  (Louis  Antoine,)  Comte,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Soissons  in  1749;  died  in  1828. 

Pillement,  pe'ye-mSw',  (Jean,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1728;  died  in  1808.  His  son 
Victor,  born  at  Vienna  in  1767,  was  a  skilful  engraver 
and  etcher.     Died  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Pillet,  pe'yi',  (Claude  Marie,)  a  learned  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Chambery  in  1771.  He  wrote  articles 
for  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  and  acted  as  chief 
editor  of  that  work  from  the  sixth  to  the  forty-fourth 
volume  inclusive.  He  devoted  fourteen  years  to  this 
task.     Died  in  1826. 

Pillet,  (Fabien,)  a  French  littdratettr,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1772.  He  wrote  dramatical  critiques  for  the  "  Journal 
de  Paris"  for  many  years,  articles  for  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1855. 

Pilliard,  pe'ye-Sk',  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Vienne  about  1815.  He  has  worked  in  Rome  for 
many  years. 

Pillon,  pe'yiN',  (Anne  Adrien  Firmin,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  wrote  comedies  and 
poems.     Died  in  1844. 

His  son,  Alexandre  Jean  Baptiste,  was  born  at 
Amiens  in  1792.  He  became  librarian  of  the  Louvre 
in  1858.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Greek-and-French 
Dictionary,"  (1837,)  and  "Greek  Synonyms,"  (1847,) 
which  obtained  the  Volney  prize.    Died  March  25,  1875. 


a.  e,  1,  o,  0,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y, sAort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon: 


PILLOW 


1955 


PINDAR 


Pil'16-w,  (Gideon  Johnson,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Williamson  county,  Tennessee,  in  1806.  As  brit;- 
adier-general,  he  fought  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1847,)  and  was  promoted  to  be  a  major-general. 
He  was  second  in  command  at  Fort  Donelson  when  it 
was  taken  by  General  Grant,  in  February,  1862.  Died 
in  1878. 

Pilon,  pil'lon,  ?  (Frederick,)  a  mediocre  dramatist, 
born  in  Cork,  Ireland,  about  1750;   died  in  1788. 

Pilon,  pe'16N',  (Germain,)  an. excellent  French  sculp- 
tor, born  about  1515,  was  patronized  by  Henry  H.  and 
Catherine  de  Medicis.  Plis  master-piece  is  a  marble 
group  (now  in  the  museum  of  the  Louvre)  of  three  Graces 
clothed,  and  supporting  on  their  heads  a  gilded  bronze 
urn,  which  contained  the  heart  of  Henry  H.  He  excelled 
in  the  execution  of  drapery.     Died  about  1590. 

Pilot,  pe'lo',  (Jean  Joseph  ANTOiNE,)a  French  anti- 
quary, born  in  Piedmont  in  1806. 

Piloty,  von,  fon  pee'lo-tee,  (Karl  Theodor,)  a  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Munich,  October  i,  1S26.  His 
father,  Ferdinand  Piloty,  was  an  eminent  designer.  His 
first  painting,  "  The  Weeping  Mother  and  the  Nurse," 
attracted  great  attention.  In  1S58  he  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor in  the  Munich  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  He 
soon  acquired  a  world-wide  fame  as  an  instructor,  and  in 
1874  he  succeeded  Kaulbach  as  president  of  the  Academy. 
His  most  noted  pictures  are  historical.     Died  in  1886. 

Pilpay,  piKpi  or  piKp^'e,  Pilpai,  or  Bidpai,  bid'pl,  a 
famous  Oriental  fabulist,  of  whom  little  is  known.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  Brahman  gymnosophist,  and  to 
have  lived  several  centuries  before  our  era.  Bidpai's 
fables,  originally  written  in  Sanscrit,  were  translated 
into  Arabic  and  afterwards  into  almost  every  other  lan- 
guage. The  Sanscrit  collection  entitled  "  Hitopadesa" 
{i.e.  "  Friendly  Counsel")  was  translated  into  English  by 
Wilkins,  (1787.)  Several  European  fabulists,  including 
La  Fontaine,  have  drawn  largely  from  the  fables  of  Pilpay. 

Pils,  p^l,  (Adrien  Auguste  Isidore,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1813.  lie  gained  the 
grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1838.  Among  his  works  is  "  The 
Battle  of  Alma."     Died  September  2,  1875. 

Pilumnus.     See  Picumnus. 

Pirn,  (Bedford  Clapperton  Trevelyan,)  an  English 
author,  born  at  Bideford,  January  12,  1826.  He  entered 
the  navy,  and  served  with  distinction  till  1870.  In  1873 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  was  in  Parliament, 
1874-80.  He  published  "  The  Gate  of  the  Pacific," 
(1863,)  regarding  the  Nicaraguan  railways,  in  which  he 
was  much  interested,  "  Dottings  on  the  Roadside  in 
Panama,  Nicaragua,  and  Mosquito,"  (1869,)  partly  pre- 
pared by  Berthold  Seemann,  "  The  War  Chronicle," 
(1873,)  etc.     Died  in  18S6. 

Pimentel,  pe-m§n-t61',  (Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  geog- 
rapher, born  in  Lisbon  in  1650.  He  wrote  on  geography 
and  navigation.     Died  in  17 19. 

Pin,  piN,  (Elzi^ar,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Apt  (Vau- 
cluse)  in  1813.    He  published  a  volume  of  jv^ems  in  1839. 

Pina,  de,  di  pee'ni,  (Ruy,)  an  eminent  Portuguese 
historian,  who  held  the  office  of  historiographer  in  the 
reigns  of  Emmanuel  and  John  HI.  He  wrote  "Chroni- 
cles of  the  Reigns  of  Six  Kings,  from  Sancho  I.  to  Al- 
fonzo  IV.,  inclusive,"  which  were  published  after  his 
death.     Died  about  1520. 

Pinaeus.     See  Pineau,  (S^verin.) 

Pinaigrier,  pe'ni'gRe^',  (Robert,)  a  French  painter 
on  glass,  was  born  in  Touraine  about  1490.  He  worked 
in  several  churches  of  Paris.     Died  about  1550. 

Pinas,  pee'nis,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes 
and  history,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1596.  He  painted 
landscapes  and  figures  with  equal  success.  His  colouring 
is  remarkably  vigorous.  Among  his  works  is  "Joseph 
Sold  by  his  Brethren."  Died  about  1660.  His  brother 
James,  or  Jacob,  was  a  skilful  painter.     Died  in  1659. 

Pinciano,  p^n-the-S'no,  (Alonzo  Lopez,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  who  lived  about  1480-1 530,  was  physician  to  Charles 
V.  He  wrote  "  El  Pelayo,"  an  epic  poem,  and  "  Ancient 
Poetical  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  antigua  poetica.") 

Pinck'ney,  (Charles,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1758.  His  father  was 
a  first-cousin  of  Charles  C.  Pinckney.     The  subject  of 


this  article  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  1787. 
He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1789  to  1792, 
and  again  from  1796  to  1798.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature 
of  South  Carolina.  He  acted  with  the  Republican  party, 
and  was  an  eloquent  speaker.  He  was  minister  to  Spain 
from  1802  to  1805.     Died  in  1824. 

Pinckney,  (Charles  Cotesworth,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1746,  was  a  son  of  Chief  Justice  Pinckney.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford,  England,  and  studied  law.  He 
served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Washington  at  the  battles  of 
Brandy  wine  and  Germantown,  September-October,  1777, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  October,  1779,  he 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Savannah.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Charleston  in  May,  1780,  and  detained  until 
the  end  of  the  war.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Conven- 
tion which  formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
(1787,)  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  same  in  the  Con- 
vention of  South  Carolina,  and  became  a  leader  of  the 
Federal  party.  General  Washington  offered  him  a  place 
in  his  cabinet,  in  1795,  as  secretary  of  war,  and  afterwards 
as  secretary  of  state,  both  of  which  positions  he  declined. 
He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1796,  but  the 
French  Directory  refused  to  receive  him,  and  ordered 
him  to  leave  the  country  in  February,  1797.  He  after- 
wards returned  to  Paris  with  John  Marshall  and  E. 
Gerry,  who  had  been  appointed  his  colleagues  in  an 
embassy.  He  was  apjiointed  a  major-general  about  1798. 
At  the  presidential  election  of  1800,  General  Pinckney 
and  John  Adams  were  the  Federal  candidates  ;  but  the 
Republicans  were  victorious.  He  died  at  Charleston 
in  1825. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans, 
vol.  iv. 

Pinckney,  (Henry  Laurens,)  son  of  Charles  Pinck 
ney,  born  at  Charleston  in  1794,  distinguished  himsell 
as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  He  became  in  1819  editor 
of  the  "  Charleston  Mercury,"  an  organ  of  the  "  State 
rights"  party.  He  published  the  "  Life  and  Services  of 
Andrew  Jackson,"  and  several  political  works.  Died 
in  February,  1863. 

Pinckney,  (Thomas,)  an  American  officer  and  states- 
man, brother  of  Charles  Cotesworth,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1 750.  As  aide  of 
Genera!  Lincoln,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  assault 
on  Savannah,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Camden, 
August,  17S0.  He  became  Governor  of  South  Carolina 
in  1787,  and  was  appointed  by  Washington  minister  to 
London  in  1792.  Having  been  afterwards  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Spain,  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ildefonso, 
and  returned  in  1796.     Died  in  1828. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Pingon,  p3.n's6n',  (Pierre,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Montauban  in  1802.  He  published  a  "Manual 
of  Universal  Bibliography,"  (1857.)     Died  in  1873. 

Pin'dar,  [Gr.  n/vcSafJof ;  Lat.  Pin'darus  ;  Fr.  Pin- 
dare,  pdN'dSK';  Ger.  Pindar,  pin'ddr,  and  PiNDAROS, 
pin'di-ros  ;  It.  Pindaro,  pin'da-ro,]  the  greatest  lyric 
poet  of  Greece,  was  born  near  Thebes  about  520  B.C. 
He  was  a  son  of  Daiphantus,  or,  according  to  some 
writers,  of  Pagondas.  It  is  stated  that  he  studied  poetry 
and  music  at  Athens  under  Lasus,  and  that  he  was  a 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Corinna,  who  advised  him  to 
choose  themes  for  his  muse  from  mythology.  He  after- 
wards composed  an  ode  in  which  all  the  mythical  legends 
of  Thebes  were  inwoven,  and  showed  it  to  Corinna,  who 
reminded  him  that  he  "  ought  to  sow  with  the  hand,  and 
not  with  the  whole  sack."  He  became  a  professional 
composer  of  choral  odes,  and  was  employed  by  various 
states  and  princes  of  Greece  to  write  odes  for  special 
occasions.  Among  his  patrons  were  Hiero  of  Syracuse, 
Theron  of  Agrigentum,  and  Alexander  of  Macedon. 
About  473  B.C.  he  visited  the  court  of  Hiero,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  His  rival  Simonides  was  at  Syra- 
cuse at  the  same  time.  Pindar  was  a  favourite  of  the 
Athenians,  whose  city  he  praised  in  an  ode,  and  who 
presented  to  him  ten  thousand  drachniEE.  He  appears  to 
have  taken  no  jjart  in  the   Persian  war  and  other  great 


€  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trLled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2]:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


PINDAR 


1956 


PINKERTON 


events  of  his  time.  The  only  poems  of  Pindar  which 
have  come  down  to  us  entiie  are  the  "Epinicia,"  or 
triumphal  odes  composed  in  honour  of  victors  at  the 
public  games.  Fragments  of  his  dithyrambs,  paeans, 
encomia,  and  dirges  are  extant.  Horace  attributes  to 
Pindar  unrivalled  skill  in  several  forms  of  verse.  The 
best  translations  of  Pindar  into  English  verse  are  those 
of  H.  F.  Gary  and  Abraham  Moore.  Pindar  excelled  in 
energy,  picturesque  effect,  and  sublimity.  He  had  a  son 
Daiphantus,  and  two  daughters.  His  death  is  variously 
dated  at  439  or  442  B.C. 

See  J.  G.  Schneider,  "  Versuch  iiber  Pindar's  Leben,"  1774  ; 
MoMMSEN,  "  Pindaros,  zur  Gescliichle  des  Dicliters,"  etc.,  1845; 
ViLLEMAiN, "  Essai  sur  leG^nie  de  PIndare,"  1S57  ;  K.  O.  Muli.er, 
"History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  W.  Camenz, 
"  Pindan  Ingenium,"  1804;  Clausen,  "Pindaros  der  Lyriker," 
1834;  BipPARD,  "Pindar's  Leben,"  1848;  "  Nouvelle  Biographve 
Gdn^rale." 

Pindar,  (Peter.)     See  Wolcott,  (John.) 

Pindare.     See  Pindar. 

Pindaro.     See  Pindar. 

Pindarus  or  Pindaros.     See  Pindar. 

Pindemonte,  pfen-di-mon'ti,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
dramatist,  born  at  Verona  in  1751,  produced  severaJ 
tragedies.     Died  in  i8i3. 

Pindemonte,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  poet  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Verona  in  November,  1753,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  entered  the  order  of  Malta 
in  his  youth,  but  resigned  his  membership  about  the  age 
of  thirty.  He  described  the  delights  of  the  country  in 
poems  entitled  "  Rural  Poems,"  ("  Poesie  campestri," 
1785,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  exhibited 
a  contemplative  and  ingenious  philosophy  in  his  "Rural 
Prose,"  ("Prose  campestri,"  1795.)  About  1805  he 
published  a  voluiue  of  Horatian  satires,  entitled  "  Ser- 
moni."  His  translation  of  the  "  Odyssey,"  in  blank 
verse,  (1809-22,)  is  commended.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Foscolo  and  Monti.  Among  his  works  is  "Eulogies 
of  Literary  Men,"  ("  Elogj  di  Letterati,"  2  vols.,  1826,) 
which  contains  biographies  of  Italian  authors.  Died  at 
Verona  in  182S. 

See  Mario  Pieri,  "  Intomo  alia  Vita  ed  agli  Scritti  di  Pinde- 
monte," in  his  "  Elogj  di  Letterati,"  1826;  B.  Montanari,  "Delia 
Vita  e  delle  Opere  d'Ippolito  Pindemonte,"  1834;  Del  Bene, 
"  Elogio  d'l.  Pindemonte,"  1829;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1825. 

Pindemonte,  (Marco  Antonio,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1694,  was  grandfather  of  the 
preceding.     Died  in  1744. 

Pine,  (John,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born  in  1690. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Horace,  illustrated,  (1737.) 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Destruction  of  the  Invincible 
Armada."     Died  in  1756. 

Pine,  (Robert  Edge,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  London  about  1742,  and  was  a  painter  of  history 
and  portraits.  A  picture  of  "  Canute  on  the  Sea-Shore'" 
is  one  of  his  best  works.     Died  at  Philadelphia  in  1790. 

Pin,eau,  pe'no',  [Lat.  PiNi«'us,J  (S^verin,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Chartres.  He  wrote  some  works  on 
anatomy,  which  had  a  high  reputation.     Died  in  1619. 

Pineau,  du,  dii  pe'no',  [Lat.  Pinel'lus,)  (Gabriel,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  in  1573.  He  was  noted 
for  integrity,  and  was  called  "  the  Cato  of  Anjou."  Died 
in  1644. 

Pineda,  de,  di  pe-na'D^,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Seville  in  1557,  was  a  monk  or  Jesuit.  He 
was  a  counsellor  to  the  court  of  the  Inquisition,  and  was 
charged  to  search  out  dangerous  or  unsound  books  in 
the  libraries  of  Spain.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
Scripture,  and  a  "Universal  History,"  (5  vols.,  1620.) 
Died  in  1637. 

Pinel,  pe'ngK,  (Philippe,)  a  distinguished  French 
physician,  born  in  the  department  of  Tarn  in  1745.  He 
published  in  1791  a  "  Treatise  on  Mental  Alienation," 
•vhich  promoted  a  reform  in  the  treatment  of  the  Insane. 
He  became  in  1 793  chief  physician  of  the  Bicetre  of  Paris, 
and  was  successful  in  the  treatment  of  insanity  by  sub- 
stituting kindness  for  harshness.  His  most  remarkable 
work  is  "  Philosophical  Nosography,"  ("  La  Nosogra- 
phie  philosophique,"  2  vols.,  1798;  6th  edition,  1818.) 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  180?.  Died  in 
1826.  ^ 


Pinelli,  pe-nel'lee,  (  Bartolommeo,  )  an  eminent 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rome  about  1780.  He 
etched  many  plates  representing  scenery  in  the  vicinity 
of  Rome,  events  in  the  history  of  ancient  Rome,  and 
Roman  costumes.  He  left  designs  which  were  highly 
prized.  Among  his  publications  is  "  Istoria  degli  Im- 
peratori,"  (1829.)     Died  in  1835. 

See  F.  Grrardi,  "  Biografia  di  B.  Pinelli,"  1835;  C.  Falconikri, 
"  Mi;moria  mtorno  alia  Vita  di  B.  Pinelli,"  1835. 

Pinelli,  (GiAN  Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  patron  of  learn- 
ing and  bibliophile,  born  at  Naples  in  1535.  His  house 
at  Padua  was  a  rendezvous  of  the  learned  men  of  all 
countries.  He  was  a  diligent  collector  of  books  and 
manuscripts.     Died  in  1601. 

See  Paolo  Gualdo,  "Vita  J.  V.  Pinelli,"  Augsburg,  1607. 

Pinelli,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Melfi. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works,  which  were  popular. 
Died  in  1607. 

Pinelli,  (Maffeo,)  an  Italian  bibliophile,  born  at 
Venice  in  1736.  He  collected  medals  and  pictures,  and 
formed  a  rich  library,  of  which  Abbe  Morelli  made  a 
catalogue,  (in  6  vols.,  1787.)  His  library  was  sold  a^ 
auction  in  London  in  1790.     Died  in  17S5. 

Pinellus.     See  Pineau,  (Gabriel.) 

Pinelo,  y,  e  pe-na'lo,  (Antonio  ue  Leon,)  a  Span- 
ish writer,  born  in  Peru.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Epitome  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Nautical 
and  Geographical  Library,"  ("  Epitome  de  la  Bibliotheca 
oriental  y  occidental  nautica  y  geografica,"  1629.)  Died 
about  1675. 

Pinet,  Du.     See  Dupinet. 

Pineton  de  Chambrun,  p^n'tAN'  deh  shflN'bRuN', 
(Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Orange, 
was  exiled  about  1685.     He  died  in  London  in  1689. 

Pingel,  ping'el,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  naturalist, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1793.  He  contributed  many 
memoirs  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.     Died  December  22,  1852. 

Pingeron,  piNzh'r6N',  (Jean  Claude,)  a  French 
translator,  born  at  Lyons  about  1730.  He  translated, 
from  the  Italian,  Milizia's  "  Lives  of  the  Architects," 
(1771,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1795. 

Pingre,  piN'gRk',  (Alexandre  Gui,)  a  distinguished 
French  astronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  1711.  He  began 
to  study  astronomy  about  the  age  of  thirty-eight.  His 
observation  of  the  transit  of  Mercury  in  1753  procured 
his  nomination  as  correspondent  of  the  Academy.  In 
1760  he  was  sent  to  the  island  of  Rodrigo  to  observe 
the  transit  of  Venus,  (1761.)  His  most  important  work 
is  "  Cometography,  or  a  Historical  and  Theoretical 
Treatise  on  Comets,"  (17S3.)     Died  in  1796. 

See  Ventenat,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  d'A.  G.  Pingr(5,"  i7gf). 

Pinheiro-Ferreira,  pen-ya'e-ro  f2r-ra'e-ri,  (Silves- 
TRE,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1769.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works  in  French,  "  Principles  of 
Public  Law,"  (3  vols.,  1834.)     Died  in  1847. 

Pini,  pee'nee,  (Ermenegildo,)  an  Italian  naturalist, 
born  at  Milan  about  1740.  He  was  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Milan,  (1772-1812.)  He  wrote  treatises  on 
mineralogy,  geology,  and  natural  history.     Died  in  1825. 

Pinkerton,  (Allan,)  a  celebrated  detective,  born  at 
Gorbals,  near  Glasgow,  Scotland,  August  25,  1819.  He 
became  a  cooper,  and  was  an  active  Chartist,  but  in  1842 
came  to  America,  and  finally  established  himself  at 
Dundee,  Illinois.  Here  he  became  a  dei)uty  sheriff,  and 
won  distinction  as  a  detective  of  counterfeiters.  In  1852 
he  founded  a  detective  agency  at  Chicago,  which  became 
an  institution  of  great  importance.  Mr.  Pinkerton  was 
for  some  time  at  the  head  of  the  United  States  secret 
service  during  the  war  of  1861-65.  ^^  published  a 
number  of  volumes  containing  narratives  of  his  work  as 
a  detective.     Died  at  Chicago,  July  i,  1884. 

Pink'er-ton,  (John,)  a  Scottish  historian,  poet,  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1758.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  about  1780,  and  published  a  volume 
of  verses,  entitled  "Rimes,"  in  1781.  In  1784  he  pro- 
duced an  "  Essay  on  Medals,"  which  was  well  received. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  the  publication  of  "An- 
cient Scottish  Poems  never  before  in  Print,"  etc.,  (a 
vols.,  1786.)     He  published  an  ingenious  "Dissertation 


a,  e, i,  6,  u,  y, !ong;  i,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s/ii'r(;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t:  nfit;  good;  moon; 


PINKNEY 


1957 


PI  0MB  O 


on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Scythians  or  Goths" 
in  1787.  Among  his  other  works  are  a  "  History  of 
Scotland  from  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart  to 
that  of  Mary,"  (2  vols.,  1797,)  and  "Modern  Geography 
Digested  after  a  New  Plan,"  (2  vols.,  1802,)  both  of 
which  have  some  merit.  He  is  censured  for  his  arro- 
gance and  his  enmity  to  religion.  Died  at  Paris  in  1826. 
See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1797. 

Pink'ney,  (Edward  Coate,)  son  of  William  Pink- 
ney,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in  1802.  He 
published  in  1825  "  Rodolph,  and  other  Poems."  Died 
in  1828. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Pinkney,  (William,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer 
and  orator,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in  March, 
1764-  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  17S6,  and  repre- 
sented a  district  of  Maryland  in  Congress  from  1789  to 
1792.  In  1796  he  was  sent  to  London  as  a  commissioner 
under  Jay's  treaty.  He  remained  in  London  about  eight 
years,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  England  in  1806. 
Having  returned  home  in  1811,  he  settled  in  Balti- 
more. He  was  attorney-general  of  the  United  States 
from  December,  i8ii,  to  February,  1814,  was  appointed 
minister  to  Russia  in  1816,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1819.  He  advo- 
cated the  Missouri  Compromise  in  the  Senate  in  1820. 
He  was  a  man  of  brilliant  talents,  and  was  generally 
considered  the  foremost  American  lawyer  of  his  time. 
His  wife  was  a  sister  of  Commodore  Rodgers.  He 
died  in  February,  1822. 

See  Henry  Wheaton,  "Life  of  William  Pinkney,"  1S26; 
"Golden  Age  of  American  Oratory,"  by  Edward  G.  Parker,  Bos- 
ton, 1857;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  lii. ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1827. 

Pinkney,  (William,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  a  nephew  of  W.  Pinkney  the  jurist,  was  born  in 
Annapolis,  Maryland,  April  17,  1810,  graduated  at  Saint 
John's  College  in  1827,  and  in  1836  was  ordained  a  pres- 
byter of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  held  rectorships  in 
Bladensburg,  and  in  Washington,  D.C.,  and  in  1870  was 
consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of  Maryland.  In  1879  he 
succeeded  Dr.  Whittingham  as  diocesan.  Died  in  1883. 
He  published  a  "  Life  of  William  Pinkney"  the  jurist. 

Pino,  pee'no,  (Domenico,)  Count,  an  Italian  gen- 
eral, born  at  Milan  in  1760.  He  served  in  the  French 
army  as  general  of  division  in  Germany,  Spain,  and 
Russia,  (1805-13.)     Died  in  1S26. 

Pino,  cla,dd  pee'no,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian  painter, 
sometimes  called  Marco  da  Sienna.  He  worked  many 
years  at  Naples,  where  he  settled  about  1560.  Among 
his  chief  works  is  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 

Pinon,  pe'ndx',  (Jacques,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
writer  of  Latin  poetry,  wrote  "  On  the  Roman  Year," 
("  De  Anno  Romano,")  and  other  poems.  Died,  at  an 
advanced  age,  in  1641. 

Pins,  de,  deh  pdN,  [Lat.  Pi'nus,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1470,  became  Bishop 
of  Rieux  in  1523.  He  wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  a  number 
of  epigrams,  and  "On  Court  Life,"  ("  De  Vita  aulica.") 
His  style  was  praised  by  Erasmus,  who  said,  "  Potest 
inter  Tullianae  dictionis  competi tores  numerari  Johannes 
Pinus."  As  ambassador  to  Venice  and  Rome,  about 
1520,  he  displayed  superior  diplomatic  talents.     Died 

>n  1537- 

See  Chardon,  "  M^moires  pour  servir  k  I'filoge  de  J.  de  Pins," 
1748. 

Pin'sker,  (Simcha,)  a  Karaite  Jew,  born  at  Tarnopol, 
in  Austrian  Galicia,  in  1801.  He  lived  in  Odessa  until 
1840,  and  afterwards  at  Vienna.  His  principal  published 
works  are  a  "  History  of  Karaism"  and  "  Mebo  ha-Nik- 
kud,"  (1863,)  a  treatise  on  vowel-points  and  singing- 
accents.     Died  October  29,  1864. 

Pinson,  p^N'sdw',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Valence  about  1640,  worked  many 
years  in  Italy, 

Pinsson,  piN's6N',  (Francois,)  a  French  jurist,  boin 
at  Bou-ees  about  1612  ;  died  in  1691. 

Pinsuti,  p^n-soo'tee,  (Ciro,)  an  Italian  composer  o 
songs,  operas,  and  choruses,  was  born  at  Sinalunga,Maj 
9,  1829.     His  professional  life  was  mostly  spent  in  Lon- 


don, and  in  1856  he  became  professor  of  singing  in  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

Pintelli,  p6n-teKlee,  (Baccio,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  probably  at  Florence.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.,  who  reigned  from  1471  till  1484.  Among  his 
great  works  in  Rome  are  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Popolo,  the  Sistine  Chapel,  (in  which  Michael  Angelo 
painted  the  fresco  of  the  "  Last  Judgment,")  the  church 
of  Saint  Augustine,  and  a  bridge  called  the  Ponte  Sisto, 
Died  about  1492. 

See  Vasari,"  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Pinto,  pfen'to,  (  Fernao  Mendez,  )  a  Portuguese 
traveller,  born  near  Coimbra  about  15 10.  He  wrote  a 
marvellous  book  of  travels  in  India,  etc.,  (1614,)  which 
was  translated  into  many  languages.  His  veracity  has 
often  been  questioned.     Died  in  1583. 

Pinto,  (Hector,)  a  Portuguese  monk  or  priest,  be- 
came professor  at  Coimbra  about  1570.  He  wrote  "  Pic- 
ture of  Christian  Life,"  ("  Imagem  da  Vida  Christam," 
1565.)     Died  in  1584. 

Pinto,  (Isaac,)  a  Portuguese  Jew,  born  about  171 5. 
He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Luxury,"  (1762,)  and  an  "  Apol- 
ogy for  the  Jews,"  (1762.)  He  died  at  the  Hague  in 
1787. 

Pintor,  p6n-toR',  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1423  ;  died  in  Rome  in  1503. 

Pinturicchio,  pin-too-rfek'ke-o,  (Bernardino  Bet- 
Ti,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Perugia  in  1454,  was 
a  pupil  or  assistant  of  Perugino.  He  worked  in  the 
Vatican  for  Alexander  VI.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"Jesus  before  the  Doctors,"  a  portrait  of  Isabella  of 
Castile,  and  "The  History  of  Pius  II.,"  in  the  cathedral 
of  Sienna.  It  is  said  that  Raphael  assisted  him  in  the 
latter  work.  He  painted  portraits  and  landscapes  with 
success.     Died  in  15 13. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Piniis.    See  Pins. 

Pinzon,  pfen-th6n',  (Martin  Alonzo,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  who  conmianded  the  Pinta  in  the  first  voyage 
of  Columbus  to  America.  He  is  said  to  have  been  en- 
vious towards  his  chief.     Died  in  1493. 

Pinzon,  (Vincencio  Yanez,)  a  younger  brother  of 
the  preceding,  commanded  the  Nina  in  the  voyage  of 
Columbus,  (1492.)  He  conducted  an  expedition  in  1499, 
and  explored  part  of  the  coast  of  Brazil.  He  was  living 
in  1523. 

Pio.     See  Pius,  Pope. 

Pio,  pee'o,  (Alberto,)  Prince  of  Carpi,  an  Italian 
scholar,  born  about  1475,  ^^^^  ^  nephew  of  Pico  della 
Mirandola.  He  was  a  patron  of  literary  men,  and  author 
of  a  treatise  against  Luther.     Died  in  Paris  in  153 1. 

Pio,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at  Bo- 
logna. He  wrote  notes  on  Horace,  Lucretius,  Ovid, 
and  other  classic  authors.     Died  at  Rome  about  1540. 

Piobert,  peVbaiR',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  general 
and  mathematician,  born  in  1793.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1840,  in  place  of  De  Prony. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Artil- 
lery," (2  vols.)      Died  at  Paris,  June  9,  1871. 

Piola,  pe-o'!J,  (Domenico,)  a  Genoese  painter,  born 
m  1628.  He  painted  infants  with  especial  skill.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Repose  of  the  Holy  Family."  Died 
in  1703. 

Piola,  (P.,)  a  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  161 7,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  an  artist  of  high 
promise,  but  died  young,  in  1640. 

Piombino.     See  Bonaparte,  (Marie  Anne  Elisa.) 

Piombo,  del,  dll  pe-om'bo,  (Sebastiano,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  born  at*  Venice  in  1485,  was  also 
called  Luciano  or  Veneziano.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Giorgione.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  painted  in  the  Farnese  palace  a  fresco  in 
competition  with  Raphael,  and  received  instruction  from 
Michael  Angelo.  He  painted  in  San  Pietro  in  Montorio 
a  fresco  of  the  "Transfiguration,"  which  is  remarkable 
for  beauty  of  colour.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
"  Raising  of  Lazarus,"  which  now  adorns  the  British 
National  Gallery.  He  excelled  in  portraits.  About 
1531  he  obtained  from  Clement  VII.  the  office  of  keeper 


€as  /J;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h,  v:., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PIORRY 


1958 


PISANDER 


of  the  seal,  (uffizio  del  piomho,)  and  assumed  the  name 
of  Fra  Sebastiano  del  Piombo.     Died  in  1547. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Biagi,  "  Memorie  storiche 
di  F.  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,"  1826;  Ridolfi,  "Vite  degli  Pittori 
Veneti ;"  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Piorry,  pe'o're',  (PrERRE  Adolphe,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1794.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction by  a  treatise  "On  Mediate  Percussion,"  ("  De 
la  Percussion  mediate,"  1828.)  He  obtained  in  1840 
a  chair  of  internal  pathology  at  Paris.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Diagnostics  and  Semeiology," 
(3  vols.,  1836.)     Died  at  Paris,  May  29,  1879. 

Piozzi,  pe-oz'ze,  [It.  pron.  pe-ot'see,|  Mrs.,  an  Eng- 
lish authoress,  whose  maiden  name  was  Esther  Lynch 
Salusbury,  was  born  in  Carnarvonshire  in  1739.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Mr.  Thrale,  a  brewer  of  London,  in 
1763,  and  was  intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson.  Having  lost 
her  husband,  she  was  married  in  1784  to  an  Italian 
teacher  of  music,  named  Piozzi.  She  published  in  1786 
"Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  during  the  Last 
Twenty  Years  of  his  Life,"  and  in  1788  "Letters  to  and 
from  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,"  {2  vols.)  Among  her  other 
works  is  a  short  poem,  called  "The  Three  Warnings." 
Died  at  Clifton  in  1821. 

See  "Piozziana;  or,  Recollections  of  the  Late  Mrs.  Piozzi;" 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1861;  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of 
the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the  Lasl 
Century,"  vol.  ii.,  (1S43:)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1S61  ; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1S61 ;  "Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1862. 

Pi'per,  [Sw.  pron.  pee'per,]  (Carl,)  Count,  a  Swed- 
ish minister  of  state,  was  a  man  of  superior  talents. 
He  was  councillor  of  state  in  the  reign  of  Charles  XL, 
and  became  the  principal  minister  of  Charles  XII., 
whom  he  aatompanied  in  his  campaigns.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Pultowa  (Poltava)  in  1709,  and  kept 
in  prison  until  his  death,  in  1716. 

See  Gezelius,  "Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Pi'per,  Le,  (Francis,)  an  English  comic  painter, 
noted  for  his  skill  in  portraits  of  ugly  and  deformed 
persons.     Died  about  1740, 

PippL    See  GiuLio  Romano. 

Pipping,  pip'ping,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  theologian 
and  biographer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1670 ;  died  in  1722. 

Piquer,  pe-kaiR',  (Andres,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer, 
born  in  Aragon  in  171 1.  He  received  the  title  of  first 
physician  of  the  kingdom  in  1752.  Among  his  works  is 
"Medicine  Old  and  New,"  ("Medicina  vetus  et  nova," 
1735.)     Died  in  1772. 

Piranesi,  pe-ri-na'see,   (  Francesco,)  an   engraver, 
born  at  Rome  in  1748,  was  a  son  of  Giovanni  Battista,  ' 
noticed  below.     He  succeeded  his  father  as  a  dealer  in 
prints.    About  i8co  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  pub-  : 
iished  a  large  number  of  plates  of  Roman  antiquities, 
partly  executed  by  his  father.     Died  in  iSlO.  ! 

Piranesi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  excellent  Italian  ' 
engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Venice  in  1720.  He 
studied  architecture  in  his  youth  at  Rome,  where  he 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  was  unrivalled 
as  an  architectural  draftsman  and  an  engraver  of  archi- 
tecture and  ruins,  and  had  great  facility  of  execution. 
He  etched  nearly  two  thousand  plates,  which  represent 
the  edifices  of  ancient  and  modern  Rome,  antique  bas- 
reliefs,  vases,  monuments,  etc.  Among  the  titles  of  his 
works  are  "  Architectura  Romana,"  (208  plates,)  and 
"  Magnificence  of  the  Romans,"  ("  Magnificenza  dei 
Romani,"  44  plates.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1778.  His 
daughter  L.\ura  was  an  engraver.     She  died  in  1785. 

See  P.ian-con-i,  "Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Piranesi," 
1779;    P-  BiAGi,  "  Suirincisione  e  sul  Piranesi,"  1820. 

Pirckheimer.     See  Pirkheimer. 

Pire,  de,  deh  pe'ri',  (Hitpolyte  Marc  Guil- 
LAUME  de  Rosnyvinen — deh  ros'ne've'nfts',)  Comte, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Rennes  in  1778.  He  com- 
manded the  light  cavalry  of  the  left  wing  at  Waterloo. 
Died  in  1850. 

Pirie,  p!r'e,  (William  Robinson,)  D.D..  a  Scottish 
divine,  born  at  Slains,  July  26,  1804.  He  was  educated 
at  Aberdeen,  where  in  1843  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  divinity.  In  1877  he  became  principal  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen.     Died  November  3,  1885. 


Piringer,  pee'ring-er,  (Benedict,)  a  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Vienna  in  1780.  He  went  with  Count 
A.  de  Laborde  to  Paris  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
are  landscapes  after  Claude  Lorrain  and  Poussin.  Died 
at  Paris  in  1826. 

Pi-rith'o-us  or  Pei-rith'o-us,  [Gr.  netpt^oof,]  a  son 
of  Ixi'on,  and  a  chief  of  the  Laj^ithse.  The  celebrated 
fight  of  the  Lapithae  and  the  Centaurs  originated  at 
the  marriage  of  Pirithous  and  Hippodami'a.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Theseus,  whom  he  aided  in  the  abduction  of 
Helen  from  Sparta.  Theseus,  in  return,  abetted  him  in 
an  attempt  to  carry  off  Proserpine  from  the  palace  of 
Pluto;  but  in  this  they  failed,  and  Pirithous  was  killed 
by  Cerberus. 

See  Virgil,  "^'Eneid,"  book  vi.  393-397. 

Pirkheimer  or  Pirckheimer,  p^Rk'hi'mer,  (Wili- 
BALD,)  a  German  historian  and  philologist,  born  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1470.  He  learned  the  Greek  language,  and 
translated  into  Latin  some  writings  of  Plato,  Xenophon," 
and  others.  He  was  a  fi-iend  of  Erasmus,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  efforts  to  diifuse  learning  in  Germany. 
Among  his  works  is  "Germanise  perbrevis  Explicatio," 
(1530.)     Died  in  1530  or  1531. 

See  Panzer,  "W.  Pirckheimer  und  Charitas  Pirckheimer,"  etc., 
1802;  NiCHRON,  "Menioires;"  F.  Campe,  "Zum  Andenken  W. 
Pirckheimer's,"  1828;  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Pirogof,  Pirogov,  or  Pirogo'w,  pee'ro-guf,  (N ICHO- 
LAS,)  a  Russian  surgeon,  born  about  1810,  celebrated  as 
the  inventor  of  a  new  method  of  amputating  the  foot  by 
dividing  the  os  calcis.  He  was  for  several  years  surgeon 
in  a  military  hospital  at  Saint  Petersburg.    Died  in  1868. 

Piroli,  pee'ro-lee  or  pe-ro'lee,  (Prospero,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1761,  worked  several  years  in  Russia, 
and  was  patronized  by  the  Czar.   Died  at  Milan  in  183 1. 

Piroli,  (Tommaso,)  a  skilful  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Rome  in  1750,  engraved  the  Prophets  and  Sibyls 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  after  Michael  Angelo,  "Cupid  and 
Psyche,"  after  Raphael,  etc.     Died  in  1824. 

Piromalli,  pe-ro-mil'lee,  (Paolo,)  a  learned  Italian 
missionary,  born  in  1592,  laboured  in  Asia.  He  compiled 
a  "Latin-Persian  Lexicon."     Died  in  1667. 

Piron,  pe'r6N',  (Alm^^)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Dijon 
in  1640;  died  in  1727. 

See  AtJGusTE  de  Mastaing,  "  Les  Piron,"  1844. 

Piron,  (Alexis,)  a  French  dramatist  and  poet,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1689,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  had 
a  talent  for  bon-mots  and  epigrams.  In  his  youth  he 
wrote  comedies  and  licentious  odes.  Among  his  works 
are  several  unsuccessful  tragedies.  He  produced  in 
1738  a  drama  entitled  "The  Mania  for  Writing  Verse," 
("  La  Metromanie,")  which  is  considered  a  master-piece 
of  intrigue,  of  style,  and  of  comic  genius.  He  married 
Marie  Therese  Quenaudon  when  she  had  passed  the 
age  of  fifty.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1753,  but  was  rejected  by  the  king.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  RiGOLEV  de  Jitvigny,  "Vie  de  Piron,"  1776;  Augusts  dk 
Mastaing,  "Les  Piron,"  1S44:  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "  Pironiana, 
ou  Recueil  des  Aventures  plaisantes,  Bon-mots,  etc.  d'A.  Piron," 
iSoo;  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Piron,  (Bernard,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in 
171S,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1812. 

Piron,  (M.\rie  TH^RisE  Quenaudon  —  keh-n5'- 
d6N',)  called  M.\demoiselle  de  B.\r,  born  in  168S,  was 
a  literary  and  witty  lady.  She  was  married  in  1741  to 
Alexis  Piron.     Died  in  1751. 

Pirro,  p^r'ro,  (Rocco,)  a  historian,  born  in  Sicily  in 
1577,  was  chaplain  to  the  king.  He  published  a  his- 
tory of  the  churches  of  Sicily,  entitled  "  .Sicilia  Sacra," 
(3  vols.,  1644-47,)  which  is  esteemed  valuable.  Died 
in  1651. 

Pisa,  (Leonard  of.)     See  Leonardo  da  Pisa. 

Pisau,  (Christina.)     See  Christine  de  Pisan. 

Pi-san'der  or  Pei-san'der,  [Ile/tjavtJpof,]  a  Greek 
poet  of  Rhodes,  flourished  about  650  B.C.  He  wrote  an 
epic  poem  on  the  exploits  of  Hercules,  which  is  lost. 
He  was  received  into  the  epic  canon  with  Homer  by 
the  critics  of  Alexandria. 

Pisander  or  Peisander,  an  Athenian  demagogue, 
who  was  archon  eponyniiis  in  414  B.C.  He  was  a  promi- 
nent agent  in  the  revolution  which  subverted  the  de- 


a.  e.  1. 6,  u,  y,  lortg;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  c,  i.  0.  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  nigt;  n6t;  good;  niooa; 


PISANDER 


1959 


PITCAIRNE 


mocracy  and   raised   the  Four  Hundred  to  power   in 
412  B.C. 

Pisander,  a  Spartan,  who  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Agesilaus  II.  He  became  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  395, 
and  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Athenians  under 
Conon  in  394  B.C. 

Pisanello,  pe-Si-nel'lo,  or  Pisano,  pe-sd'no,  (ViT- 
TORE,)  a  celebrated  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
flourished  about  1450.  He  surpassed  the  artists  of  his 
time  in  painting  horses  and  other  animals,  and  was  an 
excellent  engraver  of  medals. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Pisani,  pe-sS'nee,  (Niccol6,)  a  Venetian  admiral,  who 
acquired  celebrity  in  the  war  against  the  Genoese  which 
began  about  1350.  He  commanded  in  an  indecisive 
battle  against  Paganino  Doria  at  the  outlet  of  the  Bos- 
phurus  in  1352. 

Pisani,  (Vettore  or  Vettor,)  a  famous  admiral,  a 
son  or  nephew  of  the  preceding,  obtained  command  of 
the  fleet  in  1378.  He  displayed  skill  in  the  defence  of 
Venice  against  the  Genoese,  whose  fleet  he  captured  ai 
Chiozza  in  1380.     He  died  in  the  Stime  year. 

See  Giovanni  Molin,  "  Memorie  per  servire  alia  Storia  di  Vet 
tor  Pisani ;"  Grassi,  "Vita  di  Vettor  Pisani,"  1837. 

Pisano,  (Andrea.)     See  Andrea  Pisano. 

Pisano,  pe-sS'no,  (Giovanni,)  called  also  Giovanni 
DA  Pisa,  an  eminent  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Pisa 
about  1238,  was  a  son  of  the  sculptor  Niccol6.  He  was 
architect  of  the  famous  Campo  Santo  (cemetery)  of  Pisa, 
completed  in  1283.  It  is  a  cloister  of  sixty-two  arcades 
or  arches.  He  built  the  Castel  Nuovo  at  Naples.  Among 
his  master-pieces  of  sculpture  are  the  high  altar  in  the 
cathedral  of  Arezzo,  and  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  which 
adorns  the  exterior  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence.  Died 
in  1320. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cico 
gnara,  "  Stori.T  della  Scultura;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Pisano,  (Giunta,)  an  old  Tuscan  painter,  was  born 
in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  one  of  the  most  skilful 
artists  of  his  time.  About  1235  he  painted  some  works 
in  a  church  of  Assisi.  His  works  present  the  meagre 
forms  of  the  Byzantine  style.  A  figure  of  Christ  painted 
on  wood  by  Giunta  still  exists. 

Pisano,  (Niccol6.)     See  Niccol6  da  Pisa. 

Pisano,  (Vittore.)     See  Pisanello. 

Pisari,  pe-sS'ree,  (Pasquale,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Rome  about  1725 ;  died  in  1778.  He  was  called 
a  "second  Palestrina." 

Pisoator.     See  Fischer. 

Piscinus.     See  Marso. 

Pise,  (Charles  Constantine,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Catholic  clergyman,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in 
1802.  He  was  for  some  time  chaplain  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  in  1849  became  pastor  of  the  church 
of  .Saint  Charles  Borromeo,  Brooklyn,  New  York.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  the  Church  from  its  Establish- 
ment to  the  Reformation,"  (1830,)  "  Aletheia,  or  Letters 
on  the  Truth  of  the  Catholic  Doctrines,"  "  Lives  of  Saint 
Ignatius  and  his  First  Companions,"  and  numerous 
hymns  and  poems.     Died  at  Ikooklyn,  May  26,  1866. 

Pishdadian.     See  Peshdadian. 

Pisistrate.     See  Pisistratus. 

Pisistratidae,  pis-is-trat'e-de,  an  appellation  given  to 
the  sons  of  Pisistratus.  (See  Hipptas  and  Hipparchus.) 

Pi-sis'tra-tus  or  Pei-sis'tra-tus,  [Gr.  YiEialmpaToq  : 
Fr.  Pisistrate,  pe'ze'stRtt',]  a  tyrant  or  ruler  of  Athens, 
born  about  612  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Hippocrates,  and  a 
relative  of  Solon.  He  courted  popularity  by  various 
means,  and  obtained  power  by  the  following  artifice. 
Having  inflicted  wounds  on  hiinself,  he  presented  him- 
self to  the  people,  pretended  that  he  had  been  attacked 
by  his  political  enemies,  and  persuaded  them  to  grant 
him  a  guard  of  fifty  men,  by  whose  aid  he  seized  the 
citadel,  560  B.C.  He  was  the  head  of  the  party  of  the 
highlands,  which  was  the  more  popular  or  democratic 
party.  He  was  twice  expelled  by  a  coalition  of  the  party 
of  the  coast  with  that  of  the  plain,  but  was  restored  as 
often.  He  made  little  or  no  change  in  the  constitution, 
and  left  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  rather  liberal  ruler. 
He  patronized  literature,  formed  a  library,  and  erected 
fine  public  buildings.     It  is  commonly  supposed  that  we 


owe  to  him  the  first  written  text  of  the  whole  of  the 
poems  of  Homer.     Died  in  527  B.C. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History  ;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece ;'" 
Jan  Mp-URSIUS,  "Pisistratus,  seu  de  ejus  Vita  Liber  singularis," 
1632  ;  Thirlwall,  "  Historj-  of  Greece." 

Pi'so,  [Fr.  Pison,  pe'z6N',]  (Caius  Calpurnius,)  a 
Roman  orator,  who  became  consul  in  67  B.C.,  and  com- 
manded in  Gallia  Narbonensis  in  66.  He  was  defended 
by  Cicero,  in  63  B.C.,  against  a  charge  of  extortion  pre- 
ferred by  Cassar,  and  urged  the  former  to  accuse  Cassar 
as  one  of  the  conspirators  with  Catiline.  He  probably 
died  before  the  civil  war  began,  (49  B.C.) 

See  DRtJMANN,  "Geschichte  Roms." 

Piso,  (Caius  Calpurnius,)  the  leader  of  a  con- 
spiracy against  Nero  in  65  A.D.  He  was  a  patrician, 
and  very  popular.  Having  been  betrayed  by  one  of  his 
accomplices,  he  killed  himself. 

Piso,  (Cneius  Calpurnius,)  was  consul  in  7  B.C., 
with  Tiberius,  who,  after  his  accession,  used  him  as  an 
instrument  to  impair  the  influence  of  Germanicus.  He 
obtained  command  of  Syria  in  18  A.D.,  and  was  sus- 
pected of  having  poisoned  Germanicus.  He  was  found 
dead  in  his  room  in  20  a.d. 

Piso,  (Lucius  Calpurnius,)  was  the  father  of  Cal- 
purnia,  the  wife  of  Julius  Cassar.  He  was  consul  in  58 
B.C.,  and  promoted  the  banishment  of  Cicero.  He  mis- 
governed Macedonia  from  57  to  55  B.C.  His  public  con- 
duct and  private  character  were  denounced  by  Cicero  in 
a  very  vituperative  speech,  "  Oratio  in  Pisonem,"  in  55 
or  54  B.C.  After  the  death  of  Csesar  (44  B.C.)  Piso  made 
a  speech  which  was  applauded  by  Cicero,  (Philippic  I.) 

See  Appian,  "  Bellura  Civile  ;"  Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms." 

Piso,  (L.  Calpurnius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
consul  in  15  B.C.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Rome  by 
Tiberius.  He  was  one  of  the  persons  to  whom  Horace 
addressed  his  Epistle  "De  Arte  Poetica,"  according  to 
Porphyrion.  Died  in  32  A.D.,  at  the  age  of  eighty.  His 
virtue  and  integrity  are  attested  by  several  writers. 

Piso,  (Lucius  Calpurnius  Frugi,)  a  Roman  his- 
torian and  consul,  belonged  to  the  aristocratic  party. 
He  became  consul  in  133  B.C.,  and  opposed  the  measures 
of  Caius  Gracchus.  He  wrote  "  Annals  of  Rome," 
which  are  not  extant. 

Piso,  (Lucius  Calpurnius  Licinianus,)  a  Roman 
whom  Galba  adopted  as  heir  to  the  throne  in  69  a.d. 
He  was  killed  by  the  partisans  of  Otho  in  the  same  year. 

Pison.     See  Piso. 

Pi'son,  (Jakob,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  in  Transylvania  ; 
died  in  1527. 

Pison,  pee'son,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  naturalist  and 
physician,  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Nassau  in  a  voyage 
to  Brazil  in  1637.  The  researches  of  Pison  and  his 
companion  Marcgraf  were  published,  under  the  title  of 
"  Natural  History  of  Brazil,"  ("  Historia  Naturalis  Bra- 
silise,"  1648,)  a  work  of  some  merit. 

Pistoia,  da,  (CiNO.)     See  Cino. 

Pistoia,  da,  di  pJs-to'yl,  (Leonardo  Grazia — gRit'- 
se-i,)  an  Italian  jsainter,  born  at  Pistoia,  lived  about  1550. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Penni,  with  whom  he  worked  at 
the  Vatican  and  at  Naples.    He  was  skilful  in  portraits. 

Pistorius,  pis-to're-tis,  (Johann,)  a  German  histo- 
rian, born  at  Nidda  (Hesse)  about  1544.  He  was  con- 
verted from  the  Protestant  faith  to  that  of  the  Roman 
Church,  and  was  confessor  to  the  emperor  Rudolph  II. 
He  wrote  "  German  Historical  Writers,"  ("  Rerum  Ger- 
manicarum  Scriptores,"3  vols.,  1582-1607.)  Died  in  1608. 

Pitagora.     See  Pythagoras. 

Pitaro,  pe-tS'ro,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  natural  phi- 
losopher and  writer,  born  at  Borgia  in  1774;  died  in 
Paris  after  1830. 

Pitau,  pe'tb',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1633.  He  worked  at  Paris,  and 
engraved  after  Raphael,  Guercino,  and  L.  Caracci.  His 
master-piece  is  a  "  Holy  Family,"  after  Raphael.  Died 
in  1676.  His  son  NicOLAS  was  also  an  engraver.  Died 
at  Paris  in  1724. 

Pitaval,  de.     See  Gayot. 

Pitcairne,  pit'kSrn,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  pny- 
sician,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1652.  Having  finished  his 
education  in  Paris,  he  practised  with  great  distinction 
in  his  native  city.     His  medical  system  was  based  partly 


€  as  k;  g  as s;  g  hard;  g  as/.-  G,  h,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilh-d;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (g^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


PITHO 


i960 


PITT 


on  mathematics.  lie  was  a  zealous  Jacobite.  lie  was 
professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about  one  year,  (1692,) 
and  was  one  of  the  teachers  of  Boerhaave.  His  principal 
work  is  "  Elementa  Medicinae  physico-mathematica." 
He  also  wrote  Latin  verses.     Died  in  17 13. 

See  Chari.ks  Webster,  "  Life  of  A.  Pitcairne,"  1781  ;  Cham- 
bers, "  Hiographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Pitho.     See  Pithon. 

Pi'thon  or  Pi'tho,  |n«(9(jv,l  a  Macedonian  officer, 
who  had  a  high  command  under  Alexander  in  India. 
He  was  appointed  satraj)  of  Babylon  by  Antigonus  in 
316  B.C.,  and  was  killed  fighting  for  Demetrius  at  Gaza, 
in  312  B.C. 

Pithon,  [n(9(jv,]  an  officer  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
whose  person  he  attended  as  a  guard.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  mutineers  who  killed  Perdiccas  in  321 
B.C.,  after  which  he  was  joint  regent  with  Arrhidaeus  for 
a  short  time.  He  was  second  in  command  in  the  army 
of  Antigonus,  to  whom  he  rendered  important  services 
in  the  war  against  Eumenes.  He  was  put  to  death,  by 
order  of  Antigonus,  in  316  B.C. 

Pithou,  pp/too',  (FRANgois,)  a  learned  French  jurist, 
born  at  Troyes  in  1543,  was  a  brother  of  Pierre,  noticed 
below.  He  wrote  "Traite  de  la  Grandeur,  des  Droits, 
Pre-eminences  des  Rois  et  du  Royaume  de  France," 
(1587.)     Died  in  1621. 

Pithou,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  jurist  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Troyes  in  1539.  He  was  educated 
as  a  Protestant,  but  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1573, 
after  a  narrow  escape  from  the  massacre  of  1572.  He 
supported  the  cause  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "  Satire  Menippee,"  which  had  an  im- 
portant influence  in  the  political  affairs  of  the  time. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Liberties  of  the  Gallican 
Church,"  (1594,)  and  "Body  of  Canon  Law,"  ("Corpus 
Juris  canonici,"  1687.)     Died  in  1596. 

See  Groslev,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Pithou,"  1756:  Loisel,  "Vie  de 
Pierre  Pithou;"  NiC^RON,  "Memoires;"  "Nuuvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Pitiscus,  pe-tis'kas,  (Bartholomaus,)  a  German 
geometer,  born  near  Griinberg  in  1561  ;  died  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1613. 

Pitiscus,  pe-tis'kus,  (Samuel,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Zutphen  in  1637.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon 
Latino-Belgicum,"  (1704,)  a  "Lexicon  of  Roman  An- 
tiquities," (1713,)  and  good  editions  of  Quintus  Curtius, 
Suetonius,  and  Aurelius  Victor.     Died  in  1727. 

Pit'kin,  (Timothy,)  an  American  lawyer  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in  1765, 
published  a  "  Political  and  Civil  History  of  the  United 
States,  from  1763  to  the  Close  of  Washington's  Ad- 
ministration," (1828.)     Died  in  1847. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1830. 

Pitman,  (Benn,)  an  author,  a  brother  of  Isaac  Pit- 
man, was  born  at  Trowbridge,  in  England,  June  24, 
1S22.  He  learned  the  business  of  an  architect,  taught 
and  lectured  on  his  brother's  system  of  phonography  in 
England,  1S43-53,  ca'^e  in  1853  to  the  United  States, 
and  became  the  compiler  and  publisher  of  various  text- 
books of  phonography  at  Cincinnati.  He  was  a  govern- 
ment reporter  of  state  trials,  1862-65,  ^"'^  '"  1S73  became 
an  instructor  in  the  School  of  Design  connected  with  the 
University  of  Cincinnati. 

Pitman,  (Isaac,)  an  English  stenographer,  born  at 
Trowbridge,  in  Wilts,  January  4,  1813.  He  published 
•' Stenograjjliic  Sound  Hand,"  (1837,)  "Phonography," 
(8th  edition,  1840,)  and  "  Phonographic  Reporter's  Com- 
panion," (1853.)  ^^s  's  'he  inventor  of  the  admirable  sys- 
tem of  modern  phonographic  short-handwriting,  as  well 
as  of  one  of  the  best  systems  of  phonotypy. 

Pitoni,  pe-to'nee,  (Giuseppe  Ottavio,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  sacred  music,  born  at  Rieti  in  1657;  died 
at  Rome  in  1743. 

Pitot,  pe'to',  (Henri,)  a  French  geometer,  born  at 
Aramon  in  1695.  He  contributed  several  memoirs  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  published  a  good  work 
on  naval  tactics,  entitled  "Theorie  de  la  Manoeuvre  des 
Vaisseaux,"  (1731.)     Died  in  1771. 

Pitra,  pi'tRt',  (Jea.n  Baptiste,)  a  learned  French 
cardinal,  born  at  Champforgeuil,  August  31,  1812.      He 


became  a  Benedictine,  and  was  appointed  librarian  of 
the  Vatican  in  1862,  and  a  cardinal  in  1863.  In  1879  he 
was  promoted  to  be  a  carilinal-bishop,  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Frascati,  and  was  giveiv  the  offices  of  ]>refect 
of  the  state  of  the  regular  clergy,  and  head  of  the  congre- 
gation for  the  examination  of  bishops,  both  in  theology 
and  in  the  canons.  Among  his  works  are  an  excellent 
"History  of  Saint  Leger,"  (1846,)  a  "Life  of  R.  P. 
Liebermann,"  (1859,)  the  magnificent  "  Spicilegium  So- 
lesmense,"  ("  Gleanings  from  the  Abbey  of  Solesme," 
5  vols.,  1852-60,)  "Juris  Ecclesiastici  Graecorum  His- 
toria  et  Monumenta,"  (1864,)  "Triodion  Katanacticon," 
(1879,  a  continuation  of  the  previous  work,)  and"Hym- 
nography  of  the  Greek  Church,"  (1867.)  In  1884  he 
became  Bishop  of  Porto.     Died  in  1889. 

Plt'rl,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "father,"]  a  title 
applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  the  deified  pro- 
genitors of  mankind,  supposed  to  inhabit  the  orbit  of 
the  moon. 

Pits,  |Lat.  Pit'seus,]  (John,)  an  English  biographer, 
born  at  Alton  in  1560,  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  be- 
came canon  of  Verdun,  in  Lorraine,  and  dean  of  Liver- 
dun.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of  the  Kings,  Bishops,  and 
Writers  of  England,"  (4  vols.)  The  last  volume  was 
published  in  1619.     Died  in  1616.    . 

Pitseus.     See  Pits. 

Pitt,  (Christopher,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Bland- 
ford  in  1699.  He  became  rector  of  Pimpern,  in  Dorset 
shire,  and  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1727.  He 
produced  a  translation  of  Virgil's  "yEneid,"  (1740,) 
which  was  received  with  favour.     Died  in  1748. 

Pitt,  (Thomas,)  a  grandfather  of  the  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham, was  born  at  Blandford  in  1653.  He  was  for  some 
years  Governor  of  Madras.  He  jjurchased  in  India  for 
_;^24,ooo  a  large  diamond,  (called  the  Pitt  diamond,) 
which  he  sold  to  the  Regent  of  France  for  ;^i35,ooo. 
Died  in  1726. 

Pitt,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  remembered  only 
as  the  author  of  a  popular  song  entitled  "The  Sailor's 
Consolation,"  which  is  often  attributed  to  Dibdin.  Pitt 
was  master  attendant  at  Jamaica  dock-yard,  and  after- 
wards at  Malta,  where  he  died  in  1840. 
\  Pitt,  (  William,  )  Earl  of  Chatham,  an  illustrious 
English  statesman  and  orator,  was  born  November  i  5, 
1708.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Robert  Pitt,  of  Bo- 
connoc,  in  Cornwall,  an.l  a  niandson  of  Thomas  Pitt, 
Governor  of  Madras,  who  brought  from  India  the  Pitt 
diamond,  which  is  now  esteemed  the  most  precious  of 
the  crown-jewels  of  France.  His  mother  was  Harriet 
Villiers.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  which  he  entered  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 
The  torments  of  the  gout,  to  which  he  was  subject  nearly 
all  his  life,  induced  him  to  leave  college  without  taking 
a  degree,  and  to  travel  in  France  and  Italy  for  his  health. 
On  his  return  home  he  accepted  a  cornet's  commission 
in  the  army,  and  in  1735  was  chosen  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Old  Sarum.  He  began  his  political  life  as  an 
opponent  of  the  Walpole  ministry,  and  addressed  the 
House  for  the  first  time  in  April,  1736,  on  the  subject 
of  the  marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  Soon  after 
this  date  he  was  appointed  a  groom  of  the  bed-chamber 
to  that  prince,  and  he  continued  to  declaim  against 
Walpole  with  increasing  power.  His  figure  was  re- 
markably graceful  and  commanding,  and  his  manner 
highly  imposing.  "  His  play  of  countenance,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "was  wonderful:  he  frequently  disconcerted  a 
hostile  orator  by  a  single  glance  of  indignation  or  scorn. 
Every  tone,  from  the  impassioned  cry  to  the  thrilling 
aside,  was  perfectly  at  his  command.  .  .  .  Yet  he  was 
not  a  great  debater.  His  merit  was  almost  entirely 
rhetorical.  He  did  not  succeed  either  in  exposition  or 
refutation  ;  but  his  speeches  abounded  with  lively  illus 
trations,  happy  allusions,  passionate  appeals.  His  in 
vective  and  sarcasm  were  tremendous." 

Having  been  excluded  from  the  new  cabinet  which 
was  formed  on  the  resignation  of  Walpole,  in  1742,  he 
continued  to  act  with  the  opposition,  and  fiercely  de- 
nounced Carteret  for  the  favour  shown  to  the  German 
dominions  of  George  II.  The  offence  which  he  thus 
gave  to  the  king  retarded  his  own  promotion  when,  in 
1744,  the  Pelhams  came  into  power.   By  tendering  their 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, /('«^,- i,  fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 1'l,  y,  j-//<7;A- a,  e,  j,  o,  oisatre;  fir,  fhW,  fit;  met;  ndt;gd6d;  moon; 


PITT 


1961 


PITT 


resignations  in  the  critical  period  of  the  Jacobite  rebel- 
lioiC  the  ministers  at  last  prevailed  over  the  king,  and 
Pitt  was  appointed  paymaster  of  the  forces  in  1746. 
The  rare  disinterestedness  which  he  showed  in  this 
lucrative  office  convinced  the  public  that  he  was  proof 
against  all  sordid  temptations.  He  married  Hester 
Grenville,  a  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Temple  and  of  George 
Grenville,  in  1754.  In  this  year  the  premier,  Henry  Pel- 
ham,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  Newcastle.  Pitt,  who  was  perhaps  offended  because 
his  rival  Henry  Fox  was  chosen  secretary  of  state,  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  November,  1755, 
soon  after  which  date  war  broke  out  between  England 
and  France.  Newcastle  having  been  forced  to  resign,  Pitt 
was  premier  about  five  months,  ending  in  April,  1757. 
The  king,  who  disliked  Pitt  and  his  colleague  Temple, 
dismissed  them,  but  found  great  difficulty  in  forming  a 
new  ministry,  as  Pitt  was  the  most  popular  statesman 
in  England.  After  the  nation  had  remained  eleven  weeks 
without  a  ministry,  a  coalition  was  formed  between  Pitt 
and  Newcastle,  the  former  of  whom  became  secretary 
of  state,  with  the  supreme  direction  of  the  war  and  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  infused  new  energy  and  ardour  into 
every  branch  of  the  service,  and  his  fame  was  raised  to 
the  highest  point  by  a  succession  of  victories  in  Canada, 
fndia,  and  Europe.  About  1760  he  was  almost  idolized 
by  the  people,  who  called  him  "the  Great  Commoner" 
and  regarded  him  as  the  foremost  Englishman  of  his 
time. 

On  the  accession  of  George  HI.,  Pitt  was  supplanted 
by  Lord  Bute,  the  royal  favourite,  the  success  of  whose 
intrigues  was  promoted  by  dissensions  and  jealousies 
among  the  ministers,  some  of  whom  were  offended  by 
the  imperious  demeanour  of  the  premier.  Pitt  resigned 
in  October,  1761,  and  received  an  annual  pension  of 
£,y:)00  for  three  lives,  [i.e.  his  own,  his  wife's,  and  his 
eldest  son's.)  In  1765  the  king  requested  Pitt  to  resume 
the  direction  of  affairs  ;  but  the  latter  declined  the  offer 
because  his  friend  the  Earl  of  Temple  refused  to  take 
otifiice  with  him.  During  the  next  session  of  Parliament 
he  condemned  the  Stamp  Act  in  an  eloquent  speech, 
and  argued  that  England  had  no  right  to  tax  the  colo- 
nies. The  renewed  overtures  and  insidious  smiles  of 
the  court  prevailed  on  him,  in  1766,  to  form  a  new  ad- 
ministration, in  which  he  took  the  office  of  privy  seal. 
At  the  same  time  he  sacrificed  his  popularity  by  accepting 
a  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chatham.  This  was 
the  cabinet  that  Burke  described  as  a  "piece  of  joinery 
so  whimsically  dovetailed  ;  a  tesselated  pavement  with- 
out cement,"  etc.  His  mental  and  physical  maladies 
soon  became  so  aggravated  that  he  ceased  to  take  any 
part  in  the  government,  and  he  resigned  in  October, 
1768.  With  improved  health,  he  returned  to  public  life 
about  1 771,  and  spoke  often  against  the  ministers.  In 
1775  he  made  a  brilliant  speech  on  the  American  war. 
Alluding  to  the  Boston  Port  bill,  etc.,  he  exclaimed, 
"  You  must  repeal  these  acts,  and  you  will  repeal 
them.  I  pledge  myself  for  it  that  you  will  repeal  them. 
I  stake  my  reputation  on  it.  I  will  consent  to  be  taken 
for  an  idiot  if  they  are  not  finally  repealed."  In  1777 
he  made  a  memorable  speech  against  employing  Indians 
to  fight  in  the  United  States.  As  he  rose  to  speak  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  in  1778,  he  was  seized  with  an  apo- 
plectic fit.  He  lingered  a  few  weeks,  and  died  in  May, 
1778,  leaving  three  sons,  the  second  of  whom  was  the 
celebrated  statesman  William  Pitt  the  Younger. 

"His  eloquence,"  says  Brougham,  "was  of  the  very 
highest  order  :  vehement,  fiery,  close  to  the  subject, 
concise,  sometimes  eminently,  even  boldly,  figurative  : 
it  was  original  and  surprising,  yet  quite  natural.  The 
fine  passages  or  felicitous  hits  in  which  all  popular  as- 
semblies take  boundless  delight  .  .  .  form  the  grand 
charm  of  Lord  Chatham's  oratory.  ...  A  noble  state- 
ment of  enlarged  views,  a  generous  avowal  of  dignified 
sentiments,  a  manly  and  somewhat  severe  contempt  for 
all  petty  and  mean  views,  always  pervaded  his  whole  dis 
course  ;  and,  more  than  any  orator  since  Demosthenes,  he 
was  distinguished  by  the  grandeur  of  feeling  with  which 
he  regarded,  and  the  amplitude  of  survey  which  he  casi 
upon,  the  subject-matters  of  debate.  He  is  the  person 
to  whom  every  one  would  at  once  point  if  desired  to 


name  the  most  successful  statesman  and  most  brilliant 
orator  that  this  country  ever  produced.  Some  fragments 
of  his  speeches  have  been  handed  down  to  us  ;  but  these 
bear  so  very  small  a  proportion  to  the  prodigious  fame 
which  his  eloquence  has  left  behind  it,  that  far  more  is 
manifestly  lost  than  has  reached  us."  Several  volumes, 
entitled  "Chatham  Papers:  Correspondence  from  the 
Original  MSS.,"  were  published  in  1838-40,  4  vols. 

See  "  History  of  W.  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,"  by  Francis  Thack- 
KRAV,  2  vols.,  1827;  John  Almon,  "  Anecilotes  of  VV.  Pitt,  Earl  o( 
Chatham,"  2  vols.,  1792;  Bri)UGH.\m,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of 
George  I II.  ;"  MaCAULAv's  Review  of  Thackeray's  "  Life  of  Chat- 
hain,"  1S34:  Macaitlav,  "  Essay  on  the  liarl  of  Chatham,"  in  the 
"  Edinbiirijh  Review"  for  October,  1844;  Louis  de  Viblcastbl, 
"  Essai  historiqiie  sur  les  deux  Pitt,"  2  vols.,  1846. 

Pitt,  (The  Right  Honourable  William,)  a  celebrated 
statesman  and  debater,  was  the  second  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  was  born  at  Hayes,  in  Kent,  in  May,  1759. 
At  the  age  of  seven,  when  he  heard  that  his  father  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  he  said,  "  I  am  glad  that  I  am  not 
the  eldest  son.  I  want  to  speak  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, like  papa."  He  received  the  rudiments  of  educa- 
tion at  home,  under  the  diligent  supervision  of  his  father, 
and  acquired  great  proficiency  in  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics,  before  he  entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1773.  Having  chosen  the  profession  of  the 
law,  he  took  chambers  in  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1780.  In  1781  he  entered  Parliament  for 
Appleby,  as  an  opponent  of  the  ministry,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  second  session  assumed  his  place  in  the  first 
rank  of  debaters.  His  talents  and  conduct  amply  justi- 
fied and  responded  to  the  partiality  with  which  the  public 
regarded  the  son  of  the  Great  Commoner.  He  acquired 
a  new  claim  to  public  favour  by  a  motion  (in  May,  1782; 
for  a  reform  in  the  representation,  which  was  rejectet' 
by  a  small  majority.  His  jirinciples  at  that  time  werf 
the  same  with  those  of  the  Whigs.  On  the  formatioi^ 
of  the  ministry  of  Lord  Shelburne,  in  July,  1782,  Mr. 
Pitt  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  By  r 
coalition  between  Lord  North  and  Mr.  Fox,  this  ministrv 
was  forced  to  resign  in  March,  1783,  and  Pitt  becamt 
the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  House.  The  king 
after  procuring  the  defeat  of  Fox"s  India  bill,  dismissec? 
Fox  and  Lord  North,  whose  coalition  was  very  unpopular 
and  appointed  Pitt  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime  min 
ister)  in  December,  1783.  He  had  to  contend  against  z 
large  majority  in  the  House,  led  by  Fox,  Burke,  North 
and  Sheridan,  who  triumphed  in  sixteen  divisions.  Thir 
important  contest  lasted  until  March,  1784,  when  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved.  His  appeal  to  the  people  resulted 
in  a  great  triumph  of  the  minister,  who,  thus  sustained 
by  tlie  favour  of  the  court  and  by  that  of  the  nation, 
became  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  the  most  powerful 
subject  of  Europe. 

The  first  eight  years  of  his  administration  were  peace- 
ful and  prosperous.  A  new  constitution  for  the  East 
India  Company  was  framed  in  1784,  and  a  new  sinking- 
fund  established  in  1786.  He  changed  his  course  on  the 
question  of  parliamentary  reform,  which  he  opposed  at 
several  periods  after  1792.  He  supported  with  his  elo- 
quence and  his  vote  the  motions  of  Wilberforce  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  "  All  authorities  agree," 
says  Brougham,  "in  placing  his  speech  on  the  slave- 
trade,  in  1791,  before  any  other  effort  of  his  genius." 
Yet  he  permitted,  for  many  years,  every  one  of  his  col- 
leagues to  vote  against  the  abolition,  and  thus  furnished 
the  ground  of  the  gravest  charge  to  which  his  memory 
is  exposed.  His  ascendency  was  confirmed  by  the  ex- 
cesses oi  the  French  Revolution,  and  by  the  division 
which  that  subject  produced  in  the  Whig  party ;  but  the 
tide  of  his  success  liegan  to  ebb  when  he  involved  Eng- 
land in  a  war  with  the  French  republic  in  1793, — a  war 
which,  according  to  Alison,  added  three  hundred  millions 
to  the  national  debt.  (See  Bonapartr,  and  George  III.) 
"  His  conduct  of  the  war,"  says  Brougham,  "  betrayed 
no  extent  of  views,  no  commanding  notions  of  policy. 
To  form  one  coalition  after  another  in  Germany,  and 
subsidize  them  with  millions  of  fiee  gift,  or  aid  with 
profuse  loans,  until  all  the  powers  in  our  pay  were  de- 
feated in  succession,  and  most  of  them  either  destroyed 
or  converted  into  allies  of  the  enemy, — such  were  all  the 
resources  of  his  diplomatic  policy."     In  1800  an  act  for 


^2&k;  9as  j;  %hard;  gasy;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sass;  th  asin/Z/w.     (Jf^^'See  Explanations,  !>.  23.) 


PITTA  C  us 


1962 


FIC/S 


the  union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  passed  in 
the  Parliament  of  the  latter.  Me  resip;ned  office  in 
March,  i8oi,  and  was  succeeded  by  Addington.  The 
ostensible  cause  of  his  resignation  was  that  the  king 
objected  to  the  measures  which  Pitt  projjosed  for  the 
relief  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  Alison  intimates  that 
he  retired  to  make  way  for  a  pacific  administration. 

A  combination  of  Whigs  and  Tories  having  been 
formed  against  Addington,  he  resigned,  and  Pitt  was 
again  appointed  prime  minister,  in  May,  1804.  The  new 
ministry  was  formed  exclusively  of  Tories.  The  pre- 
mature death  of  Pitt  appears  to  have  been  hastened  by 
the  vexation  which  he  suffered  from  the  failure  of  the 
new  coalition,  and  the  victories  of  Bonaparte  at  Ulm  and 
Austerlitz.  He  died  on  the  23d  of  January,  i8o6,  having 
never  been  married. 

"  Unequalled  in  the  ability  with  which  he  overcame 
the  jealousies  and  awakened  the  activity  of  cabinets," 
says  Alison,  "  he  was  by  no  means  equally  felicitous  in 
the  warlike  measures  which  he  recommended  for  their 
adoption.  Napoleon  has  observed  that  he  had  no  turn 
for  military  combinations  ;  and  a  retrospect  of  the  cam- 
paigns which  he  had  a  share  in  directing,  must  confirm 
the  justice  of  the  opinion.  By  not  engaging  England  as 
a  principal  in  the  contest,  and  trusting  for  land  operations 
to  the  continental  armies  put  in  motion  by  British  sub- 
.sidies,  he  prolonged  the  war  for  an  indefinite  period." 
("History  of  Europe.")  He  is  admitted  by  all  parties 
to  have  been  a  consummate  debater,  and  almost  un- 
equalled as  a  master  of  sarcasm.  His  declamation  was 
copious,  polished,  and  impressive.  He  poured  forth  a 
long  succession  of  round  and  stately  periods,  with  a  full 
and  sonorous  voice  and  with  an  unbending  dignity  of 
manner.  "  Yet,  with  all  this  excellence,"  says  Brougham, 
"  the  last  effect  of  the  highest  eloquence  was  for  the 
most  part  wanting  :  we  seldom  forgot  the  speaker,  or 
lost  the  artist  in  the  work."  His  private  character  is 
described  as  amiable.  Pride  appears  to  have  been  his 
principal  fault. 

See  Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.  ;"  "Me- 
moirs of  W.  Pitt,"  by  George  Tomline,  1821 ;  Macaulay,  article 
"William  Pitt,"  in  the  "  Encyclopsedia  Britannica;"  Lord  Stan- 
KOPE,  (Mahon,')  "Life  of  William  Pitt,"  1S62;  John  Gifford, 
"  History  of  the  Political  Life  of  William  Pitt,"  3Vols.,  i8oq  ;  Pierke 
Chanin,  "ViedeM.  Pitt,"  1805;  Augusts  Vidalin,  "Etude  sar 
la  Carriire  de  W.  Pitt,"  1851 ;  Alison,  "History  of  Europe:" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1S56,  and  "The  Addington  and  Pitt 
Administrations,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1858. 

Pit'ta-cus,  [IliTTaKof,]  a  celebrated  Greek  statesman, 
philosopher,  and  poet,  called  one  of  the  Seven  Wise 
Men  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos,  about 
650  B.C.  He  distinguished  himself  in  a  battle  against 
the  Athenians  (whose  leader,  Phrynon,  he  killed)  in  606 
B.C.  About  590  he  was  chosen  supreme  ruler  by  the 
popular  party,  which  had  expelled  the  aristocratic  party. 
The  poet  Alcaeus  belonged  to  the  latter,  and  was  exiled 
in  the  time  of  Pittacus.  Having  governed  the  state 
wisely  for  ten  years,  he  resigned  his  office  in  580  B.C. 
He  was  famous  as  an  elegiac  poet ;  but  only  a  few  of  his 
lines  are  extant.     Died  in  569  B.C. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Suidas,  "Pittacus." 

Pitth^e.    See  Pittheus. 

Pit'theus,  [Gr.  XlLrdevi:  ;  Fr.  Pitth^e,  pe'tJi',]  a  son 
of  Pelops  and  Hippodami'a,  was  a  king  of  Ti'cezene,  the 
father  of  ^thra,  and  grandfather  of  Theseus.  Pausanias 
ascribes  to  him  a  work  on  the  art  of  speaking. 

Pit'tis,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  entered  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  about 
1652.     Died  in  1687. 

Pittoni,  p6t-to'nee,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1520  ;  died  after 

1585- 

Pittoni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1687.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The 
Miracle  of  the  Loaves."     Died  in  1767. 

Pittorio,  pit-to're-o,  or  Pittori,  pit-to'ree,  [Lat. 
Picto'rius,]  (LoDovico  BiGt,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Ferrara  in  1454.  He  wrote  "  Candida,"  (1491,)  "  Moral 
Epigrams,"  ("  Epigrammata  moralia,"  1516,)  and  other 
poems.     Died  about  1524. 

Pitts,  (^yI_LLIAM,)  an  English  sculptor,  called  "the 
British  Cellini,"  was  born  in  London  in  1790.  He  learned 


the  trade  of  gold-chaser.  He  displayed  a  fine  fancy  for 
design,  and  remarkable  executive  skill.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Creation  of  Eve,"  (1824,)  "The  Shield 
of  /lineas,"  (1828,)  "The  Shield  of  Hercules,"  (1834,) 
and  the  "  Apotheoses  of  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Mil- 
ton," in  bas-relief.     He  committed  suicide  in  1840. 

Pi'us  [It.  Pio,  pee'o ;  Fr.  Pie,  pee|  I.,  Pope  or 
Bishop  of  Rome,  was  born  at  Aquileia.  He  succeeded 
Hyginus  in  142  A.D.,  and  died  in  157.  His  successor 
was  Anicetus. 

Pius  (or  Pio)  II.,  Pope,  (^Ene'as  Syl'vius  Picco- 
lomini — pfek-ko-lom'e-nee,)  was  born  at  Corsignano, 
Tuscany,  in  1405.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  was 
familiar  with  the  ancient  classics.  In  1535  he  produced  a 
history  of  the  Council  of  Bile.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
this  council  in  its  contest  against  Pope  Eugenius  IV., 
and  became  the  secretary  of  Felix  V.,  who  was  elected 
pope  in  place  of  Eugenius,  whom  the  council  deposed. 
About  1442  he  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick III.,  of  whom  he  wrote  a  history,  "  Historia  Rerum 
Friderici  III."  In  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.,  yEneas 
Sylvius  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  Germany.  He  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  negotiator  and  orator  on  various 
occasions.  He  becaine  a  cardinal  in  1456,  and  was 
elected  pope  in  1458,  in  place  of  Calixtus  III.  In  1459 
he  procured  the  meeting  of  a  European  congress  on 
the  subject  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  ;  but  the 
jealousies  and  dissensions  among  the  Christian  powers 
rendered  his  efforts  abortive.  He  issued  a  bull  in  which 
he  retracted  and  condemned  what  he  had  formerly  writ- 
ten in  favour  of  the  supremacy  of  councils.  He  died  in 
August,  1464,  and  was  succeeded  by  Paul  II.  Pius  II. 
was  an  eminent  historian  and  scholar.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works  are  "  Epistolae,"  (1473,)  ^'^^  ^  "History 
of  Bohemia,"  (1475,)  which  are  highly  prized. 

See  "  Pii  II.  Commentarii  Rerum  memorabilium,"  an  auto- 
biography, published  by  his  secretary,  Gobelinus,  1477  and  1614; 
Campanus  or  Campmanus,  "Vita  Pii  H.  ;"  Platina,  "Vita 
Pontificum  ;"  Hei.wing,  "  De  Pii  II.  Rebus  gestis,"  1835; 
Voigt,  "  Eneas  Piccolomini,"  Berlin,  1859;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Pius  III.,  Pope,  (Francesco  Todeschini  Piccolo 
mini — to-d§s-kee'nee  p^k-ko-lom'e-nee,)  born  at  Sienna 
in  1439,  was  a  nephew  of  Pius  II.  He  succeeded  Alex- 
ander VI.  in  September,  1503,  and  died  in  October  of 
the  same  year.      His  successor  was  Julius  II. 

Pius  IV.,  Pope,  (Giovanni  Angelo  de'  Medici — 
dk  mSd'e-chee,)  was  born  at  Milan  in  1499,  and  was  an 
uncle  of  the  eminent  Carlo  Borromeo.  He  was  elected 
pope,  in  place  of  Paul  IV.,  about  the  end  of  1559.  He 
convoked  the  Council  of  Trent  which  reassembled  in 
1 561  and  finished  its  labours  in  1563.  The  decrees  of 
this  council  in  relation  to  discii^line,  etc.  were  rejected 
by  the  French.  He  is  represented  by  some  historiatis 
as  an  able  but  rather  unscrupulous  pontiff.  He  died 
in  December,  1565,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  V. 

See  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes." 

Pins  v.,  Pope,  (Michele  Ghislieri — g^s-le-a'ree,) 
was  born  at  or  near  Alessandria  in  1504.  He  became 
a  cardinal  in  1557,  and  Inquisitor-General  of  Christen- 
dom. In  1566  he  was  elected  pope.  He  was  a  rigorist 
ni  discipline,  and  a  violent  persecutor  of  dissenters. 
Palearius,  Zanetti,  and  other  learned  men  were  put  to 
death  by  his  inquisitors.  He  published  in  1568  the  bull 
"  In  Coena  Domini,"  which  asserts  the  extreme  ultra- 
montane doctrines  in  relation  to  the  papal  supremacy. 
The  publication  of  this  bull  was  forbidden  by  the  Kings 
of  France  and  Spain  and  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Pius  V.  was  one  of  the  allies  whose  fleet  gained  the 
victory  of  Lepanto  over  the  Turks,  in  1 571.  He  died 
in  1572,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XIII. 

See  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes  ;"  Agatid  di  Somma,  "  Vida 
di  Pio  Quinto;"  J.  B.  Feuillet,  "Vie  du  Pape  Pie  V,"  1674;  De 
Falloux,  "  Histoire  de  Saint  Pie  V,"  2  vols.,  1844:  "Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Saint  Pius  V.,"  by  Rev.  Joseph  JNIendham,  1S32. 

Pius  VI.,  Pope,  (Cardinal  Angelo  Braschi — bris- 
kee,)  was  born  at  Cesena  in  171 7.  He  succeeded  Clem- 
ent XIV.  in  February,  1775.  He  drained  the  Pontine 
marshes,  and  enriched  the  Museum  of  the  Vatican. 
In  1782  he  went  in  person  to  Vienna  to  treat  with  the 
emjieror  Joseph,  who  had  suppressed  convents  and 
meddled   with  spiritual   affairs  in   a  manner  which  dis- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  yjottg;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ft,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  ni6t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PIUS 


1963 


PIZARRO 


pleased  the  pope.  He  failed  in  his  effort  to  change  the 
purpose  of  the  emperor.  The  French  Revolution  in- 
voived  him  in  a  still  greater  trouble.  He  entered  into 
alliance  with  Austria  and  other  powers  against  the 
French  republic.  After  his  states  had  been  invaded  by 
Bonaparte,  he  sued  for  peace,  which  he  obtained  by  the 
treaty  of  Tolentino,  in  1797.  To  avenge  the  death  of 
General  Duphot,  (who  was  killed  by  a  Roman  mob,) 
.the  French  army  entered  Rome  in  February,  1798,  and 
deposed  the  pope,  who  ^as  conveyed  to  Valence,  in 
France,  where  he  died  in  August,  1799. 

_  See  Ferrari,  "  Vita  Pii  VI.,"  1802  ;  Tavanti,  "  Fasti  del  Papa 
Pio  VI.,"  3  vols.,  1804;  Artaud  de  Montor,"  Histoire  de  Pie 
VI,"  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Pius  VII.,  Pope,  (Gkegorio  Barnaba  Luigi  Chi- 
aramonti — ke-S-ri-mon'tee,)  was  born  at  Cesena  in 
A.ugust,  1742.  He  became  a  cardinal,  and  Bishop  of 
Imola,  in  1785.  After  the  French  had' become  masters 
of  Imola,  he  exhorted  his  people  to  submit  to  the  new 
regime.  He  was  elected  pope  by  a  conclave  of  car- 
dinals assembled  at  Venice  in  March,  1800,  and  ap- 
pointed Cardinal  Consalvi  secretary  of  state.  The  first 
important  event  of  his  reign  was  a  treaty  with  Bonaparte, 
by  which  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  re-established 
in  France.  This  treaty,  called  the  Concordat,  was  signed 
on  the  15th  of  July,  1801.  In  compliance  with  the  re- 
quest of  Bonaparte,  Pius  went  to  Paris  and  crowned  or 
anointed  him  as  emperor  in  December,  1804.  He  re- 
fused to  comply  with  the  will  of  Napoleon  when  the 
latter  required  him  to  banish  the  English,  Russians,  and 
Swedes  from  the  Papal  States,  (1806,)  and  resisted  him 
in  other  designs.  The  French  army  occupied  Rome  in 
February,  1808,  but  permitted  the  pope  to  retain  some 
temporal  power.  In  May,  1809,  Napoleon  issued  a 
decree  that  the  Papal  States  were  united  to  the  French 
empire.  The  pope,  having  resorted  to  a  bull  of  ex- 
communication against  his  adversaries,  was  seized  and 
abducted  from  Rome  in  July,  1809.  He  was  detained  at 
Savona,  near  Genoa,  until  1S12,  and  was  then  removed  to 
Fontaincbleau.  In  his  captivity  the  pope  firmly  resisted 
the  will  of  the  emperor,  who  probably  wished  him  to 
transfer  his  court  from  Rome  to  Avignon.  Pius  refused 
to  give  canonical  institution  to  the  bishops  appointed 
by  Napoleon.  In  January,  18 13,  he  was  persuaded  to 
sign  a  new  concordat  and  to  make  concessions,  which, 
however,  by  the  advice  of  his  cardinals,  he  soon  re- 
tracted. In  January,  1814,  he  received  an  order  or 
permission  to  return  to  Rome,  which  he  entered  in  May. 
He  afterwards  made  some  laudable  reforms.  He  died 
in  August,  1S23,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XII.  Pius 
VII.  left  a  fair  reputation  for  moderation  and  other 
virtues. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  de  Pie  VII,"  2  vols.,  1836; 
Cohen,  "Precis  historique  sur  Pie  VII,"  1823;  A.  de  Beauchamp, 
"  Histoire  des  Malheurs  de  Pie  VII,"  1814  ;  Guadet,  "  Esquisses 
historiques  et  politiques  sur  Pie  VII,"  1S23;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^tierale;"  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1B58;  "Recollections 
of  the  Last  Four  Popes,"  by  Cardinal  Wiseman,  London,  1858. 

Pius  VIII.,  Pope,  (Cardinal  Francesco  Castiglioni 
— k&s-til-yo'nee,)  was  born  at  Cingoli  in  1761.  He  suc- 
ceeded Leo  XII.  in  March,  1829,  and  issued  an  encyclical 
letter  in  which  he  denounced  religious  toleration,  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  and  civil  marriage,  as  impious. 
He  died  in  November,  1830.  His  successor  was  Greg- 
ory XVL 

Pius  IX.,  [Ital.  Pio  NoNO,  pee'o  no'no,J  Pope,  (Gio- 
vanni Maria  Mastai  Ferretti — mis'ti  fgr-ret'tee,) 
was  born,  of  a  noble  family,  at  Sinigaglia,  near  Ancona, 
on  the  13th  of  May,  1792.  He  visited  South  America 
in  1823  on  a  religious  mission,  and  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Spoleto  in  1827.  In  1840  he  obtained  the  dignity  of 
cardinal.  He  was  elected  by  acclamation  the  successor 
of  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  in  June,  1846.  He  granted  an 
amnesty  to  political  transgressors,  and  acquired  gieat 
popularity  by  various  measures  of  reform  which  he 
commenced  soon  after  his  election.  His  first  secretaiy 
of  state,  Cardinal  Gizzi,  was  a,  friend  of  progress  and  a 
liberal  policy.  The  expenses  of  the  papal  court  were 
reduced,  the  censorship  of  the  press  was  modified,_and 
the  Jews  were  relieved  from  some  oppressive  regulations. 
His  reforms  were  partly  frustrated  by  the  ill  will  of  many 
of  his  functionaries,  who  opposed  innovation.    His  popu- 


larity began  to  decline  before  the  end  of  1847.  Excited 
and  elated  by  the  French  revolution,  the  Italian  liberals 
required  greater  concessions  than  the  pope  was  willing 
to  grant.  After  several  violent  demonstrations  of  the 
populace,  Pius  IX.  escaped  from  Rome  in  disguise  in 
November,  1848,  and  retired  to  Gaeta.  A  republic  was 
organized  at  Rome  in  February,  1849,  but  was  subverted 
by  a  French  army  which  took  the  city  in  July  of  that 
year  and  restored  the  pope.  Among  the  later  events  of 
his  pontificate  was  the  formal  definition  and  recognition 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  as  a 
part  of  the  Roman  Catholic  creed,  (1854.)  During  the 
war  which  Austria  waged  against  the  French  and  Sar- 
dinians in  1859,  the  people  of  the  Romagna  and  the 
legations  revolted  against  the  pope,  and  the  Papal  States 
were  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  In 
January,  i860,  the  pope  issued  an  anathema,  or  bull, 
against  those  who  abetted  the  invasion  of  his  dominions. 
This  was  probably  aimed  at  Napoleon  III.,  who  sup- 
pressed the  journal  in  which  it  was  published.  Rome 
was  declared  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy 
in  i860,  after  which  the  question  of  the  pope's  tem- 
poral power  remained  for  some  time  one  of  the  great 
problems  of  European  diplomacy.  The  recognition  of 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  by  the  French  court  (1861)  was 
accompanied  by  the  reservation  that  "  French  troops 
shall  continue  to  occupy  Rome  so  long  as  the  interests 
which  caused  their  presence  shall  not  be  protected  by 
sutficient  guarantees."  The  pope  was  the  only  power 
that  recognized  the  "  Confederate  States  of  North  Amer- 
ica." The  results  of  the  war  between  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  the  allied  Kings  of  Prussia  and  Italy  in  1866 
were  unfavourable  to  papal  domination.  About  the  loth 
of  December,  1866,  the  French  army  departed  from 
Rome,  and  Italy  was  relieved  from  the  presence  of  for- 
eign soldiery,  for  the  first  time  probably  in  a  thousand 
years.  He  convoked  by  an  encyclical  letter  an  oecu- 
menical council  which  met  at  Rome  in  December,  1869, 
to  assert  or  define  the  dogma  of  the  pope's  infallibility, 
which,  after  a  long  deliberation,  was  finally  established 
in  July,  1870.  The  Italian  army  took  Rome  on  the  20th 
of  September,  without  serious  resistance,  and  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope  was  then  abolished,  but  Pius 
remained  in  Rome  until  his  death,  February  7,  1878. 

See  A.  Balleydier,  "Rome  et  Pie  IX,"  1847;  G.  B.  Nic- 
COLINI,  "  History  of  the  Pontificate  of  Pius  IX.,"  London,  1851  ; 
Brktonneau,  "Notice  sur  Pie  IX,"  1847:  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^nerale;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1847. 

Pivati,  pe-vl'tee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1689.  He  published 
"Scientific  Dictionary,"  etc.,  ("Dizionario  scientifico 
e  curioso,"  10  vols.,  1750.)     Died  in  1764. 

Pix,  (Mary,)  originally  Griffith,  an  English  drama- 
tist, born  in  Oxfordshire  about  1665;  died  about  1720. 

Pix'is,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  pianist  and  com- 
poser, born  in  1788  at  Mannheim,  where  his  father, 
Friedrich  Wilhelm,  was  a  musician  of  some  local  repute. 
The  son's  chief  fame  was  won  as  a  teacher  of  the  piano, 
both  in  Paris  and  in  Baden-Baden,  at  which  latter  place 
he  died,  December  21,  1874. 

Pizarre.     See  Pizarro. 

Pizarro,  pe-zir^ro,  [Sp.  pron.  pe-thdr'ro;  Fr.  Pi- 
zarre, pe'ztR',]  (Francisco,)  the  conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  born  at  Truxillo,  in  Spain,  about  1475.  ^e  was  the 
natural  son  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  who  was  a  colonel  in 
the  Spanish  army.  He  was  employed  as  a  swineherd  in 
his  youth,  and  never  learned  to  read  or  write.  The  date 
of  his  emigration  to  the  New  World  has  not  been  pre- 
served;  biit  in  1510  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  of 
Ojeda  from  Hispaniola  to  Terra  Firma.  He  afterwards 
served  under  Balboa,  with  whom  he  performed  an  ar- 
duous march  across  the  mountains  from  Darien  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  In  1522  Pizarro,  who  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  captain,  associated  himself,  at  Panama,  with 
Almagro  and  a  rich  priest  named  De  Luque,  in  an  enter- 
prise to  explore  and  conquer  the  region  which  lies  south 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Having  enlisted  in  his  service 
about  one  hundred  desperadoes,  he  sailed  from  Panama 
with  one  small  vessel  in  November,  1524.  His  first  ex- 
pedition was  unsuccessful  and  attended  with  great  hard- 
ships. He  renewed  the  enterprise  in  1526,  but  made 
slow  progress  and  lost  many  men.     He  landed  at  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  tkis.     (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PIZARRO 


1964 


PLANCHE 


city  of  Tunibez  without  opposition,  and  was  stimulated 
to  pursue  his  project  by  the  sight  of  the  gold  trinkets 
and  utensils  which  the  natives  displayed  in  great  pro- 
fusion. Having  explored  the  coast  as  far  as  Truxillo, 
about  9°  south  latitude,  he  found  it  inexpedient  to  pro- 
ceed with  his  reduced  force,  and  returned  to  Panama 
in  1528.  With  the  consent  of  Almagro  and  De  Lucjue, 
Pizarro  went  to  Spain  to  solicit  aid  from  the  king.  In 
this  mission  he  was  successful.  He  procured  for  himself 
an  appointment  as  governor  and  captain-general*  of  the 
region  which  he  might  conquer  for  a  distance  of  two 
hundred  leagues  south  of  Santiago ;  but  he  neglected  to 
obtain  any  high  office  for  Alm.agro,  who  was  disgusted 
with  this  perfidious  conduct.  In  January,  1531,  Pizarro 
sailed  from  Panama  with  one  hundred  and  eighty  men 
and  about  thirty  horses,  leaving  Almagro  behind  to 
muster  reinforcements.  A  civil  war  which  raged  in  Peru 
between  Atahualpa  and  Huascar  presented  a  favour- 
able opportunity  fur  his  design.  Having  marched  across 
the  sierra  of  the  Andes  to  Caxamarca,  he  met  the  Inca 
Atahualpa  in  November,  1532.  The  treacherous  and 
audacious  Spaniard  seized  the  Inca,  who  had  come  to 
the  Spanish  camp  for  a  friendly  interview.  To  obtain 
his  liberty,  the  Inca  offered  to  fill  a  room  twenty-two 
feet  long  and  sixteen  feet  wide  with  golden  vessels  and 
utensils,  etc.  up  to  a  line  as  high  as  he  could  reach. 
Pizarro  assented  to  this  proposal,  and  obtained  about 
1,326,000  pesos  of  gold,  the  value  of  which  Prescott 
estimates  at  over  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  ;  but  he  caused 
Atahualpa  to  be  put  to  death  by  the  garote.  "The 
blood-stained  annals  of  the  conquest,"  says  Prescott, 
"afford  no  such  example  of  cold  hearted  and  systematic 
persecution,  not  of  an  enemy,  but  of  one  whose  whole 
deportment  had  been  that  of  a  friend  and  benefactor." 
In  November,  1533,  Pizarro  entered  Cu/.co,  the  capital, 
and  the  conquest  of  Peru  was  virtually  effected.  Civil 
war  broke  out  in  1537  between  Pizarro  and  Almagro, 
who  was  defeated  and  executed  in  1538.  (See  Almagro.) 
To  avenge  his  death,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  by  Alma- 
gro the  Younger,  and  Pizarro  was  assassinated  at  Lima 
in  June,  1541.  "The  name  of  Pizarro  became  a  by-word 
of  perfidy,"  says  Prescott,  who,  however,  praises  his 
invincible  constancy. 

See  Prescott,  "Coiiqi'est  of  Peru:"  Robertson,  "History 
of  America  ;"  Zarate,  "  Historia  de  la  Conqiiista  de  Peru;"  Her- 
RERA,  "  Novus  Orbis ;"  Garcilasso  de  la  Vkga,  "  Comentarios 
Reales  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale. " 

Pizarro,  (Gonzai.o,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1506.  He  went  to  the  New  World  in  1530, 
and  served  under  Francisco  Pizarro  in  Peru.  According 
to  Prescott,  he  was  inferior  in  talent  to  his  brother,  but 
quite  as  unscrupulous.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Quito  in  1540,  and  discovered  the  river  Napo.  In 
1544  he  became  the  leader  of  malcontents  who  revolted 
against  the  viceroy  Nunez.  About  the  end  of  1545  the 
latter  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by  Pizarro,  who 
remained  master  of  Peru.  He  in  turn  was  defeated  near 
Cuzco  by  the  viceroy  Gasca  in  April,  1548,  and  beheaded 
in  the  same  month. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru;"  Herrera, 
"  Novus  Orbis." 

Pizarro,  (Hernando,)  was  a  half-brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  left  Spain  in  1530,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  conquest  of  Peru.  With  a  force  of  about 
seven  hundred  men  he  defeated  Almagro  at  Las  Salinas 
in  April,  1538.  He  returned  to  Spain  in  1539,  and  was 
imprisoned  twenty  years,  probably  for  the  execution  of 
Almagro.     Died  about  1566. 

Pizarro,  (Juan,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Truxillo  about  1505.     He  assisted  in  the  conquest  of 
Peru,  and  became  governor  of  Cuzco.     He  was  killed  j 
in  battle  at  Cuzco  in  1535. 

Pizarro,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  historian  and  soldier  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Toledo,  was  a  relative  of 
the  celebrated  commander  Francisco  Pizarro.  He  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "Account  of  the  Discovery  and  Con- 
quest of  the  Kingdoms  of  Peru,"  ("  Relaciones  del  Des- 
cubrimiento  y  Conquista  de  los  Reynos  del  Pe-u,") 
published  about  1847. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  li.  boot 


Pizzi,  pfet'see  or  pit'see,  (Gioacchino,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Rome  in  17 16.  Among  his  poems  is  "The 
Vision  of  Eden,"  (1778.)     Died  in  1790. 

Plaas,  van  der,  vtn  der  pllss,  written  also  Plas, 
(David,)  a  Dutch  ])ortrait-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1647.  ^^c  passed  some  years  at  Venice.  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1704. 

Placaeus.     See  La  Place,  de,  (Josu6.) 

Placcius,  pldt'se-ds,  (Vincenz,)  a  German  writci 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1642.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Atlantis  Retecta,"  a  poem,  (1659,)  and  "Treat- 
ise on  Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  Works  and 
Writers,"  ("De  Scriptis  et  Scriptoribus  anonymis  et 
pseudonymis  Syntagma,"  1674.)     Died  in  1699. 

Place,  (Francis,)  an  English  engraver  and  painter, 
born  in  Durham.  His  etchings  are  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1728. 

Place,  de  la,  (Josu^.)     See  La  Place,  de. 

Place,  de  la,  deh  Itpltss,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant jurist,  born  at  Angouleme  about  1520.  He  wrote 
a  journal  or  history  of  public  events  in  France  from  1556 
to  1 561,  (1565,)  and  other  works.  He  became  president 
of  the  cour  des  aides,  Paris,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
He  was  a  victim  of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew, 
(1572.) 

Place,  de  la,  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer  of  fiction  and  dramas,  born  at  Calais  in  1707;  died 
in  1793. 

Place,  La,  (Pierre  Simon.)     See  Laplace. 

Pla-cen-ti'niTS,  [It.  Piacentino,  pe-i-ch§n-tee'no,J 
an  Italian  jurist  of  the  twelfth  century,  born  at  Piacenza  ; 
died  in  1192. 

Placentius,  pi  Jt-s§n'se-ils,  (Peter,)  or  Johann  Leo, 
a  German  writer,  who  lived  about  1530,  and  wrote  a 
Latin  poem  entitled  "The  Battle  of  the  Pigs,"  ("Pugna 
Porcorum,")  in  which  every  word  begins  with  P. 

Placette,  La.     See  La  Placette. 

Pla-cid'i-a,  [Fr.  Placidie,  plS'se'de',]  a  Roman 
princess,  born  about  390  a.d.,  was  a  daughter  of  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great.  She  was  taken  captive  by  the  Goths, 
and  became  the  wife  of  Ataulphus,  King  of  the  Goths, 
(414.)     Died  in  450  a.d. 

Plag'i-tus  Pa-p5^r-i-en'sis,  (  Sextus,  )  sometimes 
called  Sextus  Platon'icus  or  Sextus  Empir'icus,  a 
physician,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  the 
fourth  century.  He  wrote  a  work  "On  Medicaments 
made  from  Animals,"  ("  De  Medicamentis  ex  Ani- 
malibus.") 

Plaidy,  pla'dee,  (Louis,)  a  German  musician,  born 
at  Wermsdorf,  in  Saxony,  November  28,  1810.  He 
began  life  as  a  performer  on  the  violin,  but  forsook  that 
instrument  for  the  piano,  and  earned  a  great  reputation 
as  a  teacher  at  the  Leipsic  Conservatorium.  Died  at 
Grim  ma,  March  3,  1874. 

Plaisance,  de,  Due.     See  Lebrun. 

Plana,  pia'nS,  (Giovanni  Antonio  Amedeo,)  Baron, 
an  Italian  savant,  born  in  1781.  He  became  director 
of  the  observatory  at  Turin,  professor  of  analysis,  and 
senator.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Theory 
of  the  Motion  of  the  Moon,"  (1832.)     Died  in  1864. 

Planard,  de,  deh  pla'ntR',  (Francois  Antoine  Eu- 
gene,) a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Aveyron  in  1783. 
He  produced  successful  comedies  and  comic  operas. 
Died  in  1855. 

Planche,  ploN'sha',  (James  Robinson,)  an  Fnglish 
dramatist,  born  in  London  in  1796.  He  published  about 
1827  "Lays  and  Legends  of  the  Rhine,"  and  "The 
Descent  of  the  Danube."  He  composed  numerous 
successful  dramas  and  operas,  among  which  were  "  Obe- 
ron"  and  "Charles  XII.,"  (182S.)  He  also  wrote  a 
"  History  of  British  Costume,"  (1834.)  Died  at  Chelsea, 
May  29,  18S0. 

Planche,  pl6Nsh,  (Jean  Baptiste  Gust  aye,  )  a 
French  litterateur  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1808.  He 
wrote  many  able  criticisms  on  art  and  literature  for  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  and  published  "  Literary 
Portraits,"  (4  vols.,    1836-49.)     Died  in  1857. 

Planche,  (Joseph,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  at  La- 
dinhac  (Cantal)  in  1762,  was  ]5rofessor  at  the  College 
Bourbon,  at  Paris.  He  published,  besides  other  books 
for  students,  a  "Greek-French  Dictionary,"  (1809,)  which 


a,  t,  r,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,6,  li,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  f^U,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PLANCHER 


1965 


PL  A  TINA 


was  successful  and  was  adopted  in  the  university.  Died 
in  1853. 

Plancher,  pldN'shi',  (Urbain,)  a  Frencii  monk  and 
historian,  born  in  Anjou  in  1667.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Burgundy,"  (3  vols.,  1739-48.)     Died  in  1750. 

Planciades.     See  Fulgentius. 

Plancius,  plJn'se-us,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
born  in  Flanders  in  1552,  was  a  zealous  Calvinist.  He 
preached  at  Brussels  and  Amsterdam.  By  his  astro- 
nomical and  nautical  science  he  rendered  good  service 
to  the  commerce  of  Holland.     Died  in  1622. 

Plauck,  plink,  (Goitlieb  Jakob,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man theologian  and  church  historian,  born  at  Niirtingen, 
in  WUrtemberg,  in  1751.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Gottingen  from  1784  to  1833.  His  principal  works 
are  a  "  History  of  the  Protestant  Doctrinal  System," 
("  Geschichte  der  Bildung  des  Protestantischen  Lehr- 
begriflfs,"  6  vols.,  1781-1800,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Origin  and  Development  of  the  Organization  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  {5  vols.,  1803-05.)     Died  in  1833. 

See  LuECKK,  "  Dr.  G.  J.  Planck  ;  biographischer  Versuch." 

Planck,  (Heinrich  Ludwig,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Gottingen  in  1785.  He  wrote  several 
theological  and  exegetical  works,  and  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Gottingen.     Died  in  1831. 

Plangon,  p16n's6n',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Javron,  in  Maine.  He  translated  Galen's 
"Commentary  on  the  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,"(i55i.) 
Died  in  1611. 

Plan'cus,  (Lucius  Munatius,)  a  profligate  Roman 
politician,  who  was  a  partisan  of  Cassar  in  the  civil  war. 
He  took  arms  for  the  senate  in  43  B.C.,  but  soon  deserted 
to  Antony,  and  was  consul  in  42  B.C.  In  32  B.C.  he 
abandoned  Antony  and  became  a  partisan  of  Octavius. 
He  was  the  person  to  whom  Horace  addressed  the 
seventh  ode  of  his  first  book. 

His  brother,  Titus  Mun.atius  Plancus  Bursa,  was 
tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C.  He  was  a  violert 
enemy  of  Milo,  and  caused  a  popular  riot  at  the  funera' 
of  Clodius,  for  which  he  was  prosecuted  by  Cicero,  and 
condemned  about  50  B.C. 

Planer,  plS'ner,  (Johann  Jacob,)  a  German  botanist 
and  physician,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1743.  He  translated 
Linnseus's  "  Systema  Naturse"  into  German,  (1774,)  and 
wrote  several  scientific  treatises.     Died  in  1789. 

Planque,  plSxk,  (Francois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1696.  He  published  a  good  manual 
of  surgery,  "Chirurgie  complete,"  (2  vols.,  1744,)  and 
"Select  Library  of  Medicine,"  ("Bibliotheque  choisie 
de  Medecine,"  10  vols.,  1748-70.)     Died  in  1765. 

Planquette,  plSw'kgt',  (Robert,)  a  French  musical 
composer,  born  in  Paris,  July  31,  1850.  He  has  pro- 
duced songs,  chansonnettes,  and  operettas.  Of  the  latter, 
"  Les  Cloches  de  Corneville,"  (1877,)  generally  known  in 
this  country  as  "The  Chimes  of  Normandy,"  is  the 
most  popular. 

Plant,  plint,  (Johann  Traugott,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1756.  He  wrote  a  "Biographical 
and  Critical  Treatise  on  the  History  of  German  Poetry," 
(1782,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1794. 

Planta,  plin'ti,  (Joseph,)  a  Swiss  historian  and  phi- 
lologist, born  in  the  Grisons  in  1744.  He  became  in 
1799  principal  librarian  of  the  British  Museum.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  twenty 
years  or  more.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Hel- 
vetic Confederacy,"  (2  vols.,  1800,)  and  other  works. 
Died  December  3,  1S27. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1800. 

Planta,  de,  deh  pl^n'ti,  (Martin,)  a  Swiss  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  1727.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  electrical  machines  with  plates,  (h  platemix.) 
Died  in  1772. 

Plantade,  pl6N'ttd^  (Charles  Henri,)  a  French 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Pontoise  in  1764.  He 
produced  songs,  operas,  and  sacred  compositions  which 
were  popular  in  their  day,  but  have  now  fallen  into 
oblivion.     Died  in  Paris,  December  18,  1839. 

Plantade,  de,  deh  pl5N't3d',  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1670.  He  wrote 
"Observations  on  the  Aurora  Borealis,"  (1730.)  He 
made  some  good  maps  of  Languedoc.     Died  in  1741- 


Plantageuet.     See  Edmund  Plantagenet. 

Plantagenet,    See  Henry  II.  of  England. 

Plan  tin,  pldN'tiN',  (Christophe,)  an  eminent  printer, 
born  near  Tours,  in  France,  in  15 14.  He  became  th« 
proprietor  of  a  printing-office  in  Antwerp  about  1 550. 
His  publications  were  renowned  for  correctness  and 
beauty.  He  employed  Kilian,  Pulmann,  (or  Poelmann,) 
and  other  learned  men  as  correctors  of  the  press.  His 
most  remarkable  performance  was  an  edition  of  a  Poly- 
glot Bible,  superintended  by  Arias  Montanus,  (1568-72.) 
Died  in  1589. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Plantin,  plSN'tiN',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Swiss  histo- 
rian, born  at  Lausanne  about  1625.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Switzerland,"  ("  Helvetia  antiqua  et  nova,"  1656,) 
and  other  works.     Died  about  1680. 

Planude.     See  Planudes. 

Pla-nu'dei,  [Gr.  T^.'kavov&^(;  ;  Fr.  Planude,  plS'niid',] 
(Maximus,)  a  Byzantine  monk,  born  at  Nicomedia,  was 
sent  by  Andronicus  II.  on  a  mission  to  Venice  in  1327. 
He  is  chiefly  noted  as  an  editor  of  a  Greek  Anthology, 
a  collection  of  Greek  epigrams,  some  of  which  he  ex- 
tracted from  an  Anthology  compiled  by  Constantinua 
Cephalas  in  the  tenth  century.  Planudes  was  very 
deficient  in  the  judgment  and  taste  required  to  edit 
such  a  work,  and  is  accused  of  literary  forgeries.  His 
Anthology  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1494. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graca" 

Plas,  van  der,  vSn  der  plSs,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  in  157S;  died  at  Brussels  in  1634. 

Platao.     See  Plato. 

Platea,  pli-ta'I,  (Francesco  Piazza,)  an  Italian 
canonist,  born  at  Bologna  about  1390  ;  died  in  1460. 

Plateau,  plS'to',  (Joseph  Antoine  Ferdinand,)  a 
Belgian  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Brussels  in  i8ci. 
He  wrote  on  optics  and  on  the  statics  of  liquids  removed 
from  the  effects  of  gravity.     Died  September  19,  1883. 

Platen,  von,  fon  pla'ten,  (Dubislav  Friedrich,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  1714.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  Russians  and  Swedes  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general  about  1758. 
Died  in  1787. 

Platen-Hallermtinde.pia'ten  hai'lSr-miin'deh,  (Au- 
gust,) COUN  r,  a  German  litteratatr,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1796.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  King- 
dom of  Naples  from  1414  to  I443."  and  a  satirical  poem 
entitled  "  The  Romantic  CEdipus."     Died  in  1835. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Minckwitz, 
"Graf  von  Platen  als  Mench  und  Dichter,"  1S38. 

Plater,  pll'ter,  (Emilie,)  a  Polish  heroine,  born  as 
Wilna  in  1806.  She  fought,  with  the  rank  of  captain, 
against  the  Russians  in  the  insurrection  of  1830.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  "  Emilie  Plater,  sa  Vie  et  sa  Mort,"  Paris,  1834,  and  "  Life  ol 
Countess  E.  Plater,"  New  York,  1842;  "Democratic  Review"  foi 
July,  1842. 

Plater,  pli'ter,  (F6lix,)  a  Swiss  physician,  born  at 
Bale  in  1536.  He  lectured  and  practised  with  success 
in  that  place.  He  wrote  "  Medical  Practice,"  ("  Praxis 
Medica,"  1602,)  often  reprinted,  and  other  medical 
works.     Died  in  1614. 

Plater,  (F6lix,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1605,  and  became  a  physician  of  Bale.     Died  in  1671. 

Plater,  (Stanislas,)  Count,  a  Polish^  soldier,  his- 
torian, and  antiquary,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1782.  He 
published,  in  French,  a  "  Historical  Atlas  of  Poland," 
and  several  other  works.     Died  in  185 1. 

Plath,  piat,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  scholai, 
born  at  Munich  in  1807.  He  was,  after  1848,  state 
librarian  of  Bavaria.  Among  his  works  are  "Lives  and 
Teachings  of  Confucius  and  his  Disciples,"  (1867;  2d 
vol.,  1872,)  "China  Four  Thousand  Years  Ago,"  (1869,) 
"Sources  of  Chinese  History,"  (1870,)  and  "History  of 
the  People  of  Manchooria,"  (l874<'^J^$r.)  Died  at  Munich, 
November  16,  1874. 

Platina.     See  Paul  IT. 

Platina,  plJ-tee'ni,  (Bartolommeo  de  Sacchis,) 
an  able  Italian  historian,  born  at  Piadena,  near  Cre- 
mona, in  1 42 1.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Lives  of  the  Popes,"  ("  In  Vitas  Summorum  Pontificum 
Opus,"  1479,)  a  work  of  much   merit,  often  reprinted. 


»:as-4,-  9asj;  gAard;  gzsf';G,H,K,£uttura/;  n, nasal;  R,trilled:  sasz;  thasin/-4/j.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PL A TNER 


1966 


PLATO 


and  a  "History  of  Mantua,"  (1675.)  He  became  li- 
brarian of  the  Vatican  about  1472.  Died  in  1481.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  founded  at  Rome  by 
Pomponius  Laetus,  and  as  such  was  persecuted  by  Pope 
Paul  II. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Nic^ron, 
"M^raoires;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Platner,  pldt'ner,  (Eduard,)  a  German  jurist,  bom 
at  Leipsic  in  1786.  He  wrote,  besides  many  literary 
essays,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Attic  Races,"  ("  Ue  Gentibus 
A.tticis,"  i8u,)  and  "Questions  on  the  Roman  Criminal 
Law,"  (1842.)     Died  in  i860. 

Platner,  (Ernst,)  a  German  philosopher  and  phy- 
sician, born  at  Leipsic  in  1744,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic 
in  1770.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer  and  a 
writer.  Among  his  works  are  "Anthropology  for  Phy- 
sicians and  Philosophers,"  (2  vols.,  1774,)  and  "Philo- 
sophic Aphorisms,"  (2  vols.,  1776-82.)  His  style  is 
commended  for  precision  and  elegance.     Died  in  1818. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Platner,  (Erxst  Zacharias,)  a  writer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1773.  He  published 
a  "  Description  of  Rome,"  (1830-43.)     Died  in  1855. 

Platner,  (Johann  Zacharias,)  a  surgeon,  born  at 
Chemnitz  in  1694,  was  the  father  of  Ernst,  noticed  above. 
He  taught  at  Leipsic,  and  was  a  skilful  oculist.  He 
wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  "  Surgical  Institutes,"  ("  Insti- 
tutiones  Chirurgias  rationales,"  1745,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1747. 

Pla'to,*[Gr.  rU-arwv;  Lat.  Pla'to  ;  Fr.  Platon,  plt'- 
tix';  Ger.  the  same  as  the  Latin  ;  It.  Platon E,  pli-to'ni ; 
Sp.  Platon,  pla-t6n' ;  Port.  Platao,  pli-towN' ;  Arab, 
and  Persian,  Aflatoon,  a-fll'toon',]  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  philosophers  of  all  time,  was  born  about  429 
B.C.  He  belonged  to  one  of  the  highest  families  of 
Athens,  being  descended  on  the  side  of  his  father, 
Aris'to,  (or  Aris'ton,)  from  Codrus,  and  on  that  of  his 
mother,  Pericti'one,  he  was  related  to  the  celebrated 
lawgiver  Solon.  As  to  the  place  of  his  birth  there  is 
some  dispute.  Some  writers  say  that  he  was  born  at 
Athens  ;  others,  in  the  island  of  i^gina.  His  original 
name  was  Aris'tocles,  after  his  grandfather :  he  was  sur- 
named  Plato,  (from  TrAari/f,  "  broad,")  on  account  of 
the  breadth  of  his  forehead,  or,  as  some  say,  of  his 
shoulders.  Very  little  is  certainly  known  of  the  history 
of  his  life,  and,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  the  absence 
of  positive  information  is  liberally  supplied  by  what  is 
legendary  or  fabulous.  It  is  related  that  while  an  infant, 
as  he  was  one  day  sleeping  in  a  bower  on  Mount  Hymel- 
tus,  a  number  01  bees  dropping  honey  settled  upon  his 
lips,  thus  foreshadowing  the  extraordinary  sweetness  of 
his  eloquence.  According  to  another  story,  his  future 
greatness  was  foreshown  by  a  dream  of  Socrates,  who 
saw  in  his  sleep  a  young  swan  coming  from  the  grove 
of  Academus ;  after  nestling  in  his  bosom,  it  soared 
aloft,  singing  sweetly  as  it  rose.  The  next  morrjing, 
just  as  Socrates  had  finished  relating  his  dream,  Aristo 
presented  himself,  leading  by  the  hand  young  Plato, 
whom  he  wished  to  place  under  the  instruction  of  that 
distinguished  sage. 

Plato  was  a  remarkable  example  of  that  universal 
culture  which  characterized  the  best  period  of  ancient 
Greece.  He  appears  to  have  neglected  no  branch  of 
science  or  art  which  was  considered  to  form  any  part 
of  a  liberal  education.  He  studied  music,  rhetoric,  and 
painting,  and,  after  the  manner  of  his  countrymen,  paid 
great  attention  to  gymnastics,  in  which  he  was  so  ex- 
pert, we  are  told,  that  he  contended  at  the  Isthmian  and 
Pythian  games.  In  early  life  he  is  said  to  have  turned 
his  attention  to  poetry,  and  to  have  written  an  epic  poem, 
which,  however,  on  comparing  it  with  the  "  Iliad,"  he 
burned  in  despair.  lie  also  composed  some  lyrics  and 
several  tragedies.  But  "having  once,"  as  ylLlian  ex- 
presses it,  "  been  cajJtivated  by  the  siren  of  Socrates," 
he  gave  himself  up  wholly  to  the  study  of  philosoj^hy. 
He  was  in  his  twentieth  year,  as  it  appears,  when  he 
began  to  attend  the  school  of  Socrates,  where  he  con- 
tinued  until   his  master's  death,  (399  B.C.)     After  thi,- 

*  Chaucer  gives  the  name  Platom,  or  Platonk,  and  Plato. 


event,  m  order  to  escape  the  persecutions  which  threat- 
ened them,  he,  with  several  other  Socratic  disciples, 
withdrew  to  Megara,  where  they  were  received  by  the 
philosopher  Euclid,  who  had  also  been  a  pupil  of  Socra- 
tes. Plato  is  said  subsequently  to  have  travelled  exten- 
sively, visiting  Egypt,  Sicily,  and  Magna  Graecia,  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras. 
Some  writers  speak  of  his  having  journeyed  into  the 
interior  of  Asia  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  his  mind 
with  the  wisdom  of  the  Persians,  Babylonians,  and  other 
nations  of  the  East ;  but  of  this  there  is  not  a  particle 
of  trustworthy  evidence,  .  While  in  Sicily  he  became 
acquainted  with  Dion,  (or  Dio,)  who  introduced  him  to 
Dionysius  the  Elder.  But  the  philosopher,  as  might 
well  be  supposed,  was  not  likely  to  find  much  favour  in 
the  eyes  of  an  unscrupulous  and  reckless  tyrant.  They 
soon  quarrelled,  and  on  one  occasion  Dionysius,  it  is 
said,  was  so  deeply  offended  with  the  freedom  of  some 
of  Plato's  remarks,  that,  had  not  Dion  interposed,  he 
would  have  punished  him  with  death.  Although  the 
tyrant  was  prevailed  on  to  spare  his  life,  he  caused  him  to 
be  sold  as  a  slave.  He  was,  however,  ransomed  and  set 
at  liberty, — some  say  by  Dion,  others,  by  Anniceris  of 
Cyrene.  Having  returned  to  Athens,  he  opened  a  school, 
called  the  Academy,  ( Academia, )  in  a  grove,  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  a  citizen  named  Academus  01 
Hecademus.  His  school  was  numerously  attended  by 
young  men  of  the  most  distinguished  families  of  Athen? 
and  of  all  Greece.  Even  women  were  numbered,  it 
is  said,  among  his  disciples.  After  having  taught  in 
Athens  more  than  twenty  years,  he  again  visited  Sicily, 
at  the  solicitation  of  Dion,  who  hoped  that  Plato's  influ- 
ence might  be  successful  in  winning  to  philosophy  the 
younger  Dionysius,  and  in  establishing,  through  him,  a 
model  government  in  Syracuse.  (For  a  most  interesting 
account  of  this  experiment  and  its  failure,  see  Grote's 
"  History  of  Greece,"  vols.  x.  and  xi.)  He  afterwards 
visited  Syracuse  for  the  third  time,  in  order  to  effect  a 
reconciliation  between  Dionysius  and  Dion  ;  but  in  this 
attempt  he  was  wholly  unsuccessful.  He  returned  to 
Athens,  where  he  continued  to  write  and  teach  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  347  B.C.,  in  his  eighty-fourth  year. 
According  to  some  writers,  however,  he  died  in  his  eighty- 
first  year.  He  was,  as  Cicero  informs  us,  occupied  in 
writing  at  the  very  moment  of  his  death.  There  is  per- 
haps in  the  history  of  the  human  intellect  no  example 
of  any  one  having  dedicated  himself  with  a  more  abso- 
lute devotion  to  philosophy  (the  "love  or  study  of  wis- 
dom") than  Plato.  He  was  never  married  ;  and,  from 
the  time  when  he  first  became  acquainted  with  Socrates, 
(about  his  twentieth  year,)  every  moment  of  his  long 
life  appears  to  have  been  spent  in  the  interest  of  his 
favourite  pursuit. 

This  entire  dedication  of  all  his  powers  to  one  grand 
object  has  not  been  without  results  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  mankind.  Probably  no  other  philosopher, 
of  whatever  age  or  nation,  has  contributed  so  much  as 
Plato  towards  the  moral  and  intellectual  culture  of  the 
human  race.  This  pre-eminence  is  to  be  ascribed  not 
solely  to  his  transcendent  intellect  or  to  the  marvellous 
depth  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  philosophic  views, 
but  also  in  no  small  measure  to  his  poetic  power,  and 
to  that  unrivalled  grace  and  beauty  of  style  which  led 
the  ancients  to  say  that  if  Jove  should  speak  Greek  he 
would  speak  like  Plato.  Macaulay,  alluding  to  Plato's 
wonderful  power  as  a  writer,  speaks  of  him  as  "the 
finest  of  human  intellects,  exercising  boundless  dominion 
over  the  finest  of  human  languages."  ("Essay  on  Lord 
Bacon.'")  The  charms  of  his  style,  indeed,  by  awakening 
the  interest  and  admiration  of  all  lovers  of  literature, 
have  doubtless  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  that  state 
of  excellent  preservation  in  which  his  works  have  come 
down  to  us.  For,  by  a  singular  good  fortune,  all  his 
philosophical  writings,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  have 
been  preserved,  not  only  unmutilated  with  respect  to 
the  different  parts,  but  with  the  text,  comparatively 
speaking,  uncorrupted  and  unimpaired. 

With  respect  to  Plato's  character  as  a  man  we  know 
scarcely  anything  except  what  is  revealed  in  his  works. 
"  Despite  the  disposition  of  the  Greeks  for  calumny," 
says  Ritter,  "  there  are  but  few   evil  rumours  against 


&,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;^,  e,  i,  0,  obscure;  tUr,  fill,  lit;  mhi;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PLATO 


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PLATO 


which  we  have  to  vindicate  the  purity  of  his  moral  con- 
duct." The  same  writer  not  only  rejects  as  unfounded 
the  charges  against  the  purity  of  Plato's  private  char- 
acter, but  regards  as  either  wholly  unjust  or  greatly 
exaggerated  the  imputation  against  him  of  malice  or 
ill  feeling  towards  certain  other  disciples  of  Socrates, 
such  as  Xenophon,  Euclid,  Aristippus,  and  others, 
whose  views  on  many  points  differed  widely  from  his 
own.  Plato  has  been  accused  by  some  modern  writers 
of  being  wanting  in  patriotism  and  in  a  sympathy  for 
humanity.  Both  of  these  charges  seem  to  us  unjust. 
The  state  of  political  morals  in  his  time  was  such  that 
he  could  scarcely  hope  to  effect  any  good  by  taking  an 
active  part  in  public  affairs.  By  doing  so,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe,  he  would  have  only  embroiled  himself 
in  an  endless  conflict  with  men  with  whom  his  standard 
of  right  would  not  permit  him  to  co-operate.  Besides, 
his  talents  do  not  appear  to  have  fitted  him  for  politics; 
and  he  is  certainly  not  to  be  censured  for  confining  him- 
self to  that  field  of  labour  for  which  nature  had  best 
qualified  him.  The  charge  tiiat  he  was  wanting  in  a 
sympathy  for  human  nature  appears  to  have  no  other 
foundation  than  the  fact  that  he  had  no  sympathy  with 
vice  and  ignorance,  two  most  conspicuous  features  in 
the  human  nature  which  he  saw  around  him.  Yet  the 
great  object,  and,  we  may  add,  the  tendency,  of  nearly 
all  his  teachings  was  to  make  mankind  happier  by 
making  them  wiser  and  better.* 

With  respect  to  Plato's  philosophic  system,  it  is  im- 
passible to  say  with  any  precision  how  much  of  it  was 
properly  his  own,  and  how  much  was  derived  from  his 
great  master.  (See  Socrates.)  It  is  a  fine  saying  of 
Mr.  Emerson,  that  "  Socrates  and  Plato  are  the  double 
star  which  the  most  powerful  instruments  will  not  en- 
tirely separate."t  The  plan  and  limits  of  the  present 
work  will  permit  us  only  to  glance  at  some  of  the  most 
striking  characteristics  of  Plato's  philosophy  as  we  find 
it  unfolded  in  his  writings.  His  system  may  be  consid- 
ered from  two  points  of  view, — the  one  having  reference 
to  the  method,  the  other  to  the  results,  of  his  philosophic 
investigations.  His  method,  which  appears  to  be  scarcely 
more  than  an  extension  of  that  of  Socrates,  was  undoubt- 
edly a  great  improvement  on  the  methods  of  previous 
philosophers. 

But  the  admirable  lessons  of  his  great  teacher,  re- 
specting the  manner  and  spirit  with  which  the  search 
after  truth  should  be  conducted,  would  in  all  probability 
have  been  quickly  forgotten  and  lost  to  the  world,  had 
not  Plato  made  them  immortal  by  his  writings.  Re- 
ferring the  reader  to  the  article  on  Socrates  for  a  brief 
notice  of  the  Socratic  method,  we  shall  here  limit  our- 
selves to  simply  calling  attention  to  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  points  in  Plato's  philosophic  creed,  without 
attempting,  in  our  narrow  space,  to  give  even  a  complete 
outline  of  his  system.  He  taught  that  God  was  the 
supreme  Idea  or  Essence  of  the  universe,  comprising 
within  himself  all  other  beings,  and  was  the  Cause  of  all 
things,  celestial  and  terrestrial.  He  alone  is  good,  with- 
out envy,  willing  good  to  all  so  far  as  each  is  capable  of 
receiving  it :  God  alone  is  unchangeable.  Plato  strongly 
condemned  the  views,  then  prevalent,  which  represented 

*  We  need  scarcely  say  that  we  utterly  and  totally  dissent  from 
Macaiilay's  estimate  of  Plato's  philosophic  writings,  (see  "  Essay  on 
Lord  Bacon,"  second  part,)  which  he  compares  to  a  magnificent  tree, 
full  of  beautiful  leaves  and  flowers,  but  producing  no  fruit.  Writings 
which  have  inspired  the  souls  of  so  many  thousands  with  loftier  aspi- 
rations and  with  a  more  earnest  love  of  virtue,  may  be  truly  said  to 
have  borne  fruit  of  the  most  precious  kind,  compared  with  which  the 
boasted  products  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  are  little  better  than 
the  apples  of  the  Dead  Sea.  That  Plato's  writings  have  often  pro- 
duced the  results  which  we  have  ascribed  to  them  will  scarcely  be 
denied,  we  think,  by  any  one  familiar  with  those  writings  or  with  the 
history  of  antiquity,  locite  one  example  out  of  many,  Cato  the 
Younger,  confessedly  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  virtuous  of  all  the 
Romans,  when  surrounded  with  misfortunes  on  every  hand,  and 
amid  the  ruins  of  his  country,  sought  and  found  consolation  and  hope 
in  the  sublime  teachings  of  Plato's  "  Phxdo." 

t  See  "Representative  Men,"  article  "Plato,"  the  whole  of 
which  is  well  worthy  of  perusal  by  those  who  would  have  a  vivid 
conception  of  Plato's  power  as  a  philosopher.  This  essay,  it  seems 
to  us,  is  one  of  Mr.  Emerson's  liappiest  efforts ;  and,  if  he  some- 
times exaggerates  the  greatness  and  worth  of  his  hero,  the  fault  is 
more  than  atoned  for  by  a  thorough  and  vivid  appreciation  of  his 
iubject, — perhaps  the  most  important,  as  it  is  the  rarest,  qualification 
of  a  good  critic. 


the  gods  as  having  human  passions  and  as  influenced 
by  selfish  human  motives.  While  he  taught  the  exist- 
ence of  one  supreme  God,  the  source  and  upholder  of 
all  things,  he  appears  to  have  recognized,  at  the  same 
time,  a  class  of  inferior  deities,  or  beings  with  godlike 
attributes,  far  superior  to  man.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable features  of  Plato's  philosophy  is  his  theory  of 
ideas.  With  him,  an  idea  is  not  simply  an  image  or 
conception  formed  by  the  human  mind :  it  is  rather  an 
eternal  thought  of  the  Divine  mind.  He  held  that  the 
human  soul  is  not  only  immortal,  but  that  it  has  always 
existed.l  In  its  pre-existent  state  it  has  had  a  perception 
of  the  eternal  ideas  {i.e.  the  perfect  forms  or  patterns 
of  things)  as  they  exist  in  the  mind  of  God.  A  dim, 
shadowy  remembrance  of  those  celestial  patterns  is  what 
sometimes  enables  us  to  form  a  conception  of  loveliness, 
virtue,  etc.  far  more  perfect,  more  divine,  than  anything 
our  mortal  eyes  have  ever  beheld.  It  is  thus  that  the 
gifted  painter  is  enabled  to  give  us  forms  of  beauty  more 
exquisite  than  any  that  can  be  found  in  this  world.  It 
is  thus,  also,  that  on  hearing  of  a  generous  action  we 
are  enabled  to  form  an  idea  of  generosity;  for  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  an  action  could  have  no  significance  to 
one  who  had  never  known  the  feeling  of  generosity  in  his 
soul :  in  a  perfectly  selfish  man,  if  such  a  one  could  be 
found,  it  would  not  awaken  admiration,  but  simply  con- 
tempt. Xenophon  tells  us,  in  the  second  book  of  his 
"Anabasis,"  that  Menon  the  Thessalian  considered 
honesty  and  truth  to  be  nothing  else  than  stupidity  or 
folly.  A  Platonist  would  explain  this  by  saying  that  ail 
traces  of  the  Divine  ideas  of  truth  and  justice  had, 
through  the  love  of  gain  or  love  of  power,  become 
obliterated  from  his  soul.  Plato  taught  that  the  only 
way  in  which  men  can  rise  in  wisdom  and  virtue  is 
by  striving  to  restore  the  lost  ideas  and  to  make  their 
mfnds  approximate  the  mind  of  God. 

Plato  appears  to  have  made  himself  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  previous  philosophic  systems  which 
had  appeared  in  Greece.  He  had  not  only  diligently 
studied  the  doctrines  of  Heracli'tus,  Pythagoras,  and 
Socrates,  but  also  those  of  Anaxagoras,  Parmenides,  and 
others  of  less  note.  "He  reduced,"  says  Ritter,  "into 
a  beautiful  whole  the  scattered  results  of  the  earlier 
Greek  philosophy,  reconciling  their  seeming  differences 
and  conflicting  tendencies.  .  .  .  When,  indeed,  we  com- 
pare the  barrenness  of  the  earlier  philosophers  with  the 
fertility  of  Plato,  that  love,  which  he  knows  so  well  how 
to  inspire  in  us,  warms  almost  to  veneration,  so  rich,  so 
varied,  and  so  abundant  are  his  observations,  and  so 
profound  his  knowledge  of  man  and  of  the  world.  .  .  . 
To  such  richness  of  materials  Plato  united  the  rarest 
skill  of  language  and  composition  to  a  degree  which  has 
never  since  been  equalled." 

Respecting  Plato's  intellectual  power  as  a  philosopher, 
Mr.  Emerson  grandly  observes  that  "his  strength  is  like 
the  momentum  of  a  falling  planet,  and  his  discretion 
the  return  of  its  due  and  perfect  curve."  Again  he  says. 
"The  way  to  know  him  [Plato)  is  to  compare  him,  not 
with  nature,  but  with  other  men.  How  many  ages  have 
gone  by,  and  he  remains  unapproached  !"  ("  Representa- 
tive Men.") 

The  philosophic  writings  of  Plato  are,  with  some 
slight  exceptions,  in  the  form  of  dialogues,  in  all  of 
which,  save  one,  ("  The  Laws,")  Socrates  is  one  of  the 
chief  interlocutors.  The  different  dialogues  have  been 
distributed  by  Schleiermacher  into  three  divisions. 

The  first  division,  in  which  the  development  of  the 
dialogistic  method  is  the  chief  object,  includes  the 
"  Phsedrus,"  "  Lysis,"  "  Protagoras,"  "  Laches,"  "  Char- 
mides,"  "Euthyphro,"  and  "Parmenides,"  to  which  are 
added,  by  way  of  appendix  or  supplement,  the  "Apology 
of  Socrates,"  "  Critos,"  "  Ion,"  "  Hippias  Minor,"  "  Hip- 
parchus,"  "Minos,"  and  "  Alcibiades  II."  The  second 
division,  in  which  the  predominant  subject  is  the  expla- 
nation of  knowledge,  including  the  difference  between 
philosophical  and  common    knowledge,   comprises   the 

X  He  appears  to  have  believed  not  that  the  soul  has  always  existed 
m  its  present  form  or  condition,  or  anything  like  it,  but  that  as  God 
is  the  source  of  all  things,  and  as  His  thoughts  and  purposes  are 
eternal,  the  soul  may  therefore  be  said  to  have  always  had  an  exist- 
ence in  that  infinite  Being  of  whom  it  is  an  emanation. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K.  e^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  e;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


PLATO 


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PLEIADES 


"Gorgias,"  "Theaetetus,"  "Meno,"  "Euthydemus," 
"Cratylus,"  "  Sophistes,"  "  Politicus,"  ("Statesman,") 
"Symposium,"  ("Banquet,")  "  Phaedo,"  (or  "Phaedoii,") 
and  "  Philebus,"  with  an  appendix  containing  the  "The- 
ages,"  "  Erastae,"  "Alcibiades  I.,"  "  Menexenus,"  "  Hip- 
pias  Major,"  and  "Clitophon."  The  third  division 
consists  of  such  as  contain  an  objective  scientific  ex- 
position,— in  other  words,  combine  jiractical  science 
with  speculative  ]5hilosopliy :  these  are  the  "  Republic," 
"Timasus,"  and  "  Critias,"  to  which  may  be  added  "The 
Laws."  The  first  edition  of  Plato's  entire  works  was 
that  published  in  Venice  by  Aldus  in  1513;  the  best 
are  perhaps — first,  that  of  Ast,  published  at  Leipsic,  in 
9  vols.  8vo,  1819-27,  and,  second,  that  of  G.  Stallbaum, 
in  8  vols.  8v(),  Leipsic,  1821-25,  ('i"<^'  ^'^^  same  text  in  8 
vols.  i2mo,  1826.)  Jowett's  "Dialogues  of  Plato,"  in  5 
vols.,  is  the  best  English  translation  of  Plato. 

See  Friedrich  Ast,  "  Plato's  Leben  und  Sclirifteii,"  Leipsic, 
1816;  Stallbaum,  "  Disputatio  de  Platonis  Vita,  Ingeiiio  et 
Scriptis,"  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Plato's  works  ;  Rittek,  "  His- 
tor>'  of  Ancient  Philosophy,"  translated  by  A.  J.  W.  Morison,  4 
vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  I S3S  ;  Schleiekmacher,  "  Introductions  to  the 
Dialogues  of  Plato,"  translated  by  Wm.  Dobson,  1  vol.  8vo,  Cam- 
bridge, 1S36;  Conrad  Lagus,  "Oratio  de  Vita  Platonis,"  1538; 
"Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Plato,"  EdinbCirgh,  1660; 
Combes  Dounous,  "  Essai  historiqne  sur  Platon,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1S09; 
A.  Kolker,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  Platonis,"  1797;  Andre  Dacier, 
"  Plato's  Leben,  mit  einer  nahern  Angabe  seiner  philosophischen 
Lclirsatze,  ans  dem  Franzosischen,"  1829;  L  Ogienski,  "Pericles 
et  Plato:  Inquisitio  historica  et  philosophica,"  183S ;  T.  van  Swin- 
DKRBN,  "  Oratio  de  Platone  optimo  in  Legibus  condendis  Principe 
magistro,"  1807;  also  tlie  articles  on  "Plato"  in  the  "  Encyclopajdia 
Hritannica,"  in  Smith's  "  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.,  and  in 
•he  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale,"  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Hoefer. 

Plato,  [Gr.  TDMTLdv^  an  eminent  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  about  428-390  n.c, 
and  was  contemporary  with  Aristophanes.  He  attacked 
Cleon  and  other  demagogues  in  his  plays,  which  dis- 
played keen  wit,  vigour,  and  purity  of  style,  ^^any 
fragments  of  them  have  come  down  to  us.  According 
to  some  critics,  he  was  a  writer  of  the  middle  comedy. 

Platof,  Platov,  or  Plato"w,  pld'tof,  Hetman  of  the 
Cossacks,  was  born  on  the  Don  about  1760.  He  served 
as  general  in  the  Russian  army  which  marched  to  the 
aid  of  Pru-ssia  in  1S06.  He  harassed  the  retreating 
French  army  in  181 2,  and  entered  Paris  with  a  troop 
of  Cossacks  in  1814.     Died  in  1818. 

Platon.     See  Plato. 

Platon,  plS'ton,  (LEFSHiNor  Leffschin,)  an  eminent 
Russian  prelate,  born  near  Moscow  in  1737.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  eloquent  pulpit  orator,  and  be- 
came court  preacher  to  Catherine  H.  lie  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Moscow  in  1775,  and  Metropolitan  of  the 
Russian  Church  in  1787.  He  published  many  sermons 
and  theological  works,  which  are  highly  commended. 
Died  in  November,  1812. 

Platone.     See  Plato. 

Platte-Montagne,  \i\\\'mb^'x.i.n',  (Matthew  van 
Pl.\then-Berch  or  Pl.attenberg,)  a  Flemish  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1606.  He  removed 
to  Paris,  where  he  painted  portraits  and  engraved  land- 
scapes. Died  in  1660.  His  son  Nicolas  (1631-1706) 
was  also  a  painter  and  engraver. 

Plaute.     See  Plautus. 

Plauto.     See  Plautus. 

Plau'tus,  [Fr.  Plaute,  plot ;  It.  Plauto,  plow'to,] 
(Titus  Maccius,)  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Roman 
comic  poets,  was  a  native  of  Sarsina,  in  Umbria.  It 
is  supposed  that  he  was  born  about  254,  or,  as  some 
say,  in  224  B.C.  In  his  youth  he  served  a  baker  by 
grinding  corn  with  a  hand-mill.  Little  is  known  of  his 
history.  According  to  Cicero,  he  died  in  184  B.C.  His 
plays  were  very  popular  in  his  own  time,  and  are  gen- 
erally admired  by  modern  critics.  His  elegance,  re- 
finement, and  wit  are  commended  by  Cicero  and  other 
ancient  critics.  Horace  censures  his  coarse  jests  and 
his  versification.  The  titles  of  his  extant  plays  are 
"Amphitruo,"  "  Asinaria,"  "Aulularia,"  "  Bacchides," 
"Captivi,"  "Curculio,"  "Casina,"  "Cistellaria,"  "  Epi- 
dicus,"  "Menaechmi,"  "  Mercator,"  "Miles  Gloriosus," 
"  Mostellaria,"  "  Persa,"  "  Poenulus,"  "  Pseudolus,"  "  Ru- 
dens,"  "Stichus,"  "Trinummus,"  and  "Truculentus." 
There  is  a  good  English  version  of  Plautus  by  Bonnel 
Thornton.     The  "Captivi"  was  pronounced  the  most 


perfect  of  cfimedies  by  Lessing,  who,  as  a  critic,  had 
scarcely  any  superior. 

See  Gronovius,  "  Lectiones  Planting,"  T740:  Loman,  "  Si>eci- 
nien  critico-literarium  in  Plantum  et  Terentium,"  1845;  Andb,sen, 
"  De  Vita  Plaiiti,"  1843;  Lessing,  "Von  dem  Leben  und  den 
Werken  des  Plautus,"  in  the  third  volume  of  liis  works,  Herlin,  1838; 
"  Nouvelle  Hiographie  G^nirale  ;"  "  F'oreign  Quarterly  Review" 
'or  April,  1S43. 

Play'fair,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathemati- 
cian and  astronomer,  born  at  Benvie,  Forfarshire,  on  the 
lOth  of  March,  1748,  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Saint  Andrew's.  He  became  minister  of  the  parishes  of 
Lifif  and  Benvie  in  1773,  and  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1785.  In  1805  he 
succeeded  Professor  Robison  as  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  same  university.  He  contributed  to 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  many  articles,  among  which  is 
a  review  of  La  Place's  "Traite  de  Mecanique  celeste," 
(1808.)  He  published  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1795,) 
which  was  extensively  used  in  schools,  "  Illustrations 
of  the  Huttonian  Theory  of  the  Earth,"  (1802,)  and 
"Outlines  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1812.) 
Among  his  contributions  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Edinburgh  Royal  Society  are  "  Remarks  on  the  Astron- 
omy of  the  Brahmins."  and  "  On  the  Solids  of  Greatest 
Attraction."  Diedini8i9.  "  He  po.ssessed  in  the  highest 
degree,"  says  Jeffrey,  "  all  the  characteristics  both  of  a 
fine  and  powerful  understanding,  at  once  penetrating  and 
vigilant,  but  more  distinguished  perhaps  for  the  caution 
and  sureness  (or  success)  of  its  march  than  for  the  bril- 
liancy or  rapidity  of  its  movements." 

See  a  "Life  of  J.  Playfair,"  prefixed  to  his  collected  works,  4 
vols.,     1822;    Chambers,    "Biographical    Dictionary;"    Jeffrey, 

"  M  iscellanies." 

Play'fair,  (Lyon,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  Bengal, 
in  India,  in  1819.  He  studied  at  Saint  Andrew's,  and  at 
Giessen  under  Liebig.  He  became  in  1S43  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution  in  Manchester.  For 
his  services  as  a  commissioner  of  tlie  Great  Exhibition 
of  1 85 1  he  was  made  a  Companion  of  the  Bath.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  185S.  He  was  for  a  time  postmaster- 
general  and  then  Deputy-Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons. 

Playfair,  (William,)  a  Scottish  political  writer  and 
ingenious  inventor,  born  near  Dundee  in  1759.  was  a 
brother  of  Professor  John  Playfair.  He  made  several 
useful  mechanical  inventions.  About  1814  he  became 
editor  of  Galignani's  "  Messenger,"  in  Paris.  He  after- 
wards resided  in  London.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  a  "History  of  Jacobinism,"  (1795,)  and  "British 
Family  Antiquity,"  (9  vols.,  1809-12.)     Died  in  1823. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Play'ford,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  music,  bom 
in  1613 ;  died  in  1693.  His  son  Henry  published 
"  Or])heus  Britatinicus." 

Pleas'on-ton,  (Alfred,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  ^\'ashington,  District  of  Columbia,  in  1S24,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1844.  He  gained  the  rank  of  captain 
in  1855,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
in  1862.  He  commanded  a  body  of  cavalry  at  Antietam, 
September,  1862,  and  at  Chancellorsville,  May,  1863,  and 
had  the  chief  command  of  the  Union  cavalry  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  1-3,  1863.  He  served  in  Missouri  when  that 
State  was  invaded  by  General  Price  in  October,  1864. 

Pleas'ants,  (James,)  an  American  Senator,  bum  in 
Virginia  in  1769.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  from  1819  to  1S22,  and  Governor  of  Virginia 
from  1822  to  1825.     Died  in  1836. 

Pleg'mund,  an  English  prelate  under  the  reign  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterb  try 
in  890  A.D.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  learning  and 
virtues,  and  was  honoured  with  the  friendship  of  the 
king.  He  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  part  in  the  com- 
pilation of  the  "Saxon  Chronicle." 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  chap,  vi.,  i860. 

Pleiades,  plee'va-d^z,  [Gr.  Wkuii^Et:  or  IleXtuwiff ;  Fr. 
Pleiades,  pli'e-fd' ;  Eng.  Pleiads,  plee'yads,  )  the 
daughters  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  were  seven  in  number, 
and  were  said  to  be  sisters  of  the  Hyades.  Their  names 
were  Electra,  Maia,  Taygete,  Alcyone,  Cel^no, 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good ;  moon; 


FLEMP 


1969 


PLINY 


Sterope,  and  Merope.  According  to  one  legend,  they 
.were  attendants  of  Diana,  and,  to  protect  them  from  the 
amorous  pursuit  of  Orion,  were  changed  into  doves  and 
placed  among  the  stars.  They  were  sometimes  called 
Atlantides. 

Plemp,  pl?mp,  (Cornei.is,)  a  writer  of  Latin  poetry, 
was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1574;  died  in  163S. 

Plemp,  [Lat.  Plem'pius,]  (Vopiscus  Fortunatus,) 
a  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1601,  be- 
came professor  at  Louvain  in  1633.     Died  in  1671. 
Plerapius.     See  Plemp. 

Plenck,  von,  fon  plSnk,  (Joseph  Jakob,)  a  German 
surgeon  and  botanist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1738.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  one  "  On  Diseases  of  the 
Kyes,"  ("De  Morbis  Oculorum,"  1777,)  and  "Figures 
of  Medicinal  Plants,"  ("  Icones  Plantarum  medicina- 
liura,"  7  vols.,  17S8-1804.)  Died  in  1807. 
See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutscliland." 

Plessing,  pl^s'sing,  (Friedrich  Victor  Lebrecht,) 
a  German  philosopher,  born  near  Magdeburg  in  1752. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Duisburg,  and  wrote 
two  works  on  the  philosophy  of  the  ancients,  entitled 
"Osiris  and  Socrates,"  (1783,)  and  "Memnonium,  or 
an  Essay  to  Unveil  the  Mysteries  of  Antiquity,"  (1787.) 
Died  in  1806. 

Plessis.    See  Duplessis  and  Richelieu, 

Plessis,  plSs'see',  (Joseph  Octave,)  a  Canadian  arch- 
bishop, born  at  Montreal,  March  3,  1762.  In  1801  he 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Canata  in  partilnis,  and  made 
coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Quebec.  This  act  gave  rise 
to  a  long  controversy  with  the  British  government,  for 
the  crown  had  hitherto  claimed  and  exercised  the  right 
of  presentation  to  the  Roman  Catholic  bishoprics  of 
Canada.  In  1806  he  succeeded  as  Bishop  of  Quebec, 
and  in  1819  his  see  was  made  archiepiscopal.  Died  at 
Quebec,  December  4,  1825. 

PlessLs  d'Argentre.     See  Argentr^,  d'. 

Plessis-Mornay.     See  Mornay. 

Plessis-Praslin.     See  Choiseul. 

Pletho  or  Plethon.     See  Gemistus. 

Pleville  le  Pelley,  pli'v^K  leh  pi'lV,  (George 
I<e.n6,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Granville  in  1726.  He 
fought  with  distinction  for  the  United  States,  (1778-83.) 
He  was  minister  of  the  marine  in  1797.     Died  in  1805. 

Pleyel,  plA'^K,  (Joseph  £tienne  Camille,)  a  com- 
poser and  pianist,  was  born  at  Strasburg  about  1790. 
He  became  a  partner  of  Kalkbrenner  in  the  fabrication 
of  pianos  in  Paris.     Died  in  1855. 

Pleyel,  (Madame  Marie  F£licit6  Denise  Moke,) 
a  French  pianist,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris,  July  4,  181 1.  From  an  early  age  her  extraordinary 
gifts  attracted  the  attention  of  musicians.  She  made  the 
tour  of  the  principal  European  cities,  and  in  184S  went 
to  Berlin  as  teacher  at  the  Conservatorium,  a  position 
which  she  retained  until  1872.     Died  March  30,  1875. 

Pleyl,  plil,  or  Pleyel,  plT'el,  (Ignaz,)  a  celebrated 
composer,  father  of  J.  E.  C.  Pleyel,  born  at  Ruj^iiersthal, 
near  Vienna,  in  1756  or  1757.  Having  studied  under 
Haydn  and  subsequently  visited  Italy,  he  was  appointed, 
after  his  return,  chapel-master  at  .Strasburg.  In  1795 
he  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  established  a  piano-manu- 
factory and  published  the  "Bibliotheque  Musicale."  His 
works  are  chiefly  pieces  of  instrumental  music,  which 
were  very  popular  in  his  time.     Died  in  1831. 

See  Fi^Tis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Pline.    See  Pliny. 

Plinio.     See  Pliny. 

Plinius.     See  Pliny. 

Plin'i-us  Va-le-rl-a'nus,  the  reputed  author  of  a 
medical  work  called  "Medicinae  PlinianjE  Libri  quinque." 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled  several  centuries 
after  the  Christian  era. 

Plln'y  [Fr.  Pline,  plin  ;  It.  Plinio,  plec'ne-o]  the 
Elder,  (or,  more  fully,  Ca'ius  Plin'ius  Secun'dus,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  naturalist,  was  born  at  Verona,  or, 
according  to  some  authorities.  Novum  Comum,  (the 
modern  Como,)  in  23  a.d.  He  served  in  the  army  in 
Germany,  under  Lucius  Pomponius,  and  returned  to 
Rome  about  the  age  of  thirty.  He  studied  law,  and 
practised  as  a  pleader  for  a  few  years.  He  was  after- 
wards procurator  in  Spain  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  and 


became  a  friend  and  favoured  officer  of  Vespasian.  We 
possess  but  little  other  information  of  his  public  life, 
except  that  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  command 
of  a  fleet  stationed  at  Misenum.  In  August,  79  a.d., 
occurred  a  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  Observing  the 
immense  cloud  of  smoke  which  arose  in  the  form  of  a 
tree  from  the  volcano,  he  embarked  at  Misenum  on  a 
vessel  and  approached  nearer  to  the  scene  of  danger. 
He  calmly  noted  the  variations  of  the  portentous  phe- 
nomenon, amidst  the  shower  of  cinders  and  pumice- 
stones  which  fell  around  his  vessel,  and  landed  at  Stabia. 
In  the  ensuing  night  he  attempted  to  return  to  the  vessel, 
but  he  perished  on  land,  suflTocated  by  ashes  or  sul- 
phurous exhalations.  This  was  probably  the  eruption 
which  destroyed  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum. 

He  left  historical  and  grammatical  works,  which  are 
lost.  The  only  work  of  Pliny  that  has  come  down  to  us 
is  his  "  Natural  History,"  ("Naturae  Historiarum  Libri 
XXXVII.,")  which  is  thus  characterized  by  Cuvier,  (in 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle  :")  "  It  is  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  most  precious  monuments  that  antiquity  has  left 
for  us,  and  the  evidence  of  an  erudition  very  wonderful  in 
a  warrior  and  statesman.  In  order  to  appreciate  justly 
this  vast  and  celebrated  composition,  it  is  necessary  to 
direct  our  attention  to  the  plan,  the  facts,  and  the  style. 
The  plan  is  immense.  .  .  .  He  includes  astronomy, 
natural  philosophy,  geography,  agriculture,  commerce, 
medicine,  and  the  arts,  as  well  as  natural  history  properly 
so  called.  .  .  .  Pliny  was  not  an  observer  like  Aristotle; 
still  less  was  he  a  man  of  genius,  capable,  like  that  great 
philosopher,  of  tracing  the  laws  and  relations  ih  ac- 
cordance with  which  the  works  of  nature  are  formed 
and  arranged,  (co-ordonnk.)  In  general,  he  is  only  a 
compiler.  ...  A  comparison  of  his  extracts  with  the 
originals  which  are  extant,  especially  with  Aristotle, 
convinces  us  that  Pliny  did  not  prefer  to  take  from  the 
authors  he  consulted  that  which  was  most  important 
or  most  exact.  In  general,  he  prefers  the  singular  and 
marvellous.  ...  If  Pliny  has  for  us  little  merit  as  a 
naturalist  and  critic,  it  is  far  otherwise  in  respect  to  his 
talent  as  a  writer,  and  the  vast  treasury  of  Latin  terms 
and  locutions  which  have  made  his  work  one  of  the  rich- 
est depositories  of  the  language  of  the  Romans."  He 
was  a  decided  pantheist,  and  had  no  faith  in  the  future 
existence  of  the  human  soul.  His  style  is  vigorous, 
condensed,  pointed,  and  abounds  in  antithesis.  Among 
the  best  editions  of  Pliny  is  that  published  by  Sillig, 
Hamburg.  "His  profound  erudition,"  says  Buffon,  "is 
enhanced  by  elevation  of  ideas  and  nobleness  of  style. 
He  not  only  knew  all  that  could  be  known  in  his  time, 
but  he  had  that  large  faculty  of  thinking  which  multi- 
plies science,  he  had  that  delicacy  (finesse)  of  reflection 
on  which  depend  elegance  and  taste,  and  he  imparts  to 
his  reader  a  certain  freedom  of  spirit  and  boldness  of 
thought,  which  is  the  germ  of  philosophy." 

See  Salmasius,  "  Exercitntiones  Plinianae,"  1629;  A.  Jos.  A 
TuRRE  Rrzzonico,  "  Disqiiisitioiies  Plinianse,"  2  vols.,  \iiiy-()T, 
Paul  Eber,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  C.  Plinii,"  1356;  A.  L.  A.  F4r, 
"Eloge  de  Pline  le  Naturaliste,"  1821  ;  Baur,  "  GeschiclUe  del 
Rbmischen  Literatur;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Pliny  THE  Younger,  [Fr.  Pline  le  Jeune,  plJn  leh 
zhun,l  (or,  more  fully,  Cai'us  Plin'ius  Caecil'ius  Se- 
cun'dus,) a  Latin  author  and  orator,  born  at  Comum, 
(now  Como,)  on  Lake  Larius,  (Lake  Como,)  in  6i  or  62 
A.D.,  was  a  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  a  son  of  Caius  Caecilius  and  Plinia,  a  sister 
of  Pliny  the  Elder.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  wrote  a 
Greek  tragedy.  He  studied  rhetoric  under  Quintilian, 
and  practised  law  at  Rome.  After  he  had  held  other 
high  offices,  he  became,  in  103,  governor  or  proconsul 
of'Bithynia.  He  wrote  to  Trajan  a  famous  letter,  in 
which  he  bore  testimony  to  the  good  morality  of 
the  Christians  and  requested  directions  in  relation  to 
their  treatment.  Although  he  was  a  man  of  humane 
disposition,  he  enforced  the  law  which  condemned  to 
death  those  who  refused  to  abjure  their  religion.  He 
was  a  friend  of  the  historian  Tacitus.  Pliny  wrote, 
besides  several  works  which  are  lost,  a  "  Panegyric  on 
Trajan,"  which  is  greatly  admired,  and  left  a  collection 
of  Letters,  in  ten  books,  which,  after  those  of  Cicero,  are 
perhaps  the  most  precious  relics  of  Roman  epistolary 
correspondence  that  have  come  down  to  us.    They  have 


f  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  K, giittu)\d ;  N,  nasal;  R.  trilled;  s  as  2.-  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


124 


PLITT 


1970 


PLUMPTRE 


been  translated  into  English  by  Lord  Orrery  and  Mr. 

Melmoth. 

See  Masson,  "Vita  Plinii  junioris,"  Amsterdam,  1709;  Cella- 
Rius,  "Vita  Plinii;"  "Life  of  Plinjr  the  Younger,"  prefixed  to  E. 
Thierfeld's  German  version  of  his  Epistles,  etc.,  1828;  Olpe, 
"Commentatio  de  C.  Plipio  Seciindo,"  etc.,  1784;  Julks  Janin, 
"  Pline  le  Jeune  et  Quintilien,"  1838 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Giwi- 
lale." 

Plitt,  (Gu-STAV  Leopold,)  a  German  divine,  born  at 
Geiiin,  ^Ia^ch  27,  1S36.  He  studied  at  Erlangen  and 
Berlin,  and  in  1867  became  professor  of  church  history 
at  Erlangen.  He  published  "  Einleitiing  in  die  Augus- 
tana,"  (1867-68,)  a  "  Life  of  Luther,"  (1883,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Erlangen,  September  10,  1K80. 

Ploos  van  Amstel.plos  v5n  Sm'stel,  ((.ornelis,)  a 
Dutch  amateur  engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Amster- 
dam in  1726.  He  imitated  many  drawings  (/old  Italian, 
Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German  masters,  and  made  a  rich 
collection  of  the  engravings  of  those  artists.  Died  about 
1800.  A  collection  of  his  imitations  was  published  in 
182L 

Plot,  (Robert,)  an  English  naturalist  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Kent  in  164L  He  became  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Oxford  about  1684,  and  historiographer-royal  in  1688. 
He  published  a  "Natural  History  of  Oxfordshire," 
(1677,)  anda"Natural  History  of  Staffordshire,"  (1686.) 
Died  in  1696. 

Plotin.     See  Plotinus. 

Plo-ti'na,  (PoMPEiA,)  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Tra- 
jan, is  represented  as  a  woman  of  excellent  character. 
She  died  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  who  erected  a  temple 
in  her  honour. 

Plo-ti'nus,  [Gr.  ll/l(jr?i'0f;  Fr.  Plotin,  plo'tiN';  Ger. 
Plotin,  plo-teen',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Lycopolis,  in  Egypt, 
in  204  A.D.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Anmionius  Saccas.  In 
order  to  become  versed  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Oriental 
sages,  he  accompanied  the  expedition  of  Gordian  against 
Parthia  in  243.  He  taught  philosophy  at  Rome  from 
245  A.D.  until  his  death,  and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
emperor  Gallienus.  He  had  many  disciples.  He  died 
about  270  A.D.,  leaving  fifty-four  books  on  abstract  sub- 
jects of  philosophy  and  metaphysics,  which  are  extant 
and  have  exerted  an  important  influence  in  modern 
times.  His  life  was  written  by  Porphyry,  who  was  his 
disciple.  Plotinus  was  preferred  by  Longinus,  who  knew 
him  well,  to  all  other  philosophers  of  that  time.  "  He 
was  intensely  religious,"  says  Hallam,  "  and  if  he  had 
come  a  century  later  would,  instead  of  a  heathen  phi- 
losopher, have  been  one  of  the  first  names  among  the 
saints  of  the  Church." 

See  Porphyry,  "  Life  of  Plotinus,"  (in  Greek  ;)  Kirchner,  "  Die 
Philosophie  des  Plotin,"  1854;  Daunas,  "Plotin  et  sa  Doctrine," 
1848. 

Ploucquet,  ploo'ki',  (Godefroi,)  a  metaphysician, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1716.  He  obtained  in  1750  the 
chair  of  logic,  etc.  at  Tubingen.  Among  his  numerous 
works  is  "Ground-Work  of  Speculative  Philosophy," 
("  Fundamenta  Philosophise  speculativce,"  1 759,)  in  which 
he  expounds  the  system  of  Leibnitz.     Died  in  1790. 

See  J.  L.  Huber,  "Ploucquet's  Denkmal,"  1790. 

Plougoulm,  ploo'goolm',  (Pierre  Ambroise, )  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Rouen  in  1796.  He  was  for  many 
years  procu'reur-general,  and  became  a  counsellor  to  the 
court  of  cassation  in  1854.     Died  March  17,  1863. 

Plbw'den,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Shropshire  about  1517,  was  a  zealous  Roman 
Catholic.  He  became  a  serjeant-at-law  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Mary,  and  left  "  Reports  or  Commentaries"  of 
cases  tried  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Eliza- 
beth,— a  work  of  high  reputation.     Died  in  1585. 

See  Ali.ibonb,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Plowden,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  historian  and  barrister, 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Ireland," 
(181 2.)  Having  been  prosecuted  for  libel,  he  retired  to 
France,  where  he  died  in  1829. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804;  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  May  and  January,  1796. 

Pluche,  pliish,  (Noel  Antoine,)  an  ingenious  French 
writer  and  naturalist,  born  at  Rheims  in  1688.  He 
became  a  priest  or  abbe,  and  lectured  on  history  and 
geography  at  Paris.    In  1732  he  published  a  description 


of  the  outward  creation,  entitled  "  .Spectacle  of  Natcre," 
("Spectacle  de  la  Nature,"  9  vols.,)  which  had  great 
success  and  was  often  reprinted.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
on  cosmogony,  entitled  "  History  of  the  Heavens," 
("Histoire  du  Ciel,"  2  vols.,  1739,)  and  other  works, 
and  produced  a  version  of  the  Psalms,  which  is  com- 
mended.    Died  in  1761. 

See  R.  fiTiENNE,  "  f!loge  de  Pluche." 

Pluk'e-net,  (Leonard,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
m  1642.  Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life,  except 
that  in  his  old  age  he  was  appointed  by  Queen  Mary 
director  of  the  garden  at  Hampton  Court.  He  published 
a  work  of  some  merit,  entitled  "  Phytographia,"  (1691- 
96,)  also  "  Almagestum  Botanicum,"  (1696,)  and  "  Amal- 
theum  Botanicum,"  (1705.) 

Plum'er,  (William,)  an  American  Governor,  born 
at  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  in  June,  1759.  He  studied 
law,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  of 
New  Hampshire  eight  times,  was  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  from  1802  to  1807,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of 
New  Hampshire  in  1812.  He  was  re-elected  in  1816, 
1817,  and  1818.  His  latter  years  were  devoted  to  lite- 
rary pursuits.    Died  at  Epping,  New  Hampshire,  in  1850. 

See  a  "  Life  of  William  Plumer,"  by  his  son  William,  1856. 

Plumer,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Epping,  New  Hampshire,  in  1790.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1819  to  1825.  He  published 
two  volumes  of  Poems.     Died  in  1854. 

Plum'?r,  (William  Swan,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can Presbyterian  divine,  born  in  Darlington,  Beaver 
county,  Pennsylvania,  July  25,  1802.  He  graduated  at 
Washington  College,  in  Virginia,  in  1S25,  and  took  his 
theological  course  at  Princeton.  Most  of  his  pastoral 
work  was  done  in  the  Southern  cities.  In  1854  he  was 
called  to  a  theological  professorship  in  Western  Semi- 
nary, at  Allegheny,  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1866  he  accepted 
a  similar  professorship  in  the  seminary  at  Columbia, 
South  Carolina.  He  published  a  number  of  books,  exe- 
getical,  devotional,  etc.     Died  October  22,  1880. 

Plumier,  plii'me-i',  (  Charles,  )  a  distinguished 
French  botanist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1646,  was  a  pupil 
of  Tournefort.  He  explored  the  West  Indies  with  Su- 
rian  in  1689,  and,  soon  after  his  return,  published  a 
"  Description  of  the  Plants  of  America,"  (1693,  with  108 
good  plates,)  which  was  very  favourably  received.  By 
the  order  of  the  king,  he  revisited  America  in  1693  and 
1695.  I"  I7°3  ^^  produced  "New  Genera  of  American 
Plants, "("  Nova  Plantarum  Americanarum  Genera.")  He 
was  about  to  sail  for  Peru,  to  make  researches  on  the 
subject  of  quinquina,  (Peruvian  bark,)  when  he  died 
near  Cadiz  in  1704.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Ferns  of  America,"  (1705,  with  172  plates,  ex- 
quisitely engraved.)  "This  magnificent  collection,"  says 
the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "is  one  of  the  most 
admirable  monuments  of  skill  and  patience  that  can 
be  named." 

See  Nic^RON,"  M^moires;"MoRiRi,"Dictionnaire  Historique:" 
Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Plum'nier,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London 
in  1831,  removed  to  Northamptonshire.  He  published 
a  volume  entitled  "Songs  of  Labour,"  (i860,)  and  is 
author  of  numerous  essays. 

Plum'mer,  (Joseph  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Massachusetts  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1841.  He  became  a  captain  in  1852,  and  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  October,  1861.  He  served  in 
several  actions  in  Missouri.  Died  at  Corinth,  Missis- 
sippi, in  October,  1862. 

Pltimp'tre,  (Edward  Hayes,)  D.D.,  an  English 
theologian,  born  August  6,  1821.  He  studied  at  King's 
College,  London,  and  graduated  in  1S44  at  University 
College,  Oxford,  becoming  also  a  Fellow  of  Brasenose 
College,  and  theological  lecturer  at  King's  College, 
London,  in  which  (1853)  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
pastoral  theology,  and  (1863)  of  New  Testament  exe- 
gesis, besides  holding  professorships  in  Queen's  College, 
London.  In  1881  he  was  appointed  Dean  of  Wells. 
He  wrote  various  theological  and  exegetical  works,  vol- 
umes of  poems,  sermons,  etc.      Died  in  1891. 

Pliimp'tre,  (James,)  an  English  clergyman  and  dram- 
atist, born  in  1770.     He  obtained   the  living  of  Great 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u.  y,  loitg:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  g,  obsatre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PLUMRIDGE 


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Oransden  in  1812.  He  wrote  "Osway,"  (1795,)  and 
other  dramas,  and  "  Discourses  on  the  Amusements 
of  the  Stage,"  (tSio.)     Died  in  1832. 

Plttm'ridge,  (Sir  James  Hanway,)  an  English  ad- 
miral, born  in  London  in  1787.  He  served  as  rear- 
admiral  in  the  Baltic  during  the  Russian  war,  (1854-55.) 
Died  in  1863. 

PlGnk'et,  (Oliver,)  a  Catholic  prelate,  born  in  the 
county  of  Meath,  Ireland,  about  1630.  He  received 
from  the  pope  the  title  of  Primate  of  Ireland  in  1669. 
He  was  executed  at  Tyburn,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  in 
1681  ;  but  his  innocence  was  afterwards  proved. 

Pltlnk'ett  or  Plunket,  (William  Conyngham,) 
first  Lord  Plunkett,  an  eminent  Irish  orator  and  judge, 
was  b'^rn  at  Enniskillen  in  July,  1764.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1787.  Having  been  elected  to  the  Irish  Parliament,  he 
acquired  distinction  by  his  impassioned  speeches  against 
the  union  with  England,  in  1800.  He  acted  as  consul 
for  the  insurgents  who  were  engaged  in  the  rebellion  of 
1798.  He  became  solicitor-general  for  Ireland  in  1803, 
and  attorney-general  in  1805,  but  retired  from  office 
with  the  Whigs  in  1807.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  to  the  British  House  of  Commons,  in  which  he 
voted  with  the  Whigs  and  made  a  few  speeches  that 
were  greatly  applauded.  He  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  the  University  of  Dublin  in  1812,  and  again  in 
1818.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  Catholic  emanci- 
pation. He  was  lord  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas 
in  Ireland  for  three  years,  (1827-30.)  About  1827  he 
was  created  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  was 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  1830  to  1841,  excepting 
an  interval  of  some  months  in  1834-35.  He  died  in  1854, 
leaving  the  title  to  his  son. 

See  the  "  Life,  Letters,  etc.  of  Lord  Plunkett,"  London,  1867  ; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1867;  "Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  June,  1867. 

Plunkett,  (William  Coxyngham,)  Lord,  an  Irish 
archbishop,  born  in  1828.  He  succeeded  his  father,  the 
third  Lord  Plunkett,  in  1871.  In  1876  he  became  Bishop 
of  Meath,  (.\nglican,)  and  in  1S85  he  succeeded  Dr.  R. 
C.  Trench  as  Archbishop  of  Dublin. 

Pluquet,  plii'ki',  (pRANgois  AndrA  Adrien,)  a 
learned  and  judicious  French  writer,  born  at  Bayeux  in 
1716.  He  published  in  1757  an  "  Inquiry  into  Fatalism," 
(3  vols.,)  which  is  commended.  His  best  or  most  popu- 
lar  work  is  a  "Dictionary  of  Heresies,"  (2  vols.,  1762.) 
He  obtained  in  1776  a  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
College  de  France,  Paris.  He  published  a  translation 
of  the  classic  books  of  the  Chinese,  collected  by  P^re 
Noel,  (7  vols.,  17S6.)     Died  in  1790. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biosraphie 
G^n^rale." 

Pluquet,  (Fr6d6ric,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Bayeux 
in  1781,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  French  antiquities.     Died  in  1834. 

Plu'tar-eh,  |Gr.  XVkovra^xoq ;  Lat.  Plutar'chuS;  Fr. 
Plutarque,  plu'ttRk';  It.  Plutarco,  plootaR'ko,]  an 
eminent  Greek  philosopher  or  moralist,  and  the  greatest 
biographer  of  antiquity,  was  a  native  of  Chasronea,  in 
Boeotia.  He  was  born  probably  about  50  a.d.,  as,  ac- 
cording to  his  own  statement,  he  studied  philosophy 
under  Ammonius,  at  Delphi,  in  66  a.d.  He  passed  some 
time  at  Rome,  where  he  lectured  on  philosophy,  in  the 
reign  of  Vespasian  or  of  one  of  his  sons.  "When  I 
was  in  Rome  and  other  parts  of  Italy,"  says  Plutarch, 
"I  had  not  leisure  to  study  the  Latin  tongue,  on  account 
of  the  public  commissions  with  which  I  was  charged, 
and  the  number  of  people  that  catne  to  be  instructed  by 
me  in  philosophy.  It  was  not,  therefore,  until  a  late 
period  in  life  that  I  began  to  read  the  Roman  authors." 
("  Life  of  Demosthenes.")  Plutarch  resided  at  his  native 
place  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  filled  several  mu- 
nicipal offices.  "As  to  myself,"  says  he,  "I  live  in  a 
little  town,  and  I  choose  to  live  there,  lest  it  should  be- 
come still  less."  He  had  a  wife  named  Timoxena,  and 
several  children.  On  the  death  of  his  infant  daughter 
he  wrote  to  his  wife  a  consolatory  letter,  in  which  he 
commemorated  her  conjugal  and  maternal  virtues,  with 
an  infusion  of  the  antique  sentiments  and  poetic  allu- 
sions which  render  his  writings  so  attractive.     He  was 


an  admirer  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  and  a  decided 
opponent  of  Epicureanism.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  not  known ;  but  it  is  supposed  that  he  attained  the 
age  of  seventy  or  more. 

Plutarch  was  a  very  prolific  writer.  His  works,  by 
their  extent  and  variety,  constitute  perhaps  the  most 
copious  treasury  of  facts,  ideas,  and  traditions  which  we 
have  inherited  from  antiquity.  There  is  no  uninspired 
Greek  prose  author  whose  works  have  found  in  modern 
times  so  many  readers  and  admirers.  His  principal 
work  is  his  "Parallel  Lives"  (U^'ot  Ilapa/Aj/A/w)  of  eminent 
Greeks  and  Romans,  arranged  in  pairs.  The  biography 
of  each  Greek  is  accom|)anied  by  the  life  of  some  Roman 
as  a  pendant,  and  the  latter  is  followed  by  a  rather  minute 
comparison,  in  which  the  two  persons  are  measured 
together,  trait  for  trait.  The  best  English  versions  of 
Plutarch's  "  Lives "  are  those  of  Sir  Thomas  North, 
(1612,)  of  Langhorne,  (1771,)  and  of  Arthur  Hugh 
Clough,  (1859.)  Among  the  extant  works  of  Plutarch 
are  many  moral  essays,  which  were  translated  into 
French  by  Amyot.  His  morality,  less  rigid  than  that 
of  the  Stoics  and  less  speculative  than  that  of  Plato,  is 
generally  pure  and  practical.  Among  his  lost  works  are 
a  "  Commentary  on  Homer,"  and  biographies  of  Pindar, 
Hesiod,  Scij^io,  Epaminondas,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Ca- 
ligula, Claudius,  and  Nero. 

Respecting  Plutarch's  merits  as  a  writer,  we  extract 
the  following  passage  from  an  article  in  the  "Biographic 
Universelle,"  by  M.  Villemain.  Alluding  to  Plutarch's 
truthful  and  naive  minuteness  in  the  delineation  of  his 
characters,  that  great  critic  remarks,  "  Perhaps  this  merit, 
which  all  recognize  in  Plutarch,  has  diverted  attention 
from  the  picturesque  beauty  of  his  style ;  but  it  is  this 
double  character  of  eloquence  and  truth  which  has  ren- 
dered him  so  powerful  over  all  vivid  imaginations.  .  .  . 
This  immortal  vivacity  of  the  style  of  Plutarch,  seconded 
by  a  happy  choice  of  the  noblest  subjects  that  can  occupy 
the  imagination  and  the  thoughts,  explains  the  prodigious 
interest  excited  by  his  historical  works.  He  has  painted 
man  as  he  is  ;  he  has  worthily  recorded  the  greatest 
characters  and  most  admirable  actions  of  the  human 
species.  The  attraction  of  such  reading  will  never  pass 
away ;  it  appeals  to  all  ages  and  conditions  of  life  ;  it 
kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  youth,  and  commends  itself 
to  the  sober  wisdom  of  age." 

See  Heeren,  "  De  Fontibus  et  Auctoritate  Phitarchi,"  1810; 
NiTzscH,  "  Disputatio  de  Plutarcho,"  1849;  Ritter,  "  History  of 
Philosophy;"  Kabricius,  "  Kibliotlieca  Gra;ca  ;"  Schoell,  "  Hi«- 
toire  de  la  Litt^rature  Grecque  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale ;'' 
also  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  i86i. 

Plutarchua.    See  Plutarch. 

Plutarco.    See  Plutarch. 

Plutarque.    See  Plutarch. 

Pluto,  the  Italian  of  Plutus,  which  see. 

Plu'to,  [Gr.  VlIovtuv  ;  Fr.  Pluton,  plii'tAN' ;  It. 
Plutone,  ploo-to'ni,]  the  god  of  the  infernal  regions, 
was  also  called  Hades,  Orcus,  Dis,  and  Ajdoneus. 
He  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Saturn  (Cronus  or  Kronos) 
and  Rhea,  and  a  brother  of  Jupiter  and  Neptune.  Ac- 
cording to  the  fable,  these  three  brothers  agreed  to  a 
division  of  the  world,  and  Pluto  obtained  as  his  portion 
the  subterranean  region,  the  realm  of  shades,  which  was 
called  Erebus  or  Hades,  and  the  entrance  of  which  was 
guarded  by  Cerberus,  a  dog  with  three  heads.  Some 
poets  imagined  that  the  realm  of  Pluto  was  divided  into 
two  regions, — namely,  Tartarus,  in  which  the  wicked 
were  confined  and  punished,  and  Elysium,  or  the  Elysian 
Fields,  the  abode  of  the  good. 

The  most  remarkable  features  in  the  geography  of  the 
infernal  world  were  five  rivers, — namely,  Ach'eron,  Co- 
cy'tus,  Styx,  Phleg'ethon,  and  Le'the,  (Gr.  Kn^n,)  the  river 
of  Oblivion.  Departed  souls  about  to  enter  Elysium 
drank  of  the  river  Lethe  and  forgot  all  their  troubles,  or, 
as  some  say,  forgot  all  the  past : 

"  Secures  latices  et  longa  oblivia  potant."* 

Virgil:  ^neui,  book  vi.  715. 

The  Styx  was  said  to  encompass  the  kingdom  of  Pluto 
seven  or  nine  times  with  its  circumvolutions,  and  was 
described  as  a  sluggish  stream,  for  which  reason  it  was 
sometimes  called  the  Stygian  pool  or  lake.     The  souls 


•  "  They  quaff  profound  oblivion,  secure  from  pain  and  woe." 


eas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


P LUTON 


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POELITZ 


of  the  dead  were  carried  across  the  Styx  in  a  boat  by 
Charon.  The  gods  usually  swore  by  the  river  Styx. 
Phlegethon  was  described  as  a  river  of  fire,  and  Cocytus 
as  a  branch  or  affluent  of  the  Sty.x,  which  see. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  adventures  of  Pluto  was 
the  abduction  of  Proseipine,  whom  he  married.  The 
poets  feigned  that  he  possessed  a  helmet  which  rendered 
the  wearer  invisible.  (See  an  ample  and  admirable  de- 
scription of  Pluto's  dominions  in  Virgil's  "/Eneid," 
book  vi.  passim.) 

Pluton.    See  Pluto. 

Plutone.    See  Pluto. 

Plu'tus,  [Gr.  WjavToq ;  It.  Pluto,  ploo'to,]  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  the  god  of  riches,  was  said  to  be  a  son 
of  lasion  and  Ceres.  The  poets  relate  that  Jupiter  de- 
prived him  of  sight  in  order  that  he  might  distribute 
riches  blindly  and  bestow  his  favours  indiscriminately 
on  the  evil  and  the  good.  He  was  represented  as  lame, 
because  he  generally  comes  so  slowly  to  those  who  seek 
him  ;  yet  he  had  wings,  to  indicate  how  swiftly  he  often 
forsakes  those  whom  he  seems  most  to  favour.  (See 
KuvftRA.) 

Pluvinel,  de,  deh  plii've'n^K,  (Antoine,)  a  French- 
man, noted  for  his  skill  in  horsemanship,  was  born  in 
Dauphine  in  1555.  He  was  under-governor  (sous- 
^02iver)uur)  of  the  dauphin,  (Louis  XHI.,)  and  wrote  a 
work  called  "Manege  Royal,"  (1623.)     Died  in  1620. 

Plu'vi-us,  {i.e.  "  the  rainy,")  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
among  the  Romans,  who  invoked  him  during  long 
droughts. 

Pluymer,  ploi'mer,  (Jan,)  a  mediocre  Dutch  poet, 
horn  at  Amsterdam,  wrote  during  the  reign  of  William 
HI.  of  England,  and  published  a  volume  of  verses  in 
1691. 

Po,  del,  dSl  po,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Palermo  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Domeni- 
chino.  Died  at  Naples  in  1692.  His  son  Gl^comg. 
born  at  Rome  in  1654,  was  a  painter.  He  worked  at 
Naples  with  success.     Died  in  1726. 

Po-ca-hon'tas,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  an  Indian 
chief  of  Virginia,  is  celebrated  for  her  heroism  in  inter- 
ceding for  the  life  of  Captain  Smith,  who  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  her  father.  She  was  afterwards 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  married  to  John  Rolfe, 
an  English  gentleman.  Among  her  descendants  in  Vir- 
ginia was  the  celebrated  John  Randolph.    Died  in  1617. 

Poccetti,  pot-chet'tee,  properly  Bernardino  Bar- 
batelli,  (baR-bd-tel'lee,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  about  1542.  He  painted  figures,  landscapes, 
flowers,  and  draperies  with  success,  and  displayed  a 
great  fertility  of  invention.  Among  his  works  is  "  The 
i^Iission  of  the  Apostles."  "  He  was  considered,"  says 
I'eries,  "the  Paul  Veronese  of  his  school."  Di<;d  at 
Florence  in  1612. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pocci,  pot'chee,  (Franz,)  Count,  a  poet  and  de- 
signer, of  Italian  origin,  was  born  at  Munich  in  1807. 
i  le  wrote  verses  and  tales.     Died  May  7,  1876. 

Pochard,  po'shjR',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  near  Pontarlier  in  171 5.  He  wrote  "Method  for 
the  Guidance  of  Souls,"  ("  Methode  pour  la  Direction 
des  Ames,"  1772.)     Died  in  1786. 

Pooholle,  po'shol',  (Pierre  Pomponne  Am6d6e,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Dieppe  ir.  1764,  was  a 
member  of  the  Convention  of  1792.     Died  in  1832. 

Pockels,  pok'kels,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German 
moralist,  born  near  Halle  in  1757.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  An  Essay  on  the  Character  of  Women," 
(5  vols.,  1799-1802,)  and  "Man,"  ("  Der  Mann,"  4  vols., 
1805-08.)     Died  in  1814. 

Po'cock,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
Orientalist,  born  at  Oxford  in  1604,  studied  in  Corpus 
Chiisti  College.  He  passed  about  six  years  at  Aleppo 
as  chaplain  to  the  English  merchants,  (1630-36,)  and 
learned  Arabic,  Syriac,  Hebrew,  etc.  In  1636  he  be- 
came the  first  professor  of  Arabic  at  Oxford.  Pocock  is 
said  to  have  been  the  best  Arabic  scholar  of  his  time  in 
England.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Childrey 
in  1643,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  in 
1648.  He  published  in  1648-50  "Specimen  Ilistorire 
Arabum,"  consisting  of  extracts  from  the   History  of 


Aboolfaraj,  (Abulpharagius,)  with  a  Latin  version  and 
notes.  His  most  important  work  is  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  entire  History  of  the  same  author,  which  was  pub- 
lished (with  the  original  text)  in  1663,  in  two  volumes. 
Died  at  Oxford  in  1691. 

See  a  "  Life  o(  E.  Pocock,"  prefixed  to  his  theological  works,  by 
Leonard  TwELi^,  1740. 

Pocock,  (Edavard,)  an  Oriental  scholar,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1646.  He  published  in  1671 
the  Arabic  text,  with  a  Latin  version,  of  a  work  of 
Ibn-Tofay],  ".Self-Taught  Philosopher,"  ("Philosophus 
autodidactos.") 

Pocock,  (Isaac,)  an  English  painter  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1782  ;  died  in  1835. 

Pococke,  po'kok,  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  at  Southampton  in  1704.  He  travelled  in  Egypt, 
Palestine,  Syria,  etc.  in  1734-41,  and  published  a  "  De- 
scri])tion  of  the  East  and  of  Some  Other  Countries,"  (3 
vols.,  1743-45,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  became 
[5ishop  of  Ossory  in  1756,  and  Bishop  of  Meath  in  1765. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  Description  of  the  Giants' 
Causeway."     Died  in  1765. 

Poczobut,  de,  deh  potch'o-boot,  (Martin,)  a  Polish 
astronomer,  born  near  Grodno  in  1729  ;  died  in  1810. 

Podestd,  po-d§s-t5',  (  Giamhaitista,  )  an  Italiar 
Orientalist,  born  in  Istria.  He  became  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Vienna  in  1674,  and  published  "Grammatical 
Course  of  Oriental  Languages,"  ("  Cursus  grammaticalis 
Linguarum  Orientalium,"  3  vols.,  1687-1703.) 

Podiebrad,  pod-ya'brid,  (Georce,)  King  of  Bo- 
hemia, born  in  1420.  He  commanded  an  army  of 
Hussites  in  the  civil  war  about  1450,  and  was  elected 
king  in  1458,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Catholic 
nobles.  In  1466  he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Paul 
II.,  because  he  maintained  the  right  of  communion 
under  two  forms.  The  pope  also  caused  a  crusade  to 
be  preached  against  him.  In  1467  he  was  involved  in 
a  war  against  Matthias  Corvinus,  whom  he  defeated. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  an  able  and  patriotic  ruler. 
He  died  in  1471,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ladislaus  of 
Poland. 

See  M.  Jordan,  "  Das  Knnigtlium  Georgs  Podiebrad,"  1861 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Poe,  po,  (Edgar  Allan,)  a  distinguished  American 
poet,  born  in  Boston  in  181 1.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1826,  and,  having  spent  a  year 
in  Europe,  became  successively  editor  of  the  "  Southern 
Literary  Messenger"  at  Charleston,  and  the  "Gentle- 
man's Magazine"  and  "Graham's  Magazine"  at  Phila- 
delphia. In  1844  he  took  charge  of  the  "Broadway 
Journal,"  New  York.  He  died  at  Baltimore,  in  1849, 
of  delirium  tremens.  Among  his  principal  prose  works 
are  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,"  "Tales  of  the 
Grotesque  and  Arabesque,"  and  "  The  Gold  Bug."  His 
"  Raven"  and  other  small  poems  have  been  much  admired. 
He  also  wrote  a  collection  of  critical  essays.  "  His 
poems,"  says  R.  \V.  Griswold,  "are  constructed  with 
wonderful  ingenuity  and  finished  with  consummate  art. 
They  illustrate  a  morbid  sensitiveness  of  feeling,  a 
shaaowy  and  gloomy  imagination,  and  a  taste  almost 
faultless  in  the  apprehension  of  that  sort  of  beauty  most 
agreeable  to  his  temper." 

See  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  and  a  "  Memoir 
of  Poe,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his  works  published  by  R.  W. 
Griswold,  in  3  vols.  :  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  185S  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1856;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  foi 
June,  1857. 

Poel,  van  der,  vSn  der  pool,  (Egbert,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1620.  He  painted 
landscapes,  interiors,  and  nocturnal  conflagrations  with 
success.     Died  about  1690. 

Poelemburg,  poo'lem-buRo',  (Cornelis,)  surnamed 
IL  Brusco  and  IL  Satiro,  an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1586,  was  a  pupil  of  Abraham  Bloe- 
maert.  After  spending  inany  years  at  Rome  and  Florence, 
he  was  invited  to  England  by  Charles  I.,  for  whom  he 
painted  some  works.  He  excelled  in  landscape-painting, 
and  also  produced  several  historical  pictures.  Died  at 
Utrecht  in  1660. 

See  Cn.\RLEs  P>LANC,  "La  Vie  des  Peintrea." 

PoeUtz.    See  Politz. 


i,  e.  T. o,  u, y,  lo7tg;^,  h,b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  ^,\,o,\\,y,s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;mSt;  nftt; good;  moon; 


FOELLNITZ 


1973 


POINSOT 


Poellnitz.    See  Pollnitz. 

Poeppig.    See  Poppig. 

Poerio,  po-a're-o,  (Carlo,)  a  liberal  Italian  politician, 
born  at  Naples  in  1803.  He  was  minister  of  public  in- 
struction at  Naples  for  a  short  time  in  1848.  lie  was 
arrested  by  order  of  the  Neapolitan  government  in 
July,  1849,  and  condemned  to  twenty-four  years'  im- 
prisonment and  hard  labour.  The  cruel  treatment 
inflicted  on  him  and  others  was  denounced  by  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  a  famous  letter  to  Lord  Aberdeen.  He 
escaped,  or  was  released,  about  1858,  after  which  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
Died  in  1867. 

Poerio,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eloquent  Italian  advocate, 
born  at  Catanzaro,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  rejjublic  formed  at  Naples 
in  1799.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  procureur-general 
by  Murat.     Died  at  Florence  in  1843. 

Poerner.     See  Porner. 

Poerson,  po'Sr's6n',  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French 
painter  of  history,  born  in  Paris  about  1652 ;  died  at 
Rome  in  1725. 

Poey,  po'i,  (Andr#.s,)  a  Cuban  scientist,  a  son  of 
Felipe  Poey,  was  born  at  Havana  in  1827.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  meteorology.  He  published  and  edited 
a  series  of  works  called  "  La  Bibliotheque  positiviste," 
(1875  ^/J^</.) 

Poey,  (Felipe,)  a  Cuban  zoologist,  born  in  Havana 
in  1802.  While  a  law-student  in  Madrid  he  had  to  es- 
cape to  Paris,  being  involved  in  some  political  conspiracy. 
After  1830  he  went  to  Havana,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  in  the  university.  He  published 
"  La  Centurie  des  Lepidopteres,"  (1828,)  works  on  Cuba, 
(1840,  1842,)  "Geografia  universal,"  (1842,)  "  Memorias 
sobie  la  Historia  de  la  Isla  de  Cuba,"  (1864,)  etc.  He 
published  accounts  of  more  than  two  hundred  and  thirty 
species  of  fishes  before  undescribed,  and  has  attained 
distinction  in  general  literature. 

Pogge,  Le.    See  Poggio. 

Poggendorf,  pog'gen-doRf,  (Johann  Christian,)  a 
German  savant  and  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
Berlin,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1796.  He  became  in 
1824  editor  of  the  "  Annals  of  Physics  and  Chemistry." 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  treatise  "On  the  Mag- 
netism of  the  Voltaic  Pile,"  in  which  he  was  the  first 
to  explain  the  ])rinciples  of  the  multiplicator  and  its 
application.     Died  January  24,  1877. 

Poggi,  de',  dii  pod'jee,  (Giuseppe,)  Chevalier,  an 
Italian  writer,  born  near  Piacenza  in  1761.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  French  legislative  body  from  181 1  to  18 14. 
He  wrote  "On  Sincere  Reformation,"  ("  Uelle  Emende 
sincere,"  3  vols.,  1791,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
France  in  1842. 

Pogglani,  pod-ji'nee,  (GrULio,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Suna,  on  Lake  Maggiore,  in  1522.  He  was 
secretary  of  Carlo  Borromeo.  He  left  "  Epistles  and 
Orations,"  in  Latin,  (4  vols.,  1756-62,)  which  are  said  to 
be  elegant.     Died  in  156S. 

Poggio  Bracciolini,  pod'jo  brit-cho-lee'nee,  [Fi 
Le  Pogge,  leh  pozh,]  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  scholar  and  reviver  of  learning,  was 
born  near  Florence  in  1380.  He  was  a  pupil  of  John  of 
Ravenna,  was  appointed  apostolic  secretary  about  1413, 
and  served  s'iveral  successive  popes  in  that  capacity. 
He  rendered  important  services  to  literature  by  the  dis- 
covery of  ancient  manuscripts,  for  which  he  searched  in 
monasteries.  He  discovered  seven  orations  of  Cicero, 
twelve  plays  of  Plautus,  the  commentaries  of  Asconius 
Pedianus,  the  history  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and 
other  classic  works.  He  wrote  satires  against  the  monks 
and  clergy,  and  against  Filelfo,  with  whom  he  was  in- 
volved in  a  long  and  acrimonious  controversy.  In  1435 
he  married  a  young  lady  named  Selvaggia  Buondelmonli. 
After  this  event  he  resided  many  years  at  Florence,  and 
published  in  1437  a  collection  of  letters,  which  were 
greatly  admired.  Having  passed  several  years  in  Rome, 
.ne  returned  to  Florence  about  1450,  and  was  appointed 
chancellor  there  in  1453.  Among  his  works,  which  are 
all  in  Latin,  are  a  "Dialogue  on  Nobility,"  ("  De  No- 
biliiate  Dialogus,")  a  "  History  of  Florence  from  1350 
to  145s,"  ("Historia  Florentina,"  etc.,  1476,)  and  "On 


the  Mutability  of  Fortune,"  ("  De  Varietate  Fortunae.") 
He  died  in  Fhjrence  in  October,  1459. 

See  William  Shkpiif.kd,  "Life  of  Pogjiio  Bracciolini,"  1802, 
Thorschmidt,  "  Dissertatio  de  F.  Poggii  LSracciolini  Vita,"  1713  : 
J.  Lenfant,  "Poggiaiia,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1720:  Nic^RON,  "M^- 
moires  ;"  C.  Nisard,  "  Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Rdpiiblique  des  Lei 
tres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G(5ndrale ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  foi 
October,  1836. 

Pogodin,  pp-go-deen',  (Mikhail  Petrovitch,)  a 
Russian  historical  writer,  born  at  Moscow  in  1800.  In 
1833  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  Moscow  Uni- 
versity, and  ten  years  later  devoted  himself  to  archaeo- 
logical studies.  His  "  Isledovania,  Zamietchaniya  i 
Lektzie"  (7  vols.,  1846-54)  is  highly  valued  as  an  autho- 
rity on  Old  Russian  history.  He  also  wrote  novels  and 
dramas,  and  a  celebrated  series  of  panslavistic  letters. 
Died  in  1875. 

Pohl,  pol,  (Carl  Ferdinand,)  a  German  musician, 
composer,  and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Darmstadt,  Sep- 
tember 6,  1819.  He  published  "Mozart  and  Haydn  in 
London,"  (1867,)  and  other  works,  and  prepared  a 
biography  of  Haydn,  (vol.  i.,  1875.) 

Pohl,  pol,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  physician, 
born  near  Liegnitz  in  1706;  died  in  1780. 

Pohl,  (Johann  Emanuel,)  a  German  botanist,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1784.  He  published,  in  Latin,  "  Descrip- 
tions and  Figures  of  Brazilian  Plants,"  (2  vols.,  1827-31,) 
and,  in  German,  "  Travels  in  Brazil,"  (3  vols.,  1832.) 
Died  in  1834. 

Poilly,  de,  deh  pwi'ye',  (Francois,)  an  eminent 
French  engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1622.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  Paris,  and  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael, 
Giulio  Romano,  and  Poussin.  In  1664  he  received  the 
title  of  engraver  to  the  king.     Died  in  Paris  in  1693. 

Poilly,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  skilful  engraver,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1669  ; 
died  in  Paris  in  1728. 

Poilly,  de,  (Nicolas,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Abbe- 
ville in  1626,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
not  equal  to  his  brother  Fran9ois.     Died  in  i6g6. 

Poin'dex-t^r,  (George,)  an  able  American  states- 
man and  jurist,  born  in  Louisa  county,  Virginia.  Hav- 
ing removed  to  Mississippi,  he  was  appointed  in  1813 
United  States  judge  for  that  district,  and  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1817.  He  there  distinguished  himself 
by  his  eloquent  defence  of  the  course  of  General  Jack- 
son in  the  Seminole  war.  He  was  afterwards  elected 
Governor  of  the  State,  and  in  1831  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States.  He  became  an  opponent  of  President 
Jackson,  and  ceased  to  be  a  Senator  in  1835.  Died 
in  1853. 

Poin'sett,  (Joel  Roberts,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1779.  Having  been  several  times  elected 
to  Congress,  he  was  sent  in  1825  as  minister  to  Mexico 
by  President  Adams.  In  the  contest  between  tlie  Nul- 
lification and  Union  parties  he  became  the  leader  of  the 
latter.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President 
Van  Buren  in  March,  1837.  He  retired  from  that  office 
in  March,  1841,  after  which  he  was  not  employed  in  the 
public  service.  He  wrote  "Notes  on  Mexico."  Died 
m  December,  1851. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. ;  "  Democratic  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1838,  (with 
a  portrait.) 

Poinsinet,  pw^N'se'ni',  (  Antoine  Alexandre 
Henri,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Fontainebleau  in 
1735.  He  wrote  several  successful  comedies  and  comic 
operas,  among  which  is  "The  Circle,  or  Soiree  .\  b 
Mode,"  (1771.)  He  was  accidentally  drowned  at  C6r- 
dova,  in  Si)ain,  in  1769. 

Poinsinet  de  Sivry,  pwiN'se'n.y  deh  se'vRe', 
(Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Versailles  in  1733. 
He  produced  a  popular  tragedy,  named  "  Briseis," 
(1759,)  and  various  other  works  of  little  merit.  He 
transited  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1771-81.)  He 
was  a  brother-in-law  of  Palissot.     Died  in  1804. 

Poinsot,  pwAn'so',  (Louis,)  a  French  geometer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1777.  He  published  in  1803  "Elements 
of  Statics,"  which  presents  new  and  ingenious  ideas. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Applica- 
tion of  Algebra  to   the  Theory  of  Numbers,"  (1820.) 


€  as  -^,-  9  as .f ;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  \i,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  5  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2!^°"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POIRET 


1974 


POLE 


He  was  elected  to  the  Institute,  in  place  of  La  Grange, 
in  1813.  In  1852  he  became  a  senator.  Died  in  De- 
cember, 1859. 

Poiret,  pwJ'ri',  (Jean  Louis  Marie,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  about  1755.  He  pub- 
lished "Travels  in  Barbary,"  (2  vols.,  1789,)  a  work  of 
merit,  a  "Botanical  Dictionary,"  (20  vols.,  1 789-1823.) 
wiiich  forms  part  of  the  "EncycloiJedie  Methodique," 
and  "The  Philosophical,  Literary,  and  Economical 
History  of  the  Useful  Plants  of  Europe,"  (7  vols.,  1825 
-29.)     Died  in  1834. 

See  Qu^RAKD,  "  L.i  France  Litt^raire.' 

Poiret,  (Pierre,)  a  French  philosopher  and  mystical 
writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1646.  lie  became  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  preached  at  Hamburg  and  Amsterdam.  Il 
is  stated  that  he  rejected  the  light  and  guidance  of 
reason.  lie  wrote,  in  Latin,  besides  many  other  works, 
"The  Divine  Economy,"  (7  vols.,  1687.)     Died  in  1719. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Meraoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Poirier,  pwd're-i',  (Germai.n,)  a  French  monk,  was 
born  in  Paris  in"T724.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Reign  of  Henry  I.  of  France."     Died  in  1803. 

Poirson,  pwiR'sON',  (.A.uguste  Simo.n  Jean  Chry- 
sostome,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He 
was  principal  of  the  College  Charlemagne  from  1837  to 
1853.  His  chief  works  are  a  "History  of  Rome,"  (2 
vols.,  1S24-26,)  and  a  "History  of  Henry  IV.,"  (2  vols., 
1857.)     Died  at  Versailles,  July  19,  1871. 

Poirson,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  the  Vosges  in  1760.  He  excelled  in  the  con- 
struction of  terrestrial  globes.     Died  in  1831. 

Pois,  Le,  leh  pwS,  (A.ntoi.ne,)  a  French  numismatist, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1525  ;  died  in  1578. 

Pois,  Le,  (Charles,)  [Lat.  Caro'lus  Pi'so,]  a  dis- 
tinguished physician,  born  at  Nancy,  France,  in  1563. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Book  of  Select  Observa- 
tions and  Counsels,"  ("Selectiorum  Observationum  et 
Consiliorum  Liber,"  1618,)  which,  says  Weiss,  "assures 
to  him  the  reputation  of  a  great  physician."  Died  in  1633. 

Pois,  Le,  (Nicolas,)  the  father  of  the  preceding 
born  at  Nancy  in  1527,  was  a  skilful  physician.  He 
published  a  good  work  "  On  the  Knowledge  and  Cure 
of  Diseases,"  ("  De  Cognoscendis  et  Curandis  Morbis," 
1580.)     Died  in  1587. 

Poise,  pwiz,  (Ferdinand,)  a  French  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Nimes  in  1828.  He  has  produced  a  num- 
ber of  sparkling  operettas,  chief  among  which  are  "La 
Surprise  de  I'Amour"  (1878)  and  "L'Amour  Medecin," 
(18S0.) 

Poiseuille,  pwi'zul'  or  pwS'zuh'ye,  (Jean  Louis 
Marie,)  a  French  physician  and  physiologist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1799.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Re- 
searches on  the  Course  of  the  Blood  in  the  Veins," 
(1831.)     Died  December  26,  1869. 

Poissant,  pwi'sSN',  (Thibaut,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  near  Crecy  in  1605  ;  died  in  1660. 

Poisson,  pwJ's6n',  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Paris  in  1637,  was  a  disciple  of  Des- 
cartes. He  published  "Delectus  Actorum  Ecclesiae 
Universalis,"  (2  vols.,  1706.)     Died  in  1710. 

Poisson,  (Raymond,)  a  popular  French  comedian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1633  ;  died  in  1690.  His  grandson, 
Francois  Arnoul,  {1696-1753,)  was  a  favourite  comic 
actor  of  the  Parisian  stage. 

Poisson,  (Simeon  Denis,)  an  excellent  and  profound 
French  geometer,  born  at  Pithiviers  (Loiret)  on  the  21st 
of  June,  1781.  He  entered  the  Polytechnic  School  in 
1798,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  La  Grange  and  La 
Place.  He  became  professor  in  the  same  school  in 
1802,  a  member  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes  in  i8c8,  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1812,  and  counsellor  of  the 
University  in  1820.  In  1811  he  published  an  excellent 
treatise  on  mechanics,  "Traite  de  Mecanique,"  (2  vols.) 
In  his  "New  Theory  of  Capillary  Action"  (1831)  he 
completes  the  researches  of  La  Place  by  superadding 
the  consideration  of  the  variation  of  density.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Mathematical  Theory  of  Heat,"  (2  vols.,  1835,) 
and  a  treatise  on  the  theory  of  probabilities  applied  to 
judicial  trials,  "  Recherches  sur  la  Probabilite  des  Juge- 
ments,"  etc.,   (1837.)     He  also  contributed   more  than 


three  hundred  memoirs  to  various  journals  and  periodi- 
cals, .^mong  these  is  a  remarkable  treatise  "On  the 
Invariability  of  the  Mein  Movements  of  the  Grand 
Planetary  Axes."  It  was  in  the  domain  of  mathematical 
physics  that  the  genius  of  Poisson  was  most  signally 
displayed.  He  brought  this  science  to  great  perfection, 
especially  in  its  application  to  static  electricity  and  mag- 
netism. In  1837  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  peer 
of  France,  although  he  never  was  a  politician  Died  in 
April,  1840. 

See  Arago,  "Notices  bio^rapliiques,"  tome  ii.  ;  "Notice  sur 
Poisson,"  Orleans,  1840;  "Nouvelle  Uiographie  G^ii^rale." 

Poissonnier,  pwJ'so'ne-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Dijon  in  1720.  He  was 
sent  by  the  king  about  1760  on  a  secret  mission  to  Eliza- 
beth of  Russia,  and,  on  his  return,  received  the  title  of 
councillor  of  state.  He  invented  an  apparatus  or  pro- 
cess to  convert  sea-water  into  fresh  water.  In  1764  he 
became  inspector  and  director  of  medicine  for  all  the 
hospitals  and  maritime  arsenals  of  France.  Died  in  1798. 

Poitevin,  pwdt'viN',(jACQUES,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1742.  He  published  "  An  Essay 
on  the  Climate  of  Montpellier,"  (1803.)     Died  in  1807. 

Poitevin,  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1782  ;  died  in  1859. 

Poitevin,  (Robert,)  a  French  physician,  born  proba- 
bly in  Poitou  about  1390.  He  was  employed  by  the 
queen,  and  by  Agnes  Sorel.     Died  in  1474. 

Poitevin  de  Maxureillan,  pwdt'v^N'  deh  mo'ri'yfiN', 
(Casimir,)  Vicomte,  a  French  general,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier in  1772.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz, 
in  1805,  and  at  Borodino,  in  1812.     Died  in  1829. 

Poitiers,  de,  (Diane.)     See  Diane. 

Poivre,  pwivR,  (Pierre,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1719.  lie  visited  China  in  1740,  after  which 
he  became  an  agent  of  the  French  East  India  Company, 
and  went  to  the  Moluccas,  from  which  he  transplanted 
the  nutmeg-tree  and  other  spices  to  the  Isle  of  France. 
He  was  intendant  of  the  Isles  of  France  and  Bourbon 
from  1767  to  1773.  He  is  said  to  have  exhibited  there 
an  almost  perfect  model  of  an  administrator  and  public 
benefactor.     Died  in  1786. 

See  DupoNT  de  Nemours,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Poivre,' 
17S6;  A.  BouLL^B,  "  Notice  sur  Poivre,"  1835. 

Poivre,  Le,  leh  pwSvR,  a  geometer,  born  at  Mons 
Belgium,  lived  about  1 700.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Sections  of  a  Cylinder  and  Cone,"  (1704.) 

Poix,  pwi,  (A.vToiNE  Cl.\ude  Dominique  Just,) 
Comte  de  Noailles  and  Prince  de  Poix,  a  French  diplo- 
matist, born  in  Paris  in  1777  ;  died  in  1846. 

Poix,  de,  deh  pwi,  (Louis,)  a  learned  French  monk, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens  in  1714.  He  published 
a  new  version  of  the  Psalms,  (1762,)  and  "Principles 
discussed  to  facilitate  the  Study  of  the  Prophetic  Books," 
|l6  vols.,  1755-64.)     Died  in  1782. 

Pojarski.     See  Pozharski. 

Polain,  po'liN',  (Mathieu  Lambert,)  a  Belgian 
historian,  born  at  Liege  in  1S08.  His  chief  work  is  a 
"  History  of  Liege,"  ("  Histoire  de  I'ancien  Pays  de 
Liege,"  2  vols.,  1844-48.)     Died  April  4,  1872. 

Polanco,  po-lin'ko,  the  name  of  three  good  Spanish 
painters,  who  were  brothers  and  natives  of  Sevillo. 
The  latest  work  of  Carlos  Polanco  is  dated  1686. 

Po'land,  (Luke  Potter,)  LL.D.,  an  American  judge, 
born  at'Westford,  Vermont,  November  i,  1S15.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836.  In  1848  he  was  made  a 
judge  of  the  Vermont  supreme  court,  and  in  i860  be- 
came chief  justice.  He  was  United  States  Senator, 
1865-66,  and  a  Representative  to  Congress,  1866-72,  and 
again,  18S3-84.     Died  July  2,  1887. 

Pole.    See  Suffolk. 

Pole,  [Lat.  Po'lus,!  (Reginald,)  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish cardinal  and  scholar,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in 
1500.  His  mother,  Margaret  Plantagenet,  was  a  niece 
of  Edward  IV.,  a  daughter  of  George,  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, and  cousin-german  to  Queen  Elizabeth  who  was 
the  mother  of  Henry  VIII.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  Dean  of  Exeter  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He 
pursued  his  studies  at  Padua,  where  he  formed  friend- 
shijis  with  Erasmus,  Bembo,  and  Sadolet,  and  returned 
to  England  in  1525.     About  153 1  he  lost  the  favour  of 


&,  e, i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y, short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  Hr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


tOLE 


1975 


POLIT 


Henry  VIII.  by  his  opposition  to  the  divorce  of  Queen 
Catherine.  Having  retired  to  the  continent  for  safety, 
he  wrote  a  famous  treatise  "For  the  Unity  of  the 
Church,"  ("Pro  Unitate  Ecclesiae,")  printed  at  Rome 
without  date,  in  which  he  controverted  the  pretensions 
of  Henry  to  be  the  head  of  the  Church.  His  mother 
and  brother  were  executed  by  order  of  the  king,  and  he 
was  attainted.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  (1553) 
he  was  sent  by  the  pope  as  legate  to  England.  He  suc- 
ceeded Cranmer  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1555 
or  1556.  Historians  are  divided  in  opinion  in  relation 
to  his  complicity  in  the  persecutions  of  this  reign ;  and 
his  character  is  commonly  represented  as  mild  and 
humane.     Died  in  1558. 

See  Br-capelli,  "Vim  Poli  Cardinalis,"  ISS3;  an  English  ver- 
sion of  the  same,  published  by  Pye  in  1766;  Froude,  "  History  of 
England;"  Thomas  Phillipps,  "Life  of  R.  Pole,"  1764:  Hume, 
"  History  of  England ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Pole,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  a  versatile  English  author, 
born  in  1814.  He  was  a  professor  of  civil  engineering 
in  Elphinstone  College,  Bombay,  from  1844  to  1847,  and 
in  University  College,  London,  from  1859  to  1867,  and 
in  the  latter  year  graduated  as  doctor  of  music  at  .Saint 
John's  College,  Oxford.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Trea- 
tise of  the  Steam-Engine,"  (1844,)  "  Life  of  Sir  William 
Fairbairn,"  (1877,)  "  Philosophy  of  Music,"  (1879,)  and 
a  celebrated  treatise  on  whist. 

Polemburg.  See  Poelemkurg. 
Pol'e-mo  or  Pol'e-mon,  [Gr.  W.o7Jiy.Dv;  Fr.  Pol6- 
MON,  po'li'm^N',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Athens, 
or  in  Attica.  He  succeeded  Xenocrates  as  the  head 
7f  the  old  Academy  about  315  B.C.,  and  wrote  several 
works,  which  are  not  extant.  Among  his  disciples 
were    Zeno    the    Stoic,    and    Arcesilaus.      Died    about 

272  B.C. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gnca;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Polemo,  a  Greek  writer,  who  is  sujjposed  to  have 
lived  between  100  and  250  A.D.  He  left  a  work  on 
Physiognomy,  which  is  extant.    He  is  quoted  by  Origen. 

Polemo  or  Polemon,  surnamed  Periege'tes,  [Fr. 
PoL^MON  le  P^Ri^GfexE,  po'li'm6N'  Ich  pi're'i'zhit',] 
a  Greek  geographer,  born  at  Samos  or  Sicyon.  obtained 
the  citizenship  of  Athens,  and  lived  about  200  P.c.  He 
wrote  many  works  on  geography,  etc.,  of  which  fragments 
are  extant. 

Polemo,  or  Polemo  the  Sophist,  a  celebrated 
Greek  rhetorician,  born  at  Laodicea,  flourished  about 
130  A.D.  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Smyrna,  and  obtained 
the  favour  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  He  wrote  several 
works,  which  are  lost,  except  two  orations.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  fifty-six. 

See  Philostratus,  "Vita  Sophistarum  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Biblio 
theca  Grseca." 

Polemon.     See  Polemo. 

Poleni,  po-la'nee,  (Giovakni,)  Marquis,  an  Italiar 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Venice  in  1683.  He  be- 
came professor  of  physics  at  Padua  in  1715,  and  suc- 
ceeded N.  Bernoulli  as  professor  of  mathematics  in  1719. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "Dialogue  on  Celes- 
tial Vortices,"  (1712,)  and  "On  the  Mixed  Motion  of 
Water,"  ("De  Motu  Aquae  mixto,"  1717.)  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1761. 

See  P.  Cossali,  "  Elogio  del  Professor  Poleni,"  1813;  Fabroni, 
"Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  G.  Gennari,  "  Elogio  del 
Marchese  G.  Poleni,"  1839. 

Polenta,  da,  di  po-l§n'ti,  (Guino  Novello,)  became 
Lord  of  Ravenna  in  1275.  He  befriended  the  exiled 
Dante,  who  came  to  his  court  in  1319  and  remained 
there  until  his  death  in  1321.     Died  in  1323. 

Polentoue,  po-l^n-to'ni,  [Lat.  Polento'nus,]  (Sec- 
CO  or  Xicco,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at 
Padua  about  1390.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of 
Seneca,"  and  a  comedy  called  "  Catinia,"  (1842.)  Died 
about  1462. 

See  J.  E.  Kapp,  "Dissertatio  de  X.  Polentono,"  1733. 

Polevoi,  po'l&h-voi',  (Nikolai  Alexievitch,  )  a 
Russian  litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Siberia  in  1796, 
became  in  1825  editor  of  the  "Moscow  Telegraph,"  a 
periodical  of  great  ability  and  ipfluence,  which  was  after- 
wards suppressed  by  the  government  on  account  of  its 
liberal  views.  Among  his  works,  which  are  very  nume- 
rous, we  may  name  a  "  Life  of  Soov6rof,"  (Suwarow,) 


a  "  Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1843,)  regarded  as 
the  best  life  of  that  sovereign  that  has  been  written,  the 
dramas  of  "  Parasha  the  Siberian  Girl"  and  "The 
Grandfather  of  the  Russian  Fleet,"  and  a  "History  of 
the  Russian  People,"  a  part  of  which  only  has  been 
published.  He  also  translated  "  Hamlet,"  and  wrote 
a  number  of  valuable  critical  essays  on  Russian  litera- 
ture.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Polhem,  pol'hgm,  or  Polhelm,  pol'hSlm,  (Kristo- 
FER,)  a  Swedish  engineer  and  mechanician,  born  in 
Gothland  in  1661.  He  invented  several  useful  machines, 
constructed  the  docks  at  Carlscrona,  and  obtained  a  title 
of  nobility.     Died  in  1751. 

Poli,  po'lee,  (Giuseppe  Saverio,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist and  physiologist,  born  at  Molfetta,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  in  1746.  He  became  professor  of  geography  and 
history  in  a  military  school  at  Naples  about  1776,  after 
which  he  was  sent  by  the  king  to  France  and  England 
to  examine  educational  institutions  and  procure  scientific 
apparatus.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  the  prince  who 
reigned  as  Francis  I.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded 
on  an  excellent  work  on  testaceous  mollusca,  "  History 
and  Anatomy  of  the  Testacea  of  the  Two  Sicilies," 
("  Testacea  utriusque  Sicilias  eorumque  Historia  et 
Anatome,"  2  vols.,  1791-95.)  The  third  volume  was 
published  in  1826.  "This  magnificent  work,"  says  Cu- 
vier,  "  represents  their  anatomy  with  much  accuracy,  and 
throws  new  light  on  their  physiology."     Died  in  1825. 

See  p.  N.  GiAMPAOLo,  "Elogio  di  S.  Poli,"  1825:  Serafino 
Gatti,  "  Biografia  di  G.  S.  Poli,"  1825 ;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri." 

Poli,  (Martino,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at  Lucca 
•n  1662;  died  at  Paris  in  1714. 

Po'll-as,  [Gr.  Ilo/lmf ,  from  Tiohq,  a.  "city,"]  (the  "  protec 
tress  of  cities,")  a  surname  of  Athena,  (Minerva.)  There 
was  at  Athens  a  celebrated  temple  of  Athena  Polias. 

Polibio     See  Polybius. 

Polidoi  o.     See  Caravaggio. 

Poller,  po'le-i',  (Antoine  No^,)  a  Swiss  writer, 
born  in  17 13,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.  He  became 
pastor  of  Lausanne  in  1754,  and  wrote  articles  for  the 
"  Encyclopedie."     Died  in  1783. 

PoUgnac,  de,  deh  po'lfen'yMk',  (Auguste  Jules  Ar- 
WAND  Marie,)  Prince,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1780.  His  mother,  the  Duchess  of  Po- 
lignac,  was  a  favourite  of  Marie  Antoinette.  He  became 
ministi^r  of  foreign  affairs  in  August,  1829,  and  the  chief 
minister  before  the  end  of  the  year.  His  ultramontane 
and  absolutist  policy  rendered  him  very  unpopular.  In 
consequence  of  the  victory  of  the  liberals  and  insurgents 
over  Charles  X.  in  1830,  he  was  arrested,  tried  for  treason, 
and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  re- 
leased in  1836,  and  retired  to  England.     Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1832,  (by  Southev.) 

Polignac,  de,  (Melchior,)  a  French  diplomatist  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Puy-en-Velay  (Upper  Loire)  in  1661. 
He  was  sent  in  1695  as  ambassador  to  Poland,  where 
by  his  address  he  induced  a  majority  of  the  electors  to 
choose  the  French  prince  De  Conti  as  king  in  1697.  He 
succeeded  Bossuet  in  the  French  Academy  in  1704.  In 
1712  he  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of 
Utrecht.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1713.  He  acquired 
a  high  literary  reputation  by  his  Latin  poem  (in  refu- 
tation of  Lucretius)  entitled  "Anti-Lucretius,  sive  de 
Deo  et  Natura  Libri  novem,"  (1745.)  Died  in  1742. 
Voltaire,  in  his  "  Temple  du  Goflt,"  praises  Polignac 
as  a  successful  opponent  of  Lucretius,  and  as  one  who 
combined  the  qualities  of  Virgil  and  Plato : 
"  R^unissant  Virgile  avec  Platon, 
Vengeur  du  Ciel  et  vainqueur  de  Lucr^ce." 

See  Chrvsostome  Faucher,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Polignac," 
2  vols.,  1777;  DoRTOUS  DE  Mairan,  "  filoge  du  Cardinal  de  Po- 
lignac," 1742 ;  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Poliniere,  pole'ne^iR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  near  Vire  in  1671.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction at  the  College  of  Harcourt  as  a  teacher  of  natural 
philosophy  by  the  experimental  method,  and  published 
"Experiments  in  Physics,"  (1709.)     Died  in  1734. 

Poliorcetes.    See  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 

Polit,  po'le'.  Polite,  po'lit',  or  Le  Poli,  lei.  pole', 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R.  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  \nthis.     (([[^^See  Explanationn,  p.  23.) 


POLITI 


1976 


POLLICH 


[Lat.  Poi.l'rus.l   (Jean,)  a   Hemish    poet,  born   at  or 
near  Liege  about  1554;  died  after  1601. 

Politi,  po-lee'tee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Florence  in  1679.  He  became  professor  of 
eloquence  at  Pisa  in  1733.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  edition  of  Eustatiiius's  "Commentary  on 
Homer,"  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes,  (3  vols.,  1730- 
35.)     Died  in  1752. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitse  Italorum  doctrlna  excellentium." 

Politi,  (Lan'celot.)     See  Catharinus. 

Politian,  po-lish'e-an,  [It.  Polizia.no,  po-l6tse-il'iiu  ; 
Lat.  Politia'nus;  Fr.  Politien,  po'le'se4,N',]  (An- 
GELO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  classical  scholar  and  poet, 
born  at  Montepulciano,  (Mons  Politianus,)  in  Tuscany,  in 
July,  1454.  His  family  name  was  Amrrogi.ni.  He  studied 
Latin  under  Cristoforo  Landino,  and  Greek  under  An- 
dronicus  of  Thessalonica.  About  1468  he  wrote  stanzas, 
in  Italian,  in  honour  of  Giuliano  de'  Medici,  which  were 
much  admired.  He  was  patronized  by  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  who  employed  him  as  preceptor  of  his  sons  and 
treated  him  as  a  friend  as  long  as  he  lived.  As  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Florence,  he  acquired  a 
high  reputation.  He  produced  elegant  Latin  versions 
of  the  History  of  Herodian,  of  the  Manual  of  Epictetus, 
and  of  the  "  Charmides"  of  Plato.  He  wrote  notes  on 
Ovid,  Catullus,  Pliny  the  Younger,  and  other  Latin 
authors.  Among  his  works  are  Latin  odes  and  epi- 
grams, and  a  Latin  poem  called  "  Rnsticus."  "  In  his 
Latin  poems,"  says  Ginguene,  "  we  find  the  fire  of  an 
imagination  truly  poetic,  and  that  taste  and  elegance 
which  were  the  natural  attributes  of  his  mind."  Died 
at  Florence  in  1494. 

"  In  1480  or  1483,"  says  Hallam,  "  Politian  was  placed 
in  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  eloquence  at  Florence, 
a  station  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  and  the  most 
honourable  which  any  scholar  could  occupy.  It  is 
beyond  controversy  that  he  stands  at  the  head  of  that 
class  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  envy  of  some  of  his 
contemporaries  attested  his  superiority.  In  14S9  he 
published  his  once  celebrated  '  Miscellanea,'  consisting 
of  one  hundred  observations  illustrating  passages  of 
Latin  authors."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.")  He  was  characterized  by  Erasmus  as  "  rarum 
naturas  miraculum,"  ("a  rare  miracle  of  nature.") 

See  Serassi,  "Vita  di  A.  Poliziano;"  F.  Otto  Mencken,  "  His- 
toric Vitae  A.  Politiaiii,"  1736;  William  P.  Greswell,  "  Memoirs 
of  Angelus  Politianus,"  etc.,  1801  ;  Fauroni,  "  Elogj  di  Dante,  di 
A.  Poiiziano,"  etc.,  iSoo  :  D.  Moller,  "  De  Politiano,"  i6gS  ;  Long- 
FBLLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  N.  A.  Bonafous,  "  De 
A.  Politiani  Vita  et  Operibus,"  1845;  Bavle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  Tiraooschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Ita- 
liana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henkv  Stebbing;  "  lulian  Narrative  Poetry," 
in  the  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by  Prescott.) 

Politianus  or  Politiano.    See  Politian. 

Politien.     See  Politian. 

Politus.    See  Polit. 

Politz  or  Poelitz,  po'lits,  (Karl  Heinrich  Lup- 
Wl".,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Ernstthal  in  1772. 
II(  became  professor  of  history  and  statistics  at  Leipsic 
in  11815.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "History 
of  Saxony  and  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw,"  (3  vols.,  1808-IO,) 
and  "  Political  Sciences  according  to  the  Ideas  of  ouf 
Epoch,"  (5  vols.,  1823-28.)     Died  in  1838. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

PoUziano.     See  Politian. 

Polk,  pok,  (James  Knox,)  the  eleventh  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg  county. 
North  Carolina,  on  the  2d  of  November,  1795,  and  re- 
moved with  his  father  to  Middle  Tennessee  in  1806. 
He  graduated  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
about  1816,  and  studied  law.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  from  Tennessee  in  1825  and  at  several  suc- 
ceeding elections.  In  1835  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  by  the  Democrats.  He 
was  also  Speaker  of  the  twenty-fifth  Congress,  (1837-38.) 
In  1839  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Tennessee  for  two 
years.  At  the  election  of  1841  he  was  defeated  by  the 
Whig  candidate  for  Governor.  In  1844  Polk  and  Dallas 
were  nominated  for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice- 
President  by  the  Democratic  National  Convention,  which 
on  the  first  ballot  had  not  given  Mr.  Polk  a  single  vote. 
His  competitor  was  Henry  Clay.     The  principal  issue  in 


this  election  was  the  annexation  of  Texas,  which  Mr. 
Polk  was  pledged  to  promote.  He  was  elected,  receiving 
one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes  out  of  two 
hundred  and  seventy-five,  which  was  the  whole  num- 
ber. He  appointed  James  Buchanan  secretary  of  state, 
and  afterwards  the  formal  annexation  of  Texas  to  the 
Union  (1845)  involved  the  country  in  an  aggressive  war 
against  Mexico,  which  began  in  May,  1846.  The  army 
of  the  United  States,  commanded  by  General  Scott,  after 
several  victories,  took  the  city  of  Mexico  in  September, 
1847.  The  Mexicans  obtained  peace  by  the  cession  of 
Upper  California  and  New  Mexico.  A  dispute  with  the 
British  government  about  the  boundary  of  Oregon  was 
settled  during  his  administration,  by  an  agreement  thai 
the  parallel  of  49°  should  be  the  dividing  line.  He  re- 
tired from  office  in  March,  and  died  at  Nashville  in 
June,  1849. 

See  L.  Chase,  "  History  of  the  Administration  of  James  K. 
Polk,"  1850  ;  Levi  Woodbury,  "  Eulogy  on  James  K.  Polk,"  1850. 

Polk,  (Leonidas,)  an  American  who  became  famous 
for  his  twofold  character  of  bishop  and  general,  was 
born  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  in  1806,  and  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1827.  He  was  ordained  an  Episcopal 
clergyman  about  1831,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Loui- 
siana in  1841.  In  1S61  he  took  arms  against  the  Union, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  activity  and  zeal  in  the  Confederate  service. 
He  occupied  Columbus,  Kentucky,  in  September,  1861, 
and  evacuated  it  about  the  ist  of  March,  1862.  He 
commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April, 

1862,  and  served  as  lieutenant-general  at  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  which  ended  January  2,  1863.  He  led  a 
corps  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19-20, 

1863.  He  was  killed  near  Kenesaw  Mountain,  Georgia, 
in  June,  1S64. 

See  a  notice  of  General  Bishop  Polk  in  "Southern  Generals," 
1865. 

Pol'ko,  (Elise,)  a  German  novelist,  a  sister  of  Edu- 
ard  Vogel,  (q.  v.)  She  was  born  at  Minden,  January 
31,  1823.  Among  her  works  are  "Musical  Sketches," 
(1852  et  seq.,)  "A  Woman's  Life,"  (1854,)  "From  the 
Artist- World,"  (1858-63,)  "New  Novels,"  (1S61  et  seq.,) 
"  Fair  Women,"  (1865-69,)  etc. 

Pollajuolo,  pol-li-yoo-o'lo,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1426  or 
1431,  was  also  a  skilful  goldsmith.  His  master-piece  of 
painting  is  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian."  He 
was  invited  to  Rome  by  Innocent  VIII.,  for  whom  (with 
the  aid  of  his  brother  Pietro)  he  made  a  monument  to 
Sixtus  IV.  He  excelled  in  composition  and  in  knowledge 
of  anatomy.     Died  in  1498. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Pollajuolo,  (PiETRO,)  a  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at 
Florence  about  1434,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
whom  he  aided  in  many  of  his  paintings  and  sculptures, 
but  was  less  eminent  than  he.     Died  in  1498. 

Pollajuolo,  (SiMONE.)     See  Cronaca. 

PoUet,  po'li',  (Joseph  Michel  Ange,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Palermo  in  1814.  He  became  a  rest 
dent  of  Paris  about  1844,  and  obtained  a  first  medal  it 
1850.  His  works  adorn  the  Tuileries  and  other  imperia. 
palaces.     Died  December  31,  1S70. 

Pollet,  (Victor  Florence,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  18 10.  He  gained  by  his 
engravings  the  prize  of  Rome  in  1838,  and  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1849. 

Pol'lex-fen,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  judge,  born 
probably  in  Devonshire.  He  was  counsel  for  the  bishops 
in  their  famous  trial,  (1688.)  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1689.     Died  in  1692. 

See  Fos.s,  "  The  Judges  of  England." 

Pollich,  pol'liK,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  German  natural- 
ist, boni  at  Lantern  in  1740.  He  published  a  good  Flora 
of  the  Palatinate,  "  Historia  Plantarum  in  Palatinatu 
Electoral!  sponte  nascentium,"  (1776.)     Died  in  1780. 

Pollich,  [Lat.  Pollich'ius,]  (Martin,)  a  German 
physician,  eminent  for  learning,  born  at  Mellerstadt, 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  preceding.  He  became  in  1503 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg, 
of  which  he  was  the  first  rector.  He  published  "La« 
conismi,"  (1504,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1513. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


POLLICHIUS 


1977 


POLO 


PoUichius.     See  Pollich. 

Pol'Ii-o,  (AsiNius,)  a  sophist  or  philosopher,  born  at 
Tralles,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  taught  at  Rctne  about  50 
B.C.,  and,  according  to  Suidas,  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Aristotle's  treatise  "On  Animals." 

Pol'll-o,  [Fr.  PoLLiON,  po'le'6N',]  (Caius  Asinius,) 
an  eminent  Roman  orator,  author,  and  patron  of  litera- 
ture, was  born  at  Rome  in  76  B.C.  He  was  a  partisan 
of  Caesar  in  the  dvil  war  which  began  in  49  B.C.,  and 
crossed  the  Rubicon  with  that  chief.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  in  48,  and  commanded  in  Spain 
against  Sextus  Pompey  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  death,  44 
B.C.  Having  taken  arms  for  Antony  and  Octavius,  he 
obtained  the  office  of  consul  by  their  influence  in  40 
B.C.  and  saved  the  patrimony  of  Virgil  from  confiscation. 
Virgil  addressed  to  him  the  fourth  eclogue  in  40  n.c, 
and  the  eighth  eclogue  soon  after  that  date.  Pollio 
retired  from  the  public  service  about  the  year  38,  and 
remained  neutral  in  the  war  between  Octavius  and  An- 
tony. He  founded  the  first  public  library  at  Rome,  and 
patronized  Virgil,  Horace,  and  other  jjoets.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  history  of  the  civil  wars  of  Rome,  and  several 
poems,  which  were  praised  by  Virgil.  None  of  these 
works  are  extant.  His  excellence  as  an  orator  is  attested 
by  Quintilian  and  other  ancient  writers.  He  was  also 
distinguished  as  a  critic.  He  had  a  son  named  C.  Asi- 
nius Gallus.  (See  Gallus.)     Died  in  4  a.d. 

See  Thorbecke,  "Commentatio  de  C.  A.  Pollionis  Vita  et  Stu- 
diis,"  1820;  Ekerman,  "Dissertatio  de  C.  A.  Pollione,"  1745; 
AppiAN,  "  De  Be'lo  Civili;"  De  Hugny,  "'Pollion,  011  le  Si^cle 
d'Auguste,"  4  vols.,  1808;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^iii^rale." 

Pollio,  (Treheli.ius,)  a  Roman  historian  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  1.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta,"  to  which  he  con- 
tributed the  lives  of  the  two  Valerians,  of  the  two 
Gallieni,  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  of  Claudius. 

Pollion.    See  Pollio. 

Pollnitz  or  Poellnitz,  pol'nits,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a 
German  adventurer  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Isso- 
inin  (Prussia)  in  1692.  He  sought  fortune  at  several 
courts  of  Europe,  and  was  appointed  grand  master  of 
ceremonies  by  Frederick  the  Great.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Sa.xe  galante,"  (1737.)  which  narrates  the 
amours  of  King  Augustus,  and  Memoirs  of  his  own 
life  and  times,  ("  Memoires  du  Baron  de  Poellnitz,"  3 
vols.,  1734.)     Died  in  1775. 

Pol'lock,  (Sir  Frederick,)  an  English  judge,  born 
in  London  in  1783.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1834, 
and  lord  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1844,  which 
position  he  held  until  1S66.     Died  in  1870. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix.  ;  "  Autobiograf  hy 
>f  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  iii.-iv. 

Pollock,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  general,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1786.  He 
commanded  an  army  which  defeated  the  Affghans 
in  1841.     Died  October  6,  1872. 

Pol'lock,  (James,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1831. 
He  represented  a  district  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congresj 
from  1843  to  1849,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that 
State  by  the  People's  party,  or  Republicans,  for  three 
years,  (1855-58.)     Died  April  19,  1890. 

Pol'lpk,  (Robert,)  a  British  poet,  born  at  Muirhouse, 
in  Renfrewshire,  Scotland,  in  1798  or  1799.  He  studieu 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  chose  the  profession 
of  minister  of  the  gospel.  He  obtained  a  license  as 
minister  in  the  United  Secession  Church  in  1827,  but 
his  health  was  already  fatally  impaired  by  excessive 
study.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  "The  Course  of 
Time,"  (1827,)  a  didactic  poem,  which  found  many  ad- 
mirers, especially  among  those  who  take  an  interest  in 
religious  poetry.  It  contains  some  beautiful  and  many 
powerful  passages,  but  it  has  great  defects,  and  is  not 
considered  very  attractive  as  a  poem,  apart  from  its 
religious  and  moral  doctrines.  "The  Course  of  Time," 
Bays  Moir,  "  is  a  very  extraordinary  poem,  vast  in  its 
conception,  vast  in  its  plan,  vast  in  its  materials,  and 
vast,  if  very  far  from  perfect,  in  its  achievement."  "  The 
Course  of  Time,"  says  Professor  Wilson,  "  for  so  young 
a  man,  was  a  vast  achievement.  .  .  .  He  had  much  to 
learn   in   composition.  .  .  .  But  the  soul  of  poetry  is 


there,  though  often  dimly  enveloped ;  and  many  passages 
there  are,  and  long  ones  too,  that  heave  and  hurry 
and  glow  along  in  a  divine  enthusiasm."  He  wrote, 
in  prose,  "  Tales  of  the  Covenanters."  Died  near 
Southampton  in  September,  1827. 

See  "Life  of  R.  Pollok,"  by  his  brother,  1842;  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  "  Blackwood'a 
Magazine"  for  June,  1827. 

Polluche,  po'lush',  (Dan'iel,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1689.  He  wrote  a  "Description  of 
Orleans,"  (1736.)     Died  in  1768. 

Pol'lux,  a  demi-god  of  classic  mythology,  and  a 
brother  of  Castor.     See  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Pol'lux,  (Julius,)  a  Greek  grammarian,  whose  proper 
name  was  Polydeuces,  was  born  at  Nancratis,  in  Egypt, 
about  130  A.D.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  and  Commodus,  and  taught  rhetoric  at  Athens  in 
the  reign  of  the  latter.  His  works  are  all  lost,  except 
his  "Onomasticon,"  a  kind  of  dictionary  of  Greek  words, 
(not  in  alphabetical  order,)  which  is  highly  prized.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Pol'lux,  (Julius,)  a  Byzantine  writer,  who  lived  in 
the  tenth  or  eleventh  century.  He  wrote  a  "Chronicle, 
or  Universal  History  from  the  Creation  to  the  Time  of 
Valens,"  which  is  extant. 

Po'lo,  (Caspar  Gil,)  a  Spanish  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Valencia  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  was  a  lawyer  and  a  professor  of  Greek. 
He  gained  celebrity  by  a  poetical  romance,  entitled 
"Diana  in  Love,"  ("Diana  enamorada,")  which  was 
translated  into  English,  French,  and  Latin. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Polo,  (Jayme,)  called  the  Elder,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  13urgos  in  1 560,  was  a  good  colorist.  Died 
in  1600. 

Polo,  (Jayme,)  the  Younger,  a  painter,  born  at 
Burgos  in  1620;  died  at  Madrid  in  1655. 

Po'lo,  (Marco,)  [P'r,  Marc  Pol,  miRk  pol,  (or  Paul, 
pol,)j  a  famous  Venetian  traveller,  born  about  1252, 
was  a  son  of  Niccolo  Polo,  a  merchant  of  noble  ranlv. 
About  1255  Niccolo  and  his  brother  Matteo,  or  Maffeo, 
commenced  an  extensive  expedition,  with  a  stock  of 
precious  stones,  wliich  they  sold  to  a  Tartar  chief  on 
the  Volga.  They  arrived  in  1261  at  Bokhara,  where 
they  learned  the  Mongol  language.  Accepting  the  in- 
vitation of  a  Persian  envoy  whom  they  met  at  Bokhara, 
they  accompanied  him  to  the  court  of  Kooblai  Khan, 
the  Great  ^Iogul,  who  ruled  over  China  and  Tartary. 
This  prince  received  them  favourably,  and  accredited 
them  as  his  ambassadors  to  the  pope,  whom  he  desired  to 
send  to  him  a  hundred  learned  men  to  teach  his  Mongol 
subjects.  They  returned  home  in  1269,  and  found  that 
the  pope  had  died  in  1268.  His  successor,  who  was 
not  elected  until  1271  or  1272,  gave  them  letters  to 
Kooblai  Khan,  to  whom  they  returned  accompanied  by 
young  Marco.  They  arrived  at  the  court  of  Kooblai 
m  1275.  Marco  learned  several  Asiatic  languages,  and 
obtained  the  favour  of  the  Khan,  who  sent  him  on  im- 
portant missions  to  China  and  other  provinces.  He 
was  the  first  European  that  entered  China,  in  which 
he  passed  several  years.  Having  obtained  the  consent 
of  Kooblai  Khan,  the  three  Venetians  quitted  his  ser- 
vice about  1292,  and,  embarking  on  the  coast  of  China, 
came  to  Ormuz  by  water,  and  reached  Venice  in  1295, 
with  many  diamonds,  rubies,  etc.  of  great  value.  Marco 
commanded  a  galley  in  a  battle  against  the  Genoese,  by 
whom  he  was  taken  prisoner.  During  his  long  cap- 
tivity he  composed  a  narrative  of  his  adventures,  by  the 
aid  of  notes  which  he  had  written  previously.  It  is  said 
that  a  French  version  of  his  book  was  made  under  his 
direction.  His  narrative  produced  a  great  sensation, 
and  was  translated  into  many  languages,  but  for  several 
ages  was  regarded  as  a  tissue  of  fictions  or  gross  ex- 
aggerations. The  researches  and  revelations  of  suc- 
cessive centuries  have  more  and  more  confirmed  his 
veracity;  and  it  is  now  recognized  that  his  services  had 
great  influence  on  the  progress  of  navigation  and  com- 
merce. "  When  in  the  long  series  of  ages,"  says  M. 
Walckenaer,  "  we  search  for  three  men  who  by  the 
grandeur  and  influence  of  their  discoveries  have  con- 


€  as  /i,-  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N.  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  tftis.     (2l^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POLONCEAU 


1978 


POLYCLETUS 


tributed  most  to  the  progress  of  geography  or  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  globe,  the  modest  name  of  the 
Venetian  traveller  presents  itself  in  the  same  line  with 
the  names  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  Christopher 
Columbus."  He  died  about  1324.  Among  the  best 
editions  of  his  book  is  that  of  Haldelli,  "II  Milione  di 
Messer  Marco  Polo,"  (4  vols.,  1827.)  An  English  ver- 
sion, by  Marsden,  was  published  in  1818. 

See  Placido  Zukla,  "  Di  M.  Polo  e  degli  altri  antichi  Viag- 
Itiatori,"  etc.,  1818  ;  Stein,  "  Ueber  den  Venetianer  M.  Polo,"  1S21  ; 
O.  B.  Baldelli,  "Vita  di  M.  Polo,]'  1827;  G.  Pauthiek,  article 
"Polo,"  in  the"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ii^rale.  " 

Polonceau,  po'lAN'so',  (Antoine  R6mi,)  a  French 
engineer,  born  at  Rheims  in  1778.  As  engineer-in-chief 
of  tlie  department  of  Mont  Blanc,  he  constructed  a  road 
over  Mont  Cenis  about  1812.  Among  his  works  is  the 
Pont  du  Carrousel  at  Paris,  (1834.)  He  wrote  several 
professional  works.  Died  in  1847.  His  son,  Jean  Bar- 
TH^LEMY  Camille,  (1813-59,)  was  distinguished  as  a 
railway  engineer  and  director. 

Poltrot  de  Mere,  pol'tRo'  deh  meh-ri',  (Jean,)  a 
French    fanatic,  who   assassinated    Francis,    Duke   de 
Guise,  in  1563.     He  was  executed  the  same  year. 
Polus.     See  Pole. 

Po'lus,  a  Sophist  of  Agrigentum,  lived  about  400  K.C., 
and  was  a  disciple  of  Gorgias.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
rhetoric 
Polus,  (Matthew.)  See  Poole. 
Polw^hele,  pol'wheel,  (Rev.  Richard,)  an  English 
antiquary  and  poet,  born  at  Truro  in  1759  or  17C0. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  Cornwall."  Died 
in  1838. 

Polyaenus,  pol-e-ee'nus,  [Ilo/liaivof,]  of  Lampsacus, 
was  an  eminent  mathematician  ;  but,  having  become  a 
friend  and  disciple  of  Epicurus,  he  renounced  geometry, 
as  unworthy  of  his  notice. 

Polyaenus,  a  Macedonian  writer,  who  lived  about 
150  A.D.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "Stratagems  in  War," 
which  he  dedicated  to  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Verus.  It 
is  extant,  and  is  prized  for  the  numerous  anecdotes  and 
facts  which  he  has  collected,  and  which  are  not  found 
elsewhere. 
Polybe.  See  Polybius. 
Polybius.     See  Polybus. 

Po-lyb'i-us,  [Gr.  IIoAii'SiOf ;  Fr.  Polybe,  po'lfeb';  It. 
PoLlBlo,  po-lee'be-o,I  a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  about  206  B.C.  He  was  a 
son  of  Lycortas,  who  succeeded  his  friend  Philopoemen 
as  general  of  the  Achaean  League  in  182  B.C.  Polybius 
obtained  in  169  B.C.  command  of  the  cavalry  raised  to 
fight  for  the  Romans  against  Perseus ;  but  his  ser- 
vices were  declined  by  the  Roman  general.  In  167  the 
Romans  transported  to  Italy,  as  hostages  or  exiles,  one 
thousand  Achaeans,  among  whom  was  Polybius.  He 
found  a  home  in  the  house  of  Paul  us  .i^milius,  and 
became  the  preceptor  of  his  son  Scipio,  afterwards  the 
famous  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger.  A  warm  friend- 
ship was  formed  between  this  pupil  and  Polybius,  who 
accompanied  him  in  all  his  campaigns.  He  witnessed  the 
conquest  and  destruction  of  Carthage,  (146  B.C.,)  soon 
after  which  he  went  to  Greece  and  exerted  his  influence 
with  some  success  to  procure  favourable  terms  for  the 
conquered  Achaeans.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself 
to  the  completion  of  a  general  history,  for  which  he  had 
been  preparing  himself  for  some  years  by  studies  and 
by  journeys  to  Egypt,  Spain,  Gaul,  etc.  The  exact  date 
of  his  death  is  unknown.  Lucian  states  that  he  died  at 
the  age  of  eighty-two.  His  great  work,  entitled  Ka^o- 
'Kuiq,  KoivTj  iaTop'ia,  ("  Universal  History,")  comprised  the 
period  from  220  to  146  B.C.,  and  consisted  of  forty 
books,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  lost.  We  have  tlie 
first  five  books  entire,  and  many  fragments  and  extracts 
of  several  other  books.  His  impartiality,  his  love  of 
truth,  his  sound  judgment  and  experience  in  military 
and  civil  aflfairs,  render  this  one  of  the  most  valuable 
and  reliable  histories  that  have  ever  been  written  by  an 
uninspired  writer.  He  is  thus  briefly  characterized  by 
Cicero:  "Polybius  bonus  auctor  in  primis."  Livy's 
account  of  events  after  the  second  Punic  war  appears 
to  be  much  like  a  translation  from  Polybius.  The  latter 
despised  or  neglected  rhetorical  ornaments,  and  was 
deficient  in   imagination.     His  style,  consequently,  i.s 


not  attractive.  He  aimed  only  to  mstruct,  and,  accord- 
ing to  some  critics,  carried  too  far  his  didactic  and 
moralizing  tendency.  He  wrote,  also,  a  "  Life  of  Phi- 
lopoemen," and  a  "Treatise  on  Tactics."  "Polybius 
and  Arrian,"  says  Macaulay,  "  have  given  us  authentic 
accounts  of  facts ;  and  here  their  merit  ends.  They 
were  not  men  of  comprehensive  minds ;  they  had  not 
the  art  of  telling  a  story  in  an  interesting  manner." 
("Essay  on  History,"  1828.)  An  English  version  of 
Polybius,  by  Hampton,  (1772,)  is  commended. 

See  K.  W.  Nitzsch,  "Polybius  zur  Geschiclue  antiker  Politik," 
etc.,  1842;  L.  V.  Heyd,  "Vita  Polybii,"  1812;  Van  Heijsdu, 
"  School  van  Polybius  of  Geschiedkiinde  voor  the  negentiende 
eeuw,"  '841;  F.  H.  Bothe,  "Polybiana,"  1844;  "Nouvelle  Biu- 
graphic  G^n^rale." 

Pol'y-bus,  [Gr.  TlolvGo^ ;  Fr.  Polybe,  po'ltbM  a 
king  of  Corinth,  who  was  said  to  have  educated  or 
adopted  CEdipus. 

Polybus  [niiXvffof]  or  Polybius,  a  pupil  and  son-in- 
law  of  Hippocrates,  lived  in  the  island  of  Cos  about  400 
B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  sect  of  Dogmatici. 
Several  treatises  usually  printed  with  the  works  of  Hip- 
pocrates are  ascribed  to  Polybus  by  many  critics. 

Pol'j^-carp,  |Gr.  IloAwapTi-of  ;  Lat.  Polycar'pus  ;  Fr. 
Polycarpe,  po'le'kikp',]  an  eminent  martyr  and  Father 
of  the  Christian  Church,  of  whose  early  history  we 
have  no  authentic  record.  Irenaeus  states  that  Polycarp 
had  intercourse  with  John  and  others  of  the  apostles, 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Smyrna  by  the  apostles. 
According  to  some  writers,  he  was  ordained  by  Saint 
John.  He  was  Bishop  of  Smyrna  when  Ignatius  of 
Antioch  passed  through  that  city  on  his  way  to  Rome, 
which  occurred  between  107  and  1 16  A.D.  Polycarp 
visited  Rome  in  his  old  age,  and  had  a  conference  with 
Anicetus,  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who  differed  from  the 
Eastern  churches  in  relation  to  the  time  or  the  obser- 
^rance  of  Easter.  He  suffered  martyrdom  by  fire  at 
Smyrna  about  166  a.d.  A  letter  from  the  church  of 
Smyrna  on  the  subject  of  his  death  is  still  extant.  The 
only  work  of  Polycarp  that  remains  is  a  short  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians,  which  is  prized  because  numerou.s 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  are  quoted  in  it. 

SeeTiLLEMONT,  "  Meinoires  ecclesiastiques  ;"  Cruciger,  "Ora- 
tio  de  Polycarpi  Vila,"  1543;  "  Life  of  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna," 
London,  1S47  ;  Comtb  de  Coetlosquet,  "  Vie  de  S.  Iguace  et  de 
S.  Polycarpe,"  1852. 

Polycarpe  or  Polycarpus.    See  Polycarp. 

Pol-y-eliar'mus,  [WoXvxapfio^,]  a  Greek  sculptor  of 
unknown  date.  Pliny  mentions  his  statue  of  "  Venus 
washing  herself,"  which  was  at  Rome  in  his  time. 

Polycleitus.     See  Polycletus. 

Pol'y-cles,  [YioAvKlij^,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who  lived 
about  370  B.C.,  was  probably  an  Athenian.  He  is  men- 
tioned by  Pliny,  who  says  he  made  a  celebrated  statue 
of  a  hermaphrodite. 

Another  sculptor  named  PoLVCLES  is  mentioned  by 
Pliny  as  flourishing  about  155  B.C.  Pausanias  notices 
some  works  of  Polycles ;  but  it  is  doubtful  which  of  these 
two  he  refers  to. 

Polyclete.    See  Polycletus. 

Pol-y-ole'tus  or  Pol-y-cli'tus,  [Gr.  IIoAu/cXf irof ; 
Fr.  PoLYCLi;TE,  po'le'klit',]  a  Greek  statuary  of  great 
celebrity,  was  also  a  sculptor  and  architect.  He  was  a 
native  of  Sicyon  or  Argos,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Ageladas, 
the  Argive  statuary,  who  was  at  the  same  time  the  mas- 
ter of  Phidias.  The  works  of  Polycletus  were  probably 
executed  between  452  and  412  B.C.  He  surpa.ssed  all 
statuaries  of  his  time  except  Phidias,  and  equalled  the 
latter  in  beauty  if  not  in  sublimity.  He  once  gained 
the  first  prize  for  a  statue  of  an  Amazon,  in  competition 
with  Phidias  and  other  artists.  His  master-pieces  in 
bronze  were  a  statue  of  a  young  man  called  "  Diadu- 
menos"  binding  his  head  with  a  fillet,  "  Doryphorus  the 
Spear-Bearer,"  the  Amazon  noticed  above,  and  a  statue 
cilled  the  ViavCiv,  ("Canon,")  because  it  was  recognized 
as  a  perfect  model  of  the  human  figure.  Some  critics 
maintain  that  this  last  statue  was  the  "  Doryphorus." 
None  of  his  works  was  more  celebrated  than  a  colossal 
ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Juno,  which  adorned  a  temple 
near  Argos.  He  was  architect  of  a  theatre  at  Epidaurus, 
which  was,  according  to  Pausanias,  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  world.     Cicero  and  Pliny  agree  in  the  ooinion 


a,  e 


,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fdll,  fit;  mSt;  ».6t;  good,  moon; 


POLYCLETUS 


1979 


POMARANCIO 


that  Polycletus  brought  the  art  of  statuary  to  perfection. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Aristides,  Canachus,  Atheno- 
dorus,  and  Phrynon. 

See  Plinv,  "Natural  History;"  £meric  David,  "Vies  des 
Artistes  anciens  et  inodernes ;"  K.  O.  Muller,  "  Handbuch  der 
Archaologie  der  Kunst." 

Polycletus,  another  statuary  of  Argos,  is  mentioned 
by  Pausanias  as  a  different  person  from  him  "who  made 
the  statue  of  Juno,"  and  as  a  pupil  of  Naucydes,  (who 
flourished  aljout  410  B.C.)  Several  works  are  variously 
attributed  to  this  Polycletus  and  to  his  more  celebrated 
namesake. 

Polycletus  of  Larissa,  a  Greek  historian  of  un- 
known date.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
which  is  not  extant. 

Polycrate.     .See  Polycrates 

Po-lyc'ra-tea,  [  Gr.  JloAv/cpaTT/f ;  Fr.  Polycrate, 
po'le'kutt',]  tyrant  of  Samos,  usurped  the  royal  power 
about  532  U.C.  He  formed  a  powerful  navy,  and  con- 
quered some  other  islands.  He  patronized  literature 
and  the  arts,  and  constructed  some  grand  public  works. 
His  court  was  the  resort  of  eminent  artists  and  poets, 
among  whom  was  Anacreon.  He  defended  Samos  with 
success  against  an  attack  of  the  Spartans  and  Corinthians. 
In  522  B.C.  he  was  induced  to  go  to  Sardis  by  the  satrap 
Orcetes,  who  treacherously  put  him  to  death. 

See  Hekodotus,  "  History,"  book  iii.  ;  Veegens,  "  Dissertatio 
historica  de  Polycrate  Saniio,"  1839.  For  a  popular  legend  respecting 
Polycrates,  see  Schillbk's  poem  entitled  "L)er  Ring  des  PoljKrates." 

Polycrates,  an  Athenian  orator  and  Sophist,  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates.  He  taught  at  Athens 
and  Cyprus. 

Pol-y-dec'tes,  \T\o\v^EK-r]q^  z.  Greek  sculptor,  who 
worked  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. 

Polydeuces.     See  Pollux. 

Polydore.     See  Polydorus. 

Polydore  Vergil.     See  Vergil. 

Pol-y-do'rus,  |Gr.  lloAMwpof ;  Fr.  Polydore,  po'- 
le'dok',]  a  son  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia,  was  King  of 
Thebes,  and  the  father  of  Labdacus. 

Polydorus,  [Eng.  Polydore,  pol'e-dor,]  the  youngest 
son  of  PriaiTi,  was,  according  to  the  ancient  poets,  com- 
mitted to  the  care  of  Polymestor,  King  of  Thrace,  by  his 
father,  who  sent  with  him  a  large  sum  of  money.  Poly- 
mestor killed  the  young  prince  and  appropriated  the 
money. 

Polydorus,  a  king  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  Alca- 
menes,  and  the  father  of  Eurycrates.  He  lived  about 
725  B.C. 

Polydorus,  a  sculptor  of  Rhodes,  aided  Agesander 
(who  is  supposed  to  have  been  his  father)  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  famous  group  of  Laocoon.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Pliny. 

Pol-^-euc'tus,  [Gr.  JIoAvfuKTOf ;  Fr.  Polyeucte,  po' 
le'ukt',]  an  Athenian  orator,  lived  about  325  B.C.  He 
was  a  political  friend  of  Demosthenes,  and  an  adversary 
of  Phocion. 

Polygnote.    See  Polygnotus. 

Pol-yg-no'tus,  [Gr.  YlolvyvuToq ;  Fr.  Polygnote, 
po'lfeg'not';  Ger.  Polygnotos,  po-lig-no'tos,]  an  excel- 
lent Greek  painter,  born  in  the  island  of  Thasos,  was  a 
son  and  pupil  of  Aglaophon.  He  flourished  from  about 
460  to  430  B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  Phidias,  and  was  a 
brother  of  the  painter  Aristophon.  He  became  a  citizen 
of  Athens  and  a  friend  of  Cimon,  who  employed  him  to 
ornament  the  temple  of  Theseus.  He  painted  gratui- 
tously the  Pcecile  or  portico  of  Athens.  After  the  death 
of  Cimon  (449  B.C.)  Polygnotus  probably  retired  from 
Athens,  and  applied  himself  to  the  decoration  of  the 
great  temple  at  Delphi.  He  is  styled  "  the  Homer  of 
painting,"  because  he  treated  his  subjects  in  an  epic 
rather  than  a  dramatic  spirit.  Pliny  represents  him  as 
the  first  who  painted  women  with  transparent  or  shining 
drapery,  (lucida  veste,)  and  the  first  who  contributed 
much  to  the  progress  of  the  art.  He  had  imagination 
in  the  highest  degree.  In  allusion  to  the  ideal  charac- 
ter and  moral  expression  of  his  works,  Aristotle  calls 
him  an  ethic  painter.  The  same  critic  sins,  in  another 
passage,  Polygnotus  represented  men  better  than  they 
are,  (or  superior  to  nature.)  Died  about  426  B.C.  Among 
his   works   were   the   "  Marriage   of  the   Daughters    of 


Leucippus,"  the  "  Capture  of  Troy,"  and  the  "  Visit  of 
Ulysses  to  the  Lower  World." 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History;"  Pausanias,  i.,  ix.,  and  x. ; 
SiLLiG,  "Catalogus  Artificum ;"  Suidas,  "Polygnotus;"  Otto 
Jaiin,  "Die  Gem.ilde  des  Polygnotos  in  der  Lesche  zu  Delphi," 
1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Hiograpliie  Cleii^rale." 

Pol-y-his'tor,  [ lIoXw'o rwp,]  (Alexander,  or  Alex« 
ANUEK  Cornelius,)  a  Greek  geographer  and  historian, 
born  in  Phrygia  or  Miletus,  lived  at  Rome  about  80  B.C. 
He  was  surnamed  Polyhistor  on  account  of  his  great 
learning,  and  is  often  cjuoted  by  Pliny  the  Elder.  He 
wrote  a  description  of  many  countries,  in  forty  books. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Polyide.     See  Polyidus. 

Pol-y-hym'ni-a  or  Po-lym'nI-a,  [from  7roAi>f, 
"much,"  or  "many,"  and  v/iWf,  a  "hymn,"  or  "song,"| 
the  name  of  the  muse  who  presided  over  singing  ana 
rhetoric,  and  was  supposed  to  be  the  inventress  of 
harmony. 

Pol-j^-i'dus,  [Gr.  Wokvl^oi;  Fr.  Polyide,  po'Ie'td',]  a 
soothsayer  of  classic  mythology,  who  was  fabled  to  have 
restored  to  life  Glaucus,  a  son  of  Minos.  This  story 
was  a  favourite  subject  of  ancient  poets  and  artists. 

Polyidus,  [IloAwJof,]  an  Athenian  poet,  musician,  and 
painter,  lived  about  400  B.C.  His  productions  (dithy- 
rambs) were  very  popular. 

Pol-j^-mes'tor  or  Pol-ym-nes'tor,  a  fabulous  king 
of  Thrace,  was  said  to  have  been  a  son-in-law  of  Priam. 
He  murdered  Polydorus,  which  see.  His  story  is  related 
with  much  variation  by  different  writers,  some  of  whom 
say  that  he  killed  his  own  son  by  mistake  instead  of 
Polydorus. 

Pol-^m-nes'tus  \puo'kvu.vTiaToq\  or  Pol-ym-nas'tus 
OF  Colophon,  an  epic  and  lyric  poet,  and  musician,  lived 
about  660  B.C. 

Polynice.     See  Polynices. 

Pol-^-ni'ces  or  Pol-y-nei'ces,  [Gr.  IIoAwd/cw  ;  Fr. 
Polynice,  po'le'ntss',]  ason  of  Qidipus,  King  of  Thebes, 
and  Jocasta.  He  made  an  agreement  with  his  brother 
Eteocles  that  they  should  each  reign  one  year  alternately. 
Eteocles,  having  reigned  the  first  year,  refused  to  resign 
the  throne.  The  cause  of  Polynices  w.as  espoused  by 
Adrastus,  King  of  Argos,  who  led  the  famous  expedition 
against  Thebes.  Polynices  and  Eteocles  killed  each  other 
in  single  combat. 

See  Sophocles,  "  CEdipus  et  Colonus;"  Euripides,  "Phoe- 
nissae." 

Polypheme.    See  Polyphemus. 

Pol-y-phe'mus,  [Gr.  Wokv^r]iioq ;  Fr.  PoLYPniME, 
po'le'fim',]  a  Cyclops  or  giant  of  Sicily,  who  was  said 
to  have  one  eye  in  his  forehead,  and  was  called  a  son  of 
Neptune.  Homer  relates  in  the  "Odyssey"  a  famous 
adventure  of  Ulysses  in  the  cave  of  Polyphemus.  (See, 
also,  Virgil's  "  Alueid,"  book  iii.  617-676.) 

Pol-ys-per'-ehon,  [Gr.  UoTi.vaTripxt^i',]  a  Macedonian 
general,  who  in  332  B.C.  obtained  command  of  a  division 
in  the  phalanx  of  Alexander.  He  served  in  the  cam- 
paign of  India,  and  was  second  in  command  of  a  body 
of  veterans  which  Craterus  conducted  home  in  323  B.C. 
During  the  absence  of  the  regent  Antipater  in  321,  he 
had  the  chief  command  in  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
He  became  regent  in  319  B.C.,  at  the  death  of  Antipater, 
who  designated  him  as  his  successor.  A  coalition  was 
formed  against  him  by  Antigonus  and  Cassander,  who 
expelled  him  from  Macedonia  in  316  B.C.  In  310  he 
raised  an  army  to  obtain  the  crown  for  Heracles,  (a  son 
of  Alexander  and  Barsina,)  but,  having  been  corrupted 
by  Cassander,  he  procured  the  assassination  of  that 
youth.     Died  after  303  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Diodorus  Siculus,  books 
xvii.-xx.  ;  Drovsen,  "Geschich'e  der  Nachfolger  Alexanders." 

Polystrate.     See  Polystratus. 

Po-l^s'tra-tus,  \Gt.  UoXvarpaToc ;  Fr.  Polystrate, 
{X)'li'stRSt',]  a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  who  suc- 
ceeded Hermarchus  as  the  head  of  the  school.  He 
lived  probably  about  250  B.C. 

Po-lyx'e-na,  [Gr.  YloXv^evTj;  Fr.  PoLYxfeNE,  po'lfek'- 
sin',]  a  daughter  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy,  was  beloved 
by  Achilles.  According  to  one  tradition,  she  was  sacri- 
ficed by  the  Greeks  on  the  tomb  of  Achilles. 

Polyxene.     See  Polyxena. 

Pomarancio,  po-mi-rSn'cho,  the  surname  of  N1CCOL6 
Circignani,  (ch^R-chin-yd'nee,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 


€  as  -^  •  9  as  j;  g hard:  g  as  7;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


rOMAKE 


19S0 


POMFEY 


at  Fomarancio,  near  Volterra.  He  worked  in  Ro.ne,  and 
aided  Titian  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican.  One  of 
his  latest  works  is  dated  1591. 

See  Lanzt,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pomare,  po-mi'ri,  (Aimata,)  Queen  of  Tahiti,  was 
born  about  1822.  Several  chiefs  having  in  1842  placed 
the  island  under  the  protection  of  France,  she  protested 
against  the  act.  The  French  admiral  Du  Petit-Thouars 
attempted  to  depose  her  by  force,  but  his  act  was  dis- 
avowed by  the  French  court.  She  abdicated  in  favour 
of  her  son,  Tamatoa,  in  1852. 

Pomarius,  po-mi're-us,  the  Latin  name  of  Samuel 
Baumgarten,  (bown/gaR'ten,)  a  German  Protestant 
minister  and  writer,  born  in  1624;  died  in  1683. 

Pombal,  de,  di  pom-bil'  or  p6N-b3.1',  (I>om  Sebas- 
TiAo  Joz6  de  Carvalho — dk  kaa-vSKyo,)  Marquis, 
Count  of  Oeyras,  an  eminent  Portuguese  statesman,  born 
at  Soura,  near  Coimbra,  in  1699.  He  studied  law  at 
Coimbra,  and  was  sent  as  envoy-extraordinary  to  London 
in  1739.  He  married  a  niece  of  the  Austrian  general 
Daun,  who  gained  the  favour  of  the  Queen  of  Portugal. 
By  her  influence  Carvalho  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1750.  He  greatly  increased  the  prosperity  of 
Portugal,  by  the  promotion  of  education,  manufactures, 
commerce,  etc.  He  reduced  the  power  of  the  Inquisition, 
and  banished  the  Jesuits  in  1759.  His  administrative 
talents  appear  to  have  been  of  a  high  order.  In  1770  he 
leceived  the  title  of  Marquis  de  Pombal.  His  reforms 
and  his  severity  towards  some  of  the  nobility,  who  were 
suspected  of  complicity  in  a  plot  against  the  king's  life, 
rendered  him  unpopular.  He  was  deprived  of  power  at 
the  death  of  Joseph  I.,  in  1777.     Died  in  1782. 

See  "Life  of  Pomba),"  by  J.  Smith,  1843:  Gusta,  "  Vita  di 
Sebastiano  Giuseppe  di  Carvalho,"  4  vols.,  1781;  "  M(5moires  du 
Marquis  de  Pombal,"  4  vols.,  17S4  ;  "  Administration  du  Marquis  de 
Pombal,"  4  vols.,  17S7;  Oppermann,  "Pombal  und  die  Jesuiien," 
1845;   Champrobert,  "Choiseul   et  Pombal,"   1836. 

Pomerancio.     See  RoiNCalli. 

Pomeranus.     See  Bugenhagen. 

Pomet,  po'mi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1658.  He  published  a  "Description  of  Drugs," 
etc.,  (1694,)  which  was  then  the  best  French  work  on 
materia  medica.     Died  in  1699. 

Pomey,  po'mi',  (Francois  Anne,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  classical  teacher,  born  at  Pernes  in  1619.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  mythology,  "  Mythological  Pantheon," 
(1659,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1673. 

P6m'fret,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Bedford- 
shire in  1667,  became  rector  of  Maiden.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  poems,  "The  Choice,"  which  was  once 
popular.  "  He  pleases  many,"  says  Dr.  Johnson  ;  "and 
he  who  pleases  many  must  have  merit."     Died  in  i''03. 

Pommayrac,  de,  deh  po'mi'rtk',  (Pierre  Paul,)  a 
French  painter  of  miniatures,  was  born  in  Porto-Ri>;o 
about  1818.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1842.     Died  July  10,  1880. 

Pommer,  pom'mer,  (Christoph  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  in  1787;  died  in  1841. 

Pommeraye,  pom'ri',  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French 
monk,  born  at  Rouen  in  1617.  He  wrote  a  "  Hisiory 
of  the  Archbishops  of  Rouen,"  (1667.)     Died  in  1687. 

Pommereul,  de,  deh  pom'rul',  (FRAwgois  Ren6 
Jean,)  Baron,  a  French  general  and  politician,  born  in 
Bretagne  in  1745  ;  died  in  1823. 

Pommier,  po'me-i',  (Victor  Louis  Am6d6e,)  a 
French  poet,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1804.  He  obtained 
several  prizes  of  the  French  Academy  for  poems  on  the 
"Discovery  of  Steam  Power,"  (184S,)  and  other  sub- 
jects. He  published  "Poesies,"  (1832,)  "Oceanideset 
Fantaisies,"  (1839,)  and  other  collections.  Died  at  Paris, 
April  15,  1877. 

Po-mo'na,  [Fr.  Pomone,  po'mon';  horn  pomrtm,  an 
"apple,"]  a  Roman  divinity  supposed  to  preside  over 
the  fruit  which  grow.s  on  trees. 

Pomone.     See  Pomona. 

Pompadour,  de,  deh  piw'pt'dooR', (Madame  Jeanne 
ANTOiNETrE  PoissoN,)  Makquise,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1721.  She  was  married  in  1741  to  M.  d'Etioles,  a 
publican.  About  1744  her  beauty  and  accomplishments 
attracted  the  favour  of  Louis  XV.,  who  gave  her  the  title 
of  Marquise  de  Pompadour  in  1745.  She  retained  a 
dominant  influence  over  him  until  her  death,  in  1764. 


She  appointed  ministers  and  generals,  received  ambas- 
sadors, and  maintained  correspondence  with  foreign 
courts.  Among  her  diplomatic  acts  was  the  coalition  of 
France  with  Austria  against  Frederick  the  Great,  in  1756. 

See  "  History  of  the  Marchioness  de  Pompadour,"  London,  a 
vols.,  175S  :  Soui.AviR,  "Memoires  de  la  Cour  de  France  pendant 
laFaveurde  Madame  de  Pompadour,"  1S02;  Capefigur,  "Madame 
de  Pompadour,"  185S;  Voltairr,  "  Siicle  de  Louis  XV  ;"  L.  dk 
Carn6,  "  Le  GoQvemement  de  Madame  de  Pompadour,"  in  tJie 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  January  15,  1859. 

Pomp6e,  the  French  for  Pompey,  which  see. 

Pompei,  pom-pa'ee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  Hellenist 
and  translator,  born  at  Verona  in  1731.  He  produced 
some  successful  verses,  entitled  "  Pastoral  Songs,"  ("  Can- 
zoni  pastorali,"  1766,)  and  several  tragedies.  His  repu- 
tation is  founded  chiefly  on  an  Italian  translation  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1772,)  which  is  the  best  in  that 
language,  and  probably  equal  to  the  best  version  in  any 
language.     Died  at  Verona  in  1788. 

See  Fontana,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Hier.  Pompei,"  1790;  ^PlN- 
DEMONTE,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  Pompei,"  1789;  Tipaldo,  "  Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italian!  illustrL" 

Pompeius,  (Cneius.)    See  Pompey  the  Great. 

Pom-pe'ius,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  general  and  orator 
was  consul  in  141  B.C.  He  commanded  in  Spain  in  140, 
and  was  defeated.     In  131  B.C.  he  was  elected  censor. 

Pompeius,  (Rufus  Q.,)  a  son  or  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  100  B.C.,  and 
praetor  in  91.  He  became  consul  with  L.  Sulla  in  SS 
B.C.,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war.  He 
was  killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers  in  88  or  87  B.C. 

Pompeius  Festus.     See  Festus. 

Pompeius  Magnus.    See  Pompey  the  Great. 

Pom-pe'ius  Stra'bo,  (Cneius,)  an  able  Roman 
general,  was  the  father  of  Pompey  the  triumvir.  He 
gained  several  victories  in  the  Social  war,  and  was  a 
partisan  of  the  aristocracy  in  the  civil  war  between  Sulla 
and  Marius.  His  avarice  and  cruelty  rendered  him 
odious.     He  was  killed  by  lightning  in  87  B.C. 

Pompeius  Trogus.     See  TrogIjs. 

Pompeo.    See  Pompey. 

Pom'pey,  [Lat.  Pompe'ius;  Fr.  Po.mpEe,  pdN'pi' ; 
It.  Pompeo,  pom-pa'o,]  (Cneius,)  the  eldest  son  of 
Pompey  the  Great,  was  born  about  78  B.C.  His  mother 
was  Mucia.  He  commanded  a  fleet  for  his  father  in  48 
B.C.,  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter  sailed  to  Spain, 
where  he  raised  an  army  of  thirteen  legions.  In  45  B.C. 
this  army  encountered  at  Munda  another,  commanded 
by  Caesar  in  person,  who  gained  a  complete  but  not  an 
easy  victory.  Pompey  was  overtaken  in  his  retreat 
and  killed. 

Pompey,  (Pompeius,)  (Sextus,)  a  son  of  the  trium- 
vir, was  born  in  75  B.C.  He  waged  war  with  some  suc- 
cess against  Caesar  in  Spain  after  the  battle  of  Munda. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Caesar  (44  B.C.)  he  was  appointed 
chief  admiral  of  the  fleet  by  the  senate  ;  but  he  was 
proscribed  as  an  outlaw  by  Antony  and  Octavius.  He 
made  himself  master  of  .Sicily,  and,  by  means  of  his 
formidable  fleet,  obstructed  the  supply  of  corn  which 
the  Romans  received  by  sea.  The  officers  of  Sextus 
gained  several  victories  over  the  fleet  of  Octavius.  In 
36  B.C.  Agrippa  defeated  Pompey,  who  fled  to  Asia  and 
was  put  to  death  in  35  B.C.  by  the  officers  of  Antony. 

See  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile." 

Pompey  the  Great,  I  Lat.  Pompe'ius  Mag'nus, 
Fr.  PoMP^E  le  Grand,  p6N'p\'  leh  gR^N,]  (Cneius,) 
a  famous  Roman  general  and  triumvir,  was  born  on 
the  30th  of  September,  106  B.C.,  in  the  same  year  as 
Cicero.  He/ought  under  his  father  in  the  Social  war, 
(89  B.C.,)  and  saved  his  lather's  life  when  Cinna  attempted 
to  assassinate  him  in  87  B.C.  He  raised,  without  a  com- 
mission, three  legions  to  fight  for  Sulla  against  the 
party  of  Marius  in  83  B.C.,  and  began  to  display  his 
great  military  talents  in  the  defeat  of  a  hostile  force 
under  Brutus.  For  this  success  Sulla  saluted  him  with 
the  title  of  imperator.  He  gained  another  victory  over 
the  legates  of  Carbo  in  82  B.C.,  reduced  Numidia  in  81, 
and  obtained  the  honour  of  a  triumph,  although  he 
was  but  a  simple  eques. 

In  76  B.C.  he  obtained  command  of  an  army  sent  to 
Spain  against  Sertorius,  who  defeated  Pompey  in  two 
battles,  but  was  assassinated  in  the  vear  72,  soon  after 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  i"i,  y,  short;  a,  %,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f3.ll,  fit;  ni5t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POMPIGNAN 


1981 


PONCE 


which  Spani  was  reduced  to  subjection.  With  a  high 
degree  of  popularity,  Pompey  returned  to  Italy  in  71  B.C., 
and  was  elected  consul  (with  Crassus)  for  the  year  70, 
although  he  had  not  held  any  of  the  lower  civil  offices 
and  was  not  legally  eligible  for  other  reasons.  Among 
the  important  acts  of  his  administration  was  the  restora- 
tion of  the  power  of  the  tribunes,  by  which  he  signalized 
his  defection  from  the  aristocratic  party.  He  remained 
at  Rome  inactive  during  69  and  68  rs.C.  In  the  next 
year  his  friends  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  by  which 
he  was  selected  to  conduct  a  war  against  the  pirates 
(who  infested  the  Mediterranean  in  great  numbers)  and 
was  invested  with  irresponsible  power  for  three  years. 
He  performed  this  service  with  complete  success  in  less 
than  one  year,  and,  it  is  said,  took  20,000  prisoners. 

The  next  enterprise  to  which  he  was  called  by  his  own 
ambition  and  the  favour  of  the  people  was  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Mithridatic  war,  which  had  been  protracted 
for  years.  His  claims  having  been  advocated  by  Cicero 
in  a  long  oration,  ("  Pro  Lege  Manilla,")  he  superseded 
Lucullus  in  66  n.C.  He  defeated  Mithridates  in  Lesser 
Armenia  in  the  same  year,  and  after  that  king  had 
escaped  to  the  Crimea,  which  was  difficult  of  access 
to  the  Roman  army,  Pompey  turned  southward,  and 
reduced  Syria  to  a  Roman  province  in  64  B.C.  After  a 
siege  of  three  months,  he  captured  Jerusalem  in  63,  and 
entered  the  sanctuary  of  the  Temple.  Having  received 
intelligence  of  the  death  of  Mithridates,  and  having  re- 
duced Pontus  and  Bithynia  to  subjection,  he  returned  to 
Italy  in  62  B.C.,  and  was  received  with  general  enthusiasm. 
The  triumph  which  he  obtained  on  this  occasion  was  the 
most  brilliant  which  the  Romans  had  ever  witnessed. 
Offended  by  the  refusal  of  the  senate  to  sanction  his 
public  acts  in  Asia,  he  identified  himself  with  the  popu- 
lar party,  and  formed  with  Caesar  and  Crassus  a  coalition 
or  triumvirate,  (59  B.C.)  Pompey,  having  divorced  Mucia, 
his  third  wife,  married  Julia,  a  daughter  of  Caesar.  He 
made  no  effort  to  prevent  the  banishment  of  Cicero,  but 
he  supported  the  bill  for  his  restoration,  in  57  B.C.  His 
popularity  was  now  on  the  decline.  He  had  lost  the 
confidence  of  the  senate  by  his  coalition  with  Caesar,  who 
was  his  successful  rival  in  respect  to  the  favour  of  the 
people.  Pompey  could  only  obtain  the  consulship  in  55 
H.c.  by  the  aid  of  Caesar,  with  whom  he  and  Crassus  had 
formed  another  secret  treaty  or  bargain. 

Anticipating  the  open  hostility  of  Caesar  to  his  ambi- 
tious projects,  Pompey  renewed  his  connection  with  the 
aristocracy,  who  accepted  him  as  their  leader  in  51  B.C. 
About  the  end  of  the  next  year  the  friends  of  Pompey 
obtained  a  decree  of  the  senate  that  Caesar  should  dis- 
band his  army.  In  defiance  of  this  decree,  Caesar  marched 
to  Rome  with  a  force  which  Pompey  was  unable  to  resist. 
His  self-confidence  was  such  that  he  had  neglected  to 
levy  troops,  and  he  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Epirus, 
where  he  collected  an  army.  (See  C^sar.)  Urged  on 
by  the  civilians  and  nobles  of  his  camp,  against  his  own 
judgment  he  offered  battle  to  Caesar  in  the  plain  of 
Pharsalia  in  August,  48  B.C.  and  was  completely  defeated. 
He  escaped  by  sea,  with  his  wife  Cornelia,  and  sought 
refuge  in  Egypt,  but  was  murdered  in  the  act  of  landing, 
by  order  of  Theodotus  and  Achillas,  the  chief  ministers, 
in  September,  48  B.C.  His  moral  character  is  repre- 
sented as  better  than  that  of  the  majority  of  Roman 
generals  in  his  time.  He  was  deficient  in  political 
abilities,  and  was  guided  by  no  fixed  principles  as  a 
statesman. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Pompey :"  G.  Long,  "  The  Decline  of 
the  Rom.in  Republic:"  Diom  Cassius,  "Hi-^tory;"  Cickro,  "  Ora- 
tio  pro  Les^e  Manilia ;"  Dkumann,  "Gescliichte  Roms ;"  Appian, 
"  Helium  Civile  ;"  J.  Upmarck,  "  Dissertatio  de  Pompejo  Magno," 
1709;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Pompignan,  de,  deh  p6N'pJn'y5N',  (Jean  Georges 
Le  Franc,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1715.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Vienne  in  1774,  and 
a  member  of  the  States-General  in  1789.  He  was  the 
head  of  that  party  of  the  clergy  which  united  with  the 
Tiers-Etat.     Died  in  1790. 

Pompignan,  de,  (Jean  Jacques  Le  Franc,)  Mar- 
Qiris,  a  French  poet,  born  at  Montauban  in  1709,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  produced  in  1734  a  suc- 
cessful tragedy  of  "  Dido,"  ("Didon,")  and  in  1 740  a 
ooem  entitled  "  Voyage  de  Languedoc  et  de  Provence." 


His  "  Sacred  Poems"  ( "  Poesies  sacrees  sur  divers 
Sujets,"  1 751)  were  admired.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1759,  and  pronounced  a  discourse 
against  the  skeptical  philosophers  which  provoked  the 
satire  of  Voltaire.  He  wrote  various  other  poems, 
among  which  is  a  beautiful  "Ode  on  the  Death  of  J. 
B.  Rousseau."     Died  in  1784. 

See  Bf.rtrand  RARfeRR,  "  Elnc;e  de  Le  Franc  de  PompiRnan," 
17S5  :  Gabf.t,  "  Notice  de  Le  Franc  de  Pompignan,"  prefixed  to  his 
Select  Works,  2  vols.,  1S22  :  Marmontrl,  "  Memoires  ;"  La  Harpb 
"  CiHirs  de  Litterature  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Pomponace.     See  Pomponazzi. 

Pomponatius.     See  Pomponazzi. 

Pomponazzi,  pom-po-nSt'see,  [Lat.  PoMPONA'Tltrs ; 
Fr.  Pomponace,  p6N'po'ntss',]  (Pietro,  )  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  at  Mantua  in  1462.  He  taught  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  at  Padua,  Ferrara,  and  Bologna. 
In  his  treatise  "On  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul"  (1516) 
he  gave  offence  by  affirming  that  Aristotle  did  not  teach 
that  doctrine.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  Fate. 
Free  Will,"  etc.,  (1567.)     Died  about  1524. 

Pompone.    See  Pomponne. 

Pomponio  Leto.    See  Pomponius  L.^tus. 

Pom-po'nl-us,  (Sextus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and 
Antoninus  Pius.  Many  extracts  from  his  works  are 
found  in  the  Digest. 

Pomponius  Atticus.     See  Amcus. 

Pom-po'nI-usLae'tus,(lee'tus,)  [It.  Pomponio  Leto, 
pom-po'ne-o  la'to,]  (JuLius,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
scholar,  born  in  Upper  Calabria  in  1425,  was  sometimes 
called  PiETRO  ni  Calabria.  He  succeeded  Professor 
Lorenzo  Valla  at  Rome  in  1457,  and  founded  there  an 
academy  for  the  cultivation  of  Roman  antiquities  and 
classic  learning,  which  was  suppressed  by  Paul  II.  in 
1468.  He  and  other  members  of  this  academy  were 
persecuted  by  Paul  II.  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  heresy. 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.  permitted  him  to  resume  his  chair  in 
the  Roman  College  in  147 1.  He  wrote  a  "  Compendium 
of  Roman  History  from  the  Death  of  Gordian  to  Justinus 
III.,"  (149S,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1497. 

See  M.  A.  Sackllicus,  "Vita  Pomponii  Laeti,"  1510;  Tira- 
BoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  GinguenA,  "  Histoire 
Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Pomponius  Mela.     See  Mela. 

Pomponne,  de,  deh  pSN'pon',  (Simon  Arnauld,) 
Marquis,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  1618,  was 
a  son  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly.  He  became  min- 
ister-secretary of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  167 1,  and 
was  removed  in  1679.  He  was  recalled  at  the  death  of 
Louvois,  in  1691.  He  left  a  high  reputation  for  probity 
and  for  skill  in  diplomacy.     Died  in  1699. 

See  Saint- Simon,  "Memoires;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des 
Franfais." 

Pona,  po'nJ,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Verona  in  1594.  He  gained  distinction 
as  a  writer  of  numerous  works,  among  which  were  some 
romances,  dramas,  scientific  treatises,  etc.  He  received 
the  title  of  historiographer  frcm  the  emperor  Ferdinand 
III.     Died  after  1652. 

Ponce,  p6Nss,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1746.  He  wrote  notices  of  several  artists  for 
the  "Biographic  Universelle."     Died  in  1831. 

Ponce,  pAn'thi,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Valladolid  about  1525.  He  is  the  reputed 
inventor  of  the  art  of  teaching  the  dumb  to  converse. 
According  to  Ambrosio  Morales,  he  was  very  successful, 
and  trained  his  pupils  to  speak  viva  voce.  No  account 
of  his  method  is  extant.     Died  in  1584. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  p6n'thi  d^  l.\-An',  [sometimes 
Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as  p6nss  de  le'on,]  (Juan,) 
a  Spanish  discoverer  of  Florida,  was  born  in  Leon. 
He  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage, 
(1493,)  and  served  in  Ilispaniola  under  Ovando.  In 
1508  he  commanded  an  expedition  to  Porto  Rico,  which 
he  conquered.  Having  heard  an  Indian  tradition  of 
a  fountain  of  rejuvenescence  in  one  of  the  Bahama  isles, 
he  searched  for  that  fountain  in  15 12  without  success,  but 
he  discovered  Florida  the  same  year.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  in  a  fight  with  some  natives  of  Florida  in 
1521,  and  died  in  Cuba. 

See  Herrhra,  "  Nevus  Orbis ;"  Ovikdo,  "  Historia  general." 


:  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  asy;  G,  H.  K.  ^ittiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  \>.  23.) 


PONCE 


PONS 


Ponce  de  Leon,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Granada  in  1528.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Salamanca  about  1562.  He  translated  Virgil's  "Ec- 
logues," two  books  of  the  "Georgics,"  and  many  odes 
of  Horace.  He  wrote  odes  remarkable  for  beauty  of 
style  and  elevation  of  thought,  which  are  highly  praised 
by  Mr.  Ticknor.  He  is  called  by  a  critic  in  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  "the  greatest  of  the  Spanish  poets  of 
this  age,  and  perhaps  one  of  the  noblest  lyric  poets  that 
ever  existed."     Died  in  1591. 

See  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfklujw, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Lyric  Poetry  of  Spain,"  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  (Rodrigo,)  Marquis  de  Cadiz,  a 
famous  Spanish  general,  born  in  1443.  ^^^  served  in 
many  campaigns  against  the  Moors,  surprised  the  for- 
tress of  Albania  in  1482,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  conquest  of  Granada,  which  was  effected  in  1492. 
Died  in  1492. 

Ponce  Pilate.    See  Pilate. 

Poncelet,  pA.Nss'li',  (Francois  Fr£d6ric,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Mouzay  (Meuse)  in  1790.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  Roman  law.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1843. 

Poncelet,  (Jean  Victor,)  an  eminent  French  geom- 
eter and  engineer,  born  at  Metz  in  1788.  He  served  in 
the  army  in  Russia,  (18 12.)  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  and,  about  1834,  professor  of  mechanics  at 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris.  In  1848  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  general  of  engineers,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly.  Among  his  works  are  "Traite 
des  Proprietes  projectives  des  Figures,"  (1820,)  and 
a  "Course  of  Mechanics  applied  to  Machines,"  (1826.) 
He  rendered  great  service  to  the  industrial  arts  by  his 
improvements  in  hydraulics  and  practical  mechanics. 
Died  at  Paris,  December  27,  1867. 

Poncelet,  (Polycarpe,)  a  French  rural  economist, 
born  at  Verdun,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  wrote  a  "  Natural  History  of  Wheat," 
(1779,)  and  other  works. 

Poncelin,  p6Nss'liN',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French 
editor  and  compiler,  born  in  Poitou  in  1746;  died  in 
1828. 

Poncet  de  la  Grave,  p6N'si'  deh  It  gRtv,  (Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1 725, 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Royal  Navy,"  (2  vols.,  1780,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1S03. 

Poucher,  pciN'shi',  (Etienne,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Tours  in  1446.  He  became  Bishop  of  Paris  in 
1503,  and  keeper  of  the  seals  of  France  in  1512.  He 
was  employed  as  a  diplomatist  by  Francis  I.  Died 
in  1524. 

Ponchielli,  p&n-kfe-Sl'lee,  (Amilcare,)  an  Italian 
musical  composer,  born  near  Cremona,  September  i,  1834. 
Among  his  numerous  operas  the  most  popular  were  "  I 
promessi  Sposi,"  (first  produced  in  1856,  but  entirely 
rewritten  in  1872,)  "Gioconda,"  (1876,)  and  "II  Figliuol 
prodigo,"  (1880.)     Died  January  19,  1886. 

Ponchino,  pon-kee'no,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  Bozzatto  or  Bazzacco, 
was  born  at  Castel-Franco  about  1500.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Titian.     Died  in  1570. 

Pon9ol,  de,  d?h  p6N'sol',  (Henri  Simon  Joseph 
Ansquer,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Kemper  in  1730; 
died  in  1783. 

Poncy,  p6N'se',  (Louis  Charles,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1821.  He  worked  at  the  trade  of 
stone-mason,  and  published  "  Les  Marines,"  (1842.) 

Pond,  (Enoch,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Wrentham,  Massachusetts,  in  1791.  In 
1828  he  edited  the  "  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,"  a  religious 
journal,  in  which  he  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  the 
Unitarians.  He  became  in  1856  president  and  professor 
^  ecclesiastical  history,  etc.  at  Bangor  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Maine.  He  published  a  "  Memoir  of  Count  Zin- 
zendorf,"  (1839,)  "Memoir  of  John  Wickliffe,"  (1841,) 
"The  Morning  of  the  Reformation,"  {1842,)  "  Plato,  his 
Life,  Works,  Opinions,  and  Influence,"  (1846,)  and 
numerous  other  works.     Died  January  21,  1882. 

Pond,  (John,)  an  English  astronomer,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1767,  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 


After  he  left  college  he  passed  several  years  at  West- 
bury,  near  Bristol,  where  he  made  observations.  Ho 
was  the  first  astronomer  who  depended  on  masses  ol 
observations  for  the  determination  of  all  fundamental 
data.  He  succeeded  Maskelyne  as  astronomer-royal  in 
1811,  and  directed  his  attention  chiefly  to  a  determina- 
tion of  the  places  of  fixed  stars.  In  1833  he  completed 
a  standard  catalogue  of  1 113  fixed  stars.  He  has  a  high 
reputation  as  an  observer.     Died  in  1836. 

Pongerville,  de,  deh  p6N'zh5R'v61',  (Jean  Baptiste 
Aim6  Sanson,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Abbeville  in 
1792.  He  produced  in  1823  an  excellent  translation  of 
Lucretius's  "  De  Rerum  Natura"  into  verse,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1830.  Among 
his  other  publications  are  prose  versions  of  Lucretius, 
(1829,)  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  (1838,)  and  Virgil's 
"^Eneid,"  (1846,)  which  are  commended.    Died  in  1870. 

See  "  NoMvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Poniatowski,  po-ne-S-tov'skee,  (Joseph  Antony,) 
Prince,  an  able  Polish  general,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1762, 
was  a  nephew  of  Stanislas  Augustus,  King  of  Poland. 
His  father,  Andreas,  was  a  general  in  the  Austrian  ser- 
vice. He  commanded  the  Polish  army  in  the  war  against 
Russia  in  1792,  and  served  under  Kosciusko  in  1794. 
In  1806  he  raised  an  army  of  Poles  to  fight  for  Napoleon, 
who  had  persuaded  him  that  he  intended  to  restore 
the  independence  of  Poland.  He  and  his  army  of  Poles 
fought  against  the  Russians  in  1807,  and  opposed  the 
Austrians  with  success  in  1809.  He  commanded  a  corps 
of  the  grand  army  which  invaded  Russia  in  1812,  and 
rendered  important  services  in  that  campaign.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1813,  he  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was 
wounded  at  Leipsic,  and,  in  the  retreat  from  that  battle, 
was  drowned  in  the  Elster,  (1813.) 

See  BoGtJSLAWSKi,  "  IJiograjihie  de  Poniatowski,"  1831 ;  L. 
Chodzko,  "  La  Pologne  illustree ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ni- 
rale." 

Poniatowski,  (Joseph  Michael  Xavier  Francis 
John,)  Prince  of  Monte  Rotondo,  a  musical  composer, 
born  in  Rome,  of  Polish  parentage,  February  20,  1816. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  Prince  Joseph  Antony  Poniatow- 
ski. He  produced  a  number  of  operas,  among  which 
are  "Giovanni  da  Procida,"  (1838,)  "  Ruy  Bias,"  (1842,) 
"  Pierre  de  Medicis,"  (i860,)  "  L'Aventurier,"  (1865,)  etc. 
Died  July  3,  1873. 

Poniato-wski,  (Stanislas,)  Count,  a  celebrated 
Polish  statesman,  born  in  1677.  He  espoused  the  cause 
of  Charles  XII.  oi  Sweden,  and  Stanislas  Leszczynski, 
against  Augustus  II.  of  Poland,  and  accompanied  Charles 
in  his  Russian  campaign.  After  the  defeat  at  Poltava 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
promoted  the  interests  of  the  Swedish  king  by  inducing 
the  Sultan  to  make  war  upon  Russia.  He  was  subse- 
quently appointed  to  several  high  offices  by  Augustus 
HI.  of  Poland.     Died  in  1762. 

See  VoLTAiRH,  "  Histoire  de  Charles  XIL  " 

Poniatowski,  (Sianisi.as  Augustus.)  See  Stan- 
islas Augustus,  King  of  Poland. 

Poninski,  po-nin'skee,  (A.  L.,)  a  Polish  poet,  born 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote  Latin  poems, 
"Opera  Heroica,"  (1739.)     Died  in  1742. 

Ponroy,  p6n'rwS',  (Pierre  Gabriel  Arthur,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1816.  He  pro 
duced  several  poems,  dramas,  etc.    Died  March  13,  1876. 

Pons,  p6N,  (Anpr^,)  Comte  de  Rio,  a  French  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Cette  in  1772.  He  was  prefect 
of  Lyons  in  1815.  Among  his  works  is  a  "History  of 
the  Residence  of  Napoleon  at  Elba."     Died  in  1853. 

Pons,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Peyres  (Hautes-Alpes)  in  1761.  He  became  director  of 
the  Observatory  of  Marseilles,  where  (according  to  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale")  he  discovered  twenty- 
three  comets.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  director  of  an 
observatory  at  Florence.     Died  in  1831. 

Pons,  de,  deh  p^N,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic and  writer,  born  at  Marly-le-Roi  in  16831 
died  in  1732. 

Pons  de  Verdun,  pAN  d?h  v^rMiin',  (Robert,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Verdun  in  1749,  acquired 
some  distinction  as  a  poet.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95.)     Died  in  1844. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  fi,  y,  lon^';  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  yrolop(3;ed;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  sJ;ort:  a.,  e,  i,  o,  obsairc;  fSr,  fill,  f4t;  mgt;  nflt;  good;  md&n; 


PONSARD 


1983 


PONTIC 


Ponsard,  p6N'stR',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Vienne  (Isere)  in  1814.  lie  produced  a 
successful  tragedy  of  "  Lucrece,"  (1843,)  and  another 
called  "Charlotte  Corday,"  (1850,)  which  is  admired. 
Among  his  most  popular  works  is  a  comedy  of  "  Honour 
and  Money,"  ("L'Honneur  et  I'Argent,"  1853,)  which 
opened  to  him  the  French  Academy.     Died  in  1867. 

Ponsludon,  de,  deh  p6N'lu'd6N',  (Joseph  Antoine 
H6DOUIN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rheims  in  1739  ; 
died  in  1817. 

Pon'spn-by,  (Sir  Frederick  Cavendish,)  an  Eng- 
lish officer,  born  in  1783,  was  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
Besborough.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Spain,  and 
led  a  regiment  of  dragoons  at  Waterloo,  where  he  was 
wounded.     Died  in  1837. 

Ponsoxiby,  (George,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1755.  He  became  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Irish 
House  of  Commons,  and  in  1806  was  appointed  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland.  About  1807  he  entered  the  British 
House  of  Commons,  in  which  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
Whig  party.     Died  in  1817. 

Ponsonby,  (John,)  Baron,  a  diplomatist,  born  in 
1770.  He  entered  the  British  House  of  Lords  in  1806, 
and  acted  with  the  Whig  party.  He  performed  diplo- 
matic missions  to  Brazil,  Belgium,  and  Naples  between 
1828  and  1832,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  commerce 
with  Turkey  about  1838.  He  was  minister  at  Vienna 
from  1846  to  1851.     Died  in  1855. 

Ponsonby,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  general,  born 
in  1782,  was  a  younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  aide-de-camp  of  Wellington,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  of  cavalry  at  Waterloo,  where  he  was  killed 
in  1815. 

Ponson  du  Terradl,  de,  deh  pAn's6n'  dii  ti'rSI', 
(Pierre  Alexis,)  Viscount,  a  French  novelist,  born  at 
Montmaur,  July  8,  1829.  He  produced  sensational  and 
very  popular  stories  in  immense  numbers,  besides  dramas, 
etc.     Died  at  Bordeaux,  January  30,  187 1. 

Pontano,  pon-td'no,  [Lat.  Ponta'nus,]  (Giovanni 
GioviANO,)  an  eminent  Italian  author  and  statesman, 
born  at  Cereto,  in  Umbria,  in  1426.  He  became  secre- 
tary of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Naples  about  1458,  and  prime 
minister  about  1487.  He  had  the  reputation  of  an  able 
negotiator,  and  an  elegant  writer  in  prose  and  verse. 
His  "  History  of  the  War  between  Ferdinand  I.  and  the 
Duke  of  Anjou"  (1519)  is  called  a  master-piece.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  moral  essays,  elegies,  odes,  and  other 
poems,  among  wliich  is  "  Urania,"  an  astronomical 
poem.  Died  in  Naples  in  1503.  "A  far  superior  name," 
says  Hallam,  "  is  that  of  Pontanus,  to  whom,  if  we  attend 
to  some  critics,  we  must  award  the  palm  above  all  the 
Latin  poets  of  the  titteenth  century."  ("  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  RoBKRTO  da  Sarno,  "  Vita  J.  J.  Pontani,"  1761 ;  F.  Colan- 
GELO,  "Vita  di  G.  G.  Pontano,"  1820;  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della 
Letteratura  Italiana;"  Nic^ron,  "Mdmoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Elogra- 
phie  Gendrale." 

Pontanus.     See  Dupont,  Ponte,  and  Pontano. 

Pontanus,  pon-ta'nus,  (Jakob,)  a  Jesuit  and  philolo- 
gist, born  in  Bohemia  in  1542.  He  published  "Progym- 
nasmata  Latinitatis,"  (4 vols.,  1588,)  "Poetic  Institutes," 
("  Institutiones  Poeticae,"  1594,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1626. 

Pontanus,  pon-td'nus,  (Joiian  Isaac,)  a  Danish  phi- 
lologist and  historian,  born  at  Elsinore  about  1 570,  be- 
came professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at  Harderwyk 
in  1604.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Denmark,"  (in  Latm, 
1631,)  and  several  criticisms  on  the  classics.  Died  in  1639. 

See  "Vita  Pontani,"  anonymous,  1640;  Nic^RON,  "M^moires." 

Pontas,  pAN'td',  (Jean,)  a  French  casuist,  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Avranches  in  1638.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  Dictionary  of  Cases  of  Conscience,"  (3  vols.,  1715,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1728. 

Pontault,  de.     See  Beaulieu,  de,  (S^bastien.) 

Pontchartrain,  de,  deh  p^N'shtR'tRiN',  (Loins 
Ph6lvpeaux,)  Comte,  a  French  minister  of  state,  bori\ 
in  1643.  He  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the 
finances  about  1690,  and  chancellor  of  France  in  1699. 
His  talents  and  virtues  are  eulogized  by  Saint-Simon, 
who  says  "  he  performed  more  than  he  promised."  He 
was  grandfather  of  the  prime  minister  Maurepas.  Died 
in  1727. 


Pontchartrain,  de,  (Paul  Ph6lvpeaux,)  Seigneur, 
born  at  Blois,  France,  in  1569,  was  grandfather  of  the 
preceding.  He  became  secretary  of  state  in  1610,  and 
wrote  memoirs  of  events  from  1610  to  1620,  (1720.) 
Died  in  1621. 

Pont  de  Veyle,  de,  deh  p6N  deh  vil,  (Antoine  dk 
Ferriol — f^r're'ol',)  Comte,  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  1697,  was  a  brother  of  the  Count  of  Argental.  He 
wrote  three  successful  comedies,  one  of  which  is  called 
"The  Somnambulist,"  ("La  Somnambule,"  1739.)  He 
was  a  member  of  the  literary  council  of  Voltaire.  Died 
in  1774. 

Ponte,  da.    See  Bassano,  (Francesco  and  Jacopo.) 

Ponte,  da,  dd  pon'ti,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian architect,  born  in  Venice  in  1512.  He  built  the 
famous  bridge  of  the  Rialto  across  the  Grand  Canal, 
the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  and  other  fine  edifices  in 
Venice.     Died  in  1597. 

Ponte,  da,  [Lat.  Pon'tico  Viru'nio,]  (Lodovico,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Belluno  in  1467.  He  wrote 
a  "  Secret  History  of  Italy,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1520. 

Ponte,  da,  (Lorenzo.)     See  Da  Ponte. 

Ponte,  de,  di  pon'ti,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  religious 
writer,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1554.  He  wrote  several 
popular  works,  among  which  is  "  Meditations  on  the 
Mysteries  of  the  Faith,"  (1605.)     Died  in  1624. 

Ponte,  de,  deh  p6Nt,  [Lat.  Ponta'nus,]  (Pierre,) 
a  Flemish  philologist,  born  at  Bruges  about  1480,  was 
blind  from  infancy.  He  published  several  works.  Died 
after  1529. 

Pontecoulant,  de,  deh  p6N'ti'koo'16N',  (Gustave 
Doulcet — dool's.y,)  Comte,  a  French  astronomer,  born 
about  1795.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  army,  from 
which  he  retired  about  1830.  He  published  "Analytic 
Theory  of  the  System  of  the  World,"  (4  vols.,  1829-46.) 
and  other  works  on  astronomy,  etc.     Died  in  1874. 

Pontecoulant,  de,  (Louis  Gustave  Doulcet,) 
Comte,  a  French  Girondist,  born  at  Caen  in  1766,  was 
the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792,  was  proscribed  and  outlawed  in 
1793,  became  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1805,  and  a 
liberal  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers  in  1819.  He 
left  "  Memoires,"  which  were  published  in  1862.  Died 
in  1853. 

Pontedera,  pon-ti-da'r5,  (GiULlo,)  an  Italian  bota- 
nist, born  at  Vicenza  in  16S8.  He  became  in  1719  director 
of  the  botanic  garden  and  professor  of  botany  at  Padua. 
He  published  a  "  Compendium  of  Botanical  Plates," 
("Compendium  Tabularum  botanicarum,"  1718,)  and 
"  Anthology,  or.  On  the  Nature  of  the  Flower,"  ("  An- 
thologia,  sive  De  Floris  Natura,"  1720.)  The  genus 
Pontederia  was  named  in  his  honour  by  Linnaeus.  Died 
in  1757. 

See  Fabkoni,  "Vitaeltalorumdoctrinaexcellentium  ;"  Gbnnari, 
"  Lettera  intorno  la  Vita  del  fu  G.  Pontedera,"  1758. 

Pon'tJ-ac,  a  North  American  Indian  chief,  of  the 
Ottawa  tribe,  born  about  1712,  was  an  ally  of  the  French. 
In  1762  he  formed  a  coalition  of  many  westerri  tribes, 
which,  at  his  instigation,  attacked  various  English  gar- 
risons and  frontier  settlements.  He  besieged  Detroit 
without  success  in  1763.  He  was  killed  in  Illinois  in 
1769. 

See  Parkman,  "History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,"  1831. 

Pontianus,  pon-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Pontien,  p6N'se'4N',] 
became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  230  a.d.  He  was  banished 
by  Maximin  in  235,  and  died  in  exile  soon  after  that  date. 

Pontico  Virunio.    See  Ponte,  da,  (Lodovico.) 

Pontien.     See  Pontianus. 

Pontier,  p6N'te-i',  (Pierre,)  an  able  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Aix  (Provence)  in  1711 ;  died  at  Aix  in  1789. 
His  son,  Pierre  Henri,  was  a  chemist,  and  wrote 
several  scientific  treatises.     Died  at  Aix  in  1826. 

Pontin,  de,  deh  pon-teen',  (Magnus  Martin,)  a  Swe- 
dish physician,  born  at  Askeryd  in  1781.  He  became 
first  physician  to  the  king  in  1825.  He  published  several 
works  in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1858. 

Pontis,  de,  deh  p6N'tess',  (Louis,)  a  French  gentle- 
man, born  in  Provence  in  1583,  was  an  officer  in  the 
army.  He  left  interesting  Memoirs,  (2  vols.,  1676,)  often 
reprinted.     Died  in  Paris  in  1670. 


<ras^;  ^asj,-  gkard;  gas/;  g,h,k,  guttural;  N, nasal;  K,trille</;  sass;  ih  asin  t/iis.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PONTIUS 


1984 


POOSHKIN 


Poutius,  pon'she-us,  a  deacon  of  the  church  of  Car- 
thage, lived  about  250  A.D.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Life  of  Cyprian." 

Pontius,  pon'te-us,  or  Du  Pont,  (dU  pdN,)  (Paul,)  an 
eminent  Flemish  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1596  or 
1603,  was  a  pupil  of  Vosterman.  He  engraved  many 
works  after  Rubens,  among  which  is  the  "Massacre 
of  the  Innocents,"  and  many  portraits  after  Van  Dyck. 
These  prints  are  greatly  admired. 

Pontius  de  la  Fuente,  pon'te-oos'di  13  fwSn'ti,  [Lat. 
Pon'tius  Fon'tius,]  (Constantine,)  a  Spanish  Prot- 
estant, who  wrote  in  defence  of  the  reformed  doctrines, 
and  was  sentenced  to  death,  but  died  in  prison  (before 
the  sentence  was  executed)  in  1559. 

Pontius  Pilate.     See  Pilatf.. 

Pontmartin,  de,  deh  p6N'mtR'tiN',  (Armand  Au- 
GUSTlN  Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Avignon  in  iSii.  He  published  several  novels,  and 
"  Causeries  litteraires,"  (1854.) 

Pontoppidan,  pon-top'pe-din,  (Eric,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  prelate,  born  in  Funen  about  1620.  He  wrote 
many  Latin  poems,  among  which  are  "Aucupium  Se- 
landiae,"  (-1636,)  "Sacred  Pastorals,"  ("Bucolica  Sacra," 
1643,)  and  "Florilegium  Cimbricum,"  (1646.)  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Drontheim  in  1673.     Died  in  1678. 

See  Kraft  og  Nvkrup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Pontoppidan,  (Erik,)  the  Younger,  a  celebrated 
Danish  prelate,  historian,  and  antiquary,  born  at  Aarhuus, 
in  Jutland,  in  1698.  He  was  successively  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen  in  1738,  Bishop 
of  Bergen  in  1748,  and  chancellor  of  the  University 
at  Copenhagen.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"  Annals  of  the  Danish  Church,"  "  Theatre  of  Denmark, 
Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1730,)  "Achievements  of  the 
Danes  out  of  Denmark,"  (1740,)  and  a  "Description 
of  Copenhagen,"  (all  in  Latin,)  also  a  treatise  on  the 
natural  history  of  Norway,  and  a  "  Danish  Atlas," 
("Danske  Atlas,"  in  7  vols.,)  in  the  Danish  language. 
Died  in  1764. 

See  "Dani'sche  Bibliothek,"  vol.  vi.,  (autobiocjaphy :)  "  Retro- 
sjiective  Review,"  vol.  xiii.,  (1826;)  "Monthly  Review"  for  July, 
1755;  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "Almindeli'st  Litteraturlexicon;" 
HiKSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-iiterarisches  Handbiich." 

Pontormo,  da,  di  pon-toR'mo,  (Jacopo  Carucci  or 
Carrucci,)  an  eminent  Florentine  painter,  born  at  Pon- 
tormo about  1498,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Andrea  del  Sarto.  He  imitated  Michael  Angelo.  He 
had  three  manners,  the  last  of  which  was  an  imitation 
of  that  of  Albert  Diirer.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  "The 
Deluge,"  a  fresco  at  Florence.     Died  in  1558. 

SeeVASARi,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Pontoux,  de,  deh  p6N'too',  (Claude,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  about  1530;   died  in 

'579-  .  ,.    . 

Ponz,  p6nth,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  pamter,  distm- 
guished  as  a  writer  on  the  fine  arts,  was  born  in  Valencia 
in  1725.  He  passed  about  ten  years  at  Rome  (1751-60) 
in  the  study  of  art  and  antiquities.  Having  returned  to 
Madrid,  he  was  commissioned  by  Charles  III.  to  paint 
portraits  of  Spanish  authors  for  the  Escurial.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Viage  de  Espaiia,"  (18 
vols.,  1771-94,)  which  treats  of  Spanish  works  of  art, 
topography,  etc.     Died  in  1792. 

See  Madoz,  "Diccionario  geografico." 

Ponzio,  pon'ze-o,  a  Tuscan  sculptor,  called  by  the 
French  MaItre  Ponce,  worked  in  France  from  1530 
toi57i. 

Pouzio,  (Flaminio,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  about 
1575.  He  designed  the  Capella  Borghe.se  at  Rome,  and 
the  Palazzo  Sciara  on  the  Corso.  He  was  employed  by 
Pope  Paul  V,  to  continue  the  works  of  the  Quirinal, 
in  which  he  constructed  the  double  staircase.  Died 
about  1620. 

Poogatchef,  Pougatchef,  Pugatschew,  or  Puga- 
tschev,  poo-gS-chSf,  (Yemelian,)  a  Cossack  rebel  and 
impostor,  born  in  1726.  Having  been  told  that  he  re- 
sembled Peter  HI.,  he  undertook  to  pass  himself  off  for 
that  Czar,  and  incited  the  Cossacks  to  revolt  in  1773. 
He   raised  a   large  army,  took   several   towns,   gained 


some  victories,  and  massacred  thousands  of  people.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  and  executed  in  1775' 

See  PoosHKiN,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  of  Poogatchef,"  1835. 

Poole,  pool,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  concert-  and 
opera-singer,  born  in  London  in  1820.  She  retired  from 
the  stage  in  1870. 

Poole,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist  and  author,  born 
about  17S6.  Among  his  numerous  farces  and  plays  are 
"Hamlet  Travestie,"  (1810,)  "Who  is  Who?"  (1815,) 
"Paul  Pry,"  (1825,)  "Patrician  and  Parvenu,"  (1S35,) 
etc.  He  also  wrote  a  "Comic  Sketch-Book,"  (1835,) 
"Oddities  of  London  Life,"  (1838,)  "Little  Peddling- 
ton  and  the  Peddlingtonians,"  (1839,)  "  Phineas  Quiddy," 
(a  novel,  1842,)  "Christmas  Festivities,"  (1845,)  and  other 
works.     Died  near  London,  February  5,  1872. 

Poole,  pool,  [Lat.  Po'lus,]  (Matthew,)  a  learned 
English  nonconformist  divine,  born  at  York  about  1624, 
He  was  rector  of  the  church  of  Saint  Michael-le- 
Querne,  London,  froin  which  he  was  ejected  in  1662, 
His  principal  work  is  "  Synopsis  Criticorum  Biblico- 
rum,"  (5  vols.,  1669-76,)  in  which  he  designed  to  present 
a  synopsis  or  abridgment  of  the  writings  and  labours 
of  former  biblical  critics  of  all  ages  and  countries.  It 
is  esteemed  a  valuable  work.  He  also  left  "Annota- 
tions on  the  Holy  Bible,"  (2  vols.,  1685.)  He  died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1679. 

See  A.  Wood,  "  Fasti  Oxoniensis ;"  NicSron,  "M^moires." 

Poole,  (Paul  Falconer,)  an  English  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bristol  in  1810.  He  is  accounted  one 
of  the  most  original  and  successful  English  artists  of  the 
present  time.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Beleaguered 
Moors,"  (1844,)  "The  .Suppression  of  Sion  Monastery," 
(1846,)  "  Job  receiving  Tidings  of  his  Losses,"  (1850,)  and 
"The  Goths  in  Italy,"  (1852.)  He  received  in  1847a 
prize  of  three  hundred  pounds  for  his  picture  of  "King 
Edward's  Generosity  to  the  People  of  Calais."  He  was 
elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1S61.     Died  in  1879. 

Poole,  van,  vtn  pol,  (Jurian,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1666  ;  died  in  1745-  His 
wife,  Rachel,  born  in  1664,  was  an  excellent  painter  of 
flowers,  fruits,  etc.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Ruysch  tlie 
anatomist.     Died  in  1750. 

Poor,  (Daniel,)  an  American  missionary,  born  at 
Dan  vers,  Massachusetts,  in  1789,  spent  many  years  in 
Hindostan  and  Ceylon,  where  he  established  schools. 
Died  in  1855. 

Poore,  (Benjamin  Perley,)  an  American  journalist, 
born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  November  2, 1820, 
became  a  printer,  and  was  connected  with  various  journals, 
either  as  proprietor  or  editor,  but  especially  as  foreign 
and  Washington  correspondent.  He  was  for  a  time 
major  of  volunteers  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  and  for  many 
years  was  clerk  of  printing  records  in  Washington. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Materials  for  American  His- 
tory in  the  French  Archives,"  (.1848,)  "The  Rise  and 
Fall  of  Louis  Philippe,"  (1848,)  "Early  Life  of  Napo- 
leon," (1851,)  "Federal  and  State  Charters,"  (2  vols., 
1877,)  "Life  of  General  Burnside,"  (1882,)  and  several 
novels.  He  edited  the  annual  Abridgment  of  the  United 
States  Public  Documents  for  many  years,  and  prepared 
and  published  an  annual  "Congressional  Directory," 
(1864  t-l  Si-q.)     Died  May  29,  1S87. 

Pooshicin,  Pushkin,  Pouchekine,  Puschkin,  or 
Pouschkin,  poosh'kin  or  poosh'kin,  (Alexander 
Sergeivitch,)  a  celebrated  Russian  poet,  born  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1799.  Having  published  several  poems 
of  a  too  liberal  tendency,  he  was  banished  to  Odessa, 
where  he  held  an  office  under  the  governor-general.  Count 
Vorontsof.  During  his  presence  in  Southern  Russia 
he  studied  the  Spanish  and  Italian  languages,  and  the 
works  of  Byron,  upon  whose  model  he  may  be  said  to 
have  formed  himself.  His  first  considerable  poem,  en- 
titled "Ruslan  and  Liudmila,"  (1821,)  was  very  well 
received  ;  it  was  followed  by  the  "Prisoner  of  the  Cau- 
casus," ("  Plennik  Kavkaskoi,"  1822,)  "The  Fountain 
of  Bakhtchisarai,"  (1824,)  which  brought  him  three 
thousand  rubles,  "  Eugene  Onegin,"  a  metrical  romance, 
the  "  Gypsies,"  ("  Tsigani,")  and  the  narrative  poem  of 
"  Poltava."  After  the  accession  of  Nicholas,  Pooshkin 
was  recalled  to  Moscow  and  appointed  historiographer. 


a,e,i,o,  Vi,y,long;b^,h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  di,h,\,o,\\,y,  short  ;^,e,'\,q,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mCou; 


POOST 


19S: 


POPMA 


His  only  historical  production  is  an  account  of  Poo- 
gatchefs  rebellion.  Besides  the  above,  he  published 
"  Boris  Godoonof,"  a  dramatic  poem,  esteemed  one  of 
his  master-pieces,  and  a  "History  of  the  Iron  Mask." 
He  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  duel  in  1837.  A  critic 
in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  calls  him  "  one  of  that  small 
but  illustrious  band  whose  writings  have  become  part  of 
the  very  household  language  of  their  native  land,  and 
whose  expressions  may  be  said,  like  those  of  Shakspeare, 
of  Moliere,  and  of  Cervantes,  to  have  become  the  natural 
forms  embodying  the  ideas  which  they  have  expressed, 
and,  in  expressing,  consecrated.  In  a  word,  Pooshkin  is 
undeniably  and  essentially  the  great  national  poet  of 
Russia." 

See  Galathof,  "  Chrestomathie  Russe  ;"  Prince  E.  Mhtcher- 
SKi,  "  Les  Poetes  Russes ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate;" 
"Sketch  of  Pushkin's  Life  and  Works,"  by  T.  B.  Shaw,  1S45; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832  ;  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  June  and  July,  1845. 

Poost  or  Post,  post,  (Frans,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Haarlem  about  1615.  He  passed  some  years  in  Bra- 
zil, the  scenery  of  which  he  painted.     Died  in  1680. 

Poot,  pot,  (IlaBERT,)  an  eminent  Dutch  poet,  born 
near  Delft  in  1689,  was  a  cultivator  of  the  soil.  He 
published  a  volume  of  poems  in  17 16.  He  excelled  in 
Anacreontic  poetry.     Died  in  1733. 

See  Paqoot,  "M^moires;"  Dk  Vries,  "  Histoire  de  la  Po^sie 
Hollandaise." 

Pope,  {  Alexander,  )  a  popular  English  poet  and 
critic,  born  in  London  on  the  22d  of  May,  1688,  was  a 
son  of  a  linen-draper.  His  parents  were  Roman  Cath- 
olics. In  consequence  of  his  sickly  constitution  and 
deformed  person,  he  was  unfitted  for  active  life.  During 
his  childhood  he  resolved  to  be  a  poet.  His  precocity 
was  remarkable.  He  says  himself  that  he  began  to  write 
verses  farther  back  than  he  could  well  remember.  At 
the  age  of  eight  he  read  with  interest  Ogilby's  transla- 
tion of  Homer.  He  wrote  his  "  Pastorals"  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  ;  but  they  were  not  published  until  1709. 
Among  his  early  productions  are  the  "  Essay  on  Criti- 
cism," (1710,)  which  was  praised  by  Addison,  and  "The 
Rape  of  the  Lock,"  (171 1,)  a  mock-heroic  poem,  which 
was  much  admired.  His  "Messiah,"  an  exquisite  poem 
in  imitation  of  Virgil's  fourth  eclogue,  appeared  in  Ad- 
dison's "Spectator"  in  1712.  In  1713  he  issued  pro- 
posals for  a  subscription  to  a  translation  of  Homer's 
"Iliad,"  which  was  completed  in  1718-20  and  obtained 
a  great  popularity.  It  is,  however,  far  from  being  a 
faithful  translation.  "It  is  a  fine  poem,"  says  Bentley, 
"but  not  Homer."  About  171 5  he  became  estranged 
from  Addison,  whom  he  accused  of  conspiring  with 
rickell,  who  had  produced  (in  part)  a  rival  translation 
of  the  "Iliad."  Pope  revenged  himself  by  writing  the 
keen,  not  to  say  malicious,  satire  on  "  Atticus."  "He 
was,"  says  Macaulay,  "  a  great  master  of  invective  and 
sarcasm.  He  could  dissect  a  character  in  terse  and 
sonorous  couplets  brilliant  with  antithesis."  ("Essay 
on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Addison.")  His  talent  for 
satire  is  conspicuous  in  the  "Dunciad,"(i728,)  a  poetical 
work  of  much  critical  merit.  He  published  in  1733  his 
"  Essay  on  Man,"  a  philosophic  poem,  which  has  en- 
joyed an  extraordinary  popularity,  and  which  Bulwer 
pronounces  "  unequalled  in  didactic  solemnity  and  splen- 
dour since  Lucretius  set  to  music  the  false  creed  of  Epi- 
curus." With  the  aid  of  Broome  and  Fenton,  he  translated 
the  "Odyssey,"  (1725.)  He  also  produced  admirable 
"  Imitations  of  Horace."  He  wrote,  in  prose,  a  number 
of  essays  and  letters,  the  style  of  which  is  considered 
excellent.  "Pope's  epistolary  excellence,"  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  "had  an  open  field  :  he  had  no  English  rival, 
living  or  dead."  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  lived  at 
Twickenham,  where  he  had  purchased  a  house.  He  fa- 
voured the  Tory  party  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Among  his  intimate  friends  were  Swift,  Atterbury,  and 
Lord  Bolingbroke.  Died  in  May,  1744.  He  possessed 
little  originality  or  creative  imagination  ;  but  he  had  a 
vivid  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and  an  exquisite  taste.  He 
owed  much  of  his  popularity  to  the  easy  harmony  of  his 
verse,  the  keenness  of  his  satire,  and  the  brilliancy  of 
his  antithesis. 

"The  Essay  on  Man,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "affords  an 
egregious  instance  of  the  predominance  of  genius,  the 


dazzling  splendour  of  imagery,  and  the  seductive  powers 
of  eloquence.  Never  was  penury  of  knowledge  and 
vulgarity  of  sentiment  so  happily  disguised.  The  reader 
feels  his  mind  full,  though  he  learns  nothing,  and,  when 
he  meets  it  in  its  new  array,  no  longer  knows  the  talk 
of  his  mother  and  his  nurse."  The  same  critic  pro- 
nounces the  "  Rape  of  the  Lock"  "  the  most  airy,  in- 
genious, and  delightful  of  his  compositions,  and  the  most 
exquisite  example  of  ludicrous  poetry.  .  .  .  He  was 
sometimes  wanton  in  his  attacks,  and  before  Chandos, 
Lady  Wortley,  and  Hill,  was  mean  in  his  retreat.  His 
malignity  to  Philips,  whom  he  had  first  made  ridiculous 
and  then  hated  for  being  angry,  continued  too  long." 
He  was  extremely  addicted  to  artifice  and  insidious  de- 
signs. It  has  been  said  that  "  he  hardly  drank  tea 
without  a  stratagem."  An  edition  of  his  works,  with  a 
commentary,  was  published  by  Warburton,  (9  vols., 
1751-60.) 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  a  "Memoir  of  Pope,"  bf 
Bowles,  1807;  a  "Memoir"  prefixed  to  W.  Roscoe's  edition 
of  Pope's  Works,  1S24  ;  R.  Caruthers,  "  Life  of  Alexander  Pope," 
1857  ;  "  Life  of  Pope,"  by  Owen  Ruffhead,  1767 ;  William  Avke, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  A.  Pope,"  2  vols.,  174s;  Joseph  Warton, 
"  Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Pope,"  2  vols.,  1756-82  ;  M. 
Mendelssohn,  "Pope  ein  Metaphysiker,"  1757;  Lord  Byron, 
"Letter  to  Murray  on  Bowles's  Strictures,"  1821;  Thackeray, 
"The  English  Humourists;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;" 
"  Encyclo]ia;dia  Hritannica,"  article  "  Pope,"  (by  De  Quincey,)  also 
"Biographical  Essays,"  by  the  same;  Campbell,  "Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets;"  "Works  and  Character  of  Pope,"  in  the 
"  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1825  ;  "  Pope  aud  his  Contempora- 
ries," in  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1847  '  Spencb, 
"Anecdotes,  Observations,"  etc.,  1820. 

Pope,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Kas- 
kaskia,  Illinois,  in  March,  1823.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
commanded  an  expedition  sent  to  survey  the  route  of 
the  Pacific  Railroad  in  1854-59.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1856,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  May,  1861.  He  captured  New  Madrid  in 
March,  and  Island  No.  10  in  April,  1862,  with  several 
thousand  prisoners.  In  June,  1862,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Army  of  Virginia,  composed  of  three 
corps.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army  in  July,  1862.  His  army  was  defeated 
by  Stonewall  Jackson  at  Manassas,  or  Bull  Run,  on  the 
29th  and  30th  of  August,  1862.  He  retreated  to  Wash- 
ington, and  resigned  the  command  about  September  3, 
after  which  he  was  employed  against  the  Indians  in 
Minnesota.  He  commanded  in  the  third  military  dis- 
trict, comprising  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Florida,  from 
March  or  April  to  December,  1867. 

Pope,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  politician,  born  at 
Dedington  about  1506,  was  a  patron  of  learning.  He 
held  several  offices  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
had  the  care  or  custody  of  the  princess  Elizabeth  in  the 
reign  of  Mary.  He  founded  Trinity  College,  Oxford- 
Died  in  1559. 

See  Warton,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Pope." 

Pope,  (Walter,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1630.  He  was  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Oxford  from  1660  to  1687,  and  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  wrote  "The  Old  Man's  Wish,"  a 
poem,  (1693,)  a  "Life  of  Seth  Ward,"  (1697,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1714. 

Popelinifere,  de  la,  deh  It  pop'le'ne-aiR',  (Lance- 
lot Voisin — vwS'ziN',)  Sieur,  a  French  historian, 
born  in  Poitou  about  1540.  He  was  an  officer  in  the 
Huguenot  army,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Civil 
War  which  began  in  1562,"  (1571,)  a  work  of  some  merit. 
Died  in  1608. 

Popham,  pop'am,  (Sir  Home  Riggs,)  a  British  naval 
officer,  born  in  1762.  He  commanded  the  naval  forces 
employed  in  the  capture  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Buenos  Ayres  in  1806.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in 
1814.     Died  in  1820. 

Popham,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1531,  became  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench  about  1592.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer. 
Died  in  1607. 

Popma,  pop'mS,  (Ausonius,)  a  Dutch  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  in  Friesland  in  1563.  He  published  a 
good  work  on  Latin  synonyms,  ("  De  Differentiis  Ver- 
borum,"  1635,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1613. 


c  as  i;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,giittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this. 

125 


( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  2'\.) 


FOPPJSA 


1986 


POKSENA 


Poppae'a  (pop-pee'a)  Sa-bi'na,  a  Roman  empress, 
the  wife  of  Nero,  was  more  remarkable  for  beauty  than 
modesty.     Died  in  65  a.d. 

Poppe,  von,  fon  pop'peh,  (Johann  IIeinrich  Mo- 
RITZ,)  a  German  scientific  writer,  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1776.  He  published  numerous  works,  among  which  are 
a  "Technological  Lexicon,"  (5  vols.,  1816-20,)  and 
"  Neueste  Handwerks-  und  Fabrikschule,"  (9  vols.,  1827- 
36.)     Died  in  1852. 

Poppi,  II.    See  Morandini. 

Pbppig  or  Poeppig,  pop'pic,  (Eduard,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Plauen,  in  Saxony,  in 
1797.  He  visited  the  West  Indies  and  North  and  South 
America,  where  he  made  valuable  zoological  and  botan- 
ical collections.  He  published  in  1835  his  "Travels  in 
Chili,  Peiu,  and  on  the  Amazon."  In  1845  he  became 
professor  of  zoology  at  Leipsic.  Died  in  December, 
1868.  Poppig  and  Endlicher  published  a  work  on  the 
plants  of  Chili  and  Peru,  "Nova  Genera  et  Species 
Plantarum,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1835-45.) 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1836. 

Poppo,  pop'po,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1794,  published 
editions  of  Thucydides  and  other  classics,  and  several 
critical  works.    Died  November  6,  1866. 

Poquelin.     See  Moli£:re. 

Porbus,  poR'bus,  (Frans,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Bruges  in  1540.  He  painted  portraits,  history,  and 
genre  with  success.     Died  about  1582. 

His  father,  Peter,  born  a^t  Gouda  about  1 5 10,  was  a 
painter  of  history  and  portraits.     Died  in  1584. 

Porbus,  (Frans,)  the  Younger,  a  skilful  painter  of 
portraits  and  history,  a  son  of  Frans,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1570.  He  worked  mostly  in  Paris. 
"  His  picture  of  the  Last  Supper,"  says  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  "  is  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  the 
Flemish  school."     Died  in  Paris  in  1622. 

See  F^LIBIEN,  "  Entretiens  sur  la  Vie  des  Peintres." 

Porcacchi,  poR-kik'kee,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  littS- 
rateur,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1530.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Most  Famous  Islands  of  the  World,"  (1572,) 
and  "  Ancient  Funerals  of  Divers  Nations,"  (1574.)  Died 
at  Venice  in  1585. 

Porcellio,  poR-chel'Ie-o,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  historian,  was  secretary  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Naples, 
in  1452. 

Porchat,  poR'sht',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  Swiss  writer 
and  translator,  born  near  Geneva  in  1800.  He  wrote 
"The  Mission  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  a  drama,  in  verse, 
(1844,)  and  translated  the  complete  works  of  Goethe 
into  French.     Died  March  2,  1864. 

Porcher,  por'sha',  (Francis  Peyre,)  M.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican physician,  born  in  Saint  John's  Berkeley,  South 
Carolina,  December  14,  1825,  of  a  family  of  Huguenot 
descent,  graduated  with  honours  at  the  South  Carolina 
College  in  1845,  and  in  1847  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at 
the  medical  college  at  Charleston.  He  studied  also  in 
France  and  Italy,  and  served  in  the  Confederate  hos- 
pitals, 1S61-65.  His  principal  work  is  the  interesting 
"  Resources  of  the  Southern  Fields  and  Forests,"  (1863.) 
He  also  wrote  "  Medical  Botany  of  South  Carolina," 
(1849,)  "Illustrations  of  Disease,"  (i860,)  "Clinical  In- 
vestigations," (1861,)  etc. 

Porcheron,  poRsh'rdN',  (Dom  Placide,)  a  French 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Chateauroux  in  1652.  He 
edited  a  few  old  works.     Died  in  1694. 

Porcia  or  Portia,  por'she-a,  [Fr.  Porcie,  poR'se',] 
a  Roman  matron,  eminent  for  her  magnanimity,  pru- 
dence, and  fortitude,  was  the  daughter  of  Cato,  and 
the  wife  of  Marcus  Brutus.  Plutarch  relates  that  she 
inflicted  a  wound  on  herself  to  prove  that  she  was 
worthy  to  be  the  confidante  of  her  husband  in  respect 
to  affairs  of  state.     Died  in  42  B.C. 

Pordeu,  (Eleanor  Anna.)     See  Franklin. 

Pordenone,  n,  h\  poR-di-no'ni,  an  excellent  Italian 
painter,  whose  proper  name  was  Giovanni  Antonio 
Licinio  (le-chee'ne-o)  or  Licino,  (le-chee'no,)  born  at 
Pordenone,  in  Friuli,  in  1483.  He  assumed  the  name 
of  Regillo.  He  was  an  imitator  of  Giorgione,  and  a 
rival  of  Titian.     It  is  not  known  who  was  his  master. 


He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  had  great  skill  in  design. 
He  painted  frescos  in  Venice,  Mantua,  Cremona,  and 
Piacenza.  His  frescos  (which  represent  subjects  from 
the  New  Testament)  in  the  cathedral  of  Cremona  are 
highly  praised.  Among  his  best  oil-paintings  is  his  "  San 
Lorenzo  Giustiniani  with  John  the  Baptist,"  etc.,  at 
Venice.     He  died  at  Ferrara  in  1 540. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti." 

Pordenone,  (Giulio  Licinio,)  a  skilful  painter,  a 
nephew  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Venice 
in  1500.  He  painted  some  frescos  at  Augsburg,  where 
he  died  in  1561. 

Por6e,  po'ri',  (Charles,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  near 
Caen  in  1675,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Paris  for 
thirty  years.  Voltaire  was  his  pupil.  He  published 
Latin  tragedies  and  orations.     Died  in  1741. 

Por6e,  (Charles  Gabriei.,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Caen  in  1685.  He  wrote  "Histoire 
de  Don  Ranuccio  d'Aletes,"  (1736,)  and  other  works 
Died  in  1770. 

Porfirio.    See  Porphyry. 

Porlier,  poR-le-aiR',  (Don  Juan  Diaz,)  Marquis  de 
Matarosa,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  1775.  He  fought 
for  the  Cortes  against  the  absolutists,  by  whom  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  shot  in  1815. 

Porner  or  Poerner,  poR'ner,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  chemist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1732.  He  published 
several  works  on  chemistry  and  the  art  of  dyeing.  Died 
in  1796. 

Porphyre.    See  Porphyry. 

Porphyrius.     See  Porphyry. 

Porphyry,  por'fe-re,  [Gr.  Uoptpvpiog ;  Lat.  Porphyr'- 
lus ;  Fr.  Porphyre,  poR'f^R';  It.  Porfirio,  por-fee're-o,] 
a  celebrated  Neo-Platonic  philosopher,  born  at  Bata- 
nasa,  (Bashan,)  in  Syria,  in  233  a.d.  His  original  name 
was  Malchus  or  Melech,  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac 
for  "king."  Porphyrius  signifies  "purple,"  or  "wearer 
of  purple."  He  was  a  pupil  of  Longinus,  and  perhaps 
of  Origen.  About  the  age  of  thirty  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  became  a  disciple  and  friend  of  Plotinus, 
whose  doctrines  and  mysticism  he  adopted.  He  edited 
(or  corrected)  and  arranged  the  works  of  Plotinus,  at 
his  request.  He  wrote  (in  Greek)  a  famous  work,  in 
fifteen  books,  against  the  Christians,  which  is  not  extant, 
the  emperor  Theodosius  having  ordered  it  to  be  burnt 
in  the  fourth  century.  Among  his  extant  works  are  a 
"Life  of  Plotinus"  and  a  "Life  of  Pythagoras."  Died 
at  Rome  about  304  a.d. 

See  H01.STHNIUS,  "De  Vitaet  Scriptis  Porphyrii,"  1711  ;  Rittek 
"History  of  Philosophy ;"  Vai.^kien  Parisot,  "  Dissertatio  his- 
torica  de  Porpliyrio,"  1845;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gnca  ;"  F. 
HoEFER,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Porpora,  poR'po-rJ,(NicCOL6,)a  distinguished  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Naples  about  1686.  He 
composed  successful  operas,  among  which  is  "  Ariana  e 
Teseo,"  (17 17,)  also  oratorios,  masses,  symphonies,  and 
cantatas.  About  1730  he  went  to  London  to  direct  the 
Italian  Opera,  and  became  a  competitor  of  Handel.  He 
obtained  much  success  in  England,  where  he  remained 
several  years.     Died  at  Naples  in  1767. 

See  F^tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  BuRNEV, 
"  History  of  Music  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Porporati,  poR-po-ri'tee,  (Carlo  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  near  Turin  in  1740 
or  1 741.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  at  Paris  in 
1773.  He  engraved  some  of  the  works  of  Raphael,  Cor- 
reggio,  and  other  masters.     Died  at  Turin  in  1816. 

Porquet,  poR'ki',  (Pierre  Charles  Francois,)  a 
mediocre  French  poet,  born  at  Vire  in  1728 ;  died  in  1796. 

Porro,  por'ro,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born 
at  Padua  about  1520,  worked  at  Venice. 

Porro,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  engineer,  born  at  Pi- 
gnerol  in  1795.  He  settled  in  Paris  about  1850.  He 
published  a  "Traite  de  Tachometrie,"  (1847.) 

Por'se-na  or  Por-sen'ua,  (Lars,)  a  famous  prince  of 
Clusium,  in  Etruria.  According  to  tradition,  he  marched 
against  Rome  to  restore  the  Tarquins  about  508  B.C.,  but 
was  checked  by  Horatius  Codes,  who  defended  a  bridge 
over  the  Tiber.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  best  historians 
that  Porsena  actually  made  himself  master  of  Rome. 


a,  e,i,  5,  u,  y,  /oft^:  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  ol'scttre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


PORSENNA 


1987 


PORTER 


Porsenna.    See  Porsena. 

Por'spn,  (Richard,)  a  pre-eminent  Greek  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Not  folic,  England,  December  25, 
1759.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  of  whicli  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  in  1782. 
He  became  regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in 
1790  or  1792,  with  a  salary  of  forty  pounds  per  annum. 
His  scruples  against  subscription  to  the  Thirty-Nine 
Articles  induced  him  to  decline  holy  orders,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  resign  his  Fellowship  in  1791.  He  had 
a  prodigious  memory  and  great  critical  acumen,  and  was 
remarkable  for  probity  and  love  of  truth.  About  1795 
he  married  Mrs.  Lunan,  a  widow.  He  edited  "  Seven 
Tragedies  of  i^schylus,"  (1795,)  and  the  "Hecuba," 
"Orestes,"  "Phoenissas,"  and  "Medea"  of  Euripides, 
(1797-1801.)  In  1805  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the 
London  Institution.  Among  his  works  are  "  Letters  to 
Archdeacon  Travis,"  (1790,)  in  which  he  maintained  that 
the  seventh  verse  of  the  fifth  chapter  of  John's  First  Epistle 
is  an  interpolation,  "  Notes  and  Emendations  on  the 
Greek  Poets,"  ("  Adversaria  Notse  et  Emendationes  in 
Poetas  Graecos,"  1812,)  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Lexicon" 
of  Photius,  (1822.)  Died  in  London  in  September,  1808. 
He  is  considered  by  the  English  scholars,  and  perhaps 
by  foreigners,  the  greatest  verbal  critic  of  modern  times. 
"  It  may  safely  be  conceded  to  common  fame  and  partial 
friendship,"  says  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  "that  he  was  one 
of  the  greatest  men,  and  the  very  greatest  critic,  of  his 
own  or  any  other  age."  Porson  was,  according  to 
several  authorities,  addicted  to  intemperance  in  drink. 
Like  Dr.  Johnson,  he  could  practise  abstinence  more 
easily  than  a  moderate  use  of  wine  or  ardent  spirits. 
Wonderful  stories  are  told  of  his  powers  of  memory. 
He  could  repeat  several  pages  of  a  book  after  he  had 
read  them  once. 

See  "Life  of  Porson,"  by  J.  S.  Watson,  1861 ;  article  on  Porson 
in  the  "  Encyclopjedia  Britannica,"  by  Dr.  Thomas  Young;  "A 
Vindication  of  the  Literary  Character  of  Porson,"  by  Crito  Canta- 
BRiciENSis,  1827  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  1811,  and  July,  1861  ;  "  Porsoniana,"  Lon- 
don, 1814;  Stephen  Weston,  "Short  Account  of  the  Late  R. 
Porson,"  1S08. 

Porta,  poR'ti,  (Berardo  or  Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  operas,  was  born  at  Rome  about  1755  ;  died 
in  Paris  in  1829. 

Porta,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan  in 
1776,  wrote  several  popular  poems.     Died  in  1821. 

Porta,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Porlizza  in  1542;  died  at  Rome  in  1597. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Guglielmo,  noticed 
below. 

Porta,  (Giuseppe  Salviati,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
«it  Castel-Nuovo  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Salviati, 
whose  name  he  assumed.  He  settled  at  Venice,  where 
he  painted  frescos  with  success.  He  was  employed  by 
Titian  to  decorate  the  library  of  Saint  Mark.  Among 
his  best  oil-paintings  is  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 
Died  in  1570,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1585. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
ijario." 

Porta,  (Simone.)     See  Porzio. 

Porta,  della.     See  Baccio. 

Porta,  della,  d^KlS  poR'td,  (Giacomo,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Milan 
about  1525.  He  built  in  Rome  the  portal  of  Saint 
John  Lateran,  (about  1574,)  the  College  della  Sapienza, 
and  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Maria  de'  Monti,  (1579.)  He 
was  subsequently  employed  to  finish  the  basilica  of 
Saint  Peter's,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Domenico  Fontana, 
constructed  the  vault  (or  roof)  of  the  dome,  after  the 
plans  of  Michael  Angelo,  (1588-90.)  He  died  in  the 
pontificate  of  Clement  VIII.,  (1592-1605,)  aged  about 
seventy-five. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Fontenav, 
"Dictionnaire  des  Artistes  ;"  Cicognara,  "Stoiia  della  Scultura  ;" 
QuATREMiRE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Dictionnaire  d'Architecture." 

Porta,  della,  (Giambattista,  )  an  eminent  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Naples  about  1540. 
He  promoted  the  progress  of  physical  science  by  found- 
ing schools,  and  by  experiments  in  optics,  etc.  He 
was  versed  in  the  ancient  languages.  His  house  was  the 
seat  of  an  academy  called  "  I  Segreti,"  which  he  founded 


for  the  promotion  of  physical  science.  He  invented 
the  catnera  obscura,  and  made  improvements  in  lenses. 
His  principal  works  are  "  Perspectiva,"  (1555,)  "Natural 
Magic,"  ("  Magiae  Naturalis  Libri  XX.,"  1558-89,)  "  Phy 
tognomonica,"  (1583,  a  treatise  on  plants,)  an  able 
"Treatise  on  Physiognomy,"  (15S6,  often  reprinted,) 
"  Villae  Libri  XII.,"  (on  rural  economy,  1592,)  and  "  On 
Refraction  a  Part  of  Optics,"  ("  De  Refractione  Optices 
Parte,"  1593.)     Died  at  Naples  in  1615. 

See  NicifRON,  "M^moires;"  GiNGUENii,  "  Histoire  Littiraire 
d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  G.  H. 
Di;cHESNE,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  B.  Porta," 
1801  ;  CoLANCELO,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Porta,"  1818;  "  Noavelle  Bio- 
graphic Generate." 

Porta,  della,  (Guglielmo,)  an  able  sculptor,  born 
near  Como  about  1512,  was  a  nephew  of  Giacomo,  noticed 
above.  He  worked  at  Rome  about  1550,  and  made  the 
mausoleum  of  Paul  III.  He  was  a  favourite  pupil  of 
Michael  Angelo.     Died  about  1577. 

Portaels,  poR-tSls',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  at  Vilvorde  (Brabant)  in  1820.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1843. 

Portal,  poR'ttl',  (Antoine,)  Baron,  a  distinguished 
French  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Gaillac  (Tarn) 
in  1742.  He  began  to  practise  in  Paris  about  1765,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  France 
in  1770.  He  published  an  important  work  on  the  "His- 
tory of  Anatomy  and  Surgery,"  (7  vols.,  1770-73,)  and 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
in  1775.  He  was  first  physician  to  Louis  XVIII.  and 
Charles  X.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "Course  of 
Medical  Anatomy,"  ("Cours  d'Anatomie  medicale,"  5 
vols.,  1803.)     Died  in  1832. 

See  Pariset,  "  filoge  de  Portal;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Portal,  (Pierre  Barth6lemi,)  Baron,  a  French 
administrator,  born  near  Montauban  in  1765.  He  was 
minister  of  the  marine  from  December,  1818,  to  Decem- 
ber, 1821.     Died  in  1845. 

Portalis,  poR'tS'liss',  (Auguste,)  a  French  writer 
and  liberal  legislator,  born  at  La  Ciotat  in  1801,  was  a 
nephew  of  Jean  fitienne  Marie.  He  wrote  "  Essays  in 
favour  of  Liberty  of  Worship."     Died  in  1855. 

Portalis,  (Jean  Etienne  Marie,)  a  distinguished 
French  jurist  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  at  Bausset 
(Var)  in  1745.  He  was  an  eloquent  advocate  before 
the  Revolution,  and  was  imprisoned  for  his  moderation 
in  the  reign  of  terror.  In  1795  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Elders,  in  which  he  advocated  humane 
measures.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  charged  with 
the  redaction  of  the  Civil  Code  in  1800,  and  became 
minister  of  worship  in  1804.  Before  this  date  he  had 
acquitted  himself  with  credit  in  the  task  of  reorganizing 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France.  He  published 
several  able  political  and  legal  works,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.     Died  in  1807. 

See  Blessig,  "Gedachtnissrede  auf  den  Minister  Portalis,"  1807; 
F.  Hacquin,  "  filoge  historique  de  Portalis,"  1S45  :  Louis  Lai.le- 
mant,  "filoge  de  J.  E.  M.  Portalis,"  1S61  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale;"  Ren^  Lavoll^k,  "  Portalis  et  ses  CEuvres." 

Portalis,  (Joseph  Marie,)  Count,  an  eminent  states- 
man and  judge,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Aix 
in  February,  1778.  He  became  councillor  of  state  in 
1808,  and  director-general  of  the  press  and  book-trade 
(librairie)  in  1810.  In  1819  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
In  the  moderate  ministry  of  Mai  tignac  he  was  keeper 
of  the  seals  from  January,  1828,  to  May,  1829.  He  was 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  that  date  to  August  7, 
1829,  and  then  became  first  i^resident  of  the  court  of 
cassation.  He  retained  until  1852  this  ofiice,  (the  highest 
judicial  position  in  France,)  for  which  he  was  qualified 
by  profound  knowledge  of  public  law  and  a  union  of 
dignity  in  manner  with  suavity  of  temper.  Died  in  1858. 

See  MiGNET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte  de 
Portalis,"  i860;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Porte,  dela,  deh  It  poRt,JPiERRE,)  a  French  courtier, 
born  in  1603,  was  a  favourite  agent  of  Anne  of  Austria, 
and  a  valet-de-chambre  of  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  "Me- 
moires,"  which  were  printed  in  1736.     Died  in  1680. 

Porte,  La.    See  Laporte  and  La  Porte. 

P6r't?r,  (Alexander,)  born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ire- 
land, in  1786,  settled  in  Louisiana,  where  he  acquired  a 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Yi,gnttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PORTER 


PORTER 


high  reputation  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  in  1821,  and  in  1833  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate.     Died  in  1844. 

Por'ter,  (Andrew,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Pennsylvania  about  1810.  He  served  as  colonel  at  Bull 
Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  a  few  days  later  was  appointed 
provost-marshal  of  Washington.    Died  January  3,  1872. 

Por'ter,  (Anna  Maria,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at 
Durham  about  1 781,  was  a  sister  of  R.  Ker  Porter. 
She  resided  successively  in  London,  at  Thames  Ditton, 
and  at  Esher.  She  wrote  many  popular  novels,  among 
which  are  "The  Hungarian  Brothers,"  (1807,)  "Don 
Sebastian,"  (1809,)  "The  Recluse  of  Norway,"  (1814,) 
"The  Fast  of  Saint  Magdalene,"  and  "The  Barony." 
Died  in  1832. 

See  Mhs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843. 

Porter,  (Benjamin  F.,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1808,  translated  the  "  Ele- 
ments of  the  Institutes"  of  Heineccius,  and  published 
a  collection  of  poems. 

Porter,  (David,)  an  American  commodore,  born  at 
Boston  in  1780.  He  became  captain  of  the  frigate  Essex 
in  July,  1812,  and  in  the  same  year  captured  the  vessel- 
of-war  Alert  and  a  number  of  British  trading-vessels. 
He  performed  a  cruise  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  the 
Essex  in  1813,  and  took  many  prices.  In  March,  1814, 
the  Esse.x  was  attacked  near  Valparaiso  by  two  British 
vessels,  and,  after  a  long  and  desperate  resistance,  was 
captured.  Porter  served  as  a  naval  commissioner  from 
1815  to  1823,  was  sent  as  charge-d'affaires  to  Turkey  in 
1831,  and  became  minister  resident  at  Constantinople 
in  1839.  He  died  at  Pera  in  1843.  He  was  the  father 
of  Admiral  D.  D.  Porter  and  Commodore  William  D. 
Porter. 

See  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1815. 

Porter,  (David  D.,)  an  admiral,  a  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  in  or  near  Philadelphia  in  June,  1813.  He 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1829,  and  became  a 
lieutenant  about  1841.  He  served  in  the  naval  operations 
against  the  Mexicans  in  1846-47.  In  1861  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  commander.  He  commanded  the 
mortar-boats,  twenty-one  in  number,  which  bombarded 
Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip,  below  New  Orleans, 
April  18-24,  1862.  These  forts  were  surrendered  to  him 
on  the  28th.  In  September  or  October,  1S62,  he  took 
command  of  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  on  the  Mississippi 
River.  He  aided  the  land  army  in  the  capture  of  Arkan- 
sas Post,  January,  1863,  and  co-oj^erated  with  General 
Grant  in  his  operations  against  Vicksburg.  For  his 
services  in  the  reduction  of  the  last-named  place  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  by  a  commission 
dated  July  4,  1863.  Co-operating  with  General  Banks 
in  an  expedition  against  Shreveport,  he  ascended  Red 
River  with  a  fleet  of  iron-clad  gunboats  to  a  point  rnany 
miles  above  Grand  Ecore,  in  April,  1864.  He  com- 
manded the  naval  forces  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Fisher 
in  December,  1864,  and  bombarded  the  same  fort  with 
success  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  January,  1865.  Ac- 
cording to  General  Grant,  this  was  "  the  most  formidable 
armada  ever  collected  for  concentration  upon  one  given 
point."  He  was  appointed  vice-admiral  July  25,  1866, 
and  admiral  in  August,  1870,  a  higher  rank  than  was 
held  by  any  other  ofificer  in  the  navy.     Died  Feb.  13,  1891. 

See  J.  T.  Hbadlev,  "  Farragnt  and  our  Naval  Commanders,'' 
1867:  Greblev,  "American  Conflict." 

Porter,  (Ebenezer,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Cornwall,  Connecticut,  in  1772,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1812  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  presi- 
dent. He  wrote  an  "Analysis  of  the  Principles  of  Rhe- 
torical Delivery,"  (1827,)  and  other  works.   Died  in  1834. 

Porter,  (Fitz-John,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Hampshire,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1S45.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1856,  and  a  colonel  in  1861.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  and  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862,  and  for  his  braVery 
in  these  engagements,  in  which  he  had  to  sustain  the 
brunt  of  the  enemy's  attack,  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  volunteers  the  same  month.  His  corps  took 
no  part  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30, 


1862,  although  it  was  "within  sight  and  sound  of  the 
battle."  For  this  delinquency  he  was  censured  by  Gen- 
eral Pope,  tried  by  a  court-martial,  cashiered  in  January, 

1863,  and  dismissed  from  the  service.  In  1870  tie  ap- 
pealed to  President  Grant  for  a  reversal  of  the  decision 
of  the  court-martial :  the  grounds  for  this  appeal  are 
succinctly  stated  in  "  Old  and  New"  for  June,  1870,  pp. 
816-820. 

Porter,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  Catholic  priest  and  writer, 
became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1702. 

Porter,  (George  Richardson,)  an  English  writer  on 
trade,  manufactures,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  in  1792. 
He  wrote  a  valuable  work  on  "The  Progress  of  the  Na- 
tion in  its  Social  and  Commercial  Relations,"  (3  vols., 
1836-39.)  In  1841  he  became  a  secretary  to  the  board 
of  trade.  He  was  the  author  or  compiler  of  statistical 
tables  issued  annually  by  that  board,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Manufacture  of  Porcelain  and  Glass,"  (1842.) 
Died  in  1852  or  1855. 

Porter,  (Jane,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at  Durham 
in  1776,  was  a  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter.  Sha 
lived  with  her  mother  and  her  sister  Anna  Maria  until 
the  death  of  the  former,  in  1831.  She  published  in  1803 
her  first  novel,  "Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,"  which  was  very 
successful.  Her  historical  novel  of  "The  Scottish 
Chiefs"  (1809)  also  found  many  admirers,  although  it  is 
very  defective  as  a  delineation  of  character  and  manners. 
She  succeeded  in  mystifying  the  public  by  her  anony- 
mous story  "Sir  Edward  Seaward's  Diary,"  (1831.) 
Died  in  1850. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1835,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Porter,  (Josias  Leslie,)  D.D.,  an  Irish  divine,  born 
at  Burt,  county  of  Donegal,  October  4,  1823.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh, 
and  at  the  Free  Church  College,  was  ordained  a  Presby- 
terian minister  in  1846,  and  went  in  1849  as  a  missionary 
to  Syria.  He  was  afterwards  professor  of  biblical  criti- 
cism in  Assembly's  College,  Belfast.  In  1879  he  was 
appointed  president  of  Queen's  College,  Belfast.  A.mong 
his  numerous  books  are  "  Five  Years  in  Damascus," 
(1855,)  "  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,"  (1865,)  "  Life  of  Henry 
Cook,"  (1871,)  etc.     Died  March  16,  1S89. 

Porter,  (Noah,)  D.D.,  an  able  American  writer  on 
psychology,  was  born  in  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in 
iSii.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1831,  and  in 
1846  became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  meta- 
physics in  that  institution,  and  in  1871  its  president.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Human  Intellect: 
with  an  Introduction  upon  Psychology  and  the  Soul," 
(i  vol.  8vo,  1868;  2d  edition,  1869,)  which  has  been 
highly  praised  by  competent  critics,  "  Books  and  Read- 
ing," (1870,)  "  Elements  of  Intellectual  Philosophy," 
(187 1,)  and  "The  Science  of  Nature  versus  the  Science 
of  Man,"  (1871.) 

Porter,  (Peter  Buel,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Salisbury,  Connecticut,  in  1773.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  1812  he  was  a]5pointed  quartermaster- 
general  of  New  York.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
battles  of  Chippewa,  Lundy's  Lane,  and  the  other  prin- 
cipal actions  of  the  war,  and  obtained  a  gold  medal  from 
Congress  for  his  services.  He  was  appointed  secretary 
of  war  in  May,  1828.  General  Porter  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  who  explored  a  route  for  the  Erie  Canal. 
Died  in  1844. 

Porter,  (Sir  Robert  Ker,)  an  English  painter  and 
traveller,  born  at  Durham  about  1775,  was  a  brtnher  of 
Anna  Maria  and  Jane  Porter.  He  became  a  student 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1790,  and  acquired 
distinction  as  a  painter  of  battles.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Siege  of  Acre"  and  "The  Battle  of  Agincourt," 
and  an  "Ecce  Homo."  He  went  to  Russia  in  1804,  and 
received  the  title  of  historical  painter  to  the  emperor. 
Having  traversed  several  countries  of  Asia  from  1817  to 
1820,  he  published  "Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  Arme- 
nia, Ancient  Babylonia,"  etc.,  with  engravings,  (2  vols., 
1822.)     Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1842. 

See  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  July,  1S42;  "  Mon'.'ily  Re- 
view" fnr  .September,  1821,  and  January  and  February,  1823. 

Porter,  (Thomas  Conrad,)  D.I).,  LL-D.,  an  Ameri 
can  botanist,  was  born  at  Alexandria,  Pennsylvania,  Jan- 
uary 22,  1822.     He  graduated  at  Lafayette  College  in 


i,  e,T,  o,  u,  y,  lo)tg:\,  6.  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  X\,^,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  nilt;  1161 ;  g(X)(l;  mo6n; 


PORTER 


1989 


POSIDIPPUS 


1840,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1S43, 
and  entered  first  the  Presbyterian  and  then  the  Gernjan 
Reformed  ministry.  In  1849  he  became  professor  of 
natural  science  in  Marshall  College,  Mercersbuvg,  in 
1853  took  the  corresponding  chair  in  Franklin  College 
at  Lancaster,  and  in  1866  became  professor  of  botany 
and  zoology  in  Lafayette  College  at  Easton,  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  has  published  various  biographies,  hymns, 
poems,  etc.,  chiefly  from  the  German,  but  is  best  known 
by  his  botanical  labours  and  writings. 

Porter,  (William  D.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  Orleans  in  1809,  was  a  son  of  Commodore 
David  Porter,  noticed  above.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1823.  In  1861  he  took  command  of  the  iron-clad  Essex 
on  the  Mississippi  River.  He  fought  at  Fort  Henry, 
where  the  Essex  was  disabled  and  Captain  Porter  was 
severely  scalded,  in  February,  1862.  In  August,  1862, 
having  repaired  the  Essex,  he  destroyed  the  strong 
iron-clad  ram  Arkansas,  between  Baton  Rouge  and  Vicks- 
burg.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commodore. 
Died  in  1864. 

See  J.  T.  Hkadlhv,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders," 
•867. 

Fortes,  Des.    See  Desportes. 

Por'te-iis,  (Beilby,)  an  English  prelate  of  high  repu- 
tation, was  born  at  York  in  1731.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  gained  the  Beaton's  prize  for  an 
English  poem  "  On  Death."  He  was  successively  rector 
of  Hunton,  prebendary  of  Peterborough,  and  rector  of 
Lambeth,  {1767.)  In  1769  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  George  III.  He  became  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1776, 
and  Bishop  of  London  in  1787.  Ilis  principal  work  is 
a  series  of  "Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,"  which 
are  highly  esteemed.  His  works  were  published  in  five 
volumes  (181 1)  by  his  nephew,  Robert  Hodgson.  Died 
in  1808. 

See  "Life  of  Bishop  Porteus,"  by  R.  Hodgson,  1811. 

Portia.    See  Porcia. 

Portier,  poR'te-i',  (Michael,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born 
at  Montbrison,  P>ance,  September  7,  1795,  was  edu- 
cated at  Lyons.  In  1817  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  1818  became  a  Roman  Catholic  priest.  In  1826 
he  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Oleno  and  ap- 
pointed Vicar-Apostolic  of  Florida.  In  1830  he  was 
named  Bishop  of  Mobile,  where  he  died.  May  14,  1S59. 

Portland,  Dukk  of.     See  Bentinck. 

Portland,  Eakl  of.     See  Weston,  (Richard.) 

Port'lock,  (Joseph  Ellison,)  Lieutenant-Colo- 
nel, an  English  engineer  and  geologist,  born  about 
1795.  He  assisted  Colby  in  the  trigonometrical  survey 
of  Ireland  commenced  about  1824,  and  produced  an 
able  "  Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  County  of  London- 
derry and  of  Parts  of  Tyrone  and  Fermanagh,"  (1843.) 
He  also  wrote  on  Geognosy  and  Palaeontology.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Geological  Society  in  1856. 
Died  in  1864. 

Porto- Alegre,  pok'to  i-la'gvi,  (Manoel  de 
Araujo,)  a  Brazilian  lyric  poet,  known  also  as  an  artist 
and  architect.  He  was  born  at  Rio  Pardo,  November 
29,  1S06.  He  wrote  popular  comedies,  "  Colombo,"  an 
epic,  and  "  Brasilianas,"  a  collection  of  songs  and  short 
pieces. 

Portogallo,  poR-to-gJl'lo,  (Marco  Antonio  SimXo,) 
a  Portuguese  composer,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1763.  He 
lived  many  years  in  Italy,  and  composed  successful 
operas.  "  Fernando  in  Messico"  is  called  his  master- 
piece.    Died  in  1829. 

Port-Royalists,  a  name  popularly  given  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  celebrated  convent  or  society  of  Port-Royal- 
des-Champs,  near  Versailles.  It  fills  a  prominent  place 
in  the  history  of  the  Jansenist  controversy.  The  nuns 
were  removed  to  Paris  about  1638,  (or  1644,  according 
to  Hallam,)  after  which  the  old  convent  of  Port-Royal- 
des-Champs  became  the  residence  of  a  community  of 
religious  and  learned  men,  who  practised  some  monastic 
austerities  and  were  called  "Les  Solitaires  de  Port- 
Royal."  Among  these  recluses  were  Claude  Lancelot, 
Antoine  Arnauld,  Le  Maistre  de  Sacy,  Pierre  Nicole, 
and  Blaise  Pascal.  They  were  leaders  of  the  Jansenist 
party.  They  opened  a  boarding-school  which  became 
celebrated,  and  published  several  good  works  on  gram- 


mar. The  convent  of  nuns  was  suppressed  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  1709.  The  history  of  Port- Royal  has  been 
written  by  Racine,  Reuchlin,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  others. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1841;  Sainte-Beuvr, 
"Histoire  de  Port-Royal,"  4  vols.,  1840-62;  Mary  A.nne  Schim- 
MELPENNiNCK,  "History  of  Port- Royal ;"  Beard,  "Port-Royal,  a 
Contribution  to  the  History  of  Religion,"  1861. 

Portsmouth,  Duchess  of.     See  Keroual. 

Portugal,  de,  di  poR-too-gJK,  (Francisco,)  Count 
of  Vimioso,  a  Portuguese  nobleman  and  poet,  born  at 
Ev'ora  about  1490;  died  in  1549. 

Portumne.     See  Portumnus. 

Por-tum'nus  or  Por-tu'nus,  [Fr.  Portumne,  poR'- 
tiimn',]  a  marine  deity  or  genius  among  the  Romans, 
was  regarded  as  the  protector  of  ports  and  harbours, 
and  was  identified  with  the  Pal^emon  of  the  Greek 
mythology. 

Portunus.    See  Portumnus. 

Portus,  poR'toos,  (yEMlLius,)  an  eminent  critic  and 
editor,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1550.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Lausanne  from  1581  to  1591,  soon  after  which 
date  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Heidelberg.  He 
produced  good  editions  (with  Latin  versions)  of  Thu- 
cj'dides,  Aristotle  on  Rhetoric,  Xenophon,  Euripides, 
and  other  Greek  authors.  Among  his  works  is  "Lexi- 
con Doricum-Grasco-Latinum,"  (1603.)     Died  in  1610. 

Portus,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  philologist,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Candia  (Crete)  in  1511. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Modena  in  1536,  and 
teacher  of  the  sons  of  Renee,  Duchess  of  Ferrara,  in 
1542.  Having  been  converted  to  the  Protestant  faith, 
he  removed  to  Geneva  in  1561,  and  obtained  there 
a  chair  of  Greek  in  1562.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  Aristotle,  Pindar,  Longinus,  Thucydides,  and  other 
Greeks.     Died  at  Geneva  in  1581. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  Sax, 
"  Onomasticon." 

Po'rus,  [Gr.  flupor,]  a  king  of  India,  who  reigned 
between  the  Hydaspes  and  Acesines  when  that  country 
was  invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  326  B.C.  He  op- 
posed the  Macedonians  with  an  army  composed  partly 
of  elephants,  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  and  taken 
prisoner.  When  asked  by  the  victor  how  he  wished  to  be 
treated,  he  answered,  "  Like  a  king."  (Plutarch.)  He  was 
restored  to  his  kingdom  by  Alexander.  He  was  killed 
by  Eudamus  (or  Eudemus)  in  317  B.C.  Another  Porus 
reigned  at  the  satne  time  east  of  the  Acesines,  (Chenab.) 

Pory,  por're,  ?  (John,)  an  English  geographer  born 
about  1570.  He  published  a  "Geographical  History 
of  Africa,  translated  from  Leo  Africanus,"  (1600.)  In 
1616  he  went  to  Virginia  and  became  secretary  to  that 
colony.     Died  after  1623. 

Porzio,  poRt'se-o,  (Luc  Antonio,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  near  Amalfi  in  1639.  He  taught  in  Rome, 
and  published  a  work  on  the  diseases  and  treatment  of 
soldiers,  (1685,  often  reprinted.)     Died  in  1723. 

Porzio  or  Porta,  poR'td,  [Lat.  Por'tius,]  (Simone,) 
an  Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Naples  in  1497.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  the  Human  Mind,"  ("  De  Humana 
Mente,"  1551,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1554. 

Posadas,  de  las,  di  lis  po-si'ois,  (Miguel,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Segorbe  in  1711  ;  died  in  1753. 

Po-sei'don  or  Po-si'don,  [Gr.  Vi.oau6Cxv,\  the  Greek 
name  of  the  god  of  the  sea.     (See  Neptune.) 

Poseidonius.     See  Posidonius. 

Po'sey,  (Thomas,)  an  American  general,  born  on  the 
banks  of  the  Potomac,  in  Virginia,  in  1750.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1775,  and  served  with  distinction  at  the 
battles  near  Saratoga  and  Stillwater,  September  19  and 
October  7,  1777.  He  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Stony 
Point,  July,  1779,  and  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  army 
which  General  Wayne  led  against  the  Indians  in  1792. 
He  was  Governor  of  Indiana  from  1813  to  1816.  Died 
in  1818. 

See  James  Hall,  "  Memoir  of  Thomas  Posey,"  in  Sparks'* 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  ix.  of  new  series. 

Posidippe.     See  Posidippus. 

Pos-I-dip'pus,  [Gr.  ^oniim-KOQ  ;  Fr.  POSIDIPPE,  po'- 
ze'dip',]  a  Greek  comic  writer,  born  at  Cassandria,  in 
Macedonia.  He  began  to  write  about  290  B.C.  His 
works  are  lost. 


easii/^as  j;  ghard;  g3SJ;G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  Vi,  trilled;  sas«;  th  as  \nthis.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POSIDONWS 


1990 


POTT 


r 


Po8-I-do'nI-U8  or  Pos-ei-do'nI-ua  [lIoCTetd(jv«)f,| 
a  Greek  Stoic  philosopher,  born  at  Apamea,  in  Syria, 
about  135  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Panaetius,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  head  of  the  school.  He  taught  at  Rhodes, 
had  a  high  reputation,  and  wrote  works  on  astronomy, 
history,  geography,  moral  philosophy,  etc.,  all  of  which 
are  lost.  He  was  visited  at  Rhodes  by  Pomjjey  about 
68  B.C.  Cicero,  who  was  one  of  his  pupils,  expresses  a 
very  favourable  opinion  of  him.  Like  many  other  Stoics, 
Posidonius  held  that  pain  is  not  an  evil.  According  to 
Suidas,  he  removed  to  Rome  in  the  consulship  of  M. 
Marcellus,  (52  B.C.)  "  Was  it  not  a  fine  acknowledgment 
of  the  inherent  supremacy  of  wisdom,  when  the  impe- 
ratorial  fasces  were  lowered,  by  command  of  Pompey, 
before  the  person  of  Posidonius  ?"  (Arthur  H.  Hallam.) 

.SeeRlTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Grseca  ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Posidonius  OF  Alexandria,  a  mathematician,  often 
confounded  with  the  preceding.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  of  Zeno. 

Possel,  pos'sel,  (Johann,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Parchim  in  1528.  He  published  "Syntaxis  Graeca," 
(1560,)  and  other  works.     Died  at  Rostock  in  1591. 

Posselt,  pos's&lt,  (Ernst  Ludwig,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Durlach,  in  Baden,  in  1763.  He  began 
to  issue  in  1795  "The  European  Annals,"  a  periodical, 
which  he  edited  until  1804,  and  which,  says  Depping, 
"  was  the  best  German  periodical  work  on  history  and 
politics."  He  also  published  several  works  on  German 
and  French  history.     Died  in  1804. 

See  ScHUBART,  "  Leben  Posselt's,"  1805;  Gehres,  "  Lebenbe- 
schreibung  Possehs,"  2  vols.,  1827. 

Possevin.     See  Possevino. 

Possevino,  pos-si-vee'no,  [Lat.  Possevi'nus  ;  Fr. 
Possevin,  pos'vLs'  or  pos'seh-viN',]  (Antunio,)  an  Ital- 
ian Jesuit,  negotiator,  and  writer,  was  born  at  Mantua  in 
1534.  He  was  sent  by  the  pope  on  important  missions 
to  Germany,  Hungary,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Russia. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "Select  Library  on  the 
Method  of  Study,"  ("  Bibliotheca  selecta  de  Ratione 
Studiorum,"  2  vols.,  1593,)  and  "Apparatus  sacer,"  (3 
rols.,  1603-06,)  in  which  he  gives  a  list  and  review  of 
the  works  of  all  ecclesiastical  writers.     Died  in  161 1. 

See  Jean  d'Orignv,  "Vie  de  Possevin,"  1712:  Nic^ron,  "M^- 
moires;"  Ginguenb,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Possevinus.    See  Possevino. 

Post,  (Francis.)     See  Poo.st. 

Postei,  pos'tSK,  [Lat.  Postel'lus,]  (Guillaume,)  a 
French  visionary,  born  in  Normandy  in  1510,  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He 
became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Paris  in  1539, 
but  soon  resigned,  and  led  a  wandering  life.  It  appears 
that  he  asserted  the  power  of  reason  to  be  sufficient  to 
demonstrate  the  dogmas  of  religion  and  to  convert  all 
nations.  His  book  "  On  the  Harmony  of  the  World" 
("De  Orbis  Terrse  Concordia,"  1544)  is  called  his  best 
work.     Died  in  Paris  in  1581. 

See  Dksbillons,  "  Nouveaux  ficlaircissemens  siir  la  Vie  de  Pos- 
tei," 1773;  Chaufepi^,  "Remarques  sur  Postei;"  A.  P^kicaud, 
"  F.  Wilson,  G.  Postei  et  Louis  Castelvetro,"  1S50;  Nicbron, 
"M^moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Postellus.     See  Postel. 

Postlethwayt,  pos's'l-thwat,  (Malachi,)  an  English 
writer  on  commerce,  of  whom  little  is  known.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  was  born  about  1707.  He  published, 
besides  other  books,  "The  Merchant's  Public  Counting 
House,"  (1750,)  and  "Great  Britain's  True  System," 
{1757.)  which  are  works  of  merit.     Died  in  1767. 

Pos'tu-mus  or  Post'hu-mua,  a  Roman  general, 
whom  Valerian  appointed  governor  of  Gaul.  He  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army  in  257  A.D.  He  waged 
war  against  Gallienus,  and  continued  to  rule  Gaul  until 
he  was  murdered  by  his  mutinous  soldiers,  in  267  A.D. 
He  is  represented  as  an  able  and  virtuous  ruler. 

See  Mermet,  "  Notice  sur  Posthumus,"  1827. 

Pot'a-mo  or  Pot'a-mon,  [noruiuuv,]  a  Platonic  or 
Eclectic  philosopher  of  Alexandria,  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ.  He 
is  sometimes  called  the  founder  of  the  Eclectic  school. 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Potamon.    See  Potamo. 


P5te,  (Joseph,)  an  English  printer  of  Eton,  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Windsor  Ca.stle."     Died  in  1787. 

Po-tem'kin,  [Russ.  pron.  pot  yom'kin,]  (Gregor 
A?  exandkovitch,)  Pri.nce,  a  Russian  field-marshal  and 
favourite  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  was  born  near 
Smolensk  in  1736.  He  rose  rapidly  to  the  highest  offices 
and  honours  of  the  empire,  and  exercised  alml).^t  un- 
bounded influence  in  political  affairs.  He  induced  the 
empress  to  engage  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1771,  and  in 
the  campaign  of  1787  was  apjjointed  to  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  Russian  army.  As  a  reward  for  his  services 
in  taking  several  provinces  from  the  Turks,  Catherine 
bestowed  upon  him  a  suj^erb  palace  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
which  she  called  Taurida,  the  name  previously  given  to 
the  conquered  provinces.     Died  in  1 791. 

See  Madams  de  CSrenville,  "Vie  de  Potemkin,"  1807-08; 
"Privatleben  des  Fiirsten  von  Potemkin,"  Gratz,  1793;  "Memoirs 
of  Prince  Potemkin,"  London,  1S14  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1813. 

Pot'en-ger  or  Pot'tin-ger,  (John,)  an  English  poet 
and  barrister,  born  at  Wincliester  in  1647;  died  in  1733. 

Potgieter,  pot'gee-ter,  (Everhard  Johannes,)  a 
Dutch  mystical  philosopher  and  lyric  poet,  born  at 
Zwolle,  June  27,  1S08.  His  genius  and  influence  were 
very  considerable,  and  he  was  one  of  the  originators  of 
the  romantic  movement  in  Dutch  letters.  Died  Feb- 
ruary 3,  1875. 

Pothier,  po'te-i',  (Robert  Joseph,)  a  celebrated 
French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1699.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  French  law  at  Orleans  in  1749, 
before  which  he  had  served  as  conseiller  au  chdtelet.  He 
published  a  great  work  on  Roman  law,  entitled  "  Pan- 
dects of  Justinian  digested  into  New  Order,"  ("  Pandectae 
Tustinianae  in  Novum  Ordinem  digestae,"  3  vols.,  1748- 
S2,)  and  several  treatises  on  contracts.  The  compilers 
Df  the  Napoleonic  Civil  Code  availed  themselves  of  the 
works  of  Pothier  to  a  large  extent.  Died  at  Orleans 
in  1772. 

See  JoussE,  "filoge  de  Polliier,"  1772:  P.  Bernadeau,  "Vies 
de  Domat,  Furgole  et  Pothier,"  1789;  Dupin,  "Dissertation  sur  la 
Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Pothier,"  1827;  Fremont,  "  Recherches  bio- 
graphiques  sur  Pothier,"  1859. 

Pothoven,  pot'ho'ven,  (Henri,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
portraits  and  cabinet-pictures,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1725  ;  died  about  1795. 

Potier,  po'te-i',  (Charles  Gabriel,)  a  French 
"omedian,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1774;  died  in  1838. 

Potocki,  po-tots'kee,  (Ci^^udia,)  Countess,  a  patri- 
otic Polish  lady,  born  in  Posen  in  1S02,  was  noted  foi 
her  benefactions  to  the  sick  and  wounded  during  the 
war  in  1830-33.     Died  in  1836. 

Potocki,  (Ignatius,)  Count,  a  Polish  patriot,  born 
about  1750.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Kosciusko  in  1794. 
Died  in  1S09. 

Potocki,  (Jan,)  Count,  a  Polish  historian,  born  in 
1761,  was  the  author  of  a  "Primitive  History  of  the 
Russian  People,"  "  Chronicles,  Memoirs,  and  Researches 
towards  the  History  of  all  the  Slavic  Nations,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  in  French.     Died  in  1815. 

Potocki,  (Sta.nislas  Felix,)  Count,  a  Polish  noble- 
man, born  in  1750,  took  sides  with  Russia  in  the  Polish 
revolution  of  1791,  and  was  made  a  field-marshal  by 
Catherine  II.     Died  in  1803. 

Potocki,  (Stanislas  Kostka,)  Count,  a  Polish 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  1757.  As  a  member  of 
the  Diet  of  17S8-92,  he  was  celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 
He  was  appointed  in  1815  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion. He  wrote  an  admired  treatise  "  On  Eloquence  and 
Style."     Died  in  1821. 

See  Lelbwel,  "Histoire  de  Pologne,"  1844. 

Pott,  pot,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  near  Minden,  in  Hanover,  in  1802.  He  be- 
came professor  of  philology  at  Halle  in  1833.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Researches  in  the  Etymology  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  Languages,"  (2  vols.,  1833-36,)  and  "  Personen- 
Namen,"  (a  treatise  on  proper  names,  1853.)     1).  1SS7. 

Pott,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  chemist,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1692.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry 
in  Berlin,  and  was  chiefly  noted  for  his  successful  ex- 
periments in  search  of  clay  for  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain.     Died  in  1777. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  it,  j?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POTT 


1991 


POUCHET 


Pott,  (Percival,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  sur- 
geon, born  in  London  in  1713.  He  was  surgeon  of 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  from  1749  to  1787,  and  made 
important  improvements  in  the  practice  of  surgery.  He 
wrote  many  able  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Treatise 
on  Ruptures,"  (1756,)  "Observations  on  Injuries  of  the 
Head,"  (1760,)  "Remarks  on  Fistula  in  Ano,"  (1765,) 
and  "Remarks  on  Fractures  and  Dislocations,"  (1768.) 
The  style  of  his  writings  is  much  admired.  Died  in 
1788. 

See  John  Earlb,  "Short  Account  of  the  Life  of  P.  Pott,"  1790. 

Pot't^r,  (Alonzo,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  Episco- 
pal bishop,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1800. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College,  where  he  was  elected  in 
1821  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy. 
Having  been  ordained  the  same  year,  he  became  rector 
of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  Boston,  in  1826,  and  in  1831 
vice-president  and  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at 
Union  College.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1845.  He  published  "Political  Economy, 
its  Objects,  Uses,  and  Principles  considered,"  (1841,) 
"  Hand-Book  for  Readers  and  Students,"  (1847,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  San  Francisco,  July  4,  1865. 

Pot'tfr,  (Barnabas  or  Barnaby,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1578.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1628.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
but  was  regarded  by  the  high-church  party  as  a  Puritan. 
Died  in  1642. 

Potter,  (Christopher,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  near  Kendal  in  1591.  He  became  Dean 
of  Worcester  in  1635,  and  vice-chancellor  of  Oxford 
University  in  1640.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Charles  I.  in 
the  civil  war.  He  translated  Sarpi's  "  History  of  the 
Quarrels  of  Pope  Paul  V.  with  the  State  of  Venice," 
(1626.)     Died  in  1646. 

Potter,  (Cipriani,)  an  eminent  English  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  London  for 
many  years.  He  composed  overtures,  symphonies,  duets, 
trios,  and  sonatas  for  the  piano,  on  which  he  was  a  skilful 
performer.  His  style  is  represented  as  purely  classical. 
He  became  professor  of  composition  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy soon  after  it  was  founded.     Died  in  1871. 

Potter,  (Dirk,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  diplomatist,  Lord 
of  Waddinxveen  and  Hubrechtsambacht.  He  lived  at 
Rome  from  1409  to  1412,  where  he  fell  in  with  the  works 
of  Boccaccio,  after  whom  he  composed  a  wonderfully 
quaint  and  clever  poem  on  the  course  of  love,  ("  Der 
Minnen  Loep.") 

Potter,  (FRANCis,)an  English  mechanician  and  clergy- 
man, born  in  1594 ;  died  in  1678. 

Potter,  (Hazard  Arnold,)  an  American  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  in  Yates  county.  New  York,  in  i8n. 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1835.  He  subsequently 
settled  at  Geneva,  New  York,  where  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  surgeon.     Died  December  2,  1869. 

Potter,  (Henry  Codman,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  a  son  of  Bishop  Alonzo  Potter,  already  noticed, 
was  born  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  May  25,  1835. 
He  graduated  at  the  Theological  Seminary  near  Alex- 
andria, Virginia,  in  1857,  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  held  various  rectorships,  of  which  the  most 
noteworthy  was  that  of  Grace  Church,  New  York,  (185S- 
83.)  In  1883  he  was  consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of 
New  York.  Among  his  works  are  "Sisterhoods  and 
L>eaconesses,"  (1872,)  "The  Gates  of  the  East,"  (travels, 
1S76,)  and  "  Sermons  of  the  City,"  (1880.) 

Potter,  (Horatio,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  brother  of  Alonzo 
Potter,  was  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College,  and  in  1828  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
at  Trinity  College,  Hartford.  He  became  Bishop  of  the 
diocese  of  New  York  in  1861.     Died  January  2,  1887. 

Potter,  (John,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  born 
at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  1674.  While  a  student  at 
Oxford  he  published  "Antiquities  of  Greece,"  ("Ar- 
chaeologia  Graeca,"  2  vols.,  1698,)  often  reprinted.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  17 15,  and  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  1737.  He  was  author  of  some  works 
on  theology,  and  editor  of  a  good  edition  of  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  (1715.)     Died  in  1747. 


Potter,  pot'ter,  (Paul,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter 
of  animals,  was  born  at  Enkhuysen  in  1625.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "  Herdsman  with  Cattle,"  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Louvre,  a  "Bear-Hunt,"  in  the  Amster- 
dam Museum,  and  a  landscape  with  cattle  and  figures, 
in  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster.  His 
pictures  are  generally  of  cabinet  size,  and  are  remark- 
able for  accuracy  of  design  and  exquisite  finish.  He 
also  produced  a  number  of  excellent  engravings.  Died 
in  1654. 

See  Dhscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands;"  LecarpentieR, 
"Paul  Potter,"  1818;  Naglbr,  "  Allgemeines  Kunsiler-Lexikon." 

Potter,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
horn  in  1721.  He  became  vicar  of  Seaming,  prebendary 
of  Norwich,  and  vicar  of  Lowestoft  and  Kessingland. 
He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1774,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  /'Eschylus  in  1777,  which  is  commended.  He 
also  translated  Euripides  (1782)  and  Sophocles,  (1788.) 
Died  in  1804. 

Potter,  de,  deh  pot'ter,  (Louis  Joseph  Antoine,)  a 
Belgian  historian  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Bruges 
in  1786.  He  published  a  rationalistic  history  of  the 
Church,  entitled  "Esprit  de  I'figlise,"  (6  vols.,  1821,) 
which  produced  a  great  sensation.  He  was  a  chief 
promoter  of  the  union  of  Catholics  with  Liberals  which 
secured  the  success  of  the  revolt  against  the  King  of 
Holland  in  1830.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Philosophical, 
Political,  and  Critical  History  of  Christianity,"  (8  vols., 
1836.)     Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Pottier,  po'te-i',  (Andr6  Ariodant,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary and  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1799,  lived  many 
years  at  Rouen.     Died  April  26,  1867. 

Pottier,  (Francois,)  a  French  missionary,  born  at 
Loches  in  1718,  laboured  in  China.     Died  in  1792. 

Pot'tin-ger,  (Sir  Henry,)  Bart.,  G.C.B.,  a  British 
administrator,  born  in  Down  county,  Ireland,  in  1789. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  .n 
his  youth.  About  1840  he  was  sent  to  China  as  am- 
bassador and  superintendent  of  the  British  trade.  He 
negotiated  in  1842  a  treaty  which  ended  the  opium  war 
in  China.  In  1846  he  became  Governor  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1847  Governor  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  Madras.  He  returned  to  England  in  1854, 
and  died  at  Malta  in  1856. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1856. 

Pottinger,  (John.)     See  Putenger. 

Potvin,  po'viN',  (Charles,)  a  Belgian  author  and 
poet,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  liberal  movement  in  Bel- 
gian letters,  was  born  at  Mons,  December  2,  1818.  He 
was  educated  at  Louvain,  and  became  professor  of  na- 
tional literature  at  Brussels.  He  wrote  "  Poemes  his- 
toriques  et  romantiques,"  (1840,)  "Satires  et  Poesies 
diverses,"  (1851,)  "L'figlise  et  la  Morale,"  (1S58,)  "Le 
faux  Miracle  du  saint  Sacrement  de  Bruxelles,"  (1876,) 
"  Les  Tablettes  d'un  Libre-Penseur,"  (1879,)  "  Contes 
de  Madame  Rose,"  (1879,)  "  Du  Theatre  en  Belgique," 
(1880,)  and  many  other  works. 

Pouchard,  poo'shtR',  (Julian,)  a  French  classical 
scholar,  born  near  Domfront  in  1656.  He  was  chief 
editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Savants."     Died  in  1705. 

Pouchet,  poo'shi',  (F6lix  ARCHiMfeDE,)  an  eminent 
French  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1800.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Botany," 
(1835,)  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Animal  Kingdom," 
(2  vols.,  1841,)  and  a  "  Theory  of  Sjiontaneous  Ovulation 
and  Fecundation  of  Mammifera,"  (1847.)  He  was  an 
advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation,  on 
vvhich  he  wrote  "Traite  de  la  Generation  spontanee," 
(1859,)  and  "Nouvelles  Experiences  sur  la  Generation 
spontanee  et  la  Resistance  vitale,"  (1863.)  "  His  works," 
says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  "are  distin- 
guished for  scrupulous  accuracy,  extent  of  views,  and  an 
excellent  method.  To  him  belongs  the  honour  of  having 
formulated  in  a  neat  and  precise  manner  the  fundamental 
laws  of  fecundation  among  the  mammifera.  His  experi- 
ments on  spontaneous  generation,  in  opposition  to  those 
of  M.  Pasteur,  had  a  great  celebrity  (retentissement)  in 
the  scientific  world."     One  of  his  works  has  been  trans- 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  «;  th  as  in  this.     ( [5^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POUCH  KIN 


1992 


PO  WELL 


lated  into  English,  with  the  title  "  The  Universe :  the 
Infinitely  Great  and  Infinitely  Little,"  (1870.)  Died 
December  6,  1872. 

Pouchkiu  or  Pouschkin.     See  Poos hk in. 

Pougatchef  or  Pougatchev.     See  Poogatchef. 

Pougens,  de,  deh  poo'zhdN',  (Marie  Charles  Jo- 
seph,) a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1755.  lie 
became  blind  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  The  Four  Ages,"  a  poem,  (1819,) 
and  "  Philosophical  Letters,"  (1S26.)  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.     Died  in  1833. 

See  T.  LoRiN,  "Notice  sur  Charles  de  Pougens,"  1836;  SlL- 
VBSTRE  DE  Sacy,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Chevalier  de  Pougens," 
1837- 

Pouget,  poo'zhi',  (FRANgois  Aim6,)  a  French  priest, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1666,  was  vicar  of  Saint-Roch, 
in  Paris.  He  published  a  "  Catechisme  de  Montpellier," 
(1702,)  which  was  adopted  in  all  France.     Died  in  1723. 

Pougin,  poo'zhiN',  (Arthur,)  a  French  musician 
and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Chateauroux,  August  6, 
1S34.  He  has  written  a  number  of  biographies  of  mu- 
sicians, etc.,  and  contributed  articles  to  the  "  Diction- 
naire  universelle"  of  Larousse  and  to  Fetis's  "  Biographie 
universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Pouillet,  poo'yi',  (Claude  Servais  Matthias,)  a 
French  natural  philosopher  and  elegant  writer,  born  in 
the  department  of  Doubs  in  1791.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1837,  and  obtained  the 
chair  of  physics  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1838.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Experimental 
Physics  and  Meteorology,"  (2  vols.,  1827  ;  7th  edition. 
1856,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete  and  best 
written  treatise  on  that  subject  in  French.  Died  in  Paris, 
June  15,  1868. 

Pouilly,  de.     See  L6vesque  de  Pouillv. 

Poujoulat,  poo'zhoo'lS',  (Jean  Joseph  Francois,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  La  Fare  (Bouches  du  Rhone) 
in  1800.  He  accompanied  Michaud  on  a  visit  to  the  Le- 
vant, (1830,)  and  wrote,  in  partnership  with  him, "  Oriental 
Correspondence,"  ("  La  Correspondance  d'Orient,"  7 
vols.,  1832-35.)  He  received  prizes  from  the  French 
Academy  for  his  "  Histoiy  of  Jerusalem"  (1840)  and 
"History  of  Saint  Augustine,"  (1844.)     Died  in  1880. 

Poullain-Duparc,  poo'liN'  dii'plR',  (  Augustin 
Marie,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1703,  was 
a  brother  of  Poullain  de  Saint-Foix.  He  wrote  on  the 
laws  of  Bretagne.     Died  in  1782. 

Poullain  de  Grandprey,  poo'IiN'  deh  gRSN'pui', 
(Joseph  Clement,)  a  French  politician,  born  near 
Mirecourt  in  1744.  He  was  a  moderate  republican 
member  of  the  Convention,  1792-95.     Died  in  1826. 

Poullain  de  Saiut-Foix.    See  Saint-Foix. 

Poulle,  pool,  (Nicolas  Louis,)  a  French  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Avignon  in  1703.  He  obtained  the  title 
of  preacher  to  the  king.     Died  in  1781. 

Poulletier  de  la  Salle,  pool'te-i'  deh  It  stl,  (Fran- 
cois Paul  Lyon,)  a  French  physician  and  chemist,  born 
in  Lyons  in  17 19.  He  founded  three  hospitals  in  Paris, 
and  aided  Macquer  in  a  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
(1766.)     Died  in  1788. 

Poultier-Delmotte,  pool'te-i'  dSl'mot',  (Franqoie 
Martin,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Montreuil-sur- 
Mer  in  1753.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  the 
Convention,  and  edited  the  "Ami  des  Lois,"  a  journal, 
(1795-1800.)     Died  in  1826. 

Pounds,  (John,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born  at 
Portsmouth  in  1766,  was  a  shoemaker,  and  the  founder 
of  ragged  schools.  He  collected  a  number  of  poor 
children  in  his  workshop  and  taught  them  gratis.  Died 
in  1839. 

Poupart,  poo'ptR',  (Franqois,)  a  French  naturalist 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Mans  in  1661  ;  died  in  1709. 

PouquevUle,  pook'vfel',  (Francois  Charles  IIu- 
GUES  Laurent,)  a  French  writer  of  travels,  was  born 
in  Orne  in  1 770.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Travels 
in  the  Morea,"  etc.,  ("Voyage  en  Moree,  ^  Constanti- 
nople et  en  Albanie,"  1805,)  and  "Travels  in  Greece," 
("Voyage  en  Grece,"  5  vols.,  1820-22.)     Died  in  1838. 

Pourchot,  pooR'sho',  (Edme,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Poilly,  near  Sens,  in  165 1.  He  became  about 
1678  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Paris, 


of  which  he  was  chosen  rector  seven  times.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Boileau  and  Racine.  He  published  "Philo- 
sophical Institutes,"  ("  Institutiones  Philosophicae," 
1695,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  one  of  the  first  who  taught  philosophy  by  a  rational 
method.     Died  in  1734, 

See  MoRHRi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historlque." 

Pourbus.     See  Porbus. 

Pourfour.    See  Petit,  du. 

Poussiu,  (Gaspre.)     See  Dughet. 

Poussin,  poo'siN',  (Nicolas,)  an  excellent  French 
painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  called  "the  Raphael 
of  France,"  was  born  at  or  near  Andelys,  on  the  Seine,  in 
Normandy,  in  1594.  He  studied  design  with  Quentin 
Varin,  of  Amiens,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  received  lessons  from  Ferdinand  Elle. 
His  early  efforts  were  embarrassed  by  poverty.  He  made 
several  attempts  to  visit  Rome,  which  failed  for  want  of 
funds.  His  long-cherished  desire  to  see  that  metropolis 
of  art  was  gratified  in  1624.  He  there  formed  an  inti- 
macy with  the  sculptor  F.  Duquesnoy,  and  studied  the 
works  of  Raphael  with  ardent  admiration.  He  also 
made  designs  or  models  of  antique  statues  and  bas-reliefs. 
For  Cardinal  Barberini,  who  became  his  patron,  he 
painted  "The  Death  of  Germanicus,"  and  "The  Capture 
of  Jerusalem  by  Titus." 

Poussin  married  in  1630  Anne  Marie  Dughet,  a  sister 
of  the  eminent  painter  Gaspard  Dughet  surnamed  Pous- 
sin. Among  the  works  which  he  painted  (in  oil)  at  Rome 
are  a  series  of  "The  Seven  Sacraments,"  "The  Rape 
of  the  Sabine  Women,"  "The  Triumph  of  Flora,"  and 
"  The  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea."  He  had  acquired  a 
wide  celebrity  when,  about  the  end  of  1640,  he  returned 
to  France  at  the  request  of  the  king,  who  appointed  him 
his  first  painter.  He  painted  for  the  king  a  beautiful 
altar-piece  of  "The  Last  Supper,"  but  soon  became  dis- 
gusted with  the  intrigues  of  the  court  and  the  jealousy 
of  rival  artists.  In  1642  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death,  November,  1665. 

"  With  a  laborious  and  mighty  grasp,"  says  Hazlitt, 
"  he  put  Nature  into  the  mould  of  the  ideal  and  antique, 
and  was  among  painters  (more  than  any  one  else)  what 
Milton  was  among  poets.  There  is  in  both  something 
of  the  same  pedantry,  the  same  stiffness,  the  same  ele- 
vation, the  same  grandeur,  the  same  mixture  of  art  and 
nature,  the  same  richness  of  borrowed  materials,  the 
same  unity  of  character."  ("Table-Talk.") 

"  His  life,"  says  Delacroix,  "  was  reflected  in  his  works, 
and  accorded  with  the  beauty  and  nobleness  of  his  in- 
ventions." He  is  considered  the  greatest  historical 
painter  that  France  has  produced.  "  Poussin  has  a  far 
greater  power,"  says  Ruskin,  "  and  his  landscapes,  though 
more  limited  in  material,  are  incomparably  nobler,  than 
Claude's."  The  same  critic  calls  him  "the  principal 
master  of  the  classical  landscape."  ("Modern  Painters.") 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  iStudes  sur  N.  Poussin;"  Maria  Gra- 
ham, "Memoirs  of  N.  Poussin,"  1820;  Castellan,  "Vie  de  N. 
Poussin,"  1811;  fiMEKic-DAViD,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  Poussin," 
1812;  Raoul-Rochkttb,  "Discours  sur  N.  Poussin,"  1S43;  Pas- 
SHRi,  "  Le  Vite  de'  Pittori,"  1772;  Bouchitt6,  "Le  Poussin,  sa 
Vie  et  son  CEuvre  :"  Gandar,  "Les  Andelys  et  N.  Poussin;"  F4- 
LiBiEN,  "  Entretiens  sur  la  Vie  des  Peinlres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Gdn^rale." 

Pousaines,  poo'sJn',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Laurac  in  1609.  He  edited  and  translated  several 
Greek  works,  among  which  was  Anna  Comnena's 
"Alexias."     Died  in  1686. 

Pouteau,  poo'to',  (Claude,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1724.  He  published  several  volumes  on 
surgery.     Died  in  1775. 

Pbw'ell,  (The  Rev.  Baden,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  phi- 
loso[)her  and  geometer,  born  in  or  near  London  about 
1798.  He  became  in  1827  Savilian  professor  of  geometry 
at  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  and  "  Philosophical 
Magazine"  able  memoirs  on  optics  and  other  sciences. 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1824, 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  A  Historical  View  of 
the  Progress  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences," 
(i  vol.,  1834,)  "The  Connection  of  Natural  and  Divine 
Truth,"  (1838,)  a  "View  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  as 
applied  to  the  Dispersion  of  Light,"  (1841,)  "The  Unity 


».e 


i,  1, 6,  u,  y, /tf«f ;  k,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,^, short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  nftt;  g56d;  mSon: 


POWELL 


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POZZO 


of  Worlds  and  of  Nature  :  Three  Essays  on  the  Spirit 
of  the  Inductive  Philosophy,  the  Plurality  of  Worlds, 
and  the  Philosophy  of  Creation,"  (1856,)  "Christianity 
without  Judaism,"  (1857,)  and  "The  Order  of  Nature 
considered  with  Reference  to  the  Claims  of  Revelation," 
(1859.)     Died  in  1S60. 

See  the  "  Norlh  Biitish  Review"  for  November,  1859. 

Pow'ell,  (David,)  a  Welsh  historian,  born  in  Den- 
bighshire about  1552,  was  vicar  of  Ruabon  and  rector 
of  Llanfyllin.  He  published  Caradoc's  "History  of 
Cambria,"  with  notes,  (1584.)     Died  in  1598. 

Powell,  (Edward,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  wrote  against  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Catherine,  and  was  hung  in  1540  for  that  offence. 

Po^vell,  (Gabriel,)  a  son  of  David,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1575.  He  was  distinguished  for  learning, 
and  was  author  of  some  polemical  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  161 1. 

Powell,  (George,)  an  English  actor  and  dramatist, 
wrote  "Alphonso,"a  tragedy.     Died  in  1714. 

PSw'ell,  (George,)  an  American  historical  painter, 
born  in  New  York  in  1823.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
Discovery  of  the  Mississippi."     Died  October  6,  1879. 

Po'well,  (Griffith,)  was  born  in  Wales  in  1561. 
He  became  principal  of  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1620. 

Powell,  (John  Wesley,)  LL.D.,  an  American  eth- 
nologist, born  at  Mount  Morris,  New  York,  March  24, 
1834.  He  removed  to  Wisconsin  in  1S42,  was  educated 
at  Oberlin  and  Wheaton  Colleges,  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  war  of  1861-65,  losing  his  right  arm  at 
Shiloh.  He  was  afterwards  professor  of  geology  in  Illi- 
nois Wesleyan  University,  and  in  the  Illinois  Normal 
University.  He  conducted  the  perilous  survey  of  the 
river  Colorado  and  its  canons,  and  was  afterwards  made 
director  of  the  United  States  geological  survey  and  of 
the  bureau  of  ethnology.  He  wrote  "The  Exploration 
of  the  Colorado  River,"  (1875,)  "Geology  of  the  Uintah 
Mountains,"  (1876,)  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Indian 
Languages,"  (1S77,)  "  Lands  of  the  Arid  Region,"  (1S79,) 
etc.,  besides  a  number  of  pamphlets  on  philosophy,  Indian 
sociology,  evolution,  etc. 

Powell,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  judge,  noted  for  his 
honesty,  was  born  in  Carmarthenshire.  He  was  de- 
prived of  office  by  James  II.  about  1688  for  his  conduct 
in  the  trial  of  the  seven  bishops.     Died  in  1696. 

Powell,  (William,)  an  English  actor,  who  performed 
with  success  at  Drury  Lane  from  1763  until  1767.  Died 
in  1769. 

Powell,  (William  Samuel,)  an  English  parson, 
born  at  Colchester  in  17 17,  became  archdeacon  of  that 
place  about  1766.     Died  in  1775. 

PSvy'er,  (Tyrone,)  an  Irish  comic  actor,  born  in  the 
county  of  Waterford  in  1795.  He  performed  in  the 
United  States  in  1840,  and  took  passage  in  the  steamer 
President,  which  left  New  York  in  March,  1841,  and 
was  never  heard  of  afterwards. 

Pbw'ers,  (Hiram,)  an  eminent  American  sculptor, 
born  at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  in  1805.  Having  re- 
moved to  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  he  employed  himself  for  a 
time  in  modelling  busts  in  plaster,  and  subsequently 
engaged  in  the  same  occupation  at  Washington.  In 
1837  he  was  enabled  to  visit  Italy,  where  he  has  resided 
many  years.  His  statue  of  "  Eve"  was  exhibited  in  1838, 
and  was  at  once  acknowledged  as  a  master-piece.  It 
was  followed  soon  after  by  his  "Greek  Slave,"  which 
became  widely  celebrated  and  has  placed  the  artist  in 
the  first  rank  of  living  sculptors.  Among  his  other 
works  may  be  named  "II  Penseroso,"  "The  Fisher- 
Boy,"  "California,"  "America,"  statues  of  Washington 
and  Calhoun,  and  busts  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall, 
Adams,  Webster,  and  Van  Buren.  Died  at  Florence, 
June  27,  1873. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Powers,  (Horatio  Nelson,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine  and  litterateur,  born  at  Amenia,  New 
York,  April  30,  1826.  He  graduated  at  Union  College 
in  1850.  He  published  "Through  the  Year,"  (1875,) 
and  "  Poems  Early  and  Late,"  (1876,)  and  was  a  con- 
tributor to  leading  American  periodicals.     Died  in  1890, 

P6w'hat-axi',  an   Indian  sachem   who  ruled   over  a 


tract  of  country  in  the  vicinity  of  James  River  Virginia. 
Died  in  1618.     (See  Pocahontas.) 

PSw'is,  (William  Herbert,)  Earl  of,  an  English 
peer,  who  in  his  youth  fought  for  Charles  1.  against  the 
Parliament.  He  was  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  aristocracy.  He  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council 
in  1686,  and,  according  to  Macaulay,  gave  James  II. 
judicious  and  patriotic  advice. 

Powlett.     See  Pawlett  and  Paulet. 

Pow^'nall,  (Thomas,)  an  English  governor  and  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Lincoln  in  1722.  He  became  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  in  1757,  and  of  New  Jersey  in 
1759.  He  returned  to  England  in  1761.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Description  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  Pro- 
vincia  Romana  of  Gaul,"  (1788.)     Died  at  Bath  in  1805. 

Poyet,  pwi'yi',  (Ber.nard,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1742 ;  died  at  Paris  in  1824. 

Poy'net  or  Po'net,  (John,)  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Kent  about  15 16,  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the 
Reformation.  He  became  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1549, 
and  Bishop  of  Winchester  in  1551.  He  wrote,  besidet 
other  works,  a  book  called  "  King  Edward's  Catechism," 
(1553.)  Having  gone  into  exile  on  the  accession  of  Mary, 
in  1553,  he  died  at  Strasburg  in  1556. 

Poyn'ings,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  gentleman, 
who  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  performed  an  important 
part  in  the  suppression  of  the  Irish  rebellion  of  which 
Desmond  and  Kildare  were  the  leaders.    Died  in  1512. 

Poyn'ter,  (Edward  John,)  an  English  painter,  born 
in  Paris,  March  20,  1836.  In  1S76  he  was  made  a  full 
Academician,  and  in  1871  became  professor  of  art  in 
University  College,  London.  Many  of  his  best  pictures 
are  classical  in  their  subjects. 

Pozharski  or  Pojarski,  po-zhaR'skee,  (Dmitri,) 
Prince,  a  Russian  general,  born  in  1578,  drove  out  the 
Poles  from  Moscow  in  1612.  He  is  called  by  Prince 
A.  Gallitsin  "  one  of  the  most  popular  heroes  of  Russia." 
Died  in  1642. 

See  Malinowskv,  "  Life  of  Pozharski,"  (in  Russian,)  1817. 

Pozzetti,  pot-set' tee,  (Pompilio,)  a  Florentine  writei 
of  biography,  etc.,  born  in  1769;  died  in  1816. 

Pozzi,  pot'see,  (Giovanni  Battista,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Milan,  flourished  about  1585.  Died  at 
the  age  of  twenty-eight, 

Pozzi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet  and  physician, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1695  ;  died  in  1752. 

Pozzo,  pot'so,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
architect,  born  at  Trent  in  1642,  was  a  Jesuit.  He 
excelled  in  colouring  and  perspective,  and  adorned  the 
ceiling  of  Sant'  Ignazio,  Rome,  with  pictures,  which 
are  commended.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Per- 
spective," (2  vols.,  1693-1702.)     Died  at  Vienna  in  1709. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Milizia,  "Memorie 
degl.  Architetti." 

Pozzo,  (Modesta.)    See  Fonte,  (Moderata.) 

Pozzo,  dal,  ddl  pot'so,  (Cassiano,)  an  Italian  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Turin  in  1584.  He  formed  at  Rome  a 
rich  cabinet  of  antiquities,  and  was  a  friend  and  patron 
of  N.  Poussin.     Died  in  1657. 

Pozzo,  dal,  (Ferdinando,)  Count,  an  Italian  lawyer 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1768.  He  was 
elected  to  the  French  legislative  body  in  1803,  and  be- 
came first  president  of  the  imperial  court  at  Genoa  in 
1809.     Died  at  Turin  in  1843. 

Pozzo,  dal,  (Girolamo,)  Count,  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  at  Verona  in  1718,  was  a  skilful  amateur. 

Pozzo  di  Borgo,  pot'so  de  boii'go,  (Carlo  An- 
drea,) an  eminent  diplomatist,  born  at  or  near  Ajaccio, 
in  Corsica,  in  1764.  He  entered  the  service  of  Paoli 
about  1790,  and  was  elected  to  the  French  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1791.  He  was  secretary  of  state  in  the 
new  government  formed  by  Paoli  in  {793.  In  1803  he 
entered  the  service  of  Russia,  and  devoted  himself  to 
diplomacy,  for  which  he  was  qualified  by  his  penetration 
and  address.  He  performed  a  mission  to  Vienna  in 
1804  or  1805,  and  another  to  Turkey  in  1807.  He  re- 
garded Napoleon  as  a  personal  enemy,  and  contributed 
to  his  overthrow.  In  1813  he  took  a  prominent  part  at 
the  Congress  of  Frankfort,  and  composed  the  famous 
declaration  of  the  allies.  He  acted  as  Russian  commis- 
sioner with  the  army  of  the  allies  in  181 5,  and  signed 


€  as  >&;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,gnUural;  n,  tiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (JS^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRADEL 


1994 


PR  A  UN 


the  treaty  of  Paris.      He  was  Russian  ambassador  at 
Paris  from  1815  to  1S35.     Died  in  1842. 

See  VuHRER,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Pozzo  di  BofKO,"  1842  ; 
Capefiguk,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  du  Comte  Pozzo  di  Borgo,"  1844  ; 
Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale." 

Pradel,  de,  deh  pki'dSK,  (Pierre  Marie  Michel 
CouTRAY,)  a  French  poet  and  improvisateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1787.  He  produced  many  short  poems.  Died 
at  Brussels  in  1857. 

Pradier,  prfde-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  sculptor  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1792.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  Rome  (at  Paris)  in  1813,  and  studied 
at  Rome  for  five  years.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1827.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  soft- 
ness and  grace.  His  imagination  was  vivid,  his  design 
correct,  his  execution  good;  and  with  more  elevation  of 
style  he  would  have  raised  himself  to  the  highest  rank 
of  French  sculptors.  Among  his  best  works  are  a 
"Psyche,"  (1824,)  "The  Three  Graces,"  (1831,)  a  mar- 
ble group  of  "Venus  and  Cupid,"  (1836,)  and  a  marble 
statue  of  Sappho,  (1852.)     Died  near  Paris  in  1852. 

See  George  Bbli.,  "  Pradier,"  Paris,  1852 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Prado,  pri'Do,  (Mariano  Ignacio,)  a  Peruvian  presi- 
dent, born  at  Huanuco  in  1826,  took  part  in  the  insur- 
rection of  1854  which  overthrew  President  Echenique, 
and  in  1865  headed  the  revolution  which  deposed  Presi- 
dent Pezet.  Prado  was  proclaimed  dictator,  and  gained 
great  renown  by  the  repulse  of  the  Spanish  fleet  from 
Callao,  May  2,  1866.  He  was  chosen  president  for  six 
years,  but  was  expelled  by  Balta  in  1S68,  and  retired 
to  Chili,  where  he  was  made  a  general  of  division,  and 
was  subsequently  Peruvian  minister.  Elected  president 
a  second  time  in  1876,  he  was  in  1S79  director  of  the 
Peruvian  and  Bolivian  armies  in  the  war  against  Chili. 
After  severe  reverses  and  the  loss  of  the  j^rovince  of 
Tarapaca,  he  went  to  Europe  in  December,  1S79,  to  seek 
aid,  and  in  his  absence  was  deposed  from  the  presidency. 

Prado,  del,  d^l  pRa'oo,  (Bi.as,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1544,  was  patronized  by  Philip  II. 
Died  about  1605. 

Pradon,  pRi'diiN',  (Nicolas,)  a  mediocre  French 
tragic  poet,  born  at  Rouen  in  1632.  He  produced  in 
1674  "  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,"  and  attempted  to  rival 
Racine  in  "  Phedre  et  Ilippolyte,"  (1677,)  which  was 
applauded  by  a  certain  party  or  cabale.     Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pradt,  de,  deh  pRit,  (Abbe  Dominique  Dufour,)  a 
French  diplomatist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Auvergne 
in  1759.  He  became  almoner  of  Napoleon  about  1804, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers  in  1S05,  and  Archbishop  of  Maiines 
in  1808.  In  1812  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Warsaw, 
and,  according  to  some  writers,  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  Napoleon,  with  whom  he  had  a  curious  conversation 
during  his  retreat  from  Moscow.  He  jjublished  many 
political  and  historical  works,  among  which  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Embassy  to  Warsaw,"  (1815.)    Died  in  1837. 

See  Qu^RAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale. " 

Praed,  prad,  (Winthrop  Mackworth,)  an  English 
poet  and  lawyer,  born  in  London  in  1802.  He  was  the 
chief  contributor  to  "The  Etonian,"  a  monthly  paper 
issued  in  1820;  after  which  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  gained  prizes  for  the  Greek  ode  and 
epigram,  and  for  English  poems,  entitled  "Australia," 
(1823,)  and  "Athens,"  (1824.)  In  1S29  he  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  about  1830, 
opposed  the  Reform  bill,  and  was  re-elected  in  1S35. 
lie  became  a  successful  debater  and  a  zealous  conserva- 
tive. Died  in  1839.  His  poems  are  highly  commended 
for  wit  and  elegance. 

Praet,  van,  vtn  prit,  (Joseph  Basile  Bernard,)  a 
Belgian  bibliographer,  born  at  Bruges  in  1754.  He 
became  in  1784  an  assistant  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris. 
About  1795  V^f*  Praet  and  Capperonnier  were  appointed 
keepers  of  the  same.  He  published  a  "  Catalogue  of 
the  Books  printed  on  Vellum  in  the  Royal  Library," 
(5  vols.,  1822-28.)     Died  in  1837. 

See  Daunow,  "  Notice  sur  Van  Pr.iet ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


PrajapatI,  pra-jd'pa-tT,  [from  the  Sanscrit  prdjA, 
"  people,"  or  the  "  world,"  and  p&tt,  "  master,"]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  a  title  given  to  certain  divine  per 
sonages,  called  also  Brahmadikas,  among  whom  arfl 
Marichi,  Bhrigu,  Daksha,  and  Narada. 

See  WiiiON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Pram,  pRim,  (Christian  Henriksen,)  a  distin- 
guished litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Guldbrands- 
dal,  in  Norway,  in  1756.  He  founded  at  Copenhagen, 
conjointly  with  Rahbek,  the  periodical  entitled  "The 
Minerva,"  and  in  181 1  became  president  of  the  .Scandi- 
navian Literary  Society.  Among  his  principal  works, 
which  are  written  in  Danish,  are  "  Emilias  Kilde,"  a 
poem,  (1782,)  a  heroic  ])oem  entitled  "  Starkodder," 
(1785,)  and  the  tragedy  of  "Damon  and  Pythias."  He 
also  published  several  treatises  on  political  economy 
and  statistics.  His  genius  and  character  are  eulogized 
by  Oehlenschlager.     Died  in  1821. 

See  Ersi.ew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon ;"  J.  K.  Hoest,  "C.  H.  Pram: 
biografisk  Onirids,"  1S20 ;  HowiTT,  "Literature  and  Romance  of 
Northern  Europe." 

Pram'zi-mas,  a  great  divinity  of  the  old  Lithuanians. 
He  sent  out  the  giants  Wandu  (wind)  and  Wejas  (water) 
to  destroy  mankind  with  a  flood.  But,  seeing  a  few  people 
on  a  mountain-top,  he  took  pity  on  them  and  sheltered 
them  in  a  nut-shell,  and  thus  preserved  the  human  race. 

Prarond,  pRt'ri.N',  (Ernest,)  a  French  writer  of 
verses,  fiction,  etc.,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1821. 

Praslin,  de,  deh  prS'14n',  (C^sar  Gabriel  de 
Choiseul — deh  shwS'zul',)  Due,  a  French  minister  of 
state,  born  in  Paris  in  1712,  was  a  cousin  of  the  Due 
de  Choiseul.  He  obtained  in  1748  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general,  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1760,  and 
minister  of  the  marine  in  1766.  He  was  removed  in 
1770.     Died  in  17S5. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  filoge  du  Due  de  Praslin." 

Praslin  de  Choiseul,  prt'liN'  deh  shw.VzuK, 
(Charles  Raynard  Laure  F^lix.)  Due,  a  French 
peer,  born  in  Paris  in  1778  ;  died  in  1841. 

See  Nestor  Aronssohn,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Due  de  Praslin,' 
1844- 

Prat,  du.     See  Duprat. 

Prati,  pK^'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Dascindo,  in  the  province  of  Trent,  in  1815.  He 
composed  "  Edmenegarda,"  a  poem,  (1841,)  which  was 
received  with  favour.  Among  his  other  popular  poems 
ire  "A  Hymn  to  Italy,"  "The  Song  of  the  Future," 
"Rodolfo,"  and  "Count  Riga,"  ("II  Conte  Riga,"  1856.) 
[n  1861  he  published  a  poem  called  "  Ariberto,"  (2  vols.) 
He  was  elected  to  the  Italian  Parliament  in  1862,  and 
created  senator  in  1876.      Died  May  10,  1884, 

PratT[-nas,  [Ilparivof,]  an  Athenian  dramatic  and 
Ijric  poet,  lived  about  500  B.C.,  and  made  an  improve- 
ment in  the  tragic  art.  He  is  regarded  by  some  as  the 
inventor  of  the  satiric  drama. 

Pratorius,  or  Praetorius,  pRi-to're-oos,  (Michael,) 
a  German  musical  composer  and  writer  on  music,  born 
at  Creutzburg,  in  Thuringia,  in  1571.  His  "Syntagma 
Musicum"  ("Musical  Treatise,"  in  3  vols.)  is  prized  for 
its  rarity  and  historical  value.     Died  in  1621. 

Pratt,  (Benjami.n,)  an  .American  judge,  born  at  Bos- 
ton in  1709.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and 
became  chief  justice  of  New  York.     Died  in  1763. 

Pratt,  (Calvi.n  E.,)  an  .'\merican  lawyer  and  soldier, 
born  near  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1828.  He 
practised  law  for  a  time  in  New  York  City,  and  in  1861 
commanded  the  Thirty-first  regiment  of  New  York 
volunteers  at  the  batiie  of  Bull  Run.  He  became 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  soon  after  the  battle  of 
Antietam. 

Pratt,  (Charles.)     See  Camden,  Earl  of. 

Pratt,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1771, 
served  in  the  Peninsular  war  at  Vitoria,  Nivelles,  Or- 
thes,  etc.     Died  in  1S39. 

Pratt,  (Sa.muel  Jackson,)  an  English  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1749.  He  published, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Courtney  Melmoth, 
"Sympathy,"  and  other  poems,  and  several  successful 
novels,  among  which  are  "  The  Pupil  of  Pleasure," 
(1779,)  and  "Emma  Corbett,"  (1781.)     Died  in  1814. 

Praun,  von,  fon  pRown,  (Georg  A.ndreas  Septi- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  j^,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  o,  obscure;  iix,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  nSt;  good;  moon. 


PRAXAGORAS 


1995 


PRENTISS 


MUS,)  Baron,  a  German  numismatist,  born  in  Vienna  in 
1701.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Coins  or  Numis- 
matics," (1739.)     Died  in  1786. 

Prax-ag'9-ras,  [Ilpa^ayo/jaf,]  an  eminent  Greelt  phy- 
sician of  Cos,  lived  about  300  K.C.  He  was  noted  for  his 
skill  in  anatomy,  and  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who 
explained  the  difference  between  veins  and  arteries.  He 
wrote  several  works,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  are 
extant.     Among  his  pupils  was  Herophilus. 

See  Sprengel,  "  Histoire  de  la  Medecine." 

Prax-il'la,  |npdft/l?.a,]  a  Greek  lyric  poetess,  born  at 
Sicyon,  lived  about  450  n.c.     Her  works  are  lost. 

Praxiphane.     See  Praxiphanes. 

Prax-iph'a-nes,  [Gr.  W^a^i^UvTiq ;  Fr.  Praxiphane, 
pRiks'e'fln',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Mitylene, 
was  a  pupil  of  Theophrastus,  and  a  teacher  of  Epicurus. 

See  Preller,  "  De  Praxiphane,"    1842. 

Praxitele.    See  Praxitkles. 

Prax-it'?-lea,  [  Gr.  Ilpa^i-eAT/f ;  Fr.  PRAXirfeLE, 
pRtks'e'tiK,]  one  of  tlie  greatest  of  Grecian  sculptors, 
flourished  aljout  360  B.C.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown.  He  was  probably  a  contemporary 
of  Apelles,  and  an  Athenian.  According  to  Pausanias, 
he  lived  three  generations  after  Alcamenes.  The  name 
of  his  master  has  not  been  preserved.  Praxiteles  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  a  school,  or  the  author  of  a 
new  style  of  art.  Ancient  writers  represent  him  as  cele- 
brated for  refinement  and  softness  of  contour,  grace  in 
attitude,  and  delicacy  in  the  expression  of  tender  affec- 
tions. Cicero  considered  the  expression  which  animated 
the  heads  of  Praxiteles  as  one  of  the  most  admirable 
and  difficult  results  which  human  skill  could  attain. 
Among  his  best  works  in  bronze  were  a  statue  of  Bac- 
chus, a  Satyr  or  Faun,  and  a  statue  of  Apollo,  called 
"  Sauroctonos."  An  ancient  copy  (in  marble)  of  the  last 
work  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  His  master-piece  was 
a  marble  statue  of  Venus  (of  Cnidos)  without  drapery, 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  Constantinople  about  475 
A.D.  No  work  of  Grecian  sculptors,  except  the  Jupiter 
of  Phidias,  appears  to  have  been  so  celebrated  as  this 
Venus  of  Cnidos.  He  produced  also  a  statue  of  Venus 
draped,  and  a  marble  statue  of  Cupid,  which  was  praised 
by  Pliny.  His  statue  of  Hermes  was  in  1878  recovered 
from  the  ruins  at  Oiympia.  Of  this  statue  the  right  arm 
is  lost.  It  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  precious 
relics  of  ancient  art. 

See  Plinv.  "  Natural  History;"  K.  O.  Muller,  "Archaologie 
der  Kunst;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pray,  pKoi,  (George,)  a  1  lungarian  historian,  born  at 
Presburg  in  1723  or  1724.  He  published  "Annals  of  the 
Ancient  Huns,"  ("  Annales  veterum  Hunnorum,"  1761,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Hungary  from  997  to  1564,"  (5  vols., 
1764-70.)     Died  in  1801. 

Pray,  (Isaac  Clark,)  an  American  author,  born  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  May  15,  1813.  He  studied  at 
Harvard  and  Amherst  Colleges,  graduating  in  1833. 
For  many  years  he  was  a  journalist  in  Boston,  New 
York,  and  Philadelphia.  He  wrote  lives  of  J.  G.  Ben- 
nett, Gustavus  Brook«,  Theresa  Parodi,  Catharine  Hayes, 
and  Madame  Ristori,  and  published  five  dramas,  besides 
poems,  etc.  He  was  also  a  successful  stage-manager  and 
actor.     Died  in  New  York,  November  28,  1869. 

Pidau.     See  DuprAau. 

Pr6ault,  pRi'6',  (AuGUSTE,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1809.  Among  his  works  are  a  bust  of  N. 
Poussin  in  the  Louvre,  Charlemagne,  (1836,)  and  "Ophe- 
lia," a  bas-relief,  (1849.)     Died  January  11,  1879. 

Preble,  pr^b'l,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated  American 
commodore,  born  in  Maine  in  1761.  Having  been  made 
a  captain  in  1799,  he  sailed  in  the  Essex  to  Batavia, 
whence  he  convoyed  home  a  fleet  of  fourteen  merchant- 
vessels.  In  1803  he  was  appointed  to  command  a 
squadron  sent  against  Tripoli,  having  for  his  flag-ship 
the  Constitution.  He  attacked  the  batteries  and  gun- 
boats which  defended  Tripoli  several  times  in  August 
and  September,  1804.  He  captured  three  gun-boats, 
and  sunk  four  others.  For  these  services  he  received  a 
gold  medal  from  Congress.     Died  in  1S07. 

See  Sparks,  "American  Biography;"  "National  Portrait-Gal- 
lery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Precipiano,    di,    de    pRi-che-pe-d'no,    (  Humbert 


Guillaume,)  Coi;nt,  a  prelate,  born  at  Besanjon  in 
1626.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Malines  in  1690,  and 
was  an  opponent  of  Quesnel.     Died  in  1711. 

Precy,  de,  deh  pKk'se',  (Louis  FKAwgois  Perrin — 
pi'RiN',)  CoMTE,  an  able  French  general,  born  near 
Semur  in  1742.  He  was  chosen  general-in-chief  by  the 
insurgents  of  Lyons  who  revolted  against  the  Conven- 
tion in  1793.  He  defended  Lyons  for  about  sixty  days 
against  the  besieging  army,  and  escaped  to  Switzerland. 
Died  in  1820. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  pRls'l^r,  (Georg  Martin,)  a 
German  engraver  and  painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1700 ;  died  in  1754. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German 
painter  and  designer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dresden  in  1665.     Died  in  1737. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Georg,)  an  engraver, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1757,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Justin, 
noticed  below.     Died  in  1808. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Justin,)  an  engraver 
and  painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1698,  was  a  brother 
of  Georg  Martin,  noticed  above.  He  etched  some  works 
of  Rubens.     Died  in  1771. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Martin,)  a  skilful 
engraver,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1715.  He  was  appointed  court  engraver  at 
Copenhagen,  to  which  he  removed  in  1744.  His  en- 
graving of  "  Frederick  V.  on  Horseback"  is  esteemed 
a  master-piece.  He  executed  some  works  of  Raphael 
and  other  masters.     Died  in  1794. 

Preissler.    See  Preisler. 

Preller,  pRel'ler,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  artist,  born 
at  Eisenach  in  1804.  In  1831  he  became  professor  of 
painting  at  Weimar.  His  principal  works  are  on  classical 
subjects,  of  which  the  most  noted  are  his  frescos  and 
cartoons  at  Weimar  and  Leipsic,  tepresenting  scenes  from 
the  Odyssey.     Died  April  23,  1878. 

Preller,  pRel'ler,  (  Ludwig,  )  a  German  classical 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1809.  He 
became  professor  at  Jena  in  1846.  Among  his  works  are 
a  "  History  of  Greek  and  Roman  Philosophy,"  (1838,) 
and  a  "Greek  Mythology,"  (2  vols.,  1854.)    Died  in  1861. 

Pr^mare,  pRi'miR',  (Joseph  Henri,)  a  French  mis- 
sionary, born  about  1670.  He  went  to  China  in  1698, 
and  studied  Chinese  literature  with  success.  He  wrote 
"Account  of  the  Chinese  Language,"  ("  Notitia  Linguae 
Sinicae,")  and  "  Letters  on  China."  Died  at  Peking 
about  1735. 

Preniontval,  pRi'mAN'vJl',  the  assumed  name  of 
Andr6  Pierre  Le  Guay,  (gi,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Charenton  in  1716.  He  removed  to  Berlin  in  1752,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
that  city.  He  wrote  "  Monogamy,"  ("  La  Monogamie," 
3  vols.,  1 75 1,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1764. 

Premier,  von,  fon  pR$n'ner,  (Anton  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Wallerstein  in  1683. 
He  engraved  the  pictures  of  the  Belvedere  gallery  of 
Vienna.     Died  in  1743. 

Premier,  von,  (Georg  Caspar,)  a  painter  and  en- 
graver, a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1708. 
He  worked  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1766. 

Prentice,  prSn'tiss,  (George  Denison,)  an  American 
poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Preston,  Connecticut,  in 
1802,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1823.  He 
founded  in  1828  "The  New  England  Review,"  and, 
having  removed  to  Kentucky,  became  in  1831  editor  of 
the  "  Louisville  Journal,"  which  soon  acquired  the  repu- 
tation of  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  brilliant  journals 
in  the  country.  He  published  a  number  of  small  poems 
of  great  beauty.  A  collection  of  his  witticisms,  entitled 
"  Prenticeana,"  appeared  in  i860.     Died  in  1870. 

See  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Pren'tiss,  (Benjamin  M.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Wood  county,  Virginia,  in  1819.  He  became  a  citi- 
zen of  Illinois  about  1842,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1861.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Shiloh,  April 
6, 1S62.  About  July  3,  1863,  he  defeated  Generals  Holmes 
and  Price,  who  attacked  him  at  Helena,  Arkansas. 

Prentiss,  (Elizabeth,)  an  American  author,  born  at 
Portland,  Maine,  October  26,  1818,  a  daughter  of  Edward 
Payson,  already  noticed.     In  1845  she  was  married  tc 


^d&k;  fasj;  ghard;  g?iS7;G,  n,K, guttural;  a,  nasal;  v., trilled;  sasz;  thasin^/«j.     (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRENTISS 


1996 


PRESCOTT 


Kev.  G.  L.  Prentiss,  a  Congregationalist  clergyman  and 
a  brother  of  Seargent  S.  Prentiss.  Among  her  numerous 
works  are  "The  Flower  of  the  Family,"  (1856,)  "Tales 
of  Early  Childhood,"  "The  Little  Preacher,"  (1869,) 
"Stepping  Heavenward,"  (1869,)  etc.,  mostly  religious 
tales  for  the  young.  Died  at  IJorset,  Vermont,  August 
13, 1878.  "  Stepping  Heavenward"  is  the  work  by  which 
she  is  best  known. 

Prentiss,  (Seargent  Smith,)  an  American  orator, 
born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1808.  He  studied  law,  and 
jjecame  about  1832  a  resident  of  Vicksburg,  Mississii:fpi, 
where  he  practised  with  success.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  Whigs  in  1837.  In  1S40  he 
advocated  the  election  of  General  Harrison  by  several 
public  speeches.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  an 
orator,  and  as  an  advocate  in  jury-trials  was  equal  or 
superior  to  any  lawyer  in  the  Southwestern  States. 
Died  near  Natchez  in  1850. 

Pres'cott,  (George,)  Colonel,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Littleton,  Massachusetts,  in  1829.  He  served 
as  colonel  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  and  at  the  great 
battles  in  Virginia  in  May,  1864.  He  was  killed  near 
Petersburg,  June  18,  1864. 

Prescott,  (Oliver,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  patriot  of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Groton,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1 73 1.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the 
Revolutionary  war.     Died  in  1804. 

Prescott,  (Oliver,)  an  American  physician,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1762.  He  practised  at  Gro- 
ton, and  wrote  several  medical  treatises.     Died  in  1827. 

Prescott,  (William,)  Colonel,  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Groton,  Massachusetts,  in 
1725,  was  a  brother  of  Oliver,  noticed  above.  He  fought 
with  distinguished  bravery  a^  Uie  battle  of  Bunker  Hill, 
where  he  appears  to  have  had  'he  chief  command,  and 
in  other  important  engagements.     Died  in  1795. 

Prescott,  (William,)  LL.D.,  in  American  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Pe^jperell  in  1762.  He 
was  appointed  in  1818  a  judge  of  the  c/)urt  of  common 
pleas.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  legal  attainments. 
He  was  the  father  of  William  H.  Prescott,  the  historian. 
Died  in  1844. 

Prescott,  (William  HiCKLiNG,)aneminent  American 
historian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  grandson  of  Colonel 
Prescott  who  commanded  at  Bunker  Hill,  was  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  4th  of  May,  1 796.  Both  his 
parents  were  remarkable  for  their  high  moral  qualities. 
His  father  was  distinguished  for  his  manly  beauty,  as 
well  as  for  the  dignity  and  gentleness  of  his  character. 
His  mother,  originally  Miss  Catherine  Greene  Hickling, 
was  a  woman  of  great  energy,  vivacity,  and  active  be- 
nevolence ;  and  to  her  influence  her  son  appears  to  have 
owed  not  only  much  of  the  happiness  of  his  life,  but  also 
some  of  those  admirable  moral  traits  which  formed  the 
crowning  ornament  to  his  rare  intellectual  endowments. 
In  the  summer  of  1808  his  father  removed  to  Boston, 
and  the  following  autumn  sent  his  son  to  what  was  then 
regarded  as  the  best  classical  school  in  New  England.  It 
was  kept  by  Dr.  Gardiner,  an  excellent  scholar,  who  had 
been  educated  in  England  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Parr. 
In  181 1  young  Prescott  entered  the  Sophomore  class 
at  Harvard  College.  In  his  knowledge  ol  Greek  and 
Latin  he  was  far  in  advance  of  most  of  the  members  of 
his  class;  but  he  had  no  fondness  for  mathematics,  and 
never  attained  any  proficiency  in  mathematical  studies. 
During  his  Jur.ior  year  at  college  an  accident  befell  him 
which  was  destined  to  influence  the  whole  of  his  subse- 
quent life.  One  day  in  the  Commons  Hall,  while  the 
students— as  too  often  happened  after  the  professors  had 
left  the  table— were  indulging  in  a  rude  frolic,  Prescott 
rose  to  go  out  of  the  room,  but,  attracted  by  the  tumult 
behind  him,  suddenly  turned  his  head  to  see  what  it 
was.  At  that  instant  a  hard  piece  of  bread,  thrown  at 
random,  struck  him  on  his  left  eye,  which,  under  the 
peculiar  circumstances,  having  no  warning,  was  open, 
so  that  nothing — not  even  the  eyelid — was  interposed 
to  mitigate  the  blow.  He  instantly  fell  prostrate  and 
powerless,  as  if  the  brain  itself  had  received  a  severe 
concussion.  After  some  weeks  he  was  able  to  resume 
his  studies  ;  but  the  sight  of  his  left  eye — though  this 
was  to  appearance  unchanged — was  gone  forever. 


This  early  misfortune,  while  it  tended  to  check  hia 
somewhat  exuberant  vivacity,  far  from  discouraging  him 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  studies,  seemed  to  excite  in  him 
a  more  earnest  and  determined  resolution  to  become 
a  respectable  scholar.  He  graduated  in  August,  1814, 
and  soon  after  commenced  the  study  of  law.  But  the 
excessive  use  of  his  remaining  eye  induced  a  severe 
inflammation  in  the  r^<gan,  followed  by  opacity  of  the 
cornea,  so  that  for  some  weeks  the  power  of  y-sion  was 
completely  lost. 

Among  the  many  interesting  and  admirable  traits 
in  Mr.  Prescott's  cliaracter,  perhaps  none  is  more  re- 
markable than  the  invincible  cheerfulness  and  heroic 
resignation  with  which  he  bore  the  frequent  and  severe 
sufi'ering  and  the  life-long  privations  to  which  he  was 
subjected  in  consequence  of  the  injury  of  hi>*  sight. 

In  the  hope  of  improving  his  general  Health,  which 
had  been  seriously  impaired  by  confinemc-rit,  and  also  of 
indirectly  benefiting  his  eyes,  he  was  inuuced  to  under- 
take a  voyage  to  Europe.  He  set  out  in  the  autumn  of 
181 5.  He  remained  abroad  nearlj-  two  yea^s,  visiting 
England,  France,  and  Italy.  His  sight,  though  not 
strong  enough  to  permit  him  to  read  ouch,  seems  to 
have  been  sufficient  to  give  him  a  vivid  enjoyment  of 
the  various  scenes  and  places  through  whirh  he  trav- 
elled ;  but  his  health  appears  not  to  have  been  benefited 
by  his  foreign  tour,  and  in  the  summer  of  181 7  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  country.  He  now  decided  to  aban- 
don the  law  and  devote  himself  wholly  to  literature. 
His  eye,  however,  was  so  irritable  and  feeble  that  he  waa 
obliged  to  pass  much  of  his  time  in  a  darkened  room, 
with  barely  light  enough  to  admit  of  some  one  reading 
to  him, — this  being  now  his  only  means  of  cultivating 
an  acquaintance  with  his  favourite  authors. 

In  May,  1820,  Mr.  Prescott  was  married  to  Miss  Susan 
Amory  ;  and  the  union  appears  to  have  been  a  singularly 
happy  one.  About  1821  he  commenced  a  systematic 
course  of  reading,  (by  the  ear,)  which  was  to  embrace 
the  works  of  the  best  English  prose  writers  from  Roger 
Ascham  to  the  present  day,  and  afterwards  the  best 
productions  of  the  literatures  of  France  and  Italy.  He 
appears  to  have  enjoyed  with  a  peculiar  zest  the  great 
works  of  Italian  genius,  and  especially  the  "  Divina  Com- 
media"  of  Dante.  He  seems  to  have  taken  less  delight 
in  the  celebrated  authors  of  France,  though  he  admired 
Montaigne  and  Pascal,  and,  above  all.  La  Fontaine  and 
Moliere.  In  the  autumn  of  1824  he  commenced  in 
earnest  the  study  of  that  magnificent  language  and  lite- 
rature which  have  been  immortalized  by  the  genius  of 
Lopo  de  Vega  and  Cervantes.  "  This,"  says  Mr.  Tick- 
nor,  "  was  the  opening  of  the  Spanish  campaign,  which 
ended  only  with  his  life."  He  had  at  one  time  enter- 
tained the  design  of  writing  a  sort  of  general  history 
of  Italian  literature  ;  but  this  was  now  abandoned  lor 
labour  in  a  different  field.  After  "long  choosing,"  to 
adopt  the  words  of  Milton,  "and  beginning  late,"  he  at 
last  decided,  in  January,  1826,  to  write  the  "History  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  which,  eleven  years  later,  was 
published,  in  three  8vo  volumes,  simultaneously  in  Bos- 
ton and  in  London.  The  success  of  the  work  was  of  the 
most  flattering  kind,  and  at  once  placed  him  in  the  very 
highest  rank  of  contemporary  historians.  After  six 
years  of  additional  labour,  appeaxed  his  "  Conquest  of 
Mexico,"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1843.)  Four  years  afterwards  he 
gave  the  world  his  "Concjuest  of  Peru,"  (2  vols.  8vo.) 
In  1845  appeared  a  volume  of  his  "Miscellanies,"  con- 
sisting of  contributions  to  the  "  North  American  Review." 
In  1850  he  made  a  short  visit  to  Europe.  Soon  after  his 
return  he  commenced  the  "  liistory  of  the  Reign  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  a  work  which  he  did  not  live  to 
complete,  although  the  first  three  volumes  were  published 
in  his  lifetime,  the  first  two  having  appeared  in  185?, 
the  third  in  1858.  The  entire  work  was  designed  to 
be  included  in  6  vols.  8vo.  The  third  volume  was  pub- 
lished in  the  summer  of  185.S,  after  the  occurrence  of 
his  first  slight  apoplectic  attack,  (February  4,  1858,)  fror. 
which  he  seemed  sjjeedily  to  recover.  He  resumed  hii 
literary  labours,  but  was  forced  to  limit  himself  to  the 
lightest  kind  of  work  ;  and  he  never  afterwards  had  that 
enjoyment  in  his  studies  which  he  had  experienced  in 
previous  years.     On  the  28;h  of  January,  1859,  he  was 


i.  g, !,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  J,  short;  ^,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir.  f\ll,  fit;  m6t;  nftt;  go6d;  m<Jon; 


PRESL 


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BCized  with  a  second  attack  of  apoplexy,  of  which  he 
died  in  about  three  hours. 

In  person  Mr.  Prescott  was  tall  and  well  formed,  with 
light-brown  hair,  a  fine  clear  complexion,  and  an  ex- 
pression of  countenance  singularly  bright,  genial,  and 
attractive.  "  His  smile,"  says  Mr.  Ticknor,  "  was  abso- 
lutely the  most  contagious  I  ever  looked  upon."  His 
disposition  was  in  the  highest  degree  social,  generous, 
and  kindly.  "  Indeed,  take  him  for  all  in  all,"  says  Mr. 
Ticknor,  "  I  think  no  man  ever  walked  our  streets,  as 
he  did  day  by  day,  that  attracted  such  regard  and  good 
will  from  so  many  ;  for,  however  few  he  might  know, 
there  were  very  many  that  knew  him,  and  watched  him 
with  unsp(>ken  welcomes  as  he  passed  along." 

Mr.  Prescott's  merits  as  a  historian  are  of  the  very 
highest  order.  In  vigour  of  thought  and  in  grandeur  of 
style  he  has  undoubtedly  been  surpassed  by  many  of 
the  great  masters  of  historical  composition  ;  but  he  pos- 
sessed other  qualities,  which,  if  less  imposing,  are  far 
more  essential  to  the  character  of  a  perfect  historian. 
In  that  spirit  of  thorough  research  which  never  rests 
satisfied  until  every  field  has  been  explored  and  every 
accessible  source  of  information  consulted  and  ex- 
hausted, he  has  had  few  if  any  superiors  ;  while  in  that 
impartiality  which  proceeds  from  a  high  and  scrupulous 
sense  of  justice  and  unswerving  devotion  to  truth,  he 
has  perhaps  never  been  equalled — certainly  never  sur- 
passed— by  any  historian,  of  whatever  age  or  country. 
His  style,  moreover,  is  for  the  most  part  remarkable  for 
its  animation,  clearness,  and  grace  ;  and  in  the  general 
treatment  of  his  subject  he  exhibits  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree the  "eloquence"  and  "  lucid  order"  which  the  great 
poet-critic  of  ancient  Rome  tells  us  will  not  be  wanting 
to  him  who  knows  how  to  choose  his  subject  wisely.* 

(For  the  opinions  of  various  eminent  critics  on  the 
works  of  Mr.  Prescott,  the  reader  is  particularly  re- 
ferred to  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors.") 

See,  also,  the  admirable  "  Life  of  William  Hickling  Prescott,"  by 
George  Ticknor,  Boston,  1864;  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers 
of  America  ;"  Duvckinck,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol  ii.  ;  "American  Cyclopsdia  ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  Decem- 
ber, 1S43,  and  September,  1847;  "North  American  Review"  foi 
January,  1S64. 

Presl,  pR§sl,  (Jan  Swatopluk,)  a  Bohemian  botanist, 
born  at  Prague  in  1791.  He  wrote  "  Symbolae  Botanical," 
(1832,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1849. 

Presle,  de,  deh  pRel,  (Charles  Marie  Wladimir 
Brunet,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  in  Paris  in  1809. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Critical  Inquiry 
into  the  Succession  of  Egyptian  Dynasties,"  (1850,)  and 
"  Greece  since  the  Roman  Conquest,"  ("  La  Grece  depuis 
la  Conquete  Romaine,"  1859.)     Died  Sept.  12,  1875. 

Pressense,  de,  deh  pR-VsiN'si',  (Edmond,)  an  emi- 
nent French  Protestant  divine  and  pulpit  orator  of  the 
present  age.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the 
First  Three  Centuries  of  the  Church,"  "The  Religions 
before  Christ :  being  an  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  First  Three  Centuries  of  the  Church,"  (1862,)  and 
"Jesus  Christ:  his  Times,  Life,  and  Work,"  (1866.) 
lie  sat  in  the  national  assembly,  1871-75,  and  in  18S3 
was  chosen  senator  for  life.     Died  April  8,  1891. 

Prestel,  pRSs'tel,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
engraver  and  portrait-painter,  born  at  Griinbach,  in 
Suabia,  in  1739.  He  worked  at  Nuremberg  for  some 
years.     Died  in  1808. 

Pres'ter  John  or  Joao,  [Fr.  Le  PrStre  Jean, 
l?h  pritR  zhftN,]  ("the  Priest  John,")  the  title  of  an 
imaginary  personage  whom  the  Europeans  of  the  middle 
ages  supposed  to  reign  in  the  interior  of  Asia  and  to 
have  been  converted  to  Christianity.  Rubruquis,  a  friar, 
was  sent  by  Louis  IX.  of  France  to  search  for  Prester 
John,  in  1253,  and  explored  Central  Tartary,  but  did  not 
find  him.  The  general  belief  in  his  existence  originated 
perhaps  in  a  report  of  some  Nestorian  missionaries  that 
Oong,  (or  Oungh,)  a  Khan  of  Tartary,  had  been  con- 
verted by  them. 

.''ee  S.  Baring-Gould,  "Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages." 

Prestet,  pri't^',  (Jean,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1648;  died  in  1690. 


*  "  Cui  lecta  potenter  erit  res, 
Non  facundia  deseret  hunc,  nee  lucidiis  ordo." 

Horace  :  De  A  rte  Poetica. 


Pres'ton,  (Harriet  W.,)  an  American  litterateur,  born 
at  Danvers,  Massachusetts.  She  has  contributed  to  the 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  and  other  magazines,  and  published 
"  Aspendale,"  "  Love  in  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
"Mereio,"  a  translation  from  Frederick  Mistral,  (1872,) 
and  "Troubadours  and  Trouveres  New  and  Old,"  (1876.) 

Pres'ton,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  divme  and 
Puritan,  born  at  Heyford,  in  Northamptonshire,  in  1587, 
adopted  Calvinistic  opinions.  He  was  chosen  master  of 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  about  1622.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Covenant,"  and  other 
works.  By  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  he 
obtained  the  lectureship  of  Trinity  Church,  Cambridge. 
According  to  Fuller,  he  was  "an  excellent  preacher,  a 
celebrated  disputant,  and  a  perfect  politician."  Died 
in  1628. 

Pres'ton,  (John  S.,)  an  American  politician,  brother 
of  \V.  C.  Preston,  was  born  near  Abingdon,  Virginia,  in 
1809.  He  removed  to  South  Carolina,  where  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  legislature.  Soon  after  the  election 
of  Mr.  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency,  he  joined  the  seces- 
sionists.   Died  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  May  i,  1S81. 

Preston,  (Margaret  Junkin,)  an  American  poetess, 
daughter  of  George  Junkin,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Lexington, 
Virginia,  in  1838.  She  has  contributed  to  the  leading 
magazines,  and  published  the  following  books  :  "Silver- 
wood,"  (a  tale,  1856,)  "  Beechenbrook,"  (1868,)  "Old 
Song  and  New,"  (1870.)  and  "Cartoons,"  (1876.) 

Preston,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  a 
Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge.  He  wrote  about 
1564  "A  Lamentable  Tragedy,  mixed  full  of  Pleasant 
Mirth,  containing  the  Life  of  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia." 
Died  in  1598. 

Preston,  (Thomas  Scott,)  LL.D.,  Monsignor,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
July  23,  1825.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1843,  entered  the  Episcopalian  ministry  in  1846, 
became  a  Romanist  in  1849,  and  in  1850  was  ordained  a 
priest.  He  was  chosen  vicar-general  of  the  archdiocese 
of  New  York,  and  in  1881  was  appointed  a  domestic 
prelate  of  the  papal  court.  Among  his  very  numerous 
books  are  "  Reason  and  Revelation,"  (1868,)  "  Protestant- 
ism and  the  Church,"  (1882,)  and  "God  and  Reason," 
(1884.) 

Preston,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born  near 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1816.  He  practised  law  in 
Louisville,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Spain  in  1858. 
He  joined  the  disunionists  in  1861,  and  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general.     Died  .September  21,  1887. 

Preston,  (William  C.,)  an  American  Senator  and 
orator,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1794.  His  grandmother 
was  a  sister  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  studied  in  Edin- 
burgh. About  1822  he  removed  to  Columbia,  South 
Carolina,  where  he  practised  law  and  gained  much  dis- 
tinction. He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  in  1832.  He  op- 
posed the  policy  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  resigned  his 
seat  about  1842.  He  was  afterwards  president  of  the 
South  Carolina  College.     Died  at  Columbia  in  i860. 

Preston-Grange,  Lord.     See  Grant,  (Patrick.) 

Prest'^wich,  (Joseph,)  an  English  geologist,  born  al 
Pensbury,  near  London,  March  12,  i8i2.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  University  College,  London,  and  became  a 
business-man  and  an  amateur  geologist,  publishing  im- 
portant papers  on  scientific  questions.  In  1874  he 
became  professor  of  geology  at  Oxford. 

Pretender,  The  First.  See  James  Francis  Ed- 
ward. 

Pretender,  The  Second.  See  Charles  Edward 
Stuart. 

Preti,  pKa'tee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  in 
Tuscany  in  1582  ;  died  in  1626. 

Preti,  (Mattia,)  called  IL  Calabrese,  an  It.alian 
painter,  born  in  Calabria  in  1613,  was  a  pupil  of  Lan- 
franc  and  Guercino.  He  worked  in  Rome,  Naples,  and 
other  places,  preferring  scriptural  and  tragical  subjects. 
Among  his  works  are  frescos  of  the  life  of  Saint  An- 
drew, at  Rome.  His  design  was  vigorous  rathei  than 
graceful,  and  his  colouring  sombre.     Died  in  1699. 

See  Pascoli,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  moderni ;"  Lanzi,  "  Hisi 
Painting  in  Italy." 


lisiory  of 


easii;  jasj;  %kard;  gaaj;  G,II.K.  ^ttura/;  n,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  sasa;  thasin////j.     (S^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PREUSCHEN 


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PRICE 


Preuschen,  pRoi'shen,  (A.  T.,)  a  German  litterateur 
and  theologian,  born  in  Hesse  in  1734.  Amonc;  his 
works  is  "Monuments  of  Ancient  Physical  and  Political 
Revolutions  in  Germany,"  (1787.)  lie  invented  typomi- 
trie,  or  the  art  of  printing  plans  and  maps  with  movable 
types.     Died  in  1803. 

Preuas,  pRoiss,  (Johann  David  Erdmann,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Landsberg,  on  the  Waithe,  in 
1785.  He  published  several  works  relating  to  Frederick 
the  Great  and  his  times,  among  which  is  a  "  Biography 
of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (1832-34.)     Died  in  1868. 

Pr^val,  de,  deh  pRi'vtl',  (Claude  Antoine  Hip- 
POLYTE,)  VicomTe,  a  French  general,  born  at  Salins 
(Jura)  in  1776.  He  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1814, 
and  president  of  the  committee  of  war  in  the  council 
of  state  in  1837.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  writer  on 
military  affairs.     Died  in  1853. 

See  Du  Haillan,  "Biographic  du  G^n^ral  Pr^val,"  1842; 
Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Pr6ville,  pRi'vfeK,  (Pierre  Louis  Dubus.)  a  popular 
French  comic  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1721.  He  performed 
in  Paris  from  1753  to  1786.     Died  in  1799. 

Previtale,  pRi-ve-ti'li,  (Andrea.)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bergamo,  was  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini.  He 
painted  Madonnas,  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
about  1528. 

Provost,  pRi'vo',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1674;  died  in  1753. 

Prevost,  prSv'ost,  ?  (Sir  George,)  an  English  gen- 
eral, born  in  1767.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
attack  on  Martinique  in  1809,  and  became  Governor- 
General  of  the  British  possessions  in  North  America  in 
1S12.  He  was  defeated  at  Plattsburg  in  1814,  soon  after 
which  he  was  recalled.     Died  in  London  in  1816. 

See  "  Some  Account  of  the  Public  Life  of  General  Sir  George 
Prevost,"  London,  1823. 

Prevost,  pRi'vo',  (Isaac  BENofr,)  a  Swiss  natu- 
ral philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1755.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Montauban  in  1810.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Cause  of  the  Caries  of 
Wheat,  and  of  other  Diseases  of  Plants,"  (1807.)  Died 
in  1 8 19. 

See  P.  Provost,  "Notice  sur  I.  B.  Prdvost,"  1S20. 

Prevost,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  medical  writer,  born  near 
Bale  in  1585.  He  succeeded  Alpini  as  professor  of 
botany  at  Padua  in  161 7,  and  wrote  many  works,  which 
were  often  reprinted.     Died  at  Padua  in  163 1. 

Prevost,  (Louis  Constant,)  an  eminent  French 
geologist,  born  in  Paris  in  17S7.  He  published  in  1820 
an  important  work  "  On  the  Geological  Constitution  of 
the  Basin  of  Vienna,"  (in  Austria,)  and  became  professor 
of  geology  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1831.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Chronology  of  Rocks  and  Synchronism  of  Forma- 
tions," (1845,)  and  "Bearing  of  Ancient  Fossils  in  the 
Basin  of  the  Gironde."     Died  in  1856. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Prevost,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1751,  was  eminent  for  the  variety  and  pro- 
foundness of  his  learning.  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1780,  and  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Geneva  about  1784.  In  1788  he  published  a 
work  "On  the  Origin  of  Magnetic  Forces."  He  obtained 
the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Geneva  in  1793,  and  that  of 
general  physics  in  1810.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Researches  on  Heat,"  ( 1 792,) "  Radiant  Caloric," 
(1809,)  and  an  "Exposition  of  the  Principles  of  Radiant 
Heat,"  (1832,)  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1839. 

See  A.  P.  Decandollb,  "  Notice  sur  P.  Provost,"  in  the  "Bi- 
bliothique  universelle  de  Genive,"  1839. 

Prevost,  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  of  landscapes 
and  panoramas,  born  near  Chateaudun  in  1764.  He 
designed  or  painted  from  nature  panoramas  of  Rome, 
Naples,  Jerusalem,  Athens,  etc.  "  He  would  perhaps 
have  obtained,"  says  Peries,  "  only  the  second  rank  of 
landscape-painters,  if  a  new  discovery  had  not  induced 
him  to  adopt  a  kind  of  painting  in  which  he  remains  un- 
rivalled." The  invention  of  the  panorama  is  ascribed 
both  to  Prevost  and  to  Robert  Fulton.     Died  in  1823. 

Prevost,  (Zacii6e,)  an  eminent  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1797.  He  obtained  a  medal  in  1827  for 
"  Corinne  at  Cape  Misenum,"  after  Gerard,  and  a  medal 

a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  }=,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mil;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


of  the  first  class  in  1839.     He  engraved  "The  Wedding 
at  Cana,"  after  Paul  Veronese,  (1852.)     Died  in  1861. 

Provost  d'Eziles,  pRi'vo'  d^k'stl',  (Antoine  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  writer,  born  in  Artois  in  1697.  He  took 
the  monastic  vows  in  bis  youth,  but  soon  became  dis- 
gusted with  that  life,  and  fled  to  Holland.  He  wrote 
nearly  two  hundred  volumes,  including  many  works  of 
fiction,  among  which  his  novel  entitled  "  Manon  Les- 
caut"  (1733)  was  especially  celebrated.  He  published  a 
"General  History  of  Voyages,"  (20  vols.,  1745-70.)  Died 
in  1763. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  I'AbM  Pro- 
vost," 1810;  J.  Janin,  "Notice  sur  Provost,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  "  Manon  Lescaut,"  1838;  P.  Bernard,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de 
I'Abb^  Provost,"  iSio;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Provost  d'Exmes,  Le,  leh  pRi'vo'  dSksm,  (Fran- 
cois,) a  French  littirateur,  born  near  Argentan  in  1720 
died  in  1793. 

Prevost-Paradol,  pRi'vo' pi'ri'doK,  (Lucien  Ana- 
TOLE,)a  French  litterateur  ^nA  orator  of  great  eminence, 
born  in  Paris  in  1829.  He  obtained  from  the  French 
Academy  in  1851  the  prize  of  eloquence  for  an  "Eloge 
de  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre."  In  1856  he  began  to 
write  for  the  "Journal  des  Debats,"  of  which  he  was 
for  many  years  one  of  the  ablest  editors.  He  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy  in  1865,  in  place  of 
Ampere,  On  this  occasion  Guizot  addressed  him  in  a 
very  complimentary  speech.  He  published  a  volume  of 
"  Essais  de  Politique  et  de  Litterature,"  (1859,)  "  Essais 
de  Politique  et  de  Morale,"  (1862,)  and  "fitudes  sur  les 
Moralistes  Fran9ais,"  (1864.)  He  had  a  great  talent  for 
irony  and  raillery.  In  June,  1870,  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  the  United  States.  He  committed  suicide  at 
Washington,  July  20  of  the  same  year, 

Preyer,  pri'er,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Rheydt,  Rhenish  Prussia,  in  1803. 
He  was  educated  at  Dusseldorf,  where  he  lived  for  many 
years.  Among  his  earlier  pictures  was  the  "  Bock  Bier," 
in  the  New  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  His  chief  reputation 
was  won  as  a  painter  of  still  life,  in  which  department  he 
was  almost  unrivalled.  Died  in  1889.  His  son  Paul 
and  daughter  Emilie  also  won  distinction  as  artists. 
The  elder  Preyer  was  a  dwarf. 

Pri'am,  [Gr.  npm//of ;  Lat.  Pri'amus  ;  Fr.  Priam, 
PRc'Sn',]  a  famous  king  of  Troy,  in  whose  reign  occurred 
the  siege  of  Troy,  which  is  the  theme  of  Homer's  "  Iliad." 
He  was  a  son  of  Laomedon,  and  the  father  of  Hector, 
Paris,  and  other  heroes.  According  to  Virgil,  he  was 
killed  by  Pyrrhus  at  the  capture  of  Troy, 

See  the  "^neid,"  book  ii.  506-558. 

Priamus.    See  Priam. 

Priape.     See  Priapus. 

Pri-a'pus,  [Gr.  W-pianoz;  Fr.  Priape,  pRe'ip',]  an 
obscene  idol  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  repre- 
sented as  a  son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  and  worshipped 
as  the  protector  of  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  of  grape- 
vines and  gardens,  and  as  the  god  of  fertility. 

Price,  (Bartholomew,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
mathematician,  born  in  1818  at  Coin  Saint  Dennis.  He 
graduated  in  1840  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and 
in  1853  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  his  university.  His  most  noted  work  is  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Infinitesimal  Calculus,"  (5  vols.,  1S57-65.) 

Price,  (BoNAMY,)  an  English  economist,  born  in 
Guernsey,  May  22,  1807.  In  1829  he  graduated  at  Wor- 
cester College,  Oxford,  in  which  university  he  became 
in  1S68  professor  of  political  economy.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Principles  of  Currency,"  (1869,)  "Of 
Currency  and  Banking,"  (1876,)  "Practical  Political 
Economy,"  (1878,)  etc.     Died  January  S,  1S8S. 

Price,  (David,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in  1762. 
He  served  as  a  major  in  the  army  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  published  a  "  Chronological  Retrospect ; 
or,  Memoirs  of  the  Principal  Events  in  Mohammedan 
History  from  the  Death  of  the  Arabian  Legislator  to 
the  Accession  of  the  Emperor  Akbar,"  (4  vols.,  1811-21.) 
Died  in  1835. 

Price,  (Eli  K.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  Brad- 
ford, Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  July  20,  1797.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1S22.  He  published  "  Liens 
and   Limitations,"   (1857.)   a   book  on   the   law  of  re.il 


PRICE 


1999 


PRIESTLEY 


estate,  (1874,)  and  various  other  works.     Died  at  Phila- 
delphia, November  15.  1884. 

Price,  (Tames,)  an  English  chemist  or  alchemist,  born 
in  1752.     He  committed  suicide  in  1783. 

Price,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  or  Welsh  antiquary, 
wrote  a  "  Defence  of  British  History,"  in  answer  to 
Polydore  Vergil,  (1573.)     Died  about  1553. 

Price,  (John,)  an  English  critic,  born  in  London  in 
1600.  lie  published  commentaries  on  Scripture.  Died 
in  a  convent  at  Rome  in  1676. 

Price,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  who  was  chaplain 
to  General  Monk,  and  became  rector  of  Petworth,  in 
Sussex,  under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  lie  published 
"The  Mystery  and  Method  of  his  Majesty's  Happy 
Restauration,"  etc.,  (London,  1660.)  Died  in  1691. 
See  "Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  GuizoT. 
Price,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting  min- 
ister and  speculative  philosopher,  was  born  at  Tynton, 
in  Glamorganshire,  in  1723.  He  was  chaplain  to  Mr. 
Streathfield,  or  Streatfield,  from  1743  to  1756,  after 
which  he  preached  at  Newington  Green  Chapel  and  the 
Gravel-Pit  Meeting-House,  at  Hackney.  He  married 
in  1757  a  Miss  Blundell.  He  advocated  the  cause  of 
American  liberty  in  his  "Observations  on  Civil  Liberty 
and  the  Justice  and  Policy  of  the  War  with  America," 
(1776,)  which  was  a  popular  work.  In  1778  he  was  in- 
vited by  Congress  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States ;  but  he  declined.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Dr.  Franklin  and  Dr.  Priestley.  Among  his  chief  works 
are  a  "Review  of  the  Principal  Questions  and  Diffi- 
culties in  Morals,"  (1758,)  "Four  Dissertations,  on 
Providence,  Prayer,  the  State  of  Virtuous  Men  after 
Death,  and  Christianity,"  (1766-68,)  and  Sermons.  Died 
in  London  in  1791. 

See  "Life  of  R.  Price,"  by  W.  Morgan,  18 is. 
Price,  (Sterling,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia.  He  emigrated  to  Missouri,  and  represented  a 
district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from  1845  'o  1S47.  He 
was  Governor  of  Missouri  from  1853  to  1857,  and  joined 
the  disunionists  in  1861.  He  served  as  major-general  at 
Wilson's  Creek  in  August,  1861,  took  Lexington,  Sep- 
tember 20,  and  retired  to  Springfield.  He  commanded 
a  division  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  at  Corinth,  in 
October  of  that  year.  In  September,  1864,  he  entered 
Southeastern  Missouri  with  an  army,  made  a  successful 
raid  to  Lexington,  and,  after  several  fights,  returned  by 
a  different  route  to  Arkansas  about  the  end  of  October. 
Died  in  1867. 

See  a  notice  of  Sterling  Price  in  "  Southern  Generals,"  1865. 
Price,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  a  distinguished  Welsh  scholar, 
born  at  Pencaerelin,  near  Builth,  in  1787.  He  became 
vicar  of  Cwmdu  in  1825.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  A  Critical  Essay  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Wales,"  and  (in  Welsh)  a  "  History  of  Wales  and  the 
Welsh  Nation  from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  Death  of 
Llewelyn  ap  Gruffydd,"  (1836-42,)  which  is  said  to  be 
the  best  work  on  the  subject.     Died  in  1848. 

Price,  (Sir  Uvedale,)  an  English  gentleman,  born  in 
Herefordshire  in  1747.  He  made  some  improvements 
in  landscape-gardening,  and  wrote  a  work  on  that  sub- 
ject, entitled  "An  Essay  on  the  Picturesque  as  compared 
with  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful ;  and  on  the  Use  of 
Studying  Pictures  for  the  Purpose  of  Improving  Real 
Landscape,"  (1794.)  An  enlarged  edition  was  published 
in  2  vols.,  1797.     Died  in  1829. 

Price,  (William,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in 
1780.  He  went  to  Persia  in  1810  as  secretary  of  the 
British  embassy.  He  published  a  "Grammar  of  the 
Hindostanee,  Persian,  and  Arabic  Languages,"  (1823,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1830. 

Prichard,  pritch'ard,  (James  Cowles,)  an  eminent 
English  ethnologist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Ross, 
Herefordshire,  in  1785.  He  graduated  as  a  physician  at 
Edinburgh,  and  began  to  practise  at  Bristol  about  1810. 
In  1813  he  published  "Researches  into  the  Physical 
History  of  Mankind,"  (i  vol.;  3d  edition,  5  vols.,  1849,) 
a  work  of  high  reputation.  He  wrote  a  more  popular 
treatise  on  the  same  subject,  entitled  "The  Natural  His- 
tory of  Man,"  (1843.)  Among  his  important  works  are 
"The  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System,"  (1822,)  "The 


Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations,"  (1831,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Insanity,"  (1834.)  He  removed  from  Bristol 
to  London  in  1845.     Died  in  December,  1848. 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "Quar- 
terly Review"  for  September,  1836  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  Novem- 
ber, 1844. 

Prichard,  pr!tch'ard,  (Rev.  Rees,)  a  Welsh  poet, 
born  in  Carmarthenshire  ;  died  in  1644. 

Prideaux,  prid'o  or  prld'ux,  (Humphrey,)  a  learned 
English  divine  and  historian,  born  at  Padstow,  in  Corn- 
wall, in  1648.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
published  the  inscriptions  of  the  Arundel  marbles  in 
1676.  He  became  prebendary  of  Norwich  in  1681,  rector 
of  Bladen  in  1683,  rector  of  Saham  in  1686,  archdeacon 
of  Suffolk  in  1688,  vicar  of  Trowse  in  1696,  and  Dean 
of  Norwich  in  1702.  He  opposed  the  acts  of  James  II. 
which  caused  the  revolution  of  1688.  His  principal 
works  are  "A  Life  of  Mahomet,"  (1697,)  once  held  in 
high  esteem,  but  now  admitted  to  be  very  deficient  in 
impartiality  as  well  as  in  true  historical  research,  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Connection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment," (6  vols.,  1715-17,)  which  was  much  esteemed 
and  often  reprinted.     Died  in  1724. 

See  "Life  of  H.  Prideaux,"  anonymous,  174S;  "  Biographia 
Britannica." 

Prideaux,  (John,)  an  English  divine  of  great  learn- 
ing, was  born  at  Stowford,  in  Devonshire,  in  1578.  He 
became  in  161 5  regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford, 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  rector  of  Ewelme.  In  1641 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Worcester.  He  suffered 
much  loss  in  consequence  of  his  adherence  to  the  royal- 
ist party  in  the  civil  war.  He  left  many  works  on  the- 
ology, logic,  and  other  subjects.     Died  in  1650. 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Prierias.     See  Mazolini. 

Priessnitz,  pRees'nits,  (Vincenz,)  celebrated  as  the 
founder  of  the  system  of  hydropathy,  ( Kaltwassercur, 
"  cold-water  cure,")  was  born  at  Grafenberg,  in  Austrian 
Silesia,  in  1799.  Having  been  severely  injured  by  a 
loaded  cart  passing  over  his  body,  he  was  enabled  to 
effect  a  cure  by  the  application  of  cold  water,  which  he 
subsequently  made  use  of  as  a  healing  agent  in  various 
diseases  when  consulted  by  his  neighbours.  In  1826 
he  opened  a  hydropathic  institution  at  Grafenberg,  which 
was  soon  resorted  to  by  invalids  from  different  parts  of 
Germany  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  The  fame 
of  his  successes  became  at  length  so  great  that  the  num- 
ber of  his  annual  guests  exceeded  one  thousand.  His 
system  excluded  all  medicine  and  stimulants  of  whatever 
kind,  as  well  as  blistering  and  depletion  in  any  form, 
relying  only  on  the  various  applications  of  water,  abun- 
dant out-door  exercise,  wholesome  diet,  etc.  He  died 
in  1851.  The  water-cure  has  been  received  with  favour 
in  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United 
States. 

See  Decken-Himmelreich,  "V.  Priessnitz  und  die  Wassercur." 
1845;  Selinger,  "Vincenz  Priessnitz,"  1852. 

Priestley,  preest'le,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English 
philosopher,  chemist,  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Field- 
head,  near  Leeds,  on  the  13th  of  March,  1733.  He 
studied  at  a  dissenting  academy  at  Daventry  about  three 
years,  (1752-55,)  and  became  versed  in  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  At  an  early  age  he  admitted  doubts  re- 
specting some  doctrines  of  the  orthodox  creed,  though 
he  had  been  educated  as  a  Calvinist.  He  preached  to 
a  small  company  of  dissenters  at  Needham-Market  from 
1755  to  1758,  and  then  removed  to  Nantwich,  Cheshire. 
In  1 761  he  became  tutor  of  languages  and  belles-lettres 
in  the  academy  of  Warrington,  and  published  "The 
Scripture  Doctrine  of  Remission,"  in  which  he  rejects 
the  dogma  of  the  atonement. 

During  a  visit  to  London  he  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Dr.  Franklin,  who  encouraged  him  to  write  a  "His- 
tory of  Electricity."  He  published  in  1767  a  work  with 
this  title,  which  was  favourably  received.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1766.  In  1767  he  took 
charge  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Leeds,  where  he 
wrote  several  works  on  theology  and  found  recreation 
in  experiments  on  pneumatic  chemistry.  He  obtained 
in  1773  the  Copley  medal  for  his  "Observations  on  Dif- 
ferent Kinds  of  Air."    He  discovered  the  effect  of  respi- 


€aa  k;  9  as s;  g  hard;  g  asy,-  G,  H,  \i,giittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     f 2:^^.See  t'xplanaliuns,  p.  23. 


PRIEUR 


PR  INGLE 


ration  on  the  blood,  and  the  tendency  of  vegetation  to 
restore  to  vitiated  air  its  vivifying  principle.  He  also 
discovered  nitrous  gas,  muriatic  gas,  and  oxygen,  which 
he  called  "dephlogisticated  air."  He  obtained  the  last 
in  1774  from  red  precipitate  of  mercury.  "As  a  physicist 
and  chemist,"  says  Cuvier,  "the  talents  of  Priestley  were 
of  the  first  order.  His  researches  and  writings  have 
contributed  much  to  the  progress  of  the  science." 

He  published  in  1772-74  "Institutes  of  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion."  He  was  librarian  and  literary 
companion  of  the  Earl  of  Shelburne  from  1773  to  1780, 
during  which  period  he  published  "Experiments  and 
Observations  on  Air,"  (5  vols.,  1774-80,)  a  "  Defence  of 
Socinianism,"  and  other  works.  In  1780  he  settled  at 
Birmingham  as  minister  of  the  principal  dissenting  con- 
gregation. He  incurred  public  odium  by  the  heterodox 
and  liberal  opinions  expressed  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Corruptions  of  Christianity,"  (1782,)  "Familiar  Letters 
to  the  Inhabitants  of  Birmingham,"  (1790,)  and  "Reply 
to  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution,"  (1791.) 
In  July,  1 791,  his  house  was  attacked  and  set  on  fire  by 
a  mob,  who  inflicted  great  damage  on  his  library,  appa- 
ratus, etc.,  while  he  and  his  family  escaped  by  flight. 
For  the  sake  of  a  more  tranquil  life,  he  emigrated  with 
his  wife  and  children  in  1794  to  Northumberland,  Penn- 
sylvania, where  he  was  coldly  received,  especially  by  the 
Anti-Gallican  party.     Died  in  February,  1804. 

See  John  Corrv,  "Life  of  Priestley,"  1S05  :  "  Aiitobio;;raphic 
Memoirs,"  1806;  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Priestley,"  1S05;  Thomson, 
"Annals  of  Philosophy,"  vol.  i.,  1813  ;  J.  P.  Smith,  "Discourse  on 
:he  Death  of  J.  Priestley,"  1805:  English  translation  of  Cuvier's 
aiiloc^y,  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1858,  paj^e  138  ;  Dr.  Hokfer, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Chimie;"  T.  Belsham,  "Discourse  on  the  Death 
of  Joseph  Priestley:"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October, 
1806,  (by  Jeffrey;)  "Monthly  Review"  for  August,  October,  and 
December,  1767,  et  seq. 

Prieur,  pre'UR',  (Barth^lemy,)  a  French  sculptor 
and  Huguenot.  His  chief  work  was  a  monument  to 
Constable  Anne  de  Montmorency.     Died  in  161 1. 

Prieur  de  laMarne,  pRe'uR'deh  It  mtRn,  a  French 
revolutionist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Champagne  about 
1760.  He  was  an  active  democratic  member  of  the 
Convention,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In 
June,  1794,  he  became  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety.     Died  at  Brussels  in  1827. 

Prieur-Duvernois,  pRe'UR'  dii'v^R'nwi',  (Claude 
Antoine,)  a  French  republican,  born  at  Auxonne  in 
1763.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Convention  in 
1792,  and  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  in  1793. 
He  is  said  to  have  shared  with  his  friend  Carnot  the 
honour  of  having  ori^anized  victory.  The  reforiT\  which 
rendered  weights  and  measures  uniform  in  France  is 
ascribed  mostly  to  him.     Died  in  1832. 

Prieur,  Le,  leh  pue'uR',  (Philippe,)  a  French  scholar, 
born  at  Saint- Vaast,  published  a  work  "On  Canonical 
Letters,"  ("  De  Literis  canonicis,"  1675.)  Died  in  1680. 

Priezac,  de,  deh  pRe'z^k',  (Daniel,)  a  French  advo- 
cate and  writer  on  law,  politics,  etc.,  was  born  in  Bas- 
Limousin  in  1590.  He  was  a  member  of  the  P'rench 
Academy.  Died  in  1662.  His  son  Solomon  was  author 
of  numerous  works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  Ele- 
phants," (1650.) 

Prilesky,  pRe-l5s'kee,  (John  Baptist,)  a  Jesuit,  born 
in  Hungary  in  1709.  He  wrote  several  works,  among 
which  is  "Account  of  the  Holy  Fathers  who  flourished 
in  the  Two  First  Centuries,"  ("Notitia  SS.  Patrum  qui 
duobus  primis  Seculis  floruerunt,"  1753.) 

Prim,  pR^m,  (Juan,)  Count  de  Reus  and  Marquis 
de  los  Castillejos,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  Catalonia 
about  1814.  He  took  arms  against  Espartero  in  1843, 
and  acted  with  the  party  of  Progresistas.  In  1859  or 
i860  he  obtained  command  of  a  division  of  the  army 
sent  against  Morocco,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  services 
at  Marabout  with  the  title  of  Marquis  de  los  Castillejos. 
He  commanded  the  Spanish  army  which  co-operated 
with  the  French  and  British  in  the  invasion  of  Mexico  in 
1861,  and  returned  to  Spain  in  1862.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  insurgents  who  deposed  Queen  Isabel  in  Septem- 
ber, 1868,  and  he  became  in  the  next  November  minister 
of  war  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Spain. 
Prim  and  Serrano  were  the  most  powerful  and  promi- 
nent members  of  the  provisional  government  formed  by 


the  insurgents  ;  and  the  former  was  the  virtual  dictator  of 
Spain  in  1869-70.  He  was  assassinated,  December,  187a 
Primaticcio,  pRe-mJ-tit'cho,  |Fr.  Le  Primatice, 
leh  pRe'mt'ttss',]  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  sculp- 
tor, and  architect,  born  at  Bologna  in  1490.  He  studied 
design  under  Innocenzio  da  Imola,  Bagnacavallo,  and 
Giulio  Romano.  In  1531  he  went  to  France,  and  was 
employed  by  Francis  I.  to  adorn  the  chateau  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  in  which  he  painted  a  number  of  large  frescos. 
Among  these  were  pictures  of  scenes  from  the  "Odys- 
sey," which  were  much  admired.  He  was  patronized 
by  Henry  II.  and  Francis  II.     Died  at  Paris  in  1570. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters:"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Bolocnini-Amorini,  "Vita  del  Pittore  F.  Pri- 
maticcio," 1838;  Fontenav,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Ar'istes." 

Primatice,  Le.    See  Primaticcio. 

Prime,  (Edward  Dorr  Griffin,)  an  American 
author,  a  brother  of  S.  I.  Prime,  was  born  in  Cambridge, 
New  York,  November  2,  1S14.  He  graduated  at  Union 
College  in  1832,  and  in  1838  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  He  afterwards  became  one  of  the  editors 
and  proprietors  of  the  "  New  York  Observer."  Among 
his  works  are  "  Around  the  World,"  and  "  Forty  Years 
in  the  Turkish  Empire  :  Memoirs  of  W.  Goodell,  D.D.," 
(1875.)     Died  April  7,  1S91. 

Prime,  (Samuel  Iren^^us,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine,  born  in  Saratoga  county,  New  York,  in 
1812.  He  became  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Observer" 
in  1840.  He  published  "  Travels  in  Europe  and  the 
East,"  (2  vols.,  1855,)  "The  Power  of  Prayer,"  (1859,) 
and  various  other  works.     Died  July  18,  18S5. 

Prime,  (William  Cowper,)  a  lawj'er,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Washington  county.  New 
York,  in  1825.  He  has  published,  among  other  works, 
"The  Old  House  by  the  River,"  (1853,)  "Boat-Life  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia,"  (1857,)  and  "Tent-Life  in  the  Holy 
Land,"  (1857.) 

Primerose  or  Primrose,  pr?m'roz,  (Gilbert,)  an 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Scotland.  He  became  chaplain  to 
the  king,  and  canon  of  Windsor.     Died  in  1643. 

Primerose,  (James,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Bordeaux.  He  practised  in  York- 
shire, and  wrote  several  medical  works,  which  are 
commended.     Died  about  1660. 

Pri'mus,  (Marcus  Antonius,)  a  Roman  general, 
born  at  Tolosa,  (Toulouse,)  in  Gaul.  He  raised  an 
army  for  Vespasian  in  69  a.D.,  and  gained  victories 
over  the  troops  of  Vitellius  at  Verona,  Bedriacum, 
and  Rome. 

Prince,  (Henry,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  East- 
port,  Maine,  in  181 1,  fought  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  the  United  .States  army  in  1S62. 

Priuce,  (John,)  an  English  biographer,  born  at  Ax- 
minster  in  1643,  was  vicar  of  Totness.  He  wrote  "The 
Worthies  of  Devon,"  (1710.)     Died  in  1723. 

Prince,  (Oliver  H.,)  an  American  jurist  and  United 
States  Senator  from  Georgia,  perished  in  the  wreck  of 
the  steamboat  Home  in  1837. 

Prince,  (Thomas,)  an  American  divine,  born  in  New 
England  in  1687,  was  the  author  of  several  historical 
and  religious  works.     Died  in  1758. 

Prince  de  Beaumont.     See  Le  Prince. 

Prince,  Le.    See  Le  Prince. 

Pringle,  pring'g'l,  (Sir  JoH.\,)  a  British  physician, 
born  in  Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  in  1707.  He  studied 
at  Leyden  and  in  Paris,  settled  in  Edinburgh  about  1734, 
and  became  physician  to  the  Earl  of  Stair,  who  was 
commander  of  the  army  on  the  continent,  in  1742.  In 
1743  he  was  appointed  chief  physician  to  the  army  in 
Flanders.  He  held  this  office  until  the  peace  of  1748, 
after  which  he  resided  in  London.  He  gained  a  Euro- 
pean reputation  by  a  valuable  work  "On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Army,"  (1752.)  In  1763  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician to  the  queen.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1772,  and  became  physician-extraor- 
dinary to  George  HI.  in  1774.  In  1778  he  succeeded 
Linnaeus  as  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Paris.  He  corresponded  with  the  most  eminent  scien- 
tific men  of  Europe.  Among  his  works  was  a  treatise 
entitled  "Experiments  on  Septic  and  Antiseptic  Sub- 


i,e,i,  d^u,y,/c/^;^£,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  i1,  y,  j-4<7r/,- a,  e,  '\,  (},  obscure ;  fir,  fill,  f4t;  mJt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PR  INGLE 


200I 


PRITCHARD 


stances,"    (1750,)   which   obtained    the   Copley    medal 
Died  in  1782. 

See  A.  Kivpis,  "Life  of  Sir  John  Pringle,"  1783;  CnNDORCET, 
"filoge  de  Pringle ;"  Vicq-d'Azyr,  "filoge  de  J.  Pringle,"  1787; 
"  Biographie  Medicale;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  ol 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Pringle,  (Thomas,)  a  meritorious  Scottish  poet,  born 
at  Blaiklaw,  in  Teviotdale,  in  January,  1789.  During 
his  infancy  an  accident  occurred  which  compelled  him 
to  use  crutches  for  life.  He  wrote  in  1816  "The  Au- 
tumnal Excursion,"  a  poem,  which  procured  for  him  the 
friendship  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  In  1817  he  united  with 
Lockhart,  Wilson,  and  others  in  founding  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Monthly  Magazine,"  of  which  for  a  short  time 
he  was  the  editor.  During  his  connection  with  it  the 
name  was  changed  to  "Blackwood's  Magazine."  lie 
emigrated  in  1820  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
he  edited  the  "  South  African  Journal"  and  founded  an 
academy.  His  success  having  been  hindered  by  the 
enmity  of  the  governor,  he  returned  to  England  in  1S26, 
and  published  a  very  interesting  "  Narrative  of  a  Resi- 
dence in  South  Africa."  He  wrote  a  number  of  poems, 
which  are  admired  for  elegance.     Died  in  1834. 

SeeL.  Ritchie,  "Life  of  Thomas  Pringle,"  prefixed  to  his  Poems  ; 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup- 
plement ;)  J.  CoKDER,  "  Biographical  Sketch  of  T.  Pringle,"  1835. 

Pringsheim,  prings'hTm,  (Nathanael,)  a  German 
(Jewish)  botanist,  born  near  Landsberg,  in  Silesia,  No- 
vember 30,  1S23.  He  was  from  1864  to  1868  botanical 
professor  in  Jena.  He  has  published  many  books  and 
papers  setting  forth  his  discoveries,  chiefly  in  the  minute 
anatomy  and  reproduction  of  cryptogamous  plants. 

Prins,  pR!ns,  (J.  H.,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1758  or  1759.  He  painted  views  of  the  in- 
teriors of  cities.     Died  about  1805. 

Prin'sep,  (Charles  Robert,)  an  English  political 
economist,  born  about  1788,  published  an  "Essay  on 
Money,"  (1818,)  and  translated  Say's  "  Political  Econ- 
omy" from  the  French.     Died  in  1864. 

Prinsep,  (Henry  Thoby,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1792,  was  a  son  of  John  Prinsep,  M.P.  He  en- 
tered the  civil  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and 
became  a  director  in  1849.     Died  February  11,  1878. 

Prinsep,  (James,)  an  eminent  Englisn  Orientalist, 
born  in  1800.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  his  youth,  passed  some  years  at  Benares 
as  assay-master,  and  wrote  "Sketches  of  Benares." 
Having  removed  to  Calcutta,  he  became  in  1832  editor 
of  the  "  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,"  for  which  he 
wrote  valuable  articles  on  chemistry,  Indian  coins,  and 
Indian  antiquities.  He  succeeded  H.  H.  Wilson  as 
secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society  in  1832.  He  made  some 
important  discoveries  in  the  history  of  India  by  the  aid 
of  inscriptions,  which  he  deciphered,  and  which  had 
baffled  other  antiquaries.  He  died  at  sea,  during  a 
voyage  to  England,  in  1840. 

Prinsep,  (Valentine  C.,)  an  English  painter,  born 
in  India,  February  14,  1838.  He  was  trained  for  the 
India  service  in  the  Haileybury  College,  but  devoted 
himself  with  great  success  to  art.  His  paintings  exhibit 
marked  power  and  originality  and  great  beauty  of  col- 
ouring. His  most  famous  picture  is  "  The  Assemblage 
of  Delhi."  He  is  author  of  "  Imperial  India,"  a  book 
of  travels. 

Printz,  pRints,  (  Wolfgang  Caspar,  )  a  German 
composer,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in  1641.  He  published 
a  "Historical  Description  of  Song  and  Music,"  (1690,) 
and  other  works.     Died  at  Sorau  in  17 17. 

Priolo,  pReVlo',  or  Prioli,  pRe'o'le',  (Benjamin,)  a 
French  historian,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in 
Saintonge  in  1602.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of 
France  from  the  Death  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (1662,)  which 
is  praised  by  Bayle.     Died  in  1667. 

See  J.  Rhodius,  "De  Vita  B.  Prioli,"  1672. 

Pri'or,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  biographer  and  sur- 
geon, born  in  1790,  served  many  years  in  the  navy.  He 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Edmund  Burke,"  (1824,)  regarded  as  the 
best  life  of  that  great  statesman  that  has  yet  appeared, 
*nd  a  "  Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,"  (1836.)  Died  in  1869 
See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Prior,  (MATTHEvyr,)  an  English  poet  and  diplomatist, 


was  born  in  Dorsetshire  on  the  21st  of  July,  1664. 
He  was  educated,  at  the  expense  of  the  Earl  of  Dorset, 
in  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  his  bachelor's  degree  in  i6S6,  and  obtained  a 
Fellowship.  To  ridicule  Dryden's  "  Hind  and  Panther," 
Prior  and  Charles  Montague  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"The  City  Mouse  and  Country  Mouse,"  (1687.)  About 
1690  he  was  initiated  into  public  business  as  secretary 
to  the  embassy  which  was  sent  to  the  Congress  of  the 
Hague.  He  was  secretary  to  the  embassy  which  nego- 
tiated the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  and  under-secretary 
of  state  for  a  short  time  in  1699.  In  1700  he  produced 
"Carmen  Seculare,"  a  poetical  panegyric  on  William 
HI.,  which  Johnson  calls  "one  of  his  most  splendid 
compositions."  He  entered  Parliament  in  1701,  and, 
deserting  the  Whigs,  joined  the  Tory  party,  which, 
having  attained  power,  sent  Prior  to  Paris  privately  with 
propositions  of  peace  in  July,  1711.  He  was  accredited 
as  ambassador  at  Paris  in  August,  1713,  and  obtained 
the  reputation  of  a  skilful  diplomatist.  The  Whigs, 
having  come  into  power,  recalled  him  in  August,  1714, 
and  charged  him  with  treason.  He  was  imprisoned 
about  two  years,  (during  which  he  wrote  "  Alma,"  a 
poem,)  and  was  then  released  without  trial.  He  died  at 
Wimpole  in  September,  1721.  Among  his  poems  are 
"  Solomon,"  an  "  Ode  on  the  Battle  of  Ramillies,"  (1706,) 
ind  several  tales.  "  Prior  has  written  with  great  variety," 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  and  his  variety  has  made  him  popu- 
lar. .  .  .  If  his  poetry  be  generally  considered,  his  praise 
will  be  that  of  correctness  and  industry  rather  than  of 
compass  of  comprehension  or  activity  of  fancy.  He 
never  made  any  effort  of  invention." 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  :"  Campbelf,,  "  Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets;"  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Thackeray,  "Tlie 
English  Humourists;"  "  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1857. 

Pri'or,  (Thomas,)  an  Iri.shman,  noted  for  public 
spirit,  was  born  at  Rathdowney,  Queens  county,  in  1679. 
He  founded  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  and  published 
"  A  List  of  Absentees,  with  Observations  on  Trade," 
etc.,  (1729.)     Died  in  1751. 

Priscian,  prish'e-an,  [Lat.  Priscia'nus  ;  Fr.  Pris- 
CIEN,  pRe'se^N',]  a~Jistinguished  Roman  grammarian, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Christian,  and  native  of 
Caesarea.  He  taught  grammar  at  Constantinople  about 
525  A.D.,  and  left  several  works,  which  are  extant.  His 
work  "  De  Arte  Grammatica,"  or  "Commentaria  Gram- 
matica,"  is  the  most  complete  and  philosophic  treatise 
on  that  subject  that  has  come  down  to  us  from  antiquity. 
Its  value  is  enhanced  by  many  quotations  from  works 
which  are  lost. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  Bahr,  "Geschichte  der 
Romischen  Literatur." 

Priscianus.    See  Priscian. 

Priscian.    See  Priscian. 

Pris-cil'li-an,  [Lat.  Priscillia'nus;  Fr.  Priscil- 
LIEN,  pRe'se'leJ^N  ,]  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  near 
Corduba,  (Cordova,)  is  said  to  have  professed  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Gnostics  and  Manicheans.  He  was  charged 
with  heresy  and  beheaded  by  Maximus  about  385  a.d. 

See  P.AVi.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle 
Blographie  Generale." 

Priscillianus.     See  Priscillian. 

Priscillien.    See  Priscillian. 

Pris'cus,  [Gr.  Hpiff/cof,]  an  able  Byzantine  historian, 
born  at  Panium,  in  Thrace.  He  was  sent  by  Theodosius 
on  an  embassy  to  Attila  in  445  a.d.  He  wrote  an 
account  of  this  embassy,  and  of  the  life  of  Attila,  frag- 
ments of  which  are  extant.  His  style  is  commended, 
and  his  history  is  esteemed  for  veracity.  Died  about 
470  a.d. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grjeca." 

Prisons,  (C.  Lutorius,)  a  Roman  poet,  composed  a 
poem  on  the  death  of  Germanicus,  which  was  very  popu- 
lar.    Died  about  21  A.D. 

Prisons,  (Helvidius,)  a  Roman  senator,  distinguished 
for  his  love  of  liberty  and  his  boldness  of  speech.  He 
was  banished  by  Nero  in  66  A.D.,  and  became  praetor  in 
70,  soon  after  which  he  was  put  to  death  by  Vespasian. 

Prisons,  (Tarquinius.)     See  Tarquinius. 

Pritoh'ard,  (Andrew,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
microscopist  of  the   present  century.     He  published  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  K., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 

126 


(S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRITCHARD 


PROCOPIUS 


number  of  valuable  works,  among  which  are  "The  Mi- 
croscopic Cabinet,"  (1832,)  a  "  Natural  History  of  Ani- 
malcules," (1834,)  "  Micrographia:  Essays  on  Micro- 
scopes," (1837,)  and  a  "  History  of  Infusoria,  Living  and 
Fossil,"  (1841  ;  4th  edition.  t86i.)     Died  Nov.  24,  1882. 

Pritchard,  (Charles,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
astronomer,  born  about  1808.  He  graduated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1830,  took  orders  in  the 
Established  Church,  and  in  1870  was  appointed  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Oxford.  He  is  author  of  important 
astronomical  and  mathematical  papers. 

Pritt-witz  und  Gaffron,  von,  fon  prTt'<^its  oond 
gif'fron,  (KoNRAD,)  a  German  poet,  known  as  Konrad 
VON  Kreckwitz,  was  born  near  Nimptsch,  in  Silesia, 
August  I,  1826.  He  was  educated  at  Breslau.  His  lyric 
poems  (1865,  1875,  i88i)  are  thoughtful  and  well-finished 
productions,  which  attracted  much  attention.  He  also 
ublished  some  works  of  biography  and  criticism. 

Pritz,  pRJts,  (JoHANN  Georg,)  a  German  Lutheran 
minister,  born  at  Leipsicin  1662.  He  preached  at  Leip- 
«ic,  Zerbst,  and  Frankfort,  and  published  several  works 
Died  in  1732. 

Proceresius,  pro-e-ree'she-us,  [Gr.  IlpoaifjeOTof,]  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric,  born  in  Armenia  about  275  a.d.  He 
taught  at  Athens  with  a  high  reputation.  Died  about 
365  A.D. 

Pro'bus,  (Marcus  Aurei.ius,)  an  excellent  Roman 
emperor,  born  at  Sirmium  about  235  A.D.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  armies  of  Valerian  and  succeeding 
emperors,  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Germany.  He 
received  the  command  of  all  the  legions  in  the  East  from 
Tacitus,  at  whose  death,  in  276  a.d.,  Probus  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  his  army.  The  senate  confirmed 
their  choice.  He  defeated  the  Germans  in  Gaul,  and 
his  rivals  Saturninus,  Proculus,  and  Bonosus.  He  was 
killed  by  mutinous  soldiers  in  282  a.d.,  and  left  a  very 
high  reputation  for  virtue  and  ability.  It  is  said  that 
he  had  offended  his  troops  by  the  expression  of  a  hope 
that  the  time  was  near  when  armies  would  be  no  longer 
necessary. 

See  GiRBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  AuRE- 
Lius  Victor,  "  De  Caesaribus"  and  "  Epitome." 

Probus,  (Marcus  Valerius,)  a  Roman  grammarian, 
born  at  Berytus,  (Beyroot,)  lived  in  the  first  century  of 
our  era.  He  is  identified  by  some  with  the  Probus  of 
the  next  article. 

Probus,  (Valerius,)  an  eminent  Roman  grammarian, 
who  flourished  probably  about  100  A.D.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  Virgil,  often  cited  by  Servius,  and  other 
works. 

Procaccini,  pRo-kit-chee'nee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Rome  about  1675.  He  became  painter 
to  the  King  of  Spain  in  1720.     Died  in  Spain  in  1734. 

Procaccini,  (Camillo,)  a  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1545  or  1546,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  Ercole  the  Elder. 
He  was  remarkable  for  facility  and  for  fecundity  of  in- 
vention. "He  had,"  says  Lanzi,  "a  simplicity,  grace, 
and  spirit  which  charm  the  eye,  if  they  do  not  always 
satisfy  the  judgment."  Among  his  works  are  a  fresco 
of  "The  Last  Judgment,"  at  Reggio,  and  an  oil-picture 
of  "Saint  Rocco  curing  the  Sick."     Died  in  1626. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizzo- 
nario." 

Procaccini,  (Carlo  Antovto,)  a  painter,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  painted  land- 
scapes, fruits,  and  flowers  with  success.  Some  of  his 
works  are  dated  1605. 

Procaccini,  (Ercole,)  the  Elder,  a  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1520,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His 
style  was  accurate  and  free  from  mannerism,  but  his 
design  was  rather  minute.  Among  his  disciples  were 
Sabbatini,  Bertoja,  his  three  sons,  and  other  eminent 
artists.     He  was  living  in  1591. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Procaccini,  (Ercole,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  Carlo 
Antonio,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1596.  He  was  an  able 
painter  of  flowers  and  history.     Died  in  1676. 

Procaccini,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  a  brother  of  Camillo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1548,  and  was  the 
ablest  painter  of  the  family.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
imitators  of  the  style  of  Correggio.     Among  his  works 


are  a  "  Virgin  and  Child"  and  "The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea."  His  design  was  correct,  his  composition  inge- 
nious, and  his  style  noble,  or  grandiose.  He  worked 
mostly  at  Milan,  where  he  died  in  1626. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ," 

Procida,  di,  de  pRo'che-dA,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
conspirator,  born  at  Salerno  about  1225,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Pedro  of  Aragon,  and  was  engaged  in  intrigues  or 
conspiracies  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  had  made 
himself  master  of  Sicily.  He  is  said  to  have  been  thf 
master-spirit  of  that  massacre  of  the  French  called  the 
Sicilian  Vespers,  (March  30,  1282.)     Died  after  1302. 

See  N.  BusCEMi,  "  Saggio  della  Vita  di  Giovanni  di  Procida," 
1836;  Amari,  "La  Guerra  del  Vespro  Siciliano;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
<raphie  G^n^rale." 

Pro-cil'll-us,  a  Roman  historian,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Cicero.     His  works  are  not  extant. 

Pro'cles,  [npo«^^f,]  a  skilful  Greek  engraver  of 
medals,  whose  period  is  unknown.  His  name  is  found 
on  coins  of  Naxos  and  Catana. 

Pro'clus,  [Gr.  UpoKkoq  \  Ger.  Pro'klus,]  an  eminent 
Greek  philosopher  of  the  Neo-Platonic  schdol,  was  born 
at  Constantinople  in  412  a.d.,  and  was  surnamed  DlA- 
dochits,  ("the  Successor.")  He  studied  under  Hero 
and  Olympiodorus  at  Alexandria,  and  under  Plutarchus 
at  Athens,  where  he  afterwards  succeeded  Syrianus  as  the 
head  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school.  He  was  very  deficient 
in  judgment.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  treatist- 
"  On  the  Sphere,"  commentaries  on  the  "  Parmenides'' 
and  "  Timjeus"  of  Plato,  a  treatise  against  the  Chris- 
tians, and  "  Institutio  Theologica,"  (2T0i,Y«ua'£f  9£o2oy<K^,) 
all  of  which  are  extant,  (except  part  of  the  commentary 
on  the  "Timaeus.")  He  died  in  485  a.d.  According  to 
the  extravagant  estimate  of  M.  Cousin,  all  the  philo- 
sophic rays  which  emanated  from  Pythagoras,  Plato, 
Aristotle,  etc.  were  concentrated  in  Proclus. 

See  Brucker,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Ritter,  "  History  o 
Philosophy;'  Tennemann,  "  Geschichteder  Phllosophie  ;"  "  >f  ou- 
velle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Proclus,  Saint,  was  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
from  434  A.u  until  his  death,  in  446.  He  left  homilies 
and  epistles,  which  are  extant. 

Proc'ne,  [Gr.  npowT?;  Fr.  Progn^,  pRog'ni',]  a 
daughter  of  Pandi'on,  King  of  Athens,  a  sister  of  Philo- 
mela, and  wife  of  Tereus.  She  was  said  to  have  been 
changed  into  a  swallow. 

Procope.     See  Procopius. 

Procope-Couteau,  pRo'kop'  koo'to',  a  French  phy- 
sician and  comic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1684.  His  real 
name  was  Michel  Coltelll     Died  in  1753. 

Pro-co'pi-us,  a  Roman  general,  born  in  Cilicia.  He 
aspired  to  supreme  power  in  the  East  in  363  a.d.,  and 
waged  war  against  Valens,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death 
in  366. 

Pro-co'pl-us,  [  Gr.  Ilpo/comof ;  Fr.  Procope,  pRo'- 
kop',]  an  eminent  Byzantine  historian,  born  at  Cassarea, 
in  Palestine,  about  495  A.D.  He  became  in  527  a.d. 
secretary  to  Belisarius,  whom  he  attended  in  his  cam- 
paigns against  the  Persians,  the  Vandals,  (in  Africa,) 
and  the  Goths.  In  the  Gothic  war  he  had  a  high  com- 
mand in  the  navy.  He  returned  to  Constantinople  about 
541  A.D.,  and  obtained  the  favour  of  Justinian,  who  ap- 
pointed him  a  senator  and  in  562  prefect  of  the  capital. 
The  question  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  a  Pagan  has 
been  disputed  by  many  modern  writers.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  in  eight  books, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  for  veracity.  His  style  is  com- 
mended for  vigour  and  elegance.  There  is  extant  a  secret 
and  scandalous  history  of  the  Byzantine  court,  entitled 
'kvEKdora,  which  is  ascribed  to  him ;  but  his  authorship 
is  doubted.     Died  about  565  a.d. 

See  Fabricios,  "  Bibliotheca  Grseca ;"  Cave,  "Historia  Lite- 
raria;"  Hawkius,  "  Scriptores  Byzantini ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gdn^rale." 

Procopius,  (Anthemius.)     See  Anthemius. 

Procopius,  (Demetrius,)  a  biographer,  born  atMos- 
copolis,  in  Macedonia,  lived  about  1730.  He  wrote,  in 
Greek,  a  series  of  biographies  of  Greek  scholars  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  which  is  commended.  It  was 
published  by  Fabricius  in  1722  in  his  "Bibliotheca 
Graeca." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  xnhx.;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PROCOPIUS 


PROPERTIU^ 


Procopius  OF  Gaza,  .a  biblical  commentator,  flour- 
ished about  550  A.D. 

Pro-00'pl-us  Ra'sa,  an  able  Bohemian  general,  suc- 
ceeded Ziska  in  1424  as  the  leader  of  the  Hussites  or 
Taborites.  He  defeated  the  Austrians  in  a  number  of 
O.itLics,  and  ravaged  Moravia,  Austria,  and  Saxony.  In 
143 1  he  routed  an  imperial  army  which  had  invaded 
Bohemia.     He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1434. 

Pro-crii3'te§,  [Gr.  npoKovarr;^  ;  Fr.  ProcRUSTE,  pRo'- 
kRiist',]  {i.e.  "the  Stretcher,")  a  surname  of  Damastes 
or  PoLYi'EMON,  a  famous  robber,  who  comiielled  his 
captives  to  lie  on  a  bed,  and  made  them  coincide  with 
it  in  length  by  cutting  off  their  legs  or  stretching  them 
in  case  they  were  too  long  or  too  short.  He  was  killed 
by  Theseus. 

Proc'ter,  (Adelaide  Anne,)  an  English  poetess, 
born  in  London  in  1825,  was  a  daughter  of  Bryan 
Waller  Procter.  She  became  in  1853  a  contributor  to 
"  Household  Words"  and  "  All  the  Year  Round,"  and 
published  in  1858  "Legends  and  Lyrics."  A  second 
volume  of  "  Legends  and  Lyrics"  came  out  in  1861. 
Died  in  1864. 

See  an  article,  by  Charles  Dickens, in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly* 
for  December,  1865. 

Procter,  (Bryan  Waller,)  an  English  poet,  who 
wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  Barry  Cornwall, 
was  born  about  1790.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  183 1.  He  acquired  distinction  by  a  volume 
entitled  "Dramatic  Scenes,  and  other  Poems,"  (1819.) 
His  tragedy  of  "  Mirandola"  (1821)  was  performed  with 
success.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Flood  of 
Thessaly,"  "  English  Songs,  and  other  Small  Poems," 
(1832,)  "Essays  and  Tales  in  Prose,"  (1851,)  and 
"Charles  Lamb:  a  Memoir,"  (i866.)  His  songs  have 
obtained  much  popularity.     Died  October  4,  1874. 

Proc'tor,  (Richard  Anthony),  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish astronomer,  born  at  Chelsea,  March  23,  1837.  He 
was  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and  at  Saint 
John's,  Cambridge,  graduating  in  i860.  He  published  a 
great  number  of  astronomical  works  and  books  of  popu- 
lar science,  including  "Saturn  and  its  System,"  (1S65,) 
"Gnomonic  Star  Atlas,"  (1866,)  "Half-Hours  with  the 
Telescope,"  (1868.)  "  Half-Hours  with  the  Stars,"  (1869,) 
"Other  Worlds  than  Ours,"  (1870,)  "A  Treatise  on 
the  Cycloid,"  (1878,)  "Chance  and  Luck,"  (1887,)  and 
others,  mostly  on  scientific  subjects.  Died  in  New  York, 
of  yellow  fever,  September  12,  1888. 

Proc-u-lelus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  knight,  was  an  in- 
timate friend  of  Octavian,  (Augustus.)  After  the  battle 
of  Actium  he  was  sent  by  the  victor  to  Antony  and 
Cleopatra.  He  is  mentioned  favourably  by  Horace, 
(Carm.  ii.  2.) 

Proc'u-lus,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Nerva.  He  gave  his  name  to  a  school  or  sect, 
(Proculiani  or  Proculani.)  Among  the  jurists  cited  in 
the  Digest  he  is  the  second  in  order  of  time. 

Proculus,  a  Roman  officer,  who  attempted  to  usurp 
imperial  power  in  Gaul  in  280  a.d.  He  was  defeated 
by  Probus,  and  put  to  death. 

Prod'i-cus,  [n/36(5.-/cof,]  an  eloquent  Greek  Sophist  or 

f)hilosopher,  born  in  Ceos,  lived  about  430  n.C.  He 
ectui-ed  at  Athens  and  other  places.  Among  his  pupils 
or  auditors  were  Isocrates,  Euripides,  and  perhaps  Soc- 
rates. He  was  accused  of  atheism  without  sufficient 
evidence.  He  wrote  a  beautiful  apologue  entitled  "The 
Choice  of  Hercules,"  an  outline  or  abridgment  of  which 
nas  been  preserved  by  Xenophon. 

See  Xenophon,  "Memorabilia:"  Hummkl,  "Dissertatio  his 
torica  de  Prodico  Sophisia,"  1847;  Plato,  "Protagoras." 

Progn6.    See  Procne. 

Proetides,  pr5t'e-d6z,  the  daughters  of  Prcetus,  King 
of  Argolis  or  Argos,  were  named  Lysippe,  Iphinoe,  and 
Iphianassa.  According  to  the  fable,  they  became  insane 
and  imagined  that  they  were  cows. 

PrcBtus,  pree'tus,  [Gr.  UpoiToc,]  a  king  of  Argos,  was 
a  twin-brother  of  Acrisius,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  in 
a  contest  for  the  throne.  He  afterwards  recovered  a 
share  of  the  kingdom,  by  the  aid  of  Jobates.  He  is 
said  to  have  given  Melampus  a  part  of  his  kingdom 
for  curing  his  daughter  of  insanity. 


Prokesch-Osten,  von,  fon  pRo'kSsh  os'ten,  (Anton,) 
Baron,  an  Austrian  diplomatist,  general,  and  able  writer, 
born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1795.  He  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  Athens  in  1834,  to  Berlin  in  1849,  ^"d  to 
Constantinople  in  1855.  He  published  "Memoirs  and 
Souvenirs  of  the  Orient,"  (1836,)  and  "  History  of  the 
Decline  of  the  Greeks  in  Turkey,"  (1876.)    Died  in  1876. 

Proklus.    See  Proclus. 

Prokne.     See  Procne. 

Prokofief  or  Prokophief,  pro-ko'fe-?f,  (Ivan  Pro- 
kofievitch,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  born  in  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1 758,  was  a  pupil  of  Julien,  of  Paris.  1  le  worked 
with  success  at  his  native  place.     Died  in  1828. 

Pro-ko'po-vitch,  (Theophanes,)  a  Russian  prelate, 
born  at  Kiev  in  1681.  He  became  Bishop  of  I'skof  in 
1715,  and  composed,  at  the  request  of  Peter  the  Great, 
an  ecclesiastical  code,  in  which  priests  are  treated  as 
employees  of  the  civil  power.     Died  in  1736. 

See  TcHisToviTCH,  "Th^ophane  Prokopovitch  et  Th^ophilacte 
Lopatiiiski,"  1861. 

Prometh^e.    See  Prometheus. 

Pro-me'the-us,  [Gr.  Upofj^jdevc;  Fr.  Prom^th^e, 
pRo'mi'ti',]  a  personage  of  the  Greek  mythology,  was  a 
son  of  lapetus.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  stole  fire 
from  heaven,  for  which  offence  Jupiter  chained  him  to 
a  rock  or  pillar,  and  an  eagle  daily  devoured  his  liver, 
which  was  nightly  restored,  ^schylus  represents  him 
as  an  immortal  being,  a  benefactor  of  men,  the  giver  of 
fire,  and  a  heroic  sufferer,  who  was  oppressed  by  the 
power  of  Jupiter,  but  maintained  an  inflexible  spirit 
until  he  was  liberated  by  Hercules.  His  name  signifies 
"forethought."  Some  authors  relate  that  he  created  a 
man  out  of  clay  and  animated  him  with  fire  which  he 
stole  from  heaven,  and  that  he  was  the  husband  of  Pan- 
dora.    (See  ^Eschylus,  "  Prometheus  Bound.") 

See,  also,  Lassaulx,  "  Prometheus ;  die  Sage  und  ihr  Sinn* 
1843. 

Pro-mo'tus,  (^lius,)  a  physician  of  Alexandria, 
whose  period  is  unknown.  It  is  supposed  that  he  lived 
before  the  Christian  era.  Some  of  his  works  are  extant 
in  manuscript. 

Prompsault,  pr6n'so',  (Jean  IIexri  Romain,)  a 
French  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Montelimart  in 
1798.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Canon  Law," 
and  several  works  on  grammar.     Died  in  1858. 

Prony,  de,  deh  pRo'ne',  (Gaspard  Clair  Francois 
Marie  Riche,)  a  French  mathematician  and  engineer, 
born  at  Chamelet  (Rhone)  in  July,  1755.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1 79 1  director  of  the  Cadastre,  and  received 
an  order  to  compose  logarithms  or  mathematical  tables 
adapted  to  the  decimal  division  of  the  circle,  a  work  of 
great  labour  and  utility.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  chief 
engineer  of  bridges  and  causeways.  He  became  about 
1794  professor  of  mechanics  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  a 
member  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes,  and  a  member  of 
the  Institute.  In  1798  he  was  invited  by  Bonaparte  to 
join  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  but  declined.  He  received 
the  title  of  baron  in  1S28,  and  became  a  peer  of  France 
in  1835.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Hydraulic 
Architecture,"  (2  vols.,  1790-96,)  "Philosophical  Me- 
chanics," (1800,)  "Lectures  on  Analytical  Mechanics," 
(1810,)  and  a"  Hydrographicand  Statistical  Description 
of  the  Pontine  Marshes,"  (1823,)  which  is  a  work  of 
much  merit.  He  wrote  a  number  of  articles  for  the 
"Biographie  Universelle."     Died  in  1839. 

See  Arago,  "Notices  biographiques,"  tome  iii.  ;  "  flloge  dr 
Prony,"  by  C.  DupiN  ;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Properce.     See  Propertius. 

Propertius,  pro-per'she-us,  IFr.  Properce,  pRo'- 
p^Rss';  It.  Properzio,  pRo^^Rt'se-o,]  (Sextus  Auri:- 
Lius,)  an  eminent  Roman  elegiac  poet,  born  in  Umbiia 
about  50  B.C.  He  informs  us  that  he  was  born  in  Umbna, 
on  the  border  of  Etruria.  His  paternal  estate  was  confis- 
cated by  Octavius  because  his  father  had  been  a  partisan 
of  Antony.  He  began  early  to  write  poetry,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Rome,  and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Maecenas. 
His  life  appears  to  have  been  that  of  "a  man  of  wit 
and  pleasure  about  town."  His  career  as  a  poet  was 
influenced  by  a  passion  for  Cynthia,  a  poetess  and  lady 
of  superior  talents,  who  furnished  a  theme  for  his  early 
elegies.     He  chose  Callimachus  as  his  model,  and  be- 


1  /i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zs.j;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  tkis.     (I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


PROPERZIO 


2004 


PR  OUT 


came  a  rather  pedantic  imitator  of  the  Greeks.  His 
style  is  censured  as  too  artificial.  Both  ancient  and 
modern  critics,  however,  assign  to  him  a  high  rank  as 
a  poet.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Ovid.  The  time 
of  his  death  is  unknown.  Four  books  of  elegies  are  the 
only  works  of  Propertius  that  are  now  e-xtant.  A  cor- 
rect English  version  of  his  first  book  was  published 
anonymously  in  17S1.  Among  the  best  editions  of  the 
text  is  that  of  Lachmann,  (Leipsic,  1816.) 

See  "Vita  Propertii,"  in  Lachmann's  edition,  1816;  Gillet  db 
MoiVRK,  "  La  Vie  et  les  Amo\irs  de  Properce,"  1744;  "  Noiivelle 
biographie  G^ndiale  ;"  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1854. 

Properzio.    See  Propertius. 

Propiac,  de,  deh  pro'pe'tk',  (Catherine  Joseph 
Ferdinand  Girard,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1759  ;  died  in  1823. 

Pros'er-piiie,  IGr.  ITfpCTe^ovT/,  (Perseph'one;)  Fr 
Proserpine,  pRo  z^R'ptn';  Lat.  Proserpi'na,]  the 
goddess  and  queen  of  the  infernal  regions,  was  said 
to  have  been  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres,  and  the 
wife  of  Pluto.  The  poets  feigned  that  as  she  was  gather- 
ing flowers  near  Enna  she  was  abducted  by  Pluto ;  that 
Ceres,  not  knowing  what  had  become  of  her,  searched 
for  her  with  torches  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  for  nine 
days;  that  Ilelios  revealed  the  secret  of  her  abduction  ; 
that  Jupiter,  induced  by  the  importunity  of  Ceres,  re- 
quested Pluto  to  restore  her,  and  that  Pluto  consented 
that  she  should  spend  two-thirds  of  the  year  with  the 
gods  above,  and  the  other  third  in  the  lower  world. 
Later  writers  say  that  she  was  to  pass  the  half  of  her 
time  in  Hades  and  the  other  half  in  the  regions  of  light. 
She  is  supposed  to  be  a  symbol  of  vegetation,  and  of 
the  creative  and  destructive  power  of  heat. 

Proske,  jjros'keh,  (Karl,)  a  German  musical  archae- 
ologist, born  at  Grobing,  in  Upper  Silesia,  in  1794.  He 
edited  a  celebrated  collection  of  ancient  church  music, 
called  "  Musica  Divina."     Died  December  20,  1861. 

Prosper,  pRos'paiR',  surnamed  Aquita'nus,  ("of 
Aquitaine,")  a  theologian,  born  at  Bordeaux,  in  Gaul, 
about  404  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  .Semi- 
Pelagians,  and  wrote  in  defence  of  the  doctrines  of  Saint 
Augustine.  His  works,  among  which  are  some  poems, 
are  still  extant.     Died  after  463  A.D. 

Pros'per  Ti'ro  or  Ty'ro,  a  poet,  who  is  often  con 
founded  with  Prosper  Aquitanus,  was  born  in  Gaul,  and 
lived  about  400  a.d.  He  wrote  a  "  Poem  of  a  Husband 
to  his  Wife,"  ("  Poema  Conjugis  ad  Uxorem.") 

Prost,  pRo,  (Claude,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Auxonne  in  1764;  died  in  1834. 

Prost  de  Royer,  pRo  deh  rw^'yi',  (Antoine  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  jurist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1729;  died  in 
1784. 

Pro-tag'o-ras,  [Gr.  Jlpurayopnc ;  Fr.  Protagore, 
pRo'tt'goR',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher  and  Sophist, 
born  at  Abdera,  in  Thrace,  flourished  about  440  B.C.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Democritus ;  but  this 
is  doubted  by  some,  because  Protagoras  was  probably 
older  than  his  supposed  master.  According  to  Plate 
and  Diogenes,  he  was  the  first  who  adopted  the  name 
of  Sophist  and  taught  for  pay.  He  taught  oratory  at 
Athens  and  other  cities.  He  was  banished  from  Athens 
because  he  said  that  he  did  not  know  whether  the  gods 
existed  or  not.  His  works,  which  treated  on  ethics, 
physics,  etc.,  are  lost,  but  his  peculiar  doctrines  are  ex- 
plained in  the  "  Theaetetus"  of  Plato.  He  reached  the 
age  of  seventy  or  more,  and  died  about  410  B.C.  It  was 
a  maxim  of  Protagoras  that  "man  is  the  measure  of  the 
universe  or  of  all  things,  and  that  whatever  he  judges  to 
be  true  is  true."  Cicero  says,  "  Putet  id  cuique  ^erum 
esse  quod  cuique  videatur."  ("  Quaestiones  Academicae.") 

See  Plato's  dialogue  entitled  "  Protagoras ;"  Grote,  "  Plato  and 
ths  other  Companions  of  Socrates,"  3  vols.,  1865:  Herbst,  "  Des 
Protagoras  Leben  und  Sophistik,"  etc.,  1832:  J.  Frei,  "  Qii.-estiones 
Protagore.-E,"  Konn,  1S45;  Vitrinca,  "  Disquisitio  de  Protagorae 
Vita  et  Philosophia,"  1853;  C.  Mali.bt,  "  Etudes  philosophiques," 
tome  ii.  ;  Gkote,  "History  of  Greece,"  chap.  IxviL 

Protagore.    See  Protagoras. 

Protain,  pRo't^N',  (Jean  Constantin,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  was  employed  in 
Egypt  in  1798-99  as  architect  to  the  commission  of  arts 
and  sciences,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
Cairo  in  1801.     Died  in  1837. 


Protais,  pRo'ty,  (Paul  Alexandre,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1826.  He  followed  the  French 
armies  in  the  Crimean  war  and  in  the  Italian  campaign 
of  1859,  and  from  the  first  his  art  was  almost  entirely 
devoted  to  military  subjects.     Died  January  27,  1890. 

Protee.     See  Proteus. 

Protet,  pRo't^',  (Auguste  Leopold,)  a  French  rear- 
admiral,  born  at  Saint-Servan  about  1810.  He  was 
Governor  of  Senegal  from  1850  to  1855,  during  which 
period  he  made  an  exploration  of  that  region.  He  was 
killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Taepingsof  China,  in  1S62. 

Pro'te-u3,  [Gr.  Upcjrevg ;  Fr.  Prot^e,  pRo'ti',]  a 
divinity  of  the  Greek  mythology,  was  sometimes  called 
a  son  of  Neptune  and  a  king  of  Egypt.  He  was  repre- 
sented as  a  pro])hetic  old  man,  who  lived  in  the  sea  and 
could  foretell  future  events,  but  eluded  those  who  seized 
and  importuned  him  to  pro]>hesy,  by  transforming  him- 
self into  a  great  variety  of  shapes.  If  his  efforts  to 
escape  were  baftled,  he  resumed  his  original  or  usual  form 
and  revealed  his  secret  knowledge.  His  occupation  was 
to  tend  the  flocks  of  seals  or  sea-calves  belonging  to 
Neptune. 

See  Homer,  "Odyssey,"  book  iv. ;  Virgil,  "Georgics,"  book 
iv.  387-529- 

Protogene.    See  Protogenes. 

Pro-tog'e-nes,  [Gr.  ilpuToyivTjg ;  Fr.  Protogene, 
pRo'to'zhin',|  a  Greek  painter  of  great  celebrity,  was  a 
native  of  Caunus,  in  Caria.  He  flourished  about  332 
B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  Apelles,  and  lived  mostly 
at  Rhodes.  The  name  of  his  master  is  not  known.  His 
advancement  in  fame  and  fortune  was  retarded  by  his 
modesty,  until  Apelles  visited  Rhodes  and  purchased,  at 
the  enormous  price  of  fifty  talents  each,  several  of  his 
pictures,  which  he  proposed  to  sell  as  his  own  works. 
(See  Apelles.)  In  the  opinion  of  some,  Protogenes 
carried  the  elaboration  of  his  works  to  a  fault  ;  but 
Cicero  speaks  of  his  works  as  perfect  in  every  respect. 
His  master-piece  was  a  picture  of  lalysus,  on  which  he 
is  said  to  have  expended  seven  years.  One  of  the  ad- 
mirable parts  of  this  picture  was  the  foam  at  the  mouth 
of  a  hound,  "  which,"  says  Pliny,  "  he  produced,  after 
many  vain  efforts,  by  throwing  a  sponge  at  the  place, 
under  the  impulse  of  vexation  or  despair." 

See  Pliny,  "  Natural  History,"  book  xxxv.  ;  Suidas,  "Proto- 
genes;" K.  O.  MuLLER,  "  Archaologie  der  KunsL" 

Proudhon,  pRoo'd6N',  sometimes  written  Pnidhon, 
(Jean  Baptiste  Victor,)  a  French  juiist,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1758.  He  was  for  many  years  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Dijon.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  laws  of  Usufruc<, 
etc.,  "Traite  des  Droits  d'Usufruit,  d'Usage,  d'Habita- 
tion  et  de  Superficie,"  (9  vols.,  1823-25,)  said  to  be  the 
best  work  on  that  subject.     Died  in  1838. 

See  Lorain,  "  filoge  historiqvie  de  M.  Proudhon,"  1839. 

Proudhon,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  socialist  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1809.  In  1848  he 
became  editor  of  "  The  Representative  of  the  People," 
and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  made 
a  motion  which  a  large  majority  of  the  Assembly  rejected 
as  "an  odious  attack  on  public  morality  and  subversive 
of  the  rights  of  property."  He  published  several  works 
on  social  and  political  economy.  In  his  essay  entitled 
"  What  is  Property  .'"  ("  Qu'est-ce  que  la  Propriete  ?") 
he  affirms  that  "property  is  robbery,"  ("La  propriete, 
c'est  le  vol.")     Died  in  1865. 

See  J.  Vrau,  "Proudhon  et  son  5!conomie  politique,"  1853 ; 
Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litti5r.iire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  lor  March,  1849. 

Proust,  pRoo,  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Angers  about  1760.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1816.  He  contributed  many  memoirs  on 
chemistry  to  various  periodicals,  and  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  supporter  of  the  theory  of  equivalents  or  definite 
proportions.     Died  in  1826. 

Prousteau,  pRoo'to',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Tours  in  1628.  He  founded  a  public  library  at 
Orleans,  and  wrote  legal  works.     Died  in  171 5. 

Prout,  prowt,  (Ebenezer,)  an  English  musical  com- 
poser and  critic,  born  at  Oundle,  Northamptonshire,  in 
1835.  From  187 1  to  1874  he  was  editor  of  the  "  Monthly 
Musical  Record,"  and  afterwards  was  musical  critic  of 
the  "  Athenxum." 


a,  e, I,  6,  u,  y,  ton^;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  urolonged;  a. e. T.  6,  li.  V,  sAort;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt ;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PR  OUT 


PRZHEVALSKI 


Prout,  Father,  the  assumed  name  of  Francis  Ma- 
HONY.     (See  Mahony.) 

Prout,  prowt,  (Samuel,)  a  skilful  English  painter 
of  architecture,  scenery,  etc.,  was  born  at  Plymouth  in 
1783.  He  published  about  1816  "Views  in  the  North 
and  West  of  England,"  "  Rudiments  of  Landscape,"  and 
other  successful  works.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a 
painter  in  water-colours,  a  delineator  of  mediaeval  archi- 
tecture, and  a  lithographer.  After  a  tour  on  the  conti- 
nent, he  published  lithographic  "  Fac-Similes  of  Sketches 
made  in  Flanders  and  Germany,"  and  "  Sketches  in 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,"  (1839.)  Died  in  1852. 
Ruskin  pronounces  him  "  a  very  great  man,  who,  though, 
partly  by  chance  and  partly  by  choice,  limited  in  range 
of  subject,  possessed  for  that  subject  the  profoundest 
and  noblest  sympathy.  ...  In  reality  he  is  to  be  num- 
bered among  the  true  masters  of  the  nobler  picturesque." 
("Modern  Painters.") 

See  J.  Ruskin,  "Memoir  of  S.  Prout,"  in  the  "Art  Journal," 
1849. 

Prout,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  chemist  and 
physician,  was  born  in  1786.  He  practised  in  London, 
and  was  probably  the  first  physician  who  applied  the 
doctrines  of  chemistry  to  the  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  disease.  Among  his  important  works  are 
one  "  On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Stomach  and 
Renal  Diseases  ;  being  an  Inquiry  into  the  Connection 
of  Diabetes,  Calculus,  etc.  with  Indigestion,"  and 
"Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and  the  Function  of  Dige* 
tion  consicfered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology.'* 
The  latter  is  one  of  the  "  Kridgewater  Treatises."  Died 
in  London  in  1850. 

Provana,  pRo-vi'ni,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  admiral, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  151 1  ;  died  in  1592. 

Provenzale,  pRo-vdn-zd'li,  (Marcello,)  an  Italian 
painter  in  mosaic,  born  at  Cento  in  1575.  Among  his 
works  is  a  portrait  of  Paul  V.     Died  in  1639. 

Provoost,  pro'vost,  ?  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1742,  was  chaplain  to  the 
Continental  Congress  and  subsequently  to  the  United 
States  Senate.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  New  York  in 
1786.     Died  in  1815. 

Provostaye,  de  la,  deh  li  pRo'vo'sti',  (Ferdinand 
Herv6,)  a  French  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Redon 
in  1812.     He  wrote  on  ojitics,  heat,  etc.    Died  in  1863. 

Proyart,  pRwi'ytR',  (Abbe  Liivm  Bonaventure,) 
a  French  historian,  born  at  Arras  in  1743,  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Stanislas,  King  of 
Poland,"  (?  vols.,  1782,)  which  is  commended.  Died 
in  1808. 

Prudence.     See  Prudentius. 

Prudeut,  prii'dfiN',  (Emile,)  a  French  composer  and 
pianist,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1S17.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Fantaisie  sur  Lucie,"  (1842.)     Died  May  14,  1863. 

Prudentius,  pru-dSn'she^s,  or  Pru'dence,  Saint, 
a  learned  bishop,  born  in  Spain.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Troyes  about  846.  He  wrote  against  Erigena  on  pre- 
destination.    Died  in  861. 

See  Le  Clerc,  "Vie  de  Saint-Prudence,"  1689;  Brever,  "Vie 
de  Saint-Prudence,"  1725. 

Pruden'tius  (pru-d§n'she-us)  [F'r.  Prudence,  pRii'- 
dfiNss'l  Clem'ens,  (Aurelius,)  a  Latin  Christian  poet, 
was  born  in  Spain  in  348  a.D.  He  practised  law,  and 
became  a  judge  of  a  civil  and  criminal  court.  He  wrote, 
in  barbarous  or  unclassical  Latin,  hymns,  and  other  re- 
ligious poems,  which  procured  for  him  a  high  reputation 
in  the  middle  ages  and  are  admired  by  some  modern 
critics.  He  visited  Rome  about  405,  and  passed  his 
latter  years  in  Spain.  Erasmus  thought  that  his  piety 
and  learning  entitled  him  to  a  place  among  the  doctors 
of  the  Church, 

See  LuDEWiG,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  A.  Prudentii  dementis," 
1692;  TiLLEMONT,  "  Memoiies  ecclesiastiques." 

Prudhomme,  piiii'dom',  (Louis  Marie,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1 752.  He  issued  an  ultra- 
republican  journal  in  Paris  in  1789.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (6  vols.,  1796,) 
which  is  of  little  value.     Died  in  1830. 

Prudhomme,  or  SuUy-Prudhomme,  sii'li'  pRii'- 
dom',  (Rkni^  FRANgois  Akmand,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in   Paris,  March  16,  1839.     He  was  one  o^  the  original 


"  Parnassiens,"  or  "  impassibles,'"  a  set  of  young  authors 
who  professed  a  peculiar  devotion  to  art  for  art's  sake. 
His  "  Stances  et  Poemes"  include  that  chef-d'oeuvre,  "  Le 
Vase  fele."  He  published  several  volumes  of  philosophic 
verse,  including  a  translation  of  a  part  of  Lucretius's 
"  De  Natura,"  with  a  very  able  preface.  His  "Expres- 
sion in  the  Fine  Arts"  (18S4)  has  a  high  value.  He  has 
been  chosen  to  the  Academy. 
Prudhon,  (Jean  Baptiste  Victor.)     See   Prou- 

DHON. 

Prud'hon,  pru'd6N',  (Pierre  Paul,)  a  French  histor- 
ical painter,  was  born  at  Cluny  (Saone-et-Loire)  in  1758. 
Having  studied  in  Rome,  he  settled  in  Paris  in  1789, 
and  obtained  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  works  are 
"Venus  and  Adonis,"  "The  Abduction  of  Psyche,"  and 
"Justice  and  Divine  Vengeance  pursuing  Crime."  The 
gracefulness  of  his  style  has  procured  for  him  the  sur- 
name of  "the  French  Correggio."     Died  in  1823. 

See  Ars^ne  Houssave,  "  Philosophers  and  Actresses,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
VoiART,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Prud'hon,"  1824;  QuA- 
TREMfeRE  de  Quincy,  "  Notice  sur  P.  P.  Prud'hon,"  1824;  "Non- 
velle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Prunelle,  pRii'nSl',  (Clement  Franqois  Vicior 
Gabriel,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  La  Tour  du  Pin 
(Isere)  in  1777.  He  lectured  at  Montpellier  from  1807 
to  1819,  and  published  several  medical  works.  Died 
in  1853. 

Pruner,  pRoo'ner,  (Franz,)  a  German  physician  and 
ethnologist,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1808.  He  became  chief 
physician  of  Abbas  Pasha  of  Egypt  in  1847,  before 
which  he  had  visited  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  Le- 
vant. He  afterwards  returned  to  Europe.  Among  his 
works  are  "Man  in  Space  and  Time,"  (1859,)  and  "The 
Cartiiaginians  in  France,"  (1870.) 

Prusias,  pru'she-as,  [Gr,  Ilpoi'crtaf,]  I.,  King  of  Bithy- 
nia,  was  a  grandson  of  Nicomedes  I.  He  began  to  reign 
about  228  B.C.,  and  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Gauls 
in  216.  He  aided  Philip  of  Macedon  in  his  first  war 
against  the  Romans,  but  became  the  ally  of  the  latter 
about  190  B.C.  The  power  and  prosperity  of  the  king- 
dom were  increased  by  his  ability  as  a  ruler.  He 
lacked  the  virtue  or  courage  to  refuse  when  the  Romans 
demanded  the  surrender  of  Hannibal,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  his  dominions. 

See  PoLVBius,  "History;"  Appian,  "Syriaca." 

Prusias  II.  of  Bithynia  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  about  180  B.C.  He 
was  neutral  in  the  war  between  the  Romans  and  Perseus, 
his  brother-in-law.  In  156-154  he  waged  war  against 
Attains  of  Pergamus.  Having  rendered  himself  odious 
by  his  cruelty,  he  was  killed  by  his  subjects  in  149  B.C. 

Prutz,  pRoots,  (Robert  Ek.nst,)  a  German  poet  and 
prose  writer,  born  at  Stettin  in  1816.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  literary  history  at  Halle  in  1849.  Among  his 
works  are  "Poems,"  (1841,)  "Political  and  Literary 
Essays,"  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and  "Dramatic  Works,"  (4 
vols.,  1847-49.)     Died  June  21,  1872. 

Prynne,  prin,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  poli- 
tician and  antiquary,  was  born  near  Bath  in  1600.  He 
published  in  1632  a  scurrilous  pamphlet,  entitled  "  His- 
trio-Mastix,  or  a  Scourge  for  Stage-Players,"  for  which 
the  court  of  the  Star-Chamber  sentenced  him  to  pay  a 
large  fine,  to  be  exposed  in  a  pillory,  to  lose  his  ears, 
and  to  be  imprisoned  for  life.  He  was  released  by  a 
warrant  from  the  Speaker  of  the  Commons  in  1641,  and 
elected  to  the  Long  Parliament.  He  was  an  opponent 
of  Cromwell's,  and  was  ejected  from  the  House  of' 
Commons  by  the  army  in  1648.  He  compiled  several 
volumes  of  Records.     Died  in  1669. 

See  Anthony  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses;"  Disraeli,  "Ca- 
lamities of  Authors." 

Pry'or,  (Roger  A.,)  an  American  Confederate  gen- 
eral, ijorn  in  Dinwiddle  county,  Virginia,  July  19,  1828. 
He  was  editor  of  several  papers  issued  at  Petersburg 
and  Richmond,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1859. 
He  challenged  John  F.  Potter,  M.C.,  in  i860,  but  refused 
to  fight  with  the  weapons  which  the  latter  selected.  He 
fought  against  the  Union,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  in  the  civil  war. 

Przhevalski,  or  Prjevalski,  pzhi-vil'ske,  (Colonel 
N ,)  a  Russian  traveller,  born  in  1839.     He  became 


«  as  ^;  (  as s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. 1 


PRZIPCOVIUS 


2006 


PTOLEMY 


an  army  officer,  and  was  sent  on  numerous  and  impor- 
tant government  exploring  expeditions,  accompanied  in 
most  cases  by  an  armed  force.  The  results  of  Przhe- 
valski's  explorations  are  of  the  highest  value.     D.  1S88. 

Przipcovius,  pzh!p-ko've-us,  (Samuel,)  a  Polish 
Socinian  writer,  born  about  1592;  died  in  1670. 

Przybylski,  pzh!p-bil'skee,  (Hyacinth,)  a  Polish 
writer  and  translator,  born  at  Cracow  in  1756.  He  pro- 
duced versions  of  Homer,  Milton,  Virgil,  Horace,  etc. 
Died  in  1819. 

Fsalmanazar,  sal-ma-na'zar,  (George,)  the  assumed 
name  of  a  literary  impostor,  born  about  1679,  probably 
in  the  south  of  France.  He  passed  his  youth  as  a  vaga- 
bond, pretended  to  be  a  native  of  Formosa,  and  pub- 
lished in  England  a  fictitious  account  of  that  island,(i704.) 
About  the  age  of  thirty-two  he  renounced  his  evil  habits, 
became  religious,  and  applied  himself  diligently  to  study. 
He  obtained  considerable  success  as  an  English  author. 
He  wrote  for  a  work  entitled  "  Universal  History"  nearly 
all  of  the  ancient  history  except  that  of  Rome,  and  left 
memoirs  of  his  own  life,  (1765.)  His  proper  name  re- 
mains a  secret.     Died  in  London  in  1753  or  1763. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  •  *  *,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  George 
Psalmanazar,"  1765;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^iierale ;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  November  and  December,  1764. 

Fsammenitus,  sam-me-ni'tus,  [Gr.  "i'tt/z/i^vtrof ;  Fr. 
PsAMM^NiTE,  pst'mi'nit',]  King  of  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father,  Amasis,  in  526  B.C.  He  was  conquered  and 
Deposed  in  525  B.C.  by  Cambyses.  Soon  after  this  event 
he  was  accused  of  inciting  the  Egyptians  to  revolt,  and 
was  put  to  death. 

Psammetichus  or  Psametik.   See  Psammitichus. 

Psammis,  sam'mis,  [Gr.  ■4'd/i|(ztf,]  King  of  Egypt,  a 
son  of  Psammitichus,  reigned  from  601  to  595  B.C.,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Apries. 

Psammitichus,  sam-mit'e-kus,  or  Psammetichus, 
sam-met'e-kus,  [Gr.  'i'amj.inxoc  or  "^aiifiTjTLXoq ;  Fr.  Psa.M- 
MITIQUE,  pst'me'tik' ;  Egyptian,  Psametik,]  a  king  of 
Egypt,  and  founder  of  the  Saitic  dynasty,  began  to  reign 
about  670  B.C.  According  to  Herodotus,  he  reigned  fifty- 
four  years.  During  his  reign,  which  was  an  important 
epoch,  the  Greeks  were  first  introduced  into  Egypt. 

See  Herodotus,  "History;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Psammitique.    See  Psammitichus. 

Psellus,  sel'lus,  [i'tPJlof,]  (Michael,)  a  Greek  scholai 
of  the  ninth  century,  was  a  native  of  Andros,  and  emi- 
nent for  learning. 

Psellus,  (Michael  Constantinus, )  a  celebrated 
Greek  writer,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1020  A.D.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  excellent  scholar  of  his 
time.  He  wrote  in  prose  and  verse  on  various  subjects, 
and  received  from  several  emperors  the  title  of  "  Prince 
of  Philosophers."     He  was  living  in  1105. 

Psyche,  sl'ke,  [Gr.  'ivxv ;  Fr.  Psych6,  pse'ki'.j  the 
name  given  by  ancient  Greek  poets  and  fabulists  to  a 
personification  of  the  human  soul.  Having  gained  the 
affections  of  the  god  of  Love,  (Amor,)  she  lived  happily 
with  him  until  her  curiosity  to  know  who  he  was  de- 
prived her  of  his  presence.  Wandering  in  search  of 
Amor,  she  entered  the  palace  of  Venus,  who  reduced 
her  to  slavery,  from  which  she  was  finally  liberated  by 
the  return  of  her  first  love.  According  to  a  beautiful, 
allegory  of  Apuleius,  Psyche  was  a  daughter  of  a  king, 
and  her  beauty  excited  the  jealousy  of  Venus,  who  per- 
secuted her.  She  was  represented  in  works  of  art  as  a 
maiden  with  the  wings  of  a  butterfly. 

See  Thorlacius,  "  Disquisitio  raythologica  de  Psyche  et  Cu- 
pidine,"  1801. 

Psychristus,  si-kris'tus,  or  Psycochristus,  sl-ko- 
kris'tus,  (Jacobus,)  an  eminent  physician  of  the  fifth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria.  He  became  phy- 
sician to  Leo  the  Great,  who  reigned  at  Constantinople 
from  457  to  474  A.D. 

Ptolemeeus.     See  Ptolemy. 

Ptolemaus  and  Ptolemaer.     See  Ptolemy. 

Ptolemee.     See  Piolemy. 

Ptolemy,  tol'e-me,  [Gr.  JlTokEualoq ;  Lat.  Ptole- 
Mi€'us;  Fr.  Proi.^M^E,  pto'li'mi' ;  Ger.  Ptolemaus, 
pto-l?h-ma'as,  plural  Piolemaer,  pto-leh-ma'er ;  It. 
Tolomeo,  to-lo-ma'o,  plural  Tolomei,  to-lo-ma'ee,]  I., 
surnamed  Soter,  or  "  Saviour,"  the  son  of  Lagus,  was 


the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Greek  kings  of  Egypt. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  a  son  of  Philip  II.  of  Mace- 
don,  as  his  mother  was  a  concubine  of  that  king.  He 
had  a  high  command  in  the  army  of  Alexander,  and 
displayed  great  abilities  as  a  general  in  India.  He  was 
one  of  the  personal  attendants  of  Alexander,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  regarded  him  with  great  favour.  At  the 
distribution  of  provinces  which  followed  the  death  of  the 
king,  (323  B.C.,)  Ptolemy  obtained  the  government  of 
Egypt  He  raised  a  large  army,  and  formed  a  secret 
alliance  with  Antipater  against  Perdiccas,  who  invaded 
Egypt  in  321  and  was  defeated.  As  the  ally  of  Cas- 
sander,  Seleucus,  and  Lysiniachus,  he  waged  by  sea 
and  land  a  long  war  against  Antigonus.  This  war  began 
in  315,  and  was  ended  by  the  defeat  of  Antigonus  at 
Ipsus,  in  301  B.C.  By  his  able  administration  Ptolemy 
rendered  the  kingdom  prosperous  and  powerful.  He 
promoted  commerce,  science,  and  literature,  and  invited 
many  Greek  philosophers  and  authors  to  his  court. 
Historians  generally  represent  him  as  eminent  for  po- 
litical wisdom.  He  died  in  283  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

See  Geier,  "De  Ptolemii  Lagidae  Vita  et  Scriptis;"  Arrian, 
"  Anabasis,"  books  ii.-vii.  ;  Diodorus  Siculijs,  "  History,"  books 
xvii.-xx.  ;  Drumann,  "Dissertatio  de  Rebus  Ptolemasorum,"  1821. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  II.,  commonly  called  Ptol- 
emy PhUadelphus*  [P"r.  Pioi.6m6e  Philadelphe, 
pto'li'mV  fe'lt'd^lf',]  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Cos  in  309  B.C.  His  mother  was  Kereni'ce. 
The  partial  favour  of  his  father  secured  the  throne  for 
him  in  preference  to  the  eldest  son,  P.  Ceraunus.  He 
pursued  a  pacific  policy,  promoted  foreign  commerce, 
and  employed  his  vast  resources  in  the  patronage  of 
literature  and  science  and  the  construction  of  public 
works.  He  founded  a  great  library  at  Alexandria,  and 
a  museum  which  was  the  resort  of  eminent  philosophers. 
He  had  received  a  learned  education,  and  manifested  a 
special  interest  in  natural  history.  Among  the  celebrated 
men  whom  he  attracted  to  his  court  were  the  poet  The- 
ocritus, Hegesias  the  philosopher,  Euclid  the  geometer, 
and  Aratus  the  astronomer.  According  to  a  tradition 
which  is  credited  by  many,  the  Holy  Scriptures  were 
translated  into  Greek  by  his  command.  His  dominions 
included  Cyprus,  Lycia,  Caria,  Ccele-Syria,  and  parts 
of  Arabia  and  of  Libya.  During  his  reign  Egypt  was 
raised  to  a  high  degree  of  power  and  prosperity.  He 
died  in  247  B.C. 

See  Justin,  "  History,"  books  xvii.  and  xviii. ;  Droysen,  "  Hel- 
lenismus ;"  Georg  Green,  "Dissertatio  de  Ptolemso  (II.)  Phila- 
delpho,"  1676  ;  Dkumann,  "  Dissertatio  de  Rebus  Ptoleniaeorum," 
1S21. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  m.,  surnamed  Euer'getes, 
(the  "Benefactor,")  [Fr.  Ptol6m6e  EvERGt;TE,  pto'li'- 
mi'  i'v^R'zhit',]  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  247  B.C.  To  avenge  the  death  of  his  sister 
Bereni'ce,  he  invaded  Syria  about  245  B.C.,  defeated 
Seleucus  Callini'cus,  took  Babylon,  and  subjected  many 
large  provinces  of  his  enemy.  His  victorious  career  was 
interrupted  by  a  sedition  in  Egypt,  to  which  he  re- 
turned about  243  B.C.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  patron 
of  literature,  and  made  large  additions  to  the  library  of 
Alexandria.  His  reign  was  eminently  prosperous.  He 
died  in  222  B.C.  According  to  Justin,  he  was  poisoned 
by  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philopator. 

See  Justin,  "  History,"  book  xxvii. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  IV.,  surnamed  Philop'a 
TOR.t  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  began  to  reign  in 
222  B.C.  He  was  greatly  inferior  to  his  predecessors  in 
ability,  and  was  notorious  for  cruelty  and  sensual  vices. 
He  put  to  death  his  mother  and  his  brother  Magas.  His 
army  defeated  Antiochus  the  Great  at  Raphia,  near 
Gaza,  in  217  B.C.  He  died  in  205  B.C.,  leaving  one  son, 
Ptolemy  V. 


*  I.e.  "brother-loving,"  so  called  in  irony,  because  he  had  ex- 
cluded his  brother  Ceraunus  from  the  throne  and  put  to  death  two 
other  of  his  brothers.  Some  writers,  however,  suppose  that  he 
received  the  surname  (which  may  also  mean  "loving  one's  sister") 
from  his  having  married  l>is  sister  Arsinoe,  to  wliom  he  appears  to 
have  been  tenderly  attached,  and  to  whose  memory  he  caused  a 
temple  to  be  erected  after  her  death. 

■\  I  e.  "father-loving,"  so  styled  ironically  because  he  was  suspected 
(though  probably  without  sufficient  grounds)  of  having  poisoued  hil 
father. 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  o,  obscure;  llr,  f^l,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  nid^; 


FTOLEMY 


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PUCCI 


Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  V.,  surnamed  Epiph'anes, 
(the  "  Illustrious,")  succeeded  his  father  in  205  B.C.,  when 
he  was  only  five  years  old.  During  his  minority  Antio- 
chus  the  Great  conquered  Ccele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Judea,  but  was  checked  in  his  encroachments  by  the 
intervention  of  the  Romans.  At  his  coronation,  in  196 
B.C.,  a  decree  was  issued  which  has  been  preserved  in 
the  famous  inscription  of  the  Rosetta  Stone.  In  his 
reign  the  power  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  declined 
rapidly.     He  died  (it  is  said,  by  poison)  in  i8i  B.C. 

See  PoLVBius,  "History,"  books  xv.,  xvi.,  xvii.,  etc. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemseus)  VI.,  surnamed  Philome'- 
TOR,  was  an  infant  when  he  succeeded  his  father,  Ptolemy 
v.,  in  181  B.C.  His  mother,  Cleopatra,  was  regent  until 
her  death,  in  173.  Antiochus  of  Syria  invaded  Egypt 
in  171  B.C.,  reduced  several  cities,  and  took  the  young 
king  prisoner.  The  title  of  king  was  then  assimied  by 
a  younger  brother,  Ptolemy  Euergetes  or  Physcon. 
Philometor  was  soon  released,  and  reigned  jointly  with 
his  brother  for  several  years.  Dissensions  having  arisen 
between  them,  about  164  B.C.  Philometor  invoked  the 
mediation  of  the  Roman  senate,  who  restored  him  to  the 
sole  sovereignty  of  Egypt.  As  an  ally  of  Demetrius  II., 
he  led  an  army  into  Syria,  took  Antioch,  and  defeated 
Alexander  Balas,  in  146  B.C.  At  this  battle  he  was  fatally 
nijured  by  a  fall  from  his  horse. 

See  PoLVBius,  "  History,"  books  xxvii.-xxxiii. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemeeus)  VII.,  surnamed  Euer'getes 
or  Phys'con,  obtained  the  throne  in  146  B.C.,  and  put  to 
death  Ptolemy  Eu'pator,  the  infant  heir  of  the  late  king. 
Provoked  by  his  cruelty  and  vices,  the  people  revolted, 
burnt  his  palace,  and  drove  him  out  of  Egypt  in  130  B.C. 
He  recovered  the  throne  in  127,  and  died  in  117  B.C. 

See  Justin,  "  History,"  books  xxxviii.  and  xxxix. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  VIII.,  surnamed  So'ter  IT., 
and  more  frequently  called  Lath'yrus,  [Fr.  Ptol6m6e 
Lathyre,  pto'li'mi'  It't^R',  ]  succeeded  his  father, 
Ptolemy  VII.,  in  117  B.C.  He  reigned  jointly  with  his 
mother,  Cleopatra,  until  107,  when  she  procured  his  ex- 
pulsion in  order  to  raise  to  the  throne  her  favourite  son, 
Alexander.  Ptolemy  reigned  in  Cyprus  until  the  death 
of  his  mother,  (89  B.C.,)  and  was  then  restored  to  the 
throne  of  Egypt.  He  died  in  8.1  B.C.,  leaving  a  daughter, 
Berenice,  who  succeeded  him,  and  a  natural  son,  Ptolemy 
Auletes. 

The  Alexander  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph is  styled  Ptolemy  IX.  by  some  writers. 

See  Justin,  "  History,"  book  xxxix. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  X.,  (sometimes  called  Alex- 
ander II.,)  the  son  of  Ptolemy  VIII.,  was  killed  by  the 
Alexandrians  on  account  of  his  cruelty. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  XL,  surnamed  Aule'tes 
{i.e.  the  "  Piper,")  [Fr.  Ptol6m6e  AuLfeiE,  pto'li'mi' 
6'lit',]  also  surnamed  Ne'us  Diony'sus,  was  a  son  of 
Ptolemy  VIII.  He  began  to  reign  in  80  B.C.  He  was 
one  of  the  worst  kings  of  the  race  of  Ptolemies,  and 
was  dethroned  by  his  subjects  in  58  B.C.  In  55  he  was 
restored  by  tlie  Roman  proconsul  Gabinius.  He  had 
two  sons  named  Ptolemy^  and  a  daughter,  the  famous 
Cleopatra.     Died  in  51  B.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome." 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  XII.  of  Egypt  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  According  to  his  father's 
will,  he  reigned  jointly  with  Cleopatra  from  51  to  48  B.C. 
Dissensions  between  the  minister  Pothinus  and  the 
young  queen  resulted  in  her  expulsion.  Ptolemy  was 
involved  in  war  with  Caesar,  who  entered  Egypt  in  48 
B.C.,  and  he  was  drowned  in  a  retreat  from  a  fight  with 
the  Romans  about  the  end  of  that  year. 

His  brother  Ptolemy  received  from  Caesar  the  title 
of  king  in  conjunction  with  Cleoi>atra  ;  but  his  reign  was 
nominal.     He  was  put  to  death  by  Cleopatra  in  43  B.C. 

See  C/KSAR,  "  Bellum  Civile." 

Ptolemy,  (Ptoletnaeus,)  a  nephew  of  Antigonus, 
King  of  Asia.  He  obtained  in  315  B.C.  command  of  one 
of  the  armies  of  Antigonus,  and  defeated  the  generals  of 
Cassander  in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  Ptolemy  Soter  in  309  B.C. 


Ptolemy,  (Ptolemaeus,)  a  son  of  Pyrrhus,  King  o( 
Epirus,  born  in  295  B.C.,  was  a  prince  of  great  promise. 
He  was  left  in  charge  of  Epirus  when  his  father  led  the 
expedition  against  Italy,  in  2S0.  He  was  slain  in  a 
combat  against  the  Spartans,  in  272  B.C. 

Ptol'e-my  (Ptolemae'us)  ^e-rau'nus,  [Gr.  iKepov- 
vof,]  King  of  Macedonia,  was  a  son  of  Ptolemy  I.  of 
Egypt  by  his  wife  Eurydice.  Having  been  disinherited 
by  his  father,  he  retired  to  Thrace.  He  murdered 
Seleucus  of  Macedonia,  and  usurped  his  throne,  in  280 
B.C.  About  a  year  later  he  was  killed  in  battle  by  the 
Gauls,  who  had  invaded  Macedonia. 

Ptol'e-my  (Ptolemae'us)  Clau'dl-us,  [Gr.  TlroAe- 
\ialoq  }Diavkoq ;  Fr.  Ptol]6m]£e  Claude,  pto'li'mA' 
klod,]  a  celebrated  Greek  astronomer  and  geographer, 
was  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  lived  at  Alexandria.  His 
mature  life  probably  extended  from  125  to  about  160 
A.D.  Of  his  personal  history  we  know  nothing.  He 
was  the  most  celebrated,  but  not  the  greatest,  astronomer 
of  antiquity.  His  contemporaries  and  commentators 
usually  added  to  his  name  the  epithet  "  adinirable"  or 
"divine."  He  was  also  a  great  mathematician.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  treatise  on  astronomy,  entitled  ^eyaku 
'LvvTa^iq  ttj^  'Aarpovo/uac,  to  which  the  Arabian  translators 
gave  the  name  of  "Almagest,"  composed  of  the  Arabic 
article  a/  and  the  Greek  /leyia-r),  i.e.  "  greatest."  In  this 
work  he  availed  himself  of  the  observations  and  dis- 
coveries of  Hipparchus,  to  whom  he  gives  the  credit  with 
commendable  candour.  Indeed,  it  is  chiefly  through  the 
medium  of  the  "Almagest"  that  the  merit  of  Hipparchus 
has  been  recognized  by  the  moderns.  Ptolemy  main- 
tained that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  and  that  the  sun  and 
stars  revolve  daily  around  the  earth,  which  is  fixed  in 
the  centre  of  the  universe.  "  We  find  in  the  Almagest," 
says  Delambre,  "a  clear  exposition  of  the  system  of  the 
world,  of  the  arrangement  of  the  celestial  bodies  and 
their  revolutions,  a  complete  treatise  of  rectilinear  and 
spherical  trigonometry,  and  all  the  phenoinena  of  diur- 
nal motion  explained  and  calculated  with  remarkable 
precision.  .  .  .  Such  was  the  '  Syntaxis,'  ('Almagest,')  a 
monument  of  great  value  at  the  present  day,  since  it 
alone  contains  the  verified  (averi)  history  of  the  science, 
and  the  whole  astronomical  knowledge  of  his  times." 
His  astronomical  theory  is  called  the  Ptolemaic  system. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  general  geography,  (Feu- 
ypa(f>iKff  'T(pTjyrim(,)  which  for  many  ages  was  the  chief 
authority  on  that  subject,  and  did  not  become  obsolete 
until  the  fifteenth  century.  He  gave  special  attention 
to  the  determination  of  the  latitudes  and  longitudes 
of  places  by  mathematical  processes,  but  neglected  the 
descriptive  part  of  geography. 

See  SCHAUBACH,  "  Ueber  den  Griediischen  Astronomen  C. 
Ptolemius,"  1825:  Fabricius,  "  Ribliotheca  Graeca;"  Heerrn, 
"  Commentatio  de  Fontibus  Geographicorum  Ptolemsei,"  etc.,  1828; 
Dr.  Hoefbr,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Ptolemy  Lagi,  (or  the  son  of  Lagus.)     See  Ptol 

EMY  I.  SoTER. 

Pub-lic'o-la,  (L.  GELLrus,)  a  Roman  general,  was 
elected  consul  in  72  B.C.,  and  was  defeated  in  battle  by 
Spartacus.  He  supported  Cicero  in  opposition  to  Cati- 
line.    Died  soon  after  55  B.C. 

Publicola,  (PuBLius  Valerius,)  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Roman  republic,  was  consul  with  Brutus  in  509 
B.C.,  and  was  author  of  laws  which  protected  the  liber- 
ties of  the  common  people,  who  gave  him  the  surname 
of  Publicola,  "  the  people's  friend."  He  was  re-elected 
consul  in  508  and  507  B.C.,  and  fought  against  Porsena, 
who  attempted  to  restore  the  Tarquins.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Regillus,  (496  B.C.) 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Cicero,  "  De  Republics." 

Pub-lil'I-us,  (Vol'ero,)  a  Roman,  who  effected  a 
change  in  the  constitution.  He  was  tribune  of  the 
people  in  472  B.C.,  and  procured  for  the  plebeians 
greater  freedom  in  the  election  of  tribunes. 

Pub'll-us  Sy'rus,  an  eminent  mimographer,  born  in 
Syria,  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  He 
was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  At  games  exhibited  by  Csesar 
in  45  B.C.  Publius  excelled  all  competitors  as  a  composer 
of  mimes.  There  is  extant  a  collection  of  proverbs  or 
moral  sayings  ascribed  to  him. 

Pucci,  poot'chee,  (Antonio,)  a  comic  poet  of  Italy  in 
the  fourteenth  century.     He  wrote  a  chronicle  ("Centi- 


«  as  -6;  5  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  ¥i,guUural;  N  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PUCCI 


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PUISIEUX 


loquio")  in  triplets,  many  historical  poems,  ("Serven- 
tesi,")  legendary  poems,  ("  Reina  d'Oriente,"  "  Apolloiiia 
di  Tiro,"  "  Bel  Gherardino,")  etc. 

Pucci,  poot'chee,  |Lat.  Puc'cius,]  (Francksco,)  an 
Italian  theologian,  born  at  Florence  ;  died  in  1600. 

Puccinelli,  poot-che-nel'lee,  (Placido.)  an  Italian 
bio.2;rapher,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1609;  died  in  1685. 

Puccius.    -See  Pucci. 

Pucelle,  pli'sSK,  (Ren^,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1655,  was  a  nephew  of  Marshal  Catinat.  Died 
in  1745- 

Pucelle  d'Orleans.     See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Puchta,  pooK'tJ,  (Georg  Friedricii,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Cadolzburg  in  1 798.  He  published  an 
excellent  work  on  Roman  law,  "  Cursus  der  Institu- 
tionen,"  (3  vols.,  1841-47,)  and  a  "Manual  of  the  Pan- 
dects," (5th  edition,  1854.)     Died  at  Berlin  in  1846. 

Puchta,  (Wolfgang  Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Erlangen  in  1769  ; 
died  in  1845. 

Pucitta,  poo-chfet'tj,  (Vincenzo,)  an  [talian  musical 
composer,  born  in  Rome  in  1778.  He  produced  twenty- 
three  operas,  and  other  compositions.  Died  at  Milan  in 
1861. 

Piickler-Muskau,  puk'Ier  moos'kow,  (Hermann 
LuDWiG  Heinrich,)  Prince  of,  a  German  writer  of 
travels,  born  at  Muskau,  in  Lusatia,  in  1785.  He  visited 
England,  France,  Northern  Africa,  and  Asia,  and  gave 
an  account  of  those  countries  in  a  work  entitled  "  Let- 
ters of  a  Defunct,"  ("Briefe  eines  Verstorbenen,"  1830.) 
This  was  followed  by  "Semilasso  in  Africa,"  (1836,)  and 
other  sketches  of  travel.     Died  in  1871. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1837;  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  tor  May,  1832,  May.  1S34,  and  July,  1836. 

Puech-Dupont,  piish  dii'pAN',  (Leonard,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  anatomist,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1795  ;  died 
in  182S. 

Pufendorf,  poo'fen-doRf,  written  also  Puffendorf, 
(ESAIAS,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  1628,  was  a  brother 
of  Samuel.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  satirical 
work  entitled  "Anecdotes  of  Sweden."     Died  in  1689. 

Pufendorf,  (Samuel.)     See  Puffendorf. 

PQf'fen-dorf,  [Ger.  Pufendorf,  poo'fen-doRf';  Lat. 
Pufendor'fius,]  (Samuel,)  Baron,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man jurist  and  publicist,  born  near  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony, 
in  1632.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Jena,  giving  his 
attention  chiefly  to  the  political  works  of  Grotius  and 
Hobbes.  He  published  in  1660  his  "Eletnents  of  Uni- 
versal Jurisprudence,"  (in  Latin,)  which  was  received 
with  general  favour.  Puffendorf  was  soon  after  appointed 
by  the  Elector-Palatine,  Charles  Louis,  professor  of  the 
law  of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Heidelberg,  that  chaii 
having  been  created  expressly  for  him.  He  exposed  the 
absurdities  of  the  constitution  of  the  Germanic  empire 
in  his  work  "De  Statu  Imperii  Germanici,"  published 
under  the  name  of  "  Severini  de  Mozambano,"  (1667,) 
which  attracted  great  attention.  On  the  invitation  of 
Charles  XI.  of  Sweden,  he  accepted  a  similar  professor- 
ship at  Lund  in  1670.  He  brought  out  in  1672  his 
greatest  work,  entitled  "  On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of 
Nations,"  ("  De  Jure  Naturae  et  Gentium.")  This  treat- 
ise is  regarded  as  superior  in  soine  respects  to  that  of 
Grotius.  The  new  principles  which  he  advocated  were 
violently  opposed  by  some  of  his  contemporaries ;  but 
the  work  procured  for  him  a  durable  European  reputa- 
tion. He  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
to  the  King  of  Sweden,  and  made  a  baron.  Died  at 
Berlin  in  1694. 

See  Jhnisch,  "Vita  Pufendorfii,"  1802;  Daniel  Muller, 
"  Laudes  Pufendorfii,"  1723. 

Pugatchef     See  Poogatchep. 

Pugatschev.      See  Poogatchef. 

Puget,  pu'zhy,  (Francois,)  a  French  painter  and 
architect,  was  a  son  of  Pierre,  noticed  below.  He  excelled 
in  portraits.     Died  in  1707. 

Puget,  (HiLARioN  Paul  Franqois  Bienvenu,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  had  a  high 
command  in  the  campaign  against  Spain  in  1793-  t)'^^ 
in  1828. 

Puget,  (LoiSA,)  a  French  musical  composer,  born  in 
Paris  about  1 810.  She  has  produced  songs  that  had  a 
great  vogue  in  their  day,  and  a  couple  of  operettas. 


Puget,  (Louis,)  a  IVench  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1 629.  He  gained  distinction  by  researches  on  magnetism. 
Died  in  1709. 

Puget,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor,  archi- 
tect, and  painter,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1622,  was  a  pupil 
of  Pietro  da  Cortona,  with  whom  he  worked  at  Rome. 
He  worked  as  architect  at  Marseilles,  where  he  also 
painted  some  historical  pieces.  About  1655  he  renounced 
painting,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  devoted  himself  to 
sculpture,  on  which  his  celebrity  is  founded.  At  Genoa, 
where  he  passed  some  years,  he  executed  an  admirable 
statue  of  Saint  Sebastian,  abas-relief  of  the  Assumption, 
and  other  works.  Having  been  invited  by  Colbert,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1669,  after  which  he  produced,  as 
sculptor,  "  Alexander  and  Diogenes,"  and  "  Milo  of  Cro- 
tona,"  which  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece.  He  has 
been  called  "  the  Michael  Angelo  of  France."  Died  at 
Marseilles  in  1694. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "  Storia  de'ila  Scultura  ;"  fiMRRic-DAViD,  "Vie 
de  P.  Puget,  Peintre,"  etc.,  1840:  FSraud,  "  filoge  historique  de 
P.  Puget,"  1807;  A.  Rabbe,  "£loge  de  P.  Puget,"  1807;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Pughe,  pu,  (William  Owen,)  a  Welsh  philologist 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Merionethshire  in  1759.  He 
published  a  "  Welsh-and-English  Dictionary,"  (1793- 
1803,)  a  collection  of  o'd  Welsh  poetry  and  chronicles, 
entitled  "Myvyrian  Archaiology  of  Wales,"  (1801-07,) 
and  "Cambrian  Biography,"  (1803.)     Died  in  1835. 

Pugin,  pU'zhiN',  (Augustus,)  an  eminent  architec- 
tural draftsman,  born  in  Normandy  about  1765,  emi- 
grated to  London  in  his  youth.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture,  se- 
lected from  Various  Ancient  Edifices  of  England,"  (2 
vols.,  1821-23,)  and  "Specimens  of  the  Architectura'. 
Antiquities  of  Normandy,"  (1825-28.)     Died  in  1832. 

Pu'^in,  (Augustus  Northmore  Welry,)  an  able 
English  architect,  born  in  London  in  181 1,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
and  an  admirer  of  the  mediaeval  Gothic  style  of  archi- 
tecture. He  designed  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Marie  at 
Derby,  and  a  great  number  of  Roman  Catholic  churches 
at  Liverpool,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Reading,  Newcastle, 
and  other  places.  It  appears  that  his  zeal  would  not 
permit  him  to  build  a  Protestant  church.  His  writings, 
one  of  which  is  entitled  "  The  True  Principles  of  Pointed 
or  Christian  Architecture,"  (1841,)  contributed  much  to 
the  prevalence  of  the  Gothic  style  of  churches.  He 
ruined  his  constitution  by  excessive  labour,  was  sent  to 
a  lunatic-asylum,  and  died  in  1852. 

See  B.  Ferrev,  "Recollections  of_A.  N.  Welby  Pugin  and  Au- 
gustus Pugin;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  t86i. 

Pugin,  fEowARD  Welby,)  an  architect,  and  a  son  of 
the  precedmg,  was  born  in  1834.  He  designed  several 
large  churches  of  Liverpool,  and  completed  some  works 
which  his  father  had  commenced.    Died  June  5,  1875. 

Puglio.     See  Puligo. 

Pugnani,  poon-yi'nee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Turin  in  1728  ;  died  in  1798. 

Pugnet,  piin'yi',  (Jean  FRANgois  Xavier,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1765,  was  chief  phy- 
sician of  a  hospital  at  Dunkirk  from  1805  to  1821.  Died 
in  1846. 

Puibusque,  de,  deh  pii-eTjusk',  (Adolphe  Louis,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  obtained 
a  prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  his  "Comparative 
History  of  the  Spanish  and  French  Literatures,"  (2 
vols.,  1843.)     Died  May  31,  1863. 

Puisaye,  de,  deh  pu-e'zi',  (Joseph  GENEVii:vF.,) 
Count,  a  French  royalist  general,  born  in  1754.  He 
commanded  the  army  of  emigrants  and  Chouans  which 
was  completely  defeated  at  Quiberon  in  1794.  He  died 
in  England  in  1827. 

Puiseux,  pU-e'zuh',  (Victor  Alexandre,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Argenteuil  in  1820.  He  became 
in  1857  professor  of  astronomy  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences 
in  Paris.     Died  September  17,  1883. 

Puisieux,  de,  deh  pii-e'ze-uh',  (Madeleine  d'Ar- 
SANT,)  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1720,  wrote 
"  Les  Caracteres,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1798. 

Puisieux,  de,  (Pierre  Brulart,)  Vicomte,  Marquis 
de  Siilery,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1583. 
He  was  employed  in  important  missions  in   the  reign 


e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fi'J  Sit;  mfit;  nftt;  gfiod;  moon 


PUISSANT 


2009 


PUMPELL  Y 


of  Louis  XIII.,  with  whom  he  had  much  influence. 
Died  ill  1640. 

Puissant,  pii-e'sflN',  (Louis,)  a  French  mathemati- 
cian, born  near  Chatelet  (Seine-et-Marne)  in  1769.  He 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  geodesy,  in  which  he  acquired 
eminence,  and  succeeded  La  Place  in  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1828.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
Geodesy,"  (1805.)     Died  in  1843. 

Pujati,  poo-yi'tee,  (GrusEPi-E  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  in  Friuli  in  1701.  He  became  professor 
at  Padua  in  1754.     Died  in  1760. 

Pujol,  pU'zhoK,  (Alexandre  Denis  Acel,)  called 
Arel  de  Pujol,  a  French  historical  painter,  born  at 
Valenciennes  in  17S5,  was  a  i)upil  of  David.  lie  gained 
the  first  prize  in  iSi  i,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "Saint  Stephen  preaching 
the  Gospel,"  "Caesar  on  the  Ides  of  March,"  and  a  large 
picture  of  the  "  Renaissance  of  the  Arts,"  painted  on  a 
ceiling  in  the  Louvre.  Me  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  in  1835.     Died  in  1861. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Pujol,  (Alexis,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  near 
Beziers  in  1739.  His  best  work  is  an  "  Essay  on  Chronic 
Inflammations  of  the  Viscera,"  (1791.)    Died  in  1804. 

Pujoulx,  pii'zhoo',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  mediocre 
Vxt\\c\\  litterateur ,  born  in  Gironde  in  1762  ;  died  in  1821. 

Pulaski,  pu-las'ke,  [Polish  pron.  poo-lSs'kee,]  (Count 
Casimir,)  a  celebrated  Polish  officer,  was  born  in  1747. 
He  was  a  son  of  the  patriotic  Count  Pulaski  who 
formed  the  Confederation  of  Barr  in  1768.  Casimir 
took  arms  in  that  year  against  the  Russian  invaders, 
commanded  in  many  battles  and  sieges,  and  performed 
many  daring  exploits.  "Never  was  there  a  warrior," 
says  Rulhiere,  "  who  possessed  greater  dexterity  in  every 
kind  of  service."  He  went  into  exile  in  1772,  and  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  United  States  in  1777.  Four 
days  after  the  battle  of  Brandywine  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  cavalry,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  He  resigned  this  command  in  March,  1778,  and 
raised  a  body  called  Pulaski's  Legion,  which  was  ordered 
to  South  Carolina  in  February,  1779.  He  was  killed  in 
the  autumn  of  that  year,  at  the  siege  of  Savannah. 

See  Sparks,  "American  Riography,"  vol.  iv.  of  second  series. 

Pul-€he'ri-a,  [Gr.  Wm^.x^pio.;  Fr.  Pulcm^rie,  pul'- 
shi're',]  Empress  of  the  East,  born  in  399  A.D.,  was  a 
daughter  of  Arcadius.  She  governed  the  empire  in  the 
name  of  her  brother  Theodosius  from  414  until  his 
death,  in  450  A.D.,  and  in  her  own  name  from  that  event 
until  her  death,  in  453  A.D.  She  was  canonized  as  a 
saint  by  the  Greek  Church. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  tlie  Roman  Empire;"  Con- 
TUCCi,  "Vita  deirimperatrice  Pulclieria,"  1754. 

Pulci,  pool'chee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Florence  about  1425,  was  a  brother  of  Luigi,  noticed 
below.  He  translated  Virgil's  "  Bucolics,"  (1481,)  and 
wrote  several  elegies.     He  was  living  in  1494. 

Pulci,  (LuCA,)  an  Italian  poet,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  wrote  "II  Ciriffo  Calvaneo,"  and  other 
poems. 

Pulci,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  1431.  He  lived  on  familiar  terms  with  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  to  whom  his  wit  rendered  him  an  agreeable  com- 
panion. His  principal  work  is  "Morgante  Maggiore," 
(1481,)  a  romantic  poem,  in  which  the  serious  and  ludi- 
crous are  blended,  and  which  contains  some  beautiful 
passages.  It  is  sometimes  styled  a  heroico-comic  poem. 
He  employed  the  idioms  and  niceties  of  the  Tuscan 
language  vvith  much  skill.  His  style  was  commended 
as  a  model  by  Machiavel.     Died  about  1487. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Gingueni*,  "  Histoire 
Litt^raire  d'ltalie  :"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry 
Stebbing  ;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  article 
"Italian  Narrative  Poetry,"  (by  Prescott.) 

Pulgar,  del,  dgl  pool-g^K^,  (Hernando,)  a  Spanish 
historian  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Pulgar,  near 
Toledo,  about  1436.  He  was  appointed  in  1482  histo- 
riographer of  Castile  by  Queen  Isabella,  whom  he  served 
as  secretary  and  attended  in  various  journeys  and  cam- 
paigns. He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,"  (1565,)  which,  however,  does  not  extend 
quite  to  tl  e  capture  of  Granada.     Among  his  works  is 


a  collection  of  biographies,  entitled  "Claros  Varones  de 
Espana,"  ("Illustrious  Men  of  Spain,"  1524.)  He  died 
about  1490. 

See  TicKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Prescott, 
"  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. ;  N.  Anto.n'io, 
"  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Puligo,  poo-lee'go,  or  Puglio,  pool'yo,  (DoMENico,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1475 ;  died  in 
1527. 

Pul'lus  or  Pul'len,  (Robert,)  an  English  cardinal, 
noted  as  a  promoter  of  learning.     Died  about  11 50. 

Pulmann,  pool'mJn,  [written  in  Dutch  Poelmann,] 
(Theodor,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Cleves  about  15 10;  died  about  1580. 

Pulszky,  pool'ske,  (Francis  Aurelius,)  a  Hunga- 
rian writer  and  patriot,  born  at  Eperies  in  1814.  Having 
made  the  tour  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  he  published 
in  1837  "Extracts  from  the  Journal  of  a  Hungarian  trav- 
elling in  Great  Britain,"  (in  German.)  He  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  appointed 
under-secretary  of  state  for  Hungary.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarians  he  accompanied  Kossuth  as  an  inti- 
mate friend  to  America,  and  published  in  185 1  an  account 
of  the  journey,  entitled  "  Red,  White,  and  Black,"  (in 
English,)  in  which  his  wife  had  a  part.  She  was  also  a 
contributor  to  his  "Tales  and  Traditions  of  Hungary," 
(3  vols.,  1851.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1851. 

Pulszky,  (Theresa,)  an  authoress,  the  wife  of  tne 
preceding,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1815-  She  was  mar- 
ried about  1845.  She  published  "  Memoirs  of  a  Hunga- 
rian Lady,"  (in  English,  2  vols.,  1851.)     Died  in  1866, 

Pulteuey,  pult'ne,  (Richard,)  an  English  botanist 
and  physician,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1730.  He  wrote 
a  "General  View  of  the  WrFtings  of  Linnaeus,"  (1782,) 
and  "  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany  in  England," 
(2  vols.,  1790.)     Died  in  1801. 

Pulteney,  (William,)  Earl  of  Bath,  an  English 
statesman  and  orator,  born  in  1682,  descended  from  an 
old  family  of  Leicestershire.  He  began  his  public  life 
as  a  Whig,  entered  Parliament  about  1705.  was  appointed 
secretary  at  war  on  the  accession  of  George  I.,  in  17151 
and  became  a  brilliant  debater  in  Parliament.  I  le  ceased 
to  act  with  the  ministry  in  1725,  after  which  he  was  a 
determined  opponent  of  Walpole.  As  the  leader  of 
the  opposition,  or  the  "  patriots,"  he  enjoyed  great 
popularity  for  a  number  of  years.  He  contributed  to 
"The  Craftsman,"  edited  by  Lord  Bolingbroke.  "He 
became,"  says  Lord  Macaulay,  "  the  greatest  leader  of 
opposition  that  the  House  of  Commons  had  ever  seen." 
(Review  of  Thackeray's  "Life  of  Chatham.")  When 
Walpole  was  removed  from  power,  in  1742,  Pulteney 
might  have  been  his  successor.  The  formation  of  a  new 
ministry  was  intrusted  to  him,  but,  from  timidity  or  some 
other  reason,  he  declined  the  office  of  prime  minister, 
and  recommended  the  incompetent  Lord  Wilmington. 
At  the  same  time  he  sacrificed  his  own  popularity  by 
accepting  the  title  of  Earl  of  Bath.  The  composition 
of  the  new  cabinet  was  unsatisfactory  to  his  party  and 
to  the  public.  His  rival,  Walpole,  meeting  him  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  said,  "  Here  we  are,  my  lord,  the  two 
most  insignificant  fellows  in  England."  "  He  was,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1840,  "one  of  thr 
most  accomplished  debaters,  perhaps  one  of  the  finest 
speakers,  that  ever  appeared  in  our  senate.  .  .  .  His 
style  was  correct  and  classical  beyond  that  of  all  other 
men,  and  his  unpremeditated  compositions  were  as 
correct  and  elegant  as  his  most  prepared."  He  died  in 
1764,  and  left  no  issue. 

See  Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
<raphie  Generale." 

Pul'tock,  (Robert,)  an  English  author  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  life.  He 
published  in  1750  "The  Life  and  Adventures  of  Petei 
Wilkins,"  a  romance,  which  was  jiraised  by  Southey. 

Pulzone,  pool-zo'n4,  (Scipione,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Gaeta  in  1550;  died  about  1590. 

Pum-pel'ly,  (Raphael,)  an  American  geologist,  born 
at  Owego,  New  York,  September  8,  1837.  He  studied 
in  France  and  in  the  German  universities,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  governments  to 


:  as  >5;  s  as  f;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^r^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PUNSHON 


PUTNAM 


examine  the  mineral  resources  of  their  respective  coun- 
tries. In  1866  he  became  professor  of  mining  engineer- 
ing in  Harvard  University.  He  was  employed  in  the 
geological  survey  of  Michigan,  1870-71,  and  was  state 
geologist  of  Missouri,  1871-73.  Among  his  works  are 
"Across  America  and  Asia,"  (1870,)  and  several  geo- 
logical reports. 

Pan'shon,  (William  Morley,)  LL.D.,  an  English 
Wesleyan  minister,  born  at  Doncaster  in  1824.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-one  he  had  earned  a  reputation  as  an  elo- 
quent orator.  In  1868  he  left  England  for  Canada,  and 
married  his  deceased  wife's  sister,  but  shortly  after  her 
death,  in  1871,  he  returned  to  England,  and  in  1874  was 
elected  president  of  the  Wesleyan  Conference  for  the 
ensuing  year.  Many  of  his  sermons  and  lectures  were 
very  popular.     Died  at  Buxton,  April  14,  1881. 

Pu-pl-e'nus  Max'i-mus,  (Clodius,)  a  Roman 
officer,  who  was  elected  (238  A.D.)  emperor  with  Balbinus. 
He  was  killed  in  239  by  his  mutinous  soldiers. 

Pur&ua,  poo-ri'na,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  an- 
cient," and  applied  to  certain  sacred  books  of  the  Hin- 
doos, treating  of  the  creation,  destruction,  and  renovation 
of  worlds,  and  of  the  history  of  gods  and  heroes.  There 
are  eighteen  recognized  as  eminently  sacred.  The  pu- 
ranas  are  very  voluminous,  comprising,  according  to 
Professor  Wilson,  four  hundred  thousand  stanzas. 

See  Wilson's  Preface  to  his  translation  of  the  Vishnu  PurSna. 

Purbach,pooR'biK,orPeurbach,poiR'baK,(GEORG,) 
an  eminent  German  astronomer,  born  at  Peurbach,  in 
Austria,  in  1423.  He  studied  at  Vienna  and  subsequently 
in  Italy,  and,  after  his  return,  succeeded  Gmunden  as 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Vienna.  He  wrote  an  ex- 
planation of  the  first  six  books  of  the  "Almagest"  of 
Ptolemy,  and  a  work  entitled  "New  Theories  of  the 
Planets,"  ("TheoriiE  novae  Planetarum,")  which  had  a 
high  reputation  in  his  time.  The  celebrated  Miiller 
(Regiomontanus)  was  his  pupil.     Died  in  I46l._ 

Piir'cell,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  musician  and 
composer,  born,  probably  in  Westminster,  in  1658,  was 
a  pupil  of  Captain  Cook.  He  became  organist  of  West- 
minster Abbey  in  1676,  and  one  of  the  organists  of  the 
chapel  royal  in  1682.  His  first  compositions  were  an- 
thems, which  were  greatly  admired.  He  displayed 
greater  genius  in  dramatic  music  and  other  secular 
music.  In  1690  he  produced  the  music  of  Lee's  "The- 
odosius;  or.  The  Force  of  Love,"  and  that  of  the 
"  Tempest"  as  altered  by  Dryden.  He  composed  many 
songs,  cantatas,  sonatas,  duets,  glees,  etc.  Among  his 
popular  works  are  the  song  "Genius  of  England," 
"Britons,  strike  Home,"  (in  "Bonduca,")  the  cantata 
of  "Mad  Bess,"  and  several  songs  in  Dryden's  "King 
Arthur."  He  is  considered  by  some  critics  the  most 
excellent  composer  that  England  has  produced.  Died 
in  November,  1695. 

See  BuRNEV,  "  History  of  Music;"  FAtis,  "  Biographic  Univer- 
^elle  des  Musiciens." 

Pur-celP,  (John  Baptist,)  D.D.,  an  archbishop,  born 
in*  Mallow,  Ireland,  February  26,  1800.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Marvland,  and  in  the  Sulpitian  Seminary  of 
Paris,  and  in  1826  was  ordained  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
priesthood.  He  became  president  of  the  college  at  Em- 
mittsburg,  and  in  1833  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Cin- 
cinnati. In  1850  he  was  promoted  to  be  archbishop  and 
metropolitan.  The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  rendered 
burdensome  by  great  financial  difficulties,  caused  by  his 
system  of  receiving  money  on  deposit.  In  1880  he  re- 
tired from  the  active  duties  of  his  position.  Died  at 
Saint  Martin's,  Ohio,  July  4,  1883. 

Purcell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He  became  a 
gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal  in  1660.     Died  in  16S2. 

Pur'chas,  (Samuel,)  an'  English  compiler  of  travels, 
was  born  at  Thaxted,  in  Essex,  in  1577.  He  became 
rector  of  Saint  Martin's,  Ludgate,  in  London,  and  chap- 
lain to  Archbishop  Abbott.  He  published  "  Purchas 
his  Pilgrimage ;  or,  Relations  of  the  World  and  the  Re- 
ligions observed  in  all  Ages  and  Places,"  etc.,  (1613,) 
and  "Purchas  his  Pilgrimes,"  (1625,)  which  are  collec- 
tions of  great  research  and  some  value.     Died  in  1628. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 


Purl,  poo'ree  or  pU're',  (David,)  a  Swiss  philanthro- 
pist, born  at  Neufchatel  in  1 709.  He  founded  a  hospital 
at  his  native  town,  to  which  he  bequeathed  about  five 
million  francs  for  charitable  objects.     Died  in  1786. 

Puricelli,  poo-re-chel'lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Milan  about  1657;  died  in  1738. 

Puricelli,  (Giovanni  Pieiro,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
priest,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1589.  He  published 
"  Ambrosianae  Mediolanae  Basilicae  Monumenta,"  (1645.) 
Died  in  1659. 

Purkinje,  pooR'kin-yi,  (Jan  Evangelista,)  an  emi- 
nent Bohemian  physiologist,  born  at  Leitmeriiz,  Decem- 
ber 17,  1787.  He  became  a  priest,  but  took  a  degree  in 
medicine  at  Prague  in  1819.  He  held  professorships  of 
physiology  at  Prague  and  Breslau,  and  in  1852  returned 
to  Prague.  He  was  famous  as  a  skilful  teacher,  and  was 
the  instructor  of  many  excellent  physicians.  His  dis- 
coveries in  physiology  were  of  great  importance.  He 
published,  besides  valuable  professional  papers,  Czech 
translations  of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  {1835) 
and  of  Schiller's  lyrics,  (1841,)  and  translated  many 
Czech  songs  into  the  Polish.     Died  July  28,  1869. 

Pttrsh,  (Frederick,)  a  distinguished  botanist,  born  at 
Tobolsk,  in  Siberia,  in  1774.  He  resided  in  the  United 
States  from  1799  to  1811,  and  in  the  latter  year  went  to 
England.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  the  plants 
of  North  America,  entitled  "  Flora  Americae  Septentrio- 
nalis,"  (London,  1814.)     Died  at  Montreal  in  1820. 

Pur'vfr,  (Anthony,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Hampshire  about  1702,  was  a  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  He  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  pro- 
duced a  new  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
which  he  published  (1764)  by  the  aid  of  Dr.  Fothergill. 
Died  in  1777.  Purver's  translation  of  the  Bible  has 
been  jironounced  superior  to  all  others  for  "closeness  to 
the  original."  (For  an  interesting  account  of  Purver's 
life,  see  "  Social  Hours  with  Friends,"  New  York,  1867, 

PP-  75-77-) 

See  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Puschkin.     See  Pooshkin. 

Pu'sey,  (Edward  Bouverie,)  D.D.,  the  founder  of 
Puseyism,  was  born  in  1800.  His  father,  Philip  Bou- 
verie, was  a  brother  of  the  Eari  of  Radnor,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  PiJSEY.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1822, 
became  Fellow  of  Oriel  College,  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
and  Regius  professor  of  Hebrew  in  182S.  In  conjunction 
with  John  Henry  Newman,  he  wrote  "Tracts  for  the 
Times,"  (1833,)  which  produced  great  excitement.  He 
was  suspended  from  his  pastoral  functions  on  account 
of  a  sermon  on  the  eucharist,  which  he  preached  in  1843. 
He  favours  auricular  confession  and  several  doctrines 
and  practices  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Died 
September  16,  1882. 

Pusey,  (Philip,)  an  agriculturist,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1799.  He  inherited  an  estate 
in  Berkshire,  which  county  he  represented  in  Parliament 
from  1834  to  1852.  His  political  principles  were  con- 
servative. He  wrote  several  essays  on  agriculture,  and 
edited  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society." 
Died  in  1855. 

Pushkin.     See  Poosmki.n. 

Puteanu3.     See  Dupuy. 

Puteanus,  pii-ti-i'nus,  (Erycius,)  originally  Hen- 
drik  van  der  Putten,  (vtn  der  piit'ten,)  a  Flemish 
antiquary  and  historian,  born  at  Venloo  in  1574.  He 
became  in  1606  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Lou- 
vain.     Died  in  1646. 

Puthod,  pii'tod',  (Jacques  Pierre  Marie  Louis 
Joseph,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Bresse  in  1769;  died 
m  1837. 

Putlitz,  poot'lits,  (GusTAV  Heinrich  Gans,)  a  Ger- 
man nobleman  and  litierati'ur,  born  in  1821,  has  published 
several  dramas,  and  a  collection  of  charming  tales,  en- 
titled "  What  the  Forest  tells  Itself,"  ("  Was  sich  der 
Wald  erzahlt.") 

Piit'iiam,  (Frederick  Ward,)  an  American  naturalist 
and  archaeologist,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  April 
16, 1839,  studied  under  L.  Agassiz  at  the  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  was  an  assistant 
to  Agassiz  in  the  Zoological  Museum,  1856-64,  director 
of  the  museum  of  the  Essex  Institute,  1864-74,  and  in 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obsaire;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PUTNAM 


20II 


PYM 


1874  was  made  curator  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  Har- 
vard University.  He  is  author  of  a  large  number  of 
papers  upon  zoology,  and  especially  upon  American 
ethnology  and  archaeology. 

Putnam,  (George  Palmer,)  an  American  publisher, 
born  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  February  21,  1S14.  He  be- 
came a  bookseller  and  publisher  of  New  York,  and 
founded  "  Putnam's  Magazine."  He  published  a  "Chro- 
nology," (1833,)  called  in  the  editions  later  than  1850  "The 
World's  Progress,  a  Dictionary  of  Dates,"  "The  Tourist 
in  Europe,"  (1838,)  "American  Facts,"  (1845,)  ^^^  other 
works.     Died  in  New  York,  December  20,  1872. 

Pttt'nam,  (Israel,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in 
1718.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  French  war  by 
his  reckless  courage  and  adventurous  spirit,  and,  being 
captured  by  the  Indians  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ticon- 
deroga  in  1758,  was  only  saved  from  being  burned  alive 
by  the  interposition  of  a  French  officer.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  he  embraced  with  ardoui 
the  cause  of  the  patriots,  and  was  conspicuous  /or  his 
skill  and  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  He 
was  made  a  major-general  in  1775.  In  May,  1777,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Highlands 
in  New  York.  He  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  fortifications  at  West  Point.  Died  in  1790.  Among 
his  exploits  was  a  fight  with  a  wolf,  which  he  followed 
into  a  dark  cavern  with  a  torch  and  killed  with  a  gun. 
The  aperture  of  the  cavern  being  very  small,  he  crept 
in  head-furemost,  and  had  a  rope  fastened  to  his  legs,  by 
which  his  companions  drew  him  out.  This  occurred  at 
Pomfret,  Connecticut,  where  he  resided.  According  to 
President  Dwight,  he  was  a  "man  whose  generosity  was 
singular,  whose  honesty  was  proverbial,  who  raised  him- 
self to  universal  esteem  and  offices  of  eminent  distinction 
by  personal  worth  and  a  useful  life." 

See  "  Essay  on  the  Life  of  General  Putnam,"  byD.  Humphreys; 
O.  W.  Peabody,  "  Life  of  Israel  Putnam,"  in  Sparks's  "  American 
Biography,"  vol.  vii. ;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Putnam,  (Mary  Lowell,)  an  American  writer,*?! 
daughter  of  Charles  Lowell,  (q.  v.,)  sister  of  J.  R.  Low- 
ell, (q.  v.,)  and  mother  of  W.  L.  Putnam,  (q.  v.)  She 
was  born  in  Boston,  December  3,  1810,  and  married  Mr. 
S.  R.  Putnam  in  1832.  Among  her  books  are  "  Record 
A  an  Obscure  Man,"  (1861,)  "Tragedy  of  Errors," 
1862,)  "Tragedy  of  Success,"  (1862,)  a  "  Life"  of  W.  L. 
Putnam,  etc.    She  is  distinguished  as  a  polyglot  linguist. 

Putnam,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Sutton,  Massachusetts,  in  1738,  was  one 
of  the  first  settlers  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  In  1788,  in 
company  with  a  considerable  number  of  colonists  from 
New  England,  he  founded  the  city  of  Marietta.  He 
was  appointed  in  1796  surveyor-general  of  United  States 
lands.     Died  in  1824. 

Putnam,  (William  Lowell,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Boston  in  1840,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  James 
R.  Lowell.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  gave 
promise  of  extraordinary  genius.  Having  enlisted  as 
a  lieutenant,  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff, 
October,  1861. 

Putschius,  put'sKe-us,  (Elias,)  a  Flemish  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Antwerp  about  1580.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  the  ancient  grammarians,  entitled 
"Grammaticse  Latinae  Auctores  antiqui,"  (1605.)  Died 
at  Stade  in  1606. 

Putte,  vail,  (Henry.)    See  Dupuy,  (Henry.) 

Puttenham,  piit'tenam,  (George,)  an  English  poet, 
born  about  1533.  He  wrote  "  Partheniades,"  and  "  The 
Art  of  Poesie,"  (1589.)     Died  about  1600. 

Putter  or  Puetter,  put'ter,  (Johann  Stephan,) 
celebrated  German  publicist,  born  at  Iserlohn,  in  West- 

f»halia,  in  1725.  He  became  in  1757  professor  of  public 
aw  at  Gottingen,  where  he  lectured  more  than  forty 
years.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Institutes 
of  German  Public  Law,"  ("  Institutiones  Juris  publici 
Germanici,"  1770,)  and  a  "  Historical  Development  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire,"  (3  vols.,  1786.) 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1807. 

See  "  Putters  Selbstbiographie,"  1798. 

Puvis,  pu'v^ss',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  agricul- 


turist, born  at  Cuiseaux  (Saone-et-Loire)  \\\  1776.  He 
rendered  important  services  by  his  experiments  and 
writings  on  agriculture.     Died  in  185 1. 

Puy,  du.     See  Dupuy. 

Puymaurin,  de,  deh  pU-e'mo'riN',  (Nicolas  Joseph 
DE  Marcassus,)  a  French  administrator  and  painter, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1718;  died  in  1791.  His  son,  Jean 
Pierre  Casimir,  (1757-1841,)  was  a  useful  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  wrote  some  scientific 
treatises. 

Puysegur,  de,  deh  pii-e'zil'guR',  (Antoine  Hya- 
cinthe  Anne,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  in  1752; 
died  in  1809. 

Puysegur,  de,(ARMAND  Marie  Jacques  de  Chaste- 
net — deh  shit'n^',)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born 
in  1 75 1.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  animal  magnet- 
ism, on  which  he  wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1825. 

Puysegur,  de,  (Jacques  Francois  de  Chastenet,) 
Marquis,  an  able  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in 
1656.  He  was  sent  to  Spain  in  1703,  with  the  title  of 
director-general  of  the  troops,  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1704.  In  1734  he  received 
a  marshal's  baton.  Died  in  1743.  He  left  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Art  of  War."  His  father,  Jacques,  born  in  1602, 
was  a  general  of  some  distinction.     Died  in  1682. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Frangais." 

Puzos,  pii'zo',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1686,  excelled  in  obstetrics.     Died  in  1753. 

Pyat,  pe'S',  (F^lix.)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Vierzon  (Cher)  in  1810,  composed  several  dramas  and 
contributed  to  various  journals.  He  was  a  radical  in 
politics,  and  joined  Ledru-Rollin  in  a  seditious  plot  in 
June,  1849,  after  which  he  lived  in  exile  until  1869.  He 
was  a  Communist  leader  in  1871.     Died  August  3,  1889. 

Pye,  pi,  (Henry  James,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1745.  He  translated  Aristotle's  "Poetics," 
and  wrote  many  poems,  among  which  are  "The  Progress 
of  Refinement,"  (1783,)  and  "Alfred,"  an  epic  poem, 
(1802.)  He  became  poet-laureate  in  1790,  and  was  a 
member  of  Parliament.     Died  in  1813. 

Pye,  (John,)  an  English  engraver  of  landscapes,  was 
born  at  Birmingham  in  1782.  lie  engraved  with  success 
some  pictures  of  Turner,  among  which  are  "  Pope's 
Villa,"  and  "The  Temple  of  Jupiter."  He  published 
"Patronage  of  British  Art,"  (1845.)     Died  in  1874. 

Pyg-ma'll-on,  [Uvynaiiuv,]  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
king  of  Cyprus,  who  is  said  to  have  fallen  in  love  with 
an  ivory  image  of  a  young  woman  which  he  had  formed, 
and  which  Venus  at  his  request  endowed  with  life. 

Pygmalion,  (called  Piimelion  in  some  inscriptions,) 
King  of  Tyre,  and  a  son  of  Belus,  (Mathan,)  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  800  B.C.,  and  to  have  been  the  brother 
of  Dido,  or  Elissa,  who  founded  Carthage. 

See  Virgil's  "  ^Eneid,"  book  i. 

Pygmees  or  Pygmaei.    See  Pygmies. 

Pyg'mies,  [Gr.  tlvynaZoi;  Lat.  PYGMi^l,  pig-mee'i ; 
Fr.  Pygmies,  pig'mi',]  a  fabulous  nation  of  dwarfs, 
whom  the  ancients  supposed  to  live  near  the  sources  of 
the  Nile,  or  in  India.  According  to  Homer,  they  waged 
against  the  cranes  a  warfare  which  was  annually  re- 
newed. Some  writers  relate  that  an  army  of  pygmies 
once  assailed  Hercules  when  he  was  asleep. 

Pylade.     See  Pylades. 

Pyl'a-des,  fGr.  Xlv'^Mnq  :  Fr.  Pylade,  pe'ltd',]  a  son 
of  Strophius,  King  of  Phocis,  was  a  cousin  and  intimate 
friend  of  Orestes,  whose  sister  Electra  he  married.  The 
friendship  of  Pylades  and  Orestes  was  proverbial.  (See 
Orestes.) 

Pyle,  pll,  (Howard,)  an  American  artist  and  writer, 
born  in  Wilmington,  Delaware,  March  5,  1853.  He  has 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  art,  and  especially  to  the  illus- 
tration of  books.  He  has  published  "The  Merry  Ad- 
ventures of  Robin  Hood,"  (1S83,)  and  many  illustrated 
articles  in  periodicals. 

Pyle,  pil,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1674.  He  was  prebendary  of  Salisbury,  and 
vicar  of  Saint  Margaret,  at  Lynn.  He  wrote  paraphrases 
on  the  Acts,  Epistles,  and  some  other  books  ot  the  Bible. 
Died  in  1756. 

Pj^m,  (John,)  an  eminent  British  statesman  and 
orator,  born  at  Brymore,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1584.     He 


^7^si;  qass;  gAard;  gasj;G,H,K, ^ttura!;  ^, nasal;  K,trilled;  sasz;  thasin/>^/j.     (2i:^°"See  Explanations, p. 23.) 


PYM 


20I2 


PYRRHO 


entered  Broadgate  Hall,  now  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
in  1599,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1614,  after  he 
had  acquired  financial  skill  by  a  service  of  some  years 
in  the  Exchequer.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  country 
party,  and  so  strenuously  ojjposed  the  measures  of  the 
court  that  King  James  I.  stigmatized  him  as  "a  very  ill- 
tempered  spirit."  He  represented  Tavi.stock  in  all  the 
Parliaments  held  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  In  1626  he 
was  one  of  the  managers  of  an  impeachment  against  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  made  a  speech  for  which  he 
was  imprisoned  by  the  court.  He  was  released  on  his 
election  to  the  third  Parliament.  He  was  once  a  friend 
of  Wentworth,  who,  having  rest)lved  to  desert  the  pop- 
ular cause,  obtained  a  private  interview  with  Pym  and 
began  to  sound  him  in  a  set  speech.  Pym,  understand- 
ing his  drift,  stopped  him  short  with  these  words  :  "  You 
need  not  use  all  this  art  to  tell  me  that  you  have  a  mind 
to  leave  us ;  but,  remember  what  I  tell  you,  I  will  never 
leave  you  while  your  head  is  on  your  shoulders !"  In 
the  Parliament  which  met  in  April,  1640,  Pym  made  a 
long  and  celebrated  speech  on  grievances.  "A  more 
massive  document,"  says  Forster,  "was  never  given  to 
history."  Pym  and  Hampden  were  the  most  eminent 
leaders  of  the  popular  party  when  the  Long  Parliament 
met,  in  November,  1640.  He  attacked  Wentworth  (now 
Earl  of  Stfafford)  in  a  powerful  speech,  which  had  such 
an  effect  that  he  was  unanimously,  and  without  delay, 
impeached  of  high  treason.  "The  result,"  says  Forster, 
"proved  this  to  have  been,  what  Pym  anticipated,  the 
master-stroke  of  the  time.  It  struck  instant  terror  into 
every  quarter  of  the  court,  and  left  the  king,  for  a  time, 
powerless  and  alone."  At  the  trial  of  Strafford  he  ap- 
peared as  accuser.  His  influence  is  thus  estimated  by 
Clarendon:  "I  think  Mr.  Pym  was  at  this  time  [1641] 
the  most  popular  man,  and  the  most  able  to  do  hurt, 
that  hath  lived  in  any  time."  On  the  22d  of  November, 
1641,  he  ])resented  to  the  House  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance, a  final  appeal  to  the  people.  In  January,  1642, 
the  king  attempted  to  arrest  Pym  and  four  other  mem- 
bers of  the  House;  but  they  escaped.  (See  Charles 
I.,  and  Hampden.)  Pym  had  received,  through  Lady 
Carlisle,  timely  notice  of  this  attempt.  At  a  conference 
of  the  two  Houses  on  the  subject  of  grievances,  in  the 
same  month,  Pym  made  a  celebrated  speech.  He  was 
nicknamed  "  King  Pym"  by  the  royalists.  He  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  of  the  ordnance  of  the  king- 
dom in  November,  "1643.  He  died  in  December  of  that 
year,  leaving  several  children.  Pym  was  a  consummate 
master  of  parliamentary  science  and  political  tactics.  He 
was  not  extreme  in  his  opinions,  and  did  not  partake 
of  the  Puritanic  formality  and  rigorism  which  prevailed 
among  the  members  of  his  party.  "There  is  nothing 
more  remarkable  in  the  speeches  of  Pym,"  says  Forster, 
"than  what  may  be  emphatically  termed  their  wisdom. 
.  .  .  The  wisdom  I  have  spoken  of  was,  as  it  always 
is  with  the  greatest  men,  a  junction  of  the  plain  and 
practical  with  the  profound  and  contemplative;  to  such 
an  extent,  however,  in  his  case,  and  in  such  perfection, 
as  may  not  be  equalled  in  that  of  any  other  speaker  of 
ancient  or  modern  times,  with  the  single  exception 
of  Burke." 

See  Forster,  "  Lives  of  Eminent  British  Statesmen  ;"  Claren- 
don, "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Pym,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Edinburgh  or  in  Warwickshire  about  1775.  He  served 
as  surgeon  in  the  army,  and  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  the  army  hospitals  about  1816.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Yellow  Fever,"  (1815.)  Died  in 
1861. 

Pynacker.    See  Pynaker. 

Pynaker  or  Pynacker,  pi'nS'ker,  (Adam,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Pynaker,  between  Delft 
and  Schiedam,  in  1621.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  re- 
turned to  Holland.  "In  his  small  compositions,"  says 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  "he  shows  himself  a  skil- 
ful artist.  We  distinguish  the  form  and  aspect  of  the 
different  species  of  trees  ;  his  colour  is  always  beautiful 
and  true  ;  his  distances  and  skies  are  vapory,"  etc. 
Died  about  1676. 

Pyu'chpu,  (Thomas  Ruggles,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut, 


January  19,  1823.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Hartford,  in  1841,  held  rectorships  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  was  a  professor  in  Trinity  College,  1855-74, 
and  its  president,  1874-83. 

Pyn'chon,  (William,)  an  Anglo-American  writer 
on  theology,  born  about  1591.  lie  emigrated  from 
England  in  1630,  and  was  one  of  the  first  settlers  of 
Springfield,  Massachusetts.  Died  in  Buckinghamshire 
in  1662. 

Pyne,  pin,  (Jamics  B.,)  an  able  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Bristol  in  1800.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London  about  1835,  and  visited  Italy  and  Switzerland 
in  1846.  In  1853  he  published  some  beautiful  landscapes 
in  a  volume  entitled  "The  English  Lake  District."  His 
style  is  vigorous  and  brilliant,  but  not  free  from  manner- 
ism. He  was  vice-president  of  the  Society  of  British 
Artists  for  many  years.     Died  in  1870, 

Pyne,  (Louisa  Fanny,)  an  English  soprano-singer, 
born  in  1832.  With  her  elder  sister,  Mrs.  Galton,  she 
visited  the  United  States  in  1854,  and  was  received  with 
favor.  In  1868  she  married  Frank  Bodda,  a  singer,  and 
shortly  after  retired  from  the  stage. 

Pyne,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  painter  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1770.  He  painted  portraits 
and  landscapes  with  some  success,  but  gained  more 
distinction  by  his  publications,  viz.,  "The  Microcosm, 
or  a  Picturesque  Delineation  of  the  Arts,  Manufactures, 
etc.  of  Great  Britain,"  (1803,)  a  "  History  of  the  Royal 
Residences,"  (3  vols.,  1819,)  and  "  Wine  and  Walnuts," 
(1823.)     Died  in  1843. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iiL  chap.  vii. 

P^n'spn,  (Richard,)  an  early  printer,  who  was  born 
in  Normandy,  and  lived  in  England  about  1500.  He  was 
king's  printer  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Pyot,  pe'o',  (Jean  Jacques  Richard,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Isomes  (Haute-Marne)  in  1792;  died  in 
1841. 

Pypers,  pT'pers,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amersfoort  in  1749.  He  wrote  several  short  poems, 
and  produced  many  dramas,  some  of  which  were  trans- 
lated or  imitated  from  the  French.     Died  in  1805. 

See  Van  der  A  a,  "  Biographisch  Woordenboek." 

Pyra,  pee'rd,  (Jacob  Emanuel,)  a  German  poet,  born 
in  Lusatia  in  1 715.  He  wrote  "The  Temple  of  True 
Poetry,"  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1744. 

Pyr'a-mus,  [Fr.  Pyrame,  pe'rin/.]     See  Thisbe. 

Pyra'rd,  pe'r^n',  (Francois,)  a  French  voyager,  born 
at  Laval  about  1570.  He  published  a  "Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  to  the  East  Indies,"  (161 1,)  which  is  highly 
commended.     Died  in  1621. 

Py-rel-cus,  a  Greek  painter  of  unknown  period,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  after  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
painted  low  subjects  with  success. 

Pyr-got'e-les,  [fli^pjore/.j^f,]  an  excellent  Greek  en- 
graver of  gems,  lived  about  330  B.C.  An  edict  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  designated  him  as  the  only  artist  who 
was  permitted  to  engrave  the  royal  seal-rings  or  gems 
The  extant  works  ascribed  to  him  are  probably  forgeries. 

Pyrker,  p^R'ker,  (Johann  Ladislaw,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Langh,  in  Hungary,  in  1772.  He  became 
Archbisho|D  of  Erlau  in  1821.  Among  his  poems  is  one 
entitled  "  Pearls  of  the  Good  Old  Time,"  ("  Perlen  der 
heiligen  Vorzeit,"  1823.)     Died  in  1847. 

Py-rom'a-ehus,  [  Y\.x)(m^axoq,  ]  sometimes  written 
Phyromachus  or  Philomachus,  a  Greek  statuary, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  300  or  250 
B.C.     A  famous  statue  of  Asclepius  is  ascribed  to  him. 

Pyr'rha,  a  daughter  of  Epimetheus  and  Pandora,  was 
the  wife  of  Deucalion.  According  to  tradition,  she  and 
her  husband  were  saved  in  an  ark  when  mankind  were 
generally  drowned  by  a  deluge.     (See  Deucalion.) 

Pyr'rho  or  Pyr'rhon,  [nt'/ipuv,]  a  Greek  philosopher 
and  skeptic,  was  a  native  of  Elis,  and  was  born  about 
380  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Anaxarchus  or  Anaxan- 
drus.  It  is  said  that  he  accomjianied  Alexander  the 
Great  to  India.  His  writings,  if  he  left  any,  are  not 
extant.  He  had  numerous  disciples,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  a  skeptical  school,  the  doctrines  of  which 
are  called  Pyrrhonism.  He  recommended  a  suspension 
of  judgment,  and  cultivated  a  habitual  composure  or 


a.  e,  1.  6.  u,  y.long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  m60o; 


PYBRHON 


20  r 


PYTHAGORAS 


tranquillity  of  mind,  (dTrate'a.)  After  his  return  from 
India  he  became  high-priest  at  Elis.  Died  about  the 
age  of  ninety. 

See  C.  Mallet,  "Etudes  philosophiques,"  tome  ii.  ;  Diogbnbs 
Laertius;  MiJNCH,  "  De  Notione  et  Indole  Scepticism!  nomiiiatim 
Pyrrhonismi,"  1797;  "  Nouvelle  liiographie  Giin^rale." 

Pyrrhon.     See  Pyrkho. 

Pyrrhus.     See  Neoptolemus. 

Pyr'rhus,  [ni'/i/Sof,]  King  of  Epirus,  a  son  of  King 
^acides  and  Phthia,  was  born  about  318  B.C.  His 
father  was  killed  in  battle  while  Pyrrhus  was  a  child. 
The  young  prince  himself  was  expelled  by  the  Epirotes 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  then  joined  the  army  of 
Demetrius,  who  was  his  brother-in-law.  He  signalized 
his  courage  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  (301  R.c.)  Having 
laised  a  small  army,  he  entered  Epirus,  and  obtained 
the  throne  in  295  R.C.  His  courage  and  generosity 
rendered  him  very  popular.  Ambition  appears  to  have 
been  his  ruling  passion.  In  291  rs.c  he  was  involved  in 
a  war  against  Demetrius,  his  brother-in-law,  for  the  pos- 
session of  Macedonia,  which  he  invaded  in  287  B.C.  The 
army  which  Demetrius  led  against  him,  imj^elled  by  ad- 
miration of  the  character  of  Pyrrhus,  deserted  to  him  in 
a  body,  and  Demetrius  fled  from  the  kingdom.  Pyrrhus 
divided  his  conquest  with  his  ally  Lysimachus,  who  soon 
made  himself  master  of  all  Macedoni.i.  An  irresistible 
temptation  was  presented  to  the  ambition  of  Pyrrhus  by 
the  Tarentines,  who  in  281  n.c.  solicited  his  aid  in  a  war 
against  the  Romans.  His  wise  minister  Cineas  could 
not  prevail  on  him  to  renounce  his  vast  projects  of  for- 
eign conquest.  In  280  B.C.  he  crossed  over  to  Italy  with 
about  25,000  men  and  a  number  of  elephants.  The 
frivolous  and  unwarlike  Tarentines  failed  to  support  him 
with  the  large  army  which  they  had  promised.  He  en- 
countered the  superior  numbers  of  the  Romans  on  the 
river  Siris,  and  defeated  them  after  a  long  and  obstinate 
contest.  His  victory  was  so  dearly  bought  that  he  is 
rejjorted  to  have  said,  "  Another  such  victory,  and  I  must 
return  to  Epirus  alone."  He  made  overtures  of  peace, 
which  were  rejected  by  the  Roman  senate. 

In  279  B.C.  another  battle  was  fought,  near  Asculum 
where  the  Romans  lost  6000  and  Pyrrhus  3500  n.en 
Pyrrhus  was  unable  to  improve  his  victory,  and,  having 
received  an  invitation  to  aid  the  Greeks  of  Sicily  against 
the  Carthaginians,  he  concluded  a  truce  with  the  Romans 
in  278  B.C.  He  remained  two  years  in  Sicily,  and  gained 
some  victories,  but  failed  to  conquer  the  island.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  Tarentum  to  renew  the  war  against  the 
Romans,  he  was  defeated  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus  near 
Beneventum.  He  retired  from  Italy  to  Epirus  in  274 
B.C.,  and  invaded  Macedonia,  of  which  he  soon  became 
master  in  consequence  of  the  desertion  of  the  Macedonian 
army  from  Antigonus  Gonatas.  At  the  request  of  Cle- 
onymus,  he  engaged  in  a  new  enterprise,  a  war  against 
the  Spartans,  who  repulsed  his  attack  on  their  capital. 
He  was  killed  in  Argos,  in  battle,  in  272  B.C.,  after  hav- 
ing been  stunned  by  a  tile  thrown  from  a  house  by  a 
worrran.  He  was  the  greatest  general  of  his  time,  and 
Hannibal  is  reported  to  have  said  that  he  was  the  great- 
est of  any  age.  "He  was  reputed,"  says  Plutarch,  "to 
excel  in  military  experience  and  personal  prowess  all  the 
princes  of  his  time.  But  what  he  gained  by  his  achieve- 
ments he  lost  by  vain  hopes  ;  his  desire  of  something 
absent  never  suffered  him  effectually  to  persevere  in  a 
present  pursuit" 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Pyrrhus;"  J.  B.  Jourdan,  "  Histoire 
de  Pyrrhus,"  2  vols.,  1749,  and  English  version  of  the  same ;  LiVY, 
"  History  of  Rome,"  book  xxxv.  ;  Jacob  Abbott,  "  History  of 
Pyrrhus,"  1853. 

Py-thag'o-ras,  [Gr.  WvQaybpaq ;  Fr.  Pythagore,  pe'- 
t3'goR' ;  It.  PiTAGORA,  pe-ti'go-rS,]  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  philosophers  of  antiquity,  was  born  in  Samos 
about  600  B.C.  Very  little  is  known  with  certainty  re- 
specting his  personal  history.  His  father  was  Mnesar- 
chus,  a  merchant,  and  generally  believed  to  have  been 
a  foreigner,  (not  a  native  of  Samos,)  but  whether  a 
Phoenician  or  Pelasgian  is  uncertain.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  first  instructed  in  his  own  country  by  Creophilus, 
and  afterwards  by  Pherecydes  in  Syros.  There  was  a 
prevailing  belief  among  the  ancients  that  Pythagoras 
travelled  very  extensively,  visiting  Egypt,  Babylon,  and 
even  India.    That  he  visited  Egypt  seems  very  probable. 


and  it  is  perhaps  not  improbable  that  he  journeyed 
as  far  as  Babylonia.  The  notion  that  he  included  India 
in  his  travels  would  seem  to  have  no  other  ground  than 
the  circumstance  that  certain  doctrines  of  his  bear  a 
striking  resemblance  to  some  of  those  held  by  the  Indian 
Brahmans  or  Booddhists.  He  not  only  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  metempsychosis,  (or  transmigration  of  souls,) 
but,  like  the  Hindoos,  made  this  the  ground  for  incul- 
cating the  duty  of  kindness  and  tenderness  towards 
animals,  and  of  abstinence  from  their  flesh.  It  is  related 
that  on  a  certain  occasion  he  interceded  to  prevent  a 
dog  from  being  beaten,  sajing  that  he  recognized  in  its 
cries  the  voice  of  one  of  his  friends  who  had  died.  Py- 
thagoras attached  a  great  importance  to  the  study  of 
mathematics.  He  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  severa' 
important  geometrical  theorems,  among  which  may  be 
named  the  following:  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
are  together  equal  to  two  right  angles,  and  that  in  any 
right-angled  triangle  the  square  formed  on  the  hypo- 
tenuse is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two 
sides.  He  is  said  also  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
stringed  musical  instruments. 

It  is  said  that  Pythagoras  first  made  use  of  the  word 
philosopher,  (4>t/l(3ao^of,)  applying  it  to  himself.  He  had, 
sve  are  told,  witnessed  the  various  public  games  of 
Greece,  and  came  at  length  to  Phlius,  in  Achaia.  Leon, 
the  king  of  that  country,  was  delighted  with  his  ingenuity 
and  eloquence,  and  asked  him  what  art  or  profession  he 
followed.  He  replied  that  he  was  a  philosopher.  Leon 
asked  him  wherein  philosophers  differed  from  other  men. 
Pythagoras  answered  that  as  at  the  public  games  some 
were  contending  fer  glory  and  others  were  buying  and 
selling  for  the  sake  of  gain,  but  there  was  one  class 
who  came  simply  as  spectators,  so  in  human  life  there 
were  those  who,  regarding  as  unworthy  of  a  wise  man 
the  desire  of  fame  or  of  gain,  sought  above  all  to  be- 
come wise :  those  he  called  philosophers,  or  lovers  of 
wisdom. 

Pythagoras  differed  essentially  from  the  other  cele- 
brated teachers  of  wisdom  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
in  that  he  combined  the  character  of  priest  with  that  of 
philosopher.  He  appears  to  have  given  great  attention  to 
the  means  of  acquiring  influence  over  the  minds  of  men, 
and  for  this  purpose  established  a  secret  brotherhood 
among  his  disciples  and  followers.  He  had  certain  doc- 
trines of  which  he  spoke  only  to  his  chosen  disciples, 
which,  as  being  strictly  limited  to  those  -within  the 
favoured  circle,  were  called  esoter'ic,  {taurepim.)  Othei 
doctrines  were  freely  communicated  to  those  rvithout,  01 
to  the  people  at  large  :  these  were  called  exoter'ic,  (i^ure- 
piKii.)  One  of  the  necessary  parts  of  the  discipline  of  his 
pupils  was  the  practice  of  aljsolute  silence.  According 
to  some  authorities,  they  were  required  to  maintain 
silence  for  five  years,  and  during  that  period  were  not 
allowed  once  to  behold  the  face  of  Pythagoras ;  but  this 
is  probably  an  exaggeration. 

So  great  was  his  authority  with  his  disciples  that  when 
any  one  asked  why  they  believed  this  or  practised  that, 
they  were  wont  to  answer,  avrdi  E(pri,  (or  e^a,)  i.e.  "  he 
himself  said  so,"  (in  Latin,  i/sg  dixit,)  which  was  re- 
garded as  the  most  efficient  mode  of  silencing  all  cavils 
or  doubts. 

Pythagoras,  on  returning  from  his  travels,  settled  at 
Crotona,  in  Italy,  where  for  a  time  he  seems  to  have  pos- 
sessed an  almost  boundless  influence  over  the  minds  of 
the  people.  Many  of  the  most  wealthy  and  influential 
among  the  citizens  of  Crotona  joined  the  brotherhood, 
which  soon  became  the  controlling  power  in  the  state. 
Its  extraordinary  success  appears  to  have  rendered  its 
members  so  arrogant  that  they  became  objects  of  jeal- 
ousy and  bitter  hatred  to  those  who  were  not  admitted 
to  the  favoured  circle, — that  is,  to  the  large  majority  of 
the  populace.  An  attack  was  made  upon  them  while 
assembled  in  one  of  their  general  meetings.  The  building 
in  which  they  met  was  set  on  fire,  so  that  a  great  numbei 
of  them  perished  in  the  flames :  only  the  younger  and 
more  active,  it  is  said,  were  able  to  escape.  According 
to  one  account,  Pythagoras  himself  perished  with  the 
others  on  this  occasion,  though  some  writers  state  that 
he  died  at  Metapontum  soon  after  the  expulsion  of  his 
disciples  from  Crotona.     A  similar  reaction  took  place 


iish;^  as  s;  |  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi,gttttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


FYTHEAS 


2014 


QUARLES 


In  other  parts  of  Italy ;  many  of  the  Pythagoreans  were 
killed,  and  many  others  were  driven  into  exile.  The 
brotherhood  as  an  organization  was  completely  sup- 
pressed. Amid  the  uncertainty  which  prevails  in  regard 
to  the  history  of  Pythagoras  and  his  doctrines,  we  can 
form  only  an  imperfect  conjecture  respecting  the  greater 
number  of  his  religious  and  philosophic  tenets.  None 
of  his  writings  are  extant ;  and  what  we  know  of  his 
philosophy  is  derived  mainly  from  writers  who  under- 
stood it  very  imperfectly. 

See  Andre  Dacier,  "  Vie  de  Pytliagore,"  1706;  A.  Postelman 
'Leven  van  Pythagoras,"  1724;  Hambhkger,  "  Disserlatio  de  Vita 
(t  Symbolis  Pythagoras,"  167S;  Eilstock,  "  Hisloristh-kriiisches 
Leben  des  weltweisen  Pythagoras,"  1756;  Tiedemann,  "Griechen- 
lands  erste  Philosophen,  oder  Leben  des  Orplieus,  Pythasoras,"  etc.. 


P^th'e-as  [Gr.  Tivdiwi;  Fr.  PvTHfiE,  pe'ti'l  of  Mas- 


silia,  in  Gaul,  an  ancient  Greek  navigator  of  unknown 
period.  He  probably  lived  between  350  and  200  B.c 
He  sailed  to  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  his  discoveries,  which  is  not 
extant.  He  described  a  place  called  Thule,  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  earth,  sea,  and  air.  His  statements 
were  credited  by  Hipparchus,  but  discredited  by  Strabo 
and  others.  He  is  believed  to  have  circumnavigated 
Britain. 

Pythl-a,  the  name  of  the  priestess  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  where  she  uttered  oracles. 

Pythias.     See  Damon. 

Pyth'i-us,  [nii^iof,]  a  surname  of  Apollo,  applied  to 
him  because  he  was  worshipped  at  Delphi,  the  ancient 
name  of  which  was  Pytho. 

Pythius.     See  Phileus. 

Py'thon,  [rii-^wv,]  the  name  of  a  fabulous  dragon  cf 
Delphi,  killed  by  Apollo. 


Q. 


Quack'fn-bos,  (George  Payne,)  an  American 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  New  York  in 
1826,  published  an  "  Advanced  Course  of  Composition 
and  Rhetoric,"  (1854,)  "Primary  History  of  the  United 
States,"  (i860,)  "English  Grammar,"  (1862,)  and  other 
works.     Died  December  24,  1881. 

Quade,  kwj'deh,  (Michael  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1628.  He  wrote  much 
of  what  the  Germans  call  microlope, — i.e.  treatises  on 
minute  or  unimportant  subjects.     Died  in  1757. 

See  Oei.richs,  "Memoria  M.  F.  Quade,"  1758. 

Quaden,  kwJ'den,  (Matthias,)  a  German  geogra- 
pher, born  at  Kilkenbach  ;  died  at  Cologne  in  1609. 

Quad-ra'tus,  [Gr.  KocJparof,]  an  early  Christian  min- 
ister, who,  according  to  Saint  Jerome,  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  Athens  in  125  a.d.  He  presented  an  Apology  for 
the  Christian  religion  to  Adrian  in  126  A.n. 

Quadri,  kwi'dRee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
statistics  and  political  economy,  was  born  at  Vicenza  in 
1777.  He  obtained  in  1815  the  office  of  secretary  of  the 
government  at  Venice. 

Quadri,  (Giovanni  Lodovico,)  an  Italian  architect 
and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1700;  died  in  1748. 

_  Quad-ri-ga'ii-us,  (Quintus  Claudius,)  a  Roman 
historian,  lived  about  80  B.a  He  wrote  Roman  Annals, 
some  extracts  from  which  are  preserved  by  Aulus 
Gellius. 

Quadrio,  k  wi'dRe-o,  (Francesco  Saverio,)  a  learned 
Italian  Jesuit  and  critic,  born  in  Valtellina  in  1695.  He 
was  employed  as  professor  at  Padua,  Bologna,  Venice, 
etc.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  general  his- 
tory of  poetry  of  all  nations,  ("  Storia  e  Ragione  d'ogni 
Poesia,"  7  vols.,  1739-59,)  a  work  of  great  labour  and 
some  value.  It  contains  extracts  from  a  great  number 
of  poets.     Died  in  1756. 

Quaglio,  kwil'yo,  (Angelo,)  an  able  scene-painter, 
was  a  brother  of  the  following.     Died  in  1815. 

Quaglio,  (DoMENico,)  a  painter,  born  at  Munich  in 
1786,  was  surnamed  the  German  Canaletto.  He 
acquired  a  wide  reputation  as  a  painter  of  architecture. 
Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  the  Ratisbon  Cathedral. 
He  contributed  much  to  revive  a  taste  for  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  middle  ages.  Died  in  1837.  His  father. 
Giuseppe,  born  in  1747,  was  a  skilful  scene-painter. 
Died  at  Munich  in  1828. 

See  Nagler,  "AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Quaglio,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Laino,  was  the  ancestor  of  several  artists,  noticed  above 
and  below.     Died  in  1800. 

Quaglio,  (Lorenzo,)  an  architect,  born  at  Laino  in 
1730,  was  a  son  of  Giovanni  Maria,  an  architect,  who 
worked  at  Vienna.  Lorenzo  designed  theatres  at  Man- 
heim  and  Frankfort.  He  died  at  Munich  in  1804.  He 
was  an  uncle  of  Giuseppe,  noticed  above,  and  father  of 
Giovanni  Maria,  a  painter  of  architecture  and  dra- 
matic scenery,  who  was  born  in  1772. 


Quain,  kwan,  (Jones,)  a  skilful  anatomist,  born  at 
Mallow,  Ireland,  studied  in  Paris.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the 
London  University,  now  called  University  College,  and 
resigned  this  position  in  1836.  His  chief  work  is  "  Ele- 
ments of  Anatomy,"  (6th  edition,  1856,)  which  is  said  to 
be  better  than  any  English  work  previously  puolished 
on  systematic  anatomy.     Died  in  1865. 

Quain,  (Richard,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  distinguished  anatomist  and  surgeon,  was 
born  at  Mallow.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at 
University  College,  London,  about  1836.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  clinical  surgery  at  the  University 
College  Hospital  in  1848.  He  published  an  excellent 
work  entitled  "The  Anatomy  of  the  Arteries  of  the 
Human  Body,"  (1845.)     Died  September  17,  1887. 

Quain,  (Richard,)  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  became 
a  physician  to  the  Consumption  Hospital,  Brompton,  and 
invented  an  instrument  called  the  Stethometer. 

Quaini,  kwi'nee,  (Francesco.)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  161 1,  was  particuiarly  successful  in 
painting  architectural  views.     Died  about  1680. 

Quaini,  (Lodovico,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
at  Bologna  in  1643,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Cignani, 
whom  he  imitated.  He  is  said  to  have  painted  the  land- 
scapes and  architecture  of  some  of  Cignani's  great  works. 
He  worked  in  partnership  with  Franceschini  at  Rome, 
Genoa,  etc.,  and  painted  some  historical  pictures  com- 
posed by  himself.     Died  in  1717. 

Quandt,  kw^nt,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  German  writer 
on  fine  arts,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1787,  became  distin- 
guished as  an  amateur  and  collector  of  pictures.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Excursions  in  the  Domain  of  Art,"  and 
"  Lectures  on  ./'Esthetics."     Died  in  1859. 

Quanz,  kwJnts,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  near  Gottingen  in  1697;  ^^^^  in  1773- 

Quarenghi,  kwi-rSn'gee,  (Giacomo  il  Cavaliere,) 
an  Italian  architect,  Ijorn  at  Bergamo  in  1744.  Invited 
by  the  empress  Catherine,  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  works  erected  in  that 
city.  Among  these  are  the  Exchange,  and  the  Theatre 
of  the  Hermitage.     Died  in  1817. 

See  Nagi.er,  "AUgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Quarin,  kwS-reen',  (Joseph,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1733.  He  gained  distinction  by 
his  writings  on  Fevers  and  Inflammations,  (1774,)  an3 
became  first  physician  to  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  Died 
in  1814. 

Quarles,  kw5rlz,  (Francis,)  a  quaint  but  popular 
English  poet,  born  in  Essex  in  1592.  He  was  secretary 
to  Archbisliop  Usher  before  1641,  and  was  then  deprived 
of  his  situation  by  the  Irish  rebellion.  In  the  civil  war 
he  favoured  the  royalisr  party.  His  most  popular  poem 
is  entitled  "Emblems,"  (1635,)  and  has  been  often  re- 
printed. Among  his  other  works  are  "Divine  Poems," 
"  Hadassa,"  and  a  "  History  of  Samson."  "  We  find  in 
Quarles,"  says    Headley,   "original    imagery,  striking 


S,  e.  I,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, «,  ^,  short;  ?,  ?,  |,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  filll,  fit;  m?t;  nSt;  good;  m«56n 


11 


QUARLES 


2015 


QUERINI 


sentiment,  fertility  of  expression,  and  happy  combina- 
tions."    Died  in  1644. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  (1822;)  Wooo,  "Athena 
Oxonienses  ;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Quarles,  (John,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Essex  in  1624.  He  wrote  several  poems.  Died  in 
1665. 

Quarr^,  kt'ri',  (Antoinette  Suzanne,)  a  Fretich 
poetess,  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource  in  1813 ;  died  at  Dijon 
in  1847. 

Quar't?r,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at  Killu- 
rine,  Ireland,  January  24,  1806.  He  studied  at  Tulla- 
more,  went  to  Quebec  in  1822,  and  in  that  year,  though 
only  sixteen  years  old,  was  chosen  professor  of  Latin 
and  Greek  in  Mount  Saint  Mary's  College,  at  Emmitt.s- 
burg,  Maryland,  where  he  was  a  divinity  student.  In 
1829  he  was  ordained  in  New  York,  and  in  1843  he  was 
consecrated  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Chicago,  where 
he  died,  April  10,  1848. 

Quart'ley,  (Arthur,)  an  American  artist,  born  at 
Paris,  France,  in  1839.  He  lived  in  Baltimore,  and 
taught  himself  the  art  of  painting.  In'  1875  ^^  removed 
to  New  York,  where  he  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design.  His  principal  pictures 
are  marine  and  coast  views.  "  A  Storm  off  the  Isles  of 
Shoals"  has  been  called  his  best  picture.    Died  in  1886. 

Quatrefages  de  Breau,  de,  deh  kttR'f3zh'  deh  bRo. 
(Jean  Louis  Armand,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  in  the 
department  of  Gard  in  1810.  He  became  professor  of 
anatomy  and  ethnology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Paris.  His  favourite  science  is  zoology.  He  has 
written  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "Souvenirs 
of  a  Naturalist,"  (2  vols.,  1854,)  "Anatomical  and  Zoo- 
logical Researches  made  during  a  Voyage  to  Sicily," 
"The  Prussian  Race  Ethnologically considered,"  (1871,) 
and  "  L'Esp^ce  humaine,"  (1877.) 

Quatremere,  kttR'maiR',  (Stienne  Marc,)  an  emi- 
nent French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris,  July  12,  1782.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1815, 
and  became  professor  of  Hebrew,  Syriac,  etc.  at  the 
College  of  France  in  1819.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  "  Researches  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Egypt,"  (1808,)  "Geographical  and  Historical  Memoirs 
of  Egypt,"  (2  vols.,  1810,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Mon- 
gols of  Persia,"  (1836.)  Died  in  1857.  He  had  a  library 
of  about  50,000  volumes.  His  father  was  first-cousin 
to  Quatremere  de  Quincy.  "  Few  savants,"  says  Ernest 
Renan,  "can  be  compared  to  him  for  extent  and  accuracy 
of  erudition." 

Quatremere  de  Quincy,  kitR'maiR'  deh  kiw'se', 
(Antoine  Chrysostome,)  a  French  archaeologist  and 
art-critic,  was  born  in  Paris  in  October,  1755.  He  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  his  "  Dictionary  of  Architec- 
ture" in  1788.  In  1 791  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  in  1797  was  condemned  to  depbrtation 
as  a  royalist ;  but  he  escaped.  He  was  ap]3ointed  in- 
tendant  of  arts  and  public  monuments  in  1815,  and 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1816. 
Among  his  works  are  "Letters  to  Canova  on  the  Elgin 
Marbles,"  (1818,)  an  "Essay  on  the  Nature,  Object,  and 
Means  of  Imitation  in  the  Fine  Arts,"  (1823,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Raphael,"  (1824.) 
Died  in  1849. 

See  Qo^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale. " 

Quatremere-Disjonval,  kttR'maiR'  de'zhiN'vtl', 
(Denis  Bernard,)  a  naturalist,  born  in  Paris  about 
1754,  was  a  brother  of  Quatremere  de  Quincy.  He  was 
very  eccentric,  and  was  confined  for  some  years  in  an 
asylum  for  the  insane.     Died  in  1830. 

Quatremere -Roissy,  kttR'maiR'  RwS'se',  (Jean 
Nicolas,)  a  French  writer  of  biography  and  tales,  born 
in  Paris  in  1754,  was  an  uncle  of  fitienne  Marc,  above 
noticed.     Died  in  1834. 

Quattromani,  kwSt-tRo-mS'nee,  (Sertorio,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1541  ;  died  in  161 1. 

Queens'ber-ry,  (William  Douglas,)  fourth  Duke 
of,  and  Earl  of  March,  a  Scottish  peer,  born  about  1724, 
was  notorious  for  his  vices.  He  became  Duke  of  Queens- 
berry  about  1778,  and  inherited  a  large  fortune.  Died, 
without  issue,  in  1810. 


Qneiros,  de,  di  ka'e-rds,  or  Quiros,  de,  di  kee'rAs, 
(Pedro  FERNANDEZ^a  Spanish  or  Portuguese  navi- 
gator, born  about  1560,  commanded  an  exploring 
expedition  sent  from  Callao  in  1605.  He  discovered 
Tahiti,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  other  small  islands  of 
the  Pacific,  and  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  voyage.  Died 
at  Panama  in  1614. 

Quekett,  kwlk'et,  (John,)  an  English  microscopist, 
born  in  Somersetshire  in  181 5.  He  published  a  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Use  of  the  Microscope,"  and  "Lectures  on 
Histology,"  (1 854.)  He  succeeded  Professor  Owen  as 
conservator  of  the  Hunterian  Museum  in  London.  Died 
in  1861. 

Quelen,  de,  deh  keh'lSN',  (Hyacinthe  Louis,)  a 
French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1821,  and  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1824.     Died  in  1839. 

See  Henrion,  "  Vie  et  Travaux  de  M.  de  Quelen,"  1840 ;  Bell>- 
MARE,  "M.  de  Quelen  pendant  dix  Ans,"  1840. 

Quellinus.     See  Quellyn. 

Quellyn,  kw^t-lln',  (Artus,)  a  Flemish  sculptor,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1630,  was  a  nephew  of  Erasmus,  noticed 
below.     Died  in  171 5. 

Quellyn,  [Lat.  Quelli'nus,]  (Erasmus,)  an  eminent 
Flemish  painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1607.  His  design,  colour,  and  distribution  of 
light  and  shade  are  commended.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Repose  in  Egypt,"  a  "Last  Supper,"  and  "The 
Guardian  Angel."     Died  in  1678. 

Quellyn,  (Jan  Erasmus,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1629  or  1630,  and  was  a  good 
painter  of  history.  He  worked  in  his  native  city  and 
other  towns  of  Flanders.  A  picture  of  "Christ  healing 
the  Sick"  is  called  his  master-piece.  "Some  of  his 
works,"  says  Descamps,  "may  be  compared  to  those 
of  Paul  Veronese."     Died  in  1715. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Quenstedt,  kw§n'st§t,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  Ger- 
man Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1617. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  pub- 
lished several  works.     Died  in  1688. 

Quental,  do,  do  k§N-tSl',  (Bartholomeu,)  a  Por- 
tuguese theologian,  born  in  one  of  the  Azores  in  1626. 
He  was  the  author  of  works  which  are  said  to  be  well 
written.     Died  in  1698. 

Quentel  or  Quentell,  kwSn'tel,  (Heinrich,)  a  cele- 
brated printer  of  Cologne,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Quentin,  kSN'tiN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Dijon,  where  he  died  in  1636. 

Quer  y  Martinez,  kaiR  e  maR-tee'n5th,  (Jos6,)  a 
Spanish  botanist,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1695.  He  pub- 
lished a  Flora  of  Spain  according  to  the  system  of  Tourne- 
fort, — "Flora  Espafiola,  o  Historia  de  las  Plantas  que 
se  crian  en  Espafia,"  (6  vols.,  1762-84.)  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  Spaniard  who  published  a  work  on 
Spanish  plants.     Died  in  1764. 

Querard,  ki'rtR',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  bibli- 
ographer, born  at  Rennes  in  1797.  He  published  an 
important  work  on  French  bibliography,  entitled  "La 
France  Litteraire,  ou  Dictionnaire  bibliographique,"  (10 
vols.,  1826-42.)  He  left  several  unfinished  works.  Died 
about  December  i,  1865. 

See  "  Life  and  Works  of  J.  M.  Qudrard,"  by  O.  Hamst,  London, 
1867;  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  tome  xi. 

Querbeuf,  de,  deh  k^R'buf,  (Yves  Mathurin  Ma- 
rie,) a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Landerneau  in  1726; 
died  about  1799. 

Quercetanus,  the  Latin  of  Duchesne,  which  sec 

Querela,  della,  d^l'ia  kwfR'chi,  (Jacopo,)  an  able 
Italian  sculptor,  born  near  Sienna  about  1378.  He 
decorated  the  Duomo  or  Cathedral  of  Florence  with 
some  bas-reliefs,  and  sculptured  the  ornaments  of  the 
door-way  of  San  Petronio  at  Bologna.     Died  in  1442. 

Querenghi,  kwi-r§n'gee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Padua  in  1546.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Sacred 
College  at  Rome  under  five  popes.  He  wrote  verses  in 
Latin  and  Italian.     Died  in  1633. 

Querini,  kwi-ree'nee,  or  Quirini,  kwe-ree'nee,  [Lat 
Queri'nus,]  (Angelo  Maria,)  Cardinal,  an  eminent 
Italian  writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Venice  in  1680. 


€as>6;  9  as  J,-  ^hard;  gzsj;  G,u,K,fntturaI;  a,  nasal ;vi.,  frilled;  sasz,-  thasin/>t/>.     ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


QUERLON 


2016 


QUILLINAN 


He  published  on  the  liturgy  of  the  Greek  Church  a 
work  entitled  "Officium  Quadrigesimale  Graecoruni," 
(1721.)  About  1722  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Corfu. 
He  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Brescia  in  1728,  soon 
after  which  he  became  librarian  of  the  Vatican.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Specimen  of  Brescian  Literature," 
("Specimen  Literaturse  Bri.xianae,"  1739,)  and  man^ 
Latin  Epistles,  (1742-49.)  Voltaire  dedicated  his  "  Semi- 
raniis"  to  Querini,  who  was  remarkable  for  his  amiable 
virtues.     Died  in  1755. 

See  his  autobiography,  "  Commentarius  de  Rebus  perinientibus 
ad  K.  M.  Querinum,"  2  vols.,  1749;  Kreithaupt,  "  Geschichte  des 
Cardinal  Querini,"  1752;  C.  F.  Hoffman,  "  Prosraninia  de  Quirino 
glorioso,"  1753  ;  Sambuca,  "  Lettera  intorno  alia  Morte  del  Cardinal 
Quirini,"  1757 ;  Tipai.do,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biograpnie  G^ndrale." 

Querlon,  de,  deh  kga'l^N',  (Annf.  Gabriel  Meus- 
NIER,)  a  French  editor  and  compiler,  born  at  Nantes  in 
1702.  He  edited  the  works  of  many  ancient  and  mod- 
ern authors,  and  was  for  twenty  years  editor  of  a  journal 
entitled  "Les  Petites  Affiches."     Died  in  1780. 

Quemo,  kw6R,'no,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Monopoli  about  1470.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  en- 
titled "Alexias."     Died  at  Naples  in  1528. 

Querouaille.    See  Keroual,  de,  (Louise.) 

Quesnay,  ki'ni',  (Francois,)  a  French  physician, 
distinguished  as  a  political  economist,  was  born  at  Merei, 
near  Montfort  I'Amaury,  in  1694.  He  was  self-educated, 
and  settled  in  Paris  about  1737.  He  purchased  the 
office  of  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  king  about  1745. 
He  advocated  the  abolition  oi  corvies,  free  trade  in  grain, 
and  other  reforms,  which  have  been  pince  adopted. 
Among  his  works  was  one  entitled  "  Economic  Pic- 
ture," ("Tableau  economique,"  1758.)  He  was  called 
the  chief  of  the  sect  oi  economistes,  whose  favourite  maxim 
was  "  Laissez  faire  et  laissez  passer,"  ("Let  things  take 
care  of  themselves.")  Died  in  1774.  Turgot  was  one 
of  his  disciples. 

See  "Vie  de  Quesnay,"  prefixed  to  his  works;  GrandjbaN  DB 
FoucHV,  "filoge  de  Quesnay;"  Albon,  "  Eloge  historique  de  M. 
Quesnay,"  1775  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Quesne,  ki'ni',  (Jacques  Salbigoton,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Pavilly  in  1778  ;  died  in  1859. 
See  "Confessions  de  J.  S.  Quesn^,"  3  vols.,  1828-35. 

Quesne,  du.    See  Duquesne. 

Quesnel,  ki'n^l',  (FRANgois,)  a  painter,  of  French 
origin,  born  at  Edinburgh  about  1544;  died  in  Paris  in 
16 1 9. 

Quesnel,  (Franqois  Jean  Baptiste,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  1765  ; 
died  in  1819. 

Quesnel,  (Louis  Francois,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  in  1773.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Spain, 
(1808-11.)     Died  in  1815. 

Quesnel,  (Pasquier,)  a  French  Jansenist  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1634.  He  became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  in  1684  because  he  refused 
to  sign  a  formulary  which  condemned  Jansenism.  To 
escape  persecution,  he  retired  to  Brussels  in  1685,  and 
published  his  work  on  the  New  Testament,  called  "  Re- 
flexions morales,"  etc.,  (1694,)  which  was  condemned 
by  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers  and  anathematized 
by  the  pope  in  the  famous  bull  "  Unigenitus,"  (1713.) 
Quesnel  wrote  other  works,  and,  after  the  death  of  Ar- 
nauld,  was  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  Jansenists.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1 7 19. 

See  "  Causa  Quesnelliana,"  Brussels,  1704;  Mor^ri,  "  Diction- 
r.aire  Historique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Quesnel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Dieppe 
about  1699.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Jesuits,"  (4 
vols.,  1740,)  in  which  he  shows  himself  hostile  to  that 
society.     Died  about  1774. 

Quesnoy,  du.     See  Duquesnoy. 

Questel,  ki'tSl',  (Charles  Auguste,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  obtained  medals 
of  the  first  class  in  1852  and  1855.     Died  in  1888. 

Quetant,  keh-tSN',  (Antoine  P'ran^ois,)  a  French 
dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1733;  died  in  1823. 

Quetelet,  ket-li',  (Lambert  Adolphe  Jacques,)  a 
Belgian  astronomer,  born  at  Ghent  in  1796.  He  became 
director  of  the  Royal  Observatory  of  Brussels  in  1828, 
and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1834. 


Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Criminal  Statistics 
of  Belgium,"  (1832,)  "Elements  of  Astronomy,"  (4th 
edition,  1848,)  and  "Annals  of  the  Royal  Observatory," 
(14  vols.,  1843-59.)  He  contributed  many  scientific 
articles  to  various  journals.     Died  February  17,  1874. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Quetif,  keh-tif,  (Jacques),  a  learned  French  Do- 
minican monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1618.  He  wrote 
"Scriptores  Ordinis  Praedicatorum  recensiti,"  (2  vols., 
1719-21,)  which  contains  notices  of  many  Dominicans 
who  were  authors.     Died  in  1698. 

Quevedo.     See  Mauzinho. 

Quevedo  y  Villegas,  de,  di  ki-va'oo  e  vil-ya'gJs, 
usually  called  simply  Quevedo,  (Fkan'Cisco  Gomez — 
go'm^th,)  an  eminent  and  original  .Spanish  author  and 
satirist,  born  in  Madrid  in  September,  1580.  He  was 
brought  up  in  the  royal  palace  by  his  mother,  who  was  a 
lady  of  the  bed-chamber,  and  learned  the  ancient  lan- 
guages at  Alcala.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  gallantry, 
was  an  expert  swordsman,  and  fought  several  duels.  In 
the  prime  of  life  he  was  employed  in  im])ortant  affairs 
at  Naples  by  the  viceroy,  the  Duke  of  Ossufia.  He 
wrote  in  prose  and  verse  a  variety  of  works,  which  were 
very  popular.  Among  his  prose  works  are  "  Suefios," 
("Visions,"  or  "Dreams,"  1649,)  which  are  greatly  ad- 
mired for  their  wit  and  humour,  and  "  Life  of  the  Great 
Knave,"  ("  Vida  del  gran  Tacano,")  a  romance.  He 
wrote  dramas,  (which  are  lost,)  odes,  sonnets,  satires,  etc. 
He  is  said  to  have  resembled  Voltaire  in  his  talent 
for  ridicule,  his  versatility,  and  the  skill  with  which  he 
arraigned  abuses  before  the  tribunal  of  public  opinion. 
He  suffered  much  political  persecution,  and  was  im- 
prisoned several  years.     Died  in  1645. 

See  DoM  Pablo  Antonio  de  Tarsia,  "Vida  de  Don  Fr.de 
Quevedo  y  Villegas,"  Madrid,  1663;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale;" TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Baena, 
"Hijos  de  Madrid,"  vol.  ii. 

Queverdo,keh-v^R'do',  (FRANgois  Marie  Isidore,) 
a  French  designer  and  etcher,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1740; 
died  in  180S. 

Quicherat,  kish'Rt',  (Jules,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  in  18 14.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
French  antiquities  and  on  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc. 
Died  in  April,  1SS2. 

Quicherat,  (Louis,)  a  lexicographer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1799.  He  published  an 
excellent  "Poetical  Treasury  of  the  Latin  Language," 
("Thesaurus  poeticus  Linguoe  Latinae,"  1S36,)  a  Latin- 
French  Dictionary,  (1844,)  and  a  French-Latin  Dictionary, 
(1858.)     Died  in  18S4. 

Quick,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  at  Plymouth  in  1636.  He  wrote,  besides  othe; 
works,  "Synodlcon  in  Gallia  reformata,"  (1692.)  He 
preached  in  London  for  many  years.     Died  in  1706. 

Quick,  (John,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in  London 
in  1748 ;  died  in  1831. 

Quien.     See  Lequien. 

Qui-e'tU3,  a  Roman,  who  in  260  a.d.  was  supported 
by  part  of  the  army  as  emperor  or  partner  of  his  brother 
Macrianus  in  imperial  power.  He  was  put  to  death  in 
Asia  by  Odenatus  in  262  A.D. 

Quignonez.    See  Qui.nones. 

Quillet,  ke'yi',  (Claude,)  a  French  writer  of  Latin 
poetry,  sometimes  called  Calvidus  L^etus,  was  born  at 
Chinon,  in  Touraine,  in  1602.  He  svrote  a  poem  entitled 
"  On  the  Method  of  having  l^eautiful  Offspring,"  ("  Calli- 
paedia,  seu  de  pulchr?e  Prolis  habendae  Ratione,"  1655,) 
which  was  generally  admired.     Died  in  1661. 

Quilliard,  ke'e-ytn',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
painter  and  etcher,  born  in  Paris  in  1 71 1  ;  died  in  Lisbon 

jf>  1733- 

Quil'li-nan,  (Edward,)  a  British  poet,  born  at  Oporto, 
of  Irish  parents,  August  12, 1 791.  He  entered  the  British 
army  as  an  officer.  His  first  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Sir 
Egerton  Brydges,  and  his  second  was  Dora,  a  daughter 
of  the  poet  Wordsworth.  His  death  occurred  at  Gras- 
mere,  July  8,  1851.  Among  his  works  are  "Dunluce 
Castle,"  (1814,)  "The  .Sacrifice  of  Isabel,"  (1S16,)  "  Ele- 
giac Verses,"  (1817,)  "The  Conspirators,"  (a  romance, 
1846,)  "Poems,"  (1853,)  and  a  translation  of  the  "Lu- 
siad,"  (1853.)  Much  of  his  work  shows  great  refinement 
and  a  true  poetic  spirit. 


a, e,  T,  0,  u,  y, /(?«f; i, i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, o,  \\,^, short;  a, e,  j,  q, obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  niSt;nflt;  good;  moon; 


QUIN 


20I  7 


QUINTAN  A 


Quin,  (James,)  an  eminent  English  actor,  born  in 
London  in  1693,  w^''  ^  grandson  of  Mark  Quin,  a  lord 
mayor  of  Dublin.  He  began  to  perform  at  Drury  Lane 
about  1716,  obtained  great  success  in  the  role  oi  "  Fal- 
staff"  in  1 720,  and  was  the  most  popular  actor  of  England 
until  he  was  surpassed  by  Garrick.  He  taught  elocution 
to  Prince  George,  (afterwards  George  HI.)  On  hearing 
that  king's  first  speech  from  the  throne,  Quin  exclaimed, 
"  I  taught  the  boy  to  speak."  He  once  released  the  poet 
Thomson  from  prison  by  payment  of  the  debt  for  which 
he  was  confined.  He  retired  from  the  stage  in  1748. 
Died  at  Bath  in  1766. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Quin,"  anonymous,  1766. 

Quinault,  ke'no',  (  Jean  Baptiste  Maurice,  )  a 
French  comic  actor,  born  in  Paris  about  1690;  died 
in  1744. 

Quinault,  (  Jeanne  FRANgoiSE, )  a  comic  actress, 
a  sister  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1700;  died 
in  1783. 

Quinault,  (Philippe,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1635.  He  produced  in  his  youth  several 
tragedies  and  comedies,  among  which  is  "  La  Mere 
Coquette,"  (1664,)  and  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1670.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on 
his  operas,  the  music  of  which  was  composed  by  Lulli. 
Between  1672  and  16S6  Quinault  and  Lulli  produced 
fourteen  operas,  among  which  "  Armide"  (1686)  is  the 
master-piece.  Others  are  entitled  "  Cadmus,"  "  Alceste," 
"Isis,"  "  Persee,"  "Roland,"  etc.  He  is  called  by 
some  the  first  writer  of  French  operas.  "  What  can  be 
more  beautiful,  and  even  sublime,"  says  Voltaire,  "  than 
this  chorus  in  '  Alceste," Tout  mortel  doit  ici  paraitre'  ?" 
etc.     Died  in  1688. 

Quinault-Dufresne,  ke'no'  dUTR^N',  (  Abraham 
Alexis,)  a  popular  French  actor,  born  at  Verdun-sur- 
le-Doubs  in  1693.  ^^  performed  in  tragedy  and  high 
comedy.  He  was  a  brother  of  Jean  B.  M.  Quinault, 
noticed  above.     Died  in  1767. 

Quin'by,  (Isaac  F.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Jersey,  graduated  at  West  Point  about  1843.  ^^ 
became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  early  in  1862, 
and  commanded  a  division  of  General  Grant's  army  in 
the  operations  against  Vicksburg  in  1863. 

Quincey,  De.     See  De  Quincey. 

Quinctilianus.     See  Quintilian. 

Quin'cy,  (Edmund,)  an  American  writer  and  oppo- 
nent of  slavery,  a  son  of  Josiah  Quincy,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Boston  in  1808.  He  contributed  to  several 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  and  wrote  "  Wensley,  a 
Story  without  a  Moral,"  (1854.)     Died  in  1877. 

Quin'cy,  (John,)  an  English  medical  writer,  practised 
medicine  in  London.  Among  his  works  is  "Lexicon 
Pliysico-Medicuni."     Died  in  1723. 

Quiucy,  (Josiah,)  an  American  orator  and  patriot, 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1744,  was  a  son  of  Josiah 
Quincy,  a  merchant  of  Boston.  He  became  a  lawyer, 
and  began  about  1767  to  write  political  essays  against 
the  measures  of  the  British  ministry.  He  also  rendered 
important  services  to  the  popular  cause  by  his  fervid 
and  powerful  eloquence.  His  chief  political  work  is 
"  Observations  on  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  with  Thoughts 
on  Civil  Government,"  etc.,  (1774.)  He  gave  proof  of 
moral  courage  by  defending  Captain  Preston  and  several 
soldiers  in  their  trial  for  killing  certain  citizens  in  the 
Boston  massacre  of  March,  1770.  To  promote  the  public 
welfare  and  the  cause  of  libert}',  he  made  a  voyage  to 
England  in  October,  1774.  He  heard  and  reported  a 
celebrated  speech  made  by  Lord  Chatham  in  defence 
of  the  Americans,  January  20,  1775.  He  conferred  with 
Dr.  Franklin  and  other  friends  of  the  cause  in  England, 
and  hastened  to  return  with  counsels  and  plans  which  it 
was  not  prudent  to  commit  to  writing ;  but  before  the 
end  of  his  voyage  he  died  at  sea,  April,  1775.  He  was 
deeply  lamented  by  the  public. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,"  by  his  son  Josiah,  1825. 

Quincy,  (Josiah,)  an  eminent  statesman  and  scholar, 
born  in  Boston  on  the  4th  of  February,  1772,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1790,  and  studied  law.  He  joined  the  Federalist  party, 
and  represented  Boston  in  Congress  from  1804  to  1813. 
During  this  period   he  opposed   the    measures  of  the 


dominant  party  with  great  energy  and  decision.  He 
made  a  celebrated  speech  against  the  bill  for  the  admis- 
sion of  Louisiana  in  1811,  and  opposed  the  war  of  1812. 
"  He  was  equal  to  the  emergency,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold, 
"  and  sustained  himself  on  all  occasions  with  manly  in- 
dependence, sound  argument,  and  fervid  declamation." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Massachusetts  from 
1814  to  1820,  became  a  judge  of  the  municipal  court  of 
Boston  in  1822,  and  served  as  mayor  of  Boston  from 
1823  to  1S29.  In  1829  he  was  elected  president  of  Har- 
vard University.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Memoir  of  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,"  (1825,)  a  "History 
of  Harvard  University,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  "Speeches  in 
Congress  and  Orations,"  and  a  "  Life  of  John  Q.  Adams," 
(1858.)  He  resigned  the  presidency  of  Harvard  in  1845. 
In  1856  he  publicly  advocated  the  election  of  Colonel 
Fremont  to  the  Presidency.  He  died  in  July,  1864,  aged 
ninety-two. 

See  "Life  of  Josiah  Quincy,"  by  his  son,  Edmund  Quincy;  R. 
W.  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Duyckinck,  "Cyclo- 
pedia of  American  Literature."  vol.  i. 

Quincy,  de,  deh  k^N'se',  (Charles  Sevin — seh- 
vIn',)  Marquis,  a  French  general  and  military  writer, 
born  near  Meaux  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  "Military  His- 
tory of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (8  vols.,  1726.)  Died 
in  1736. 

Quincy,  de,  (QuATREMiRE.)     See  Quatrem^re. 

Quinet,  ke'ni',  (Edgar,)  a  French  writer  and  phi- 
.osopher,  born  at  Bourg  (Ain)  in  1803,  became  a  friend 
of  Michelet.  He  obtained  in  1842  in  the  College  of 
France  a  chair  of  southern  literatures,  ( littiratures  miri- 
dionales.)  He  acted  with  the  republicans  ( extreme  gauche ) 
in  the  Constituent  and  Legislative  Assemblies  of  1848-9. 
Among  his  various  works  are  "  Prometheus,"  a  poem, 
(1838,)  "Germany  and  Italy:  Philosophy  and  Poetry," 
(1839,)  "The  Genius  of  Religions,"  (1843,)  and  "The 
Revolutions  of  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1S52.)  He  was  banished 
from  France  in  1852.     Died  March  27,  1875. 

See  Chassin,  "  E.  Quinet,  sa  Vie  et  son  CEuvre,"  1859 .'  G- 
Planche,  "  Portraits  Littdiaires  ;"  Bataillard,  "  GSuvre  philoso- 
phique  et  sociale  d'E.  Quinet,"  1845;  Quinet,  "Histoire  de  mes 
[d^es,"  1858;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Quinette,  ke'nSt',  (Nicolas  Marie,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist, born  at  Soissons  in  1762.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  and  was  one  of  the  four  com- 
missaries sent  to  arrest  Dumouriez,  who  seized  and 
delivered  them  to  the  Austrians,  (April,  1793.)  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  for  a  short  time  in  1799.  Died 
in  1821. 

Quin'lan,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at  Cloyne,  in 
Ireland,  came  to  the  United  States  when  eighteen  years 
old,  studied  at  Emmittsburg,  Maryland,  was  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest  of  Ohio,  and  in  1859  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Mobile.     Died  March  9,  1883. 

Quiiiones,  de,  di  kin-yo'n§s,  sometimes  written 
Quignonez,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  cardinal,  born  in 
the  kingdom  of  Leon,  became  confessor  to  Charles  V. 
He  negotiated  the  release  of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  de- 
tained or  besieged  by  the  Spanish  army,  in  1527.  He 
published  "Breviarium  Romanum,"  (1535.)  Died  in 
1540. 

Quinsonas,  de,  deh  kiN'so'nSs',  (Francois  Dugas,) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons  in  17 19,  wrote  epigrams 
against  Voltaire.     Died  in  1768. 

Quint,  (Alonzo  Hall,)  D.D.,  a  Congregationalist 
divine,  born  at  Barnstead,  New  Hampshire,  March  22, 
1828.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1846.  He 
held  pastorships  in  Massachusetts,  and  acquired  fame  as 
a  writer  chiefly  on  genealogical  and  denominational  sub- 
jects. 

Quintana,  kSn-til'na,  (Manuel  Jos^,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  poet  and  patriot,  was  born  in  Madrid  in  April, 
1772.  He  studied  law  at  Salamanca,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Melendez  and  Cienfuegos.  He  began 
to  write  verses  about  1790.  His  "Ode  to  the  Sea" 
(1798)  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage. He  wrote  other  excellent  odes,  one  of  which 
is  "On  the  Battle  of  Trafalgar."  In  1807  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  "  Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards," 
(3  vols.,  1807-34,)  which  is  highly  commended.  Between 
1808  and  1814  he  employed  his  talents  and  influence 
against  the  French  invaders,  and  wrote  several  eloquent 


t-  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as//  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2,-  th  as  in  this. 

127 


(2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


QUJNTARD 


201S 


QUITMAN 


Jianifestues  for  the  national  party.  These  services  were 
rewarded  with  rigorous  imprisonment  for  six  years 
(1814-20)  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  was  offended  because 
Quintana  advocated  liberal  principles.  He  propitiated 
»he  king  by  an  ode  in  honour  of  his  marriage  in  1828, 
and  was  permitted  to  return  to  Madrid.  In  1835  he 
was  appointed  director-general  of  public  instruction, 
and  became  a  senator.  He  directed  the  education 
of  the  young  queen  in  1840-43.  He  was  publicly 
crowned  with  laurel  by  the  queen  in  1855.  Died  in 
March,  1857. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature :"  Khnned». 
"  Modem  Poets  of  Spain  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendraie." 

Quin-tard',  (Charles  Todd,)  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  in  Stamford,  Connecticut,  De- 
cember 22,  1824.  He  graduated  M.D.  at  the  New  York 
University  in  1846.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  Medical  College  of 
Memphis,  Tennessee.  In  1856  he  was  ordained  a  pres- 
byter of  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  in  1865  he  was  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Tennessee. 

Qtiinte-Curce.     See  Quintus  Curtius. 

Quin-til'i-an,  [Lat.  Quintilia'nus  or  Quinctilia'- 
Nus ;  Fr.  QuiNTiLiEN,  kKN'te'le;|.N',]  (Marcus  Fabius,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  critic  and  teacher  of  rhetoric,  was 
born  probably  between  40  and  50  a.d.  Jerome  states 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Calagurris,  (Calahorra,)  in  the 
northern  part  of  Spain  ;  but  some-modern  writers  think 
he  was  born  in  Rome.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation 
as  a  pleader,  and  was  the  first  public  instructor  who 
received  from  the  imperial  treasury  a  regular  salary. 
Among  his  pupils  was  the  Younger  Pliny.  He  taught 
rhetoric  for  twenty  years,  and  retired  from  that  pro- 
fession in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  who  appointed  him 
preceptor  of  his  grand-nephews.  His  chief  work  is  a 
treatise  on  the  education  of  an  orator,  "  Institutio  Ora- 
toria,"  divided  into  twelve  books.  This  is  the  most 
complete  and  methodical  treatise  on  rhetoric  that  has 
come  down  to  us  from  antiquity.  An  entire  copy  of  it 
was  found  by  Poggio  at  Saint  Gall  in  141 7.  His  style 
is  clear,  elegant,  and  highly  polished.  His  practical 
ideas  are  good,  but  his  criticisms  are  rather  superficial. 
He  gives  judicious  precepts  for  students,  and  interesting 
details  of  the  education  and  classic  studies  of  the  an- 
cients. His  merit  consists  in  sound  judgment,  propriety, 
and  good  taste,  rather  than  in  originality  or  elevation  of 
mind.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  118  a.d.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  corruption  or  decadence  of  elo- 
quence, "De  Causis  Corruptae  Eloquentiae,"  which  is 
not  extant.  His  "  Institutio"  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Guthrie  (1756)  and  Patsall,  (1774.) 

See  RuDiGER,  "De  Quintiliano  Padagogo,"  1850;  V.  Otto, 
"Quintilian  und  Rousseau,"  1836;  J.  Janin,  "Pline  le  Jeune  et 
Quintilien,"  183S  ;  Hummel,  "  Quintiliani  Vita,"  1843;  "  Nouvell» 
liiographie  Gdnerale." 

Quintilianus.     See  Quintilian. 

Quintilien.     See  Quintilian. 

Quintinie,  de  la,  deh  \t  kiN'te'ne',  (Jean,)  an  emi- 
nent French  gardener  and  writer  on  gardening,  was  born 
at  Chabanais  (Angoumois)  in  1626.  He  was  appointed 
intendant  of  the  fruit-gardens  of  the  king  at  Versailles 
in  1673.  He  made  much  improvement  in  the  cultivation 
of  fruit-trees,  and  left  a  work  which  was  for  a  long  time 
the  guide  of  French  cultivators.  It  is  entitled  "  Direc- 
tions for  Fruit  and  Kitchen  Gardens,"  ("  Instructions 
pour  les  Jardins  fruitiers  et  potagers,"  1690.)  Died  in 
1688. 

Quinto  Curzio.     See  Quintus  Curtius. 

Qmn'tus  Cal'a-ber  or  Q.  Smyr-nae'us,  (smir 
nee'us,)  [Fr.  QuiNTUs  DE  Calabre,  kdN'tiiss'  deh  kit'- 
ItbR',  or  Quintus  de  Smyrne,  kiN'tiiss'  deh  sm^Rn,] 


a  Greek  poet,  known  only  as  the  author  of  one  poem,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  a.d.  He  is  called 
Calaber  because  a  manuscript  of  his  work  was  found 
in  Calabria.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  a 
natiye  of  Smyrna.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of  Homer's 
"  Iliad,"  ('0/U7pow  11  opa/Uwo/ii-va,)  which  contains  some 
beautiful  passages.  The  subjects  of  it  are  those  events 
of  the  Trojan  war  which  are  not  related  by  Homer. 
Quintus  Claudius  Quadrigarius.     See  Quadri- 

GARIUS. 

Quin'tus  Cur'tius  (kur'she-us)  Ru'fus,  [Fr.  Quinte- 
CuRCE,  kiNt  kiiRss ;  It.  QmNTo  Curzio,  kwin'to 
kooRt'se-o,]  a  Roman  historian  of  uncertain  period,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  after  the  Augustan  age.  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  birthplace  or  personal  history.  We 
find  in  ancient  writers  no  passage  which  certainly  refers 
to  him.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great,"  ("  De  Rebus  Alexandri  Magni  Regis 
Macedonum,")  in  ten  books,  of  which  the  first  and  second 
are  lost.  The  merit  of  this  history  is  variously  estimated. 
His  style  is  easy,  clear,  and  rhetorical.  He  is  deficient 
in  critical  judgment  and  in  a  knowledge  of  geography 
and  military  tactics.  Among  his  modern  admirers  are 
Vossius,  Bayle,  Rapin,  Tiraboschi,  and  La  Harpe.  His 
work  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Brende  and 
Digby. 

See   BuTTMANN,    "  Ueber  das   Leben    des   Geschichtschreibers 

auintus  Curtius  Rufus,"  1820;  J.  E.  Muller,  "  Programma  de 
.  Curtio  Rufo,"  1695:  Adolph  Hikt,  "Ueber  das  Leben  des 
Geschichtschreibers  Q.  Curtius  Rufus,"  1820;  Niebuhr,  "Kleine 
Schriften,"  i. 

Quintus  de  Calabre  or  de  Smyrne.  See  Quin- 
tus Calaber. 

Quintus  Icilius.     See  Guichard. 

Quiet  du  Passage,  ke'o'  dil  pt'stzh',  (J6r0me 
Joachim,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Alixan  (Drome)  in 
1775  ;  died  in  1849. 

Quirini.     See  Querinl 

Quirinus,  a  surname  of  Romulus,  (which  see.) 

Quiroga,  ke-ro'gS,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Galicia  in  1707.  About  1745  he  was  sent  by  the  King 
of  Spain  to  explore  Patagonia.  He  wrote  a  journal  of 
his  voyage,  which  was  inserted  by  Charlevoix  in  his 
"  History  of  Paraguay."     Died  in  1784. 

Quiros,  kee'ris,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  Estremadura  in  171 7.  He  worked  at  Seville,  and 
imitated  Murillo  with  success.     Died  in  1789. 

Quiros,  (Pedro.)     See  Queiros. 

Quirot,  ke'ro',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1760,  was  a  moderate 
member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95.)  In  the  trial  of 
the  king  he  voted  for  imprisonment.     Died  in  1830. 

Quistorp,  kwis'toRp,  (Johann,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine  and  biblical  commentator,  born  at  Rostock  in 
1584.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  his  native 
city  in  1614.     Died  in  1648. 

Quistorp,  von,  fon  kwis'toRp,  (Johann  Christian,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Rostock  in  1737,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Biitzow.  Died  in  1795. 
•  Quita,  kee'td,  (Domingos  dos  Reis,)  a  Portuguese 
poet,  born  in  1728.  He  wrote  "Inez  de  Castro,"  and 
other  tragedies.     Died  in  1770. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Quit'man,  (John  Anthony,)  an  American  general 
and  Democratic  politician,  born  in  Dutchess  county, 
New  York,  in  1799.  Appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
brigade  in  1846,  he  fought  with  distinction  in  the  prin- 
cipal engagements  of  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  subse- 
quently elected  Governor  of  Mississippi.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1855  and  in  1857.    Died  in  1858. 

See  Claiborne,  "  Life  of  J.  A.  Quitman,"  i860. 


e,  1,  6,  xa,  y,  long:  i  h.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short; a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RA 


201CJ 


J? A  CAN 


R. 


Ra,  rS,  the  great  sun-god  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
sometimes  confounded  (or,  more  correctly,  compounded) 
with  Ammon,  (q.  V.,)  or  Amen,  whence  the  name  Amun- 
Ra.  Ra  was  more  extensively  worshipped  than  any  other 
Egyptian  deity  except  Osiris. 

Raaff,  rif,  (Anton,)  a  German  tenor-singer,  born  in 
1714,  at  Holzem,  near  Bonn.  He  was  destined  for  the 
priesthood,  but  his  fine  voice  attracted  the  attention  of  th^ 
Elector  Clement  Augustus,  who  had  him  trained  for  the 
operatic  stage.  He  sang  with  great  success  in  the  prin- 
cipal German  cities,  and  also  in  Naples,  whither  he  ac- 
companied Farinelli  in  1759.  Died  in  Munich,  May  27, 
1797. 

Rabanis,  rt'bt'n6ss',  (Jean,)  a  French  historian,  born 
about  1800.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Bordeaux,"  (ist 
vol.,  1837.) 

Raban  Maur.     See  Rabanus. 

Rabanus  Maurus  Magnentius,  ri-bi'nus  mow'- 
rils  mSg-nSn'se-Cis,  [Fr.  Raban  Maur,  rt'bfiN'  moR,]  a 
German  theologian,  born  at  or  near  Mentz  about  786  or 
776  A.D.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Mentz  in  847.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  greatest  scholars  and  writers  of  his  time. 
Died  in  856  a.d. 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gfo^rale." 

Rabaut,  rt'bo',  (Paul,)  an  eminent  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Bedarieux  in  17 18.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Nimes,  and  was  much  persecuted.  Died  at 
Nimes  in  1794. 

See  J.  Pons,  "  Notice  sur  P.  Rabaut,"  1S08. 

Rabaut-Pommier,  rt'bo'  po'me-i',  (Jacques  An- 
TOINE,)  a  French  Girondist,  born  atT^imes  in  1744,  was 
•I  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  to  the  Conven- 
tion in  1792,  was  proscribed  in  1793,  and  imprisoned 
until  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  In  1801  he  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Protestant  Church  of  Paris.  Some  French 
writers  claim  for  him  the  honour  of  the  discovery  of 
vaccination.     Died  in  1820. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Rabaut-Saint-^tienne,  rt'bo'  sdN'tS.'te-5n',  (Jean 
Paul,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nimes  in 
1743,  and  was  a  Protestant  minister  before  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  in  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  (1789-92,)  and  voted  against  the 
death  of  the  king  in  the  Convention.  Having  taken  side 
with  the  Girondists,  he  was  outlawed  in  July,  and  exe- 
cuted in  December,  1793.  He  left  several  able  historical 
and  political  works. 

See  Collin  de  Plancy,  "  Notice  de  Rabaut- Saint-fitieiine," 
prefixed  to  his  works,  1S26;  Haag,  "La  France  protestante;" 
Nouvelle  Biograpbie  G^n^rale." 

Rabbe,  rSb,  (Alphonse,)  a  French  litthateur,  born 
at  Riez,  in  Provence,  in  1786.  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  Biographie  universelle  des  Contemporains,"  by 
Rabbe,  Boisjolin,  and  Saint- Preuve.     Died  in  1830. 

Rabel,  r3'b61',  (Daniel,)  a  French  painter  of  por- 
traits and  flowers,  was  born  about  1578;  died  after  1630. 

Rabel,  (Jean,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Beau- 
vais,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  painted 
portraits  of  several  kings  and  queens.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1603. 

Rabelaesius.     See  Rabelais. 

Rabelais,  rt'beh-li'  or  rtb'li',  [Lat.  Rabel.«'sius,| 
(Francois,)  a  famous  and  humorous  French  satirist, 
born  at  Chinon,  in  Touraine,  in  1495,  o*"!  ^^  some  say,  in 
1483.  At  an  early  age  he  joined  the  order  of  Franciscans, 
but,  finding  the  monastic  life  incompatible  with  his  genial 
disposition,  he  quitted  the  convent  without  the  consent 
of  his  superiors.  He  had  made  himself  master  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  other  languages.  He  was  also  versed  in 
several  sciences.  It  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  distin- 
guish the  real  events  of  his  life  amidst  the  multitude  of 
strange  adventures  and  ludicrous  anecdotes  which  are 
told  respecting  him.  He  began  to  study  medicine  at 
Montpellier   about  1530,  after   which   he  practised   at 


Lyons.  In  1536  he  accompanied  to  Rome  the  ambas- 
sador Cardinal  Du  Bellay,  who  had  been  his  friend  in 
early  life.  He  obtained  absolution  from  the  pope  for  his 
neglect  of  the  monastic  vows,  and  took  his  degree  in 
medicine  at  Montpellier  in  1537.  His  chief  work  is  a 
humorous  romance,  entitled  "  The  Pleasant  Story  of  the 
Giant  Gargantua  and  his  Son  Pantagruel,"  ("Les  Faits 
et  Diets  du  Geant  Gargantua  et  de  son  Fils  Panta- 
gruel,") in  which  he  satirizes  all  classes  of  society,  es- 
pecially the  monks.  He  obtained  from  Francis  I.  in 
1545  a  privilege  to  print  the  third  part  of  this  work. 
The  first  part  had  been  published  anonymously  in  1535. 
The  work  was  denounced  as  heretical  by  the  clergy  and 
monks,  but  the  author  was  protected  by  Francis  I.  He 
became  curate  of  Meudon  about  1545.    Died  about  1553. 

"  The  most  celebrated,"  says  Hallam,  "  and  certainly 
the  most  brilliant  performance  in  the  path  of  fiction  that 
belongs  to  this  age  is  that  of  Rabelais.  Few  books  are 
less  likely  to  obtain  the  praise  of  a  rigorous  critic ;  but 
few  have  more  the  stamp  of  originality,  or  show  a  more 
redundant  fertility  always  of  language  and  sometimes  of 
imagination."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") "  Beyond  a  doubt,"  says  Coleridge,  "  he  was 
among  the  deepest  as  well  as  boldest  thinkers  of  his 
age.  ...  I  class  Rabelais  with  the  great  creative  minds, 
Shakspeare,  Dante,  Cervantes,  etc." 

A  good  edition  of  his  chief  work  was  published  by 
Burgaud  des  Marets  and  Rathery,  (2  vols.,  1858.) 

See  Dklecluse,  "  F.  Rabelais,"  1S41 ;  P.  Lacroix,  "Vie  de 
Rabelais,"  1859;  E.  Noel,  "Legendes  Franfaises;  Rabelais," 
iSsQ ;  Almquist,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  F.  Rabeljesii," 
1838;  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs. 
Shelley;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;""  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1843  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November, 
1849 ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1839. 

Rabener,  rS'beh-n^r,  (Gottlieb  Wilhelm,)  a  popu- 
lar German  writer,  born  near  Leipsic  in  17 14,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Gellert.  He  published  a  collection 
of  satires  in  the  form  of  letters,  (1751,)  also  "Friendly 
Letters."  He  was  employed  many  years  at  Dresden  as 
counsellor  in  the  department  of  customs.    Died  in  177 1. 

See  MuRR,  "An  Rabeners  Schatten,"  1771 ;  Gervinus,  "Natio- 
nalliteratur." 

Ra-bir'i-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  poet,  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Virgil.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  battle  of 
Actium,  fragments  of  which  are  extant. 

Rabirius,  (Caius,)  a  Roman,  who  was  accused  of 
complicity  in  the  death  of  Saturninus.  He  was  defended 
by  Cicero  (63  B.C.)  in  a  speech,  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Raboteau,  rt'bo'to',  (Pierre  Paul,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1765 ;  died  in  1825. 

Rabou,  rt'boo',  (Charles,)  a  French  novelist  and 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1803  ;  died  Feb.  i,  1871. 

Rabuel,  rS'bu-Sl',  (Claude,)  a  French  matheniatician 
born  at  Ponte-de-Vesle  in  1669 ;  died  at  Lyons  in  1728. 

Rabus,  rS'bus,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rot- 
terdam in  1660.  He  wrote  "  Britain  Delivered,"  ("  Ver- 
lost  Britannic,"  1689,)  and  some  prose  works.  Died  in 
1702. 

Rabutin.    See  Bussy-Rabutin. 

Rabutin,  de,  deh  rt'bii'tiN',  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  was  a  grandfather  of  Bussy-Rabutin. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  War  between  Henry  II. 
and  Charles  V.,"  (1555.)     Died  in  1582. 

Racagni,  rS-kin'yee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  pro- 
fessor of  physical  sciences,  born  near  Voghera  in  1 741. 
He  wrote  "Theory  of  Fluids,"  ("Teorica  de'  Fluidi," 
1779.)     Died  at  Milan  in  1822. 

Racan,  de,  deh  rt'kSN',  (Honorat  de  Bueil— d§h 
bu!  or  buh'ye,)  Marquis,  a  French  poet,  born  in  Tou- 
raine in  1589,  was  a  friend  of  Malherbe.  He  wrote 
"  Les  Bergeries,"  ("  Pastorals,"  1628,)  and  other  poems. 
"  Racan  had  more  genius  than  Malherbe,"  says  Boileau, 
"  but  he  was  more  negligent."  He  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.     Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 


€as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RACCHETTI 


RADCLIFFE 


Racchetti,  rik-ket'tee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1639  ;  died  in  1702. 

Ra'chel,  [Heb.  Sni ;  It.  Rachele,  rS-ka'li,]  a  He- 
brew matron,  was  a  daughter  of  Laban,  and  the  favourite 
wife  of  the  patriarch  Jacob. 

See  Genesis  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi.,  and  xxxv. 

Rachel,  rt'shSK,  (  Elisabeth  Rachel  F^lix,  )  a 
French  tragic  actress,  born  in  the  canton  of  Argovie, 
Switzerland,  in  1820,  was  a  daughter  of  a  Jewish  ped- 
lar. She  made  her  debut  at  the  Theatre  Fran9ais 
of  Paris  in  1838,  and  performed  parts  in  the  tragedies 
of  Corneille  and  Racine  with  great  success.  Her  gait, 
attitudes,  gestures,  and  voice  concurred  to  produce  power- 
ful effects  with  a  great  simplicity  of  means.  She  was 
much  applauded  in  the  roles  of  "  Marie  Stuart"  and 
•'Joan  of  Arc."  In  1855  she  performed  in  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Philadelphia.  She  died  near  Cannes  (Var) 
in  1858. 

See  Eugene  de  Mirecourt,  "  Mademoiselle  Rachel :"  L.  Beau- 
VALLET,  "  Rachel  et  le  Nouveau-Monde,"  1856;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Rachel,  raK'el,  (Joachim,)  a  German  satirical  poet, 
born  at  Lunden,  Holstein,  in  1618.  He  was  rector  of 
colleges  at  Norden  and  Sleswick,  and  wrote  ten  satires, 
(1664,)  in  which  he  imitated  Juvenal  and  Persius  with 
some  success.     Died  in  1669. 

See  Gervinus,  "  Nationalliteratur." 

Rachetti,  rJL-ket'tee,  or  Racchetti,  rik-ket'tee, 
(VlNCENZO,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Crema  in 
1777.  He  wrote  a  "Theory  of  the  Physical  Prosperity 
of  Nations,"  (1802.)     Died  in  1819. 

Racine,  rt's^n',  (Bonaventure,)  a  French  Jansenist 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Noyon  in  1708,  was  a 
relative  of  the  poet  Racine.  He  published  an  "  Eccle- 
siastical History,"  (13  vols.,  1748-56.)     Died  in  1755. 

Racine,  ras'seen'  or  rt's^n^  (Jean,)  an  excellent 
French  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Ferte-Milon  (Aisne)  De- 
cember 21,  1639.  His  parents,  who  were  bourgeois,  died 
before  he  was  four  years  old.  He  studied  at  the  College 
of  Beauvais,  and  afterwards  at  the  famous  school  of  Port- 
Royal,  in  which  he  passed  three  years,  (1655-58.)  He 
became  a  good  Latin  and  Greek  scholar.  He  began  his 
poetical  career  by  "  La  Nymphe  de  la  Seine,"  (1660,)  an 
ode  on  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Louis  XIV.,  which 
procured  for  him  a  small  pension.  Having  become  dis- 
gusted with  the  study  of  theology,  which  an  uncle  had 
persuaded  him  to  pursue,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  formed 
friendships  with  Boileau  and  Moliere.  He  produced  in 
1664  the  tragedy  of  "  La  Thebaide,  ou  les  Freres  enne- 
mis,"  which  had  some  success.  The  first  work  which 
revealed  the  power  and  peculiar  character  of  his  genius 
was  "  Andromaque,"  (1667.)  In  1668  he  surprised  the 
public  by  a  comedy  called  "  The  Litigants,"  ("  Les  Plai- 
deurs,")  which  was  very  successful.  He  afterwards  pro- 
duced the  tragedies  of  "  Britannicus,"  (1669,)  "  Bere- 
nice," (1670,)  "  Bajazet,"  (1672,)  "  Mithridate,"  (1673,) 
"Iphigenie,"  (1674,)  and  "  Phedre,"  (1677.)  "I  avow," 
says  Voltaire,  "  that  I  regard  '  Iphigenie'  as  the  chef- 
d'oeuvre  of  the  stage."  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1673. 

At  the  age  of  thirty-eight  he  resolved  to  renounce 
dramatic  composition.  This  resolution  is  variously 
ascribed  to  religious  scruples,  wounded  sensibilities,  or 
disgust  excited  by  envious  intrigues  and  malicious  criti- 
cisms. He  married  in  1677  a  pious  young  woman  of 
Amiens,  named  Catherine  Romanet,  and  was  appointed 
historiographer  by  Louis  XIV.  In  compliance  with  the 
wish  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  Racine  wrote  "  Esther," 
a  drama,  (1689,)  and  "  Athalie,"  (1691,)  which  was  his 
last,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Boileau,  his  best,  drama.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  gentleman-in-ordinary 
to  the  king,  who  often  conversed  with  him,  and  treated 
him  with  favour.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were 
Boileau,  La  Fontaine,  and  La  Bruyere.  Racine  wrote 
about  1695  a  "  History  of  Port-Royal,"  the  style  of 
which  is  so  neat  and  perspicuous  that  it  entitles  him  to 
rank  in  the  list  of  those  authors  who  have  succeeded 
both  in  verse  and  prose.  His  natural  disposition  was 
rather  melancholy  and  tender.  During  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life  he  was  a  devout  member  of  the  Church. 
He  died  on  the  21st  of  April,  1699. 


It  is  usual  to  compare  Racine  with  Corneille  as  a  rival 
poet.  "Voltaire,  La  Harpe,  and  in  general  the  later 
French  critics,"  says  Hallam,  "have  given  the  prefer- 
ence to  Racine.  I  presume  to  join  my  suffrage  to  theirs. 
Racine  appears  to  me  the  superior  tragedian ;  and  I 
must  add  that  I  think  him  next  to  Shakspeare  among 
all  the  moderns.  The  comparison  with  Euripides  is  so 
natural  that  it  can  hardly  be  avoided.  Certainly  no 
tragedy  of  the  Greek  poet  is  so  skilful  or  perfect  as 
'Athalie'  or  'Britannicus.'  .  .  .  The  style  of  Racine  is 
exquisite.  Perhaps  he  is  second  only  to  Virgil  among 
all  poets.  But  I  will  give  the  praise  of  this  in  the  words 
of  a  native  critic :  '  If  we  consider  that  his  perfection  in 
these  respects  may  be  opposed  to  that  of  Virgil,  and 
that  he  spoke  a  language  less  flexible,  less  poetical,  and 
less  harmonious,  we  shall  readily  believe  that  Racine  is, 
of  all  mankind,  the  one  to  whom  nature  has  given  the 
greatest  talent  for  versification.'  (La  Harpe.) " 

See  "  Mennoirs  of  J.  Racine,"  by  his  son  Louis,  1747;  La  Harpe, 
"  E!loge  de  Racine,"  1772;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Caiiseries  du  Lundi;" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale  ;"  L.  A.  C.  Beyle,  "Racine  et  Shakspeare,"  2  vols.,  1S23- 
25;  Naigeon,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Racine,"  17S3;  Villemain, 
"  Cours  de  Litterature ;"  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French 
Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley. 

Racine,  (Louis,)  the  second  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1692,  and  was  a  poet  and  critic  of 
considerable  merit.  Boileau  advised  him  not  to  write 
verse;  for,  said  he,  "since  the  world  began  there  has 
been  no  instance  of  two  great  poets  related  to  each  other 
as  father  and  son."  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "La 
Grace,"  (1720,)  and  another  entitled  "La  Religion," 
(1742,)  which  was  highly  praised  by  J.  B.  Rousseau, 
and  passed  through  sixty  editions.  He  was  employed 
for  many  years  as  clerk  or  collector  of  taxes,  (directeur 
ies  fermes.)  In  1755  his  son  was  drowned  at  Cadiz  by 
the  earthquake  which  nearly  destroyed  Lisbon.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  Le  Beau,  "filoge  de  Louis  Racine,"  1763;  Adrien  de  la 
Roque,  "Vie  de  L.  Racine,"  1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Rack,  (Edmund,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Norfolk 
in  1735  ;  died  in  1787. 

Racle,  rtkl,  (Leonard,)  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Dijon  in  1736.  He  was  employed  at  Ferney  by  Voltaire, 
who  recommended  him  to  the  prime  minister  Choiseul. 
Died  in  1791. 

Raczynski,  rS-chin'skee,  (Athanasius,)  a  Polish 
writer  on  art,  born  in  1788.  He  was  Prussian  minister 
at  Copenhagen,  Lisbon,  and  Madrid  from  1840  to  1853. 
He  wrote  (in  French)  a  "History  of  Modern  Art  in 
Germany,"  (3  vols.,  1836-42,)  which  is  a  work  of  some 
merit. 

Raczynski,  (Eduard,)  a  Polish  count  and  writer, 
born  at  Posen  in  1786,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  presented  to  his  native  city  a  library  of  twenty  thou- 
sand volumes.  Among  his  publications  are  "Travels  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Cabinet  of  Polish 
Medals,"  (4  vols.,  1841-45.)     He  committed  suicide  in 

1845. 

Rad'bert,  [Fr.  pron.  rtd'baiR',]  (Paschase,)  a  French 
monk,  born  near  Soissons.  He  wrote  several  works, 
one  of  which  is  "  On  the  Eucharist."  He  advocated 
the  dogma  of  transubstantiation.     Died  in  865  A.D. 

Radcliffe  or  RadclyfFe,  rad'klif,  (Ann,)  a  popular 
English  novelist,  born  in  London  in  1764.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Ward.  She  was  married  about  1786  to  Wil- 
liam Radcliffe,  editor  of  the  "  English  Chronicle."  Her 
most  successful  works  are  "The  Romance  of  the  Forest," 
(1791,)  and  "The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,"  (1794.)  The 
terrible,  sombre,  mysterious,  and  marvellous  predomi- 
nate in  her  compositions.     Died  in  1823. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works :  Mrs. 
Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the 
Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843:  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1834;  "Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1792,  and 
March,  1797. 

Radcliffe,  (James.)     See  Derwentwater. 

Radcliffe,  (John,)  a  successful  English  physician, 
born  at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  1650,  was  educated  at 
Oxford.  He  settled  in  London  in  1684,  and  soon  ob- 
tained a  large  practice,  to  which  his  talent  for  ])!easantry 
and  witticisms  is  said  to  have  contributed.     He  became 


a,  e,  7.  o,  %  y,  loti^; i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li, y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obsatre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RADCLIFFE 


R ABB  URN 


chief  physician  to  the  princess  Anne  in  1686,  after  which 
date  he  was  employed  professionally  by  King  William, 
whom  he  once  offended  by  his  rudeness  or  freedom  of 
speech.  He  died  in  November,  17 14.  He  bequeathed 
;^40,ooo  to  build  or  found  a  library  at  Oxford  which 
bears  his  name,  and  other  large  sums  for  charitable  uses. 
See  W.  PiTTis,  "  Radcliffe's  Life  and  Letters,"  1715;  "  Biogra- 
phia  Britannica." 

Radcliffe  or  Ratcliffe,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Sussex, 
an  English  statesman,  born  about  1526,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  Earl  of  Sussex.  He  was  sent  to  Spain  to  nego- 
tiate the  marriage  between  Queen  Mary  and  Philip  H., 
and  on  his  return  became  lord  deputy  of  Ireland.  In 
1569  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  North.  He 
rendered  important  services  in  the  suppression  of  the 
northern  rebellion.  He  became  lord  chamberlain  about 
1572.     Died  in  1583. 

Raddi,  rJd'dee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born 
at  Florence  in  1770.  He  was  associated  in  1828  with 
Rosellini  and  Champollion  in  a  mission  to  Egypt.  When 
about  to  return  home,  he  died  at  Rhodes  in  1829. 

See  G.  Savi,  "  Alia  Memoria  di  G.  Raddi,"  1830. 

Radegast,  ri'de-gdst',  the  many-headed  war-god  of 
the  ancient  Slavic  races. 

Radegiinde,  ri'deh -goon 'deb,  or  Radegonde,  rt'- 
deh-goNd',  a  Thuringian  princess,  whom  Clothaire  I. 
made  captive  and  forced  to  become  his  wife.  She  was 
noted  for  piety,  and  abounded  in  works  of  charity  to  the 
poor.  She  escaped  from  Clothaire  about  544  a.d.,  be- 
came a  nun,  and  founded  a  large  convent  at  Poitiers. 
Died  in  587  a.d. 

See  Ed.  de  Fi.eury.  "  Viede  Sain te- Radegonde,"  1843;  "  Nou- 
yelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Rademacher,  ra'deh-mSK'er,  or  Radermacher,  xV- 

der-miK'er,  (J.  C.  M.,)  a  Dutch  geographer,  born  in  1741, 
He  founded  the  Society  of  Sciences  at  Batavia  in  1778. 
Died  at  sea  in  1783. 

Rademacher,  rydeh-miK'er,  (Johann  Gottfried,) 
a  distinguished  German  physician,  born  at  Hamm  in 
1772  ;  died  in  1849. 

Rademacher,  ri'deh-mi'Ker,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  at  Westphalia,  Michigan,  De- 
cember 3,  1840.  He  was  educated  at  the  Benedictine 
College  at  Beatty,  Pennsylvania,  and  at  Saint  Michael's 
Seminary,  Pittsburg,  was  ordained  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic priesthood  in  1863,  and  in  1883  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Nashville,  Tennessee. 
Rademacker.  See  Rademaker. 
Rademaker,  ri'deh-mak'er,  written  also  Rade- 
macker, (Ahraham,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter  and 
engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1675. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  in  water-colours.  His  landscapes 
are  adorned  with  figures,  ruins,  and  buildings.  He  pro- 
duced after  his  own  designs  many  engravings,  which  are 
highly  prized.     Died  in  1735. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Rademaker  or  Rademacker,  (Gerard,)  an  emi- 
nent painter  of  history  and  architecture,  born  at  Amster- 
dam in  1673,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  returned  to  Holland. 
He  excelled  in  invention,  in  facility  of  execution,  and  in 
perspective.     Died  in  171 1. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Rader,  ri'der,  [Lat.  Rade'rus,]  (Matthaus,)  a 
learned  Jesuit,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1561.  He  wrote 
notes  on  Quintus  Curtius  and  Martial,  and  several 
original  works,  among  which  is  "  Bavaria  Sancta,"  (3 
vols.,  1625-27.)     Died  at  Munich  in  1634. 

Rader  or  Raeder,  ra'der,  (Jacob  Tode,)  a  military 
writer,  born  in  Norway  in  1798.  He  wrote  a  "  Military 
and  Political  History  of  Denmark,"  (1845-52.)  Died  1853. 

Raderus.     See  Rader. 

Radet,  rt'di',  (Etienne,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Stenay  in  1762.  He  was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1800  by  Bonaparte,  who  gave  him  the  chief  command 
of  all  the  gendarmerie,  (armed  police.)  In  1809  he  was 
ordered  to  Rome.  In  July  of  that  year  he  arrested  the 
pope  in  his  palace  and  conducted  him  to  Florence.  He 
received  the  title  of  baron,  (1809,)  and  became  a  general 
of  division  in  1813.     Died  in  1825. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 


Radet,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1752.    He  wrote  vaudevilles.     Died  in  1830. 

Radetzky,  rS-dSt'skee,  (Joseph  Wenzel,)  a  cele- 
brated field-marshal  in  the  Austrian  service,  born  in 
Bohemia  in  1766.  He  served  in  the  Turkish  campaigns 
of  1788-89,  and  subsequently  against  the  French  on  the 
Rhine  and  in  Italy.  For  his  distinguished  bravery  at 
the  battle  of  Wagram  he  was  made  lieutenant-field-mar- 
shaJ,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  campaigns  from 
1813  to  1815.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  effected  a 
masterly  retreat  froin  Milan,  then  in  open  revolt  against 
Austria,  and,  having  soon  after  gained  several  advantages 
over  the  Sardinians  under  Charles  Albert,  signally  de- 
feated them  at  Novara  in  March,  1849.  He  next  took 
possession  of  Venice,  after  an  obstinate  siege,  and  was 
appointed  governor-general  and  military  commander  of 
Upper  Italy.  He  had  been  created  a  field-marshal  in 
1836,  and  had  received  the  order  of  Maria  Theresa  and 
the  principal  military  orders  of  Europe.     Died  in  1858. 

See  Graf  Radetzky,  "  Biographische  Skizze  nach  den  eigenen 
Dictaten,"  etc.,  Stuttgart,  1S58:  Prince  Trubktzkoi,  "  Les  Cam- 
pagnes  de  Radetzky,"  1861 ;  "Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations-Lexi 
kon,"  i860. 

Rad'ford,  (William,)  an  American  naval  officei, 
born  in  Virginia.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1825,  and 
Commanded  the  Ironsides  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Fisher 
in  December,  1864.  He  was  appointed  rear-admiral  in 
July,  1866.     Died  January  8,  1890. 

Radier,  du.     See  Dreux  du  Radier. 

Rad'uor,  (William  Pleydell  Bouverie,)  Eari 
OF,  an  English  peer,  born  in  1779.  He  acted  with  the 
Liberal  party.     Died  April  9,  1869. 

Radonvilliers,  de,  deh  rt'd6N've'ye-i',  (Claude 
Francois  Lysarde,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1709.  He  became  sub-preceptor  of  the  princes  in  1757, 
and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1763. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1768.) 
Died  in  1789. 

Radowitz,  von,  fon  ri'do-^its',  (Joseph,)  a  Prussian 
statesman  and  general,  born  at  Blankenburg  in  1797, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  military  school 
at  Cassel,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  teacher  to 
Prince  Albert.  He  was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the 
Diet  at  Frankfort  in  1836.  He  published  several  works 
on  mathematics  and  military  affairs.     Died  in  1853. 

Radziwill,  rid'ze-^il,  (Christopher,)  a  Lithuanian 
general,  born  in  1585.  He  commanded  a  Polish  army 
which  held  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  check  in  Livonia  and 
Courland.     Died  in  1640. 

Radziv^ill,  (George,)  a  Lithuanian  general,  born  in 
1480.  He  gained  a  number  of  victories  over  the  Mus- 
covites and  Tartars,  and  in  1533  obtained  the  rank  of 
grand  general.     Died  in  1541. 

Radziwill,  (Nicolas,)  a  Lithuanian  nobleman,  born 
about  1515.  He  was  palatin  of  Wilna,  and  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  Reformation.     Died  about  1^65. 

Rae,  ra,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  British  traveller,  born  in  the 
Orkney  Islands  in  1786.  He  studied  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  1829-33,  went  to  the  Hudson 
Bay  forts  as  a  ship's  surgeon,  lived  as  surgeon  at  Moose 
Fort,  1835-45,  and  led  the  Arctic  survey  expedition  to  Re- 
pulse Bay  in  1846-47,  and  the  Franklin  search  expeditions 
of  1S49-50,  1851-52,  and  1853-54.  He  also  took  charge 
of  a  telegraph  survey,  zv<z  Faroe,  Iceland,  and  Greenland, 
in  i860,  and  of  another  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  in 
1S64.  He  published  a  work  on  Political  Economy, 
(1834,)  a  "Narrative  of  the  Expedition  of  1846-47,"  (8 
vols.,  1850,)  etc.     Died  April  S,  1873. 

Rae,  ra,  (Sir  William,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in 
1772,  was  a  son  of  Sir  David  Rae,  a  judge.  He  became 
a  conservative  member  of  Parliament,  and  lord  ad- 
vocate of  Scotland.     Died  in  1842. 

Raeburn,  ra'burn,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  or  near  Edinburgh  in  1756.  He  studied 
in  Italy,  from  which  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1787. 
He  was  afterwards  the  most  eminent  portVait-painter 
of  that  city  or  of  all  Scotland.  In  1815  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  Among  his 
works  are  portraits  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Lord  Jeffrey, 
and  James  Watt.  The  heads  of  his  portraits  are  es 
pecially  admired.     Died  in  1823. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 


€  as  k;  9  as  .f ;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAEDER 


RAHBEK 


Raeder.     See  Rader. 

Raemond.     See  R6mond. 

Raepsaet,  rip'sit,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  histo- 
rian, born  in  ly^o.  He  sat  in  the  corps Ugislattf  oi  France 
from  1803  to  1813.  His  chief  work  is  "  An  Analysis  of 
the  Origin  and  Progress  .of  the  Civil,  Political,  and  Re- 
ligious Laws  of  the  Belgians  and  Gauls."     Died  in  1832. 

See  CoRNELissEN,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Raepsaet,"  1836. 

Raethel.     See  Rathel. 

Raff  rif,  (Joseph  Joachim,)  a  Swiss  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Lachen,  May  27,  1822.  His  compositions 
are  numerous  and  embrace  a  great  variety  of  forms. 

Rafifaelle  or  Raffaello.     See  Raphael. 

Raffaelli,  raf-fi-el'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  advo- 
cate and  jurist,  born  in  Calabria  in  1750.  He  succeeded 
Beccaria  in  the  chair  of  public  law  at  Milan  in  1801.  His 
chief  work  is  "Nomotesia  Penale,"  (5  vols.,  1820-25.) 
Died  at  Naples  in  1826. 

Raffaellino  dal  Colle.     See  Colle,  dal. 

Raffaellino  del  Garbo,  rSf-fH-^l-lee'no  del  gaR^o,  a 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1466.  His  style  is  said  to 
have  degenerated  in  consequence  of  the  haste  with  which 
he  worked  after  he  began  to  be  pressed  with  the  care 
of  a  family.     Died  in  1524. 

Raffei,'rif-fa'ee,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
in  Tuscany  in  1712  ;  died  in  17S8. 

Raffeneau-Delile,  rtf no'  deh-lJK,  (Alire,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1778.  He  was  associated 
with  the  savants  who  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Egypt  in  1798,  and  performed  a  scientific  mission  to  the 
United  States  in  1803.  He  wrote  a  "Flora  of  Egypt," 
and  other  works.     Died  at  Montpellier  in  1850. 

Raflfenel,  rtf'n§l',  (Anne  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
traveller,  born  at  Versailles  in  1809.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Western  Africa,  comprising  the  Exploration 
of  the  Senegal,"  (1846,)  and  a  description  of  Soodan, 
entitled  "  New  Journey  in  the  Country  of  the  Negroes," 
("Nouveau  Voyage  dans  le  Pays  des  Negres,"  2  vols., 
1S56.)     Died  in  Madagascar  in  1858. 

Raffenel,  (ClaudeDenis,)  a  French  litth-atetcr,  born 
in  1797  ;  died  at  Athens  in  1827. 

Raffet,  rt'fl',  (Denis  Auguste  Marie,)  a  French 
designer  and  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  pub- 
lished many  lithographs  of  battles  and  other  martial 
scenes.     Died  in  i860. 

Raffles,  raf'felz,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  English 
dissenting  minister,  born  in  London  in  1788,  was  a 
cousin  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles.  He  became  minister 
of  a  Congregational  church  in  Great  George  Street, 
Liverpool,  about  1812,  and  acquired  a  wide  reputation 
as  a  preacher.  He  continued  to  occupy  that  pulpit 
about  fifty  years.  He  published  a  number  of  sermons 
and  lectures.     Died  in  Liverpool  in  1863. 

Raffles,  (Sir  Thomas  Stamford,)  an  English  natu- 
ralist and  administrator,  born  at  sea,  off  Jamaica,  in 
1781.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  government 
of  the  East  India  Company  at  Pulo-Penang  about  1806, 
and  became  in  1811  lieutenant-governor  of  Java,  to  the 
capture  of  which  he  had  greatly  contributed.  He  made 
researches  into  the  geography  and  natural  history  ol 
that  island,  and  published  a  "  History  of  Java,"  (2  vols., 
1817.)  In  1818  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor 
at  Bencoolen,  in  Sumatra,  in  the  zoology  of  which  he 
made  some  discoveries.  He  made  a  large  collection 
of  animals,  plants,  etc.,  many  of  which,  with  his  papers 
and  drawings,  were  destroyed  by  fire  on  board  of  a  ship, 
(1824.)  His  loss  was  estimated  at  ;^20,ooo.  He  re- 
signed in  1824,  and  died  in  England  in  1826. 

See  "Memoir  of  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  Raffles,"  by  his  wife, 
1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generals;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
March,  1830;  "Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1818. 

Rafinesque,  rt'fe'n^sk',  (Constanti.ne  S.maltz,  ) 
born  near  Constantinople,  of  French  parents,  in  17S4, 
became  professor  of  botany  and  natural  history  at  Tran- 
sylvania University,  Lexington,  Kentucky,  and  subse- 
quently settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  published  a  book 
of  travels  and  several  botanical  works.  Died  September 
18,  1842. 

Raffort,  rt'foR',  (Etienne,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Chalons-sur-S.-ione  about  1805.  He  painted  land- 
scapes, sea-ports,  etc. 


Rafn,  rifn,  (Carl  Christian,)  a  Danish  antiquary, 
distinguished  as  a  lover  of  Icelandic  literature,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Fiinen  in  1796.  He  published 
"  Heroic  Traditions  of  the  North,"  (3  vols.,  1825-30,) 
"Nordlanda,"  (3  vols.,  1829-30,)  and  "American  An- 
tiquities," ("  Antiquitates  Americanae,"  1837,)  which 
contains  evidence  that  the  Icelanders  or  Scandinavians 
discovered  America  in  the  tenth  century.  He  resided 
at  Copenhagen.     Died  in  1865. 

See  Erslew,  "  Udsigt  over  C.  Rafn's  Levnet,"  1840,  and  "For- 
fatter- Lexicon." 

Raggi,  rid'jee,  (Nicolas  Bernard,)  a  sculptor,  born 
at  Carrara  in  1791,  worked  at  Paris,  .\mong  his  works 
are  statues  of  Henry  IV.,  "  Bayard  dying,"  and  "  Meta- 
bus,  King  of  the  Volsci."     Died  in  1862. 

Rag'lan,(jAMES  Henry  Fitzroy  Somerset,)  Baron, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1788,  was  a  younger  son  of 
Henry,  fifth  Duke  of  Beaufort.  His  mother  was  a 
daughter  of  Admiral  Boscawen.  He  served  as  aide-de- 
camp to  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Peninsula  from 
1809  to  1814,  and  at  Waterloo,  where  he  lost  his  right 
arm.  In  1819  he  became  military  secretary  to  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  and  that  of  Verona,  (1822.)  He  was  appointed 
master-general  of  the  ordnance  in  1852,  and  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Raglan.  Before  this  promotion 
he  was  styled  Lord  Fitzroy  Somerset.  He  commanded 
the  British  army  in  the  Crimean  war,  which  began  in 

1854,  and  co-operated  with  the  French  at  Alma  in  Sep- 
tember. His  army  suffered  great  disasters  during  the 
long  siege  of  Sebastopol,  (1S54-55,)  for  want  of  pro- 
visions, etc.  He  was  painfully  affected  by  the  repulses 
and  losses  of  the  allies,  and  died  in  the  camp  in  June, 

1855,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  Richard  Henry  Fitzroy, 
See   E.   Texier,   "Les   Hommes  de  la  Guerre  d'Orient:    Lord 

Raglan,"  1854;  '•  Biographical  Sketches,"  by  H.  Martine.'^u. 

Ragnar,  rSg'nar,  (or  Ragnar  Lodbrok — lod'brok,) 
written  also  Reg'ner,  a  famous  legendary  hero  of  the 
Northmen,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  King 
Sigurd  of  Sweden,  and  to  have  lived  about  800  a.d. 
Matthew  Arnold  calls  him* 

"  No  god,  but  of  the  hero  troop  the  chief, — 
Regner,  who  swept  the  northern  sea  with  fleets. 
And  ruled  o'er  Denmark  and  the  heathy  isles; 

•  «  *  *  «  «  « 

A  king  whose  fame  then  filled  the  vast  of  Heaven ; 
Now  time  obscures  it,  and  men's  later  deeds." 

He  is  regarded  as  the  most  striking  type  of  the  ancient 
vikings  of  the  North.  There  is  a  legendary  history  of 
him,  entitled  "  History  of  King  Ragnar  Lodbrok  and  his 
Sons,"  ("  Saga  af  Ragnari  Konungi  LoSbrok  ok  Sonum 
bans,")  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  in  the 
fourteenth  tentury,  although  it  contains  many  poems  of 
an  older  date,  belonging  to  the  golden  age  of  Skaldic 
literature,— that  is,  about  the  tenth  century.  (For  an 
account  of  some  of  the  principal  events  of  the  life  of 
Ragnar,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Thorpe's  "  Northern 
Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  108-113;  see,  also,  the  Intro- 
duction to  Keyser's  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen.") 

Ragnarock.     See  LoKi. 

Ragou,  rS'giN',  (F^Lix,)  a  French  historian,  born  m 
1795.  He  published  a  "General  History  of  Modern 
Times,"  (3  vols.,  1846,)  etc.     Died  June  27,  1872. 

Ragotzky.     See  RAkoczy. 

Ragueau,  rt'go',  (Franqois,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Bourges  ;  died  in  1605. 

Raguenet,  rtg'ni',  (Francois,)  a  French  priest  and 
liUeratcur,  born  at  Rouen  about  1660.  He  published  a 
"LifeofCrom\vell,"(i69i,)  "The  Monuments  of  Rome," 
(1700,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Turenne,"  (1738.)     Died  in  1722. 

Raguet,  rS'gi',  ?  (Condy,)  an  American  diplomatist 
and  writer,  born'at  Philadelphia  in  1784,  was  appointed 
in  1822  consul  at  Rio  Janeiro.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "  On  Currency  and  Banking,"  "  Principles  of 
Free  Trade,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1842. 

Ragusa,  Duke  of.     See  Marmont. 

Ragusa,  rS-goo'si,  (  Geronimo,)  a  learned  Jesuit, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1655  ;  died  about  1715. 

Ralibek,  ri'bdk,  (Knud  Lyne,)  a  Danish  author  and 
critic,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1760.     He  became  pro- 


In  the  poem  entitled  "  Raider  Dead. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/iorf;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fdt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon* 


RAHL 


2023 


RAKOCZY 


fessor  of  aesthetics  in  his  native  city  in  1790.  He  wrote 
dramas,  tales,  and  lyric  poems,  and  translated  many 
English  works.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Danish 
Spectator,"  a  periodical,  (1791-1806.)  He  was  a  judi- 
cious and  candid  critic.  His  writings  are  said  to  have 
exerted  a  happy  influence  on  Danish  literature  and  the 
public  taste.  He  resigned  the  chair  of  aesthetics  in  1825. 
Died  in  1830. 

See  his  Souvenirs,  "  Erindringer  af  mit  Liv,"  4  vols.,  1824-29;  J. 
P.  MvNSTKR,  "  Ved  Etatsraad  Professor  K.  L.  Rahbek's  Jorde- 
faerd,"  etc.,  1830;  Beeken,  "  Etatsraad  Professor  og  Ridder  K.  L. 
Rahbek's,"  etc.,  1838;  Ersi.ew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  Howitt, 
"Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1S30,  article  "Danish  and  Norwegian 
Literature  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rahl,  rSl,  (Kari,,)  a  historical  painter,  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Vienna  in  1812 ;  died  in  1865. 

Rahl,  (K.\RL  Heinrich,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
near  Heidelberg  in  1779,  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Arts  at  Vienna.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  prints 
after  Raphael's  "  Saint  Margaret,"  Correggio's  "  Night," 
and  the  "Madonna"  of  Perugino.     Died  in  1843. 

Rahn,  rSn,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1749,  was  noted  for  his  beneficence. 
He  published  numerous  works.     Died  in  1812. 

See  Usteri,  "  Denkrede  auf  Rahn,"  1812. 

Rahn,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1646.  He  wrote  in  German,  besides  other 
works,  a  "History  of  Switzerland,"  (1690.)  Died  in 
1708. 

Rahu,  ri'hoo,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  mighty 
giant,  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Diti,  (or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  the  son  of  Sinhika,)  was  supposed  to 
cause  eclipses  by  swallowing  the  sun  or  moon.  This 
fable  is  doubtless  astronomical  in  its  origin  :  rdhu 
signifies  also  the  "ascending  node." 

Raibolini.     See  Francia, 

Raiclel,  ri'd^l,  [Lat.  Raide'lius,]  (Georg  Martin,) 
a  German  savant,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1702,  wrote 
a  work  "  On  the  Geography  of  Ptolemy,"  etc.,  ("  De 
Ptolemasi  Geographia  ejusque  Codicibus,"  1737.)  Died 
in  1 741. 

See  A.  GoTZ,  "Vita  Raidelii,"  1741. 

Raikes,  raks,  (Robert,)  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1735  or  1736,  was  a  printer,  and 
the  editor  of  the  "  Gloucester  Journal."  He  is  noted  as 
the  founder  of  Sunday-schools.  In  1781  he  employed 
several  women  to  teach  a  number  of  ragged  children 
found  in  the  streets  of  Gloucester.     Died  in  181 1. 

Raim'baeh,  (Abraham,)  an  English  line-engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1776,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  Hall.  He 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  Wilkie,  who  employed  him 
to  engrave  a  number  of  his  paintings,  among  wnich  are 
"The  Village  Politicians,"  "The  Rent-Day,"  (1816,)  and 
"Blindman's  Buff."  These  engravings  are  highly  prized. 
Died  in  1843.  He  left  an  autobiography,  published  in 
1843,  entitled  "Memoirs  and  Recollections." 

Rainiond.     See  Raymond. 

Raimondi,  rl-mon'dee,  (Annibale,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Verona  in  1 505.  He  published 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Flow  and  Ebb  of  the  Sea," 
("Trattato  del  Flusso  e  Reflusso  del  Mare,"  1589.) 

Raimondi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  Ori- 
entalist, born  at  Cremona  about  1540.  He  was  director 
of  an  establishment  of  Oriental  typography  at  Rome, 
and  printed  in  Arabic  the  Gospels  (1591)  and  Euclid. 
(1594.)     Died  about  1610. 

Raimondi,  (Marcantonio,)  an  excellent  Italian  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna  about  1475,  or,  as  some  say,  in 
1488.  Pie  studied  design  under  Raibolini  called  Francia. 
He  went  to  Rome  about  15 10,  and  formed  a  friendship 
or  acquaintance  with  Raphael,  who  employed  him  to 
engrave  some  of  his  paintings.  He  engraved  for  that 
master  "The  Death  of  Lucretia,"  "The  Judgment  of 
Paris,"  "  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  "  Saint  Ce- 
cilia," "  The  Last  Supper,"  "  Parnassus,"  "  Saint  Paul 
preaching  at  Athens,"  and  other  works.  He  was  the 
first  Italian  engraver  who  acquired  great  celebrity.  He 
was  a  correct  designer,  and  rendered  the  outlines  with 
fidelity.  When  Rome  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the 
army  of  Constable  Bourbon,  in  1527,  Raimondi  lost  his 


property  and  removed  to  Bologna,  where  he  continued 
until  his  death,  which  is  variously  dated  1534  and  1546. 
One  of  his  prints  is  dated  1539. 

Raimondi,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  musical  composer, 
born  at  Rome  in  1786.  He  produced  operas,  ballets, 
oratorios,  and  an  immense  variety  of  minor  pieces,  etc. 
Died  October  30,  1853. 

Raimund,  ri'moont,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  litti- 
rateur,  born  at  Vienna  in  1791,  published  a  number  of 
dramatic  works  and  poems.     Died  in  1836. 

Raimund,  (Golo.)     See  Dannenberg. 

Rainaldi,  ri-nai'dee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Rome  in  i6ix.  He  designed  the  old  Acade- 
mic de  France  at  Rome,  the  church  of  Saint  Agnes,  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  di  Miracoli,  and  that  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Monte  Santo.  The  last  two  are  on  the  Piazza 
del  Popolo  at  Rome.     Died  in  1691. 

Rainaldi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  in 
the  march  of  Ancona  in  1600.  He  published  "  Food 
for  the  Soul,"  ("  Cibo  dell'Anima,"  1637,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1677. 

Rainaldi,  (Girolamo,)  an  architect,  born  at  Rome 
in  1570,  was  the  father  of  Carlo,  noticed  above.  Among 
his  works  were  the  ducal  palace  of  Parma,  and  the 
Palazzo  Pamfili  (or  Pamphili)  at  Rome.     Died  in  1655. 

Rainaldi,  (Oderic.)     See  Rinaldi,  (Oderico.) 

Rainaud.     See  Raynaud. 

Raiue,  ran,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Ovington,  Yorkshire,  in  179X,  became  rector  of  Meldon 
in  1822.  He  published  a  "  Plistory  of  North  Durham," 
(1830-52.)     Died  in  1858. 

Raine,  (Matthew,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  1760, 
became  preacher  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1809.     Died  in  1810. 

Rainer,  ri'ner,  (Joseph  Johann  Michael  Franz 
Hieronymus,)  Archduke  of  Austria,  and  seventh  son 
of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.,  was  born  in  1783.  He 
became  Viceroy  of  Austrian  Italy  in  1818.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  at  Milan  in  1848,  he 
left  Lombardy  for  the  Southern  Tyrol,  where  he  died  in 
1853.  He  had  married  in  1820  Elizabeth,  sister  of 
Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia. 

Rain'fprth,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  soprano-singer, 
born  in  1814.     She  retired  in  1856,  and  died  in  1877. 

Rainolds,  r§n'oldz,  (John,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  near  Exeter  in  1549.  He  was  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford,  and  favoured  the  Puritan  doctrines.  He  was 
one  of  the  persons  who  assisted  in  translating  the  Bible 
into  English  by  order  of  James  I.     Died  in  1607. 

Rainolds,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
became  a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1562.  He 
was  afterwards  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rheims,  France. 
Died  in  1594. 

Rains,  rainz,  (Gabriel  James,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  North  Carolina  in  1803,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1827.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  and  against  the 
Indians,  but  in  1861  joined  the  Confederate  army  as 
brigadier-general.     Died  September  6,  1881. 

Rainssant,  t^n'sSn',  (Pierre,)  a  French  numis- 
matist, born  at  Rheims  about  1640.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  royal  cabinet  of  medals.     Died  in  1689. 

Rais  or  Retz,  de,  deh  rkss,  (Gilles  de  Laval— -deh 
It'vSl',)  Lord,  a  French  baron,  notorious  for  his  prodi- 
gality and  crimes,  was  born  about  1406,  and  inherited  a 
great  estate.  He  entered  the  army,  and  became  a  mar- 
shal of  France  about  the  age  of  twenty-three.  He  was 
accused  of  sorcery  and  of  sacrificing  children  in  dia- 
bolical rites.     He  was  executed  in  1440. 

Raisson,  xk'sbn',  (Horace  Napoleon,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  Napoleon,"  (10  vols.,  1830,)  and  other  works  on 
recent  French  history.     Died  in  1854. 

Raitch,  rS'itch  or  ritch,  a  Servian  historian,  born 
at  Karlovitz  in  1726.  He  published  a  "History  of 
the  Slavonians  and  Servians,"  (4  vols.,  1795.)  Died  in 
1801. 

Rdk6czy,  rS'kot-se,  written  also  Racoczi  and 
Ragotzky,  (Franz  Leopold,)  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
born  near  Patak  in  1676.  He  commanded  the  Hun- 
garian insurgents  who  revolted  against  Austria  in  1703. 
He  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  action  in  170S.  Died  in 
exile  at  Rodosto  in  1735. 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/.-  g,  h,  vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


RAKSHA 


2024 


RALEIGH 


Rak'sha,  or  Rak'sha-sa,  in  Hindoo  mythology  a 
name  given* to  certain  evil  spirits,  hideous,  cruel,  and  mis- 
chievous, who  often  attend  on  Kuvera,  the  god  of  riches. 
They  are  often  of  monstrous  shape,  but  can  assume  any 
form.  They  are  regarded  as  the  enemies  of  everything 
good.  The  name  may  be  allied  to  the  the  Sanscrit  raksh, 
to  "spare,"  (compare  PARCy*:,)  or  to  the  root  of  risk,  to 
"  destroy."     (See  Yaksha.) 

Rile  or  Rasle,  ril,  (S6bastien,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1658.  He  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  the  Indians  of  Canada  in  1689,  and 
laboured  nearly  thirty  years  at  Norridgewock,  on  the 
Kennebec  River.  He  gained  great  influence  over  the 
Indians,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  instigated 
them  to  hostile  acts  against  the  English  colonists  of 
Massachusetts,  who  regarded  him  as  their  worst  enemy. 
He  was  killed  by  a  party  of  English  soldiers  who  sur- 
prised the  village  at  Norridgewock  in  1724. 

See  CoNVERs  Francis,  "  Life  of  Sebastian  Rale." 

Raleigh,  law'le,  (Alexander,)  D.D.,  a  British  divine, 
born  near  Castle  Douglas,  Scotland,  January  3,  1817. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lancashire  Independent  College, 
and  held  various  Congregational  pastorates  in  Scotland 
and  in  London.  He  published  "  The  Story  of  Jonah," 
"The  Little  Sanctuary,"  "Quiet  Resting-Places,"  etc. 
Died  April  19,  1S80. 

Raleigh,  raw'le,  (Carew,)  a  son  of  Sir  Walter,  was 
born  in  the  Tower  of  London  in  1604.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  an  act  was 
passed  to  "  restore  him  in  blood  ;"  but  he  failed  to  obtain 
the  paternal  estate.  He  wrote  a  vindication  of  his  father, 
(1645,)  ^"d  a  "Brief  Relation  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's 
Troubles."  In  1659  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Jersey.     Died  in  1666. 

Raleigh  or  Ralegh,  (Sir  Walter,)  a  famous  English 
navigator,  author,  courtier,  and  commander,  was  born 
at  Hayes,  in  Devonshire,  in  1552.  He  was  a  son  of 
Walter  Raleigh,  Esq.,  and  Catherine  Champernon,  who 
by  a  former  marriage  was  the  mother  of  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert.  He  studied  for  a  short  time  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1569  joined  a  company  of  volunteers, 
with  whom  he  fought  for  the  Huguenots  in  France  for 
five  years.  He  took  part  in  several  great  battles  of  that 
war.  In  1580,  as  commander  of  a  company,  he  served 
with  distinction  against  the  Irish  insurgents.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  gained  the  favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
by  an  act  of  gallantry,  of  which  we  have  no  evidence  but 
tradition.  According  to  this  tradition,  the  queen,  in  her 
progress  from  the  royal  barge  to  the  palace,  came  to  a 
spot  where  the  ground  was  so  wet  that  she  hesitated. 
Raleigh  immediately  covered  the  place  with  his  richly- 
embroidered  cloak,  on  which  she  stepjjed  with  much 
complacency.  It  is  stated  that  he  received  a  grant  of 
twelve  thousand  acres  of  forfeited  land  in  Ireland  soon 
after  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  queen.  One  of  his 
biographers  observes  that  "all  the  more  important  and 
interesting  transactions  and  occurrences  of  his  life  are 
involved  in  obscurity  or  perplexed  with  doubt." 

In  1584  he  obtained  a  royal  patent  investing  him  with 
ample  powers  to  colonize  and  govern  any  territories  he 
might  acquire  in  the  unoccupied  parts  of  North  America. 
An  exploring  party  in  his  service  discovered  in  1584  a 
region  to  which  the  queen  gave  the  name  of  Virginia. 
He  sent  out  in  1585  a  body  of  colonists  who  attempted 
to  settle  on  or  near  Roanoke  Island,  but  failed,  and  re- 
turned before  the  end  of  1586.  He  renewed  the  enter- 
prise in  1587  ;  but  this  colony  did  not  prosper,  and  those 
colonists  who  escaped  disease  and  famine  were  killed 
by  the  natives.  In  1589  he  transferred  his  patent  and 
colonial  privileges  to  a  company  of  merchants.  Accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  he  distinguished  himself  in  several 
contests  with  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588,  and  rendered 
important  services  to  the  queen  as  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  introduction  of  the  potato  and  tobacco  into 
Europe  is  generally  attributed  to  him. 

About  1590  he  became  intimate  with  the  poet  Spenser, 
and  married  privately  a  daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas  Throg- 
morton.  She  was  a  maid  of  honour  to  the  queen,  who 
showed  her  resentment  by  confining  Raleigh  in  the 
Tower  for  several  weeks.  Being  excluded  from  the 
royal  favour   through   his  marriage,  his  ambitious  and 


adventurous  spirit  was  attracted  by  a  project  for  the 
discovery  and  conquest  of  El  Dorado,  a  fabled  paradise 
of  gold-seekers,  which  was  supposed  to  exist  in  South 
America.  He  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  five  vessels  in 
February,  1595,  and  ascended  the  Orinoco  in  boats  about 
sixty  leagues,  but  his  farther  progress  is  said  to  have 
been  prevented  by  the  sudden  rise  of  the  water.  Having 
returned  to  England  before  the  end  of  1595)  he  published 
a  rather  fabulous  narrative,  entitled  "The  Discovery  of 
the  Large,  Rich,  and  Beautiful  Empire  of  Guiana." 

Raleigh  was  restored  to  the  royal  favour  soon  after 
his  return,  and  served  as  rear-admiral  at  the  capture 
of  Cadiz,  in  1596,  to  which  his  skill  greatly  contributed. 
He  had  the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  which  took  Fayal 
in  1597.  He  was  appointed  Captain  of  the  Guard  and 
Governor  of  Jersey  about  1597.  It  is  stated  by  some  of 
his  biographers  that  he  received  large  sums  of  money 
from  the  condemned  partisans  of  the  Earl  of  Essex,  who 
liribed  him  to  intercede  for  them  with  the  queen.  The 
death  of  Elizabeth  terminated  the  prosperity  of  Raleigh, 
who  had  rendered  himself  very  unpopular  by  his  enmity 
to  Essex  and  perhaps  by  his  habitual  haughty  demeanour. 
It  appears  that  James  I.  was  prejudiced  against  him  by 
the  insinuations  of  his  rival  Cecil.  Accused  of  com- 
plicity in  Lord  Cobham's  treason.  Sir  Walter  was 
arrested  in  July,  1602,  and  convicted,  without  sufficient 
proof,  in  1603.  During  his  trial  the  public  sentiment 
was  converted  from  hostility  to  warm  sympathy  and 
admiration. 

In  expectation  of  a  speedy  death,  he  wrote  to  his  wife 
an  affecting  letter,  which  is  praised  by  William  Penn. 
Near  the  close  of  it  he  writes  thus  :  "  I  can  say  no 
more  :  Time  and  Death  call  me  away.  The  everlasting 
God,  powerful,  infinite,  and  inscrutable,  God  Almighty, 
who  is  goodness  itself,  the  true  light  and  life,  keep  thee 
and  thine,  have  mercy  on  me,  and  send  us  to  meet  in  his 
glorious  kingdom."  He  was,  however,  reprieved,  and 
confined  in  the  Tower,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years 
and  wrote  his  chief  work,  "The  History  of  the  World," 
(from  the  creation  to  the  year  150  B.C.)  "The  Greek 
and  Roman  story,"  says  Hallam,  "is  told  more  fully  and 
exactly  than  by  any  earlier  English  writer,  and  with  a 
plain  eloquence  which  has  given  this  book  a  classical 
re]3utation  in  our  language."  Another  eminent  critic 
(H'jme)  pronounces  Raleigh  "the  best  model  of  our 
ancient  style."  He  wrote  several  short  poems,  which  are 
admired. 

In  161 5  he  obtained  his  release  by  bribery  and  by  an 
offer  to  open  a  mine  of  gold  in  Guiana.  He  conducted 
a  fleet  of  thirteen  vessels  to  Guiana  in  1617,  and  sent  an 
exploring  party  up  the  Orinoco.  They  encountered  at 
Saint  Thomas  a  body  of  Spaniards,  in  a  fight  with  whom 
Raleigh's  son  Walter  was  killed  ;  but  their  search  for 
the  gold-mine  was  unsuccessful.  Raleigh  sailed  for  New- 
foundland, intending  to  refit  and  to  obtain  provisions  ; 
but  he  was  forced  by  his  mutinous  crew  to  return  to 
England,  where  he  arrived  in  July,  1618.  He  was  soon 
after  arrested,  and  a  demand  was  made  by  the  Spanish 
court  that  he  should  be  punished  for  the  attack  on  Saint 
Thomas.  The  king  at  that  time  courted  the  alliance  of 
the  Spanish  monarch,  and  sacrificed  the  required  victim 
to  promote  his  policy.  He  resolved  to  execute  the 
sentence  which  had  been  passed  on  him  in  1603,  and 
for  which  pardon  had  never  been  granted.  Raleigh  was 
beheaded  in  October,  1618.  His  stature  was  tall,  his 
features  handsome,  and  his  presence  imposing.  Hia 
moral  character  seems  to  have  been  deformed  by  several 
vices.  Impartial  writers  agree  that  truth  and  probity 
were  not  always  his  guiding  principles. 

"The  name  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  says  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review,"  "is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most 
renowned  and  attractive,  and,  in  some  respects,  the  most 
remarkable,  in  English  story.  .  .  .  His  mind  presents  a 
surprising  union  of  strength  and  versatility,  of  intellect- 
ual and  practical  power,  and  of  an  observing,  reflective, 
and  philosophical  with  a  highly  imaginative  or  poetical 
temperament." 

An  able  French  critic  and  geographer,  M.  Walckenaer, 
defends  Raleigh  from  the  charge  of  falsehood  and  ex- 
aggeration:  "The  details  which  he  has  published  on 
his  voyage  [to  Guiana  in   1595]  include  nothing  which 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y, /fl«<^,'i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,s/inr(;  .a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  far,  fill,  ri\t;  met;  iiAt;  good:  moon 


RALPH 


2025 


RAMEL 


has  not  been  confirmed  by  suDsequent  explorers  :  thej 
are  definite,  exact,  important,  and  do  honour  to  his 
sagacity  as  well  as  his  truthfulness." 

See  Macvey  Napier,  "  Lord  Bacrin  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh," 
1853;  Edward  Edwards,  "Life  of  Raleigh,"  1S68;  Arthur  Cay- 
ley,  "Life  of  Sir  W.  Raleigh,"  1805  ;  W.  Oldys,  "Life  of  Sir  W. 
Raleigh,"  1740;  Mrs.  A.  T.  Thomson,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir 
W.  Raleigh,"  1830  ;  P.  Fraser  Tytler,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Raleigh," 
etc.,  1833;  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845;  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Ad- 
mirals;" De  Thou,  "  Histoire  universelle;"  Hume,  "History  of 
England,"  particularly  chaps,  xlv.  and  xlviii'.  ;  Gardiner,  "  History 
of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chap.  ii.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  April,  1840;    "Eraser's   Magazine"  for   July,   1832. 

Ralph  OF  EscuRES,  an  English  prelate,  who  was 
elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  11 14.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  for  learning  and  virtue.     Died  in  1122. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  iv. 

Ralph,  (James,)  an  English  pamphleteer  and  poetas- 
ter, born  at  Philadelphia.  He  emigrated  to  England 
in  1725  in  company  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  pub- 
lished a  poem  on  "Night"  in  1728,  which  was  ridiculed 
by  Pope  in  these  lines  of  the  "Dunciad  :" 

"  Silence,  ye  wolves,  while  Ralph  to  Cynthia  howls 
And  makes  night  hideous ;  answer  him,  ye  owls  I" 

He  afterwards  wrote  several  dramas  and  political  pam- 
phlets. His  continuation  of  Guthrie's  "  History  of 
England"  (2  vols.,  1744-46)  is  a  work  of  some  value. 
Died  in  1762. 

Ralston,  rawKston,  (William  Ralston  Shedden,) 
an  English  author,  born  in  1828.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  an  assistant  librarian  in 
the  British  Museum,  1853-75,  and  devoted  himself  largely 
to  Russian  literature.  He  published  "  Kriloff  and  his 
Fables,"  (1869,)  "  Liza,"  (1869,  a  translation  of  his  friend 
Turgeneffs  novel  "  Dvoryanskoe  Gnyezdo,")  "  Songs 
of  the  Russian  People,"  "  Russian  Folk-Tales,"  and 
"Early  History  of  Russia."     Died  August  8,  1889. 

R3m.     See  RAma. 

Ram,  de,  deh  r6N,  (Pierre  FRANgois  Xavier,)  a 
Belgian  historian,  born  at  Louvain  in  1804,  published  "  Sy- 
nodicon  Belgicum,"  (1828-5S,)  etc.     Died  in  1865. 

R^ma,  rS'ma,  often  called  R&m  (rSm)  by  the  modern 
Hindoos,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "  pleasing,"  "dear," 
"beloved,"  from  the  verb  ram,  to  "play,]  called  also 
RSma  Chandra,  (chiin'dra,)  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
the  name  of  the  seventh  avatar  of  Vishnu,  who  on  this 
occasion  appeared  as  a  great  hero  and  warrior.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that,  with  the  exception  of  Krishna, 
this  is  the  most  glorious  of  all  the  manifestations  of  the 
preserving  deity.  The  great  Hindoo  epic  entitled  Ra- 
mayana  (rl-m^'ya-na)  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the  ad- 
ventures and  exploits  of  Rama  and  his  famous  minister 
Hanuman,  the  monkey  king.  The  consort  of  Rama  was 
Sita,  (see'tl,)  eminent  for  her  purity  and  other  virtues. 
Her  deliverance  from  the  power  of  the  great  giant  Ra- 
vana,  and  the  triumphant  issue  of  the  ordeal  by  fire,  by 
which  her  perfect  virtue  was  completely  established,  form 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  great  poem 
or  romance  above  named.  They  are  also  among  the 
most  popular  subjects  for  pictures  among  the  Hindoos. 

Ramage,  ram'ej,  (Adam,)  a  distinguished  mechani- 
cian, born  in  Scotland  in  1770,  settled  in  America.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  a  printing-press  called  by  his  name. 
Died  in  1850. 

Ramage,  (Craufurd  Tait,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  litte- 
raUur,  born  near  Newhaven,  September  10,  1803.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  compiled 
and  edited  various  works.     Died  November  29,  1S78. 

Ramann,  ra'm3.n,  (Lina,)  a  German  musician,  born 
at  Mainstockham,  in  Bavaria,  June  24,  1833.  She  has 
earned  considerable  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  music  and 
as  a  voluminous  writer  on  musical  subjects. 

Ramanuja  or  Raraanoudja,  ri-ma-noo'ja,  a  Hindoo 
philosopher,  a  votary  of  Yishnu  and  adversary  of  Bood- 
dhism.   He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  tenth  century. 

Ramayana.     See  Ra.ma,  and  Valmiki. 

Ramazzini,  rl-m3.t-see'nee,  (Bernardo  or  Bernar- 
dino,) an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Carpi  in 
1633.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Modena 
about  1680,  and  removed  to  Padua  in  1700.  He  ob- 
tained the  first  chair  of  medicine  at  Padua  in  1708.     He 


wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  popular  treatise  "  On  the 
Diseases  of  Artisans,"  ("  De  Morbis  Artificum,"  1701,) 
which  was  often  reprinted,  and  was  translated  into 
French  by  Fourcroy.     Died  in  1 7 14. 

See  Ettmuller,  "Vie  de  B.  Ramazzini,"  1711;  a  "Memoir  of 
Ramazzini,"  prefixed  to  his  collected  works  ("Opera  Omnia")  by 
his  nephew,  Bart.  Ramazzini,  London,  1716;  Fabroni,  "Vitaa 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Niceron,  "Mi^moires." 

Rambaldi,  rSm-bll'dee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  paintei 
of  history,  born  at  Bologna  in  1680  ;  died  in  1717. 

Ramberg,  rdm^bgRG,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Hanover  in  1763,  studied 
in  London  under  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  court  painter  at  Hanover.  He  excelled 
in  caricature,  and  produced,  among  other  works,  illus- 
trations of  "  Reineke  Fuchs."     Died  in  1840. 

Ram'bha'  or  Rem'bha',  [modern  Hindoo  pron. 
rumb'hl',]  sometimes  incorrectly  written  Rhemba,  [ety- 
mology obscure,]  the  name,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
of  a  famous  Apsara,  produced  by  the  churning  of  the 
ocean.  (See  Apsara  and  Kurma.)  Rambha  is  some- 
times identified  with  Lakshmi. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Rambouillet,  de,  deh  rSN'boo'yi',  (Catherine  de 
Vivonne — deh  ve'von',)  Marquise,  a  French  lady, 
born  in  1588,  became  mistress  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet^ 
in  which  she  presided  over  a  celebrated  reunion  of  the 
elite  of  Paris,  the  first  which  in  France  united  the  aris- 
tocracy of  rank  and  of  genius  in  one  circle.  Her  house 
was  frequented  by  Malherbe,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Voiture, 
Balzac,  Corneille,  and  many  other  literati  of  successive 
generations.  The  court  over  which  she  presided  was 
recognized  as  the  arbiter  of  taste  and  propriety  in 
language,  manners,  etc.  Died  in  1665.  Her  daughter, 
Julia  d'Angennes,  (dftN'zhSn',)  was  celebrated  for 
her  beauty  and  accomplishments.  She  was  married  to 
the  Duke  of  Montausier.     (See  Montausier.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rambour,  rSN'booR',  (Abraham,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Sedan  about  1590.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Sedan  in  1620,  and  published 
several  works.     Died  in  1651. 

Rambuteau,  de,  deh  rSN'bii'to',  (Claude  Philibert 
Barthelot — blRt'lo',)  Count,  a  French  administrator, 
born  at  Charnay  in  1781.  He  was  prefect  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine  from  1833  to  1848.     Died  April  23,  1869. 

Rameau,  rt'mo',  (  Jean  Philippe,  )  a  celebrated 
French  composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  at 
Dijon  in  October,  1683.  He  received  his  first  lessons 
in  music  from  his  father,  and  visited  Milan  in  1701, 
Having  joined  a  company  of  itinerant  actors  or  singers, 
he  performed  on  the  violin  in  various  cities  of  France. 
He  became  organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Clermont  (Au- 
vergne)  about  17 18,  and  settled  in  Paris  in  1722.  lie 
established  his  reputation  as  a  theorist  by  a  "  Treatise 
on  Harmony,"  (1722,)  and  "New  System  of  Theoretic 
Music,"  (1726,)  in  which  he  developed  his  theory  of 
basse  fondamentale.  In  1733  he  composed  the  music 
of  the  opera  "  Hippolyte  et  Aricie,"  which  was  very 
successful  and  produced  a  great  excitement  in  the 
musical  world.  The  partisans  of  LuUi  were  indignant 
at  the  innovations  of  Rameau.  He  produced  in  1737 
the  opera  of  "Castor  and  Pollu.x,"  which  is  called  his 
master-piece.  Among  his  numerous  operas  are  "  Dar- 
danus,"  (1739,)  and  "Zoroaster,"  (1749.)     Died  in  1764. 

See  Maret,  "  filoge  historique  de  Rameau,"  1766  ;  F^Tis,  "  Bio- 
graphie Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n#- 
rale." 

Ram^e,  rt'mV,  (Daniel,)  an  architect,  born  at  Ham- 
burg in  1806,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Jacques,  noticed  below. 
He  restored  the  cathedrals  of  Noyon,  Senlis,  and  Bean- 
vais.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of  the  History  of  Archi- 
tecture," (2  vols.,  1843,)  and  other  works.      Died  1887. 

Ramee,  (Joseph  Jacques,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Charlemont  in  1764.  He  designed  the  Exchange  of 
Hamburg,  and  Union  College,  at  Schenectady,  in  the 
United  States.     Died  near  Noyon  in  1842. 

Ramee,  La.     See  Ramus. 

Ramel.    See  Nogaret,  de,  (Jacques.; 

Ramel,  rt'm§l',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Cahors  in  1768,  was  assassinated  in  August,  181 5, 
at  Toulouse,  of  which  he  was  then  the  commandant. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  o,  h,  K,g7ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     ({J^^See  Explarations,  p.  2T,.\ 


RAMELLT 


RAMSA  V 


Ramelli,  rS-niel'lee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Milan  about  1530,  served  as  engineer  in 
the  army  of  Charles  V.     Died  in  1590. 

Ramelli,  (Felice,)  an  Italian  priest  and  painter  in 
miniature,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1666.  He  worked  at 
Rome.     Died  in  1740. 

Ramenghi.     See  Bagnacavallo. 

Ram'e-ses,  Ram'sei,  or  Ra-ines'ses,  (i.e.,  "rising 
sun.")  The  name  of  thirteen  Egyptian  monarclis. 
Rameses  I.,  the  first  king  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty, 
lived,  according  to  Lepsius  and  Mariette,  in  the  fifteenth 
century  B.C.  Rameses  II.,  his  grandson,  was  the  great- 
est of  the  Egyptian  kings.  He  conquered  Ethiopia, 
defeated  the  Hittite  confederates,  captured  Jerusalem, 
and  reigned  sixty-si.x  years  at  Thebes,  where  his  mummy 
was  discovered  in  1881.  Rameses  HI.,  the  second  king 
of  the  twentieth  dynasty,  was  also  a  ruler  of  great  mag- 
nificence and  a  far-conquering  soldier.  The  other  kings 
of  this  name  were  comparatively  unimportant.  Rameses 
XIII.,  the  last  of  them,  died  about  1000  B.C. 

Ramey,  rt'mi^  (Claude,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1754.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1782. 
Among  his  works  are  statues  of  Napoleon  and  Riche- 
lieu. Died  in  Paris  in  1838.  His  son,  £tienne  Jules, 
born  in  1796,  was  also  a  successful  sculptor.  He  adorned 
tHe  Louvre  with  several  works,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  Institute  in  1829.     Died  in  1852. 

Ramirez,  ri-mee'r§th,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1624  ;  died  in  1692. 

Ramiro  (ri-mee'io)  I.,  King  of  Asturias,  was  a  son 
of  Bermudez.  He  began  to  reign  in  842  A.D.,  and 
defeated  the  Normans  in  843.     Died  in  850. 

Ramiro  II.,  King  of  Asturias  and  Leon,  began  to 
reign  about  930  a.d.  He  defeated  a  large  army  of  the 
raliph  Abderrahman  HI.  in  939  A.D.  on  the  plain  of 
Simancas.     Died  in  950  a.d. 

Ramler,  rdm'ler,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Kolberg,  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  in  1725.  He  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Berlin.  His 
works  are  chiefly  lyrics,  and  are  remarkable  for  elegance 
of  language.  His  "  Death  of  Jesus,"  one  of  his  most 
esteemed  pieces,  was  set  to  music  by  Graun.  He  also 
translated  Horace,  Martial,  Catullus,  and  Sappho's  odes. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1798. 

See  Heinsius,  "  Biographische  Skizze  Ramlers,"  179S  ;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Gervinus.  "  Geschichte 
der  Deutsclien  Dichtiing:"  Hirsching,  "  Historisch-literarisches 
Handbuch  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ram'mo-hiin' Roy,  (Rajah,)  also  called  RAjA  Rdm 
Mohaii  Rai,  a  Hindoo  reformer  and  linguist,  was  born 
near  Burdwan,  in  Bengal,  in  1772.  His  parents  were 
Brahmans  of  high  rank.  He  was  master  of  Sanscrit, 
Persian,  Arabic,  Hindostanee,  and  English.  At  an  early 
age  he  renounced  the  Brahmanical  religion.  He  believed 
in  Christ  as  a  divine  teacher,  but  held  Arian  or  Unitarian 
views.  He  wrote  several  works  against  the  prevailing 
superstitions  of  India,  and  published  in  1820  "The  Pre- 
cepts of  Jesus  the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness,"  which 
consists  of  selections  from  the  New  Testament.  In  1830 
he  founded  a  society  which  was  afterwards  developed 
into  the  famous  Brahmo  Somaj,  (or  Brahma  Samaj.)  In 
the  same  year  he  was  sent  by  the  King  of  Delhi  as 
ambassador  to  London.     Died  near  Bristol  in  1833. 

See  Lant  Carpenter,  "  Review  of  the  Labours,  Opinions,  and 
Character  of  Ramniohun  Roy  ;"  "  Last  Days  in  England  of  the 
Rajah  Rammohun  Roy,"  edited  by  Maky  Carpenter,  London, 
1867;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1818. 

Ramond  de  Carbonnieres,  rt'm6N'  deh  klR'bo'- 
ne-aiR',  ( Louis  FRANgois, )  Baron,  a  distinguished 
French  savant  and  politician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1755. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791, 
and  sat  in  the  corps  U^^slatif  {xom.  1800  to  1806.  He 
wrote  several  able  scientific  and  descriptive  works, 
among  which  is  "Travels  in  the  Pyrenees,"  (1801,) 
which  treats  of  geology,  etc.  Died  in  1827.  Cuvier 
wrote  a  eulogy  on  him. 

Ramondini,  ri-mon-dee'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Messina  in  1758,  was  professor  at 
Naples.     Died  in  181 1. 

Ramorino.    See  Remorino. 

Ramos,  ri'mis,  (Enrique,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born 
at  Alicante  in  1738,  was  an  officer  of  the  army.     He 


wrote  successful  tragedies,  named  "Guzman,"  (17S0,) 
and  "  Pelagius"  or  "  Pelayo,"  (1784.)     Died  in  1801. 

R^mpalle,  rSN'ptl',  (N.,)  a  French  poet,  whom  Boi- 
leau,  in  his  "  Art  Poetique,"  mentions  among  authors 
who  were  no  longer  read  in  his  time.     Died  about  1660. 

Rampen,  rSm'pen,  (Hendrik,)  a  Flemish  theologian, 
born  at  Hui  in  1572  ;  died  at  Louvain  in  1641. 

Rampinelli,  rdm-pe-nel'lee,  (Ramiro,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Brescia  in  1697  ;  died  at  Milan 
in  1759. 

Rampon,  rdN'p6N',  (Antoine  Guillaume,)  Count, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Saint-Fortunat  (Ard^che)  in 
1759.  He  distinguished  himself  as  general  of  brigade 
at  Montenotte,  Roveredo,  and  Areola,  (1796.)  For  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  and  in  Syria  he 
was  made  general  of  division  in  1800.     Died  in  1842. 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (Alexander,)  born  in  England 
about  1760,  emigrated  to  America,  where  he  died  in 
1824.  He  published  an  "  Anatomy  of  the  Heart,  Brain, 
etc.,"(i8i3.) 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (Allan,)  a  distinguished  Scottisn 
poet,  born  of  poor  parents  in  Lanarkshire  in  1685.  He 
was  successively  a  barber  and  bookseller  in  Edinburgh. 
He  published  in  1721  a  volume  of  poems,  which  were 
well  received.  His  principal  work  is  a  pastoral  poem 
called  "The  Gentle  Shepherd,"  (1729,)  which  has  been 
greatly  admired.     Died  in  1758. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  British  Poets;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1762. 

Ramsay,  (Allan,)  a  portrait-painter,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1713.  He  became 
principal  painter  to  George  III.  in  1767,  and  surpassed 
most  of  his  British  contemporaries  in  his  art.  He  wrote 
several  political  tracts,  and  visited  Rome  four  times. 
On  his  return  from  his  last  journey  he  died  at  Dover,  in 
17S4,  leaving  a  son,  who  became  a  general  in  the  army. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 

Ramsay,  (Sir  Andrew  Crombie,)  a  Scottish  geolo- 
gist, born  at  Glasgow,  January  31,  1814.  In  1S41  he 
went  upon  the  British  geological  survey,  of  which  he  was 
made  director  in  1845  and  director-general  in  1S72.  In 
1S48  he  became  professor  of  geology  in  University  Col- 
lege, London,  and  in  1S51  took  the  geological  chair  in 
the  School  of  Mines.  He  is  author  of  several  works, 
chiefly  on  British  geography. 

Ramsay,  [Fr.  pron.  rSN'zi',]  (Andrew  Michael,) 
called  Chevalier  Ramsay,  was  born  at  Ayr,  in  Scot- 
land, in  1686.  He  was  converted  by  Fenelon  from 
skepticism  to  Roman  Catholicism  about  1709,  and  be- 
came tutor  to  the  Prince  de  Turenne.  He  acquired 
distinction  by  his  writings,  which  are  in  French  and 
are  admired  for  purity  of  style.  His  chief  works  are 
"Travels  of  Cyrus,"  ("Voyages  de  Cyrus,"  1727,)  which 
is  an  imitation  of  Fenelon's  "Telemachus,"  a  valuable 
"Life  of  Fenelon,"  (1723,)  and  a  "Life  of  Turenne," 
(1735.)     Died  in  France  in  1743. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  :" 
"  Biographia  Britannica." 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (David,)  an  American  historian  and 
physician,  born  in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1749.  Having  graduated  in  1765  at  Princeton  College, 
he  studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia  under  Dr.  Rush. 
He  soon  after  removed  to  Charleston,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1782 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  published 
in  1785  his  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  South  Caro- 
lina," wliich  was  followed  in  1790  by  the  "History  of 
the  American  Revolution."  His  "Life  of  Washington" 
appeared  in  1801.  He  also  wrote  a  "  Eulogium  on  Dr. 
Rush,"  and  other  works  on  various  subjects.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  by  a  lunatic  in  the  streets  of  Charles 
ton  in  1815.  His  work  entitled  "Universal  History 
Americanized"  was  published  after  his  death.  He  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  Martha  Laurens  Ramsay." 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans, 
vol.  iii. ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ramsay,  (Edward  Bannerman,)  a  Scottish  writer, 
born  about  1793.  He  became  an  Episcopal  minister  in 
Edinburgh  in  1830.  Among  his  works  are  "Reminis- 
cences of   Scottish   Life   and   Character,"   (1857,)   and 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsaire;  fdr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon- 


RAMS  A  Y 


2027 


RANDOLPH 


•'Thomas  Chalmers,  D.D..  a  Biographical  Notice," 
(1867.)     Died  December  27,  1872. 

Ramsay,  (George  and  James.)     See  Dalhousie. 

Ramsay,  (James,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, Scotland,  in  1733.  He  published  Sermons,  and 
other  works.     Died  in  17S9. 

Ramsay,  (William,)  an  eminent  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1806.  He  became  professor  of 
humanity  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1831,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Manual  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (1851.)  He  was  one  of  the  principal  con- 
tributors to  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography."     Died  in  1865. 

Rams'den,  (Jesse,)  an  eminent  English  optician  and 
maker  of  astronomical  instruments,  was  born  neai 
Halifax,  Yorkshire,  in  1735.  He  settled  in  London 
about  1755,  married  a  daughter  of  Mr.  DoUond,  and 
became  master  of  a  manufactory  of  instruments  about 
1764.  He  improved  the  sextant,  and  invented  a  dividing 
machine  for  the  graduation  of  instruments,  for  which  he 
received  a  premium  of  six  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds 
from  the  board  of  longitude  in  1777.  Among  his  re- 
markable productions  were  telescopes  erected  at  the 
Observatories  of  Blenlieim,  Paris,  Gotha,  and  Dublin. 
He  improved  the  theodolite,  equatorial,  micrometer, 
barometer,  etc.  He  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1786.     Died  at  Brighton  in  1800. 

See  Thomson,  "  Histoiy  of  the  Royal  Society;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Ramses.     See  Rameses. 

Ramus,  rt'miis',  (Joseph  Marius,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Aix  in  1805.  He  obtained  a  first  medal  in 
1839.     His  works  are  praised  for  elevation  of  style. 

Ramus,  rt'miis',  (Peter,)  or  Pierre  de  la  Ra- 
taee,  pe-aiR'  deh  it  rt'mi',  a  French  philosopher  and 
classical  scholar,  born  in  Vermandois  in  15 15'  o'"'  ^* 
others  say,  in  1502.  He  was  a  son  of  poor  parents, 
who  employed  him  to  tend  sheep  in  his  boyhood. 
Prompted  by  a  thirst  of  knowledge,  he  ran  away  from 
home  and  entered  the  College  of  Navarre,  in  Paris,  as 
a  servant.  He  showed  his  independence  of  mind  at 
college  by  writing  a  thesis  to  prove  that  Aristotle  was 
not  infallible.  He  incurred  much  persecution  from  the 
partisans  of  Aristotle,  and  was  accused  of  impiety.  In 
1543  he  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Logic,"  which  ob- 
tained great  success.  He  was  appointed  by  the  king 
professor  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  in  the  College  of 
France  in  1551.  About  1562  he  avowed  his  attachment 
to  the  Reformed  religion.  He  published  many  works 
on  grammar,  mathematics,  philosophy,  theology,  etc., 
among  which  is  "  Dialectique,"  (1555.)  His  disciples, 
called  Ramists,  were  numerous  in  France  and  England. 
He  perished  in  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  at 
Paris,  in  1572.    He  is  called  the  precursor  of  Descartes. 

See  Waddington,  "  Ramus,  sa  Vie,  ses  ficrits  et  ses  Opinions," 
■.85s  ;  Lentz,  "  Historia  P.  Rami,"  1713  ;  Tennemann,  "Geschichte 
der  Philosophie ;"  Breithaupt,  "Dissertatio  de  tribus  Logicae 
Restauratnribus,  Ramo,  Verulamio  et  Caitesio,"  1712  ;  E.  Saisset, 
"  Les  Pr^curseurs  de  Descartes,"  1862;  Bayle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Niceron,  "Mdmoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographiei 
Generale." 

Ramusio,  ri-moo'se-o,  or  Ranuusio,  rSn-noo'se-o, 
(GiAMBATTiSTA,)  an  Italian  compiler  and  translator, 
was  born  at  Treviso  in  1485.  He  was  for  many  years 
secretary  to  the  Venetian  Council  of  Ten.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  collection  of  narratives  of  voyages  and 
discoveries  made  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  entitled 
"Collection  of  Navigations  and  Journeys,"  ("  Raccolta 
di  Navigazioni  e  Viaggi,"  3  vols.,  1550-59.)  He  trans- 
lated into  Italian  those  narratives  which  were  written  in 
other  languages,  and  inserted  some  prefaces  and  dis- 
courses written  by  himself.     Died  in  1557. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Menioires;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana ;"  De  Thou,  "  filoges." 

Ran.    See  CEgir. 

Ranc,  r6N,  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1674.  He  was  patronized  by  Philip  V.  of 
Spain.     Died  at  Madrid  in  1735. 

Ranee,  de,  deh  rfiN'si',  (Armand  Jean  le  Bouthil- 
lier — leh  boo'te'ye-i/,)  a  French  abbe,  born  in  Paris  in 
1627,  was  noted  as  the  reformer  of  the  monks  of  La 
Trappe.     He   subjected   them   to  the  practice  of  great 


austerities  and  the  endurance  of  extreme  privations. 
His  followers  are  called  "Trappists  of  the  Ranee  re- 
form."    Died  in  1700. 

See  Lk  Nain  dk  Tili.emont,  "Vie  de  Ranee,"  1719;  Marsol- 
itF.K,  "Vie  de  I'Abb^  de  Ranc<5,"  1703;  Chateaubriand,  "Vie  de 
kaiici^,"  1844;  Charles  Butler,  "Lives  of  A.  J.  le  Bouthillier, 
Thomas  a  Kenipis,"  etc. 

Ranchin,  rSN'shiN',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1564;  died  in  1641. 

Ranconet,  de,  deh  rSw'ko'ni',  (Aimar,)  a  learned 
French  jurist,  born  at  Perigueux  about  1498,  was  a 
Greek  and  Latin  scholar.  He  wrote  "Treasure  of  the 
French  Language,"  ("  Tresor  de  la  Langue  Fran9aise," 
1606.)     Died  at  Paris  in  1559. 

Rand,  (Edward  Sprague,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  October  20,  1834.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1855,  and  at  the  Dane  Law 
School  in  1857.  Besides  a  volume  of  poems,  (1859,)  he 
published  "  Flowers  for  the  Parlor  and  Garden,"  "  Garden 
Flowers,"  "Greenhouse  Plants,"  "Orchids,"  etc. 

Randa,  rJn'di,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna,  painted  sacred  history.     Died  in  1650. 

Ran'dall,  (George  Maxwell,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Warren,  Rhode  Island,  November  23, 
1810,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1835,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in  1838.  In 
1839  he  was  ordained  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  in  1865  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Colo- 
rado.    Died  at  Denver,  September  28,  1873. 

Randall,  (James  Ryder,)  an  American  journalist  and 
poet,  born  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  January  i,  1839.  His 
spirited  lyric  "  My  Maryland,"  written  in  1861,  was  very 
popular  during  the  civil  war. 

Ran'dall,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Bucks. 
He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in 
1587,  after  which  he  preached  in  London.  He  pub- 
lished Sermons  and  other  works.     Died  in  1622. 

Randall,  (Samuel  Jackson,)  an  American  Demo- 
cratic statesman,  born  in  Philadelphia,  October  10,  1828. 
He  enlisted  in  the  Federal  army  in  the  civil  war,  and 
was  chosen  to  Congress  in  1862,  after  which  time  he  was 
constantly  re-elected  until  his  death.  He  was  Speaker 
of  the  House  from  1876  to  1882.     Died  April  13,  1890. 

Randall,  (Samuel  S.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
author,  born  at  Norwich,  New  York,  May  27,  1809.  He 
was  educated  at  Hamilton  College.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  prominent  officer  of  the  public  school  systems 
of  New  York  city,  of  Brooklyn,  and  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  Among  his  works  are  "  Mental  and  Moral 
Culture,"  (1844,)  "Digest  and  Code  of  the  Educational 
Laws  of  New  York,"  (1851,)  "Popular  Education," 
(1S68,)  "  History  of  the  School  System  of  New  York," 
(1871,)  "Conduct  and  Character,"  a  series  of  school 
reading-books,  etc.     Died  in  New  York,  June  3,  1881. 

Raudi,  rin'dee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born 
at  Bagnacavallo,  June  12,  1818,  in  1875  was  created  a 
cardinal-deacon. 

Ran'dolph,  (Alfred  Magill,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Winchester,  Virginia,  August  31,  1836. 
He  graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1855,  and 
at  the  Virginia  Theological  Seminary  in  1858.  He  took 
orders  as  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  i860. 
In  1883  he  was  consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of  Virginia. 

Ran'dolph,  (Edmund,)  a  son  of  John  Randolph, 
(who  left  the  country  with  Lord  Dunmore  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolution,)  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia 
in  1786,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
formed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787.  In  1789  he  was 
appointed  attorney-general.  He  was  a  political  friend 
of  Jefferson,  whom  he  succeeded  as  secretary  of  state  in 
January,  1794.  Having  been  accused  of  bribery  and  a 
corrupt  intrigue  on  the  evidence  of  an  intercepted  de- 
spatch from  Fauchet,  the  French  envoy,  he  resigned  in 
August,  1795,  and  published  a  vindication  of  his  course. 
Died  in  1813. 

Randolph,  (George  W.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  King  George  county,  Virginia,  March  10,  18 18, 
was  a  son  of  Governor  Thomas  M.  Randolph.  He  was 
a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war,  took  arms  against  the 
Union  in  1861,  and  became  a  brigadier-general.  He 
was  secretary  of  war  of  the  Confederate  States  from 
March  to  November,  1862.     Died  April  10,  1878. 


€  as  k;  9 as  s;  g hard;  g as  /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


RANDOLPH 


2028 


RANKINh 


Ran'dolph,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  \\\  1749, 
was  a  son  of  Thomas,  (1701-83.)  lie  became  Bishop 
of  Oxford  in  1799,  of  Bangor  in  1807,  and  of  London 
(or  York)  in  1809.     Died  in  1813. 

Randolph,  (John,)  of  Roanoke,  an  American  orator, 
born  at  Cawsons,  in  Chesterfield  county,  Virginia,  in 
June,  1773,  was  a  son  of  John  Randolph.  He  claimed  to 
be  a  descendant  of  Pocahontas  the  Indian  princess.  He 
studied  at  Princeton  and  Columbia  College,  New  York, 
for  short  periods.  In  1799  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  to  represent  the  Charlotte  district.  He_  was 
a  Democrat,  a  partisan  of  State  rights,  and  a  political 
friend  of  Jefferson.  He  was  re-elected  many  times  to 
Congress,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  debater. 
About  the  end  of  1804  he  was  appointed  chief  manager 
to  conduct  the  trial  of  Judge  Chase,  who  was  impeached 
before  the  Senate.  He  became  estranged  from  Jefferson 
about  1806,  separated  from  his  political  associates,  tried 
to  defeat  the  election  of  Madison,  and  opposed  the  war 
of  1812.  He  was  defeated  at  the  next  election,  (1813,) 
but  was  again  elected  in  1814  or  1815.  He  opposed  the 
charter  of  the  United  States  Bank  in  1816.  la  a  letter 
dated  September,  1818,  he  says,  "  When  I  speak  of  my 
country,  I  mean  the  commonwealth  of  Virginia."  He 
spoke  against  the  Missouri  Compromise  bill  of  1820, 
because  it  prohibited  the  extension  of  slavery  north  of 
the  line  36°  30'.  At  the  same  time  he  stigmatized  the 
Northern  members  who  voted  for  it  as  "dough-faces," 
a  term  which  has  since  come  into  general  use  in  the 
United  States.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  December,  1824,  to  fill  a  vacancy  for  two  years. 
In  a  speech  against  the  President  in  1826,  he  insulted 
Mr.  Clay  by  allusion  to  a  "  combination  of  the  Puritan 
with  the' blackleg."  His  apologist  Garland  admits  that 
"he  indulged  in  language  of  the  grossest  personal  in- 
sult." He  was  challenged  by  Mr.  Clay,  and  a  duel  ensued. 
Randolph's  pistol  went  off  before  the  word,  Clay  fired 
without  effect,  and  his  adversary  then  threw  away  his 
fire.  He  was  defeated  in  the  election  of  Senator  in  1827. 
In  a  letter  dated  May  27,  1828,  he  wrote,  "  The  country 
is  ruined,  thanks  to  Mr.  Jefferson  and  Mr.  Ritchie."  He 
supported  General  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828, 
and  was  appointed  minister  to  Russia  in  1830.  He  re- 
turned home,  in  very  feeble  health,  in  the  autumn  of  1831. 
He  sympathized  with  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina, 
and  in  December,  1832,  denounced  the  proclamation  of 
President  Jackson,  which  he  called  "  the  ferocious  and 
bloodthirsty  proclamation  of  our  Djezzar  Pacha."  He 
died,  in  1833,  in  Philadelphia,  to  which  he  went  to  take 
passage  for  Europe.  He  was  never  married.  He  owned 
about  three  hundred  slaves,  whom  he  manumitted  by  his 
last  will.  In  1803,  as  chairman  of  a  committee  of  Con- 
gress, he  reported  against  the  introduction  of  slaves  into 
Indiana,  as  not  calculated  to  promote  the  prosperity  of 
the  territory.  He  was  a  man  of  decided  genius,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  ready  wit,  which,  joined  to  his 
mastery  of  the  weapons  of  sarcasm  and  invective,  ren- 
dered him  a  formidable  opponent  in  debate.  "  He  wa.* 
like  an  Ishmaelite,"  says  Garland, — "his  hand  against 
every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  against  him." 

See  Hugh  A.  Garland,  '  Life  of  John  Randolph,"  2  vols., 
1850;  James  Parton,  "  F.imous  Americans  of  Recent  Times," 
1867;  "National  Pnrtrait-Gallerv' of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol. 
iv. ;  "  Edinbiir.;h  Review"  for  October,  1807  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1866. 

Randolph,  (Peyton,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  in  Virginia  in  1723,  was  first  president  of 
the  American  Congress  which  met  in  1774.  He  was 
re-elected  president  of  that  body  in  May,  1775.  Died 
in  Philadelphia,  October,  1775. 

Randolph,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  able  British  diploma- 
tist, born  in  Kent  about  1525.  He  performed  many 
missions  to  Scotland,  France,  and  Russia  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  and  was  an  adept  in  political  intrigues. 
He  married  a  sister  of  Walsingham.  Died  in  1590. 
His  Letters,  which  are  of  great  historical  importance, 
are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  are  largely 
quoted  by  Froude  in  his  "  History  of  England." 

Randolph,  (Thomas,)  an  English  "poet,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1605.  On  leaving  college  he  be- 
came a  resident  of  London  and  a  friend  or  protege  of 


Ken  Jonson.     He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  several 
dramas,  among  which  is  "  The  Muses'  Looking-Glass," 
(1638.)     His  habits  were  dissipated.     Died  in  1634. 
See  "Retrospective  Revie>w,"  vol.  vi.,  (1822.) 

Randolph,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Canterbury  in  1701.  He  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford  in  1768.  He  published  several  works  on 
theology,  among  which  is  "Christian  Faith,"  (1744.) 
Died  in  1783. 

Randon,  rflN'diN',  (Charles  Joseph,)  Comte  de 
Pully,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1751  ;  died 
in  1832. 

Randon,  (Jacques  Louis  C6sar  Alexandre,) 
Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1795. 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1838,  served  in  Algeria,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division  in  1847.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  January,  1851,  and 
Governor-General  of  Algeria  in  December  of  that  year. 
In  1856  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was 
minister  of  war  from  1859  to  1867.     Died  in  1871. 

Randon-Dulauloy,  r5N'd6N'  dii'lo'lwi',  (Charles 
Francois,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Laon  in 
1764.  As  general  of  division,  he  distinguished  himself 
at  Eylau,  Friedland,  Lutzen,  and  Dresden.  Died  in  1832. 

Rangabe.     See  Rizo  RhangabS. 

Ranieri,  r^-ne-a'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1806.  He  wrote  "  Ginevra,"  a  tale, 
(1838,)  and  a  "History  of  Italy  from  Theodosius  to 
Charlemagne,"  (1841.)      Died  in  x888. 

Ranieri-Biscia,  ri-ne-a'ree  bee'shi,  (LuiGi,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1744.  He  wrote  a  poem 
"  On  the  Cultivation  of  Anise,"  (1772,)  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1824, 

Ran  jit  Sinh.     See  Runjeet  Singh. 

Rank,  rink,  (Joseph,)  a  German  writer  of  tales,  born 
near  Neumark,  Bohemia,  in  1815.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Aus  dem  Boehmerwalde,"  (3  vols.,  1851,) 
and  "  Florian,"  (1853.) 

Ranke,  r3.nk'eh,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  a  distin- 
guished Protestant  theologian  and  preacher,  brother  of 
♦  he  historian  Leopold,  was  born  in  1797.  He  became 
professor  at  Erlangen  in  1S40.    Died  September  4,  1876. 

Ranke,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1802.  He  published  several  educa- 
tional and  philological  works.     Died  March  30,  1876. 

Ranke,  (Leopold,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  German 
historians  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Wiehe,  in  Thurin- 
gia,  in  1795.  He  published  in  1824  a  "History  of  the 
Roman  and  German  People  from  1494  to  1535,"  and  was 
appointed  the  following  year  professor-extraordinary  of 
history  at  Berlin.  To  this  succeeded  his  "  Princes  and 
Nations  of  Southern  Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seven- 
teenth Centuries,"  (1827,)  "The  Servian  Revolution," 
(1829,)  and  "The  Conspiracy  against  Venice  in  1688," 
(1831.)  His  "Popes  of  Rome,  their  Church  and  State 
in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (3  vols., 
1834,)  and  "German  History  during  the  Reformation," 
(5  vols.,  1839-43,)  are  among  his  most  popular  works, 
and  have  become  widely  known  by  the  admirable  trans- 
lations of  Mrs.  Austin.  Besides  the  above-named,  he 
published  "Nine  Books  of  Prussian  History,"  (3  vols., 
1847,)  which  has.  been  translated  by  Sir  Alexander  and 
Lady  Duff  Gordon,  a  "  History  of  France  in  the  Six- 
teenth and  Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (1852,)  "  History  of 
Wallenstein,"  (1869,)  "The  German  Powers  and  the 
League  of  Princes  ;  being  a  History  of  Germany  from 
1780  to  1790,"  (vol.  i.,  1871,)  "A  History  of  England, 
principally  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,"  (English  tran-j- 
lation,  6  vols.,  1875,)  and  "  Friedrich  der  Grosse  :  Fried- 
rich  Wilhelm  der  Vierte,"  (1878.)      Died  May  23,  1886. 

Ran'kin,  (Arthur  McKee,)  an  actor,  born  at  Sand- 
wich, in  Upper  Canada,  February  6,  1844.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  a  college  in  Toronto,  but  went  very  early  upon 
the  stage  at  Rochester,  New  York.  In  1869  he  married 
Miss  Kitty  Blanchard,  a  talented  actress. 

Rankiue,  rank'in,  (William  John  Macquorn,) 
F.R.S.,  a  British  civil  engineer,  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  heat,  elasticity,  mechanics,  etc.  He  became 
professor  of  civil  engineering  and  mechanics  at  Glasgow 
about  1855,  and  wrote  a  "  Manual  of  Applied  Mechanics," 
(1858,)  "On  Energetics,"  etc.    Died  December  24,  1872. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RANKING 


2029 


RAPHAEL 


Rank'ing,  (Boyd  Montgomerie  Maurice,)  an  Eng- 
lish author,  born  in  Sussex,  January  19,  1841.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1866.  He  has 
written  "Fair  Rosamond,"  (1868,)  a  volume  of  poems, 
"Old  Prose  Stories,"  (1870,)  "Streams  from  Hidden 
Sources,""  Stories  from  Italian  History,"  (1876,)  "Bjorn 
and  Bera,"  (1876,)  etc. 

Rannequin,  rtn'neh-kin,  Ren'kin,  or  Rennequin 
(SWALM,)  a  hydraulic  engineer,  born  at  Liege  in  1644 
He  constructed  the  machine  of  Marly,  near  Versailles 
in  France.     Died  in  1708. 

Rans'fprd,  (Edwin,)  an  English  barytone-singer, 
song-writer,  and  musical  composer,  born  in  Gloucester- 
shire in  1805.     Died  July  11,  1876. 

Ran'som,  (Thomas  Edward  Greenfield,)  a  brave 
and  skilful  American  general,  born  at  Norwich,  Ver- 
mont, in  November,  1834.  He  was  a  civil  engineer  in 
Illinois  before  the  civil  war.  In  July,  1861,  he  became 
a  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  February,  1862,  he  was  se 
verely  wounded  at  Fort  Donelson.  He  commanded  a 
regiment  at  Shiloh  in  April,  1862,  obtained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  in  January,  1863,  and  served  under 
General  Banks  in  the  Red  River  expedition.  He  was 
disabled  by  a  wound  at  Sabine  Cross-Roads,  Louisiana, 
in  April,  1864.  He  joined  the  army  of  Sherman  after 
his  wound  had  healed,  and  took  command  of  a  division 
or  corps  just  before  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  (September  2.) 
He  died  at  Rome,  Georgia,  in  October,  1864. 

See  Tennky,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  793, 
"  Sherman  and  his  Campaigns,"  by  Colonels  Bowman  and  Irwin. 

Raiisonnette,  rftN'so'nSt',  (Charles  Nicolas,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  engraved 
plates  for  several  books  of  travel. 

Rantoul,  ran'tool,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  states- 
man of  the  Democratic  party,  was  born  in  Beverly, 
Massachusetts,  in  1805.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  was  elected  in  1834  to  the  legis- 
lature, in  which  he  advocated  the  abolition  of  capital 
punishment.  In  1845  ^e  was  appointed  a  district  attor- 
ney of  the  United  States  by  the  President,  and  in  1851 
succeeded  Daniel  Webster  as  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  a  short  term.  Having  avowed  himself  a 
decided  opponent  of  the  extension  of  slavery,  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  by  the  united  votes  of  the  Demo- 
crats and  Free-.Soilers.     Died  in  August,  1852. 

See  "  Memoir"  prefixed  to  a  volume  of  his  speeches,  published 
by  L.  Hamilton  in  1854;  "  Democratic  Review"  for  October,  iSjo, 
(with  a  portrait.) 

Rantzau,  de,  deh  rSNt'so',  (Josias,)  Count,  a  mar- 
shal of  France,  born  in  Denmark  in  1609.  He  com- 
manded a  French  army  with  success  in  Flanders  from 
1642  to  1649.     Died  in  1650. 

Rantzau,  von,  fon  rint'sow,  (Johann,)  Count,  a 
German  general,  born  in  1492.  He  entered  the  service 
of  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  (afterwards  Frederick  I.  of 
Denmark,)  for  whom  he  conquered  Denmark  about 
1525.     Died  in  1565. 

Ranzani,  r^n-zi'nee,  (Camillo  Abbate,)  an  eininent 
Italian  naturalist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1775.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  university 
of  his  native  city  in  1803.  About  1810  he  visited  Paris, 
where  he  was  treated  with  much  attention  by  Cuvier. 
He  began  in  1819  to  publish  a  great  work  entitled  "Ele 
ments  of  Zoology,"  which  he  was  not  able  to  finish. 
About  twelve  volumes  of  it  have  been  published.  Died 
in  1841. 

See  CoRRADO  Politi,  "  Elogio  di  C.  Ranzani,"  1842;  Tipaluo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Raoul,  rt'ool',  or  Rodolphe,  ro'dolf,  [Lat.  Ra- 
dul'fus,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  married  Emma,  a  daughter 
of  Robert,  Duke  of  France.  In  923  he  was  chosen  king 
by  the  barons  who  deposed  Charles  III.  He  waged  war 
against  the  Normans  under  Rollo.     Died  in  936. 

Raoul.    See  Rollo. 

Raoul  de  Houdeno,  rS'ooK  deh  oo'dfiNk',  a  French 
poet  and  herald,  who  flourished  about  1225.  Among  his 
extant  works  are  "  Roman  des  Eles,"  ("  Romance  of  the 
Wings,")  "  Merangis  de  Portlesguez,"  and,  perhaps,  the 
"Vengeance  de  Raguidel."  He  was  one  of  the  first 
poets  of  his  time. 

Raoul-Rochette.     See  Rochette. 


Raoux,  rt  00',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1677.  He  obtained  some  vogue  as  a 
portrait-painter.     Died  in  1734. 

Raoux,  (Scipion  Edouard,)  a  Swiss  littirateur,  born 
at  Mens  (Isere)  in  181 7,  became  professor  at  Lausanne, 
Rapetti,rl-peftee,  (Louis  Nicolas,)  a  distinguished 
jurist  and  biographer,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1812.  He 
wrote  for  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  a  notice 
of  Napoleon  L,  and  other  articles.  He  lectured  on 
Roman  law  in  the  College  of  France  from  1841  to  1848. 
Raphael  (ra'fi-el  or  rtfi-el)  [It.  Raffaelle,  rSf-fi- 
eKli]  Sanzio,  sin'ze-o,  (Raffaello,)  the  most  illus- 
trious of  modern  painters,  was  born  at  Urbino,  in  the 
Papal  States,  April  6,  1483.  He  was  the  only  son  of 
Giovanni  di  Santi  (or  Sanzio)  and  Magia  Ciarla,  After 
he  had  received  the  first  lessons  in  design  from  his 
father,  who  was  a  painter  of  moderate  talents,  he  became 
about  1495  ^  pupil  of  Perugino,  whom  he  imitated  so 
well  that  when  that  master  and  Raphael  worked  on  the 
same  canvas  the  result  seemed  to  be  the  product  of  one 
hand.  Among  his  earliest  works  are  a  "  Holy  Family," 
(1500,)  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  "The  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin,"  (now  in  the  Vatican,)  and  "The  Marriage 
of  the  Virgin,"  ("  Sposalizio,")  dated  1504,  which  is  now 
at  Milan.  "The  Virgin,"  says  Lanzi,  "is  a  model  of 
celestial  beauty."  In  the  autumn  of  1504  he  visited 
Florence,  where  he  painted  several  works  and  formed 
friendships  with  Era  Bartolommeo  and  Ridolfo  Ghir- 
landaio.  During  the  period  from  1505  to  1508,  which 
he  passed  at  Perugia  and  Florence,  he  produced  a 
Christ  in  glory,  the  "Madonna  del  Gran  Duca,"  and 
other  Madonnas.  These  works  show  that  his  style  had 
been  modified  by  his  studies  in  Florence. 

Having  received  from  Julius  II.  an  invitation  to  orna- 
ment the  Vatican,  he  went  to  Rome  in  1508.  Here  he 
studied  the  remains  of  Grecian  genius,  associated  with 
eminent  scholars,  among  whom  were  Bembo,  Ariosto, 
and  Sadoleto,  and  entered  into  a  rivalry  with  Michael 
Angelo.  Raphael  painted  in  the  Vatican  (in  fresco)  the 
large  and  noble  composition  called  "  Disputa  del  Sacra- 
mento," the  admirable  "  School  of  Athens,"  "  Parnassus," 
(1511,)  "The  Miracle  of  Bolsena,"  "Attila  repelled  from 
Rome,"  and  other  frescos.  "  In  the  composition  and 
execution  of  the  '  School  of  Athens,' "  says  Quatrem^re 
de  Quincy,  "  Raphael  had  recovered,  so  to  speak,  the 
long-lost  thread  of  the  manner  and  taste  of  antiquity, 
and  had  at  length  connected  with  the  eternal  models  of 
the  true  and  beautiful  the  chain  of  modern  inventions." 
He  also  painted  in  oil  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  the  "Madonna  di  Foligno,"  (1511,)  and  a  portrait 
of  Julius  II.  Soon  after  his  arrival  at  Rome  he  adopted 
what  is  called  his  third  style. 

Like  all  great  painters  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
Raphael  was  a  skilful  architect.  In  1515  the  pope  ap- 
pointed him  chief  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  in 
compliance  with  the  dying  request  of  Bramante.  Raphael 
made  a  model  or  design  for  this  edifice  ;  but  it  was  not 
executed.  He  designed  the  Pandolfini  palace  at  Flor- 
ence, of  which  an  able  critic  remarks,  "There  is  not  in 
architecture  a  palatial  design  more  noble,  of  a  purer 
style,  of  a  more  judicious  distribution."  About  1515  he 
produced  the  celebrated  Cartoons,  ten  designs  for  the 
tapestry  of  the  pope's  chapel,  seven  of  which  are  now 
at  Hampton  Court,  England.  They  represent  "  The 
Charge  to  Peter,"  "  Saint  Paul  preaching  at  Athens." 
and  other  scenes  from  sacred  history. 

Among  his  later  oil-paintings  are  "  Saint  Cecilia,"  (at 
Bologna,)  the  "Madonna  del  Pesce,"  (or  "del  Pez,")  (at 
the  Escurial,)  the  "Madonna  di  San  Sisto,"  (the  glory 
of  the  gallery  of  Dresden,)  and  the  "  Transfiguration," 
which  some  consider  his  master-piece,  and  which  is 
now  in  the  Vatican.  His  great  power  was  in  the  ex- 
pression of  passion  and  character.  He  also  excelled  in 
composition,  invention,  and  design  ;  but  as  a  colorist 
he  was  inferior  to  Titian  and  others.  It  is  asserted  that 
in  all  his  endless  inventions  a  single  repetition  of  him- 
self is  not  to  be  found.  He  died  at  Rome  on  the  6th 
of  April,  1520,  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven.  He  was 
never  married.  He  had  a  delicate  constitution,  brown 
hair  and  eyes,  and  handsome  features.  His  amiable  and 
noble  character  rendered  him  a  general  favourite. 


eas-^;  9asj;  ^hard;  gz.sj;G,n.K.^Uural;  n, nasal;  H)., trilled:  sass.-  ^hzsm this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAPHAEL 


2030 


RASCHW 


"  The  bent  of  his  genius,"  says  Lanzi,  "  led  him  to 
that  ideal  beauty,  grace,  and  expression,  the  most 
refined  and  difficult  province  of  painting.  .  .  .  Raffaelle 
is  by  common  consent  placed  at  the  head  of  his  art.'' 
"  Raffaelle  was  solely  a  painter,"  says  Hazlitt ;  "  but  in 
that  one  art  he  seemed  to  pour  out  all  the  treasures  and 
various  excellence  of  nature, — grandeur  and  scope  of 
design,  exquisite  finishing,  force,  grace,  delicacy,  the 
strength  of  man,  the  softness  of  woman,  the  playfulness 
jf  infancy,  thought,  feeling,  invention,  etc.  He  received 
his  inspiration  from  without,  and  his  genius  caught  the 
lambent  flames  of  peace,  of  truth  and  grandeur,  which 
are  reflected  in  his  works  with  a  light  clear,  transparent, 
and  unfading."  "  If  Michael  Angelo  is  the  first  of 
draughtsmen,"  says  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "  Raphael 
is  the  first  of  painters.  .  .  .  His  'Galatea'  is  a  work 
which  explains,  far  better  than  any  language  of  ours, 
the  diversity  between  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael, 
manifesting  the  exquisite  refinement  of  the  latter,  and 
his  tendency  towards  that  pure,  noble,  graceful  manner 
which  constituted  the  beau-ideal  of  the  ancient  Greeks." 
Among  the  numerous  eminent  pupils  of  Raphael  were 
Giulio  Romano,  Penni  called  II  Fattore,  Perino  del 
Vaga,  Pellegrino  da  M6dena,  Garofalo,  and  Polidoro  da 
Caravaggio. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters:"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Duppa,  "Life  of  Raphael,"  1815;  Passavant,  "  Ra- 
pliael  d'Urbino,"  1839;  G.  C.  Braun,  "Raphael  Sanzio's  Leben," 
181 5;  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "Vie  de  Raphael,"  1824,  (trans 
lated  into  English  by  Hazlitt,  1846;)  VoN  Wolzogkm,  "Raphae) 
Snntis  Leben,"  (an  English  version  of  which  was  published  in  1866;) 
Naglhr,  "  Raphael  als  Mensch  und  Kunstler;"  Landon,  "  Vie  et 
CEuvres  de  Raphael  :"  C.  F.  vom  Rumohr,  "  Ueber  Raphael  von 
Urbino  ;"  Pungileoni,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Raffaello,"  1829;  Baldi- 
Nucci,  "Notizie:"  Adoi-PH  Siret,  "Raphael  et  Rubens,"  1849; 
Carlo  Fea.  "  Notizie  intnrno  Raffaello  Sanzio,"  1S22  ;  F.  Rehberg, 
"  Raphael  Sanzio  aus  Urbino,"  2  vols.,  1824 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale;"  "Raphael  and  his  Times,"  in  the  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1S70. 

Raphael  of  Volterra.  See  Maffei,  (Raffaello.) 
Raphall,  ri'fdl,  (Morris  Jacob,)  a  learned  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  at  Stockholm,  Sweden,  in  1798.  He  studied 
at  Copenhagen,  in  England,  and  at  Giessen,  and  in  1825 
removed  to  England,  where  he  founded  the  "  Hebrew 
Review"  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  literary,  political, 
and  educational  work  of  his  time.  He  was  pastor  of  a 
synagogue  in  New  York  from  1849  to  1868.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Post-Biblical  History  of  the  Jews,"  (1856,) 
"Literature  of  the  Jews  in  Spain,"  "Social  Condition 
of  the  Jews,"  and  other  works.     Died  June  23,  1868. 

Rapheleng,  rS'feh-l^ng',  Rapheling,  rd'feh-ling', 
written  also  Raulengien,  (Francis,)  a  learned  printer, 
born  near  Lille  in  1539,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Plantin. 
He  worked  at  Antwerp,  taught  Hebrew  at  Leyden,  and 
published  an  Arabic  Lexicon.  Died  in  1597. 
Rapheling.     See  Rapheleng. 

Rapin,  rS'piN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Fontenay-le-Comte  about  1540.  He  fought  for  Henry 
IV.  against  the  League,  and  wrote  part  of  the  famous 
"Satire  Menippee."  (See  Leroy,  (Pierre,)  and  Du- 
rant.)  He  produced,  in  Latin  and  French,  a  number 
of  odes,  epigrams,  elegies,  etc.,  which  were  admired. 
Died  in  1608. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  "  NouveLe 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Rapin,  (Ren6,)  a  French  Jesuit,  distinguished  as  a 
Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Tours  in  1621.  He  composed, 
besides  many  other  works,  a  series  of  "  Parallels  of 
Great  Men  of  Antiquity,"  (Homer,  Virgil,  Demosthenes, 
Cicero,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,)  (1669-71.)  His  chief  pro- 
duction is  an  ingenious  Latin  poem  "On  Gardens," 
("Hortorum  Libri  IV.,"  1665,)  which  was  translated  into 
English  by  Evelyn.  "For  skill  in  varying  and  adorning 
his  subjects,"  says  Hallam,  "  for  a  truly  Virgilian  spirit 
of  expression,  for  the  exclusion  of  feeble,  prosaic,  or 
awkward  lines,  he  may  perhaps  be  equal  to  any  poet, — 
to  Sannazarius  himself."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")     Died  in  Paris  in  1687. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  BouHOURS, 
"Vie  deRanin,"  in  his  "  Poemata,"  1723:  Nici5ron,  "  M^moires.  " 

Rapin,  de,  deh  rap'in  or  rt'piN',  (Paul,)  Sieur  de 
Thoyras,  a  French  historian,  born  of  a  Protestant  family 
at  Castres  in  1661.  He  entered  the  service  of  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  with  whom  he  went  to  England  in 


1688.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  war  in  Ireland  about 
1690.  In  1724  he  published,  in  French,  a  "History  of 
England  from  the  Roman  (Conquest  to  the  Death  of 
Charles  I.,"  (8  vols.,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit. 
According  to  Voltaire,  it  was  the  best  history  of  Eng- 
land that  had  then  appeared.  It  was  translated  into 
English  by  Tindal,  who  also  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Rapin's  work.  (See  TiNDAL.)  Died  at  Wesel  in  1725. 
See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  ".Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Rapoport,  rl'po-poRt',  (Solomon  Jehudah,)  a  Jew- 
ish scholar  and  rabbi,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Germany, 
in  1790.  He  published,  in  Hebrew,  a  number  of  his- 
torical and  antiquarian  treatises,  and  translated  Racine's 
"  Esther"  into  Hebrew.  Died  at  Prague,  October  16 
1867.  He  was  regarded  as  the  ablest  Hebrew  scholar 
of  his  time. 

Rapp,  (George,)  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Har- 
monists or  Rappites,  born  at  Wurtemberg,  Germany, 
in  1770.  He  emigrated  in  1803  to  the  United  States, 
and  founded  a  community  at  Economy,  Beaver  county, 
Pennsylvania.     Died  in  1847. 

Rapp,  rip,  (Jean,)  Count,  an  able  French  general, 
born  at  Colmar  in  1772.  He  was  aide-de-camp  of  De- 
saix  at  Marengo,  and  on  his  death  became  an  aide  to 
Bonaparte,  whose  confidence  he  acquired.  For  his  ser- 
vices at  Austerlitz  (1805)  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
general  of  division.  He  received  his  ninth  wound  at 
Golymin,  (1806,)  obtained  the  chief  command  at  Dant- 
zic  in  1807,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Essling  in  1809. 
He  received  four  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Moskwa, 
(1812.)  In  1815  he  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  fought  several 
actions  against  the  allies.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
noted  for  his  humanity  and  moderation.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1821. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  General  Count  Rapp,  Fir^t  Aide-de-Camp  to 
Napoleon,  by  himself;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geu^rale." 

Rappaport.     See  Rapoport. 

Rappe,  rap,  (Louis  Amadous,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born 
at  Andrehem,  Pas-de-Calais,  France,  February  2,  1801, 
of  a  peasant  family,  was  educated  at  Boulogne  and  Arras, 
and  became  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1829,  was  chap- 
lain of  the  Ursulines  at  Boulogne,  1834-40,  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1840,  was  employed  on  missions  in  the 
Northwest  of  Ohio,  1841-47,  and  in  1S47  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Cleveland,  the  first  of  that  title.  In  1870  he 
resigned  the  diocese.  Died  at  Burlington,  Vermont, 
September  8,  1877.  Bishop  Rappe  was  a  very  laborious 
man,  distinguished  as  a  friend  of  total  abstinence. 

Rappoldi,  rip-pol'dee,  (Eduard,)  an  Austrian  musi- 
cian and  composer,  born  in  Vienna,  February  21,  1839. 
Fie  has  produced  symphonies,  quartets,  sonatas,  and 
songs,  but  is  best  known  as  a  violinist.  In  1874  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Laura  Kahrer,  a  famous  pianiste,  (born  in 
Vienna  in  1853.)  Rappoldi  has  been  since  iS76concert- 
meister  at  Dresden  and  chief  teacher  in  the  Conserva- 
torium. 

Ra'rey,  (John  S.,)  a  celebrated  American  horse- 
tamer,  born  at  Madison,  Franklin  county,  Ohio,  about 
1825.  He  was  very  successful  in  subduing  the  most 
vicious  animals  by  substituting  kindness  and  scientific 
skill  for  the  harshness  usually  employed  on  such  occa- 
sions.    Died  in  1866. 

Rasario,  risJ're-o,  [Lat.  Rasa'rius,]  (Giambat- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  in  the  province  of 
Novara  in  1517.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  and  rhetoric 
at  Venice  for  twenty-two  years.  He  translated  from 
Greek  into  Latin  some  works  of  Pachymeres,  Oribasius, 
and  Galen.     Died  at  Pavi'a  in  1578. 

Rasarius.     See  Rasario. 

Rascas,  rts'kJs',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  Sieur  de  Bagar- 
ris,  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Aix  about  1567.  He 
was  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a 
treatise  on  medals.     Died  in  1620. 

Rasche,  rish'eh,  (Johann  Christofh,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  near  Eisenach,  in  Saxony,  in  1703. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lexicon  of  the 
Monetary  Affairs  of  the  Ancients,"  ("Lexicon  universaj 
Rei  numariaa  Veterum,"  6  vols.,  1785-94.)    Died  in  1805. 

Raschi,  (Rabbi  Solomon.)     See  Jarchl 

Raschid,  Al.     See  Haroun-al-Raschid. 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  5?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fjlll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RASHEED 


2031 


RATTAZZI 


Rasheed-Eddeen  or  Raschid-Eddin,  ri-sheed' 
ed-deen',  a  Persian  historian,  born  at  Hamadan  in  the 
thirteentli  century.     Died  about  1320. 

Rashi.     See  Jarchi. 

Rasis.     See  Razes. 

Rasis  or  Rases.     See  Razee. 

Rask,  risk,  (Ramus  or  Rasmus  Christian,)  an  emi- 
nent Danish  linguist,  was  born  near  Odense,  in  the  isle 
of  Fiinen,  in  1787.  He  gave  much  attention  to  com- 
parative philology,  in  the  prosecution  of  which  study  he 
visited  Russia,  Persia,  India,  etc.,  (1817-21.)  He  be- 
came professor  of  literary  history  at  Copenhagen  in  1825, 
and  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  the  same  univer- 
sity in  1828.  Among  his  works  are  an  "Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar,"  (1817,)  "Researches  on  the  Origin  of  the 
Icelandic  Language,"  {1818,)  and  "On  the  Age  and 
Authenticity  of  the  Zend-Avesta,"  (1826.)  He  possessed 
a  rare  talent  for  linguistic  researches.     Died  in  1S32. 

See  p.  L.  MoELLER,  "  R.  K.  Rask;"  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexi- 
con;" "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdndrale." 

Rasmussen,  rSs'moos'sen,  (Janus  Lassen,)  a  Dan- 
ish Orientalist,  born  at  Vestenkov  in  1785.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  the  Kingdoms  of  the  Arabs,"  ("  Historia 
Arabum  Regnorum,"  1817,)  "Annals  of  the  Moslems," 
("Annales  Islamicae,"  1825,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1828. 

Rasori,  rS-so'ree,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Parma  in  1766  or  1767.  He  became 
professor  at  Pavfa  about  1796,  and  settled  at  Milan  in 
1800.  He  was  author  of  a  new  medical  doctrine,  called 
"theory  of  the  Counter-Stimulus,"  and  wrote  several 
medical  works.     He  died  in  1837. 

See  G.  Perini,  "  Cenni  sulla  Mente  di  G.  Rasori,"  1837;  Chi- 
\YV.\,   "  Delia  Vita   di   G.    Rasori,"   1S38. 

Raspail,  rts'pti'  or  rSs'pS'ye,  (FRANgois  Vincent,) 
an  able  French  chemist  and  politician,  born  at  Carpen- 
tras  in  1794.  He  took  arms  against  Charles  X.  in  1830, 
and  became  a  leader  of  the  republicans.  In  183 1  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  able  "  Course  of  Agri- 
culture and  Rural  Economy."  At  the  revolution  of 
February,  1848,  he  proclaimed  a  republic  at  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  before  the  formation  of  a  provisional  govern- 
ment. In  March,  1849,  he  was  condemned  to  six  years' 
imprisonment  for  conspiracy  against  the  new  regime. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  New  System  of  Organic  Chem- 
istry," (2d  edition,  3  vols.,  1838,)  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  "  The  Natural  History  of  Health 
and  Disease  of  Plants  and  Animals,  especially  Man," 
(3  vols.,  1846.)  He  was  elected  to  the  corps  UgislatiJ 
in  1869.     Died  February  8,  1S78. 

See  Charles  Marchal,  "  Biographic  de  F.  V.  Raspail,"  1848; 
Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Littdraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^ 
rale." 

Raspe,  ris'])eh,  (Rodolph  Eric,)  a  German  anti- 
quary, born  at  Hanover  in  1737  ;  died  in  Ireland  in  1794. 

Rasponi,  rSs-po'nee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  cardinal 
and  negotiator,  born  at  Ravenna  in  16x5  ;  died  in  1675. 

Rassaui,  ris-sim',  (Hormuzd,)  a  distinguished  archae- 
ologist, born  in  1826,  at  Mosul,  in  Mesopotamia,  of  a 
Chaldaean  Christian  family.  He  assisted  Layard  in  his 
Assyrian  researches,  1845-47  and  1849-51.  Rassam 
conducted  the  important  British  Museum  explorations 
of  1851-54,  and  was  afterwards  in  the  British  govern- 
ment service  at  Aden  and  Muscat,  and  in  Abyssinia, 
where  he  was  imprisoned  and  kept  nearly  two  years  in 
chains  by  King  Theodore.  Rassam  carried  on,  at  his 
own  expense,  highly  important  and  fruitful  explorations 
in  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  etc.,  1876-82.  His  principal 
published  work  is  a  "Narrative  of  the  British  Mission 
to  Theodore,"  (1869.) 

Rassoomovsky,  ri-soo-mov'ske,  (Andreas  Kyril- 
LOVITCH,)  a  Russian  nobleman,  born  in  the  Ukraine,  of 
humble  parentage,  in  1752.  He  served  in  the  English 
and  Russian  navies,  rose  to  the  rank  of  admiral,  and  was 
Russian  ambassador  at  various  fiireign  courts.  He  is 
best  known,  however,  as  the  friend  and  patron  of  Bee- 
thoven, who  dedicated  to  him,  among  other  works,  the 
famous  "  Rassoomovsky  Quartets." 

Ras'tall  or  Ras'tell,  (John,)  an  English  printer, 
was  a  native  or  citizen  of  London.  One  of  the  first 
books  which  he  printed  is  dated  151 7.  He  was  con- 
verted to  the  Protestant  religion  by  J.  Frith.  He  was  the 


reputed  author  of  "  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England," 
("Anglorum  Regum  Chronicon,"  1529.)     Diedini536. 

His  son  William,  born  in  1508,  was  a  printer  and 
lawyer.  He  emigrated  to  Louvain  in  1558,  and  died 
there  in  1565. 

Rast-Maupas,  ras-mo'pi',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French 
rural  economist,  born  at  La  Voulte  in  1731.  He  founded 
the  Condition  des  Soies,  and  made  several  useful  inven- 
tions.    Died  at  Lyons  in  1821. 

Rastopchin.     See  Rostoptchin. 

Rastrelli,  r Js-tRel'lee,  (Joseph,)  a  German  composer 
and  musician,  born  at  Dresden  in  1799.  He  composed 
"Salvator  Rosa,"  (1832,)  and  other  operas.    Died  1843. 

Rataller,  ri-ti'ler,  (George,)  a  Dutch  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1528.  He  translated 
into  Latin  verse  Hesiod's  great  poem  and  the  tragedies 
of  Sophocles.  He  became  president  of  the  council  at 
Utrecht  about  1570.     Died  in  1581. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ratazzi.     See  Rattazzi. 

Ratcliffe,    (Thomas,)    Earl    of  Sussex.      See   RAt>- 

CLIFFE. 

Ratdolt.     See  Rathold. 

Rathel  or  Raethel,  ra'tel,  (Wolfgang  Christoph,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Selbitz  in  1663  ;  died  in  1729. 

Ratherius.     See  Rathier. 

Rathery,  rtt're',  (Edme  Jacques  BenoIt,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  became  assistant 
keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library  in  1859.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale,"  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,"  etc.     Died  November  28,  1875. 

Rathier,  rt'te-i',  [Lat.  Rathe'rius,]  a  learned  ec- 
clesiastic, was  born  at  Liege.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Verona  in  931  A.D,     Died  about  974  a.d. 

Rathold,  rit'holt,  written  also  Ratdolt,  (Erhard,) 
a  German  printer,  born  at  Augsburg.  He  settled  at 
Venice  in  1475,  where  he  published  excellent  editions 
of  Appian,  Euclid,  and  other  classics.     Died  about  1516. 

Rat'i,  written  alsoReti,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  rut'i,] 
a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "  passion,"  "  sexual  desire," 
and  forming,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the 
consort  of  Kamadeva,  or  the  Indian  god  of  love. 

See  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Ratier,  rt'te-i',  (F:6lix  S6verin,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  published  nu- 
merous works.     Died  February  8,  1866. 

Ratramne,  rt  trtm',  [Lat.  Ratram'nus,]  a  learned 
French  monk  of  the  ninth  century,  belonged  to  the 
abbey  of  Corbie.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  the  Lord,"  ("  De  Corpore  et  Sanguine 
Domini,")  which  was  printed  in  1532  and  1712.  H" 
is  sometimes  called  Bertram.     Died  after  868  a.d. 

Ratramnus.     See  Ratramne. 

Ratschky,  ritsh'kee,  (Joseph  Franz,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Vienna  in  1757.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1785,  which  were  somewhat  popular.  He 
became  a  councillor  of  state.     Died  in  Vienna  in  iSlo. 

Rattazzi,  rSt-tat'see,  (Marie  Studolmine,)  wife  of 
Urbano  Rattazzi,  was  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  in 
183c.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyse,  by 
LcCtitia,  a  daughter  of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  She  was 
(1850-52)  the  wife  of  one  F.  Solms,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced.  She  married  Rattazzi  in  i860.  She  published 
many  novels,  and  some  poems  and  plays,  partly  under 
the  name  of  Marie,  Princess  de  Solms.  Most  of  her 
writings  are  in  French,  a  few  in  Italian. 

Rattazzi,  rit-tit'see,  or  Ratazzi,  (Urbano,)  an 
Italian  minister  of  state,  born  at  Alessandria  about  1810. 
He  gained  distinction  as  an  advocate,  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Turin  in  1848,  and  became  a 
leader  of  the  democratic  party.  About  the  end  of  1848 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry, 
which  was  dissolved  in  consequence  of  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Novara,  March,  1849.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  justice  in  1854,  was  prime  minister  a  short  time 
in  1859,  and  succeeded  Ricasoli  as  prime  minister  about 
March  i,  1862.  His  opponents  denounced  him  as  sub- 
servient to  the  policy  of  the  French  emperor.  He  went 
out  of  power  about  December  i,  1862,  and  became  prime 
minister  again  in  April,  1867,  but  resigned  in  the  follow 
ing  October.     Died  at  Frosinone,  June  5,  1873. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  TS.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  l 


RA  TTE 


RA  VENN  A 


Ratte,  de,  deh  rtt,  (Etienne  Hyacinthe,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1722.  He  wrote 
scientific  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopedic,"  and  observed 
the  transit  of  Venus  in  1 761.     Died  in  1805. 

See  J.  PoiTEViN,  "filoge  d'fi.  H.  de  Ratte,"  1S05. 

Ratti,  rdt'tee,  (Niccola,)  an  Italian  antiquat^y,  born 
at  Rome  in  1759,  published  several  biographies  and 
antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1833. 

Rau,  (Christian.)     See  Ravius. 

Rau,  row,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Baden,  in  Suabia,  in  1668,  was  a  successful 
lithotomist.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Leyden 
in  1713.     Died  in  1719. 

Rau,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  political  econo- 
mist, born  at  Erlangen  in  1792,  became  in  1822  professor 
of  political  economy  and  financial  science  at  Heidelberg. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Manual  of  Political  Economy," 
(3  vols.,  1826-32,)  which  is  highly  commended.  Died 
in  1870. 

Rau,  (Sebald,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Herborn 
in  1724.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Utrecht  in  1749.     Died  about  1810. 

Rau,  (Sebald  Foulques  Jan,)  an  Orientalist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Utrecht  in  1765.  He  be- 
came minister  of  a  church  at  Leyden  in  1 788.  Died  in  1 807. 

Rauch,  rowK,  (Christian,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
German  sculptors,  born  at  Arolsen,  in  the  principality 
of  Waldeck,  in  1777.  He  studied  for  a  time  under  Pro- 
fessor Ruhl,  at  Cassel,  and  in  1804  was  enabled  to  visit 
Rome,  where  he  was  patronized  by  W.  von  Humboldt 
and  acquired  the  friendship  of  Thorwaldsen.  While  at 
Rome  he  executed  the  bas-reliefs  of  "  Hippolytus  and 
Phaedra,"  and  "  Mars  and  Venus  wounded  by  Diomed," 
also  a  colossal  bust  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  a  life-size 
bust  of  his  queen  Louise,  and  a  portrait  bust  of  Raphael 
Mengs.  In  1813  he  completed  the  monument  of  the 
Queen  of  Prussia,  at  Charlottenburg,  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  admirable  works  of  the  kind.  During 
a  second  visit  to  Rome  he  executed  statues  of  Generals 
Scharnhorst  and  Billow,  and  a  great  number  of  busts  of 
celebrated  persons.  After  his  return  to  Prussia  he  pro- 
duced two  colossal  bronze  statues  of  Marshal  BlUcher, 
a  statue  of  Goethe,  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  re- 
semblance to  that  great  writer,  a  monument  to  Albert 
Diirer,  and  statues  of  Luther,  Schiller,  and  other  eminent 
Germans.  In  1851  he  finished  his  monument  to  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  with  an  equestrian  statue,  at  Berlin, 
upon  which  he  was  employed  more  than  ten  years,  and 
which  is  esteemed  his  greatest  work.     Died  in  1857. 

See  Nagler,  "  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gdn^rale  ;"  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations-Lexikon,"  1859. 

Rauch,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  Germati-American 
divine,  born  at  Kirchbracht,  in  Hesse,  July  27,  1806.  He 
graduated  at  Marburg  in  1827,  held  professorships  in 
Giessen  and  tleidelberg,  came  in  183 1  to  America,  and 
became  in  1835  president  of  Marshall  College,  Mercers- 
burg,  Pennsylvania,  where  he  died,  March  2,  1841. 
Among  his  works  are  "Psychology,"  (1840,)  and  "The 
Inner  Life  of  the  Christian,"  (1856.)  He  was  a  German 
Reformed  minister. 

Raulengien.     See  Rapheleng. 
Raulin,  ro'llN',  (F6lix  Victor,)  a  French  geologist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815.     He  has  written  several  treatises 
on  geology. 

Raulin,  (Jean,)  a  French  professor  of  theology  at 
Paris,  born  at  Toul  in  1443  ;  died  in  1514. 

Raulin,  (Joseph,)  a  French  physician,  born  near  Auch 
in  1708.  He  became  physician  to  the  king,  and  wrote 
several  able  medical  works.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.     Died  in  Paris  in  1784. 

Raumer,  von,  fon  row'mer,  (Friedrich  Ludwig 
Georg,)  an  eminent  German  historian,  born  near  Des- 
sau in  1 781.  He  studied  law  and  financial  science  at 
Halle  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1819  became  professor  of 
history  and  political  economy  at  Berlin.  He  published 
in  1810  a  treatise  "On  the  British  System  of  Taxation," 
and  in  1813  a  "Manual  of  Remarkable  Passages  fron 
the  Latin  Historians  of  the  Middle  Ages."  His  "  His- 
tory of  the  Hohenstaufen  and  their  Times"  (6  vols., 
1823)  was  very  well  received,  and  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work.     Among  his  other  productions  may  be  named  a 


"History  of  Europe  from  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury," (1832,)  "  England  in  1835,"  which  was  translated 
by  Mrs.  Austin,  and  "The  United  States  of  North 
America,"  (1845.)     1-*''^''  '"  '^73- 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G<5n^rale:"  Bkockhaus,  "Conver- 
sations-Lexikon;" "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829.  and  April,  1833. 

Raumer,  von,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  German  jurist 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Berlin  about  1790;  died 
in  1856. 

Raumer,  von,  (Karl  Georg,)  a  German  geologist, 
born  at  Worlitz  in  1783,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  and  mineralogy  at  Erlangen.  He  was  a  brother 
of  the  eminent  historian.     Died  June  2,  1865. 

Raumer,  von,  (Rudolf,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Breslau  in  1815,  He  became  professor  of  phi- 
lology at  Erlangen  in  1852,     Died  August  30,  1876. 

Raupach,  row'piK,  (Ernst  Benjamin  Solomon,)  a 
popular  dramatic  poet,  born  near  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  in 
1784.  After  residing  several  years  in  Russia  as  a  teacher, 
he  became  professor  of  German  literature  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1 81 7.  His  works,  which  are  very  numerous 
and  include  both  tragedy  and  comedy,  were  published 
in  18  vols.,  1830-44.     Died  in  1852. 

See  Pauline  Raupach,  "  Raupach ;  biographische  Skizze,"  1854 

Rauscher,  von,  fon  row'sher,  (Joseph  Othmar,)  an 
Austrian  cardinal,  born  in  Vienna,  October  6,  1797.  He 
was  made  Prince-Bishop  of  Seckau  in  1849,  Archbishop 
of  Vienna  in  1853,  and  a  cardinal  in  1855.  He  was  an 
enemy  of  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  but  after  its  for- 
mal promulgation  submitted.     Died  November  24,  1875. 

Rauter,  row'ter  or  ro'taia',  (Jacques  Fr6u6ric, )  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1784.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  his  native  city.     Died  in  1854. 

Rauwolf,  r6w'<^olf,  (Leonhard,)  a  German  botanist, 
born  at  Augsburg.  He  visited  the  Levant  in  1573,  in 
order  to  study  and  identify  the  plants  noticed  by  Pliny, 
Galen,  Dioscorides,  etc.  After  his  return  he  published 
a  valuable  "Narrative  of  a  Journey  in  Syria,  Judea, 
Arabia,  Mesopotamia,"  etc.,  (1582.)     Died  in  1596. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vita;  Medicorum ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gendrale." 

Hauzzini,  rowt-see'nee,  (Venanzio,)  an  Italian  singer 
and  musical  composer,  born  in  Rome  in  1747.  After 
singing  successfully  in  Vienna  and  Munich,  he  settled  in 
England,  giving  a  number  of  brilliant  concerts  in  Lon- 
don, and  distinguishing  himself  also  as  a  teacher  of 
singing.  He  composed  operas,  sonatas,  and  songs. 
Died  at  Bath  in  1810.  His  brother  Matpeo,  born  in 
1754,  who  followed  him  to  England,  was  also  known  as 
a  singer  and  teacher.     Died  in  1791. 

Ravaillac,  rt'vtl'ySk'  or  rt'vt'ytk',  (Franqois,)  a 
French  assassin  and  fanatic,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1578. 
He  approached  the  royal  carriage,  which  was  stopped 
in  the  street  by  a  number  of  wagons,  and  stabbed  Henry 
IV.  mortally,  in  May,  1610.  At  his  examination  he  de- 
nied that  he  had  any  accomplice.  He  was  executed  in 
May,  1610. 

Ravaisson,  rt'vi's6N',  (Jean  Gaspard  F:6lix,)  a 
French  philosopher,  born  at  Namur  in  1813.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1849,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  imperial  council  of  public 
instruction  in  1852.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Meta- 
physics of  Aristotle,"  (2  vols.,  1837-46.) 

Ravana,*  ri'va-na,  or  Ravanen,  in  the  Hindoo  my- 
thology, the  name  of  a  famous  many-headed  giant.  King 
of  Ceylon,  who  was  killed  by  Rama.     (See  Rama.) 
See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ravenel,  rtv'nSl',  (Jules  Am6d6eD^sir6,)  a  French 
bibliogra])her,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  printed  works  of  the  Royal  Library  in  1848. 

Ravenet,  rtv'ny,  (Simon  Francois,)  an  eminent 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1708,  removed  to 
England  in  1750.     Died  in  1774- 

Ravenet,  (Simon  Francois,)  an  engraver,  born  in 
London  about  1755,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
went  to  Parma,  and  engraved  the  works  of  Correggio. 
Died  about  1812. 

Ravenna,  da,  di  rS-ven'nS,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Ravenna  about  1496,  was  a  pupil  of 


He  is  called  Ravenhn  in  Southev's  "  Curse  of  Kehama.' 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  fe,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  fi,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obsan-e;  ftr,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


RA  VENN  A 


2033 


RAY 


Raimondi.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1527. 

Ravenna,  di,  de  ri-vSn'nJ,  (  Giovanni  Malpa- 
GHINO,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar,  born  at  Ravenna. 
He  was  employed  by  Petrarch  as  a  copyist,  and  after- 
wards taught  the  classics  at  Florence.     Died  about  1420. 

Ra'vens-croft,  (John  Stark,)  born  in  Prince  George 
county,  Virginia,  in  1772,  was  elected  in  1823  Bishop  of 
»he  diocese  of  North  Carolina.     Died  in  1830. 

Ra'vens-croft,  (Thomas,)  an  English  composer, 
born  in  1592.  He  published  in  161 1  a  collection  of 
songs  called  "Melismata,  Musical  Phansies,"  etc.,  and  in 
1621  "The  Whole  Book  of  Psalms,  composed  into  Four 
Parts  by  Sundry  Authors  to  such  Several  Tunes  as  are 
usually  sung  in  England,"  etc.  He  was  the  composer 
of  some  of  these  tunes. 

Ravesteyn,  van,  vtn  ra'veh-stTn',(HuBERT,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  about  1645,  painted  fairs,  interiors 
of  shops,  etc. 

Ravesteyn,  van,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  about  1575.  His  works  are  highly 
praised  by  Descamps  and  others.  Died  at  the  Hague  in 
1657,    His  son  Arnold  (1615-67)  was  a  portrait-painter. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Ravesteyn,  van,  (Nikolaas,)  a  relative  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Bommel  in  1661.  He  painted  por- 
traits and  history  with  success.  Died  at  Bommel  in  1750. 

Ravignan,  de,  deh  rt'vfen'yflN',  (Gustave  Francois 
Xavier  Delacroix,)  a  French  Jesuit,  noted  as  a  pulpit 
orator,  was  born  at  Bayonne  in  1795.  He  preached  in 
Notre-Dame,  Paris,  for  ten  years,  (1837-48,)  and  wrote 
a  book  in  defence  of  the  Jesuits,  (7th  edition,  1855.) 
Died  in  1858. 

See  P.  DE  PoNLEVov,  "Le  P^re  de  Ravignan,"  2  vols.,  1850;  H. 
DE  Saint-Albin,  "Vie  du  Pere  de  Ravignan." 

Ra-visl-us  Tex'tor,  the  Latin  name  of  Jean  Tixier 
DE  Ravisi,  (te'se-i'  deh  rt've'ze',)  a  French  classical 
scholar,  born  in  Nivernais  about  1480.  He  published 
"Latin  Epithets,"  ("Epitheta  Latina,"  1518,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1524. 

Ravius,  ri've-us.  Rave,  r  J'veh,  or  Rau,  row,  (Chris- 
tian,) a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1603,  or, 
as  others  say,  in  1613.  He  went  to  the  Levant  in  1639, 
and  studied  the  Turkish,  Persian,  Italian,  Modern  Greek, 
etc.  at  Smyrna.  In  1644  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Utrecht,  and  in  1651  became  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Upsal.  Among  his  works  are  a  Latin  version 
of  part  of  the  Koran,  "  Prima:  tredecim  Partium  Alcora- 
ni,"  etc.,  (1646,)  and  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  and  Chaldaic  Languages,"  (1650.)    Died  in  1677. 

See  BuRMANN,  "Trajectum  eruditum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
C^n^rale." 

Ravizza,  rS-vJt'sJ  or  ri-vit'sj,  (Domenico,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1707;  died  in  1767. 

Rawdon,  Lord.     See  Hastings,  Marquis  of. 

Rawle,  rawl,  (William,)  a  distinguished  American 
jurist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1759,  was  appointed  by 
Washington  district  attorney  of  Pennsylvania.  He  drew 
up  the  new  civil  code  of  Pennsylvania,  and  wrote  several 
legal  works.     Died  in  1836. 

Rawleigh.     See  Raleigh. 

Raw'Iey,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Norwich  about  1588.  He  became  chaplain  to  Lord 
Bacon  and  to  Charles  I.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Bacon," 
which  Hallam  calls  "the  best  authority  we  have,"  and 
edited  the  works  of  Bacon,  (1657.)     Died  in  1667. 

Raw'lins,  (John  A.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  in  Jo  Daviess  county,  Illinois,  in  1831,  was 
a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  became  assistant 
adjutant-general  of  General  Grant  in  September,  1861, 
and  served  as  such  in  the  campaigns  of  1862  and  1863. 
In  March,  1865,  he  was  appointed  chief  of  General 
Grant's  stafT,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army.  He  became  secretary  of  war  in  March. 
1869.     Died  in  September,  1S69. 

Raw'lin-son,  (Christopher,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Essex  in  1677.  He  published  an  edition  of  King 
Alfred's  Saxon  version  of  Boethius"De  Consolatione 
Philosophise,"  (1698.)     Died  in  1733. 

RaTwlinson,  (Rev.  George,)  an  English  scholar,  born 
about  181 5.  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  Exeter  College  in  1840.    He  became  professor 


of  ancient  history  at  Oxford  in  1861.  He  published  a 
translation  of  Herodotus,  (4  vois.,  1858-60,)  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  his  brother  Sir  Henry,  and  "  The 
Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World," 
(4  vols.,  1S62-68,)  a  "  Manual  of  Ancient  History,"  (1869,) 
"  The  Sixth  Great  Monarchy,"  (1873,)  and  "  The  Seventh 
Great  Oriental  Monarchy,"'(i876.) 

Rawlinson,  (Sir  Henry  Creswick,)  an  English 
Orientalist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Oxfordshire  in  1810.  He  entered  the  military  service 
of  the  East  India  Company  about  1826,  and  served  in 
Persia  some  years,  during  which  he  studied  the  Persian 
cuneiform  inscriptions  with  success.  In  1S43  l^e  became 
political  resident,  or  agent,  at  Bagdad.  He  deciphered 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  at  Nineveh,  and  wrote  "An 
Outline  of  the  History  of  Assyria  as  collected  from  the 
Inscriptions,"  etc.,  (1852.)  He  was  sent  as  British  am- 
bassador to  the  court  of  Persia  in  1859,  and  served  in 
Parliament  from  1865  to  1868. 

Rawlinson,  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  London  about  1690.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Anthony 
Wood,"  (171 1,)  and  "  The  English  Topographer,"  (1720.) 
Died  in  1755. 

Rawlinson,  (Thomas,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1680.  He  was  noted  as  a  collector  of 
books,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  original  of 
Addison's  character  of  "  Tom  Folio."  (See  the  "Tatler," 
No.  158.)     Died  in  1725. 

Raw'son,  (Albert  Lawson,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Chester,  Vermont,  October  15,  1829. 
He  travelled  extensively,  and  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  in  disguise.  As  an  artist,  he  illustrated  many 
books.  He  also  wrote  a  large  number  of  books,  chiefly 
on  Biblical  and  religious  subjects. 

Raw'son,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  surgeon  and 
oculist,  born  in  Cornwall.  His  family  name  was  Adams, 
which  he  exchanged  for  Rawson  when  he  became  heir 
to  a  person  of  that  name.  He  settled  in  London  in  1810. 
Died  in  1829. 

Raxis,  rik'sSss',  (Ga^tan,)  Comte  de  Flassans,  a 
French  publicist,  born  at  Bedouin  in  1760.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  French 
Diplomacy,"  (6  vols.,  1808.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

Ray,  (Isaac,)  M.D.,  an  .'\merican  physician,  born  at 
Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  1867,  was  appointed  in  1841 
superintendent  of  the  State  Insane  Hospital  at  Augusta, 
Maine,  and  in  1845  of  the  Butler  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane at  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  He  published  "  Med- 
ical Jurisprudence  of  Insanity,"  (1838.)  In  1867  he 
removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  died,  March  31,  1881. 

Ray  or  Wray,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  botanist 
and  zoologist,  born  near  Braintree,  in  Essex,  on  the 
29th  of  November,  1628,  was  the  son  of  a  blacksmith. 
He  studied  in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  Greek  lecturer  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  In 
1660  he  published  a  "Catalogue  of  Plants  growing 
around  Cambridge."  He  was  ordained  as  a  priest,  but 
declined  to  subscribe  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662, 
and  never  performed  clerical  functions.  He  found  a 
friend  and  patron  in  Francis  Willoughby,  in  company 
with  whom  he  made  scientific  excursions  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy  in  1663-66.  In  1667  he  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  a  "Cata- 
logue of  the  Plants  of  England,"  ("Catalogus  Plan- 
tarum  Anglise,"  1670  or  1677,)  and  in  1682  a  "  New 
Method  of  Plants,"  ("Methodus  Plantarum  Nova,")  in 
which  he  proposed  a  new  method  of  classification.  Of 
this  work  Cuvier  and  Du  Petit-Thouars  ("  Biographie 
Universelle")  remark,  "  We  find  the  natural  families  of 
plants  better  defined,  and  the  grand  division  of  mono- 
cotyledons and  bicotyledons  fully  established ;  he  gave 
the  characters  of  many  classes  with  much  precision,  and 
introduced  several  technical  terms  which  are  very  use- 
ful ;  finally,  he  established  many  principles  and  general 
laws  of  classification  which  have  since  been  adopted." 
His  principal  or  largest  botanical  work  is  "  Universal 
History  of  Plants,"  ("  Historia  Plantarum  Universalis," 
3  vols.,  16S6-1704.)  Ray  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
modern  zoologist  who  made  use  of  comparative  anat- 
omy. He  published  in  1693  "  Synopsis  of  Quadrupeds 
and   Serpents,"   ("  Synopsis   Animalium   Quadrupedum 


cas  k;  9  as  ,r;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,g74ttnral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ({J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

128 


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et  Serpenlini  Generis.")  "  His  works  on  zoology,"  says 
Cuvier,  "  are  even  more  important  than  those  on  botany, 
for  their  utility  has  been  more  durable.  They  may  be 
considered  as  the  foundation  of  all  modern  zoology.  .  .  . 
His  distribution  of  the  classes  of  quadrupeds  and  birds 
has  been  followed  by  the  English  naturalists  almost  to 
our  own  days."    He  wrote  other  works.    Died  in  1705. 

See  Dr.  Derham,  "Select  Remains  of  J.  Ray,"  1760;  "  Memo- 
rials of  J.  Ray,"  bv  Edwin  Lankester,  Svo,  1844;  "  Biojjaphia 
Britannica :"  Dr.  Hoefbr's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale  ;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ray,  (Joseph,)  an  American  mathematician,  born  in 
1807.  He  was  an  eminent  teacher,  employed  in  various 
places,  and  published  several  works  on  algebra  and 
arithmetic.     Died  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1855. 

Ray,  (William,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Salis- 
bury, Connecticut,  in  1771  ;  died  in  1S27. 

Rayer,  rt'yi',  (Pierre  Francois  Olive,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Saint-Sylvain  (Calvados)  in  1793.  He 
practised  in  Paris,  and  in  1852  was  comprised  in  the 
medical  service  of  the  household  of  the  emperor.  He 
published  several  works.     Died  September  10,  1867. 

Rayleigh,  ra'le,  (John  Wii.lia.m  Strutt,)  Lord,  an 
English  mathematician  and  physicist,  born  November 
12,  1S42.  He  was  a  near  relative  of  the  late  Captain 
Hedley  Vicars.  He  graduated,  as  senior  wrangler,  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1865,  and  succeeded  to 
the  peerage  in  1873.  In  1884  he  was  president  of  the 
British  Association.  He  published  scientific  papers  of 
high  value,  also  "The  Theory  of  Sound,"  (2  vols., 
1877-78.)  He  was  professor  of  experimental  physics  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  1879-85. 

Ray'nipnd  (or  Raimond)  I.,  Count  of  Toulouse, 
succeeded  his  brother  Fredelon  in  852  a.d.  Died  in 
864  or  865. 

Raymond  (or  Raimond)  II.  succeeded  his  father, 
Eudes,  in  918.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Normans 
in  923  A.D.     Died  the  same  year. 

Raymond  III.,  called  Raymond  Pons,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  began  to  reign  in  923.  His  dominions 
included  the  large  territory  extending  from  the  Loire 
to  the  Pyrenees  and  eastward  to  the  Rhone.  Died 
about  950. 

Raymond  IV.,  called  Raymond  de  Saint-Gilles, 
became  Count  of  Toulouse  about  1090,  about  the  age  of 
forty-five.  He  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  princes  of 
Southern  Europe,  and  was  a  famous  leader  in  the  first 
crusade.  In  1096  he  led  a  large  army  (about  100,000 
men)  by  land  to  Asia.  Jerusalem  was  taken  in  1099  by 
the  crusaders,  who  appreciated  so  highly  the  talents  and 
merit  of  Raymond  that  they  offered  him  the  throne ;  but 
he  declined  it.  He  died  at  Tripoli  in  1105,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Bertrand. 

See  Moi.iNK  de  Saint-Yon,  "  Histoire  desComtes  de  Toulouse," 
4  vols.,  1S62  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Raymond  V.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1134,  became  Count  of  Toulouse  in  1148.  He  married 
Constance,  a  sister  of  Louis  VII.  of  France.  Henry  II. 
of  England  invaded  his  dominions  and  besieged  Tou- 
louse about  1160,  but  Raymond,  aided  by  Louis  of 
France,  made  a  successful  resistance.     Died  in  1 194. 

Raymond  VI.,  Count  of  Toulouse,  born  in  11 56, 
succeeded  his  father,  Raymond  V.,  in  II94.  His  reign 
was  disturbed  by  wars  and  crusades  instigated  by  the 
pope  in  order  to  exterminate  the  Albigenses,  who  were 
very  numerous  in  Provence.  Raymond  was  disposed  to 
protect  or  tolerate  these  subjects,  and  was  excommu- 
nicated several  times.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by 
a  large  army  of  crusaders  under  Simon  de  Montfort 
in  1210.  Raymond  opposed  them  bravely  in  several 
battles,  but  was  decisively  defeated  in  12 13,  and  lost 
his  throne.     He  was  restored  in  12 17.     Died  in  1222. 

See  MoLiNE  DE  Saint- Yon,  "  Histoire  desComtes  de  Toulouse," 
4  vols.,  1862  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^u^rale." 

Raymond,  the  last  Count  of  Toulouse,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  made  peace  with  the  po])e  and  became  a 
persecutor  of  the  Albigenses.     Died  in  1249. 

Raymond,  x^mbti',  (George  Marie,)  a  meritorious 
teacher  and  writer,  born  at  Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1769. 
He  published  a  variety  of  works  on  education,  morality, 
etc,  and  wrote  many  articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle."     Died  in  1839. 


Ray'mond,  (Henry  Jarvis,)  an  able  American  jour- 
nalist, born  in  Livingston  county.  New  York,  in  1820. 
He  became  associate  editor  of  the  "New  York  Courier 
and  Enquirer"  in  1S43,  and  in  1851  founded  the  "New 
York  Times."  He  was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  the  .State  in  1854,  and,  a.s  a  leader  of  the  Republican 
party,  favoured  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln  in  i860. 
The  "  New  York  Times,"  which  he  continued  to  edit 
until  his  death,  was  very  successful.  In  1864  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Republican  voters 
of  New  York  City.  He  published  "The  Life,  Public 
Services,  and  State  Papers  of  Abraham  Lincoln,"  (1865.) 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  National  Conven- 
tion of  the  friends  of  Andrew  Johnson  which  met  in 
Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  i866  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  new  political  party,  and  wrote  the  address  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States  which  that  convention 
issued.  This  enterprise  proved  a  complete  failure. 
Died  in  June,  1869. 

See  "  Henry  J.  Raymond  and  the  New  York  Press  for  Thijty 
Years,"  by  Augustus  Maverick,  1870. 

Raymond,  ri'm6N',  (Jean  Arnaud, )  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1742,  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute.     Died  in  181 1. 

Raymond,  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Saint- Vallier  (DrSme)  in  1766.  He  was  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Lyons.  About  1810  he  discovered  a  colour 
called  bleii-Raymotid,  for  which  he  received  a  present  of 
8000  francs  from  the  government.     Died  in  1837. 

Raymond,  (Michel  Joachim  Marie,)  an  able 
French  general,  born  near  Auch  in  1755.  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  Niz.^m  of  Deccan  about  1786,  and 
fought  against  the  English  and  Mahrattas.  Died  at 
Hyderabad  in  1798. 

Raymond,  (Miner,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  preacher 
and  educator,  born  in  New  York  city,  August  29,  1811. 
He  was  jjrincipal  of  the  Wilbraham  Academy,  1S48-54, 
and  in  1864  became  professor  of  systematic  theology  in 
the  Biblical  Institute  at  Evanston,  Illinois.  His  principal 
work  is  "Systematic  Theology,"  (1879.) 

Raymond,  (Robert,)  Lord,  an  English  judge,  born 
about  1673,  was  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in 
the  reign  of  George  I.,  and  a  privy  councillor.  His 
"Reports"  were  published  in  3  vols.     Died  in  1733. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices.'" 

Raymond,  (Rossiter  Worthington,)  Ph.D.,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Cincinnati,  April  27,  1840, 
was  educated  at  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute,  and  at 
Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Freiberg,  Germany,  served  in 
the  United  States  army,  1862-64,  and  was  United  States 
commissioner  of  mining  statistics,  1S68-76,  and  lecturer 
on  economic  geology  at  Lafayette  College,  1870-82. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Mines  of  the  West,"  "  Mines, 
Mills,  and  Furnaces,"  "United  States  Mining  Industry," 
"Silver  and  Gold,"  etc.,  originally  published  in  eight  vol- 
umes of  government  reports,  "  A  Glossary  of  Mining  and 
Metallurgical  Terms,"  (iSSi,)  also  "The  Children's 
Week,"  (1871.)  "Brave  Hearts,"  a  novel,  (1873,)  "The 
Man  in  the  Moon,  and  Other  People,"  (1S74,)  "The 
Book  of  Job,"  (1S7S,)  etc 

Raymond,  (Xavier,)  a  French  journalist,  born  in 
Paris,  June  20,  1812.  He  became  an  editor  of  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  about  1838,  and  published  works 
entitled  "  L'Afghanistan,"  (1843,)  "  L'Inde,"  (1845,) 
"  The  Navies  of  France  and  of  England,"  (1862,)  etc 

Raymond-Berenger.     See  B^renger. 

Raymond  Lulli.     See  Lulli. 

Raymond  (Raimond,  rl-mond',  orRamon,  rJ-mon' ) 
de  Peiiafort,  (Pegnafort,)  di  j^in'yi-foRt',  a  Spanish 
canonist  and  Dominican,  born  at  Barcelona  in  1175  or 
1 186.     He  compiled  the  "Decretals."     Died  in  1275, 

Raymondi.     See  Raimondl 

Raynal,  rk'nSl',  (Guili.au.me  Thomas  Franqois,) 
L'Ahb6,  a  French  philosopher  and  historian,  born  at 
Saint-Geniez,  in  Rouergue,  in  1 711.  He  was  a  priest  in 
his  youth,  but  renounced  that  profession  soon  after  his 
removal  to  Paris,  (1747.)  He  pul)lished  several  mediocre 
histories,  and  becanie  intimate  with  Helvetius  and  Baron 
Holbach.  He  acquired  temporary  celebrity  by  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Colonies  planted  by  Europeans  in  America 
and  India,  and  of  their  Influence  on  the  Political  Con- 


a.  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  vah' ;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


RA  YNAL 


2035 


READ 


dition,  Commerce,  and  Prosperity  of  Europe,"  ("His- 
toire  philosophique  et  politique  des  Etaljlissements  et 
du  Commerce  des  Europeens  dans  les  deux  Indes,"  4 
vols.,  1770.)  It  is  said  that  Diderot  wrote  sonic  of  the 
ablest  passages  of  this  work,  which  abounds  in  declama- 
tions against  the  political  and  religious  institutions  of 
France.  The  Parliament  in  1781  ordered  the  book  to 
be  buint  and  the  author  to  be  arrested  ;  but  he  escaped, 
and  passed  about  six  years  in  exile.  Died  in  Paris  in 
1796. 

See  A.  Jay,  "  Notice  biosraphique  sur  Rayiial,"  1821  ;  Cherhal- 
MoNTRitAL,  "  filcge  philosophique  de  Raynal,"  1796;  "  Nouvellft 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Raynal,  de,  deh  ri'nSl',  (Louis  Hector  Chaudru,) 
a  French  historian  of  the  present  age.  His  chief  work 
is  a  "  History  of  Berri,"  {4  vols.,  1844-47.) 

Raynaud,  r&'no',  written  also  Rainaud  and  Rai- 
naudo,  (ri-now'do,)  (Thi£oi*hile,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  in  the  county  of  Nice  in  1583.  He  wrote  many 
works  on  theology,  which  obtained  success,  though 
they  are  said  to  be  trivial  and  prolix.     Died  in  1663. 

See  MoRiRi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Rayneval,  de,  deh  rin'vtl',  (Alphonse  G6rard,)  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1813.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  represent  the  French  government  at  the  court 
of  Pius  IX.  after  his  flight  to  Gaeta,  (1849,)  and  entered 
Rome  with  the  army  which  restored  the  pope.  He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  ambassador  in  1851,  and  remained 
at  Rome  in  that  capacity  six  years.     Died  in  1858. 

Rayneval,  de,  (Francois  Maximilien  Gerard,) 
the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1778.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1829,  and  to  Madrid  in 
1832.     Died  at  Madrid  in  1836. 

His  father,  Joseph,  (1746-1812,)  was  author  of  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,"  (3d 
edition,  1832,)  and  "On  the  Liberty  of  the  Seas,"  (2 
vols.,  181 1.) 

Raynolds.    See  Rainolds. 

Raynouard,  ri'noo-tR',  (FRANgois  Juste  Marie,)  a 
French  author  and  philologist,  born  at  Brignoles  (Pro- 
vence) in  1761.  He  practised  law  in  his  youth,  was  im- 
prisoned as  a  Girondist  in  1793,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  about  1800.  He  produced  in  1805  a  tragedy 
(in  verse)  entitled  "The  Templars,"  ("Les  Templiers,") 
which  was  very  successful,  and  opened  to  him  the  doors 
of  the  French  Academy,  (1807,)  of  which  he  became 
perpetual  secretary  in  181 7.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
legislative  body  from  1806  to  1813.  He  wrote  other 
dramas,  and  philological  treatises,  among  which  is  a 
"Dictionary  of  the  Language  of  the  Troubadours,"  (6 
vols.,  1838-44.)     Died  in  1836. 

See  C.  Labitte,  notice  of  Raynouard  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  February  i,  1837;  Reiffenberg,  "A  la  M^moire  de 
F.  J.  M.  Raynouard,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Razee  or  Razt,  Al,  il-rl'zee  or  ar-rJ'zee,  [written  in 
Latin  RA'zis,RA'sis,or  Ra'ses,]  (Ahmed-Ibn-Moham- 
med-Ibn-Moosa,(or-Musa,)  SH'medib'n  mo-hilm'med 
ib'n  moo'sa,)  an  Arabian  historian,  born  at  Cordova,  in 
Spain,  about  866  a.d.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arabs."  Only  portions  of  his 
works  are  extant.  There  appears  to  have  been  another 
Arabian  or  Moorish  historian  bearing  the  same  name. 

See  Al-Makkarf,  "  History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  Gayangos,  vol.  i.  p.  314. 

Ra'zes,  Rha'zes,  or  Ra'sis,  Latin  forms  of  the  sur- 
name Razee,  rd'zee,  (or,  rather,  Ar-Razee  or  Ar-RazI,) 
of  a  celebrated  Arabian  physician,  whose  proper  name 
was  MoHAMMED-IiiN-ZAKARiA-ABOO-BEKR,  (mo-him'- 
med  Tb'n  za-k3-ree'a  i'b5o  b§kr'.)  He  was  born  in 
Irak-Ajemee  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  He 
practised  at  Bagdad,  and  travelled  into  several  foreign 
countries.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Al-Hawi," 
or  "Continens,"  and  a  treatise  on  the  smallpox  and 
measles.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  de- 
scribed the  smallpox  accurately.   Died  about  930  a.d. 

See  Ibn-Khali.ikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  Sprrngel, 
"  Geschichte  der  Medicin  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Razis.     See  Razee. 

Razoomofski  or  Razoumovski,  ra-zoo-mof'skee, 
written  also  Razunioiwskij,  (Gregory,)  a  Russian 
savant,  published  in  French  several  works  on  mineralogy, 


and  "  Coup-d'QEil  geognostique  sur  le  Nord  de  I'Europe," 
(1816.)     Died  in  Moravia  in  1837. 

Razout,  r^'zoo',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Paris  in  1772.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
general  of  division  at  Borodino  (1812)  and  at  Dresden, 
(1813.)     Died  in  1820. 

Razzi,  rSt'see,  or  Bazzi,  (Giovanni  Antonio,) 
Cavaliere,  surnamed  il  Sodoma,  {kX  so-do'mS,)  an 
able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Vercelli,  in  Piedmont,  or  at 
Vergelli,  near  Sienna,  about  1479.  ^^e  painted  in  the 
Vatican  some  works  which  were  effaced  by  order  of 
Julius  II.  to  make  room  for  those  of  Raphael.  The 
palace  called  Farnesina,  at  Rome,  contains  his  picture 
of  "The  Marriage  of  Roxana."  He  afterwards  worked 
at  Sienna.  A  picture  of  "The  Scourging  of  Christ"  (at 
Sienna)  is  called  his  master-piece.     Died  about  1550. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Razzi,  (GiROLAMO,)  afterwards  called  Silvano,  sil- 
vi'no,  an  Italian  monk  and  writer,  born  at  Florence 
about  1530.  He  produced  several  dramas  and  biogra- 
phies.    Died  in  1611. 

Re,  ra,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  agriculturist,  born  at 
Reggio  in  1763.  He  published  in  1798  an  excellent 
work  on  agriculture,  "Elementi  d'Agricoltura,"  (2  vols.,) 
and  became  professor  of  agriculture  at  Bologna  in  1803. 
He  was  author  of  other  works  on  rural  economy,  etc. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  A.  Fappani,  "  Elogio  del  Confe  F.  Re."  1820. 

Re,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian  botanist  and 
physician,  born  near  Susa  in  1773.  He  published  a 
"Flora  of  Susa,"  (1805,)  and  a  "Flora  of  Turin,"  (2 
vols.,  1825,)  both  in  Latin.     Died  at  Turin  in  1833. 

Rea,  ra,  (William,)  an  English  musician,  born  in 
London,  March  25,  1S27.  He  is  distinguished  as  a 
pianist  and  organist,  and  has  published  a  few  songs  and 
anthems. 

Reach,  (Angus  Bethune,)  a  Scottish  author  and 
journalist,  born  at  Inverness  in  1821.  He  wrote  a  novel 
entitled  "  Clement  Lorimer,"  and  contributed  to  various 
periodicals.     Died  in  1856. 

Read,  (Abner,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1820.  He  served  in  the  civil  war  with  dis- 
tinction, and  gained  the  rank  of  commander.  He  wa.? 
killed  near  Donaldsonville,  Louisiana,  in  July,  1863. 

See  Tennev,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  763. 

Read,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  medical  writer,  grad- 
uated at  Oxford  in  1620  ;  died  about  1680. 

Read,  (George,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Maryland  in 
1733-  ^^s  ^^^^  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774,  and 
was  subsequently  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
framed  the  United  States  Constitution,  and  ciiief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State  of  Delaware.  Died 
in  1798. 

Read,  (John  Meredith,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1797,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1818,  and  became 
a  district  attorney  of  the  United  States.  In  1851  he  was 
associated  with  Thaddeus  Stevens  as  counsel  for  the 
defence  in  the  celebrated  trial  of  C.  Hanway  for  con 
structive  treason.  About  1854  he  began  to  advocate  the 
principles  of  the  Republican  party  by  his  speeches  and 
writings.  About  i860  he  was  elected  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania.     Died  Nov.  29,  1874. 

Read,  (John  Meredith,)  an  American  lawyer,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  February  21, 
1837.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1S5S,  and 
at  the  Albany  Law  School  in  1859,  afterwards  studying 
law  in  Europe.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  ^'^' 
taining  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  In  186S  he  was 
appointed  consul-general  at  Paris,  acting  also  as  consul- 
general  for  Germany  (in  France)  during  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-71.  He  was  United  States  minister 
to  Greece,  1873-79. 

Read,  (Nathan,)  an  American  mechanician,  born  in 
Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  invented 
a  machine  for  cutting  nails  which  formed  heads  on  the 
nails  by  the  same  operation.  In  1800  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress.  He  made  some  improvements 
•in  the  steam-engine  about  1790.    Died  in  Maine  in  1849. 


€  as  /6;  s  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy,-  G,  H,  Vi,giittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


READ 


20:6 


REBOULET 


Read,  (Thomas  Buchanan,)  a  distinguished  Amer- 
ican poet  and  artist,  born  in  Chester  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1S22.  He  visited  Italy  in  1850,  and  subsequently 
spent  some  time  in  England,  where  he  published  a  col- 
lection of  poems,  which  were  very  favourably  received. 
He  afterwards  resided  several  years  at  Florence  and 
Rome,  whence  he  returned  in  1858.  Among  his  works 
may  be  named  his  prose  romance  "The  Pilgrims  of  the 
Great  Saint  Bernard,"  and  his  poems  of  "  The  House 
by  the  Sea,"  "  The  New  Pastoral,"  (1855,)  "  Sylvia,  or  the 
Lost  Shepherd,"  etc.,  (1857,)  ^"d  "The  Wagoner  of  the 
Aliegiienies,  a  Poem,"  (1862.)  Among  his  best  pictures 
are  his  group  of  "Longfellow's  Children,"  and  "Sheri- 
dan's Ride,"  illustrating  one  of  his  most  popular  poems. 
He  died  May  11,  1872. 

Reade,  reed,  (Charles,)  a  poj^ular  English  novelist, 
born  in  1814,  graduated  at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford, 
in  1835.  He  established  his  reputation  by  "  Peg  Wof- 
fington"  (1852)  and  "Christie  Johnstone,"  (1853.)  \\\ 
1856  he  publislied  "  Never  too  Late  to  Mend."  Among 
his  other  novels  are  "Love  me  Little,  Love  me  Long," 
(1859,)  "The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth,"  (1861,)  "Very 
Hard  Cash,"  (1863,)  "Griffith  Gaunt,"  (1866,)  "Foul 
Play,"  (1868,)  (written  conjointly  with  Boucicault,)  "  Put 
Yourself  in  his  Place,"  (1870,)  "A  Terrible  Tempta- 
tion," (1871,)  etc     Died  April  11,  18S4. 

Reade,  (John  Edmund,)  an  English  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  in  1805  ;  died  in  1870. 

Reade,  (William  Winwood,)  an  English  author  and 
traveller,  born  at  Ipsden,  O.xfordshire,  in  1839.  He 
travelled  in  Africa,  1862-63,  1S68-70,  and  1873-74. 
Among  his  works  are  "Savage  Africa,"  (1863,)  "Mar- 
tyrdom of  Man,"  (1872,)  "African  Sketch-Book,"  (1S73,) 
"Story  of  the  Ashantee  Campaign,"  (1875,)  ^""^  several 
novels.     Died  at  Wimbledon,  April  24,  1875. 

Reading,  rSd'ing,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1588.  He  was  chaplain  to  Charles 
I.,  and  favoured  the  royalist  cause  in  the  civil  war.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  theology.     Died  in  1667. 

Reagan,  ree'gan,  >  (John  H.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Sevier  county,  Tennessee,  in  1818.  He  emi- 
grated to  Texas,  and  became  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1857.  He  was  re-elected  in  1859.  He  was  postmaster- 
general  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March,  1861, 
to  April,  1865.     He  re-entered  Congress  in  1876. 

Real,  de,  deh  ri'tl',  (Gaspard,)  Seigneur  de  Curban, 
a  French  publicist,  born  at  Sisteron  in  1682.  Pie  wrote 
an  able  work  "On  the  Science  of  Government,"  (8 
vols.,  1751-64.)     Died  at  Paris  in  1752. 

R^al,  de,  (Pierre  FRANgois,)  Count,  a  French  poli- 
tician and  lawyer,  born  near  Paris  about  1760.  He  was 
a  partisan  of  Danton  in  1793,  and  contributed  actively 
in  1799  to  the  success  of  Bonaparte,  who  appointed  him 
a  councillor  of  state  and  gave  him  in  1808  the  title  of 
count.     Died  in  1834. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Real,  Saint.     See  Saint-R^al. 

Realir,  ralf,  (Richard,)  a  poet,  born  at  Framfield, 
Sussex,  England,  June  14,  1834,  in  very  humble  life. 
lie  published  "  Guesses  at  the  Beautiful"  (poems)  in 
1852,  and  in  1S54  came  to  the  United  States.  In  1S56 
he  went  to  Kansas,  and  was  there  an  associate  with  John 
Brown.  He  served,  1862-66,  in  the  United  States  vol- 
unteers, and  was,  1868-70,  in  the  United  States  civil 
service.  He  afterwards  became  a  lecturer  and  journalist, 
and  died  by  suicide  at  Oakland,  California,  October  28, 
1S78.  Realfs  poetry,  like  his  personality,  had  strongly- 
niarked  and  characteristic  features,  but  it  was  the  product 
ot  a  true,  though  somewhat  erratic  and  uncouth,  genius. 
A  remarkable  succession  of  misfortunes  followed  him 
through  life,  partly,  no  doubt,  as  a  result  of  his  own 
peculiarities  of  temperament. 

Realino,  ri<^-lee'no,  (Bernardino,)  a  learned  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Carpi  in  1530.  He  wrote  notes  on  Catul- 
lus and  other  ancient  authors.     Died  in  1616. 

Reaumur,  de,  deh  ri'o'miiR',  (Ren6  Antoine  Fer- 
CHAULT,)  a  celebrated  French  natural  philosopher  and 
entomologist,  born  at  Rochelle  in  February,  1683.  He 
inherited  an  easy  or  independent  fortune,  and  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  in  1703.  By  some  memoirs  on 
geometry  he  obtained  admission  into  the  Academy  of* 


Sciences  in  1708.  His  favourite  studies  were  general 
physics,  natural  history,  and  the  industrial  arts.  He 
made  important  discoveries  or  improvements  in  the  fab- 
rication of  steel,  and  published  in  1722  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Converting  Iron  into  Steel,"  for  which  he  received 
a  pension  of  12,000  livres.  He  made  successful  experi- 
ments on  the  artificial  incubation  of  eggs  and  on  the 
manufacture  of  tin  wares.  His  most  important  contribu- 
tion to  general  physics  was  the  thermometer,  which  he 
invented  in  1731.  He  divided  the  interval  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling  points  of  water  into  eighty  degrees. 
"  The  most  remarkable  of  the  works  of  Reaumur,"  says 
Cuvier,  "are  his  'Memoirs  Illustrating  the  History  of 
Insects,'  ('Memoires  pour  servir  i  I'Histoire  des  In- 
sectes,'  6  vols.,  1734-42.)  The  author  here  exhibits  the 
highest  degree  of  sagacity  in  the  observation  and  dis- 
covery of  all  those  instincts,  so  complicated  and  so 
constant  in  each  species,  which  maintain  these  feeble 
creatures.  He  constantly  excites  our  curiosity  by  new 
and  singular  details.  .  .  .  Unfortunately,  it  is  not  quite 
finished."     Died  in  1757. 

See  Haller,  "  I'ibliotheca  Botanica ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rebecque.    See  Constant. 

Rebecqui,  reh-bi'ke',  (  Fran(;ois  Trophime,  )  a 
French  Girondist,  born  at  Marseilles  about  1760.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  was  proscribed  in 
June,  1793,  and  escaped  to  Marseilles.  Having  learned 
the  fate  of  his  colleagues,  he  drowned  himself  in  the  sea 
in  Tune,  1794. 

Rebel,  reh'bSl',  (Jean  Ferry,)  a  French  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1669.  He  is  chiefly 
remembered  for  his  violin-solos.  Died  in  1747.  His 
son  Francois,  born  in  1701,  produced  in  collaboration 
with  Fran9oi3  Francceur  a  number  of  operas  that  were 
successful  in  their  day.     Died  in  1775. 

Rebentisch,  ra'ben-tish',  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a 
German  botanist,  born  at  Landsberg  in  1772.  He  ]5ub- 
lished  a  Catalogue  of  Plants  growing  near  Berlin,  (1805.) 
Died  in  1810. 

R6ber,  ri'baiR',  (Napoleon  Henri,)  a  French  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Mulhouse  in  1807.  He 
composed  melodies  for  a  single  voice,  and  comic  operas, 
entitled  "  Christmas  Eve,"  (1848,)  "  Le  Pere  Gaillard," 
(1852,)  etc.     Died  November  25,  1880. 

Rebkow  or  Repko-wr,  von,  fon  rSp'ko,  [Lat.  Rep- 
KO'vius,]  (Eyke,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Thuringia, 
flourished  about  1210-40.  He  compiled  a  code  or  col- 
lection of  laws,  entitled  "  Speculum  Saxonicum,"  which 
was  extensively  used  in  Germany.  His  German  trans- 
lation of  it,  called  "  Sachsenspiegel,"  was  printed  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Rebolledo,  de,  di  ri-bol-ya'Do,  (  Bernardino,  ) 
Count,  a  Spanish  poet  and  commander,  born  at  Leon 
in  1597.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture  of 
Nice,  (1626,)  commanded  a  corps  of  lancers  in  Flanders 
in  1632,  and  was  the  leader  of  a  fjrce  sent  in  1636  to 
aid  the  emperor  Ferdinand  IT.,  who  rewarded  his  ser- 
vices with  the  title  of  count  of  the  empire.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Denmark  about  1650  or 
1648.  lie  showed  respectable  talents  as  a  poet  in  his 
"Military  and  Political  Groves,".^  ("  Selvas  militares  y 
politicas,"  1652,)  "Selvas  Danicas,"  (1655,)  and"Selva9 
sagradas,"  (1657.)     Died  at  Madrid  in  1676. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Bouterwek, 
"  Geschichte  der  Poesie." 

Reboul,  reh-booK,  (Henri  Paul  Ir6n:^e,)  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Pezenas  in  1763.  He  assisted  Lavoisier 
in  his  scientific  labours,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on 
geology  and  other  sciences.  He  was  appointed  admin- 
istrator of  Lombardy  by  Bonaparte  about  1798.  Died 
in  1839. 

Reboul,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Nimes  in 
1796.  He  produced  in  1828  a  poem  called  "The  Angel 
and  the  Infant,"  which  was  much  praised.  He  after- 
wards wrote  other  successful  poems.     Died  in  1864. 

See  CoLLOMBET,  "  fitude  biographique  sur  Reboul,"  1839. 

Reboulet,  reh-boo'Ii',  (Simon,)  a  French  historian 
born  at  Avignon  in  1687.  He  wrote  a  mediocre  "  His- 
tory of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (3  vols.,  1742-44.) 
Died  in  1752. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  )•, sho7-t;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mJt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RE  BUFFI 


2037 


REDESDALE 


RebiifB,  reh-bii'fe',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French 
jurist,  born  near  Montpellier  in  1487.  He  lectured  on 
law  at  Bourses  and  Paris,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1557. 

Recamier,  ri'kS'me-i',  (Jeanne  Francjoise  Julie 
Adelaide  Bernard,)^  beautiful  and  accomplished 
French  lady,  born  at  Lyons  in  1777.  She  was  married 
to  M.  Recamier,  a  rich  banker,  in  1793,  after  which  she 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  Madame  de  Stael.  She 
was  courted  in  vain  by  Napoleon  in  1S05.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  bankruptcy  of  her  husband,  (1806,)  she 
went  to  reside  with  Madame  de  Stael  at  Coppet.  There 
she  captivated  the  heart  of  Prince  August  of  Prussia,  and 
(rave  him  a  promise  of  marriage  ;  but  her  compassion 
/or  her  first  husband,  who  was  living,  prevailed  on  her 
to  break  the  engagement.  In  181 1  she  was  banished 
from  Paris  by  Napoleon,  on  account  of  her  intimacy 
and  sympathy  with  Madarrj  de  Stael  and  other  enemies 
of  the  emperor.  Having  returned  to  Paris  after  the 
restoration,  she  lived  in  intimate  relations  with  Cha- 
teaubriand until  his  death.  Her  salon  at  L'Abbaye-aux- 
Bols  was  the  most  celebrated  of  those  which  flourished 
between  181 5  and  1840.  There  was  a  remarkable  dis- 
proportion between  the  modesty  of  her  life  and  the 
greatness  of  her  fame.  Died  in  1849.  "  We  think  with 
infinite  respect  of  one  who,  having  an  unequalled  in- 
fluence over  the  hearts  and  wills  of  men,  scorned  to  ask 
a  favour,  and  endured  poverty  .  .  .  and  exile,  which  fell 
with  tenfold  severity  on  one  so  beloved  and  admired, 
without  the  smallest  sacrifice  of  dignity  and  independ- 
ence."    ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  i860.) 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Madame  R&amier,"  trans- 
lated from  the  French  and  edited  by  Miss  Luyster,  Boston,  1867; 
an  eloquently-written  article  on  "Madame  Recamier  and  her 
Friends,"  in  the  "Cliristian  Examiner"  for  May,  1S67;  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  October,  1864;  W.  H.  Adams,  "Famous  Beauties 
arid  Historic  Women  ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  i860;  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1849. 

Recamier,  (Joseph  Claude  Anthelme,)  a  French 
physician,  born  near  Belley  (Ain)  in  1774-  He  was 
physician  (midecin  ordinaire)  at  the  Hotel-Dieu,  Paris, 
for  forty  years,  (1806-46,)  and  succeeded  Laennec  as 
professor  at  the  College  of  France  in  1827.  He  was 
deprived  of  this  place  by  the  revolution  of  1830.  D:ed 
in  1852. 

Recchi,  rek'kee,  (Nardo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  bota- 
nist and  physician,  born  at  Montecorvo,  lived  about 
1550-80.  He  prepared  an  abridgment  of  the  manuscripts 
left  by  Hernandez.  After  the  death  of  Recchi  this  work 
was  published  under  the  title  of  "Treasury  of  the  Ma- 
teria Medica  of  New  Spain,"  ("  Rerum  medicinalium 
Novae  Hispaniae  Thesaurus,"  1651.) 

Receveur,  res-vUR',  (FRANgois  Joseph  Xavier,)  .t 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Longueville  (Doubs)  in  1800. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
Church  from  its  Foundation  until  the  Pontificate  of 
Gregory  XVI.,"  (8  vols.,  1840-47.)     Died  in  1854. 

Rechberger,  rSK'b^Rc'er,  (Franz,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man designer,  landscape-i^ainter,  and  etcher,  born  in 
Vienna  in  1771.  His  etchings  of  landscapes  are  said 
to  be  beautiful  and  spirited.     Died  about  1842. 

Recke,  von  der,  fon  der  r^k'keh,  (Elisabeth 
Ch.'VRLOtte  Consta.ntia,)  a  German  authoress,  born 
in  Courland  in  1754.  She  was  for  a  time  a  believer 
in  Cagliostro's  pretensions  of  holding  intercourse  with 
the  dead,  but  subsequently  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Cagliostro  Unmasked,"  (1787.)  She  also  published 
"Travels  in  Italy,"  and  several  poems.     Died  in  1833. 

See  Brockhaos,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Reclam,  rSk'lani,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1734;  died  in  1774. 

Reclam,  (Pierre  Chretien  Fr6d6ric,)  a  Protest- 
ant minister,  of  French  origin,  born  at  Magdeburg  in 
1 741.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  in  Berlin  in  1767. 
Died  in  1789. 

Reclus,  reh-klii',  (£lie  Armand  Ebenhezer,)  a 
brother  of  J.  J.  Elisee  Reclus,  was  born  at  Orthez,  March 
13,  1843.  He  became  a  naval  officer,  and  assisted  in  M. 
de  Lesseps's  Panama  Canal  surveys,  and  has  published 
various  reports  on  the  same.  Paul,  his  younger  brother, 
born  in  1847,  is  a  distinguished  suigeon  of  Paris;  and 
three  sisters  are  actively  engaged  in  literary  work. 


Reclus,  (Jean  Jacques  Elis6e,)  a  distinguished 
French  geographer,  born  at  Sainte-Foy-la-Grande,  of 
Protestant  parents,  March  15,  1830.  Having  travelled 
extensively,  he  in  1S57  began  to  publish  various  books 
of  travel.  Among  his  works  are  "  La  Terre,"  (1S67-6S,) 
"  Les  Phenomenes  terrestres,"  etc.,  (1872,)  "  Nouvelle 
Geographic  uiiiver.selle,"  (1S75  ^^  ^^<!-<)  etc.  For  bearing 
arms  for  the  Paris  Commune  of  1871  he  was  sentenced 
to  death,  but  was  finally  pardoned.  In  1882  he  became 
conspicuous  for  his  anti-marriage  agitation,  and  two  of 
his  daughters  were  made  examples  of  his  devotion  to 
this  new  theory. 

Reclus,  (Michel  Elie,)  a  brother  of  the  foregoing, 
was  born  at  Sainte-Foy-la-Grande,  June  16,  1827.  He 
studied  Protestant  theology,  but  devoted  himself  to 
social  reforms,  and  in  1871  was  condemned  for  having 
been  appointed  director  of  the  National  Library  under 
the  Commune.  He  is  distinguished  as  a  writer  under 
various  pseudonyms. 

Reclus,  (On^sime,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Orthez  in  1837.  He  was  a  soldier  and  traveller, 
and  published  "  La  France  et  ses  Colonies,"  (1873,) 
"  La  Terre  a  Vol  d'Oiseau,"  (1879,)  ^'c. 

Recorde,  rek'prd,  ?  (Robert,)  an  eminent  British 
mathematician,  born  in  Pembrokeshire  about  1500.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1545.  He  also  taught  mathematics  at  Oxford, 
and  published  several  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Ground  of  Arts,  teaching  the  Work  and  Practice  of 
Arithmetic,"  (1540,)  and  "The  Castle  of  Knowledge," 
(1556.)  The  latter  treats  on  astronomy.  He  was  phy- 
sician to  Edward  VI.  and  to  Queen  Mary.  He  is  said 
to  have  invented  the  sign  of  equality  in  algebra.  Died 
in  a  debtor's  prison  in  1558. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenas  Oxonienses  ;"  Hutton,  "Mathematical 
Dictionary." 

Recupero,  ri-koo-pa'ro,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
numismatist,  born  at  Catania  about  1740;  died  in  1803. 

Recupero,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  mineralogist,  born 
at  Catania  in  1720,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
wrote  a  "Natural  History  of  Etna,"  (1815.)  Died  in 
1778  or  1787. 

Recurt,  reh-kiiR',  (Adrien  Barnab6  Athanase,) 
a  French  physician  and  republican,  born  at  Lassalle 
(Hautes-Pyrenees)  in  1797.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1848,  and  became  minister  of 
the  interior  on  the  nth  of  May.  He  was  minister  of 
public  works  in  184S.     Died  November  7,  1S72. 

Redak.     See  Kimchi. 

Red-Beard,  (Barbarossa.)    See  Frederick  I. 

Red' ding,  (Cyrus,)  an  English  journalist  and  poet, 
born  at  Penryn  about  1785.  He  was  associated  with  the 
poet  Campbell  in  the  editorship  of  the  "  New  Monthly 
Magazine"  from  1820  to  1830.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Modern  Wines,"  (1833,) 
"  Literary  Reminiscences  and  Memoirs  of  Thomas 
Campbell,"  (2  vols.,  1859,)  and  "Past  Celebrities  whom 
I  have  known,"  (2  vols.,  1865.)     Died  in  1S70. 

Reden,  von,  fon  ra'den,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Otto  Ludwig,)  Baron,  an  eminent  German  writer  on 
statistics,  was  born  in  Lippe-Detmold  in  1804.  Among 
his  works  are  "  General  and  Comparative  Statistics  of 
Finances,"  (2  vols.,  1851-56,)  and  "Statistics  of  the 
Products  and  Commerce  of  Prussia,"  (3  vols.,  1854.) 
Died  in  1857. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Redern,  von,  fon  ra'dern,  (Sigismond  Ehrenreich,\ 
Count,  a  Prussian  diplomatist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1755. 
He  became  a  partner  of  Saint-Simon,  the  French  so- 
cialist, in  speculations.     Died  in  1835. 

Redesdale,  Baron.  See  Mitford,  (John  Freeman.) 

Redesdale,  reedz'dal,  (John  Thomas  Freenian- 
Mitford,)  Earl  of,  a  British  nobleman,  a  son  of  the 
first  Lord  Redesdale,  (see  MiTFORD.)  He  was  born  in 
Ireland,  September  g,  1805,  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
at  New  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1830  succeeded  as  baron. 
In  185 1  he  became  deputy  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  in  which  body  he  exercised  great  influence,  es- 
pecially in  legislation  upon  private  bills.  His  publica- 
tions are  chiefly  on  religious  subjects.  In  1876  he  was 
advanced  to  the  earldom.     Died  in  1886. 


<i&k;  9as/,'  gkard;  gas/;  G,H,Yi,g  tttural;  a,  nasal;  ^.trilled;  sas«;  thasin//4;j.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REDFIELD 


2038 


REED 


Red'field,  (Isaac  Fletcher,)  LL.D.,  an  American 

furist,  born  at  Weathersfield,  Vermont,  April  10,  1S04. 
le  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1825,  was  a  judge 
of  the  Vermont  supreme  court,  1S35-52,  and  its  chief 
justice,  1852-60,  professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  in 
Dartmouth  College,  185S-62,  and  United  States  special 
(legal)  commissioner  in  Europe,  1867-69.  Among  his 
works  are  "Law  of  Railways,"  (1857,)  "Law  of  Wills," 
(1864,)  "  Law  of  Carriers,"  (1S69,)  etc.  Died  in  Boston 
in  March,  1876, 

Red'field,  (William  C.,)  an  American  geologist  and 
meteorologist,  born  in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1789, 
became  a  resident  of  New  York  about  1S25.  He  con- 
tributed articles  on  meteorology  to  several  periodicals, 
and  wrote  on  steam-navigation.  Died  in  February,  1857. 
"The  ingenious  theories  of  Mr.  Redfield  and  Mr.  Espy," 
says  Griswold,  "  have  commanded  the  respect  and  admira- 
tion of  scholars."     ("Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  27.) 

Red'grave,  (Richard,)  an  English  painter  of  land- 
scapes, domestic  scenes,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  in 
1804.  He  exhibited  in  1837  a  successful  picture  of  "  Gul- 
liver on  the  Farmer's  Table."  His  favourite  subjects 
in  a  subsequent  period  were  illustrations  of  the  trials 
of  the  poor,  such  as  "  The  Sempstress"  and  "  The  Poor 
Teacher."  Among  his  other  works  are  "  The  Country 
Cousins,"  "Ophelia,"  and  "Little  Red-Riding-Hood." 
He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1851.  Died 
December  14,  1S88. 

Redi,  ra'dee,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian  natu- 
lalist  and  poet,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1626.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Florence  with  a  high  reputation,  and  wrote 
poetry  with  success.  In  philosophy  he  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Galileo.  He  is  ranked  among  the  greatest 
observers  of  his  age.  Among  his  works  are  "  Experi- 
ments on  the  Generation  of  Insects,"  (1668,)  a  poem  on 
the  wine  of  Tuscany,  called  "  Bacchus  in  Tuscany," 
("  Bacco  in  Toscana,"  1685,)  and  "Letters  on  Philoso- 
phy, Natural  History,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1724-27.)  "Few 
have  done  so  much  in  any  part  of  science,"  says  Hal- 
lam,  "  who  have  also  shone  so  brightly  in  the  walks 
of  taste.  The  sonnets  of  Redi  are  esteemed  ;  but  his 
famous  dithyrambic  '  Bacco  in  Toscana'  is  admitted  to 
be  the  first  poem  of  that  kind  in  modern  language." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  at 
Pisa  about  1695. 

See  GoRANi,  "  Elogj  di  due  illustri  Scopritori,  (Redi  e  Bandini,") 
1786;  A.  Fabroni,  "  Vits  Italonim  illustriiim  ;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires  ;"  G.  V.  M. 
Fabroni,  "  Elogio  storico  di  F.  Redi,"  1796;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia 
della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

_  Redi,  (TOMMASO  or  Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Florence  in  1665,  was  a 
pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.     Died  in  1726. 

Reding,  von,  fon  ra'ding,  (Aloys,)  a  Swiss  officer, 
born  in  1755.  He  commanded  the  Swiss  troops  that 
checked  the  French  army  at  Morgarten  in  May,  1798, 
and  was  elected  Landamman  in  1801.  He  was  the  chief 
of  the  confederSs,  the  aristocratic  and  anti-Gallican  party. 
Died  in  1818. 

Red  Jack'et,  or  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  ("Keeper- 
Awake,")  a  celebrated  Indian  chief  of  the  Senecas,  born 
in  Western  New  York  about  1759.  He  was  noted  for 
his  eloquence,  and  earnestly  opposed  the  treaty  between 
the  Six  Nations  and  the  United  States  for  the  cession 
of  lands.  General  Washington  bestowed  upon  him  a 
silver  medal.     Died  in  1830. 

Seethe  "Life  and  Times  of  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  or  Red  Jacket," 
1841,  by  William  L.  Stone. 

Red'man  or  Red'mayne,  (John,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1499.  He  was  chosen  master 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1547,  and  became 
archdeacon  of  Taunton.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
theology.     Died  in  1551. 

Red'man,  (John,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1722,  graduated  at  Leyden.  He  acquired 
a  high  reputation  in  his  profession,  and  was  the  first 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 
Died  in  1808. 

Redmayne.     See  Redman. 

Redoute,  reh-doo'ti',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  an  eminent 
French  painter  of  flowers,  born  at  Saint-Hubert,  near 
Liege,  in  1759.   He  worked  mostly  in  Paris,  and  received 


the  title  of  painter  of  the  cabinet  of  Queen  Marie  An- 
toinette. He  published  an  admirable  "  Monography  of 
the  Roses,"  ("  Monographie  des  Roses,"  3  vols.,  1817- 
24.)  In  1832  he  became  professor  of  iconography  at 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris.     Died  in  1840. 

Red'path,  (James,)  an  author  and  political  agitator, 
born  at  Berwick-on-Tweed  in  1833.  He  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Michigan  in  184S,  and  was  afterwards  a  journalist 
and  printer.  He  was  Kansas  correspondent  of  the  New 
York  "Tribune,"  1855-57,  was  still  later  Haytian  consul 
in  Philadelphia,  and  emigration  agent  for  Hayti.  After 
1S65  he  was  superintendent  of  schools  at  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  where  he  founded  schools  for  coloured 
people.  In  186S  he  established  a  lecture  bureau  at 
Boston,  and  later  on  he  was  connected  with  the  home- 
rule  movement  in  Ireland.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  Life  of  John  Brown,"  "  Guide  to  Hayti,"  "  Echoes  of 
Harper's  Ferry,"  etc.     Died  February  10,  1891. 

Redschid.     See  Resheed  Pasha. 

Redwitz,  or  Redwitz-Schmeltz,  von,  fon  rSd'- 
<^its-shmelts,  (Oskar,)  Baron,  also  called  Baron  von 
Redeviz,  ri'deh-fits',  a  German  poet,  "  the  modern  Min- 
nesinger," born  at  Lichtenau,  June  28,  1823.  He  studied 
at  Munich,  and  in  1851  became  professor  of  literary  his- 
tory at  Vienna.  Among  his  works  are  "  Amaranth," 
(1849,)  an  e.xtremely  popular  religious  epic,  "Tales  of 
the  Forest-Brook  and  the  Pine,"  poems,  tragedies,  etc., 
"Hermann  Stark,"  (1868,)  and  the  remarkable  "Lay  of 
the  New  German  Empire,"  (1871.) 

Reed,  (Andrew,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenter  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  London  in  1787.  He  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  the  churches  of  the  United  States  in  1834 
by  the  Congregationalists.  He  preached  at  Wycliffe 
Chapel,  Stepney,  for  fifty  years,  and  founded  two  orphan- 
asylums  and  a  hospital  for  incurables.     Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Andrew  Reed,"  London,  1863. 

Reed,  (Henry,)  a  distinguished  American  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Philadel))hia  in  1808.  He  graduated 
in  1825  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  became  assist- 
ant professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1S31,  and  in  1835 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  literature,  in  that  insti- 
tution. In  1854  he  visited  Europe,  and,  having  embarked 
in  the  steamship  Arctic,  was  lost  on  the  voyage  home. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  English  Literature 
from  Chaucer  to  Tennyson,"  (1855,)  "Lectures  on  the 
British  Poets,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  "Lectures  on  English  His- 
tory," etc.,  and  the  "  Life  of  Joseph  Reed"  in  Sparks'a 
"  American  Biography."  He  also  prepared  editions 
of  Graham's  "  English  Synonymes,"  Am  )ld's  "  Lec- 
tures on  Modern  History,"  Lord  Mahon's  "  History  of 
England,"  and  the  "  Poetical  Works  of  Thomas  Gray." 

See  Di;yckinck:,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  iL; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Reed,  (Isaac,)  an  English  editor,  critic,  and  biogra- 
pher, born  in  London  in  1742.  He  wrote  biographical 
notices  for  Dodsley's  "Collection,"  (6  vols.,  1782,) 
contributed  to  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and 
edited,  among  other  works,  "  Biographia  Dramatica," 
(1782,)  and  Shakspeare's  Works,  (10  vols.,  1785.)  Died 
in  1807. 

Reed,  (Joseph,)  an  English  dramatist  and  miscella- 
neous writer,  born  at  Stockton-upon-Tees  in  1723. 
Among  his  works  are  "Dido,"  a  tragedy,  (1767,)  and 
"Tom  Jones,"  an  opera,  (1769.)     Died  in  1787. 

Reed,  (Joseph,)  an  American  officer  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  in  1741.  He  was 
president  of  the  first  provincial  convention  held  in  Penn- 
sylvania, (1775,)  ^"^  ^'•'■^  subsequently  aide-de-camp 
and  secretary  to  General  Washington.  He  was  made 
adjutant-general  in  1776,  and  in  1778  became  president 
of  the  su]5reme  executive  council  of  Pennsylvania.  Ha 
died  in  1785.  His  Life,  written  by  his  grandson,  P;o- 
fessor  Henry  Reed,  is  included  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography." 

Respecting  President  Reed's  character  as  a  man  and  a  patriot, 
very  different  opinions  have  prevailed  from  his  own  time  to  the 
present  day.  See,  on  this  subject,  Bancroft's  "  History  of  the 
United  Slates,"  vols.  viii.  and  ix.  ;  a  pamphlet  by  William  B.  Reed, 
entitled  "President  Reed  of  Pannsylvania,  a  Reply  to  Mr.  Georga 
Bancroft  and  Others,"  February,  1867,  and  Mr.  Bancroft's  re- 
joinder,— "Joseph  Reed,  a  Historical  Essay,"  1867.  See,  also.  Reed, 
(William  B.,)  in  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 


9  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


REED 


2039 


REGIS 


Reed,  (Thomas  German,)  an  English  musician  and 
manager,  born  at  Bristol  in  18 17.  He  has  successfully 
directed  the  production  of  English  opera  at  various 
London  theatres.  In  1844  he  married  Miss  Priscilla 
Morton,  a  well-known  vocalist,  (born  at  Birmingham  in 
1818,)  and  in  1855  he  started  a  class  of  performances 
known  as  "Mr.  and  Mrs.  German  Reed's  Entertainment," 
designed  to  afford  amusement  to  the  class  of  persons  who 
object  to  theatrical  representations.     Died  in  1888. 

Reedtz,  rats,  (Holger  Christian,)  a  Danish  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Odense  in  1800.  He  was  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  from  August,  1850,  to  December,  1851. 
Died  in  1857. 

Rees,  reess,  (Abraham,)  an  English  encyclopsedist, 
born  in  North  Wales  in  1743.  He  became  minister  of 
a  dissenting  congregation  in  London  about  1768.  He 
edited  "Chambers's  Cyclopaedia,"  (4  vols.,  1778-85,) 
and  used  that  as  the  basis  of  a  more  extensive  and 
extremely  valuable  work  published  under  the  title  of 
"Rees's  Cyclopaedia,"  (45  vols.,  1802-20.)  Died  in  1825. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1823. 

Reeve,  reev,  (Clara,)  an  English  authoress,  born 
at  Ipswich  in  1725.  She  produced  in  1778  a  romance 
called  "The  Old  English  Baron,"  which  was  often 
reprinted.  Among  her  works  is  "The  Progress  of  Ro- 
mance through  Times,  Countries,  and  Manners,"  (2 
vols.,  1785.)     Died  in  1803. 

Reeve,  (  Lovell,  )  an  English  conchologist,  born 
about  1814.  He  published  "Conchologia  Systematica, 
or  a  Complete  System  of  Conchology,"  (London,  2  vols. 
4to,  1842,)  and  "Conchologia  Iconica,  or  Figures  and 
Descriptions  of  the  .Shells  of  Molluscous  Animals,  with 
Critical  Remarks,"  etc.,  (1856.)     Died  in  1865. 

Reeve,  reev,  (Tapping,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  on  Long  Island  in  1744.  He  began  to  practise  at 
Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1772,  and  married  a  sister 
of  Aaron  Burr.  In  1792  he  opened  a  law  school,  which 
he  taught  for  many  years  at  Litchfield.  He  became  a 
judge  of  the  superior  court  in  1798.     Died  in  1823. 

Reeve,  (William,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  in  1757.  He  produced  a  great  number  of 
dramatic  compositions,  many  of  them  in  collaboration 
with  other  musicians.     Died  June  22,  181 5. 

Reeves,  reevz,(HELEN  Buckingham,  ^/^■Math'ers), 
an  English  novelist,  born  at  Crewkerne  in  1852.  Among 
her  tales  are  "  Comin'  through  the  Rye,"  (1875,)  "  Cherry 
Ripe,"  (1877,)  "The  Land  of  the  Leal,"  (187S,)  "My 
Lady  Green  Sleeves,"  (1879,)  etc.  Her  husband  is 
Henry  Reeves,  a  surgeon  and  professional  writer. 

Reeves,  reevz,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
London  in  1752,  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  History  of  English  Laws,"  (1783.)  He  was  a  deter- 
mined opponent  of  reform.     Died  in  1829. 

Reeves,  (John  Sims,)  an  English  tenor-singer,  born 
at  Shooter's  Hill,  Kent,  in  1822.  He  appeared  first  as 
a  barytone-singer  in  1839,  but,  the  true  quality  of  his 
voice  having  asserted  itself,  he  went  abroad  to  prosecute 
his  studies,  and  when  he  returned  in  1847  he  at  once 
took  his  place  as  the  first  of  English  tenors.  He  has 
appeared  in  opera,  both  comic  and  serious,  in  oratorios, 
and  in  concerts.  He  married  in  1850  Miss  Emma  Lu- 
combe,  a  well-known  soprano-singer. 

Reeves,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1668.  He  was  vicar  of  Saint  Mary's,  Reading.  Several 
volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published,  (1704-29.)  Died 
in  1726. 

Rega,  ra'gi  or  ra'H5,  (Henri  Joseph,)  a  Flemish 
physician,  born  at  Louvain  in  1690.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  a  work  "On  Sympathy,"  ("  De  Sympathia," 
1 72 1.)     Died  at  Louvain  in  1754. 

See  Martens,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  H.J.  R^ga,"  1840;  Mal- 
CORPS,  "  R^ga,  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  1846. 

R^gamey,  rVgi'mi',  (Elie  F6lix,)  a  French  artist, 
born  at  Crenelle,  August  7, 1844.  He  very  early  acquired 
fame  as  an  illustrator  and  caricaturist,  chiefly  working 
for  journals.    He  several  times  visited  the  United  States. 

Regamey,  (FriSdi^ric,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris,  July  4,  1849.  He  is  known  as  a 
painter,  etcher,  and  illustrator. 

Regamey,  (Guillaume  Pierre  Urbain,)  a  French 
painter,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris, 


September  22, 1837.    His  chief  works  are  military  scenes. 
Died  in  Paris,  January  3,  1875. 

Reganhac,  de,  d?h  reh-gS'ntk',  (G^raud  Valet,)  a 
French  lyric  poet,  born  at  or  near  Cahors  in  1719  ;  died 
in  1784. 

Reggio,  Duke  of.     See  Oudinot. 

Reggio,  rWjo,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  at  Genoa  in  1743.  He  wrote  several  memoirs  on 
astronomy,  and  aided  in  the  triangulation  of  Northern 
Italy,  finished  in  1794.     Died  in  1804. 

Reggio,  da,  (Luca.)     See  Ferrari. 

Regillo.     See  Pordenone. 

Re-gi'no,  [Fr.  R^gino.n,  rk'zhe'n6N',]  a  learned  monk 
of  the  ninth  century,  was  Abbot  of  Prum,  in  the  diocese 
of  Treves.  He  wrote  a  chronicle,  which  has  been  printed. 
Died  in  915  a.d. 

Regio,  ra'jo,  (Raffaello,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Bergamo  ;  died  in  1520. 

Regiomontan.     See  Regiomontanus. 

Re-gi-o-mon-ta'nus  or  Regiomontan,  ra'|e-o-mon- 
tin',  a  celebrated  German  astronomer,  whose  proper 
name  was  Johann  Muller,  (mWler,)  was  born  in  June, 
1436,  probably  near  Konigsberg,  (Saxe-Hildburghausen.) 
The  Latin  name  Regiomontanus  is  derived  from  Konigs- 
berg. Doppelmayer  and  others  give  Konigshofen,  in 
Franconia,  as  the  place  of  his  Ijirth.  He  wrote  his 
own  name  sometimes  Johannes  Germanus  de  Regio- 
monte.  About  the  age  of  fifteen  he  began  to  study 
astronomy  under  Purbach,  in  the  University  of  Vienna. 
In  1462  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  Greek  and 
bought  or  copied  Greek  manuscripts  on  his  favourite 
science.  He  passed  several  years  in  Rome,  Padua,  and 
Venice,  whence  he  returned  to  Vienna  and  became 
professor  of  mathematics.  About  1471  he  removed  to 
Nuremberg,  where,  by  the  liberal  aid  of  a  rich  citizen, 
Bernard  Walter,  he  was  enabled  to  construct  instru- 
ments, and  made  a  series  of  observations.  He  published 
there,  with  his  own  press,  his  "  Ephemerides"  for  thirty 
years,  (1475-1506,)  and  other  works,  among  which  was  a 
"  New  Calendar"  ("  Kalendarium  Novum")  for  the  years 
1475,  I494i  ^"d  1 5 13.  This  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
first  almanac  published  in  Europe.  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  in- 
vited him  to  Rome  to  reform  the  calendar,  and  offered  him 
the  bishopric  of  Ratisbon.  About  a  year  after  his  arrival 
in  Rome  he  died  there,  in  1476.  "  He  was  a  man  of 
great  sagacity  and  enterprise,"  says  Delambre,  "  by  whose 
premature  death  astronomy  sustained  a  loss  which  for  a 
long  time  was  not  repaired."  A  treatise  "  On  Triangles, 
Plane  and  Spherical,"  ("De  Triangulis  Planiset  Spheri- 
cis  Libri  V.,")  composed  about  1464,  but  not  published 
until  more  than  fifty  years  after  his  death,  is  pronounced 
by  Delambre  his  most  interesting  work. 

See  E.  Rheinholt,  "Oratiode  J.  Regiomontano,"  1349:  Pan- 
zer, "  Bruchstiicke  zu  J.  Regiomontan's  Leben,"  1796. 

Regis,  ra'j6ss,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  professor  of 
Greek,  born  near  Mondovl.  He  produced  a  good  Ital- 
ian version  of  Xenophon's  "  Cyropaedia,"  (1809.)  Died 
at  Turin  in  181 1. 

Regis,  rk'zhiss',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  about  1665,  was  a  missionary  to  Peking,  in  China. 
He  spent  several  years  in  executing  a  map  of  China  for 
the  emperor.     Died  in  China  in  1737. 

Regis,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Narbonne  in  1597.  He  gave  to  the  poor 
large  sums  of  money  which  he  collected  by  begging. 
Died  in  1640.     He  was  canonized  in  1737. 

See  D'AuBENTON,  "  Vie  de  Saint- Fran^ois-R^gis,"  1716;  * 
Bonnet,  "Vita  J.  F.  Regis,"  1692. 

Regis,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Mont 
pellier  in  1656  ;  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1726. 

Regis,  (Sylvain,  or  Jean  Sylvain,)  a  French  Car- 
tesian philosopher,  was  born  near  Agen  in  1632.  He 
propagated  the  doctrines  of  Descartes  by  lectures  at 
Toulouse  and  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  System  of 
Philosophy  according  to  the  Principles  of  Descartes," 
(3  vols.,  1690.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1707.  "No  one  has 
left,"  says  Hallam,  "  so  comprehensive  a  statement  and 
defence  of  Cartesianism  as  Jean  Sylvain  Regis."  ("In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"Memoires;"  Fontenei.le,  "  filoge  de  Regis." 


«  as  ^;  S  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  c,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REGIUS 


2040 


REGULUS 


Regius.    See  Leroy. 

Regnard,  r?h-iitR',  (Jean  Franc^ois, )  a  popular 
French  comic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1655,  was  a  son  of 
a  merchant,  who  left  him  a  handsome  fortune.  On  a 
voyage  between  Civita  Vccchia  and  Toulon,  Regnard 
and  a  lady  whom  he  loved  were  captured  in  1678  by 
Algerine  pirates,  who  sold  them  as  slaves.  They  were 
ransomed  after  a  captivity  of  two  years.  It  is  said  he 
was  on  the  point  of  marrying  the  lady  when  the  fact 
transpired  that  her  first  husband  was  living.  In  1681 
and  1682  he  performed  a  tour  through  Sweden  and  Lap- 
land as  far  as  the  Frozen  Ocean.  Having  returned  to 
Paris,  he  purchased  the  office  of  treasurer,  (trcsorier  de 
France.)  He  was  much  addicted  to  the  vice  of  gambling. 
"Regnard,"  says  Hallam,  "is  always  placed  ne.xt  to 
Moliere  among  the  comic  writers  of  France  in  this,  and 
perhaps  in  any,  age.  The  plays,  indeed,  which  entitle 
him  to  such  a  rank  are  but  few.  Of  these  the  best 
is  acknowledged  to  be  'The  Gambler,'  ('Le  Joueur,' 
1696.)  Regnard,  taught  by  his  own  experience,  has 
here  admirably  delineated  the  character  of  an  inveterate 
gamester."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") Among  his  most  admired  works  are  "  The 
Absent-Minded,"  ("  Le  Distrait,"  1697,)  and  "The  Uni- 
versal Legatee,"  (1708.)  His  comedies  are  characterized 
by  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  humorous  sallies.  Died  in 
September,  1709. 

See  Gilbert,  "  filoge  de  Regnard,"  1S57:  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  June,  1865;  Sainte-Beuvr,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  Nic^RON, 
"  M^moires ;"  La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litterature ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Regnaud,  reh-no',  (Pierre  £tienne,)  a  French 
political  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  constant 
adherent  of  the  Bourbons.     Died  about  1820. 

Regnaud  (or  Regnault)  de  Saint-Jean-d'An- 
gely,*  reh'nS'  deh  s4n  zhox  dSx'zhi'le',  (Auguste 
Michel  firiENNE,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1794.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Morea 
in  1828,  became  general  of  brigade  in  1841,  and  general 
of  division  in  July,  1848.  He  commanded  the  imperial 
guard  at  the  battle  of  Magenta,  June  4,  1859,  and  on 
the  next  day  was  made  a  marshal  of  France.  Died 
February  2,  1870. 

Regnaud  (or  Regnault)  de  Saint- Jean-d'Angely, 
(Michel  Louis  £tienne,)  Cou.nt,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Fargeau  (Yonne)  in  1762. 
He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Assembly  in  1790, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  in  1800. 
He  was  employed  in  important  affairs  during  the  em- 
pire as  procureur-general  and  secretary  de  Petat  of  the 
imperial  family.  In  1803  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy.     Died  in  1819. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Regnauldin  or  Regnaudln,  rd/no'diw',  (Thomas,) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  at  MouHns  in  1627.  He  exe- 
cuted some  works  for  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles.  Died 
in  1706. 

Regnault.     See  Regnaud. 

Regnault,  reh-n5',  (£lias,)  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Paris  about  1802.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "History  of  Napoleon,"  (1847.)     Died  in  1868. 

Regnault,  (Henri  Victor,)  a  distinguished  French 
chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1810.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1840,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  physics  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1841.  He  wrote  memoirs  on 
the  compressibility  of  elastic  fluids,  on  the  elastic  forces 
of  aqueous  vapour  at  different  temperatures,  and  on  the 
laws  and  numerical  data  which  enter  into  the  calculations 
respecting  the  construction  and  power  of  steam-engines. 
He  published  a  good  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Chem- 
istry," (4  vols.,  1849,)  which  has  been  translated  into 
English.     Died  January  19,  1878. 

Regnault,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  Baron,  a  French  painter 
of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1776.     Among  his  best  works  are  a  "Descent 


•  Authorities  are  divided  in  regard  to  the  proper  mode  of  writing 
this  name  :  formerly  it  was  universally  written  AngiSly,  but  at  pres- 
ent many  respectable  works  systematically  omit  the  accent,  and  some 
»ay  that  the  t  should  be  suppressed  in  pronunciation.  (See  note 
under  Petion  (or  PSthion)  ub  Villeneuve.) 


from  the  Cross,"  and  the  "  Education  of  Achilles,' 
(1783.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died  in 
1829. 

See  C.  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Regnault,  (Jean  BaitisteEtienne,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Niort  in  1759,  was  consulting  physician 
to  Louis  XVIII.     Died  in  1836. 

Regnault,  (Noel,)  a  French  natural  philosopher  and 
Cartesian,  born  at  Arras  in  1683.  He  wrote  a  popular 
work  entitled  "  Conversations  of  Ariste  and  Eudoxe  on 
Philosophy,"  ("  Entretiens  physiques  d'Ariste,"  etc.,  3 
vols.,  1729.)     Died  in  1762. 

Regnault-'Warin,  reh'no'  vi'rAs',  (Jean  Baptistf 
Joseph,)  a  mediocre  French  litteratiur,  born  at  Bar-le- 
Duc  about  1772.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  La  Fayette," 
(1824,)  and  many  other  works.     Died  in  1844. 

Regner.     See  Ragnar. 

Regner  van  Oosterga,  rec'ner  vtn  os-t?R'gi,  (or  Qs- 
t^R'nil,)  (Cyprian,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  in  Friesland  in 
1614;  died  at  Utrecht  in  1687. 

Regnier,  reh-ne-i',  (Claude  Ambroise,)  Dug  de 
Massa,  (mi'st',)  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  at 
Blamont,  in  Lorraine,  in  1736.  As  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Elders,  he  supported  Bonaparte  on  the  l8th 
Brumaire,  1799.  During  the  consulate  he  was  one  of  the 
redacteurs  of  the  Civil  Code.  He  was  appointed  .^rtr«</ 
jiige  (minister  of  justice)  in  1802,  and  received  the  title 
of  Due  de  Massa  in  1809.     Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Regnier,  (Edme,)  a  French  mechanician,  bom  at 
Seniur-en-Auxois  in  1751.  He  invented  a  number  of 
machines  or  instruments.     Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Regnier,  General.     See  Reynier. 

Regnier,  (Jacques  Auguste  Adolphe,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Mentz  in  1804.  He  became  in  1843 
preceptor  of  the  Count  de  Paris,  whom  he  followed  into 
exile  in  1848.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1855.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  German  Dictionary," 
(1841,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Shuster,  and  the  "  Pra- 
ti9akya"  of  the  "  Rig-Veda,"  Sanscrit  text,  with  French 
version,  (3  vols.,  1856-78.)     Died  in  1SS4. 

Regnier,  (Jacques  Augustin,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1787  ;  died  in  i860. 

Regnier,  (Loins,)  Sieur  de  la  Planche,  a  French 
Huguenot,  noted  as  a  negotiator  and  writer.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  France  in  the  Reign  of  Francis  II.,"  (1576,) 
which  is  commended.     Died  about  1580. 

Regnier,  (M.vphurin,)  a  French  satirical  poet,  born 
at  Chartres  in  1573,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  P.  Des- 
portes.  He  obtained  a  canonicate  at  Chartres  in  1604, 
but  he  was  licentious  in  morals.  His  works  consist  of  six- 
teen satires,  and  some  elegies,  odes,  etc.,  the  first  edition 
of  which  was  dated  1608.  He  imitated  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  Martial.  His  style  is  natural  and  remarkable  for 
facility.  "The  satires  of  Regnier,"  says  Hallam,  "  have 
been  highly  praised  by  Boileau, — a  competent  judge,  no 
doubt,  in  such  matters.  Some  have  preferred  Regnier 
even  to  himself,  and  found  in  this  old  Juvenal  of  France 
a  certain  stamp  of  satirical  genius  which  the  more  pol- 
ished critic  wanted."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")     Died  at  Rouen  in  1613. 

See  Brossbtte,  "  Notice  sur  Regnier,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of 
his  works,  1725:  MoR^Rl,  "  Dictinnnaire  Historique;"  Nici4ron, 
"  M^moires  ;"  Sainte-Bfuve.  "Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Franfaise;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Regnier-Desmarais,  reh-ne-i' di'mJ'ri',  (Fran(Jois 
S6raphik,)  a  French  poet  ana  grammarian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1632.  He  was  appointed  prior  of  Grammont 
by  the  king  in  1668,  and  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1670.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  authors  or 
editors  of  the  Dictionary  of  the  French  .Academy. 
Among  his  works  are  a  good  "  Treatise  on  French 
Grammar,"  (1705,)  and  "Poems  in  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Latin,"  (1707.)     Died  in  1713. 

See  D'Alembert,  "Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Academie  Fran- 

gai'ie  " 

Regnier-Destourbet,  r^h-ne-i' di'tooRTj^',  (Hippo- 
LYTE  FRANq:ois,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Langres 
in  1804,  wrote  dramas,  tales,  etc.    Died  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Reg'u-lus,  (Marcus  Atillius,)  a  Roman  general, 
distinguished  in   the  first  Punic  war.     He  was  consul 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  shoYt;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mit;  nflt;  g66d;  moon; 


REHBERG 


2041 


REID 


for  the  second  time  in  256  B.c,  and  gained  a  naval  vic- 
tory over  tlie  Carthaginians.  Having  invaded  Africa, 
he  defeated  the  enemy  and  advanced  nearly  to  Carthage. 
He  was  defeated  in  turn,  and  taken  prisoner,  in  255. 
The  victors  sent  him  with  some  ambassadors  to  Rome 
to  negotiate  a  peace,  on  condition  that  he  should  return 
if  the  Roman  senate  should  reject  their  terms.  He 
advised  the  senate  not  to  make  peace,  and  returned  to 
Carthage.  This  act  of  patriotism  was  much  celebrated 
by  ancient  writers,  according  to  whom  Regulus  died  a 
victim  to  the  cruelty  of  his  captors. 

See  Ernesti,  "  Dissertatio  de  M.  A.  Regulo,"  1684;  Nikbuhr, 
"History  of  Rome;"  J.  Rev,  "Dissertation  sur  Regulus,"  1836; 
Cicero,  "De  Officiis." 

Rehberg,  ra'b^RG,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
publicist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1757;  died  in  1836. 

Relifues,  von,  fon  ra'fus,  (Philipp  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  and  journalist,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1779. 
He  was  for  a  time  associate  editor  of  the  "  Morgenblatt." 
He  published  in  1813  his  work  on  Spain,  which  was 
translated  into  French  by  Guizot.     Died  in  1S43. 

Rehm,  ram,  (Frikdrich,)  a  German  historian,  born 
in  Hesse  in  1792.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Middle 
Ages,"  (8  vols.,  1820-38.)     Died  in  1847. 

Rehnskjold,  ran'chold,  (Carl  Gustav,)  Count 
OF,  a  Swedish  general,  born  at  Stralsund  in  165 1.  He 
gained  a  victory  over  the  King  of  Poland  at  Frauen- 
stadt,  (1703,)  and  accompanied  Charles  XII.  in  the 
invasion  of  Russia.  After  Ch.^rles  was  wounded  at 
Pultowa,  (1709,)  Rehnskjold  took  command  of  the  army, 
and  was  made  a  prisoner.     Died  in  1722. 

Re-ho-bo'am,  [Heb.  D;?3m ;  Fr.  Roboam,  ro'- 
bo'SN',]  King  of  Judah,  succeeded  his  father  Solomon 
in  975  B.C.  By  his  rash  and  ungracious  answer  to  a 
petition  that  he  would  lighten  the  yoke  which  his  father 
had  imposed,  he  provoked  ten  tribes  to  revolt.  He 
waged  a  long  war  against  Jeroboam,  the  leader  of  the 
ten  tribes.     His  reign  lasted  seventeen  years. 

See  I.  Kings  xii.  and  xiv. ;  II.  Chronicles  x.,  xL,  and  xiL 

Reicha,  rl'Ki,  (Anton,)  a  German  composer  and 
eminent  writer  on  music,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1770. 
He  produced  a  symphony  which  was  performed  with 
success  at  Paris  in  1799.  About  1802  he  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  Haydn  and  Beethoven, 
and  composed,  besides  other  works,  thirty-six  fugues  for 
the  piano.  He  resided  in  Paris  from  1808  until  his 
death.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "Treat- 
ise on  Melody,"  ("Traite  de  Melodic,"  1814,)  and  his 
"System  of  Harmony,"  ("Traite  complet  et  raisonne 
d'Harmonie  pratique,"  1818.)     Died  in  1836. 

See  K6tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^ndrale;"  Delaire,  "Notice  sur  Reicha,  Musicien," 
1837- 

Reichard,  rl'KjRt,  (Christian  Gottlieb,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  at  Schleiz  in  1758.  He  published 
&  number  of  valuable  maps  and  charts,  among  which 
we  may  name  the  "Chart  of  the  World  according  to 
Mercator's  Projection,"  and  "Chart  of  Gaul"  for  the 
explanation  of  Cassar's  writings.     Died  in  1S37. 

Reichard,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  German  Httirateur, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1751.  He  wrote  dramas,  political 
treatises,  descriptive  works,  and  a  "Traveller's  Guide" 
for  Europe,  (1793,)  which  was  very  successful.  Died 
in  1828. 

Reichard,  (Heinrich  Gottfried,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Schleiz  in  1742.  He  produced  a  Latin 
version  of  the  New  Testament,  ( 1 799,)  the  style  of  which 
is  praised  for  purity.     Died  in  1801. 

Reichardt,  ri'Kirt,  (Alexander,)  a  Hungarian  tenor- 
singer,  born  at  Packs,  April  17,  1825.  He  has  made  suc- 
cessful appearances  in  opera  in  the  principal  European 
cities,  and  is  also  known  as  a  coinposer  of  songs. 

Reichardt,  rl'KaRt,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  writer  on  inusic,  was  born  at  Konigs- 
berg  in  1 751.  He  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  appointed  him  chapel-master  at  Berlin  on 
the  death  of  Graun.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
funeral  hymn  (  TrauercantaU )  for  Frederick  the  Great. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 


Reichenau,  ri'Keh-now',  (Rudolf,)  a  popular  Ger- 
man author,  born  at  Marienwerder  in  1817.  His  books, 
chiefly  for  family  reading,  give  very  pleasing,  poetical, 
and  truthful  pictures  of  German  domestic  life.  Died 
December  18,  1S79. 

Reichenbach,  rl'Ken-biK',  (Anton  Benedici',)  a 
German  naturalist,  a  brother  of  the  following,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1807.  He  has  published  several  works  on 
animals,  etc. 

Reichenbach,  (Heinrich  Gottlieb  Ludwig, ) 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  Surgical  Academy  at 
Dresden,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1793.  He  published  a 
"  Flora  Germanica,"  (in  15  vols.,  1S53,)  and  a  great  work 
devoted  to  birds  and  mammalia.  Died  March  17,  1S79. 
His  son  Gustav,  born  in  1822,  aided  in  the  composition 
of  the  "  Flora  Germanica." 

Reichenbach,  von,  fon  rl'Ken-bJK',  (  Georg,  )  a 
German  mechanician,  born  at  Durlach  in  1772.  He 
established  at  Munich  a  great  manufactory  of  telescopes 
and  other  optical  and  philosophical  instruments  of  su- 
perior quality.  Fraunhofer  was  his  assistant  or  partner. 
Died  in  1826. 

Reichenbach,  von,  (  Karl,  )  Baron,  a  German 
chemist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1788.  He  discovered 
paraffin  and  creosote,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Geological  Researches  in  Moravia,"  (1834.)  He  main- 
tained the  existence  of  an  imponderable  agent,  which 
he  calls  Od,  and  which  he  supposes  to  be  widely  diffused 
in  nature.     Died  in  1869. 

Reichstadt,  rlK'stat,  Duke  of,  (  Napoleon  II.,) 
King  of  Rome,  the  only  son  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Maria 
Louisa,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  20th  of  March,  181 1. 
His  full  name  was  Napoleon  Francois  Charles 
Joseph.  In  1814  Napoleon  I.  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
son;  but  Louis  XVIII.  was  preferred  by  the  senate, 
and  the  young  Napoleon  was  taken  to  Austria  by  Maria 
Louisa.  He  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Reichstadt 
from  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  1818.  He  entered  the 
Austrian  army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  183 1.  His  physical  organization  was  feeble, 
but  his  intellect  was  active,  and  he  is  said  to  have  pos- 
sessed a  rare  aptitude  for  the  acquisition  of  languages. 
Died  near  Vienna  in  July,  1832. 

See  De  Monthel,  "  Le  Due  de  Reichstadt,"  1832;  Fr.  Lr- 
COMTE,  "Histoire  de  Napoleon  II,"  1842;  J.  DE  Saint-FAlix, 
"Histoire  de  Napoleon  II,"  ii)s6. 

Reid,  reed,  (David  Boswell,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish 
chemist  and  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1805.  He 
began  to  lecture  on  chemistry  in  Edinburgh  in  1833. 
He  invented  an  improved  method  of  ventilation,  and 
was  employed  about  five  years  in  the  ventilation  of  the 
new  Houses  of  Parliament.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Text-Book  for  Students  of  Chemistry,"  (1834.) 
About  1856  he  removed  to  the  United  States.  Died  in 
Washington  in  April,  1863. 

Reid,  reed,  (Mayne,)  a  novelist,  born  in  the  north  of 
Ireland  in  181S.  He  began  about  1838  a  tour  in  Mexico, 
Texas,  etc.  In  1846  and  1847  he  fought  as  captain  in 
the  army  of  the  United  States  against  the  Mexicans.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  successful  novels  and  juveniles, 
beginning  with  "The  Rifle  Rangers"  in  1849,  and  ending 
with  "Gwen  Wynn"  in  1877.     Died  October  21,  1S83. 

Reid,  reed,  (Samuel  Chester,)  Captain,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1783. 
He  commanded  the  brig  General  Armstrong  in  a  fight 
against  three  British  vessels  at  Fayalin  September,  1814. 
Died  at  New  York  in  1861. 

Reid,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  eminent  writer 
on  mental  philosophy,  was  born  at  Strachan,  in  Kin- 
cardineshire, in  April,  1710.  He  studied  at  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  became  minister  of  New  Machar 
in  1737.  In  1752  he  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen.  He  succeeded 
Adam  Smith  as  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Glas- 
gow in  1763,  and  published  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Human 
Mind,"  (1764,)  which  was  designed  to  neutralize  the 
skeptical  doctrines  which  Hume  had  advocated  as  de- 
ductions from  the  ideal  system  of  Berkeley.  His  other 
principal  works  are  "  Essays  on  the  Intellectual  Powers 
of  Man,"  (1785,)  and  "Essays  on  the  Active  Power  of 
the  Human  Mind,"  (1788.)  Died  at  Glasgow  in  October, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h.  k.  ^Ttttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REID 


2042 


RE  IN BECK 


1796.  In  reply  to  some  writers  who  are  disposed  to 
deny  the  name  of  philosopher  to  Reid,  Mackintosh 
observes,  "  As  there  are  too  many  wlio  seem  more  wise 
than  they  are,  so  it  was  the  more  uncommon  fault  of 
Reid  to  appear  less  a  philosopher  than  he  really  was." 
In  another  place  he  calls  Reid  "a  patient,  modest,  and 
deep  thinker."  Hume  himself  appears  to  have  enter- 
tained a  similar  estimate  of  Reid,  although  differing  from 
him  so  widely  in  his  philosophical  views. 

See  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Reid,"  by  Dugald  Stewart,  prefixed  to  a 
•lostliumous  edition  of  his  "Essays;"  Chambers,  "biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  Mackintosh,  "View  of  the 
Progress  of  Ethical  Philosopliy,"  in  his  preliminary  remarks  on 
Diigald  Stewart;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly 
Renew"  for  May  and  July,  1764,  and  Eebruai7,  1804;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1804;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May, 
•  847. 

Reid,  (WniTELAW,)  an  American  journalist,  born 
near  Xenia,  Ohio,  October  27,  1S37.  He  graduated  at 
Miami  University  in  1S56.  He  was  an  editor  before 
attaining  the  years  of  his  majority,  was  correspondent 
of  the  Cincinnati  "Gazette,"  1860-68,  and  librarian  of 
the  United  States  House  of  Representatives,  1863-66. 
In  1868  he  went  upon  the  staff  of  the  New  York  "  Tri- 
bune," of  which  in  1872  he  became  chief  editor  and 
principal  proprietor.  In  1S78  he  was  chosen  a  regent 
(for  life)  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
llis  principal  books  are  "  After  the  War,"  (1S66,)  "  Ohio 
in  the  War,"  (2  vols.,  1868,)  "  Schools  of  Journalism," 
(1871,)  "The  Scholar  in  Politics,"  (1S73,)  "Some  News- 
paper Tendencies,"  (1S79,)  etc. 

Reid,  (Sir  William,)  Major-General,  F.R.S.,  a 
British  engineer  and  scientific  writer,  born  in  Fifeshire 
in  1 791.  He  served  as  an  officer  of  engineers  in  Spain, 
America,  etc.,  became  Governor  of  Bermuda  in  1838, 
and  commanding  engineer  at  Woolwich  in  1849.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "An  Attempt  to  Develop  the 
Law  of  Storms  by  Means  of  Facts  arranged  according 
to  Place  and  Time,"  {1838,)  which  attracted  much  at- 
tention. In  1849  he  produced  "The  Progress  of  the 
Development  of  the  Law  of  Storms,"  etc.  He  was 
Governor  of  Malta  from  1851  to  1858.  Died  in  London 
in  October,  1858. 

Reiffenberg,  de,  deh  rIf'fen-blRG',  (Fr:6d6ric  Au- 
GUSTE  Ferdinand  Thomas,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  littS- 
rateur,  born  at  Mons  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
the  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,"  (1830,)  and  several 
works  on  the  history  of  Flanders.     Died  in  1850. 

See  LuTHEREAU,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Baron  de  Reiffenberg,"  1850 ; 
QuETELET,  "  Notice  sur  F.  A.  F.  T.  Baron  de  Reiffenberg,"  1852. 

Reififerscheid,  rlf'fer-shid',  (Karl  Wilhelm  Au- 
gust,) a  German  philologist,  born  at  Bonn,  October  3, 
1835.  He  held  i^rofessorships  of  classical  philology  and 
of  eloquence  at  Bonn  and  at  Breslau,  He  has  published 
many  texts,  chiefly  of  late  Roman  and  early  Christian 
Latin  authors,  besides  numerous  papers  upon  historical, 
literary,  and  mythological  subjects.     Died  in  18S7. 

Reigny,  rin'ye',  ( Louis  Abel  Beffroi,  )  called 
Cousin  Jacques,  an  eccentric  French  writer  of  plays 
and  burlesque  works,  was  born  at  Laon  in  1757;  died 
in  1810. 

Reil,  ril,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  Dutch  or  German 
physician,  born  at  Rauden,  in  East  Friesland,  in  1758. 
He  became  professor  of  therapeutics  at  Halle  in  1788. 
He  published  a  number  of  esteemed  medical  works. 
Died  in  1813. 

Reille,  ril  or  r^'ye,  (Honor6  Charles  Michel 
Joseph,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Antibes 
(Var)  in  1775.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Jena,  (1806,)  soon  after  which  he  becaine  a  general 
of  division,  and  aide-de-camp  to  Najjoleon.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  at  Friedland,  (1807,)  distinguished 
himself  at  Wagram,  (1809,)  and  obtained  cominand  of 
the  army  of  Portugal  in  1812.  In  1815  he  fought  for 
Napoleon  at  Waterloo,  where  he  commanded  a  corps- 
d'armee.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1847.  Died 
in  i860. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Reily,  rl'le,  (William  McClellan,)  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  York,  Pennsylvania,  August  8,  1837. 
He  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg,  in 
1856,  studied  at  Princeton  and  Andover,  and  at  Berlin 


and  other  German  universities,  became  a  pastor  in  the 
German  Reformed  Church,  and  for  several  years  was 
professor  of  languages  at  Palatinate  College,  of  which 
in  1883  he  was  appointed  president.  His  principal  work 
is  "The  Artist  and  his  Mission,"  (1881.) 

Reimar.     See  Reimarus. 

Reimarus,  ri-ni5'r»is,  [Fr.  Reimar,  ri'mlR',]  (Her- 
mann Samuel,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Hamburg 
in  1694,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  mathematics 
in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  the  celebrated 
"  Wolfenblittel  Fragments,"  a  series  of  essays  published 
by  Lessing  in  1777.  (See  Lessing.)  Reitnarus  was  a 
son-in-law  of  J.  A.  Fabricius,  whom  he  assisted  in  sev- 
eral of  his  philological  works.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Principal  Truths  of  Natural  Religion,"  (1754,) 
and  "Observations  on  the  Instinct  of  Animals,"  (1762.) 
Died  in  1765  or  1768. 

See  J.  G.  BOsCH,  "Memoria  Reimari,"  1769;  Hiksching, 
"  Histonsch-Iiterarisches  Handbuch." 

Reimarus,  (Johann  Albrecht  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  economist,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1729,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  practised  medi- 
cine at  Hamburg,  and  wrote  several  works  on  commercft 
and  political  economy.     Died  in  1814. 

See  Ebeling, " Meraoria  Reimari,"  1815;  and"  Autobiography," 
1814. 

Reimer,  rl'mer,  (Georg  Andreas,)  a  German  book- 
seller, born  at  Greifswalde  in  1776,  founded  at  Berlin,  in 
1800,  a  publishing-house  which  rose  to  be  one  of  the 
most  important  in  Germany.  Among  the  works  issued 
from  this  establishment  were  the  writings  of  Jean  Paul, 
Novalis,  W.  von  Humboldt,  Niebnhr,  Ranke,  Lach- 
mann,  and  other  Germans  most  eminent  in  literature 
and  science,  to  which  we  may  add  Schlegel's  transla- 
tion of  Shakspeare.     Died  in  1842. 

Reimmann,  rim'mdn,  (Jakob  Friedrich,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Groningen  in  1668.  He  became 
minister  of  a  church  at  Hildesheim  in  1 71 7.  Among 
his  works  are  "An  Essay  of  an  Introduction  to  Literary 
History,"  (6  vols.,  1703-13,)  and  "Idea  of  the  Literary 
System  of  Antiquity,"  ("  Idea  Systematis  Antiquitatis 
literariae,"  1718.)     Died  in  1743. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biograpf  le  G^n^rale ;"  Reimmann,  Autobiog- 
raphy, ("  Eigene  Lebensbeschreibung,"  etc.,)  1745. 

Rein,  rin,  (Johannes  Justus,)  a  German  geographer, 
born  at  Rauenheim,  in  Hesse,  January  27,  1835.  He 
was  educated  at  Giessen,  travelled  in  Esthonia,  Finland, 
Scandinavia,  etc.,  visited  Bermuda,  the  United  States, 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Morocco,  and  the  Ca- 
naries, and  lived  for  some  years  in  Japan.  In  1876  he 
became  professor  of  geography  in  the  Marburg  Univer- 
sity.   His  principal  work  is  a  treatise  on  Japan,  (18S0-83.) 

Reina,  ra^-ni,  ?  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  in  the  province  of  Coino  in  1772.  He  edited  the 
works  of  Ariosto,  Zanotti,  and  other  Italian  authors. 
Died  in  1826. 

Reinagle,  rin'a-gel,  ?  (George  Philip,)  an  excellent 
English  marine  painter,  born  in  London  about  1802,  was 
a  son  of  R.  Ramsay  Reinagle.  Among  his  works  is 
"  The  Battle  of  Navarino."  He  witnessed  this  action. 
Died  in  1833  or  1835. 

Reinagle,  (Philip,)  an  able  English  painter  of  land- 
scapes, hunting-scenes,  and  animals,  born  about  1750, 
was  a  pupil  of  Allan  Ramsay.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1811.  Among  his  works 
is  the  "  Sportsmen's  Cabinet."     Died  in  1833  or  1834. 

Reinagle,  (Richard  Ramsay,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  about  1772,  painted  portraits  and  landscapes  with 
success.     He  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1822. 

Reinaud,  ri'no',  (Joseph  Toussaint,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  at  Lambesc  (Bouches-du-Rhone)  in 
1795.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions in  1S32,  and  succeeded  Silvestre  de  Sacy  as  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  at  Paris  in  1838.  In  1S54  he  became 
keeper  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  of  the  Imperial 
Library.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Invasions  of  the 
Saracens  in  France,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont  in  the  Eighth, 
Ninth,  and  Tenth  Centuries,"  (1836.)  Died  in  June, 
1S67. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Reinbeck,  rIn'bSk,  (Johann  Gustav,)  a  German 


i, e,  1, 6, u, y, /t'w^," i, 4,  6, same, less  prolonged;  a, e, T, o, li, y,  j//cJr/;  ■\,^,\,q,obsatre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


REINDEL 


2043 


REISET 


Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Zell  in  16S3.  He  became  first 
minister  of  the  church  of  Saint  Peter,  Berlin,  (or  at  Co- 
logne on  the  Spree,)  in  171 7.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Considerations  on  the  Divine  Truths  contained 
in  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,"  (4  vols.,  1 731-41.)  Died 
in  1742. 

Reindel,  rlnMel,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1784,  numbered  among  his  pupils 
Wagner,  Miiller,  and  other  distinguished  artists.  He 
was  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Nurem- 
berg.    Died  in  1853. 

Reineccius.     See  Reineck. 

Reineccius,  ri-n§t'se-iis,  (Christian,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  the  principality  of  Anhalt-Zerbst  in 
1668.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Hebrew  Key  ( yantia)  to 
the  Old  Testament,"  (1733.)     Died  in  1752. 

Reineck,  rl'n^k,  [Lat.  Reinec'cius,]  (Reiner,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  or  near  Paderborn  in  I54i- 
He  taught  belles-lettres  at  Frankfort  and  Helmstedt. 
Among  his  works  is  "Syntagma  heroicum,  continens 
Historiam  Chaldaeorum,  Assyriorum,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1594,)  which  treats  of  the  history  of  the  Chaldeans  and 
Assyrians.     Died  in  1595. 

See  HXberlin,  "  De  Reineccii  Meritis,"  etc.,  1746;  Teissier, 
"filoges." 

Reinecke,  ri'nSk-keh,  (Johann  Frieprich,)  a  noted 
German  actor,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1747  ;  died  in  1787. 

Reinecke,  (Karl,)  a  German  musician,  conductor, 
and  composer,  born  at  Altona  in  1S27.  As  a  pianist  he 
has  made  professional  tours  of  the  principal  European 
cities.     His  best  compositions  are  those  for  the  jsiano. 

Reineggs,  ri'nSgs  or  ri'n?ks,  (Jakob,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Eisleben  in  1744.  He  practised  at 
Tiflis,  in  Georgia,  and  wrote  a  "  Description  of  Cau- 
casus."    Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1793. 

Reiner,  rl'ner,  (Wenzel  Lorenz,)  a  German  paintei, 
born  at  Prague  in  1686.  He  painted  history  and  land- 
scapes with  success,  both  in  oil  and  fresco.  His  design 
and  colour  are  much  praised.     Died  at  Prague  in  1743. 

Reinesius,  rl-na'ze-fts,  (Thomas,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  scholar,  born  at  Gotha  in  15S7,  was  styled  by 
Haller  "a  miracle  of  learning."  He  was  for  several 
years  public  physician  at  Altenburg,  and  subsequently 
removed  to  Leipsic.  About  the  same  time  he  was  made 
a  councillor  by  the  Elector  of  Sa.xony.  Among  his 
numerous  works  may  be  named  "  On  the  Syrian  Gods," 
(1623,)  "Syntagma  of  Ancient  Inscriptions,"  (1682,) 
"Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Sibylline  Oracles,"  (1702,) 
and  "Observations  on  Suidas,"  (all  in  Latin.)  He  also 
wrote  an  account  of  his  life,  (in  German.)     Died  in  1667. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionai-y ;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Reinhard,  rIn'hiRt,  (Christian  Tobias  Ephraim,) 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Camenz  in  1719;  died  in 
1792. 

Reinhard,  (Franz  Volkmar,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian and  distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Vohen- 
strauss,  in  Bavaria,  in  1753.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1782,  and  in  1792  chief  court 
preacher  at  Dresden.  He  died  in  1812,  leaving  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  religious  treatises.  His  "System  of 
Christian  Morality"  (5  vols.,  1 788-181 5)  is  regarded  as 
a  valuable  and  profound  work. 

See  Karl  August  Bottiger,  "  F.  V.  Reinhard,"  etc.,  1813; 
"  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale;"  P8uTZ,  "Reinhard  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  Wirken,"  1S13. 

Reinhard,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  diplomatist,  born  in 
VViirtemberg  in  1761.  He  became  French  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  July,  1799,  and  was  employed  in  several 
missions  by  Bonaparte  from  1800  to  1814.  He  owed  his 
promotion  to  the  favour  of  Talleyrand.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1837. 

Reinhard,  von,  fon  rln'hiRt,  (Adolf  Friedrich,) 
a  German  philosopher,  born  at  Strelitz  in  1726.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  "On  Optimism,"  (1755,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Wetzlar  in  1783. 

Reinhart,  rii/hirt,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  Amer- 
ican artist,  born  near  Waynesburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1829. 
After  taking  up  the  profession  of  portrait-painting,  he 
studied  genre  art  in  Europe,  and  lived  in  England, 
l86i-68,  after  which  he  settled  in  New  York.     D.  18S5. 


Reinhart,  (Charles  Stanley.)  an  American  jrtist, 
born  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  May  16,  1844.  ^}^ 
studied  art  in  Munich  and  Paris,  and  became  distin- 
guished as  a  very  successful  illustrator  of  books  and 
periodicals. 

Reinhart,  rln'hSRt,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German 
landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Hof  in  176 1. 
Some  of  his  best  pictures  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Massimi 
palace  at  Rome.  His  "Landscape  in  a  Storm,"  one  of 
his  master-pieces  in  engraving,  was  dedicated  to  Schiller. 
Died  in  1847. 

Reinhold,  rin'holt,  (Christian  Ernst  Gottlieb 
Jens,)  a  philosopher,  a  son  of  Karl  Leonhard,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1793.  He  became  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  (3 
vols.,  1828-29.)     Died  in  1855. 

Reinhold,  [Lat.  Reinhol'dus,]  (Erasmus,)  a  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  at  Saalfeld,  in  Thuringia,  in 
October,  151 1.  He  taught  astronomy  and  mathematics 
for  some  years  at  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  from 
which  he  removed  in  1552.  He  published  a  "Com- 
mentary on  Purbach's  New  Theory  of  Planets,"  ("  Com- 
mentarius  Theoricae  nov3e  Planetarum  G.  Purbachii," 
1542,)  and  tables  formed  from  the  observations  of 
Copernicus  compared  with  those  of  Hipparchus  and 
Ptolemy,  "Tables  of  the  Motions  of  the  Heavenly 
Bodies,"  ("  Prutenicae  Tabulae  Coelestium  Motuum," 
1551,)  in  which  he  clearly  explains  the  equation  of  time. 
Died  in  1553.  His  son,  Erasmus,  was  a  physician  and 
astronomer. 

See  Delambre,  "  Astronomie  njoderne." 

Reinhold,  (Karl  Leonhard,)  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Vienna  in  1758.  Having  married  the 
daughter  of  Wieland,  he  became  associated  with  him  as 
editor  of  the  "  Deutschen  Mercur."  In  1794  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Kiel.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  "K.  L.  Reinholds  Leben,"  by  his  son,  1828:  KuNO  Fis- 
cher. "Die  neuere  Philosophie  seit  Kant;"  "Nouvelie  Biographie 
Generale." 

Reinholdua.    See  Reinhold,  (Erasmus.) 

Reinick,  rl'nik,  (Robert,)  a  German  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1805  ;  died  in  1852. 

Reinkens,  rln'kens,  (Joseph  Hubert,)  a  German 
bishop,  born  at  Burtscheid,  March  i,  1821.  He  became 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  and  divinity  professor  at  Bres- 
lau,  but  in  1870  left  the  Romanists,  joined  the  "Old 
Catholics,"  and  in  1873  was  consecrated  bishop  of  that 
body,  the  consecrator  being  the  Jansenist  bishop  of  Dev- 
enter.     He  has  published  various  controversial  works. 

Reinoso,  ri-e-no'so,  (Antonio  Garcia,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Cabral  in  1623,  was  also  an  architect. 
He  died  at  C6rdova  in  1677. 

Reinsberg,  von,  fon  rins'b?RG,  (Ida  von  Diirtngs- 
feld — fon  dii'rings-fglt',)  Baroness,  a  German  authoress, 
born  in  Silesia  in  181 5.  She  wrote  many  tales  and  novels, 
which  are  said  to  display  a  rich  imagination  and  much 
knowledge  of  human  nature.  Among  them  are  "  Sketches 
of  the  Great  World,"  (1845,)  "  Antonio  Foscarini,"  (1850,) 
and  "  Clotilda,"  (1855.)     She  died  in  1876. 

Reinwardt,  rin'<^jRt,  (Caspar  Georg  Carl,)  a 
naturalist,  born  at  Liittringhausen,  in  Germany,  in  1772. 
He  wrote  "Observations  on  the  Gold-Mines  and  Natural 
History  of  the  Moluccas."     Died  at  Leyden  in  1854. 

Reisch,  rlsh,  (Georg,)  a  German  savant  and  ecclesi- 
astic, lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  was  confessor  to  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  He 
wrote  "Margarita  philosophica,"  ("Philosophic  Pearl," 
1496,)  often  reprinted. 

Reisen,  rl'zen,  (Charles  C.,)  an  able  engraver  of 
gems,  born  in  London  about  1695,  was  the  son  of  a 
Danish  artist.     Died  in  London  in  1725. 

Reiser,  (.^nton.)     See  Moritz,  (Karl  Philipp.) 

Reiset,  de,  deh  r^'zi',  (Marie  Antoine,)  Vicomte, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Colmar  in  1775.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Dresden,  (1813.)  Died 
in  1836. 

See  "  Notice  sur  Jacques  et  Antoine  de  Reiset."  1851. 


«as/6,-  fasj;  gAard;  gasy;G,  H,  Vi,gnttural;  ^,  nasal ;'&,  trilled;  sasc;  thasin//«j.     (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


REISIG 


2044 


REMI 


Reisig,  rl'zic,  (Karl  Christian,)  a  Goiman  philoio 
gist,  born  at  Weissensee  in  1792.  He  was  professor  of 
mcient  literature  at  Halle.  He  wrote  "  Vorlesungen 
iiber  Lateinische  Sprachwissenschaft,"  (  "  Prasleclioas 
on  Latin  Philology.")     Died  at  Venice  in  1829. 

Reiske,  ris'keh,  (Johann,)  a  German  teacher  and 
writer  on  various  subjects,  born  at  Gera  in  1641 ;  died 
in  1701. 

Reiske,  [Lat.  Reis'kius,]  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  Orientalist,  born  near  Leipsic  in 
1716.  At  the  University  of  Leipsic  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  study  of  Arabic,  and  subsequently  visited 
Leyden,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Burmann  and  other 
learned  men.  On  his  return  to  Leipsic  he  obtained 
the  title  of  professor  of  Arabic,  and  became  rector  of 
the  College  of  Saint  Nicholas.  Among  his  works  are 
Latin  translations  of  the  "Geography"  of  Abulfeda,  the 
"Moslem  Annals"  of  the  same  writer,  and  a  German 
translation  of  the  poems  of  Mootenabbee,  (Motenabbi,) 
(unpublished,)  also  editions  of  Theocritus,  (1766,)  "The 
Greek  Orators,"  (12  vols.,  1770-75,)  Plutarch's  Works, 
(12  vols.,  1774-79,)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  (6  vols., 
1774-77,)  and  other  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  Died 
in  1774. 

His  wife,  Ernestine  Christine  MOller,  born  near 
Wittenberg,  was  distinguished  for  her  love  of  learning, 
and  rendered  him  important  assistance  in  his  literary 
labours.  After  his  death  she  completed  several  of  hi^ 
works.  She  also  published  a  work  entitled  "  Hellas," 
(2  vols.,  1778.)     Died  in  1798,  aged  about  sixty-three. 

See  Reiske's  Autobiography,  Leipsic,  17S3:  S.  F.  N.  MoRUS, 
"Vita  Reiskii,"  1777;  Mei;sel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland ;"  Hir- 
SCHING,"  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch. " 

Reiskius.     See  Reiske. 

Reissiger,  ri'sic-er,  (Karl  Gottlieh,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  near  Wittenberg  in  1798. 
He  was  appointed  first  chapel-master  at  Dresden  in 
1S27.  He  composed  religious  music,  and  a  number 
of  operas,  among  which  are  "  Didone,"  (1823,)  and 
"Turandot."     Died  in  1859. 

Reissmanu,  ris'min,  (August,)  a  German  historian 
and  musician,  born  at  Frankenstein,  in  Silesia,  November 
14,  1S25.  His  books  include  a  "General  History  of 
Music,"  (3  vols.,  1S64,) '  Science  of  Musical  Composition," 
(3  vols.,  1S66-70,)  "  History  of  German  Song,"  (1S74,) 
"Lectures  on  the  History  of  Music,"  (1877,)  '"any  works 
of  biography,  etc.     He  also  composed  much  music 

Reiz,  rits,  (Friedrich  Wolfgang,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Windsheim,  Franconia,  in  1733.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Leipsic  in  17S2 
and  edited  some  works  of  Aristotle,  Persius,  and  otlier 
classics.     Died  in  1790. 

Reiz  or  Reitz,  rits,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Braunfels  in  1695  >  died  at  Utrecht 
in  177S. 

Reland,  ra'ldnt,  [Lat.  Relan'dus,]  (Adriaan,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  Orientalist,  born  at  Ryp,  near  Alkmaar, 
in  1676.  He  was  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities, 
as  well  as  in  many  Oriental  languages.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  and  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Utrecht  in  1700.  His  principal  works  are  an  "Account 
of  the  Moslem  Religion,"  ("  De  Religione  Mohammedica 
Libri  duo,"  1705,)  and  "  Palestine  illustrated  by  Monu- 
ments," ("  Palestinaex  Monumentis  veteribus  illustrata," 
2  vols.,  1714,)  which  is  highly  commended.  He  died  at 
Utrecht  in  February,  1718. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Paquot,  "M^moires;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Geiierale ;"  Serrurier,  "  Oratio  in  Obitura  A 
Relandi,"  171S. 

Reland,  (Pieter,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
magistrate  of  Haarlem.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Consular  Calendars,"  ("  Fasti  Consulares,")  published 
in  1715.     He  died  before  that  date. 

Relaudus.     See  Reland. 

Relliau,  r^l'an,  (Richard,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
about  1755.  He  became  rector  of  Hunningsby,  Lin- 
colnshire, in  1 79 1.  He  wrote  a  "  Flora  Cantabrigensis," 
(1785.)     Died  in  1823. 

Rellstab,  rgl'stip,  (Ludwig.)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1799,  published  romances,  dramas, 
and  critical  essays.     Died  at  Berlin  in  iS^'-o. 


Remak,  r5m'3k,  (Robert,)  a  German  physician,  born 
at  Posen,  of  Jewish  parents,  July  30,  1815.  He  gradu- 
ated in  medicine  at  Berlin  in  1838,  and  in  i86l  was  called 
to  a  professorship  in  his  university.  His  works  include 
"Diagnostic  and  Pathogenic  Researches,"  (1845,)  "The 
Development  of  Vertebrates,"  iS5l-55,)and  "Galvano- 
Therapeutics,"  (1858.)  The  investigation  and  treatment 
of  nerve-diseases  was  his  specialty.  Died  at  Kissingen, 
August  27,  1865. 

Rem-ber'tus,  [Ger.  pron.  r5m-b?R't6s,|  Archbishop 
of  Hamburg,  born  in  Flanders,  was  a  disciple  of  Ansgar. 
He  laboured  as  a  niissionarv  in  Denmark-     Died  in  888. 

Rembha.     See  Rambha. 

Rembrandt  van  Ryn  or  Rijn,  rSm^buSnt  vtri  rin, 
or  Rembrandt  Gerritz,  r^m'bK^nt  H^r'rits,  (Paul,) 
a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was 
born  on  the  Rhine,  near  Leyden,  June  15,  1606.  He  was 
a  son  of  a  miller  named  Hermann  Gerritz.  His  masters 
in  design  were  P.  Lastmann  and  Jacob  Pinus,  to  whom 
some  add  George  Schooten.  He  became  a  citizen  of 
Amsterdam  in  1630,  and  soon  acquired  celebrity  by  the 
originality  of  his  style,  formed  by  the  study  of  nature. 
In  1632  he  painted  "The  Lecture  on  Anatomy  of  Dr. 
Tulp."  He  married  in  1634.  He  became  the  master 
of  a  numerous  school,  and,  it  is  said,  sold  the  copies 
painted  by  his  pupils  as  original  works,  after  he  had 
retouched  them.  His  biographers  represent  him  as 
avaricious,  and  some  of  them  affirm  that  he  contracted 
the  habits  of  a  miser  ;  but  this  charge  is  not  substantiated. 
He  derived  a  very  large  income  from  the  sale  of  his 
etchings,  the  fees  of  his  pupils,  and  the  sale  of  copies 
of  his  works  made  by  his  pupils ;  yet  he  became  insol- 
vent in  1656. 

Rembrandt  was  a  brilliant  colorist,  and  a  consummate 
master  of  chiaroscuro.  He  imitated  the  effects  of  light 
with  great  success,  but  was  deficient  in  design  and  taste. 
He  neglected  or  despised  the  antique.  Among  his  cele- 
brated pictures  are  "Tobit  and  the  Angel  Raphael," 
"The  Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  "The  Round  of  the 
Night,"  "The  Syndics  of  the  Merchant  Drapers,"  and 
a  portrait  of  himself  with  his  wife.  His  portraits  are 
by  some  critics  considered  more  admirable  than  his  his- 
torical works.  He  produced  a  great  number  of  etchings, 
some  of  which  command  enormous  prices,  (100  guineas 
each.)  As  an  engraver  in  aquafortis  he  has  never  been 
surpassed.  Among  his  engravings  are  a  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  "Christ  healing  the  .Sick,"  "The  Raising 
of  Lazarus,"  and  portraits  of  Van  Coppenol  and  Van 
Thol.     He  died  at  Amsterdam  in  October,  1669. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Rembrandt,"  by  J.  Burnet,  1S4S  ;  P.  Scheltema, 
"  Redevoering  over  het  Leven  en  de  Verdiensten  van  Rembrandt 
van  Rijn,"  1S53;  Dkscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc  ; 
J.  Immerzeel,  "  Lofrede  op  Rembrandt,"  1841  ;  Nagler,  "  Leben 
und  Werke  des  Malers  Rembrandt  von  Ryn,"  1843;  J.  Renouvier, 
"  Des  Types  et  des  Maniires  des  MaitresGraveurs  ;"  Houbrakkn, 
"Vies  des  Peintres;"  Daulbv,  "Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the 
Works  of  Rembrandt,"  1796;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rembrantz,  rSm'bRints,  (Thierry,)  a  Dutch  as- 
tronomer, born  near  the  Zuyderzee  about  1615;  died 
after  1677. 

Remenyi,  rem'iin-ye,  (Edward,)  a  Hungarian  violin- 
ist, born  at  Heves  in  1830.  He  took  part  in  the  revolution 
of  1848,  and  then  fled  to  America,  but  soon  returned  to 
Europe,  lie  subsec|uenlly  attained  very  great  fame  as  a 
concert-  and  parlonr-i)erformer.     Died  in  1887. 

Remer,  ra'mer,  (Julius  August,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1736.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of 
Universal  History,"  (3  vols.,  1783,)  which  was  received 
with  favour.     Died  in  1803. 

Remi,  or  Remy,  ra'me',  [Lat.  Remigius,]  Saint,  the 
"Apostle  of  the  Franks,"  was  born  at  Cerny-en-Laon 
nais  about  439  a.d.  He  became  Bishop  of  Rheims,  bap- 
tized Clovis,  (q.  V.,)  and  was  noted  for  his  eloquence 
and  successful  labours  in  converting  the  Franks.  Died 
at  Rheims,  June  13,  533. 

Remi  or  Remigius,  a  French  prelate,  was  Arch- 
bis'nop  of  Lyons.     Died  in  875  A.D. 

Remi  (or  Remigius)  of  Auxerre,  a  French  monk, 
who  wrote  on  theology  and  grammar.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  doctor  who  taught  publicly  in  Paris. 
Died  about  908. 

See  "  Nouvslle  Biographie  G6i^rale." 


a,  e,  T, o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolcngt  i;  a,  e,  1, 6,  i!i, y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  i^t;  ni5t;  nflt;  gdod;  m55n; 


REMI 


2045 


RENARD 


R^mi,  ri'me',  (Joseph  Honor6,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Remiremont  in  1738;  died  in  Paris  in  1782. 

Remigio,  ri-mee'jo,  (Fiorentino,)  an  Italian  Do- 
minican and  writer,  born  at  Florence  about  1518.  He 
translated  Ovid's  "Heroic  Epistles,"  and  Cornelius 
Nepos.     Died  in  1580. 

Remigius.     See  Remi. 

Remilly,  reh-me'ye',  (Ovide,)  a  French  politician, 
born  at  Versailles  in  iSoo,  He  was  elected  mayoi  of 
Versailles  seven  times  between  1837  and  1855,  and  wa> 
a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from   1839  to 

1848.  He  was  a  moderate  republican  in  the  Constituent 
Assembly  of  1848.     Died  May  9,  1875. 

Rem'ing-ton,  (Joseph  Price,)  a  distinguished  Amer- 
ican pharmacist,  son  of  Dr.  Isaac  Remington,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  March  26,  1847.  H^  had  the  rare  good 
fortune  to  be  for  about  three  years  under  the  imme- 
diate instruction  of  Dr.  Edward  R.  Squibb,  of  Brooklyn, 
who  has  been  styled  the  father  of  American  pharmacy. 
He  was  also  a  pupil  of  Prof.  William  Procter,  one  of  the 
most  meritorious  of  those  who  have  contributed  to  raise 
that  profession  to  the  high  position  which  it  now  occupies. 
On  the  death  of  Prof.  Procter,  in  1874,  Mr.  Remington 
succeeded  him  as  i^rofessor  of  pharmacy  in  the  Philadel- 
phia College  of  Pharmacy.  In  the  preparation  of  the 
revised  edition  of  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia  for 
1880  Prof  Remington  took  an  important  part.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  by  his  intelligent  zeal,  as  well  as  by 
his  lectures  and  writings,  he  has  probably  done  more 
than  any  other  pharmacist  in  our  country  to  improve  and 
elevate  the  pharmaceutical  profession. 

Remond,  ri'mdN',  (Franqois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in  1558;  died  at  Mantua  in 
1631. 

Remond,  de,  deh  ri'mAN',  written  also  Raemond, 
(Florimond,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Agen  about 
1540.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Heresy  in  this  Century,"  (1605.)     Died  in  1602. 

Remond  de  Sainte-Albine,  ri'mdw'  deh  siM 
il'b^n',  (Pierre,)  a  French  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1699 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Le  Comedien,"  (1747.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Remond  de  Saint-Mard,  ri'm6N'  deh  s4n  mlR, 
(ToussAiNT,)  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1682;  died  in  1757. 

Remondini,  rS-mon-dee'nee,  (Baldassare  Maria,) 
an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bassano  in  1698,  was 
Bishop  of  Zante.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  Antiqui- 
ties of  Zante,"  (1756.)     Died  in  1777. 

Remorino,  ri-mo-ree'no,  (Giovanni  Pietro,  ) 
sometimes  improperly  written  Ramoriuo,  (Jerome,) 
an  Italian  general,  born  at  Genoa  about  1790.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  Sardinian  army  at  Novara  in 

1849.  He  was  tried  for  disloyalty  by  a  military  court, 
and  shot,  in  May,  1849. 

Rem'sen,  (Ira,)  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  an  American  chemist, 
born  in  New  York  city,  February  10,  1846,  He  was 
educated  in  New  York,  Munich,  Gbttingen,  and  Tii- 
bingen,  graduating  as  M.D.  in  the  New  York  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  as  Ph.D.  at  Gottingen  in 
1870,  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  Williams  College, 
1S72-76,  aiid  in  the  latter  year  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  chemistry  in  Johns  Hopkins  University.  Among  his 
works  is  "Principles  of  Theoretical  Chemistry,"  (1876; 
3d  edition,  1883.) 

Re'mus,  one  of  the  founders  of  Rome,  was  a  brother 
of  Romulus,  which  see. 

Remusat,  ri'mii'zi',  (Jean  Pierre  Abel,)  an  emi- 
nent French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  September, 
1788.  He  studied  medicine  in  compliance  with  the 
wish  of  his  father,  and  learned  the  Chinese  language 
without  a  teacher.  In  i8u  he  published  an  "Essay  on 
the  Chinese  Language  and  Literature."  He  obtained  an 
exemption  from  the  conscription  of  1S13  by  the  influence 
of  his  friend  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  and  became  professor  of 
Chinese  in  the  College  of  France  in  1814.  In  1822  he 
founded  tlie  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  "  Researches  into  the  Tartar  Languages," 
(1820,)  and  "  Elements  of  the  Chinese  Grammar,"  (1822.) 
"  This  vast  and  important  work,"  says  Henri  Thiers,  "  is 


the  true  monument  of  the  reputation  acquired  by  Abel 
Remusat."  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "Biographic 
Universelle."     Died  in  1832. 

See  SiLVKSTRE  DE  Sacv,  "  filoge  d'Abel  Remusat;"  AMpftRK, 
"Notice  sur  Abel  Remusat"  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes," 
November  1,  1S32,  and  November  15,  1S33;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
GiJnerale." 

Remusat,  de,  deh  ri'mii'zt',  (Auguste  Laurext,) 
Count,  a  French  politician  and  advocate,  born  in 
Provence  in  1762.  He  became  first  chamberlain  of 
Napoleon  in  1804.     Died  in  1823. 

Remusat,  de,  (Charles,)  Count,  a  French  philoso- 
pher and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  in  1830  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  con- 
servatives. He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  March 
to  October,  1840.  In  1842  he  published  "Essays  on 
Philosophy,"  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1S46,  in  place  of 
Royer-Collard.  In  the  Constituent  and  Legislative  As- 
semblies of  1848  and  1849  he  voted  with  the  friends  of 
order,  [droite  mocUree.)  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Among  his  works  are 
a  "  Treatise  on  German  Philosophy,"  (1845,)  "  Abelard," 
(2  vols.,  1845,)  "  15acon,  sa  Vie,  son  Temps,"  etc.,  (1858,) 
"Philosophic  Religieuse,"  (1864,)  and  "  L'Histoire  de 
la  Philosophie  anglaise  de  Bacon  a  Locke,"  (1875.)  He 
died  Tune  6,  1875. 

Remusat,  de,  (Claire  Elisabeth  Jeanne,)  Count- 
ess, the  mother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1780.  She  was  a  companion  (dame  du  palais)  of  the 
empress  Josephine,  and  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Edu- 
cation of  Women,"  (1824.)     Died  in  1S21. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Portraits  des  Femmes  celfebres." 

Remy,  reh-me',  (Jules,)  a  French  traveller  and 
naturalist,  born  near  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1826.  He 
spent  several  years  in  the  exploration  of  Brazil,  Peru, 
Chili,  the  Sandwich  Isles,  California,  Utah,  etc.  He 
has  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Journey  to  the 
Country  of  the  Mormons,"  (2  vols.,  i860,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Sandwich  Isles,"  (1862.) 

Renan,  reh-nSw',  (Ernest,)  an  eminent  French 
writer,  Orientalist,  and  critic,  born  at  Treguier  (Cotes 
du  Nord)  in  1823.  He  began  to  study  for  the  priesthood, 
but  renounced  that  profession  because  he  doubted  the 
truth  of  the  orthodox  creed.  He  displayed  much  learn- 
ing in  his  "General  History  of  the  Semitic  Languages," 
(1855,)  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
in  1856,  and  was  sent  to  Syria  in  i860  to  search  for  relics 
of  ancient  learning  and  civilization.  Soon  after  his  return 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  College  of 
France,  but  he  was  suspended  in  1862,  in  deference  to  the 
rtill  of  those  who  considered  him  unsound  in  faith.  He 
admits  the  excellence  of  the  Christian  religion,  but  dis- 
credits its  supernatural  origin  and  rejects  the  miracles. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Jesus,"  (1863,)  the  suc- 
cess of  which  is  attributed  partly  to  the  perfection  of  his 
style.  It  has  been  denounced  as  impious  by  several 
French  prelates.  This  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
works  under  the  general  title  of  "  History  of  the  Origin 
of  Christianity,"  embracing  "The  Apostles,"  ("  Les 
Apotres,"  1866,)  ".Saint  Paul  and  his  Mission,"  (Saint- 
Paul  et  sa  Mission,"  1867,)  "Antichrist,"  ("  L'Ante- 
Christ,"  1873,)  and  "The  Christian  Church,"  (L'Eglise 
chretienne,"  1879.)  In  1880  he  visited  England  and 
delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  Christianity,  which 
were  published  in  book-form  in  the  same  year.  "  My 
Reminiscences,"  ("  Mes  Souvenirs,")  a  history  of  his 
religious  opinions,  appeared  in  1883. 

See  ScHERER,  "Melanges;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1864;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
November,  1S61 ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review''  for  July  and  October, 
1S63,  and  October,  1S66  :  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1S66; 
■'North  British  Review"  for  Februai-y,  1S64. 

Renard,  reh-nSR',  (Jean  Augustin,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  in  1744.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
was  patronized  by  the  king.  Among  his  works  was  the 
glass  roof  (comble)  of  the  Salon  d'Exposition  of  the 
Louvre.     Died  in  1807. 

Renard,  (Jean  Baptiste  Bruno,)  a  Belgian  military 
writer,  born  at  Tournai  in  1804.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Political  and  Military  History  of  Belgium,"  (2  vols., 
1847-51.)     He  died  at  Brussels,  July  3,  1879. 


cas*;  9asj;  %hard;  gzsf;  o,H,K,^ f turn/;  n, nasal;  v.,trilled;  sasc;  th  asin//«;j.     ([J^^See  Explanations, p.  23. 1 


RENARD 


2046 


RENEE 


Renard,  (Simon,)  a  diplomatist,  born  at  Vesoul,  in 
France,  entered  tlie  service  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who 
employed  him  as  an  ambassador.  He  was  an  enemy  of 
Cardinal  Granvelle.     Died  at  Madrid  in  1575. 

Renata.     See  Ren^e. 

Renatus.     See  Rf.n6. 

Renau  d']dli§agaray,  reh-no'  di'le'si'gi'ri',  (Ber- 
nard,) a  French  naval  officer  and  military  engineer, 
born  in  Beam  in  1652.  He  made  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  vessels,  and  invented  bomb-vessels  or 
mortar-boats,  (galiotes,)  with  which  Algiers  was  bom- 
barded in  1680^  He  directed  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in 
1704,  m  the  service  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  He  published 
a  "Theorie  de  la  Manoeuvre  des  Vaisseaux,"  (1689.) 
Died  in  17 19. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Si^le  de  Louis  XI V ;"  Fontenelle,  "  filoges ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Gdndrale." 

Renaud.     See  Regnaud. 

Renaudie,  de  la,  deh  IS  reh-no'de',  (Godefroi,)  a 
French  Huguenot,  was  the  leader  of  a  conspiracy  against 
the  family  of  Guise,  called  "  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise." 
The  design  having  been  betrayed,  he  was  killed  in  a 
fight  with  the  partisans  of  the  Guises,  in  1560. 

See  Davila,  "The  Civil  Wars  of  France;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generaie." 

Renaudiere,  La.     See  La  RENAUDifeRE. 

Renaudin,  reh-no'diN',  (Jean  FRAxgois,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Saintonge  in  1757.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  captain  of  Le  Vengeur  in  a  battle  against  the 
English  on  the  ist  of  June,  1794.  His  ship  was  sunk 
in  this  action.     Died  in  1S09. 

See  Van  T^n'AC,  "  Histoire  de  la  Marine :"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale." 

Renaudin,  (Leopold,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1749,  was  a  partisan  of  Robespierre.  He 
was  guillotined  with  Fouquier-Tinville  in  1795. 

Renaudot,  reh-no'do',  (Claude,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Vesoul  about  1730,  wrote  "The  Revolutions 
of  Empires,"  (2  vols.,  1 769,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1780. 

See  QuiRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Renaudot,  (Eus^be,)  Abh6,  a  French  Orientalist 
and  writer  on  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Church,  a 
grandson  of  Theophraste,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1646.  He  was  versed  in  the  Syriac  and  Arabic 
languages.  In  16S9  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"History  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Alexandria,"  (1713,) 
which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete  work  on  the 
ecclesiastic  history  of  Christian  Egypt,  and  a  "Col- 
lection of  Oriental  Liturgies,"  (2  vols.,  1716.)  Died 
in  1720. 

See  Nic^RON,"  M^moires ;"  Mor^ri,"  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gi5nerale." 

Renaudot,  (Theophraste,)  a  French  physician  and 
journalist,  born  at  Loudun  in  1584,  was  the  grandfather 
of  the  preceding.  He  founded  in  163 1  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  the  first  of  French  newspapers,  which  he 
continued  to  publish  in  Paris  until  his  death,  in  1653. 
After  his  death  it  was  published  by  his  sons,  Eusebe 
and  Isaac. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Renauldin,  reh-no'dix',  (Leopold  Joseph,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Nancy  in  1775.  ^^^  served  as  phy- 
sician in  the  army  during  the  empire,  and  was  one  of 
the  consulting  physicians  of  King  Louis  Philippe.  He 
wrote  articles  for  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  and  a 
"Sketch  of  the  History  of  Medicine,"  (1812.)  Died 
in  1859. 

See  Sachaii.e,  "  Les  M^decins  de  Paris." 

Renazzi,  ri-nit'see,  (Filippo  Maria,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Rome  in  1742.  He  was  professor  of 
criminal  law  at  Rome  about  thirty-four  years.  He  pub- 
lished "Elements  of  Criminal  Law,"  (3  vols.,  1773-81,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  Died 
in  1 80S. 

See  Montanari.  "  Elogio  deU'Avvocato  F.  M.  Renazzi,"  1836 ; 
Canxellieri,  "Elogio  di  F.  M.  Renazzi,"  1S19. 

Ren'del,  (James  Meadows,)  an  English  civil  engi- 
neer, born  near  Dartmoor,  in  Devonshire,  in  1799.     He 


was  distinguished  as  a  constructor  of  bridges,  docks, 
harbours,  and  hydraulic  works.  He  settled  in  London 
in  1838.  Among  his  works  are  the  harbours  of  Holy- 
head and  Portland,  and  the  docks  at  Birkenhead.  In 
1855  he  was  employed  by  the  senate  of  Hamburg  to 
protect  the  port  of  that  city  from  the  accumulation  of 
sand.     Died  in  November,  1856. 

Rendu,  rfiN'dii',  (Ambroise  Marie  Modeste,)  a 
Frenchman,  noted  as  the  organizer  of  primary  instruc- 
tion in  France,  was  born  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  council  of  the  university  in  1809,  and 
was  for  many  years  superintendent  of  primary  schools. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  education,  morals,  etc.  Died 
in  i860. 

See  EuafeNE  Rendu,  "Ambroise  Rendu  et  I'Universili  de 
France,"  1S61  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rendu,  (Eugene,)  a  publicist,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1824.  He  has  written  on  educa- 
tion, and  on  the  political  relations  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany. 

Rendu,  (Jeanne  Marie,)  called  Sister  Rosalie,  a 
French  nun  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Comfort  in  1787. 
She  lived  in  Paris,  and  was  eminent  for  her  charitable 
deeds.  Several  sovereigns  selected  her  as  the  dispenser 
of  their  alms.     Died  in  1856. 

See  EucfeNR  Rendu,  "  Notice  sur  la  Soeur  Rosalie  Rendu," 
1S56;  Vicomte  de  Melun,  "Vie  de  la  Sceur  Rosalie,"  1857; 
Bessie  R.  Parkes,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rendu,  (Louis,)  a  French  prelate  and  writer,  born 
at  Meyrin  in  1789,  was  a  first-cousin  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Annecy  in  1843.  ^^  wrote  sev- 
eral scientific  works,  and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Influence 
of  Laws  on  Morals,  and  of  Morals  on  Laws,"  (1833.) 
Died  in  1859. 

Rendu,  (Victor,)  a  French  writer  on  rural  economy, 
born  in  Paris,  Mav  3,  1S09,  was  a  son  of  Ambroise  Marie, 
noticed  above.  He  wrote  "  Nouveau  Spectacle  de  la 
Nature,"  (10  vols.,  1839.)     Died  in  June,  1877. 

Rend,  reh-ni',  [Lat.  Rexa'tus,]  of  Anjou,  Duke  of 
Anjou  and  Lorraine,  King  of  Naples,  Jerusalem,  and 
Sicily,  and  Count  of  Provence,  etc.,  called  "the  good 
King  Rene,"  was  born  in  1409.  He  was  a  son  of  Louis 
II.,  Duke  of  Anjou  and  Count  of  Provence.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  brother,  Louis  III.,  in  1434,  and  by  the  will 
of  Queen  Joanna,  who  died  in  1435,  he  became  heir  to 
the  throne  of  Naples.  This  throne,  however,  was  claimed 
by  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  who  drove  Rene  out  of  Naples  in 
1442  and  remained  master  of  that  kingdom.  Rene  was 
an  ally  of  Charles  VII.  of  France  in  his  war  against  the 
English.  He  found  recreation  in  art  and  literature;  he 
was  a  poet,  and  is  said,  on  doubtful  authority,  to  have 
been  a  painter  and  sculptor.  His  daughter  Margaret 
was  the  wife  of  Henry  VI.  of  England.  He  died  in 
1480.  Four  quarto  volumes  of  his  works  have  been 
published. 

See  AL  de  Villeneuve  Bargemont,  "Histoire  de  Rene  d'An- 
jou,"  3  vols.,  1825;  Cordei,i,ier-Delanoue,  "Rened'Anjou,"  1851 ; 
Lecoy  dk  la  Marche,  "  Le  Roi  Rend,"  1S75. 

Reneaulme,  reh-nom',  (Michel  Louis,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Blois  about  1675.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  charged  by 
his  colleagues  to  revise  and  publish  the  manuscrijjts  of 
Tournefort,  but  appears  not  to  have  performed  that  task. 
Died  in  1739. 

Reneaulme,  de,  deh  reh-nom',  (Paul,)  a  French 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Blois  about  1560.  He 
published  "  Specimen  of  the  History  of  Plants,"  ("  Speci- 
men Historiae  Plantarum,"  161 1.)     Died  in  1624. 

Ren6e,  [It.  Renata,  rk-n^'tS,]  or  Renee  de  France, 
reh-ni' deh  ('rSn'ss,  a  daughter  of  Louis  XII.,  was  born 
in  1 5 10,  and  was  married  in  1527  to  the  Duke  of  Ferrara. 
.She  was  eminent  for  talents  and  learning,  and  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  literary  men.  She  was  converted  to 
Protestantism  by  Calvin  about  1535.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  (1559)  she  resided  in  France,  at  Mon- 
targis,  where  she  displayed  firmness  and  courage  in 
protecting  the  persecuted  Huguenots.  Died  in  1575 
or  1576. 

See  Catteau-Calleville,  "Vie  de  Ren^e  de  France,"  1781; 
Munch,  "Renee  von  Est,"  1S31  ;  "Memorials  of  Ren^e  of  France, 
Duchess  of  Ferrara,"  London,  1859. 


\  e.  1, 6,  u,  y,  long,  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  0,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RENEE 


2047 


RENOUV^ER 


Renee,  reh-ni',  (Am6d6e,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Caen  in  1808.  He  became  librarian  of  the  Sorbonne 
in  1849,  and  chief  editor  of  tlie  "Constitutionnel"  in 
1857.  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale,"  and  published  several  works,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "The  Nieces  of  Mazarin,"  (2  vols.,  1856.) 
Died  in  November,  1859. 

Reni,  (Guido.)     See  Guido. 

Renter,  reh-ne-i',  (Charles  Alphonse  L6on,)  a 
French  antiquaryT^born  at  Charleville  (Ardennes)  in 
1809.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  1856.  His  researches  in  Latin  inscriptions 
were  so  successful  that  a  chair  of  Roman  antiquities  and 
epigraphy  was  founded  for  him  at  Paris  in  1861.  In 
1855  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Imperial  Society 
of  Antiquaries.     Died  in  1885. 

Renier,  ri-ne-aiR^  (Stefano  Andrea,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Chioggia,  near  Venice,  in  1759.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  natural  history  at  Padua  in  1S06. 
He  wrote  "Tables  of  Zoology,"  a  "Catalogue  of  Shell- 
Fish,"  (1802,)  and  "  Elements  of  Mineralogy,"  (1S25-28.) 
Died  in  1830. 

See  Calcagno,  "  Elogio  storico  di  S.  A.  Renier,"  1830. 

Renieri,  rk-ne-a'ree,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  astron- 
omer, was  born  at  Genoa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Galileo, 
who,  when  his  sight  failed  in  1637,  committed  to  his  care 
some  observations  on  the  satellites  of  Jupiter.  Renieri 
published  these,  under  the  title  of  "Tabulae  Medicex 
universales,"  (2  vols.,  1639-47.)     Died  at  Pisa  in  1648. 

Rankin,  (Swalm.)     See  Rannequin. 

Rennefort,  de,  deh  r^n'foR',  (Urbain  Souchu,)  a 
French  traveller,  born  about  1630.  He  published  a 
"Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  Madagascar,"  (1668,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  East  Indies,"  (1688.) 

RenneL     See  Rennell. 

Ren'nell  or  Ren'nel,  (JA^rE.S,)  a  British  engineer 
and  eminent  geographer,  was  born  near  Chudleigh,  in 
Devonshire,  in  1742.  As  an  engineer  of  the  East  India 
Company,  he  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Lord  Clive, 
obtained  the  rank  of  major,  and  became  surveyor-gene- 
ral of  Bengal.  Having  returned  to  England  about  1782, 
lie  published  an  excellent  map  of  Hindostan,  accom- 
panied by  a  Memoir,  (1783.)  He  was  elected  about 
1783  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  reputation 
was  widely  extended  by  "The  Geographical  System  of 
Herodotus  Examined  and  Explained,"  (1800,)  a  work  of 
great  merit.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Illustrations, 
chiefly  Geographical,  of  the  History  of  the  Expedition 
of  the  Younger  Cyrus  from  Sardis  to  Babylon,  and  the 
Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,"  (18 16,)  and  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Comparative  Geography  of  Western  Asia,"  with 
an  Atlas,  (1831.)     Died  in  London  in  1830. 

See  Walckenaer,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrasjes  de 
M.  Rennell,"  1S42;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  iSoo. 

Rennell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
m  Devonshire  in  1718;  died  in  1788. 

Rennell,  (Thomas,)  an  eloquent  English  preacher, 
born  in  1753.  He  became  Dean  of  Winchester  in  1805. 
It  is  said  that  William  Pitt  called  him  the  "Demos- 
thenes of  the  pulpit."  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was 
published.     Died  in  1840. 

Rennell  or  Rennel,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English 
theologian,  born  at  Winchester  in  1787.  He  became 
vicar  of  Kensington  in  1816,  and  prebendary  of  Salis- 
bury in  1823.  He  wrote  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1S24. 

Renneville,  de,  deh  rSn'vfel',  (Ren6  Auguste  Con- 
STANTIN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Caen  about  1650. 
He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  from  1702  to  17 13,  on  a 
charge  that  he  was  a  spy.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Bastille,"  (1715,)  and  several  poems.     Died  in  1723. 

Rennie,  ren'ne,  (George,)  a  civil  and  mechanical 
engineer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1791,  was  a  son  of  John, 
noticed  below.  He  formed  a  partnership  with  his 
brother  John.  They  built  docks  at  Deptford,  Chatham, 
and  Plymouth,  the  East  and  West  India  Docks  at 
London,  the  harbour  of  Liveri)ool,  and  other  harbours. 
They  constructed  steam-engines  for  many  vessels-of- 
war  and  for  the  steamers  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Navigation  Company.     Amon?  their  works  are  several 


iron  ships,  the  dock-gates  of  Sebastopol,  and  a  number 
of  railroads.  George  Rennie  wrote  treatises  "  On  the 
Friction  of  Solids,"  and  "On  Hydraulics."   Died  in  1S66. 

Rennie,  (John,)  a  distinguished  British  civil  engineer, 
architect,  and  mechanician,  born  at  Phantassie,  in  Had- 
dingtonshire, Scotland,  in  June,  1761.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1782,  and  was  first  emjjloyed  in  the  fabri- 
cation of  steam-engines  and  other  machinery.  About 
1800  he  erected  a  fine  bridge  at  Kelso.  He  was  after- 
wards employed  as  engineer  of  many  public  works, 
among  which  are  the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal,  the  South- 
wark  Bridge  over  the  Thames,  the  London  Docks,  the 
pier  at  Holyhead,  and  the  Waterloo  Bridge,  which  is 
considered  his  best  work  of  that  class.  It  was  finished 
about  1817.     Died  in  1821. 

SeeS.Mii.BS,  "  Lives  of  the  Engineers;"  Chambers,  "  Biographi- 
cal Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rennie,  (Sir  John,)  F.R.S.,  a  younger  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1 796.  He  was  architect  of 
the  London  Bridge,  which  was  finished  in  183 1.  He 
ceased  to  be  a  partner  of  his  brother  in  1845,  ^f^^r 
which  he  devoted  his  time  to  architecture.     Died  1874. 

Ren'ni-ger,  written  also  Rhanger,  (Michael,)  an 
English  clergyman  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Hampshire 
in  1529.  He  was  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  Archdeacon  of  Winchester.     Died  in  i6o9._ 

Re'no,  (Jesse  L.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1S25,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He 
served  as  an  oflicer  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
became  a  captain  in  1S60.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
of  the  Union  ariuy  at  Roanoke  Island  and  at  Newbern, 
March,  1862.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  major-gene- 
ral at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30 
of  the  same  year.  He  rendered  important  services  at 
South  Mountain,  where  he  was  killed,  September  14, 
1S62. 

Renou,  reh-noo',  (.\ntoine,)  a  French  painter  and 
versifier,  born  in  Paris  in  1731.  He  translated  Dufres- 
noy's  Latin  poem  on  Painting,  (1789,)  and  Tasso's  "Je- 
rusalem Delivered."     Died  in  1806. 

Renouard,  reh-noo'SR',  (Antoine  Augustin,)  a 
French  bibliographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1765,  was  a  book- 
seller. He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Annals  of 
the  Printing-Press  of  Aldus,  or  a  History  of  the  Three 
Manutii  and  their  Editions,"  (1803,)  and  a  "  History  of 
the  Family  of  Estienne  (Stephanus)  and  of  their  Edi- 
tions," (1838.)     Died  in  1853. 

See  Qo^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Renouard,  (Augustin  Charles,)  an  advocate,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1794.  He  became  a 
peer  of  France  in  1846.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on 
the  Rights  of  Authors  in  Literature,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1S38,) 
and  other  works.     Died  August  17,  1878. 

Renouard,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  translator,  born  in 
Berry,  lived  about  1615-40.  He  produced  a  version 
of  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  (1615,)  which  was  very 
popular. 

Renouf,  re-noof,  (Peter  le  Page,)  a  British  scholar, 
born  on  the  isle  of  Guernsey  in  1S24.  He  was  educated 
at  Elizabeth  College,  Saint  Peter  le  Port,  and  at  Pem- 
broke College,  Oxford.  In  1S42  he  became  a  Roman 
Catholic.  In  1S55  he  was  appointed  a  professor  of 
ancient  history  and  Eastern  languages  in  the  Catholic 
University,  Dublin.  Among  his  works  are  "  Notes  on 
Egyptian  Philology,"  (1S66,)  "The  Condemnation  of 
Pope  Honorius,""(i868,)  "Elementary  Manual  of  tiie 
Egvptian  Language,"  (1S75,)  "Lectures  on  the  Origin 
and  Growth  of  Religion,"  (1S80,)  eta 

Renouvier,  reh-noo've-4',  (Charles  Bernard,)  a 
French  writer  on'politics^d  philosophy,  born  in  1815, 
joined  the  radical  party.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Manual  of  Ancient  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  and 
•'Essays  of  General  Criticism,"  ("  Essais  de  Critique 
generale,"  1854.) 

Renouvier,  (Jules,)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1804.  He  was  a  republican  member  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848,  and  an  opponent  of 
Louis  Napoleon  in  1S50.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Notes  on  the  Gothic  Monuments  of  Pisa,  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Naples,"  (1841,)  and  a  valuable  treatise  on 
engraving,  entitled  "  Des  Types  et  des  Manieres  des 


€  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  u,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


RENSHA  W 


2048 


RESTAUR  AND 


Mattres-Graveurs,"  (4  parts,  1853-56.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1S60. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Ren'sha-w,  (Wiixiam  B.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
Dorn  in  New  York  State,  entered  the  navy  in  183 1.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1841,  and  a  commander  in  1861. 
[n  the  latter  part  of  1862  he  obtained  command  of  a 
squadron  which  blockaded  Galveston.  He  blew  up 
his  ship,  which  had  run  aground  near  Galveston,  rather 
than  surrender  it,  and  was  killed  by  the  explosion,  in 
January,  1863. 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Renti  or  Renty,  de,  deh  rflN'te',  (Gastox  Jean 
Baptiste,)  Baron,  a  French  ascetic,  born  near  Bayeux 
in  161 1,  was  noted  for  piety.     Died  in  1648. 

See  P.  DE  Saint-Jure,  "Vie  de  M.  de  Renty,"  1651.  (This 
was  abridged  by  John  Wesley.) 

Renty,  de.    See  Renti,  de. 

Renucci,  ri-noot'chee,  (Francesco  Ottaviano,)  an 
Italian  historian,  born  in  Corsica  in  1767.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  Corsica  from  1789  to  1830,"  (1834.)  Died 
in  1S42. 

Renusson,  de,  deh  reh-nii'sAN',  (Philippe,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Mans  in  1632 ;  died  in  1669.  The  French 
biographer  who  gives  the  dates  as  above  says,  "  At  the 
age  of  forty-nine  he  passed  for  one  of  the  ablest  jurists." 

Ren'w^ick,  (James,)  a  Scottish  preacher,  called  a 
martyr  of  the  Covenant,  was  born  in  Dumfries-shire 
about  1662.  He  was  an  active  and  uncompromising 
promoter  of  the  cause  of  the  Covenanters.  He  was 
executed  in  16S8. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ren'wick,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  American  savant, 
born  in  1792,  became  in  1820  professor  of  chemistry  and 
physics  at  Columbia  College,  New  York.  He  published 
"Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,"  (1830,)  "Outlines 
of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1832,)  "Outlines  of  Geology," 
(1838,)  a  "Memoir  of  De  Witt  Clinton,"  (1840,)  and 
Lives  of  Robert  Fulton,  David  Rittenhouse,  and  Count 
Rumford,  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography."  Died  in 
New  York  in  1863. 

See  Ai.LlBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Renzi,  r^n'zee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
critic,  born  at  Castelsalfi  in  1780.  He  edited  the  works 
of  Dante,  Ariosto,  and  Petrarch.     Died  in  1823. 

Repelaer  van  Driel,  ra'peh-ljR'  vtn  dReel,  (Ok- 
ker,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Dort  in  1759;  died 
in  1832. 

Repnin,  r5p-n6n'  or  rSp-neen',  written  also  Repnine, 
(Nicholas  Vasilievitch,)  Prince,  a  Russian  general 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  1734,  was  a  nephew  of  Count 
Panin.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Poland  in  1764, 
and  gave  much  offence  to  the  Poles  by  his  arrogance 
and  by  his  efforts  to  destroy  their  nationality.  In  1774 
he  signed  with  the  Turkish  vizier  the  treaty  of  Koutchouk- 
Kai)iardji.  Having  obtained  command  of  the  arm)  of 
the  Ukraine,  he  defeated  the  Turks  at  Matzin  in  1791. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1796. 
Died  in  1801, 

Repp,  r§p,  (Thorleif  Gudmundsson,)  an  Icelandic 
linguist,  born  at  Reykiadal  in  1794.  He  was  versed  in 
nearly  all  the  modern  languages  of  Europe,  and  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  About  1825  he  became 
under-librarian  of  the  Advocates'  Library  of  Edinburgh. 
He  removed  to  Copenhagen  in  1837.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Historical  Treatise  on  the  Trial  by  Jury,"  in  Eng- 
lish, (1832,)  and  "Dano-Hungarian  Discoveries,"  (1843.) 
He  died  December  4,  1857. 

Repsold,  rgp'solt,(JOHANN  Georg,)  a  German  mecha- 
nician, born  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  in  1770,  became 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  his  astronomical  and  other 
instruments.     Died  in  1830. 

Rep'ton,  (Humphry,)  an  English  landscape-gardener, 
born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's  in  1752.  He  was  a  mer- 
chant in  his  youth,  but,  having  failed  in  business,  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  landscape-gardener,  in  which 
he  found  little  or  no  competition.  He  was  author  of 
"Sketches  and  Hints  on  Landscape-Gardening,"  (1795,) 
and  other  professional  works.     Died  in  1818. 


Requeno  y  Vives,  ri-ka'no  e  vee'vgs,  (Vincencio,) 
a  Spanish  antiquary  and  writer  on  fine  arts,  was  born  at 
Granada  about  1730.  (Another  writer  says  he  was  born 
at  Calatraho  in  1743.)  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome 
about  1767.  He  produced  a  treatise  on  ancient  painting, 
entitled  "  Essay  on  the  Restoration  of  Ancient  Art," 
("  Saggio  sul  Ristabilimento  dell'antica  Arte,"  etc.,  1 784.) 
Died  about  1805. 

Reque.sens,  r4-ki-s5ns',  (Luis  de  Zuniga — thoon- 
yee'gi,)  a  Spanish  commander,  born  in  1522.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  lieutenant  of  Don  John  of  Austria 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  and  succeeded  the  Duke  of 
Alva  in  1573  as  Governor  of  the  Netherlands,  the  people 
of  which  were  then  in  arms  against  the  Spanish  domi- 
nation. His  army  gained  a  victory  over  Louis  of  Nassau 
near  Nymwegen  ;  but  this  advantage  was  neutralized  by  a 
mutiny  of  the  Spaniards.  While  his  army  was  besieging 
Ziriczee,  he  died,  in  1576.  He  was  an  able  general,  and 
inclined  to  moderation  in  the  use  of  power. 

See  Motley's  "  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Requier,  reh-ke-i',  ?  (Augustus  Julian,)  an  Amen, 
can  politician  and  writer,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1825.  On  the  secession  of  Alabama,  in  1861, 
he  was  appointed  district  attorney  for  the  southern 
district  of  that  State.  He  wrote  several  poems  and 
dramas.     Died  March  19,  1S87. 

Requier,  reh-ke-i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer 
and  translator,  born  at  Pignans  in  1715  ;  died  in  1799. 

Requiu,  reh-k^N',  (Achille  Pierre,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1803  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1853 

Reresby,  reers'be,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  loyalist 
and  member  of  Parliament,  wrote  "  Memoirs  containing 
several  Private  and  Remarkable  Transactions  from  the 
Restoration  to  the  Revolution  inclusively,"  (1734.) 

See  "  Memoires  de  Sir  John  Reresby,"  Paris;  "Monk's  Con- 
temporaries," by  Guizot:  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  viii.,  (1823,) 

Resbecq,  de,  deh  rSs'bSk',  (AdolphE  Charles 
Th^odose  Fontaine,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lille 
in  1813.     He  published  many  books.     Died  in  1865. 

Reschid.     See  Rksheed. 

Resende,  de,  di  ri-sen'di,  (Garcia,)  a  Portuguese 
historian,  born  at  Evora  about  1470.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
torv  of  John  IT.,"  (1545.)     Died  in  1554. 

Resende,  de.  (L.  Andrea,)  a  Portuguese  antiquary 
and  poet,  born  at  Evora  in  1498.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Antiquities  of  Portugal,"  ("  Antiquitates 
Lusitaniae,"  1593.)  He  opened  a  school  at  Evora,  in 
which  many  eminent  scholars  were  educated.  According 
to  M.  Weiss,  he  was  "the  restorer  of  learning  in  Por- 
tugal."    Died  in  1573. 

Resenius,  ri-sa'ne-iis,  (Johan  Paul,)  a  Danish  theo- 
logian, born  in  Jutland  about  1560.  He  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Copenhagen,  and  translated  the  Bible 
into  Danish.     Died  in  1638. 

Resenius,  (Peter,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1625.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  law 
in  the  University  of  that  city  in  1662.  He  published 
"  Copenhagen  Inscriptions,  Latin,  Danish,  and  German," 
•  Inscriptiones  Hafnienses,  Latinae,  Danicae  et  Germa- 
nicae,"  166S,)  and  some  legal  works.     Died  in  16SS. 

See  Nlc^RON,  "Memoires." 

Resheed  (or  Reschid)  Pasha,  reh-sheed'  pS'shl, 
called  also  Mustafa  (moos'ti-fl)  Resheed,  a  Turkish 
grand  vizier  and  reformer,  born  at  Constantinople  about 
1800,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Alee  Pasha.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  pasha  in  1834,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Paris  and  London.  He  was  grand  vizier  for  a  short 
time  in  1837,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1839,  and  afterwards  ably  and  constantly 
promoted  the  political  and  social  reforms  begun  by 
Mahmood  II.     Died  in  1858. 

Resnel  du  Bellay,  du,  dii  ri'nS".'  dii  bi'iy,  (Jean 
Francois,)  Abb6,  a  French  poet  and  translator,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1692,  became  canon  of  a  church  in  Paris  in 
1724.  He  produced  poetical  versions  of  Pope's  "  Essay 
on  Criticism"  (1730)  and  "Essay  on  Man,"  (1737,)  in 
which,  it  is  said,  he  was  aided  by  Voltaire.  He  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy  in  1742.     Died  in  1761. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Restaurand,    rls'to'rflN',    (Raymond,)    a    French 


i,  e, !,  6,  ii,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  0,  li, ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  xalX;  nSt;  good;  mSon; 


RESTAUT 


2049 


REUSNER 


medical  writer,  born  at  Pont  Saint-Esprit  about  1627 ; 
died  in  1682. 

Restaut,  rSs'to',  (Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian  and 
advocate,  born  at  Beauvais  in  1696.  He  wrote  an  ele- 
mentary "Treatise  on  French  G  ammar,"  (1730,)  which 
the  University  adopted  as  class.'j.     Died  in  1764. 

Restout,  rSs'too',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1692,  was  a  pupil  and  nephew  of  Jouvenet. 
His  works  were  more  admired  by  his  contemporaries 
than  they  are  now.     Died  in  1768. 

Restout,  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  painter,  born  in  Paris 
in  1732,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  gained  the 
first  prize  in  1758,  after  which  he  studied  at  Rome. 
Died  in  1797. 

Rethel,  ra'tel,  (Alfred,)  an  eminent  German  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816.  He 
studied  at  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf,  and  there  painted 
"  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  and  a  picture  of  "  Nemesis," 
both  of  which  were  greatly  admired.  About  1840  he 
removed  to  Frankfort.  Among  his  chief  works  are  a 
series  of  frescos  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  representing  the 
exploits  of  Charlemagne,  and  "The  Passage  of  the  Alps 
by  Hannibal."  He  was  an  excellent  designer.  His  last 
years  were  passed  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1859. 

Rett.     See  Rati. 

Rettf  or  Restif  de  la  Bretonne,  ri'tif  deh  It  bneh- 
ton',  (Nicolas  Edme,)  a  prolific  and  licentious  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  near  Auxerre  in  1734  ;  died  poor, 
in  Paris,  in  1S06. 

Rettberg,  rgt'b§RG,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  and  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg, 
born  at  Celle  in  1805.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Eccle- 
siastical History  of  Germany,"  (1846.)     Died  in  1849. 

Retz,  riss,  (N.,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  at 
Arras.  He  obtained  the  title  of  physician  to  the  king 
about  1790.     Died  about  1810. 

Retz,  de,  d^h  riss,  (Albert  de  Gondi — deh  gAN'- 
de',)  a  French  courtier  and  general,  born  at  Florence  in 
1522,  was  a  grandfather  of  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  be- 
came a  favourite  of  Charles  IX.,  and  was  one  of  the 
instigators  of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.) 
Died  in  1602. 

See  Brant6mk,  "Grands  Capitaines;"  MoRiRi,  " Dictionnaire 
Historique." 

Retz,  de,  (Gilles.)     See  Rais. 

Retz,  rets,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  riss,]  (Jean  Francois 
Paul  de  Gondi,)  Cardinal,  an  ambitious  French  prel- 
ate, distinguished  for  his  talents  and  factious  intrigues, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Montmirail  in  1614.  He 
attempted,  by  debaucheries  and  scandalous  actions,  to 
frustrate  the  purpose  of  his  family,  who  destined  him 
for  the  church.  He  studied,  however,  with  ardour, 
gained  distinction  as  a  disputant,  and  courted  popularity 
by  profuse  donations  to  the  poor.  In  1643  he  was 
nominated  coadjutor  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who 
was  his  uncle.  The  civil  war  of  the  Fronde,  which 
began  in  1649,  afforded  him  an  opportunity  to  gratify 
his  ambition  to  be  the  chief  of  a  party.  He  became 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Frondeurs,  but  is  said  to  have 
opposed  the  more  violent  tendencies  of  that  faction. 
He  was  nominated  a  cardinal  by  the  queen-regent,  who 
wished  to  conciliate  him.  Mazarin  having  recovered 
his  power  in  Paris,  De  Retz  was  arrested  in  December, 
1652,  and  confined  at  Vincennes.  He  was  transferred 
to  the  chateau  of  Nantes,  from  which  he  escaped  in 
1654.  He  went  to  Rome  and  took  part  in  the  election 
of  a  new  pope.  After  he  had  passed  some  years  in  the 
Low  Countries,  he  was  permitted  to  return  to  France. 
He  paid  his  debts,  which  were  very  large,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  retirement.  It  appears  that  his  moral 
character  was  somewhat  reformed  after  his  imprison- 
ment. He  died  in  1679,  leaving  some  interesting  "  M^- 
moires,"  (1717,)  which  have  been  translated  into  English. 
"Their  animated  style,"  says  Hallam,  "their  excellent 
portraitures  of  character,  their  acute  and  brilliant  re- 
marks, distinguish  their  pages  as  much  as  the  similar 
qualities  did  their  author."  "They  are  written,"  says 
Voltaire,  "with  an  air  of  greatness,  an  impetuosity,  and 
an  inequality  which  are  the  image  of  his  life." 

See  "M^moires  du  Cardinal  de  Retz,"  first  printed  in  3  vols., 
1717;    Voltaire,   "Slide  de    Louis   XIV;"    Musskt  -  Pathay. 


"Recherches  historiqiies  sur  le  Cardinal  de  Retz,"  1807,  and  4  lols., 
1859;  English  translation  of  Retz's  "  M^moires,"  1723;  Sainib- 
Beuve,  "Causeriesdu  Lundi ;"  Michei.ht,  "  Histoire  de  France;" 
SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais;"  "Noiivelle  Biographie  Gink- 
rale." 

Retzius,  r§t'se-£is,  (Anders  Johan,)  a  Swedish  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Christianstadt  in  1742,  was  a  pupil  of 
Linnaeus.  He  became  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Lund  in  1777,  and  published  a  good  work  on  the  plants 
of  Sweden,  Norway,  etc.,  entitled  "  Florse  Scandinaviae 
Prodromus,"  (1779.)  His  treatise  on  botany,  "Obser- 
vationes  botanicse,"  (1779-91,)  is  called  his  capital  work. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Retzius,  (Anders  Olof  or  Adolf,)  a  Swedish  phy- 
sician, born  at  Lund  in  1796,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Lund  about  1824 
He  wrote  important  works  on  medicine  and  natural 
history.     Died  at  Stockholm  in  i860. 

Retzius,  (Magnus  Christian,)  an  able  medical 
writer,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lund 
about  1794.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Stockholm  about  1820.     Died  October  6,  1871. 

Retzsch,  r§tsh,  (Moritz,)  an  eminent  German  de- 
signer and  painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1779.  He  studied 
at  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  that  city,  where  he  became 
professor  of  painting  in  1824.  His  etchings  illustrating 
Goethe's  "Faust,"  published  in  1812,  established  his 
reputation  both  in  Germany  and  other  countries.  They 
were  followed  by  illustrations  of  Schiller  and  Shakspeare, 
of  Burger's  "  Lenore"  and  "Ballads,"  and  other  popular 
works.  As  a  portrait-painter,  also,  Retzsch  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  was  pre-eminent  as  an  original  designer 
in  outline  among  the  artists  of  his  time  :  his  illustra- 
tions of  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  in  particular,  have  probably 
never  been  surpassed  by  any  works  of  the  kind.  Died 
at  Dresden  in  1857. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler  •  Lexikon  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1S2S,  October,  1S33,  and  October, 
1836. 

Reubell.     See  Rewbell. 

Reu'ben,  [Heb.  piXl  ;  Fr.  Ruben,  rii'bSN',]  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch  Jacob,  was  the  an- 
cestor of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

See  Genesis  xxix.  32,  xxxv.  22,  and  xxxvii. 

Reuchlin,  roiK-leen',[Lat.  Reuchli'nus,]  Hellenized 
as  Capnio,  kSp'ne-o,  (Johann,)  an  eminent  German 
writer,  born  at  Pforzheim  in  1455.  He  became  an 
excellent  Greek  and  Latin  scholar,  and  studied  law  at 
Orleans.  He  was  patronized  by  Eberhard,  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg,  who  employed  him  as  secretary.  Having 
accompanied  Eberhard  to  Rome,  he  became  acquainted 
with  Politian  and  other  eminent  Italian  literati.  He 
resided  mostly  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  was  appointed 
assessor  of  the  supreme  court  about  1484.  He  was  sub- 
jected to  persecution  because  he  opposed  a  proposition 
to  burn  all  Hebrew  books  except  the  Bible,  and  was 
involved  in  a  long  controversy  with  the  monks  and  bigots 
on  this  subject.  He  defended  his  opinions  in  relation 
to  Hebrew  books  in  his  "  Ocular  Mirror,"  ("  Speculum 
Oculare,"  151 1.)  Between  1518  and  1522  he  taught 
Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Ingolstadt  and  Tubingen.  He 
published  a  "  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  and  several  other  works. 
He  contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  classical  learning. 
Died  at  Stuttgart  in  1522. 

See  Melanchthon,  "  Historia  Reuchlini,"  1552;  J.  H.  Majtus, 
"Vita  Reuchlini,"  1687  ;  Mayerhoff,  "  Reuchlin  und  seine  Zeit," 
1830;  Lamev,  "Johann  Reuchlin,"  1S55  :  F.  Barham,  "Life  and 
Times  of  Reuchlin,"  1843;  Gabuer,  "  i3issertatio  de  J.  Reuchlino," 
1822:  M.  .^DAM,  "  Vits  Philosophorum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Reuchlinus.     See  Reuchlin. 

Reuilly,  ruh'ye',  (Jean,)  a  French  traveller,  born  in 
Picardy  in  1780.  He  published  "Travels  in  the  Crimea 
in  1803,"  (1806.)     Died  at  Pisa  in  x8io. 

Reumont,  von,  fon  roi'mont,  (Alfred,)  a  German 
diplomatist  and  littirateur^  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1S08,  was  employed  on  missions  to  Florence  and  Rome. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  Italian  history  and  art,  among 
which  are  "  Roman  Letters,"  ("  Romische  Briefe,"4  vols., 
1840-44,)  and  "Benvenuto  Cellini,"  (1846.)     Died  1887. 

Reusner,  rois'ner,  [Lat.  Reusne'rus,]  (Nikolaus.J 


eaSi^;  ^asj   gkard;  gas/;  G,n,K, guttural;  ^, nasal;  K,trilled;  sass;  thasin/,4«.     ([5^='See  Explanations, p. 23.) 

129 


REUSS 


2050 


REY 


a  German  poet  and  jurist,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Silesia,  in 
1545.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Strasburg  and  at  Jena, 
lie  published  numerous  poems  and  treatises  on  law. 
Died  at  Jena  in  1602. 

See  JoHANN  Weitz,  "Vita  N.  Reusneri,"  1603  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^ndrale." 

Reuss,  roiss,  (Eduard  Wilhelm  Eugen,)  a  Protes- 
tant theologian,  born  at  Strasburg,  in  Alsace,  July  18, 
1S04.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  Halle,  and  Paris,  and 
in  1S38  was  called  to  a  professorship  at  Strasburg. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  new  German  University 
at  Strasburg  he  was  called  to  a  professorship  in  it.  His 
writings,  partly  in  French  and  partly  in  German,  include 
a  "  History  of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,"  "  History 
of  Christian  Theology,"  "  History  of  the  Canon,"  and  a 
French  translation  of  the  Bible.    Died  April  15,  1891. 

Reuter,  roi'ter,  (  Fritz,  )  a  distinguished  German 
poet,  born  at  Stavenhagen,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
November  7,  iSio.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Ros- 
tock, and  in  1832  went  to  Jena,  where  he  joined  the 
Bursckensckaft*  (the  association  of  German  students,) 
and  the  next  year  was  arrested  in  Prussia  and  con- 
demned to  death ;  but  the  sentence  was  commuted  to 
thirty  years'  imprisonment.  He  was,  however,  released 
in  1840,  having  been  included  in  the  general  amnesty. 
He  wrote,  in  the  Low  German  ( Plattdetitsch )  dialect, 
various  poems,  comedies,  and  novels,  which  in  their  day 
were  much  admired.  Among  his  works  are  "  Lauschen 
un  Riemels,"  (1853;  3d  edition,  1856,)  "  Polterabendge- 
dichte,"  (1855,)  "  Reise  na  Belligen,"  (1855,)  a  poetical 
romance,  "  Bliicher  in  Treptow,"  etc.,  (1857,)  a  comedy, 
"Kein  Husung,"  (1858,)  a  poem,  and  "  Olle  Kamellen," 
(i860,)  a  novel.     Died  July  13,  1874. 

See  PiERER,  "Universal-Lexikon." 

Renter,  (Julius,)  a  German,  born  about  181 5,  gained 
distinction  as  the  institutor  of  a  telegraphic  system.  He 
was  the  first  who  furnished  telegrams  of  political  or 
general  news  to  the  public  journals  of  Europe.  He 
established  his  ofiSce  in  London  in  185 1. 

Reuterdahl,  roi'ter-dll',  (Henrik,)  a  Swedish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Malmo  in  1795.  ^^  ^^^  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Lund  in  1844.  Am' .ng  his  works 
are  an  "Introduction  to  Theology,"  (1837,)  and  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Swedish  Church,"  (1838  et  seq.)     Died  1870. 

Reuven,  ruh'ven,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1650;  died  in  1718. 

Reuvens,  roi'vens,  (Caspar  Jacob  Christian,)  a 
Dutch  antiquary,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1793.  He 
became  professor  of  history  and  archaeology  at  Leyden 
in  1818,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died 
in  1837. 

See  Leemans,  "  Epistola  de  Vita  Reuvensii,"  1838. 

Reuvens,  (Jan  Everaard,)  an  eminent  Dutch  jurist, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1763,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  a  counsellor  of  the  supreme  court  at  Paris 
about  1810,  and  was  author  of  the  criminal  code  of  Hol- 
land.    Died  in  1816. 

Revay,  ra'voi,  (Nicholas,)  a  Hungarian  poet  and 
philologist,  born  in  1751.  He  was  professor  of  litera- 
ture at  Pesth.     Died  in  1807. 

Reveill6-Parise,  ri'vi'yy  pt'riz',  (Joseph  Henri,) 
a  French  medical  writer,  born  at  Nevers  in  1782.  He 
practised  in  Paris,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Researches  on  the  Physique,  Habits,  and  Diseases  of 
Literary  Men,"  (1834,)  which  gained  the  Montyon  prize 
in  1835  and  is  called  a  model  treatise.     Died  in  1852. 

See  Callisen.  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Revel,  reh-v&l',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Chateau-Thierry  in  1643  ;  died  in  1712. 

Rev'e-ley,  (Willey,)  an  English  architect  and  an- 
tiquary. According  to  several  authorities,  he  completed 
the  "Antiquities  of  Athens,"  left  unfinished  by  Stuart. 
Died  in  1799. 

Revelliere-Lepaux.     See  LARivEiLL^RE. 


♦  The  Burschenschaft  was  very  obnoxious  to  the  government  on 
account  of  its  political  character,  and  also  on  account  of  some  of  its 
overt  acts.  It  was  as  a  member  of  the  Burschenschaft  that  Sand 
as-iassinated  Kotzebue,  who  had  shown  himself  a  detennined  enemy 
of  the  association. 


Rever,  reh-vi',  (Marie  Franqois  Gilles,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Dol  in  1753  ;  died  in  1828. 

Reverchon,  reh-v&R'sh(JN^  (  Jacques,  )  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  1746,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
(1792-95,)  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the 
Council  of  Elders.     Died  in  1828. 

Revere,  ri-va'ri,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Trieste  in  1812.  He  published  between  1829  and 
1840  four  ])opular  dramas,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "'Lo- 
renzo de'  Medici,"  and  another  "The  Marquis  of  Bed- 
mar."     He  also  wrote  some  sonnets.     Died  in  1889. 

Revere,  re-veer',  (Paul,)  an  American  patriot  of 
the  Revolution,  and  one  of  the  earliest  American  en- 
gravers, was  born  at  Boston  in  1735.  Among  his  be=» 
prints  are  "The  Seventeen  Rescinders,"  and  "  Thf 
Boston  Massacre."  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
destruction  of  the  tea  in  Boston  harbour,  and  was  con- 
spicuous for  his  patriotism  in  the  political  movements 
of  the  time.  His  midnight  expedition  to  Concord,  to 
give  notice  of  the  intended  attack  of  General  Gage, 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  the  poems  in  Longfellow's 
"Wayside  Inn."     Died  in  1818. 

Revere,  (Paul  Joseph,)  Colonel,  an  officer,  born 
in  Boston  in  1832,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  severely  wounded  at  Antietam,  September,  1862, 
and  was  killed  at  Gettysburg,  July  3,  1863. 

See  P.  C.  Headlev,  "  Massachusetts  in  the  Rebellion,"  p.  634. 

Reveroni,  ri-vi-ro'nee,  (Jacques  Antoine,)  a  French 
military  engineer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1767.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral dramas,  novels,  and  military  works.     Died  in  1828. 

Reves,  de,  deh  ra'v&s,  [Lat.  Re'vius,]  (Jakob,)  a 
Dutch  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Deventer  in  1586.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden  about  1640,  and 
wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1658. 

Rev'ett,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  antiquary  and  archi- 
tect, was  born  in  SufTolk  in  1722.  In  company  with 
James  Stuart,  he  went  to  Greece  about  1750  and  spent 
two  years  in  exploring  and  delineating  the  ruins  of 
Athens.  He  was  a  partner  of  Stuart  in  the  important 
work  entitled  the  "  Antiquities  of  Athens,"  (3  vols., 
1762,  1790,  1794.)  He  also  produced,  with  Chandler, 
"Ionian  Antiquities,"  (1769.)  After  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  practised  as  an  architect.     Died  in  1804. 

Reviczky,  ra'vits-ke,  ?  (Karl  Emerich,)  Count  of, 
a  Hungarian  linguist  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1737.  He 
published  an  edition  of  Petronius,  (1784,)  and  a  Cata- 
logue of  his  own  library,  (Berlin,  1784.)     Died  in  1793. 

Revius.     See  Reves,  (Jakob.) 

Revoil,  reh-vwil',  (Pierre  Henri,)  a  French  painter 
of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Lyons  in  1776,  was  a  pupil 
of  David.  He  was  professor  of  design  in  the  Academy 
of  Lyons.  He  composed  songs  and  other  verses  with 
some  success.     Died  in  1842. 

Re'V7bell  or  Reubell,  ruh'bSl',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  republican  and  Director,  born  at  Colniar,  near 
the  Rhine,  about  1746.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  and  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
mostly  voted  with  the  radicals  ;  but  after  the  9th  Ther- 
midor  he  became  an  opponent  of  the  Jacobins.  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Directory,  and  assumed 
control  of  foreign  affairs.  He  acted  with  the  victorious 
party  in  the  cojtp  d'etat  of  i8th  Fructidor,  1797,  and  was 
dismissed  from  office  by  lot  in  May,  1799.    Died  in  1807. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Histoire  du  Directoire;"  Thiers,  "History 
of  the  French  Revolution." 

Rey,  ri,  (Antoine  Gabriel  Venance,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Rouergue  in  1768.  He  became  a  gene- 
ral of  division  in  1793  or  1794,  and  commanded  with 
success  in  several  actions  in  Spain  between  1808  and 
1813.     Died  in  1836. 

Rey,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  in 
1687,  practised  in  Lyons.     Died  in  1756. 

Rey,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician  and  chemist,  born 
at  Bugue,  in  Perigord.  He  published  in  1630  "Essays 
to  ascertain  the  Cause  why  Tin  and  Lead  increase  in 
Weight  when  they  are  calcined."  He  maintains  that 
this  increase  is  the  result  of  a  combination  of  the  metal 
with  atmospheric  air.     Died  about  1645. 

Rey,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer  and  manufacturer,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1773.  He  substituted'  the  forms  of 
flowers  for  the  fantastic  designs  of  the  Orientals  in  the 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  &,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged}  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obst  ure;  fjlr,  fill,  fit;  ni§t;  n6tj  good;  moon; 


REY 


2051 


REYNOLDS 


fabrication  of  Cashmere  shawls.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Histoire  des  Chales,"  (1823.)     Died  in  1849. 

Rey,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  composer,  born  in 
1734,  became  director  of  the  emperor's  chapel  in  1804. 
Died  in  i8lo. 

Rey,  (Joseph  Philippe,)  a  French  writer  on  law, 
education,  etc.,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1799.  Among 
his  works  is  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Social  Science," 
(3  vols.,  1842.)     Died  December  18,  1855. 

Reybaud,  r^'bo',  (Charles,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1801,  was  a  brother  of  Marie  Roch 
Louis,  noticed  below.     Died  October  16,  1864. 

Reybaud,  (Henriette  Ariiaud,)  a  French  novel- 
ist, born  at  Aries,  December  13,  1802,  became  the  wife 
of  the  preceding.     Died  January  i,  1871. 

Reybaud,  (Marie  Roch  Louis,)  a  popular  French 
author,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1799.  He  began  life  as  a 
merchant,  and  settled  in  Paris  about  1830.  In  1841  he 
gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy  (5000 
francs)  for  his  "  Studies  on  Modern  Reformers  or  Social- 
ists," (2  vols.,  1840-43.)  His  most  original  and  popular 
work  is  a  novel  called  "  Jerome  Paturot  in  Search  of  a 
Social  Position,"  (1843,)  to  which  he  added  a  sequel, 
"Jerome  Paturot  in  Search  of  the  Best  of  Republics," 
(1848.)  Among  his  other  works  are  "Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Palestine,"  (1834,)  "Polynesia,"  (1843,)  "Industry  in 
Europe,"  (1856,)  etc.     Died  October  28,  1879. 

Reyher,  rl'er,  (Samuel,)  a  German  professor  of  law 
and  mathematics,  was  born  in  Saxony  in  1635.  He  pub- 
lished "  Mathesis  Mosaico-Biblica,"  (1678,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Kiel  in  1714. 

Reyn,  de,  deh  rin,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Dunkirk  about  i6iO,  was  a  pupil  of  Van  Dyck,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  imitated  with  success.  He  worked  in 
England  for  Van  Dyck ;  but  after  the  death  of  the  latter 
he  returned  to  Dunkirk.  "  The  majority  of  his  pictures," 
says  Peries,  "  have  often  passed  for  the  works  of  his 
master."    Died  in  1678. 

Reyna,  de,  di  ra'ni  or  ra'e-ni,  (Cassiodorus,)  a 
Spanish  translator  of  the  Bible,  born  at  Seville,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  Protestant.  His  version  of  the  Bible, 
printed  at  Bale  in  1569,  was  the  first  in  the  Spanish 
language.     Died  at  Frankfort  in  1594. 

Reynaud,  ri'no',  (Antoine  Andr6  Louis,)  Baron, 
a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1771.  He  was 
employed  about  thirty  years  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
as  teacher  and  examiner.  He  published  a  number  of 
standard  works  on  geometry  and  algebra,  which  were  in- 
troduced as  text-books  into  public  schools.  Died  in  1844. 

See  Qu^KARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale. " 

Reynaud,  (Jean  Ernest,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1806.  In  1836  he  became  associated 
with  Pierre  Leroux  as  editor  of  the  "  Encyclopedie  Nou- 
velle." He  was  a  moderate  democrat  in  the  Assembly 
of  1848,  and  supported  Cavaignac.  His  chief  work, 
entitled  "Earth  and  Heaven,"  ("Terre  et  Ciel,"  1854,) 
had  great  success.     Died  June  28,  1863. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Reyneau,  ri'no',  (Charles  Ren6,)  a  French  ge- 
ometer, born  at  Brissac,  in  Anjou,  in  1656.  He  was 
professor  in  a  college  at  Angers.  He  published 
"Analysis  Demonstrated,"  (1708,)  and  "Elements  of 
Mathematics,"  (1714.)     Died  in  1728. 

Reyner,  ra'ner,  ?  (Edward,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1600.  He  preached  at 
Lincoln.     Died  about  1670. 

Reynier,  ri'ne-i',  (Augustin  BenoIt,)  a  Belgian 
poet,  born  at  Liege  in  1759  ;  died  at  Cologne  in  1792. 

Reynier,  ri'ne-i',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  general, 
was  born  at  Lausanne  in  1 771.  As  chief  of  the  staff  of  Mo- 
reau,  he  displayed  skill  at  Rastadt,  Friedberg,  Biberach, 
and  in  the  famous  retreat  of  1796.  He  commanded  at 
the  siege  of  Acre  in  the  temporary  absence  of  Bonaparte, 
and  is  said  to  have  decided  the  victory  at  Heliopolis, 
(1799.)  In  1807  he  had  command  of  the  army  of  Joseph, 
King  of  Naples.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Leipsic, 
(1813.)     Died  in  1814. 

Reynier,  ri'ne-i',  (Jean  Louis  Antoine,)  a  Swiss 
naturalist,  born  at  Lausanne  in  1762,  was  a  brother  of 
the   preceding.      He   accompanied    the    expedition   to 


Egypt  in  1798.  Among  his  works  are  "  Egypt  under  the 
Domination  of  the  Romans,"  (1807,)  and  "Treatises 
on  the  Public  and  Rural  Economy  of  the  Celts  and 
Germans,"  (1808,)  of  the  "Arabs  and  Jews,"  (1820,)  of  the 
"Persians  and  Phoenicians,"  (1829,)  etc.  Died  in  1824. 
See  La  Harpe,  "Notice  sur  L.  Reynier,"  1825;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gdnerale." 

Reynold  de  Chauvancy,  de,  deh  ri'noK  deh  sho'- 
vSn'sc',  (Charles,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Pont 
de  Veyle  (Ain)  in  1810.  He  produced  a  work  on  mari- 
time signals,  entitled  "  Code  de  Signaux,  Telegraphic 
nautique  polyglotte,"  (1856,)  which  has  been  adopted 
by  seventeen  maritime  powers.     Died  Sept.  9,  1877. 

Reynolds,  r^n'olz,  (Alexander  W.,)  an  American 
officer  in  the  Confederate  service,  born  in  Virginia,  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  in  1861.     Died  in  1876. 

Reynolds,  r^n'glz,  (Edward,)  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Southampton  in  1599.  He  favoured  the  Pres- 
byterians during  the  civil  war,  and  took  the  Covenant. 
In  1648  he  became  Dean  of  Christ  CI.  'rch  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  ejected 
from  these  positions  about  1650,  after  which  he  preached 
in  London.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Norwich  in 
1660.  He  published  a  number  of  religious  works,  which 
are  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1676. 

Reynolds,  (John.)     See  Rainolds. 

Reynolds,  (John  Fulton,)  an  American  general 
born  at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  in  1820,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  as  first  lieutenant  in 
the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1855.  He  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Seven 
Days'  battles  near  Richmond  in  June,  1862,  and  for  his 
services  there  received  brevets  as  colonel  and  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  In  January,  1863,  he  was 
appointed  a  major-general  of  volunteers.  His  corps 
formed  the  vanguard  of  the  army  at  Gettysburg,  where 
he  was  killed  on  the  ist  of  July,  1863. 

See  Ten.ney,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
p.  760. 

Reynolds,  (Ignatius  Aloysius,)  an  American 
bishop,  was  born  near  Bardstown,  Kentucky,  August  22, 
179S,  was  educated  at  Bardstown  and  Baltimore,  and  in 
1823  was  ordained  a  Catholic  priest  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  college  at  Bardstown,  and  was  afterwards 
its  president,  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese.  In  1844 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, where  he  died,  March  9,  1855. 

Reynolds,  (John  Hamilton,)  an  English  poet,  born 
in  1795,  was  a  member  of  the  legal  profession.  He 
wrote  a  poem  called  "  Safie."    Died  at  Newport  in  1852. 

Reynolds,  (Sir  Joshua,)  the  most  celebrated  por- 
trait-painter that  England  has  produced,  was  born  at 
Plympton,  in  Devonshire,  on  the  i6th  of  July,  1723.  He 
was  ason  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Reynolds.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  became  a  pupil  of  Hudson  in  London,  with 
whom  he  remained  about  two  years.  He  afterwards 
worked  at  Plymouth  as  a  portrait-painter  until  1746, 
when  he  setded  in  London.  About  1750  he  visited 
Rome,  Florence,  Venice,  and  other  cities  of  Italy. 
When  he  first  saw  the  works  of  Raphael  in  the  Vatican, 
he  felt  much  disappointment, — which  he  attributed  to 
his  own  ignorance.  The  works  of  Titian  and  Tintoretto 
contributed  more  to  the  formation  of  his  style  than  those 
of  the  Roman  school.  He  returned  to  England  in  the 
autumn  of  1752,  soon  after  which  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  a  portrait  of  Commodore  Keppel.  In 
1760  he  raised  his  price  to  twenty-five  guineas  for  a 
head,  and  one  hundred  guineas  for  a  whole-length  por- 
trait. He  painted  in  1762  a  picture  of  "  Garrick  between 
Tragedy  and  Comedy." 

In  1764  Mr.  Reynolds  and  Dr.  Johnson,  who  had 
become  intimate  friends,  founded  the  Literary  Club, 
comoosed  of  twelve  members,  among  whom  were  Burke 
and  Goldsmith.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1768,  and  was  knighted  on  that  occasion. 
He  delivered  before  the  Academy  a  series  of "  Lectures 
on  Painting,"  which  were  generally  admired  and  were 
translated  into  several  languages.  In  1784  he  produced 
a  beautiful  allegorical  portrait  of  "  Mrs.  Siddons  as  the 
Tragic  Muse,"  and  received  the  title  of  principal  painter 
to  the  king.     He  painted  for  the  Empress  of  Russia  a 


€  as  /J;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.  e^ttural:  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Si^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REYNOLDS 


2052 


RHIGAS 


picture  of  "  The  Infant  Hercules  strangling  the  Ser- 
pents," (1786,)  which  is  one  of  his  best  historical  works. 
He  was  never  married.  His  career  was  a  remarkable 
instance  of  continual  prosperity.  He  died  in  February, 
1792,  leaving  an  estate  of  about  ;^8o,ooo. 

Sir  Joshua  is  considered  as  the  founder  or  the  head 
of  the  British  school  of  painting.  He  obtained  powerful 
effects  by  a  rich  and  harmonious  colour  and  by  his 
distribution  of  light  and  shade.  His  historical  pieces 
indicate  that  he  was  deficient  in  the  grand  style  of  design. 
"Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  is  the  most  invulnerable  man  I 
know," says  Dr.  Johnson, — "the  man  with  whom  if  you 
should  quarrel,  you  will  find  the  most  difficulty  how  to 
abuse."  "Reynolds,  swiftest  of  painters,  was  gentlest 
of  companions,"  says  Ruskin;  "so,  also,  Velasquez, 
Titian,  and  Veronese." 

See  James  Northcote,  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds," 
1818;  Malone,  "Life  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds;"  Thomas  Reynolds, 
"Life  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds,"  by  his  son,  2  vols.,  1839:  "Life  of 
Sir  J.  Reynolds,"  commenced  by  C.  R.  Leslie  and  completed  by 
Tom  Taylor,  2  vols.,  1865;  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds," 
by  Joseph  Farrington,  London,  1819;  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
April  and  July,  1866;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1820. 

Reynolds,  (Richard,)  an  English  benefactor,  born 
in  Bristol  in  1735,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  married  Hannah  Darby  in  1757,  and  be- 
came a  partner  in  the  iron  and  coal  works  at  Ketley. 
In  1763  he  removed  to  Coalbrook  Dale,  where  he  super- 
intended a  large  manufactory  of  iron.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  employed  iron  instead  of  wood  in  the 
construction  of  railways.  His  business  afforded  him  a 
large  income,  a  great  part  of  which  he  expended  in  deeds 
of  charity.  He  removed  to  Bristol  in  1804.  Died  in  1816. 

See  "Letters  of  Richard  Reynolds,  with  a  Memoir  of  his  Life," 
by  his  granddaughter,  Hannah  Mary  Rathbone,  Philadelphia, 
1855. 

Reynolds,  (Samuel  William)  an  eminent  English 
engraver  in  mezzotint,  was  born  in  1774.  He  engraved 
many  portraits  and  historical  pieces  after  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  also  Rubens's  "  Chapeau  de  Paille,"  and  a 
number  of  the  works  of  Horace  Vernet.     Died  in  1835. 

Reynoso.    See  Reinoso. 

Reyrac,  de,  deh  ri'rtk',  (FRANgois  Philippe  Du- 
LAURENS,)  a  French  poet  and  priest,  born  in  Limousin 
in  1734.  He  wrote  "Rural  Poems,"  and  a  "Hymn  to 
the  Sun,"  (1777,)  in  poetical  prose,  which  was  often 
reprinted.     Died  in  1782, 

See  B^RENGER,  "  £loge  de  Rejrrac,"  1783. 

Reyre,  rain,  (Abb^  Joseph,)  a  French  teaciier  and 
writer  of  juvenile  books,  was  born  in  Provence  in  1735  ; 
died  in  1812. 

Reys,  dos,  d6s  ras,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  priest 
and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Santarera  in  1690 ;  died  in 
1738. 

Rezzano,  r^t-si'no,  (Francesco,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Como  in  1731  ;  died  in  1780. 

Rezzonico,  r§t-so-nee'ko,  (Antonio  Giuseppe,) 
Count  de  la  Tour,  (or  della  Torre,  del'lS  tor'ri,)  an 
Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Como  in  1709,  became  an 
ofiScer  in  the  Spanish  army.  His  chief  work  is  "Re- 
searches into  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Pliny,"  ("Disqui- 
Bitiones  Plinianae,"  2  vols,  in  fol.,  1763-67,)  which  is 
praised  as  a  model  of  criticism.    Died  at  Parma  in  1785. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  haliani  illustri." 

Rezzonico,  (Carlo.)    See  Clement  XIH. 

Rezzonico,  (Carlo  Gaston  della  Torre,)  Count, 
an  Italian  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Como  in  1742, 
was  a  son  of  Antonio  Giuseppe,  noticed  above.  Among 
his  works  is  a  poem  entitled  "The  Ruin  of  Como,  ' 
which  is  admired.     Died  at  Naples  in  1796. 

See  G.  B.  Giovio,  "Della  Vita  di  G.  Rezzonico,"  1802. 

Rhadamante.     See  Rhadamanthus. 

Rliad-a-man'tliU8,  [Gr.  ''Pa&dimvQoq ;  Fr.  Rhada- 
MANTE,  ra'dS'mdNt',]  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and 
a  brother  of  Minos.  According  to  tradition,  he  married 
Alcmena,  the  mother  of  Hercules,  was  eminent  for  his 
justice,  and  after  death  became  one  of  the  chief  judges 
of  the  lower  world,  or  Elysium. 

Rhallis,  ril'lis,  (George  Alexander,)  a  modern 
Greek  jurist,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1804.  He  be- 
came minister  of  justice  of  Greece  in  1841,  and  after- 


wards president  of  the  Areopagus,  or  court  of  cassation. 
He  published  several  legal  works.    Died  Sept.  25,  1883. 

Rham,  rim,  (Rev.  William  Lewis,)  an  eminent 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1778.  He  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  and  at  Cambridge  University, 
and  became  rector  of  Fersfield,  Norfolk.  He  wrote 
many  articles  for  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  which  were 
published  separately  under  the  title  of  "Dictionary  of 
the  Farm."     Died  in  1843. 

Rhangabe.     See  Rizo  Rhangabc 

Rhe'a,  [Gr.  'Ptia,  Tea,  TetT?,  or  'Yin;  Fr.  Rh6a,  ri'i',] 
a  goddess  of  classic  mythology,  whom  the  Romans 
called  Ops  or  Cybele.  According  to  Hesiod,  she  was  a 
daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  or  Ccelus  and  Terra,  the 
wife  of  Cronos,  (Saturn,)  and  the  mother  of  Jupiter, 
Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Vesta.  She  was 
called  "the  Great  Mother,"  and  "the  Mother  of  the 
Gods."  The  principal  seat  of  her  worship  was  Pessinus, 
in  Galatia.     (See  Cybele.) 

See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology." 

Rhe'a  Sil'vi-a,  or  I11-a,  [Fr.  R6a  (or  Rh6a)  Silvia, 
ri'S'  sil've't',  or  Ilie,  e'le',]  in  Roman  mythology,  was 
a  daughter  of  Numitor,  and  mother  of  Romulus  and 
Remus,  whose  father  was  supposed  to  be  Mars.  The 
king  Amulius  had  compelled  her  to  become  a  vestal 
virgin  to  prevent  her  from  having  offspring,  and  after 
the  birth  of  her  sons  he  drowned  her  in  the  river.  The 
poets  feigned  that  she  was  changed  into  a  goddess  and 
became  the  wife  of  the  Anio. 

Rheede,  van,  \'t\\  ra'deh,  (Hendrik  Adriaan 
Draakenstein — dRi'ken-stin',)  a  Dutch  naturalist,  who 
became  Governor-General  of  the  Malabar  coast.  He 
collected  materials  for  a  costly  work  on  the  plants  of 
India,  entitled  "Hortus  Indicus  Malabaricus,"  (i3 
vols.,  1670-1703,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Casearius, 
Commelin,  and  others.     He  died  about  1700. 

Rhegas.     See  Rhigas. 

Rheiuek,  ri'n^k,  (Christoph,)  a  German  musical 
composer,  born  at  Memmingen  in  174S,  was  author  ^ji 
several  operas.     Died  in  1796. 

Rheita,  von,  fon  rl'ta,  (Anton  Maria  Schyrle,)  a 
German  astronomer,  born  in  Bohemia  about  1597.  He 
constructed  a  telescope  with  four  lenses.  Died  at  Ra- 
venna in  1660. 

Rhenanus,  (Beatus.)     See  Beatus. 

Rlienferd,  r§n'f?Rt,  (Jakob,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  in  1654.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Franeker.     Died  in  1712. 

Rhese,  rees,  .'  (John  David,)  M.D.,  a  philologist, 
born  in  the  island  of  Anglesey  in  1534.  He  taught 
school  in  Italy,  and  published  a  number  of  works  in  the 
Italian  language.     Died  in  1609. 

Rhet'i-cus,  [Ger.  pron.  ra'te-kus,]  the  surname  of  an 
astronomer,  whose  proper  name  was  George  Jo.\CHIM. 
He  was  born  at  Feldkirch,  near  the  Rhine,  in  1514.  He 
became  a  pupil  and  assistant  of  Copernicus  in  1539  or 
1540,  and  advocated  the  Copernican  system  in  his  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  Libris  Revolutionum  Copernici,"  (1540.)  In 
1 541  he  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics  at  Wittenberg. 
He  left  a  work  of  great  labour,  entitled  "  Opus  Palatinum 
de  Triangulis,"  (1596,)  which  contains,  besides  a  treatise 
on  trigonometry,  a  table  of  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  etc. 
Died  in  1576. 

Rhett,  (Robert  Barnwell,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1800.  Being  elected 
in  1833  attorney-general  of  the  State,  he  acted  with  the 
Nullification  party,  and  in  1850  became  a  United  States 
Senator.  On  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln,  in  iS6o,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  State  Convention  which  passed  an 
ordinance  of  secession,  and  drew  up  the  add;  ess  giving 
reasons  for  this  measure.     Died  September  14,  1876. 

Rhi-a'nus,  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  Crete,  lived  about 
250  or  225  B.C.  He  wrote  five  or  more  poems,  two  of 
which  are  entitled  "  Heracleia"  and  "Thessalica."  Frag- 
ments of  his  works  are  extant. 

Rhigas,  ree'gis,  written  also  Rhegas  and  Rigas, 
a  modern  Greek  patriot  and  writer,  born  in  Thessaly 
about  1760.  He  formed  in  early  life  a  design  to  liberate 
Greece  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and,  in  order  to  promote 
this  design,  organized  a  secret  society,  wrote  populat 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


RHINTHON 


2053 


RIBES 


songs,  founded  a  journal,  published  educational  works, 
etc.  All  these  were  in  the  modern  Greek  language. 
In  1798  he  was  arrested  at  Trieste,  delivered  by  the 
Austrians  to  the  Turks,  and  drowned  in  the  Danube 
by  the  latter. 

See  Reybaud,  "  M^moires  sur  la  Grfece ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^ndrale." 

Rhin'thon,  ['PiVSwi',]  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  born  at 
Syracuse  or  Tarentum,  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  works 
are  not  extant. 

Rhizos  Rhangavis.     See  Rizo  Rhangab4. 

Rho,  ro,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Milan  in  1543  ;  died  in  1627. 

Rhode,  ro'deh,  or  Rhodius,  ro'de-ds,  (Johann,)  a 
Danish  medical  writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Copen- 
hagen about  1587  ;  died  at  Padua  in  1659. 

Rhode,  ro'deh,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist of  Breslau,  was  noted  for  his  researches  in  the 
antiquities  and  natural  history  of  India.     Died  in  1827. 

Rhodes,  rodz,  (Robert  E.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Lynchburg,  Virginia,  commanded  a  division  of 
General  Lee's  army  at  Gettysburg,  July,  1863.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Winchester,  September  19,  1864. 

Rhodes,  de,  deh  rod,  (Alexandre,)  a  French  mis- 
sionary, born  in  1591.  He  preached  in  Cochin  China 
and  TiDnquin.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Tonquin," 
(1650,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  Persia  in  1660. 

Rhodiginus,  ro-de-jee'noos,  (  CcEi.ius,  )  an  Italian 
philologist,  whose  family  name  was  Ricchieri  (rik-ke- 
a'ree)  or  Riccheri,  (rik-ka'ree,)  was  born  at  Rovigo 
about  1450.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
atMilanin  1515.  His  chief  work  is  "Ancient  Readings," 
("  Antiquse  Lectiones,"  1516.)     Died  in  1525. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rhodius.    See  Rhode,  (Johann.) 

Rhodomann.     See  Rhodomannus. 

Rhodomannus,  ro-do-m^n'niis,  or  Rhodomann, 
ro'do-mSn',  (Laurentius,)  a  German  Hellenist,  born 
at  Sassawerf,  in  Saxony,  in  1546.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Jena,  and  afterwards  lectured  on  history  at 
Wittenberg.  He  wrote  Greek  verse  with  facility,  and  is 
called  one  of  the  restorers  of  the  Greek  language  in 
Germany.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Luther,  in 
Greek  Verse,"  (1579,)  and  "Christian  Poem  on  Pales- 
tine," ("Poesis  Christiana  Palestinae,"  1589.)  Died  in 
1606. 

Rhunken.     See  Ruhnken. 

Rhy'mer,  Thomas  the,  or  Thomas  of  Ercil- 
doune,  a  Scottish  poet,  flourished  between  1250  and 
1300.     He  had  the  reputation  of  a  prophet. 

Rhyndacenus  or  Rhyndaconus.     See  Lascaris. 

Rhyne,  Ten,  t5n  rl'neh,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Deventer  about  1640.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Batavia,  explored  the  plants  of  Java,  and 
aided  Van  Rheede  in  composing  his  "Hortus  Mala- 
baricus." 

Rhys,  reess,  (John,)  a  Welsh  philologist,  born  at 
Aberceiro,  in  Cardiganshire,  June  21,  1840.  He  studied 
at  the  Normal  College,  Bangor,  and  at  Jesus  College, 
Oxford,  (where  he  graduated  in  1869,  becoming  in  that 
year  a  Fellow  of  Merton,  and  in  1882  a  Fellow  of  Jesus 
College,)  and,  later,  at  Paris,  Heidelberg,  Leipsic,  and 
Gottingen.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Celtic 
at  Oxford.  His  principal  work  is  "  Lectures  on  Welsh 
Philology,"  (1877.) 

Rhyzelius,  re-za'le-us,  (Andreas,)  a  Swedish  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Westgothland  in  1677.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Linkoping,  and  wrote  several  works  on 
Swedish  antiquities.     Died  about  1 758. 

Riancey,  de,  deh  re'SN'si',  (Henri  L6on  Ca- 
MUSAT,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  the 
World,"  (4  vols.,  1838-41.)  In  1852  he  became  chief 
editor  of  "L'Union,"  a  journal.     Died  March  9,  1870. 

Rianzares,  Duke  of.     See  Munoz,  (Fernando.) 

Riario,  re-i're-o,  (Girolamo,)  Seigneur  of  Forll  and 
Tmola,  a  nephew  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  was  born  about 
1442.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  of 
the  family  of  Colonna.  He  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
guards  in  1488. 


Riario,  (Pietro,)  Cardinal,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1445.  ^^  ^^^^  a  corrupt  favourite 
of  Sixtus  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Flor- 
ence. He  had  great  influence  at  the  papal  court,  and  was 
notorious  for  his  debauchery.     Died  in  1474. 

Ribadeneira,  re-Bi-di-na^-rS,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  biographer,  was  IxJni  at  Toledo  in  1527.  He 
gained  some  distinction  as  a  preacher,  and  was  employed 
by  Loyola  to  propagate  Jesuitism  in  Flanders  and  Spairu 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Loyola," 
("  Vida  de  San  Ignacio,"  1570.)  He  is  said  to  have 
been  deficient  in  judgment.     I3ied  at  Madrid  in  161 1. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Ribalta,  re-BiKtS,  (Francisco,)  an  eminent  Span- 
ish painter,  born  at  Castellon  de  la  Plana  in  1551.  He 
studied  the  works  of  Raphael  and  Sebastian  del  Piombo 
in  Rome,  and  settled  in  Valencia.  His  design,  colour, 
and  composition  are  highly  commended.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "  Last  Supper,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and 
"  The  Entombment  of  Christ."  He  was  a  skilful  anato- 
mist.    Died  in  1628. 

Ribalta,  de,  di  re-Kal'tS,  (Juan,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Valencia  in  1597.  He  was  apaintei 
of  great  promise,  and  died  prematurely  in  1628. 

Ribas,  de,  deh  ree'bis,  (Joseph,)  born  at  Naples 
about  1735,  entered  the  service  of  Russia,  and  became 
an  admiral.  He  commanded  a  fleet  which  operated 
against  the  Turks  in  1790. 

Ribault  or  Ribaut,  re'bo',  (Jean,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant navigator,  born  at  Dieppe  about  1520.  He  com- 
manded a  party  sent  by  Coligni  in  1562  to  explore  and 
colonize  some  parts  of  North  America.  He  explored 
Port  Royal,  South  Carolina,  built  a  fort  there,  and  re- 
turned to  France.  In  1565  he  obtained  command  of  a 
fort  and  colony  which  the  French  had  planted  on  the 
Saint  John's  River,  Florida.  He  had  seven  vessels  under 
his  command.  The  French  were  attacked  by  a  Spanish 
fleet  just  after  the  arrival  of  Ribault.  He  was  about  to 
bring  his  vessels  into  action,  when  a  storm  drove  them 
ashore.  Ribault  and  his  men  escaped  to  land,  but  were 
massacred  by  the  Spaniards.  "  John  Ribault,"  says 
Sparks,  "  was  the  pioneer  of  a  great  enterprise ;  •  .  . 
and,  although  he  was  assisted  by  brave  and  able  asso- 
ciates, yet  his  energy  and  zeal  were  the  chief  springs  of 
the  whole." 

See  Sparks,  "  Life  of  Ribault,"  in  the  seventh  volume  of  his 
"American  Biography,"  second  series;  Hildreth,  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Ribault,  re'bo',  (J.  F.,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1767  ;  died  in  1820. 

Ribbing  von  Leuven,  rib'bing  fon  loi'ven,  ?  (Adolph 
Ludwig,)  a  Swedish  conspirator,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1764.  He  was  an  accomplice  of  those  who  killed 
Gustavus  III.,  and  was  banished  for  life.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1843. 

Ribeiro  or  Ribeyro,  re-ba^-ro,  (Bernardin,)  a 
Portuguese  pastoral  poet  of  the"~^xteenth  century,  was 
born  at  Torrao,  in  Alemtejo.  He  is  pronounced  by 
Longfellow  "  one  of  the  best  poets  of  Portugal,  arid  the 
first  Portuguese  writer  who  gained  a  high  reputation  as 
a  pastoral  poet." 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ribeiro  dos  Santos,  re-ba^-ro  d6s  sSn't6s,  (Anto- 
nio,) a  Portuguese  poet  of  the^esent  century,  has  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  an  "  Ode  to  the  Infante  Dom 
Henrique,"  which  is  greatly  admired. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ribera.     See  Spagnoletto. 

Ribera,  re-Ba'rS,  (Carlos  Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
the  son  of  a  distinguished  artist,  was  born  in  Rome 
about  1812. 

Ribera,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  commen- 
tator, born  in  Segovia  in  1537.  He  wrote  Commentaries 
on  the  minor  prophets  and  on  the  Gospel  of  John.  Died 
at  Salamanca  in  1591. 

Ribera,  (Jose.)     See  Spagnoletto. 

Ribera,  de,  di  re-Ba'rl,  (Anastasio  Pantaleon,)  a 
Spanish  wit  and  burlesque  poet,  born  at  Saragossa  in 
1580.     He  was  assassinated  at  Madrid  in  1629. 

Ribes,  rfeb,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at 


eaSii;  9asf;  gkard;  gas,  j;G,u,  k,  guttural;  n, nasal;  v.,trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in //4;j.     (gi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RIBES 


2054 


RICCIARDI 


Bagntres  de  Bigorre  in  1770.  He  succeeded  Desgenettes 
as  chief  physician  at  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  in  1837. 
He  wrote  on  anatomy,  etc.     Died  in  1845. 

Ribes,  de,  deh  rib,  (Anne  Arnaud,)  a  French 
officer  of  engineers,  born  in  1731  ;  died  in  1811. 

Ribeyro.     See  Rikeiro. 

Riboud,  re'boo',  (Thomas  Phiubert,)  a  French 
litterateur  and  judge,  born  at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1755. 
He  was  a  member  of  successive  legislative  bodies  be- 
tween 1791  and  1814.     Died  in  1835. 

Riboutte,  re'boo'ti',  (Francois  Louis,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1770;  died  in  1834. 

Ricard,  re'ktR',  (Dominique,)  a  French  abbe  and 
translator,  born  at  Toulouse  in  174 1.  He  translated 
Plutarch's  "Moral  Works,"  (17  vols.,  1783-95,)  and  his 
"Parallel  Lives,"  (13  vols.,  1798-1803.)  He  wrote  a 
poem  on  the  Sphere.     Died  in  1803. 

Ricard,  (firiENNE  Pierre  Silvestre,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Castres  in  1771.  He  won  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  at  Borodino  in  1812.     Died  in  1843. 

Ricard,  (Jean  Marie,)  an  eminent  French  jurist, 
born  at  Beauvaisin  1622  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1678. 

Ricardo,  re-kar'do,  (David,)  an  eminent  political 
economist,  born  in  London  in  April,  1772,  was  a  son  of 
a  Jewish  broker.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Stock 
Exchange  in  London,  and  a  partner  of  his  father.  In 
consequence  of  his  marriage  with  a  Christian,  in  1793, 
this  partnership  was  dissolved.  He  published  in  1809  a 
pamphlet  called  "The  High  Price  of  Bullion  a  Proof  of 
the  Depreciation  of  Bank-Notes."  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  "  The  Principles  of  Political  Economy  and 
Taxation,"  (181 7,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1819,  and  spoke  frequently  on 
financial  subjects.     Died  in  September,  1823. 

See  J.  R.  McCuLLOCH,  "  Life  of  Ricardo,"  prefixed  to  Ricardo's 
Works,  1846;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic   Gen^rale  ;"    "  Edinburgh    Review"    for    June,    181S. 

Ricardo,  (John  Lewis,)  an  English  writer  on  inter- 
national law,  born  in  1812.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Parliament  in  1841,  and  greatly  promoted  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  the  electric  telegraph.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  History  and  Anatomy  of  the  Navigation 
Laws."     Died  in  London  in  1862. 

Ricardos,  re-kdR^dds,  (Don  Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  at  Seville  in  1727.  He  commanded  the 
army  which  opposed  with  some  success  the  French 
invaders  in  1793,  and  he  was  promoted  to  be  captain - 
general  in  1794.     Died  in  1794. 

See  J.  M.  Hervas  de  Almenakia,  "  Elogio  historico  del  Gene- 
ral A.  Ricardos,"  1798. 

RicardHs  Corinensis.  See  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester. 

Ricasoli,  re-kS'so-lee,  (Baron  Bettino,)  an  eminent 
Italian  statesman,  born  of  an  ancient  noble  family  in 
Tuscany  about  1809.  He  was  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  independence  and  unity  of  Italy  in  1848,  and  acted 
as  dictator  of  Tuscany  in  1859.  In  June,  1861,  he  suc- 
ceeded Cavour  as  prime  minister  of  Italy.  The  policy 
of  his  administration  was  similar  to  that  of  Cavour.  He 
resigned  about  the  ist  of  March,  1862,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Ratazzi.  In  June,  1866,  he  again  assumed  the  direc- 
tion of  the  government  as  president  of  the  council  and 
minister  of  the  interior.  He  retired  from  office  in  April, 
1867.     Died  October  23,  1880. 

See  F.  dall'Ongaro,  "Bettino  Ricasoli;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic G^n^rale." 

Ricaut.     See  Rycaut. 

Riccaltoun  or  Riccalton,  rik'al-ton,  .!•  (Robert,)  a 
Scottish  divine,  born  near  Jedburgh  in  1691.  He 
preached  for  many  years  at  Hobkirk,  and  wrote  several 
able  and  suggestive  religious  works,  among  which  is  the 
"Sober  Inquiry,"  etc.     Died  in  1769. 

Riccati,  di,  de  rik-ki'tee,  (Jacopo  Francesco,) 
Count,  an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Venice  in 
1676,  was  the  father  of  Vincenzo,  noticed  below.  Died 
in  1754- 

His  son  Giordano,  born  in  1709,  was  a  mathema- 
tician and  writer.     Died  in  1790. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Itahani  illustri." 

Riccati,  di,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  mathematician; 
born  at  Castel-Franco  in  1707;  died  in  1775. 


Ricchieri,  (Lodovico.)     See  Rhodiginus. 

Ricci,  rit'chee,  (Antonio,)  called  Barbalunga, 
(baR-bd-loon'gi,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Messina  in 
'1600 ;  died  in  1649. 

Ricci,  (Bartoi.ommeo,)  an  Italian  Latinist,  born  at 
Lugo  in  1490.  He  wrote,  besides  other  vvcjrks,  a  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Latin  language,  entitled  "  Apparatus 
Latinae  Locutionis,"  (1533.)     Died  in  1569. 

See  G.  della  Casa,  "  Discorso  suUa  Vita  di  B.  Ricci,"  1834. 

Ricci,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara 
in  1580 ;  died  at  Ferrara  in  1618. 

Ricci,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Novara  in  1545.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  in  the  Vatican  and  Quirinal.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1620. 

Ricci,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Florence 
in  1703,  was  elected  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in 
1758.  He  opposed  the  proposition  to  reform  that  order, 
which  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773. 
Died  in  prison  at  Rome  in  1775. 

See  Sainte-Foi,  "  Vie  du  P6re  Ricci ;"  Caraccioli,."  Vie  du 
Pfere  Ricci,"  1776. 

Ricci,  (Marco,)  a  painter,  born  at  Belluno  in  1676. 
He  worked  some  years  as  assistant  of  his  uncle  Se- 
bastian in  England.  According  to  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  he  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  landscape- 
painters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Died  at  Venice  about 
1728. 

Ricci,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Macerata 
in  1552.  He  was  one  of  the  first  missionaries  who  went 
to  China,  (1583.)  In  1600  he  was  admitted  into  Peking, 
where  he  gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor.  He  wrote 
interesting  Memoirs  and  Letters  on  China.  Abel  Re- 
musat  calls  him  the  founder  of  the  mission  of  China. 
Died  in  Peking  in  1610. 

See  D'Orl^ans,  "  Vie  de  M.  Ricci,"  1693 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^n^rale." 

Ricci,  (Michelangelo,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
mathematician,  born  at  Rome  in  1619;  died  in  16S2. 

Ricci  or  Ricchi,  rik'kee,  (  Pietro,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1606,  worked  at  Milan  and 
Venice.     Died  in  1675. 

Ricci,  (SciPioNE,)  an  Italian  reformer,  born  at  Flor- 
ence in  1741.  He  became  Bishop  of  Pistoia  and  Prato 
in  1780,  and  co-operated  with  the  grand  duke  Leopold 
in  his  projects  of  religious  reform.  He  was  opposed  to 
monastic  orders,  to  indulgences,  and  other  practices  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  consequence  of  the  riotous 
demonstrations  of  the  populace  against  him,  he  resigned 
in  1790.     Died  in  1810. 

See  De  Potter,  "Vie  et  M^moires  de  Scipion  Ricci,"  4  vols., 
182s,  (translated  into  English  by  Thomas  Roscoe,  1829  ;)  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nerale." 

Ricci  or  Rizzi,  rfet'see,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cividal  di  Belluno  (Venetia)  in  1660. 
He  worked  at  Rome,  Vienna,  Florence,  and  London,  to 
which  he  was  invited  bv  Queen  Anne.  Having  passed 
ten  years  in  England,  he  returned  to  Venice,  and  prac- 
tised his  art  with  success.  He  was  a  skilful  imitator  of 
the  styles  of  many  masters.  Among  his  reinarkable 
works  are  "The  Abduction  of  the  Sabines,"  at  Rome, 
and  "The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin."  Died  at  Venice 
in  1734. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
nario." 

Ricciardi,  rit-chaR'dee,  (  Francesco,  )  Count  dc 
Camaldoli,  an  Italian  statesman,  born  at  Foggia  in  1758. 
He  was  minister  of  justice  under  Murat  from  1809  to 
181 5.  He  made  some  reforms  in  the  penal  code.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  Ceva-Grimaldi,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  F.  Ricciardi," 
1834. 

Ricciardi,  (Irene,)  an  Italian  poetess,  a  sister  of 
Joseph  Napoleon  Ricciardi.  She  was  married  in  183 1 
to  a  composer  named  Capecelatro. 

Ricciardi,  (Joseph  Napoleon,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  politician,  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  Naples  in  i8o8.  A  liberal  in  politics,  he  lived 
in  exile  from  1848  to  1S60,  when  he  entered  the  Italian 
Parliament.  He  has  written  a  "  History  of  the  Italian 
Revolution,"  (1850,)  and  several  other  histories  and 
political  poems. 


*,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fdil,  fit;  xwht;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RICCIO 


2055 


RICHARD 


Riccio,  (Bartolommeo.)     See  Neroni. 

Riccio,  (David.)     See  Rizzio. 

Riccio,  rit'cho,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  surnained  BRasASORCi,  ("Rat- 
Burner,")  was  born  at  Verona  in  1494.  His  father  in- 
vented a  rat-trap  and  burned  rats :  hence  the  surname. 
He  studied  the  works  of  Titian,  and  perhaps  was  his 
pupil.  He  painted  in  the  Palazzo  Ridulfi,  in  Venice,  a 
•■resco  called  the  "Cavalcade  of  Clement  VH.  and 
Charles  V.,"  (in  Bologna.)     Died  in  1567. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  Ridolpi,  "  Vite  degli 
illustri  Pittori  Veneti ;"  Lanzi,  "  Histoiy  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Riccio,  (Felice,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Verona  in  1540,  was  a  skilful  painter,  especially  of 
portraits.     Died  in  1605. 

Riccioli,  r6t'cho-lee,  (  Giovanni  Battista,  )  an 
Italian  astronomer  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1598. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy,  theology,  etc.  at 
Bologna  and  Parma.  His  superiors  authorized  him  to 
devote  himself  to  astronomy,  that  he  might  confute  the 
Copernican  system.  This  he  attempted  to  do  in  his 
"Almagestum  Novum,"  (2  vols.,  165 1.)  According  to 
his  theory,  the  sun,  moon,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  revolve 
around  the  earth,  while  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Mars  are 
satellites  of  the  sun.  He  also  published  an  able  treatise 
on  mathematical  geography  and  hydrography,  (1661,) 
and  "  Improved  Astronomy,"  ("Astronomia  Reformata," 
1665.)     Died  in  1671. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitje  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  TiRA- 
BOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Riccoboiii,  rfek-ko-bo'nee,  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a 
son  of  Luigi,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Mantua  in 
1707,  and  lived  in  Paris.  He  wrote  an  ingenious  work 
called  "Theatrical  Art,"  ("  L'Art  du  Theatre,"  1750.) 
Died  in  1772. 

His  wife,  Marie  Jeanne  Laboras  de  M^zifeREs, 
born  in  Paris  in  1713,  was  a  successful  novelist.  Among 
her  novels  are  "The  Letters  of  Julia  Catesby,"  (1758,) 
"Ernestine,"  and  "Sophie  de  Valliere,"  (1771.)  M, 
Weiss  calls  her  one  of  the  most  spirituelle  women  of  her 
time.     Died  in  1792. 

Riccoboni,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born 
at  Rovigo  in  1541.  He  translated  into  Latin  Aristotle's 
"  Rhetoric,"  "  Ethics,"  and  "  Poetica,"  (1579,)  and  wrote 
several  works.     Died  in  1599. 

Riccoboni,  (  Luigi,  )  an  Italian  comic  writer  and 
actor,  born  at  Modena  about  1675.  Among  his  works  is 
a  poem  "  On  Representative  Art,"  ("  Delia  Arte  repre- 
sentativa,"  1728.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1753. 

Rice,  (James,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at  North- 
ampton in  1S44.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  abandoned  law 
for  literature.  He  was  editor  and  proprietor  of  "  Once  a 
Week"  from  186S  to  1S72.  In  1871  he  formed  a  literary 
partnership  with  Walter  Besant,  which  resulted  in  the 
joint  authorship  of  a  number  of  popular  novels,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  "  Ready  Money  Mortiboy," 
"The  Golden  Butterfly,"  "The  Chaplain  of  the  Fleet," 
and  "The  Monks  of  Thelema."     Died  April  26,  1882. 

Rice,  (  Luther,)  an  American  Baptist  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  Northborough,  Massachusetts,  in 
17S3.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  board 
of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions,  and  assisted  in 
the  establishment  of  the  Columbian  College,  at  Wash- 
ington, District  of  Columbia.     Died  in  1836. 

Rich,  (Claudius  James,)  an  Orientalist  and  traveller, 
born  at  Dijon,  in  France,  in  1787,  was  educated  at  Bris- 
tol. He  learned  Arabic,  Syriac,  Persian,  etc.  in  his  early 
youth,  became  an  excellent  linguist,  and  entered  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company  in  1803.  In  i8o8  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  at  Bombay, 
and  was  appointed  the  East  India  Company's  resident 
at  Bagdad.  He  collected  in  that  vicinity  many  Oriental 
manuscripts,  medals,  and  coins,  and  wrote  a  "Memoir 
on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon,"  which  he  had  visited  in  1811. 
A  second  edition  of  it  was  issued  in  1839.  He  visited 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  and  made  an  ex- 
cursion into  Koordistan.  He  died  of  cholera,  at  Shiraz, 
in  October,  1821,  leaving  a  "Narrative  of  a  Residence  in 
Koordistan,"  (1836.) 

See  a  brief  notice  of  his  life,  prefixed  to  the  work  last  named. 


Rich,  (Edmund.)     See  Edmund,  Saint. 

Rich,  (Richard,)  Baron,  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  about  1498.  He  became  solicitor-general  in 
1533,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1547.  He  united  with  Pro- 
tector Somerset  in  measures  for  the  conviction  and  exe- 
cution of  Lord  Seymour.  In  1551  he  resigned  his  office 
on  pretext  of  ill  health.  Died  in  1568.  According  to 
Lord  Campbell,  he  was  "a  very  consistent  character 
in  all  that  was  base  and  profligate."  One  of  his  sons 
became  Earl  of  Warwick. 

Rich'ard  [Lat.  Richar'dus  ;  It.  RiCARDO,re-kaR'doi 
I.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  CcEUR  DE  LloN,  (kuR 
deh  le'6N',)  was  the  third  or  second  son  of  Henry  II. 
and  his  queen  Eleanor.  He  was  born  at  Oxford  in 
1157,  and  was  invested  in  the  duchy  of  Guienne.  He 
united  with  his  brother  Henry  in  a  revolt  against  his 
father  in  1173.  On  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  in  1183, 
Richard  became  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne.  He 
formed  in  1188  a  secret  alliance  with  Philip,  King  of 
France,  the  enemy  of  Henry  II.,  and  openly  revolted 
against  the  latter  in  1189.  The  allies  waged  war  with 
success  against  Henry  in  France,  and  induced  him  to 
accept  their  terms  of  peace.  At  this  juncture  Henry 
died,  in  July,  1189.  Richard  showed  compunction  for 
his  undutiful  conduct,  and  chose  for  his  ministers  the 
faithful  servants  of  his  father.  Having  agreed  a  short 
time  before  his  accession  to  join  the  King  of  France  in 
a  crusade,  he  appointed  his  mother  regent  of  the  king- 
dom. "  Impelled  more  by  the  love  of  military  glory 
than  by  superstition,"  says  Hume,  "he  acted  from  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  as  if  the  sole  purpose  of  his 
government  had  been  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land  and 
the  recovery  of  Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens." 

The  combined  army  of  Richard  and  Philip,  amounting 
to  100,000  men,  began  to  march  in  1190.  They  em- 
barked on  ships  at  Marseilles  and  Genoa,  and  sailed  to 
Sicily,  where  they  passed  the  winter,  during  which  serious 
dissensions  arose  between  Richard  and  Philip,  who  re- 
garded each  other  with  jealous  rivalry.  Richard  married 
Berengaria,  Princess  of  Navarre,  at  Cyprus,  in  I191,  and 
in  the  summer  of  that  year  arrived  at  Acre,  which  had 
been  besieged  by  the  crusaders  for  two  years  and  was 
still  defended  by  Saladin.  The  French  and  English 
kings  were  incited  by  emulation  to  extraordinary  acts 
of  valour  at  this  siege.  "  Richard  in  particular,"  says 
Hume,  "animated  with  a  more  precipitate  courage  than 
Philip,  .  .  .  acquired  a  great  and  splendid  reputation." 
Acre  surrendered  in  July,  1 191,  soon  after  which  Philip 
returned  to  France.  In  September,  Richard  defeated 
Saladin  in  a  great  battle,  in  which  "  he  performed,"  says 
Hume,  "the  part  both  of  a  consummate  general  and 
gallant  soldier." 

Having  concluded  a  truce  with  Saladin  for  three  years, 
three  months,  three  weeks,  and  three  days,  he  sailed 
homeward  in  October,  1192,  and  was  wrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Istria.  Attempting  to  pass  through  Germany 
in  disguise,  he  was  arrested  by  Leopold  of  Austria,  who 
transferred  him  to  the  emperor,  Henry  VI.,  who  was  an 
enemy  of  the  captive  prince.  He  was  confined  in  a 
dungeon,  and  subjected  to  many  insults,  until  February, 
1194,  when  he  obtained  his  liberation  by  paying  a  large 
ransom.  In  the  mean  time  his  brother  John  had  at- 
tempted to  usurp  the  royal  power,  but  was  resisted  with 
success.  The  rivalry  between  Richard  and  Philip  after 
wards  involved  them  in  several  wars,  the  results  of  which 
were  insignificant.  Hostilities  were  suspended  in  1198 
by  a  truce  of  five  years.  At  the  siege  of  the  castle  of 
one  of  his  vassals  near  Limoges,  Richard  was  mortally 
wounded  by  an  arrow,  in  March,  1 199.  He  left  no  lawful 
issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John.  "  Of  an 
impetuous  and  vehement  spirit,"  says  Hume,  "he  was 
distinguished  by  all  the  good  as  well  as  the  bad  qualities 
incident  to  that  character  :  he  was  open,  frank,  generous, 
sincere,  and  brave ;  he  was  revengeful,  domineering, 
ambitious,  haughty,  and  cruel."  Richard  I.  forms  a 
prominent  and  brilliant  character  in  Scott's  novel  of 
"  Ivanhoe." 

See  P.  J.  Bruns,  "De  Rebus  gestis  Rich.irdi  Anglix  Regis," 
1780;  J.  White,  "Adventures  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,"  3  vols., 
1791  ;  G.  P.  R.  James,  "  Life  of  Richard  L,"  1S43  ;  Home.  "Historj 
of  England,"  chap.  x.  ;  W.  E.  Avtoun,  "  Life  of  Richard  I.  of 
England,"  1840. 


€  as  >fe;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  Yi., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


RICHARD 


2056 


RICHARD 


Richard  II.,  King  of  England,  born  at  Bordeaux  in 
1366,  was  a  son  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  grandfather,  Edward  III.,  in  June,  1377. 
.\mong  the  remarkable  events  which  occurred  during 
his  minority  was  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler,  (1381,) 
which  was  provoked  partly  by  the  tax  imposed  to  sup- 
port a  war  against  France.  The  insurgents,  who  were 
peasants  or  common  people,  entered  London,  massacred 
many  persons  of  the  higher  class,  among  whom  was  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  committed  other  out- 
rages. Richard  acted  with  much  presence  of  mind,  and 
persuaded  the  rioters  to  disperse.  A  great  number  of 
;hem  were  afterwards  executed.  Edward  III.  had  left 
the  kingdom  involved  in  wars  against  the  French  and 
the  Scotch.  In  1385  Richard  invaded  Scotland  and 
reduced  to  ashes  Edinburgh,  Perth,  Dundee,  etc.  The 
Scots  oflfered  no  resistance,  but  at  the  same  time  made 
a  successful  raid  into  England.  The  power  of  Richard, 
who  was  indolent  and  incapable,  was  nullified  for  a  time 
by  his  uncle  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  put  to  death 
the  king's  favourites  and  ministers  in  1388.  The  wars 
against  France  and  Scotland  were  conducted  with  little 
vigour,  and  suspended  by  frequent  truces.  In  1396 
Richard  concluded  a  long  truce  with  the  French  court, 
and  was  affianced  to  Isabella  of  France,  who  was  seven 
years  of  age.  In  1398  he  banished  the  Dukes  of  Here- 
ford and  Norfolk,  who  had  met  to  fight  a  duel.  Here- 
ford (who  at  the  death  of  his  father  became  Henry,  Duke 
of  Lancaster)  had  gained  the  favour  of  the  people  by  his 
conduct  and  abilities.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  Richard,  who  was  in  Ireland,  Henry  landed  in  Eng- 
land in  July,  1399,  raised  a  large  army,  and  made  him- 
self master  of  the  kingdom  without  serious  opposition. 
The  troops  which  Richard  brought  from  Ireland  nearly 
all  deserted.  "  His  personal  character  had  brought  him 
into  contempt,"  says  Hume.  He  was  deposed  by  Par- 
liament, which  recognized  his  rival  as  King  Henry  IV., 
and  ordered  or  advised  that  Richard  should  be  impris- 
oned in  some  secret  place.  He  died  mysteriously  in  the 
thirty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  "  It  is  more  probable," 
says  Hume,  "that  he  was  starved  to  death  in  prison." 
He  left  no  posterity.  Richard  II.  gives  name  to  one  of 
Shakspeare's  tragedies. 

See  J.  Evesham,  "  Historia  Richardi  II.,"  1729;  Hume,  "  His- 
tory of  England,"  chap.  xvii.  ;  "Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  II.," 
London,  1681  ;  R.  flowARD,  "  History  of  the  Reigns  of  Ed-.vard  III. 
and  Richard  II.,"  1690. 

Richard  III.,  King  of  England,  a  younger  son  of 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  a  brother  of  Edward  IV., 
was  born  in  Northamptonshire  on  the  2d  of  October, 
1452,  and  was  styled  the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Tewksbury,  in  1471,  and,  according 
to  a  report  which  obtained  currency,  was  instrumental 
in  the  death  of  Henry  VI.  In  1472  he  married  Lady 
Anne  Nevil,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  He 
became  regent  or  protector  at  the  accession  of  his 
nephew,  Edward  V.,  who  was  a  minor,  (April,  1483.) 
"  His  exorbitant  ambition,"  says  Hume,  "  unrestrained 
by  any  principle  either  of  justice  or  humanity,  made  him 
carry  his  views  to  the  possession  of  the  crown  itself." 
By  dissimulation  artd  professions  of  loyalty  he  obtained 
possession  of  the  king's  person.  He  arrested  and  exe- 
cuted the  Earl  of  Rivers,  Edward's  maternal  uncle  and 
tutor,  with  other  friends  of  the  young  king.  About  the 
end  of  June,  1483,  he  usurped  the  royal  power  openlv 
and  without  resistance.  Soon  after  this  date  Edwarci 
V.  and  his  brother  were  put  to  death  in  the  Tower  by 
the  order  of  Richard.  His  authority  was  recognized  by 
a  Parliament  which  met  in  1484.  "  But  the  crimes  of 
Richard  were  so  horrid  and  so  shocking  to  humanity 
that  the  natural  sentiments  of  men,  without  any  political 
or  public  views,  were  sufficient  to  render  his  government 
unstable."  (Hume.)  Many  nobles  and  malcontents  as- 
sembled in  Brittany  and  offered  their  services  to  Henry, 
Earl  of  Richmond,  who  was  regarded  by  the  Lancas- 
trians as  the  rightful  heir  to  the  crown.  Henry  landed 
at  Milford  Haven  in  August,  1485,  with  a  small  army, 
which  was  increased  to  6000  men.  The  rivals  met  at 
Bosworth  on  the  21st  of  August.  In  number  of  men 
Richard  had  the  advantage  ;  but,  soon  after  the  battle 
began,  Lord  Stanley,  whose  conduct  had  been  equivocal, 


joined  Richmond  with  about  7000  men  and  decided  the 
victory.  Richard  fought  with  the  energy  of  despair, 
and  was  slain  as  he  was  rushing  forward  to  attack  Henry 
in  person.  Richard  was  of  small  stature,  humpbacked, 
and  had  a  disagreeable  countenance.  Several  modern 
writers  have  appeared  as  his  apologists.  Richard  III. 
furnishes  the  name  to  one  of  Shakspeare's  most  popular 
dramas. 

See  Sir  Gecrge  Buck,  "Life  of  Richard  III. ;"  Jessk,  "Life 
of  Richard  III.,"  i860;  Bhale,  "Richard  III.  and  his  Times," 
1844 ;  Sir  Thomas  More,  "  History  of  Edward  V.  and  the  Duke  of 
York,"  1641 ;  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chap,  xxiii. ;  Horace 
Walpole,  "Historic  Doubts  on  Richard  III.,"  1768;  J.  Rey, 
"  Essais  historiques  et  critiques  sur  Richard  II  I,"  1818. 

Richard  (re'shlR')  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  surnamed 
Sans  Peur,  ("without  fear,")  was  born  about  933 ;  died 
in  996. 

Richard  II.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding,  whom  he  succeeded.  He  died  in  1027  or  1026, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Richard  III.,  who  died 
in  1028. 

Richard,  a  native  of  Normandy,  was  a  friend  of 
Thomas  a  Becket,  whom  he  succeeded  as  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1 174.     Died  in  1184. 

See  W.  F.  Hooic,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  cliap.  viii. 

Richard,  a  learned  and  liberal  prelate,  whose  family 
name  was  Fitz-Ralph.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  in  1347,  and  denounced  the  superstition  and 
licentious  habits  of  the  mendicant  friars.  For  this 
offence  he  was  arraigned  before  Pope  Innocent  VL, 
and  condemned.     Died  at  Avignon  in  1360. 

Richard,  re'shtR',  (Achille,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1794,  was  a  son  of  Louis  Claude  Marie, 
noticed  below.  He  wrote  many  monographs,  and  con- 
tributed greatly  to  popularize  the  science  of  botany. 
His  "  Elements  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physiology" 
(1819  ;  7th  edition,  1846)  is  highly  commended  as  a  text- 
book for  students.  It  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages.     Died  in  1852. 

See  BoucHARDOT,  "  Jfiloges  de  Royer-Collard  et  d'A.  Richard," 
1853  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Richard,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1711.  He  published  a  "Diction- 
ary of  Ecclesiastical  Sciences,"  (6  vols.,  1760.)  Died 
in  1794. 

Richard,  (Fleury  Francois,)  ^  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Lyons  in  1777.  He  received  the  title 
of  painter  to  Charles  X.  about  1824.     Died  in  1852. 

Richard,  (FRANgois,)  called  Richard  Lenoir,  a 
French  manufacturer,  born  in  Calvados  in  1765.  He 
and  his  partner  Lenoir  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
fine  cotton  stuffs  into  France  about  1795.    Died  in  1839 

See  his  autobiographic  "  M^moires,"  1837. 

Richard,  (Francois  Marie  Claude,)  Baro.v,  a 
French  physician,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Observations  on  the  Medicine  of  the 
Military  Hospitals,"  ("  Observations  de  Medecine  des 
Hopitaux  militaires,"  1766.)  He  died  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XVI. 

Richard,  (Jean,)  a  French  moralist  and  religious 
writer,  born  at  Verdun  in  1638.  His  chief  work  is 
"  Universal  Science  of  the  Pulpit,  or  Moral  Dictionary," 
("La  Science  universelle  de  la  Chaire,  ou  Dictionnaire 
morale,"  etc.,  5  vols.,  1700-12.)     Died  in  1719. 

Richard,  (Joseph  Charles,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  La  Fleche  in  1752,  was  a  moderate  member  of 
the  Convention.  He  was  specially  excepted  from  the 
operation  of  the  law  which  exiled  regicides  in  1816. 
Died  in  1834. 

Richard,  (Louis  Claude  Marie,)  an  eminent  French 
botanist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1754.  He  passed  about 
eight  years  (1781-89)  in  exploring  the  botanical  and 
other  productions  of  Guiana  and  the  Antilles.  Aftei 
his  return  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute,  and  was 
professor  of  botany  in  the  Ecole  de  Medecine,  Paris.  He 
was  a  good  observer,  and  was  versed  in  various  branches 
of  natural  history.  He  wrote,  besides  several  memoirs 
or  monographs,  an  excellent  "  Analysis  of  the  Fruit, 
considered  in  general,"  (1808.)     Died  in  1821. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  L.  C.  M.  Richard;"  Kunth,  "Notice 
sur  L.  C.  M.  Richard,"  1824:  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  shoii;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fSll,  fSt;  m?t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


RICHARD 


2057 


RICHARDSON 


Richard,  (Ren6,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Sau- 
mur  in  1654,  obtained  the  oiSce  of  royal  censor,  (of 
books.)     Died  in  1727. 

Richard,  (Theodore,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Millau  in  1782  ;  died  at  Toulouse  in  1859. 

Richard  de  Bury,  an  English  prelate  and  patron  of 
learning,  whose  family  name  was  Richard  Aungerville 
or  AUNGARViLLE,  was  born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's  in 
1287.  He  was  tutor  to  Prince  Edward,  (afterwards  Ed- 
ward III.)  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  pope, 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Petrarch,  was  appointed 
l-Jishop  of  Durham  in  1333,  and  chancellor  of  England 
in  1334.  He  collected  a  great  number  of  books,  which 
he  bequeathed  to  a  company  of  scholars  at  Oxford.  It 
is  stated  that  he  owned  more  books  than  all  the  other 
English  bishops  together.  He  was  eminent  for  learning. 
Died  in  1345. 

See  an  account  of  his  life  in  his  "  Philobiblon,"  an  English  ver- 
■iion  of  which  was  published  in  London,  1832. 

Richard  de  Saint-Victor,  re'shtR'  deh  sin  vik'- 
toR',  a  mystical  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  in 
Scotland,  was  a  pupil  of  Hugh  de  Saint-Victor.  He 
became  prior  of  the  abbey  of  Saint- Victor,  at  Paris,  in 
1 164.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  celebrated  writer  on 
theology,  ethics,  etc.  An  edition  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished by  John  of  Toulouse  in  1650.     Died  in  11 73. 

See  Joannes  de  Tolosa,  "Vita  Richardi,"  prefixed  to  the  edi- 
lion  of  his  works,  1650. 

Richard  of  Cirencester,  (sis'e-ter,)  an  English  his- 
torian and  monk,  called  Ricar'dus  Corinen'sis,  or  the 
Monk  of  Westminster.  He  entered  a  monastery  at 
Westminster  in  1350.  He  wrote,  besides  several  works 
on  Saxon  and  British  history,  a  celebrated  "  Description 
of  Britain,"  ("  De  Situ  Britannias,")  the  manuscript  of 
which  was  first  found  i,n  1747  by  Charles  Julius  Bertram, 
of  Copenhagen.  The  authenticity  of  this  work  is 
doubted  by  manv  critics. 

Richard  of  fiexham.     See  Roger. 

Richard  Plantagenet.    See  York,  third  Duke  of. 

Rich'ard  Plan-tag;'e-net,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  a  son 
of  John,  King  of  England,  was  born  in  1208.  "His 
ruling  passion  was  to  amass  money, — in  which  he  suc- 
ceeded so  well  as  to  become  the  richest  subject  in  Chris- 
tendom," (Hume.)  According  to  Michaud,  he  fought 
as  a  crusader  in  Palestine  about  1240.  He  was  elected 
King  of  the  Romans  in  1256.  "  He  was  tempted,"  says 
Hume,  "to  expend  vast  suins  of  money  on  his  election." 
Though  he  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  his  reign 
was  only  nominal.     He  died  in  England  in  1272. 

See  Rymer,  "Fcedera;"  Gebauer,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  Herm 
Richards,"  etc.,  1744. 

Richardot,  re'shia'do',  (Franqois,)  Bishop  of  Arras, 
a  learned  French  prelate,  born  in  11507;  died  in  1^74- 

Richards,  (T.  Addison,)  a  landscape-painter,  born 
in  London,  England,  December  3,  1820.  He  removed 
to  the  United  States  in  early  life.  In  185 1  he  was  elected 
a  National  Academician,  and  in  1867  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  art  in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York.  He  has  published  (text  and  illustrations)  "  The 
American  Artist,"  (1838,)  "Georgia  Illustrated,"  (1842,) 
"Romance  of  American  Landscape,"  (1S54,)  "Pictures 
and  Painters,"  (1870,)  etc.  Among  his  pictures  are 
"  Chatsvvorth,"  "Alastor,"  "The  Indian  Paradise," 
"Lake  Thun,"  "Lake  Brienz,"  "Warwick  Castle," 
"The  River  Rhine,"  "  Scenes  on  the  Delaware  High- 
lands," etc. 

Rich'ards,  (William,)  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Plainfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He  sailed  in  1822 
to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  became  interpreter 
and  chaplain  to  the  king,  and  in  1845  was  appointed 
minister  of  public  instruction.     Died  in  1847. 

Richards,  (William  T.,)  an  American  landscape- 
painter,  a  resident  of  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  born 
in  1833.  He  is  one  of  the  most  successful  cultivators 
of  the  pre-Raphaelite  style  in  landscape-painting.  His 
works  are  remarkable  for  their  accuracy  of  detail  and  the 
perfection  of  their  finish. 

See  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists.'' 

Rich'ard-son,  (Benjamin  Ward,)  M.D.,  an  English 
physician,  born  at  Somerby,  Leicestershire,  October  31, 


1828.  He  was  educated  at  the  Andersonian  University. 
Glasgow,  and  at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's,  where 
he  graduated  in  1854.  Dr.  Richardson  is  a  prolific  and 
able  writer  on  public  health,  alcoholism,  the  action  of 
various  poisons  and  medicines,  education,  and  other 
kindred  topics.  His  most  popular  books  are  "  Diseases 
of  Modern  Life,"  (1876,)  "  Results  of  Researches  on  Al- 
cohol," (1S77,)  and  "Temperance  Lesson-Book,"  (1877.) 

Rich'ard-son,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  English  lexi- 
cographer, born  in  1775.  He  published  in  1805  "Illus- 
trations of  English  Philology,"  in  which  he  advocated 
the  philological  opinions  of  Home  Tooke.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (2 
vols.  4to,  1835-37,  reissued  in  1838,  1S39,  1844,  1849,  and 
1855 ;  with  Supplement,  1856  and  1859,)  which  is  very 
highly  esteemed.  It  was  pronounced  by  Dean  Trench 
the  best  dictionary  in  the  language.     Died  in  1865. 

See  Ai.LiBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Rich'ard-son,  (Charles  Francis,)  an  American 
author,  born  at  Hallowell,  Maine,  May  29,  1851,  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1871,  was  editorially  con- 
nected with  various  periodicals,  1872-80,  and  in  1882 
became  professor  of  English  literature  in  Dartmouth 
College.  Among  his  works  are  "  A  Primer  of  American 
Literature,"  (1S78,)  "The  Cross,"  (a  poem,  1878,)  "The 
Choice  of  Books,"  (1S81,)  etc. 

Rich'ard-son,  (Israel  B.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Burlington,  Vermont,  about  1818,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  war,  became  a  captain  in  185 1,  and  resigned 
his  commission  in  1855.  He  commanded  a  division  in 
the  Chickahominy  campaign,  (May-July,  1862,)  was  ap- 
pointed a  major-general  in  July,  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Antietam,  September  17,  1862.  He  received 
in  this  battle  a  wound  of  which  he  died,  November,  1862. 

See  Tenney,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Richardson,  (James,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
Lincolnshire  in  1806.  He  engaged  in  an  expedition  to 
Lake  Tchad,  in  Africa,  and  departed  from  Tripoli  in 
1850  with  Barth.  He  died  at  Ungouratona  in  March, 
185 1,  leaving  a  "Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  Central 
Africa,"  (1853.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Richardson,  (John,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  at  Chester.  He  became  Bishop  of  Ardagh,  Ire- 
land, in  1633.     Died  in  London  in  1654.  ^_ 

Rich'ard-son,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  at  Dumfries,  Scotland,  in  1787.  He 
served  as  surgeon  to  Captain  Franklin's  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1819,  and  to  the  second  expedition 
of  that  navigator  in  1825.  He  published  "Zoology  of 
the  Northern  Parts  of  British  America,"  ("  Fauna  Bo- 
reali-Americana,"  3  parts,  1829-37,)  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  William  Swainson  and  William'  Kirby.  In 
1848  he  conducted  an  expedition  sent  to  search  for  Sir 
John  Franklin.  His  route  was  through  the  lakes  of 
British  America  to  Slave  Lake,  and  thence  down  the 
Mackenzie  River,  the  mouth  of  which  he  reached  in 
August,  1848.  After  his  return  he  published  a  "  Journal 
of  a  Boat- Voyage  through  Rupert's-  Land  to  the  Arctic 
Sea,"  etc.,  (185 1.)     Died  in  1865. 

See  "Life  of  Sir  John  Richardson,"  London,  1S6S;  "Bio- 
graphical Sketches,"  by  H.  Martineau. 

Richardson,  (John  Peter,)  an  American  statesman, 
grandson  of  Richard,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Sumter 
district.  South  Carolina,  in  1801.  He  was  a  prominent 
leader  of  the  Union  party  in  the  Nullification  contest 
of  1835,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1836,  and  became 
Governor  of  the  State  in  1841.     Died  in  1864. 

Richardson,  (Jonathan,)  an  English  portrait- 
painter  and  writer  on  art,  was  born  about  1665.  He 
painted  heads  with  great  success,  but  failed  in  attitudes, 
draperies,  and  backgrounds.  After  the  death  of  Knel- 
ler  he  was  considered  the  foremost  portrait-painter  of 
England.  His  durable  reputation  is  founded  on  an 
"Essay  on  the  Whole  Art  of  Criticism  as  it  relates  to 
Painting,  and  an  Argument  in  behalf  of  the  Science  of 
a  Connoisseur,"  (1719,)  which  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1745. 

Richardson,   (Joseph,)   an   English   poet,  bom  in 


e  as  /J,'  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi,gitttural;  N.  nasal:  u,  (y-illed;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHARDSON 


2058 


RICHELIEU 


Northumberland.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1784.  He  was  one  of  the  writers  of  the 
satires  of  the  "  Rolliad"  and  the  "  Probationary  Odes." 
Died  in  1803. 

Richardson,  (Richard,)  an  American  soldier  and 
patriot,  born  near  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1704,  served 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.     Died  in  1780. 

Richardson,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  English  novel- 
ist, born  in  Derbyshire  in  1689,  was  a  son  of  a  joiner. 
At  the  village  school  which  he  attended  he  began  to  dis- 
play his  faculty  for  invention.  He  has  informed  us  that 
in  his  boyhood  he  was  a  favourite  of  young  women,  who 
availed  themselves  of  his  talents  in  the  composition  of 
letters  to  their  lovers.  About  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  of  London,  named  Wilde. 
He  served  as  foreman  in  the  printing-office  about  five 
years,  and  then  became  a  master-printer  in  Fleet  Street. 
He  married  Miss  Wilde,  a  daughter  of  his  former 
master.  In  1740  he  published  his  first  novel,  "Pa- 
mela," which  was  very  popular  and  opened  a  new  era  in 
English  romantic  literature.  Fielding's  novel  "Joseph 
Andrews"  was  an  avowed  burlesque  of  "  Pamela." 
Richardson  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his 
"History  of  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  (1748,)  which  is  con- 
sidered his  capital  work.  "  His  personages  have  all 
the  reality  possible,"  says  Diderot ;  "his  incidents  are 
realized  in  the  manners  of  all  polished  nations.  What 
fertility  in  the  invention  of  personages  !  what  variety 
in  the  delineation  of  characters !"  He  afterwards 
produced  the  novel  of  "  Sir  Charles  Grandison,"  (1753,) 
which  was  less  successful.  Richardson  was  prosperous  ir 
business.  By  the  favour  of  Speaker  Onslow  he  obtained 
the  lucrative  privilege  of  printing  the  Journals  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  He  wrote  No.  XCVH.  of  the 
"  Rambler"  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  was  his  friend  and  a 
warm  admirer  of  his  works.  Died  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1761. 

See  Francis  Jeffrey,  "Swift  and  Richardson,"  1853;  Dide- 
rot, "  £!loge  de  S.  Richardson,"  1762;  Mrs.  Barbauld,  "Life  of 
S.  Richardson,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Correspondence,"  5  vols.,  1803; 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;"  E.  Man- 
gin,  "  Life  and  Writings  of  S.  Richardson,"  :Sii  ;  Allibone,  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1S04 ; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1S69,  article  "Historical 
Sketches  of  the  Reign  of  George  IL  ;"  "Westminster  Review"  for 
'/anuaiy,  1869;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  Januaiy,  1805. 

Richardson,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  judge,  born 
in  Norfolk  in  1569.  He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the 
(Commons  in  1621,  and  became  chief  justice  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  1625  or  1626.  He  decided  that 
torture  was  an  illegal  mode  of  obtaining  evidence  when 
it  was  proposed  to  apply  it  to  Felton  the  assassin,  (1628.) 
In  1631  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench.     He  was  a  noted  jester.     Died  in  1635. 

Richardson,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
near  Bedford  in  1698.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  king 
in  1746.  Some  of  his  sermons  were  published.  Died 
in  1775. 

Richardson,  (William,)  a  British  writer  and  critic, 
born  in  Perthshire  in  1743.  He  was  professor  of  hu- 
manity af  Glasgow  from  1773  to  1814,  and  was  a 
contributor  to  the  "Mirror."  Among  his  works  are 
"Anecdotes  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  and  "Essays  on 
the  Characters  of  Shakspeare,"  (3  vols.,  1775,)  which 
was  received  with  favour.     Died  in  1814. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Riche,  r^sh,  (Claude  Antoine  Gaspard,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Beaujolais  in  1762.  He  was  a  coad- 
jutor of  Vicq  d'Azyr  in  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique." 
He  accompanied  as  a  naturalist  the  expedition  which 
wa.s  sent  in  search  of  La  Perouse  in  1791.  On  their 
arrival  at  Java,  in  1793,  the  collections  and  journal  of 
Riche  were  seized  by  the  Dutch.  He  died  in  1797, 
leaving  many  memoirs  on  natural  history.  He  was  a 
brother  of  De  Prony,  the  great  engineer  and  geometer. 

See  Cuvier,  "  Eloge  du  Citoyen  Riche,"  179S. 

Riche,  re'shy,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  President  of  Havti, 
was  born  at  Cap-Haitien  about  1780.  He  served  as  a 
general  under  Christophe,  and  became  President  in 
March,  1846.     Died  in  February,  1847. 

Riche  de  Prony.    See  Pronv,  de. 


Richebourg,  reesh'booR',  (Emile,)  a  French  author, 
born  at  Menoy  in  1833.  He  was  a  schoolmaster,  but  in 
1850  went  to  Paris  and  engaged  in  writing  tales.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Lucienne,"  "  L'Homme  aux  Lunettes 
noires,"  (1864,)  "  Recits  devant  I'Atre,"  (1867,)  "  L'En- 
fant  du  Faubourg,"  (1876,)  "  Les  deux  M6res,"  (iSSo,) 
etc.  His  stories  are  mostly  for  the  young,  and  convey 
sound  moral  precepts,  though  he  is  sometimes  too  senti- 
mental and  is  often  markedly  chauvinistic. 

Richelet,  rfesh'LV,  (Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian, 
born  at  Cheminon  in  1631.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language,"  (1680,) 
the  success  of  which  was  promoted  by  many  satirical 
remarks  contained  in  it.     Died  at  Paris  in  1698. 

See  "  Nonveile  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Richelieu,  de,  deh  r^sh'le-uh',  (  Alphonse  Louis 
du  Plessis — d'i  pli'se',)  cal^  Cardinal  de  Lyon, 
born  in  Paris  in  1582,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  states- 
man. He  became  Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  1628,  and 
cardinal  in  1629.  He  meddled  little  with  the  intrigues 
of  the  court.     Died  in  1653. 

See  Abb6  de  Pure,  "Vie  de  Richelieu,  Cardinal  de  Lyon." 

Richelieu,  de,  (Armand  Emanuel  du  Plessis,) 
Duke,  a  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Marshal  Richelieu,  (1696-1788.)  He  emigrated 
in  1789  or  1790,  entered  the  Russian  army,  and  became 
governor  of  Odessa  in  1803.  Having  returned  to  France 
in  1814,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and 
president  of  the  council  {i.e.  prime  minister)  in  Sep- 
tember, 1815.  He  negotiated  with  the  allies  a  treaty 
which  secured  the  territorial  integrity  of  France.  He 
resigned  office  about  the  end  of  1818,  and  was  recalled 
to  the  presidency  of  the  council  February  20,  1820.  In 
November,  1821,  he  retired  because  the  majority  of  the 
Chamber  opposed  his  policy.  He  was  a  man  of  estimable 
character.     Died  in  May,  1822. 

See  L.  F.  de  Bausset,  "Notice  siir  M.  le  Due  de  Richelieu," 
1822;  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration;"  GuizoT,  "  Me- 
moires,"  tome  i.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Richelieu,  rish'e-loo,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  r&sh'le-uh',| 
(Armand  Jean  du  Plessis,)  Cardinal,  a  celeljratea 
and  ambitious  French  statesman,  born  at  Paris  or  in 
Poitou  on  the  5th  of  September,  1585,  was  a  son  of 
Fran9ois  du  Plessis  and  Susanne  de  la  Porte.  He 
studied  at  the  College  of  Navarre  and  that  of  Lisieux, 
and  chose  the  clerical  profession.  In  1607  he  was 
consecrated  at  Rome  as  Bishop  of  Lu9on.  Having  been 
selected  by  the  States-General  to  harangue  the  king  in 
1614,  he  acquitted  himself  so  well  that  he  was  appointed 
almoner  to  the  queen-regnant.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  for  a  short  time  in  1616,  and  acted  as  mediator 
between  the  king  and  his  mother,  Marie  de  Medicis, 
by  whose  influence  he  obtained  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
in  1622.  About  two  years  later  he  was  admitted  into 
the  royal  council,  which  he  entered  as  a  master  rather 
than  an  adviser.  Even  the  king  was  overawed  by  the 
intensity  of  his  imperious  will.  Richelieu  soon  became 
prime  minister,  and  pursued  a  policy  which  tended 
to  humble  the  powerful  nobility,  to  centralize  the  ad- 
ministration, to  render  the  monarchy  absolute,  and 
to  restore  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  which  the 
ascendency  of  the  House  of  Austria  had  disturbed. 
His  most  powerful  opponents  were  Marie  de  Medicis 
and  the  king's  brother  Gaston,  who  incited  an  armed 
revolt,  which  was  suppressed  without  difficulty.  Among 
the  important  achievements  of  Richelieu  was  the  subjec- 
tion of  the  Calvinists,  who  had  attempted  to  gain  their 
independence  or  defend  their  rights  by  arms,  and  whose 
head-quarters  were  at  Rochelle.  He  directed  in  person 
the  siege  of  this  city,  which  surrendered  in  1628  on 
condition  that  a  general  pardon  should  be  granted,  with 
religious  toleration  to  the  Protestants.  A  contest  for 
ascendency  between  Richelieu  and  Marie  de  Medicis 
ended  in  the  e.xile  of  the  latter  in  1630.  He  maintained 
the  independence  of  the  civil  power  against  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  Romish  Church.  He  exhibited  excessive 
severity  in  the  execution  of  Marillac,  Montmorency, 
Cinq-Mars,  and  other  noblemen,  who  were  implicated 
in  a  conspiracy  against  him.  The  first  two  of  these 
were  executed  in  1632. 

In  the  pursuance  of  his  design  to  reduce  the  powei 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  i.  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i, 6,  li,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsatre;  fSr,  fdll,  fit;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


RICHELIEU 


2059 


RICHMOND 


of  Austria,  he  supported  with  a  subsidy  the  Protestants 
of  Germany,  who  were  waging  war  against  the  emperor, 
and  used  his  influence  to  defeat  the  negotiations  for 
peace.  He  also  ordered  a  large  body  of  French  troops 
to  co-operate  with  the  Swedes  on  the  Rhine  in  1635. 
About  this  time  his  armies  opposed  the  Spaniards  in 
Flanders  and  Italy,  but  without  much  success.  In  1635 
he  founded  and  endowed  the  French  Academy,  the  most 
splendid  literary  institution  of  Europe.  In  the  same 
year  he  made  a  treaty  with  Holland,  which  became  his 
ally  in  a  war  against  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  The  French 
gamed  several  victories  in  Germany  and  Italy  in  1640- 
42.  During  his  administration  Alsace,  Artois,  and  Rous- 
sillon  were  annexed  to  France.  Richelieu  detected  a 
dangerous  conspiracy  formed  by  Cinq-IVIars  and  Gaston 
of  Orleans,  the  former  of  whom  v^fas  executed  in  Sep- 
tember, 1642.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  December, 
1642.  The  people  expressed  by  bonfires  their  joy  for 
his  death. 

Richelieu  had  some  literary  taste,  and  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  authors,  artists,  etc.  He  was  the  reputed 
author  of  several  works,  among  which  are  "  Memoires 
du  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,"  first  printed  in  1823,  and  his 
"Political  Testament,"  ("Testament  politique,")  the 
authenticity  of  which  was  discredited  by  Voltaire  and 
delended  by  Foncemagne.  Although  Richelieu  was  a 
great  and  successful  statesman,  he  is  not  a  general 
favourite  with  the  French,  like  Henry  IV.  or  Louis  XIV. 
Many  modern  French  writers  argue  that  his  policy  did 
not  conduce  to  the  real  and  durable  prosperity  of  the 
nation.  His  system  is  severely  criticised  by  De  Tocque- 
ville,  (in  his  "  Ancien  Regime  et  la  Revolution,'')  by 
Quinet,  and  by  Charles  de  Remusat. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Memoires  du  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,"  1660;  Jay, 
"Histoire  du  Minist^re  de  Richelieu;"  Capefigus,  "Richelieu  et 
Mazarin,"  1S36;  Henri  Martin,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Miche- 
LHT,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Violart,  "Histoire  du  Ministfere  de 
Richelieu,"  1649;  J.  Caili.et,  "  L'Administration  en  France  sous 
Richelieu,"  2  vols.,  1861  ;  "  Lite  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,"  by  William 
RoBsoN,  1854;  Sui.LY,  "Memoires:"  Cardinal  de  Ret/,  "M^ 
moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Richelieu,  de,  (Louis  Franqois  Armand  du  Ples- 
SIS,)  a  brilliant  and  profligate  courtier,  born  in  1696,  was 
a  grand-nephew  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  was  a  son 
of  Armand  Jean  Vignerod,  Due  de  Richelieu.  His  in- 
trigues and  libertinism  caused  him  to  be  thrice  confined 
in  the  Bastille.  He  obtained  the  favour  of  Louis  XV., 
and  distinguished  himself  as  a  general  at  Fontenoy  in 
1745.  About  1748  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France. 
He  disgraced  himself  by  his  cupidity,  arrogance,  and 
scandalous  vices.     Died  in  1788. 

See  Fai;r,  "Vie  priv^e  du  Marechal  de  Richelieu,"  1790;  Sou- 
LAViE,  "  Memoires  du  Marechal  de  Richelieu;"  Voltaire,  "  Cor- 
respondance  g^nerale ;"  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Capefiguk, 
"Le  Marechal  de  Richelieu,"  1857;  Dangeau,  "Journal;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generate." 

Riohemont,  de,  deh  rfesh'm6N',  (Louis  Auguste 
Camus,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1770;  died  in  1853. 

Ricliepanse  or  Richepance,  r^sh'pftwss',  (An- 
TOINE,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Metz  in  1770.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1796,  and  a  general 
of  division  in  1799.  Having  obtained  command  of  a 
division  of  the  army  of  Moreau,  he  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Hohenlinden,  (1800.)  Died  at  Guadeloupe 
in  1803. 

See  Nollet-Fabert,  "  Le  General  Richepance,"  1853. 

Richer,  re'shi',  [Lat.  Riche'ru.s,]  a  French  chroni- 
cler, who  flourished  about  980-1000.  He  wrote  (in 
Latin)  a  history  of  the  period  from  888  to  995,  which 
is  highly  prized.  The  manuscript  of  this  work  was  dis- 
covered in  1833  by  Pertz  and  Boehiiier. 

Richer,  (Adrien,)  a  French  biographer  and  historian, 
born  at  Avranches  in  1720.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of 
Celebrated  Mariners,"  (13  vols.,  1780-86,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Paris  in  1798. 

Richer,  (Claude,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Auxerre  in  1680;  died  in  1756. 

Richer,  (Edmond,)  a  French  canonist,  born  in  Cham- 
pagne in  1559  or  1560.  He  became  an  adherent  of 
Henry  IV.  about  1590,  and  syndic  of  the  Faculty  of 
Theology  at  Paris  in  ibo8.  He  defended  the  privileges 
of  the  Galilean  Church,  and  published  a  work  "On 
Ecclesiastical  and  Political  Power,"  (161 1,)  which  sub- 


jected him  to  persecution.    Died  in  1631.    "  His  fame," 
says  Hallam,  "  has  risen  in  later  times." 

See  Baillkt,  "Vie  de  Richer,"  1714;  P^rau,  "Vie  d'E. 
Richer,"  1748;  NicAron,  "Memoires." 

Richer,  (Edouard,)  a  French  author,  born  in  La 
Vendee  in  1792.  He  produced  a  poem  entitled  "Victor 
et  Amelie,"  (1816,)  and  a  "History  of  Brittany,"  (1821,) 
which  is  commended.  Having  been  converted  to  the 
doctrines  of  Swedenborg,  he  published  a  work  called 
"The  New  Jerusalem,"  (8  vols.,  1832-36.)  Died  at 
Nantes  in  1834. 

See  PiHT,  "  Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Richer,"  1836. 

Richer,  (Franqois,)  a  French  jurist,  a  brother  of 
Adrien,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Avranches  in  1718. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Civil  Death,"  ("De  la  Mort 
civile,"  1755,)  and  "Celebrated  Trials,"  (22  vols.,  1772 
-88.)     Died  in  1790. 

Richer,  (Henri,)  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born  at 
Longueil  in  1685.  Among  his  works  are  "Fables  in 
Verse,"  (1729,)  and  a  "Life  of  Maecenas,"  (1746.)  Died 
in  1748. 

Richer,  (Jean,)  a  French  astronomer,  was  sent  to 
Cayenne  in  1671  to  observe  the  parallax  of  the  sun. 
Died  in  1696. 

Richer  d'Aube,  re'shi'  dob,  (Franqois,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1686,  was  a  nephew  of  Fonte- 
nelle.     Died  in  1752. 

Richerand,  rlsh'r5N',  (Anthelme.)  an  eminent 
French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  at  Belley,  in  Bugey, 
in  1779.  He  published  "Elements  of  Physiology," 
(i8oi  ;  loth  edition,  1832,)  which  had  great  success,  and 
became  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  Paris 
in  i8c6.  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle."     Died  in  1840. 

See  Dubois  d'Amiens,  "filoge  de  Richerand,"  1851 ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Richerus.     See  Richer. 

Richier,  re'she-i',  (Ligier,)  a  skilful  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Lorraine  about  1500.  He  studied  in  Rome, 
and  returned  to  Lorraine  while  he  was  still  younfj. 
Died  about  1572. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Richmaun,  riK^mSn,  or  Rickman,  rik'mSn,  (Georg 
W^ilhelm,)  born  in  Livonia  in  171 1,  became  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1745.  He  was 
killed  by  lightning,  while  repeating  the  experiment  of 
Dr.  Franklin,  in  1753. 

Rich'mond,  (Charles  Gordon  Lennox,)  Dukk 
OF,  born  in  London  in  1791,  was  a  son  of  Charles 
Lennox,  (1764-1819.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  privy 
council,  and  of  the  cabinet  formed  by  Earl  Grey  in  183 1. 
Died  in  1861. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Henry  Gordon  Lennox,) 
Duke  of,  an  English  peer,  born  in  i8i8,  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  poor- 
law  board  in  1859,  resigned  the  same  year,  and  succeeded 
his  father  as  duke  in  i86o.  He  was  president  of  the 
board  of  trade  in  1867  and  1868.  In  1870  he  became 
leader  of  the  Conservatives  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Lennox,)  Duke  of,  born 
in  1672,  was  a  son  of  Charles  II.  and  the  Duchess  of 
Portsmouth.  He  served  in  the  army  under  William 
III.  in  Flanders.  He  died  in  1723,  and  left  the  title  to 
his  son  Charles. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Lennox,)  Duke  of,  a  British 
general,  born  in  1735,  was  a  grandson  of  a  natural  son 
of  King  Charles  II.  He  was  a  friend  of  liberty  and 
reform,  and  a  man  of  superior  talents.  In  1778  he  pro- 
posed to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  revolted 
American  colonies.  He  became  master  of  the  ordnance 
in  1782.  Died  in  1806.  His  sister,  Sarah  Lennox, 
became  the  wife  of  George  Napier  and  mother  of  the 
famous  commanders  of  that  name. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Lennox,)  Duke  of,  a  British 
peer,  born  in  1764.  He  entered  the  army  in  his  youth. 
In  1806  he  inherited  the  dukedom  at  the  death  of  his 
uncle.  He  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  in 
1808,  and  governor-general  of  the  British  possessions  in 
North  America  about  1816.  He  died  in  Canada,  of 
hydrophobia,  in  1819,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Charles. 


€  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     {2!^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHMOND 


2060 


RICHTER 


Richmond,  Earl  of.  See  Henry  VII.  of  Eng- 
land. 

Richmoud,  (George,)  an  English  portrait-painter, 
born  about  1809.  He  became  popular  as  a  painter  in 
water-colours  in  London.  His  more  recent  works  are 
chiefly  portraits  in  oil.  He  was  elected  an  associate  of 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1857. 

Richmond,  (James  Stuart,)  fourth  Duke  of,  born 
in  1612,  was  a  nephew  of  Ludovic  Stuart,  noticed  below. 
He  inherited  the  title  of  duke  about  1641.  He  was  a 
devoted  adherent  of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war.  Died 
in  1655. 

Richmond,  (Legh,)  an  English  clergyman,  bom  in 
Liverpool  in  1772.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
obtained  a  curacy  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  from  which  he 
removed  to  London  in  1805  and  became  chaplain  of  the 
Lock  Hospital.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Turvey,  in  Bedfordshire,  about  1808.  He  published 
"Annals  of  the  Poor,"  containing  "The  Dairyman's 
Daughter"  and  other  narratives,  which  obtained  a  wide 
circulation  ;  also,  "The  Fathers  of  the  English  Church," 
(8  vols.,  1 807-1 1.)     Died  in  1827. 

See  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Legh  Richmond,"  by  Rkv.  T.  .S. 
Grimshaw. 

Rich'mond  and  Len'nox,  (Ludovic  Stuart,)  sec- 
ond Duke  of,  born  in  1574,  was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Lennox,  and  a  cousin  of  James  I.  of  England.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  that  king,  who  created  him  Duke  of 
Richmond  in  1623.     He  died,  without  issue,  in  1624. 

Richomme,  re'shom',  (Joseph  Theodore,)  an  emi- 
nent French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1806  or  1816.  He  engraved  a  number 
of  works  afier  Raphael.     Died  in  1849. 

Richter,  riK'ter,  (Adolph,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Thorn  in  1S13. 

Richter,  (Adrian  Ludwig,)  an  eminent  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1803.  His 
works  are  chiefly  landscapes  representing  German  and 
Italian  scenes.     Died  in  June,  1884. 

Richter,  (/Emilius  Ludv/ig,)  professor  of  canon  law 
at  Marburg,  born  at  Stolpen  in  1808,  published  a 
"  Manual  of  Catholic  and  Evangelical  Canon  Law," 
(1841.)     Died  at  Berlin,  May  8,  1864. 

Richter,  (August Gottlok,)  a  German  surgeon,  born 
in  Saxony  in  X742.  He  was  professor  of  surgery  at  Gbt- 
tingen  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  that  subject.     Died  in  x8i2. 

Richter,  (Georg  Gottlob,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Schneeburg,  in  Misnia,  in  1694.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  in  1736,  and  pub- 
lished many  medical  treatises.     Died  in  1773. 

Richter,  (Gustav,)  a  German  painter,  born  in  Berlin, 
August  31,  1823.  One  of  his  greatest  pictures  was 
"The  Raising  of  Jairus's  Daughter."  He  became  a 
professor  of  art  at  Berlin,  and  executed  some  masterly 
portraits.     Died  in  Berlin,  April  4,  1884. 

Richter,  rik'ter,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter  of 
genre  and  occasionally  of  history,  born  in  1772,  was 
of  German  extraction.  He  resided  mostly  in  London, 
where  he  died  in  1857.  His  most  important  historical 
work  is  "Christ  Restoring  Sight  to  the  Blind,"  now  in 
a  church  at  Greenwich,  England. 

Richter,  (Henry  Joseph,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at 
Neuenkirchen,  Oldenburg,  Germany,  April  9,  1S38,  came 
to  America  in  1856,  studied  at  Mount  Saint  Mary's  Col- 
lege in  Cincinnati,  and  at  the  American  College  in  Rome, 
graduating  as  D.D.  at  the  Propaganda  in  1865,  became 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  and  held  a  theological  profes- 
sorship at  Cincinnati,  1865-70.  In  1S83  he  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Grand  Rapids,  the  first  of  that  title. 

Richter,  (Hermann  Eberhard,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Leipsic  in  1808,  published  a  number 
of  medical  and  botanical  works.     Died  in  1876. 

Richter,  (Jean  Paul  Friedrich,)  commonly  called 
Jean  Paul,  a  popular,  quaint,  and  original  German 
author,  born  at  Wunsiedel,  near  Baireuth,  (Bavaria,)  on 
the  2lst  of  March,  1763.  His  father  was  a  subaltern 
teacher  in  the  gymnasium  of  that  place,  and  afterwards  a 
clergyman.  His  early  education  was  defective.  He  had, 
however,  made  good  progress  in  Latin  and  Greek  when 
he  entered  the  University  of  Leipsic,  in  1780.     He  was 


destined  for  theology,  but  a  strong  predilection  for  poetry 
and  philosophy  caused  him  to  neglect,  and  at  length  to 
abandon,  his  appointed  profession.  During  his  attend- 
ance at  the  university  he  was  reduced  to  extreme  indi- 
gence. To  supply  his  urgent  want  of  funds,  he  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "Greenland  Lawsuits,"  (1783,)  which  but 
slightly  improved  his  pecuniary  affairs.  He  also  wrote 
a  "  Selection  from  the  Papers  of  the  Devil,"  ("  Auswahl 
aus  des  Teufels  Papieren,"  1788.)  He  quitted  Leipsic 
in  1785,  after  which  he  lived  some  time  with  his  mother 
at  Hof.  He  was  afterwards  a  tutor  in  a  family  of  rank, 
and  in  1793  became  teacher  of  a  school  at  Schwarzen- 
bach.  He  produced  in  1793  "The  Invisible  Lodge," 
("  Die  unsichtbare  Loge,")  which  was  received  with 
favour.  His  "  Hesperus,"  a  novel,  (4  vols.,  1794,)  was 
greatly  admired.  "By  degrees,"  says  Carlyle,  "Jean 
Paul  began  to  be  considered,  not  a  strange  crack-brained 
mixture  of  enthusiast  and  buffoon,  but  a  man  of  infinite 
humour,  sensibility,  force,  and  penetration."  He  changed 
his  residence  frequently,  living  successively  at  Leipsic, 
Weimar,  Meiningen,  etc.  In  1798  he  published  "The 
Valley  of  Campan,  or  a  Discourse  on  the  Immortality 
of  the  Soul,"  ("  Das  Campanerthal,  oder  die  Unsterb- 
lichkeit  der  Seele.")  He  married  Caroline  Mayer,  of 
Berlin,  in  1801,  soon  after  which  he  settled  at  Baireuth. 
The  prince-primate  Carl  von  Dalberg  granted  him  in 
1809  an  annual  pension  of  1000  florins.  According  to 
Carlyle,  he  received  a  pension  from  the  King  of  Bavaria 
in  1802.  Richter  is  represented  as  having  been  eminently 
happy  in  his  domestic  relations.  Died  at  Baireuth  in 
November,  1825. 

Among  his  principal  works  are  novels  entitled  "  Quin- 
tus  Fixlein,"  (1796,)  "Parson  in  Jubilee,"  ("  Der  Jubel 
Senior,"  1797,)  "Titan,"  (1S00-03,)  and  "  Flegeljahre," 
(which  may  be  translated  "  Wild  Oats,"  1805.)  "Titan," 
which  he  considered  his  master-piece,  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  (1863.)  He  also  wrote  two  works 
of  high  order,  entitled  "  Introduction  to  ^Esthetics," 
("Vorschule  der  ^sthetik,"  3  vols.,  1804,)  and  "Le- 
vana,"  (1807,)  a  profound  philosophical  essay  on  educa- 
tion. He  left  an  autobiography,  "  Wahrheit  aus  Jean 
Paul's  Leben,  (8  vols.,  1826-33,)  the  last  part  of  which 
was  written  by  Dr.  Otto.  "  Except  by  name,"  said  Car- 
lyle in  1827,  "Richter  is  little  known  out  of  Germany. 
The  only  thing  connected  with  him,  we  think,  that  has 
reached  this  country  is  his  saying  imported  by  Madame 
de  Stael  and  thankfully  pocketed  by  most  newspaper 
critics:  'Providence  has  given  to  the  French  the  empire 
of  the  land,  to  the  English  that  of  the  sea,  and  to  the 
Germans  that  of — the  air  !'  Of  this  last  element,  indeed, 
his  own  genius  might  easily  seem  to  have  been  a  denizen. 
His  thoughts,  his  feelings,  the  creations  of  his  spirit, 
walk  before  us  embodied  under  wondrous  shapes,  in 
motley  and  ever-fluctuating  groups;  but  his  essential 
character,  however  he  disguised  it,  is  that  of  a  philoso- 
pher and  moral  poet,  .  ,  .  whose  delight  and  best 
endeavour  are  with  all  that  is  beautiful  and  tender  and 
mysteriously  sublime  in  the  fate  or  history  of  man."  As 
a  humourist,  he  is  pre-eminent  among  the  Germans. 
Portions  of  his  writings  have  been  translated  into  English 
by  C.  T.  Brooks,  E.  H.  Noel,  and  others. 

See  Cari.vle,  "  Essays,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ;  E.  Forstkr,  "Life  of 
Jean  Paul  Richter,"  1863:  Doring,  "Leben  und  Charakteristik  J. 
P.  Richters,"  1S30 ;  R.  O.  Spazier,  "Jean  Paul  Richter;  ein  bio- 
graphischer  Commentar  zu  seincn  Werken,"  s  vols.,  1833;  Z. 
FuNCK,  "Notice  sur  Jean  Paul  Richter,"  1839:  L.  Bokrne, 
"Denkrede  auf  J.  P.  F.  Richter,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale  ;"  Eliza  Lee,  "  Life  of  J.  P.  F.  Richter,"  Boston,  1842; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1827  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review" 
for  November,  1847 ; 

Richter,  (Jeremias  Benjamin,)  a  Prussian  chemist, 
born  at  Hirschberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1762.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Rudiments  of  the  Art  of  Measuring 
Chemical  Elements,"  (4  vols.,  1792-94.)  It  is  stated  that 
he  discovered  the  law  of  multiple  proportions.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Richter,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Freyberg  in  1773  ;  died  in  1806. 

Richter,  von,  fon  riK'ter,  (OiTO  Friedrich,)  a 
Russian  traveller,  born  in  1792.  He  visited  Egypt, 
Syria,  etc.     Died  at  Smyrna  in  1816  or  1817. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  9,  obsaire;  far,  f JU,  fit;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RICHTOFEN 


2061 


RIEDINGER 


Richtofen.voD,  fon  RiK'to-fen,  (Ferdinand,)  Baron, 
a  celebrated  German  geologist  and  traveller  in  China 
and  Central  Asia,  was  born  in  1833.  His  publications 
on  the  geography  and  geology  of  China  are  of  high 
value.    Died  in  1888. 

Rigl-mer,  an  ambitious  general  of  the  Roman  army, 
was  a  Gothic  chief.  He  deposed  Avitus  about  457  a.d., 
and  raised  to  the  throne  Majorian,  whom  he  put  to 
death  in  461.  He  obtained  imperial  power,  though  he 
did  not  assume  the  title  of  emperor.  In  472  a.d.  he 
captured  Rome,  and  caused  Anthemius  to  be  killed. 
He  died  the  same  year. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Rick'etts,  (James  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1839,  and  became  a  captain  in  1852.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September,  1862,  and 
at  that  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5  and  6,  1864.  He  was 
disabled  by  a  severe  wound  at  the  battle  of  Cedar  Creek, 
Virginia,  October  19,  1864.     Died  September  22,  1887. 

Rickman,  (Georg  Wilhelm.)     See  Richmann. 

Rick'man,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  statistician, 
born  in  1771,  was  assistant  clerk  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons.    Died  ill  1841. 

Rickman,  (Thomas,)  an  English  architect  and  emi- 
nent writer  on  Gothic  architecture,  was  born  at  Maiden- 
head in  1776.  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  service  of  an 
insurance-broker  of  Liverpool  about  1808,  after  which 
he  began  to  study  design  in  his  leisure  hours.  Having 
adopted  the  profession  of  architect,  he  removed  to  Bir- 
mingham, and  published  "  An  Attempt  to  discriminate 
the  Styles  of  Architecture  in  England,"  (181 7,)  which 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  was  the  architect  of 
many  Gothic  churches  erected  at  Bristol,  Birmingham, 
Carlisle,  Liverpool,  etc.  Among  his  best  works  is  the 
New  Court  of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Died 
in  1841. 

Ricord,  re'koR',  (Philippe.)  a  skilful  physician,  of 
French  parentage,  born  at  Baltimore,  United  States,  in 
1800.  He  became  chief  surgeon  of  the  Hopital  du 
Midi,  Paris,  in  183 1,  and  gave  special  attention  to  vene- 
real diseases,  on  which  he  wrote  with  great  success.  His 
practice  was  immense  :  it  was  probably  not  surpassed  by 
that  of  any  other  physician  in  Paris.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Letters  on  Syphilis."     Died  October  21,  18S9. 

Rid'dell,  (Henry  Scott,)  a  Scottish  clergyman,  born 
at  Sorbie,  in  Dumfriesshire,  September  23,  1798,  a  shep- 
herd's son.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Ed- 
inburgh, and  became  the  minister  of  Teviothead.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer,  but  is  now  chiefly  remembered  for 
his  songs  and  border-tales.     Died  July  30,  1870. 

Ri'der,  (John,)  a  Protestant  bishop,  born  in  Cheshire 
about  1562.  He  became  Bishop  of  Killaloe,  in  Ireland, 
in  1612.  Among  his  works  is  "An  English-Latin  and 
Latin-English  Dictionary,"  (1589.)  Died  in  1632. 
_  Rider,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  historian,  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  England."     Died  in  1785. 

Ridg'ley,  (Thomas,)  a  dissenting  minister,  born  in 
London  about  1666.  He  succeeded  Thomas  Gouge  in 
London  about  1700,  and  became  tutor  in  an  academy  of 
the  Independents  in  1712.  He  published  a  "Body  of 
Divinity,"  (1731.)     Died  in  1734. 

Ridinger.     See  Riedinger. 

Rid'ley,  (Gloucester,)  an  Engnsn  clergyman,  born 
at  sea,  on  board  the  "Gloucester"  East  Indiaman,  in 
1702.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Ridley,  Bishop 
of  London,"  (1763,)  and  several  poems,  one  of  which 
was  called  "  Psyche,"  (1782.)     Died  in  1774. 

Ridley,  (James,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  chap- 
lain in  the  army.  He  wrote  "  Tales  of  the  Genii," 
often  reprinted.    Died  prematurely  in  1765. 

Ridley,  (Nicholas,)  an  eminent  English  Reformer 
and  martyr,  born  in  Northumberland  near  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  educated  at  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge,  and  obtained  a  high  reputation  as 
a  preacher.  About  1540  he  became  chaplain  to  the 
king.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1547, 
and  succeeded  Bonner  as  Bishop  of  London  in  1550. 
He  assisted  Cranmer  in  composing  forty-one  or  forty- 


two  articles  of  faith  in  1551,  attempted  to  convert  the 
princess  Mary,  and  induced  King  Edward  to  found 
several  hospitals  in  London.  On  the  death  of  Edwaid 
VI.  he  advocated  the  claim  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  He 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  by  Queen  Mary  in  July, 
1553,  and  was  removed  in  1554  to  Oxford,  where  he 
took  part  in  a  disputation  on  the  questions  which  divided 
the  Protestants  from  the  Roman  Catholics.  Having 
been  condemned  as  a  heretic,  he  suffered  death  by  fire 
with  fortitude  on  the  i6th  of  October,  1555. 

See  Gloucester  Ridley,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Ridley,"  1763 ;  Hume, 
"History  of  England;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1763, 
and  January,  1764. 

Ridley,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  civilian,  born  at 
Ely.  He  wrote  a  "View  of  the  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical 
Law."     Died  in  1629. 

Ridolfi,  re-dol'fee,  (Carlo,)  an  able  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  was  born  at  or  near  Vicenza  about 
1598.  He  avoided  the  degenerate  style  which  prevailed 
among  his  contemporaries.  A  "Visitation"  which  he 
painted  for  a  church  in  Venice  is  especially  admired. 
He  wrote  "The  Lives  of  the  Venetian  Painters,"  (2 
vols.,  1648,)  which  is  a  work  of  much  literary  and  critical 
merit.     Died  about  t66o. 

Ridolfi,  (Claudio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ve- 
rona in  1560,  was  a  pupil  of  Paul  Veronese.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  a  good  colorist.     Died  in  1644. 

Ridolfi,  (Lorenzo,)  a  popular  Florentine  statesman, 
who  in  1425  rendered  an  important  service  to  the  re- 
public by  inducing  the  Venetians  to  form  an  alliance 
with  Florence  against  the  Duke  of  Milan. 

Ridolfi,  di,  de  re-dol'fee,  (Cosmo,)  Marquis,  an 
Italian  agriculturist,  born  at  Florence  in  1794.  He 
founded  an  agricultural  school  at  Meleto,  and  wrote 
articles  for  the  "Journal  of  Agriculture,"  founded  by 
himself  and  a  few  others  in  1827.  He  was  minister  of 
the  interior  and  president  of  the  council  for  a  short 
time  in  1847  and  1848.     Died  March  5,  1865. 

Rid'path,  (John  Clark,)  LL.D.,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Putnam  county,  Indiana,  April  26,  1840.  He 
graduated  at  Indiana  Asbury  University  in  1863,  and 
held  professorships  in  Baker  University,  Kansas,  and  in 
his  alma  mater,  (now  called  De  Pauw  University.)  He 
published  a  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  (1874-75,) 
and  another  in  1877,  besides  a  School  History  in  1S76, 
an  "English  Grammar,"  (1879,)  a  "Life  of  Garfield," 
(1881,)  a  "Life  of  J.  G.  Blaine,"  (1884,)  "Cyclopaedia  of 
History,"  (1880-84,)  and  a  "  History  of  Texas,"  (1884.) 

Riedel,  ree'del,  (August,)  a  German  painter,  was 
born  at  Baireuth  in  1800.  He  worked  some  years  in 
Rome.     Died  August  27,  1883. 

Riedel,  (Friedrich  Justus,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  near  Erfurt  in  1742.  Among  his  works  are  Satires, 
(3  vols.,  1786.)     Died  in  Vienna  in  1785. 

Riedesel,ree'deh-z5r,  (Joseph  Hermann,)  a  German 
traveller,  born  in  1740.  He  published  an  account  of 
his  travels  in  Greece,  etc.,  ("Remarques  d'un  Voyageur 
au  Levant,"  1773.)     Died  in  1785. 

Riedesel,  von,  fon  ree'deh-zel',  (Frederika,)  Bar- 
oness, a  German  lady,  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1746. 
She  went  to  the  United  States  in  1777  with  her  husband, 
an  officer  in  the  British  service.  She  wrote  Letters  on 
the  campaign  which  she  witnessed  in  New  York.  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1808. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1828. 

Riedesel,  von,  (Friedrich  Adolph,)  Baron,  a 
German  officer,  bom  in  1738,  was  the  husband  of  the 
preceding.  He  served  in  the  British  army  against  tho 
Americans,  (1777-82,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general 
Died  in  1800. 

See  "Memoirs,  Letters,  and  Journals  of  Major-General  Riede- 
sel," translated  from  the  German  by  William  L.  Stone,  (New 
York,  i86S.) 

Riedinger  or  Ridinger,  ree'ding-fr,  (  Johann 
Elias,)  an  eminent  German  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1695.  His  delineations  of  animals,  es- 
pecially wild  ones,  are  unsurpassed  for  accuracy  and 
fidelity  to  nature.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Obser- 
vations on  Wild  Animals,"  (40  copper-plates,)  "Fables 
of  Animals,"  (16  plates,)  and  "Paradise,"  (12  plates.) 
He  worked  mostly  at  Augs'ourg.     Died  in  1767. 


"as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.     (fl^^See  Explanations,  p.  2.^.) 


RIEGGER 


2062 


RIGA  UD 


Riegger,  von,  fon  reeg'ger,  (Joseph  Anton,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  writer  on  canon  law.  He  became 
professor  of  law  at  Vienna  in  1764.     Died  in  1795. 

Riego  y  Nunez,  del,  dgl  re-a'go  e  noon'ySth,  a  Span- 
ish general  and  patriot,  born  in  Asturias  about  1785. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  insurgents  who  in  January,  1820, 
took  arms  for  the  Constitution  of  1812.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  Captain-General  of  Asturias,  or  of 
Aragon,  and  president  of  the  Cortes.  He  resisted  the 
French  army  of  intervention  in  1823,  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  executed  in  November  of  that  year. 

See  Miguel  Riego,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Riego,"  1823  ; 
Nard  y  Pirala,  "  Vida  niiliiar  y  politica  de  Riego,"  1844;  Ed. 
BuRCKHARDT,  "  Riego  und  Miiia,"  1835. 

Riem,  reeni,  (Johann,)  a  German  rural  economist, 
born  at  Frankenthal,  on  the  Rhine,  in  1739.  He  wrote 
on  the  methods  of  raising  bees  and  obtaining  honey. 
Died  in  1807. 

Riemer,  ree'mer,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Glalz  in  1774.  He  was 
employed  as  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  W.  von  Humboldt, 
and  subsequently  in  that  of  Goethe.  He  became  first 
librarian  at  Weimar  in  1828.  He  published  a  "  Greek- 
German  Hand-Lexicon,"  and  a  number  of  poems.  Died 
in  1845. 

Riencourt,  de,  deh  r£-|,N'kooR',  (Simon,)  a  French 
historian,  born  about  1605,  in  Paris,  published  a  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Monarchy  under  the  Reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,"  (2  vols.,  1688,)  and  a  "  History  of  Louis  XHI.  " 
(1695.)     Died  in  1693. 

Rienzi,  re-gn'zee,  or  Rienzo,  re-gn'zo,  (Nicola  Ga- 
BRiNi,)  called  Colas  Di  Rienzi,  ko'lisdee  re-^n'zee,  an 
eloquent  Roman  tribune,  was  born  probably  at  Rome. 
He  received  a  liberal  education,  and  became  a  friend  of 
Petrarch  about  1340.  At  that  period  anarchy  prevailed 
in  Rome,  the  citizens  of  which  were  robbed  and  out- 
raged by  barons  who  occupied  fortified  castles.  Rienzi 
was  a  colleague  of  Petrarch  in  a  deputation  sent  by  the 
Romans  to  Avignon  in  1342  to  persuade  the  pope  to 
return  to  Rome.  In  1347,  by  the  popular  favour,  he 
obtained  power,  with  the  title  of  tribune,  and  made  some 
reforms.  He  soon  became  elated  with  success,  and  dis- 
gusted the  people  by  his  vain  pomp  and  extravagance. 
"He  degenerated,"  says  Gibbon,  "into  the  vices  of  a 
king."  He  was  driven  out  of  the  city  about  the  end  of 
1347,  after  he  had  been  anathematized  as  a  rebel  and  a 
heretic  by  the  legate  of  the  pope.  Having  passed  seven 
years  as  a  fugitive  in  Germany,  etc.,  he  was  arrested  and 
taken  to  Avignon,  as  a  captive  or  culprit,  in  1352.  In 
1354  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  with  the  title  of  senator,  by  the 
pope,  who  proposed  to  use  the  talents  and  influence  of 
Rienzi  for  the  restoration  of  order  in  that  capital.  Before 
the  end  of  the  year  he  was  killed  in  a  tumult  fomented 
by  the  barons.  "  Never,  perhaps,"  says  Gibbon,  "  has  the 
energy  and  effect  of  a  single  mind  been  more  remarkably 
felt  than  in  the  sudden  though  transient  reformation 
of  Rome  by  the  tribune  Rienzi.  .  .  .  More  eloquent 
than  judicious,  more  enterprising  than  resolute,  the 
faculties  of  Rienzi  were  not  balanced  by  cool  and  com- 
manding reason."  Byron  apostrophizes  Rienzi  as  the 
"  Redeemer  of  dark  centuries  of  shame, — 
Tlie  friend  of  Petrarch, — hope  of  Italy, — 
Rienzi !  last  of  Romans  I" 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iv.  stanza  cxiv. 
The  history  of  Rienzi  forms  the  basis  of  one  of  Bui- 
wer's  most  popular  novels. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  vol.  iv. 
chap.  Ixx.  ;  Schiller,  "History  of  Rebellions;"  "  Life  of  Rienzi," 
in  French,  by  Du  Cercbau,  1733;  Gabrini,  "  Osservazioni  sulla 
Vita  di  Rienzo,"  1806;  Zefirino  Rfe,  "  La  Vita  di  Rienzi,"  1828; 
Papencordt,  "Rienzi  et  Rome  i  son  fipoqiie,"  1841:  "The  Life 
nnd  Times  of  Rienzi,"  Philadelphia,  1S36;  F.  Bhnedetti,  "Vita  di 
Rienzi,"  1831  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rienzo.    See  Rienzi, 

Riepenhausen,  ree'pen-how'z^n,  (Franz,)  an  emi- 
nent German  painter  of  history,  and  engraver,  born  at 
Gottingen  in  1786.  He  went  to  Rome  about  1807  with 
his  brother  Johann.  They  produced  several  oil-paintint;s, 
and  designs  to  illustrate  the  poems  of  Goethe  and  Schil- 
ler ;  also  a  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,"  v3  vols.,  1820, 
with  twenty-four  engravings  after  Italian  masters.)  He 
died  at  Rome  in  1831. 

Riepenhausen,  (Johann,)  a  painter  and  engraver. 


a  brother  oi  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1788.  He  worked  many  years  at  Rome.  After  the 
death  of  Franz,  he  published  a  series  of  engravings 
illustrative  of  the  life  of  Raphael,  under  the  title  of 
"  Vita  di  Raffaello,"  (1834.)     Died  at  Rome  in  i860. 

Ries,  reess,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  composer  and 
pianist,  born  at  Bonn  in  1784,  was  a  pupil  of  Beethoven. 
He  visited  Paris,  Stockholm,  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
London,  and  in  the  last-named  city  was  received  with 
distinguished  favour.  His  compositions  include  sym- 
phonies, instrument  pieces,  and  operas;  also  an  oratorio 
called  "David."     Died  in  1838. 

See  FiTis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Rieter,  ree'ter,  (Henri,)  a  Swiss  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Winterthur  in  1751.  He  worked  at  IJerne,  and 
painted  Swiss  scenery  with  success.  He  published  col- 
oured engravings  of  the  same  subjects.     Died  in  1818. 

Rietschel,  reet'shel,  (Ernst,)  an  eminent  German 
sculptor,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dres- 
den, was  born  at  Pulsnitz  in  1804.  He  studied  under 
Ranch  at  Berlin,  and  subsequently  in  Italy.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "  Mary  Kneeling  over  the 
Dead  Body  of  Christ,"  a  bust  of  Luther,  a  "  Ceres," 
colossal  statues  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  (at  Weimar,) 
and  the  "Christ-Angel."     Died  at  Dresden  in  i86i. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Rietschoof,  reet'sKof,  (Hendrik,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter  of  marine  views,  was  born  in  1678. 

Rietschoof,  (Jan  Klaasz,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  ma- 
r'ne  views,  born  at  Hoorn  in  1652,  was  father  of  the 
preceding.     Died  in  1719. 

Rieux,  de,  deh  re-uh',  (Jean,)  a  marshal  of  France, 
who  was  born  in  1342.  He  served  with  distinction  under 
Charles  VI.,  and  became  marshal  in  1397.  Died  in  1417. 

Rieux,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  general,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  called  Mar^chal  de  Rochefort,  and 
was  born  at  Ancenis  in  1389.  He  fought  for  Charles 
VII.  against  the  English.     Died  in  1438. 

Riffault,  re'fo',  (Jean  Ren6  Denis,)  a  French  chem- 
ist, born  at  Saumur  in  1752.  He  improved  the  method 
of  making  gun]:)o\vder,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Manual  of  Chemistry,"  (1825.)     Died  at  Paris  in  1826. 

Riffaut  or  Riffault,  re'fo',  (  Adolphe  Pierre,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  He  obtained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855.     Died  in  1859. 

Rigal,  re'glK,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  at  Cussac  in  1755  5  ^^^^  '"^  1823. 

Rigaltius.     See  Rigault. 

Rigas.     See  Rhigas. 

Rigau  or  Rigaud,  re'go',  (Antoine,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Agen  in  1758.  He  commanded  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Marne  when  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba. 
Having  been  condemned  to  death  for  his  defection  from 
the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815,  he  escaped  to  the 
United  States.     He  died  in  1820. 

Rigaud,  (Hyacinthe,)  an  eminent  French  portrait- 
]>ainter,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1659,  was  a  pupil  of  Ranc 
and  of  other  masters.  He  painted  Philip  V.  of  Spain 
in  1700,  and  Louis  XIV.  in  1701,  soon  after  which  he 
received  the  title  of  court  painter.  Among  his  works 
are  portraits  of  Bossuet  and  Lebrun.  His  touch  is  bold 
and  free  and  his  design  correct.  He  has  been  called 
"  the  French  Van  Dyck."  His  portraits  have  been 
engraved  by  Edelinck  and  Audran.     Died  in  1743. 

See  FoNTENAv,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  C.  Blanc,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres." 

Rigaud,  (Pierre  Augustin,  often  called  Auguste,) 
a  French  fabulist  and  merchant,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1760.  He  published,  besides  several  poems,  a  volume 
of  Fables,  (1823,)  by  which  he  is  said  to  have  acquired 
a  durable  reputation.     Died  in  1835. 

Rigaud,  re'gS',  ?  (Stephen  Peter,)  F.R.S.,  an  able 
English  astronomer,  born  at  Richmond,  Surrey,  in  1774- 
He  became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford 
in  1810.  In  1827  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Observatory,  and  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford.  He  wrote  papers  for  several  scientific  pe- 
riodicals on  astronomy  and  other  physical  sciences,  and 
edited  the  "Miscellaneous  Works  and  Correspondence 
of  Bradley,"  (1831.)  He  was  eminent  as  a  mathematical 
antiquary.     Died  in  1839. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y.  lon^r;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  o,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  |,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RIGAULT 


2063 


RINGELBERGH 


Rigault,  re'go',  (Ange  Hippolyte,)  an  able  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  182 1.  He 
became  an  editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  in  1853. 
He  wrote  a  "  liistoire  de  la  Querelle  des  Anciens  et 
des  Modernes,"  (1856,)  which  gained  the  prize  of  the 
French  Academy.     Died  in  December,  1858. 

Rigault,  [Lat.  Rigal'tius,]  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
philologist  and  able  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1577.  He 
succeeded  Casaubon  as  keeper  of  the  King'*  Library 
about  1610,  and  obtained  the  otiice  of  procureur-general 
at  Nancy  after  1633.  He  edited  Martial,  Juvenal,  and 
Tertullian.  Among  his  works  are  an  ingenious  satire 
called  "Funus  Parasiticum,"  (1601,)  and  a  continuation 
of  the  "History"  of  De  Thou,  (1620.)     Died  in  1654. 

Rigault  de  Genouilly,  re'go'  deh  zheh-noo'ye', 
(Charles,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  1807.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1854,  and  served  in 
the  Crimean  war.  He  commanded  the  naval  division 
which  co-operated  with  the  British  in  the  capture  of 
Canton  in  1857.     Died  May  4,  1873. 

Rig'by,  (Edward,)  an  English  physiologist,  born  at 
Norwich  in  1747.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
an  "Essay  on  the  Theory  of  the  Production  of  Animal 
Heat,"  (1785.)     Died  in  1821. 

Rigg,  (James  Harrison,)  D.D.,  an  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1821.  He 
became  a  preacher  in  1845,  and  in  1S68  principal  of  the 
Normal  College  at  Westminster.  He  published  a  large 
number  of  denominational  books. 

Riggs,  (Elias,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  missionary, 
born  at  New  Providence,  New  Jersey,  November  19, 1810. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1S29,  and  at  An- 
dover  Seminary  in  1832.  In  1833  he  went  to  the  East 
as  a  Presbyterian  missionary,  residing  chiefly  at  Smyrna 
and  Constantinople.  He  published  a  "Manual  of  the 
Chaldee,"  "Modern  Armenian  Grammar,"  "Modern 
Armenian  Vocabulary,"  "  Turkish  Grammar,"  "  Notes 
on  Bulgarian  Grammar,"  etc.  He  also  translated  the 
Bible  into  Armenian  and  Bulgarian. 

Righini,  re-gee'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  an  able  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Bologna  about  1758.  He  composed, 
besides  other  operas,  "  Armida"  and  "Tigrane,"  which 
are  commended.     Died  in  1812. 

Rigny,  de,  deh  rtn'ye',  (Henri  Gauthier,)  Comte, 
an  able  French  admiral,  born  at  Toul  in  1782.  He 
commanded  the  French  fleet  which  defeated  the  Turks 
at  Navarino  in  October,  1827.  He  became  minister  of 
the  marine  in  March,  183 1,  and  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  April,  1834,  to  March,  1835.     Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Rigoley  de  Juvigny,  re'go'li'  de  zhii'vjn'ye',  (Jean 
Antoine,)  a  mediocre  French  litterateur,  wrote  "  On  the 
Decadence  of  Letters  and  Morals  since  the  Times  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1787.)     Died  in  1788. 

Rigollot,  re'go'lo',  (Marc  Jerome,)  a  French  anti- 
quary and  physician,  born  at  Doullens  in  1796,  wrote 
several  treatises  on  French  antiquities.     Died  in  1854. 

Rigord,  re'goR',  [Lat.  Rigor'dus,]  a  French  chron 
icier,  born  in  Languedoc,  wrote  a  history  of  the  reign 
of  Philip  Augustus  of  France.     Died  in  1207. 

Rigord,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1656  ;  died  in  1727. 

RiTey,  (Charles  Valentine,)  Ph.D.,  an  entomolo- 
gist, born  in  London,  England,  September  18,  1843. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  when  seventeen  years  old, 
was  State  entomologist  of  Missouri,  1868-77,  became 
chief  of  the  United  States  entomological  commission  in 
1877,  and  was  afterwards  entomologist  to  the  United 
States  agricultural  department.  He  made  many  im- 
portant discoveries,  and  published  many  papers,  reports, 
etc.,  and  several  books,  full  of  information  of  high  value. 

Riley,  (Henry  Chauncey,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  in 
Santiago,  Chili,  December  15,  1835.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1858,  studied  divinity 
in  England,  was  ordained  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  1866,  and  went  as  a  missionary  to  Mexico. 
In  1879  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  the  Valley  of 
Mexico,  for  the  organization  (Ep-iscopalian)  known  as 
the  "  Church  of  Jesus."  He  expended  his  large  private 
fortune  in  the  work  of  this  Church,  but,  disputes  having 
arisen,  he  in  1884  resigned  the  position. 


Ri'ley,  (James,)  an  American  sea-captain,  Dorn  at 
Middletown,  Connecticut.  He  was  wrecked  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa  in  181 5,  and  afterwards  pub- 
lished a  "  Narrative"  of  his  captivity  among  the  Arabs, 
which  enjoyed  a  great  popularity.     Died  in  1840. 

Ri'ley,  (John,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born  in 
London  in  1646,  took  Van  Dyck  as  his  model.  He 
was  patronized  by  Charles  II.,  James  II.,  and  William 
III.  He  is  considered  the  best  English  portrait-painter 
before  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.     Died  in  1691. 

Rileyef,  re-la'ef,  written  also  Rylejew,  Rilieff,  and 
Rileef,  (Konrad,)  a  Russian  poet  and  republican,  was 
a  leader  of  a  secret  society  formed  about  1820  to  liberate 
Russia  from  absolute  power.     He  was  hung  in  1826. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832. 

RiUeff.    See  Rileyef. 

Rim'bault,  (Edward  Francis,)  LL.D.,  an  Englisn 
antiquarian  and  writer  on  musical  subjects,  born  in  1816. 
He  was  one  of  the  council  of  the  Musical  Antiquarian 
Society,  and  edited  its  most  important  publications.  His 
works  on  the  piano-forte  and  the  organ  are  regarded  as 
standard  authorities.     Died  September  16,  1876. 

Rimfaxi  or  Rimfaxe.    See  Norvi. 

Riminaldi,  re-me-nSKdee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
sculptor  in  wood,  was  born  at  Pisa  in   1595;  died  in 

1637- 

Riminaldi,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  painter  of  sacred 
history,  born  at  Pisa  in  1598,  was  a  promising  artist 
when  he  died,  in  1630.  ' 

Rim'mer,  (William,)  an  able  artist,  born  in  Liver- 
pool, England,  February  20,  1816.  His  father,  a  poor 
shoemaker,  had  been  a  commissioned  officer  in  the  Eng- 
lish army,  and  believed  himself  to  be  a  prince  of  the 
French  royal  family.  The  Rimmers  settled  in  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  in  1826.  William  became  a  physician 
and  inventor,  but  for  some  years  supported  his  family  by 
shoemaking  and  stone-cutting.  His  later  paintings  and 
sculptures  are  for  the  most  part  very  strong  and  original, 
and  his  best  productions  are  of  high  value.  He  became 
a  successful  teacher  of  art,  and  especially  of  art-anatomy. 
Died  at  South  Milford,  Massachusetts,  August  20,  1879. 
(See  "  Art-Life  of  William  Rimmer,"  by  T.  H.  Bartlett.) 

Rinaldi,  re-n^Kdee,  (Oderico,)  an  Italian  ecclesi- 
astical historian,  born  at  Treviso  in  1595.  He  wrote  a 
continuation  of  Baronius's  "  Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  to 
which  he  added  ten  volumes,  (1646-77,)  extending  the 
narrative  to  1564.     Died  in  1671. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiatia." 

Rinck  or  Rink,  rink,  (Friedrich  Theodor.)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Slave  in  1770;  died  in  1811. 

Rinckhart,  rink'hiRt,  (Martin,)  a  German  hymn- 
writer,  who  in  1636  wrote  the  celebrated  hymn  "Nun 
da\iket  alle  Gott,"  ("Now  thank  we  all  our  God.'") 

Rincon,  del,  del  r^n-k6n',  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Guadalaxara  about  1446.  He  aban- 
doned the  Gothic  style,  promoted  a  revolution  in  Spanish 
art,  and  was  considered  the  best  Spanish  painter  of  his 
time.  He  was  court  painter  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 
Died  at  Seville  in  1500.  His  son  Fernando  was  also  a 
.skilful  painter. 

Rine'hart,  (William  Henry,)  an  American  .sculptor, 
born  in  Frederick  county,  Maryland,  September  13,  1825. 
He  became  a  stone-  and  marble-cutter  of  Baltnnore, 
studied  sculpture  in  Europe,  1855-58,  and  then  had  a 
studio  in  Baltimore,  but  lived  for  some  years  at  Rome, 
where  he  died,  October  28,  1874.  He  made  many  good 
portrait-busts,  and  some  excellent  ideal  pieces,  mainly 
on  classical  subjects.  Among  his  best  works  are  "  La- 
tona  and  her  Babes,"  "Clytie,"  and  "Sleeping  Babes." 

Ring,  (|ohn,)  an  English  surgeon  and  writer,  bom 
near  Salisbury  in  1751.  "He  published  a  "Translation 
of  the  Works  of  Virgil,"  partly  original  and  partly 
altered  from  Drvdenand  Pitt,  (1820.)     Died  in  1821. 

Ring,  van,  v'tn  ring,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  pamter  of 
still  lite,  flourished  about  1650. 

Ringelbergh,  van,  vtn  ring'el-bSRG',  [Lat.  Ringel- 
ber'gius,]  (Ioachim  Sterck  or  Joachim  Fortius,)  a 
Flemish  philosopher  and  professor  of  Greek,  born  at 
Antwerp  about  1500.  He  was  the  author  of  various 
well-written  works.     Died  in  1536. 


■e  as  ^;  9  as  J,-  ghard;  g&sj;  G,  H,  K,g7ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas«;  th  as  in //4m.     (^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RINGELBER  GIUS 


20()4 


RIPON 


Ringelbergius.     See  Ringelbergh. 

Ring'gold,  (Major  Samuel,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  in  1800,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Palo  Alto,  (May  8,  1846,)  and 
died  a  few  days  after. 

Ringli,  ring'lee,  written  also  Ringly  and  Ringgli, 
(GOTHARD,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1575,  passed  most  of  his  life  at  Berne.  His 
works  are  highly  commended.     Died  in  1635. 

Ringwaldt,  ring'Mlt,  (Bartholomaus,)  a  German 
preacher  and  sacred  poet,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
in  1530 ;  died  in  1598. 

Rink  or  Rinck,  r!nk,  (Eucharius  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  biographer  and  numismatist,  born  in  Saxony  in 
1670.  Among  his  works  are  a  treatise  "On  the  Value 
and  Quality  of  Ancient  Money,"  ("De  veteris  Numis- 
matis  Potentia  et  Qualitate,"  1701,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Leopold  the  Great,"  (1708.)     Died  in  1745. 

See  Heumann,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  E.  G.  Rinkens,"  1749. 

Rink,  (JoHANN  Christla.n  Heinrich,)  a  German 
organist  and  composer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha 
in  1770.  He  became  court  organist  at  Darmstadt  in 
1813.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  compositions 
for  the  organ.     Died  in  1846. 

Rinmann,  rin'mSn,  (Sven,)  a  Swedish  mineralogist, 
wrote  a  "History  of  Iron,"  (1782,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1792,  aged  seventy-three. 

Rintoiil,  rin'tool,  (Robert  Stephen,)  a  British  editor, 
born  near  Perth  in  1787,  became  a  resident  of  London 
about  1825.  He  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the 
"Spectator,"  a  liberal  journal.     Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1S58. 

RinTiccini,  re-noot-chee'nee,  (Alamanno,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  translator  of  Greek  authors,  was  born  at 
Florence  in  1426  ;  died  in  1504. 

Rinuccini,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Flor- 
ence about  1565.  He  was  one  of  the  inventors  of  the 
lyrical  drama,  and  excelled  in  the  anacreontic  verse. 
Among  his  works  are  pastorals  or  operas  entitled  "Eu- 
ridice,"  {1600,)  and  "Arianna,"  (1608.)     Died  in  1621. 

See  GinguenA,  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  del  la  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rio,  reeV,  (Alexis  FRANgois,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  the  island  of  Arz,  May  20,  1797.  He  graduated  at 
the  College  of  Vannes,  where  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  classics.  Among  his  works  are  "  An  Essay  on  the 
History  of  the  Human  Mind  in  Ancient  Times,"  (2  vols., 
1828-30,)  "Christian  Art,"  (2  vols.,  1841-55,)  and  "The 
Ancient  Ideal  and  the  Christian  Ideal,"  (1S73.)  Died  at 
Paris,  July  16,  1874. 

Rio,  di,  de  ree'o,  (Niccol6,)  Count,  an  Italian 
geologist,  born  in  1765.  He  was  president  of  the  Faculty 
of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Padua.     Died  in  1845. 

See  Saint-Maurice-Cabanv,  "Le  Comte  N.  de  Rio,"  1845. 

Rioja,  de,  di  re-o'nJ,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Seville  in  1600.  He  was  librarian  to  the  Duke 
of  Olivares  while  he  was  prime  minister.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  short  poems  which  are  regarded  as  models 
of  elegance.     Died  in  1658. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rioja,  de,  (Pedro  Soto,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at 
Granada  about  1590,  was  a  friend  of  Lope  de  Vega. 
Died  in  1658. 

Riolan,  re'o'lSN',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1539.  He  practised  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Compendium  of  Universal 
Medicine,"  ("  Universse  Medicinae  Compendium,"  1598.) 
Died  in  1606. 

Riolan,  (Jean,)  an  able  anatomist  and  medical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1578,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  chief  physician  to  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body,"  ("Anatome  Corporis  humani,"  1610,)  and  was 
an  adversary  of  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.     Died  in  1657. 

See  "  Piiographie  Medicale." 

Rions,  de,  deh  re'iw',  (Francois  Hector  d'Albert,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1728  ; 
died  in  1802. 

Riooniantsof    or     Rjumanzow,     ryoo-mSn'tsof, 


sometimes  written  Rioumiantzof,  Romanzof,  and 
Romantzof,  (Alexander,)  a  Russian  diplomatist, 
born  in  1680,  was  a  favourite  of  Peter  I.     Died  in  1749. 

Rioomantsof  or  Romanzof,  (written  in  Polish 
RuMiANCow,)  (Nicholas,)  a  minister  of  state  and 
patron  of  learning,  born  in  1754,  was  a  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing. He  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1807. 
At  his  expense  Kotzebue  sailed  on  a  scientific  and 
exploring  expedition  in  1815-18.     Died  in  1826. 

Rioomantsof-Zadoonai-ski,  ryoo-min'tsof  zi-doo- 
nl'skee,  written  also  Rioumiantzof-  (or  Rumian- 
COV-)  Zadunaiski,  (Peter,)  Count,  a  Russian  general, 
born  in  1725,  was  surnamed  the  Russian  Ture.nne, 
He  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks  on  the  Kagool 
in  1770,  and  negotiated  the  famous  treaty  '•>{  Koutchouk- 
Kainardji.     Died  in  1796. 

See  "Vie  du  Comte  Rioumiantzof,"  Moscow,  1S03. 

Rioumiantzof.     See  Rioomantsof. 

Rios,  de  los,  deh  16s  ree'6s,  (Jean  Francois,)  a 
Flemish  bibliographer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1728.  He 
published  notices  of  rare  books  in  a  work  called  "  Biblio- 
graphic instructive,"  etc.,  (Lyons,  1777.)     Died  in  1820. 

Rios  y  Rosas,  de  los,  di  16s  ree'As  e  ro^sis,  (An- 
tonio,) a  Spanish  politician  and  minister  of  state, 
born  at  Ronda  in  1812.  He  opposed  Espartero  and 
the  progresistas.  He  became  minister  of  the  interior 
in  1856.     Died  November  4,  1873. 

Riouffe,  re'ooF,  (Honor^,)  Baron,  a  French  poli- 
tician, born  at  Rouen  in  1764,  was  a  member  of  the 
Tribunal,  (1800-1804.)     Died  in  1813. 

See  Pariset,  "  Notice  sur  Riouffe ;"  Berr,  "  Notice  sur  Is 
Baron  Riouffe,"  1823. 

Rioult,  re'oo',  (Louis  Edouard,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Montdidier  in  1790;  died  in  1855. 

Ripamonte,  re-pl-mon'ti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Tignone  in  1573  ;  died  in  1641. 

Ripault.     See  Desormeaux. 

Ripault,  re'po',  (Louis  Madeleine,)  a  French  litti- 
rateiir  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1775,  was  a 
nephew  of  Desormeaux.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
scientific  commission  of  Egypt  in  1798,  and  wrote  "  An 
Abridged  Description  of  the  Monuments  of  Upper 
Egypt,"  (1800,)  also  a  "  History  of  Marcus  Aurelius," 
(4  vols.,  1820.)     Died  in  1823. 

Ripert.     See  Monclar,  de. 

Rip'ley,  (Eleazar  Wheelock,)  an  American  officer, 
born  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1782,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  made  a  major- 
general.     Died  in  1839. 

Rip'ley,  (George  or  Gregory,)  an  English  poet  and 
alchemist,  wrote  "A  Compound  of  Alchemic."  Died 
in  1490. 

Ripley,  (George,)  an  able  American  editor  and 
scholar,  born  at  Greenfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1802. 
Among  his  publications  are  "  Edited  Specimens  of 
Foreign  Standard  Literature,"  (14  vols.,  1838-42,)  and 
"  Hand-Book  of  Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts,"  (1852- 
54,)  conjointly  with  Bayard  Taylor.  In  1849  he  became 
literary  editor  of  the  New  York  "  Tribune."  He  was 
associated  as  chief  editor  with  Mr.  C.  A.  Dana  in  the 
publication  of  Appleton's  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia." 
He  died  July  4,  1880. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ripley,  (Henry  Jones,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1798,  became  professor  of 
biblical  literature  at  the  Newton  Theological  Institution, 
Massachusetts.  He  published  "  Notes  on  the  Four  Gos- 
pels," and  other  theological  works.    Died  May  21,  1875. 

Ripley,  (James  W.,)  an  Ainerican  general,  born  ir 
Connecticut  in  1797,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  18 J4. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1825,  a  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1854,  and  a  brigadier-general  in  1861.     Died  in  1870. 

Ripley,  CRoswell  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843.  ^^ 
published  "  The  War  in  Mexico,"  (2  vols.,  1849.)  He 
was  an  officer  in  the  Confederate  army  during  the  war, 
and  afterwards  resided  in  London.     Died  in  1887. 

Rip'on,  (Frederick  John  Robinson,)  first  Earl 
OF,  an  English  minister  of  state,  born  in  London  in 
1782,  was  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Grantham.  He  began 
public  life  as  a  moderate  Tory.     He  became  a  membc 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mht;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


RIPON 


2065 


RITSON 


of  the  board  of  admiralty  in  1810,  and  vice-president  of 
the  board  of  trade  in  181 2.  In  January,  1823,  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  When  Canning 
became  prime  minister,  in  1827,  he  obtained  the  office  of 
colonial  secretary,  and  entered  the  House  of  Lords,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Goderich.  He  was  prime  minister 
from  the  death  of  Canning,  August,  1827,  to  January, 
1828.  In  the  Whig  ministry  formed  in  1830  he  was 
colonial  secretary  and  lord  privy  seal.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Ripon  about  1833,  and  resigned  office  in  1834. 
In  1841  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  board  of  trade 
from  Sir  Robert  Peel,  v\ho  appointed  him  president 
of  the  Indian  board  in  1843.  He  resigned  with  Peel  in 
1846.     Died  in  1859. 

See  Wii.i.iAM  Jerdan,  "  Men  I  have  known,"  London,  i866. 

Ripon,  (George  Frederick  Samuel  Robinson,) 
Marqijis  of,  an  English  nobleman,  a  son  of  the  first 
Earl  of  Ripon,  (q.  v.j  He  was  born  in  London,  October 
24,  1827.  He  entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1852, 
succeeded  to  his  father's  titles  in  1859,  became  secretary 
for  war  in  1863,  and  secretary  for  India  in  1866.  He  was 
lord  president  of  the  council,  1S68-73.  In  1S74  he  be- 
came a  Roman  Catholic,  and  in  iSSo  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  India,  but  was  recalled  in  1884. 

Riposo,  II.     See  Ficherelli. 

Ripperda,  de,  deh  rip-p§R'di,  (Jan  Willem,)  Duke, 
an  adventurer  and  diplomatist,  was  born  at  Groningen 
(Holland)  in  1680.  He  served  in  the  Dutch  army,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  colonel.  About  171 5  he  was  sent 
as  envoy  to  Madrid  to  negotiate  a  commercial  treaty. 
Having  acquired  the  favour  of  Alberoni  and  the  King 
of  Spain,  he  abjured  the  P»otestant  religion  in  1718,  and 
was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  manufactories.  He 
negotiated  a  secret  treaty  between  the  King  of  Spain 
and  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  in  1725,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  duke.  He  was  prime  minister  of  Spain 
for  a  few  months  in  1726-27,  and  his  next  step  was  into 
prison,  from  which  he  escaped  about  1729.  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  King  of  Morocco  about  1732.  Died 
at  Tetuin  in  1737. 

See  "Vie  dii  Due  de  Ripperda,"  par  P.  M.  B.,  1739.  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  John  Campubll,  1739;  "  Vidadel  Duque 
de  Ripperda,"  Madrid,  1740;  G.  Moore,  "Lives  of  Cardinal  Albe- 
roni and  the  Duke  de  Ripperda,"  1806. 

Rippingill,  rip'ing-gil,  ?  (Edward  Vii.liers,)  an 
English  painter,  born  at  King's  Lynn  in  1798;  died  in 

1859. 

Rip'pon,  (John,)  an  English  Baptist  minister,  born 
at  Tiverton,  April  29,  1751.  He  is  chiefly  remembered 
for  his  hymns.     Died  December  17,  1836. 

Riquet     See  Carama.v,  de. 

Riquet,  re'ki',  (Pierre  Paul,)  Baron  de  Bonrepos, 
a  French  engineer,  born  at  Beziers  in  1604,  was  a  rela- 
tive of  the  famous  Mirabeau.  He  acquired  honourable 
distinction  as  the  projector  and  engineer  of  the  great 
canal  of  Languedoc,  which  extends  from  the  Garonne 
to  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  commenced  in  1667  and 
finished  about  1680.     Died  in  1680. 

See  Andreossv,  "  Histoiredu  Canal  du  Midi ;"  Decamps,  "  filoee 
de  P.  Riquet,"  1812. 

Riquetti.     See  Mirareau. 

Riquier,  ri'ke-i',  (Guiraut,)  a  French  poet,  called 
"the  last  of  the  troubadours,"  flourished  about  1250- 
1294.  He  was  born  at  Narbonne,  and  was  a  protegi  of 
Alfonso  X.  of  Castile. 

Risbeck,  ris'bSk,  (Caspar,)  a  German  publicist,  bom 
near  Mentz  in  1749  or  1750.  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  "  Letters  of  a  French  Traveller  about  Germany,"  (2 
vols.,  1783,)  in  which  he  exposed  with  ability  the  political 
and  social  evils  which  prevailed  in  that  country.  Died 
in  17S6. 

See  J.  Pezzl,  "  Biographisches  Denkmal  J.  C.  Risbeck's,"  1786; 
HlRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Ris'don,  (Tristram,)  an  English  topographer,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1580;  died  in  1640. 

Rish'i,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "saint"  or  "sage," 
and  api^lied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  certain  sages 
or  demi-gods,  among  whom  Kasyapa,  Viswamitra,  and 
Gautama  are  perhaps  the  most  worthy  of  mention. 

See  Moor,"  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ris'ley,   (  Thomas,)   an  English   Puritan  preacher. 


born  near  Warrington  in  1630.  He  was  ejected  as  a 
nonconformist  in  1662.     Died  in  1716. 

Risso,  ris'so,  (  Antonio,  )  a  distinguished  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Nice  in  1777.  He  made  discoveries 
in  the  zoology  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "The  Ichthyology  of  Nice,"  (1810,) 
and  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Principal  Production."? 
of  Southern  Europe,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1826,)  both  in  French. 
Died  in  1845. 

Rist,  rlst,  (JoHANN,)  a  once  popular  German  poet, 
born  near  Hamburg  in  1607.  He  wrote  dramas  and 
religious  poems,  which  are  said  by  a  French  critic  to  be 
elegant  in  style  but  devoid  of  sentiment.     Died  in  1667. 

Ristori,  r6s-to'ree,  (Adelaide,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
actress,  born  in  Venetia  in  1821.  She  has  perforined 
with  great  applause  both  in  tragedy  and  comedy.  She 
visited  the  United  States  in  September,  1866.  "  In  ac- 
cording to  Ristori  the  highest  order  of  dramatic  genius, 
we  merely  allow  what  has  long  since  been  decided  beyond 
appeal  by  the  critical  tribunals  of  France,  Italy,  Ger- 
many, England,  and  Spain.  What  Shakspeare  is  among 
dramatists,  Ristori  is  among  actors."  ("Atlantic  Monthly," 
April,  1867.)    In  1847  she  married  the  Marquis  del  Grillo. 

Risueno,  re-swan'yo,  written  also  Risvenno,  (Josft,) 
a  Spanish  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Granada  in 
1652,  was  a  pupil  of  Alonzo  Cano.     Died  in  1721. 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  originally  Ogden,  (Mrs.  Anna  Cora 
MovvATT,)  an  American  authoress  and  actress,  born  in 
Bordeaux,  France,  of  American  parents,  about  1822. 
She  was  married  first  to  a  Mr.  Mowatt,  and  afterwards 
to  Mr.  W.  Ritchie,  an  editor,  of  Richmond,  Virginia, 
about  1854.  She  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Pelayo,  or  the  Cavern  of  Covadonga,"  a  poem,  a 
comedy  entitled  "Fashion,"  (1S45,)  and  "  Armand,"  a 
drama,  (1847.)  She  made  her  debut  as  an  actress  about 
1845.     Died  in  1870. 

See  "Autobiography  of  an  Actress,"  by  Anna  C.  Ritchib; 
Griswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Rit'chie,  (Anna  Lsabella,)  a  daughter  of  the  novel- 
ist W.  M.  Thackeray,  was  born  in  London  in  1837.  In 
1877  she  married  Mr.  Richmond  Ritchie.  Her  writings 
include  "The  Story  of  Elizabeth,"  (1S63,)  "Tailors  and 
Spinsters,"  "  Five  Old  Friends  and  a  Young  Prince," 
"  Miss  Angel,"  (1875,)  "  Miss  W'illiamson's  Divagations," 
(1881,)  "Anne  Evans,  Poems  and  Music,"  (18S1,)  and 
many  other  works. 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  (Joseph,)  an  Englishman  who  ac- 
companied Captain  Lyon  in  an  expedition  to  Central 
Africa.      He  died  during  the  journey,  in  1819. 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  (Leitch,)  a  British  journalist  and 
novelist,  born  at  Greenock  about  1800.  Among  his 
novels  are  "  Schinderhannes,  or  the  Robber  of  the 
Rhine,"  (1848,)  "The  Game  of  Life,"  (1851.)  and  "The 
Magician,"  (3  vols.,  1853.)  He  contributed  to  several 
London  journals  and  magazines.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  an  editor  of  "  Chambers's  Journal"  of 
Edinburgh.     Died  in  1865. 

Ritchie,  (Thomas,)  an  American  journalist  and  poli- 
tician of  the  Democratic  party,  was  born  at  Tappahan- 
nock,  Virginia,  in  1778.  In  1804  he  became  editor  of  the 
"  Richmond  Enquirer,"  over  which  he  continued  to 
preside  for  forty  years,  and  which,  under  his  editorship, 
was,  for  a  time,  the  most  influential  journal  of  his  party. 
Died  in  1854. 

Rit'uer,  (Joseph,)  an  American  Governor,  born  near 
Reading,' Pennsylvania,  in  1780.  He  served  in  the  legis- 
lature of  that  State  from  1820  to  1827,  and  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  office  of  Governor  by  the  Anti-Masonic 
party  in  1829,  but  was  not  elected.  In  1835  he  was 
chosen  Governor  for  three  years.  He  was  an  efficient 
promoter  of  common  schools,  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  opposition  to  slavery      Died  in  1869. 

Ritschl,  ritsh'l,  (Friei^rich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
philologist,  and  professor  of  classical  literature  at  Bonn, 
was  born  in  Thuringia  in  1806.  He  published  several 
critical  treatises  on  the  classics,  and  a  number  of  anti- 
quarian works.  His  edition  of  Plautus  (3  vols.,  184S- 
53)  is  highly  praised.     Died  November  9,  1876. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rit'spn,  (Isaac,)  an  English  writer,  born  near  Pen- 
rith in  1761,  resided  in  London.     Died  in  1789. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  t;  th  as  in  this.     (Jg^See  Explanations,  p.  2\A 

>3o 


RITSON 


2066 


RIVAUD 


Ritson,  (Joseph,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poetical 
critic,  born  at  Stockton  (Durham)  in  1752,  resided  mostly 
m  London.  He  published  many  works,  among  whicii 
are  "Observations  on  (Warton's)  History  of  English 
Poetry,"  (17S2,)  "Ancient  Songs  from  the  Time  of 
Henry  HI.  to  1688,"  (1790,)  and  "  Robin  Hood,"  (1795.) 
Died  in  1803. 

See  Sir  N.  Harris  Nicolas,  "  Life  and  Letters  of  J.  Ritson," 
JS33;  Hasi.ewood,  "Life  of  J.  Ritson,"  1824;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  January,  1806;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1834; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1803. 

Rit't?n-house,  (David,)  an  eminent  American  as- 
tronomer and  mathematician,  born  at  Germantown,  near 
Philadelphia,  on  the  8th  of  April,  1732.  He  worked  on 
his  father's  farm  in  his  early  youth,  learned  to  make 
clocks  without  instruction,  and  made  himself  master  of 
Newton's  "  Principia"  about  1750.  It  is  stated  that  he 
discovered  the  method  of  fluxi(3ns  before  the  age  of 
nineteen.  He  learned  Latin  after  he  was  nineteen  or 
twenty  years  old.  He  worked  for  some  years  at  the 
trade  of  clock-maker  at  Norriton,  in  Montgomery 
county,  Pennsylvania.  About  1767  he  constructed  an 
orrery,  which  was  purchased  by  Princeton  College. 
He  also  made  mathematical  instruments  of  a  superior 
quality.  His  first  communication  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  was  a  calculation  of  the  transit 
of  Venus  which  occurred  on  the  3d  of  June,  1769,  and 
which  he  observed  with  success.  In  1764  he  married 
Eleanor  Colston.  He  was  elected  treasurer  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1777,  and  continued  to  fill  that  oflRce  until 
1789.  During  this  period  he  was  employed  to  determine 
the  boundaries  of  Pennsylvania.  He  w.as  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  in  1 791, 
and  became  first  director  of  the  Mint,  at  Philadelphia, 
in  1792.  In  1795  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Gociety  of  London.  Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he  mar- 
ried Hannah  Jacobs,  of  Philadelphia,  about  1774.  On 
account  of  ill  iiealth,  he  resigned  in  1795  the  direction 
of  the  Mint,  which  he  had  organized  by  arduous  and 
successful  efforts.  He  contributed  numerous  scientific 
treatises  to  the  "Transactions  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society."  Died  in  Philadelphia,  June,  1796. 
"  Were  we  called  upon,"  says  Renwick,  "  to  assign  him 
a  rank  among  the  philosophers  whom  America  has 
produced,  we  should  place  him,  in  point  of  scientific 
merit,  as  second  to  Franklin  alone.  .  .  .  He  had  shown 
himself  the  equal,  in  point  of  learning  and  skill  as  an 
observer,  to  any  practical  astronomer  then  living." 

See  James  Renwick,  "Life  of  David  Rittenhouse,"  in  Sparks's 
"Amencan  Biography,"  vol.  vii.  ;  W.  Barton,  "Life  of  David 
Rittenhouse,"  1S13:  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Ritter,  rit'ter,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  historian,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1791.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Berlin  about  1824,  and  removed 
to  Gottingen  in  1837.  He  published  a  number  of  works 
on  philosophy,  etc.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  Philosophy,"  ("  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  12  vols., 
1829-53,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  It  has  been  well 
translated  into  English  by  A.  J.  W.  Morrison,  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1838-46.)  Ritter  is  called  an  Eclectic  philosopher. 
Died  at  Gottingen,  February  3,  1869. 

Rit'ter,  (  Henry,)  an  artist,  born  at  Montreal,  in 
Canada,  about  181 5,  studied  painting  at  Hamburg  and 
Dusseldorf.  Among  his  i^rincipal  works  may  be  named 
"Indians  Flying  from  a  Burning  Prairie."  Died  in  1853. 

Ritter,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German  scholar  and 
writer  on  Roman  antiquities,  etc.,  was  born  near  Bres- 
lau  in  1709 ;  died  at  Wittenberg  in  1775. 

Ritter,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German  na'tnral  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Samitz,  in  Silesia,  in  1776.  He  wrote 
"Memoirs  on  Physics  and  Chemistry,"  (3  vols.,  1806,) 
and  an  autobiography,  (2  vols.,  1810.)  Died  at  Munich 
in  1810. 

Ritter,  (Joseph  Ignaz,)  a  German  Catholic  theo- 
logian, born  near  Griineberg  in  1787.  He  became  in 
1823  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Bonn.  Died 
in  1857. 

Ritter,  (Karl,)  an  eminent  German  geographer,  born 
at  Quedlinburg  in  1779.  Having  travelled  in  Switzer- 
land, France,  and  Italy,  he  succeeded  Schlosser  as  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1819.    His 


"  Portico  of  a  History  of  the  European  Nations  before 
Herodotus"  came  out  in  1820.  In  1822  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  second  and  enlarged  edition  of 
his  "Geography  in  Relation  to  the  Nature  and  Histor) 
of  Man,"  ("  Die  Erdekunde  im  Verhaltniss  zur  Natui 
und  zur  Geschichte  dcs  Menschen,"  i8  vols.,  1822-59,) 
which  is  esteemed  his  greatest  woric  Among  his  other 
productions  we  may  name  "A  Glance  at  Palestine  and 
its  Christian  Population,"  "The  Colonization  of  New 
Zealand,"  (1842,)  and  "The  Jordan  and  the  Navigation 
of  the  Dead  Sea,"  (1850.)  Ritter  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  London.  He  has  been  called  the  founder  of 
the  science  of  comparative  geography.  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1859. 

See  W.  L.  Gage,  "Life  of  Karl  Ritter,"  New  York,  1867; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1837;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^nerale." 

Rittershuys,  rit'ters-hois',  or  Rittershausen,  rit'- 

ters-how'zen,  [Lat.  Rittershu'sius,]  (Conrad,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  able  critic,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1560. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Altorf.  He  was  a  good 
classical  scholar,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Phaedrus, 
Oppian,  and  other  authors.     Died  in  1613. 

See  "Vita  C.  Rittersliusii,"  by  his  son  Georg ;  M.  Adam, 
"Vitas  Germanorum  Jurisconsultorum." 

Rittershuys,  (Nikolaus,)  a  son  of  the  precedingi 
was  born  at  Altorf  in  1597.  He  wrote  "Genealogy  of 
Emperors,  Kings,"  etc.,  ("Genealogia  Imperatorum, 
Regum,  etc.,  1400-1664,"  1674.)     Died  in  167a 

Ritzio.    See  Rizzio. 

Rivail.     See  Rivault. 

Rivallius.    See  Rivault. 

Rivalz,  re'vtl',  (Antoine,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1667  ;  died  in  1735. 

His  father,  Jean  Pierre,  born  in  1625,  vras  a  painter 
at  Toulouse,  where  he  died  in  1706. 

Rivard,  re'vSa',  (Denis,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
lithotomist,  born  at  Neufchateau,  practised  at  Luneville, 
Died  in  1746. 

Rivard,  (Dominique  Francois,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Neufchateau  in  1697.  He  was  professoi 
in  the  College  of  Beauvais  for  forty  years,  and  published 
several  valuable  works  on  geometry  and  mathematics. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1778. 

Rivarol,  re'vi'roK,  (Antoine,)  a  witty  and  satirical 
French  writer,  born  at  Bagnols,  in  Languedoc,  in  1753, 
assumed  the  title  of  Count  de  Rivarol.  He  was  cele- 
brated for  his  colloquial  powers,  and  abounded  in  that 
ready  wit  which  goes  far  to  justify  all  pretensions  and 
to  excuse  all  excesses  of  audacity.  He  produced  in 
1784  an  able  "Essay  on  the  Universality  of  the  French 
Language,"  and  a  free  translation  of  Dante's  "Inferno," 
which  had  a  great  success.  His  talent  for  satire,  irony, 
and  persiflage  was  displayed  in  a  series  of  lampoons 
against  living  authors,  entitled  "Little  Almanac  of 
Great  Men,"  ("  Petit  Almanach  des  grands  Hommes," 
1788.)  He  also  gained  distinction  as  a  journalist.  He 
married  an  English  lady  named  Flint.  Having  identi- 
fied himself  with  the  royalist  party,  he  emigrated  in 
1792.     Died  in  Berlin  in  1801. 

See  CuBiftRES-PALM^ZEAUX,  "  Vie  de  Rivarol,"  1803;  Imbert 
DE  LA  Platiere,  "Vie  de  Rivarol,"  1S08 ;  L^once-Cornier, 
"  Rivarol,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,"  1858;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Cause- 
ries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.;  Lescure,  "Rivarol,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ou- 
vrages," 1862;  "  Notice  sur  Rivarol,"  by  his  wife,  1802;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rivarol,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  bom  at  Bagnols  in  1762.  He  was  a  captain 
in  the  army,  and  a  royalist  emigrant  in  1791.  Having 
returned  to  Paris  as  a  secret  agent  of  the  Bourbons, 
he  was  imprisoned  twenty-two  months,  (1795-97.)  He 
wrote  dramas,  verses,  etc.     Died  in  184S. 

Rivarola,  re-v3-ro'13,  (Alfonso,)  a  promising  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1607,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Bononi.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Brazen  Serpent" 
Died  in  1640. 

Rivas,  de,  Dukf..     See  Saavedra. 

Rivaud  de  la  RafEnifere,  re'vo'  deh  It  rt'fe'ne^iR', 
(Olivier  Macoux,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Poitou 
in  1766.  He  served  with  distinction  at  Marengo  and 
Austerlitz.     Died  in  1839. 


\,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


RJVAULT 


2067 


RTZZIO 


Rivault,  re'vo',  |Lat.  Rivai/lius,|  (Aymar,)  written 
also  Rivail,  a  French  jurist,  born  about  1490.  He  was 
counsellor  to  the  parliament  of  Grenoble,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Civil  or  Roman  Law,"  ("  Historia  Juris 
civilis,"  1527.) 

Rivault,  (David,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Laval 
about  1571.  He  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  young 
king  Louis  XHI.  in  1612.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Minerva  Armed,  or  the  Union  of  Literature 
and  Arms,"  ("Minerva  armata,  sive  de  Conjungendis 
Literis  at  Armis,"  1610,)  and  ♦'Archimedis  Opera," 
(1615.)     Died  in  1616. 

Rivaz,  de,  d?h  re'vd',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  Swiss 
mechanist  and  inventor,  born  at  Saint  Gingolph,  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  in  1711  ;  died  in  1772. 

Rive,  riv,  (Joseph  Jean,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Apt  in  1730.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  and 
was  librarian  to  the  Due  de  la  Valliere.     Died  in  1791. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rive,  de  la,  (Auguste.)     See  La  Rive,  de. 

Rivera,  re-va'ri,  (Jos6  Fructuoso,)  a  South  Amer- 
ican general,  born  about  1790,  was  a  Gaucho.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  republic  of  Uruguay  in  1830 
for  four  years.     Died  in  1854. 

Riverius.     See  RivifeRE. 

Riv'ers,  (Anthony  Woodvili.e  or  Wydeville,) 
Earl  of,  an  accomplished  English  peer,  born  in  1442, 
was  a  brother  of  the  queen  of  Edward  IV.  After  the 
death  of  that  king  he  had  charge  of  the  young  heir  to 
the  throne.  He  was  beheaded  by  Richard  HI.,  without 
a  form  of  trial,  in  1483.  He  left  some  original  poems 
and  translations  from  the  classics,  which  are  commended. 
(Cunningham's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.) 

Riv'ers,  (William  J.,)  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1822,  became  professor  of  Greek  literature 
at  South  Carolina  College  in  1856.  He  has  published 
several  works,  in  prose  and  verse. 

Rives,  reevz,  (John  C.,)  an  American  editor,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1796.  With  F.  P.  Blair,  he  founded 
at  Washington  "The  Congressional  Globe"  about  1830. 
He  continued  to  publish  that  journal  until  his  death, 
in  1864. 

Rives,  (William  C.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Nelson  county,  Virginia,  in  May,  1793.  He  studied  law, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1823.  He  was 
sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1829,  returned  in  1832,  and 
was  then  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Virginia.  Having  resigned  his  seat  in  1834, 
he  was  re-elected  in  1835.  In  1840  he  was  elected  a 
Senator  for  a  third  term.  He  was  minister  to  France 
again  from  1849  to  1853.  He  published  the  "Life  and 
Times  of  James  Madison,"  (3  vols.,  1859-68,  unfinished.) 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Confederate  Congress  from 
February,  1862,  until  the  end  of  the  rebellion.  Died  in 
April,  1868. 

See  the  "  Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1838,  (with  a  por- 
trait.) 

Rivet,  re'vi',  [Lat.  Rive'tus,]  (Andr6,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister  and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Saint- 
Maxent  in  1572  or  1573.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden  in  1620,  and  was  governor  of  the 
young  Prince  of  Orange,  (William  III.  of  England.) 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  at  Breda 
in  165 1.  "  Rivet,"  says  Hallam,  "was  the  highest  name 
among  the  Calvinists,"  (i.e.  in  the  department  of  sacred 
criticism.) 

See  Dauber,  "Oratio  fiinebris  in  Excessum  A.  Riveti,"  1651; 
Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Rivet  de  Champvernon,  re'v^'  deh  shfiN'vSR'nAN', 
(Guillaume,)  a  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Saint- 
Maxent  in  1580,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
wrote  on  theology.     Died  in  165 1. 

Rivet  de  la  Grange,  re'vi'  deh  It  gRflNzh,(  Antoine,) 
a  learned  French  Benedictine,  born  at  Confolens  in  1683. 
He  was  punished  for  opposition  to  the  bull  "  Unigenitus" 
by  confinement  in  a  monastery  at  Mans.  He  projected 
a  great  work  entitled  "  The  Literary  History  of  France," 
of  which  he  composed  9  vols.,  (1733-50.)  He  died  in 
1749.    His  work  was  continued  by  Clemencet  and  others. 

See  C.  L.  Taili.andier,  "  filoge  historique  de  Dom  Rivet,"  in 
the  ninth  volume  of  the  "  Literary  History  of  France." 


Rivetus.     See  Rivet,  (Andr^.) 

Riviere.     See  Mercier  and  Larivi^re. 

Riviere,  ree've-aif',  (Briton,)  a  distinguished  English 
animal-painter,  born  in  London,  August  14,  1840.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1S67.  He  was  elected  a  full 
Academician  in  1881. 

Riviere,  re-ve-aiR',  [Lat.  Rive'rius,]  (Lazare,)  a 
French  medical  Writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1589. 
His  "  Praxis  Medica"  ("  Medical  Practice,"  1640)  was 
often  reprinted.     Died  in  1655. 

Riviere,  de,  deh  re've;3,iR',  (Charles  Francois  de 
Riffardeau — deh  re'fiK'do',)  Due,  a  French  royalist 
officer,  born  at  Ferte-sur-Cher  in  1763.  He  was  sen- 
tenced to  death  as  an  accomplice  of  Pichegru  in  1804, 
but  his  life  was  saved  by  the  empress  Josephine.  Died 
in  1828. 

Riviere,  de  la,  deh  It  re've^iR',  (Roch  le  Baillik, 
rosh  leh  btryif',)  Sieur,  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Falaise  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1605. 

Rivieren,  van,  vSn  re-vee'ren,  [Lat.  Riy'ius,]  (Jean,) 
a  Belgian  monk,  born  at  Louvain  in  1599.  He  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Saint  Augustine,''  (1646.)     Died  in  1665. 

Riv'ing-tpn,  (James,)  an  English  printer  and  book- 
Seller,  born  in  London  about  1724,  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica, and  founded  in  New  York  a  journal  entitled  the 
"New  York  Gazetteer,  or  the  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 
Hudson's  River,  and  Quebec  Weekly  Advertiser."  In 
consequence  of  his  denunciations  of  the  patriots,  his 
press  was  destroyed  in  1775  '^y  ^  party  of  American 
soldiers.  He  subsequently  resumed  the  publication  of 
his  journal,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Royal  Gazette."  After 
the  evacuation  of  New  York  by  the  British  he  changed 
the  name  of  his  paper  to  "  Rivington's  New  York  Ga- 
zette and  Universal  Advertiser."     Died  in  1802. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopsdla  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Rivinus,  re-vee'niis,  (Andreas,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist and  physician,  born  at  Halle  in  1600  or  1601.  His 
proper  name  was  Bachmann.  He  was  professor  of 
poetry  and  medicine  at  Leipsic.     Died  in  1656. 

See  Kromayer,  "Programma  ad  Funus  A.  Rivini,"  1656. 

Rivinus,  (August  Quirinus,)  an  eminent  botanist 
and  anatomist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1652.  He  became  professor  of  physiology  and  botany 
in  his  native  city  in  1691.  His  chief  work  is  "General 
Introduction  to  Botany,"  ("  Introductio  generalis  in  Rem 
Herbariam,"  1690,)  in  which  he  proposed  a  classifica- 
tion of  plants  founded  on  the  form  of  the  corolla.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  G.  F.  Jenichen,  "Programma  in  A.  Q.  Rivini  Obitum,' 
1724;"  Biographie  Universelle ;"  Nic^ron,  "M^nioires;"  "Bio- 
graphie Mddicale." 

Rivius.     See  Rivieren. 

Rivoli,  Duke  of.     See  Massena. 

Rizi,  re-Mee',  .J"  (Francisco,)  Don,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  in  Madrid  in  1608,  was  a  pupil  of  Carduccio.  He 
became  first  painter  to  Philip  IV.  about  1656.  He  had 
great  fertility  of  invention  and  facility  of  execution,  but 
contributed  to  the  decline  of  art  by  his  superficial  habits. 
Died  in  1685. 

Rizo-Rhangab6,  ree'zo  rin'gi-be,  (Alexander,) 
also  written  Rhizos-Rhangavis,  an  eminent  Greek 
poet,  orator,  and  statesman,  was  born  about  1810.  He 
published  a  collection  of  poems,  (1837,)  followed  by 
"  Hellenic  Antiquities,"  ("  Antiquites  Helleniques,")  in 
French,  (vol.  i.,  1842  ;  vol.  ii.,  1855,)  translations  of  See- 
mann's  "Antiquities  of  Troy"  (1874)  and  "Plutarch's 
Lives,"  (1864-66,)  and  a  "Literary  History  of  Modern 
Greece,"  (1867.)  In  1845  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  archaeology  at  Athens.  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  1856  to  1859,  and  was  appointed  minister  to 
the  United  States  in  1867,  to  Constantinople  in  1869,  and 
to  Paris  in  1870. 

Rizzio  or  Ritzio,  rit'se-o,  written  also  Riccio, 
(David,)  an  Italian  musician,  born  in  Piedmont  about 
1540.  He  went  to  Edinburgh  about  1563,  in  the  train 
of  the  ambassador  from  Savoy,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  who  employed  him  as  her 
French  secretary.  "  He  became,"  says  Froude,  "  the 
queen's  inseparable  companion  in  the  council-room  and 
the  cabinet.  She  kept  late  hours,  and  he  was  often  alone 
with  her  till  midnight.     He  had  the  control  of  all  the 


«  as  <t;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as_/;  g,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROBBIA 


2068 


ROBERT 


business  of  the  state."  Tlie  same  historian,  alluding  to 
the  injurious  influence  of  Kizzio  over  Mary  Stuart,  says, 
"The  counsels  of  David  Ritzio  were  worth  an  army  to 
English  liberty."  ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  viii.  chap, 
ix.)  He  was  dragged  from  the  queen's  presence  and 
assassinated  by  Lord  Darnley  and  others,  in  1566. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xliii.  and 
iliv.  ;  Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland." 

Robbia,  della,  del'lS  rob'be-S,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1444.  He  worked  in 
marble  and  enamelled  terra-cotta.     Died  in  1527. 

His  son  Giovanni,  born  in  1470,  was  a  sculptor. 
Another  son,  Girolamo,  went  to  France,  and  was 
employed  by  Francis  I.  lie  made  a  marble  statue  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis  at  Saint-Denis. 

See  Rarbet  de  Jouv,  "  Les  Delia  Robbia,  fitude." 

Robbia,  della,  (Luca,)  a  famous  sculptor  and 
worker  in  enamelled  terra-cotta,  born  at  Florence  about 
1390  or  1400,  was  a  brother  or  an  uncle  of  Andrea. 
He  adorned  with  bassi-rilievi  the  Campanile  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Florence,  and  made  a  bronze  door  for  the 
sacristy  of  the  same.  He  invented  the  enamelled  terra- 
cotta, and  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  the  fabri- 
cation of  figures  of  this  material,  which  are  called  "  della 
Robbia"  ware.     Died  in  1463,  or,  as  some  say,  1482. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Geni^rale." 

Rob'bins,  (Ashur,)  an  American  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1757,  settled 
in  Rhode  Island,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
.Senate  in  1825.  He  served  in  the  Senate  fourteen  years. 
Died  in  1845. 

Robbins,  (Ellen,)  an  American  artist,  was  born  at 
Watertown,  Massachusetts,  in  1S2S,  and  studied  art  with 
S.  S.  Tuckerman.  She  attained  distinction  as  a  water- 
colour  painter.    Her  flower-pieces  are  especially  praised. 

Roberjot,  ro'b^R'zho',  (Claude,)  a  French  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Macon  in  1753,  was  a  republican  member 
of  the  Convention,  (1793.)  With  Bonnier  and  Debry,  he 
represented  France  at  the  Congress  of  Rastadt,  in  1799. 
He  was  assassinated  by  Austrian  soldiers  just  after  he 
departed  from  Rastadt,  in  April  of  that  year. 

Rob'ert  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1352,  was  elected  Em- 
peror of  Germany  in  1400.  He  attempted  to  conquer 
the  Milanese,  but  was  defeated  by  Visconti  in  1401. 
Died  in  1410. 

Rob'ert  [Fr.  pron.  ro'baiR';  Lat.  Rober'tus  ;  It. 
Roberto,  ro-bSu'to]  I.,  King  of  France,  was  the  second 
son  of  Robert  the  Strong,  Duke  of  France.  After  the 
death  of  his  brother  Eudes,  898  a.d.,  the  throne  was 
obtained  by  Charles  the  Sinijjle.  In  922  the  malcontent 
1)arons  revolted  against  Charles,  and  proclaimed  Robert 
as  his  successor.  In  923  the  army  of  Robert  gained  a 
victory  over  that  of  his  rival ;  but  Robert  was  killed  in 
the  action. 

Robert  II.,  King  of  France,  born  at  Orleans  in  971, 
was  a  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  whom  he  succeeded  in  996. 
He  was  reputed  to  be  very  devout,  but  was  excommu- 
nicated by  the  pope  for  his  marriage  with  a  cousin  in 
the  fourth  degree.  In  1024  he  refused  the  imperial 
crown,  offered  to  him  by  the  Italians.  His  reign  was 
pacific.  He  died  in  103 1,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Henry. 

See  Raoi;l  Glaber,  "Chronique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^ndrale." 

Robert  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples,  born  about  1275, 
was  a  son  of  Charles  II.  He  began  to  reign  in  1309, 
and  waged  war  against  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  He 
was  the  judge  selected  to  decide  whether  Petrarch  was 
qualified  to  receive  the  crown  of  poet-laureate.  Died 
•"  1343- 
Robert  I.  of  Scotland.  See  Bruce,  (Robert.) 
Rob'ert  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  born  in  1316,  was  the 
first  king  of  the  House  of  Stewart  or  Stuart.  The  family 
name  was  originally  Allan,  or  Alan.  (See  Stuart 
Family.)  His  mother,  Marjory,  was  a  daughter  of 
Robert  Bruce,  and  his  father,  Walter  Allan,  was  the 
high  steward  of  Scotland.  He  acted  as  regent  from 
1338  to  1341,  and  again  while  David  II.  was  held  as 
a  prisoner  by  the  English,  (1346-57.)  He  succeeded 
David  II.  in  1371.     Among  the  important  events  of  his 


reign  were  a  war  against  the  English,  and  the  battle  of 
Otterburne,  (1388.)     Died  in  1390. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xxvi. 

Robert  IH.,  King  of  Scotland,  born  about  1340,  was 
a  son  of  Robert  II.  His  baptismal  name  was  John  ; 
but  John  Baliol  (called  "King  John")  had  rendered  this 
so  unpopular  that  it  was  changed  to  Robert.  He  began 
to  reign  in  1390.  Hostilities  were  renewed  between  the 
Scotch  and  English  in  1399,  and  the  former  were  de 
feated  at  Homildon  Hill,  in  1402.  Robert  died  in  1406, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  James  I. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  chap.  xxvL 

Robert  [Fr.  pron.  ro-baiK'J  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
surnanied  LE  Diable,  leh  de'abl',  ("the  Devil,")  was  a 
son  of  Richard  II.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  Richard 
HI.,  in  1027.  In  1035  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  on  his  return  from  which  he  died  at  Nicaea 
in  July,  1035.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William 
the  Conqueror  of  England. 

See  Depping,  "  Histoire  de  Normandie;"  A.  Deville,  "Notice 
historique  sur  Robert  le  Diabie,"  1836. 

Robert  II.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  surnamed  CuRT« 
Hose  or  Short-Shanks,  bom  about  1052,  was  the  eld- 
est son  of  William  I.  surnamed  the  Conqueror.  He  was 
brave,  but  imprudent  and  unstable.  He  obtained  the 
dukedom  of  Normandy  in  1087.  In  1096  he  went  to 
Palestine  as  a  leader  of  the  first  crusade.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  siege  of  Antioch  and  at  the  battle 
of  Dorylaeum,  (1097,)  and  returned  home  in  iioo.  In 
his  absence  his  younger  brother,  Henry,  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  throne  of  England,  left  vacant  by  the 
death  of  William  Rufus.  In  the  war  that  ensued  between 
Robert  and  Henry,  the  former  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  in  1106.  He  was  confined  at  Cardiff  until  his 
death,  in  1135, 

See  Depping,  "Histoire  de  Normandie;"  Ordericus  Vitalis, 
"  History  of  Normandy." 

Robert  I.,  Count  of  Artois,  born  in  1216,  was  a  son 
of  Louis  VIII.  of  France.  He  accompanied  his  brother, 
Saint  Louis,  in  a  crusade  against  the  Saracens,  and  was 
killed  at  Mansourah  in  1250. 

His  son  Robert,  born  in  1250,  gained  a  victory  over 
the  English  near  Dax  in  1296,  and  over  the  Flemings 
at  Furnes  in  1297.     He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1302. 

Robert  III.,  Count  of  Artois,  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1287.  He  was  banished  by  Philip 
VI.  of  France  in  1332,  and  entered  the  service  of  Edward 
III.  of  England.     Died  in  1343. 

Robert,  ro'baiR',  (C^sar  Alphonse,)  a  French  sur- 
geon and  medical  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1801. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris.     Died  December  i,  1862. 

Robert,  (Claude,)  a  French  ecclesiastical  historian, 
born  near  Bar-sur-Seine  in  1564  or  1565.  His  chief 
work  is  "Christian  Gaul,"  ("Gallia  Christiana,"  1626,) 
which  was  continued  by  the  Benedictines  and  extended 
to  thirteen  volumes,  (17S5.)     Died  in  1637. 

See  E.  SoCARD,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Claude  Robert." 

Robert,  ro'bSRt,  (Ernst  Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a 
German  litterateur,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1778,  was  a  brother  of  Rahel  Varnhagen  von  Ense. 
He  was  the  author  of  poems,  tales,  and  dramas.  Died 
in  1832. 

Robert,  (Fran(;ois,)  a  French  geographer,  born  near 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1737.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Geographical  Dictionary,"  (1818.)  Died  in 
1819. 

Robert,  (Hubert,)  an  excellent  French  painter  of 
architecture,  etc.,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  and  passed  twelve  years  in  Italy,  (1753-65.) 
He  painted  views  of  the  monuments  and  ruins  of  Rome. 
After  his  return  to  Paris  he  was  appointed  keeper  of 
the  royal  cabinet  and  dessinateur  of  the  royal  gardens. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1808. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Robert,  (Louis  Li6opold,)  an  eminent  painter,  born 
at  Chaux-le-Fonds,  in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel,  in  1794. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Girardet  and  of  David.  In  1818 
he  went  to  Italy,  in  which  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  represented  Italian  life  and  scenery  with 
fidelity  in  numerous  works,    among  which   are    "The 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  flr,  (111,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


ROBERT 


2069 


ROBERTSON 


Neapolitan  Imorovisator,"  (1824,)  "The  Vintage  in 
Tuscany,"  "  The  Reapers  of  the  Pontine  Marshes,"  and 
"The  Departure  of  the  Fishermen  of  the  Adriatic," 
(1835.)  lie  committed  suicide  at  Venice  in  1835.  This 
act  is  ascribed  to  a  passion  for  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte. 

See  E.  Del^cluze,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  L.  Robert,"  1838; 
Fkuillet  de  Conches,  "  L.  Robert,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1S48; 
'Nouvelle  Biograph.e  Geiidrale." 

Robert,  (Louis  Valentin  Elias,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Etampes  in  1821  ;  died  April  28,  1874- 

Robert,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  miniature-  and  flower- 
painter,  born  at  Langres  about  1610.  He  commenced  a 
work  called  "  Recueil  de  Velins."  Died  in  Paris  in  1684. 

Robert,  (Paul  Ponce  Antoine,)  a  French  painter 
and  engraver,  born  near  Rheims  in  1686;  died  in  1733' 

Robert,  (Pierre  FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  French  regi- 
cide, born  at  Ginniee  in  1763,  was  a  friend  of  Danton. 
He  married  Mademoiselle  de  Keralio,  the  authoress. 
Died  in  1826. 

Robert  de  Courtenay,  ro'baiR'  deh  kooRt'ni',  a 
French  prince,  a  son  of  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  became 
Latin  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in  1220.    Died  in  1228. 

Robert  de  Vaugondy,  ro'baiR'  deh  vo'giw'de', 
(DlDiER,)  a  French  geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1723. 
He  published  an  "Atlas  of  France  and  Europe,"  (1785,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1786. 

Robert  de  Vaugondy,  (Gilles,)  a  French  geogra- 
pher, born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  the  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  grandson  of  Nicolas  Sanson.  He  produced 
a  "Universal  Atlas,"  (1758.)     Died  in  1766. 

Robert  of  Avesbury,  an  English  chronicler,  author 
of  an  unfinished  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  HL," 
which  comes  down  to  1356.     Died  about  1360. 

Robert  of  Bavaria.     See  Rupert,  Prince. 

Robert  of  Geneva,  (Anti-Pope,)  born  in  1342,  was 
elected  pope  in  1378,  in  opposition  to  Urban  VI.  He 
took  the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  reigned  at  Avignon, 
and  was  recognized  by  the  French  and  Spaniards.  Died 
in  1394. 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  an  English  chronicler  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  wrote,  in  verse,  a  chronicle 
or  history  of  England  from  fabulous  times  down  to 
the  death  of  Henry  III.  De  Quincey  speaks  of  this 
I'hronicle  as  "the  very  earliest  of  all  English  books.*' 

See  the  interesting  account  of  De  Quincey's  interview  with  George 
III.,  in  his  "Autobiographic  Sketches." 

Robert  the  Strong,  [Fr.  Robert  le  Fort,  ro'baiR' 
leh  foR,]  Count  of  Anjou  and  Duke  of  France,  was 
noted  as  a  military  chief.  He  was  killed  in  a  fight  with 
some  Normans,  led  by  the  famous  sea-king  Hastings, 
in  866  A.D.     He  was  great-grandfather  of  Hugh  Capet. 

Robert  Grosstete.    See  Grosseteste. 

Robert-Pleury,  ro'baiR'  fluh're',  (Joseph  Nicolas,) 
B  popular  French  historical  painter,  was  born  at  Co- 
logne in  1797.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1850.  Among  his  works  are  "  Benvenuto 
Cellini"  and  "Charles  V.  at  the  Monastery  of  Saint 
Just."  About  1855  he  became  professor  in  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux- Arts.     Died  in  1890. 

Robert-Houdin,  ro'baiR'  hoo'diN',  (Jean  Eugene,) 
a  French  prestidigitateur,  born  at  Blois,  December  6, 
1805.  He  was  well  educated,  and  became  a  watch- 
maker, from  a  strong  inclination  to  mechanical  employ- 
ments. He  afterwards  became  a  maker  of  mechanical 
toys.  In  1845  he  began  to  perform  in  public  as  a  juggler, 
winning  a  world-wide  fame  and  a  great  fortune  at  this 
employment.  Among  his  works  are  "  Robert-Houdin, 
sa  Vie,"  etc.,  (1S57,)  "Confidences,"  (1859,)  " Les  Tri- 
cheries  des  Grecs  devoiles,"  (1S61,)  etc  Died  at  Saint- 
Germain,  near  Blois,  June  18,  1871. 

Roberti,  ro-bfiR'tee,  (.Albert,)  a  Belgian  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  i8u;  died  December  15,  1864. 

Roberti,  ro-b^R'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  me- 
diocre Italian  poet  and  essayist,  born  at  Bassano  in 
1719.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Bologna.  Died 
in  1786. 

Roberti,  (Jean,)  a  learned  Belgian  Jesuit,  born  at 
Saint-Hubert  in  1569;  died  in  1651. 

Roberto,  the  Italian  for  Robert,  which  see. 

Rob'f  rts,  (Benjamin  S.,)  an  American  general,  born 


at  Manchester,  Vermont,  about  1811,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1835,  and  was  serving  as  major  in  New  Mexico 
when  the  civil  war  began.  In  July,  1862,  he  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the  Union 
army,  and  lieutenant-colonel  in  1S66.    Died  Jan.  29,  1875. 

Rob'erts,  (David,)  an  eminent  British  painter  of 
landscapes  and  architecture,  was  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Edinburgh,  in  1796.  Between  1838  and  1840  he  travelled 
in  Egypt  and  Syri.-i,  in  which  he  sketched  many  scents 
which  he  afterwards  reproduced  on  canvas.  He  was 
elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1841.  Among  his  works 
are  "Jerusalem  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  (1S41,) 
"Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,"  (1844,)  "Ruins  of  the  Great 
Temple  of  Karnak,''  "The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem," 
(1849,)  and  "  Rome,"  (1855.)  The  splendid  work  entitled 
"  The  Holy  Land,  Syria,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Nubia" 
(4  vols.,  1842)  is  illustrated  by  lithographs  of  his 
sketches.     Died  in  1864.  ■> 

See  William  Jhrdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866 

Roberts,  (Emma,)  an  English  authoress,  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  the  Rival  Houses  of  York  and  Lancas- 
ter," and  "  Oriental  Scenes,  Sketches,  and  Tales."  Died 
at  Poonah,  in  India,  in  1840. 

Roberts,  (Francis,)  an  English  Puritan  minister  and 
writer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1609,  became  rector  of 
Wrington  in  1649.  He  wrote  "Key  to  the  Scriptures," 
("Clavis  Bibliorum,"  1649,)  "The  True  Way  to  the 
Tree  of  Life,"  (1673,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1675. 
_  Roberts,  (Sir  P'rederick  Sleigh,)  Bakt.,  an  Eng- 
lish general,  born  in  1S32.  He  was  educated  at  Eton, 
Sandhurst,  and  Addiscombe.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  India  and  Abyssinia.  In  1879  he  occupied  Cabul,  in 
Afghanistan.  After  the  terrible  defeat  of  Burrows  at 
Maiwand  in  1880,  Roberts  with  nine  thousand  men  went 
to  the  relief  of  Candahar,  and  gave  Ayoob  Khan  a 
crushing  defeat.  In  1S79  he  was  made  a  lieutenant- 
general. 

Roberts,  (Roberts  Richford,)  D.D.,  a  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Frederick 
county,  Maryland,  August  2,  1778.  He  began  to  preach 
in  iSoi,  was  made  a  bishop  in  1816,  and  removed  to 
Indiana,  where  he  died,  March  26,  1843. 

Roberts,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1768, 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Hannah  More."  Died 
in  1849. 

Rob'ert-son,  (Charles  Franklin,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  in  New  York  city,  March  2, 1835, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1859,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  in  1862,  and  in  1868  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Missouri,  (Episcopalian.)     D.  in  1886. 

Robertson,  ro'baiR's6N',  (Etienne  Gaspard  Ro- 
bert,) a  Belgian  aeronaut  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Liege  in  1763.  It  is  stated  that  he  made  fifty-nine 
ascensions  in  balloons.     Died  in  1837. 

Rob'eit-son,  (Frederick  William,)  an  eloquent 
minister  and  original  thinker  of  the  .'\nglican  Church, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  3d  of  February,  1S16.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Captain  Frederick  Robertson,  of 
the  royal  artillery.  After  preparatory  studies  at  Edin- 
burgh, he  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  in  1836. 
Among  his  fellow-students  at  Oxford  was  John  Ruskin, 
in  whom  he  found  a  congenial  spirit.  He  would  have 
preferred  the  profession  of  a  soldier  ;  but,  in  compliance 
with  the  wishes  of  his  father,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
church.  After  he  left  college  he  improved  his  health  by 
a  pedestrian  tour  among  the  Alps,  and  on  that  occasion 
became  acquainted  with  Miss  Helen  Denys,  whom  he 
married  in  1842.  He  served  as  curate  at  Cheltenham 
about  four  years,  and  became  incumbent  of  Trinity 
Chapel,  Brighton,  in  August,  1847.  Though  he  rather 
shunned  than  courted  popularity,  his  eloquence  and 
originality  soon  excited  general  admiration.  The  libe- 
rality and  independence  of  his  principles,  however, 
subjected  him  to  persecution  from  some  members  of  his 
own  communion.  He  belonged  to  what  is  called  the 
Broad  Church.  Three  series  of  his  sermons  have  been 
published,  and  have  passed  through  about  eight  editions. 
He  delivered  several  "  Lectures  and  Addresses  on  Lit- 
erary and  Social  Toi^ics,"  which  have  been  printed.  lie 
died  August  15,  1853,  and  was  buried  at  Brighton. 

See  Stopford  A.  Brooke,  "Life  and  Letters  of  F.  W.  Robert- 
eon,"  2  vols.,  1865;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1866. 


eas*;  jasj;  %hard;  z^s,i:  G,n,  Vi^^ttural;  ii, nasal;  •s.JriUed:  sasz;  thasinMw.     (B^=-See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROBERTSON 


2070 


ROBESPIERRE 


Robertson,  (George,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  in  London  about  1742;  died  in  1788. 

Rob'ert-spn,  (James,)  called  Rariji  Robertson,  was 
born  at  Cromarty,  in  Scotland.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Edinburgh  in  I751.     Died  in  1795. 

Robertson,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
1803.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Edinburgh.     Died  in  i860. 

Robertson,  (James  Burton,)  Ph.D.,  an  English 
historiauj  born  in  London,  November  15,  1800.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Saint  Ed- 
mund, near  Ware.  In  1855  Dr.  Newman,  rector  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  University  at  Dublin,  appointed  him 
professor  of  geography  and  modern  history,  to  which  the 
chair  of  English  literature  was  subsequently  added.  The 
lectures  here  delivered  were  subsequently  published  in 
a  series  of  books  that  were  highly  successful.  Among 
these  may  be  namtd  "Lectures  on  Various  Subjects  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  History,"  (1S5S,)  "  Lectures  on  the 
Life,  Writings,  and  Times  of  Edmund  Burke,"  (1868,) 
etc.     Died  in  Dublin,  February  14,  1877. 

Robertson,  (James  Ckaigie,)  D.D.,  a  British  divine, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1813.  He  graduated  in  1834  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  made  a  canon  of  Can- 
terbury in  1S59,  and  in  1864  was  appointed  professor  of 
church  history  in  King's  College,  London.  Among  his 
works  are  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  (1853  el 
seq.,)  a  "Life  of  Becket,"  (1859,)  "  History  of  the  Refor- 
mation," (1866,)  and  a  shorter  "  Church  History,"  (1869.) 
Died  July  9,  1882. 

Robertson,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1726.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Punctuation,"  and 
translated  "Telemachus,"  (1795.)     Died  in  1802. 

Robertson,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  judge,  versifier, 
and  lawyer,  noted  for  his  wit  and  humour,  was  born  in 
1794.  He  was  elected  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates 
in  1842.     Died  in  1855. 

Robertson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  grammarian,  born 
at  or  near  Wakefield.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Magda- 
lene College,  Oxford,  in  1532,  and  Dean  of  Durham  about 
I5';7.     Died  about  1560. 

Robertson,  (Thomas  William,)  an  English  actor 
and  dramatist,  born  January  9,  1829.  Among  his  plays 
are  "  David  Garrick,"  "  Society,"  "  Ours,"  "  Caste," 
"  Play,"  "  School,"  "  For  Love,"  "  War,"  etc.  Died  in 
London,  February  3,  1871. 

Rob'ert-son,  (  William,)  an  Irish  divine,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1705,  is  reputed  to  have  been  an  Arian  or 
Unitarian.  He  wrote  "  An  Attempt  to  Explain  the 
Words  Reason,  Substance,  Person,  Creed,  Orthodoxy,'" 
etc.     Died  in  1783. 

Robertson,  (William,)  often  called  Principal  Rob- 
ertson, a  celebrated  Scottish  historian,  was  born  at 
Borthwick,  in  Edinburghshire,  (Mid-Lothian,)  September 
19,  1 72 1.  His  father,  the  Rev.  William  Robertson,  was 
minister  at  Borthwick  when  his  son  was  born.  He 
afterwards  removed  to  Edinburgh.  Young  Robertson 
manifested  an  ardent  devotion  to  literature  from  a  very 
early  age.  He  began  to  preach  before  he  was  twenty 
years  old.  He  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Gladsmuir, 
in  East  Lothian,  in  1743,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  an  eloquent  pulpit  orator.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  obtained  great  influence  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  He  was  the  leader  of  what  was  called  the  mode- 
rate party,  and  was  more  inclined  to  liberality  and  tole- 
rance than  many  other  members  of  his  church.  He  has, 
however,  been  charged,  perhaps  not  without  reason,  with 
preferring  the  interests  of  literature  to  those  of  religion. 
In  1759  he  published  a  "  History  of  Scotland  during  the 
Reigns  of  Mary  and  of  James  VI.  till  his  Accession  to 
the  Crown  of  England,"  which  was  received  with  great 
and  general  favour.  It  was  extolled  by  Hume,  Burke, 
and  other  eminent  critics.  He  removed  to  Edinburgh 
about  1759,  became  one  of  the  king's  chaplains  in  1761, 
and  principal  of  the  University  of  Edinlurgh  in  1762. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  his  "  History  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  with  a  Sketch  of  the  Political  and 
Social  State  of  Europe,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1769,)  which  is 
considered  his  capital  work.  He  afterwards  published 
a  "History  of  America,"  (2  vols.,  1777.)     He  is  gene- 


rally accurate  and  impartial  in  the  narration  of  events 
and  judicious  in  the  estimation  of  character.  His  style 
is  elegant,  clear,  and  vigorous,  with  occasional  passages 
of  great  beauty.  As  a  writer  he  is  remarkable  for  a 
sustained  unimpassioned  dignity  of  manner,  which,  how- 
ever, too  often  approaches  monotony.  In  politics  he 
was  a  Whig,  with  a  strong  leaning  tovvardsTepublicanism. 
He  died  in  June,  1793. 

See  DuGALD  Stewart,  "Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
W.  Robertson,"  180:  ;  Suard,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de 
Dr.  Robertson  ;"  "  Memoirs  of  Adam  Smith,  W.  Robertson,  and 
Thomas  Reid,"  iSn  ;  Bishop  Gleig,  "  Memoir  of  W.  Robertson," 
prefixed  to  his  works;  Kroucham,  "  Men  of  Letters  in  the  Time  of 
George  III.;*'  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Monthly  Re- 
view" for  July  and  August,  1769. 

Roberval,  de,  deh  ro'b?R'vtl',  (Giles  Personne — 
p^R'son',  or  Personier,  p2R'so'ne-i',)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, was  born  at  Roberval,  near  Senlis,  in  1602. 
He  removed  to  Paris  in  1627,  and  formed  an  intimacy 
with  Mersenne.  About  1632  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
mathematics  founded  by  Ratuus  at  the  College  de 
France.  He  discovered  about  1636  a  method  to  deter- 
mine the  area  of  a  cycloid,  and  a  method  to  determine 
the  direction  of  a  tangent  at  any  point  of  a  curve  line. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Indivisibles," 
("Traite  des  Indivisibles,")  and  "On  the  World's  Mo- 
tions and  Parts,  according  to  the  System  of  Aristarchus 
the  Samian,"  ("Aristarchi  Samii  de  Mundi  Systeinate 
Partibus  et  Motibus,"  1644.)  It  is  related  that,  having 
been  asked  how  he  liked  a  dramatical  performance 
which  he  had  just  witnessed,  he  answered,  "Qu'est-ce 
que  cela  prouve  ?"  ("  What  does  that  prove  ?")  Died  in 
Paris  in  1675. 

Robespierre,  ro'bSs'pe-aiR',  (Augustin  Bon  Jo- 
seph,) called  the  Young,  a  brother  of  the  dictator, 
was  born  at  Arras  in  1764.  He  was  elected  to  the 
National  Convention  in  1792.  When  the  Convention 
ordered  the  arrest  of  his  brother,  he  exclaimed,  "In- 
clude me  with  him;  I  partake  his  crimes!"  He  was 
executed  July  28,  1794. 

Robespierre,  rob'es-peer,  [Fr.  pron.  ro'b?s'pe-aiR',] 
(Maximilien  Marie  Isidore,)  a  French  demagogue 
and  Jacobin,  was  born  at  Arras  on  the  6th  of  May, 
1758.  He  was  sent  to  the  College  of  Arras,  from  which 
he  passed  in  1770  to  the  College  Louis-le-Grand,  in 
Paris.  His  habits  at  college  were  studious  and  regular. 
He  studied  law,  acquired  some  distinction  as  an  advo- 
cate at  Arras,  and  was  sent  to  the  States-General  in 
May,  1789,  as  one  of  the  sixteen  representatives  of  the 
province  of  Artois.  He  was  a  person  of  small  stature, 
and  had  nothing  attractive  or  imposing  in  his  aspect. 
His  voice  was  weak,  his  complexion  "sea-green,"  his 
disposition  reserved  and  tiinid,  and  his  moral  habits  tem- 
perate and  regular.  According  to  M.  fitienne  Dumont, 
he  had  a  sinister  aspect,  and  a  continual  blinking  (cligjwte- 
vient)  of  the  eyes.  In  political  opinions  he  was  a  radical 
democrat.  He  spoke  often  in  the  Constituent  Assembly 
and  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  over  which  he  soon  acquired 
a  predominant  influence.  While  men  of  greater  talents 
wasted  their  energies  in  vain  efforts  to  reform  the  old 
regime  by  half-way  measures  and  temporizing  expedients, 
he  seems  to  have  perceived  the  necessity  of  a  radical 
revolution.  "He  will  go  far,"  says  Mirabeau;  "for  he 
believes  all  he  says." 

In  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  maintained  a  position 
somewhat  independent  of  party.  He  defended  with  zeal 
the  interests  of  the  inferior  clergy,  advocated  the  abo- 
lition of  the  death-penalty,  (May,  1791,)  and  made  a 
vehement  speech  against  the  re-election  of  the  members 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  to  the  Legislative  Assem- 
bly, on  which  question  he  differed  from  the  othei  chiefs 
oiX}i\t.gattche.  On  critical  occasions  he  usually  presented 
himself  to  the  people  as  a  resigned  and  devoted  victim 
whom  nefarious  persons  designed  to  immolate  because 
he  loved  the  people  too  well.  Thus,  after  he  had  de- 
nounced the  king,  the  ministry,  etc.,  June  21,  1791,  he 
said,  "  I  know  that  I  sharpen  against  myself  a  thousand 
daggers  ;  but  if  in  the  first  stage  of  the  Revolution,  when 
I  was  scarcely  known  in  the  National  Assembly,  I  offered 
my  life  as  a  sacrifice  to  truth,  now  that  the  ajjprobation 
of  my  fellow-citizens  has  rewarded  me  for  this  sacrifice, 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moou 


ROBILANT 


2071 


ROBINSON 


T  should  receive  almost  as  a  benefit  a  death  which  shall 
prevent  me  from  witnessing  the  public  calamities  which 
I  foresee  to  be  inevitable."  In  December,  1791,  he 
opposed  in  a  speech  the  declaration  of  war  against 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  which  was  proposed  by  the 
Girondists.  Although  not  a  great  orator,  he  was 
always  plausible,  and  more  logical  than  the  most  of  his 
competitors.  He  never  took  an  active  or  open  part 
in  the  violent  acts  and  outrages  of  the  populace,  such 
as  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries,  August,  1792. 

In  September,  1792,  he  was  elected  to  the  Convention 
as  a  deputy  from  Paris.  A  few  days  after  the  session 
began,  several  Girondist  deputies  accused  him  of  aspiring 
to  a  dictatorship,  and  cast  on  him  the  responsibility  of 
the  recent  massacre  in  the  prisons  of  Paris.  These 
charges  were  repeated  by  Louvet  in  a  long  speech, 
(October  29,)  to  which  Robespierre  read  an  artful 
and  successful  defence.  The  result  of  this  affair  was 
that  Robespierre  became  the  accepted  chief  of  the 
Mountain  and  the  implacable  enemy  of  the  Girondists. 
The  first  victim  of  his  unscrupulous  policy  was  the 
king,  whom  the  Girondists  wished  to  save.  He  said, 
(December  2,  1792,)  "I  pronounce  with  regret  this 
fatal  truth  ;  but  Louis  must  die  that  the  country  may 
live,"  ("Louis  doit  mourir  parcequ'il  faut  que  la  patrie 
vive.")  Aided  by  the  commune  of  Paris  and  the  mob, 
he  triumphed  over  the  Girondists  about  June  I,  1793. 
Then  began  the  Reign  of  Terror,  during  which,  as  presi- 
dent of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  (or  salvation,) 
Robespierre  exercised  almost  unlimited  power.  Two 
of  his  partisans,  Couthon  and  Saint-Just,  were  associated 
with  him  in  the  triumvirate  of  Robespierre.  It  is 
just  to  admit  that  they  defended  France  with  great 
vigour  and  ability  against  the  allied  armies  of  nearly 
all  Europe  and  the  Vendean  royalist  insurgents. 

In  March,  1794,  Hebert  and  the  Hebertists  were 
guillotined  as  exagMs  or  ultra-revolutionary.  It  is  stated 
thak  when  the  committee  of  public  safety  determined 
to  destroy  Danton  and  his  friends,  Robespierre  at  first 
opposed  the  measure  ;  but  he  supported,  by  a  speech  in 
the  Convention,  Saint-Just's  motion  for  their  arrest,  and 
Danton,  with  Desmoulins  and  others,  was  executed  in 
April,  1794.  But  the  death  of  a  powerful  rival  did  not 
render  his  own  position  secure.  His  statesmanship  was 
not  adequate  to  solve  the  enigma  of  the  Revolutien.  He 
presided  as  a  high-priest  and  pronounced  an  oration  at 
a  public  ceremony  called  the  Festival  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  in  June,  1794.  In  the  mean  time,  multitudes  of 
innocent  persons,  of  both  sexes,  perished  daily  by  the 
guillotine.  This  excessive  cruelty  provoked  against  him 
a  combination  of  various  parties,  afterwards  called 
"  Thermidoriens,"  including  Tallien,  Barras,  Billaud- 
Varennes,  Fouche,  and  Carnot.  The  Convention  ordered 
the  arrest  of  Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor.  His 
partisans  ralfied  in  the  night  and  released  him  from 
arrest.  He  was  then  declared  an  outlaw  by  the  Conven- 
tion, and  was  guillotined,  with  twenty  of  his  partisans,  on 
the  loth  Thermidor,  (28th  of  July,)  1794.  He  was  sur- 
named  "  the  Incorruptible,"  because  he  was  proof  against 
pecuniary  temptations.  "  Robespierre,"  says  Macaulay, 
in  his  article  on  Bar^re,  "was  a  vain,  envious,  and  sus- 
picious man,  with  a  hard  heart,  weak  nerves,  and  a 
gloomy  temper.  But  we  cannot  with  truth  deny  that  he 
was,  in  the  vulgar  sense  of  the  word,  disinterested,  that 
his  private  life  was  correct,  or  that  he  was  sincerely 
jtealous  for  his  own  system  of  politics  and  morals." 

See  LoDiEU,  "  Biographie  de  Robespierre  ;"  Vilate,  "Causes 
secrfetesdela  Revolution du  9  Thermidor,"  1796;  Provart,  "  Viede 
Robespierre,"  1794;  George  H.  Lewes,  "History  of  Maximilian 
Robespierre,"  1849;  Lamartine,  "  Histoire  des  Girondins ;"  Er- 
nest Hamel,  "  Histoire  de  Robespierre,"  3  vols.,  1S67  ;  Carlylk, 
"  History  of"  the  French  Revolution ;"  P.  F.  TissoT,  "  Histoire  de 
Robespierre,"  2  vols.,  1844;  Opitz,  "Robespierre's  Triumph  und 
Sturz,"  1850;  MiGNET,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Fran^aise;" 
"'  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Robilant,  de,  deh  ro'be'lAN',  ?  (Esprit  BenoIt  Nico- 
las,) an  engineer  and  writer  on  metallurgy,  etc.,  born  at 
Turin  in  1724.  He  was  a  son  of  Count  Joseph  Robilant, 
author  of  an  able  work  on  Strategy,  (1744.)    Died  in  1801. 

Robin,  ro'biN',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a  French  anato- 
mist and  microscopist,  born  at  Jasseron  (Ain)  in  1821. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Paris  (professeur 


agregihla  Faculti)  in  1847.  He  applied  the  microscope 
to  the  study  of  anatomy  and  the  intimate  structure  of 
tissues.  He  published  a  number  of  professional  works, 
among  which  is  "Traite  de  Chimie  anatomique  et  phy- 
siologique,  normale  et  pathologique."     Died  in  1885. 

Robin,  (Jean,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in  Paris  In 
1550.  He  was  patronized  by  Henry  IV.,  and  planted  a 
garden  which  was  the  finest  in  Paris.  He  published  a 
work  on  the  plants  which  grow  near  Paris,  "  Catalogus 
Stirpium  tam  indigenarum  quam  exoticarum,"  etc., 
(1601.)  The  genus  Robinia  was  named  in  his  honour 
Died  in  1629. 

See  Haller.  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Robin,  (Vespasien,)  a  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1579, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  title  oi  arboriste  du  rat,  and  lectured  on  botany  at  the 
Jardin  Royal.     Died  in  1662. 

Robin  Hood.    See  Hood,  (Robin.) 

Robineau.     See  Beaunoir. 

Robinet,  ro'be'ni',  (Edmond,)  a  French  littiratmr, 
born  at  Saint-Pol-de-Leon  in  181 1.  He  wrote  several 
historical  works.     Died  November  22,  1864. 

Robinet,  (Jean  Baptiste  Ren6,)  a  French  writer  on 
various  subjects,  born  at  Rennes  in  1735  ;  died  in  1820. 

Robinet,  (St^phane,)  a  French  chemist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1796;  died  December  2,  1869. 

Rob'ins,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Bath  in  1707,  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
science  of  gunnery.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  at  the  age  of  twenty.  His  chief  work  is 
"New  Principles  of  Gunnery,"  (1742.)  He  was  ap- 
pointed chief  engineer  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
1749,  and  died  at  Madras  in  1751. 

See  Dr.  Wilson,  "Life  of  Benjamin  Robins;"  "  Biographia 
Britannica,"  (Supplement.) 

Robins  or  Robyns,  (John,)  an  English  astronomer, 
born  in  Staffordshire  about  1500.  He  was  canon  of 
Windsor,  and  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.  He  left  in  manu- 
script several  treatises  on  the  Fixed  Stars.  Died  in 
1558. 

Rob'in-spn,  (Agnes  Mary  Frances,)  an  English 
poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Leamington,  February  27, 1S57. 
She  was  educated  on  the  Continent,  and  at  University 
College,  London.  Among  her  works  are  "  A  Handful 
of  Honeysuckle,"  (1878,  in  verse,)  "The  Crowned  Hip- 
polytus,"  (1881,)  from  Euripides,  "Janet  Fisher,"  an 
excellent  prose  tale,  "  Arden,"  (a  novel,  1883,)  "Life  of 
Emily  Bronte,"  (1883,)  and  "  The  New  Arcadia,"  (poems, 
1884.) 

Rob'in-spn,  (Anastasia,)  an  English  singer,  who 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  before  1 735. 
Died  in  1750. 

Robinson,  (Annie  Douglas,)  an  American  author, 
known  by  the  pseudonym  of  Marian  Douglas.  She 
was  born  at  Plymouth,  New  Hampshire,  January  12, 
1842.  Her  maiden  name  was  Green.  Her  writings 
include  "Picture  Poems,"  (1872,)  "Peter  and  Polly,"  (a 
story,  1876,)  and  many  fugitive  poems. 

Robinson,  (Charles  Seymour,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Bennington,  Vermont,  March 
31,  1829.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1849, 
and  studied  theology  in  New  York  and  at  Princeton, 
Besides  volumes  of  sermons,  etc.,  he  published  many 
hymn-compilations. 

Rob'in-son,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  American  bibli- 
cal scholar,  born  at  Southington,  Connecticut,  in  1794. 
He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  New  York,  in  i8i6, 
and  went  to  Europe  in  1826,  after  which  he  studied 
Oriental  languages  at  Paris  and  Halle.  About  1828  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Professor  Jacobi  or  von  Jakob, 
of  Halle.  He  began  to  edit  the  "  Biblical  Repository" 
in  1831,  was  appointed  professor  of  biblical  literature 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  1837,  and  travelled  in  Palestine  in  1838.  In 
1841  he  published  his  principal  work,  "Biblical  Re- 
searches in  Palestine,  Mount  Sinai,  and  Arabia  Petrsea," 
(3  vols.,)  which  is  considered  the  best  that  had  then 
been  published  on  that  subject.  "  The  work  was  recog- 
nized," says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "as  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  judicious  produced  in  the  world  in  this 
century."     He  received  for  this  work  the  gold  medal  of 


«  as  ^,-  5  as  s;  %  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  H,  v:., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


ROBINSON 


2072 


ROBUST! 


the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,"  in 
Greek,  (1845,)  and  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra."  Died  in  New 
York  in  January,  1863.  "The  names  of  Edward  Robin- 
son and  Moses  Stuart,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  stand 
at  the  head  of  the  catalogue  of  learned  men  who  have 
cultivated  biblical  literature  in  America."  ("  Prose 
Writers  of  America,"  p.  382.) 

Robinson,  (Ezekiel  Gilman,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  Baptist  divine,  born  at  Attleborough,  Massa- 
chusetts, March  23,  1815.  He  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1838,  and  in  1842  at  Newton  Theological 
Institution.  He  was  Hebrew  professor  in  the  Seminary 
at  Covington,  Kentucky,  1846-48,  and  was  first  a  pro- 
fessor, and  then  president,  in  the  Rochester  (New  York) 
Theological  Seminary,  1853-72.  In  1872  he  vvas  ap- 
pointed president  of  Brown  University.  He  is  author 
of  various  theological  works,  and  a  pulpit  orator  of  high 
reputation. 

Robinson,  (Frederick  John.)     See  Ripon,  Earl 

OF. 

Robinson,  (Henry  Crabb,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and  other  eminent  per- 
sons of  his  time.  He  died  in  London  in  1867,  at  the  age 
of  ninety-one,  leaving  a  very  interesting  "Diary,  Remi- 
niscences, and  Correspondence,"  (3  vols.,  London,  1869.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1869  ;  "  British  Qiiar 
terly  Review"  for  October,  i86g;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1869;  "  Macmillaii's  Magazine"  for  August,  1869,  (by  Professor 
Maurice.) 

Robinson,  (John,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  1575,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  To  escape 
from  persecution,  he  emigrated  to  Holland  with  the  con- 
gregation of  which  he  was  pastor,  in  1608.  He  and  they 
settled  at  Leyden,  where  they  remained  eleven  years. 
A  portion  of  his  society  emigrated  to  Plymouth,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1620,  in  the  Mayflower.  He  intended  to 
follow  them,  but  was  prevented  by  death.  He  was  an 
Independent,  and  a  man  of  superior  talents.  He  wrote 
several  religious  works.     Died  at  Leyden  in  1625. 

Robinson,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1650.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  17 10, 
and  was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  who  formed  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  (1713.)  He  was  transferred  to  the  see 
of  London  in  1 7 14.     Died  in  1723. 

Robinson,  (John  C.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Binghamton,  New  York,  in  1817.  He  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  about  April,  1862,  and  served  at  the 
battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  at  Malvern  Hill, 
July  I,  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  at  that  of  the  Wilderness, 
May,  1864.  In  the  advance  from  the  Wilderness  to 
Spottsylvania  Court-House  he  was  severely  wounded. 
May  7.    He  retired  with  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1869. 

Robinson,  (John  H.,)  an  able  English  line-engraver, 
born  at  Bolton,  Lancashire,  in  1796.  He  engraved  a 
portrait  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  after  Lawrence,  Leslie's 
"  Mother  and  Child,"  Murillo's  "  P'lower-Girl,"  "  Napo- 
leon and  Pius  VII.,"  after  Wilkie,  Landseer's  "Little 
Red  Riding-Hood,"  Vandyke's  "  Portrait  of  Rubens," 
and  other  celebrated  pictures.  He  was  a  pupil  of  James 
Heath.     Died  October  21,  1S71. 

Robinson,  (Mary  or  Maria,)  an  English  poetess 
and  actress,  born  at  Bristol  in  1758.  Her  maiden  name 
was  Darby.  She  was  a  mistress  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
(afterwards  George  IV.)     Died  in  1800. 

See  "Autobiography  of  Mrs.  Robinson,"  London,  1827. 

Robinson,  (Richard,)  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  and 
Baron  Rokeby,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1709.  He 
founded  a  public  library  and  a  school  at  Armagh.  Died 
in  1794. 

Robinson,  (Robert,)  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
born  at  Swafifliam,  in  Norfolk,  in  1735.  He  preached 
at  Cambridge  from  1759  to  1773,  and  then  removed  to 
Chesterton.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  adopted  Socinian  doctrines. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  religious  works,  a  "History  of 
Baptism,"  (1790.)     Died  in  1790. 

See  Gkorge  Uvkr,  "  Life  of  R.  Robinson,"  1796. 

Robinson,  (Stuart,)  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
born  at  Strabane,   Ireland,   November  26,   1816.      He 


removed  to  Virginia  when  young,  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1836  and  at  Princeton  Seminary  in  1841,  and 
held  prominent  pastorates  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and 
Maryland.  He  also  edited  various  religious  journals, 
and  published  "The  Church  an  Essential  Element  of 
the  Gospel,"  "Discourses  of  Redemption,"  etc.  Died 
October  5,  1881. 

Robinson,  (Tancred,  )  an  English  physician  and 
writer,  received  the  title  of  physician-in-ordhiary  to 
George  I.     Died  in  1748. 

Robinson,  (Therese  Albertine  Louise,)  wife  of 
Dr.  E.  Robinson,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Halle, 
Germany,  in  1797.  She  published  a  collection  of  tales 
under  the  signature  of  Talvi,  and  translated  a  number 
of  poems  from  the  Servian  language,  entitled  "Volks- 
lieder  der  Serben."  She  has  also  translated  into  Ger- 
man Pickering's  treatise  "  On  the  Indian  Tongues  of 
North  America."  Among  her  other  works  may  be 
named  a  "Historical  View  of  the  Languages  and  Lite- 
rature of  the  Slavic  Nations,  with  a  Sketch  of  their 
Popular  Poetry."     Died  in  1870. 

Robinson,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  naturalist, 
wrote  an  "Essay  toward  the  Natural  History  of  West- 
moreland and  Cumberland."     Died  in  1 7 19. 

Robinson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Wakefield  in  1749.  He  preached  at  Leicester  for  many 
years,  and  published  "The  Christian  System  Unfolded." 
Died  in  1813. 

See  Edward  T.  Vaughan,  "Lite  of  T.  Robinson." 

Robinson,  (William  E.,)  a  politician  and  journalist, 
born  at  Unagh,  Ireland,  May  6,  1814.  In  1836  he  re- 
moved to  the  United  States.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1841,  and  won  distinction  as  a  newspaper 
writer,  being  well  known  by  his  signature  of  Riche- 
lieu. He  vvas  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1854.  In  1866 
he  was  sent  to  Congress  from  New  York,  and  was  often 
re-elected. 

Robiquet,  ro'be'ky,  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1780.  He  was  professor  of 
chemistry  and  materia  medica  in  Paris,  and  succeeded 
Chaptal  in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1833.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1840. 

See  "  Biograpliie  Universelle." 

Rob'I-son,  (John,)  a  Scottish  mathematician  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Boghall,  county  of  Stirling, 
or  at  Rosehall,  near  Glasgow,  in  1739.  He  succeeded 
Dr.  Black  as  professor  of  chemistry  at  Glasgow  in  1767, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1774.  His  principal 
work  is  "Elements  of  Mechanical  Philosophy,"  (4  vols., 
1822.)     Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1805. 

See  David  Brewster,  "  Notice  of  J.  Robison,"  prefixed  to  the 
work  above  named ;  Chamber.s,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Scotsmen." 

Roboam.     See  Rehoboam. 

Robortello,  ro-boR-tel'lo,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Udine  in  1 5 16.  He 
was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Venice,  and  taught  Greek 
and  Latin  at  Padua.  Among  his  works  are  "  Annotations 
of  Various  Passages,"  ("  Variorum  Locorum  Annota- 
tiones,"  1543,)  and  "De  Facultate  historica,"  (1548.) 
Died  in  1567. 

See  Ghii.ini,  "Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia 
della  Letteratura  Itahana." 

Rob  Roy,  a  Scottish  adventurer,  whose  original 
name  was  Macgregor,  born  about  1660,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  Pretender  in  the  rebellion  of  1715.  The  Duke 
of  Montrose  having  seized  his  lands,  Rob  Roy  carried 
on  a  war  of  reprisals  for  many  years,  and  became  widely 
celebrated  for  his  exploits.  He  is  the  hero  of  one  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  most  popular  novels.     Died  in  1743. 

See  K.  Macleav,  "Historical  Memoirs  of  Rob  Roy,"  1818: 
"  BLickvvood's  Magazine"  for  October,  November,  and  December, 
1817. 

Rob'son,  (Frederick,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born 
at  Margate  in  1821.  He  performed  in  London  and 
Dublin  with  success.     Died  in  1864. 

Robson,  (George  Fennel,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Durham,  worked  in  London.     Died  in 

1833- 
Robusti.    See  Tintoreito. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  loiior;  ^^  ^^  5^  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


ROBUSTI 


2073 


R  O  CHE/A  Q  UELEIN 


Robusti,  ro-boos'tee,  (Domenico,)  a  painter,  some- 
times called  Tintoretto,  horn  at  Venice  in  1562,  was 
a  son  and  pupil  of  the  great  painter  Tintoretto.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits  with  success.  Among  his 
works  are  an  "Annunciation"  and  a  "  Nativity  of  Christ." 
Died  in  1637. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Robusti,  (Marietta,)  an  excellent  Italian  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  1560,  was  a  daughter  of  Tintoretto.  She 
died  in  1590. 

Ro'bj^,  (John,)  an  English  writer  of  prose  and  verse, 
born  in  Lancashire,  became  a  banker  of  Rochdale.  He 
wrote  "Sir  Bartram,"  a  poem,  (1815,)  and  "Traditions 
of  Lancashire,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  He  perished  in  the 
wreck  of  the  Orion,  in  June,  1850. 

Rocaberti,  de,  di  ro-kd-b&R'tee,  (Juan  Tommaso,) 
a  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Perelada  about  1625.  He 
advocated  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  in  his  work  "On 
the  Authority  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,"  ("  De  Romani 
Pontificis  Auctoritate,"  1693.)     Died  in  1699. 

Rocca,  rok'ki,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at 
Rocca  Contrata  in  1545.  He  founded  at  Rome  a  public 
library  called  Bibliotheca  Angelica.     Died  in  1620. 

Roch,  rok,  Saint,  born  at  Montpellier,  in  France,  in 
1295,  was  renowned  for  his  charity  and  his  humane 
attentions  to  the  sick.     Died  in  1327. 

See  Dp.  Saint- Alban,  "  Vie  de  Saint- Roch,"  1849 ;  Cofpini^res, 
"Sainl-Roch,  fitude  historique,"  1855. 

Rochambeau,  de,  deh  ro'shSN'bo',  (DoNATiEN(do'- 
nt'seJl.N')  Marie  Joseph  de  Vimeur — deh  ve'muR',) 
Vico.MTE,  a  French  general,  born  near  Vendome  in 
1750.  He  went  to  Saint  Domingo  with  Leclerc,  at 
whose  death,  in  1802,  he  became  commander-in-chief. 
He  was  killed  at  Leipsic  in  1813. 

Rochambeau,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Donatien  de 
ViMEUR,)  a  French  marshal,  born  at  Vendome  in  1725, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Minorca,  at  Crevelt,  and  at  Minden,  (1759.) 
He  commanded  an  army  of  six  thousand  men  sent  to 
the  United  States  in  1780,  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
at  Yorktown  in  October,  1781.  In  1791  he  obtained  the 
baton  of  marshal.  He  commanded  an  army  against  the 
Austrians  in  1792,  but  resigned  in  the  same  year.  Died 
in  1S07. 

_  See  "Memoires  de  Rochambeau,"  by  himself,  1809;  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale;"  "  Biographie  Universelle  " 

Roche,  rosh,  (Achille,)  a  French  political  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1801,  was  a  republican. 
He  wrote  "  Albert  Renaud,"  (4  vols.,  1825,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1825.)     Died  in  1834. 

Roche,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Nevers  in  1790.  Among  his  works  is  "  Elements 
of  Medico-Surgical  Pathology,"  (1825-28.)    Died  1875. 

Roche,  rotch,  ?  (Maria  Regina,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1764.  She  wrote  "The  Children  of  the  Abbey," 
and  other  tales.     Died  in  1845. 

Roche-Aymon,  de,  deh  rosh  |'m6N',  (Antoine 
Charles  Etienne,)  Marquis,  a  French  general  and 
writer  on  the  art  of  war,  born  in  Paris  about  1775.  He 
was  aide-de-camp  of  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  (1794- 
1802.)     Died  in  1862. 

Rochechouart.  See  Montespan,  de,  and  Morte- 
mart,  de. 

Rochefort,  (Henri,)  Vicomte  de  Lufay,  (deh  lii'si',) 
a  French  republican  agitator,  born  January  30,  1830. 
He  became  editor  of  the  "  Lanterne,"  in  which  he  so 
violently  assailed  the  imperial  policy  that  he  was  banished. 
Having  returned  to  Paris,  he  began  to  issue  a  journal 
called  "  The  Marseillaise,"  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  legislative  body  in  1869.  He  published  offensive 
remarks  and  lampoons  on  Napoleon  HI.,  for  which  he 
was  in  1870  sentenced  to  an  imprisonment  of  six  months. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  provisional  government, 
September  4,  1870,  but  resigned  about  the  ist  of  No- 
vember. In  1872  he  was  banished  to  New  Caledonia, 
but  escaped  in  1874.     He  returned  to  Paris  in  1880. 

Rochefort,  de,  deh  rosh'foR',  (Guillaume  Dubois,) 
a  French  writer  and  translator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1731. 
He  wrote  against  the  Materialists,  and  translated  Ho- 
mer's "Iliad"  (1770)  and  "Odyssey,"  (1777,)  also  the 
works  of  Sophocles,  (1788.)    Died  in  17S8. 


Rochefort,  de,  (Henri  Louis  d'Aloigny,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  general,  who  became  marshal  of  France 
in  1675.     Died  in  1676. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  deh  It  rosh'foo'kS',  (Fran- 
gois,)  Prince  de  Marsillac,  (maR'se-ytk',)  a  French 
Huguenot  leader,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde.  He  fought  at  Chartres  and  Jarnac,  (1569.)  He 
perished  in  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  Paris, 
August  24,  1572. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (FRANgois,)  Due,  Prince  de 
Marsillac,  a  celebrated  French  moralist  and  courtier, 
born  in  December,  1613.  He  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Vivonne  about  1637.  In  his  youth  he  was  engaged  at 
court  as  the  confidential  agent  of  the  queen  in  intrigues 
against  Richelieu.  He  formed  in  1646  a  liaison  with 
Madame  de  Longueville,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Fronde 
was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  party  which  opposed  the 
court.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  near 
Paris  in  1652,  after  which  he  renounced  intrigues  and  fac- 
tious enterprises.  He  produced  in  1665  his  "Maxims," 
("  Reflexions,  ou  Sentences  et  Maximes  morales,")  which, 
according  to  Voltaire,  is  one  of  the  works  which  con- 
tributed most  to  form  and  rectify  the  national  taste. 
The  essential  principle  of  this  book  is  that  self  love  or 
interest  is  the  chief  motive  of  human  actions.  In  his 
latter  years  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Madame  de  La 
Fayette  and  Madame  de  Sevigne.     Died  in  1680. 

See  his  autobiographic  "M^moires,"  1662;  Suard,  "Notice  sur 
La  Rochefoucauld,"  1782;  M  adamedeSi^vign^,"  Lettres;"  Saintb- 
Beuve,  "  fitudes  sur  La  Rochefoucauld,"  1853;  G.  B.  Depfing, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  La  Rochefoucauld,"  1822; 
"Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (Fr^d^ric  Charles,)  Earl 
of  Lifford,  a  French  general,  born  in  1633,  was  a  zealous 
Protestant.     Died  at  Bath,  England,  in  1690. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (Louis  Alexandre,)  Due 
de  la  Roche-Guyon,  (deh  It  rosh  ge'6N',)  a  French 
patriot,  born  in  1743.  He  favoured  the  popular  cause  in 
the  Revolution,  and  was  an  active  member  of  the  States- 
(ieneral  in  1789.     He  was  massacred  at  Gisors  in  1792. 

Rochefoucauld-Liancourt,  de  la,  deh  It  rosh'- 
foo'ko' le'fiN'kooR',  (FRANgois  Alexandre  Fr£d6ric,) 
Due,  a  liberal  French  peer  and  philanthropist,  born  in 
1747,  was  a  cousin  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1789-90,  and  went  into 
exile  in  1792,  after  which  he  travelled  in  the  United 
States.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1799.  He  founded  the 
school  of  Arts  et  Metiers,  (at  Chalons,)  and  the  first 
saving-fund  in  France.  lie  published  "Travels  in  the 
United  States  of  America,"  (8  vols.,  1800.)  Died  in  1827. 
His  son,  Fr6d£ric  Ga6tan,  Marquis  de  la  Rochefou- 
cauld-Liancourt, born  at  Liancourt  in  1779,  author  of 
poems,  dramas,  and  historical  works,  died  in  1863. 

See  Ga^tan  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  "Vie  du  Ducde  la  Roche- 
foucauld-Liancourt," 1827;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  deh  It  rosh'zhtk'liN' 
(Henri  du  Verger — dii  v^R'zhi',)  Count,  a  French 
royalist  chief  of  the  Vendean  war,  was  born  in  Poitou  in 
1772.  He  took  command  of  a  band  of  peasants  in  1793, 
and  was  victorious  in  several  small  battles.  He  said  to 
his  men,  "  If  I  advance,  follow  me  ;  if  1  retreat,  kill  me  ; 
if  I  die,  avenge  me."  In  October,  1793,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  insurgents.  He  gained  a  victory 
at  Entrames,  October  27,  but  was  defeated  with  great 
loss  at  Mans,  December  13.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at 
Nouaille  in  March,  1794. 

See  Theodore  Muret,  "Vie  populaire  de  H.  de  la  Rochejaque- 
lein," 1845. 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  (Louis,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1777.  He  was  an  officer  in  the 
army,  and  served  against  the  negroes  in  Hayti.  In  May, 
181 5,  he  raised  a  body  of  Vendeans  to  fight  for  Louis 
XVIII.  He  was  killed  in  an  action  at  Pont  des  Mathis 
in  June  of  that  year. 

See  Madame  de  la  Rochejaquelein,  "Memoires;"  "Quarterlj 
Review"  tor  April,  1816. 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  (Marie  Louise  Victotre 
de  Donnissan — deh  do'ne'sdN',)  Marquise,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1772.  She  married  in  1790  the  Marquis 
de  Lescure,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chollct. 
About  1800  she  became  the  wife  of  Louis  de  la  Roche- 
jaquelein, noticed  above.     She  wrote  "  Memoires"  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  G.  H,  K,g-uttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROCHERS 


2074 


RODMAN 


her  own  life  and  of  the  exploits  of  those  whose  name 
she  bore,  (1815.)     Died  in  1857. 

See  Alfred  Nettemknt,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  la  Rochejaque- 
lein,"  1859;  "Edinbuigh  Review"  for  February,  i8i6. 

Rochers,  Des..     See  Desrochkrs. 

Roches,  Des.    See  Desroches. 

Rochester.    See  Hyde,  (Lawrence.) 

Rochester,  Bishop  of.     See  Fisher. 

Roch'fs-ter,  (John  Wii.mot,)  Earl  of,  a  witty  and 
profligate  English  courtier,  born  in  O.\fordshire  in  1647, 
was  a  son  of  Henry,  Earl  of  Rochester.  He  became  a 
favourite  of  Charles  H.,  and  indulged  in  debauchery  and 
drunkenness  to  such  exxess  that  his  constitution  was 
eventually  ruined.  In  1665  he  entered  the  navy,  and 
signalized  his  courage  in  several  actions.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  songs,  satires,  etc.  He  died  in  i68o,  professing 
penitence  for  his  sins. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets  :"  Burnet,  "  Some 
Passages  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  John,  Earl  of  Rochester, "  1681. 

Rochet,  ro'shi',  (Louis,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in 
Paris  in  1817.     Died  January  21,  1878. 

Rochette,  ro'shgt',  (D6siRfi  Raoul,)  an  eminent 
French  archaeologist,  born  at  Saint-Amand  (Cher)  in 
1790.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Houdon  the  sculptor, 
and  succeeded  Guizot  as  professor  of  modern  history  in 
181 5.  He  became  professor  of  archaeology  in  Paris  in 
1826,  and  acquired  much  popularity  as  a  lecturer.  In 
1838  or  1839  he  was  elected  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Critical  History  of  the  Greek  Colonies,"  (4 
vols.,  181 5,)  and  "Memoirs  of  Comparative  Archaeology, 
Asiatic,  Greek,  and  Etruscan,"  (1848.)  He  left  unfinished 
a  "History  of  Ancient  Art."     Died  in  1854, 

See  Qui^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gdn^rale;"  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Rochlitz,  roK'lits,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1769  or  1770,  published  a  number  of 
tales  and  musical  treatises,  among  which  is  "  Blicke  in 
das  Gebiet  der  Kunste."     Died  in  1842. 

Rochon,  ro'sh^N',  (Alexis  Marie,)  a  French  as- 
tronomer and  navigator,  born  at  Brest  in  1 741.  He  was 
appointed  astronomer  of  the  marine  in  1766,  and  made 
a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies,  of  which  he  published  an 
account,  (3  vols.,  1791.)  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  An- 
cient and  Modern  Coins,"  (1792,)  treatises  on  optics, 
etc     Died  in  1817. 

See  Delambre,  "Notice  sur  Rochon,"  1818;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gdnerale." 

Rochon  de  Chabannes,  ro'shiN'  deh  sht'btn', 
(Marc  Antoine  Jacques,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1730.  He  wrote  some  successful  comedies. 
Died  in  1800. 

Rochov?-,  von,  fon  ro'Ko,  (Gustav  Adolf  Rochus,) 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  in  Rathenow  in  1792,  became 
minister  of  the  interior  and  of  the  police  in  1834.  Died 
n  1847. 

Rochus.    See  Roch,  Saint. 

Rock,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine, 
born  in  Liverpool,  England,  in  1799.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome,  and  in  1S52  became  Canon  of  Southwark. 
His  works  include  "  Hierurgia,"  (1833,)  "The  Church 
of  our  Fathers,"  (1849-54,)  etc.  Died  at  Kensington, 
England,  November  28,  187 1. 

Rockingham,  rok'ing-am,(CHARLES  Watson  Went- 
worth,)  second  Marquis  of,  an  English  Whig  states- 
man, was  born  in  1730.  He  succeeded  to  the  marquisate 
in  1750,  and  inherited  a  large  fortune,  which,  joined  with 
an  honourable  character,  rendered  him  a  person  of  great 
influence.  He  became  prime  minister  in  July,  1765,  and 
took  Edmund  Burke  into  his  service  as  private  secretary. 
The  notorious  Stamp  Act  was  repealed  by  this  ministry, 
which  by  the  enmity  of  the  king  was  driven  from  power 
in  July,  1766.  He  opposed  the  measures  by  which  Lord 
North  provoked  the  American  colonies  to  revolt.  When 
North  resigned,  (in  March,  1782,)  the  king  was  reduced 
to  the  painful  necessity  of  accepting  a  Whig  ministry, 
of  which  Lord  Rockingham  was  premier.  He  died  July 
I,  1782,  leaving  no  issue. 

See  Lord  Albemarle,  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Rocking- 
ham," 2  vols.,  1852:  Lord  Mahon,  "History  of  England;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1852. 


Rock'well,  (James  Otis,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1807.  He  became  associate 
editor  of  the  Boston  "Statesman,"  and  in  1829  assumed 
charge  of  the  "Patriot,"  a  journal  published  at  Provi- 
dence. He  died  in  183 1,  of  an  illness  caused  chiefly,  it 
is  supposed,  by  pecuniary  embarrassment.  Among  his 
poems  we  may  name  "The  Lost  at  Sea,"  and  lines  "To 
the  Ice-Mountain."  The  former  is  of  remarkable  beauty 
and  pathos.  Rockwell  was  a  friend  of  Whittier,  who 
has  written  an  eloquent  tribute  to  his  memory. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Rocoles,  de,  deh  ro'kol',  (Jean  BAFriSTE,)a  French 
historian,  born  at  Beziers  in  1620.  He  changed  sides 
three  or  four  times  in  religion,  being  a  Catholic  in  France 
and  a  Protestant  in  Holland.     Died  in  1696. 

Rodbertus,  rod-bSR'toos,  (Karl,)  a  German  social- 
ist, political  economist,  and  politician,  born  in  1805,  died 
in  1S75.  He  is  called  the  father  of  scientific  socialism, 
and  is  considered  the  ablest  writer  of  his  school. 

Rode,  ro'deh,  (Christian  Bernhard,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Berlin  in  1725.  He  painted 
history  and  portraits.  Among  his  prints  are  illustrations 
of  Gellert's  "  Fables."     Died  in  1797. 

Rode,  rod,  (Pierre,)  a  French  violinist  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Bordeaux  in  1774.  He  composed  con- 
certos, which  are  much  admired.     Died  in  1830. 

Rod'er-ic  or  Roderick,  [Fr.  Rodrtgue,  ro'dR^g'; 
Lat.  RoDERi'cus,]  King  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  re- 
belled against  Witiza  and  usurped  the  throne  in  709  or 
708  A.D.  Soon  after  this  event  his  dominions  were  invaded 
by  an  army  of  Arabs  or  Berbers,  under  Tarik,  whose  aid 
was  perhaps  solicited  by  the  sons  of  Witiza.  Roderic 
was  defeated  and  killed  by  these  invaders  in  711.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  Visigoths  that  reigned  in  Spain.  His 
story  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Southey's  most  popular 
poems,  entitled  "  Roderick  the  Goth." 
-  See  CoNDE,  "  Historia  de  la  Dominacion  de  los  Arabes  ;"  Mas- 
DEU,  "  Historia  critica." 

Rodericus.    See  Sanchez  de  Arevalo,  and  Ro 

DRIGUEZ. 

Rod'ger,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  writer  of  humor- 
ous songs,  born  at  East  Calder,  July  16,  17S4.  He  was 
successively  a  weaver,  a  pawnbroker,  and  a  Glasgow 
journalist.     Died  September  26,  1846. 

Rodg'^rs,  (John,)  an  American  commodore,  born  in 
Maryland  in  1771.  Being  appointed  to  the  command  of 
a  squadron  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1812,  he 
captured  seven  British  merchantmen.  He  was  after- 
wards president  of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners, 
and  commander  of  the  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Died  in  1838. 

Rodgers,  (John,)  a  brave  American  commodore,  born 
in  Maryland  about  1809.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1825. 
He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal, 
in  November,  1861.  In  May,  1862,  he  attacked  Fort 
Darling,  or  Drury's  Bluff,  on  the  James  River,  with  the 
iron-clad  Galena  and  other  gun-boats,  but  was  repulsed. 
He  commanded  the  Weehawken  in  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter  in  April,  1863,  and  captured  the  iron-clad  At- 
lanta near  Savannah  in  June  of  that  year.  He  was 
complimented  by  the  secretary  of  the  navy  "for  these 
heroic  and  serviceable  acts."  In  1870  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral.     Died  May  5,  1882. 

See  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  p.  542. 

Rodiger,  Ro'de-Ger,  (Emil,)  a  German  scholar,  born 
at  Sangerhausen,  October  13,  iSoi.  In  1S35  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Semitic  languages  in  Halle,  and 
in  1S60  he  was  transferred  to  Berlin,  where  he  ,died, 
June  15, 1874.  He  published  "  Syrische  Chrestomathie,'' 
(1838,)  and  "  Himjaritische  Schriftmonumente,"  (1841,) 
and  edited  and  completed  several  of  Gesenius's  more 
important  works. 

Rod'man,  (Isaac  Peace,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1822.  He  served 
as  captain  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  as  colonel  at 
the  capture  of  Roanoke  Island  and  at  Newbern,  North 
Carolina.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1862,  com- 
manded a  division  at  Fredericksburg,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Antietam,  in  September  of  the  same  year. 

See  Tennev,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  737. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 1'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  md5n; 


RODNEY 


2075 


ROGER 


Rod'ney,  (CitSAR,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  American  Independence,  was  born  at  Dover, 
in  Delaware,  about  1730.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  of  1774,  and  in  1777  was  elected 
President  of  the  State  of  Delaware.     Died  in  1783. 

See  "Lives  of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence." 

Rod'ney,  (George  Brydges,)  Lord,  a  British  ad- 
miral, born  at  Walton-upon-Thames  in  1 718.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1759,  and  that  of  admiral  of 
the  white  in  1778.  He  defeated  a  Spanish  fleet  near  Cape 
Saint  Vincent  in  1780.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank 
of  vice-admiral  of  England,  he  gained  an  important  vic- 
tory over  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse  in  the  West 
Indies,  April  12,  1782.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  Rodney.     Died  in  1792. 

SeeMoNBY,  "Life  of  Lord  Rodney;"  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the 
British  Admirals." 

Rodolph  OF  Hapsburg.     See  Rudolph. 

Rodolphe,  the  French  for  Rudolph,  which  see. 

Rodon,  de.     See  Derodon. 

Rodiigues,  ro'dR^g',  (Benjamin  Olinde,)  a  French 
socialist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1794.  He  became  a  favour- 
ite disciple  of  Saint-Simon,  who  bequeathed  to  him  his 
manuscripts.     Died  in  1850. 

Rodriguez,  ro-dRee'glth,  [Lat.  Roderi'cus,]  (Al- 
fonso,) a  Spanish  theologian,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1526. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  "Christian  Perfection,"  (1614,) 
which  was  often  reprinted  and  translated.    Died  in  1616. 

Rodriguez,  (Ventura,)  an  eminent  Spanish  archi- 
tect, born  at  Cienpozuelos  in  171 7.  He  designed  or 
'Constructed  churches,  palaces,  and  colleges  at  Saragossa, 
Toledo,  Malaga,  Granada,  etc.  He  became  professor  of 
architecture  at  Madrid  in  1752.     Died  in  1785. 

See  PoNZ,  "Viage  de  Espaiia." 

Roe,  (Azel  Stevens,)  an  American  author,  born  in 
New  York  city,  August  16,  179S.  He  was  in  early  life 
a  merchant.  He  published  a  large  number  of  novels, 
many  of  which  have  been  exceedingly  popular.  D.  18S6. 

Roe,  (Edward  Payson,)  an  American  novelist,  born 
at  New  Windsor,  New  York,  March  7,  1838,  was  educated 
at  Williams  College  and  at  Auburn  Theological  School, 
and  became  a  Presbyterian  minister.  He  was,  1874-84, 
a  nurseryman  and  fruit-grower  at  Cornwall  on  the  Hud- 
son. His  principal  works  are  "  Barriers  Burned  Away," 
(1872,)  "What  Can  She  Do?"  (1S73,)  "Play  and  Profit 
in  the  Garden,"  (1873,)  "  Opening  of  a  Chestnut  Burr," 
(1874,)  "Near  to  Nature's  Heart,"  (1875,)  "Culture  of 
Small  Fruits,"  (1876,)  "From  Jest  to  Earnest,"  (1S76,) 
"  Success  with  Small  Fruits,"  (iSSo,)  "  Without  a  Home," 
(18S1,)  "His  Sombre  Rivals,"  and  "Nature's  Serial 
Story,"  (1884.)     Died  July  19,  1888. 

Roe,  ro,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  ambassador,  born 
in  Essex  about  1580.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
the  Great  Mogul  in  1614,  and  to  Constantinople  in  1621. 
Died  in  1644. 

Roebling,  rSb'ling,  (John  Augustus,)  an  eminent 
engineer,  "born  at  Miihlhausen,  in  Prussia,  June  12, 
1806.  In  1831  he  settled  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
He  became  distinguished  as  a  constructor  of  suspension 
bridges,  for  use  in  which  structures  he  manufactured 
wire  ropes  on  an  extensive  scale.  The  Niagara  suspen- 
sion bridge,  and  that  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn, 
were  designed  by  him.  He  wrote  "  Long  and  Short 
Span  Bridges,"  (1869.)  Died  in  Brooldyn,  New  York, 
July  22,  1869. 

Roebling,  (Washington  Augustus,)  an  American 
engineer,  son  of  J.  A.  Roebling,  was  born  at  Saxonburg, 
Pennsylvania,  May  26, 1S36,  and  graduated  at  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  in  1857.  He  served  as  an 
engmeer-officer  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  attaining  the  rank 
of  colonel,  was  an  assistant  to  his  father  in  constructing 
the  suspension  bridges  at  Pittsburg  and  Cincinnati,  in 
1869  was  made  engineer  of  the  East  River  bridge  at 
New  York,  and  was  its  chief  engineer  during  the  period 
of  construction,  1869-S3.  He  published  numerous  re- 
ports, chiefly  on  that  bridge  and  its  towers. 

Roe'buck,  (John,)  an  English  chemist  and  iron- 
master, born  in  Sheffield  in  1 718,  practised  medicine  in 
Birmingham.  He  invented  a  method  of  procuring  sul- 
phuric acid  at  a  greatly-reduced  cost,  and  about  1760 
established  at  Carron  extensive  iron-works,  in  which  he 


improved  the  method  of  smelting  iron.  He  was  con- 
nected with  James  Watt  in  his  early  experiments  on  the 
steam-engine.     Died  in  1794. 

Roebuck,  (John  Arthur,)  a  British  politician,  3 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Madras  in  1801. 
He  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Bath  in  1832, 
and  again  in  1841.  After  1849  he  represented  Sheffield 
in  the  House  of  Commons  until  he  was  defeated  in  1868. 
He  originated  the  motion  on  the  conduct  of  the  Crimean 
war  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  and  removal  of  the 
Aberdeen  ministry.  He  displayed  a  violent  hostility  to 
the  United  States  and  sympathy  with  the  slaveholding 
Confederacy  during  the  great  civil  war.  In  1874  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
privy  council  in  1878.     Died  November  30,  1879. 

Roederer,ro'deh-rer  or  ri'deh-raiR',(jEAN  Georges,) 
a  French  physician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1726.  He 
became  professor  of  midwifery  at  Gottingen  in  1751. 
He  published  "Elements  of  the  Obstetric  Art,"  ("Ele- 
menta  Artis  obstetricise,"  1752,)  "On  Mucous  Disease," 
("De  Morbo  mucoso,"  1762,)  and  other  works.  DicH 
in  1763. 

See  "  Biograpliie  Medlcale." 

Roederer,  (Pierre  Louis,)  Comte,  a  French  states- 
man, was  born  at  Metz  in  1754.  As  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly,  (1790,)  he  advocated  liberty  and 
equality.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute 
in  1796.  promoted  the  accession  of  Bonaparte  to  power 
in  179'.,  and  became  a  senator  in  1802.  In  1806  Jose])h 
Bonaparte  appointed  him  minister  of  finance  in  Naples. 
He  held  no  office  under  the  Bourbons.  He  wrote  an 
able  "Memoir  on  Polite  Society  in  France,"  (1835.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  MiGNET,  "  Roederer,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Travanx,"  1838 ;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Causeries  duLundi,"  and  "LeComtede  Roederer,"  1853: 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Roelas,  de  las,  di  lis  ro-a'15s,  (Juan,)  an  excellent 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1560,  was  called 
El  Clerigo  Roelas.  He  worked  for  some  time  in 
Madrid,  and  removed  to  Olivares  about  1624.  The 
churches  of  Seville  are  adorned  with  many  of  his  works. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  El  Transito"  of  San  Isi- 
doro,  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  "  Santiago."    Died  in  1625. 

RoeU.    See  Roll. 

Roemer.     See  Romer. 

Roenne.    See  Ronne. 

Roepel,  roo'pel,  (Conrad,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  flowers 
and  fruits,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1679  ;  died  in  1748. 

Roer  or  Roeer,  ro'er,  (Hans  Heinrich  Eduard,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1805.  In 
1839  he  visited  Calcutta,  and  became  in  1846  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  Asiatic  Society.  About  the  same 
time  he  founded  the  "  Bibliotheca  Indica,"  to  which  he 
contributed  a  number  of  translations  from  the  Sanscrit, 
Arabic,  and  Persic. 

Roestraten,  roos'tR^'ten,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  portraits  and  still  life,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1627.  He 
worked  for  some  years  in  London,  where  he  died  in 
1698. 

Roetscher.    See  Rotscher. 

Roffensis.  See  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester.  (The 
title  Roffensis,  often  abridged  to  RoFFEN.,is  ixora.Roffa, 
a  Latin  name  of  Rochester,  and  belongs  to  all  bishops  of 
that  English  see.) 

Rog'er,  [It.  Ruggiero,  rood-ja'ro,]  Count  of  Sicily, 
born  in  Normandy  in  103 1,  was  an  enterprising  warrior. 
He  conquered  Sicily  from  the  Saracens,     Died  in  iioi. 

See  "Nouvelle   Biographie  Gi5nerale." 

Roger  I.,  King  of  Sicily,  born  about  1096,  was  a 
son  and  successor  of  the  preceding.  At  the  death  of 
his  cousin,  Duke  of  Apulia,  he  obtained  possession  ot 
Apulia  and  Calabria,  (1127.)  He  took  arms  against 
Pope  Innocent  II.,  and  made  him  prisoner,  in  1139. 
By  recognizing  Roger  as  King  of  Sicily,  etc.,  the  poi)c 
obtained  his  liberty.  Roger  was  an  able  and  powerful 
prince.     Died  in  11 54. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Annali  d'ltalia  ;"  Ordericus  Vitalis,  "  His« 
toria  Ecclesiastica  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G6n^rale." 

Rog'er,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  a  powerful  English  prel- 
ate, became  prime  minister  of  Henry  I.  about  1107. 
Died  in  1139. 


€  as  >&;  5  as  s;  |  hard;  g  asy;  o,  H,  MH^gnthiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (([[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROGER 


2076 


ROGGEWEEN 


Roger,  ro'zhi',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  painter  of  his- 
tory, born  at  Palaiseau  in  1800;  died  in  1880. 

Roger,  (GusTAVE  Hippolyte,)  a  French  vocalist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815;  died  September  14,  1879. 

Roger,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Langres  in  1776.  He  ])roduced  "The  Lawyer," 
("L'Avocat,"  1S06,)  and  other  successful  comedies.  In 
1816  he  became  secretary-general  of  the  post-office.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Prench  Academy  in  1817.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Roger,  (Pierre.)     See  Clement  VI. 

Roger  Ducos.     See  Ducos. 

Roger  di  Loria.     See  Loria,  di. 

Roger  (or  Richard)  of  Hexham,  an  English  chroni- 
cler, was  prior  of  a  convent  at  Hexham  about  1150. 

Roger  of  Hoveden.    See  Hoveden,  de. 

Roger  of  Weudover,  an  English  chronicler,  wrote 
"Flowers  of  History,"  ("  Flores  Historiarum,")  which 
commences  at  the  creation.     Died  in  1237. 

Rog'^rS,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  composer  of  sacred 
music,  born  at  Windsor ;  died  about  1698. 

Rogers,  (Charles,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Westminster  in  171 1 ;  died  in  17S4. 

Rogers,  (Daniel,)  an  English  scholar  and  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Aston  about  1540,  was  a  pupil  of  Me- 
lanchthon.  He  was  employed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
embassies  to  Germany,  etc.     Died  in  1590. 

See  Wood,  "Athena  Oxonienses." 

Rogers,  (George,)  an  English  theological  writer, 
born  in  1741.  He  was  rector  of  Sproughton  for  about 
fifty  years.     Died  in  1835. 

Rogers,  (Henry,)  a  distinguished  English  essayist, 
born  at  Saint  Alban's  in  1806,  was  an  Independent  min- 
ister in  early  life.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  a  number  of  essays  and  biographical  notices, 
which  were  republished  in  1850.  He  is  author  of  "The 
Eclipse  of  Faith,"  (1S52,)  and  of  other  works,  some  of 
which  are  designed  to  prove  that  philosophy  and  re- 
vealed religion  are  in  accordance  with  each  other.  He 
became  principal  of  an  Independent  College  near  Man- 
chester in  1857.  In  1866  he  published  "Reason  and 
Faith,  with  other  Essays."    Died  August  20,  1877. 

Rog'ers,  (Henry  Darwin,)  an  eminent  American 
geologist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1809.  He  made  a 
survey  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  of  which  he  published 
a  report,  and  a  geological  map,  in  1S35.  His  report  on 
the  geology  of  Pennsylvania  came  out  in  1858,  (2  vols. 
4to.)  It  enjoys  a  high  reputation  for  thoroughness  and 
accuracy.  He  was  appointed  in  1857  regius  professor 
of  geology  and  natural  history  at  Glasgow,  Scotland. 
He  also  became  associate  editor  of  the  "New  Philo- 
sophical Journal,"  Edinburgh,  and  contributed  to  various 
other  periodicals.     Died  in  Glasgow  in  May,  1866. 

Rogers,  (James  Blythe,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1803.  He  was  appointed  in  1847  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  author 
of  several  valuable  scientific  treatises.     Died  in  1852. 

Rogers,  (John,)  an  English  martyr,  was  in  his  youth 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest.  Having  been  converted  at 
Antwerp,  he  settled  at  Wittenberg  as  pastor  of  a  Prot- 
estant church.  He  returned  to  England  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  became  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's. 
He  was  committed  to  prison  in  1553  or  1554,  condemned 
as  a  heretic  by  Bonner  and  Gardiner,  and  burned  at 
Smithfield  in  1555,  refusing  to  save  his  life  by  apostasy 
from  the  truth. 

See  Chester,  "  Life  of  John  Rogers." 

Rogers,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
born  at  Ensham,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1679,  lived  sonie 
time  in  London.  He  published  a  "Discourse  of  the 
Visible  and  Invisible  Church  of  Christ,"  (1719,)  and 
other  controversial  works.     Died  in  1729. 

See  Samuel  Miller,  "Memoirs  of  John  Rogers." 

Rogers,  (John,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  October  30,  1829.  In  early  life  he  was 
a  machinist,  but,  becoming  inspired  with  a  love  for  plastic 
art,  he  visited  Paris  and  Rome  in  1857.  After  his  return 
he  perfected  the  art  of  modelling  in  a  new  clay  compo- 


sition, in  which  he  executed  great  numbers  of  statuette 
groups.  His  genre  is  singularly  original,  homely,  and 
unconventional,  but  entirely  true  to  nature.  Among  his 
best-known  groups  are  "The  Checker- Players,"  "The 
Charity  Patient,"  "The  Town-Pump,"  "The  Country 
Post-Office,"  and  a  large  number  of  representations  of 
war-subjects. 

Rogers,  (Randolph,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  in 
New  York  (State)  in  1825.  His  early  art-studies  were 
made  chiefly  in  Rome,  where  he  has  for  the  most  part 
resided.  Among  the  best-known  of  his  works  are  a 
bronze  door  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  with  scenes  in 
the  career  of  Columbus  in  high  relief,  a  statue  of  Lincoln 
in  Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia,  and  various  memorial 
monuments  and  statues  in  different  American  cities. 

Rogers,  (Robert  Empie,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Henry 
Darwin,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Baltimore  in  1814. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  became  in  1852  professor  of  chemistry.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  dean  of  the  medical  faculty 
in  that  institution.     Died  September  6,  1884. 

Rogers,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  English  poet,  born  at 
Newington  Green,  a  suburb  of  London,  on  the  30th  of 
July,  1763.  He  was  the  tiiird  son  of  Thomas  Rogers,  a 
London  banker.  After  leaving  school  he  becaine  suc- 
cessively a  clerk  and  a  partner  in  his  father's  banking- 
house.  He  published  in  1786  a  volume  entitled  "An 
Ode  to  Superstition,  and  other  Poems,"  which  attracted 
little  notice.  In  1792  he  produced  his  "Pleasures  of 
Memory,"  a  beautiful  and  highly-finished  poem,  which 
was  received  with  much  favour.  He  removed  in  1803 
to  a  fine  house  in  Saint  James  Place,  in  which  he  passed 
the  rest  of  his  long  life.  This  house  was  celebrated  as 
a  resort  of  eminent  literary  and  political  characters, 
including  Scott,  Byron,  Moore,  Wordsworth,  Southey, 
and  Coleridge.  He  retired  from  business  in  the  prime 
of  life,  with  an  ample  fortune,  of  which  he  made  a  gen- 
erous use.  He  gave  liberally  to  artists  and  literary  men 
who  were  in  pecuniary  distress.  His  reputation  was  fully 
maintained,  or  perhaps  increased,  by  "Human  Life, 
a  poem,  (1819.)  In  1822  he  produced  the  first  part  of 
an  admirable  poem,  entitled  "Italy,"  which  is  his  most 
extensive  work.  It  is  stated  that  he  spent  ^10,000  in 
the  illustration  of  this  poem,  the  complete  edition  of 
which,  with  engravings  after  Prout  and  Turner,  appeared 
in  1836.  He  was  never  married.  Died  in  December, 
1855,  over  ninety-two  years  of  age. 

See  "Recollections  of  the  Table-Talk  of  Samuel  Rogers,"  1856; 
Jeffrey,  "Miscellanies;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Ed- 
inburgh Review"  for  October,  1813,  and  Alarch,  1819;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  March,  1813;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1856; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  North  British  Review"  lor 
August,  1856;  "  Biographical  Sketches,"  by  H.  Martineau. 

Rogers,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  entered  a 
college  at  Oxford  in  1568.     Died  in  1616. 

Rogers,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  di- 
vine, born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  175 1.  He  was 
appointed  in  1778  a  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army, 
and  in  1792  became  professor  of  English  and  oratory  m 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.     Died  in  1824. 

Rogers,  (William  Barton,)  brother  of  Henry  Dar- 
win, noticed  above,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1805,  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  and  geology 
in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Elements  of  Mechanical  Philosophy," 
(1852,)  and  contributed  to  various  scientific  journals, 
both  American  and  foreign.     Died  May  30,  1882. 

Rogers,  (Woodes,)  Captain,  an  English  navigator 
and  buccaneer,  commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Spaniards  in  the  South  Sea  about  1709.     Died  in  1732. 

Roget,  ro'zhk',  (Peter  Mark,)  F.R.S.,an  English 
physiologist  and  physician,  of  French  extraction,  born 
in  1779,  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1798.  He 
settled  in  London,  and  was  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Society.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  able  work 
entitled  "Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  (1834,) 
which  is  one  of  the  "  Bridgewater  Treatises."  He  is 
author  of  other  scientific  works,  and  of  a  "Thesaurus 
of  English  Words  and  Phrases,"  (1853.)  Died  in 
September,  1869. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1834. 

Rogge'ween,  rog'geh-wan',  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  navi- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  i1,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  9,  ohscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


ROGHMAN 


2077 


ROLAND 


gator,  born  in  Zealand  in  1669.  He  commanded  an 
exploring  expedition  sent  from  Holland  to  the  South 
Sea  in  1 721.     Died  in  1733. 

Roghman,  roc'mJn,  (Roland,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1597.  He  painted  Dutch 
and  German  scenery.  He  also  produced  some  fine 
etchings  of  landscapes.     Died  in  1686. 

Rogier,  ro'zhe-i',  (Charles  Latour,  )  a  Belgian 
statesman,  was  boi^  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1800.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  provisional  government 
formed  in  1830.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  interior,  and  in  1840  minister  of  public  works. 
He  became  again  in  1847  minister  of  the  interior  in  a 
cabinet  of  which  the  king  confided  to  him  the  formation. 
Having  retired  in  1852,  he  was  reappointed  to  the  same 
office  in  1857,  and  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
1861.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Liberal  party.  He  died 
at  Brussels,  in  1885. 

Rognetta,  r6n-y5t'tl,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  about  1805,  practised  in  Paris.  Died  at 
Naples  in  1857. 

Rogniat,  ron'ye-f ',  (Joseph,)  Baron,  a  French  gene- 
tal  of  engineers,  born  at  Saint-Priest  in  1776.  He  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  grand  army  in  i8l2.    Died  in  1840. 

Rohan,  de.     See  Soubise. 

Rohan,  de,  deh  ro'6N',  (Anne,)  a  French  Protestant 
lady,  distinguished  for  her  piety  and  learning,  born  in 
1584,  was  a  sister  of  Henri,  Due  de  Rohan.  She  was 
mistress  of  the  Hebrew  and  other  ancient  languages. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1646. 

Rohan,  de,  (Henri,)  Due,  Prince  de  Leon,  an  able 
French  Huguenot  chief,  born  in  Brittany  in  1579,  was  a 
son  of  Renee,  noticed  below.  He  married  in  1605 
Marguerite  de  Bethune,  daughter  of  the  Due  de  Sully. 
He  commanded  an  army  which  fought  for  religious 
liberty  in  the  civil  war  vvhich  began  in  1621,  was  sus- 
pended by  a  treaty  in  1623,  renewed  in  1627,  and  ended 
in  1629.  Having  retired  to  Venice,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  Venetian  army  in  1630,  and  was 
chosen  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  to  direct  the  war  in  the 
Valtelline.  He  defeated  the  Imperialists  in  1635  at 
Luvino  and  Tirano.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
Rheinfelden,  where  he  fought  for  his  friend  Bernard 
of  Saxe-Weimar,  in  1638.  He  left  Memoirs  of  events 
which  occurred  in  France  from  1610  to  1629,  and  a 
treatise  on  war, — "Le  parfait  Capitaine,"  (1636.) 

See  CouRTit.z  de  Sandras,  "Histoire  secrJte  du  Due  H.  de 
Rohan,"  1697;  Haag,  "La  Fiance  protestante;"  Bazin,  "Histoire 
de  Louis  XIII ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

,  Rohan,  de,  (Louis,)  Prince,  a  Frenchman,  noted 
for  his  gallantry  and  intrigues,  was  born  about  1635. 
He  was  a  son  of  Louis  de  Rohan,  Prince  de  Guemene. 
Having  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  against  Louis  XIV.,  he 
was  executed  in  1674. 

Rohan,  de,  (Louis  Ren^  £douard,)  Prince  Car- 
uiNAi^  was  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1772,  but,  having  offended 
Maria  Theresa,  he  was  recalled  in  1774.  He  became 
a  cardinal  in  1778.  He  was  a  patron  of  Cagliostro, 
and  was  scandalously  implicated  in  the  affair  of  the 
"Diamond  Necklace,"  (1784,)  in  which  he  was  the  dupe 
of  Madame  La  Motte,  who,  by  forged  letters,  signed 
"  Marie  Antoinette,"  persuaded  the  cardinal  to  buy  a 
necklace  as  a  present  to  the  queen.  For  this  he  was 
tried  and  acquitted.     Died  in  1803. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Rohan,  de,  (Marie.)     See  Chevreuse,  de. 

Rohan,  de,  (Ren^e,)  Vicomte,  Sieur  de  Pontivy 
et  de  Frontenay,  a  French  Protestant,  born  in  1550, 
was  one  of  the  most  valiant  captains  of  his  time.  He 
married  the  celebrated  Catherine  de  Parthenay-Larche- 
veque.     Died  in  1586. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Rohault,  ro'o',  (Jacqites,)  a  French  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Amiens  in  1620,  was  a  teacher  of  Cartesian 
philosophy.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Physics,"  ("  Traite 
de  Physique,"  1671,)  which  was  for  a  long  time  a  standard 
work  on  that  subject.     Died  in  1675. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Rohault  de  Fleury,  ro'6'  deh  fluh're',  (Charles,) 


a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  The  govern- 
ment committed  to  him  the  construction  of  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  about  1830.     Died  August  li,  1875. 

RohlnJ,  ro'hi-nee',  [etymology  obscure,]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Daksha,  said  to  be  the  favourite  wrfe  of  Chandra,  (or 
the  moon.*)  She  is  the  bright  star  in  the  bull's  eye, 
called  in  Arabic  Aldebaran,  (or  Al  Dabaran.)  Other 
stars  regarded  as  the  sisters  of  Rohini  are  also  num- 
bered among  the  wives  of  Chandra. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Rohlfs,  r6lfs,  (Gerhard,)  a  German  explorer,  born 
at  Vegesack,  April  14,  1834.  Having  studied  medicine 
at  Wiirzburg,  Heidelberg,  and  Gottingen,  he  entered  the 
French  military  service  in  Africa,  and  in  1861  went  upon 
a  long  series  of  journeys  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa. 
He  published  many  volumes  in  which  the  very  important 
results  of  these  journeys  are  recorded. 

Rohmann,  ro'mSn,  (Jorgen  Lindegaard,)  a  Danish 
historian  and  poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Seeland  in  1797. 
He  published  several  works  on  Danish  history,  and  be- 
came Bishop  of  Fiinen.     Died  in  1855. 

Rbhr  or  Roehr,  roR,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  near  Naumburg  in  1777.  He  was 
identified  with  the  rationalistic  school,  and  published 
several  works  on  theology.  He  resided  at  Weimar, 
where  he  died  in  1848. 

Rohrbacher,  rou'bi'shaiR',  (Ren6  Francois,)  a 
French  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Langatte  in  1789. 
He  wrote  a  "General  History  of  the  Catholic  Church," 
(29  vols.,  1849-53.)     Died  in  1856. 

Rojas  or  Roxaa,  de,  di  ro'nis,  (Fernando,)  a  cele- 
brated Spanish  author,  who  flourished  about  1500.  Hi.s 
dramatic  romance  "Celestina"  obtained  great  popu- 
larity.    The  first  edition  of  it  was  dated  1500. 

Rojas  or  Rojas-Zorilla,  de,  di  ro'nSs  tho-rM'y3, 
(Francisco,)  an  eminent  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at 
Toledo  in  1601.  Among  his  dramas  are  "  Garcia  del  CaS- 
tanar,"  "El  Desden  vengado,"  ("The  Insult  Avenged,") 
"  Progne  y  Filomena,"  and  "  Entre  Bobos  anda  el  Juego." 

Rokes,  ro'kSs,  (Henry,)  called  Zorg,  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of 
David  Teniers.     Died  in  1682. 

Rokitansky,  ro-ke-tSn'ske,  (Karl,)  a  distinguished 
physician  and  pathologist,  born  at  Koniggratz,  in  Bo- 
hemia, in  1804.  He  became  in  1844  professor  of  patho- 
logical anatomy  at  Vienna,  and  subsequently  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  rector  of  the  University 
in  that  city.  He  was  the  projector  of  the  great  Vienna 
Hospital.  He  published  a  "Manual  of  Pathological 
Anatomy,"  (1842,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  standard  and 
has  been  translated  into  English.     Died  July  23,  1878. 

Rokmeny.    See  RukminT. 

Ro'land,  [Lat.  Rutlan'dus;  It.  Orlando  or  Ro- 
lando,] a  hero  celebrated  in  the  romances  of  chivalry, 
was  supposed  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  Charlemagne. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Roncesvalles,  in  778  a.d. 

See  Ariosto,  "Orlando  Furioso." 

Roland,  to'ISn',  a  brave  and  able  leader  of  the 
French  Camisards,  was  born  in  Gard  in  1675.  He 
gained  several  victories  about  1702  over  the  royal  forces, 
who  could  not  capture  him  until  he  was  betrayed  by  one 
of  his  party.     He  was  shot  in  1704. 

Ro'land,  [Fr.  pron.  to'ISn',]  Madame,  (originally 
Marie  Jeanne  Phlipon  (fle'pdN')  or  Philipon,  (fe  - 
le'p6N',)  also  called  Manon  Phlipon,)  one  of  the  most 
noble  and  highly-gifted  women  that  France  has  produced, 
was  born  in  Paris,  March  17,  1754.  She  was  the  only 
child  of  an  engraver,  and  was  liberally  educated.  Latin 
and  music  were  included  in  the  list  of  her  studies.  She 
was  fond  of  books  in  early  childhood,  and  received  a 
lasting  influence  from  Plutarch,  who  was  her  favourite 
author  when  she  was  nine  years  of  age.  In  youth  she 
was  an  enthusiastic  devotee  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
about  the  age  of  twelve  persuaded  her  parents  to  send 
her  to  a  convent  for  one  year.  Her  mature  opinions 
about  religion  are  thus  indicated  in  a  passage  of  her 
Memoirs:  "I  can  still  attend  with  interest  the  celebra- 

•  The  moon  in  Sanscrit  (as  in  German)  is  masculine, — not  feminine, 
as  in  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome. 


t  as  k:  9  as  J.-  |  hard;  g  as//  G,  H,  Vi, ^ittiiral ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  r;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


ROLAND 


2078 


ROLL  AND 


tioii  of  divine  worship  when  it  is  conducted  with  dignity. 
I  forget  the  quackery  of  the  priests,  their  ridiculous 
fables,  and  their  absurd  mysteries.  .  .  .  The  woes  of 
•mankind,  the  consoling  hope  of  an  all-powerful  Remune- 
rator,  occupy  my  thoughts  ;  all  other  fancies  vanish  ;  the 
sense  of  duty  is  quickened,"  etc.  After  she  had  arrived 
at  womanhood,  though  her  faith  in  the  Church  was 
shaken,  she  preferred  studious  retirement  to  the  hollow 
and  frivolous  pleasures  of  the  gay  world.  She  rejected 
many  successive  suitors,  whom  her  beauty  attracted  in 
such  numbers  that  she  compared  them  to  a  levee  en  masse, 
and  resolved  to  marry  none  but  a  philosopher. 

About  1775  she  was  introduced  to  M.  Roland,  whom 
she  characterizes  as  "  un  veritable  homme  de  bien,"  ("a 
truly  good  man.")  He  took  several  years  to  consider 
the  subject,  and  when  he  offered  his  hand  her  father 
refused  his  consent,  although  he  (M.  Phlipon)  was  re- 
cently ruined  in  fortune  by  his  dissipated  habits.  Before 
this  time,  it  appears,  she  had  lost  her  mother,  who  was 
an  excellent  woman.  Her  father's  house  having  ceased 
to  be  a  desirable,  or  even  tolerable,  residence,  she  retired 
to  the  convent  in  Paris  in  which  she  had  formerly  passed 
a  year.  After  she  had  lived  here  five  months,  M.  Roland 
renewed  his  offer,  which  was  accepted.  They  were  mar- 
ried in  1780,  after  which  they  resided  successively  at 
Paris,  Amiens,  and  Lyons.  She  visited  England  with 
her  husband  in  1784,  and  Switzerland  in  1787.  She 
was  an  enthusiastic  votary  of  republican  liberty,  and  in 
the  first  stage  of  the  Revolution  enlisted  in  the  cause 
with  ardour,  although  she  expressed  a  presentiment  that 
she  would  be  placed  in  the  forlorn  hope  of  the  army. 
By  her  fascinating  manners,  commanding  genius,  and 
great  conversational  powers,  she  acquired  such  an  influ- 
ence in  the  councils  of  the  Girondists  that  she  has  been 
called  the  "inspiring  soul"  of  that  party.  She  assisted 
M.  Roland  in  his  official  duties  while  he  was  minister  of 
the  interior,  in  1792.  He  found  that  the  literary  success 
of  his  reports,  etc.  was  in  an  exact  ratio  to  the  part  that 
she  took  in  their  composition,  and  people  were  surprised 
at  the  amount  of  work  which  he  despatched.  She  com- 
posed the  important  letter  addressed  by  her  husband  to 
Louis  XVL  in  May,  1792. 

About  this  time  she  became  deeply  interested — too 
deeply  for  her  own  peace — in  Buzot,  a  young  Girondist 
of  noble  character  and  handsome  person,  to  whom  she 
alludes  in  this  passage  of  her  "  Memoires  :"  "  I  honour 
and  cherish  my  husband  as  a  sensible  girl  loves  a  vir- 
tuous father,  to  whom  she  would  sacrifice  even  her 
lover  ;  but  I  have  found  a  man  who  might  be  this  lover  ; 
and,  remaining  faithful  to  my  duties,  my  ingenuity  has 
failed  to  conceal  the  feelings  or  passion  which  for  the 
sake  of  duty  I  subdued."  She  adds  that  her  husband 
became  jealous,  and  they  were  both  unhappy. 

M.  Roland,  having  been  proscribed  by  the  Jacobins, 
retired  to  the  country  in  May,  1793;  but  his  wife  pre- 
ferred to  remain  in  Paris,  and  was  committed  to  prison 
about  the  ist  of  June.  She  seems  to  have  considered 
the  prison  as  an  asylum  from  the  suspicion  of  a  jealous 
husband,  and  her  imprisonment  as  a  relief  from  the 
struggle  of  passion  against  duty.  In  a  letter  to  Buzot 
she  says,  "  I  owe  to  my  persecutors  the  possibility  of 
combining  love  and  duty.  Ah  !  do  not  pity  me  !  Others 
may  admire  my  courage, — you  alone  can  appreciate  my 
joy."  She  improved  her  time  in  prison  by  writing  her 
"  Memoires,"  which  are  enlivened  by  many  anecdotes 
and  portraits  of  eminent  persons.  Her  style  is  admi- 
rable and  graceful  in  the  highest  degree.  "  I  never 
heard  any  woman,"  said  Count  Beugnot,  "speak  with 
so  much  accuracy  and  elegance."  In  the  passage  from 
the  prison  to  the  scaffold  she  had  a  full  view  of  the 
house  in  which  she  had  spent  many  happy  years  in 
youth.  There  was  the  window  from  which  she  had  often 
gazed  on  the  sun  setting  behind  the  distant  hills.  Her 
last  words,  according  to  a  popular  statement,  were,  "  O 
Liberty  !  what  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name  !"  She 
was  beheaded  on  the  9th  of  November,  1793.  She  left 
one  child,  Eudora,  born  in  1781. 

"  According  to  our  modern  notions,"  says  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1865,  "  she  was  neither  gentle, 
nor  pious,  nor  delicate,  nor  even  virtuous.  .  .  .  But, 
viewed  by  that  strange  light  of  her  own  times,  she  stands 


out  in  noble  and  lofty  pre-eminence.     Of  her  greatness, 
if  heroism  is  greatness,  there  can  be  no  doubt." 

See  C.  A.  Dauban,  "  fitude  sur  Madame  Roland  et  son  Temps, 
suivie  des  Lettres  de  Madame  Roland  4  Buzot,"  1864  ;  "  Memoires 
de  Madame  Roland  ^crites  duraiit  sa  Captivity,"  nouvelle  Edition, 
revue  et  compl^t^e  par  M.  P.  FAUcfeRE,  1864;  Louisf.  Colf.t, 
"Charlotte  Corday  et  Madame  Roland,"  1S42;  "  Memoires  de  Ma- 
dame Roland,"  Edition  entiirement  conforme  au  manuscrit  auto- 
graplie,  etc.,  publi^e  avec  des  notes  par  C.  A.  Dauban,  1S64; 
Saimte-Beuvh,  "Portraits:"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1865; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Mt5nioiresde  Madame  Roland," 
by  MM.  RHRVii.i.Eand  BARRiftRE;  "Appeal  to  Impartial  Posterity," 
etc.,  by  Madame  Roland. 

Rolaud,  (Philippe  Laurent,)  an  able  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Marcq-en-Barceul  (Nord)  in  1746.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Instituteof  Paris,  and  was  commissioned 
by  the  government  to  make  statues  of  Homer,  Solon,  and 
Malesherbes.     Died  in  Paris  in  1816. 

Roland  d'Erceville.     See  Roi.land. 

Roland  de  la  Platiere,  ro'lftN'  deh  It  plt'te-aiR', 
(Jean  Marie,)  a  French  Girondist  minister  of  state,  was 
born  near  Villefranche  (Beaujolais)  in  1734.  He  was 
inspector-general  of  manufactures  before  the  Revolution. 
His  house  in  Paris  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  party 
of  the  Gironde  in  1791-92.  He  became  minister  of  the 
interior  in  March,  1792,  but  was  dismissed  from  office  in 
June  of  the  same  year,  in  consequence  of  a  famous  letter 
addressed  to  the  king.  This  letter  was  composed  by 
his  wife.  (See  Roland,  Madame,  noticed  above.)  He 
again  acted  as  minister  of  the  interior  from  August  lo, 
1792,  to  January  23,  1793,  when  he  resigned,  having 
vainly  striven  against  the  reign  of  anarchy  and  violence. 
He  retired  to  Rouen  in  May,  and,  on  hearing  of  the 
death  of  his  wife,  committed  suicide,  in  November,  1793. 

See  Madame  Roland,  "Memoires;"  Lamartine,  "History 
of  the  Girondists;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Rolander,  ro-lJn'd?r,  (Daniel,)  a  Swedish  natural- 
ist, born  in  Smiland,  explored  the  botany  and  zoology 
of  Surinam  in  1755,  and  returned  home  in  1756.  He  died 
soon  after,  before  he  could  publish  his  manuscripts. 

Rolandino,  ro-lSn-dee'no,  an  Italian  chronicler,  bom 
at  Padua  about  1200.  He  wrote  a  Latin  chronicle  of 
events  which  occurred  from  1200  to  1260.    Died  in  1276. 

Rolando,  ro-lSn'do,  (LuiGi,)  an  eminent  Italian  anat- 
omist, born  at  Turin  in  1 773,  became  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  university  of  that  city  about  1814,  and  wrote 
several  able  works,  etc     Died  in  1831. 

See  Carlo  Bellingeri,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Professore  L.  Ko- 
lando;"  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Roldan,  rol-dSn',  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  sculptor,  born 
at  Seville  in  1624,  worked  at  Rome,  Madrid,  and  Seville, 
where  he  died  in  1700. 

Rolewinck,  ro'leh-<^ink',  (Werner,)  a  German 
monk,  born  in  1425,  wrote  a  popular  history  of  the  world, 
called  "  Fasciculus  Temporum,"  (1474.)    Died  in  1502. 

Rolfe,  (R.  MoNSEV.)    See  Cranworth,  Lord. 

Rolfe,  (William  James,)  an  American  editor  and 
teacher,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  December 
10,  1827,  was  educated  at  Amherst  College,  became  an 
instructor,  and  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Cambridge 
Course  of  Physics,"  (6  vols.,  1S67-69,)  but  is  best  known 
as  the  editor  of  Shakspeare's  complete  works,  in  forty 
small  volumes,  adapted  to  use  in  schools.  This  edition 
of  Shakspeare  has  had  a  marvellous  popularity.  He 
has  also  prepared  select  school  editions  of  the  works  of 
Gray,  Goldsmith,  etc. 

Rolfink,  rolTink,  (Werner,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1599  ;  died  at  Jena  in  1673. 

Roll,  r61,  (Albert  Philippe,)  a  French  painter,  bom 
in  Paris,  March  10,  1847.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Bonnat  and 
Geroine.  Among  his  works  are  "  Halte-la  !"  a  military 
scene,  (1876,)  "The  Flood  in  the  Banlieue  of  Toulouse," 
(1877,)  and  "The  Strike  of  the  Miners,"  (1880.)  His 
"Feast  of  Silenus"  is  in  the  Flemish  manner.  He  has 
exhibited  some  good  portraits. 

Roll  or  Roell,  rol,  (Hermann  Alexander,)  a  Ger- 
man Protestant  divine,  born  at  Doelberg  in  1653.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht,  (1704-18,)  and 
wrote  several  commentaries  on  Scripture.   Died  in  1718. 

Rolland  (or  Rolaud)  d'Erceville,  ro'lftN'd^Rss'vil', 
(BarthAlemi  Gauriel,)  a  French  writer  and  judge, 
born  in  1734,  was  an  adversary  of  the  Jesuits.  He  was 
executed  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ti,  y,  short:  a.  e,  j,  o,  obsntre;  fir,  filll,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


ROLLE 


2079 


ROMANINO 


RoUe,  fol,  ?  (Deni?,)  M.P.,  an  opulent  Englishman, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1725.  He  purchased  a  large  tract 
in  Florida,  and  there  planted  a  colony,  (about  1766,) 
which  was  soon  abandoned.     Died  in  England  in  1797. 

RoUe,  (Henry,)  an  English  judge,  born  in  Devon- 
shire in  1589.  He  compiled  a  digest,  which  was  published 
with  the  title  of  "Rolle's  Abridgment."  In  1648  he  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  by  the  Parlia- 
ment, which  he  had  supported  in  the  civil  war.  He  re- 
fused to  preside  at  the  trial  of  Charles  I.  Died  in  1656. 
"  He  was,"  says  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  "a  person  of  great 
learning  in  the  common  law,  profound  judgment,  great 
moderation,  justice,  and  integrity."  {Preface  to  "  Rolle's 
Abridgment.") 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,"  vol.  L 

Rolle,  rol'leh,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  com- 
poser of  church  music,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1718. 
He  succeeded  his  father  as  director  of  music  at  Mag- 
deburg in  1752.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the 
oratorios  of  the  "  Death  of  Abel"  and  "  Abraham  on 
Mount  Moriah."     Died  in  1785. 

Rolle,  (John,)  Lord,  an  English  Tory  politician,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1751.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1796.  He  is  said  to  have  used  a  large  fortune  liberally, 
and  to  have  been  the  subject  of"  The  Rolliad,"  a  political 
satire,  written  by  several  Whigs.     Died  in  1842. 

Rolle,  rol,  (Michel,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
at  Ambert  in  1652;  died  in  Paris  in  1749.  "He  ren- 
dered," says  Fontenelle,  "great  service  to  science." 

Rolle,  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1770,  was  author  of  "  Researches 
into  the  Worship  of  Bacchus,"  (3  vols.,  1824.)  Died  in 
1855.  His  son,  Jacques  Hippolyte,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1804,  became  an  able  journalist  of  Paris. 

Rollenhagen,  rol'len-hi'gen,  (  Georg,  )  a  German 
fabulist  and  didactic  poet,  born  at  Bernau  in  1542;  died 
in  1609. 

RoUi,  rol'lee,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
in  1687.  He  went  to  England  about  1725,  and  taught 
Italian  to  the  princesses  of  the  royal  family.  He  trans- 
lated "Paradise  Lost"  into  Italian  verse,  (1729,)  and 
wrote  some  original  poems,  which  were  popular.  Died 
in  Italy  in  1767. 

RoUin,  rol'lin  or  ro'l^N',  (Charles,)  an  eminent 
French  historian  and  professor  of  belles-lettres,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  January,  1661.  He  became  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  the  College  du  Plessis  in  1687,  and  ob- 
tained the  chair  of  eloquence  at  the  College  de  France 
in  1688.  He  was  rector  of  the  University  about  two 
years,  (1694-96.)  He  revived  the  study  of  Greek,  and 
made  reforms  in  the  system  of  education.  In  1726  he 
published  a  good  work  on  the  Study  of  Belles-Lettres, 
("Traite  de  la  Maniere  d'etudier  et  d'enseigner  les 
Belles-Lettres.")  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  Rome," 
(1738,)  and  an  "  Ancient  History,"  ("Histoire  aiicienne," 
12  vols.,  1730-3S,)  which  enjoyed  much  popularity,  es- 
pecially with  the  young.  It  has  been  translated  into 
English.  According  to  Voltaire,  Rollin  was  one  of  the 
first  French  authors  who  wrote  a  good  style  in  prose. 
His  character  was  amiable  and  virtuous.     Died  in  1741. 

See  GuiNF.AU  de  Mussv,  "Vie  de  Rollin;"  Trognon,  "  £loge 
de  Rollin,"  1818;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  vi. ; 
BoossoN  DE  Mairet,  "  Essai  siir  la  Vie  de  RoUiu;"  Nic^ron, 
•'M^nioires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Cenerale." 

Rollin,  (Ledru.)     See  Ledru-Rollin. 

Rollins,  (Alice  Wellington,)  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Massachusetts,  June  12,  1S47.  Before  her  mar- 
riage in  1876  her  name  was  Alice  Marland  Welling- 
ton. Her  principal  book  is  "The  Ring  of  Amethyst," 
(1878.)  Mrs.  Rollins  is  one  of  the  finest  sonneteers  of 
recent  times. 

Rollins,  (Ellen  Chapman,)  an  American  authoress, 
born  at  Wakefield,  New  Hampshire,  April  30,  1831. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Hobbs.  She  was  married  to  E. 
A,  Rollins.  Her  principal  publications  were  "  New 
England  Bygones"  (1882)  and  "  Old-Time  Child-Life." 
Died  in  Philadelphia,  May  29,  1S81. 

RolTo,  Rou,  roo,  or  Hrolf,  [Fr.  RoLLON,  fo'IAn', 
and  Raoul,  rt'ool',]  first  Duke  of  Normandy,  born 
about  860  A.D.  He  was  originally  a  Norwegian  viking  or 
pirate,  and  was  noted  for  strength  and  martial  prowess. 


In  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  he  ascended  the  Seine 
and  took  Rouen,  which  he  kept  as  a  base  of  operations. 
He  gained  a  number  of  victories  over  the  Franks,  and 
extorted  from  Charles  HI.  in  912  the  cession  of  the 
province  since  called  Normandy.  By  the  famous  treaty 
which  Charles  and  Rollo  signed  at  this  time  the  latter 
agreed  to  adopt  the  Christian  religion.  Died  about  930. 
See  Le  Canut,  "Raoul  I,  Due  de  Normandie,"  2  vols.,  1781; 
Ordericus  Vitalis,  "  Historia." 

Rol'lock,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  scholar, 
born  near  Stirling  in  1555.  He  was  the  first  principal 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  founded  about  1582. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture.     Died  in  1598. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

RoUon.     See  Rollo. 

Rolph,  (John  A.,)  an  English  artist  and  engraver 
of  landscapes,  born  in  Essex  in  1798.  He  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1833,  and  worked  in  New  York 
City.     Died  in  Brooklyn  in  1862. 

Rolt,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer  of  history,  biog- 
raphy, etc.,  was  born  in  1724  or  1725.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  History  of  the  General  War"  which  ended 
in  1748,  4  vols.,  and  "Cambria,"  a  poem,  {1749.)  Died 
in  1770. 

Romagnosi,  ro-min-yo'see,  (Giovanni  Domenico,) 
an  eminent  Italian  jurist  and  publicist,  born  near  Pia- 
cenza  in  1761.  He  published  in  1791  an  able  work  on 
penal  legislation,  "  Genesis  of  Penal  Law,"  ("  Genesi 
del  Diritto  penale.")  About  1806  he  and  other  jurists 
formed  a  new  Italian  criminal  code  at  Milan.  He  wrote 
numerous  legal  works,  and  lectured  on  law  at  Milan  for 
many  years.     Died  in  1835. 

See  CANTb,  "  Notizia  di  G.  D.  Romagnosi,"  1835;  Ferrari, 
"  Vita  di  Romagnosi,"  1835 ;  G.  Sacchi,  "  Biografia  di  G.  D.  Ro- 
magnosi," 1835;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Romain.    See  Romanus. 

Romain,  ro'm^N',  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish  geometer 
and  physician,  born  at  Louvain  in  1561.  He  wrote  on 
geometry,  etc.     Died  at  Mentz  in  161 5. 

Romain,  (Jules,)  the  French  name  of  GiULlo  Ro- 
mano. 

Romain  de  Hooghe.    See  Hooge. 

Romaine,  ro-man',  (William,)  an  eminent  English 
Calvinistic  theologian  of  the  Anglican  Church,  born  at 
Hartlepool  in  17 14.  He  became  a  popular  preacher  in 
London,  married  a  Miss  Price  in  1755,  and  was  appointed 
rector  of  Blackfriars' in  1764.  He  preached  at  this  place 
about  thirty  years.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are 
"The  Walk  of  Faith,"  (1771,)  and  "The  Triumph  of 
Faith,"  (1795.)     Died  in  1795. 

See  W.  B.  Cadogan,  "Life  of  W.  Romaine,"  1796;  Thomas 
Haweis,  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  W.  Romaine,"  1797. 

Roman,  ro'mflN',  (Jean  Baptiste  Louis,)  a  French 
statuary,  born  in  Paris  in  1 792,  gained  the  grand  prize 
in  1816.     Died  in  1835. 

Roman,  ro'mSn,  (Johan  IIelmich,)  a  Swedish  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1694;  died 
in  1758. 

Romana,  de  la,  di  II  ro-m^'na,  (Don  Pedro  Care 
y  Sureda  —  ki'ro  e  soo-ra'oi,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  Majorca  in  1761.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  war  against  the  French,  (1793-95  and 
1809-10.)     Died  in  181 1. 

Romanelli,  ro-mS-nel'lee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1756;  died  in  1819. 

Romanelli,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  eminent 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  at  Viterbo  in  1617, 
was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  was  employed 
at  Paris  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He 
also  adorned  several  churches  of  Rome  with  his  works.. 
Died  in  1663.  His  son  Urbano,  born  in  1652,  was  a 
painter.     Died  in  1682. 

Romanet,  ro'mS'n^',  (Antoine  Louis,)  a  French 
line-engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1748.  He  engraved 
successfully  some  works  of  Raphael  and  Titian,  Died 
in  1S07. 

Romani.    See  Romanino,  (Girolamo.) 

Romanino,  ro-ml-nee'no,  (Giorgio,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Rome  about  1500.  He  was  invited  to 
France,  and  painted  some  frescos  in  the  Louvre.  His 
design  and  colour  are  highly  praised. 


cas,J;  9  as  J.-  %hard;  '^2&j;  G,H,K,  gittiitral;  -H,  nasal ;Vi,  trilled;  s.iss;  th  as  i  n ///«.     ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROMA  NINO 


2080 


ROMILLY 


Romanino  or  Romani,  ro-mJ'nee,  (Girolamo,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Brescia  about  1490,  imitated 
Titian,  and  was  a  good  colorist.  He  painted  some 
frescos  in  the  Louvre,  Paris.     Died  about  1560. 

Romano.     See  Giulio  Romano. 

Romano,  da,  d3  ro-mJ'no,  (Ezzf.uno,  5t-si-Iee'no, 
or  EccELiNO,  §t-chi-lee'no,)  an  able  commander  and  a 
famous  Ghibeline  leader,  remarkable  for  his  reckless 
courage  and  for  his  cruelty,  was  born  in  1194.  As  an 
ally  or  partisan  of  the  emperor  F"rederick  II.,  he  fought 
against  the  Marquis  d'Este,  and  captured  Padua  in  1237. 
He  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope  about  1252,  and  a 
league  was  formed  against  him  by  several  cities  and 
princes  of  Lombardy.  He  died,  or  was  killed  in  battle, 
in  1259. 

Romanof,  Romanov,  or  Romanow,  ro-mi'nof, 
(Michael  Feodorovitch,)  the  founder  of  the  reigning 
dynasty  of  Russia,  was  a  son  of  the  Metropolitan  of 
Rostof.  He  was  elected  Czar  or  emperor  in  1613,  when 
he  was  only  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  old.  He  made  peace 
with  the  Swedes  by  the  cession  of  Ingria  and  Karelia, 
and  afterwards  waged  against  the  Poles  a  defensive  war, 
which  ended  in  1619.  He  promoted  the  civilization  of 
his  subjects,  and  made  reforms  in  the  laws.  He  died  ir 
1645,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexis. 

See  WicHMANN,  "  Urkunde  iiber  die  Wahl  Michael  Romanows, 
etc.,  1S19. 

Ro-ma'nus  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  called  Leca- 
PKNUS,  [Fr.  RoMAiN  L^capAne,  ro'miN'  li'kt'pin',] 
was  a  native  of  Armenia,  and  father-in-law  of  Constan- 
tine  VII.,  who  made  Romanus  his  colleague  in  the 
empire  in  919.     Died  in  948. 

Romanus  II.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  son 
of  Constantine  VII.,  was  born  in  939.  He  poisoned  hiF 
father  and  obtained  the  throne  in  959.     Died  in  963. 

Romanus  III.,  Argy'rus,  |  Fr.  Romain  Argyre,  ro'- 
mlN'  tR'zh^R', I  was  born  about  968.  He  married  Zoe, 
a  daughter  of  Constantine  IX.,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1028.     He  was  poisoned  by  Zoe,  his  wife,  in  1034. 

Romanus  IV.,  Diogenes,  obtained  the  throne  by 
marriage  with  Eudocia,  the  widow  of  Constantine  Ducas, 
in  1067  or  1068.  He  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  but  was  defeated  by  Alp  Arslan 
in  Armenia.  He  was  deposed  by  Michael  VII.,  by 
whose  order  he  was  put  to  death  about  1072. 

See  Lr  Pf.au,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire  ;"  Gibbon,  "Decline 
and  Fall  of  tlie  Roman  Empire." 

Romanus,  (y^cinius.)     See  Colon'na,  {EGrnio.) 

Ro-ma'nus,  (Fr.  Romain,  ro'miN',|  Pope,  born  neat 
Civita  Castellana,  in  Italy.  He  was  elected  pope  in 
September,  897  a.d.     Diecl  in  898. 

Romanzof.     See  Rioomantsof. 

Romberg,  rom'bSRO,  (Andreas,)  a  German  violinist 
and  composer,  born  in  1767,  became  director  of  music 
at  Gotha  in  1815.  He  produced  several  sacred  pieces 
and  operas,  and  set  to  music  Schiller's  "Song  of  the 
Bell"  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1821. 

Romberg,  (Bernhard,)  a  cousin  of  Andreas,  born 
at  Bonn  in  1770,  was  celebrated  for  his  performance  on 
the  violoncello.  He  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
Conservatory  of  Music  in  Paris  in  1801.     Died  in  1841. 

Rombout,  rom'bowt,  (J.,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
lived  about  1670. 

Rombouts,  rom'bowts,  (Theodore,)  an  excellent 
Flemish  painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1597, 
was  a  pupil  of  A.  Janssens.  He  worked  in  Rome  and 
P'lorence,  from  which  he  returned  to  Antwerp  in  1625. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham," 
"The  Oath  of  Hannibal,"  and  a  "Descent  from  the 
Cross."     Died  in  1637. 

See  Descamp.s,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc 

Rom6  de  Lisle,  (or  de  ITsle,)  ro'mi'  deh  1^1',  (Jean 
Haptiste  Louis,)  a  French  mineralogist,  born  at  Grai 
in  1736.  He  visited  India  and  China,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1764.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "Crystallography," 
(4  vols.,  1783,)  and  "Metrologie,"  (1789.)  Died  in  1790. 
"  He  first  ascertained  the  important  fact  of  the  constancy 
of  the  angles  at  which  the  faces  of  crystals  meet,  and, 
observing  further  that  many  of  them  appear  in  several 
different  shapes,  first  conceived  the  idea  that  these 
shapes  might  be  reducible  to  one,  appropriated  in  a 


peculiar  manner  to  each  substance  and  modified  by  strict 
geometrical  laws."  (Sir  John  F.  W.  Herschel,  "Dis- 
course on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.") 

See  La  M^therie,  "  filoge  de  Romi  de  Lisle,"  1790;  "  Bio- 
grapliie  Universelle." 

Romegas,  ro'mi'gts',  (Mathurtn  d'Aux-Lescout, 
mt'tu'riN'  do'l^s'koo',)  a  brave  French  knight  of  the 
order  of  Malta,  which  he  joined  in  1547.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  battle  against  the  pirates  and  the 
Turks.  He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  galleys, 
and  lieutenant-general.     Died  in  1581. 

Romer  or  Roemer,  ro'mer,  (Olaf  or  Olaus,)  a 
Danish  astronomer,  born  at  Aarhuus  on  the  25th  of 
September,  1644.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1672,  and  aided 
Picard,  who  procured  for  him  the  otfice  of  tutor  to  the 
dauphin.  In  1675  he  made  (at  Paris)  the  important 
discovery  of  the  velocity  of  light  by  observations  of  the 
eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1681. 
He  first  applied  the  epicycloidal  curve  in  the  formation 
of  the  teeth  of  wheels.  Romer  held  several  high  civil 
offices.     Died  in  17 10. 

See  a  notice  of  Romer  prefixed  by  Horrebow  to  Romer's 
"Basis  Astronomix,"  17.35;  Nyerup,  "  Litleraturlexicon ;"  Dk- 
L.\MiiRE,  "Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  moderne;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
gra)))iie  Generale." 

Romer  or  Roemer,  von,  fon  ro'mer,  (Friedrich,) 
a  German  statesman,  born  in  the  WUrtemberg  Alps  in 
1795.  ^^^  ^^'^^  appointed  minister  of  justice  for  \Viir- 
temberg  in  1848,  and  resigned  office  in  October,  1849. 
Died  in  1861. 

Romey,  ro'mi',  (Charles  Octave,)  a  French  his- 
torian, born  in  Paris  in  1S04,  wrote,  besides  other  works 
a  "History  of  Spain,"  (1838-48.)     Died  in  1874. 

Romeyn,  ro'min,  (Theodoric  D.,)  an  influential 
minister  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at 
New  Barbadoes,  New  Jersey,  in  1744.  He  preached 
many  years  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  to  which  he 
removed  in  1784.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  principal 
founder  of  Union  College,  Schenectady.     Died  in  1S04. 

Romieu,  de,  deh  ro'me-uh',  (Marie,)  a  French  poet- 
ess and  prose  writer,  lived  at  Viviers.     Died  after  1584. 

Romiguieres,  ro'me'ge-aiR',  (Jea.n  Dominique  Jo- 
seph Louis,)  a  French  advocate,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1775,  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  liberal  party.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1847. 

Romilly,  ro'me'ye',  (Jean  Edme,  )  a  Swiss  Protest- 
ant minister,  born  at  Geneva  in  1739,  was  a  friend  of 
Rousseau.  Died  in  1779.  His  father,  Jean,  born  in 
1714,  was  a  skilful  watchmaker.     Died  in  Paris  in  1796. 

Rom'il-ly,  (John,)  Baron,  an  English  lawyer,  a  son 
of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  was  born  in  London  in  1802. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1832,  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  1848,  and  attorney-general 
in  1850.  In  1851  he  became  master  of  the  rolls,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Romilly,  in  1866.  Died 
December  23,  1S74. 

Romilly,  (Sir  Samuel,)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  on  the  ist  of  March, 
1757.  He  was  a  son  of  Peter  Romilly,  a  jeweller,  whose 
father  was  a  French  Protestant  exiled  for  his  religion. 
His  education  at  school  was  defective,  but  he  studied 
Latin  after  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  became  a 
good  self-taught  scholar.  He  entered  himself  at  Gray's 
Inn  as  a  student  of  law  in  1778,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  17S3.  In  1784  he  became  acquainted  with  the  famous 
Mirabeau,  who  introduced  him  to  a  Mr.  Vaughan.  By  the 
favour  of  the  latter,  Romilly  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Lord  Lansdowne,  in  whom  he  found  a  friend  and  patron. 
He  obtained  an  extensive  practice  in  the  court  of  chan- 
cery. In  politics  he  was  a  Whig  and  advanced  liberal. 
In  1806  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  and  appointed 
solicitor-general.  He  acquired  great  reputation  by  his 
eloquent  speech  against  the  slave-trade.  In  1807  he  was 
removed  from  office  in  consequence  of  the  dissolution 
of  the  Whig  ministry.  He  afterwards  directed  his  efforts 
to  the  reform  of  the  penal  code,  which  at  that  period  was 
very  severe.  Nearly  three  hundred  crimes  of  various 
grades  were  punishable  by  death.  He  procured  the  pas- 
sage of  a  bill,  about  1809,  to  repeal  the  statute  which 
made  stealing  from  the  person  a  capital  crime.  In  this 
enterprise  he  encountered  strong  opposition  from  igno- 


a,e,T,  6,  u,  y, /<»«f.i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a.,s,i,6,\\,'^,  short;  3.,  t,\,q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m2t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


ROMME 


2081 


RONSARD 


ranee,  prejudice,  and  party  spirit.  He  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful effort  in  1810  to  repeal  the  statute  which  punished 
with  death  the  crime  of  stealing  from  a  shop  goods  valued 
at  five  shillings.  He  opposed  in  an  eloquent  speech  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
Elba  in  181 5.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  Roman 
Catho  ic  Emancipation.  In  his  profession  he  is  said  to 
have  I  sen  more  successful  and  more  distinguished  than 
any  other  Englishman  of  his  time.  Although  his  style 
was  riTnarkable  for  plainness  and  simplicity,  the  im- 
pressiveness  of  his  speeches  was,  we  are  told,  almost 
unparalleled.  In  1818  he  was  returned,  at  the  head  of 
the  poll,  by  the  voters  of  Westminster.  His  wife  died  in 
October,  1818.  In  a  fit  of  delirium  or  insanity,  he  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life  in  November,  1818.  He  was 
author  of  "  Observations  on  the  Criminal  Law  of  Eng- 
land," (1810.) 

See  "  The  Life  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  written  by  himself,"  edited 
by  his  sons,  3  vols.,  1S40;  Benjamin  Constant,  "  Eloge  de  Sii 
Samuel  Romilly,"  i8ig;  RoscoE,  "Lives  of  Eminent  British  Law- 
yers;" "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1812;  "Westminster  Review"  for  June,  1840. 

Romme,  rom,  (Charles,)  a  French  geometer,  born 
at  Riom  about  1744.  He  wrote  several  useful  works  on 
navigation,  etc.     Died  in  1805. 

Romme,  (Gilbert,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Riom  in  1750,  was  a  Jacobin  and  an  active  member 
of  the  Convention.  Having  been  condemned  to  death 
by  the  Thermidoriens,  he  killed  himself  in  1795. 

Rommel,  rom'mel,  (Dietrich  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Cassel  in  1 781,  became  in  181 5 
professor  of  history  at  Marburg.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Hesse  since  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1853.)  Died 
in  1859. 

Rom'ney,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  historical 
and  portrait  painter,  was  born  at  Dalton,  in  Lancashire, 
in  December,  1734.  In  his  youth  he  worked  in  the  shop 
of  his  father,  a  cabinet-maker.  He  married  Mary  Ab- 
bot in  1756.  After  he  had  studied  and  practised  paint- 
ing at  Kendal  for  five  years,  he  settled  in  London  in  1 762, 
but  left  his  wife  and  children  in  the  country,  where  they 
remained  neglected  while  he  was  prosperous  and  famous. 
He  obtained  rapid  success  in  his  profession,  and  became 
the  rival  of  Reynolds.  He  passed  about  two  years 
(1773-75)  in  visits  to  several  cities  of  Italy.  At  Rome 
he  painted  a  "  Wood  Nymph,"  which  was  greatly  ad- 
mired. He  gradually  raised  his  price  for  a  portrait  to 
thirty-five  guineas  for  a  head  and  sixty  guineas  for  a 
whole-length.  Among  his  works  are  "Milton  and  his 
Daughters,"  "  Nature  unveiling  herself  to  Shakspeare," 
and  portraits  of  Cowper  the  poet,  Warren  Hastings, 
Lord  Chatham,  and  William  Pitt.  About  1798  he  was 
compelled  to  desist  from  work  by  ill  health  and  nervous 
dejection.  He  removed  in  1799  to  Kendal,  where  he 
was  nursed  by  his  patient  and  forgiving  wife  until  he 
died,  in  November,  1802. 

See  Havlbv,  "Life  of  G.  Romney,"  i8og  ;  J.  Romnev,  (his 
Bon,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  G.  Romney,"  1830; 
Allan   Cunningham,   "Lives  of    British    Painters." 

Romney,  (Henry  Sidney,)  Earl  of.   See  Sidney. 

Rom'u-lus,  called  also  Qui-ri'nus,  the  founder  of 
Rome,  a  semi -fabulous  personage,  supposed  to  have 
lived  about  750  B.C.  According  to  tradition,  Romulus 
and  Remus  were  the  twin  sons  of  Mars  and  Rhea  Silvia, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  Numitor,  King  of  Alba.  Amu- 
lius  dethroned  Numitor  and  ordered  the  young  twins  to 
be  exposed  to  destruction  ;  but  they  were  suckled  by  a 
wolf  and  educated  by  Faustulus,  a  shepherd  of  the  king. 
After  they  were  grown  up  and  informed  of  the  secret  of 
their  birtii,  they  killed  Amulius,  restored  Numitor,  and 
founded  the  city  of  Rome.  Remus  was  punished  with 
death  by  Romulus  for  jumping,  in  derision,  over  the  wall 
of  the  new  city,  and  Romulus  became  the  first  and  sole 
king  of  Rome,  the  population  of  which  was  increased 
by  exiles,  outlaws,  and  fugitive  slaves  invited  from  ad- 
jacent states.  The  deficiency  of  wives  was  remedied 
by  the  abduction  of  Sabine  maidens  who  assembled  at 
Rome  as  spectators  of  a  public  festival.  The  Sabines 
waged  war  against  Rome  on  this  account,  but  peace  was 
restored  by  the  mediation  of  the  Sabine  wives,  and  the 
Romans  and  Sabines  were  united  into  one  state,  which 
Romulus  and  the  Sabine  Tatius  ruleJ  jointly.     Romulus 


reigned  about  thirty-seven  years,  and,  after  death,  was 
worshioped  under  the  name  of  Quirinus.  According 
to  tradition,  he  disappeared  mysteriously  during  a  thun- 
der-storm which  occui  red  as  he  was  reviewing  his  army 
in  the  Campus  Martius,  and  the  opinion  prevailed  that 
he  was  carried  up  to  heaven. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "History  of  Rome;"  TANNEGUv-LEpfevRE, 
"Discours  sur  Romulus,"  1666;  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Romulus-" 
J.  Gronovius,  "  Oritio  de  Origine  Romuli,"  16S4. 

Romulus  Augustulus.     See  Augustulus. 

Ronalds,  (Sir  Francis,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  inventor, 
born  in  London,  February  21,  17SS.  His  inventions  in 
connection  with  the  electric  telegraph  earned  him  the 
honour  of  knighthood.     Died  August  8,  1873. 

Roncaglia,  ron-kiKyi,  (Constantino,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  theology,  etc.,  born  at  Lucca  in  1677 ;  died 
in  1737. 

Roncalli,  ron-kiKlee,  (Cristoforo,)  called  Pomf,- 
RANCio  or  Pomarancio,  an  excellent  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  born  at  Pomerance  in  1552,  was  a 
pupil  of  N.  Circignani.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Genoa, 
etc.,  and  painted  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  Loretto. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1626. 

Rondani,  ron-di'nee,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Parma  about  1490,  was  a  pupil  of 
Correggio.     Died  about  1548. 

Rondel,  du,  dii  rdN'dgl',  (Jacques,)  a  French  phi- 
losopher, born  about  1630,  was  professor  of  Greek  at 
Sedan  from  1664  to  1681.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Epicurus,"  (1679,)  and  other  works.  Bayle,  who  was 
his  friend,  calls  him  (under  the  article  "  Epicurus")  a 
good  poet  and  a  good  Greek  scholar.  Died  at  Maestricht 
in  1715. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Rondelet,  rANd'l^'  or  rix'deh-li',  (Guillaume,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1507.  He 
practised  medicine  and  lectured  in  that  city.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  Sea-Fish,"  ("  De  Piscibus  marinis," 
1554,)  and  several  medical  works.     Died  in  1566. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Sainte-Marthe,  "filoges;" 
'Biographic  M^dicale." 

Rondelet,  (Jean,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Lyons 
in  1734,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1743.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
SoufHot,  and  became  in  1781  his  successor  as  architect 
of  the  Pantheon,  or  church  of  Sainto-Genevieve,  at  Paris, 
He  built  the  dome  of  this  edifice.  He  published  an 
important  treatise  on  architecture,  "  Traite  de  I'Art  de 
Batir,"  (5  vols.,  1802-17,)  which  is  called  a  classical 
work.     Died  in  Paris  in  1829. 

See  Vaudoyer,  "  Discours  sur  la  Tombe  de  J.  Rondelet,"  1829. 

Rondet,  ron'di',  (Laurent  £tienne, )  a  French 
writer  on  religion  and  morality,  born  in  Paris  in  1717; 
died  in  1785. 

Rondot,  rdN'do',  (Natalis,)  a  French  economist  and 
editor,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1821. 

Ronge,  rong'eh,  (Johannes,)  a  celebrated  reformer 
among  the  Catholics,  born  in  Silesia  in  1813,  He  was 
ordained  a  Catholic  priest  in  1840;  but  he  was  soon 
after  suspended  for  his  heretical  opinions,  and  in  1844 
published  a  letter  denouncing  the  exhibition  of  the 
"holy  coat,"  which  Arnoldi,  Bishop  of  Treves,  had  just 
proclaimed.  Although  excommunicated  by  the  chapter 
of  ]3reslau,  Ronge  rapidly  gained  adherents,  and  in 
1845  ^  German  Catholic  Church,  independent  of  that  pf 
Rome,  was  founded.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  took 
refuge  in  England,  and  many  of  the  new  societies  were 
suppressed.     Died  October  27,  1887. 

See  "Vindication  of  J.  Ronge,"  translated  from  the  German  by 
Robert  Taylor,  1845;  Eduard  Duller,  "J.  Ronge  und  die  tVeie 
Kirche,"  1849;  "  Autobiography  of  J.  Ronge,"  translated  from  the 
German  by  John  Lord,  London,  1846;  "Westminster  Review"  for 
December,  1845,  (article  "  German  Theology.") 

Ronne  or  Roenne,  von,  fon  ron'neh,  (Ludwig 
MoRiTZ  Petf.r,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Ilolstein  in 
1S04.  He  became  about  1843  a  judge  or  councillor  in 
Berlin.  Among  his  important  works  are  "  The  Political 
Law  of  the  Prussian  Monarchy,"  (1856-63,)  and  "The 
Constitutional  Law  of  the  German  lunpire,"  (1876-77.) 

Ronsard,  de,  deh  rAN'sJR',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
French  poet,  born  in  the  Vendomois  in  1524.  He  learned 
to  speak  English,  German,  and  Italian,  and  was  instructed 
in  Greek  by  Dorat  and  Turnebe.     He  wrote  odes,  epi- 


€  as  ^ •  9 as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  O.  H,  v.,gtittnral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  :ts  z;  th  as  in  this. 

131 


(Ul^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


RONSIN- 


2082 


ROQUELAURE 


grams,  hymns,  eclogues,  etc.,  and  was  considered  the 
most  popular  poet  of  his  time.  Malherbe  and  Boi- 
leau,  however,  did  not  appreciate  him  highly.  Ronsard 
conceived  the  idea  of  grouping  seven  French  poets, 
including  himself,  into  a  constellation  called  the  PUiade. 
The  other  six  were  his  imitators.     Died  in  1585. 

See  Claudr  Rinkt,  "Vie  de  Ronsard,"  1586;  Guiu.aume  Col- 
LETET,  "Vie  de  Ronsard,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works,  1854 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  E.  Gandar,  "Ron- 
sard considtSr^  coinme  Imitateur  d'Homfere  et  de  Pindare,"  1854. 
'  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdn^rale." 

Ronsin,  r^N'siw',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a  French 
Jacobin  and  dramatist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1752.  He 
became  a  general  in  1793,  and  was  one  of  tlie  most 
violent  agents  of  his  party.  He  was  executed  with 
Hebert  in  1794. 

Ron'tho,  (Matthew,)  a  monk  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  Greece,  translated  Dante's  "Divina  Commedia"  into 
Latin  verse.     Died  at  Sienna  in  1443. 

Roo'da-kee,  Rudaki,  or  Rudagi,  roo'da-kee,  an 
eminent  Persian  poet,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nasr, 
(about  940  A.D.)  He  was  blind  from  his  birth,  but  wrote 
splendid  lyrics,  some  of  which  are  extant.  Roodakee 
seems  to  have  drawn  largely  upon  the  literature  and  folk- 
lore of  India  for  his  materials. 

Roodtseus,rot'se-us,  (Jan  Albert,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Hoorn  in  1615  or  1617  ;   died  in  1674. 

Rooke,  rook,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  admiral,  born 
near  Canterbury  in  1650.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
post-captain  about  1680,  and  that  of  vice-admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1692.  In  this  year  he  burnt  ten  or  more  French 
ships  at  La  Hogue.  He  was  appointed  "vice-admiral 
and  lieutenant  of  the  admiralty"  by  Queen  Anne  in  1702. 
Sir  George  Rooke  and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  captured 
Gibraltar  in  July,  1704.  He  commanded  the  combined 
English  and  Dutch  fleets  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  which  began  about  1702.     Died  in  1709. 

See  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  "  Biographia  Bri- 
tannica." 

Rooke,  (Lawrence,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  born  at  Deptford  in  1623,  was  one  of  the 
original  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  became 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Gresham  College,  London,  in 
1652.     Died  in  1662. 

Roo'ker,  (Michael  Angelo,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  London  in  1743,  was  a 
son  of  Edward  Rooker,  an  engraver.     Died  in  1801. 

Rook'TWOod,  (Amrrose,)  an  accomplice  in  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  was  the  head  of  an  old  and  wealthy  English 
family.  He  was  induced  by  his  friendship  for  Catesby 
and  by  his  sectarian  zeal  to  take  part  in  that  conspiracy. 
He  was  put  to  death  in  1606,  aged  about  twenty-eight. 

Roome,  room,  (Edward,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
satirist.  He  offended  Pope  by  a  satire  entitled  "Pas- 
quin,"  and  wrote  "  The  Jovial  Crew,"  a  drama.  Died 
in  1729. 

Roomofski,  Roumovsky,  or  Rumowsky,  roo- 
mof'skee,  (Stephen,)  a  Russian  astronomer,  born  in 
Vladimir  in  1734.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1763,  and  vice-president  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1800.  He  published  severa. 
mathematical  works,  and  translated  the  "  Annals"  of 
Tacitus  into  Russian,  (1808.)     Died  about  1814. 

Roon,  von,  fon  ron,  (Albrecht  Theodor  Emil,)  a 
Prussian  general  and  writer,  born  at  Kolberg  about  1803. 
He  became  a  major-general  in  1856,  and  minister  of  war 
in  1859.  He  rendered  important  services  by  the  re- 
organization of  the  army.  The  Prussian  Chambers  in 
1866  voted  1,500,000  thalers  as  a  national  recompense  to 
six  men,  among  whom  was  Von  Roon.  He  published 
treatises  on  geography  and  ethnology.     Died  in  1879. 

Roorda  van  Eysinga,  roR'dS  v3n  i'sing-5,  (Pieter 
Theodore,)  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  born  at  Leeuwarden 
about  1 790.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Dutch- 
Javanese  Dictionary,  (1855.)     Died  in  i860. 

Roore,  de,  deh  ro'reh,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1686,  was  a  pupil  of  Van  Opstal. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Capitol  besieged  by  Bren- 
nus,"  and  "The  History  of  Pandora."     Died  in  1747. 

Roos,  ros,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  German 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  a  skilful  engraver, 


born  at  Otterndorf  in  1631.  Both  his  prints  and  pamtings 
command  high  prices.     Died  at  Frankfort  in  1685. 

Roos,  (Johann  Melchior,)  a  painter  of  landscapes 
and  animals,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1659,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  not  equal  to  his  brother  Philip  Petei. 
Died  in  1731. 

Roos,  (Philip  Peter,)  surnamed  Rosa  da  Tivoli,  a 
skilful  painter  of  animals  and  landscapes,  born  at  Frank- 
fort about  1655,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Heinrich,  noticed 
above.  He  worked  many  years  at  Tivoli :  hence  his  sur- 
name. He  painted  with  great  facility.  His  touch  is  said 
to  be  broad  and  mellow.  Among  his  works  are  many 
pastoral  landscapes.  His  backgrounds  and  skies  are 
admirable  for  fidelity  to  nature.     Died  at  Rome  in  1705. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  "Biographic  Univer- 
selle." 

Roos,  (Theodor,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Wesel 
in  1638,  was  a  brother  of  Johann  Heinrich,  noticed  above. 
He  painted  portraits  and  landscapes.     Died  in  1698. 

Roose.     See  Liemaecker,  (Nikolaas.) 

Roose,  ro'zeh,  (Theodor  Georg  August,)  a  Ger- 
man  medical  writer,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1 771.  He 
published  "Principles  of  Legal  Medicine,"  (1802,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1803. 

Roostam,  Roostem,  Roostum,  Rustem,  or  Rus- 
tam,  roos'tem,  written  also  Roustem,  Roustam,  and 
Rostam,  the  most  illustrious  of  Persian  heroes,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  about  600  years  B.C.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  celebrated  warrior  Zal  or  Zalzer  and  an  Indian 
princess  named  Rudaba.  The  exploits  of  Roostam  form 
the  favourite  theme  of  the  Persian  poets  and  romance- 
writers  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what  is  historical 
and  what  is  fiction  in  the  accounts  of  him  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  Sir  William  Jones  says,  "Rostam 
was  certainly  a  commander  under  Cyrus,  [the  Great.]" 
Roostam  forms  the  most  prominent  figure  in  Firdousee's 
great  epic,  the  "Shah  Nameh,"  or  "Book  of  Kings." 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia"  in  volume  v.  of  SiR  W.  Jomes's 
Works  ;  J.  Atkinson,  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  NSmehof  Firdausi," 
London,  1832;  "Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,"  by  Lamar- 
TINE,  1856. 

Roostam-  (Roustam-  or  Rustam-)  Pasha,  roos'- 
tam  pi'shJ',  an  able  and  unscrupulous  Turkish  minister 
of  state,  became  grand  vizier  under  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent, who  reigned  from  1520  to  1566. 

Root,  (Erastus,)  an  American  politician,  born  at 
Hebron,  Connecticut,  in  1772.  He  removed  to  Delhi, 
New  York,  about  1796,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  four  times  between  1802  and  181 7.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  De  Witt  Clinton.     Died  in  1846. 

Ro'p?r,  (William,)  an  English  biographer,  married 
in  1528  Margaret,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  a 
learned  and  accomplished  lady.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of 
Sir  Thomas  More,"  which  is  commended, 

Roque,  Saint.     See  Roch. 

Roque,  de  la,  deh  It  rok,  (Antoine,)  a  French  lit- 
terateur, born  at  Marseilles  in  1672,  edited  the  "  Mercure 
de  France"  from  1721  until  1744.     Died  in  1744. 

Roque,  de  la,  (Gilles  AndrA,)  a  French  genealogist, 
born  near  Caen  about  1598.  Among  his  works  is  a 
valuable  "Treatise  on  the  Nobility,"  ("Traite  de  la 
Noblesse,"  1678.)     Died  in  1686. 

Roque,  de  la,  (Jean,)  a  French  traveller,  bom  at 
Marseilles  in  1661,  was  a  brother  of  Antoine,  noticed 
above.  He  published  several  books  of  travels  in  Arabia, 
Palestine,  and  Syria,  (1716,  1717,  1722.)     Died  in  1745. 

Roquefort,  de,  deh  rok'foR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Bo.va- 
VENTURE,)  a  French  philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Mons  in  1777.  He  published  an  "Etymological  Dic- 
tionary of  the  French  Language,"  (1829.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 

Roquelaure,  de,  deh  rok'loR',  (Antoine,)  Baron, 
a  French  marshal,  born  in  1544,  was  a  constant  adherent 
of  Henry  IV.  He  was  in  the  carriage  with  that  king 
when  the  latter  was  killed,  (1610.)     Died  in  1625. 

SeeMoR^Ri,  "Dictionnaire  Historiquc;"  L'EsTOILE,  "Journal." 

Roquelaure,  de,  (Gaston  Jean  Baptists,)  Due,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  161 7.  He  served  in 
the  army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 
He  was  noted  for  his  facetious  sayings.     Died  in  1683. 


a,  e,  T.  o,  u,  y, /w^;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  it,  y,  j//£7r/,-a,  e,  i,  o,  <»(^jfM>r;f?lr,  fill,  fit;  nifit;  nut;  gmid;  moon: 


ROQUEPLAN 


2083 


ROSCOE 


His  son  Antoine  Gaston  Jean  Baptiste,  born  in 
1656,  became  marshal  of  France.     Died  in  1738. 

Roqueplan,  roI<'plflN',  (Camille  Joseph  Etienne,) 
an  eminent  French  painter  of  landscapes  and  genre,  born 
at  Marlemort  in  1802,  was  a  pupil  of  Gros  and  Abel  de 
Pujol.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1828. 
Many  of  his  works  are  illustrative  of  Rousseau's  "Con- 
fessions" and  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Novels.     Died  in  1855. 

Roqueplan,  (Louis  Victor  Nestor,)  a  Uttirate'ur, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Marlemort  in 
1804.  He  became  editon  of  the  "Figaro"  about  1827, 
and  was  director  of  the  Opera  of  Paris  from  1847  to 
1854.     Died  in  1870. 

Roques,  rok,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  writer, 
born  at  La  Caune  in  1685.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Bile  in  1710,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  The 
Evangelical  Pastor,"  ( 1 723,)  and  a  new  edition  of  Mor^ri's 
"Dictionary,"  (6  vols.,  1731.)     Died  in  1748. 

See  Frev,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Roques,"  1784. 

Roquette,  de,  deh  ro'k$t',  (Gabriel,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1623,  became  Bishop 
of  Autun  in  1666.  He  was  notorious  as  the  prototype 
of  Moliere's  "  Tartufife."     Died  in  1707. 

Rorario,  ro-rS're-o,  [Lat.  Rora'rius,]  (Girolamo,) 
an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Pordenone  in 
1485.  He  wrote  a  curious  treatise  "  That  Brutes  often 
reason  better  than  Man,"  ("  Quod  Animalia  bruta  saepe 
Ratione  utantur  melius  Homine,"  1648.)     Died  in  1556. 

Rorarius.    See  Rorario. 

Rosa,  ro'si,  (Cristoforo,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Brescia.  He  excelled  in  perspective, 
and  painted  the  architecture  in  some  works  of  Titian. 
Died  in  1576. 

Rosa,  (PiETRO,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  favour- 
ite pupil  of  Titian.  He  was  a  good  colorist.  He  died 
young,  in  1576. 

Rosa,  (Salvator,)  [Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
sil-vi'tor  ro'za,]  a  famous  Italian  painter  of  history, 
landscapes,  and  battles,  was  born  at  Arenella,  near 
Naples,  on  the  20th  of  June,  1615.  He  received  lessons 
in  art  from  F.  Francanzani,  his  brother-in-law,  and  was 
a  diligent  student  of  nature.  About  1635  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  worked  and  attained  a  high  reputation. 
In  1647  he  took  part  in  the  revolt  at  Naples,  and  fought 
for  Masaniello.  After  the  final  defeat  of  the  insurgents, 
Salvator  escaped  to  Florence,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  the  grand  duke.  He  was  partial  to  wild,  romantic, 
and  desolate  scenery.  His  imagination  was  morbid, 
gloomy,  and  extravagant.  After  he  had  worked  at 
Florence  for  several  years,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  exhibited  some  pictures  in  1663.  He  produced  at 
Rome  his  "Conspiracy  of  Catiline,"  which  is  accounted 
his  master-piece.  He  made  for  himself  enemies  at 
Rome  by  his  poetical  satires.  Died  in  March,  1673. 
"  Salvator  possessed  real  genius,"  says  Ruskin,  "  but 
was  crushed  by  misery  in  his  youth.  ...  In  heart 
disdainful,  in  temper  adventurous,  conscious  of  power, 
impatient  of  labour,  ...  he  fled  to  the  Calabrian  hills, 
seeking  not  knowledge,  but  freedom.  ...  He  had  not 
the  sacred  sense, — the  sense  of  colour  :  all  the  loveliest 
hues  of  the  Calabrian  air  were  invisible  to  l.im.  He 
saw  only  what  was  gross  and  terrible.  ...  I  see  in  him, 
notwithstanding  his  baseness,  the  last  traces  of  spiritual 
life  in  the  art  of  Europe." 

See  Cant^j,  "Salvator  Rosa,"  1844;  Lady  Morgan,  "Life  of 
l>alvator  Rosa,"  London,  2  vols.,  1824,  which  is  said  to  be  a  romance, 
or  romantic  biograpliy  ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;" 
RusKiN,  "Modern  Painters:"  Passeri,  "  Vite  de*  Pittori  ;"  Do- 
MENici,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  Napoletani ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Ro'sa,  Saint,  known  as  Saint  Rose  of  Lima,,  a 
Peruvian  religious,  born  in  Lima  in  15S6.  Her  parents 
named  her  Isabel.  Having  lost  their  property,  her  family 
were  sustained  by  her  labours  as  a  servant.  She  after- 
wards became  a  Dominican  tertiary  and  recluse.  She 
died  August  24,  1617,  and  was  canonized  in  1671. 

Rosa  da  Tivoli.    See  Roos,  (Philip  Peter.) 

Rosa,  de  la,  (F.  Martinez.)     See  Martinez. 

Rosalba  Carriera,  ro-sJl'bd  kir-re-a'ri,  a  famous 
Italian  portrait-painter,  often  called  simply  Rosalba,  was 
born  at  or  near  Venice  about  1674.     She  is  said  to  have 


been  the  most  excellent  artist  of  her  time  in  the  use  of 
the  crayon  or  pastel.  Her  Madonnas  were  mucb  ad- 
mired. She  visited  Paris  in  1 720,  and  obtained  there  great 
success.    About  1746  she  became  blind.    Died  in  1757. 

Rosamel,  de,  deh  ro'st'mSK,  (Claude  Charles 
Marie  Ducampe — du'k6Np',)  a  French  admiral,  born 
at  Trencq  in  1774.  He  was  minister  of  marine  from 
September,  1836,  to  March,  1839.     Died  in  1848. 

Ros'a-mond,  [Fr.  Rosemonde,  roz'm6Nd',  or  Rosa- 
monde,  ro'zi'mANd',]  often  called  The  Fair  Rosamond, 
was  a  daughter  of  Walter,  Lord  Clifford.  She  became  a 
favourite  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  and  mother  of  two 
sons,  William  Longsword,  and  JefTery,  Archbishop  of 
York.     Died  in  1177. 

Rosapina,  ro-s4-pee'ni.  or  Rosaspina,  ro-§d-spee'- 
nS,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at  Bologna 
about  1762.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "  La  Pinacoteca," 
a  series  of  seventy-two  engravings  of  the  finest  pictures 
of  the  gallery  of  Bologna.     Died  in  1841. 

Rosas,  de,  di  ro'sds,  (Juan  Manuel  Ortiz— or- 
tfeth',)  a  South  American  dictator,  born  in  Buenos  Ayres 
in  1793.  He  lived  as  a  Gaucho  in  his  youth,  and  was  an 
active  partisan  of  the  Federals  in  the  civil  war  against 
the  Unitarians.  In  1829  he  was  elected  Governor  of 
the  Argentine  Republic,  or  Buenos  Ayres.  He  became 
dictator  in  1835.  By  some  writers  he  is  represented 
as  a  monster  of  cruelty.  His  administration,  however, 
was  beneficial  in  respect  to  trade  and  finance.  He  was 
defeated  in  battle  by  an  army  under  General  Urquiza 
in  February,  1852,  after  which  he  lived  in  exile.  Died 
March  14,  1877. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gfo^rale." 

Rosati,  ro-sJ'tee,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at 
Sara,  Italy,  January  30,  1789.  He  became  a  Lazarist 
priest  at  Rome.  In  1S16  he  was  sent  to  the  United 
States,  and  became  a  professor  in  the  theological  school 
at  "  the  Barrens,"  (or  Saint  Mary's,)  Missouri,  and  was 
afterwards  the  superior  of  the  Lazarists  of  Missouri.  In 
1S24  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Tanagra,  and  in  1827 
was  made  Bishop  of  Saint  Louis,  the  first  of  that  name. 
Died  in  Rome,  September  25,  1843. 

Roscelin,  ros'l^N',  written  also  Ruzelin,  [Lat.  Ros- 
celi'nus  or  Roscelli'nus,]  a  famous  French  theologian 
and  schoolman,  born  at  or  near  Compiegne.  He  was  a 
Nominalist,  and  was  for  some  time  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  Nominalism.  In  1092  he  was  condemned 
as  a  heretic  by  a  council  at  Soissons.     Died  about  1122. 

See  B.  Haur^au,  "  De  la  Philosophie  scolastique  ;"  Chladen, 
"De  Vita  et  Hseresi  Roscelini,"  1756. 

Roscelinus  or  Roscellinus.    See  Roscelin. 

Roscher,  rosh'er,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  political 
economist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1817.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  political  science,  etc.  at  Leipsic  in  1848.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Life  and  Times 
of  Thucydides,"  (1842.) 

Roschid,  (or  Roschd,)  Ibn.     See  AvERRoiis. 

Roschlaub  or  Roeschlaub,  rosh'Iowp,  (Andreas,) 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  1768  ;  died  in  1835. 

Roscius,  rosh'e-us,  (Quintus,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
actor,  was  born  near  Lanuvium.  He  amassed  a  large 
fortune  by  his  performance  on  the  stage.  His  name 
was  so  proverbial  for  excellence  that  Garrick  was  styled 
"the  British  Roscius."  An  oration  which  Cicero  pro- 
nounced for  Roscius  in  a  civil  suit  is  extant.  Died 
about  60  B.C. 

Ros'coe,  (Henry,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  1800,  was  a  son  of  the  historian.  He  wrote 
a  "  Life  of  William  Roscoe,"  (1833,)  and  "The  Lives  of 
Eminent  British  Lawyers,"  in  Lardner's  "Cyclopaedia." 
Died  in  1836. 

Roscoe,  (Sir  Henry  Enfield,)  an  English  chemist, 
son  of  Henry  Roscoe,  (q.  v.,)  was  born  in  London,  January 
7,  1833.  He  studied  at  University  College,  London,  and 
graduated  at  London  University  m  1S52,  studying  after- 
wards at  Heidelberg  with  Bunsen.  In  1857  he  was  made 
professor  of  chemistry  in  Owens  College,  Manchester. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Victoria  University.  He 
is  the  author  of  several  treatises  on  chemistry,  and  of 
many  scientific  papers.     He  was  knighted  in  1884. 

Roscoe,  (James,)  an  English  poet  and  lawyer,  born 


€as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2!^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


ROSCOE 


2084 


ROSECRANS 


about  1791.  He  resided  at  Knutsford,  Cheshire,  foi 
nearly  fifty  years.  He  contributed  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  and  other  periodicals.     Died  in  May,  1864. 

Roscoe,  (Robert,)  a  barrister,  a  brother  of  Henry, 
noticed  abcve,  was  born  about  1790.  He  wrote  poems 
of  some  merit.     Died  in  1850. 

Roscoe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  author  and  translator, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1790.  He 
produced  several  poems  and  tales,  a  "Tour  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,"  and  other  illustrated  works,  and  translated 
.Sismondi's  "Literature  of  Southern  Europe,"  Silvio 
Pellico's  "Memoirs,"  etc.     Died  September  24,  1871. 

Roscoe,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  historian 
and  poet,  born  at  or  near  Liverpool  on  the  8th  of  March, 
1753.  He  practised  as  an  attorney  in  his  early  life,  and 
married  Miss  Griffiths  in  1781.  lie  wrote  several  pam- 
phlets against  the  slave-trade,  and  a  poem  on  the  same 
subject.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded  on  his  "  Life 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  called  the  Magnificent,"  (2  vols., 
1796,)  which  was  very  successful  and  was  translated  into 
French,  German,  and  Italian.  He  retired  from  business 
as  an  attorney  about  1800,  became  partner  in  a  banking- 
house,  and  purchased  an  estate  in  land.  In  1805  he  pub- 
lished an  interesting  and  popular  work,  "The  Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Leo  X."  He  became  a  Whig  member  of 
Parliament  (for  Liverpool)  in  1806.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal founder  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Liverpool. 
In  1 816  the  banking-house  with  which  he  was  connected 
failed,  and  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  parting  with 
his  magnificent  library.  He  died  in  June,  1831,  leaving 
four  sons,  noticed  in  this  work.  As  a  historian,  Roscoe 
has  been  censured  by  some  critics  for  a  too  great  indul- 
gence shown  to  the  character  of  Leo  X.  and  to  the  vices 
of  his  court,  and  particularly  for  his  defence  of  Lucretia 
Borgia.  (See,  on  this  subject,  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1806 ;  also  Dr.  Hoefer's  article  on  Alex- 
andre VI,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

See  Henry  Roscoe,  "Life  of  William  Roscoe,"  2  vols.,  1833; 
"Lives  of  Distinguished  Norlliems,"  by  Hartley  Coleridge; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors:"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
luly,  1833;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1832,  (with  a 
portrait.) 

Roscoe,  (W.  S.,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1781,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  author  of  a  volume  of 
poems.     Died  in  1843. 

Ros-com'mon,  (Wentworth  Dillon,)  Earl  of, 
an  English  poet,  born  in  Ireland  about  1633,  was  the  son 
of  James  Dillon,  third  Earl  of  Roscommon,  and  a  Ro- 
man Catholic.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  the  famous 
Earl  of  Strafi'ord.  When  the  latter  was  impeached,  young 
Dillon  was  sent  to  study  at  Caen,  under  Bochart.  He 
returned  to  England  about  1660,  became  master  of  the 
horse  to  the  Duchess  of  York,  and  married  Frances,  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Burlington.  He  wrote  odes, 
prologues,  epilogues,  and  an  "  Essay  on  Translated 
Verse,"  (1680.)  He  also  translated  Horace's  "Art  of 
Poetry"  into  blank  verse,  (1680.)     Died  in  1684. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Rose,  (George,)  a  British  politician,  born  at  Brechin, 
Scotland,  in  1744,  was  noted  for  business  talents  and 
practical  sagacity.  He  was  secretary  of  the  treasury 
from  1782  to  1801,  and  was  a  constant  adherent  of  Mr. 
Pitt,  who  in  1804  appointed  him  joint  paymaster-general 
of  the  forces.  In  1807  he  became  treasurer  of  the  navy. 
He  was  a  grandfather  of  General  Sir  Hugh  Henry  Rose. 
Died  in  1818. 

See  "Diaries  and  Correspondence  of  George  Rose,"  3  vols., 
j86o;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  •" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  i860. 

Rose,  (George,)  an  English  humourist,  (better  known 
under  his  assumed  name  of  Arthur  Sketchley,)  born 
in  London  in  181 7.  He  entered  holy  orders,  but  became 
a  Romanist  at  about  the  same  time  as  Newman,  and 
was  for  five  years  tutor  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  His 
liumorous  works,  embodying  the  opinions  and  adventures 
of  one  "  Mrs.  Brown,"  were  very  successful  ;  he  also 
WTote  a  number  of  plays.     Died  November  11,  18S2. 

Rose,  roz,  [Lat.  Ross.€:'us,|  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
prelate,  notorious  for  his  factious  violence,  was  born  at 
Chaumont  about  1542.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  League 
against  Henry  HI.  and  Henry  IV.     Died  in  1602. 


Rose,  ro'zeh,  (  Gustav,  )  a  distinguished  German 
mineralogist,  a  brother  of  Heinrich,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1798.  He  became  (1822)  keeper  of 
the  mineral  collection  and  professor  of  mineralogy  (1839^ 
at  Berlin.  He  wrote  "Elements  of  Crystallography,' 
and  contributed  the  geognostic  and  mineralogical  part 
to  the  "Journey  to  the  Ural  and  Altai  Mountains,' 
etc.,  which  he  made  with  Humboldt  and  Ehrenberg 
in  1829.     Died  at  Berlin,  July  15,  1873. 

Rose,  (Heinrich,)  son  of  Valentin  the  Younger,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1795,  was  a  pupil  of  Berzelius  at  Stockholm. 
He  became,  after  his  return,  professor  of  chemistry  in 
his  native  city,  in  1835.  His  principal  work,  entitled 
"Manual  of  Analytical  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1851,)  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages.  As  a  practical 
analyst  in  the  department  of  inorganic  chemistry  he  was 
highly  distinguished.  He  discovered  in  1844  the  sub- 
stance called  Niobium.     He  died  January  27,  1864- 

Rose,  (Henry  John,)  an  English  divine,  brother  of 
Hugh  James  Rose,  was  born  at  Uckfield  in  1801.  He 
graduated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1821, 
was  principal  editor  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Metropoli- 
tana"  and  of  "  Rose's  Biographical  Dictionary,"  and 
published  "The  Law  of  Moses,"  (the  Hulsean  Lecture 
for  1833,)  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  (1858,) 
and  a  translation  of  Neander's  "  Church  History."  Died 
at  Bedford,  January  31,  1873. 

Rose,  (Sir  Hugh  Henry,)  an  able  British  general, 
"Dorri  in  1803.  His  father,  Sir  George  H.  Rose,  was 
British  minister  at  Berlin.  He  commanded  a  division 
in  India,  (1857-60,)  and  contributed  to  the  suppression 
of  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys.  In  1866  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Strathnairn.    Died  Oct.  16,  1885. 

Rose,  (Hugh  James,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Little  Horsted,  Surrey,  in  1795.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1817,  and  in  1836  be- 
came principal  of  King's  College,  London.  He  was 
prominent  as  a  tractarian  preacher  and  author  and  as  a 
Greek  scholar.  Died  in  Florence,  Italy,  December  22, 
1838. 

Rose,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  priest  and  writer  on 
morals,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1714;  died  in  1805. 

Rose,  (Samuel,)  an  English  lawyer  and  biographer, 
born  at  Chiswick  in  1767.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Oliver 
Goldsmith."     Died  in  1804. 

Rose,  (Valentin,)  the  Elder,  a  German  pharma- 
cist, born  at  Neu-Ruppin  in  1735,  was  assessor  of  the 
medical  college  at  Berlin.     Died  in  1771. 

Rose,  (Valenti.n,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1762.  He  studied 
chemistry  under  Klaproth,  and  was  author  of  several 
useful  chemical  treatises.     Died  in  1807. 

Rose,  (William  Stewart,)  a  Scottish  poet,  scholar, 
and  translator,  born  in  1775,  ^'"^^  ^  friend  of  Sir  Walter 
.Scott.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Naval  History  of  the 
Late  War,"  (1802,)  and  translated  "  Amadis  de  Gaul" 
from  the  French,  and  the  "  Orlando  Innamorato"  (1823) 
and" Orlando Furioso"  (1823-31)  from  the  Italian.  These 
translations  are  highly  commended.     Died  in  1843. 

Rosebery,  roz'ber-e,  (Archibald  Philip  Prim- 
rose,^ Earl  of,  a  British  nobleman,  born  in  London, 
May  7,  1847.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  succeeded  to  his  titles  in  1868.  In 
1878  he  married  Hannah,  only  daughter  of  Baron  Meyer 
de  Rothschild.  He  became  prominent  as  a  friend  of 
education,  and  as  a  leading  liberal  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
In  1885  he  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal  in  Gladstone's 
cabinet. 

Rosecrans,  roz'krans,  (Sylvester  H.,)  an  American 
bishop,  a  brother  of  General  W.  S.  Rosecrans,  was  born 
at  Homer,  Ohio,  February  5,  1827.  He  studied  at 
Kenyon  College,  but  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  in 
1S46  graduated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Fordham,  New 
York.  He  studied  five  years  at  the  Propaganda  in  Rome. 
In  1852  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  became  an  editor 
and  theological  professor  in  Cincinnati.  In  1862  he  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Pompeiopolis  and  made 
auxiliary  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  and  in  1868  he  was  trans- 
lated to  the  see  of  Columbus.     Died  October  21,  1S78. 

Rosecrans,  roz'krans,  (William  Stark,)  an  Ameri- 
can general,  born  at  Kingston,  Delaware  county,  Ohio,  in 


a  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ij,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fAt;  mhv,  nflt;  gooil ;  moon; 


ROSEINGRAVE 


208: 


ROSIER 


September,  1819.  He  was  educated  at  West  Point,  where 
he  graduated  in  1842.  He  was  employed  as  engineer 
until  1854,  when  he  resigned  his  place  in  the  army. 
In  the  summer  of  1861  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  and  sent  to  Western  Virginia.  He  defeated  the 
insurgents  at  Rich  Mountain  in  July,  1861,  after  which 
he  commanded  in  West  Virginia  for  several  months.  He 
obtained  command  of  the  army  of  the  Mississippi  in 
June,  1862,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Corinth 
(October  4)  over  Van  Uorn  and  Price.  He  commanded 
the  Union  army  at  the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  near 
Murfreesboro',  which  ended  on  the  2d  of  January,  1863. 
General  Bragg  retreated  by  night,  leaving  Rosecrans 
master  of  thefield.  The  Union  loss  was  1533  killed 
and  7245  wounded.  General  Rosecrans  in  June  moved 
his  army  southeastward  in  pursuit  of  Bragg,  who  retired 
into  Georgia,  and  the  Union  army  occupied  Chattanooga 
about  the  9th  of  September.  Bragg,  having  been  rein- 
forced, turned  back  and  attacked  Rosecrans  on  the  19th 
and  20th  of  September  at  Chickamauga.  This  battle 
was  disastrous  to  the  Union  army,  which  retreated  to 
Chattanooga.  Rosecrans  was  relieved  from  the  com- 
mand about  the  20th  of  October,  1863,  and  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  district  of  Missouri  in  January,  1864. 
He  was  sent  as  minister  to  Mexico  in  July,  1868,  but  was 
recalled  a  few  months  later. 

See  "The  Army  of  the  Cumberland;"  Tenney,  "Military  and 
Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  1865. 

Roseingrave,  ro'zin-grav,  i*  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  mu- 
sician, went  to  Rome  to  study  in  17 10.  He  became 
organist  of  the  church  of  Saint  George,  London,  in  1725. 
Died  in  1750. 

Rosel  or  Roesel,  rb'zel,  (August  Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man painter  and  naturalist,  born  near  Arnstadt  in  1705. 
He  received  the  title  of  Von  Rosenhof.  He  published 
a  periodical  on  insects,  with  good  figures,  (4  vols.,  1746 
-61.)     Died  in  1759. 

Roselli,  ro-sel'lee,  or  Rosselli,  (Cosimo,)  an  emi- 
nent Florentine  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1439.  He 
painted  frescos  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome,  which 
gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  pope,  when  among  his 
competitors  were  Perugino  and  Ghirlandaio.  He  suc- 
ceeded by  a  profuse  use  of  gold  and  ultramarine, 
although  he  was  inferior  to  his  competitors.  Dii'd 
after  1506. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "Notizie." 

Roselli  or  Rosselli,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1578,  was  a  pupil  of  Pagani.  He 
opened  at  Florence  a  school,  in  which  several  able  artist.s 
were  formed.     Died  in  1650. 

Rosellini,  ros'el-lee'nee  or  ro-s51-lee'nee,  (Ippolito,) 
Cavaliere:,  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary  and  writer  on 
Egyptian  antiquities,  born  in  August,  1800.  He  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Pisa  in  1824.  In  1827 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  to 
explore  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  assisted  by  six  com- 
panions, some  of  whom  were  artists.  He  co-operated 
with  Champollion,  who  at  the  same  time  was  sent  to 
Egypt  by  the  French  government.  Tiiey  returned  in 
1830,  and,  Champollion  having  died  in  1S32,  the  results 
of  their  researches  were  published  by  Rosellini  in  a 
capital  work  entitled  "  The  Monuments  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia  Explained  and  Illustrated,"  ("I  Monumenti  dell' 
Egitto  e  della  Nubia,"  etc.,  10  vols.,  1832-40.)  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  universal  history  at  Pisa  in  1840. 
Died  in  June,  1843. 

See  Bardei-LI,  "  Biografia  del  Professore  I.  Rosellini,"  1843: 
G.  Dei,  "  Biografia  del  Professore  I.  Rosellini,"  1843;  C.  Cavhdoni, 
"  Biografia  d'l.  Rosellini,"  1845. 

Rosemonde.    See  Rosamond. 

Rosen,  ro'zen,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  celebrated 
German  Orientalist  and  philologist,  born  at  Hanover 
on  the  2d  of  September,  1805.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipsic  and  that  of  Berlin,  the  latter  of 
which  he  entered  in  1824.  He  gave  special  attention 
to  Sanscrit  and  the  Semitic  languages,  and  published  an 
important  work  entitled  "Sanscrit  Roots,"  ("Radices 
Sanscritae,"  1827.)  In  1828  he  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  in  the  University  of  London,  since 
called  University  College.     He  was  appointed  secretary 


to  the  Oriental  Translation  Committee,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  professor  of  Sanscrit  in  the  college 
above  named.  He  wrote  the  articles  relating  to  Oriental 
literature  for  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia."  Among  his 
numerous  publications  is  "  Rig-Vedas  Specimen,"  (1830,) 
and  a  valuable  fragment  of  the  "  Rig- Veda,"  "  Sanhita 
Liber  primus,  Sanscrite  et  Latine,"  (1838,  unfinished.) 
He  died  prematurely  in  September,  1837. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rosen,  (Georg,  )  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Detmold  in  1821. 

Rosen,  ro'zen,  (Nikolaus,)  a  Swedish  medical  writer, 
born  near  Gothenburg  in  1706.  He  was  ennobled  in 
1762,  and  his  name  was  then  changed  to  Rosenstein. 
Died  in  1773. 

Rosen,  von,  fon  ro'zen,  (George,)  Baron,  a  Russian 
poet,  born  in  Saint  Petersburg  about  1805,  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Pooshkin.  He  produced,  besides  other 
poems,  "Ivan  the  Terrible,"  (1833,)  and  "  Basmanof," 
(1836.)     Died  in  i860.      _ 

Rosenblut,  ro'zen-bloot',  (Hans,)  sometimes  called 
RosENER,  a  German  poet  and  dramatic  writer  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Rosenhof,  von.     See  Rosel. 

Rosenkranz,  ro'zen-kR^nts',  (Johann  Karl  Fried- 
rich,)  professor  of  philosophy  at  Konigsberg,  was  born 
at  Magdeburg  in  1805.  He  published  a  number  of 
works  in  favour  of  Hegel's  philosophy.  Among  his 
wcfrks  is  a  "General  History  of  Poetry,"  (3  vols.,  1833,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Hegel,"  (1844.)     Died  June  13,  1879. 

RosenmtiUer,  ro'zen -mul'ler,  (  Ernst  Friedrich 
Karl,)  an  eminent  German  Orientalist,  born  near  Hild- 
burghausen  in  1768.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  in  1813  professor  of  Oriental  literature.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Scholia  on  the  Old  Testament," 
("Scholia  in  Vetus  Testamentum,"  23  vols.,  1788-1835,) 
"Manual  for  the  Literature  of  Biblical  Criticism  and 
Exegesis,"  (4  vols.,  1797-1800,)  "  Institutes  of  the  Arabic 
Language,"  (1818,)  and  "  Manual  of  Biblical  Antiquities.'' 
(4  vols.,  1823.)     Died  at  Leipsic  in  1835. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rosenmiiller,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  distinguished 
anatomist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hess- 
berg  in  1771.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  at  Leipsic,  and  prosector  at  the  Anatomical 
Theatre.  He  published  several  anatomical  and  scientific 
works.     Died  in  1820. 

Rosenmiiller,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Ummer- 
stadt  in  1736,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen, 
at  Giessen,  and  at  Leipsic.  He  published  •'  Scholia  in 
Novum  Testamentum,"  (6  vols.,  1777-1807,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Books  in  the 
Christian  Church  from  the  Age  of  the  Apostles  to  the 
Restoration  of  Letters,"  (in  Latin,  5  vols.,  1795-1814;) 
also  several  religious  treatises  in  German.  Died  at 
Leipsic  in  1815. 

See  Chr.  Dolz,  "J.  G.  Rosenmiiller's  Leben,"  1816;  "Biogra- 
phie Universelle." 

Rosenstein.    See  Rosen,  (Nikolaus.) 

Rosenthal,  ro'zen-til',  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a 
German  anatomist  and  writer,  born  at  Greifswalde  in 
1779.  He  published  several  professional  works.  Died 
in  1829. 

Rosenvinge,  ro'zen-ving'eh,  (Janus  Lars  Andreas 
Kolderup — kol'der-66p',)  a  Danish  jurist,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1792.  He  published  "Elements  of 
the  History  of  Danish  Law,"  (1823.) 

Rosetti.     See  Rossetti. 

Rosetti,  ro-set'tee,  (Constantine,)  a  poet,  born  at 
Bucharest  (Wallachia)  about  1816.  A  liberal  in  politics, 
he  was  exiled  about  1848,  but  returned  and  became  min- 
ister of  public  instruction  in  1861.  In  1876  he  became 
President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  forced  Rou- 
mania  to  ally  herself  with  Russia  in  the  war  against  the 
Turks.    He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  1878  to  1880. 

Roshd,  (or  Roshed,)  Ibn.     See  Averroes. 

Rosier,  ro'ze-i',  ( N.,)  a  French  dramatic  author, 
born  in  Paris  about  1805.  Among  his  works  is  a  comedy 
called  "  Le  Mari  de  ma  Femme,"  (1830.) 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROSIN 


20S6 


ROSS 


Rosin.     See  Rosinus. 

Rosini,  ro-see'nee,  (Carlo  Maria,)  an  Italian 
archasologist  and  hisliop,  born  at  Naples  in  1748.  He 
deciphered  and  published  some  manuscripts  of  Ilercu- 
laneum,  and  wrote  other  works.     Died  in  1836. 

See  Prospero  della  Rosa,  "Vita  di  C.  M.  Rosini,"  1837. 

Rosini,  (Giovanni,)  a  distinguished  Italian  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Lucignano,  in  Tuscany,  in  1776.  He 
was  professor  of  Italian  literature  at  Pisa  from  1803 
until  1849.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Luisa 
Strozzi,"  (4  vols.,  1833,)  "Torquato  Tasso,"  a  drama, 
(1835,)  and  a  "History  of  Italian  Painting,"  (7  vols., 
1838-54.)  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Works 
of  Canova,"  (1825,)  and  published  a  good  edition  of 
Tasso's  works,  (30  vols.,  1820-30.)     Died  in  1855. 

See  PozzoLiNi,  "Vita  di  G.  Rosini,"  1855;  Alfred  von  Reu- 
MONT,  "  G.  Rosini's  Leben,"  i860:  "  Biographie  Universelle ;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1829. 

Ro-si'nus,  [Ger.  pron.  ro-zee'nCis ;  Fr.  Rosin,  ro'- 
z4n',)  (Johann,)  a  German  antiquary,  whose  proper 
name  was  Rossfeld  or  Roszfeld,  was  born  at  Eisenach 
in  1551.  He  published  a  "  Complete  Body  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  ("Antiquitatum  Romanorum  Corpus  abso- 
lutissimum,"  1583.)     Died  in  1626. 

Roslin,  ros-leen',  (Alexander,)  a  Swedish  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Malmo  about  1718.  lie  worked  for 
many  years  in  Paris,  where  he  obtained  great  success. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  of  Art  in 
1753.     Died  in  Paris  in  1793.  " 

Rosmini,  de',  di  ros-mee'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian 
biographer,  born  at  Roveredo  in  1758.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Ovid,"  (1789,)  a  "  Life 
of  Seneca,"  (1793,)  a  "Life  of  Victorino  da  Feltro,"  (4 
vols.,  1801,)  and  a  "History  of  Milan,"  ("Storia  di  Mi- 
lano,"  4  vols.,  1820.)  His  works  are  commended  as 
accurate  and  impartial.     Died  at  Milan  in  1827. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  A.  M.  Menk- 
UHELU,  "Rosmini  e  sue  Opere,"  1S27. 

Rosmini-Serbati,  ros-mee'nee  s§R-b^'tee,  (Anto- 
nio,) an  eminent  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Roveredo,  March  25,  1797.  He  produced  "  New 
Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Ideas,"  ("  II  nuovo  Saggio 
sull  'Origine  delle  Idee,"  1830,)  and  propounded  a  new 
system  of  philosophy.  He  wrote  numerous  other  works, 
on  ethics,  theology,  education,  etc.  Died  in  1855.  (See 
"The  Philosophical  System  of  Rosmini-Serbati,"  trans- 
lated by  Thomas  Davidson,  (1883,)  with  notes.) 

Rosny,  de,  deh  ro'nfe',  (L60N,)  a  French  ethnog- 
rapher and  Orientalist,  born  at  Loos,  August  5,  1837. 
Trained  in  the  Ecole  des  Langues  Orientales,  he  became 
professor  of  Japanese  in  the  Imperial  Library,  and  in 
1863  was  named  interpreter  to  a  Japanese  embassy  in 
Europe.  He  has  published  many  works  on  the  Japanese 
language,  a  "  Dictionnaire  des  Signes  ideographiques  de 
la  Chine,"  (1864-67,)  works  on  the  Corean  language,  etc. 

Rosny,  de.     See  Sully. 

Rospigliosi.     See  Clement  IX. 

Ross,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born 
about  1570,  became  minister  at  Aberdeen  in  1636.  He 
was  an  adversary  of  the  Covenanters.     Died  in  1639. 

Ross,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  writer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1590.  He  was  a  zealous  partisan 
of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  (1642-49.)  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "View  of  All  Religions,"  and 
"Virgilii  Evangelizantis  Christias,"  (1634.)  Died  in 
1654. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ross,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  teacher, 
born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1699.  He  wrote  "  Helenore, 
or  the  Fortunate  Shepherdess,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1784. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ross,  (Alexander  Milton,)  M.D.,  a  Canadian 
naturalist,  born  at  Belleville,  Ontario,  December  13, 
1832.  He  served  for  a  time  in  the  United  States  army 
as  a  surgeon  during  the  war  of  1861-65.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Birds  of  Canada,"  (1872,)  "Butterflies 
and  Moths  of  Canada,"  (1S73,)  "Flora  of  Canada," 
(1S74,)  "Forest  Trees  of  Canada,"  (1874,)  "Mammals 
and  Fresh-Water  Fish  of  Canada,"  (1878,)  etc. 

Ross,  (Frederick  Augustus,)  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, born  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1796.      He  became 


pastor  of  a  church  at  Huntsville,  Alabama,  in  1855,  and 
published  "Slavery  ordained  of  God,"  (1857.)   D.  1883. 

Ross,  (George,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Indejjendence,  was  born  at  New  Cas- 
tle, Delaware,  in  1730.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1774  until  1777.  He  was  appointed  in  1779  a  judge 
of  the  coiu't  of  admiralty  for  the  State  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  died  the  same  year. 

Ross,  (Sir  James  Clark,)  Admiral,  F.R.S.,  an  emi- 
nent English  Arctic  navigator,  born  in  London  in  April, 
1800.  He  served  his  uncle.  Sir  John  Ross,  as  midship- 
man in  his  first  voyage  in  search  of  a  Northwest  Passage, 
(1818.)  Between  1819  and  1825  he  made  three  voyages 
under  Captain  E.  Parry.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
Sir  John  Ross's  second  voyage,  (1829-33,)  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  post-captain  in  1834.  In  1839  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  an  expedition  sent  with 
two  vessels,  the  Erebus  and  Terror,  to  explore  the  Ant- 
arctic regions  with  special  reference  to  the  science  of 
magnetism.  He  reached  the  seventy-eighth  degree  of 
south  latitude,  and  discovered  an  ice-bound  continent, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Victoria  Land,  and  the 
coast  of  which  his  party  traced  for  seven  hundred  miles. 
After  a  highly  successful  voyage  of  four  years,  he  arrived 
at  England  in  September,  1843.  ^^^  published  a  "Voy- 
age of  Discovery  and  Research  in  the  Southern  and 
Antarctic  Regions,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1847.)  He  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1856.     Died  in  1862. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "  Men  I  have  known,"  London,  i866; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  tor  March,  1819,  and  July,  1835;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  i8ig,  July,  1835,  and  June,  1847;  "North 
British  Review"  for  November,  1847. 

Ross,  (Sir  John,)  Rear- Admiral,  a  famous  Arctic 
navigator,  born  at  Balsarroch,  (county  of  Wigton,)  Scot- 
land, in  1777,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He  served 
as  an  ofificer  in  several  naval  actions  against  the  French 
and  Spaniards  between  1800  and  1814.  In  1818  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  first  expedition  sent  to 
search  for  a  Northwest  Passage.  Lieutenant  Parry  was 
the  second  in  command.  He  passed  through  Baffin's 
Bay  to  Lancaster  Sound,  where  he  imagined  he  saw 
a  barrier  of  mountains  interposed,  and  he  returned 
home  in  the  same  year.  (See  Parry,  Captain.)  In 
1829  he  renewed  the  enterprise  in  the  Victory,  entered 
Prince  Regent  Inlet,  and  was  frozen  up  in  the  Gulf  of 
Boothia  in  October,  1829.  His  party  passed  about  four 
years  of  privation  and  peril  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and 
abandoned  the  Victory  in  1832.  Captain  Ross  dis- 
covered in  1 83 1  a  point  which  he  believed  to  be  the 
Northern  Magnetic  Pole.  He  and  his  party  returned 
by  boats  to  Lancaster  Sound,  where  they  were  rescued 
by  a  whaling-vessel,  and  arrived  home  in  September, 
1833.  He  published  in  1835  a  narrative  of  his  second 
voyage.     Died  in  1856. 

Ross,  written  also  Rouse  and  Rovrs,  (John,)  known 
as  "the  Antiquary  of  Warwick,"  wrote  "History  of  the 
Kings  of  England,"  (in  Latin,  1716.)     Died  in  1491. 

Ross,  (John,)  Bishop  of  Exeter,  an  English  writer, 
born  in  Herefordshire.  He  edited  Cicero's  "  Familiar 
Letters,"  ("Epistolae  Familiares,"  1749.)     Died  in  1792. 

Ross,  (John,)  [called  Koo'w§s-koo'v/e  in  the 
Cherokee  language,]  a  noted  half-breed  Indian,  and 
head  chief  of  the  Cherokees,  was  born  in  Georgia  about 
1790;  died  at  Washington  in  1866. 
•  Ross,  (Leonard  Fulton,)  an  American  officer,  borr 
in  Fulton  county,  Illinois.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun- 
teers in  1862. 

Ross,  ross,  (LUDWIG,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  in 
Holstein  in  1806,  became  in  1837  professor  of  archae- 
ology in  the  Otto  University  at  Athens,  in  Greece.  He 
subsequentlv  filled  the  same  chair  at  Halle. 

Ross,  (William,)  a  Gaelic  poet,  born  at  Broadford, 
Isle  of  Skye,  in  1762;  died  at  Gairloch  in  1790.  His 
poems  were  published  in  1834.  He  is  known  as  "  the 
Highland  Burns." 

Ross,  (Sir  William  Charles,)  R.A.,  a  popular 
English  miniature-painter,  born  in  London  in  June, 
1794,  was  a  nephew  of  Anker  Smith,  the  engraver.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  career  he  painted  history  and  por- 
traits. He  excelled  in  miniature,  and  became  in  this 
department  the  most  fashionable  artist  of  his  time.     In 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


J?  OSS 


2087 


ROSSI 


1837  he  was  appointed  miniature-painter  to  the  queen. 
lie  gained  a  prize  of  ;^ioo  for  a  picture  of  "The  Angel 
Raohael  discoursing  with  Adam,"  (1843.)    Died  in  i860. 

Ross,  (William  Stewart,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Kirkbean,  Galloway,  March  20,  1844.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Besides  many  text-books 
for  schools,  he  has  written  tales  and  romances  and  some 
volumes  of  poetry.  In  1872  he  became  a  publisher  in 
London. 

Rossseus.     See  Rose,  (Guillaume.) 

Ross-Church,  (Florence  Marryat,)  a  daughter  of 
Captain  Frederick  Marryat,  (q.  v.,)  was  born  at  Brighton, 
July  9,  1837.  In  1872  she  became  editor  of  "London 
Society."  She  is  now  Mrs.  Francis  Lean.  Among 
her  numerous  books,  chiefly  novels,  are  "  Too  Good 
for  Him,"  (1865,)  "For  Ever  and  Ever,"  (1866,)  "Nelly 
Brooke,"  (1867,)  "Verdique,"  (1868,)  "Petronel,"  (1869,) 
"Her  Lord  and  Master,"  (1870,)  "Prey  of  the  Gods," 
(1871,)  "Life  of  Captain  Marryat,"  (1872,)  "No  Valen- 
tines," (1873,)  '•  Facing  the  Footlights,"  (1883,)  etc. 

Rosse,  ross,  (William  Parsons,)  third  Earl  of,  an 
eminent  English  practical  astronomer,  born  in  June,  1800, 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1831,  and  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  peerage  in  1841.  He  acquired  a  wide 
reputation  by  the  construction  of  a  telescope  which  was 
finished  about  1844  and  is  unrivalled  in  dimensions  and 
space-penetrating  power,  and  by  his  discoveries  in 
sidereal  or  nebular  astronomy.  This  telescope,  which 
has  an  aperture  of  six  feet  and  a  length  of  fifty-six  feet, 
is  located  near  Parsonstown,  Kings  county,  Ireland.  lie 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1849. 
Died  in  October,  1867. 

Rossel,  de,  deh  ro'sSK,  (Elisabeth  Paul  fioouARD,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Sens  in  1765. 
Me  accompanied  D'Entrecasteaux  in  his  expedition  in 
search  of  La  Perouse,  and  succeeded  to  the  chief  com- 
mand in  1794.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English 
in  1795,  and  released  about  1802.  In  1809  he  published 
the  "  Voyage  of  D'Entrecasteaux  in  Search  of  La  Pe- 
rouse," (2  vols.,)  containing  a  good  treatise  on  nautical 
astronomy.     Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Rosselli.     See  Roselli. 

Rossellino,  ros-sSl-lee'no,  or  Rossellini,  ros-s§l- 
lee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor,  whose 
family  name  was  Gambarelli,  was  born  at  Florence 
about  1427.  Among  his  works  are  several  statues  of 
the  Madonna.     Died  in  1490. 

Rossellino  or  Rossellini,  (Bernardo,)  an  architect 
and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1409,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Nicholas 
v.,  and  designed  or  restored  several  churches  of  Rome. 
Died  about  1470. 

Rossetti,  ros-set'tee,  (Christina  Georgina,)  an 
English  contemporary  poetess,  sister  of  Dante  Gabriel, 
was  born  in  1830.  She  has  written  "Goblin  Market," 
(1862,)  "The  Prince's  Progress,"  (1866,)  "  Commonplace, 
and  other  Short  Stories  in  Prose,"  (1870,)  "  Sing-Song, 
aNursery  Rhyme-Book,"  (1872,)  "  Speaking  Likenesses," 
(1874,)  "Annus  Domini,"  (1874,)  and  "A  Pageant,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1881.) 

Rossetti,  (Dante  Gabriel,)  an  English  painter  and 
poet,  born  in  London  about  1828,  was  a  son  of  Gabriel 
Rossetti.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  movement  called 
Pre-Raphaelitism,  an  attempt  to  revive  the  style  of  Italian 
painters  who  preceded  Raphael.  In  1862  he  produced 
"The  Early  Italian  Poets,  from  Cuillo  d'Alcamo  to 
Dante,"  a  series  of  translations  in  the  original  metres, 
reproduced  in  1873  as  "  Dante  and  his  Circle."  He 
published  a  volume  of  original  poems  in  1870,  and 
"Ballads,  and  other  Poems,"  in  1881.  Died  April  11, 
1882. 

Rossetti  or  Rosetti,  (Gabriel,)  an  Italian  poet  ?.nd 
critic,  born  in  1783.  He  became  professor  of  Italian  in 
King's  College,  London,  and  well  known  as  a  commen- 
tator on  Dante.     Died  in  1854. 

Rossetti,  (Maria  Francesca,)  an  English  teacher 
and  author,  sister  of  Christina  G.  Rossetti,  was  born  in 
London,  February  17,  1827.  Her  best-known  work  is 
"  A  Shadow  of  Dante,  being  an  Essay  towards  studying 


Himself,  his  World,  and  his  Pilgrimage,"  (1871.)  Died 
November  24,  1876. 

Rossetti,  (William  Michael,)  an  English  writer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London,  September 
25,  1829,  and  entered  the  English  civil  service.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,"  (2  vols., 
1869,)  and  a  blank-verse  translation  of  Dante's  "  In- 
ferno," besides  several  volumes  of  criticisms,  biogra- 
phies, etc.  He  is  especially  noteworthy  as  a  critic,  both 
of  literature  and  art. 

Rosshirt,  ros'hS^Rt,  (Konrad  Franz,)  a  German 
jurist  and  author  of  legal  works,  born  at  Bamberg  in  I793i 
was  professor  of  law  at  Heidelberg.     Died  June  5,  1873. 

Rossi,  ros'see,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Zoldo  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  master  of  Titian. 

Rossi,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
about  1700  ;  died  about  1750. 

Rossi,  (Francesco.)     See  Salviati. 

Rossi,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Rome  in  1616.  Among  his  works  are  the 
Palazzo  Rinuccini,  and  the  church  of  San  Pantaleon, 
Rome.     Died  in  1695. 

Rossi,  [Lat.  Erythr.«'us,]  (Giovanni  Vittorio,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  noted  as  a  Latinist,  was  born  at  Rome 
in  1577.  Among  his  works  is  "Pinacotheca  Imaginum 
illustrium  Virorum,"  ("  Gallery  of  Portraits  of  Illustrious 
Men,"  1643-48.)     Died  in  1647. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Mdmoires;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana." 

Rossi,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Ravenna  in  1539.  His  Latin  name  was  Rubeus  or 
De  Rubeis.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  good  "History  of 
Ravenna,"  (1572.)     Died  in  1607. 

Rossi,  ros'see,  (JoriN  Charles  Fellx,)  an  English 
sculptor,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1762,  was  of  Italian 
origin.  He  gained  the  gold  medal  at  London  in  1784, 
after  which  he  studied  at  Rome,  and  returned  in  1788. 
He  became  sculptor  to  William  IV.  His  best  works 
are  monuments  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  Lord  Heathfield, 
Captain  Riou,  Captain  Faulkner,  and  Lord  Rodney,  in 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.     Died  in  1839. 

Rossi,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  musician,  born  at  Naples 
about  1590.  He  composed  cantatas,  etc.  Died  after 
1640. 

Rossi,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Brescia 
in  1570.  Among  his  works  is  "Brescian  Memoirs," 
("Memorie  Bresciane,"  1616.)     Died  in  1630. 

Rossi,  (Pasquale.)     See  Pasqualino. 

Rossi,  (Pellegrino  Luigi  Odoardo,)  Count,  an 
Italian  orator,  minister  of  state,  and  writer  on  law,  was 
born  at  Carrara  in  1787.  As  a  partisan  of  the  French 
regime  and  of  Murat,  he  was  exiled  in  1815.  He  became 
professor  of  Roman  law  at  Geneva  in  1819,  and  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  a  jurist  by  his  "Treatise  on 
Penal  Law,"  (Paris,  3  vols.,  1825.)  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  College 
de  France,  Paris.  He  was  nominated  a  peer  of  France 
in  1839,  and  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1845.  In 
September,  1848,  he  was  appointed  chief  minister  of 
state  by  the  pope.  He  was  assassinated,  November  15, 
1848,  by  his  political  enemies. 

See  J.  Garnier,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Rossi,"  1S49;  Huber- 
Sai.adin,  "M.  Rossi  en  Suisse  de  1816  4  1S33,"  1849;  Mignbt, 
"  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Rossi,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
gra])hie  G^nerale." 

Rossi,  de',  di  ros'see,  fin  Latin,  De  Ru'beis,]  (Ber- 
nardo Maria,)  a  learned  Italian  monk,  born  in  Friuli 
in  1687.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "On  the  Life, 
Writings,  and  Doctrine  of  Thomas  Aquinas,"  ("  De 
Gestis  et  .Scriptis  ac  Doctrina  Thomae  Aquinatis,"  1750.) 
Died  in  1775. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vits  luiorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Rossi,  de',  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  archas- 
ologist,  born  at  Rome,  February  23,  1822.  His  publica- 
tions include  "  Inscriptiones  Christianae  Urbis  Romse 
Septimo  Saeculo  Antiquiores,"  (1861  ft  seq.,)  &nd  "Roma 
sotteranea  cristiana,"  (1866  et  seq.,) — both  works  of  high 
value. 

Rossi,  de',  (Giovanni  Bernardo,)  an  Italian  Ori- 
entalist, born  in  Piedmont  in  1742.  Among  his  numerous 


*  as  jJ;  5  as  s;  |  hard;  g  a.s/;  G,  H,  Yi,gttttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     CE^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


ROSSI 


2088 


ROSTOPTCHIN 


wotks  is  "  Various  Readings  of  the  Old  Testament," 
("  VarijE  Lectiones  Veteris  Testamenti,"  4  vols.,  1784- 
88.)  He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Parma.     Died  in  183 1. 

Rossi,  de',  (Giovanni  Ghekardo,)  an  Italian  writer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Rome  in  1754.  He  displayed 
imagination,  learning,  and  taste  in  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  several  comedies,  a  "  Life  of  G.  Pik- 
ler,"  (1792,)  and  "Poetical  and  Pictorial  Sports," 
("  Scherzi  poetici  e  pittorici,"  1795.)     Died  in  1827. 

See  TiFALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Rossi,  de',  (Properzia,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculptor  and 
musician,  born  at  Bologna  about  1490.  Her  master- 
piece is  a  bas-relief  of  "Joseph  rejecting  the  Overtures 
of  Potiphar's  Wife."  She  made  beautiful  cameos  of 
peach-stones.     Died  in  1530. 

Rossi,  de',  (Rosso.)     See  Rosso. 

Rossignol,  ro'sin'yoK,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  Paris  in  1759.  He  obtained  command 
of  an  army  sent  against  the  Vendeans  in  1793,  but  was 
removed  for  incapacity  in  1794.  He  was  banished  in 
iSoi,  and  died  on  the  African  island  of  Anjouan  in  1802. 

Rossignol,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
writer,  born  in  1726.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works. 
Died  at  Turin  in  1S17. 

Rossignol,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
at  Sarlat  about  1S05.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1853,  and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College 
de  France  in  1855.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
"Virgile  et  Constantin  le  Grand,"  (1846,)  and  a  Latin 
poem  called  "Scholastic  Life,"  ("Vita  Scholastica," 
1836.) 

Rossini,  ros-see'nee,  (Gioachino  Antonio,)  the 
most  celebrated  composer  of  thcpresent  time,  was  born 
at  Pesaro,  in  the  Papal  States,  on  the  29th  of  February, 
1792.  His  father  was  a  horn-blower,  and  his  mother 
an  actress  or  singer,  in  an  itinerant  opera-company.  He 
received  some  instruction  in  music  from  Padre  Mattel, 
of  Bologna ;  but  he  formed  his  style  chiefly  by  the  study 
of  Mozart  and  Haydn.  In  1812  he  produced  "The 
Fortunate  Deceit,"  ("L'Inganno  felice,")  and  several 
other  operas.  His  first  famous  work  was  the  opera  of 
"Tancredi,"  (1813,)  which,  performed  first  at  Venice, 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm  and  announced  the 
advent  of  anew  epoch  in  dramatic  music.  In  1815  he  was 
engaged  for  a  term  of  seven  years  as  musical  director 
of  the  theatre  of  San  Carlo  at  Naples.  He  produced 
many  operas  in  rapid  succession.  In  1816  appeared 
"The  Barber  of  Seville,"  ("II  Barbiere  di  Seviglia,") 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  his  works,  and 
has  been  performed  in  many  languages  and  in  every 
theatre  of  the  civilized  world.  His  "Mose  in  Egitto" 
(1818)  was  performed  with  success.  He  married  Made- 
moiselle Colbran  or  Colbrand,  a  singer,  about  1822, 
and  left  Italy  in  1823.  He  was  director  of  the  Italian 
Opera  in  Pans  from  1824  to  1830.  In  1829  he  produced 
the  original  and  incomparable  opera  of  "  William  Tell," 
which,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "  was  pronounced  by  all  con- 
noisseurs the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  works  of  Rossini." 
It  was  also  his  last,  except  the  "Stabat  Mater,"  (1842.) 
lie  resolved  to  compose  no  more,  saying,  "Another 
success  would  add  nothing  to  my  celebrity,  and  a  failure 
might  impair  it."  The  revolution  of  1830  deprived  him 
of  the  office  of  director  or  intendant-general  in  Paris, 
for  which  his  indolence  rendered  him  incompetent.  In 
1836  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  resided  for  many  years  at 
Bologna.  After  1855  he  lived  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
November  13,  1868. 

See  Bryle,  (or  Stendahl,)  "Vie  de  Rossini,"  a  vols.,  1823, 
and  English  version  of  the  same,  1824:  "Life  of  Rossini,"  by  H.  S. 
Edwards,  1S69:  Adoi.phe  Adam,  "  Derniers  Souvenirs  d'un  Musi- 
cien,"iS5g;  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "M.  Rossini,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1842;  F^xis,  "  I'-iographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Dr.  Hoefer, 
article  in  ihe  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Ros'si-ter,  (Thomas  P.,)  an  American  painter,  born 
at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  September  29,  1S18.  He 
studied  much  in  Europe.  His  pictures  were  chiefly 
scriptural  and  historical.  Died  at  Cold  Spring,  New 
York,  May  17,  1871. 

RoBslyn,  Earl  of.     See  Wedderburn. 

Ros3'l;J^n,  (James   Saint  Clair   Erskine,)   Earl 


OF,  a  general,  born  about  1762,  was  a  son  of  General 
Harry  Erskine,  and  a  nephew  of  A.  Wedderburn,  Earl 
of  Rosslyn.  He  became  a  major-general  in  1798,  and 
lieutenant-general  in  1 805,  after  which  he  served  in 
Portugal,  Holland,  etc.  He  inherited  the  title  of  earl 
in  1805.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  keei^er  of  the 
privy  seal.  He  was  president  of  the  council  in  the 
cabinet  of  Peel  from  December,  1834,  to  April,  1835. 
Died  in  1837. 

Rossmassler  or  Rosstnaessler,  ross'miss'l^r 
(Emil  Adolf,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1806.  He  published  "  Iconography  of  the  Euroj^ean  Land 
and  Fresh-Water  Mollusks,"  (with  sixty  plates,  1835.) 
Died  at  Leipsic,  April  8,  1867. 

Rosso,  del,  d§l  ros'so,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  in  Rome  in  1760,  lived  for  many  years  in 
Florence.  He  published  many  works  on  architecture. 
Died  in  1831. 

Rosso,  del,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Flor- 
ence, was  author  of  "Physics,"  ("La  Fisica,"  1578,)  a 
poem.     Died  in  1569. 

Rosso,  II,  k\  ros'so,  or  del  Rosso,  dSl  ros'so, 
or  Rossi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1496,  was  called  by  the 
French  MaItre  Roux.  He  studied  the  works  of  Mi- 
chael Angelo.  About  1535  he  went  to  France.  He  was 
patronized  by  Francis  1.,  and  adorned  the  palace  of 
Fontainebleau  with  his  works.  His  style  is  remarkably 
bold.     Died  in  France  in  1541. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters:"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rossotto,  ros-sot'to,(  A.\DREA,)an  Italian  biographer, 
born  at  Mondovi  in  1610,  wrote  "Index  of  Piedmontese 
Writers,"  ("Syllabus  Scriptorum  Pedemontii,"  1667.) 
Died  in  1667. 

Rost,  rost,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm  Ehrenfried,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Budissin  in  1768.  He 
became  rector  of  the  "Thomasschule"  at  Leipsic,  and 
published  several  critical  works  on  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics.     Died  in  1835. 

Rost,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  litterateur^ 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1717,  published  a  number  of  tales, 
poems,  and  satires.     Died  in  17615. 

Rost,  (Reinhold,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Eisenberg,  February  2,  1S22.  He  was  educated  at  Jena, 
and  in  1852  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
in  Saint  Augustine's  College  at  Canterbury,  but  in  1S69 
was  appointed  librarian  to  the  India  Office.  His  writings 
are  mostly  on  the  Asiatic  languages. 

Rost,  (Valentin  Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
lexicographer,  born  near  Gotha  in  1790.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  a  "Greek  Grammar,"  a  "Greek- 
German  Dictionary,"  and  a  "  German-Greek  Dictionary," 
(1832.)     Died  in  1862. 

Rostan,  ros't6N',  (Louis  L60N,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Maximin  (Var)  in  1790,  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  Paris  in  1833.     Died  in  1866. 

Rostgaard,  de,  deh  rost'goRd  or  rost'gauR,  (Fred- 
eric,) a  learned  Danish  writer,  born  at  Kraagerup  in 
1671.  He  held  several  high  civil  offices.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Beauties  of  the  Danish  Poets," 
("Deliciae   Poetarum   Danorum,"  2  vols.,  1693.)     Died 

in  1745. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Rostolan,  de,  deh  ros'to'lflN',  (  Louis,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Aix  in  1 79 1.  He  served  in  several 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
the  siege  of  Rome  in  1849.     Died  in  1862. 

Rostoptchin,  ros-top-chin'  or  ros-top-cheen',  written 
also  Rastopchin  and  Rostoptschin,  (Feodor  Vasi- 
LIEVITCH,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  born  in  the 
province  of  Orel  in  1765.  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
afi"airs  for  a  short  time  under  Paul  1.  In  ^L1y,  1812,  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Moscow.  According  to  the 
French  accounts,  he  was  the  author  of  the  conflagration 
of  that  city.  He  disclaimed  his  responsibility  for  that 
event,  and  affirmed  that  it  was  burned  partly  by  the 
French  and  partly,  perhaps,  by  some  Russians  acting 
without  orders.  He  was  removed  from  the  office  of 
governor  in  1814.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Memoirs  of  Count  Rostoptchin,  written  in  Ten  Min- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moonj 


ROSWEIDE 


2089 


ROTTECK 


utes,"  (in  French,)  and  "Truth  about  the  Burning  of 
Moscow,"  (1823.)     Died  in  1826. 

See  General  Scarrow,  "Notice  sur  le  Comte  Rostoptchine,'' 
1854;  Glinka,  "  History  of  Russia,"  (in  Russian;)  "  Nouvelk 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rosweide  or  Rosweyde,  ros'<l-i'deh,  (Herihert,) 
a  Dutch  Jesuit,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1569.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Lives  of  the  Fathers,"  etc.,  ("  Vitaj 
Patrum,  sive  Ilistoria  eremitica,"  1615,)  and  planned 
the  "Acta  Sanctorum,"  which  was  ccntinued  by  liolland 
and  others.     Died  in  1629. 

See  FoFPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Rosweyde.     See  Rosweide. 

Ros-witha.     See  Hrotsvitha. 

Roszfeld.     See  Rosmus. 

Rota,  ro'td,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Naples  in  1509.  He  wrote  Latin  elegies,  Italian  sonnets 
in  imitation  of  Petrarch,  and  eclogues  of  the  sea,  entitled 
"Piscatorie,"  (1560.)     Died  in  1575. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rota,  (Martin,)  a  skilful  engraver  and  designer, 
born  at  Sebenico,  in  Dalmatia,  flourished  between  1550 
and  i^f*".  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Venice.  He  en- 
graved sofne  works  of  Titian  and  Raphael,  and  "The 
Last  Judgment,"  after  Michael  Angelo.  Bryan  says  he 
was  born  about  1540. 

Rota,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Padua  in 
1703;  died  in  1785. 

See  F.  Fanzago,  "Memorie  intorno  all'Abbate  V.  Rota,"  1798. 

Rotari,  ro-ti'ree,  (Pietro,)  Count,  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Verona  in  1707.  He 
worked  at  Vienna,  Dresden,  and  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  about  1762. 

Rotembovirg.  ro'tSw'booR',  (Henri,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Phalsbourg  in  1769.  He  served 
with  distinction  at  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden,  with 
the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  in  1S12-13.    Died  in  1S57. 

Rotgans,  rot'gSns  or  rot'nins,  (Lucas,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1645.  He  wrote 
"The  Life  of  William  HI.,"  in  verse,  and  some  other 
poems.     Died  in  17 10. 

See  Chalmot,  "  Biographisch  Woordenboek." 

Roth,  r5t,  (JoHANN  Rudolf,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1815,  travelled  in  Syria  and 
Hindostan,  and  subsequently  accompanied  Harris's 
expedition  to  Abyssinia.  He  contributed  the  botanical, 
geological,  and  zoological  portions  to  "The  Highlands 
of  Ethiopia,"  published  by  Major  Harris.  He  died  in 
Palestine  in  1858,  while  on  another  journey  to  the  East. 

Roth.  (Rudolf,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in  Stutt- 
gart, April  3,  1821.  In  1856  he  became  a  Sanscrit 
professor  at  Tiibingen.  Among  his  books  are  one  on 
the  "Vedic  Literature  and  History,"  (1846,)  and  the 
great  Sanscrit  Dictionary  (1853-75)  prepared  by  him  and 
Bohtlingk  in  conjunction. 

Roth'a-ris,  King  of  the  Lombards,  began  to  reign 
in  636  A.D.  He  conquered  Genoa  and  Liguria.  Died 
in  652. 

Rothe,  ro'teh,  (Richard,)  a  German  divine,  born  at 
Posen,  January  28,  1799.  He  held  professorships  at 
Wittenberg,  Bonn,  and  Heidelberg.  His  principal 
works  are  "Die  Anfange  der  christlichen  Kirche," 
(1837,)  "Theologische  Ethik,"  (3  vols.,  1845-48),  and 
"Zur  Dogmatik,"  (1863.)  Died  at  Heidelberg,  August 
20,  1S67. 

Rothelm,  de,  deh  rot'liN',  (Charles  d'Orl6ans,) 
ABii6,  a  French  antiquary,  noted  as  a  collector  of  medals 
and  manuscripts,  born  in  Paris  in  1691  ;  died  in  1744. 

Rothenhamer.     See  Rottenhammer. 

Roth'er-am,  (John,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  was  born  in  Cumberland.  He  wrote  several 
religious  works.  Died  in  1788. 
*  Rotheram,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  wrote  a 
"Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Properties 
of  Water."     Died  in  1787. 

Rotherham,  roth'er-am,  alias  Scott,  (Thomas,) 
Archbishop  of  York,  was  born  in  1423.  He  became  lord 
chancellor  of  England  in  1474.     Died  in  1500. 

Roth'er-mel,  (Peter  F.,)  an    eminent    American 


painter,  born  in  Luzerne  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1817. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  De  Soto  discover- 
ing the  Mississi]-)pi,"  "Columbus  before  Isabella  the 
Catholic,"  "Christabel,"  and  the  "Christian  Martyrs," 
finished  in  the  early  part  of  1864,  and  exhibited  at  the 
great  Sanitary  Fair  held  in  Philadelphia  in  June-  and 
July  of  that  year.  He  was  employed  by  the  legislature 
of  Pennsylvania  to  paint  a  grand  historical  piece,  the 
"Battle  of  Gettysburg,"  (finished  in  1871.) 

Roth'say  or  Rothesay,  (David,)  first  Dukk  of, 
born  in  1378,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Robert  HI.  of  Scot- 
land. He  contracted  profligate  and  disorderly  habits. 
His  uncle  the  Duke  of  Albany  procured  from  the  aged 
king  an  order  for  his  confinement  in  prison,  where  he 
died  in  1402.    It  is  supposed  that  he  died  of  starvation. 

Roth'say,  Duke  OF,  one  of  the  titles  of  Prince  Albert, 
the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 

Rothschild,  ros'chlld,  [Ger.  pron.  rot'shllt,]  (Mayer 
(or  Meyer)  Anselm,)  a  famous  Jewish  banker,  and  the 
founder  of  the  great  monetary  house  of  Rothschild,  was 
born  at  Frankfort  in  1743.  He  commenced  business  on 
a  small  scale  as  an  exchange-broker,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  probity.  He  died  in  1812,  leaving 
five  sons, — Anselm,  who  was  born  in  1773,  settled  at 
Frankfort,  and  died  in  1855  ;  SoLOMON,  who  was  born 
in  1774,  became  banker  at  Vienna,  and  died  in  1855; 
Nathan  Mayer,  (see  separate  article;)  Carl,  who  was 
borri  in  1788,  and  died  at  Naples  in  1855  ;  and  James, 
born  in  1792,  died  in  November,  1868.  These  brothers 
operated  as  meiiibers  of  one  firm. 

Rothschild,  (Nathan  Mayer  or  Meyer,)  an  emi- 
nent financier  and  millionaire,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1777.  He  settled  in  London  about  1800,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  father  was  the  head  of  the  house 
of  Rothschild.  He  engaged  in  large  financial  opera- 
tions, was  very  successful  as  negotiator  of  loans  foi 
various  European  powers,  and  became  the  foremost 
capitalist  of  the  world.  He  died  in  1836,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Lionel  Nathan,  Baron  de 
Rothschild,  born  in  1808.  Lionel  was  elected  several 
times  a  member  of  Parliament  for  London,  but  was  not 
admitted  to  a  seat  until  1858,  because  the  oath  adminis- 
tered to  members  was  such  as  a  Jew  could  not  take.  He 
died  June  3,  1879. 

See  MiCHAUD  et  Villenave,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Simonisme  et 
de  la  Famille  de  Rothschild,"  1847. 

Rotrou,  de,  deh  ro'tRoo',  (Jean,)  a  popular  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Dreux  in  1609,  is  styled  "  the 
founder  of  the  French  theatre."  He  produced  numerous 
successful  tragedies  and  comedies,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  tragedy  of  "Venceslas" 
was  highly  commended  by  Voltaire.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Cosroes"  and  "Antigone."  He  was  a 
friend  of  Corneille,  who  called  Rotrou  his  master.  Died 
in  1650, 

See  Blin  de  Sainmore,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Rotrou,"  1805. 

Rotscher  or  Roetscher,  rot'sher,  (Heinrich  The- 
odore,) a  German  dramatic  poet  and  critic,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Brandenburg  in  1804.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Dissertations  on  the  Philosophy  of  Art," 
(4  vols.,  1837-42.)     Died  at  Berlin,  April  9,  1871. 

Rotteck,  von,  fon  rot'tSk,  (Karl,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man historian,  statesman,  and  jurist,  born  at  Freiburg 
in  1775.  He  studied  in  his  native  town,  where  he 
became  in  1798  professor  of  history.  In  1819  he  repre- 
sented his  university  in  the  first  chamber  of  the  States 
of  Baden,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  liberal 
views  and  his  eloquent  advocacy  of  political  reform. 
Having  excited  the  hostility  of  the  conservative  party, 
he  was  forbidden  by  the  government  to  edit  any  news- 
paper for  five  years,  and  to  lecture  in  the  university. 
The  persecution  to  which  he  was  exposed  hastened  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1840.  Rotteck's  "  Univeisal 
History"  (9  vols.,  1827)  is  perhaps  the  most  popular 
work  of  the  kind  that  has  yet  appeared,  and  in  1841 
had  reached  fifteen  editions.  It  was  translated  into  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe,  and  a  continuation,  in 
two  volumes,  was  published  by  Hermes  in  1841,  Rot- 
teck also  wrote  a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on  legal, 
historical,  and  political  subjects. 

See  MiJNCH,  "Carl  von  Rotteck  ^eschildert,"  etc.  1831 ;  Brock- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon.  " 


€as^;  9asj;  gAard;  gas /;  G,H,K,£-uttura/;  n,fiasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  i\\2is'm this.     (2:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


J?  O  TTENHAMMER 


2090 


ROULLIARD 


Rottenhammer,  rot'ten-him'm^r,  written  also  Ro- 
thenhamer,  (Johann,)  a  celebrated  German  painter, 
born  at  Munich  in  1564.  He  studied  for  a  time  under 
Tintoretto  at  Venice,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome, 
wliere  he  produced  several  historical  pieces  of  p:reat 
excellence.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Feast 
of  the  Gods,"  painted  for  the  emperor  Rudolph  II. 
Died  about  1620. 

See  Nacler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Rottmaun,  rot'mSn,  (Karl,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man landscape-painter,  born  near  Heidelberg  in  1798. 
He  adorned  with  frescos  the  arcades  of  the  Hofgarten 
at  Munich,  and  painted  several  works  for  the  Pina- 
kothek.  His  "  Field  of  Marathon"  is  much  admired. 
Died  in  1850. 

Rou,  roo,  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1638,  lived  in  England  and  Holland.  He 
became  in  1689  secretary  and  interpreter  to  the  States- 
General.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Seduction 
Avoided,"  ("La  Seduction  eludee,")  a  series  of  letters 
exchanged  between  Bossuet,  on  the  one  hand,  and  De 
Vrillac  and  Rou  on  the  other.  Died  in  171 1.  He  left 
"Memoires,"  which  were  first  published  in  2  vols.,  1857. 

Roubaud,  roo'bo',  (Pierre  Joseph  Andr6, )  a 
French  writer  on  grammar  and  history,  was  born  at 
Avignon  in  1730.  Among  his  works  is  "New  French 
Synonyms,"  ("Nouveaux  Synonymes  Fran9ais,"  4  vols., 
1785,)  which  is  commended.     Died  in  1791. 

Roubiliac,  roo'be'le^k',  sometimes  written  Rou- 
billac,  (Louis  Francois,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1695.  He  passed  a  large  part  of  his 
life  in  England,  where  he  worked  with  great  success. 
Among  his  works,  which  are  remarkable  for  minuteness 
of  finish,  are  a  statue  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  at  Cambridge, 
the  monument  of  the  Nightingale  family,  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  a  statue  of  Shakspeare,  executed  for  Garrick 
and  given  by  him  to  the  British  Museum.  Died  in  Lon- 
don in  1762. 

See  Allan  Cunningham,  "Lives  oi  Painters,"  etc. ;  Walpole, 
"Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Roubiliac.    See  Roubiliac. 

Roucher,  roo'shi',  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1745.  He  published  a  poem  en- 
titled "On  the  Months,"  ("Des  Mois,"  1779.)  He  was 
imprisoned  in  Paris  for  seven  months,  and  guillotined, 
with  his  friend  Andre  Chenier,  in  July,  1794. 

See  RiGAUD,  "£loge  de  Roucher,"  1S07;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Rouelle,  roo'^1',  (Guillaume  Franqois,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  near  Caen  in  1703,  was  the  father-in-law 
of  J.  Darcet.  The  celebrated  Lavoisier  was  one  of  his 
pupils.  He  contributed  greatly  to  popularize  chemistry 
by  his  lectures  in  Paris,  and  exerted,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  a 
great  influence  on  the  progress  of  that  science.  He  was 
professor  or  dimonstrateur  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi.  Died 
in  1770. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle;"  Paul  Antoine  Cap,  "  Biogra- 
phie Chimiqiie  •  Rouelle,"  1842;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;" 
Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Rouelle,  (Hilaire  Marin,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  1718,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1768  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi.     Died  in  1779. 

Roug6,  de,  deh  roo'zhi',  (Olivier  Charles  Ca- 
MiLLE,)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  in  Paris  in  181 1. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  an  Egyptologist,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1853.  Among  his  works 
is  "Chrestomathie  figyptienne."  He  became  professor 
of  Egyptian  archaeology,  etc.  in  the  College  of  France 
in  i860.     Died  December  27,  1872. 

Rougemout,  de,  deh  roozh'miN',  (Fr6d6ric  Con- 
stant,) a  Swiss  Protestant  author,  born  at  Neufchatel, 
July  28,  1828.  He  studied  at  Berne,  Gottingen,  and 
Berlin,  and  became  a  writer  on  politics,  theology,  phi- 
losophy, geography,  etc.  He  was  of  profoundly  religious 
character.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Geography 
and  Statistics,"  (1837,)  "  History  of  the  Earth,"  (1856,) 
"The  Primeval  People,"  (1857,)  "A  History  of  As- 
tronomy," (1S61,)  "Two  Cities,"  (2  vols.,  1S74, — an  un- 
finished work  on  the  history  of  philosophy,)  some  com- 
mentaries on  Scripture,  and  "  A  Mystery  of  the  Passion," 
(1876.)     Died  April  3,  1876. 


Rouget,  roo'zhi',  (Georges,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855.     Died  April  9,  1869. 

Rouget  de  Lisle,  (or  Delisle,)  roo'zh^'  deh  1^1, 
(Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  poet  and  musician,  born  at 
Lons-le-Saulnier  in  1760.  He  was  an  officer  of  engineers 
in  the  army  when  the  Revolution  began.  Just  after  the 
declaration  of  war  in  April,  1792,  he  dined  with  the 
mayor  of  Strasbourg,  where  a  wish  was  expressed  thai 
some  poetical  inspiration  might  respond  to,  or  appeal 
to,  the  national  enthusiasm.  In  the  ensuing  evening 
he  composed  for  this  ])urpose  the  famous  war-song 
called  the  "Marseillaise."  He  was  imprisoned  during 
the  reign  of  terror,  and  wounded  at  Quiberon,  in  1795. 
He  was  author  of  numerous  ballads,  musical  airs,  etc. 
Died  near  Paris  in  1836. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Miramont, 
"Biographie  de  Rouget-Delisle,"  1842;  F^uix  Pyat,  "  La  Mar- 
seillaise, avec  une  Notice  litt^raire  sur  Rouget-Delisle,"  1842; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Rougier,  roo'zhe-i',  (Louis  Auguste,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1793.  He  published 
several  valuable  medical  works.     Died  in  1863. 

Rougier  de  la  Bergerie,  roo'zhe-i'  deh  IS  b§Rzh're', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  was 
born  at  Beaulieu  in  1757.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "French  Georgics,"  a  poem,  (2  vols.,  1804,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Ancient  Agriculture  of  the  Romans," 
(1834.)     Died  in  1836. 

Rougnon,  roon'ydN',  (Nicolas  Francois,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1727;  died 
in  1799. 

Rouher,  roo'i',  (EuGi:NE,)  an  eloquent  French  ad- 
vocate and  minister  of  state,  born  at  Riom  in  1814. 
Having  made  profession  of  republican  principles,  he  waa 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848.  He  suc- 
ceeded Odillon-Barrot  as  minister  of  justice  in  October, 
1849,  and  retired  from  ofiice  in  October,  1851.  He  waa 
afterwards  vice-president  of  the  council  of  state,  and  in 
February,  1855,  was  appointed  minister  of  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  public  works.  In  June,  1863,  he  ex- 
changed that  office  for  the  position  of  president  of  the 
council.  He  became  minister  of  state  October  19,  1863, 
and  as  such  had  precedence  of  all  the  other  ministers. 
In  January  or  February,  1867,  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  finance.  Rouher  was  the  chief  organ  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  corps  legislatif.  In  July,  1869,  he  ceased  to 
be  minister  of  state,  and  became  president  of  the  senate, 
which  was  abolished  in  September,  1870.  In  1872  he 
was  returned  to  the  National  Assembly  for  Corsica,  and 
in  1876  was  elected  to  sit  for  Riom.     Died  Feb.  3,  1884. 

Rouille,  roo'yi',  (Pierre,)  Seigneur  de  Marbeui,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1657.  He  waa 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Portugal  in  1697,  '^"d  negotiated 
a  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  between 
France  and  that  power.  In  1709  he  was  sent  to  Holland 
to  treat  secretly  for  a  general  peace ;  but  he  failed  in 
this  mission.     Died  in  1712. 

Rouille,  (Pierre  Julien,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Tours  in  1681.  He  was  one  of  the  authors  or  compilers 
of  the  "Memoires  de  Trevoux."     Died  in  1740. 

Roujoux,  de,  deh  roo'zhoo',  (Prudence  Guil- 
laume,) Baron,  a  French  historian,  born  at  Lander- 
neau  in  1779.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
translation  of  Lingard's  "History  of  England,"  (14 
vols.,  1825-31.)     Died  in  1836. 

Rouland,  roo'lfiN',  (Gustave,)  a  French  minister 
of  state,  born  at  Yvetot  in  1802.  He  was  appointed 
advocate-general  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1847,  and 
was  minister  of  public  instruction  and  worship  from 
1856  to  1S63.     Died  December  12,  1878. 

Roulin,  roo'liN',  (Francois  DESikt.)  a  French  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Rennes  in  1796.  He  contributed  to 
several  scientific  journals,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
an  edition  of  Cuvier's  "  Regne  animal."     Died  in  1874.    < 

RouUet,  roo'iy,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Aries  in  1645.  He  engraved  after  the  Italian 
masters.     Died  in  Paris  in  1699. 

Roulliard,  roo'le^R',  (S6bastien,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  pedantic  writer,  was  born  at  Melun.  He  died  in 
Paris,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  1639. 


a,  e,  T,  6.  u,  y,  long;  \,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


ROUMANILLE 


2091 


ROUSSEAU 


Roumanille,  roo'mJ'neel',  (Joseph,)  a  French  (Pro- 
ven9al)  poet  ox  felibre,  (a  title  adopted  by  certain  writers 
who  are  striving  to  restore  the  Provencal  literature,)  was 
born  at  Saint-Remy,  August  8,  1S18.  He  early  won  fame 
as  an  improvisator.  Among  his  poems  are  "Li  Marga- 
rideto,"  (1847,)  "Lis  Oubreto,"  (1859,)  etc.     Died,  1891. 

Round,  (William  Marshall  Fnz,)  an  American 
novelist,  born  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island,  March  26, 
1845.  Among  his  books  are  "Achsah,"  (1S76,)  "Child 
Marian  Abroad,"  (1877,)  "  Torn  ^"d  Mended,"  (1877,) 
"  Hal,"  (1879,)  and  "  Rosecroft,"  (1881.)  He  is  a  journalist 
by  profession,  and  is  active  in  prison-reform. 

Rouquette,  roo'k^l',  (Adrian,)  an  American  poet 
and  priest,  (1813-1887.)  born  at  New  Orleans,  laboured 
as  missionary  among  the  Choctaw  Indians.  His  brother, 
Franfois  Dominique,  born  in  1810,  wrote  a  work  on  the 
Choctaw  nation,  and  a  number  of  poems.      Died,  1890. 

Rourik.    See  Rurik. 

Rous  or  Rouse,  (Francis,)  an  English  republican 
legislator  and  writer  on  theology,  was  born  at  Halton 
in  1579.  He  was  a  friend  of  Pym,  the  great  orator,  and 
was  a  member  of  several  Parliaments.  He  became  a 
supporter  of  Cromwell,  and  obtained  a  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords  in  1657.     Died  in  1659. 

Rouse,  (John.)     See  Ross. 

Roussat,  roo'st',  (Jean,)  a  French  patriot,  born  at 
Langres  in  1543,  was  noted  for  his  devotion  to  Henry 
IV.  and  his  hostility  to  the  League.  Eighty  letters 
written  to  him  by  that  king  are  extant,  and  were  printed 
in  i8i6.     Died  in  1613. 

Rousseau,  roo'so',  (Georg  Ludwig  Claude,)  a 
German  chemist,  born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1724,  was 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Ingolstadt.     Died  in  1794. 

Rousseau,  roo'so',  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1630,  was  a  Protestant.  He 
worked  some  years  for  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles  and 
Saint-Cloud  ;  but  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes  (1685)  he  went  into  exile.  Died  in  London  in 
1693  or  1694. 

Rousseau,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  lyric  poet  of 
great  eminence,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  April, 
1670.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  by  whom  he 
was  liberally  educated.  His  first  productions  were  come- 
dies, which  were  not  successful.  About  1698  he  servea 
Marshal  Tallard  as  secretary  in  his  embassy  to  London. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  odes,  sacred  and  pro- 
lane,  epigrams,  and  cantatas.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1701.  He  made  many 
enemies  by  his  satires  and  couplets.  In  1712  he  was 
banished  for  life  for  anonymous  satires  against  La  Motte 
and  Saurin.  It  seems  that  he  was  convicted  on  circum- 
stantial evidence  only.  He  passed  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  exile  at  Brussels,  Vienna,  London,  etc.,  and  found 
powerful  patrons,  among  whom  was  Prince  Eugene. 
About  1717  he  declined  the  offer  of  a  pardon  from  the 
French  court,  and  insisted  on  a  formal  recognition  of 
the  injustice  of  his  sentence.  He  died  at  Brussels  in 
March,  1741.  By  some  critics  he  is  considered  the 
greatest  lyric  poet  of  France.  According  to  the  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale,"  his  reputation  has  declined 
since  the  eighteenth  century.  "  Rousseau  is  extremely 
.skilful  in  versification,"  says  Fournel,  "a  very  adroit 
artisan  of  lyrical  strophes.  It  was  by  calculation  and 
not  by  inspiration  that  he  became  a  lyrical  poet."  ("  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale.") 

See  Seguv,  "  Notice  siir  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  J.  B.  Rous- 
seau," 1743;  Amar-Durivier,  "  Nouvel  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
ficrits  de  J.  B.  Rousseau,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  s  vols.,  1S20  ; 
"Vie  de  J.  B.  Rousseau,"  1748,  attributed  to  Voltaire;  Vai.mont 
P.ouREV,  "J.  B.  Rousseau  ;  Etude  litteraire,"  1852  ;  Sainte-Beuve, 
"Portraits  litt^raires. " 

Rousseau,  (Jean  Franqois  Xavier,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Ispahan  in  1738.  He  was  consul 
at  Bagdad,  and  was  employed  in  negotiations  with  the 
Persian  court.     Died  at  Aleppo  in  1808. 

His  son,  Jean  Baptiste  Louis  Jacques,  born  in 
1780,  was  an  Orientalist.  He  wrote  a  "Ilistorical 
Notice  of  Persia,"  (1818,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Tripoli  in  183 1. 

Rousseau,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  phi- 
losopher and  eloquent  writer,  born  at  Geneva  on  the  28th 
of  June,  1 712,  was  a  son  of  Isaac  Rousseau,  a  watch- 


maker. His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Bernard, 
and  who  is  said  to  have  been  amiable  and  highly  gifted, 
died  during  the  infancy  of  the  subject  of  this  article, 
who  was  not  fortunate  in  his  education.  His  favourite 
author  in  childliood  was  Plutarch,  to  whose  influence 
Rousseau  ascribed  his  own  republican  tendencies  and  his 
love  of  independence.  Jean  Jacques  had  one  brother, 
who  in  early  youth  went  to  seek  his  fortune  in  a  foreign 
country  and  was  never  heard  of  afterwards.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  quarrel  with  a  military  officer,  Isaac  Rous- 
seau fled  or  removed  to  Nyon  in  1722,  leaving  his  son  at 
Geneva  in  the  care  of  his  uncle,  M.  Bernard.  About 
1726  he  was  placed  as  an  apprentice  with  an  engraver, 
named  Ducommun,  a  coarse  man  and  harsh  master,  by 
whom  he  was  so  ill  treated  that  in  March,  1728,  he  ran 
away  in  the  direction  ol  Savoy.  He  was  received  as  a 
guest  at  the  house  of  Madame  de  Warens,  of  Annecy,  a 
benevolent  and  frail  lady,  to  whom  he  formed  a  lasting 
attachment.  Having  become  an  outcast  and  wanderer 
in  a  strange  country  and  without  resources,  he  changed 
his  relig'on  by  a  formal  abjuration  at  Turin.  He  was 
employed  for  a  short  time  at  Turin  as  a  servant  of  the 
Countess  de  Vercellis  and  the  Count  de  Gouvon  ;  but  his 
success  was  hindered  by  irregular  habits  and  instability. 
He  returned  and  became  a  second  time  an  inmate  in 
the  house  of  Madame  de  Warens,  who  procured  for 
him  a  situation  as  clerk  in  the  bureau  of  the  cadastre. 
Finding  this  employment  uncongenial,  he  soon  aban- 
doned it,  and  adopted  the  profession  of  a  teacher  of 
music,  (of  which  he  was  very  fond,)  although  he  was 
scarcely  qualified  to  teach  it.  He  obtained,  however,  a 
number  of  pupils. 

In  the  summei  of  1736  Rousseau  and  Madame  de 
Warens  removed  to  a  rural  residence  called  Charmettcs, 
near  Chambery,  where  they  passed  two  or  three  years, 
which,  he  informs  us,  were  among  the  happiest  of  his 
life.  His  early  career  presents  a  series  of  bizarre  ad- 
ventures, absurd  vagaries,  and  surprising  vicissitudes,  of 
which  he  has  given  an  extremely  candid  and  unreserved 
narrative  in  his  "  Confessions."  He  was  subject  to  hy- 
pochondria and  morbid  imaginations  even  in  his  youth. 
Having  invented  a  system  of  musical  notation  by  figures, 
(chij^res,)  which  he  hoped  would  promote  his  interest 
and  reputation,  he  went  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  1741, 
with  only  a  few  silver  coins  in  his  purse.  He  was 
presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  by  Reaumur,  and 
read  a  memoir  on  his  system  of  notation  to  that  body 
which  decided  that  it  was  neither  new  nor  practicable. 
He  lived  in  great  indigence  until  he  obtained,  in  1743, 
the  place  of  secretary  to  M.  de  Montaigu,  French 
ambassador  to  Venice,  whom  Rousseau  represents  as  an 
incompetent  and  villanous  person.  After  he  had  passed 
about  eighteen  months  at  Venice,  Rousseau  returned 
to  Paris  in  1745,  and  formed  intimacies  with  Diderot, 
Grimm,  Madame  d'Epinay,  and  Ther^se  Le  Vasseur. 
The  last  was  an  illiterate  woman,  of  low  birth,  whom  he 
married  after  they  had  lived  together  as  husband  and 
wife  for  many  years.  They  had  five  children,  whom 
Rousseau  sent  to  the  foundling-hospital.  He  received 
a  small  legacy  from  his  father,  who  died  in  1747,  after 
which  he  served  as  secretary  to  Madame  Dupin  of  Paris, 
and  her  son,  M.  de  Francueil,  receiver-general  of  finances. 
In  1750  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Dijon  for  an  essay  on  the  question  whether  the  progress 
of  the  sciences  and  arts  had  contributed  to  corrupt 
morals.  He  took  the  affirmative ;  and  never  was  a 
paradox  supported  with  greater  eloquence. 

Rousseau's  physical  infirmities,  his  fondness  for  para- 
dox, and  his  hostility  to  conventional  maxims  and  usuip- 
ation,  combined  to  render  him  eccentric  and  singular 
in  his  manners  and  mode  of  living.  He  simp  5fied  his 
costume,  renounced  fashionable  and  convivial  parties, 
and  affected  a  stern  and  sententious  tone.  According 
to  his  own  confession,  a  peculiar  contempt  for  the  riches 
and  pleasures  of  the  world  was  one  of  the  prominent 
traits  of  his  character.  About  1750  he  was  appointed 
cashier  to  M.  de  Francueil ;  but  he  soon  resigned  that 
place,  because  it  seemed  fatal  to  his  health  and  incom- 
patible with  his  principles, — "  for  with  what  grace  could 
the  cashier  of  a  receiver-general  preach  disinterest- 
edness and  poverty?"     He  afterwards  earned  a  scanty 


t  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  o,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROUSSEAU 


2092 


ROUSSET 


subsistence  by  copying  music.  In  1752  he  producei.' 
his  opera  "  Le  Devin  du  Village,"  which  was  performed 
before  the  king  at  Fontainebleau  and  had  a  great  success. 
The  Idng  expressed  a  wish  to  see  the  author;  but  the 
timidity  of  Rousseau  caused  him  to  decline  the  honour. 

He  produced  in  1753  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Origin  of 
Inequality  among  Men,"  in  which  he  maintains  that  al) 
men  are  born  equal.  "  He  was  the  father  of  modern 
democracy,"  says  Professor  Lowell,  in  the  "North 
American  Review"  for  July,  1867,  "and  without  him 
our  Declaration  of  Independence  would  have  wanted 
some  of  those  sentences  in  which  the  immemorial  long- 
ings of  the  poor  and  the  dreams  of  solitary  enthusiasts 
were  at  last  affirmed  as  axioms  in  the  manifesto  of  a 
nation,  so  that  all  the  world  might  hear."  He  offended 
the  national  vanity  by  his  "Letter  on  French  Music," 
(1753,)  but  in  many  respects  he  was  a  typical  French- 
man. In  1754  he  visited  Geneva,  where  he  was  received 
with  honour  and  was  formally  admitted  into  the  Prot- 
estant communion.  He  passed  seven  days  in  a  tour  or 
promenade,  by  means  of  a  boat,  around  Lake  Geneva. 

In  1756  he  was  persuaded  by  Madame  d'Epinay  to 
occupy  the  Hermitage,  a  rural  residence  which  she 
built  for  him  in  the  valley  of  Montmorency,  near  Paris. 
He  resided  there  about  two  years,  and  began  to  write  a 
novel  entitled  "  Julie,  or  the  New  Heioise,"  ("  Nouvelle 
Heloise,"  1760,)  which  was  greatly  admired  for  its  elo- 
quence and  sensibility.  Before  this  work  was  finished 
he  became  enamoured  of  Madame  d'Houdetot,  who  was 
a  sister  of  Madame  d'Epinay  and  was  a  married  woman. 
He  was  alienated  from  Diderot,  Grimm,  and  other  friends, 
whom  he  accused  of  perfidious  intrigues  against  his  peace 
and  reputation.  "  It  was  not  so  much  my  literary  celebrity 
as  my  personal  reformation  that  excited  their  jealousy. 
They  could  not  pardon  me  for  giving,  in  my  conduct,  an 
example  which  seemed  to  testify  against  them."  (Rous- 
seau, "Confessions.")  It  appears  certain  that  Grimm 
became  a  malevolent  calumniator  of  Rousseau.  His 
next  important  works  were  "The  Social  Contract," 
("  Du  Contrat  social,  ou  Principes  du  Droit  politique," 
1762,)  and  "fimile,  ou  de  I'Education,"  (4  vols.,  1762,) 
which,  considered  as  a  speculative  philosophical  treatise, 
is  a  work  of  a  high  order.  It  produced  some  useful  re- 
forms in  the  treatment  of  young  children  ;  but  its  tend- 
ency was  considered  so  dangerous  that  it  was  burned  at 
Geneva,  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  issued  an  order  foi 
the  arrest  of  Rousseau,  who  escaped  by  flight  He  found 
refnge  in  the  principality  of  Neufchatel,  the  governor  of 
which.  Lord  Keith,  received  him  with  kindness.  In  1765 
David  Hume,  who  w^as  then  in  France,  offered  the  exiled 
author  of  "  Emile"  an  asylum  in  England.  Rousseau 
accepted  the  invitation,  arrived  in  London  in  January, 

1766,  and  went  to  reside  at  Wootton,  in  StafTordshire. 
i\t  was  annoyed  by  an  offensive  and  libellous  letter  pub- 
lished in  the  journals  with  the  signature  of  the  King  of 
Prussia;  but  the  real  author  of  it  was  Horace  Walpole. 

Having  become  possessed  by  a  susjiiciwn  that  Hume 
was  not  his  true  friend,  he  returned  to  France  in  May, 

1767.  It  is  stated  by  M.  Morin  in  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale"  that  Hume  avowed,  in  a  letter  pub- 
lished in  1820,  that  he  co-operated  in  the  redaction  of 
the  forged  letter  from  the  King  of  Prussia.  Rousseau 
married  Ther^se  Le  Vasseur  in  1768,  resided  in  Paris 
from  1770  until  1778,  and  was  always  on  the  verge  of 
poverty.  Among  his  later  works  were  a  "  Dictionary  of 
Music,"  (1767,)  and  his  autobiographic  "Confessions," 
which  he  began  to  write  about  1766  and  which  were  not 
published  before  1782.  Botany  was  one  of  his  favourite 
pursuits  when  in  the  country.  In  the  spring  of  1778  he 
removed  to  Ermenonville,  where  he  died  on  the  2d  of 
July  in  the  same  year.  He  was  a  man  of  middle  stature 
and  well  proportioned.  "It  was  perhaps  his  sensibility 
to  the  surrounding  atmosphere  of  feeling  and  specula- 
tion which  made  Rousseau  more  directly  influent-al  on 
contemporary  thought  (or  perhaps  we  should  say  senti- 
ment) than  any  other  writer  of  his  time."  ("  Rousseau 
and  the  Sentimentalists,"  in  the  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1867,  written  by  Professor  Lowell.) 
The  same  critic  observes,  "There  was  a  faith  and  an 
ardour  of  conviction  in  him  that  distinguish  him  from 
most  of  the  writers  of  his  time.     Nor  were  his  practice 


md  his  preaching  always  inconsistent.  He  contrived  to 
r)ay  regularly,  whatever  his  own  circumstances  were, 
one  hundred  livres  a  year  to  a  maternal  aunt  who  had 
been  kind  to  him  in  childhood."  "  Though  I  see,"  says 
Hume,  "  some  tincture  of  extravagance  in  all  his  writings, 
I  also  think  I  see  so  much  eloquence  and  force  of 
imagination,  such  an  energy  of  expression,  and  such 
a  boldness  of  conception,  as  entitle  him  to  a  place 
amongst  the  first  writers  of  his  age."  (Quoted  in  the 
"  Encycloposdia  Britannica.") 

See  Barruel-Bkauvert,  "Vie  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  17S9:  Hen- 
NINGS,  "Rousseau,"  Berlin,  1797;  Musset-Pathav,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Vie  et  des  Oiivrages  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  2  vols.,  1821  ;  Lord 
Brougham,  "Voltaire  and  Rousseau,"  1845;  G.  H.  Morin,  "  Es- 
sai  surla  Vie  et  leCaractfere  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  1851  ;  P.  H.  Azais, 
"Jugement  pliilosophique  sur  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  etc.,  1S17;  Zdli.ek, 
"  Pestalozzi  und  Rousseau,"  1S51  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du 
Lundi ;"  Brockerhoff,  "J.  J.  Rousseau,"  (in  German,)  3  vols., 
1863:  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs. 
Shelley;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "  151ackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  February.  1S22;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1843:  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1859  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1822,  (by  A.  H.  Everett.) 

Rousseau,  (Louis  FRAxgois  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  P>elleville  in  1788;  died  in  1868. 

Rousseau,  roo'so',  (Lovell  H.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Lincoln  county,  Kentucky,  about  1820.  He  was  a 
lawyer,  and  a  resident  of  Louisville  before  the  civil  war. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  Shiloh, 
April,  1862,  and  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
which  ended  January  2,  1863.  He  became  a  member 
of  Congress  about  1865.     Died  in  January,  1869. 

Rousseau,  (Philippe,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  about  1808.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1848.     Died  December  6,  1887. 

Rousseau,  (Samuel^)  an  English  Orientalist,  born 
in  London  in  1765.  He  published  "The  Flowers  of 
Persian  Literature,  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1801,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1820. 

Rousseau,  (Theodore,)  an  excellent  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  in  Paris  in  1812.  He  gained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1849.  His  works  are  commended 
for  harmony  of  colour  and  for  the  transparency  of  the 
skies.    Died  in  1867. 

Roussel,  roo'sSl',  [Lat.  Ru'fus,]  (Gerard,)  written 
also  Ruffi,  a  French  Protestant  Reformer,  born  near 
Amiens.  He  became  in  1526  chaplain  to  Marguerite,  a 
sister  of  Francis  I.,  and  in  1536  Bishop  of  Oleron.  He 
wished  to  propagate  Reformed  doctrines  without  a 
separation  from  the  old  Church.     Died  in  1550. 

See  Ch.  Schmidt,  "Gerard  Roussel,"  1845;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Roussel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  Benedictine  and 
writer,  born  at  Conches  in  1658.  He  produced  a  French 
version  of  the  "  Letters  of  Saint  Jerome,"  (3  vols.,  1704- 
07.)     Died  in  171 7. 

Roussel,  (Henri  Pierre  Anselme,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  near  Domfront  in  1748;  died  at 
Caen  in  1812. 

Roussel,  (Napoleon,)  a  French  Protestant  minister, 
born  about  1805.  He  preached  for  many  yeais  at  Saint 
Etienne,  from  which  he  removed  to  Paris.  He  publishea 
numerous  works  on  theology.     Died  June  9,  1878. 

Roussel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and  able 
writer,  born  at  Aqs,  near  Foix,  in  1742.  He  pVoduced 
in  1775  "The  Physical  and  Moral  System  of  Woman," 
which  passed  through  many  editions.  He  explained 
the  organization  cf  woman  with  great  penetration 
and  subtlety.  "  Roussel  writes  with  elegance  and  in- 
terest," says  La  Harpe :  "his  observations  are  truly 
philosophic."     Died  in  1802. 

See  Alibert,  "  filoges  de  Spallanzani,  Galvani,  Roussel  et 
Bichat,"  1806;  "  Biographie  M^dicale." 

Rousselet.     See  Ch.\teau-Regnaud. 

Rousselin.     See  Saint-Albin. 

Rousselot  de  Surgy,  roos'lo'  deh  siiR'zhe^ 
(Jacques  Philibert,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Di- 
jon in  1737,  obtained  the  office  of  royal  censor  at  Parii 

Rousset,  roo's.i',  (Camille  F^lix  Michel,)  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris,  February  15,  1821.  He 
held  various  professorships  of  history,  and  in  187 1  was 
chosen  to  the  Academy,     His  works  include  "  .\  Suni- 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  u,  J,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  g66d;  moon 


ROUSSET 


2093 


ROWE 


mary  of  the  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1849,) 
a  "  History  of  Louvois,"  (4  vols.,  1861-63,)  a  "  History 
of  the  Crimean  War,"  (1877,)  and  "The  Conquest  of 
Algeria,"  (1879.) 

Rousset  de  Missy,  roo'sV  deh  me'se',  (Jean,)  a 
French  historical  writer,  born  at  Laon  in  1686,  was 
exiled  for  his  religion  ( Protestantism )  and  settled  in 
Holland  about  1705,  He  published  numerous  mediocre 
wirks,  among  which  are  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of 
Peter  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1726.)     Died  in  1762. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Roussin,  roo'siN',  (Albin  Reine,)  Baron,  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Dijon  in  1781.  He  was  ambassador  at 
Constantinople  from  1832  to  1839,  and  was  minister  of 
marine  from  March  to  October,  1840.     Died  in  1854. 

Roustain,  roo'st^N',  (  Aron  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  Roman  law  in  Paris  in  1855.     Died  in  1856, 

Roustam.     See  Roostam. 

Roustan,  roo'stftN',  (originally  Roustam,  roos'tam,) 

Mameluke,  born  probably  in  Georgia  in  1782.  Having 
rendered  some  service  to  Napoleon  in  Egypt,  the  latter 
brought  him  to  France  in  1799.  Roostan  became  a 
favourite  personal  attendant  of  Napoleon,  and  accom- 
panied him  in  his  campaigns  and  journeys.  Died  in 
France  in  1845. 

Roustan,  roo'stSN',  (Antoine  Jacques,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1734. 
He  was  minister  of  a  Swiss  church  in  London  for  twenty- 
six  years,  (1764-90.)  He  was  author  of  several  religious 
and  moral  works,  which  were  highly  esteemed,  and  of 
an  "Abridgment  of  Universal  History,"  (9  vols.,  1790.) 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1808. 

Roustem.     See  Roostam. 

Routh,  rowth,  (Edward  John,)  a  British  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Quebec,  Canada,  in  1831.  He  was  educated 
in  University  College,  London,  under  De  Morgan,  gradu- 
ating B.A.  at  London  University  in  1S49.  He  afterwards 
studied  at  the  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  under  Todhunter 
and  Hopkins,  graduating  in  1S54  as  senior  wrangler. 
Clerk  Maxwell  being  next  below  him.  He  then  be- 
came a  Fellow  of  the  Peterhouse,  and  a  very  successful 
mathematical  instructor.  He  has  published  "  Rigid 
Dynamics,"  and  many  scientific  papers. 

Routh,  rowth,  (Rev.  Martin  Joseph,)  an  English 
scholar  and  writer,  born  near  Beccles,  in  Suffolk,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1755,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became 
president  of  Magdalen  College  in  1791,  and  rector  of 
Tylehurst,  near  Reading,  in  1810.  In  1814  he  published 
a  work  of  superior  merit  on  (he  fragments  of  authors 
of  the  second  and  third  centuries,  most  of  whose  writ- 
ings are  lost,  entitled  "Sacred  Relics,"  etc.,  ("Reliquiae 
Sacras,"  etc.,  3  vols.)     Died  in  1854,  aged  ninety-nine. 

Rouvier,  roo've-i',  (Maurice,)  a  French  republican, 
born  at  Aix,  April  17,  1842.  He  became  a  lawyer  of 
Marseilles,  and  was  sent  to  Egypt  on  the  commission  of 
judiciary  reform.  In  1876  he  was  chosen  to  the  National 
Assembly,  in  which  he  took  a  prominent  place  with  the 
extreme  left. 

Rouvier,  (No6mie,)  a  French  authoress  and  artist; 
born  in  Paris,  December  12,  1832.  Her  first  husband 
was  the  former  Abbe  Constant,  known  as  Eliphas  Levi, 
from  whom  she  was  soon  separated.  In  1875  she  mar- 
ried Maurice  Rouvier.  She  wrote  many  romances  under 
the  name  of  Claude  Vignon.  and  executed  many  busts, 
medallions,  and  groups  in  marble,  chiefly  exhibited  under 
the  name  of  NoImie  Constant.     Died  in  1888. 

Rouviere,  roo've-aiR',  (Philibert,)  a  French  paintei 
and  actor,  born  at  Nimes  in  1806;  died  in  1865. 

Roux,  roo,  (AuGUSTiN,)  a  learned  French  physician, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1726,  settled  in  Paris  about  1750. 
He  obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine  in  1770,  and  published  "Typographic  Annals; 
or,  Account  of  the  Progress  of  Human  Knowledge," 
("Annales  typographiques,  ou  Notice  du  Progr^s  des 
Connaissances  humaines,"  10  vols.,  1758-62,)  which  is  a 
work  of  merit.     Died  in  1776. 

See  J.  Darcet,  "  Jlloge  de  Roux,"  1777. 

Rous,  (Joseph  Philibert,)  an  eminent  French  sur- 
geon, born  at  Auxerre  in  April,  1780,  was  a  favourite 


pupil  of  Bichat.  He  published  in  1812  a  "Treatise  on 
Resection,"  ("Traite  sur  la  Resection,")  and  invented 
in  1819  an  operation  called  Staphyloraphy.  In  1820  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  pathology  at  the  ficole  de  Mede- 
cine  in  Paris,  and  in  1835  succeeded  Dupuytren  at  the 
Hotel-Dieu.  He  was  author  of  several  surgical  treatises. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  Sachaile,  "Les  Mddecins  de  Paris;"  "Biographie  M^di- 
cale  ;"  Malgaigne,  "£Iloge  de  M.  Roux,"  1855;  "Nouvelle  ilio- 
c;raphie  G^n^rale." 

Roux,  MaJtre.     See  Rosso,  II. 

Roux  de  Fazillac,  roo  deh  fi'ze'ytk',  (Pierre,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Excideuil  in  1743.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  and  voted  for  the 
leath  of  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  War 
ii  Germany  in  1756,"  (2  vols.,  1803.)     Died  in  1833. 

Roux-Lavergue,  roo  It'v^Rn',  (Pierre  C^i.estin,) 
a  French  publicist,  born  at  Figeac  in  1802.  He  aided 
M.  Buchez  in  the  "Parliamentary  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,"  (40  vols.,  1833-38.)     Died  Feb.  16,  1874. 

Roux,  Le.     See  Leroux. 

Rovelli,  ro-vSl'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  Marquis,  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Como  in  1738.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Como,"  (5  vols.,  1789  et  seq.)     Died  in  1813. 

Rovere,  de  la.     See  Sixtus  IV.  and  Julius  II. 

Rovere,  della,  del'li  ro'vi-ri,  (Francesco  Maria,) 
Duke  of  Urbino,  an  Italian  general,  born  in  1490, 
was  a  nephew  of  Pope  Julius  II.  He  commanded  the 
papal  army,  and  took  several  towns  from  the  French,  in 
1512.  Having  been  appointed  captain-general  of  ihe 
Venetian  armies  about  1526,  he  displa)'ed  great  military 
skill  in  the  war  against  Charles  V.     Died  in  1538. 

See  Dennistoun,  "Memoirs  of  the  Dukes  of  Urhino,"  1851; 
Ugolini,  "  Storia  dei  Conti  e  Duchi  d'Uibino,"  2  vols.,  1859; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Rovere,  della,  (Francesco  Maria,)  born  in  1548, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  was  eminent  as  a 
patron  of  learning.  He  was  the  last  Duke  of  Urbino. 
He  died  in  163 1,  when  Urbino  was  annexed  to  the  Papal 
States. 

Rovigo,  de,  Due.     See  Savary. 

Row,  ro,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  near  Stirling 
about  1526.  He  was  agent  of  the  Scottish  clergy  at  the 
Vatican,  Rome,  in  1550,  and  afterwards  became  a  Prot- 
estant minister.  He  was  one  of  the  six  ministers  who 
composed  the  Scottish  Confession  and  "  First  Book  of 
Discipline."     Died  in  1580. 

Row,  (John,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Perth  in  1568.  It  is  stated  that  he  could  read  the  Old 
Testament  in  Hebrew  at  the  age  of  seven.  He  was 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Carnock  for  about  fifty  years, 
and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  from  1558 
to  1637."     Died  in  1646. 

Row,  (John,)  a  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Carnock 
about  1598,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a 
Covenanter  in  the  civil  war,  and,  while  Cromwell  was 
in  power,  held  the  office  of  principal  of  King's  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar  in  1644., 
Died  about  1672. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rowan,  ro'an,  (Stephen  C.,)  a  rear-admiral,  born  in 
Ireland.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  early  youth, 
and  entered  the  navy  in  1826.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
commander  about  1855.  In  February,  1862,  he  defeated 
and  destroyed  six  gunboats  near  Elizabeth  City,  North 
Carolina.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which  co-operated 
with  General  Bumside  in  the  capture  of  Newbern, 
March  14,  1862.  In  July,  1863,  Captain  Rowan  took 
command  of  the  New  Ironsides,  which  performed  a 
prominent  part  in  the  operations  against  the  defences 
of  Charleston  harbour,  August-September,  1863.  He 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1866,  and  that 
of  vice-admiral  in  1870,  was  in  command  of  the  naval 
station  at  New  York  from  1872  to  1879,  and  became 
superintendent  of  the  Naval  Observatory  in  1882.  He 
was  retired  in  February,  1889,  and  died  March  31,  1890. 

Rowe,  ro,  (Elizabeth  Singer,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  at  Uchester  in  1674,  became  in  1709  the  wife  of 
Thomas  Rowe,  noticed  below.  She  wrote  several  works, 
in  prose  and  verse,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Friendship 
in  Death,"  (1728.)     Died  in  1737. 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  h.  k.  s^ittural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROWE 


2094 


ROYER-COLLARD 


Rowe,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Little  IJeckford,  in  Bedfordshire,  in  1673.  He  studied 
law  in  the  Middle  Temple,  but  did  not  practise.  In 
1698  he  produced  "The  Ambitious  Step-Mother,"  and 
in  1702  the  tragedy  of  "Tamerlane,"  which  was  veiv 
popular.  His  other  chief  works  are  "The  Fair  Penitent,'* 
(1703,)  "Ulysses,"  (1706,)  "The  Royal  Convert,"  (1708,) 
"Jane  Shore,"  (1714,)  and  "Lady  Jane  Grey,"  (171 5.) 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  three  years  while 
the  Duke  of  Queensberry  was  secretary  of  state.  Rowe 
produced  a  version  of  Lucan's  "  Pliarsalia,"  which  was 
praised  by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  an  edition  of  Shakspeare's 
works,  with  a  life  of  the  author,  (1709.)  He  became 
poet-laureate  in  1714.     Died  in  1718. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets:"  Baker,  "Bio 
praphia  Dramatic?* ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets  ;' 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Rowe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  histofian, 
born  in  1687,  married  Elizabeth  Singer,  an  authoress. 
He  wrote  a  Supplement  to  Plutarch's  "  Lives,"  (1728.) 
Died  in  1715. 

Rowe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  in  Devonshire,  wrote  "The  Christian's  Work." 
Died  about  1698. 

Row'lands,  (Henry,)  a  Welsh  antiquary,  born  in 
Anglesey.  He  published  an  account  of  that  island, 
called  "Mona  Restored,"  ("Mona  Restaurata.")  Died 
in  1722. 

Row'land-son,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  noted 
ftS  a  caricaturist,  was  born  in  London  in  1756.  Among 
his  works  are  the  plates  of  "Doctor  Syntax."  Died 
in  1827. 

Rowley,  row'le,  (Sir  Jostas,)  a  British  admiral,  born 
in  Ireland  in  1765  ;  died  in  1842. 

Rowley,  row'le,  (William,)  an  English  dramatist, 
who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  and  was  a 
contemporary  of  Shakspeare.  Among  his  plays  are 
a  "  Match  at  Midnight,"  and  "The  Birth  of  Merlin." 

Rowley,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1743,  wrote  "New  School  of  Universal  Medi- 
cine," ("Schola  Medicinae  universalis  nova,"  1793.) 
Died  in  1806. 

RGw'ning,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  1699.  He  wrote  on  philosophy  and  mathe- 
matics.    Died  in  1771. 

RQw'son,  (Susannah,)  a  novelist,  born  in  Ports- 
mouth, England,  in  1762.  Her  maiden  name  was  Has- 
WELL.  She  lived  much  in  the  United  States,  married 
in  1786,  was  a  successful  actress,  and  later  taught  schools 
in  Massachusetts  with  high  reputation.  She  published 
school-books,  several  plays,  poems,  and  many  novels,  of 
which  "Charlotte  Temple"  (1790)  alone  is  now  remem- 
bered.    Died  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  March  2,  1S24. 

Rox-a'na,  (Fr.  Roxane,  rok'stn',]  a  beautiful  Bac- 
trian  or  Persian  princess,  was  captured  by  the  Macedo- 
nians in  327  B.C.  Soon  after  this  date  she  became  the 
wife  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She  had  a  son,  Alexander, 
(born  in  323,)  who  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  heirs 
of  the  king.  She  procured  the  death  of  Statira,  one 
of  the  wives  of  Alexander,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
Cassander  in  311  B.C. 

See  Jt;sTiN,  books  xii.-xv. ;  Arrian,  "Anabasis,"  books  iv.,  vi.. 
and  vii. 

Roxane.    See  Roxana. 

Roxas.     See  Rojas. 

Roxaa  or  Rojas,  de,  di  ro'H^s,  (Domingo,)  a 
Spanish  Protestant,  was  originally  a  Dominican  monk. 
Having  been  condemned  to  death  by  the  Inquisition, 
he  was  burned  at  an  auto  de  fe  in  Valladolid  in  1559. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 

Roxburgh,  Duke  of.  See  Ker,  (John.) 
Roxburgh,  rox'bi"ir-eh,  (William,)  an  eminent  bota- 
nist, born  in  Scotland  in  1759,  was  employed  for  many 
years  as  a  physician  in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company.  He  introduced  the  culture  of  coffee,  the 
nutmeg,  the  breadfruit-tree,  etc.  into  India.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  of  Calcutta  from 
'793  ^o  1814.  His  chief  works  are  entitled  "  Coroman- 
del  Plants,"  and  "Flora  Indica,"  (3  vols.,  1832.)  Died 
m  1815. 


Roy,  RwJ,  (Antoine,)  Count,  a  French  financier 
and  legislator,  born  at  Savigny  (Haute-Marne)  in  1764. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1815,  and  was  minister  of  finance  from  November, 
1819,  to  December,  1821.  He  obtained  the  same  office 
in  January,  1828,  and  resigned  in  August,  1829.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Roy,  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  dramatic  poet  of 
little  merit,  born  in  Paris  in  1683  ;  died  in  1764. 

Roy,  (Rammohun.)     See  Rammohun  Roy. 

Roy,  (Major-General  William,)  F.R.S.,  a  British 
surveyor,  who  acquired  distinction  by  a  trigonometrical 
survey  of  Great  Britain.  He  received  the  Copley  medal 
in  1705  for  his  measurement  of  a  base  on  Hounslow 
Heath.  He  directed  the  triangulation  by  which  a  portion 
of  the  British  arc  of  the  meridian  was  measured  in  1788. 
He  wrote  "The  Military  Antiquities  of  the  Romans  in 
North  Britain,"  (1793.)     Died  in  1790. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Roy,  de,  deh  Rwd,  [Lat.  Re'gius,]  (Henri,)  a  Dutch 
writer  on  medicine  and  philosophy,  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1598.  He  published  "  Principles  of  Physics,"  ("  Funda- 
menta  Physices,"  1648,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1679. 

Roy,  de,  (Jean  Bapttste,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  land- 
scape and  cattle,  born  at  Brussels  in  1759;  died  in  1839. 

Roy,  Le.    See  Le  Roy,  (Julien  David.) 

Roy,  Le,  leh  Rwi,  [Lat.  Re'gius,]  (Louis,)  a  French 
scholar,  who  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Paris  in 
1570.     He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Budseus."     Died  in  1577. 

Roye,  de,  deh  rw3,  (Guy,)  a  French  prelate,  born 
near  Soissons  about  1345.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Rheims,  and  founded  the  College  of  Rheims  at  Paris. 
Died  in  1409. 

Royen,  van,  vtn  roy'en,  (Adrian,)  a  Dutch  botanist, 
born  in  1705.  He  succeeded  Boerhaave  as  professor  of 
botany  at  Leyden,  and  published  "  Florae  Leidensis  Pro- 
dromus,"  (1740.)     Died  in  1779. 

Royer,  Rwa'yi',  (  Alphonse,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1S03.  He  produced,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Constable  Bourbon,"  (2  vols.,  1838,)  "Don 
Pasquale,"  an  opera,  (1843,)  "The  janissaries,"  (2  vols., 
1844,)  and  several  comedies.     Died  April  11,  1875. 

Royer,  Rwi'yi',  (Louis,)  a  Belgian  or  Dutch  sculptor, 
born  at  Malines  in  1793.  He  became  director  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Amsterdam.     Died  June  5,  1868. 

Royer,  de,  deh  Rwi'yi',  (Paul  Henri  Ernest,)  a 
French  minister  of  state,  born  about  1808.  He  studied 
law,  and  became  a  partisan  of  Napoleon  III.,  who  ap- 
pointed him  procureur-general  to  the  court  of  cassation 
in  1853,  and  minister  of  justice  in  1857.     Died  in  1877. 

Royer-Collard,  Rwi'yi'  ko'llR',  (Albert  Paul,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
eminent  statesman  of  that  name.  He  obtained  the  chair 
of  the  law  of  nations  in  Paris  in  1829.     Died  in  1865. 

Royer-Collard,  {  Antoine  Athanase,  )  an  able 
French  physician,  born  at  Sompuis  in  1768,  was  a 
brother  of  Pierre  Paul,  noticed  below.  He  founded  in 
1803  the  "Bibliotheque  Medicale,"  a  periodical.  In 
1806  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  institution  for 
the  insane  at  Charenton.  He  became  professor  of  legal 
medicine  in  Paris  in  181 6,  and  physician-in -ordinary 
to  Louis  XVIII.  He  wrote  some  able  treatises  on 
insanity,  etc.     Died  in  1825. 

See  Philippe,  "  Royer-Collard,"  1861  ;  "Biographic  Medicale;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Royer-Collard,  (Hippolyte  Louis,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris  in  1802,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  succeeded  Desgenettes  as  professor  of  hygiene  in 
1838.     Died  in  1850. 

See  BoucHARDOT,  "filogesdc  Royer-Collard  et  d'A.  Richard," 
185.-?. 

Royer-Collard,  (Pierre  Paul,)  an  eminent  French 
philosopher  and  statesman,  born  at  Sompuis  (Marne)  on 
the  2ist  of  June,  1763.  His  father's  family  name  was 
Royer,  to  which  he  joined  the  naine  of  his  wife.  Mademoi- 
selle Collard.  He  chose  the  profession  of  an  advocate, 
and  favoured  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  but 
was  always  a  moderate  royalist.  From  1790  to  1792  he 
acted  as  a  clerk  ( sicritaire-grcffier )  of  the  municipality 
of  Paris.     He  retired  for  safety  to  the  country  in  June, 


\,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  V,  lonr  •  J,  k.  A,  sa-^.e,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9, obscure;  filr,  fill,  fAt;  m?t;  n6t;  gooil;  moon; 


ROYLE 


2095 


RUBENS 


1793,  and  remained  in  privacy  during  the  reign  of  terror. 
About  1810  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  France.  He  adopted  an  eclectic  sys- 
tem of  philosophy,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  school 
called  the  Doctrinaire.  His  system  of  philosophy  is  the 
same  as  the  Spiritualism  of  Reid.  Jouffroy  and  Cousir 
were  his  most  eminent  disciples. 

In  1815  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  commissior 
of  public  instruction,  and  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  in  which  he  supported  liberal  measures.  He 
preferred  a  moderate  and  middle  course  between  that 
of  the  ultra-royalists  and  that  of  the  Bonapartists  and 
democrats.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1827,  and  was  elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1828.  In  1830  he  presented  to  Charles  X. 
the  address  of  two  hundred  and  twenty-one  deputies 
who  protested  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
court.  He  died  in  September,  1845,  leaving  a  fair  repu- 
tation for  integrity,  firmness,  and  civic  virtues.  His  last 
words  were,  "There  is  nothing  solid  or  substantial  ir 
••his  world  except  religious  ideas." 

See  Barante,  "Vie  politique  de  Royer-Collard,"  2  vols.,  1861  , 
Philippe,  "Royer-Collard,"  i86i  ;  De  Rbmusat,  "  Eloge  de 
Royer-Collaid ;"  M.  db  Lacombe,  "Vie  de  Royer-Collard,"  1S63; 
Genty  db  Bussv,  "  Memoires  siir  Royer-Collard;"  L.  DE  Lom^nie, 
*'M.  Royer-Collard,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842:  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1863. 

Royle,  roil,  (John  Forbes,)  M.D.,  an  English  bota- 
nist, born  at  Cawnpore  about  1799.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  as  assistant  surgeon.  He  made  a  large  collec- 
tion of  the  plants  of  Hindostan.  Having  returned  to 
England  about  1831,  he  published  an  important  work 
entitled  "  Illustrations  of  the  Botany  and  other  Branches 
of  Natural  History  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,"  (2  vols., 
1839.)  He  was  professor  of  materia  medica  in  King's 
College,  London,  and  published  a  "Manual  of  Materia 
Medica."     Died  near  London  in  1858. 

Royou,  Rwi'yoo',  (Jacques  Corentin,)  a  French 
historian  and  advocate,  born  at  Quimper  about  1745. 
He  published  a  "  Roman  History,"  (4  vols.,  1806,)  a 
"  History  of  France,"  (6  vols.,  1819,)  and  other  histories ; 
also  the  "  Fault-Finder,"  ("  Frondeur,")  a  comedy, 
(1819.)     Died  in  1828. 

Royou,  (Thomas  Maurice,)  AbbiJ,  a  journalist,  born 
at  Quimper  about  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  College  Louis-le- 
Grand  for  twenty  years,  and  editor  of  the  "  Ami  du  Roi," 
a  royalist  journal  of  Paris,  (1790-92.)     Died  in  1792. 

Roze,  roz,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  philanthropist  of 
Marseilles,  born  in  1671,  was  a  merchant  in  his  youth. 
His  name  was  rendered  memorable  by  his  devoted  and 
courageous  conduct  during  the  prevalence  of  the  plague 
*t  Marseilles  in  1720.     Died  in  1733. 

Roze,  (Nicolas,)  Abb6,  a  French  composer  of  sacred 
music,  born  at  Bourg-Neuf  in  1745.  He  was  appointed 
maitre  de  chafelle  to  the  First  Consul,  but  declined  the 
office  because  he  was  an  ecclesiastic.     Died  in  1819. 

Roz^e,  ro'zi'.  Mademoiselle,  a  Dutch  artist,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1632.  She  produced  landscapes,  portraits, 
etc.  embroidered  with  silk  floss.     Died  in  1682. 

Rozet,  ro'z^',  (Claude  Antoine,)  a  French  geolo- 

ist,  born  at  Chauvart  (Marne)  in  1798.     He  published, 

esides  other  works,  "Travels  in  Algeria,"  (3  vols.. 
J833.)     Died  in  1858. 

Rozier,  ro'ze-V,  (Francois,)  AbbiS,  a  French  bota- 
nist and  writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Lyons  in  1734. 
He  edited  at  Paris  the  "Journal  de  Physique"  for  ten 
years,  (1771-80.)  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise  on 
agriculture,  "  Cours  complet  d'Agriculture  theorique  et 
pratique,"  (9  vols.,  1 781-93,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  killed  in  his  house  by  a  bomb  during  the  siege 
of  Lyons,  in  September,  1793. 

See  A.  DE  BoissiEU,  "  filoge  de  F.  Rozier,"  1832;  Cochard, 
"Notice  bistonque  sur  M.  I'AbW  F.  Rozier,"  1832 ;  "  Nouvelk 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Roziere,  de  la,  deh  It  ro'ze^aia',  (Louis  Fran 
<;ois  Carlet — ktR'li',)  Marquis,  a  French  general 
and  writer  on  military  tactics,  was  born  near  Charleville 
in  1735.  He  .served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  with 
distinction,  became  marechal-de-camp  in  1781,  and 
emigrated  in  1791,  after  which  he  fought  against  the 


French  republic.     He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  The 
Campaign  of  the  Prince  of  Conde  in  Flanders  in  1674," 
(1765.)     Died  at  Lisbon  in  1808. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Rozoi,  de,  deh  ro'zwi',  (Barnab:^  Farmain,)  a 
mediocre  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was 
a  royalist  in  the  Revolution.  He  was  guillotined  in 
1792. 

Rozoir,  du.     See  Du  RozoiR. 

Rualdus.     See  Ruault. 

Ruar,  roo'ir,  [Lat.  Rua'rus,]  (Martin,)  a  learned 
German  controversial  writer,  born  in  Holstein  in  1588, 
was  a  Protestant  minister.  Died  near  Dantzic  in  1657. 
•'His  'Epistles,'"  says  Hallam,  "throw  much  light  on 
the  theological  opinions  of  the  age."  ("  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ruaru8.    See  Ruar. 

Ruault,  rii'6',  [Lat.  Rual'dus,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Coutances  about  1575.  He  was 
twice  elected  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  he 
became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the  College  Royal 
in  1629.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  Plutarch, 
(1624.)     Died  in  1636. 

Rubbi,  roob'bee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
mediocre  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1738.  He  edited 
"Parnasso  Italiano,"  (56  vols.,  1784-91,)  which  is  a  col- 
lection of  Italian  poetry.  Among  his  best  works  is  a 
"Dictionary  of  Sacred  and  Profane  Antiquities,"  (16 
vols.,  1793-1805.)     Died  in  1817. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Rubeis  or  Rubeus.    See  Rossi,(Bernardo  M.  de.) 

Ruben,  the  French  of  Reuben,  which  see. 

Ruben,  roo'ben,  (Christoph,)  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  at  Vienna,  was  born  at  Treves  in  1805.  He 
studied  painting  under  Cornelius.     Died  July  8,  1875. 

Rubens,  roo'benz,  [Fr.  pron.  rii'bdN',]  (Albert,)  an 
antiquary,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1614,  was  a  son  of  the 
great  painter.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Clothing  Material 
of  the  Ancients,"  ("De  Re  Vestiaria  Veterum,"  1665,) 
which  was  edited  by  Grsevius.     Died  in  1657. 

Rubens,  (Peter  Paul,)  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Flemish  painters,  was  born  at  Siegen  (not,  as  often  stated, 
at  Cologne)  in  1577.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  in 
May  and  on  the  29th  of  June.  He  was  the  son  of  John 
Rubens,  a  lawyer,  and  Mary  Pypeling,  both  natives  of 
Antwerp,  to  which,  after  the  death  of  John  Rubens,  his 
widow  returned  with  her  children  in  1587.  His  early 
masters  in  art  were  A.  van  Noort  and  Otto  van  Veen, 
(or  Otto  Venius.)  In  1600  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
passed  about  eight  years  at  Venice,  Mantua,  Rome, 
Florence,  and  Genoa,  and  painted  numerous  works. 
He  returned  to  Antwerp  in  1608,  was  appointed  court 
painter  to  the  archduke  Albert,  and  married  Isabella 
Brant  or  Brandt  in  1609.  Soon  after  this  date  he  pro- 
duced his  "  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which  is  con- 
sidered by  many  his  master-piece  and  is  now  in  the 
cathedral  of  Antwerp.  He  rose  rapidly  to  farne  and 
affluence,  and  was  employed  in  diplomatic  missions  by 
the  Flemish  court.  In  1629  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  England,  where  he  painted  for  Charles  I.  the  alle- 
gorical picture  of  "  War  and  Peace."  He  succeeded 
in  his  mission,  the  object  of  which  was  to  restore  peace 
between  England  and  Spain.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife,  he  married  Helena  Forman  or  Fourment,  (1630,) 
who  was  only  sixteen  years  of  age.  He  received 
the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1630  from  Charles  I.  of 
England,  and  also  from  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  He  was 
simple  and  temperate  in  his  habits.  Rising  early,  he 
went  in  the  morning  to  church  to  hear  mass.  In  the 
evening  he  often  took  a  ride  on  horseback. 

Rubens  painted  history,  portraits,  landscapes,  and  ani- 
mals with  equal  success.  He  was  a  magnificent  colorist, 
was  unsurpassed  in  technical  skill  and  facility  of  execu- 
tion, but  was  deficient  in  a  taste  for  form.  Among  his 
famous  productions  are  "The  Last  Judgment,"  at  Mu- 
nich, "  The  Battle  of  the  Amazons,"  "  The  Rape  of  the 
Sabines,"  and  "  The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  London.  It 
is  stated  that  the  gallery  of  Munich  contains  no  less  than 
ninety-five  of  his  works.     He  died  at  Antwerp  in  May, 


«-as>&,-  qzss:  ^hard;  gas/;  G,n,Vi,^ttHral;  ^,  nasal;  -R.trilled:  sass,-  thasinM«.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RUBENS 


2096 


RUDDER 


1640.  His  principal  pupils  were  Van  Dyck,  Jordaens, 
Van  Thulden,  Diepenbeck,  and  Quellyn.  "Rubens," 
says  Ruskin,  "was  an  honourable  and  entirely  well- 
intentioned  man.  He  is  a  healthy,  worthy,  kind-hearted, 
courtly-phrased — Animal, —  without  any  clearly  per- 
ceptible traces  of  a  soul,  except  when  he  paints  chil- 
tlren.  .  .  .  We  saw  how  Veronese  painted  himself  and 
his  family  as  worshipping  the  Madonna.  Rubens  also 
painted  himself  and  his  family  in  an  equally  elaborate 
piece.  But  they  are  not  worshipping  the  Madonna : 
they  are  performing  the  Madonna  and  her  saintly 
entourage."     ("Modern  Painters.") 

See  A.  VAN  Hasselt,  "  Histoire  de  Rubens,"  1S40;  G.  Alvin, 
"Vie  de  Rubens,"  1840;  Waagen,  "P.  P.  Rubens,  sein  Leben  und 
Genius,"  i840,(trans!<»ted  into  English  by  R.  R.  Noel  :)  A.  Michiei.s, 
"  Rubens  et  I'Ecole  d'Anvers,"  1854;  G.  Planch  H,  "Rubens,  sa  Vie 
et  ses  Oiuvres,"  1854:  A.  Siret,  "Raphael  et  Rubens,"  1849;  W 
Noel  Sainsbury,  "Original  Unpublished  Papers  illustrative  of  the 
Life  of  Sir  Peter  Paul  Rubens,"  1859;  Wiektz,  "P.  P.  Rubens," 
1840;  Michel,  "  Histoire  de  Rubens,"  1771  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographit 
G^n^rale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  lor  January,  1841,  and  January, 
1863. 

Rubens,  (Philip,)  a  Flemish  philologist,  born  at 
Cologne  in  1574,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  the  senate  of  Antwerp 
in  1609.     Died  in  161 1. 

Rubini,  roo-bee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  popu- 
lar Italian  vocalist,  born  at  Romano,  near  Bergamo,  in 
1795.  He  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London, 
lie  was  reputed  the  first  Italian  tenor  of  his  time.  Died 
in  1854. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rubini,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  born  at 
Parma  in  1760.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Parma. 
Died  in  1819. 

Rubinstein,  roo'bin-stTn',  (Anton,)  a  Russian  mu- 
sician, born  in  Bessarabia,  November  30,  1830.  He  was 
of  Jewish  family,  but  was  bred  a  Christian.  He  was 
educated  at  Moscow.  He  acquired  world-wide  fame  as 
a  pianist.  Among  his  compositions  are  the  operas 
"Dmitri  Donski,"  (1849,)  "The  Children  of  the  Steppe," 
(1861,)  "Feramors,"  "The  Demon,"  (1S75,)  "The  Mac- 
cabees," (1S75,)  etc.,  the  oratorio  of  "Paradise  Lost," 
and  a  vast  number  of  symphonies  and  piano-composi- 
tions. For  some  years  he  was  superintendent  of  the 
Saint  Petersburg  Conservatory 

Rubio,  roo'be-o,  (LuiGl,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history, 
born    at  Rome  in   1797.     He   settled  at  Geneva   about 

1857- 

Rubruquis,  de,  deh  ru'bRii'kfess',  (Guillaume,  ) 
sometimes  called  De  Ruysbroek  (rois'brook)  or  Rys- 
bruck,  (ris'bRook,)  a  mediaeval  traveller  and  missionary, 
born  in  Brabant  about  1220  or  1230.  In  1253  he  and 
two  other  friars  were  sent  to  Tartary  by  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  who  charged  them  to  propagate  Christianity 
among  the  Tartars,  to  search  for  Prester  John,  and  to 
visit  Sartach,  a  Tartar  chief  who  was  reported  to  be  a 
Christian.  Rubruquis  performed  this  arduous  enterprise 
bravely,  and,  returning  through  Persia  and  Asia  Minor, 
reached  home  in  August,  1255.  He  wrote  a  narrative, 
in  which  the  Caspian  Sea  is  correctly  described. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Rucellai,  roo-chSl-li',  [Lat.  Oricella'rius,]  (Ber 
NARDO,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Florence  in  1449.  He  married  Nannina,  a  sister  of 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  the  Platonic  Academy.  His  chief  work  is  entitled 
"On  the  City  of  Rome,"  ("De  Urbe  Roma,")  written 
in  elegant  Latin.     Died  in  1514. 

See  TiRABOsCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rucellai,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  poet,  born  at 
Florence  in  1475,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a 
cousin-german  to  Pope  Leo  X.  He  wrote  "  Rosmuiida," 
a  drama,  (1525,)  and  a  poem  on  bees,  ("  Le  Api,")  which 
is  regarded  as  his  finest  production.  It  was  printed  in 
1539.  He  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  France  by  Leo  X. 
Died  in  1525. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires;"  GiNGUENi,  "Histoire  Littdrairt 
d'ltalie." 

Rucbat,  rii'sht',  (Abraham,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born 
about  1680,  taught  theology  at  the  Academy  of  Lau- 


sanne. He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation 
of  Switzerland,  1516-56,"  (6  vols.,  1727-40.)  Died 
in  1750. 

Ruchel,  von,  fon  rooK'el,  (Ernst  Friedrich  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1754. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Jena,  (1806.) 
Died  in  1823. 

Ruchrath,  rooK'rSt,  (called  Johann  von  Wesel — 
fon  <Va'zel,)  a  German  Reformer,  born  at  Ober-Wesel, 
on  the  Rhine,  about  1410.  He  became  a  professor  of 
divinity  at  Erfurt,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Worms 
for  seventeen  years.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  against 
Indulgences,"  and  a  work  "Concerning  the  Authority, 
Duty,  and  Power  of  Pastors."  He  was  accused  of 
heresy,  tried  before  the  Inquisition  in  1479,  and,  to 
escape  death  or  torture,  recanted.     Died  in  1481. 

Riickert,  rtlk'kert,  (Friedrich,)  a  popular  German 
lyric  poet  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Schweinfurt  in 
178S.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and  in  1818  visited  Rome. 
In  1826  he  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Erlangen.  His  "German  Poems"  came  out  in  1814, 
and  were  followed  by  "Napoleon;  a  Political  Comedy," 
(1816,)  "The  Crown  of  the  Time,"  (181 7,)  and  "Eastern 
Roses,"  (1822.)  He  also  published  "  Legends  and  Tales 
of  the  East,"  (1837,)  "Brahman  Tales,"  (1839,)  and  a 
translation  of  Hareeree's  (Hariri's)  "Makamat,"  under 
the  title  of  "  Metamorphoses  of  Abu-Seid."  His  poems 
are  remarkable  for  beauty  of  versification  as  well  as  the 
great  variety  of  forms  of  which  he  is  a  master,  and  he 
resembles  in  glowing  fancy  and  inventive  power  the 
Eastern  poets  whom  he  made  his  study.  He  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Berlin  from  1S40  to  1849. 
Died  January  31,  1866. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  July,  1866;  G.  Pfizer,  "Uhland  und  Riickert; 
krilischer  Versuch,"  1837;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Riickert,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  historian,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Coburg  in  1823.  He  pub- 
lished "Annals  of  German  History,"  (1850,)  and  other 
works.     Died  September  11,  1875.' 

Rudbeck,  rood'b§k,  [Lat.  Rudbeck'ius,]  (Johan,) 
a  learned  and  meritorious  Swedish  prelate  and  Re- 
former, born  at  Oerebro  about  1580.  He  was  chaplain 
to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  Bishop  of  WesterAs.  Died 
in  1646. 

Rudbeck,  [Lat.  Rudbeck'ius,]  (Olaus  or  Olaf,) 
an  eminent  Swedish  anatomist  and  botanist,  born  at 
Westeris  in  1630,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  dis- 
covered the  lymphatic  vessels  about  1650,  after  which 
he  became  professor  at  Upsal.  His  principal  works  are 
"  Atlantica,"  (4  vols.,  1675-98,)  in  which,  with  great 
learning  and  ingenuity,  he  maintains  that  Sweden  is  the 
"Atlantis"  of  Plato,  and  a  botanical  treatise  called 
"Eiysian  Fields,"  ("  Campi  Elysii,"  2  vols.,  1701.)  He 
was  remarkable  for  versatility  and  activity  of  mind. 
The  genus  Rudbeckia  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1702. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Sax,  "Onomasticon;"  "  Biogra- 
phiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Rudbeck,  (Olaus,)  the  Younger,  a  naturalist  and 
philologist,  born  at  Upsal  in  1660,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  botany 
and  anatomy  at  Upsal,  and  published  some  works  on 
botany,  etc.  He  assisted  his  father  in  writing  the 
"Campi  Elysii."     Died  in  1740. 

See  C.    R.    Berch,   "Olaus  Rudbeck's   Lefvernesbeskrifning, 
.798. 

Rudberg,  rood'b^Rg,  (Fredrik,)  a  Swedish  natn 
ral  philosopher,  born  at  Norrkjoping  in  1800.  If- 
became  professor  of  physics  at  Upsal  about  1828.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  able  treatises  on  phi- 
losophy, and  ascertained  the  rate  of  the  expansion  of  air 
by  heat.     Died  in  1839. 

Riid'borne  or  Rod'burne,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
prelate  and  skilful  architect.  He  was  chaplain  to  Henry 
v.,  and  became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1433.  He 
built  the  tower  and  gateway  of  Merton  College,  Oxford. 
Died  about  1442. 

Rudder,  de,  deh  rii'daiR',  (Louis  Henri,)  a  French 
painter  of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  second  class  in  1848. 


a,  e,  i.  6,  u,  y,  long;  4,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  5,  T,  6,  li,  j^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good-  mJdn 


RUDDIMAN 


2097 


RUFF  IN 


Rud'dl-man,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Scottish  gram- 
marian and  critic,  born  irt  the  parish  of  Boyndie,  county 
of  Banff,  in  October,  1674,  was  educated  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen.  He  published  in  1714  his  "  Rudiments 
of  the  Latin  Tongue,"  a  popular  school-book.  Among 
his  other  works  is  "  Institutes  of  Latin  Grammar," 
("  Grammaticae  Latinae  Institutiones,"  1725-32.)  Died 
in  1757. 

Rude,  rlid,  (Franqois,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1784.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1812  to 
pursue  his  studies,  and  returned  to  Paris  about  1827. 
He  adorned  with  some  figures  the  Arc  de  I'fitoile  at 
Paris.  At  the  Exposition  of  1855  he  gained  the  grand 
medal  of  honour.  Among  his  works  are  a  marble 
statue  of  Joan  of  Arc  in  the  Luxembourg,  and  bronze 
statues  of  Monge  and  Marshal  Ney.     Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Rude,  sa  Vie,  ses  CEuvres,"  etc., (anonymous,)  Paris,  1856: 
"  Biograpliie  IJniverselle." 

Rudel,  rii'dSK,  (Geoffroi,)  a  French  poet  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  Prince  of  Blaye 
and  a  favourite  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet.  He  was  born 
about  1 140,  and  died  about  11 70.  He  was  famous  for 
his  fantastic  passion  for  the  Countess  of  Tripoli,  whom 
he  never  saw  till  he  was  dying. 

Rudelbach,  roo'del-b^K',  (Andreas,)  a  Danish  the- 
ologian, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1792.  He  published 
a  number  of  dogmatic  works,  in  which  he  advocates  the 
orthodox  Lutheran  creed.  He  became  superintendent 
at  Glauchau,  Saxony,  in  1829.     Died  in  1862. 

Riidiger,  riiMic-er,  (Feodor  Vasilievitch,)  Coitnt, 
a  Russian  general,  born  about  1790.  He  commanded  a 
division  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  in  1828,  and  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Poles  in  1831.  Having  obtamed 
command  of  a  corps-d'armee  in  the  Hungarian  war,  he 
defeated  Gorgei,  who  surrendered  to  him  at  Vilagos  in 
August,  1849.     Died  in  1856. 

Ru'ding,  (Rev.  Rogers,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
numismatist,  born  at  Leicester  in  1751.  He  became 
vicar  of  Maldon,  in  Surrey,  in  1793.  He  published  an 
important  work,  entitled  "Annals  of  the  Coinage  of 
Britain  and  its  Dependencies,"  (4  vols.,  181 7.)  Died 
in  1820. 

Rudolf.    See  Rudolph. 

Rudolph  or  Rudolf  of  Ems,  a  mediaeval  German 
poet  or  minnesinger,  born  in  Switzerland,  flourished 
between  1220  and  1250.  His  works  are  highly  extolled 
by  some  critics. 

Ru'dolph  (or  Ru'dolf)  [Lat.  Rudol'phiis  ;  It.  Rl- 
DOLFO,  re-dol'fo  ]  of  Hahsburg,  [Fr.  Rodolphe  de 
Hahsbourg,  ro'dolf  deh  htbs'booR^]  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  founder  of  the  Austrian  empire,  was  born  in 
I2i8.  He  was  the  son  of  Albert  IV.,  Count  of  Habs- 
burg,  and  at  an  early  age  fought  under  Frederick  II.  in 
Italy.  In  1255  he  assisted  Ottocar,  King  of  Bohemia, 
in  his  crusade  against  the  pagans  of  Prussia.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  1240,  he  had  succeeded  to  his 
possessions,  and  was  involved  in  many  contests  with  the 
feudal  barons  of  the  country,  in  which  he  was  generally 
victorious.  His  high  reputation  for  courage  and  love 
of  justice  caused  him  to  be  elected  in  1273  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and  he  was  soon  after  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  He  procured  from  Pope  Gregory  X.  the 
ratification  of  his  right,  which  had  been  contested  by 
Alfonso  of  Castile  and  Ottocar  of  Bohemia;  and,  after 
a  war  with  the  latter,  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which 
Rudolph  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  Bohemia  and 
Moravia.  He  had  previously  given  two  of  his  daughters 
in  marriage  to  Albert,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  Count 
Palatine  Louis  of  Bavaria.  Having  secured  himself  on 
the  throne,  he  gave  his  attention  to  various  reforms  in 
the  government  and  to  restraining  the  power  of  the 
turbulent  nobles,  nearly  seventy  of  whose  castles  in 
Thuringia  he  is  said  to  have  destroyed.  He  afterwards 
gave  one  of  his  daughters  in  marriage  to  Wenzel,  the 
young  king  of  Bohemia.  He  died  in  1291,  having  beer 
unable  to  secure  the  election  of  his  son  Albert  as  emperor, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Adolphus  of  Nassau. 

See  J.  J.  Fischer,  "  Biograpliie  Rudolpli's  \.  von  Habsburg," 
1784;  HuNKLER,  "Rodolphe  de  Habsbourg  Empereur,"  etc  ,  1843; 
E.  M.  VON  LiCHNowsKV,  "Geschiclite  des  Hauses  Habsburg,"  8 
vols.,  1836-42;  L.  Meister.  "Kaiser  Rudolph  von  Habsburg," 
1783;    Mailath,    "  Histoire   d'Aulriche.  " 


Rudolph  (Rudolf)  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  bom 
in  1552,  was  the  son  of  Maximilian  II.,  and  was  educated 
at  the  Spanish  court.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  Oc- 
tober, 1576,  and,  through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits, 
prohibited  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion  and 
gave  all  the  principal  offices  to  the  Catholics.  He  waa 
an  intolerant  and  incapable  ruler.  Absorbed  in  the 
study  of  astrology  and  alchemy,  he  neglected  the  affairs 
of  his  empire,  which  was  subject  to  much  disorder  during 
his  reign.  To  protect  themselves  against  persecution, 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  formed  in  1608  a 
confederation,  of  which  Ifhe  Elector  Palatine  Frederick 
IV.  was  the  head.  Between  1608  and  161 1  his  brothei 
Matthias  extorted  from  Rudolph  successively  the  sove- 
reignty of  Austria,  Moravia,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  etc 
He  died,  without  issue,  in  January,  1612,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Matthias. 

See  P.  Santorio,  "Vite  ci  Ridolfo  II.  e  Mattias  Iniperatori," 
1664:  F.  S.  KuRZ,  "Oesterreich  unter  Rudolph,"  1821  ;  Immanuei. 
Weber,  "Dissertatio  de  Rudolpho  II.,"  1707. 

Rudolph  von  Rothenberg,  roo'dolf  fon  ro'ten- 
b§RG',  a  German  soldier  and  minnesinger,  lived  under 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rudolphi,  roo-dol'fee,  (Carl  Asmund,  )  an  able 
Swedish  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1 771.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology at  Berlin  in  1810.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Anatomy  of  Plants,"' (1807,)  "The  Natural 
History  of  Entozoa,"  (2  vols.,  1808-10,)  and  "The  Prin- 
ciples of  Physiology,"  (3  vols.,  1821-28.)  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1832. 

See  J.  MuLLER,  "  Gedachtnissrede  auf  C.  A.  Rudolphi,"  1837; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Rudra,  rood'ra,  [etymology  uncertain,]  in  the  HmUoo 
mythology,  a  name  of  Siva,  also  applied  to  certain  mani- 
festations of  Siva  in  his  character  of  fate  or  destiny. 
The  eleven  Rudras  appear  to  correspond  in  the  main, 
though  not  in  number,  to  the  Parcae  of  the  Romans 
and  the  Moirae  (Motpa^)  of  the  Greeks.    (See  Siva.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Rdd'yard,  (Sir  Benjamin,)  an  English  gentleman 
and  elegant  scholar,  born  in  1572.  He  became  an  influ- 
ential and  eloquent  member  of  the  Long  Parliament,  in 
which  he  acted  with  Hampden  and  Pym.  In  the  civil 
war  which  began  in  1642  he  was  a  moderate  partisan 
of  the  Parliament,  and  often  raised  his  voice  for  peace. 
Some  of  his  speeches  and  poems  have  been  published. 
Died  in  1658. 

Rue,  de  la,  (Charles.)     See  La  Rue. 

Rue,  de  la,  deh  It  rii,  (Charles,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine and  eminent  scholar,  born  at  Corbie,  Picardy,  in 
1684.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the  works  of 
Origen,  (3  vols.,  1733.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1739.  His 
nephew,  Vincent  de  la  Rue,  born  in  1707,  published 
the  4th  volume  of  Origen  in  1759.    Died  in  1762. 

Rue,  de  la,  (Gervais.)     See  Delarue. 

Rueda,  de,  (Lope.)     See  Lope  de  Rueda. 

Ruediger.    See  RUdiger. 

Ruehle  von  Lilienstern.  See  Ruhle. 
.  Ruel,  rii'el',  [Lat.  Ruel'lius,]  (Jean,)  a  French  pn>- 
sician  and  botanist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1479.  He  was 
physician  to  Francis  I.,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"On  the  Nature  of  Plants,"  ("De  Natura  Stirpium," 
1536.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1537. 

Ruellius.    See  Ruel. 

Rueppell.    See  Ruppell. 

Ruff'head,  (Owen,)  an  English  barrister  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  about  1723.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "Life  of  Alexander  Pope."     Died  in  1769. 

RufE  or  Ruffy,  de,  deh  rii'fe',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1607,  wrote  a  "History 
of  Marseilles,"  (1643.)     Died  in  1689. 

RuiG  or  Ruffy,  de,  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  historian,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1657 ; 
died  in  1724. 

RuCBn,  rii'fdN',  (Francois,)  Count,  a  French  general, 
boi^i  at  Bolbec  in  1771.  He  served  with  distinction  at 
Austerlitz  in  1S05,  and  at  Eylau.  He  became  a  general 
of  division  about  1808,  after  which  he  was  employed  in 
Spain.     He  was  mortally  wounded  near  Cadiz  in  181 1. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jt^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

132 


RUFFIN 


2098 


RUHLE 


RufBn,  |Lnt.  Ruffi'nus,]  (Pferre  Jean  Marie,)  a 
diplomatist  and  linguist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at 
Salonica,  in  Turkey,  in  1742.  He  became  interpreter 
to  the  king  for  Oriental  languages  at  Paris  in  1774, 
and  charge-d'affaires  at  Constantinople  in  1798.  Died 
in  1824. 

See  BiANCHt,  "  Notice  historique  sur  M.  RufBn,"  1825. 

RufSni,  roo-fee'nee,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an  Ital- 
ian novelist,  born  at  Genoa  in  1S07.  He  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1S30,  but  three  years 
later  he  emigrated,  from  political  causes,  going  first  to 
France,  then  to  Switzerland,  and  in  1836  to  England. 
Here  he  devoted  himself  to  a  careful  study  of  the  Eng- 
lish language.  In  1S42  he  left  England  for  Paris,  and  in 
1848,  on  the  promulgation  of  the  Statute  of  Piedmont, 
returned  to  Italy.  In  1852  he  began  his  literary  career 
by  the  publication,  in  London,  of  an  English  novel  en- 
titled "Lorenzo  Benoni,"  which  was  followed,  at  long 
intervals,  by  "Doctor  Antonio,"  "  Lavinia,"  "Carlino," 
and  other  works.     Died  November  3,  1881. 

Ruffini,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at 
Valentano  (Papal  States)  in  1765.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  and  medicine  at  Modena,  and  author  of 
several  wc^rks  on  algebra,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
Died  at  Modena  in  1822. 

See  LoMBARDi,  "Notizie  sulla  Vita  di  P.  Ruffini,"  1824. 

RufEnus.     See  Rufinus,  and  RuFKiN. 

Ruffe,  roof'fo,  (DiONiGi  Fabrizio,)  an  Italian  cardinal 
and  general,  born  at  Naples,  or  in  Calabria,  about  1744- 
He  raised  in  Calabria  a  large  body  of  royalists,  called 
the  army  of  the  Holy  Faith,  which,  under  his  command, 
expelled  the  French  and  republicans  from  the  country 
in  1799  and  restored  King  Ferdinand  IV.  to  the  throne. 
He  took  at  Naples  a  number  of  republican  chiefs  as 
prisoners  of  war,  who  were  treacherously  put  to  death 
by  order  of  the  king.     Died  in  1827. 

See  Lacchinelli,  "Memorie  su!la  Vita  di  F.  D.  RufTo,"  1836; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Ruffo,  (Fabrizio,)  Prince  of  Castelcicala,  an  Italian 
diplomatist,  born  at  Naples  about  1755.  He  was  ac- 
cessary to  the  judicial  murder  of  the  republicans  who 
were  taken  prisoners  and  executed  in  1799.  He  was 
Neapolitan  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1S15  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1832. 

Ruffy.    See  Ruffi. 

Rufin.     See  Rufinus. 

Rufino,  roo-fee'no,  (Casimir  Rufixo  Ruiz,)  a  Span- 
ish economist,  born  at  Soto  de  Cameros  in  1806.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Universal  History 
of  Commerce,"  ("La  Historia  mercantil  universal,"  2 
vols.,  1852-53.) 

Ru-fi'nus,  [Fr.  Rufin,  riiTiN',]  an  ambitious  Roman 
courtier,  born  at  Elusa,  in  Gaul,  about  335  A.D.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Theodosius  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  became  in  394  chief  minister.  He 
rendered  himself  odious  by  his  cruelty,  and  engaged  in 
a  disloyal  intrigue  with  Alaric  the  Visigoth,  in  order  to 
thwart  Stilico,  who  was  his  rival.  He  was  assassinated 
in  395  Ijy  a  soldier,  at  the  instigation  of  Gainas,  a  friend 
of  Stilico.  He  was  the  subject  of  Claudian's  poem 
"In  Rufinum." 

See  GinnoN,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire:"  Lh  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale." 

Rufinus,  surnamed  Tora'nius,  Tora'nus,  Tyran'- 
NIUS,  or  Turra'nius,  a  theologian  and  monk,  born 
about  350  A.n.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Aquileia.  In  early  life  he  was  a  friend  of  Saint 
Jerome.  He  went  to  Palestine  in  377,  and  built  a  mon- 
astery on  Mount  Olivet,  where  he  passed  many  years, 
and  translated  some  works  of  Origen,  whose  doctrines 
he  favoured.  On  this  subject  he  was  involved  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Saint  Jerome,  who  denounced  him  with 
extreme  animosity.  Rufinus  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  "Explanation  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,"  and  translated 
into  Latin  several  works  of  the  Greek  Fathers.  He 
was  an  able  writer.     Died  in  410.  • 

See  FoNTAKiNi,  "Historia  literaria  Aquilejensis;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 


Rufinus,  (LiciNius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  flourished 
about  215  A.D. 

Ru'fus  or  Ru'phus,  an  ancient  Greek  medical  writer 
of  Ephesus,  called  RuFus  P2phesius,  of  whom  little  is 
known.  According  to  .Suidas,  he  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  (98-117  A.D.)  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  interesting  treatise  on  anatomy,  entitled  "On  the 
Names  of  the  Parts  of  the  Human  Body,"  which  is 
extant  and  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1554- 

See  Sprrncel,  "  Histoire  de  la  Mi^decine." 

Rufus,  (M.  CcBlius,)  a  Roman  orator,  born  at  PuteoH 
in  82  B.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  who  calls  him  "  adoles- 
centem  illustri  ingenio."  In  the  year  56  he  was  accused 
of  an  attempt  to  poison  Clodia,  a  woman  of  depraved 
morals.  He  was  defended  by  Cicero  and  acquitted.  He 
became  tribune  of  the  j^eople  in  52  B.C.,  and  supported 
Milo  against  Clodius.  In  49  B.C.  he  was  a  partisan  of 
Coesar.     I)ied  in  48  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "Oratio  pro  M.  Coelio." 

Rufus,  (RuTiLius,)  a  Roman  orator,  who  became 
consul  in  105  B.C.  and  was  banished  unjustly  in  92  B.C. 

Rufus  Fes'tus  or  Sex'tus  Ru'fus,  a  Latin  his- 
torian, lived  between  350  and  400  A.D.  He  wrote  an 
Abridged  History  of  Rome,  ("  Breviarium  de  Victoriis 
et  Provinciis  Populi  Romani.") 

Ruge,  roo'geh,  (Arnold,)  a  German  scholar  and 
journalist,  born  at  Bergen,  on  the  island  of  Riigen,  in 
1802, 'studied  at  the  University  of  Jena.  During  a  five 
years'  imprisonment  to  which  he  was  condemned  for 
his  liberal  opinions,  he  translated  the  "  OEdipus  in 
Colonos"  of  Sophocles.  After  his  release  he  became 
associated  with  Echtcrmeyer  as  editor  of  the  "  Halli- 
schen  Jahrbiicher,"  which  was  suppressed  in  1843.  In 
1848  he  published  at  Leijisic  a  radical  journal  entitled 
"  Reform,"  and  represented  Breslau  in  the  Frankfort 
Parliament.  In  1850  he  repaired  to  London,  where  he 
wrote  a  German  translation  of  the  "  Letters  of  Junius" 
and  the  works  of  P.  Courier.     Died  January  i,  i88i. 

Rugendas,  roo-gSn'dJs,  (Georg  Philipp,)  one  of 
the  greatest  battle-painters  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1666.  He  visited  Rome  and  Venice,  and 
after  his  return  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Augsburg  in  1710.  He  also  produced  a  number  of  en- 
gravings, among  which  is  "The  Siege  of  Augsburg," 
of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness.     Died  in  1742. 

See  J.  C.  FiJssLi,  "  Leben  Georg  Philipp  Rugendas,"  1758:  C. 
Blanc,  "  Histoire  desPeintres  ;"  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Rugendas,  (Georg  Philipp,)  a  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1701,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1774. 

Rugendas,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1708,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding.    Died  in  1781. 

Rugendas,  (Johann  Moritz,)  a  German  painter 
and  designer,  a  relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Augsburg  about  1800.  He  spent  many  years  in  South 
America,  and  published  in  1827  "A  Painter's  Journey 
in  Brazil."  His  collection  of  nearly  three  thousand 
pictures  and  designs  was  purchased  by  the  Bavarian 
government.     Died  in  1858. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Ruggieri,  rood-ja'ree,  (Constantin,)  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist and  antiquary,  born  near  Ravenna  in  1714; 
died  in  1766. 

Rug'gle,  (George,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  at 
Lavenham  in  1575,  was  a  Fellow  of  a  college  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  wrote  a  satirical  play  entitled  "  Ignoramus," 
(1614.)     Died  in  1622. 

Ruggles,  rug'gelz,  (Daniel,)  an  American  general  in 
the  Confederate  service,  born  in  Massachusetts  about 
1814. 

Ruhl,  rool,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  Cassel  in  1764;  died  in  1S42. 

Ruhl,  riil,  (Philippe  Jacquf.s,)  a  French  Jacobin  and 
member  of  the  Convention,  was  born  near  Strasburg. 
He  killed  himself  in  May,  1795. 

Riihle  von  Lilienstern,  riih'leh  fon  lee'le-en-st?Rn', 
(Johann  Jakob  Otto  August,)  a  Prussian  general  and 
distinguished  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1780,  served  in 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i, 6, 1'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsatre;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  gd6d;  moon: 


RUHAfKORFF 


2099 


RUMFOkV 


the  campaigns  of  1813-15.     He  published  several  mili- 
tary and  historical  works,  among  which  is  a  "  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Prussian  Nation,"  (1837.)     Died  in  1847. 
See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Ruhmkorff,  room'koRf,  (Heinrich  Daniel,)  a  mech- 
anician, born  in  Germany  in  1803.  He  settled  in  Paris, 
and  gained  distinction  as  a  maker  of  electro-magnetif 
apparatus,  etc.     Died  in  Paris,  December  19,  1877. 

Ruhnken,  roon'ken,  or  Ruhneken,  roo'neh-ken, 
(I.at.  Ruhnke'nius,]  (David,)  an  eminent  German 
philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Stolpe,  in  Pomerania,  in 
1723.  He  studied  history,  law,  and  classical  literature 
at  Wittenberg.  Through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
the  celebrated  Hemsterhuys,  he  was  appointed  in  1757 
lector  of  the  Greek  language  in  the  University  of  Ley- 
den,  and  in  1761  succeeded  Oudendorp  as  professor  of 
history,  eloquence,  and  antiquities  in  that  city.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  are  editions  of  the 
"Lexicon  of  Timaeus,"  of  Velleius  Paterculus,  Homer's 
"  Hymn  to  Ceres,"  with  a  Latin  translation  and  com- 
mentary, (1780,)  and  the  works  of  Muretus,  (4  vols., 
1789.)  He  also  wrote  several  Latin  essays  of  remark- 
able elegance,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Epistolas 
Criticas,"  (1751,)  "Eulogy  on  Hemsterhuys,"  (1768,)  and 
"  Dissertation  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Longinus,' 
(1776.)  He  died  at  Leyden  in  1797,  with  the  reputa 
tion  of  one  of  the  first  critics  and  Latin  writers  of  thf 
eighteenth  century. 

See  D.  WvTTENBACH,  "Vita  Ruhnkenii,"  1799;  Rink,  "T 
Hemsterhuys  und  D.  Ruhneken,"  iSoi  :  Meuskl,  "Lexikon;'' 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch;"  "  Nouvelle  Hi" 
graphic  Gdndrale." 

Ruhnkenius.    See  Ruhnken. 

Riihs  or  Ruehs,  riis,  (Christoph  Friedrich,)  a 
German  historian,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1780,  became 
professor  of  history  in  Berlin.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (5  vols.,  1S03-13,)  which 
is  commended,  and  a  "  Manual  of  Mediaeval  History," 
(1816.)     Died  in  1820. 

Ruinart,  rii-e'ntR',  (Thierri,)  Dom,  a  learned  French 
writer  and  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Rheims  in  1657. 
He  became  a  pupil  and  coadjutor  of  Mabillon.  In  1689 
he  published  the  "  Acts  of  the  First  Martyrs,"  ("  Acta 
primorum  Martyrum."  He  took  a  large  part  in  the 
composition  of  Mabillon's  "Acta  Sanctorum,"  (1700.^ 
Died  in  1709. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Cenerale." 

Ruisch  or  Ruysch,  roisK,  (Frederic,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  anatomist,  born  at  the  Hague  in  163S.  He  was 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Amsterdam  from  1665  until  his 
death.  He  discovered  a  mode  of  preserving  dead 
bodies  for  many  years.  He  made  several  discoveries 
in  anatomy,  and  published  an  "Anatomical  Treasury," 
("Thesaurus  anatomicus,"  1 701-15,)  which  is  said  to 
be  a  capital  work.  Peter  the  Great  purchased  his 
anatomical  collection  for  30,000  florins.     Died  in  173 1. 

See  FoNTENKLLE,  "  iSloge  de  Ruisch;"  Schrbibbr,  "Vita  F- 
Ruisch,"  1732;  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires." 

Ruisch  or  Ruysch,  (Rachel,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
flower-painter,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1664,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  preceding.  She  married  a  painter 
named  Juriaen  Pool  in  1695.  Her  works  command 
high  prices.     Died  in  1750. 

Ruisdael.    See  Ruysdael. 

Ruiter,  de.     See  Ruyter,  de. 

Ruiz,  roo-ith',  (Juan,)  Archpriest  of  Hita,  a  Spanish 
poet  and  satirist,  born  probably  at  Alcald  de  Henares, 
He  was  imprisoned  thirteen  years,  (1333-47.)  One  of 
his  principal  poems  is  entitled  "  Praise  of  Little  Women." 

See  Longfellow,  "  Puets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rukmeni    See  Rukmin!. 

Rukmini,  rook'mT-nee',  written  also,  but  less  cor- 
rectly, Rokmeny  and  Rukmeni,  \i.e.  "golden"  or 
"possessing  gold,"  in  allusion  jjerhaps  to  Lakshmt 
being  the  goddess  of  riches,]  the  name  of  an  avatar  of 
Lakshmi,  who  under  this  form  was  the  favourite  wife 
of  Krishna,  (an  avatar  of  Vishnu.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ruland,  roo'ldnt,  (Martin,)  a  German  physician  and 
philologist,  born  at  Freisingen  in  1532  ;  died  in  1602. 


Rulhiere,  de,  deh  ru'le-aiR',  (Claude  Carloman,) 
a  French  historian,  was  born  at  Bondy,  near  Paris,  in 
1735.  He  accompanied  the  Baron  de  Breteuil  to  Russia 
as  secretary  of  embassy  in  1760,  and  wrote  "Anecdotes 
of  the  Revolution  of  Russia  in  1762,"  (1797.)  In  1787 
he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Anarchy  of  Poland  and  of 
the  Partition  of  that  Republic,"  (4  vols.,  1807.)  Died 
in  1791. 

See  Daunou,  "Notice  siir  RulhiJre:"  QuSrard,  "La  France 
Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Ru'li-son,  (Nelson  S.,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  at  Carthage,  New  York,  April  24,  1842.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  General  Seminary  (Episcopalian)  in  New 
York,  and  in  1876  became  rector  of  a  church  at  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.  In  1884  he  was  consecrated  Assistant 
Bishop  of  Central  Pennsylvania. 

Rtilliere,  rii'le^aiR',  (Joseph  Marcellin,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  iTaute-Loire  in  1787.  He  commanded 
an  army  in  Algeria  in  1838,  and  was  minister  of  war 
from  December,  1848,  until  October,  1S49.    Died  1863. 

RumancoTV.     See  Rioomantsof. 

Rum'bold.  (Colonel  Richard,)  an  English  repub- 
lican, was  implicated  in  the  Rye-House  Plot,  (1683,)  and 
was  owner  of  the  building  from  which  that  plot  derived 
Its  name.  He  escaped  to  Holland,  and  in  1685  followed 
Argyll  in  his  expedition  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  mor- 
tally woimded,  and,  after  a  hurried  trial,  executed. 

Rfim'ford,  (Benjamin  Thompson,)  Count,  a  cele- 
brated natural  philosopher  and  economist,  born  at 
Woburn,  Massachusetts,  March  26,  1753  or  1752. 
His  mother  was  named  Ruth  Simonds.  After  he  left 
school,  about  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  employed  for  a 
short  time  as  a  clerk  by  a  merchant  in  Salem.  In  1770 
he  attended  lectures  on  experimental  philosophy  at 
Harvard  University.  He  was  school-master  at  Rumford, 
(now  Concord,)  New  Hampshire,  for  about  two  years, 
(1770-72.)  In  1772  he  married  a  rich  widow  of  Rum- 
ford,  named  Mrs.  Rolfe,  and  removed  with  her  to  Wo- 
burn. He  was  a  person  of  tall  stature,  a  model  of  manly 
beauty  in  form  and  feature,  and  had  the  manners  of  a 
courtier.  According  to  Renwick,  he  fought  at  Lexington, 
and  ajjplied  for  a  commission  in  the  Continental  army 
in  1775,  but  his  services  were  rejected.  Renwick  speaks 
of  his  "loyalty,  manifested  by  actual  service  at  the 
battle  of  Lexington,"  but  does  not  say  on  which  side 
he  fought.  His  arguments,  however,  seem  designed  to 
prove  that  Rumford  would  have  fought  for  independence 
if  prejudice  and  persecution  had  not  driven  him  into  the 
ranks  of  the  royalists.  He  was  regarded  as  a  tory  by  his 
fellow-citizens,  and  was  pursued  by  a  mob  with  threats 
of  violence.  Having  resorted  for  safety  to  the  royalist 
camp  at  Boston,  he  was  sent  to  England  in  the  autimin 
of  1775  as  a  bearer  of  despatches  to  Lord  George  Ger- 
main, who  appointed  him  a  clerk  in  the  foreign  office. 
In  the  course  of  four  years  he  rendered  such  services 
that  he  obtained  in  1780  the  important  position  of  under- 
secretary of  state.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1781  or  1782  with  a  commissi©. 1  as  major  or  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  British  army,  but  never  took  part  in  any 
action  of  the  war. 

The  next  scene  of  his  eventful  and  prosperous  career 
opens  at  Munich,  whither  he  went  in  1784.  He  soon 
became  aide-de-camp  and  chamberlain  to  the  reigning 
prince  of  Bavaria.  Having  reformed  the  military  es 
tablishment  and  rendered  important  public  services, 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
appointed  a  councillor  of  state.  Rising  by  rapid  gra- 
dations, he  became  successively  lieutenant-general,  com- 
mander-in-chief, minister  of  war,  and  in  1790  a  count  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  On  this  occasion  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Rumford,  from  the  town  where  he  resided  in 
early  life.  He  suppressed  mendicity  at  Munich  by  the 
establishment  of  work-houses  in  which  beggars  were 
compelled  to  earn  their  subsistence.  In  devising  the 
means  to  warm  and  clothe  the  poor  with  economy,  he 
was  led  to  experiments  on  heat  and  light  which  resulted 
in  important  discoveries.  He  proved  that  gases  are 
non-conductors,  and  fluids  very  imperfect  conductors,  of 
heat, — explained  that  heat  is  propagated  in  liquids  only 
by  convection,  or  the  continuous  transposition  of  the 


cas^;  ^asj;  %hr'-d;  gas/.-G,  v.,Yi,  guttural;  n, nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  th  asinM/j.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


RUMFORD 


R  UP  PELL 


particles  of  tVie  liquid,  and  that  a  flame  in  open  air  gives 
but  little  heat  except  to  bodies  placed  above  it.  He  made 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  chimneys  and  in 
the  apparatus  for  heating  and  lighting  houses.  In  1795 
he  visited  London,  where  he  published  some  essays  on 
the  subjects  above  mentioned.  He  returned  to  Munich 
in  1796,  and  was  appointed  ambassador  to  London  in 
1798;  but  the  English  court  would  not  receive  him  in 
that  capacity,  because  he  was  a  British  subject.  He 
formed  the  plan  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  London, 
founded  about  1800.  His  power  and  influence  at  the 
court  of  Munich  having  ceased,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  the  Elector,  in  1799,  he  removed  to  France. 
His  first  wife,  whom  he  left  in  the  United  States  when 
he  first  crossed  the  Atlantic,  was  no  longer  living.  He 
married  the  widow  of  Lavoisier,  the  great  chemist,  in 
1805;  but  they  soon  separated,  from  mutual  repulsion. 
He  died  at  Auteuil  in  August,  1814.  His  "Essays,  Po- 
litical, Economical,  and  Philosophical,"  were  published 
in  3  vols.,  (179S-1806.)  The  Rumford  medal  of  the  Roysfl 
Society  derives  its  name  from  him. 

"  It  is  a  matter  of  just  national  pride  that  the  two  men 
who  first  demonstrated  the  capital  propositions  of  pure 
science,  that  lightning  is  but  a  case  of  common  elec- 
tricity, and  that  heat  is  but  a  mode  of  motion, — who  first 
converted  these  conjectures  of  fancy  to  facts  of  science, 
— were  not  only  Americans  by  birth  and  education,  but 
men  eminently  representative  of  the  peculiarities  of 
American  character, — Benjamin  Franklin  and  Benjamin 
Thompson."  (Edward  L.  Youmans,  "The  Correlation 
and  Conservation  of  Forces.") 

See  CuviF.R,  "  liloje  de  Rumford  ;"  James  Renwick,  "Life  of 
Count  Rumford,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  v., 
second  series:  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1804. 

Rumford,  de,  deh  ruN'foR',(MARTE  Anne  Pierrette 
Paulze — pe'i'r^t'  polz,)  Countess,  a  French  lady  of 
superior  talent,  was  born  at  Montbrison  in  1758.  She 
was  married  to  Lavoisier,  the  chemist,  in  1 77 1.  She 
aided  him  in  experiments,  and,  having  learned  the  art 
of  engraving,  she  engraved  plates  for  his  treatise  on 
Chemistry.  In  1805  she  became  the  v/ife  of  Count 
Rumford,  from  whom  she  separated  in  1809.  Died 
in  1836. 

See  GnizoT,  "  Madame  de  Rumford,"  184T,  and  his  article  in  the 
"Biographic  Universelle." 

Rumiantzov  or  Rumiantzovg'.  See  Rioomantsof. 

Riiniker,  rum'ker,  (Karl,)  a  German  astronomer, 
born  at  Stargard  in  1788.  He  made  observations  at 
Paramatta,  in  Australia,  from  1822  to  1831,  and  was 
afterwards  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Hamburg 
for  many  years.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of 
Navigation,"  (5th  edition,  1850.)     Died  in  1862. 

Riimohr,  roo'moR,  (Karl  Friedrich  Ludwig  Fe- 
lix,) a  German  writer  on  art,  born  near  Dresden  in 
1785,  was  a  pupil  of  Fiorillo,  a  painter.  He  made  the 
tour  of  Italy  in  1804,  and  revisited  that  country  in  1816 
and  1S28.  His  "Italian  Researches"  (3  vols.)  came  out 
in  1827.  It  IS  a  critical  history  of  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  modern  jjainting,  composed  from  original 
documents,  and  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  like- 
wise published  a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Collection  of 
Engravings  at  Copenhagen,"  (1835,)  and  other  treatises 
on  art ;  als<^  a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays  on 
various  subjects      Died  at  Dresden  in  1843. 

See  H.  W.  ScHUi.ZK,  C  F.  von  Rumohr,  sein  Leben  und  seme 
Scliriften,"  1844;  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Rumo'wsky.     See  Roomofskl 

Rumph,  roomf,  [Lat.  Rum'phius,]  (Georg  Eve- 
RAKn,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Hanau  in  1637.  He 
passcil  some  years  at  Amboyna,  where  he  was  consul 
or  counsellor  to  the  Dutch  East  India  Company.  He 
was  author  of  a  botanical  work  entitled  "  Herbarium 
Amboinense,"  (7  vols.,  1741-55.)     Died  in  1706. 

Rumphius.     See  Rumph. 

Rum'sey,  (James,)  an  American  mechanician,  born 
in  Cecil  county,  Maryland,  in  1743,  was  the  inventor  of 
a  steamboat,  which  he  exhibited  on  the  Potomac  in  1786. 
A  company  called  by  his  name  was  formed  in  Philadelphia 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  his  projects.  In  1792  he 
made  a  successful  trial  of  his  steamboat  on  the  Thames, 


and  was  preparing  for  another,  when  he  died  in  Decem- 
ber of  the  same  year. 

Riin'ci-man,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  historical 
l^ainter,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1736.  Among  his  works 
are  "  The  Ascension,"  "  King  Lear,"  and  a  series  of 
pictures  of  scenes  from  Ossian,  His  style  is  extrava- 
gant.    Died  in  1785. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.' 

Runeberg,  roo'neh-b§Rg',  (Johan  Ludwig,)  a  very 
popular  Swedish  poet,  born  at  Jacobstad,  in  Finland, 
i?i  1804.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Abo. 
About  1840  he  became  a  teacher  of  Greek  at  Borgi,  (or 
Borgo.)  Among  his  principal  productions  are  "  Na- 
deschda,"  a  poetical  tale,  (1841,)  "Kung  Fialar,"  (1844,) 
and  "Stories  of  Ensign  St41,"  (" Fanrik  Stils  Sagner.") 
He  died  May  6,  1877. 

See  HowiTT,  "  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe." 

Runge,  roong'eh,  (Orro  Philipp,)  a  German  painter, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  fur- 
nished illustrations  to  "Ossian."  His  son,  Otto  Sieg- 
mund,  studied  sculpture  under  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome. 

Runius,  roo'ne-iis,  (Johan,)  a  popular  Swedish  poet, 
born  in  West  Gothland  in  1679;  died  in  1713. 

Runjeet  Singh,  rrin-jeet'  sing,  (or  sing'h,)  called 
Maha  Rajah,  ma-hi'  rj'ja,  (i.e.  "Great  Rajah,")  an  am- 
bitious East  Indian  prince,  born  at  Gugaranwila,  in  the 
Punjab,  in  1780,  is  called  the  founder  of  the  Sikh  einpire. 
By  a  series  of  aggressions  against  feeble  and  unwarlike 
chiefs  he  extended  his  dominions.  He  received  the 
province  of  Lahore  as  a  gift  from  the  Shah  of  Afghan- 
istan in  1799,  and  obtained  Cashmere  by  conquest  in 
1819.  In  1809  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  British,  with 
whom  he  always  maintained  peaceful  relations.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  H.  T.  Prinsep,  "Origin  of  the  Power  of  the  Sikhs  and  the 
Political  Life  of  Runjeet  Singh,"  i839;W.  L.  Macgregor,  "  Runjeet 
Singh:  History  of  the  Sikhs;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Run'ning-ton,  (Charles,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1751.  He  edited  some 
legal  works  of  Hale,  Gilbert,  etc.     Died  in  1821. 

"Rupert,  roo'pert,  [  Ger.  Ruprecht,  roo'pR^Kt,  ] 
Prince,  sometimes  called  Robert  ok  Bavaria,  son 
of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick  V.  and  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  was  born  at  Prague  in 
1619.  Having  previously  served  against  the  Imperialists 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  he  entered  the  royalist  army 
in  England,  and  was  appointed  by  his  uncle,  Charles  I., 
commander  of  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  energy  and  headlong  courage  at  Worcester 
and  Edgehill,  and  took  Bristol  ;  but  he  was  signally  de- 
feated at  Marston  Moor  in  1644.  Being  made  general 
of  all  the  royal  forces,  he  commanded  the  left  wing  at 
Naseby  in  1645.  Owing  to  his  rash  pursuit  of  a  part  of 
Cromwell's  army  while  the  main  body  remained  on  the 
field,  the  day  was  lost,  and  he  soon  after  surrendered 
Bristol,  after  a  short  defence.  He  was,  in  consequence, 
deprived  of  his  command  by  the  king  ;  but  in  1648  he 
obtained  command  of  the  fleet,  and  assisted  Lord  Or- 
mond  on  the  co.ast  of  Ireland.  In  1649  he  was  blockaded 
in  the  harbour  of  Kinsale  by  the  parliainentary  squadron 
under  Blake.  Having  forced  his  way  out,  he  steered  for 
Portugal,  where  he  was  protected  by  the  king  of  that 
country.  In  165 1  Blake  attacked  his  fleet  and  destroyed 
all  but  five  of  his  vessels.  Rupert  subsisted  for  some 
time  by  piracy  in  the  West  Indies.  After  the  restoration 
of  1660,  he  served  as  admiral  against  the  Dutch.  Died 
in  1682. 

See  "Historical  Memoirs  of  Prince  Rupert,"  London,  1683:  E. 
Warburton,  "Memoirs  of  Prince  Rupert,"  3  vols.,  1849;  Clar- 
endon, "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion:"  Hume,  "  History  of 
England  :"  "  Lives  of  the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  and 
England,"  by  Sir  Edward  Cust,  London,  1867. 

Ru-per'tu3  or  Ruprecht,  roo'pRdKt,  called  also 
Rhodbert,  one  of  the  early  apostles  of  Christianity 
in  Germany,  was  Bishop  of  Worms,  and  lived  in  the 
seventh  century. 

Riippell  or  Rueppell,  r"Sp'pel,  (Wilhelm  Peter 
Eduard  Simon,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  in  1794.  He  visited  Arabia,  Nubia, 
and  other  parts  of  Africa,  and  published  in  1S29  "  Travels 
in  Nubia,  Kordofan,  and  Arabia  Petraea."     He  also  gave 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,/o;ir^:h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  ^,sJiort;  ?,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;go6d;  moon; 


RUPPRECHT 


2I0I 


RUSK  IN 


an  account  of  the  birds  of  Northern  and  Eastern  Africa, 
and  made  vaiualile  contributions  to  the  Senl<enberg 
Museum,  at  Frankfort.     Died  December  lo,  1884. 

Rupprecht,  roop'prSKt,  (Friedrich  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
man landscape-painter  and  etcher,  born  near  Anspach 
in  1779;  died  in  1831. 

Ruprecht.     See  Rupert. 

Rurik,  roo'ril{,  [Fr.  RouRiK,  roo'rtk',]  the  founder 
of  the  Russian  empire,  was  originally  a  .Scandinavian. 
He  invaded  Russia  about  862  a.d.,  defeated  the  natives, 
who  were  commanded  by  Vadim,  and  selected  Novogo- 
rod  as  his  capital.  He  died  in  879,  leaving  a  son,  Igor, 
a  minor. 

Rusbroek.     See  Ruysbroek. 

Rusca,  roos'kJ,  (Carlo  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Lugano  in  1701  ;  died  in  1769. 

Rusca,  riis'kS',  (F.  Dominique,)  born  near  Nice  in 
1761,  became  a  general  in  the  French  army.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  at  Lodi,  and  was  made  a  general 
of  division  in  1796.  He  was  commander  of  Elba  from 
1802  to  1805.     He  was  killed  at  Soissons  in  1814. 

Rusca,  (Giovanni  Alessandro,)  a  learned  Italian 
monk  and  writer,  born  at  Turin  about  1600  ;  died  in  1680. 

Ruscelli,  roo-shel'lee,  (GiROi  amo,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  prolific  writer,  born  at  Viterbo.  Among  his  works 
are  "On  the  Art  of  making  Verse,"  ("Del  Mode  di 
comporre  in  Versi,"  1 559,)  and  "  Illustrious  Enterprises,*" 
("Imprese  illustri,"  1566.)     Died  at  Venice  in  1566. 

Ruschenberger,  roo'shen-ber'ger,  (William  S.  W.,) 
M.D.,  an  American  physician  and  naturalist,  born  in 
Cumberland  county.  New  Jersey,  in  1S07,  was  appointed 
in  1843  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Naval  Hos- 
pital at  Brooklyn,  New  York.  He  has  published  a 
"Voyage  round  the  World,  including  an  Embassy  to 
Muscat  and  Siam,"  (1838,)  also  "Elements  of  Natural 
History,"  (1850,)  and  other  scientific  works. 

Ruscheweyh,  roosh'eh-<^T',  (Ferdinand,)  an  emi- 
nent German  engraver,  born  at  Mecklenburg,  commenced 
his  studies  about  1802,  and  went  to  Rome  in  1S08.  He 
engraved  some  works  of  Raphael,  Giulio  Romano,  Over- 
beck,  and  others. 

Rusconi,  roos-ko'nee,  (Camillo,)  a  skilful  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Milan  about  1658.  Among  his  works 
is  the  mausoleum  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  Saint  Peter's  at 
Rome.     Died  in  1728. 

Rush,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  American  physician 
and  philanthropist,  Ijorn  near  Philadelphia,  December 
24,  1745.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  New 
Jersey,  in  1760,  and  afterwards  studied  medicine  in 
Edinburgh,  London,  and  Paris.  He  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  Medical  College  of  Philadelphia 
in  1769.  He  was  an  active  supporter  of  the  popular 
cause  in  the  Revolution,  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. In  the  same  year  he  married  Julia  Stockton,  a 
daughter  of  Judge  Richard  Stockton,  of  New  Jersey. 

In  1777  he  was  appointed  surgeon-general  and  phy- 
fiician-general  of  the  army.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a 
writer  on  medicine,  philosophy,  political  affairs,  etc.  He 
voted  for  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  the  State  convention  which  met  in  1787.  In 
1789  he  became  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  in  the  medical  college  of  Philadelphia.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1791,  when  the  medical 
college  was  united  with  the  University.  He  was  a  popu- 
lar lecturer,  and  was  eminently  qualified  as  a  teacher  of 
medical  science  by  his  fluency  of  expression  as  well  as 
his  profound  learning.  His  reputation  was  increased  by 
his  successful  treatment  of  cases  of  yellow  fever,  which 
prevailed  in  Philadelphia  in  1793.  It  is  stated  that  he 
visited  and  prescribed  for  one  hundred  patients  in  one 
day.  His  remedies  for  yellow  fever  were  purging  and 
bleeding.  He  was  treasurer  of  the  Mint  during  the  last 
fourteen  years  of  his  life,  was  president  of  the  society 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  vice-president  of  the 
Bible  Society  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  industry,  benevolence,  and  piety.  In  181 1  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  sent  him  a  diamond  ring  as  a  testi- 
monial of  respect  for  his  medical  skill.  Among  his 
writings  are  "  Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations,"  (2 


vols.,  17S8-93,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the 
Mind,"  (i8i2.)  He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  April,  1813, 
leaving  about  nine  children,  among  whom  was  Richard 
Rush,  the  statesman. 

See  Thacher,  "Medical  I'iograpliy ;"  S.  D.  Gross,  "  Lives  of 
American  Physicians,"  iSfii  ;  Duyckinck,  "Cyclop.'edia  of  Ameri- 
can Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguishe<1 
Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Rush,  (Jacob,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
1746,  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Rush.  He  was 
president  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  for  Philadelphia. 
Died  in  1820. 

Rush,  (James,)  a  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1786,  was  author  of  a  treatise  entitled 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice,"  (1827  ;  6th  edition, 
1867,)  and  of  other  works.  About  1840  he  married  Miss 
Ridgway,  daughter  of  Jacob  Ridgway,  a  noted  millionaire. 
He  died  May  26,  1869,  leaving  projierty  to  the  value  of 
about  one  million  dollars,  with  which  was  established 
the  "  Ridgway  Branch  of  the  Philadelphia  Library." 

Rush,  (Richard,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  August,  1780,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1797, 
studied  law,  and  was  appointed  comptroller  of  the  treas- 
ury by  President  Madison.  He  was  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States  from  February,  1814,  to  March,  1817. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  sent  to  England  by  President 
Monroe  as  minister-plenipotentiary.  After  he  had  ne- 
gotiated several  important  treaties,  he  returned  in  1825. 
He  served  as  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  March,  1825, 
to  March,  1S29.  He  was  nominated  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency by  the  friends  of  John  Quincy  Adams  in  1828,  and 
received  eighty-three  electoral  votes,  but  was  not  elected. 
In  1836  he  was  sent  to  England  as  a  special  agent  or 
commissioner  by  the  President.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister to  France  in  1S47,  and  was  the  first  of  the  foreign 
ministers  at  Paris  to  recognize  the  French  republic 
formed  in  1848.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1S49,  and 
retired  from  the  public  service.  He  published  in  1833 
"  Memorials  of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  Saint 
James,"  another  volume  on  the  same  subject  in  1845, 
and  "Washington  in  Domestic  Life,"  (1857.)  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  July,  1859. 

See  the 
Review' 
London  ;"  "Democratic  Review"  for  April,  1840. 

Rush'ton,  (Edward,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  Lancashire,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1572. 
He  published  Sanders's  work  "  On  the  Anglican  Schism," 
("  De  Schismate  Anglicano,"  1585,)  with  additions.  Died 
at  Lou  vain  in  1586. 

Rush'worth,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer,  distin- 
guished as  a  compiler  of  materials  for  history,  was  born 
in  Northumberland  about  1607.  He  was  assistant  clerk 
to  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  Long  Parliament. 
He  diligently  pursued  the  practice  of  taking  notes  of 
public  transactions,  and  reported,  in  short-hand,  the 
speeches  of  members  of  Parliament.  He  served  Sir  T. 
Fairfax  as  secretary  from  1645  to  1650,  during  which 
period  Fairfax  was  commander-in-chief.  He  published 
"  Historical  Collections  of  Private  Passages  of  State, 
Weighty  Matters  in  Law,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1659-1701.) 
Died  in  1690. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Rusk,  (Thomas  J.,)  an  American  officer  and  politician, 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1803.  He  removed  to  Texas 
about  1835,  was  the  first  secretary  of  war  of  the  republic 
of  Texas,  and  commanded  the  army  after  General  Hous- 
ton was  wounded  at  San  Jacinto,  April,  1836.  In  1845 
he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Texas.  He  was  re-elected  Senator  about 
185 1.     Died  at  Nacogdoches  in  1856. 

Rus'kin,  (John,)  an  English  artist  and  eloquent 
writer  on  art  and  nature,  was  born  in  London  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1819.  He  was  the  only  child  of  a  wine-merchant, 
and  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  "The  first  thing  which 
I  remember  as  an  event  in  life,"  says  he,  "  was  being 
taken  by  my  nurse  to  the  brow  of  Friar's  Crag  on  Der- 
wentwater."  In  his  childhood  he  enjoyed  other  excur- 
sions to  the  country,  on  wliich  subject  he  remarks,  "  In 


the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1833  :  "  Edinburgh 
v"  for  July,   1833,  article   "Richard  Rush   at  the  Court  of 


€  as  -J;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/.-  g,  ii,  K.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilkd;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this,     l  J^^See  Explanations,  p.  2-^.) 


/^c/ss 


RUSSELL 


such  journeyings,  whenever  they  brought  me  near  hills, 
and  ill  all  mountain  ground  and  scenery,  I  had  a  pleasure, 
as  early  as  I  can  remember,  and  continuing  till  I  was 
eighteen  or  twenty,  infinitely  greater  than  any  which  has 
been  since  possible  to  me  in  anything.  .  .  .  Although 
there  was  no  definite  religious  sentiment  mingled  with 
■t,  there  was  a  continual  perception  of  sanctity  in  the 
whole  of  nature,  from  the  slightest  thing  to  the  vastest, 
— an  instinctive  awe  mixed  with  delight;  an  indefinable 
thrill  such  as  we  sometimes  imagine  to  indicate  the 
presence  of  a  disembodied  spirit."  ("Modern  Painters," 
vol.  iii.  chap,  xvii.)  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  gained  the  Newdigate  prize  in  1839  for  an 
English  poem  entitled  ".Salsetto  and  Elephanta,"  and 
graduated  in  1842.  He  received  lessons  in  drawing  and 
painting  from  Copley,  Fielding,  and  J.  D.  Harding,  and 
became  an  ardent  admirer  of  Turner.  To  defend  Turner 
from  hostile  critics,  he  wrote  the  first  volume  of  his 
"Modern  Painters,"  (1843,  by  a  Graduate  of  Oxford.) 
This  work,  which  was  expanded  into  a  treatise  on  art, 
nature,  etc.  and  extended  to  five  volumes,  established 
his  reputation  as  the  greatest  art-critic  of  England, 
although  many  of  his  opinions  are  paradoxical.  It  dis- 
plays a  rare  faculty  of  observation,  a  rich  imagination, 
and  great  mastery  of  language.  He  discusses  many 
questions  of  ethics  and  ])hilosophy  in  an  earnest  but 
rather  imi^ulsive  and  wayward  spirit.  He  devoted  sev- 
eral years  Xo  the  study  of  art  in  Italy,  especially  in  Venice. 
In  1849  he  produced  "The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architec- 
ture," and  afterwards  an  eloquent  and  brilliant  work 
on  "The  Stones  of  Venice,"  (3  vols.,  1851-53.)  He 
advocated  the  cause  of  the  Pre-Raphaelites  in  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  "  Pre-Raphaelitism,"  (1851.)  In  1S54  he 
published  "Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting," 
(delivered  at  Edinburgh.)  In  i860  he  contributed  to  the 
"  Cornhill  Magazine"  a  series  of  essays  on  political 
economy.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Sesame  and 
Lilies,"  (1864,)  "The  Ethics  of  the  Dust:  Ten  Lectures 
to  Little  Housewives  on  the  Elements  of  Crystalliza- 
tion," (1865,)  "The  Crown  of  Wild  Olive:  Three  Lec- 
tures on  Work,  Traffic,  and  War,"  (1866,)  "The  Queen 
of  the  Air  :  being  a  Study  of  the  Greek  Myths  of  Cloud 
and  Storm,"  (1869,)  "Frondes  Agrestes,"  (1875,)  and 
"Arrows  of  the  Chace,"  (1883.)  He  built  a  number  of 
model  houses  for  the  poor,  in  London.  He  was  elected 
professor  of  art  at  Oxford  in  1869,  and  again  in  1876. 

In  1871  he  began  to  publish  "  Fors  Clavigera,"  a 
monthly  paper,  devoted  to  the  conservation  and  eleva- 
tion of  the  social  life  of  the  people,  and  especially  to  the 
rescue  of  the  laboring-classes  from  the  evils  which  have 
resulted  from  the  modern  industrial  system. 

"Mr.  Ruskin,"  said  Charlotte  Bronte,  "seems  to  mc 
one  of  the  few  genuine  writers,  as  distinguished  from 
book-makers,  of  this  age." 

Russ,  (John  Denison,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  philanthropist,  born  at  Essex,  Massachusetts,  in 
1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1832  superintendent  of  the 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Blind.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  New  York  Prison  Associa- 
tion, and  was  connected  with  various  other  charitable 
institutions.     Died  March  i,  1881. 

Russ,  rSoss,  (Karl,)  a  German  historical  painter, 
born  in  Vienna  in  1779,  was  patronized  by  the  archduke 
John  of  Austria.  He  etched  some  of  his  own  pictures. 
Died  in  1843. 

Rfis'sell,  (Alexander,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  in  Edinburgh.  He  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  English  Factory  at  Aleppo  in  1740.  In 
1754  he  returned  to  England,  and  published  a  "  Natural 
History  of  Aleppo,"  (1755,)  which  was  received  with 
favour.  He  afterwards  practised  in  London.  Died 
in  1768. 

See  "  Essay  on  the  Character  of  Alexander  Russell;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

RiSs'sell,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  journalist  of  the 
Revolution,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1761.  In  1784  he 
founded  the  "  Columbia  Centinel,"  a  leading  journal  of 
the  Federal  party.     Died  in  1845. 

Rtia'sell,  (Charles  William,)  D.D.,  an  Irish  Cath- 
olic theologian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Killough,  county 
of  Down,  in  1812.     He   studied   for  the   priesthood  at 


Maynooth,  where  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  was 
chosen  professor  of  humanity.  Before  he  was  thirty  his 
reputation  had  extended  to  Oxford,  where  he  stood  high 
among  the  tractarian  leaders.  He  corresponded  with 
Newman  in  1841,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in  bring- 
ing him  over  to  the  Catholic  Church.  Dr.  Russell  was 
selected  by  Cardinal  Wiseman  as  his  chief  coadjutor  in 
the  conduct  of  the  "  Dublin  Review,"  for  which  he  wrote 
many  able  articles.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life 
of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti,"  (1858,)  a  "  Calendar  of  State 
Papers,  Ireland,  James  I.,"  (4  vols.,  1872-77,)  etc.  Died 
February  26,  1880. 

Russell,  (David  A.,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of 
David  Russell,  M.C.,  of  Salem,  New  York,  was  born 
about  1822.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  served 
in  the  Mexican  war,  and  became  a  captain  in  1854.  He 
commanded  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  July  I-3,  1863, 
and  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5  and  6,  1864, 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Opequan  Creek,  near 
Winchester,  in  September,  1864. 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  History  of  tlie  Rebellion,"  p.  790. 

Rus'sell,  (Edward,)  Earl  of  Orford,  an  English 
admiral,  born  in  165 1,  was  a  nephew  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Bedford.  He  was  a  prominent  Whig  chief  in  the 
revolution  of  1688.  About  1690  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  combined  navies  of  England  and 
Holland  ;  but,  not  satisfied  with  this  honour,  he  is  said 
to  have  secretly  conspired  to  restore  James  II.  In 
1692  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  French  off  La 
Hogue.  He  became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1693, 
after  which  he  commanded  with  success  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. He  was  created  Earl  of  Orford  and  Viscount 
Barfleur  in  1697.     Died  in  1727. 

See  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England." 

Russell,  (Francis,)  seventh  Duke  of  Bedford,  Dorn 
in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  Lord  John  (Earl)  Russell.  He 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  Whig  measures  in  Par- 
liament. He  devoted  much  attention  to  agriculture,  in 
which  he  is  said  to  have  made  important  improvements. 
Died  in  1861. 

Russell,  (George,)  an  English  poet  and  parson, 
born  in  Minorca  in  1728;  died  in  1767. 

Russell,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1751.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Bengal  in 
1797.     Died  in  1836. 

Russell,  (John,)  first  Earl  of  Bedford,  obtained  a 
high  position  at  court  in  1505.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  expedition  which  Henry  VIII.  led  against 
France  in  15 13,  and  was  rewarded  with  lands  attached 
to  the  abbey  of  Tavistock  and  the  monastery  of  Woburn. 
He  was  appointed  lord  high  admiral  and  created  Earl 
of  Bedford  in  1550.     Died  in  1555. 

See  J.  H.  WiFFEN,  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Rus- 
sell," 1S33. 

Russell,  (John,)  fourth  Duke  of  Bedford,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  in  1710,  succeeded  to  the  dukedom 
in  1732.  He  became  secretary  of  state  in  1748,  and  ne- 
gotiated in  1762  a  treaty  of  peace  with  France.  He  was 
president  of  the  council  in  the  Grenville  ministry,  (1763- 
65.)  He  was  a  man  of  good  intentions,  but  was  misled 
by  a  set  of  political  jobbers,  called  the  "  Bloomsbury 
gang."     Died  in  1771. 

See  David  Ross,  "  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  House  of  Kua- 

»ell,"  1S48. 

Russell,  (Lord  John,)  afterwards  Earl  Russell, 
an  eminent  British  Whig  statesman,  born  in  London  on 
the  i8th  of  August,  1792.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the 
sixth  Duke  of  Bedford.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
the  fourth  Viscount  Torrington.  He  studied  first  at  the 
Westminster  School,  from  which  he  passed  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
Dugald  Stewart  and  Thomas  Brown  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Playfair.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Tavistock  in 
1813,  and  began  his  career  as  a  member  of  the  Whig  party, 
which  was  then  in  the  opposition.  He  soon  became 
a  zealous  advocate  of  Parliamentary  reform,  and  made 
motions  for  the  suppression  of  rotten  boroughs,  which 
he  repeated  year  after  year.  In  1821  he  published  "An 
Essay  on  the  History  of  the  English  Government  and 
Constitution,"  and  in   1822  "Don  Carlos,  or  Persecu- 


a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  y,  long;  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short; a,  ?,  i,  9,  obscure;  iix,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RUSSELL 


2103 


RUST 


tion,"a  tragedy.  He  procured  in  1828  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  acts  which  subjected  Protestant  dissenters  to  civil 
disabilities.  On  the  accession  of  the  Whig  party  to 
power  in  1830,  Lord  John  was  appointed  paymaster  of 
the  forces,  and  a  member  of  the  committee  of  four  by 
which  the  celebrated  Reform  bill  was  prepared,  Russell 
is  reputed  to  be  the  principal  author  of  this  bill,  which 
was  introduced  in  March,  1831,  and  was  rejected  by  a 
small  majority.  The  ministers,  having  dissolved  Parlia- 
ment and  appealed  to  the  country,  obtained  a  large  ma- 
jority in  the  new  House  of  Commons,  and,  after  a  long 
and  violent  crisis,  caused  by  the  hostility  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  the  Reform  bill  became  a  law  in  1832.  Lord 
John  was  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party  in  the  House  of 
Commons  after  1834,  and  was  appointed  secretary  for 
the  home  department  by  Lord  Melbourne  in  April,  1835. 
He  married  in  1835  Adelaide,  the  widow  of  Lord  Ribbles- 
dale  and  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Lister.  He  represented 
Stroud  in  Parliament  from  1834  to  1841,  and  was  secre- 
tary for  the  colonies  from  August,  1839,  to  September, 
1841.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  mem- 
bers for  the  city  of  London,  and  resigned  office  with  his 
colleagues.  He  contributed  in  1845  to  the  repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws.  The  Whig  party  having  been  restored  to 
power  by  the  defeat  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Russell  became 
prime  minister  in  July,  1846.  He  resigned  office  in 
February  or  March,  1852,  and  in  December  of  that  year 
entered  the  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen  as  secretary  for 
foreign  affairs.  Having  retired  from  this  position  in 
February,  1853,  he  was  president  of  the  council  from 
April  or  June,  1854,  to  January,  1855.  He  served  under 
Palmerston  as  colonial  secretary  for  a  short  time  in  1855. 
On  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Lord  Palmer- 
ston in  June,  1859,  Lord  John  was  appointed  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs.  In  July,  1861,  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Earl  Russell  of  Kingston-Russell,  and  passed 
into  the  House  of  Lords.  During  the  civil  war  in  Amer- 
ica he  pursued  a  policy  of  neutrality  and  non-interven- 
tion. Like  many  other  European  statesmen,  he  hastily 
judged  that  the  Union  was  doomed  to  a  premature 
dissolution.  In  October,  1865,  he  was  called  by  public 
opinion  and  the  will  of  the  queen  to  the  office  of  prime 
minister,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Lord  Palmerston.  The 
cabinet  on  this  occasion  was  reorganized  by  the  admis- 
sion of  a  few  new  members.  His  principal  colleagues 
were  W.  E.  Gladstone,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
Lord  Clarendon,  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  Lord  Gran- 
ville, president  of  the  council,  the  Duke  of  Somerset, 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  Edward  Cardwell,  secretary 
for  the  colonies,  and  Milner  Gibson,  president  of  the 
board  of  trade.  In  the  early  part  of  the  session  of  1866 
the  ministry  introduced  a  bill  for  the  extension  of  the 
elective  franchise,  with  which  they  pledged  themselves 
to  stand  or  fall.  In  this  Reform  bill  they  proposed  to 
give  the  franchise  to  every  citizen  of  a  borough  who 
occupied,  as  owner  or  tenant,  a  house  of  the  clear 
yearly  value  of  seven  pounds.  A  long  and  excited 
debate  followed.  Although  the  professed  Liberals 
were  a  large  majority  of  the  House,  the  bill  was  de- 
feated by  a  majority  of  eleven,  June  18,  1866,  and  the 
ministry  resigned.     He  died  May  28,  1878. 

See  Al[son,  "History  of  Europe;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographit 
Gen^rale;"  L.  im  Lomenie,  "Lord  J.  R'jssell,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"i84o;  S.  Smiles,  "  Brief  Biographies  ;"  "  Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1823, 

Russell,  (John  Scott,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  engineer 
and  naval  architect,  was  born  in  the  Vale  of  Clyde,  in 
Scotland,  in  1808.  He  settled  in  London  in  1844.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  experiments  to  ascertain  the 
form  of  ships  which  will  encounter  the  least  resistance, 
and  adopted  the  theory  that  a  ship  should  resemble  in 
form  a  "  wave  of  translation."  The  Great  Eastern  is 
constructed  according  to  his  system.  Died  June  8,  1882, 

Russell,  (Michael,)  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  an 
able  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1781.  He  became 
incumbent  of  Saint  James's  Chapel,  Leith,  about  1810. 
His  principal  work  is  "The  Connection  of  Sacred  and 
Profane  History,"  (3  vols.,  1821-27,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  became  Bishop  of  Glasgow  in  1837.  Died 
April  2,  1848. 

Russell,  (Lord  Odd.)     See  Ampthill. 


Russell,  (Patrick,)  M.D.,  born  in  Scotland  in  1726^ 
was  a  brother  of  Alexander,  noticed  above.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  in  1754  as  physician  at  Aleppo,  where 
he  witnessed  the  prevalence  of  the  great  plague  of  1760. 
He  published  in  1791  an  excellent  "Treatise  on  the 
Plague."     Died  in  1805. 

Russell,  (Lady  Rachel  "Wriothesley — rot'es-le,) 
born  about  1636,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  South- 
ampton, and  one  of  the  most  lovely  and  noble  of  women. 
Her  first  husband  was  Lord  Vaughan.  In  1669  she  was 
married  to  Lord  William  Russell,  at  whose  trial  she 
served  him  as  amanuensis.  Her  conduct  on  this  occa- 
sion excited  general  admiration  and  sympathy.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  "  Letters  of  Lady  Russell ;"  "  Lady  Russell :  an  Historical 
Study,"  translated  from  the  French  of  GuizoT,  whose  work  is  entitled 
"  L'Amour  dans  le  Mariage,"  8th  edition,  1862  ;  "  Some  Account  of 
the  Life  of  Rachel  Wriothesley,  Lady  Russell ;"  "  Memoirs  of  Emi- 
nent Englishwomen,"  by  Louisa  S.  Costello,  1844. 

Russell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Beamin- 
ster,  Dorsetshire,  in  1762  ;  died  prematurely  in  1788.  A 
voluiTie  of  his  sonnets  appeared  in  1789,  and  was  highly 
praised  by  Southey  and  Wordsworth. 

Russell,  (William,)  fifth  Earl,  and  afterwards  Duke 
of  Bedford,  born  about  1614,  inherited  the  earldom  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1641.  He  was  an  adherent 
of  the  Parliament  in  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  but 
became  a  royalist  in  1643.  He  was  the  father  of  Lord 
William  Russell  who  was  beheaded  in  1683.  In  1694 
he  was  created  Duke  of  Bedford.     Died  in  1700. 

Russell,  (William,)  Lord,  an  English  patriot,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1639.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1660,  and  married  in  1669  the  widow  of  Lord  Vaughan, 
(see  Russell,  Lady,)  with  whom  he  passed  many  happy 
years.  By  his  honourable  character  and  high  rank  he 
acquired  great  political  influence,  which  he  employed  in 
defence  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  He  was  appointed 
by  Charles  IL  a  member  of  a  new  council  of  ministers 
formed  in  1679.  In  1680  he  and  his  friends  procured 
the  passage  of  a  bill  for  the  exclusion  of  the  Duke  of 
York  from  the  throne  because  he  was  a  papist.  The 
bill  was  rejected  by  the  peers.  A  conspiracy  against  the 
king,  called  the  Rye- House  Plot,  was  formed  by  some 
inferior  partisans.  This  plot  having  been  detected.  Lord 
Russell  was  accused  of  complicity  in  it,  and  unjustly 
condemned  to  death.  He  was  beheaded  on  the  22d  of 
July,  1683.  He  left  a  son,  who  became  Duke  of  Bedford. 
"  He  had  given  such  proofs  of  an  undaunted  courage  and 
unshaken  firmness,"  says  Burnet,  "that  no  man  of  that 
time  had  so  entire  a  credit  in  the  nation  as  he  had." 

See  Lord  John  Russell,  "  Life  of  William  Lord  Russell,"  1819; 
J.  H.  WiFFEN,  "Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  2  vols.,  1833; 
"Lord  Russell's  Case,  with  Observations  upon  it,"  by  Henkv 
Lord  de  la  Mere;  Burnet,  "History  of  his  Own  Time;"  D. 
Ross,  "Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  1848; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1820. 

Russell,  (William,)  LL.D.,  a  British  historian,  bom 
in  the  county  of  Selkirk  in  1741.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London  in  1767,  and  published  various  works  in 
prose  and  verse.  His  most  popular  work  is  a  "  History 
of  Modern  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1779-84.)    Died  in  1793. 

See  Irvine,  "Life  of  William  Russell,"  1801;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  July,  i8i8. 

Russell,  (William,)  a  teacher  and  educational  writer, 
born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1798.  Having  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  he  became  in  1826  editor  of  the 
"American  Journal  of  Education."  He  published  sev- 
eral text-books  for  schools.     Died  in  1873. 

Russell,  (William  Clark,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1844.  Most  of  his  books  are  Sea-tales,  writ- 
ten with  spirit  and  originality.  "The  Wreck  of  the 
Grosvenor"  is  considered  his  best  story. 

Riis'sell,  (William  Howard,)  an  Irish  writer,  noted 
as  correspondent  of  the  London  "Times,"  was  born  in 
Dublin  in  1821.  He  accompanied  the  British  army  to 
the  Crimea  in  1854,  and  wrote  letters  on  the  Crimean 
war,  which  attracted  great  attention  and  were  collected 
in  two  volumes,  (1856.)  In  1861  he  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  to  report  for  the  "Times"  the  progress 
of  the  rebellion. 

Rust,  (George,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Cam- 


<aBi;<;ass;gAard;giiSj;G,H,K,£utiura/;  n, nasal;  v.,trill£d;  Izlsz;  thasin//4«.     (2i:^="SeeExplanations, p.  23.) 


RUSTAM 


2104 


RUVJGNY 


bridge.  He  became  Bishop  of  Dromore  in  1667,  and 
published  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1670. 

Rustam  or  Rusteiu.     See  Roostam. 

Rustic!,  roos'tee-chee,  (Francesco,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Sienna  about  1595.  He  died  prema- 
turely in  1625. 

Rustici,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  skilful  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1460  or  1470,  was  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  executed  three  colossal 
bronze  statues — Saint  John,  a  Pharisee,  and  a  Levite — 
for  the  baptistery  of  Florence.  He  removed  to  France 
about  1528.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  worked  in 
Paris  for  Francis  I.  Died  about  1550.  "  He  was  without 
an  equal  for  the  casting  of  works  in  metal,"  says  Vasari, 
who  also  praises  his  character  in  high  terms. 

See  Va!.ari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Riistow,  riis'to,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  military 
writer,  born  at  Brandenburg,  May  25,  1821.  He  served 
for  a  time  in  the  engineers,  but  was  involved  in  diffi- 
culties on  account  of  his  independence  of  spirit.  He 
left  the  country  and  joined  Garibaldi's  army  in  i860. 
Among  his  very  numerous  writings  are  a  "  History  of 
Greek  Warfare,"  "  Greek  Military  Writers,"  "  History 
of  Infantry,"  "  General  Tactics,"  "  Modern  Strategy  and 
Tactics,"  "Military  Dictionary,"  etc.  Died  by  suicide 
at  Zurich,  August  14,  1S78. 

Riite  or  Ruete,  rii'teh,  (Christian  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer  and  oculist,  born  near  Bremen  in 
1810.     He  settled  at  Leipsic  in  1852.     Died  in  1867. 

Rutebceuf,  riit'buf',  a  French  poet,  whose  birthplace 
and  real  name  are  unknown.  He  was  born  about  1230, 
was  married  in  1260,  and  probably  died  after  1285.  He 
wrote  poems  autobiographical,  comic,  satirical,  elegiac, 
and  devotional,  and  was  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and 
productive  authors  of  his  time. 

Rut'gers,  (Colonel  Henry,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  about  1746,  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and 
was  afterwards  a  citizen  of  New  York  City.  He  was  very 
rich,  and  gave  large  sums  for  charity.     Died  in  1830. 

Rutgers,  riit'gers  or  rut'ners,  (John,)  an  able  IJutch 
critic,  born  at  Dort  in  1589,  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Daniel  Heinsius.  He  was  appointed  a  councillor  of 
state  by  the  King  of  Sweden  in  1614,  after  which  he 
was  employed  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  diplomatic  mis- 
sions. Among  his  works  are"Variae  Lectiones,"  (1618,) 
and  an  autobiography,  (1646.)     Died  in  1625. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Ruth,  [Heb.  ni"',]  a  Moabite  woman,  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Mahlon,  a  Hebrew,  and  afterwards  to  Boaz.  She 
was  a  great-grandmother  of  King  David.  Her  story  is 
the  subject  of  the  canonical  book  of  Ruth. 

Riith'er-fprd,  (Daniel,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
botanist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1749.  He  is  regarded  as 
the  discoverer  of  nitrogen,  on  which  he  wrote  a  thesis, 
"  De  Aere  mephitico,"  (1772.)  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  botany  at  Edinburgh  in  1786.  Died  in  1819. 

Rutherford,  (Samuel,)  a  Scottish  minister  and  Cov- 
enanter, born  in  the  parish  of  Nisbet,  Roxburghshire, 
about  1600,  was  an  eloquent  and  zealous  preacher.  He 
was  ordained  minister  at  Anworth  in  1627,  and  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Saint  Andrew's  in  1639.  He 
wrote  against  the  divine  right  of  kings,  in  a  work  en- 
titled "Law  is  King,"  ("Lex  Rex.")  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Trial  and  Triumph  of  Faith,"  (1645,) 
and  religious  "Letters."     Died  in  1661. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;'' 
Charles  Thomson,  "  Letters  and  Life  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Ruther- 
ford," 2  vols.,  1S46. 

Rflth'er-forth,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English 
writer,  born  in  Cambridgeshire  in  1712.  He  became 
rector  of  Barley  and  Archdeacon  of  Essex.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  religion,  philosophy,  etc.  Died  in  1771. 

Riith'er-furd,  (Andrew,)  a  learned  and  able  Scot- 
tish lawyer  and  judge,  bi^rn  in  1791,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Lord  Jeffrey.  He  was  appointed  lord  advocate 
of  Scotland  in  1839,  retired  from  that  office  in  1841,  and 
was_  restored  in  1846.  In  1851  he  became  a  lord  of 
session.     Died  in  1854. 

Ruth'f  rfurd,  (Lewis  Morris,)  an  American  scientist, 
born   at   Morrisania,   New   York,   November  25,   1816. 


He  graduated  in  1834  at  Williams  College,  and  Decame 
a  lawyer  of  New  York.  He  gave  great  attention  to 
photographic  astronomy,  and  invented  many  important 
appliances,  chiefly  for  use  in  that  and  similar  departments 
of  science. 

Ruthven.    See  Gowrie,  Earl  of. 

Ru-till-ua  Lu'pus,  a  Roman  rhetorician  of  an  un- 
certain epoch.  He  was  author  of  a  work  "  On  the 
Figures  of  Sentences  and  Elocution,"  ("De  Figuris  Sen- 
tentiarum  et  Elocutionis,")  which  is  accounted  valuable. 
Some  suppose  he  was  a  son  of  Rutilius  Lupus  who  was 
tribune  of  the  people  about  55  B.C. 

Rutil'ius  Numatia'nus,  (nu-ma-she-a'nus,)  (Clau- 
dius,) a  Roman  poet,  born  in  Gaul  about  the  end  of  th< 
fourth  century,  was  a  pagan.  He  became  prafectus  urbi 
at  Rome,  and  described  a  journey  from  Rome  to  Gaul 
in  a  poem  called  "  Itinerarium,"  which  is  a  work  of 
much  merit.     Nearly  half  of  it  is  lost. 

Riit'land,  (Charles  Cecil  John  Manners,)  Dukk 
OF,  eldest  son  of  John  Henry  Manners,  fifth  Duke  of 
Rutland,  was  born  in  1815.  He  was  styled  Marquis  of 
Granby  before  he  succeeded  to  the  dukedom,  in  1857. 
He  was  a  conservative  in  politics.     Died  in  1888. 

Rutland,  (Charles  Manners,)  fourth  Duke  of,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  general.  Marquis  of  Granby.  He 
succeeded  his  grandfather,  the  third  duke,  in  1779.  He 
was  a  personal  and  political  friend  of  William  Pitt,  and 
was  a  patron  of  the  poet  Crabbe.  He  was  eminent  for 
generosity  and  benevolence.     Died  in  1787. 

Rutland,  Earl  of,  an  English  peer,  whose  family 
name  was  Manners,  was  a  favourite  of  Henry  VIII. 
He  held  important  offices  in  the  reign  of  that  king,  and 
was  created  Earl  of  Rutland  in  1525.  One  of  his  de- 
scendants, John  Manners,  the  tenth  earl,  was  created 
Marquis  of  Granby  and  Duke  of  Rutland  in  1703. 

Rut'ledge,  (Edward,)  an  American  jurist,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1749.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774,  and  in  1798 
became  Governor  of  South  Carolina.  He  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lawyer  and  orator.     Died  in  1800. 

Rutledge,  (Francis  Huger,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1799, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1S20,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in  1823^  He  became 
a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1825,  and  in  1851 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Florida.     Died  in  1866. 

Rutledge,  (John,)  an  American  jurist  and  orator, 
born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1739,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  in  1774  a  member 
of  the  General  Congress,  in  which  he  was  a  bold  and 
prominent  supporter  of  independence.  He  was  elected 
president  of  South  Carolina  in  1776,  and  Governor  of 
that  State  in  1779.  In  1787  he  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  the  adoption  of  which  he  afterwards 
advocated.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  in  1789,  and  chief  justice  of 
South  Carolina  in  1791.  He  was  nominated  chief  justice 
of  the  United  States  in  July,  1795,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  Senate  in  December  of  that  year.  He  was  an  elo- 
quent orator,  and  a  man  of  eminent  talents.  Died  in 
July,  1800. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Rut't^,  (John,)  a  physician  and  writer,  born  in  Dub- 
lin in  1698,  was  ?.  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
He  practised  in  Dublin,  and  wrote,  besides  some  medical 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
People  called  Quakers  in  Ireland,"  (1751,)  and  a  "Spir- 
itual Diary  and   Soliloquies,"  (2  vols.,  1776.)     Died  in 

1775- 

Ruvigny,  de,  deh  rii'vin'ye',  (Henri  de  Massue — 
deh  m^'su',)  Marquis,  a  French  Huguenot  general  and 
able  diplomatist,  born  in  1610,  was  an  uncle  of  the  excel- 
lent Lady  Rachel  Russell.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the 
war  of  the  Fronde.  Having  been  sent  by  Louis  XIV.  on  a 
mission  to  Charles  II.  in  1675,  he  induced  the  latter  for 
a  pecuniary  consideration  to  become  subservient  to  the 
designs  of  the  French  king.     He  emigrated  to  England 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mht;  nflt;  gfiod;  moon; 


RUXTON 


2105 


RYLAND 


In    1686,  and  died  in  1689,  leaving  a  son,  who  was  a 
famous  general.     (See  Galway,  Earl  of.) 
See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Riix'ton,  (George  Frederick,)  an  English  traveller, 
Dorn  in  1820,  became  a  lieutenant  in  the  British  army. 
He  wrote  "  Adventures  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
Mexico,"  and  "  Life  in  the  Far  West,"  Died  at  Saint 
Louis,  Missouri,  in  1848. 

Ruysbroek.     See  Rubruquis. 

Ruysbroek,  de,  deh  rois'bRook,  (Jan,)  called  the 
Ecstatic  Doctor,  a  Flemish  mystic  and  writer,  born 
about  1294;  died  in  1381. 

See  Engelhardt,  "Richard  von  St.  Victor  und  Jan  Ruysbroek," 
1838. 

Ruysch.    See  RuiscH. 

Ruysdael,  Ruysdaal,  or  Ruisdael,  rois'dSl,  (Ja- 
cob,) a  Dutch  landscape-painter  of  high  reputation,  was 
born  at  Haarlem  about  1630.  His  birth  is  variously 
dated  1625,  1630,  and  1635.  He  was  a  friend  of  Nicholas 
Berghem,  from  whom  perhaps  he  received  instruction 
in  art.  He  imitated  nature  with  fidelity.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  sylvan  scenes,  cascades,  and  marine  views. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Stag-Hunt,"  in  the 
gallery  of  Dresden.     Died  in  1681. 

Ruysdael,  (Solomon,)  a  painter,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1616,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  invented 
a  composition  which  was  a  good  imitation  of  variegated 
marble.     Died  in  1670. 

Ruyter  or  Ruiter,  de,  deh  ri'ter,  [Dutch  pron.  deh 
roi'ter,]  (Michael  Adkiaanzoon,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
admiral,  born  at  Flushing  in  1607.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1645,  and  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  the  English  near  Plymouth  in  1652.  In 
1653  he  distinguished  himself  in  a' great  battle  between 
the  Dutch,  under  Van  Tromp,  and  the  English,  under 
Blake.  In  the  service  of  the  King  of  Denmark  he  de- 
feated the  Swedes  in  1659.  He  sailed  up  the  Thames 
in  1667  and  destroyed  the  shipping  at  Sheerness.  In 
167 1  he  commanded  a  fleet  which  the  combined  fleets 
of  England  and  France  were  not  able  to  defeat.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  in  a  fight  against  the  French 
admiral  Duquesne  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1675. 

See  G.  Brandt,  "  Leven  en  Bedrijf  van  M.  van  Riiiter,"  16S7; 
Otto  Klopp,  "Leben  und  Tliaten  des  Admirals  de  Ruiter,"  1852; 
Last,  "Leven  van  M.  A.  de  Ruyter,"  1842;  "Life  of  M.  A.  de 
Ruyter,"  London,  1687;  Brand,  "Hulde  aan  den  Admiraal  de 
Ruyter,"  1827. 

Ruyven,  van,  vtn  roi'ven,  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  1650,  was  a  pupil  of  Jordaens. 
Died  in  17 18. 

Ruzeea-  (or  Razia-)  Begum,  niz-ee'j  ba'gum,  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Altmish  Shems-ood-Deen,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Delhi  in  1236.  On  one  occasion  her  father 
had  appointed  her  regent  during  his  absence  on  a  dis- 
tant campaign.  When  asked  by  his  officers  why  he 
preferred  his  daughter  to  any  of  his  sons,  he  replied  that 
his  older  sons  gave  themselves  up  to  wine  and  every 
excess, — that  she,  though  a  woman,  was  better  than 
twenty  such  sons.  At  first  she  ruled  the  empire  with 
great  prudence  as  well  as  ability.  But  her  partiality  to 
one  of  her  ofiicers,  who  was  an  Abyssinian,  greatly 
offended  her  nobles,  in  consequence  of  which  she  was 
dethroned  and  put  to  death  in  1239,  after  a  reign  of  only 
three  years  and  six  months.  "  She  was,"  says  Ferishta, 
"possessed  of  every  good  quality  which  usually  adorns 
the  ablest  princes ;  and  those  who  scrutinize  her  actions 
most  severely  will  find  in  her  no  fault  but  that  she  was  a 
woman."  Ruzeea-Begum  was  a  half-sister  of  the  able 
but  eccentric  Mahmood-Nasir-ood-Deen. 

See  Ferishta,  "History  of  the  Mahoinedan  Power  in  India." 
translated  by  Briggs,  vol.  i.  pp.  214-222. 

Ry'an,  (Stephen  Vincent,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  in 
Canada,  January  i,  1826.  He  was  educated  at  Phila- 
delphia and  in  Missouri,  and  in  1849  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest.  He  entered  the  Vincentian  Congrega- 
tion, and  was  president  of  Saint  Vincent's  College  at 
Cape  Girardeau.  In  1S68  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Buff'alo, 

Rybaut  or  Ribaut,  re'bo',  (  Paul,  )  an  excellent 
French  Protestant  minister,  born  near  Montpellier  in 


1718.  He  lived  in  caves  and  huts  in  the  forest,  where 
he  preached  for  many  years  while  the  law  denounced 
death  as  the  penalty  of  preaching  the  Protestant  doc- 
trines. He  had  great  influence,  and  restrained  his  peo- 
ple from  rash  and  des])erate  measures.     Died  in  1795. 

Rycaut  or  Ricaut,  re'ko', .?  (Sir  Paul,)  F.R.S.,  an 
English  diplomatist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  London, 
graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1650.  He  was  secretary 
of  embassy  at  Constantinople  from  1661  to  1669.  He 
published  "The  Present  State  of  the  Ottoman  Empire," 
(1670,)  a  "History  of  the  Turkish  Empire  from  1623 
to  1677,"  (1680,)  and  other  works.  In  1690  he  was 
appointed  resident  at  the  Hanse  Towns.     Died  in  1700. 

Ryckaert,rIk'SRt,  (David,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  161 5.  He  painted  interiors,  fairs, 
rustic  gatherings,  musical  parties,  etc.     Died  in  1677. 

Ryckaert,  (Martin,)  a  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1591,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  and  returned  to  Antwerp.  Died 
in  1636. 

Rycke.de.deh  ri'keh,  [Lat.  Ric'quiusor  Rvc'quius,] 
(Josse,)  a  Flemish  poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ghent  in 
1587.  Among  his  works  are  "Two  Books  of  Odes," 
("Odarum  Libri  duo,"  1614,)  and  "On  the  Roman 
Capital,"  ("De  Capitolio  Romano,"  1617.)  Died  in 
1627. 

Rycke,  van,  vtn  ri'keh,  (Theodore,)  a  Dutch  critic, 
born  at  Arnhem  in  1640.  He  was  professor  of  history 
at  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  published  an  edition 
of  Tacitus,  (1687.)     Died  in  1690. 

Rycquius.    See  Rycke. 

Rydberg,  rid'bJRg,  (Abraham  Victor,)  a  Swedish 
novelist  and  poet,  born  at  Jonkoping,  December  18,  1829. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Lund,  and  became  a 
journalist.  His  best  novel  is  "The  Last  of  the  Athe- 
nians," (1S59.)  He  has  written  works  on  chronology 
and  theology,  and  published  a  "  History  of  Magic  in  the 
Middle  Ages." 

Ry'der,  (Albert  P.,)  an  American  painter,  born  at 
New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  March  20,  1847.  He  be- 
came distinguished  as  a  painter  of  imaginative  pieces, 
esteemed  for  excellence  in  sentiment  and  in  colour. 

Ry'der,  (Sir  Dudley,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  in  1694.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1737, 
and  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1754.  He 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  Earl  of  Harrowby.  Died  in  1756. 

See  Lord  Campbei,!.,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England." 

Ryder,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  1777,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Harrowby. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1824. 
Died  in  1836. 

Rydqvist,  rid'kw!st,  (Johan  Erik,)  a  Swedish 
critic  and  writer,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1800.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Laws  of  the 
Swedish  Language,"  (2  vols.,  1852-57.)    Died  in  1877. 

Ryer,  Du.     See  Du  Ryer. 

Ry'er-son,  (Adolphus  Egerton,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
Canadian  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Upper  Canada  in 
1803.  He  was  appointed  in  1844  superintendent  of 
public  schools  in  Upper  Canada.  Died  February  19, 
1882. 

Ryk,  rik,  (Julius  Constantine,)  a  Dutch  naval 
officer,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1787.  He  became  a 
rear-admiral  in  1838,  minister  of  the  marine  in  1842, 
and  vice-admiral  in  1844. 

Ry'land,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, borii  at  Warwick  in  1753,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  J.  C. 
Ryland,  principal  of  the  Enfield  Academy.  He  became 
pastor  of  the  Broadmead  Chapel,  Bristol,  in  1793,  and 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Andrew  Fuller,"  (1816.)    Died  in  1825. 

Ry'land,  (John,)  a  Baptist  minister,  preached  at 
Northampton.  He  wrote  "The  Christian  Student  and 
Pastor,"  and  other  works,  and  was  principal  of  an 
academy  at  Enfield,  where  he  died  in  1792. 

Ryland,  (William  Wynne,)  an  able  English  en- 
graver, born  in  London  in  1732,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Bas, 
of  Paris.  He  was  appointed  engraver  to  George  HI. 
with  a  pension  of  ;^200  per  annum,  and  engaged  in  busi- 
ness as  a  dealer  in  prints.     He  introduced  the  chalk  01 


€as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, gattural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     (fi^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RYLE 


2106 


SAADEE 


stipple  method  into  England.  He  was  convicted  o< 
forgery  of  a  bill  of  ;^2io  on  the  East  India  Company, 
and  was  executed  in  1783.  He  asserted  his  innocence 
to  the  last.  According  to  Strutt,  "  he  was  a  man  re- 
spected and  beloved  by  all  that  were  acquainted  with 
him."  He  excelled  in  the  use  of  the  graver  and  needle 
combined. 

Ryle,  rll,  (John  Charles,)  D.D.,  an  English  bishop, 
born  in  1816.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  graduating  with  honours  in  1S36.  In  1841 
he  took  orders,  and  in  i86i  was  made  rector  of  Stradbroke, 
canon  of  Norwich,  and  rural  dean  of  Hoxne.  In  1880 
he  was  named  Dean  of  Salisbury,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Liverpool,  the  first  of  that 
title  in  the  Anglican  Church.  Bishop  Ryle  is  celebrated 
as  a  writer  of  tracts  and  as  a  Low-Church  champion. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Expository  Thoughts  on  the 
Gospels,"  (1856-59,)  "Plain  Speaking,"  "Bishops  and 
Clergy  of  Other  Days,"  (1869,) "  Church- Reform  Papers," 
(1S70,)  etc. 

Rylejew.    See  Rileyef. 

Rymer.    See  Hrym. 

Ry'm?r,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary  and  editor, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1638  or  1639,  was  a  son  of  Ralph 
Rymer,  who  was  e.\ecuted  for  insurrection  in  1663.  He 
was  appointed  historiographer  to  William  III.  in  1692, 
with  a  salary  of  ;^200,  and  was  charged  to  collect  and 
edit,  under  the  auspices  of  Lord  Somers  and  Mr.  Mon- 
tagu, the  documents  relating  to  transactions  between 
England  and  foreign  powers.  The  first  volume  of  this 
important  work,  called  "  Rymer's  Foedera,"  appeared 
in  1703,  and  was  followed  by  sixteen  other  volumes. 
Died  in  17 14. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale ;"  Chambers,  "  Biograph- 
ical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rvsbrack.  rls'bR^k,  written  also  Rysbraeck,  (Mi- 


chael or  John  Michael,)  an  eminent  Flemish  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Antwerp  about  1694,  was  a  son  of  Peter, 
noticed  below.  He  settled  in  London  in  1720,  and  soon 
became  the  most  popular  or  successful  sculptor  in  Eng 
land  except  Roubiliac.  Among  his  best  works  are  a 
monument  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  a  monument  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at  Blen» 
heim.     Died  in  1770. 

Rysbrack,  Rysbraeck,  or  Rysbraech,  some- 
times written  Rysbrechts,  (Peter,)  an  able  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1657,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  imitated  the  style  of  N.  Poussin  with 
success.  He  excelled  in  colouring  and  in  boldness  and 
freedom  of  touch.     Died  in  1716. 

Rysbraeck.    See  Rysbrack. 

Rysbrechts.     See  Ryshkack. 

Rysbroek.    See  Ruysbroek. 

Ryves,  rivz,  (Bkuno,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Dorsetshire,  became  chaplain  of  Mag« 
dalene  College,  Oxford,  in  1616.  He  was  afterwaras 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  and  was  persecuted  during  the 
civil  war.     Died  in  1677. 

Ryves,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  civilian,  became  a 
Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1598,  and  a  master 
in  chancery  in  1618.  He  was  in  the  civil  war  a  zealous 
partisan  of  Charles  I.,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  treaty  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  wrote  "Ancient  Naval  History," 
("  Historia  navalis  antiqua,")  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1651. 

Rzewuski,  Rzewusky,  zhi-<^oos'ke,  written  also 
Rzewiesky,  (Wenceslas,)  a  Polish  general  and  noble- 
man, born  in  1705,  was  noted  for  his  literary  attainments. 
He  was  imprisoned  six  years  at  Smolensk  and  Kalouga 
for  his  opposition  tq  the  election  of  Stanislas  Ponia- 
towski,  in  1767.  He  wrote  poems,  dramas,  etc.  Died 
in  1779. 


S. 


Saa,  de,  disS,  (Emanuel,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born 
in  1530,  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Rome,  and  was 
employed  by  Pius  V.  to  superintend  a  new  edition  of  the 
Vulgate.     Died  in  1596. 

Saa  de  Miranda.     See  Miranda. 

Sa  da  Bandeira,  de,  di  sS  d5  bSn-da^-r5,  (Ber- 
nardo,) a  Portuguese  soldier  and  statesman,  born  in 
1796,  fought  against  the  French  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
and  subsequently  became  a  partisan  of  Dom  Pedro.  He 
was  prime  minister,  1865-69.     Died  January  6,  1S76. 

Saad-ed-Deen  or  Saad-Eddiii,  sd'ad  ed-deen', 
( Mohammed  Effendi,  mo-h5m'med  ef-fenMee,)  an 
eminent  Turkish  historian,  born  in  1536,  was  educated 
at  the  court  of  the  Sultan  Selim  I.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  jurisprudence  in  the  college 
attached  to  the  mosque  of  Saint  Sophia,  and  in  1573  was 
appointed  by  Selim  II.  khoja  or  preceptor  to  his  son, 
Amurath  III.  He  also  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Mohammed 
III.,  the  successor  of  Amurath,  and  in  1598  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  grand  mufti.  He  had  previously  been 
appointed  by  Amurath  imperial  historiographer,  —  an 
office  created  expressly  for  him.  His  principal  work, 
entitled  "The  Crown  of  Histories,"  ( "Taj-al-Towa- 
rikh,")  is  regarded  by  the  Turks  as  a  model  of  elegance 
in  style,  and  is  highly  commended  by  Sir  William  Jones. 
It  was  translated  into  Italian  by  Vincenzo  Bratutti.  Died 
in  1599. 

Saadee,  Saadi,  or  SMi,  si'a-dee  or  sd'dee,  (Mus- 
lih-ed-Deen,*  (or  -eddin,)  moos'liu  ed-deen',)  a  cele- 
brated Persian  poet,  born  at  Shiraz  about  1184.  He 
early  manifested  a  remarkable  spirit  of  devotion,  and  he 
is  said  to  have  made  during  his  life  no  fewer  than  fifteen 
pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  besides  which  he  visited  in  his 


•  Muslih  (or  Moslih)  signifies  "  mediator,"  "  pacificator."  Mus- 
Uh-ed-Deen  maybe  translated  "  pacificator,  friend,  or  promoter  of 
ihe  Faith." 


travels  Bagdad,  Damascus,  Jerusalem,  Morocco,  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  Hindostan,  and  other  countries.  Among  his 
other  adventures,  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  battle  with 
the  crusaders,  by  whom  he  was  held  for  some  time  in 
captivity.  On  his  return  from  his  extended  peregrina- 
tions he  took  up  his  abode  in  his  native  city,  where, 
chiefly  on  account  of  his  religious  character,  he  appears 
to  have  been  regarded  with  the  highest  respect  and 
veneration.  Princes  and  nobles  are  said  often  to  have 
visited  him,  bringing  him  presents.  He  died  in  1291, 
having,  it  is  .said,  attained  the  extraordinary  age  of  one 
hundred  and  seven  years,  or,  as  the  Moslem  writers 
state  it,  of  one  hundred  and  ten  (lunar)  years.  After  his 
death  he  was  regarded  as  a  saint,  and  tradition  ascribed 
to  him  the  power  of  working  miracles. 

The  works  of  Saadee  are  probably  more  extensively 
read  than  those  of  any  other  Persian  writer,  Firdousee 
(the  Homer  of  Persia)  not  excepted.  His  "Gulistan" 
("Rose-Garden")  is  deservedly  the  most  popular  of  all 
his  works.  It  consists  of  stories,  anecdotes,  and  moral 
observations  and  reflections,  partly  in  prose  and  partly 
in  verse,  and  possesses,  besides  other  merits,  the  charm 
of  endless  variety.  The  religious  character  of  his  mind 
is  conspicuous  in  his  writings  ;  he  appears,  moreover,  to 
have  possessed  a  kindly  and  humane  spirit,  and  his 
moral  sentiments  may  be  said  to  be  for  the  most  part 
elevated  and  pure,  with  one  important  exception,  his 
encouraging  or  conniving  at  deceit,  which,  like  most 
other  Asiatics,  he  seems  to  have  regarded  as  often  a 
venial  fault  and  sometimes  as  a  virtue  of  high  order. 
Among  Saadee's  other  writings  is  the  "  Bostan,"  ("  Fruit- 
Garden,")  which  is  a  religious  and  moral  poem,  divided 
into  ten  books.  Saadee  is  greatly  admired  by  his  coun- 
trymen as  a  lyric  poet. 

The  style  of  Saadee  is  usually  clear,  simple,  and  ani- 
mated ;  he  is  sometimes  eloquent  and  highly  poetical. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  some  eminent  critics,  he 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  5,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  gSod;  mdSn; 


SAAJDIA 


2107 


SABINIANUS 


makes  a  more  sparing  use  of  hyperbole  and  metaphor 
than  most  other  Oriental  writers.  His  language,  how- 
ever, differs  from  that  of  Firdousee  in  containing  fewer 
words  from  the  original  Persian,  and  a  much  larger 
admixture  of  Arabic  terms  and  phrases. 


Redekunste  Persiens." 

Saadia,  s^'dee'i,  (Ben  Joseph,)  a  celebrated  Jewish 
theologian  and  philosopher,  sometimes  called  Saadias- 
Gaon,  born  at  Fayoom,  in  Egypt,  in  892.  He  was  teacher 
of  the  Jewish  academy  at  Sura,  and  made  an  Arabic 
translation  of  the  Pentateuch.  He  also  wrote,  in  Arabic, 
a  treatise  "On  Religions  and  Doctrines."     Died  in  942. 

Saas,  s5s,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  bibliogra- 
pher, born  at  Rouen  in  1703  ;  died  in  1774. 

Saavedra,  de.     .See  Cervantes. 

Saavedra,  de,  di  sl-va'oRj,  (Angel,)  Duke  of  Rivas, 
a  distinguished  Spanish  poet,  statesman,  and  soldier, 
born  at  Cordova  in  1791.  He  fought  against  the  French 
at  Talavera,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Ocana,  in  1809.  On  the  French  invasion  of  1823,  he 
repaired  to  London,  and  subsequently  to  Malta,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  English  literature. 
Soon  after  his  return  he  was  appointed  procer  of  the 
kingdom,  and  became  a  member  of  the  ministry  under 
Isturiz  in  1836.  He  was  afterwards  ambassador  to 
Naples,  and  filled  other  important  offices.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  poem  of  "The  Moorish  Found- 
ling," ("  El  Moro  Exposito,"  1834,)  the  tragedy  of  "  Don 
Alvaro,"  (1835,)  "La  Morisca  de  Alajuar,"  a  drama, 
(1842,)  and  a  history  of  Masaniello's  insurrection  at 
Naples.      Died  at  Madrid,  June  26,  1865. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ken..edv, 
"Modern  Poets  of  Spain." 

Saavedra  yFajardo,  (v-^r  Faxardo,)  si-va'DR5e  f5- 
HaR'dc,  (DiEGO,)  a  Spanish  diplomatist  and  distinguished 
writer,  born  in  the  province  of  Murcia  in  1584.  He  was 
sent  on  diplomatic  missions  to  several  courts  of  Germany 
and  Italy.  His  priticipal  works  are  an  "  Idea  of  a  Chris- 
tian Prince,"  ("  Idea  de  un  Principe  politico  Christiano," 
etc.,  1640,)  consisting  chiefly  of  a  collection  of  political 
inaxims,  and  an  ingenious  critique  of  ancient  and 
modern  writers,  entitled  "Republica  Literaria,"  (1670.) 
Died  in  1648. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  G.  Mayans  v 
SiscAR,  "Oracion  en  Alabanza  de  las  Obras  de  Don  D.  de  Saavedra 
y  Faxardo,"  1725. 

SS'ba  or  Sa'bas,  [SuiSaf,]  a  Greek  monk  of  high 
reputation,  born  in  Cappadocia  about  439  A.D.  He 
founded  a  monastery  near  the  river  Jordan.  He  was  an 
opponent  of  the  Monophysites.     Died  in  532  a.d. 

Sab'a-con  or  Sab'a-cp,  [Gr.  Saffo/cw^,]  King  of 
Ethiopia,  invaded  Egyptj  slew  Bocchoris,  its  king,  and 
reigned  many  years  over  that  country.  He  lived  probably 
about  750  or  800  B.C.     His  Egyptian  name  is  Shabak. 

Sabas.    See  Saba, 

Sabatei  Sevi,  si-bi-ta'ee  sa'vee,  a  Jewish  impostor, 
born  at  Smyrna  in  1626,  claimed  to  be  the  Messiah. 
Being  made  prisoner  by  the  Turks,  he  saved  his  life  by 
embracing  Mohammedanism.     Died  in  1676. 

Sabatier,si'bt'te-i',  (Andr6  Hyacinthe,)  a  French 
lyric  poet,  was  born  at  Cavaillon  in  1726;  died  at 
Avignon  in  1806. 

Sabatier  or  Sabbathier,  sS'bt'te-i',  (Pierre,)  a 
French  Benedictine  monk,  was  born  at  Poitiers  in 
1682.  He  prepared  an  edition  of  all  the  Latin  versions 
of  the  Scriptures.     Died  in  1742. 

Sabatier,  (Raphael  Bienvenu,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  in  Paris  in  1732,  was  royal  censor  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  received  from  Bonaparte  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honour.  He  published  several  able  surgical 
treatises.      Died  in  1811. 

Sabatier  de  Castres,  st'bt'te^'  deh  kSstR,  (An- 
toine,)  a  French  writer,  was  borii~at  Castres  in  1742. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  The  Three  Ages  of 
French  Literature,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1772,)  in  opposition 
to  the  doctrines  of  Ilelvetius.  He  also  wrote  "The 
Heathen   Ages,   or    Mythological,    Political,    Literary, 


and   Geographical  Dictionary  of  Pagan  Antiquity,"  (9 
vols.,  1784,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1817. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale." 

Sabatini,  sS-b3-tee'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  architect,  born  at  Palermo  in  1722,  was  a  son- 
in-law  of  Vanvitelli,  whom  he  assisted  in  building  the 
palace  of  Caserta  near  Naples.  He  afterwards  settled 
at  Madrid,  where  he  built  the  custom-house,  ( Aihicina,) 
the  gate  of  Alcala,  and  that  of  San  Vincente.  Died 
in  1798. 

Sabbathais  Z-wi.    See  Sabatei  Sevi. 

Sabbathier,  s3'b3'te-i',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Condom  in  1735.  ^^'^ 
chief  work  is  "  Dictionnaire  pour  ITntelligence  des 
Auteurs  Grecs  et  Latins,"  (37  vols.,  1 766-181 5,)  which 
treats  of  ancient  history,  geography,  mythology,  etc. 
and  presents  a  co])ious  analysis  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
historians.     Died  in  1807. 

Sabbathier,  (Pierre.)     See  Sabatier. 

Sabbatini,  sdb-bJ-tee'nee,  (  Andrea,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  sometimes  called  Andrea  da  Salerno,  born 
ab(jut  1480,  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael.  He  settled  at 
Naples,  where  several  of  his  master-pieces  are  to  be 
seen.  He  is  regarded  as  the  best  painter  of  the  Nea- 
politan school.     Died  in  1545. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Sabbatini,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  painter,  called 
LoRENZA  DA  BoLOGNA,  was  bom  in  that  city  about 
1540;  died  in  1577. 

Sabbatini,  (P.  LuDovico  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
musician  and  writer  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  some- 
times called  Sabbatini  of  Padua.     Died  in  1809. 

Sa-bel'li-cu3,  (Marcus  Antonius  Coccius,)  origin- 
ally Marcantonio  Coccio,  (kot'cho,)  an  Italian  histo- 
rian and  scholar,  born  in  the  Campagna  di  Roma  in 
1436.  He  became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Venice. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Republic  of 
Venice,"  (in  Latin,  1487.)     Died  in  1508. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  Bavle,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Sa-bel'li-us,  an  African  bishop  or  presbyter,  who 
lived"  about  250-270  A.D.  and  dissented  from  the  ortho- 
dox creed  in  relation  to  the  Trinity.  His  doctrines  were 
adopted  by  a  numerous  sect,  called  SabelHans.  Little  is 
known  of  his  personal  history.  He  taught  that  there  is 
only  one  hypostasis,  or  person,  in  the  Divine  nature. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Sa-bi'na,  a  Roman  empress,  was  married  to  the 
emperor  Hadrian  about  100  A.D.,  and  received  the 
title  of  Augusta.  Having  been  ill  treated  by  Hadrian, 
she  committed  suicide  about  137  a.d. 

Sabina,  (Popp^a.)     See  Popp^a. 

Sab'ine,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  general  and 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  born  in  October,  1788, 
accompanied  Parry's  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regions 
in  1819.  He  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions," after  his  return,  the  result  of  his  observations 
on  the  action  of  the  magnetic  needle.  In  1822  he  made 
a  voyage  to  Africa  and  North  and  South  America,  of 
which  he  gave  an  account  in  his  "  Pendulum  Expe- 
dition," (1825.)  He  also  wrote  "Reports  on  Magnetic 
and  Meteorological  Observations,"  and  other  similar 
works.  He  became  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1861.     Died  June  26,  1883. 

Sabine,  (Joseph,)  an  English  savant,  born  in  1770, 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  filled  the  post 
of  vice-president  of  the  Zoological  Society,  and  other 
important  offices.     Died  in  1837. 

Sab'ine,  (Lorenzo,)  an  American  writer,  born  at 
Lisbon,  New  Hampshire,  February  28,  1803.  He  lived 
for  a  time  in  Eastport,  Maine,  and  then  in  Boston.  He 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Preble,"  (1847,)  "  Biographical  Sketches 
of  American  Loyalists,"  (1847;  enlarged,  1864,)  etc. 
Died  in  Boston,  April  14,  1877. 

Sa-bin-I-a'nus  [Fr.  Sabinien,  st'be'ne;^N']  suc- 
ceeded Gregory  I.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  604  a.d.  He 
survived  his  election  only  eighteen  months,  and  Boni- 
face III.  was  his  successor. 


€  as  /6;  Q  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H.  K.  s^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (E^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


SAB  IN  us 


2108 


SACK 


Sa-bi'nus,  (Aui.us,)  a  Roman  poet,  was  tlie  friend 
of  (ivid,  and  the  autlior  of  Kpistles,  or  "  lleroides,"  in 
reply  to  those  of  Ovid.     Only  three  of  tliem  are  extant. 

Sabinus,  (Calvisius,)  a  Roman  commander,  was  an 
adherent  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war.  He  obtained  the 
province  of  Africa  in  45  B.C.,  was  consul  iu  39,  and 
commanded  the  fleet  of  Octavius  in  38  B.C. 

Sabinus,  (Ccelius  M.,)  a  Roman  jurist,  flourished  in 
the  reijjn  of  Vespasian,  and  became  consul  in  69  A.D. 

Sabiiius,  (Flavius,)  a  Roman  general  of  high  repu- 
tation, was  a  brother  of  the  emperor  Vespasian.  Me  held 
the  high  oftice  of  prafectus  urhis  from  58  to  69  A.D. 
Having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  soldiers  of  Vitellius, 
he  was  massacred  at  Rome  in  69  a. D. 

Sabinus,  si-bee'nus,  (Gkokg,)  a  German  scholar  and 
Latin  poet,  whose  original  name  was  ScHULER,  (shii'ler,) 
was  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1508.  He  was  a  son-in-law 
of  Melanchthon.  He  became  professor  of  poetry  and 
eloquence  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  in  1544  rector 
of  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  Among  his  works  we 
may  name  his  Latin  elegies,  entitled  "Sabini  Carmina." 
Died  in  1560. 

See  P.  Albinus,  "Vita  G.  Sabini,"  1724:  M.  W.  Heffter, 
"  Erinnermisc  an  G.  Sabinus,"  1844  ;  A.  Fukstenhaupt,  "  Georg 
Sabinus,"  1849. 

Sabinus,  (Julius,)  a  Gallic  chieftain  of  the  district 
of  the  Lingones,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Cassai 
about  70  A.D.,  and  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Sequani 
He  was  soon  after  arrested  and  put  to  death  by  order  ol 
Vespasian. 

Sabinus,  (Massurius  or  Masurius,)  an  eminent 
Roman  jurist,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Ca- 
ligula. He  was  a  pupil  of  Cai)ito,  and  the  founder  of 
a  school  of  jurists  called  Sabiniani.  He  wrote  an  im- 
]K)rtant  treatise  on  civil  law,  on  which  Pomponius, 
Paulus,  and  Ulpian  wrote  comiiientaries. 

See  Grotius,  "  Vitse  Jurisconsultorum  ;"  Arntzen,  "Da  Ma- 
surio  Sabino,"  176S. 

Sablier,  st'ble-i',  (Charles,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1693.  He  wrote,  besides  several  dramas, 
"  An  Essay  on  Languages  in  general,  and  the  French 
in  particular,"  (1777.)    Died  in  17S6. 

Sabliere,  de  la,  deh  It  st'ble-aiR',  (Antoine  Ram- 
bouillet  —  rft.N'boo'yi',)  a  French  poet,  born  about 
1615,  inherited  a  large  fortune.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
madrigals,  which  were  praised  by  Voltaire,  ("  Siecle  de 
Louis  XIV,"  1751,  tome  ii.)     He  died  in  1680. 

His  wife,  Madame  de  la  SABLifeRE,  was  celebrated 
for  her  talents  and  accomplishments.  She  was  a  friend 
and  benefactor  of  La  Fontaine.     Died  in  1693. 

Sabran,  de,  deh  sJt'bR6N',  Countess,  a  French  lady, 
born  in  1750.  Her  first  husljand,  M.  de  Sabran,  died 
when  she  was  young,  and  in  1797  she  married  Stanislas 
de  Bouflers,  already  noticed.  She  died  in  1S27.  Her 
correspondence  with  Bouflers  before  their  marriage  is 
of  considerable  literary  value. 

Sabunde.     See  Sekonde. 

Sac'a-das  [Sa/caciaf]  oF  Argos,  an  eminent  Greek 
musician  and  poet,  lived  about  600  B.C.  He  excelled  as 
a  flute-player. 

Sacchetti,  sSk-ket'tee,  (Franco,)  an  Italian  novelist 
and  poet,  born  at  Florence  about  1335,  was  contempo- 
rary with  Boccaccio.  As  a  novelist,  he  was  regarded 
by  his  countrymen  as  only  second  in  genius  to  that 
celebrated  writer.     Died  in  1410. 

Sacchetti,  (Giambatvista,)  a  distinguished  archi- 
tect, born  at  Turin  in  1736.  He  was  patronized  by 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  employed  him  to  build  the  new 
palace  at  Madrid.  He  afterwards  became  director  of  the 
public  school  of  architecture  in  that  city.    Died  in  1764. 

Sacchi,  sdk'kee,  (Andrea,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  was  born  near  Rome 
about  1598.  He  was  patronized  by  Urban  VIII.,  who 
employed  him  to  paint  one  of  the  great  altar-pieces  of 
Saint  Peter's.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  a 
fresco  in  the  Barberini  palace  representing  "  Divine 
Wisdom,"  eight  pictures  from  the  life  of  John  the 
Baptist,  the  "Miracle  of  Saint  Anthony,"  and  "Saint 
Romualdo  relating  his  Vision  to  Five  Monks  of  his 
Order."  The  last-named  is  esteemed  his  master-piece, 
and  one  of  the  best  productions  of  the  Roman  school. 


Sacchi  numbered  among  his  pupils  Carlo  Maratta  and 
N.  Poussin.     Died  in  1661. 

See  Pas-seri,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in 
Italy." 

Sacchi,  (Pietro  Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Pavia.  He  began  to  work  in  Milan  about  1460, 
Many  years  after  that  date  he  lived  at  Genoa. 

Sacchi,  or  Sacchini,  sdk-kee'nee,  (Juvenal^)  an 
Italian  writer  on  music,  born  at  Milan  in  1726,  was  a 
monk  or  priest.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an 
"  Essay  on  the  Music  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,"  (1778.) 
Died  in  1789. 

Sacchini,  sSk-kee'nee,  (Antonio  Maria  Gasparo,) 
an  Italian  composer  of  great  celebrity  in  his  time,  born 
at  Naples  in  1735,  was  a  pupil  of  Durante.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  operas  of  "CEdipe  a  Colone,"  "  Mon- 
tezuma," "The  Cid,"  and  "Olympia."  He  passed  about 
eiglit  years  in  England,  whither  he  went  in  1772.  H* 
wrote  with  purity  and  elegance,  and  accomplished  grea* 
effects  by  simple  means.     Died  in  Paris  in  1786. 

See  Framerv,  "  filoge  de  .Sacchini,"  1787;  F^tis,  "  Biographi* 
Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Sacchini,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
near  Perugia  in  1570,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  continuation 
of  Orlandino's  History  of  his  Order,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Sacconi,  sik-ko'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Montalto,  March  9,  1808.  In  1861  he  was  cre- 
ated a  cardinal-bishop,  holding  the  eiiiscopal  sees  of 
Porto  and  Santa  Rufina.  He  was  also  made  sub-dean 
of  the  Sacred  College.   Died  in  1S89. 

Sacher-Masoch,  von,  fon  si'Ker-m^'soK,  (Leo- 
pold,) an  Austrian  novelist,  born  at  Lemberg,  January 
27,  1S36.  He  was  educated  at  Lemberg,  Prague,  and 
Gratz.  Among  his  works  are  novels  entitled  "A  Gali- 
cian  Story,"  "  Love,"  "  Property,"  "  The  Law's  Inherit- 
ance," "The  State,"  (the  last  four  forming  part  of  the 
series  called  "Cain's  Inheritance,")  "False  Ermine," 
"The  Modern  Job,"  etc.  He  has  written  several  dramas. 
Though  extremely  unequal,  Sacher-Masoch  is  a  writer 
of  uncommon  ability  and  force.  He  may  be  regarded  as 
the  principal  spokesman  of  the  Slavic  and  Anti-German 
party  at  Vienna. 

Sacheverell,  sa-sh5v'e-rel,  (Henry,)  an  English 
churchman,  notorious  as  a  partisan  of  Toryism,  was  born 
about  1672,  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  ap- 
pointed preacher  at  Saint  Saviour's,  Southwark,  in  1705, 
and  preached  in  1709  two  political  sermons  which  were 
offensive  to  the  ministry  and  the  majority  of  Parliament. 
He  was  impeached  for  libel  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  convicted  in  1710  by  the  peers,  who  sentenced  him 
to  suspension  from  the  ministry  for  three  years.  The 
clergy  and  country  squires  sympathized  with  him  as  the 
champion  of  the  Church.  The  excitement  occasioned 
by  his  trial  contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the  Whigs  in  the 
next  general  election,  and  to  the  removal  of  Godolphin 
and  his  colleagues  from  power,  (1710.)  Queen  Anne 
rewarded  him  with  the  valuable  rectory  of  Saint  An- 
drew's, Ilolborn,  in  1 7 13.     Died  in  1724. 

See  "The  Life  of  Dr.  H.  Sacheverell,"  London,  1710. 

Sachs.     See  Hans  Sachs. 

Sachsen,  von,  (Moritz.)  See  Saxe,  (Hermanw 
Maurice.) 

Sachtleven,  sSKt-la'ven,  or  Zachtleven,  ziKt-la'- 
ven,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam 
iu  1606  or  1612.  His  subjects  are  generally  taken  from 
low  life,  and  painted  in  the  style  of  Brauwer  and  Teniers. 
Died  in  1685. 

Sachtleven,  (Herman,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter 
of  great  merit,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1609,  was  a  pupil 
of  J.  van  Goyen.  He  painted  many  scenes  on  the  Rhine 
and  Meuse.     Died  in  16S5. 

Saci.     See  Lemaistre  de  Sacl 

Sack,  sJk,  (Friedrich  Samuel  GorrFRiED,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1738,  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Union  of  the  Two  Prot- 
estant Church  Parties,"  (1812,)  which  was  chiefly  in- 
strumental in  promoting  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Churches  in  Prussia.     He  also  translated  the 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  !,  6,  iii,  y,  short;  a,  %,  j.  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  iki;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


SACK 


2109 


SAD  OLE  TO 


principal  part  of  Blair's  "  Sermons"  into  German.    Died 

in  181 7. 

Sack,  (JoHANN  August,)  an  able  Prussian  adminis- 
trator, born  at  Cleves  in  1764.  He  was  appointed  in 
1800  privy  councillor  of  finance  at  Berlin,  ( Oherfinanz- 
rat/i,)a.n([  in  1813  became  civil  governor  of  all  the  country 
between  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder.     Died  in  1831. 

Sack,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  son  of  Friedrich  Samuel 
Gottfried,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Herlin  in  1 790. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1823,  and 
published  several  theological  works.     Died  in  1875. 

Sackborn.    See  Saxius,  (Christoph.) 

Sackeii.     See  Osten-Sacken. 

Sackville,  (Chari.es.)     See  Dorset,  Earl  of. 
"Sackville,  (Edward.)     See  Dorset,  Earl  of. 

Sack'ville,  (  George,  )  Viscount,  called  Lord 
George  Germain,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Dorset,  was  born 
in  1716.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Minden,  in  1759,  commanded  the  British 
forces  under  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick.  Having 
disobeyed  the  prince's  orders,  he  was  tried  in  England 
by  a  court-martial  and  dismissed  the  service.  Under 
George  HI.  he  became  in  1775  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colonies.  In  this  capacity  he  directed  the  military 
operations  in  the  American  war.  Having  inherited 
the  estates  of  Lady  Germain,  he  assumed  that  name  in 
1770.     Died  in  1785. 

See  R.  Cumberland,  "  Character  of  Lord  G.  Germain,"  1785. 

Sacro-Bosco.     See  Holywood. 

Sacy,  de,  deh  st'se',  (Antoine  Isaac  Silvestre,) 
Baron,  often  called  simply  Silvestre  DE  Sacv,  an 
eminent  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  on  the  21st 
of  September,  1758.  He  was  a  son  of  J.  Abraham  Sil- 
vestre, a  notary.  After  he  had  become  a  good  classical 
scholar,  he  studied  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Arabic, 
and  Persian.  He  was  also  versed  in  German,  English, 
Italian,  and  Spanish.  In  1785  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  wrote  a  "  Memoir  on 
the  History  of  the  Arabs  before  Mohammed."  He  con- 
tributed to  the  Academy  four  able  "  Memoirs  on  Divers 
Antiquities  of  Persia,"  printed  in  1793.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Arabic  in  a  school  founded  at  Paris 
in  1795.  In  1799  he  published  his  "Principles  of  Gen- 
eral Grammar,"  which  is  one  of  his  best  works.  He 
became  professor  of  Persian  in  the  College  of  France 
in  1806,  and  published  in  the  same  year  a  work  called 
"Chrestomathie  Arabe,"  consisting  of  extracts  from 
Arabian  authors,  with  French  versions  and  notes.  He 
wrote  many  articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle" 
and  the  "Journal  Asiatique."  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XVIII.  he  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  public  in- 
struction. S.  de  Sacy  and  Abel  Remusat  founded  the 
Asiatic  Society  in  1822.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  in  1832,  and  perpetual  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1833.  Among  his  works 
are  an  Arabic  Grammar,  (1810,)  and  "  Pend-Nameh," 
in  Persian  and  French,  (1819.)    Died  in  February,  1838. 

See  Rhinaud,  "  Notice  historique  et  litt^ralre  sur  Silvestre  de 
Sacy,"  183S;  Daunou,  "  filoge  de  Silvestre  de  Sacy,"  1838;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^ndrale ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
September,  1828. 

Sacy,  de,  deh  st'se',  (Louis,)  a  French  advocate  and 
littiratenr,  born  in  1654,  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Friendship," 
and  translated  some  works  of  Pliny  the  Younger.  Died 
in  1727. 

Sacy,  de,  (Louis  Isaac.)    See  Lemaistre. 

Sacy,  de,  (Samuel  Ustaza  Silvestre,)  a  French 
journalist,  a  son  of  the  eminent  Orientalist,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  iSoi.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  contributors 
to  the  "Journal  des  Debats."  In  1854  he  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  It  is  stated  that  from  1828  to 
1848  he  furnished  two-thirds  of  the  political  articles  of 
the  "Journal  des  Debats."     Died  February  14,  1879. 

Sade,  de,  deh  std,  (Donatien  Alphonse  Francois,) 
Marquis,  a  profligate  French  novelist,  a  nephew  of  the 
following,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1740;  died  in  1814. 

Sade,  de,  (Jacques  Fran(;ois  Paul  Alphonse,) 
Abb6,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1705,  wrote  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  of  Petrarch,"  (3  vols.,  1764,)  which 
is  said  to  be  a  work  of  much  merit.     Died  in  1778. 


Sadeel,  (Antoine.)     See  Chandieu. 

Sadeler,  s^deh-ler,  (Giles,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1570,  was  a  brother  or  nephew  of 
Jean,  noticed  below.  He  engraved  after  the  Italian 
masters.  Among  his  works  are  "Vestiges  of  Roman 
Antiquities."  Died  in  1629.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  best  engraver  of  the  family. 

Sadeler,  (Jean,)  an  able  Flemish  engraver  and 
designer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1550.  He  studied  and 
Aforked  in  Italy,  and  engraved  many  works  of  Italian 
masters.  Among  his  prints  are  scriptural  subjects,  por- 
traits, and  landscapes.  He  died  at  Venice  about  1600 
or  1 6 10. 

Sadeler,  (Raphael,)  a  skilful  Flemish  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1555;  died 
in  1616. 

Sa  de  Miranda.    See  Miranda, 

tadi.     See  Saadee. 
ad'ler,  (Anthony,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wilt-- 
shire,  became  chaplain  to  Charles  II.     He  published  a 
number  of  sermons,  and   a  work  entitled  a  "Divine 
Masque."     Died  in  1680. 

Sadler,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Shropshire 
in  1615.  He  published  "Rights  of  the  Kingdom,  or 
Customs  of  our  Ancestors."     Died  in  1674. 

Sadler,  (Michael  Thomas,)  an  English  philanthro- 
pist and  statesman,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1780.  He 
was  twice  elected  to  Parliament  for  Newark-upon-Trent, 
and  in  1831  represented  Aldborough,  in  Yorkshire.  He 
laboured  earnestly  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor 
and  of  the  children  employed  in  factories.  He  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "  Ireland  :  its  Evils  and  their  Remedies," 
and  "The  Law  of  Population."     Died  in  1835. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  M.  T.  Sadler,"  1842;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  February,  1S31  ;  "Malthus  and  Sadler,"  in 
the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1831;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
September,  1S35. 

Sadler,  (Sir  Ralph,)  was  born  in  Middlesex,  Eng- 
land, in  1507.  At  an  early  age  he  obtained  the  notice 
and  patronage  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  employed  him  in 
various  important  missions.  For  his  courage  at  the 
battle  of  Pinkie  he  was  made  knight-banneret  on  the 
field.  After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  became  a 
member  of  her  first  Parliament,  and,  on  the  imprison- 
ment of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  at  Tutbury,  was  appointed 
her  keeper.  He  died  in  1587.  His  "  State  Papers  and 
Letters,"  edited  by  Arthur  Clifford,  appeared  in  1809. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  Froude, 
"History  of  England;"  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland ;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  August,  1810. 

Sadler,  (William  Windham,)  an  English  aeronaut 
and  chemist,  who  crossed  the  Irish  Channel  from  Dub- 
lin to  Wales,  and  made  many  other  voyages  of  the  kind. 
He  was  subsequently  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  balloon,  in 
1824,  at  the  age  of  about  twenty-eight. 

Sadlier,  sad'le-A', .-'  (Mary  Anne,)  a  writer  of  fiction, 
whose  original  name  was  Madden,  was  born  in  the 
county  of  Cavan,  Ireland,  in  1820.  Having  emigrated 
to  Canada,  she  married  a  Mr.  Sadlier,  and  published  a 
number  of  tales  in  favour  of  Catholicism. 

Sa'doc  or  Za'dok,  a  learned  Jew,  who  lived  about 
250  B.C.,  was  the  disciple  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  and 
became  the  principal  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sadducees, 

Sadolet.     See  Sadoleto. 

Sadoleto,  sS-do-la'to,  or  Sadoletti,  s5-do-let'tee, 
[Fr.  Sadolet,  st'do'l.V,]  (Jacopo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
writer  and  cardinal,  born  at  Modenain  1477,  was  a  friend 
of  Bembo.  He  became  secretary  to  Leo  X.  about  15 14, 
and  was  appointed  liishop  of  Carpentras  in  1517.  He  was 
em]:)loyed  as  secretary  by  Clement  VII.,  and  was  made  a 
cardinal  by  Paul  III.  about  1536,  after  which  he  ]:)assed 
the  most  of  his  time  at  Rome.  In  1542  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Francis  I.  of  France.  He  is  represented 
as  a  man  of  noble  character,  pious,  modest,  and  liberal. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  treatise  on  education, 
entitled  "  De  Liberis  recte  Instituendis,"  (1533,)  "On 
the  Merits  of  Philosophy,"  ("  Phasdrus,  sive  de  Laudibus 
Philosophiae,"  153S,)  and  "  Latin  Poems,"  (1548.)  Died 
at  Rome  in  1547.  "There  were  two,"  says  Hallam, 
"Bembo  and  Sadolet,  who  had  by  common  confession 
reached  a  consummate  elegance  of  style,  in  comparison 


cas/5;  9asj-,-  'ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  k., guttural;  N,>tnsal;  Vi, trilled;  sasz;  th  zs,\x\tkis.     (2i:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.") 


SAD  OLE  TO 


2IIO 


SAINT-ALPHONSE 


of  which  the  best  productions  of  the  last  age  seemed 
very  imperfect"  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  F.  G.  Cancellieri,  "  Elogio  storico  di  J.  Sadoletfi,"  1828; 
A.  PdRiCAUD,  "Fragments  biographiques  sur  J.  Sadolet,"  1849; 
JoLv,  "fitudesurSadolet,"  1857;  Niceron,  "  Mimoires  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Sadoleto  or  Sadolet,  (Paolo,)  a  poet  and  bishop, 
born  at  M6dena  in  1508,  was  a  cousin-german  or  nephew 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  Bishop  of  Carpentras 
in  1547.  He  wrote  Latin  Poems  and  Epistles.  Died 
in  1572. 

Saeed  (or  Said)  Pasha,  sd'eed'  pi'shi',  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  and  fourth  son  of  Mehemet  Alee,  was  born  in 
1822,  and  succeeded  Abbas  Pasha  in  1854.  He  died  in 
January,  1863. 

Saenrimnir,  s4-rim'n|r,  written  also  Serimner,  the 
boar  on  whose  flesh  the  heroes  who  are  admitted  to 
Valhalla  feast.  Although  boiled  and  served  up  every 
day,  the  boar  is  always  whole  again  at  evening. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Saemund.     See  Samund. 

Saenredam,  s5n'reh-dilm',  (Jan,)  an  able  Dutch 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  about  1565. 
He  engraved  historical  and  scriptural  subjects  after 
various  masters,  also  some  of  his  own  designs.  Died 
in  1607. 

Saenredam,  (Pieter,)  a  painter,  born  at  Assendelft 
about  1597,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  painted 
architecture  and  interiors  of  churches.  His  works  are 
highly  praised.     Died  in  1666. 

Seeter,  sa'ter,  is  mentioned  by  authors  as  a  German 
divinity  from  whom  Saturday  takes  its  name.  Many 
writers  identify  him  with  the  Roman  Saturn,  but  he  may 
be  the  same  as  the  god  Tyr,  (q.  v.)  Sigtyr  ("god  of 
victory")  is  one  of  the  titles  of  Odin.  Saster  is  figured 
as  a  decrepit  and  melancholy  old  man,  thus  answering 
to  the  idea  of  Saturn. 

Safarik.     See  Schafarik. 

Saf  ford,  (Truman  Henry,)  an  American  astronomer, 
born  at  Koyalton,  Vermont,  January  6,  1836.  In  child- 
hood he  exhibited  marvellous  ability  as  an  arithmetician. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1854,  and  engaged 
in  astronomical  work.  In  1865  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  in  the  University  of  Chicago.  He 
has  published  important  astronomical  papers. 

Saga,  sj'ga,  [from  sa<:;a  or  saga,  to  "say,"  to  "re- 
late,"] according  to  the  Norse  mythology,  the  goddess 
or  muse  of  history.  She  is  the  intimate  companion  of 
Odin,  (or  "  Mind.") 

Sagasta,  si-gds'tJ,  (Praxedes  Mateo,)  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  at  Torrecilla  de  Cameros,  July  21,  1827. 
He  became  a  leading  "  progressist,"  or  liberal  politician, 
and  was  a  professor  of  engineering  in  a  school  at  Mad- 
rid. In  1S56,  and  again  in  1866,  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
the  country.  He  held  various  cabinet  positions,  being 
minister  of  state  under  the  republic,  and  under  King 
Amadcus.  In  iSSi  he  again  entered  the  ministry,  ancl 
became  its  president,  but  retired  in  1883. 

Sage,  stzh,  (Balthasar  Georges,)  a  French  chemist 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  1740.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  treatises  on  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
electricity.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  the  School 
of  Mines,  (1783,)  and  contributed  much  to  the  art  of 
docimasie  in  France.  In  1801  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute.     Died  in  1S24. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1818  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Sage,  (John,)  a  bishop  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal 
Church,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1652,  was  eminent  for 
learning  and  talents.  He  preached  at  Edinburgh,  wrote 
several  polemical  works  against  the  Presbyterians,  and 
became  a  bishop  in  1705.     Died  in  171 1. 

See  J.  GiLLAN,  "Life  of  John  Sage,"  1714;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sage,  Le.     See  Le  Sage. 
Sagittarius.     See  SciiiJTZ,  (IlEiNRicir.) 
Sagittarius,  sS-gittS're-iSs,  (Caspar,)  a  German  his- 
torian  and   Lutheran   minister,   born  at   Lunenburg   in 
1643.     ^^^  became  professor  of  history  at  Jena  in  1674. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  German    history,  and  an 


"Introduction  to  Ecclesiastic  History,"    (1694.)     Died 
in  1694. 

Sagittarius,  (Johann  Christfried,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Breslau  in  16 1 7,  became  professor  of 
history  at  Jena.  He  wrote  many  dissertations,  and 
edited  the  works  of  Luther,  (9  vols,  folio,  1661-64.) 
Died  in  1689. 

Sagon,  st'gfiN',  (Fran(;ois,)  a  French  poet,  the  con 
temporary  and  enemy  of  Clement  Marot.     His  memory 
survives  only  in  that  of  his  followers,  the  "  Sagontiques, ' 
who  quarrelled  with  the  "  Marotiques,"  or  disciples  of 
Marot. 

Sagoskin.     See  Zogoskin. 

Sagra,  de  la,  di  IS  si'gR^,  (Don  RA>fON,)  a  Spanish 
writer,  born  at  Corunna  in  1798,  published  "The 
Physical,  Political,  and  Natural  History  of  the  Island 
of  Cuba,"  (1837,)  and  several  treatises  on  political 
economy.     Died  May  25,  1871. 

Sagredo,  s3-gRa'do,  (Giovanni,)  a  Venetian  diplo* 
matist   and    historian,  published    "  Historical  Memoirs 
of  the  Ottoman  Monarchs  from  1300  to  1646,"  (1677 
said  to  be  well  written.     He  became  procurator  of  Sain 
Mark's  about  1668.     Died  after  1691, 

Sahagun,  de,  di  s5-i-goon',  (Bernardino,)  a  Fran- 
ciscan friar,  born  at  Sahagun,  in  Spain,  was  a  missionary 
to  Mexico  in  1529.  He  wrote  a  valuable  history  entitled 
"  Historia  universal  de  Nueva  Espafia,"  first  published 
at  Mexico  in  1829.     Died  in  1590. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ». 
book  i. 

Said.    See  Saeed. 

Said-Ibn-Batric.    See  Eutychius. 

Saigey,  si'zhi',  (Jacques  Fr6u6rtc, )  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1797,  published  a  num- 
ber of  scientific  treatises.     Died  at  Paris,  May  22,  1871. 

Sailer,  si'ler,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  born  near  Schrobenhausen,  in  Bavaria,  in 
1 75 1.  He  was  successively  professor  of  divinity  at 
Ingolstadt  and  at  Landshut,  and  Bishop  of  Ratisbon, 
(1829.)  He  published  a  "  Prayer-Book  for  Catholic 
Christians,"  (1831,)  and  other  religious  works.  Died 
in  1832. 

See  E.  VON  Schenk,  "  Die  Bischofe  J.  M.  von  Sailer  und  G.  M. 
Wittmann,"  183S. 

Saillet,  de,  deh  st'yi',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur ^x\A  educational  writer,  born  in  1811  ;  died  1866. 

Sainctes,  de,  deh  sJNkt,  (Claude,)  a  French  prelate 
and  controversial  writer,  born  in  1525,  became  a  deputy 
to  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Evreux 
in  1 575,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  the  Catholic  League.     Died  in  1591. 

Saint-Aignan,  de,  deh  stN'tin'y5N',  (Paul  de 
Beauvillier — deh  bo've'yi',)  Due,  a  French  nobleman, 
born  at  Saint-Aignan  in  1648.  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  council  of  finances  in  1685,  and  governor  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1689.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Fenelon,  whom  he  selected  as  preceptor  of  that  prince, 
and  to  whom  he  remained  faithful  after  Fenelon  had 
lost  the  royal  favour.  He  was  a  favourite  counsellor  of 
Louis  XIV.     Died  in  17 14. 

Saint- Albin,  de,  deh  six'ttKbiN',  (Ale.\andre 
Charles  Omer  Rousselin  de  Corbeau — roos'lAw' 
d?h  koR'bo',)  Comte,  a  French  writer  and  epigram- 
matist, born  in  1773.  He  became  in  1816  editor  of  the 
"Constitutionnel,"  a  liberal  journal  of  Paris.  Among 
his  works  are  lyric  poems,  epigrams,  and  a  "Life  of 
General  Hoche,"  (2  vols.,  1798.)     Died  in  1847. 

Saint-Aldegonde.     See  Marnix. 

Saint- Allais,  de,  deh  siN'tt'hV,  (Nicolas  Viton- 
ve'tds',)  a  French  genealogist  and  litterateur,  born  at 
Langres  in  1773.  ^^^  published,  besides  many  works 
on  genealogy,  a  new  edition  of  "The  Art  of  Verifying 
Dates,"  (6  vols.  4to,  and  23  vols.  8vo,  1818-20.)  Died 
in  1842. 

Saint-Alphonse,  de,  deh  slx'til'fiNs',  (  Pierre 
Waihier,)  born  at  Laon,  in  France,  in  1770,  served 
under  Napoleon  in  several  campaigns,  and  rose  to  be 
general  of  division  in  1811.  He  was  afterwards  made  a 
count  of  the  empire,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour.     Died  in  1840. 


a,  e,  J,  o.  u,  y, /ow^v  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  3L,h,\,o,\\,^, short;  ^.,^,\,o,obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  m6on; 


SAINT- AMAND 


2III 


SAINTE-  CLAIRE-DE  VILLE 


Saint  Am'and,  (James,)  an  English  scholar,  made 
a  valuable  collection  of  books  and  manuscripts,  which 
at  his  death,  in  1754,  he  bequeathed  to  the  Bodleian 
Library. 

Saint-Amans,  de,  deh  siN'tS'mflN',  (Jean  Flo- 
RIMOND  BouDON,)  a  French  antiquary  and  naturalist, 
was  born  at  Agen  in  1748.  He  published  numerous 
treatises  on  agriculture,  botany,  and  antiquities.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Saint-Amant,  sdN'tt'mSN',  (Marc  Antoine  Ge- 
rard,) a  French  poet,  born  at  Rouen  in  1594,  became 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1633.  He  wrote 
odes,  idyls,  satires,  etc.     Died  in  1661. 

Ser  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Saint-Amour,  siN'tt'mooR',  (Louis,)  a  doctor  of 
theology  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  a  distinguished  advocate 
of  Jansenism,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1619;  died  in  1687. 

Saint- Amour,  de,  deh  siN'tS'mooR',  (Guillaume,) 
a  French  philosopher  and  theologian,  born  at  Saint- 
Amour,  in  Franche-Comte.  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  in  Paris,  and  rector  of  the  University.  His 
name  is  chiefly  memorable  on  account  of  the  prominent 
part  he  performed  in  defending  the  privileges  of  the 
University  against  the  Dominicans,  who  were  favoured 
by  the  pope.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"Perils  of  the  Latter  Times,"  ("De  Periculis  novissi- 
morum  Teniporum.")     Died  in  1272. 

See  DupiN,  "  Histoire  des  Controverses  dans  le  freiziime 
Si^cle." 

Saint-Andre,  (Jean  Bon.)  See  Jean  Bon  Saint- 
Andr6. 

Saint- Andre,  de,  deh  slN'tflN'dRi',  (Jacques  d'Al- 
bon — dtl'biN',)  Marshal,  a  French  commander,  who 
united  with  the  Due  de  Guise  and  Constable  Mont- 
morency to  form  a  triumvirate  against  the  Huguenots. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  in  the  civil  war  in  1562. 

Saint-Ange,  de,  deh  siN'tSNzh',  (Ange  Francois 
Fariau,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Blois  in  1747.  He 
produced  a  French  version  of  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses," 
(1778-89,)  which  was  received  with  favour.  He  trans- 
lated other  poems  of  Ovid,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1810.     Died  in  Paris  in  1810. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Saint-Arnaud.    See  Leroy  de  Saint-Arnaud. 

Saint-Aubin,  siN'to'biN',  (Jean,)  a  physician  of 
Metz,  assisted  Foes  in  his  translation  of  Hippocrates, 
and  wrote  a  work  on  the  plague.     Died  in  1597. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  deh  siN'to'bAN',  (Augustin,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1736.  He  engraved 
fine  portraits  and  vignettes  for  books.  His  works  are 
extremely  numerous.     Died  in  1807. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (Charles  Germain,)  a  designer 
and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1721,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.     Died  in  1786. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (Gabriel  Jacques,)  a  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1724,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.     Died  in  1780. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
1587,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  City  of  Lyons,  Ancient 
and  Modern."     Died  in  1660. 

Saint-Bris.     See  Lambert,  de,  (Henrl) 

Saint-Chamans,  de,  deh  siN'shi'mdN',  (Auguste,) 
Viscount,  a  French  jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Peri- 
gord  in  1777,  published  several  political  and  miscel- 
laneous works.     Died  December  7,  i860. 

Saint-Clair,  sent  klSr  or  sin'klair,  (Arthur,)  a  gen- 
eral, born  in  Edinburgh  in  1735.  ^^^  became  a  citizen 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  served  as  brigadier-general  at  the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  in  the  winter  of  1776 
-77.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  February, 
1777,  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1785,  and  Presi- 
dent of  Congress  in  1787.  In  1789  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Ohio.  He  commanded  an  army  which 
was  sent  against  the  Miami  Indians,  and  was  defeated 
in  Ohio,  near  the  Miami  River,  with  heavy  loss,  in  No- 
vember, 1791.  He  ceased  to  be  Governor  of  Ohio  in 
1802.     Died  in  1818. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
toI.  iii. 


Saint  Clair,  sin'kler,  (George,)  an  English  author 
born  in  London,  April  9,  1836.  He  became  a  popular 
lecturer  on  science,  and  studied,  1S60-64,  in  Regent's 
Park  College,  after  which  he  was  ordained  a  Baptist 
minister.  Among  his  works  are  "  Darwinism  and  De- 
sign" and  "Our  Earthly  House  and  its  Builder."  The 
position  of  Mr.  Saint  Clair  is  that  of  an  orthodox 
Christian  evolutionist. 

Saint-Clost,  de,  deh  siN'klost',  or  Saint-Cloud, 
de,  deh  six'kloo',  (PERROSor  Pierre,)  a  French  writer 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  whose  principal  work  is  an 
allegorical  poem  entitled  "The  Romance  of  the  Fox." 

Saint-Cyran.     See  Duvergier. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  deh  siN'to'l^R',  (C6me  Joseph 
de  Beaupoil— deh  bo'pwM',)  Count,  a  French  royal- 
ist, born  about  1742,  served  against  France  during  and 
after  the  Revolution,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  in  1814.     Died  in  1822. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (Francois  Joseph  de  Beau- 
poil,) Marquis,  a  French  poet  and  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  born  in  the  Limousin  in  1643.  He 
wrote  madrigals  and  amatory  verses.     Died  in  1742. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (Louis  Clair  de  Beaupoil,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Peri- 
gord  in  1778.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  from  1818  to  1824,  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  about  1830,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna 
in  1833.  I"  1841  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  He  was  minister  at  London  fiom 
1841  to  1847.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
Fronde,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  De  Bakante,  "  £tudes  historiques et  biographiques. " 

Seiinte-Aulaire,  de,  (Martial  Louis  de  Beau- 
poil,) a  French  prelate,  born  in  1 720,  became  Bishop  of 
Poitiers,  and  was  a  deputy  of  the  clergy  from  Poitou  to 
the  States-General  in  1789.     Died  in  1798. 

Sainte-Beuve,  s^Nt'buv',  (Charles  Augustin,) 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  French  critics,  was  born  at 
Boulogne-snr-Mer  on  the  23d  of  December,  1 804.  I  le  was 
educated  in  several  colleges  of  Paris,  and  studied  medi- 
cine, which  he  practised  several  years.  He  was  succes- 
sively a  contributor  to  the  "  Globe,"  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  and  the  "  National."  He  published  in  1828  his 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Picture  of  French  Poetry  and  the 
French  Theatre  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  in  1829 
poems  entitled  "  Life,  Poetry,  and  Thoughts  of  Joseph 
Delorme."  His  other  principal  works  are  "Consola- 
tions," a  collection  of  poems,  (1830,)  "Literary  Por- 
traits," (8  vols.,  1832-39,)  a  series  of  criticisms  which 
first  appeared  in  the  reviews,  an  excellent  "History 
of  Port-Royal,"  (4  vols.,  1840-62,)  and  a  series  of  able 
critiques  entitled  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  (13  vols.,  1851- 
57,)  which  first  appeared  in  the  "  Constitutionnel."  >Ie 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845.  In 
1852  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in  the 
College  of  France,  and  in  1857  maitre  des  conferencei 
in  the  Normal  School.  In  1865  he  was  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  a  senator.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  fitude 
sur  Virgile,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  and  "Nouveaux  Lundis," 
(1863.)     Died  in  October,  1869. 

"The  peculiarity  and  excellence  of  his  criticism  is 
its  disinterestedness,  its  singular  power  of  appreciating 
whatever  may  be  good  in  the  most  opposite  schools, 
and  its  wonderful  faculty  for  penetrating  into  the  secrets 
of  the  most  strangely  different  natures.  And  now,  if  we 
turn  from  the  man's  works  to  the  man  himself,  we  see 
great  natural  power,  a  mind  originally  pliable,  subtle, 
and  comprehensive  to  the  very  highest  degree,  curious 
and  penetrative,  impartial  to  a  fault."  ("Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1866.) 

See  L.  DE  LoMiiNiE,  "  M.  Sainte-Beuve,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1841  ;  Pi.anche,  "Portraits  littdraires ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie G^n^rale." 

Sainte-Beuve,  (Jacques,)  a  French  casuist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1613.  He  was  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Sorbonne  from  1643  to  1654.     Died  in  1677. 

Sainte  -  Claire  -  Deville,  siNt '  kl^R '  deh  -  \h\ ' , 
(Charles,)  a  French  geologist,  born  at  Saint  Thomas, 
in  the  Antilles,  in  1814.  He  jjublished  a  "  Geological 
Voyage  to  the  Antilles  and  the  Island  of  Teneriffe,"  etc., 
and  other  scientific  works.     Died  October  10,  1876. 


eas^.-^asj;  ^  hard ;  'z3s.j;G,\l,Vi,  guttural;  ^, nasal;  ^,  trilled ;  I  zs.z;  thasin/>4;j.     (^^=-See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAINTE-  CLAIR  E-DE  VILLE 


SAINT-  GERMAN 


Salnte-Claire-Deville,  (Henri,)  a  French  chemist, 
brother  of  the  precedincj,  was  born  at  Saint  Thomas  in 
i8i8.  He  studied  in  France,  and  in  1851  succeeded 
Balard  as  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Normal  School. 
He  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  having  invented  a 
method  of  producing  in  considerable  quantities  the 
metal  aluminum,  first  discovered  by  Wohler  in  1827. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  experiments  in  the  "An- 
nales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique."     Died  July  9,  1881. 

Sainte-Croix,  de,  deh  s^Nt'kRwil',  (Guii.laume 
Emanuf.l  Josf.i'h  Guilhem  de  Clermont-Lodeve — 
ge'lftN'  deh  kldn'mAN'  lo'd,\v',)  Baron,  a  French  anti- 
quary and  scholar,  born  at  Mormoiron  in  1746.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Historical  Researches 
into  the  Mysteries  of  Paganism,"  {1784,)  and  a  "Critical 
Examination  of  the  Historians  of  Alexander  the  Great," 
(1804,)  which  are  praised  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute.     Died  in  1809. 

See  Dacibr,  "  J!loi;e  de  Sainte-Croix;"  Silvestrh  de  Sacv, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  OuvraRes  de  M.  de  Sainte-Croix,"  1809; 
"Novivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sainte-Edme,  sAN'tSdm',  (properly  Edme  Theo- 
dore Bourg — booR,)  a  French  political  writer  and 
biographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  wrote  against 
the  Bourbons  and  Louis  Philippe.  In  conjunction 
with  Sarrut,  he  published  "  Biography  of  Living  Men," 
("Biographie  des  Hommes  du  jour,"  6  vols.,  1835-42.) 
He  committed  suicide  in  Paris  in  1852. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Sainte-Elnie,  slx'tSlm',  (Ida,)  a  French  courtesan, 
whose  real  name  was  Ei.zf.lina  Tolstoi  Vanayl  de 
YoNGH,  was  born  in  1778.  She  was  the  author  of 
"  Memoirs  of  a  Contemporary,  or  Recollections  of  the 
Principal  Personages  of  the  Republic,  the  Consulate, 
the  Empire,  and  the  Restoration,"  (8  vols.,  1827.)  Died 
in  1845. 

Sainte-Foi,  sJNt'fwi',  (Cloi  Jourdan,)  a  French 
theologian,  born  at  Beaufort  in  1806,  published  several 
religious  works.     Died  at  Paris,  November  20,  1S61. 

Sainte-Marie,  siNt'mS're',  (Etienne,)  a  Prench 
physician,  born  near  Lyons  in  1777,  published  several 
medical  works.     Died  in  1829. 

Sciinte-Marthe,  de,  deh  siNt'mSRt',  (Abel,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Loudun  in  1566,  was 
a  son  of  Scevole,  noticed  below.  He  was  appointed  a 
councillor  of  state  by  Louis  XIII.     Died  in  1652. 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (Abel  Louis,)  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  in  Paris  in  1621,  was  a  son  of  Scevole  the 
Younger.  He  became  general  of  the  Oratory  in  1672. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Christian  World," 
("  Orbis  Christianus,"  9  vols.,  manuscript.)  Died  in  1697. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Fontevrault.  He  taught  Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Lyons, 
after  he  had  been  imprisoned  two  years  on  suspicion  of 
being  a  Lutheran.     Died  after  1562. 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (Denis,)  a  theologian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1650.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Gallia  Christiana,"  (4  vols.,  1715-28.)     Died  in  1725. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  [Lat.  Sammartha'nus,]  (Sce- 
vole or  Gaucher,)  a  French  writer  and  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Loudun  in  1536,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles.  He 
held  several  high  offices  under  Henry  III.  and  Henry 
IV.,  and  was  an  opponent  of  the  League.  He  wrote 
"Paedotrophia,"  and  other  Latin  poems,  which  were 
much  admired.     Died  in  1623. 

See  La  Rochk-Maillet,  "Vie  de  Sainte-Marthe,"  1620:  L^ON 
FEUcfeRK,  "  fitude  sur  S.  de  Sainte-Marthe,"  1853;  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (ScEvole  and  Louis,)  twin 
brothers,  born  at  Loudun  in  1571,  were  sons  of  the  pre- 
ceding. They  produced  an  account  of  French  bishops, 
entitled  "Gallia  Christiana,"  (4  vols.,  1656.)  Scevole 
died  in  1650  ;  Louis  died  in  1656. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Sainte-Maure.     See  Montausier,  (Due  de.) 
Sainte-Palaye,  de,  deh  siNt'pt'ljt',  (Jean  Baptiste 
DE  LaCURNE,)  a  distinguished  writer,  and  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  was  born  at  Au.xerre  in  1697.   He 


published  "Memoirs  of  Ancient  Chivalry,"  (3  vols., 
1759-81,)  which  was  translated  into  English,  and  col- 
lected materials  for  a  "  History  of  the  Troubadours," 
which  was  published  by  Millet,  (1774.)     Died  in  1781. 

See  SiicuiER,  "  filoge  de  Lacume  de  Sainte-Palaye,"  178a; 
"  NouveDe  Biographie  Giinerale." 

Sainte-Suzanne,  de,  deh  sdNt'sii'zSn',  (Gilbert 
Joseph  Martin  Bruneteau  —  bRiin'to', )  Comte,  a 
French  general,  born  near  Poivre  (Aube)  in  1760.  He 
became  a  general  of  division  in  1796,  and  count  in  1809, 
Died  in  1830. 

Saint-Etienne.    See  Rabaut. 

Saint-Eve,  six'tiv',  (Jean  Marie,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Lyons  in  1810.  Having  gained  the 
grand  prize  in  1S40,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension, 
and  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael,  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
and  Ary  SchefTer.     Died  in  1856. 

Saint-tivremond.     See  Evremond. 

Saint-Fargeaii.     See  Le  Pelletier. 

Saint-Felix,  de,  deh  sdN'fi'liks',  (Jules,)  called 
also  F^Lix  d'Amoreux,  a  French  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Uzes  in  1806.     Died  at  Paris,  May  28,  1874. 

Saint-Foix,  de,  deh  siN'fwd',  (Germain  Francois 
PoULLAiN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rennes,  in 
Brittany,  in  1698,  was  the  author  of  "Turkish  Letters," 
(1730,)  and  several  dramas  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
famous  duellist.     Died  in  1776. 

See  DucouDRAV,  "  £loge  de  Saint- Foix,"  1777;  "Nouvelle  I'io- 
graphie  Generale." 

Saint-Fond.     See  Faujas  de  Saint-Fond. 

Saint-Gelais,  de,  deh  sAN'zheh-l.V,  (Mellin,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1491,  pub- 
lished a  number  of  poems  in  Latin  and  French.  Died 
in  155S.  He  was  a  nephew  (or,  as  some  say,  a  son)  of 
Octavien,  noticed  below. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires;"  Castaigne,  "Notice  sur  les  S.iint- 
Gelais,"  1836. 

Saint-Gelais,  de,  (Octavien,)  a  French  poet  and 
prelate,  born  at  Cognac  in  1466.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Angouleme  in  1494.  His  principal  work  is 
"The  Abode  of  Honour,"  ("Le  Sejour  d'Honneur.") 
Died  in  '1502. 

See  E.  Castaigne,  "Notice  sur  les  Saint-Ge!a;s,"  1836. 

Saint-Genius,  slN'zheh-ne-4',  (Jean,)  a  French 
scholar  and  Latin  poet,  was  boni  at  Avignon  in  1607. 
He  wrote  elegies,  id^-ls,  and  satires,  (1654,)  which  are 
commended.     Died  in  1663. 

Saint-Georges,  sdN'zhoRzh',  (N.,)  Chevalier,  a 
composer  and  violinist,  born  at  Guadeloupe  in  1745. 
His  mother  was  a  mulatto.  He  was  an  expert  fencer. 
He  composed  several  operas.     Died  in  Paris  in  1799. 

Saint-Georges,  de,  deh  sJ.v'zhouzh',  Chevalier, 
a  French  naval  officer,  who,  as  commander  of  the 
Invincible,  was  defeated  by  Lord  Anson  off  the  coast  of 
Spain,  in  1747,  while  assisting  to  convoy  a  fleet  of 
merchant-vessels.     Died  in  1763. 

Saint-Georges,  de,  (Jules  Henri  Vernov, )  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801,  published  numer- 
ous dramatic  works  and  romances.     Died  Dec.  23,  1875. 

Saint-Germain,  s4N'zh§R'miN',  Count,  a  notorious 
adventurer,  sometimes  called  THE  Marquis  de  Betmar, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Portuguese.  About  1770 
he  appeared  at  the  Parisian  court,  where  he  made  a 
great  sensation  by  his  various  accomplishments  and 
pretended  skill  in  alchemy.  He  professed  to  be  three 
hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  and  to  possess  the  elixir  of 
life  and  tlie  philosopher's  stone.     Died  in  1795- 

See  "  Nachrichteu  voni  Grafen  Saint-Germain,"  1780. 

Saint-Germain,  de,  deh  siN'zhgR'miN',  (Claude 
Louis,)  Comte,  a  French  general,  born  near  Lons-le- 
Saulnier  in  1707.  He  served  as  general  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  afterwards  passed  several 
years  in  the  Danish  service,  in  which  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  field-marshal.  He  became  minister  of  war  in 
France  in  1775,  and  made  important  reforms  in  that 
department.     He  resigned  in  1777.     Died  in  1778. 

See  Abb^  dk  la  Montagne,  "Memoires  du  Comte  de  Saint- 
Germain,"  1779;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  Sismondi, 
"  Histoire  des  Franfais." 

Saint-Ger'man  or  Ger'main,  (Christopher,)  an 
English  jurist,  published  a  work  entitled  "  The  Doctor 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


SAINT-HAOUEN 


2113 


SAINT-JUST 


and  Student,  or  Dialogues  between  a  Doctor  of  Divinity 
and  Student  in  the  Laws  of  England,"  (1523,  in  Latin.) 
Died  in  1540. 

Saint-Haouen,  siN',4t'wftN',  (Yves  Marie  Gabriel 
PiERUELecoat — leh-ko't',)  Baron,  born  in  Brittany  in 
1756,  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  aji;e,  and  served  against 
the  English  in  several  campaigns  of  the  Revolution.  He 
was  made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1804,  and 
subsequently  a  rear-admiral.     Died  in  1826. 

Saint-Hilaire.     See  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire. 

Saint-Hilaire,  slN'te'lSR',  (Jean  Henri,)  sometimes 
called  Jaume  Saint-Hilaire,  a  French  botanist,  born 
at  Grasse  in  1772.  A  genus  of  composite  plants  was 
named  Jaumea  in  his  honour.     Died  in  1845. 

Saiut-Hilaire,  (Jules  Barth^lemy.)  See  Barth6- 

LEMV. 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  deh  s^N'te'lSR',  (Auguste,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1779,  (some  author- 
ities say  1799,)  spent  six  years  in  a  botanical  exploration 
of  Brazil,  to  which  he  went  in  1816.  His  principal 
works  are  his  "Flora  Brasilise  Meridionalis,"  (1825, 
with  192  coloured  plates,)  "Travels  in  the  Provinces 
of  Rio  Janeiro  and  Minas  Geraes,"  (1830,)  "  History  of 
the  Most  Remarkable  Plants  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay," 
"Journey  to  the  Diamond  District  of  Brazil,"  (1833,)  and 
"Lectures  on  Botany,"  ("Lemons  de  liotanique."  1S41.) 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1830.  Died 
in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gendrale." 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  (Emile  Marc  Hilaire,)  some 
times  called  Marco  de  Saint-Hilaike,  a  French 
writer,  born  about  1790,  became  at  an  early  age  one 
of  the  pages  of  the  emperor  Napoleon.  He  published 
"  Recollections  of  the  Private  Life  of  Napoleon,"  (1838,) 
"History  of  the  Imperial  Guard,"  (1845,)  and  other 
works  illustrating  the  history  of  his  time.     Died  1887. 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  ( Louis  Joseph  Vincent  Le- 
BLOND,)  a  French  general  of  division,  born  at  Ribemont, 
in  Picardy,  in  1766,  served  in  the  army  of  Napoleon  in 
Italy,  and  in  the  principal  Austrian  campaigns.  He  died 
of  a  wound  received  at  Essling  in  1809. 

Saint-Huberti,  s4N'/m'b§R'te',  (Anne  Antoinette 
Clavel,)  a  favourite  French  actress,  born  about  1756 
She  performed  operas  with  great  success  in  Paris.  About 
1790  she  was  married  to  the  Count  d'Entraigues,  who 
became  an  exile  in  England.  They  were  assassinated 
near  London  in  1812. 

Saint-Hyacinthe.  See  CHARRifeRE,  de,  (Madame  ) 

Saint-Hyacinthe,  siN'te't'sAvt',  (Hvacinthe  Cor- 
DONNiER,)  called  also  Chevalier  de  Th^miseul,  (deh 
ti'me'zul', )  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Orleans  in 
1684.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  satire  called 
"The  Master-Piece  of  an  Unknown  Author,"  ( "  Le 
Chef-d'CEuvre  d'un  Inconnu,"  1714.)  He  was  a  Prot- 
estant, and  an  adversary  of  Voltaire.     Died  in  1746. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
protestante." 

Saintine,  siN'tin',  (the  assumed  name  of  Joseph 
Xavier  Boniface,)  a  distinguished  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1798.  He  published  dramas,  poems,  and 
romances,  a  collection  of  philosophical  stories,  entitled 
"Jonathan  the  Visionary,"  (1827,)  and  "History  of  the 
Wars  in  Italy."  His  most  popular  work  is  the  tale  of 
"Picciola,"  which  received  the  Montyon  prize  in  1837, 
passed  through  ten  editions  in  eight  years,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.     Died  January  21,  1865. 

Saint-Ives  or  Saint- Yves,  sIn  t6v',  (Charles,)  an 
eminent  French  oculist,  born  near  Rocroy  in  1667.  His 
principal  work,  entitled  "New  Treatise  on  Diseases  of 
the  Eye,"  (1722,)  was  translated  into  English  and  Ger- 
man.    Died  in  1733. 

Saint-Jacques  de  Sylvabelle,  de,  deh  sJN'zh5k' 
deh  s61'vS'b§l',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  savant,  and 
director  of  the  observatory  at  Marseilles,  was  born  in 
that  city  in  1722.  He  published  numerous  treatises  on 
mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.     Died  in  1801. 

Saint-Jean,  siN'zhON',  (Simon,)  a  French  flower- 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1S08 ;  died  July  3,  i860. 

Saint  John.     See  Bolingbroke. 

Saint  John,  popularly  called  sin'jen,  (Bavle,)  son 


of  James  Augustus,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London 
in  1822.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Adven- 
tures in  the  Libyan  Desert,"  "The  Subalpine  Kingdom." 
"  Purple  Tints  of  Paris,"  and  "The  Turks  in  Europe," 
(1S53.)    Died  in  1859. 

Saint  John,  (Horace  Roscoe,)  a  son  of  J.  A.  .Saint 
John,  was  born  in  Normandy.  July  6,  1832.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  British  Conquests  in  India,'"  (1852,)  "  His- 
tory of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  (1853,)  a  "Life  of 
Columbus,"  etc.  Died  February  29,  1888.  His  wife,  a 
grand-daughter  of  the  historian  William  Roscoe,  was 
also  a  writer  of  some  distinction. 

Saint  John,  (James  Augustus,)  a  distinguished 
writer  and  traveller,  born  in  Caermarthenshire,  in  Wales, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was 
for  a  time  associated  with  J.  S.  Buckingham  as  editoi 
of  the  "Oriental  Herald,"  for  which  he  wrote  a  historj 
of  British  dominion  in  India.  Having  visited  Egypt, 
Malta,  and  Italy,  he  published  in  1834  a  "  Description 
of  Egypt  and  Nubia."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  "The  Lives  of  Celebrated  Travellers,"  (1830,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Greeks,"  (3  vols.,  1842,)  and  "  Philosophy  at  the  Foot 
of  the  Cross,"  (1855  ;)  also  the  novels  of  "  Margaret 
Ravenscroft"  and  "  Sir  Cosmo  Digby."     Died  in  1875. 

Saint  John,  (Oliver,)  an  English  judge  and  re- 
publican, born  in  Bedfordshire  about  1596,  was  an  able 
lawyer.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  about  1628,  and 
became  a  leader  of  the  country  party.  He  was  counsel 
for  Hampden  in  the  Ship-money  case,  (1637,)  and  then 
"  delivered  the  finest  argument  that  had  ever  been  heard 
in  Westminster  Hall."  (Lord  Campbell.)  In  1640  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament.  According 
to  Lord  Cam])bell,  "he  was  the  first  Englishman  that 
seriously  planned  the  establishment  of  a  republican  form 
of  government  in  this  country."  He  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  in  1641,  and  was  influential  in  procuring 
the  condemnation  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford.  In  1648  he 
became  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas.  He  retained 
th  t  position  till  the  restoration,  (1660.)  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  Cromwell's  House  of  Lords  in 
1657.  His  life  was  spared  at  the  restoration,  on  condition 
that  he  should  never  hold  any  office.  He  died  in  1673. 
Clarendon  says  "  he  was  a  man  reserved,  and  of  a 
dark  and  clouded  countenance,  very  proud,  and  con- 
versing with  very  few."  He  was  a  great-grandfather  of 
Henry  Saint  John,  Lord  Bolingbroke. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,"  vol.  i. ; 
Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England;"  Clarendon,  "History  of  th« 
Great  Rebellion." 

Saint  John,  (Percy  Bolingbroke,)  an  English 
writer,  a  son  of  J.  A.  Saint  John,  already  noticed,  was  born 
at  Plymouth,  March  4,  1821.  He  travelled  extensively 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  served  in  the  Texan  navy 
and  army,  and  then  became  a  writer  by  profession. 
Among  his  very  numerous  books  are  many  novels,  tales 
for  boys,  etc.,  also  "  Young  Naturalist's  Book  of  Birds,'' 
(1837,)  "Three  Days  of  February,"  (1847,)  "The  Arctic 
Crusoe,"  etc.      Died  in  1889. 

Saint  John,  (Sir  Spenser,)  an  English  author,  a 
brother  of  P.  1^.  Saint  John,  was  born  in  London,  De- 
cember 22,  1826.  He  served  in  Borneo  as  a  secretary  to 
the  Rajah  Brooke,  and  then  as  British  consul-general, 
and  afterwards  was  sent  successively  as  British  ministe' 
to  Hayti  and  to  Peru,  and  in  1884  was  made  special  en 
voy  to  Mexico.  His  principal  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Sir 
James  Brooke,"  "Life  in  the  Forests  of  the  Far  East," 
and  "  Hayti." 

Saint-Jorry,  de,  deh  siN'zho're',  (Pierre  du  Faur 
— dii  foR,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Fa'ber,]  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1540  ;  died  in  1600. 

Saint-JuUien,  sAN'zhii'leJ,N',  (Barth^lemi  Sm^,) 
Baron,  a  French  diplomatist,  was  patronized  by  Fran- 
cis I.,  who  employed  him  in  several  embassies.  Died 
in  1597. 

Saint-Just.     See  Freteau. 

Saint-Just,  de,  deh  sJN'zhiist',  (Antoine  Louis 
L60N,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Decize  in  1767 
or  1768,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Robespierre,  through 
whose  influence   he  became  a  member  of  the  National 


c  as  k;  9  as  /;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

133 


(Jj^p^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAINT-JUST 


2114 


SAINT- MAR  TIN 


Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
without  delay  or  appeal  to  the  people,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  one  of  the  most  violent  of  the  Jacobin  party. 
He  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  downfall  of  the  Giron- 
dists, and,  as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety, 
was  sent  with  Lebas  to  the  Rhine,  where  he  established 
the  guillotine  and  put  to  death  great  numbers  of  the 
people.  Appointed  president  of  the  Convention  in  1794, 
he  contributed  mainly  to  the  defeat  of  Danton's  party, 
and  became,  with  Robespierre  and  Couthon,  one  of  the 
triumvirate  of  the  reign  of  terror.  He  was  involved 
in  the  ruin  of  Robespierre  and  his  associates,  with  whom 
he  was  executed  in  July,  1794.  He  left  a  number  of 
political  works. 

See  Fleurv,  "Saint- Just  et  la  Terreur,"  2  vols.,  1852;  E.  Ha- 
MEL,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Just,"  1850;  Thters,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution;"  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Saint-Just,  de,  (C.  Godard  d'Aucour— do'kooR',) 
Baron,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  was 
the  author  of  tragedies,  comedies,  and  comic  operas. 
Among  the  last-named  the  "  Caliph  of  Bagdad"  was 
very  successful.     Died  in  1826. 

Saint-Lambert,  de,  deh  siN'lflN'baiR',  (Charles 
FRAKgois,)  Marquis,  a  French  poet  and  infidel  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Vezelise,  in  Lorraine,  in  1716  or 
1717.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Encyclopedie," 
and  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire,  who  commends  his 
poems  in  extravagant  terms.  The  principal  of  these, 
entitled  "The  Seasons,"  (1769,)  procured  for  him  ad- 
mission to  the  French  Academy.  He  also  published 
"Universal  Catechism,"  (1798,)  and  other  philosophical 
works.     Died  in  1803. 

See  PuvMAiGRE,  "  Saint-Lambert,"  1840;  Qu^rard,  "La France 
Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Hiographie  Generale." 

Saint-Laurent,  siN'lo'rfiN',  (Nombret,  n^N'bRi',) 
a  French  dramatist,  published  a  number  of  popular 
vaudevilles.     Died  in  1833. 

Saint  Leger,  often  pronounced  sil'Ij-jer  or  sil'ljn-jer, 
(Barry,)  a  British  soldier,  who  entered  the  army  in  1 756. 
He  served  at  Louisburg  in  1758,  and  was  with  Wolfe  at 
Quebec.  He  co-operated  with  Burgoyne  in  the  State 
of  New  York  in  1777,  having  the  local  rank  of  a  briga- 
dier.    Died  in  1789. 

Saint-Legier,  de,  deh  siN'li'zhe-i',  (Jean  Georges 
Laurent,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Saint  Leonards,  sent  iSn'ardz,  (Edward  Burten- 
SHAW  SuGDEN,)  Baron,  an  English  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  London  in  1781.  He  became  a  member  of  Par- 
liament for  Weymouth  in  1828,  and  in  1829  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  made 
a  knight.  He  was  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  1841  to 
1846,  and  in  1852  was  created  a  peer  and  lord  chancellor 
of  England.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Practical 
Treatise  on  Powers,"  (1808,)  "A  Series  of  Letters  to  a 
Man  of  Property  on  Sales,  Purchases,  Mortgages,"  etc., 
(1809,)  and  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Property  as  admin- 
istered in  the  House  of  Lords,"  (1849.)     Died  in  1875. 

Saint-Leu,  de,  Duchesse.  See  Hortense  Beau- 
harnais. 

Saint-Lo,  de,  deh  sAn'Io',  (Alexis,)  a  French  Ca- 
puchin friar,  born  in  Normandy,  visited  America  and 
Africa  as  a  missionary,  and  published  in  1637  an  "  Ac- 
count of  a  Voyage  to  Cape  Verd."     Died  in  1638. 

Saint  Loe,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  diplomatist, 
born  about  1520,  was  captain  of  the  guard  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  held  other  important  offices.  Died  about 
1565. 

Saint  Louis.     See  Louis  IX.  of  France. 

Saint-Luc,  de,  deh  siN'luk',  (Francois  d'Espinay,) 
a  French  soldier  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  appointed 
grand  master  of  artillery  by  Henry  IV.  He  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Ainiens,  in  1597. 

Saint-Luc,  de,  (Timol^on  d'Espinay,)  a  French 
niarshal,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1580; 
died  in  1644. 

Saint-Marc,  de,  deh  sAN'mtRk',  (Charles  Hugues 
Lefebvre,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1698.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "  Chronological  Abridgment  of  the 


History  of  Italy  from  the  Downfall  of  the  Western 
Empire,"  (6  vols.,  1761-70.)     Died  in  1769. 

Saint-Marc,  de,  (Jean  Paul  Andr6  des  Rasins — 
di  rt'ziN',)  Marquis,  a  French  lyric  and  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  the  province  of  Guienne  in  1728.  His  opera 
of  "  Adele  de  Ponthieu"  met  with  brilliant  success,  and 
was  set  to  music  by  Piccini.     Died  in  1818. 

Saint  -  Marc  -  Girardin,  s^N'mtRk'zhe'rtR'diN',  a 
French  writer  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He 
succeeded  Guizot  as  professor  of  history  in  the  Faculty 
of  Letters  about  1830,  and  was  appointed  minister  o? 
public  instruction  in  1848.  He  published  "A  Course  of 
Dramatic  Literature,"  (1843,)  "Essays  on  Literature  and 
Morals,"  (1844,)  and  other  works,  and  contributed  to 
the  "Journal  des  Debats"  and  the  "Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes."  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1844.     Died  April  i,  1873. 

Saint-Marceaux,  de,  deh  siN'mtR'so',  (RENifift  (in 
full,  Charles  Ren6  de  Paul  de  Saint-Marceauz,)  a 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Rheims  in  September,  1845. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  and  of 
Jouffroy.  His  rich  genius  and  remarkable  versatility 
have  given  him  a  high  rank  among  recent  artists. 

Saint-Marcellin,  s^N'mtRs'l&.N',  (Jean  Victor,)  a 
French  officer  and  litterateur,  born  in  1791,  served  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812.     He  fell  in  a  duel  in  1819. 

Saint-Mard.     See  R6mond  de  Sai.nt-Mard. 

Saint-Mars,  de,  deh  siN'maR',  (Gabriell&  Anni^ 
Cisterne  de  Courtiras,)  Marchioness,  a  French 
novelist,  known  in  literature  as  The  Countess  Dash. 
She  was  born  at  Poitiers,  August  2,  1804,  of  it  noble 
family.  She  married  very  young,  and  reverses  of  fortune 
compelled  her  to  try  a  literary  life.  She  produced  an 
enormous  number  of  romances,  mostly  tales  of  high  life 
or  of  French  history.  She  possessed  an  easy  and  graceful 
style.     Died  in  Paris,  September  11,  1872. 

Saint-Marsan,  de,  deh  s^N'mta'sfiN',  (  Antoink 
Marie  Philippe  Asinari — t'ze'nt're',)  Marquis,  born 
at  Turin  in  1761,  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  in  1809 
minister -plenipotentiary  to  Berlin,  and  was  subse- 
quently minister  of  war  under  Victor  Emanuel.  Died 
in  1828. 

Saint-Martin,  s^N'mtR'tJN',  (Antoine  Jean,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1791,  was  a  disciple 
of  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  through  whose  influence  he  became 
in  1820  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
was  afterwards  associated  with  Abel  Remusat  as  editor 
of  the  absolutist  journal  "L'Universel."  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Historical  and  Geographical  Memoirs  on 
Armenia,"  (1818,)  "New  Researches  on  the  Epoch  of 
the  Death  of  Alexander  and  the  Chronology  of  the 
Ptolemies,"  (1820,)  "Historical  Notice  on  the  Zodiac 
of  Denderah,"  (1822,)  and  several  other  works.  He 
published  a  good  edition  of  Lebeau's  "  Histoire  du  Bas> 
Empire,"  (21  vols.,  1824-36.)     Died  in  1832. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Biographie  Univer- 
selle. " 

Saint-Martin,  (Jean  Baptiste  Pasinato — pl-se* 
ni'to,)  an  Italian  savant,  born  in  the  province  of  Treviso 
in  1739,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on  agriculture 
and  natural  science.     Died  in  1800. 

Saint-Martin,  de,  deh  siN'mSn'tiN',  (Jean  Didier,) 
a  French  missionary  to  China,  born  in  Paris  in  1743, 
translated  into  Chinese  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  iSoi. 

Saint-Martin,  de,  (Louis  Claude,)  Marquis,  a 
French  mystic,  sometimes  called  "  the  Unknown  Phi- 
losopher," ("  Le  Philosophe  inconnu,")  was  born  at  Am- 
boise  in  1743.  He  was  a  warm  admirer  of  the  writings 
of  Jacob  Bohme,  a  number  of  which  he  translated  into 
French.  Among  Saint-Martin's  principal  works  are  his 
treatise  "On  Errors  and  on  Truth,"  (1775,)  "Natural 
View  of  the  Relations  which  exist  between  God,  Man 
and  the  Universe,"  (1782,)  "The  New  Man,"  (1792,) 
and  "  On  the  Spirit  of  Things,"  (1800.)  Died  in  1803. 
Chateaubriand  characterized  him  as  "a  man  of  great 
merit." 

See  Gence,  "  Notice  sur  L.  C.  de  Saint-Martin,"  1824 ;  Caro, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  la  Doctrine  de  Saint-Martin."  1852;  Matter. 
"  Saint-Martin,  le  Philosophe  inconnu,"  1862. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  mo5n; 


SAINT- MAR  TIN 


21  Ii; 


SAINT-PRIEST 


Saint-Martin  de  la  Motte,  de,  deh  sAN'mtK'tiN' 
d^h  It  mot,  (F^Lix,)  Comte,  a  I'iedmontese  jurist  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Turin,  was  created  by  Napoleon  a 
count  and  senator.     Died  in  1818. 

Saint-Maur.     See  Dupri£  dk  Saint-Maur. 

Saint-Maurice,  de,  deh  siN'mo'riss',  (Charles 
R.  E.,)  a  French  historian  and  novelist,  born  about  1796. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Crusades,"  {1824.) 

Saint-Mauris,  de,  deh  si.N'mo'riss',  (Jean,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Dole  about  1495,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  his  native  city.     Died  in  1555. 

Saint-Morys,  de,  deh  siw'mo're',  .>  (Etienne  Bour- 
gevin  -  Vialart  —  booRzh'viw'  ve'S'ltR', )  Comte,  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1772,  published  several 
political  and  miscellaneous  works.     Died  in  181 7. 

Saint-Non,  de,  deh  siN'ndw',  (Jean  Claude  Ri- 
chard,) Ahh6,  a  French  amateur  artist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1727.  He  published  in  1781  "Voyage  pittoresque 
de  Naples  et  de  Sicile,"  in  5  vols.,  illustrated  with  fine 
engravings.     Died  in  1791. 

Saint-Olon.     See  PiDOU. 

Saintonge,  s^N'tANzh',  (Louise  GENEVifevE  Gillot 
— zhe'yo',)  born  in  1650,  was  the  author  of  dramatic 
works  and  poems  on  various  subjects.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Madame  de  Gomez,  also  a  distinguished 
writer.     Died  in  17 18. 

Saint-Ours,  de,  deh  siN'tooR',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Geneva  about  1756;  died  in  1809. 

Saint-Pard,  de,  deh  s^In'pSr',  (Pierre  Nicolas 
van  Blotaque  —  vtn  blo'ttk',)  Abb]6,  born  near  Liege 
in  1734,  studied  in  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  hon- 
orary canon.  He  wrote  a  number  of  religious  works. 
Died  m  1824 

Saint  Paul,  (the  Apostle.)    See  Paul,  (Saint.) 

Saint-Paul,  de.     See  Saint-Pol,  de. 

Saint-Paul,  de,  deh  siN'pol',  (Franqois  Paul  Bar- 
LETTi,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1734,  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Segovia,  in  Spain,  in  1770. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  educational  works.  Died 
in  1809. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Saint-Pavin,  de,  deh  siN'pt'vdN',  (Denis  Sanguin,) 
a  French  poet,  burn  in  Paris,  was  a  priest  or  abbe.  His 
works  are  chiefly  sonnets,  epistles,  and  epigrams.  Died 
in  1670. 

•  SEiint-Peravi,  de,  deh  siN'peh-rt've',  (Jean  Nico- 
las Marcellin  Gu^rineau,)  a  French  poet  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Janville  in  1732  ;  died  in  1789. 

Saint-Pern,  de,  deh  siN'p^Rn',  (Bertrand,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  Brittany,  was  a  friend  and 
companion-in-arms  of  the  famous  Du  Guesclin.  He 
lived  about  1330-60. 

Saint-Pern,  de,  (Judes  Vincent,)  Marquis,  a 
French  lieutenant-general,  born  in  1694,  served  in  Flan- 
ders under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  subsequently  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.     Died  in  1761. 

Saint  Philip,  Marquis  of.   See  Baccalar  y  Sanna. 

Saint-Pierre,  de,  deh  s&N'pe-aiR',  (Charles  Ir6- 
NtE  Castel,)  a  French  writer  ^d  priest,  born  near 
Barfleur,  in  Normandy,  in  1658,  was  a  friend  of  Fon- 
tcnelle.  He  was  eccentric  and  eminently  benevolent. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  who  used  the  word  bien- 
faisance,  ("beneficence.")  In  1695  he  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works  on 
politics,  morality,  and  political  economy.  His  favo-irite 
hobby  was  a  project  to  maintain  perpetual  peace  by 
a  congress  or  European  Diet.  Having  censured  the 
policy  of  Louis  XIV.  in  his  "  Polysynodie,"  (1718,)  he 
was  expelled  from  the  Academy.  J.  J.  Rousseau  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  "  he  was  an  honour  to  his  age 
and  to  his  species."     Died  in  1743. 

See  D'Ai.EMBERT,  "  £loge  de  I'Abbe  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1775: 
Allktz,  '*  Reves  d'lin  Homme  de  Bien,  ouVues  utiles  et  praticables 
delWbbe  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1775;  GouMV,  "Etudes  sur  la  Vie  de 
rAbb(^  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1861  ;  PRivosT-PARADOL,  "  filoge  de 
I'Abb^  de  Saint-Pierre;"  Molinari,  "L'Abb^  de  Saint- Pierre," 
1861. 

Saint-Pierre,  de,  (Eustache,)  a  noble  citizen  of 
Calais,  who,  as  Froissart  relates,  when  that  city  was 
besieged  by  Edward  IH.  of  England,  offered  himself 
with  five  others  to  the  English,  on  condition  that  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  should  be  spared. 


Saint-Pierre,  de,  (Jacques  Henri  Bernardin— 
b§R'nSR'di.\',)  a  celebrated  French  writer,  was  born  at 
Havre  on  the  19th  of  January,  1737.  Having  finished 
his  studies  with  distinction  at  the  College  of  Rouen,  he 
entered  the  army  as  a  military  engineer,  but  he  was  soon 
after  dismissed  the  service  for  an  act  of  insubordination. 
He  subsequently  went  to  Russia,  where  he  remained 
four  years,  employed  as  an  engineer.  Having  returned 
to  France  in  1766,  he  obtained  a  commission  as  engineer 
for  the  Isle  of  France.  After  a  residence  of  three  years 
in  that  country,  he  set  out  in  1771  for  Paris,  where  he 
resolved  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Rousseau  and  other  distinguished  writers 
of  the  time.  He  published  in  1773  his  "Voyage  to 
the  Isle  of  France,"  etc.,  and  in  1784  his  "Studies  of 
Nature,"  which  was  very  favourably  received.  It  was 
followed  in  178S  by  the  charming  tale  of  "Paul  and 
Virginia,"  which  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  edi- 
tions and  was  translated  into  the  principal  languages 
of  Europe.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  The  Desires 
of  a  Solitary,"  ("  Les  Voeux  d'un  Solitaire,"  1789,) 
"The  Indian  Cottage,"  (1791,)  "Harmonies  of  Nature," 
and  "Essay  on  J.  J.  Rousseau."  Saint-Pierre  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Louis  XVI.,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and 
the  emperor  Napoleon.  He  died  in  January,  1814.  He 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  prose  writers  of  France, 
and  his  "Paul  and  Virginia"  is  pronounced  by  a  French 
critic  not  only  the  chef-d^ceuvre  of  the  author,  but  one 
of  the  chefs-d^ceuvre  of  the  language.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Pierre  F.  Didot,  book-publisher  of  Paris, 
and  had  two  children,  named  Paul  and  Virginie. 

See  LotJis  AimS-Martin,  "Vie  de  Bernardin  de  Saint- Pierre," 
prefixed  to  his  complete  works,  12  vols.,  1S17-20,  also,  "  M^moires 
sur  la  Vie  de  B.  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1826:  Patin,  "  fijoge  de  B.  de 
Saint-Pierre,"  1816;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  litt^raires ;"  A. 
Fleury,  "Vie  de  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1844;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale ;"  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1821, 
(by  A.  H.  Everett  ;)  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February  and  March. 
1S16. 

Saint-Pol,  de.     See  Luxembourg,  de,  (Louis.) 

Saint-Pol, de,  deh  six'poK,  (Antoine  Montbeton,) 
a  French  marshal  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  an  ad- 
herent of  the  Guises,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
wars  of  the  League.  He  was  treacherously  assassin- 
ated by  the  Duke  of  Guise,  son  of  Henry  of  Lorraine, 
about  1594. 

Saint-Pol  or  Saint-Paul,  de,  (Fran(;ois  de  Bour- 
bon-Vendome — deh  booR'b6N'  vdN'dom',)  Comte,  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  Picardy  in  1491,  was  a  friend  of 
the  Count  of  Angouleme,  afterwards  Francis  I.,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  principal  military  expeditions. 
Died  in  1545. 

Saint-Prest  or  Saint-Pr6t,  de,  deh  siN'pRi',  (Jean 
Vves,)  a  French  jurist,  was  director  of  the  political 
academy  founded  at  Paris  in  17 10  by  M.  de  Torcy.  He 
wrote  for  the  pupils  of  this  institution  a  "  History 
of  the  Treaties  made  between  the  Different  European 
Powers,  from  the  Reign  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  Peace  of 
Nymwegen,  in  1679."     Died  in  1720. 

Saint-Priest,  de,  deh  si.v'pHe'^st',  (Alexis,)  Count, 
a  diplomatist  and  litterateio;  of  French  extraction,  born 
at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1805,  was  a  nephew  of  Guillaume 
Emmanuel,  noticed  below.  He  was  successively  French 
ambassador  to  Brazil,  Portugal,  and  Copenhagen  be- 
tween 1833  and  1841.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Fall 
of  the  Jesuits  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (1844,)  "His- 
tory of  the  Conquest  of  Naples  by  Charles  of  Anjou," 
(1847,)  which  procured  him  admission  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1849,  and  "Diplomatic  and  Literary 
Studies,"  (1850.)     Died  at  Moscow  in  1851. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Comte  A.  de  Saint-Priest," 
1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (Emmanuel  Louis  Marie  Gui- 
gnard — gin'ytR',)  Vicomte,  a  general  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1789,  was  a  son  of  Franfois  Emmanuel, 
noticed  below.  He  fought  in  the  Russian  army  at  Aus 
terlitz  and  Lutzen.  He  became  French  ambassador  at 
Berlin  in  1825,  and  was  minister  at  Madrid  from  1827 
to  183 1. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Etudes  historiques  et  biographiques ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (FRANgois  Em.manuel,)  Comte,  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as,j;  G,  H.  K.  s^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SAINT-PRIEST 


21  i6 


SAINT-SIMON 


French  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at  Grenoble  in 
'735'  ^'^'^  employed  before  the  Revolution  in  important 
embassies  to  Portugal,  Constantinople,  ami  the  llague. 
lie  succeeded  Villedeuii  as  secretary  of  state  or  minister 
of  the  interior  in  1789,  and  resigned  in  December,  1790. 
Died  in  1831. 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (Guii.laume  Emmanuel,)  Comte, 
son  of  the  jjreceding,  was  born  at  ConstantiTiople  in  1776. 
Having  entered  the  I'liissian  service,  he  fought  against 
the  French  at  Austerlitz  and  in  other  engagements,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
at  Rheims  in  1S14. 

Saint-Prix,  siw'pRe',  (Jean  Amarle  P'oucault,)  a 
French  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1759;  died  in  1834. 

Saint-Prosper,  de,  deh  sdN'pKos'paik',  (Antoine 
Jean  Cass6,)  a  French  journalist  and  political  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1790  ;  died  in  1841. 

Saintrailles  or  Xaintrailles,  de,  deh  s^N'tRtl'  or 
s^N'tRfye,  (PoTON,)  a  French  warrior,  born  about  1395, 
fought  for  Charles  VII.  against  the  English,  and  became 
marshal  of  France  in  1454.     Died  in  1461. 

Saint-Rambert,  de,  deh  sdN'rSN'baiR',  (Gabriel,) 
a  French  philosoj^her  of  the  school  of  Descartes,  born 
at  Pontarlier,  was  the  author  of  "  Physical  Explana- 
tions of  th.e  First  Chapter  of  Genesis,"  (1713.)  Died 
about  1720. 

Saintre,  de,  deh  siN'tRk',  written  also  Xaintri, 
(Jean  or  Jeiian,)  a  brave  French  soldier,  born  at 
Vendome  in  1320,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Poitiers,  where  he  was  severely  wounded.  Died 
in  136S. 

Saint-Real,  de,  deh  si.\'ri'tl',  (C6sar  Vichard, 
si'z-iR'  ve'shlR',)  ABlit,  a  distinguished  historical  writer, 
born  at  Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1639.  He  published 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Use  of  History,"  (1671,)  the  his- 
torical romance  of  "Don  Carlos,"  (1672,)  a  "History 
of  the  Spanish  Conspiracy  against  the  Republic  of 
Venice  in  i6iS,"'  (1674,)  and  several  other  works.  He 
resided  mostly  in  Paris,  and  was  intimate  with  Hor- 
tense  Mancini.  Died  in  1692.  His  work  on  the 
"  Conspiracy  against  Venice"  was  ranked  among  the 
chefs-ifmivre  of  the  French  language  by  Voltaire,  who 
says  that  "  his  style  is  comparable  to  that  of  Sallust." 
("  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.")  A  large  part  of  this  work 
is  fictitious. 

See  F.  Dl  Barolo,  "  Memorie  spettanti  alia  Vita  di  Saint-Real," 
1788;  NicSron,  "  Memoires ;"  RIoreki,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Saint-Remy,  de,  deh  siN'ri'me',  (Pierre  Surirey,) 
a  French  general,  born  about  1650,  was  the  author  of 
"  Memoirs  of  Artillery."     Died  in  1716. 

Saint-Ruth,  siN'riit',  a  French  general,  and  perse- 
cutor of  the  Huguenots,  notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He 
was  sent  to  Ireland  in  1691  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  which  fought  for  James  II.,  and  was  opposed 
by  General  Ginkell.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Aughrim  in  1691. 

See  Macaulav's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Saint-Saens,  s^n'sSn',  (Ca.mille,)  a  French  com- 
poser, pianist,  and  organist,  born  in  Paris,  October  9, 
1835.  He  was  educated  at  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris, 
and  published  some  fine  ballades,  melodies,  and  masses, 
besides  "Samson  and  Dalila,"  a  piece  of  marked  merits. 

Saint-Samson,  de,  deh  siN'sdN'siiN',  (Jean,)  a 
French  Carmelite  monk  and  devotional  writer,  who 
became  blind  in  infancy,  was  born  at  Sens  in  1571  ; 
died  in  1636. 

Saint-Saphorin,  de,  deh  siN'si'fo'rdN',  (.A.R.MAND 
FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1738, 
entered  the  service  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark,  who 
made  him  a  privy  councillor  and  conferred  upon  him 
other  distinctions.     Died  in  1805. 

Saint-Silvestre,  de,  deh  sis'sfel'vSstR',  (Juste 
Louis  du  Faure — dii  for,)  Marquis,  a  French  lieu- 
tenant-general, born  in  Paris  in  1627.  He  served  under 
Turenne  in  1672,  and  subsequently  in  the  Spanish  cam- 
paign of  1693.     Died  in  17 19. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  deh  siN'se'm6N',  (  Charles 
Francois  Vermandois  de  Rouvroy-Sandricourt 

-v^R'mSN'dwd'  d?h  roo'vRwi'sdN'dre'kooK',)  a  French 


prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1727,  became  Bishop  of  Agde 
and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
was  executed  in  1794,  by  order  of  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Claude  Anne,)  Marquis,  a 
French  commander,  born  in  1743,  entered  the  Spanish 
service,  and  was  created  captain-general  by  Ferdinand 
VII.     Died  about  1820. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Claude  de  Rouvroy,)  Due, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1607,  was  the  father  of  the 
famous  writer  of  Memoirs.     Died  in  1693. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Claude  de  Rouvroy,)  a  French 
l^relate,  of  noble  family,  born  in  Paris  in  1695,  became 
liishop  of  Metz  in  1733.     Died  in  1760. 

Saint-Simon,  sant  si'mon,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  siN'- 
se'm^N',)  (Claude  Henri,)  Couni",  a  famous  French 
socialist  and  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  October, 
1760,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles  Francois,  Bishop  of 
Agde,  and  a  relative  of  the  Due  de  Saint-Simon.  He 
was  endowed  with  great  energy  of  character.  Having 
entered  the  army  young,  he  served  under  Washington 
in  the  United  States.  After  the  end  of  the  American 
war  he  passed  several  years  in  travel.  He  took  little 
part  in  the  French  Revolution,  but,  in  partnership  with 
Count  de  Redern,  speculated  in  confiscated  property. 
They  realized  a  large  fortune;  but  Redern  appropriated 
all  of  it  except  $30,000.  Saint-Simon  entertained  or 
professed  a  conviction  that  his  mission  was  to  be  a  social 
reformer,  for  which  he  qualified  himself  by  various 
studies.  In  1801  he  married  Mademoiselle  de  Champ- 
grand,  whom  he  divorced  in  1S02  because  he  wished  to 
marry  Madame  de  Stael  ;  but  she  declined  his  offer.  He 
soon  dissipated  his  money  in  ]>rojects,  experiments,  etc 
In  1807  he  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Scientific 
Labours  of  the  Nineteenth  Century."  With  the  aid 
of  his  disciple  Augustin  Thierry,  he  produced  "  The 
Reorganization  of  European  Society,"  (1814.)  Among 
his  most  remarkable  works  is  "  New  Christianity," 
("  Nouveau  Christianisme,"  1825,)  in  which  he  maintains 
that  Christianity  is  progressive.  His  doctrines  exerted 
great  influence  in  France,  and  attracted  many  eminent 
disciples,  among  whom  were  Auguste  Comte,  Michel 
Chevalier,  Hyppolite  Carnot,  and  O.  Rodrigues.  He 
died  in  1825.  After  his  death.  Hazard,  Rodrigues,  and 
Enfantin  were  chief  priests  of  the  Saint-Simonian  sect, 
which  was  very  numerous  until  divergent  tendencies 
produced  its  dissolution. 

See  ViLLENAVE,  "  Histoire  du  Saint-Simonisme,"  1847 ;  G. 
HuBUARD,  "  Saint-Simon,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Travaux,"  1S57  ;  LomAnie, 
"  Galerie  des  Contemporains,"  vol.  x.  ;  F.  W.  Carove,  "  Der  Saint- 
Sinionismus,"  etc.,  1831  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  "Doc- 
trines of  Saint-bimon,  '  in  •■  l^uarteny  Kcucw"  lor  July,  1831,  (by 
SoUTHKY  ;)  '' Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1S63. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Henri  Jean  Victor  de  Rou- 
vroy,) Marquis,  a  French  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Prereuil  in  1782.  He  served  under  Marshal  Ney  in 
Spain,  and  in  1820  was  appointed  minister-plenipoten- 
tiary to  Copenhagen.  He  was  afterwards  created  lieu- 
tenant-general and  senator,  and  obtained  the  grand  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honour.     Died  March  19,  1865. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Louis  de  Rouvroy,)  Due,  a 
celebrated  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1675. 
He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  took  part  in 
several  important  engagements  under  Marshal  Luxem- 
bourg. At  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  had  never 
regarded  him  with  favour,  Saint-Simon  became  a  partisan 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  an  opponent  of  the  legiti- 
mate princes.  He  was  also  a  zealous  Jansenist  and  friend 
of  Fenelon.  After  the  death  of  the  king  he  was  appointed 
by  the  regent  Orleans  one  of  his  council,  and  in  1721  was 
sent  to  Spain  to  negotiate  the  marriage  of  Louis  XV. 
with  the  Infanta.  Though  unsuccessful  in  this  affair,  hi 
was  made  a  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  and  obtained 
other  distinctions.  On  the  death  of  the  regent.  Saint- 
.Simon  applied  himself  to  the  composition  of  his  "Me- 
moires," portions  of  which  were  first  published  in  1788. 
\  ct)inplete  edition  came  out  in  1830,  entitled  "  Complete 
and  Authentic  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Saint-Simon  on 
the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Regency,"  (20  vols.) 
They  are  distinguished  by  great  indeijendence  of  thought 
and  expression,  fearless  satire,  and  fine  delineation  of 
character,  and  rank  among  the  most  valuable  and  attract- 


i,  e, :,  6,  u,  y, long;  4,  h,  6,  same,  less  prulonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  9,  ^,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  gofwl;  moon: 


SAINT-SIMON 


2117 


SALADIN 


ive  works  of  the  kind.    An  abridged  English  version  wai, 
published  by  Bayie  Saint  John  in  1857.     Died  in  1755. 

See  A.  LEFivRE-PoNTAi.is,  "Discours  siir  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvrej 
de  Saint-Simon,"  185s:  Sainte-Beuvh,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;"  V. 
Tremblav,  "  Biographie  du  Ducde  Saint-Simon,"  1850  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale;"  "  P'oreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1832  ;  "  Fraser's  Magaiine"  for  November,  1857. 

Saiut-Simon,  de,  (Maximilien  Henri.)  Marquis, 
a  French  littiratenr,  born  about  1720,  was  a  brother  of 
Charles  Fran9ois,  Bishop  of  Agde.  He  published  sev- 
eral historical  works,  and  translated  Pope's  "Essay  on 
Man."     Died  neai  Utrecht  in  1799. 

Saiut-Sorlin.     See  Desmarets  de  Saint-Sorlin. 

Saiut-Ursiii,  de,  deh  siN'tiiR'siN',  (Marie,)  a  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Chartres  in  1763; 
died  in  1818. 

Saint-Vallier,  siN'vt'le-i',  (Jean  de  Poitiers,)  a 
French  soldier  of  noble  fan^T5',  born  in  Dauphine  about 
1475,  served  in  the  Italian  wars  of  Charles  VHI.  and 
Louis  XH. 

Saint- Venant,  de,  deh  siN'veh-nfiN',  Madame,  a 
French  novelist,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century;  died 
in  1815. 

Saint- Victor,  de,  d^h  sdN'vik'toR',  (Jacques  Ben- 
jamin BiNSSE,)  CoMTE,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
1772.  He  published  various  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
and  translated  the  Odes  of  Anacreon  into  verse,  (1810.) 
Died  in  1858. 

Saint- Victor,  de,  (Paul,)  Count,  a  French  author 
and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1827.  He  was  educated  at 
Freiburg  and  at  Rome.  He  early  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  dramatic  critic  and  stylist.  He  published 
"  Hommes  et  Dieux,"  (1867,)  "Les  Femmes  de  Goethe," 
(1869,)  and  "Les  deux  Masques,"  a  history  of  the  stage, 
(vol.  i.,  1880.)  He  was  a  brilliant  writer,  but  was  deficient 
in  breadth  of  view  and  in  knowledge  of  his  subjects. 
Died  in  1881. 

Saint- Victor,  de,  (Walter,)  a  mystic  and  scholastic 
philosopher  and  theologian,  who  taught  at  the  abbey  of 
Saint-Victor,  in  Paris,  near  the  end  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. He  was  the  immediate  successor  of  Richard  de 
Saint-Victor,  (q.  v.,)  and  more  remotely  of  the  great 
Hugh  de  Saint-Victor,  (q.  v.,)  and  was  an  enemy  of  the 
dialecticians.  These  three  teachers  and  their  followers 
are  known  as  "the  Viciorines." 

Saint- Vincens,  de,  deh  siN'viN's5N',  (Alexandre 
Jules  Antoine  Fauris — fo'riss',)  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Aix  in  1750.  He  made  large  additions  to 
the  valuable  collection  of  medals  formed  by  his  father, 
and  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  numismatics  and  the 
ancient  monuments  of  France.     Died  in  1819. 

Saint- Vincens,  de,  (Jules  Francois  Paul  Fau- 
ris,) a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Aix  in  1718,  published 
several  treatises  on  numismatics.     Died  in  1798. 

Saint  Vincent,  Earl  of.     See  Jervis,  (John.) 

Saint- Vincent,  siN'viN'sflN',  (Gregory,)  a  Flemish 
mathematician,  born  at  Bruges  in  1584,  was  a  pupil  of 
Clavius.  Mis  "  Opus  Geometricum  Quadraturae  Circuli," 
etc.  (1647)  is  highly  commended  by  Montucla.  Died  in 
1667. 

Saints'biir-5^,  (GeorgeWarner,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  in  1845.  He  published  a  life  of  Dryden,  a  "  Primer 
of  French  Literature,"  a  valuable  "Short  History  of 
French  Literature,"  and  other  works. 

Saisset,  si'si',  (Emile  Edmond,)  a  French  philo- 
sophical writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1814.  He  became 
in  1856  professor  of  the  history  of  philosophy  at  the 
Sorbonne.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  complete 
history  of  skepticism,  entitled  "i^nesideme,"  (1840;) 
he  also  contributed  to  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
philosophiques"  and  to  other  periodicals  a  number  of 
philosophical  essays  of  great  merit.     Died  in  1863. 

Saisseval,  de,  deh  sis'vtl',  (Claude  Louis,)  Mar- 
quis, born  in  1754,  attained  the  rank  of  marechal -de- 
camp in  the  French  army.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
treatises  on  politics  and  finance.     Died  about  1820. 

Saissy,  si'se',  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  surgeon 
and  anatomist,  born  near  Grasse,  in  Provence,  in  1756; 
died  in  1822. 

Saiva,  si'va,  written  also  Shaiva,  the  name  applied 
by  the  Hindoos  to  the  worshippers  of  Siva,  which  see. 


Saix,du,dusi,  [Lat.  Saxa'nus,]  (Antoine,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Bourg  in  15 15,  wrote  several  re- 
ligious and  moral  works.     Died  about  1579. 

Sftl^at&yana,  si-ka-ti'ya-na,  a  very  ancient  Sanscrit 
grammarian,  quoted  by  Panini.  His  writings  are  believed 
to  be  lost.  Another  grammarian  of  this  name  was  a 
Jain,  of  rather  recent  but  uncertain  date.  His  writings 
are  extant. 

SaKaAvee,  (Sakavri,)  si-k.\'wee,  ?  written  also  Sa- 
kavi,  an  Arab  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  a  "History  of  Great  Men  from  1340  to  1383." 

Sakoontala,  or  Sakuntala,  si-koon'ta-la,.in  Hindoo 
mythology,  was  the  daughter  of  the  sage  Viswamitra, 
(q.  V.,)  and  of  Menaka,  a  water-nymph  or  Apsara,  (q.  v.) 
She  became  the  wife  of  Dushyanta,  (q.  v.,)  and  mother 
of  the  great  Bharata.  (See  AIahabharata.)  Her  ro- 
mantic story,  dramatized  by  the  poet  Kalidasa,  (q.  v.,)  is 
perhaps  the  finest  product  of  Hindoo  genius.  (See 
translation  by  Prof.  Monier  Williams.) 

SAK'T/or  SHAJCTI,  written  also  .S/iCTi^  [modern 
Hindoo  pron.  suk'tee  or  shiik'tee,]  a  Sanscrit  word  de- 
noting "power"  or  "energy,"  often  applied  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology  to  the  wives  or  consorts  of  the  chief  deities  ; 
or,  to  speak  more  definitely,  the  power  of  each  of  the 
male  deities  was  supposed  to  be  personified  in  his  consort. 
Thus,  Lakshmi  was  the  Sakti  ("  power"  or  "energy")  of 
Vishnu  ;  Parvati  or  Kali  was  the  Sakti  of  Siva ;  and  so  on. 

Sakya  Muni  or  Sakya  Singha.     See  Gautama. 

Sala,  si'li,  (Angiolo,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at 
Vicenza,  flourished  about  1610-40.  He  lived  in  Holland 
from  1613  to  161 7,  removed  to  Hamburg  about  1620, 
and  became  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg  about 
1632.  He  wrote  numerous  chemical  works,  which  wers 
highly  commended  by  Haller.  They  were  published 
collectively  in  1647,  under  the  title  of  "Opera  Medico- 
Chymica." 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Sa'la,  (George  Augustus,)  an  English  litthaieur, 
born  ill  London  in  1827,  has  contributed  numerous 
articles  to  "  Household  Words."  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Twice  round  the  Clock,  or  the  Hours  of 
the  Day  and  Night  in  London,"  (1859,)  "The  Badding- 
ton  Peerage ;  a  Story  of  the  Best  and  Worst  Society," 
(i860,)  "The  Seven  Sons  of  Mammon,"  (3  vols.,  1861,) 
"Quite  Alone,"  (3  vols.,  1864,)  "My  Diary  in  America 
in  the  Midst  of  War,"  (2  vols.,  1865,)  and  "Rome  and 
Venice,  with  other  Wanderings,  1866--67,"  (1869.) 

Sala,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  composer  and  writer  on 
music,  born  at  Naples  about  1702.  He  produced  "  Re- 
gole  del  Contrapunto  pratico,"  (1794)     Died  in  1800. 

Sala,  (ViTALE,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Cano  in 
1803  ;  died  in  1835. 

Sala  y  Berart,  si'li  e  bi-raRt',  (Caspar,)  a  Spanish 
theologian  and  preacher,  born  at  Saragossa;  died  in 
1670. 

Salaberry,  de,  deh  st'lt'bi're',  (Charles  Marie 
d'Yrumberry — de'rviN'bi're',)  Comte,  a  French  roy- 
alist, born  in  Paris  in  1766,  became  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  181 5.  He  was  afterwards  as- 
sociated with  Chateaubriand  as  editor  of  the  "  Conser- 
vateur."  He  published  several  political  and  historical 
works,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle."     Died  in  1847. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sal'a-din,  [Fr.  pron.  st'lt'diN',!  the  common  English 
and  French  form  of  Scdah-ed-Deen  or  Salah-eddin 
— si'liH  ed-deen',  i.e.  the  "  Integrity  of  the  Faith,"  [Lat. 
Saladi'nus  ;  It.  Saladino,  sa-ld-dee'no,]  I.,  (Malek- 
Nasir-Yoosuf,  (or  -Yousouf,)  mSI'ek  ni'sjr  yoo'- 
soof,)  a  famous  Sultan  of  Egypt,  born  at  the  castle  of 
Tekrit,  on  the  Tigris,  in  1137,  was  a  son  of  Aiyoob,  a 
Koord,  who  had  a  high  rank  in  the  army  of  Noor-ed- 
Deen.  In  1168  he  became  vizier  of  Egypt,  then  under 
Noor-ed-Deen.  Saladin,  however,  refused  to  obey  him, 
and  assumed  the  sovereign  power.  After  the  death  of 
Noor-ed-Deen,  ( 1 1 73,)  he  made  himself  master  of  South- 
ern Syria.  His  ambitious  efforts  to  extend  his  conquests 
soon  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  Christians  of 
Palestine,  whom  he  defeated  in  the  great  battle  of  Tibe- 
rias or  Hitten  in  July,  1187.     Jerusalem  surrendered  to 


€  as  t;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  ;,•  g,  h,  y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SALADIN 


2118 


SALES 


Saladin  in  October  of  the  same  year.  His  victorious 
progress  was  arrested  by  the  armies  of  the  third  crusade, 
led  by  Richard  I.  of  England  and  Philip  Augustus  of 
France.  The  crusaders  commenced  in  1 189  the  memo- 
rable siege  of  Acre,  which  was  defended  by  Saladin  with 
great  valour,  but  was  taken  in  July,  1191.  He  excited 
the  admiration  even  of  his  enemies  by  his  chivalrous 
spirit  and  magnanimity.  In  Se])tember,  1192,  Saladin 
and  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  suspended  hostilities  by  a 
truce  of  three  years.  The  former  remained  master  of 
Jerusalem.  He  treated  with  humanity  the  numerous 
Christian  prisoners  that  fell  into  his  power.  He  died  at 
Damascus  in  March,  1 193,  leaving  three  or  more  sons, 
among  whom  his  vast  dominions  were  divided. 

See  Aboolfeda,  "  Life  of  Saladin  ;"  Kohadin,  "  Saladini  Vita  el 
Kesgests;"  Marin,  "  Histoirede  Saladin,"  2  vols.,  1763;  Reinaud, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Saladin,"  1824:  A.  Schultens,  "Saladini 
Vita,"  1755;  Weii^  "Geschichte  der  Ch.\lifen,"  vol.  iii.  ;  Michaud, 
"  History  of  the  Crnsades  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saladin  or  Salah-ed-Deen  IL,  Sultan  of  Aleppo 
born  in  1229,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding. 
His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Mongols,  who  took 
Aleppo  in  1260.  Saladin  was  killed  by  Hoolagoo,  the 
chief  of  the  Mongols,  in  1261. 

Saladin,  st'lS'dil\',  (Jean  Baptiste  Michel,)  a 
French  lawyer,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  (1792- 
95,)  and  opposed  the  excesses  of  the  Jacobins.  Died 
in  1813. 

Saladin,  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  La  Bassee  in  1743.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  and  physics  at  Douai  in  1792.  Died  in 
1829. 

Saladino.     See  Saladin. 

Saladinus.     See  Saladin. 

Salagny,  de,  deh  sa'lSn'ye',  (Geoffroi,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  1316;  died  in  1374. 

Salah-ed-Deen,  (or  -eddiu.)     See  Saladin. 

Salai,  sa-lT',  or  Salaino,  si-ll'no,  (Andrea,)  an 
Italian  painter,  of  remarkable  personal  beauty,  was  born 
at  Milan  about  1475.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  whom  he  frequently  served  as  a  model.  He  pro- 
duced several  admired  works  in  the  style  of  Da  Vinci. 

See  Vasaki,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
nig  in  Italy." 

Salamanca,  si-li-m^n'kS,  (  Antonio,  )  an  Italian 
dealer  in  prints,  flourished  at  Rome  about  1540-50.  He 
published  many  engravings,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
engraved  a  "  Pieta"  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Sal&mee  or  Salami,  si-lS'mee,  (Abool-Hassan- 
Mohammed,)  an  Arab  poet,  born  at  Bagdad  in  915  ; 
(lied  in  1002. 

Salamon,  de,  deh  st'li'm^N',  (Louis  Sifrein  Jo- 
seph F0NCKOSI6,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Carpen- 
tras  in  1759,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Belley  in  1817, 
and  of  Saint-Flour  in  1823.     Died  in  1829. 

Salandri,  sS-lin'dRee,  (Pellegrino,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Reggio  in  1723.  He  wrote  sonnets  and  other 
short  poems,  the  style  of  which  is  said  to  be  pure  and 
elegant.     Died  in  1771. 

Salaa,  sS'lis,  (Gregorio  Francisco,)  a  Spanish  pas- 
toral poet,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1 740;  died  in  1808. 

Salat,  si'iSt,  (Jakok,)  a  German  philosopher  and 
Catholic  priest,  born  at  Abbtsgmiind  in  1766.  He  be- 
came professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Landshut  in 
1807,  and  published"  numerous  works  on  philosophy, 
psychology,  etc.     Died  in  185 1. 

Salat,  si-lit',  (Don  Jos6,)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  writer, 
born  at  Cervera  in  1762  ;  died  about  1828. 

Salaville,  sS'lt'vJK,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Leger  in  1755,  published  an 
"  Essay  on  Duelling,"  and  several  political  works. 
Died  in  1832. 

Salaza,  de,  di  sd-li'th5,  (Castro  Luis,)  historiogra- 
pher of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  lived  about  1680.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "Genealogical  History 
of  the  House  of  Silva,"  (1685.) 

Salazar,  de.     See  Mendoza,  de,  (Pedro.) 

SalazEir  y  Torres,  de,  di  sd-li-thiR'  e  tor'rSs,  (Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Soria  in  1642.  He 
wrote  comedies,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Segunda 
Celestina,"  and  lyric  poems.     Died  in  1675. 


Saldanha  Oliveira  e  Daun,  sil-din'yi  o-le-va'e-ra 
i  down,  (JoAO  Carlos,)  Duke  of,  a  Portuguese  s^es- 
man  and  marshal,  was  born  at  Arinhaga  about  1791.  He 
was  a  grandson  of  the  famous  Marquis  de  Pombal.  In 
1825  he  was  ajjpointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
subsequently  minister  of  war  under  Dom  Pedro.  After 
the  breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  at  Oporto,  he 
became  conjointly  with  Palmella  commander-in-chief 
of  the  constitutional  army.  With  the  assistance  of  the 
Duke  of  Terceira,  he  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Miguelists  in  1833.  He  was  prime  minister  from  1851 
to  June,  1856.  He  recovered  power  by  a  coup  (Titat  in 
May,  1870.      Died  at  London,  November  21,  1876. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Bio;^aphie  G^n^rale." 

Salden,  sil'den,  [  Lat.  Salde'nus,  ]  (Willem,)  a 
Dutch  theologian,  was  a  native  of  Utrecht.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  learned  works  in  Latin  and  Dutch. 
Died  in  1694. 

Saldenus.     See  Salden. 

Saldern,  von,  fon  sil'dlan,  (Friedrich  Christoph,) 
a  Prussian  general  and  skilful  tactician,  born  in  1 719, 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  He  published  "In- 
fantry Tactics,"  and  other  military  works.   Died  in  1785. 

Sale,  (George,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in  1680. 
His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  English  translation 
of  the  Koran,  (1734,)  with  explanatory  notes  from  the 
most  approved  commentators.  He  also  contributed  to 
the  "Universal  History"  edited  by  Swinton  and  others, 
and  to  the  "  General  Dictionary"  published  in  London 
in  1734.     Died  in  1736. 

Saile,  (Sir  Rohert  Henry,)  an  eminent  British  gene- 
ral, born  in  1782.  He  became  a  captain  in  1806,  and  a 
major  in  1813.  After  he  had  served  many  years  in  India, 
he  gained  distinction  in  the  Afghan  war,  which  began 
about  1838,  and  became  a  major-general  in  1840.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  stormed  the  Khoord  Cabool 
Pass  in  1841,  and  defended  Jelalabad  in  a  long  siege, 
from  November,  1841,  till  April,  1S42.  For  his  conduct 
at  the  capture  of  Cabool  he  was  knighted.  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  against  the  Sikhs  at  Mookee  in  1845. 

Sale-Bar'ker,  (Lucv,  tiee  Davies,)  a  British  author- 
ess, born  in  1S41.  She  was  a  niece  of  the  Earl  of  Perth, 
and  her  first  husband  was  a  Colonel  Villiers.  She  has 
published  many  books,  chiefly  for  the  young. 

Saleh-Ibn-Nahala.     See  Salih-Ibn-Nahala. 

Salel,  st'lSl',  (Hugues,)  a  French  poet  and  ecclesi- 
astic, born  in  1504,  was  patronized  by  Francis  I. 

Salemon  or  Salmon,  s3l'm6N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Nancy  in  1744;  died  in  1814. 

Salemon,  sd-li-m6n',  or  Salmon,  sil-m6n',  (Don 
Manuel  Gonzales,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  at 
Cadiz  in  177S,  was  employed  in  important  missions  to 
Portugal,  France,  and  Saxony,  and  was  appointed  by 
Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1830,  first  secretary  of  state,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.     Died  in  1832. 

Salerne,  st'liRn',  (Francois,)  a  French  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Orleans,  translated  Ray's  "  Orni- 
thology."    Died  in  1760. 

Sales,  de,  deh  stl,  (Charles,)  brother  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  at  Thorens  in  1625.  In  1665  he  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  Viceroy  of  Saint  Christopher 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  He  was  killed  in  an  engage- 
ment with  the  English  in  1666. 

Sales,  de,  (Charles  Auguste,)  nephew  of  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales,  born  in  Savoy  in  1606,  became  Bishop 
and  Prince  of  Geneva.  He  wrote  "The  Life  of  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales,"  (in  Latin  and  French,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1660. 

Sales,  de,  deh  stl  or  sS'lSs,  [sometimes  Anglicized 
in  pron.  as  salz,]  (Saint  Francis,)  an  excellent  bishop 
and  writer,  born  at  Sales,  in  Savoy,  on  the  2 1st  of 
August,  1567,  was  a  son  of  the  Count  de  Sales.  He 
entered  the  College  of  the  Jesuits,  in  Paris,  in  1578, 
and  studied  Greek,  with  philosophy  and  theology.  He 
afterwards  studied  law  at  Padua,  where  he  also  became 
a  pupil  of  .\ntonio  Possevino.  Having  resolved  to 
renounce  the  world,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1593, 
and  became  not  only  an  eloquent  preacher  but  a  model 
of  humility  and  other  Christian  virtues.  He  was  soon 
employed  as  a  missionary  among  the  Calvinists  of  Ge- 


a,  e,i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  Ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  nftt;  good;  moon: 


SALES 


2119 


SALISBURY 


neva  and  Chablais,  many  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
converted.  About  1602  he  visited  Paris  and  preached 
before  Henry  IV.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Geneva 
in  1602.  He  enforced  strict  discipline,  reformed  the 
monasteries,  and  abounded  in  works  of  charity  to  the 
poor.  In  160S  he  published  an  "Introduction  to  a 
Religious  Life,"  which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
offered  the  dignity  of  a  cardinal,  but  he  declined  it. 
Among  the  eminent  persons  converted  by  him  wa.s 
Marshal  Lesdiguieres.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Love  of  God,"  ("Traite  de  I'Amoui 
de  Dieu,"  1616.)  He  died  at  Lyons  in  December,  1622, 
and  was  canonized  in  1665. 

See"Histoire  de  Francois  de  Sales,"  by  his  nephew,  Charlrs 
AuGUSTK  DE  Sales,  i6:j4;  Jean  Pierre  Camus,  "Esprit  de 
Saiiit-Frangois  de  Sales,"  1641  ;  Louis  de  la  RivikRE,  "Vie  de  11. 
Francois  de  Sales,"  1634  ;  Gallizia,  "  La  Vita  di  S.  Francesco  ile 
Sales,"  1711;  Marsolliek,  "Vie  de  Saint- Francois  de  Sales," 
1700,  (and  English  version  of  the  same,  1737:)  Rensing,  "Lebei>t 
gesciiichte  des  heiligen  Franz  von  Sales,"  iSiS. 

Sales,  de,  (Louis,)  a  Catholic  theologian,  born  in 
Savoy  in  1564,  was  a  cousin  of  the  celebrated  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales.     Died  in  1625. 

Sales,  de,  (Louis,)  Comte,  a  brother  of  Saint  Fran- 
cis de  Sales,  was  born  in  Chablais  in  1577.  He  served 
as  general  of  the  army  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  His 
character  is  represented  as  excellent.     Died  in  1654. 

See  BuFFiER,  "  Vie  de  Louis  de  Sales,"  1718. 

Salfi,  sdl'fee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  philosopher 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza,  in  Calabria,  in  1759. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  philosophy  at  Milan 
in  1800,  and  subsequently  of  public  law.  He  published 
a  number  of  dramas,  among  which  are  "Medea,"  "  Ido- 
meneo,"  and  "  Saul,"  and  critical  essays,  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  Ginguene's  "  Literary  History  of  Italy," 
(1834.)  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle."     Died  near  Paris  in  1832. 

See  Angelo  Renzi,  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  politiqueitt  litt^raire  de 
F.  Salfi,"  1832  ;  L.  Gekco,  "  Vita  letteraria  ossia  Analisi  delle  Opere 
di  F.  Salfi,"  1839. 

Salgues,  stlg,  (Jacques  Barth6lemy,)  a  French 
littirateur  and  journalist,  born  at  Sens  about  1760. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
France  under  Napoleon,"  (9  vols.,  1814-28.)  Died  in 
1830. 

Salian,  st'le'flN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
1557,  was  rector  of  the  College  of  Besan9on.  He  wrote 
"Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  (in  Latin.)     Died  in  1640. 

Salicet.     See  Saliceto. 

Saliceti,  si-le-cha'tee,  (Aurelio,)  an  Italian  jurist, 
born  in  the  Abruzzo  in  1804,  filled  several  important 
offices  under  the  government.     Died  in  1S62. 

Saliceti,  [Fr.  pron.  sS'le'si'te',]  (Christophe,)  born 
at  Bastia,  in  Corsica,  in  1757,  was  a  deputy  to  the  French 
National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  king.  He  was  subsequently  a  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Five  Hundred,  and  minister  of  war  at  Naples  under 
Joseph  Bonaparte.     Died  in  1809. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Saliceto,  si-le-cha'to,  [Lat.  Placenti'nus  ;  Fr. 
Salicet,  st'le's^',]  (Guglielmo,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Piacenza,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  Sur- 
gery," (1476,)  and  other  medical  works,  in  Latin,  which 
were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  The  celebrated  Lan- 
franc  was  one  of  his  disciples.     Died  in  1280. 

Salieri,  si-le-a'ree,  (Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Legnano,  in  the  Venetian  States,  in 
1750.  He  studied  under  Gassmann  at  Vienna,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Gluck,  at  whose  request 
he  composed  the  opera  of  "  Les  Danaides,"  for  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  in  Paris.  This  work  was  received 
with  the  greatest  favour,  and  was  followed  by  "  La  Grotta 
de  Trofonio,"  "Tarare,"  "Assur  Roi  d'Ormus,"  and 
other  popular  operas.     Died  in  1825. 

See  Mosel,  "Life  and  Works  of  Salieri,"  (in  German,)  1827; 
FiiTis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie G^n^rale." 

Salies  or  Saliez,  de,  deh  st'Ie-i',  (Antoinette 
Salvan,)  a  French  authoress,  born  at  Alby  in  1638. 
Her  works  comprise  poems,  historical  romances,  and 
religious  essays.     Died  in  1730. 


Salignac,  de,  deh  sS'l^n'ySk',  (Bertrand,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  was  a  great-uncle  of  the  illustrious  Fenelon, 
He  was  ambassador  at  London  from  1572  to  1575,  and 
was  afterwards  sent  on  a  mission  to  Madrid  by  Henry 
IV.     Died  in  1599. 

SMih-Ibn-Nahala,  sI'Hh  Tb'n  nt'hJ-li,  sometimes 
written  Salih-  (or  Saleh-)  Ben-Bahleh,  a  celebrated 
physician  of  Bagdad,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  According  to  Abulpharagius,  (Aboolfaraj,)  he 
was  a  native  of  India. 

Salimbeni,  sS-lim-ba'nee,  written  also  Salimbene, 
(Arcangiolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  about 
1536,  was  a  native  of  Sieilna. 

Salimbeni,  (Ventura,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Sienna  in  1557.  He  executed  a 
number  of  fine  frescos  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  is 
"Abraham  and  the  Angels."  He  is  sometimes  called 
Bevilacqua,  after  his  patron  the  cardinal  of  that  name. 
Died  in  1613. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzt,  "Dizio- 
nario. " 

Salinas,  de,  di  sd-lee'nis,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
musician  and  writer  on  the  theory  of  music,  was  born  at 
Burgos  about  1512,  and  was  blind  from  his  infancy.  He 
published  in  1577  his  celebrated  treatise  "  De  Musica," 
in  seven  books.     Died  in  1590. 

Salinas  y  Cordova,  de,  dk  sS-lee'nSs  e  koR'do-va, 
(BoNAVENTURA,)  a  Franciscan  monk,  born  at  Lima,  in 
Peru,  became  vicar-general  of  his  order  for  the  provinces 
of  New  Spain,  P'lorida,  and  the  Philippines.  Died  in 
1653.  His  brother  DiEGO  was  historiographer  of  his 
order  in  South  America. 

Sal-i-na'tor,  (M.  Livius,)  a  Roman  general,  was 
consul  with  L.  ^milius  Paulus  in  219  B.C.  He  was 
again  elected  coi>sul  in  207,  as  a  colleague  of  C.  Claudius 
Nero,  who  was  his  personal  enemv.  The  consuls,  how- 
ever, co-operated  in  opposing  the  Carthaginian  invaders, 
and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Hasdrubal  on  the 
Metaurus,  (207  B.C.)  He  became  censor  in  204  B.C., 
and  put  a  tax  on  salt :  hence  his  surname  Salinator. 

Salins,  de,  deh  sS'liw',  (Hugues,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  antiquarian  writer,  born  at  Beauiie  in  1632 ; 
died  in  1710. 

Salio,  si'le-o,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born 
at  Padua  in  1700.  His  principal  work  is  a  sacred  poem 
on  the  Messiah.     Died  in  1737. 

Salis,  de,  deh  st'liss',  (Charles  Ulysse,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  at  Marschlins  in  1728.  He  was  appointed 
French  minister  for  the  Grisons  in  1768.  He  published 
several  historical  works.     Died  in  1800. 

SaUs,  de,  deh  st'liss',  (Rodolphe  Antoine  Hu- 
bert,) Baron,  born  in  1732,  entered  the  French  service, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  Died  in 
1807. 

Salis,  de,  (Tatius  Rodolphe  Gilbert,)  a  French 
royalist,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1752,  became  a  member  of 
the  Chainber  of  Deputies  for  Ardennes.     Died  in  1820. 

Salis,  de,  (Ulysse,)  Baron,  a  Swiss  soldier  and 
writer,  born  in  1594,  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  La  Rochelle  and  in  other  important  engagements. 
He  died  in  1674,  leaving  a  collection  of  "Memoirs," 
written  in  Italian,  which  are  highly  commended  by 
Haller. 

Salisbury,  Earl  of.    See  Cecil,  (Robert.) 

Salisbury,  (John  of,)  the  Elder.  See  John  ok 
Salisbury. 

Salisbury,  saulz'ber-e,  (John  of,)  the  Younger, 
an  English  Jesuit,  born  about  1575,  translated  several 
religious  works  into  Welsh,     Died  in  1625. 

Salisbury,  (Richard  Anthony,)  an  English  bot- 
anist, born  in  1762,  contributed  a  number  of  treatises 
to  the  "  Acts"  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  of  which  he 
was  a  member. 

Salisbury,  (Robert  Arthur  Talbot  Gascoigne- 
Cecil,)  Makquis  of,  an  eminent  British  statesman,  born 
at  Hatfield  in  1830.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1S53,  and 
was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College.  He  sat  in 
Parliament  for  Stamford,  1853-68.  He  was  for  many 
years  known  as  Lord  Robert  Cecil,  and  from  1S65  to 
1S6S  was   by  courtesy  called  Viscount   Cranbourne. 


«  as  ^;  9  af    '  %  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SALISBURY 


SALLUSTIUS 


He  was  secretary  lor  India,  1S66-67,  and  again,  1874-76. 
In  1876  he  was  special  ambassador  to  the  I'orte,  and  was 
practically  the  leader  of  the  Conference  of  Constanti- 
nople. In  1878  he  was  appointed  fcjreign  secretary,  and, 
with  Lord  Beaconsfleld,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Congress  of  Berlin.  He  was  after  Beaconsfield's  death 
the  jjrincipal  leader  of  the  Conservatives  in  the  House 
of  Lords. 

Salisbury  or  Salesbury,  saulz'ber-e,  ?  (William,) 
a  Welsh  writer,  born  in  Denbighshire,  published  a 
"  Dictionary  in  English  and  Welsh,"  (1547,)  and  assisted 
Bishop  Davies  in  translating  the  New  'restanient  into 
Welsh.  He  also  translated  into  that  language  the  Lit- 
urgy of  the  Church  of  England. 

Salis-See'wis,  si'lis  sa'<^is  or  sjt'li^ss'  sa'viss',  (Jo- 
HANN  Gaudenz,)  Baron,  born  at  Malans,  (or  Seewis,) 
in  Switzerland,  in  1762,  published  a  collection  of  lyric 
poems,  (in  German.)  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
poet  Matthisson.     Died  in  1S34. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Salis-Soglio,  von,  fon  si'liss  s61'vo.  (Johan.v  Ul- 
RIC,)  a  general,  born  at  Chur,  Switzerland,  in  1790.  He 
commanded  the  army  of  the  Sunderbiind — i.e.  the  league 
formed  by  the  seven  Roman  Catholic  cantons — in  1847. 
He  was  reduced  to  subjection  in  November  of  that  year. 
Died  April  27,  1874. 

Saiiv&hana,  siie-vii'ha-na,  a  Hindoo  prince  of 
Southern  Behar,  (Baiiar.)  He  instituted  the  era  which 
bears  his  name,  and  of  which  the  first  year  corresponds 
with  the  year  78  a.d. 

Salle,  sS'li',  (Jacques  Antoine,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  m  Paris  in  1712,  was  the  author  of  "Spirit  of  the 
Statutes  of  Louis  XV.,"  and  other  legal  works.  Died 
in  1778. 

Salle,  de  la,  deh  It  stl,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Rheims  in  165 1,  was  founder  of  the 
Institution  of  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools,  having 
for  its  object  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  the  poor.  Died 
in  1719. 

Salle,  de  la,  (Philippe,)  an  ingenious  French  artisan 
and  mechanician,  born  at  Seyssel  in  1723.  He  obtained 
in  17S3  a  gold  medal  for  his  improvements  in  the  silk- 
loom.     Died  in  1804. 

Salle  de  Letang,  de  la,  deh  It  stl  deh  li'tflw',  (Si- 
mon Philibert,)  a  French  agricultural  writer,  born  at 
Rheims  about  1700;  died  in  1765. 

Salle,  La.     See  I>a  Salle. 

Sallengre,  sSl-lfing'creh,  ?  (Albert  Hendrik,)  a 
Dutch  writer,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1694.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  a  "  New  Treasury  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (3  vols.,  17 16-19,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Literary  Journal  of  the  Hague."  He  died  in 
1723,  leaving  a  "History  of  the  United  Provinces  for 
the  Year  1621,"  which  came  out  in  1728. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Sallengros,  sS'15N'gRo',  (A.  BENotr  Francois,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Conven- 
tion in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died 
about  1 816. 

Salles,  stl,  (EustBE  Francois,)  a  French  physician 
and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1799.  He 
was  appointed  in  1835  professor  of  Arabic  at  Marseilles. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "  General  History 
of  Legal  Medicine,"  "Peregrinations  in  the  East,"  and 
"General  History  of  the  Human  Races,  or  Ethnographic 
Philosophy."     Died  January  i,  1873. 

S«lles,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  revolutionist  and 
member  of  the  National  Convention.  During  the  trial 
of  the  king  he  voted  for  the  appeal  to  the  people,  which 
he  was  the  first  to  propose.  He  was  executed  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1794. 

Salles,  de,  deh  stl,  (Charles  Marie,)  Comte,  a 
French  general,  born  about  1S04.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Sebastopol  in  May-September,  1855.  Died 
in  1858. 

Sallet,  von,  fon  si'li',  (Friedrich,)  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Neisse,  in 
Silesia,  in  i8l2.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "Laien- 
evangelium,"  is  a  poem  in  praise  of  Pantheism.  Died 
in  1843. 


Sallier,  st'le-i',  (Claude,)  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Saulieu  in  1685.  In  I7i9he  succeeded  Sarrazin 
as  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal  College,  and  was 
afterwards  appointed  keeper  of  the  manuscripts  in  the 
Royal  Library.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
in  1729,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Societies  of 
London  and  Berlin.  His  works  are  chiefly  critical  and 
antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1761. 

Sallier-Chamont,  st'ie-i'  sht'miN',  (Gui  Marie,) 
a  French  writer,  born  about  1750.  He  was  appointed 
in  1814  master  of  requests,  and  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.     Died  about  1840. 

Sallin,  st'ldN',  (Maurice,)  a  Savoyard  artist,  skilled 
in  sculpture  and  engraving,  born  in  1760;  died  in  1809. 

Sallior,  st'le'oK',  (Marie  Franc^ois,)  a  French  poli- 
tician and  writer,  born  at  Versailles  about  1740;  died 
in  1804. 

Sallo,  de,  deh  st'lo',  (Denis,)  Sieur  de  La  Coudraye, 
born  in  Paris  in  1626,  is  called  the  founder  of  modern 
literary  journals.  He  brought  out  in  1665,  corijointly 
with  other  writers,  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  which 
was  at  first  very  successful,  but  subsequently  gave  great 
offence  by  the  freedom  and  severity  of  its  criticisms. 
The  Abbe  Gallois  afterwards  became  editor  of  the 
'  Journal,"  which  was  continued  till  1792.    Died  in  1669. 

See  MoK^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historiqiie ;"  NicSron,  "Me- 
moires." 

Sal'lust,  [Lat.  Sallus'tius;  Fr.  Salluste,  st'liist'; 
It.  Sallustio,  sdl-loos'te-o,]  (or,  more  fully,  Caiu.s  Sal- 
lustius  Crispus,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian,  who 
was  born  of  a  plebeian  family  at  Amiternum  in  86  B.C. 
He  was  elected  tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C.,  and  was 
expelled  from  the  senate  by  the  censors  in  50  for  alleged 
immoral  conduct.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war.  In  the  year  47  he  obtained  the  ofifice  of  praetor, 
and  accompanied  Cassar  in  his  African  campaign.  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  Numidia  by  Cassar  in  46  B.C. 
According  to  Dion  Cassius,  he  enriched  himself  by  the 
oppression  and  plunder  of  the  people  of  that  province. 
After  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar  he  returned  to  Rome, 
and  built  a  sumptuous  palace  on  the  Quirinal,  with 
large  gardens,  still  called  Horti  Sallustiani.  Having 
retired  from  public  life,  he  devoted  his  latter  years  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  died  in  34  B.C.  The  scandalous 
charges  against  the  character  of  Sallust,  made  by  several 
ancient  and  modern  writers,  may  have  been  true,  but,  in 
the  opinion  of  soine  of  the  best  critics,  they  are  far  from 
having  been  established  by  any  decisive  evidence.  He 
was  much  influenced  by  party  spirit,  and  probably 
hated  the  aristocratic  party  more  than  he  loved  the  ple- 
beians. Sallust  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of 
Catiline,"  ("Bellum  Catilinarium,")  and  a  "History  of 
the  War  between  the  Romans  and  Jugurtha,"  ("  Bellum 
Jugurthinum.")  The  speeches  which  he  ascribes  to 
Cato,  Caesar,  and  others  in  his  histories,  though  proba- 
bly expressed  in  the  language  of  Sallust,  give  us,  there 
is  reason  to  believe,  the  substance  of  what  was  said  by 
those  eminent  men.  He  also  wrote  a  history  of  Rome 
for  the  period  included  between  78  and  66  B.C.,  which 
is  lost.  "The  ancient  critics,"  says  Macaulay,  "placed 
Sallust  in  the  same  rank  with  Livy ;  and  unquestionably 
the  small  portion  of  his  works  which  has  come  down  to 
us  is  calculated  to  give  a  high  opinion  of  his  talents. 
But  his  style  is  not  very  pleasant ;  and  his  most  power- 
ful work,  the  account  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  has 
rather  the  air  of  a  clever  party  pamphlet  than  that  of  a 
history."  (Essay  on  History  in  the  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view," 1828.) 

See  Des  Bkosses,  "Vie  de  Salluste;"  D.  W.  Moller,  "De  C. 
Sallustio,"  1684;  MOller,  "  C.  Sallustius,  oder  historisclie  Un- 
tersuchung,"  etc.,  1817;  F.  D.  Gerlach,  "  Ueber  den  Geschichts- 
schreiber  C.  Sallustius  Crispus,"  1831  :  E.  C.  de  Geri.achb, 
"  fitudes  sur  Salluste."  etc.,  1847;  Bregolini,  "Vita  di  C.  C. 
Sallustio,"  1802;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "  Fraser'i 
Magazine"  for  February,  1S46. 

Salluste,  the  French  for  Sallust,  which  see. 

Sallustio.     See  Sallust. 

Sallustius.     See  Sallust. 

Sal-lus'ti-u3  or  Salus'tius,  surnamed  THE  Philoso- 
pher, a  Roman  officer,  and  a  pagan,  was  pretorian  pre- 
fect under  the  emperor  Julian.     He  dissuaded  the  latter 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  n6t;  goodj  moon; 


SALLUSTIUS 


SALM-SALM 


from  persecuting  the  Christians.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  an  extant  work  "On  the  Gods 
and  the  World." 

Sallustius,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  born  in  Syria,  lived 
probably  between  450  and  500  a.d.  He  gained  distinc- 
tion as  an  orator. 

Sallus'tius  Cris'pus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  knight  and 
courtier,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Sallust  the  historian, 
whose  large  fortune  he  inherited.  He  was  a  man  of 
superior  talents  for  public  affairs,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  favoured  and  influential  advisers  of  Augustus.  He 
also  obtained  the  confidence  of  Tiberius.  Died  in  20  A.D. 
Salm,  silm,  a  great  and  very  wealthy  family  of  medi- 
atized German  princes  and  counts.  The  family  includes 
the  houses  of  Sal.m-Salm,  (q.  v.,)  Salm-Hoog- 
STRAETEN,  Salm-Kyrhurg,  Salm-Horstmar,  (the 
only  Protestant  branch,)  Salm-Reifferscheidt- 
Krautheim,  and  Salm-Reifferscheidt-Dvck.  Of 
these  houses,  certain  princes  have  the  titles  of  Rhin- 
graf,  Wildgraf,  Altgraf,  etc. 

Salm,  stlm,  a  French  general,  born  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Vosges  in  1768,  served  under  Pichegru  in  1794, 
and  subsequently  in  Italy  and  Spain.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Olivo,  in  181 1. 

Salniasius,  sil-nia'she-us,  (Claudius,)  [Fr.  Claude 
DE  Saumaise,  klod  deh  so'miz',]  a  celebrated  French 
scholar,  born  at  Semur  in  1588.  He  is  said  to  have 
written  Latin  and  Greek  verses  and  to  have  read  Pin- 
dar at  the  age  of  ten.  While  pursuing  his  studies  in 
Paris,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Casaubon,  by  whom 
he  was  induced  to  become  a  Protestant.  He  subse- 
quently studied  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Gruter,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  edition 
of  Florus,  ])ublished  in  1609.  This  was  succeeded  by 
his  "Historiae  Augustse  Scriptores  Sex,"  (1620,)  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  "Twelve  Caesars"  of  Suetonius;  edi- 
t!ons  of  TertuUian's  "  De  Pallio,"  of  Achilles  Tatius,  and 
other  classics.  His  greatest  work  is  entitled  "  Plinianae 
Exercitationes  in  C.  J.  Solini  Polyhistoria,"  (2  vols.,  1629.) 
The  immense  and  varied  learning  displayed  in  this 
production  raised  his  reputation  to  the  highest  point, 
and  he  received  invitations  from  several  princes  of 
Europe  to  settle  in  their  respective  countries.  In  1632 
he  became  honorary  professor  at  Leyden,  where  he  con- 
tinued chiefly  to  reside  till  he  visited  Sweden  in  1650  at 
the  invitation  of  Queen  Christina.  At  the  request  of 
Charles  II.,  then  in  Holland,  Salmasius  wrote  his  "  De- 
fensio  Regia  pro  Carolo  I.,"  (1649,)  being  a  defence 
of  monarchy  and  of  the  king  Charles  I.,  who  had  just 
been  put  to  death.  This  called  forth  Milton's  celebrated 
reply  entitled  "  Defensio  proPopulo  Anglicano,"  which 
Salmasius  was  about  to  answer,  when  he  died,  in  1653. 

"But  the  greatest,"  says  Hallam,  "in  this  province  of 
literature  [philology]  was  Claude  Saumaise,  best  known 
in  the  Latin  form  Salmasius,  whom  the  general  suffrage 
of  his  compeers  placed  at  their  head.  An  incredible 
erudition,  so  that  it  was  said  what  Salmasius  did  not 
know  was  beyond  the  bounds  of  knowledge, — a  memory 
such  as  none  but  those  great  scholars  of  former  times 
seem  to  have  possessed, — a  life  passed,  naturally  enough, 
in  solitary  labour, — were  sufficient  to  establish  his  fame 
among  the  learned."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  A.  Clement,  "Vita  Salmasii,"or  "  Vie  de  Saumaise,"  1656; 
MoR^Ri,  "  Dictioiinaire  Historique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogiaphie  Gen^- 
rale." 

Salm-Dyck,  sSlm'dik',  (Constance  Marie,)  Prin- 
cess OF,  a  French  poetess  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
whose  original  name  was  Th6is,  born  at  Nantes  in  1767, 
was  the  author  of  the  lyric  tragedy  of  "  Sappho,"  set  to 
music  by  Martini,  "  Epistle  to  Women,"  "  Eulogy  on 
Lalande,"  and  "My  Political  and  Literary  Reminis- 
cences," (1833.)     Died  in  1S45. 

See  Michel  Berr,  "  Notice  siir  la  Princesse  de  Salm ;"  A.  MoN- 
T^MONT,  "  Notice  siir  la  Princesse  de  Salm-Dyck,"  1845 ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Seilmeggia,  s51-m?d'ji,  (E.mea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  Talpin'o,  was  a  native  of  Bergamo.  He 
studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  and  became  one  of  his 
most  successful  iniitators.  Among  his  best  productions 
are  the  altar-pieces  in  the  churches  of  Santa  Marta  and 


Santa  Grata  at  Bergamo.     He   wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Painting."     Died  in  1626,  at  an  advanced  age 
See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Salmeron,  sai-nii-r6n',  (Alfonso,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1515,  was  one  of  the  chief  disciples  of 
Ignatius  Loyola.  He  published  several  theological  works, 
ind  had  a  prominent  part  in  founding  the  order  of  Jesuits. 
He  was  one  of  the  orators  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  to 
which  he  was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  HI.     Died  in  1585. 

See  RiBADENEiRA,  "  Vita  Salmeronls ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Hispana  Nova." 

Salmeron,  (Cristoval  Garcia,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Cuenca  in  1603;  died  ii^i  1666. 

Salm-Kyrburg,  de,  deh  stlm-k^R'biiR',  (Fr6d6ric 
Ernest  Otto,)  Prince,  born  in  Paris  in  1789,  served 
in  the  army  of  Napoleon  in  the  campaign  of  1807,  and 
afterwards  in  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Italy.     Died  in  1835. 

Salmon,  strm6N',  (Francjois,)  a  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  born  in  Paris  in  1677,  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Study  of  the  Councils,"  (1724.)     Died  in  1736. 

Salmon,  si'mtpn,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  Irish  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Dublin  in  1819.  He  was  educated  at  Cork, 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  graduated  in 
1839.  Having  become  an  Anglican  clergyman,  he  was  in 
1866  made  professor  of  divinity  in  his  university.  Besides 
volumes  of  sermons,  he  has  published  "Conic  Sections," 
"Higher  Plane  Curves,"  "Geometry  of  Three  Dimen- 
sions," "  Modern  Higher  Algebra,"  etc. 

Salmon,  (Jean,)  surnamed  Maigret  (mA'gRiO  or 
Macri'nus,  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Loudun  in  1490, 
was  the  author  of  Latin  odes,  which  were  highly  esteemed 
in  his  time.  Died  in  1557.  His  son  Charles  was  like- 
wise noted  for  his  learning,  and  was  preceptor  to  Cathe- 
rine of  Bourbon,  sister  of  Henry  IV.  He  perished  in 
the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  in  1572. 

Salmon,  (Louis  Adolphe,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1806.  Among  his  works  are  plates  after 
Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Da  Vinci. 

Salmon,  sS'mon,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  divine 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Bedfordshire.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Hertfordshire,"  "  Survey  of  the  Roman 
Stations  in  Britain,  according  to  the  Roman  Itinerary," 
(1721,)  ".Survey  of  the  Roman  Stations  in  the  Midland 
Counties,"  (1726,)  "Antiquities  of  Surrey,"  (1736,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1742. 

Salmon,  (Robert,)  an  English  mechanician,  born  in 
Warwickshire  in  1763;  died  in  182 1. 

Salmon,  (Thomas,)  brother  of  Nathaniel,  noticed 
above,  was  the  author  of  "  The  Chronological  Histo- 
rian," "Examination  of  Burnet's  History  of  his  Own 
Times,"  and  other  similar  works.     Died  about  1745. 

Salmon,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  empiric, 
published  "A  Universal  Herbal,"  "Compendium  of  the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1700. 

Salmonee.     See  Salmoneus. 

Sal-mo'neus,  [Gr.  laX/iuvevc ;  Fr.  Salmo.v^e,  stl'- 
mo'ni',]  in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of  .^olus,  a  brother 
of  .Sisyphus,  and  a  king  of  Elis.  The  poets  relate  that  he 
claimed  divine  honours,  imitated  thunder  and  lightning 
by  driving  his  chariot  over  a  brazen  bridge,  and  by 
throwing  burning  torches,  etc.,  for  which  impiety  he  was 
killed  by  a  thunderbolt  from  Jupiter. 

See  ViKGiL,  "^neid,"  book  vi.,  585. 

Salm-Reiiferscheidt,  sSlm  ri'fer-shlt'',  (Nicholas,) 
Count,  a  distinguished  general  in  the  Austrian  service, 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  and  took  prisoner  the 
French  king,  Francis  I.  In  1530  he  defended  Vienna 
against  the  Turks  under  Solyman  II.,  but  he  was  mor- 
tally wounded  during  the  last  attack, 

Salm-Salm,  silm  sSlm,  (Felix,)  Prince,  was  born 
of  a  distinguished  Austrian  family,  December  28,  1828. 
In  1862  he  married  Mademoiselle  Le  Clerq,  of  New 
York,  which  act  offended  his  family  and  caused  his 
exclusion  from  the  .\ustrian  court.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Federal  army  during  the  civil  war, 
towards  the  close  of  which  he  was  made  post-rommander 
at  Atlanta.  He  accompanied  Maximilian  to  Mexico  in 
1864,  and  was  appointed  by  him  aide-de-cani])  and  chief 
i)f  his  household.    After  the  downfall  and  death  of  Maxi- 


€  as  i;  9  as  X,'  g  ^arJ;  g  asy;  g,  h,  vi,^(ttural;  N,  luisal;  R,  triiled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SALNOVE 


SALVANDY 


lailian,  to  whom  he  remained  faithful  to  the  last,  he  re- 
turned to  Europe.  Having  entered  the  Prussian  service, 
as  major  in  the  fourth  regiment  of  grenadiers,  he  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Gravelotte,  August  16-17,  1870. 

Salnove,  de,  deh  stl'nov',  (Rohert,)  a  French  writer 
on  the  art  of  hunting,  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of 
Louis  XIII.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Venerie 
royale,"  (1655.) 

Sa-lo'me,  [Gr.  SaAw/^//,]  an  artful  and  cruel  woman, 
who  was  a  sister  of  Herod  the  Great.  By  calumnious 
accusations  she  induced  Herod  to  put  to  death  her  own 
husband,  Josephus,  and  Mariamne  the  wife  of  Herod. 
Died  about  12  a.d. 

Salomon,  the  French*  for  Solomon,  which  see. 

Salomon,  si'lo'm6N',  (FRANgois  Henri,)  a  French 
litleraUtir  of  little  merit,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1629,  be- 
came a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1646,  having 
for  his  competitor  the  great  Corneille.     Died  in  1670. 

Sal'o-mon  or  Sol'o-mon,  (Frederick,)  a  general, 
born  in  Prussia  in  1826.  He  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  worked  as  an  engineer  in  Wisconsin  before 
the  civil  war.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
about  July,  1862. 

Salomon,  si'lo-mon',  (Gotthold,)  a  Jewish  theo- 
logian and  preacher  at  Hamburg,  born  in  1784,  wrote 
commentaries  on  Haggai  and  Zechariah.     Died  in  1862. 

Salomon,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  celebrated  German 
composer  and  violinist,  born  at  Bonn  in  1745.  After 
visiting  Berlin  and  Paris,  he  settled  in  London,  where 
he  began  about  1790  a  series  of  subscription  concerts, 
for  which  Haydn  produced  his  twelve  grand  symphonies, 
generally  known  as  "composed  for  Salomon's  Concerts." 
Haydn's  oratorio  of  "  The  Creation"  was  brought  out 
in  1798  by  Salomon  at  the  Opera  concert-room.  Died 
in  1815. 

Sal'o-moni,  (David,)  a  Jewish  magistrate  and  states- 
man, born  in  London  in  iSoi.  He  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament for  Greenwicn  in  1851,  and  in  1855  became 
lord  mayor  of  London,  being  the  first  Jew  who  had 
ever  filled  that  office.     Died  July  18,  1873. 

Sal-o-ni'na,  (Publia  Licinia  Julia  Cornelia,)  a 
Roman  empress,  was  the  wife  of  Gallienus,  to  whom 
she  was  married  about  240  a.d.     Died  about  268. 

Sa-lo'ni-us,  a  French  prelate  of  the  fifth  century,  was 
the  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Lyons. 

Salornay,  de,  deh  st'loR'ni',  (Jean,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, who  became  Bishop  of  Macon.     Died  about  1445. 

S&lt,  (Henry,)  an  English  antiquary  and  savant,  born 
in  Yorkshire,  accompanied  in  1802  Lord  Valentia  as 
secretary  and  draughtsman  on  an  expedition  to  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  and  Hindostan.  He  discovered  the  cele- 
brated inscription  at  Axoom,  in  Abyssinia,  and  gave 
an  accurate  description  of  the  grand  obelisk  and  other 
monuments  of  that  city.  About  1815  he  was  appointed 
English  consul  in  Egy|)t,  where  he  prosecuted  his  anti- 
quarian researches,  and  was  treated  with  distinguished 
favour  by  Mehemet  Alee.  He  died  in  1827,  while  en- 
gaged on  a  work  relating  to  Egyptian  antiquities  and 
hieroglyphics.  He  had  previously  published  a  splendid 
atlas  of  engravings,  entitled  "Twenty- Four  Large  Views 
taken  in  Saint  Helena,  the  Cape,  Abyssinia,  Egypt, 
etc.,"  (1809,)  and  an  "Account  of  a  Voyage  to  Abys- 
sinia, and  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  that  Country,"  (1814.) 

See  J.  J.  Hall,  "The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  H.  Salt," 
1834;  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1814,  and  January,  1815. 

Salt,  (Sir  Tirus,)  Bart.,  an  English  manufacturer, 
born  at  Morley  in  1803.  He  introduced  into  England 
the  manufacture  of  alpaca,  built  the  town  of  Saltaire, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  liberality  and  philanthropy. 
Died  December  29,  1876. 

Sai'ter,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine  and  Greek 
scholar,  was  born  at  Norwich.  He  became  rector  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  London,  in  1756,  and  master  of  the 
Charter-House  in  1761.  He  was  one  of  the  writers  of 
the  "Athenian  Letters."  (See  Yorke,  Charles.)  Died 
in  1778. 

Salter,  (William,)  an  English  painter,  born  at 
Honiton,  Devonshire,  in  1804.  He  went  to  London  in 
1822,  and  entered  the  studio  of  Northcote,  with  whom 
he  remained  until   1827.     He  then  went  to  Florence, 


where  in  1851  he  exhibited  a  picture,  "Socrates  before 
the  Judges  of  the  Court  of  the  Areopagus,"  which  ob- 
tained his  election  as  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Florence.  In  1833  he  returned  to  England,  and  unc'er- 
took  his  elaborate  portrait-picture  commemorative  of 
the  annual  "Waterloo  Banquet"  at  Apsley  House,  well 
known  through  engravings.     Died  November  22,  1875. 

Sait'marsh,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  York- 
shire, wrote  several  treatises  in  favour  of  Antinomianisra, 
which  were  replied  to  by  Gataker.     Died  in  1647. 

SM'ton-stall,  (Gurdon,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1666,  was 
elected  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1707.    Died  in  1724- 

Saltonstall,  (Levereti',)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
and  member  of  Congress,  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  about  1782.  He 
served  in  Congress  from  1839  to  1843.  Died  at  Salem 
in  1845. 

Saltoun,  sJl'toon  or  s^l'ton,  (Alexander  George 
Eraser,)  Lord,  a  British  general,  born  probably  in 
Scotland  in  1785.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula,  l8o8- 
13,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of  Hougou- 
mont,  near  Waterloo,  iw  June,  1815.     Died  in  1853. 

Saluces.     See  Saluzzo. 

Saluces,  de,  deh  sS'liis',  (Dieudonn^e,)  Countess 
of  Revel,  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Turin  in  1774, 
wrote  both  in  French  and  Italian.  Her  principal  work 
i.s  entitled  "  Hypatia,'"  ("  Ippazia,"  181 7.)  Died  in  1840. 

Salutato.    See  Coluccio. 

Saluzzo  di  Menusiglio,  sS-loot'so  de  mA-noo- 
sfel'yo,  [Fr.  Saluces,  sS'liis',]  (Giuseppe  Angelo,) 
Count,  an  Italian  chemist  and  general,  born  at  Sa- 
luzzo in  1734.  He  made  discoveries  in  gases,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Turin,  for  which  he  wrote  several  able  memoirs.  Died 
in  1810. 

See  Grassi,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  G.  A.  Saluzzo  di  Menu- 
siglio," 1813. 

Salva,  sJl'vd,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Tortosa  in  1747,  was  the  first  to  introduce  inoculation 
into  Catalonia.  He  published  several  medical  and  sci- 
entific works.     Died  about  180S. 

Salva  y  Perez,  sSl'vi  e  pa'r&th,  (Don  Vincente,)  a 
learned  Spanish  bookseller  of  recent  times,  was  a  native 
of  Valencia.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  the 
University  of  Alcala.  He  published  editions  of  Men- 
doza's  "  History  of  the  Wars  of  Granada,"  and  other 
standard  works  in  Spanish,  and  a  translation  of  Cor- 
nelius Nepos,  with  notes.     Died  in  1851. 

Salvador,  sil'vt'doR',  (Joseph,)  a  French  writer,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1796,  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  the  Law  of  Moses,  or  the  Reli- 
gious and  Political  System  of  the  Hebrews,"  and  other 
works.     Died  March  31,  1873. 

Salvador,  s^1-vS-d6r',  (Juan,)  born  at  Barcelona  in 
1683,  wrote  a  number  of  botanical  treatises,  (still  in 
manuscript.)  Died  in  1726.  His  brother  Jos6  was  also 
a  distinguished  botanist  and  anatomist,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Medical  Academy  of  Spain.  Died  in 
1 77 1.  'I'he  genus  Salvadora  was  named  in  honour  of 
this  family  of  naturalists,  who  rendered  great  service  to 
botanical  science  in  Spain. 

Salvador  y  Bosca,  sSI-vS-dAr'  e  bos'kS,  (Don 
Juan,)  a  Spanish  botanist,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1598, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1681. 

Salvador  y  Pedrol,  sSl-vS-DiR'  e  pi-DRAK,  (Jayme,) 
son  of  Don  Juan  Salvador,  the  first  of  that  name,  was 
born  at  Barcelona  in  1649.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  naturalist,  and  was  a  friend  of  Tournefort, 
Boerhaave,  and  other  eminent  savants.     Died  in  1740. 

Salvandy,  de,  deh  stl'vftN'de',  (Narcisse  Achille,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  statesman  and  litterateur,  was  born  at 
Condom  in  1795.  He  became  master  of  requests  in 
the  State  Council  in  1819,  having  previously  published 
"The  Coalition  and  France,"  and  other  political  pam- 
phlets. He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1835, 
and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  April,  1837, 
to  Marcli,  1839.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Don 
Alonzo,  or  Sj^ain,"  a  political  rt)mance,  (1824,)  a  "  His- 
tory of  Poland  before  and   under  the   Reign  of  John 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  Io7ig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  pi  olonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  nSt;  g66d;  mdon| 


SALVE  MINI 


2123 


SAMBLANCAI 


Sobieski,"  (3  vols.,  1827-29,)  and  "Sixteen  Months,  or 
the  Revolution  of  1830."     Died  in  1856. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "  M.  de  Salvandy,  par  iin  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841:  Chari.es  Robin,  "  Biographie  de  M.  de  Salvandy,"  1S4S; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1832. 

Salvemini.    See  Castillon,  de. 

Salveite,  stl'vSRt',  (Anne  Joseph  EusfeBE  Bacon- 
NifeRE,)  a  French  Uttirateur  and  statesman,  born  in 
Paris  in  1771.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  for  the  department  of  Seine  in  1828,  and 
voted  with  the  opposition.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Literary  Picture  of  France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
(1809,)  "  Historical  and  Philosophical  Essays  on  the 
Names  of  Men,  Nations,  and  Places,"  etc.,  (1824,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1S39. 

See  Qu^RAKD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1830. 

Salvi,  sil'vee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  surnamed  Sassoferrato,  born  in  that  place  in 
1605.  His  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  are  particu- 
larly admired ;  also  the  altar-piece  in  the  cathedral  of 
Montefiascone  representing  the  death  of  Saint  Joseph. 
Died  in  1685. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Salvi,  (N[CCOl6,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  in  1699. 
His  greatest  work  is  the  fountain  of  Trevi,  at  Rome, 
executed  by  order  of  Clement  XII.     Died  in  1751. 

Salviani,  sil-ve-d'nee,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist, and  physician  to  Pope  Julius  III.,  was  born  at  Citta 
di  Castello  in  15 14.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  History  of  Water  Animals,"  ("  Aquatilium  Animalium 
Historia,"  1554.)     Died  in  1572. 

See  CuviER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles." 

Sal-vi-a'nus,  [Fr.  Salvien,  stl've^w',]  a  presbyter 
of  Marseilles,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Cologne, 
flourished  in  the  fifth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Treatise  against  Avarice,"  and  one  "  On  the  Govern- 
ment of  God,"  which  are  written  in  elegant  Latin. 

Salviati,  s^l-ve-i-tee,  (Antonio,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  artist  in  mosaic,  born  at  Verona  in  1816.  He 
was  educated  at  Padua  and  Vienna,  and  became  a 
student  of  Middle- Age  art.  He  later  established  a  labo- 
ratory for  mosaics  on  the  island  of  Murano,  near  Venice. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  restorers  of  the  manufacture  of 
Muranese  glass.  His  mosaics  are  known  in  almost  every 
part  of  Europe.     Died  in  1890. 

Salviati,  sil-ve-S'tee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  cardi- 
nal, born  at  Florence  before  1500;  died  in  1568. 

Salviati,  (Francesco  Rossi  da — ros'see  dS,)  called 
also  Cecco  (chSk'ko)  Rossi,  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  15 10,  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Salviati,  vvho  conferred  upon  him  his  name.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Andrea  del  Sarto  and  of  Bandinelli.  He  was 
also  the  intimate  friend  of  Vasari,  who  was  his  fellow- 
student  at  Rome.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The 
Battles  and  Triumph  of  Camillus,"  in  the  Palazzo  Vec- 
chio  at  Florence,  "The  Taking  down  from  the  Cross," 
in  the  church  of  the  Celestines  in  Paris,  and  the  frescos 
representing  the  history  of  Psyche  in  the  Palazzo  Gri- 
mani.     Died  at  Rome  in  1563. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Salviati,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Florence  in  1490,  was  a  brother  of  IJernardo,  noticed 
above,  and  a  grandson  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.     Died  in 

1553-  .    . 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogia. 

Salviati,  (Giuseppe.)    See  Port.\. 

Salviati,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  littera- 
teur, born  at  Florence  in  1540,  was  an  adversary  of 
Tasso,  and  caused  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca  to  share 
his  hostility  against  that  poet.  He  wrote  comedies  and 
treatises  on  language,  rhetoric,  etc.  His  "  Avvertinienti 
della  Lingua  sopra'l  Decamerone"  (3  vols.,  1584-86)  was 
highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1589. 

See  Negri,  "  Scrittori  Fiorentini :"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della 
Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Salvien.     See  Salvianus. 


Salvini,  sil-vee'nee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian 
philologist  and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1653.  He 
translated  several  Greek  and  Latin  authors  into  Italian. 
In  1676  he  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Florence.  He 
wrote,  besides  many  other  works,  "  Academic  Dis- 
courses," (3  vols.,  1695-1733,)  "Prose  sacre,"  (1716,) 
and  "  Sonetti,"  (1728.)     Died  in  1729. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vit»  Italorum,"  etc.;  Perijzzi,  "  Orazione  in 
Morte  di  A.  M.  Salvini,"  1731;   "Nouvelle  Biographie  G>5n^rale." 

Salvini,  (Salvino,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1667.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
learned  works,  among  which  is  "  Fasti  consolari  dell' 
Accademia  Fiorentina,"  (1717.)     Died  in  17s i. 

Salvini,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  tragedian,  born  at 
Milan,  January  i,  1830.  He  had  already  won  fame,  when 
in  1849  he  entered  the  patriot  army,  where  he  served 
with  distinction.  Since  that  time  he  has  won  laurels  in 
every  civilized  land,  and  is  universally  recognized  as  one 
of  the  few  great  actors  of  the  time. 

Salvino  degli  Armati,  sil-vee'no  dil'yee  aR-mi'tee, 
born  at  Florence  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
spectacles, — though  the  Chinese  appear  to  have  used 
them  ages  before. 

Salvolini,  sal-vo-lee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Faenza  in  1809,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
celebrated  Mezzofanti.  He  published  a  "Grammatical 
Analysis  of  the  Different  Ancient  Egyptian  Texts," 
(1836.)     Died  in  1838. 

Salvoni,  sil-vo'nee,  (PiERO  Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
[)oet,  born  at  Parma  in  1723;  died  in  1784. 

Saly,  st'le',  (Jacques  FKANgois  Joseph,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  171 7,  worked  about 
twenty  years  at  Copenhagen.  His  chief  work  is  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark.  Died 
in  1776. 

Salza,  von,  fon  sllt'sS,  (Hermann,)  a  German  diplo- 
matist and  soldier,  born  about  1180;  died  in  1239. 

Salzmann,  saits'min,  (  Christian  Gotthilf,  )  a 
German  Protestant  divine  and  educational  writer,  born 
near  Erfurt  in  1744.  He  founded  in  1784,  at  Schnep- 
fenthal,  a  school  on  the  system  of  Basedow  and  Rous- 
seau, which  became  widely  popular.     Died  in  181 1. 

Salzmann,  (Friedrich  Zacharias,)  a  German 
horticulturist,  born  in  1730,  was  gardener  to  Frederick 
the  Great  of  Prussia.  He  published  several  woiks  on 
gardening  and  fruit-culture.     Died  in  1801. 

Samacchini,  sS-mik-kee'nee,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1532,  was  a  pupil  of  Pelle- 
grino.  His  picture  of  the  "  Purification,"  in  the  church 
of  Saint  James  at  Bologna,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece. 
Died  in  1577. 

Saman  or  Samani.     See  Samanides. 

Samanidae.     See  Samanides. 

Samauiden.     See  Samanides. 

Samanides,  sam'a-nidz  or  sS-man'idz,  sing.  Sam'a- 
nide,  [Fr.  pron.  sJ'mS'nid';  Ger.  Samaniden,  si-mi- 
nee'den ;  Lat.  Saman'id^,]  the  name  of  a  Persian 
dynasty,  which  ruled  in  the  tenth  century.  Its  founder 
was  Saman,  (sj'min',)  who  flourished  about  930.  The 
last  prince  of  this  line  was  assassinated  in  the  reign  of 
Mahmood  the  Gaznevide,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century. 

Samaniego,  si-mi-ne-a'go,  (Felix  Maria,)  a  dis- 
tinguished fabulist,  sometimes  called  "the  Spanish  La 
Fontaine,"  born  at  Bilbao  about  1742.  His  works  are 
entitled  "Fables  in  Verse."     Died  about  1804- 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Samary,  st'mi're',  (Philippe,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
poet,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1731;  died  in  1803. 

Sambhu,  a  surname  of  Siva,  (which  see.) 

Sambiasi,  sdm-be-i'see,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  mis- 
sionary to  China,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1582 ;  died  in  1649. 

Sambin,  sSN'b^N',  (Hugues,)  a  French  architect, 
and  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo,  was  born  at  Dijon.  He 
wrote  "On  the  Terms  used  in  Architecture,"  (1572.) 

Sarablangai,  de,  deh  s6N'bl6N'si',  (Jacques  dk 
Beaune — bon,)  Baron,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  superintendent  of  finance  under 
Charles  VIIL.  Louis  XII.,  and  Francis  I.     Being  ac- 


«as  k;  9  as  s;  | hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,^(Uura/;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (fl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAMBUCUS 


2124 


SANCHEZ 


cused  of  peculation  by  the  queen-mother,  the  Duchess 
of  Aiigouleme,  he  was  executed  in  1527. 

Sam-bu'cus,  (John,)  a  distinguished  scholar,  born 
at  Tyrnau,  in  Hungary,  '¥.\  153 1.  He  was  historiogra- 
pher to  tlie  emperor  Maximilian  H.,  and  was  also 
patronized  by  his  successor,  Rudolph  H.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  a  continuation  of  the  "  History  of  Hungary"  of 
Bonfinius  ;  also  commentaries  on  various  classics.  Died 
in  1584- 

See  HoRANYi,  "  Memoria  Hungarorum  ;"  Sax,  "Onomasticon." 

Sa-me'rl-u3,  (Henry,)  a  Jesuit,  born  in  France  in 
1540,  was  for  a  time  confessor  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Sacred  Chro- 
nology," (in  Latin.)     Died  about  1610. 

Sammarthaiius.     See  Sainte-Marthe. 

Sammartino,  sJm-maR-tee'no,  (Matteo,)  Count  of 
Vische,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1494,  was  the  author  of 
"  Eclogues"  and  other  poems  ;  also  "  Grammatical  and 
Poetical  Observations  on  the  Italian  Language." 

Sammes,  samz,  (Ayleti,)  an  English  antiquary,  who 
wrote  "The  Antiquities  of  Ancient  Britdn  derived  from 
the  Phoenicians."     Died  in  1679. 

Sammicheli.     See  Sanmichei.i. 

Sa-mou'i-cus  or  Sam-moii'i-cns,  (Quintus  Se- 
RENUS,)  a  Roman  writer,  of  whom  little  is  known,  ex- 
cept that  he  was  put  to  death  by  Caracalla  about  212 
A.D.  A  medical  treatise,  in  verse,  entitled  "Carmen  de 
Medicina,"  is  ascribed  to  him. 

See  Rbuss,  "  Lectioues  Sammoiiicje,"  1837. 

Sampietro,  sim-pe-a'tRo,  a  Corsican  soldier,  born 
in  the  district  of  Ajaccio  about  1500,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  French  army  under  Francis  L  and  Henry 
IL     He  perished  by  assassination  in  1567. 

Sanip'son,  (Henry,)  an  English  physician  and  non- 
conformist divine,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  studied  at 
Leyden  and  Padua,  and  became  a  member  of  the  College 
of  Physicians.     Died  in  1705. 

Sampson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine  and 
theologian,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1517;  died  in  1589. 

Samsi-Vul  IV.,  or  Samas  Rimmon,  King  of  As- 
syria, was  the  son  and  successor  of  Shalmaneser  H., 
who  died  U.C.  825.  Samsi-Vul  was  a  great  warrior.  He 
conquered  Media,  and  defeated  Marudak,  (Merodach,) 
King  of  Babylon,  compelling  him  to  cede  large  prov- 
inces. He  died  about  812  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Vul-Nirari  HI. 

Sam  Slick.     See  Halihurton. 

Sainsoe,  stm-so'eh,  (Ole  Johan,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Nestved  in  1759.  His  principal  works  are 
"  Frithiof"  and  other  Scandinavian  tales,  and  the  tragedy 
of"  Dyvecke,"  which  was  very  successful.    Died  in  1796. 

Sam'son,  [Heb.  jIB'rDiy,]  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel, 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  the  son  of  Manoah,  was 
born  about  1155  B.C.,  and  at  an  early  age  gave  proof 
of  supernatural  bodily  strength.  After  performing 
several  wonderful  actions,  he  was  made  prisoner  and 
deprived  of  his  sight  by  the  Philistines,  a  great  number 
of  whom  he  subsequently  destroyed,  along  with  him- 
self, by  pulling  down  the  temple  in  which  they  were 
assembled. 

See  Judges  wii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvL 

Sani'son,  (George  Whitfield,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts, 
in  1819,  was  elected  in  1859  president  of  Columbian 
College,  Washington.  He  has  published  letters  on 
Egypt,  Palestine,  etc.,  and  a  treatise  entitled  "Spiritual- 
ism Tested." 

Samson,  s6n's6n',  (Joseph  Isidore,)  a  French  actor 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Saint-Denis  in  1793  ;  died  1871. 

Samuel,  [  Heb.  SxiOty.]  ^  Hebrew  prophet  and  judge, 
born  about  11 55  or  11 70  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Elkanah 
and  Hannah.  About  the  age  of  forty  he  became  judge 
or  chief  ruler  of  Israel.  Having  been  urgently  requested 
by  the  elders  to  give  them  a  king,  he  anointed  Saul  to 
reign  over  Israel.  He  afterwards  prophesied  against 
Saul,  and  anointed  David  as  his  successor.  He  died 
about  the  age  of  ninety-five.  His  name  has  been  given 
to  two  historical  books  of  Scripture.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  written  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  of  the  first 
book  of  Samuel,  which  see. 


Sam'u-^ls,  (Edward  Augustus,)  an  American  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Boston,  July  4,  1836.  His  principal  works 
are  "Ornithology  and  Oology  of  New  England"  and 
"Among  the  Birds." 

Samund,  sa'moond,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  his- 
torian, born  in  Iceland  about  1056.  His  principal  work 
was  a  "  History  of  the  Norwegian  Kings  from  Harold 
Haarfager  to  Magnus  the  Good,"  which  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.  He  is  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  one  of  the  authors  of  the 
"  Edda."     Died  in  1133. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sam'^well,  (David,)  a  native  of  Denbighshire,  Wales, 
accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  last  voyage,  and  was 
a  witness  of  his  murder,  of  which  he  published  an  ac- 
count.    Died  in  1799. 

San,  s6n  or  sin,  (G6rard  Xavier,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1754  ;  died  in  1830. 

Sanadon,  st'nS'd6N'.  (Noel  Etienne,)  a  learned 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Rouen  in  1676,  was  appc'inted 
in  1728  librarian  of  the  College  of  Louis  le  Grand  in 
Paris.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  French  translation 
of  Horace,  (in  prose,  1728,)  which  was  highly  esteemed 
at  that  time.    He  also  wrote  elegant  Latin  poems.    Died 

'11  1733- 

See  MoR^Rl,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sanatroces,    (Sanadrug.)      See   Arsaces   XI.   of 

Parthia. 

San  Carlos,  sin  kaR'16s,  (Josef  Miguel  de  Carva- 
jal — kaR-viudl',)  Dukk  of,  a  statesman  and  diploma- 
tist, born  at  Lima,  in  -South  America,  in  1 77 1.  Having 
been  educated  in  Spain,  he  was  appointed  governor  to 
the  Prince  of  Asturias,  afterwards  Ferdinand  VII.,  and 
in  1807  became  Viceroy  of  Navarre. 

Sanche.     See  Sancho. 

Sanches,  sin'sh^s,  (.Antonio  Nunhez  Ribeiro,)  a 
Portuguese  physician,  born  in  1699,  studied  at  Leyden 
under  Boerhaave,  and  subsequently  became  physician 
to  the  Empress  of  Russia,  (1731.)     Died  in  1783. 

Sanchez,  sdn'ch&th,  (Lat.  Sanc'tius, |  (Francisco,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Las  Bro9as,  in 
Estremadura,  in  1523,  became  professor  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages  and  rhetoric  at  Salamanca.  He 
published  editions  of  several  Latin  classics,  and  a  num- 
ber of  original  treatises  in  Latin,  among  which  we  may 
name  his  "  Minerva,  seu  de  Causis  Linguae  Latina;  Com- 
mentarius,"  ("Commentary  on  the  Princii)les  of  the 
Latin  Tongue,")  which  was  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
Died  in  1601. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Sanchez,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  physician,  of  Jew- 
ish extraction,  was  the  author  of  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Physics  of  Aristotle,"  (in  Latin,)  and  several  medical 
works.     Died  in  1632. 

Sanchez,  (Gaspard,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  biblical 
critic,  born  at  Cifuentes  about  1553,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Alcala.     Died  in  1628. 

Sanchez,  (Pedro  A.ntonio,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Galicia  in  1740,  was  celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  religious  works,  and  filled  the 
chair  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Santiago  de  Com- 
postella.     Died  in  1796. 

Sanchez,  (Tomas,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Cordova  in  1550.  His  principal  work  is  en- 
titled "Disputations  concerning  the  Holy  Sacrament  of 
Marriage,"  ("  Disputationes  de  Sancto  Matrimonii  Sa- 
cramento," 1602.)     Died  in  1610. 

Sanchez,  (Tomas  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  scholar  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1730,  published  a  "Collection  of 
Castilian  1  oetry  before  the  Fifteenth  Century."  Died 
in  1798. 

Sanchez  de  Arevalo,  sin'ch§th  di  i-ri-vi'lo,  (Ro- 
drigo,)  [Lat.  Roderi'cus  Sanc'tius,]  a  learned  Spanish 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Segovia  in  1404.  He 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Paul  II.  governor  of  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo,  and  Bishop  successively  of  Zamora, 
Calahorra,  and  Palencia.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works 
in  Latin,  among  which  may  be  named  his  "  Mirror  of 
Human  Life,"  ("Speculum  Vitae  Humanae,")  and  a 
"History  of  Spain."     Died  in  1470. 


a.  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  in(3&n; 


SANCHEZ 


2125 


SAND 


Sanchez  Coello.    See  Coello. 

Sancho,  sin'cho  or  san'cho,  [Fr.  Sanche,  sfiNsh,]  I., 
King  of  Leon,  succeeded  his  brother,  Ordono  III.,  in 
955  A.D.     Died  in  967. 

Saiacho  IL,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  born  about 
1035.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Ferdinand  L,  in  1065. 
Died  in  1072. 

Sancho  III.,  a  son  of  Alfonso  VIIL,  born  about  I130, 
began  to  reign  over  Castile  in  1157.     Died  in  1 158. 

Sancho  IV.,  surnamed  el  Bravo,  ("the  Hrave,") 
King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  born  in  1258,  was  a  son  of 
Alfonso  X.  lie  revolted  against  his  father  in  1282,  and 
involved  the  country  in  a  long  civil  war.  He  became 
king  at  the  death  of  Alfonso,  in  1284.  Died  in  1295. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Fernando  IV. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espaiia  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^ndrale." 

Sancho  III.,  King  of  Navarre,  called  the  Great, 
was  born  about  965  a.d.,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Garcia  II.,  about  1000.  He  was  a  warlike  prince,  and 
extended  his  dominions  by  conciuest.     Died  in  1035. 

San'cho  [Port.  pron.  sdn'sho)  I.,  King  of  Portugal, 
born  in  1154,  succeeded  his  father,  Alfonso  I.,  in  I185. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  beneficent  ruler. 
Died  in  1212. 

Sancho,  sdn'cho  or  sank'o,  (Ignatius,)  a  negro 
poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  on  board  a  slave- 
ship  in  1729,  was  taken  to  England,  where  he  was 
educated,  and  acquired  the  friendship  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
Garrick,  and  other  distinguished  persons.  He  published 
poems,  dramatic  works,  and  "  Letters."     Died  in  1780. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  Deceirber,  1783.  • 

San-cho-ni'a-thpn  or  San-ehu-ni'a-thon,  [Gr. 
2!ay,\owtdC(jv,]  a  Phoenician  writer,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Ber'ytus,  and  to  have  flourished  about 
fourteen  centuries  B.C.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  Phoenicia,"  which  was  translated  into  Greek  from 
the  Phoenician  by  Philo  of  Byblus.  The  manuscript  of 
this  translation  is  said  to  have  been  found  in  Portugal  in 
1835;  but  it  is  now  generally  believed  to  be  spurious. 
It  was  translated  into  German  by  Wagenfeld,  (1836.) 

See  Fabricius,  "  BIbliotheca  Gr.tca ;"  F.  L.  Viiie,  "  Commen- 
tatio  de  Sanchoniathone,"  1.S42  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

San  Concordio,  da,  di  sin  kon-koR'de-o,  (Barto- 
LOMMEu,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Pisa  in  1262. 
His  work  entitled  "  Amniaestramenti  degli  Antichi"  is  a 
translation  from  the  maxims  of  the  ancient  philosophers, 
and  is  esteemed  a  model  of  elegance  in  style. 

Sau'croft,  (Willia.m,)  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  nonjuror,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1616,  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
1678.  After  James  II.  had  issued  his  edict  of  toleration, 
Sancroft  and  si.x  other  bishops  presented  a  petition 
against  it,  and  were,  in  consequence,  imprisoned  for  a 
time  in  the  Tower.  Having  refused  to  take  the  oaths 
on  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  (1689,)  he  was 
superseded  in  his  office  by  Archbishop  Tillotson.  Died 
ill  1693. 

See  the"  Life  of  William  Sancroft,"  by  George  D'Ovlev,  Lon- 
don, 1S66;  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England;"  Miss  STRICKLAND, 
"  Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops." 

Sanctis,  de,  di  sdnk'tfes,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
author  and  statesman,  born  at  M<irra  Irpino,  March  28, 
1817.  He  entered  the  Neapolitan  military  and  civil 
service.  In  1850  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  three  years' 
term,  after  which  he  was  banished.  In  1856  he  became 
professor  of  Italian  at  Zurich.  In  i860  he  returned  to 
Naples,  after  which  time  he  took  a  i)rominent  part  in 
Italian  affairs,  being  several  times  minister  of  public 
instruction.  lie  won  distinction  as  an  orator  and  writer 
of  excellent  abilities.  His  political  position  was  usually 
between  that  of  the  radicals  and  the  moderate  liberals. 
His  principal  books  are  "  Saggi  critici,"  "  Nuovi  Saggi 
critici,"  and  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana,"  ("His- 
tory of  Italian  Literature.")  Died  in  1S84. 
Sanctius.  See  Sanchez,  (Francisco.) 
Sanc-to'rI-us,  an  eminent  Italian  physician,  whose 
original  name  was  Santorio,  (sin-to're-o,)  was  born  at 
Capo  d'Istria  in  1561.  He  was  appointed  in  1611  pro- 
fessor of  the  theory  of  medicine  at  Padua.    I  le  published 


several  valuable  medical  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  entitled  "Ars  de  Statica  Medicini  Secticnibus 
Aphorismorum  Septem  Comprehensa."  This  treatise, 
which  was  translated  into  several  languages,  gives  the 
result  of  a  series  of  experiinents  on  insensible  perspira- 
tion.    Died  in  1636. 

See  A.  Capelli,  "  De  Vita  Sanctorii,"  1750;  Hallhr,  "  Bibllu- 
theca  Medica  ;"  notice  in  the  "  Biographie  M^dicale,"(by  Boisshau.) 

Sancy,  de,  deh  sfiN'se',  (  Nicolas  Harlay,  )  a 
French  statesman,  born  in  1546,  rose  to  be  superintend- 
ent of  finance  under  Henry  HI.     Died  in  1629. 

Sand,  sint,  [Lat.  San'dius,]  (Christoi'II,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1644,  published 
several  works  in  favour  of  Socinianism.  Died  in  1680. 
Sand,  |Fr.  pron.  s6Nd,]  (George,)  the  assumed  name, 
of  Amantine*  Lucile  Aurore  DupiN,  (t'mSN'tin' 
lii'sfel'  o'rou'  dii'p^N',)  Madame  Dudevant,  (dii'deh-vftN',) 
a  celebrated  French  novelist,  born  in  Paris  on  the  1st 
of  July,  1804.  Her  father,  Maurice  Dupin,  an  officer  of 
the  army,  was  a  son  of  M.  Dupin  de  Francueil,  who  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  the  famous  Maurice  de  Saxe.  The 
subject  of  this  article  was  thus  a  great-granddaughter  of 
Maurice  de  Saxe,  who  was  a  natural  son  of  Augustus 
II.  of  Poland.  Her  father  having  died  in  1808,  she  was 
educated  by  her  grandmother,  Madame  Dupin,  at  the 
chateau  de  Nohant,  in  the  department  of  Indre,  where 
she  had  full  liberty  to  indulge  and  develop  her  romantic 
and  wayward  tendencies.  She  passed  three  years  (1817- 
20)  in  the  convent  of  the  Augustines  Anglaises,  Pat  is, 
and  was  for  a  time  a  zealous  devotee,  accepting  the 
mysteries  of  Catholicism  with  ecstasy,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  morbid  reaction.  She  tormented  herself 
with  scruples,  accused  herself  of  constant  sin,  and  be- 
came very  despondent.  In  1820  she  left  the  convent 
and  returned  to  Nohant,  where  her  love  and  taste  for 
natural  scenery  were  fostered  and  developed.  She 
delighted  in  horseback-excursions,  and  studied  philos- 
ophy in  the  works  of  Aristotle,  Leibnitz,  and  Locke ; 
but  Rousseau  was  her  prime  favourite  among  authors. 

She  inherited  the  estate  of  Nohant  on  the  death  of  her 
grandmother,  in  1821,  and  was  married  in  1822  to  M. 
Dudevant,  a  retired  officer  of  the  army.  They  had  two 
children,  Maurice  and  Solange.  After  living  together 
about  ten  years,  they  separated  by  mutual  consent,  be- 
cause their  tastes  or  tempers  were  incompatible.  She 
became  a  resident  of  Paris,  and,  having  given  up  her  for- 
tune to  her  husband,  adopted  tlie  profession  of  literature 
for  a  subsistence.  In  conjunction  with  her  friend  Jules 
Sandeau,  she  wrote  "  Rose  et  Blanche,"  a  tale,  (5  vols., 
1831.)  She  alone  produced  in  1832  a  novel  called  "  In- 
diana," which  appeared  under  the  pseudonym  of  George 
Sand  and  had  great  success.  Her  celebrity  was  in- 
creased by  "Valentine,"  (2  vols.,  1832,)  and  a  parado.xi- 
cal  work  of  fiction,  entiijed  "  Lelia,"  (2  vols.,  1833,)  which, 
says  the  "National  Rfview,"  "is  the  most  famous  and 
the  most  typical  of  her  novels.  It  is  to  an  English 
reader,  and  judged  of  from  the  point  of  view  of  cominon 
sense,  one  of  the  most  incoherent,  foolish,  morbid,  blas- 
phemous, and  useless  books  that  have  been  sent  across 
the  Channel  during  the  present  century."  The  same 
critic  remarks,  "  She  has  a  true  and  a  wide  appreciation 
of  beauty,  a  constant  command  of  rich  and  glowing 
language,  and  a  considerable  faculty  of  self-analysis 
and  setf-reflection.  ...  In  spite  of  all  her  defects,  she 
awakens  an  admiration  which  cannot  be  reasoned  away." 
(See  article  "George  Sand"  in  the  "National  Review," 
reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age"  of  February  27,  1858.) 

She  afterwards  produced  "  Metella,"  (1833,)  "Leone 
Leoni."  (1834,)  "Jacques,"  (1834,)  and  "Mauprat,"  (2 
vols.,  1836,)  which,  with  other  tales,  appeared  first  m  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Her  "  Spiridion"  (1839) 
and  "Consuelo"  (1844)  are  said  to  have  been  written 
under  the  inspiration  of  her  friend  Pierre  Leroux. 
Between  1844  and  1850  she  published  pastoral  romances 
entitled  "La  Mare  au  Diable,"  (1846,)  "Francois  le 
Champi,"  (1849,)  and  "La  petite  Fadette,"  which  were 
much  admired,  as   models  of  a  new  style  of  fiction. 


•  The  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  gives  this  name  as 
Armandine;  Pierer's  "  Universal-Lexikon"  has  Amandine;  nearly 
all  the  other  authorities,  including  Vapereau,  have  it  as  given  above. 


€  as  i;  9  as i;  g  hard;  g  asy;  a  H,  K.,pittural;  N,  tmsal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  ikis.     ( Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  2-?.) 


SAA^D 


2126 


SAND  IFOR  7 


"  They  are  free,"  says  the  "  National  Review,"  "  from  all 
that  provokes  censure  in  her  other  writings, — from  theo- 
ries, from  declamation,  from  indelicacy.  They  move  as 
with  a  quiet  flow  that  is  irresistibly  fascinating,  and  are 
full  of  beauties  of  language  to  which  it  is  impossible  to 
do  Justice." 

George  Sand  was  an  advanced  liberal  in  politics.  About 
the  beginning  of  her  literary  career  she  assumed  the  cos- 
tume of  the  male  sex.  She  professed  to  be  a  socialist, 
and  denounced  the  conventional  system  of  marriage. 
She  was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  revolution  of  1848, 
after  which  she  edited  a  democratic  weekly  paper  for  a 
short  time,  Sht  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  dramas, 
among  which  are  "Claudie,"  (1851,)  "  Moliere,"  (1853,) 
"Flaminio,"  (1854,)  and  "Lucie,"  (1856.)  In  1854  she 
published  her  autobiography,  "  Histoire  de  ma  Vie,"  (10 
vols.,)  in  which  the  disappointed  public  found  too  little 
of  personalities  and  anecdotes  and  too  much  of  psychol- 
ogy. Among  her  later  works  are  "Constance  Verrier," 
(1860,)  "  Flavie,"  (i860,)  "Tamaris,"  (i86i,)  "  Antonia," 
{1861,)  "Laura,"  (1864,)  "Monsieur  Sylvestre,"  (1866,) 
•'  Pierre  qui  Roule,"  (1869,)  "Le  Beau  Laurence,"  (1870,) 
and  "  Flamarande,"  (1876.)  "  G.  Sand,"  says  the  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale,"  "stands  in  the  first  rank 
among  contemporary  novelists.  .  .  .  She  has  had  the 
original  merit  to  perceive  and  express  the  poetry  of  the 
landscapes  of  France.  .  .  .  But  it  is  by  her  style  that 
she  especially  excels."     Died  June  8,  1876. 

See  R.  Walsh,  "George  Sand,"  1837:  Sainte-P.euve,  "  Cau- 
Beries  du  Luiicii ;"  Lom^nie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1834,  January,  1S43, 
July,  1844,  and  April,  1846. 

Sand,  sand  or  zSnt,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  the  murderer  of 
Kotzebue,  born  at  Wunsiedel  in  1795.  While  a  student 
at  Jena  he  embraced  with  ardour  the  cause  of  the  patriots, 
and,  exasperated  by  Kotzebue's  ridicule  of  the  liberal 
party,  stabbed  him  at  his  residence  in  Mannheim  in  1819. 
He  was  executed  in  1820. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Charles  Louis  Sand  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
February,  1820. 

Sandberg,  sSnd'bgRg,  (Johan  Gustaf,)  a  Swedish 
historical  painter,  born  in  1782,  worked  at  Stockholm, 
where  he  died  in  1854. 

Sand'b^,  (Paul,)  R.A.,  a  celebrated  English  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Nottingham  about  1730.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768, 
and  the  same  year  appointed  chief  drawing-master  to 
the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.  He  was  the 
first  of  his  countrymen  to  execute  aquatint  engravings  ; 
and  among  his  master-pieces  of  this  kind  are  "  The 
Carnival  at  Rome,"  after  David  Allan,  and  "  Views  of 
Windsor  and  Eton."  As  a  painter  in  water-colours  he 
occupies  a  high  rank,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  that  school  of  art  in  England.     Died  in  1809. 

Sandby,  (Thomas,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Nottingham  in  1721.  On  the  foundation  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  in  1768,  he  became  first  professor  of 
architecture  in  that  institution.  As  deputy  ranger  of 
Windsor  Great  Park,  he  planned  the  construction  of 
Virginia  Water,  (1754,)  and  in  1775  he  furnished  the 
design  of  Freemasons'  Hall,  London.     Died  in  1798. 

Sande,  van  den,  vtn  den  sSn'deh,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish 
jurist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Gelderland  in  the 
sixteenth  century  ;  died  in  1638. 

Sandeau,  s6N'd6',  (Leonard  Sylvain  Jule.s,)  a 
French  novelist,  born  at  Aubusson  in  181 1.  He  began 
his  literary  career  as  an  associate  of  George  Sand,  (Du- 
devant,)  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  wrote  "  Rose  et 
Blanche,"  (1831.)  Among  his  works  are  "Mariana," 
(1839,)  "Mile,  de  la  Seigliere,"  (1848,)  "Sacs  et  Parche- 
mins,"  (1851,)  and  "La  Maison  de  Penarvan,"  (1858.) 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1858. 
Died  April  24,  1883. 

Sand'e-man,  (Robert,)  born  at  Perth,  in  Scotland, 
in  1718  or  1723,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  called  by 
his  name.  He  emigrated  in  1764  to  New  England, 
where  he  died  in  1771.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  John 
Glass,  the  founder  of  the  Glassites. 

Sander,  sin'der,  (Antony,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1586,  was  the  author  of  several  re- 
ligious and  historical  works,  (in  Latin.)     Died  in  1664. 


Sander,  sdn'der  or  zin'der,  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  in  1754;  died  in  1782. 

See  Fkddhrsen,  "  Leben  H.  Sander's,"  1784;  Goetz,  "  Leben 

H.  Sander's,"  17S6. 

San'ders,  (William  P.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1833,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1856.  He  fought  for  the  Union  as  an  officer  of  cavalry 
in  several  campaigns,  and  was  killed  near  Knoxville, 
Tennessee,  in  November,  1863. 

San'ders  or  Saun'deri,  [Lat.  Sande'rus,]  (Nich- 
olas,) an  English  Catholic  theologian,  born  in  Surre) 
in  1527,  published  several  controversial  works.  Died 
about  1580. 

San'ders,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  littiratettr,  born  at 
Breadalbane  in  1727.  He  published  "The  Newgate 
Calendar,"  (1764,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1783. 

San'der-spn,  (John,)  an  American  littiratettr,  born 
at  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  in  1785.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,"  (1827.)  In  1835  he  visited 
France,  and  published,  after  his  return,  "Sketches  of 
Paris,"  etc.,  which  was  afterwards  enlarged  and  entitled 
"The  American  in  Paris."  It  was  very  favourably  re- 
ceived, and  was  translated  into  French  by  Jules  Janin. 
About  1836  he  was  appointed  ])rofessor  of  the  Latin 
and  Greek  languages  in  the  Philadelphia  High  School. 
Died  in  1844. 

San'der-spn,  (John  Scott  Burdon-,)  M.D.,  an 
English  physician,  born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1828. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  was 
professor  of  physiology  at  University  College,  London, 
1^4-82,  and  in  1S82  was  chosen  to  the  same  professor- 
ship in  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  published  a  large 
number  of  papers  on  physiology,  diseases  of  cattle, 
public  health,  and  other  subjects,  besides  a  "  Hand-Book 
of  the  Sphygmograph." 

San'der-son,  (Robert,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Rotherham,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1587.  He  graduated 
at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  was  afterwards  appointed 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  and  in  1642  became  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Oxford.  He  refused  to  sign  the 
covenant.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1660, 
after  the  accession  of  Charles  II.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  treatise  "On  the  Obligation  of  Oaths," 
("De  Juramenti  Obligatione,"  1647,)  and  "Nine  Cases 
of  Conscience  Resolved,"  (1678.)     Died  in  1663. 

See  Isaac  Walton,  "Life  of  liishop  Sanderson,"  1678. 

Sanderson,  (Robert,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Durham  in  1660.  He  assisted  in  the  compilation  of 
Rymer's  "  Fcedera,"  and  wrote  a  "  1  listory  of  Henry  V  " 
Died  in  1741. 

Sanderus.    See  Sanders. 

Sand'ford,  (Sir  Daniel  Keyte,)  a  Scottish  professor 
of  Greek,  born  about  1798,  was  a  son  of  Bishop  Sand- 
ford  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  professor  in  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  also  a  popular  orator  and  advocate  of  the 
Reform'^bill.     Died  in  1838. 

Sand'ford,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  writer  and  herald, 
born  in  the  county  of  Wicklow  in  1630,  published  a 
"Genealogical  History  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal,"  and 
other  similar  works.     Died  in  1693. 

Sand'hurst,  (William  Rose  Mansfield,)  Lord,  a 
British  general,  born  June  21,  1S19.  In  1835  he  entered 
the  army,  in  1S45-46  he  went  through  the  Sutlej  cam- 
paign, and  was  aide-de-camp  to  Lord  Gough  at  Sobraon, 
in  1848-49  he  commanded  the  Fifty-Third  Regiment  in 
the  Punjaub,  in  1S55  he  accomi:ianied  Lord  Stratford  de 
Redcliffe  to  the  Crimea  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral, in  1S57  he  assisted  in  quelling  the  Indian  mutiny, 
in  i860  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Bombay  army,  in  1865  he  became  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  India,  and  in  1870  succeeded  Lord  Strath- 
nairn  as  lieutenant-general  commanding  the  forces  in 
India.  In  1871  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  Died  June 
23,  1876. 

Sandifort,  sin'de-fort',  (Eduard,)  a  Dutch  anato- 
aiist,  born  at  Dort  in  1742,  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Leyden,  and  published  several  works  on  that  science. 
Died  in  1814. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  ohscttrc;  lar,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


SANDINI 


2127 


SAN  GALL  O 


His  son  Gerard,  born  at  Leyden  in  1779,  was  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1848. 

Sandini,  sJn-dee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Padua,  born  at 
Vicentino  in  1692.  lie  was  the  author  of  the  "Lives 
of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1751. 

Saudius.    See  Sand,  (Christoph.) 

Sandoval,  de,  d4  sin-do-vil',  (Gonzalo,)  a  brave 
and  able  Spanish  general,  who  fought  under  Cortez  in 
Mexico  and  was  distinguished  by  his  especial  favour. 
"He  was,"  says  Prescott,  "  in  many  respects  the  most 
eminent  of  the  great  captains  formed  under  the  eye  of 
Cortez."     Died  in  152S,  soon  after  his  return  to  Spain. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vols.  ii. 
and  iii. 

Sandoval,  de,  (Fray  Prudencio,)  a  Spanish  prelate 
and  historian,  born  at  Valladolid  about  1560.  He  was 
appointed  historiographer  to  Philip  HI.,  who  employed 
him  to  continue  the  "  Cronica  General"  of  Ambrosio 
Morales,  which  appeared  under  the  title  of  "  History 
of  the  Kings  of  Castile  and  Leon."  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Deeds  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,"  which  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work,  and  has  been  translated  into  English,  and  a 
"Chronicle  of  the  Illustrious  Emperor  of  Spain,  Don 
Alonzo  VII."  Sandoval  was  created  Bishop  of  Pampe- 
luna  in  1612.     Died  in  1621. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio^ 
"Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Sandrart,  von,  fon  san'drirt  or  zin'dRiRt,  (Joa- 
chim,) a  German  painter,  engraver,  and  art-historian, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1606.  He  studied 
painting  at  Utrecht  under  Gerard  Honthorst,  and  sub- 
sequently spent  several  years  in  Italy,  where  he  executed 
a  number  of  works  for  Cardinal  Barberini.  After  residing 
for  a  time  at  Amsterdam,  he  settled  at  Nuremberg,  where 
he  died  in  16S8.  Sandrart's  pictures  and  engravings  had 
a  high  reputation  in  his  time  ;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  work  entitled  "  German  Academy  of  Architecture, 
Sculpture,  and  Painting,"  ("  Die  Deutsche  Academie 
der  Bau,  Bildhauer  und  Malerkunst,"  2  vols.,  1675,)  a 
part  of  which  has  been  translated  into  Latin,  under  the 
title  of  "Academia  Artis  Picturae." 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Lebenslauf  Joachims  von  Sandrart," 
1675;  Chari.es  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres ;"  Nagler,  "All- 
geuieines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Sandras.     See  Cour'tilz  de  Sandras. 

Sandras,  sfiN'dRts',  (Claude  Marie  Stanislas,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Rocroy  in  1802.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Cholera,"  and  other  medical 
works.     Died  in  1856. 

San-dro-cot'tus,  f Gr.  'ZavSpoKOTTo^;  Sanscrit,  Chan'- 
Dragup'ta,  modern  Hindoo  pron.  chun-dra-goop'ta,]  an 
Indian  king,  who  reigned  over  the  region  watered  by 
the  Ganges  about  316-292  B.C.  His  capital  was  Pali- 
bothra,  (now  Patna.)  He  resisted,  with  success,  .Seleucus 
Nicator,  who  invaded  his  dominions.  He  is  the  Chan- 
dragupta  of  Sanscrit  writers.  He  was  of  low  caste,  and 
his  history  is  especially  interesting  as  marking  the 
progress  ot  that  great  revolution  which  accompanied 
the  introduction  of  Booddhism  into  India.  (See  Gau- 
tama.) 

Sands,  (Robert  Charles,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  litterateur,  born  in  New  York  City  or 
at  Flatbush,  Long  Island,  in  1799.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  College,  and  published  in  1820  the  poem  of 
"Yamoyden,"  written  conjointly  with  his  friend  James 
Wallis  Eastburn.  He  subsequently  became  associated 
with  the  poet  Bryant  and  Mr.  G.  C.  Verplanck  as  a 
writer  for  "The  Talisman,"  a  literary  annual  of  a  high 
character.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Atlantic 
Magazine,"  and  in  1827  became  associate  editor  of  the 
New  York  "Commercial  Advertiser."  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  "  Historical  Notice  of  Hernan  Cortez,"  and 
the  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  John  Paul  Jones."  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "Tales  of  Glauber  Spa," 
published  in  1832.     Died  in  1832. 

See  G.  C.  Verplanck,  "Life  of  R.  C.  Sands;"  Criswold, 
"Poets  of  America,  " 


Sandwich,  Earl  of.     See  Montague,  (Edward.) 

San'dys,  or  sandz,  (Edwin,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1519.  He  rose  to  be  vice-chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1553,  but  he  was 
deprived  of  this  office  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
on  account  of  his  refusal  to  proclaim  her.  Under  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  he  was  successively  created  Bishop 
of  Worcester,  (1559,)  Bishop  of  London,  (1 570,)  and  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  (1576.)  He  assisted  m  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  known  as  the  Bishops'  Bible,  and  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  revise  the  Lituriiv. 
Died  in  15SS. 

See  WniTAKER,  "Life  of  Edwin  Sandys. 

Sandys,  (Sir  Edwin,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
in  Worcestershire  about  1561.  He  was  employed  by 
James  I.  on  several  missions,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Europae  Speculum,"  being  an  account 
of  the  religious  condition  of  Europe.     Died  in  1620. 

Sandys,  (George,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  York 
in  1577,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Sandys,  Archbishop  of  York, 
noticed  above.  In  1610  he  visited  Palestine,  Egypt,  and 
Turkey,  of  which  he  published  an  account  after  his  re- 
turn. Among  his  other  works  are  paraphrases  upon  the 
Psalms,  the  book  of  Job,  Ecclesiastes,  Lamentations,  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  etc.,  and  a  translation  of  Ovid's 
"  Metamorphoses."  His  poetry  is  eulogized  by  Dryden, 
Pope,  Warton,  and  other  eminent  writers.  Died  about 
1644. 

See  H.  J.  Todd,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  G.  Sandy.s,"  1839;  Sir 
E.  Brvdges,  "Censura  Literaria;"  Willmott,  "Lives  of  the 
English  Sacred  Poets." 

Sandys,  sandz,  (John  Edwin,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  May  19,  1S44.  He  was  educated  at  Saint  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  and 
tutor.  In  1876  he  was  chosen  public  orator  of  the  Uni- 
versity.    He  has  edited  several  Greek  texts,  with  notes 

Sane,  st'ni',  (Jacques  Noel,)  Baron,  an  eminent 
French  naval  engineer,  born  at  Brest  in  1740.  He  was 
called  "the  Vauban  of  the  navy."    Died  in  1831. 

Sanfelice  di  Acquavella,  sSn-fi  lee'chi  di  S-kwd- 
vel'ld,  (Guglielmo,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  in  1836. 
In  1878  he  was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Naples,  and 
in  18S4  was  created  a  cardinal-priest. 

San'ford,  (Edward,)  an  American  poet,  born  in  the 
city  of  New  York  in  1805,  was  a  son  of  Nathan,  noticed 
below.  He  studied  law,  but  declined  to  practise.  He 
was  editor  of  the  "Standard,"  a  Democratic  journal  of 
New  York,  and  afterwards  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Globe"  at  Washington.  Among  his  poems,  which  are 
distinguished  for  grace,  vivacity,  and  delicate  humour, 
we  may  name  the  "Lines  to  a  Mosquito,"  and  the  ad- 
dress "To  Black-Hawk."    Died  in  1876. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopadia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Sanford,  (Nathan,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  on  Long  Island  in  1779.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1816,  and  in  1823  be- 
came chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Died  in 
183S. 

San  Gallo,  da,  di  sSn  gSI'Io,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  architect,  whose  original  name  was  PiCCONI, 
(pik-ko'nee,)  a  nephew  of  Antonio  Giamberti,  was  born 
at  Mugello  about  1482.  Under  the  patronage  of  Alex- 
ander Farnese,  afterwards  Paul  HI.,  he  constructed  a 
number  of  magnificent  edifices  at  Rome,  among  which 
we  may  name  the  Palazzo  Sacchetti,  and  the  church  of 
Madonna  di  Loretto.  In  1536  he  was  appointed  sole 
architect  of  Saint  Peter's,  for  which  he  prepared  a 
model  at  great  cost ;  but  it  was  not  approved  by  Michael 
Angelo,  and  was  finally  rejected.  The  Palazzo  Farnese, 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Michael  Angelo,  is  esteemed 
one  of  his  best  works.     Died  in  1546. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Quatrem^rb  D« 
QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  Architectes  ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

San  Gallo,  da,  (Antonio  Battista  Gobbo,)  brothel 
of  the  preceding,  was  also  distinguished  as  an  architect, 
and  assisted  in  most  of  the  important  works  of  his 
brother. 

San  Gallo  or  Sangallo,  da,  (Antonio  Giamberti,) 
an  Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  the 


a&k;  933  j;  %hard;  gas/V  G,  H,  Mi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin/yiw.     (Jl^^See  Explanations, p.  2,V) 


SAN  GALLO 


2128 


SANT 


fifteenth  centurv.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  church 
of  the  Madonna  at  Montepulciano,  the  fortress  of  Civiti 
Castellana,  and  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  formerly  the 
mausoleum  of  Hadrian.  He  was  a  brother  of  Giuliano, 
noticed  below.     Died  in  1534. 

San  Gallo,  da,  (Bastiano,)  an  Italian  painter,  and 
relative  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Florence  in  14B1  ; 
died  in  1551. 

San  Gallo,  da,  or  Sangallo,  (Giuliano,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  architect,  whose  proper  name  was  Giui.lANO 
GiAMKERTi,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1443.  He  was 
patronized  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  for  whom  he  built  a 
palace  or  villa  at  Poggio  Cajano,  and  a  large  convent  at 
Florence,  near  the  gate  of  San  Gallo,  from  which  he 
derived  his  name.  Among  his  works  was  a  palace  at 
Savona  for  Pope  Julius  II.  He  was  selected  by  Leo  X. 
to  succeed  Bramante  as  architect  of  .Saint  Peter's  ;  but 
he  declined  the  honour.  He  was  a  brother  of  Antonio 
Giamberti  da  San  Gallo.     Died  in  1517. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Cicognara,  "  Storia 
della  Sculiura:"  QuATREnfeRB  de  Quincv,  "Dictionnaire  d'Ar- 
chitectiirc." 

SangTO,  da,  dS  sSn'gRo,  (Raimondo,)  Prince  of  San 
Severo,  an  Italian  savant,  born  in  Naples  in  1710.  He 
was  versed  in  various  sciences,  arts,  and  languages,  and 
displayed  much  inventive  genius.     Died  in  1771. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biojjrapliie  Gendrale." 

Sankara,  sdn'ka-ra,  modern  Hindoo  pron.  sun'kuh- 
rtih,  also  called  SankaracMrya,  ("  the  teacher  San- 
kara,") a  renowned  East  Indian  religious  teacher.  He 
was  born  in  Malabar,  of  a  Brahman  fiimily.  He  led  a 
wandering  life,  and  died,  aged  thirty-two,  at  Kedarnath, 
in  the  Himalaya.  II.  H.  Wilson  assigns  him  to  the 
eighth  or  ninth  century  A.D.,  but  Hindoo  books  give  him 
a  much  earlier  date.  He  founded  a  sect  of  Siva-wor- 
shi]ipers,  and  was  looked  upon  as  an  incarnation  of  Siva. 
He  left  several  commentaries,  which  are  still  extant. 

Sank'ey,  (Ira  David,)  an  American  singer,  born  at 
Ediiiborough,  Pennsylvania,  August  28,  1S40.  He  won 
his  chief  distinction  as  the  associate  of  Mr.  Moody  in  his 
revival  meetings. 

Sanlecque,  de,  deh  sJN'lSk',  (Louis,)  a  French 
satirical  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1652,  was  also  a  priest. 
Died  in  1714. 

San  Micheli,  siln  me-ka'le,  written  also  Sammi- 
cheli  or  San  Michele,  (Gian  Giroi.amo,)  an  able 
Italian  architect,  born  about  15 14,  was  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  the  following,  whom  he  aided  in  his  works. 
Died  in  1559. 

San  Micheli,  sJin  me-ka'lee,  or  Sammicheli,  s3m- 
me-ka'lee,  (Michei.f.,)  a  celebrated  civil  and  military 
architect,  born  at  Verona,  in  Italy,  in  1484.  Having 
resided  for  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he  acquired 
the  friendship  of  Michael  Angelo,  Bramante,  and  other 
artists  of  the  time,  he  was  employed  about  1525  to  con- 
struct the  new  fortifications  of  Verona,  in  which  he  first 
introduced  the  angular  bastions,  since  generally  adopted 
by  engineers.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named 
the  Grimani  and  Cornaro  palaces  at  Venice,  and  the 
Cappella  Pellegrini  and  church  of  the  Madonna  di  Cam- 
pagna  at  Verona.     Died  in  1559. 

See  V  ARARi.  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  A.  Selva,  "  Eloa;io  di 
M.  Sanmicheli."  1814:  MiMZiA,  "  Vite  de^li  Arcliitetti  :"  Cico- 
gnara, "  Sloria  della  Sciiltiira;"  "Nouvelle  Blographie  Gen^rale." 

San  Miguel,  sJn  me-g?l',  (Don  Evariste,)  a  Span- 
ish general  and  statesman,  born  in  the  Asturias  in  1780, 
served  in  the  campaigns  of  1S08  and  1820,  and  subse- 
quently was  appointed  military  governor  of  Aragon. 
lie  was  afterwards  made  captain-general  of  Madrid,  and 
president  of  the  revolutionary  junta.     Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Xoiivelle  Biogiapliie  G^n^rale." 

Sannazar.     See  Sannazaro. 

Sannazarius.     See  Sannazaro. 

Sannazaro,  s^n-n5d-z5'ro,  [  Lat.  Sannaza'rius  ; 
Fr.  Sannazar,  sS'nt'ztR',]  (Jacopo,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  jioet,  born  at  Naples  in  1458,  was  descended 
from  a  noble  family  in  Spain.  While  on  a  visit  in  France 
he  comi)osed  his  "Arcadia,"  (1504,)  a  ])astoral  in  prose 
and  verse,  which  is  esteemed  a  model  of  elegance  and 
purity  of  style.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems 
which  were  greatly  admired,  and  several  dramatic  works 


and  sonnets  in  Italian.  Sannazaro  was  patronized  by 
Frederick,  King  of  Naples,  and  accompanied  that  mon- 
arch in  his  exile  to  France.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1530, 
having  attained  the  rank  of  one  of  the  best  classics  of 
his  country. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  .Poets."  by  Rrv.  H.  Sterbing;  Lono- 
FEi.l.ow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  CRi'irn,  "  Vita  di  .Sanna 
/.atn,"  15S5;  J.  A.  Vot.Pi,  "  Sannazaris  Vita;"  T.  Colangelo,  "Vita 
di  (;  Sannazaro,"  iSig;  NlcitKoN',  "  .Memoires ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
i;raphie  Gen^rale  ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letleratura  Italiana;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  x.,  (1824.) 

San-nyrl-on,  [Savvrptwi',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
flourished  about  400-375  B.C.,  and  was  a  contemporary 
of  Aristophanes. 

San  Roman,  s3n-ro-miR',  (Miguel,)  a  Peruvian 
general,  born  in  1802.  He  had  obtained  a  high  rank  in 
the  ariny,  when  he  was  elected  President  of  Peru  in 
1862.     Died  in  April,  1863. 

San  Severo.     See  Sangro,  da. 

Sans-Malice.     See  Akakia. 

Sanson,  sSn'sAn',  (Adrie.v,)  a  French  geographer, 
was  a  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below.  He  had  the  title 
of  geographer  to  the  king.     Died  in  1708  or  1718. 

Sanson,  (Guillaume,)  a  geographer  of  Paris,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1703. 

Sanson,  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  succeeded  Dupuy- 
tren  as  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  the  Hotel-Dieu 
in  1836.  He  was  eminent  as  a  practitioner  and  a  writer. 
Among  his  works  are  "New  Elements  of  Medico-.Sur- 
gical  Pathology,"  (4  vols.,  1S25,)  and  "  Des  I  lemorrhagies 
traumatiques,"  (1S36.)     Died  in  1 841. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Sanson,  (Nicol\s,)  one  of  the  earliest  French  geog- 
raphers, born  at  Abbeville  in  1600.  His  first  work  was 
a  ma[)  of  ancient  Gaul,  which  obtained  for  him  the 
patronage  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  Louis  XIII.,  and 
he  was  employed  by  the  latter  as  an  engineer  in  Picardy. 
He  was  treated  with  marked  distinction  by  the  king, 
who  apjjointed  him  his  geographer  about  1640.  Besides 
his  numerous  maps,  he  published  a  work  entitled  "  Bri- 
tantiia,  or  Researches  concerning  the  Antiquity  of  Abbe- 
ville," (1638.)     Died  in  1667. 

Sanson,  (Nicolas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1626.  He  rescued  Chancellor  Seguier  from  the 
fury  of  a  mob  in  Paris,  but  was  killed  himself  on  that 
occasion,  in  1648 

Sansovino,  s4n-so-vee'no,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  son  of  Jacopo,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  1521.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  works 
are  his  "  Hundred  Novels  from  the  Most  Eminent  Italian 
Writers,"  ("Cento  Novelle  scelti  de'  piu  nobili  Scrittori 
della  Lingua  volgare,")  "Turkish  Annals,"  (1573,)  and 
a  "Description  of  Venice,"  (1604.) 

See  FoN'TANiNi  and  Zeno,  "  Biblioteca  Italiana;"  NiciiRON, 
"Memoires;"  Tiraro.schi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Sansovino,  (Jacopo  Tatti,)  an  eminent  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in  1479.  He 
studied  sculpture  under  Contucci  da  Monte  Sansovino, 
whose  surname  he  assumed.  He  afterwards  visited 
Rome,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Bramante 
and  other  artists  and  was  patronized  by  Pope  Julius  II. 
After  the  sack  of  Rome  he  repaired  to  Venice,  where  he 
constructed  numerous  public  and  private  edifices.  Among 
these  may  be  nanjed  La  Zecca,  or  Mint,  the  Palazzo  Cor- 
naro, and  La  Scuola  della  Misericordia.  His  colossal 
statues  of  Mars  and  Neptune  in  the  Doge's  palace,  and 
the  Four  Evangelists  in  the  chapel  of  Saint  Mark,  are 
ranked  among  his  m.aster-pieces  in  sculpture.  Died 
about  1570. 

See  Giorgio  Vasari,  "Vita  di  J.  Sansovino,"  17S5;  Thmanza, 
"Vita  di  J.  Sansovino,"  1752;  Milizia,  "Vite  decli  Arcliitetti;" 
Qu atrhmerb  de  Quincv,  "  Vies  des  .\rchitectes ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizi- 
onario." 

Sansovino,  da,  d.^  sin-so-vee'no,  (A.ndrea  Con- 
tucci,) an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born 
in  1460.  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Loretto.  He  was 
the  master  of  Jacopo  Sansovino.     Died  in  1529. 

Sant,  (James,)  an  eminent  English  painter,  born  at 
Croydon,    Ajjril    23,    1S20.      Besides    many  subject-   01 


a,  e,  i,  6,  fj,  y,  long;^,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  siiorf.-a.,  e,  i,o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;good;m<5on; 


SANTA  ANA 


2129 


SAPHIR 


figure-pictures,  (frequently  groups  of  children,)  he  has 
executed  many  fine  portraits.  In  1871  he  was  made  a 
full  Academician. 

Santa  Ana,  (or  Anna,)  de,  di  sJi/ti  ii/ii3,  (Anto- 
nio Lopez,)  a  Mexican  President  and  general,  born  in 
Mexico  or  Jalapa  about  1798.  lie  fought  against  Itur- 
bide  in  1823,  against  Pedraza  in  1828,  and  against  Bus- 
tamente  in  1830.  He  was  chosen  President  in  1833,  and 
became  dictator  in  1835.  The  Texans  revolted  against 
Santa  Anna,  who  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at 
San  Jacinto  in  April,  1836,  by  General  Houston,  He 
was  released  in  1837,  and  lost  a  leg  in  a  battle  against 
the  French  in  December,  1838.  He  recovered  power  in 
1841,'  was  banished  in  1845,  but  returned  in  1846,  and 
became  general-in-chief.  He  was  defeated  by  General 
Taylor  at  Buena  Vista  in  February,  1847,  '^"'^  ^^  Cerro 
Gordo  by  General  Scott  in  April  of  that  year.  About 
this  time  he  was  again  chosen  President ;  but,  the 
American  army  having  taken  the  capital  of  Mexico  in 
September,  1847,  he  went  into  exile.  In  1853  he  re- 
turned, and  was  appointed  dictator  for  life.  After  he 
had  ruled  with  despotic  power  about  two  years,  he  was 
compelled  to  abdicate  in  August,  1855,  after  which  he 
passed  many  years  in  exile.  Soon  after  the  death  of 
Maximilian,  June,  1867,  Santa  Anna  returned  and  made 
an  attempt  against  the  republic,  but  failed,  and  was  made 
a  prisoner.     Died  June  20,  1876. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  "  North  American  Re- 
view" for  July,  1836. 

Santa  Cruz,  sSn'tS  kRoos,  (or  kRooth,)  (Andres,)  a 
South  American  statesman  and  soldier,  born  in  Peru 
about  1794,  served  in  the  war  of  independence  in  1823, 
and  in  1829  succeeded  General  Sucre  as  President  of 
Bolivia.  He  was  defeated  at  Yungai  in  1839,  and  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  country.  In  1849  ^^  became  minister- 
plenipotentiary  from  Bolivia  to  London,  Paris,  Rome, 
and  Madrid.     Died  at  Saint-Nazaire  in  1865. 

Santa  Cruz,  de,  disSn'tSkRooth,  or  Sainte-Croix, 
sSNt'kRwi',  (Don  Alvarez  de  Bassano — di  bi-si'- 
no,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  about  1510, 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  He 
was  appointed  about  1587  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
Invincible  Armada,  but  died  before  it  was  ready  for 
action. 

Santa  Cruz  de  Marzenado,  de,  di  sSn'tl  kRooth 
di  maR-thk-nS'Do,  (Alvar  de  Navia  Osorio,  Sl-viR' 
d4  ni-vee'S  o-so're-o,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish  officer  and 
military  writer,  born  in  1687,  served  in  the  war  of  the 
Sjjanish  succession,  and  became  governor  of  Oran.  He 
w.as  killed  in  an  action  near  that  town  in  1732. 

Santafede,  sin-tJ-fa'di,  (Fabrizio,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  in  1560.  He  worked  mostly  in 
his  native  city.     Died  in  1634. 

Santander,  san-tSn-daiR',  (Francisco  de  Paula— 
d4  pow'ij,)  a  South  American  statesman,  born  in  New 
Granada  in  1792.  He  fought  against  Spain  in  the  war 
of  independence,  and  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the 
rejiublic  of  Colombia  in  1821.  Having  conspired  against 
Bolivar  about  1828,  he  was  banished.  In  1832  he  was 
"lected  President  of  New  Granada.     Died  in  1840. 

Santarelli,  sin-ti-rel'lee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  engraver,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1759,  worked 
in  Rome  and  Florence.     Died  in  1826. 

Santarem,  sdn-ti-r^N',  (  Manoel  Francisco  de 
Barros  y  Souza^— di  bJR'ris  e  so'zS,)  Viscount,  a 
Portuguese  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  in 
1790,  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Copen- 
hagen, and  in  1827  became  minister  of  state.  He  was 
the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  the  History  of  Cosmography 
and  Cartography  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1849,)  ^nd 
other  works.     Died  in  1856. 

Santen,  van,  vin  sSn'ten,  (Laurent,)  a  Dutch  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1746.  He  resided  mostly 
at  Leyden.  He  edited  several  ancient  Greek  and  Latin 
works,  on  which  he  wrote  critical  notes.     Died  in  1798. 

Santerre,  sflN'taiR^,  (Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French 
revolutionist  of  the  Jacobin  party,  born  in  Paris  in  1752, 
had  acquired  a  large  fortune  as  a  brewer  in  the  Faubourg 
.Saint- Antoine.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  storming 
of  the  Bastille,  and  in  the  subsequent  insurrections  of 


the  20th  of  June  and  the  loth  of  August.  As  com- 
mander of  the  National  Guard,  he  caused  the  king  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  tower,  and  afterwards  presided  at  his 
execution.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Vendeans,  under 
Piron  de  la  Varenne,  in  September,  1793.  Died  in  1808 
or  1809. 

See  Carro,  "  Santerre,  sa  Vie  publique  et  priv^e,"  1847. 

Santerre,  (Jean  Baptiste, )  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  near  Pontoise  in  1651  ;  died  in  1717. 

Santeul,  sSN'tuK,  (Claude,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean,  noticed  below.     Died  in  1684. 

Santeul,  sftN'tuK,  or  Santeuil,  de,  deh  sftN'tul', 
(Jean,)  |Lat.  Santo'lius,]  an  excellent  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1630,  was  a  canon  regular  of  Saint-Vic- 
tor. He  wrote  Latin  hymns  with  great  success.  "  A 
nobleness  of  thought  and  splendour  of  language,"  says 
Hallam,  "distinguished  the  poetry  of  Santeul,  who  fur- 
nished many  inscriptions  for  public  monuments."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  1697. 

See  "Vieetbons  mots  de  Santeul,"  Cologne,  1735;  Dinouart, 
"Santoliana,"  1764  ;Montalant-Bougleux,  "  Santeul,  ou  la  Po^sie 
Latine  sous  Louis  XIV,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Santi,  sin'tee,  or  Sanzio,  sSn'ze-o,  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  painter,  born  at  Colbordolo,  was  the 
father  of  Raphael.  He  painted  Madonnas  and  other 
religious  subjects.     Died  in  1494. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Passavant,  "  Rafael  von 
Urbino  und  sein  Vater,  G.  Santi." 

Santi  di  Tito  or  Titi.     SeeTiTi. 

SantUlana.     See  Mendoza,  (Inigo  Lopez.) 

Santini,  sin-tee'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  in  Tuscany  in  1786.  He  became  rector  of  the 
University  of  Padua  in  1825,  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  mathe- 
matical studies  in  that  institution.  He  was  a  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  published  sev- 
eral scientific  works.     Died  at  Padua,  June  26,  1877. 

Santolius.     See  Santeul. 

Santorini,  s5n-to-ree'nee,  (Giovanni  Do.menico,) 
an  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Venice  in  1681.  He  wrote 
several  able  works  on  anatomy  and  medicine.     Died  in 

1736. 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotbeca  Anatomica  ;"  Pollaroli,  "  Notizie 
per  servire  alia  Storla  della  Vita  di  G.  D.  Santorini,"  1763. 

Santorio.     See  Sanctorius. 

Sanuto,  si-noo'to,  (Livio,)  an  Italian  geographer  of 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  died  before  1588. 

Sanuto,  (Marino,)  called  Torsello,  (toR-sel'Io,)  a 
Venetian  traveller,  who  visited  the  Levant  and  wrote  the 
"  Book  of  Faithful  Secrets  concerning  the  Recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land,"  ("  Liber  Secretorum  fidelium  super 
Terras  Sanctae  Recuperatione.")     Died  after  1330. 

See  PosTANSQUE,  "De  Marino  Sanuto,"  1856;  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Sanuto,  (Marino,)  the  Younger,  an  Italian  his- 
torian, born  in  Venice  in  1466,  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  founded  by  Aldus  Manutius.  He  wrote,  in 
Italian,  a  history  of  the  Republic  of  Venice,  which  was 
published  in  1733  in  Muratori's  "  Italise  Scriptores," 
under  the  title  of  "  Lives  of  the  Doges  of  Venice," 
("  Vitae  Ducum  Venetorum.")     Died  in  1535. 

See  Rawdon  Brown,  "Ragguagli  sulla  Vita  e  siille  Opere  di  M. 
Sanuto,"  3  vols.,  1S37-3S:  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura 
Italiana." 

Sanvitale, sSn-ve-ti'li,  (Giacomo  ANroNio,)CouNT, 
an  Italian  poet  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Parma  in  1699. 
He  published  numerous  poems,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
"  Poema  Parabolica,"  (1746.)     Died  in  1780. 

Sanz,  sinth,  (Augustin,)  a  Spanish  architect,  born 
at  Saragossa  in  1724,  was  appointed  in  1792  director  of 
the  Academy  of  San  Luis.  Among  his  best  works  are 
the  church  of  Santa  Cruz  and  the  theatre  at  Saragossa. 
Died  in  1801. 

Sanzio,  (Raffaello.)    See  Raphael. 

Saphir,  sS'fe^R,  (Moritz,)  a  distmguished  writer,  of 
lewish  extraction,  born  at  Pesth  in  1794,  successively 
edited  the  journals  entitled  "Berliner  Schnellpost," 
"  Der  Deutsche  Ilorizont,"  and  "  Der  Humorist." 
Among  his  works,  which  are  chiefly  of  a  humorous  and 
satirical  character,  we  may  name  his   "  Ilumoristische 


eas  k;  9 as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  Vi, giitCnral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

»34 


(2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


SAPIEHA 


2130 


SARGANT 


Damenbibliothek,"  and  his  "Dictionary  of  Wit  and 
Humour,"  ("  Conversations- Lexikon  fiir  Ceist,  Witz  und 
Humor.")     Died  in  1858. 

See  F.  F8RSTER,  "  M.  G.  Saphir  und  Berlin,"  1828;  Brock- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Sapieha,  sJp-yi'hJ,  (John  Petf.r,)  a  Polish  military 
commander,  born  in  1569,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  with  Sweden  and  Russia.     Died  in  1611. 

Sapieha,  (Leo,)  high  chancellor  of  Lithuania,  born 
in  1557,  served  against  the  Russians  under  Stephen 
Bathori  in  1579,  and  subsequently  concluded  a  peace  of 
twenty  years  with  the  Czar.  After  the  death  of  Bathori 
he  promoted  the  election  of  the  Swedish  king,  Sigis 
mund  in.,  to  the  throne  of  Poland.     Died  in  1633. 

Sa'por  [Persian,  Shapoor  or  ShapOr,  sh^'poor']  I., 
son  of  Artaxerxes,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Persia  in 
238  A.D.  He  conquered  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  and 
caused  the  emperor  Valerian  to  be  put  to  death.  He 
was  eventually  assassinated  by  his  satraps,  (269  a.d.)  _ 

Sapor  H.  succeeded  Hormisdas  H.  as  King  of  Persia. 
He  was  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Romans,  and  distin- 
guished him.self  by  his  persecution  of  the  Christians. 
Died  in  380  a.d. 

Sappho,  saph'o,  [Gr.  Sawi^w,  genitive  SaTr^ovf ;  Lat. 
Sappho,  genitive  Sapphus  ;  Ital.  Sakfo,  sSf'fo,]  written 
also  Sapho,  a  Greek  lyric  poetess  of  great  celebrity,  was 
born  at  Mitylene  or  Eresos.  in  tiie  island  of  Lesbos,  about 
625  B.C.  We  have  little  positive  knowledge  of  the 
events  of  her  life,  but  it  is  known  that  she  lived  about 
600  B.C.  and  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Alcaeus.  The 
popular  tradition  that  she  cherished  an  unrequited  love 
for  Phaon,  and  that  she  threw  herself  in  despair  from 
the  Leucadian  rock  into  the  sea,  is  rejected  by  modern 
critics.  She  belonged  to  the  ytolian  race,  the  women 
of  which  were  not  kept  in  so  strict  seclusion  as  the 
lonians.  She  wrote  hymns,  elegies,  and  erotic  odes  of 
exquisite  beauty.  It  is  admitted  that  she  has  never  been 
surpassed  in  sweetness  and  grace  by  any  lyric  poet, 
ancient  or  modern.  Jler  works  are  lost,  except  a  hymn 
to  Venus  and  short  fragments  of  other  poems.  "Among 
the  mutilated  poets  of  antiquity,"  says  Addison,  "there 
is  none  whose  fragments  are  so  beautiful  as  those  of 
Sappho.  .  .  .  One  may  see,  by  what  is  left  of  them,  that 
she  followed  nature  in  all  her  thoughts,  without  descend- 
ing to  those  little  points,  conceits,  and  turns  of  wit  with 
which  many  of  our  modern  lyrics  are  so  miserably  in- 
fected. Her  soul  seems  to  have  been  made  up  of  love 
and  poetry.  She  felt  the  passion  in  all  its  warmth  and 
described  it  in  all  its  symptoms.  She  is  called  by  ancient 
authors  the  tenth  muse."  (See  the  "  Spectator,"  No. 
223,  which  contains  an  English  version  of  her  hymn  to 
Venus.)  Versions  of  her  ode  to  Lesbia,  by  Catullus, 
Boileau,  and  A.  Philips,  may  be  found  in  the  "  Spectator," 
No.  229. 

See  F.  G.  Welcker,  "  Sappho  von  einem  herrschenden  Vorur- 
theil  befreit."  tSi6;  Mullkr,  "Literature  of  Ancient  Greece," 
vol.  i. ;  E.  Tegner,  "Sapphus  Vita  et  Carmina,"  1817;  Richter, 
'  Sapplio  und  Lrinna,"  1833;  C.  ^L  de  Salm-Dvck,  "  Precis  de  la 
Vie  de  Saplio,"  1810;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Genera'e." 

Saracino,  sd-ri-chee'no,  or  Saraceni,  s  J-rd-cha'nee, 
(Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1585, 
painted  frescos  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.     Died  in  1625. 

Sa'rah  or  Sarai,  [Heb.  nT«y,  originally  'la',]  a  He- 
brew matron,  was  the  wife  of  Abrahain,  and  the  mother 
of  Isaac.     Her  name  signifies  "princess." 

See  Genesis  xi.  ag,  xii..  xvi.,  xvii.   15-21,  xviii.,  xx.,  xxi. 

Sarapis.     See  Serapis. 

Sarasiii.     See  Sarrasin. 

Sar'as-vrat'i,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  siir'Ss-wut'ee, 
from  Sdrdswdt,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "juicy," 
"racy,"  "flowing,"  also  "elegant,"]  the  name  of  the 
consort  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of  speech,  elo- 
quence, and  music.  She  was  regarded  as  the  inventress 
of  the  Sanscrit  language  and  of  the  Devanagari  alphabet. 
(See  Introduction,  p.  21.)  As  the  patroness  of  music, 
she  has  by  some  writers  been  identified  with  Minerva, 
{^kdriva,)  who  was  sometimes  surnamed  Musice,  {fxovaiKr/,) 
and  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  flute. 
Sir  William  Jones  addressed  to  Saraswati  a  hymn,  in 
which  he  speaks  of  her  as  one 

"  Whose  sigh  is  music,  and  each  tear  a  pearl." 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  p.  125  et  seg. 


Saravia,  si-rd-vee'i  or  sS'rt've't',  (Hadrian  A.,)  a 
Protestant  theologian,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at 
Artois,  in  F'rance,  in  1531,  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Leyden.  Having  settled  in  England  in  1 587,  he  was 
made  prebendary  of  Westminster.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  celebrated  Hooker,  and  was  one  of  the 
divines  emphjyed  by  James  I.  in  the  translation  of  the 
Bible.     Died  in  1613. 

Sarazin  or  Sarrazin,  st'rt'zdN',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Noyon  in  1590.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Rome,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Aldobrandini,  for  whom  he  executed  the  colossal  statues 
of  Atlas  and  Polyphemus  at  the  Villa  Frascati.  Among 
his  master-pieces  in  Paris  may  be  named  the  Mauso- 
leum of  Cardinal  Berulle,  "Group  of  Children  playing 
with  Goats,"  "The  Four  Cardinal  Virtues,"  in  the 
church  of  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Mausoleum  of  Henri  de 
Bourbon-Conde.     Died  in  1660. 

See  V.  Tremblav,  "  Notice  sur  Sarrazin,"  1848:  "  Biographie  de 
J.  Sarrazin,"  Noyon,  1851 ;  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Sarazin,  (Jean.)    See  Sarrazin, 

Sarbievius.    See  Sarbiewskl 

Sarbiewski,  saR-be-§v'skee,  [Lat.  Sarbie'vius,] 
(Matthias  Kasimir,)  a  Polish  Jesuit  and  poet,  born  in 
1595,  became  court  preacher  to  Ladislaus  IV.  He  was 
the  author  of  Latin  lyrics  and  other  poems,  which  ob- 
tained for  him  the  name  of  the  Sarmatian  Horace.  Died 
in  1640. 

Sarcey,  stR'si',  (Francisque,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Dourdan  (Seine-et-Oise)  in  1828.  Among  his 
works  are  a  collection  of  tales  entitled  "  Le  Nouveau 
Seigneur"  and  "  Le  Mot  et  la  Chose,"  (1862,)  "fitienne 
Moret,"  (1876,)  and  "  Les  Miseres  de  Ho-Fi,"  (1883.) 

Sarcmasius.    See  Schurtzfleisch. 

Sarcone,  saR-ko'ni,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  in  Apulia  in  1732  ;  died  in  1797. 

Sardanapale.     See  Sardanapalus. 

Sar-da-na-pa'lus,  [Gr.  "Lapdavinzakoc  ;  Fr.  Sarda.na- 
PALE,*st'K'da'nt'ptl';  Assyrian,  Assur-bani-PAL,]  aking 
of  Assyria,  noted  for  the  weakness  and  effeminacy  of  his 
character,  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  625  B.C.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Greek  story,  his  satrap  Arbaces  having  con- 
spired with  the  Medes  against  him  and  besieged  Nineveh, 
Sardanapalus  defended  his  capital  with  great  courage  and 
resolution  nearly  two  years.  At  length,  finding  resistance 
vain,  he  set  fire  to  his  palace  and  consumed  himself, 
together  with  his  women  and  his  treasures.  His  fortunes 
have  been  made  the  subject  of  one  of  Lord  Byron's  best 
tragedies.  The  Greek  story  is  fabulous :  it  is  supported 
by  no  authority  e.xcept  Ctesias;  but  in  some  respects  it 
corresponds  rather  loosely  with  the  history  of  Saracus, 
the  last  king  of  Assyria,  and  with  that  of  Saulmugina. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  the  name  Sardanapalus  repre- 
sents that  of  Assur-bani-pal,  the  Sineladnos  of  Ptoletny, 
a  large  part  of  whose  library,  made  of  clay  tablets,  is 
now  in  the  British  Museum.  He  was  the  greatest  mon- 
arch Assyria  ever  had.  But  his  wars  and  conquests 
exhausted  the  country,  and  his  subjects  everywhere  rose 
in  revolt,  but  were  finally  conquered.  He  was  cruel  and 
sensual,  but  was  a  great  patron  of  art  and  letters.  He 
united  the  kingdoms  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia. 

Sardi,  saR'dee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  P'errara  about  1520.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Coins,"  (1579.)     Died  in  1588. 

Sardou,  stR'doo',  (Victorien,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1831.  He  produced  numerous  successful 
dramas,  among  which  are  "  Nos  Intimes,"  (1861,)  "Les 
Ganaches,"  (1862,)  "La  Famille  Benoiton,"  (1S65,)  "La 
Patrie,"  (1869,)  "  Rabagas,"  (1872,)  etc.  He  was  deco- 
rated with  the  legion  of  honour  in  1863,  and  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1877. 

Sar'gant,  (William  Lucas,)  an  English  author,  born 
in  Birmingham,  October  2,  1809,  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. Among  his  works  are  "  Science  of  Social  Opu- 
lence," (1856,)  "Economy  of  the  Labouring  Classes," 
(1857,)  "Social  Innovators,"  (1858,)  "Life  of  Robert 
Owen,"  (lS6o,)  "Recent  Political  Economy,"  (1867,) 
"  Essays  of  a  Birmingham  Manufacturer,"  (4  vols.,  1869 
-72,)  "Taxation,"  etc.,  (1874.)     Died  in  1889. 

•  In  Sir  David  Lindsay's  "Three  Estates"  the  name  is  written 
Snrd/initpnll. 


a.  e,  i,  o,  u  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  j',  s/iort:  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SARGENT 


2131 


SARSFIELD 


Sar'gent,  (Charles  Sprague,)  an  American  botanist, 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  April  24,  1841.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  College  in  1862,  served  as  a  volunteer 
staff  officer  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  and  afterwards  was 
made  director  first  of  the  botanic  garden  and  then  of 
the  arboretum  of  Harvard  University,  and  professor  of 
arboriculture.  His  chief  publication  is  the  able  "  Special 
Report"  on  the  forests  of  North  America,  made  for  the 
tenth  census. 

Sar'gent,  (Epes,  5ps,)  an  American  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts, 
in  i8i2.  He  was  successively  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Mirror"  and  the  Boston  "Evening  Transcript."  He 
published  "  Velasco,"  a  tragedy,  and  several  other  dramas, 
"Songs  of  the  Sea,  and  other  Poems,"  "Arctic  Adven- 
tures by  Sea  and  Land,"  (1857,)  and  a  number  of  excel- 
lent educational  works.  Died  December  30,  i88o.' 
See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 
Sargent,  (Horace  Binney,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
litterateur,  a  son  of  Lucius  Manlius  Sargent,  was  born  at 
Quincy,  Massachusetts,  in  182 1  ;  died  in  1867. 

Sargent.  (John  Osborne,)  a  brother  of  Epes  Sargent, 
was  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in  1810.  He 
became  associate  editor  of  the  New  York  "  Courier 
and  Enquirer"  in  1837,  and  subsequently  of  the  "  Re- 
public" at  Washington. 

Sargent,  (Lucius  Manlius,)  an  able  and  popular 
American  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1786.  He  pub- 
lished a  series  of  "Temperance  Tales,"  which  were 
very  favourably  received,  a  work  entitled  "  Dealings 
with  the  Dead,  by  a  Sexton  of  the  Old  School,"  (2 
vols.,  1856,)  and  a  number  of  poems.     Died  in  1867. 

Sar'gon,  a  king  of  Assyria,  ascended  the  throne  In 
721  B.C.  He  conquered  several  adjoining  nations,  cap- 
tured Samaria,  and  carried  away  many  Israelites  as 
captives.     Died  in  704  B.a 

Sar'gon,  a  great  king  of  Babylonia,  concerning  whom 
little  is  known.  Much  that  is  told  of  him  seems  myth- 
ical. He  was  a  great  lawgiver,  and  a  zealous  patron 
of  literature.  He  founded  the  great  library  of  Agane, 
near  Sippara,  famous  for  its  works  on  astrology  and 
astronomy.     He  lived  at  a  very  early  date. 

Sar'jeant  or  Serjeant,  (John,)  a  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1621,  became  secretary  of 
the  secular  clergy  in  England.  He  published  a  grea. 
number  of  controversial  works.     Died  in  1707. 

Sarmiento,  saR-me-Sn'to,  (Domingo  Faustino,)  a 
Spanish-American  statesman,  born  at  San  Juan  de  la 
Frontera,  (now  in  the  Argentine  Republic,)  February  15, 
iSii.  He  became  a  celebrated  instructor  and  journalist, 
and  in  1845  was  sent  by  Chili  to  Europe  and  North 
America  to  observe  and  report  on  primary  schools.  He 
was  afterwards  a  minister  in  the  government  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  was  its  minister  to  the  United  States, 
1864-6S,  and  its  president,  1868-74.  He  published  "De 
la  Educacion  popular,"  "  Viages,"  "  Vida  de  Abran  Lin- 
coln," "Las  Escuelas,"  etc.  His  writings  are  highly 
esteemed. 

Sarmiento,  saR-me-Sn'to,  (Martin,)  a  Spanish 
scholar  and  teacher,  born  at  Sego%-ia  in  1692.  He  wrote 
several  literary  works.     Died  at  Madrid  in  1770. 

Sarmiento,  de,  di  saR-me-§n'to,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 

historian,  who  lived  about  1550,  travelled  in  Peru,  and 

wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Account  of  the  Government  of 

the  Incas,"  ("  Relacion  de  la  Sucesion  y  Govierno  delas 

Ingas,"  etc.,  in  manuscript.)     He  is  praised  by  Prescott 

for  his  candour  and  accuracy  and  the  humane  spirit  he 

manifests  towards  the  natives.     He  held  the  office  of 

president  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Sarnelli,  saR-nel'lee,  (PoMPEO,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Polignano  in  1649.  He  wrote  various 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1724. 

See  Nio^RON,  "M^moires." 

Saron  or  Sarron.     See  Rochart  de  Sarron. 

Sar-pe'don,  [Gr.  SapTr^Juv ,-  Fr.  Sarp^don,  sSR'j^i'- 
dA.N', I  a  personage  in  the  Greek  mythology,  regarded 
as  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and  a  brother  of  Mi- 


nos. Having  been  expelled  from  Crete  by  Minos,  he 
retired  to  Lycia,  of  which  he  became  king. 

Sarpedon,  a  hero  and  prince  of  Lycia,  mentioned 
in  the  "Iliad,"  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Laodami'a.  According  to  Homer,  he  fought  for  the 
Trojans  and  was  killed  by  Patroclus. 

Sarpi,  saR'pee,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  writer 
and  theologian,  born  at  Venice  in  1552,  is  generally 
known  as  Fra  Paolo,  or  Father  Paul.  He  entered 
the  order  of  Servites  at  an  early  age,  was  subsequently 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Venice,  and  in 
1579  was  elected  general  of  his  order.  Being  made 
procureur-general  in  1585,  he  went  to  reside  at  Rome, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine 
and  other  distinguished  men  ;  but,  having  been  suspected 
of  heretical  opinions  and  threatened  with  the  Inquisi- 
tion, he  returned  to  Venice.  He  was  chosen  in  1605 
consulting  theologian  of  the  republic  during  its  contest 
with  Pope  Paul  V.,  and  defended  its  cause  with  signal 
ability  and  success.  Repeated  attempts  on  his  life,  and 
the  entreaties  of  his  friends,  induced  him  to  retire  to  a 
convent,  where  he  died  in  1623.  His  "History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent"  ("  Istoria  del  Concilio  Tridentino," 
1619)  is  his  most  celebrated  work,  and  was  translated 
into  Latin  and  several  other  languages.  In  his  writings 
Father  Paul  has  boldly  attacked  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope  and  condemned  his  usurpations  of  temporal  power. 
He  is  also  supposed  to  have  favoured  Protestantism. 

See  MiCANZio,  "Vita  di  Sarpi,"  1646:  Grisemni,  "  Memorie 
spettanti  alia  Vita  di  Sarpi,"  1760:  P.iANCHi-GmviNi,  "  Biografia 
di  Fra  Paolo,"  2  vols.,  1836;  G.  Kontanini,  "  Storia  arcana  della 
Vita  di  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,"  1805;  Dr.  Johnson's  Works,  vol.  xii., 
1812;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  G^nerale;"  "Westminster  Review" 
for  April,  1833,  (by  James  Martineau.) 

Sarrans,  sS'rfiN',  (Bernard,)  a  French  journalist  and 
political  writer,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1795,  became 
editor  of  "La  Nouvelle  Minerve"  about  1830.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  the  Spanish  \Var  and  the 
Tyranny  of  the  Bourbons,"  "  History  of  Bernadotte, 
King  of  Sweden,"  (1845,)  ^fc.     Died  April  7,  1874. 

Sarrasin  or  Sarasin,  st'rt'ziN',  (Jean  Francois,) 
a  facetious  French  litterateur,  born  near  Caen  in  1603, 
was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Siege  of  Dunkirk," 
(1649,)  "The  Conspiracy  of  Wallenstein,"  and  other 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  He  was  secretary  to  the 
Prince  de  Conti,  and  a  literary  rival  of  Voiture.  Died 
in  1654. 

See  NiciiRON,  "Memoires;"  "Menagiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  G^n^rale." 

Sarrazin,  (Jacques.)     See  Sarazin. 

Sarrazin,  sS'rt'ziN',  (Jean,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  1770.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade 
about  1800,  after  which  he  served  in  several  campaigns. 
In  1810  he  deserted  to  the  British.     Died  about  1S40. 

Sarrus,  sJt'riis',  (P.  F.,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Aveyron  about  1795.  He 
became  professor  of  analysis  at  Strasbourg.   Died  1S61. 

Sarrut,  st'rii',  (Germain,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
democrat,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1800,  has  published  a 
number  of  political  and  miscellaneous  works. 

Sars,  (Georg  Ossian,)  an  eminent  Norwegian  zoolo 
gist,  a  son  of  Michael  Sars,  was  born  in  1837.  His  spe- 
cialty is  the  marine  invertebrates,  and  he  has  been  one 
of  the  conductors  of  important  sea-dredging  expeditions. 

Sars,  (Michael,)  an  eminent  zoologist,  born  at  Ber- 
gen, in  Norway,  August  30,  1805.  In  1830  he  was 
pastor  of  Kinn,  and  in  1840  of  Manger,  on  the  coast  of 
Norway.  He  published  in  1846  the  first  part  of  his 
"Fauna  Littoralis  Norvegiae,"  which  established  his 
reputation.  In  1854  he  became  professor  of  geology  in 
the  University  of  Christiania,  which  office  he  filled  with 
great  honour  to  his  country  until  his  death.  His  "  Me- 
moire  pour  servir  a  la  Connaissance  des  Crinoi'des  vi- 
vants"  attracted  much  attention  by  showing  that  the 
crinoids,  or  "stone-lilies,"  supposed  to  have  been  long 
extinct,  occur  in  a  living  state  in  the  abysses  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.     Died  October  22,  1869. 

Sars'field,  (Patrick,)  an  able  Irish  commander  and 
Roman  Catholic,  who  was  a  partisan  of  James  II.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690.) 
He  won  the  confidence  of  the  Irish  Jacobites  in  an  emi- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  asy.-  G,  H,  K.,  g^ittural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


SARTAIN 


2132 


SA  TURN  US 


nent  degree,  induced  a  large  p.art  of  his  army  to  accom- 
pany him  to  P'rance  in  1691,  and  entered  the  service  of 
Louis  XIV.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Landen, 
in  1693. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv,  chap.  xvii. 

Sartain,  sar-tan',  (John,)  a  distinguished  engiaver, 
horn  in  London  in  1808,  emigrated  to  America  in  1830, 
and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  the  first  to  in- 
troduce mezzotinto  engraving  into  the  United  States. 
In  1849  he  established  "  Sartain's  Union  Magazine,"  (jjub- 
lished  monthly,)  of  which  he  was  for  some  time  editor. 
ISesides  engraving,  Mr.  Sartain  has  given  considerable 
attention  to  painting  in  oil  and  to  architecture.  Among 
his  works  in  the  latter  field  we  may  mention  the  lofty 
granite  monument  in  Monument  Cemetery,  near  Phila- 
delphia, in  which,  also,  the  colossal  medallion  portraits 
of  Washington  and  La  Fayette  were  cast  in  bronze  from 
his  models. 

Sarti,  saR'tee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Faenza  about  1730.  He  became  successively  chapel- 
master  at  the  court  of  Copenhagen,  the  Conservatorio 
della  Pieta,  at  Venice,  and  the  Conservatory  of  Kate- 
rinoslaf,  in  Russia.  The  emjjress  Catherine  II.  also 
conferred  upon  him  a  munificent  salary,  and  created  him 
a  noble  of  the  first  rank.  His  works  are  principally 
sacred  music  and  operas:  of  the  latter,  his  "Giulio  Sa- 
bino"  is  most  esteemed.     Died  in  1802. 

See  F^Tis,  "  P.iograpliie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle 
I'iograpliie  Gen^rale. " 

Sarti,  (Mauro,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1709,  was  a  monk  of  the  order  of  Camaldules.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bologna,"  in  Latin,  (2  vols.,  1769-71.)  Died  in 
1766. 

Sartine,  de,  deh  stR'tfen',  (Antoine  Raymond  Jean 
GuALKERT  Gabriel,)  Comte  d'Alby,  a  French  adminis- 
trator, born  in  1729.  lie  became  lieutenant-general  of 
police  (in  Paris)  in  1759,  and  was  minister  of  marine 
from  1774  until  1780.     Died  in  1801. 

Sarto,  del,  d§l  saR'to,  (Andrea  Vanucchi — vi- 
nook'kee,)  a  celebrated  jjainter  of  the  Florentine  school, 
born  at  Florence  in  1488.  He  studied  under  Pietro  di 
Cosimo,  and  subsequcUly  visited  Rome.  Among  his 
master-pieces  at  Florence  are  his  "Madonna  di  San 
Francesco,"  in  the  Florentine  gallery,  "The  Last  Sup- 
per," (a  fresco,)  arid  "  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in 
the  monastery  of  the  Salvi.  He  also  executed  several 
works  for  the  French  king,  Francis  I.  Sarto  is  distin- 
guished for  correctness  of  design,  harmonious  colouring, 
and  skill  in  chiaroscuro.     Died  in  1530. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Mr?.  Jamrson, 
'  Memoirs  of  Karly  Italian  Painters  ;"  A.  Reumont,  "  A.  del  Sarto," 
1S35;  L.  BiAGi.  "  Notizie  inedite  della  Vita  d'A.  del  Sarto,"  iSjo. 

Sar-to'ris,  (Adelaide,)  an  English  author,  a  daughter 
of  Charles  Kemble,  was  born  in  1816.  She  went  upon 
the  stage,  and  won  a  high  reputation  as  a  singer.  She 
married  Mr.  Sartoris  in  1843.  Among  her  writings  are 
"  A  Week  in  a  French  Country-House,"  (1847,)  "Medusa, 
and  other  Tales,"  etc.     Died  August  6,  1879. 

Sartorius,  saR-to're-us,  (Ernst  Wilhei.m  Chris- 
tian,) a  German  theologian  and  religious  writer,  burr 
at  Darmstadt  in  1797;  died  in  1859. 

Sartorius,  (Georg,)  Baron  von  Waltershausen,  born 
at  Cassel  in  1765,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,"  (1802,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  182S. 

Sartorius,  saRto're-oos,  (Luis  Jos6,)  Count  de  San 
Luis,  a  Spanish  journalist  and  statesman,  of  German 
extraction,  born  about  1810.  He  was  appointed  in  1847 
minister  of  the  interioi  under  Narvaez.     Died  in  187 1. 

Sart'well,  (Henry  Parker,)  an  American  botanist, 
born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  April  18,  1792.  He 
was  for  many  years  a  physician  of  Penn  Yan,  New  York, 
and  was  a  zealous  collector  of  plants.  His  principal 
piiblication  was  an  unfinished  work  on  the  genus  Carex. 
Died  at  Penn  Yan,  November  15,  1867. 

Sas'nett,  (William  J.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Method- 
ist divine  and  writer,  born  in  Georgia  in  1820.  He  was 
an  eminent  pulpit  orator,  and  president  of  a  college  at 
Auburn,  Alabama.     Died  November  3,  1865. 

Sassanid,  (plural  Sassanids.)     See  SassaniDjE. 


Sassauidae,  sas-san'e-de,  [Fr.  Sassanides,  sS'sJ' 
nid';  Ger.  Sassaniden,  sSs-sd-nee'den :  the  English 
form  Sassan'ids  is  also  used,]  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
dynasty  which  reigned  in  Persia  from  226  to  651  a.D. 
It  was  founded  by  Ardsheer  Babegan,  a  grandson  of 
Sassan,  (or  Sasan,)  from  whom  it  took  its  name.  Among 
the  chief  rulers  of  this  dynasty  were  Sapor  (Shapoor) 
and  Chosroes  I.,  (Noushirvan.) 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Sassanides  or  Sassaniden.     See  Sassanids. 

Sassi,  sas'see,  [Lat.  Sax'ius,]  (Giuseppe  Antonio,) 
an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1673  oi 
1675.  He  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Milan,  and  aided 
his  friend  Muratori  in  his  great  work.     Died  in  175 1. 

Sassi,  (Panfilo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Modena 
about  1455  ;  <i'ed  in  1527. 

Sassoferrato.     See  Salvi,  (Giambattista.) 

Sassone,  IL     See  Hasse,  (Juhann  Adolf.) 

Sathas,  sa'this,  (Konstantinos,)  a  Greek  scholar, 
born  at  Athens  in  1S42,  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sity of  that  city.  Among  his  writings  are  "Anecdota 
Graeca,"  "  History  of  Greek  Literature  after  the  Fall  of 
the  Empire,"  "  History  of  Greece  under  the  Turks," 
"  History  of  the  Greek  Language,"  etc. 

Sat'i,  Sut'ee,  or  Sut'tee,  (modern  Hindoo  pron. 
sut'ee',  the  feminine  form  of  the  Sanscrit  adjective  sdt, 
"  true,"  "good,"  "  virtuous,"  "  pure,"|  the  name  given  by 
the  Hindoos  to  those  widows  who  burn  themselves  on 
the  funeral  pile  of  their  husbands,  from  the  belief  not 
merely  that  no  true  or  good  wife  will  marry  a  second 
time,  but  that  no  devoted  wife  ought  to  survive  her  hus- 
band. According  to  one  of  the  Hindoo  legends,  Sati 
was  the  name  of  a  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of 
Siva:  through  indignation  on  account  of  some  disre- 
spect shown  by  her  father  to  Siva  or  to  herself,  she  cast 
herself  into  a  sacrificial  fire,  and  was  consumed. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Sat'urn,  fGr.  Kpovog ;  Lat.  Satur'nus  or  Cro'nus; 
Fr.  Saturne,  sa'tliRn',]  a  god  of  classic  mythology, 
and  a  mythical  king  of  Italy,  was  called  a  son  of  Uranus 
and  Ge,  (or  Coelus  and  Terra,)  the  husband  of  Rhea, 
and  the  father  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  Ceres, 
and  Vesta.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  dethroned  Uranus, 
and  devoured  his  own  children  as  soon  as  they  were 
born  ;  but  Rhea  deceived  him  by  giving  him  stones, 
(wrapped  in  a  cloth,)  which  he  swallowed,  and  she  thus 
saved  the  lives  of  those  above  named.  He  was  de- 
throned by  Jupiter,  took  refuge  in  Italy,  and  was  kindly 
received  by  Janus,  the  king  of  that  country,  who  gave 
him  a  share  of  the  royal  power.  Saturn  is  said  to  have 
civilized  the  peo])le  of  Italy  and  to  have  taught  them  agri- 
culture and  useful  arts.  His  reign  was  so  mild,  pacific, 
and  beneficent  that  it  was  called  the  Golden  Age. 

The  Romans,  in  honour  of  Saturn,  celebrated  an  an- 
nual festival  called  Saturnalia,  during  which  general 
mirth  and  license  prevailed  and  slaves  were  waited  on 
at  table  by  their  masters,  with  whom  they  were  allowed 
to  jest  with  impunity.  Saturn  was  represented  as  an 
old  man,  holding  in  his  hand  a  scythe  or  pruning-knife, 
with  a  serpent  biting  its  own  tail,  (the  emblem  of  eternity.) 

Saturnalia.    See  Saturn. 

Saturne.     See  Saturn. 

Saturnin.     See  Saturninus. 

Sat-ur-ni'nus  or  Saturnilus,  one  of  the  earliest 
of  the  Syrian  Gnostics,  flourished  about  125  a.d. 

Sat-ur-ni'nus,  (Claudius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  the  time 
of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  is  the  supposed  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  De  Poenis  Paganorum." 

Saturninus,  [Fr.  Saturnin,  st'tiiR'niN',]  (Lucius 
Appuleius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  demagogue,  who 
became  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  senate  and  aristo- 
cratic party.  He  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  102  B.C., 
and  again  in  the  year  100.  He  proposed  an  agrarian 
law,  which  was  passed.  His  conduct  was  so  seditious 
and  violent  that  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  the  senate,  in 
99  B.C. 

See  S.MITH,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Saturninus,  (Venulius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Scverus. 

Saturnus.     See  Saturn. 


a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  l\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsatre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SATYR 


2133 


SAUSSURE 


Sat'yr,  [Gr.  Sarvpo?;  Lat.  Sat'yrus  ;  Fr.  Satyre, 
si'tiu'.  I  The  Satyrs  were  fabulous  beings,  or  demi-gods, 
associated  with  tiie  worship  of  Bacchus,  and  supposed 
to  have  l)een  the  offspring  of  Mercury.  They  were  rep- 
resented as  having  a  body  like  a  man,  with  the  legs  and 
feet  of  a  goat,  and  small  horns  on  the  head.  They  were 
fond  of  wine,  sleep,  and  sensual  pleasure,  and  were  con- 
founded or  identified  by  some  with  the  Fauni  of  the 
Roman  mythology.  The  older  Satyrs  were  called  Silent. 

Satyre  or  Satyrus.     See  Satyr. 

Saucerotte,  sos'rot',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  surgical 
writer,  born  at  Luneville  in  1741,  was  chief  surgeon  of 
a  French  army  from  1794  to  1798.     Died  in  18 14. 

His  grandson,  Anioine  Constant  Saucerotte, 
born  at  Moscow  in  1805,  became  a  j^hysician  at  Lund- 
ville.  lie  wrote  several  works  on  medicine  and  natural 
history. 

Sauda,  si-oo'da,  an  Urdu  (or  Hindostanee)  poet, 
born  at  Delhi  about  1700;  died  at  Lucknovv  in  1780. 
His  satires  are  the  best  his  country  has  produced. 

Saul,  [Heb.  SlXU',]  the  son  of  Kish,  and  of  the  tribe 
of  lienjamin,  was  anointed  first  king  of  the  Israelites,  by 
Samuel.  He  waged  war  successfully  against  the  Am- 
monites and  Philistines,  and  in  a  battle  with  the  Amalek- 
ites  took  captive  their  king,  Agag.  Having  through 
disobedience  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Jehovah,  he 
was  killed  in  an  engagement  with  the  Philistines,  to- 
gether with  three  of  his  sons,  B.C.  1056. 

See  I.  Samuel  ix.-xxxi. 

Saul  of  Tarsus.     See  Paul,  Saint. 

Saulcy,  de,  deh  so'se',  (Louis  F^licien  Joseph 
Caignart — kin'ytR',)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  at 
Lille  in  1807.  He  published  in  1836  an  "Essay  on  the 
Classification  of  Byzantine  Coins,"  which  obtained  the 
prize  from  the  French  Institute.  In  1842  he  succeeded 
Mionnet  as  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions, 
and  in  1859  became  a  senator.  Having  visited  Pales- 
tine in  1850,  he  published  his  "Travels  around  the  Dead 
Sea  and  in  the  Biblical  Lands,"  (1852.)  He  wrote  other 
works  on  numismatics,  etc.     Died  November  4,  1880. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Saulmugina,  a  brother  of  Assur-bani-pal,  King  of 
Assyria,  (see  Sardanapalus,)  who  made  him  titular 
King  of  Babylon.  Saulmugina,  tired  of  his  vassalage  to 
his  brother,  conspired  with  the  kings  of  Elam  and  made 
war  against  Assyria,  but  was  finally  overcome.  He  then 
shut  himself  up  in  his  palace.  According  to  George 
Smith  and  most  other  Assyriologists,  he  set  fire  to  the 
palace  and  perished  in  the  flames.  Lenormant  says 
that  he  was  pardoned  at  the  intercession  of  his  sister; 
Fox  Talbot,  that  he  was  either  devoured  by  lions  or 
burned  to  death  in  a  furnace.  • 

Saulx  de  Tavannes.     See  Tavannes. 

Saumaise.    See  Salmasius. 

Sauniarez  or  Sausmarez,  de,  deh  so'mi'ri', 
(James,)  Lord,  a  British  admiral,  of  French  extraction, 
born  on  the  island  of  Guernsey  in  1757.  Having  served 
for  a  time  in  America,  and  subsequently  against  the 
Dutch  in  1781,  he  was  appointed  in  1793  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Crescent,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
several  engagements  with  the  French.  As  commander 
of  the  Orion,  he  assisted  in  gaining  the  victory  over  the 
Spanish  fleet  off  Saint  Vincent  in  1797,  and  was  after- 
wards second  in  command  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile. 
Having  been  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue  in  1801,  he 
was  appointed  to  command  the  squadron  off  Cadiz,  and 
soon  after  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  united  French 
and  Spanish  fleet,  for  which  achievement  the  order  of 
the  Bath  was  conferred  upon  him.  In  the  subsequent 
war  with  Russia  he  commanded  the  Baltic  fleet,  and 
after  peace  was  restored  was  created  in  1821  vice-ad- 
miral of  Great  Britain.  He  was  made  a  peer,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  de  Sausmarez,  in  1831.     Died  in  1836. 

See  Sir  John  Ross,  "  Memoirs,  etc.  of  Admiral  Lord  de  Sau- 
mare/.,"  1838;  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Saun'd^rs,  (Sir  Edmund,)  an  English  jurist  undei 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  rose  to  be  chief  justice  of  the 
court  of  king's  bench  in  1682.     Died  in  1683. 

Saunders,  (John  Cunningham,)  an  English  sur- 
geon and  oculist,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1773,  published 


treatises  "  On  the  Diseases  of  the  Eye"  and  "  On  the 
Anatomy  and  Diseases  of  the  Ear."     Died  in  i8lo. 

Saun'ders,  (Prince,)  an  American  negro,  born  at 
Thetford,  Vermont,  about  1775,  was  for  a  time  teacher 
of  free  coloured  schools  in  Connecticut  and  at  Boston. 
He  afterwards  studied  divinity  and  became  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Philadelphia.  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
attorney-general  of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  where  he  died 
in  1840. 

Saunders,  (William,)  M.D.,  born  in  1743,  was  ap- 
pointed senior  physician  to  Guy's  Hospital,  London. 
He  wrote  several  medical  works.     Died  in  1819. 

Saun'der-son,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  scholar  an^l 
mathematician,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1682.  He  lost  his 
sight  at  the  age  of  twelve  months,  but,  notwithstanding 
this  misfortune,  he  made  rapid  progress  both  in  the 
classics  and  the  exact  sciences.  In  1711  he  succeeded 
Whiston  as  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cam- 
bridge, having  previously  received  the  degree  of  M.A., 
and  in  1728  he  was  made  Doctor  of  Laws.  He  was  the 
author  of  treatises  on  the  "  Elements  of  Algebra"  and 
"  On  Fluxions."  He  was  a  friend  of  Newton  and  other 
eminent  philosophers  of  the  time.     Died  in  1739. 

See  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Sauppe,  sowp'peh,  (Hermann,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Wesenstein,  in  Saxony,  December  9,  1809.  In 
1838  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  Zurich  Univer- 
sity, and  in  1856  was  made  professor  of  philology  at 
Gottingen.  He  has  edited  many  texts  of  Greek  and 
Latin  authors,  with  notes. 

Saurau,  von,  fon  so'ro',  (Franz,)  Count,  an  Aus- 
trian statesman,  born  in  Vienna  in  1760.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  province  of  Austria  in  1810,  and 
governor  of  Lombardy  in  1815.  In  the  last-named  year 
he  became  the  chief  of  all  the  chanceries  of  the  empire. 
Died  about  1830. 

Saurin,  so'viw',  (Bernard  Joseph,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  in  Pajis  in  1706,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Saurin, 
noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  "Spartacus,"  a 
tragedy,  (1760.)  "The  Manners  of  the  Time,"  ("Moeurs 
du  Temps,")  and  other  comedies.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and  numbered  among  his  friends 
Voltaire  and  Montesquieu.     Died  in  1781. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saurin,  (Elias,)  a  French  Protestant  divine,  born  in 
1639,  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Rights  of 
Conscience,"  and  other  similar  works.     Died  in  1703" 

Saurin,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  and 
eloquent  pul|)it  orator,  born  at  Nimes  in  1677.  Having 
studied  at  Geneva,  he  became  in  1701  pastor  of  the 
Walloon  church  in  London,  and  subsequently  resided 
at  the  Hague,  in  Holland,  where  he  preached  for  twenty- 
five  years  with  the  highest  reputation.  He  published 
a  large  collection  of  sermons,  some  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  English,  a  treatise  "On  the  State  of 
Christianity  in  France,"  (1725,)  and  "  Discourses,  His- 
torical, Theological,  and  Moral,  on  the  Principal  Events 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments."     Died  in  1730. 

See  Charles  Weiss,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Saurin,"  1854; 
J.  P.  Roman,  "  Essai  sur  Saurin,"  1836;  Haag,  "  La  France  pro- 
testante  ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1785;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Saurin,  (Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician,  brother 
of  Elias,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Courtaison  in  1659. 
In  1707  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to 
which  he  contributed  a  number  of  valuable  scientific 
essays.  He  was  originally  a  Calvinist  minister,  but  sub- 
sequently became  a  Catholic.     Died  in  1737. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Sau'rin,  (William,)  an  Irish  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  1767,  became  attorney-general  for  Ireland  in 
1807.     Died  in  1840. 

Sausmarez.     See  Saumarez. 

Saussay,  so'si',  (  Andk6,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Paris  about  1595,  was  api^ointed  preacher-in-ordinary 
to  Louis  XIII.,  and  made  Bishop  of  Toul  in  1649.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "  Martyrologium  Gallicanum." 
Died  in  1675. 

Saussaye,  La.     See  La  Saussaye,  de. 

Saussure,  (Albertine  Adrienne.)     See  Necker. 


€  as  k;  ?  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G.  H.  K.  s^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( ^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAUSSURE 


2134 


SAVARON 


Saussure,  de,  deh  so'sur',  (Horace  B^nAdicp,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at  Geneva  in  February, 
1740.  He  was  assisted  in  his  scientific  studies  by  his 
maternal  uncle.  Bonnet,  and  by  the  celebrated  Haller, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  became  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  the  College  of  Geneva.  Having  made  numerous 
excursions  among  the  Alps,  Jura,  and  other  mountain- 
chains,  with  the  view  of  exploring  their  natural  i)he- 
nomena,  he  ascended  in  178S  to  the  summit  of  Mont 
Blanc.  His  most  important  work,  entitled  "  Voyages 
dans  les  Alpes,"  was  published  in  4  vols,  in  1796. 
Among  his  other  writings  we  may  name  a  "  Physical 
Dissertation  on  Fire,"  (1759,  in  Latin,)  "  Essays  on  Hy- 
grometry,"  (1783,)  and  "Relation  abregee  d'un  Voyage 
i  la  Cime  du  Mont  Blanc  en  Aout,  1787,"  (1787.)  He 
was  the  inventor  of  instruments  called  the  cyanometer 
and  the  diaphanometer,  for  ascertaining  the  transparency 
of  the  air  at  different  heights,  and  also  made  improve- 
ments in  the  thermometer,  hygrometer,  etc.  Of  Saus- 
sure, Cuvier  observes,  "The  new  facts  which  he  has 
signalized,  and  the  errors  he  has  destroyed,  will  always 
render  his  labours  infinitely  valualile  to  naturalists,  and 
will  make  of  them  the  principal  base  and  true  touch- 
stone of  the  systems  one  can  imagine  for  the  future." 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1799. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Sniissure  :"  Senebier,  "  M^moires  his- 
toriqiies  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  Saussure,"  1801  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Uiographie  G^n^rale." 

Saussure,  de,  (Nicolas,)  a  Swiss  rural  economist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1709,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  published  several  works  on  rural  economy.  Died 
in  1790. 

Saussure,  de,  (Nicolas  Theodore,)  a  chemist  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1767,  was  a  son  of  Horace 
Benedict,  noticed  above.  He  published  "Chemical  Re- 
searches on  Vegetation,"  (1804,)  and  contributed  many 
memoirs  to  several  scientific  journals.  In  1810  he  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the  French  Institute. 
Died  in  1845. 

Sautel,  so'tSl',  (Pierre  Just,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Valence  in  1613.  He  wrote  several 
elegant  Latin  poems.     Died  in  1662. 

Sauvage,  so'vtzh',  (De.nis,)  Sieur  Du  Pare,  a  French 
litterateur,  born  about  1520,  became  historiographer  to 
Henry  II.  He  edited  the  works  of  Froissart,  Comines, 
and  Monstrelet.     Died  about  1587. 

Sauvage,  so'vtzh',  (Etienne  Noel  Joseph,)  a  Bel- 
gian advocate,  born  at  Liege  in  1789.  He  was  minister 
of  the  interior  from  March  to  August,  1831,  and  became 
president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1832.     Died  1867. 

Sauvages,  de,  deh  s5'vSzh',  (Francois  Boissier,)  a 
French  medical  writer  and  botanist,  born  at  Alais  (Gard) 
in  1706.  He  became  professor  at  Monlpellier  about 
1740,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "Methodical 
Nosology,"  ("Nosologia  Methodica,"  5  vols.,  1763.) 
Died  in  1767. 

See  Barbaste,  "  fitude  sur  Boissier  de  Sauvages,"  1791  ;  "  Bio- 
graphie  Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sauval,  so'vSl',  (Henri,)  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Paris  about  1620.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  An- 
tiquities of  Paris,"  (3  vols.,  1724.)    Died  in  1669  or  1670. 

Sauveur,  so'vur',  (Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  born  at  La  Fleche  in  1653.  He  vyas 
appointed  in  1680  teacher  to  the  pages  of  the  dauphin- 
ess,  and  in  1686  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal 
College  at  Paris.  He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1696.  He  was  especially  distinguished  for 
his  improvements  in  the  science  of  acoustics,  upon  which 
he  published  a  number  of  essays.     Died  in  1716. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  Elloges ;"  Montucla,  "Histoire  des  Mathe 
matiques." 

Sauz,  de,  deh  so,  (Sophie,)  a  French  artist,  known 
professionally  as  Henriette  Browne.  She  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1829,  the  daughter  of  the  Count  de  Bouteil- 
lon,  and  became  the  wife  of  Jules  de  Saux.  She  has 
acquired  distinction  chietiy  as  a  genre-painter. 

Sauzet,  so'zk'.  (Jean  Pierre  Paul,)  an  eloquent 
French  advocate  and  politician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1800. 
He  gained  distinction  as  counsel  for  the  defence  in 
political    trials,  and  was   elected   to   the   Chamber  of 


Deputies  in  1834.  He  was  minister  of  justice  from 
February  to  Sei)tember,  1836.  Between  1839  and  1848 
he  was  elected  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
ten  times.  He  presided  during  the  revolution  of  Febru- 
ary, 1848,  and  resisted  the  insurgents  who  invaded  the 
chamber.  After  that  event  he  to.ik  no  part  in  public 
life.     Died  at  Lyons,  July  12,  1876. 

See  CoRMENiN,  "  Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  Louis  Blanc,  "  Histoir* 
de  dix  Ans;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Sav'age,  (Edward,)  an  American  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Princeton,  Massachusetts,  in  1761,  was 
a  puj^il  of  Benjamin  West.  He  painted  the  family  of 
Washington.     Died  in  1817. 

Sav'age,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire about  1604,  was  chaplain-in-ordinary  to 
Charles  II.,  and  rector  of  Bladon,  in  Oxfordshire.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Baliol  College."    Died  in  1672. 

Savage,  (John,)  an  English  divine  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  ])ublished  a  "Collection  of  Letters  of  the  An- 
cients, whereby  is  discovered  the  Morality,  Wit,  Hu- 
mour, etc.  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans."     Died  in  1747. 

Savage,  (John,)  an  American  jurist,  born  about  1780. 
He  was  chief  justice  of  the  sujareme  court  of  New  York 
for  fourteen  years.     Died  at  Utica  in  October,  1863. 

Savage,  (John,)  an  Irish-American  author,  born  in 
Dublin,  December  13,  1828.  He  went  to  ttie  United 
States  in  1848,  and  became  a  journalist  in  New  York. 
Among  his  works  are  "Lays  of  the  Fatherland,"  (1850,) 
"Modern  Revolutionary  History  and  Literature  of  Ire- 
land," (1856,)  "  Fenian  Heroes  and  Martyrs,"  (1868,) 
"  Eva,  a  Goblin  Romance,"  "  Faith  and  Fancy,"  (poems, 
1864,)  "Sibyl,  a  Drama,"  (1865,)  etc. 

Savage,  (Mar. Ml  ON  \V.,)an  Irish  novelist,  born  about 
1815.  In  1S56  he  removed  from  Dublin  to  London  and 
became  editor  of  the  "Examiner."  Among  his  books 
are  "The  Falcon  Family,"  (1845,)  "The  Bachelor  of  the 
Albany,"  (1849,)  "My  Uncle  the  Curate,"  "Reuben 
Medlicott,"  (1852,)  "  A  Woman  of  Business,"  (1870,)  etc. 
Died  at  Torquay,  May  i,  1S72. 

Savage,  (Minot  Judso.n,)  an  American  clergyman, 
born  at  Norridgewock,  Maine,  June  10,  1841.  He  grad- 
uated at  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  in  1S64,  and  be- 
came a  Congregationalist  preacher,  but  afterwards  joined 
the  Unitarian  denomination,  and  became  pastor  of  the 
Church  of  the  Unity  in  Boston.  Among  his  works  are 
"Christianity  the  Science  of  Manhood,"  (1873,)  "Light 
on  the  Cloud,"  (1S76,)  "The  Religion  of  Evolution," 
(1876,)  "Morals  of  Evolution,"  (1880,)  "Belief  in  God," 
(18S1,)  "Beliefs  about  Man,"  (1882,)  "The  Modern 
Sphinx,"  (1883,)  "Beliefs  about  the  Bible,"  (1884,)  etc. 
Many  of  his  books  have  been  republished  in  Europe. 

Savage,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet,  noted  for  his 
misfortunes  and  for  his  dissolute  habits,  was  born  in 
London  in  1698.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  a  natural 
son  of  the  Countess  of  Macclesfield  and  the  Earl  of 
Rivers.  He  was  abandoned  by  his  mother  and  placed 
with  a  nurse,  who  was  charged  to  bring  him  up  in  ig- 
norance of  his  birth.  Having  subsequently  discovered 
the  secret  of  his  parentage,  he  made  many  ineffectual 
attempts  to  obtain  recognition  and  support  from  Lady 
Macclesfield.  He  was  befriended  by  Sir  Richard  .Steele 
and  Dr.  Johnson.  Among  his  works  were  "The  Wan- 
derer," a  poem,  (1729,)  and  several  dramas.  He  killed 
a  man  in  a  brawl  in  1727,  and  was  condemned  to  death, 
but  was  pardoned.  Died  in  1743. 
See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Savarie  de  Mauleou,  st'vt'Ri'  deh  ni6'li'6N',  a 
French  baron  and  troubadour,  about  1200  became  Grand 
Seneschal  of  Aquitaine,  and  fought  with  the  Albigenses 
against  Simon  de  Montfort.  He  was  a  man  of  vacillating 
disposition,  but  was  noted  for  his  songs  called  tettzone. 
Died  about  1230. 

Savziron,  sa'vt'r6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  historian  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Clermont  in  1550.  He  was  an 
advocate  of  the  rights  of  the  tiers-etat,  (third  estate,)  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  States- 
General,"  (1615.)     Died  in  1622. 

See  Nic^RON,"  M^moires :"  MorAki,"  Dictionnaire  Historique;" 
H.  CoCHON,  "  Jfitudes  liisloriques  et  litteraires  sur  J.  Savaron," 
1847. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,6, 11,3?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m5t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


SAVART 


2135 


SAVONAROLA 


Savart,  st'vSu',  (F^lix,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Mezieres  in  1791,  was  a  physician.  He  succeeded  Am- 
pere as  professor  of  physical  philosophy  in  the  College 
of  France.  He  wrote  on  the  vibrations  of  bodies  and 
the  laws  of  their  communication.    Died  in  Paris  in  1S41. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Savary,  st'vt're',  (Anne  Jean  Marie  Ren6,)  Due 
de  Kovigo,  an  able  French  general  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Marcq  (Ardennes)  in  1774.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1790,  served  as  captain  under  Moreau  in  1796, 
and  was  aide-de-camp  of  Desaix  in  Egypt  in  1798-1800. 
He  became  aide-de-camp  to  Bonaparte  in  1800,  a  gen- 
eral of  brigade  in  1803,  and  general  of  division  in  1805. 
Having  obtained  command  of  a  corps,  he  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  the  Russians  at  Ostrolenka  in  1807.  In  1808 
he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Kovigo,  and  was  sent  on 
a  diplomatic  mission  to  Madrid.  He  succeeded  Fouche 
as  minister  of  police  in  June,  1810.  He  adhered  to  Bona- 
parte after  his  defeat  at  Waterloo,  and  offered  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Saint  Helena,  but  was  detained  in  prison 
at  Malta  seven  months.  He  wrote  autobiographic  "  Me- 
moires,"  (8  vols.,  1828.)  In  1831  he  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  in  Algeria.     Died  in  1833. 

See  ACHILLE  Roche,  "De  MM.  le  Due  de  Rovigo  et  le  Prince 
de  Talleyrand,"  1823  ;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the 
Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle    Biographie  Generale.  " 

Savary,  (Francois.)     See  BRtvES,  de. 

Savary,  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer  on  commerce, 
born  in  Anjou  in  1622.  He  published  a  work  entitled 
"The  Complete  Merchant,"  ("  Le  parfait  Negociant,") 
which  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages.    Died  in  1690. 

Savary,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Vitre, 
in  Brittany,  in  1750.  He  set  out  in  1776  for  Egypt,  where 
he  passed  three  years,  and  subsecjuently  visited  the 
Grecian  Archipelago.  On  his  return  to  France  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Koran,  accompanied  with 
notes,  and  a  Life  of  Mohammed,  which  is  esteemed  the 
best  in  the  French  language.  His  "  Letters  on  Egypt" 
came  out  in  1785,  and  obtained  great  popularity,  having 
been  translated  into  English,  German,  Dutch,  and  Swed- 
ish. His  "Letters  on  Greece"  came  out  a  short  time 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1788.  He  also  trans- 
lated from  the  Arabic  a  tale  entitled  "The  Loves  of 
Anas  Eloujoud  and  Ouardi,"  (1789.) 

Savary  des  Brulons,  st'vt're'  di  bRii'lAN', 
(Jacques,)  a  son  of  Jacques  Savary,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1657.  He  was  appointed  inspector-general  of 
manufactures  in  1686.  With  the  aid  of  his  brother 
Philemon  Louis,  he  compiled  a  "  Dictionary  of  Com- 
merce, Arts,  and  Trades,"  (3  vols.,  1723-30.)  Died  in 
1716.  Philemon  Louis  was  born  in  1654;  died  in  1727. 

Savelli.     See  Honorius  HI. 

Saverien,  stv're-^N',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  savant 
and  writer,  born  at  Aries  about  1722,  was  a  naval  en- 
gineer, (ingenieiir  de  niarme.)  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Marine  Dictionary,"  ("  Dictionnaire  de  Ma- 
rine," 1758,)  and  a  "  History  of  Modern  Philosophers," 
(4  vols.,  1760-73.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1805. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Saverio.     See  Xavier,  (Francis.) 

Savery,  stv're',  (Roland,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Courtray  in  1576,  was  a  pupil 
of  his  father.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Ru- 
dolph n.,  for  whom  he  worked  at  Prague.  He  removed 
to  Utrecht  in  1612.  Many  of  his  pictures  are  rocky  land- 
scapes adorned  with  figures  of  animals.     Died  in  1639. 

Sa'vfr-y,  (Thomas,)  Captain,  an  English  engineer, 
and  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  He  was 
associated  with  Newcomen  as  patentee  of  the  invention 
for  producing  a  vacuum  under  the  piston.  Died  in  1715. 

Savigny,  von,  fon  st'vin'ye',  (Friedrich  Karl,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the  Main  in  1779.  He  published  in  1803 
an  important  work  entitled  "  Right  of  Possession," 
("  Recht  des  Besitzes.")  In  1804  he  married  Miss  Bren- 
tano,  a  sister  of  the  poet  of  that  name.  He  became 
professor  of  law  at  Landshut  in  1808,  and  obtained  in 
1810  a  chair  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  which  he  filled  | 


thirty-two  years.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state  about  1817.  His  principal  works  are 
a  "  History  of  Roman  Law  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  (6 
vols.,  1815-31,)  and  "  System  of  Modern  Roman  Law," 
("System  des  heutigen  Romischen  Rechts,"  8  vols., 
1840-48.)  In  1842  he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice 
of  Prussia.  "  His  ideas  have  made  the  tour  of  the  world," 
says  Laboulaye  ;  "  they  have  transformed  the  science." 
Died  in  October,  1861. 

See  Laboui.ayh,  "  F.  C.  de  Savigny, "  1842;  Rudorff,  "  Erin- 
nerung  an  Savigny,"  1862  :  Stinzing,  "  F.  C.  von  Savigny,"  i86a  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ii^rale." 

Savile  or  Saville,  (George.)  See  Halifax,  Mar- 
quis OF. 

Savile,  sav'il,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  mathemati 
cian  and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1549. 
He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1570,  and,  after  his  return 
from  a  tour  on  the  continent,  became  tutor  in  the  Greek 
language  and  mathematics  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was 
made  provost  of  Eton  College  in  1596,  and  was  subse- 
quently knighted  by  James  I.  He  was  the  founder  of  two 
professorships  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  besides  other 
liberal  donations  to  that  institution,  to  which  he  also 
bequeathed  a  valuable  library.  Among  his  principa* 
publications  are  "  Lectures  on  the  First  Book  of  Euclid's 
Elements,"  a  collection  of  English  historians,  entitled 
"  Rerum  Anglicarum  Scriptores  post  Bedam,"  (1596,) 
and  an  excellent  edition  of  the  works  of  Saint  Chrys- 
ostom,  (1613.)  He  died  in  1622,  having  acquired  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  most  profound  and  accomplished 
scholars  of  his  time.  "  We  may  justly  deem  him,"  says 
Hallam,  "  the  most  learned  Englishman  in  profane  liter- 
ature of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth." 

Savioli,  si-ve-o'lee,  (LuiGi  Victor,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1729.  He  wrote  Anacreontic  poems, 
entitled  "  Amori,"  (1795.)     Died  in  1804. 

Savonarola,  sS-vo-nJ-ro'li,  (Giovanni  Michele,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1384,  was 
a  grandfather  of  Girolamo,  noticed  below.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Ferrara,  and  published  several 
medical  works.     Died  in  1461. 

Savonarola,  [Fr.  Savonarole,  st'vo'nt'rol',]  (Gi- 
rolamo,) a  celebrated  Italian  reformer  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1452.  He  became  a  Dominican 
monk  in  1475.  His  first  attempts  to  preach  proved  a 
failure;  but  he  persevered  until  he  became  an  eloquent 
and  popular  preacher.  He  boldly  denounced  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  Church,  and  the  vices  of  priests  and 
monks.  He  also  advocated  republicanism  or  political 
liberty.  In  1491  he  was  chosen  prior  of  the  convent  of 
Saint  Mark  at  Florence,  where  he  effected  important 
reforms.  He  acquired  great  political  influence  at  Flor- 
ence, and  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici  (1494)  was 
the  leader  of  the  liberal  party,  called  "  Piagnoni,"  (pe-Sn- 
yo'nee,)  by  which  a  new  constitution  was  adopted  on 
Christian  principles.  Having  refused  to  submit  to  papal 
authority,  he  was  excommunicated  by  Alexander  VI.  in 
1497.  The  popular  enthusiasm  grew  cool,  a  reaction 
ensued,  and  the  enemies  of  Savonarola  gained  the  ascend- 
ency in  Florence.  He  was  arrested,  tortured,  condemned, 
and  strangled  in  May,  1498.  A  few  years  later,  Raphael 
painted  his  portrait  in  the  Vatican  among  the  saints  and 
doctors  of  the  Church.  Savonarola  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Triumph  of  the  Cross,"  etc., 
("Triumphus  Crucis  de  Veritate  Fidei,"  1497.)  "His 
absolutely  blameless  moral  character,  his  wonderful 
abilities,  his  command  of  all  the  knowledge  of  his  time, 
his  power  of  communicating  his  own  holiness  to  others, 
even  his  rigid  authority  as  regards  the  great  doctrines 
of  his  Church,  who  will  impeach.'"  ("Quarterly  Re- 
view," article  on  Savonarola,  reprinted  in  the  "Living 
Age,"  vol.  1.  p.  641,  1856.)  His  complete  works  were 
published  at  Lyons,  (6  vols.,  i633-4a) 

SeeT.NERi,  "Apologia  in  Dilesa  della  Dottrina  di  G. Savonarola," 
1564;  Pico  della  Mikandola,  "Vita  Savonarolae,"  1674;  Spang- 
ENUERG.  "Leben,  Lehre  und  Tod  Savonarola,"  1557:  Burlamac- 
CHi,  "Vita  di  G.  Savonarola,"  1764;  Rudelbach,  "  Savonarola  und 
seine  Zeit,"  183s;  Fr.  Karl  Meier,  "  G.  Savonarola,"  1836;  E. 
Marion  or  Marin,  "Viede  J.  Savonarole,"  1839;  P.  J.  Carle, 
"  Histoire  de  Savonarole,"  1842;  Madden,  "Life  and  Martyrdom 
of  Savonarola,"  2  vols.,  1853  ;  Pkrrens,  "  Savonarole,  sa  Vie,"  etc., 
1854;  P.  Villari,  "Storia  di  G.  Savonarola,"  i86o,  (translated  into 
English  by  Horner,  1863.) 


■e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=Sea  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAVOT 


2136 


SAY 


Savot,  st'vo',  (Louis,)  a  French  physician  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Saulieu  in  1579,  was  physician  to  Louis 
XIII.  He  published  several  treatises  on  medicine  and 
numismatics.     Died  in  1640. 

Savoy,  Counts  and  Dukes  of.  See  Amadeus  and 
Charles  Emanuel. 

Saw'yer,  (Caroline  M.  Fisher,)  wife  of  T.  J.  Saw- 
yer, noticed  below,  was  born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts, 
in  1812.  She  has  published  several  religious  works,  and 
made  numerous  translations  from  the  German  and 
French.  In  1861  she  became  editor  of  the  "Ladies' 
Repository." 

Sav^'yer,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
statesman,  rose  to  be  attorney-general  in  1680.  He 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge.  He  was  accessory  to  the  death  of 
Lord  Russell.     Died  in  1692. 

Sa'wryer,  (Thomas  Jefferson,  D.D.,)  an  American 
Universalist  preacher,  born  in  Windsor  county,  Ver- 
mont, in  1804.  He  published  a  "Discussion  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Universal  Salvation,"  (1854.) 

Saw^yer,  (William  Kingston,)  an  English  author, 
born  at  Brighton,  July  26,  1S2S.  Among  his  works  are 
"Stray  Leaves,"  (1846,)  "Thought  and  Reverie,"  (1849,) 
"Ten  Miles  from  Town,"  (1S66,)  "The  Legend  of  Pliyl- 
lis,"  (1872,)  etc.  Most  of  the  above  are  in  verse.  Mr. 
Sawyer  wrote  many  novels.     Died  June  20,  1876. 

Sax,  stks,  (Antoine  Joseph  Adolphe,)  a  Belgian 
maker  of  musical  instruments,  born  at  Dinant  in  1814. 
He  invented  the  saxophone  and  other  brass  instruments 
of  military  music.  He  became  professor  of  music  in  the 
Conservatory  of  Paris  in  1857. 

Sax,  sSks,  [Lat.  Sax'ius,]  (Christoi'H,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Saxony  in  1714.  He  became  in  1753 
professor  of  history  at  Utrecht.  His  chief  work  is  his 
"  Onomasticon  Literarium,  sive  Nomenclator  historico- 
criticus  pra2Stantissimorum  omnis  ^tatis,  Populi,  Arti- 
umque  Formulae  Scriptorum,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1775-90.) 
This  is  a  dictionary  of  the  eminent  authors  of  all  ages 
and  countries.     Died  in  1806. 

Saxe,  siks,  (Hermann  Maurice,)  [Ger.  Moritz 
von  Sachsen,  mo'rits  fon  sSks'en,]  Count  of,  a  fa- 
mous general,  born  at  Goslar  or  Dresden,  in  Saxony, 
October  28,  1696,  was  a  son  of  Augustus  II.,  Elector 
of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  and  the  Countess  von 
Kbnigsmark.  He  entered  the  army  in  1708,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  several  battles  against  the  .Swedes 
and  French.  About  1720  he  entered  the  French  ser- 
vice. He  was  elected  Duke  of  Courland  in  1726,  but 
was  soon  driven  out  of  that  duchy  by  the  Russians  and 
Poles.  He  was  for  a  time  the  favoured  lover  of  Anna 
Ivanovna,  who  became  Empress  of  Russia  in  1730.  In 
1734  he  fought  against  the  Austrians  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  the  French  army.  He 
captured  Prague  in  1 741,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France  in  1744,  and  obtained  command  of 
the  army  in  Flanders  in  1745.  He  gained  victories  over 
the  allies  at  Fontenoy,  (1745,)  Kawcoux,  (1746,)  and 
Laufeld,  (1747.)  He  had  married  a  Countess  of  Loben 
about  1 7 12,  but  he  obtained  a  divorce  from  her  a  few 
years  later.  He  wrote  a  work  on  military  affairs,  en- 
titled "My  Reveries,"  ("  Mes  Reveries,"  5  vols.,  1757.) 
Died  in  1750.  His  daughter,  Madame  Dupin,  was  a 
grandmother  of  George  Sand  the  authoress. 

See  Baron  d'Espagnac,  "  Histoire  du  Mar^chal  Saxe:"  Ranft, 
"  Leben  des  Grafen  von  Sachsen,"  1746;  La  Bakre  du  Parcq, 
"  Biographie  et  Maxinies  du  Mareclial  de  Saxe."  1851  ;  C.  von 
Weber,  "Moritz  von  Saclisen,"  it-'63  ;  MajorGeneral  J.  Mit- 
chell, "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Cen- 
turies," 1865  ;  A.  Thomas.  "  filoge  de  Maurice  Cointe  de  Saxe," 
•  759 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Geuerale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1864;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  lor  April,  1841. 

Saxe,  siks,  (John  Godfrey,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can humorous  poet,  born  in  Franklin  county,  Vermont, 
in  1816.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  Vermont, 
in  1S39,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the  "Bur- 
lington Sentinel."  He  was  elected  State's  attorney  in 
1851.  A  collection  of  his  poems  appeared  in  1849. 
They  rank  among  the  most  successful  productions  of 
their  kind,  and  have  obtained  extensive  popularity.  A 
new  edition  of  his  collected  poems  was   published  in 


1864.  He  produced  in  1866  "The  Masquerade,  and 
other  Poems,"  and  "  Leisure  Day  Kiiymcs"  in  1875. 
Died  March  31,  1887. 

Saxe-Coburg,  Duke  of.     See  Ernest. 

Saxe-Coburg,  Prince  of.     See  Coijurg. 

Saxe-Weimar,  Duke  of.     See  Bernhard. 

Saxius,  (Christoi'H.)     See  Sax. 

Sax'o  Gi am-mat'I-cus,  (genitive,  Saxo'nis  Gram- 
mat'ici,)  an  eminent  Danish  historian,  born  in  the  first 
half  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  a  priest,  and  secretary 
of  Absalom,  Archbishop  of  Lund.  He  wrote  (in  Latin) 
a  "History  of  Denmark,"  which  is  one  of  the  most  cu- 
rious documents  of  the  middle  ages.  It  abounds  in 
traditions  and  romantic  or  fabulous  legends.  Died 
about  1204. 

See  Reimer,  "  De  Vita  Saxonis  Grammatici,"  1762;  G.  L. 
Baden,  "  Om  vor  Danske  Histories  Fader  Saxo  Grammaticus," 
1809;  J.  B.  Carpzov,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Saxoni) 
Grammatici,"  1762. 

Sax'ton,  (Joseph,)  an  American  mechanician  and 
inventor,  born  at  Huntingdon,  Pennsylvania,  March  22, 
1799.  He  made  great  improvements  in  the  machine- 
cutting  of  chronometer-wheels,  in  magnetic,  electric,  and 
tide-registering  appliances,,  etc.  For  many  years  he  was 
employed  as  an  expert  mechanician  by  the  United  States 
mint  and  the  coast  survey.  Died  in  Washington,  D.C., 
October  26,  1873. 

Sax'ton,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1849.  He  was  appointed  ?  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  about  AiJ/il,  1862,  and  defended  Harper'? 
Ferry  with  success  in  May  of  that  year.  He  was  assigned 
to  the  command  at  Port  Royal  about  the  end  of  1862, 
and  was  employed  in  South  Carolina  until  1865. 

Say,  si,  (Horace  Emilk,)  a  French  writer  on  politi- 
cal economy,  son  of  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below,  was 
born  near  Paris  in  1794.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Commercial  Relations  between  France  and  Brazil," 
etc.,  and  other  works.     Died  July  24,  i860. 

Say,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  distinguished  French  writer 
on  political  economy,  born  at  Lyons  in  1767.  At  an 
early  age  he  visited  England,  where  he  became  conver- 
sant with  the  writings  of  Adam  Smith.  In  1794  he  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  "La  Decade  philosophique,"  a 
literary  and  political  journal  in  Paris,  of  which  he  was 
principal  editor  for  six  years.  He  was  appointed  in 
1799  a  member  of  the  Tribunate,  but  resigned  on  Napo- 
leon's becoming  emperor.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  of  other 
learned  institutions.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (2  vols.,  1803,)  which 
has  been  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages, a  "Catechism  of  Political  Economy,"  (1815,) 
and  "On  England  and  the  English."     Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  P.  Decandollh,  "  Notice  sur  J.  B.  Say,"  1832;  Blanqui, 
"Notice  siir  la  Vie  de  J.  B.  Say,"  1841 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Say,  (Jean  Baptiste  L6on,)  a  French  economist 
and  statesman,  a  son  of  H.  E.  Say,  was  born  in  Paris, 
June  6, 1826.  For  many  years  he  edited  the  "  Journal  des 
Debats."  He  entered  the  National  Assembly  in  1871. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  in  1872-73,  in  1875,  in  1877 
-79,  and  in  1882.  He  was  also  a  senator,  1875-82,  and 
became  President  of  the  Senate  in  1880.  He  is  author 
of  various  works  on  finance. 

Say,  (Samuel,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born  in 
1675,  became  pastor  at  Westminster  in  1734.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays. 
Died  in  1743. 

Say,  (Thomas,)  an  American  naturalist,  born  at 
Philadelphia  in  1787,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in  that  city.  In  1819  he 
accompanied  Long's  expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
as  chief  zoologist.  His  principal  work  is  an  "American 
Entomology,"  illustrated.     Died  in  1834. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Say,  (William,)  an  English  mezzotinto  engraver, 
born  at  or  near  Norwich  in  1768.  He  engraved  history, 
landscapes,  etc.     Died  in  1834. 


a,  e, i,  6,  fx,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fjlr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon. 


SAYCE 


2137 


SCALIGER 


Sayce,  sas,  (Archibald  Henry,)  an  eminent  English 
schular,  born  at  Shireiiampton,  September  25,  1S46.  He 
was  edncated  at  Grosvenor  College,  Bath,  and  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  F^ellow  in  1869  and 
a  tutor  in  1S70,  in  which  year  he  took  orders  in  the  An- 
glican Church.  In  1876  he  was  made  a  professor  of 
comparative  philology  in  his  university.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  are  an  "Assyrian  Grammar,"  (1S72  ; 
another  in  1875,)  "  Principles  of  Comparative  Philology," 
(1S74,)  "Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Language," 
(1880,)  "Monuments  of  the  Hittites,"  (1881,)  "  Vannic 
Inscriptions  Translated,"  (1S82,)  etc. 

Saye  and  Sele.  See  Fiennes,  (William.) 
Say'fri,  (Frank,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1763.  He  published  "Dramatic 
Sketches  of  the  Ancient  Northern  Mythology,"  (1790,) 
"Disquisitions,  Metaphysical  and  Literary,"  (1793,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  181 7. 

Sayu,  sin,  a  great  family  of  German  and  Russian 
mediatized  princes,  having  several  branches  or  minor 
families,  partly  Protestant  and  partly  Catholic. 

Sayous,  st'yoo',  (Pierre  Anpr^,)  a  Swiss  littSra- 
tair,  born  at  Geneva  in  1808.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  French  Literature  among 
Foreign  Nations,"  (1853.)     Died  February  22,  1870. 

Sayyid  Ahmad,  sTyeed'  ah'mad,  a  Moslem  religion- 
ist of  India,  born  in  17S2,  lived  at  Delhi.  He  became 
a  Wahabee  fanatic,  and  in  1S29  led  in  a  holy  war  against 
the  Silvjis.  In  this  war  he  captured  Peshawur,  but  in  1831 
he  was  defeated  and  slain.  He  wrote  very  influential 
religious  works  in  Persian,  and  is  regarded  as  a  Mussul- 
man reformer. 

Sbarretti,  sb5r-r§t'tee,  (Enea,)  a  cardinal,  born  in 
Spoleto,  Dalmatia,  January  27,  1800,  was  created  a  car- 
dinal-deacon in  1S77,  and  was  made  prefect  of  economy 
in  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda.     Died  in  1884. 

Scacchi,  skik'kee,  (Fortunato,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary and  monk,  born  at  Ancona  about  1572.  He  pub- 
lished "  Sacroruni  Elasochrismatum  Myrothecia,"  (3  vols., 
1625-37.)     Died  in  1643. 

Scad'Iock,  (James,)  a  Scottish  minor  poet,  born  al 
Paisley,  October  7,  1775.  He  was  an  accomplished 
copperplate  engraver.     Died  July  4,  i8i8. 

Scaevola,  s§v'o-la,  [Yr.  Sc^vole,  si'vol',]  (C.  Mu- 
CIUS,)  a  Roman,  who,  according  to  the  ancient  legends, 
went  to  the  camp  of  Porsena,  then  besieging  Rome, 
and  attempted  to  kill  him  with  a  dagger.  He  was  seized 
by  the  guards  of  the  king,  who  ordered  him  to  be  put  to 
death.  Scaevola,  it  is  said,  held  his  right  hand  in  a  fire, 
which  was  at  hand,  until  it  was  consumed,  so  that  Por- 
sena, struck  with  admiration  at  his  extraordinary  forti- 
tude, spared  his  life.  From  this  circumstance  he  is  said 
to  have  received  the  surname  of  Scaevola,  or  "  left- 
handed." 

Scaevola,  (Publius  Mucius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  was 
elected  consul  in  133  B.C.,  and  two  years  after  was  created 
pontifex  maximus.  He  was  the  author  of  several  legal 
works. 

Scaevola,  (Quintus  Cervidius,)  a  Roman  jurist, 
lived  under  the  reign  of  Marcus  Antoninus.  He  num- 
bered among  his  pupils  Septimius  Severus,  afterwards 
emjieror.  There  are  extracts  from  his  works  contained 
in  the  Digest  of  Justinian. 

Scaevola,  (Quintus  Mucius,)  surnamed  the  Augur, 
became  a  Roman  consul,  with  L.  Cecilius  Metellus,  117 
B.C.  He  was  eminent  as  a  jurist,  and  was  one  of  the 
teachers  of  Cicero,  who  has  introduced  him  into  his 
treatises  "  De  Oratore,"  "  De  Amicitia,"  and  "  De  Re- 
publica."  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  C.  Laelius  Sapiens. 
Died  after  88  B.C. 

Scaevola,  (Quintus  Mucius,)  surnamed  Pontifex, 
was  the  son  of  Publius,  noticed  above.  He  was  chosen 
consul  in  95  B.C.,  and  was  subsequently  proconsul  of 
Asia,  and  pontifex  maximus.  He  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  jurist  and  orator,  and  wrote  several  legal 
works,  which  are  not  extant.  Having  been  proscribed 
by  the  younger  Marius,  he  was  killed  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  82  B.C.    His  virtues  are  highly  extolled  by  Cicero. 

Scala,   ski'li,    (Bartolommeo,)    an   Italian  writer, 


born  in  1430,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Florentine 
Republic."  His  daughter  Alessandra  was  distinguished 
as  a  classical  scholar,  and  became  the  wife  of  the  poet 
Marullus.     Died  in  1497. 

Scala,  della,  deKla  ski'ia,  or  Scaligeri,  skS-le-ja'- 
ree,  (Can  Francesco,)  an  Italian  military  commander, 
born  about  1290,  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Ghibe- 
line  faction  in  Lombardy.  He  died  in  1329,  having  been 
ruler  over  Verona  nearly  twenty  years.  He  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  and  has  been  cele- 
brated by  Dante,  who  found  an  asylum  at  his  court. 

Scala,  della,  (Masting,)  an  uncle  of  the  preceding, 
i)ecame  Podest^  of  Verona  about  1260.  He  was  assas- 
sinated about  1275. 

Scalchi,  skai'kee,  (Sofia,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
contralto-singer,  born  at  Turin  in  1850.  Her  fine  voice 
and  eminent  histrionic  talents  have  been  recognized  in 
all  the  European  capitals  and  in  America.  Her  debut* 
was  made  in  1866. 

Scal'i-ger,  |Lat.  Scal'iger,  genitive  Scal'igeri,] 
(Joseph  Justus,)  a  celebrated  philologist,  a  son  of  Julius 
Caesar,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Agen,  in  France,  in 
August,  1540.  Under  the  instruction  of  his  father  he 
early  became  a  proficient  in  the  Latin  language,  and 
subsequently  studied  Greek  and  the  Orientat  languages 
in  Paris.  He  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the 
University  of  Leyden  in  1593,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  the  celebrated  Grotius.  Among  his  numerous 
works,  which  are  characterized  by  the  most  profound 
learning  and  critical  acumen,  we  may  name  his  treatise 
"  De  Eniendatione  Temporum,"  (1583,)  being  an  ex- 
planation of  the  Julian  period,  "  Thesaurus  Temporum," 
(1606,)  Latin  poems  and  epistles,  a  Latin  translation  of 
Arabian  proverbs,  besides  commentaries  on  Ausonius, 
Varro,  and  other  classics.  He  adopted  the  Protestant 
religion  in  his  youth,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil 
war  about  1568.  He  was  generally  recognized  as  the 
most  eminent  scholar  of  his  time.  Died  at  Leyden  in 
1609.  "  Scaliger,"  says  Niebuhr,  "stood  on  the  summit 
of  universal  solid  philological  learning  in  a  degree  that 
none  have  reached  since  ;  so  high  in  every  branch  of 
knowledge,  that  from  the  resources  of  his  own  mind  he 
could  comprehend,  apply,  and  decide  on  whatever  came 
in  his  way."    (Quoted  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  i860.) 

"The  two  greatest  scholars  of  the  sixteenth  century," 
says  Hallam,  "are  yet  unnamed;  Joseph  Scaliger  and 
Isaac  Casaubon.  The  former,  son  of  Julius  Caesar 
Scaliger,  and,  in  the  estimation  at  least  of  some,  his  in- 
ferior in  natural  genius,  though  much  above  him  in 
learning  and  judgment,  was  perhaps  the  most  extraordi- 
nary master  of  general  erudition  that  has  ever  lived.  .  .  . 
He  was,  in  fact,  conversant  with  all  ancient,  and  very 
extensively  with  modern,  literature.  ...  In  the  depart- 
ment of  philology  he  was  conspicuous  as  an  excellent 
critic,  both  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages;  though 
Bayle,  in  his  own  paradoxical  but  acute  and  truly  judi- 
cious spirit,  has  suggested  that  Scaliger's  talents  and 
learning  were  too  great  for  a  good  commentator, — the 
one  making  him  discover  in  authors  more  hidden  sense 
than  they  possessed,  the  other  leading  him  to  perceive 
a  thousand  allusions  which  had  never  been  designed." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Hhinsius,  "  Orationes  II.  in  Obitiim  J.  J.  Scaligeri,"  1609; 
J.  Beknavs,  "J.  J.  Scaliger,"  Berlin,  1855;  "  Scaligerana,"  Am- 
sterdam, 1695;  Charles  Nisard,  "  Le  Tiiumvirat  littcraire  au 
XVI  Siecle  :"  Juste  Lipse,  "J.  Scaliger  et  I.  Casaubon,"  1852; 
Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n6rale  ;"  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1S60. 

Scaliger,  (Julius  Caesar,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
scholar  and  critic,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  on 
Lago  di  Garda  or  at  Padua  on  the  23d  of  April,  1484. 
His  real  name  is  said  to  have  been  Bordone.  He  pre- 
tended to  be  descended  from  the  noble  family  Della 
Scala.  He  studied  medicine,  and  practised  some  years 
in  Italy.  According  to  his  own  account,  he  served  sev- 
eral campaigns  in  the  army  of  the  emperor  Maximilian 
in  his  youth.  In  1525  he  removed  to  Agen,  France,  to 
which  he  had  been  invited  by  the  bishop  of  that  diocese. 
There  he  practised  medicine  and  passed  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  married  Andiette  de  Roques-Lobejac  about 
1528.  Scaliger  published,  besides  other  works,  "An 
Oration    against    Erasmus,"    ("Adversus   D.    Erasmum 


^9&k;  <iiss;lhard;  gasy;  G,H,Vi, guttural;  a,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  sas 2;  thasin^/4«.     i2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCALIGERI 


2138 


SCAUR  US 


Oratio,"  1531,)  "On  the  Principles  of  the  Latin  Lan- 
guage," ("  De  Causis  Linguae  Latinae,"  1540,)  "Seven 
Books  of  Poetry,"  ("  Poetices  Libri  septem,"  1561,)  and 
•'On  the  Art  of  Poetry,"  ("De  Arte  Poetica.")  He  was 
an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and  was  considered  one  of 
the  greatest  intellects  of  his  time.  His  stature  was  tall, 
his  presence  dignified  and  imposing.  He  died  at  Agen 
in  October,  1558. 

See  J.  J.  ScALiGER,  "De  Vetustate  et  Splendore  gentis  Scaligeri 
et  Vita  J.  C.  Scaligeri,"  i ';94 :  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary:" Briquet,  "  filoge  de  J.  C.  Scalip;er,"  1813;  NiciRON, 
"Memoires;"  "Noiivelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Scaligeri.     See  Scala,  della. 

Scam'nipn,  (Eliakim  P.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Maine,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1853,  and  a  brigadier-genera\  of 
volunteers  in  October,  1862.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
on  the  Kanawha  River  in  February,  1864. 

Scamozzi.     See  Bektoiti-Scamozzi. 

Scamozzi,  ski-mot'see,  (  Vincenzio,  )  an  Italian 
architect  and  writer,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1552.  Having 
spent  some  time  at  Rome  and  Naples,  he  settled  at 
Venice,  where  he  was  employed  to  finish  some  works 
left  incomplete  by  Sansovino  and  Palladio,  who  had 
recently  died.  He  afterwards  constructed  the  church 
of  San  Niccol6  di  Tolentino,  and  the  range  of  buildings 
called  the  Procuratie  Nuove  at  Venice.  He  was  em- 
])loyed  in  1604  by  the  Archbisho])  of  Salzburg  to  design 
the  cathedral  in  that  city,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  his 
master-pieces.  His  work  entitled  "  Architettura  Uni- 
versale" caine  out  in  1616,  a  few  months  before  his 
death. 

See  ScoLARi,  "Vita  di  Scamozzi,"  1837;  Milizia,  "  Memone 
degli  Arcliiietti ;"  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scuhura  ;"  Temamza, 
"Vita  di  V.  Scamozzi,"  1770;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Scan'der-beg,  [from  Scaftder  or  Iskavder,*  "  Alexan- 
der," and  beg,  "lord"  or  "chief,"]  a  celebrated  Eastern 
warrior,  born  in  Albania  in  1404,  was  originally  named 
George  Castriota,  (or  Castrioto.)  At  an  early  age 
he  was  sent  bv  his  father,  a  prince  of  Albania,  who  was 
tributary  to  the  Turks,  to  the  court  of  Amurath  IL, 
where  he  soon  acquired  the  favour  and  confidence  of 
that  monarch.  His  father  having  died  in  1432,  his  prin- 
cipality was  seized  by  the  Sultan,  upon  which  Scander- 
beg  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Huniades,  com- 
mander of  the  Christian  army  in  Transylvania,  to  betray 
into  his  hand  the  Turkish  forces  under  his  command. 
He  soon  after  took  possession  of  his  hereditary  do- 
minions, and  renounced  Mohammedanism,  in  which  he 
had  been  educated.  He  subsequently  carried  on  a 
successful  war  with  the  Turks,  and  in  1462  assisted 
Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples,  against  the  Count  of  Anjou. 
Died  in  1467. 

See  Major-General  J.  Mitchell,  "  Biosraphies  of  Eni'i-.ent 
Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865;  H  ammer-Pukgstali^ 
"Geschichte  des  Osmanisches  Reichs :"  C.  G.  Muore,  "George 
Castriot,  surnamed  Scanderbeg  ;"  Monardo,  "  Vitadi  G.  Castrioto," 
isgi  ;  S.  PuKFENDORF,  "  G.  Castriots  Historia,"  1684:  Paganei, 
"  Histoire  de  Scanderbeg,"  1S55:  M.  Barlesio,  "DeVita,  Mori- 
bus  ac  Rebus  gestis  G.  Castrioti,"  1537;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Scapinelli,  skS-pe-nel'lee,  (Lodovico,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1585,  was  blind  from  his  birth. 
Died  in  1634. 

Scapula,  skS'poo-li,  (Joiiann,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  about  1545,  was  employed  as  a  proof-reader  in  the 
printing-office  of  Henry  Estienne  at  Geneva.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum,"  (1579,)  an  abridg- 
ment of  Stephanus's  (Estienne's)  "Thesaurus." 

Scaramuccia.ski-rd-moot'chi,  (Lodovico,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Perugia  in  1616,  was  a 
pupil  of  Guido  Reni.     Died  in  1680. 

Scarborough,  skar'bur-eh,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  Eng- 
lish physician,  born  about  i6i6.  He  succeeded  Harvey 
as  Lumleian  lecturer  on  anatomy  in  1656.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  first  physician  to  Charles  II.,  James  II., 
and  William  III.     He  was  the  author  of  several  medical 

•  Byron  speaks  of  liim  under  the  name  of  Iskander  : — 
"  Land  of  Albania  !  where  Iskander  rose. 

Theme  of  the  young,  and  beacon  of  the  wise. 
And  he,  his  namesake,  wliose  oft-baffled  foes 
Shrunk  from  his  deeds  of  chivalrous  emprise." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  ii.,  stanza  xnviii. 


and  mathematical  treatises,  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
College  of  Physicians.     Died  in  1693. 

Scarborough,  skai'biir-eh,  (Joh.n',)  D.D.,  a  bishop, 
born  at  Castle  Wellan,  Ireland,  April  25,  1831,  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  1854,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  of  New  York  in  1857,  was  ordained 
a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1858,  held  rectorships 
at  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  and  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  1875  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  New  Jersey. 

Scarcellino.     See  Scarsella. 

Scarlatti,  skaR-lit'tee,  (Alessandro,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer  and  musician,  born  at  Naples  about 
1S56,  was  a  pupil  of  Carissimi.  His  productions  are 
very  numerous,  including  one  hundred  operas  and  three 
thousand  cantatas,  and  he  is  said  to  have  originated 
ritornels  and  violin  accompaniments.     Died  in  1725. 

Scarlatti,  (Domenico,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  16S3.  He  was  appointed  in  1735  chapel-master 
to  the  Queen  of  Spain.  His  principal  work  is  a  collec- 
tion of  pieces  for  the  harpsichord.     Died  about  1755. 

Scarlatti,  (Giuseppe,)  a  coinposer,  born  at  Naples  in 
1 718,  was  a  son  or  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  com- 
posed numerous  operas.     Died  at  Vienna  in  1796. 

Scarlett,  (James.)     See  Abinger. 

Scar'lett,  (Sir  James  Yorke,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  1799.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  war  of  1854, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  commander 
of  the  cavalry.    Died  in  1871. 

Scarpa,  skaR'pS,  (.Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  at  La  Motta,  in  Friuli,  on 
the  13th  of  June,  1747.  He  studied  under  Morgagni, 
at  Padua,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Modena  in  1772.  After  a  journey  to  France  and  Eng- 
land, he  obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  University 
of  Pavia  in  1783.  He  acquired  a  European  reputation 
by  his  researches  and  treatises  on  the  anatomy  of  the 
ear,  the  organs  of  smell,  the  nerves  of  the  heart,  etc 
In  1801  he  produced  an  able  treatise  on  the  diseases  of 
the  eye.  He  received  the  title  of  surgeon  to  Napoleon 
in  1805.  Among  his  numerous  works  is  an  excellent 
"Treatise  on  Hernia,"  ("SulT  Ernie  Memorie,"  1809.) 
He  was  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  a  very  skilful 
draughtsman.     He  was  never  married.     Died  in  1832. 

See  Tagi.iaferri,  "  Racionaniento  intorno  la  Vita  del  Cavaliere 
A.  Scarpa,"  1834;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri :" 
B^GiN,  notice  in  the  "Biographie  Medic.ale ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Scarron,  skfr6N',  (Paul,)  a  French  dramatist  and 
comic  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1610.  After  leading 
a  very  dissolute  life,  he  was  deprived  of  the  use  of  his 
limbs  by  an  accident,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  and 
henceforth  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  principal 
works  are  "The  Comic  Romance,"  (1651,)  and  the 
"iEneid  Travestied."  He  married  in  1652  Mademoi- 
selle d'Aubigne,  afterwards  known  as  Madame  de 
Maintenon.     (See  Maintenon.)     Died  in  1660. 

See  Cousin  d'Avalon,  "  Scanoniana,"  1801  ;  Baili.et,  "Juge 
ments  des  Savants;"  Tali.emant  des  Reaux,  "  Historiettes ;' 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
xii.,  1825. 

Scarsella,  ^kaR-sel'lS,  or  Scarsellino,  skaR-sSl- 
lee'no,  (Ippolito,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Ferrara  about  1560.  He  imitated  Paul  Veronese  with 
success.     Died  in  1621. 

Scars'gill  or  Scar'gill,  (W.  P.,)  an  English  writer, 
published,  among  other  works,  "Provincial  Sketches," 
"The  Usurer's  Daughter,"  and  "The  Puritan's  Grave." 
Died  in  1836. 

Scartazzini,  skaR-tit-see'nee,  (Johannes  Andreas,) 
a  Swiss  author,  born  at  Bondo,  in  the  Grisons,  December 
30,  1837.  He  became  a  Protestant  clergyman,  and  in 
1871  Italian  professor  in  the  cantonal  school  at  Coire. 
He  published  a  valuable  Life  of  Dante,  (1869,)  a  critical 
edition  of  the  "  Divina  Commedia,"  (1S74-75,)  and  various 
works,  chiefly  relating  to  Italian  literature. 

Scau'rus,  (M.  ^Emilius,)  a  Roman  soldier  and  states- 
man, born  in  163  B.C.  After  serving  for  a  time  in 
Spain,  he  became  successively  piastor  urbanus,  consul, 
and  princeps  senatus.  His  talents  and  virtues  are  eulo- 
gized by  Cicero.  He  died  about  90  B.C.,  and  his  widow 
afterwards  married  the  celebrated  Sulla. 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  J^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  nfit;  good;  moon, 


SCAUR  us 


2139 


SCHAMMAI 


Scaurus,  (M.  ^milius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
served  as  quaestor  under  Pomjjey  in  the  Mithridatic 
war,  and  afterwards  filled  several  offices  in  the  republic. 
He  was  chiefly  noted  for  his  ])rofligacy  and  extrava- 
gance, and  was  twice  brought  to  trial  for  his  crimes, 
being  on  both  occasions  defended  by  Cicero. 

Scaurus,  (Mamercus,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  distinguished  as  a  poet  and  orator.  Accused  of  high 
treason  and  other  crimes,  he  committed  suicide,  34  a.D. 

Sceve,  siv,  (Maurice,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons, 
was  an  advocate  by  profession.  Among  his  works  are 
"La  Saulsaye,"  (1547,)  and  "  Le  Microcosme,  ou  petit 
Monde,"  (1562.)     Died  in  1564. 

Sc6vole.     See  SCiCVoLA. 

Schaaf,  shSf,  (Charles,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born 
in  1646,  became  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages 
at  Leyden.  He  published  several  grammatical  works. 
Died  in  1729. 

Schack,  von,  fon  shik,  (Adolf  Friedrich,)  a 
German  litterateur,  born  near  Schwerin  in  1815.  He 
publislied  a  "  History  of  Dramatic  Literature  and  Art 
in  Spain,"  (1845,)  which  has  a  high  reputation,  and  made 
several  translations  from  the  Persian. 

Scliad,  shit  or  shid,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Mursbach  in  1758.  He  succeeded 
Fichte  as  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  about  1800, 
and  obtained  a  chair  of  jihilosophy  at  Kharkof,  in  Rus- 
sia, in  1804.  He  published  several  esteemed  works 
designed  to  popularize  the  philosophy  of  Fichte.  Died 
in  1834. 

See  his  Autobiograpliy,  2  vols.,  1804. 

Schado-w,  shi'do,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  cele- 
brated German  sculptor,  born  at  Berlin  in  1764.  Having 
spent  several  years  in  Italy,  he  returned  to  Berlin  in 
1788,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Arts.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  statues 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  Marshal  BlUcher,  and  General 
Ziethen,  a  group  of  Queen  Luise  and  her  sister,  the 
Duchess  of  Cumberland,  the  monument  of  Luther  at 
Wittenberg,  and  that  of  Tauenzien  at  Breslau.  He 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Dannecker,  Rauch,  and 
other  eminent  sculptors,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  modern  school  of  sculpture  in  Germany. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  treatises  on  art. 
Died  in  1850. 

See  his  autobiography,  entitled  "  Kunstwerke  und  Kunstan- 
sichten,"  1849;  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Schadow,  (Rudolf,)  a  sculptor,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1785.  He  was  instructed  by  liis 
father,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  died  in 
1822.  He  left  several  portrait-busts  and  statues  of  great 
beauty.  Among  the  latter  may  be  named  "  The  Girl  fast- 
ening her  Sandal." 

Schado'W-Godenhaus,  von,  fon  shJ'do  go'den- 
howss',  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1789.  He  studied  at  Rome  under 
Cornelius  and  Overbeck,  whose  peculiar  views  of  art 
he  adopted.  (See  Cornelius  and  Overbeck.)  Having 
joined  the  Catholic  Church  while  at  Rome,  he  returned 
to  Berlin,  where  he  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  and  in  1826  succeeded  Cornelius  as  director 
of  the  Academy  at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  principal 
historical  pictures  are  the  Four  Evangelists,  in  the 
Werder  Church  at  Berlin,  an  "Ascension  of  Mary,"  in 
the  Paulskirche  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  a  series  repre- 
senting "  Paradise,"  "  Purgatory,"  and  "Hell."  Schadow 
numbers  among  his  pupils  Lessing,  Schroter,  and  other 
distinguished  German  artists.     Died  in  1862. 

See    Nagler,    "Allgemeines    Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Schaeffer.     See  Schaffer. 

Schae£fer,  sha'fer,  (Charles  Frederick,)  an  Ameri- 
can divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Germantown  in  1807, 
fraduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1827. 
le  published,  besides  other  works,  a  translation  from 
the  German  of  Lechler's  "Acts  of  the  Apostles:  an 
Exegetical  Commentary,"  etc.,  (1866.)  He  was  chairman 
of  the  faculty  in  the  Lutheran  Seminary  in  Philadelphia 
from  its  organization  in  1S64  till  his  death,  Nov.  23,  1879. 

SchafeL    See  Shafev. 

Schafarik,  shi'fa-rik,  written  also  Safarik,  (Paul 


Joseph,)  a  distinguished  philologist  and  antiquary,  torn 
in  Northern  Hungary  in  1795.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Slavonic  Language  and  Literature," 
etc.,  (in  German,  1826,)  "Slavonic  Ethnology,"  and 
"Bohemian  Antiquities."     Died  in  1861. 

Schafei.     See  Shafey. 

Schafer,  sha'fer,  (Arnold,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Seehausen,  October  16,  1819.  He  was  educated  at 
Leipsic,  and  held  professorships  of  history  at  Greifswalde 
and  Bonn.  Among  his  works  are  "Demosthenes  and 
his  Times"  (3  vols.,  1856-5S)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War,"  (1S67-74.)     Died  in  1S83. 

Schafer,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  historian,  born  at 
Schlitz,  April  25,  1794.  He  was  (1833  69)  history-pro- 
fessor at  Giessen,  where  he  died,  July  2,  1869.  He 
published  histories  of  .S))ain  and  of  Portugal,  etc. 

Schafer,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  brother  of  Arnold 
Schafer,  was  born  at  Seehausen,  September  17,  1809. 
He  was  educated  at  Leipsic,  and  was  a  teacher  (jf  literary 
history  at  Bremen.  He  published  three  works  on  the 
history  of  German  literature,  also  a  "  History  of  German 
Poetry,"  (1859,)  Lives  of  Goethe  (1850)  and  Schiller, 
(1S53,)  and  a  volume  of  poems,  "  Liebe  und  Leben," 
(185S.)     Died  at  Bremen,  March  2,  18S0. 

Schaff,  shaf,  (Philip,)  D.D.,  a  theologian  and  divine 
of  the  Reformed  (later  of  the  Presbyterian)  Church,  was 
born  at  Chur,  in  Switzerland,  January  i,  1819.  He 
graduated  at  Berlin  in  1841,  and  in  1844  emigrated  to 
America,  and  was  apj^ointed  professor  of  thecilogy  at 
Mercersburg,  Pennsylvania.  He  published  "The  Prin- 
ciples of  Protestantism,"  (in  German  and  English,  1845,) 
a  "  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church,"  (in  German,  1S51,) 
a  "  History  of  tiie  Christian  Churcii  from  the  liirth  of 
Christ  to  the  Reign  of  Constantine,  A.D.  1-311,"  (1859,) 
"The  Person  of  Christ  the  Miracle  of  History,"  (1865,) 
and  many  other  works.  He  became  in  1S70  professor 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  assisted 
in  the  English  Bible  Revision,  and  edited  tiie  "  Schaff- 
Herzog  Encyclopaedia,"  (18S2  et  seq.) 

Schaffer  or  Schaeffer,  shgf'fer,  (Jakob  Christian,) 
a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Querfurt,  Prussia,  in  1718. 
He  wrote  on  entomology,  botany,  etc.,  and  was  skilful 
in  the  fabrication  of  optical  instruments.     Died  in  1790. 

See   HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch.  " 

Schaffner,  shSf'ner,  (Martin,)  a  German  historical 
and  portrait  painter  of  Ulm,  flourished  from  1508  to 
1539.     His  works  are  highly  praised. 

Schagen,  van,  vSn  sK^'gen  or  sKi'Hen,  (i^GiDius,) 
a  Dutch  historical  painter,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1616. 
Among  his  works  are  interiors  and  conversation-pieces. 
Died  in  1668. 

Schalcken,  sK^Kken,  (Godfrey,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  genre,  born  at  Dort  in  1643,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard 
Dow.  He  painted  the  effects  of  candle-light  with  suc- 
cess.    Died  at  the  Hague  in  1706. 

Schaldemose,  shil'deh-mo'seh,  (Friedrich  Ju- 
lian,) a  Danish  Utteratejir,  born  in  the  island  of  Fionia 
in  1782,  made  numerous  translations  from  the  German, 
English,  French,  and  other  languages,  and  published 
several  original  works.     Died  in  1853. 

Schall,  shii,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Cologne  in  1591.  He  went  to  China 
in  1622,  and  obtained  favour  at  the  court  of  Peking  by 
his  skill  in  astronomy  and  other  sciences.  Died  in 
Peking  in  1669. 

Schall,  (Karl,)  a  German  dramatist,  born  at  Breslau 
in  1780,  was  the  founder,  and  for  many  years  the  editor, 
of  the  "Breslau  Zeitung."     Died  in  1833. 

Schaller,  shal'ler,  (Anton,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1772  ;  died  in  1844. 

Schaller,  (Johann,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1777.  He  became  in  1823  professor  of  sculp- 
ture in  the  Academy  at  Vienna.     Died  in  1847. 

Schal]er,  (Julius,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Magde- 
burg in  1810,  publishec  a  "  History  of  Natural  Philos- 
ophy from  Bacon  to  the  Present  Time."     Died  in  1868. 

Schammai,  sham'ml,  a  celebrated  Jewish  doctor  of 
law,  lived  at  Jerusalem  about  80-50  B.C.,  and  was  a  rival 
of  Hillel  the  Elder. 

See  Geiger  et  Geissmann,  "  Brevis  Comnientatio  de  Hillela  et 
Schammai,"  1707. 


€  as  k;  9as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  h,  Vi,gttttura!;  N,  tusal;  k,  trilled:  s  as  s.-  th  as  in  this.     1  £:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHAMYL 


2140 


SCHEINER 


Schamyl.     See  Shamyl. 

Schaiifari.     See  Shanfaree. 

Schank,  shank,  ?  (John,)  a  Scottish  naval  officer  and 
engineer,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1740.  He  served  in  the 
American  war,  and  was  subsequently  employed  in  the 
defence  of  the  British  coast  against  the  French.  He  was 
made  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1821.     Died  in  1823. 

Schannat,  shan'nit,  (Johann  Frikduich,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Luxemljurg  in  1683.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  German  history.     Died  in  1739. 

Schard,  shaRt,  (Simon,)  a  learned  German  lawyei 
and  compiler,  born  in  Saxony  in  1535,  published  "Opus 
historicum  de  Rebus  Germanicis,"  (4  vols.,  1574.)  Died 

in  1573- 

Scharf,  (George,)  an  English  author  and  artist,  of 
German  parentage,  born  in  London,  December  16,  1S20. 
As  an  artist,  his  principal  reputation  is  that  of  an  able 
illustrator  of  books.  He  has  written  "  History  of  the 
Characteristics  of  Greek  Art,"  "  Artistic  and  Descriptive 
Notes,"  and  many  remarkable  criticisms  on  old  portraits 
and  on  old  historical  pictures. 

Scharling,  shaR'ling,  (Carl  Emile,)  a  Danish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1803.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Theological  Review,"  (1837 

-49)  ,       , 

Scharling,  (Edward  Augustus,)  a  chemist,  abrother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1807. 

Sch^rnhorst,  von,  fon  shaRn'hoRst,  (Gerhard 
David,)  a  Prussian  commander  and  military  writer, 
born  at  Hamelsee,  in  Hanover,  in  1756.  He  was  pres- 
ent at  the  battle  of  Auerstadt,  in  1806,  and,  as  chief  of 
Bliiclier's  staff,  distinguished  himself  at  Eylau,  in  1807. 
Having  been  made  lieutenant-general,  and  retaining  the 
position  of  chief  of  tiie  staff  of  Bliicher,  he  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  battle  near  Grossgorchen,  and  died  from 
the  effects  of  his  wound,  in  June,  1 813. 

See  RovHN,  "  Beitrage  7.ur  Kenntniss  von  Schamhorst,"  1833 
Clausewitz,  "  Leben  von  Scharnhorst,"  1832. 

Schatz,  shits,  (Georg,)  a  German  writer,  born  al 
Gotha  in  1763,  published  fables,  sonnets,  and  critical 
essays ;  he  also  made  a  translation  of  Machiavelli's 
"History  of  Florence,"  (unfinished.)     Died  in  1795. 

Schaufiler,  showFfler,  (William  Gottlieb,)  D.D., 
LL.D.,  a  missionary,  born  at  Stuttgart,  Germany,  August 
22, 1798,  lived  at  Odessa,  Russia,  1804-26,  studied  divinity 
at  Andover,  1826-30,  was  ordained  a  Congregational 
minister  in  1S31,  was  a  missionary  at  Constantinople, 
1832-74,  and  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1877. 
His  principal  literary  works  are  "  Meditations  on  the 
Last  Days  of  Christ,"  and  translations  of  the  entire 
Bible  into  Turkish  and  into  Spanish-Hebrew.  Died  in 
New  York,  January  27,  1883. 

Schauflein  or  Schauffelein.     See  Scheuffelin. 

Schaumbourg.     See  Lippe-Schau.mburg. 

Schedone.     See  Schidoni. 

Schedoni,  ski-do'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  philoso- 
pher, born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena  in  1759,  published 
several  works  on  moral  philosophy.     Died  in  1835. 

Scheele,  sheel,  [Sw.  pron,  shii'leh,]  (Carl  Wil- 
HELM,)  an  eminent  Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Stralsund 
in  December,  1742.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  an 
apothecary  of  Gothenburg,  and  devoted  his  leisure  and 
his  nights  to  the  study  of  chemistry.  About  1770  he  re- 
moved to  Upsal,  where  he  formed  friendships  with  Gahn 
and  Bergman.  In  1774  he  produced  a  remarkable  treatise 
on  Manganese.  He  discovered  tartaric  acid,  fluoric  (or 
fluo-silicic)  acid,  barytes,  chlorine,  and  several  other 
substances.  He  settled  as  an  aj^othecary  at  Koping  in 
1775.  In  1777  he  published  his  discovery  of  "  empyreal 
air,"  (oxygen.)  This  gas  had  been  previously  discovered 
by  Priestley ;  but  Scheele  was  not  avvare  of  the  fact. 
He  was  the  first  that  ascertained  the  composition  of 
prussic  acid.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Air 
and  Fire,"  (1777.)  lie  was  an  excellent  observer  and 
experimenter.     Died  at  Koping  in  1786. 

See  VrcQ-u'AzvR,  "  F!loge  de  Scheele,"  1787;  GEZRLrus, 
"Riographiskt-Lexicon  ;"  F.  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Clijnie  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biogi-aphie  Geii^rale." 

Scheelstrate,  van,  vtn  sKaKstRi'teh  or  shil'stR^t, 
or  Schelstraate,  sK^l'stRi'teh,  (Emanuel,)  a  Flemish 


antiquary  and  priest,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1649,  was  a  zeal- 
ous asserter  of  papal  su])remacy.   Died  in  Rome  in  1692. 

Scheemakers,  sKa'mi'kers,  (Pie per,)  a  distin- 
guished sculptor,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1691,  studied  at 
Rome,  and  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  England. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  monuments  to  Shak- 
speare  and  Dryden  in  Westminster  Al)bey,  a\id  the  statue 
of  Lord  Clive  in  the  India  House.     Died  about  1770. 

Schefer,  sha'fer,  (Leopold,)  a  German  physician 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Lower  Liisatia  in  1784,  published 
numerous  poems  and  novels.     Died  in  1862. 

Scheffel,  von,  fon  shSf'fel,  (Joseph  VicroR,)  a  very 
popular  German  poet,  born  at  Carlsruhe,  February  16, 
1826.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Berlin, 
and  graduated  as  a  law-practitioner  in  1847.  He  wrote 
the  "Tronipeter  von  Siikkingen,"  a  celebrated  mock- 
heroic  epic,  in  1S53,  "  Gaudeamus,"  a  collection  of  songs, 
"  Ekkehard,"  his  most  popular  tale,  "  Frau  Aventure,"  a 
series  of  poems,  "  Juniperus,"  a  tale,  "  Hugideo,"  a  ro- 
mance, and  "  Berg  Psalmen,"  (1869,)  a  volume  of  hymns 
and  verses.     Died  April  10,  1S86. 

Scheffer,  sheffer,  (Arnold,)  a  brother  of  A17 
Scheffer,  was  born  in  Holland  in  1796.  He  was  for  a 
time  associated  with  Armand  Carrel  as  editor  of  the 
"  National"  in  Paris.  He  published  (in  French)  "  Po- 
litical Pictures  of  Germany,"  "Essays  on  Four  Political 
Questions,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1853. 

Scheffer,  (Ary,)  an  eminent  painter,  of  French  ex- 
traction, born  at  Dort,  in  Holland,  in  1795,  studied  under 
Guerin  in  Paris.  He  painted  portraits  of  La  Fayette, 
Beranger,  and  Lamartine.  He  worked  cliiefly  in  Paris. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Francesca  da  Rimini," 
(1835,)  Byron's  "Giaour,"  "Christ  the  Comforter," 
(1836,)  Goethe's  "Faust,"  "Margaret  at  the  Spinning- 
Wheel,"  and  "Margaret  at  Church."  He  married  the 
widow  of  General  Baudrand  about  1850.  His  works 
are  characterized  as  sentimental  and  poetical.  Died 
near  Paris  in  1858. 

See  Etex,  "Ary  Scheffer,"  1859;  Mrs.  Groth,  "Life  of  Arv 
Scheffer,"  i860;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Scheffer,  (Henri,)  a  painter,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1798.  He  studied  in 
Paris  under  Guerin.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"Charlotte  Corday  protected  by  the  Members  of  the 
Section  against  the  Fury  of  the  People,"  and  "  Parents 
Weeping  for  the  Death  of  their  Child."     Died  in  1862. 

Scheffer,  sheffer,  (Henry  Thkophilus,)  a  grandson 
of  Johann  Scheffer,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stock- 
holm in  1710.  He  acquired  considerable  re])utation 
as  a  chemist,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  his  native  city.     Died  in  1759. 

See  Cronstedt,  "  Aminnelse  Tal  ofver  H.  T   Scheffer,"  1760. 

Scheffer,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1621,  published  editions  of  numerous 
classics,  and  a  treatise  "  On  the  Naval  Militia  of  the 
Ancients."     Died  in  1679. 

Scheibel,  shl'bel,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Breslau  in  1783.  He  be- 
came professor  of  theology  in  his  native  city  in  1818. 
Died  in  1843. 

Scheid,  sKlt,  [Lat.  Schei'dius,]  (Everard,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Arnhem  in  1742, 
became  professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Leyden. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  Arabic  Grammar, 
"  Minerva,  seu  de  Causis  Latinas  Linguae,"  and  "  Ebn- 
Doreydi  Kassida,  sive  Idyllium  Arabicum,"  etc.  Died 
in  1795. 

Scheidius,     See  Scheidt. 

Scheldt,  shit,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1614,  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  learned  works.     Died  in  1670. 

Scheidt,  [Lat.  Schei'dius,]  (Christian  Ludwig,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Waldenburg  in  1709.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  and  became  professor  of  the  law 
of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Copenhagen.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  legal  works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  1761. 

Scheiner,  shi'ner,  (Christoph,)  a  German  Jesuit 
and  savant,  born  near  Mundelsheim,  in  Suabia,  in  1575, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  at  In- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


SCHELHAMMER 


2141 


SCHERER 


golstadt.  He  observed  the  spots  on  the  sun  in  161 1, 
wrote  a  number  of  scientific  works,  and  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  instrument  called  the  pantograph.  Died 
in  1650. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Schelhammer,  shJl'hSm'mer,  (Gunther  Chris- 
10PH,)  a  German  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Jena  in 
1649,  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Kiel,  in  Holstein. 
Died  in  17 16. 

Schelhorn,  shSKhoRn,  (Johann  Georg,)  the  Elder, 
a  German  theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  Memmingen 
in  1694.  He  became  pastor  of  that  town  in  1734,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Literary  Amenities," 
("  Anioenitates  Literariae,"  7  vols.,  1725.)  He  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  bibliographer.     Died  in  1773. 

Schelhorn,  (Johann  Georg.)  the  Younger,  born 
at  Memmingen  in  1733,  published  several  historical  and 
theological  works.     Died  in  1802. 

Scheller,  sheKler,  (Lmmanuel  Johann  Gerhard,) 
a  German  lexicographer,  born  at  Jhlow,  in  Saxony,  in 
1735.  He  published  a  "Complete  Latin-German  and 
German-Latin  Dictionary,"  (3  vols.,  1783,)  a  "Small 
Latin  Dictionary,"  a  "  Latin  Grammar,"  and  other  simi- 
lar works.     Died  in  1803. 

Schelling,  von,  fon  sh^l'ling,  (Friedrich  Wil- 
helm  Joseph,)  an  eminent  German  philosopher,  born 
at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart,  on  the  27th  of  January, 
1775.  His  early  education  was  directed  by  his  father,  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  who  became  prelate  at  Maul- 
bronn.  About  1790  he  entered  the  University  of  Tii- 
bingen,  where  he  studied  philosophy  and  theology  and 
remained  until  1795.  In  the  latter  year  he  published  a 
treatise  "On  the  Possibility  of  a  Form  of  Philosophy," 
("  Ueber  die  Moglichkeit  einer  Form  der  Philosophic," 
etc.,)  and  "  On  the  Ego  as  the  Principle  of  Philosophy," 
("  Vom  Ich  als  Princip  der  Philosophie.")  He  removed 
about  1795  to  Leipsic,  where  he  was  employed  as  tutor 
to  a  young  nobleman,  and  in  1798  became  professor- 
extraordinary  at  Jena,  which  was  then  the  great  focus 
of  German  philosophy.  Here  he  associated  with  Fichte 
and  Hegel,  and  delivered  lectures  on  philosophy  which 
excited  great  enthusiasm  and  displayed  a  remarkable 
beauty  of  style.  He  produced,  in  rapid  succession, 
"  Ideas  for  a  Philosophy  of  Nature,"  ("  Ideen  zu  einer 
Philosophie  der  Natur,"  1797,)  "On  the  Soul  of  the 
World,"  etc.,  ("Von  der  Weltseele,  eine  Hypothese  der 
hohern  Physik,"etc.,  1798,)  a  "First  Sketch  of  a  System 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Nature,"  ("  Erste  Entwurf  eines 
Systems  der  Naturphilosophie,"  1799,)  and  a  "System 
of  Transcendental  Idealism,"  ("System  des  transcen 
dentalen  Iclealismus,"  1800.) 

In  1803  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Wiirzbnrg,  and  in  1808  became  secretary  to  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  Munich,  where  he  remained  until  1841.  He 
obtained  tlie  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  University  bf 
Munich  al)out  1826.  His  celebrity  as  a  lecturer  attracted 
multitudes  of  students  from  vprious  countries  of  Europe. 
He  was  appoiiUed  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  was  ennobled  by  the  King  of  Bavaria.  Having  lost 
his  first  wife,  Caroline  Michaelis,  in  1810,  he  married 
Pauline  Gotten  He  succeeded  Hegel  as  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1841. 

Schelling  is  one  of  the  four  chief  metaphysical  philoso- 
phers of  Germany.  His  system,  like  those  of  Fichte  and 
Hegel,  was  originally  a  sort  of  idealistic  pantheism;  but 
in  his  later  writings  his  views  seem  to  approximate  more 
and  more  nearly  to  those  which  may  be  said  to  form 
the  philosophic  basis  of  Christianity.  On  his  succeeding 
Hegel,  in  1841,  he  was  hailed  as  one  who  was  destined 
to  deliver  Philosophy  from  the  logic  of  pantheism  and 
lead  her  back  to  Christ.  Schelling  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  great  philosophers  of  Germany  by  his  com- 
bining with  rare  intellectual  powers  poetic  gifts  of  a 
high  order. 

Among  his  works,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are 
"  Bruno,  or  the  Divine  and  Natural  Principle  ofThings," 
("Bruno,  oder  Uber  das  gottliche  und  natiirliche  Princip 
der  Dinge,"  1802,)  "  Philosophy  and  Religion,"  ("Phi- 
losophie und  Religion,"  1804,)  and  "On  the  Relation  of 
Art  to  Nature,"  ("Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  der  bildenden 


Kiinste  zu  der  Natur,"  1807.)  He  regarded  art  as  the 
perfect  union  of  the  real  with  the  ideal.  He  also  wrote 
"Philosophic  Researches  on  the  Essence  of  Human 
Liberty,"  ("  Philosophischen  Untersuchungen  Uber  das 
Wesen  der  menschlichen  Freiheit,"  1809.)  He  died  at 
Ragaz,  in  Switzerland,  in  August,  1854,  leaving  several 
sons  and  daughters.  His  collected  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Stuttgart,  in  14  vols.  8vo,  1856-61. 

See  RosKNKRANZ.  "Scliellinij,  Vorlesune;en  gelialten  im  Sommer 
TS42,"  etc.,  i84-?:  Matthr,  "Schelling,  ou  la  Philosophie  de  la 
Nature,"  etc.,  1845  :  L.  he  Lomenib,  "  M.  Schelling,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1844:  Coi.rridgk,  "  Riographia  Literaria  :"  Rittek, 
"History  of  Philosophy;"  Appleton's  "New  American  Cyclo- 
pedia." 

Schellinks,  sKSKlinks,  (Daniel,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1633  or  1638;  died  in 
170L 

Schellinks,  sKel'links,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  sea-ports,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1632, 
was  a  brother  of  Daniel.  He  worked  in  England.  Ac- 
cording to  Bryan,  he  was  a  first-rate  artist.     Died  in  1678. 

Schemmelpenninck,  sKem'mel-pen'nink,  or 
Schimmelpenninck,  sKim'mel-pen'nink,  (  Rutger 
Jan,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Deventer  in  1761. 
was  grand  pensionary  of  Holland  in  1805.  He  refused 
to  hold  office  under  King  Louis  Bonaparte.  Died  in 
1825. 

See  M.  C.  van  Hall,  "R.  J.  Schimmelpenninck,"  etc.,  1847' 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Schenck,  shgnk,  (Johann,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  in  Brisgau  in  1531,  practised  at  Friburg.  Died  in 
1598. 

Schenck,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  medical  writer,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Friburg;  died  about  1620. 

Schenck,  skenk,  (Robert  C.,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  general,  born  in  Warren  county,  Ohio,  in  1809.  He 
represented  a  district  of  Ohio  in  Congress  from  1843  to 
1851,  and  was  minister  to  Brazil  in  1852-53.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  was 
wounded  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  30, 
1862,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general  about 
October  of  that  year.  He  was  a  Republican  member 
of  Congress  for  the  third  district  of  Ohio  from  1863  to 
1869,  and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means  in  the  Fortieth  and  Forty-first  Congresses.  He 
was  United  States  minister  at  London  from  1871  to  1876. 
Died  in  Washington,  D.C.,  March  23,  1890. 

Schendel,  van,  \i.\\  sKen'del,  (Petrus,)  a  Belgian 
painter  of  note,  born  in  1806 ;  died  in  1870. 

Schenk,  sK^nk,  (Martin,)  a  Dutch  soldier  of  for- 
tune, noted  for  his  courage  and  ferocity,  was  born  in 
Gelderland  in  1549.  He  served  for  a  time  under  William 
of  Orange,  but  subsequently  went  over  to  the  Duke  of 
Parma.  Dissatisfied,  however,  with  his  treatment,  and 
thinking  his  services  ill  rewarded,  he  joined  the  patriots 
in  1585,  and  performed  many  daring  exploits,  among 
which  was  the  capture  of  Bonn.  Having  attempted  to 
take  Nymwegen  in  1589,  he  was  drowned  while  making 
his  retreat. 

Sec  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  ix.-xx. 

Schenkel,  shSnk'el,  (Daniel,)  a  Swiss  rationalistic 
theologian,  born  at  Dogerlin,  December  21,  1813.  Edu- 
cated at  Basel  and  Gottingen,  he  became  in  1849  divinity- 
professor  at  Basel,  and  in  1851  at  Heidelberg.  Me  was 
long  prominent  in  theological  journalism,  and  published 
a  "Bibellexikon,"  (5  vols.,)  "Das  Wesen  des  Piotestan- 
tismus,"  (1846-51,)  "Christliche  Dogmatik,"  (1858-59,) 
"Das  Charakterbild  Jesu,"  (1S64,)  "Das  Christusbild 
d«r  Apostel  und  der  nachapostolischen  Zeit,"  (1S75,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1885. 

Schenkels,  shSnk'els,  (Lambert  Thomas,)  a  Dutch 
grammarian,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1547.  He  wrote  on 
grammar  and  mnemonics.     Died  about  1630. 

Schenkendorf,  von,  fon  sh§nk'en-doRf,  (Max,) 
born  at  Konigsberg  about  1784,  wrote  "Christian 
Poems,"  and  other  poetical  works.     Died  in  1S17. 

Scherer,  shi'raiR',  (Barth^lemi  Louis  Joseph,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Delle  (Haut-Rhin)  in  1747.  lie 
obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees 
in  1795,  and  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Loano  in  Novem- 
ber of  that  year.     He  was  minister  of  war  from  July, 


cas^;  9asj;  \hard;  %2^%j;G,v.,Vi, guttural;  a, nasal;  v., trilled;  sasz;  thasinM/V.     (Jl^^See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


SCHERER 


2142 


SCHILLER 


1797,  to  February,  1799,  after  which  date  he  commanded 
in  Italy  for  a  few  months.     Died  in  1804. 

See"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  Db  Courcki.i.ks,  "Dic- 
donoaire  des  G^n^raux  Fran^ais." 

Scherer,  sheh-rain',  (Edmond  Henri  AnoLniK,)  a 
French  critic,  born  in  Paris,  April  8,  1S15.  He  became 
a  Protestant  clergyman,  and  in  1845  ^^'"^^  made  professor 
of  exegesis  at  the  Geneva  Divinity  School.  In  1S71  he 
was  chosen  to  the  French  National  Assembly,  where  he 
exercised  a  great  influence  as  a  conservative  republican. 
In  1875  he  was  made  senator  for  life.  He  has  written 
several  books,  chiefly  on  religious  subjects  and  having 
the  view  of  a  strongly  orthodox  Protestant  clergyman. 
M.  Scherer  takes  rank  as  a  critic  of  vigour  and  ability, 
though  he  is  always  opinionated,  and  somewhat  narrow 
in  his  sympathies.     [Died  March  16,  1889.  | 

Schereschewsky,  sh§r-e-shgv'ske,  (Samuel  Isaac 
Joseph,)  D.D.,  a  scholar  and  bishop,  born  at  Tanrog- 
gen,  Russian  Lithuania,  of  Jewish  parents,  May  6,  183 1, 
was  educated  in  the  Jewish  College  at  Zhitomeer,  and  in 
the  University  of  Breslan,  studied  in  the  Presbyterian 
Theological  School  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  and  in 
the  Episcopal  Seminary  of  New  York  city,  went  to  China 
as  a  missionary,  and  in  1877  was  made  Bishop  of  Shang- 
hai. He  translated  the  Old  Testament  into  Mandarin 
Chinese,  and  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Prayer 
Book.  He  also  compiled  a  Mongolian  dictionary,  and 
translated  Saint  Mark's  Gospel  into  the  Mongolian 
tongue.     In  18S3  he  resigned  the  bishopric. 

Scherr, sh^R or  shaiR,(JoHANNES,)a German  historian, 
born  at  Hohenrechberg,  in  Wiirtemberg,  October  3,  1817. 
In  1840  he  graduated  at  Tiibingen,  and  in  1849,  for  polit- 
ical reasons,  he  went  to  Switzerland.  In  i860  he  took  a 
history-professorship  at  Zurich.  .Among  his  writings  are 
histories  of  German,  English,  and  general  literature,  of 
religion,  etc.,  and  Lives  of  Bliicher,  Schiller,  and  others, 
besides  works  on  social  and  public  questions.     D.  1886. 

Scherr,  sh§R,  (Thomas  Ignaz,)  a  German  teacher 
and  educational  writer,  born  at  Hohenrechberg,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1801,  was  the  founder  of  the  Institute 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Zurich.    Died  March  10,  1870. 

Scherz,  sh§Rts,  (Joseph  Georg,)  a  German  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1678,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Halle  in  1711.     Died  in  1754. 

Scherzer,  von,  fon  sh^Rt'ser,  (Karl,)  an  Austrian 
traveller,  born  in  Vienna,  May  i,  1821.  A  printer  by 
trade,  he  travelled  extensively,  for  the  most  part  in  con- 
nection with  Austrian  government  expeditions,  was  en- 
nobled, and  served  as  consul-general  at  Smyrna,  London, 
and  Leipsic  successively,  becoming  also  Austrian  repre- 
sentative to  five  of  the  small  Thuringian  principalities. 
He  published  many  volumes  of  reports  on  the  expedi- 
tions he  was  concerned  in,  besides  works  on  statistics  and 
trade,  and  narratives  of  his  travels. 

Scheuchzer,  shoiK'tser,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  natural- 
ist, born  at  Zurich  in  1682,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  in  his  native  city.  He  published  a  number  of 
botanical  works,  in  Latin,     Died  in  1738. 

Scheuchzer,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
physician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Zurich 
in  1672.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  works, 
among  which  we  name  a  "Natural  History  of  Switzer- 
land," (in  German,  3  vols.,  1708,)  and  "Physica  Sacra," 
or  natural  history  of  the  Bible,  (8  vols.,  1732-37,)  written 
m  German  and  translated  into  French  and  Latin.    Died 

in  1733- 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Scheuchzer,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Zurich  in  1702.  He  translated 
Kamjifer's  "  History  of  Japan"  into  English,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  Inoculation."     Died  in  1729. 

Scheuffelin,  shoif'feh-leen',  or  Scheuffelein,  shoif- 
feh-lin',  (Hans,)  an  eminent  German  painter  and  wood- 
engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1490,  was  a  favourite 
pupil  of  Albert  Diirer.  His  engravings  resemble  those 
of  Diirer.  He  worked  at  Nordlingen,  where  he  died  in 
1539  or  1540. 

See  Rknouvier,  "Des  Types  et  des  Mani^res  des  Maitres- 
Graveiirs." 


Scheuren,  shoi'ren,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  landscape- 
painter  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  was  born  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1810.     Died  in  1887. 

Scheutz,  shoits,  (George  and  Edward,)  two  scien- 
tific Swedes,  distinguished  as  inventors  of  a  machine 
which  calculates  mathematical  tables  and  prints  the  re- 
sults. George  was  born  in  1785,  and  died  in  1873.  ^^' 
ward  is  a  son  of  George.  A  gold  medal  was  awarded 
to  the  inventors  by  a  committee  of  the  Exposition  of 
Paris  in  1855. 

Schiaparelli, ske-i-pi-r?l'lee,  (Giovanni  Virginio.) 
a  distinguished  Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Savigniano, 
March  5,  1835.  He  was  educated  chiefly  at  Turin,  and 
in  i860  took  charge  of  the  observatory  at  Milan.  He 
showed  the  relationship  between  cometary  and  meteoric 
matter  in  important  papers  published  in  1S66  and  1S71. 
and  wrote  other  valuable  publications. 

Schiavone,  ske-i-vo'ni,  (Andre.\,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  Medltla,  was  born  at  Sebenico,  in 
Dalmatia,  in  1522.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The 
Nativityof  Christ,"  and  the  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin." 
He  excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  was  empli>ved  by  Titian 
in  painting  the  ceilings  of  the  Library  of  San  Marco,  in 
Venice.     Died  in  1582. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "Vite  degli  Plttorl  Veneti." 

Schiavonetti,  ske-i-vo-net'tee,  (Luioi,)  an  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Bassano  in  1765,  was  a  friend  of  Bar- 
tolozzi,  whose  style  he  imitated  successfully.  He  resided 
many  years  in  London,  where  he  died  in  1810.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  "  Mater  Dolorosa,"  after  Van  Dyck, 
and  the  "  Nativity  of  Christ,"  after  Correggio. 

Schicht,  shlKt,  (Johann  Goitfried,)  a  German 
composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  near  Zittau  in 
1753.  His  works  are  principally  oratorios  and  other 
sacred  music.     Died  in  1823. 

Schick,  sh!k,  (Gottlieb,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1779,  studied  in  Paris  under  David.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits,  and  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation.    Died  in  i8t2. 

Schickard,  shik'kiRt,  or  Schickhard,  shik'hiRt, 
(Wilhel.m,)  a  German  Orientalist  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Herrenberg,  near  Tubingen,  in  1592.  He  became 
pastor  at  Nurtingen  in  1616,  and  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Tiibingen  in  1619.  He  also  learned  Arabic,  Persian, 
and  Turkish  without  a  master.  He  published  several 
works  on  Oriental  languages  and  on  astronomy.  Died 
at  Tubingen  in  1635. 

See  ScHNURRER,  "  Schickard's  Leben,"  1792;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie G^nerale." 

Schidoni,  ske-do'nee,  or  Schedone,  ski-do'n4, 
(Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Modena  in 
1560.  He  painted  both  historical  pieces  and  portraits 
with  success,  and  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  imitators 
of  Correggio.     Died  in  1615. 

Schikaneder,  shee'ki-ni'der,  (Emanuel,)  a  Ger- 
man dramatist,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  175 1.  His  principal 
work,  the  "  Zauberflote,"  ("  Magic  Flute,")  was  set  to 
music  by  Mozart,  and  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Died 
in  1812. 

Schilder,  shil'der,  (Charles  Andreievitch,)  a  Rus- 
sian general,  born  about  1795,  was  distinguished  as  a 
military  engineer.     Died  in  1857. 

Schill,  vou,  fon  shil,  (Ferdinand,)  a  Prussian  par- 
tisan officer,  born  near  Pless  in  1773.  He  commanded 
a  regiment  or  free  corps,  with  which  he  fought  against 
the  French  and  performed  daring  exploits.  He  was 
attacked  by  the  Dutch  and  Danes  at  Stralsund,  and  was 
killed  in  the  defence  of  that  place,  in  1809. 

See  "  Schilliana,"  i8io-ig;  Haken,  "Ferdinand  von  Schill," 
1824;  Daeking,  "Leben  Schill's,"  1S3S. 

Schiller,  von,  fon  shil'ler,  (Johann  Christoph 
Friedrich,)  the  great  national  poetofGermany,  was  born 
at  Marbach,  November  10, 1759.  His  father  was  for  a  time 
an  army-surgeon,  and  was  afterwards  employed  by  the 
Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  as  inspector  of  his  nurseries  and 
ornamental  gardens.  From  his  mother,  whose  maiden- 
name  was  Kodweis,  the  poet  appears  to  have  inherited 
his  sensitive  and  enthusiastic  temperament  and  his  love 
for  poetry.     His  parents  having  removed  to  Ludwigs- 


a,  e,  1,0,  u,  y,AjMf;«l,fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  ^,G,\,o,\.\,^,short;7\.,^,'\,q, obscure:  fSr,  fAll,  fdt;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCHILLER 


2143 


SCHINDERHANNES 


Durg,  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin  school  of  that  town.  His 
mother  wished  him  to  become  a  minister  ;  but  his  tastes 
led  him  in  a  different  direction.  At  first  he  made  choice 
of  the  legal  profession,  but  soon  after  turned  his  attention 
to  medicine.  Later  the  works  of  Shaksi^eare,  Rousseau, 
and  Goethe  appear  to  have  determined  the  direction  of 
his  mind  to  the  drama  and  general  literature.  Lessing, 
Herder,  and  Klopstock  seem  to  have  had  no  unimportant 
influence  in  the  formation  of  his  literary  character.  Among 
his  earliest  essays  in  composition  were  an  epic  poem 
entitled  "  Moses,"  and  two  dramas,  "  Der  Student  von 
Nassau"  and  "  Cosmo  von  Medici,"  of  which  only  a  few 
fragments  have  been  preserved.  In  1777,  when  only 
eighteen  years  of  age,  he  wrote  "The  Robliers,"  ("Die 
Rauber,")  a  tragedy  of  extraordinary  power,  though  he 
himself,  at  a  later  day,  characterized  it  as  a  "monster  for 
which  fortunately  there  was  no  original."  It  was  trans- 
lated and  read  in  every  part  of  Europe,  and,  having  been 
remodelled,  was  brought  out  on  the  stage  at  Mannheim 
in  1782.  The  author,  having  gone  incogttito  to  witness 
the  representation,  was  arrested,  and  the  Duke  of  WUr- 
temberg  sternly  forbade  him  to  write  anything  except 
what  related  to  the  medical  profession.  To  escape  from 
this  intolerable  thraldom,  he  fled  to  Mannheim,  and  after- 
wards spent  some  time  in  Franconia,  near  Meiningen  ; 
subsequently  (in  1783)  he  was  naturalized  as  a  subject  of 
the  Elector-Palatine,  and  was  llius  freed  from  all  control 
of  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  He  took  up  his  residence 
at  Mannheim,  where  he  became  poet  to  the  theatre.  About 
this  time  he  wrote  his  tragedies  of  "  P'iesco"  and  "  Cabale 
und  Liebe."  He  began  in  1784  to  edit  the  "Thalia," 
a  literary  journal,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  stage,  in  which 
were  published  the  first  parts  of  his  tragedy  of  "Don 
Carlos."  In  1785  lie  left  Mannheim  for  Leipsic,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Huber  and  the  elder  Korner, 
and  wrote  his  beautiful  "Ode  to  Joy,"  ("Lied  an  die 
Freude.")  His  tale  entitled  the  "  Ghost-Seer"  ("Geist- 
Sieher")  was  never  finished.  Having  visited  Weimar 
in  1787,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Goethe,  Herder, 
and  Wieland,  and,  on  the  recommendation  of  Goethe, 
was  appointed  in  1789  professor  of  history  at  Jena.  The 
ne.xt  year  he  married  Charlotte  von  Lengefeld,  a  lady  of 
fine  intellect  and  culture.  In  1791  he  brought  out  his 
"  I-Iistory  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,"  (pronounced  by 
Carlyle  in  1824  as  the  best  historical  jierformance  which 
Germany  could  boast  of,)  and  soon  after  commenced  his 
"  \V'allenstein,"  which  was  completed  in  1799.  It  is  per- 
haps his  greatest  work,  and  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
finest  tragedy  in  the  German  language.  It  consists  of 
three  parts,  "The  Camp  of  Wallenstein,"  ("  Wallen- 
stein's  Lager,")  "The  Piccolomini,"  and  the  "Death  of 
Wallenstein,"  ("  Wallenstein's  Tod.")  The  second  and 
third  parts,  rendered  into  English  blank  verse  by  Cole- 
ridge, constitute  one  of  the  most  admirable  and  perfect 
'.ranslations  to  be  found  in  our  language.  In  1799  Schiller 
removed  to  Weimar.  His  growing  intimacy  with  Goethe 
appears  to  have  exercised  a  most  happy  influence  upon 
Ihe  productions  of  his  genius.  Between  1799  and  1801 
he  composed,  besides  smaller  works,  his  dramas  entitled 
"  The  Maid  of  Orleans,"  ("  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,") 
"  Mary  Stuart,"  and  "  The  Bride  of  Messina,"  ("  Die 
Braut  von  Messina.")  He  was  associated  with  Goethe 
in  contributions  to  the  "Musen-Almanach,"  of  which 
for  a  time  Schiller  was  the  editor.  Among  his  minor 
poems  "The  Song  of  the  Bell"  ("Das  Lied  von  der 
Glocke,"  1801)  may  claim  the  first  place.  Nothing  more 
admirable  in  its  way  has  ever  been  written  in  any  lan- 
guage, ancient  or  modern.  In  it  the  three  great  events 
of  human  life — Birth,  (or  Christening,)  Marriage,  and 
Death,  all  marked  by  the  ringing  of  the  bell — are  touched 
upon  with  an  exquisite  beauty  and  pathos  which,  had 
the  author  composed  nothing  else  but  this  single  poem, 
would  have  secured  him  a  place  among  those  rare  poets 
whose  fame  seems  destined  to  be  coeval  with  the  exist- 
ence of  the  human  race.  In  1804  Schiller  produced  his 
"William  Tell,"  the  most  popular  of  all  his  dramas. 
He  died  on  the  9th  of  May,  1S05,  ot  an  affection  of  the 
lungs,  under  which  he  had  suffered  for  many  years.  His 
last  words,  uttered  a  little  before  he  expired,  were, 
"Many  things  are  growing  plain  and  clear  to  me." 

As  a  poet,  Schiller  is  characterized  by  strong  feeling  | 


and  intense  ideality.  His  mind  is  eminently  subjective, 
all  his  representations  being  strongly  coloured  with  his 
own  individuality,  and  in  this  one  respect  he  is  much 
inferior  as  a  dramatist  to  Goethe  ;  but  his  enthusiastic 
faith  in  ideal  excellence,  and  his  deep  and  earnest  sym- 
pathy with  all  human  joy  and  sorrow,  have  given  him 
an  influence  over  the  common  heart  of  mankind  not 
possessed  by  his  many-sided  and  more  gifted  rival. 
There  is  indeed  between  Schiller  and  Goethe  something 
of  the  same  kind  of  difference  that  exists  between  Byron 
and  Shakspeare,  the  one  being  characterized  by  intense 
concentrated  feeling,  the  other  by  endless  variety.  The 
comparison,  however,  fails  to  do  justice  to  Schiller,  who, 
if  he  had  less  passion,  had  far  greater  wealth  of  thought 
and  far  higher  moral  endowments  than  Byron.  On  the 
other  hand,  Goethe,  though  scarcely  yielding  to  Shak- 
speare in  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  human  heart 
or  in  the  inexhaustible  riches  of  his  ideas,  was  yet  infe- 
rior to  the  great  English  dramatist  in  the  very  point  in 
which  he  was  inferior  to  Schiller,  viz.,  in  a  deep  and 
earnest  sympathy  with  universal  humanity;  and  this 
will  explain  why  the  dramatic  works  of  Goethe,  though 
giving  proof  of  genius  of  the  richest  and  rarest  order, 
have  never  possessed  that  strong  hold  upon  the  popular 
heart  for  which  the  dramas  of  Schiller  and  Shakspeare 
are  so  remarkable. 

See  Thomas  Cari.vle,  "Life  of  Schiller,"  1825;  E.  Lytton 
BuLWER,  "Life  and  Works  of  Schiller,"  1847;  H.  Doring,  "  F. 
von  Schiller;  biographisches  Denkmal,"  1832;  Viana,  "Schiller's 
Leben  und  Werken,"  1836;  Hoffmeister,  "Schiller's  Leben,"  5 
vols.,  1S38-42;  E.  Boas,  "Schiller  und  Goethe  im  Xenienkampfe," 
2  vols.,  1S51  ;  Caroline  von  Wolzogen,  "  F.  von  Schiller's  Le- 
ben," 2  vols.,  iS3o:G.  Schwab,  "  Urkunden  iiber  Schiller  und  seine 
Faniilie,"  1S40:  the  article  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1831, 
(by  Caki.vle  ;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1841:  translations 
from  Scliiller's  Poems  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September, 
1842,  February  and  April,  1S43,  (by  Bulwer;)  "North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1823,  (by  Bancroft.) 

Schilling,  shilling,  (Friedrich  Gustav,)  a  German 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1766, 
became  a  captain  in  the  Saxon  army.  His  works  display 
much  originality  and  talent  for  invention.    Died  in  1839. 

Schilling,  (Gustav,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born 
in  Hanover  in  1805,  published  a  "Universal  Dictionary 
of  Music,"  ("  Universal  Lexikon  der  Tonkunst,")  and 
other  similar  works.     Died  in  1880. 

Schilling,  (Johann,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Mittweida,  Saxony,  June  23,  1S28.  Among  his  works 
are  "Amor  and  Psyche,"  (1851,)  "Jupiter  and  Venus," 
the  Luther  monument  at  Worms,  and  many  others,  of 
which  the  most  famous  is  the  "  Grand  National  Monu- 
ment" on  the  Niederwald,  unveiled  in  1S83  by  the 
emperor  William. 

Schilter,  shiKter,  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Pegau  in  1632,  published  a  number  of  legal  and  anti- 
quarian works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  1705. 

Schimmelpenninck.     See  Schemmelpenninck. 

Schimmelpenninck,  shim'mel-pen'nink,  (Mary 
An.ne,)  an  English  authoress,  originally  named  Galton, 
was  born  at  Birmingham  in  1778.  Her  mother  was  a 
Barclay,  highly  gifted  and  a  good  scholar.  Mary  Anne 
Galton  was  a  cousin  of  Priscilla  Gurney  and  of  Mrs. 
Fry.  She  was  well  versed  in  Latin,  German,  and  French. 
In  1806  she  married  a  Dutchman  named  Lambert  Schim- 
melpenninck, who  is  said  to  have  been  a  brother  of  the 
pensionary  or  chief  ruler  of  Holland.  She  joined  the 
Moravian  Church  about  1818.  She  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Memoirs  of  Port-Royal,"  (2  vols.,  1853.)  Died 
in  1856. 

See  "  Life  of  M.  A.  Schimmelpenninck,"  2  vols.,  1859,  the  first 
volume  of  which  is  autobiography  ;  "  Living  Age"  for  April  16,  1859. 

Schimper,  shdN'paiR',  (Guillaume  Philippe,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  in  Alsace  in  1808,  published  a 
number  of  botanical  treatises,  and  "  Palasontologica 
Alsatica."     Died  March  20,  1880. 

Schimper,  sh!m'per,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist and  traveller,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1804,  visited 
Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Abyssinia,  and  published  in  1834  his 
"Travels  in  Algeria."     Died  April  13,  1868. 

Schinderhannes,  sh!n'der-hdn'nes,  or  Schinder- 
hans,  sh!n'der-h3.nss',  a  German  robber-chief  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  who  for  several  years  infested  with 
his  band  the  shores  of  the  Rhine.     He  was  taken  and 


€  a.s  k;  9  as s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,pUttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHINDLER 


2144 


SCHLEICHER 


executed,  with  a  number  of  his  companions,  in  1803. 
I  lis  adventures  form  the  subject  of  a  novel  by  Leitch 
Ritchie. 

Schindler,  sh!nd'ler,  (  Valentine,  )  a  German 
scholar,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Witten 
berg,  was  the  author  of  "  Institutiones  Ilebraicse,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  161 1. 

Schinkel,  shink'el,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German 
architect  of  great  celebrity,  born  at  Neu-Ruppin,  in 
Brandenburg,  in  March,  1781,  was  a  pupil  of  David 
Gilly,  of  Berlin.  He  practised  landscape-painting  in 
his  early  life.  About  1804  he  visited  Italy.  Having 
returned  to  Berlin  in  1806,  he  became  about  1815  archi- 
tect of  the  king,  who  employed  him  in  the  erection  of 
public  edifices  in  his  capital.  He  designed  the  Royal 
Museum,  a  large  building  of  the  Ionic  order,  which  was 
greatly  admired,  and  the  theatre  in  Berlin.  Among  his 
other  works  was  a  theatre  at  Hamburg.  He  preferred 
the  Greek  style  of  architecture.     Died  in  1841. 

See  F.  KuGLER,  "  K.  F.  Schinkel;  eine  Charakteristik,"  etc., 
1842. 

Schinner,  shin'ner,  (Matthew,)  a  German  or  Swiss 
bishop,  called  Cardinal  de  Sion,  was  born  in  the 
Valais  about  1470.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1511.  He 
instigated  the  Swiss  to  fight  against  Francis  I.  of  France, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Marignano, 
(15  15.)     Died  in  1522. 

Schirach,  von,  fon  shee'rSic,  (Gottlob  Benedict,) 
a  German  historian,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1743. 
In  1770  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Helm- 
Stedt.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Biography 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,"  (1776,)  for  which  he  was 
ennobled  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  trans- 
lated Plutarch's  "  Lives"  into  German.     Died  in  1804. 

Schirmer,  sh^R'mer,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man landscape-painter,  born  at  Julich  in  1807  ;  died  at 
Carlsruhe,  September  11,  1863. 

Schischkow.     See  Shishkof. 

Schlagintweit,  shli'gin-t<^it',  (Adolf,)  a  German 
traveller,  born  at  Munich  in  1829.  Having  explored 
the  Alps  with  his  brother  Hermann,  he  published  in  1850 
an  account  of  their  researches.  In  1854  he  set  out  for 
India,  accompanied  by  his  brothers  Hermann  (born 
1826,  died  18S2)  and  Robert,  (born  1833,  died  1885.) 
Adolf  was  killed  at  Kashgar  in  1857.  Their  brother  Emil 
(born  1835)  was  a  distinguished  Orientalist.  Another 
brother,  Eduard,  (1831-66,)  was  a  soldier  and  author. 

Schlatter,  shlat'ter,  (Michael,)  a  Swiss  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  17 16,  emigrated  to 
America,  where  he  assisted  in  organizing  the  synod  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church.     Died  in  1790. 

Schlegel,  shla'gel,  (Johann  Adolf,)  a  German 
divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Meissen  in  1721, 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Zerbst.  He  published 
"Fables  and  Tales,"  in  verse,  and  "  Spiritual  Songs." 
Died  in  1793. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Elias,)  elder  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Meissen  in  1718.  He  published  the 
tragedies  of  "Hermann"  and  "Canute,"  and  the  com- 
edy of  "  Dumb  Beauty,"  ("  Stumme  Schonheit.")  Died 
in  1749. 

See  J.  H.  Schlegel,  "  Leben  J.  E.  Schlegels,"  1770. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  son  of 
the  following,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1765,  and 
became  professor  of  law  in  his  native  city  in  1800.  He 
wrote  several  legal  works  in  Danish.     Died  in  1836. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  younger  brother 
(  f  Johann  Adolf,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Meissen  in 
1724.  He  became  professor  of  history  and  royal  his- 
toriographer at  Copenhagen.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
the  Danish  Kings  of  the  House  of  Oldenburg,"  and 
translated  several  of  Thomson's  dramas  into  German. 
Died  in  1780. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Karl,)  fourth  brother  of  August 
Wilhelm  von  Schlegel,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Zerbst 
in  1758.  He  wrote  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  North- 
ern Germany,"  (1828,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1831. 

Schlegel,  (Karl  Gustav  Moritz,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Hanover  in  1756.  He  became 
superintendent-general  and  first  preacher  at  Harburg, 
and  wrote  several  theological  works.     Died  in  1826, 


Schlegel,  von,  fon  shla'gel,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a 
celebrated  German  poet.  Orientalist,  and  critic,  born  at 
Hanover  on  the  8th  of  September,  1767,  was  a  son  of 
Johann  Adolf,  noticed  above.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Heyne 
at  the  University  of  Gottingen,  which  he  quitted  in  1793. 
In  1797  he  became  professor  or  teacher  of  Greek  and 
Latin  at  Jena.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  .Schiller.  About  1798  Schlegel  and  his 
brother  Friedrich  liegan  to  edit  the  "  Athenaeum,"  a 
critical  review,  which  had  great  influence  in  propagating 
the  principles  of  the  romantic  school.  He  was  a  warm 
admirer  of  Shakspeare's  works,  of  which  he  produced 
a  translation,  (11  vols.,  1798-1810.)  He  resided  in  Ber- 
lin from  1802  to  1805,  and  became  a  friend  of  Madame 
de  Stael,  whom  he  accompanied  in  her  travels,  as  her 
instructor  and  as  tutor  to  her  children.  He  passed  a 
number  of  years  in  her  society,  and  exercised  a  decided 
influence  over  her  literary  character.  In  1808  he  de- 
livered at  Vienna  a  course  of  lectures  on  dramatic 
literature  and  art,  which  were  greatly  admired  both  in 
Germany  and  foreign  countries.  They  were  translated 
into  English  by  John  Black,  (1840.) 

"  I  was  at  Vienna,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "  when  W. 
Schlegel  gave  his  public  course  of  lectures.  I  expected 
only  good  sense  and  instruction,  where  the  object  was 
only  to  convey  informaticsi.  I  was  astonished  to  hear  a 
critic  as  eloquent  as  an  orator."  In  another  place  she 
calls  him  "the  first  literary  critic  of  Germany."  (De 
Stael's  "Germany.") 

Schlegel  served  as  secretary  to  Bernadotte,  Crown- 
Prince  of  Sweden,  in  1813-14,  and  wrote  several  polit- 
ical pamphlets.  After  the  end  of  the  war,  in  1815,  he 
remained  with  Madame  de  Stael  until  her  death.  He 
was  appointed  protessor  of  history  at  Bonn  in  1819,  and 
applied  himself  rather  late  in  life  to  the  study  of  San- 
scrit, in  which  he  became  proficient.  He  founded  about 
1820  the  "  Indische  Bibliothek,"  a  review  devoted  to 
Indian  languages  and  antiquities.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife,  whose  name  was  Michaelis,  he  married  a  daughter 
of  the  eminent  Professor  Paulus,  from  whom  he  was 
soon  divorced.  Among  his  remarkable  productions  are 
a  poem  entitled  "  Arion,"  and  a  German  version  of  some 
of  Calderon's  dramas,  (1803-09.)  He  also  wrote,  ir. 
French,  "Literary  and  Historic  Essays,"  ("  Essais  litte- 
raires  et  historiques,"  1842.)  Died  at  Bonn,  in  May,  1845. 
His  complete  works  were  published  by  Bocking,  (13 
vols.,  1846.) 

See  Louis  de  Lom^nie,  "M.  A.  W.  de  Schlegel,  pnr  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1842;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Quarterly  Re- 
view" tor  October,  1814;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1816; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1S33,  and  October,  1S43. 

Schlegel,  von,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  an 
eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Hanover  on  the  loth  of  March, 
1772.  His  first  important  work  was  "Greeks  and 
Romans,"  ("  Griechen  und  Romer,"  1797,)  which  was 
received  with  favour.  In  1799  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  "  Lucinde,"  a  novel,  which  has  been  cen- 
sured as  immoral.  It  was  never  finished.  About  1800 
he  married  Madame  Veit,  a  daughter  of  Mendelssohn. 
Her  first  husband  was  living,  but  she  obtained  a  divorce 
in  order  to  marry  Schlegel.  In  1802  he  produced  a 
tragedy  called  "Alarkos."  Having  l)een  converted  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  about  1808,  he  removed  to 
Vienna,  where  he  became  secretary  to  the  archduke 
Charles  in  1809.  He  composed  the  proclamations  which 
were  issued  to  excite  the  Austrians  against  Napoleon. 
He  delivered  at  Vienna  several  courses  of  lectures, 
(which  were  published,)  and  edited  "The  German  Mu- 
seum," (1812-13.)  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1815,)  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Philosophy  of  Life,"  (1S28,)  and  "  Lectures 
on  the  Philosophy  of  History,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  He 
was  an  admirer  of  mediaeval  life  and  institutions,  and 
belonged  to  the  romantic  school  in  literature.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Schleiermacher.  Died  at  Dresden 
in  1829. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  August,  181S. 

Schleicher,  shlT'Ker,  (.August,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Meiningen,  February  19,  1821.  He  was  educated 
at  Leipsic,  Tubingen,  and  Bonn,  and  graduated  in  1846. 


a,  e,  I,  o  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t  j  good;  moon . 


SC HIE  ID  EN 


2145 


SCHLOZER 


He  became  a  professor  of  philology  at  Bonn  in  1850, 
and  at  Jena  in  1857,  giving  special  attention  to  the 
Slavic-Lettish  group  of  languages.     Died  in  1868. 

Schleiden,  shli'den,  (Matthias  Jakob,)  a  German 
physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1804,  pub- 
lished "  Elements  of  Scientific  Botany,"  (1842,)  "  Plants 
and  their  Life,"  (1850,)  and  other  works.  He  became  pro- 
fessor-extraordinary at  Jena  in  1839.    Died  June  22,  1881. 

Schleiden,  (Rudolf,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Hamburg,  became  in  1853  minister  for  Bremen 
at  Washington,  and  in  1866  charge-d'affaires  at  London. 

Schleiermacher,  shll'er-miK'er,  (Friedrich  Ernst 
Daniel,)  a  distinguished  German  author,  critic,  and 
pulpit  orator,  was  born  at  Breslau  on  the  21st  of  No- 
vember, 1768.  He  was  sent  to  a  Moravian  school  at 
Barby  to  study  for  the  ministry.  About  1786  he  entered 
ihe  University  of  Halle,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
theology,  philosophy,  and  the  ancient  languages.  He 
quitted  the  university  in  1790,  after  which  he  was  em- 
ployed several  years  as  a  tutor  in  a  private  family  and 
in  a  seminary  in  Berlin.  In  1796  he  was  appointed 
preacher  to  the  hospital  of  Charite  in  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished in  1799  an  excellent  work  entitled  "Discourses 
on  Religion,"  the  doctrines  of  which  were  approved  by 
fjious  and  orthodox  readers.  He  removed  to  Stolpe  in 
1802,  with  the  title  of  court  preacher,  and  wrote  there  a 
"Critique  of  all  Past  Systems  of  Ethics,"  ("Grundlinien 
einer  Kritik  der  bisherigen  Sittenlehre,"  1803,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  In  1804  he  became  professor  of  theology 
and  philosophy  at  Halle.  He  acquired  great  influence 
as  a  theologian.  The  conquests  of  Napoleon  having 
separated  Halle  from  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  Schleier- 
macher removed  to  Berlin  about  1806.  He  produced  an 
excellent  translation  of  a  large  portion  of  Plato's  works, 
(published  in  3  vols.,  1804-28,)  with  an  introduction, 
which  may  be  pronounced  one  of  the  most  important 
contributions  towards  the  elucidation  of  Plato's  philo- 
sophic system  that  have  been  made  in  modern  times. 
In  1809  he  was  appointed  preacher  of  Trinity  Church, 
Berlin,  and  in  1810  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
new  university  of  that  capital.  His  profound  learning, 
eloquent  language,  and  original  thoughts  rendered  him 
very  popular  as  a  professor  and  preacher.  He  was 
chosen  secretary  to  the  philosophical  section  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1814. 

Among  his  most  important  works  are  "A  Critical 
Essay  on  the  Writings  of  Luke,"  ("Ueber  die  Schriften 
des  Lukas,  ein  kritischer  Versuch,"  1817,)  and  "Exhibi- 
tion of  the  Christian  Faith  according  to  the  Principles 
of  the  Evangelical  Church,"  ("Darstellung  des  Christ- 
lichen  Glaubens  nach  den  Grundsatzen  der  Evange- 
lischen  Kirche,"  2  vols.,  1821-22.)  "To  his  vast  sweep 
of  thought,  now  ranging  round  the  outposts  of  theological 
systems,  and  again  darting  upon  the  smallest  detail  and 
opening  it  up  to  the  light,  he  united  immense  learning, 
not  of  the  cumbrous  bibliographical  sort  so  peculiar  to 
the  Germans,  but  of  the  living  facts  and  principles  of 
all  times,  combined  with  a  grand  faculty  of  utterance 
which  gave  the  most  musical  form  to  the  most  golden 
thoughts,  holding  his  hearers  in  raptures  while  he  spoke, 
and  carrying  them  breathless  away  with  him  in  his  airy 
chariot  of  fire."  ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  Died  in 
Berlin  in  February,  1834. 

See  a  collection  of  his  letters,  entitled  "  Aus  Schleiermacher's 
Leben  in  Briefen,"  2  vols.,  1858  ;  "Life  of  Schleiermacher,"  trans- 
lated from  the  German ;  E.  Bonnell,  "  Erinnerung  an  Schleier- 
macher als  Lehrer,"  1838  ;  F.  Delbruck,  "Der  verewigte  Schleier- 
macher," 1837;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1849; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1861  ;  "Westminster  Review" 
(br  July,  1861. 

Schlesinger,  shla'zing-er,  (Wilhelm  Heinrich,)  a 
German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  about 
1814.     He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 

SchlichtegroU,  shlhc'teh-gRol',  (Adolf  Heinrich 
Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Waltershausen 
in  1765,  became  secretary-general  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  Munich.  He  published  the  "Obituary  of 
the  Germans,"  ("Nekrolog  der  Deutschen,"  28  vols., 
1791,)  and  other  similar  works.     Died  in  1822. 

Schlichting,  schUK'ting,  or  Schlichtingius,  shliK- 
bng'ge-Cis,  (Jonas,)  a  Polish   Socinian,  apparently  of 


German  extraction,  was  born  at  Bucovviec  in  1596.  He 
wrote  a  "Confession  of  Faith,"  for  which  he  was  ban- 
ished, and  the  work  was  publicly  burnt.     Died  in  1664. 

Schliemann,  shlee'mdn,  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
archaeologist,  born  at  Ankershagen,  in  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  of  poor  parents,  January  6,  1S22.  He  acquired 
wealth  in  a  mercantile  business,  and  in  his  leisure  hours 
learned  several  languages.  After  1856  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  ancient  Greek  literature,  and  in 
1S58  began  a  course  of  Oriental  travel,  retiring  from 
business  in  1863.  In  1870,  with  his  wife,  a  Greek  lady, 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  the  Troad,  where  he  began 
those  extensive  excavations  at  Hissarlik  (the  supposed 
site  of  Troy)  which  made  him  so  famous.  He  also  car- 
ried on  similar  researches  at  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and  other 
points.  Among  his  works  are  "  La  Chine  et  le  Japon," 
(1866,)  "  Ithaque,  le  PeloponneseetTroie,"  (1869,) "Troy 
and  its  Remains."  (1874,)  "Mycenae,"  (1877,)  "  Ilios," 
(1881,)  "  Orchomenos,"  (1881,)  "  Reise  in  der  Troas," 
(1881,)  "Troja,"  (1883,)  "Tiryns,"  (1886,)  etc.     D.  1890. 

Schlik  or  Schlick,  shlik,  (Franz,)  an  Austrian 
general,  born  at  Prague  in  1789.  He  served  in  the 
campaign  of  1813  against  the  French,  and  in  the  Hun- 
garian war  of  1849.     Died  at  Vienna,  March  16,  1862. 

Schloetzer.     See  Schlozer. 

Schlosser,  shlos'ser,  (Friedrich  Chrtstoph,)  a 
celebrated  German  historian,  born  at  Jever  in  1776.  In 
1793  he  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  where, 
in  addition  to  theology,  history,  and  mathematics,  he 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  English,  Italian,  and 
Spanish  literature.  He  published  in  1812  his  "History 
of  the  Iconoclast  Emperors  of  the  liast  Roman  Empire." 
In  1817  he  became  professor  of  history  at  Heidelberg. 
His  chief  works  are  a  "History  of  the  World  in  a  Con- 
nected Relation,"  (4  vols.,  1817-41,)  and  the  "History 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  Nineteenth  till  the  Fall 
of  the  French  Empire,"  (8  vols.,  1846,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English.  He  also  wrote  a  "Critical 
Examination  of  Napoleon,"  and  other  works.  As  a  his- 
torian, Schlosser  occupies  a  high  rank  and  has  acquired 
extensive  popularity.     Died  at  Heidelberg  in  1861. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  :"  "  Jahrbuch  zum 
Conversations-Lexikon,"  1862;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1843;  "Westminster  Review"  for  September,  1845;  Gervi- 
Nus,  "  Necrolog  Schlosser's,"  1862. 

Schlosser,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1739,  was  a  brother-in-law 
of  Goethe.  He  published  several  prose  essays,  and 
made  translations  from  jEschylus,  Plato,  and  Aristotle. 
Died  in  1799. 

Schlotheim,  von,  fon  shlot'him,  (Ernst  Fried- 
rich,) Baron,  a  German  savant,  born  in  1764,  published 
several  works  on  mineralogy.     Died  in  1832. 

Schlozer  or  Schloezer,  von,  fon  shlot'ser,  (Au- 
gust LUDWIG,)  an  eminent  German  historian,  born  in 
the  principality  of  Hohenlohe-Kirchberg  in  1735.  He 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg  and  Gottingen.  In 
1755  ^^  y^^'nX  as  a  private  teacher  to  Sweden,  where  he 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Commerce,"  (in  Swedish.)  He 
was  appointed  in  1765  professor  of  Russian  history  at 
the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1767  of  political 
science  at  Gottingen.  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"  General  History  of  the  North,"  (2  vols.,  1772,)  "  Pre- 
paratory History  of  the  World  for  Children,"  (1790,) 
and  "  History  of  the  World  in  Extracts  and  Connection," 
(2  vols.,  1792.)  He  also  translated,  from  the  Russian, 
Nestor's  "  Chronicle"  to  the  year  980,  and  wrote  several 
able  political  treatises.  He  was  ennobled  by  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia  in  1804.  He  died  in  1809.  His  daughter 
Dorothea  was  highly  distinguished  for  her  talents  and 
acquirements,  and  the  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred 
upon  her  in  1787.     Died  in  1825. 

See  "A.  L.  von  Schlozer's  Leben,"  by  his  son,  1828 :  Heinrich 
DoRiNG,  "  Leben  A.  L.  von  Schlozer's,"  1836  ;  Adolph  Bock,  "A. 
L.  Schlozer,"  1S44. 

Schlozer  or  Schloezer,  von,  (Christian,)  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  the  author  of  "  Elements  of  Political 
Science,"  (1804,  in  German  and  Russian,)  and  published 
a  life  of  his  father.     Died  in  183 1. 

Schlozer,  von,  (Kurd,)  a  German  historian,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Liibeck,  January  5,  1822. 


«  as  ii;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 

135 


SCHLUTER 


2146 


SCHMUCKER 


He  was  German  minister  to  Mexico  from  1869  to  1871, 
and  subsequently  was  minister  to  the  United  States. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  German  Districts  on  the 
Baltic,"  "  Frederick  the  Great  and  Catherine  H.,"  and 
other  historical  works. 

Schliiter  or  Schlueter,  shlU'ter,  (Andreas,)  a 
Ciernian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  about  1662,  was 
patronized  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia.  He  built  several 
.difices  at  Berlin,  where  he  also  executed  a  number  of 
Admirable  works  in  sculpture.     Died  in  1714. 

Schlyter,  shlli'ter,  (Cakl  Juhan,)  an  eminent  Swed- 
ish jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Carlscrona  in  1795, 
became  professor  at  the  University  of  Lund.    Died  1888. 

Schmaltz,  shmSlts,  (Moritz  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  near  Dresden  in  1785,  pub- 
lished numerous  religious  works.     Died  in  i860. 

Schnicilz,  (Theodor  Anton  Heinrich,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1760,  published  treatises  on 
law  and  political  economy.     Died  in  1831. 

Schmauss,  shmowss,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  distin- 
guished German  writer  on  public  law,  was  born  at 
Landau,  in  Alsatia,  in  1690.  He  became  in  1734  pro- 
fessor of  the  law  of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Gbttingen. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Charles  XH.  of 
Sweden,"  (1720,)  and  "Corpus  Juris  Gentium  Academi- 
cuni,"  (2  vols.,  1730.)     Died  in  1757. 

Schmeller,  shmel'ler,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  at  Tirschenreuth  in  1785,  pub- 
lished "The  Dialects  of  Bavaria,"  (1821.)  and  a  "Bava^ 
rian  Dictionary,"  (1827.)     Died  in  1852. 

Schmerling,  von,  fon  shmgR'ling,  (  Anton,  )  an 
Austrian  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Vienna  in  1805, 
rose  to  be  president  o^  the  first  tribunal  and  court  of 
cassation  at  Vienna,  (1851,)  and  wis  appointed  prime 
minister  in  1861.     He  resigned  or  was  removed  in  1866. 

Schmettau,  von,  fon  shmet^'tow,  (Samuel,)  a  Prus- 
sian commander,  born  in  1684.  He  served  under  Prince 
Eugene  and  Marlborough,  and  subsequently  entered 
the  Austrian  army  and  fought  against  the  Spaniards  in 
Sicily.  He  was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1741,  and  was 
afterwards  employed  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  several 
embassies.     Died  in  1751. 

See  "Lebensgeschichte  des  Grafen  von  Schmettau,"  Berlin,  1806. 

Schmid,  shm!t,  (Karl  Christian  Erhard,)  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Jena,  was  born  near  Weimar  in 
1761.  He  wrote  several  works  in  favour  of  the  system 
of  Kant.     Died  in  1812. 

Schmid,  (Karl  Ernst,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Weimar  in  1774.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Jena  in  1809,  wrote  a  number  of  legal  treatises,  and 
contributed  to  Brockhaus's  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 
Died  in  1852. 

Schmid,  (Leopold,)  a  German  (Roman  Catholic) 
theologian,  born  at  Zurich,  June  9,  1808.  After  study- 
ing at  Tiibingen  and  Munich,  he  held  professorships  of 
theology  and  philosophy  at  Giessen.  His  works  (which 
are  regarded  as  of  a  latitudinarian  or  liberal  tendency) 
include  "The  Spirit  of  Catholicism,"  ("  Der  Geist  des 
Katholicismus,"  1848-50,)  "Fundamental  Principles  of 
an  Introduction  to  Philosophy,"  ("  Grundsatze  der  Ein- 
leitung  in  die  Philosophic,"  i860,)  and  "The  Law  of 
Personality,"  ("Das  Gesetz  der  Personlichkeit,"  1S62.) 
Died  at  Giessen,  December  20,  1869. 

Schmid,  (Reinhold,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Jena 
in  1800.  He  published  a  work  "On  the  Theory  of 
Civil  Law,"  (1848,)  which  is  esteemed.     Died  in  1874. 

Schmid,  von,  fon  shm!t,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Dinkelsbiihl  in  1768,  published  a  number 
of  moral  and  religious  works  for  children  and  youth. 
Died  at  Augsburg  in  1854. 

Schmidel,shmee'del,  (Casimir  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  Baireuth  in  1718.  He  published 
'•■  Icones  Plantarum  et  Analyses  Partium,"  (1747.)  Died 
in  1792. 

Schmidt,  shm!t,  (Christoph,)  a  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Nordheimer  in  1740,  wrote  "Letters  on 
Russia,"  and  several  historical  works.     Died  in  1801. 

Schmidt,  (Eberhard  Karl  Klamer,)  a  German 
poet  and  fabulist,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1746,  was  an 


intimate  friend  of  Gleim.     He  translated  the  "Odes  and 
Epodes"  of  Horace.     Died  in  1824. 

Schmidt,  (Erasmus,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in 
Misnia  in  1560,  l)ecame  professor  of  Greek  and  math- 
ematics at  Wittenberg.  He  pul)lished  a  "Concordance 
to  the  Greek  Testament,"  an  edition  of  Pindar,  with  a 
Latin  version  and  notes,  and  other  works.   Died  in  1637. 

Schmidt,  (Georg  Frikdricm,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  ]5erlin,  executed  numerous  jjortraits  of  great 
merit.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
in  Paris.     Died  in  1775. 

Schmidt,  (Heinrich  Julian,)  a  German  critic,  born 
at  Marienwerder,  March  7,  i8lS.  Educated  at  Konigs- 
l^erg,  he  became  a  journalist  and  teacher,  finally  devoting 
himself  to  literature.  Among  his  writings  are  a  "  History 
of  Romance,"  ("Geschichte  der  Romantik  in  Zeitalter 
der  Reformation  und  Revolution,"  1850,)  "History  of 
Intellectual  Life  in  Germany,"  ("Geschichte  des geistigen 
Lebens  in  Deutschland,")  "  History  of  German  Litera- 
ture," ("Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur,")  "History 
of  Modern  French  Literature,"  ("Geschichte  der  fran- 
zbsischen  Literatur  seit  Ludwig  XVL,")  "  Pictures  of  the 
Intellectual  Life  of  our  Time,"  ("  Bilder  aus  dem  geistigen 
Leben  unserer  Zeit,"  1870-73,)  and  other  important  works, 
chiefly  on  literary  history.      Died  March  27,  18S6. 

Schmidt,  (Isaak  Jakob,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born 
in  1779,  published  a  Grammar  and  a  Dictionary  of  the 
Mongol  Language,  also  a  "  Thibetan  Grammar,"  and 
made  several  translations  from  the  Mongol  and  Thibetic. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1847. 

Schmidt,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Worms  in  1652,  became  professor  of  the- 
ology and  ecclesiastical  history  at  Helmstedt.  He 
translated  Patdie's  "Elements  of  Geometry"  from 
French  into  Latin,  and  wrote  several  controversial 
works.     Died  in  1726. 

Schmidt,  (  Michael  Ignaz,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Arnstein  in  1736,  was  appointed  director  of  the 
archives  at  Vienna.  He  wrote  a  good  "  History  of  the 
Germans,"  (22  vols.,  1 778-1808,)  which  was  very  pop- 
ular, and  other  works.  He  was  appointed  aulic  coun- 
cillor at  Vienna  in  1780.     Died  in  1794. 

Schmidt,  (Sebastian,)  a  German  scholar  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Strasburg.     Died  in  1697. 

Schmith,  shmit,  (Nicholas,)  a  Hungarian  Jesuit 
and  historical  writer,  was  rector  of  the  college  at  Tyr- 
nau.     Died  in  1767. 

Schmitthenner,  shm!t'hen'ner,  (Friedrich  Jakob,) 
professor  of  political  science  at  Giessen,  was  born  in 
1796.  He  published  several  works  on  philology,  his- 
tory, and  political  economy.     Died  in  1850. 

Schmitz,  shmlts,  (Leonard,)  a  historian  and  philol- 
ogist, born  near  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1807.  He  removed 
to  England  about  1836,  and  became  rector  of  the  High 
School  of  Edinburgh  in  1845.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  Rome,"  a  "  Manual  of  Ancient  History,"  and  other 
works.  He  also  contributed  to  W.  Smith's  "  Classical 
Dictionary  of  Biography."     Died  May  28,  1890. 

Schmolk,  shmolk,  or,  less  correctly,  Schmolke, 
(Benjamin,)  an  eminent  German  hymn-writer,  born  at 
Brauchitschdorf,  December  21,  1672.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic,  and  became  a  Protestant  clergyman.  Many  of 
his  hymns  are  still  very  popular.  Died  at  Schweidnitz, 
February  12,  1737. 

Schmuck'er,  (Samuel  M.,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  New  Market,  Virginia,  in  1823.  He  practised 
law  in  Philadelphia.  He  wrote  a  number  of  historical 
works  and  biographies.     Died  in  1863. 

Schmucker,  (Samuel  Simon,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Hagerstown,  Maryland,  February  28, 
1799.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1820,  and  at  Princeton  Divinity  School,  and  in  1S20 
was  ordained.  For  many  years  he  was  the  champion  of 
".Low  Church"  Lutheran  theology  in  the  United  States. 
He  published  a  large  number  of  theological  works.  He 
was  the  father  of  S.  M.  Schmucker.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  professor  of  theology  at  Gettysburg,  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  he  died,  July  26,  1873. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  far,  fdl  I,  fit;  nilt;  n6l;  good;  moon: 


SCHMUTZER 


2147 


SCHOFIELD 


Schmutzer,  shmoot'ser,  (Jakob  Matthias,)  a  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  at  Vienna  in  1733,  became  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Design  in  that  city,  and  court  en- 
graver. His  prints  after  Rubens  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1813. 

Schnaase,  shni'zeh,  (Karl,)  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1798,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Plastic  Arts,"  (1843,) 
and  other  similar  works.     Died  May  20,  1875. 

Schneb'be-lie,  (Jacob,)  an  English  artist,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1760,  was  appointed  draughtsman  to 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries.     Died  in  1792. 

Schneider,  shni  daiii',  (  Antoine  Virgile,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  1780.  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
May,  1839,  to  March,  1840.     Died  in  1847. 

Schneider,  shni'der,  (Conrad  Victor,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Bitterfeld,  in  Saxony,  in  1610,  was 
the  author  of  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  De  Catarrhis," 
in  which  he  gives  an  anatomical  description  of  the  in- 
terior structure  of  the  nose.  The  lining  of  the  cavities 
of  the  nose,  which  he  first  described,  has  been  named, 
in  his  honour,  the  Schneiderian  membrane.  Died  in 
1680. 

Schneider,  (Eugene,)  a  French  manufacturer,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1805.  He  became  proprietor  of  a  very 
extensive  manufactory  of  machinery,  locomotives,  etc., 
at  Creuzot.  He  was  elected  in  1852  and  in  1857  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body,  of  which  he  was  presi- 
dent from  1867  until  September  4,  1870.     Died  in  1875. 

Schneider,  shnl'der,  (Johann  Christian  Frikd- 
RICH,)  a  German  composer,  born  near  Zittau  in  1786. 
His  works  comprise  oratorios,  operas,  and  instrument- 
pieces.     Died  in  1853  or  1854. 

Schneider,  (Johann  Georg,  called  afterwards  Eu- 
LOGius,)  a  German  poet  and  monk,  born  at  Wipfeld,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1756.  Having  removed  to  Strasburg  in  1791, 
he  became  a  violent  revolutionist,  and  caused  many 
persons  to  be  put  to  death.  He  was  guillotined  in  Paris 
in  April,  1794. 

See  Heitz,  "  Notes  sur  la  Vie  d'Euloge  Schneider,"  1862. 

Schneider,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  brother  of  Johann 
Christian  Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born  near  Zittau 
in  1789.  He  was  appointed  court  organist  at  Dresden 
in  1825,  and  composed  a  number  of  pieces  for  the  organ. 
Died  in  1864. 

Schneider,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist and  naturalist,  born  near  Wurzen,  in  Saxony,  in 
1750.  He  studied  under  Heyne  at  Gottingen,  and  in 
1776  became  professor  of  ancient  languages  and  elo- 
quence at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  published  edi- 
tions of  Nicander's  "  Alexipharmaca,"  ^Elian's  "  De 
Naturi  Animalium,"  Xenophon's  Works,  the  "  Ar- 
gonautica"  of  Orpheus,  the  "  Politics"  of  Aristotle, 
i^.sop's  "  Fables,"  and  the  Works  of  Theophrastus. 
He  also  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  natural  history, 
among  which  we  may  name  "  Ichthyology  of  the  An- 
cients," (1782,)  and  "  Physiology  of  Amphibious  Ani- 
mals," (1790.)  His  "  Greek-and-German  Lexicon"  (1797) 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work.     Died  in  1822. 

See  CuviER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Schneider,  (Karl  Ernst  Christoph,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Wiehe,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  in  1786. 
He  translated  some  of  Plato's  works,  and  published  an 
edition  of  Caesar's  "Commentaries."     Died  in  1856. 

Schneidevy-in,  shnl'deh-i^in',  (Friedrich  Wil- 
helm,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1810. 
He  was  appointed  in  1842  professor  of  classic  literature 
at  Gottingen.  He  published  "  Critical  Observations  on 
the  Lyric  Poets  of  Greece,"  "Commentaries  on  Sopho- 
cles," and  other  original  works;  also  editions  of  several 
Greek  and  Latin  classics.     Died  in  1856. 

Schneller,  shnel'ler,  (Julius  Franz  Borgias,)  a 
historian,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1777,  was  the  author  of 
several  historical  and  dramatic  works.     Died  in  1833. 

Schnetz,  shnSts,  (Jean  Victor,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1787.  He  became  director  of  the 
French  school  of  painting  at  Rome  in  1840.  Among  his 
works  we  may  name  "  The  Sack  of  Rome  by  the  Con- 
stable de  Bourbon,"  and  "  Christ  calling  Little  Children," 
for  which,  at  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1855,  he  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class.    Died  at  Paris.  March  15,  1870. 


Schnitzler,  shn'lts'ler,  (Jean  Henri,)  a  litterateur, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1802.  He  published,  besides 
other  historical  and  statistical  works,  "General  Statistics 
of  the  Empire  of  Russia,"  (1829,)  "General,  Methodical, 
and  Complete  Statistics  of  France,"  (1846,)  and  "An- 
cient and  Modern  Russia,"  (1854.)     Died  in  1871. 

Schnorr,  shnoR,  (Ludwig  Ferdinand,)  an  artist,  a 
brother  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  178a 
He  is  chiefly  known  from  his  illustrations  of  Goethe^ 
"  Faust"  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna.     Died  in 

1853. 
Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  shnoR  fon   ki'rols-fSlt'', 

(Julius,)  an  eminent  painter,  son  of  Veit  Hans,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1794.  After  studying  for 
a  time  at  Vienna,  he  visited  Rome  in  1818,  and  during 
his  residence  there  executed  the  frescos  in  the  Villa 
Massimi  in  conjunction  with  Cornelius  and  Overbeck 
he  also  painted  a  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  "  The  Marriage 
in  Cana,"  "  The  Flight  into  Egypt,"  and  other  oil-pic- 
tures of  great  excellence.  In  1827  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  historical  painting  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Munich,  and  was  commissioned  by  Ludwig,  afterwards 
King  of  Bavaria,  to  decorate  the  new  palace  with  frescos 
illustrating  the  poem  of  the  "  Nibelungen."  His  next 
productions  were  a  series  of  paintings  in  encaustic  in 
the  Fest-Saalbau,  representing  events  from  the  history 
of  Charlemagne,  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  Rudolph 
of  Habsburg.  He  became  in  1846  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  director  of  the  Picture- 
Gallery  at  Dresden.  Schnorr  also  executed  a  series 
of  Bible  pictures,  ("  Die  Bibel  in  Bildern,")  which  have 
been  engraved.  He  has  been  censured  by  some  critics 
for  his  mannerism.     He  died  May  26,  1872. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition ;)  Brockhaus, 
"  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  (Veit  Hans,)  a  German 
painter,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Leipsic, 
born  at  Schneeberg  in  1764,  was  the  author  of  "  In- 
struction in  the  Art  of  Design."     Died  in  1841. 

Schnurrer,  shnoor'rer,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Cannstadt,  in  Wiirtemberg, 
in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Tiibin- 
gen,  (1770,)  and  chancellor  of  the  university,  (1805.)  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Bibliotheca  Arabica." 
Died  in  1822. 

Schoeffer.     See  Schoffer. 

Schoelcher,  shoKKer  or  sho'Sl'shaiR',  (Victor,)  a 
French  journalist  and  littirateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1804, 
has  published  several  treatises  on  African  slavery,  (in 
favour  of  emancipation,)  and  a  "Life  of  Handel,"  (in 
English,)  etc.     In  1875  he  was  chosen  a  senator  for  life. 

Schoell.    See  Scholl. 

Schoemann.    See  Schomann. 

Schoenbein.    See  Schonbein. 

Schoenlein.    See  Schonlein. 

Schoening.     See  Schoning. 

Schoepf.     See  Schopf. 

Schoepflin.    See  Schopflin. 

Schoflfer  or  Schoeffer,  shoFfer,  (Peter,)  celebrated 
for  his  improvements  in  the  art  of  printing,  was  born  at 
Gernsheim,  in  Hesse-Darmstadt.  He  invented  punches 
in  types  while  in  the  employ  of  Gutenberg  and  Faust  at 
Mentz,  and  after  their  separation  became  the  partner 
of  Faust,  who  was  his  father-in-law.  Schoffer  continued 
the  business  after  the  death  of  Faust,  and  published, 
among  other  books,  a  Latin  Bible,  the  Institutes  of 
Justinian,  and  some  of  the  works  of  Saint  Thomas 
Acjuinas.     Died  about  1502. 

See  A.  F.  Didot's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^ 
rale." 

Schoffer,  (Peter,)  a  printer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
worked  at  Worms  several  years,  (1513-20,)  removed  to 
Strasburg  about  1521,  and  to  Venice  in  1541 

See  Hklbig,  "Notice  sur  P.  Schoffer  fils,"  1846. 

S-eho'field,  (John  McAllister,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Chautauqua  county,  New  York,  in  1831. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 
where  he  graduated  in  1853,  in  the  same  class  with 
P.  H.  Sheridan  and  J.  B.  McPherson.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  captain  in  May,  1861,  soon  after  which  he  be- 
came  the   chief  of  the  staif  of  General    Lyons,    with 


e  as  -t;  9 as s;  g hard;  g  as/,-  g,  H.  k.  statural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHOLARIUS 


2148 


SCHOMBURGK 


whom  he  served  in  Missouri.  In  November,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1862  he  was  selected  to  command  the 
district  of  Missouri.  He  resigned  this  position  in  Sep- 
tember, but  was  restored  to  it  in  May,  1863,  with  the 
rank  of  major-general.  The  forces  under  his  command 
operated  with  success  in  Arkansas  after  the  capture  of 
Vicksburg,  and  took  Little  Rock.  In  February,  1864, 
Schofield  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Ohio.  He  contributed  to  the  success  of  Sherman's 
brilliant  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  At- 
lanta on  the  2d  of  September,  1864. 

About  the  end  of  October  he  was  sent  with  the 
Twenty-third  corps  to  Chattanooga,  with  orders  to  report 
to  General  Thomas  at  Nashville.  He  commanded  at 
the  battle  of  Franklin,  where  he  was  attacked  by  Hood 
on  the  30th  of  November,  and,  having  repulsed  the 
enemy,  fell  back  towards  Nashville  during  the  night.  In 
this  action  Hood  lost  1750  killed  and  3800  wounded; 
the  entire  loss  of  the  Union  army  was  2300.  This 
campaign  was  ended  by  the  decisive  victory  gained  by 
General  Thomas  near  Nashville  on  the  15th  and  i6th 
of  December.  In  February,  1S65,  the  State  of  North 
Carolina  was  constituted  into  a  military  department, 
of  which  General  Schofield  was  appointed  commander, 
with  instructions  to  co-operate  with  General  Sherman, 
He  captured  Fort  Anderson,  occupied  Wilmington  on 
the  22d  of  February,  and  formed  a  junction  with  Sher- 
man at  Goldsborough,  where  he  arrived  on  the  21st  of 
March.  In  the  spring  of  1867  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  first  military  district,  which  comprised  the 
State  of  Virginia.  He  became  secretary  of  war  in  May, 
i868,  but  resigned  in  March,  1869.  From  1876  to  1881 
he  was  superintendent  of  the  Academy  at  West  Point. 
In  1883  he  took  command  of  the  military  division  of  the 
Missouri. 

Scholarius.    See  Gennadius. 

Scholefield,  skoKfild,  ?  (James,)  an  English  divine 
and  scholar,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1789.  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  and  in  1825  became  regius  professor  of 
Greek  in  that  university.  Among  his  publications  are 
an  edition  of  yEschylus  with  notes,  an  edition  of  Middle- 
ton's  "Treatise  on  the  Greek  Article,"  and  "Hints  for 
an  Improved  Translation  of  the  New  Testament."  Died 
in  1853. 

See  "  Life  of  J.  Scholefield,"  by  his  widow,  1855. 

SchoU  or  Schoell,  shol,  (Adolf,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Briinn  in  1805,  became  professor  of  archaeology 
at  Halle,  in  1842.  He  published  a  translation  of  Hero- 
dotus, and  of  the  "  Ajax"  of  Sophocles,  and  has  written 
several  critical  essays. 

Schbll  or  Schoell,  (Maximilian  Samson  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  historian  and  publicist,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Saarbriick  in  1766.  He  was  Prussian  secre- 
tary of  legation  at  Paris,  (1816-18,)  and  became  privy 
councillor  at  Berlin  in  1819.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Roman  Literature,"  in 
French,  (Paris,  4  vols.,  1815,)  a  "History  of  Greek  Lit- 
erature from  its  Origin,"  etc.,  ("  Histoire  de  la  Littera- 
ture  Grecque  profane  depuis  son  Origine  jusqu'i  la  Prise 
de  Constantinople,"  8  vols.,  1823-25,)  and  "A  Course 
of  History  of  the  European  States  to  1789,"  (46  vols., 
1830-34,)  which  is  commended  as  accurate  and  impartial. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1833. 

See  PiHAN  DE  LA  FoREST,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Schoell,"  1834; 
"Biographie  F.  Schoell's,"  Leipsic,  1821 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale;"  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Scholten,  sKol'ten,  (Johannes  Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
divine,  born  at  Vleuten,  August  17,  1811.  He  was  a 
divinity  professor  at  Franeker,  and  in  1843  was  called  to 
the  University  of  Leyden.  He  has  published  many 
works  of  textual  and  doctrinal  criticism,  a  treatise  on 
comparative  religion,  ("Geschiedenis  der  Godsdienst  en 
Wijsbegeerte,"  1853,)  etc.,  which  are  characterized  by 
extreme  independence  and  breadth  of  view.  He  is  re- 
garded as  the  father  of  what  is  called  the  Leyden  school 
of  theology.     [Died  in  1885.] 

Scholz,  sholts,  (JoHANN  Martin  Augustin,)  a  Ger- 
man Catholic  theologian  and  scholar,  born  near  Breslau 
in  1794.     He  visited   Palestine   and  Syria  in  1821,  and 


published  in  1822  an  account  of  his  journey.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1823.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  his  "Novum  Testamentura 
Graece,"  (2  vols.,  1830,)  and  "Manual  of  Biblical  Archae- 
ology," (1834.)     Died  in  1853. 

Schomanu  or  Schoemann,  sho'min,  (Georg 
Friedrich,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Stralsund 
'1  1793,  became  professor  of  ancient  literature  and  elo- 
quence at  Greifswalde.  He  published  critical  essays  (in 
Latin)  on  the  Greek  classics.     Died  March  25,  1879. 

Schomberg,  shom'berg,  (Alexander  Crowcher,) 
an  English  divine,  born  in  1756,  published  a  "Chrono- 
logical View  of  the  Roman  Laws,"  and  other  similar 
works.     Died  in  1792. 

Schomberg,  (Isaac,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
served  under  Admiral  Rodney  in  the  American  war, 
and  subsequently  under  Lord  Howe  in  1794.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Naval  Chronology,"  (5  vols.)  Died 
in  1813. 

Schomberg,  de,  de  shom'berg  or  deh  shdN'baiR', 
(Charles,)  Due  d'Halluin,  a  marshal  of  France,  born 
in  1601,  was  a  son  of  Henry,  noticed  below.  He  gained 
in  September,  1637,  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards  at 
Lucate.     Died  in  1656. 

Schomberg,  de,  Duchess.     See  Hautefort,  d'. 

Schomberg,  shom'berg,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  shdN'- 
baiR',]  (Henrj,)  Count,  an  eminent  French  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1575,  (or,  as  some  say, 
in  1583,)  was  a  son  of  the  following.  He  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  the  finances  in  1619,  soon 
after  which  he  gained  victories  over  the  Huguenots. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1625,  repulsed  the 
English  at  the  Isle  of  Rhe  in  1627,  and  defeated  the 
insurgents  under  Montmorency  at  Castelnaudary  in  1632. 
Died  in  1632. 

See  Bachot,  "Tombeau  du  Mar^chal  de  Schomberg,"  1633  ;  Da 
CouRCELLES,  " Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Frangais;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Schom'berg,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  shom'b^RG,]  (Cas- 
par,) a  German  general,  born  in  Saxony  in  1540.  He 
entered  the  service  of  the  French  king,  and  fought 
against  the  Huguenots  about  1567-75.  In  1597  Schom- 
berg and  De  Thou  prepared  the  bases  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.     Died  in  1599. 

Schomberg,  von,  fon  shom'bSRG,  (Friedrich  Ar- 
mand  Hermann,)  a  celebrated  Protestant  military 
commander,  was  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1616.  Having 
served  in  the  Swedish  army  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war, 
he  fought  successively  in  the  armies  of  the  Netherlands, 
France,  and  Portugal,  and  attained  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France  in  1675.  He  was  driven  from  France  by  per- 
secution in  1685.  In  1688  he  accompanied  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  to  England,  and,  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  forces  in  Ireland,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  in  1690.  "  He  was  generally  esteemed,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  the  greatest  living  master  of  the  art  of  war. 
His  rectitude  and  piety,  tried  by  strong  temptations  and 
never  found  wanting,  commanded  general  respect  and 
confidence.  Though  a  Protestant,  he  had  been  during 
many  years  in  the  service  of  Louis,  and  had,  in  spite  of 
the  ill  offices  of  the  Jesuits,  extorted  from  his  employer, 
by  a  series  of  great  actions,  the  staff  of  marshal  of 
France."     ("  History  of  England.") 

See  Kazner,  "  Leben  F.  von  Schomberg,"  2  vols.,  1789  ;  "  Abr^gi 
de  laViede  F.  von  Schomberg,"  by  Beauchateau,  1690;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Schomburgk,  shom'booRk,  (Otto,)  a  German  writer, 
born  about  1810,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Robert  Hermann, 
noticed  below.  He  translated  into  German  his  brother's 
"  Description  of  British  Guiana."     Died  in  1857. 

Schomburgk,  shom'burk,  [Ger.  pron.  shom'booRk,] 
(Sir  Robert  Hermann,)  a  celebrated  German  traveller, 
born  at  Freiburg  in  1804.  Having  been  sent  in  1835 
by  the  Geographical  Society  of  London  to  explore  the 
interior  of  Guiana,  he  discovered  the  magnificent  water- 
lily  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Victoria  Regia. 
lie  published,  after  his  return,  a  "  Description  of  British 
Guiana,"  which  was  followed  in  1847  by  a  "  History  of 
Barbadoes."  Appointed  in  1848  British  consul  to  Saint 
Domingo,  he  contributed   to  the  Journal  of  the  Geo- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9.  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCHON 


2149 


SCHOPPE 


graphical  Society  a  number  of  valuable  articles  on  the 
physical  geography  of  that  island.  Schomburgk  was 
elected  a  member  of  various  learned  societies  in  Europe, 
created  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  knight 
of  the  Prussian  order  of  the  Red  Eagle,  and  obtained 
other  similar  distinctions.  Died  in  1865.  The  plant 
called  Schomburgkia  was  named  in  his  honour. 

Schon  or  Schoen,  shon,  or  Schongauer,  shon'- 
gow'er,  (Martin,)  an  eminent  German  painter,  was  a 
native  of  Kolmbach  or  Ulm,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Franz  Stoss.  He  was  called  BuoN  Mar- 
TiNO  by  the  Italians,  and  was  a  friend  of  PietroPerugino 
His  principal  works  are  at  Colmar,  Vienna,  Munich,  and 
Nuremberg.  His  "  Madonna,"  in  the  minster  at  Colmar, 
ranks  among  the  most  admirable  productions  of  early 
German  art  He  also  executed  a  number  of  excellent 
engravings.     Died  in  1488. 

See  Galichon,  "Martin  Schongauer,"  1859;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^ndrale." 

Schonaeus.    See  Schoon. 

Schonbein  or  Schoenbein,  shon'bln,  (Christian 
Friedrich,)  a  German  chemist,  and  the  inventor  of 
gun-cotton,  born  at  Mitzingen  in  1799.  He  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  University  of  Basle  in  1828.  In  1839  he 
discovered  ozone,  and  subsequently  made  the  discovery 
of  nitro-saccharin  and  nitro-fibrin  or  gun-cotton.  He 
published  "  Contributions  to  Physical  Chemistry,"  (1844,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  September,  1868. 

See  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  i868. 

Schonburg,  shon'booRG,  a  great  family  of  German 
mediatized  princes  and  counts,  of  several  branches,  partly 
Saxon  and  Protestant,  partly  Austrian  and  Catholic. 

Schoner,  sho'ner,  (Johann,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician and  astronomer,  born  at  Carlstadt  in  1477,  was 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Nuremberg.     Died  in  I547- 

Schongauer.     See  Schon. 

Schoning  or  Schoeniug,  shb'ning,  (Gerrard,)  a 
Norwegian  scholar,  born  in  Nordland  in  1722,  became 
professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Soroe.  Died  in 
1780. 

Schonlein  or  Schoenlein,  shon'lin,  (Joh.ann 
Lukas,)  an  eminent  German  physician,  born  at  Bam- 
berg in  1793.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  pathology 
and  therapeutics  at  Berlin  in  1840,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  his  lectures.     Died  January  23,  1864. 

See  G.  W.  Scharlau,  "Dr.  Schonlein  und  sein  Anhang,"  1843; 
RicHTER,  "  Dr.  Schonlein  und  sein  Verhaltniss  zur  neuern  Heil- 
kunde,"  etc.,  1843. 

Schoockius,  sKo'ke-us,  or  Schoock,  sKok,  (Mar- 
tin,) born  at  Utrecht  in  1614,  was  professor  of  languages, 
history,  etc.  in  his  native  city,  and  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder.  He  published  several  critical  and  historical 
works.     Died  in  1669. 

See  Nici^RON,  "  M^moires." 

Schoolcraft,  skool'krift,  (Henry  Rowe,)  LL.D.,  a 
distinguished  American  traveller,  ethnologist,  and  scien- 
tific writer,  born  near  Albany,  New  York,  in  1793.  In 
1818  he  made  a  geological  survey  of  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  and  published  in  1819  his  "  View  of  the  Lead- 
Mines  of  Missouri,"  etc.  In  1820,  as  geologist,  he  accom- 
panied General  Cass  on  his  expedition  to  the  Lake 
Superior  copper-region,  of  which  he  published  a  narra- 
tive in  1821.  Being  appointed  in  1822  agent  for  Indian 
affairs,  he  resided  several  years  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  in  1832,  while  on  an  embassy  to  some 
Indian  tribes  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
discovered  the  sources  of  that  river  in  the  Itasca  Lake. 
An  account  of  this  tour  was  published,  entitled  a  "  Nar- 
rative of  an  Expedition  to  Itasca  Lake,"  etc.,  (1834.)  In 
828  he  founded  the  Michigan  Historical  Society,  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  president.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  are  "  Archives  of  Aboriginal  Knowledge," 
(6  vols.,)  "  Notes  on  the  Iroquois,  or  Contributions  to 
American  History,  Antiquities,  and  General  Ethnology," 
(1848,)  "  Algic  Researches,"  etc.,  "Personal  Memoirs 
of  a  Residence  of  Thirty  Years  with  the  Indian  Tribes 
on  the  American  Frontiers,"  (1853,)  and  "The  Myth  of 
Hiawatha,  and  other  Oral  Legends  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians."  He  married  about  1823  the  grand-daugh- 
ter of  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Chippewa  nation.      His 


second  wife  was  Miss  Mary  Howard,  of  South  Carolina, 
herself  an  author. 

"  Mr.  Schoolcraft's  ethnological  writings,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "  are  among  the  most  important  contributions 
that  have  been  made  to  the  literature  of  this  country.  .  .  . 
His  works  abound  in  materials  for  the  future  artist  and 
man  of  letters,  and  will  on  this  account  continue  to  be 
read  when  the  greater  portion  of  the  popular  literature 
of  the  day  is  forgotten."  He  died  at  Washington,  D.C., 
December  10,  1864. 

Schoolcraft,  (Laurence,)  Colonel,  an  American 
officer,  born  in  1760,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  It  is  stated  that 
the  original  family  name  was  Calcraft.  Died  at  Verona. 
New  York,  in  1840. 

Schoon,  van,  vtn  sKon,  ILat.  ScHONit'us,]  (Corne- 
lius,) a  Dutch  dramatist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Gouda 
about  1540.  He  published  "  Carminum  Libellus," 
(1570,)  and  "Terentius  Christianus,"  (1614.)  The  latter 
is  a  collection  of  dramas  in  imitation  of  Terence.  Died 
in  1611. 

Schoonjans,  sKon'ySns,  (Anthony,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1650.  He  worked  in 
Vienna  and  England.     Died  in  Vienna  in  1726. 

Schooten,  sKo'ten,  (Frans,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
and  professor  of  mathematics  at  Leyden.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "Principia  Matheseos,"  and  "Ma- 
thematical Exercises."     Died  in  1659. 

Schopenhauer,  sho'pen-how'er,  (Arthur,)  a  cele- 
brated pessimist  philosopher  of  Germany,  a  son  of 
Johanna,  mentioned  below,  was  born  at  Dantzic  in  1788. 
He  published  "The  World  as  Will  and  Appearance 
or  Representation,"  ("Die  Welt  als  Wille  und  Vor- 
stellung,"  1819,)  "The  Two  Ground-Problems  of  Ethics," 
(1841,)  "  On  the  Freedom  of  the  Will,"  and  a  collection 
of  essays  entitled  "Parerga  und  Paralipomena,"  (1851.) 
According  to  Schopenhauer,  Will  is  the  one  reality  in  the 
universe,  all  else  is  mere  appearance.  He  taught,  among 
other  things,  that  the  world  is  essentially  and  radically 
evil.     Died  in  i860. 

See  GwiNNER,  "  Schopenhauer's  Leben  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1843. 

Schopenhauer,  (Johanna,)  a  German  authoress, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1770,  published  a  number  of  tales 
and  romances,  the  most  popular  of  which  are  "  Gabri- 
ele,"  "  Die  Tante,"  ("  The  Aunt,")  and  "  Sidonia."  Died 
in  1849. 

See  "Youthful  Life  and  Pictures  of  Travel;  Autobiography  of 
Madame  Schopenhauer." 

Schopf  or  Schoepf,  shopf,  (Albin,)  a  general,  born 
in  Hungary  about  1822.  He  fought  against  Austria  in 
1848  and  1849,  after  which  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  1861, 
and  defeated  a  body  of  insurgents  at  Camp  Wild-Cat, 
Kentucky,  October  21  of  that  year.     Died  in  1886. 

Schopflin  or  Schoepflin,  shop'fleen,  (Johann 
Daniel,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Sulzburg  in  1694, 
became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Strasburg, 
(1720.)  Pie  was  the  author  of  "  Alsatia  Illustrata,"  (a 
vols.,  1751-61,)  and  other  historical  works.  Died  in  1771. 
"Without  any  close  contact,"  says  Goethe,  "he  had 
had  a  deep  influence  on  me.  ...  He  was  one  of  those 
happy  persons  who  are  able  to  unite  the  past  and  the 
present,  and  know  how  to  knit  the  interests  of  life  and 
historical  knowledge  together.  ...  He  came  into  con- 
tact with  all  the  scholars  of  his  time;  he  entertained 
princes ;  he  gained  the  confidence  of  statesmen,  elabo- 
rated for  them  the  most  profound  deductions,  and  thus 
found  everywhere  a  theatre  for  his  talents."  ("Auto- 
biography," vol.  ii.  p.  24.) 

See  Ring,  "Vita  J.  D.  Schoepflini,"  1764;  Lobstkin,  "Leben 
J.  D.  Schopflins,"  1776;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Schopin  or  Chopin,  sho'piN',  (Henri  Fr6d6ric,) 
a  painter,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1804, 
was  a  pupil  of  Baron  Gros.  His  works  are  principally 
historical  pictures.     He  died  October  20,  1880. 

Schopp.     See  Scioppius. 

Schoppe,  shop'peh,  (Amalia  Emma,)  born  on  the 
island  of  Femern,  on  the  coast  of  Holstein,  in  1791, 
published  romances,  tales,  and  historical  works.  Died 
in  i8';8. 


«  as  i&;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  h,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  K,  trilled:  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ■> 


SCHOREEL 


2150 


SCHRODER 


Schoreel,  sKo-ral',  ?  Scoorel,  or  Schorel,  sKo'rel, 
(Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  bom  near  Alkmaar  in  1495. 
Having  previously  visited  Palestine,  he  spent  several 
years  at  Rome  in  studying  the  works  of  the  Italian 
masters.  His  pictures  enjoy  a  high  reputation,  but  they 
are  very  rare,  owing  to  the  destruction  of  many  of  them 
by  the  Iconoclasts  in  the  disturbances  of  1566.  Died 
in  1562. 
Schorel.     See  Schoreel. 

Schorn,  von,  fon  shoRn,  (Johann  Karl  Ludwig,) 
a  German  writer  upon  art,  born  in  Franconia  in  1793, 
became  professor  of  aesthetics  and  the  history  of  art  at 
Munich.     Died  in  1842. 

Schorn,  von,  (Karl,)  a  historical  painter,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1802. 

Schotanus,  sKo-ti'nCis,  (Christian,)  a  Dutch  divine, 
born  in  Friesland  in  1603,  became  professor  of  Greek  and 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Franeker.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  Friesland  down  to  1558,"  and  several 
other  works.     Died  in  167 1. 

Schott,  sKot,  (Andreas,)  an  eminent  Dutch  scholar, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1552.  He  studied  at  Louvain,  and 
subsequently  visited  Paris  and  Spain.  He  was  appointed 
in  1584  professor  of  Greek  and  rhetoric  at  Saragossa, 
and,  having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  afterwards 
invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  Jesuits'  College 
at  Rome.  His  works  are  very  numerous,  and  display 
profound  learning ;  among  the  most  esteemed  we  may 
name  "  Hispania  Illustrata,"  etc.,  a  collection  of  the  his- 
torians of  Spain,  Portugal,  India,  etc.,  (4  vols.,  1603-08,) 
"Hispania  I3ibliotheca,"  (1608,)  being  an  account  of  the 
libraries  and  state  of  letters  in  Spain,  "  Selecta  Variorum 
Commentaria  in  Orationes  Ciceronis,"  (3  vols.,  1621,) 
and  "  Adagia  sive  Proverbia  Grascorum  ex  Zenobio," 
etc.  He  also  edited  the  works  of  Pomponius  Mela, 
Saint  Basil,  and  other  classics.     Died  in  1629. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  F^Lix  van  Hulst,  "  A.  Schott," 
1847;  FoppENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Schott,  shot,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  learned  writer 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1780,  became  successively  professor 
of  philosophy  and  theology  in  his  native  city,  and  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  and  Jena.     Died  in  1835. 

Schott,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  Jesuit  and  experimental 
philosopher,  born  in  1608.  He  published  a  number  of 
scientific  works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  1666. 

Schott,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  linguist,  born  at  May- 
ence  in  1809.  He  graduated  at  Halle  in  1827,  and  was 
appointed  in  1840  to  a  professorship  in  the  University 
of  Berlin.  His  published  works  relate  to  the  Tchuvash, 
Tartar-Finnic,  Chinese,  and  other  languages,  some  of 
them  first  carefully  studied  by  him. 

Schottgen  or  Schoettgen,  shot'Gen  or  shot'gen, 
(Christian,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  Saxony  in 
1687,  published  "  Horae  Hebraicae."     Died  in  1751. 

Schouler,  skoo'ler,  (James,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  historian,  a  son  of  General  William  Schouler,  a 
well-known  journalist  of  Boston,  was  born  at  Arling- 
ton, Massachusetts,  March  20,  1839.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1859,  and  served  in  1863  as  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the  United  States  signal  service.  His  principal 
law-books  are  "On  Domestic  Relations,"  "On  Husband 
and  Wife,"  "On  Bailments,"  "On  Executors  and  Admin- 
istrators," and  "  On  Personal  Property,"  (2  vols.)  These 
works  are  recognized  as  standard  authorities.  His  "  His- 
tory of  the  United  States"  (in  5  vols. ;  vol.  i.,  1880)  is  a 
well-written  work,  in  which  the  Democratic  or  state-rights 
view  is  ably  maintained. 

SchouvalofF.     See  Shoovalof. 

Schou'w,  skow,  (Joachim  Fredric,)  a  Danish  botan- 
ist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1789.  He  was  appointed  in 
1821  professor  of  botany  in  his  native  city.  In  1835  he 
represented  the  University  in  the  Danish  Assembly,  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  president.  He  was  the  author 
of  "  Elements  of  a  Universal  Geography  of  Plants," 
(1822,)  "Delineations  of  Nature,"  (1839,)  "Earth,  Plants, 
and  Man,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  18.52. 

Schrader,  shud'der,  (Eberhard,)  a  German  Assyri- 
ologist,  born  at  Brunswick,  January  5,  1836.  He  was 
educated  at  Gottinsjen,  and  held  professorships  in  the- 


ology successively  in  the  Universities  of  Zurich,  Giessen, 
Jena,  and  Berlin.  Among  his  works  are  "Cuneiform 
Inscriptions  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,"  ("  Assyrisch-Baby- 
lonisch  Keilinschriften,")  "The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions 
and  the  Old  Testament,"  ("  Die  Keilinschriften  und 
das  alte  Testament,")  and  various  cuneiform  texts,  with 
translations. 

Schrader,  shRi'^der,  (Heinrich  Adolf,)  a  German 
physician,  botanist,  and  writer,  born  near  Hildesheim  in 
1761  ;  died  in  1836. 

Schrader,  (Heinrich  Eduard  Siegfried.)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  writer  on  law,  was  born  at  Hildesheim 
in  1779;  died  in  i860. 

Schrader,  (Julius,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1815.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Death 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,"  "  The  Temptation,"  and  "  Milton 
Dictating  to  his  Daughter." 

Schramm,  shRim,  (Jean  Paul  Adam,)  Comte,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Arras  in  1789.  He  commanded 
an  army  in  Algeria  in  1840,  was  minister  of  war  from  Oc- 
tober to  December,  1850,  and  became  a  senator  in  1652. 
Died  in  1884. 

Schraudolph,  shRow'dolf,  (Johann,)  a  German  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Obersdorf  in  1808.  He  painted 
a  number  of  frescos  at  Munich.     Died  May  31,  1879. 

Schreber,  von,  fon  shRa'ber,  (Johann  Christian 
Daniel,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1739,  studied  under  Linnaeus  at  Upsal.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Erlangen  in  1769^ 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Description  of  the  Grasses,"  (in 
German,  1769-74.)     Died  in  1810. 

Schreiber,  shRi'ber,  (Aloys  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden  in  1763  ;  died  in  1841. 

Schreiber,  shri'ber,  (Charlotte  Elizabeth,)  Lady, 
known  by  her  earlier  name  of  Lady  Charlotte  Guest, 
an  English  lady,  born  in  1812.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Lindsay,  was,  1833-52,  the  wife  of  Sir  J.  J. 
Guest,  and  after  his  death  married  a  Mr.  Schreiber.  She 
was  the  principal  restorer  of  the  Eisteddfod  in  Wales. 
She  was  the  mother  of  Lord  Wimborne.  She  published, 
in  English,  "The  Mabinogion,"  (3  vols.,  1838-59,)  from 
the  Welsh  of"  the  Red  Bookof  Hergest."     Died  in  1879. 

Schreiber,  (Heinrich,)  a  theological  writer,  born  at 
Freiburg,  in  Brisgau,  in  1793,  was  appointed  in  1826 
professor  of  moral  theology  in  Freiburg.     Died  in  1872. 

Schrevel.     See  Schrevelius. 

Schrevelius,  skre-vee'le-us,  [Dutch  pron.  sKRi-vI'- 
le-us,]  originally  Schrevel,  sKRa'vel,  (Cornelis,)  a 
distinguished  classical  scholar,  born  at  Haarlem,  in  Hol- 
land, about  161 5,  was  rector  of  a  school  at  Leyden.  His 
most  important  work  is  his  "  Lexicon  Manuale  Gr^eco- 
Latinum,"  (1645,)  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
He  also  published  editions  of  numerous  Latin  classics. 
Died  about  1665. 

Schreyer,  shrl'er,  (Adolph,)  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Frankfort  in  1828.  He  is  noted  as  a  colourist,  and  as 
a  figure-painter  of  great  excellence,  but  his  horse-pictures 
are  esi^ecially  spirited. 

Schrockh  or  Schroeckh,  shRok,  (Johann  Mat- 
thias,) a  German  scholar,  born  at  Vienna  in  1733,  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Acta  Eruditorum,"  and  wrote  two 
valuable  works  on  ecclesiastical  history.     Died  in  1808. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  shRo'der,  (Friedrich 
Ludwig,)  a  celebrated  German  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Schwerin  in  1744.  He  wrote  a  number  of  comedies, 
and  made  translations  from  Shakspeare,  whose  works 
he  contributed  to  make  popular  in  Germany.  Died  in 
1816. 

See  Meyer,  "  F.  L.  Schroder,"  1S19;  Lobner,  "  F.  L.  Schroder, 

oiogr.ifisk  Skizze,"  1847. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  in  Hesse-Cassel  in  1680.  He 
visited  Armenia,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his 
"Tiiesaurus  Lingua  Armenicas."     Died  in  1756. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  (Sophie,)  a  German 
actress,  born  at  Paderborn  in  1 781,  attained  the  highest 
reputation  in  her  profession,  particularly  in  tragic  parts. 
Her  daughter,  Wilhelmine  Schroder-Devrient,  was  one 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y, /c«^;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,s/iort:a,e,  \,  o,  ol>saire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCHR  ODER-DE  VRIENT 


2151 


SCHULTZE 


of  tl  e  most  distinguished  vocalists  of  Germany.  Sophie 
died  aljout  1856. 

Schroder-Devrient,  (dSv're-6N',)  (Wilhelmine,)  a 
popular  singer,  a  daughter  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Hamburg  in  1805.  She  was  married  in  1823  to  Karl 
August  Devrient,  an  actor.  She  performed  in  Paris, 
London,  and  Saint  Petersburg.     Died  in  i860. 

Schrodeius.     See  Skytte. 

Schrodter  or  Schroedter,  shRot'ter,  (Adolf,)  a 
German  painter,  born  at  Schwedt  in  1805  ;  died  in  1875. 

Schroeckh.     See  Schrockh. 

Schroeder.     See  Schroder. 

Schroeder  van  der  Kolk,  sKroo'der  vtn  der  kolk, 
(Jacobus  Lodewijk  Koenraad,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
physiologist,  born  at  Groningen  in  179S.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Groningen,  and  was  a  professor  at  Utrecht, 
where  he  died  in  1862. 

Schroter  or  Schroeter,  shRo'ter,  (Christopp. 
Gottlieb,)  the  inventor  of  the  piano-forte,  was  born  at 
Hohenstein,  in  Saxony,  in  1699.  He  became  organist 
at  Minden,  and  afterwards  at  Nordhausen,  where  he  died 
in  1782. 

Schroter  or  Schroeter,  (Johann  Hieronymus,) 
a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1745.  He  con- 
structed a  telescope  which  Lalande  declared  one  of  the 
best  that  had  been  made,  and  published  several  astro- 
nomical works.     Died  in  1816. 

Schryver,  sKrI'ver,  [Lat.  Scrive'rius,]  (Peter,)  a 
Dutch  writer,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1576,  published  a 
number  of  poems  and  critical  treatises,  in  Latin ;  also 
"  Antiquitatum  Batavicarum  Tabularium,"  (1609.)  Died 
in  1660. 

Schubart,  shoo'biRt,  (Christian  Friedrich  Dan- 
iel,) a  German  litterateur  znd  poet,  born  in  1739,  founded 
in  1774  a  literary  and  political  journal,  entitled  the 
"Deutsche  Chronik."  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Hymn 
to  Frederick  the  Great."     Died  in  1791. 

See  David  F.  Strauss,  "  Schubart's  Leben  in  seinen  Briefen," 
1849;  L.  A.  Schubart,  "C.  F.  D.  Schubart's  Charakter,"  1789. 

Schubart  von  Kleefeld,  shoo'biRt  fon  kla'f^lt, 
(Johann  Christian,)  a  German  agriculturist,  born  at 
Zeitz,  in  Prussia,  in  1734;  died  in  1787. 

See  RoCKSTROH,  "J.  C.  Schubart  von  Kleefeld,"  1846. 

Schubert,  shoo'bSRt,  (Franz,)  an  eminent  German 
composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1 797.  He  became  at  an 
early  age  one  of  the  singers  of  the  court  chapel,  and 
was  subsequently  instructed  in  music  by  Ruziczka  and 
Salieri.  He  exercised  himself  in  almost  every  species 
of  musical  composition  ;  but  his  reputation  rests  chiefly 
on  his  songs  and  ballads,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
most  exquisite  productions  of  the  kind.     Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Franz  Schubert:  a  Musical  Biography,"  London,  1866. 

Schubert,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  writer 
on  history  and  statistics,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1799 ; 
died  July  21,  1868. 

Schubert,  von,  fon  shoo'bSRt,  (Friedrich  Theo- 
DOR,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  in  1758.  He  removed 
to  Saint  Petersburg  about  1785,  and  became  in  1805 
director  of  the  observatory  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  that  capital.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  councillor 
of  state  by  the  Czai  of  Russia.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Theoretical  Astronomy,"  (in  German,  3 
vols.,  1798.)     Died  in  1825. 

Schubert,  von,  (Goithilf  Heinrich,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Hohenstein, 
in  Saxony,  in  1780.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Jena, 
and  became  professor  of  natural  science  at  Erlangen. 
He  published  "Views  of  the  Night  Side  of  Natural 
Science,"  (1808,)  "History  of  the  Soul,"  (1830,)  and 
Manuals  of  Natural  History,  etc.     Died  in  i860. 

Schiicking  or  Schuecking,  shlik'king,  (Christoph 
Bernhard  Leven,)  a  German  litteratair,  born  in  1814, 
wrote  poems,  dramas,  and  romances.    Died  Sept.  2,  1883. 

Schuernian.     See  Schurmann. 

Schuetz.     See  Schutz. 

Schulenburg,  von,  fon  shoo'len-booRc',  or  Schu- 
lemberg,  shoo'lem-b&Rc',  (Adolf  Friedrich,)  Count, 
a  Prussian  general,  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1685,  was  a 
nephew  of  Johann  Matthias,  noticed  below.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  MoUwitz,  where  he  commanded 
the  cavalry,  in  April,  1741. 


Schulenburg,  Schulenburg,  or  Schulembourg, 
von,  (Johann  Maithias,)  Count,  a  Prussian  general, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1661,  served  in  the  Polish  wars 
under  Sobieski,  and  subsequently  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Venetian  army,  and  defended  Corfb 
against  the  Turks.     Died  about  1745. 

See  "Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  by  J. 
Mitchell,  1865  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1840. 

Schiiler.    See  Sabinus,  (Georg.) 

Schuler,  shoo'ler,  (Charles  Auguste,)  an  engraver, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1804;  died  in  1859. 

Schulte,  shool'teh,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
"  Old  Catholic"  theologian  and  canonist,  born  at  VVin- 
terberg,  April  23,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Berlin  in  1851, 
and  became  a  lawyer.  In  1855  he  was  made  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Prague,  and  in  1872  was  called  to  Bonn. 
His  works  include  a  "System  of  Catholic  Canon  Law," 
"  Manual  of  German  Imperial  and  Legal  History,"  etc, 

Schultens,  sKul'tens,  (Albert,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Groningen  in  1686. 
He  was  ordained  a  minister  in  1708,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  languages  at  Ley- 
den  about  1720.  He  filled  this  chair  until  his  death. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Hebrew  Roots," 
("Origines  Hebraeae,"  2  vols.,  1724-38,)  "Older  Monu- 
ments of  Arabia,"  ("  Monumenta  vetustiora  Arabiae," 
1740,)  and  a  "Life  of  Saladin,"  in  Arabic  and  Latin. 
(1755.)     Died  in  1750. 

Schultens,  (Hendrik  Albert,)  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Herborn  in  1749.  He  studied 
the  classics  and  the  Oriental  tongues  at  Leyden,  and 
afterwards  spent  some  time  in  England.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1778  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Leyden,  and  became  rector  of  the  university  in  1787. 
He  published  "  On  the  Diligence  of  the  Belgians  in  cul- 
tivating Arabic  Literature,"  ("De  Studio  Belgarum  in 
Literis  Arabicis  Excolendis,"  1779,)  "Part  of  the  Arabic 
Proverbs  of  Meidan,  with  Notes,"  ("  Meidanii  Prover- 
bioruni  Arabicorum  Pars,  Latin^,  cum  Notis,"  1795,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1793. 

See  F.  T.  Rinck,  "  H.  A.  Schultens,"  1795  ;  Kantelaar,  "  Lof 
rede  op  H.  A.  Schultens,"  1794. 

Schultens,  (Jan  Jacob,)  an  Orientalist,  born  at 
Franeker  in  1716,  was  a  son  of  Albert,  and  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professoi 
at  Leyden.     Died  in  1778. 

Schulterblatt,  the  German  name  of  Scapula,  (q.  v,) 

Schultet,  sho61't§t,  |Lat.  Sculte'tus,]  (Abraham,) 
a  German  Protestant  divine,  born  in  Silesia  in  1556  or 
1566,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  moral  and  theological  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Schulting,  sKuKting,  (Antonius,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1659.  In  1713  he  was 
associated  with  Noodt  as  professor  of  law  at  Leyden. 
His  greatest  work  is  entitled  "Jurisprudence  before  the 
Time  of  Justinian,"  ("  Jurisprudentia  Vetus  ante-Justi- 
nianea.")     Died  in  1734. 

Schulting,  (Cornelius,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born 
at  Steenwyck  about  1540.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Bibliotheca  Catholica  contra  Theologiam  Cal- 
vinianam,"  (2  vols.,  1602.)     Died  in  1604. 

Schultz,  shoolts,  [Lat.  Sculte'tus,]  (Bartholo- 
MAUS,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1540, 
contributed  to  the  reform  of  the  calendar.    Died  in  1614. 

Schultz,  (David,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
born  near  Freistadt  in  1779.  He  published  several 
commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.     Died  in  1854. 

Schultz,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  novelist  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1762  ;  died  in  1798, 

Schultz-Schultzenstein,  shoolts-shoolt'sen-stin', 
(Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  physiologist,  born  at  Alt 
Ruppin  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  where  he  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  1833.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  treatise  (in  French)  "  On  the  Circulation  and 
Lactiferous  Vessels  in  Plants,"  (1839,)  and  "Discovery 
of  the  True  Nourishment  of  Plants."  He  also  published 
the  "Universal  Doctrine  of  Disease,"  (1844,)  ^'^d  other 
valuable  medical  treatises.     Died  March  22,  1871. 

Schultze,  shoolt'seh,  (JoH^NN  Abraham  Peter,) 
a  German  comioser,  born  at  Liineburg  in  1747.     His 


•eas<4;  fasj,-  ghard;  gas/.-G.  11.  Vi, 'jiittural ;  ^,7ia:al;  x^.triileJ:  .sass;  thasin/^/j.     I'Jj^^See  Explanations,  p.  Zj.' 


SCHULTZE 


215a 


SCHUYLER 


works  include  oratorios,  hymns,  and  songs.  His  ballad 
"  \m  Rhein"  eiroys  great  popularity.     Died  in  1800. 

Schultze,  (Max,)  a  German  biologist,  born  about 
1825.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Bonn. 
Among  his  writings  are  "  On  the  Muscle-Corpuscles," 
("  Ueber  Muskelkorperchen,"  i860,)  and  "The  Proto- 
plasm of  Rhizopods  and  of  Plant-Cells,"  ("  Das  Proto- 
plasma  der  Rhizopoden  und  der  Pflanzenzellen,"  1863.) 
He  brought  forward  the  doctrine  of  protoplasm.  Died 
at  Bonn,  January  16,  1874. 

Schulz,  shSblts,  (WiLHELM,)  a  German  political 
writer,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1797;  died  Jan.  9,  i86o. 

Schulze  or  Schultze,  shoolt'seh,  (Ernst,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Celle  in  1789.  While  a  student  at 
Gottingen,  he  published  his  narrative  poem  of  "  Psyche," 
and  subsequently  "  Cecilia,  a  Romantic  Poem,  in  Twenty 
Jantos."  His  "  Enchanted  Rose"  ("  Die  bezauberte 
Rose,"  1818)  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  and  has 
taken  its  place  among  German  classics.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Caroline  von  Crespigny.  He  died 
in  1817.  A  collection  of  his  works,  with  a  biography 
prefixed,  was  published  in  1822  by  his  friend  Bouterwek. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1827. 

Schulze,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  German  novelist 
and  poet,  born  at  Dresden  in  1770,  assumed  the  syno- 
nym of  Friedrich  Laun.    Died  in  1849. 

Schulze,  (Friedrich  Gottlob,)  a  German  econo- 
mist, born  near  Meissen  in  1795.  He  published  several 
works  on  political  economy.     Died  in  i860. 

Schulze,  (Gottlob  Ernst,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Heldrungen,  in  Thuringia,  in  1761,  published 
several  treatises  against  the  systems  of  Kant  and  Rein- 
hold.     Died  in  1833. 

Schulze,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  scholar,  and  reformer 
in  education,  born  in  1786.  He  entered  the  Prussian 
civil  service,  and  became  privy  councillor.  He  directed 
for  many  years,  ending  in  1840,  the  administration  of 
the  Prussian  colleges,  universities,  and  public  libraries, 
and  was  the  principal  manager  of  great  scientific  enter- 
prises and  voyages  of  exploration.  In  these  services 
he  displayed  great  wisdom  and  activity.     Died  in  1869. 

Schulze,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  German  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg  in  1687, 
wrote  "  Historia  Medicinae  ad  Annum  Romae  535," 
(1728,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1745. 

Schulze-Delitzsch,  shoolt'seh  da'litch,  (Her- 
mann,) a  German  economist,  born  at  Delitzsch,  in  Sax- 
ony, August  29,  1801.  Pie  was  educated  at  Leipsic  and 
Halle.  He  had  large  experience  in  the  Prussian  and 
imperial  legislatures,  giving  special  attention  to  the 
rights  of  labouring  people.  He  published  many  valuable 
works,  including  several  treatises  on  co-operative  socie- 
ties. He  did  much  to  establish  "people's  banks"  and 
loan  societies.  His  economic  plans  are  for  the  most 
part  very  sober  and  moderate,  as  compared  with  those 
of  Lassalle  and  Marx.     Died  in  1883. 

Schumacher,  shoo'maK'er,  (Christian  Andreas,) 
a  Danish  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  Seeland  in  1810,  a  nephew  of  Heinrich  Christian, 
noticed  below.  He  translated  Humboldt's  "Cosmos" 
into  Danish. 

Schumacher,  (Heinrich  Christian,)  an  able 
astronomer,  born  at  Bramstedt,  Holstein,  in  1780.  He 
became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Copenhagen  in  1815, 
a  few  years  after  which  date  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Observatory  of  Altona.  He  edited  for  many 
years  a  valuable  periodical  entitled  "  Astronomische 
Nachrichten."    Died  in  1850. 

Schumann,  shoo'mJn,  (Robert,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Zwickau  in  1810,  became  in  1850 
chapel-master  at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  best  works  is 
the  oratorio  of  "  Paradise  and  the  Peri."  He  died  in 
1856.  His  wife,  Clara  Wieck,  is  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished female  pianists  of  the  time. 

Schuppen,  van,  vtn  sKiip'pen,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1625,  was 
a  pupil  of  Nanteuil.  He  worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1702.  His  son  Jacques  (1670-1751)  was  a  portrait- 
painter. 


Schurmann,  von,  fon  shooR'min,  (Anna  Maria,)  a 
German  lady,  distinguished  for  her  talents,  learning,  and 
piety,  was  born  at  Cologne  in  1607.  She  became  a  con- 
vert to  the  doctrines  of  the  mystic  Labadie,  and  after  his 
death  retired  to  a  religious  association  near  Leeuwarden, 
where  she  died  in  1678. 

See  NicERON,  "  M^moires :"  Mori^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique ;"  Schotel,  "A.  M.  von  Schurmann,"  1854. 

Schurtzfleisch,  shooRts'flTsh,  [Lat.  Sarcma'sius,] 
(Conrad  Samuel,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in  1641, 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  of  history  at  Wittenberg. 
Died  in  1708. 

Schurz,  shoorts,  (Carl,)  a  German  orator  and  gen- 
eral, born  near  Cologne  in  1829,  was  liberally  educated. 
He  took  part  in  the  revolutionary  movements  of  1849, 
and  when  they  were  defeated  he  went  into  exile.  About 
1852  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  settled  at 
Madison,  Wisconsin.  In  1856  he  advocated  the  election 
of  Fremont  by  public  speeches  in  the  German  language. 
He  afterwards  made  political  speeches  in  English,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  In  i860  he 
addressed  the  people  of  various  States  in  favour  of  the 
election  of  Lincoln.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  Spain 
in  1861,  and  brigadier-general  in  1862.  He  commanded 
a  division  at  Chancellorsville,  May,  1863,  and  a  corps  at 
Gettysburg,  July  1-3  of  that  year.  In  1864  he  resigned 
from  the  army,  and  in  1866  became  editor  of  the  Detroit 
'*  Post."  In  1868  he  removed  to  Saint  Louis,  and  in 
1869  he  was  elected  United  States  Senator  from  Mis- 
souri. He  supported  Mr.  Greeley  for  President  in  1872, 
and  Mr.  Hayes  in  1876,  and  served  as  secretary  of  the 
interior,  under  the  latter,  from  1877  to  1881.  He  after- 
wards became  an  editor  ofthe"  New  York  Evening  Post." 

Schut,  sKiit,  (Cornelius,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  i6co,  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He 
had  a  brilliant  imagination  and  great  facility  of  execu- 
tion.    Died  in  1649. 

Schiitz  or  Schuetz,  shits,  (Christian  Gottfried,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Duderstadt  in  I74»7,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  "  Allgemeine  Literaturzeitung" 
at  Jena,  (1785.)  He  published  editions  of  ^schylus 
and  Cicero.     Died  in  1832. 

Schiitz,  [Lat.  Sagitta'rius,]  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
composer  and  musician,  born  in  Voigtland  in  1585.  He 
studied  at  Venice,  and  became  first  chapel-master  at 
Dresden.  His  church  music  was  highly  esteemed  by 
his  contemporaries,  and  he  is  said  to  have  first  intro- 
duced the  Italian  Opera  into  Germany.     Died  in  1672. 

Schtitze  or  Schuetze,  shtit'seh,  (Jdhann  Ste- 
PHAN,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Magdeburg  in 
1771,  wrote  tales,  travels,  and  dramatic  works.  Died 
in  1839. 

Schuur,  van  der,  vtn  der  skUr,  (Theodorus,)  a 
Dutch  historical  painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1628. 
He  worked  at  Rome  fourteen  years,  and  returned  to  the 
Hague  in  1665.     Died  in  1705. 

Schuyler,  ski'ler,  (Eugene,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
historian  and  traveller,  born  in  Ithaca,  New  York,  Feb- 
ruary 26,  1840.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1859, 
and  at  the  law-school  of  Columbia  College,  New  York, 
in  1863.  In  1S67  he  became  United  States  consul  at 
Moscow,  and  in  1869  consul  at  Reval,  and  the  secretary 
of  the  American  legation  to  Russia.  He  travelled  in  Tur- 
kistan  in  1873,  was  secretary  of  legation  and  consul-gen- 
eral at  Constantinople,  1876-78,  (during  which  time  he 
travelled  in  Bulgaria  and  made  an  important  official 
report  on  the  Turkish  atrocities  in  that  region,)  after- 
wards held  consulships  at  Birmingham,  Rome,  etc, 
and  was  still  later  American  minister  at  Athens,  and  at 
the  same  time  was  United  States  representative  for 
Roumania  and  Servia.  Among  his  books  are  "Turkis- 
tan,"  (1876,)  "The  Cossacks,"  (1876,  from  the  Russian 
of  Tolstoi,)  "  Father  and  Sons,"  (1867,  from  the  Russian 
of  Toorguenef,)  and  a  "Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (3  vols., 
1884.)     Died  at  Cairo,  July  18,  1890. 

Schuyler,  skl'ler,  (Philip,)  an  able  American  gen 
eral  and  Senator,  born  at  Albany  in  November,  1733. 
lie  served  in  the  war  against  the  French  and  Indians  in 
1756.  In  June,  1775,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
an  army  in  New  York,  with  the  rank  of  major-general. 
Tie  was  about  to  move   the  army  into  Canada,  but  he 


a  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit ;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SCHWAB 


2153 


SCHWA  RZENBER  G 


was  taken  sick,  and  the  command  devolved  in  Septem- 
ber on  General  Montgomery.  In  August,  1777,  he  was 
superseded  by  General  Gates,  in  consequence  of  the  un- 
reasonable jealousy  with  which  Congress  regarded  him. 
His  conduct  was  vindicated  by  a  court  of  inquiry.  He 
afterwards  rendered  important  services  in  military  affairs, 
although  he  declined  to  take  command  of  an  army.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  General  Congress  from  1778  to 
1781,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by 
the  legislature  of  New  York  in  1789.  He  was  again 
elected  a  Senator,  in  place  of  Aaron  Burr,  in  1797.  One 
of  his  daughters  was  the  wife  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 
Died  at  Albany  in  November,  1804. 

See  Benson  J.  Lossing,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Philip  Schuyler," 
i860;  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States;"  "  National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Schv;'ab,  sh^ip,  (Gustav,)  a  distinguished  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1792.  He  became  in 
1817  professor  of  ancient  literature  in  his  native  city. 
He  published  a  number  of  popular  songs  and  ballads, 
also  prose  essays  on  various  subjects,  and  an  excellent 
"  Life  of  Schiller."  He  was  for  a  time  associated  with 
Chamisso  as  editor  of  the  "  Musenalmanach."  Died  in 
1850. 

See  Wassermann,  "G.  Schwab,  der  edle  Barde  Schwabens," 
1851. 

Schwalber,  sh<^il'ber,  better  known  by  his  Graeco- 
Latinized  name  of  Chelidonius,  kel-e-do'ne-us,  a  Ger- 
man Benedictine  monk,  surnamed  Musoph'ilus.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Albert  DUrer,  and  wrote  in  Latin  verse 
an  "Apocalypse,"  a  "Life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,"  and 
a  "  Passion  of  Christ,"  to  accompany  the  three  series  of 
DUrer's  wood-cuts  on  those  topics.  He  became  abbot 
of  the  Schotten  Kloster,  near  Vienna,  in  15 15,  and  died 
there  in  1521. 

Schwann,  sh^Sn,  (Theodor,)  M.D.,  a  German 
physiologist,  born  at  Neuss,  in  the  Rhine  Province, 
December  7,  1810.  He  studied  with  brilliant  success  at 
the  Universities  of  Bonn,  Wiirzburg,  and  Berlin,  taking 
his  degree  of  M.D.  and  passing  the  state  examination  in 
1824.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  Catholic  University  of  Louvain,  Belgium,  where 
he  spent  forty  years  in  important  work.  One  of  his 
earliest  discoveries  was  that  of  pej^sin  in  the  gastric 
juice.  He  made  researches  upon  the  nature  and  func- 
tions of  bile,  and  on  the  vivification  of  eggs,  and  demon- 
strated the  untenableness  of  the  theory  of  the  "sponta- 
neous generation"  of  infusoria.  Died  at  Cologne, 
January  11,  1882. 

Schwanthaler,  sh.<kWii.'\&r,  (Ludwig  Michael,) 
an  eminent  German  artist,  born  at  Munich  in  1802. 
He  studied  for  a  short  time  at  Rome,  and  on  his  return, 
in  1826,  executed  two  bas-relief  friezes  for  the  Glypto- 
thek,  and  a  statue  of  Shakspeare  for  the  theatre.  He 
became  in  1835  professor  of  sculpture  at  the  Academy 
of  Munich.  Among  the  numerous  works  which  he 
produced  within  about  twelve  years,  we  may  name  the 
relievo  frieze,  over  two  hundred  feet  long,  in  the  Barba- 
rossa  Hall,  the  twelve  colossal  statues  of  the  ancestors 
of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach,  the  "  Myth  of  Aphrodite," 
and  the  fifteen  statues  of  the  "  Battle  of  Arminius,"  (Her- 
manns-schlacht,)  in  the  northern  pediment  of  the  Wal- 
halla  at  Ratisbon.  His  colossal  bronze  statue  of  "  Ba- 
varia," in  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  Munich,  esteemed  one  of 
his  master-pieces,  is  of  greater  magnitude  than  any  other 
group  of  modern  sculpture,  the  main  figure  being  fifty- 
ff  ur  feet  high.  Schwanthaler  also  executed  statues  of 
the  emperor  Rudolph,  of  Goethe,  Mozart,  and  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  as  well  as  numerous  subjects  from  Grecian 
mythology.  He  died  in  1848.  Among  his  most  distin- 
guished pupils  are  Brugger,  Widmann,  and  Kriesmeyer. 
See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon  ;"  Pierer,  "  Univer- 
sal-Lexikon." 

Schwartz,  sh^iRts,  (Christoph,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Ingolstadt  about  1550,  worked  at  Munich.  Died 
in  1594. 

Sch-wartz,  shwaRts,  (Marie  Sophie,)  a  Swedish 
novelist,  born  at  Boris,  July  4,  1819.  Her  father  was  a 
German,  named  Birath.  In  1840  she  married,  and  be- 
came a  widow  in  1858.      She  published  a  vast  number 


of  romances  and  other  works.  Among  her  stories  are 
"The  Man  of  Family,  and  the  Wife  from  the  People," 
(1858,)  "Work  ennobles  a  Man,"  (1859,)  "The  Noble- 
man's Daughter,"  (i860,)  "The  Organ-Grinder's  Son," 
(1S63,)  "Gold  and  Name,"  (1863,)  "A  Child  of  the 
Time,"  (1873,)  etc. 

Schwartz,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  author,  born  in 
Berlin,  September  4,  1821.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin 
and  Leipsic.  Besides  some  works  on  paedagogy,  he 
published  a  large  number  of  books  on  mythology  and 
on  popular  superstitions.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  science  of  comparative  mythology. 

Schwartz,  von,  fon  sh^iRts,  (Marie  Esperance,)  a 
German  writer,  born  at  Southgate,  England,  of  a  German 
family,  November  8,  1821.  Her  second  husband  was  one 
Schwartz,  a  rich  banker  of  Hamburg.  Having  left  him, 
she  became  a  close  associate  of  Garibaldi,  sharing  his 
dangers  and  imprisonments.  In  1865  she  became  a 
resident  of  Kalepha,  in  Crete.  Her  pseudonym  of 
Elpis  MeL/ENA  is  a  Greek  translation  of  her  name. 
Most  of  her  numerous  books  are  descriptions  of  her 
travels  and  adventures. 

Schwarz,  sh^riRts,  (Berthold,)  called  also  Con- 
STANTINE  Ancklitzen,  (ank'klit'sen,)  a  German  chemist 
and  Franciscan  monk,  born  at  Freiburg,  is  said  to  have 
invented  gunpowder  about  1330.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  him  at  Freiburg  in  1853. 

Schwarz  or  Schwartz,  sh^^iRts,  (Christian  Fried- 
rich,)  an  eminent  German  missionary,  born  at  Sonnen- 
burg,  Prussia,  in  1726.  He  went  to  India  in  1750,  and 
laboured  many  years  about  Tranquebar,  Tanjore,  and 
Trichinopoly  with  great  success.  He  gained  the  confi- 
dence of  Hyder  Ali.  His  character  was  highly  com- 
mended by  Bishop  Heber.     Died  in  India  in  1798. 

Schwarz,  (Christian  Gotilieb,)  a  learned  German 
writer  and  bibliographer,  born  in  Misnia  in  1675,  was 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Altorf.     Died  in  1751. 

Schwarz,  (Fkiedrich  Heinrich  Christian,)  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Heidelberg,  was  born  at  Giessen 
in  1766.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Jung-Stilling,  and 
published  several  educational  works.     Died  in  1837. 

Schwarz,  (Karl  Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
rationalistic  theologian,  was  born  at  Wiek,  in  Riigen, 
November  19,  1812.  He  was  educated  at  Halle,  Bonn, 
Berlin,  and  Greifswalde,  and,  after  figuring  as  a  moder- 
ate radical  in  politics,  became  in  1856  court  preacher 
at  Gotha.  His  writings  include  "The  Essence  of  Re- 
ligion," "  Lessing  as  a  Theologian,"  "  History  of  the 
New  Theology,"  and  several  volumes  of  "  Sermons  of 
the  Present  Times." 

Schwarzenberg.sh^iRt'sen-bSRG',  (Felix  Ludwig 
Johann  Friedrich,)  an  Austrian  statesman  and  mili- 
tary commander,  born  at  Krumau,  in  Bohemia,  in  1800. 
He  was  made  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1848,  and  sub- 
sequently became  prime  minister.     Died  in  1852. 

Schwarzenberg,  von,  fon  sh^t-art'sen-b^Ro',  (Fried- 
rich  Johann  Joseph,)  Prince,  an  Austrian  prelate, 
born  in  1809.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  in 
1836,  cardinal  in  1842,  and  Archbishop  of  Prague  in 
1850.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Rome  in 
1869-70.     Died  March  27,  1885. 

Schwarzenberg,  von,  (Karl  Philipp,)  Prince, 
an  Austrian  field-marshal,  born  at  Vienna  in  1771.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1794  and 
1799,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden, 
where  he  succeeded  in  saving  his  own  corps.  In  1808 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in 
1810  became  general  of  the  Austrian  cavalry.  After  the 
peace  of  Vienna  he  was  appointed  to  negotiate  the 
marriage  of  Napoleon  with  Maria  Louisa.  On  the  alli- 
ance of  Austria  with  France,  he  was  placed  by  Napoleon 
at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  forces  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1812,  and  obtained  for  his  services  the  rank 
of  field-marshal.  In  1813  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  allied  armies,  and,  having  defeated  the 
French  at  Leipsic,  advanced  to  Paris.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  imperial 
council  of  war,  and  obtained  many  other  distinctions. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  Prokesch  von  Osten,  "  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Karl  zu 
Schwarzenberg,"  1822;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled:  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (Jt^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHWA  TK A 


2154 


SCIPIO 


Schwatka,  shwot'ka,  (Frederick,)  an  American 
explorer,  born  at  Galena,  Illinois,  September  29,  1849. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1871,  served  against  the 
Indians  in  Arizona,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
practice  in  Nebraska  in  1875,  studied  medicine,  and 
graduated  at  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College,  in  New 
York,  in  1876,  rejoined  his  regiment,  and  participated  in 
various  engagements  with  the  Indians,  and  then  obtained 
leave  of  absence  to  command  the  Franklin  search  party 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  which  sailed  June  19,  1S78.  The 
expedition  returned  September  22,  1880,  having  discov- 
ered and  buried  many  of  the  skeletons  of  Sir  John 
Franklin's  lost  party  and  cleared  up  much  of  the  mys- 
tery that  had  shrouded  their  fate.  He  afterwards  ex- 
plored the  course  of  the  Yukon  River,  and  rejoined  his 
regiment  in  July,  1884.  He  published  full  accounts  of 
his  explorations. 

Schwegler,  sh^go'ler,  (Alfrecht,)  a  German  theo- 
logian and  disciple  of  Baur,  born  at  Michelbach,  in 
Wurtemberg,  in  1819.  He  published  a  "History  of 
Philosophy,"  and  "Roman  History,"  (1853.)  also  Ger- 
man translations  of  Aristotle's  "Metaphysics"  and  the 
"Church  History"  of  Eusebius.     Died  in  1857. 

Schweidel,  sh<^T'del,  (Georg  Jakob,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1690,  published 
"Thesaurus  Bibliothecalis,"  (4  vols.,  1739.)  Died  m 
1752. 

Schweigaard,  shwT'gaRd,  (Antony  Martin,)  a 
Norwegian  jurist,  born  at  Krageroe  in  1808,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  political  economy  and  statistics  at 
the  University  of  Christiania.  He  published  several  works 
on  law,  finance,  and  statistics.     Died  February  2,  1870. 

Schweiger-Lerchenfeld,  von,  fon  sh^i'ger  I&r'- 
Ken-f&lt',  (Amand,)  a  popular  Austrian  author,  born  in 
Vienna,  May  17,  1846.  He  became  an  army-officer,  and 
after  1871  travelled  extensively,  for  the  most  part  in  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  Among  his  works  (in  German)  are 
"Under  the  Crescent,"  (1876,)  "Armenia,"  (1878,) 
"Bosnia,"  (1878,)  "Between  Pontus  and  Adria,"  (1879,) 
"Seraglio  and  Sublime  Porte,"  (1879,)  "The  Life  of 
Women  in  Various  Lands,"  (1880,)  etc. 

Schweighauser,  shwrlc'hoi'zer,  (Jean  Geoffroi,) 
an  antiquary,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1776;  died  in  1844. 

Schweighauser  or  Schweighaeuser,  sh^^ic'hoi'- 
zer,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Strasburg  in 
1742,  became  in  1778  professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental 
languages  in  his  native  city.  He  published  editions  of 
Appianus,  Polybius,  Herodotus,  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1830. 

See  CuviER,  "  JSloge  de  Schweighaeuser,"  1830 ;  Sti^vknart, 
"Elogede  J.  Schweighaeuser,"  1830. 

Schweinfurth,  sh<^in'fooRt,  (Georg  August,)  a 
German- Russian  traveller,  born  at  Riga,  September  29, 
1836.  Educated  at  Munich,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin,  he 
engaged  in  botanical  expeditions  in  Africa,  chiefly  in 
the  Upper  Nile  regions.  Besides  several  volumes  con- 
taining the  results  of  his  botanical  labours,  he  published 
"Im  Herzen  von  Afrika,"  (1874.)  His  botanical  and 
geographical  discoveries  were  highly  important. 

Schweinitz,  de,  de  shwi'nits,  (Edmund  Alex- 
ander,) D.D.,  an  American  bishop,  born  at  Bethlehem, 
Pennsylvania,  March  20,  1825,  was  educated  at  Nazareth, 
Bethlehem,  and  the  University  of  Berlin.  In  1867  he 
became  president  of  the  Moravian  Theological  School 
at  Bethlel-em.  In  1870  he  was  consecrated  a  bishop  of 
the  Moravian  Church,  and  in  1878  was  made  its  pre- 
siding bishop  for  the  United  States.  His  principal 
works  are  "The  Moravian  Manual,"  "  Life  of  Zeisber- 
ger,"  "The  Moravian  Episcopate,"  "The  Missionary 
Manual,"  and  "  History  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum."  Died 
December  18,  1SS7. 

Sch-weinitz,  von,  fon  shwi'nits,  (Lewis  David,)  an 
American  botanist  and  Moravian  minister,  was  born  at 
Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  in  1780.  He  discovered  more 
than  a  thousand  new  species  of  plants,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  Fungi.     Died  in  1834. 

Sch^T'eizer,  sh^XfTt'ser,  (Alexander,)  a  German  the- 
ologian of  the  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at  Murten 
in  1808.     Died  July  3,  1S88. 


Schwenkfeld,  sh<^Snk'f51t,  (Kaspar,)  founder  of  a 
sect  called  by  his  name,  was  born  at  Ossig,  in  Silesia,  in 
1490.  He  embraced  with  zeal  the  cause  of  the  Refor 
mation,  but  differed  from  the  other  Protestants  in  his 
views  of  the  eucharist,  (he  deified  the  body  of  Christ,) 
and  in  other  points  of  Christian  doctrine.  He  died  about 
1560.  A  number  of  his  followers  took  refuge  in  North 
America  in  1733. 

Sohweiin,  von,  fon  sh<^5h-reen',  (Kurt  Chris- 
toth,)  Count,  a  distinguished  commander,  born  in 
Swedish  Pomerania  in  1684.  He  served  under  Eugene 
and  Marlborough,  and  subsequently  in  the  army  of 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  and  made  him  a  count.  He  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Mollwitz,  in  1741. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Prague,  in  1757. 

See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "Leben  des  Grafen  von  Schwerin," 
(841;  KoENiG,  "  Lebensbeschreibiing  des  Grafen  von  Schwerin," 
1790;  Pauli,  "Leben  grosser  Helden ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale. " 

Schwetschke,  sh^Stsh'keh,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  Ger- 
man author,  born  at  Halle,  April  5,  1804.  He  was 
educated  at  Heidelberg,  and  became  a  journalist  and 
politician,  opposing  in  1848  both  republicans  and  reac- 
tionists. His  writings,  often  satirical,  include  a  "  His- 
tory of  Printing  at  Halle,"  (1840,)  "Novae  Epistolae  Ob- 
scurorum  Virorum,"  (1S49,)  "Novas  Epistolae  Clarorum 
Virorum,"  (1855,)  "Poems  of  a  Protestant  Friend,"  a 
"  Bismarckiad,"  a  "  Varziniad,"  and  some  comic  political 
songs.  His  chief  fame,  however,  is  that  of  a  bibliog- 
rapher. 

Schwilgue,  shv^l'gi',  (Jean  Baptists,)  a  French 
mechanician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1776.  He  invented 
several  useful  instruments,  and  reconstructed  the  ad- 
mirable mechanism  of  the  clock  of  the  Strasburg  Cathe- 
dral.    Died  in  1856. 

Schwind,  von,  fon  sh<^!nt,  (Moritz,)  professor  of 
painting  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Munich,  was  born 
at  Vienna  in  1804,  was  a  pupil  of  Cornelius,  and  produced 
a  number  of  frescos  and  oil-paintings.     Died  in  1871. 

Schyrle.     See  Rheita,  von. 

Scialoia,  shl-lo'yi  or  she-i-lo'yS,  (Antonio,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  near  Naples  in  181 7,  published  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Social  Economy,"  etc.     Died  in  1877. 

Sciarpelloni.     See  Credi,  di. 

Scin^,  she-ni',  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  Italian 
mathematician  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Palermo  in 
1765,  became  professor  of  physics  in  his  native  city.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Report  on  the  Fossils  of  Mar- 
dolce,"  etc.,  "  Introduction  to  Experimental  Physics," 
(1803,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Philosophy  of  Em- 
pedocles,"  (1813,)  "Topography  of  Palermo  and  its 
Environs,"  (1818,)  "View  of  the  Literary  History  of 
Italy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1827,)  "Ex- 
periments and  Discoveries  in  Electro-Magnetism,"  and 
other  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1837. 

See  S.  CoSTAKZO,  "Vida  publica  y  privada  de  D.  Scini,"  1846- 
Malvica,  "  Elogio  di  D.  Scini,"  1S38  :  D.  Avella,  "  Eseqaie  .\lla 
Memoria  di  D.  Scina,"  1838. 

Scioppius,  stse-op'pe-iSs,  [Ger.  Schopp,  shop,]  (Cas- 
par,) a  celebrated  classical  scholar,  born  at  Neumark, 
in  the  Palatinate,  in  1576.  Having  visited  Rome,  he 
was  patronized  by  the  pope  and  renounced  the  Prot- 
estant religion.  He  was  afterwards  created  a  count 
palatine  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  we  may  name  his  "  Elements  of  Stoic  Moral 
Philosophy,"  ("Elementa  Philosophiae  Stoicae  Moralis,") 
"De  Arte  Critica,"  etc.,  "  Paradoxa  Literaria,"  and 
"  Grammatica  Philosophica,"  or  Institutes  of  Latin  Gram- 
mar. He  also  wrote  a  number  of  controversial  works 
against  the  Protestants  and  their  leaders,  particularly 
Henry  IV.  of  France  and  James  I.  of  England.  Sciop- 
pius  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time ;  but 
he  was  equally  conspicuous  for  his  intolerance  and 
quarrelsome  propensities.     Died  in  1649. 

See  Bavi.b,  "Historical  and  Critical  Di^iionary;"  Nicekon, 
"  M^nioires  :"  C.  Nisaro,  "  Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Republique  des 
Lettres;"  "Nouvelle  l!iop;i'apliie  Generale." 

Scipio,  sip'e-o,  [Gr.  SwTtu,)  ;  Fr.  Scipion,  se'pe'6N' ; 
It.  Scipione,  she-pe-o'ni,]  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Roman  family  of  the  patrician  gens  Cornelia.    The  word 


i,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCIPIO 


2155 


SCIPIO 


Scipio  signifies  a  "staff"  or  "stick."  The  first  member 
of  this  family  that  appears  in  history  was  PUBLIUS 
Cornelius  Scipio,  who  was  appointed  master  of  the 
horse  by  the  dictator  Furiiis  Camillus  in  396  B.C.  He 
was  consular  or  military  tribune  in  394,  and  interrex  in 
389  B.C.  A  PuBLius  toRNELius  Scipio,  probably  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  curule  sediles 
appointed  in  366  B.C.  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio  was 
consul  in  350  B.C.  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Bar- 
BATUS  was  chosen  dictator  in  306  and  pontifex  maximus 
in  305  B.C.  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio  Barbatus  was 
consul  in  298  B.C.,  and  defeated  the  Etruscans.  He 
was  the  father  of  Cneius  Cornelius  Scipio  Asina 
(see  separate  article)  and  of  Lucius  Cornelius,  who 
was  consul  in  259  B.C.  and  defeated  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 

Scipio,  [Fr.  SciPioN,  se'pe'iN',]  (Publius  Corne- 
lius,) a  Roman  commander,  father  of  the  great  Scipio, 
(surnamed  "  Africanus,")  was  consul  in  the  first  year  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  218  B.C.  He  commanded  the 
army  of  Northern  Italy  when  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps 
on  his  way  to  Rome.  Scipio  met  the  enemy  near  the 
Ticino,  where  he  was  defeated  and  severely  wounded. 
Soon  after  this  event  the  other  consul,  Sempronius,  took 
command  uf  the  army,  which  was  again  defeated,  with 
great  loss,  on  the  Trebia,  218  B.C.  Scipio  was  sent  to 
Spain  in  217,  and  fought  many  battles  against  the  Car- 
thaginians in  that  peninsula.  He  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  211  B.C. 

See  LivY,  "History  of  Rome." 

Scipio,  or,  more  fully,  Scipl-o  Af-ri-ca'nus* 
Ma'jor,  [Fr.  Scipion  l'Africain,  se'pe'AN'  iS'fRe'- 
kiN',]  (Publius  Cornelius,)  an  illustrious  Roman  com- 
mander, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  235  or  234 
B.C.  After  he  had  assumed  the  toga  virilis,  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  pass  several  hours  each  morning  in  the  Capi- 
tol in  solitary  devotion  or  meditation.  He  gained  in  his 
youth  the  confidence  of  the  people,  who  were  persuaded 
that  he  was  a  special  favourite  of  the  gods.  It  is  also 
stated  that  he  professed  to  seek  and  receive  divine  coun- 
sel, by  which  his  public  conduct  was  directed.  He  fought 
at  the  battle  of  the  Ticino,  and  rescued  his  wounded  father 
there,  in  218  B.C.  In  216,  as  military  tribune,  he  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Cannae.  Scipio  and  Appius  Claudius 
were  appointed  commanders  of  the  troops  which  escaped 
from  that  battle.  He  was  elected  aedile  in  212  B.  c,  and 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Spain  in 
210.  He  took  New  Carthage  (Cartagena)  in  the  first 
campaign,  and  his  personal  influence  or  liberal  policy 
induced  many  native  chiefs  to  become  allies  of  Rome. 
In  209  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  Hasdrubal  in  the 
south  of  Spain.  Another  decisive  victory  at  Silpia, 
Carmo,  or  Elinga,  in  207,  rendered  him  master  of  nearly 
all  Spain.  Soon  after  this  event  he  crossed  over  to 
Africa  with  a  few  attendants,  and  attempted  to  gain  the 
alliance  of  Syphax.  Having  completed  the  conquest  of 
Spain,  in  206  B.C.  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  elected 
consul  for  205,  although  he  was  under  the  legal  age.  He 
at  once  resolved  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa,  although 
Hannibal  still  remained  in  Italy.  This  plan  was  opposed 
by  Fabius  Maximus  and  other  senators.  Scipio  obtained 
Sicily  as  his  province,  with  permission  to  cross  into 
Africa ;  but  the  senate  refused  to  grant  him  an  army  for 
that  purpose.  He  thereupon  raised  an  army  of  volun- 
teers, invaded  Africa  in  204,  and  was  joined  by  King 
Massinissa.  He  defeated  Hasdrubal  (son  of  Gisco)  and 
Syphax  in  several  battles,  after  which  the  Carthaginians 
recalled  Hannibal  for  the  defence  of  their  capital.  The 
question  of  peace  was  discussed  by  Scipio  and  Hanni- 
bal in  a  personal  interview  ;  but  they  failed  to  agree  on 
the  terms.  In  October,  202,  Scipio  defeated  Hannibal 
in  the  memorable  battle  of  Zama,  which  decided  the 
fete  of  Carthage.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  in  201,  he 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  obtained  the 
surname  of  Africanus.  The  people  proposed  to  make 
him  dictator  for  life  ;  but  he  declined  the  honour.  He 
was  chosen  censor  in  199,  and  consul  in  194  B.C. 

*  Chaucer  calls  him  simply  Affrikan,  obviously  a  corruption  of 
A/Hcamis.     (See  "  Assembly  of  Foules.") 


In  the  year  190  he  volunteered  to  serve  as  legate  of 
his  brother,  Lucius  Scipio,  who  was  then  consul,  and 
who  commanded  in  the  war  against  Antiochus  of  Syria. 
The  two  Scipios  defeated  Antiochus,  and  ended  the  war 
by  a  treaty  of  peace.  About  187  B.C.  Africanus  and  his 
brother  were  publicly  accused  of  receiving  bribes  from 
Antiochus.  Lucius  was  first  tried,  and  condemned  to 
pay  a  large  fine.  Africanus,  in  defiance  of  the  law,  res- 
cued his  brother  from  the  officer  who  was  dragging  him 
to  prison.  He  was  afterwards  prosecuted,  and  made  a 
speech  in  his  defence,  which  was  partially  successful,  as 
his  enemies  and  judges  abandoned  the  case.  Deeply 
affected  by  the  ingratitude  of  the  people,  he  left  Rome, 
never  to  return,  and  died  at  Liternum  in  183  B.C.,  in  the 
same  year  as  Hannibal.  He  had  married  ^Emilia,  a 
daughter  of  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus,  and  left  two  sons  and 
two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was  the  famous  Cornelia. 
With  the  exception  of  Julius  Caesar,  (and  perhaps  ot 
Sertorius,)  Scipio  was  probably  the  greatest  military 
genius  that  Rome  ever  produced.  He  cultivated  the 
Greek  language  and  literature.  He  had  a  high  repu- 
tation for  generosity  and  clemency,  but  is  censured  by 
some  for  his  disregard  of  the  forms  of  law. 

See  PoLVBius,  "History,"  books  x.-xxiv.  ;  Livv,  "  History  of 
Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxxix. ;  Seran  de  la  Tour,  "  Histoirede  Scipion 
l'Africain,"  173S;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale;"  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  of  the  Elder  Scipio  Africanus,"  by  Rev.  Edward  Ber- 
wick. 

Scip'io  .Slmilia'nus  Africa'nus  Mi'nor,  (Publius 
Cornelius,)  a  famous  Roman  general,  born  about  185 
B.C.,  was  a  son  of  .^milius  Paulus,  and  an  adopted  son 
of  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  whose  father  was  the  great 
Scipio.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  was  well  versed 
in  Greek  literature  and  philosophy.  In  168  B.C.  he  fought 
at  the  battle  of  Pydna,  where  his  father  commanded. 
He  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  the  historian 
Polybius,  who  became  the  companion  of  his  studies  and 
military  expeditions.  As  military  tribune,  he  went  to 
Spain  in  151  B.C.,  and  signalized  his  courage  in  a  single 
combat  with  a  gigantic  Spanish  chief,  whom  he  killed. 
In  the  third  Punic  war,  which  began  about  149,  he  dis- 
played great  military  ability  in  Africa.  Having  returned 
to  Rome  in  148,  he  was  elected  consul  for  147,  and  ob- 
tained Africa  as  his  province.  He  finished  the  Punic  war 
by  the  capture  and  destruction  of  the  city  of  Carthage  in 
146  B.C.,  and  was  granted  a  splendid  triumph  at  Rome  for 
this  victory.  In  the  year  142  he  became  censor  with  L. 
Mummius.  He  endeavoured  to  restrain  the  growing 
love  of  luxury  of  the  Romans  and  to  maintain  the  simple 
habits  and  austere  virtues  of  their  ancestors  ;  but  in  this 
he  was  not  successful.  Having  been  elected  consul,  134 
B.C.,  he  obtained  the  chief  command  in  Spain,  and  took 
Numantia,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  defence,  in  133.  He 
was  an  inflexible  supporter  of  the  aristocratic  party,  and 
approved  the  execution  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  although 
his  wife  Sempronia  was  a  sister  of  that  tribune.  He  lost 
his  popularity  by  his  course  in  this  affair.  He  was  found 
dead  in  his  bed  in  129  B.C.  The  public  suspected  that 
he  was  murdered  ;  but  no  person  was  convicted  of  the 
crime.  Scipio  was  eminent  for  his  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  Roman  orators  of  his  time. 
Cicero  expresses  a  high  opinion  of  him  in  his  book 
"De  Republica."  A  report  prevailed  among  the  an- 
cients that  he  assisted  Terence  in  the  composition  of 
his  plays. 

See  Polybius,  books  xxxii.-xxxix.  ;  Carlo  Sir .onio,  "  De  Vita  et 
Rebus  eestis  P.  Scipionis,"  1569;  F.  D.  Gerlach,  "Tod  des  P. 
C.  Scipio  iEmiiianus,"  1839;  L.  Normann,  "  Sdpio  Africanus  Mi- 
nor," Upsala,  1688;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sgip'i-o  A-si-atl-cus  or  A-si-ag'e-ues,  [Fr.  Sci- 
pion l'Asiatique,  se'pe'iN^  It'ze't't^k',]  (Lucius  Cor- 
nelius,) was  a  brother  of  Africanus  Major.  He  was 
chosen  praetor  in  193  B.C.,  and  consul  in  190,  when  he 
obtained  the  province  of  Greece.  With  the  aid  of  his 
brother,  he  defeated  Antiochus  at  Mount  Sipylus  in  190, 
A  few  years  after  which  he  was  fined  for  taking  a  bribe 
from  that  king. 

Scipio  Asiaticua,  (Lucius  Cornelius,)  was  a  par- 
tisan of  Marius  in  the  civil  war,  and  became  consul  with 
C.  Norbanus  in  83  B.C.  He  marched  against  Sulla  in 
that  year,  but  was  deserted  by  his  troops,  and  went  into 
exile  in  82  B.C. 


€as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asy/  G,  H,  K,guti:ural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (iil^=-See  Explanations,  p.  23.-; 


SCIPIO 


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SCOTT 


Scip'io  Asl-na,  (Cneius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman 
commander,  was  consul  with  C.  Duilius  in  260  B.C.  He 
obtained  command  of  a  fleet,  and  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Carthaginians.  He  became  consul  again  in  254  B.C. 
His  son  PuBLius  Cornelius  was  consul  in  221  b.c,  and 
interrex  in  217. 

Scip'io  Cal'vus,  (Cneius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman 
general,  became  consul  with  M.  Claudius  Marcellus  in 
222  B.C.  He  went  to  Spain  in  217  B.C.  as  legate  of  his 
brother,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  with  whom  he  served 
about  eight  years  against  the  Carthaginians  in  the  second 
Punic  war.     He  was  killed  in  Spain  in  21 1  B.C. 

Scip'io  His-pal'lus,  (Cneius  Cornelius,)  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  171  B.C.  He  had  a  son 
of  the  same  name,  who  was  praetor  in  139  B.C. 

Scip'io  Na-si'ca,  (Publius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman 
consul  and  jurist,  was  a  son  of  Cn.  C.  Scipio  Calvus,  who 
was  killed  in  Spain  in  211  B.C.  He  was  praetor  in  194, 
and  served  with  distinction  in  Spain  in  193.  Having 
been  chosen  consul  for  191  B.C.,  he  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Boii.     He  died  after  171  B.C. 

Scip'io  Nasi'ca  Cor'cu-lum,  (Publius  Corne- 
lius,) a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  an  able  jurist.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus  Major.  He  was 
censor  in  159  B.C.,  and  consul  in  155.  During  his  con- 
sulship he  procured  the  demolition  of  a  new  theatre,  as 
injurious  to  the  public  morals.  He  became  pontifex 
maximus  in  150  B.a 

Scip'io  Nasi'ca  Se-ra'pl-o,  (Publius  Cornelius,) 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  violent  partisan  of  the 
aristocracy.  He  became  consul  in  138  B.C.  with  D. 
Junius  Brutus,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  party  which 
assassinated  Tiberius  Gracchus  in  133. 

His  son,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica,  was 
consul  in  III  B.C.  He  was  greatly  distinguished  for  wit 
and  humour.  He  left  a  son  of  the  same  name,  who  was 
praetor  in  94  B.C.  This  last  was  the  father  of  Q.  Metellus 
Pius  Scipio,  the  father-in-law  of  Pompey  the  Great.  (See 
Metellus.) 

Scipion,  the  French  for  Scipio,  which  see. 

Scla'ter,  (Philip  L.,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  1829.  He  published  several  treatises  on  birds, 
and  edited  "The  Natural  History  Review." 

Sclater,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Somersetshire.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Otter- 
den,  Kent,  and  wrote  verses  in  Latin  and  English.  Died 
in  1647.  Another  William  Sclater  was  vicar  of  Pitmin- 
ster.     Died  in  1626. 

Sclo'pis,  (Count  Federigo,)  an  Italian  senator  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Turin  in  1798.  He  became  a  senator 
in  1849,  and  president  of  the  senate  in  1857.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Italian  Legis- 
lation," (3  vols.,  1840-57.)     Died  March  8,  1878. 

Scolari,  sko-lS'ree,  (Filippo,)  Count  of  Ozora,  called 
Pippo  Spano,  (pip'po  spS'no,)  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Florence  in  1369.  He  rendered  important  services 
to  the  emperor  Sigismund.     Died  in  1426. 

Scoorel.     See  Schoreel. 

Sco'pas,  [2«:67raf,]  an  eminent  Grecian  sculptor  and 
architect,  born  in  the  island  of  Paros,  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  after  400  B.C.  Among  his  master-pieces 
in  sculpture  Pliny  mentions  a  number  of  figures,  repre- 
senting Neptune,  Thetis,  the  Nereids,  etc.,  mounted  on 
dolphins,  and  statues  of  Venus,  Vesta,  and  Apollo.  He 
also  assisted  in  executing  the  celebrated  monument  to 
Mausolus  about  350  B.C.  The  temple  of  Minerva  Alea 
at  Tegea  was  constructed  by  Scopas. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History  ;"  Si'.i.ig,  "  Catalogus  Artificum  ;" 
Naglbr,  "  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Scopoli,  skop'o-lee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  a  cele- 
brated naturalist,  was  born  at  Cavalese,  in  the  Tyrol,  in 
1723.  He  became  professor  of  mineralogy  at  Schemnitz 
in  1766,  and  in  1777  filled  the  chair  of  natural  history  at 
Pavia.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Entomologia  Carniolica," 
"Flora  Carniolica,"  (1769,)  "Crystallouraphia  Hunga- 
rica,"  (1776,)  and  other  scientific  works.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Linnaeus,  who  named  a  plant  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Maironi  da  Ponte,  "  Elogio  del  Dottore  G.  A.  Scopoli," 
181 1  ;  TiPALDO,  "  P.iografia  degli  Flaliaiii  ilhistri." 


Score§'b:J^,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  navi- 
gator, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1760.  Having  engaged  in 
the  Greenland  whale-fishery,  he  made  his  first  voyage 
in  1 791.  His  voyages,  amounting  to  thirty  in  all,  were 
eminently  successful, — he  having  returned  from  one  of 
them  with  thirty-six  whales.  He  made  a  number  of 
improvements  in  the  apparatus  for  whale-fishing,  and 
invented  the  cylindrical  observatory  attached  to  the  main- 
top-mast, called  the  "round  top-gallant  crow's-nest." 
Died  in  1829. 

See  a  "  Life  of  W.  Scoresby,"  by  his  son,  1851. 

Scoresby,  (William,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  Arctic  navi- 
gator, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1790.  In 
1806  he  served  as  chief  mate  to  his  father  in  a  voyage 
which  extended  to  latitude  81°  12',  a  point  nearer  the 
north  pole  than  any  other  navigator  had  reached.  He 
published  in  1820  a  valuable  "Account  of  the  Arctic 
Regions,  with  a  History  of  the  Northern  Whale-Fish- 
ery."  He  ceased  to  follow  the  sea,  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, graduated  in  1834,  and  was  ordained  a  priest.  He 
became  vicar  of  Bradford,  Yorkshire.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Memorials  of  the  Sea,"  and  "  My  Father  :  being 
Records  of  the  Adventurous  Life  of  William  Scoresby," 
(1851.)  He  wrote  several  papers  on  magnetism  and  the 
influence  of  iron  ships  on  the  mariner's  compass.  Died 
in  1857. 

See  "  Monthly  Review"  for  November  and  December,  1820. 
Scorza,  skoRd'zS,  (Sinibaldo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Voltaggio  in  1589.    He  painted  landscapes  with 
animals;  also  mythological  subjects.     Died  in  1631. 

Scot,  (Alexander,  or  Sanders,)  "the  Scottish 
Anacreon,"  a  poet,  born  about  1502.  He  was  a  Protes- 
tant, but  addressed  "  Ane  New  Yere  Gift"  to  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  in  1562.  He  is  one  of  the  most  finished 
and  pleasing  writers  of  his  time.  Many  good  examples 
of  his  verse  are  extant. 

Scot,  (Reginald,)  a  learned  English  writer  and  Re- 
former, published  a  w^ork  entitled  "  The  Discoverie  of 
Witchcraft,"  in  which  he  boldly  condemns  the  super- 
stitioits  of  the  time.     It  was  against  this  book,  and  that 
of  Wierus,  that  James  I.  of  England  wrote  his  "  Demon- 
ologie,"  in  which  he  says  that  Scot  "  is  not  ashamed  in 
public  print  to  deny  that  there  can  be  such  a  thing  as 
witchcraft."     Died  in  1599. 
Scot,  (Thomas.)     See  Rotherham. 
Scott,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  writer,  born  probably 
in  London  in  1814.     He  published  several  educational 
works,  and  became  chamberlain  of  London  about  1858. 
Scott,  (David,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in  East  Lo- 
thian in  1675,  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  Scotland." 
Died  in  1742. 

Scott,  (David,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1806.  He  resided  for  a  time  at  Rome,  where 
he  produced  several  large  pictures.  Among  his  best 
works  may  be  named  "  Vasco  da  Gama  encountered  by 
the  Spirit  of  the  Storm  in  passing  the  Cape,"  "The 
Genius  of  Discord,"  and  "  Orestes  pursued  by  Furies." 
He  published  "  Essays  on  the  Characteristics  of  the 
Great  Masters,"  and  other  works  on  art.  Died  in  1849. 
See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,' 
(Supplement.) 

Scott,  (Sir  Francis  Edward,)  an  English  writer  on 
art,  born  in  1824,  lived  near  Birmingham.  He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  and  promotion  of  art.  Died 
in  1863. 

Scott,  (George  Gilbert,)  an  eminent  English  archi- 
tect, born  near  Buckingham  about  1810.  Among  his 
most  admired  edifices  are  the  Gothic  church  of  Saint 
Nicholas  at  Hamburg,  in  Germany,  and  the  cathedral 
of  Saint  John,  in  Newfoundland.  He  furnished  the 
design  for  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Hamburg,  which  maybe 
considered  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  structures  of  recent 
times.  Mr.  Scott  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1855.  He  published  "  A  Plea  for  the  Faith- 
ful Restoration  of  our  Ancient  Cathedrals,"  (1850,)  and 
"Some  Remarks  on  Secular  and  Domestic  Architecture, 
Present  and  Future,"  (1857.)  He  died  at  London,  March 
27,  1878. 

Scott,  (George  Lewis,)  a  mathematician,  born  at 
Hanover,  was  appointed  one  of  the  preceptors  of  George 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fail,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon 


SCOTT 


2157 


SCOTT 


III.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  m 
1780. 

Scott,  (Helenus,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  writer, 
who  resided  for  some  time  in  India,  was  the  author  of 
a  romance  entitled  "  The  Adventures  of  a  Rupee."  Died 
in  1821. 

Scott,  (James,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Leeds  in 
1733,  became  rector  of  Simonburn,  in  Northumberland. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  was  the 
author  of  political  essays  published  under  the  signature 
of  "  Anti-Sejanus"  and  "Old  Slyboots."     Died  in  1814. 

Scott,  (John.)     See  Eldon,  Lord. 

Scott,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wiltshire 
in  1638,  became  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  London. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Christian  Life." 
Died  in  1694. 

Scott  OF  Amwell,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Bermondsey,  near  London,  about  1736,  was  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Amwell,  a  Descriptive  Poem,"  (1776.)     Died  in  1783. 

Scott,  (John,)  an  English  journalist,  and  first  editor  of 
the  "London  Magazine,"  was  killed,  in  1821,  in  a  duel 
resulting  from  a  dispute  with  the  editor  of  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine."     He  published  "  A  Visit  to  Paris  in  1814." 

Scott,  (Julian,)  an  American  artist,  born  at  Johnson, 
Vermont,  February  14,  1S46.  In  1861  he  entered  the 
United  States  volunteer  army,  and  while  in  the  service 
made  sketches  which  won  much  attention.  His  principal 
pictures  are  battle-scenes, — "Cedar  Creek,"  (1870,)  in 
the  Vermont  State-house,  "  White-Oak  Swamp,"  "Gold- 
en's  Farm,"  "  Antietam,"  "  Williamsburg,"  etc. 

Scott,  (Levi,)  a  Methodist  bishop,  born  near  Odessa, 
Delaware,  October  11,  1802.  In  1825  he  became  a 
preacher,  and  in  1852  he  was  made  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.     Died  July  13,  1882. 

Scott,  [Lat.  Sco'tus,]  (Sir  Michael,)  a  Scottish 
writer,  celebrated  for  his  learning,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Fifeshire.  He  passed  several  years 
in  France,  and  at  the  court  of  the  German  emperor 
Frederick  II.  Among  the  principal  works  attributed 
to  him  are  the  "  Philosopher's  Banquet,"  ("  Mensa  Phi- 
losophica,")  "  Questio  curiosa  de  Natura  Solis  et  Luna," 
a  treatise  on  the  transmutation  of  silver  and  gold,  and 
a  "  History  of  Animals,"  (in  Latin.)  His  uncommon 
attainments  in  science  caused  him  to  be  regarded  as  a 
magician  by  his  contemporaries  ;  and  Sir  Walter  Scott 
has  introduced  the  legends  concerning  him,  with  great 
effect,  into  his  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel."  He  is  also 
alluded  to  in  Dante's  "  Inferno."     Died  about  1290. 

See  G.  Naud6,  "  Apologia  des  grands  Hoinmes  accuses  de  Ma- 
gie  ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scott,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  181 1.  He  graduated  in  1833  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  became  a  Fellow  of  Balliol,  and  in  1854 
master  of  that  college.  In  1861  he  was  made  professor 
of  exegesis  at  Oxford,  and  in  1870  Dean  of  Rochester. 
He  is  well  known  as  one  of  the  authors  of  "  Liddell  and 
Scott's  Greek  Lexicon."     Died  December  3,  1887. 

Scott,  (Samuel,)  a  skilful  English  painter  of  land- 
scapes and  marine  views.     Died  in  1772. 

Scott,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dissenting  divine  and 
resident  of  Ipswich,  published  a  poetical  version  of  the 
book  of  Job,  (1774.) 

Scott  or  Scot,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate.  (See 
Rotherham.) 

Scott,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Calvinistic  divine  and 
commentator,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1747.  He  became 
curate  of  Olney  in  1781,  and  rector  of  Aston-Sandford  in 
1 801.  He  associated  with  Cowper  and  Newton  at  Olney. 
He  published,  besides  other  religious  works,  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  the  Bible,"  (1796,)  which  had  an  extensive 
circulation,  and  a  defence  of  Calvinism,  (2  vols.,  1811.) 
Died  in  1821. 

See  "  Life  of  T.  Scott,"  (partly  autobiographical,)  by  his  son, 
John  Scott,  1822;  Allibokk,  "^Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Scott,  (Thomas  Fielding,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Iredell  county.  North  Carolina,  March 
12,  1807.  He  graduated  at  Franklin  College,  Athens, 
Georgia,  in  1829.  He  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  (1844,)  and  in  1854  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Oregon.     Died  in  New  York  city,  July  14,  1867. 


Scott,  (Sir  Walter,)  a  celebrated  novelist  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  August  15,  1771.  He  was  de- 
scended from  Walter  Scott,  the  famous  freebooter,  known 
in  border  story  as  "  Auld  Wat."  His  father,  named  also 
Walter  Scott,  was  a  writer  to  the  signet ;  his  mother, 
Anne  Rutherford,  was  the  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Ruther- 
ford, medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
Walter  was  the  seventh  child  in  a  family  of  twelve. 
When  he  was  about  eighteen  months  old,  he  was  attacked 
with  a  fever,  which  left  him,  after  a  few  days,  with  a 
lameness  that  proved  incurable.  In  1779  he  was  sent  to 
the  Edinburgh  High  School.  In  addition  to  the  instruc- 
tion received  at  school,  he  had  a  tutor  at  home,  by  whom 
he  was  taught  writing,  arithmetic,  and  French,  and  from 
whom  he  may  be  said  to  have  also  taken  lessons  in  the 
art  of  disputation.  The  pupil  was  a  Tory  and  Cavalier, 
the  tutor  a  Whig  and  Roundhead,  so  that  they  never  were 
at  a  loss  for  subjects  about  which  to  argue.  "  I  took  up 
my  politics  at  that  period,"  says  Scott,  "  as  King  Charles 
II.  did  his  religion,  from  an  idea  that  the  Cavalier  creed 
was  the  more  gentlemanlike  persuasion  of  the  two."  He 
studied  Latin  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Adam,  then  rec- 
tor of  the  High  School ;  and,  though  he  seems  to  have 
had  but  little  relish  for  the  details  of  syntax  or  prosody, 
he  was  not,  even  at  that  age,  without  an  appreciation  of 
the  beauties  of  the  Roman  classics.  "This  was  really," 
he  observes  in  his  autobiography,  "gathering  grapes 
from  thistles  ;  nor  shall  I  soon  forget  the  swelling  of  my 
little  pride  when  the  rector  pronounced  that,  though 
many  of  my  school-fellows  understood  Latin  better, 
Gnaltertis  Scott  ■WAS  behind  few  in  following  and  enjoying 
the  author's  meaning."  "In  the  intervals  of  my  school- 
hours,"  says  he,  "  I  had  always  perused  with  avidity  such 
books  of  history  or  poetry,  or  voyages  and  travels,  as 
chance  presented  to  me, — not  forgetting  the  usual,  or 
rather  ten  times  the  usual,  quantity  of  fairy-tales.  East- 
ern stories,  romances,  etc."  He  left  the  High  School,  he 
says,  "  with  a  great  quantity  of  general  information,  ill 
arranged,  indeed,  and  collected  without  system,  yet 
deeply  impressed  upon  my  mind,  and  gilded,  if  I  may 
be  permitted  to  say  so,  by  a  vivid  and  active  imagina- 
tion." About  this  time  he  read  Hoole's  translation  of 
Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered;"  he  likewise  became 
acquainted  with  Richardson's  novels,  and  other  works 
of  imagination.  Having  spent  some  months  at  the 
house  of  a  relative  living  at  Kelso,  the  beauties  of  that 
romantic  spot,  with  the  neighbouring  ruins,  appear  to 
have  awakened  in  his  mind  that  passionate  love  for  the 
beautiful  and  picturesque  in  nature,  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  so  distinguished. 

In  1783  he  entered  the  university,  and  commenced 
Greek  under  the  learned  and  accomplished  Professor 
Dalzell.  But,  having  no  previous  acquaintance  with  that 
tongue,  he  found  himself  far  behind  the  rest  of  the  class. 
"  I  could,"  he  says,  "  hit  upon  no  better  mode  of  vindi- 
cating my  equality  than  by  professing  my  contempt  for 
the  language,  and  my  resolution  not  to  learn  it."  He 
afterwards  excited  the  utmost  indignation  of  the  pro- 
fessor by  writing  a  composition  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  show  that  Ariosto  was  superior  to  Homer.  In  some 
of  his  other  collegiate  studies  he  appears  to  have  been 
more  successful.  In  moral  philosophy  he  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  instructed  by  Dugald  Stewart,  "whose 
striking  and  impressive  eloquence  riveted  the  attention 
even  of  the  most  volatile  student."* 

In  1786  he  was  indentured  as  an  apprentice  to  his 
father,  and  "entered  upon  the  dry  and  barren  wilderness 
of  forms  and  conveyances."  He  did  not,  however,  dis- 
continue the  perusal  of  works  of  imagination.  He  even 
studied  Italian,  and  added  an  acquaintance  with  several 
eminent  authors  in  that  tongue,  as  Dante,  Boiardo,  Pulci, 
etc.,  to  his  previous  stores  of  romantic  and  historic  lore. 


*  The  following  testimony  from  Scott's  autobiography,  in  favour  of 
a  solid  and  thorough  education,  is  too  important  to  be  omitted.  "If," 
says  he,  "it  should  ever  fall  to  the  lot  of  youth  to  peruse  these  pages, 
let  such  a  reader  remember  that  it  is  with  the  deepest  regret  that  I 
recollect  in  my  manhood  the  opportunities  of  learning  which  I  neg- 
lected in  my  youth ;  that  through  every  part  of  my  literary  career  I 
have  felt  pinched  and  hampered  by  my  own  ignorance ;  and  that  I 
would  at  this  moment  give  half  fhe  reputation  I  have  had  the  good 
fortune  to  acquire,  if  by  doing  so  I  could  rest  the  remaining  part  upon 
a  sound  foundation  of  learning  and  science." 


€as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h,  ts.^ guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  *h  as  in  this.     (i3^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCOTT 


2158 


SCOTT 


About  the  second  year  of  his  apprenticeship,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  attack  of  hemorrhage,  he  was  for  several 
weeks  confined  to  his  chamber  ;  during  this  time  he 
amused  himself  by  representing  the  battles  and  sieges  of 
which  he  had  read,  by  means  of  shells,  pebbles,  or  other 
objects.  His  recovery,  though  interrupted  by  one  or  two 
relapses,  was  at  length  complete;  and  from  that  time 
until  near  his  death  he  enjoyed  the  most  robust  health. 

In  1792  Scott  began  the  study  of  German,  in  which  he 
afterwards  made  such  proficiency  that  (in  1796)  he  pub- 
lished poetical  translations  of  liiirger's  "  Lenore"  and 
•'  Wild  Huntsman."  This  was  his  first  appearance  be- 
fore the  public  as  an  author. 

In  December,  1797,  he  married  Charlotte  Margaret 
Carpenter,  daughter  of  Jean  Charpentier,  of  Lyons,  a 
devoted  French  royalist.  .She  had  been  educated  in  the 
Protestant  religion,  and  when  her  father  died,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  French  Revolution,  she  and  her  mother 
fled  to  England,  where  they  found  a  friend  and  protector 
in  the  Marquis  of  Downshire,  who  had  previously  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  family  during  his  travels  on 
the  continent.  In  1798  Scott  became  acquainted  with 
M.  G.  Lewis,  by  whom  he  was  prevailed  on  to  furnish 
several  contributions  to  the  "  Tales  of  Wonder,"  a  mis- 
cellany gotten  up  under  the  auspices  of  Lewis.  Scott's 
translation  of  Goethe's  famous  historical  drama,  "  Goetz 
von  Berlichingen  of  the  Iron  Hand,"  appeared  in  1799. 
The  first  two  volumes  of  the  "  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scot- 
tish Border,"  a  collection  of  ancient  ballads  that  had 
occupied  his  attention  for  many  years,  were  published 
in  1802.  In  the  following  year  appeared  the  third  vol- 
ume of  the  "  Border  Minstrelsy,"  consisting  of  original 
ballads  by  Scott  and  others.  He  contributed  during 
the  years  1803-04  several  articles  to  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review."  His  poem  "  Sir  Tristrem"  was  given  to  the 
public  in  1804.  The  "Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  which 
had  been  commenced  several  years  before,  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  January,  1805,  and  at  once  gave  its  author 
a  place  among  the  most  distinguished  poets  of  the  age. 
Its  popularity  was  so  great  that  more  than  forty  thousand 
copies  were  sold  in  Great  Britain  before  1830.  "In  the 
history  of  British  poetry,"  says  Lockhart,  (writing  about 
1833,)  "nothing  has  ever  equalled  the  demand  for  the 
'Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.'"  In  November,  1806,  he 
began  "Marmion  ;"  it  was  finished  and  ready  for  publi- 
cation by  the  middle  of  February,  1808.  "Constable," 
says  Lockhart,  "  offered  a  thousand  guineas  for  the  poem 
shortly  after  it  was  begun,  and  without  having  seen  one 
line  of  it ;  and  Scott,  without  hesitation,  accepted  this 
proposal."  Two  other  booksellers,  however.  Miller  and 
Murray,  were  admitted  to  the  honour  of  sharing  in  the 
publication  of  the  new  poem. 

Scott  was  zealously  engaged,  in  the  latter  part  of  1808, 
in  starting  anew  review,  which,  while  espousing  different 
political  views  from  those  of  the  "  Edinburgh,"  should,  if 
possible,  rival  that  journal  in  literary  ability  and  surpass 
it  in  moderation  and  impartiality.  The  result  of  these 
efforts  was  the  "  London  Quarterly,"  the  first  number 
of  which  appeared  in  January,  1809.  The  "  Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  the  last  of  Scott's  three  great  poems,  was 
published  in  May,  1810.  In  a  critical  notice  of  it  in 
the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  Mr.  Jeffrey  says,  "  Upon  the 
whole,  we  are  inclined  to  think  more  highly  of  the  '  Lady 
of  the  Lake'  than  of  either  of  its  author's  former  publi- 
cations. .  .  .  There  is  nothing  so  fine,  perhaps,  as  the 
battle  in  '  Marmion,'  or  so  picturesque  as  some  of  the 
scattered  sketches  of  the  '  Lay,'  but  there  is  a  richness 
and  a  spirit  in  the  whole  piece  which  does  not  pervade 
either  of  those  poems, — a  profusion  of  incident  and  a 
shifting  brilliancy  of  colouring  that  reminds  us  of  the 
witchery  of  Ariosto."  According  to  Lockhart,  "  the 
'  Lay'  is  generally  considered  as  the  most  natural  and 
original,  '  Marmion'  as  the  most  powerful  and  splendid, 
and  the  '  Lady  of  the  Lake'  as  the  most  interesting,  ro- 
mantic, picturesque,  and  graceful,  of  his  great  poems." 
"The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  says  Prescott,  "was  welcomed 
with  an  enthusiasm  surpassing  that  which  attended  any 
other  of  his  poems.  It  seemed  like  the  sweet  breathings 
of  his  native  pibroch  stealing  over  glen  and  mountain 
and  calling  up  all  the  delicious  associations  of  rural  soli- 
tude, which  beautifully  contrasted  with  the  din  of  battle 


md  the  shrill  cry  of  the  war-trumpet  that  stirred  the 
soul  in  every  page  of  his  '  Marmion.' "  Twenty  thou- 
sand copies  of  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake"  were  disposed 
of  within  a  year  after  its  publication,  and  not  less  than 
fifty  thousand  were  sold  in  Great  Britain  before  the  mid- 
dle of  1836.  In  181 1,  encouraged  by  the  extraordinary 
success  of  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  Scott  resolved,  in- 
F.tead  of  remaining  a  "tenant  at  will  under  a  heavy  rent," 
to  purchase  a  freehold  estate  for  himself.  After  some 
deliberation,  he  fixed  u])()n  Abbotsford,  (in  the  county 
of  Roxburgh,  about  twentv-eight  miles  southeast  from 
Edinburgh,)  a  beautiful  site,  commanding  a  view  of  the 
Tweed,  and  of  Melrose  Abbey,  the  most  graceful  and 
picturesque  of  all  the  monastic  ruins  in  Scotland.  The 
great  expense  which  he  was  tempted  to  incur  in  order 
to  improve  and  beautify  this  place  became  afterwards  the 
chief  source  of  his  pecuniary  difficulties.  The  "  Vision 
of  Don  Roderick,"  a  poem  in  the  Spenserian  measure, 
came  out  in  1811.  "  Rokeby"  appeared  towards  the 
close  of  1812  ;  it  was  followed  within  two  months  by  an- 
other smaller  poem,  entitled  the  "Bridal  of  Triermain." 
The  latter,  having  been  composed  pari  passu  with 
"  Rokeby,"  was  published  anonymously.  Coming  out  as 
it  did  so  soon  after  the  other,  many  persons  were  led 
to  believe  it  must  be  the  production  of  a  different  author. 
Some  eminent  critics,  indeed,  regarded  it  as  a  very  suc- 
cessful imitation  of  Scott's  style  of  composition,  and 
while  it  was  admitted  that,  as  a  whole,  it  fell  below  the 
best  works  of  the  great  master,  it  was  pronounced  to  be 
in  some  respects  fully  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  them. 
The  popularity  enjoyed  by  "  Rokeby"  was  far  from  equal- 
ling that  of  Scott's  earlier  poems.  This  was  probably 
due  in  part  to  the  public  having  become,  in  consequence 
of  the  great  number  of  wretched  imitations  which  had 
appeared,  surfeited  with  that  kind  of  poetry,  and  per- 
haps still  more — as  Scott  himself  believed — to  the  rising 
influence  of  Byron's  bolder  and  more  impassioned  genius. 
The  position  of  poet-laureate  was  offered  to  Scott  on 
the  part  of  the  prince  regent  in  August,  1813,  but  was 
respectfully  declined.  In  July,  1814,  was  published 
"  Waverley,  or  'Tis  Sixty  Years  Since,"  the  first  of  that 
marvellous  series  of  novels  which  were  destined  to  form 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  romance,  and  to  place  the 
name  of  Scott  on  the  highest  pinnacle  of  literary  fame. 

Contrasting  "  Waverley"  with  the  coarse  prosaic  or 
gossiping  character  of  some  of  the  previous  popular 
novels,  Prescott  observes,  "  But  a  work  now  appeared  in 
which  the  author  swept  over  the  whole  range  of  charac- 
ter with  entire  freedom  as  well  as  fidelity,  ennobling  the 
whole  by  high  historic  associations,  and  in  a  style  varying 
with  his  theme,  but  whose  pure  and  classic  flow  was  tinc- 
tured with  just  so  much  of  poetic  colouring  as  suited  the 
purposes  of  romance.     It  was  Shakspeare  in  prose." 

"  Waverley"  had  been  commenced  nine  vears  before, 
but,  discouraged  by  the  criticism  of  one  of  his  friends,  Scott 
had  laid  the  work  aside.  He  appears,  however,  not  to 
have  wholly  lost  sight  of  it;  for  in  1810  he  sent  a  por- 
tion of  it  to  his  friend  James  Ballantyne  the  publisher, 
desiring  his  opinion.  Ballantyne,  although  severely 
criticising  some  parts,  warmly  praised  the  humour  and 
spirit  of  the  work  ;  and  in  reply  to  the  question,  "  Should 
the  author  go  on  ?"  said,  "  Certainly:  I  have  no  doubt 
of  success,  though  it  is  impossible  to  guess  how  much." 

In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  Scott  says,  "  I  had  written  a 
great  part  of  the  first  volume,  and  sketched  other  pas- 
sages, when  I  mislaid  the  manuscript,  and  only  found  it 
by  the  merest  accident  as  I  was  rummaging  the  drawers 
of  an  old  cabinet ;  and  I  took  the  fancy  of  finishing  it, 
which  I  did  so  fast  that  the  last  two  volumes  were  written 
in  three  weeks." 

The  work  was  published  anonymously.  Five  editions 
of  it  (in  all,  6000  copies)  were  called  for  within  less  than 
seven  months.  " '  Guy  Mannering,'  by  the  author  of 
'Waverley,'"  followed  in  February,  1815.  The  name 
"  Waverley  Novels"  was  afterwards  applied  to  the  en- 
tire series  of  those  wonderful  fictions  ;  and  their  anony- 
mous author  was  popularly  styled  "  the  Great  Unknown." 
The  "Lord  of  the  Isles,"  which  Scott  had  had  for  some 
time  in  preparation,  was  published  a  month  before  "Guy 
Mannering."  This  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  of  his 
minor  poems.     If  in  its  general  tone  it  is  not  equal  to 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  ni66n- 


SCOTT 


2159 


SCOTT 


"  Marmion"  or  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  it  has  occasional 
passages  which  are  scarcely  if  at  all  inferior  to  the  finest 
in  those  poems.     "The  Field  of  Waterloo,"  generally 
considered   as  among   the   least   successful   of  Scott's 
poetical  works,  made  its  appearance  in  October,  181 5. 
"  Harold  the  Dauntless,"  another  poem,  published  in 
1817,  maybe  regarded  as  the  last  of  his  efforts  in  this 
line.     He  appears  afterwards  to  have  directed  all  his 
energies  towards  working  the  new  and  richer  mine  of 
prose  fiction,  which  his  genius  had  so  lately  opened. 
Next  to  his  ail-but  unrivalled  skill  in  the  delineation  of 
character,  and  the  graphic  power  and  wonderful  vivid- 
ness of  his  pictures, — whether  of  the  scenes  of  tranquil 
nature,  or  of  the  intense  excitement  and  wild  tumult  of 
battle, — what  most  amazes  us  is  the  marvellous  fertility 
of  his  genius.    There  is  in  the  whole  history  of  literature 
no  other  example  of  such  rapid  and  inexhaustible  pro- 
ductiveness, if  we  take  into  consideration  the  character 
as  well  as  the  number  and  extent  of  his  writings, — Lope 
de  Vega  alone  excepted.  "  Guy  Mannering"  was  followed 
by  "The  Antiquary,"  in  May,  i8i6,  "The  Black  Dwarf" 
and  "Old  Mortality"  appeared  in  December  of  the  same 
year,  "Rob  Roy"  was  published  in  1817;  and  thus  for 
more  than  ten  years  he  continued  to  pour  forth,  appa- 
rently  without    eifort,    those    brilliant    and    fascinating 
fictions   which    quickly   spread   his    fame    not    merely 
wherever  the  English  language  was  spoken,  but  to  the 
utmost  limits  of  the  civilized  world.    A  list  of  his  novels 
and  other  prose  writings  will  be  given  in  another  place. 
In  1820,  without  any  solicitation  on  his  part  or  that 
of  his  friends,  the  rank  of  a  baronet  was  conferred  on 
Scott  by  the  king.     Up  to  his  fifty-fifth  year  Scott  ap- 
pears to  have  experienced  a  degree  of  prosperity  rarely 
vouchsafed  to  mortals.     His  success  as  a  writer  had 
been  nithout  example  in  the  history  of  literature.     He 
had  enjoyed  in  the  largest  measure  not  merely  the  ap- 
plause of  the  multitude  and  the  friendship  of  the  great, 
but  what  was  far  more, — the  universal  esteem  of  those 
whose  esteem  was  most  to  be  valued.     His  good  sense, 
his   manly  modesty,  his  unaffected  kindness  of  heart, 
and    his  nobleness  of  spirit,   commanded  the  respect 
and  admiration  of  those  who,  from  religious  or  party 
prejudice,  were  the  most  opposed  to  him, — for  personal 
enemies  he  had  none.     Perhaps  the  only  considerable 
weakness  in  his  character  was  his  ambition  to  found  a 
new  family,  which  should  constitute  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  famous  house  or  clan  from  which  he  boasted  his 
descent.     To  accomplish  this  grand  aim  was  the  goal 
of  all  his  aspirations, — the  object  of  all  his  plans  and 
labours.   By  his  friendship  for  the  Ballantynes,  whom  he 
had  known  from  boyhood,  he  was  induced  not  only  to 
intrust  to  them  the  publication  of  his  works,  but  to  be- 
come a  secret  partner  in  their  firm.     He  was  thus  com- 
plicated in  commercial  speculations  which  were  destined 
to  involve  him  in  irretrievable  disaster.      He  appears 
to  have  reposed  unlimited  confidence  in  the  prudence 
and  mercantile  ability  of  the  Ballantynes,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  Constable,  with  whom  they  were  commercially 
connected.     But  Constable,  though   an  able   man,  was 
sometimes  rash  ;  and  James  Ballantyne  appears  to  have 
been   wanting  in  thorough  business   habits.     The  final 
catastrophe  was  hastened  by  the  commercial  excitement 
of  1825.     After  some  months  of  painful  suspense,  the 
storm  at  length  burst,  in  all  its  fury,  in  January  of  1826. 
On  examining  into  the  state  of  their  affairs,  it  was  found 
that  Constable  &  Co.  were  able  to  pay  only  two  shillings 
and  ninepence  on  the  pound.     The  firm  of  Ballantyne 
&  Co.,  by  allowing  itself  to  be  declared  bankrupt,  might 
readily  have  come  to  a  settlement  with  its  creditors,  had 
not  Scott  been  a  partner.     He  would  listen  to  no  terms 
of  compromise  ;  all  he   asked  for  was  time.     He  was 
resolved  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life,  if  necessary, 
to  the  payment  of  his  debts,  even  to  the  uttermost  far- 
thing.    His  heroic   purpose  was  at  last  crowned  with 
success  ;  but  it  cost  him  his  life.     To  be  brief,  from  this 
time  forward  he  applied  himself  to  his  literary  labours 
with  an  assiduity  and  zeal  such  as  even  he  had  never 
exhibited  before.     Neither  the  attacks  of  severe  indis- 
position nor  the  overwhelming  grief  caused  by  the  death 
of  his  wife,  (which  occurred  in  May,  1826,)  in  the  midst 
of  the  other  misfortunes,  were  allowed  to  interpose  more 


than  a  temporary  interruption  to  the  arduous  task  which 
he  had  undertaken.  In  consequence  of  these  unre- 
mitting and  unparalleled  exertions,  he  had  a  severe 
paralytic  attack  on  the  15th  of  February,  1830;  but  he 
recovered  in  a  few  weeks  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  resume  his 
labours.  He  had,  however,  another  attack  in  Novem- 
ber, 1830,  and  one  still  more  severe  in  April,  1831.  As 
his  health  continued  to  fail,  it  was  at  length  resolved,  in 
the  autumn  of  1831,  that  he  should  pass  the  winter  in 
Italy.  He  arrived  in  Naples  in  December,  and  re- 
mained there  till  the  middle  of  April,  1832.  In  one  of 
his  letters,  written  while  at  Naples,  he  says,  "  My  plan 
of  paying  my  debts  has  been — thank  God — completely 
successful ;  and,  what  I  think  worth  telling,  I  have  paid 
very  near  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  pounds,  with- 
out owing  any  one  a  halfpenny, — at  least,  I  am  sure  this 
will  be  the  case  by  midsummer."  After  spending  a  short 
time  in  Rome,  he  manifested  a  great  anxiety  to  return 
to  his  native  country.  He  reached  London  on  the  13th  of 
June.  Four  weeks  later  he  arrived  at  Abbotsford,  where 
he  died  on  the  2ist  of  September,  1832. 

Scott  has  the  rare  distinction  of  uniting  with  his  fame 
as  an  eminently  successful  author  a  character  as  a  man 
remarkable  not  only  for  modesty,  manliness,  and  com- 
mon sense,  but  for  a  genuine  kindliness  towards  all  with 
whom  he  came  in  contact. 

"  As  to  Scott,"  says  Washington  Irving,  "  I  cannot 
express  my  delight  at  his  character  and  manners.  He 
is  a  sterling,  golden-hearted  old  worthy,  full  of  the 
joyousness  of  youth,  with  an  imagination  continually 
furnishing  forth  pictures,  and  a  charming  simplicity  of 
manner  that  puts  you  at  ease  with  him  in  a  moment.  It 
has  been  a  constant  source  of  pleasure  to  me  to  remark 
his  deportment  towards  his  family,  his  neighbours,  his 
domestics,  his  very  dogs  and  cats ;  everything  that 
comes  within  his  influence  seems  to  catch  a  beam  of 
that  sunshine  which  plays  round  his  heart."  ("  Life  and 
Letters,"  vol.  i.  pp.  381-2.) 

Referring  to  a  conversation  about  Goethe,  which 
Scott  had  with  Mr.  Cheney  in  Rome  in  the  spring  of 
1832,  the  latter  remarks,  "  He  did  not  seem,  however,  to 
be  a  great  admirer  of  some  of  Goethe's  works ;  .  .  . 
much  of  his  popularity,  he  observed,  was  owing  to 
pieces  which  in  his  latter  moments  he  might  have 
wished  recalled.  He  spoke  with  much  feeling.  I 
answered,  he  must  derive  great  consolation  in  the  re- 
flection that  his  own  popularity  was  owing  to  no  such 
cause.  ...  He  added,  '  It  is  a  comfort  to  me  to  think 
that  I  have  tried  to  unsettle  no  man's  faith,  to  corrupt 
no  man's  principles,  and  that  I  have  written  nothing 
which  on  my  death-bed  I  should  wish  blotted.'  " 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Scott's  novels,  with  the  dates 
of  their  publication:  "  Waverley,"  July,  1814;  "Guy 
Mannering,"  February,  1815  ;  "The  Antiquary,"  May, 
1816  ;  "  The  Black  Dwarf  and  "  Old  Mortality,"  (forming 
the  first  series  of  the  "Tales  of  my  Landlord,")  Decem- 
ber, 1816;  "Rob  Roy,"  December,  181 7;  "The  Heart 
of  Midlothian,"  ("  Tales  of  my  Landlord,"  second  series,) 
June,  1818  ;  "The  Bride  of  Lammermoor"  and  "  Legend 
of  Montrose,"  (third  series  of  "  Tales  of  my  Landlord,") 
June,  1819;  "Ivanhoe,"  December,  1819;  "The  Mon- 
astery," March,  1820;  "The  Abbot,"  September,  1820; 
"  Kenilworth,"  January,  1821  ;  "The  Pirate,"  December, 
1821;  "The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,"  May,  1822;  "  Peveril 
of  the  Peak,"  January,  1823;  "  Quentin  Durward," 
June,  1823;  "Saint  Ronan's  Well,"  December,  1823; 
"The  Red  Gauntlet,"  June,  1824;  "The  Talisman"  and 
"The  Betrothed,"  ("Tales  of  the  Crusaders,")  June,  1825; 
"Woodstock,"  June,  1826;  "Chronicles  of  Canongate," 
(containing  the  "  Highland  Widow,"  and  other  tales,) 
November,  1827;  "Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  April,  1828; 
"Anne  of  Geierstein,"  May,  1829;  "Count  Robert  of 
Paris"  and  "  Castle  Dangerous,"  (fourth  series  of  "  Tales 
of  my  Landlord,")  November,  1831.  Scott  had  written 
in  the  department  of  history  "The  Life  of  Buonaparte," 
of  which  two  editions  yielded  to  the  author's  creditors 
the  enormous  sum  of  ;^i8,ooo.  Of  the  "Tales  of  a 
Grandfather,"  a  popularized  history  of  Scotland,  (dedi- 
cated to  his  little  grandson,  John  Hugh  Lockhart,)  the 
first  series  appeared  in  December,  1827,  the  second  was 
completed  in  December,  1828,  and  the  third  in  Decem- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  tritled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 1 


SCOTT 


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ber,  1829.  A  "  History  of  France,"  constituting  a  fcjurth 
series  of  the  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather,"  was  published 
in  1830.  In  addition  to  his  poeins,  novels,  and  histories, 
Scott  wrote  many  books  of  less  importance,  among 
which  the  following  are  the  principal  :  a  "Life  of  Dry 
den,"  prefixed  to  his  works  in  eighteen  volumes,  edited 
by  Scott,  1808;  "Swift's  Life,"  prefixed  to  his  works  in 
nmeteen  volumes,  1814;  "Paul's  Letters  to  his  Kins- 
folk, -written  from  the  Continent  after  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo,"  January,  1816;  "Letters  of  Malachi  Mc- 
Growther,"  March,  1820;  "Letters  on  Demonology  and 
Witchcraft,"  December,  1S30;  miscellaneous  writings, 
including  critical  notices  of  various  authors,  etc. 

Among  those  writers,  of  whatever  age  or  country, 
who  have  successfully  attempted  the  delineation  of  char- 
acter, Scott  may  justly  claim  to  stand  in  the  foremost 
rank.  Shakspeare,  it  must  be  confessed,  surpassed  him 
in  versatility  as  well  as  in  depth  and  power  ;  Goethe  was 
undoubtedly  his  superior  in  that  exquisite  art  which 
seems  to  be  only  another  name  for  nature  herself;  Field- 
ing may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  have  excelled  him  in 
the  occasional  representation  of  some  individual  char- 
acter ;  Victor  Hugo,  Bulwer,  and  many  others  may 
sometimes  rise  above  him  in  that  sort  of  interest  which 
is  due  to  an  artfully-devised  plot  or  to  the  eloquent  ex- 
pression of  intense  passion.  But  if  we  take  into  account 
ALL  those  qualifications  which  properly  belong  to  this 
kind  of  writing,  such  as  the  power  of  vivid  description, 
a  just  appreciation  of  the  nice  shades  of  character,  an 
easy  and  exquisite  humour,  a  sustained  interest,  not 
dependent  so  much  on  marvellous  or  startling  occur- 
rences, or  on  unheard-of  and  harrowing  complications  of 
calamity,  as  upon  the  power  and  vividness  of  the  repre- 
sentation and  the  depth  of  genuine  feeling  evinced  by  the 
author, — if  to  such  qualifications  be  added  a  healthy, 
pure,  and  elevated  moral  sentiment,  as  far  removed  from 
narrowness  and  bigoted  austerity  on  the  one  hand,  as 
from  affectation  and  extravagance  on  the  other,  we 
cannot  deny  that,  although  many  writers  may  have  ex- 
celled Scott  in  some  one  or  two  points,  yet,  "take  him 
for  all  in  all,"  few  have  equalled  and  scarcely  any  have 
surpassed  him. 

"Sir  Walter  Scott,"  says  a  writer  in  "Blackwood," 
"did  for  literature  what  Shakspeare  did  for  the  drama, 
— provided  a  long  and  gorgeous  gallery  of  great,  noble, 
and  sublime  characters,  that  live  in  all  memories,  and 
become,  though  they  are  fictitious,  as  real  as  if  we  all 
of  us  had  actually  seen  and  conversed  with  them."  (See 
article  on  Charles  Kean  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1868.) 

Scott  has  often  been  called,  on  account  of  his  marvel- 
lous power  of  creating  illusions,  "  the  Great  Enchanter." 
"  Great  and  good  enchanter,"  says  Miss  Edgeworth  ;  "  for 
in  his  magic  there  is  no  dealing  with  unlawful  means. 
...  In  his  writings  there  is  no  private  scandal,  no  per- 
sonal satire,  no  bribe  to  human  frailty,  no  libel  upon 
human  nature.  .  .  .  Hismorality  is  not  in  purple  patches 
ostentatiously  obtrusive,  but  woven  in  through  the  very 
texture  of  the  stuff."  (See  Miss  Edgeworth's  "Helen," 
vol.  i.  chap,  xii.)  It  has  often  been  urged  as  a  reproach 
to  Scott  that  he  had,  on  the  one  hand,  such  a  high  re- 
spect for  royalty  and  aristocracy,  and,  on  the  other, 
such  an  aversion  to  everything  like  democracy.  This 
peculiarity — or  weakness,  as  some  may  call  it — was  due 
in  part  to  an  innate  reverence  for  antiquity,  which  seemed 
indeed  to  be  an  essential  element  of  his  mental  consti- 
tution, and  in  part  to  the  influence  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, which  occurred  at  that  period  of  his  youth  when 
the  character  is  peculiarly  susceptible  of  being  moulded 
by  external  circumstances.  Indeed,  not  a  few  persons  who 
could  boast  of  a  cooler  temperament,  if  not  of  stronger 
intellect,  were  powerfully  influenced  by  that  strange  and 
terrible  phenomenon,  and  some  who  otherwise  would,  in 
all  probability,  have  been  ardent  republicans,  appear  to 
have  lost  by  that  event  all  confidence  in  the  power  of 
the  common  people  to  govern  themselves. 

Walter  Scott  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters ;  his 
eldest  daughter,  Sophia,  was  married  in  1820  to  Mr. 
Lockhait,  afterwards  editor  of  the  "Quarterly  Review." 
Their  daughter  was  married  a  few  years  sine*,  co  Mr. 
Robert  Hope,  who,  by  act  of  Parliament,  took  the  name 


of  Scott,  and  whose  daughter.  Miss  Hope  Scott,  is  the 
possessor  of  Abbotsford,  and  the  only  surviving  descend- 
ant of  Sir  Walter.  The  eldest  son,  Walter,  born  in  1799, 
entered  the  army,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father  inherited 
his  title.  He  died  on  his  return  from  India  in  1847,  and 
with  him  the  title  became  extinct.  His  younger 
brother,  Charles,  born  in  1805,  had  died  previously. 

See  LocKHART,  "  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,"  3  vols.,  1S3S  :  George 
Allan,  "  Lifeof  Sir  W.  Scott  ;"  James  Hogg,  "  Familiar  Anecdotes 
of  Sir  W.  Scott,"  1834  ;  Am6di5h  Pichot,  "  Notice  surla  Vie  de  W. 
Scott,"  1821 ;  C.  G.  Jacob,  "W.  Scott;  biographisch-Iiterarisclier 
Versiich,"  1820;  Nayi-RR,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Scott," 
1833;  L.  DE  LoM^NiK.  "Sir  W.  Scott,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841;  S.  Roberts,  "W.  Scott's  Jungendleben,"  1837;  C.  P.  Hag- 
BRRG,  "  Cervantes  et  W.  Scott,"  1838  ;  G.  von  Kramer,  "  Leben  und 
Werke  W.  Scotts,"  1S33;  Prrscott.  "  Biograpliical  and  Critical 
MisctUanies ;"  "  Edinbiiri»h  Review"  for  April,  1808,  February, 
1815,  and  March,  1817,  (by  Jeffrey  ;)  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
May,  iSio,  December,  1S12,  April,  1816,  January  and  April,  1868; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1838,  (by  Carlvi.e  ;)  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1838,  (by  Prescott;)  "Domestic 
Manners  of  Sir  W.  Scott,"  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine'  for  August, 
1834,  (by  J.\MES  Hogg.) 

Scott,  (William.)     See  Stowell,  Lord. 

Scott,  (William  Anderson,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  in  Bedford  county,  Tennes- 
see, January  30,  1813.  When  seventeen  years  old  he 
became  a  licensed  preacher  of  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian Church.  He  graduated  at  Cumberland  College 
in  1832,  and  studied  divinity  in  Princeton  Seminary,  New 
Jersey.  In  1835  he  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian 
ministry,  and  served  with  great  distinction  as  a  pastor  and 
educator,  chiefly  in  Tennessee,  in  Louisiana,  and  in  San 
Francisco,  where  he  became  president  and  professor  of 
theology  in  the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary. 
His  books  include  "Trade  and  Letters,"  (1855,)  "The 
Wedge  of  Gold,"  (1856,) "  The  Bible  and  Politics,"  (1859,) 
"The  Pentateuch,  an  answer  to  Colenso,"  (1862,)  "The 
Christ  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,"  (1867,)  "The  Centurions 
of  the  Gospel,"  (1867,)  etc.     Died  January  14,  1S85. 

Scott,  (William  Bell,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  artist, 
a  brother  of  David  Scott,  the  artist,  was  born  at  Saint 
Leonard's,  near  Edinburgh,  .September  12,  1811.  He 
won  some  distinction  as  a  historical  painter.  He  removed 
to  London  in  1838,  and  afterwards  founded  the  Art 
School  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  Among  his  books  of 
verse  are  "Hades,"  (1838,)  "The  Year  of  the  World," 
"Poems  by  a  Painter,"  (1864,)  etc.  He  wrote  in  prose 
"Antiquarian  Gleanings,"  "Half-Hour  Lectures  on 
Art,"  "  Life  of  David  Scott,"  (1850,)  a  "  Life  of  DUrer," 
(1869,)  etc.     Died  November  22,  1890. 

Scott,  (WiNFiELD,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  American  generals,  was  born  near  Petersburg,  Vir- 
ginia, on  the  13th  of  June,  1786.  His  paternal  grand- 
lather,  a  native  of  Scotland,  took  part  in  the  rebellion 
of  1745,  and,  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Culloden,  in 
which  his  elder  brother  was  slain,  emigrated  to  Vir- 
ginia, where  he  married,  and  engaged  in  the  profession 
of  law.  His  son  William  married  Ann  Mason, — a  lady 
of  one  of  the  most  respectable  families  in  the  State.  Of 
the  two  sons  of  William  Scott,  who  died  in  1791,  Win- 
field,  the  subject  of  the  present  article,  was  the  younger. 
He  studied  law  at  William  and  Mary  College,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1806.  In  1807  he  became  a 
volimteer  in  a  troop  of  horse,  called  out  under  the  pro- 
clamation which  President  Jefferson  issued  after  the  at- 
tack on  the  Chesapeake,  forbidding  English  war-vessels 
to  enter  the  harbours  of  the  United  States.  During  the 
next  session  of  Congress  (1807-08)  a  bill  was  passed  for 
increasing  the  army ;  and  Scott  was  soon  after  appointed 
a  captain  of  artillery.  In  1809  he  was  ordered  to  New 
Orleans,  to  join  the  army  under  General  Wilkinson. 
Having  indiscreetly  censured  the  conduct  of  his  gene- 
ral, and  even  intimated  his  complicity  with  the  treason 
of  Burr,  Scott  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  sen- 
tenced to  be  suspended  for  one  vear.  What  was  de- 
signed as  a  punishment  proved,  it  would  seem,  a  real 
advantage  to  him.  He  spent  the  term  of  his  suspension 
in  the  diligent  prosecution  of  studies  connected  with  his 
profession,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  thorough 
acquaintance  with  military  science  for  which  he  became 
afterwards  so  distinguished.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  war  of  1812  he  was  made  a  lieutenant-colonel  and 
ordered  to  the  Canada  frontier.     In  October,  Genera' 


a, e, i|  O, U,  y, /t'M^;  &,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  j/^^r/,- a,  e,  \,q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mhi;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCOTT 


2161 


SCOTT 


Van  Rensse'iacr  planned  an  attack  on  the  British  forces 
then  occupying  Queenstown  Heights.  Some  time  after 
the  action  had  commenced,  Scott  crossed  over  from 
Lewiston,  and  arrived  on  the  field.  Colonel  Van  Rens- 
selaer, who  had  the  chief  command  of  the  American 
troops  on  the  Canada  side,  having  been  severely 
wounded,  Scott  succeeded  to  the  command.  His  ex- 
hortations, supported  by  his  heroic  example,  so  in- 
spirited his  men  that  they  drove  back  the  enemy  with 
great  loss ;  and  even  after  the  British  had  been  largely 
reinforced  by  the  arrival  of  General  Sheaffe,  they  still 
for  a  time  bravely  maintained  the  fight,  though  out- 
numbered by  more  than  three  to  one.  Unhappily,  at 
this  critical  juncture,  the  main  body  of  the  American 
army,  which  had  not  yet  crossed  the  river,  was  seized 
with  a  panic,  and  could  not  by  any  considerations  be 
prevailed  upon  to  enter  the  boats.  All  hope  of  succour 
being  thus  cut  oft",  Scott  was  compelled  to  surrender  his 
entire  force  ;  which  he  did  with  the  honours  of  war. 
Having  been  exchanged  in  the  early  part  of  1813,  he 
soon  after  joined,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  the  army 
under  General  Dearborn,  in  the  capacity  of  adjutant- 
general.  He  especially  distinguished  himself  at  the 
capture  of  Fort  George,  Upper  Canada,  in  May,  1813. 
After  braving  incredible  perils,  he  carried  the  place, 
which  he  was  the  first  to  enter,  and  with  his  own  hands 
took  down  the  flag  that  was  waving  over  it.  We  cannot 
here  forbear  to  relate  an  incident  which,  while  it  shows 
the  magnanimity  of  Scott's  character,  may  serve  to  re- 
lieve for  a  moment  the  harsh  and  repulsive  features  of 
"  grim-visaged  war."  After  Scott  had  been  taken  pris- 
oner at  Queenstown,  a  British  ot?icer  asked  him  if  he 
had  ever  seen  the  neighbouring  Falls.  Scott  answered, 
"  Yes  ;  from  the  American  side."  The  other  remarked, 
"You  must  have  a  successful  fight  before  you  can  bee 
them  in  all  their  grandeur,"  (the  finest  view  being  from 
the  Canada  shore.)  Scott  rejoined,  "  Sir,  if  it  be  your 
intention  to  insult  me,  honour  should  have  prompted 
you  first  to  return  me  my  sword."  The  officer  was  re- 
buked by  General  SheaflTe,  and  the  subject  was  dropped 
for  the  time.  At  the  capture  of  Fort  George,  this 
same  officer  was  taken  prisoner  in  turn.  Scott  treated 
him  with  every  mark  of  attention  and  kindness,  and  at 
last  obtained  permission  for  him  to  return  to  England 
on  parole.  Overcome  by  this  generosity,  he  said,  with 
feeling,  "  I  have  long  owed  you  an  apology,  sir.  You 
have  overwhelmed  me  with  kindnesses.  You  can  now 
at  your  leisure  view  the  Falls  in  all  their  glory." 

In  March,  1814,  Scott  was  made  a  brigadier-general. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  troops  of  three  brigades  were 
placed  in  a  camp  of  instruction  at  Buffalo,  under  his 
immediate  supervision,  and  for  three  months  were 
thoroughly  drilled  in  the  modern  French  system  of 
tactics.  The  discipline  thus  acquired  was  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  operations  of  the  ensuing  campaign. 
On  the  3d  of  July,  the  American  army,  consisting  of 
Scott's  and  Ripley's  brigades  and  Hindman's  artillery, 
crossed  the  Niagara  River  and  captured  Fort  Erie.  On 
the  5th,  the  battle  of  Chippewa  was  fought,  and  the 
British  army  under  General  Riall  was  driven  beyond  the 
Chippewa  River.  The  25th  of  July  witnessed  the  hard- 
fought  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  (otherwise  called  "  the 
battle  of  Niagara,")  on  which  occasion  General  Scott 
had  two  horses  killed  under  him,  and  was  twice  wounded, 
the  second  time  severely,  by  a  musket-ball  passing 
through  the  left  shoulder.  It  was  after  eleven  o'clock 
P.M.  when  the  fighting  ceased,  the  Americans  remaining 
for  the  night  in  possession  of  the  field  of  battle,  al- 
though, unhappily,  for  the  want  of  water,  they  were 
compelled  to  abandon  it  early  the  next  morning.  Several 
months  elapsed  before  Scott  had  recovered  from  his 
wounds.  For  his  eminent  services  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general,  and,  not  long  after.  Congress 
passed  a  vote  of  thanks,  (November  3,  1814,)  at  the 
same  time  requesting  the  President  to  bestow  upon  him 
a  gold  medal  "  for  his  distinguished  services"  and  for 
his  "  uniform  gallantry  and  good  conduct  in  sustaining 
the  reputation  of  the  arms  of  the  United  States."  The 
medal  was  afterwards  presented  to  him  by  President 
Monroe.  The  treaty  of  peace  having  been  ratified  by 
the  Senate  in  February,  181 5,  Scott  was  offered  a  seat 


in  the  cabinet  as  secretary  of  war,  which  position,  how- 
ever, he  declined.  In  the  summer  of  1815  he  visited 
Europe  in  a  diplomatic  as  well  as  military  capacity; 
and  he  afterwards  received  a  letter  of  thanks  from  the 
President,  through  the  secretary  of  state,  for  the  success 
with  which  he  had  fulfilled  his  mission.  He  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1816 ;  and  the  following  year  he 
was  married  to  the  daughter  of  John  Mayo,  Esq.,  of 
Richmond,  V^irginia. 

In  1832  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Sac  Indians, 
under  their  chief  Black  Hawk,  and  the  whites  on  the 
northwestern  frontier.  Scott  was  ordered  by  the  war 
department  to  proceed  to  the  scene  of  action  ;  bul 
Black  Hawk  was  taken  prisoner  and  the  war  virtually 
brought  to  a  close  before  he  reached  the  place  of  his 
destination.  During  the  passage  the  cholera  broke  out 
among  his  troojjs  with  a  fearful  fatality.  On  this  oc- 
casion General  Scott  exhibited  traits  of  character  more 
rare,  and  certainly  not  less  glorious,  than  those  which 
had  won  for  him  so  brilliant  a  reputation  on  the  battle- 
field. Not  satisfied  with  merely  making  such  general 
arrangements  as  were  required  for  the  proper  attendance 
of  the  sick,  and  such  as  were  deemed  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  infection,  he  visited,  and  comforted 
the  suffering,  and  by  his  courageous  example  sought 
to  inspire  the  well  with  hope  and  confidence, — which 
was  the  more  difficult  because  at  that  time  the  cholera 
was  almost  universally  regarded  as  contagious.  When, 
towards  the  end  of  1S32,  the  nullification  difficulties 
began  in  South  Carolina,  General  Scott  was  sent  by 
President  Jackson  on  a  confidential  mission  to  Charles- 
ton, that  he  might  take  the  proper  measures  to  prevent, 
or,  if  need  be,  to  quell,  the  threatened  insurrection.  In 
this  difficult  enterprise  he  displayed  great  tact  as  well  as 
prudence  and  firmness,  and  was  completely  successful. 
On  the  death  of  General  Macomb,  in  June,  1841,  Scott 
succeeded  to  the  position  of  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States. 

After  the  commencement  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  in 
the  spring  of  1846,  the  first  campaign  was  made,  and 
the  battles  of  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and 
Buena  Vista  were  fought,  under  the  conduct  of  General 
Taylor.  In  1847  vigorous  preparations  were  made  for 
prosecuting  the  war  on  a  more  extensive  scale,  and 
General  Scott  was  directed  to  take  the  chief  command 
of  the  army  in  Mexico.  A  particular  account  of  the 
operations  which  followed  belongs  rather  to  history  than 
to  a  biography.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  if  Scott  had  ac- 
quired on  the  fields  of  Chippewa  and  Niagara  the  most 
brilliant  reputation  as  a  gallant  and  skilful  soldier,  in  the 
Mexican  war  he  gave  proof  of  strategic  talents  of  the 
highest  order,  and  won  for  himself  a  place  in  the  front  rank 
of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  the  age.  He  began 
the  campaign  in  March,  1847,  by  investing  the  city  of 
Vera  Cruz,  which,  with  the  Castle  of  San  Juan  d'Ulloa, 
capitulated  on  the  26th  of  that  month, — the  garrison, 
which  consisted  of  about  five  thousand  men,  surren- 
dering on  parole.  The  army  of  the  besiegers  amounted 
to  about  twelve  thousand  men.  On  the  18th  of  April 
Scott  attacked  and  took  Cerro  Gordo, — a  mountain- 
fastness  of  great  strength,  defended  by  fifteen  thousand 
Mexicans  under  the  command  of  Santa  Anna  himselfl 
Subsequently  were  fought  the  battles  of  Churubusco, 
(August  20,)  Molino  del  Rey,  (September  8,)  and  Cha- 
pultepec,  (September  13,) — all  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  Early  in  the  morning  of  Sep- 
tember 14  the  army  of  General  Scott  entered  the  city 
in  triumph  ;  and  at  seven  A.M.  the  American  flag  floated 
over  the  National  Palace.  The  treaty  of  Guadalujje 
Hidalgo  was  signed  February  2,  1848,  and  the  Mexican 
capital  was  soon  after  evacuated  by  the  American  forces. 

In  1852,  Scott  was  nominated  by  the  Whig  party  as 
their  candidate  for  the  Presidency  ;  but,  in  the  subse- 
quent election.  General  Pierce,  the  Democratic  nominee, 
was  chosen  President,  Scott  receiving  the  electoral  vote 
of  but  four  States.  In  1855  the  honorary  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general was  conferred  upon  Scott,  with  the  pro- 
vision that  the  title  should  cease  at  his  death. 

He  worthily  closed  his  long  and  illustrious  public 
career,  by  casting  his  powerful  influence  into  the  trem- 
bling scale  of  his  country's  fortunes,  at  a  time  when  not 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

136 


(J|^°*See  Explanati 


23-) 


SCOTT 


2162 


SCULTZ 


only  his  native  State,  but  a  large  number  of  his  former 
friends  and  comrades,  in  whom  the  nation  once  trusted 
with  unwavering  confidence,  were  doing  everything  in 
their  power  to  strengthen  the  cause  of  rebellion.  In 
November,  '1861,  Scott  resigned  his  active  duties  at 
Washington,  and  retired  to  private  life,  though  he  re- 
tained his  full  pay,  according  to  a  special  provision 
passed  by  Congress  in  the  summer  session.  Having 
sailed  to  Europe  for  his  health,  a  few  days  after  he 
landed,  the  news  of  Mason  and  Slidell's  capture  arrived 
in  England.  The  danger  of  a  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  appearing  imminent,  that 
his  country  might  not  be  deprived  of  his  counsels  or 
services  at  so  critical  a  moment,  regardless  of  all  merely 
personal  considerations,  he  at  once  returned  to  his 
native  shores.  He  soon  after  retired  to  his  residence 
in  New  York.     He  died  at  West  Point  in  May,  1866. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Lieutenant-Geiieral  Scott,  written  by  Himself," 
2  vols.,  1864;  Mansfield,  "  Life  of  General  Scott,"  1846;  Headlev, 
"  Life  of  Scott,"  1852  ;  "National  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Mansfield,  "Mexican  War,"  184S. 

Scott-Siddons,  (Mary  Frances,)  an  English  reader 
and  actress,  born  in  1S48.  Her  maiden  name  was  Sid- 
dons,  and  she  was  a  great-grand-daughter  of  the  cele- 
brated actress  Mrs.  Siddons.  In  1864  she  married  Mr. 
Scott,  a  naval  officer.  She  afterwards  won  great  suc- 
cess as  an  actress,  and  especially  as  a  public  reader,  in 
America,  as  well  as  in  Great  Britain. 

Scotti,  skot'tee,  (GiULio  Clemente,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1602.  He  joined  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  but  afterwards  became  their  enemy.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Monarchia  Solipsorum,"  (1645,)  directed 
against  the  Jesuits.     Died  in  1669. 

Scotti,  (Marcello,)  a  political  writer,  born  at  Naples 
in  1742  ;  died  in  1800. 

Scotus.    See  Scott  and  Duns  Scotus. 

Scotus,  (Duns.)     See  Duns  Scotus. 

Scotus,  (John.)     See  Erigena. 

Scougal,  skoo'gal,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  divine  and 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Aberdeen,  was  born  in  East 
Lothian  in  1650.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "The 
Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man,"  etc.     Died  in  1678. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scoutetten,  skoo'tk'tfiN',  (Robert  Joseph  Henri,) 
a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Lille  in  1799,  published  a  num- 
ber of  medical  works.     Died  at  Metz  in  1871. 

Scran'ton,  (George  W.,)  an  American  manufacturer, 
born  in  New  Haven  county,  Connecticut,  in  i8n.  He 
removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  established  iron-works  at 
Scranton,  which  was  named  in  his  honour.  He  repre- 
sented the  twelfth  district  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress 
from  1859  until  his  death.     He  died  in  1861. 

Scribani,  skRe-bi'nee,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1561.  He  wrote  many  theological 
and  polemical  works.     Died  in  1629. 

Scribe.  skR6b,(AuGUSTiN  Eugene,)  a  popular  French 
comic  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1791.  He  wrote  comic 
operas  and  vaudevilles  in  which  the  character  and  foibles 
of  the  middle  classes  of  Paris  are  well  represented.  He 
employed  many  collaborators  in  the  production  of  his 
works,  which  are  very  numerous.  In  1835  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy,  where  Villemain  re- 
ceived him  with  a  complimentary  speech.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Solicitor,"  ("  Le  Solliciteur,"  1817,) 
"  Fra  Diavolo,"  (1830,)  "The  Crown  Diamonds,"  (1841,) 
"  The  Glass  of  Water,"  (1842,)  and  "  Bertrand  et  Raton." 
His  plots  are  ingenious,  and  his  dialogues  natural  and 
animated.     Died  in  1861. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Portraits  contemporains  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^- 
rale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832. 

Scri-bo'ni-us  Lar'gus  Des-ig-na-tl-a'nus,  (des- 
ig-ni-she-a'nus,)  a  Roman  physician  in  the  time  of  Tibe- 
rius and  Claudius,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
'On  the  Composition  of  Medicaments,"  ("De  Compo- 
sitione  Medicamentorum.") 

Scrim'zeor  or  Scrim'ger,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish 
critic,  eminent  for  learning,  was  born  at  Dundee  in 
1506.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  civil 
law  at  Geneva,  where  he  died  m  1571  or  1572. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionaiy  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.' 


Scriv'en,  (Edwari),)  an  English  engraver  in  the 
chalk  and  dottod  manner,  was  born  at  Alcester  in  1775. 
He  engraved  portraits  and  illustrated  various  expensive 
works  for  the  booksellers.     Died  in  1841. 

Scrivener,  skriv'ner,  (Frederick  Henry  Ambrose,) 
LL.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  at  Bermundsey,  Septem- 
ber 29,  1813.  He  graduated  in  1835  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambi  idge.  and  held  various  preferments  in  the  English 
Church.  He  has  published  various  works,  chiefly  on  the 
New  Testament  and  its  Greek  texts  and  manuscripts. 

Scriver,skRee'ver,(CHRiSTlAN,)  a  German  divine,  born 
at  Rendsburg  in  1629,  was  court  preacher  at  Quedlinburg 
in  1690.  He  was  the  author  of  "Gotlhold's  Emblems," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1693. 

Scriverius.     See  Schryvek. 

Scroggs,  (Sir  William,)  a  English  judge  of  ill  repu- 
tation, born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1623.  He  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1678.  Suspected  of 
collusion  with  Titus  Oates  in  the  Popish  Plot,  he  was 
removed  in  i68i.     Died  in  1683. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices." 

Scrope,  (George  Poulett  Thomson,)  an  English 
geologist.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  brother 
of  Lord  Sydenham,  was  born  in  1797.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Geology  of  Cen- 
tral France,"  (1827,)  and  a  "Life  of  Lord  Sydenham," 
(1843.)  ^c  was  elected  to  Parliament,  as  a  Liberal,  for 
the  borough  of  Stroud,  in  1833.    Died  January  19,  1876. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1847. 

Scud'der,  (Henry,)  an  English  Presbyterian  divine 
of  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was  the  author  of  a  popular 
work  entitled  "The  Christian's  Daily  Walk." 

Scud'der,  (Horace  Elisha,)  an  American  author, 
born  in  Boston,  October  16,  1838.  He  graduated  at 
Williams    College    in    1858.     His    principal    works   are 

Seven  Little  People  and  their  Friends,"  (1862,)  "  Dream 
Children,"  (1863,)  "Life  of  D.  C.  Scudder,"  (1864,) 
"Stories  from  my  Attic,"  (1869,)  "The  Bodley  Family," 
a  series  of  books  for  cliildren,  (7  vols.,  1875-83,)  "  Dwell- 
ers in  Five  Sisters  Court,"  (1876,)  "Boston  Town," 
(1881,)  "Noah  Webster,"  (1882,)  a  "History  of  the 
United  States,"  etc. 

Scud'der,  (John  M.,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  divine  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at 
New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1793.  In  1819  he  sailed 
as  a  missionary  to  Ceylon,  where  he  resided  nineteen 
years.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Redeemer's  Last 
Command,"  "Letters  to  Children  on  Missionary  Sub- 
jects," and  other  religious  works.     Died  in  1855. 

Scudder,  (Samuel  Hubbard,)  an  American  natural- 
ist, a  brother  of  H.  E.  Scudder,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  April  13,  1837.  He  graduated  at  Wil- 
liams College  in  1857.  He  published  a  work  on  "  But- 
terflies," and  many  scientific  papers,  and  in  1883  became 
editor  of  "  Science,"  a  periodical.  He  has  given  especial 
attention  to  the  fossil  insects  found  in  great  numbers  in 
Colorado. 

Scud6ri  or  Scud^ry,  de,  deh  skii'di're',  (George,) 
a  French  dramatist,  was  born  at  Havre  about  1601.  He 
was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  his  works 
had  great  popularity  in  iiis  time,  but  are  now  forgotten. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1667. 

Scud^ri  or  Scudery,  de,  (Madeleine,)  sister  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1607.  She  wrote  numerous  ro- 
mances, which  were  greatly  admired  by  her  contempo- 
raries. Among  these  we  may  name  "  Artamene,  ou  le 
Grand  Cyrus,"  (10  vols.,)  "Clelie,"  (10  vols.,)  and  "  Ibra- 
ham,  ou  I'illustre  Bassa."  She  also  published  numerous 
tales,  fables,  and  poems.  Mademoiselle  de  Scuderi  was 
the  most  distinguished  member  of  the  society  which 
met  at  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  and  which  has  been 
immortalized  by  Moli^re  in  his  "  Precieuses  ridicules." 
Died  in  1701. 

See  Tallemant  DES  RiJaux,  "  Historiettes;"  Nici^ron,  "  M^- 
moires  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Scudery.     See  Scud6rl 

Scultetus.    See  Schultet,  Schultz,  and  Scultz. 

Scultz,    skoolts,    [Lat    Sculte'tus,]    (Johann,)   a 

German  surgeon,  born  at  Ulm  in  1595,  was  a  pupil  of 


a,  e,  i.o.  u,  y, /<?«?•.■  i,i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short; a.,  e,  i,  g,  o/>scurg;  dr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfttjgood;  moon; 


SCYLAX 


2163 


SEBASTIANI 


Spigelius.  He  was  the  author  of  "Armamentarium 
Chirurgicum,"  a  surgical  work  highly  esteemed  at  the 
time.     Died  in  1645. 

Scylax,  si'laks,  [S/ci'Aa^,]  a  Greek  mathematician  and 
geographer,  was  a  native  of  Caryanda,  near  flalicarnas- 
sus,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  B.C.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Periplus  of  the  Parts  beyond  the 
Columns  of  Hercules,"  which  was  first  published  by 
Hoeschel  in  1600. 

S9y-lit'zes  or  Sgy-lit'za,  [S/cnTirCr/f,]  (John,)  a 
Byzantine  historian,  sometimes  called  Curopala'tes, 
floirished  about  1050-80.  He  wrote  a  valuable  history 
of  the  Greek  Empire,  I,vvcnpt(  laropiuv. 

S9yl'la  [Gr.  iKvXXa]  and  -eha-ryb'dis,  of  classic 
mythology,  were  represented  as  two  monsters  which  in- 
fested the  strait  between  Italy  and  Sicily  and  rendered 
the  navigation  of  that  passage  very  dangerous.  They 
were  located  one  on  each  side  of  a  narrow  channel, 
through  which  ships  must  pass,  so  that  the  mariner  who 
avoided  one  was  apt  to  become  a  victim  of  the  other, 
as  the  proverb  says, — 

"  Incidit  in  Scyllam  qui  vult  vitare  Charybdim." 

The  poets  feigned  that  Scylla  was  a  maiden  transformed 
by  Circe  into  a  monster  that  barked  like  a  dog.  Scylla 
is,  perhaps,  the  personification  of  a  rock,  and  Charybdis 
of  a  whirlpool. 

Scymnus,  sim'nus,  ['S.KVfjvog,]  of  Chios,  a  Greek 
geographer,  who  lived  about  80  H.C.,  was  the  author  of  a 
description  of  the  earth,  in  Iambic  verse,  of  which  only 
fragments  are  extant. 

Seabury,  see'ber-e,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Groton,  Connecticut,  in  1729.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Con- 
necticut in  1783.     Died  in  1796. 

Seabury,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  o( 
the  Episcopal  Church,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  wa.s 
born  in  1801.  He  became  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Churchman"  in  1834.  He  published  "American  Sla- 
very Justified  by  the  Law  of  Nature,"  (1861,)  and  othei 
works.     He  died  in  New  York,  October  10,  1872. 

Seals'field,  (Charles,)  a  litth-ateur,  born  at  Poppitz, 
in  Moravia,  March  3,  1793.  His  true  name  was  Karl 
Postel.  In  early  life  he  was  a  monk.  He  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "Courrier  des  £tats-Unis,"  New 
York,  in  1829.  He  published  (in  English)  "Tokeah,  or  the 
White  Rose,"  and  "  Sketches  of  Transatlantic  Travels," 
"  Pictures  of  Life  from  both  Hemispheres,"  and  "  South 
and  North,"  (in  German,  3  vols.,  1842.)  Translations 
of  portions  of  the  three  last-named  works  appeared  in 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine."     Died  in  1864. 

Sea'nian,  (Lazarus,)  an  English  dissenter  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  one  of  the  divines  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly.     Died  in  1675. 

Sear'ing,  (Laura  Redden,) — before  marriage, Laura 
C.  Redden, — an  American  poet,  whose  pseudonym  is 
Howard  Glyndon.  She  was  born  near  Salisbury, 
Maryland,  February  9,  1840.  At  ten  years  of  age  an 
attack  of  brain-fever  left  her  totally  deaf.  In  1876  she 
was  married.  Among  her  books  are  "  Notable  Men  of 
the  Thirty-Seventh  Congress,"  (1862,)  "  Idyls  of  Battle," 
(1S64,)  "Little  Boy's  Story,"  (from  the  French,  1870,) 
and  "Sounds  from  Secret  Chambers,"  (poems,  1874.) 

Sears,  seerz,  (Barnas,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  scholar,  born  at  Sandisfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1802. 
Having  studied  at  several  German  universities,  he  be- 
came, after  his  return,  president  of  Brown  University, 
at  Providence,  (1855.)  He  published,  among  other  works, 
"Ciceroniana;  or.  The  Prussian  Mode  of  Instruction  in 
Latin,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Luther,  with  Special  Reference 
to  its  Earlier  Periods,"  etc.,  (1850.)  He  also  contributed 
to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra"  and  the  "  Christian  Review." 
For  several  years  he  was  manager  of  the  Peabody  Edu- 
cational Fund.     Died  July  6,  1880. 

Sears,  (Edmund  Hamilton,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  poet,  born  at  Sandisfield,  Massachusetts,  in 
1810.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1834,  and  at 
the  divinity  school  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  and 
held  various  Unitarian  pastorates.  Among  his  works 
are  "Regeneration,"   (1853,)    "Pictures   of  the    Olden 


Time,"  (1857,)  "  Athanasia,"  (1857,)  "  The  Fourth  Gospel 
the  Heart  of  Christ,"  (1872,)  and  "Sermons  and  Songs 
of  Christian  Life,"  (1875,)  ^^^  latter  including  some 
favourite  hymns.  Died  at  Weston,  Massachusetts,  Jan- 
uary 14,  1876. 

Sea'ton,  (John  Lolborne,)  Baron,  an  English 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1776.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  was  afterwards 
appointed  Governor  of  Canada.  He  obtained  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath  in  1838,  was 
made  a  general  in  1854,  and  in  1855  commander  of  the 
military  forces  in  Ireland.     Died  in  1863. 

Sea'tpn,  (William  Winston,)  an  American  jour- 
nalist, born  in  King  William  county,  Virginia,  in  1785, 
was  editor  successively  of  the  Petersburg  "Republican" 
and  the  "North  Carolina  Journal,"  and  in  1812  became 
associated  with  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Gales,  as  editor 
of  the  "National  Intelligencer,"  at  Washington.  Died 
in  1866. 

Seb,  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  mythology,  was  the  father 
of  the  gods,  and  the  god  of  the  earth.  He  was  identified 
with  Cronos,  or  Saturn. 

Seba,  sa'ba,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch  amateur  naturalist, 
born  in  East  Friesland  in  1665,  acquired  a  large  fortune 
in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  which 
he  spent  in  forming  a  museum  of  objects  in  natural  his- 
tory. This  collection  having  been  purchased  by  Peter 
the  Great  of  Russia,  Seba  made  another,  still  larger, 
which  was  esteemed  the  finest  in  Europe.  He  pub- 
lished a  description  of  his  museum,  in  Latin  and  French, 
(4  vols,  fol.)  He  died  in  1736,  soon  after  which  his  col- 
lection was  sold  at  auction. 

Sebastian,  se-bast'yan,  [Port.  SebastiAo,  si-bis-te- 
own';  Fr.  S^bastien,  si'bSs'te4,N';  Sp.  Sebastian, 
si-b&s-te-in' ;  Lat.  Sebastia'nus,]  Dom,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, and  grandson  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1554.  He  manifested  at  an  early  age 
a  passion  for  military  adventure  and  romantic  exploits. 
In  1578  he  took  advantage  of  the  dissensions  which  had 
broken  out  in  Morocco  to  invade  that  country,  under 
the  pretext  of  assisting  Muley  Mohammed  to  recover  his 
throne,  which  had  been  usurped  by  his  uncle,  Abdul- 
Melek  (or  -Malek.)  He  invaded  Morocco,  and  was  op- 
posed by  Abdul-Melek  in  a  battle  near  Alcazar- quivir, 
where  Sebastian  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1578. 

See  Bernardo  da  Cruz,  "  Chronica  de  Dom  Sebastiao,"  1837  ; 
Barbosa  Machado,  "Memorias  para  a  Historia  de  Portugal,"  4 
vols.,  1736-51;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  Baena  Pareda, 
"  Vida  de  D.  Sebastian,"  1691. 

Sebastian,  [Lat.  Sebastia'nus;  Fr.  S6bastien,  si'- 
bts'te-S,N' ;  It.  Sebastiano,  si-bis-te-i'no,]  Saint,  a 
celebrated  Christian  martyr  of  the  third  century,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  native  of  Narbonne,  in  France. 
He  served  as  a  captain  in  the  praetorian  guard  under 
Diocletian.  Having  refused  to  abjure  his  faith,  he  was 
tied  to  a  tree  and  pierced  with  arrows,  a.d.  288.  His 
martyrdom  has  been  a  favourite  subject  with  the  painters 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  his  protection  is  invoked  by  the 
Catholics  against  pestilence. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Sebastian  del  Piombo.     See  Piombo. 

Sebastiani,  si-bis-te-S'nee  or  si'bts'te't'ne',  (Hor- 
ace Francois,)  Count,  a  distinguished  general  and 
diplomatist  in  the  French  service,  was  born  in  Corsica 
about  1775.  He  took  part  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of 
1796  and  1799,  and  rose  to  be  general  of  brigade  in  1802. 
He  afterwards  served  in  Austria,  Spain,  and  Russia. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  marine  after  the  revolution 
of  1830  by  Louis  Philippe,  and  subsequently  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  In  1835  he  was  ambassador  to  London, 
and  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1840.  Died  in  1851. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "  M.  le  Comte  de  Sebastiani,"  1841 ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Sebastiani,  (Jean  AndrS  Tiburce,)  Viscount,  a 
general,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Cor- 
sica in  1788.  He  took  part  in  the  Spanish  campaigns 
from  1808  to  181 1,  and  accompanied  the  grand  army  to 
Russia  in  i8i2.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  after 
the  revolution  of  1830,  and  received  the  grand  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honour  in  1845.     Died  in  1871. 


cas  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  2&j;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  zt,.  » 


SEBASTIANO 


2164 


SEDGWICK 


Sebastiano.    See  Sebastian. 

Sebastianus.    See  Sebastian. 

SebastiSo.     See  Sebastian. 

S^bastien.     See  Sebastian. 

Seber,  sa'ber  or  za'ber,  (Wolfgang,)  a  German 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Siila  in  1573,  published  an 
"Index  of  all  the  Words  in  Homer,"  ("Index  omnium 
in  Homero  Verborum,")  and  editions  of  several  Greek 
classics.     Died  in  1634. 

Sebek,  the  crocodile-headed  god  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  He  was  chiefly  worshipped  in  the  Arsinoite 
nome  :  in  other  regions  he  was  in  late  times  held  in  such 
general  abhorrence  that  the  names  of  towns  and  districts 
where  he  was  worshipped  were  omitted  from  the  geo- 
graphical lists. 

Seb'i-ehus,  (in  Egyptian,  Shab'atok,)  a  king  of 
Egypt,  a  son  and  successor  of  Sabacon.  He  lost  Ethi- 
opia to  Tirhakah,  but  joined  with  that  prince  and  with 
Hezekiah  in  a  league  against  the  Assyrians.  The  Bible 
and  the  Egyptian  records  both  descril^e  the  miraculous 
destruction  of  the  hosts  of  Sennacherib,  (701  B.C.)  In 
692  B.C.  Tirhakah  slew  Sebichus  and  conquered  all 
Egypt. 

Sebonde,  de,  di  si-bon'di,  or  Sabunde,  si-boon'- 
di,  (Raymond,)  a  Spanish  physician  and  theologian, 
born  at  Barcelona,  became  professor  of  medicine,  phi- 
losophy, and  divinity  at  Toulouse.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Theologia  Naturalis,"  (1496,)  which  was  translated 
into  French  by  Montaigne.     Died  about  1432. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  J.  Holberg, 
"  De  Theologia  Naturali  R.  de  Sebonde,"  1846. 

Sebron,  si'bRAN',  (Hippolyte,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Daguerre.     Died  in  1879. 

Secchi,  sek'kee,  (Pietro  Angelo,)  S.J.,  a  distin- 
guished Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Reggio  nelT  Emilia, 
July  29,  1818.  In  1833  he  became  a  Jesuit.  He  was  an 
instructor  at  Loreto,  1841-43,  and  at  Georgetown,  D.C., 
1849-50,  having  meantime  studied  divinity  at  Rome. 
Father  Secchi  won  a  wide  and  well-deserved  reputation 
at  the  observatory  of  Rome,  to  which  he  was  called  in 
1850.  His  spectroscopic  observations,  his  studies  of 
stellar,  solar,  and  terrestrial  physics,  and  his  meteoro- 
logical researches,  all  were  important.  Among  his  many 
contributions  to  scientific  literature  are  "Catalogo  delle 
Stelle,"  (1867,)  "  Fisica  solare,"  (1869,)  "Le  Soleil," 
(1870,)  "Deir  Unita  delle  Forze  fisiche,"  (1875,)  etc. 
Died  February  26,  1878. 

Sechelles.     See  H^rault  de  S6chelles. 

Seokendorf,  von,  fon  s^k'en-doRf  or  z5k'en-doRf, 
(Christian  Adolf,)  Baron,  a  German  dramatist  and 
poet,  born  in  1767;  died  in  1833. 

Seokendorf,  von,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  Count, 
a  German  commander  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Kbnigs- 
berg,  in  Franconia,  in  1673,  ^^^  a  nephew  of  Veit  Lud- 
wig,  noticed  below.  He  served  against  the  Turks  under 
Prince  Eugene,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succes- 
sion, and  subsequently  entered  the  army  of  Augustus 
II.  of  Poland.  As  Polish  ambassador  at  the  Hague,  he 
assisted  in  negotiating  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713. 
Created  field-marshal-lieutenant  in  1717,  he  fought  under 
Eugene  at  the  battle  of  Belgrade,  and  was  soon  after 
made  a  count  of  the  empire,  general  of  ordnance,  and 
governor  of  Leipsic.  He  concluded  the  treaty  of  Wus- 
terhausen,  in  1726.  On  the  death  of  Eugene  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  army  at  Belgrade. 
Died  in  1763. 

See  Theresius  von  Seckendorf,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  dea 
Grafen  von  Seckendorf,"  1792-94 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^ 
rale." 

Seckendorf,  von,  (Gustav,)  Baron,  a  German 
writer,  known  by  the  pseudonym  of  Patrick  Peale, 
born  near  Altenburg  in  1775,  was  author  of  a  number 
of  dramas  and  prose  essays.  He  died  in  America 
in  1823. 

Seckendorf;  von,  (Leo,)  Baron,  a  German  litti- 
rateur,  brother  of  Christian  Adolf,  noticed  above,  was 
born  near  Hassfurt  about  1773  J  died  in  1809. 

Seckendorf,  von,  (Veit  Ludwig,)  an  eminent 
German  statesman,  scholar,  and  theologian,  born  near 
Eriangen  in  1626.  In  1691  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Elector  Frederick  III.  (afterwards  Frederick  I.  of  Prus- 


sia) his  privy  councillor,  and  made  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Halle.  He  was  the  author  of  a  political 
work  entitled  "Deutsche  Fiirstenstaat,"  (1665,)  "His- 
torical and  Apologetical  Commentary  on  Lutheranism," 
"Compendium  of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  (both  in 
Latin,  1666,)  and  "  Christenstaat,"  a  defence  of  Chris- 
tianity against  the  infidel  philosophers.     Died  in  1692. 

See  ScHREBER,  "Historia  Vitje  V.  L.  a  Seckendorf"  1733; 
Pipping,  "  Memorise  Theologorum." 

Seck'er,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  prelate,  born 
at  Nottingham  in  1693.  He  studied  at  an  academy  for 
dissenters  at  Tewkesbury,  where  Butler,  the  author  of 
the  "Analogy,"  was  one  of  his  fellow-students.  He 
afterwards  conformed  to  the  Church  of  England,  entered 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  was  ordained  in  1723.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Bristol,  (1735,)  of  Oxford,  (1737,) 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (175S.)  He  died  in  1768, 
leaving  a  number  of  sermons,  lectures,  etc. 

See  Beilbv  Porteus,  "Review  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Archbishop  Seeker." 

Second,  (Jean.)     See  Everard,  (Joannes.) 

Secondat,  de.     See  Montesquielt,  de. 

Secondat,  de,  deh  seh-k6N'dt',  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
Baron,  a  son  of  the  celebrated  Montesquieu,  was  born 
near  Bordeaux  in  1716.  He  wrote  several  scientific 
treatises.     Died  in  1796. 

Secondo,  si-kon'do,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian 
lawyer  and  litteratair,  born  at  Lucera  in  1715.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Julius  Caesar,"  ("  Storia  della 
Vita  di  C.  Giulio  Cesare,"  3  vols.,  1777.)     Died  in  1798. 

Secousse,  seh-kooss',  (Denis  Francois,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1691.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  held  the 
office  of  censor  royal.  He  published  "  Memoires  de 
Conde,"  (5  vols.,  1743,)  "Memoirs  towards  the  History 
of  Charles  the  Bad,"  (1755-58,)  a  "Collection  of  Royal 
Ordinances,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1754. 

Secretan,  sa'kreh-tSn' }  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  writer  and 
politician,  born  at  Lausanne  in  1758.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  executive  directory  in  1799.     Died  in  1839. 

Secundus,  (Joannes.)     See  Everard,  (Joannes.) 

S^daine,  si'din',  (Michel  Jean,)  a  popular  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  17 19.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  comedies  entitled  "  The  Philosopher  with- 
out knowing  it,"  ("  Le  Philosophe  sans  le  savoir,") 
"  The  Unexpected  Wager,"  ("  La  Gageure  imprevue,") 
and  "  Raimond,  Count  of  Toulouse  ;"  also  the  operas 
of  "Aline,  Queen  of  Golconda,"  "Amphitryon,"  "  Rich- 
ard Coeur-de-Lion,"  and  "  William  Tell."  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1786. 
Died  in  1797. 

See  Madame  de  Salm-Dvck,  "  filoge  de  S^daine,"  1797; 
"Nouvelle    Biographic   G^n^rale,  " 

Sedano,  de,  dk  si-di'no,  (Don  Juan  Jos6  Lopez,) 
a  Spanish  antiquary,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares  \\\  1729, 
published  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Medals  and  Ancient 
Monuments  found  in  Spain,"  a  compilation  of  poems 
entitled  "  The  Spanish  Parnassus,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1801. 

Sed'don,  (James  A.,)  an  American  politician  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Virginia.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1845  ^"'^  '"  1849,  and  of  the  Confederate 
Congress,  1861-62.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war 
of  the  Confederate  States  about  November,  1862,  and 
retained  that  office  until  January,  1865.  He  died  Au- 
gust 19,  1880. 

Sedg'^wick,  (Adam,)  an  eminent  English  geologist, 
born  at  Dent,  in  Yorkshire,  March  22,  1785.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity 
College  in  1809.  He  obtained  in  1818  the  chair  of 
geology  founded  at  Cambridge  by  Dr.  Woodward,  and 
became  a  canon  of  Norwich  in  1834.  Professor  Sedgwick 
gave  much  attention  to  the  crystalline  and  palaeozoic 
rocks,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  geology 
in  England.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Synopsis  of  the 
Classification  of  the  British  Palaeozoic  Rocks."  He  is 
reputed  to  have  written  an  able  criticism  which  appeared 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  on  a  book  called  "  Vestiges 
of  Creation."      Died  January  27,  1873. 

SedgTwick,  (Amy,)  (Mrs.  Parkes,)  a  popular  Eng- 
lish actress,  born  at  Bristol  in  1835. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  G,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fSll,  f4t;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moor 


SEDGWICK 


2165 


SEE  BURG 


Sgdg'wick,  (Catherine  Maria,)  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican writer  and  moralist,  daughter  of  Judge  Sedgwick, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts, 
in  1789.  Her  first  publication,  entitled  "  The  New  Eng- 
land Tale,"  (1822,)  was  received  with  great  favour,  and 
was  followed  by  "  Redwood,"  a  novel,  (1824.)  Her  tale 
of  "  Hope  Leslie"  came  out  in  1827,  and  soon  obtained 
a  wide  popularity  in  America  and  Europe,  having  been 
translated  into  German.  Her  other  novels  are  entitled 
"  Clarence,  or  a  Tale  of  our  Own  Times,"  (1830,)  "  The 
Linwoods,"  (1835,)  and  "Married  or  Single,"  (1857.) 
She  also  wrote  numerous  popular  tales  for  the  young, 
which  are  among  the  most  valuable  and  attractive  works 
of  the  kind.  Among  these  maybe  named  the  "  Lov;- 
Token  for  Children,"  "  Poor  Rich  Man  and  Rich  Poor 
Man,"  "  Live  and  Let  Live,"  "  Means  and  Ends  of  Self- 
Training,"  and  "  Morals  of  Manners."  Having  visited 
Europe,  Miss  Sedgwick  published  in  1841  "  Letters  from 
Abroad  to  Kindred  at  Home."  She  contributed  to 
Sparks's  "  American  Biography"  the  "  Life  of  Lucretia 
Maria  Davidson,"  and  wrote  a  number  of  tales  for  the 
leading  periodicals.     Died  in  1867. 

See  Grisvvold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Harriet  Mar- 
TINKAU,  article  in  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1837  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1825,  April,  1828.  January,  1831,  and 
October,  1837  ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  i. 

Sedgwick,  (John,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  Connecticut  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1837.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  first  lieutenant, 
(1846-47,)  and  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular 
army  when  the  civil  war  began.  He  obtained  command 
of  a  brigade  in  August,  1861,  distinguished  himself  at 
Fair  Oaks,  May  31  and  June  l,  1862,  and  took  part  in 
the  Seven  Days'  battles,  June  26  to  July  i.  Having 
displayed  great  courage  and  skill  at  Antietam,  Septem- 
ber 16  and  17,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general 
in  December.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863,  and  in  the  army  which 
(>rant  moved  towards  Richmond.  He  was  killed  near 
Spottsylvania  Court-House  on  the  9th  of  May,  1864. 

Sedgwick,  (Obadiah,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1600.  He  was  preacher  at  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  and  a  member  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Anatomy 
of  Secret  Sins,"  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in 
1658. 

Sedg^^ick,  (Robert,)  an  ancestor  of  Theodore  Sedg- 
wick, was  a  major-general  in  the  army  of  Cromwell. 
He  was  one  of  the  early  settlers  of  Charlestown,  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  took  Port  Royal  from  the  French.  Died 
in  Jamaica  in  1656. 

Sedgwick,  (Susan  Ridley,)  wife  of  Theodore  Sedg- 
wick, (17S0-1839,)  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1789. 
She  published  several  tales,  among  them  "The  Young 
Emigrants,"  "The  Morals  of  Pleasure,"  (1829,)  "The 
Children's  Week,"  (1830,)  "Allen  Prescott,"  (1834,)  and 
"  Walter  Thornley,"  (1859.)     Died  in  1867. 

Sedgwick,  (Theodore,)  an  able  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1746. 
He  entered  the  army  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary war,  and  in  1785  was  elected  to  the  Continental 
Congress,  in  which  he  served  until  1796.  He  became  a 
United  States  Senator  in  1796,  and  was  chosen  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1799.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1802  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa- 
chusetts. In  this  post  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  earn- 
est opposition  to  slavery ;  and  to  his  efforts  was  owing, 
in  a  great  degree,  the  abolition  of  that  institution  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  resided  many  years  at  Stockbridge,  to 
which  he  removed  in  1785.  He  was  an  active  member 
of  the  Federal  party,  and  was  a  communicant  in  the 
church  of  Dr.  Channing  in  Boston,  where  he  died  in 
January.  1813. 

Sedgwick,  (Theodore,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Sheffield,  Massachusetts,  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Public 
and  Private  Economy,  illustrated  by  Observations  made 
in  Europe  in  1836-7."  As  a  member  of  the  State  legis- 
lature, he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  anti-slavery, 
temperance,  and  other  reforms.     Died  in  1839. 


Sedgwick,  (Theodore,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Albany  in  181 1.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1829,  and  subsequently  made  the  tour  of 
Europe.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation  and  extensive 
practice  as  a  lawyer,  and  published  several  legal  works 
of  great  merit.  Among  these  we  may  name  his  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Measure  of  Damages,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  which  govern  the  Amount  of  Compensation 
recovered  in  Suits  at  Law,"  (1847.)  In  1858  he  was 
appointed  United  States  attorney  for  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  New  York.     Died  in  1859. 

Sedgwick,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan,  was 
called  "  the  Apostle  of  Ely,"  also  "  Doomsday  Sedgwick," 
from  his  prophecies  of  the  end  of  the  woi  Id  being  near. 
Died  about  1669. 

Sedillot,  si'de'yo',  (Charles  Emmanuel,)  a  skilful 
French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1804, 
was  appointed  in  1841  professor  of  surgical  clinics  in  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Strasbourg.  He  published  a 
"Manual  of  Legal  Medicine,"  (1830,)  and  other  works. 

Sedillot,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born  near 
Ranibouillet  in  1757.  He  founded  in  1797  the  "Journal 
of  Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Pharmacy,"  which  he  edited 
for  twenty  years.     Died  in  1840. 

Sedillot,  (Jean  Jacques  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  the  father  of  Charles  Emmanuel,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Montmorency  in  1777;  died  in  1832. 

Sedillot,  (Louis  Pierre  Eugene  Am6lie,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  x8o8.  He  was  successively  appointed  professor  of 
history  in  the  Colleges  of  Bourbon  and  Saint  Louis, 
secretary  in  the  College  of  France,  and  of  the  school  for 
living  Oriental  tongues.  Among  his  numerous  works 
we  may  name  "Letters  on  some  Points  of  Oriental 
Astronomy,"  (1834,)  "New  Researches  towards  the 
History  of  Mathematical  Science  among  the  Orientals," 
(1837,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Arabs."     Died  in  1875. 

Sed'ley,  (Catherine,)  a  daughter  of  Sir  Charles 
Sedley,  "whose  abilities  and  impudence,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "she  inherited."  She  became  the  mistress  of 
James  II,,  who  gave  her  the  title  of  Countess  of  Dor- 
chester. She  co-operated  with  the  king's  ministers  in 
resisting  his  infatuated  purpose  to  hazard  the  loss  of  the 
throne  by  his  zeal  for  popery.     Died  in  1692. 

Sedley,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  poet  and  drama 
tist,  born  in  Kent  in  1639,  was  distinguished  at  the 
court  of  Charles  II.  for  his  wit  and  profligacy.  He  was 
a  member  of  Parliament  from  New  Romney,  Kent,  and 
after  the  revolution  of  1688  he  joined  the  party  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange.  He  was  the  author  of  tragedies 
entitled  "Antony  and  Cleopatra"  and  "The  Tyrant 
King  of  Crete,"  also  a  number  of  comedies  and  licen- 
tious poems.     Died  in  1701. 

Se-du'li-us,  (C^^lius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  Christian 
of  the  fifth  century,  was  the  author  of  "Mirabilium  Di- 
vinorum,"  being  portions  of  the  history  of  the  Bible,  in 
hexameter  verse,  a  "  Hymnus"  in  praise  of  Christ,  and 
other  similar  works. 

Seebach,  sa'biK  or  za'biK,  (Marie,)  a  popular  Ger- 
man actress,  born  at  Riga  in  1837.  After  she  had 
acquired  a  European  reputation,  she  visited  the  United 
States  in  1870. 

Seebach,  von,  fon  za'bSK,  (Albin  Leo,)  a  German 
diplomatist,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1811.  He  became 
ambassador  from  Saxony  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1847, 
and  to  Paris  in  1853. 

Seebeck,  sa'bgk  or  za'bSk,  (Johann  Thomas,)  a 
German  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Reval  in  1770,  be- 
came a  resident  of  Nuremberg  about  1812.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  Berlin,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  that  city.  He  made  discoveries  in  optics,  and 
invented  the  thermo-electric  pile,  (1821.)    Died  in  1831. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Seebode,  sa'bo'deh  or  za'bo'deh,  (Joachim  Gott- 
fried,) a  German  philologist,  born  in  1792.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Tacitus  and  Thucydides.     Died  in  i860. 

Seeburg,  von,  fon  sa'booRG,  (Franz,)  a  German 
author,  born  at  Nymphenburg,  January  15,  1856.  He 
became  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  and  wrote  many  books, 
chiefly  didactic  stories,  and  tales  for  the  young.    A  more 


€  as  k:  ^  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.  ^ 


SEED 


2166 


SEGUIER 


ambitious   work   is   "The    Fuggcrs    and    tlieir   Tin)es," 

(1879.) 

Seed,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  divine,  horn  in  Cum- 
berland, published  a  number  of  Sermo.is,  Letters, 
Essays,  etc.  He  preached  at  Twickenham  and  Enhani. 
Died  in  1747. 

Seekatz,  sa'kSts  or  za'kSts,  (Johann  Konrad,)  a 
German  painter  of  superior  merit,  born  at  Griinstadt  in 
1719;  died  in  1768. 

Seelen,  von,  fon  sa'len  or  za'len,  (J.  H.,)-a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1687;  died  in  1762. 

See'ley,  (John  Robert,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
London  about  1834.  He  graduated  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1857,  where  he  became  a  Fellow  and  in- 
structor. He  was  professor  of  Latin  in  University  Col- 
lege, London,  1S63-69,  and  in  1869  was  made  professor 
of  modern  history  in  Cambridge  University.  He  also 
has  been  since  1882  a  professorial  Fellow  of  Caius  Col- 
lege. Among  his  works  are  the  celebrated  "  Ecce  Homo," 
(1865,)  "  Lectures  and  Essays,"  (1870,)  an  edition  of 
Livy,  with  notes,  (1871  et  seq.,)  "Life  of  E.  M.  Arndt," 
(a  translation,  1879,)  "Life  of  Stein,"  (1879,)  "Natural 
Religion,"  (1882,)  and  "The  Expansion  of  England," 
(1883.) 

Seelye,  see'le,  (Julius  Hawi.ey,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  at  Bethel,  Connecticut,  Sep- 
tember 14,  1824.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in 
1849,  studied  at  Auburn  Theological  School,  and  at  Halle 
University,  in  Germany,  was  a  Reformed  Dutch  pastor, 
1853-58,  was  made  professor  of  mental  and  moral  phi- 
losophy at  Amherst  in  1858,  and  president  of  the  college 
in  1876.  He  was  also  a  member  of  Congress,  1874-7S. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life," 
(1873,)  "Christian  Missions,"  (1875,)  ^nd  a  translation 
of  Schwegler's  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  (1856.) 

Seelye,  (Laurens  Clark,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Bethel,  Connecticut,  September  20, 
1837.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1857,  studied 
at  Andover,  Berlin,  and  Heidelberg,  held  various  Con- 
gregational ist  pastorates  in  New  England,  was  professor 
of  rhetoric  in  Amherst  College,  1865-73,  and  in  1878 
was  appointed  president  of  Smith  College,  Northampton, 
Massachusetts. 

Seemann,  sa'min,  (Berthold,)  a  German  botanist, 
born  at  Hanover,  February  28,  1825.  He  was  educated 
at  Gottingen,  and  travelled  extensively  in  Arctic  and 
tropical  regions.  He  published  a  "Narrative  of  the 
Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Herald,"  (1853,)  a  "Popular  His- 
tory of  the  Palms,"  (1855,)  "Viti,"  (1862,)  etc.  Died 
October  10,  1871. 

Seeta.     See  SfxA. 

Seetzen,  sat'sen  or  zat'sen,  (Ulrich  Jasper,)  a 
German  naturalist,  born  near  Oldenburg  in  1767, 
travelled  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Arabia,  and  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  manuscripts  and  objects  in  natural 
history,  now  in  the  museum  at  Gotha.  He  is  said  to 
have  adopted  the  Moslem  religion.  He  died  near  Mocha, 
Arabia,  in  181 1. 

Seeva.     See  Siva. 

Sefi,  sgf'ee,  written  also  Suffee,  originally  SSni- 
Meerza,  (Mirza,)  sIm  meer'zt,  Sultan  of  Persia,  was 
a  grandson  of  Abbas  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  in 
1628,  and  committed  great  excesses  of  cruelty.  He  was 
involved  in  war  with  the  Turkish  Sultan  Amurath  IV., 
who  took  Bagdad.     Died  in  1642. 

Sefstrom  or  Sefstroem,  sgf'strom,  (Nils  Gabriel,) 
a  Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Helsingland  in  1787.  He  dis- 
covered the  metal  Vanadium  about  1830.    Died  in  1854. 

Segalas,  si'gt'lls',  (Pierre  Salomon,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Saint-Palais  in  1792,  published  a 
number  of  medical  works.     Died  in  1875. 

Se'gar,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  magistrate  and 
writer,  held  the  office  of  Garter  king-at-arms.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "  Honour,  Civil  and  Military." 
Died  in  1633. 

Seghers  or  Segers,  sa'gers  or  sa'Hers,  (Daniel,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  fruit-  and  flower-pieces,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1590,  was  a  pupil  of  Breughel.  He  attained  great  ex- 
cellence in  his  department  of  the  art,  and  was  employed 
by  Rubens  to  paint  the  flowers  in  some  of  his  historical 
pictures.     Died  in  1660. 


Seghers,  (Geraart,)  brother  or  cousin  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1589.  He  studied 
painting  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  visited  Spain,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  court.  His  works  are  chiefly 
historical.     Died  in  1651. 

Segneri,  sin-ya'ree,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
celebrated  pulpit  orator,  born  near  Rome  in  1624.  He 
filled  the  post  of  preacher  to  Pope  Innocent  XII.  His 
"Quaresimale,"  or  sermons  for  Lent,  are  esteemed 
among  the  best  productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 
Died  in  1694. 

See  G.  Massei  or  Maffhi,  "Vits  del  P.  Segneri,"  1717;  Me 
NEGHELLi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  P.  Segneri,"  1815';  Nic^ron,  "  M6 
moires;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratiira  Italiana." 

Segneri,  (Paolo,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Rome  in  1673.  He  was  a  Jesuit  and  a  noted 
preacher.     Died  in  1713. 

See  Galuzzi,  "Vita  del  P.  Segneri  Juniore,"  1716. 

Segni,  san'yee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Florence  in  the  fifteenth  century.  His  principal 
work,  a  "History  of  Florence  from  1527  to  1555,"  has 
a  high  reputation.  He  also  translated  several  works  of 
Aristotle  into  Italian.     Died  in  1559. 

Segrais,  de,  deh  seh-gRi',  (Jean  Regnauld,)  a 
French  poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Caen  in  1624.  He 
was  secretary  of  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier  for  many 
years.  He  translated  Virgil  into  verse,  and  wrote  pas- 
toral poems,  the  style  of  which  was  praised  by  Boileau. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  Krrdif,  "Segrais,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1863;  NicSron, 
"  M^nioires  ;"  A.  Galland,  "  Segraisiana,"  1720;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale." 

Seguier,  si'ge-i',  (Antoine,)  a  French  judge,  born 
in  Paris  in  1552,  was  a  son  of  Pierre,  (1504-80.)  He 
was  appointed  advocate-general  in  1587,  was  loyal  to 
the  king  during  the  League,  and  defended  the  liberty 
of  the  Galilean  Church  against  Pope  Gregory  XIV. 
Died  in  1624. 

Seguier,  (Antoine  Jean  Mathieu,)  a  French  juage, 
born  in  Paris  in  1768.  He  was  appointed  president  of 
the  court  of  appeal,  Paris,  in  1802,  and  retained  that 
position  more  than  forty  years.     Died  in  1848. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Seguier,  (Antoine  Louis,)  a  celebrated  French  jurist 
and  orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1726,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  Appointed  advocate-general  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris  in  1755,  he  soon  acquired  the  highest 
reputation  for  eloquence,  legal  knowledge,  and  integrity. 
In  1757  he  succeeded  Fontenelle  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.     Died  in  1792. 

See  PoRTALis,  "  Eloged'A.  L.  Seguier,"  1806;  Voltaire,  "  Let- 
tres;"  Sapev,  "  Les  Si^guier  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Seguier,  (Armand  Pierre,)  Baron,  a  French  ad- 
vocate, a  son  of  Antoine  Jean  Mathieu,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Montpellier  in  1803.  He  became  about 
1830  a  councillor  at  the  royal  court  of  Paris.  In  1848 
he  resigned  his  functions  and  devoted  himself  to  works  of 
mechanism.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and 
was  noted  for  his  mechanical  skill.     Died  in  1876. 

Seguier,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1703,  was  related  to  the 
eminent  jurists  of  that  name.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Scipio  Maffei,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  made  a 
large  collection  of  ancient  inscriptions.  He  died  in  17S4, 
leaving  his  museum  of  medals  and  objects  in  natural 
history  to  the  Academy  of  Nimes.  He  translated  into 
French  the  "  Memoirs  of  Alexander,  Marquis  of  Maffei," 
and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Seguier,  (Nicolas  Maximilien  Sidoine,)  Marquis 
de  Saint-Brisson,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Beauvais  in 
1773.  Among  his  works  is  an  "  Essay  on  Polytheism," 
(2  vols.,  1840.)     Died  in  1854. 

Seguier,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  jurist  and 
magistrate,  born  in  Paris  in  1504.  He  rose  through 
several  important  oflfices  to  be  president  h  mortier  in 
1554,  and,  while  filling  this  post,  was  chiefly  instrumental 
in  preventing  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition  into 
France.  He  died  in  1580,  leaving  six  sons,  who  were 
distinguished  for  their  legal  attainments. 

See  MoRiRi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long; i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  met;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


SEGUIER 


2167 


SELDEN 


Seguier,  (Pip:rre,)  an  eminent  French  statesman 
and  patron  of  learning,  born  in  Paris  in  May,  1588,  was 
a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of  Jean  Seguier. 
He  became  chancellor  of  France  in  1635,  and  retained 
that  office  {except  for  short  intervals)  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Richelieu,  with  whom  he  shares  the 
honour  of  being  the  founder  of  the  French  Academy,  ot 
which  he  was  president.  Voltaire  praised  his  fidelity  in 
these  terms, — "  Toujours  fidele  dans  un  temps  ou  c'etait 
un  merite  de  ne  pas  I'etre,"  ("  Always  faithful  in  a  time 
when  it  was  a  merit  not  to  be  so.")     Died  in  1672. 

See  Floquet,  "  Diaire  du  Chaiicelier  Seguier,"  1842;  Sapey, 
"  Les  Si^guier ;"  F.  TALLE^rANT,  "  filoge  fun^bre  de  P.  Seguier," 
1672;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale  ;"  "  Biographic  Universelle.' 

Seguin,  se-gwin',  [Fr.  [iron.  se-giN',]  (£douard,)  a 
French  alienist,  born  at  Clamecy,  January  20,  1812.  He 
studied  under  Itard,  and  devoted  himself  with  great 
assiduity  to  the  study  of  idiocy  and  the  training  of 
children  whose  mental  powers  were  in  abeyance.  In 
1848  he  removed  to  the  United  States.  He  published 
several  volumes  in  French  and  English,  chiefly  on  idiocy 
and  related  subjects.     Died  October  28,  18S0. 

Segiir,  de,  deh  si'giia',  (Henri  FuANgois,)  Comte, 
a  French  soldier,  born  in  1689,  served  with  distinction 
in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1738.     Died  in  1751. 

Segur,  de,  (Joseph  Alexandre,)  Vicomte,  brother 
of  Count  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1756. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Romances  and  Songs,"  "  Women : 
their  Condition  and  Influence  in  the  Social  Order," 
(1820,)  and  numerous  comedies,  operas,  and  romances. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  Qo^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Segur,  de,  (Louis  Philippe,)  Comte,  a  French  diplo- 
matist and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1753,  was  a  son 
of  Philippe  Henri,  noticed  below.  He  served  under 
Rochambeau  in  the  American  war,  and  after  its  ter- 
mination was  appointed  in  1784  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinc- 
tion by  Catherine  II.  He  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  F'rench  Revolu- 
tion, and  in  1792  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  court 
of  Prussia.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1803,  and  was  subsequently  made  a  peer 
by  Louis  XVIII.  He  published  a  "Historical  and 
Political  Picture  of  Europe  from  1786  to  1796,"  "  Moral 
and  Political  Tales,"  "Universal  History,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  (1819,)  "Moral  and  Political  Gallery,"  and 
"  Memoirs,  Souvenirs,  and  Anecdotes,"  (3  vols.,  1824.) 
The  last-named,  a  very  entertaining  and  attractive  work, 
obtained  great  popularity.     Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Saintb-Beuve,  notice  in 
the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  May  15,  1843. 

Segur,  de,  (Philippe  Henri,)  Marquis,  son  of 
Henri  Fran9ois,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1724.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Italian  and  German  cam- 
paigns of  Louis  XV.,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  1 780,  and 
marshal  of  France  in  1783.     Died  in  1801. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

S6gur,  de,  (Philippe  Paul,)  Comte,  a  general  and 
historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  Louis 
Philippe,  noticed  aljove.  He  became  an  officer  of  Bo- 
naparte's staff,  and  obtained  the  confidence  of  that  chief, 
who  employed  him  in  several  foreign  missions.  He 
served  as  a  general  of  the  imperial  staff  in  the  campaign 
of  Russia.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Napoleon  and  the 
Grand  Army  in  1812,"  (1824,)  which  had  great  success, 
and  a  "  History  of  Russia  and  Peter  the  Great,"  (1829.) 
In  1830  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy. 
Died  February  25,  1873. 

S6gur  d'Aguesseau,  de,  deh  si'giiR'  dt'gi'so', 
(Raymond  Joseph  Paul,)  Comte,  born  in  Paris  in 
1S03,  studied  law,  and  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Seguy,  seh-ge',  (Joseph,)  a  French  preacher  and 
poet,  born  at  Rodez  in  1689,  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1736.     Died  in  1761. 

Seidenbush,sT'den-bo6sh,  (Rupert,)  D.D.,  abishop, 
born  at  Munich,  Bavaria,  October  13,  1830.  He  came 
to  the  United  Slates  in  1850,  entered  the  Benedictine] 


order,  and  was  an  abbot  from  1867  to  1875,  when  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Halia  and  appointed  vicar  apos- 
tolic of  Northern  Minnesota. 

Seidl,  sid'l  or  zid'l,  (Johann  Gabriel,)  an  Austrian 
httiratetir  and  antiquary,  born  at  Vienna  in   1804,  was 
appointed  in   1840  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  and 
antiques  at  Vienna.     Died  June  18,  1875. 
See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1852. 

Seignelay,  de.     See  Colbert,  (Jean  Baptistk.; 

Seller,  si'ler  or  zl'ler,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German 
writer,  born  near  Baireuth  in  1733,  became  in  1770  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Erlangen.     Died  in  1807. 

Seiss,  seess,  (Joseph  Augustus,)  D.D.,  a  learned 
Lutheran  divine,  born  near  Emmitsburg,  Maryland,  in 
1823,  became  in  1858  the  pastor  of  Saint  John's  Church, 
Philadelphia.  He  has  published,  besides  many  other 
works,  sermons,  etc.,  "  The  Last  Times  and  the  Great 
Consummation,"  (1856  ;  6th  edition,  1864.) 

Seissel,  de,  deh  si's^K,  (Claude,)  a  French  histo- 
rian, born  in  Savoy  about  1450.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Marseilles  in  1509.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  La 
grande  Monarchie  de  France,"  (1519.)     Died  in  1520. 

Sejan.     See  Sejanus. 

Sejan,  si'zhftN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  composer  and 
excellent  organist,  born  in  Paris  in  1745  ;  died  in  1819. 

Se-ja'nus,  [Fr.  S^jan,  si'zhfiN',]  (Lucius  ^Elius.) 
a  celebrated  Roman  courtier  and  favourite  of  the  em- 
peror-Tiberius,  was  born  at  Vulsinii,  in  Etruria.  He 
rose  through  various  promotions  to  be  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  praetorian  cohorts,  and,  aiming  at  the  im- 
perial power,  soon  after  effected  the  death  of  Drusus,  son 
of  the  emperor,  by  poison,  in  23  a.d.,  having  previously 
seduced  Livia,  the  wife  of  Drusus,  and  made  her  an 
accomplice  in  his  crime.  With  a  view  of  obtaining  the 
sole  direction  of  public  affairs,  he  induced  Tiberius  to 
retire  to  the  island  of  Capreae,  and  subsequently  caused 
Agrippina,  the  widow  of  Germanicus,  and  her  sons,  to  be 
put  to  death.  The  emperor,  aroused  at  length  to  sus- 
picion, deprived  Sejanus  of  his  office,  and  ordered  him 
to  be  arrested  and  executed,  31  a.d. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Annales  ;"  J.  Arrhenius,  "Dissertatio  de  Se- 
jano/'  1696;  Merivale,  "The  Romans  under  the  Empire." 

Sejour,  si'zhooR',  (Victor,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1816;  died  September  21,  1874. 

Selborne,  Lord.     See  Palmer,  (Sir  Roundell.) 

Sel'by,  (Prideaux  John,)  an  English  ornithologist, 
was  the  author  of  "  Figures  of  British  Birds,"  (Edin- 
burgh, 1821,)  which,  says  Professor  Wilson,  "is  perhajjs 
the  most  splendid  work  of  the  kind  ever  published  in 
Britain,"  and  of  a  "  History  of  British  Forest-Trees," 
(London,  1842.)     Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1826,  and  June, 
182S. 

Sel'den,  (Dudley,)  an  American  lawyer,  practised 
his  profession  in  New  York  with  distinction,  and  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1833.     Died  in  Paris  in  1855. 

SePden,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  lavpyer  and 
statesman,  born  at  Salvington,  in  Sussex,  on  the  i6th 
of  December,  1584.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  which 
he  quitted  about  1602,  and  entered  the  Inner  Temple, 
London,  in  1604.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Ben 
Jonson.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  history,  lan- 
guages, antiquities,  etc.  His  first  work  was  "  Analecton 
Anglo-Britannicon,"  (1606.)  In  1614  he  published  a 
work  "On  Titles  of  Honour,"  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
His  reputation  was  augmented  by  a  learned  treatise 
"On  Syrian  Divinities,"  ("  De  Diis  Syris,"  1617.)  In 
1623  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  in  which  he  acted 
with  the  country  party,  or  opposition.  He  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  the  prosecution  of  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, in  1626-28.  In  the  session  of  1629  Selden  was 
a  prominent  opponent  of  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
king,  who  committed  him,  with  other  leaders,  to  tlie 
Tower.  After  he  had  passed  eight  months  in  prison,  the 
court  offered  to  release  him  if  he  would  give  security  for 
his  good  behaviour,  which  he  refused  to  do.  He  was 
then  transferred  to  another  place  of  confinement,  and 
detained  until  1634.  In  1635  he  published  a  celebrated 
work  entitled  the  "Closed  Sea,"  ("Mare  Clausum,")  in 
which  he  claimed  for  England  the  exclusive  use  of  the 


eas^.-  9as  j;  ghard:  gasy;  r,.  u,  K.sciittnral:  n.  nnsid:  u,  iriUea:  sass;  th  asin////j.      (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. J 


SELDJO  UK  IDES 


216S 


SELLER 


sea.  This  was  written  to  refute  the  work  of  Grotius 
called  "  Open  Sea,"  ("  Mare  Liberum.")  lie  represented 
the  University  of  Oxford  in  the  Long  Parliament,  which 
met  in  1640.  In  the  contest  between  the  king  and  the 
Parliament  he  pursued  a  moderate  or  irresolute  course. 
He  opposed  the  execution  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  but 
subscribed  the  Covenant  in  1643,  and  was  one  of  the  lay 
members  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster. 
Among  his  important  works  are  out  "  On  the  Law  of 
Nature  and  of  Nations  according  to  the  Teaching  of 
the  Hebrews,"  ("  De  Jure  naturali  et  Gentium  juxta 
Disciplinam  Hebrffiorum,"  1640,)  and  "  A  Commentary 
on  English  Law,"  ("  Fleta,  seu  Commentarius  Juris 
Anglicani,"  1647.)  Selden  remained  in  Parliament  until 
1650  or  later.  His  latter  years  were  passed  in  the  house 
of  the  Countess-dowager  of  Kent,  to  whom  it  was  re- 
ported he  was  married.  He  died  in  November,  1654. 
His  character  is  highly  extolled  by  men  of  both  parties, 
including  Clarendon,  who  says,  "  Mr.  Selden  was  a 
person  whom  no  character  can  flatter  or  transmit  in  any 
expressions  equal  to  his  merit  and  virtue."  "  His  say- 
ings," says  Hallam,  "are  full  of  vigour,  raciness,  and  a 
kind  of  scorn  of  the  half-learned  far  less  rude  but  more 
cutting  than  that  of  Scaliger.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  Table-Talk  of  Selden  is  worth  all  the  Ana  of  the 
Continent.  In  this  I  should  be  disposed  to  concur." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  WiLKiNS,  "  Life  of  Selden,"  1726  ;  J.  Aikin,  "  Life  of  John 
Selden,"  1812;  G.  W.Johnson,  "Memoirs  of  J.  Selden,"  1835; 
"  Selden's   Table-Talk,"    1689. 

Seldjoukides.     See  Sfxjookides. 

Seldschukeu   or   Seldschukiden.     See   Seljoo- 

KIDES. 

Se-le'ne,  [Gr.  ^.tkryvri ;  Fr.  S^l^ne,  si'lin';  Lat. 
Lu'na,]  the  goddess  of  the  moon,  sometimes  called 
Mene  or  Phcebe.  She  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of 
Helios  or  Hyperion,  and  by  some  writers  was  identified 
with  Diana,  (which  see.) 

Seleucidag,  se-lu'si-de,  the  name  of  the  dynasty 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator.     (See  next  article.) 

Se-leu'cus  [Gr.  2e/,cu/cof]  I.,  surnamed  Nica'tor, 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleucidaj,  was  the  son 
ol  Antiochus,  a  general  in  the  service  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don.  He  rose  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and,  after  the  death  of  that  sovereign, 
became  Satrap  of  Babylonia  about  321  B.C.  He  subse- 
quently carried  on  a  war  against  Antigonus  and  his  son 
Demetrius,  which  resulted  in  his  obtaining  possession 
of  Media,  Bactria,  and  other  large  portions  of  Asia,  and 
forming  thereby  the  Syrian  monarchy.  Having  set  out 
on  an  expedition  against  Macedonia,  he  was  assassinated 
by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  280  B.C.  He  founded  the  cities 
of  Antioch  and  Seleucia,  (or,  more  correctly,  Seleuceia,) 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning.  He  was  highly 
distinguished  for  military  ability.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Antiochus  I. 

Se-leu'cus  Cal-li-ni'cus,  son  of  Antiochus  II.,  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Syria  in  246  B.C.  He  carried  on 
wars  with  tlie  Egyptians  and  Parthians.  Died  about 
226  B.C. 

Seleu'cus  III.  ^e-^au'nus,  King  of  Syria,  was  a 
son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  226 
B.C.  He  died  in  223,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Antiochus  III. 

Seleu'cus  IV.  Philop'ator,  a  son  of  Antiochus  III., 
became  King  of  Syria  in  1S6  or  187  B.C.  He  paid  a 
large  sum  of  money  to  the  Romans,  who  had  defeated 
Antiochus.     Died  in  175  B.C. 

Seleucus  V.,  a  son  of  Demetrius  Nicator,  began  to 
reign  in  124  B.C.  He  was  put  to  death  by  his  mother, 
Cleopatra,  in  the  same  year. 

Seleucus  VI.,  surnamed  Epiph'anes,  was  a  son  of 
Antiochus  VIH.  He  became  king  in  96,  and  was  killed 
in  95  or  94  B.C. 

Se'lim  [Turk.  Seleem  or  SelIm,  seh-leem']  I.,  a  son 
of  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  II.,  was  born  in  1467,  and  became 
Emperor  of  Turkey  in  1512.  Having  put  to  death  his 
two  brothers,  he  invaded  Persia,  took  its  capital,  and 
subsequently  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Egypt 
and  Syria.  He  was  preparing  for  another  invasion  of 
Persia,  when  he  died,  in  1520. 


Selim  (Seleem)  II.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
son  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  was  born  about  1524, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1566.  Among  the  principal 
events  of  his  reign  were  the  conquest  of  Cyprus  from 
the  Venetians,  and  the  signal  defeat  of  the  Turks  in  the 
naval  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571.)     Died  in  1574. 

See  Von  Hammbr,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Selim  (Seleem)  III.,  son  of  Mustafa  III.,  born  in 
1761,  became  Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1789.  Having  an 
earnest  desire  to  reform  the  government,  he  had,  before 
his  accession,  corresponded  with  the  French  ambassador, 
Count  Choiseul,  and  with  other  distinguished  statesmen. 
After  the  termination  of  the  wars  in  which  Turkey  had 
been  engaged  with  Russia,  Austria,  and  France,  Selim 
entered  upon  his  various  reforms,  among  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  was  the  Nizam  Jedeed,  (or  Jedid,)  i.e. 
the  "  new  order,"  or  organization  of  the  army  after  the 
European  manner.  In  1806  war  again  broke  out  between 
Turkey  and  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  England, 
and  the  Janissaries,  availing  themselves  of  the  dissatis- 
faction of  the  army  with  the  new  arrangements,  openly 
revolted,  and  took  possession  of  the  arsenal.  The  Sultan 
was  deposed,  and  succeeded  by  Mustafa  IV.,  who  soon 
after  caused  him  to  be  strangled  in  prison,  (1808.) 

See  Lamartink,  "  Histoire  de  la  Turquie;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gdneiale." 

S61is,  si'lfess',  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French  poet. 
born  in  Paris  in  1737,  became  professor  of  Latin  poetry 
in  the  College  of  France  in  1796.  He  produced  a  good 
translation  of  the  Satires  of  Persius.  Among  his  works, 
which  are  commended  as  elegant  in  style,  are  "Epistles 
in  Verse  on  Various  Subjects,"  (1776.)     Died  in  1802. 

Seljookides  or  Seljukides,  sSl-joo'kidz,  sing. 
Seljukide  or  Seljookide,  sgl-joo'kid,  [Fr.  Seldjou- 
kides, sgl'joo'kid';  Ger.  Seldschuken,  sSl-joo'ken,  or 
Seldschukiden,  s§l-joo-kee'd?n ;  Lat.  SELGiu'KiDiE 
or  Selju'kiDv*,]  the  name  of  a  celebrated  dynasty, 
which  was  established  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Its  founder  was  Togrul  Beg,  whose  grand- 
father Seljook,  (Seljuk,)  having  been  expelled  from 
Toorkistan  by  the  ruling  prince,  accompanied  by  a 
powerful  tribe,  (of  which  he  was  the  head,)  settled  in 
Bokhara  and  embraced  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
Seljook,  when  over  a  hundred  years  of  age,  was  killed 
in  battle,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Togrul 
Beg.  This  chieftain  overran  a  large  part  of  Central 
Asia,  took  Bagdad,  and  obtained  possession  of  the  per- 
son of  the  Caliph,  whom,  however,  he  treated  with 
profound  respect.  The  prince  of  the  faithful  afterwards 
appointed  Togrul  the  lieutenant  of  his  vast  empire,  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  Togrul  Beg  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  the  famous  Alp-.'^rslan, 
(which  see.)  Under  him  and  his  son,  Malik  Shah,  the 
Seljookian  empire  attained  its  highest  point  of  power 
and  glory.  It  soon  after  began  to  decline,  and  ended 
with  the  death  of  Togrul  III. 

Seljuk.     See  Seljookides. 

Seljukides.    See  Seljookides. 

Sel'kirk,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  sailor,  born  ai 
Largo  in  1676.  Having  in  one  of  his  voyages  quar- 
relled with  his  captain,  he  was  left  on  the  uninhabited 
island  of  Juan  Fernandez  in  1704,  with  only  his  gun, 
axe,  ammunition,  and  a  few  other  necessaries.  Here 
he  remained  more  than  four  years,  living  on  game 
and  clothing  himself  with  the  skins  of  goats.  He  was 
taken  off  in  1709,  by  Captain  Woodes  Rogers,  who  made 
him  his  mate.  He  died  in  1723,  having  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  in  the  navy.  Selkirk's  adventures 
suggested  to  Defoe  the  celebrated  romance  of"  Robinson 
Crusoe." 

See  John  Howell,  "  Life  and  Adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk." 

Selle,  sel'leh  or  zel'leh,  (Christian  Theophilus,) 
a  German  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Stettin,  in  Pome- 
rania,  in  1748,  became  physician  to  Frederick  the  Great 
of  Prussia.  He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  medi- 
cal works,  and  treatises  against  the  philosophy  of  Kant. 
Died  in  1800. 

Sel'ler,  (Abednego,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Plymouth,  wrote  "  Tracts  against  Popery,"  "  The  Devout 
Communicant,"  and  other  works.     Died  about  1720. 


a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  y, /(J/««-;  4,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  \\,y,sko7-t;  a,  e,  i,  q,obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fAt;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


^tLLIUS 


2169 


SEMPER 


Sellius,  sel'le-Cis,  (Godfrey,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Dantzic,  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Monograms," 
"  Geographical  Description  of  Dutch  Brabant,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1767. 

Sel'lpn,  (Baker  John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1762,  was  the  author  of  an  "Analysis  of  the  Practice  of 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench  and  Common  Pleas,"  which 
»s  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1835. 

Sellon,  (Priscilla  Lydia,)  an  English  philanthro- 
pist, born  about  1820,  established  in  1849  a  Protestant 
sisterhood,  corresponding  with  the  religious  orders  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the 
education  of  poor  children.     Died  in  1876. 

Sellstedt,  sel'stet,  (Lars  Gustaf,)  a  painter,  born 
at  Sundsvall,  in  Sweden,  April  30,  1819.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1834,  and  was  a  seaman  from  1834 
to  1842,  when  he  settled  in  Buffalo,  New  York,  becoming 
superintendent  of  the  Buffalo  Fine  Arts  Academy,  opened 
in  1862.  He  is  chiefly  distinguished  as  a  portrait-painter. 
He  was  in  1874  chosen  a  full  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Desi;_;ii. 

Selmer,  sfil'mer,  (Hannibal  Peter,)  a  Norwegian 
writer,  born  at  Gaarden-Mein,  in  Norway,  in  1802. 

Selva,  sSl'vcl,  (Gianantonio,)  an  Italian  architect, 
Dorn  at  Venice  in  1753  ;  died  in  1819. 

Selve,  de,  deh  s61v,  (Jean,)  a  French  judge  and 
negotiator,  born  in  Limousin.  He  was  sent  to  Madrid 
in  1525  to  negotiate  for  the  liberation  of  Francis  L,  who 
had  been  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia.     Died  in  1529. 

Sel'wyn,  (George,)  an  English  gentleman,  distin- 
guished for  his  wit,  was  born  in  1719.  He  became  a 
member  of  Parliament.     Died  in  1791. 

See  J.  H.  Jesse,  "George  SeKvyn  and  his  Contemporaries," 
1843- 

Selvryn,  (George  Augustus,)  D.D.,  an  English 
bishop,  a  son  of  William  Selwyn,  was  born  in  1810.  He 
graduated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
the  zealous  and  highly-successful  Anglican  Bishop  of 
New  Zealand,  1841-67,  and  afterwards  was  Bishop  of 
Lichfield,  in  England.  Bishop  Selwyn  was  a  man  of 
large  and  sympathetic  nature,  and  profoundly  influenced 
the  religious  life  of  many  of  the  younger  men  of  his  gen- 
eration. Died  at  Cambridge,  April  24,  1875.  ^'^  !»0"j 
John  Richardson  Selwyn,  born  in  1845,  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  i866,  and  in  1S77  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Melanesia. 

Sel^wyn,  (William,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1774,  published,  among  other  works,  an 
'  Abridgment  of  the  Law  of  Nisi  Prius."     Died  in  1855. 

Selwyn,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1806.  He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1855,  and  published  several 
works  on  theology,  etc.     Died  April  24,  1875. 

Selys-Longchamps,  de,  deh  seh-liss'  IdN'shftN', 
(Michel  Edmond,)  Baron,  a  naturalist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1813.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Belgian 
Fauna,"  (ist  vol.,  1842.) 

Sem,  the  French  for  Shem,  which  see. 

Sem'e-le,  [Gr.  'Zefd'kri ;  Fr.  S6m6l6,  si'mi'li',]  a 
daughter  of  Cadmus,  and  sister  of  Ino,  was  said  to  have 
been  beloved  by  Jupiter,  and  to  have  been  by  him  the 
mother  of  Bacchus.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  re- 
quested Jupiter  to  appear  to  her  with  his  greatest 
splendour,  and  that  he  came  with  flashes  of  lightning, 
by  which  she  was  consumed,  and  that  Bacchus  rescued 
her  from  Erebus  and  raised  her  to  Olympus,  where  she 
was  called  Thyo'ne. 

Semini,  si-mee'nee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Genoa  in  1 5 ID;  died  in  1594. 

Semini,  (Antonio,)  a  painter,  1*16  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Genoa  in  1485  ;  died  in  1550. 

Semini,  (Ottavio,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1520;  died  in  1604. 

Semiramide.     See  Semiramis. 

Se-mlr'a-mis,  [Gr.  lefiipafug  ;  It.  Semiramide,  si- 
me'rd-mee'di,]  a  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria,  whose 
history  is  greatly  obscured  by  fables,  supposed  to  have 
reigned  about  1250  B.C.  She  was,  according  to  Dio- 
dorus,  the  wife  of  Omnes,  a  general  in  the  Assyrian 
army ;  but,  having  attracted  the  notice  of  Ninus,  King 


of  Assyria,  he  made  her  his  queen.  Having  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Ninus,  she  built  Babylon 
and  several  other  cities,  and  planned  a  number  of  mag- 
nificent works.  She  invaded  Persia  and  Ethiopia,  and 
conquered  large  portions  of  those  countries.  She  was 
less  successful  in  her  invasion  of  India,  where  her  army 
was  overthrown,  chiefly,  as  it  would  appear,  by  means 
of  the  war  elephants  which  her  enemies  possessed.  She 
is  stated  by  some  writers  to  have  been  murdered  by 
her  son  Ninyas,  and  by  others  to  have  been  killed  in 
battle. 

The  name  Sammuramut  occurs  in  inscriptions  of  the 
ninth  century  B.C.  as  the  appellation  of  a  certain  queen 
consort.  The  Greek  story  given  in  the  above  paragraph 
is  believed  to  be  purely  mythical,  havmg  no  support  from 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  so  far  as  they  are  known. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "Geschichte  Assiirs  und  Babels,"  1857;  Rawlin- 
SON,  "The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World." 

Semler,  sSm'ler  or  zSm'ler,  (Johann  Salmon,)  an 
influential  and  liberal  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Saalfeld  in  December,  1721,  (or,  as  some  writers  say, 
1725.)  He  studied  in  the  University  of  Halle,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  there  in  1751.  He  has 
been  called  "the  father  of  German  rationalism."  In 
1757  he  succeeded  Baumgarten  as  director  of  the  theo- 
logical seminary.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his  method 
of  historical  hermeneutics.  He  wrote,  besides  many 
other  works,  "  Apparatus  ad  Liberam  Novi  Testament! 
Interpretationem,"  (1767,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Examination  of  the  Canon,"  ("  Abhandlung  von  der 
Untersuchung  des  Kanons,"  4  vols.,  1771-75.)  Died 
at  Halle  in  1791. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Semlers  Lebensbeschreibung," 
2  vols.,  1781-82;  F.  A.  Wolf,  "  Ueber  Semler's  letzte  Lebenstage," 
1791;  H.  ScHMiD,  "Theologie  Semler's,"  1858;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Semmes,  sgmz,  (Raphael,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Maryland,  entered  the  navy  about  1826. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  commander  about  1855.  In 
the  summer  of  i86i  he  took  command  of  the  steamer 
Sumter,  which  captured  many  merchant-vessels  owned 
by  citizens  of  the  United  States.  In  August,  1862, 
he  became  captain  of  a  swift  war-steamer,  called  the 
"  290,"  or  Alabama,  just  built  in  England,  and  manned 
by  British  subjects.  He  inflicted  immense  damage  on 
the  American  mercantile  marine.  On  the  19th  of  June. 
1864,  he  encountered,  near  Cherbourg,  France,  the 
Kearsarge,  Captain  Winslow.  In  the  battle  that  ensued, 
both  vessels  moved  rapidly  in  circles,  swinging  around 
an  ever-changing  centre.  After  they  had  described 
seven  circles,  the  Alabama  began  to  sink,  and  Semmes 
escaped  in  the  English  yacht  Deerhound.  He  lost  nine 
killed  and  twenty-one  wounded,  while  Captain  Winslow 
lost  only  one  killed  and  two  wounded.    Died  August  30, 

1877- 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Semolel.    See  Franco,  (Battista.) 

Semonvilte,  de,  deh  seh-mAN'vSK,  (Charles  Louis 
Huguet — /iii'gi',)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1759.  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Italy  in  1793,  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  Austrians  for 
two  years.  He  became  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1805, 
and  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers  from  1815  to  1830. 
Died  in  1839. 

See  MoUNiER,  "  filoge  de  Semonville ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographi» 
Generale." 

Semper,  s§m'per  or  zim'per,  (Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1804.  Among  his 
best  works  is  the  new  theatre  at  Dresden.  He  pub- 
lished two  esteemed  works,  entitled  "  The  Four  Elements 
of  Architecture,"  (1851,)  and  "Science,  Industry,  and 
Art,"  (1852.)     Died  at  Rome,  May  15,  1879. 

Semper,  (Hans,)  a  German  scholar,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1845,  ^"^  in  1871 
became  professor  of  the  German  literature  at  Rome. 
He  wrote  "  Uebersicht  der  Geschichte  der  toscanischen 
Sculptur,"  "  Donatello,  seine  Zeit  und  seine  Schule," 
(1870  et  seq.) 

Semper,  (Karl,)  a  German  traveller  and  naturalist, 
a  cousin  of  Hans  Semper,  was  born  in  Altona,  July  6, 
1832.     He  travelled  in  the  East  Indian  archipelago,  and 


€as^.-  casj.-  ^hard;  gAs/;  G,H,K,gT4f(ura/;  ti, nasal;  V:.,trilled;  sasz;  thasin/yiw.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SEMPLE 


21  70 


SENECA 


published  "  Reisen  in  Archipel  der  Philippinen,"  (1867- 
72,)  "  Die  Philippinen,"  etc.,  (1869,)  "  Die  Palau-Inseln," 
etc.,  (1873.)  In  1868  he  took  a  zoological  professorship 
in  Wurzhurg,  passing  thence  to  Gottingen  in  1870.  He 
has  written  much  on  the  anatomy  and  development  of 
various  groups  of  invertebrates. 

Semple,  sSm'p'l,  (Robert  Baylor,)  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  in  King  and  Queen  county,  Virginia, 
in  1769.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Virginia  Baptists," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  183 1. 

Sem-pro'ni-a,  a  Roman  lady,  was  the  sister  of  the 
celebrated  Gracchi,  and  the  wife  of  Scipio  Africanus  the 
Younger. 

Semprouia,  the  beautiful  but  profligate  wife  of  D. 
Junius  Brutus,  who  was  consul  in  77  B.C.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  literary  talents,  and  was  an  ac- 
complice in  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 

Sempronia  Gens,  an  ancient  Roman  gens,  was 
divided  into  many  families,  known  as  the  Atratini, 
Gracchi,  Longi,  Rufi,  Tuditani,  etc.  A.  Semproniijs 
Atratinus,  who  was  consul  in  497  B.C.,  belonged  to  this 
gens. 

Seui-pro^nI-u.s  Tu-di-ta'zius,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  his- 
torian, became  consul  in  129  B.C.  His  works  are  not 
extant. 

Senac,  seh-ntk',  (Jean,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lombez  in  1693,  became  phy- 
sician to  the  king  in  1752.  He  was  author  of  a  treat- 
ise on  the  structure  and  diseases  of  the  heart,  which 
was  esteemed  a  standard  work  at  the  time.  Died  in 
1770. 

Senac  de  Meilhan,  seh-ntk'  deh  mi'lSN',  (Ga- 
briel,) a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  published  fictitious  "Memoirs 
of  Anne  de  Gonzague,"  (1786,)  and  "Considerations 
on  Mind  (or  Intellect)  and  Manners,"  ("Considerations 
sur  I'Esprit  et  les  Moeurs,"  1787.)  Died  at  Vienna  in 
1803. 

See  Craufurd,  "Essai  biographique  sur  Senac  de  Meilhan," 
1803;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  G^n^rale." 

Seu3ii,  s§-nSn',  a  celebrated  physician  and  astron- 
omer, born  in  Mesopotomia,  flourished  in  the  tenth 
century.  He  was  appointed  archiater  or  chief  of  the 
physicians  by  Moktader,  Caliph  of  Bagdad.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  geometry  and  astronomy,  and  on  the 
doctrines  of  the  Sabians.     He  died  in  942  a.d. 

Senancour,  de,  deh  seh-n6N'kooR',  (Stienne  Pi- 
vert,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1770,  was  a 
melancholy  and  meditative  person.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Reveries  on  the  Primitive  Nature 
of  Man,"  (1799,)  "Obermann,"  a  tale,  (1804,)  and  "Free 
Meditations  of  a  Recluse,"  ("  Libres  Meditations  d'un 
Solitaire,"  1819.)  M.  Villemain  procured  for  him  a 
pension  from  the  state.     Died  in  1846. 

See  Saintb-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains ;"  Qu^rard, 
'  La  France  Litt^raire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gifnerale." 

Senard,  si'ntR',  (Antoine  Marie  Jules,)  a  French 
advocate  and  republican,  born  at  Rouen  in  1800.  He 
became  president  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  about 
May,  1848,  and  was  minister  of  the  interior  for  a  short 
time.     In  1879  he  became  vice-president  of  the  senate. 

Senarmont,  de,  deh  seh-ntR'm6N',  (Alexandre 
Antoine  Hureau — /^ii'r5',j  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Strasburg  in  1769.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  Jena,  Eyiau,  and  Friedland,  where  he  directed  the 
artillery,  (1807.)  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Cadiz, 
in  1 810. 

Senarraont,  de,  (Henri  Hureau,)  a  mineralogist 
and  engineer,  born  at  Broue  in  1808,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  preceding.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Modifica- 
tions which  Reflection  at  the  Surface  of  Crystals  produces 
in  Polarized  Light,"  (1840,)  a  "Geological  Description 
of  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Marne,"  (1844,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1862. 

Se-nat',  (Prosper  L.,)  an  American  artist,  born  at 
Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  March  12,  1852.  He  studied 
art  in  London,  Paris,  and  Antwerp.  He  returned  to 
Philadelphia,  and  has  devoted  himself  to  landscape  and 
marine  jjictures. 

Senault,  seh-no',  (John  Francis,)  a  Flemish  ecclesi-  j 


astic,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1600.  He  settled  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He 
published  several  moral  and  religious  works.  Died  in 
1672. 

Senebier,  sen'be-i',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
litterateur,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1 742.  He  was  ordained 
a  minister  about  1762,  and  preached  several  years  at 
Chancy.  In  1773  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  pul)lic 
library  of  Geneva.  He  wrote  numerous  and  various 
works, among  which  are  "Essay  on  the  Art  of  Observing 
and  Making  Experiments,"  (2  vols.,  1775,)  a  "Literary 
History  of  Geneva,"  (3  vols.,  1786,)  and  "Vegetable 
Physiology,"  (5  vols.,  1800.)     Died  in  1809. 

Sen'e-ca,  [Fr.  S6NfeQUE,*syn§k',J(Lucius  ANNi^us,) 
an  eminent  Roman  Stoic,  philosopher,  and  moralist,  born 
at  Corduba,  in  Spain,  about  5  B.C.  He  was  educated  in 
Rome,  whither  he  was  brought  by  his  parents  in  his  child- 
hood. Having  studied  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  law,  he 
gained  distinction  as  a  pleader.  Accused  by  Messalina 
of  improper  intimacy  with  Julia,  a  niece  of  Claudius,  he 
was  banished  to  Corsica  in  41  A.D.  During  his  exile  he 
composed  his  "  Consolatio  ad  Helviam."  (Helvia  was 
the  name  of  his  mother.)  Through  the  influence  of 
Agrippina,  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Rome  in 
49  A.D.,  was  raised  to  the  prjetorship,  and  appointed 
tutor  to  L.  Domitius,  (commonly  known  as  Nero,)  who 
became  emperor  in  54  a.d.  According  to  Tacitus,  Sen 
eca  endeavoured  to  reform  or  restrain  the  evil  propensi- 
ties of  his  pupil.  Some  writers,  however,  censure  his 
conduct  in  this  connection,  by  arguments  which  derive 
plausibility  from  the  immense  wealth  which  Seneca 
amassed.  About  the  year  56  he  wrote  a  treatise  on 
clemency,  addressed  to  Nero,  "  De  dementia,  ad  Nero- 
nem."  .Seneca  consented  to  the  death  of  Nero's  mother, 
Agrippina,  who  was  killed  by  order  of  her  son  in  60  a.d., 
and  wrote  the  letter  which  Nero  addressed  to  the  senate 
in  his  justification.  He  was  afterwards  supplanted  in 
the  favour  of  Nero  by  Tigellinus  and  Rufus,  who  sought 
to  ruin  Seneca  by  exciting  the  suspicion  of  the  tyrant 
against  him.  He  was  accused  of  being  an  accomplice 
of  Piso,  (who  had  conspired  against  the  emperor,)  and 
was  ordered  to  i^ut  himself  to  death.  Having  opened 
his  veins,  he  died  in  a  warm  bath  in  65  a.d.  He  was 
an  uncle  of  the  poet  Lucan. 

Seneca  was  an  eloquent  and  popular  writer.  His  styi. 
is  aphoristic,  antithetical,  and  somewhat  inflated.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  a  treatise  "On  Anger,"  ("  De 
Ira,")  "  A  Book  on  Providence,"  ("  De  Providentia 
Liber,")  "On  Tranquillity  of  Mind,"  ("De  Animi  Tran- 
quillitate,")  "On  the  Brevity  of  Life,"  ("De  Brevitate 
Vitse,")  essays  on  natural  science,  entitled  "  QuKstiones 
Naturales,"  and  numerous  epistles,  "  Epistolae  ad  Lu- 
cilium,"  which  are  a  collection  of  moral  maxims.  We 
have  also  ten  tragedies  in  verse  which  are  attributed  to 
Seneca,  and  which,  though  not  adapted  to  the  stage, 
have  considerable  literary  merit. 

There  has  been  great  diversity  of  opinion  respecting 
the  character  and  writings  of  Seneca.  He  has  been 
quoted  as  an  authority  by  councils  and  fathers  of  the 
Church.  He  was  highly  extolled  as  a  writer  by  Mon- 
taigne. Quintilian  observes  that  his  writings  "abound 
in  charming  defects,"  (dtdcibusvitiis.)  Macaulay  is  among 
those  who  take  the  least  favourable  view  of  the  character 
and  influence  of  the  great  Stoic.  He  says,  "  It  is  very 
reluctantly  that  Seneca  can  be  brought  to  confess  that 
any  philosopher  had  ever  paid  the  smallest  attention 
to  anything  that  could  possibly  promote  what  vulgar 
people  would  consider  as  the  well-being  of  mankind. 
.  .  .  The  business  of  a  philosopher  was  to  declaim  in 
praise  of  poverty,  with  two  millions  sterling  out  at 
usury ;  to  meditate  epigrammatic  conceits  about  the 
evils  of  luxury,  in  gardens  which  moved  the  envy  of  sove- 
reigns ;  to  rant  about  liberty,  while  fawning  on  the 
insolent  and  pampered  freedmen  of  a  tyrant."  ("Essay 
on  Lord  Bacon.") 

See  RosMiNi,  "Vita  di  Seneca,"  1793;  Justus  Lipsius,  "Vita 
L.  A.  Senecs,"  1607;  Klotzsch,  "Seneca,"  2  vols.,  1799-1802; 
RfiIniiardt,  "  De  Seneca  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1S17;  Vkkn'IER,  "  Vie 
de    Senfeque,"    1812;    Am.    Fi.eurv,    "  Seriiqne    et    Saint-P.inl,"   a 


»  Chaucer  usually  has  Senek,  with  theacceiit  on  the  last  syllable  ; 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  Senec 


i,e,T,o,ri,y,/(P//,n-;i,fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  \\,y,  short;  %,  q,\,  <),  obscure ;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  nflt;gorid;  moon- 


SENECA 


2171 


SERARIUS 


vols.,  1853;  p.  KicERMAN,  "Vita  et  Dogmata  L.  A,  Senecse,"  1742; 
RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  Hirschig,  "  Dood  en  Gedach- 
tenis  van  Seneca,"  1831  ;  Denis  Diderot,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de 
Sen^que,"  1779;  F.  Salvadori,  "II  Filosofo  cortigiaiio,  o  sia 
il  Seneca,"  1674;  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Seneca,  (Marcus  Ann^us,)  a  Latin  rhetorician, 
born  at  Corduba  (Cordova)  about  61  B.C.,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding,  and  the  grandfather  of  Lucan.  He 
wrote  "  Book  of  Persuasives,"  ("  Suasoriarum  Liber,") 
and  "  Ten  Books  of  Controversies,"  ("  Controversia- 
rum  Libri  decern,")  which  are  extant,  but  have  little 
merit. 

Senecai  or  Senece,  de,  deh  si'neh-si'  or  sin'si', 
(Antoine  Baudekon,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Macon 
in  1643.  He  wrote  "Kaimac;  Les  Travauxd'Apollon," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1737. 

Senecio,  se-nee'she-o,  (Herennius,)  a  native  of 
Spain,  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Domitian.  The 
charges  against  him  were  that  he  was  a  candidate  for 
no  public  office,  and  that  he  had  written  the  life  of  Hel- 
vidius  Prise  us. 

Senefelder,  sa'neh-f§ld'er,  (Alois,)  the  inventor  of 
lithography,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1771.  He  became  a 
play-actor  in  his  youth,  but  did  not  succeed  in  that  pur- 
suit. He  also  wrote  several  dramas.  Being  poor,  he 
meditated  various  new  UKjdes  of  printing  his  works 
cheaply,  and  tried  experiments  in  etching,  and  writing 
backwards  on  calcareous  stone.  One  day  it  was  neces- 
sary to  make  a  memorandum  in  haste,  but  he  had  no 
white  paper  :  so  he  wrote  it  on  a  smooth  stone  with  a 
peculiar  ink.  It  afterwards  occurred  to  him  to  apply 
diluted  nitric  acid,  whicli  etched  away  the  stone  where 
thei^e  had  been  no  ink,  the  part  on  which  the  ink  had 
been  placed  being  protected  from  the  action  of  the  acid, 
so  that  the  letters  were  left  in  relief  He  invented  about 
1798  the  process  of  lithography  which  is  now  generally 
used,  and  was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  lithographic 
office  at  Munich  in  1809.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
Lithography,"  (1819.)     Died  in  1834. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdndrale." 

Senek.     See  Seneca. 

Senior,  seen'yor,  (Nassau  William,)  an  English 
lawyer,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1790,  became  in  1826  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  at  Oxford.  He  published 
■'On  Foreign  Poor-Laws  and  Labourers,"  (1840,)  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (1850,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Senkenberg,  von,  fon  s§nk'en-b§RG'  or  zSnk'en- 
b§RG',  (Heinrich  Christoph,)  Baron,  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1704,  became 
professor  of  law  at  Gottingen.     Died  in  1768. 

Senkenberg,  von,  (Johann  Christian,)  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in 
171 7.  He  founded  in  that  city  a  hospital,  with  a  library, 
botanical  garden,  anatomical  theatre,  etc.  Died  in  1772. 
The  Senkenberg  Museutn  of  Natural  History  was  estab- 
lished in  his  honour  in  1817. 

Sen-na-eh'er-ib,  [Fleb.  3nn]D,]  King  of  Assyria, 
was  a  son  of  Sargon,  whom  he  succeeded  about  702'B.c. 
He  invaded  Judea  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  defeated 
the  Egyptian  allies  of  the  King  of  Judah,  and  extorted 
from  him  a  large  amount  of  gold  and  silver.  His  army 
besieged  Jerusalem,  but  was  overthrown  by  the  angel  of 
the  Lord,  who  "  went  forth  and  smote  in  the  camp  of 
the  Assyrians  an  hundred  and  four  score  and  five  thou- 
sand," so  that  Sennacherib  returned  in  haste  to  Nineveh. 
He  reigned  twenty-four  years,  and  was  killed  by  his  sons 
in  681  B.C. 

See  II.  Kings  xviii.,  xix.  ;  Niebuhr.  "  Geschichte  Assurs  und 
Babels." 

Sennert,  sgn'nSRt,  [Lat.  Senner'tus,]  (Andreas,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1606,  was 
a  son  of  Daniel,  noticed  below.  He  becaine  professor 
of  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg  in  1638,  He  published  a 
number  of  works.  Died  ini689. 
See  NiciJron,  "Memoires." 

Sennert  or  Sen-ner'tus,  [Fr.  Sennert,  si'naiR',] 
(Daniel,)  a  German  physician,  born  at  Breslau  in  1572, 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Wiirtemberg.     He  was 


the  author  of  numerous  works,  and  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation in  his  profession.     Died  in  1637. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NicArom, 
"Memoires." 

Sennertus.     See  Sennert. 

Sen'ter,  (Isaac.)  an  eminent  American  physician, 
born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1755.  He  served  as  surgeon 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  afterwards  practised  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island.     Died  in  1799. 

Seona.     See  Siofn. 

Sepp,  s§p  or  z6p,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  a  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Toltz,  in  Bavaria,  in  1816,  became 
professor  of  history  at  Munich.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Jesus,"  in  answer  to  that  of  Strauss,  and  "  Paganism 
and  its  Signification  for  Christianity,"  (1853,)  in  which 
he  favours  the  system  of  Schelling. 

Sep'pingi,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  naval  architect, 
born  in  1768,  made  several  important  improvements  in 
ship-building,  among  which  was  the  system  of  diagonal 
bracing  and  trussing.  In  acknowledgment  of  his  ser- 
vices he  was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1814,  and 
obtained  the  Copley  medal  from  that  institution.  He 
published  a  treatise  "  On  a  New  Principle  of  construct- 
ing Ships  in  the  Mercantile  Navy,"  and  other  similar 
works,  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  Died  in  1840. 

Septalius.     See  Settala. 

Septimius  Severus.     See  Severus. 

Sepulveda,  de,  di  si-pool'vi-Dl,  (Juan  Ginez,)  a 
celebrated  Spanish  historian  and  scholar,  born  near 
C6rdova  about  1490.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Alcala,  and  subsequently  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Carpi.  In  1536  he  became  his- 
toriographer to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  tutor  to  his  son  Philip.  Among  his 
principal  historical  works  are  his  "  History  of  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.,"  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  and  "  His- 
tory of  the  Spanish  Conquests  in  Mexico,"  all  in  Latin. 
He  also  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  "  Democrates  Se 
cundus,"  in  which  he  attempts  to  justify  the  barbarous 
treatment  of  the  Indians  by  the  Spaniards,  and  to  refute 
the  arguments  of  Las  Casas  in  their  favour.  The  work 
was  condemned  by  the  principal  Spanish  universities, 
and  was  never  printed.  Sepulveda  translated  portions 
of  Aristotle  into  Latin,  and  published  a  number  of 
learned  essays  in  that  language.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  scholars  and  writers  of  his  time. 
Died  in  1574. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova ;"  Andre  Schott, 
*'  Vita  Sepulvedas,"  prefixed  to  Sepulveda's  works,  Cologne,  1602. 

Sepulveda,  de,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  writer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  "  Romances  nueva- 
mente  sacadas  de  Historias  antiguas  de  la  Cronica  de 
Espaiia,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind,  which  had  a  high 
reputation  at  the  time. 

S6quard.     See  Brown-SSquard. 

Serafini,  si-rS-fee'nee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Magliano,  June  7, 1808.  In  1877  he  was  created 
a  cardinal-priest. 

Serao,  si-r^'o,  [Lat.  Sera'us,]  (Francesco.)  au 
Italian  physician,  born  near  Aversa  in  1702.  He  be- 
came professor  of  medicine  at  Naples,  and  chief  physician 
to  Ferdinand  IV.     Died  in  1783. 

See  Fasano,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Serai,"  1784. 

Se-ra'pl-on,  \Y.z()amuv^  a  physician  of  the  sect  of 
the  Empirici,  who  lived  at  Alexandria  about  250  B.C. 

Serapion,  a  Syrian  physician,  called  Serapion  Se- 
nior, is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  tenth  century. 
Two  of  his  medical  works  are  extant, 

Serapion,  an  Arabian  physician,  commonly  called 
JUNioR,is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  eleventh  centurv. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  "  On  Simple  Medicaments^" 
which  has  been  translated  into  Latin. 

Se-ra'pis  or  Sa-ra'pis,  [Gr.  lapoKUQ ;  Fr.  S^rapis, 
S^'rt'p^ss',]  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  divinity,  identical 
m  most  respects  with  Osiris.  Clemens  of  Alexandria, 
Macrobius,  and  others  mention  Serapis  and  Isis  as  the 
great  divinities  of  Egypt.  Serapis  (in  old  Egyptian, 
Hesiri-Hapi,  i.e.  "  Osiris-Apis")  was  a  name  given  to  Apis 
after  his  death,  when  he  became  identified  with  Osiris. 

Se-ra'ri-us  or  si'rt're'us',  (Nicolas,)  a  learned 
French  Jesuit,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1550.     He  wrote 


as  k: 


q  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  /.•  G,  H,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     (gH^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  ^ 


SERASSI 


2172 


SERRES 


several  works  against  Luther;  also,  commentaries  on 
Scriiiture.     Died  in  1609  or  1610. 

Serassi,  si-rds'see,  (Pietko  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
biographer  and  critic,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1721.  He 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Furietti  at  Rome  about 
1760.  He  edited  the  poems  of  Petrarch,  Dante,  and 
other  Italian  poets.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Life  of  Tor- 
qiialo  Tasso,"  ("Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1785,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  presents  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
literary  history  of  Tasso's  time.     Died  in  1791. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  NouveDe  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Serbelloni,  s5R-h51-lo'nee,  (Gabriel,)  an  able  Italian 
general,  born  at  Milan  in  1508.  He  fought  for  Charles 
V.  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571.)     Died  in  1580. 

Sercey,  de,  deh  s^it'si',  (Pierre  C6sar  Charles 
GuiLLAUME,)  Marquis,  a  French  vice-admiral,  born 
near  Autun  in  1753.  He  commanded  in  the  East  Indies 
with  success  in  1796-99.     Died  in  1836. 

Se-re'nus,  (Aulus  Septimius,)  a  Roman  lyric  poet, 
and  contemporary  of  Martial,  was  the  author  of  "  Opus- 
cula  Ruralia,"  on  the  enjoyments  of  country  life.  A  few 
fragments  only  of  this  work  are  extant. 

Sereuus,  (Quintus.)     See  Samonicus. 

Sergardi,  siR-gaR'dee,  (LoDOVico,)  an  Italian  satiri- 
cal poet,  born  at  Sienna  in  1660,  called  himself  QuiNTUS 
Sectanus.  He  attacked  Gravina  in  a  series  of  satires 
entitled  "Satires  of  Quintus  Sectanus  against  Philode- 
mus,"  ("Quinti  Sectani  Satyrae  in  Philodemum,"  1694.) 
Died  in  1726. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitje  Italorum  doctriiia  excellentium." 

Serge.     See  Sergius. 

Sergeant,  sar'jant,  (John,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1779.  He 
was  a  son  of  Jonathan  Dickinson  Sergeant,  who  was 
attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1795,  and  practised  law  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  was  retained  as  counsel  in  the  most  impor- 
tant cases  in  the  supreme  court  of  his  own  State  and 
in  that  of  the  United  States.  He  represented  a  district 
of  his  native  city  in  Congress  from  1815  to  1823,  from 
1827  to  1829,  and  from  1837  to  1842.  In  1832  he  was 
the  Whig  candidate  for  the  office  of  Vice-President, 
(Henry  Clay  being  the  Presidential  candidate,)  but  re- 
ceived only  forty-nine  electoral  votes.  He  took  an 
important  part  against  the  extension  of  slavery  in  the 
contest  which  resulted  in  the  Missouri  compromise  of 
1820,  and  delivered  on  that  occasion  a  speech  of  rare 
eloquence  and  power.  He  was  a  man  of  high  integrity 
and  great  personal  influence  in  the  community.  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  November,  1852.  His  "  Select  Speeches" 
were  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1832. 

See  W.  M.  Meredith,  "  Eulogy  on  John  Sergeant,"  1853. 

Sergei  or  Sergell,  sSR'gel,  (Johan  Tobias,)  an  emi- 
nent Swedish  sculptor,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1740.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1767,  where  he  resided  many  years,  and, 
after  his  return,  was  appointed  by  Gustavus  III.  court 
sculptor  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "Cupid  and  Psyche,"  "Othryades 
the  Spartan,"  and  "  Diomedes  carrying  off  the  Palla- 
dium."    Died  in  1814. 

Sergent,  s§R'zh6N',  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  at  Chartres  in  175 1.  He  was  a  violent 
member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  published 
several  works.     Died  in  1847. 

Ser'gl-us  [Fr.  Serge,  sSRzh ;  It.  Sergio,  s§R'je-o  or 
sSr'jo]  I.,  Pope  of  Rome,  born  at  Palermo,  succeeded 
Conon  in  687  A.D.  He  sent  missionaries  to  convert  the 
Saxons.  Having  refused  his  consent  to  the  canons 
issued  by  the  council  assembled  in  Constantinople  by 
Justinian  II.,  the  latter  ordered  his  arrest ;  but,  the 
soldiers  taking  sides  with  the  pope,  he  remained  in  pos- 
session of  his  see.  He  died  in  701,  and  was  succeeded 
by  John  VI, 

Sergius  II.,  born  at  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  844 
A.D.  During  his  pontificate  the  Saracens  invaded  Italy 
and  ravaged  the  country  near  Rome,  but  did  not  enter 
the  city.     Died  in  847. 

Sergius  III.  succeeded  Christopher  as  pope  in  904 


A.D.,  being  elected  through  the  influence  of  the  Marquis 
of  Tuscany  and  the  profligate  Theodora  and  her  daugh- 
ter Marozia.  His  son  by  Marozia  was  afterwards  Pope 
John  X.  Sergius  died  in  913,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Anastasius  IV. 

Sergius  IV.  was  elected  successor  to  John  XVIII. 
in  1009  A.D.  He  died  in  1012,  and  Benedict  VIII.  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him. 

Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  probably 
in  Syria,  was  a  Monothelite.  He  became  patriarch  in 
610,  and  died  in  639  A.D. 

Serieys,  seh-re-i',  (Antoine,)  a  French  compiler  of 
Histories,  etc.,  born  in  Rouergue  in  1755;  died  in  1829. 

Serimuer.    See  Saehrimnir. 

Seripandi,  si-re-pin'dee,  or  Seripando,  si-re-pan'- 
do,  (Girolamo,)  a  learned  Italian  prelate  and  writer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1493,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
Council  of  Trent.     Died  in  1563. 

Serizay,  de,  deh  seh-re'zi',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Paris  about  1590,  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  French  Academy.     Died  in  1653. 

Serle,  serl,  (Ambrose,)  an  English  devotional  writer, 
born  about  1740.  Among  his  works  is  "Christian  Hus- 
bandry," (1804.)     Died  in  1812. 

Serlio,  s§R'le-o,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian  architect 
and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Bologna  in  1475.  He  was 
appointed  in  1541,  by  Francis  I.,  King  of  France,  archi- 
tect at  the  palace  of  Fontainebleau.  He  was  author  of 
"Treatises  on  Architecture,"  ("Opere  di  Architettura.") 
Died  in  1552. 

Sermoneta,  s5R-mo-na'ti,  (Michelangelo  Cae- 
tani,)  Duke  of,  an  Italian  artist  and  author,  born  in 
1S04.  He  wrote  able  essays  on  Dante,  and  published 
excellent  illustrations  for  the  "  Divina  Commedia." 
His  marble  statue  of  "Cupid  Bound"  won  him  great 
fame,  and  he  made  many  fine  designs  for  jewels.  He 
became  blind  in  1865. 

Sermoneta,  da.     See  Siciolante. 

Seroux  d'Agincourt.     See  D'Agincourt. 

Serpa-Pinto,  sgR'pi  pin'to,  (Alexander  Albert 
da  Rocha,)  a  Portuguese  soldier,  born  at  Tendaes, 
April  20,  1846.  He  was  commissioned  in  the  army  in 
1864,  and  in  1869  served  with  honour  in  East  Africa, 
after  which  he  made  an  extensive  expedition  into  the 
interior,  and  returned  to  Europe  via  the  Comoro  and 
Seychelles  Islands  and  Goa.  He  traversed  the  African 
continent  from  Benguela  to  Durban,  1877--79.  His  nar- 
rative "  How  I  Crossed  Africa,"  (2  vols.,  1881,)  in  its 
English  translation,  was  widely  read. 

Serrano,  s§r-ri'no,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  general 
and  politician,  born  in  Arjonilla,  September  17,  1810. 
He  was  appointed  captain-general  of  the  artillery  in  1854. 
He  opposed  Narvaez  in  1857,  and  was  Captain-General 
of  Cuba  from  i860  to  1862.  He  was  president  of  the 
provisional  government  formed  by  the  insurgents  who 
deposed  Isabel  in  September,  1868,  and  was  elected 
Regent  of  Spain  by  the  Cortes  in  June,  1869.  In  1883 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris.     Died  in  1885. 

Serranus.    See  Lambert,  (Francois,)  and  Serres. 

Serrao,  sgr-ri'o,  (Giovan  Andrea,)  a  learned  Ital- 
ian ecclesiastic,  born  in  Calabria  in  1 73 1.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Potenza  in  1782.  In  1799  he  was  massacred 
by  the  royalists  because  he  was  a  Liberal. 

Serre,  de,  deh  saiR,  (Pierre  Francois  Hercule,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  orator  and  minister  of  state,  born  near 
Pont-^-Mousson  in  1776.  He  was  appointed  first  presi- 
dent of  the  court  of  Colmar  in  1815,  and  president  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1816.  He  was  a  moderate 
royalist  and  doctrinaire  in  politics.  In  December,  1818, 
he  became  keeper  of  the  seals,  or  minister  of  justice. 
He  resigned  office  in  December,  1821.     Died  in  1824. 

See  GuizoT,  "  Mdmoires,"  tome  i. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Serres,  saiR  or  sairz,  ?  (Dominic,)  a  painter  of  ma- 
rine views  and  naval  battles,  was  born  at  Auch,  in 
France.  He  went  to  England  about  1764,  and  worked 
in  that  country  many  years.     Died  in  1793. 

Serres, saiR,  (Etienne  Renaud  Augustin,)  a  French 
physiologist,  born  at  Clairac  in  1786.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  comparative  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SERRES 


2173 


SERVE  TUS 


in  1839.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Laws  of  Osteogeny,"  (1815,)  and  "The  Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Brain  in  the  Four  Classes  of  Vertebrate 
Animals,"  (2  vols.,  1824-26.)  He  discovered  that  the 
development  of  animals  and  their  organs  proceeds  from 
the  circumference  towards  the  centre.      Died  in  1868. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  Calliskn,"  Medicinisches 
Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Serres,  sairz,  ?  (Olive,)  an  English  artist,  wife  of 
Dominic,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Warwick  in  1772, 
and  was  appointed  landscape-painter  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  In  1815  she  publicly  claimed  the  title  of  Princess 
of  Cumberland,  pretending  that  she  was  the  daughter 
of  Henry  Frederick,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  by  his  mar- 
riage with  a  Miss  Wilmot.  In  1822  a  motion  was  made 
in  the  House  of  Commons  to  investigate  her  claims, 
which  was  successfully  opposed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
She  died  in  poverty  in  1834. 

Serres,  de,  deh  saiR,  [Lat.  Serra'nus,]  (Jean,)  a 
French  Protestant  minister  and  historian,  born  at  Ville- 
neuve  de  Berg  about  1540.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  of  the  Third  Civil  War,"  (1569,)  and 
"History  of  France  in  the  Reigns  of  Henry  H.,  Francis 
II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.,"  (1595.)  He  received 
from  Henry  IV.  the  title  of  historiographer  in  1597. 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1598. 

See  NicSron,  "Memoires;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protes- 
tante;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Serres,  de,  (Marcel,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
geology  and  natural  history  in  his  native  city  in  1820, 
and  wrote  numerous  works  on  geology,  palaeontology, 
etc.,  among  which  is  "The  Cosmogony  of  Moses  com- 
pared with  Geological  Facts,"  (1838.)     Died  in  1862. 

Serres,  de,  (Olivier,)  Seigneur  de  Pradel,  a  French 
Protestant  and  writer  on  agriculture,  born  near  Ville- 
neuve  de  Berg  (Ardeche)  about  1539,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  rational 
and  methodical  agriculture,  entitled  "  Le  Theatre  d'Agri- 
culture,"  (1600,)  often  reprinted.  His  style  is  admirable 
and  finely  adapted  to  the  subject.     Died  in  16 19. 

See  F.  DE  Neufchateau,  "  £loge  historique  d'O.  de  Serres," 
1790  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale  ;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
protestante." 

Serret,  si'ri',  (Joseph  Alfred,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  in  1819,  has  written  on  analysis,  etc. 

Serrigny,  s^'r^n'ye',  (Denis,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Savigny-sur-Beaune  about  1804.  He  published  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Public  Law  of  the  French,"  (2  vols., 
1845,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1876. 

Sertorio.     See  Sertorius. 

Ser-to'ri-us,  [It.  Sertorio,  s5R-to're-o,J  (Quintus,) 
a  famous  Roman  general,  born  at  Nursia,  in  the  country 
of  the  Sabines.  He  was  liberally  educated.  He  displayed 
courage  and  capacity  in  the  war  which  Marius  conducted 
against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  about  loi  B.C.  Just 
before  the  Marsic  war  began,  he  was  appointed  quaestor 
in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  91  B.C.  "  His  martial  intrepidity  did 
not  abate,"  says  Plutarch,  "  when  he  arrived  at  the  de- 
gree of  general.  His  personal  exploits  were  still  great, 
and  he  faced  danger  in  the  most  fearless  manner ;  in 
consequence  of  which  he  had  one  of  his  eyes  struck 
out."  He  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  tribune,  but  was  defeated  by  Sulla's  faction,  and 
became  an  enemy  of  that  great  leader.  In  the  civil  war 
which  began  about  88  he  fought  with  Cinna  against  the 
partisans  of  Sulla.  After  Marius  returned  from  Africa, 
the  troops  of  the  popular  party  were  divided  into  three 
equal  parts,  commanded  respectively  by  Marius,  Ser- 
torius, and  Cinna,  who,  acting  in  concert,  defeated  the 
enemy  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Rome.  Ser- 
torius was  the  only  one  of  the  three  that  treated  the 
vanquished  with  humanity,  and  he  reproached  Marius 
for  his  cruelty.  The  return  of  Sulla  with  a  large  army 
from  the  East,  in  83  B.C.,  put  an  end  to  the  ascendency 
of  Marius.  Sertorius,  having  obtained  the  office  of  pro- 
consul, retired  with  a  few  troops  to  Spain,  from  which  he 
soon  passed  over  to  Africa.  Having  been  invited  by 
the  Lusitanians  to  command  their  army,  he  returned  to 
Spain,  where  he  acquired  great  popularity.  He  defeated 
several  Roman  generals,  and  extended  his  power  over  a 


great  part  of  Spain.  "  He  subdued  several  great  nations," 
says  Plutarch,  who  expresses  the  opinion  that  he  was 
not  inferior  to  Hannibal  in  capacity.  About  76  B.c 
Pompey  arrived  in  Spain  with  a  new  army.  Sertorius 
defeated  Pompey  at  Sucro,  and  again  near  Saguntum. 
"  When  he  was  victorious  he  would  make  an  offer  to 
Metellus  or  Pompey  to  lay  down  his  arms  on  condition 
that  he  might  be  permitted  to  return  in  the  capacity  of 
a  private  man.  He  said  he  would  rather  be  the  meanest 
citizen  in  Rome,  than  an  exile  with  the  command  of  all 
the  other  countries  in  the  world.  .  .  .  The  magnanimity 
of  Sertorius  appeared  in  every  step  he  took."  (Plu- 
tarch.) He  was  assassinated  by  Perpenna  and  several 
accomplices  in  72  B.C.  It  may  well  be  doubted  whether 
he  had  any  superior  in  military  genius  among  all  the 
great  generals  that  Rome  ever  produced,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Julius  Caesar. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Sertorius;"  Drumann,  "  Geschichte 
Roms;"  Appian,  "History;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

SeruUas,  si-rii'lis',  (written  also  without  the  accent,) 
(Georges  Simon,)  a  French  chemist  and  apothecary, 
born  at  Poncin  (Ain)  in  1774.  He  discovered  some 
compounds  of  iodine  and  bromine,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  memoirs  on  chemistry.  He  succeeded  Vauquelin 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1829.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1832. 

Serurier,  seh-rii-re-i',  (Jean  Mathieu  Philibert,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Laon  in  1742.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1793,  a  general  of  di- 
vision in  1795,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  Italian 
campaigns  of  1796-97.  As  commandant  at  Saint-Cloud, 
he  supported  Bonaparte  on  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1804.     Died  in  1819. 

See  Dk  Courcelles,  "Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Frangais;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Servan,  s§r'v5n',  (Antoine  Joseph  Michel,)  an 
eloquent  French  advocate  and  publicist,  born  at  Romans 
in  1737.  He  wrote  many  works  on  legislation,  politics, 
etc.,  and  promoted  legal  reforms.     Died  in  1807. 

Servan  de  Gerbey,  s§r'v6n'  deh  zh§R'bi',(JosEPH,) 
a  French  Girondist  and  general,  born  at  Romans  in  1741, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  minister  of 
war  from  May  to  October,  1792,  and  commanded  the 
army  of  the  Pyrenees  from  the  latter  date  to  May,  1793. 
Died  in  1808. 

Servan  de  Sugny,  s§r'v5n'  deh  siin'ye',  (Pierre 
FRANgois  Jules,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons  in  1796  ; 
died  in  1831. 

Servandoni,  sSR-vSn-do'nee,  (Jean  J6r6me,)  a  dis- 
tinguished painter  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in 
1695.  At  an  early  age  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  ac- 
quired great  celebrity  as  a  scene-painter.  The  most 
important  of  his  architectural  works  is  the  fa9ade  of  th<* 
church  of  Saint-Sulpice  in  Paris.     Died  in  1766. 

Servet.     See  Servetus. 

Ser-ve'tus,  [Fr.  Servet,  sSr'vI'  ;  It.  Serveto,  sSr- 
va'to,]  (Michael,)  a  Spanish  theologian  and  physician, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1509.  His  family  name  is  said  to  have 
been  Reves,  (ra'vgs.)  He  opposed  the  dogma  of  the 
Trinity,  in  a  work  entitled  "  On  the  Errors  of  the  Trin- 
ity," ("  De  Trinitatis  Erroribus,"  1531.)  About  1533  he 
studied  medicine  at  Paris.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
syrups,  "Universal  Theory  of  Syrups,"  ("Syruporum 
universa  Ratio,"  Paris,  1537.)  After  he  left  Paris  he 
practised  medicine  at  Lyons,  and  had  a  doctrinal  con- 
troversy with  Calvin.  He  published  anonymously  Ijis 
"Christianity  Restored,"  ("  Christi-anismi  Restitutio," 
etc.,  Vienne,  1553.)  Calvin  having  informed  against 
him,  Servetus  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy  by 
the  Inquisition  in  France ;  but  he  escaped  froin  prison 
and  sought  refuge  in  Geneva.  Calvin  caused  him  to  be 
again  arrested,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  prosecu 
tion  which  led  to  the  death  of  Servetus,  who  was  burned 
at  Geneva  in  October,  1553.     (See  Calvin.) 

See  BovSEN,  "  Historia  M.  Serveti,"  1712;  "Impartial  History 
of  Michael  Servetus,"  London,  1724;  Ai.worden,  "  Hisioria  i\f. 
Serveti,"  1727;  Mosheim,  "Geschichte  M.  Serveti,"  174S  ;  W.  H. 
Drummond,  "Life  of  Michael  Servetus,"  1848;  J.  Jaird,  "Life  of 
Servetus,"  1771 ;  Paul  Henry,  "Life  of  Calvin,  1835;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "British  Quarterly  Review"  lor  Way,  1S4* 
See,  also,  Coleridge's  "Table- Talk,"  (January  3,  1834.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  .pittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji^^See  Exiilanations,  p.  23. » 


SERVIEN 


2174 


SETTLE 


Servien,  s&R've4,N',  (Ahf.t,,)  Marquis  de  Sable,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1593.  He  be- 
came secretary  of  state  for  war  in  1630,  and  resigned  in 
1636.  Servien  and  Avaux  represented  France  at  MUn- 
Rter  in  1643  and  the  ensuing  years.  The  former  signed 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1648.     Died  in  1659. 

See  G.  M^NAGK,  "  Histoire  de  Sa'ol^  ;"  Mor^ki,  "  Dictionnaire 
Historique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdndrale." 

Ser-vil'I-a,  |Fr.  Servilie,  s&R've'le',]  a  Roman  lady, 
was  a  niece  of  the  celebrated  M.  Livius  Urusus,  and  the 
wife  of  Marcus  Junius  Brutus,  and  inother  of  M.  Junius 
Brutus  the  younger,  who  killed  Caesar,  She  was  a  fa- 
vourite mistress  of  that  dictator. 

Servilia  Gens,  a  Roman  gens,  originally  patrician, 
w.-i?i  highly  distinguished  in  the  early  ages  of  the  republic. 
Among  the  families  into  which  it  was  divided  were  Ahala, 
Ca;pio,  Casca,  and  Priscus. 

Servilie.     See  Servilia. 

Ser-vil'i-iis,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  statesman,  who  be- 
came praetor  in  206  B.C.,  consul  in  203,  dictator  in  202, 
and  pontifex  maximus  in  183.     Died  in  iSo  H.C. 

Servin,  sgR'vJiN',  (Louis,)  a  French  magistrate,  born 
in  the  Vendomois  in  1555.  He  was  appointed  advocate- 
general  in  1589,  and  was  a  strenuous  asserter  of  the 
liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church,  on  which  subject  he 
wrote  a  work  called  "  Defence  of  the  Liberty  of  the 
Gallican  Church,"  ("Vindiciae  secundum  Libertatem 
Ecclesiae  Gallicanae,"  1590.)     Died  in  1626. 

See  "  Le  Tombeaii  de  L.  Serviii,"  Paris,  1626 ;  Grangier,  "  Ora- 
tio  in  Laudem  L.  Servini,"i626  ;  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Ser'vi-us,  (Mau'rus  Honora'tus,)  a  Roman  gram- 
marian, supposed  to  have  lived  between  300  and  400 
A.D.  He  wrote,  besides  several  grammatical  works,  com- 
mentaries on  the  "  Eclogues,"  "  Georgics,"  and  "  yEneid" 
of  Virgil,"  which  are  highly  valued  for  the  variety  of  in- 
formation they  contain  relating  to  the  Romans. 

Ser'vi-us  Tul'll-us,  the  sixth  King  of  Rome,  began 
to  reign  about  57S  B.C.  According  to  tradition,  he  was 
a  son  of  Ocrisia,  a  female  slave  of  Queen  Tanaquil,  and 
was  adopted  as  a  son  by  King  Tarquin,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded. His  reign,  which  lasted  forty-four  years,  was 
pacific.  He  granted  a  new  constitution  to  the  Romans, 
and  formed  a  federal  union  or  league  between  Rome  and 
the  towns  of  Latium.  His  constitution  is  supposed  to 
have  been  beneficial  to  the  plebeians.  He  was  killed 
by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  with  whom  his  own  daughter 
Tullia  was  an  accomplice. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  :"  Mommsen,  "Histoire  Ro- 
maine  ;"  F.  D.  Geri.ach,  "Die  Verfassung  des  Servius  Tullius," 
1837  :  Cicero,  "  De  Repubiica  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Sdsha,  sa'sha,  or  Shdsha,  sha'sha,  [etymology  ob- 
•icure,]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  vast 
thousand-headed  serpent,  the  emblem  of  eternity,  on 
which  Vishnu  is  believed  to  repose.  (See  ViSHNU.) 
He  is  often  called  Ananta,  which  signifies  "without 
end."  Sesha  is  regarded  as  the  great  king  of  the  serpent 
race.  He  is  also  called  Vasuki  (vi'soo-k!)  or  Vasoky, 
and  is  fabled  to  have  been  used  as  the  churn-string  when 
the  gods  and  giants  (Asurs)  churned  the  ocean.  (See 
KOrma.) 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Seso,  de,  di  sa'so,  (Carlos,)  a  Protestant  Reformer, 
born  at  Florence,  resided  in  Spain,  where  he  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  He  was  one 
of  the  chief  champions  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain, 
and  perished  at  the  stake,  by  order  of  the  Inquisition, 
in  1559. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 

Se-sos'tris,  [Gr.  Sfawarpif,]  written  also  Sesoosls, 
a  celebrated  king  of  Egypt,  also  called  Rameses,  is 
supposed  to  have  reigned  about  1400  or  1350  B.C.  He 
was  a  powerful  and  warlike  monarch.  According  to 
tradition,  he  conquered  Ethiopia,  Thrace,  and  several 
countries  of  Southern  Asia.  He  also  made  canals  in 
Egypt,  built  a  great  wall  from  Pelusium  to  Heliopolis, 
and  erected  several  obelisks  and  temples. 

The  story  of  Sesostris  comes  to  us  through  the  Greeks, 
and  not  from  Egyptian  sources  ;  but  there  is  little  doubt 
that  Rameses  H.,  the  Great,  is  the  real  Sesostris. 

see  Herodotus,  "History;"  Bunsen,  "Egypt's  Place  in  Uni- 
versal History;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 


Sessa,  sSs'si,  an  Indian  mathematician,  to  whom  is 
attributed  the  invention  of  the  game  of  chess,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  eleventh  century. 

Sessi,  s§s'.see,  (Anna  Maria,)  an  Italian  vocalist, 
born  at  Rome  in  1793.  She  performed  with  success  at 
Vienna  and  other  cities  of  Germany,  and  assumed,  after 
her  marriage,  the  name  of  Neumann-Sessi.  Her  sister 
Imheratrice,  born  at  Rome  in  1783,  also  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  vocalist.     Died  in  1808. 

Sestini,  sSs-tee'nee,  (Domenico.)  an  eminent  Italian 
antiquary  and  traveller,  born  at  Florence  about  1750. 
Having  successively  visited  Constantinople,  the  Levant, 
Germany,  and  France,  he  was  appointed  in  1814  honor- 
ary professor  in  the  University  of  Pisa.  Among  his 
works  on  numismatics,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
most  valuable  of  their  kind,  we  may  name  his  "System 
of  Numismatics,"  ("  Sistema  Numismatico,"  14  vols, 
fol.,)  "General  Classes  of  Numismatic  Geography,  or 
Coins  of  the  Cities,  Nations,  and  Kings,  in  Geographical 
Order,"  ("  Classes  generales  Geographiae  Numi^maticae, 
seu  Monetae  Urbium,  Populorum  et  Regum,  Ordine 
Geographico,"  etc.,  1797,)  and  "Numismatic  Letters  and 
Dissertations,"  (9  vols.,  1813.)  He  also  published  a 
"Journey  from  Constantinople  to  Bucharest,"  (1794,)  a 
"  Scientific  and  Antiquarian  Voyage  through  Wallachia, 
Transylvania,  and  Hungary  to  Vienna,"  (1815,)  and 
other  works  of  travels.  Sestini  was  a  member  of  various 
learned  societies  in  Europe.     Died  in  1832. 

See  MoNALDi,  "  Elogio  di  D.  Sestini,"  1835;  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle," (new  edition.) 

Sesto,  da,  dSsSs'to,  (Cesare,)  an  able  Italian  painter, 
called  also  Cesare  Milanese,  born  at  Milan,  was  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whom  he  imitated  with 
success.     Died  about  1524. 

Set,  or  Seth,  an  old  Egyptian  god,  the  son  or  brother 
of  Osiris,  and  his  mortal  enemy  and  vanquisher.  He 
was  the  god  of  evil,  or  of  night.  He  was  finally  cast 
out  of  the  abode  of  the  gods  by  the  younger  Horus.  The 
later  Egyptians  abhorred  Set  and  refused  to  worship 
him.  They  ascribed  to  him  a  monstrous  form,  and 
assigned  him  to  the  abode  of  the  lost  spirits. 

Sethos,  a  name  of  Sesostris,  which  see. 

Se'thos,  King  of  Egypt,  was  a  son  of  Rameses,  and 
the  father  of  Rameses  the  Great,  (Sesostris.)  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  reigned  about  1425  B.C.,  and  is  said  to 
have  gained  victories  over  several  neighbouring  nations. 
He  adorned  Egypt  with  fine  monuments,  temples,  etc. 

Se'ton,  (Ann  Eliza,)  an  American  lady,  born  ir< 
New  York  in  1774,  founded  at  Emniittsburg,  Maryland, 
in  1809,  the  first  establishment  of  Sisters  of  Charity  in 
the  United  States.     Died  in  1821. 

Settala,  sSt-ti'lS,  [Lat.  Sept.a.'lius,]  (Lodovico,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Milan  about  1550.  He  pub- 
lished several  medical  works,  and  was  professor  at 
Milan.  Died  in  1633.  His  son  Manfredi,  born  in 
1600,  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  inventive  talent 
as  a  mechanician.     Died  at  Milan  in  1680. 

Settimo,  set'te-mo,  (Ruggiero,)  an  Italian  patriot, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1778,  inherited  a  large  estate.  He 
served  in  the  navy,  and  gained  the  rank  of  admiral.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  of  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment which  in  1820  extorted  some  reforms  from  the 
king.  In  1848  he  became  the  chief  of  the  Sicilian  in- 
surgents, and  organized  a  provisional  government.  He 
was  chosen  president  by  the  new  parliament,  which  gave 
him  royal  power  to  appoint  ministers,  etc.  He  was  very 
popular,  and  was  saluted  as  the  father  of  his  country. 
On  the  restoration  of  the  king,  Ferdinand  II.,  he  retired 
to  Malta.     Died  in  1863. 

Settle,  set't'l,  (Elkanah,)  an  English  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Dunstable  in  1648,  is  noted  for  having  beer 
for  a  time  the  successful  rival  of  Dryden.  Under  the 
patronage  of  Wilmot,  Earl  of  Rochester,  the  enemy  of 
Dryden,  he  brought  out  his  tragedies  of  "  Cambyses" 
and  the  "Empress  of  Morocco,"  which,  though  pos- 
sessing little  merit,  were  received  with  great  applause. 
He  was  afterwards  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Dry- 
den,  who  satirized  him  under  the  name  of  "  Doeg"  in  his 
"Absalom  and  Achitophel."  He  was  also  introduced 
into  Pope's  "  Dunciad."     He  died  in  povertv  in  1723. 


a.  e, !,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  g66d;  moon; 


SEUME 


21-Jl 


SEWALL 


Seume,  soi'nieh  or  zoi'meh,  (Joha.nn  Goti'FRIED,) 
a  German  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  1763. 
He  travelled  extensively  on  foot.  Among  his  works  is 
''Obolen,"  (2  vols.,  1797.)     Died  in  1810. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Mein  Leben,"  1813;  H.  Doring, 
"Lebensumrisse  von  Carl  August  von  Sachsen-Weimar,  von  Moe- 
sei,  Falk,  Seume,"  etc.,  1840;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Seun-Kiiig.     See  Siun-King. 

Seurre,  sur,  (Bernard  Gabriel,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1795-  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of 
Rome  in  1818,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1852.  Among  his  works  is  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  for 
the  Colonne  Vendome.     Died  October  6,  1867. 

Seurre,  (Charles  Marie  £mile,)  a  sculptor,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 
He  obtained  the  grand  prize  in  1824.  His  master-piece 
is  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.     Died  in  1858. 

Sev&jee  or  Siv&ji,  se-vi'jee,  the  founder  of  the 
Mahratta  empire  in  India,  was  born  at  Poonah  in  1627. 
He  was  ambitious  and  warlike.  By  a  series  of  conquests 
he  made  himself  master  of  a  large  part  of  Southern 
India.  About  1670  he  was  involved  in  war  with  Aurung- 
Zeb,  whose  army  he  defeated.     Died  in  16S0. 

Severe.     See  Severus,  (Alexander.) 

Severino,  si-vk-ree'no,  (Marco  Aurelio,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  physician,  born  in  Calabria  in  1 580,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  principal  restorer  of  surgery  in  Italy. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  medicine  at  Na- 
ples, and  published  a  number  of  professional  works. 
Died  in  1656. 

See  Magliari,  "  Elogio  di  M.  A.  Severino,"  1815;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Sev-er-i'nus,  [Fr.  S^verin,  siv'r^N',]  Pope,  was  a 
native  of  Rome.  He  succeeded  Honorius  I.  in  640  a.d., 
and  died  the  same'year. 

Se-ve'rus,  a  Gnostic,  who  lived  about  180  A.D.  and 
founded  a  heretical  sect  called  Severiani.  Their  doc- 
trines were  similar  to  those  of  Tatian,  (which  see.) 

Se-ve'rus,  [Fr.  S6vfeRE,  si'vaiR',]  (Alexander,)  a 
Roman  emperor,  born  in  Phoenicia  about  205  a.d.,  was 
a  son  of  Gessius  Marcianus  and  Julia  Mammaea.  In 
221  he  was  adopted  by  his  cousin  Elagabalus,  then  em- 
peror, who  also  gave  him  the  title  of  Caesar.  He  was 
called  M.  Aurelius  Alexander  before  his  accession  to 
the  throne.  Elagabalus  soon  became  jealous,  and  made 
several  unsuccessful  efforts  to  destroy  Alexander.  He 
succeeded  Elagabalus  in  March,  222  a.d.,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Severus.  During  the  first  nine  years  he 
reigned  in  peace,  and  applied  himself  to  the  reform  of 
abuses.  The  King  of  Persia  having  renewed  hostilities, 
Severus  marched  across  the  Euphrates,  defeated  the 
Persians  in  232,  and  returned  to  Rome.  He  was  pre- 
paring to  repel  an  irruption  of  the  Germans,  when  he 
was  killed  by  his  mutinous  troops  in  235  a.d.  He  was 
greatly  distinguished  for  his  wisdom,  justice,  clemency, 
and  other  virtues. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  :"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs ;"  Lamfridius,  "Alexander 
Severus." 

Severus,  (Alexandrinus,)  a  Greek  writer  of  the 
fifth  century,  was  the  author  of  "Narratives"  and 
"Ethopceiae,"  or  speeches  attributed  to  supposed  per- 
sons. The  latter  are  contained  in  Gale's  "Rhetores 
Selecti." 

Severus,  (Cornelius,)  a  Roman  poet  under  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on 
the  "Sicilian  War,"  ("Bellum  Siculum,")  and  an  account 
of  the  death  of  Cicero,  (in  verse.)  A  fragment  of  the 
latter  is  extant. 

Severus,  [Fr.  S^v^re,  si'vaiR',j(Lucius  Septimius,) 
a  Roman  emperor,  born  at  Leptis,  in  Africa,  in  146  a.d. 
He  was  educated  at  Rome,  and,  after  filling  various 
offices,  became  proconsul  of  Africa.  While  commander 
of  the  Pannonian  legions  in  Germany,  he  heard  of  the 
death  of  Commodus,  upon  which  he  hastened  to  Rome, 
and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army  in  193  a.d. 
in  opposition  to  Didius  Julianus,  who  was  soon  after 
assassinated.  He  next  marched  against  Pescennius 
Niger,  commander  of  the  Syrian  legions,  who  had  lately 
been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops.  He  defeated 
Niger  at  Issus  or  Cyzicus  in  194,  after  which  he  waged 


war  with  success  against  the  Parthians.  In  197  he 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Albinus  (a  rival  claimant 
of  the  throne)  near  Lyons.  He  renewed  the  war  against 
Parthia  in  198,  defeated  the  Parthians,  and  took  Ctesi- 
phon,  their  capital.  In  208  he  led  an  army  to  Britain 
to  subdue  the  Caledonians,  and  built  a  rampart,  called 
the  wall  of  Severus,  extending  acro.ss  the  island.  He 
died  at  York  in  211  a.d.,  leaving  two  sons,  Caracalla 
and  Geta. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xxiv.-xxvi.  • 
Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;" 

Severus,  (Sulpicius,)  [Fr.  Sulpice  S^vfeRE,  siil'- 
pfess'  si'vaiR',]  a  Christian  historian,  born  in  Aquitania, 
Gaul,  about  363  a.d.,  was  the  author  of"  Historia  Sacra," 
and  a  "  Life  of  Saint  Martin,"  in  Latin.  He  has  been 
styled  "  the  Christian  Sallust."     Died  about  410. 

Sevier,  se-veer',  (Ambrose  H.,)  an  American  Senato/, 
born  in  East  Tennessee  in  1802.  He  removed  to  Ar- 
kansas at  an  early  age,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State 
in  1836.  In  1848  he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate, 
and  went  on  a  special  mission  to  Mexico,  where  he 
negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace.  Died  at  Little  Rock  in 
December,  1S48. 

Sevier,  (John,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in  Ten- 
nessee in  1744.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle 
of  King's  Mountain,  in  1780.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Tennessee  in  1796,  and  again  in  1803,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  from  1811  to  1815.     Died  in  1815. 

Sevigne,  de,  deh  sk'\hn'yk',  (Marie  de  Rabutin- 
Chantal — deh  ra'bii'tciN'  shdN'ttl',)  Madame,  a  cele- 
brated French  writer  and  beauty,  born  in  Burgundy 
about  1626.  Left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  she  re- 
ceived an  excellent  education  from  her  maternal  uncle, 
the  Abbe  de  Coulanges,  and  learned  Latin,  Italian,  and 
Spanish.  She  was  married  in  1644  to  the  dissolute 
Marquis  de  Sevigne,  who  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  165 1, 
leaving  one  son  and  one  daughter.  She  was  courted  by 
Turenne,  the  Prince  of  Conti,  and  the  poet  Menage,  but 
declined  all  overtures  for  a  second  marriage.  She  was 
one  of  the  most  admired  ladies  of  the  circle  of  the  Hotel 
de  Rambouillet,  and  was  celebrated  for  her  epistolary 
talent.  Her  letters  display  a  fertile  imagination,  a  re- 
fined sensibility,  a  graceful  and  naive  vivacity,  and  are 
much  admired  for  their  charming  and  picturesque  slyle. 
She  has  been  pronounced  the  most  admirable  letter- 
writer  that  ever  lived.  Died  in  1696.  Among  the  best 
editions  of  her  Letters  is  that  of  Adolph  Regnier,  (12 
vols.,  1862-64.) 

See  Madame  Achille  Comtk,  "  filoge  de  Madame  de  S^vigii^," 
1840;  J.  A.  Wal,sh,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Sevign^,"  1842  ;  Walc- 
KENAER,  "  Memoires  touchant  la  Vie  de  Mane  de  R.ibutinChantal," 
4  vols.,  1842-48  ;  Aubenas,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de  Sevignd,' 
etc.,  1842;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  Lamartine, 
"  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters;"  "Edinburgh  Review,"  vol 
Ixxvi.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "Madame  de  Sevignii 
and  her  Contemporaries,"  London,  1841  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review' 
for  October,  1842  ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  1864. 

Sevin,  seh-viN',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Villeneuve-le-Roi  in  1682,  was  a  collector  of 
Oriental  manuscripts.     Died  in  1741. 

Sew'all,  (Harriet  Winslow,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1819.  She  has  written  very 
little,  but  one  of  her  hymns,  "  Why  thus  Longing?"  has 
attained  a  wide  popularity. 

Sewall,  su'al,  (Joseph,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  1688, 
was  a  son  of  Samuel,  the  chief  justice  of  Massachu- 
setts. He  preached  in  Boston  for  many  years.  Died 
in  1769. 

Se"wall,  (Samuel,)  a  judge,  born  at  Bishop-Stoke, 
England,  in  1652.  He  was  brought  to  America  in  his 
childhood.  He  became  a  judge  in  1692,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  in  1718.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  eminent  for  wisdom  and  learning. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  1728,  and  died  in  1730. 

Se'wall,  (Samuel,)  a  jurist,  born  in  Boston  in  1757, 
was  a  grandson  of  Joseph  Sewall,  noticed  above.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1796  to  1800,  and  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts  in  1813.  Died 
at  Wiscasset,  Maine,  in  1814. 

Se'wall,  (Stephen,)  an  American  judge,  born  in 
Massachusetts  about   1702,  was  a  nephew  of  Samuel, 


€  as  ^.-  c  as  .f  .•  g  fwrd:  g  a.«/;  g,  H,  V.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  «;  th  as  in  this.     ( [J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SEWALL 


21  76 


SEWARD 


(1652-1730.)  He  became  chief  justice  of  the  superior 
court  in  1752.      Died  in  1 760. 

Sewail,  (Stei'Hkn,)  an  American  scholar,  born  at 
York,  Maine,  in  1734.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Harvard  College  about  1765,  and  published  various 
works.     Died  in  1804. 

Sew'ard,  (Anna,)  an  English  writer  of  considerable 
reputation  in  her  time,  was  born  at  Eyam,  in  Derbyshire, 
in  1747.  Her  metrical  novel  entitled  "  Louisa"  (1782) 
was  very  successful,  and  was  followed  by  a  collection  of 
sonnets,  and  a  "  Life  of  Dr.  Darwin,"  (1804,)  in  which 
she  claims  to  have  written  the  first  fifty  lines  of  his 
"Botanic  Garden."  She  died  in  1809.  Her  poems 
and  part  of  her  literary  correspondence  were,  at  her 
re(iuest,  published  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  {1810.)  Her 
works  possess  little  merit  of  any  kind,  and  are  now 
nearly  forgotten. 

See  Waltrr  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  181 1;  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Me- 
nioirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement 
of  the  Last  Century,'  vol.  i.,  1843. 

Se'ward,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  170S.  He  became  canon- 
residentiary  of  Lichfield.     Died  in  1790. 

Sevsrard,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  and  friend 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  born  in  London  in  1747.  He  published 
"  Biographiana,"  and  "Anecdotes  of  Distinguished  Per- 
sons."    Died  in  1799. 

Seward,  sii'ard  or  soo'ard,  (William  Henry,)  an 
eminent  American  statesman,  born  at  Florida,  Orange 
county.  New  York,  on  the  i6th  of  May,  1801,  was  a  son 
of  Samuel  S.  Seward,  M.D.  His  mother's  maiden- 
name  was  Mary  Jennings.  He  was  educated  at  Union 
College,  Schenectady,  which  he  entered  in  1816.  His 
favourite  studies  were  rhetoric,  moral  philosophy,  and 
the  ancient  classics.  He  taught  school  in  one  of  the 
Southern  States  for  six  months  in  1S19,  and  returned  to 
Union  College  in  1820.  Having  studied  law  under  John 
Duer  and  Ogden  Hoffman,  he  was  admitted  to  tlie  bar 
in  1822.  He  became  a  resident  of  Auburn,  Cayuga 
county,  in  1823,  and  married  in  1824  Frances  Adeline,  a 
daughter  of  Judge  Elijah  Miller.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lawyer,  and  in  criminal  trials  acted 
almost  exclusively  as  counsel  for  the  defendant. 

In  1828  he  was  president  of  a  State  Convention  of 
young  men  who  favoured  the  re-election  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  to  the  Presidential  chair.  Soon  after  this  date 
he  joined  the  Anti-Masonic  party,  by  which  he  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  New  York,  in  1830,  by  a  large 
majority.  In  the  session  of  1832  he  made  an  able  speech 
in  favour  of  the  United  States  Bank.  He  became  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  party  in  his  own  State,  and  a 
supporter  of  the  national  party  which  afterwards  adopted 
the  name  of  Whig.  In  1833  he  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
and  made  a  rapid  tour  through  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
Holland,  Germany,  and  France.  He  published  some 
observations  on  those  countries,  in  a  series  of  letters. 

He  was  nominated  as  the  Whig  candidate  for  Governor 
of  New  York  in  1834,  but  was  defeated  by  William  L. 
Marcy.  He  joined  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
1837.  In  1838  he  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  by 
a  majority  of  10,000,  being  the  first  Whig  that  was  ever 
elected  to  that  office.  In  the  exercise  of  his  official 
power  he  favoured  internal  improvements,  reform  in  the 
courts  of  law  and  chancery,  and  the  extension  of  edu- 
cation among  the  people.  Among  the  events  of  his  ad- 
ministration was  a  controversy  with  the  e.xecutive  of 
Virginia,  who  claimed  the  surrender  of  three  coloured 
seamen  charged  with  abetting  a  slave  to  escape  from 
his  master.  Governor  Seward  refused  to  comply  with 
this  requisition,  and  argued  that  no  State  can  force 
a  requisition  on  another  State,  founded  on  an  act 
which  is  only  criminal  according  to  its  own  legislation, 
but  which  compared  with  general  standards  is  humane 
and  praiseworthy.  Through  his  influence  the  legislature 
repealed  the  law  which  permitted  a  slaveholder,  travel- 
ling with  his  slaves,  to  hold  them  for  nine  months  in 
the  State  of  New  York. 

Mr.  Seward  supported  General  Harrison  for  President 
in  1840,  and  at  the  same  time  was  re-elected  Governor 
for  two  years.     He  declined  to  be  a  candidate  in  1842, 


and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  the  courts  of  his  own 
State  and  in  those  of  the  United  States.  He  displayed 
much  courage  and  coolness  in  the  defence  of  Free- 
man, a  negro  who  massacred  a  family  near  Auburn  in 
1845,  3"d  ^^  provoked  a  violent  explosion  of  popular 
indignation  by  his  effort  to  prove  that  Freeman  was 
insane.  Although  his  argument  failed  to  convince  the 
jury,  it  was  confirmed  by  a  post-mortem  examination 
of  the  brain  of  Freeman.  In  the  Presidential  election 
of  1844  he  was  an  active  supporter  of  Henry  Clay,  and 
opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams,"  (published 
in  1849.) 

In  1848  he  advocated  the  nomination  and  election  of 
General  'i'aylor  to  the  Presidency.  In  February,  1849, 
Mr.  Seward  was  elected  by  the  State  legislature  to  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States,  receiving  one  hundred  and 
twenty-one  votes  against  thirty  for  all  others.  He  soon 
became  an  intimate  friend  and  favourite  counsellor  of 
President  Taylor,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  firm 
resistance  to  the  extension  of  slavery.  Tn  March,  1850, 
he  made  a  speech  in  favour  of  the  admission  of  Cali- 
fornia into  the  Union,  in  which  occurs  his  famous  phrase 
"the  higher  law."  "The  Constitution,"  he  said,  "de- 
votes the  national  domain  to  union,  to  justice,  to  defence, 
to  welfare,  and  to  liberty.  But  there  is  a  higher  law 
than  the  Constitution,  which  regulates  our  authority 
over  the  domain,  and  devotes  it  to  the  same  noble  pur- 
poses." He  opposed  the  "Compromise  Bill"  (July, 
1850)  in  an  elaborate  and  eloquent  speech,  asserting 
that  "  the  love  of  liberty  is  a  public,  universal,  and  un- 
dying affection."  For  his  course  on  the  slavery  question 
he  was  denounced  as  a  seditious  agitator.  It  was  his 
habitual  practice  never  to  notice  the  abusive  person- 
alities which  were  often  applied  to  hifti  by  his  opponents 
m  the  Senate. 

In  1852  he  voted  for  General  Scott,  the  Whig  candi- 
date for  President.  He  constantly  opposed  the  Native 
American  or  Know-Nothing  party,  which  was  secretly 
organized  about  1854,  "  on  a  foreign  and  frivolous  issue," 
and  he  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  Republican 
party,  which  was  formed  about  the  same  period,  wi<h 
a  view  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery.  He  was 
re-elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1855.  In 
a  speech  at  Rochester  in  October,  1858,  he  declared 
that  the  antagonism  between  freedom  and  slavery  "  is 
an  irrepressible  conflict  between  opposing  and  endur- 
ing forces  ;"  but  this  oft-quoted  phrase  ("irrepressible 
conflict")  is  said  to  have  been  first  used  by  Abraham 
Lincoln. 

About  this  time  he  predicted  that  the  Democratic 
party  would  be  fatally  damaged  by  its  support  of  slavery. 
In  a  memorable  speech  delivered  in  the  Senate,  March 
3,  1S58,  he  said,  "  All  parties  in  this  country  that  have 
tolerated  the  extension  of  slavery,  except  one,  have 
perished  for  that  error  already.  That  last  one — the 
Democratic  party — is  hurrying  on  irretrievably  to  the 
same  fate." 

Mr.  Seward  visited  Europe  a  second  time  in  1859. 
At  the  Republican  Convention  which  met  in  i860  to 
nominate  a  candidate  for  President,  Seward  received 
one  hundred  and  seventy-three  votes  on  the  first  ballot, 
(more  than  any  other  candidate,)  two  hundred  and 
thirty-three  votes  being  necessary  for  a  choice.  His 
failure  to  obtain  the  nomination  was  attributed  to  the  hos- 
tility of  Horace  Greeley.  During  the  session  of  i860- 
61  he  made  an  able  speech  in  the  Senate  against  dis- 
union. He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  March, 
1861.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  he  displayed  much 
ability  in  the  direction  of  the  foreign  policy  during  tiie 
civil  war.  Among  the  important  acts  of  his  ministry 
was  the  liberation  of  Mason  and  Slidell,  who  were 
arrested  on  board  the  British  steamer  Trent  in  Novem- 
ber, 1861,  and  were  demanded  by  the  British  govern- 
ment. "To  his  admirable  skill,  foresight,  and  good 
judgment,"  says  the  "  North  American  Review"  for 
April,  1866,  "the  country  owes  its  deliverance  from 
perils  and  embarrassments  such  as  it  never  before 
encountered.  His  fairness  and  good  temper  have  been 
more  than  a  match  for  the  plausible  insincerity  of 
Thouvenel  and  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  and  the  haughty  arro- 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  Jr,  s^orf:  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SEWEL 


2177 


SEYMOUR 


gance  of  Earl  Russell.  .  .  .  Some  of  his  despatches, 
especially  that  relating  to  the  Trent  case,  have  a  world- 
wide renown,  and  there  are  sentences  scattered  through 
his  published  volumes  which  deserve  to  live  forever." 
A  diflferent  and  far  less  favourable  view,  however,  is 
taken  of  his  despatches  and  his  policy  in  a  number  of 
the  same  periodical  published  October,  1866. 

The  invasion  of  Mexico  by  the  French  in  1862  raised 
another  important  subject  of  diplomacy.  In  despatches 
dated  September  and  October,  1863,  Mr.  Seward  dis- 
claimed the  right  and  the  disposition  to  intervene  by 
force  in  Mexico.  He  persisted  in  recognizing  the 
government  of  Juarez,  and  after  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives (April,  1864)  declared,  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
against  the  recognition  of  the  Mexican  empire,  he 
affirmed  that  this  resolution  "  truly  interprets  the  unani- 
mous sentiment  of  the  people."  In  November,  1865, 
he  wrote  to  Mr.  Bigelow,  the  American  minister  at 
Paris,  "The  United  Stales  regard  the  effort  to  establish 
permanently  a  foreign  and  imperial  government  in 
Mexico  as  disallowable  and  impracticable."  The  result 
of  this  despatch,  and  of  others  of  the  same  import,  was 
that  the  French  army  was  withdrawn  about  the  end 
of  1866,  and  Napoleon  III.  witnessed  the  disastrous 
and  humiliating  failure  of  his  costly  and  ill-judged 
enterprise. 

In  the  spring  of  1865  Secretary  Seward  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage  with  such  violence  that  his  arm  and 
jaw  were  broken.  While  he  was  lying  in  this  crippled 
condition,  on  the  14th  of  April,  1865,  Lewis  Payne, 
alias  Powell, — an  accomplice  of  J.  Wilkes  Booth, — pre- 
sented himself  at  the  door  of  his  house,  rushed  past  the 
porter,  broke  the  skull  of  Frederick  Seward,  and  in- 
flicted with  a  knife  several  severe  wounds  on  the  neck 
and  face  of  the  secretary  of  state.  The  assassin  was 
then  grasped  by  Mr.  Robinson,  so  that  he  failed  to  effect 
his  purpose,  but  stabbed  two  other  men  as  he  ran  out 
of  the  house. 

Mr.  Seward  was  retained  in  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state  by  President  Johnson,  and  supported  his  policy  in 
relation  to  reconstruction,  against  the  almost  unanimous 
sentiment  of  the  Republican  party.  In  August  and 
September,  1866,  President  Johnson,  accompanied  by 
his  secretary  of  state,  made  an  extensive  electioneering 
tour,  on  which  occasion  Mr.  Seward  gave  great  ofifence 
even  to  the  most  moderate  and  impartial  of  his  former 
friends.  At  Niagara,  in  attempting  to  answer  the  charge 
that  he  had  deserted  his  party,  he  said,  in  addition  to 
many  other  things  still  more  objectionable,  "Must  I 
desert  my  course,  my  government,  and  my  country 
to  follow  a  party  divided,  distracted,  weak,  imbecile.'''' 
— an  intimation  as  to  the  political  condition  that  the  next 
ensuing  election  proved  to  be  entirely  without  founda- 
tion. 

That  historic  impartiality  which  belongs  to  the  biogra- 
phy of  public  men  forbids  us  wholly  to  pass  over  those 
errors  and  foibles  which  disappointed  so  many  of  Mr. 
Seward's  friends  ;  but  we  gladly  turn  from  the  considera- 
tion of  such  topics  to  the  contemplation  of  his  long  life 
of  usefulness,  and  especially  of  his  eminent  services  to 
his  country  in  her  late  hour  of  trial.  After  retiring  from 
political  life,  he  made  a  tour  around  the  world,  (1870-71,) 
and  died  at  Auburn,  October  10,  1872. 

See  '■Memoir  of  W.  H.  Seward,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  by 
Georgk  E.  Baker,  3  vols.,  1S53  ;  Bartlett,  "  Modern  Agitators." 

Se-w'el,  (William,)  M.D.,  a  historian  and  linguist, 
of  English  extraction,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1654,  was 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  published  a 
"Dictionary  of  the  Dutch  and  English  Languages," 
(1690,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
the  Society  called  Quakers,"  (1717,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.     Died  about  1725. 

Sew'ell,  (Elizabeth  Missing,)  an  English  High- 
Church  novelist,  a  sister  of  the  Rev.  William  Sewell, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1815. 
Among  her  novels  are  "Amy  Herbert,"  (1844,)  "Ger- 
trude." (1847,)  "Katherine  Ashton,"  (1854,)  "Ursula," 
(1858,)  etc.  She  wrote  also,  for  the  young,  histories  of 
Rome,  Greece,  France,  and  of  the  early  Church,  as  well 
as  some  educational  and  devotional  works. 

Sew'ell,  (George,)  an  English  physician  and  miscel- 


laneous writer,  born  at  Windsor,  was  a  pupil  of  Boer- 
haave.  He  published  a  "Vindication  of  the  English 
Stage,"  "Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  a  tragedy,  and  trans- 
lations from  Lucan  and  other  Latin  poets.  Died  in 
1726. 

Sewell,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  writer  and 
teacher,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  about  1805.  He 
was  a  tutor  or  professor  at  Oxford  University.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Christian  Morals," 
(1840,)  "Christian  Politics,"  and  a  version  of  the  Odes 
of  Horace.      Died  November  14,  1874. 

Sex'tJ-u8,  (Caius,)  was  elected  Roman  consul  in  124 
B.C.,  and  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Southern  Gaul, 
where  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Arverni.  Near  the 
warm  springs,  where  one  of  his  battles  was  fought,  he 
founded  the  city  of  Aquse  Sextiae,  now  Aix-la-Chapel!e 

Sex'tT-us,  Sex'tus,  or  Six'tus,  (Quintus,)  a 
Roman  Stoic  philosopher,  who  lived  about  50  B.C.  and 
is  highly  praised  by  Seneca.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  author  of  a  book  of  moral  aphorisms,  ("  Sen- 
tenticE,")  which  Rufinus  translated  from  Greek  into 
Latin. 

Sex'tus  [Se^TOf]  of  -Cheron^'a,  a  Greek  Stoic 
philosopher  of  the  second  century,  was  a  nephew  of 
Plutarch,  and  a  preceptor  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 

Sex'tus  Em-pirl-cus,  \Y.ki,Tor  6 'E/OTfj/)t)«6f,]  a  cele- 
brated Greek  skeptical  philosopher  and  physician,  whose 
birthplace  is  unknown,  flourished  about  200  a.d.  He 
belonged  to  the  medical  sect  of  Empirici.  He  wrote 
two  works  which  have  come  down  to  us,  namely,"Against 
the  Mathematicians  or  Dogmatists,"  ("  Adversus  Mathe- 
maticos,")  and  "  Pyrrhonistic  Sketches,"  ("  Pyrrhonje 
Hypotyposes.")  These  works  are  highly  prized  as  docu- 
ments for  the  history  of  philosophy.  They  contain  all  the 
arguments  and  maxims  of  the  ancient  skeptics,  and  tend 
to  involve  in  doubt  all  the  doctrines  of  science,  religion, 
and  philosophy.  The  former  work  has  been  described 
as  "a  perfect  store-house  of  doubts  regarding  every 
imaginable  phasis  of  human  knowledge."  ("Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica.") 

See  C.  JouRDAiN,  "Sextus  Empiricus  et  la  Philosophie  scolas- 
tique,"  1858;  Tennemann,  "Geschichte  der  Philosophie ;"  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Seybert,  si'bert,  (Adam,)  an  American  mineralogist 
and  physician,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1773,  studied 
in  Paris,  Edinburgh,  and  Gottingen.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1809  to  1815.  He  published  "  Statis- 
tical Annals  of  the  United  States  from  1789  to  1818." 
Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Seydelmann,  si'del-min'  or  zT'del-m3n',  (Jakob 
Crescenz,)  a  German  artist,  celebrated  for  his  admira- 
ble drawings  in  sepia,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1750. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  copy  of  Correggio's 
"Night."     Died  in  1829. 

Seydelmann,  (Karl,)  a  celebrated  German  actor, 
born  at  Glatz,  in  Silesia,  in  1795  ;  died  in  1843. 

Seydlitz,  von,  fon  sid'lits  or  zTd'lits,  (Friedrich 
Wilhelm,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  near  Cleves  in 
1 721,  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  For  his  distin- 
guished bravery  at  the  battle  of  Rossbach,  in  1757, 
he  received  from  his  sovereign  the  order  of  the  Black 
Eagle.  He  became  general  of  cavalry  in  1767.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Leben  des  Generals  von  Seydlitz," 
1834;  Count  von  Bismark,  "Der  General  F.  von  Seydlitz,"  1837 
Blankenburg,  "Charakter  des  Generals  von  Seydlitz,"  1797. 

Seyflfarth,  sIf'fiRt  or  zifflRt,  (Gustav,)  a  German 
antiquary  and  professor  of  archaeology  at  Leipsic,  was 
born  at  Uebigau,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  in  1796.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Rudimenta  Hieroglyphices,"  (1826,) 
and  of  "  Principles  of  Mythology,"  and  wrote  a  continua- 
tion of  Spohn's  treatise  "  On  the  Language  and  Letters 
of  the  Ancient  Egyptians."  In  1855  he  became  professor 
in  the  Lutheran  College  of  Saint  Louis,  in  the  United 
States,     Died  November  17,  1885. 

See  Ai.libone.  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Seyfried,  sI'fR^t  or  zi'fR^t,  (Ignaz,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Vienna  in  1776  ;  died  in  1841. 

Seymour,  (Edward.)    See  Somerset,  Duke  of. 

Seymour,  see'mur,  (Edward,)  an  English  Tory 
politician,  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  Duke  of  Som- 


♦-  as  k:  5  as  f .-  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p  23,) 

137 


SEYMOUR 


2178 


SFORZA 


erset,  who  was  Protector  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  debaters  in  the  kingdom. 
He  joined  the  party  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  in 
1688.  In  1692  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  the 
treasury  and  member  of  the  cabinet.  He  was  removed 
in  1694.  He  was  factious  in  politics  and  licentious  in 
morals.     Died  in  1707. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,     vol.  i. 

Seymour,  see'mur,  (George  Franklin,)  S.T.D., 
LL.D.,  an  American  bishop,  born  in  New  York  city, 
January  5,  1829,  graduated  with  highest  honours  at 
Columbia  College  in  1850,  held  important  rector.sliips  in 
the  Episcopal  Church,  founded  Saint  Stephen's  College, 
Annandale,  New  York,  and  was  its  warden,  1854-61,  was 
professor  in  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York,  1865-79,  and  was  its  dean,  1875-79.  In  187S  he 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Springfield,  Illinois.  Bishop 
Seymour  is  recognized  as  the  most  prominent  leader  of 
the  "  High-Church"  party  in  the  American  Church. 

Seymour,  (Sir  George  Hamilton,)  an  English  di- 
plomatist, born  about  1797.  He  was  sent  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1851  as  envoy-extraordinary  and  minister- 
plenipotentiary.  In  1853  Nicholas  I.  made  to  him  over- 
tures on  the  subject  of  Turkey,  offering,  it  is  said,  to 
co-operate  with  England  in  the  spoliation  of  "  the  sick 
man."     He  died  February  4,  1880. 

Seymour,  see'mur,  (Horatio,)  an  American  poli- 
tician, born  in  Onondaga  county.  New  York,  in  1810. 
He  studied  law,  which  he  practised  for  several  years  in 
Utica.  He  was  nominated  for  the  office  of  Governor  of 
New  York  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1850,  but  was 
defeated  by  Washington  Hunt.  Having  been  nominated 
again  in  1852,  he  was  elected  Governor  for  two  years 
by  a  large  majority.  In  1854  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  same  office.  In  the  crisis  of  1861  he 
opposed  the  coercion  of  the  secessionists.  According 
to  Mr.  Greeley,  he  was  understood  to  urge  the  adhesion 
of  New  York  to  the  Southern  Confederacy.  ("  American 
Conflict,"  vol.  i.  p.  438.)  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
New  York  in  1862.  About  the  ist  of  August,  1863, 
he  urged  President  Lincoln  to  suspend  the  draft,  and 
insisted  that  the  enforcement  of  the  draft  should  be 
postponed  till  the  courts  decided  the  question  of  its 
constitutionality.  He  was  president  of  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  which  met  at  Chicago  in  August, 
1864,  and  was  again  presented  as  a  candidate  for  the 
office  of  Governor  in  November,  1864,  but  was  defeated. 
He  was  president  of  the  National  Democratic  Convention 
which  met  in  New  York,  July  4,  1868,  and  was  nominated 
as  the  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States. 
He  received  only  eighty  electoral  votes,  and  was  defeated 
by  General  Grant.     Died  February  12,  1886. 

Seymour,  (Jane,)  was  a  sister  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
Somerset,  and  the  third  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  to  whom 
she  was  married  in  1536.  She  was  the  mother  of  Ed- 
ward VI.     Died  in  1537. 

Seymour,  (Sir  Michael,)  an  English  vice-admiral, 
born  in  x8o2.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1855,  and 
commanded  the  naval  force  which  operated  against 
Canton  in  1857. 

Seymour,  (Thomas,)  Lord  Sudely,  lord  high  ad- 
miral of  England,  was  a  brother  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
Somerset.  He  married  Catherine  Parr,  a  widow  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and,  after  her  death,  became  a  suitor  of 
the  princess  Elizabeth.  He  aspired  to  be  governor  of  the 
young  king,  and  to  supplant  the  Duke  of  Somerset  as 
regent  or  protector.  Having  been  convicted  of  treason, 
he  was  beheaded  in  1549. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Seymour,  (Truman,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Burlington,  Vermont,  about  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846.  He  was  a  captain  in  Fort  Sumter  when  it 
was  bombarded  in  April,  1861,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  about  April,  1862.  He  served  at 
the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  1862,  and  com- 
manded a  small  army  which  was  defeated  at  Olustee, 
Florida,  on  the  20th  of  February,  1864. 

Seymour,  (William,)  Duke  of  Somerset,  was  a 
great-grandson  of  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of  Somerset. 
He  offended  James  L  by  his  marriage  with  Arabella 


Stuart,  who  was  a  cousin  of  the  king.  In  the  civil  war 
he  fought  for  Charles  I.  Died  in  1660.  (See  Stuart, 
Arabella.) 

Seyssel.     See  Seissel. 

S6ze,  de,  deh  siz,  (Raymond,)  Count,  a  French  ad- 
vocate and  royalist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1748.  He  was 
one  of  the  counsel  selected  by  Louis  XVI.  to  defend 
him  in  his  trial,  and  made  an  eloquent  plea  before  the 
Convention.  He  became  first  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation  in  181 5,  and  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1816.     Died  in  1828. 

See  CuATKAUBRiAND,  "  filoge  dti  Comte  de  Size,"  1861 ;  Mar 
MON'TKL,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sfondrati,  sfon-dRi'tee,  (Celestino,)  an  Italian 
cardinal  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1644;  died  is 
1696. 

Sfondrati,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  a.' 
Cremona  in  1493,  was  an  influential  adviser  of  Pope 
Paul  III.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  "  On  the  Rape  of 
Helen,"  ("  De  Raptu  Helenas,"  1559.)     Died  in  1550. 

Sforce.     See  Sforza. 

Sforza.     See  Bonna  Sforza. 

Sforza,  sfoRt'sl,  [Fr.  Sforce,  sfoRss,]  (Francesco,) 
son  of  Giacomuzzo,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1401, 
and  was  equally  distinguished  as  a  warrior.  After  he 
had  for  a  time  assisted  the  Florentines  against  Filippu 
Maria  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  the  latter  gave  him  in 
marriage  his  daughter  Bianca.  On  the  death  of  Visconti 
he  took  possession  of  Milan,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Venetians,  and  was  proclaimed  duke  in  1450.  He  dis- 
played great  ability  and  moderation  as  a  ruler,  and, 
among  other  valuable  public  works,  constructed  the 
Naviglio  della  Martesana,  or  canal  between  Milan  and 
the  Adda.     Died  in  1465. 

See  Hover,  "  Franz  Sforza,"  2  vols.,  1846 ;  "  The  Life  and  Times 
of  Francesco  Sforza,"  by  \V.  P.  UrQUHArt,  1852  ;  G.  Simonetta, 
"  De  Rebus  gestis  F.  Sforzs,"  1480;  Robertson,  "History  of 
Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  iv.-vi.  ;  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Repiib- 
liques  Italiennes  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sforza,  (Francesco  Maria,)  the  last  Duke  of  Milan, 
a  son  of  Ludovico  "il  Moro,"  was  born  in  1492.  He 
obtained  the  dukedom  by  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  about  1525,  and  died,  without  issue,  in  1535. 

Sforza,  (Galeazzo  Maria,)  a  son  of  Francesco,  was 
born  in  1444.  He  became  Duke  of  Milan  in  1465. 
Having  made  himself  odious  to  the  people  by  his  tyranny 
and  licentiousness,  he  was  assassinated  in  1476. 

Sforza,  (Giacomuzzo  Attendolo,  jS-ko-moot'so 
it-t6n'do-lo,)  an  Italian  soldier  of  fortune,  born  near 
Faenza  about  1370.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the 
service  of  Alberico  da  Barbiano,  one  of  the  most  noted 
of  the  "condottieri,"  or  party  leaders  of  the  time,  who 
were  striving  for  the  deliverance  of  Italy  from  foreign 
mercenaries.  By  his  distinguished  bravery  and  energy 
he  contributed  to  the  success  of  Alberico's  enterprises, 
and  received  from  him  the  surname  of  "Sforza,"  from 
his  great  strength.  He  afterwards  assisted  the  Floren- 
tines against  the  republic  of  Pisa,  and,  having  entered 
the  service  of  Joanna,  Queen  of  Naples,  attained  the 
rank  of  commander-in-chief.  Having  marched  against 
Braccio  da  Montone,  he  was  drowned  while  attempting 
to  ford  the  river  Pescara,  in  1424. 

See  Ratti,  "  Memorie  della  Famiglia  Sforza,"  2  vols.,  1795  :  Sis- 
mondi, "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Sforza,  (Giovanni  Galeazzo  Maria,)  Duke  of 
Milan,  the  son  of  Galeazzo  Maria,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1468.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1476,  his 
mother  acting  as  regent;  but  the  power  was  usurped 
about  1480  by  his  uncle  Ludovico.     Died  in  1494. 

Sforza,  (Ludovico,)  surnamed  il  Moro,  ("the 
Moor,")  brother  of  Galeazzo  Maria,  was  born  in  145 1. 
He  imprisoned  his  nephew,  the  legitimate  heir,  and 
usurped  the  government  of  Milan,  about  1480.  In  order 
to  strengthen  himself  against  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples, 
who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  young  duke,  he  in- 
vited Charles  VIII.  of  France  to  attempt  the  conquest 
of  Naples,  thus  originating  the  devastating  wars  which 
afflicted  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  French, 
having  taken  Naples,  soon  roused  the  people  to  resist- 
ance by  their  oppression,  and  were  expelled  from  Italy 
by  the  united  efforts  of  Ludovico,  the  pope,  and  the 
Venetians.     On  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the   French 


a.  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  4,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mhi;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


A 


SFORZA 


2179 


SHAFTESBURY 


king,  Louis  XII.,  in  1499,  Ludovico,  after  opposing  him 
with  varying  success,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  died  in 
France  in  15 10.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  and  made  numerous  improvements  in  the 
city  of  Milan. 

See  Monti,  "Vita  di  Ludovico  Sforza,"  1(153;  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire  des  R^publiqiies  Italiennes  ;"  RoscoE,  "  Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Sforza,  (Massimiliano,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
enjoyed  for  a  time  the  rank  of  Duke  of  Milan,  but  was 
deposed  by  the  French  king,  Francis  I.,  after  the  battle 
of  Marignano,  in  1515.  Died  in  1530.  His  brother 
Francesco  was  made  Duke  of  Milan  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  to  whom,  on  his  dying  without  issue  in 
1535,  he  bequeathed  the  dukedom. 

Sgravesande.     See  Gravesande. 

Sgricci,  sgR^t'chee,  (Tommaso,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
improvisatore,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  His  productions  entitled  "The  Death  of 
Charles  I."  ("  La  Morte  di  Carlo  L")  and  "  L'Ettore" 
were  published  in  1825.     Died  in  1836. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Shacfwell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1640,  was  for  a  time  a  friend  of  Dryden,  who 
subsequently  satirized  him  in  his  poem  of  "MacFleck- 
noe."  He  succeeded  Dryden  as  poet-laureate  in  1688, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Earl  of  Rochester.  He 
published,  among  other  comedies,  "The  Humourist," 
"The  Sullen  Lovers,"  "The  Lancashire  Witches,"  and 
"The  Volunteers."     Died  in  1692. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  (182S.) 

Shafey,  sh^'fa'  or  shi'fl',  [Lat.  Shafei'us,]  written 
also  Shafay  and  Schafei,  (sometimes  called  Aboo- 
Abdallah- Mohammed -Ibn-Idrees,  (or  -Edris,) 
i'boo  ib-dSl'lah  mo-him'med  Tb'n  e-drees',)  a  cele- 
brated Mohammedan  doctor,  born  at  Gaza  in  767  A.D., 
was  the  founder  of  one  of  the  four  orthodox  sects  of 
Moslems,  and  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
He  lived  for  many  years  at  Mecca,  and  wrote  treatises 
on  canon  and  civil  law.     Died  about  820. 

Shaftesbury,  shafs'ber-e,  (  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,)  Lord  Ashley,  and  first  Earl  of,  an  English 
politician,  famous  for  his  talents,  intrigues,  and  versa- 
tility, was  born  at  Wimborne  Saint  Giles,  Dorsetshire, 
on  the  22d  or  23d  of  July,  1621.  He  was  a  son  of  Sii 
John  Cooper,  and  a  grandson  of  Sir  Anthony  Ashley, 
from  each  of  whom  he  inherited  a  large  estate. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Short  Parliament  of  1640. 
In  the  civil  war  he  first  supported  the  cause  of  the  king, 
but  in  1643  he  joined  the  popular  party,  and  took  Ware- 
ham  in  1644.  He  became  a  member  of  Parliament  in 
1653,  after  which  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  Crom- 
well's council  of  state.  Between  1654  and  1660  he  sat 
in  several  Parliaments,  was  an  opponent  of  Cromwell, 
and  very  efficiently  promoted  the  restoration.  Charles 
IT.  rewarded  him  in  1660  with  the  office  of  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  and  raised  him  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  Ashley,  in  1661.  Lord  Ashley  was  a  political 
opponent  of  Lord  Clarendon  while  the  latter  was  prime 
minister.  He  became  in  1670  a  member  of  the  famous 
and  notorious  Cabal  ministry,  whose  domestic  policy 
was  arbitrary,  and  whose  foreign  policy  was  basely  sub- 
servient to  the  will  of  Louis  XIV.  "  Ashley,  with  a  far 
stronger  head  [than  Buckingham]," says  Macaulay,  "and 
with  a  far  fiercer  and  more  earnest  ambition,  had  been 
equally  versatile ;  but  Ashley's  versatility  was  the  effect 
not  of  levity,  but  of  selfishness.  He  had  served  and 
betrayed  a  succession  of  governments  ;  but  he  had  timed 
all  his  treacheries  so  well  that  through  all  revolutions 
his  fortunes  had  been  constantly  rising."  ("History 
of  England.")  He  was  created  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  in 
1672,  and  held  the  office  of  lord  chancellor  from  No- 
vember, 1672,  till  November,  1673.  After  the  seals  had 
been  taken  from  him,  he  went  over  to  the  opposition  or 
country  party,  and  signalized  his  zeal  against  popery.  A 
majority  of  the  Commons  having  opposed  the  measures 
of  the  court,  the  king  prorogued  that  House  from  time 
to  time.  When  it  assembled  in  1677,  Shaftesbury  as 
serted  that  it  was  dissolved.  For  this  offence  he  was 
confined  in  the  Tower  for  more  than  a  year.  This  affair, 
and  his  officious  action  in  relation  to  the  Popish  Plot 


rendered  him  so  popular  that  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  new  council  formed  in  1679.  While  he  held  this 
high  position,  he  procured  the  passage  of  the  famous 
Habeas  Corpus  act,  of  which  he  was  the  author.  Having 
been  dismissed  from  the  presidency  of  the  council  in 
October,  1679,  he  presented  the  Duke  of  York  to  the 
grand  jury  as  a  popish  recusant.  Suspected  of  conspir- 
ing with  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  he  was  seized  in  July, 
1681,  and  confined  in  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  treason; 
but  the  bill  of  indictment  was  ignored  by  the  grand  jury. 
Dryden  satirized  him,  under  the  name  of  "  Achitophel," 
in  his  admirable  poem  of  "Absalom  and  Achitophel." 
It  is  said  that  Shaftesbury  advised  his  party  to  revolt 
openly  against  the  court,  but  the  other  leaders  refused 
to  follow  this  advice.  He  therefore  left  England  in  1682, 
and  died  at  Amsterdam  in  June,  1683,  leaving  one  son. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Lord  Chancellors;"  "  Lif» 
of  Lord  Shaftesbury,"  by  B.  Martin  and  Dr.  Kippis,  new  edition 
by  C.  W.  Cook,  1836:  also  "Memoirs,  Letters,  and  Speeches,' 
edited  by  W.  D.  Christie. 

Shaftesbury,  (Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,)  seventh 
Earl  of,  an  English  philanthropist,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  sixth  Earl,  was  born  in  1801.  He  was  styled  Lord 
Ashley  in  his  youth.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  as  first 
class  in  classics,  in  1822,  and  entered  Parliament  in  1826. 
He  procured  the  passage  of  the  "  Ten  Hours'  Bill,"  which 
requires  that  children  in  factories  shall  not  work  more 
than  ten  hours  in  a  day.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
an  advocate  of  the  "Evangelical  party"  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  as  a  promoter  of  benevolent  enterprises. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1851,  he  inherited  the 
earldom.     Died  October  i,  18S5. 

Shaftesbury,  (Anthony  Cooper,)  third  Earl  of, 
a  celebrated  English  writer,  born  in  London  in  1671, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  first  Earl.  He  was  educated  by 
John  Locke,  the  philosopher,  who  was  a  friend  of  his 
grandfather.  According  to  a  statement  of  the  pupil 
himself,  Locke  "had  the  absolute  direction  of  his  educa- 
tion." In  1693  he  entered  Parliament,  where  he  acted 
with  the  Whigs.  During  a  residence  in  Holland,  to 
which  he  went  in  1698,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Bayle  and  Leclerc.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1699, 
he  passed  into  the  House  of  Lords.  He  was  a  political 
friend  of  Willram  III.,  who  consulted  him  in  important 
affairs.  After  the  death  of  William  (1705)  he  retired 
from  public  service.  He  published  a  "  Letter  on  Enthu- 
siasm," (1708,)  "Moralists,  a  Philosophical  Rhapsody," 
(1709,)  and  "Sensus  Communis,  or  Essay  on  Wit  and 
Humour,"  (1709.)  His  style  as  a  writer  was  greatly  ad- 
mired, though  it  is  wanting  in  ease  and  simplicity.  ?Ie 
died  at  Naples  in  February,  17 13,  leaving  one  son,  An- 
thony. His  collected  works  were  published  in  1713, 
under  the  title  of  "  Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners, 
Opinions,  and  Times."  Leibnitz  warmly  applauded  his 
"  Characteristics."  "  His  fine  genius  and  generous  spirit," 
says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "shine  through  his  writings; 
but  their  lustre  is  often  dimmed  by  peculiarities,  and,  it 
must  be  said,  by  affectations,  which  are  peculiarly  fatal  to 
the  permanence  of  fame."  Referring  to  his  "  Moralists," 
the  same  critic  says,  "Perhaps  there  is  scarcely  any 
composition  in  our  language  more  lofty  in  its  moral  and 
religious  sentiments  and  more  exquisitely  elegant  and 
musical  in  its  diction.  .  .  .  'The  Inquiry  concerning 
Virtue'  is  nearly  exempt  from  the  faulty  peculiarities  of 
the  author;  the  method  is  perfect,  the  reasoning  just, 
the  style  precise  and  clear.  .  .  .  This  production  is  un- 
questionably entitled  to  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of 
English  tracts  on  moral  philosophy.  It  contains  more 
intimations  of  an  original  and  important  nature  on  the 
theory  of  ethics  than  perhaps  any  preceding  work  of 
modern  times.  His  demonstration  of  the  utility  of  vir- 
tue to  the  individual  far  surpasses  all  attempts  of  the 
same  nature, — being  founded  not  on  a  calculation  of 
outward  advantages  or  inconveniences,  alike  uncer- 
tain, precarious,  and  degrading,  but  on  the  unshaken 
foundation  of  the  delight  which  is  of  the  very  essence 
of  social  affection  and  virtuous  sentiment,  ...  on  the 
all-important  truth  that  to  love  is  to  be  happy  and  to 
hate  is  to  be  miserable,  that  affection  is  its  own  reward 
and  ill  will  its  own  punishment  .  .  .  The  relation  of 
religion  to  morality,  as  far  as  it  can  be  discovered  by 
human  reason,  was  never  more  justly  or  more  beauti- 


eas*;  9asx;  ^hard;  gas/;  G,H,Vi, guttural;  a,  nasal;  vl,  trilled;  sasz;  th  asin//«j.     (Ii:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHAH 


2180 


SHAKSPEARE 


fully  stated."     (See  "  General  View  of  the  Progress  of 
Ethical  Philosophy.") 

SHAH,  shih,  a  Persian  word,  signifying  "  king,"  and 
forming  part  of  the  name  or  title  of  many  Oriental  sove- 
reigns ;  as,  Shah  AbbAs,  i.e.  "  King  Abbis,"  Nadir 
Shah,  "  wonderful  king,"  etc. 

Shih-Alam,  shIh  d'lam,  ("King  of  the  World,") 
written  also  Sch&h-Alam  (-Alem  or  -Alim)  and 
Shah- Alum,  (or  -Allum,)  sometimes  called  Bahadur 
Shah,  ba-hi'door  shth,  ("Brave  King,")  a  son  of 
Aurung-Zeb,  Emperor  of  India,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1707.  He  died  in  1712,  while  carrying  on  a  war  against 
the  Sikhs. 

Shih-Alam  (or  Schah-Alem)  11.  ascended  the 
throne  of  India  in  1759.  In  order  to  strengthen  his 
authority  over  his  empire,  he  had  recourse  to  the  British, 
to  whom  he  gave  a  grant  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa, 
in  return  for  the  city  and  district  of  Allahabad  which 
they  assigned  him.     Died  in  1806. 

Shih-Jehan  or  Shahjehau,  shih  je-hin',  written 
also  Shah-Jahan  and  Schah-  (or  Chah-)  Djehan, 
("King  of  the  World,")  the  fifth  Mogul  Emperor  of 
India,  the  son  of  Jehan-Geer,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1627.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  rebellion  of  his 
sons,  one  of  whom,  the  famous  Aurung-Zeb,  put  to  death 
two  of  his  brothers  and  deposed  his  father.  He  died  in 
1666  at  Agra,  where  a  large  establishment  had  been 
granted  him.  The  court  of  Shah-Jehan  was  celebrated 
for  its  splendour.  The  "peacock  throne,"  formed  of 
jewels  valued  at  ;^6,5oo,ooo,  was  constructed  by  him. 
He  also  founded  the  city  of  Shah  Jehanabad,  or  New 
Delhi,  and  erected  many  magnificent  public  buildings, 
among  which  the  Taj-Mahal,  a  mausoleum,  erected  in 
honour  of  his  favourite  wife,  called  Taj-Mahal,  ("the 
Crown  of  the  Palace,")  near  Agra,  is  justly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  and,  in  the  opin- 
ion of  several  competent  judges,  is  the  most  elegant 
and  splendid  edifice  on  the  globe.  It  is  said  to  have 
cost — in  a  country  where  almost  every  kind  of  labour 
is  marvellously  cheap — not  less  than  sixty  millions 
of  dollars. 

Shah-Rokh-Behadur,  shih  roK  be-hi'door,  or 
Shah-Rokh-Meerza,  a  son  of  Tamerlane,  succeeded 
him  on  the  throne  in  1405.  He  rebuilt  the  fortress  of 
the  city  of  Herat,  and  constructed  other  public  edifices. 
Died  about  1450. 

Shairp,  sharp,  (John  Campbell,)  LL.D.,  a  British 
scholar,  born  at  Houstoun  House,  Linlithgowshire, 
Scotland,  July  30,  1819.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
University,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  1861  he 
became  professor  of  humanity  in  Saint  Andrew's  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1868  principal  of  that  institution.  He 
has  published  "  Kilmahoe,  and  other  Poems,"  (1S64,) 
"Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philosophy,"  (186S,)  "Lectures 
on  Culture  and  Religion,"  (1870,)  "Life  of  James 
Forbes,"  (1873,)  "  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature," 
(1877,)  "  Aspects  of  Poetry,"  (1881,)  etc.     [D.  in  18S5.] 

Shaiva.     See  Saiv.'V. 

Shakhovsky  or  Schachowski,  shS-Kov'ske, 
(Alexander  Alexandrovitch,)  Prince,  a  celebrated 
Russian  dramatist,  born  in  the  government  of  Smolensk 
in  1777.  Among  his  numerous  and  popular  works  may 
be  named  his  "  Aristophanes,"  a  comedy,  and  "A  Lesson 
to  Coquettes."     Died  in  1846. 

Shakespear,  shak'speer,  (John,)  an  English  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Lount,  Leicestershire,  in  1774.  He  was 
professor  of  Hindostanee  at  the  Royal  Military  College, 
and  published,  among  other  works,  an  excellent  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  Hindustani  Language,"  (181 7,)  and  a 
"Grammar  of  the  Hindustani  Language,"  (6th  edition, 
1855,  8vo.)     Died  in  1858. 

Shakspecire  or  Shakespeare,*  shak'speer,  (Wil- 
liam,) the  greatest  dramatic  genius  that  ever  lived, 
was  born  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  in  April,  (probably 
on  the  23d,)  1564.  His  father,  John  Shakspeare,  was  a 
glover.  His  mother's  maiden-name  was  Mary  Arden ; 
she  belonged  to  a  respectable  and  ancient  family  of 
Warwickshire.    William  was  the  eldest  of  four  brothers  ; 


•  Respecting  the  spelling  of  this  name,  see  Allibonb's  "  Diction- 
ary of  Authors." 


he  had  four  sisters,  two  of  whom  were  older  and  two 
younger  than  himself  The  materials  for  writing  the 
life  of  Shakspeare  are  extremely  meagre.  Of  his  child- 
hood, after  his  christening,  (which  took  place  on  the 
26th  of  April,)  and  his  early  youth,  we  know  absolutely 
nothing.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  was  married  in 
his  nineteenth  year  to  Anne  Hathaway.  He  appears 
soon  after  his  marriage  to  have  gone  to  London,  where 
he  followed  the  profession  of  an  actor,  and,  if  Aubrey's 
statement  may  be  trusted,  he  "  did  act  exceedingly  well." 
There  is  a  pretty  generally  received  tradition  that  he 
fled  from  Warwickshire  in  consequence  of  having  been 
detected  in  deer-stealing.  Rowe,  in  his  Life  of  Shak- 
speare, relates  the  story  as  follows  :  "  He  had,  by  a 
misfortune  common  enough  to  young  fellows,  fallen  mto 
ill  company ;  and  amongst  them  some  that  made  a  fre- 
quent practice  of  deer-stealing  engaged  him  with  them 
more  than  once  in  robbing  a  park  that  belonged  to  Sir 
Thomas  Lucy,  of  Charlecote,  near  Stratford.  For  this 
he  was  prosecuted  by  that  gentleman,  as  he  thought, 
somewhat  too  severely  ;  and  in  order  to,  revenge  that  ill 
usage,  he  made  a  ballad  upon  him.  And  though  this, 
probably  the  first  essay  of  his  poetry,  be  lost,  yet  it  is 
said  to  have  been  so  very  bitter  that  it  redoubled  the 
prosecution  against  him,  to  that  degree  that  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  his  business  and  family  in  Warwickshire 
for  some  time,  and  shelter  himself  in  London."  It 
seems  very  probable  that  the  passage  in  the  first  scene 
of  the  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  in  which  the  "  luces" 
(or  "louses")  on  Justice  Shallow's  coat  are  spoken  of, 
was  intended  as  a  hit  at  Sir  Thomas  Lucy.  A  similar 
play  upon  the  name  of  Lucy  occurs  in  a  coarse  ballad 
which  tradition  ascribes  to  Shakspeare.  After  having 
taken  up  his  abode  in  London,  he  appears  to  have  acted 
by  turns  at  the  Globe  and  at  Blackfriars'  Theatre. 

Speaking  of  Shakspeare  soon  after  his  arrival  in  Lon- 
don, Rowe  says,  "  He  was  received  into  the  company 
then  in  being,  at  first  in  a  very  mean  rank ;  but  his  ad- 
mirable wit,  and  the  natural  turn  of  it  to  the  stage,  soon 
distinguished  him,  if  not  as  an  extraordinary  actor,  yet 
as  an  excellent  writer.  His  name  is  printed,  as  the 
custom  was  in  those  times,  amongst  those  of  the  other 
players,  before  some  old  plays,  but  without  any  particu- 
lar account  of  what  sort  of  parts  he  used  to  play;  and, 
though  I  have  inquired,  I  could  never  meet  with  any 
further  account  of  him  this  way  than  that  the  top  of  his 
performance  was  the  ghost  in  his  own  '  Hamlet.'" 

It  is  not  known  when  Shakspeare  first  began  to  write 
plays,  or  which  he  wrote  first.  "  He  began  early,"  says 
Aubrey,  "  to  make  essays  at  dramatic  poetry,  which  at 
that  time  was  very  low,  and  his  plays  took  well."  In 
his  dedication  of  "  Venus  and  Adonis,"  which  appeared 
in  1593,  Shakspeare  calls  this  poem  t\\t  first  heir  of  his 
invention.  It  is,  however,  not  impossible  that  he  might 
have  commenced  the  work  many  years  earlier.  His  first 
published  play  appeared  in  1594,  the  same  year  that  his 
"  Lucrece"  was  given  to  the  world.  From  this  time 
there  is  reason  to  suppose  that,  although  he  may  have 
continued  to  act  occasionally,  his  principal  attention  was 
directed  to  the  composition  of  his  dramas  ;  since,  accord- 
ing to  Meres,  he  had  written  the  "Two  Gentlemen  ot 
Verona,"  "  Comedy  of  Errors,"  "  Love's  Labour's  Lost," 
"  Love's  Labour's  Won,"  {^i.e.,  perhaps,  "  All's  Well 
that  Ends  Well,")  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  "  Mer- 
chant of  Venice,"  "Richard  II.,"  "Richard  III.," 
"Henry  IV.,"  "King  John,"  "Titus  Andronicus,"  and 
'Romeo  and  Juliet"  before  the  end  of  1598. 

There  is  much  evidence  to  show  that  the  genius  of 
Shakspeare  was  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries. 
The  Earl  of  Southampton  was  so  captivated  with  his 
accomplishments  that  "  he  gave  him  a  thousand  pounds 
to  enable  him  to  go  through  with  a  purchase  which  he 
heard  he  had  a  mind  to."  (Rowe's"  Life  of  Shakspeare.") 
In  order  properly  to  appreciate  the  munificence  of  this 
gift,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  thousand  pounds 
at  that  day  was,  in  all  probability,  equal  to  five  or  six 
thousand  at  the  present  time,  if  not  more.  The  poet 
dedicated  to  the  Earl  of  Southampton  his  earliest  works, 
— "  Venus  and  Adonis,"  and  "  Lucrece."  In  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  latter,  he  says,  among  other  things,  "The 
love  I  dedicate  to  your  lordship  is  without  end." 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y, lonr  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fdt;  mit;  n6l;  good;  moor 


J 


SHAKSFEARE 


SHAKSPEARE 


In  1596  Shakspeare  lost  his  only  son.  In  1598  he 
became  acquainted  with  Ben  Jonson,  as  Rowe  tells  us, 
in  the  following  manner:  "Jonson,  who  was  at  that 
time  altogether  unknown  to  the  world,  had  offered  one 
of  his  plays  to  the  players  in  order  to  have  it  acted,  and 
the  persons  into  whose  hands  it  was  put,  after  turning  it 
carelessly  and  superciliously  over,  were  just  upon  return- 
ing to  him  an  ill-natured  answer,  that  it  would  be  of  no 
use  to  their  company,  when  Shakspeare  luckily  cast  his 
eye  upon  it,  and  found  something  so  well  in  it  as  to 
engage  him  first  to  read  it  through,  and  afterwards  to 
recommend  Mr.  Jonson  and  his  writings  to  the  public. 
After  this  they  were  professed  friends."  The  play 
referred  to  was  "  Every  Man  in  his  Humour."  If  any- 
thing could  be  wanting  to  the  honour  thus  conferred 
upon  Jonson's  play  by  the  approbation  of  the  greatest 
dramatic  genius  the  world  ever  saw,  it  was  surely  sup- 
plied in  the  fact  that  Shakspeare  himself  was  one  of  the 
actors  in  the  piece  which  he  had  already  recommended 
to  the  public. 

The  great  dramatist  appears  to  have  enjoyed  a  large 
measure  of  the  favour  of  his  sovereigns.  Queen  Eliza- 
beth and  King  James  I.  "Besides  the  advantages  of  his 
wit,"  says  Rowe,  "he  was  in  himself  a  good-natured 
man,  of  great  sweetness  in  his  manners,  and  a  most 
agreeable  companion.  .  .  .  Queen  Elizabeth  had  several 
of  his  plays  acted  before  her,  and  without  doubt  gave 
him  many  gracious  marks  of  her  favour.  .  .  .  She  was 
so  well  pleased  with  that  character  of  Falstaff,  in  the 
two  parts  of  '  Henry  IV.,'  that  she  commanded  him  to 
continue  it  for  one  play  more,  and  to  show  him  in  love." 
This  is  said  to  have  been  the  occasion  of  his  writing 
the  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor."  It  is  stated  that 
King  James  I.,  who  was  fond  of  dramatic  exhibitions, 
had  six  of  Shakspeare's  plays  acted  before  him  at  White- 
hall between  the  beginning  of  November,  1604,  and  the 
end  of  March,  1605,  and  that  the  monarch,  as  a  mark 
of  his  particular  favour,  wrote  the  poet  a  letter  with  his 
own  hand. 

Shakspeare  had  lost  his  father  in  1601.  In  1607  his 
daughter  Susanna  was  married  to  Dr.  Hall,  a  highly 
respectable  physician  of  Warwickshire.  In  the  year 
following,  his  mother  died.  The  great  poet  passed,  it  is 
.said,  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  his  native  Stratford  in 
honour  and  affluence.  One  writer  (the  Rev.  John  Ward, 
Vicar  of  Stratford)  says  he  had  heard  that  "  in  his  elder 
days  he  lived  at  Stratford,  and  supplied  the  stage  with 
two  plays  every  year  ;  and  for  it  had  an  allowance  so 
large  that  he  spent  at  the  rate  of  ;^iooo  a  year."  He 
closed  his  earthly  career  on  the  23d  of  April,  (supposed 
to  be  the  anniversary  of  his  birth,)  1616,  at  the  age  of 
fifty-two. 

In  regard  to  Shakspeare's  intellectual  and  moral 
attributes,  we  have  far  less  difficulty  in  coming  at  the 
truth,  than  we  meet  with  in  seeking  to  trace  the  events 
of  his  life.  Respecting  his  mental  endowments,  indeed, 
the  data  furnished  by  his  dramas,  added  to  the  testimony 
of  Jonson  and  other  writers  living  at  or  near  his  time, 
would  seem  to  be  ample  and  explicit.  We  are  warranted 
in  inferring  from  his  writings  that  he  was,  as  Rowe  in- 
forms us,  not  merely  a  "good-natured"  man,  and  "of  a 
free  and  open  nature,"  as  we  are  told  by  Jonson,  but 
that  he  was  of  an  extremely  generous  and  forgiving  dis- 
position. In  his  imaginative  dramas  (in  which  he  was 
under  no  obligation  to  follow  the  facts  of  history)  he 
shows  a  disinclination  to  treat  with  severity  even  the 
most  flagrant  offences.  Thus,  for  example,  in  "The  Tem- 
pest," Prospero,  as  it  appears,  not  only  freely  pardons 
Alonzo  and  Antonio,  by  whom  he  had  been  expelled 
from  his  dukedom,  but  the  monster  Caliban,  though 
detected  in  an  attempt  to  take  the  life  of  his  master,  is 
let  off  with  a  very  slight  punishment.  A  similar  example 
of  clemency  occurs  in  the  "  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona," 
in  which  Valentine,  after  freely  forgiving  Proteus,  who 
had  been  the  author  of  all  his  calamities,  uses  these 
words : 

"  Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied. 
Is  nor  of  heaven  nor  earth." 

But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instance  is  found  in 
"  Cymbeline,"  the  plot  of  which  is  from  Boccaccio.  The 
Italian  novelist  makes  the  wretch,  who  has  so  cruelly 


destroyed  the  reputation  of  a  lovely  and  innocent  lady, 
expiate  his  crime  at  last  by  a  death  of  lingering  torture.* 
Shakspeare,  while  taking  many  other  of  the  leading 
incidents  of  his  plot  from  the  Italian  story,  changes  the 
issue  entirely.  When  lachimo  kneels  beseeching  Post- 
humus  to  take  his  life,  the  latter  replies, 

"  Kneel  not  to  me  ; 
The  power  that  I  have  on  you,  is  to  sp.^RR  vou  ; 
The  malice  towards  you,  to  forgivk  vou." 

We  have  no  means  of  determining  the  exact  order 
in  which  Shakspeare  composed  his  different  plays.  To 
those  already  mentioned,  on  the  authority  of  Meres, 
as  having  been  produced  before  1598,  we  may  add  the 
second  and  third  parts  of  "  Henry  VI.,"  published  pre- 
viously to  1596.  It  is  probable  that  "Taming  of  the 
Shrew,"  the  "  Twelfth  Night,"  "Hamlet,"  (as  first  writ- 
ten,) "  Henry  v.,"  "Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  and 
the  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"  were  composed  before 
1600.  His  other  dramas  are  as  follows  :  "  King  Lear," 
"Macbeth,"  "Timon  of  Athens,"  "Hamlet,"  (altered 
and  enlarged,)  "  Cymbeline,"  "  The  Winter's  Tale, 
"  The  Tempest,"  "  Measure  for  Measure,"  "Antony  and 
Cleopatra,"  "Julius  Caesar,"  "Troilus  and  Cressida," 
"  Coriolanus,"  (and  "  Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre.")  Of 
Shakspeare's  tragedies,  "  Macbeth,"  "  King  Lear," 
"Othello,"  "Hamlet,"  and  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  are? 
especially  remarkable  for  the  power  with  which  the 
mightiest  passions  of  the  human  soul  are  portrayed. 
But  he  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  less  successful  in  comedy. 
Of  the  character  of  Falstaff  in  "  Henry  the  Fourth,"  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  is  nothing  superior  to 
it  in  the  whole  range  of  comedy,  ancient  or  modern. 
Among  his  best  comic  pieces  may  also  be  mentioned 
"Twelfth  Night,"  "  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  "  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream,"  "  Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor," and  "  Taming  of  the  Shrew."  Of  Shakspeare's 
dramas  which  cannot  properly  be  classed  under  the 
head  either  of  comedy  or  tragedy,  "The  Merchant  of 
Venice,"  "The  Tempest,"  and  "  As  You  Like  It"  arc 
perhaps  the  most  admirable.  Two  of  the  plays  com- 
monly printed  with  Shakspeare's  works  are  believed  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  best  critics  not  to  be  his,  viz.  : 
"Titus  Andronicus"  and  "Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre." 
In  "  Titus  Andronicus,"  both  the  thoughts  and  the  style 
seem  very  unlike  and  inferior  to  Shakspeare's.  The 
same  is  true,  though  perhaps  not  in  the  same  degree,  of 
"  Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre."  Some  passages  in  both 
plays  may  probably  have  been  retouched  by  the  great 
dramatist,  and  thus  his  name  may  have  become  asso- 
ciated with  them. 

Shakspeare  appears  to  have  taken  the  plots  of  his 
plays,  for  the  most  part,  from  other  writers,  making  little 
or  no  change  in  the  general  conduct  of  the  story,  but 
exhibiting  the  different  dramatis  personce,  and  their  end- 
less variety  of  character,  with  that  inimitable  grace  and 
power  which  are  so  peculiarly  his  own.  His  historical 
dramas,  generally  speaking,  correspond  very  exactly,  in 
regard  to  the  principal  persons  and  events,  to  the  actual 
histories  from  which  they  are  derived.  There  is  the 
same  exact  conformity  in  some  of  his  plays  which  are 
not  properly  historical.  Thus,  "  All's  We'll  that  Ends 
Well,"  taken  from  the  "  Decameron,"  (Giornata  III. 
Novella  IX.,)  not  only  follows  the  plot  of  the  storyas 
related  by  Boccaccio,  but  even  the  names  of  the  chief 
personages  are  the  same,  with  such  modifications  only 
as  the  difference  of  the  languages  requires. 

"  If  ever  any  author,"  says  Pope,  "  deserved  the  name 
of  an  original,  it  was  Shakspeare."  "  He  is  not  so  much 
an  imitator  as  an  instrument  of  nature  ;  and  it  is  not  so 
just  to  say  that  he  speaks  from  her,  as  that  she  speaks 
through  him.  His  characters  are  so  much  nature  her- 
self, that  it  is  a  sort  of  injury  to  call  them  by  so  distant 
a  name  as  copies  of  her." 

"  Widely  excelling,"  says  Warburton,  "  in  the  know- 
ledge of  human  nature,  he  hath  given  to  his  infinitely 
varied  pictures  of  it  such  truth  of  design,  such  force  of 
drawing,  such  beauty  of  colouring,  as  was  hardly  ever 
equalled  by  any  writer,  whether  his  aim  was  the  use,  or 
only  the  etitertainment,  of  mankind," 

•  See  Giornata  II.,  Novella  IX. 


€  as  >i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


SHAKSPEARE 


SHAKSPEARE 


"  Never,  perhaps,"  says  Schlegel,  the  great  German 
critic,  "  was  there  so  comprehensive  a  talent  for  the 
delineation  of  character  as  Shakspeare's.  It  not  only 
grasps  the  diversities  of  rank,  sex,  and  age  down  to  the 
dawnings  of  infancy,  not  only  do  the  king  and  the  beg- 
gar, the  hero  and  the  pickpocket,  the  sage  and  the  idiot, 
speak  and  act  with  equal  truth,  but  he  opens  the  gates 
of  the  magical  world  of  spirits,  calls  up  the  midnight 
ghost,  peo|)les  the  air  with  sportive  fancies  and  syljjhs  ; 
and  these  beings  existing  only  in  the  imagination  pos- 
sess such  truth  and  consistency  that,  even  when  deformed 
monsters  like  Caliban,  he  extorts  the  conviction  that  if 
there  should  be  such  beings  they  would  so  conduct 
themselves."  The  following  observation,  by  the  same 
writer,  is  not  less  strikingly  just  than  the  foregoing:  "  If 
Shakspeare  deserves  our  admiration  for  his  characters, 
he  is  equally  deserving  of  it  for  his  exhibition  of  passion, 
taking  this  word  in  its  widest  signification,  as  including 
every  mental  condition,  every  tone  from  indifference  or 
familiar  mirth  to  the  wildest  rage  and  despair." 

"Of  all  poets,"  says  Lessing,  "perhaps  he  alone  has 
portrayed  the  mental  diseases,  melancholy,  delirium, 
lunacy,  with  such  wonderful  and  in  every  respect  definite 
truth,  that  the  physician  may  enrich  his  observations 
from  them  in  the  same  manner  as  from  real  cases." 

But,  among  all  the  critics  who  have  treated  of  the 
merits  of  Shakspeare,  none  has  portrayed  his  character- 
istics as  a  poet  more  admirably  than  Dryden  : 

"  He  was  the  man  who,  of  all  modern  and  perhaps 
ancient  poets,  had  the  largest  and  most  comprehensive 
soul  :  all  the  images  of  nature  were  still  present  to  him, 
and  he  drew  them,  not  laboriously,  but  luckily  :  when 
he  describes  anything,  you  more  than  see  it, — you  feel  it 
too.  Those  who  accuse  him  to  have  wanted  learning, 
give  him  the  greater  commendation  :  he  was  naturally 
learned ;  he  needed  not  the  spectacles  of  books  to  read 
nature, — he  looked  inwards  and  found  her  there.  Ican- 
liut  say  he  is  everywhere  alike.  .  .  .  But  he  is  always 
great  when  some  great  occasion  is  presented  to  him  ;  no 
man  can  say  he  had  a  fit  subject  for  his  wit  and  did  not 
then  raise  himself  as  high  above  the  rest  of  poets 
"  '  Quantum  lenta  solent  inter  vibunia  cupressi.'  "* 

From  the  data,  imperfect  as  they  are,  which  we  pos- 
sess concerning  the  life  of  Shakspeare,  we  seem  war- 
ranted in  inferring  that  his  scholastic  education  must 
have  been  extremely  defective.  This  inference  is  sup- 
ported by  the  direct  testimony  of  Ben  Jonson,  who  says 
that  Shakspeare  had  "  small  Latin  and  less  Greek." 
That  one  with  so  little  opportunities  of  learning  should 
have  exhibited  not  merely  a  wonderful  mastery  of  the 
human  heart,  with  its  infinitely  complex  aff'ections  and 
motives,  but  also  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  many  of 
the  operations  of  external  nature,  and,  what  is  perhaps 
still  more  remarkable,  with  some  of  the  nicest  points  of 
English  law,  has  to  not  a  few  appeared  strange  and 
inexplicable,  if  not  absolutely  incredible.  In  attempting 
to  solve  the  difficulty,  some  have  adopted  the  extraor- 
dinary hypothesis  that  the  dramas  going  under  the  name 
of  Shakspeare  must  have  been  written  by  some  other 
person.  The  late  Delia  Bacon  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  start  this  hypothesis.  She  publicly  announced  the 
idea  in  an  article  published  in  "  Putnam's  Magazine" 
for  January,  1856.  In  the  following  year  appeared  her 
"Philosophy  of  the  Plays  of  Shakspeare  unfolded,"  in 
which  she  states  in  full  her  reasons  for  believing  that 
Lord  Bacon  was  the  true  "  Shakspeare."  Since  then, 
Mr.  Nathaniel  Holmes,  late  of  Saint  Louis,  Missouri, 
now  professor  of  law  at  Harvard,  availing  himself  of 
the  suggestion  given  by  Miss  Bacon,  but  taking  a  some- 
what different  view  of  the  question,  has  published  a 
well-written  and  highly  readable  book  entitled  "The 
Authorship  of  Shakspeare,"  in  which  he  sets  forth  with 
elaborate  ingenuity  the  various  arguments  against  the 
claims  of  William  Shakspeare  and  in  favour  of  those  of 
Lord  Bacon. 

_  Here  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  a  particular  con- 
sideration of  this  question.  We  may,  however,  observe 
that  Mr.  Holmes  adduces  as  by  far  his  strongest  argu- 


*  Literally,    "  As   the  cypresses   are  wont  [to  raise  themselves] 
among  the  pliant  viburnums."     (See  Virgil,  "Eclogue  I.") 


ment  the  great  number  of  coincidences  which  are  found 
to  exist  between  the  ideas  and  expressions  of  Shak- 
speare and  those  occurring  in  the  works  of  Bacon, 
(or,  as  he  states  it,  "  that  general,  inwrought,  and  all- 
pervading  identity  which  is  found  in  these  writings  ;")  a 
very  large  proportion  of  these  coincidences  or  proofs  of 
identity  being,'as  it  seems  to  us,  just  such  as  might  by  dili- 
gent search  be  discovered  in  the  voluminous  works  of  any 
two  authors  living  in  the  same  age  and  writing  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects:  though  some  of  them  are  clearly  the 
creation  of  the  writer's  fancy,  as  when,  in  pointing  out  the 
similarity  between  the  leading  ideas  of  "The  Tempest" 
and  those  of  the  "  New  Atlantis"  of  Bacon,  he  says,  "  Like 
the  island  of  Atlantis,  Prospero's  isle  is  situated  afar 
off  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  somewhere  near  the  'still- 
vexed  Bermoothes.'"  Now,  this  supposition  is  not 
improbable  merely, — it  is  simply  impossible.  For,  in 
the  first  place,  there  is  not  the  slightest  intimation  in 
the  words  of  the  poet  of  Prospero  and  his  daughter 
having  made  a  long  voyage  in  "the  rotten  carcass  of  a 
boat"  without  tackle,  sail,  or  mast ;  on  the  contrary, 
the  inevitable  inference  is  that  it  was  a  very  short  one; 
and,  in  the  second  place,  it  was  clearly  impossible  that 
the  brief  storm  which  wrecked  the  king  and  his  com- 
panions on  their  return  from  Tunis  to  Naples,  could 
have  carried  their  fleet  not  only  out  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  but  more  than 
half-way  across  the  Atlantic.  (See  "The  Tempest,"  Act 
I.  Scene  2,  and  Act  II.  Scene  i.)  Add  to  this  that 
Bacon  distinctly  and  repeatedly  tells  us  that  the  New 
Atlantis  was  in  the  "  South  Sea,'"  and  not  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean. 

But  were  Bacon's  claims  to  the  authorship  of  Shak 
speare's  dramas  a  hundred  times  stronger  than  they  are, 
they  could  scarcely  outweigh  the  direct  and  uniform 
testimony  of  the  contemiJoraries  of  those  illustrious 
men.  Can  it  be  believed  that  Ben  Jonson,  who  was 
personally  and,  as  it  appears,  intimately  acquainted  with 
Shakspeare,  would  have  spoken  of  him  in  the  manner 
that  he  has  done  had  he  been  a  mere  man  of  straw, 
whose  only  use  was  to  conceal  from  public  view  the 
greatest  genius  the  world  had  ever  known?  For,  in 
addition  to  these  well-known  lines, — 

'  To  draw  no  envy,  Shakspeare,  on  thy  name, 
Am  I  thus  ample  to  thy  book  and  fame ; 
While  I  confess  thy  writings  to  be  such 
As  neither  Man  nor  Muse  can  praise  too  much. 

Triumph,  my  Britain  1  thou  Iiast  one  to  show 

To  whom  all  scenes*  of  Europe  homage  owe. 

He  was  not  of  an  age,  but  for  all  time  ! 

•  «**•• 

Nature  herself  was  proud  of  his  designs. 

And  joyed  to  wear  the  dressing  of  his  lines ; 

Which  were  so  richly  spun  and  woven  so  fit, 

As  since  she  will  vouchsafe  no  other  wit." 
—  Written  in  the  Folio  edition  of  Shakspeare' s  Plays,  published  01 
1623,— 

Jonson  says,  in  another  place,  "  I  loved  the  man,  and  do 
honour  his  memory — on  this  side  idolatry  —  as  much  as 
any.  He  was  indeed  honest  and  of  an  open  and  free 
nature,  had  an  excellent  phantasy,  [fancy,]  brave  notions, 
and  gentle  expressions,  wherein  he  flowed  with  that  fa- 
cility that  sometimes  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  be 
stopped."  How  strikingly  descriptive  is  this  of  Shak- 
speare's most  remarkable  peculiarity  !  It  is  this  excess- 
ive "  facility"  or  exuberance  of  expression,  joined  with 
his  "  excellent  phantasy,"  which  perhaps  more  than  any 
other  quality  distinguishes  him  above  all  other  writers, 
ancient  or  modern.  Or  are  we  to  suppose  that  Jonson 
was  in  the  secret,  and  composed  this  lying  eulogy  of 
Shakspeare  for  the  express  purpose  of  deceiving  pos- 
terity, and  also  that  the  poet  Spenser,  Mr.  Meres,  the  Earl 
of  Southampton,  the  queen,  the  managers  of  the  thea- 
tres, besides  many  others,  (see  the  conversation,  reported 
by  Rowe,  between  Ben  Jonson  and  Sir  John  Suckling, 
Sir  William  D'Avenant,  and  others,)  were  all  in  the  same 
conspiracy,  and  ke]>t  the  secret  so  faithfully  that  not  a 
line  or  a  word  tending  to  expose  the  stupendous  decep- 
tion has  come  down  to  us.''  But  this  is  not  all  ;  the  new 
hypothesis  would  require  us  to  believe  not  merely  that, 

•  I.e.  all  the  "  Stages"  of  Europe. 


I,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SHALER 


2183 


SHARP 


in  all  the  works  that  go  under  his  name,  Bacon  was  at 
the  pains  to  curb  and  repress  that  "  excellent  phantasy" 
and  wonderful  "  facility"  of  expression,  and  to  exhibit 
them  in  his  dramatic  writings  only,  but  that  he  pur- 
posely affected  ignorance  about  things  with  which  he 
must  have  been  perfectly  acquainted,  as,  for  example, 
when  he  makes  Cassius  (in  "Julius  Caesar")  speak 
of  the  "  eternal  devil, "t  when  he  gives  the  names  of 
Bottom,  Quince,  Snug,  and  Snout  (in  "  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream")  to  Athenian  mechanics,  or  when  (in 
"  Winter's  Tale")  he  represents  Bohemia  as  a  maritime 
kingdom  ! 

There  might  be  good  reasons  why  Bacon  should  not 
wish  to  be  known  as  a  dramatic  writer  in  the  early 
part  of  his  career,  when  he  was  aspiring  to  the  highest 
honours  in  the  state  ;  but  it  is  inconceivable  that  he 
should  have  taken  such  extraordinary  pains  to  keep  the 
secret  of  his  poetic  genius  from  posterity.  But  the 
advocates  of  the  new  hypothesis  lose  sight  of  the  most 
essential  point  of  all.  The  great  wonder  is  not  that  a 
man  without  learning  should  have  written  such  plays 
as  those  which  go  under  the  name  of  Shakspeare :  the 
wonder  is  ^\\-sX  aiiy  man  should  have  written  them.  The 
works  of  a  great  genius  must  always  seem  marvellous  in 
our  eyes ;  and,  if  the  genius  be  transcendent,  the  con- 
templation of  its  productions  must  fill  us  with  a  sort  of 
bewildering  astonishment.  It  would,  however,  be  still 
more  miraculous  if  it  could  be  proved  that  Bacon,  and 
not  Shakspeare,  had  written  those  wonderful  dramas ; 
for  examples  have  repeatedly  occurred  of  men  in  whom 
a  rare  genius  has  supplied  the  want  of  almost  every 
external  advantage,  but  no  well-authenticated  instance 
can  be  found  in  the  whole  history  of  the  human  intel- 
lect, of  one  and  the  same  man  belonging  to  the  highest 
rank  of  philosophers  and  the  highest  rank  of  poets. 
Nor  can  a  single  example  be  cited  of  any  one  author 
writing  in  two  styles  so  totally  different  as  those  of 
Bacon  and  Shakspeare. 

See  Malone,  "Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1821  ;  N.  Drake,  "Shak- 
speare and  his  Times,"  2  vols.,  1S17;  Charles  Knight,  "Shak- 
spere  ;  a  Biography,"  1845  :  J.  O.  Halliwell,  "New  Life  of  W. 
Shakespeare,"  1S47  ;  Georg  G.  GeRvrNUS,  "Shakespeare,"  4  vols., 
1849-50;  R.  G.  White,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Shakespeare," 
1865:  W.  Hazlitt,  "Characters  of  Shakspeare's  Plays,"  1817; 
GuizoT,  "  Shakspere  et  son  'I'eiiips,"  1S51  :  Richard  Farmer, 
"Essays  on  the  Leaniinp;  of  Sliakespeare,"  1767;  J.  Britton, 
"Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare,"  1814;  Franz 
Horn,  "Shakespeare's  Scliauspiele  erlantert,"  5  vols.,  1822-31  ;  J. 
P.  Collier,  "Life  of  Sliakespeare,"  1841  ;  J.  Meyer,  "  Leben 
Shakespeare's,"  1825;  S.  T.  Coleridge,  "Notes  and  Lectures  on 
Shakespeare,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1849;  S.  Neil,  "Critical  Biograpliy  of 
Sliakespeare,"  1861  ;  P.  Chasles,  "  fitudes  sur  Shakspere,"  1852; 
Victor  Hugo,  "William  Shakes))eare,"  1864;  A.  Dvce,  "  Life  of 
Shakespeare,"  1857 ;  A.  Skottovve,  "Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1S24: 
R.  Wheler,  "  Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1806;  Joseph  Hunter,  "New 
Illustrations  of  the  Life  of  Shakespeare,"  2  vols.,  1845;  F.  Douce, 
"Illustrations  of  Shakespeare  and  of  Ancient  Manners,"  2  vols., 
1807;  J.  J.  EscHENBURG,  "  Ueber  W.  Shakespeare,"  1787;  Na- 
thaniel Drake,  "Memorials  of  Shakspeare,  or  Sketches  of  his 
Character  and  Genius,"  1828;  Charle.s  Knight,  "Studies  and  Il- 
lustrations of  Shakspere,"  etc.,  1850;  Hudson,  "  Lectures  on  Shake- 
speare," 1848;  Hagberg,  "Shakspeare  och  Skalderna,"  Lund, 
1848;  N.  Delius,  "  Der  Mythus  von  W.  Shakspeare,"  1S51  ;  Dh 
QuiNCEY,  "  Life  of  Shakspeare,"  in  the  "  Encyclopa;dia"Britannica," 
republished  in  his  works,  vol.  xv.  ;  Hallam,  "  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe;"  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  "Lectures  on  Dra- 
matic Art  and  Literature,"  (translated  into  English  by.JoHN  Black, 
iSis  ;)  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "Essay  on  the  Drama  ;"  "Biographia 
Dramatica;"  Cibber,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  article,  by  Lord 
Jeffrey,  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1817;  "  Shake- 
speariana:  a  List  of  Woiks  illustrative  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
Shakespeare,"  etc.,  by  J.  O.  Halliwell,  1S67  ;  Mary  Cowden 
Clarke,  "Complete  Concordance  to  Shakspeare,"  1844-45;  Dr. 
Johnson,  Preface  to  his  edition  of  Shakespeare,  1765;  also  the 
article  on  Shakspeare  in  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Sha'ler,  (Nathaniel  Southgate,)  an  American 
geologist,  born  in  Campbell  county,  Kentucky,  February 
20,  1841,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1862,  became 
in  1868  professor  of  palaeontology  in  Harvard  University, 
and  was  director  of  the  Kentucky  Geological  Survey, 
1873-80.  Among  his  writings  are  seven  volumes  of 
geological  reports,  (1874-82,)  "On  Intellectual  Prop- 
erty," (1877,)  "Text-Book  of  Geology,"  (18S4,)  and  a 
"  History  of  Kentucky,"  (1884,)  besides  a  large  number 
of  pamphlets  and  papers,  chiefly  scientific. 

t  The  reader  need  scarcely  be  told  that  not  only  the  word  "devil," 
\diabolus,)  but  all  idea  of  a  devil,  as  understood  in  modern  times,  was 
wholly  unknown  to  the  Romans  before  the  Christian  era. 


Shaller,  shiKler,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1804.  He  worked  at  Munich  for  the  King 
of  Bavaria. 

Shal'Ium,  [Heb.  D'Sl?,]  King  of  Israel,  obtained  the 
throne  by  killing  Zachariah,  in  770  li.c.  He  was  assas- 
sinated by  Menahem  in  the  same  year. 

Shal'ma-ne'ser  I.,  a  king  of  Assyria,  who  about  1300 
B.C.  founded  the  city  of  Calah. 

Shaltnaneser  II.,  a  king  who  began  to  rule  in  Nin- 
eveh about  860  B.C.,  succeeding  his  father,  Assur-natsir- 
pal.  He  reigned  thirty-five  years,  and  greatly  extended 
the  empire.  In  854  he  defeated  the  league  of  Ben-hadad, 
King  of  Damascus,  and  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  and  later 
he  conquered  the  armies  of  Hazael,  and  reduced  Jehu, 
King  of  Israel,  to  vassalage.     Died  in  824  B.C. 

Shalmaneser  III.,  an  Assyrian  king,  who  began  to 
reign  in  783  B.C.  He  fought  the  Armenians  in  several 
hard  campaigns.     Died  about  774  B.C. 

Shcdmaneser  IV.,  (or  VI.,)  a  king  of  Assyria,  who 
in  727  B.C.  succeeded  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  whom  he  is 
supposed  to  have  slain.  He  waged  war  upon  Samaria, 
and  probably  died  in  722  B.C. 

Shambhu.     See  Siva. 

Shammai,  shim'niT,  an  eminent  Jewish  doctor,  a  con- 
temporary of  Herod  the  Great,  and  the  rival  of  Hillel. 
He  was  probably  a  Palestinian,  and  became  chief  judge 
in  the  Sanhedrim,  and  its  vice-president.  The  rivalry 
between  the  "house"  (or  following)  of  Shammai  and 
that  of  Hillel  became  very  great.  Shammai  was  of 
harsh  and  rigid  character,  and  his  views  were  less  liberal 
than  those  of  Hillel. 

Shamul,  shS-mooK,  written  also  Samoul,  a  learned 
Jewish  physician,  born  in  Spain,  was  converted  to  MO' 
hanunedanism.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  medi- 
cine, astronomy,  and  mathematics.     Died  about  1 175. 

Shamyl  or  Schamyl,  shain'il,  (i.e.  "  Samuel,")  a 
famous  Circassian,  or  more  correctly  Lesghian,  chief, 
born  at  Himry  in  1797,  was  a  man  of  great  energy.  In 
religion  he  was  a  Mohammedan,  of  a  local  sect  of  fanatics. 
He  fought  bravely  against  the  Russian  invaders  in  1828 
and  the  ensuing  years.  In  1834  he  was  chosen  Imam 
of  his  sect  of  religionists.  He  displayed  much  political 
as  well  as  military  ability  in  the  long  contest  against 
Russia.  Avoiding  regular  battles,  he  wasted  the  enemy 
by  ambuscades,  surprises,  and  partisan  warfare.  After 
a  heroic  defence  against  superior  numbers,  he  surrendered 
about  the  end  of  1859.  From  that  time  the  emperor 
assigned  him  a  residence  (with  a  pension)  at  Kalooga,  in 
Russia.     Died  in  1871. 

See  RotTNOVSKi,  "  Schamyl ;"  "  Schamyl,  the  Sultan,  Warrior, 
and  Prophet  of  the  Caucasus,"  (translated  from  the  German  of  Wag- 
ner and  Bodenstedt,  1854;)  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1S55  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1854;  E.  Texier, 
"  Les  Homines  Tie  la  Guerre  d'Orient:  Schamyl,"  1854;  Major 
Warner,  "Schamyl,  le  Prophete  du  Caucase,"  1854;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Shanfaree  or  Schanfari,  shJn-fS'ree,  an  Arabic 
poet,  who  lived  a  short  time  before  Mohammed,  was 
the  author  of  a  poem  called  "  Lamayat  el-Arab,"  which 
is  admired  for  richness  of  imagery.  A  French  version 
of  it  was  published  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy  in  1806. 

Shao-Hao  or  Chao-Hao,  shi'o  hS'o,  almost  show- 
how',  second  Emperor  of  China,  was  the  son  of  Hoang- 
Tee,  whom  he  succeeded  in  2597  B.C.  He  is  censured 
for  having  tolerated  the  rise  and  progress  of  idolatry  in 
his  reign,  from  a  lack  of  firmness  and  energy.  He  died, 
it  is  said,  after  a  reign  of  eighty-four  years. 

See  Pauthier,  "Chine." 

Shao-Kang  or  Chao-Kang,  shi'o  king,  a  Chinese 
emperor,  supposed  to  have  been  born  21 18  B.C.,  was  the 
son  of  Tee-Siang,  who  was  killed  in  battle  the  same  year, 
A  usurper  then  obtained  the  throne,  and  the  young 
prince  lived  disguised  as  a  shepherd  until  he  was  about 
forty  years  old.  He  raised  an  army,  defeated  the  usurper, 
and  reigned  in  peace  until  he  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty-one. 

Shapoor  or  Shapur.     See  Sapor. 

Sharp,  (Abraham,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
mechanist,  born  near  Bradford  in  165 1.  He  became  an 
assistant  to  Flamsteed,  royal  astronomer,  about  1688. 
He  graduated,  with  extraordinary  accuracy,  a  mural 
quadrant  or  sector  for  the  Observatory  of  Greenwich, 
and  calculated  excellent  logarithmic  tables.   Died  in  1 742. 


eas^;  (jasj;  %hard:  g3.s  i:  C,,'a.Vi,£i(tturai:  N.msai;  v.,triUed:  sass,'  th  as  in /,^/j.     (Ji^^'.See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


SHARP 


2184 


SHAW 


Sharp,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  at 
Huddersfield,  England,  in  1783.  He  became  pastor  of 
a  church  at  Boston  in  181 2,  and  subsequently  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  "  American  Baptist  Magazine."  He 
published  a  number  of  sermons,  etc.     Died  in  1853. 

Sharp,  (Granville,)  an  eminent  Knglish  philanthro- 
pist, born  in  Durham  in  1734,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Thomas 
Sharp,  noticed  below.  lie  early  distinguished  himself 
by  his  earnest  opposition  to  negro  slavery,  and  published 
in  1769  "A  Representation  of  the  Injustice  and  Danger- 
ous Tendency  of  tolerating  Slavery  in  England,"  etc. 
About  the  same  time,  having  met  with  a  negro  named 
Somerset,  who,  being  ill,  had  been  turned  into  the 
streets  of  Lor.don  by  his  master,  he  took  him  under  his 
care,  and,  on  his  recovery,  procured  him  employment. 
Two  years  after,  Somerset  was  claimed  by  his  former 
owner ;  but,  the  case  being  brought  before  the  lord 
mayor  on  the  application  of  Sharp,  it  was  decided 
against  the  master,  who,  however,  insisted  upon  retain- 
ing his  slave.  After  a  trial  before  the  court  of  king's 
bench  in  1772,  it  was  finally  decided  that  a  slave  could 
not  be  held  in  England.  Granville  Sharp  was  one  of 
the  originators  of  the  Association  for  the  Abolition  of 
Negro  Slavery,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding 
the  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  in  Africa.  He  published, 
besides  numerous  treatises  against  slavery,  a  "Declara- 
tion of  the  People's  Natural  Rights  to  a  Share  in  the 
Legislature,"  etc.,  (1778,)  "  Remarks  on  the  Prophecies," 
and  "Remarks  on  the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in 
the  Greek  Testament."     Died  in  1813. 

See    Pkince    Hoare,    "  Memoirs   of    Granville    Sharp,"    1810, 

Sharp,  (James,)  a  Scottish  prelate,  born  in  1618, 
studied  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and  was  after- 
wards professor  of  philosophy  in  Saint  Leonard's  Col- 
lege, at  Saint  Andrew's.  In  1660  he  was  sent  by  several 
leading  Presbyterians  as  their  representative  to  General 
Monk,  and,  after  a  conference  with  Charles  II.  at  Breda, 
went  over  to  the  Church  of  England.  He  was  rewarded 
for  his  apostasy  by  being  created  Archbishop  of  Saint 
Andrew's,  and  obtaining  other  distinctions.  In  1679, 
while  travelling  from  Kennoway  to  Saint  Andrew's,  he 
was  assassinated  by  a  party  of  Presbyterians,  who  were 
lying  in  wait  for  another  person. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sharp,  (John,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1644.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1669, 
became  Dean  of  Norwich  in  1681,  and  was  subsequently 
chaplain  to  Charles  II.  and  his  successor,  James  II. 
Having  given  great  offence  to  the  latter  by  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  against  popery,  he  was  suspended 
for  a  time  from  his  functions.  In  1689  he  succeeded 
Tillotson  as  Dean  of  Canterbury,  and  was  created  Arch- 
bishop of  York  in  1691.  He  died  in  1714,  leaving 
numerous  sermons,  often  reprinted. 

See  "Life  of  Archbishop  Sharp,"  by  his  sou,  Thomas  Shakf, 
1829. 

Sharp,  (Richard,)  an  English  litterateur  and  Whig 
member  of  Parliament,  born  about  1759,  obtained  the 
sobriquet  of  "Conversation  Sharp,"  from  his  extra- 
ordinary colloquial  powers.  He  published  "  Letters 
and  Essays  in  Prose  and  Verse."     Died  in  1835. 

Sharp,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  John  Sharp,  Archbishop 
of  York,  was  born  about  1693.  ^^  ''•^^e  through  several 
preferments  to  be  Archdeacon  of  Northumberland  and 
prebendary  of  Durham.  He  published  "  Discourses  on 
the  Hebrew  Tongue,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1758. 

Sharp,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  line-engraver, 
born  in  London  about  1745.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  "Virgin  and  Child,"  after  Carlo  Dolce,  "Saint 
Cecilia,"  after  Domenichino,  the  portrait  of  John  Hunter, 
alter  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  tlie  "  Sortie  from  Gibral- 
tar," after  Trumbull.  Sharp  was  remarkable  for  his 
credulity,  and  became  a  dupe  to  the  impostures  of  Joanna 
Southcott  and  other  fanatics.     Died  in  1824. 

Sharpe,  sharp,  (Daniel,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  geolo- 
gist, born  in  London  in  1806,  was  a  nephew  of  Samuel 
Rogers  the  poet.  He  visited  Portugal,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  geology  of  that  country.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Memoirs  on  the  Silurian  Rocks  and  Old 
Red  Sandstone  of  Wales,"  (1842-44.)     Died  in  1856. 


Sharpe,  (Gregory,)  an  English  divine  and  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1713.  He  published  "Dis- 
sertations on  the  Origin  of  Languages  and  the  Powers 
of  Letters,  with  a  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  "  Defence  of  Dr. 
Clarke  against  Leibnitz,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1771. 

Sharpe,  (Samuel,)  an  English  Hebrew  scholar  and 
Egyptologist,  born  in  1799.  He  published  "A  Transla- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,"  "  A  History  of  the  He- 
brew Nation,"  "The  Sinaitic  Inscriptions,"  and  various 
monographs  on  Egyptian  antiquities.     Died  in  1881. 

Shar'pey,  (William,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  phys- 
iologist, born  at  Arbroath.  In  1837  he  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  University  College,  Edin- 
burgh. He  contributed  several  treatises  to  the  "  Cyclo- 
paedia of  Anatomy  and  Physiology."    Died  April  10,  1880. 

Shars'vrood,  (George,)  an  eminent  jurist,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  July  7,  1810,  graduated  with  the  highest 
honours  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1828.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1831,  he  became  in  1845  associate 
judge,  and  in  1848  president  judge,  of  the  district  court 
of  the  city  and  county  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  after- 
wards elected  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  State,  and  was  for  many  years  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Judge  Sharswood's  legal 
writings  enjoy  the  very  highest  character  with  the  profes- 
sion. His  "  Byles  on  Bills  of  Exchange"  was  adopted 
as  a  text-book  at  Harvard.     Died  May  28,  1883. 

Shat'tuck,  (Aaron  D.,)  an  American  painter,  born 
at  Francestown,  New  Hampshire,  March  9,  1832.  He 
became  a  portrait-painter  in  Boston,  but  removed  to  New 
York,  where  he  devoted  his  attention  to  mountain  and 
pastoral  scenery,  landscape  and  coast  views,  cattle  and 
slieep  pictures,  etc.  He  became  a  full  member  of  the 
National  Academy  in  1861. 

Shaw,  (Cuthbert,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1738.  He  was  the  author  of  "Odes  on  tne  Four 
Seasons,"  "  Liberty,"  "  The  Race,"  a  satire,  "  Address  to 
a  Nightingale,"  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1 771. 

Shaw,  (George,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in  Buck- 
inghamshire in  1751.  He  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh, 
and  was  afterwards  appointed  keeper  of  natural  history 
at  the  British  Museum.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1789.  He  wrote  "  General  Zoology,  or 
Natural  History,"  (9  vols.,)  "The  Naturalist's  Miscel- 
lany," and  other  works.     Died  in  1813. 

See  Ci;viER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles'"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie   Gen^rale.  " 

Shaw,  (Henry  W.,)  an  American  humourist,  better 
known  as  JosH  Billings,  was  born  at  Lanesborough, 
Massachusetts,  April  21,  i8i8.  His  father,  Henry  Shaw, 
was  a  well-known  Whig  politician  and  Congressman. 
The  younger  Shaw  studied  at  Hamilton  College,  but  ran 
away  and  led  a  roving  life  in  the  West.  He  became  a 
farmer,  coal-operator,  and  steamboat-captain,  finally  set- 
tling in  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  as  a  real-estate  agent. 
He  has  published  "Josh  Billings,  his  Sayings,"  "Josh 
Billings  on  Ice,"  "Every  Boddy's  Friend,"  "Josh  Bil- 
lings' Farmers'  Allminax,"  (1S69  et  seq.,)  "Trum)> 
Kards,"  "Josh  Billings'  Spice-Box,"  etc.     [D.  in  1885.] 

Shaw,  (Sir  James,)  a  British  merchant,  born  in  Ayr- 
shire in  1764,  became  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1805,  and 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  Parliament.     Died  in  1843. 

Shavr,  (Lemuel,)  an  able  American  jurist,  born  at 
Barnstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1781.  He  was  many  years 
a  member  of  the  State  legislature,  and  in  1830  was  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  Massachusetts.  He  performed 
the  duties  of  that  office  with  great  credit  for  thirty  years, 
and  resigned  in  i860.  His  reported  decisions  have  been 
published  by  Pickering,  Gushing,  and  others.  He  died 
in  Boston  in  i86i. 

Sha-w,  (Peter,)  an  English  physician,  edited  Bacon's 
"Philosophical  Works."     Died  in  1763. 

Shaw,  (Robert  Gould,)  Colonel,  an  American 
officer,  born  about  1836,  was  a  son  of  Francis  G.  Shaw, 
of  Staten  Island.  He  commanded  the  first  coloured 
regiment  organized  in  a  free  State.  He  was  killed  in  the 
assault  on  Fort  Wagner,  South  Carolina,  July,  1863. 

Shaw,  (Steering,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire in  1762,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Staffordshire," 
"Tour  in  the  West  of  England,"  and  "The  Topogra- 
pher."    Died  in  1802. 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  t,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  Ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsaire;  fSr,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  nfit;  gdod;  m5on; 


SHAIV 


2185 


SHELBURNE 


Shaw,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar,  born 
at  Kendal  about  1692,  became  chaplain  to  the  English 
factory  at  Algiers.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  regius 
professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  He  published  "Travels  or  Obser- 
vations relating  to  Several  Parts  of  Barbary  and  the 
Levant,"  (1738.)     Died  in  1751. 

Shaw,  (Thomas  Budd,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1813.  He  became  professor  of  English 
literature  in  the  Imperial  Lyceum  of  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1842.  He  published  "Outlines  of  English  Literature," 
(1848,)  and  translated  several  Russian  works  into  Eng- 
lish.    Died  in  1S62. 

Shaya,  (Daniel,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in  1740, 
was  the  leader  of  a  rebellion  which  broke  out  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1786  and  was  called  by  his  name.  The 
insurgents  gave  as  reasons  for  their  revolt  the  high  taxes, 
the  extortions  of  the  lawyers,  etc.  The  rebellion  was 
suppressed  by  an  armed  force  in  1787.     Died  in  1825. 

Shea,  sha,  ?  (Daniel,)  a  distinguished  Orientalist, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1772,  became  professor  at  Haileybury 
College.  He  made  a  translation  of  Mirkhond's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Early  Kings  of  Persia."     Died  in  1836. 

Shea,  sha,  (John  Augustus,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  in 
Cork  about  1802,  emigrated  to  New  York  in  1827.  He 
wrote  for  several  journals  and  magazines,  and  several 
volumes  of  poems.     Died  in  1845. 

Shea,  sha,  (John  D.  Gilmary,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
scholar,  born  in  New  York  city,  July  22,  1824.  He 
became  a  lawyer,  but  is  chiefly  known  as  an  historian. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Discovery  and  Exploration 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  (1853,)  "  History  of  the 
Catholic  Missions  among  the  Indian  Tribes,"  several 
grammars  and  dictionaries  of  the  Indian  languages,  etc., 
and  "Novum  Belgium,"  (1862.)  He  translated,  and  in 
part  wrote,  De  Courcy's  "  History  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States,"  (1856,)  and  is  regarded  as  a  high 
authority  on  early  American  history,  the  Indian  tribes, 
American  Roman  Catholic  bibliography,  etc.  Among 
his  minor  works  are  several  saints'  lives  and  books  of 
devotion. 

Shebbeare,  sheb-beer',  ?  (John,)  an  English  phy- 
sician and  political  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1709, 
published  "  Letters  on  the  English  Nation,"  "  History 
of  the  Sumatrans,"  a  satire,  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1788. 

Shedd,  (William  Greenough  Thayer,)  D.D., 
LL.D.,  an  American  Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Acton, 
Massachusetts,  June  21,  1820.  He  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vermont  in  1839,  and  at  Andover  Seminary 
in  1843,  became  a  Congregationalist  pastor,  was  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  the  University  of  Vermont, 
1845-52,  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  the- 
ology in  Auburn  Seminary,  1S52-54,  professor  of  eccle- 
siastical history,  etc.,  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1854-62,  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York,  1863-74,  and  afterwards 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  the  same  institution. 
Among  his  works  are  a  translation  of  Theremin's  "  Rhet- 
oric," (1850,)  "Discourses  and  Essays,"  (1856,)  "Phi- 
losophy of  History,"  (1856,)  a  translation  of  Guericke's 
"Church  History,"  (1857,)  a  "  History  of  Christian  Doc- 
trine,"(1863,)"  Homileticsand  Pastoral  Theology,"(i867,) 
"Sermons  to  the  Natural  Man,"  (1871,)  "Theological 
Essays,"  (1878,)  "  Literary  Essays,"  (1878,)  a  "  Commen- 
tary on  Romans,"  (1S79,)  "Sermons  to  the  Spiritual 
Man,"  (1S84,)  etc. 

Shee,  (Sir  Martin  Archer,)  a  distinguished  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Dublin  in  1770.  Having  visited  London 
in  1788,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Burke  and  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  and  became  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  was  elected  an  associate  in  1798,  and  in 
1800  an  Academician.  Though  inferior  as  an  artist  to 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  he  obtained  extensive  patronage 
among  the  aristocracy.  In  1830  he  succeeded  I^awrence 
as  president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Sir  Martin  was 
the  author  of  "Rhymes  on  Art,  or  the  Remonstrance  of 
a  Painter,"  "  Alasco,"  a  tragedy,  and  other  poems.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  "Life  of  Sir  Martin  Archer  Shee,"  by  his  son,  i860;  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  iSo6. 


Sheep'shanks,  (John,)  a  collector  of  books  and 
pictures,  was  a  brother  of  Richard,  noticed  below. 
About  1857  he  presented  to  the  English  nation  his 
large  collection  of  the  pictures  of  British  artists.  Died 
in  1863. 

Sheepshanks,  (Rev.  Richard,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  at  Leeds  in  1794,  inherited  an  easy 
fortune.  He  was  ordained  a  priest,  but  devoted  his  time 
chiefly  to  science.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Penny  Cyclo- 
paedia" several  articles  on  astronomical  instruments,  and 
aided  Professor  Airy  in  his  operations  with  the  pendulum 
in  Cornwall.  Having  been  appointed  a  member  of  a 
commission  for  the  restoration  of  the  standards  of  weight 
and  measure,  (which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire,)  he 
expended  the  labour  of  several  years  in  determining  the 
standard  of  measure.     Died  at  Reading  in  1855. 

Sheffield,  (John.)  See  Buckinghamshire,  Duke 
of. 

Shehira,  she-hee'ri,  a  Jewish  author,  whose  "  Igge- 
reth"  (written  aljout  950  a.d.)  is  regarded  as  an  historical 
source  of  very  high  value. 

Shell,  sheel,  (Richard  Lalor,)  a  celebrated  Irish 
orator  and  patriot,  born  at  Dublin  in  1793,  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  in  his  native  city.  As  a  member  of  the 
Catholic  Association,  he  was  active  in  promoting  the 
election  of  Mr.  O'Connell  to  Parliament  for  the  county 
of  Clare.  Mr.  Sheil  was  elected  in  1829  to  represent 
the  borough  of  Milborne  Port,  and  soon  became  con- 
spicuous for  his  brilliant  eloquence.  In  1832  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  the  county  of  Tipperary.  He 
became  vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  a 
member  of  the  privy  council,  in  1839,  was  appointed 
master  of  the  Mint  under  Lord  Russell's  ministry  in 
1846,  and  British  minister  at  Florence  in  1850.  Mr. 
Shell  was  the  author  of  several  popular  dramas,  and 
"Sketches  of  the  Irish  Bar."    Died  at  Florence  in  1851. 

See  M'CuLi.AGH,  "Memoirs  of  R.  L.  Sheil,"  1853:  Thomas 
McGee,  "Sketches  of  O'Connell  and  his  Friends;"  Allibonk, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Shel'burne,  (William  Petty,)  Earl  of,  and  Mar- 
quis of  Lansdowne,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1737, 
was  the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Shelburne.  He  in- 
herited the  earldom  at  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1761, 
and  was  appointed  president  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
1763.  He  opposed  the  measures  by  which  the  ministers 
endeavoured  to  coerce  the  American  colonists,  and  soon 
resigned  his  oflice.  He  became  a  political  friend  of 
William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  who  in  1766  appointed 
him  secretary  of  state.  In  this  office  he  had  the  direc- 
tion of  the  American  colonies,  and  pursued  a  liberal  or 
conciliatory  policy  ;  but  he  was  counteracted  by  other 
members  of  the  cabinet,  and  by  the  king.  He  was  dis- 
missed from  office  in  October,  1768,  by  the  Duke  of 
Grafton,  who  had  become  prime  minister.  In  conse 
quence  of  this  event  Lord  Chatham  resigned. 

Lord  Shelburne  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  debater, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  political  knowledge.  He 
opposed  the  administration  of  Lord  North  on  the  most 
itnportant  questions,  and  after  the  death  of  Lord  Chatham 
formed  a  political  connection  with  Rockingham,  who  in 
March,  1782,  succeeded  Lord  North  as  prime  minister. 
Lord  Shelburne  was  secretary  of  state  in  this  ministry, 
which  was  dissolved  by  the  death  of  its  chief,  and  the 
favour  of  the  king  enabled  him  to  become  prime  minister 
about  July  i,  1782.  During  his  administration  Howe  and 
Rodney  gained  decisive  naval  victories  over  the  French, 
and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  negotiated  which  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States.  He  was  driven 
from  power  by  the  coalition  of  Fox  and  Lord  North, 
February,  1783,  after  which  he  never  returned  to  office. 
In  1784  he  received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 
He  afterwards  supported  the  ministry  of  Pitt,  but  op- 
posed the  war  against  the  French  republic.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men,  and  had  one  of  the  finest 
private  libraries  in  the  kingdom.  About  1765  he  had 
married  Sophia  Carteret,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Gran- 
ville, lie  died  in  May,  1805,  leaving  two  sons,  one  of 
whom  was  an  eminent  statesman.  (See  Lansdowne, 
Marquis  ok.) 

See  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.;" 
"  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1854. 


c  as  /ft;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as>,-  g,  h,  -Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z,-  th  as  in  this.     ( g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHELBY 


2186 


SHELLS  V 


Shel'b^,  (Isaac,)  an  American  officer  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, born  near  Hagerstown,  Maryland,  in  1750,  became 
Governor  of  Kentucky  in  1792,  and  again  in  1812.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain, 
1780.     Died  in  1826. 

Seethe  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  DIsliiiguislied  Americans,' 
vol.  i. 

Shel'dpn,  (David  Newton,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Suffield,  Connecticut,  in  1807,  was  origi- 
nally a  Baptist,  but  subsequently  became  a  Unitarian. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "Sin  and  Redemption." 

Shel'dpn,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  prelate,  bom  in 
Staffordshire  in  1598.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  in  1620,  and,  having  taken  orders,  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  chaplain  -  in -ordinary  to 
Charles  I.  On  the  accession  of  Charles  H.  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  London,  (1660,)  and  in  1663  succeeded  Juxon 
as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Dr.  Sheldon  was  distin- 
guished for  his  liberality  and  his  extensive  charities,  and 
constructed,  among  other  public  works,  the  theatre  at 
Oxford  called  by  his  name.     Died  in  1677. 

Shel'ley,  (Mary,)  the  second  wife  of  P.  B.  Shelley, 
the  poet,  was  the  only  child  <'''  William  Godwin  and 
Mary  WoUstonecraft,  his  wife.  She  was  born  in  London, 
August  30,  1797,  and  was  well  educated.  In  1814  she 
began  to  live  with  the  poet  Shelley,  and  after  his  first 
wife's  death,  in  1816,  she  married  him.  Her  principal 
writings  are  "Frankenstein,"  (1818,)  a  strange  romance, 
"Valperga,"  (1823,)  "The  Last  Man,'"  "  Lodore,"  (1835,) 
"The  Fortunes  of  Perkin  Warbeck,"  "  Falkner,"  (1837,) 
and  "Rambles  in  Germany  and  Italy,"  (1844.)  Died  in 
London,  February  i,  185 1. 

Shel'Iey,  (Percy  Bysshe — Wsh,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish poet,  born  at  Field  Place,  near  Horsham,  in  the 
county  of  Sussex,  August  4,  1792.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Timothy  Shelley,  Bart.  At  the  age  of  thir- 
teen he  was  sent  to  school  at  Eton,  where  his  refusal  to 
fag  exposed  him  to  the  anger  and  persecution  of  the 
other  boys.  His  painful  experiences  at  this  period  con- 
tributed much,  no  doubt,  to  the  development  of  that 
intense  hatred  of  established  wrong  which  afterwards 
became  the  ruling  passion  of  his  life.  Shelley  was  early 
distinguished  for  his  romantic  and  speculative  turn  of 
mind,  as  well  as  for  a  remarkable  facility  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  every  kind  of  knowledge  in  which  he  took  any 
interest.  When  he  was  about  sixteen,  he  composed  two 
romances,  the  one  entitled  "  Zastrozzi,"  the  other  "  Saint 
Irvyne ;  or.  The  Rosicrucian."  In  1810  he  went  to 
Oxford,  and  was  entered  at  University  College.  Here 
he  published  a  small  pamphlet  on  the  necessity  of  athe- 
ism. The  authorities,  in  consideration,  it  would  seem, 
of  Shelley's  youth  and  peculiar  character,  at  first  resolved 
to  take  no  notice  of  it.  But  this  did  not  satisfy  the 
young  enthusiast :  "  so  he  sent,"  says  De  Quincey,  "  his 
pamphlet,  with  five-and-twenty  separate  letters,  addressed 
to  the  five-and-twenty  heads  of  colleges,  courteously 
inviting  all  and  every  of  them  to  notify,  at  his  earliest 
convenience,  his  adhesion  to  the  enclosed  unanswerable 
arguments  for  atheism."  Thereupon  he  was  summoned 
before  the  master  and  some  of  the  Fellows  of  the  col- 
lege, and,  as  he  could  not  deny  that  he  was  the  author 
of  the  pamphlet,  he  was  expelled.  Shelley  and  some 
of  his  friends  have  bitterly  complained  of  his  expulsion, 
as  an  act  of  injustice  and  cruelty  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  see, 
if  De  Quincey's  account  of  the  transaction  be  correct, 
how  he  could  with  any  propriety  have  been  treated  with 
greater  lenity  than  was  shown  him  on  that  occasion.  As 
he  refused  to  make  any  concessions,  his  father  also 
rejected  him,  and  forbade  his  appearance  at  Field  Place. 
Shelley  then  went  to  London,  where  he  composed 
"Queen  Mab,"  which,  however,  he  did  not  publish,  but 
only  distributed  a  few  copies  of  it  among  his  friends. 
While  in  London,  money  is  said  to  have  been  furnished 
for  his  support  by  his  sisters,  who  employed  one  of  their 
school-mates,  Harriet  Westbrook,  (the  daughter  of  a  re- 
tired hotel-keeper,)  as  the  medium  of  communication  with 
their  brother.  After  a  very  short  acquaintance,  Shelley 
eloped  with  Miss  Westbrook,  and  married  her  at  Gretna 
Green  in  August,  181 1.  They  soon  discovered  that  they 
were  not  suited  to  each  other,  and  in  1813  they  separated, 
it  is  said,  by  mutual  consent.     The  next  year  Shelley 


visited  the  continent  in  company  with  Miss  Mary  God- 
win, (a  daughter  of  William  Godwin  and  Mary  WoU- 
stonecraft,) who  all  considered  marriage  a  useless  or 
tyrannical  institution.  In  1816  he  learned  that  his  wife 
had  drowned  herself.  His  sorrow,  perhaps  not  unmin- 
gled  with  remorse,  is  said  to  have  rendered  him  for  a 
time  almost  insane.  But  the  same  year  he  was  formally 
married  to  Miss  Godwin,  and  settled  at  or  near  Marlow, 
in  Buckinghamshire.  His  first  wife  had  borne  him  two 
children,  of  whom  he  now  claimed  the  custody,  but 
their  grandfather,  Mr.  Westbrook,  refused  to  give  them 
up.  This  led  to  a  suit  in  chancery ;  and  in  March, 
1817,  Lord  Eldon  gave  his  decision,  that,  on  account  of 
Shelley's  demoralizing  and  atheistical  opinions,  he  was 
unfit  to  have  charge  of  the  children,  who  were,  accord- 
ingly, committed  to  the  care  of  Mr.  Westbrook. 

While  at  Marlow,  in  1817,  Shelley  wrote  the  "Revolt 
of  Islam,"  the  longest  of  all  his  poems,  and  the  one  in 
which  he  has  most  fully  developed  his  political  senti- 
ments and  hi^  peculiar  views  respecting  the  regenera- 
tion of  society.  It  abounds  in  passages  of  surpassing 
beauty,  but,  as  a  story,  is  deficient  in  connection,  and, 
we  may  add,  in  human  interest.  Amid  the  wilderness 
of  luxuriant  imagery,  and  of  subtle,  vague,  or  visionary 
though  sometimes  glorious  thoughts,  the  reader  often 
finds  it  difficult  to  trace  his  way  and  retain  the  thread 
of  the  narrative. 

In  1818,  fearing  lest  his  son  by  Mary  Godwin  should 
be  taken  from  him,  as  his  other  children  had  been,  he 
left  England,  never  to  return.  He  went  to  Italy,  where 
he  composed  "The  Cenci,"  (1819,)  perhaps  the  most 
successful  of  all  his  larger  works,  the  "  Witch  of  Atlas," 
(1819,)  "Prometheus  Unbound,"  (1820,)  "Adonais,"  an 
elegy  on  the  death  of  John  Keats,  (1821,)  and  manj 
minor  poems,  some  of  which  are  of  exquisite  beauty. 

In  July,  1822,  he  set  sail  from  Leghorn  for  Lerici. 
The  boat,  having  been  overtaken  by  a  sudden  squall, 
disappeared.  Two  weeks  afterwards,  Shelley's  body  was 
washed  ashore,  with  a  copy  jf  Keats's  poems  in  one  of 
his  pockets.  The  Tuscan  quarantine  regulations  at  that 
time  required  that  whatever  came  ashore  from  the  sea 
should  be  burned.  Shelley's  body  was  accordingly 
placed  on  a  pile  and  reduced  to  ashes,  in  the  presenca 
of  Lord  Byron,  Leigh  Hunt,  and  E.  J.  Trelawny.  i-Ji.3 
ashes  were  collected,  and  interred  in  the  Protestant 
burying-ground  at  Rome,  near  the  grave  of  his  friend 
Keats." 

There  is  perhaps  no  writer  (as  De  Quincey  intimates) 
of  whom  it  is  so  difficult  to  speak  with  a  proper  regard 
for  the  interests  of  society,  and  at  the  same  time  making 
that  charitable  allowance  for  his  eccentricities  and  errors 
which  his  peculiar  temperament  and  his  amiable  and 
noble  traits  of  character  seem  justly  to  claim,  as  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelley.  We  cannot,  however,  agree  with  De 
Quincey  in  the  opinion  that  "  harsh  treatment  had  no 
concern  in  riveting  his  fanaticism."  What  is  more  prob- 
able than  that  his  bitter  experience  at  Eton,  where  he 
was  exasperated  almost  to  madness  by  the  galling 
"chain  of  Custom,"  acting  on  a  mind  so  sensitive  yet  so 
resolute  and  withal  so  speculative  as  his,  should,  at  that 
susceptible  and  most  critical  age,  have  led  him  first  to 
question,  and  then  to  deny  and  spurn,  every  custom 
that  would  impose  the  slightest  restraint  upon  his  free- 
dom or  his  pleasure  ?  It  was  but  another  step  for  him 
to  reject  or  adopt  opinions  or  systems  according  as  he 
conceived  them  to  favour  or  oppose  the  power  of  the 
hated  tyrant,  which  he  also  styles  the  "  Anarch  Cus- 
tom." That  he  was  influenced  by  such  motives  in  the 
choice  of  his  pursuits  clearly  appears  from  the  follow- 
ing lines  : 

"And  frnm  that  hour  did  I  with  earnest  thought 
Heap  knowledge  from  forbidden  mines  of  lore  ; 
}'.?/  nothivg  fhat  wy  tyrants  knew  or  taught 
I  cared  to  /earn."* 

In  his  poetry  he  repeatedly  associates  "  Faith"  and 
"Custom,"  (or  "Tyranny;")  he  evidently  considered 
the  former  the  chief  support  of  the  latter,  and  cherished 
towards  them  both  an  equal  hatred.  Whatever  may 
have  been  his  early  opinions,  he  would  appear  not  to 


*  See  the  lines  addressed  to  his  wife,  prefixed  to  the  "  Revolt  of 
Islam." 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SH ELTON 


2187 


SHERIDAN 


have  been  an  atheist  when  he  wrote  the  preface  to  his 
"Revolt  of  Islam;"  for  he  there  says,  "The  erroneous 
and  degrading  idea  which  men  have  conceived  of  a  Su- 
preme Being  is  spoken  against, — not  the  Supreme  Being 
itself.  .  .  .  The  belief  which  some  persons  entertain  of 
the  Deity  is  widely  different  from  my  own." 

Speaking  of  Shelley's  poetry,  Bulwer  observes,  "  Each 
line  is  a  separate  thought ;  the  effort  glitters  on  the  eye 
till  it  aches  with  the  glare  ;  it  is  the  mirror  broken  into 
a  thousand  pieces,  and  tiie  representation  it  would  give 
is  rendered  confused  and  phantasmagoric  by  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  images."  "  La  Cenci,"  however,  is 
expressly  excepted  from  the  above  criticism. 

The  intimacy  that  subsisted  between  Shelley  and 
Byron,  and  the  supposed  similarity  of  their  principles, 
have  led  to  frequent  comparisons  between  these  eminent 
poets.  But  they  had  in  fact  scarcely  anything  in  com- 
mon, except  a  vivid  and  intense  feeling  of  poetic  beauty. 
The  mind  of  Shelley  was  singularly  speculative,  and  he 
had  a  great  facility  in  persuading  himself  of  the  truth  of 
whatever  he  wished  to  believe.  Byron,  on  the  other  hand, 
with  an  equally  intense  ideality,  {i.e.  feeling  or  sentiment 
of  beauty,)  was  by  the  constitution  of  his  mind  restricted 
far  more  within  the  limits  of  the  actual, — or,  it  may  be, 
the  conventional.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  one  of  the 
great  efforts  of  his  life  to  cast  off  the  trammels  imposed 
upon  him  by  his  religious  education ;  but  in  this  he  was 
never  wholly  successful.  To  this  deep-rooted  respect 
for  the  actual,  or  the  established,  must  be  ascribed  the 
intense  feeling  of  reality  which  pervades  his  poetry,  as 
well  as  the  strong,  practical  common  sense  evinced  in 
his  actions  when  not  under  the  influence  of  passion.  But 
if  we  compare  the  moral  attributes  of  the  two  men, 
Shelley  will  be  found  to  stand  immeasurably  higher  than 
Byron.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  errors  of  his  head, 
his  heart  appears,  by  the  testimony  of  all  who  knew  him, 
to  have  been  eminently  kind,  generous,  and  unselfish. 
And  if  his  conduct  seems  occasionally  to  contradict  this 
view,  it  was  a  rare  exception  to  the  general  rule,  while 
with  Byron  the  reverse  was  true, — pride  and  selfishness 
were  the  rule,  disinterestedness  the  exception. 

See  Thomas  Medwin,  "Life  of  P.  B.  Shelley,"  2  vols.,  1847; 
Charles  S.  Middleton,  "  Shellev  and  his  Works,"  1858;  T.  J. 
Hogg,  "Life  of  P.  B.  Shelley,"  1858;  William  M.  Rossetti, 
"The  Life  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,"  2  vols.,  1869;  E.  J.  Trk- 
law.ny.  '•  Rccolleciions  of  the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and  Byron," 
1858  :  De  Quincev,  "  Essays  on  the  Poets,"  Boston,  1S53  ;  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  October,  i86i  :  article  on  Shelley  in  the  "  Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  February,  1S63,  "  by  one  who  knew  him,"  (i.e.  Thorn- 
ton Hunt  ;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824,  and  July,  1839; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Memoir"  prefixed  to  his 
works  bv  Mrs.  Sheli.ev,  1839;  "The  Shelley  Memorials,  from 
Authentic  Sources,"  edited  by  Lady  Shelley,  1859. 

Shel'ton,  (Frkderick  William,)  an  American 
writer  and  Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Jamaica,  Long 
Island,  about  1814.  He  has  published  "  Salander  and 
the  Dragon,"  a  romance,  "  The  Rector  of  Saint  Bar- 
dolph's,  or  Superannuated,"  (1853,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  iSSi. 

Shem,  1 1  leb.  Dii/ ;  Gr.  Triu. ;  Fr.  Sem,  sgm,]  a  pa 
triarch,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  and  one  of  the  survivors 
of  the  deluge.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Semitic  (or 
Shemitic)  nations. 

See  Genesis  v.  32,  ix.  18-27.  'f-  '•  21,  31. 

Shen'stone,  (William,)  an  English  pastoral  poet, 
born  in  Shropshire  in  1714.  He  was  the  author  of  odes, 
elegies,  and  pastorals,  and  a  poem  entitled  "  The  School- 
mistress," which.  Dr.  Johnson  observes,  "is  the  most 
pleasing  of  Shenstone's  performances."  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  became  involved  in  debt,  owing  to 
expenses  incurred  in  the  embellishment  of  his  grounds. 
''He  was  always  wishing,"  says  Gray,  ""for  money,  for 
fame,  and  other  distinctions,  and  his  whole  philosophy 
consisted  in  living,  against  his  will,  in  retirement,  and  in 
a  place  which  his  taste  had  adorned,  but  which  he  only 
enjoyed  when  people  of  note  came  to  see  and  comraend 
it."     Died  in  1763. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
May  and  June,  1764. 

Shep'ard,  (Charles  Upham,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  naturalist,  born  at  Little  Compton,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1804,  graduated  at  Amherst  College.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Charleston  Medi- 


cal College  in  1834,  and  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Amherst  College.  He  wrote  a  "  Report  on  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Connecticut,"  etc.    Died  May  i,  i886. 

Shepard,  (Samuel,)  M.D.,  a  physician  and  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Salisbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1739,  pub- 
lished a  number  of  controversial  treatises.    Died  in  1815. 

Shepard,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
in  1605,  emigrated  to  New  England,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  Harvard  College.     Died  in  1649. 

Shep'herd,  (William,)  a  general,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1737,  fought  in  twenty-two  battles.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1797  to  1803.     Died  in  1817 

Shep'herd Kings,  called  by  the  Egyptians  Hyk'sos, 
I  from ///<(•,  "king,"and  j^^J-,  a  "shepherd,"]  a  race  of  kings, 
probably  of  Tartar  origin,  supposed  to  have  ruled  over 
Egypt  from  about  2200  to  1550  B.C.  The  only  account 
we  have  of  them  is  given  in  a  fragment  of  Manetho, 
preserved  by  Josephus. 

Shep'ley,  (George  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saco,  Maine,  January  i,  1819.  He  served  in  the  civil 
war,  becoming  a  brigadier-general,  and  in  1869  he  was 
appointed  a  judge  in  a  United  States  circuit  court 
Died  Julv  20,  1878. 

Shep'pard,  (Elizabeth  Sara,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  at  Blackheath  about  1830.  She  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Double  Coronet,"  a  novel,  (2  vols.,  1856,) 
and  "  Rumour,"  a  novel,  (3  vols.,  1858.)     Died  in  1862. 

Shep'reve,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  about  1538.     Died  in  1542. 

Sher'ard,  (William,)  an  English  botanist  and  ama- 
teur, born  in  Leicestershire  in  1659.  Having  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  he  was  appointed  in  1702  Brit- 
ish consul  at  Smyrna,  where  he  made  collections  for  hi." 
valuable  "  Herbarium."  While  travelling  on  the  con- 
tinent, he  had  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort  and 
Dillenius,  and  on  his  invitation  the  latter  came  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  subsequently  filled  the  chair  of  botany 
at  Oxford,  endowed  by  Mr.  Sherard.  Sherard  died  in 
1728,  leaving  his  Herbarium  of  more  than  12,000  species 
to  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Sherbrooke,  Viscount.     See  Lowe,  (Robert.) 

Sher'burne,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  scholar  and 
rtriter,  born  in  London  in  1618,  was  clerk  of  the  ord- 
nance under  Charles  I.  He  translated  several  works 
from  the  Latin,  among  which  we  may  name  Seneca's 
"Troades"  and  "Medea."     Died  in  I702. 

Shere  Alee,  shair  i'lee,  or  Sher  Ali  Khftn,  shair 
i'lee  kin,  an  Ameer  of  Afghanistan,  born  in  1825.  In 
1863  he  succeeded  his  father.  Dost  Mohammed.  He 
passed  through  many  vicissitudes  during  his  reign.  In 
1867  he  held  only  Balkh  and  Herat,  but  in  1869,  through 
British  influence,  he  gained  complete  sway  throughout 
Afghanistan  and  Southern  Turkestan.  In  1878  difficulties 
with  the  British  led  to  a  severe  contest,  during  which 
Shere  Alee  fled  northward  to  Russian  Turkestan,  where 
he  died,  February  21,  1879. 

Shereef-ed-Deen-Alee  or  Scherif-Eddin-AIi, 
sheh-reeF  ed-deen'  i'lee,  a  Persian  author,  whose  style 
is  compared  to  pearls  and  diamonds  of  the  first  water, 
was  a  native  of  Yezd.  He  composed,  about  1425,  a 
"  History  of  Tamerlane." 

Slier'i-dan,  (Frances,)  wife  of  Thomas  Sheridan, 
(the  second  of  the  name,)  born  in  Ireland  in  1724, 
was  the  author  of  an  Oriental  romance  entitled  "  Nour- 
jahad,"  "  Sidney  Biddulph,"  a  novel,  highly  commended 
by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  the  comedies  of  "  The  Dupe"  and 
"The  IDiscovery,"  the  latter  of  which  Garrick  pro- 
nounced "one  of  the  best  he  ever  read."     Died  in  1766. 

See  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i. ;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  April,  1761. 

Sligr'I-dan,  (Philip  Henry,)  an  eminent  American 
general,  of  Irish  parentage,  was  born  in  Albany,  New 
York,  March  6,  1831.  He  entered  the  Military  Acad- 
emy at  West  Point  in  1848,  graduated  in  1853,  and 
was  commissioned  second  lieutenant  of  infantry.  He 
served  for  several  years  in  Oregon,  became  captain  in 
1S61,  and  returned  to  the  East  Early  in  1862  he  be- 
came chief  quartermaster  under  General  Halleck,  and 
in  May  of  that  year  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
Second  Michigan  cavalry.     He  obtained  command  of  a 


€  as  k:  5  as  J    g  hard;  g  as/.-  G,  H.  K.  s^Mural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2i^=See  Exjilanations,  p.  23.' 


SHERIDAN 


2188 


SHERIDAN 


cavalry  brigade  in  June,  1862.  Having  defeated  a  troop 
superior  in  number  to  his  own,  at  Booneville,  Mississippi, 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  July. 
He  took  command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of  the  Ohio 
"n  September,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Perryville,  October  8,  1862.  For  his  gallant  conduct  at 
the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  on  the  2d 
of  January,  1863,  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Chattanooga  or  Missionary  Ridge,  November  25,  1863. 

In  April,  1864,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  all 
the  cavalry  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  which  crossed 
the  Rapidan  and  began  operations  against  Lee's  army 
on  the  4th  of  May.  On  the  9th  Sheridan  started  on  a 
raid  against  the  enemy's  lines  of  communication  with 
Richmond.  He  destroyed  the  depots,  etc.  at  Beaver 
Dam  and  Ashland,  advanced  to  the  outer  defences  of 
Richmond,  defeated  the  rebel  cavalry  under  General 
Stuart,  and  rejoined  the  army  of  General  Grant  on  the 
25th  of  May.  On  the  7th  of  June  he  led  an  expedition 
against  the  Virginia  Central  Railroad,  from  which  he 
returned  to  the  White  House  on  the  19th,  after  he  had 
routed  the  enemy's  cavalry  at  Trevilian  Station  and 
destroyed  part  of  the  railroad.  About  the  7th  of  August 
he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  "  Middle  Mili- 
tary Division,"  which  was  then  constituted  in  order  to 
oppose  the  incursions  of  the  rebels  from  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  into  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania. 

His  operations  during  the  month  of  August  and  the 
first  part  of  September  were  of  both  an  offensive  and 
defensive  character,  resulting  in  many  severe  skirmishes 
with  the  army  of  General  Early.  On  the  15th  of  Septem- 
ber General  Grant  left  City  Point  to  visit  Sheridan  and 
confer  with  him.  "I  saw,"  says  Grant,  "there  were  but 
two  words  of  instruction  necessary — Go  in  !"  Sheridan 
attacked  Early  on  the  19th  near  Winchester,  defeated 
him,  and  took  several  thousand  prisoners.  He  gained 
another  victory  at  Fisher's  Hill  on  the  20th,  and  pur- 
sued the  enemy  with  great  energy  through  Harrisonburg 
and  Staunton.  Soon  after  this  battle  he  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army.  During  a  brief 
absence  of  Sheridan,  who  was  called  to  Washington, 
General  Early,  having  been  reinforced,  attacked  suddenly 
the  Union  army  near  Cedar  Creek  and  Strasburg  on  the 
19th  of  October,  and  at  first  was  victorious.  After  the 
Federals  had  retreated  about  three  miles  with  much 
loss,  Sheridan,  riding  at  full  speed,  arrived  on  the  field, 
rallied  his  men  with  words  of  magical  power,  and  con- 
verted the  disaster  of  the  morning  into  a  complete  vic- 
tory. General  Early  lost  here  the  most  of  his  artillery 
and  trains,  besides  1500  prisoners.  In  a  letter  dated 
October  20,  General  Grant  wrote  thus:  "Turning  what 
bid  fair  to  be  a  disaster  into  a  glorious  victory,  stamps 
Sheridan,  what  I  have  always  thought  him,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  generals."  He  was  appointed  a  major-general 
of  the  regular  army  in  place  of  McClellan,  resigned, 
November,  1864. 

Sheridan  moved  from  Winchester  on  the  27th  of 
February,  1865,  took  Staunton  on  the  2d  of  March,  and 
defeated  Early  near  Waynesborough.  Having  inflicted 
much  damage  on  several  railroads  and  the  James  River 
Canal,  he  reached  his  base  at  the  White  House  about 
the  19th  of  March.  On  the  27th  he  joined  the  main 
army  of  General  Grant  near  Petersburg,  and  on  the 
29th  commenced,  with  nine  thousand  cavalry,  a  move- 
ment for  the  destruction  of  the  Danville  and  South  Side 
Railroads,  the  only  remaining  avenues  of  supply  to 
Lee's  army.  He  was  supported  by  a  corps  of  infantry. 
He  encountered  near  Five  Forks  a  superior  force  on 
the  31st  of  March,  and  was  driven  back  towards  Din- 
widdie  Court-House.  "  Here,"  says  General  Grant, 
"General  Sheridan  displayed  great  generalship.  In- 
stead of  retreating  with  his  whole  command  on  the  main 
army  to  tell  the  story  of  superior  forces  encountered,  he 
deployed  his  cavalry  on  foot,  leaving  only  mounted  men 
enough  to  take  charge  of  the  horses."  On  the  1st  of 
April,  Sheridan,  having  been  reinforced,  drove  the  enemy 
back  on  Five  Forks,  assaulted  and  carried  his  strongly 
fortified  position,  and  captured  over  five  thousand  pris- 
oners.    He   pursued   Lee's   army  retreating  from  Rich- 


mond and  Petersburg,  attacked  it  near  Sailor's  Creek 
on  the  6th  of  April,  and  took  about  six  thousand  pris- 
oners. A  few  days  after  this  action  the  war  was  virtu- 
ally ended  by  the  surrender  of  General  Lee.  In  1867 
Sheridan  was  appointed  commander  of  the  Fifth  Mili- 
tary District,  comprising  the  States  of  Louisiana  and 
Texas  ;  but,  incurring  the  displeasure  of  President  John- 
son, he  was  removed  and  ordered  to  take  command  of 
the  Department  of  the  Missouri.  During  the  Franco- 
German  war  in  1870-71  he  visited  Europe,  and  was  en- 
tertained with  distinguished  consideration  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  German  army  and  witnessed  some  of  the 
most  important  events  of  that  campaign.  In  March,  1869, 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  in  1883 
succeeded  General  Sherman  as  commander-in-chief,  and 
on  June  i,  1888,  while  suffering  from  a  fatal  illness,  was 
confirmed  general  of  the  army.     Died  August  5,  1888. 

See  "Personal  Memoirs  of  P.  H.  Sheridan,  General  United 
States  Army,"  2  vols.,  18SS. 

Sheridan,  (Richard  Brinsley  Butler,)  a  celebrated 
Irish  orator  and  dramatist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1751.  He 
studied  in  his  native  city,  and  at  Harrow,  where  he  was 
chiefly  noted  for  his  indolence  ;  and  he  left  school  with 
the  reputation  of  an  "  impenetrable  dunce."  He  mar- 
ried Miss  Linley  in  1772.  His  first  important  publica- 
tion was  the  comedy  of  "The  Rivals,"  (1775,)  which, 
though  at  first  coldly  received,  soon  acquired  great  popu- 
larity. It  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  the  opera 
of  "The  Duenna,"  which  also  met  with  brilliant  success, 
being  acted  seventy-five  times  during  the  season.  His 
"  School  for  Scandal,"  published  in  1777,  established  his 
reputation  as  a  dramatic  genius  of  the  highest  order. 
He  soon  after  purchased  a  share  in  the  Drury  Lane 
Theatre.  His  farce  of  "The  Critic"  came  out  in  1779. 
In  1780  he  represented  Stafford  in  Parliament,  where  he 
soon  became  conspicuous  as  an  orator,  and  supported 
the  measures  of  Fox  and  the  opposition  party.  He  also 
filled  for  a  time  the  post  of  under-secretary  of  state.  On 
the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  in  1787,  he  de- 
livered his  celebrated  Begum  speech,  which  made  an 
extraordinary  sensation  at  the  time,  and  is  still  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  splendid  displays  of  eloquence  in 
ancient  or  modern  times.  The  Whigs  having  come  into 
power  on  the  death  of  Pitt,  (1806,)  Sheridan  was  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  navy  and  a  privy  councillor. 
He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Westminster  in  1806. 
His  style  of  living  was  so  extravagant  that  he  was  much 
embarrassed  by  debts  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Died 
in  July,  1816. 

"  Mr.  Sheridan,"  says  Hazlitt,  "  has  been  justly  called 
a  dramatic  star  of  the  first  magnitude;  and,  indeed, 
among  the  comic  writers  of  the  last  century  he  shines 
like  Hesperus  among  the  lesser  lights.  The  '  School  for 
Scandal'  is,  if  not  the  most  original,  perhaps  the  most 
finished  and  faultless  comedy  which  we  have."  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  the  moral  tone  of  this  drama 
(reflecting,  as  it  doubtless  does,  the  morals  of  the  upper 
classes  of  English  society  at  that  time)  is  not  very  ele- 
vated. Byron  observes,  "  Whatever  Sheridan  has  done, 
or  chosen  to  do,  has  been,  par  excellence,  always  the  best 
of  its  kind." 

See  Thomas  Moorh,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  R.  B.  Sheridan,' 
1825;  W.  Smyth,  "Memoir  of  Mr.  Sheridan,"  1840;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  December, 
1826  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  July,  and  August, 
1826;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1842. 

Sheridan,  (Dr.  Thomas,)  born  in  the  county  of 
Cavan,  Ireland,  in  1684,  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  subsequently  became  teacher  of  a  free 
school  at  Cavan.  He  published  prose  translations  of 
the  "  Satires"  of  Persius.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Dean  Swift.     Died  in  1738. 

Sheridan,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
the  father  of  R.  B.  Sheridan,  was  born  at  Quilca,  Ire- 
land, in  1721.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  and, 
having  embraced  the  profession  of  an  actor,  obtained 
considerable  reputation  and  success.  He  was  after- 
wards for  many  years  manager  of  the  Dublin  Theatre. 
He  published  a  "Course  of  Oratorical  Lectures,"  an 
essay  entitled  "British  Education,"  (1756,)  a  "Pro- 
nouncing Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (2  vols., 
1780,)  and  a  "Life  of  Swift,"  (1784.)     Died  in  1788. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  till,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  mcon; 


SHERLOCK 


SHERMAN 


Sh^r'lock,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
n  Cheshire  in  1613.  He  became  rector  of  Winwick, 
and  published  "The  Practical  Christian."  Died  in  1689. 

Sherlock,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1678,  was  a  son  of  William  Sherlock, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  became  vice- 
chancellor  of  that  university  in  1714,  and  in  1715  Dean 
of  Chichester.  He  was  afterwards  created  successively 
Bishop  of  Bangor,  Salisbury,  and  London,  (1748.)  He 
published  several  works  in  opposition  to  Dr.  Hoadly 
in  the  Bangorian  controversy ;  also  a  number  of  valu- 
able religious  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  his 
"  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy"  and  "  Trial  of  the  Wit- 
nesses of  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus."     Died  in  1761. 

Sherlock,  (Dr.  William,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  at  Southwark,  London,  in  1641.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  became  master  of  the  Temple  in  1684,  and 
Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1691.  "No  name,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "was  in  1689  cited  by  the  Jacobites  so  proudly 
and  fondly  as  that  of  Sherlock."  But  in  1690  he  took 
the  oaths  to  William  IH.,  and  published  in  his  justifi- 
cation "The  Case  of  Allegiance  to  Sovereign  Powers 
Stated."  "The  sensation  produced  by  this  work  was 
immense.  The  rage  of  the  nonjurors  amounted  almost 
to  frenzy."  ("  History  of  England.")  His  chief  work  is 
a  "  Discourse  on  Death,"  (1690.)     Died  in  1707. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own 
Times." 

Sher'man,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  1613.  He  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  1634,  and 
preached  at  Watertown  from  1644  until  his  death.  He 
was  an  eminent  mathematician.     Died  in  1675. 

Sher'man,  (John,)  an  American  Senator,  a  brother 
of  General  William  T.  Sherman,  was  born  at  Lancaster, 
Ohio,  in  May,  1823.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1844.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1854,  in  1856,  and  again  in  1858.  He  was  the 
Republican  candidate  for  Speaker  of  the  House  in  De- 
cember, 1859  ;  but  he  lacked  a  few  votes  of  being  elected, 
and,  after  a  contest  of  eight  weeks,  his  party  elected  an- 
other candidate.  He  served  as  chairman  of  the  commit 
tee  of  ways  and  means  in  1860-61.  In  i860  he  was  again 
chosen  to  represent  the  thirteenth  district  of  Ohio  in  Con- 
gress. He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by 
the  legislature  of  Ohio  for  a  term  of  six  years,  (1861-67.) 
Thaddeus  Stevens  and  Senator  Sherman  were  the  au- 
thors of  the  bill  which  Congress  enacted  in  the  winter 
of  1866-67  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded  States. 
By  this  act  those  States  were  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  territories,  to  be  governed  by  military  power  until 
they  should  have  passed  through  a  certain  process  ot 
restoration  to  the  Union.  He  was  re-elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  in  1867,  and  again  in  1873,  and  on 
the  accession  of  Mr.  Hayes  to  the  Presidency,  in  1877, 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury.  In  1881 
and  in  1887  he  was  again  elected  to  the  Senate. 

Sherman,  (Roger,)  an  American  statesman,  born  ai 
Newton,  Massachusetts,  on  the  19th  of  April,  1721.  He 
worked  at  the  trade  of  shoemaker  in  his  youth,  removed 
to  New  Milford,  Connecticut,  in  1743,  and  soon  after 
that  date  became  a  partner  of  his  brother,  who  was  a 
merchant.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1754,  and  settled  at  New  Haven  in  1761.  About  1765 
he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  or  com- 
mon pleas.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General 
Congress  in  1774,  and  continued  to  serve  in  that  body 
for  nineteen  years.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence in  1776,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in 
1787.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  he  rendered  im- 
portant services  on  committees  of  Congress.  "Roger 
Sherman,"  said  Mr.  Macon,  "  had  more  common  sense 
than  any  man  I  ever  knew."  He  was  elected  a  Senator 
ol  the  United  States  in  1791.  Died  at  New  Haven  in 
July,  1793. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1S4S. 

Sherman,  (Roger  Minott,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Wo- 
burn,  Massachusetts,  about  1772,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  practised  law  with  distinction  at  Nor- 
walk  and  Fairfield,  in  Connecticut.     Died  in  1844. 


Sherman,  (Thomas  W.,)  an  American  genera!,  born 
in  Rhode  Island  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1836.  He  served  as  brigadier-general  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861,  and  commanded  the  land-forces  which, 
aided  by  the  fleet,  took  Port  Royal  in  November  of  that 
year.  He  commanded  a  division  under  General  Banks 
m  Louisiana  in  1863.     Died  March  16,  1879. 

Sherman,  (William  Tecumseh,)  a  distinguished 
American  general,  born  at  Lancaster,  Ohio,  on  the  8th 
of  February,  1820,  was  a  son  of  Charles  Robert  Sherman, 
once  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Ohio,  and  a  brother 
of  John  Sherman,  a  Senator  of  the  United  States.  His 
mother  was  named  Mary  Hoyt.  After  the  death  of 
his  father,  which  occurred  in  1829,  he  was  adopted  as 
a  son  by  Thomas  Ewing,  M.C.,  through  whose  influence 
he  was  admitted  into  the  Military  Academy  of  West 
Point  in  1836.  He  graduated  there  in  June,  1840,  stand- 
ing sixth  in  the  order  of  general  merit  among  a  class  of 
forty  members,  including  George  H.  Thomas  and  Rich- 
ard S.  Ewell.  Immediately  after  his  graduation  he  was 
appoiRted  second  lieutenant  in  the  artillery  and  ordered 
to  Florida.  He  became  a  first  lieutenant  in  January, 
1842,  a  few  months  after  which  his  company  was  sta- 
tioned at  Fort  Moultrie,  near  Charleston.  He  went 
with  his  company  to  California  by  sea  in  1846,  returned 
to  the  Atlantic  States  in  1850,  and  in  May  of  that  year 
married  Ellen  Ewing,  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Ewing, 
then  secretary  of  the  interior.  In  1851  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  captain,  and  in  1853  he  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army  and  engaged  in  the  business  of  banker  at 
San  Francisco. 

In  the  early  part  of  i860  he  accepted  the  position  of 
superintendent  of  a  new  military  academy  founded  by 
the  State  of  Louisiana.  He  proved  himself  so  eminently 
qualified  for  the  duties  of  this  place  that  the  leaders  of 
the  secession  movement  in  Louisiana  wished  to  secure 
his  services  in  the  impending  conflict,  and  made  efforts 
to  pervert  his  loyalty  to  the  Union,  but  without  success. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  January,  1861.  In  March  he 
went  to  Washington,  and  endeavoured  in  vain  to  con- 
vince the  authorities,  who  were  then  unable  to  realize 
the  greatness  of  the  crisis,  of  the  necessity  of  preparing 
for  war  on  a  large  scale. 

He  received  a  commission  as  colonel  of  the  thirteenth 
regiment  of  infantry  in  June,  1861,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21.  On  the  3d 
of  August  ensuing,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  in  the  next  month 
he  was  ordered  to  Kentucky.  In  consequence  of  the 
ill  health  of  General  Anderson,  the  chief  command  of 
the  department  of  Kentucky  devolved  on  Sherman  in 
October,  1861.  When  asked  by  the  secretary  of  war 
how  many  men  he  should  require,  he  replied,  "  Sixty 
thousand  to  drive  the  enemy  out  of  Kentucky,  and  two 
hundred  thousand  to  finish  the  war  in  this  section." 
His  estimate  was  considered  as  wildly  extravagant,  and 
he  was  removed  from  the  command,  with  orders  to 
report  to  General  Halleck,  who  was  commander  of  the 
department  of  the  West. 

In  March,  1862,  Sherman  obtained  command  of  the 
fifth  division  of  General  Grant's  army  of  the  Tennessee. 
He  displayed  great  coolness,  energy,  and  skill  in  the 
sanguinary  battle  of  Shiloh,  (Pittsburg  Landing,)  on  the 
6th  and  7th  of  April  of  that  year.  His  services  were 
acknowledged  by  General  Grant  in  these  terms :  "  At 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  on  the  first  day,  he  held,  with  raw 
troops,  the  key-point  of  the  landing.  ...  To  his  indi- 
vidual efforts  I  am  indebted  for  the  success  of  that 
battle."  (Letter  to  the  War  Department,  July  26,  1863.) 
He  was  wounded  in  the  hand  on  this  occasion,  and  had 
three  horses  shot  under  him.  His  division  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  siege  of  Corinth,  which  the  enemy 
evacuated  on  the  29th  of  May.  A  few  days  before  that 
date  he  received  a  commission  as  major-geneial.  He 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  military  post  of 
■Memphis  in  July,  1862.  In  the  campaign  against 
Vicksburg,  which  began  in  December,  Sherman,  who 
commanded  the  first  division  of  the  army,  was  ordered 
to  proceed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River  and  attempt 
to  capture  Vicksburg  from  the  north  side.  This  enter- 
prise was  not  successful.     General   Sherman  rendered 


€  as  >i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;  G,  H,  y,, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  tliis.     ( J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHERMAN 


2190 


SHE  W 


mportant  services  in  several  battles  which  were  fought 
n  Mississippi  during  the  months  of  April  and  May,  and 
which  preceded  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  He  commanded 
one  of  the  three  corps  which  made  an  unsuccessful  as- 
sault on  the  works  at  Vicksburg  on  the  22(1  of  May. 
After  the  surrender  of  that  fortress,  July  4,  1863,  Sherman 
marched  against  General  Johnston,  and  occupied  Jack- 
son, from  which  the  enemy  were  driven  on  the  17th  of  the 
month.  About  this  date  he  wrote  a  letter  in  which  these 
sentences  occur  :  "The  people  of  the  North  must  con- 
quer or  be  conquered.    There  can  be  no  middle  course." 

He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  of 
the  Tennessee  in  October,  1863,  and,  moving  his  army 
by  rapid  marches,  joined  the  army  of  General  Grant 
at  Chattanooga  about  the  15th  of  November.  Sher- 
man occupied  Missionary  Ridge  on  the  24th,  rendered 
important  services  at  the  battle  of  Chattanooga  on 
the  25th  of  November,  and,  three  days  later,  began  to 
move  his  army,  with  the  utmost  celerity,  to  the  relief 
of  Burnside,  who  was  besieged  at  Knoxville.  His  cav- 
alry reached  Knoxville  on  the  3d  of  December,  before 
which  date  the  enemy  had  raised  the  siege  and  fled. 
Sherman  returned  to  Chattanooga,  and  thence  to  Mem- 
phis, where  he  arrived  in  January,  1864.  Having  or- 
ganized a  large  column,  he  marched  from  Vicksburg 
eastward,  destroying  the  railroads,  and  entered  Meridian 
about  the  14th  of  February.  After  he  had  destroyed 
the  depots,  arsenals,  etc.  at  Meridian,  he  returned  to 
Vicksburg.  In  March  he  received  a  letter  from  General 
Grant,  who  mentioned  his  own  nomination  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  said,  "  I  express  my  thanks  to  you 
and  McPiierson  as  the  men  to  whom,  above  all  others, 
I  feel  indebted  for  whatever  I  have  had  of  success." 

When  Grant  was  transferred  to  Virginia,  in  March, 
1864,  Sherman  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  embracing  all  the 
armies  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  He  was  instructed  to  move  against  the 
army  of  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  who  occupied  a 
strong  position  at  Dal  ton,  Georgia,  covering  and  defend- 
ing Atlanta,  which  was  the  objective  point  of  General 
Sherman.  On  the  6th  of  May  he  moved  from  Chatta- 
nooga with  the  armies  of  the  Cumberland,  Tennessee, 
and  Ohio,  commanded  respectively  by  Generals  Thomas, 
McPherson,  and  Schofield.  His  force  amounted  then 
to  98,797  men  and  254  pieces  of  cannon.  He  com- 
menced operations  by  turning  the  enemy's  position  with 
a  part  of  his  army,  so  that  General  Johnston,  finding  his 
retreat  likely  to  be  cut  off,  fell  back  to  his  fortified  post 
at  Resaca,  where  he  was  attacked  on  the  15th  of  May. 
After  a  severe  battle,  Johnston  retreated  during  the 
night  towards  the  south,  and  made  another  stand  at 
Allatoona.  Sherman  again  turned  the  flank  of  the  enemy 
by  moving  his  army  to  Dallas,  through  a  rugged  and 
densely-wooded  country.  Severe  actions  were  fought 
at  Dallas  and  New  Hope  Church  about  the  28th  of 
May,  and  on  the  4th  of  June  the  rebels  retreated  to  the 
strong  positions  of  Kenesaw,  Pine,  and  Lost  Mountains. 
On  the  27th  of  June  the  Union  army  assaulted  the  works 
of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  but  were  repulsed  with  severe 
loss.  In  consequence  of  another  flank  movement  of 
Sherman's  army.  General  Johnston  abandoned  his  posi- 
tion at  Kenesaw  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  retreated  across 
the  Chattahoochee.  After  resting  several  days,  the  Union 
army  crossed  that  river  on  the  17th  of  July,  and  drove 
the  enemy  to  Atlanta.  At  this  date  General  Hood  took 
command  of  the  insurgents  and  assumed  the  offensive- 
defensive  policy.  On  the  22d  of  July  Hood  attacked 
Sherman  near  Atlanta,  and  was  repulsed  with  great  loss. 
In  August,  1864,  Sherman  was  appointed  a  major-general 
in  the  regular  army.  About  the  28th  of  August  he 
moved  his  main  force  round  by  the  enemy's  left  flank, 
and  gained  \  ictories  at  Jonesborough  and  Lovejoy's. 
Th;se  actions  forced  Hood  to  evacuate  Atlanta  on  the 
tst  of  September.  The  capture  of  Atlanta  excited  great 
exultation  among  the  Unionists.  "General  Sherman's 
movement  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta,"  says  General 
Grant,  "was  prompt,  skilful,  and  brilliant." 

By  moving  his  army  northwestward  for  the  inva- 
sion of  Middle  Tennessee,  in  October,  Hood  opened 
the  way  for  Sherman  to  march  through  Georgia  to  the 


sea  without  much  resistance.  Abandoning  his  com- 
munications with  Chattanooga,  and  leaving  Atlanta  in 
ruins,  Sherman  began  his  famous  march  on  the  14th 
of  November,  with  about  65,000  men.  His  plan  was 
to  obtain  subsistence  from  the  country  through  which 
he  passed,  and  to  destroy  the  railroads  and  other  public 
property.  His  army,  moving  in  three  columns,  passed 
between  Macon  and  Augusta,  had  several  skirmishes 
with  the  enemy's  cavalry,  and  arrived,  after  a  very  safe 
and  successful  march,  at  the  outworks  of  Savannah  on 
the  loth  of  December.  "  We  have  not  lost  a  wagon 
on  the  trip,"  says  Sherman,  "and  our  trains  are  in  a 
better  condition  than  when  we  started."  On  the  20th  cf 
December  General  Hardee  evacuated  Savannah,  which 
Sherman  occupied  on  the  21st.  In  this  march  of  three 
hundred  miles  he  had  lost  63  killed  and  245  wounded. 

Sherman  left  Savannah  with  his  veteran  army  on  the 
15th  of  January,  1865,  marched  northward,  and  took 
Columbia  on  the  17th  of  February.  This  operation 
compelled  the  enemy  to  evacuate  Charleston,  which  was 
occupied  by  the  Federal  army  on  the  i8th.  Proposing 
to  co-operate  or  unite  with  the  army  of  Grant,  which 
was  then  near  Petersburg,  Virginia,  Sherman  moved, 
by  way  of  Cheraw  and  Fayetteville,  towards  Goldsbo- 
rough,"  North  Carolina.  He  met  and  defeated  a  body 
of  rel^els  at  Averysborough  about  the  i6th  of  March. 
On  the  1 8th  the  combined  forces  of  the  enemy,  under 
General  J.  E.  Johnston,  attacked  the  Union  army  at  Ben- 
tonville.  Having  repulsed  this  attack,  Sherman  entered 
Goldsborough  on  the  23d  of  March,  and  there  formed 
a  junction  with  the  army  of  .Schofield.  After  he  had 
received  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Richmond,  April  3, 
he  moved  against  the  army  of  Johnston,  then  "  the  only 
remaining  strategic  point."  He  entered  Raleigh  on  the 
13th,  had  an  interview  with  General  Johnston  on  the 
17th,  and  agreed  with  him  on  a  memorandum  or  basis 
of  peace,  which  was  disapproved  by  the  President  and 
cabinet.  The  terms  offered  by  Sherman  were  deemed 
too  liberal.  On  the  26th  of  April  Johnston  surrendered 
his  army  on  the  same  terms  as  were  granted  to  Lee,  and 
the  war  ended.  Sherman  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  in  place  of  U.  S.  Grant,  promoted,  in  July  or 
August,  1866.  He  was  nominated  general  by  brevet 
in  February,  1868,  by  President  Johnson  ;  but  he  de- 
clined. When  General  Grant  became  President,  in 
March,  1869,  Sherman  succeeded  him  as  general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  but  retired  from  the 
command  in  the  fall  of  1883  ;  settled  in  Saint  Louis,  but 
subsequently  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  died  Feb- 
ruary 14,  1891.  In  1875  he  published  his  "Memoirs." 
General  Sherman  was  a  man  of  nervous  temperament 
and  intense  energy.  His  stature  was  tall,  his  hair  brown 
or  auburn,  his  eyes  dark  hazel,  large,  and  piercing. 

Sher-Shah,  shair  shih,  (i.e.  "the  Lion  King,")  an 
Indian  prince,  whose  original  name  was  Fereed,  (or 
Feryd.)  He  acquired  the  chief  power  in  Bahar  and 
Bengal,  defeated  the  Sultan  Humayoonin  battle  in  1540, 
and  became  master  of  Hindostan.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  an  able  and  popular  ruler.     Died  in  1545. 

Sher'^win,  (John  Keyse,)  an  eminent  English  en- 
graver, born  in  Sussex  about  1751.  He  was  of  humble 
parentage,  and  was  employed  in  his  youth  as  a  wood- 
cutter on  the  estate  of  Mr.  Mitford,  near  Petworth. 
Having  produced  a  drawing  which  obtained  the  silver 
medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts,  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Bartolozzi  in  London,  and  soon  attained  great  excellence 
in  his  art.  In  1785  he  succeeded  Woollett  as  engraver 
to  the  king.     Died  in  1790. 

Sher'TVOod,  (Mrs.  Mary  Martha,)  a  popular  Eng- 
lish writer,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1775,  published 
tales  of  a  moral  and  religious  character,  among  which 
we  may  name  "The  Lady  of  the  Manor,"  "  Roxobel," 
"  Ermina,"  and  "  Little  Henry  and  his  Rearer."  She 
also  wrote  "  Chronology  of  Ancient  History,"  and 
"  Dictionary  of  Scripture  Types."     Died  in  1851. 

See  "Life  of  Mrs.  Sherwood,"  by  her  daughter:  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  May,  1S43. 

Shesha.     See  Sesha. 

Shew,  (Joel,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Saratoga  county.  New  York,  in  1816,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  hydropathic  practitioners  in  America,  and  the 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  p,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m5t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


SHIELD 


2191 


SHOOVALOF 


founder  of  the  "  Water-Cure  Journal,"  New  York.  He 
published  the  "Water-Cure  Manual,"  (1850,)  "Hydro- 
pathic Family  Physician,"  (1854,)  and  other  similar 
works.     Died  in  1855. 

Shield,  sheeld,  (William,)  an  English  composer 
and  musician,  born  in  the  county  of  Durham  about 
1750.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are  the  operas 
of"  Rosina,"  "Robin  Hood,"  "The  Poor  Soldier,"  and 
"The  Woodman."     Died  in  1829. 

Shields,  sheeldz,  (James,)  a  general,  born  in  Tyrone 
county,  Ireland,  in  1810,  emigrated  to  the  United  States 
about  1826.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,) 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
Illinois  in  1849,  and  from  Minnesota  in  1857.  He  com- 
manded the  division  which  defeated  Stonewall  Jackson 
near  Winchester,  March  23,  1862,  and  resigned  his 
commission  in  1863.     Died  June  I,  1879. 

Shil'la-ber,  (Benjamin  Pen  hallow,)  author  of  the 
sayings  of  "  Mrs.  Partington,"  was  born  at  Portsmouth, 
New  Hampshire,  July  12,  1814.  He  was  connected  with 
the  *'  Boston  Post,"  the  "  Saturday  Evening  Gazette,"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  wrote  "  Rhymes  with  Reason  ar  d 
Without,"  (1852,)  "  Life  and  Sayings  of  Mrs.  Parting- 
ton," (1853,)  "  Mrs.  Partington's  Knitting-Work,"  (1857,) 
"  Partingtonian  Patch- Work,"  (1872,)  "Lines  in  Pleasant 
Places,"  (1874,)  "Ike  Partington  and  his  Friends," 
(1878,)  "Cruises  with  Captain  Bob,"  (1880,)  "The 
Double-Runner  Club,"  (1882,)  etc.    Died  Nov.  25,  1890. 

Shiun,  (George  Wolfe,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Philadelphia  December  14,  1839,  graduated 
at  the  Philadelphia  Divinity  School  in  1863,  and  entered 
the  ministry  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  is  author  of  a 
"Manual  ofthe  Prayer-Book,"  (1875,)  "Manual  ofChurch 
History,"  (1876,)  "Questions  about  Our  Church,"  (1880,) 
and  a  large  number  of  works  on  religious  subjects. 

Shipley,  (Orby,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Twyford 
House,  Hants,  July  i,  1832.  He  graduated  at  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  After  working  twenty-three  years 
as  an  Anglican  clergyman,  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic 
in  1878.  He  prepared  many  devotional  and  ascetic  books, 
mostly  translations,  and  edited  and  compiled  "Lyra  Eu- 
charistica,"  (1863,)  "Lyra  Messianica,"  (1864,)  "Lyra 
Mystica,"  (1864,)  and  other  books.  He  also  published 
some  original  books  and  brochures. 

Shipley,  (William,)  the  originator  of  the  Society 
for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  and  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1715.  He  was  a  teacher 
of  drawing  in  London.     Died  in  1804. 

Shipley,  (William  Davies,)  born  in  Berkshire  in 
1745,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Shipley,  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph, 
and  a  brother-in-law  of  Sir  William  Jones.  He  became 
^ean  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1774.     Died  in  1826. 

Shipp,  (Albert  M.,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Stokes  county.  North  Carolina,  January 
15,  1819.  He  graduated  in  1840  at  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  and  in  1841  became  a  Methodist  preacher. 
He  held  various  professorships,  etc.,  was  the  president 
of  Wofford  College,  Spartanburg,  South  Carolina,  from 
1859  to  1874,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  in  Vanderbilt  University,  Nash- 
yille,  Tennessee. 

Ship'pen,  (Edward,)  a  native  of  England,  who  emi- 
grated to  Massachusetts  and  settled  at  Boston  about 
1669.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and 
was  driven  from  Boston  by  persecution.  He  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  of  which  city  he  became  the  first  mayor. 

Ship'pen,  (Edward,)  an  able  American  lawyer  and 
jurist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1729.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  Pennsylvania  in  1799.     Died  in  1806. 

Shippen,  (William,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1734,  was  a  descendant  of  Edward 
Shippen,  (the  first  of  the  name.)  He  studied  medicine 
in  Edinburgh,  and  commenced  in  1764  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  anatomy  at  Philadelphia.  In  1765  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical  school  of  which  he 
was  one  of  the  founders.     Died  in  1808. 

Shippen,  (William,)  an  English  Jacobite  member 
of  Parliament,  was  a  son  of  the  rector  of  Stockport. 
He  was  an  opponent  of  Walpole,  and  was  characterized 
by  Pope  as  "downright  Shippen."     Died  about  1742. 


Shjr'law,  (Walter,)  a  painter,  born  at  Paisley,  Scot- 
land, in  1837.  He  became  a  resident  of  Chicago  in  child- 
hood, and  learned  his  art  chiefly  in  Munich.  He  was 
for  a  time  professor  in  the  Art-Students'  League,  New 
York.  He  is  distinguished  as  a  figure-painter,  and  his 
less  ambitious  compositions  (often  combining  domestic 
animals,  birds,  etc.)  are  of  high  value.  "  Sheep-Shearing 
in  the  Bavarian  Highlands"  has  been  called  his  best 
picture.  His  work  as  an  art-instructor  has  been  very 
important  in  its  results. 

Shir'ley  or  Sher'ley,  (Sir  Anthony,)  an  English 
traveller  and  navigator,  born  in  1565.  In  1598  he  visited 
Persia,  where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinction  by 
Shah  Abbas,  by  whom  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the 
different  European  courts,  to  induce  them  to  form  a 
league  with  him  against  the  Turks.  He  died  in  Spain 
about  1630,  having  been  previously  created  admiral  of 
the  Levant  Seas,  by  the  King  of  Spain.  His  principal 
works  are  entitled  "A  True  Relation  of  the  Voyage 
undertaken  by  Sir  Anthony  Shirley,  Knight,  in  1596," 
etc.,  and  "  Relation  of  Sir  Anthony  Shirley's  Travels  in 
Persia,"  (1632.) 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1820.) 

Shirley,  (Evelyn  Philip,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
genealogist,  born  in  Warwickshire,  January  22,  i8i2; 
died  September  19,  1882. 

Shirley,  (James,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in  Lon 
don  about  1594.  Among  his  plays,  which  amount  in  all 
to  about  forty,  we  may  name  "The  Traitor,"  a  tragedy. 
He  also  wrote  a  poem,  entitled  "  The  Echo,  or  the  Un- 
fortunate Lovers."     Died  in  1666. 

See  Baker,  "  Biograpliia  Dramatica;"  Wood,  "  Athense  Oxo- 
nienses;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Shirley,  (Robert,)  brother  of  Sir  Anthony,  noticed 
above,  was  born  about  1570.  He  served  i^x  a  time  in 
the  army  of  Shah  Abbas,  und  was  afterwaros  employed 
by  him  in  several  missions.     Died  in  1628. 

Shirley,  (Thomas,)  eldest  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1564.  He  visited  Turkey,  and  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  in  that  country. 

Shirley,  (William,)  an  Anglo-American  Governor, 
born  in  England  about  1705.  He  became  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1741,  and  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  forces  in  America  in  1755.  He  ceased  to  be 
Governor  in  1757.     Died  in  1 771. 

Shi'shak,  the  Hebrew  name  of  Sheshonk  I.,  King 
of  Egypt.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  of  an  Assyrian 
or  Babylonian  race,  and  was  the  first  king  of  the  twenty- 
first  dynasty.  He  received  Jeroboam  when  he  fled  from 
King  Solomon,  and  later  marched  against  Rehoboam, 
King  of  Judah,  and  carried  off  the  treasures  of  the  temple 
and  palace  of  Jerusalem.  Many  names  of  conquered 
Levite  and  Canaanite  towns  in  Palestine  appear  in  the 
Egyptian  records  of  this  reign.  Shishak  began  to  reign 
about  967  B.C. 

Shishkof,  Schischko'w,  or  Chischkof,  shish'kof, 
(Alexander  Semenovitch,)  a  Russian  writer  and 
minister  of  state,  born  in  1754.  He  rose  gradually  in 
the  navy  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  He  published  a  "  Mari- 
time Dictionary,  English,  French,  and  Russian,"  an  ex- 
cellent "Treatise  on  the  Old  and  New  Russian  Style," 
(1802,)  and  other  works.  In  1816  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Russian  Academy,  which  he  enriched  with 
philological  essays.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  council  of  the  empire  in  1820,  and  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  from  1824  to  1828.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "Memoiren  des  Admirals  A.  Schischkoff  iiber  die  Zeit  seines 
Aiifenthaltes,"  etc.,  1832. 

Shiva.     See  Siva. 

Shoovalof,  Chouvalof,  or  Schu'walow,  shoo-vi'- 
lof,  (Andrei  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian  poet  and  courtier, 
who,  in  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  became  a  member  of 
the  imperial  council  and  a  senator.  He  was  intimate 
with  Voltaire  and  other  French  authors.  He  wrote,  in 
French  verse,  an  "  Epistle  to  Voltaire"  and  an  "  Epistle 
to  Ninon  de  Lenclos."     Died  in  1789. 

His  son  Paul,  born  about  1775,  became  a  general  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five.  In  the  campaign  of  1813  he  was 
a  personal  attendant  ofthe  Czar  Alexander,  and  in  1814 
he  accompanied,  in  the  name  of  Russia,  Bonaparte  to 
Elba.     Died  in  1823. 


€  as  ^;  (  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  s  as  s,-  th  as  in  this.     ( ^I^-See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SHOOVALOF 


2192 


SHUTTLE  IVOR  TH 


Shoovalof  or  Chouvalof,  (Peter,)  a  Russian  gene- 
ral, was  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of  cannon  which  bears 
his  name.  He  was  the  father  of  Andrei  Petrovitch, 
noticed  above.     Died  in  1762. 

Shoovalof,  or  Shuvdloff,  (Peter  Andreievitch.) 
Count,  a  Russian  statesman,  born  in  Saint  Petersburg, 
July  15,  1827.  He  entered  the  army  in  youth,  became 
an  officer  of  the  interior  department  in  1862,  governor- 
general  of  the  Baltic  provinces  in  1864,  and  chief  of  the 
secret  service  in  1866,  in  which  capacity  he  detected  the 
existence  of  Nihilistic  conspiracies.  In  1873  he  went  to 
England  as  special  agent  and  effected  a  matrimonial 
alliance  between  the  reigning  families,  the  Duke  of  Edin- 
burgh marrying  the  Russian  grand-duchess  Marie.  In 
1874  he  became  Russian  ambassador  at  London,  retiring 
in  1S79.     Died  Marcii  22,  18S9. 

Shore,  (Jane,)  the  wife  of  a  London  jeweller,  subse- 
quently became  the  mistress  of  Edward  IV.,  King  of 
England.  After  his  death  she  formed  a  connection  with 
Lord  Hastings.  She  was  tried  for  witchcraft  by  order 
oi  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  HI. 
Died  about  1525. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

Shore,  (John.)     See  Teign mouth,  I-ord. 

Shore,  (Thomas  Teignmouth,)  a  British  divine,  born 
In  Dublin  in  1841.  He  graduated  in  1861  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  became  a  priest  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  a  chaplain  to  the  Queen.  He  wrote  "  Some 
Difficulties  of  Belief,"  "  The  Life  of  the  World  to  Come," 
"Saint  George  for  England,"  etc. 

Short,  (CHARLE.S,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scholar,  born 
at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1821.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1846,  was  president  of  Kenyon  Col- 
lege, 1863-67,  and  in  1868  became  professor  of  Latin  in 
Columbia  College.  In  connection  with  Prof.  Charlton 
T.  Lewis,  he  edited  a  "  Latin  Dictionary."     D.  in  1886. 

Short,  (James,)  a  Scottish  mathematician  and  op- 
tician, born  at  Edinburgh  in  1710,  was  employed  to 
make  a  survey  of  the  Orkney  Islands.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  constructor  of  telescopes.     Died  in  1768. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Short,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  physician,  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  "  Natural  History  of  Mineral  and  Medicinal 
Waters,"  and  other  similar  works.     Died  in  1772. 

Short'house,  (Joseph  Henry,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  Birmingham  in  1834.  His  works  include  "John 
Inglesant"  and  "The  Little  Schoolmaster  Mark,"  also 
"The  Platonism  of  Wordsworth,"  (1881.)  The  first- 
named  work  was  very  successful. 

Shovel,  shiiv'el,  (Sir  Ci.oudesley,)  a  distinguished 
English  admiral,  Ijorn  in  Norfolk  in  1650.  In  1688  he 
became  an  adherent  of  William  HI.,  who  made  him  a 
knight  for  his  services  at  the  battle  of  Bantry  Bay.  He 
had  a  prominent  share  in  the  victory  of  La  Hogue,  and 
was  soon  after  appointed  vice-admiral  of  the  red.  In 
1705  he  commanded  the  fleet  sent  against  Spain,  and 
subsequently  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1707, 
but,  while  on  his  voyage  home,  was  wrecked  off  the 
Scilly  Isles,  and  all  on  board  perished. 

See  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  Humk,  "His- 
tory of  England  " 

ShSw'er,  (Sir  Bartholomew,)  an  English  lawyer 
under  the  reign  of  James  II.,  was  a  native  of  Exeter. 
He  became  recorder  of  London,  and  published  a  work 
entitled  "  Cases  in  Parliament  Resolved." 

Shower,  (John,)  a  Puritan  divine,  born  at  Exeter  in 
1657,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  "Re- 
flections on  Time  and  Eternity,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1 71 5. 

Shrap'nel,  (Henry,)  an  English  general,  entered  th^,- 
army  about  1779.  He  invented  the  case-shot  called 
shrapnel-shells.     Died  in  1842. 

Shreve,  (Samuel  Henry,)  an  American  civil  engi- 
neer, born  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  August  2,  1829.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1848,  and  at  the  Har- 
vard Law  School  in  1850.  He  became  a  distinguished 
railroad  engineer,  and  published  a  valuable  "Treatise  on 
the  Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs,"  (1873,)  and  other 
works.     Died  November  27,  1884. 


Shrewsbury,  shroz'ber-e  or  shruz'ber-e,  (Charles 
Talbot,)  Duke  of,  an  English  peer  and  scholar,  born 
in  1660,  was  .educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  became 
a  Protestant  and  Whig,  promoted  the  revolution  of 
1688,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state 
in  1689.  He  resigned  about  1691.  In  1694  he  was  again 
appointed  to  that  office,  and  was  created  Duke  of  .Shre  wb- 
bury.  He  was  very  popular.  "  Before  he  was  of  age," 
says  Macaulay,  "he  was  allowed  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
gentlemen  and  finest  scholars  of  his  time.  He  was 
early  called  the  king  of  hearts,  and  never,  through  a 
long,  eventful,  and  checkered  life,  lost  his  right  to  that 
name."  ("History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.)  He  resigned 
ofiice  in  1700,  became  Viceroy  of  Ireland  in  1713,  and 
lord  treasurer  in  1714.     Died  in  1718. 

See  "  Life  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Shrewsbury,"  1718. 

Shrewsbury,  Earl  of.     See  Talbot,  (John.) 

Shrub'sole,  (William,)  an  English  hymn-writer, 
born  at  Sheerness,  November  21,  1759;  died  near  Lon- 
don, August  23,  1829. 

Shu,  the  ancient  Egyptian  god  of  light.    See  Tefnet. 

Shu'brick,  (John  Templar,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1778.  He  served  as 
first  lieutenant  under  Commodore  Decatur  against  the 
Algerines  in  1815.  After  peace  was  concluded  with  Al- 
giers, he  sailed  as  commander  of  the  Epervier  for  the 
United  States,  and  the  vessel  was  lost  at  sea  in  th* 
same  year. 

Shubrick,  (William  Branford,)  an  American 
admiral,  a  brother  of  J.  T.  Shubrick,  was  born  in  South 
Carolina,  October  31,  1790.  He  entered  the  naval  ser- 
vice in  1806,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  war  of 
1812-15.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  a  rear-admiral. 
Died  at  Washington,  D.C.,  May  27,  1874. 

Shiick'burgh-Ev'e-lyn,  (Sir  George,)  F.R.S.,  an 
English  classical  scholar  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  1750,  resided  in  Warwickshire.  He  determined  the 
relation  between  the  British  unit  of  measure  {i.e.  the 
yard)  and  the  length  of  a  pendulum  which  makes  a  cer- 
tain number  of  vibrations  in  a  given  time.  He  also 
wrote  on  the  measurement  of  altitudes  by  the  barome- 
ter, etc.     Died  in  1804. 

Shiick'ford,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine,  became 
prebendary  of  Canterbury.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  the  World,  Sacred  and  Profane."     Died  in  1754- 

Shukowski.     See  Zhookofsky. 

Shun  or  Chun,  shuN,  an  ancient  Chinese  sage  and 
ruler,  who,  according  to  Pauthier,  was  raised  to  the  im- 
perial throne  2285  B.C.  (See  Yao.)  On  account  of  his 
rare  wisdom  and  virtue,  he  was  selected  by  Yao  to  be 
his  successor;  but  Shun,  deeming  himself  unworthy,  at 
first  declined  the  proffered  honour,  and  was  with  diffi- 
culty prevailed  on  to  accept  it.  Like  Yao,  he  introduced 
many  useful  regulations,  encouraged  science  and  the 
arts,  and  was  particularly  distinguished  by  the  attention 
which  he  paid  to  music.  He  materially  modified  the 
penal  code  of  China,  rendering  it  more  humane,  and 
making  the  various  punishments  bear  a  just  proportion 
to  the  grade  of  the  offence.  Every  three  years  he  made 
an  examination  into  the  conduct  of  his  officers,  punishing 
the  culpable  and  rewarding  those  who  had  properly  per- 
formed their  duties.  He  died  (according  to  Pauthier, 
2208  B.C.)  after  a  long  and  prosperous  reign,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Yu. 

Shun-Tchee  or  Chun-Tchi,  shuN-chee,  the  first  Chi- 
nese emperor  of  the  present  Tartar  or  Mantchoo  dynasty, 
obtained  the  throne  in  1644  in  consequence  of  a  revolu- 
tion. He  was  the  heir  of  the  Khan  of  Tartary,  and  was 
born  about  1637.  He  retained  the  ancient  laws  and 
institutions  of  the  Chinese.  To  the  Dutch  embassy, 
which  came  in  1656  to  open  commercial  intercourse,  he 
accorded  permission  to  enter  his  ports  once  only  in  eight 
years.  He  died  in  1691,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Kang-Hee,  (or  Kang-Hi.)  M 

Shute,  (JosiAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  became  Arch-         || 
deacon  of  Colchester.     He  published  a  volume  of  Ser- 
mons on  Genesis  xvi.     Died  in  1643. 

Shu'ter,  (Edward,)  a  popular  English  comedian, 
died  in  1776. 

Shut'tle-worth,  (Philip  Nicholas,)  an  English 
prelate,  born  in  1782.      He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 


i, e,!,  6, u, y,  long;  i, k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e, T,  6,  li,  y,  short:  a,  e.  i,  9,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SIB  A  UYEH 


2193 


SICKLER 


Chichester  in  1840.  He  published  several  works  on 
theology.     Died  in  1842. 

Sibauyeh,se-bovv'yeh,or  Sibooyeh,  (or  Sibftyeh,) 
se-boo'y?h,  written  also  Sibouieh  or  Sibouyeh,  (Am- 
roo  (Amru)  Ibn  Othman,  irn'roo  Tb'n  oth-mSn',)  a 
celebrated  Arabian  grammarian,  born  in  Farsistan  about 
750  A.D.  ;  died  about  800.  He  is  sometimes  called  Al- 
Farsee,  (-FarsI,)  i.e.  "the  Persian." 

Sib'bald,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
in  Fifeshire,  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  the  first  presi- 
dent, of  the  College  of  Physicians  at  Edinburgh.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Scotia  Illustrata,"  and  other  works, 
and  filled  the  post  of  physician  and  geographer  to 
Charles  II.  Sibbaldia,  a  genus  of  plants,  was  so  named 
Ml  his  honour.     Died  in  1712. 

See  "Autobiography  of  Sir  R.  Sibbald,"  1S33;  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sibbern,  sib'bern,  (Frederik  Christian,)  a  Danish 
jurist  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1785.  After  visiting  Germany,  he  was  appointed  in  1813 
professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  Among  his 
numerous  works,  which  favour  the  system  of  Schelling, 
we  may  name  his  "Psychology  introduced  through  Bi- 
ology," (1849,)  and  "On  Poetry  and  Art,  or  Discourses 
on  Universal  ^Esthetics  and  Poetrv,"  (1853.)  Died  in 
1859. 

Sibbes  or  Sibbi,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English 
Puritan  minister,  born  in  Suftblk  in  1577,  was  a  Fellow 
of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  became 
preacher  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1618,  and  master  of  Cathe- 
rine's Hall  about  1625.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  The  Bruised  Reed."     Died  in  1635. 

Sibbs.     See  Sibbes. 

Sibert,  de,  deh  se'baiR',  (Gautier,)  a  French  his- 
torian, born  at  Tonnerre  about  1720.  Among  his  works 
is  "The  Variations  of  the  French  Monarchy  in  its  Po- 
litical, Civil,  and  Military  Government,"  (4  vols.,  1765.) 
Died  in  1798. 

Sibilet,  se'be'li',  (Thomas,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  about  1512.  His  chief  work  is  "  L'Art 
poetique  Fran9ois,"  (1548.)     Died  in  1589. 

Sib'ley,  (Henry,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Louisiana  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838. 
He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861.  He  com- 
manded a  small  army  which  invaded  New  Mexico, 
attacked  Fort  Craig,  in  February,  1862,  and  was  re- 
pulsed.    Died  August  23,  1S86. 

Sibley,  (Henry  H.,)  an  American  Governor,  born  at 
Detroit,  Michigan,  in  181 1.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Minnesota  in  1857,  and  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
m  1862.  He  led  an  expedition  against  the  Sioux  In- 
dians in  June  and  July,  1863.     Died  Feb.  18,  1891. 

Sibley,  (Mark  H.,)  an  eloquent  American  lawyer, 
born  at  Great  Barrington,  Massachusetts,  in  1796.  He 
practised  at  Canandaigua,  New  York,  and  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1837.     Died  in  1852. 

Sib'ly,  (Manoah,)  an  English  Orientalist  and  Swe- 
denborgian  divine,  born  in  London  in  1757;  died  in 
184a 

Sibooyeh.    See  Sibauyeh. 

Sibouieh.    See  Sibauyeh. 

Sibour,  se'booR',  (Marie  Dominique  Auguste,)  a 
I'rench  prelate,  born  in  the  department  of  Drome  in 
1792.  He  studied  at  Avignon  and  Paris,  and  became 
successively  Bishop  of  Digne  (1840)  and  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  (1848.)  He  was  afterwards  made  a  senator,  and 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  (1854.)  He  was  assas- 
sinated in  1857,  by  a  priest  named  Jean  Verger,  who 
had  been  suspended,  ( interdit. ) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sibrecht,  see'bR^Kt,  or  Sibrechts,  see'bR^Kts, 
(Jan,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1625,  worked  in  London.     Died  in  1703. 

Sib'thorp,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  botanist, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1758.  Having  studied  medicine  at 
Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  visited  France,  he  was 
appointed,  after  his  return,  to  succeed  his  father  in  the 
chair  of  botany  at  Oxford.  In  1786  he  set  out  on  a 
scientific  expedition  to  Greece  and  the  adjacent  regions, 
and  in  1794  revisited  those  countries.  His  principal 
works  are  his  "  Flora  Oxoniensis,"  (1794,)  and  "  Flora 


Grasca,"  (10  vols,  fol.)  He  died  in  1796,  leaving  to  the 
University  of  Oxford  two  hundred  pounds  a  year  for  the 
publication  of  his  "Flora  Graeca,"  a  magnificent  work, 
with  plates. 

Sibflyeh.     See  Sibauyeh. 

Sibyl.     See  Sibylla. 

Sl-byl'la,  [Gr.  'Li6vX\a  ;  Fr.  Sibylle,  se'bfel'  ;  Eng- 
lish,  Sib'yl,]  the  name  of  several  ancient  prophetesses, 
the  most  celebrated  of  whom  was  the  Cumaean  Sibyl, 
sometimes  called  Deiph'obe,  Amalthe'a,  or  Demoph'ile. 
According  to  Virgil,  she  accompanied  ^neas  in  his  visit 
to  the  infernal  regions.     (See  "^Eneid,"  book  vi.) 

See  Isaac  Vossius,  "Tractatus  de  Sibyllarum  Oraculis,"  1680, 
R.  VoLKMANN,  "De  Oraculis  Sibyllinis  Dissertatio,"  1S54:  O 
Panvinio,  "Tractatus  de  Sibyllis,"  1673. 

Sibylle.    See  Sibylla. 

Sicard,  se'ktR',  (Franqois,)  a  French  military  writei, 
born  at  Thionville  (Meurthe)  in  1787.  He  entered  the 
army,  and  became  a  captain.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"History  of  the  Military  Institutions  of  the  French," 
(4  vols.,  1830-31.)     Died  at  Paris,  March  13,  i860. 

Sicard,  (Roch  Ambroise  Cucurron,)  a  French 
abbe,  distinguished  as  a  teacher  of  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
was  born  at  Fousseret,  near  Toulouse,  in  1742.  He 
went  to  Paris  to  learn  the  method  of  the  Abbe  I'fipee, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1789  as  director  of  the  Institution 
in  Paris.  During  the  Revolution  he  was  arrested  and 
confined  in  prison,  from  which  he  was  released  in  Sep- 
tember, 1792,  after  a  narrow  escape  from  massacre. 
He  became  professor  of  grammar  in  the  normal  school 
about  1795,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  had 
great  success  as  a  teacher  of  grammar.  In  1800  he 
established  a  printing-press  for  the  use  of  the  deaf-mutes. 
He  improved  or  perfected  the  method  of  instructing 
such  persons,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  The- 
ory of  Signs  for  the  Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes,"  (1808.) 
Died  in  1822. 

See  DuviviER,  "Notice  sur  I'Abbe  Sicard;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie G^iierale." 

Sichel,  siK'el  orziK'el,  (Julius,)  a  skilful  oculist,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  about  1800,  graduated  at  Ber- 
lin in  1825.  He  began  to  practise  in  Paris  about  1833, 
and  published  several  treatises  on  ophthalmy.  He  died 
November  14,  1868. 

Sl-gin'i-us  Den-ta'tus,  a  Roman  warrior,  who  is 
said  to  have  fought  in  one  hundred  and  twenty  battles, 
and  to  have  decided  the  victory  in  many  of  them,  was  a 
champion  of  the  plebeians  in  the  contest  against  the 
patricians.  He  was  a  tribune  of  the  people  in  454  B.C., 
and  was  assassinated  in  450  by  the  opposite  party. 

Siciolante,  se-cho-lJn'ti,  or  Da  Sertnoneta,  d3 
s^R-mo-na'ti,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sermoneta  in  1504.  He  was  employed  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIH.     Died  in  1550. 

Sickingen,  von,  fon  sik'king'en  or  zik'king'en, 
(Franz,)  a  celebrated  German  soldier  and  Protestant 
Reformer,  born  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden  in  1481. 
He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and 
of  Charles  V.,  whom  he  accompanied  in  several  of  his 
expeditions.  He  distinguished  himself  on  all  occasions 
as  the  champion  of  the  oppressed,  and  the  patron  of 
learned  men ;  he  gave  an  asylum  to  OEcolampadius, 
Bucer,  and  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  and  protected  Reuchlin 
from  the  persecution  of  the  monks  of  Cologne.  Having 
become  involved  in  a  feud  with  Hesse  and  the  Palatinate, 
he  was  mortally  wounded  while  defending  his  castle  of 
Neustall,  in  1523. 

See  BuDDEUS,  "  Franz  von  Sickingen,"  1794:  Munch,  "  Krani 
von  Sickingen,"  3  vols.,  1827;  Bouteiller,  "  Histoire  de  F.  von 
Sickingen,"  Metz,  i860;  Karl  Lang,  "  Ritter  F.  von  Sickingen," 
1825;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Sickler,  sik'ler  or  zik'ler,  (Friedrich  Karl  Lud- 
wig,)  a  German  antiquary,  son  of  Johann  Volkmar, 
noticed  below,  was  born  near  Gotha  in  1773.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "The  Political  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Rome."     Died  in  1836. 

Sickler,  (Johann  Volkmar,)  a  German  pomologist, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1742,  published  "The  German  Fruit- 
Cultivator,"  ("  Deutscher  Obstgartner,")  "  Pomological 
Cabinet,"  (1796,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in 
1820. 


*•  as  ^,-  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  VL,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  tkis.     (2l^"See  Explanations,  p.  13.) 

138 


SICKLES 


2194 


SIDNEY 


Sickles,  sik'elz,  {Daniel  E.,)  an  American  genera], 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1822.  He  studied  law,  and 
was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Democrats  of  New 
York  in  1856.  He  killed  Philip  Barton  Key  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1859,  for  criminal  connection  with  his  wife.  In 
i860  he  was  re-elected  to  Congress  by  the  voters  of  the 
third  district  of  New  York.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  battles  near  Richmond  in  June,  1862,  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  and  a  corps 
at  Chancellorsville,  May  2  and  3,  1863.  At  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  he  directed  the  third  corps,  and  lost  a  leg 
on  the  2d  of  July,  1863.  He  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  Second  Military  District,  comprising  North  and 
South  Carolina,  about  April,  1867.  Having  supported 
the  policy  of  Congress  in  preference  to  that  of  Presi- 
dent Johnson,  he  was  removed,  August  26,  1867.  He 
was  appointed  minister  to  Spain  in  May,  1869. 

Siddriarta.     See  Gautama. 

Sid'dpns,  (Sarah,)  a  celebrated  English  tragic  act- 
ress, born  at  Brecon,  South  Wales,  in  July,  1755,  was 
a  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble.  She  was  married  in  1773 
to  an  actor  named  Siddons,  and  made  her  first  appear- 
ance at  Drury  Lane  in  December,  1775.  Her  form  was 
exquisitely  symmetrical,  her  countenance  beautiful,  and 
her  deportment  majestic.  She  was  for  many  years  the 
most  popular  tragic  actress  on  the  English  stage.  Her 
performance  of  the  part  of"  Lady  Macbeth"  was  especially 
admired.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in  1812.  Her  private 
character  is  said  to  have  been  irreproachable.  She  is, 
by  general  consent,  admitted  to  have  been  the  greatest 
actress  that  England  has  produced.     Died  in  183 1. 

A  critic  of  rare  taste,  and  one  not  likely  to  be  swayed 
by  the  opinions  of  the  multitude,  speaks  thus  of  Mrs. 
Siddons  as  an  actress,  although,  when  he  saw  her,  she 
had  been  long  past  her  prime  :  "  What  a  wonderful 
woman  !  The  very  first  time  I  saw  her  perform,  I  was 
struck  with  admiration.  .  .  .  Her  looks,  her  voice,  her 
gestures,  delighted  me.  She  penetrated  in  a  moment  to 
my  heart.  She  froze  and  melted  it  by  turns  ;  a  glance 
of  her  eye,  a  start,  an  exclamation,  thrilled  through  my 
whole  frame.  The  more  I  see  her,  the  more  I  admire 
her.  I  hardly  breathe  while  she  is  on  the  stage.  She 
works  up  my  feelings  till  I  am  like  a  mere  child."  (See 
"The  Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving,"  vol.  i. 
P-  159) 

See  Thomas  Campbell,  "Life  of  S.  Siddons,"  2  vols.,  1834; 
Jam£s  Boaden,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Mrs.   Siddons,"   1832. 

Sidg'wick,  (Henry,)  an  English  philosopher,  bom 
at  Skipton,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1838.  He  was  educated  at 
Kugby,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  graduating  in 
1859.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Newnham  Col- 
lege, for  girls,  at  Cambridge.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Methods  of  Ethics,"  (1874;  new  and  altered  edi- 
tion, 1877,)  and  "  Principles  of  Political  Economy." 

Sidi-Mohammed,  sidl  mo-him'med,  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  born  about  1702,  succeeded  his  father,  Muley 
Abdallah,  in  1757.  Adopting  a  pacific  policy,  he  made 
treaties  of  peace  with  England,  France,  Spain,  and  other 
powers.  During  his  reign  Morocco  enjoyed  an  unusual 
degree  of  prosperity.     Died  in  1790. 

Sidi-Mohanamed,  an  emperor  of  Morocco,  born  in 
1803.  In  1859  he  succeeded  his  father,  Abd-er-Rahman. 
A  war  with  Spain  (1859-60)  followed,  ending  with  a 
treaty  humiliating  to  the  Moors.  He  made  many  im- 
provements in  the  administration  of  affairs,  but  his 
attempts  at  reform  were  ill  received,  and  insurrections 
were  frequent.     Died  September  17,  1873. 

Sidmouth,  Lord.    See  Addington,  (Henry.) 

Sid'ney  or  Syd'ney,  (Algernon,)  an  eminent 
English  republican  patriot,  born  in  1622,  was  a  younger 
son  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  a  grand-nephew 
of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  His  mother  was  Dorothy  Percy, 
a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Northumberland.  He  served 
against  the  Irish  insurgents  in  1642,  while  his  father 
was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  entered  the  army  of  Par- 
liament in  1643,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
1645.  In  1646  he  served  as  lieutenant-general  of  the 
horse  under  his  brother,  Lord  Lisle,  who  was  lieutenant- 
general  of  Ireland.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  judges 
for  the  trial  of  the  king  in  1648,  but  was  not  present 


when  he  was  condemned.  He  held  no  office  under 
Cromwell.  In  May,  1659,  he  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  council  of  state.  He  was  absent  on  a  mission  to 
the  court  of  Denmark  when  Charles  II.  was  restored  to 
the  throne  in  1660,  and  thought  it  most  prudent  to  re- 
main on  the  continent.  About  1666  he  solicited  Louis 
XIV.  to  co-operate  with  him  and  his  friends  in  estab- 
lishing a  republic  in  England.  By  the  permission  of 
the  English  government,  he  returned  home  in  1677  to 
see  his  aged  father,  who  left  him  a  legacy  of  ;^5ioo. 
He  afterwards  acted  in  concert  with  Lord  Russell  and 
Shaftesbury,  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  According 
to  the  statement  of  the  French  minister  Barillon,  Sidney 
and  other  leaders  of  his  party  received  bribes  or  presents 
from  Louis  XIV.*  In  June,  1683,  Sidney  and  Russell 
were  arrested  as  accomplices  in  the  Rye-House  Plot. 
Pie  was  tried  before  Jeffries,  convicted  without  good 
evidence,  and  beheaded  in  December,  1683.  His  sen- 
tence was  declared  unjust  by  Parliament  about  1690. 
He  left  "Discourses  on  Government,"  which  were  pub- 
lished in  1698.  Burnet,  who  knew  Sidney,  represents 
him  as  "a  man  of  most  extraordinary  courage,  a  steady 
man  even  to  obstinacy,  sincere,  but  of  a  rough  and  boi<«- 
terous  temper  that  could  not  bear  contradiction." 

See  George  W.  Meadlev,  "Life  of  Algernon  Sidney,"  1813: 
R.  C.  Sidney,  "  Brief  Memoirs  of  A.  Sidney,"  1S35;  G.  van  Sant- 
VOORD,  "Life  of  A.  Sidney,"  New  York,  1S51  ;  Burnet,  "  Hisinry 
of  his  Own  Time  ;"  Arthcr  Collins,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Lives  and 
Actions  of  the  Sydneys,"  1746;  Winthrop,  "Algernon  Sidney,  a 
Lecture  ;"  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Sidney,  (Edwin,)  a  popular  English  preacher  of  the 
Anglican  Church.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  about 
1820.  He  published  a  "Life  of  General  Lord  Hill,"  a 
number  of  sermons,  and  other  works. 

Sidney,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  statesman,  and  the 
father  of  Sir  Philip.  He  was  a  favoured  companion  of 
Edward  VI.,  who  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  France.  In 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  he  was  lord  deputy  of  Ireland 
He  had  a  high  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity.  Died 
in  1586. 

Sidney,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Romney,  an  English  Whig, 
was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  a  younger  brother 
of  Algernon  Sidney.  He  was  an  elificient  promoter  of 
the  revolution  of  1688,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
William  HI.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Romney. 
He  was  secretary  of  state  in  1690-92.  "  Sidney,"  says 
Macaulay,  "with  a  sweet  temper  and  winning  manners, 
seemed  to  be  deficient  in  capacity  and  knowledge,  and 
to  be  sunk  in  voluptuousness  and  indolence.  His  face 
and  form  were  eminently  handsome."  The  same  writer 
adds  that  he  had  a  rare  political  tact,  and  "the  conse- 
quence was  that  he  did  what  Mordaunt,  with  all  his 
vivacity  and  invention,  or  Burnet,  with  all  his  multi- 
farious knowledge  and  fluid  elocution,  never  could  have 
done."     ("History  of  England.")     Died  in  1700. 

Sidney,  (Mary,)  Countess  of  Pembroke,  "  Sidney  s 
sister,  Pembroke's  mother,"  an  accomplished  lady,  and 
sister  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  was  married  to  Henry,  Eail 
of  Pembroke,  in  1576.  She  wrote  "An  Elegy  on  .Sir 
Philip  Sidney,"  and  a  "  Pastoral  Dialogue  in  Praise  of 
Astraea,"  (Queen  Elizabeth.)  She  translated  many  psalms 
from  the  Hebrew  into  English  verse,  and  several  works 
from  the  French.  Died  in  1621.  Ben  Jonson  wrote  for 
her  a  well-known  epitaph. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  Louisa  S.  Cos- 
tello,  London,  1844. 

Sidney,  (Sir  Philip,)  an  English  gentleman,  soldiei, 
and  author,  possessed  of  rare  accomplishments,  born 
at  Penshurst,  in  Kent,  on  the  29th  of  November,  1554, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney,  and  a  nephew  of  the 
famous  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester.  His  mother 
was  Mary  Dudley,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  North- 
umberland. He  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1568 
or  1569,  and  commenced  a  tour  on  the  continent  in  1572. 
He  was  in  Paris  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew, and  afterwards  visited  Germany  and  Italy.  During 
this  tour  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Hubert  Languet, 
who  was  afterwards  a  regular  correspondent  of  Sidney. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1575,  and  became  a  lover  of 

*  This  charge,  if  admitted,  does  not  necessarily  convict  him  of  anf 
infidelity  to  his  principles. 


a,  e. 1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i, h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e, T,  6,  li, y, short;  a,  ?,  i,  9, obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fSt;  m5t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


SIDONIUS 


2195 


SI  EVE  KING 


Penelope,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Essex;  but  she  was 
compelled  to  marry  another.  She  was  the  "  Stella"  of 
his  amatory  poems.  Sir  Philip  gained  the  favour  and 
confidence  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  in  1577  was  sent  to 
Vienna  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  ostensibly  to  condole 
with  the  emperor  on  the  death  of  his  father,  but  with 
instructions  to  promote  union  among  the  Protestant 
princes.  His  first  literary  production  was  "  The  Lady 
of  the  May,"  a  masque,  performed  in  1578.  He  had 
the  courage  to  address  to  the  queen  a  letter  of  remon- 
strance against  her  proposed  marriage  with  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  about  1580.  He  retired,  or  was  exiled,  from 
court  for  a  time,  and  resided  at  Wilton  with  his  sister 
Mary,  Countess  of  Pembroke,  and  there  composed  his 
"  Arcadia,"  a  pastoral  romance  of  much  celebrity,  pub- 
lished in  1590.  In  1583  he  was  knighted,  and  married 
Frances,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  secre- 
tary of  state.  According  to  some  writers,  the  crown  of 
Poland  was  offered  to  him,  but  he  declined  it.  He  was 
about  to  accompany  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  his  expedition 
against  the  Spaniards,  when  the  queen  interposed,  and 
sent  him,  in  1585,  as  Governor  of  Flushing,  to  the  seat 
of  war  between  the  Dutch  and  the  King  of  Spain.  The 
troops  under  his  command  took  Axel,  and  again  encoun- 
tered the  enemy  at  Zutphen,  where  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  in  September,  1586.  After  he  was  wounded 
he  called  for  some  drink,  which  was  brought,  but,  before 
he  had  tasted  it,  gave  the  bottle  to  a  wounded  soldier, 
saying,  "Thy  necessity  is  greater  than  mine."  He  died 
at  Arnhem  in  October,  1586.  He  left  one  child,  Eliza- 
beth, Countess  of  Rutland.  Among  his  principal  works 
is  "The  Defence  of  Poesie,"  (1595,)  an  admirable  pro- 
duction, displaying  great  erudition  and  taste.  "The 
first  good  prose  writer,"  says  Hallam,  "in  any  positive 
sense  of  the  word,  is  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  .  .  .  The  'Ar- 
cadia' displayed  a  superior  mind  rather  complying  with 
a  temporary  taste  than  affected  byit.  .  .  .  I  think  it,  never- 
theless, on  the  whole,  inferior,  in  sense,  style,  and  spirit, 
to  the  '  Defence  of  Poesie.' "  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  "The  highest  testimony  to  his 
merits,"  says  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  "  was  his 
having  won  the  esteem  and  affection  of  William,  Prince 
of  Orange,  probably  the  most  wise  and  politic  chief  of 
his  time.  He  enjoined  it  to  be  told  to  the  queen  that, 
if  he  were  a  judge,  she  had  in  Philip  Sidney  one  of 
the  ripest  and  greatest  councillors  of  state  in  that  day 
in  Europe." 

See  F.  Greville,  (Lord  Brooke,)  "  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney," 
i6s2 ;  Thomas  Zouch,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Pliilip  Sid- 
ney," 1808;  H.  K.  F.  Bourne,  "Memoir  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney," 
1862;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  F'ebruary,  1S47,  and  January,  1863  ;  Allibone,  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Sidonius.    See  Apollinaris  Sidontus. 

Siebenkees,  see'ben-kas'  or  zee'ben-kas',  (Johann 
Philipp,)  a  German  antiquary  and  Hellenist,  born 
at  Nuremberg  in  1759.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  State  Inquisition  at  Venice," 
(1791,)  and  a  good  edition  of  Strabo.  Died  at  Altdorf 
in  1796. 

See  KoENiG,  "  Memoria  J.  P.  Siebenkees,"  1796. 

Siebold,  von,  fon  see'bolt  or  zee'bolt,  (Adam  Elias,) 
the  fourth  son  of  Karl  Kaspar,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Wurzburg  in  1775.  He  became  professor  of  medicine 
in  his  native  city,  and  subsequently  at  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Manual  for  the  Knowledge  and  Cure  of  the 
Diseases  of  Women,"  (181 1.)     Died  in  1828. 

Siebold,  von,  (Eduard  Kaspar  Jakob,)  a  German 
physician,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Wiirzburg 
m  1 801.  He  became  in  1833  professor  of  medicine  and 
surgery  at  Gottingen.  He  published  several  works  on 
obstetrics.     Died  in  1861. 

Siebold,  von,  (Karl  Kaspar,)  a  German  surgeon, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Jlilich  in  1736,  became  professor 
of  anatomy,  surgery,  and  obstetrics  at  Wiirzburg,  and 
was  ennobled  in  1801.  Died  in  1807.  His  sons  Johann 
Georg  Christoph,  Johann  Theodor  Damian,  and 
Johann  Barthel  were  likewise  distinguished  physi- 
cians and  surgeons. 

Siebold,  von,  (Karl  Theodor  Ernst,)  a  German 

Ehysiologist,  a  son  of  Adam  Elias,  noticed  above,  was 
orn  at  Wurzburg  in  1804.     He  became  successively 


professor  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  at  Er- 
langen,  Freiburg,  and  Munich.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  a  "Manual  of  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the 
Invertebrate  Animals,"  (1848,)  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  and  French.      Died  in  1885. 

Siebold,  von,  (Philipp  Franz,)  a  celebrated  German 
naturalist,  a  grandson  of  Karl  Kaspar,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1796.  He  accompanied  the 
Dutch  embassy  to  Japan  as  physician  and  naturalist  in 
1823,  and  spent  about  seven  years  in  scientific  researches 
in  that  country.  He  published  after  his  return  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  works,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Epitomeof  the  Japanese  Language,"  (1824,)  "  Flora  Ja- 
ponica,"  (1835,)  "  Catalogue  of  Japanese  Books,"  (1845,) 
"  Atlas  of  Land  and  Marine  Charts  of  the  Japanese 
Empire,"  also  "Fauna  Japonica,"  (1833,)  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Temminck  and  other  savans,  and  "  Ar- 
chives towards  the  Description  of  Japan."  Died  at 
Munich,  October  18,  1866. 

Siegen,  von,  fon  see'gen,  (Ludwig,)  a  celebrated 
artist,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1609, 
was  the  inventor  of  mezzotint  engraving.  His  first 
production  in  the  new  art  was  a  portrait  of  Amelia 
Elizabeth,  mother  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  which  he 
executed  about  1640.  Siegen  subsequently  imparted 
his  discovery  to  Prince  Rupert,  who  introduced  it  into 
England,  and  who  has  been  generally  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  mezzotinto.  Among  Siegen's  other  engrav- 
ings may  be  named  a  "  Holy  Family,"  after  Annibal 
Carracci,  and  a  portrait  of  Ferdinand  III.  of  Austria. 
Died  about  1680. 

See  F.VELVN,  "  Sculptura,  or  History  of  Chalcography  ;"  Nagler, 
"  .Aligemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Siegenbeek,  see'gen-bak'  or  see'Hen-bak',  (Mat- 
thijs,)  a  Dutch  writer  and  divine,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1774,  was  preacher  to  the  Mennonite  congregation  at 
Leyden,  and  became  in  1797  professor  of  eloquence  in 
the  university  of  that  city.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Dictionary  for  Dutch  Orthography,"  ("  Woordenboek 
voor  de  Nederduitsche  Spelling,")  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1850. 

Siegert,  see'cert,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  genre 
painter,  born  at  Neuwied,  May  5,  1820.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  of  the  Dusseldorf  professors.  Died  October 
17.  18S3. 

Siegfried,  seeg'freed,  [Ger.  pron.  zeeo'fReet,]  [from 
siegen,  to  "conquer,"  and  Friede,  "peace."  In  the 
Norse  legends  the  name  is  usually  written  Sigurd, 
(which  see,)]  the  natne  of  a  legendary  or  semi-fabulous 
personage  who  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  many 
of  the  ancient  tales  of  the  Teutonic  nations.  He  is 
especially  distinguished  as  the  hero  of  the  famous 
German  epic  known  as  the  "  Niebelungen  -  Lied," 
(nee'beh-loong'en  leet,)  or  the  "Lay  of  the  Niebe- 
lungen."* For  an  account  of  this  poem,  and  the  ex- 
ploits of  Siegfried,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Carlyle's 
"  Miscellanies"  and  Longfellow's  "  Poets  .  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  pp.  217-227. 

Siemens,  see'mgns,  (Sir  Charles  William,)  an 
eminent  inventor,  born  at  Lenthe,  in  Hanover,  Ger- 
many, April  4,  1823.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and 
became  a  mechanical  engineer,  and  settled  in  England 
in  1844.  With  his  brother,  Ernst  Werner  Siemens, 
(born  1816,)  he  invented  an  improved  steam  governor, 
an  air-pump,  a  process  of  anastatic  printing,  a  water- 
meter,  a  regenerative  steam-engine,  a  famous  regenera- 
tive gas-furnace,  etc.,  and  he  was  one  of  the  inventors 
of  the  Siemens-Martin  process  for  open-hearth  steel. 
He  also  made  great  improvements  in  dynamo-electric 
machines,  and  in  various  other  machines  for  utilizing 
electricity.  With  his  brother,  he  built  the  Indo-European 
telegraph  in  1868-69.  He  designed  the  famous  cable- 
ship  Faraday.  He  was  also  eminent  as  a  physicist. 
Died  November  18,  1883. 

Siena,  da.     See  Ma tteo. 

Sienna,  Simon  of.     See  Martini,  dl 

Sieveking,  see'veh-king'  or  zee'veh-king',  (Amalik 
WiLHELMlNE,)  born  at  Hamburg  in  1794,  was  celebrated 

*  The  name  Niebelungen  is  said  to  be  derived  from  an  ancient 
Burgundian  race  or  family,  whose  down&U  forms  the  subject  of  th« 
poem. 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zs,j;  o,  h,  k.  (guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^^See  Explanations,  p.  2\.\ 


SIEVE  KING 


1196 


SIGNORELLI 


for  her  philanthropy,  and  founded  several  charitable 
institutions  for  the  poor  in  Hamburg  and  other  cities. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  the  "Life  of  Amelia  Sieveking,"  translated  from  the  German, 
London,  1863. 

Sieveking,  (Karl,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1787,  was  sent  in  1819  as  resident  minister 
to  Saint  Petersburg.     Died  in  1847. 

Sieyes,  se'Sss'  or  se'i'ySs',  (Emmanuel  Joseph,) 
CoMTE,  commonly  called  Abb6  Sieves,  a  French  poli- 
tician and  publicist,  born  at  Frejus  in  May,  1748.  He 
was  educated  in  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice,  in  Paris, 
and  in  1780  went  to  Chartres,  where  he  became  canon, 
vicar-general,  and  chancellor.  He  advocated  the  popular 
cause  in  his  famous  pamphlet  entitled  "  What  is  the 
Third  Estate  ?"  ("  Qu'est-ce  que  le  Tiers-fitat .?"  1789,) 
which  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  publicists  who 
favoured  the  Revolution.  Having  been  sent  to  the 
States-General  by  the  electors  of  Paris,  he  was  the  chief 
promoter  of  the  union  of  the  orders,  and  one  of  the 
most  radical  leaders  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He 
opposed,  however,  the  abolition  of  tithes,  and  on  that 
question  used  the  famous  phrase,  "  They  would  be  free, 
and  they  do  not  know  how  to  be  just."  He  became  in 
1792  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  pursued 
a  cautious  and  silent  course;  but  he  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred  in  1795,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Berlin  in 

1798,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Directory  in  May, 

1799.  He  formed  a  coalition  with  Bonaparte,  promoted 
the  revolution  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  and  was  one  of  the 
three  consuls  of  the  new  regime.  His  power  and  in- 
fluence ended  about  the  end  of  1799 ;  and  his  plan  of  a 
new  constitution  was  not  adopted.  He  held  no  office 
under  the  empire,  and  he  lived  in  exile  from  18 15  to 
1830.     Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

See  CElsner,  "  Des  Opinions  politiques  de  Sieyfes  et  de  sa  Vie," 
1800;  Von  Seida,  "Sieves  und  Napoleon,"  1824;  E.  de  Beau- 
verger.  "  Et'jde  sur  Sieyes,"  1851  ;  Mignet,  "  Notices  historiqiies  ;" 
Thiers.  "  History  ol  tlie  French  Revolution;"  Lamartine,  "Les 
Constituants;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sif,  seef,  [probably  allied  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  sifi, 
"  pure,"  "  chaste,"  "  inviolate,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology, 
the  wife  of  Thor,  and  the  goddess  of  harvests.  She  is 
said  to  have  a  head  of  hair  of  pure  gold, — in  allusion, 
doubtless,  to  the  golden  fields  of  ripening  grain.  Her 
connection  with  Thor,  the  great  warrior-god  of  the 
Northmen,  may  denote  the  dependence  of  the  arts  of 
peace,  and  of  agriculture  in  particular,  on  the  protecting 
arm  of  war. 

See  Keyser,  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  translated  by  Pen- 
Nocic,  p.  131 ;  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Sigalon,  se'gt'ldN',  (Xavier,)  a  French  painter  of 
nistory,  born  at  Uzes  about  1790,  was  a  pupil  of  Guerin. 
He  worked  in  Paris  for  many  years.  In  1833  he  went 
to  Rome,  and  painted  for  M.  Thiers  a  copy  of  Michael 
Angelo's  "  Last  Judgment,"  for  which  he  received  eighty- 
eight  thousand  francs.     Died  at  Rome  in  1837. 

See  Ch.  Saint-Maurice,  "  filoge  de  Xavier  Sigalon,"  184S ; 
Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Sigaud-Lafond,  se'g5'  IS'fdw',  (Joseph  Aignan,)  a 
French  surgeon  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Bourges 
in  1730  or  1740,  wrote  treatises  on  electricity,  and  pub- 
lished a  "  Dictionary  of  Physics,"  (5  vols.,  1780-82.)  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1796.    Died  in  1810. 

See  MfcHiN-DESQUiNS,  "Notice  sur  Sigaud-Lafond;"  J.  P. 
Chevalier,  "Notice  sur  Sigaud-Lafond,"  1841 ;  QuArard,  "La 
France  Litt^raire." 

Sig'e-bert  [Fr.  pron.  se'zhe'baiR' ;  Lat.  Sigeber'- 
TUs]  I.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  535  A.D.,  was  a 
son  of  Clotaire  I.,  King  of  the  Franks.  He  obtained  in 
561  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  which  included  Germany 
and  the  northeast  of  Gaul.  He  was  involved  in  war 
with  his  brother  Chilperic,  whom  he  defeated.  In  575 
he  was  killed  by  assassins  who  were  hired  by  Frede- 
gunda,  the  wife  of  Chilperic. 

Sigebert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  601  a.d., 
was  a  son  of  Thierry  II.  He  was  killed  by  order  of 
Clotaire  II. 

Sigebert  HL,  born  in  630  a.d.,  was  a  son  of  Dagobert 
I.,  at  whose  death,  about  634,  the  kingdom  was  divided 
between  Sigebert  and  his  brother  Clevis.     Died  in  654. 


Sig'?-bert  ofGemblours,  [Lat.  Sigeber'tus  Gem- 
blacen'sis,]  a  learned  monk  and  historian,  born  in  Bra- 
bant about  1030,  wrote  a  "  Chronicon"  (or  "  History") 
"of  Germany  from  381  to  11 12."    Died  in  1 1 12. 

Sigebertus.    See  Sigebert. 

Sigel,  see'gel,  (Franz,)  a  general,  born  in  Baden, 
Germany,  in  1824.  He  became  minister  of  war  of  the 
government  formed  by  the  revolutionists  of  Baden  in 
June,  1848.  About  1850  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  He  enlisted  as  a  colonel  in  the  Union  army 
early  in  1861,  defeated  a  superior  force  at  Carthage, 
Missouri,  July  5,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
in  August  of  that  year.  He  commanded  a  division  at 
Pea  Ridge,  March  6  and  7,  1862,  and  a  corps  under 
General  Pope  in  Virginia,  July-September  of  that  year. 
He  was  defeated  at  New  Market,  May  15,  1864. 

Sigismond.     See  Sigismund. 

Sigi'is-miind,  [Fr.  Sigismond,  se'zhSss'm6N',]  writ- 
ten also  Sigmund,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in 
1368,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  Having 
married,  in  1386,  Maria,  daughter  of  Lewis,  King  of 
Poland,  he  was  crowned  King  of  Hungary  in  1387.  In  » 
1396  he  was  signally  defeated  by  the  Turks  under 
Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  at  Nicopolis.  He  was  elected  Em- 
peror of  Germany  in  1410,  and  crowned  in  1414.  In 
consequence  of  his  treachery  in  consenting  to  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  John  Huss  after  he  had  granted  him  a  safe- 
conduct,  Sigismund  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the 
Bohemians,  and  was  several  times  defeated  by  the 
celebrated  Ziska.  The  treaty  of  Iglau  was  concluded 
between  them  in  1435.     Died  in  1437. 

See  Aschbach,  "  Geschichte  Sigismunds,"  4  vols.,  1838-45  ;  Ka- 
Tt)NA,  "  Historia  Rerum  Hungariorum ;"  Engel,  "  Geschichte  von 
Ungam  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Sig'is-miiud  [Polish  Zygmunt,  zlg'moont]  L,  King 
of  Poland,  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  was  born  in  1466.  He 
ascended  the  throne  in  1507.  He  was  involved  in  wars 
with  the  Russians,  Moldavians,  and  Wallachians,  against 
whom  he  was  eventually  successful.     Died  in  1548. 

See  Lelewel,  "  Histoire  de  Pologne ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Sigismund  (called  also  Augustus)  II.,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1518.  He  was  elected  king 
during  his  father's  lifetime,  and  came  to  the  throne  in 
1548.  During  his  reign  Lithuania  was  united  to  Poland, 
to  which  Livonia  was  also  annexed.  Sigismund  is  sup- 
posed to  have  secretly  favoured  the  Reformed  religion, 
which  made  great  progress  under  his  rule  ;  he  was  also  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.     Died  in  1572. 

See  Lelewel,  "Histoire  de  Pologne." 

Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland  and  Sweden,  born 
in  1566,  was  the  son  of  John  III.  of  Sweden  and  Cathe- 
rine, sister  of  Sigismund  II.  of  Poland.  He  was  elected 
in  1587  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  in  1594  crowne.l 
King  of  Sweden.  His  zeal  in  behalf  of  Catholicism 
having  made  him  unpopular  with  the  Swedes,  his  uncle, 
the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  caused  himself  to  be  made 
king,  in  1604,  under  the  name  of  Charles  IX.,  and  thus 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  protracted  strife  between  the 
two  countries.  In  1610  he  invaded  Russia,  and  placed 
his  son  Vladislaf  on  the  throne,  which,  however,  he  was 
subsequently  compelled  to  resign  to  Michael  Feodoro- 
vitch.  He  was  also  involved  in  wars  with  the  Turks, 
Tartars,  and  Cossacks,  and  was  obliged  to  yield  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus  a  considerable  part  of  Livonia  and 
Prussia.  He  died  in  1632,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Vladislaf  IV. 

See  Nirmcewicz,  "Histoire  du  Rigne  de  Sigismond  IIL,"  3 
vols.,  181Q. 

Sig'is-miind  or  Sigismond,  King  of  Burgundy, 
was  a  son  of  Gondebaud,  (Gundibald,)  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  516  a.d.  Having  been  defeated  in  battle  by 
the  sons  of  Clovis,  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  Clodomir, 
in  524. 

Sigmund.    See  Sigismund. 

Signol,  sin'ydK,  (fiMiLE,)a  French  historical  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1835. 

Signorelli,  sfen-yo-rel'iee,  (Luca,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cortona  in  1439,  was  a  nephew  of  Vasari. 
His  frescos  of  "The  Last  Judgment,"  in  the  cathedral 


t,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f3r>  fill,  fit;  m6t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SIGNORELLI 


197 


SILLIG 


of  Orvieto,  are  esteemed  master-pieces,  and  were  highly 
commended  by  Michael  Angelo.     Died  in  1521. 

See  Mrs.  Jamkson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters;" 
Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Sigiiorelli,  (Pietro  Napoli,)  an  Italian  critic  and 
historical  writer,  born  at  Naples  in  1731.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  literary  history  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  entitled  "  Vicende  della  Coltura  nelle  Due  Sicilie," 
(5  vols.,  1784-86.)     Died  in  1815. 

See  F.  M.  Avellino,  "Elogio  storico  di  P.  N.  Signorelli,"  1815; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Sigonio,  se-go'ne-o,  [Lat.  Sigo'nius,]  (Carlo,)  an 
eminent  Italian  historian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Modena 
about  1520.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  literature 
in  his  native  city  in  1546,  and  obtained  in  1560  the  chair 
of  eloquence  at  Padua.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  treatise  "  On  the  Ancient  Law  of  Roman  Citizens," 
("De  antique  Jure  Civium  Romanorum,"  1560,)  "His- 
tory of  the  Western  Empire,"  ("  Historiae  de  Occidentali 
Imperio,"  1577,)  and  "Ecclesiastical  History,"  ("His- 
toriae Ecclesiasticae.")  Sigonio  was  one  of  the  first 
scholars  of  his  time,  and  his  Latin  style  is  remarkable 
for  clearness  and  elegance.  He  also  wrote  "On  the 
Athenian  Republic,"  ("  De  Republica  Atheniensium," 
1564,)  and  a  "Life  of  Scipio  Africanus  Minor,"  (1569.) 
Died  in  1584. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Vita  C.  Sigonii,"  prefixed  to  Sigonio's  works. 
6  vols.,  1732-37;  J.  P.  Krebs,  "Vita  C.  Sigonii,"  1837;  J.  P. 
Krkbs,  "C.  Sigonius,  einer  der  grossten  Hiimanisten,"  etc.,  1840; 
GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Sigonius.     See  Sigonio. 

Sigorgne,  se'goRn',  (Pierre,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1719.  He 
advocated  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  Died  at  Macon 
in  1809. 

Sigourney,  sig'iir-ne,  (Lydia  Huntley,)  an  Ameri- 
can poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Norwich, 
Connecticut,  in  1791.  She  published,  in  1815,  "Moral 
Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse."  Having  visited  Europe  in 
1840,  she  brought  out  in  1842  a  work  entitled  "  Pleasant 
Memories  of  Pleasant  Lands."  She  was  married  in 
1819  to  Charles  Sigourney,  a  merchant  of  Hartford. 
Among  her  numerous  poems  are  "The  Aborigines  of 
America,"  (1822,)  and  "Pocahontas,"  (1841.)  She  also 
wrote  many  works  in  prose.     Died  in  1865. 

See  Griswoi.d,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  "  National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished   Americans,"   vol.    iv. 

Siguenza,  de,  di  se-gw.§n'zJ,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  monk 
and  historical  writer,  born  about  1545,  published  a  "Life 
of  Saint  Jerome,"  (1595,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1606. 

Siguenza  y  Gongora,  de,  di  se-gwSn'zS  e  gon'- 
go-ri,  (Carlos,)  a  Mexican  priest  and  Jesuit,  born  in 
the  city  of  Mexico  in  1645.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  city,  and  became  a  priest  and  a  professor 
of  mathematics  and  astronomy.  He  published  many 
works  on  Mexico  and  the  adjacent  regions,  maps,  charts, 
etc.,  besides  some  volumes  of  verse,  chiefly  in  Latin. 
Died  August  22,  1700. 

Sigurd,  see'goord  or  see'gurd,  [from  a  root  cognate 
with  the  German  Sieg  and  Swedish  Seger,  victory,]  the 
name  of  a  hero  celebrated  in  the  legends  of  the  North 
as  the  greatest  of  human  warriors.  He  may  be  styled 
the  Roostam  of  the  Northmen.  He  had  a  sword  with 
which  he  could  cleave  an  anvil  and  cut  through  floating 
wool.  Sigurd  appears  to  be  another  name  for  Siegfried, 
(which  see.)  For  the  particulars  of  Sigurd's  lineage  and 
history,  see  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i,  pp. 
91-108. 

Sigurdsson,  see'go6rds-s9n,  (Jon,)  an  Icelandic  anti- 
quary and  statesman,  born  at  Rafnseyri,  June  17,  1811. 

Sike  or  Siecke,  see'keh  or  zee'keh,  (Heinrich,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  became  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Utrecht,  and  subsequently  at  Cambridge, 
England.     He  committed  suicide  in  17 12. 

Sl-la'nI-on,  [S(Aavtuv,]  a  Greek  statuary  in  bronze, 
lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  According  to  Pliny,  he 
was  a  contemporary  of  Lysippus,  and  excelled  in  the 
imitation  of  strong  passions.  Among  his  works  was  a 
statue  of  Sappho,  which  was  highly  praised  by  Cicero,  a 
statue  of  Plato,  and  a  statue  of  Jocasta  dying. 


Sl-la'nus,  (Decimus  Junius,)  a  Roman  senator,  was 
elected  consul  in  63  B.C.  In  the  trial  of  Catiline's  ac- 
complices, he,  as  consul  elect,  was  the  first  to  express 
his  opinion.     He  advocated  severe  measures. 

Silanus,  (M.  Junius,)  an  orator,  was  a  grandson  of 
D.  Junius  Silanus.  He  became  consul  in  19  a.d.  His 
daughter  Claudia  was  the  wife  of  Caligula,  who  caused 
Silanus  to  be  put  to  death. 

Silbermann,   sil'ber-mSn'  or   ziKber-mdn',   (GoTT- . 
FRIED,)  a  German  organ-builder,  born  near  Frauenstein, 
in  Saxony,  in  1683  ;  died  in  1753. 

Silberschlag,  sil'ber-shllo'or  ziKber-shliG',(JoHANN 
Jesaias,)  a  German  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Aschers- 
leben  in  1721.  He  was  pastor  at  Magdeburg,  and  rector 
of  the  Real-Schule  in  Berlin.     Died  in  1791. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1788. 

Silene.    See  Silenus. 

Sileno.    See  Silenus. 

Si-le'nus  or  Sei-le'nus,  jGr.  "ZelXtivoc  ;  Fr.  SiLfeNE, 
se'lin';  It.  SiLENO,  se-la'no,]  in  the  classic  mythology, 
one  of  the  Satyrs,  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Mercury,  and 
the  preceptor  and  inseparable  attendant  of  Bacchus. 
He  was  represented  as  a  jovial  old  man,  corpulent,  bald, 
always  intoxicated,  and  carrying  in  his  hand  a  wine-bag, 
and  often  riding  on  an  ass.  Like  the  other  Satyrs,  he 
was  fond  of  sleep,  music,  and  dancing.  He  was  also 
renowned  for  his  prophetic  insight  into  the  future. 

See  Virgil's  Sixth  Eclogue,  entitled  "Silenus." 

Silhon,  de,  deh  se'lAN',  (Jean,)  a  French  author,  born 
near  Nerac  about  1596.  He  was  one  of  the  first  mem- 
bers of  the  French  Academy,  and  was  employed  by 
Richelieu  ih  political  affairs.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  (1662.) 
Died  in  1667. 

Silhouette,  de,  deh  se'loo'St',  (£tienne,)  a  French 
financier  and  writer  on  politics,  etc.,  was  born  at  Li- 
moges in  1709.  He  became  controller-general  of  the 
finances  in  1759,  practised  excessive  economy,  but  was 
found  to  be  incompetent,  and  resigned  before  the  end  of 
the  year.  Died  in  1767.  His  name  is  applied  to  an 
economical  sort  of  portrait,  (commonly  called  a  profile.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

SilO[-us  I-tall-cus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  imi- 
tator of  Virgil,  whose  birthplace  is  unknown,  lived  under 
the  reign  of  Nero,  and  in  68  a.d.  was  elected  consul. 
He  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Asia.  His  only  work 
extant  is  an  epic  poem  entitled  "  Punica,"  in  seventeen 
books,  giving  an  account  of  the  second  Punic  war.  It 
is  a  long  and  very  dull  poem.     Died  about  100  a.d. 

See  C.  Cellarius,  "Dissertatio  de  C.  Silio  Italico,"  1712; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Siljestrom,  seel'ySs-tRom',  (Pehr  Adam,)  a  Swedish 
writer,  born  at  Calmar  in  1815,  became  professor  of  e.x- 
perimental  physics  at  Upsal.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
report  on  the  educational  system  of  the  United  States. 

Sill,  (Joshua  W.,)  born  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  in  1831 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853.  He  became  a  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Union  army  in  July,  1862,  and  was 
killed  at  Stone  River,  December  31  of  that  year. 

Silla,  the  Italian  of  Sulla,  (which  see.) 

Sniery,  de,  deh  sil're',  (Charles  Alexis  Brulart 
— bRii'l^R',)  Marquis,  and  Count  de  Genlis,  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  the  husband  of  Ma- 
dame de  Genlis  the  authoress.  He  served  as  captain  in 
the  navy  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
States-General  in  1789.  He  was  a  follower  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  in  politics,  and  was  guillotined  in  October, 

1793- 
Sil'ler-y,  (Charles  Doyne,)  a  poet,  born  at  Athlone, 

in  Ireland,  March  2,  1807,  studied  medicine  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  died  there.  May  16,  1836.  Among  his  works 
are  "Vallery,"  (1829,)  "Eldred  of  Erin,"  (1830,)  "The 
Exiles  of  Chamouni,"  (a  drama,  1834,)  etc. 

Sillery,  de,  (Nicolas  Bruslart — brii'ltR',)  Mar 
QUis,  an  able  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Champagn 
in  1544.  He  was  employed  in  foreign  missions  b^ 
Henry  IV.,  and  became  chancellor  of  France  in  1607 
Died  in  1624. 

See  BouTRAVS,  "  Breviariuni  Vita?  N.  Brulartii,"  1624;  Sully 
"  M^moires." 

Sillig,  sil'liG  or  ziKliG,  (Karl  Julius,)  a  German 


€  as  -t;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  K,gitttitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SILLIMAN 


2198 


SIMEON 


scholar,  born  at  Dresden  in  1801,  published  an  editioi 
of  the  "Natural  History"  of  Pliny,  (1851,)  and  a  valu 
able  "Catalogue  of  Greek  and  Roman  Artists,"  {"  Cata 
logus  Artificum  Graecorum  et  Romanorum,")  which 
has  been  translated  into  English.     Died  in  1857. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1S38. 

Sil'll-man,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  American  natu 
ralist  and  professor,  born  in  North  Stratford,  (now 
Trumbull,)  Connecticut,  on  the  8th  of  August,  1779. 
He  was  a  son  of  Gold  Selleck  Silliman,  a  general  who 
served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  He  entered  Yale 
College  in  1792,  graduated  in  1796,  and  was  appointed 
tutor  in  that  institution  in  1799.  About  1802,  Dr. 
Dwight  offered  him  a  chair  of  chemistry  in  Yale  Col- 
lege. To  prepare  himself  for  that  position,  he  studied 
chemistry  at  Philadelphia  for  two  years.  He  began  to 
lecture  to  the  students  of  Yale  College  in  1804,  and 
performed  a  voyage  to  Europe  about  the  end  of  1805. 
Having  returned,  after  an  absence  of  fourteen  months, 
he  resumed  the  chair  of  chemistry,  and  published  a 
"Journal  of  Travels  in  England,  Holland,  and  Scot- 
land," (2  vols.,  1810,)  which  was  a  very  interesting  and 
popular  book.  Soon  after  his  return  he  made  a  geo- 
logical survey  of  a  part  of  Connecticut.  In  1809  he 
married  Harriet,  a  daughter  of  Governor  Trumbull,  of 
Connecticut.  He  made  a  chemical  analysis  of  a  famous 
meteorite  which  fell  at  Weston,  Connecticut,  in  1807.  i 
In  1818  he  founded  "The  American  Journal  of  Science  [ 
and  Arts,"  usually  called-  "  Silliman's  Journal,"  which  i 
was  recognized  at  home  and  in  Europe  as  the  chief  j 
repository  of  American  science.  He  was  the  sole  \ 
editor  of  this  journal  for  twenty  years,  and  maintained 
it  at  his  own  pecuniary  risk. 

He  attained  great  eminence  as  a  lecturer  and  teacher 
of  science.  "The  professor's  chair,  in  the  laboratory 
or  the  lecture-room,  was  the  place  above  all  others  in 
which  his  enthusiasm,  his  sympathy  with  youthful  aspira- 
tions, his  varied  acquisitions,  and  his  graceful  utterance, 
exerted  their  highest  and  most  enduring  influence." 
("American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  May,  1865.) 
He  applied  the  blowpipe  to  the  fusion  of  a  variety  of 
bodies  which  were  before  regarded  as  infusible.  About 
1822  he  demonstrated  the  transfer  of  particles  of  carbon 
from  one  charcoal  point  to  the  other  in  the  galvanic 
battery.  He  published  a  text-book  on  chemistry  in  1830. 
Between  1835  and  1850  he  delivered  popular  lectures 
on  chemistry  and  geology  in  Boston,  Lowell,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Saint  Louis,  and  New  Orleans,  He  was 
one  of  the  few  men  in  the  country  that  could  hold  a 
popular  audience  with  a  lecture  on  science.  In  1853  he 
resigned  his  professorship,  and  published  "  A  Visit  to 
Europe  in  1S51,"  (2  vols.,)  which  was  often  reprinted. 
He  felt  a  deep  interest  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  when 
Kansas  became  the  scene  of  conflict,  about  1857,  he 
came  out  with  all  his  youthful  ardour  as  the  opponent  of 
the  slave-power.  He  died  at  New  Haven  on  the  24lh 
of  November,  1864.  In  the  language  of  the  writer  already 
quoted  above,  "  he  was  a  man  of  vigorous  understanding 
and  sound  judgment,  led  on,  but  never  carried  away,  by 
an  enthusiastic  disposition,  glowing  and  constant.  .  ,  , 
Blending  with  and  ennobling  all  these  virtues  was  the 
childlike  simplicity  of  his  Christian  faith." 

See  "American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  May,  1865;  George 
P.  Fisher,  "Life  of  Benjamin  Silliman,"  2  vols.,  1866;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1832. 

Silliman,  (Benjamin,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  New  Haven  in  1816,  and  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1837.  He  was  employed  as  teacher  of  chemistry 
in  that  college  for  a  number  of  years,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  applied  to  the  arts  in  1846,  About 
1838  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "American  Jour- 
nal of  Science  and  Arts,"  of  which  he  and  Professor 
J.  D.  Dana  are  now  the  chief  editors.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  of  general  and  applied  chemistry  in 
Yale  College  in  1854.  He  published  "  First  Princi- 
ples of  Chemistry,"  (1846,)  and  "Principles  of  Physics," 
(1858.)     Died  at  New  Haven,  January  14,  1885. 

Sil'lo-'way,  (Thomas  William,)  an  American  clergy- 
man, author,  and  architect,  born  at  Newburyport,  Mas- 
sachusetts, August  7,  1828.  In  185 1  he  became  an 
architect  in  Boston,  and  in  1862  he  was  ordained  as  a 
Uniyersalist  preacher.     He  won  special  distinction  as  a 


church  architect.  Me  published  "Theognis,"  (1856,) 
"Warming  and  Ventilation,"  (i860,)  and  various  service- 
books,  etc.  With  L.  L.  Powers,  he  wrote  "  Cathedral 
Towers  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,"  (1883.) 

Silly,  de,  deh  se'ye',  (Jacques  Joseph  Vipart — 
vc'pSr',)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  in  Normandy 
in  1671.  He  was  a  friend  of  Madame  de  Stael,  Died 
in  1727. 

SUva,  sfel'vS',  (Jean  Bapttste,)  a  French  phy.sician, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1682.  He  practised  in  Paris,  and 
received  the  title  of  consulting  physician  to  Louis  XV. 
in  1724.     Died  in  1742. 

Silva  y  Figiieroa.     See  Figueroa,  de. 

Silvani,  sil-va'nee,  (Gherardo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Florence  in  1579.  He  built,  besides  other 
edifices  in  his  native  city,  the  magnificent  Palazzo  Maru- 
celli  and  the  Palazzo  Ricardi.  His  design  for  the  fa9ada 
of  the  cathedral  of  Florence  was  adopted  and  executed. 
Died  in  J675. 

Sil-va'iius  or  Syl-va'nus,  [Fr.  Sylvain,  s^I'v^n',] 
[from  silva  or  sylva,  a  "wood"  or  "grove,"]  a  rural  deity 
in  Roman  mythology,  was  the  guardian  of  groves,  fields, 
and  cattle.  He  was  supposed  to  be  the  protector  of  the 
boundaries  of  fields  or  farms.  By  some  mythographers 
he  was  identified  with  Faunus  and  with  Pan. 

Sil-ve'ri-us  or  Sylverius,  [Fr.  Silv^re,  s4FvaiR',J 
a  native  of  Frosinone,  near  Rome,  became  pope  in  536 
A.D.  He  was  a  son  of  Pope  Hormisdas.  In  537  he  was 
banished  to  Lycia  by  Belisarius,  who  chose  Vigilius  as 
his  successor.     Died  in  538. 

Silvester,  Pope.     See  Sylvester. 

Silvestre,  sfel-vgs'tRi,  (Gregorio,)  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1520,  was  the  author  of  numerous  poems  published 
in  1592,  under  the  title  of  "Obras  poeticas."     Died  in 

1570. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Silvestre,  s^l'v&stR',  (Israel,)  a  French  designer  ana 
engraver,  born  at  Nancy  in  1621,  He  worked  in  Paris, 
and  received  the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king  in  1662, 
He  engraved  views  of  French  and  Italian  scenery.  Died 
in  1691. 

Silvestre,  de,  deh  s^l'vSstR',  (Augustin  Fran(;ois,) 
Baron,  a  French  savant  and  rural  economist,  born  in 
1762,  was  descended  from  the  preceding.  He  was  chief 
of  the  bureau  of  agriculture  during  the  first  empire.  He 
contributed  to  several  scientific  journals,  and  wrote 
biographies  of  many  French  savants.     Died  in  185 1. 

See  Bouchard,  "Notice  sur  Baron  de  Silvestre,"  1852:  Qu^rard, 
"La  France  Litt^raire." 

Silvestre,  de,  (Louis,)  a  painter,  born  in  Paris  in 
1675,  was  a  son  of  Israel  Silvestre,  noticed  above.  He 
was  patronized  by  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  and  be- 
came director  of  the  Academy  of  Dresden,  Died  in 
1760.  His  nephew,  Nicolas  Charles,  (1698-1767,) 
was  a  painter  and  engraver, 

Silvestre  de  Sacy.     See  Sacy,  de. 

Silvia,     See  Rhea  Silvia. 

Simart,  se'mtR',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Troyes  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Pradier.  He 
gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1833,  He  was  em- 
ployed by  the  government  to  execute  statues  and  bas- 
reliefs  for  the  Louvre  and  other  public  buildings.  Among 
his  works  is  an  imitation  of  Phidias'  statue  of  Pallas 
Athene,  composed  of  gold  and  ivory.     Died  in  1857, 

See  C.  Leveque,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Simart,"  1857 ;  G.  Ey- 
Rifes,  "  Simart  Staiuaire,"  i860;  Halkvv,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  etles 
Ouvrages  de  Simart,"  1S61. 

Sim'e-on,  [Heb.  pJ/OEy,]  the  second  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah,  received  his  father's  curse  on  account  of  his  share 
in  the  treacherous  murder  of  the  Shechemites. 

See  Genesis  xxxiv. 

Sim'e-on  of  Durham,  an  English  chronicler  of  the 
eleventh  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Kings  of  England  from  616  to  1130." 

Simeon  of  Polotzk,  a  Russian  poet  and  monk  born 
at  Polotzk  in  1628.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  Feodor, 
who  became  Czar  of  Russia  in  1676.  He  wrote  dramas 
and  religious  treatises.     Died  in  1680. 

Sim'e-on  surnamed  Styli'tes,  [Gr.  Svutww/f  6  SmXi- 
TTiQ ;  Fr.  Simeon  Stylite,  se'mi'iN'  ste'lit',]  an  ascetic 
or  fanatic,  born  near  the  boundary  of  Syria  and  Cilicia 
about  390  A.D,  He  acquired  a  sort  of  celebrity  by  stand- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  Ti,  y,  s/ioi'l;  a,  e,  j,  q,  olscttrg;  Llr,  fill,  fit;  m^i;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SIMEON 


2199 


SIMON 


ing  or  living  for  naany  years  on  the  top  of  a  pillar,  and 
attracted  crowds  of  spectators,  who  came  from  a  great 
distance,  and  to  whom  he  preached.  He  was  venerated 
as  a  saint.     Died  about  460. 

See  Lautensach,  "  De  Sinieone  Stylita,"  1700;  Uhlemann, 
"Simeon  der  erste  Siiuleiiheilige  in  Syrien,"  1846;  Kkebs,  "Disser- 
tatio  de  Stylitis,"  1753. 

Sim'e-on,  (Rev.  Charles,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Reading  in  1759,  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Cambridge.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  theo- 
logical and  devotional  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  earnest  piety  and  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  religion,  and  gave  large  sums  to  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews,  and  other 
similar  associations.     Died  in  1836. 

See  W.  Carus,  "  Life  of  Charles  Simeon,"  1847  ;  Rev.  Erskink 
Neale,  "  Christianity  and  Infidelity  Contrasted  ;"  "  North  British 
Review"  for  August,  1847. 

Simeon,  se'mi'Aw',  (Joseph  Balthasar,)  Comte,  a 
French  politician,  born  at  Aix  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  the 
following.  He  was  prefect  of  several  departments  be- 
tween 1815  and  1824,  and  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers 
in  1835.     Died  in  1846. 

Simeon,  (Joseph  J6r6me,)  Count,  a  French  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Aix  in  1749.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  state  in  1804,  and  minister  of  the 
interior  in  Westphalia  in  1807.  He  was  French  minister 
of  the-interior  from  February,  1820,  to  December,  1821. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  MiGNET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte 
Simdon,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sim'e-on  Met-a-phras'tes,  a  theologian,  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Lives  of  the  Saints."     Died  in  976. 

Sim'e-on  Se'thus  or  Simeon  Seth,  a  learned 
Greek  writer  of  the  eleventh  century,  was  a  resident 
of  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise 
on  edible  things  and  their  properties,  which  has  been 
translated  into  Latin  under  the  title  of  "  Syntagma 
de  Cibariorum  Facultate."  He  translated  into  Greek 
the  Arabic  Fables  of  Pilpay ;  and  the  translation  of  a 
fabulous  history  of  Alexander  the  Great,  from  the  Per- 
sian, is  also  ascribed  to  him. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Simeoni,  se-mi-o'nee,  (Gabriello,)  an  Italian  writer 
on  various  subjects,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1509.  He 
led  a  wandering  life.  Among  his  works  is  "Devices 
and  Emblems,"  ("Devises  et  Emblemes,"  in  French, 
1559.)     Died  in  1575. 

Simeoni,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Pagliano,  July  23,  1816.  For  many  years  his 
learning  and  wisdom  found  him  varied  employment  in 
the  papal  court  and  on  different  nunciatures.  In  1875 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Chalcedonia  and  nuncio  to 
Madrid,  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  created  a  cardinal- 
priest.  He  was  papal  secretary  of  state,  1876-78,  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  chosen  prefect-general  of  the 
Propaganda. 

Simiane,  de,  deh  se'me'tn',  (Pauline  d'Adhetnar 
de  Monteil  de  Grignan — dt'di'mtR'  deh  miN'til' 
deh  gKin'3'6N',)  Marquise,  a  French  lady,  born  in  Paris 
in  1674,  was  a  granddaughter  of  Madame  de  Sevigne. 
Died  in  1737.     Her  Letters  were  published  in  1773. 

Sim'ler,  (Josias,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister  and 
historian,  born  at  Cappel,  near  Zurich,  in  1530.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Zurich,  and  wrote,  besides 
treatises  on  theology,  a  "  History  of  the  Swiss  Republic," 
("De  HelvetioruniRepublica,"  1574.)  Died  in  1576. 
See  Stuck,  "Vita  J.  Simleri,"  1577;  Nic^ron,  "M6moires." 

Sim'nii-as,  [Si/z/^iaf,]  a  Greek  grammarian,  born  at 
Rhodes,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  Some 
fragments  of  his  poems  are  contained  in  the  "Anthologia 
Graeca."  Another  writer  of  this  name  was  the  author  of  a 
historical  work,  not  extant. 

Simmias  of  Thebes,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  a 
disciple  and  friend  of  Socrates,  at  whose  death  he  was 
present.  He  and  his  brother  Cebes  are  the  chief  speakers 
(besides  Socrates)  in  the  "  Phaedon"  of  Plato.  His 
works  are  not  extant. 

Sim'mons,  (Samuel  Foart,)  an  English  physician, 
oorn  in   Kent  in  1752,  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  took 


his  medical  degree  at  Leyden.  Having  settled  in  Lon- 
don, he  was  appointed  physician  of  Saint  Luke's  Hos- 
pital and  to  George  III.,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  published  several  medical  works. 
Died  in  1813. 

Simmi,  (William  Gilmore,)  an  American  novelist 
a. id  voluminous  writer,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1806.  He  published  a  number  of  poetical  pieces 
at  an  early  age,  and  brought  out  in  1833  his  "  Atalantis, 
a  Story  of  the  Sea,"  which  is  esteemed  his  finest  poem. 
Among  his  numerous  romances  may  be  named  "  Guy 
Rivers,"  (1834,)  "The  Yemassee,"  (1835,)  "The  Parti- 
san," (1835,)  "Mellichampe,"  (1836,)  "Pelayo,"  (1838,) 
"The  Wigwam  and  the  Cabin,"  and  "Katherine  Wal- 
ton," (1851.)  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  South  Caro- 
lina," (1840,)  a  "Life  of  Marion,"  (1844,)  and  other 
biographical  works,  and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
various  Reviews.     Died  in  June,  1870. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America ;"  Duvckinck, 
"Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors;"  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1846. 

Sim'nel,  (Lambert,)  an  English  impostor,  born  at 
Oxford  about  1472,  was  the  son  of  a  joiner  or  baker.  In 
i486  he  assumed  to  be  Edward  Plantagenet,  Earl  of 
Warwick,  a  nephew  of  Richard  HI.,  and  was  supported 
by  many  partisans  of  the  House  of  York.  The  army 
of  Simnel  was  defeated  by  the  royal  army  at  Stoke  in 
1487.  Simnel  was  taken  prisoner,  but  his  life  was 
spared. 

Simolin,  see'mo-leen',  (Johann  Mathias,)  an  emi- 
nent diplomatist,  born  at  Abo,  in  Finland,  was  employed 
by  the  Russian  empress  Catherine  on  important  mis- 
sions to  Austria,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  England.  Died 
in  1799. 

Simolin,  (Karl  Gustav.)  Baron,  a  Russian  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Abo  in  171 5.  He  was  ennobled  by 
Stanislas  Augustus,  King  of  Poland.     Died  in  1 777. 

Simon.     See  Peter,  Saint. 

Simon,  se'mdN',  (Bdouard  Thomas,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Troyes  in  X740  ;  died  in  1818. 

Simon,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
in  Paris  in  1654;  died  in  1719. 

Si'mon,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon  and  anatomist, 
born  in  "1810,  studied  at  King's  College,  became  in  1844 
a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  London,  and  was 
subsequently  appointed  medical  officer  to  the  general 
board  of  health.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Phys- 
iology of  the  Thymus  Gland,"  (1845,)  and  "Lectures  on 
General  Pathology,"  (1850.)  The  former  obtained  the 
Astley  Cooper  prize. 

Simon,  (Jules,)  sometimes  called  Jules  Simon- 
SuissE,  a  French  philosopher  and  legislator,  born  at 
Lorient  in  1814.  He  was  chosen  in  1839  by  M.  Cousin 
to  supply  his  place  as  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
he  lectured  about  twelve  years.  In  1848  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Studies  on  the  Theodicea  of 
Plato  and  Aristotle,"  (1840,)  a  "History  of  the  School 
of  Alexandria,"  (2  vols.,  1844-45,)  and  "Natural  Re- 
ligion," (1856.)  In  1863  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
legislative  body  by  the  voters  of  Paris,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  He 
is  an  advanced  liberal  in  politics.  In  1869  he  was  re- 
elected to  the  legislative  body,  in  September,  1870,  be- 
came  minister  of  public  instruction  under  the  republic, 
and  in  1875  was  elected  senator  for  life  and  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.  In  1874  he  published  "Recol- 
lections of  the  Fourth  of  September." 

Simon,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  and  liberal  French 
theologian  and  critic,  born  at  Dieppe  in  May,  1638,  was 
a  man  of  profound  learning.  He  entered  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Oratory,  studied  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  College  of  Juilly. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Critical  History  of  the  Old 
Testament,"  (1678,)  which  was  condemned  as  unsound 
and  suppressed.  He  was  proscribed  by  Bossuet  as  a 
heretic,  and  was  expelled  from  the  Oratory.  He  was 
much  addicted  to  controversy,  and  was  very  tenacious 
of  his  opinions.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Critical  His- 
tory of  the  New  Testament,"  (1689.)  Died  at  Dieppe 
in  1 7 12. 


€as/&;  9asj;  ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin/y^/J.     (fi^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIMON 


SIMPSON 


Simon,  (Thomas,)  an  English  engraver  of  medals, 
born  about  1612.  He  was  employed  as  engraver  to 
the  Mint  during  the  Commonwealth.     Died  in  1665. 

Si'mon  Maccabae'us  (mak-ka-bee'us)  orMat'thes, 
[Fr.  Simon  Machab6e,  se'miN'  mt'shS'by,]  called 
also  Tha'si,  was  the  brother  of  Judas  Maccabjeus.  He 
succeeded  his  brother  Jonathan  in  143  B.C.  as  high- 
priest  and  ruler  of  the  Jews.  He  formed  an  alliance 
with  ©emetrius  Nicator,  of  Syria,  who  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  Jews.  Judea  was  invaded  in  139 
by  an  army  of  Antiochus  Sidetes,  which  Simon  defeated. 
He  was  assassinated  by  his  son-in-law  Ptolemaeus,  in 
135  B.C. 

Si'mon  Ma'gus,  [Fr.  Simon  le  Magicien,  se'mftN' 
leh  mi'zhe'se^N',]  a  magician  of  Samaria,  and  a  pre- 
tended converT  to  Christianity,  who  offered  money  to 
the  apostles  Peter  and  John  to  obtain  from  them  the 
power  of  conferring  the  Holy  Ghost.  For  this  he  was 
severely  rebuked  by  Peter. 

Simon  de  Montfort.    See  Montfort,  de. 

Simond,  se'mAw',  (Philibert,)  a  Jacobin,  born  in 
Savoy  in  1755,  was  a  member  of  the  French  Convention 
of  1792.  He  was  proscribed  as  a  friend  of  Danton,  and 
executed  in  April,  1794. 

Simonde  de  Sismondi    See  Sismondi. 

Simone  da  Pesaro.     See  Cantarini. 

Simonet,  se'mo'ni',  (Edmond,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Langres  in  1662  ;  died  in 

1773- 

Simonetta,  se-mo-net'ti,  (Bonifazio,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  about  1430.  He  wrote  "De  Persecu- 
tionibus  Christianas  Fidei  et  Romanorum  Pontificum," 
(1402.) 

Simonetta,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  politician,  an 
uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Calabria  in  1410. 
He  became  the  chief  adviser  or  minister  of  Galeazzo 
Maria  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan,  and  had  much  power 
during  the  minority  of  that  prince's  son.  He  was  be- 
headed, by  order  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  in  14S0. 

Simonetta,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historian,  a  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Calabria.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Francesco  Sforza,"  (1480.)  Died 
about  1491. 

Simonide.     See  Simonides. 

Si-mon'i-dei  [Gr.  St^/wvi'dT^f ;  Fr.  Simonide,  se'mo'- 
nWj  of  Amorous,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  Samos, 
flourished  about  690-665  B.C.  He  wrote  satires  in  the 
Iambic  metre.     His  satire  on  women  is  extant. 

See  K..  O.  Muller,  "History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece." 

Simonides  of  Ceos,  a  famous  Greek  lyric  poet, 
born  at  Julis,  in  the  island  of  Ceos,  about  556  B.C.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Athens  in  the  reign  of  Hipparchus, 
by  whom  he  was  patronized,  and  there  associated  with 
Anacreon.  After  the  death  of  Hipparchus  (about  514) 
he  retired  to  Thessaly.  He  returned  to  Athens  about 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  celebrated  the  victory 
of  Marathon  in  verse,  489  B.C.,  and  acquired  great  popu- 
larity. He  was  employed  by  the  Amphictyons  to  write 
inscriptions  for  the  tombs  of  those  who  fell  in  defence 
of  Greece  against  the  Persians.  For  those  who  fell  at 
Thermopylae  he  composed  an  inscription  which  may  be 
translated,  "  Stranger,  tell  the  Lacedaemonians  that  we 
lie  here  in  obedience  to  their  laws."  He  was  intimate 
with  Themistocles,  and  was  a  rival  of  Pindar.  His  lat- 
ter years  were  passed  at  the  court  of  Hieron  of  Syra- 
cuse, where  he  died  in  467  B.C.  His  works  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments.  He  excelled  in  epigram  and 
in  pathetic  poetry.  Many  witty  sayings  are  ascribed  to 
him.  He  was  victorious  over  .^schylus  in  a  contest  for 
the  prize  which  was  offered  for  the  best  elegy  on  those 
who  fell  at  Marathon.  He  was  greatly  distinguished 
for  his  moral  wisdom  and  moderation. 

See  Boi.ssv,_ "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Simonide,"  1753:  Schnei- 
DHWiM,_"De  Vita  et  Carminibus  Simonidis  Cei,"  1835;  Ducker, 
"De  Simonide,"  1768;  F.  W.  Richter,  "Simonides  der  Aeltere 
von  Keos  nach  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1836:  K.  O.  Muller,  "  History 
of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Giui- 
ra!e;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1830. 

Simonin,  si'mo'nSN',  (Louis  Laurent,)  a  French 
engineer   and   author,   born   at   Marseilles,    August  22, 


1830.  He  became  a  mining  expert,  and  in  1865  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  geology  to  the  ficole  centrale  d'Archi- 
tecture.  He  often  visited  the  United  States,  and  became 
a  prominent  advocate  of  American  ideas  in  politics. 
Among  his  works  are  "  L'Etrurie  et  les  Etrusques," 
"  Le  Grand-Ouest  des  £tats-Unis,"  "  L'Homme  ameri- 
cain,"  "A  travers  les  Etats-Unis,"  "  Le  Monde  ameri- 
cain,"  etc.     Died  in  1886. 

Simonneau,  se'mo'no',  (Charles,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Orleans  in  1645.  He  engraved  the  works 
of  several  P"rench  masters.     Died  in  1728. 

Simonneau,  (Louis,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Orleans 
in  1654,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1727. 

Simor,  see'mor,  (John,  or  JAnos,)  a  Hungarian  car- 
dinal, born  at  Stuhlweissenburg,  August  23,  1813,  was 
raised  to  a  bishopric  in  1857,  and  in  1867  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Gran,  Primate  of  Hungary,  and  intimate  coun- 
cillor of  the  kingdom.  In  1873  ^^  was  created  a  cardinal- 
priest.    Died  January  23,  1891. 

Simplicius,  sim-plish'e-us,  (2tjU7rA«/cwf,)  a  Neo-Pla- 
tonic  philosopher  and  commentator  on  Aristotle,  was 
born  in  Cilicia.  He  was  persecuted  as  a  pagan  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  who  closed  the  school  at  Athens  in  529  a.d. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle's  "  Categories," 
"De  Coelo,"  and  "  De  Anima"  and  "  Physica  Ausculta- 
tio."  These  are  esteemed  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
Greek  commentaries  on  Aristotle  that  are  extant. 

See  Hoffmann,  "  Bibliographiciim  Lexicon;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie G^n^rale;"  Buhle,  "  Dissertatio  de  Simplicii  Vita,"  etc., 
1816. 

Simplicius,  sim-plish'e-us,  an  Italian  prelate,  born  at 
Tivoli,  (Tibur,)  became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  467  A.D.  Died 
in  483. 

Simp'son,  (Christopher,)  an  English  composer, 
born  about  1610  ;  died  about  1668. 

Simpson,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer  on  chro- 
nology and  theology,  born  at  Tottenham  in  1578.  He 
became  rector  of  Eastling,  Kent.  Among  his  works  is 
"Universal  Chronology,"  ("Chronicon  CathoHcum," 
1652.)     Died  in  1651. 

Simpson,  (Sir  James,)  a  British  general,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1792.  He  served  against  the  French  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812  and  1815,  and  subsequently 
under  Sir  Charles  Napier  in  India.  In  1855  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Raglan  as  commander  of  the  British  forces 
in  the  Criinea.  He  received  from  Napoleon  III.  the 
grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour.     Died  in  1868. 

Simp'son,  (Sir  James  Young,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  i8n,  graduated  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1832.  He  became  professor  of  midwifery  in 
the  university  of  that  citv  in  1840,  and  was  the  first  who 
employed  anaesthetics  in  obstetric  practice,  (1847.)  In 
1856  he  received  from  the  French  .\cademy  of  Sciences 
the  Monthyon  prize  of  two  thousand  francs.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
Edinburgh,  and  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy of  Medicine  and  of  other  similar  institutions.  He 
was  author  of  "  Contributions  to  Obstetric  Pathology," 
"  Essays  on  Anaesthesia,"  and  other  medical  works. 
Died  in  1870. 

Simpson,  (Jane  Cross,)  a  Scottish  poet,  a  sister  of 
Henry  Glasford  Bell,  was  born  in  Glasgow  in  181 1. 
She  married  in  1837.  Among  her  books  are  "  Piety  of 
Daily  Life,"  (1836,)  "April  Hours,"  (1838,)  "Woman's 
History,"  (1848,)  and  "Linda,"  (1859.)  She  also  wrote 
some  favourite  hymns. 

Simpson,  (John  Palgrave,)  an  English  author, 
born  in  Norfolk  about  1805.  He  was  educated  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge.  Among  his  works  are 
many  plays  and  novels,  including  "  Second  Love,"  (a 
tale  and  a  drama,  1846,)  "Gisella,"  (1847,)  and  "The 
Lily  of  Paris,"  (1848.)  He  also  published  "Letters 
from  the  Danube,"  (1847,)  a  "Life  of  Karl  Maria  von 
Weber,"  (1865,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1887. 

Simp'son,  (Matthew.)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Cadiz,  Ohio,  June  21, 
i8ia  While  he  was  still  an  infant,  his  father  died,  and 
the  care  of  his  education  devolved  upon  his  mother. 
In  addition  to  the  ordinary  English  branches,  he  began 
the  Study  of  German  when  he  was  eight  years  of  age 
and  the  following  year  read  the  Bible  through  in  the 
German  language.    He  afterwards  studied  Latin,  Greek, 


,  e.  I.  o,  u,  y,  Iohjt;  i,  k,  6,  iSaine,  less  |)rolonj;ed;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  sAort:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fAt;  nigt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SIMPSON 


SINNAMUS 


and  Hebrew.  lie  graduated  as  a  physician  in  1833. 
He  had  joined  the  Church  in  1829,  and  in  1839  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Indiana  Asbury  University, 
(Methodist,)  and  did  much  to  promote  the  usefulness 
and  success  of  that  institution.  In  1848  he  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  "  The  Western  Christian  Advocate." 
He  was  elected  bishop  in  1852.  He  took  a  deep  in- 
terest in  the  national  cause  during  the  war  of  the  rebel- 
lion, and  by  his  zeal  and  eloquence  contributed  much  to 
strengthen  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  to  uphold 
the  hands  of  the  government  during  that  great  crisis  in 
our  country's  history.  Bishop  Simpson  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  President  Lincoln.     Died  June  18,  1884. 

Simpson,  (Thomas,)  an  able  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Market-Bosworth  in  17 10.  He  learned  the  trade 
of  a  weaver,  and  practised  astrology  or  fortune-telling 
in  his  early  life.  About  1736  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  became  a  teacher  of  mathematics.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  New  Treatise  on  Fluxions,"  (1737,)  and  seve- 
ral works  on  mathematics.  In  1743  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich.     Died  in  1761. 

See  HuTTON,  "Mathematical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gen^rale." 

Simrock,  sim'rok  or  zim'rok,  (Kaki,,)  a  distinguished 
German  poet  and  translator,  bovn  at  Bonn  in  1802.  He 
published  in  1827  a  translation  of  the  "  Nibelungenlied," 
and  in  1831  a  work  entitled  "Sources  of  Shakspeare's 
Plots  in  Novels,  Tales,  and  Legends,"  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Echtermeyer  and  Henschel.  He  also  trans- 
lated "Twenty  Songs  of  the  Nibelungen,"  (1840,)  pro- 
nounced genuine  by  Lachmann,  and  several  other  Ger- 
man poems  of  the  middle  ages.  Among  his  principal 
original  works  are  his  poem  of  "  Wieland  the  Smith," 
"  Legends  of  the  Rhine,  from  the  Mouths  of  the  People 
and  the  German  Poets,"  (1850,)  and  "Manual  of  Ger- 
man Mythology."  He  became  professor  of  the  German 
language  and  literature  at  Bonn  in  1850.     Died  in  1876. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe. " 

Sims,  (Charles  N.,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  cler- 
gyman and  educator,  born  in  Union  county,  Indiana, 
May  18,  1835.  He  graduated  at  Indiana  Asbury  Uni- 
versity in  1859,  and  entered  the  Methodist  ministry.  In 
1881  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  Syracuse  University, 
(New  York.)  He  published  a  "Life  of  T.  M.  Eddy," 
etc. 

Sims,  (George  Robert,)  an  English  humourist,  born 
in  London,  September  2,  1847.  He  was  educated  at 
Bonn,  and  became  a  journalist.  He  published  "  Dagonet 
Ballads,"  and  many  plays,  including  "The  Lights  o' 
London,"  (1882,)  "Romany  Rye,"  "The  Merry  Duch- 
ess," a  comic  opera,  etc. 

Sims,  (James,)  an  English  physician  and  botanist, 
born  at  Canterbury.  He  published  "  Observations  on 
Epidemic  Disorders,"  (1773,)  "Principles  and  Practic, 
of  Midwifery,"  and  other  medical  works.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Linnaean  Society.     Died  in  1831. 

Sims,  (James  Marion,)  a  distinguished  American 
surgeon,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1813.  He  removed 
in  1853  *o  New  York,  where  he  was  instrumental  in 
founding  a  hospital  for  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of 
women.     Died  November  13,  1883. 

Simson,  sim'son  or  zim'son,  (Martin  Eduard,)  a 
German  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  KoiTigsberg  in  1810. 
He  studied  at  Bonn  under  Niebuhr,  and  in  1836  became 
professor  of  law  at  Konigsberg.  In  1848  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  National  Assembly  at  Frankfort. 

Sim'spn,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Kirton  Hall,  Ayrshire,  in  1687.  He 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  17 11,  and  continued  to  fill  that  chair  about 
fifty  years.  He  produced  an  edition  of  Euclid's  "  Ele- 
ments," which  was  highly  esteemed,  and  made  some 
discoveries  in  relation  to  the  porisms  of  the  ancients 
Died  in  1768. 

See  William  Trail,  "  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  R. 
Simson,"  1812;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Sina,  Ibn.     See  Avicenna. 

Sinan,  se-nin',  (Scipione  Cicale,)  an  Italian  rene- 


gade, born  about  15 15.  He  became  a  Turkish  general 
and  grand  vizier.     Died  in  1595. 

Sin'clair,  (Catherine,)  a  daughter  of  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair, noticed  below,  was  born  in  1800.  She  published 
numerous  tales  and  novels,  which  have  had  an  extensive 
circulation  :  among  these  we  may  name  "  Modern  Soci- 
ety," "Beatrice,"  "Business  of  Life,"  and  "James  Bou- 
verie."  She  also  wrote  several  books  for  children,  the 
"Kaleidoscope  of  Anecdotes  and  Aphorisms,"  "  Shet- 
land and  the  Shetlanders,"  etc.     Died  in  1864. 

Sinclair,  sin'klair,  ?  (Charles  Gideon,)  Baron,  a 
Swedish  general  and  military  writer,  born  about  1730. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  many  campaigns  in  France, 
Prussia,  and  Saxony.     Died  in  1803. 

Sinclair,  (Sir  John,)  a  Scottish  statesman  and  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  the  county  of  Caithness  in  1754. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  Oxford,  and  in  1780  rep- 
resented his  native  county  in  Parliament,  being  several 
times  re-elected.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his  efforts  to 
promote  internal  improvements  in  his  country,  originated 
the  board  of  agriculture,  of  which  he  became  first  presi- 
dent, and  founded  a  society  for  the  improvement  of  wool. 
Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  treatises,  which  em- 
brace a  great  variety  of  subjects,  may  be  named  his 
"  History  of  the  Revenue  of  Great  Britain,"  "  Considera- 
tions on  Militias  and  Standing  Armies,"  "  Essays  on 
Agriculture,"  and  "Statistical  Account  of  .Scotland." 
The  last-named  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  Died 
in  1835. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Memoir  of  Sir  John  Sinclair,"  by  his  son,  1837  :  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  April,  1803;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1837; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1808,  and  September,  1814. 

Sin'clare  or  Sinclair,  (George,)  a  Scottish  mathe- 
matician and  philosopher,  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Glasgow.  He  published  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  a  work  entitled  "  Satan's  Invisible  World  dis- 
covered."    Died  in  1696. 

Sin'dl-a  or  Sgin'di-ah,  (D5w'lut  R5w,)  a  Mah 
ratta  chief^  born  about  1780,  was  a  grand-nephew  of 
Madajee,  noticed  below,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1794. 
He  was  involved  in  war  against  the  British,  who,  under 
Sir  A.  Wellesley,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  him  at 
Assaye  in  1803.  His  army  was  defeated  in  several 
battles  in  the  same  year,  and  he  was  forced  to  cede  a 
large  part  of  his  territories.     Died  in  1827. 

Sin'di-a,  or  Sind'hj-a,  the  family  name  of  a  line 
of  Mahratta  princes,  of  which  the  head  is  the  Mahirajah 
Sindia,  the  chief  of  the  Gwalior  state,  now  feudatory  to 
British  India.  The  founder  of  the  family  was  Ranojee 
Sindia,  a  Mahratta  of  a  low  Soodra  caste,  who  was  a 
menial  servant  (keeper  of  the  slippers)  to  the  Peishwa, 
a  native  ruler.  Sindia  became  a  court  favourite,  and  rose 
to  command  the  army.  In  1743  he  was  made  hereditary 
ruler  of  extensive  territories.  In  1782  his  son  Madajee 
was  recognized  as  a  sovereign  ruler  and  mahSrajah.  In 
recent  years  the  Sindia  family  has  been  conspicuous  for 
its  loyalty  to  British  interests. 

Sindia,  (Madajee  or  Madhajee,  mi-d^'jee,)  a  cele- 
brated Mahratta  chief,  born  in  Hindostan  about  1741. 
He  was  a  warlike  and  energetic  prince,  made  extensive 
conquests,  and  became  master  of  Delhi.  His  dominions 
extended  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Nerbudda.  Died  in 
1794. 

Singh,  (Runjeet.)     See  Runjeet  Singh. 

Sin'gle-ton,  (Henrv,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  in  1766.  He  produced  both  historical  pictures 
and  portraits ;  among  his  master-pieces  are  a  series  of 
illustrations  from  Shakspeare,  "Christ  Healing  the 
Blind,"  "  Coriolanus  and  his  Mother,"  and  "  The  Storm- 
ing of  Seringaj^atam."     Died  in  1839. 

Singlin,  siN'gldN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  in  Paris,  was  confessor  to  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal. 
He  preached  with  much  unction.  It  is  stated  that  Pascal 
had  so  high  an  opinion  of  the  solidity  of  his  judgment 
that  he  read  all  his  works  to  Singlin  before  he  published 
them.     Died  in  1664. 

See  GoujET,  "Vie  de  Singlin,"  prefixed  to  Singlin's  "Instruc- 
tions chr^tiennes,"  12  vols.,  1736. 

Sinnamus.     See  Cinnamus. 


€  as  /i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/.-  g,  h,  Viygtittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (gi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SINNER 


SISTO 


Sinner,  sii/ner  or  zin'ner,  [Fr.  pron.  se'iiaiii',]  (Jo- 
HANN  Rudolf,)  a  Swiss  philologist,  born  at  Berne  in 
1730  ;  died  in  1787. 

Sinner,  de,  deh  se'naiR',  (R.  G.  Louis,)  a  Swiss  Hel- 
lenist, born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1801.  He  published 
good  editions  of  Aristophanes,  Plato,  Euripides,  Sopho- 
cles, and  Xenophon,  (1829-47.)     Died  April  16,  i860. 

Si'non,  [Gr.  St'vwv,]  a  semi-fabulous  or  fictitious  per- 
son, who,  according  to  Homer  and  Virgil,  acted  an  in- 
sidious part  in  the  siege  of  Troy.  They  relate  that  he 
presented  himself  to  the  Trojans  as  a  deserter  from  the 
Greek  army,  affirming  that  the  Greeks  had  abandoned 
the  siege,  and  that  he  ran  away  because  they  were  about 
to  offer  him  as  a  sacrifice.  By  his  artful  tale  and  well- 
feigned  passion  he  imposed  on  the  credulous  Trojans, 
and  persuaded  them  to  introduce  the  wooden  horse  into 
Troy. 

Sintenis,  sin'teh-nis  or  zin't^h-nis,  (Christian 
Friedrich,)  a  German  theologian  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1750.  His  voluminous  works 
comprise  sermons,  educational  treatises,  and  moral  and 
religious  romances.     Died  in  1820. 

Sintenis,  (Karl  Friedrich  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
jurist,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Zerbst 
in  1804.     Died  at  Dessau,  August  2,  1S68. 

Siofn,  se-ofn',  written  also  Se-o'na,  [etymology 
doubtful,]  a  goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  whose 
office  it  is  to  inspire  the  passion  of  love.  She  may  be 
said  to  be  a  sort  of  female  Cupid.  From  her  name  a 
lover  is  called  Siajni. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Mallet,  "  North- 
ern Anticiiiities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XVI II. 

Sionita,  (Gabriel.)     See  Gabriel. 

Sirani,  se-rS'nee,  (Elisabetta,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1638,  was  a  daughter  of 
Giovanni  Andrea,  noticed  below.  She  imitated  the 
second  manner  of  Guido  with  success,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation.     Died  in  1665. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  C.  Bonafede, 
"Elisabetta  SIrani  Azione  storico-drammatica,"  1856. 

Sirani,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  16 10,  was  a  successful  imitator  of  the  style 
of  Guido.     Died  in  1670. 

Si'reni,  singular  Si'ren,  [Gr.  S«p77'£f,  (singular 
2«p^v,-)  Lat.  Sire'nes  or  Seire'nes;  Fr.  Sir^nes, 
se'rin',]  mythical  beings,  who  were  supposed  to  have 
the  power  of  enchanting  all  who  heard  them  sing.  Ac- 
cording to  Homer  and  other  poets,  they  lived  in  an 
island  near  the  coast  of  Italy,  where  they  sat  in  a  meadow 
near  the  shore  and  allured  those  who  were  sailing  past 
the  island  ;  and  whoever  listened  to  their  song  forgot 
his  home  and  remained  with  the  Sirens  until  he  perished 
or  became  brutalized. 

Siret,  se'ri',  (Adolphe,)  a  Belgian  littSrateur,  born 
at  Beaumont,  in  Hainault,  about  1805.  He  published, 
besides  several  poems  and  dramas,  a  "  Historical  Dic- 
tionary of  Painters  of  all  Schools,"  (1848.) 

Siret,  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian,  bom 
at  fivreux  in  1745,  published  good  works  on  English 
and  Italian  grammar  for  French  students.  Died  in 
1797. 

Siret,  (Pierre  Hubert,)  a  French  preacher,  born  at 
Rheims  in  1754;  died  in  1834. 

Sirey,  se'rk',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  jurist,  bom 
at  Sarlat  (Perigord)  in  1762,  published  several  legal 
works.     Died  in  1845. 

Siri,  see'ree,  (Vittorio,)  an  Italian  monk  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Parma  about  1615,  was  patronized  by 
Louis  XIV.  of  France,  who  made  him  his  almoner  and 
historiographer.  He  conducted  for  many  years  a  jour- 
nal entitled  "Mercurio  Politico,"  (15  vols.,)  which  treats 
of  events  that  occurred  from  1635  to  1655.  He  also 
published  "Secret  Memoirs,"  ("Memorie  recondite,") 
a  journal  in  8  vols.     Died  in  1685. 

Siricius,  se-rish'e-us,  [Fr.  Sirice,  se'riss',]  born  at 
Rome  about  324  a.d.,  was  elected  Pope  or  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  384.  He  issued  decrees  against  the  Mani- 
cheans,  Donatists,  and  other  heretics.     Died  in  398. 

Siries,  see're-ls',  (Violante  Beatrice,)  an  Italian 
portrait-painter,  born  in  1710;  died  about  1760. 


Sirleto,  sia-la'to,  [Lat.  Sirle'tus;  Fr.  Sirlet,  s4r'- 
1^',]  (Guglielmo,)  a  learned  Italian  cardinal,  born  in 
Calabria  in  15 14.  He  became  keeper  of  the  library  of 
the  Vatican  in  1549.  He  acted  as  intermediary  between 
the  pope  and  the  Council  of  Trent  about  1560.  Died 
in  1585. 

Sirletus.     See  Siri.eto. 

Sirmond,  s^R'miN',  [Lat.  Sirmond'us,]  (Jacques,) 
a  learned  French  Jesuit  and  antiquary,  born  at  Riom  in 
1559,  was  for  a  time  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Paris.  He 
subsequently  examined  the  archives  of  the  convents, 
where  he  obtained  many  valuable  manuscripts.  Among 
these  he  published  editions  of  Apollinaris  Sidonius,  the 
"Chronicles"  of  Idatius  and  Marcellinus,  the  "Opus- 
cules" of  Geoffroi,  Abbe  de  Vendome,  and  other  writers 
of  the  middle  ages.  Sirmond  was  appointed  in  1637 
confessor  to  Louis  XIII.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  165 1. 

See  Briet,  "  Eulogium  J.  Sirmondi, "  1653;  Coi.oMifes,  "Vie  du 
Pire  Sirmond,"  1671  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Sirmond,  (Jean,)  a  writer,  born  at  Riom  about  1589, 
was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  F'rench  Academy,  and  received  a  pension  from  Riche- 
lieu.    Died  in  1649. 

See  MoRKRi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sis'e-but  [Lat.  Sisebu'tus]  was  elected  King  of  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain  in  612  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  pro- 
fessor of  the  Christian  religion,  and  was  an  able  ruler. 
Died  in  620  a.d. 

Si-sen'na,  (Lucius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  annalist, 
born  about  118  B.C.  He  was  praetor  about  78  B.C.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  Roman  history,  entitled  "  Historiae," 
which  was  praised  by  Cicero,  ("Brutus"  and  "De  Legi 
bus.") 

See  Karl  L.  Roth,  "  L.  C   Sisenns  Vita,"  1834. 

Sisifo.     See  Sisyphus. 

Si-sin'ni-us,  a  native  of  Syria,  became  pope  at  the 
death  of  John  VII.,  in  708.     He  died  in  the  next  month. 

Sismondi,  sis-mon'dee,  [It.  pron.  s^s-mon'dee,]  de, 
[Fr.  pron.  deh  sis'm^N'de',]  (Jean  Charles  Leonard 
Simonde,)  an  eminent  Swiss  historian  and  publicist,  of 
Tuscan  extraction,  was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  9th  of 
May,  1773.  He  was  educated  in  the  College  of  Geneva, 
and  became  a  clerk  in  the  counting-house  of  a  merchant 
or  banker  in  Lyons.  In  consequence  of  the  civil  war,  he 
left  this  position  in  1792  and  visited  England,  the  lan- 
guage and  institutions  of  which  he  appears  to  have 
studied  with  much  attention.  In  1795  he  removed  with 
his  father  to  Val  Chiusa,  Tuscany,  where  he  was  employed 
as  a  farmer  for  five  years.  He  returned  to  Geneva  in 
1800,  and  published  a  work  "On  Commercial  Riches," 
(2  vols.,  1803,)  in  which  he  advocated  the  doctrines  of 
Adam  Smith.  Soon  after  this  event  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Madame  de  Stael,  with  whom  he  travelled  ._ 
Italy  and  Germany,  (1804-08.)  By  the  advice  of  his 
mother,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  history. 
In  1807  he  published  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  an 
important  work,  "The  History  of  the  Italian  Repub- 
lics," which  was  received  with  favour.  The  sixteenth 
and  last  volume  appeared  in  1818.  "Sismondi,"  says 
Mignet,  "has  traced  this  history  with  vast  learning,  a 
noble  spirit,  a  vigorous  talent,  sufficient  art,  and  much 
eloquence."  He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  "  Bio- 
graphic Universelle"  of  Michaud.  In  1819  he  married 
Miss  Allen,  an  English  lady  and  a  sister-in-law  of  Sir 
James  Mackintosh.  About  this  time  Guizot  offered  to 
him  a  professorship  in  the  College  of  France,  but  he 
declined  it.  He  expended  many  years  in  writing  his 
"  History  of  the  French,"  ("Histoire  des  Fran^ais,"  30 
vols.,  1821-44,)  which  some  critics  consider  his  best 
work.  Sismondi  was  a  Protestant  and  a  republican. 
His  moral  character  is  highly  commended.  He  died  at 
Geneva  in  1842,  leaving  no  children. 

See  "Vie  de  Sismondi,"  Paris,  1845;  Lom^ntk,  "Galerie  des 
Contemporains,"  toine  vii.  ;  F.  A.  A.  IiIignet,  "Notice  historique 
sur  la  Vie  de  M.  de  Sismondi,"  1845;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdne- 
rale:" "Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1S12,  and  September,  1843; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  iSis;  "  Foreign  (Juarterly  Review" 
for  April,  iSjj 

Sisto,  the  Italian  of  Sixtus,  which  see. 

Sisto  Rosa.     See  Badaldcchio. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lonf^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  ^, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  gdod;  moor^; 


STSUPALA 


2203 


SIVA 


Sisupdla,  sis-00-pi'la,  in  Hindoo  legend,  a  king  of 
Chcdi,  ill  Central  India.  He  was  the  enemy  of  Krishna, 
who  slew  him. 

Sis'^-phus,  [Gr.  'Ziav<^oq ;  Fr.  SiSYPHK,  se'sfef ;  It. 
SisiFO,  see'se-fo,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Corinth,  was  called 
a  son  of  vEolus,  a  brother  of  Cretheus,  Athamas,  and 
Salmoneus,  and  the  husband  of  Merope.  He  was  ex- 
tremely crafty  and  deceitful.  The  poets  feigned  that 
when  Death  was  sent  to  take  him  he  outwitted  Death 
and  bound  him  in  fetters  ;  and  that  for  his  various  crimes 
he  was  doomed  in  the  infernal  regions  to  roll  up  hill  a 
large  stone,  which,  as  soon  as  it  reached  the  top,  rolled 
down  again.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  was  the 
fathei  of  Ulysses. 

Sita,  see'tS,  written  also  Seeta,  in  the  Hindoo  my- 
thology, the  name  of  the  beautiful  and  spotless  wife  of  the 
god  Rama.  As  Rama  was  an  avatar  of  Vishnu,  so  Sita 
is  regarded  as  an  avatar  of  Lakshmi.     (See  Rama.) 

Siun-  (or  Seuu-)  King,  se-uN  king,  a  Chinese  phi- 
losopher, regarded  by  many  as  the  ablest  of  all  the  fol- 
lowers of  Confucius,  flourished  from  about  270  to  220 
B.C.  He  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  doctrine  of  Mencins 
that  man  is  naturally  good.  He  maintained,  on  the 
contrary,  that  ''the  nature  of  man  is  evil  ;  that  the  good 
which  it  shows  is  factitious,  (or  artificial.")  He  supjiorts 
his  position  with  great  ingenuity  and  force  of  reasoning. 
He  says,  if  man's  nature  were  good,  men  would  not  need 
to  be  continually  taught  and  governed;  they  would  do 
right  spontaneously.  To  live  properly  and  virtuously 
requires  continual  self-denial  ;  but  why  deny  our  natural 
inclinations,  if  these  are  good  ?  "  A  straight  piece  of 
wood,"  he  says,  "  does  not  need  the  pressing-boards  to 
make  it  straight :  it  is  so  by  its  nature.  A  crooked 
piece  of  wood  must  be  submitted  to  the  pressing-boards 
to  soften  and  straighten  it,  because  it  is  not  straight  bv 
its  nature."  As  man  is  naturally  crooked  and  perverse, 
his  nature  needs  to  be  corrected  by  the  government  of 
wise  rulers  and  the  restraints  of  just  laws.  (See  Legge's 
"Chinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii.  page  2  and  pages  81-91.) 

Siva,  see'vi,  the  goddess  of  harvests  among  the 
Wends  and  some  other  northern  nations.  She  is  called 
in  the  Norse  mythology  SiF,  which  see. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  :79. 

Siv'a  or  Qiva,  commonly  pronounced  (in  English) 
and  sometimes  written  See'va,  spelled  also  Shiva,  [from 
the  Sanscrit  adjective  s/iivds,  shivci,  shivam,  "prosper- 
ous," "  happy,"]  the  usual  name  of  one  of  the  gods  of 
the  Hindoo  triad  ;  also  popularly  known  as  Mali4d§va, 
ma-h^'  da'va,  (generally  called  by  the  common  people 
of  India  Maiadeo,  ma-hd'  da'o,)  or  the  "great  god," 
Mah§sa  (ma-ha'sa)  is  another,  and  one  of  the  most 
common,  of  his  many  names.  He  may  be  said  to  repre- 
sent the  destructive  powers  of  nature  ;  and  since,  in  the 
present  order  of  things,  destruction  seems  necessary  to 
prepare  the  way  for  a  renewal  of  life,  he  is  also  believed 
to  preside  over  generation  or  rejiroduction.  In  this  lat- 
ter character  his  power  is  typified  by  the  phallic  emblem 
called  in  Sanscrit  the  Linga  (ling'ga)  or  Lingavi ;  which 
is  commonly,  if  not  invariably,  found  in  temples  or  places 
dedicated  to  his  worship.  Among  the  gods  of  classic 
mythology  the  character  of  Saturn,  or  Time,  (who  both 
produces  and  destroys,)  would,  in  its  leading  features, 
seem  most  to  resemble  that  of  Siva  ;  but  the  attributes 
and  offices  of  the  Hindoo  deity  are  so  multitudinous 
that  we  must  seek  his  counterpart,  not  in  one,  but  in 
several,  of  the  Western  divinities.  As  being  the  might- 
iest of  all  the  gods,  as  he  is  usually  regarded  at  least  by 
the  common  people,  and  as  his  name  Mahadeva  would 
appear  to  imply,  he  may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the 
Zeus  (or  Jupiter)  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  and,  if  we 
take  simply  the  radical  part  of  the  two  names,  Zeu  or 
Zev*  and  SitA  or  Skiv,]  the  resemblance  might  well 
seem  to  be  something  more  than  a  mere  accident.  Add 
to  this  that  Siva  is  represented  with  three  eyes,  (one  in 
the  middle  of  his  forehead,)  whence  he  was  surnamed 
in  Sanscrit  trJldchand,  (or  "  three-eyed,")  and  that  the 
Greek  trjophthalmos,  having  exactly  the  same  meaning. 


•  As  it  may  have  been  pronounced  by  the  ancients,  and  as  it  it 
pronounced  by  the  modern  Greeks. 

t  So  called  in  the  common  dialect  of  India. 


was  also  an  epithet  of  Zeus.J  It  is,  moreover,  expressly 
stated  by  Hindoo  authorities  that  Siva  had  a  thousand 
separate  names.  Zeus  also  had  a  multitude  of  names: 
in  the  noble  hymn  to  Jupiter  by  Cleanthes  the  god  is 
addressed  as  nokvuvviie,  "thou  many-named."  (See, 
on  this  subject,  .Sir  William  Jones's  article  "  On  the 
Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  in  vol.  i.  of  "  Asiatic 
Researches.") 

In  India,  a  country  where  the  vegetation  is  so  often 
destroyed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  it  would  be  natural  to 
associate  not  only  fire  or  heat,  but  the  sun  itself,  with 
the  destroying  power.  Accordingly,  not  only  fire§  in 
general,  but  the  sun  in  particular,  is  considered  to  be 
one  of  the  many  forms  of  Siva.  Again,  cold,  another 
cause  of  the  destruction  of  life,  would  seem  to  be  ar< 
especial  favourite  with  Mahadeva,  who  is  said  to  have 
selected  the  inaccessible  snows  of  Mount  Kailasa  (or 
Cailasa)  as  his  permanent  abode.  There  his  devoted 
consort  Parvati  {i.e.  the  "  mountain-born")  is  ever  at 
his  side.  It  is  related  that  on  a  certain  occasion,  in 
beseeching  a  favour  of  her  lord, — or,  as  some  say,  in 
mere  playfulness, — she  placed  one  of  her  hands  upon 
his  forehead  ;  his  middle  eye  (the  sun)  was  completely 
eclipsed,  and,  although  she  instantly  took  her  hand 
away,  the  j^eriod  of  darkness  seemed  an  age  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  earth.  When  she  removed  her  hand, 
it  was  covered  with  the  perspiration  from  Siva's  temples. 
Shaking  off  the  moisture,  she  produced  the  Ganges.  The 
fable  is  related  variously,  but  the  universal  tradition  is 
that  the  Ganges  sprang  from  Siva's  hair  ;  and  in  many  of 
his  pictures  it  is  seen  flowing  from  the  top  of  his  head. 

As  the  destroying  power,  the  office  of  Siva  is  to  rid  the 
world  of  monsters,  wicked  men  or  evil  giants;  although 
in  this  capacity  his  Sakti  (Kali  or  Durga)  is  more  usually 
employed.  (See  KAlI  and  PArvatI.)  As  presiding  over 
generation,  he  is  worshipped  with  offerings  by  those  who 
are  desirous  of  obtaining  offspring.  In  this  character 
he  is  sometimes  represented  as  Ardha-Nari,  or  Ardha- 
Narisha,  (see  Viraj,)  a  being  combining  the  two  sexes 
or  two  principles,  male  and  female,  of  which  the  Linga 
(or  Ling)  and  Y6ni  are  the  respective  symbols. 

Siva  has  a  great  multitude  of  names,  as  Sambhu,||  (or 
Shambhu,)  Rudra,1[(ro6d'ra,)  and  Nilakantha,  (nee'la- 
kun't'ha,)  i.e.  the  "  blue-throated,"  because,  when  the 
gods  and  Asurs  churned  the  ocean,  there  came  forth  a 
poison  of  such  deadly  power  that  it  would  have  destroyed 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  had  not  Siva  come  to  the 
rescue  and  swallowed  it ;  its  only  effect  was  to  leave  a 
dark-blue  mark  on  his  neck  or  throat,  whence  he  is  often 
called  the  "blue-throated."  He  is  also  styled  Iswara  or 
Isa,  (or  19a,)  i.e.  "  ruler."  Mahesa  is  a  contraction  of 
Maha  Isa,  i.e.  the  "  Great  Ruler. 

A  worshipper  of  Siva  is  called  by  the  Hindoos  Saiva, 
(si'va.)  It  may  be  remarked  that  while  the  pious  Hindoos 
render  a  sort  of  homage  to  all  the  gods,  they  have  certain 
favourites  to  whom  they  dedicate  an  especial  worship. 

In  pictures,  Siva  is  sometimes  represented  with  one. 


X  We  are  told  by  Pausanias  that  a  statue  of  Zeus  had  been  found 
having  a  third  eye  in  his  forehead. 

§  There  is  in  one  of  the  Puranas  a  singular  legend,  which  runs 
substantially  as  follows:  One  day,  as  Brahma  and  Vishnu  were  dis- 
puting which  was  the  elder,  Siva  came  between  them  in  great  wrath, 
saying,  "  It  is  I  who  am  truly  the  first  born ;  but  I  will  yield  my  pre- 
tensions to  either  of  you  who  shall  be  able  to  reach  or  behold  the 
summit  of  my  head  or  the  soles  of  my  feet."  Brahma  instantly 
ascended,  but,  having  searched  in  vain  in  the  regions  of  immensity, 
he  returned  and  falsely  declared  that  he  had  seen  the  crown  of 
Siva's  head.  When  Vishnu  came  back  from  his  search,  he  frankly 
acknowledged  he  had  not  been  able  to  find  the  feet  of  Siva.  There- 
upon Mahadeva  cut  off  the  fifth  head  of  Brahma  for  his  falsehood, 
leaving  him  only  four.  This  story  seems  at  first  sight  sufficiently 
absurd;  but  if  we  may  suppose  that  the  Hindoos  were  acquainted 
with  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth,  (and  why  may  not  the  nation 
which  was  in  advance  of  all  others  in  some  departments  of  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy  have  known  something  also  of  geology?)  the 
explanation  of  the  fable  is  simple  enough.  Brahma  is  the  earth; 
Vishnu,  water,  (including  the  sea  ;)  Siva,  fire  in  all  its  forms.  As  the 
highest  parts  of  the  earth  (the  mountains)  can  never  reach  the 
heavenly  fire,  (the  sun,)  so  the  sea  can  never  reach  the  feet  or  lowest 
part  of  the  internal  fire  of  the  earth.  Brahma's  four  heads  are  doubt- 
less the  four  corners  of  the  earth ;  the  fifth  liead  may  possibly  have 
been  some  mountain  whose  summit  (like  that  of  Vesuvius  in  the  year 
79  A.D.)  was  carried  away  by  volcanic  fire. 

II  From  the  Sanscrit  sh/tinhhH,  "prosperous." 

il  Signifying  a  "storm,"  or  "  stormy,"  according  to  some  writers. 


ea.s/6,-  <pas  J,-  ghard;  gas/;  g,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  %\\  asin/z^w.     (Jf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIVAJI 


2204 


SKINNER 


and  sometimes  with  five  heads,  usually  riding  on  a  white 
bull  called  Nandi.  Like  his  consort  KSli,  he  is  generally 
adorned  with  a  necklace  of  human  skulls,  and  often  has  a 
trident  (tris^ld)  in  his  hand.  He  frequently  holds  an 
antelope  in  one  of  his  hands,  typical  perhaps  of  his  skill 
as  a  hunter.  His  son  Ganesa  is  usually  near  at  hand, 
sometimes  as  an  infant  in  the  arms  of  Parvati,  and  some- 
times as  an  attendant  waiting  on  his  parents. 

See  MooK,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Gu:gniaut,  "Religions  de 
'Antiquity,"  vol.  i.  book  i.  chap.  ii. 

SivajL     See  Sevajee. 

Six,  six,  (John,)  a  Dutch  dramatic  poet,  born  in  1618 
in  Amsterdam,  of  which  he  became  burgomaster.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Medea"  was  much  admired.     Died  in  1700 

See  De  Bosch,  "  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Hollandaise." 

Sixte.    See  Sixtu.s. 

Six'tua  [Fr.  Sixte,  sikst ;  It.  Sisto,  sSs'to]  I.,  a 
bishop  of  Rome,  of  whom  little  is  known,  succeeded 
Alexander  I.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  128  A. D. 

Sixtus  II.  became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  257  a.d.,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Valerianus  in  258  a.d. 

Sixtus  III.  succeeded  Celestine  I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome 
in  431  A.D.     Died  in  440. 

Sixtus  rv.,  (Francesco  della  Revere — d§l'll  ro- 
va'ri,)  Pope,  born  about  1414,  succeeded  Paul  II.  in 
1471.  He  was  an  accomplice  or  abettor  of  the  Pazzi, 
who  conspired  against  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and  he  ex- 
communicated Lorenzo  for  hanging  the  Archbishop  of 
Pisa.  The  clergy  of  Florence  supported  Lorenzo  and 
openly  condemned  the  conduct  of  the  pope.  He  ren- 
dered himself  unpopular  by  his  nepotism,  simony,  and 
other  vices.     Died  in  1484. 

See  Platin.\,  "De  Vitis  Pontificuin  ;"  Artaud  dk  Montor, 
"Histoire  des  Pontifes  Roniaiiis." 

Sixtus  v.,  [Fr.  Sixte-Quint,  sikst'k^N' ;  Lat.  Six'- 
Tus  Quin'tus,]  whose  original  name  was  Felix  Pe- 
letti,  was  born  near  Montalto  in  1521,  and  in  1585 
succeeded  Gregory  XIII.  as  pope.  As  a  ruler  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  energy  and  munificent  spirit :  he 
constructed  the  Vatican  Library,  the  obelisk  in  the  piazza 
of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  the  great  aqueduct  called  by 
his  name,  and  other  magnificent  public  works.  He  also 
founded  several  colleges,  published  editions  of  the  Vul- 
gate and  the  Septuagint,  and  edited  the  works  of  Saint 
Ambrose.  Died  in  15S9.  He  was  succeeded  by  Urban 
VII.  It  is  reported  that  Sixtus  V.,  before  his  election, 
simulated  the  infirmities  of  old  age  so  artfully  that 
the  cardinals  thought  he  had  not  long  to  live ;  but  as 
soon  as  he  became  pope  he  threw  away  his  crutch  and 
astonished  them  by  his  vigour. 

See  Tempesti,  "  Storia  della  Vita  e  Gesti  di  Sisto  V.,"  1754; 
Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes  ;"  V.  Robardi,  "  Sixti  V.  Gesta," 
1590;  J.  LoRENTZ,  "Sixtus  V.  und  seine  Zeit,"  1852;  G.  Rogeri, 
"Vita  di  Sisto  V.  ;"  "Life  of  Sixtus  V.,"  by  G.  Leti,  (translated 
from  the  Italian;)  Segretain,  "Sixte  Vet  Henri  IV,"  1861 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sixtus  OF  Sienna,  an  Italian  monk  and  popular 
preacher,  born  at  Sienna  in  1520.  He  wrote  "  Sacred 
Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Sancta,"  1586.)     Died  in  1569. 

Sjoberg  or  Sjoeberg,  sho'b§Rg,  (Erik,)  a  Swedish 
poet,  born  in  Sodermanland  in  1794.  He  published  in 
1819  a  collection  of  lyrics  under  the  signature  of  Vitalis, 
which  gave  him  a  high  reputation.  He  also  translated 
into  Swedish  some  of  the  works  of  Washington  Irving. 
Died  in  1828. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sjogren  or  Schoegren,  shb'gR§n,  (Andreas  jo 
HAN,)  a  distinguished  philologist,  born  in  Finland  in 
1794.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Abo,  and  sub- 
sequently resided  in  Russia.  He  was  appointed  in  1833 
adjunct  librarian  of  the  Acadeiny  of  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  in  1845  director  of  the  Ethnographical  Museum  of 
that  institution.  He  published  an  "Ossetic  Grammar 
and  Vocabulary,"  (1844,  in  German,)  a  treatise  "On 
the  Finnish  Language  and  Literature,"  and  other  similar 
works  of  a  high  character.     Died  in  1855. 

Skadi,  ski'de,  or  SkatSi,  skS'the,  [from  skada,  to 
"  injure,"  cognate  with  the  Danish  skade,  the  German 
tchaden,  and  the  English  scath^  in  the  Norse  mythol- 
ogy, the  daughter  of  the  Jotun  Thiassi,  (or  Thjassi,) 
and  the  wife  of  Njord,  with  whom,  however,  she  does 


not  live  harmoniously.  Njord  prefers  the  fertile  plains 
near  the  sea,  or  the  ocean  ruled  by  gentle  winds,  (see 
Njord  ;)  but  Skadi  delights  in  the  storms  of  the  moun- 
tains. Her  dwelling  is  called  Thrymheim,  (the  "home 
or  habitation  of  storms.")  She  excels  in  running  on 
snow-shoes,  and  in  shooting  with  her  bow  the  wild  beasts 
of  the  mountain. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. :  Kevser,  "  Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen." 

Skanda.     See  KARTiKfeVA. 

Skauderbeg.     See  Scanderbeg. 

Skarbek,  skaR'bSk,  (Fredrik  Florian,)  Count,  a 
popular  Polish  writer,  born  at  Thorn  in  1792,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1818  professor  of  political  economy  at  the 
University  of  Warsaw.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Theory  of  Financial  Science,"  (1824,)  "Theory  of 
Social  Wealth,"  (in  French,)  and  a  collection  of  "Tales 
and  Humorous  Writings,"  (6  vols.,  1840,)  which  have 
won  for  him  a  high  reputation.     Died  in  1866. 

Skarga,  skaR'gi,  (Piotr  Pawelski,)  a  celebrated 
pulpit  orator  ana  theologian,  surnamed  the  Polish 
Chrysostom,  born  in  Masovia  in  1536.  Having  entered 
the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Rome,  he  contributed  greatly  by 
his  eloquence  to  the  establishment  of  Catholicism  in 
Poland.  He  was  for  many  years  court  preacher  to 
Sigismund  III.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  ser- 
mons, and  of  "  Lives  of  the  Saints,"  which  is  esteemed 
a  model  of  elegance  in  style  and  has  passed  through 
manv  editions.     Died  in  1612. 

Skeat,  (Walter  William,)  an  eminent  English  phi- 
lologist and  clergyman,  born  in  London,  November  21, 
1835.  He  was  educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
graduating  in  185S.  In  i860  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Christ's  College,  where  he  became  a  lecturer.  In  1878 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  Anglo-Sa.xon  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  English  Dialect  Society,  1873.  He  has  published 
editions  of  many  early  English  books,  etc.,  but  is  best 
known  for  his  "Etymological  Dictionary,"  probably  the 
best  work  of  the  kind  that  has  yet  appeared,  and  his 
"Concise  Etymological  Dictionary." 

Skel'tpn,  (John,)  an  English  poet-laureate,  was  born 
about  1460.  Having  studied  at  Cambridge  and  taken 
holy  orders,  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Duke  of 
York,  afterwards  Henry  VIII.  He  was  the  author  of 
satires,  elegies,  and  religious  pieces.  His  learning  is 
highly  commended  by  Erasmus.     Died  in  1529. 

See  article  entitled  "  Satirical  Laureate  of  the  Sixteenth  Century," 
in  the  "Dublin  University  Magazine"  for  January,  1867  ;  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  vi.,  1822;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  MarCii, 
1844. 

Skelton,  (John,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  author,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  July  18,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Saint 
Andrew's  and  Edinburgh,  and  became  an  advocate  in 
1854.  His  books  include  "  Nugse  Criticae,"  (1862,)  "A 
Campaign  at  Home,"  (1865,)  "The  Impeachment  of 
Mary  Stuart,"  (1876,)  "Essays  in  Romance,"  (1878,)  etc. 

Skel'tpn,  (Philip,)  an  Irish  divine,  born  in  1707, 
was  the  author  of  "  Deism  Revealed,"  and  "  Proposals 
tor  the  Revival  of  Christianity."  The  latter  was  ascribed 
to  Dean  Swift.     Died  in  1787. 

Skeue,  sken,  (William  Forbes,)  a  Seottish  histo- 
rian, born  at  Inverie,  June  7,  1809.  He  studied  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Saint 
Andrew's,  and  entered  the  profession  of  law.  In  1881 
he  was  made  royal  historiographer  for  Scotland.  His 
works  include  a  "  History  of  the  Higiilanders  of  Scot- 
land," (1837,)  and  "Celtic  Scotland,  a  History,"  (4  vols., 
1876-80.)     He  also  edited  old  Scottish  Chronicles,  etc. 

SkinfaxL     See  NORVi. 

Skin'ner,  (Ezekiel,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  Baptist  divine,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1777;  died 
in  1855. 

Skin'ner,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  the  county  of  Aberdeen  in  1721.  He  published  an 
"Ecclesiastical  History  of  Scotland,"  and  a  number  of 
pojiular  lyrics.     Died  in  1807. 

Skinner,  (John  Stuart,)  an  American  journalist 
and  agricultural  writer,  born  in  Maryland  in  1788.  In 
1819  he  became  editor  of  the  "American  Farmer,"  the 
first  agricultural  journal  published  in  the  United  States. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  hn^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  fir,  till,  fit;  mgt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


SKINNER 


2205 


SLINGELANDT 


He  afterwards  edited  successively  the  "Turf  Register," 
"  The  Farmer's  Library  and  Agricultural  Journal,"  and 
'  The  Plough,  The  Loom,  and  The  Anvil."  Died  in  185 1. 

Skinner,  (Richard,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1778.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1812,  and  in  1817  chief  justice 
of  Vermont,  and  was  subsequently  twice  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  that  State.     Died  in  1833. 

Skin'n^r,  (Stephen,)  an  English  philologist  and 
physician,  born  in  London  in  1623.  He  studied  at  Ox- 
ford, and  took  his  medical  degree  at  Heidelberg.  He 
died  in  1667,  leaving  unfinished  an  etymological  dic- 
tionary of  the  English  language,  which  was  published, 
with  additions,  by  Thomas  Henshaw,  under  the  title  of 
"Etymologicon  Linguae  Anglicanae." 

Skinner,  (Thomas  Harvey,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Harvey's  Neck,  North 
Carolina,  in  1791.  He  became  in  1848  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  theology  at  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  He  published  "  Hints 
to  Christians,"  etc.     Died  February  i,  1871. 

Sko'b§-leff,  (Mikhail  Dimhryevitch,)  a  Russian 
soldier  and  hero,  born  in  the  Riazan  district  in  1845. 
His  father  was  an  able  soldier.  Educated  in  the  military 
school  of  Saint  Petersburg,  he  went  to  Turkestan  in  1868 
and  took  charge  of  a  troop  of  Cossacks.  In  1871  he 
took  command  of  a  battalion  in  the  Caucasus.  He  greatly 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Khokand  and  Khiva  wars, 
1873-76,  attaining  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  the 
Turkish  war  of  1877-78  he  was  specially  conspicuous  for 
gallantry,  activity,  and  success.  In  1880  he  led  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  against  the  Tekke  Turcomans.  Died 
July  7,  1882. 

Skoda,  sko'di,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  physician, 
born  at  Pilsen,  in  Bohemia,  in  1805.  He  became  in 
1846  professor  of  clinics  at  Vienna,  and  in  1848  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.     Died  June  12,  1881. 

Skovoroda,  sko-vo-ro'da,  known  also  as  Gregory 
Savitch,  a  Russian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  near 
Kief  about  1730.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  and, 
after  his  return  to  the  Ukraine,  devoted  himself  to  the 
work  of  reconciling  the  so-called  United  Greeks  with  the 
national  Church.  He  died  in  1778,  leaving  a  number  of 
poems,  moral  fables,  and  a  prose  work  entitled  "  Sym- 
phonon,"  also  some  translations  from  the  Homilies  of 
Saint  Chrysostom.  He  is  regarded  as  the  greatest 
writer  the  Ukraine  has  produced. 

Skr^^m'njr,  Skrym'ner,  or  Skr^m'er,  [supposed 
to  be  so  called  from  Skrtim,  "show,"  "feint,"  on  account 
of  the  illusions  which  he  practised,]  the  name  of  a 
mighty  giant,  (mentioned  in  the  Edda,)  who  baffled, 
with  his  magic  illusions,  all  the  prowess  of  Thor.  The 
god  of  thunder  is  said  to  have  struck,  with  his  terrible 
Miolnir,  the  sleeping  Skrymnir  on  his  head,  putting  forth 
all  his  might.  The  giant  awoke,  and  asked  whether 
some  small  leaf  or  a  grain  of  dust  had  not  fallen  on  his 
head.  The  myth  of  Skrymnir  is  supposed  to  typify  the 
unconquerable  might  of  a  Northern  winter. 

For  a  particular  account  of  Thor's  adventures  with  Skrymnir,  see 
Mallet,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fables  XXIIl.-XXVI. 

Skrzynecki,  skzhe-nSt'skee,  (John,)  a  Polish  gene- 
ral, born  in  Galicia  in  1787,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  army  of  Napoleon  against  the  Austrians  and  Rus- 
sians, and,  soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution 
of  1830,  succeeded  Prince  Radziwill  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Polish  forces.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Poles 
at  Ostrolenka,  (183 1,)  he  was  deprived  of  his  command, 
and  retired  to  Belgium,  where  he  resided  till  a  short 
time  before  his  death,  in  i860. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Skytte,  skSt'teh  or  skit'teh,  (Johan,)  called  also 
Schroderus,  a  Swedish  statesman  and  writer,  born  at 
Nykbping  in  1577.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  who  appointed  him  president  of  the  chamber 
of  accounts  in  1620.  He  was  employed  in  several 
foreign  missions,  and  obtained  the  dignity  of  senator. 
Died  in  1645. 

See  NBtKTER,  "  Monumenta  et  Liters  Historian!  J.  Skytte  illus- 
■rantes,"  1803. 

Slade,  (Adolphus,)  an  English  naval  officer,  born 
about  1804.     He   entered   the   Turkish   naval   service 


in  which  ne  effected  several  reforms.  He  published 
"  Records  of  Travels  in  Turkey."     Died  in  1877. 

Slade,  (William,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in 
Cornwall,  Vermont,  in  1786.  He  served  in  Congress 
from  1831  to  1843,  distinguished  himself  by  his  oppo- 
sition to  slavery,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Vermont 
in  1844.     Died  in  1859. 

Sla't^r,  (Samuel,)  an  English  artisan  and  mecha- 
nician, born  in  Derbyshire  in  1768.  Having  emigrated 
to  America,  he  established  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island, 
in  1790,  one  of  the  first  cotton-factories  in  the  United 
States.     Died  in  1835. 

Slater  or  Slatyer,  (William,)  Rev.,  an  English 
poet,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1587.  He  became  rector 
of  Otterden,  in  Kent.  Among  his  works  is  "  Palae- 
Albion ;  or,  A  History  of  Great  Britain,  in  Latin  and 
English  Verse."     Died  in  1647. 

Slee'man,  (Sir  William  Henry,)  an  English  officer 
and  writer,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1788.  He  served  in  the 
Indian  campaign  of  1812,  and  was  appointed  in  1820 
agent  for  the  districts  of  Nerbudda  and  Saugur.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Review  and  Analysis  of  the  Pe- 
culiar Doctrines  of  the  System  of  Political  Economy 
founded  by  Ricardo,"  "  Rambles  and  Recollections  of 
an  Indian  OfiScer,"  (1843,)  ^"^  other  works.  Sir  William 
was  made  a  knight  commander  of  the  Bath  for  his 
services  in  suppressing  the  Thugs,  and  for  other  reforms 
in  India.     Died  in  1856. 

Sleidan,  sli'din  or  sli'dfiN',  [Lat.  Sleida'nus,] 
(Johann,)  an  eminent  historian  and  diplomatist,  whose 
original  name  was  Philipsohn,  was  born  at  Sleida,  near 
Cologne,  in  1506.  He  studied  law  at  Liege,  Louvain, 
Paris,  and  Orleans,  and  was  subsequently  employed  by 
Francis  I.  of  France  as  his  delegate  to  the  Diet  of  Ratis- 
bon.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Strasburg  in  1542, 
and  in  1545  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  England  by 
the  Protestant  princes,  who  had  previously  appointed 
him  historiographer  of  the  Schmalkaldic  League.  He 
was  a  deputy  from  Strasburg  to  the  Council  of  Trent 
in  1551.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "Commentaries 
on  the  State  of  Religion  and  of  the  Republic  under 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,"  ("De  Statu  Religionis  et  Rei- 
publicae  Carolo  V.  Caesare  Commentarii,"  in  25  books, 
1555.)  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  accuracy  and  im- 
partiality, and  for  the  purity  of  its  style,  and  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.     Died  in  1556. 

See  D.  W.  MoLLER,  "  Disputatio  circularis  de  J.  Sleidano," 
1697;  Am  Endk,  "Vermischte  Anmerkungen  den  berlihmten  J. 
Sleidan,"  1780:  Theodor  Paur,  "Commentatio  de  J.  Sleidano," 
1842;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sleidanus.    Sae  Sleidan. 

Sleipnir  or  Sleipner, slip'nir,  [iromsleipr,  "smooth," 
"gliding,"  cognate  with  the  English  "slippery,"]  a 
wondrous  horse  belonging  to  Odin,  on  which  the  god 
rode  over  land  and  sea.  He  had  eight  legs,  which,  ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  are  simply  expressive  of  his 
extraordinary  fleetness  ;  others,  with  much  plausibility, 
suggest  that  the  myth  is  intended  to  represent  the  wind 
blowing  from  the  eight  principal  points  of  the  compass. 
Sleipnir  is  occasionally  spoken  of  as  four-footed. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  :  Mallet,  "  North- 
ern Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Kabl'e  XXL  ;  also  Matthew  Arnold's 
poem  entitled  "  Balder  Dead." 

Sli-dell',  (John,)  an  American  lawyer  and  politician, 
born  in  New  York  in  1793.  Having  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1843,  and  in 
1845  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Mexico. 
He  was  subsequently  elected  (1853)  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  from  which  he  withdrew  after  the  ordinance  of 
secession  was  passed  in  1861.  During  a  voyage  to 
France,  to  which  he  was  sent  by  Jefferson  Davis,  he 
was  captured  from  the  steamer  Trent,  in  November, 
1861,  by  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  United  States  navy. 
(See  Mason,  James  Murray.)     Died  July  26,  1871. 

Slingelandt,  van,  vtn  sling'eh-lJnt',  (Pieter,)  a 
celebrated  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1640,  was 
a  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  whose  works  he  imitated  suc- 
cessfully in  exquisite  finish  and  minuteness  of  detail. 
Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named  the  portraits 
of  the  Meerman  family,  in  the  Louvre,  upon  which  he 
is  said  to  have  been  employed  three  years.  Died  in 
1691. 


*as>6;  9  as  J,-  ghard;  gas;;G,  \l,K,  guttural;  N,  luisal;  r,  trilled:  5  ass;  tli  as  in//;/V.     (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SLINGENEYER 


2206 


SMELLIE 


Slingeueyer,  sling'en-I'er,  (Ernest,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torical painter,  born  near  Ghent  in  1823.  Among  his 
works  are  "  The  Death  of  Jacohsen,"  "  The  Battle  of 
Lepanto,"  and  "The  Death  of  Nelson." 

Sloan,  slon,  (Samuel,)  an  American  architect,  born 
in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  March  7,  1815.  He  es- 
tablished himself  in  Philadelphia,  and  published,  besides 
other  worl<s,  the  "Model  Architect,"  (1850-51,)  "City 
and  Suburban  Architecture,"  (1859,)  and  "Homestead 
Architecture,"  (i860.)  He  also  publishes  the  "  Archi- 
tectural Review,"  (commenced  in  1868.)  Some  of  the 
most  important  edifices  in  Pennsylvania  and  other  States 
have  been  built  after  his  designs.  Among  these  we 
may  name  the  Blockley  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  near 
Philadelphia,  and  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  at 
Montgomery,  in  Alabama.  Died  at  Raleigh,  North 
Carolina,  July  19,  1S84. 

Sloane,  sl5n,  (Sir  Hans,)  a  celebrated  physician  and 
naturalist,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  in  the  county 
of  Down,  Ireland,  in  1660.  He  studied  medicine  and 
the  natural  sciences  in  London,  and  subsequently  visited 
France,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort 
and  other  distinguished  savants.  Having  returned  to 
London  with  a  large  collection  of  plants,  he  settled  as  a 
physician  in  that  city,  and  was  elected  in  1685  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  afterwards  spent  some  time 
in  Jamaica  and  other  West  India  islands,  where  he 
collected  a  great  number  of  plants.  After  his  return, 
he  became  successively  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society, 
(1693,)  physician-general  to  the  army,  (1716,)  president 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  (1719,)  and  physician  to 
the  king,  (1727.)  About  the  same  time  he  succeeded 
Newton  as  president  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  filled 
for  thirty  years  the  post  of  physician  to  Christ's  Hos- 
pital, London,  devoting  his  salary  entirely  to  charitable 
purposes,  and  assisted  in  establishing  the  Foundling 
Hospital.  He  died  in  1753,  leaving  his  library  of  fifty 
thousand  volumes,  a  cabinet  of  two  hundred  volumes 
of  dried  plants,  and  an  immense  collection  of  other 
objects  in  natural  history,  chiefly  accumulated  by  him- 
self, to  be  offered  to  the  nation  for  twenty  thousand 
pounds.  This  purchase  being  made  by  the  govern- 
ment, originated  the  British  Museum.  Besides  numer- 
ous contributions  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  published  the  "  Natural  History  of 
Jamaica,"  (2  vols,  fob,  1725,)  a  work  of  high  reputation. 

See  "  Biograpliia  Britannica  ;"  Grandjean  de  Fouchy,"  filoges," 
tome  i.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Slo'cum,  (Henry  Wadsworth,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  at  or  near  Syracuse,  New  York,  in  1827.  He 
entered  the  Academy  at  West  Point  in  1848,  and  gradu- 
ated there  in  1852.  In  1856  he  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army,  and  adopted  the  profession  of  lawyer.  Soon 
lifter  the  civil  war  began,  he  became  colonel  of  a  regi- 
ment of  volunteers,  and  was  sent  to  Virginia.  He  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the  autumn  of  1861, 
commanded  a  division  in  the  battles  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
White  Oak  Swamp,  and  Malvern  Hill,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  July,  1862.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville, 
and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863.  In  August,  1864, 
he  obtained  command  of  a  corps  in  the  army  of  Gene- 
ral Sherman.  He  led  one  of  the  wings  or  columns  of 
that  army  in  the  great  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah, 
November-December,  1864. 

Slodtz,  slos  or  slots,  (Paul  Ambroise,)  a  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1702,  was  a  son  of  Sebastien,  noticed 
below.     Died  in  1758. 

Slodtz,  (Ren6  Michel,)  a  French  sculptor,  called 
Michael  Angelo,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1705.  His 
chief  work  is  "  The  Tomb  of  the  Curate  Languet." 
Died  in  1764. 

Slodtz,  sl6ts,  (S6BASTIEN,)  a  Flemish  sculptor,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1655,  was  the  father  of  Paul  Ambroise, 
noticed  above.     Died  in  Paris  in  1726. 

Slo'wacki,  slo-vits'kee,  (Julius,)  a  popular  Polish 
poet,  born  at  Wilna  in  1809.  He  took  an  active  part 
IS  a  soldier  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  published  a 
number  of  spirited  lyrics  in  favour  of  the  patriotic 
cause.     lie  also  wrote  epic  poems,  entitled  "Jan  Bie- 


lecki,"  "  Lambro,"  and  "  Hugo ;"  also  "  Mazeppa," 
"  Maria  Stuart,"  and  other  dramas.     Died  in  1851. 

Sluse,  sliiz,  (R.  F.  Walter,)  a  Flemish  Orientalist 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Vise  in  1622,  was  canon  of 
Liege.     Died  in  1685. 

Sluys,  vail  der,  v%\\  der  slois,  (Jacob,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1660.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  festivals,  conversation-pieces,  and  assem- 
blies.    Died  in  1736. 

Smalbroke,  smawl'brook,  (Richard,)  an  English 
theologian,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1672  or  1673.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1730,  and 
wrote  a  "  Vindication  of  Our  Saviour's  Miracles,"  (1729.) 
Died  in  1749. 

Smalcius,  smilt'se-fis,  or  Smalz,  smilts,  (Valen- 
tin,) a  German  Unitarian  minister  and  writer,  born  at 
Gotha  in  1572.  He  preached  at  Racow,  in  Poland.  Died 
in  1622. 

Smalley,  smaw'le,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American  di- 
vine, born  at  Columbia,  Connecticut,  June  4,  1734.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1756,  and  was  for  many 
years  the  Congregationalist  pastor  at  New  Britain,  Con- 
necticut, where  he  died,  June  i,  1820.  He  published 
some  volumes  of  sermons,  which  had  a  remarkable  in- 
fluence. He  was  noted  as  a  teacher  of  divinity,  and  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  orthodox  theology  of  New 
England. 

Smai'ridge,  (George,)  a  learned  English  prelate, 
born  at  Lichfield  in  1663.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol 
in  1714.  He  published  a  volume  of  Sermons,  (1717.) 
Died  in  1719. 

Smalz.     See  Smalcius. 

Smart,  (Christopher,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Kent  in  1722.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  he  be- 
came noted  for  his  classical  knowledge,  and  subsequently 
made  prose  translations  from  Horace  and  Phaedrus. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  wrote  his  biogra- 
phy.    Died  in  1773. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Smea'ton,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  civil  englneei 
and  mechanic,  born  at  Austhorpe,  near  Leeds,  in  1724. 
He  commenced  business  as  a  maker  of  mathematical 
instruments.  He  had  great  mechanical  ingenuity,  and 
made  improvements  in  hydraulic  machinery.  In  1759 
he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Society  for  his 
treatise  "  On  the  Natural  Power  of  Wind  and  Water  to 
drive  Mills."  His  greatest  work  is  the  Eddystone  Light- 
House,  finished  in  1759.  He  constructed  Ramsgate 
harbour,  and  was  the  engineer  of  the  great  canal  of 
Scotland,  extending  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Forth.  Died 
in  1792. 

See  Smii-e.s,  "  Lives  of  the  Engineers  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
July,  August,  and  September,  1791. 

Smed'ley,  (Rev.  Edward,)  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  about  1790.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  suc- 
cessively four  Seatonian  prizes  for  English  poems.  He 
also  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reformed  Religion  in 
France,"  and  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Encyclo- 
paedia Metropolitana."     Died  in  1836. 

Smedley,  (Francis  E.,)  an  English  novelist,  born 
about  1814.  He  published  "  Lewis  Arundel,"  (1852,)  and 
"The  Fortunes  of  the  Colville  Family,"  (1856.)"  Died 
in  1864. 

Smedley,  (Menella  Bute,)  an  English  poetess, 
was  a  sister  of  F.  E.  Smedley,  was  born  about  1825.  She 
wrote  various  tales  and  novels,  and  several  volumes  of 
verse,  the  latter  containing  poems  of  great  merit.  Died 
about  1875. 

Smee,  (Alfred,)  an  English  surgeon  and  scientific 
writer,  born  in  1818,  published,  among  other  works, 
"Lectures  on  Electro-Metallurgy"  (1841)  and  "Electro- 
Biology,"  (1849.)  He  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1840,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1841.     Died  January  11,  1877. 

Smel'lie,  (William,)  a  Scottish  stirgeon  and  writer 
on  midwifery.  He  practised  for  some  years  in  Scotland, 
and  afterwards  in  London.  He  gave  many  courses 
of  lectures  on  midwifery  in  London,  and  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Midwifery"  in  1752.     Died  in  1763. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  m66n; 


SMELLIE 


2207 


SMITH 


Smellie,  (William,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  printer, 
and  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1740.  He  printed 
a  good  edition  of  Terence,  wrote  "The  Philosophy  of 
Natural  History,"  (2  vols.,  1790-95,)  and  translated 
Buffon's  "Natural  History."  He  printed  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  to  which  he 
contributed  several  articles.     Died  in  1795. 

See  Robert  Ker::,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Smellie,"  1 
vols.,  181 1  ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men." 

Smer'dis,  [Gr.  S//ep(5<f,]  a  Persian  prince,  was  a 
younger  son  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  went  to  Egypt 
with  his  brother  Cambyses,  who  sent  him  back  to  Persia 
and  caused  him  to  be  secretly  put  to  death.  A  Magian 
who  resembled  Smerdis  pretended  that  he  was  the  son 
of  Cyrus,  and  usurped  the  throne.  The  false  Smerdis 
was  killed  by  seven  conspirators,  in  521  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Herodotus,  "History." 

Smet,  de,  deh  smet  or  smi,  (Joseph  Jean,)  a  Belgian 
writer,  born  at  Ghent  in  1794.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"History  of  Belgium,"  (1822.)   Died  February  12,  1877. 

Smet,  de,  (Peter  John,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born 
at  Dendcrmonde,  Belgium,  December  31,  1801.  Having 
studied  at  Mechlin,  he  came  in  1821  to  the  United  States, 
and  was  an  instructor  in  the  University  of  Saint  Louis, 
Missouri,  1823-38,  after  which  he  was  a  missionary  to 
the  Indians.  Almost  all  the  Northwestern  tribes  knew 
and  revered  him,  and  he  acquired  a  very  remarkable 
control  over  nearly  all  of  them.  He  published  several 
volumes  relating  to  his  life  and  work  among  the  Indians 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Northwest.  Died  at 
Saint  Louis,  May  23,  1873. 

Smet  van  der  Ketten,  sm6t  vtn  der  ket'ten,  [Lat. 
Sme'tujs,]  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  antiquary,  born  in  Gelder- 
land  about  1585  ;  died  in  1651. 

Smi'bert  or  Smy'bert,  (John,)  a  Scottish  painter, 
born  at  Edinburgh  about  1680,  emigrated  in  1728  to 
America,  and  followed  his  profession  in  Boston.  Died 
in  1751. 

Smidt,  smit,  (Johann,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born 
\t  Bremen  in  1773  ;  died  in  1857. 

Smiedel,  smee'del,  or  Schmeidel,  shmi'del,  (Ul- 
RiCH,)  a  German  traveller,  born  at  Straubingen.  He 
was  one  of  a  party  which  went  to  South  America 
about  1534  and  founded  Buenos  Ayres.  He  explored 
the  river  Paraguay  and  visited  Peru.  An  account  of 
his  travels  was  published  in  1554. 

Smiglecius  or  Smigletius,  smT-glee'she-us,  (Mar- 
tin,) a  Polish  Jesuit  and  logician,  born  in  1562.  He 
wrote  several  works  against  Protestantism,  and  a  "  Sys- 
tem of  Logic,"  (1618.)     Died  in  1618. 

Smiles,  (Samuel,)  a  British  biographer,  born  at 
Haddington  about  1816.  He  published  a  "  Life  of 
George  Stephenson,"  (1859,)  "Self-Help,"  (i860,)  "The 
Lives  of  the  Engineers,"  (1861,)  "  Life  of  a  Scotch  Natu- 
ralist, Thomas  Edward,"  (1876,)  and  volumes  entitled 
"Thrift,"  "Duty,"  "Character,"  etc. 

Smillie,  smi'le,  (George  H.,)  an  American  artist,  a  son 
of  James  Smillie,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  December 
29.  184.0.  His  brother,  James  D.,  and  his  wife,  (born 
Nellie  Jacobs,)  are  also  distinguished  as  artists.  Mr. 
G.  H.  Smillie  was  a  pupil  of  J.  M.  K.  Hart.  In  1864 
he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy,  and 
in  1882  was  chosen  a  full  Academician.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal pictures  are  "A  Lake  in  the  Woods,"  (1872,)  "A 
Florida  Lagoon,"  (1875,)  "A-  Goat-Pasture,"  (1879,) 
"Merrimac  River,"  (1882,)  "Massachusetts  Coast," 
(1883,)  and  "Summer  Morning  on  Long  Island," (18S4.) 

Smillie,  (James,)  a  celebrated  landscape  engraver, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  November  23,  1807.  He 
learned  his  profession  under  Andrew  Wilson,  of  Edin- 
burgh, came  to  New  York  about  1830,  and  was  very 
prominent  in  connection  with  the  earlier  developments 
of  American  art.  In  185 1  he  was  chosen  to  the  National 
Academy.     Died  December  4,  1885. 

Smin'theiis,  [Gr.  I,fiivdevc  ;  Fr.  SMlNTH6E.smaN'ti',] 
a  surname  of  Apollo,  (which  see.) 

Smirke,  smirk,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  English 
painter,  born  in  1751.  Among  his  master-pieces,  which 
are  principally  domestic  and   rural  scenes  and   comic 


subjects,  we  may  name  "Tiie  Combat  between  Don 
Quixote  and  the  Giants,"  "Sancho's  Audience  of  the 
Duchess,"  "The  Gypsy,"  and  "Prince  Henry  and  Fal- 
staff."  He  was  elected  an  Academician  in  1792.  Died 
in  1845. 

Smirke,  (Sir  Rohert,)  an  architect,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1780.  Having  visited  Italy, 
Germany,  and  Greece  in  1805,  he  published,  after  his 
return,  "  Specimens  of  Continental  Architecture,"  (1806.) 
He  constructed  a  number  of  public  edifices  in  London, 
among  which  the  British  Museum  is  the  most  celebrated. 
It  is  of  the  Ionic  order,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most 
superb  Grecian  structure  in  the  city.  His  other  princi- 
pal works  are  the  new  Post-Office,  the  Mint,  the  College 
of  Physicians,  and  the  restoration  of  York  Minster.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1812.   Died  in  1867. 

Smirke,  (Sydney,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  also 
distinguished  as  an  architect,  executed  several  works  in 
conjunction  with  Sir  Robert.  The  New  Reading-Room 
Df  the  British  Museum  is  especially  noted.     Died  1877. 

Smith,  (Adam,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  philosopher 
and  political  economist,  born  at  Kirkaldy,  in  Fifeshire, 
June  5,  1723.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  where  he  remained  from  1737  to  1740,  and 
at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  about  1747. 
Having  returned  to  Scotland,  he  formed  friendships 
with  Hume  and  Lord  Kames.  In  1751  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  same  university  in 
1752,  and  published  his  "Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments" 
in  1759.  Hd  was  very  popular  as  a  lecturer.  In  1763 
he  resigned  his  professorship,  and  accepted  the  place 
of  companion  to  the  young  Duke  of  Buccleugh,  with 
whom  he  travelled  on  the  continent  two  or  three  years. 
He  associated  in  Paris  with  D'Alembert,  Necker,  Tur- 
got,  and  Quesnay.  In  1766  he  returned  to  Kirkaldy, 
where  he  passed  ten  years  in  the  composition  of  the 
work  on  which  his  reputation  is  chiefly  founded,  "  An 
Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1776.)  He  maintains  that  labour 
rather  than  money  or  land  is  the  true  source  of  national 
wealth.  He  also  advocated  free  trade  and  opposed  the 
policy  of  those  governments  which  attempt  to  control 
the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  After  the  publication 
of  this  work  he  passed  two  years  in  London.  He  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of  customs  for 
Scotland  in  1778,  after  which  date  he  resided  in  Edin- 
burgh until  his  death.  He  never  married.  Died  in 
July,  1790. 

"  Perhaps,"  says  Mackintosh,  "  there  is  no  ethical 
work  since  Cicero's  '  Offices,'  of  which  an  abridgment 
enables  the  reader  so  inadequately  to  estimate  the  merit, 
as  the  '  Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments.'  This  is  not  chiefly 
owing  to  the  beauty  of  diction,  as  in  the  case  of  Cicero, 
but  to  the  variety  of  explanations  of  life  and  manners 
which  embellish  the  book  often  more  than  they  illustrate 
the  theory.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  owned 
that  for  philosophical  purposes  few  works  more  need 
abridgment ;  for  the  most  careful  reader  frequently  loses 
sight  of  principles  buried  under  illustrations.  .  .  .  That 
Smith  is  the  first  who  has  drawn  the  attention  of  phi- 
losophers to  one  of  the  most  curious  and  important  parts 
of  human  nature — who  has  looked  closely  and  steadily 
into  the  workings  of  sympathy,  its  sudden  action  and 
reaction,  its  instantaneous  conflicts  and  its  emotions,  its 
minute  play  and  varied  illusions — is  sufficient  to  place 
him  high  among  the  cultivators  of  mental  philosophy." 
The  same  writer  speaks  of  Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations" 
as  "perhaps  the  only  book  which  produced  an  imme- 
diate general  and  irrevocable  change  in  some  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  legislation  of  all  civilized 
nations." 

See  DuGALD  Stewart,  "  Life  and  Writings  of  Adam  Smith  ;" 
Lord  Brougham,  "Memoir  of  Adam  Smith,"  in  "  Lives  of  Men 
of  Letters  and  Science;"  Mackintosh,  "General  View  of  the 
Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors;" "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1759,  and  April,  1776. 

Smith,  (Albert,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  at 
Chertsey  in  1816.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
novels,  entitled  "The  Scattergood  Family,"  "The  Pot- 


«as^;  9as  j;  g^rtirtf,- gas/,G,  H,  K,^///«ra/;  ti,tiasa/;  R,tri//eti;  sass;  thasin//4/j.     (J[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SMITH 


2208 


SMITH 


tieton  Legacy,"  "  Marchioness  of  Brinvilliers  ;"  also  the 
"National  Histories  of  Stuck-up  People,"  "The  Idler 
upon  Town,"  and  other  humorous  sketches.  In  1851 
he  ascended  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  which  adven- 
ture he  afterwards  made  the  subject  of  a  popular  dramatic 
entertainment.     Died  in  i860. 

Smith,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Kilmar- 
nock, Ayrshire,  in  1829  or  1830.  He  learned  the  business 
of  pattern-drawer.  About  1852  he  produced  a  poem 
entitled  "The  Life  Drama,"  which  was  greatly  admired 
by  many.  He  was  elected  secretary  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  in  1854,  and  married  Flora  Macdonald  in 
1858.  He  contributed  articles  in  prose  to  the  "  North 
British  Review,"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  other 
periodicals.  Among  his  chief  works  were  "  City  Poems," 
(1857,)  and  "Edwin  of  Deira,"  a  historical  poem,  (1861.) 
His  style  is  censured  as  spasmodic  by  some  critics.  His 
poetry  abounds  in  beautiful  images  ;  but  he  is  deficient 
in  sustained  power.  His  prose  writings  have  been  much 
and  generally  admired.     Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  October,  1853;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1834; 
"North  British  Review"  for  August,  1853;  "Good  Words"  for 
March,  1S57  ;  "  London  Review"  for  January,  1S67. 

Smith,  (Andrew  J.,)  an  American  major-general, 
born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1814,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  commanded  two  divis- 
ions which  were  sent  by  General  Sherman  to  aid  General 
Banks,  and  took  Fort  de  Russy,  on  Red  River,  March 
14,  1864.  He  defeated  the  enemy  at  Tupelo,  Mississippi, 
about  July  14,  and  aided  to  drive  General  Price  out  of 
Missouri  in  October,  1864.  He  commanded  a  corps  at 
the  great  battle  of  Nashville,  December  15  and  16,  1864, 
and  in  the  operations  against  Mobile,  March-April,  1865. 
He  became  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in  the  United  States 
army  in  1866.     Resigned  in  1869. 

See  Greeley,  "  American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii. 

Smith,  (Anker,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1759.  Among  his  best  works  may  be  named 
the  "  Death  of  Wat  Tyler,"  after  Northcote,  and  the 
"  Apotheosis  of  Handel."  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1797.     Died  in  1819. 

Smith,  (Benjamin  Bosworth,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  at  Bristol,  Rhode  Island,  June 
13,  1794,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1816,  and  in 
1818  became  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  In 
1832  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Kentucky,  and  in 
1S68  he  became  presiding  Bishop  of  the  Episcopal 
Church.     Died  May  31,  1884. 

Smith,  (Caleb  B.,)  an  American  politician,  bom  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1808.  He  removed  to  Indiana, 
and  represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1843  '^°  1849-  I'^s  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  in- 
terior in  March,  1861,  and  resigned  in  December,  1862. 
Died  in  January,  1864. 

Smith,  (Charles  Ferguson,)  an  American  general, 
born  about  1806.  He  graduated  at  the  Academy  of 
West  Point  in  1825,  and  was  employed  there  for  many 
years  as  instructor  in  tactics  and  commandant  of  cadets. 
For  his  services  in  the  Mexican  war  he  received  three 
brevets,  as  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  August,  1S61,  and 
rendered  important  services  at  Fort  Donelson,  February, 
1862,  soon  after  which  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  major- 
general.  He  died  at  Savannah,  Tennessee,  in  April, 
1862.  "The  more  perfect  beau-idial  of  a  soldier,"  says 
Coppee,  "  never  existed  in  any  army  than  General 
Smith." 

Smith,  (Lieutenant-Colonel  Charles  Hamilton,)  an 
English  officer  and  naturalist,  born  in  1776,  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Races  and 
Varieties  of  Man."  He  died  at  Plymouth,  September 
21,  1859. 

Smith,  (Charles  Roach,)  an  English  author,  born 
^c  Languard  Manor,  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1804.  He  pub- 
lished "Collectanea  Antiqua,"  (6  vols.,  1848-66,)  works 
on  the  antiquities  of  various  old  towns  in  England, 
(Richborough,  Reculver,  Limne,  etc.,  1850-58,)  and 
"Illustrations  of  Roman  London,"  (1859.)     Died,  1890. 

Smith,  (Charlotte,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1749.     She  was  the  author  of  "The 


Old  Manor-House,"  "  Marchmont,"  "Desmond,"  "The 
Romance  of  Real  Life,"  and  other  novels ;  also  "  Elegiac 
Sonnets,"  and  various  other  poems.  Her  life  was 
written  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.     Died  in  1806. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  Mrs. 
Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  Englai^d."  etc. 

Smith,  (Christopher  W.,)  an  English  ornithologist, 
born  about  1794.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  "  Ornithology 
of  Hindostan." 

Smith,  (Da.niel  B.,)  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Ju!y 
14,  1792.  He  was  early  distinguished  by  a  thirst  for 
knowledge  :  in  the  leisure  intervals  occurring  in  the  midst 
of  an  engrossing  business  (that  of  a  druggist)  he  found  time 
not  only  to  make  himself  well  acquainted  with  the  best 
parts  of  English  literature,  but  also  to  attain  an  unusual 
proficiency  in  such  sciences  as  were  then  especially  cul- 
tivated, viz.,  chemistry,  botany,  etc.,  to  which  may  be 
added  intellectual  and  moral  philosophy.  It  was,  indeed, 
rare  to  find  any  one  of  more  various  and  extensive  read- 
ing or  who  had  read  to  better  purpose.  He  was  influ- 
ential in  organizing  several  valuable  institutions,  among 
which  may  be  named  the  Apprentices'  Library,  the 
House  of  Refuge,  and  the  American  Pharmaceutical 
Association,  of  which  he  was  the  first  president.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  active  and  zealous  among  those 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends  who  united  to  es- 
tablish (in  1833)  a  Friends'  High  School  at  Haverford, 
near  Philadelphia,  in  which  he  held  one  of  the  most 
important  positions  as  professor  and  of  which  he  was 
afterwards  president.  This  school,  now  Haverford  Col- 
lege, has  taken  a  high  rank  among  the  collegiate  institu- 
tions of  our  country.  He  closed  his  long  and  useful  life 
March  29,  1883. 

Smith,  (Edmund  Kirby,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saint  Augustine,  Florida,  about  1825,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1845.  ^^  became  a  captain  in  1855, 
resigned  his  commission  in  1861,  and  commanded  a 
division  of  General  Bragg's  army  which  invaded  Ken- 
tucky in  August,  1862.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  which  ended  January  2,  1863.  He  had  the 
command  of  all  the  forces  in  Texas  and  Arkansas  from 
April,  1863,  till  April,  1865,  After  the  war  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Nashville. 

See  notice  of  General  E.  K.  Smith  in  "  Southern  Generals,"  1865. 

Smith,  (Edmund  Neale,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
1668.  His  family  name  was  Neale,  to  which  he  added 
Smith.     Died  in  17 10. 

Smith,  (Eli,)  an  American  missionary  and  accom- 
plished Arabic  scholar,  born  near  New  Haven,  Con- 
necticut, in  1801.  He  went  to  Syria  in  1826,  studied 
Arabic,  and  settled  at  Beyroot.  In  1838  he  explored 
Palestine  in  company  with  Dr.  Edward  Robinson.  He 
translated  portions  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.  Died  at 
Beyroot  in  January,  1857. 

Smith,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  lady,  distinguished 
for  her  attainments  in  the  languages,  mathematics,  and 
the  natural  sciences,  was  born  near  Durham  in  1776. 
Besides  Latin  and  Greek  and  the  principal  European 
languages,  she  was  versed  in  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and 
Persian.  She  wrote  a  "Life  of  Klopstock,"  and  trans- 
lated the  book  of  Job.     Died  in  1806. 

See  Miss  Bowdler,  "Life  of  Elizabeth  Smith;"  Mrs.  Elwood, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commence- 
ment of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January  and  June,  i8ii. 

Smith,  (Mrs.  Elizabeth  Oakes,)  an  American  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  wife  of  Seba  Smith,  noticed 
below,  was  born  near  Portland,  Maine.  She  has  pub- 
lished "The  Sinless  Child,  and  other  Poems,"  "Jacob 
Leisler,"  a  tragedy,  "  Woman  and  her  Needs,"  (1851,) 
and  other  works.  Mrs.  Smith  has  been  a  prominent 
advocate  of  the  rights  of  woman,  both  as  a  writer  and 
lecturer. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Smith,  (Francis  Pettit,)  an  English  inventor,  born 
at  Hythe,  Kent,  in  1808.  He  invented  the  mode  of  pro- 
pelling steamboats  by  the  screw,  which  was  employed 
in  the  royal  navy  about  1838.     He  died  in  1874. 

Smith,  (Gabriel,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
I^ndon  in  1724;  died  in  17S3. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  vi,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6.  li,  1?,  short:  a,  ^,  i.  o,  obscure;  fjr,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SMITH 


2209 


SMITH 


Smith,  (GEOKGK,)an  English  landscape-painter,  born 
in  1714 ;  died  in  177^ 

His  brothers  John  and  William  were  also  distin- 
guished as  painters. 

Smith,  (George,)  a  distinguished  English  Assyriolo- 
gist,  born  in  1840.  Having  found  employment  in  the 
British  Museum,  he  taught  himself  to  read  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  in  the  knowledge  of  which  he  made  very 
original  and  fruitful  discoveries.  He  visited  Babylonia  in 
1873,  in  1874,  and  in  1875-76,  making  valuable  discoveries 
of  inscriptions.  Died  at  Aleppo,  August  19,  1876.  He 
published  an  important  treatise  on  the  history  of  Assur- 
bani-pal,  (1871,)  a  volume  on  Assyrian  history,  (1875,)  '^"'^ 
"The  Chaldasan  Account  of  Genesis,"  (1875.) 

Smith,  (George  Barnett,)  an  English  author,  born 
at  Ovenden,  Yorkshire,  May  17,  1841.  He  became  a 
journalist  of  London  in  1864.  His  works  include 
"  Poets  and  Novelists,"  (1875,)  "Shelley,"  (1877,)  "Life 
of  Gladstoiie,"  (1879,)  "  Life  of  John  Bright,"  (1881,)  etc. 
Smith,  (George  Williamson,)  D.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  at  Catskill,  New  York,  November  21, 
1836,  graduated  at  Hobart  College  in  1857,  held  various 
rectorships  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  1872-83,  and  in 
1883  was  chosen  president  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford, 
Connecticut. 

Smith,  (Gerrit,)  a  distinguished  American  philan- 
thropist, born  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1797.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  and 
studied  law.  After  a  temporary  connection  with  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  he  withdrew  from  it  in 
1835,  ^"^^  became  a  prominent  and  active  member  of  the 
Anti-Slavery  Society.  He  was  also  an  earnest  advocate 
of  temperance  and  other  reforms,  and,  having  inherited 
one  of  the  largest  landed  estates  in  the  country,  he  dis- 
tributed nearly  two  hundred  thousand  acres  of  it  among 
the  poor,  without  distinction  of  colour.  Mr.  Smith  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1852.  Died  December  28,  1874. 
Smith,  (GoLDWiN,)  an  English  teacher  and  writer, 
born  at  Reading  in  1823.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  that 
university  in  1858.  Among  his  works- are  "  Irish  His- 
tory and  Irish  Character,"  (1861,)  and  "Three  English 
Statesmen,  (Pym,  Cromwell,  and  Pitt,)"  (1867.)  In  poli- 
tics he  is  an  advanced  Liberal.  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1864,  and  from  1868  to  1871  was  professor  of 
English  history  in  Cornell  University,  at  Ithaca.  He 
subsequently  removed  to  Canada,  and  from  1S72  to  1874 
was  editor  of  the  "  Canadian  Monthly." 

Smith,  (Gree.n  Clay,)  an  American  general  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Richmond,  Kentucky,  July  2,  1832.  He 
entered  the  Union  army  in  June,  1862.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  1863-66,  was  Governor  of  Montana  ia 
1866-68,  and  was  ordained  a  Baptist  minister  in  1869. 

Smiith,  (GusTAVUS  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842.  He  was  a  street  commissioner  in  New  York  City 
when  the  civil  war  began.  About  September,  i86i,  he 
became  a  major-general  of  the  Confederate  army.  He 
succeeded  to  the  command  at  Fair  Oaks  when  General 
J.  E.  Johnston  was  wounded.  May  31,  1862. 

Smith,  (Henry,)  called  "the  Silver-Tongued,"  an 
English  Puritan  minister,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1550. 
He  preached  in  London,  and  was  patronized  by  Lord 
Burleigh.  He  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died 
about  1595. 

See  Fuller,  "Life  of  H.  Smith." 

Smith,  (Henry  Boynton,)  D.D.,an  American  Con- 
gregational minister  and  scholar,  born  at  Portland,  Maine, 
in  1815.  He  was  appointed  in  1855  professor  of  sys- 
tematic theology  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York.  He  published  "  The  Relations  of  Faith 
to  Philosophy,"  (1849,)  "The  History  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  in  Chronological  Tables,"  etc.,  (1859,)  and 
other  similar  works.  He  became  in  1859  editor  of  the 
"  American  Theological  Review,"  and  contributed  to 
Appletons'  "Cyclopaedia."     Died  February  7,  1877, 

Smith,  (Sir  Henry  George  Wakelyn,)  an  English 
general,  born  at  Whittlesea,  in  the  isle  of  Ely,  in  1788. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  principal  battles  of  the 
Peninsular  war,  and  afterwards  in  the  American  war  of 
1812.    He  commanded  as  adjutant-general  in  the  Indian 


campaigns  of  1840  and  1846,  and  had  a  prominent  share 
in  the  signal  victory  over  the  Sikhs  at  Aliwal.  For 
these  services  he  was  made  a  baronet  and  received  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath.  Appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1847,  he  brought 
the  Caffir  war  to  a  successful  close  in  1852.  He  was 
created  lieutenant-general  in  1854.     Died  Oct.  12,  i860. 

Smith,  (Horace  and  James,)  English  humorists  and 
miscellaneous  writers,  born  in  London,  the  former  about 
1780,  the  latter  in  1775.  They  first  became  known  by 
their  contributions  to  "  The  Pic-Nic,"  the  "  London  Re- 
view," and  the  "  Monthly  Mirror  ;"  the  poems  entitled 
"  Horace  in  London,"  in  the  last-named  periodical, 
being  mostly  written  by  James  Smith.  In  1812  they 
brought  out  their  "  Rejected  Addresses,"  corhposed  on 
the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre  at  Drury 
Lane,  the  committee  of  which  had  requested  a  number 
of  addresses  to  be  sent  in,  one  of  which  should  obtain 
the  prize.  These  poems,  which  are  humorous  imitations 
of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Byron,  Scott,  Crabbe,  and 
other  prominent  writers  of  the  time,  met  with  brilliant 
success,  and  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  editions. 
James  Smith  wrote  for  the  so-called  "  entertainments" 
of  Charles  Mathews  "Trips  to  Paris,"  "Country 
Cousins,"  and  other  comic  sketches.  He  died  in  1839, 
and  his  "  Memoirs,  Letters,"  etc.  were  published  by  his 
brother  in  1840.  Among  the  other  works  of  Horace 
Smith  we  may  name  the  novels  of  "  Brambletye  House," 
"  The  Moneyed  Man,"  and  "  Love  and  Mesmerism." 
Died  in  1849. 

See  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1S12;  "  EdinburgU 
Review"  for  November,  1812;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1833, 
and  November,  1834. 

Smith,  (James,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  American  Independence,  born  in  Ireland  about  1719. 
Having  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  he  was  elected  in 
1776  to  the  Continental  Congress.     Died  in  1806. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Smith,  (James,)  of  Deanston,  a  Scottish  agriculturist 
and  mechanician,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1789.  He  pub- 
lished in  1831  a  treatise  "On  Thorough  Draining  and 
Deep  Ploughing,"  which  improvements  he  was  the  first 
to  bring  into  general  use.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a 
reaping-machine,  for  which  he  obtained  a  gold  medal 
from  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He 
invented  other  useful  machines.     Died  in  1850. 

Smith,  (James,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
March  2,  1824.  He  was  a  printer  in  early  life.  He 
published  "Poems,  Songs,  and  Ballads,"  (1S66,)  and 
several  volumes  of  humorous  Scottish  tales.  His  gifts 
as  a  poet  are  fine  and  rare.  Many  of  his  songs  are  in 
the  Scottish  dialect. 

Smith,  (Sir  James  Edward,)  an  English  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Norwich  in  1759.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  and  graduated  at  Leyden,  and,  after  his 
return,  became  in  1788  one  of  the  founders  and  first 
president  of  the  Linnasan  Society,  He  had  previously 
purchased  the  natural  history  collections  and  library  of 
Linnaeus.  He  was  appointed  in  1792  teacher  of  botany 
to  Queen  Charlotte  and  the  princesses,  and  in  1814 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "  English  Flora,"  (4  vols.,)  "  Flora  Britannica," 
(3  vols.,  1804,)  "English  Botany,"  (36  vols.,  1807,)  with 
more  than  2000  coloured  plates  by  Sowerby,  and  "  Flora 
Grffica,"  (1808.)  He  also  wrote  the  principal  articles  on 
botany  in  Rees's  "Cyclopaedia."     Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  James  Edward  Smith," 
by  Lady  Smith  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1833. 

Smith,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  at  Peterborough,  New  Hampshire.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1791,  served  in  that 
body  until  1797,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire  in  1809,  after  which  he  held  the  office  of 
judge.  His  ability  and  merit  are  highly  extolled.  Died 
m  1842. 

See  J.  H.  Morrison,  "Life  of  Jeremiah  Smith,"  1845. 

Smith,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Warwick- 
shire in  1563,  was  lecturer  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Died  in  1616. 


cas^,-  9as  j;  ^hard;%2&j;  o,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasa;  th  as  in/zi/j. 

139 


(2[^="See  Explanations.  \>.  23. 


SMITH 


SMITH 


Smith,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  theology,  born  I 
in  Northamptonshire  in  1618,  was  a  Fellow  of  Queen's  j 
College,  Cambridge.     Died  in  1652.  | 

Smith,  (John,)  Captain,  the  founder  of  Virginia,  was 
born  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1579.  He  began  at 
an  early  age  to  display  a  propensity  to  daring  adven- 
tures. About  1600  he  enlisted  in  the  Austrian  army, 
and  performed  bold  and  successful  exploits  against  the 
Turks.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  reduced  to  slavery, 
killed  his  master,  and  escaped  into  Russia.  Having 
returned  to  England,  he  accompanied  a  party  of  emi- 
grants who  formed  a  colony  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in 
April,  1607.  He  was  captured  by  the  Indians,  and  was 
condemned  to  death  by  Powhatan,  but  his  life  was  saved 
by  Pocahontas,  a  daughter  of  that  chief  He  became 
the  principal  person  of  the  colony,  which  was  saved 
from  ruin  by  his  energy  and  fortitude.  In  1608  he  ex- 
plored the  coasts  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  of  which  he  con- 
structed a  map.  He  made  a  voyage  to  England  in  1609, 
and  explored  the  coast  of  New  England  in  1614.  The 
latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  England.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "General  History  of  Vir- 
ginia, New  England,  and  the  Summer  Isles,"  (1627,)  and 
"The  True  Travels  and  Adventures  of  Captain  John 
Smith  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,"  (1630.) 
Died  in  London  in  163 1. 

See  Hii.LARD,  "Life  of  John  Smith,"  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1867. 

Smith,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  diplomatist  and  sol 
dier  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  sent  in  1576 
on  an  embassy  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain.     Died  in  1600. 

Smith,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  1630, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Portrait  of  Old  Age."  Died 
in  1679. 

Bmith,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  1659,  published  an  edition  of  the  his- 
torical works  of  the  Venerable  Bede.     Died  in  1715. 

Smith,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  mezzotint  en- 
graver, born  about  1654.  He  executed  numerous  por- 
traits after  Kneller.     Died  about  1720. 

Smith,  (John,)  of  Chichester,  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  1717,  was  a  brother  of  George,  noticed 
above.     Died  in  1764. 

Smith,  (John  Blair,)  born  at  Pequea,  Pennsylvania, 
about  1756,  was  a  brother  of  Samuel  Stanhope,  noticed 
below.  He  became  in  1795  first  president  of  Union 
College,  Schenectady.     Died  in  1799. 

Smith,  (John  Lawrence,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can chemist,  born  near  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
December  16,  1818.  He  was  educated  at  Charleston 
College,  at  the  University  of  Virginia,  in  the  South  Caro- 
lina Medical  College,  and  in  Europe,  1841-44.  Having 
returned  to  Charleston,  he  began  the  practice  of  medicine, 
but  gave  special  attention  to  economic  geology  and  agri- 
cultural chemistry.  He  was  employed  as  a  cotton  expert 
and  mining  engineer  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  1846-50.  He 
afterwards  held  professorships  in  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  the  University  of  Louisville,  Kentucky.  He 
published  a  large  number  of  valuable  scientific  reports 
and  papers,  also  "Mineralogy  and  Chemistry,"  (1873.) 
Died  in  1884. 

Smith,  (John  Pye,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  learned  English 
divine  and  theologian,  born  at  Sheffield  in  1774,  became 
pastor  of  the  Independent  church  at  Homerton.  He 
received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Yale  College,  Con- 
necticut, in  1807,  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable 
works  may  be  named  "The  Scripture  Testimony  to 
the  Messiah,"  (2  vols.,  1821,)  "  Four  Discourses  on  the 
Sacrifice  and  Priesthood  of  Jesus  Christ,"  (1827,)  and 
"  The  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Creation  and  the  Deluge 
illustrated  by  the  Discoveries  of  Modern  Science," 
(1837.)  Dr.  Smith  was  also  distinguished  as  a  geologist, 
and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society  and  the  Royal 
Society.     Died  in  185 1. 

See  John  Medwav,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John 
Pye  Smith,"  1853. 

Smith,  (John  Raphael,)  an  English  engraver  and 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Derby  about  1750.  He  was 
chiefly  noted  for  his  mezzotint  engravings,  among  which 
is  a  full-length  portrait  of  Charles  James  Fox.  Died 
in  1812. 


Smith,  (John  Stafford,)  an  English  composer  of 
great  merit,  was  born  at  Glouaester  about  1750,  and 
succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  in  1802  as  organist  of  the  chapel 
royal.  He  produced  a  number  of  admired  glees  and 
madrigals,  and  published  "  Antient  Songs  of  the  Fif- 
teenth Century."     Died  in  1836. 

Smith,  (John  Thomas,)  an  English  engraver  and 
amateur,  born  in  London  in  1766.  He  studied  draw- 
ing with  the  sculptor  Nollekens,  and  subsequently 
entered  the  Royal  Academy.  He  published  in  1800 
his  "  Antiquities  of  London  and  its  Environs,"  which 
was  followed  by  "Antiquities  of  Westminster,"  (1807,) 
"Ancient  Topography  of  London,"  (1815,  4to,  with 
thirty-two  plates,)  and  "Nollekens  and  his  Times," 
(1828.)  He  was  appointed  in  1816  keeper  of  the  prints 
in  the  British  Museum.     Died  in  1833. 

Smith,  (Joseph,)  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Mormons, 
was  born  in  Sharon,  Windsor  county,  Vermont,  in  1805. 
He  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  Palmyra,  New  York, 
about  1815,  and,  according  to  his  own  account,  worked 
on  his  father's  farm  in  his  youth.  The  residents  of  that 
vicinity,  however,  testified  that  the  Smith  family  avoided 
honest  labour,  had  a  bad  reputation,  and  spent  much 
time  in  digging  for  hidden  treasures.  He  pretended 
that  he  received  in  1827  a  divine  revelation  written  on 
golden  plates  which  were  brought  to  him  by  an  angel, 
and  that  the  "  Book  of  Mormon,"  which  he  published 
in  1830,  was  translated  from  those  golden  plates.  The 
real  author  of  the  "  Book  of  Mormon"  was  Solomon 
Spalding,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  who  at  his  death  left 
in  manuscript  an  absurd  story  of  his  invention,  purport- 
ing to  be  a  narrative  of  the  migration  of  the  ten  lost 
tribes  of  Israel  to  America,  and  maintaining  the  hy- 
pothesis that  the  American  Indians  are  descended  from 
the  Hebrews.  Smith  obtained  possession  of  this  manu- 
script, and  published  it  with  some  additions.  Having 
made  a  number  of  converts,  he  removed  with  them  to 
Kirtland,  Ohio,  in  1831,  and  afterwards  to  Independence, 
Missouri.  The  number  of  his  disciples  increased  rapidly, 
but  they  came  into  violent  collision  with  the  "Gentiles," 
and  were  expelled  from  Missouri  about  1838,  after  they 
had  defied  the  officers  of  the  law  and  committed  many 
outrages.  They  next  settled  in  Illinois  and  founded  the 
town  of  Nauvoo,  where  they  began  to  build  a  great  tem- 
ple in  1841.  Smith  amassed  a  large  fortune,  assumed - 
the  title  of  lieutenant-general  and  president  of  the  Church, 
and  exercised  absolute  authority  over  his  "saints."  He 
provoked  the  popular  indignation  by  attempts  to  seduce 
the  wives  of  other  men,  and  was  arrested  and  confined  in 
jail  at  Carthage.  In  June,  1844,  a  mob  broke  into  the 
jail  and  killed  Joseph  Smith.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Brigham  Young.     (See  Young,  Brigham.) 

See  "Autobiography  of  Joseph  Sniith  ;"  "Mormonism;  us 
Leaders  and  Designs,"  by  John  Hyde,  Jr.,  1857;  J.  B.  Turner. 
"Life  of  Joseph  Smith." 

Smith,  (May  Louise  Riley,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Rochester,  New  York,  in  1842.  She  has  been 
a  frequent  contributor  to  periodicals,  and  several  of  her 
poems  have  been  very  popular.  A  collection  of  them 
was  issued,  under  the  title  of  "  Fringed  Gentians,"  in 
1882. 

Smith,  (Melancthon,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1810.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  commander  in  1855.  He  commanded  the 
steamer  Mississippi  in  the  battle  by  which  Captain  Far- 
ragut  took  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862.  On  the  5th 
of  May,  1864,  he  fought  an  indecisive  battle  against  the 
iron-clad  ram  Albemarle  at  the  mouth  of  the  Roanoke 
River.  He  became  commodore  in  1866,  and  rear-admiral 
in  1870,  and  retired  in  1871. 

See  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Smith,  (Miles,)  an  English  bishop,  born  at  Herefora 
in  1568,  was  one  of  the  principal  translators  of  the  Bible. 
Died  in  1624. 

Smith,  (Richard,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Worcestershire  in  1500.  He  became  a  professor 
of  divinity  at  Oxford,  and  chaplain  to  Queen  Mary.  At 
the  execution  of  Ridley  and  Latimer,  Smith  preached  a 
sermon  on  the  text,  "  Though  I  give  my  body  to  be 
burned,  and  have  not  charity,  it  profiteth  me  nothing." 
Died  in  1563. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  p,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SMITH 


SMITH 


Smith,  (Richard,)  an  English  polemical  writer,  born 
in  Lincolnshire  in  1566.  He  wrote  in  defence  of  popery. 
Died  in  1655. 

Smith,  (RoKERT,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  dis- 
tinguished mathematician,  born  in  1689,  was  preceptor 
to  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  He  became  Plumian  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in  1716,  and  in  1742 
succeeded  Bentley  as  master  of  Trinity  College.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  entitled  "  Harmonics,  or 
the  Philosophy  of  Musical  Sounds,"  and  a  "  Complete 
System  of  Optics,"  (2  vols.  4to,  1738:)  the  latter  is  es- 
teemed a  standard  work.  Dr.  Smith  was  a  cousin  of 
Roger  Cotes,  some  of  whose  writings  he  published.  He 
had  been  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1718. 
Died  in  1768. 

Smith,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  in  Norfolk, 
England,  August  25,  1732,  graduated  in  1753  at  Caius 
College,  Cambridge,  and  was  chosen  to  a  Fellowship.  He 
became  a  priest  of  the  English  Church  in  1756,  and  went 
toCharleston,  South  Carolina.  He  was  president  of  South 
Carolina  College,  1786-98,  and  in  1795  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  South  Carolina.  Died  October  28,  1801.  He 
wrote  the  preface  to  the  American  Book  of  Common 
Prayer. 

Smith,  (Robert,)  of  Maryland,  an  American  minister 
of  state,  born  about  1757.  He  was  secretary  of  the  navy 
from  January,  1802,  to  March,  1805,  and  secretary  of 
state  from  March,  1809,  to  November,  181 1.  Died  in 
Baltimore  in  1842. 

Smith,  (Robert  Angus,)  F.R.S.,a  Scottish  chemist, 
born  near  Glasgow  about  1817.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Life  of  Dalton  and  a  History  of  the  Atomic 
Theory."     Died  May  12,  1884. 

Smith,  (Robert  Payne,)  an  English  clergyman,  dis- 
tiniiiiished  as  a  Hebraist  and  Arabic  scholar,  was  born 
in  1818.  He  became  in  1865  regius  professor  of  divinity 
in  the  University  of  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Authenticity 
and  Messianic  Interpretation  of  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah 
vindicated  in  a  Course  of  Sermons,"  (Oxford,  1862.) 

Smith,  (Robert  Vernon.)     See  Lyveden,  Lord. 

Smith,  (Samuel,)  a  popular  English  writer  of  re- 
ligious tracts,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1588,  was  a 
Presbyterian  preacher  during  the  civil  war  which  began 
in  1642.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The  Great 
Assize."     Died  after  i66o. 

Smith,  (Samuel,)  an  American  historian,  born  at 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1720.  He  published  a  "His- 
tory of  New  Jersey,"  (1755.)     Died  in  1776. 

Smith,  (Samuel,)  an  English  engraver  of  great  merit, 
lived  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Smith,  (Samuel  Francis,)  D.D.,  an  American  Bap- 
tist divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1808.  He  became  in  1842 
editor  of  the  "Christian  Review,"  at  Newton,  Massa- 
chusetts. He  has  published  a  number  of  popular  lyrics 
and  hymns. 

Smith,  (Samuel  J.,)  an  American  poet,  born  near 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1771.  He  died  in  1835,  and 
his  "  Miscellaneous  Writings"  were  published  in  1836. 

See  Cleveland's  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Smith,  (Samuel  Stanhope,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Pequea,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1750.  He  was  appointed  in  1779  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1794 
succeeded  his  father-in-law,  Dr.  Witherspoon,  as  presi- 
dent of  that  institution.  He  was  the  author  of  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1819. 

Smith,  (Seba,)  an  American  writer,  born  at  Buck- 
field,  Maine.  He  published  in  1833,  under  the  name  of 
"  Major  Jack  Downing,"  a  series  of  humorous  letters  on 
political  subjects,  which  became  widely  popular.  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Powhatan,"  a  poem,  "Away 
Down  East,  or  Portraitures  of  Yankee  Life,"  (1855,)  and 
"New  Elements  of  Geometry."     Died  in  1868. 

Smith,  (Rev.  Sydney,)  a  celebrated  English  divine 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Woodford,  in  Essex,  in  1771.  He 
studied  at  New  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a 
Fellow  in  1790.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  obtained 
the  curacy  of  Netherhaven,  in  Wiltshire,  about  1795.  He 
became  tutor  to  the  son  of  a  Mr.  Beach,  with  whom  he 


passed  about  five  years  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  asso- 
ciated with  Jeffrey,  Brougham,  and  other  Whigs.  He 
was  one  of  the  tounders  and  the  first  editor  of  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review,"  the  first  number  of  which  was 
issued  in  1802.  He  married  about  1800  a  lady  named 
Pybus,  and  removed  to  London  in  1804.  In  1806  he 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Foston-le-Clay,  in  York- 
shire. He  greatly  promoted  the  cause  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation by  an  anonymous  work,  entitled  "  Letters  on 
the  Subject  of  the  Catholics  to  my  Brother  Abraham, 
by  Peter  Plymley,"  (1807-08,)  which  had  a  very  large 
circulation.  In  1809  he  published  two  volumes  of  Ser- 
mons. For  many  years  he  was  a  regular  contributor 
to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  He  was  appointed  preb- 
endary of  Bristol,  and  rector  of  Combe-Florey,  (near 
Taunton,)  in  1828,  and  obtained  a  prebendal  stall  in 
Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  183 1.     Died  in  February,  1845. 

Sydney  Smith  was  greatly  distinguished  for  his  wit, 
humour,  and  conversational  powers.  Among  his  works 
is  "Elementary  Sketches  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1850.) 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Sydney  Smith,"  by  his  daughter,  Ladv  Hol- 
land, 2  vols.,  1855;  Ai-MBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1850,  and  July,  1855  ;  "  Quarterly  Review," 
vol.  xcvii.,  published  in  June  and  September,  1855 ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1855;  "North  American  Review"  for  July, 
1844,  (by  E.  P.  Whipple.) 

Smith,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  statesman  and 
scholar,  born  in  Essex  about  15 12.  He  studied  at 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge.  Having  spent  several 
years  in  France  and  Italy,  and  taken  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
at  Padua,  he  was  appointed,  after  his  return,  regius 
professor  of  law  at  Cambridge.  After  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI.,  he  was  appointed  in  1548  secretary  of  state, 
and  subsequently  sent  on  missions  to  Brussels  and  to 
the  court  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  He  was  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "The  English  Commonwealth,"  (1584,) 
a  treatise  "On  the  Correct  Pronunciation  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1577. 

See  Strvpe,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Smith,"  1698;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Smith,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
London  in  1638,  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Credibility  of 
the  Mysteries  of  the  Christian  Religion."    Died  in  17 10. 

Smith,  (Thomas  L.,)  an  artist,  born  in  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land, December  2,  1835.  He  studied  art  in  New  York, 
and  in  1870  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy.  He  attained  success  and  fame  as  a  painter 
of  winter  subjects,  and  has  written  much  on  subjects 
connected  with  art.  He  has  also  invented  a  system  of 
underground  telegraph  construction.     [Died  in  1884.] 

Smith,  (Thomas  Southwood,)  M.D.,  an  English 
physician  and  writer  of  great  merit,  born  about  1790. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  settled  in 
London,  where  he  became  physician  to  the  Fever  Hos- 
pital. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Westminster 
Review,"  to  which  he  contributed  several  excellent 
treatises,  one  of  which,  entitled  "The  Use  of  the  Dead 
to  the  Living,"  obtained  extensive  popularity.  His  other 
principal  works  are  an  essay  on  the  "  Divine  Govern- 
ment," "The  Philosophy  of  Health,"  (1834,)  and  a 
"  Treatise  on  Fever,"  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valua- 
ble that  has  appeared  on  the  subject.     Died  in  1861. 

See  Allibonk,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "New  Spirit  of  the 
Age,"  by  R.  H.  Horne. 

Smith,  (Toulmin,)  an  English  legal  and  miscella- 
neous writer,  born  in  Birmingham,  May  29,  1816,  pub- 
lished "The  Law  of  Nuisances  and  Sewage  Works," 
"  On  the  Discovery  of  America  by  the  Northmen  in  the 
Tenth  Century,"  etc.     Died  April  28,  1869. 

Smith,  (Walter  Chambers,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Scot- 
tish Free-Church  divine  and  poet,  born  in  Aberdeen  in 
1824.  He  was  educated  at  Marischal  College,  and  was 
ordained  in  London  in  1850.  His  pastorates  were  chiefly 
in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  He  published  "  The  Bishop's 
Walk,"  "  Oirig  Grange,"  "  Barland  Hall,"  "  Hilda  among 
the  Broken  Gods,"  etc. 

Smith,  (William,)  an  English  herald  and  antiquary, 
wiote  a  "Description  of  Cheshire."     Died  in  1618. 

Smith,  (William,)  of  Chichester,  an  English  por- 
trait-painter, born  in  1707,  was  a  brother  of  George, 
noticed  above.     Died  in  1764. 


cas  k:  9  a'i  s:  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  h,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji:^="See  Explanations,  i\  23.  \ 


SMITH 


SMYTH 


Smith,  (William,)  an  English  translator,  born  at 
Worcester  in  1711.  He  translated  Longinus  and  Thu- 
cydides  into  English.  He  became  Dean  of  Chester 
about  1758.     Died  in  1787. 

Smith,  (William,)  an  English  statesman,  was  elected 
to  Parliament  from  Sudbury  in  1784,  and  was  a  repre- 
sentative from  Norwich  in  1802.  He  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  cause  of  the  dissenters,  and  of  other 
reforms.     Died  in  1835. 

Smith,  (William,)  an  English  geologist,  born  at 
Churchill,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1769,  is  called  the  father 
of  English  geology.  He  was  the  first  in  England  to 
discover  the  constancy  in  the  order  of  the  superposition 
of  strata.  In  1799  he  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Order  of  the  Strata  and  their  Imbedded  Organic  Re- 
mains in  the  Vicinity  of  Bath."  He  published  the  first 
"Geological  Map  of  England,"  (1801,)  and  a  larger  map 
of  the  same  about  1815.  He  was  ar  ncle  of  John 
Phillips  the  geologist.     Died  in  1839. 

See  John  Phillips,  "Memoirs  of  William  Smith,"  1844. 

Smith,  (William,)  LL.D.,  an  English  philologfstand 
jurist,  born  in  London  in  1814.  He  studied  in  the 
University  of  London,  and  afterwards  became  professor 
of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  German  languages  at  the  in- 
dependent colleges  of  Homerton  and  Highbury.  He 
published  in  1842  his  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (i  vol.  8vo,)  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 
other  distinguished  scholars.  This  was  followed  by  the 
"Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  My- 
thology," (3  vols.  8vo,  1849,)  and  the  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Geography,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1857.) 
These  excellent  works  are  probably  the  most  valuable 
of  the  kind  in  the  language,  and  are  illustrated  by 
numerous  engravings.  Dr.  Smith  has  also  written  a 
"School  History  of  Greece,  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
the  Roman  Conquest,"  etc.,  a  "Latin-English  Diction- 
ary," (1855,)  an  "English-Latin  Dictionary,"  (1870,)  and 
other  educational  books.  He  is  the  chief  editor  of  a 
"Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  comprising  its  Antiquities, 
Biography,  Geography,  and  Natural  History,"  (3  vols. 
8vo,  1860-63,)  3nd  in  1875  completed  his  large  "Atlas 
of  Biblical  and  Classical  Geography."  In  1867  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  "  Quarterly  Review." 

Smith,  (Sir  William  Cusack,)  a  distinguished  Irish 
jurist,  and  friend  of  Edmund  Burke,  born  in  1766.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  high  offices 
to  be  solicitor-general  for  Ireland  in  1800,  and  baron  of 
the  exchequer  in  1802.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for 
eloquence,  legal  knowledge,  and  moral  rectitude,  and 
was  an  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation  and  other 
important  reforms.     Died  in  1836. 

Smith,  (William  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saint  Alban's,  Vermont,  in  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  He  commanded  a  division  in  the  Chick- 
ahominy  campaign,  became  a  major-general  about  July, 
1862,  and  served  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17 
of  that  year.  He  led  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg, December  13,  1862,  and  at  that  of  Cold  Harbour, 
June  3,  1864.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  1865. 
Resigned  in  1867. 

Smith,  (William  Loughton,)  an  American  diplo- 
matist and  statesman,  was  elected  to  Congress  from 
South  Carolina  in  1789,  and  in  1800  was  appointed 
minister  to  Spain.  He  published  several  political  works 
and  essays,  under  the  signature  of  "  Phocion."  Died 
in  1812. 

Smith,  (William  Robertson,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish 
Orientalist,  born  at  Keig,  Aberdeenshire,  November  8, 
1846.  He  studied  at  Aberdeen,  at  New  College,  Edin- 
burgh, at  Bonn,  and  at  Gottingen.  He  was  ordained  a 
clergyman  of  the  Free  Church,  and  was  professor  of 
Hebrew  in  the  Free-Church  College,  Aberdeen,  1870-81. 
In  1 88 1  he  was  removed  by  the  General  Assembly  from 
that  office  on  account  of  his  views  regarding  some  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament.  He  afterwards  was  assistant 
editor  of  the  " Encyclopaedia  Biitannica,"  ninth  edition, 
and  in  1883  became  a  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Jewish  Church,"  (1880,)  and  "The  Prophets 
of  Israel,"  (18S2.) 


Smith,  (Sir  William  Sidney,)  a  celebrated  English 
admiral,  born  at  Westminster  about  1764.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  attained  the  rank  of  captain, 
and  commanded  a  flotilla  against  the  French  in  the 
campaign  of  1796,  in  which  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
Having  effected  his  escape  in  1798,  he  was  appointed  to 
command  a  squndron  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  skill  and  bravery  in  the  defence 
of  Saint  Jean  d'Acre  against  Napoleon's  army.  After 
signing  a  treaty  with  Kleber  for  the  evacuation  of  Egypt 
by  the  French,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Rochester  in  1802.  He 
became  vice-admiral  in  1810,  and  admiral  in  1821.  Died 
in  1840  or  1841. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  John  Bar- 
row, "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  Wm.  Sidney  Smith,"  1848; 
Captain  Marrvat,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Wm.  Sidney  Smith,"  1839 
La    Roquette,    "  Notice    historique    siir    Sidney    Sniilli,"    1850 
"  Nouvelle    Biographic   G^nerale;"    "Blackwood's   Magazine"   fct 
March,  1848. 

Smith'son,  (James,)  an  English  chemist  and  scien 
tific  writer,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  studiec 
at  Oxford,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  chemical  analysis 
and  experimental  physics.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Composition  and  Crystalliza- 
tion of  Certain  Sulphurets  from  Huel  Boys  in  Cornwall," 
"  On  a  Saline  Substance  from  Mount  Vesuvius,"  and 
"  Facts  relating  to  the  Colouring-Matter  of  Vegetables." 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  friend  of  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  and  other  eminent  philosophers  of  the 
time.  He  died  in  1829,  leaving  the  whole  of  his  property 
to  found  at  Washington,  in  the  United  States,  an  insti- 
tution, called  by  his  name,  for  the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge. 

Smits,  (DiRK,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rotterdam  in 
1702.  His  productions,  among  which  is  "  De  Rotte 
Stroom,"  (1750,)  are  eulogized  by  Gravenweert.  Died 
in  1752. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Gravkm 
WEEKT,  "  Litterature  N^erlandaise." 

Smitz  or  Smits,  sm!ts,  (Caspar,)  a  Dutch  portrait 
painter,  who  worked  in  England  and  Ireland.  He  ex- 
celled in  painting  Magdalens,  and  was  called  Magdalen 
Smith.     Died  in  1689. 

Smitz,  (Louis,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  flowers  and  fruit, 
born  at  Dort  in  1635  ;  died  in  1675. 

Smol'lett,  (Tobias  George,)  a  distinguished  British 
novelist  and  historian,  born  in  the  vale  of  Leven,  Dum- 
bartonshire, Scotland,  in  1 721.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Glasgow,  and  entered  the  royal  navy  as  surgeon's  mate 
about  1 741.  Having  quitted  the  naval  service  in  disgust 
about  1744,  he  settled  in  London.  He  produced  coarse 
satires,  entitled  "Advice,"  (1746,)  and  "Reproof."     In 

1747  he  married  a  Creole  named  Miss  Lascelles,  and  in 

1748  published  "Roderick  Random,"  a  novel,  which 
was  successful  and  displayed  a  great  talent  for  humour. 
His  next  work  was  "Peregrine  Pickle,"  a  coarse  and  li- 
centious tale,  (1751.)  "  Count  Fathom,"  another  romance, 
similar  in  character  to  the  preceding,  appeared  in  1753. 
He  was  not  successful  in  obtaining  practice  as  a  phy- 
sician. In  1758  he  published  a  "Complete  History  of 
England  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,"  (6  vols.,)  which  was  received  with  favour, 
although  it  has  little  merit  except  the  style.  He  after- 
wards wrote  a  "  Continuation  of  the  History  of  England" 
to  the  year  1764.  During  the  administration  of  Lord 
Bute,  Smollett  edited  "  The  Briton,"  a  political  paper 
which  supported  the  ministry  and  was  denounced  by 
John  Wilkes  in  the  "  North  Briton."  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  "  The  Expedition  of  Humphrey 
Clinker,"  (1771.)  He  went  to  Italy  for  his  health  in 
1770,  and  died,  near  Leghorn,  in  October,  1771. 

See  R.  Anderson,  "Life  of  T.  Smollett,"  1803;  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  "  Biographical  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;"  Dr.  Moore, 
"Life  of  Smollett ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  Hazlitt,  "  Comic  Writers  ;"  "  Inedjted  Memorials  of 
Smollett,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1859  ;  Cary,  "Lives 
of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke  White  ;"  Allibonk,  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors . " 

Smybert     See  Smibert. 

Smyth,  (Clement,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at  Finlea, 
county  of  Clare,  Ireland,  January  24,   18 10.     He  origi 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/wr(;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon 


SMYTH 


2213 


SNORRI-STURL  USON 


rilly  bore  the  name  of  Timothy  Smyth.  He  in  youth 
joined  the  Order  of  the  Presentation,  but  was  afterwards 
transferred  to  the  Trappists  of  Melleray.  In  1844  he 
was  ordained  a  priest.  In  1849  he  went  to  Iowa,  and 
tnere  founded  the  abbey  at  New  Melleray,  of  which  he 
became  the  prior.  In  1857  he  was  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Thanasis,  and  made  administrator  of  the  see 
of  Chicago,  and  in  1858  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
Dubuque.     Died  September  23,  1865. 

Smyth,  (Egbert  Coffin,)  D.D.,  an  American  Con- 
gregationalist  divine,  born  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  August 
29,  1829.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1848, 
studied  divinity  in  the  Seminaries  of  Andover  and  Ban- 
gor and  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  in  Bowdoin  College,  1854-56,  and  of  natural 
and  revealed  religion,  1856-63,  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  An- 
dover Seminary.  His  principal  works  are  "  Discourses 
upon  the  Religious  History  of  Bowdoin  College,"  (1858,) 
and  a  translation  (with  C.  J.  H.  Ropes)  of  Uhlhorn's 
"  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism,"  (1879.)  He 
is  a  large  contributor  to  current  review  literature. 

Smyth,  (James  Carmichael,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  1741,  published  several  medical  works,  and  dis- 
covered a  method  of  preventing  contagion  by  the  use 
of  nitrous  vapour.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety.    Died  in  1S21. 

Smyth,  (Newman,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  whose 
name  in  full  is  Samuel  Phillips  Newman  Smyth.  He 
was  born  in  Brunswick,  Maine,  June  25,  1843,  and  is  a 
son  of  Professor  William  Smyth,  and  a  brother  of  Pro- 
fessor E.  C.  Smyth.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1863,  served  as  a  volunteer  officer  in  the  army,  1864- 
65,  and  entered  the  Congregational  ministry.  A  suspi- 
cion of  doctrinal  unsoundness  caused  his  rejection  when 
proposed  as  a  candidate  for  a  professorship  in  Andover 
Seminary,  but  he  was  soon  after  called  to  an  important 
pastorate  in  New  Haven.  His  principal  works  are  "  The 
Religious  Feeling,"  (1877,)  "  Old  Faith  in  a  New  Light," 
(1879,)  "Orthodox  Theology  of  To-Day,"  (i88i,)  and 
"Dorner  on  the  Future  State,"  (1883). 

Smyth,  (PiAZZi,)  a  British  astronomer,  a  son  of  W. 
H.  Smyth,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Naples,  January  3, 
1819.  In  1845  he  was  appointed  astronomer  royal  for  Scot- 
land, and  professor  of  practical  astronomy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh.  Among  his  works  are  "  Teneriffe," 
"Three  Cities  in  Russia,"  (1862,)  "Life  and  Work  at 
the  Great  Pyramid,"  (1867,)  "  Antiquity  of  Intellectual 
Man,"  (1868,)  "Our  Inheritance  in  the  Great  Pyramid," 
and  many  volumes  of  astronomical  reports. 

Smyth,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  born  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in 
1808,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1832  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Charleston,  South  Carolina.  He  has  published  "The 
Life  and  Character  of  Calvin  Defended,"  and  other 
theological  and  controversial  works.     Died  in  1873. 

Smyth,  (Thomas  A.,)  a  general,  born  in  Ireland, 
emigrated  to  the  United  States.  For  his  conduct  at 
Cold  Harbour,  June,  1864,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  killed  near  Farmville,  Virginia,  in 
April,  1865. 

Smyth,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  scholar, 
born  at  Liverpool  in  1766.  He  took  his  degree  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  appointed  in  1809  professor 
of  modern  history.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity,"  "  English  Lyrics,"  and  a 
collection  of  "  Lectures."     Died  in  1849. 

Smyth,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1788,  was  employed  in  1823 
in  a  survey  of  the  coast  of  Sardinia.  He  published 
a  "  Sketch  of  the  Present  State  of  the  Island  of  Sar- 
dinia," and  "  The  Mediterranean  :  a  Memoir,  Physical, 
Historical,  and  Nautical,"  (1854.)  He  was  made  a 
rear-admiral  in  1853.     Died  in  1865. 

Snape,  (Andrew,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Hampton  Court  about  1670.  He  wrote  against  Hoadly. 
Died  in  1742. 

Snayers,  sni'ers,  (Henry,)  a  skilful  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Antwerp  in  1612.  He  engraved  some 
works  of  Rubens. 


Snayers,  (Pierre,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1593.  He  painted  landscapes  and  battles.  Died 
in  1670. 

SnSII,  (LUDWIG,)  born  at  Idstein,  in  the  duchy  of 
Nassau,  in  1785,  became  professor  of  political  science 
at  Berne,  in  Switzerland.     Died  in  1854. 

Snell,  (Rudolph,)  a  Dutch  mathematician  and  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Oudenarde  in  1547,  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Leyden.     Died  in  1613. 

Snell,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  jurist,  brother  of  Lud- 
wig,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Idstein  in  1789.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Bale,  Zurich, 
and  Berne,1n  Switzerland.     Died  in  1851. 

Snell,  [Lat.  Snel'lius,]  (Willebrod,  )  a  Dutch 
mathematician,  born  at  Leyden  in  1591,  was  a  son  of 
Rudolph,  noticed  above.  He  discovered  the  law  of  the 
refraction  of  light,  that  the  sines  of  the  angles  of  incidence 
iind  refraction  have  to  each  other  a  constant  ratio.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Cyclometricus,"  (1621,) 
a  treatise  on  the  measurement  of  a  circle.    Died  in  1626. 

See  FoppENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica  ;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire  de» 
Math^matiques." 

Snellaert,  sneKliRt,  (Ferdinand  Augustyn,)  a 
distinguished  Belgian  writer,  born  at  Courtrai  in  1809. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  essay  on  the  history 
of  Flemish  poetry,  entitled  "Over  de  Nederlandsche 
Dichtkunst  in  Belgie,"  (1838,)  and  "A  Brief  Sketch  of 
Dutch  and  Flemish  Literature,"  ("  Kort  Begrip  eener 
Geschiedenis  der  Nederlandsche  Letterkunde,"  1849.) 
He  founded  a  society  for  the  cultivation  of  the  Flemish 
language.     Died  July  3.  1872. 

Snellincks,  siiSl'links,  or  Snellinx,  (Jan,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter  of  history  and  battles,  born  at  Mechlin  in 
1544.     He  worked  at  Antwerp.     Died  in  1638. 

Snellius.    See  Snell. 

Sne'then,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  Methodist  di- 
vine, born  on  Long  Island  in  1769,  settled  in  Maryland, 
and  was  elected  chaplain  to  Congress.  He  was  an 
eloquent  and  popular  preacher,  and  one  of  the  principal 
founders  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.     Died  in 

1845. 

Sneyders.    See  Snyders. 

Sniadecki,  sne-J-dSts'skee,  (Andrew.)  a  Polish 
physiologist,  born  in  1768,  studied  at  Pavia  under  Gal- 
vani  and  Volta,  and  subsequently  at  Edinburgh.  _He 
became  professor  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy  at  Wilna 
in  1797.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Theory  of  Organic 
Existences,"  (in  Polish,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  standard 
work  and  has  been  translated  into  French  and  German. 
Died  in  1838. 

See  Balinski,  "  Biographic  d'A.  Sniadecki,"  1846. 

Sniadecki,(JoHN,)  a  celebrated  Polish  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  in  Gnesen  in  1756,  was  a  brother 
of  Andrew,  noticed  above.  He  studied  at  Cracow,  and 
subsequently  visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  D'Alembert,  Laplace,  and  other  eminent  savants, 
and  on  his  return  to  Poland  became  professor  of  astron- 
omy and  mathematics  at  Cracow.  Having  resided  for  a 
time  in  England,  and  made  another  tour  on  the  continent, 
he  was  appointed  in  1806  rector  of  the  University  of 
Wilna,  which  under  his  direction  obtained  the  highest 
reputation  for  the  culture  of  the  exact  sciences.  Snia- 
decki was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Saint  Peters- 
burg Academy,  to  which  he  contributed  a  number  of 
valuable  astronomical  observations.  He  published  a 
"  Physical  and  Mathematical  Description  of  the  Globe," 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,"  in  which  he  opposes 
the  system  of  Kant,  "Spherical  Trigonometry,"  (1820,) 
"Miscellaneous  Writings,"  2  vols.,  (1822-24,)  and  other 
works,  which  are  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1830. 

Snorri-Sturluson,  snoR'ree  stur'lti-son,  written  also 
-Sturleson  or  -Sturulson,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
poets  and  scholars  of  Iceland,  was  born  in  11 78.  He 
was  educated  by  the  learned  Ion,  and  soon  distinguished 
himself  by  his  attainments  in  almost  every  department 
of  knowledge.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to  the  high 
office  of  interpreter  of  the  law,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  jarl,  (a  word  etymologically  related  and  nearly  corre- 
sponding to  our  "earl.")  His  avarice  and  his  turbulent 
disposition,  however,  involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  his 
own  family,  several  of  whom  joined  a  faction  of  his  ene- 


€  as  k;  g  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.  i 


SJVOV 


2214 


SOCRATES 


mies,  and  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  sons-in-law,  (1241.) 
His  greatest  work  is  a  collection  of  sagas,  entitled  the 
"  Heimskringla,"  which  has  been  translated  into  Latin, 
Swedish,  and  Danish  ;  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  writ- 
ten the  first  part  of  the  Snorra-Edda,  entitled  "  The 
Gylfa-Ginning,"  the  Scaldic  songs  called  "  Kanningar," 
and  "  Hattalykill,"  (the  "  Key  of  the  Wise.") 

See  Cronhoi.m,  "  Dissertatio  de  Snorronis  Sturlonidis  Historia," 
1841  ;      Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Snoy,  snoi,  (Regnier  or  Renier,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  physician,  born  at  Gouda  in  1477.  He  wrote  a 
Latin  history  of  Holland,  "  De  Rebus  Batavicis,"  {1620.) 
Died  in  1537. 

Snyders  or  Sneyders,  sni'ders,  or  Snyers,  sni'^rs, 
(Francis,)  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant 
werp  in  1579,  studied  fruit-  and  flower-painting  under 
Henry  van  Balen.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  delineation  of  animals  and  hunting-scenes, 
which  are  among  the  most  admirable  works  of  their 
kind.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Rubens  and  Jor- 
daens,  for  whose  pictures  he  frequently  painted  the 
animals  and  still  life.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
a  stag-hunt,  and  other  similar  productions,  painted  for 
Philip  HL  of  Spain.     Died  in  1657. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Soane,  (Sir  John,)  a  celebrated  English  architect, 
born  at  Reading  in  1753.  Having  studied  for  a  time 
under  Dance  and  Holland,  he  was  enabled,  through  the 
influence  of  Sir  William  Chambers,  to  visit  Italy  as 
a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  After  his  return  to 
England  he  was  successively  appointed  architect  to  the 
royal  woods  and  forests,  surveyor  to  Chelsea  Hospital, 
and  professor  of  architecture  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
(1806.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  the  Free- 
masons' Hall,  Dulwich  Gallery,  and  the  State  Paper 
OfiSce  in  Saint  James's  Park,  London.  He  died  in 
1837,  bequeathing  to  the  nation  his  valuable  collections 
of  ancient  and  modern  art. 

Soaneu,  so't'ndN',  (Jean,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at 
Riom  in  1647,  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Senez  in  1695,  and,  having  identified  himself 
with  the  Jansenists,  was  suspended  in  1727.  Died  in 
1740. 

See  Abbe  Gaultier,  "Vie  de  Soanen,"  1750. 

Soave,  so-i'vi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  teacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Lugano  in  1743.  He  was  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Milan,  and  professor  of  ideology  at  Pavia. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Moral  Tales," 
("  Novelle  moral!,")  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
at  Pa  via  in  1806. 

See  Savioli,  "  Elogio  di  Soave,"  1806 ;  "Vita  di  Fr.  Soave," 
(anonymous,)  1815. 

Sobieski,  so-be-§s'kee,  (James  Louis,)  a  Polish 
nobleman,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1667.  He  displayed  great  courage  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Turks  in  1683.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1696,  he  aspired  to  the  throne ;  but  the  Poles  pre- 
ferred Augustus  of  Saxony.     Died  in  1734. 

Sobieski,  (John  III.,)  a  celebrated  Polish  warrior 
and  king,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Galicia  in  1629.  At 
an  early  age  he  distinguished  himself  by  repelling  the 
invasions  of  the  Cossacks,  Tartars,  and  Russians,  and 
in  1665  was  made  grand  marshal  and  hetman  of  Po- 
land. In  1671  he  defeated  the  Turks  under  Mahomet 
IV.,  and  took  the  fortress  of  Kotzim.  On  the  death  of 
Michael,  King  of  Poland,  in  1674,  John  Sobieski  was 
elected  his  successor.  The  Turks,  having  again  invaded 
Poland,  were  soon  after  driven  out  by  Sobieski,  and  a 
peace  was  concluded  between  the  nations.  In  1683  he 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  Austrians  besieged  in  Vi- 
enna by  a  numerous  army  under  the  grand-vizier  Kara 
Mustafa,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  his  French  and 
German  allies,  raised  the  siege  of  the  city  and  expelled 
the  Turks  from  the  country.  He  died  in  1696,  having 
earned  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  truest  patriots  his 
country  has  produced. 

See  Coyer,  "  Histoire  de  Jean  Sobieski,"  3  vols.,  1761;  Sal- 
VANDV,  "Histoire  de  Pologne  sous  Jean  Sobieski,"  3  vols.,  1829; 
L.  RoGALSKi,  "Histoire  du  Regne  de  Sobieski,"  1847;  "Authentic 
Memoirs  of  John  Sobieski,"  by  A.  T.  Palmer;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Gen^rale." 


Socin.     See  SociNus. 

So-ci'nuB,  (Faustus,)  the  Latin  name  of  Fausto 
SozziNi,  (fows'to  sot-see'nee,)  [Fr.  Fauste  Socin,  fost 
6o's4n',]  an  eminent  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1539.  He  passed  twelve  years  at  Florence  in  the 
service  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  adopted 
anti-trinitarian  opinions.  In  1574  he  removed  to  Swit- 
zerland. After  he  had  spent  three  years  at  Bale  in  the 
study  of  theology,  he  visited  Transylvania,  and  in  1579 
began  to  propagate  his  doctrines  in  Poland,  where  he 
made  many  converts.  He  rejected  the  doctrines  of  pre- 
destination, atonement,  and  original  sin.  In  1594  he 
published  a  work  "On  Christ  the  Saviour,"  ("De  Jesu 
Christo  Servatore,")  for  which  he  was  violently  perse- 
cuted.    Died  in  Poland  in  1604 

See  J.  TouLMiN,  "Life  of  F.  Sodnus,"  1777;  Samuel  Przvp- 
covius,  "Vita  Fausti  Socini,"  1636  ;  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary ;"  PisARSKi,  "  Dissertatio  dc  Vita  F.  Socini,"  1788; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Socinus,  (L^ELius,)  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  and 
the  first  teacher  of  Socinian  doctrines,  was  born  at  Sienna 
in  1525.  He  was  versed  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  lan- 
guages. About  1545  he  emigrated  from  Italy,  probably 
to  avoid  persecution.  He  travelled  or  wandered  in 
France,  England,  Germany,  and  Poland.  He  appears 
to  have  acted  with  much  circumspection  and  reserve  in 
the  assertion  of  his  opinions,  which  were  similar  to 
those  of  Faustus  Socinus,  and  which  neither  Catholics 
nor  Protestants  would  then  tolerate.  Died  at  Zurich 
in  1562. 

See  C.  F.  Illgen,  "  Vita  F.  Socini,"  1814  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Cenerale." 

Socquet,  so'ky,  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  chemist,  born 
in  Savoy  in  1 771,  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Lyons  in  1809.  He  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1839. 

Soc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'LuK.pariK ;  Lat,  Soc'rates  ;  Fr.  Sc 
crate,  so'kRtt' ;  It.  Socrate,  so-kRi'ti,]  the  illustrious 
founder*  of  Grecian  philosophy,  was  born  at  Athens 
about  470  B.C.  Several  modern  writers,  on  the  author- 
ity of  Demetrius  Phalereus  and  others,  have  given  the 
fourth  year  of  the  seventy-seventh  Olympiad — that  is, 
468  B.C. — as  the  date  of  his  birth  ;  but  this  can  scarcely 
be  correct,  as  we  are  told  in  the  "  Apology"  of  Socrates 
that  he  was  then  (399  B.C.)  more  than  seventy  years  old  : 
hence  he  could  not  have  been  born  later  than  469  k.c. 
His  father,  Sophroniscus,  was  a  sculptor,  his  mother, 
Phaenarete,  a  midwife.  He  was  educated  to  his  father's 
art,  by  which  he  supported  himself  after  he  was  grown 
to  manhood.  Subsequently  Crito,  a  wealthy  and  gener- 
ous Athenian,  admiring  the  zeal  for  knowledge  and  the 
genius  evinced  by  Socrates,  furnished  him  with  the  means 
to  procure  books  and  pay  his  teachers  in  the  various 
branches  of  art  and  science  then  taught  at  Athens,  and 
afterwards  became  one  of  his  most  faithful  and  devoted 
disciples.  According  to  some  writers,  Socrates  was  a 
pupil  of  Anaxagoras  ;  but  this  is  very  doubtful,  as  Plato 
represents  him  in  the  "  Phjedo"  as  saying  that  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  Anaxagoras  from 
a  book  written  by  this  philosopher. 

Socrates  served  as  a  soldier  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war  in  three  different  campaigns.  He  was  remarkable 
for  the  fortitude,  or  rather  indifference,  with  which  he 
bore  the  severest  privations  and  hardships  of  a  military 
life.  In  one  of  the  actions  during  his  first  campaign  he 
saved  the  life  of  his  pupil  Alcibiades,  for  which  exploit 
he  would  have  received  the  prize  of  bravery,  (apiareia ;) 
but,  at  Socrates'  own  request,  it  was  transferred  to  Alci- 
biades. In  the  second  campaign,  at  the  battle  of  Delium, 
in  which  the  Athenians  were  defeated,  he  saved  the  life 
of  Xenophon,  another  of  his  pupils.  On  this  occasion, 
when  everywhere  around  him  was  fear  and  flight,  he 
exhibited  a  calm,  determined  courage  which  inspired  his 
pursuers  with  such  respect  and  fear  that  they  gladly 
permitted  him  to  retreat  unmolested.  He  afterwards, 
as  senator,  displayed  a  far  higher  and  rarer  courage. 
He  was  ordered  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants  to  assist  in 
bringing  back  to  Athens  Leon,  who,  to  escape  their 
tyranny,  had  fled  to  Salamis.     Socrates  firmly  refused 


•  "  He  may  be  justly  called,"  savs  Cicero,  "  the  father  of  Philoso- 
phy," (Jiarens  Fhilosophut  jure  did  potest.)    ("  Dc  Finibus,"  ii.  1.^ 


a,  e,  1,6,  u,y,/^«f,i,fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged  J  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y, short;  ^e,  \,q,  oiscure;  fir,  {i]],{kt;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


SOCRA  TES 


2215 


SOCRATES 


to  take  any  part  in  the  affair,  for  which  he  would  per- 
haps have  suffered  death  had  not  the  government  of 
the  Thirty  been  soon  after  overthrown.  On  a  previous 
occasion,  when  president  (epis'tatcs)  of  the  Prytanes, 
his  inflexible  devotion  to  justice  was  still  more  signally 
shown.  The  question  before  the  assembly  was  the  sen- 
tence to  be  passed  on  the  admirals  who  had  neglected 
to  bury  the  dead  after  the  battle  of  Arginusae.  The 
burial  of  the  dead  was  regarded  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
as  among  the  most  important  and  sacred  of  all  duties. 
It  was,  however,  clearly  proved  that,  owing  to  a  violent 
storm,  it  was  impossible  to  recover  the  bodies  of  the 
slain.  Had  the  question  then  been  put  to  vote,  the  ad- 
mirals would  beyond  doubt  have  been  acquitted.  But 
the  accusers  succeeded  in  adjourning  the  assembly,  on 
the  pretext  that  it  was  then  too  dark  to  count  the  hands 
of  the  voters.  Meanwhile,  everything  possible  was  done 
to  inflame  the  minds  of  the  people  against  the  accused. 
In  their  pity  for  the  dead,  the  multitude  lost  sight  of 
their  duty  to  the  living.  The  votes  were  to  be  given  on 
the  general  question  whether  the  admirals  had  been 
guilty  in  omitting  the  recovery  of  the  bodies  of  those 
who  fell  at  Arginusse.  If  they  should  be  found  guilty, 
the  penalty  for  all  was  death  and  the  confiscation  of 
their  property.  But  it  was  contrary  to  law  to  condemn 
all  by  one  vote  of  the  assembly.  Socrates,  as  epistates, 
refused  to  put  the  question  to  vote ;  he  would  in  no  wise 
sanction  what  was  illegal  and  unjust.  The  populace  be- 
came furious,  and  demanded  that  those  who  opposed 
their  will  should  themselves  be  punished.  The  other 
prytanes  yielded ;  Socrates  alone  remained  firm  and 
unmoved  by  the  menaces  of  the  angry  multitude.*  So 
the  question  could  not  be  put  to  vote  that  day,  and  the 
assembly  was  again  adjourned.  Afterwards,  however, 
another  epistates  was  chosen,  and  the  admirals  were 
condemned.  (See  Wigger's  "  Life  of  Socrates,"  pp.  lii.- 
Iv,)  Socrates  appears  to  have  held  no  office  in  the  gov- 
ernment except  that  of  senator,  already  referred  to.  He 
believed  that  he  was  called  by  Heaven  to  a  different 
class  of  duties, — to  be  a  teacher  of  wisdom  and  virtue, 
— and,  therefore,  the  voice  of  the  divinity!  within  him  had 
warned  him  against  engaging  in  the  contests  of  a  political 
fife.  He  availed  himself  of  every  opportunity  of  awaking 
in  the  minds  of  the  young  the  love  of  wisdom  ;  and,  if 
we  may  trust  the  accounts  that  have  come  down  to  us, 
he  was  endowed  not  only  with  a  talent  for  subtle  and 
profound  reasoning,  which  rendered  him  more  than  a 
match  for  the  ablest  sophists  and  rhetoricians  of  that 
age,  but  there  was  also  a  marvellous  and  irresistible 
fascination  in  his  talk,  of  which  history  furnishes  per- 
haps no  other  example.  /Elian  calls  this  peculiar  power 
"  the  Siren  of  Socrates."  "  When  I  hear  him  speak," 
says  Alcibiades,!  "  my  heart  leaps  up  more  than  the 
hearts  of  those  who  celebrate  the  Corybantic  mysteries; 
my  tears  are  poured  out  as  he  talks, — a  thing  I  have  seen 
happen  to  many  others  besides  myself.  I  have  heard 
Pericles  and  other  excellent  orators,  and  I  have  been 
pleased  with  their  discourses,  but  I  suffered  nothing  of 
this  kind ;  nor  was  my  soul  ever  on  these  occasions 
disturbed  and  filled  with  self-reproach.  .  .  .  But  he  has 
often  affected  me  in  the  way  I  describe,  until  the  life 
which  I  lead  seemed  hardly  worth  living.  ...  1  stop 


•  It  seems  more  than  probable  that  Horace  had  before  his  mind 
the  example  of  Socrates  tjravins;  the  fury  of  the  Athenian  mob,  and 
resisting  the  tyrannical  command  of  the  Thirty,  when  he  wrote  those 
well-known  lines  "  On  the  Just  Man,"  (lib.  iii.,  ode  3.) 
"  Justiim  et  tenacem  propositi  virum 

Non  civium  ardor  prava  jubentium, 

Non  vultus  instantis  tyranni 

Mente  quatit  solidd." 
t  It  may  not  be  improper  to  caution  the  reader  against,  a  mistake 
that  has  sometimes  arisen  from  the  use  of  the  term  "  demon"  or 
"  daemon"  in  speaking  of  the  divine  intimations  which  Socrates  be- 
lieved were  sometimes  given  him.  The  primary  signification  of  the  ex- 
pression to  ta.{,\t.6vi.ov ,  (from  Sainov,  "god,")  which  Socrates  applied 
to  his  supernatural  monitor,  is  "the  divinity,"  or  "the  divine  one." 
He  doubtless  meant  simply  to  say  that  some  divine  power  admonished 
him  to  do  or  not  to  do  certain  things.  The  suggestion  of  some  modern 
writers  that  Socrates  used  to  Sai^oi'ioi'  merely  to  express  certain 
intuitions  or  practical  judgments  which  he  could  not  readily  explain, 
will  scarcely  bear  examination.  It  appears  to  be  quite  evident  that 
he  himself  considered  these  intimations  to  be  not  merely  inexplicable, 
but.  in  the  strictest  sense,  supernatural  and  divine. 
JSee  Plato's  "  Banquet,"  (or  "Symposium.") 


my  ears,  therefore,  as  from  the  Sirens,  and  flee  away  as 
fast  as  possible,  that  I  may  not  sit  down  beside  him  and 
grow  old  in  listening  to  his  talk.  .  .  .  But  I  know  not 
if  any  one  of  you  have  ever  seen  the  divine  images 
which  are  withni  when  he  is  serious  and  opens  himself 
I  have  seen  them  ;  and  they  are  so  supremely  beautiful, 
so  golden,  so  divine  and  wonderful,  that  everything  which 
Socrates  commands  surely  ought  to  be  obeyed,  even  like 
the  voice  of  a  God." 

It  is  impossible  to  state  precisely  at  what  time  Socra- 
tes first  began  to  teach  ;  but  from  the  manner  in  which 
he  is  spoken  of  in  the  "(Zllouds"  of  Aristophanes,  (repre- 
sented for  the  first  time  423  B.C.,)  he  must  have  been 
already  well  known  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy.  Some 
have  assumed  that,  as  the  representation  of  that  comedy 
occurred  twenty-four  years  before  the  death  of  Socrates, 
it  could  have  had  no  share  in  producing  his  condemna- 
tion ;  but  the  truth  of  this  is  very  questionable.  It  is 
by  no  means  improbable  that  a  popular  drama  addressed 
to  the  prejudices  of  the  masses  should  leave  upon  their 
minds  a  permanently  unfavourable  impression,  which 
any  fresh  cause  might  excite  into  active  hostility. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  about  400  B.C.  an  orator  named  Lycon, 
with  Meletus,  a  poet,  and  Anytus,  an  influential  dema- 
gogue, brought  an  accusation  against  Socrates  that  he 
disbelieved  the  gods  of  his  country  and  sought  to  intro- 
duce new  deities,  and  that,  moreover,  he  was  guilty  of 
corrupting  the  Athenian  youth.  The  judges  declared 
him  guilty,  leaving  the  punishment  as  yet  undetermined. 
When  called  upon  to  offer  what  he  could  in  mitigation 
of  the  sentence,  he  would  make  no  concession.  Con- 
scious of  innocence,  he  would  not  confess  himself  guilty. 
His  calm,  dignified,  and  almost  haughty  manner  ap- 
pears to  have  irritated  and  incensed  the  judges,  who 
were  accustomed  to  the  most  humble  and  even  abject 
behaviour  from  those  whom  they  had  condemned.  He 
closed  his  defence,  or  "apology,"  with  these  memorable 
words :  "  We  must  now  depart,  I  to  die,  and  you  to 
live ;  but  which  of  us  has  the  happier  destiny  is  known 
only  to  God."  He  was  sentenced  to  death  by  a  majority 
far  greater  than  that  by  which  he  had  been  pronounced 
guilty.  By  a  law  of  Athens,  the  sentence  could  not  be 
carried  into  execution  until  the  return  from  Delos  of  the 
vessel  which  had  been  sent  thither  on  the  periodic  reli- 
gious embassy  or  mission  called  Theoria.  This  obtained 
for  him  a  reprieve  of  thirty  days,  which  he  spent  in  con- 
versation with  his  friends  on  the  highest  and  most  im- 
portant subjects, — among  others,  on  the  duty  of  obeying 
the  laws,  and  not  seeking  to  escape  from  them,  even  in 
cases,  like  his  own,  where  they  might  seem  to  be  applied 
unjustly ;  and  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  for  his 
own  belief  in  which  he  gave  perhaps  the  most  admirable 
arguments  that  have  ever  yet  been  offered  by  the  human 
intellect  in  support  of  that  sublime  doctrine. 

When  at  length  the  sacred  vessel  had  returned  from 
Delos,  and  the  order  was  sent  for  his  execution,  he 
drank  the  fatal  hemlock  with  the  utmost  composure,  as 
one  who  was  setting  out  on  a  happy  journey  might  drink 
to  the  health  of  the  friends  he  left  behind.  In  the  clos- 
ing scene  of  his  life  he  was  serene  and  even  cheerful, 
but  in  his  manner  there  was  nothing  like  bravado,  no- 
thing in  his  conduct  or  language  that  was  not  indicative 
of  simplicity  and  entire  sincerity.  He  approached  his 
death  not  as  one  who  demanded  of  the  gods  a  happy 
futurity  in  return  for  a  virtuous  life,  but  rather  as  one 
who  had  a  firm  though  humble  hope  that  the  Great 
Being,  whom  he  believed  to  exercise  a  benevolent  and 
constant  care  for  man,  would  free  him  from  the  disease 
and  darkness  incident  to  his  earthly  life,  and  give  him 
an  inheritance  in  a  divine  and  spiritual  kingdom.  He 
died  in  399  or,  as  some  say,  400  B.C. 

Socrates  has  been  regarded  by  almost  universal  con- 
sent as  the  most  perfect  example  of  a  wise  and  virtuous 
man  that  pagan  antiquity  presents  to  us.  Pope  but  ex- 
presses the  prevailing  sentiment  when  he  assigns  to  him 
the  first  place  among  the  heroes 

"  Of  less  noisy  and  less  guilty  fame, 
Fair  Virtue's  silent  train  ;  supreme  of  these 
Here  ever  shines  the  godlike  Socrates." — Temple  of  Fame. 
His  character  is  thus  given  by  his  friend  and  disciple 
Xenophon :  "  As  to  myself,  knowing  him  to  be  such  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,g7(ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  Ms.     (I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


SOCRATES 


2216 


SOISSONS 


man  as  I  have  described  ;  so  pious  towards  the  gods  as 
never  to  undertake  anything  without  first  consulting 
them  ;  so  just  towards  men  as  never  to  do  the  slightest 
injury  to  any  one,  while  he  conferred  the  greatest  bene- 
fits on  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him  ;  so  temperate 
and  chaste  as  never  to  prefer  pleasure  to  what  was  right ; 
so  wise  as  never  to  err  in  judging  of  good  and  evil,  nor 
needing  the  aid  of  others  in  order' properly  to  discrimi- 
nate between  them ;  so  able  to  discourse  upon,  and 
accurately  define,  such  points  as  those  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking ;  so  skilful  in  penetrating  the  hidden 
characters  of  men,  and  seizing  the  fittest  time  to  reprove 
the  erring  and  turn  them  to  the  paths  of  virtue ;  being 
such,  I  canniit  but  consider  him  as  the  most  excellent 
and  most  happy  of  mankind.  But  if  any  one  thinks 
differently,  let  him  compare  the  character  of  Socrates 
with  that  of  any  other  man  whatsoever,  and  then  let 
him  decide." 

Socrates  is  commonly  believed  to  have  been  very 
unfortunate  in  his  domestic  relations.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  there  is  much  exaggeration  in  the  reports 
that  have  come  down  to  us  of  Xanthippe's  intolerable 
temper.  Socrates  evidently  entertained  for  her  a  sincere 
regard,  and  speaks  highly  of  her  domestic  virtues.  (See 
Xenophon's  "Memorabilia,"  lib.  ii.  2,  7.) 

Socrates  committed  nothing  to  writing ;  he  taught  his 
disciples  by  oral  instruction  only.  Almost  all  that  we 
know  of  his  philosophic  views,  as  well  as  of  his  personal 
character,  is  derived  from  the  works  of  his  disciples 
Plato  and  Xenophon.  Of  all  whom  he  taught,  Plato 
alone  appears  to  have  fully  understood  the  essential 
character,  the  depth  and  extent,  of  his  philosophy.  But 
although  Plato  makes  Socrates  the  chief  interlocutor  in 
his  dialogues,  we  are  not  therefore  warranted  in  as- 
suming that  the  master  taught  every  doctrine  which  the 
disciple  has  attributed  to  him.  Plato,  doubtless,  often 
puts  his  own  thoughts  into  the  mouth  of  Socrates,  either 
from  motives  of  modesty  or  for  the  purpose  of  clothing 
them  with  greater  authority.  As  Mr.  Emerson  has  aptly 
remarked,  "  Socrates  and  Plato  are  the  double  star  which 
the  most  powerful  instruments  will  not  entirely  separ- 
ate."* By  a  comparison,  however,  of  the  writings  of 
Xenophon  and  Plato,  we  are  enabled  to  conjecture  with 
a  good  degree  of  confidence  the  essential  characteristics 
of  Socrates'  philosophy.  That  which  cannot  fail  to 
strike  every  thoughtful  reader  is  the  prominence  which 
he  gives  to  morality  in  all  his  teachings.  He  may  be 
said,  indeed,  to  contemplate  the  universe  from  an  ex- 
clusively moral  stand-point.  Anaxagoras  had  previously 
taught  that  there  was  an  infinite  autocratic  Intelligence 
or  Soul,  that  created  and  governed  all  things  ;  but  he 
ascribed  to  this  Intelligence  no  distinctly  moral  attri- 
butes. Socrates  likewise  recognized  an  infinite  creative 
Intelligence  as  the  Soul  of  the  universe,  but  he  also 
taught  that  this  power  was  invariably  exerted  in  con- 
formity to  certain  moral  attributes  which  constituted,  so 
to  speak,  the  basis  of  the  Divine  character. 

In  the  opinion  of  some  able  critics,  (of  Schleiermacher 
among  others,)  the  world  is  less  indebted  to  Socrates 
for  the  truths  which  he  arrived  at  or  discovered  than 
for  his  improved  method  of  philosophic  investigation. 
Socrates  employed  with  remarkable  success  a  mode  of 
reasoning  first  introduced  by  Zeno  of  Elea.  He  would 
ask  some  person,  the  errors  of  whose  opinions  he  wished 
to  expose,  a  simple  question,  the  answer  to  which  would 
seem  to  be  quite  obvious,  then  gradually  lead  him  on 
from  one  admission  to  another,  till  it  was  too  late  to 
retreat,  and  impossible  to  advance  without  ending  in 
some  absurdity.  It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  (as 
already  intimated)  how  much  of  the  improved  method, 
or  of  the  great  doctrines  which  we  discover  in  the  writings 
of  Plato,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  Socrates,  and  how  much  to 
his  illustrious  disciple.  (See  Plato.)  We  have,  however, 
the  direct  testimony  of  Aristotle  that  Socrates  must  be 
regarded  as  the  author  of  inductive  reasoning  and  of  ab- 
stract definitions.  In  Socrates  inductive  reasoning  is  seen 
in  its  incipient  and  simplest  form.  Subsequently  Aris- 
totle improved  greatly  on  the  idea  of  Socrates,  and  he 
has  giv«n  us  a  definition  of  induction  so  complete  and 


"  Sei-  nrtlcle  "  Plato."  in  his  "Representative  Men. 


perfect  that  it  could  scarcely  be  bettered  even  in  the  light 
of  modern  science,  (See  Aristotle.)  But  philosophy 
is  under  the  greatest  obligation  to  Socrates  for  teaching 
so  clearly  and  impressively  the  manner  and  spirit  with 
which  the  search  after  truth  should  be  conducted.  By 
pointing  out  the  importance  of  thoroughly  and  accurately 
defining  our  ideas  before  we  proceed  to  reason  upon 
them,  he  has  done  much  to  remove  the  most  fruitful 
and  most  universal  source  of  error  connected  with  human 
thought.  While  exposing  the  pretended  knowledge  of 
the  Sophists,  who  claimed  to  be  so  wise,  he  taught  how 
necessary  were  modesty  and  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
limits  and  weakness  of  the  human  intellect,  as  well  as 
of  its  powers,  for  the  successful  pursuit  of  truth.  So 
great,  so  transcendent  are  his  merits  in  these  respects, 
that,  as  has  justly  been  observed,  his  life  forms  an  era 
not  merely  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  but  in  that  of 
the  human  race. 

See  WiGGER,  "  Life  of  Socrates  ;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Ancieni 
Philosophy,"  (translated  by  A.  J.  W.  Morrison,  Oxford,  1838  ;) 
G.  H.  Lewes,  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy ;"  the  excellent 
irticle  on  "  Socrates"  in  the  "  Encyclopjedia  Britannica  ;"  .Schi.kikr- 
MACHER  on  the  "Worth  of  Socrates  as  a  Philosopher,"  (translated 
by  Thirlwall,  and  included  in  the  recent  English  version  of  WiG- 
gkr's  "Life  of  Socrates  ;")  F.  Charpentier,  "Vie  de  Socrate," 
1650;  Gilbert  Cooper,  "Life  of  Socrates,"  1749;  F.  D.  Gerlach, 
"Socrates  und  die  Sophisten,"  1S27;  J.  A.  Eberhard,  "  Neue 
Apologie  des  Socrates,"  1772;  H.  W.  Heller,  "Socrates,"  2 
vols.,  1789  ;  J.  G.  Hamann,  "  Socratische  Denkwiirdigkeiten,"  1759  '• 
Knorr,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita,  Fatis  atque  Philosophia  Socratis," 
1720;  A.  WiNBOM,  "Dissertatiode  Socrate,"  1734;  Xenophon,  "Me- 
morabilia;" Plato,  "Dialogues;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Socrates,  a  Greek  painter,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  320  B.C. 

Socrates  surnamed  Schol.vs'ticus,  [Fr.  Socrate  lk 
ScHOLASTiQUE,  so'kRtt'  leh  sko'lts'tik',]  a  Greek  eccle- 
siastical historian,  born  at  Constantinople  about  379  a.d. 
He  was  an  advocate  or  lawyer.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Church  from  306  to  439  a.d.,"  which  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  history  of  Eusebius,  and  is  highly  esteemed 
for  accuracy,  moderation,  and  impartiality.  He  was  op- 
posed to  all  persecution  for  religious  opinions.  Died 
after  440. 

See  Valesius  or  Valois,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Socratis;"  Voss, 
"  De  Historicis  Grascis." 

Soden,  so'den  or  zoMen,  (Friedrich  Julius  Hein- 
RlCH,)  Count,  a  German  writer,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1754.  He  published  several  dramas,  and  treatises  on 
political  economy.     Died  in  1831. 

Soderini,  so-di-ree'nee,  (Giovanni  Vettorio,)  an 
Italian  writer  on  agriculture,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1526  ;  died  in  1596. 

Soderini,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  magistrate,  born  at 
Florence  about  1450.  He  was  elected  gonfalonier  for 
jfe  in  1502,  but  was  deposed  in  15 12.     Died  in  1513. 

Sodoma,  II.     See  Razzl 

Soemmering.     See  Sommering. 

Soest.     See  SosT. 

Soeur,  Le,  leh  sur,  sometimes  written  Le  Sueur, 
(Hubert,)  an  able  French  sculptor,  born  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  removed  to  London  about  1630.  Among  his 
works  is  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  I.,  now 
at  Charing  Cross. 

Sogaro,  II.    See  Gatti,  (Bernardino.) 

SogLiani,  sol-y^'nee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  lived  about  1530. 

Sografi,  so-gRa'fee,  (Antonio  Simone,)  an  Italian 
dramatist,  born  at  Padua  in  1760.  He  produced  suc- 
cessful comedies,  among  which  is  "  Olive  and  Pascal." 
Died  in  1825. 

Sohn,  son  or  zon,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
painter  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1805  ;  died  in  1867. 

Soiron,  von,  fon  swi'riN',  (Alexander,)  a  German 
politician,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1805.  Devoted  to  the 
cause  of  the  unity  of  Germany,  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  movements  of  1848.     Died  May  6,  1855. 

Soissous,  de,  deh  sw^'sAn',  (Charles  de  Bour- 
bon— deh  booR'biN',)  Count,  born  in  1566,  was  a  son 
of  Louis  I.,  Prince  of  Conde.  He  fought  for  Henry  IV. 
against  the  League,  and  was  appointed  grand  master  of 
France  in  1589.  He  was  turbulent  and  inclined  to 
treachery.     Died  in  1612. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u.  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon 


SO/SSOiVS 


221  7 


SOLOMON 


SoisBons,  de,  Countess.   See  Mancini,  (Olympia.) 

Soissons,  de,  (Louis,)  Count,  a  son  of  Charles, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1604.  He  rebelled 
against  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
in  1641. 

Sola,  de,  de  so'li,  (Abraham,)  LL.D.,  a  rabbi  and 
author,  was  born  in  London,  England,  September  18, 
1S25.  His  father,  D.  A.  de  Sola,  (1796-1860,)  was  emi- 
nent as  a  rabbi.  The  younger  de  Sola  was  in  1848  made 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  McGill  University,  at  Montreal. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Jews  of  Poland,"  "  His- 
tory of  the  Jews  of  France,"  several  biographies,  and 
other  works,  besides  some  volumes  of  translations  of 
Jewish  writings,  chiefly  liturgical. 

Solander,  so-lin'der,  (Daniel  Charles,)  an  emi- 
nent Swedish  naturalist^nd  physician,  born  in  Nordland 
in  1736,  was  a  pupil  of  Linnseus.  He  took  his  medical 
degree  at  the  University  of  Upsal,  and  afterwards  visited 
Russia  and  England,  where  he  subsequently  became  an 
assistant  in  the  natural  history  department  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1764.  He  sailed  in  1768,  accompanied  by  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  with  Captain  Cook  on  his  first  voyage 
round  the  world.  They  returned  in  1771,  having  made 
a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  objects  in  natural  his- 
tory, and  in  1773  Solander  was  appointed  under-librarian 
at  the  British  Museum.  He  contributed  several  valuable 
articles  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  other 
scientific  journals.     Died  in  1782. 

Solari,  so-ld'ree,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter,  called 
also  Andrea  del  Gobbo,  an  Italian  painter,  flourished 
at  Milan  about  1500-20. 

Solari,  (Cristoforo,)  called  IL  Gobbo,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  a  brother  of  Andrea,  noticed  above,  worked 
at  Milan  about  1500. 

Solario,  da,  da  so-li're-o,  or  Solari,  so-lJ'ree,  (An- 
tonio,) an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Zingaro,  ("the 
Gypsy,")  born  about  1382,  was  originally  a  blacksmith. 
He  became  the  son-in-law  of  Colantonio  del  Fiore,  who 
gave  him  his  daughter  on  condition  of  his  acquiring 
distinction  as  a  painter.     Died  in  -1455. 

See  G.  A.  Moschini,  "Memorie  dellaVita  di  A.  de  Solano,"  1828. 

Soldani,  sol-di'nee,  (Ambrogio,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist, born  at  Foppi,  in  Tuscany,  in  1733.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  researches  in  microscopic  fossil  shells, 
and  published  "  Testaceography  and  Zoophytography," 
etc.,  ("  Testaceographia  ac  Zoophytographia  parva  et 
microscopica,"  3  vols.,  1789-98.)     Died  in  1808. 

See  G.  BiANCHi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  A.  Soldani,"  i8o8 ;  Ricca, 
"  Discorso  sopra  le  Opera  di  A.  Soldani,"  1810;  Tipaldo,  "Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Soldani,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence 
in  1579.  He  wrote  seven  Satires,  which  the  Academy 
Delia  Crusca  approved  as  testidi  Imgua.     Died  in  1641. 

Soldani,  (Massimiliano,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  en- 
graver of  medals,  born  at  Florence  in  1658  ;  died  in  1740 

Sole,  del,  dSl  so'li,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian 
landscape-painter,  born  about  1600;  died  about  1680. 

Sole,  del,  (Giangioseffo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1654,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
painted  some  frescos  at  Milan.  His  works  (part  0/ 
which  are  in  oil)  are  highly  praised.     Died  in  1719. 

Soleil,  so'lil'orso'li'ye,  (Jean  Baptiste  Francois,) 
a  Frenchman,  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  the  fabrication 
of  optical  instruments  and  philosophical  apparatus,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Fresnel 
in  his  scientific  labours.     Died  November  17,  1878. 

Solger,  soKger  or  zol'ger,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  German  writer  on  philosophy  and  aesthetics, 
born  at  Schwedt  in  1780;  died  in  1819. 

Solie,  so'le-i',  or  Soiilier,  soo'le-4',  (Jean  Pierre,) 
a  French  actor  and  composer  of  operas,  was  born  at 
Nimes  in  1755  ;  died  in  1812. 

Soliguac,  so'lfen'yik',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1687,  became  secretary  to 
Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Poland,"  (6  vols.,  1751.)     Died  in  1773. 

Solimin,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  Solyman. 

Soliman  or  Solyman,  so'le-mln',  Sultan  of  Persia, 
born  in  1646,  was  the  son  of  Abbas  II.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1666.     He  was  a  weak  and  depraved  prince, 


and  abandoned  the  control  of  the  empire  to  his  able 
minister.  Sheik  Alee  Khan.     Died  in  1694. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia." 

Soliman,  so'le-min',  or  Suleymftn,  soo-la-min', 
written  also  Solymiii,  (Ibn-Abd-el-Malek,  ib'n  ibd- 
el  mtl'ek,)  seventh  Caliph  of  the  Omeyyade  dynasty, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  715  a.d.     Died  in  717. 

See  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi. 

Solim^  or  Suleym^n,  (Ibn-Al-H^kem,  ib'n  al- 
hi'kem,)  a  Moorish  soldier,  who  took  possession  of 
Cordova,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king,  in 
1009  A.D.     He  was  defeated  and  slain  in  1016. 

Solimena,  so-le-ma'ni,  (Francesco,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter  and  poet,  sometimes  called  L'Ab.\TE  CiCCIO, 
(chit'cho,)  was  born  in  1657.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  his  oil-paintings  in  the  chapel  of  San  Felippo  Neri, 
and  the  frescos  of  the  sacristy  of  the  Theatines  of  Saii 
Paolo  Maggiore.  He  was  a  friend -of  Luca  Giordano, 
whom  he  equalled  in  genius  and  reputation.  He  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  sonnets.     Died  in  1747. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Domknici,  "Vite 
de'  Pittori  Napoletani." 

Solln.     See  Solinus. 

So-li'nus,  [Fr.  Solin,  so'I^n',]  (Caius  Julius,)  a 
Latin  writer,  of  whom  little  is  known,  lived  probably  in 
the  third  century.  He  left  a  work  called  "  Polyhistor," 
which  describes  the  world  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
is  a  compilation  from  Pliny's  "  Natural  History."  Sal- 
masius  published  an  edition  of  the  "Polyhistor,"  in 
1629. 

Soils,  de,  di  so'lJss,  (Juan  Diaz,)  a  Spanish  navi- 
gator, born  in  the  province  of  Seville,  sailed  in  company 
with  Pinzon  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  and 
discovered  Yucatan.  In  15 12  Solis  set  out  on  another 
voyage,  in  which  he  discovered  Cape  Frio  and  obtained 
information  from  the  Indians  of  gold  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Paraguay.  Having  returned  with  this  account,  he 
sailed  again,  in  15 15,  with  three  vessels,  but  was  mur- 
dered, with  a  great  part  of  his  crew,  by  the  Indians,  soon 
after  landing. 

Solis  y  Ribadeneira,  de,  di  so'l^ss  e  re-bi-Di- 
na'e-ra,  (Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist  and 
historian,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares  in  1610.  While 
studying  law  at  Salamanca,  he  published  a  comedy  en- 
titled "Love  and  Duty,"  which  was  very  successful. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  Philip  IV.,  and,  after  his 
death,  historiographer  of  the  transactions  of  the  Span- 
iards in  the  Indies.  Among  his  dramas  we  may  name 
the  co.nedies  of  "  The  Gypsy-Girl  of  Madrid,"  ("  La 
Gitanilla"  (or  "  Preciosa")  "  de  Madrid,")  "  One  Fool 
will  make  a  Hundred,"  ("  Un  Bobo  hace  Ciento,")  and 
"The  Castle  of  Mystery,"  ("  El  Alcazar  de  Secreto.") 
His  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  ("  Con- 
quista  de  Mejico,"  5  vols.,  16S4,)  though  not  reliable  in 
point  of  accuracy  and  impartiality,  possesses  merit  of  a 
rery  high  order,  atid  has  been  translated  into  several 
languages.  Prescott  observes,  "  In  the  judgment  of 
eminent  Spanish  critics,  the  style  of  Solis  claims  the 
merits  of  perspicuity,  copiousness,  and  classic  elegance;" 
and  he  adds,  "such  is  the  charm  of  its  composition  and 
its  exquisite  finish  as  a  work  of  art,  that  it  will  doubtless 
be  as  imperishable  as  the  language  in  which  it  is  written, 
or  the  memory  of  the  events  which  it  records."  Died 
in  1686. 

See  Prescott,  "  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  iii.  book  \'i.  ;  Tick- 
NOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  :"  N.  Antonio,  "  Biblioth<;c--> 
Hispana  Nova;"  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires." 

SoUohub  or  Sollogub.     See  Zollogoob. 

Solms,  a  family  of  German  princes  and  counts,  of 
which  the  principal  houses  are  Solms-Braunfels  and 
Solms-Laubach. 

Sol'o-mon,  [Heb.  nroSjy ;  Gr.  2o;io//wv ;  Fr.  Salo- 
mon, sI'Io'itiAn'  ;  Ger.  Salomo,  zS'lo-mo,]  a  Jewish 
king,  whose  name  is  proverbial  for  wisdom,  was  a  son 
of  King  David  and  Bathsheba.  He  was  born  about 
1033  B.C.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1015.  He  formed 
an  alliance  with  Pharaoh,  King  of  Egypt,  whose  daughter 
he  married.  Soon  after  his  accession  he  began  to  build 
the  magnificent  Temple  which  bore  his  name.  He  founded 
the  city  of  Tadmor  or  Palmyra.  In  his  pacific  reign  the 
Jewish  kingdom  rose  to  its  highest  prosperity  and  great- 


*  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  luisal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SOLOMON 


2218 


SOLYMAN 


est  power.  He  wrote  or  compiled  the  collection  of 
Proverbs  which  form  one  of  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Bible ;  also  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Book  of 
Canticles.  He  married  a  large  number  of  "strange 
women,"  who  seduced  him  into  idolatry.  He  died,  aftet 
a  reign  of  forty  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Rehoboam. 

See  I.  Kings  i  -xi.  :  II.  Chronicles  i,-x.  ;  Thomas  Thomas, 
"  History  of  the  Reign  of  Solomon,"  iSi-?;  J.  L.  Ewai.d,  "Salomo; 
Versuch  einer  psychologisch-biographischen  Darstelliing,"  1800. 

Sol'o-mon,  (Abraham,)  an  English  painter,  born 
about  1823.  Among  his  works  is  "  Waiting  for  the 
Verdict."     Died  at  Biarritz  in  December,  1862. 

Solomon  Ben  Gabirol.     See  Avicebron. 

Solomon  Ben  Isaac.     See  Jarchi. 

Sol'o-mon  Ben  Vir'ga,  a  Spanish  physician  and 
rabbi  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Jews. 

Sol'o-mos,  (Denys,)  Count,  a  modern  Greek  poet, 
born  in  the  island  of  Zante  in  1798.  Besides  other  poems, 
he  wrote  about  1825  a  "  Hymn  to  Liberty,"  which  was 
very  popular.     Died  in  1857. 

So'lon,  [Gr.  SoAwv;  It.  Solone,  so-lo'ni,]  an  illus- 
trious Athenian  legislator,  born  in  the  island  of  Salamis 
about  638  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Execestides  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Codrus.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  merchant  and 
visited  foreign  countries.  Some  say,  however,  that  he 
travelled  rather  to  gratify  his  curiosity  and  extend  his 
knowledge  than  to  improve  his  fortune.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  poetical  talents  in  the  early  part  of 
his  life,  and  cultivated  chiefly  that  part  of  moral  phi- 
losophy which  treats  of  civil  obligations.  Fragments 
of  his  poetry  are  still  extant  and  highly  prized.  The 
first  recorded  public  service  of  Solon  was  his  successful 
expedition  to  Salamis,  which  he  recovered  from  the  Me- 
garians.  When  he  began  his  career,  the  Athenian  state 
was  demoralized  bv  discordant  factions  and  oppressive 
laws.  A  large  portion  of  the  people  were  insolvent 
debtors,  liable  to  be  reduced  to  slavery.  There  were 
three  political  parties,  thus  described  by  Plutarch  :  "The 
inhabitants  of  the  mountains  were,  it  seems,  for  a  de- 
mocracy, those  of  the  plains  for  an  oligarchy,  and  those 
of  the  sea-coast  contended  for  a  mixed  kind  of  govern- 
ment." In  594  B.C.  he  was  elected  archon,  and  was 
accepted  as  mediator  and  lawgiver  by  the  opposing 
parties,  "  the  rich  accepting  him  readily  as  one  of  them, 
and  the  poor  as  a  good  and  worthy  man."  (Plutarch.) 
He  relieved  debtors  by  a  reduction  of  the  rate  of  interest, 
and,  according  to  some  authorities,  cancelled  debts  and 
liberated  lands  from  mortgage.  "  This  was  the  first  of 
his  public  acts,"  says  Plutarch,  "that  debts  should  be 
forgiven,  and  that  no  man  should  take  the  body  of  his 
debtor  for  security."  He  refused  to  make  himself  King 
of  Athens,  although  both  parties  urged  him  to  accept 
the  supreme  power.  He  repealed  the  bloody  laws  of 
Draco,  except  those  made  for  the  punishment  of  murder. 
He  established  the  council  or  court  of  the  Areopagus  to  be 
inspectors  and  guardians  of  the  laws,  and  he  remodelled 
the  political  constitution  bv  dividing  the  people  into  foui 
classes,  the  influence  or  privilege  of  which  was  propor- 
tioned to  their  income.  The  lowest  class  could  vote,  but 
could  not  hold  office.  He  ordained  that  new  measures 
should  be  first  considered  in  the  senate,  and,  if  they  were 
approved  by  that  body,  should  be  proposed  to  the  popular 
assembly,  which  had  power  to  adopt  or  reject  them. 
Having  been  asked  whether  he  had  given  the  Athenians 
the  best  of  laws,  he  answered,  "  The  best  they  were 
capable  of  receiving."  After  he  had  finished  his  great 
legislative  task,  he  obtained  leave  of  absence  for  ten 
years,  and  visited  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  He  returned 
to  Athens  in  his  old  age,  and  opposed  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Pisistratus.  He  began  a  poem,  the  subject 
of  which  was  the  fabulous  island  of  Atlantis,  but  did  not 
live  to  finish  it.  Solon  was  ranked  among  the  Seven 
Sages  of  Greece.     Died  about  558  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Solon  :"  Meursius,  "  Solon,  seu  de  ejus 
VHta,  Legibus,"  etc.,  1612;  G.  Schmidt,  "De  Solone  Legislatore," 
16S8  :  H.  ScHELLiNG,  "  be  Solonis  Legibus,"  1842  ;  Grote,  "  History 
of  Greece  :"  B6ckh,  "Economie  politique  des  Athdniens;"  Kleine, 
"Qusestiones  de  Solonis  Vita  et  Fragmentis,"  1832. 

Solon,  a  Greek  gem-engraver,  who  flourished  proba- 


bly about  I  A.D.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Dioscorides. 
His  name  occurs  on  several  gems. 

Solovieflf,  sol-o've-ef,  (Sergei,)  a  Russian  author, 
born  in  1820.  He  published  a  "History  of  Russia." 
Died  in  1S79. 

Soltikof,  sol'te-kof,  written  also  Soltikow,  Sol- 
tikov,  and  Ssaltykovw,  (Nicolai  Ivanovitch,)  a  Rus- 
sian general  and  statesman,  born  in  1736,  was  tutor  to 
the  grand  duke  Alexander,  afterwards  emperor.  He  was 
appointed  field-marshal  in  1796,  president  of  the  Impe- 
rial Council  in  1812,  and  made  a  prince  in  1814.  Died 
in  1816.  His  grandson  Ale.xei  has  published  "Travels 
in  India,"  (1849,)  and  "Travels  in  Persia,"  (1851,)  in 
French  and  Russian. 

See  SviNiNi,  "Histoire  du  Feld-Mardchal  Soltikof,"  1818. 

Soltikof,  Soltikow,  or  Ssaltykow,  (Peter  Se- 
MENOViTCH,)  a  Russian  general,  born  about  1700,  became 
in  1759  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  army  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  shared  in  the  victory  of  Kuners- 
dorf  over  Frederick  the  Great.  He  was  created  a  field- 
marshal,  and  appointed  governor-general  of  Moscow 
Died  in  1772. 

Soltikof  or  Soltikow,  (Prascovia  Fedorov.na,) 
was  married  to  the  Czar  Ivan  Alexeievitch,  and  was  the 
mother  of  the  empress  Anna. 

Soltyk,  sol'tik,  (Roman,)  a  Polish  nobleman  and 
patriot,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1701,  served  in  the  French 
army  in  the  campaigns  of  1810-1'?,  and  afterwards  took 
an  active  part  in  the  insurrection  of  1830.  He  died  in 
1843,  leaving  a  work  entitled  "Napoleon  in  1812." 

Soltyk,  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish  patriot,  born  in  1751, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  exiled  about 
1794,  and  was  marshal  of  the  Diet  i;*  181 1.  Died  in 
1830. 

Solvyns,  sol-vlns',  (Francis  Balthasar,)  a  Flemish 
writer  and  artist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  i7fo.  He  spent 
many  years  in  Hindostan,  and  published,  after  his  re- 
turn, a  work  entitled  "  The  Hindoos,  or  a  Picturesque 
Description  of  the  Manners,  Customs,  and  Religious 
Ceremonies  of  this  People,"  (4  vols.,  in  Frerrh.)  Died 
in  1824. 

Sol'y-man  or  Soliman  [Turk.  pron.  so'lee-mSn'  or 
so-la-mSn']  I.,  written  also  Suleym^n,  so6-la-mSn',  an 
Ottoman  Sultan,  eldest  son  of  Bayazeed,  (Bajaret,)  was 
involved  in  a  contest  with  his  brother  Moosa,  and  was 
killed  in  battle  in  1410. 

Solyman  or  Soliman  II.,  surnamed  the  Magnifi- 
c:ent.  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in  1496,  was  the  son  of 
Selim  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1520  a.d.  Soor.  after 
his  accession  he  invaded  Hungary  and  took  Belgrade, 
and  in  1522  besieged  Rhodes,  which  surrendered  after 
an  obstinate  defence.  In  1526  he  defeated  Louis  II., 
King  of  Hungary,  at  the  battle  of  Mohacz.  Having 
bestowed  the  crown  of  Hungary  upon  John  Zapolja, 
Solyman  roused  the  opposition  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
against  whom  he  subsequently  turned  his  arms.  He 
also  subjected  a  large  portion  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  and 
in  1537  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Austrians  at 
Essek,  resulting  in  the  conquest  of  Croatia.  In  1560  hi- 
general,  Piali,  defeated  the  combined  fleet  of  the  Chris 
tian  powers  at  Jerbeh,  and  a  truce  was  concluded  vrith 
Austria  in  1562,  leaving  Turkey  in  possession  of  her 
conquests  in  Hungary.  The  Turks,  having  besieged 
Malta  in  1565,  were  repulsed  with  a  heavy  loss,  and  in 
1566  Solyman  died,  while  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Szi- 
geth  in  Hungary.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  rulers  of  hi? 
country  and  his  time,  and  equally  eminent  in  the  arts  of 
war  and  of  peace.  He  constructed  numerous  magnifi- 
cent public  edifices,  encouraged  learning  and  the  arts 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  literary  attainments.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Selim  II. 

See  C.  Ancillon,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Soliman  II,"  1706; 
Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;"  "  Nouvellc 
Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii. 
book  ii. ;  Creasy,  "History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,"  1877. 

Solyman  or  Soliman,  son  of  Ibraheem,  became 
Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1687,  his  brother,  Mahomet  W ., 
having  been  deposed.  During  his  reign  the  Austrians 
regained  a  great  part  of  Hungary,  previously  conquered 
by  the  Turks.  He  died  in  1691,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Ahmed  II. 


I 


a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


SOMA 


2219 


SOMERVILLE 


So'ma,  in  the  Hindoo  mytiiology,  a  name  for  the 
moon.     (See  Chandra.) 

Sombreuil,  de,  deh  s6N'bRuI',  (Charles  Virot,)  a 
French  officer,  distinguished  for  his  zeal  and  courage  in 
the  defence  of  the  royal  cause,  was  born  in  1769.  He 
commanded  a  party  of  royalist  emigrants  who  took  arms 
against  the  republic.  He  was  captured  at  Quiberon,  and 
shot,  in  1795. 

Sombreuil,  de,  (Marie  Maurille  Virot,)  a  sister 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Li^noges  in  1774.  She 
saved  the  life  of  her  father  from  the  massacre  of  Sep- 
tember, 1793,  after  he  had  been  imprisoned  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1823. 
Somer,  van.  See  Vansomer,  (Paul.) 
Somer,  van,  vtn  so'mer,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  mezzotint 
engraver,  flourished  about  1675. 

Someren,  van,  vSn  so'mer-en,  (j  an,)  a  Dutch  lawyer 
and  poet,  born  at  Dort  in  1622,  was  a  friend  of  Huy- 
ghens.  He  was  noted  for  learning  and  eloquence.  Died 
m  1676. 

Somers,  sum'erz,  (John,)  Lord  Somers,  an  excellent 
English  statesman  and  lawyer,  born  at  Worcester  about 
1650,  was  a  son  of  John  Somers,  an  attorney.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  studied  law  at  the 
Middle  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1676.  He 
continued  to  reside  for  about  five  years  at  the  university, 
where  he  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "A  Brief  History 
of  the  Succession  of  the  Crown  of  England,"  (1681,)  and 
"The  Security  of  Englishmen's  Lives;  or,  The  Trust, 
Power,  and  Duty  of  the  Grand  Juries  of  England."  He 
also  translated  into  verse  some  of  Ovid's  "  Epistles."  In 
1682  he  began  to  practise  law  in  London.,  His  success 
as  a  pleader  was  remarkably  rapid.  He  was  selected  in 
1688  as  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  impor- 
tant trial  of  the  seven  bishops.  He  spoke  briefly  in  this 
case,  "but  every  word,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  full  of 
weighty  matter  ;  and  when  he  sat  down,  his  reputation 
as  an  orator  and  a  constitutional  lawyer  was  established." 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
and  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  Whig  party.  He 
represented  Worcester  in  the  Parliament  or  Conven- 
tion which  met  in  January,  1689,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  first,  and  chairman  of  the  second,  of  the  two  com- 
mittees which  prepared  the  memorable  Declaration  of 
Rights.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and 
knighted.  He  became  attorney-general  in  May,  1692,  and 
lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  March,  1693.  "Neither 
in  forensic  nor  in  parliamentary  eloquence,"  says  Mac- 
aulay, "had  he  any  superior.  The  consistency  of  his 
public  conduct  had  gained  for  him  the  entire  confidence 
of  the  Whigs ;  and  the  urbanity  of  his  manners  -had 
conciliated  the  Tories.  It  was  not  without  great  reluc- 
tance that  he  consented  to  quit  an  assembly  over  which 
he  exercised  an  immense  influence  for  an  assembly  where 
it  would  be  necessary  for  him  to  sit  in  silence."  ("  His- 
tory of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xix.) 

In  1697  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor,  and  received 
the  title  of  Baron  Somers  of  Evesham.  The  great  seal 
was  taken  from  him  in  1700,  in  consequence  of  a  reso- 
lution of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  impeached 
by  the  Tory  majority  of  the  lower  House,  but  was 
acquitted  by  the  Lords,  (1701.)  While  he  was  in  power 
he  patronized  Locke  and  Addison,  the  latter  of  whom 
dedicated  to  Lord  Somers  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Spec- 
tator," and  said,  "I  know  that  the  homage  I  now  pay 
you  is  offering  a  kind  of  violence  to  one  who  is  as 
solicitous  to  shun  applause  as  he  is  assiduous  to  deserve 
it."  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  council  in  1708, 
when  the  Whig  party  returned  to  power.  He  died  in 
April,  1 7 16.  Lord  Somers  was  never  mawied.  "  He  was 
equally  eminent,"  says  Macaulay,  "  as  a  jurist  and  as  a 
politician,  as  an  orator  and  as  a  writer.  His  speeches 
have  perished ;  but  his  state  papers  remain,  and  are 
models  of  terse,  luminous,  and  dignified  eloquence." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xx.) 

See  LoRn  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors ;"  CooK- 
SKV,  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Lord'  Somers,"  1791; 
Hknrv  Maddock,  "Life  of  Lord  Somers,"  1812;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  October,  1S47. 

Somerset,  sum'er-set,  (Charles,)  was  an  illegitimate 
Bon  of  Henry  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset,  who  was 


executed  in  1463.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  talents, 
and  performed  important  diplomatic  missions  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Worcester 
in  1 513  or  1 5 14.     Died  in  1526. 

Somerset,  (Charles  Seymour,)  Duke  of,  called 
"the  Proud  Duke  of  Somerset,"  was  the  second  in  rank 
among  the  temporal  peers  of  the  realm.  He  acquirec* 
"rhe  greatest  estate  in  England  by  his  marriage  with  the 
heiress  of  the  noble  family  of  Percy.  He  was  a  Prot- 
estant and  a  Whig.  In  1687  he  offended  James  II.  by 
his  refusal  to  officiate  in  a  procession  of  the  papal  nuncio. 
He  was  an  adherent  of  William  III.  in  i688,  and  acted 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reign  of  Anne.  Died  in  1748, 
aged  eighty-seven. 

Somerset,  Earl  of,  (favourite  of  James  I.)  See 
Carr,  Robert. 

Somerset,  (Edward.)  See  Worcester,  Marquis  of. 

Somerset,  (Edward  Adolphus  Saint  Maur,) 
Duke  of,  an  English  Liberal  statesman,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  eleventh  Duke,  was  born  in  1804.  He  was  styled 
Lord  Seymour  previous  to  1855,  when  he  succeeded  to 
the  dukedom.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from 
June,  1859,  to  June,  1866.     Died  in  1885. 

Somerset,  (Edward  Seymour,)  Earl  of  Hertford, 
Duke  of  Somerset,  and  Protector  of  England,  was  a 
brother  of  Jane  Seymour,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
an  uncle  of  Edward  VI.  He  commanded  an  army  which 
invaded  Scotland  in  1544  and  committed  great  devas- 
ation.  On  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1547,  he  re- 
seived  the  title  of  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  became  lord 
treasurer  and  Protector  of  the  realm.  He  favoured  the 
Protestant  cause.  In  1547  he  undertook  to  coerce  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  to  marry  Edward  VI.,  and  defeated  the 
Scotch  at  Pinkie  Cleugh.  He  found  a  rival  in  his  own 
brother,  Thomas  Seymour,  who  conspired  against  the 
Protector  and  was  executed  for  treason  in  1549.  Som- 
erset made  many  enemies  by  his  ambition,  his  severity, 
and  his  zeal  against  popery.  His  most  powerful  enemy 
was  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  by  whose  agency  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  high  office  in  1549.  He  was  tried  on  the 
charges  of  treason  and  felony,  convicted  of  the  latter 
crime,  and  beheaded  in  January,  1552.  He  left  several 
sons,  one  of  whom,  named  Edward,  was  created  Earl 
of  Hertford  about  1558,  and  married  Catherine  Grey,  a 
sister  of  Lady  Jane. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Somerset,  (Fitzroy.)     See  Raglan,  Lord. 

Somerset,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1794,  was  a  grandson  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Caffre  war.    Died  in  1862. 

Somerset,  (Henry  de  Beaufort,)  Duke  of,  was 
a  descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt.  He  fought  for  the  Lan- 
castrians in  the  war  of  the  Roses,  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Hexham  and  beheaded  in  1463. 

Somerset,  (John  de  Beaufort,)  Earl  of,  a  son 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  a  grandson  of  Edward  III.,  was 
created  Earl  of  Somerset  about  1396.     Died  in  1410. 

Somerville,  sum'er-vii,  (Mrs.  Mary,)  an  eminent 
astronomer  and  scientific  writer,  che  daughter  of  Sir 
William  Fairfax,  was  born  at  Jedburgh,  in  Scotland, 
about  1780.  At  the  reciuest  of  Lord  Brougham,  she 
wrote  for  the  "  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge"  a  summary 
of  the  "  Mecanique  Celeste"  of  Laplace,  which  appeared 
in  1832  under  the  title  of"  Mechanism  of  the  Heavens." 
Her  other  principal  works  are  a  treatise  "  On  the  Con- 
nexion of  the  Physical  Sciences,"  (1834,)  and  "  Physical 
Geography,"  (2  vols.  i2mo,  1848.)  She  was  elected  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society, 
and  received  a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds  a  year 
in  acknowledgment  of  her  great  services  to  science. 
Died  November  29,  1872. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1832;  "Blackwood's  Mag- 
azine" for  October,  1849 ;  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  May,  i860. 

Somerville,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Hawick  in  1741.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Reign  of  William  III.,"  (1792,)  and  a 
"  History  of  Great  Britain  under  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne,"  (1798.)     Died  in  1830. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1861. 

Somerville,  siim'er-vil,  (William,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1692.     His  principal  work  ja 


f.  a.s  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as ;    i,  h,  yi,guttu-al;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2®^See  Explanations,  p.  23 


SOMMARIVA 


SOPHIA 


a  poem  in  blank  verse,  entitled  "The  Chase."  He  'Jso 
wrote  lyrics,  tales,  and  fables,  and  a  poem  called  "  Field 
Sports."     Died  in  1742. 

Sommariva,  som-ml-ree'vS,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
an  Italian  statesman  and  celebrated  collector  of  pictures, 
was  born  at  Milan.  He  was  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Cisalpine  republic  in  1800-1802.     Died  in  1826. 

Sommer,  so'maiR',  (Jean  £douard  Alijkrt,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1822.  He  published 
several  dictionaries.     Died  at  Paris  in  1866. 

Sommerard.     See  Du  Sommerard. 

Sommering  or  Soemmering,  von,  fon  som'meh- 
ring  or  zom'meh-ring,  (Samuel  Thomas,)  a  celebrated 
German  anatomist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Thorn  in 
1755.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Mentz  in  1784.  Among  his  numerous  and 
valuable  works  we  may  name  his  treatise,  in  German,  "  On 
the  Brain  and  Spinal  Marrow,"  (1788,)  "On  the  Struc- 
ture of  the  Human  Body,"  (5 vols.,  1791,)  "On  the  Organ 
of  the  Soul,"  (1796,)  and  (in  Latin)  "On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Absorbing  Vessels  of  the  Human  Body."  He 
maintained  the  theory  that  the  nerves  act  independently 
of  the  brain,  which  he  considered  not  essential  to  the 
continuance  of  life.     Died  in  1830. 

See  Rudolph  Wagner,  "  Soemmering's  Leben  und  Veikehr  mit 
seinen  Zeitgenossen,"  2  vols.,  1844;  I.  Dollinger,  "  Gedachtniss- 
.•ede  auf  S.  T.  von  Soemmering,"  1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographio 
G^n^rale." 

Sommier,  so'me-i',  (Jean  Claude,)  a  French  prel- 
ate and  writer,  born  at  Vauvillers  in  1661,  published 
"Dogmatic  History  of  Religion,"  ("  Histoire  dogmatique 
de  la  Religion,"  6  vols.,  1708-11,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1737. 

Somner,  sum'ner,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  philologist,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1606.  He  pub- 
lished "  The  Antiquities  of  Canterbury,"  (1640,)  a  "  Saxon 
Dictionary,"  (1659,)  a  "  Treatise  on  Gavelkind,"  one  "  On 
the  Roman  Ports  and  Forts  in  Kent,"  and  other  valuable 
works.  He  was  a  friend  of  Archbishop  Usher  and  other 
learned  men  of  the  time.     Died  in  1669. 

Som'nus,  [Gr.  "tirvoq;  Fr.  Sommeil,  so'mkl'  or  so'- 
mi'ye,]  in  classic  mythology,  the  god  of  sleep,  was  called 
a  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  a  brother  of  Death,, 
(Mors  or  Thanatos.)     (See  Morpheus.) 

Sonderland,  son'der-lint',  (Fritz,)  a  German  painter 
of  genre,  a  son  of  J.  B.  Sonderland,  was  born  at  Dussel- 
dorf,  September  20,  1836.  He  was  bred  an  engineer. 
He  is  known  for  his  quaintly  humorous  pictures  of 
domestic  life. 

Sonderland,  son'der-lSnt' or  zon'der-lSnt',  (Johann 
Baptist,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dus- 
seldorf  in  1804,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow.  Among  his 
best  works  are  etchings  illustrating  Burger's  "  Lenore," 
and  "The  Magician's  Pupil,"  by  Goethe.    Died  in  1878. 

Sonnenberg,  son'nen  -  b&Ro'  or  zon'nen-b§RG', 
(Franz  Anton  Joseph  Ignaz  Maria,)  Baron,  a 
German  poet  and  imitator  of  Klopstock,  was  born  at 
Miinster,  in  Westphalia,  in  1779.     Died  in  1805. 

See  Gruber,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  Sonnenbergs,"  1806. 

Sonnenfels,  von,  fon  son'nen-f§ls'  or  zon'nen-fSls', 
(Joseph,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Nikolsburg,  in 
Moravia,  in  1733.  He  became  professor  of  political 
science  at  Vienna  in  1763,  and  filled  several  high  offices 
under  Maria  Theresa  and  the  emperor  Francis  H.  He 
published  in  1775  a  treatise  "On  the  Abolition  of  the 
Torture,"  which  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  abolishing 
that  barbarous  practice  in  Austria,     Died  in  1817. 

Sonnerat,  son'rt',  (Pierre,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  at  Lyons  about  1746.  He  spent  about  seven  years 
in  exploring  Hindostan,  Malacca,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
etc.,  and  published  an  account  of  his  travels,  entitled 
"Travels  in  the  East  Indies  and  China,"  ("Voyage  aux 
Indes  Orientales  et  i  la  Chine,"  2  vols.,  1782,)  which  is 
esteemed  valuable.     Died  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Sonnini  de  Manoncourt,  so'ne'ne'  deh  mt'n6N'- 
kooR',  (Charles  Nicolas  Sigisbert,)  a  celebrated 
French  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Luneville  in 
1 751.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Pont-a- 
Mousson,  and  in  1772  was  sent  as  an  officer  of  marine 
engineers  to  Cayenne,  where  he  spent  several  years  in 


scientific  researches.  In  1777  he  accompanied  Baron 
de  Tott  on  his  African  expedition,  visiting  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Asia  Minor.  He  returned  to  France  in 
1780,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  reign  of  terror.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "Travels  in  Egypt,"  (3  vols.,  1799,) 
"Travels  in  Greece  and  Turkey,"  (2  vols.,  1801,)  and 
"Natural  History  of  Fishes  and  Cetaceae,"  (14  vols., 
1804.)  He  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  works 
of  BufTon,  (127  vols.,  1 798-1807.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1812. 
He  had  been  employed  by  Buffon  to  describe  many 
species  of  birds  for  his  "Natural  History." 

See  Thi^baut  de  Berneaud,  "  filoge  historique  de  Sonnini," 
1812;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1802. 

Sonntag,  son'tig,  (William  Louis,)  an  American 
artist,  born  near  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  March  2,  1822 
He  studied  art  in  Cincinnati,  in  New  York,  and  in  Italy, 
and  in  i860  established  himself  in  New  Yorlc  He  is  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy,  and  by  the  rare 
poetry  and  pure  and  suggestive  idealism  of  his  work 
takes  a  very  high  rank  among  American  landscape- 
painters. 

Sontag,  son'tSg  or  zon'tio,  (Henriette,)  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  female  vocalists  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Coblentz  in  1805.  Having  studied  at  the  Conservatory 
of  Music  at  Prague,  she  visited  successively  the  principal 
cities  of  Germany,  Paris,  and  London,  being  received 
everywhere  with  enthusiastic  applause.  In  1830  she 
was  married  to  Count  Rossi,  ambassador  of  Sardinia  at 
the  Hague,  and  retired  from  the  stage.  Owing  to  pecu- 
niary embarrassments,  she  appeared  again  in  public  in 
1848,  and  in  1853  set  out  for  America,  where  she  also 
met  with  brilliant  success.  She  died  in  1854,  while  on 
the  way  to  Mexico. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Countess  de  Rossi,"  London,  1849;  T. 
Gautier,  "  L'Ambassadrice  ;  Biographic  de  la  Comtesse  de  Rossi," 
1850;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1850. 

Sonthonas,  s6N'to'nSks',(L6GER  F6licit6,)  aFrench 
political  agent,  born  in  Bugey  (Ain)  in  1763.  He  was 
sent  in  1792  as  commissary  to  Hayti  to  restore  order, 
and  liberated  the  slaves  of  that  island  in  1793,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  pro-slavery  party  commenced  a 
civil  war.     Died  in  1813. 

Soodra  or  Siidra,  written  also  Qudra,  soo'dra, 
called  Soo'der  by  the  modern  Hindoos,  [etymology 
uncertain.]  The  Soodras  are  the  lowest  of  the  four  prin- 
cipal Hindoo  castes.     (See  Brahmanism.) 

Soomarokof  or  Sumaroko"w,  soo-mS-ro'kof,  writ- 
ten also  Somarokof  and  Sumarokov,  a  Russian 
poet  and  dramatist,  called  the  founder  of  the  Russian 
dranja,  was  born  at  Moscow  in  1 718  or  1727.  He  was 
the  author  of  both  comedies  and  tragedies.  Among 
the  latter  we  may  name  his  "  Demetrius,"  and  "  Sinov 
and  Truvor."  He  also  wrote  numerous  lyrics,  elegies, 
sonnets,  epigrams,  and  satires.     Died  in  1777. 

Sooras.    See  Suras. 

Soorya.    See  SOrva. 

Sooy,  soy,  (Joseph  Leander,)  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Green  Bank,  New  Jersey,  March  i,  1 849. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1871.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  "  American  Methodist  Authors  and  Liter- 
ature." 

Sop'a-ter  [SuTrarpof]  oF  Apamea,  a  Greek  Sophist, 
and  a  pupil  of  Jamblichus.  He  enjoyed  for  a  time  the 
favour  of  Constantine  the  Great,  but  was  afterwards  put 
to  death  by  him,  about  334  a.d. 

So-phi'a,  [Ger.  Sophie,  zo-fee'eh ;  Fr.  Sophie,  so'- 
fe',]  Electress  of  Hanover,  born  about  1630,  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  Elector-Palatine.  Her  mother  was  Elizabeth, 
a  daughter  of  James  I.  of  England.  Sophia  was  married 
in  1658  to  Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Brunswick-Lune- 
burg,  who  became  Elector  of  Hanover.  She  was  intimate 
with  Leibnitz.  In  1701  she  was  recognized  as  the  heir 
to  the  English  crown  (next  to  the  princess  Anne)  by 
Parliament,  which  preferred  her  to  other  members  of 
the  royal  family  because  she  was  a  Protestant.  Her  son 
became  George  I.  of  England.     She  died  in  1714. 

See  Feder,  "Sophie  Churfursten  von  Hannover,  im  Urariss,' 
1810. 

So-phi'a  Al-ex-i-ev'na,  a  Russian  princess,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Czar  Alexis  Mikhailovitch,  and  half-sister  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m5t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SOPHIA 


SOREL 


Peter  the  Great,  was  born  in  1657.  She  was  ambitious  and 
energetic.  At  the  death  of  Feodor  {1682)  she  instigated 
the  Strelitzes  to  revolt  against  Peter  I.,  and  caused  her 
brother  Ivan  to  be  recognized  as  joint  sovereign  with 
Peter.  She  acted  as  regent  from  1682  to  1689,  and  then 
was  confined  in  a  convent.     Died  in  1704. 

So-phi'a  Dor-o-the'a  [Ger.  Sophie  Dorothea,  zo- 
fee'eh  do-ro-ta'd  ;  Fr.  Sophie  Doroth^e,  so'fe'  do'ro'- 
ti']  OF  Brunswick,  born  in  1666,  was  a  daughter  of 
George  William,  Duke  of  Zell.  She  was  married  in  1682 
to  her  cousin  George,  afterwards  George  I.  of  England, 
who  treated  her  ill.  Having  been  suspected  of  a  passion 
for  the  Count  de  Konigsmarck,  she  was  divorced  in  1694, 
and  confined  in  prison  until  she  died,  in  1726. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  Consort  of  George  I.,"  Lon- 
don, 2  vols.,  1845;  Henri  Blaze,  "Les  Koenigsmark,"  1856. 

Sophia  Dorothea,  Queen  of  Prussia,  born  in  1687, 
was  a  daughter  of  George  I.  of  England.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia.     Died  in  1757. 

Sophie.    See  Sophia. 

Soph'o-cles,  [Gr.  So^o/cA^f  ;  Fr.  Sophocle.  so'fok'l',] 
a  celebrated  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  at  the  village  of 
Colonus,  near  Athens,  in  495  B.C.  He  received  a  liberal 
education.  His  first  drama  was  represented  in  468,  when 
he  appeared  as  a  rival  of  yEschylus,  and  gained  the  first 
prize,  which  was  awarded  by  Cimon  and  other  judges. 
The  drama  which  he  exhibited  at  this  time  is  supposed 
to  have  been  "Triptolemus,"  which  is  not  extant.  We 
have  no  record  of  the  events  of  his  life  between  the  years 
468  and  440  B.C.,  when  he  produced  his  "Antigone," 
which  was  very  successful.  The  Athenians  were  so  well 
pleased  with  it  that  they  elected  Sophocles  one  of  the 
ten  strategic  or  generals.  The  illustrious  Pericles  was 
one  of  the  strategi  chosen  at  the  same  time.  Sophocles 
acted  as  a  general  in  the  war  against  Samos  in  440- 
439,  but  did  not  distinguish  himself  in  military  affairs. 
His  conduct  appears  to  have  been  consistent  with 
the  patriotic  sentiments  expressed  in  his  writings.  He 
was  invited  to  their  courts  by  several  monarchs,  but 
always  refused  to  abandon  his  native  country  or  accept 
their  patronage. 

He  composed  more  than  a  hundred  tragedies,  of  which 
seven  are  extant,  namely,  "Antigone,"  "Electra,"  "Tra- 
chiniae,"  "  CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  "  Ajax,"  "  Philoctetes," 
and  "CEdipus  at  Colonus."  He  is  said  to  have  gained 
the  first  prize  twenty  times  or  more.  His  son  lophon 
was  distinguished  as  a  dramatic  poet.  Sophocles  was 
remarkable  for  personal  beauty  and  symmetry,  and 
excelled  in  music  and  gymnastics.     He  died  in  405  B.C. 

"  By  the  universal  consent  of  the  best  critics,"  says 
Professor  Philip  Smith,  "both  of  ancient  and  of  modern 
times,  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles  are  not  only  the  per- 
fection of  the  Greek  drama,  but  they  approach  as  nearly 
as  is  conceivable  to  the  perfect  ideal  model  of  that 
species  of  poetry."  (See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.) 

"Sophocles  \vas  the  high-priest  of  humanity.  He 
chose,  as  he  phrased  it,  '  to  put  away  the  pomp  of  ^^s- 
thylus  along  with  his  childish  things  ;'  and  he  exhibited 
that  mild  grandeur  and  matchless  refinement  in  which 
he  excels  all  the  dramatists  of  Greece.  He  made  tragic 
poetry  a  true  mirror  of  the  passions  of  the  soul  of 
man,  and  exhibited,  as  has  seldom  been  done,  the  true 
moral  significance  of  human  action."  {"Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.") 

See  Lessing,  "Leben  des  Sophocles,"  1790;  Scholl,  "  Sopho- 
kles,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  etc.,  1S42;  Hergk,  "  De  Vita  So- 
phoclis,"  1858;  K.  O.  MiJLLER,  "History  of  the  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece;"  Welcker,  "Die  Griechischen  Tragodien,"  3 
vols.,  1839-41:  F.  ScHULTZ,  "  Conmientatio  de  Vita  Sophoclis 
Poetse,"  1836;  Reuter,  "  Dissertatio  de  /Eschylo,  Sophocle  et 
Eiiripide,"  1831. 

Sophocles,  the  son  of  Ariston,  an  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  was  a  grandson  of  the  great  Sophocles.  He  flour- 
ished about  390  B.C.,  and  produced  numerous  dramas, 
some  of  which  gained  prizes. 

Sophocles,  sof'o-klez,  (Evangelinus  Apostolides,) 
LL.D.,  a  Greek-American  scholar,  born  in  Thessaly, 
March  8,  1807.  He  entered  the  convent  on  Mount 
Sinai,  whence  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and  was 
for  a  short  time  a  student  at  Amherst  College.  In  1842 
he  became  a  tutor  in  Harvard  College,  in  1859  assistant 


professor  of  Greek,  and  in  i860  professor  of  Byzantine 
and  Modern  Greek.  He  published  a  Greek  grammar 
(1838)  and  other  Greek  text-books,  a  Romaic  grammar, 
(1842,)  and  a  valuable  "Greek  Lexicon  of  the  Roman 
and  Byzantine  Periods,"  (1870.)     Died  in  1884. 

Sophonie  or  Sophonias.     See  Zephaniah. 

Soph-o-nis'ba,  [Gr.  XoipovtaSa  ;  Fr.  Sophonisbe,  so'- 
fo'iifesb',]  a  Carthaginian  lady,  became  the  wife  of  Syphax, 
King  of  Numidia,  about  206  B.C.  She  was  taken  pris- 
oner in  203  by  Masinissa,  who  had  formerly  been  her 
lover.  He  married  her,  or  resolved  to  marry  her;  but 
Scipio  would  not  permit  him  to  keep  her,  because  he 
feared  she  would  convert  him  into  an  ally  of  Carthage, 
She  died  by  poison  given  to  her  by  Masinissa. 

Sophonisbe.     See  Sophonisha. 

So'phron,  [Sui^pwv,]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  born  at 
Syracuse  about  450  or  425  B.C.  He  is  considered  to  be 
the  inventor  of  "mimes."  His  works,  which  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments,  were  greatly  admired  by  Plato, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  largely  indebted  to  them.  So- 
phron  wrote  in  the  Doric  dialect. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Grv.sar,  "De  Comcedia 
Doriensium  ;  de  Sophrone  mimographo,"  1838. 

Soprani,  so-pr3.'nee,  (Raffaello,)  an  Italian  biogra- 
pher, born  at  Genoa  in  1612.  He  wrote  "  The  Lives  of 
the  Genoese  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  (in 
Italian,  1674.)     Died  in  1672. 

So-ra'nus,  [Scjpavof,]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Ephesus,  was  the  son  of  Menander,  and  lived 
under  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "On  the  Obstetric  Art,"  etc.,  a  por- 
tion of  which  is  extant,  and  of  other  medical  works. 

Soranzo,  so-rin'zo,  (Giovanni,)  a  Venetian  states- 
man, was  elected  doge  in  13 12.  He  is  said  to  have 
governed  wisely.     Died  in  1327. 

Sorbait,  soR'bi'  or  soR'bit,  (Paul,)  a  medical  writer, 
born  in  Hainault,  practised  in  Vienna.     Died  in  1691. 

Sorbier,  soR'be-k',  (Jean  Bartholomii:,)  a  French 
general  of  artillery,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1762.  He  served 
at  Borodino,  Lutzen,  and  Leipsic.     Died  in  1827. 

Sorbiere,  soR'b5;5.iR',  (Samuel,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  at  Saint-Ambroix  in  1615.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Letters  on  Divers 
Curious  Matters,"  (1660,)  and  a  "Life  of  Gassendi," 
(1662.)  He  received  the  title  of  historiographer  to  the 
king  in  1660.     Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Sorberiana,"  Toulouse,  i6gi  ;  NiciJron,  "Mdmoires  " 

Sorbin  de  Sainte-Poi,  soR'biN'  deh  siNt'fwJ', 
(Arnaud,)  a  French  priest  and  polemical  writer,  born 
in  1532.  He  became  court  preacher  to  Charles  IX.  and 
Henry  III.,  the  latter  of  whom  appointed  him  Bishop 
of  Nevers  in  1578.     Died  in  1606. 

See  Rev,  "  Vie  d'A.  Sorbin,"  1S60 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Sorbon,  de,  deh  soR'bdN',  (Robert,)  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  near  Rethel  in  1201,  was  confessor  to 
Saint  Louis,  and  founded  about  1250  the  College  of  the 
Sorbonne  in  Paris.     Died  in  1274. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sor'by,  (Henry  Clifton,)  an  English  geologist, 
born  at  Sheffield  in  1826.  He  contributed  numerous 
scientific  articles  to  the  "  Edinburgh  New  Philosophical 
Journal,"  and  other  periodicals  of  the  kind,  and  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society.  In  1882  he  became  president  of  Firth 
College,  Sheflield. 

Sordello,  soR-del'lo,  an  Italian  poet,  born  near 
Mantua  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  patronized  by 
Charles  of  Anjou,  and  wrote  amatory  and  satirical 
poems.  He  is  eulogized  by  Dante  in  his  "  Purgatorio." 
Died  after  1266. 

Sorel,  so'rSK,  (Agnes,)  a  beautiful  Frenchwoman, 
born  in  Touraine,  became  the  mistress  of  King  Charles 
VII.,  over  whom  she  exercised  great  influence.  She 
incited  him  to  greater  resolution  and  activity  in  resisting 
the  English  invaders,  who  had  conquered  a  large  part 
of  France.  She  was  a  woman  of  superior  talents.  Died 
in  1450. 

Sorel,  (Charles,)  a  French  novelist  and  historian, 
born  in  Paris  about  1597.     Among  his  works  were  a 


c  as  /^,-  9  as  s;  g  Jiard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.  s^ttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SORGH 


SOUHAM 


"Comic  History  of  Francion,"  ("  Ilistoire  comique  de 
Francion,"  1622,)  a  "  History  of  the  French  Monarchy," 
(1636,)  and  "French  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheque  Fran- 
9oise,"  1664.)     Died  in  1674. 

Sorgh.     See  Zorgh. 

Sorri,  sor'ree,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1556.  He  painted  history,  landscapes,  and 
portraits.    His  works  are  highly  praised.     Died  in  1622. 

Sor-tain',  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1809, 
was  for  many  years  minister  of  an  Independent  church 
at  Brighton.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lec- 
tures on  Romanism  and  Anglo-Catholicism,"  (1841,) 
and  a  "Life  of  Lord  Bacon,"  (1851.)     Died  in  i860. 

See  "  Life  of  J.  Sortain,"  by  his  widow,  i86i. 

So-sib'i-us,  [Swa/fiwf,]  an  Athenian  sculptor  of  un- 
known date.  Among  his  works  is  a  vase  adorned  with 
figures  of  Artemis  and  Hermes.  This  vase  is  now  in  the 
Louvre,  at  Paris. 

So-sig'e-uea,  [Gr.  'ZuatyivTic ;  Ft.  SosiofewE,  so'ze'- 
«hin',]  a  Greek  or  Egyptian  astronomer,  born  in  Egypt, 
was  a  Peripatetic  in  philosophy.  He  was  employed  by 
Julius  Caesar  (46  B.C.)  to  reform  the  calendar,  and  de- 
fined a  year  to  be  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  and 
five  or  six  hours. 

So-siph'a-nes,  [Gr.  2(jauj>avT]g ;  Fr.  Sosiphane,  so'- 
zr'ftn',]  a  Greek  tragic  poet  of  Syracuse,  lived  about 
300  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  seven 
poets  called  the  "Tragic  Pleiad." 

Sosithee.     See  Sositheus. 

So-sith'e-us,  [Gr.  l^uaidsog  ;  Fr.  Sosith6e,  so'ze'ti',] 
a  Greek  poet  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  lived  in  the 
third  century  B.C. 

Sost,  sost,  Soest,  or  Zoest,  (Gerard,)  a  German 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1637.  He  worked 
in  England.     Died  in  1681. 

Sostegno,  di,  de  sos-tin'yo,  (Cesare  Alfieri,) 
Marquis,  an  Italian  statesman,  born  in  Turin,  August 
13,  1799.  He  was  long  in  the  diplomatic  service  of 
Piedmont,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  friend  of  edu- 
cational, agricultural,  and  industrial  reform.  He  was 
president  of  the  Senate  of  Sardinia  from  1856  to  i860. 
Died  at  Florence,  April  16,  1869. 

Sostrate.    See  Sostratus. 

Sos'tra-tus,  [Gr.  I,uaTpaTog;  Fr.  Sostrate,  so'strit',1 
a  Greek  architect,  born  at  Cnidos,  lived  about  300  B.C. 
Among  his  works  was  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria. 

Sostratus  of  Chios,  a  Greek  statuary,  the  master 
of  Pantias,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  400  B.C. 

Sot'a-des,  [Gr.  luradric:  Fr.  Sotade,  so'tSd',]  a 
Greek  poet,  who  flourished  at  Alexandria  about  280 
B.C.  His  poems  were  extremely  lascivious.  He  was 
imprisoned  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  against  whom  he 
had  written  a  lampoon. 

So'ter,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Rome  about  165  A.D. 
He  is  said  to  have  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Montanus. 
Died  in  177. 

Sotheby,  suth'be,  (Samuel  Leigh,)  an  English 
antiquary  and  bibliographer  of  London,  born  in  1805; 
died  in  i86r. 

Sotheby,  (William,)  an  English  scholar  and  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1757.  He  made  a  number  of  trans- 
lations from  the  German  and  other  languages,  among 
which  we  may  name  the  "  Oberon"  of  Wieland,  Virgil's 
"Georgics,"  and  Homer's  "Iliad"  and  "Odyssey."  He 
was  also  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "  Orestes," 
and  of  "  Constance  de  Castile,"  and  other  poems.  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.     Died  in  1833. 

Sothern,  siiTH'em,  (Edward  Askew,)  an  English 
actor,  born  in  Liverpool,  April  i,  1830.  He  was  origi- 
nally destined  for  the  Church.  In  1851  he  went  to  the 
United  States,  and  appeared  in  Boston  as  "  Dr.  Pangloss" 
with  little  success.  He  then  attached  himself  to  a  com- 
pany in  New  York,  and,  after  playing  minor  parts  for 
several  years,  at  last  achieved  great  success  in  the  char- 
acter of  "Lord  Dundreary"  in  the  "American  Cousin." 
The  same  success  attended  him  in  London  in  1863,  when 
he  reproduced  tiie  character  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre. 
Others  of  his  favourite  parts  were  "  David  Garrick,"  in 
the  play  of  that  name,  and  "  Fitz  Altamont,"  in  "The 
Crushed  Tragedian."   Died  in  London.  January  20,  1881. 


Soto,  so'to,  (Domingo,)  a  Spanish  Dominican  monk, 
born  at  Segovia  in  1494,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Alcala  in  1519.  He  was  sent  in  1545  by  Charles  V. 
as  his  first  theologian  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he 
was  conspicuous  for  learning  and  ability.  He  afterwards 
became  confessor  to  Charles  V.  He  wrote  "  Summulae,"' 
or  a  treatise  on  the  Dialects  and  Physics  of  Aristotle, 
and  other  works  in  Latin.     Died  in  1560. 

Soto,  so'to,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  monk,  who  went  to 
England  with  Philip  II.  He  was  afterwards  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Trent.     Died  in  1563. 

Soto,  de,  (Hernando.)     See  De  Soto. 

Sotomayor,  de,  dk  so-to-mi-yAR',  (Luis,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Valencia  in  1635  ;  died  in  1673. 

Sotzmann,  sots'min,  (Daniel  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  at  S]3andau  in  1754,  published  a 
number  of  valuable  maps  and  charts.     Died  in  1840. 

Soubeiran,  soo'bk'rdN',  (EuGi:NE,)  a  French  writer 
on  pharmacy,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  School  of  Pharmacy,  Paris.     Died  in  1858. 

Soubeyran,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  engraver,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1 709,  worked  in  Paris.     Died  in  1775. 

Soubise,  soo'b^z',  (Jean  de  Parthenai — deh  ptRt'- 
ni',)  Lord  of,  a  Huguenot  leader,  born  of  a  noble 
family  of  Poitou  about  1 5 12.  Sent  by  the  Prince  of 
Cond^  to  defend  Lyons,  he  compelled  the  Duke  of  Ne- 
mours to  raise  the  siege  of  that  place.     Died  in  1566. 

Soubise,  de,  deh  soo'biz',  (Benjamin  de  Rohan— 
deh  ro'ftN',)  Seigneur,  a  French  nobleman  and  soldier 
of  the  Huguenot  party,  born  about  1585,  was  a  brother 
of  the  Duke  de  Rohan.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
religious  wars  of  the  time,  and  fought  with  varying  suc- 
cess against  Louis  XIII.  and  the  Catholic  faction.  He 
was  noted  for  his  turbulence  and  audacity.  In  1626  a 
peace  was  concluded,  and  Soubise  was  created  a  duke. 
Soon  after  this  date  he  induced  the  Duke  of  Bucking 
ham  to  aid  the  Huguenots  with  an  English  fleet.  H< 
passed  his  latter  years  in  England,  and  died  in  London 
in  1642. 

See  Ha  AG,  "  La  France  protestante;"  "Nouvelle  Biographi  i 
G^nerale." 

Soubise,  de,  (Charles  de  Rohan,)  Prince,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  171 5.  He  became  a 
favourite  courtier  of  Louis  XV.  In  1757  he  was  de- 
feated by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Rossbach.  He  gained 
two  victories  in  1758,  at  Sondershausen  and  Lutzelberg, 
and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France. 
Died  in  1787. 

See  Db  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Frangais ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Souchay  or  Souchai,  soo'shi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  writer  and  editor,  born  near  Vendome  in  1688. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Boileau  (1735)  and  other  authors. 
Died  in  1746. 

Souchon,  soo'sh6N',  (Franqois,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Alais  (Gard)  in  1785  ;  died  in  1857. 

Souciet,  soo'se-i',  or  Souchiet,  soo'she-|',  (fin 
enne,)  a  learned  French  priest,  born  at  Bourges  in 
1 67 1.  He  wrote  on  theology,  chronology,  etc.  Died 
in  1744. 

Souciet,  (Stienne  Augustin,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Bourges  in  1685,  was  an  elegant 
Latinist.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  on  comets,  ("Co 
metae,"  17 10.)     Died  in  1744. 

Soufflot,  soo'flo',  (Jacques  Germain,)  a  celebrated 
French  architect,  born  near  Auxerre  in  1713.  He  spent 
several  years  at  Rome  in  the  study  of  his  profession, 
and  after  his  return  constructed  the  Great  Flospital  at 
Lyons,  also  a  theatre  of  uncommon  size  and  elegance. 
Having  settled  in  Paris,  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Architecture,  and  in  1757  was  employed  to  rebuild 
the  church  of  Saint  Genevieve,  since  called  the  Pan- 
theon, a  superb  edifice,  which,  however,  he  did  not  live 
to  complete.     Died  in  1781. 

See  QuATRENifeRE  DK  QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  plus  c^lfebres  Archi- 
tectes  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Souham,  soo'Sn',  (Joseph,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Lubersac  in  1760.  He  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1793,  and  served  under  Pichegru  in  Flanders.  Sus- 
pected of  complicity  with  Moreau,  he  was  imprisoned 
n  1804,  but  was  restored  to  his  rank  in  the  army  in 


a.  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  ^o"J^;  ^,  ^,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  s/ior(;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obsatre;  fdr,  f^ll,  fAt;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SOUL  A  NGE-B  ODIN 


2223 


SOUTH 


1807.  He  rendered  important  services  at  Lutzen  (1813) 
and  Leipsic.     Died  in  1837. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale.' 

Soulange-Bodin,  soo'lflNzh'  bo'diN',  (firiENNE,)  a 
French  horticulturist  and  writer,  born  at  Tours  in  1774. 
He  planted  a  botanic  garden  at  Fromont,  (Seine-et-Oise.) 
Died  in  1846. 

Soulange-Teissier,  soo'lflNzh'  ti'se-i',  (Lotus  Ema- 
nuel,) a  French  lithographer,  was  born  at  Amiens  in 
1815. 

Soulary,  soo'lS'ree',  (JosiJphin,  or,  correctly,  Joseph 
Marie,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons,  February  23, 
1815.  He  became  a  soldier  in  early  youth.  He  pub- 
lished several  volumes  of  verse,  including  sonnets  of 
extreme  beauty. 

Soulas.     See  Floridor. 

Soulavie,  soo'lt've',  (Jean  Louis  Giraud,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  in  Ardeche  in  1752.  He  was 
appointed  French  resident  at  Geneva  in  1793.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  Marshal 
Richelieu,"  (9  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Historical  Memoirs  of 
the  Reign  of  Louis  XVL,"  (6  vols.,  1802.)  Died  in  1813. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Soule,  sool,  (Joshua,)  D.D.,  an  American  Method- 
ist divine,  born  at  Bristol,  Maine,  in  1781,  rose  through 
several  promotions  to  be  senior  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1843.     Died  March  6,  1867. 

Sould,  soo'iy,  (Pierre,)  a  diplomatist  and  politician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Ariege,  France,  about  1802, 
emigrated  to  America  in  1825,  and  settled  in  New  Or- 
leans, where  he  rose  to  distinction  as  a  lawyer.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1849,  and  in  1853 
appointed  minister  to  Spain.  He  was  one  of  the  authors 
of  the  "Ostend  Manifesto"  in  relation  to  Cuba,  (1854.) 
He  returned  home  in  1855.  In  1862  he  was  arrested  for 
disloyalty  in  New  Orleans.     Died  in  1870. 

Sovili^,  soo'leji',  (Melchior  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Foix,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Ariege,  in  1800.  Among  his  numerous  ro- 
mances, which  appeared  originally  in  the  journals  as 
fejilletons,  we  may  name  the  " Vicomte  de  Beziers," 
(1834,)  "  Le  Magnetiseur,"  "Diane  et  Louise,"  (1836,} 
"The  Man  of  Letters,"  (1838,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the 
Devil,"  (1842.)  The  last-named  had  an  immense  sale 
and  great  popularity.  His  drama  of  "  Clotilde"  was 
also  highly  successful.     Died  in  1847. 

SeeM.  Champion,  "  F.  Souli^,  sa  Vie etsesOuvrages,"  1847;  Qui- 
RARD,  "La  France  Litleraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Soulouque.soo'look',  (Faustin,)  Emperor  of  Hayti, 
a  negro,  born  about  1785,  was  originally  a  slave.  He 
entered  the  army,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  elected  president  in  1847,  and  usurped  the  title  of 
emperor  in  1849.  His  reign  is  said  to  have  been  tyran- 
nical and  cruel.  He  was  deposed  in  1859,  and  retired 
to  France.    Died  in  1867. 

See  G.  d'Alaux,  "  Soulouque  et  son  Empire,"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Gen^rale." 

Soult,  soolt,  (Napoleon  Hector,)  Duke  of  Dalma- 
tia,  a  diplomatist,  born  in  1801,  was  a  son  of  Marshal 
Soult.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turin  in  1839, 
and  to  Berlin  in  1843.  ^^  was  recalled  in  1848.  Died 
in  1857. 

Soult,  (Nicolas  Jean  de  Dieu,)  Duke  of  Dalmatia, 
a  celebrated  French  general,  born  at  Saint-Amans  la 
Bastide  (Tarn)  in  March,  1769.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1785,  became  general  of  brigade  in  1794,  gained  sev- 
eral victories  in  Germany,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  a 
general  of  division  in  1799.  He  shared  with  Massena 
the  honour  of  defending  Genoa  in  1800,  was  appointed 
a  colonel  of  the  consular  guard  in  1802,  and  became  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1804.  He  rendered  important 
services  at  Austerlitz,  in  1805,  and  at  Jena,  in  1806.     In 

1807  he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Dalmatie,  and  in 

1808  was  sent  to  Spain.  He  commanded  the  army  which 
attacked  Sir  John  Moore  at  Corunna  in  January,  1809, 
and  was  repulsed.  In  March  ensuing  he  took  Oporto. 
Having  succeeded  Jourdan  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  armies  in  Spain,  he  gained  a  victory  at  Ocana  in 
November,  1809,  and  occupied  Andalusia  in  1810.     He 


was  defeated  by  General  Beresford  at  Albuera  in  May, 
181 1.  Dissension  arose  in  1812  between  Soult  and 
King  Joseph,  who  preferred  Jourdan  as  his  second  in 
command.  In  March,  1813,  Soult  joined  the  grand 
army  in  Germany.  He  commanded  the  Old  Guard  at 
Lutzen,  and  the  centre  at  Bautzen.  In  the  summer  of 
1813  he  was  sent  as  commander-in-chief  to  oppose  the 
victorious  progress  of  Wellington  in  Spain.  He  dis- 
played great  skill  in  this  campaign,  but  was  defeated  at 
Orthez,  February,  1814.  The  English  also  claimed  the 
victory  at  the  great  battle  of  Toulouse,  fought  in  April, 
1814,  after  the  allies  had  taken  Paris. 

Soult  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  Louis  XVIII. 
in  December,  1814,  but  he  joined  the  standard  of  Napo- 
leon in  March,  181 5,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  He  was 
banished  in  January,  1816,  recalled  in  1819,  and  restored 
to  the  rank  of  marshal  in  1820.  He  became  minister  of 
war  in  November,  1830,  and  prime  minister  in  October, 
1832,  with  Guizot  as  one  of  his  colleagues.  In  July, 
1834,  he  retired  from  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  M. 
Thiers.  Soult  was  president  of  the  council  from  May, 
1839,  to  March  i,  1840.  In  October,  1840,  Guizot  and 
Soult  were  requested  by  the  king  to  form  a  new  ministry, 
in  which  Soult  was  president  of  the  council  and  minister 
of  war,  but  the  former  was  the  real  chief.  He  resigned 
in  September,  1847,  and  died  in  November,  1851. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "  His- 
toire  de  r  Empire  :"  Southev,  "  History  of  the  Peninsular  War;" 
W.  Napier,  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula,"  6  vols.,  1828- 
40;  Sall6,  "  Vie  politique  du  Marechal  Soult,"  1834;  Lom^nie, 
"  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  Guizot,  "Memoires;"  Groze- 
LiER,  "  Le  Marechal  Soult,  sa  Vie  militaire,''A852  ;  "  Nouvells 
Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June, 
183s  ;    "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1844. 

Soult,  (Pierre  BENofr,)  Baron,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Amans  in  1770.  He 
Ijecame  a  general  of  brigade  in  1807,  and  a  general  of 
division  in  1813.     Died  in  1843. 

Soumarokof.     See  Soomarokof. 

Soumet,  soo'mi',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Castelnaudary  in  1788.  He  produced,  in  1822,  trage- 
dies entitled  "Clytemnestra"  and  "  Saul,"  which  were 
successful,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1824.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The 
Divine  Epopee,"  ("La  divine  Epopee,"  1840,)  and 
"Joan  of  Arc,"  an  epic  poem,  (1845.)     Died  in  1845. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Sourdis,  de,  deh  sooR'dfess',  (FRANgois  d'Escou 
BLEAU,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  in  1575.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  in  1599.     Died  in  1628. 

Sourdis,  de,  (Henri,)  a  prelate,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1593.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Bordeaux  in  1629.     Died  in  1645. 

Sousa.     See  Faria  y  Souza. 

South,  (Sir  James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  probably  in  London.  He  practised  medicine  or 
surgery  in  his  early  life.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  organized  about 
1820,  and  he  distinguished  himself  as  an  observer.  In 
1826  he  obtained  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  October,  1867. 

South,  (John  Flint,)  an  English  surgeon  and  med- 
ical writer,  born  in  1798,  wrote  "Household  Surgery," 
and  other  works.     Died  January  8,  1882. 

South,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  divine, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1633.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  John  Locke  was  one  of  his  fellow-students. 
He  graduated  in  1657,  was  ordained  in  1658,  and  in  i66c 
became  university  orator.  He  was  made  a  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1670.  He  subsequently  ac- 
companied Lawrence  Hyde,  son  of  Chancellor  Claren- 
don, on  his  mission  to  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland. 
After  his  return  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Islip,  in 
Oxfordshire,  and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.  He 
was  repeatedly  offered  the  highest  preferments  in  the 
Church  by  that  sovereign  and  his  successor,  James  II., 
but  he  declined  them  all.  Dr.  South  was  a  zealous  ad- 
vocate of  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and 
strongly  opposed  to  Roman  Catholics  and  dissenters, 
whom  he  frequently  assailed  in  his  sermons  with  all  the 
powers  of  his  brilliant  wit  and  keen  s.arcasm.     He  wrote 


*•  as  k:  9  as  r,-  g  hard;  g  as^;  G,  H,  Vi,guUural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     t,3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SOUTHAMPTON 


2224 


SOUTHGATE 


a  polemical  work  on  the  Trinity  against  Dr.  Snerlock 
about  1693.     Died  in  1716. 

Southampton,  suth-ham'tgn,  (Henry  Wriothes- 
LEY,)  Eakl  of,  an  English  peer,  noted  as  a  patron  of 
Shalcspeare,  was  born  about  1573.  Shakspeare  dedi- 
cated his  "Venus  and  Adonis"  to  him  in  1593.  South- 
ampton was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of 
Essex,  (1601,)  and  was  imprisoned  for  that  offence,  but 
was  released  in  1603,  and  became  a  favourite  of  James 
I.  Died  at  Bergen-op-Zoom,  in  the  Low  Countries, 
November  10,  1624. 

Southard,  suth'ard,  (Samuel  L.,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Baskingridge,  New  Jersey,  in  June, 
1787.  He  acquired  eminence  as  a  lawyer,  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1821,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  December,  1823,  by  President 
Monroe.  He  was  retained  in  that  office  by  President 
Adams  from  1825  to  1829,  became  Governor  of  New 
Jersey  in  1832,  and  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in  1833. 
He  continued  to  serve  for  nine  years  in  the  national 
Senate,  of  which  he  was  president  in  1842.  Died  in 
Virginia  in  June,  1S42. 

South'cott  or  South'cote,  (Joanna,)  a  religious 
fanatic  and  pretended  prophetess,  born  in  Devonshire 
about  1750,  was  originally  a  domestic  servant  at  Exeter. 
About  1792  she  claimed  to  have  received  divine  revela- 
tions, and  afterwards  published  "A  Warning  to  the 
Whole  World  from  the  Sealed  Prophecies  of  Joanna 
Southcott,"  (1803,)  "The  Book  of  Wonders,  in  Five 
Parts,"  (1813,)  and  other  pamphlets  of  absurd  and  nearly 
unintelligible  contents.  She  died  in  1814,  having  pre- 
viously announced  that  she  would  give  birth  to  the 
"  second  Shiloh"  or  the  "  Prince  of  Peace."  Her  fol- 
lowers were  very  numerous,  and  are  not  yet  quite  extinct. 

See  David  Hughson,  "  Life  of  J.  Southcott,"  1814;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  February,  1815. 

Southern,  suth'ern,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  dramatist, 
born  in  the  county  of  Dublin  in  1660,  was  a  friend  of  Pope 
and  Dryden.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  tragedies  of 
"Oronooko"  and  "Isabella,  or  the  Fatal  Marriage."  He 
also  wrote  comedies  entitled  "  The  Rambling  Lady," 
"  The  Disappointment,"  and  "  The  Wives'  Excuse."  His 
denunciations  of  the  slave-trade  in  "  Oronooko"  are  said 
to  have  been  the  first  occurring  in  any  English  writer 
Died  in  1746. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Southey,  sow'the,  (Caroline  Anne  Bowles,)  an 
authoress,  born  at  Buckland,  Hampshire,  in  17S7.  She 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Ellen  Fitz-Arthur,"  a 
poem,  (1820,)  "The  Widow's  Tale,  and  other  Poems," 
(1822,)  and  "Solitary  Hours,"  prose  and  verse,  (1826,) 
which  were  received  with  favour.  In  1839  she  was 
married  to  Robert  Southey,  whose  mental  faculties  soon 
after  failed.  She  nursed  him  with  patient  devotion  to 
the  end  of  his  life.     Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1837. 

Southey,  (Henry  Herbert,  or  Thomas,)  an  Eng- 
lish medical  writer,  born  about  1784,  was  a  brother  of 
the  poet,  Robert  Southey.  He  was  physician-in-ordinary 
to  George  IV.,  and  examiner  of  lunatics  under  the  court 
of  chancery.  He  wrote  "  On  Pulmonary  Consumption," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  June,  1865. 

Southey,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  English  author,  was 
born  at  Bristol  on  the  12th  of  August,  1774.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  linen-draper,  who  failed  in  business  and  left 
him  little  or  nothing.  During  his  childhood  he  lived  in 
the  house  of  his  maiden  aunt.  Miss  Tyler,  an  eccentric 
lady,  who  often  took  him  to  the  theatre  before  he  was 
seven  years  of  age,  but  subjected  him  to  a  rigid  disci- 
pline. He  began  to  write  verse  before  he  was  ten  years 
old,  and  was  placed  at  Westminster  School  in  1788,  with 
the  assistance  of  his  mother's  brother,  the  Rev.  Herbert 
Hijl.  In  1792  he  was  expelled  from  Westminster  for 
writing  an  essay  against  corporal  punishment,  which  was 
printed  in  a  school  periodical  called  "The  Flagellant." 
His  political  principles  at  this  period  were  republican 
or  radical.  He  entered  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1792, 
and  there  adopted  Unitarian  doctrines.  In  1793  he 
wrote  "Wat  Tyler,"  a  drama,  and  "Joan  of  Arc,"  an 


epic  poem,  which  was  first  published  in  1796.  In  June, 
1794,  he  was  introduced  at  Oxford  to  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship.  As  he 
had  no  definite  prospect,  and  was  much  perplexed  in 
relation  to  the  choice  of  a  profession,  he  resolved  to  join 
Coleridge  in  his  visionary  project  to  emigrate  to  Penn- 
sylvania and  found  a  Pantisocracy  on  the  banks  of  the 
Susquehanna.  His  aunt  Tyler,  who  was  a  staunch  Tory 
and  abhorred  dissenters,  on  being  informed  of  his  pro- 
ject and  opinions,  turned  him  out  of  her  house  in  a 
rainy  night  of  October,  1794.  He  left  Oxford  in  the 
same  year,  received  from  Joseph  Cottle  fifty  guineas  for 
his  "Joan  of  Arc,"  and  married  Edith  Fricker  in  Novem- 
ber, 1795.  About  the  same  date  the  project  of  Pantisoc- 
racy was  abandoned,  for  want  of  money.  Immediately 
after  his  marriage  he  sailed  for  Lisbon  with  his  uncle 
Mr.  Hill,  who  was  chaplain  to  the  British  embassy  in 
that  city.  He  remained  about  six  months  in  the  penin- 
sula, and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  acquaintance  with 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  literature  in  which  he  was  sur- 
passed by  few,  if  any.  Englishmen.  After  his  return,  he 
published  "  Letters  written  during  a  Short  Residence  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,"  (1797,)  and,  having  entered  Gray's 
Inn,  London,  began  to  study  law,  which  he  found  so 
uncongenial  that  he  soon  abandoned  it.  Reading  law 
seemed  to  him  "like  thrashing  straw." 

He  published  in  1801  "Thalaba  the  Destroyer:  a 
Metrical  Romance."  After  various  adventures,  and  sev- 
eral changes  of  occupation  and  residence,  he  settled  in 
1803  at  Greta  Hall,  near  Keswick,  with  Coleridge,  who 
was  his  brother-in-law.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  society  of 
Wordsworth  and  the  most  beautiful  scenery  of  England, 
— the  lake  country.  The  subsequent  part  of  his  life 
affords  an  example  of  almost  unequalled  literary  indus- 
try, combined  with  a  faithful  performance  of  his  domestic 
duties.  After  his  youthful  enthusiasm  had  cooled,  he 
became  a  conservative  in  politics,  and  a  zealous  member 
of  the  Anglican  Church.  In  1805  he  published  "Met- 
rical Tales,  and  other  Poems  ;"  and  "Madoc,  a  Poem,  in 
Two  Parts,"  which  was  not  received  with  much  favour. 
He  became  a  contributor  to  the  "Quarterly  Review" 
about  1808,  published  a  Indian  poem  entitled  "  The  Curse 
of  Kehama"  in  1810,  and  was  appointed  poet-laureate  in 
1813.  He  generously  supported  the  family  of  Coleridge, 
whom  the  latter  left  dependent  on  him  at  Greta  Hall. 
In  1835  he  received  a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds 
a  year  from  the  government.  Having  lost  his  wife  in 
1837,  he  married  Caroline  Bowles  in  1839.  About  this 
time  his  overtasked  faculties  became  prostrated,  and  he 
sank  into  a  state  of  mental  imbecility.  He  died  at  Greta 
Hall,  March  21,  1843.  Besides  the  poems  above  named, 
he  wrote  "Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths,"  (1814.) 
Among  his  numenjus  prose  works  are  an  excellent 
"Life  of  Lord  Nelson,"  (2  vols.,  1813.)  a  "Life  of  John 
Wesley,"  (2  vols.,  1820,)  a  "  History  of  the  Peninsular 
War,"  (3  vols.,  1822-32,)  "Essays,  Moral  and  Political," 
(1832,)  "The  Doctor,"  (7  vols.,  1834-37,)  and  a  "Life 
of  William  Cowper." 

"Mr.  Southey's  prose  style,"  says  Hazlitt,  "can 
scarcely  be  too  much  praised.  It  is  plain,  clear,  pointed, 
familiar,  perfectly  modern  in  its  texture,  but  with  a  grave 
and  sparkling  admixture  of  archaisms  in  its  ornaments 
and  occasional  phraseology."  ("  Spirit  of  the  Age.")  "  It 
is  Southey's  almost  unexampled  felicity,"  says  Coleridge, 
"to  possess  the  best  gifts  of  talent  and  genius,  free  from 
all  their  characteristic  defects.  .  .  .  As  son,  brother,  hus- 
band, father,  master,  friend,  he  moves  with  firm  yet  light 
steps,  alike  uiiostentatious  and  alike  exemplary.  As  a 
writer,  he  has  uniformly  made  his  talents  subservient 
to  the  best  interests  of  humanity,  of  public  virtue,  and 
domestic  piety."  ("  Biographia  Literaria.") 

See  "The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Robert  Southey,"  edited 
by  his  son,  the  Rhv.  Ch.\rles  Cuthbert  Southey,  6  vols.,  1849- 
50 ;  Joseph  Cottle,  "  Reminiscences  of  S.  T.  Coleridge  and  R. 
Southey,"  1847;  Charles  T.  Browne,  "The  Life  of  R.  Southey," 
1854;  ".Selections  from  the  Letters  of  R.  Southey,"  edited  by  his 
son-in-law,  J.  W,  Warter,  4  vols.,  1856:  "  Edinburgh  Review"  fi)r 
April,  1851  ;  Macaulav's  essay  entitled  "  Southey's  Colloquies  on 
Society,"  1S30 ;  Jeffrey's  critiques  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  18 11,  (vol.  xvii.,)  and  for  June,  1815,  (vol.  xxv.  ;)  Al- 
LiBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

South'gate,  (Horatio,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born   at   Portland,  Maine,  July   5,    i8i2,   gtaduated    at 


a.  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii.  y, short;  a,  e,  i,  9.  obscure;  (Jr.  fill,  fit:  mhv,  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SOUTH  GATE 


2225 


SPAGNOLETTO 


Bowdoin  College  in  1832,  studied  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Andover,  and  in  1835  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  was  sent  as  a  missionary 
to  the  Levant,  and  in  1844  was  consecrated  a  missionary 
bishop  for  Turkey.  lie  resigned  this  position  in  1850. 
His  principal  works  are  "A  Tour  through  Armenia," 
etc.,  "  A  Visit  to  the  .Syrian  Church  of  Mesopotamia," 
(1844,)  a  treatise  on  the  Anglican  Church,  (in  Greek, 
1849,)  "Practical  Directions  for  Lent,"  (1S50,)  "The 
War  in  the  East,"  (1855,)  "Sermons,"  (i860,)  and  "The 
Cross  above  the  Crescent,"  (1877.) 

South'gate,  (Richard,)  Rev.,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1729.  He  became  an  assist- 
ant librarian  of  the  British  Museum.     Died  in  1795. 

South'well,  (Nathaniel,)  was  secretary  to  the 
general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Rome  about  1650.  He 
wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Bibliotheca  Scriptorum 
Societatis  Jesu,"  or  "Jesuits'  Library,"  down  to  1676,  in 
which  year  he  died. 

South'well,  (Robert,)  an  English  Catholic,  born  in 
1560,  became  prefect  of  the  English  Jesuits'  College  at 
Rome,  and  was  afterwards  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Eng- 
land. Having  admitted  that  he  came  for  the  purpose 
of  making  converts,  he  was  tried  and  executed  in  159$. 
He  was  the  author  of  hymns  and  religious  treatises. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  November,  1798;  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  iv.,  (1821 ;)  Cleveland,  "  Compendium  of 
English  Literature." 

South'worth,  (Mrs.  Emma  D.  E.  Nevitt,)  an 
American  novelist,  born  at  Washington,  District  of 
Columbia,  in  1818.  She  contributed  a  number  of  tales 
and  sketches  to  the  "National  Era"  at  Washington, and 
subsequently  published  in  that  journal  her  novel  entitled 
"Retribution."  Among  her  other  works  maybe  named 
"The  Deserted  Wife,"  "The  Lost  Heiress,"  and  the 
"Curse  of  Clifford." 

Soutman,  sowt'min,  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
history,  born  about  1590;  died  in  1653. 

Soutzo,  soot'zo,  or  Sutzos,  soot'zos,  (Alexander,) 
a  modern  Greek  poet  and  historian,  born  at  Constanti- 
nople about  iSoo.  He  wrote  political  satires  against 
various  parties  which  divided  Greece  after  1824.  In 
1829  he  published,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Greek 
Revolution."  He  is  considered  by  some  writers  as  the 
greatest  poet  of  modern  Greece.     Died  in  1863. 

Soutzo,  (Payanote,)  a  modern  Greek  poet,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  councillor 
of  state  at  Athens.     Died  November  6,  1868. 

Souvarof.     See  Suwarow. 

Souvestre,  soo'v?stR',  (£mile,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Morlai.x,  in  Brit- 
tany, in  1806.  He  published  in  1836  a  work  entitled 
"Les  derniers  Bretons,"  an  admirable  description  of  the 
manners,  customs,  etc.  of  Brittany.  About  the  same 
time  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "  Revue  de  Paris" 
and  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Among  his  best 
productions,  many  of  which  appeared  first  in  the  leading 
Parisian  journals,  we  may  name  "The  Confessions  of  a 
Workman,"  ("  Les  Confessions  d'un  Ouvrier,")  "  Pierre 
et  Jean,"  "Travels  in  Finisterre,"  (1836,)  "The  Greased 
Pole,"  ("Le  Mat  de  Cocagne,"  1842,)  and  "  Le  Philo- 
sophe  sous  lesToits."  His  works  are  highly  commended 
for  their  moral  purity.     Died  in  Paris  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Eiographie  G^ndrale." 

Souvorof  or  Souvorov.    See  Suwarow. 

Souza.    See  Faria  y  Souza. 

Souza,  de,  di  so'zS,  (Ad^le,)  Marchioness,  « 
French  romance-writer,  whose  original  name  was  Fil- 
LF.UL,  was  born  in  Normandy  in  1760.  She  w.is  first 
married  in  1784  to  Count  Flahault,  who  perished  under 
the  guillotine  in  1793,  and  in  1802  became  the  wife  of 
the  Portuguese  ambassador  Souza-Botelho,  noticed  be- 
low. She  published  several  popular  romances,  among 
which  we  may  name  "Eugene  de  Rathelin,"  (180S,)  and 
"Adile  de  Senanges."     Died  in  1836. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Cri- 
tiques et  Portraits." 

Souza,  de,  (JoAo,)  a  learned  monk,  born  at  Damas- 
cus, in  Syria,  about  1730,  settled  in  Portugal,  where  he 
became  professor  of  Arabic.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
Arabic  Grammar.     Died  in  1812. 


Souza,  de,  (Pedro  Lopez,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
who  explored  the  coast  of  Brazil  about  1532.  He  was 
drowned  on  the  coast  of  Madagascar  in  1539. 

Souza-Botelho,  so'zS  bo-t§l'yo,  (Dom  Joz4  Maria,) 
a  Portuguese  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Oporto  in 
1758,  was  employed  in  important  embassies  to  Sweden, 
Denmark,  England,  and  France.  He  published  in  1818 
a  valuable  edition  of  the  works  of  Camoens.  Died  in 
1819. 

Sow'^r-b^,  (George  Brettingham,)  an  English 
naturalist,  born  in  1788,  was  a  son  of  James,  noticed 
below.  He  gave  special  attention  to  conchology  and 
entomology.     Died  in  1854. 

Sowerby,  (George  Brettingham,)  an  artist  and 
naturalist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1812. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Popular  British 
Conchology,"  (1854,)  and  "Illustrated  Index  of  British 
Shells,"  (1859.)     Died  July  25,  1884. 

Sowerby,  (James,)  an  English  naturalist  and  artist, 
born  at  Lambeth  about  1760.  He  published  "English 
Botany,"  (1790,)  in  conjunction  with  Sir  James  .Smith; 
also,  "Exotic  Mineralogy,"  a  treatise  "On  the  Eng- 
lish Fungi  or  Mushrooms,"  (3  vols.,  1797-1803,)  "Brit- 
ish Mineralogy,"  (5  vols.,  1804-17,)  and  the  "Mineral 
Conchology  of  Great  Britain,"  (6  vols.,  1812-30.)  These 
works  are  beautifully  illustrated  by  himself  with  coloured 
plates.  Died  in  1822.  His  son,  James  DE  Carle,  born 
in  1787,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Botanical 
Society.     He  died  August  26,  1871. 

Soyaux,  swt'y5',  (Hermann,)  a  German  traveller, 
born  at  Breslau,  January  4,  1852.  He  was  employed  by 
a  commercial  house  in  the  coffee-trade  near  the  river 
Gaboon,  where  he  made  rich  botanical  collections.  He 
published  "  Aus  Westafrika,  1873-76,"  (1S79,)  etc. 

Soyer,  swi'yi',  (Alexis,)  a  celebrated  French  cook 
and  writer  on  gastronomy,  born  about  iSoo  ;  died  in 
1858. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1851. 

Soz'o-men,  [Gr.  SuC^^evof ;  Lat.  Sozom'enus  ;  Fr. 
SozoMfeNE,  so'zo'min',)  or,  more  fully,  So-zom'e-noa 
Her'mi-as,  a  Greek  ecclesiastical  historian,  born  at 
Bethel,  in  Palestine,  about  400  A.D.  He  practised  law 
at  Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  History  of  the  Church 
from  323  to  439  A.D.,  which  is  extant.  He  is  deficient 
in  judgment,  compared  with  Socrates,  (who  lived  at  the 
same  time  and  wrote  on  the  same  subject,)  but  his  style 
is  commended. 

Sozomeue  and  Sozomenus.    See  Sozomen. 

Sozzini.     See  Socinus. 

Spach,  sptk,  (Edouard,)  a  French  naturalist,  bom 
at  Strasburg,  November  20,  1801.  He  was  attached  to 
the  Royal  Gardens  as  assistant  naturalist,  and  wrote 
several  botanical  works.     Died  May  18,  1879. 

Spada,  spi'dd,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  the  Romagna  in  1594,  was  a  patron  of  literature 
and  the  fine  arts.     Died  in  1661. 

Spada,  (LlONELLO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1576.  He  studied  at  Rome  under 
Caravaggio,  whose  manner  he  adopted  and  refined. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  San  Domenico  burn- 
ing the  Proscribed  Books  of  the  Heretics,"  at  Bologna, 
"  Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son,"  at  Modena.  and  "The 
Miracle  of  Saint  Benedict,"  in  the  monastery  of  San 
Michele  at  Bosco.  He  excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  was 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  artists  of  his  time.  Died  in 
1622. 

See  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  pittrice." 

Spadafora,  spd-dS-fo'rS,  (Placido,)  an  Italian  gram- 
marian, born  at  Palermo  in  1628.  Among  his  works  is 
"Prosodia  Italiana,"  (1682.)     Died  in  1691. 

Spaendouck,  van,  vtn  spin'donk,  (Geraart,)  a 
celebrated  Dutch  flower-painter,  born  at  Tilburg  about 
1750.  He  became  miniature-painter  to  the  King  of 
France  in  1774,  and  professor  of  iconography  at  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes.     Died  in  Paris  in  1822. 

Spagnoletto,  spin-yo-Iet'to,  [Fr.  Espagnolet,  I?,'- 
ptn'yo'l.y,]  an  eminent  Spanish  painter,  whose  proper 
name  was  Jos6  Ribera,  (re-Ba'rS,)  was  born  at  Sar 
Felipe  de  Xativa  in  1588.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Michael 
Angelo  de  Caravaggio.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Madrid,  and  was   afterwards   appointed  painter  to 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  o,  h,  K.,gvUural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  t;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


140 


SPAGNUOLT 


2226 


SPARKS 


the  court  of  Spain.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  and  a  "Mater  Dolorosa." 
Ilis  favourite  subjects  were  martyrdoms,  executions,  and 
other  tragical  scenes.     Died  at  Naples  in  1656. 

Spagnuoli  or  SpagnolL     See  Mantua-n. 

Spalatin,  spS'ld-teen',  [Lat.  Spalati'nus,]  (Georg,) 
a  German  scholar  and  Reformer,  whose  original  name 
was  BURCKHARD,  was  born  at  Spalt,  in  the  bishopric  of 
Eichstadt,  in  1484.  Having  become  a  convert  to  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  he  was  appointed  in  1514  by  Fred- 
erick the  Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony,  his  court  chaplain 
and  private  secretary.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
his  biographies  of  Frederick  the  Wise  and  John  the 
Constant,  and  "  History  of  the  Popes  and  Emperors  of 
the  Time  of  the  Reformation."     Died  in  1545. 

See  ScHLEGEL,  "  Historia  Vitae  G.  Spalatini;"  P.  Ekerman, 
"Dissertatio  de  G.  Spalatino,"  1760;  J.  Wagner,  "G.  Spalatin 
und  die  Reformation  der  Kirclien,"  etc.,  1830;  Berthel,  "  G. 
Spalatini  in  Emendationein  sacrorum  Merita,"  1840. 

Spalatinus.     See  Spalatin. 

Spaldiug.spil'ding,  (Georg  Ludvvig,)  a  distinguished 
philologist,  a  son  of  Johann  Joachitn,  noticed  below,  was 
bo;n  at  Barth  in  1762.  He  prepared  an  excellent  edi- 
hon  of  the  works  of  Quintilian,  published  after  his  death. 
He  also  wrote  (in  Latin)  "  Vindication  of  the  Megaric 
Philosophers."  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  councillor  in  the  ministry  for 
public  instruction.     Died  in  181 1. 

See  Georg  Ludwig  Spalding,  "  Memoria  G.  L.  Spaldingii," 
i8j2. 

Spalding,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian and  religious  writer,  born  in  Swedish  Pomerania  in 
1714;  died  in  1804. 

Spai'ding,  (John,)  a  Scottish  historian,  lived  in  Aber- 
deen. He  wrote  "Memorials  of  the  Troubles  in  Scot- 
land."    Died  about  1670. 

Spai'ding,  (John  Franklin,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Belgrade,  Maine,  August  25,  1828,  grad- 
uated at  Bowdoin  College  in  1853,  and  at  the  General 
Seminary  in  New  York  in  1857.  In  1858  he  was  ordained 
a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1873  he  was  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Colorado. 

Spalding,  (John  Lancaster.)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Lebanon,  Kentucky,  June  2,  1840,  was 
educated  at  Emmittsburg,  Rome,  and  Louvain,  where  he 
graduated  in  1859.  He  became  a  Catholic  priest  of  Ken- 
tucky, and  in  1877  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Peoria, 
Illinois,  the  first  of  that  title.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Life  of  Archbishop  Spalding,"  "  Essays  and  Reviews," 
"Religious  Mission  of  the  Irish  People,"  "  Lectures  and 
Discourses,"  (in  4  vols.,)  a  series  of  school-books,  etc. 

Sp&l'ding,  (Lyman,)  an  eminent  American  physician, 
born  at  Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  in  1775.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1797,  and  settled  at  Ports- 
mouth in  1799.  He  published  a  "New  Nomenclature 
of  Chemistry,"  (1799.)  In  1812  he  became  president  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  at  Fairfield,  New  York,  and 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery.  He  removed  to  the 
city  of  New  York  in  1813.  He  originated  the  "  Phar- 
macopoeia of  the  United  States,"  the  plan  of  which  he 
formed  about  1818.     He  died  in  October,  1821. 

SeeTHACHER,  "Medical  Biography." 

Spalding.  (Martin  John,)  D.D.,  an  American  arch- 
bishop, born  in  Marion  county,  Kentucky,  May  23,  1810, 
graduated  at  Saint  Mary's  College,  Lebanon,  Kentucky, 
in  1S26,  and  at  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  in  Rome. 
In  1834  he  was  ordained  a  Catholic  priest,  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Lengone,  and  coadjutor  of  Louisville  in  184S, 
succeeded  Bishop  Flaget  as  Bishop  of  Louisville  in  1850, 
and  in  1864  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Baltimore, 
where  he  died,  February  7,  1872.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
learned,  active,  and  influential  prelates  of  his  Church  in 
this  country.  Among  his  works  are  "  Evidences  of  Cath- 
olicity," (1847,)  "Miscellanea,"  (1855,)  and  "  History  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation,"  (i860.)  See  his  "Life," 
by  Bishop  J.  L.  Spalding. 

Spai'ding,  (Samuel,)  an  English  theologian  and  dis- 
senting divine,  born  in  London  in  1807.  He  died  in 
1844  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  whither  he  had  gone 
on  account  of  his  health.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"The  Philosophy  of  Christian  Morals." 


Spalding,  (William,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  writer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  about  1809.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Italy  and  the  Italian  Islands  from  the  Earliest 
Ages,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1841,)  and  became  professor  of  logic 
in  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1845.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "Encyclopxdia  Britannica."  Died  in 
1859. 

Spallanzani,  spil-lJn-zJ'nee,  (Lazzaro,)  an  eminent 
Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Scandiano,  in  the  duchy  of 
Modena,  in  1729,  was  educated  at  Bologna.  He  became 
professor  of  logic  and  Greek  at  Reggio  in  1754.  and  ob- 
tained a  chair  at  Modena  in  1761.  In  1768  he  published 
"On  the  Action  of  the  Heart  in  'he  Blood-Vessels," 
("  Deir  Azione  del  Cuore  ne'  Vasi  sanguigni.")  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  at  Pavia  about 
1770.  He  wrote  treatises  on  respiration,  digestion,  re- 
production, etc.     Died  in  1799. 

See  J.  TouRDES,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Spallanzani,"  lygg;  Poz- 
ZETTi,  "  Elogio  di  L.  Spallanzani."  1800;  J.  L.  Alibekt,  "  filoge 
historique  de  Spallanzani,"  1806;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Spangenberg,  sping'gen-berg'  or  sp3ng'en-l>?RG', 
(August  Goitlikr,)  founder  of  the  Moravian  Church 
in  America,  was  born  at  Klettenberg,  in  Germany,  in 
1704.  In  1735  he  visited  America  and  founded  a  Mo- 
ravian settlement  in  Georgia.  Having  been  made  a 
bishop  in  1744,  he  continued  to  resifle  nearly  twenty 
years  in  America,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing Moravian  colonies  at  Bethlehem  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  North  Carolina.  He  returned  to  Germany  in 
1762,  and  died  in  1792.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "Life  of  Count  Zinzendorf,"  (1772,)  and  "Exposition 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  United  Brethren,"  ("Idea  Fidei 
Fratrum.") 

Spangenberg,  sping'^n-b^Rc',  (Cyriacus,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Herden 
in  1528,  was  the  author  of  "Chronicles  of  Henneberg, 
Holstein,  etc."     Died  in  1604. 

Spanheim,  spin'hlm,  (Ezekiel,)  an  eminent  Swiss 
diplomatist,  scholar,  and  numismatist,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1629.  lie  studied  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  theology  at 
Leyden.  In  1659  he  was  sent  by  the  Elector-Palatine  to 
Italy  on  a  diplomatic  mission.  He  published  at  Rome  a 
work  on  ancient  coins,  "  De  Praestantia  et  Usu  Numis- 
matum  antiquorum,"  (1664.)  He  returned  to  Heidelberg 
in  1665,  after  which  he  was  employed  by  the  Elector  as 
minister  to  England.  About  1680  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  sent  him  as  ambas- 
sador to  Paris.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Roman 
World,"  etc.,  ("  Orbis  Romanus,"  etc.,  1697.)  Died  in 
London  in  17 10. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Senebier,  "Histoire  litteraire  de 
Geneve;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Spanheim,  spJn'hlm,  (Friedrich,)  a  theologian, 
born  at  Amberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1600,  was  the  father  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Leyden  in  1642.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Gospel  Doubts,"  ("  Dubia  Evangelica,"  1639,)  and 
a  "Treatise  on  Universal  Grace,"  (1646.)  Died  in  1649. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary." 

Spanheim,  (Friedrich,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Geneva  in  1632.  He  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Heidelberg  in  1655,  and  obtained  the  chair 
of  theology  and  sacred  history  at  Leyden  in  1670. 
Among  his  works  is  "  A  Summary  of  Ecclesiastical 
History,"  ("  Summa  Historiae  ecclesiastics,"  1689.) 
Died  in  1701, 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Spark  or  Sparke,  (Thomas,)  an  English  cleig^- 
man,  born  in  1655,  became  prebendary  of  Lichfield  and 
Rochester.  He  published  an  edition  of  Lactantius, 
(1684.)     Died  in  1692. 

Sparke,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  Puritan  min- 
ister, born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1548.  He  became  preb- 
endary of  Lincoln  in  1582.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.     Died  in  1616. 

Sparks,  (Jared,)  a  distinguished  .American  historian 
and  biographer,  born  at  Willington,  Connecticut,  in 
May,  1789,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1815.  He 
studied  theology,  and  was  ordained  minister  of  the  First 
Unitarian  Church  of  Baltimore  in  1819,  after  which  he 


a,  e, !,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  sanje,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  nflt;  gooil;  moon- 


SPARE 


2227 


SPELMAN 


wrote  several  treatises  on  theology.  He  became  in  1823 
the  editor  of  the  "  North  American  Review,"  which  he 
conducted  (in  Boston)  until  1830.  He  published  "The 
Life  of  John  Ledyard,"  (1829,)  and  "The  Life  of  Gouver- 
neur  Morris,"  (3  vols.,  1832,)  and  expended  much 
.'ubour  on  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  George  Wash- 
ington ;  being  his  Correspondence,  Addresses,  Mes- 
sages, etc.,"  (12  vols.  8vo,  1833-40,)  which,  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  is  "a  work  in  all  respects  as  nearly  perfect 
as  possible."  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the  com- 
plete works  of  Franklin,  (10  vols.,  1835-40.)  In  1839 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  and  modern  history 
in  Harvard  University.  He  edited  "The  Library  of 
American  Biography,"  (First  Series,  10  vols.,  1835-39, 
and  Second  Series,  15  vols.,  1844-48.)  For  this  valuable 
collection  he  wrote  the  biographies  of  Ethan  Allen,  Ben- 
edict Arnold,  Marquette,  Count  Pulaski,  La  Salle,  Ri- 
bault,  and  General  Charles  Lee.  He  was  president  of 
Harvard  University  from  1849  to  1852.  It  is  stated  that 
he  was  engaged  for  many  years  on  a  History  of  the 
American  Revolution.     Died  in  1866. 

"The  great  merits  of  Mr.  Sparks,"  says  Griswold, 
"are  reverence  for  truth,  soundness  of  judgment  in  re- 
gard to  evidence,  and  exhausting  fulness  of  detail  and 
illustration."    (.See  "Prose  Writers  of  America.") 

See  Brantz  Meyf.r,  "Memoir  of  Jared  Sparks,"  1S69 ;  Rev. 
George  E.  Ei.lis,  "Memoirs  of  Jared  Sparks,"  1S69;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Sparr,  span,  (Otto  Christoph,)  Baron,  a  German 
commander,  born  in  1593,  served  against  the  Swedes  in 
1655,  and  was  made  field-marshal-general  in  1657.  Died 
in  1668. 

Sparre,  sj^Sr'reh,  (Eric  Larsson,)  a  Swedish  states- 
man and  writer,  born  in  1550.  He  was  an  adherent  of 
Sigismund  in  a  civil  war  which  resulted  in  the  de- 
thronement of  that  king.  He  was  executed  for  treason 
in  1600. 

Sparre,  (Gehr  Georg,)  a  Swedish  novelist,  born 
near  Kronoberg  in  1790.  He  entered  the  army  in  1807, 
and  became  a  colonel  in  1832.     Died  July  25,  1871. 

Sparrmann,  span'mSn,  (Andreas,)  a  Swedish  natu- 
ralist, born  in  the  province  of  Upland  about  1747.  He 
studied  at  Upsal  under  Linnaeus,  and  in  1772  visited 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  afterwards  accompanied 
the  Forsters  in  their  voyage  round  the  world  with  Cap- 
tain Cook  in  1772.  In  1775  he  set  out  for  the  interior 
of  Africa,  where  he  made  a  valuable  collection  of  plants, 
animals,  etc.  After  his  return  to  Sweden,  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm, 
and  appointed  conservator  of  the  Museum.  His  travels 
are  highly  esteemed  for  their  accuracy,  and  have  been 
translated  into  several  languages.     Died  in  1820. 

Spar'ro'W,  (Anthony,)  an  English  prelate  under  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  became  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He 
published  a  "  Rationale  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer." 
Died  in  1685, 

Spar'row,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  Massachusetts,  of  an  Irish  family,  March  12, 
iSoi.  He  lived  in  Ireland,  1805-17,  studied  in  Columbia 
College,  New  York,  and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
"Low  Church"  party  in  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  held 
professorships  in  Miami  University,  1824-25,  in  Kenyon 
College,  and  in  the  Theological  School  of  Virginia, 
1840-74.    Died  at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  January  17,  1874. 

Spar'ta-cus,  a  Thracian  soldier,  who  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Romans,  reduced  to  slavery,  and  trained 
as  a  gladiator.  Having  escaped  with  a  number  of  his 
associates,  he  became  leader  of  a  numerous  band,  and 
defeated  Claudius  Pulcher,  who  was  sent  against  him 
about  73  B.C.  Having  proclaimed  freedom  to  all  slaves 
who  should  join  him,  he  raised  a  powerful  army  and  de- 
feated several  times  the  consuls  sent  against  him.  He 
was  prudent  as  well  as  brave.  His  army  amounted  to 
about  100,000  men,  and  was  invincible  until  dissensions 
arose  among  them.  In  71  B.C.  he  was  blockaded  by 
M.  Licinius  Crassus  at  Rhegium,  and  killed  in  a  battle 
which  ended  the  great  Servile  war.  Spartacus  was  an 
extraordinary  man,  and  had  the  qualities  of  a  hero. 

See  LivY,  "Epitome;"  MiRiM^E, "Guerre  sociale:"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Spartianus,  spar-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Spartien,  splR' 


sc^n',!  (z'Elius,)  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived  about 
300  A.D.,  wrote  a  "  History  in  Single  Biographies  of  the 
Roman  Emperors  from  Cassar  down  to  his  Own  Time." 
Only  fragments  of  it  are  extant. 

Spartien.     See  Spartianus. 

Sparwenfeldt,  spaR'<^en-fgIt',  (Johan  Gabriel,)  a 
Swedish  linguist,  born  in  1655.  He  left,  in  manuscript, 
a  "Lexicon  Slavonicum."     Died  in  1727. 

SpauI'ding,  (Levi,)  an  American  Congregational 
missionary,  born  at  Jaffrey,  New  Hampshire,  August  22, 
1791.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1815,  and 
at  the  Andover  Seminary  in  1818,  went  to  Northern 
Ceylon  as  a  missionary,  and  died  there,  June  18,  1873. 
Besides  writing  and  traiislating  religious  books  into  the 
Tamil  language,  he  published  a  "Tamil  Dictionary." 

Speckbacher,  sp^k'b^K'er,  (Joseph,)  a  Tyrolese 
patriot,  and  friend  of  Hofer,  was  born  near  Innspruck  in 
1768;  died  in  1820. 

Speckter,  spSk'ter,  (Erwin,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Cornelius  at 
Munich.  He  visited  Italy  in  1824,  and  while  at  Rome 
produced  his  picture  of  the  "Sleeping  Samson,"  es- 
teemed one  of  his  master-pieces.  He  died  in  1835. 
His  interesting  "  Letters  of  a  German  Artist  from  Italy" 
were  published  in  1846. 

Speckter,  (Otto,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1807.  He  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  exe- 
cuted a  number  of  lithographs  and  etchings,  among 
which  we  may  name  "  Twelve  Etchings  to  Puss  in 
Boots." 

Spedalieri,  spi-di-le-a'ree,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italiat- 
priest  and  writer,  born  in  Sicily  in  1740.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  the  Rights  of  Man,  "De'  Diritti  del 
Uomo,"  (179 1,)  which  gave  offence  to  the  clergy.  Died 
in  1795. 

Sped'ding,  (Jamks,)  an  English  biographer,  born  at 
Mirehouse,  near  Bassenthwaite,  Cumberland,  in  180S. 
lie  is  known  by  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Francis  Bacon, 
to  which  he  prefixed  a  valuable  Life.     Died  in  i88i. 

Spee,  von,  fon  spa,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  Jesuit, 
born  near  Kaisersvverth,  on  the  Rhine,  about  1595, 
wrote  devotional  poems  of  great  beauty,  and  an  able 
treatise  against  the  belief  in  witchcraft.     Died  in  1635. 

Speed,  (John,)  an  English  historian,  born  in  Che- 
shire about  1550.  He  was  the  author  of  a  chronicle 
entitled  "The  History  of  Great  Britain  under  the  Con- 
quests of  the  Romans,  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Nonnans," 
(161 1,)  "The  Theatre  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Britain," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1629. 

Spegel,  spii'gel,  (Haquin,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
at  Ronneby  in  1645.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Swedish  Church,"  ("Svenska  Kyrkt- 
historie,"  2  vols.,  1708.)  In  171 1  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Upsal.     Died  in  1713  or  1714. 

Speke,  speek,  (Captain  John  Hanning,)  an  English 
officer,  distinguished  as  an  explorer  of  Africa,  was  born 
in  1827.  He  served  in  the  army  in  India  several  years. 
About  1855-57  he  was  a  companion  of  Captain  Burton 
in  a  journey  in  Africa.  He  discovered  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza  in  1858.  In  company  with  Mr.  Grant,  he  per- 
formed another  journey  to  that  part  of  Africa  in  1860-61, 
and  discovered  the  sources  of  the  Nile  in  1862  by  tracing 
that  river  to  Lake  Nyanza.  He  was  killed  in  England 
in  1864  by  the  accidental  discharge  of  his  own  gun. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  November,  1864;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  November,  1859,  and  May,  i86o, 

Spel'man,  (Edward,)  an  English  scholar  and  trans- 
lator, was  a  descendant  of  Sir  Henry,  noticed  below. 
He  translated  Xenophon's  "Cyropaedia,"  and  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus.     Died  in  1767. 

Spelman,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  eminent  English  anti- 
quary, born  in  Norfolk  in  1562.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  settled  in  London. 
He  published  in  1626  the  first  part  of  his  "Glossarium 
Archaiologicum,"  a  standard  work  of  its  kind,  which  he 
left  unfinished  ;  the  remaining  part  was  brought  out  by 
his  friend  Sir  William  Dugdale.  He  also  wrote  "Coun- 
cils, Decrees,  Laws,  etc.  of  Britain  in  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs,"  (in  Latin,  unfinished.)     Died  in  1641. 

His  son.  Sir  John  Spelman,  wTote  a  "Critical  Life 


€as/J;  9asj;gAar</;gasy;G,  H,K,ptttural:  u, nasal;  ^,trilled;  sas«;  thasin////j.     (g^^See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


SPELTA 


2228 


SPENER 


of  King  Alfred,"  and  another  son,  Clement,  became 
baron  of  the  exchequer  under  Charles  11.  Sir  John 
died  in  1643. 

Spelta,  sp51'tJ,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian  littira- 
teitr,  born  at  Pavia  in  1559.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Istoria  de'  Fatti  notabili  occorsi  nell'  Universo," 
etc.,  (1603.)     Died  in  1632. 

Spgiice,  (Joseph,)  an  English  divine  and  critic,  born 
in  Hampshire  in  1699.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  entered 
into  orders,  and  in  1728  became  professor  of  poetry  in 
that  college.  Having  travelled  on  the  continent,  he  was 
appointed  after  his  return  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "Polymetis  ; 
or.  An  Enquiry  concerning  the  Agreement  between  the 
Works  of  the  Roman  Poets  and  the  Remains  of  the 
Ancient  Artists,"  etc.,  which  was  very  well  received. 
He  also  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Pope's  Translation  of  the 
Odyssey,"  which  procured  for  him  the  friendship  of 
that  poet,  and  "Anecdotes,  Observations,  and  Charac- 
ters of  Books  and  Men,"  a  valuable  and  interesting 
work.  Mr.  Spence  was  made  a  prebendary  of  Durham 
Cathedral  in  1754.  He  was  accidentally  drowned  in 
1768. 

Spence,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  entomolo- 
gist, born  in  1783,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on 
natural  history,  among  which  we  may  name  "Obser- 
vations relative  to  Dr.  Carus's  Discovery  of  the  Circu- 
lation of  Blood  in  Insects."  He  also  assisted  the  Rev. 
William  Kirby  in  his  "Introduction  to  Entomology, 
or  Elements  of  the  Natural  History  of  Insects."  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  other  learned 
institutions.     (See  Kirby.)     Died  in  i860. 

Spen'cer,  (Ambrose,)  LL.D.,  an  able  American 
jurist,  born  at  Salisbury,  Connecticut,  in  1765.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  subsequently  rose 
through  various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  State 
of  New  York  in  1810.  He  retired  from  the  bench  in 
1823.  He  married  successively  two  sisters  of  De  Witt 
Clinton.     Died  in  1848. 

Spencer,  (Charles.)     See  Sunderland,  Earl  of. 

Spen'c?r,  (Charles,)  Duke  of  Marlborough,  born 
in  1707,  was  a  son  of  Charles,  Earl  of  Sunderland,  and 
a  grandson  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Marlborough,  whose 
title  he  inherited  in  1733.  He  served  in  the  army,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.     Died  in  1759. 

Spencer,  (Frederick,)  Earl  of  Spencer,  an  English 
peer,  born  in  London  in  1798.  He  served  in  the  navy, 
and  gained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  In  1845  ^^  entered 
the  House  of  Lords.     Died  December  27,  1857. 

Spencer,  (George,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born 
in  1799,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Viscount  Althorp. 
He  joined  the  order  of  Passionists,  and  assumed  the 
name  of  Father  Ignatius.     Died  in  1864. 

Spencer,  (George  John,)  Earl  Spencer,  born  about 
1758,  was  a  grandson  of  the  third  Earl  of  Sunderland. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  cabinet  under  Pitt  about  1795- 
1801.  He  died  in  1834,  leaving  a  son  John  Charles, 
Lord  Althorp,  (q.  v.,)  who  succeeded  as  Earl  Spencer. 

Spencer,  (Henry.)     See  Sunderland,  Earl  of. 

Spencer,  (Herbert,)  a  distinguished  English  philos- 
opher and  author,  was  born  at  Derby  about  1820.  He 
learned  the  business  of  civil  engineer,  which  he  aban- 
doned about  1845.  He  published  "Social  Statics;  or 
the  Conditions  essential  to  Human  Happiness  Speci- 
fied," etc.,  (1851,)  and  "The  Principles  of  Psychology," 
(1855.)  His  contributions  to  the  "  Westminster  Re- 
view" and  other  periodicals  were  reprinted  in  a  volume 
entitled  "Essays,  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative," 
(1857.)  Among  his  principal  works,  which  have  attracted 
much  attention,  are"  Education,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and 
Physical,"  (1861,)  "Progress,  its  Law  and  Course," 
"  First  Principles,"  (1862,)  "  The  Principles  of  Biology," 
(1863,)  "Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress,"  (1864,) 
"Spontaneous  Generation,  etc.,"  (1870,)  "Recent  Dis- 
cussions in  Science,  Philosophy,  and  Morals,"  (1871,) 
"Study  of  Sociology,"  (1872,)  "Descriptive  Sociology," 
(1873,)  and  "  Data  of  Ethics,"  (1879.) 

Spen'cer,  (Ichabod  Smith,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine,  born  at  Rujjert,  Vermont,  February  23, 
1798.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1822,  became 
a  preacher  in  1826,  and  was  a  professor  of  biblical  history 


in  Union  Seminary,  (New  York,)  1836-40,  holding  also 
(1832-54)  a  pastorate  in  Brooklyn.  His  works  include 
"A  Pastor's  Sketches,"  (1850,  1853,)  "  Sermons,"  (1855,) 
"Sacramental  Discourses,"  (1S61,)  "  Evidences  of  Divine 
Revelation,"  (1865,)  etc.  Died  at  Brooklyn,  November 
23.  1854. 

Spencer,  (Jksse  Ames,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episco- 
palian divine  and  theologian,  born  in  Dutchess  county. 
New  York,  in  1816.  He  was  ajipointed  in  1850  professor 
of  Latin  and  Oriental  languages  at  Burlington  College, 
New  Jersey.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  English 
Reformation,"  (1846,)  "Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land," 
(1849,)  and  other  works. 

Spencer,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  in  Kent  in  1630,  was  created  Dean  of  Ely.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  De  Legibus  Hebraeorum  Ritu- 
alibus  et  eorum  Rationibus."     Died  in  1695. 

Spencer,  (John  Canfield,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  at  Hudson,  New  York,  in  1788, 
was  a  son  of  Ambrose,  noticed  above.  He  practised 
for  many  years  at  Canandaigua,  to  which  he  removed  in 
1809.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1816,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  New  York  from  1824  to  1828. 
He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  revision  of  the  statutes 
of  New  York,  on  which  he  wrote  a  series  of  essays.  In 
1839  he  became  secretary  of  state  for  New  York.  He 
was  secretary  of  war  under  the  national  government 
from  October,  1841,  to  March,  1843,  ^"^  ^^^  appointed 
secretary  of  the  treasury  at  the  latter  date.  He  resigned 
in  1844  because  he  was  ojjposed  to  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  Union.  About  1845  ^^  removed  from 
Canandaigua  to  Albany,  where  he  died  in  May,  1855. 
Mr.  Spencer  was  a  man  of  powerful  intellect  and  intense 
energy,  and  occupied  a  high  position  as  a  lawyer  and 
a  philanthropist.  He  ditl  much  to  promote  popular 
education. 

Spencer,  (John  Charles.)    See  Althorp,  Lord. 

Spencer,  (John  Poyntz,)  fourth  Earl,  a  British 
nobleman,  born  October  27,  1835.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1857 
succeeded  his  father  as  earl.  He  was  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  1869-74,  ^"c^  was  again  appointed  in  1882,  being 
also  lord  president  of  the  Council,  with  a  seat  in  Mr. 
Gladstone's  cabinet. 

Spencer,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Connecticut  about  17 14.  He  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  in  August,  1776,  resigned  in  1778,  and  was 
elected  to  the  General  Congress  in  that  year.  Died 
in  1789. 

Spencer,  (Hon.  William  Robert,)  an  accomplished 
English  writer,  son  of  Lord  Charles  Spencer,  was  born 
in  1770.  He  produced  a  translation  of  "  Lenore."  Died 
in  1834. 

Spener,  spa'ner,  (Jakob  Karl,)  a  German  writer  and 
jurist,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Frankfort  in 
1684.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Genera! 
History  of  Germany,"  ("  Historia  Germanise  Universalis 
et  Pragmatica,"  2  vols.,  1717.)     Died  in  1730. 

Spener,  (Philipp  Jakob,)  an  eminent  German  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Rappoltsweiler,  now  Ribeauville, 
in  Alsace,  in  January,  1635.  He  is  called  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Pietists,  lie  studied  theology,  Hebrew, 
etc.  at  Strasburg,  and  began  to  preach  in  that  city  in 
1663.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher, 
he  became  in  1666  first  pastor  of  the  Lutheran  church 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He  instituted,  about  1670, 
meetings  for  religious  instruction  and  prayer,  which  were 
called  collegia pietatis.  In  1675  he  published  a  small  work 
entitled  "Pious  Desires,"  ("  Pia  Desideria,")  which  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  appointed  court  preacher  at 
Dresden  in  1686,  and  removed  in  1691  to  Berlin,  where 
he  obtained  the  office  of  provost  of  the  church  of  Saint 
Nicholas  and  enjoyed  great  influence.  He  was  eminent 
for  charity  and  tolerance.  His  efforts  were  directed  tc 
the  promotion  of  vital  and  practical  religion.  The  chairs 
of  theology  in  the  new  University  of  Halle  were  filled 
by  disciples  of  Spener.  A  controversy  arose  between 
his  friends  and  the  faculty  of  Wittenberg,  who  censured 
as  heretical  two  hundred  and  sixty-four  propositions 
found  in  his  writings.  He  died  in  Berlin  in  February, 
1705,  leaving  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "  The 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  ,1,  e,  T,  6,  n,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fiir,  fill,  fit;  n>et;  n5t:  good;  moon; 


SPENGEL 


2229 


SPIELBERGEN 


Interior  and  Spiritual  Peace,"  (1686,)  and  "The  Duties 
of  the  Evangelical  Life,"  (1692.) 

SeeCANSTEiN,  "LebensbeschreibunfjSpeners,"  1740;  Hossbach, 
"Spener  und  seine  Zeit,"  2  vols.,  1828;  W.  Tiiii.o,  "Spener  als 
Katecliet,"  1840:  Wii.dbnhahn,  "P.  J.  Spener,"  1842;  A.  Stein- 
METZ.  "  Leben  P.  J.  Spener's,"  1741  :  Pfannenbrrg,  "P.  J.  Spe 
nerder  Kirchenvaterdes  Evauiielisclien  Deiitsclilands,"  183,^:  Haag, 
*'  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Speng'fl,  (Leonhard,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Munich,  September  24,  1803.  He  was  educated  at 
Munich,  Berlin,  and  Leipsic,  and  held  professorships  of 
philology  in  Heidelberg,  and  in  Munich,  where  he  died, 
November  8,  18S0.  He  issued  valuable  editions  of  many 
Greek  and  some  Latin  authors. 

Sp§n's?r,  [Lat.  Spense'rus,]  (Edmund,)  an  illus- 
trious English  poet,  was  born  in  East  Smithfield,  Lon- 
don, about  1553.  His  early  history  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity  ;  he  is  supposed,  however,  to  have  been  of  a 
good  family,  though  probably  in  indigent  circunjstances, 
as  he  entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  as  a  sizar,  in 
1569.  Having  taken  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1576,  he 
resided  for  a  time  in  the  North  of  England,  where  he 
wrote  his  "  Shephearde's  Calendar,"  a  pastoral  poem, 
dedicated  to  his  friend  and  patron  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
and  first  published  in  1579.  He  became  secretary  to 
Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  in  1580,  and 
obtained  for  his  services  a  grant  of  3028  acres  of  land 
from  the  forfeited  estate  of  the  Earl  of  Desmond.  Soon 
after  he  had  fixed  his  residence  in  this  place,  which  was 
situated  in  the  county  of  Cork,  he  acquired  the  friend- 
ship and  patronage  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  to  whom  he 
dedicated  his  poem  entitled  "Colin  Clout's  come  Home 
Again,"  (1591.)  About  the  same  time  he  published  the 
first  three  books  of  his  "  Faerie  Queene,"  and  in  1595 
his  "Astrophel,"  an  elegy  on  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  He 
married  the  same  year  an  Irish  lady,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  Miss  Nagle,  and  wrote  on  the  occasion  an  epi- 
thalamium,  which  Hallam  styles  a  "splendid  little  poem, 
.  .  .  an  intoxication  of  ecstasy,  ardent,  noble,  and  pure." 
The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  books  of  "  The  Faerie 
Queene"  came  out  in  1596.  Spenser  was  appointed  in 
1798  sheriff  of  the  county  of  Cork.  The  rebellion  of 
the  Earl  of  Tyrone  having  broken  out  soon  after,  he 
was  compelled  to  leave  his  estate,  which  was  plundered 
by  the  rebels,  and  the  house  burned,  with,  it  is  said,  an 
infant  child  in  it.  He  did  not  long  survive  this  severe 
calamity,  and  died  in  great  destitution.  He  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  near  Chaucer,  in  compliance  with 
his  own  request.  lie  left  two  sons,  Sylvanus  and  Pere- 
grine. Of  Spenser's  poetry  Campbell  observes,  "  He 
threw  the  soul  of  harmony  into  our  verse,  and  made  it 
more  warmly,  tenderly,  and  magnificently  descriptive 
than  it  ever  was  before,  or,  with  a  few  exceptions,  than 
it  has  ever  been  since  ;"  and  Hazlitt  says,  "  There  is  an 
origmality,  richness,  and  variety  in  his  allegorical  per- 
sonages and  fictions  which  almost  vies  with  the  splen- 
dour of  the  ancient  mythology.  If  Ariosto  transports 
us  into  the  regions  of  romance,  Spenser's  poetry  is  all 
fairy-land." 

See  J.  P.  Collier,  "Life  of  E.  Spenser,"  1862:  Dr.  John 
AiKiN,  "Life  of  E.  Spenser,"  1S06;  H.  J.  Todd,  "Life  of  E. 
Spenser,"  180;;  Prkscott,  "Miscellanies;"  Wanton,  "Observa- 
tions on  the  Faerie  Queen  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Novem- 
ber, 1833;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Spenserus.    See  Spenser. 

Speransky  or  Speranski,  spi-rSn'ske,  (Michael,) 
C."»UNT,  an  eminent  Russian  statesman  and  mathemati- 
cian, born  in  the  government  of  Vladimir  in  1772.  He 
became  secretary  to  the  privy  council  in  1801,  and  col- 
league of  the  minister  of  justice  in  1S08.  He  inade 
important  reforms  in  several  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment. In  1812  he  was  removed  from  office,  but  in 
1819  he  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Siberia.  He 
enjoyed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence  of  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission 
apjjointed  to  make  a  digest  or  code  of  Russian  laws, 
which  was  published  in  45  vols.,  1830.  For  these 
services  he  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  count.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  Baron  von  Korf,  "  Vie  du  Conite  Speranski,"  2  vols., 
:86i  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sperling,  sp^R'ling,   (Orro.)  a   German    naturalist, 


born  at  Hamburg  in  1602.  He  practised  medicine  at 
Copenhagen  and  at  Hamburg.  He  wrote  on  botany. 
Died  in  1681. 

See  Moller,  "  Cimbria  Literata." 

Sperling,  (Otto,)  an  antiquary,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Christiania  in  1634.  He  became 
professor  of  history  and  law  at  Copenhagen  in  1692, 
and  published  several  works  on  numismatics  and  North- 
ern antiquities,  among  which  is  "Monumentum  Ham- 
burgense  Benedictinum,"  (1675.)     Died  in  1715. 

Speroni,  spi-ro'nee,  (Sperone,)  an  eminent  Italian 
writer  and  orator,  born  at  Padua  in  1500.  He  passed 
for  the  foremost  orator  of  Italy  in  his  time.  He  wrote 
several  works  in  verse  and  prose,  among  which  are 
moral  dialogues,  ("  Dialoghi,"  1542,)  and  an  admired 
tragedy,  called  "Canace,"  (1546.)  His  style  is  highly 
praised.  Died  in  1588.  His  complete  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Venice  in  5  vols.  4to,  1740. 

See  Db  Thou,  "filoges;"  NicSron,  "M^moires;"  GinguenA, 
"Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana." 

Speusippe.    See  Speusippus. 

Speii-sip'pus,  [Gr.  "LTXEvamT^oq;  Fr.  Speusippe,  spuh'- 
<^p',J  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  Attica  about  380 
R.C.,  was  a  disciple  and  nephew  of  Plato.  His  mother, 
Potone,  was  a  sister  of  Plato,  whom  he  accompanied  in 
his  third  journey  to  Syracuse.  Having  been  selected 
by  Plato  as  his  successor,  Speusippus  directed  the 
Academy  from  347  to  339  K.c.  He  adopted  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  with  slight  modifications.  Aristotle  testified 
his  respect  for  the  ability  of  Si^eusippus  by  writing  a 
refutation  of  his  doctrines.  His  works  are  not  extant. 
Died  in  339  B.C. 

See  Ritter,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  Ravais.son,  "Speusippi 
de  Priniis  Rerum  Principiis  Placita,"  1S38;  M.  A.  Fischer,  "  Scrip- 
tio  Academica  de  Speusippi  Vita,"  1845. 

Sphserus,  sfee'rus,  [20aZpof,l  a  Greek  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, was  a  pupil  of  Zeno,  and  lived  at  Alexandria  in 
the  reigns  of  Ptolemy  I.  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

Sphinx,  sf!nks,  [S^^'y^,]  a  monster  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  said  to  have  the  face  of  a  woman, 
the  wings  of  a  bird,  and  the  breast,  feet,  and  tail  of  a 
lion.  According  to  some  writers,  the  Sphinx  was  the 
offspring  of  Typhon  and  Chimasra.  The  poets  feigned 
that  this  monster  appeared  near  Thebes,  in  Boeotia, 
proposed  a  riddle  to  every  person  that  passed,  and  de- 
stroyed all  that  failed  to  solve  the  enigma.  After  many 
had  failed  and  had  perished,  Gidipus  came,  and  the 
Sphinx  demanded,  "  What  animal  is  that  which  goes  on 
four  feet  in  the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three 
at  evening  V  He  answered,  "  That  is  Man,  who  creeps  in 
infancy,  walks  on  two  feet  in  manhood,  and  uses  a  staff 
in  old  age."  The  Sphinx  then  killed  herself,  or  disap- 
peared. This  was  a  favourite  emblem  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  with  whom  it  probably  originated.  At  the 
present  time  there  may  be  seen  near  the  pyramid  of 
Ghizeh  a  colossal  figure  of  a  sphinx,  cut  out  of  a  solid 
rock,  and  probably  as  old  as  the  pyramids. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle,"  (Partie  mytholo.eique  ;)  Smith. 
"Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

Spiegel,  spee'gel,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1820,  has  published  a  "  Chres- 
tomathia  Persica,"  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Zend  Avesta," 
or  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees,  with  a  translation. 
He  became  in  1849  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Erlangen. 

Spiegel,  spee'gel  or  spee'uel,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  merchant,  called  the  Dutch  Ennius,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1549.  He  wrote  "The  Mirror  of  the 
Heart,"  ("  Hart  Spieghel,"  1614.)     Died  in  1612. 

Spieghel,  van  den.     See  Spigelius. 

Spieker,  spee'ker,  (Christian  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Brandenburg,  on 
the  Havel,  in  1780.  He  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
and  educational  works.    Died  May  10,  1858. 

Spielberg.     See  Spilberg. 

Spielbergen,  van,  vtn  speel'b^R'gen,  or  Spilber- 
gen,  (George,)  a  Dutch  navigator,  who  made  a  voyage 
to  the  East  Indies  in  1601.  In  1614  he  commanded  a 
flotilla  of  six  vessels  which  sailed  through  the  Strait  of 
Magellan  to  the  Moluccas. 


eas/f;  jasj.-  %hiird;  gasj;  G,  11,  Vi,  ptttural ;  S,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in ////J.     (Sl^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SPIELHAGEN 


2230 


SPINOZA 


Spielhagen,  speel'hJ'gen,  (Fkiedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  novelist,  was  born  at  Magdeburg,  February  24, 
1829.  \  le  was  brought  up  at  StralsuncI,  and  was  educated 
at  Bonn,  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Greifswalde.  He  is  regarded 
by  many  as  tlie  ablest  German  novelist  of  liis  time.  Among 
his  books  are  "  Problematische  Naturen,"  (1S60,)  "  Durcli 
Nicht  zum  Liclit,"  (1S61,)  "In  der  zwolften  Stunde," 
(1862,)  "Die  von  Hohenstein,"  (1S63,)  "  Roschen  vom 
Hofe,"  (1864,)  "  In  Reih  und  Glied,"  (1866.)  "  Untcr  den 
Tannen,"  (1867,)  "Hammer  und  Amboss,"  ("  Hammer 
and  Anvil,"  1869,  which  may  be  considered  his  master- 
piece,) "  Die  Pioniere,"  (1871,)  "  Alle  Zeit  voran,"  (1872,) 
"Ultimo,"  (1874,)  "Angela,"  (1881,)  "  Uhlenhanns," 
(1883,)  and  various  plays,  translations,  etc. 

Spieltnaiin,  speel'mSn,  (Jakob  Reinhoi.d,)  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1722,  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  his 
native  town.  He  published  "  Elements  of  Chemistry," 
and  other  scientific  works.     Died  in  1782. 

Spierings  (spee'rings)  of  Antwkri',  (Henry,)  an 
able  landscape-painter,  born  about  1633.  He  worked 
in  France  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  Italy.     Died  in  1715. 

Spierings,  (Nicholas,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1633,  imitated  Salvator  Rosa  with 
success.     Died  at  Antwerp  in  1691. 

Spiers,  van,  v3n  speeRs,  (Alhert,)  a  Dutch  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1666.  He  worked 
at  Rome  and  Venice,  and  returned  to  Amsterdam  in 
1697.     Died  in  1718. 

Spieshammer.     See  Cuspinian. 

Spiess,  speess,  (Christian  Heinrich,)  a  German 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Freiberg,  in  Sax- 
ony, in  1755  ''  '^'^'^  '"  '799- 

Spifame,  spe'tlm',  (Jacques  Paul,)  a  Frenchman, 
born  in  Paris  in  1502.  He  became  Bishop  of  Nevers 
in  1548,  abjured  Catholicism  in  1559,  and  was  ordained 
a  minister  by  Calvin  at  Geneva.  Charged  with  calumny 
and  other  oiTences,  he  was  executed  at  Geneva  in  1566 

See  Bavi.h,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Spifame,  (Raoul,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, having  become  deranged,  imagined  that  he  was 
King  Henry  II.  of  France,  whom  he  resembled  in 
features.  He  was  confined  by  that  king,  who  ordered 
him  to  be  treated  as  a  sovereign.     Died  in  1563. 

Spi-ge'II-us,  (or  spe-Ha'le-iis,)  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish 
anatomist  and  physician,  whose  original  name  was  Van 
DEN  Spieghel,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1578.  He  studied 
at  Louvain  and  Padua,  where  he  graduated  in  medicine, 
and  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  1616. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  "On  the  Struc- 
ture of  the  Human  Body,"  (1627,)  and  other  treatises. 
One  of  the  lobes  of  the  liver  has  been  called  by  his 
najne.     Died  in  1625. 

Spilberg  or  Spielberg,  speel'beRG,  (Johann,)  a 
German  paintei  of  history,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1619, 
was  a  pupil  of  Flink.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Count- 
Palatine.    Died  in  1690. 

Spilbergen,  van.     See  Spielp.ergen,  va.n. 

Spil'ler,  (John,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1763,  was  a  pupil  of  Bacon,  His  principal  work 
is  the  statue  of  Charles  II.  in  the  centre  of  the  Royal 
Exchange.     He  died  soon  after  its  completion,  in  1794. 

Spinckes,  spunks,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  non- 
juror, born  at  Castor  in  1653  or  1654.  He  became 
prebendary  of  Salisbury  about  1687,  and  was  ordained 
a  bishop  of  the  nonjurors  in  17 13.     Died  in  1727. 

Spiiidler,  sp!nd'ler,(KARL,)  a  popular  and  voluminous 
German  novelist,  born  at  Breslau  about  1795.  Among 
I^is  works  we  may  mention  "The  Jew,"  (1827,)  "The 
Jesuit,"  (1829,)  "The  Invalid,"  and  "The  Bird-Fancier 
of  Imst,"  ("  Der  Vogelhandler  von  Imst.")  His  writings, 
including  several  dramatic  pieces,  amount  to  one  hun- 
dred volumes.     Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1833. 

Spinelli.     See  Spinello. 

Spinelli,  spe-nel'lee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Naples  about  1325.  He  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  kingdom  by  Queen  Joan  I.  of  Naples.  Died 
after  1394. 

Spinelli,  (Parri,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Arezzo 
about  1390,  was  the  son  of  the  artist  Spinello  Aretino, 


by  whom  he  was  instructed  in  painting.  His  frescos 
were  distinguished  for  their  richness  of  colouring.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  about  1410,  1426,  or  1444. 

Spinello,  (Aretino.)     See  Aketino. 

Spinello,  spe-nel'lo,  or  Spinelli,  spe-nel'lee,  (Mat- 
TEO,)  an  Italian  chronicler,  born  in  the  province  of  Bari 
in  1230,  wrote  a  chronicle  of  events  of  his  time  in  Italy. 
Died  after  1285. 

Spin'ner,  (Francis  E.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Herkimer  county.  New  York,  in  1802.  He  repre- 
sented the  seventeenth  district  of  New  V'ork  in  Congress 
from  1855  to  1861,  and  was  then  appointed  treasurer  of 
the  United  States.     Died  December  31,  1890. 

Spinola,  spee'no-ld,  (Ambrosio,)  Marquis  of,  a 
celebrated  military  commander,  born  at  Genoa  in  1569. 
In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Frederick,  at  that  time 
admiral  of  the  Spanish  fleet  on  the  coast  of  Holland, 
he  fought  against  the  Flemish  insurgents  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1602.  His  brother  having  been  killed  in  an 
engagement  with  the  Dutch  in  1603,  Spinola  became 
general-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  army  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  in  1604  took  the  city  of  Ostend,  which  had 
been  besieged  more  than  three  years  by  the  Spaniards. 
He  afterwards  opposed  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange, 
without,  however,  gaining  any  decided  victory  ;  and,  the 
.Spanish  fleet  near  Gibraltar  having  been  defeated  by 
Admiral  Heemskerk  in  1607,  a  truce  was  concluded 
with  Maurice  for  twelve  years,  (1609.)  Hostilities  being 
renewed  in  1621,  Spinola  was  again  the  opponent  of 
Maurice,  over  whom  he  gained  several  important  vic- 
tories, among  which  was  the  capture  of  Juliers,  Wesel, 
and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  1625,  after  a  siege  of  ten 
months,  he  took  the  city  of  Breda,  Maurice  having  died 
of  a  fever  during  the  progress  of  the  siege.  Spinola 
afterwards  commanded  against  the  French  in  Italy  ;  but 
he  died  in  1630. 

See  Adolphe  Siret,  "A.  Spinola,  fipisode,"  etc.,  1831  ;  J.  Ba- 
LINUS,  "  De  Bcllo  Helgico  .'Xiispiciis  A.  Spinola,"  i6og;  P.  Casoni, 
"Vita  d'Ambrogio  Spinola,"  1691  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  Motley,  "  History  of  the  Netherlands,"  chap.  xlii. 

Spinosa.    See  Spinoza. 

Spinoza,  spe-no'zS,  or  Spinosa,  spe-no'si,  (Bene- 
dict,) a  celebrated  pantheistical  philosopher,  born  at 
Amsterdam  on  the  24th  of  November,  1632.  His  parents 
were  Spanish  or  Portuguese  Jews,  who  gave  him  the 
name  of  Baruch,  which  he  exchanged  for  its  equivalent 
Benedict.  He  learned  Hebrew  and  other  ancient  lan- 
guages, and  read  with  avidity  the  works  of  Descartes, 
who  was  one  of  his  favourite  authors.  At  an  early  age 
he  announced  opinions  which  were  considered  heretical 
and  for  which  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  Jews. 
One  of  them  also  attempted  to  assassinate  him  in  the 
night,  about  1656;  but  he  escaped  with  a  slight  wound. 
To  avoid  persecution,  he  retired  to  Leyden  or  Ryns- 
berg,  and  gained  a  subsistence  by  making  lenses  for 
telescopes  and  microscopes.  He  passed  his  life  as  a 
solitary  recluse,  and  practised  great  frugality.  About 
1668  he  settled  at  the  Hague,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death.  He  published  a  "Theological  and  Political 
Treatise,"  ("Tractatus  theologico-politicus,"  1670,)  and 
left  several  works,  which  were  published  in  1677  under 
the  title  of  "Opera  Posthuina." 

Spinoza  was  never  married.  In  1673  the  Elector- Pal- 
atine, Charles  Louis,  offered  him  a  chair  of  philosophy 
at  Heidelberg,  promising  to  allow  him  liberty  of  thought 
and  discussion  provided  he  should  not  speak  or  write 
against  the  established  religion.  He  politely  declined 
this  oiTer.  His  constitution  was  naturally  frail  and 
delicate.  He  died  in  February,  1677.  For  more  than 
a  century  after  his  death  he  was  generally  stigmatized  as 
an  atheist,  a  monster,  and  a  blasphemer.  A  reaction 
followed,  especially  in  Germany,  and  he  became  a  great 
favourite  with  Goethe,  Lessing,  Novalis,  and  Schleier- 
macher.  His  most  important  work  is  "  Ethics  De- 
monstrated by  a  Geometrical  Method,"  ("  Ethica  More 
Geometrico  demonstrata.")  "Spinosa  was  truly,"  says 
Hallam,  "  what  Voltaire  has  with  rather  less  justice 
called  Clarke, — a  reasoning  machine.  A  few  leading 
theorems,  too  hastily  taken  up  as  axiomatic,  were  sufficient 
to  make  hin\  sacrifice,  with  no  compromise  or  hesitation, 
not  only  every  principle  of  religion  and  moral  right,  but 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SPIRA 


2231 


SPONDE 


the  clear  intuitive  notions  of  common  sense.  .  .  .  Spi- 
nosa  does  not  essentially  differ  from  the  Pantheists  of 
old.  He  conceived,  as  they  had  done,  that  the  infinity 
of  God  required  the  exclusion  of  all  other  substance." 
("Ii.troduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

"Bayle's  article  'Spinoza,'"  says  Goethe,  "excited 
displeasure  and  mistrust  in  me.  In  the  first  place,  the 
man  was  represented  as  an  atheist,  and  his  opinions  as 
most  abominable;  but  immediately  after  it  was  con- 
fessed that  he  was  a  calm,  reflective,  diligent  scholar,  a 
good  citizen,  a  sympathizing  neighbour,  and  a  peaceable, 
domestic  man.  They  seemed  to  have  quite  forgotten 
the  words  of  the  gospel :  '  By  their  fruits  you  shall 
know  themy  ("Autobiography,"  book  xvi.  p.  2.)  The 
same  critic  says  in  another  place,  "The  mind  which 
worked  upon  me  so  decisively,  and  which  was  destined 
to  affect  so  deeply  my  whole  mode  of  thinking,  was 
.Spinoza.  After  looking  through  the  world  in  vain  to 
find  a  means  of  development  for  my  strange  nature,  I 
at  last  fell  upon  the  '  Ethics' of  this  man.  ...  Here 
I  found  a  sedative  for  my  passions,  and  a  free  wide  view 
over  the  material  world  seemed  to  open  before  me.  But 
what  especially  bound  me  to  him  was  the  great  disin- 
terestedness that  shone  from  every  sentence.  .  .  .  The 
all-composing  calmness  of  Spinoza  was  in  striking  con- 
trast with  my  all-disturbing  activity,  his  mathematical 
method  was  the  opposite  of  my  poetic  imagination  and 
way  of  writing,  and  the  very  precision  which  was  thought 
ill  adapted  to  moral  subjects,  made  me  his  enthusiastic 
disciple,  his  most  decided  worshipper."  ("Autobiog- 
raphy," book  xiv.  p.  170.)  From  the  article  "Spinoza," 
in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  by  John  Downes, 
vk-e  extract  the  following  :  "The  character  of  Spinoza  is 
naturally  one  of  the  most  devout  on  record,  for  his  life 
was,  in  a  manner,  one  unbroken  hymn.  He  was  not  a 
pious  man,  as  that  word  is  now  usually  understood,  for 
he  was  not  a  Christian,  at  least  in  profession."  Among 
the  numerous  biographies  of  Spinoza,  that  of  J.  Colerus, 
"Vie  de  B.  Spinosa,"  (1706,)  is  said  to  be  the  best. 

See,  also,  Lucas  VRi«sE,  "  La  Vie  et  I'Esprit  de  Spinoza,"  1719: 
H.  F.  VON  DiETZ,  "Spinoza  nach  Leben  iind  Lelire,"  1783;  Pierrr 
Bavle,  "  Het  Leven  van  B.  de  Spinoza,"  1698;  jACOBr,  "  Briefe 
ueber  die  Lehre  des  Spinoza,"  1786;  Philihpson,  "Leben  von 
Spinoza,"  1790;  Kari.Thomas,  "Spinoza  als  Metaphysiker,"  i8^o; 
A.  Saintes,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Spinoza,"  1842:  Conrad  von 
Orelli,  "  Spinozas  Leben  und  Lehre,"  1843  :  Von  Vlotkn,  "  Ha- 
ruch  d'Espinozn,"  1862.  For  an  excellent  (popular)  notice  of  the 
philosophic  system  of  Spinoza,  see  Froude,  "  Short  Studies  on 
Great  Subjects,"  186S  :  see,  also,  Matthew  Arnold,  "Essays  in 
Criticism;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843,  (by  G.  H. 
Lewes;)  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  184S;  "North 
British  Review"  for  May,  1863,  article  "  Saisset  and  Spinoza." 

Spira,  de,  deh  spee'ri,  (Johannes,)  or  John  of 
Speyer,  a  German  printer,  who  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  removed  to  Venice,  where  he  founded 
the  first  printing-establishment.  Among  the  works 
issued  from  his  press  were  editions  of  Cicero's  "  Epistles" 
and  Pliny's  "  Natural  History,"  (1469.) 

Spiriti,  spee're-tee,  (Salvatore,)  Marquis,  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur,  boin  at  Cosenza  in  1712  ;  died  in  1776. 

Spirito,  spee're-to,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  satirical 
poet,  born  at  Perugia  about  1430.  He  wrote  "  Sorti," 
^I473,)  ^'^"^  other  works,  which  were  once  popular.  He 
died  about  1495. 

Spitta,  spit'tS,  (Karl  Johann  Philipp,)  a  German 
devotional  poet,  born  at  Hanover  in  1801.      Died  1859. 

Spittler,  spit'ler,  (Ludwig  Timotheus,)  Baron, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1752,  became  in  1779  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Gbttingen.  He  published  several  his- 
torical and  ecclesiastical  works.     Died  in  1810. 

SpitzeL     See  Spizelius. 

Splx,  von,  fon  spiks,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Hochstadt,  in  Bavaria,  in  1781.  Hav- 
ing published  in  1811  his  "History  and^  Review  of  all 
Systems  of  Zoology,"  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  made  conservator  of  the  Zoological  Mu- 
seum at  Munich.  In  181 7  he  accompanied  Von  Martins 
on  his  scientific  expedition  to  Brazil.  He  died  in  1826, 
having  with  some  assistance  completed  five  splendidly 
illustrated  works  on  the  birds,  apes,  bats,  and  reptiles 
of  Brazil. 

See    the    "Foreign    Quarterly    Review"    for    February,    1830; 
Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1824. 


Jpizelius,  spit-sa'le-as,  or  Spitzel,  spit'sel,  (Theo- 
eHiLUS,)  a  German  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1639,  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the  State 
of  Literature  among  the  Chinese,"  (1660,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1691, 

Spof'fprd,  (Harriet  Elizabeth  Prescott,)  an 
American  author,  born  at  Calais,  Maine,  April  3,  1835. 
P'rom  early  childhood  she  has  resided  in  Newbiiryport, 
Massachusetts.  In  1865  she  married  Mr.  R.  S.  Spofford, 
a  lawyer.  Her  writings  are  mostly  poems  and  tales. 
Among  her  works  are  "Sir  Rohan's  Ghost,"  (1859,) 
"The  Amber  Gods,"  (1863,)  "  Azarian,"  (1864,)  "New 
England  Legends,"  (1871,)  "The  Thief  in  the  Night," 
(1S72,)  "Art  Decoration,"  "The  Servant  Question," 
"  The  Marquis  of  Carabas,"  "  Hester  Stanley  at  Saint 
Mark's,"  etc. 

Spof'forth,  (Reginald,)  an  English  composer  of 
t;reat  merit,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1768.  He  is 
chiefly  known  by  his  glees,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces of  their  kind.     Died  in  1826. 

Spohn,  sp5n,  [Lat.  Spoh'nius,]  (Friedrich  Au- 
gust Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  German  scholar,  born  at 
Dortmund  in  1792.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  in  1819  professor  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages. He  published  editions  of  the  "  Panegyricus" 
of  Isocrates,  the  two  geographical  works  of  Nicephorus 
Blemmida,  and  the  "Opera  et  Dies"  of  Hesiod.  He 
died  in  1824,  leaving  a  work  on  hieroglyphics,  entitled 
"De  Lingua  et  Literis  veterum  yEgyptiorum,"  which 
was  continued  and  published  by  Seyffarth  in  1825. 

See  G.  Seyffarth,  "  Memoria  F.  A.  G.  Spohnii,"  1825. 

Spohnius.    See  Spohn. 

Spohr,  spoR,  (Louis,)  one  of  the  greatest  composers 
and  musicians  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1784.  He  was  instructed  in  violin-playing  by  Maucourt 
and  Eck,  and  subsequently  made  a  professional  tour  in 
Russia,  France,  and  Italy,  being  everywhere  received 
with  distinguished  favour.  In  1813  he  became  chapel- 
master  at  Vienna,  where  he  produced  his  opera  of 
"  Faust,"  and  several  other  admired  works.  He  was 
appointed  in  1822  chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  soon  after  composed  his  popular  operas  of 
"Jessonda,"  "The  Alchymist,"  "  Pietro  of  Abano,"  and 
"The  Crusader."  His  oratorios  of  "The  Crucifixion," 
"The  Last  Judgment,"  and  the  "Fall  of  Babylon"  are 
entitled  to  a  very  high  rank  among  works  of  the  kind  ; 
the  last-named  was  composed  for  a  musical  festival  in 
England,  where  Spohr's  music  enjoys  great  popularity. 
He  also  produced  numerous  symphonies,  cantatas, 
and  pieces  for  the  violin  and  other  instruments.  Died 
in  1859. 

See  "  Autobiography  of  Louis  Spohr,"  1865  ;  Ebers,  "  Spohr  und 
Halevy,"  etc.,  1837;  Choron  ct  Favolle,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Mu- 
siciens  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Con- 
versations-Lexikon,"  1863. 

Spolverini,  spol-vi-ree'nee,  (Giambattista,)  Mar- 
quis, an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1695.  He  wrote 
a  poem  "  On  the  Cultivation  of  Rice,"  ("  La  Coltivazione 
del  Riso,"  1758,)  which  was  much  admired.  Died  in 
1762. 

Spolverini,  (Hilarion,)  an  Italian  painter  of  battles, 
was  born  at  Parma  in  1657;  died  in  1734. 

Spon,  spAN,  (Charles,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1609.  He  practised  at  Lyons,  and  translated 
into  Latin  verse  the  "  Prognostics"  of  Hippocrates, 
(1661.)     Died  in  1684. 

Spon,  (Jacob,)  a  celebrated  French  antiquary  and 
physician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1647,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. In  1676  he  explored  Greece,  from  which  he 
brought  several  thousand  inscriptions.  He  published 
"Researches  on  the  Antiquities  of  Lyons,"  (1673,) 
"Travels  in  Italy,  Dalmatia,  Greece,  and  the  Levant," 
(3  vols.,  1678,)  which  was  highly  esteemed,  a  "  History 
of  the  Republic  of  Geneva,"  (1680,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1685. 

See  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Haag,  "  La  Franca 
protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Spondanus.     See  Sponde,  de. 

Sponde.de.deh  sp^Nd,  [Lat.  Sponda'nus,]  (Henry,) 
a  French  prelate,  born  at  Mauleon  in  1568,  became 
Bishop  of  Pamiers  in  1626.    He  published  an  abridgment 


«  as  ^/  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as//  g,  h,  yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2!:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SPONDE 


2232 


SPRENGER 


of  the  "Annals"  of  Baronius,  and  wrote  a  continuation 
of  them  from  1197  to  1640,  (2  vols.,  1639.)  Died  in 
1643.  . 

See  Mor4ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Nic^ron,  "  M^moires." 

Sponde,  de,  ILat.  Sponda'nus,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  at  Mauleon  in  1557,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  Latin  version  of  Homer's 
poems,  with  notes,  (1583.)     Died  in  1595. 

Spouneck,  von,  fon  spou'nSk,  (Wilhelm  Carl 
Eppingen,)  Count,  a  Danish  economist  and  financier, 
born  at  Rinkjobing  in  1815.  He  published  a  systematic 
treatise  on  customs,  or  tariffs,  (2  vols.,  1840.)  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1848.     Died  in  1S88. 

Spontini,  spon-tee'nee,  (Gasparo  Luigi  Pacifico,) 
an  Italian  musician  and  composei,  boni  near  Jesi,  Nov. 
14,  1774.  He  produced  in  1796  an  opera  called  "  I  Pun- 
tigli  delle  Donne."  About  1803  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  his  "  Finta  Filosofa"  was  performed  in  1804.  He 
composed  "La  Vestale,"  an  opera,  (1S07,)  which  had 
great  success.  In  1820  he  became  director  of  the  Royal 
Opera  in  Berlin,  and  chapel-master  to  the  king.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "  Olympic"  and  "  Fernand  Cortez." 
Died  in  1851. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "  M.  Spontini,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841 ;  E.  M.  Oettinger,  "Spontini,"  1S43 ;  Raoul-Rochette, 
"Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Spontini,"  1852  ;  K^Tis,  "  Bio- 
graphic Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Spontone,  spon-to'ni,  (Ciro,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1552.  He  wrote  many  works,  in 
prose  and  verse.     Died  about  1610. 

Spork,  von,  fon  spoRk,  (Johann,)  Count,  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1597.  He  fought 
for  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  afterwards  for  the  em- 
peror Ferdinand  III.     Died  in  1679. 

See  RosENKRANZ,  "Johann  Spork,"  1845. 

His  son,  Franz  Anton,  also  a  count,  born  in  1662, 
was  a  philanthropist  in  Bohemia.  He  founded  hospitals 
and  public  libraries.     Died  in  1738. 

See  Stillenau,  "  Lebensgeschichtc  des  Grafen  Spork,"  1725. 

Spots'wood  or  Spot'tis-wood,  (John,)  an  ambi- 
tious Scottish  prelate,  born  at  Mid-Calder  in  1565.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Glasgow  in  1603,  and  Archbishop 
of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1615.  He  was  the  object  of  popu- 
lar odium  among  the  Scotch.  In  1635  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  of  Scotland.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,"  (1655.)  In  1638  he  was  de- 
posed and  declared  infamous.     Died  in  1639. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Spots'wood,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  .he 
preceding,  was  born  about  1596.  He  was  appointed 
lord  president  of  the  court  of  session  by  Charles  I.  In 
the  civil  war  he  was  a  royalist,  fought  under  Montrose, 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  executed  in  1646. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.' 

Spottis-wood.     See  Spotswood. 

Spot'tis-woode,  (William,)  an  English  mathema- 
tician, born  in  London,  January  11,  1825.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Harrow,  and  graduated  in  1845  ^^ 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  inherited  a  partnership  in  a 
great  printing-business.  His  principal  works  are  "  Ele- 
mentary Theorems  relating  to  Determinants,"  (1851,) 
"  ATarantasse  Journey  through  Eastern  Russia,"  (1856,) 
and  "Polarisation  of  Light,"  (1S74.)  In  1878  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  British  Association.  Died  June 
27,  18S3. 

Spragg  or  Spragge,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  ad- 
miral under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  distinguished  him- 
self in  several  engagements  with  the  Dutch  in  1666-67, 
and  subsequently  fought  Van  Tromp  in  three  successive 
battles.  During  the  last  he  was  drowned,  while  going 
from  one  boat  to  another,  (1673.) 

Sprague,  sprag,  (Charles,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Boston  on  the  26th  of  October,  1791.  He  left  school 
at  an  early  age,  to  acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  mer- 
cantile business,  which  he  pursued  for  some  years. 
About  1S25  he  was  elected  cashier  of  the  Globe  Bank 
of  Boston.  He  produced  in  1S23  an  ode  in  honour  of 
Shaks])eare,  "which,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold.  "is  one  ol 
the  most  vigorous  and  beautiful    lyrics   in  the  English 


language."  His  most  extensive  work  is  "Curiosity," 
a  didactic  and  satirical  poem,  delivered  before  the  Phi 
Beta  Kappa  Society  of  Harvard  University  in  1829. 
Among  his  other  works  are  a  centennial  ode  on  the  foun- 
dation of  Boston,  pronounced  in  1830,  and  short  poems 
entitled  "  The  Winged  Worshippers,"  "  Art,"  and  "The 
Family  Meeting,"  which  exhibit  much  skill  in  the  use 
of  language.     Died  at  Boston,  January  21,  1875. 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  "  North 
American  Re\iew"  for  April,  1830. 

Sprague,  (William  Buel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine,  born  at  Andover,  Connecticut,  in  1795. 
He  published  "Lectures  to  Young  People,"  (1825,) 
"Hints  on  Christian  Intercourse,"  (1834,)  "Visits  to 
European  Celebrities,"  (1855,)  and  "Annals  of  the 
American  Pulpit,"  (9  vols.,  1856-69.)  Of  this  valuable 
work,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  treat  of  Trinitarian  Congregationalist 
divines ;  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  Presbyterian  ;  vol.  v..  Epis- 
copalian ;  vol.  vi..  Baptist ;  vol.  vii.,  Methodist ;  vol.  viii., 
Unitarian,  and  vol.  ix.,  Lutheran,  Dutch  Reformed,  etc. 
He  also  contributed  a  "  Life  of  Timothy  Dwight"  to 
Sparks's  "American  Biography."     Died  May  7,  1876. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1857 :  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Spranger  or  Sprangher,  spRSng'er  or  spRjng'ner, 
(Bartholomew,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1546,  studied  in  Italy,  and  while  at  Rome  was  patron- 
ized by  Pius  V.  and  Cardinal  Farnese.  He  painted  for 
the  former  a  "  Last  Judgment,"  containing  nearly  five 
hundred  heads.     Died  about  1625. 

Sprat,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Devon- 
shire in  1636.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1657,  was 
appointed  successively  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  Dean  of 
Westminster,  (1683,)  and  Bishop  of  Rochester,  (1684.) 
He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  "  On  the  Death  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,"  and  other  poetical  ])ieces,  and  an  account 
of  the  Rye-House  Plot,  entitled  "A  True  Account  and 
Declaration  of  the  Horrid  Conspiracy  against  the  Late 
King,"  etc.  He  also  published  a  "  Life  of  Cowley,"  and 
a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society,"  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  original  members  ;  and  lie  is  said  to  have  been 
associated  with  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  Butler,  and 
others  in  writing  "The  Rehearsal."     Died  in  1713. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Thomas 
Sprat,"  London,  1715. 

Spreng,  (James,)  called  Pr^pos'itus,  a  Flemish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Ypres  about  1485.  He  adopted  the  prin- 
ciples of  Luther,  and  became  in  1524  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Bremen.     Died  in  1562. 

See  J.  H.  VON  Seelen,  "Vita  J.  Praepositi,"  1747;  Janssen, 
"Jacobus  Praepositus,"  1862. 

Sprengel,  spR§ng'el,  (Karl,)  professor  of  agricultural 
science  at  Brunswick,  was  born  near  Hanover  in  1787. 
He  published  "Chemistry  for  Farmers,"  (1831,)  and 
other  similar  works.     Died  in  1859. 

Sprengel,  (Kurt,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  phy- 
sicians and  botanists  of  Germany,  was  born  near  Anklam, 
in  Pomerania,  in  1766.  He  studied  at  Halle,  where  he 
took  his  medical  degree  in  1787,  and  in  1797  became 
professor  of  botany.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
his  "Manual  of  Pathology,"  (3  vols.,  1795,)  "  Institu- 
tiones  Medicse,"  (6  vols.,  1809,)  a  "History  of  Botany," 
(1S17,)  "New  Discoveries  in  the  Entire  Circuit  of  Bot- 
any," (3  vols.,  1819,)  "Pragmatic  History  of  Medicine," 
(5  vols.,  1828,)  "Historia  Rei  Herbariae,"  and  "Flora 
Halensis."     Died  at  Halle  in  1833. 

See  Lerov  DopriS,  "Notice  historique  sur  Sprengel."  1850; 
Callisex,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  (Supplement;) 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Sprengel,  (MATTHAirs  Christian,)  an  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Rostock  in  1746,  and  became 
professor  of  history  at  Halle  in  1779.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  a  "  History  of  the 
Mahrattas,"  (1786,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1803. 

Sprenger,  spRSng'^r,  (Aloys,)  a  distinguished  Ori- 
entalist, born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1813.  After  a  residence 
of  several  years  in  Hindostan,  he  became  in  1850  inter- 
preter of  the  government  at  Calcutta  and  secretary  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  He  translated  from  the 
Arabic  into  English  Masoodee's  "  Meadows  of  Gold," 
(1849.)  wrote  a  valuable  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  (1851,) 


a,  e,  1,  o.  u,  y,  ^«.^^•  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  o,  ob.ciire;  fit,  fill,  fif  ni?l;  n6l;  gSSd;  mSOn; 


SPRENGER 


2233 


SSEMA  TSIEN 


and  published  several  translations  of  English  works  into 
Hindostanee. 

Spreiiger,  (Placidus,)  a  German  monk  and  writer, 
born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1735.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Literature  of  Catholic  Germany,"  (11  vols., 
1775-90.)     Died  in  1806. 

Spreti,  spRi'tee,  (Desiderio,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1444,  wrote  (in  Latin)  a  "History 
of  Ravenna,"  (1489.)     Died  about  1474. 

Spring,  (Gardiner,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  son  of  Samuel 
Spring,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Newburyport,  Mas- 
sacjiusetts,  in  1785.  Having  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
he  became  in  1810  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church 
in  New  York.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
"Obligations  of  the  World  to  the  Bible,"  "The  Attrac- 
tion of  the  Cross,"  "  Discourses  to  Seamen,"  and  "The 
Power  of  the  Pulpit."     Died  August  18,  1873. 

Spring,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Northbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1746, 
became  a  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army  in  1775. 
He  published  a  number  of  religious  and  controversial 
works.     Died  in  1819. 

Spruner,  von,  fon  spRoo'ner,  (Karl,)  a  German 
historian  and  geographer,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1803. 
He  published  a  "District  Map  of  East  Franconia,  ' 
(1835,)  a  "  Historical-Geographical  Hand-Atlas,"  (1837,) 
which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  a  "  Universal  His- 
torical School-Atlas,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 

Spuches,  de,  di  spoo'kSs,  (Giuseppe,)  Prince  of 
Galata,  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Palermo  in  1819. 
He  became  a  magistrate  of  his  native  town  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Italian  Parliament.  Besides  several  collec- 
tions of  epigraphs  and  inscriptions,  and  a  large  number 
of  poetical  translations  from  the  Greek,  he  published 
"  Discorsi  filologici,"  (i860,)  "  Carmina  Grasca  et  Latina," 
(1877,  original,)  and  volumes  of  "  Poesie,"  (1868,  1880.) 
which  gave  him  a  place  among  the  most  versatile  and 
dexterous  of  recent  Italian  poets.  Died  November  12, 
1884. 

SpuUer,  spu'yi',  (EucfexE,)  a  French  author,  born  at 
Seurre,  December  8,  1835.  He  became  an  advocate  at 
Paris  in  1862,  was  an  ardent  Gambettist,  and  also  the 
principal  editor  of  "  La  Republique  Fran^aise,"  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  "  Revue  Politique."  He  was 
very  prominent  as  a  radical  politician.  His  writings  in- 
clude a  "Brief  History  of  the  Second  Empire,"  (1870,) 
"Life  of  Michelet,"  (1876,)  "Ignatius  Loyola  and  the 
Company  of  Jesus,"  (1876,)  and  other  works. 

Spurgeon,  spur'jon,  (Charles  Haddon,)  a  popula- 
ind  eloquent  English  Baptist  preacher,  born  at  Kelve- 
don,  Essex,  in  1834.  He  began  to  preach  in  London 
about  1853,  and  attracted  large  audiences  in  Exeter 
Hall  and  Surrey  Music-Hall.  A  new  chapel,  of  vast 
dimensions,  was  erected  for  him,  and  opened  in  1861. 
He  has  published  several  religious  works,  besides  many 
volumes  of  sermons. 

Spu-rin'na,  (Vestricius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  soldier, 
was  a  contemporary  of  Tacitus  and  Pliny  the  Younger. 
He  gained  several  victories  over  the  Germans  on  the 
Rhine,  and  held  various  offices  under  the  government. 
His  lyric  poems,  in  Latin  and  Greek,  are  praised  by  Pliny. 

Spiirs'tow,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  was  minister  of  Hackney,  from  which  he  wa'i 
ejected  for  nonconformity  in  1662.     Died  in  1666. 

Spurzheim,  spooRts'hIm,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  and  one  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  phre 
nology,  was  born  at  Longwich,  near  Treves,  in  1776.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Vienna,  and  there  met  Dr.  Gall,  ol 
whom  he  became  a  disciple.  About  1805  he  left  Vienna, 
and  accompanied  Dr.  Gall  hi  visits  to  various  cities  of 
Germany,  France,  etc.  As  partners,  they  lectured  in 
Paris  from  1807  to  1813,  and  published  "The  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System  in  general,  and 
of  the  Brain  in  particular."  Spurzheim  is  reputed  to 
have  discovered  the  fibrous  structure  of  the  brain.  He 
lectured  in  England  several  years,  and  returned  to  Paris 
in  181 7.  He  published  a  number  of  works  on  phre- 
nology, etc.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1832,  and 
died  at  Boston  in  the  same  year. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Pliilosopliy  of  Spurzheim,"  by  A. 
Carmichael,  1833,  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^iier.ile.  " 


Squarcione,  skw^R-cho'na,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  amateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1394.  He  enjoyed 
a  very  high  reputation  as  a  teacher,  and  numbered  among 
his  pupils  Bellini,  Marco  Zoppo,  and  Andrea  Mantegna. 
He  possessed  great  wealth,  and  was  the  owner  of  a  large 
and  choice  collection  of  works  of  art.     Died  in  1444. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Selvatico,  "II  Pittore  F. 
Squarcione,"  1839. 

Squi'er,  (Ephraim  George,)  an  American  archae- 
ologist, born  in  Albany  county.  New  York,  in  1821.  He 
became  in  1843  editor  of  the  "Hartford  Daily  Journal," 
an  organ  of  the  Whig  party,  and  in  1844  took  charge 
of  the  "Scioto  Gazette,"  Ohio.  In  1848  he  published 
in  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge"  a 
description  of  the  ancient  monuments  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  in  1849  an  account  of  the  aboriginal  monu- 
ments of  the  State  of  New  York.  He  was  soon  after 
appointed  charge-d'affaires  to  Guatemala.  In  185 1  he 
furnished  the  plan  for  an  inter-oceanic  railway  through 
Honduras,  the  survey  of  which  road  he  subsequently 
conducted.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named 
"  Nicaragua,  its  People,  Scenery,  Ancient  Monuments," 
etc.,  (1852,)  "Notes  on  Central  America,"  etc.,  (1854,) 
"Monograph  of  Authors  who  have  written  on  the  Abo- 
riginal Languages  of  Central  America,"  and  "Tropical 
Fibres :  their  Production  and  their  Economic  Extraction," 
(1861.)  In  1863  he  was  appointed  United  States  Com- 
missioner to  Peru,  where  he  travelled  extensively  for  two 
years.  He  published  the  results  of  his  researches  under 
the  title  of  "  Peru  :  Incidents  and  Explorations  in  the 
Land  of  the  Incas,"  (1877.)  He  was  admitted  to  many  of 
the  learned  institutions  of  Europe.    Died  April  17,  1888. 

Squire,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer  and  scholar, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  17 14.  He  studied  at  Cambridge, 
and  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Saint  David's  in  1761.  He  was  the  author  of  "An  En- 
quiry into  the  Origin  of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1741,) 
"The  Ancient  History  of  the  Hebrews  Vindicated," 
(1741,)  and  other  learned  works,  also  a  number  of  ser- 
mons.    Died  in  1766. 

Sree.     See  Sut. 

Sri,  sree,  or  Shri,  shree,  (sometimes  written  Sree,) 
a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  prosperity,"  "  wealth," 
"  splendour,"  is  often  applied  as  an  epithet  to  Lakshmt, 
the  consort  of  Vishnu,  and  is  sometimes  given  as  a  name 
to  Saraswati,  the  wife  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of 
music  and  eloquence.    (See  LakshmI  and  SaraswatI) 

Sroug  Tsau  Gampo,  a  king  of  Thibet,  was  born 
soon  after  600  A.D.,  and  founded  Lhassa,  or  Hlassa,  the 
capital  of  Thibet.  In  622  he  began  the  formal  introduc- 
tion of  Booddhism  into  his  realms.  He  did  much  for 
the  advancement  of  his  people,  building  roads,  bridges, 
and  tanks,  and  founding  schools  and  monasteries.  He 
was  noted  as  a  student  and  translator.  He  is  now 
regarded  as  a  national  patron  saint. 

fese-ma-Kwang,  (or  -Kouang,)  si  mS  kwSng,  writ- 
ten also  Sze-nia-K'wang,  an  eminent  Chinese  his- 
torian, born  in  the  province  of  Shen-see  about  1018 
A.D.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  several  successive  sove- 
reigns. About  the  year  1084  he  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Han-lin,  the  highest 
literary  institution  in  China.  He  died  in  1086.  He  left 
a  great  historical  work,  entitled  "Universal  Mirror," 
("Toong-Kian,")  which  has  been  translated  into  French 
by  Pere  Mailla. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sse-ma-Tsien,  si-mi-tse-en  (or  -tse-an,)  or  Sse-ma 
Tsian,  written  also  Sze-ma-Ts'een  and  Se-ma-Tsien, 
a  celebrated  Chinese  historiographer,  scholar,  and  critic, 
born  in  the  province  of  Shen-see  about  145  B.C.  His 
father,  who  held  the  office  of  historiographer  to  the  em- 
peror Woo-tee,  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
in  collecting  and  arranging  the  writings  of  the  ancients. 
After  his  death  the  son  succeeded  to  his  office,  and  ap- 
plied himself  with  equal  industry  and  zeal  to  collecting 
and  preserving  the  writings  of  antiquity.  Having  by 
his  freedom  and  boldness  incurred  the  anger  of  the  em- 
peror, he  was  banished.  While  in  exile,  he  wrote  hi.s 
principal  work,  entitled  "Historical  Memoirs,"  ("  Sse- 
Kee  or  -Ki,")  which  was  not  published  until  after  his 
death.    Having  recovered  the  favour  of  his  sovereign,  he 


i  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  v., ^iitturai :  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ((Jl^^See  I'.xplanations,  p.  23.) 


STAAL 


2234 


STAEL-HOLSTEIN 


was  recalled  from  banishment  and  treated  with  distin- 
guished regard.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
80  B.C 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Staal,  von,  fon  stSl,  (Karl,)  a  Russian  general,  of 
German  extraction,  born  at  Reval  in  1777,  served  under 
Suwarow  in  Italy  in  1799,  and  subsequently  in  the  princi- 
pal Austrian  and  German  campaigns  against  the  French. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  by  the  emperor  Nicholas 
commandant  of  Moscow  and  general  of  cavalry,  {1843.) 
Died  in  1853. 

Staal,  von,  fon  stil,  (Marguerite  Jeanne  Cordier 
— koR'dc^',)  Baroness,  an  accomplished  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1693,  was  the  daughter  of  the  painter 
Launai,  and  was  married  to  Baron  von  Staal,  a  Swiss 
officer.  She  was  the  author  of  poems,  letters,  and 
"Memoirs,"  (3  vols.,  1755,)  which  are  remarkable  for 
the  elegance  of  their  style.     Died  in  1750. 

Staben,  std'ben,  (HENnRiK,)a  P'lemish  painter,  born 
in  1578,  was  a  pupil  of  Tintoretto.  He  worked  at  Venice, 
and  excelled  in  pictures  of  small  dimensions.  Died  in 
1658. 

Stabili     See  Cecco  d'Ascoli. 

Stace,  the  French  for  Statius,  which  see. 

Stackelberg,  stik'el-b^Rc',  ( Orro  Magnus,) 
Baron,  a  distinguished  archaeologist,  of  German  extrac- 
tion, born  near  Reval,  in  Russia,  in  17S7.  His  principal 
works  are  entitled  "The  Sepulchres  of  the  Greeks," 
and  "Greece,  Picturesque  and  Topographic  Views," 
(1830.)     Died  in  1834. 

Stack'house,  (stak'ils,)  (John,)  an  English  botanist, 
was  a  nephew  of  Thomas  Stackhouse,  noticed  below.  He 
published  in  1801  a  description,  in  English  and  Latin, 
of  the  Algae,  Fuci,  and  Confervae  of  England,  entitled 
"  Nereis  Britannica,"  (fol.,  with  coloured  plates.)  Among 
his  other  works  are  "Illustrations  of  Theophrastus,"(in 
Latin,  181 1,)  and  contributions  to  the  "Transactions" 
of  the  Linnsean  Society,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
Died  in  1819. 

Stackhouse,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  the- 
ological writer,  born  in  16S1,  became  vicar  of  Benham, 
in  Berkshire.  He  published  "Memoirs  of  Bishop  At- 
terbury,"  (1723,)  a  "History  of  the  Holy  Bible,"  (2 
vols.,  1732,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1752. 

Stadion,  sti'de-on,  (Johann  Philipp  Karl  Joseph,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Mentz  in  1763,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Stockholm, 
London,  and  Saint  Petersburg,  and  succeeded  Cobenzl 
as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1806.  He  relinquished 
this  post  to  Count  Metternich  in  1809.  He  was  restored 
to  power  in  1813,  and  signed  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 
Died  in  1824. 

Stadius,  stS'de  us,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  astronomer  and 
astrologer,  born  in  Brabant  in  1527,  wrote  "Roman 
Calendars,"  ("  Fasti  Romanorum,")  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1579. 

Stadler,  stSd'ler,  (Maximilian,)  a  German  organist 
and  composer  of  church  music,  born  at  Melk  in  1748. 
Among  his  works  we  may  name  his  oratorio  of  "  The 
Deliverance  of  Jerusalem."     Died  in  1833. 

Stael-Holstein,  de,  deh  stil-hol'stin,  [Fr.  pron. 
stt'^l'  /iol'stiN',]  (Anne  Louise  Germalne  Necker,) 
Baronne,  commonly  called  Madame  de  Stael,  a 
French  lady  of  great  genius,  and  the  most  celebrated 
authoress  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  22d 
of  April,  1766.  She  was  the  only  child  of  Necker,  the 
eminent  financier.  Her  education  was  directed  by  her 
mother,  whose  nature  was  far  less  genial  and  expansive 
than  that  of  the  daughter.  Madame  Necker  subjected  her 
to  a  strict  and  rigid  regime  of  formalism,  adajited  rather 
to  contract  than  to  develop  her  genius.  Her  character 
was  better  appreciated  by  her  father,  for  whom  slie  always 
felt  the  most  ardent  affection  and  even  adoration.  In  her 
early  youth  she  listened  with  interest  to  the  conversation 
of  Marmontel,  Raynal,  and  other  authors,  who  frequented 
her  father's  house.  To  restore  her  health,  impaired  by 
hard  study,  she  was  sent  to  the  country  at  about  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  enjoyed  more  liberty.  Her  favourite 
author  at  this  period  of  her  life  was  J.  J.  Rousseau. 
"She  was  from  the  first  the  very  incarnation  of  genius 
and  of  impulse.     Her  precocity  was  extraordinary,  and 


her  vivacity  and  vehemence,  both  of  intellect  and  tern 
perament,  baffled  all  her  mother's  efforts  at  regulation 
and  control."  ("North  British  Review"  for  November, 
1853.)  In  1786  she  was  married  to  Eric,  Baron  de  Stael, 
a  Swedish  diplomatist,  and  received  from  her  father  an 
immense  dowry.  It  appears  that  she  did  not  love  De 
Stael,  but  that  she  or  her  parents  ])referred  him  to  other 
suitors  because  he  was  a  Protestant  and  intended  to 
reside  permanently  at  Paris.  Her  first  literary  produc- 
tion was  "Letters  on  the  Writings  and  Character  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau,"  (1788.)  During  the  reign  of  terroi  she 
made  courageous  and  successful  efforts  to  save  the  lives 
of  a  number  of  proscribed  persons,  among  whom  was  the 
Count  de  Narbonne. 

In  1793  she  retired  to  England,  and- resided  for  a  time 
near  Richmond  with  M.  Talleyrand,  the  Count  de  Nar- 
bonne,  and  other  French  exiles.  She  returned  to  Paris  in 
1795,  and  passed  herAime  hajipily  for  the  next  four  years. 
She  was  an  advocate  of  constitutional  liberty,  and  ciuring 
the  Directory  was  the  leading  spirit  of  a  party  whose 
chief  orator  was  Benjamin  Constant.  Her  influence  was 
so  great  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom 
she  constantly  refused  to  offer  homage.  A  mutual  and 
invincible  antipathy  arose  between  her  and  the  First 
Consul,  who  not  only  persecuted  her  but  bullied  and 
banished  others  because  they  sympathized  with  her. 
She  published  in  1800  a  work  "On  Literature  consid- 
ered in  its  Relations  with  Social  Institutions."  In  1802 
she  was  banished  from  Paris  and  forbidden  to  reside 
within  forty  leagues  of  that  capital,  the  social  charms 
of  which  she  deemed  indispensable  to  her  happiness. 
She  published  in  1802  a  novel  entitled  "  Delphine,"  and 
visited  Germany,  where  she  associated  with  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  A.  W.  Schlegel,  (1803-04.)  Some  of  these 
are  said  to  have  listened  to  her  brilliant  conversation 
"with  vast  admiration  and  not  a  little  fatigue."  "To 
philosophize  in  society,"  observes  Goethe,  "means  to 
talk  with  vivacity  about  insoluble  problems.  This  was 
her  peculiar  pleasure  and  passion.  .  .  .  More  than  once 
I  had  regular  dialogues  with  her,  with  no  one  else  pres- 
ent :  in  these,  however,  she  was  likewise  burdensome ; 
never  grariting,  on  the  most  important  topics,  a  viomen, 
of  reflection,  but  passionately  demanding  that  we  should 
despatch  the  deepest  concerns  as  lightly  as  if  it  were  a 
game  at  shuttlecock."  ("  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit.") 

After  a  tour  in  Italy,  she  produced  in  1S07  her  "  Co- 
rinne,"  a  novel,  which  displays  profound  insight  and 
equal  sensibility.  It  had  immense  success,  which  irri- 
tated Napoleon  to  renew  his  persecution  of  the  author. 
She  was  ordered  to  leave  France.  She  afterwards 
travelled  in  Germany,  and  settled  at  Coppet  in  Switzer- 
land, where  a  number  of  her  friends  came  to  console 
her.  Among  these  were  Sismondi,  Schlegel,  Madame 
Recamier,  and  B.  Constant.  In  1810  she  published  her 
capital  work  on  Germany,  ("  De  I'AUemagne,")  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  Goethe,  "  ought  to  be  considered  a  power- 
ful battery  which  made  a  wide  breach  in  the  sort  of 
wall  raised  up  between  the  two  nations  by  superannuated 
prejudices."  "Thus  terminates,"  says  Sir  J.  Mackin- 
tosh, "  a  work  which,  for  variety  of  knowledge,  flexi- 
bility of  power,  elevation  of  view,  and  comprehension  of 
mind,  is  unequalled  among  the  works  of  women,  and 
which  in  the  union  of  the  graces  of  society  and  litera- 
ture with  the  genius  of  philosophy  is  not  surpassed  by 
many  among  those  of  men."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1813.)  Among  her  other  works  are  her  auto- 
biographic memoirs,  entitled  "  Ten  Years  of  Exile,"  and 
"  Considerations  on  the  French  Revolution,"  ("  Con- 
siderations sur  la  Revolution  Fran9aise,"  1818.)  She 
was  privately  married  to  M.  Rocca,  a  young  Italian 
officer,  in  1810  or  1812.  In  1813  she  visited  Saint 
Petersburg  and  England,  and  after  the  abdication  of 
Napoleon  she  returned  to  Paris,  where  she  died  in  July, 
181 7.  She  was  rather  deficient  in  personal  beauty,  but 
she  is  said  to  have  had  magnificent  eyes.  She  had  two 
sons,  and  one  daughter  who  became  the  Duchess  de 
Broglie. 

See  Madame  de  .StaSi.,  "Dix  Ans  d'Exil ;"  Madame  Necker 
nn  Saussure,  "  Notice  snr  le  Caract^re  et  les  ficrits  de  Madame  da 
Stael."  1820;  F.  ScHi.ossER,  "Madame  de  Stael  et  Madame  Ro- 
land," 1830;  SainthBeuve,  "Portraits  de  Femmes :"  NFaria 
NoRRis,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Madame  de  Stael,"  1853  ;  Marc 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  ?,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STAEL-HOLSTEIN 


2235 


STAMPFLI 


Antoine  Puvis,  "Notice  sur  Madame  de  Stael-Holstem,"  1828; 
Vii.LEMAiN,  "Tableau  du  dix-luiitiinie  Slide  ;''  Chateaubriand, 
"  Memoiresd'Outre-Tombe;"  Baudrili.art,  "Eloge  de  Madame  de 
Stael,"  1850;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Caiiseries  dii  Lundi  :"  "  Nouvelle 
BioKrapliie  G^nerale  ;"  articles  by  Jeffrey  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  February,  1813,  September,  1818,  and  October,  1821. 

Stael-Holatein,  de,  (Augu-ste  Louis,)  Baron, 
born  in  Paris  in  1790,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His 
education  was  directed  by  August  W.  Schlegel  at  Cop- 
pet,  He  was  a  Protestant,  and  a  distinguished  pliilan- 
thropist.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  abolition 
of  the  slave-trade,  and  gave  much  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  rural  economy.  His  character  is  said  to 
have  been  highly  honourable.  Died  in  1S27.  His 
writings,  "  CEuvres  diverses,"  were  published  in  5  vols., 
1829. 

See  C.  Moi;nard,  "  Notice  sur  Aug.  de  Stael-Holstein,"  1827. 

Stael-Holstein,    de,  (Eric  M.^gnus,)    Baron,  a 

Swedish  diplomatist,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  at  Paris  about  1783,  and 
married  the  daughter  of  M.  Necker  in  1786.  He  was 
many  years  older  than  his  wife,  and  was  very  ])rodigal 
of  money.  They  were  not  compatible,  and  soon  sepa- 
rated by  mutual  consent.  He  ceased  to  be  ambassador 
at  Paris  in  1799.     Died  in  1802. 

Staeudlin.     See  Staudlin. 

Stafford,  (Anthony,)  a  iearned  English  writer,  born 
in  Northamptonshire,  took  his  degree  at  Oxford  in  1623. 
He  wrote  "  Niobe  dissolved  into  Nilus,"  "The  Life  and 
Death  of  Our  Blessed  Lady,  the  Holy  Virgin  Mary," 
(1635,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1641. 

Stafford,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1443.  He  was  also  lord  chan- 
cellor for  nearly  eighteen  years.     Died  in  1452. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
Yol.  V.  chap.  xix. 

Stafford,  (William  Howard,)  Viscount  of,  born 
in  16 1 2,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Howard,  the  Earl  of 
Arundel.  He  married  a  sister  and  heiress  of  Baron 
Stafford.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  a  royalist  in 
the  civil  war.  Having  been  accused  by  Titus  Oate.s 
of  complicity  in  the  Popish  Plot,  he  was  convicted  of 
treason  and  executed  in  16S0.  He  was  probably  in 
nocent. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Burnet,  "History  of  his 
Own  Times." 

Stafford,  de,  (Henry,)  Duke  of  Buckingham,  was  a 
son  of  Humphrey,  noticed  below.  He  gained  the  favour 
of  Richard  HL,  and  was  accessory  to  his  crimes,  but 
revolted  against  him,  and  was  beheaded  in  1483. 

See  A.  Stafford,  "Life  of  Henry,  Lord  Stafford,"  1640. 

Stafford,  de,  (Humphrey,)  an  English  peer,  was 
an  adherent  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  in  the  war  of 
the  Roses.  He  was  created  Duke  of  Buckingham  about 
1465. 

Stagemann  or  Staegemann,  von,  fon  sta'geh 
mSn',  (Friedrich  August,)  a  Prussian  statesman  and 
writer,  born  in  1763.  He  published  a  number  of  poems 
and  political  treatises.     Died  in  1840. 

Stagnelius,  stSg-nlT'le-Cis,  (Erik  Johan,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  in  1793  at  Colmar,  where  his  father 
was  bishop.  He  studied  at  the  Universities  of  Lund 
and  Upsal.  His  epic  poem  entitled  "  Wladimir  the 
Great"  ("Wladimir  den  Store,"  181 7)  obtained  the 
prize  from  the  Swedish  Academy.  This  was  followed 
by  "The  Lilies  of  Sharon,"  ("Liljor  i  Saron,"  182 1,) 
and  tragedies  entitled  "The  Bacchanals,"  and  "The 
Martyrs."  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  office  or  depart- 
ment of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  1815.     Died  in  1823. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Howitt, 
"Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe  ;"  H ammerskoeld, 
"E.  J.  Stagnelius,"  1823. 

Stahel,  sti'el,  or  Stahl,  stSl,  (Julius,)  a  general, 
born  in  Hungary  in  1825.  He  fought  against  Austria  in 
1848-49,  and  afterwards  emigrated  to  the  United  States. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers 
about  November,  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at 
Cress  Keys,  June  8,  1862. 

Stahelin  or  Staehelin,  sta'el-leen',  (Benedict,)  a 
Swiss  botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Bale  in  1695.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  researches  in  cryptogamous 
plants,  and  published  several  works.     Died  in  1750. 


Stahl,  stil,  (Friedrich  Julius,)  a  German  jurist,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Munich  in  1802,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Berlin  in  1840.  He  published  several 
political  and  philosophical  works.     Died  in  1861. 

See  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- Lexikon,"  1862. 

Stahl,  (Georg  Ernst,)  an  eminent  German  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Anspach  in  1660.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1694,  and  in  1716 
physician  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  His  principal  medical 
work  is  entitled  "  Theoria  Medica  Vera,"  (1707,)  in 
which  he  opposes  Hoffmann's  theories  and  advances  a 
new  doctrine  of  physical  influence.  He  made  several 
valuable  discoveries  concerning  the  alkalies,  acids,  etc., 
originated  the  theory  of  phlogiston,  and  contributed 
more  than  any  other  of  his  contemporaries  to  give  to 
chemistry  a  scientific  form.  He  published,  among  other 
works  on  this  subject,  "  Experimenta  et  Observationes 
Chemicse,"  (1731,)  and  "  Fundamenta  Chymi3e  Dog- 
maticae,"  (3  vols.,  1723.)     Died  in  1734. 

See  Sprengel,  "History  of  Medicine:"  Hoefer,  "Histoire  de 
la  Chimie  ;"  Strebel,  "  Programma  de  Vita  Stahl,"  1759;  A.  Le- 
MoiNE,  "  Le  Vitalisnie  et  I'Animisme  de  Stahl,"  1864;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Stahl,  (P.  J.)     See  Hetzel. 

Stahr,  stlk,  (Adolf  Wilhelm  Theodor,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Prenzlau,  in  the  Uckermark,  in  1805.  He 
published  "  Aristotelia,"  (1832,)  or  an  explanation  and 
criticism  of  Aristotle's  works,  "The  Republicans  in  Na- 
ples," a  romance,  (3  vols.,  1849,)  and  various  other  works. 
He  married  Fanny  Lewald,  about  1854.     Died  in  1876. 

Stahremberg.    See  Starhemberg. 

Stain'^r,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  musician,  born 
in  1840,  graduated  as  V,.k.  at  Oxford  in  1863,  and  as 
Mus.  Doc.  in  1865.  In  1872  he  became  organist  of 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  London.  He  early  won  wide 
fame  as  a  brilliant  performer  on  the  organ.  He  has 
published  some  excellent  music,  a  "Treatise  on  Har- 
mony," "  The  Music  of  the  Bible,"  and  various  educa- 
tional books  on  music. 

Stai'ner  or  Stayner,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English 
naval  otificer,  who  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Blake 
over  the  Spaniards  at  Santa  Cruz  in  1657.  For  this 
service  he  was  knighted  by  Cromwell.  He  became  a 
rear-admiral.     Died  in  1662. 

Stair,  Lord.     See  Dalrymple,  (James.) 

Stalbent,  stil'bgnt,  (Adrian,)  of  Antwerp,  a  skilful 
Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  in  15S0.  He  worked 
in  England  for  Charles  II.     Died  at  Antwerp  in  1660. 

Stallbaum,  staKbowm,  (Gottfried,)  a  distinguished 
German  scholar,  born  near  Delitzsch  in  1793.  His 
editions  of  the  works  of  Plato  are  particularly  esteemed. 
He  was  professor  of  classics  in  the  University  of  Leipsic, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  education.     Died  in  1861. 

Stal'lo,  (John  Bernhard,)  a  German-American 
philosopher,  born  at  Sierhausen,  Oldenburg,  Germany, 
March  16,  1822,  was  educated  in  the  Vechte  gymnasium. 
He  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  physics  in  Saint 
John's  College,  New  York,  1844-47,  ^"d  a  judge  of  the 
common  pleas  court  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1852-55.  His 
principal  works  are  "General  Principles  of  the  Philos- 
ophy of  Nature,"  (1848,)  and  "  Concepts  and  Theories 
of  Modern  Physics,"  (1882.) 

Stam'ford,  (Henry  William,)  a  general  and  poet, 
born  at  Bourges,  France,  in  1742.  He  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Holland,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.     Died  at  Hamburg  in  1807. 

Stani'fprd,  (Thomas  Grey,)  Earl  of,  an  English 
peer,  accused  of  a  share  in  the  Rye-House  Plot,  was 
cominitted  to  the  Tower  in  1685,  and  liberated  the  same 
year,  having  turned  king's  evidence.  He  joined  William 
IH.  in  1688. 

Stampa,  stJm'pJ,  [Fr.  Estampes,  gs'tSMp',]  (Gas- 
para,)  an  Italian  poete.ss,  born  at  Padua  about  1524, 
wrote  under  the  a.ssumed  name  of  Anasilla.  She  was 
a  victim  of  unrequited  love.     Died  at  Venice  in  1554. 

Stampart,  stdm'part,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  por- 
trait-painter, born  at  Antwerp  in  1675.  He  worked  in 
Vienna,  and  was  painter  to  the  emperor  Leopold.  Died 
in  1750. 

Stampfli  or  Staempfli,  stgmpf'lee,  (Jakob,)  a 
Swiss  politician,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1820 


€  as  /t;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h.  k.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STANBRIDGE 


2236 


STANISLAS 


He  became  about  1S45  a  leader  of  the  radical  party,  was 
elected  president  of  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1849,  ^"^ 
federal  president  in  1858.     Died  May  15,  1879. 

Stan'bridge,  (John,)  an  English  schoolmaster,  born 
in  Northamptonshire,  became  a  Fellow  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  about  1480.  He  wrote  several  school-books. 
Died  after  1522. 

Stancari,  stin-k^'ree,  [Lat.  Stanca'rus,]  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Mantua  in  1501. 
He  became  a  Protestant,  and  emigrated  to  Poland.  He 
taught  Hebrew  at  Cracow,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1574. 

See  Bavi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Stancari,  (Vittokio  Francesco,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bologna  in  167S,  was  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  that  city.     Died  in  1709. 

Staucel,  stdn'sel,  [Port.  Estancel,  es-tin-sSl',] 
(Valentin,)  a  German  astronomer  and  Jesuit,  born  near 
Briinn,  in  Moravia,  in  1621.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  San  Salvador,  in  Brazil,  about  1663.  Died 
in  1715. 

Stand'ish,  (Frank  Hall,)  an  English  writer  and 
connoisseur  of  art,  was  born  in  1798.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Voltaire,"  a  volume  of  poems,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1840. 

Standish,  (Miles,)  an  English  officer,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire about  1584.  He  was  one  of  the  emigrants  that 
arrived  at  Plymouth  in  the  "Mayflower"  in  1620,  and 
became  the  military  leader  of  the  pilgrims  in  their  war 
against  the  Indians.  His  adventures  form  the  subject 
of  one  of  Longfellow's  poems.     Died  in  1656. 

Stan'field,  (Clarkson,)  an  eminent  English  marine 
painter,  born  at  Sunderland  in  1798.  He  served  for  a 
time  as  a  sailor,  and  subsequently  employed  himself  in 
scene-painting  at  the  London  theatres,  where  he  brought 
that  branch  of  the  art  to  a  perfection  hitherto  scarcely 
known.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1835. 
He  contributed  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Acadeiny  a 
great  number  of  pictures  of  marine  and  coast  scenery, 
which  he  delineated  with  a  beauty  and  fidelity  per- 
haps never  surpassed.  Among  these  are  views  on  the 
Adriatic,  the  Italian  lakes,  and  the  coasts  of  Holland, 
Normandy,  and  England.  He  also  executed  several 
admirable  works  of  a  different  character,  such  as  "Saint 
Sebastian  during  the  Siege  under  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton,'' and  "  Port  na  Spana,  near  the  Giant's  Causeway, 
with  the  Wrecked  Vessels  of  the  Armada."  Died  in 
May,  1867. 

Stanfield,  (George,)  a  landscape-painter,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  about  1822. 

Stan'fprd,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  in 
England  in  1754,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and 
settled  as  a  pastor  at  New  York.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1834. 

Stanhope,  (Charles.)  See  Harrington,  Earl  of. 

Stanhope,  stin'op  or  stin'up,  (Charles,)  third 
Earl,  a  liberal  English  nobleman,  distinguished  for  his 
mechanical  inventions,  born  in  1753,  was  a  son  of  Philip, 
the  second  Earl.  He  married  Hester  Pitt,  a  daughter  of 
the  great  Earl  of  Chatham.  He  invented  the  printing- 
press  which  bears  his  name,  a  calculating  machine,  etc 
In  politics  he  was  radical.  He  opposed  the  American 
war  and  the  war  against  the  P'rench  republic.  He  was 
the  father  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope,  and  grandfather  of 
Lord  Mahon  the  historian.     Died  in  1 816. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Stanhope,  (George,)  an  English  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1660.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  Dean  of  Canterbury  in  1701. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Paraphrase  and  Comment  on 
the  Epistles  and  Gospels  as  they  are  read  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,"  (4  vols.  8vo,)  which  passed  through 
numerous  editions  ;  he  also  translated  Charron's  "  Three 
Books  of  Wisdom,"  "Pious  Breathings,"  from  Saint 
Augustine,  and  other  devotional  works.     Died  in  1728. 

Stanhope,  (Lady  Hester,)  an  eccentric  English- 
woman, born  in  London  in  1766,  was  a  daughter  ot 
Charles,  Earl  Stanhope,  and  a  niece  of  William  Pitt  the 
eminent  statesman.  She  lost  her  mother  in  her  infancy, 
and  her  education  was  consequently  neglected.     About 


the  age  of  twenty  she  went  to  reside  with  her  uncle, 
then  prime  minister,  whom  she  aided  in  his  corre- 
spondence. She  was  energetic,  impulsive,  and  disdainful 
of  conventionality.  The  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  was  felt 
by  her  as  a  great  disaster.  In  iSioshe  abandoned  Eng- 
land in  disgust,  and  entered  on  a  career  of  Oriental  ad- 
venture. She  arrived  in  .Syria  in  1812,  adopted  Oriental 
customs,  and  excited  the  admiration  of  the  natives,  who 
were  disposed  to  receive  her  as  a  queen.  She  resided 
many  years  on  or  near  Mount  Lebanon,  with  a  large 
retinue  of  servants  or  subjects,  and  acquired  great  pres- 
tige as  a  magician  and  mistress  of  mystical  lore.  Died 
in  Syria  in  1839. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope,"  by  her  physician,  3 
vols.,  1845;  Lamaktine,  ■' Souvenirs  d'un  Voyage  en  Orient;"  W. 
Russell,  "Eccentric  Personages,"  2  vols.,  1S64;  "Memoirs  of  1 
Babylonian  Princess,"  2  vols.,  1845;  A.  F.  Djdot,  article  in  the 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August, 
1845. 

Stanhope,  (James  Stanhope,)  first  Earl,  a  British 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1673,  was  a  son  of  Alex- 
anfler  Stanhope,  and  a  grandson  of  Philip,  Earl  of  Ches- 
terfield. He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1704,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  Spain  in  1705.  In  1708  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Spain. 
He  gained  victories  at  Almenara  and  Saragossa  in  1710, 
but  was  coinpelled  to  surrender  his  army  to  the  Duke 
of  Vendome  before  the  end  of  that  year.  He  became  a 
leader  of  the  Whig  party,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the 
chief  secretaries  of  state  in  17x4.  He  was  first  lord  of 
the  treasuiy  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  April, 
1717,  to  March,  1718.  About  this  date  he  received  the 
title  of  Earl  Stanhope,  and  resumed  the  office  of  secre- 
tary of  state.  He  died  in  1721,  leaving  a  fair  reputation 
as  a  statesman. 

See  Lord  Mahon,  "  History  of  England ;"  CoxE,  "  History  of 
Spain." 

Stanhope,  (Philip,)  second  Earl,  born  about  1712, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  the  father 
of  Charles,  above  noticed,  and  was  a  patron  of  learning. 
Died  in  17S6. 

Stanhope,  (Captain  Philip,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
brother  of  James,  first  Earl  Stanhope,  was  commander 
of  the  Milford  at  the  siege  of  Ostend,  and  subsequently 
served  in  the  Mediterranean.  He  was  killed  in  the 
attack  on  Port  Mahon,  in  1708. 

Stanhope,  (Philip  Dormer.)  See  Chesterfield, 
(Lord.) 

Stanhope,  (Philip  Henry,)  fifth  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  historian,  born  in  Kent  in  1805.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  was  elected  in  1832  member  of 
Parliament,  as  Lord  Mahon,  for  Wotton  Basset.  In  1835 
he  was  returned  for  Hertford,  which  he  continued  to 
represent  until  1852.  He  was  appointed  under-secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  1834,  and  was  afterwards 
secretary  to  the  board  of  control  under  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
He  introduced  and  carried,  while  in  Parliament,  the 
copyright  act  known  by  his  name.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain,"  (8vo, 
1832,)  "  Spain  under  Charles  II.,"  (1840,)  "Life  of  Louis, 
Prince  of  Conde,"  "  Life  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  (1853,)  "  His- 
tory of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  Peace 
of  Versailles,  1713-17S3,"  (1854,)  which  is  regarded  as  a 
standard  work,  and  "Historical  Essays"  contributed  to 
the  "Quarterly  Review."     Died  Deceinber  24,  1875. 

Stan'is-las  or  Stan'is-laus,  Saint,  a  Polish  prelate, 
born  in  1030,  became  Bishop  of  Cracow  in  107 1.  He 
was  killed  in  1079  by  King  Boleslaus,  because  he  had 
lebuked  the  wickedness  of  that  monarch. 

Stan'is-las  (or  Stan'is-laus)  Augustus,  King  of 
Poland,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1732,  was  the  son  of  Count 
Stanislas  Poniatowski.  He  was  in  his  youth  a  favour- 
ite of  Catherine  II.  of  Russia.  Through  the  influence 
of  his  uncles  the  princes  Czartoryski,  assisted  by  Russia. 
he  was  elected  to  the  throne  of  Poland  in  1764.  The 
first  partition  of  that  country,  which  took  place  in  1772, 
was  in  vain  opposed  by  him  ;  and  he  subsequently  de- 
voted himself  to  internal  improvements  and  promoted 
various  reforms,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
new  constitution  of  1792.  Overawed  by  the  power  of 
Russia,  he  afterwards  joined  the  Confederation  of  Tar- 
gowicz,  formed  for  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution, 


a,  e.  I, o,  u,  yi long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i, 6, 1'l,  J,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  odscidc;  Idi ,  rill,  lit;  met;  not;  good;  mSon; 


STANISLAS 


2237 


STANTON 


and  wMch  was  followed  by  a  second  partition  of  Poland, 
in  1793.  After  the  entire  dismemberment  of  his  country, 
in  1795,  Stanislas  abdicated  the  throne  and  retired  to 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  a  pension  was  assigned  him  by 
the  emperor  Paul.     Died  in  1798. 

See  Rui-HifeRE,  "  Histoire  de  I'Anarchie  de  Pologne  :"  Lei.ewel, 
"R^gne  du  Roi  Stanislas  Aiigiiste,"  1818;  Chodzko,  "La  Pologne 
illiistr^e  :"  De  Ferrand,  "  Histoire  des  trois  D^niembrcments  de 
la  Pologne,"  3  vols.,  1820;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Stanislas  Leszczynski,  (I5sh-chin'skee,)  written 
also  Leszinski,  King  of  Poland,  born  at  Lemberg  in 
1677,  was  a  son  of  the  grand  treasurer  of  Poland.  Having 
been  sent  in  1704,  by  the  Diet  of  Warsaw,  to  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  to  consult  him  on  the  election  of  a  king  to 
succeed- Augustus  II.,  he  made  so  favourable  an  impres- 
sion upon  Cliarles  that  he  recommended  him  as  a  can- 
didate, and  he  was  elected  the  following  year.  Being 
compelled  to  abdicate  after  the  battle  of  Poltava,  (Pul- 
towa,)  in  1709,  he  was  again  called  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  Augustus  II.,  in  1733  ;  but  he  was  finally  forced 
to  resign  the  crown  in  favour  of  Augustus  III.,  whose 
claims  were  supported  by  Austria  and  Russia.  lie  was 
afterwards  invested  with  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and 
Bar,  in  1737,  retaining  the  title  of  King  of  Poland.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  talents  and  literary  attain- 
ments, and  published,  in  French,  "The  Works  of  the 
Benevolent  Philosopher,"  (1765.)  His  daughter  Maria 
became  the  wife  of  Louis  XV.  of  France.  Died  in 
February,  1766. 

See  A.  AuBERT,  "Vie  de  Stanislas  Les/czynski,"  1769  :  Sevler, 
*' Leben  Stanislai  I.,"  iziy  ;  Bombart,  "filogedu  Roi  Stanislas  I," 
1766 ;  Abb6  Maury,  "  Eloge  du  feu  Roi  Stanislas,"  1766  ;  Provart, 
"Stanislas  I,"  2  vols.,  1784;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Stan'ley,  (Anthony  D.,)  an  American  mathema- 
tician, born  in  1812.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Yale  College,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on  Spherical 
Trigonometry."     Died  in  1853. 

Stan'ley,  (Rev.  Arthur  Penrhyn,)  commonly 
known  as  Dean  Stanley,  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Nor- 
wich, noticed  below,  was  born  in  Cheshire  in  1815.  He 
studied  at  Rugby  under  Dr.  Arnold,  and  subsequently 
graduated  at  Oxford.  He  published  in  1844  "The 
Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Arnold,  D.D.," 
which  obtained  wide  popularity  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.  He  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  Prince  Albert,  and  in  1856  was  elected  regius 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Oxford.  Among 
his  other  works  may  be  named  "  Historical  Memorials 
of  Canterbury,"  etc.,  (1855,)  "Sinai  and  Palestine  in 
Connection  with  their  History,"  (1856,)  "Lectures  on 
the  Eastern  Church,"  (i86i,)  "Lectures  on  the  History 
of  the  Jewish  Church,"  (1863,)  "  Lectures  on  the  History 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland,"  (1872,)  "  Sermons  and  Es- 
says on  the  Apostolical  Age,"  (1874,)  "Christian  Insti- 
tutions," (1880,)  and  numerous  sermons.  He  became  a 
canon  of  Christ  Church  in  1858,  and  Dean  of  Westmin- 
fcter  in  1864.     Died  July  18,  1881.  _ 

Stanley,  (David  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  m 
Wayne  county,  Ohio,  in  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1852.  He  was  a  captain  of  cavalry  when  the  civil 
war  began,  served  in  several  actions  in  Missouri,  and 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  September,  1861. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Rose- 
crans  at  the  battle  of  Corinth,  October  4,  1862,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  commander  of  all  the  cavalry  at 
the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  on  the  2d 
of  January,  1863.  He  was  afterwards  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers.  Ai^out  the  ist  of 
August,  1864,  he  obtained  command  of  the  fourth  corps 
in  the  army  of  Sherman,  then  near  Atlanta.  Genera) 
Stanley  and  his  corps  were  sent  back  to  Chattanooga  in 
October  or  November,  witli  orders  to  rep.ort  to  General 
Thomas  at  Nashville.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Franklin,  November  30,  1864.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  the  United  States  army  in  1866. 

Stanley,  (Edward.)     See  Deruy,  Earl  of. 

Stanley,  (Rev.  Edward,)  D. D.,  an  English  divine 
and  naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1779.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge  in  1805,  was  subsequently  appointed 
rector  of  Alderley,  and  in  1837  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He 
was  the  author  of  "A  Familiar  History  of  Birds,  their 
Nature,    Habits,   and    Instincts,"    (2    vols.,    1835,)    and 


contributed  a  number  of  treatises  on  natural  history  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine."  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.     Died  in  1849. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1851. 

Stanley,  (Edward  John,)  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley, 
an  English  statesman  of  the  Liberal  party,  was  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1802.  He  was  a  relative  of  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  He  entered  Parliament  about  1831,  after  which 
he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury,  (1835-41,)  and 
under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  (1846-52.)  In 
1848  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Eddisbury. 
He  inherited  the  title  of  Baron  Stanley  of  Alderley  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1850,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  cabinet,  as  postmaster-general,  from  1859  to  June, 
1866.     Died  in  June,  1869. 

Stanley,  (Henry  M.,)  a  celebrated  African  explorer, 
of  obscure  parentage,  born  near  Denbigh,  Wales,  in  1840. 
When  fifteen  years  of  age  he  went  to  sea,  and  on  arriving 
at  New  Orleans  he  took  the  name  of  a  gentleman  who 
befriended  him.  (His  own  name  was  originally  John 
Rowlands.)  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he 
entered  the  Confederate  service,  but  was  made  a  prisoner, 
and  afterwards  joined  the  United  States  navy.  As  a 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  "  Herald,"  he  accom- 
panied the  British  army  to  Abyssinia  in  1867,  and  in 
1871-72  he  conducted  an  expedition  into  Africa  in  search 
of  Livingstone,  the  traveller,  whom  he  met  at  Ujiji,  and 
with  whom  he  remained  several  months,  and  then  made 
his  way  back  to  Europe.  At  the  joint  expense  of  the 
New  York  "  Herald"  and  the  London  "  Daily  Telegraph," 
he  revisited  Africa  in  1874  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing 
Livingstone,  but,  learning  of  that  traveller's  deatli,  he 
crossed  the  whole  continent,  descending  the  Congo 
amidst  great  hardships  and  dangers,  and  returning  to 
England  in  1878.  He  went  again  to  the  Congo  Basin 
(1879-82)  under  the  auspices  of  the  African  International 
Association  and  of  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  and  in  1887 
started  for  the  relief  of  Emin  Pasha.  He  has  published 
"  How  I  found  Livingstone,"  (1872,)  "Through  the  Dark 
Continent,"  (1878,)  and  "The  Congo  and  the  Founding 
of  its  Free  State,"  (1885.) 

Stanley,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  in  17 13.  He  became  blind  at  the  age  of  two,  but 
made  such  progress  in  music,  under  the  tuition  of  Dr. 
Greene,  that  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Saint  An- 
drew's, Holborn,  London,  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  He 
was  appointed  master  of  the  king's  band  in  1779.  His 
compositions  are  chiefly  voluntaries  for  the  organ,  songs, 
cantatas,  etc.     Died  in  17S6. 

Stanley,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Cumberlow,  in  Herts,  in  1625,  was  a  son 
of  Sir  Thomas  Stanley,  a  poet  of  some  note.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  a 
"  History  of  Philosophy,  containing  the  Lives,  Opinions, 
Actions,  and  Discourses  of  the  Philosophers  of  every 
Sect,"  (3  vols.,  1655-60,)  which  was  highly  esteemed, 
and  a  good  edition  of  iEschylus,  (1663.)  He  also  pub- 
lished "  Poems  and  Translations,"  (1647.)    Died  in  1678. 

See  Egerton  Brvdges,  "Memoir  of  Stanley,"  prefixed  to  an 
edition  of  Stanley's  Poems,  1814-15;  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses.' 

Stanley,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lei- 
cestershire in  1647.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  London 
in  1692,  and  Dean  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1706.    Died  in  1731. 

Stannina.     See  Starnina. 

Stansel.     See  Stancel. 

Stans'feld,  (James,)  an  English  lawyer  and  radical, 
born  at  Halifax  "in  1820.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
ParliameM  for  Halifax  in  1859,  was  appointed  a  lord  of 
the  admiralty  in  April,  1863,  and  resigned  in  April,  1864. 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  from  February  to  July, 
1866,  and  became  third  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1868,  and 
financial  secretary  in  October,  1S69. 

Stan'tpn,  (Edwin  M.,)  an  American  statesman  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Steubenville,  Ohio,  December  19,  1814. 
He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  and 
practi-sed  for  some  time  at  Steubenville  with  success.  In 
1847  he  removed  to  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
became  the  leader  of  the  bar.  He  was  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  supreme  court  at  Washington,  of  which 
city  he  became  a  resident  about  1857.  In  1858  he  was 
engaged  by  the  government  to  conduct  an  important 


£  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N.  nasal;  u,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.     ( ^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STANTON 


22-:S 


STARHEMBERG 


case  in  relation  to  some  land  in  California.  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  in  De- 
cember, i860,  and  in  the  great  crisis  tliat  ensued  op- 
posed the  designs  of  the  disiinionists  witli  energy  and 
efficiency.  He  retired  from  office  on  the  4th  of  March, 
1 36i,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  about  the  12th 
of  January,  1862.  In  this  position,  which  lie  occupied 
through  all  the  subsequent  portion  of  the  civil  war,  he 
displayed  great  administrative  abilities  and  rendered 
important  services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.  After 
the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  Mr.  Stanton  continued 
to  conduct  the  department  of  war.  In  the  controversy 
which  arose  about  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded 
States  between  President  Johnson  and  Congress,  he 
took  no  prominent  part.  During  the  years  1865  and 
1866  he  did  not  appear  as  a  decided  partisan  or  oppo- 
nent of  the  policy  of  Johnson.  To  prevent  the  removal 
of  Mr.  Stanton  and  others,  the  Senate  passed  theTenure- 
of-Office  Bill.  He  was  invited  to  resign  by  the  Presi- 
dent, August  5,  1867,  but  he  refused  to  comply,  assigning 
as  his  motive  important  public  considerations.  About 
the  I2th  of  August,  1S67,  he  was  suspended  by  the 
President,  who  appointed  General  Grant  secretary  of 
war  ad  iuterivi.  The  President  expected,  with  the  co- 
operation of  General  Grant,  to  render  his  suspension 
permanent ;  but  that  general  defeated  his  design  by 
surrendering  the  office  on  the  14th  of  January,  1868,  to 
Mr.  Stanton,  who  had  been  reinstated  by  the  Senate  on 
the  13th.  Great  excitement  was  produced  by  the  pub- 
lication, in  February,  1868,  of  the  letters  exchanged  on 
this  subject  between  the  President  and  General  Grant. 
The  public  then  learned  that  the  general-in-chief  recog- 
nized Mr.  Stanton  as  secretary  of  war,  although  he  was 
directed  by  the  President  to  disobey  his  orders.  On  tlie 
2 1st  of  February,  General  Lorenzo  Thomas  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  ad  interim,  and  attempted  to  get  pos- 
session of  the  department  of  war,  but  was  not  successful. 
Mr.  Stanton  retired  from  the  office  of  secretary  of  war 
on  the  26th  of  May,  1868,  in  consequence  of  the  decision 
of  the  Senate  that  Johnson  was  not  guilty  of  the  crimes 
for  which  he  had  been  impeached.  In  December,  1869, 
he  was  appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.     Died  in  December,  1869. 

Stanton,  (Mrs.  Elizaretii  Cady,)  distinguished 
as  an  advocate  of  "  Women's  Rights,"  was  born  at 
Johnstown,  Fulton  county,  New  York,  in  18 16.  Her 
father,  Daniel  Cady,  was  for  many  years  an  able  and 
prominent  lawyer,  and  afterwards  judge,  in  Fulton 
county.  In  her  early  years  she  was  accustomed  to 
spend  much  time  in  her  father's  office,  and  her  attention 
was  first  drawn  to  the  wrongs  of  women  by  hearing  the 
complaints  which  they  made  to  her  father  of  the  injus- 
tice of  the  laws  towards  their  sex.  She  had  been  deeply 
mortified  to  notice  how  little  regard  was  shown  to  girls 
compared  with  boys,  and  she  formed  a  resolution  to 
prove  herself  not  inferior  in  courage  and  ability  to  the 
more  favoured  half  of  the  human  family,  to  whom  an 
unjust  and  arbitrary  usage  had  given  a  monopoly  of 
privilege  and  power.  She  studied  mathematics,  Latin, 
and  Greek.  In  the  last-named  study  she  strove  for  and 
won,  as  her  first  prize,  a  Greek  Testament.  She  after- 
wards, we  are  told,  graduated  at  the  academy  in  her 
native  place  at  the  head  of  her  class.  But,  though  boys 
who  were  far  behind  her  in  ability,  or  at  least  in  appli- 
cation, could  be  sent  to  college,  no  such  privilege  existed 
for  her.  This  excited  her  utmost  indignation.  In  1839 
she  was  married  to  Mr.  Henry  B.  Stanton,  then  a  popu- 
lar and  eloquent  anti-slavery  lecturer,  and  gbon  after 
set  out  with  him  for  Europe  to  attend  the  "  World's 
Anti-Slavery  Convention,"  (held  in  London  in  1840,)  to 
which  Mr.  Stanton  was  a  delegate.  Many  female  dele- 
gates also  left  their  homes  in  America  to  attend  the 
convention ;  but  they  were  not  admitted,  because  they 
were  women.  In  the  number  of  these  was  Lucretia 
Mott,  with  whom  Mrs.  Stanton  formed  an  intimate 
friendship.  After  her  return  to  her  native  country,  she 
resolved  to  devote  the  energies  of  her  life  to  resisting, 
in  all  its  forms,  the  time-honoured  tyranny  against  her 
sex.  In  July,  1848,  chiefly  through  Mrs.  Stanton's  in- 
fluence, "the  first '  Women's  Rights  Convention,'  (known 
to  history  by  that  name,)"  says  Mr.  Tilton,  "was  held 


at  Seneca  Falls,  in  New  York."  Since  that  time  no  one 
has  been  more  active  than  she  in  promoting  the  move- 
ments in  this  cause  which  have  recently  attracted  so 
much  attention  both  in  England  and  America. 

See  article  on  Mrs.  Eli/.abeih  Cicfy  Stanton  in  the  "  Eminent 
Women  of  the  Arc,"  by  Theodore  '1'ilton. 

Stanton,  (Hknry  B.,)  an  American  lawyer,  distin- 
guished as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  in  Gris- 
wold,  Connecticut,  June  27,  1805.  In  1839  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Elizabeth  Cady.  fie  published  "  Sketches  of 
Reforms  and  Reformers  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland," 
and  other  works.     Died  January  14,  1887. 

Stan'j^-hurst,  (Richard,)  an  Irish  poet,  historian, 
and  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  Dublin  in  1545  or 
1546,  was  an  uncle  of  Archbishop  Usher.   Died  in  1618. 

Stanzioni,  stin-ze-o'nee,  (Massimcj,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter,  sometimes  called  "  the  Guido  of  Naples,"  was 
born  in  1585.  His  works  are  principally  frescos  and 
portraits.     Died  in  1650. 

Stapel,  stj'pel,  (John  Bod^.us,)  a  Dutch  botanist 
and  physician,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  studied  at  Leyden  under  Vorstius.  His 
principal  work  is  an  edition  of  the  botanical  writings  of 
Theophrastus,  which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  com- 
plete, dying  in  1636.  An  edition  of  the  ten  books  of 
Theophrastus,  entitled  "  De  Historia  Plantarum,"  was 
published  in  1644.  The  genus  Stapelia  was  named  in 
his  honour  by  Linnseus. 

Stapfer,  stSp'fer,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  preacher  and 
writer,  born  in  1719.  He  produced  a  metrical  version 
of  the  Psalms,  which  was  used  in  the  churches  of 
Berne  ;  also  several  volumes  of  sermons.    Died  in  i8c: 

Stapfer,  (Jean  Frederic,)  a  theologian,  born  at 
Brugg  in  1708,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
preached  at  Diesbach,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Principles  of  True  Religion,"  (12  vols., 
1746-53.)     Died  in  1775. 

Stapfer,  sttp'fSk',  (Paul,)  a  French  author,  born  in 
Paris,  May  14, 1840.  He  held  professorships  of  the  French 
language  in  Elizabeth  College,  Guernsey,  and  of  foreign 
literature  at  Grenoble.  His  best-known  works  are  a 
Life  of  Laurence  Sterne,  (1870,)  and  the  excellent 
"Shakespeare  et  I'Antiquite,"  (1879-So.) 

Stapfer,  (Philip  Albert,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born 
at  Berne  in  1766.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Philosophia  Socratis,"  (17S6,)  and"De  Republica 
Ethica,"  (1797.)  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Berne.     Died  in  Paris  in  1S40. 

Stapleatix,  stt'plo',  (Michel  Ghislain,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  in  Brussels  in  1798,  was  a  pupil  of  David. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels  in 
1822  and  1823.  His  works  are  mostly  portraits  and 
historical  pictures. 

Sta'ple-don,  (Walter,)  an  English  prelate,  founded 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1307  ;  died  in  1326. 

Sta'ple-ton,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  officer,  of  the 
royalist  party,  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of 
Charles  I.  He  published  several  dramas,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Juvenal.     Died  in  1669. 

Stapleton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  controversialist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1535,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
Died  at  Lou  vain  in  1598. 

Starck  or  Stark,  staRk,  (Johann  August,)  Baron, 
a  German  divine  and  scholar,  born  in  Mecklenburg  in 
1 74 1.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Konigsberg  in  1769,  and  in  1 781  chief  court  preacher  at 
Darmstadt.  He  published  several  theological  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

Starhemberg  or  Stahremberg,  sti'rem-b^RG', 
(Ernst  Rudigek,)  Count,  an  Austrian  field-marshal, 
born  in  1635,  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of 
Vienna  against  the  Turks  in  1683.  For  his  services  on 
that  occasion  he  was  made  a  marshal  and  a  minister  of 
state  by  the  emperor  Ler)nold,  who  also  gave  him  a  ring 
worth  100,000  thalers.     Died  in  1701. 

Starhemberg  or  Stahremberg,  (Guido,)  Count, 
an  Austrian  field-marsh.-il,  born  in  1657,  was  a  cousin  of 
the  preceding.  He  assisted  in  the  defence  of  Vienna  in 
1683,  and  served  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  against 
the  'I'urks.     He  afterwards  took  part  in  the  war  of  the 


a,  e,  i,  o,  fi,  y,  long;  i.  fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 1'l,  5',  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f.\ll,  fdt;  in&t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STARING 


2239 


STA  UNTON 


Spanish  succession,  and  gained  a  signal  victor)r  over 
the  French  at  Almenara  in  17 10.  He  became,  in  the 
absence  of  Prince  Eugene,  president  of  tlie  imperial 
council  of  war  at  Vienna.     Died  in  1737. 

See  Alfred  Arneth,  "Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Grafen  G. 
Starhemberg,"  1853;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Staring,  stS'rlng,  (Antoni  Christiaan  WiNAND,)a 
Dutch  poet,  born  in  1767,  and  noted  for  his  spirited  lyrics, 
chiefly  amorous  and  mirthful.     Died  in  1840. 

Stark,  (John,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, born  at  Londonderry,  New  Hampshire,  in  1728. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  war  against  the  French 
in  1754,  and  subsequently  fought  at  Bunker  Hill,  Tren- 
ton, and  Princeton.  In  August,  1777,  he  gained  a  signal 
victory  over  the  British  at  Bennington,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  and  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress.  He  joined  the  army  of  General  Gates  in 
September,  1777,  served  in  Rhode  Island  in  1779,  and 
in  New  Jersey  in  1780.  He  had  the  command  of  the 
Northern  department,  with  his  head-quarters  at  Saratoga, 
in  1781.     Died  in  1822. 

See  the  "Life  of  General  Stark,"  by  Edward  Everett,  in 
Sparks'S' "American  Biography,"  vol.  i.  of  second  series;  "Me- 
moirs, etc.  of  General  John  Stark,"  by  Caleb  Stark,  i86o. 

Stark,  (William,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Birmingham  in  1740.  He  graduated  at  Leyden  in 
1767,  and  after  his  return  made  a  series  of  experiments 
on  diet  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  effect  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  food  on  the  human  body.  He  died  in 
1769,  in  consequence  of  illness  brought  on  by  his  experi- 
ments.    He  was  the  author  of  several  medical  works. 

Starke,  staa'keh,  (Gotihelf  Wilhelm  Chris- 
TOPH,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Bernburg  in  1762, 
He  published  a  number  of  hymns,  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1830. 

Star'key,  (Thomas  Alfred,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Philadelphia.  He  became  a  civil  engi- 
neer, but  took  deacon's  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  1847,  and  priest's  orders  in  1848.  After  holding 
several  important  pastorates,  he  was  in  1880  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Northern  New  Jersey. 

Stamina,  staR-nee'ni,  or  Stannina,  stSn-nee'nd, 
(Gherardo,)  a  Florentine  painter,  born  about  1350. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  art.    Died  about  1405. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Starowolski,  stS-ro-<^ol'skee,  |Lat.  Starovol'- 
scius,]  (Simon,)  a  Polish  historian  and  biographer,  born 
in  1585.  He  wrote  numerou.?  works  on  Polish  history. 
Died  in  1656. 

Star'ter,  (Jan  Janssen,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1594.  He  removed  to  Amsterdam  when  twelve 
years  old.  In  1614  he  went  to  Leeuwarden,  and  pub- 
lished in  1618  the  tragi-comedies  "Timbre  de  Cardone" 
»nd  "  Daraida."  His  chief  work  is  the  "Friesche  Lusthof," 
("Frisian  Pleasure-House,")  an  exquisite  collection  of 
lyrics.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  a  soldier  in  Germany 
after  1625. 

Stas'a-nor,  [(ir.  Srouavup,]  an  officer  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  was  born  in  Cyjjrus.  He  was  Satrap  of 
Drangiana  during  Alexander's  campaign  in  India,  and 
in  321  K.C.  became  Governor  of  Bactriana  and  .Sogdiana. 

Sta-si'nus  [S-aaZwf]  of  Cyprus,  a  Greek  epic  poet, 
who  lived  about  700  B.C.,  or  earlier.  He  is  su]jposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Cyj^ria,'" 
(KvTrpfa,)  which  was  one  of  the  poems  of  the  epic  cyclt 
relating  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  ascribed  to  Homer 
by  some  ancient  critics. 

Stassart,  de,  deh  stS'siR'  or  stJs'sdrt,  (Go.s\vix  Jo- 
seph AUGUSTIN,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  litth-ateur  and  sen- 
ator, born  at  Mechlin  in  17S0.  He  became  Governor  of 
Brabant  in  1834,  and  was  a  member  of  the  senate  from 
1831  to  1847.     Ife  wrote  various  works.     Died  in  1854. 

See  "Notice  sur  NL  le  Baron  de  Stassart,"  Brussels,  1852. 

Stassart,  de,  (Jacques  Joseph,)  Baron,  a  Belgian 
judge  and  statesman,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1711,  was  a 
grandfather  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  i8oi. 

Staszyc,  sti'sh!ts,  (Xavier  Stanislas,)  a  Polish 
philanthropist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Pila  in 
1755.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  and  after- 
wards visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 


D'Alembert  and  Buffon,  whose  "  Epochs  of  Nature"  he 
translated  into  Polish.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Geography  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,"  "  The 
Political  Balance  of  Europe,"  and  "  Statistics  of  Poland." 
He  died  in  1806,  leaving  large  bequests  to  various  chari- 
table and  educational  institutions. 

Sta-ti'ra,  [Gr.  lTajtij^a,\  a  Persian  lady,  celebrated 
for  her  beauty,  was  the  wife  of  Darius  Codomannus. 
She  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  B.C., 
and  treated  with  much  courtesy  by  Alexander.  She 
died  about  331  B.C. 

Statius,  (Achilles.)     See  EsTAgo. 

Statins,  sta'she-us,  [Fr.  Stage,  sttss,]  (Puhlius 
Papinius,)  a  Roman  poet,  born  at  Naples  about  60  A.D., 
was  a  son  of  an  eminent  grammarian  of  the  same  names. 
He  wrote  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "  Thebais,"  ("  Thebaid," 
in  12  books,)  "Sylvre,"  a  collection  of  poems  on  various 
subjects,  and  "  Achilleis,"  an  unfinished  epic  poem.  His 
poems  were  received  by  his  contemporaries  with  warm 
applause,  to  which  Juvenal  refers  in  his  Satire  VII. 
Modern  critics  prefer  his  "Sylvae"  to  the  "Thebaid," 
which  is  deficient  in  creative  energy.    Died  about  100  A.u 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Sta'tor,  1/.^.  "he  who  stops  or  stays,"]  a  surname 
given  to  Jupiter  by  the  Romans,  because  he  stopped  or 
stayed  them  when  they  were  retreating  froin  the  Sabines. 
Romulus  erected  a  temple  to  Jupiter  Stator  at  Rome. 

Staudenmaier,  stow'den-ml'er,  (Franz  Anton,) 
German  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  at  Danzdorf, 
in  Wlirtemberg,  in  1800,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Giessen  about  1830. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Spirit  of 
Christianity,"  (1835,)  and  a  systematic  treatise  on  the- 
ology, entitled  "  Die  Christliche  Dogmatik,"  (4  vols., 
1844-52.)     Died  in  1856. 

Staudigel,  stow'de-gel,  or  Staudigl,  (Ulrich,)  a 
learned  German  monk,  born  at  Landsberg  in  1644.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Logica  Practica,"  (1686.) 
Died  in  1720. 

StSudlin  or  Staeudlin,  stoid-leen',  (Karl  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Stutt- 
gart in  1761,  became  professor  at  Gottingen  in  1790.  He 
published  numerous  works  on  religion,  morals,  and 
ecclesiastical  history.     Died  in  1S26. 

Staughton,  staw'tgn,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
divine  and  popular  preacher,  born  in  Warwickshire, 
England,  in  1770.  Having  emigrated  to  America,  he 
became  in  1805  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  at 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1823  was  appointed  president  of 
Columbian  College,  Washington.     Died  in  1829. 

Staun'ford  or  Stan'fprd,  (Sir  William,)  an  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  born  at  Hadley  in  1509.  He  became  a  judge 
of  common  pleas  in  1554,  and  wrote  "Placita  Coronae." 
Died  in  1558. 

Staun'ton,  (Sir  George  Leonard,)  a  distinguished 
diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Cargin,  in  Ireland,  in 
1737.  Having  studied  medicine  at  Montpellier,  he  re- 
sided for  some  years  at  Granada,  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lord  Macartney, 
Governor  of  the  island.  He  accompanied  that  noble- 
man, who  had  been  appointed  Governor  of  Madras,  as 
his  secretary,  and  while  in  India  negotiated  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Tippoo  Sultan,  (1784,)  and  was  employed  in 
other  important  missions.  In  1792  Lord  Macartney  and 
Sir  George  were  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  court  of 
Peking.  "lie  published  "An  Authentic  Account  of  an 
Embassy  from  the  King  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Emperor 
of  China,"  which  is  still  regarded  as  a  standard  work. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  G.  L.  Staunton,"  1823,  by 
G.  T.  Staunton;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  October,  and 
November,  1797. 

Staunton,  (Sir  George  Thomas,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Salisbury  in  1781.  In  1816  he 
accompanied  Lord  Amherst  on  his  embassy  to  China, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Chinese 
language.  He  published  "  Miscellaneous  Notices  re- 
lating to  China,"  etc.,  (1822,)  and  translated  the  criminal 
code  of  China  into  English.     Died  in  1859. 

Staunton,  (Howard,)  an  English  Shakspearian 
scholar  and  writer  on  chess,  born  in  iSio.     His  edition 


casi,-  fasj;  ghard;  gas/;  g,h,  K.,ptituriil;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin//;«.     (J^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STAUNTON 


2240 


STEENWYK 


of  Shakspeare  is  a  valuable  one.  He  also  published 
various  works  on  chess.    Died  in  London,  June  22,  1874. 

Staunton,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  Episcopalian  divine 
and  author,  born  at  Chester,  England,  April  30,  1S03. 
He  came  in  youth  to  the  United  States,  and  was  ordained 
in  1833.  His  publications  include  a  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Church,"  (1844,)  an  "Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,"  (1861,) 
and  various  musical  works. 

Staupitius.     See  Staupitz. 

Staupitz,  stow'pits,  [Lat.  Staupi'tius,]  (John,)  cel- 
ebrated as  the  friend  and  patron  of  Luther,  was  vicar- 
general  of  the  order  of  the  Augustines  in  Germany.  He 
was  the  author  of  Latin  treatises  "  On  the  Love  of 
God"  and  "On  Christian  Faith."     Died  in  1524. 

See  Arnold,  "  Ketzer- Historic ;"  Geuder,  "Vita  J.  Staupitii," 
1837  ;  L.  W.  Grimm,  "Dissertatio  de  J.  Staupitio,"  1837. 

Stavely,  stav'le,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  lawyer,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Churches  in  England," 
(1 712.)     Died  in  1683. 

Stavenow,  st^'veh-no,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  au- 
thor, born  at  Brandenburg,  September  20,  1849.  He 
was  educated  at  Berlin  University,  served  in  the  French 
war  and  in  1S70  was  badly  wounded,  became  a  railway 
engineer,  and  in  1874  editor  of  a  humorous  paper  at 
Berlin.  Besides  several  plays,  ("  Der  Herr  Studiosus," 
"Marianne,"  etc.,)  he  published  many  novels,  poems, 
etc.  Among  his  books  are  "  Aus  alien  Kreisen"  (1878) 
and  "Schone  Geister,"  (18S1.) 

Stay,  stT,  (Benedetto,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ra- 
gusa  in  1714,  was  a  priest.  He  wrote  poems  on  natural 
philosophy,  entitled  "  Modern  Philosophy,"  ("  Philoso- 
phia  recentior,"  3  vols.,  1655-92,)  and  "Philosophy  in 
Verse,"  ("Philosophia  Versibus  tradita,"  1744.)  Died 
in  rSoi. 

Stayner.    See  Stainer. 

Stearns,  (Edward  Josiah,)  S.T.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  in  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  February  24, 
1810.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1833,  took 
orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  held  various  rector- 
ships and  professorships,  chiefly  in  Maryland.  Among 
his  works  are  "Notes  on  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  (1853,) 
'•Birth  and  New  Birth,"  (2d  edition,  1873,)  "The  Faith 
of  our  Forefathers,"  (1879,  being  a  reply  to  Archbishop 
Gibbons's  "  Faith  of  our  Fathers,")  "  The  Archbishop's 
Cham^pion  Brought  to  Book,"  (1S81,)  etc.    Died  m  1890. 

Stearns,  (John  William,)  an  American  educator, 
born  at  Sturbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1840.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  i860,  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin 
in  the  University  of  Chicago  in  1865,  and  in  1874  became 
director  of  the  National  Normal  School  at  Tucuman,  in 
the  Argentine  Republic.  In  1S78  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  State  Normal  College,  at  Whitewater,  Wis- 
consin. 

Steb'bing,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine  and  theolo- 
gian, was  engaged  in  the  Bangorian  controversy.  Died 
in  1763. 

Stebbing,  (Henry,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
about  1800.  He  published  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets," 
(3  vols.,  1831,)  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  (2 
vols.,  1833-34,)  a  "History  of  the  Reformation,"  (2  vols., 
1836,)  and  other  works.  He  became  rector  of  Saint 
Mary  Somerset  in  1857.     Died  September  22,  1883, 

Sted'man,  (Edmund  Clarence,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  October  8,  1833.  He 
studied  at  Yale  College,  was  engaged  in  journalism, 
1852-64,  and  afterwards  became  a  banker.  Among  his 
works  are  "Poems,  Lyric  and  Idyllic,"  (i860,)  "The 
Prince's  Ball,"  (i860,)  "  The  Battle  of  Bull  Run,"(i86i,) 
"Alice  of  Monmouth,"  (1864,)  "The  Blameless  Prince," 
(1869,)  "Rip  Van  Winkle  and  his  Wonderful  Nap," 
(1870,)^ "The  Victorian  Poets,"  (1875,)  a"<^  "Lyrics  and 
Idylls,"  (1879,)  besides  various  compilations,  etc.  His 
"  Rise  of  Poetry  in  America,"  and  a  complete  translation 
of  the  remains  of  the  chief  Greek  'dyllic  poets,  have 
been  announced. 

Sted'man,  (John  Gatiriel,)  a  Scottish  officer,  bom 
in  1745,  served  in  the  Dutch  army,  and  wrote  a  "Nar- 
rative of  an  Expedition  against  the  Revolted  Negroes 
of  Surinam."     Died  in  1797. 

Steed'man,  (James  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Union  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1820.    He  became 


a  brigadier-general  in  the  summer  of  1862,  served  at  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga,  September,  1863,  and  commanded 
a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Nasliville,  December  15  and  16, 
1864.     Died  October  18,  1883. 

Steele,  (Anne,)  an  English  hymn-writer,  born  at 
Broughton,  Hants,  in  1716.  She  wrote  many  hymns 
which  are  still  in  use.  She  was  unmarried,  and  was  of 
the  Baptist  faith.  Her  poems,  other  than  the  hymns, 
have  merit,  but  are  now  very  little  read.  Her  style  is 
much  like  that  of  Watts.     Died  in  November,  1778. 

Steele,  (Frederick,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Delhi,  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  which  assaulted 
Vicksburg,  May  22,  1863.  He  took  Little  Rock  on  the 
9th  or  loth  of  September.  In  March,  1864,  he  moved 
his  army  from  Little  Rock  towards  Shreveport,  designing 
to  co-operate  with  General  Banks ;  but  that  design  was 
frustrated.     Died  January  12,  1868. 

Steele,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  popular  essayist  and  dram- 
atist, was  born  in  Dublin  in  1671.  He  was  educated 
at  Merton  College,  and  became  in  early  life  a  friend  of 
Addison.  After  he  left  college  he  was  an  ensign  in  the 
guards.  He  produced  "The  Christian  Hero"jn  1701, 
and  a  comedy  called  "  The  Funeral,  or  Grief  i  la  Mode," 
(1702.)  His  comedy  of  "The  Tender  Husband"  was 
performed  in  1703.  In  1709  he  began  to  publish,  under 
the  assumed  name  of  "  Isaac  Bickerstaff,"  "  The  Tatler," 
a  series  of  periodical  essays,  to  which  Addison  was  a 
frequent  contributor.  The  "Tatler"  was  issued  three 
times  a  week,  with  great  success,  until  January,  171 1. 
In  politics  Steele  was  a  zealous  Whig.  Steele  and  Ad- 
dison were  associated  as  editors  of  the  "  Spectator," 
which  was  published  daily  from  March  i,  171 1,  to  De- 
cember 6,  1712.  They  afterwards  produced  another 
series  of  essays,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Guardian," 
(1 713.)  Steele  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1713,  and 
expelled  in  1713  or  1714  for  writing  "The  Crisis,"  a 
political  pamphlet.  He  was  appointed  surveyor  of  the 
royal  stables  in  1715,  and  commissioner  of  forfeited 
estates  in  Scotland.  In  1722  he  produced  a  successful 
comedy  called  "The  Conscious  Lovers."  He  involved 
himself  in  debt  and  trouble  by  his  improvidence  and 
expensive  habits.  "He  was,"  says  Mrs.  Barbauld,  "a 
character  vibrating  between  virtue  and  vice."  He  was 
a  sprightly  and  genial  writer,  rather  negligent  in  style. 
Died  in  1729. 

See  H.  R.  Montgomery,  "Life  of  Sir  Richard  Steele,"  1S64; 
Macaulav,  "Essays,"  article  "Addison;"  Drake,  "Essays;" 
John  Forster,  "  Historical  and  Biographical  Essays,"  1858  ;  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britaniiica  ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1855;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  June,  i866;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors." 

Steell,  (John,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  at  Aberdeen 
in  1804.  Among  his  works  are  a  marble  statue  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  at  Edinburgh,  and  a  marble  statue  of  Lord 
Jeffrey. 

Steeu,  Stan,  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1636.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Brouw^er,  and 
subsequently  of  Van  Goyen,  whose  daughter  he  married. 
Many  of  his  master-pieces  are  tavern-scenes,  which  he 
represented  with  unrivalled  fidelity,  and  with  which  his 
occupation  as  landlord  made  him  familiar.  He  died 
in  1689,  in  extreme  poverty,  caused  by  his  dissipated 
habits. 

See  Van  Westrhernen,  "Jan  Steen,"  1856. 

Steen,  van  den,  (Cornelis.)     See  Lapide. 

Steenbock,  (Magnus,)  Count.     See  Stenbock. 

Steenstrup,  stan'strfip,  (Johann  Japhet  Smith,)  a 
Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Vang  in  1813.  He  published 
several  works. 

Steenvryk  or  Steenwijk,  stan'wik,  (Hendrik,) 
the  Elder,  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Steen- 
wyk  in  1550.  He  was  a  pupil  of  De  Vries.  His  inte- 
riors of  Gothic  churches  are  exceedingly  admired  for 
the  perfect  disposition  of  light  and  shade  and  the  know- 
ledge of  chiaroscuro  which  they  display.     Died  in  1604. 

Steen-wyk,  (Hendrik,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1588.  He  was  instructed  in 
painting  by  his  father,  and,  like  him,  excelled  in  archi- 
tectural views  and  interiors  of  churches  and  palaces. 
He  was  introduced  by  his  friend  Van  Dyck  to  the  court 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ft,  y,loHg;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ti,  j',  s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  9,  ohsnire;  fir,  fdll,  fAt;  nigt;  nftt;  goTxl;  ni«&n; 


STEERS 


2241 


STEIN  LA 


of  England,  where  he  was  extensively  patronized.  His 
wife  was  also  celebrated  as  a  painter.     Died  after  1642. 

Steers,  (George,)  an  American  naval  constructor, 
born  in  1821.  He  built  the  famous  yacht  America,  the 
steam-packet  Adriatic,  and  the  United  States  steam- 
frigate  Niagara.     He  died  on  Long  Island  in  1856. 

Stee'v^us,  (George,)  an  English  critic,  born  at 
Stepney  in  1736.  He  published  in  1766  "Twenty  of 
the  Plays  of  Shakspeare,  being  tiie  Whole  Number 
printed  in  Quarto  during  his  Lifetime,"  etc.  He  was 
afterwards  associated  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  preparing  an 
edition  of  Shakspeare,  which  came  out  in  1773.  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  Nichols's  "  Biographical  Anec- 
dotes of  Hogarth"  and  the  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 
Died  in  1800. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1780. 

Stefaneschi,  stSf'i-nSs'kee,  (Giovanni  Battista,, 
a  F"lorentine  historical  painter,  born  in  1582;  died  in 

i6S9- 

Stefani,  de,  di  stSfd-nee  or  sta'fa-nee,  (Tommaso,) 
one  of  the  earliest  Neapolitan  painters,  was  born  about 
1230.     None  of  his  works  have  been  preserved. 

Stefano,  st§f'i-no,  an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  Fio- 
RENTINO,  born  at  Florence  in  1301,  was  a  grandson  and 
p'jpil  of  Giotto.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  artist 
who  attempted  foreshortening.     Died  in  1350. 

Stefano,  di,  dee  st§f'd-no,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  Giottino,  born  in  1324,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His  style  strongly 
resembles  that  of  Giotto.     Died  in  1356. 

Steffani,  steFfS-nee,  (Agostino,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Castel-Franco  about  1650.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  father  of  George 
I.  of  England,  who  appointed  him  manager  of  the  Opera 
in  Hanover.  He  composed  operas,  madrigals,  and  duets. 
The  last-named  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  their 
kind.     Died  in  1729. 

See  Fhtis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Steffens,  stef'fens,  (Heinrich,)  an  eminent  Norwe- 
gian writer  and  philosopher,  born  at  Stavanger  in  1773. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  after- 
wards visited  Jena,  where  he  became  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  the  doctrines  of  Scheliing,  who  intrusted  him 
with  the  revision  of  his  works  on  natural  philosophy. 
While  on  a  visit  to  Freiberg,  he  acquired  the  friend- 
ship of  Werner,  and  wrote  his  "  Geognostic-Geological 
Essays,"  which  in  1819  he  expanded  into  a  "Manual 
of  Oryctognosy,"  ("  Handbuch  der  Oryktognosie.")  In 
1804  he  was  offered  a  professorshi]5  at  Halle,  where  he 
soon  after  embraced  the  cause  of  the  patriots  in  their 
resistance  to  French  domination,  and  entered  the  Prus- 
sian army  as  a  volunteer.  On  his  return,  in  1813,  he 
became  professor  of  physics  and  natural  history  at  Bres- 
lau,  and  in  1831  filled  the  same  chair  at  Berlin.  Among 
his  works  not  yet  mentioned,  we  may  name  "  Elements 
of  Philosophical  Natural  Science,"  (1806,)  "On  False 
Theology  and  True  Faith,"  (1824,)  "On  the  Secret  So- 
cieties of  the  Universities,"  (1835,)  and  "  Caricatures  of 
the  Holiest,"  ("  Caricaturen  des  Heiligsten.")  He  also 
published  religious  essays  of  a  Pietistic  character,  one 
of  which  is  entitled  "  How  I  became  again  a  Lutheran, 
and  what  Lutheranism  is  to  me,"  (1831.)  Steffens  like- 
wise wrote  several  novels  of  a  high  character,  entitled 
"The  Four  Norwegians,"  ("Die  vier  Norweger,"  6 
vols.,)  "The  Families  of  Walseth  and  Leith,"  (3  vols.,) 
and  "  Malcolm."  They  contain  fine  delineations  of  Nor- 
wegian character  and  manners,  and  beautiful  descriptive 
passages,  and  are  imbued  with  deep  religious  feeling. 
Died  in  1845. 

See  his  Memoirs,  called  "What  I  have  seen,"  (or  "experienced,") 
("Was  ich  erlebte,")  lo  vols.,  1840-44:  H.  Gelzer,  "Zur  Erinne- 
rung  an  H.  Steffens,"  1845:  "  Nniivelle  ISiograiihie  Gendrale ;" 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1843;  "North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1843. 

Stelbnio,  sti-fo'ne-o,  (Bernakdino,)  an  _  Italian 
Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  the  Papal  St.ites  in  1560. 
He  was  the  author  of  tragedies,  orations,  and  epistles. 
Died  in  1620. 

Steibelt,  sti'bSlt,  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  German 
pianist  and  composer  for  the  piano,  was  born  at  Berlin 


in  1756.  He  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  became  imperial  chapel-master  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1823. 

Steigenteach,  stT'gen-tSsh',  (August,)  Baron,  a 
(^lerman  dramatist,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1774;  died 
in  1826. 

Stein,  stTn,  (Christian  Gottfried  Daniel,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1771,  published  a 
"Manual  of  Geography  and  Statistics,"  (1S09,)  and 
other  works  of  the  kind.     Died  in  1830. 

Stein,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  organist  and 
maker  of  musical  instruments,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in 
1728;  died  in  1792.  He  was  the  founder  of  German 
piano-forte  making.  He  left  two  sons,  Matthaus 
Andreas,  (born  1776,  died  1842,)  and  Friedrich,  (born 
1784,  died  1809.)  Matthaus  was  a  piano-forte  maker, 
and  Friedrich  an  excellent  perforiner.  Their  sister, 
Mme.  Maria  Anna  Streicher,  (1769-1835,)  known  as 
Nanette  Streicher,  was  an  able  pianist.  Karl  An- 
dreas Stein,  (i  797-1863,)  a  son  of  Matthaus,  was  a 
famous  piano-maker  of  Vienna.  Others  of  the  Stein  and 
Streicher  families  are  noted,  some  as  pianists,  and  others 
as  piano-makers. 

Stein,  von,  fon  stTn,  (Charlotte  Albertine  Er- 
nestine,) Baroness,  a  German  writer,  born  at  Weimar, 
December  25,  1742.  Siie  married  Friedrich,  Baron  von 
Stein,  master  of  the  horse  at  Weimar,  in  1764,  but  in 
1775  she  became  a  close  associate  of  the  poet  Goethe. 
This  relation  lasted  till  1788,  when  he  inet  Christiane 
Vulpius.  Her  correspondence  with  him  and  with  Schil- 
ler's wife  is  of  considerable  literary  value.  She  wrote 
"  Dido,"  a  tragedy.     Died  at  Weimar,  January  6,  1827. 

Stein,  von,  fon  stin,  (Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl,) 
Baron,  a  celebrated  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Nassau 
in  October,  1757.  He  studied  law  at  Gottingen,  and 
entered  the  service  of  Prussia  in  177S  as  director  of 
mines.  In  1786  he  visited  England,  the  institutions  of 
which  he  studied  with  much  interest.  Having  been 
appointed  president  of  the  Westphalian  Chambers  at 
Wesel,  Hamm,  and  Minden  in  1796  or  1797,  he  dis- 
played superior  administrative  talents.  He  was  minister 
of  commerce,  customs,  etc.  at  Berlin  from  180410  1807, 
and  became  prime  minister  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
July,  1S07.  He  resolved  to  "compensate  the  kingdom's 
loss  in  extensive  greatness  by  intensive  strength,"  and 
reorganized  the  political  system  of  Prussia  on  a  more 
liberal  basis.  Serfdom  and  feudal  privileges  were  abol- 
ished. These  and  other  reforms  constituted  what  was 
called  "  Stein's  system."  The  enmity  of  Napoleon  caused 
him  to  be  removed  from  office  in  November,  1S08,  and 
exiled.  He  founded  the  Tugend-Bund,  ("  League  of 
Virtue,")  a  secret  society  to  promote  the  liberation  of 
Germany.  In  1813  he  w.is  chief  of  the  council  for  the 
administration  of  the  German  territories  which  had  been 
reoccupied  by  the  allies.  He  lost  his  influence  in  181 5, 
and  retired  from  public  life.     Died  in  1831. 

See  Pertz,  "  Leben  des  Freiherm  yon  Stein,"  s  vols..  1855; 
"Lebendes  Freilierrn  von  und  zum  Stein,"  Leipsic,  2  vols.,  1841; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
September,  1S43. 

Stein,  von,  (Lorenz,)  a  German  economist,  born  at 
Eckernforde,  in  Sleswick,  November  15,  1815.  He  was  a 
professor  at  Kiel,  1846-52,  but  was  removed  for  political 
reasons,  and  in  1855  became  a  professor  of  political 
science  in  the  Vienna  University.  Among  his  works  are 
"History  of  the  French  Nation  and  of  its  Jurisprudence," 
(1846;  3d  vol.,  1848,)  "History  of  the  French  Socialistic 
Agitation,"  (1849-51,)  "System  of  Political  Science," 
(1852-56,)  etc.     Died  Septetnber  23,  1S90. 

Steinbach,  von.     See  Erwin  von  Steinbach. 

Steinbart,  stin'biRt,  (Gotthelf  Samuel,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  of  the  rationalistic  school,  born  at  Ziil- 
lichau  in  173S;  died  in  1809. 

Steinbock.     See  Stenkock. 

Steinbriick,  stin'bRtiK,  (Eduard,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1S02.  He  worked  at  Dusseldorf 
from  1833  to  1846,  and  then  removed  to  Berlin,  Died 
February  3,  1882. 

Steinla,  stin'li,  (Moritz  Muller,)  a  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Steinla  in  1791.  His  proper  name  was 
Miiller.     He  engraved  Raphael's  "Massacre  of  the  In- 


f  as  /i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

141 


(Jrj^See  Explanations  p.  23.) 


STEIN LE 


2242 


STEPHEN 


nocents"  and  "  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  ;"  also  some  works 
of  Titian  and  Holbein.     Died  at  Dresden  in  1858. 

Steinle,  stin'leh,  (Johann  Eduard,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Vienna  in  iSlO. 

Steinmar,  stTn'mar,  a  German  minnesinger,  of  a 
Tyrolese  family,  lived  about  1250. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Steinmetz,  von,  fon  stTn'mSts,  (Karl  Frifdrich,) 
a  German  general,  born  at  Eisenach  in  1796.  He  served 
as  lieutenant  in  France  in  1814,  and  entered  Paris  with 
the  army  of  the  allies.  In  1S66  he  commanded  an  army 
corps  which  gained  victories  over  the  Austrians  at  Ska- 
litz  and  other  places.  The  Prussian  Chambers  in  the 
autumn  of  1866  voted  1,500,000  thalers  as  a  national 
recompense  to  si.x  men,  among  whom  was  General  von 
Steinmetz.  He  commanded  the  first  army  which  in- 
vaded France  in  August,  1870,  and  contributed  to  the 
great  victory  near  Metz  in  that  month.  He  died  at 
Landeck,  August  4,  1877. 

Steinthal,  stin'til,  (Heymann,)  a  German  (Jewish) 
philologist,  born  at  Grobzig,  in  Anhalt,  May  16,  1823.  He 
studied  at  Berlin  and  Pans,  and  was  elected  a  professor 
extraordinarius  of  philology  at  Berlin  in  1863.  He  is 
author  of  various  treatises,  chiefly  on  general  philology. 
In  1872  he  became  professor  of  Old  Testament  criticism, 
etc. 

Steinwehr,  von,  fon  stin'waR,  (Adolph  Wilhelm 
August,)  Baron,  a  general,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Bruns- 
wick in  1822.  He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  about 
1854,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun- 
teers in  October,  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at 
Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.     Died  February  24,  1877. 

Stella.    (Esther  Johnson.)    See  Swift,  (Jonathan.) 

Stella,  sti'lt',  (Antoine  Bouzonnet — boo'zo'ni',)  a 
French  painter,  a  nephewof  Jacques,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Lyons  in  1637;  died  in  1682. 

Stella,  (Claudine  Bouzonnet,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1636,  was  sister  of  the  preceding. 
She  died  at  Paris  in  1697. 

Stella,  sti'lt',  (Francois,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Malines  in  1563,  was  the  father  of  Jacques,  noticed 
below.     Died  at  Lyons  in  1605. 

Stella,  (Francois,)  a  painter,  born  at  Lyons  about 
1602,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  worked  in  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1647. 

Stella,  stel'll,  (Giulio  Cesarf.,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Rome  in  1564.  He  was  author  of  an  unfinished  poem 
on  the  discovery  of  Columbus,  (1585.)    Died  about  1624. 

Stella,  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1596.  He  resided  many  years  in  Florence,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  II.  After 
his  return  to  Paris  he  was  aj^pointed  painter  to  the  king, 
and  obtained  the  cross  of  Saint  Michael,  and  other  dis- 
tinctions. He  was  a  friend  of  Poussin,  whose  style 
he  imitated.     Died  in  1657. 

See  F^LIBIEN,  "  Entretiens  ;"  Fontenav,  "  Dictionnaiie  des 
Artistes;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Stcllini,  st§l-lee'nee,  (jACoro  or  GiACOPO,)  a  learned 
Italian  ethical  writer,  born  at  Cividale  di  Friuli  in  1699. 
He  .was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Padua,  and 
wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1770. 

See  Caronelli,  "Vita  del  J.  Stellini,"  1784;  P.  Cossali, 
"  Elogio  di  G.  Stellini,"  1811  ;  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina 
excellentium." 

Stelliola,  st§l-le-o'ia,  (Niccoi.6  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Nola  in  1547.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Naples,  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "II  Telescopio,"  (1627.) 
Died  in  1623. 

Stelluti,  stSl-loo'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Fabriano  in  1577,  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Lincei.  Among  his  works  is  "  II 
Parnasso,"  a  canzone,  (1631.)     Died  after  1651. 

Stel'ter,  (Karl  Friedricu,)  a  German  lyric  poet, 
born  at  Elberfeld,  December  25,  1823.  Bred  a  silk- 
weaver,  he  afterwards  was  a  newspaper-reporter  and  a 
commercial  traveller.  He  was  a  member  of  the  group 
of  "  Wupperthal  poets,"  remarkable  for  the  combination 
of  realism  and  idealistic  pietism.  His  poems,  in  several 
volumes,  are  too  full  of  truisms  and  moralizings,  but 
have  much  power  and  merit. 


Stenbock,  stJn'bok,  or  Steenbock,  (Magnus,)  a 
Swedish  commander  under  Charles  XII.,  was  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1664.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Narva,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  tH» 
Danes  at  Helsingborg  in  1710.  Being  afterwards  be- 
sieged in  the  fortress  of  Tonningen  by  the  Russian, 
Danish,  and  Sa-xon  army,  he  was  forced  to  capitulate, 
and  was  made  prisoner  by  the  King  of  Denmark.  He 
died  in  prison  in  1717,  leaving  a  narrative  of  his  life. 

See  Geijer,  "  History  of  Sweden;"  Grzklius,  "  RiographisKt- 
Lexicon  ;"  Loenbom,  "  M.  Stenbucks  Lefverne,"  4  vols.,  1757-65; 
Enberg,  "Areminne  ofver  M.  Stenbock,"  1S17;  Oxenstierna, 
"  M.  Stenbock  och  Villars  Sammanstallde,"  1790. 

Stendahl  or  Stendhal.     See  Beyle. 

Steno,  sta'no,  (Michele,)  a  Venetian  ruler,  born  In 
1331.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1400.  Verona, 
Padua,  and  other  places  were  added  to  the  state  during 
his  administration.     Died  in  1413. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Steno,  sta'no,  (Nicholas,)  an  eminent  Danish  anat- 
omist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1638.  He  studied  three 
years  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  which  he  entered  in 
1661,  and  afterwards  pursued  his  researches  in  Paris. 
About  1662  he  discovered  and  described  the  duct  of  the 
parotid  gland,  called  Steno's  duct.  He  made  other  dis- 
coveries, and  published  several  works,  (in  Latin,)  among 
which  are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Muscles  and  Glands," 
(1664,)  and  one  "  On  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,"  (1669.) 
He  became  a  Catholic  priest  in  1675,  after  which  he 
wrote  works  on  theology.  Haller  called  him  "magnus 
inventor."     Died  at  Schwerin  in  1687. 

See  Manni,  "Vita  del  litteratissimo  Stenone,"  1775:  Fabroni, 
"Vita  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
anatomica  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bingraphie  G^n^rale." 

Stgn'tor,  [Sro'Tup,]  a  Grecian  warrior  or  herald, 
who  served  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  whose  voice,  accord- 
ing to  Homer,  was  as  loud  as  the  combined  voices  of 
fiftv  men. 

Stenzel,  stSnt'sel,  (Gustav  Adolf  Harald,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1792.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Germany  under  the  Prank- 
ish Emperors,"  (1827.)     Died  in  1854. 

Stephani,  sta'fi-nee,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  educa- 
tional writer,  born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1761  ;  died  in  1850. 

Stephanie,  sta'f^-nee,  (Christian  Goitlob,)  a  Ger- 
man actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Sreslau  in  1733  ;  died 
in  1798. 

Stephanus,  the  Latin  of  Stephen  and  Ctienne, 
which  see. 

Steph'a-nua  [SreeJawf]  A-the-nl-en'sis,  a  Greek 
physician,  the  time  and  place  of  whose  birth  are  un- 
known. Among  his  extant  works  are  a  commentary  on 
the  "  Prognostics"  of  Hippocrates,  and  a  commentary  on 
one  of  the  works  of  Galen. 

Steph'anus  By-zan-ti'nus,  or  Stephen  of  By- 
zantium, [Fr.  Etienne  de  Byzance,  i'te-§n'  deh 
be'zSxss',]  aGreek  writer,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
fifth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  geographical  dic- 
tionary, entitled  "  Ethnica,"  of  which  only  an  abridgment 
is  extant,  and  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
work  of  the  kind  ever  written. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  |Fr.  Etienne,  i'te-5n' ;  It.  Ste- 
FANO,  st^f'i-no,]  the  first  Christian  martyr,  was  one  of 
the  seven  deacons  of  the  Christian  Church  at  Jerusalem. 
Being  charged  by  the  Jews  with  blasphemy,  he  was 
stoned  to  death.  The  time  of  this  event  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  35  to  37  a.d. 

See  Acts  vi.,  vii. 

Stephen  [Lat.  Steph'anus]  I.  succeeded  Lucius  as 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  253  a.d.  He  was  engaged  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Cyprian  on  the  baptism  of  heretics.  He 
died  in  257  a.d. 

Stephen  H.,  chosen  pope  in  752  a.d.,  died  three 
days  after  his  election,  and  is  not  generally  mentioned  in 
the  series  of  the  popes. 

Stephen  III.,  sometimes  called  Stephen  IX,  (see 
preceding  article,)  was  elected  pope  in  752  a.d.  Astol- 
phus,  King  of  the  Longobards,  having  threatened  Rome, 
Stephen  solicited  the  aid  of  Pepin,  King  of  the  Franks, 
who  marched  into  Italy,  defeated  Astolphus,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  give  up  the  district  (Exarchate)  of  Ravenna, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  ftll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


STEPHEN 


2243 


STEPHENS 


and  other  provinces  previously  conquered  by  him.  In 
755  Astolphus,  with  a  recruited  army,  again  attacked 
Rome,  hut  was  finally  driven  back  by  Pepin,  who  con 
ferred  upon  the  Roman  See  Pentapolis  and  the  Exarch- 
ate of  Ravenna  Stephen  died  in  757,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Paul  I. 

Stephen  IV.,  a  native  of  Sicily,  became  pope  in  768 
A.D.  During  his  pontificate  the  Longobards  again  took 
possession  of  portions  of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna. 
He  died  in  772,  and  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  I. 

Stephen  V.  was  elected  pope  in  816  a.d.  His  pon- 
tificate was  marked  by  no  important  events,  and  he  died 
within  a  year  after  his  consecration. 

Stephen  VI.  succeeded  Adrian  HI.  as  Pope  of  Rome 
in  8S5.  In  the  quarrel  between  Guido,  Duke  of  Spoleto, 
and  Berengarius,  Duke  of  Friuli,  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  former,  whom  he  crowned  Kin^  of  Italy  in  S91. 

Stephen  VII.  succeeded  Benedict  VI.  in  896.  He 
annulled  the  acts  and  decrees  of  Formosus,  one  of  his 
predecessors,  and  a  political  opjjonent,  and  caused  his 
remains  to  be  treated  with  dishonour.  In  897  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  strangled  by  the  friends  of 
Formosus. 

Stephen  VHI.  succeeded  Leo  VT.  in  928.  He  died 
in  930,  and  was  followed  by  John  XL,  son  of  Marozia, 
Duchess  of  Tuscany.     (See  Marozia.) 

Stephen  IX.  was  elected  pope  in  939,  and  died  in 
942.     He  was  succeeded  by  Martin  III. 

Stephen  X.,  brother  of  Godfrey,  Duke  of  Lorraine 
was  elected  pope  in  1057.  Under  his  rule  occurred  the 
schism  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches,  and  a 
long  controversy  was  carried  on  concerning  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy.     Died  in  1058. 

Stephen,  Saint,  King  of  Hungary,  born  at  Gran 
about  979,  was  the  son  of  a  chief  named  Geysa.  He 
was  instructed  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  in  995  married 
the  sister  of  the  emperor  Otho  HI.  He  was  crowned 
in  1000  first  King  of  Hungary,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
pope.  During  his  reign  Christianity  was  firmly  estab- 
lished in  his  country.     Died  in  1038. 

Stephen  II.,  King  of  Hungary,  was  the  son  of  Kolo- 
man,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  11 14.  He  carried  on 
unsuccessful  wars  with  Poland,  Austria,  and  Russia,  and 
in  1 13 1  abdicated  his  throne  in  favour  of  a  relative 
named  Bela.  He  died  in  a  monastery  in  the  same  year. 
Stephen  III.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  crowned  in 
1 161,  but  he  was  soon  forced  to  resign  in  favour  of  his 
uncle  Ladislaus,  whose  claims  were  supported  by  the 
Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

Stephen  IV.  became  King  of  Hungary  on  the  death 
Df  Ladislaus,  in  1161.  His  subjects,  however,  soon  re- 
volted against  him,  and  restored  Stephen  HI.  to  the 
throne.  Stephen  IV.  died  in  1163,  and  his  nephew, 
Stephen  HI.,  in  1173. 

Stephen  V.  succeeded  his  father  Bela  in  1270  as 
King  of  Hungary.  He  carried  on  war  with  the  Bohe- 
mians and  Bulgarians,  and  died  in  1272. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  (Lat.  Steph'anus;  Fr.  £tienne, 
A'te-§n',]  King  of  England,  born  in  F^rance  in  1105,  was 
a  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois.  His  mother,  Adela, 
was  a  daughter  of  William  the  Conqueror.  He  ren- 
dered himself  popular  in  England  by  his  martial  courage, 
and  became  a  competitor  for  the  crown  at  the  death 
of  Henry  I.,  in  1 135,  although  that  king  had  designated 
his  daughter  Matilda  as  his  successor.  Stephen  was 
recognized  as  king  by  a  large  portion  of  the  people,  and 
a  civil  war  began  in  1139.  In  11 53  Prince  Henry,  a  son 
of  Matilda,  came  from  Normandy  with  an  army.  The 
contest  was  decided  by  an  agreement  that  Stephen 
should  retain  the  throne  until  his  death,  and  that  Henry 
should  succeed  him.  Died  in  11 54. 
See  HuMK,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  vii. 

Stephen,  King  of  Poland.     See  BAthori. 

Stephen  of  Muret,  [Fr.  Eiienne  dr  Muret, 
&'te-§n'  deh  mU'r.V,]  Saint,  a  French  monk,  born  in 
Auvergne  in  1048.  He  founded  a  monastery  at  Muret, 
Died  in  11 24. 

Stephen  of  Tournay.    See  £t:enne  de  Tournay. 

Stephen,  (Edward  Bowring,)  an  English  sculptor, 
Corn  at  Exeter  in  1S17  ;  died  November  10,  1S82. 

Ste'phen,  (Sir  George,)  brother  of  Sir  James,  no- 


ticed below,  was  born  about  1794,  He  published  "The 
Jesuit  at  Cambridge,"  "Adventures  of  an  Attorney," 
and  several  other  works.     Died  June  20,  1879. 

Stephen,  (James,)  an  English  lawyer  and  philan- 
thropist, born  in  Dorsetshire.  He  was  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  African  emancipation,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
planned  the  system  of  the  continental  blockade  during 
the  French  war.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "  War 
in  Disguise,  or  the  Frauds  of  Neutral  Flags."  He  be- 
came a  member  of  Parliament  for  Tralee,  and  for  many 
years  held  the  post  of  a  master  in  chancery.  Died  in 
1832. 

Stephen,  (Sir  James,)  K.C.B.,  an  English  writer  and 
statesman,  born  in  London  about  1790.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  rose  through  various  offices  to  be  per- 
manent under-secretary  to  the  colonial  department,  which 
post  he  filled  with  eminent  ability.  He  was  appointed 
in  1849  regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge. 
He  published  "  Ess.ays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography," 
originally  published  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  "  Lec- 
tures on  the  History  of  France,"  (1851,)  etc.  Died  in 
1859. 

Ste'phen,  (Sir  James  Fitzjames;)  an  English  lawyer, 
a  son  of  Sir  James  Stephen,  was  born  in  London  in 
March,  1829,  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1852,  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in 
1854,  was  a  law  member  of  the  government  of  India, 
1870-72,  became  professor  of  common  law  to  the  inns 
of  court,  1875,  a"<i  a  judge  of  the  high  court  of  justice 
in  1879.  His  principal  works  are  ''  Essays  by  a  Barris- 
ter," (1862,)  "  General  View  of  the  Criminal  Law,"  (1863,) 
"Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity,"  (1873,)  "Digest  of 
the  Law  of  Evidence,"  "  Digest  of  the  Criminal  Law," 
(1877,)  and  a"  History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England," 
(3  vols.,  1883.) 

Stephen,  (Leslie,)  an  English  author,  a  brother  of 
Sir  J.  F.  Stephen,  was  born  in  London,  November  28, 
1832.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  King's  College,  Lon- 
don, and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
in  1854  and  was  a  tutor  until  1864,  edited  the  "CornhiJl 
Magazine,"  1871-82,  and  wrote  "The  Playground  of 
Europe,"  (1871,)  "Essays  on  Free  Thinking  and  Plain 
Spciking,"  (1S73,)  "Hours  in  a  Library,"  (1874-79,) 
"History  of  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury," (1876,)  "Science  of  E^thics,"  (1882,)  Livesof  John- 
son, Pope,  Fielding,  Swift,  etc.,  and  in  1884  began  the 
publication  of  a  "Dictionary  of  National  Biography." 

Stephens,  stee'vens,  (Alexander  H.,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Taliaferro  county,  Georgia,  in  1812. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Whig  party  in  1843, 
and  continued  in  office  till  1859.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  advocates  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  was 
active  in  promoting  the  passage  of  the  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  Act  of  1854.  He  subsequently  joined  the 
Democratic  party.  He  opposed  the  secession  of  Georgia 
in  i860,  but,  having  subsequently  joined  the  secession- 
ists, was  elected  in  1861  Vice-President  of  the  Confeder- 
ate States.  On  the  downfall  of  the  Confederacy  he  was 
arrested  by  the  Federal  government,  and  confined  in 
Fort  Warren,  near  Boston,  but  soon  afterwards  was  re- 
leased. In  1S65  he  was  elected  United  States  Senator 
by  the  Legislature  of  Georgia,  but  was  not  permitted  to 
take  his  seat.  In  1874  he  was  elected  representative  in 
Congress,  where  he  served  several  terms,  and  in  1882 
was  chosen  Governor  of  Georgia.  He  published  "  A 
Constitutional  View  of  the  War  between  the  States," 
(1870.)      Died  March  4,  1883. 

Stephens,  (Mrs.  Ann  Sophia  W.,)  a  popular  Ameri- 
can novelist,  born  at  Derby,  Connecticut,  in  1813.  She 
published  many  novels  and  tales,  among  which  are 
"The  Heiress  of  Greenhurst,"  "The  Old  Homestead," 
"Fashion  and  Famine,"  etc.,  and  contributed  numerous 
sketches  to  periodicals.     Died  .August  20,  18S6. 

Stephens,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  writer  on  agriculture, 
born  in  Bengal  in  1795,  ^^^^  educated  at  Edinburgh. 
He  published  "The  Book  of  the  Farm,"  (3  vols.,  1844,) 
and  other  works. 

Stephens,  stee'vens,  (James  Francis,)  an  English 
entomologist,  born  in  Sussex  in  1792.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  The  Systematic  Catalogue  of  British  Insects," 
"A  Manual  of  the  British  Coleoptera,"  and  "Illustra- 


€as  k;  ^  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K., _s:uttttral :  N.  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations.  \>.  23.) 


STEPHENS 


2244 


STERNE 


tions  of  British  Entomology,"  ( 10  vols  )  The  last-named 
IS  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the 
kind.  He  was  president  of  the  Entomological  Society, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnasan  Society.     Died  in  1852. 

Stephens,  (Jeremy,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  1592.  He  became  rector  of  Wotton,  and 
published  several  works.     Died  in  1665. 

Stephens,  (John  Lloyd,)  an  American  traveller, 
born  at  Shrewsbury,  New  Jersey,  in  1805.  He  published 
in  1S37  "Incidents  of  Travel  in  Egypt,  Arabia  Petroea, 
and  the  Holy  Land,"  which  was  followed  in  1838  by 
"Travels  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia,"  etc.  Being  ap- 
pointed in  1839  ambassador  to  Central  America,  he 
brought  out,  after  his  return,  "  Incidents  of  Travel  in 
Central  America,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan,"  (1841,)  and 
"  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan,"  (1843,)  illustrated  by 
Catherwood.  These  works  obtained  great  popularity 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  and  the  two  last- 
named  are  esteemed  among  the  mustvaluable  contribu- 
tions to  American  antiquities.  JVIr.  Stephens  was  elected 
president  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  about  1850. 
Died  in  1852. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "  Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  1841:  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1842;  "North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1841,  and  July,  1S43. 

Stephens,  (Rohert,)  an  English  antiquary,  entered 
a  college  at  Oxford  in  1681,  and  was  appointed  royal 
historiographer.  He  published  the  "  Letters"  of  Lord 
Bacon.     Died  in  1732. 

Stephenson,  stee'ven-spn,  (George,)  an  eminent 
English  engineer,  and  inventor  of  the  locomotive  engine, 
was  born  at  Wylam,  in  Northumberland,  June  9,  1 781. 
His  father  was  a  fireman  of  a  colliery,  and  was  unable 
to  give  his  children  an  education  at  school.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen,  George  became  an  assistant  fireman  in  the 
colliery.  He  learned  to  read  and  write  at  a  night-school. 
Having  been  promoted  to  the  office  of  brakesman,  he 
married  Fanny  Henderson  about  1802.  He  exercised 
his  mechanical  skill  in  mending  clocks,  studied  me- 
chanics, and  acquired  a  knowledge  of  steam-engines. 
In  1S12  he  became  chief  engineer  of  Killingworth  Col- 
liery. His  first  locomotive  engine  was  completed  in 
July,  1S14,  and  drew  eight  loaded  cars  four  miles  an 
hour.  He  made  another,  with  important  improvements, 
and  applied  the  steam  blast-pipe,  in  1815,  and  soon  after 
that  date  improved  the  construction  of  the  railway.  In 
1822  he  was  employed  to  construct  a  railway  from  Stock- 
ton to  Darlington,  which  was  opened  in  1825  and  was 
the  first  railway  made  for  public  use.  About  1824  Mr. 
Stephenson  and  Edward  Pease,  of  Darlington,  established 
a  manufactory  of  locomotives  at  Newcastle.  He  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway, 
finished  in  1830,  not  without  violent  opposition  from 
land-owners  and  others.  A  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds, 
offered  by  the  directors  of  this  railway  for  the  best  loco- 
motive, was  awarded  to  the  "  Rocket,"  made  by  George 
Stephenson  and  his  son  Robert,  (1830.)  This  engine  is 
said  to  have  run  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour,  to 
the  great  amazement  of  the  public.  He  was  employed 
as  engineer  of  the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  of  that  which 
connects  London  with  Birmingham,  and  of  others.  His 
latter  years  were  spent  in  the  superintendence  of  exten- 
sive coal-mines  which  he  owned.  Died  at  Tapton  in 
August,  1848. 

"  By  patient  industry,"  says  Smiles,  "  and  laborious 
contrivance,  he  was  enabled  to  do  for  the  locomotive 
what  James  Watt  had  done  for  the  condensing  engine. 
He  found  it  clumsy  and  inefficient;  and  he  made  it 
powerful,  efficient,  and  useful."  "Men  in  the  best  ranks 
of  life  have  said  of  him  that  he  was  one  of  Nature's 
gentlemen." 

-See   Smiles,    "Life   of   George   Stephenson,"   1859. 

Stephenson,  (Roberf,)  a  distinguished  engineer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Willington  in  October, 
1803.  He  studied  for  one  session  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  (1820-21,)  after  which  1-ke  assisted  his  father 
in  the  construction  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Rail- 
way, and  in  the  manufacture  of  locomotives.  In  1824 
he  was  employed  in  South  America  as  inspector  of  gold- 
and  silver-mines.  He  returned  to  England  in  1827,  and 
became  associated  with  his  father  in  the  fabrication  of 


locomotives.  He  was  engineer  of  the  Leicester  and 
Swannington  Railway,  and  of  the  London  and  Birming- 
ham Railway  which  was  opened  in  1838.  He  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  a  railway  engineer,  and  was  em- 
ployed as  such  in  various  foreign  countries.  Among  his 
greatest  works  are  the  viaduct  over  the  Tweed  at  Ber- 
wick, the  high  level  bridge  at  Newcastle,  the  Britannia 
tubular  bridge  over  Menai  Straits,  (1850,)  the  Victoria 
tubular  bridge  at  Montreal,  finished  about  i860,  and  a 
railway  connecting  Cairo  with  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Whitby  in  1847. 
Died  in  October,  1859. 

See  Smii.rs,  "Lives  of  the  Engineers;"  J.  C.  Jeaffreson, 
"Life  of  Robert  Stephenson,"  1864;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  f(jt 
December,  1S59. 

Step'ney,  (George,)  an  English  diplomatist  and 
poet,  born  at  Westminster  in  1663.  He  was  employed 
in  embassies  to  Germany,  Poland,  and  the  States-Gene- 
ral, (Netherlands.)  He  was  the  author  of  several  origi- 
nal poems,  and  assisted  Dryden  in  his  translation  of 
Juvenal.  "He  is,"  says  Johnson,  "a  very  licentious 
translator,  and  does  not  recompense  the  neglect  of  his 
author  by  beauties  of  his  own."     Died  in  1707. 

Sterbeeck,  van,  vtn  st^R'bak,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish 
botanist  and  priest,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1631.  He  pub- 
lished "Theatrum  Fungorum."     Died  in  1693. 

Ster'ling,  (Edward,)  a  journalist,  born  at  Waterford, 
in  Ireland,  in  1773.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  army  in  his 
early  life.  He  began  about  1812  to  write  for  the  London 
"Times,"  of  which  he  became  editor.  He  wrote  many 
political  editorials  for  that  journal,  and  supported  the 
Reform  bill  of  1832.     Died  in  1847. 

Ster'ling,  (John,)  a  British  ]>oet  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  island  of 
Bute  in  1806.  He  finished  his  studies  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Mr. 
(afterwards  Archdeacon)  Hare,  Monckton  Milnes,  and 
other  distinguished  men.  Having  taken  holy  orders, 
he  became  curate  of  Hurstmonceaux,  in  Sussex,  in  1834. 
He  was  the  author  of  "Arthur  Coningsby,"  a  novel, 
(1833,)  "The  Election  ;  a  Poem,  in  Seven  Books,"  (1841,) 
"Strafford,"  a  tragedy,  (1843,)  and  "Essays  and  Tales." 
He  numbered  among  his  friends  Coleridge  and  Thomas 
Carlyle,  and  his  Life  has  been  written  by  the  latter. 
Died  in  1844. 

See  T.  Cari.vle,  "Life  of  John  Sterling,"  1851  ;  "  Brief  Biogra- 
phies," by  Samuel  Smiles:  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February, 
1848  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1S48. 

Stern,  (Daniel.)     See  Agoult,  d'. 

Stern,  (Marie  de  Flavigny.)     See  Agoult,  d'. 

Sternberg,  st§Rn'b§RG,  (Alexander,)  Baron,  a 
celebrated  novelist,  born  in  Esthonia,  in  Russia,  in  1806, 
studied  at  Dorpat,  and  in  1830  settled  in  Germany. 
Among  his  most  popular  works,  which  are  written  in 
German,  we  may  name  "The  Missionary,"  "Diana," 
and  "Saint  Sylvan."     Died  August  24,  1S68. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1837. 

Sternberg,  (Kaspar  Maria,)  Count,  a  German 
naturalist,  and  president  of  the  Bohemian  National 
Museum,  born  in  1761  ;  died  in  1838. 

Sterne,  stern,  (Laurence,)  a  celebrated  humorist, 
born  at  Clonmel,  Ireland,  in  1713,  was  a  great-grandson 
of  Richard  Sterne,  Archbishop  of  York.  His  father 
was  a  lieutenant  in  the  army.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  which  he  entered  in  1733,  took  holy  orders, 
and  became  vicar  of  Sutton  about  1738.  He  was  marrried 
in  1741.  Through  the  influence  of  an  uncle,  he  obtained 
a  prebend  in  York  Cathedral.  He  remained  nearly 
twenty  years  at  Sutton,  and  acquired  a  sudden  celebrity 
by  the  publication  of  two  volumes  of  "  Tristram  Shandy," 
(1759,)  a  humorous  story,  which  had  a  great  success.  In 
1760  he  published  two  volumes  of  sermons,  and  was 
appointed  curate  of  Coxwold,  Yorkshire.  The  poet 
Gray  praises  his  sermons,  as  showing  "a  strong  imagi 
nation  and  a  sensible  heart,"  but  adds,  "you  see  him 
[the  preacher]  often  tottering  on  the  verge  of  laughter, 
and  ready  to  throw  his  periwig  in  the  face  of  his  audi- 
ence." (See  Gray's  "Letters.")  Sterne's  promotion  in 
the  Church  was  hindered  by  his  dissipated  or  irregular 
habits.  He  visited  Paris  and  other  parts  of  France  in 
1762-63,  and  published  the  ninth  volume  of  "Tristram 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/uv/;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fdll,  fAt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STERNE 


2245 


STEVENS 


Shandy"  in  1767.  Having  made  another  tour  in  France 
and  Italy,  he  produced  in  1768  his  "Sentimental  Jour- 
ney," which  enjoyed  a  great  popularity.  He  died  in 
London  in  1768,  leaving  one  child,  a  daughter. 

Sterne  is  considered  one  of  the  most  humorous  and 
original  writers  in  the  language.  "His  wit,"  says  Haz- 
litt,  "is  poignant,  though  artificial;  and  his  characters 
('hough  the  groundwork  of  some  of  them  had  been  laid 
before)  have  yet  invaluable  original  differences;  and  the 
spirit  of  the  execution,  the  master-strokes  constantly 
thrown  into  them,  are  not  to  be  surpassed."  ("Lectures 
on  the  English  Comic  Writers.") 

See  Medalle,  "Letters  of  Laurence  Sterne,  to  which  are  pre- 
fixed Memoirs  of  his  Life,  written  by  himself,"  3  vols.,  1775".  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists;"  Thackeray, 
"  Lectures  on  the  English  Humourists;"  Percy  Fitzgerald,  "  Life 
of  Laurence  Sterne,"  2  vols.,  1864;  Joh.v  Ferriar,  "Illustrations 
of  Laurence  Sterne,  with  other  Essays,"  179S;  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Sterne,  (Richard,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Not- 
tinghamshire in  1596,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  York  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  H.  He  assisted  in  revising  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.     Died  in  1683. 

Stern'hold,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Hampshire,  was  groom  of  the  robes  to  Henry  VHI. 
and  his  successor  Edward  VI.  He  is  chiefly  known 
from  his  English  version  of  the  Psalms,  of  which  he 
translated  fifty-one.  The  principal  part  of  the  remainder 
were  translated  by  John  Hopkins,  the  whole  being  pub- 
lished in  1562,  and  annexed  to  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  under  the  title  of"  The  Whole  Booke  of  Psalmes, 
collected  into  English  Metre,  by  T.  Sternhold,  J.  Hop- 
kins, and  others,"  etc.     Died  in  1549. 

Stesichore.     See  Stesichorus. 

Ste-sich'o-rus,  [Gr.  Irriaixopoc;  Fr.  Stesichore, 
sti'ze'koR';  It.  Stesicoro,  sta-se-ko'ro,]  a  celebrated 
Greek  poet,  born  at  Himera,  in  Sicily,  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  about  600  is.c.  He  is  styled  the  inventor 
of  choral  songs,  and  his  original  name  of  Tisias  was 
changed  to  Stesichorus  on  account  of  his  directing  the 
choruses  at  religious  festivals.  His  works,  of  which  only 
fragments  remain,  were  composed  in  the  language  of  the 
epic  poets,  with  a  mixture  of  Doricisms,  and  combine 
the  material  of  the  epic  poem  with  the  lyric  form.  They 
are  warmly  eulogized  by  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  other 
eminent  writers  of  antiquity.  He  died  about  555  B.C., 
aged  about  85. 

See  Kleinr,  "  De  Stesichori  Vita,"  1825;  Fabricius,  "  Biblio- 
iheca  Grxca ;"  F.  de  Beaumont.  "  Memoria  sopra  Xanto,  Aris- 
tossene  e  Stesicoro,"  1835  :  K.  O.  Muller,  "  History  of  the  Litera- 
ture of  Ancient  Greece  :"  "  Nouvelle  liiographie  Ginerale." 

Steuart.     See  Stewart,  (Sir  James.) 

Steuben,  stu'ben,  [Ger.  pron.  stoi'ben,]  (Frederick 
William  Augustus,)  Baron,  a  celebrated  general 
of  the  American  Revolution,  was  born  at  Magdeburg, 
Prussia,  in  1730.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  rose  to  be  adjutant-general  in 
the  king's  staff  in  1762.  In  1777  he  offered  his  services 
to  General  Washington  as  a  volunteer  in  the  American 
army.  He  was  appointed  major-general  in  1778,  and 
subsequently  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Mon- 
mouth and  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  A  life-annuity  of 
$2500  was  voted  him  by  Congress  in  1790,  and  he  also 
received  16,000  acres  of  land  in  Oneida  county.  New 
York,  where  he  died  in  1794.  His  life,  written  by 
Francis  Bowen,  is  included  in  Sparks's  "  American 
Biography." 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1864. 

Steuben,  von,  fon  stoi'ben,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Au- 
gust,) B.'VRON,  a  German  historical  painter,  born  near 
Mannheim  about  1790,  worked  in  Paris  and  in  Russia, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Nicholas. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Napoleon's  Return  from  Elba," 
and  "Esmeralda  and  Quasimodo."  Died  in  Paris  in  1856. 

Steuco,  st§-oo'ko,  [Lat.  Steu'chus,]  (.\gostino,)  an 
Italian  scholar,  born  at  Gubblo  in  1496.  He  succeeded 
Aleandro  as  prefect  of  the  Vatican  Library  in  1542.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works.     Died  in  1549. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Ste'veni,  (Arel,)  an  American  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1815.  He  has  edited  succes- 
sively several  religious  journals,  and  published,  among 


other  works,  "Memorials  of  the  Introduction  of  Meth- 
odism into  New  England,"  and  "  History  of  the  Re- 
ligious Movement  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  called 
Methodism,"  (1859.) 

Ste'vens,  (Alexander,)  an  English  architect,  con- 
structed the  bridge  over  the  Liffey  at  Dublin,  and  other 
important  works.     Died  in  1796. 

Ste'vens,  [Belgian  pron.  sta'vens,]  (Alfred,)  a  Bel- 
gian painter,  born  at  Brussels,  May  11,  1828.  He  gained 
a  inedal  of  the  first  class  in  185 1. 

Stevens,  (Alfred  George,)  an  English  artist,  born 
at  Blandford,  Dorsetshire,  in  December,  1817.  His 
principal  work  is  the  Wellington  memorial  under  the 
dome  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  His  portrait-busts  and 
his  designs  for  decorative  metal-work  are  specially  note- 
worthy.    Died  January  7,  1S78. 

Stevens,  (Edward,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
V^irginia.  He  was  commended  by  General  Washington 
for  his  conduct  at  the  battles  of  Brat\dywine  and  Ger- 
mantovvn,  September-October,  1777.     Died  in  1820. 

Stevens,  (Edwin  Augustus,)  an  American  inventor, 
a  son  of  John  Stevens,  was  born  at  Hobuken,  New 
Jersey,  in  1795.  He  made  improvements  in  naval  con- 
struction and  in  machinery,  built  the  iron-clad  Nauga- 
tuck  for  service  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  ^"^'  gave  one 
million  dollars  towards  the  construction  of  the  iron-clad 
battery  of  his  brother,  R.  L.  Stevens.  He  founded  the 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  and  the  Stevens  High 
School,  both  at  lloboken,  New  Jersey.  Died  in  Paris, 
France,  August  7,  186S. 

Stevens,  (George  Alexander,)  an  English  actor 
and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  London,  was  the  author  of 
a  novel  entitled  "  Tom  Fool,"  and  otlier  works  of  a 
comic  and  satirical  character.  Among  these  may  be 
named  a  "Lecture  on  Heads,"  "Distress  upon  Dis- 
tress," a  burlesque  tragedy,  and  "The  Adventures  of  a 
Speculist."  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  popular  songs. 
Died  in  17S4. 

Stevens,  (Isaac  Ixgalls,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  or  near  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  181S,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1839,  at  the  head  of  his  class. 
He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Washington  Territory 
in  1853,  and  resigned  in  1857.  In  September,  1S61,  he 
became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers.  He 
served  in  the  army  which  captured  Port  Royal,  South 
Carolina,  in  November,  i86r,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  ensuing  summer,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Chantilly,  September  i,  1862. 

See  Tenney,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
P-  734- 

Stevens,  (John,)  an  American  mechanician,  bom 
at  New  York  in  1749,  was  the  inventor  of  a  steamboat, 
which  he  exhibited  in  1S04.  He  also  wrote  a  pamphlet 
giving  plans  for  a  railway  and  steam-carriages.  Died 
n  1838. 

His  son,  Robert  Livingston  Stevens,  born  in 
1788,  also  distinguished  himself  as  an  inventor,  and 
made  numerous  improvements  in  steamboats.  Died 
in  1856. 

Stevens,  (Joseph,)  a  Belgian  painter,  a  brother  of 
Alfred,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Brussels  about  1822. 
He  has  resided  alternately  in  Brussels  and  Paris.  He 
excels  in  the  painting  of  animal.s,  especially  dogs. 

Stevens,  (Richard  James  Sa.muel,)  an  English 
composer,  born  in  London  about  1 750,  published  nu- 
merous songs  and  glees,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
master-pieces  of  their  kind.     Died  in  1S37. 

Stevens,  (Thaddeus,)  an  eminent  American  legis- 
lator, distinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born 
in  Caledonia  county,  Vermont,  on  the  4th  of  April, 
1793.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1814, 
removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  studied  law.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1833,  and 
re-elected  four  times  between  that  date  and  1841.  In 
April,  1835,  he  made  a  powerful  speech  for  common 
schools,  and  secured  the  triumph  of  a  system  to  which 
the  majority  of  the  legislature  had  been  hostile.  In 
1836  he  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which  revised 
the  Constitution  of  the  State.  He  settled  at  Lancaster 
about  1842,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by 


tas^,-  9asj.-  ^hurd;  gusj;  G,H,K,g7itiura/;  ii,nasal;  vl,  trilled;  sass;  thasin////j.     (jL^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STEVENS 


2246 


STEVVJRT 


the  voters  of  the  ninth  district  in  1848.  He  acted  with 
the  Whig  party  while  that  party  survived,  and  was  re- 
elected to  Congress  in  1850.  About  1855  he  joined  the 
Republican  party,  which  was  at  first  called  in  Pennsyl- 
vania the  People's  party.  He  rejiresented  the  ninth  dis- 
trict, i.e.  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  Congress 
from  1858  to  1868.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
of  ways  and  means  in  the  Thirty-seventh  Congress, 
1861-63,  and  in  several  subsequent  terms.  In  Decem- 
l)er,  1861,  he  offered  a  resolution  that  all  slaves  who 
shall  leave  their  masters  or  aid  in  quelling  the  rebellion 
shall  be  declared  free.  After  the  end  of  the  civil  war 
he  became  the  most  prominent  and  influential  member  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  a  strenuous  opponent 
of  President  Johnson's  ]>olicy.  He  advocated  the  exten- 
sion of  the  right  of  suffrage  to  the  freedmen,  and  other 
measures  of  the  Radical  party.  Mr.  Stevens  and  Sena- 
tor Sherman  were  the  authors  of  the  bill  for  the  recon- 
struction of  the  seceded  States  which  was  passed  by 
Congress  in  the  session  of  1S66-67  and  became  a  law 
notwithstanding  the  veto  of  the  President.  By  this  act, 
ten  of  the  Southern  States  were  divided  into  five  mili- 
tary districts,  and  each  district  was  subjected  to  the 
authority  of  a  military  commander  until  the  people  of 
those  districts  should  adopt  new  Constitutions  conceding 
im[)artial  suffrage.  Mr.  .Stevens,  who  was  chairman  of 
the  joint  committee  on  reconstruction,  reported  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1867,  the  original  bill,  which  Senator  Sherman 
modified  by  an  important  amendment.  He  advocated 
the  impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson  in  a  speech  on  the 
24th  of  February,  1868,  and  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  seven  then  appointed  to  prepare  and  report 
articles  of  imj-jcachment.  He  was  also  one  of  the  seven 
members  elected  March  2,  i868,  as  managers  to  conduct 
the  impeachment  of  President  Jahnson.  He  was  never 
married.     Died  at  Washington  in  August,  1868. 

"  He  was  one  of  the  few  who  are  not  afraid  to  grasp 
first  principles  and  lay  hold  of  great  truths,  or  to  push 
them  to  their  remotest  logical  result."  (New  York 
"Times"  for  August  13,  1868.) 

Stevens,  (William,)  an  English  writer  on  religion, 
born  in  London  in  1732,  was  a  cousin  of  George  Home, 
Bishop  of  Norwich.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Nature 
and  Constitution  of  the  Christian  Church,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1807. 

Stevens,  (William  Bacon,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican bishop,  born  at  Bath,  Maine,  July  13,  1815,  gradu- 
ated as  M.D.  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1837,  practised 
medicine  in  Savannah,  Georgia,  took  priest's  orders  in 
the  Episcopal  Church,  in  1844  was  chosen  professor  of 
belles-lettres,  moral  philosophy,  and  history  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia,  and  held  a  rectorship  in  Philadelphia, 
1848-62.  In  1862  he  was  consecrated  as  assistant  Bishop 
of  Pennsylvania,  succeeding  as  diocesan  in  1865.  Among 
his  publications  are  "  Georgia  Historical  Collections," 
1841-42,)  a  "History  of  Georgia,"  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and 
a  number  of  religious  and  other  W(3rks.  He  was  distin- 
guished as  a  pulpit  orator.     Died  June  11,  18X7. 

Stevens,  (William  Barshaw,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Abingdon  about  1755.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Retirement,"  a  poem,  and  of  a  collection  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1800. 

Ste'ven-spn,  (Andrew,)  an  American  statesman 
born  in  Culpepper  county,  Virginia,  in  1784.  He  studied 
law,  became  eminent  as  a  pleader,  and  represented  a 
district  of  Virginia  in  Congress  from  1821  to  1834. 
During  this  period  he  was  thrice  elected  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  in  1827,  1829,  and  1831. 
He  was  minister  to  England  from  1836  to  1841.  He 
acted  with  the  Democratic  party.     Died  in  1857. 

Ste'ven-son,  (Sir  John  ANnKF.w,)an  Irish  composer, 
corn  in  Dublin  in  1761.  He  produced  numerous  duets, 
songs,  and  anthems,  and  an  oratorio,  entitled  "The 
Thanksgiving."     Died  in  1833. 

Ste'ven-son,  (John  Hall,)  an  English  satiric  poet, 
oorn  in  Yorkshire  in  1 718,  was  a  friend  of  Laurence 
Sterne,  who  hasdescribed  him  in  his  "Tristram  Shandy" 
under  the  name  of  "  Eugenius."  He  i)ublished  "  Lyric 
Epistles,"  "  Fables  for  Grown  Gentlemen,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1785. 

Ste'ven-son,(RoKERT,)an  eminent  Scottish  engineer, 


born  at  Glasgow  in  1772.  About  1796  he  became  en- 
gineer to  the  Northern  Light- House  Commissioners.  He 
began  in  1807  the  construction  of  the  Bell  Rock  Light- 
House,  off  Arbroath,  in  Forfarshire,  which  was  completed 
in  i8u.  He  built  upwards  of  twenty  light-houses,  and 
was  employed  in  various  other  important  works  in  Scot- 
land and  England.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  suggestion 
of  malleable  iron  instead  of  the  cast-iron  rails  hitherto 
used.     Died  in  1850. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 

Stevenson,  (Robert  Louis,)  a  Scottish  author,  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1850.  He  was  bred  an  engineer,  but 
studied  law.  In  1879  he  came  to  the  United  States  and 
married.  He  afterwards  went  to  France  to  reside. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Edinburgh  :  Picturesque  Notes," 
"An  Inland  Voyage,"  "Travels  with  a  Donkey,"  "  Vir- 
ginibus  Puerisque,"  "  Familiar  .Studies  on  Men  and 
Books,"  "New  Arabian  Nights,"  "Treasure  Island," 
"The  Silverado  Squatters,"  and  "The  Dynamiter." 

Stevenson,  (Thomas  G.,)  an  American  general,  borr\ 
about  1836,  was  a  son  of  the  Hon.  J.  Thomas  .Stevenson, 
of  Boston.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  about 
the  end  of  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  when  he 
was  killed,  near  .Spottsylvania,  May  10,  1864. 

See  Tknnev,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
p.  778. 

Stevenson,  (William.)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1772,  held  a  situation  in  the  Treasury.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Historical  .Sketch  of  the  Pro- 
gress of  Discovery,  Navigation,  and  Commerce."  Died 
in  1829. 

Stevenson,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Nottinghamshire,  was  proprietor  of  the  "  Norfolk 
Chronicle"  for  thirty-five  years.     Died  in  1821. 

Stev'in  [Fr.  pron.  sti'v^N']  or  Stevinus,  sti-vee'- 
niis,  (Simon,)  an  able  Flemish  engineer  and  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Bruges  about  1550.  He  was  employed  as 
civil  engineer  and  inspector  of  dykes  by  the  government 
of  Holland.  He  made  important  improvements  in 
arithinetic,  algebra,  and  mechanics.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Treatise  on  Arithmetic,"  (15S5,)  a  "Treatise  on 
Statics  and  Hydrostatics,"  (1586,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Navigation,"  (1599.)     Died  about  1620. 

See  GoETHALs,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  S.  Stevin,"  1841 ; 
QuETELET,  "Simon  Stevin,"  1845;  Steichen,  "  Memoire  sur  la 
Vie  de  Stevin,"  1846 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Stevinus.     See  Stevin. 

Stewr'art,  (Alexander  Turney,)  a  celebrated  mer- 
chant, born  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  October  27,  1802.  He 
studied  in  Dublin  University,  and  in  1823  went  to  New 
York  and  became  a  teacher.  In  1825  he  became  a  dry- 
goods  merchant.  His  success  in  business  was  very  great. 
Died  in  New  York,  April  10,  1876. 

Stevyart,  (Balfour,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  physicist, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  November  I,  1828.  He  studied  at 
the  Universities  of  Saint  Andrew's  and  Edinburgh,  and 
in  1859  was  made  director  of  Kew  Observatory.  In 
1870  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  Owens  College,  Manchester.  He  published  treatises 
on  "Heat,"  "Elementary  Physics,"  (1871,)  "Physics," 
(1872,)  the  "Conservation  of  Energy,"  (1874,)  etc.,  be- 
sides important  pa])ers  on  solar  physics.     Died  in  1887. 

Stev/'art,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1778.  He  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  operations  against  Tripoli  in  1804, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1S06.  In  1812  the 
government  of  the  United  States  adopted  the  over- 
cautious policy  of  withdrawing  all  their  vessels  of  war 
from  the  ocean,  but  Captain  Stewart  and  W.  Bainbridge 
induced  them  to  abandon  that  policy.  The  former, 
in  the  summer  of  1813,  took  command  of  the  frigate 
Constitution,  which  carried  fifty-two  guns.  He  cap- 
tured in  February,  1815,  the  British  ship  Cyane  and 
the  sloop  Levant,  for  which  service  he  received  a  gold 
medal  from  Congress.  He  afterwards  rendered  impor- 
tant services  in  the  organization  of  the  navy,  and  during 
the  civil  war  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 
Died  in  1869. 

Stew^art,  (Charles  William.)   See  Londonderry. 

Ste^r'art,  (Dugald,)  an  eminent  Scottish  professor 
of  moral  philosophy,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  22d 


a,  e,  I,  6.  u,  y,  limg;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  Ci,  y,  s/iori:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^U,  fdr;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


STEWART 


2247 


STIGAND 


of  November,  1753.  He  was  a  son  of  Matthew,  noticed 
below,  was  educated  at  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh, 
and  attended  the  lectures  of  Reid  at  Glasgow.  In  1772 
he  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Dreaming,"  and  became  an  as- 
fiistant  or  substitute  of  his  father  in  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics. He  was  appointed  joint  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Edinburgh  in  1775,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Ferguson  as 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  same  university  in 
1785.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  didactic  orator, 
and  his  lectures  were  attended  by  many  students  from 
England,  and  even  from  tht  continent.  He  promoted 
the  triumph  of  liberal  opinions  in  politics  by  his  influ- 
ence over  such  men  as  Lord  Brougham,  Lord  Jeffrey, 
and  Lord  John  Russell,  who  were  his  pupils.  In  1792 
he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  "Elements  of  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,"  which,  being  written 
in  an  elegant  and  attractive  style,  enjoyed  a  great  popu- 
larity. The  second  volume  appeared  in  1814,  and  the 
third  in  1827.  He  produced  "Outlines  of  Moral  Phi- 
losophy" in  1793,  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Robertson"  in  1796, 
and  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Reid"  in  1802.  On  account  of  his 
feeble  health,  he  resigned  the  active  duties  of  his  pro- 
fessorship in  1810.  Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "Phi- 
losophical Essay,"  (i  vol.,  1810,)  and  his  preliminary 
dissertation  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  entitled 
a  '  General  View  of  the  Progress  of  Metaphysical, 
Ethical,  and  Political  Science  since  the  Revival  of  Let- 
ters," which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  married  Helen 
Bannatyne  about  1783,  and  after  her  death  a  Miss  Crans- 
toun.     Died  at  Edinburgh  in  June,  1828. 

Referring  to  Stewart  as  a  lecturer,  Sir  Walter  Scott 
says,  his  "striking  and  impressive  eloquence  riveted  the 
attention  even  of  the  most  volatile  student."  "Perhaps 
few  men  ever  lived,"  says  Mackintosh,  "who  poured 
into  the  breasts  of  youth  a  more  fervid  and  yet  reason- 
able love  of  liberty,  of  truth,  and  of  virtue.  How  many 
are  still  alive  in  different  countries,  and  in  every  rank 
to  which  education  reaches,  who,  if  they  accurately 
examined  their  own  minds  and  lives,  would  not  ascribe 
much  of  whatever  goodness  and  happiness  they  possess 
to  the  early  impressions  of  his  gentle  and  persuasive 
eloquence  !  .  .  .  Without  derogation  from  his  writings, 
it  may  be  said  that  his  disciples  were  among  his  best 
works."  Respecting  his  style,  the  same  able  writer 
observes,  "  He  reminds  us  not  unfrequently  of  the 
character  given  by  Cicero  to  one  of  his  contemporaries, 
•who  expressed  refined  and  abstruse  thoughts  in  soft  and 
transparent  diction.'  ...  It  would  be  difficult  to  name 
works  in  which  so  much  refined  philosophy  is  joined 
with  so  fine  a  fancy, — so  much  elegant  literature  with 
such  a  delicate  perception  of  the  distinguishing  excel- 
lences of  great  writers,  and  with  an  estimate  in  general 
so  just  of  the  services  rendered  to  knowledge  by  a  suc- 
cession of  philosophers." 

See  "General  Review  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy;" 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
Cousin,  "Cours  de  Pliilosophie  et  Fragments  philosophiques,"  also 
the  same  writer  in  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  1817;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  1810,  September,  i8i6,  and  October,  1821  ; 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815,  and  January,  1822;  "North 
Bntish  Review"  for  May,  1858;  article  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  October,  1830,  (by  Sir  William  Hamilton;)  "Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  1828;  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Stewart  or  Steuart,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  political 
economist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1713,  was  a  Jacobite. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Wemyss.  Having 
joined  the  army  of  the  Pretender  in  1745,  he  was  exiled 
for  many  years.  He  returned  about  1763,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  0/ 
Political  Economy,"  (1767.)    Died  in  1780. 

Stew'art,  (James  Haldane,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  1775,  was  rector  of  Limpsfield,  in  Surrey.  He 
published  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1854. 

See  a  "  Life  of  J.  H.  Stewart,"  by  his  son,  1856. 

Stewart,  (John,)  called  Walking  Stewart,  an 
English  traveller,  born  in  London  before  1750.  He  per- 
formed journeys  on  foot  through  Hindostan,  Persia, 
Nubia,  etc.,  and  walked  back  to  England.  Died  in  Lon 
don  in  1822. 

See  DeQuincev's  interesting  account  of  Stewart  in  his  "Literarr 
Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii. 

Ste^T^art,  (Matthew,)    a   Scottish    mathematician, 


born  at  Rothsay,  in  the  Isle  of  Bute,  in  1 717,  was  the 
father  of  Dugald  Stewart.  He  was  minister  of  the  parish 
of  Rosneath,  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  in  his  early  life. 
In  1747  he  succeeded  Maclaurin  as  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  published 
"General  Theorems,"  etc.,  (1746,)  "Tracts,  Physical 
and  Mathematical,"  (1761,)  and  "Propositions  demon- 
strated by  the  Method  of  the  Ancients,"  (1762.)  He 
was  well  versed  in  Greek  geometry.  Died  in  1785. 
See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stewart,  (Robert.)     See  Castlereagh,  Lord. 

Stewart,  (Sir  Robert  Prescott,)  an  Irish  musician 
and  author,  born  in  Dublin  in  1825.  lie  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Dublin  in  1851,  and  became  professor 
of  music  there  in  1862.  Besides  some  successful  music, 
he  published  a  "Life  of  Handel,"  and  other  works.  He 
was  knighted  in  1872. 

Stewart,  (Thomas  Grainger-,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  September  23,  1837.  He  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Edinburgh,  Berlin,  Prague,  and  Vi- 
enna. In  1876  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  prac- 
tice of  physic  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1882  he  was  chosen  a  court  physician  to  the  Queen. 
His  principal  published  work  is  a  standard  treatise  on 
"  Bright's  Diseases  of  the  Kidneys." 

Stew^art  (or  Steward)  Family.    See  Stuart. 

Sthen'e-lus,  [Gr.  I^QeveTjoq ;  Fr.  STH^NiLE,  sti'n^l',] 
a  king  of  Mycense,  was  a  son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda, 
and  the  father  of  Eurystheus. 

Sthenelus,  a  son  of  Capaneus,  was  one  of  the  Epi- 
goni,  {i.e.  the  sons  of  the  seven  chiefs  who  led  the  expe- 
dition against  Thebes.)  He  was  a  friend  of  Diomede, 
under  whom  he  served  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  on« 
of  the  band  inclosed  in  the  wooden  horse. 

Stiefel  or  Stifel,  stee'fel,  [Lat.  Stife'lius,]  (Mi- 
chael,) a  German  mathematician,  born  at  Esslingen,  in 
Saxony,  in  i486.  He  was  a  Lutheran  minister,  and 
preached  at  various  places,  including  Lochau  and  Holts- 
dorf,  near  Wittenberg.  He  made  discoveries  in  algebra. 
His  principal  work  is  "Arithmetica  Integra,"  (1544.) 
Died  in  1567. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Stieglitz,  steeG'lits,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  a  German 
writer  upon  art,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1756,  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "History  of  Architecture  from 
the  Earliest  Antiquity  to  Modern  Times,"  ( 1827,) 
"Archaeology  of  the  Architecture  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,"  and  "On  the  Pigments  used  by  Ancient 
Artists."  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  war  lyrics.  Died 
in  1836. 

Stieglitz,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Arolsen,  in  Waldeck,  in  1803,  was  the  author  of  poem<» 
and  dramatic  works.     Died  in  1849. 

Stieglitz,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician,  of  Jewish 
extraction,  was  born  at  Arolsen  in  1767.  He  published 
a  treatise  "  On  Animal  Magnetism,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1840. 

Stieler,  Steepler,  (Adolf,)  a  German  geographer, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1775  ;  died  in  1836. 

Stier,  steeR,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  architect,  born 
near  Warsaw  in  1799.  He  became  professor  at  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  at  Berlin,  and  the  founder  of 
a  new  school  of  architects.  He  designed  the  cathedral 
of  Berlin  and  the  Athenaeum  of  Munich.     Died  in  1856. 

Stiernhielm.     See  Stjernhjelm. 

Stifel.     See  Stiefel. 

Stifelius.    See  Stiefel. 

Stifter,  stif'ter,  (Adalbert,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  in  Southern  Bohemia  in  1806,  wrote  novels,  poems, 
and  prose  essays.  "  He  is,"  says  Vapereau,  "one  of  the 
best  prose-writers  of  his  country."     Died  in  i868. 

Stig'and,  a  Saxon  prelate  under  the  reigns  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  and  William  the  Conqueror,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1052.  Having  been 
convicted  of  several  misdemeanours,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  office  and  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
but  he  died  soon  after  the  sentence  was  passed. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury." 

Stig'and,  (William,)  an  English  writer  and  lawyer, 
born  in  1827.     He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Re- 


cast; 9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  o,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STIGLIANI 


2248 


STILPO 


view,"  and  published  a  collection  of  poems,  including  the 
"Vision  of  Barbarossa,"  (i860.) 

Stdgliani,  stil-yd'nee,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Matera  in  1545.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
New  World,"  ("  li  Mondo  nuovo,"  1617.)  Died  at 
Rome  in  1625. 

Stiglmaier  or  Stiglmayer,  stlgl'mi'er,  (Johann 
Baptist,)  a  celebrated  German  brass-founder,  born  near 
Munich  in  1791.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819,  with  a  view 
of  perfecting  his  knowledge  of  the  art,  and  soon  es- 
tablished his  reputation  by  his  bust  of  Lewis,  King  of 
Lavaria,  after  Thorwaldsen's  model.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed,  in  1824,  superintendent  of  the  bronze- 
foundry  at  Munich.  Among  the  numerous  works  which 
he  executed  during  the  twenty  years  following,  are  the 
aionument  of  Schiller  at  Stuttgart,  after  Thorwaldsen, 
the  fourteen  colossal  statues  of  the  Bavarian  princes  in 
the  new  palace  at  Munich,  after  Schwanlhaler,  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  the  Elector  Maximilian,  after  Thorwald- 
sen, and  Schwanthaler's  colossal  statue  of  "  Bavaria,"  in 
front  of  the  Ruhmeshalle  at  Munich.     Died  in  1844. 

Stiles,  (Ezra,)  D.D.,  an  American  theologian  and 
scholar,  born  at  North  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1727. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1756  became 
pastor  of  the  Second  Congregational  Church  at  Newport, 
Rhode  Island.  He  was  elected  in  1777  president  of 
Yale  College,  and  subsequently  professor  of  ecclesias- 
tical history.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Oriental  tongues,  and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most 
learned  of  American  divines.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Dr.  Franklin,  and  was  the  first  one  in  New  England 
who  made  experiments  in  electricity.  He  published  an 
"Account  of  the  Settlement  of  Bristol,"  (1785,)  "His- 
tory of  Three  of  the  Judges  of  Charles  I.,"  and  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  orations.     Died  in  1795. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Ezra  Stiles,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biogra- 
phy," by  J.  L.  KiNGSLEV,  vol.  vi.,  second  series  ;  Sprague,  "Annals 
of  the  American  Pulpit,"  vol.  i. 

Still-eho,  [Gr.  In/dxi^i' ;  Fr.  Stilicon,  ste'le'kiN',] 
(FLAvaus,)  an  eminent  commander  of  the  Roman  armies, 
was  a  son  of  a  Vandal  officer.  He  rose  rapidly  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosins,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Persia  in  3S4  A.D.,  at  which  date  he  was  a  young  man. 
On  his  return  he  married  Serena,  a  niece  of  Theodosius 
I.,  and  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  He 
found  a  rival  and  dangerous  enemy  in  Rnfinus,  the  chief 
minister  of  Theodosius.  In  394  Theodosius  appointed 
Stilicho  guardian  of  his  young  son  Honorius,  to  whom 
he  gave  the  Western  Empne.  Rufinus  at  the  same  time 
was  chief  minister  of  Arcadius,  Emperor  of  the  East. 
After  the  death  of  Theodosius,  (395,)  Stilicho  ruled 
with  unlimited  authority  at  Rome.  He  marched  against 
the  Goths,  who  had  invaded  Thrace,  and  who  were 
aided  by  the  treacherous  intrigues  of  Rufinus.  This 
rival  was  removed  by  assassination  in  395  a.d.  Stilicho 
drove  Alaric  out  of  the  Peloponnesus  in  396  A.D.  ;  but 
his  victorious  progress  was  checked  by  the  jealousy  of 
Arcadius,  who  made  a  treaty  with  Alaric  and  took  him 
into  his  own  service.  The  war  was  renewed  by  Alaric, 
who  invaded  Italy  about  402.  Stilicho  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  him  at  Pollentia  (or  Polentia)  in  403,  soon 
after  which  the  Goths  retired  from  Italy.  It  is  stated 
that  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Alaric  against  Arca- 
dius, with  a  design  to  make  himself  master  of  both  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Empires.  In  406  he  defeated  a 
host  of  barbarians  who  invaded  Northern  Italy  under 
Radagaisus.  The  enemies  of  Stilicho  excited  the  fears 
and  suspicion  of  Honorius  against  him,  and  procured 
an  order  for  his  death.  He  was  massacred  at  Ravenna 
in  408  A.D. 

See  Claudian,  "  De  Laudibus  Stilichonis;"  Gibbon,  "  History 
of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  C.  F.  Schi;i.ze, 
"  F.  Stilicho  ein  Wallenstein  der  Vorzeit,"  1S05;  Lh  Heau,  "  His- 
toire  du  Bas- Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Stilicon.     See  Stilicho. 

Stilke,  stil'keh,  (Hermann,)  a  German  historical 
painter,  born  in  Berlin  in  1803,  was  a  pupil  of  Cor- 
nelius at  Dusseldorf.  He  painted  many  religious  and 
mediaeval  subjects,  and  was  employed  by  the  King  of 
Prussia  to  adorn  with  frescos  a  hall  in  the  castle  of 
Stolzenfels.      Died  Septemlier  22,  i860. 

Stm,  (John,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in  Lin- 


colnshire in  1543.  He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor 
at  Cambridge  in  1570,  and  was  afterwards  master  of 
Saint  John's  and  Trinity  Colleges.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1592.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  one  of  the  earliest  comedies  in 
the  English  language,  entitled  "A  Ryght  Pithy,  Pleas- 
aunt,  and  Merie  Comedie,  intytuled  Gammer  Gurton's 
Nedie."     Died  in  1607. 

Still6,  stil'le,  (Alfred,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Philadelphia,  October  30,  1813,  gradu- 
ated in  arts  at  the  Universit/of  Pennsylvania  in  1832,  and 
in  medicine  in  1836,  was  professor  of  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  medicine  in  the  Pennsylvania  Medical  College, 
1854-59,  and  held  the  same  chair  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1S64-S4.  Among  his  works  are  "Ele 
ments  of  General  Pathology,"  (1848,)  "Materia  Medica 
and  Therapeutics,"  (i860,)  "War  as  an  Instrument  of 
Civilization,"  (1862,)  and  the  "National  Dispensatory,' 
(1879,)  which  was  prepared  by  him  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  J.  M.  Maisch. 

Still6,  stil'le,  (Charles  Janevvay,)  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican writer  and  scholar,  born  in  Philadelj^hia  in  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1839.  He  published 
in  1862  a  well-timed  and  able  pamplilet,  entitled  "  How 
a  Free  Peojjle  Conduct  a  Long  War,"  (republished  in 
Littell's  "Living  Age"  and  "  Harper's  Monthly  Maga- 
zine.") Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  hi.s 
"  History  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission," 
etc.,  (1866,)  and  "Studies  in  Mediaeval  .History,"  (1881.) 
In  May,  1866,  he  was  elected  professor  of  the  English 
language  and  literature  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  in  1868  provost  of  the  same  institution,  a 
position  from  which  he  retired  in  September,  1880. 

Stille,  (Karl.)     See  Demme. 

Stilling.     See  Jung. 

Stil'ling-fleet,  (Benjamin,)  grandson  of  Edward 
Stillingfleet,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1702.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  travelled  on 
the  continent.  Among  his  publications  may  be  named 
"Miscellaneous  Tracts  on  Natural  History,"  being 
chiefly  translations  from  Linnaeus,  and  an  abridgment 
of  Tartini's  "Treatise  on  Music."     Died  in  1771. 

See  William  Coxk,  "Life  and  Works  of  Benjamin  Stilling- 
fleet," iSii. 

Stillingfleet,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  prel- 
ate and  polemical  writer,  born  at  Cranbourn,  in  Dorset, 
in  April,  1635,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  became 
rector  of  Sutton  in  1657.  His  reputation  is  chiefly 
founded  on  his"Origines  Sacras,  or  Rational  Account 
of  the  Christian  Faith  as  to  the  Truth  and  Divine  Au- 
thority of  the  Scriptures,"  (1662.)  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  against  popery  and  the  nonconformists.  He 
was  one  of  the  chaplams  of  Charles  II.,  and  was  ap- 
l^ointed  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1678.  In  answer  to 
Baxter,  Howe,  and  Owen,  he  published  "The  Unrea- 
sonableness of  Separation,"  (1681.)  "Stillingfleet,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  was  renowned  as  a  consummate  master 
of  all  the  weapons  of  controversy."  ("History  of  Eng- 
land," vol.  ii.)  In  1685  he  produced  "  Origines  Bri- 
tannicae,  or  Antiquities  of  the  British  Churches."  He 
became  Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1689.     Died  in  1699. 

See  Goodwin,  "Life  of  E.  Stillingfleet,"  1710. 

Still'man,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1737.  He  settled  at 
Boston  as  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church,  and 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Brown  University,  and  was 
conspicuous  for  his  benevolence.     Died  in  1807. 

Stillman,  (William  James,)  an  American  author  and 
artist,  born  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  June  i,  1S28. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1S48.  He  was  United 
States  consul  at  Rome,  1861--65,  and  in  Crete,  1S65-69. 
He  was  a  correspondent  of  the  London  "Times"  (1875- 
82)  in  Herzegovina,  Montenegro,  and  Greece.  Among 
his  v.orks  are  "The  Cretan  Insurrection,"  (1874,)  "  Her- 
zegovina and  the  Late  Uprising,"  (1876,)  and  "The  Acrop- 
olis of  Athens,"  (1870.)  He  was  editor  of  '♦  The  Crayon," 
1856-57,  and  is  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Design. 

Stil'po,  [Gr.  Sn'ATTuv;  Fr.  Stilpon,  stiKpiN',]  an 
eminent  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Megara,  lived  about 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  /<)«?■;  i,  L,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  J,  s/ipri;  a,  ^,  i,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  g<5od;  m65n; 


STILPON 


2249 


STOCKTON 


325  or  300  B.C.  He  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  wisdom 
by  the  ancients,  and  attracted  a  large  number  of  dis- 
ciples, among  whom  were  Zeno  the  Stoic  and  Crates 
the  Cynic.  Little  is  known  about  his  life  or  doctrines, 
which  seem  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  Megarir 
school. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius  ;  Mallet,  "  Histoire  de  I'ficole  de 
M^gare." 

Stilpon.    See  Stilpo. 

Stimp'son,  (William,)  an  American  zoologist,  born 
in  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  February  14,  1832.  He  was 
a  pupil  and  assistant  of  L.  Agassiz,  and  in  1864  was 
made  curator  to  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
later  was  director  of  its  museum.  The  fruits  of  his  great 
labours  as  a  collector  and  writer  were  destroyed  in  the 
Chicago  fire  of  1871.  He  published  valuable  papers, 
chiefly  on  invertebrate  marine  animals.  Died  at  Uchester 
Mills,  Maryland,  May  26,  1872. 

Stim'sou,  (Fkedkric  Jesup,)  an  American  author 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Dedham,  Massachusetts,  July  20, 
1855.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1876.  He 
has  published  a  "Law  Glossary,"  (i88i,)  "  Guerndale," 
(a  romance,  1882,)  "Henry  Vane,"  (1884,)  "The  King's 
Men,"  (1884,)  and  several  other  books.  His  pseudonym 
is  "J.  S.  of  Dale."  In  1884  he  was  appointed  assistant 
attorney-general  of  Massachusetts. 

Stirling,  Earl  of.     See  Alexander,  (William.) 

Stir'ling,  (James,)  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born  in 
Stirlingshire  about  1690.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1729.  His  chief  work  is  entitled 
"The  Differential  Method,  or  Treatise  on  the  Summing 
Up  and  Interpolation  of  the  Infinite  Series,"  ("  Methodus 
Differentialis,  sive  Tractatus  de  Summatione  et  Inter- 
polatione  Serierum  Infinitarum,"  1730.)  Died  about 
1770. 

Stirling,  (James  Hutchinson,)  a  Scottish  critic,  born 
at  Glasgow,  June  22,  1820.  He  studied  at  the  Glasgow 
University,  became  a  physician,  and  was  a  student  of 
philosophy  in  Germany,  1851-^7.  Among  his  books  are 
"The  Secret  of  Hegel,"  (1865,)  a  translation  (1867)  of 
Schwegler's  "History  of  Philosophy,"  "As  Regards 
Protoplasm,"  (1869,)  "Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
Law,"  (1873,)  etc. 

Stirling-Maxwell,  (William,)  a  Scottish  writer 
and  statesman,  born  near  Glasgow  in  1818,  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  and  resided  several  years  in  Spain.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  for  Perthshire  in  1852,  and  again 
in  1874.  He  published  "  Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain," 
(184S,)  "The  Cloister-Life  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.," 
(1852,)  and  "Velasquez  and  his  Works,"  (1855.)  He 
assumed  the  name  of  Maxwell  in  1866.  He  was  chosen 
lord  rector  of  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's  in  1863, 
of  Edinburgh  in  1872,  and  chancellor  of  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1875.     Died  at  Venice,  January  15,  1878. 

Stjernhjelm,  sheRn'he-§lm,  (George,)  a  Swedish 
savant  and  jioet,  born  in  1598;  died  in  1672. 

Stjernhok  or  Stiernhoek,  shgun'hok,  (Tan,)  a 
Swedish  jurist,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  1596.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  "  On  the  Ancient  Law  of  the  Swedes  and 
Goths."     Died  in  1675. 

Stjernstolpe,  shgnns'stol-peh,  (Jonas  Magnus,)  a 
Swedish  litteratenr,  born  in  the  province  of  Soderman- 
land  in  I777;'  He  was  the  author  of  tales  in  verse,  and 
made  numerous  translations  from  the  German,  French, 
English,  and  Spanish.  He  was  noted  for  his  wit  and 
conversational  powers.     Died  in  1831. 

Stob^us,  sto-bee'us,  [Gr.  IroSjiog ;  Fr.  StobiSe, 
sto'bi',]  (Joannes,)  a  Greek  writer,  born  at  Stobi,  in 
Macedonia,  lived  probably  between  350  and  500  a.D. 
He  made  a  collection  of  extracts  from  about  five  hun- 
dred Greek  authors,  in  prose  and  verse.  This  work  is 
divided  into  "Eclogae  Physicas  et  Ethicas,"  and  "An- 
thologicon,  or  Sermones,"  and  is  of  great  value  as 
preserving  portions  of  authors  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  lost. 

See  Kabricius,  "  Bibliotlieca  Gisca  ;"  Jacobs,  "  Lectlones  Sto- 
benses,"  1797;  Bering,  "Remarques  critiques  sur  Stobee,"  1S33. 

Stob^e.    See  Stob^us. 

Stob^e,  sto-bi',  ?  (Kilian,)  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
Dorn  in  Scania  in  1690;  died  in  1742. 


Stober  or  Stoeber,  sto'ber,  (August,)  a  son  of 
Daniel,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1808.  He  published 
(in  German)  i-n  1852  "The  Traditions  of  Alsace."  Died 
in  1S84. 

Stober  or  Stoeber,  (Daniel  EiiRENFRiEn,)  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1779,  was  the  author  of  lyric  poems,  a 
"Life  of  Jeremias  J.  Oberlin,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1835. 

Stoccade,  sto'ktd',  (Nicholas  de  Helt  or  van 
IIei.t,)  a  Flemish  historical  painter,  born  at  Nymwegen 
in  1614.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Venice,  and  Paris.  His 
pictures  were  highly  prized. 

Stock,  (Simon,)  an  English  Catholic,  who  became 
general  of  the  order  of  Carmelites.  He  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Scapulary,  in  honour  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.     Died  in  1265. 

Stock'dale,  (Percival,)  Rev.,  an  English  writer  on 
various  subjects,  born  in  1736;  died  in  1811. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Percival  Stockdale,"  by  himself;  "Quarterly 
Review"  tor  May,  1809. 

Stockfleth,  stok'tl§t,  (Niels  Joachim  Chhistian,) 
a  Norwegian  missionary  to  Lapland,  born  at  Christiania 
in  1787.  He  translated  into  Lappish  portions  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  Luther's  "  Small  Catechism."  He 
also  wrote  a  "Lappish  Grammar,"  etc.     Died  in  1866. 

Stockhardt  or  Stoeckhardt,  stok'hdRt,  (Julius 
Adolph,)  a  German  chemist,  born  near  Meissen  in  1809, 
He  became  in  1847  professor  of  agricultural  chemistry 
at  the  Academy  for  Agriculture  and  Forest  Science  at 
Tharand.     Died  June  i,  1886. 

Stockmans,  stok'mSns,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Antwerp  in  160S. "  He  became  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  about  1663,  and  held  other 
high  offices  in  Flanders.  He  published  several  legal 
works.     Died  in  167 1. 

See  C.  DE  Bavav,  "  P.  Stockmans,  Jurisconsulte  Beige,"  1844. 

Stock'mar,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  Baron,  a 
German  physician  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Coburg, 
August  22,  1787.  He  became  court  physician  in  1816, 
and  was  for  many  years  the  trusted  friend  and  adviser 
of  the  Coburg  princes  and  of  the  English  royal  family. 
He  arranged  several  royal  marriages.  His  "Memoirs," 
chiefly  extracts  from  his  papers,  were  published  in  Ger- 
man in  1872,  in  English  in  1873.     Died  July  9,  1863. 

Stocks,  (John  E.,)  an  English  physician  and  natural- 
ist, born  in  1822.  He  visited  India,  where  he  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  plants.     Died  in  1854. 

Stocks,  (LuMB,)  an  accomplished  English  engraver, 
born  near  Halifax,  November  30,  1812.  He  acquired 
fame  as  a  master  of  line  engraving,  and  in  1872  he  was 
chosen  a  full  member  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Stock'ton,  (Francis  Richard,)  an  American  hu- 
morous author,  born  in  Philadelphia,  April  5,  1834.  He 
graduated  at  the  Central  High  School  of  his  native  city 
in  1852,  and  began  life  as  an  engraver,  some  years  later 
devoting  himself  to  journalism.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Rudder  Grange,"  "  A  Jolly  Fellowship,"  "  What  Might 
Have  Been  Expected,"  "  A  Floating  Prince,"  "  Ting-a- 
Ling,"  "Tales  out  of  School,"  "Roundabout  Rambles," 
"The  Lady  or  the  Tiger,"  "The  Story  of  Vitea<i,"  etc. 

Stock'ton,  (Richard,)  an  American  patriot,  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 
near  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1730.  He  rose  to  distinc- 
tion as  a  lawyer,  and  was  appointed  in  1774  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  New  Jersey.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1776.     Died  in  1781. 

His  daughter  Julia  was  the  wife  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1848. 

Stockton,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  lawyer,  born  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1764,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1796  to  1799,  and  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1813.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  bar  of 
New  Jersey  for  many  years.     Died  at  Princeton  in  1828. 

Stockton,  (RoHEKT  Field,)  an  American  commo- 
dore, born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1796,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  served  in  several  naval  actions 
in  the  war  of  1812-14.     About  1823  he  cruised  on  the 


€a.s^;  ^asj;  gkard;  ga.s/;  G,H,K,jritUura/;  N, nasal;  Yi,trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in ////>.     (Jg^See  Evplanations,  p.  23.) 


STOCKTON 


2250 


STONE 


coast  of  Africa,  and  captured  several  slavers.  He  be- 
came a  post-captain  in  1839.  He  gave  much  attention 
to  naval  architecture,  and  was  one  of  the  first  American 
officers  to  apply  steam  to  vessels  of  war.  The  sloop-of- 
war  Princeton,  which  was  finished  in  1844,  was  built 
according  to  his  plan,  and  was  a  very  successful  experi- 
ment. By  the  explosion  of  one  of  the  guns  of  the 
Princeton,  in  1844,  two  members  of  the  cabinet,  Gilmer 
and  Upshur,  were  killed.  He  obtained  command  of  the 
squadron  on  the  Pacific  coast  about  the  end  of  1845.  In 
1846  he  conquered  California,  in  which  he  established  a 
provisional  government.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  ol 
the  United  States  for  six  years  by  the  legislature  of  New 
Jersey  in  1851.     Died  in  1866. 

Stockton,  (Thomas  Hewlings,)  D.D.,  an  eloquent 
Methodist  divine,  born  at  Mount  Holly,  New  Jersey, 
in  1808,  for  many  years  filled  the  post  'of  chaplain  to 
Congress.  He  published  a  number  of  religious  works. 
Died  in  1868. 

Stod'art,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  cutler  and 
metallurgist,  born  about  1760,  lived  in  London.  He 
manufactured  surgical  instruments,  and  was  associated 
with  Faraday  in  experiments  on  the  alloys  of  steel.  He 
also  made  improvements  in  the  art  of  tempering  steei. 
Died  in  1823. 

Stodart,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1773,  became  in  1812  political 
editor  of  the  "Times."  He  translated  Schiller's  "Don 
Carlos"  and  "  Fiesco,"  and  wrote  several  works  on  va- 
rious subjects.  He  was  appointed  in  1826  chief  justice 
and  judge  of  the  vice-admiralty  court  at  Malta.  Died 
in  1856. 

Stod'dard,  (Charles  Warren,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Rochester,  New  York,  August  7,  1848.  Having 
removed  in  1855  to  California,  he  in  early  youth  began 
to  write  verse,  and  won  the  patronage  of  T.  Starr  King. 
In  1864  he  went  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where  he  has 
since  spent  much  of  his  time.  After  a  short  experience 
as  an  actor,  he  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  prin- 
cipal books  are  "Poems,"  (1867,)  "South  Sea  Idyls," 
(1873,)  and  "  Mashallah  :  a  Flight  into  Egypt,"  (1881.)  In 
1885  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  English  literature  in 
the  University  of  Notre  Dame,  at  Notre  Dame,  Indiana. 
Stoddard,  (Elizabeth  D.,)  the  wife  of  R.  H.  Stod- 
dard, was  born  at  Mattapoisett,  Massachusetts,  in  1823, 
and  was  married  in  1852.  Her  maiden  name  was  Bak- 
STOW.  Her  works  include  tales  of  New  England  life, 
"The  Morgesons,"  (1862,)  "Two  Men,"  (1S65),  "Temple 
House,"  (1867,)  and  many  poems  and  fugitive  pieces. 

Stod'dard,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1825.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  entitled  "Footprints"  in  1848,  and  a 
second  collection  of  poems  in  1851.  In  1852  he  married 
Elizabeth  D.  Barstow,  a  poetess.  From  1853  to  1870  he 
held  a  position  in  the  custom-house  of  New  York,  and 
in  1877  was  appointed  city  librarian.  Among  his  later 
works  are  "Life  of  A.  Von  Humboldt,"  (i860,)  "The 
King's  Bell,"  (1862,)  and  "  The  Book  of  the  East,"  (1871.) 
A  complete  edition  of  his  poems,  in  one  volume,  appeared 
in  1880.  He  has  also  edited  a  number  of  books,  among 
others  "The  Bric-a-Brac  Series,"  (1874-75.) 

Stoddard,  (Solomon,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Boston  in  1643.  He  was  minister  at  Northampton 
from  1672  until  his  death,  and  published  numerous 
works  on  theology.  He  was  a  grandfather  of  Jonathan 
Edwards.     Died  in  1729. 

Stod'dart  or  Stod'dard,  Captain,  an  English 
officer,  who  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Bokhara  about  1838. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  murdered  by  the  ruler  of 
Bokhara  in  1842  or  1843. 

Stoddart,  (Thomas  Tod,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  February  14,  1810.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1833  became  a  lawyer, 
but  did  not  long  practise  his  profession.  He  published 
'|The  Lunacy  or  Death  Wake,"  (1831,)  "Art  of  Ang- 
ling," (1835,)  "Angling  Reminiscences,"  (1837,)  "Songs 
and  Poems,"  (1839,)  "Abel  Massinger,"  (a  romance, 
1846,)  "Angler's  Rambles,"  (1866,)  and  "  Songs  of  the 
Seasons,"  (1873.)  l^'cd  November  22,  1880. 
Stoeber.  See  Stober. 
StoeSler.     See  Stoffler. 


Stoeflerus.    See  Stoffler. 

Stoerk.     See  Stokk,  von,  (Anton.) 

Stoffler  or  Stoeffler,  stoffler,  [Lat.  Stokfleri'nus 
orSTOEFLE'RUS,]  (JoHANN,)  a  German  astronomer,  born 
in  Suabia  in  1452,  was  professor  of  mathematics,  as- 
tronomy, and  geography  at  Tiibingen,  and  numbered 
Melanchthon  and  Munster  among  his  pupils.  He  pub- 
lished an  account  of  an  astrolabe  of  his  own  construe* 
tion,  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1531.  He 
predicted  that  there  would  be  a  great  deluge  in  1524. 

See  Waul,  "  De  J.  StofRerino  Mathemalico,"  1743;  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Stofflet,  sto'fli',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  general  of  the 
royalist  i^arty,  born  at  Luneville  in  1751.  He  joined  the 
Vendeans  in  the  spring  of  1793,  and  was  appointed 
major-general  in  July  of  that  year.  After  fighting  with 
great  bravery  in  numerous  battles  with  the  republicans, 
he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  exe- 
cuted, in  1796. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Stokes,  (George  Gabriel,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
mathematician  and  physicist,  born  in  Ireland  about 
1820.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  there  in  1849.  The 
Rumford  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  was  awarded  to 
him  in  1852  for  his  discovery  of  the  change  in  the  re- 
frangibility  of  light 

Stolberg,  stol'b§RG,  a  great  family  of  German  counts, 
princiimlly  resident  in  Prussian  Saxony.  The  main 
branches  are  entitled  Stolberg-Wernigerode,  Stolberg- 
Stolberg,  and  Stolberg-Rossla. 

Stolberg,  stol'bSRG,  (Christian,)  Count,  a  German 
litterateur,  horn  at  Hamburg  in  1748,  was  the  author  of 
several  dramas  and  a  collection  of  poems.  He  also 
published  a  translation  of  Sophocles,  and  other  poems 
from  the  Greek.     Died  in  1821. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Stolberg,  (Friedrich  Leopold,)  Count,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1750.  He  was  sent  in 
1777  by  the  Prince  Bishop  of  Lubeck  as  minister-pleni- 
potentiary to  Copenhagen,  where  he  resided  several 
years,  and  in  1789  was  Danish  ambassador  to  Berlin. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  romance  of  "  The 
Island,"  the  classical  drama  of  "Theseus,"  "Travels 
through  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Sicily,"  (1794,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great,"  (1815.)  He  translated 
into  German  Homer's  "  Iliad,"  four  tragedies  of  i^schy- 
lus,  some  of  the  works  of  Plato,  and  the  poems  of  Ossian. 
In  1800  he  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
soon  after  which  he  brought  out  his  "  History  of  the 
Religion  of  Jesus  Christ,"  (15  vols.,  181 1.)  Died  in  1819. 

See  A.  NicoLOVius,  "  F.  L.  Graf  zu  Stolberfr,"  1846  ;  Longfkl- 
Low,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  J.  H.  Marx,  "DesGrafen 
F.  L.  zu  Stolberg  religioser  Geist,"  1818;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generate. " 

Stoll,  (Maximilian,)  a  German  physician,  born  in 
Suabia  in  1742.  He  practised  in  Vienna,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Ratio  Medendi,"  (3  vols.,  1777- 
80,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1788. 

See  J.  Pezzl,  "  Deiikmal  aufM.  Stoll,"  1788;  Sprengel,  "  His- 
toire  de  la  Medecine." 

Stolle,  stol'leh,  (Gottlieb,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  in  1673.  He  becamejn  171 7  pro- 
fessor of  political  sciences  at  Jena.  Among  his  works 
are  an  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Erudition," 
(1718,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  Lives  and  Writings  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,"  (1733.)     Died  in  1744. 

Stolle,  (LuDWiG  Ferdinand,)  a  German  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1806.  He  published 
"Stolle's  Werke,"  (25  vols.,  1847,)  and  (in  German) 
"  Palms  of  Peace,"  (1855.)     Died  September  29,  1872. 

Stolo.     See  Licinius  Stolo. 

Stolze,  stolt'seh,  (Heinrich  August  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  stenographer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1794,  published 
a  "Theoretical-Practical  Manual  of  German  Stenog- 
raphy."    Died  January  9,  1S67. 

Stone,  (Charles  P.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Greenfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1826,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  ^^  ^^^^  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  summer  of  1861,  and  commanded  a  division  sta- 
tioned on  the  Potomac  River.     A  part  of  his  commard 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


STONE 


2251 


STORCH 


was  defeated  at  Ball's  Bluff,  October  21,  1861.  Sus- 
pected of  treachery,  he  was  imprisoned,  apparently  with- 
out any  just  cause,  in  Fort  Lafayette  in  1S62.  He  resigned 
from  the  army  in  1864.  From  1870  to  1S83  he  was  in 
the  Egyptian  service,  and  attained  the  title  of  pasha. 
Died  at  New  York,  January  24,  18S7. 

Stone,  (Edmund,)  a  British  mathematician,  born 
about  1690.  He  published  a  "  Mathematical  Dictionary," 
(1726,)  and  translated  LTIopital's  "Analysis  of  Infini- 
tesimals," and  Bion's  "  Treatise  on  Mathematical  In- 
struments," from  the  French.     Died  in  1768. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stone,  (Frank,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Manches- 
ter in  1800.  He  settled  in  London,  where  he  contributed 
a  number  of  oil-paintings  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  in  1851  was  elected  an  associate  of  that 
institution.  Among  his  most  admired  works  we  may 
name  "Christ  and  the  Woman  of  Bethany,"  "The 
Gardener's  Daughter,"  and  a  group  of  French  peasants, 
entitled  '  Bon-Jour,  Messieurs."    Died  in  1859. 

Ston(>,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter  and  sculptor  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  called  "Old  Stone."  He  made 
numerous  and  good  copies  from  Flemish  and  Italian 
pictures.  Died  in  1653.  He  was  a  son  of  Nicholas 
Stone,  architect,  noticed  below. 

Stone,  (John,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  devoted 
himself  to  sculpture,  and  was  also  the  author  of  a  treat- 
ise on  fortification,  entitled  "Enchiridion."  Died  in  1699. 

Stone,  (John  Bknjamin,)  an  English  author,  was  born 
at  Birmingham  in  1838,  and  inherited  extensive  interests  as 
a  glass-maimfacturer.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History 
of  Lichfield  Cathedral,"  (1869,)  and  "  A  Summer  Holiday 
in  Spain,"  (1873.) 

Stone,  (John  H.,)  an  American  officer,  born  probably 
in  Maryland.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Long  Island  and  Princeton,  and  was  Governor  of 
Maryland  from  1794  to  1797.     Died  in  1804. 

Stone,  (Lucy,)  a  distinguished  advocate  of"  Women's 
Rights,"  was  born  at  West  Brookfield,  Massachusetts, 
in  181 8.  At  an  early  age  she  determined  to  go  to 
college  and  obtain  a  liberal  education.  She  went  to  Ober- 
lin,  then  the  only  college  in  the  United  States  open  to 
her  sex.  By  hard  work  between  the  hours  of  study, 
she  earned  enough  to  pay  both  her  board  and  tuition 
for  nearly  the  whole  of  her  collegiate  course.  In  the 
debating-society  at  Oberlin  her  rare  oratorical  talents 
were  first  manifested  and  developed.  Having  graduated 
with  high  honours,  she  became  an  agent  and  lecturer 
of  the  Massachusetts  Anti-Slavery  Society,  in  which 
capacity  she  often  pleaded  for  the  rights  of  woman  as 
well  as  for  those  of  the  slave.  "  Lucy  Stone,"  says  Mrs. 
E.  C.  Stanton,  "was  the  first  speaker  who  really  stirred 
the  nation's  heart  on  the  subject  of  woman's  wrongs." 
In  1855  Miss  Stone  was  married  to  Henry  B.  Blackwell, 
(the  brother  of  Elizabeth  Blackwell,  the  first  woman  in 
the  United  States  who  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  ;)  but, 
believing  that  her  influence  as  an  individual  would  be 
compromised  by  giving  up  her  name,  it  was  expressly 
agreed  that  she  should  still  retain  the  one  she  had  always 
borne.  As  a  speaker,  Mrs.  Stone's  merits  are  of  a  pe- 
culiar and  rare  order.  Though  possessing  uncommon 
logical  ability,  it  is  not  to  this  that  she  owes  her  remark- 
able influence  over  her  auditors  ;  nor  is  it  due  to  the 
eloquence  of  emotion  or  passion,  in  the  ordinary  signifi- 
cation of  these  words,  but  rather  to  a  magnetic  sympathy, 
which  seems  all  the  more  powerful  from  its  being  united 
with  the  utmost  quietness  and  simplicity  of  manner  in 
the  orator. 

Stone,  (Marcus,)  an  English  painter,  a  son  of  the 
artist  Frank  Stone,  was  born  in  London,  July  4,  1840, 
and  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1877.     Some  of  his  best  work  is  historical. 

Stone,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  architect  and  sculptor. 
born  near  Exeter  about  15S6,  was  appointed  master- 
mason  of  Windsor  Castle  by  Charles  I.  Among  his 
works  are  a  monument  to  Spenser  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  statues  of  Edward  V.  and  Henry  VII.  Died 
in  1647. 

Stone,  (Nicholas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  also  a 
sculptor,  and  made  copies  of  the  "  Laocoon"  and  other 
celebrated  works.    Died  in  1647. 


Stone,  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Charles 
county,  Maryland,  in  1743.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Congress  of  1774,  and  was  subsequently  three  times 
re-elected.     Died  in  1787. 

Stone,  (William  Leete,)  an  American  journalist 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Ulster  county.  New 
York,  in  1792.  He  became  in  1821  editor  of  the  "Com- 
mercial Advertiser,"  a  political  and  literary  journal  in 
New  York,  which  he  conducted  with  great  ability.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "  Letters  on  Masonry 
and  Anti-Masonry,"  (1832,)  "  Border  Wars  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,"  (1834,)  "Ups  and  Downs  in  the  Life 
of  a  Distressed  Gentleman,"  (1836,)  which  was  very 
popular,  "The  Life  of  Joseph  Brant,"  (1838,)  and  "The 
Poetry  and  History  of  Wyoming,"  (1841.)    Died  in  1844. 

Stone,  (William  Leete,)  Jr.,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  New  York,  April  4,  1835.  He 
graduated  in  1858  at  Brown  University,  and  at  the  law- 
school  at  Albany  in  1S59.  He  published  the  Life  of 
Sir  William  Johnson,  (1865,)  of  W.  L.  Stone,  (1866,)  of 
General  Riedesel,  (1868,)  of  Mrs.  Riedesel,  (1867,)  (with 
writings,  etc.,  of  the  three  last  named,)  "  History  of  New 
York  City,"  (1872,)  and  other  works,  largely  historical. 

Stone,  (William  Murray,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Somerset  county,  Maryland,  June  i, 
1779,  graduated  in  1799  at  Washington  College,  Mary- 
land, was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
1802,  and  was  in  1830  consecrated  Bishop  of  Maryland. 
Died  February  26,  1838. 

Stone,  (William  Oliver,)  an  American  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Derby,  Connecticut,  September  26,  1830. 
His  portraits  of  ladies  and  children  were  often  of  high 
excellence.  Died  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  September 
IS.  1875. 

Stone'man,  (George,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Chautauqua  county.  New  York,  about  1824,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  m  1846.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1858,  and  became  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  August,  1861.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  the  battle  of  Chancellors- 
ville,  May,  1863.  While  serving  under  General  Shev- 
man  near  Atlanta  in  July,  1864,  he  and  a  large  part  of 
his  command  were  captured  in  a  raid  against  Macon.  He 
was  brevetted  major-general  in  1865.     Retired  in  1S71. 

Ston'house,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  physician  and 
divine,  born  near  Abingdon  in  1716.  He  graduated  a* 
Oxford,  and  subsequently  studied  medicine  in  France. 
Having  practised  his  profession  for  many  years  with 
eminent  success,  he  entered  holy  orders,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  He  was  noted  for  his 
practical  benevolence,  and  published  a  number  of  tracts 
on  moral  and  religious  subjects.     Died  in  1795- 

Stoordza,  Stourdza,  or  Sturdza,  stooRd'zd, 
(Alexander,)  a  Russian  writer  and  diplomatist,  born 
at  Jassy  in  1788.  He  was  privy  councillor  in  the  reign 
of  Nicholas.  He  wrote  several  political  and  religious 
works.     Died  in  1854. 

Scii  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Stop'ford,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  able  English  naval  offt- 
cer,  born  in  1768.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  captain, 
he  served  with  distinction  under  Lord  Howe  in  the 
battle  against  the  French,  June  i,  1794.  He  afterwards 
captured  many  French  vessels,  became  a  rear-admiral 
about  1808,  and  full  admiral  in  1825.  He  commanded 
the  naval  force  which  took  Acre  in  November,  1840. 
Died  in  1847, 

Storace,  sto-rS'chi  or  stor'ass,  (Anna,)  a  singer  and 
actress,  born  in  1761.  was  a  sister  of  the  following.  She 
performed  in  England.     Died  in  1814. 

Storace,  (Stephen  or  Stefano,)  a  distinguished 
composer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1763. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  operas  of  "The  Siege  of 
Belgrade,"  "The  Haunted  Tower,"  and  "The  Pirates." 
Died  in  1796,  His  sister,  Anna  Selina,  was  a  highly 
esteemed  vocalist. 

Storch,  stoRK,  [Lat.  Pelar'gus,]  (Christoph,)  a 
German  Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Schvveidnitz  in 
1565.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Epitome  Uni- 
versae  Theologiae,"  (1617.)     Died  in  1633. 

Storcb,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  physician  and  chemist, 


€  as  ,i,-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as ;;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nas»l;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (fl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


S  TORCH 


2252 


STORY 


born  near  Eisenach  in  i68r.  He  wrote  several  profes- 
sional works.     Died  in  1751. 

Storch,  (LuDWiG,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in 
Thuringia  in  1803,  publisiied  a  number  of  lyric  poems 
and  historical  romances.     Died  February  5,  ibSi. 

Storch,  (Nicholas,)  a  German  Anabaptist  preacher, 
born  at  Stolberg,  in  Saxony,  about  1490,  is  called  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Pacificators.  He  taught  that  men 
should  be  guided  by  immediate  revelation  or  insjjira- 
tion,  and  opposed  infant  baptism.  By  the  agency  of 
Luther  he  was  banished  from  Saxony.  lie  gained  many 
proselytes  in  Suabia,  Thuringia,  etc.     Died  in  1530. 

Storch,  von,  fon  stoRK,  (Heinrich  Friedrich,)  a 
Russian  political  economist,  born  in  1766.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Historical  and  Statistical  View  of  Russia  at 
the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  Century."     Died  in  1835. 

Sto'rer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  poem  on  "The  Life 
and  Death  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  (1599.)     Died  in  1604. 

Stork,  stoRk,  (Auraham,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a 
native  of  Amsterdam.  His  sea-views  are  distinguished 
by  great  spirit  and  fidelity  to  nature.     Died  in  1708. 

Stork  or  Stoerk,  von,  fon  stoRk,  (Anton,)  Baron, 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  Suabia  in  1 73 1.  He 
practised  at  Vienna,  and  became  physician  to  the  em- 
press Maria  Theresa.  He  published  several  medical 
works.     Died  in  1803. 

Storks,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  about 
181 1.  He  was  appointed  lord  high  commissioner  of 
the  Ionian  Islands  in  1859,  and  succeeded  Mr.  Eyre  as 
Governor  of  Jamaica  in  1S65.     Died  in  1874. 

Storm,  (Edward,)  a  Norwegian  poet,  born  in  1749, 
was  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem  entitled  "  Infodret- 
ten,"  a  number  of  popular  lyrics,  and  a  collection  of 
"Fables  and  Tales."     Died  in  1794. 

See  L0NGFFLI.OW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Howitt, 
"  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe;"  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  June,  1S30,  article  "Danish  and  Norwegian  Lit- 
erature." 

Stor'mont,  (David  Murray,)  Viscount,  and  Earl 
of  Mansfield,  a  British  statesman,  born  about  1728,  was 
a  nephew  of  the  famous  Lord  Mansfield.  He  was  am- 
bassador at  Vienna  and  at  Paris.  In  the  ministry  formed 
by  Fox  and  Lord  North  (17S3)  he  was  president  of  the 
council.     Died  in  1796. 

Storr,  (GoTTLOB  Christian,)  a  German  theologian, 
and  jjrofessor  of  divinity  at  Tubingen,  was  born  at  Stutt- 
gart in  1746.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Biblical  Theology" 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1805. 

Storrs,  (Charles  B.,)  an  American  clergyman,  bom 
about  1794,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Salter  Storrs, 
who  died  in  1819.  He  became  president  of  the  Western 
Reserve  College,  Ohio,  about  1830.  Died  at  Braintree 
in  1833. 

Stori'S,  (Henry  Randolph,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  orator,  born  at  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  17S7. 
He  practised  law  at  Utica,  New  York,  and  represented 
the  Oneida  district  in  Congress  from  1819  to  1832,  ex- 
cept one  term.  It  is  stated  that  he  had  a  ready  and 
powerful  elocution,  and  as  a  debater  attained  the  first 
rank.  He  was  an  adherent  of  President  Adams.  He 
died  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1837. 

Storrs,  (Richard  Salter,)  Junior,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts, 
in  182  L  He  became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Pil- 
grims, Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  1846,  and  in  1848  asso- 
ciate editor  of  "The  Independent,"  a  religious  journal 
published  in  that  city.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
sermons  and  orations,  and  "  Lectures  on  the  Wisdom, 
Power,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  Human  Soul." 

Storrs,  (William  Lucius,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1795,  was  a  brother  of 
Henry  R.  Storrs,  noticed  above.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1829,  in  1831,  and  in  1839.  He 
became  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Connecticut 
about  1840,  and  chief  justice  of  the  same  in  1856. 
Died  in  1861. 

Sto'r^,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  American  jurist,  born 
in  Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i8th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1779,  was  a  son  of  Elisha  Story,  a  physician.     He 


graduated  in  1798  at  Harvard  College,  where  William 
E.  Channing  was  his  classmate.  He  studied  law  under 
.Samuel  .Sewall  and  Judge  Putnam,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1801,  and  began  to  practise  at  Salem.  In  1802 
he  produced  a  didactic  poem  called  "The  Power  of 
.Solitude,"  which  was  reprinted  with  several  short  poems 
in  1804.  He  then  ceased  to  cultivate  his  poetical  talents, 
and  devoted  himself  with  great  assiduity  to  legal  sci- 
ence, in  which  he  became  profoundly  versed.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in  1805,  be- 
gan his  political  life  as  a  Democrat,  and  was  chosen  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1808.  He  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  debater.  In  1809  or  1810  he  advocated  the 
repeal  of  the  embargo,  and  became  an  opponent  of  Jef- 
ferson on  that  question.  He  declined  to  be  a  candidate 
for  Congress  in  1810,  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  Massachusetts  in  181 1,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  by  President  Madison  in  November  of  that  year. 
So  young  a  man  had  never  before,  in  America  or  Eng- 
land, been  appointed  to  so  high  a  judicial  position.  He 
continued  to  occupy  that  office  for  thirty-four  years.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  revised  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  in  1820.  In  1829  he  ac- 
cepted a  chair  of  law  founded  in  Harvard  College  by 
Nathan  Dane.  He  delivered  courses  of  lectures  on  the 
law  of  nature,  the  laws  of  nations,  maritime  and  com- 
mercial law,  federal  equity,  and  the  constitutional  law  of 
the  United  States.  He  acquired  a  European  reputa- 
tion by  the  publication  of  a  series  of  works, — viz.,  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Constitution  of  the  United  .States," 
(1833,)  "Commentaries  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws,"  (3 
vols.,  1834,)  regarded  by  some  critics  as  the  most  origi- 
nal and  profound  of  his  writings,  "Commentaries  on 
Equity  Jurisprudence,"  (1836,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Agency,"  (1839.)  His  judgments  in  the  su]:)reme 
court  may  be  found  in  the  Reports  of  Cranch,  Wheaton, 
Peters,  and  Howard.  His  principal  literary  writings  arc 
contained  in  a  collection  of  his  discourses,  reviews,  and 
miscellanies,  published  in  1835.  "  I  think  all  the  treatises 
of  Story,"  says  Chancellor  Kent,  "are  on  the  whole  the 
most  finished  and  perfect  of  their  kind  to  be  met  with  in 
any  language,  foreign  or  domestic ;  and  for  learning,  in- 
dustry, and  talent,  he  is  the  most  extraordinary  jurist  of 
the  age."  The  Earl  of  Carlisle  (formerly  Lord  Morpeth) 
speaks  of  Story  as  one  "whose  reputation  and  authority 
as  a  commentator  and  expounder  of  law  stand  high  wher- 
ever law  is  known  or  honoured,  and  who  was,  what  at 
least  is  more  generally  attractive,  one  of  the  most  gener- 
ous and  single-hearted  of  men."  He  was  endowed  with 
extraordinary  conversational  ])owers,  which  rendered  him 
a  great  favourite  in  society.  His  constitutional  doctrines 
were  similar  to  those  of  Marshall  and  the  Federalists. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Unitarian  Church.  Died  at 
Cambridge  on  the  loth  of  September,  1845.  He  left  one 
daughter,  who  was  married  to  George  W.  Curtis. 

Judge  Story's  works  are  more  voluminous  than  those 
of  any  other  lawyer  of  great  eminence.  His  commen- 
taries and  his  written  judgments  in  his  own  circuit 
occupy  twenty-seven  volumes,  and  iiis  judgments  in  the 
supreme  court  form  an  important  part  of  thirty-four 
volumes  more. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Joseph  Story,"  by  his  son,  William  W.  Story, 
2  vols.,  1S51  ;  Grlswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America ;"  "  National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Sto'ry,  (Robert,)  a  British  lyric  poet,  born  in  North- 
untberland  about  1790,  was  minister  at  Roseneath  or 
Rosneath.     Died  in  1859. 

See  R.  H.  Story,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Robert  Story,"  i8b2. 

Story,  (Robert  Herbert,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine, 
born  at  Roseneath,  January  28,  1835.  He  studied  at 
Saint  Andrew's,  Edinburgh,  and  Heidelberg,  and  became 
a  minister  of  the  Nationil  Kirk.  His  books  include  a 
"Life  of  Robert  Story,"  his  father,  (1862,)  "Memoir  of 
Dr.  Robert  Lee,"  (1870,)  "William  Carstares,"  (1874,) 
"Creed  and  Conduct,"  (1878,)  etc. 

Story,  (Thomas,)  born  in  Cumberland  about  1666. 
was  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1698.     Died  in  1742. 

Story,  (William  Wetmore,)  a  lawyer  and  sculptor; 
a  son  of  Chief-Justice  Story,  was  born  at  Salem,  Massa 


X,  e,  T,  0,  ij,  y  'oiig;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  f,  short;  a,-?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fdll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  gSSd;  moon 


STOSCH 


2253 


STO  WE 


chusetts,  in  February,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1838,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Boston  bar.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Contracts,"  (1844,)  a  volume  of  Poems,  (1847,)  and  a 
"Life  of  Joseph  Story,"  (his  father,)  (1851.)  He  after- 
wards studied  sculpture  at  Rome,  where  he  passed  many 
years.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Roba  di  Roma," 
(1862,)  "Poems,"  (1865,)  "Proportions  of  the  Human 
Figure,"  (1866,)  "Graffiti  d'ltalia,"  (1869,)  "The  Roman 
Lawyer  in  Jerusalem,"  (1870,)  "  Nero,"  a  tragedy,  (1875,) 
and  "  He  and  She,"  (1883.) 

Stosch,  von,  fon  stosh,  (Philipp,)  Baron,  a  Gernian 
diplomatist  and  amateur,  born  at  Kiistrin  in  1691,  resided 
several  ye.irs  in  Rome  and  Florence,  and  made  a  large 
and  choice  collection  of  works  of  art.  He  published 
"Gemmas  antiquae  Sculptorum  imaginibus  insignitae," 
(2  vols.,  1724.)  A  catalogue  was  published  by  Winckel- 
mann  in  1760,  entitled  "Description  of  the  Engraved 
Gems  of  the  Late  Baron  Stosch,"  (in  French.)  Died 
in  1757. 

See  Lenz,  "  Historische  Abhandkins;  von  dem  Gen.  von  Stosch," 
1751  :  Sax,  "  Ononiasticon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Stoss,  stos,  (Veit,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  early  German  sculptors,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1490  ;  died  in  1542. 

Stoth'ard,  (Charles  Alfred,)  an  English  painter 
and  designer,  born  in  London  in  1786,  was  a  son  of 
Thomas  "Stothard,  noticed  below.  Having  been  ap- 
pointed historical  draughtsman  to  the  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries in  1 81 5,  he  visited  France,  where  he  made 
drawings  of  the  Bayeux  tapestry.  After  his  return,  he 
published  in  the  "  Archaeologia"  a  treatise  proving  the 
tapestry  to  be  coeval  with  the  Norman  Conquest.  He 
brought  out  in  1820  the  ninth  part  of  his  "Monumental 
Effigies  of  Great  Britain,"  which  was  very  favourably 
received.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  in  1821,  and  his  last- 
named  work  was  completed  by  his  widow,  afterwards 
Mrs.  Bray. 

See  "  Menioirs  of  C.  A.  Stothard,"  by  Mrs.  Bray. 

Stothard,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Long- 
acre  in  1755.  He  studied  at  tiie  Royal  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  elected  an  Associate  in  1785,  and  in  1794 
an  Academician.  Among  his  best  works  are  his  designs 
for  Rogers's  "Poems,"  Boydell's  "  Shakspeare,"  and 
"The  Canterbury  Pilgrims."     Died  in  1834. 

See  Mrs.  Bray,  "Life  of  Thomas  Stothard,"  1831;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  May  and  June,  1836. 

Stouf,  stoof,  (Jea.v  Baptiste,)  a  French  sculptor 
born  in  Paris  in  1742.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute.    Died  in  1826. 

Stoughton,  sto'ton,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Norwich,  November  18,  1807.  He  was  educated 
at  Highbury  College,  and  at  University  College,  London, 
and  in  1832  became  a  Congregationalist  pastor.  In  1875 
he  was  made  professor  of  historical  theology  in  New 
College.  He  published  many  works,  including  an  "  Ec- 
clesiastical History  of  England,"  (5  vols.,  1867-74,)  re- 
issued as  "Religion  in  England,"  (6  vols.,  i88i.) 

Stourdza.  See  Stoordza. 

Stow,  (Baron,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  divine, 
born  in  Sullivan  county.  New  Hampshire,  in  1801.  He 
published  "  Daily  Manna  for  Christian  Pilgrims,"  (1S48,) 
"Question-Book  of  Christian  Doctrine,"  and  other  re- 
ligious works.     Died  December  27,  1869. 

StO'w,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  London 
in  1525.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Summary  of  the 
Chronicles  of  England,"  afterwards  enlarged,  and  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  Flores  Historiarum  ;  or.  An- 
nals of  this  Kingdom  from  the  Time  of  the  Ancient 
Britons  to  his  Own,"  (1600,)  and  a  "  Survey  of  London." 
He  died  in  1605,  leaving  materials  for  a  "Chronicle 
of  England,"  subsequently  published,  with  additions,  by 
Edmund  Howes.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Stow 
was  reduced  to  great  indigence,  and  letters-patent  were 
granted  him  by  James  I.,  permitting  him  to  collect 
gratuities  throughout  the  country  and  in  the  churches. 

See  "  Kiographia  Britannica  ;"  Strvpe,  "Life  of  Stow,"  prefixed 
to  his  works. 

Stovre, sto,  (Calvin  Ellis,)  D.D.,  an  .-Vmerican  divine 
and  scholar,  born  at  Natick.  Massachusetts,  in  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1824,  became  pro- 


fessor of  languages  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1830,  and  in 
1833  professor  of  biblical  literature  at  Lane  Seminary, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.  Having  visited  Europe  in  1836,  he 
published,  after  his  return,  a  report  on  "Elementary 
Education  in  Europe."  From  1852  to  1864  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  sacred  literature  in  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary.    Died  August  22,  1886. 

Stowe,  (Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher,)  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  American  authors,  was  born  at  Litch- 
field, Connecticut,  on  the  14th  of  June,  1812.  She  wag 
the  third  daughter  and  sixth  child  of  the  celebrated 
Lyman  Beecher.  Her  mother,  whose  maiden-name 
was  Roxana  Foote,  was  a  granddaughter  of  General 
Ward,  who  served  under  Washington  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary war.  When  Harriet  was  not  yet  four  years  old, 
her  mother  died  ;  but  the  memory  of  her  spirit  and  ex- 
ample appears  to  have  had  no  little  influence  in  moulding 
the  character  of  her  gifted  daughter.  After  about  two 
years,  Mr.  Beecher  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Harriet 
Porter,  of  Maine.  The  new  step-mother,  writing  soon 
after  to  her  friends,  said,  "  Harriet  and  Henry  .  .  .  are 
as  lovely  children  as  I  ever  saw, — amiable,  affectionate, 
and  very  bright."  While  still  a  child,  Harriet  was  pas- 
sionately fond  of  books  ;  among  those  in  which  she 
took  especial  delight  were  Scott's  novels,  the  "  Arabian 
Nights,"  and  "  Don  Quixote."  When  at  Mr.  Brace's 
school  in  Litchfield,  between  the  ages  of  nine  and  twelve, 
she  was  deeply  interested  in  hearing  him  converse  on  his- 
tory and  moral  philosophy.  Before  she  had  completed 
her  twelfth  year,  she  wrote  a  composition  on  the  ques- 
tion, "Can  the  immortality  of  the  soul  be  proved  by  the 
light  of  nature  .'"'  maintaining  the  negative.  At  an  exhi- 
bition in  the  school,  the  compositions  were  read  aloud 
before  "  the  literati  of  Litchfield."  WHien  hers  came  to 
be  read,  she  noticed  that  her  father,  "who was  sitting  on 
high  by  Mr.  Brace,  brightened  and  looked  interested." 
To  Mr.  Beecher's  question,  "Who  wrote  that?"  the 
reply  was,  "Your  daughter,  sir."  That,  she  tells  us, 
"was  the  proudest  moment  of  her  life."  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  she  became  a  pupil  of  her  sister  Catherine, 
then  principal  of  the  Female  Seminary  at  Hartford,  in 
which  institution  she  remained  several  years.  Her 
father  having  in  1832  been  elected  president  of  Lane 
Seminary  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  she  accompanied  him 
thither.  In  1836  she  was  married  to  Professor  Calvin 
E.  Stowe,  (see  preceding  article.)  A  charming  sketch 
entitled  "  Uncle  Tim,"  written  in  1834,  and  afterwards 
published  in  "The  Mayflower,"  first  attracted  public 
attention  to  her  as  a  writer  of  rare  promise.  In  1850  she 
accompanied  her  husband,  who  had  been  appointed  to  a 
professorship  in  Bowdoin  College,  to  Brunswick,  Maine. 
While  here,  she  wrote  her  novel  of  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  furnished  to  the  "National  Era"  (published  at 
Washington)  in  weekly  contributions.  The  success  of 
this  work  has  been  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of 
literature.  It  is  said  that  nearly  half  a  million  have 
been  sold  in  the  United  States,  and  probably  more  than 
that  number  have  been  distributed  in  the  British  do- 
minions, the  work  there  not  being  protected  by  copy- 
right. Add  to  this  that  it  has  been  translated  into  all 
the  principal  European  and  into  several  Asiatic  lan- 
guages, including,  it  is  said,  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. 
Two  different  tr'anslations  of  it  have  been  made  into 
Russian,  three  into  the  Magyar  language,  and  thirteen  or 
fourteen  into  German.  In  1853  Mrs.  Stowe  visited  Eng- 
land and  the  European  continent,  and  on  her  return  gave 
to  the  world  her  "  Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands," 
(2  vols.,  1854.)  "Dred,  a  Tale  of  the  Dismal  Swamp," 
appeared  in  1856;  "The  Minister's  Wooing,"  a  tale  of 
New  England  life,  (i  vol.  i2mo,)  in  1859,  first  published 
in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  in  which  appeared  also  "Th» 
Pearl  of  Orr's  Island,"  and  "  Agnes  of  Sorrento,"  (gener- 
ally regarded  as  inferior  to  her  other  works  of  fiction.) 
Her  "  Men  of  our  Times,"  a  biographical  work,  came  out 
in  1S68.  In  1869  appeared  her  "Oldtown  Folks,"  pre- 
senting, among  other  things,  a  masterly  picture  of  the 
phases  of  religious  thought  and  feeling  in  New  Eng- 
land in  the  last  century.  In  1868  there  was  published 
in  London  a  book  entitled  "My  Recollections  of  Lord 
Byron,  and  those  of  Eye-Witnesses  of  his  Life,"  (with- 
out a  name,  but  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  ^ttiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STOWELL 


2254 


STRAFFORD 


Countess  Guiccioli,)  which  contained  some  very  severe 
reflections  on  the  character  of  the  late  Lady  liyron. 
Partly  in  reply  to  these,  Mrs.  Stowe  wrote  the  "  True 
Story  of  Lord  Byron's  Life,"  published  in  September, 
1869,  in  the  "  Atlantic  Monthly,"  Boston,  and  "  Macmii- 
lan's  Magazine,"  London.  This  was  severely  criticised 
in  several  European  and  American  journals,  the  almost 
universal  verdict  being  that  Mrs.  Stowe  had  allowed  her 
sympathy  for  Lady  Byron  to  warp  her  better  judgment. 
She  replied  to  her  critics  in  a  small  volume  entitled  "  Lady 
Byron  Vindicated,"  (December,  1869.)  Among  her  later 
books  are  "  Pink  and  White  Tyranny,"  (1871,)  "  My  Wife 
and  I,"  (1872,)  "Palmetto  Leaves,"  (1873,)  "Betty's 
Bright  Idea,"  (1876,)  and  "Footprints  of  the  Master," 
(1877-) 

See  the  interesting  notice  of  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  in  the  "  Emi- 
nent Women  of  the  Age,"  (by  the  Rev.  E.  P.  Parker  :)  Allibone, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "  New  Americ.in  Cyclopa;dia. " 

Stow'ell,  (Hugh,)  an  English  theologian  and  writer, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Man  in  1799.  lie  took  orders  in 
the  Anglican  Church,  and  preached  at  Salford.  He 
published  numerous  religious  works.     Died  in  1865, 

See  J.  B.  Marsden,  "Life  of  Hugh  Stowell,"  1866. 

Stowell,  (William  Scott,)  Baron,  an  English 
judge,  born  near  Newcastle  in  1745,  was  a  brother 
of  Lord  Eldon.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
became  Camden  reader  of  ancient  history.  He  passed 
about  eighteen  years  at  Oxford,  (1761-79.)  About  1778 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  famous  Literary  Club, 
and  became  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1 780,  and  practised  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
and  high  court  of  admiralty.  He  was  more  distinguished 
for  learning  than  for  oratorical  talents.  In  1788  he  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  consistory  court,  advocate- 
general,  and  privy  councillor.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  in  1790,  and  became  judge  of  the  high 
court  of  admiralty  in  1798.  He  represented  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  in  Parliament  from  1801  till  1821,  and 
constantly  supported  the  Tory  party.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Stowell,  in  1821.  Lord  Stowell 
is  regarded  as  a  high  authority  for  ecclesiastical  and 
international  law.     Died  in  1836. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1849  ;  Lord 
Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.;"  W.  E.  SuR- 
TEE.S,  "  Lives  of  Lords  Stowell  and  Eldon,"  1846. 

Stra'bo,  [Gr.  IrpdSuv  ;  Fr.  Strabon,  stRt'biN',]  an 
eminent  Greek  geographer,  born  at  Amasia,  in  Pontus, 
about  60  B.C.  He  studied  under  Aristodemus,  Tyran- 
nio,  and  Xenarchus  the  Peripatetic,  and  in  philosophy 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics.  He  also  ptnsued 
his  education  by  extensive  journeys  in  Egypt,  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Italy.  He  passed  a  number  of  years  at 
Rome,  and  devoted  much  time  to  the  composition  of  a 
work  on  geography  which  he  designed  to  be  attractive 
in  form  and  adapted  to  general  use.  To  the  descriptions 
of  countries  he  added  notices  of  the  customs  and  former 
history  of  the  people,  enlivened  by  the  anecdotes,  tra- 
ditions, and  comparisons  which  give  interest  to  positive 
geography.  His  work  is  highly  prizea  as  an  animated, 
broadly  conceived,  and  skilfully  executed  picture  of  the 
world  as  known  to  the  ancients.  He  is  ratl.er  deficient 
in  the  department  of  physical  geography.  Died  about 
24  A.D. 

See  SiEBELis,  "  De  Strabonis  Patria,  Genere,  iEtate,"  etc.,  1828; 
Meinhcke,  '•  Vindiciae  Strabonian^e,"  1S52;  Vossms,  "  De  His- 
toricis  Gr.-ecis;"  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grxca ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Stra'bo,  (Caius  Fannius,)  a  Roman  orator,  was 
consul  in  122  B.C.  He  made  a  famous  speech  against 
C.  Gracchus  on  the  subject  of  giving  the  franchise  to 
the  Latins. 

Strabo,  (Caius  Fannmus,)  a  Roman  historian,  was 
a  son-in-law  of  Lselius.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
the  capture  of  Carthage,  146  B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
Roman  history,  which  is  lost. 

Strabon.    See  Strabo. 

Strack,  stR^k,  (Johanm  Heinrich,)  a  German 
architect,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  at  Berlin,  was 
born  at  Biickeburg  in  1806.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  castle  of  Fredericksborg,  built  for  the  King  of 
Denmark,  and  Peter's  Church  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1880. 

Strada,  stRi'di,  (Famiano,)  [Lat.  Famia'nus,]  an 


Italian  Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Rome  in  1572,  was 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  Gregorian  College  in  that 
city.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  De  Bello  Belgico 
ab  Excessu  Carli  V.  ad  Annum  1590,"  or  a  history  of 
the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  against  Spain,  (2  vols., 
1632-47.)  He  also  wrote  Latin  essays,  entitled  "  Pro- 
lusiones,"  (161 7,)  being  commentaries  on  the  classics 
and  ancient  literature.     Died  in  1649. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Strada  or  Stradano,  stR5-di'no,  called  also  Stra 
dan,  [Lat.  Strada'nus;  Fr.  Strauan,  stKt'd6N',|(jAN,) 
a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1536. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  Cosimo  I.  Among  his  master-pieces 
we  may  name  his  "Crucifixion,"  in  the  Church  of  (he 
Annunciation  at  Bruges.  He  also  excelled  in  painting 
animals,  hunting-scenes,  etc.     Died  in  1605. 

Strada,  di,  de  stRi'dS,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Mantua  about  1515,  was  an  expert  con- 
noisseur of  art.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Epitome  Thesauri  Antiquitatum,  hoc  est  Imperatorum 
Romanorum  Iconum,"  etc.,  (1553,)  which  treats  of  the 
medals  of  the  Roman  emperors.     Died  in  1588. 

Stradan  or  Stradano.     See  Strada. 

Stradanus.    See  Strada. 

Stradella,  stRi-del'lA,  (Alkssandro,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1645.  His  oratorio 
of  "San  Giovanni  Battista"  is  greatly  admired;  and  he 
produced  a  number  of  cantatas,  duets,  etc.  of  remarkable 
beauty.  He  was  assassinated  about  1678  by  the  lover 
of  a  Venetian  lady  whom  he  had  married. 

Stradivari,  stR^-de-v^'re,  (Antonio,)  [Lat.  An- 
TONius  Stradivarius,]  an  Italian  maker  of  stringed 
instruments,  born  at  Cremona  about  1650  ;  died  in  1737. 

Straeten,  van  der,  vtn  der  stR^'ten,  sometimes 
written  Streten,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
born  about  1665  or  1680.     He  worked  in  England. 

Strafford,  (George  Stevens  Bvng,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  peer,  was  born  in  1806.  He  was  a  Liberal 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  from  183 1  to  1852, 
and  held  several  high  civil  offices.  In  i860  he  succeeded 
to  the  earldom.     Died  in  1884. 

Strafford,  (John  Byng.)  Earl  of,  a  British  general, 
born  in  London  about  1775,  was  the  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  served  with  distinction  as  major-general 
at  the  battles  of  Vitoria,  Nivelle,  and  Orthez.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  field-marshal.     Died  about  i860. 

Strafford,  (Thomas  Wentworth,)  Earl  ok,  an 
English  politician,  born  in  London  in  April,  1593,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Wentworth,  from  whom 
he  inherited  a  large  estate.  He  was  educated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  married  in  161 1  a  Miss 
Clifford,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Cumberland.  In 
1614  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Yorkshire,  which 
he  also  represented  in  that  which  met  in  1621.  His 
wife  having  died  in  1622,  he  married  Arabella  Ilollis,  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clare.  1  le  was  appointed  sheriff 
of  Yorkshire  in  1625.  In  the  Parliament  which  met  in 
1628,  he  acted  with  the  popular  party,  and  made  able 
speeches  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  court,  in 
order,  perhaps,  to  give  the  king  a  proper  idea  of  the 
value  of  his  services.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  he 
was  created  a  baron,  and  on  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  (1628)  he  was  appointed  lord  president 
of  the  North,  and  privy  councillor.  He  was  a  political 
and  personal  friend  of  Archljishop  Laud.  He  was  am- 
bitious, energetic,  haughty,  and  unscrupulous.  He  de- 
clared that  he  would  "  lay  any  man  by  the  heels"  who 
should  appeal  from  his  sentence  to  the  courts  at  West- 
minster. In  163 1  or  1632  he  was  appointed  lord  deputy 
of  Ireland,  which  he  governed  in  a  tyrannical  manner. 
His  cruelty  to  Lord  Mountmorris  and  others  excited 
great  indignation.  He  directed  his  highest  energies  to 
the  formation  of  a  standing  army,  and  boasted  that  in 
Ireland  "  the  king  was  as  absolute  as  any  prince  in  the 
whole  world  could  be."  (Letter  to  Laud,  1634.)  He 
was  created  Earl  of  Strafford  in  1639  or  1640. 

"He  had  been,"  says  Macaulay,  "one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished members  of  the  opposition,  and  felt  towards 
•.hose  whom  he  had  deserted  that  peculiar  malignity 
which  has  in  all  ages  been  characteristic  of  apostates. 


d.  e,  1,  6,  f),  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  .7,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mf  t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STRAHAN 


STRAUSS 


He  perfectly  understood  the  feelings,  the  resources,  and 
the  policy  of  the  party  to  which  he  had  lately  belonged, 
and  had  formed  a  vast  and  deeply-meditated  scheme, 
which  very  nearly  confounded  even  the  able  tactics  of 
the  statesmen  by  whom  the  House  of  Commons  had 
been  directed.  To  this  scheme,  in  his  confidential  cor- 
respondence, he  gave  the  expressive  name  of  Thorough." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  p.  25.)  His  design  was 
to  make  the  royal  power  as  absolute  in  England  as  it 
was  in  Ireland.  The  revolt  of  the  Scotch,  whom  the 
king  foolishly  provoked  to  fight  for  their  re  igious  rights, 
interfered  with  the  success  of  Strafford's  scheme.  He 
was  summoned  to  London  by  Charles  I.  in  1639,  and 
appointed  genera!-in-chief  in  1640  ;  but  before  he  could 
join  the  army  it  was  driven  from  the  border  by  the 
msurgents,  and  the  war  was  ended  by  a  treaty.  The 
Long  Parliament,  which  met  in  November,  1640,  im- 
peached Straff"ord  of  high  treason.  He  was  accused  of 
an  attempt  "to  subvert  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
country."  John  Pym  was  the  principal  speaker  against 
him.  (See  Pym.)  The  Commons  abandoned  the  im- 
peachment and  passed  a  bill  of  attainder  by  a  large 
majority,  of  whom  Falkland  was  one.  He  was  beheaded 
in  May,  1641.  Two  volumes  of  his  "Letters  and  De- 
spatches" have  been  published. 

See  George  Radci.ifkk,  "I.ife  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford ;"  Hume, 
"  History  of  England  ;"  John  Forster,  "  Lives  of  Eminent  British 
Statesmen;"  Macaui.av,  Review  of  Lord  Nugent's  "  Memorials 
of  Hampden;"  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion;" 
Lai.lv-Tollendal,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  du  Conite  de  Strafford," 
1795;  GuizoT,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre ;"  "  13io- 
graphia  Britannica." 

Strahau,  strt'an,  (William,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
printer,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1715.  He  became 
a  resident  of  London,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1775.     Died  in  17S5. 

Strahl,  stuSl,  (Moritz  Hermann,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  at  Glogau  in  1800.  He  became 
in  1842  Sanitatsrath  in  Berlin.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Der  Mensch  nach  seiner  leiblichen  und  geistigen 
Natur,"  (1835-38.) 

Strange,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  engraver, 
born  in  Pomona,  on-e  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  in  1721.  He 
studied  under  Le  Bas  in  Paris,  passed  several  years  in 
Italy,  and  settled  in  London,  where  he  worked  with  great 
success.  Among  his  master-])ieces  are  "  Saint  Jerome," 
after  Correggio,  "Saint  Cecilia,"  after  Raphael,  "  The 
Death  of  Dido,"  after  Guercino,  and  "  Venus  Reclining," 
after  Titian.     Died  in  1792. 

See  J.  Dennistoun,  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  R.  Strange  and  of  his 
Brother-in-Law  A.  Liimisden,"  2  vols.,  1854;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  C.  L.  Brightwei.l^ 
"  Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  1863  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1855. 

Strang'ford,  (Percy  Clinton  Sydney  Smythe,) 
Viscount,  an  Irish  diplomatist  and  scholar,  born  in 
1780.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
became  successively  British  ambassador  to  Stockholm 
in  1817,  to  Constantinople  in  1820,  and  to  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1825.  He  was  vice-president  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  and  knight  grand  cross  of  the  Hanoverian 
Guelphic  Order.  He  made  a  translation  of  the  poems 
of  Camoens,  which  was  commended  by  Lord  Byron. 
In  1825  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  as  Lord  Penshurst.     Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1805 ;  "  Monthly  Re- 
view" for  September,  1804. 

Strangford,  (Percy  Ellen  Algernon  Frederick 
William  Sydney  Smythe,)  Viscount,  an  Orientalist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1825.  His  "Selected  Writings;  Political,  Geographical, 
and  Social,"  were  published  in  2  vols.,  1869.   Died  in  1869. 

Straparola,  stKd-pi-ro'li,  (Gian  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  writer  of  tales,  was  born  at  Caravaggio  before 
1500.  He  published  "  Piacevole  Notte,"  (2  vols.,  1550- 
54,)  often  reprinted.     Died  after  1557. 

Strafford,  (Nicholas,)  a  learned  English  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1633.  He  became  Dean 
of  Saint  Asaph  in  1673,  and  chaplain  to  the  king.  In 
1689  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chester.  He  wrote 
several  works  against  popery.     Died  in  1707. 

Strafford  de  Red'clXffe,  (Stratford  Canning,) 
first  Viscount,  a  cousin  of  George  Canning,  was  born 


in  London  in  1788.  He  studied  at  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1810  succeeded  Mr.  Robert  Adair  as 
minister-plenipotentiary  at  Constantinople.  He  became 
envoy-extraordinary  and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the 
United  States  in  1820,  and  in  1825  was  again  sent  as 
minister  to  Constantinople,  where  he  exerted  himself  to 
procure  from  the  Sultan  some  alleviation  of  the  oppres- 
sion under  which  the  Greeks  were  then  suffering.  His 
appeals  being  unheeded,  the  chief  European  powers 
determined  upon  coercive  measures,  and  the  battle  of 
Navarino,  in  1827,  decided  the  fate  of  Greece.  Mr. 
Canning  was  soon  after  elected  to  Parliament  for  Old 
Sarum,  and  in  1829  was  created  knight  grand  cross  of  the 
Bath.  In  1841  he  was  a  third  time  appointed  minister 
to  Constantinople,  having  on  a  previous  mission  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  defining  the  boundaries  of  Greece.  In 
this  post  he  continued  till  1858,  when  he  returned  to 
England.  Through  his  influence  with  the  Sultan,  he  pro- 
moted many  reforms,  among  which  are  the  abolition  of 
torture,  and  the  establishment  of  political  and  religious 
freedom  for  Protestants  in  Turkey.     Died  Aug.  14,  1880. 

Strathnaira,  Baron.  See  Rose,  (Sir  Hugh  Henry.) 

Stratico,  stR^'te-ko,  (Simone,)  Count,  a  celebrated 
mathematician,  born  at  Zara,  in  Dalmatia,  about  1730. 
He  became  professor  of  navigation  and  mathematics  at 
Padua,  and  in  1801  filled  the  chair  of  navigation  at  Pavi'a. 
In  1803  he  was  made  a  senator  by  Napoleon,  who  also 
bestowed  upon  him  the  orders  of  the  legion  of  honour 
and  the  iron  crown.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Marine 
Vocabulary,"  and  several  works  on  hydraulics,  navi- 
gation, etc.,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  He  also 
prepared,  conjointly  with  Poleni,  a  valuable  edition  of 
Vitruvius,  published  after  the  death  of  Stratico,  which 
took  place  in  1824. 

Strato.     See  Si'raton. 

Strat'o-cles,  [Srparo/cA^r,]  an  Athenian  orator  and 
demagogue,  lived  about  325  B.C.  He  was  a  violent  op- 
ponent of  Demosthenes. 

Stra'ton  [Gr.  Srparwv]  or  Stra'to,  a  Greek  physi- 
cian and  medical  writer,  a  pupil  of  Erasistratus,  lived  in 
the  third  century  B.C. 

Straton  (or  Strato)  of  Lampsacus,  [Fr.  Straton 
de  Lami'Saque,  strS'tAN'  deh  ISMp'sSk',]  a  Greek  Peri- 
patetic philosopher,  born  at  Lampsacus,  succeeded 
Theophrastus  as  chief  of  the  school  about  288  B.C.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  According 
to  some  authorities,  he  taught  that  each  particle  of 
matter  has  a  principle  of  motion,  or  a  plastic  power. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  Nauvverck,  "De  Stra- 
tone  Philosopho,"  1836. 

Straton  (or  Strato)  of  Sardis,  a  Greek  epigram- 
matic poet,  who  probably  lived  in  the  second  century 
of  our  era.  He  compiled  an  anthology  of  licentious 
epigrams,  many  of  which  he  composed. 

Strat-o-ni'ge,  [Gr.  2rpaTOw'/£7?,]  a  beautiful  queen  of 
Syria,  born  about  316  B.C.,  was  a  daughter  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  She  was  married  to  Seleucus  I.  of  Syria, 
whose  son,  Antiochus  I.,  became  enamoured  of  her. 
She  had  a  daughter  Stratonice,  who  was  married  to 
Demetrius  II.  of  Macedonia.  Antiochus  I.  was  the 
father  of  the  second  Stratonice. 

Strat'tis,  [Srparrtf,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the 
old  comedy,  flourished  about  410-3S0  B.C.  His  works 
are  lost. 

Strat'ton,  (Charles  Carroll,)  "O.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Tioga  county,  Pennsylvania,  January 
4,  1833.  1'^^  removed  to  Oregon,  and  graduated  at  Wil- 
lamette University  in  1868.  He  entered  the  Methodist 
ministry,  and  in  1877  became  president  of  the  University 
of  the  Pacific.  He  edited,  and  in  part  wrote,  the  "Auto- 
biography" of  Bishop  E.  O.  Haven,  (1883.) 

Strauchius,  stRow'Ke-iis,  (/EGiD[US,)'a  German  Lu- 
theran theologian  and  mathematician,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1632,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Breviarium  Chronologicum" 
and  a  number  of  controversial  works.     Died  in  16S2. 

Strauss,  stRowss,  (David  Friedricu,)  a  German 
rationalistic  theologian,  the  author  of  what  is  termed  the 
"mythical  theory"  of  interpreting  the  Gospels,  was  born 
at  Ludwigsburg,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1808.  He  studied 
theology  at  Tiibingen.  In  1832  he  became  assistant 
teacher  (repetent)  in  the  Theological  Institute  of  TUbin- 


€asj(;  jasj;  ghai-d;  gasy;  g,h,k., guttural;  a,  nasal;  Vi,tr:/UJ;  sasz;  thasin/z^/V.     (2C^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STRAUSS 


22^6 


STRICKLAND 


gen.  He  produced  in  1835  his  "Life  of  Jesus  Critically 
Treated,"  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  that  the  New 
Testament  history  is  substantially  a  tissue  of  fables.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Zurich  in  1839,  but 
the  hostility  of  the  people  to  his  doctrines  was  so  loudly 
expressed  that  his  position  there  became  untenable. 
He  published  several  other  works,  among  which  are 
"The  Christian  Dogmatics  considered  in  its  Historical 
Development  and  its  Conflict  with  Modern  Science,"  (2 
vols.,  1840-41,)  a"  New  Life  of  Jesus,"  {1S64,)  and  "The 
Old  Faith  and  the  New." 

Strauss's  idea  of  a  God  appears  to  be  similar  to  that 
of  many  other  Hegelians,  who  regard  the  Deity  not  as  a 
conscious  Being,  but  as  an  unconscious  spirit  or  influ- 
ence, or  what  miglit  be  termed  a  system  of  laws,  mate- 
rial and  spiritual.  This  spirit  first  becomes  conscious 
in  Humanity,  which,  according  to  Strauss  and  his  fol- 
lowers, is  God  manifest  in  the  flesh. 

"Thirty  years  ago,"  says  a  writer  in  the  "Quarterly 
Review,"  "'The  Life  of  Jesus'  of  Strauss  startled  the 
world  like  a  clap  of  thunder  out  of  a  calm  sky.  ...  In 
the  name  of  criticism,  he  declared  that  the  Gospels  were 
almost  valueless  as  historical  materials  ;  in  the  name  of 
science,  he  pronounced  that  miracles  were  impossible." 
(See  article  on  "The  Life  of  our  Lord,"  October,  1866.) 
"The  supposition  that  the  healthiest,  simplest,  and 
sanest  form  of  religion  the  world  has  ever  seen  should 
have  taken  its  rise  from  such  a  hotbed  of  fatuity  and 
insanity  as  Strauss  would  have  us  believe,  appears  to 
us  to  make  greater  demands  by  far  upon  our  credulity 
than  the  hypothesis  it  is  invented  to  supersede."  (See 
"  Edinburgh  Review,"  article  on  "  Strauss,  Renan,  and 
•Ecce  Homo,'"  October,  1866.) 

"  Strauss  declined,"  says  Dorner,  in  his  able  work 
entitled  "  History  of  Protestant  Theology,"  "  the  rude 
method  of  combating  Christianity  in  the  style  of  the 
•  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments  ;'  as  he  likewise  covered  with 
ridicule  the  naturalistic  explanations  of  the  miracles 
by  Dr.  Paulus.  To  the  biblical  supernaturalism  which 
sought  to  found  the  truth  of  Christianity  upon  inspira- 
tio'%  miracles,  and  prophecy,  he  opposed  the  mythical 
theory;  according  to  which,  the  portrait  of  Christ  in 
the  Gospels  was  the  product  of  tradition,  of  which  the 
historic  element  was  obscure,  determined  in  its  unin- 
tentional fabrication  by  Old  Testament  images,  par- 
ticularly the  Messianic.  Christ,  however,  to  whom  the 
Messianic  predictions  were  transferred  by  the  common 
people,  could  not  have  been  a  supernatural  phenomenon, 
since  a  miracle  includes  an  impossibility  ;  so  also  the 
four  Gospels  could  not  have  proceeded  from  apostles  or 
eye-witnesses,  because,  with  their  better  knowledge,  de- 
signed fabrication  must  be  imputed  to  them.  He  then 
seeks  for  internal  contradictions  in  the  Gospels,  in  order 
thereby  to  prove  their  unhistoric  character.  As,  how- 
ever, these  contradictions  do  not  extend  to  what  is  es- 
sential, it  is  clear  that  they  are  not  what  really  decided 
him.  He  demands  a  historical  criticism,  free  from  pre- 
assumptions,*  and  yet  he  makes  (as  we  have  seen)  for 
his  mythical  theory  a  twofold  pre-assumption, — the  one 
dogmatict  the  other  historical."};  He  died  February  8, 
1S74. 

See  "  Straussiade  in  Ziirich,"  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^- 
rale:"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  183S;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1847. 

Strauss,  (Friedrich  Adolf,)  a  Protestant  minister, 
a  son  of  Gerhard  Friedrich,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Elberfeld  in  181 7.  He  published  "  Sinai  and  Golgotha  : 
Travels  in  the  East,"  (1847,)  which  has  been  translated 
into  several  languages.     Died  April  16,  1SS8. 

Strauss,  (Gerhard  Friedrich,)  professor  of  the- 

*  'I'hc  expression  in  the  original  is  "  eine  voraussetzuiigslose  his- 
torische  Kritik,"  that  is,  "a  historical  critique  without  pre-supposi- 
tions  or  pre-assumptions." 

+  In  assuming  that  a  miracle  is  impossible. 

\  In  rejecting  the  historical  character  of  the  Gospels;  not  on 
account  of  the  minute  discrepancies  found  in  them, — but  evidently 
from  a  predetermination  to  make  out  his  mythical  theory  at  whatever 
cost.  F'or  if  the  minute  discrepancies,  not  essentially  affecting  the 
main  narrative,  destroy  the  historical  character  of  the  Gospels,  simi- 
lar or  greater  discrepancies  would  overthrow  all  history,  ancient  and 
modern.  A  great  historical  critic,  who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of 
any  tendency  to  credulity,  took  a  very  different  view  of  the  Gospel 
narratives.  (See  the  article  on  Niebuhr  the  historian,  in  this 
work.) 


ology  at  Berlin,  was  born  at  Iserlohn  in  1786.  He 
published  a  number  of  jjopular  religious  works,  of  which 
we  may  name  "  Helon's  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, "(1820,) 
and  "The  Baptism  in  Jordan,"  (1822.)     Died  in  1863. 

Strauss,  (Isaac,)  a  celebrated  musician,  born  in 
Strasburg,  of  a  Jewish  family,  Jinie  3,  1806.  He  became 
a  violinist  and  a  distinguished  musical  director  of  Paris. 
He  also  composed  some  light  music. 

Strauss,  (Johann,)  a  celebrated  German  composer, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1804.  His  works  are  principally 
waltzes  and  other  lively  airs,  in  which  department  of 
music  he  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  music  for  the  court  balls  at  Vienna.  Died 
in  1849. 

Strauss,  (Johann,)  an  Austrian  composer,  a  son  ol 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1825.  He  attained 
great  fame  by  his  waltzes,  and  composed  several  opert.'- 
tas.  His  brothers  Joseph  (1827-1870)  and  Eduari. 
also  won  fame  as  composers  of  dance-music. 

Streat'er,  (Robert,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
1624.  His  landscapes  and  historical  pictures  were 
highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.     Died  in  1680. 

Streckfuss,  stR^k'foos,  (Adolf  Friedrich  Karl,) 
a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Gera  in  1779.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  poems  and  tales,  and  translated  into  Ger- 
man Tasso's  "Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  the  "Orlando 
Furioso"  of  Ariosto,  and  Dante's  "  Inferno,"  "  Purga- 
torio,"  and  "  Paradiso."     Died  in  1844. 

Streek,  van,  \\n  stRak,  (Jurian,)  a  Flemish  or 
Dutch  painter  of  still  life,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1632; 
died  in  1678.  His  son  Henry,  born  in  1659,  was  a 
painter  of  interiors  of  churches,  etc.     Died  in  1713. 

Street,  (Alfred  Billings,)  an  American  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Poughkeepsie  in  iSii. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Frontenac,"  a  poem, 
"The  Burning  of  Schenectady,  and  other  Poems," 
"  Woods  and  Waters,  or  the  Saranacs  and  Racket,"  an 
account  of  the  forests  of  Northern  New  York,  and  "The 
Council  of  Revision,"  (in  prose.)  He  practised  law  in 
Albany,  to  which  he  removed  in  1839.     Died  in  1881. 

See  R.  \V.  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Street,  (George  Edmund,)  an  English  architect,  bom 
at  Woodford,  in  Essex,  in  1824.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Sir 
George  Gilbert  Scott,  and  became  one  of  the  most  famous 
builders  of  Gothic  churches  of  his  time.  He  published 
"Brick  and  Marble  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1855,)  and 
"Gothic  Architecture  in  Spain,"  (1865.)  He  built  the 
great  Law  Courts  in  London,  1881.  Died  December  18, 
18S1. 

Streight,  strat,  (Abel  D.,)  Colonel,  an  American 
officer,  was  a  resident  of  Indiana.  He  commanded  a 
party  of  1 800  cavalry  sent  from  Tennessee  on  a  raid 
into  Northern  Georgia  in  April,  1863.  He  was  cap- 
tured near  Rome,  and  confined  in  a  prison  at  Richmond, 
from  which  he  escaped  in  February,  1864.  He  was  killed 
at  Dalton,  Georgia,  in  August,  1864. 

Strein,  stRin,  or  Striii'I-us,  (Richard,)  a  German 
baron  and  antiquary,  born  in  Austria  in  1538,  was  libra- 
rian to  the  Emperor  of  Germany.    Died  in  1600  or  1601. 

Stremonius.     See  Austremoine. 

Streten.     See  Straeten. 

Strick  van  Linschoten,  strik  vtn  lins'Ko'ten, 
Baron,  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1769.  lie 
was  appointed  in  1795  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Wiir- 
temberg.     Died  in  1819. 

Strick'land,  (Agnes,)  an  English  historical  writer, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1806.  Among  her  numerous  works 
are  "Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England,  from  the  Nor- 
man Conquest,"  etc.,  (12  vols.,  with  portraits,  1849,) 
"  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland  and  English  Prin- 
cesses connected  with  the  Regal  Succession  of  Great 
Britain,"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1850,)  both  written  conjointly  witii 
her  sister  Elizabeth,  "The  Pilgrims  of  Walsingham,  or 
Tales  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1835,)  "  Worcest'er  Field, 
or  the  Cavalier  ;  a  Poem,  in  Four  Cantos,"  and  "Tales 
and  Stories  from  History,"  (1836.)  She  brought  out  in 
1842  "  Letters  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  now  first  pub- 
lished from  the  Originals,"  etc.  Miss  Strickland's 
productions  have  acquired  an  extensive  popularity  both 
in  Great  Britain  and  America.     Died  July  13,  1874. 


a,  e, »,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  ^,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon: 


STRICKLAND 


2257 


STRONG 


Strickland,  (Catherine  Parr,)  sister  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  married  to  Lieutenant  Traill,  of  the  twenty- 
first  British  Fusileers.  Having  settled  in  Canada,  she 
published  "The  Canadian  Crusoes,  a  Tale  of  the  Rice- 
Lake  Plains,"  and  "  The  Backwoods  of  America,  being 
Letters  from  the  Wife  of  an  Emigrant  Officer,"  etc. 

Strickland,  (Hugh  Edwin,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1811.  He  visited  Asia  Minor  in 
1835,  and  published,  after  his  return,  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Geology  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus,"  and  other  similar 
works.  He  also  wrote  "  Descriptions  of  New  Species 
of  Birds  from  West  Africa,"  and  a  volume  "  On  the 
Dodo  and  its  Kindred,  or  the  History  and  Affinities  of 
the  Dodo,  Solitaire,  and  other  Extinct  Birds,"  (1848.) 
He  was  killed  by  a  railroad-train  in  1853. 

Strickland,  (Samuel,)  a  brother  of  Agnes,  noticed 
above,  was  born  about  1810.  He  published  "Twenty- 
Seven  Years  in  Canada  West,  or  the  Experience  of  an 
Early  Settler,"  (1853.)     Died  in  1867. 

Strickland,  (Susanna,)  sister  of  Agnes  Strickland, 
was  married  to  J.  W.  D.  Moodie,  of  the  British  Fusi- 
leers, and  subsequently  removed  to  Canada.  She  pub- 
lished "  Roughing  it  in  the  Bush,  or  Life  in  Canada," 
(1852,)  "  Life  in  the  Clearings,"  etc.,  and  novels  entitled 
"Mark  Hurdlestone"  (1852)  and  "  Flora  Lindsay,"  (2 
vols.,  1854.)     Died  April  8,  1S85. 

Her  sister,  Jane  Margaret,  published  a  work  entitled 
"Rome,  Regal  and  Republican."     Died  June  14,  1888. 

Strick'land,  (William,)  an  eminent  American  ar- 
chitect, born  in  Philadelphia  in  17S7.  He  studied  archi- 
tecture under  Latrobe.  His  first  public  work  of  any 
importance  was  the  old  Masonic  Hall  in  Chestnut 
Street.  This  established  his  reputation  as  an  architect, 
and  he  was  subsequently  employed  to  prepare  the 
designs  and  superintend  the  erection  of  the  United 
States  Bank,  (now  the  Custom-House,)  in  Chestnut 
Street,  above  Fourth,  long  regarded  as  the  most  mag- 
nificent edifice  in  his  native  city.  For  many  years  he 
was  the  architect  of  nearly  all  the  inost  remarkable 
public  buildings  in  Philadelphia  or  its  vicinity  :  we  may 
name,  among  others,  the  Merchants'  Exchange,  (near 
Third  and  Dock  Streets,)  the  United  States  Mint,  and 
the  United  States  Naval  Asylum.  In  1825  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Franklin  Institute  commissioner  to 
visit  England  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  canal 
and  railway  systems  of  that  country.  On  his  return,  he 
was  employed  to  superintend  the  construction  of  the  rail- 
road between  Newcastle  and  Frenchtown,  in  Maryland, 
which  %vas  one  of  the  first  passenger-railways  made  in 
the  United  States.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  and  also  a  member 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  His  last  and 
perhaps  greatest  work  was  the  Capitol  at  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  commenced  in  1845  and  completed  in  1857. 
He  died  at  Nashville,  April  7,  1854  ;  and,  according  to 
a  special  act  of  the  Tennessee  legislature,  his  remains 
were  deposited  in  a  vault  under  that  magnificent  edifice 
which  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  crowning  glory  of 
his  life. 

Strickland,  (William  P.,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  (afterwards  Presbyterian)  divine,  born  at  Pitts- 
burg, Pennsylvania,  in  1809.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  American  Bible  Society,"  "  Genius  and  Mission 
of  Methodism,"  and  many  other  works. 

Strigel,  stRee'gel,  [Lat.  Strige'lius,]  (Victorin,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  in  15 14,  was  a  pupil  of  Mel- 
anchthon.  He  was  engaged  in  a  controversy  with 
Flacius,  and  subsequently  became  a  Calvinist.  He 
was  professor  at  Leipsic  and  Heidelberg.    Died  in  1569. 

See  Weissmann,  "  Historia  Vitas  V.  Strigelii,"  i7,-?2;  J.  K.  T. 
Qtto,  "  De  V.  Strigeiio  liberioris  mentis  in  Ecclesia  Lutherana  Vin- 
dice,"  1843. 

Strigelius.     See  Strigel. 

Stringham,  string'am,  (Silas  H.,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Orange  county,  New  York,  about 
1798.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in  1821.  In 
1846  he  commanded  the  ship  Ohio  at  the  bombardment 
of  Vera  Cruz.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
he  was  appointed  (about  April,  1861)  flag-officer  of  the 
Atlantic  blockading  squadron.  He  commanded  the 
naval  forces  of  the  armament  which  captured  Fort  Hat- 


teras,  August  29,  1861.    He  was  appointed  a  rear-admiral 
on  the  retired  list,  August  i,  1862.     Died  Feb.  7,  1876. 
SeeJ.  T.  Hbadlky,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 
Strinius.     See  Strein. 

Strinnholm,  stain'holm,  (Anders  Magnus,)  a 
Swedish  historian,  born  in  the  province  of  Westerbot- 
ten  in  1786.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  a  "History 
of  Sweden  from  the  Earliest  to  the  Present  Time," 
("Svenska  Folkets  Historia  fran  aldsta  till  narvarende 
Tider,"  1834.)  In  1837  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Swedish  Academy,  and  in  1845  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences.     Died  January  19,  1857. 

Stritter,  von,  fon  stRit'ter,  (Johann  Gotihilf,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Idstein  in  1740,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Russia.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Russian 
Empire,"  (in  German,  2  vols.,  1800.)     Died  in  1801. 

Strobel,   stRo'bel,    (Adam    Walther,)   a   German 
historian,   born    at    Strasburg    in    1792.      His    principal 
work  is   a  "History  of  Alsace,"  (6  vols.,    1841,)  which 
was  continued  by  Engelhardt.     Died  in  1850. 
Stroctius.     See  Strozzi,  (Palla.) 
Strode,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  Devonshire  about  1598.     He  was  installed  canon  of 
Christ  Church  in  1638.     Died  in  1644. 
Stroemer.     See  Stromer. 

Strogonof  or  Strogano-wr,  stRo'g^-nof,  (Alex- 
ander,) Count,  a  Russian  nobleman,  born  in  1734, 
was  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  He 
was  appointed  a  privy  councillor  of  the  first  class,  and 
president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg.    Died  in  i8il. 

Strogonof,  Stroganov,  or  Stroganow,  (Alex- 
ander,) Count,  second  son  of  Gregory,  noticed  below, 
served  against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  rose  to  be 
successively  minister  of  the  interior,  (1839,)  member  of 
the  imperial  council  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  Governoi- 
General  of  New  Russia,  (1855.) 

Strogonof,  (Gregory,)  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born 
at  Moscow  in  1770,  was  successively  employed  in  mis- 
sions to  Madrid,  Stockholm,  and  Constantinople,  (1821.) 
In  1838  he  was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary  t<'> 
England  on  the  occasion  of  the  coronation  of  Queen 
Victoria.  He  was  created  high  chamberlain  in  1846. 
Died  in  1850. 

Strogonof,  (Karl  Sergei,)  a  general,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1800,  filled  several 
high  offices  under  the  government,  and  attained  the 
dignity  of  senator.  He  published  a  number  of  treatises 
on  Russian  antiquities.     Died  in  1857. 

Strogonof,  (Paul,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  a  son 
of  Alexander,  (1734-1811,)  was  born  about  1774.  He 
was  a  friend  and  adviser  of  the  Czar  Alexander.  Died 
in  181 7.  His  wife,  Sophie  Gallitsin,  was  distinguished 
for  her  talents. 

Strombeck,  von,  fon  stRom'b€k,(FRiEDRiCH  Karl,) 
a  German  jurist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1 771.  He  published  a  nuinber  of  legal  and  miscel- 
laneous works,  and  made  translations  from  Tacitus, 
Sallust,  and  other  classics.     Died  in  1848. 

His  brother,  Friedrich  Heinrich,  was  also  a  distin- 
guished jurist.     Died  in  1832. 

See  F.  K.  von  Strombeck,  "  Darstellungen  aus  meinem  Leben,* 
2  vols.,  1835. 

Stromer  or  Stroemer,  stRo'mer,  (Martin,)  a  Swed- 
ish savant,  born  at  Upsal  in  1707,  succeeded  Celsius 
as  professor  of  astronomy  in  that  city.  He  translated 
Euclid's  "Elements"  into  Swedish.     Died  in  1770. 

Stromeyer,  stRo'mT'er,  (Georg  Friedrich  Louis,) 
a  German  surgeon,  born  at  Hanover  in  1804,  became 
successively  professor  at  Erlangen,  Munich,  and  Frei 
burg.     Died  at  Hanover,  June  15,  1876. 

Strong,  (Caleb,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1745.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1789  and  in  1793,  and 
became  Governor  of  the  State  in  1800,  which  office  he 
continued  to  fill  for  ten  years.     Died  in  1819. 

Strong,  (James,)  S.T.D.,  an  American  theologian, 
born  in  New  York  city,  August  14,  1822.  He  graduated 
at  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in 
1844.      He    afterwards    engaged    in    business    on    ].,ong 


€  as  ^,"  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 


(JC^^See  Exi)lanati()ns.  p.  23.) 


STRONG 


2258 


STRUENSEE 


Island,  becoming  a  railroad  president.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  biblical  literature  and  acting  president  of  Troy 
University,  1858-61,  and  in  1868  was  appointed  professor 
of  exegetical  theology  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
(Methodist.)  He  was  never  ordained.  He  has  pub- 
lished epitomes  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Chaldee  Gram- 
mar, analyses  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Hebrews, 
ot  the  Apocalypse,  the  Canticles,  etc.,  a  volume  of 
"  Irenics,"  tliree  volumes  on  the  Gospels,  and  other 
works.  He  was  also  the  principal  editor  of  "  McClin- 
tock  and  Strong's  Cyclopaedia,"  (theological,  10  vols., 
1870-81,)  and  of  several  other  works. 

Strong,  (Nathan,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1748.  He  preached  at  Hartford,  and 
published  numerous  sermons.     Died  in  1816. 

Strong'bow,  the  surname  of  Richard  de  Clare,  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  an  English  warrior,  distinguished  for  his 
victories  over  the  Irish.     Died  in  11 76. 

Strossmayer,  stRos'mi-er,  (Joseph  Georg,)  a  Cro- 
atian bishop,  born  at  Eszek,  February  4,  1815.  He 
studied  at  Pesth,  Padua,  and  Vienna,  and  was  ordained 
in  1838.  He  was  afterwards  a  professor  at  the  Diakovar 
Seminary,  and  in  1850  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Bosnia 
and  Sirmio.  He  was  conspicuous  at  the  Vatican  Council 
for  his  opposition  to  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility. 
His  principal  work  is  "  Monumenta  Slavorum  Meridio- 
nalium,"  (1863.) 

Stroth,  stRot,  (Friedrich  Andreas,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1750.  He  published 
several  classical  works.     Died  in  1795  or  1785. 

Stroth'er,  (David  Hunter,)  an  American  author 
and  artist,  born  at  Martinsburg,  Virginia,  (now  West 
Virginia,)  September  26,  1816.  He  studied  at  Jefferson 
College,  Pennsylvania,  and  received  art-instruction  in 
Philadelphia,  in  New  York,  (under  S.  F.  B.  Morse,)  and 
in  the  European  capitals.  In  1844  he  became  a  book 
and  newspaper  illustrator  in  New  York,  retiring  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1849.  Hs  published  "Virginia  Illustrated," 
besides  many  illustrated  magazine  and  newspaper  articles 
nnder  the  name  of  Porte  Crayon.  He  served  in  the 
Federal  army,  1861-65,  rising  from  the  rank  of  private 
soldier  to  that  of  colonel  and  brevet  brigadier-general, 
tie  was  in  1879  appointed  consul-general  to  Mexico, 
After  the  war  he  continued  his  illustrated  contributions 
to  periodical  literature.     Died  March  8,  1888. 

Strozzi,  stRot'see,  (Bernardo,)  surnamed  IL  Capuc- 
cino,  or  "The  Genoese  Priest,"  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1581.  His  "  Virgin  and  Child" 
is  esteemed  his  master-piece.  He  painted  many  easel- 
pictures,  and  was  an  excellent  colorist.  Died  Aug.  3, 
1644. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Soprani,  "  Pittort 
Genovesi." 

Strozzi,  (CiRiACo,  che-ree'S-ko,)  an  Italian  philoso- 
pher, born  near  Florence  in  1504.  He  wrote  a  sup- 
plement to  Aristotle's  work  "  De  Republica,"  (1562.) 
Died  in  1565. 

See  Papire  Masson,  "Vita  KyriAci  Strozje,"  1604. 

Strozzi,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  poet,  a  son  of  Tito 
Vespasiano,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1471. 
He  was  the  author  of  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  which 
were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
assassinated  in  1508  by  some  person  unknown. 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "Elogio;"  Ginguen^,  "Histoire  Litt^raire 
d'ltalie." 

Strozzi,  (FiLiPPO,)  an  opulent  Florentine  merchant, 
noted  for  his  generosity,  was  born  in  1426.  He  built 
the  magnificent  Palazzo  Strozzi  at  Florence,  which  is 
still  standing.     Died  in  1491. 

Strozzi,  (FiLiPPO,)  a  Florentine  statesman,  born  in 
1488,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  Though  connected 
with  the  Medici  by  his  marriage  with  Clarice,  niece  of 
Leo  X.,  he  exerted  himself  to  deprive  that  family  of  the 
chief  power  in  Florence.  After  the  murder  of  the  duke 
Alexander  de'  Medici,  and  the  election  of  Cosimo  as  his 
successor,  Strozzi  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  an  army 
of  French  and  Italian  mercenaries,  and  marched  against 
the  troops  of  Cosimo,  who  was  assisted  by  the  soldiers 
of  Charles  V,     The  insurgents  were  signally  defeated. 


(1537,)  and  Strozzi  was  made  prisoner,  and  confined  for 
a  year  in  a  fortress,  where  he  committed  suicide  in  1538. 

See  Lorenzo  Strozzi,  "Vie  de  P.  Strozzi,"  (translated  from  the 
Italian  by  Requier.)  1762;  G.  B.  Nicolini,  "Vita  di  F.  Stro/.zi." 
1847  ;  "  Vita  di  F.  Strozzi,  scritta  da  Lorenzo  Strozzi  sue  Figlio," 
1851  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Strozzi,  (FiLiPPO,)  a  commander,  born  at  Venice  in 
1 54 1,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of 
Piero,  noticed  below.  He  served  with  distinction  against 
the  French  Huguenots  in  the  civil  wars  which  began 
about  1562,  and  was  appointed  in  1581  lieutenant-general 
of  the  naval  army  by  Henry  III.  He  was  killed  in  a 
naval  action  against  the  Spaniards  in  1582. 

See  ToRZAV,  "Viede  P.  Strozzi,"  1608;  Davii.a,  "History  of 
the  Civil  Wars  of  France." 

Strozzi,  (Francesco  di  Soldo — de  sol'do,)  an  Ital 
ian  scholar,  who  translated  Thucydides,  and  Xenophon's 
"  History  of  Greece,"  into  Italian,  (1550.) 

Strozzi,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1551,  was  a  nephew  of  Piero, 
iioticed  below.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his  generous 
patronage  of  learning,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1634. 

Strozzi,  (Giulio,)  a  Venetian  poet,  born  about  1583, 
resided  at  Rome,  where  he  became  papal  prothono- 
tary.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Building  of  Venice," 
("  Venezia  Edificata,")  an  epic  poem,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1660. 

Strozzi,  (Leone,)  a  naval  officer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1515,  was  a  son  of  Filippo  Strozzi,  (1488-1538.)  He 
obtained  command  of  a  French  fleet  about  1550,  and 
was  opposed  to  Andrew  Doria  in  the  Mediterraneaa 
Died  in  1554. 

Strozzi,  (N1CCOL6,)  an  Italian  writer,  was  the  author 
of  idyls,  sonnets,  etc.,  and  tragedies  entitled  "  Conradus" 
and  "  David  of  Trebizond."     Died  in  1654. 

Strozzi,  [Lat.  Stroc'tius,]  (Palla,)  an  Italian  di- 
plomatist and  scholar,  born  at  Florence  in  1372.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature,  and  devoted  his  large 
fortune  to  the  promotion  of  classical  studies,  employing 
in  his  house  many  copyists  to  transcribe  ancient  manu- 
scripts. He  also  founded  several  chairs  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Florence.  Having  opposed  the  Medici,  he  was 
banished  about  1434,  and  settled  at  Padua.   Died  in  1462. 

See  Angelo  Fabroni,  "P.  Stroctii  Vita,"  1802;  jEneas  Syl- 
vius, "  Commentarii." 

Strozzi,  (PtERO,)  an  able  general,  a  son  of  Filippo 
Strozzi,  (1488-1538,)  was  born  in  1500,  and  entered  the 
French  army  after  the  death  of  his  father.  In  1553  he  was 
sent  to  the  defence  of  Sienna,  then  besieged  by  Cosimo 
I. ;  but,  having  imprudently  invaded  Tuscany,  he  was 
defeated  by  the  Marquis  of  Marignano,  near  Lucignano, 
in  1554.  He  was  afterwards  charged  by  the  pope,  Paul 
IV.,  with  the  defence  of  Rome  against  the  Duke  of  Alva. 
In  1558  he  assisted  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  the  capture  of 
Calais,  but  he  was  killed  the  same  year  at  the  siege  of 
Thionville.  He  had  been  created  marshal  of  France  by 
Henry  II.  about  1555. 

See  Brant6me,  "Vies  des  Capitaines  Strangers:"  Varcmi, 
"  Storia  Fiorentina  ;"  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raiut 
Frangais  ;"  F.  Trucchi,  "  Vita  e  Geste  di  P.  Strozzi,"  1847  ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Strozzi,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Flor- 
ence about  1575,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Pisa, 
He  published  a  work  on  the  Nestorians,  entitled  "  De 
Origine  et  Dogmatibus  Chaldaeorum,  sive  hodiernorum 
Nestorianorum,"  (1617.)     Died  about  1640. 

Strozzi,  (Tno  Vespasiano,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
poet,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1422.  He  was  the  author 
of  Latin  lyrics,  satires,  and  epigrams.  He  became 
president  of  the  supreme  council  of  Ferrara  in  1485. 
Died  about  1508. 

Strudel  or  Strudell,  stRoo'del,  (Peter,)  a  historical 
painter,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1680,  or,  as  some  say,  in 
1660.  He  worked  in  Vienna,  and  was  patronized  b^ 
the  emperor  Leopold.     Died  in  1717. 

Struensee,  stRoo'en-za',  (Adam,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  at  Brandenburg  in  1708.  He  preached  all 
Halle,  and  became  su])erintendent  or  bishop  of  Sles- 
wick  and  Holstein  in  1761.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.     Died  in  1791. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  4,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon, 


STRUENSEE 


2259 


STUART 


Struensee,  von,  fon  stRoo'en-za',  (Johann  Fried- 
rich,)  Count,  a  minister  of  state,  born  at  Halle  in  1737, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  medicine,  and 
practised  with  success  at  Altona.  His  habits  are  said 
to  have  been  licentious.  In  1768  he  became  physician 
to  Christian  VH.  of  Denmark,  whom  he  attended  in  a 
tour  through  Germany,  France,  and  England.  He  in- 
sinuated himself  into  the  favour  of  Christian  VII.,  and 
of  his  queen,  Caroline  Matilda,  a  sister  of  George  III. 
of  England.  His  talents  and  ambition  enabled  him  to 
gain  an  ascendency  over  the  king,  who  was  a  man  of 
feelile  character.  He  was  aided  in  his  ambitious  projects 
by  his  friend  Brandt,  and  by  the  queen.  He  procured 
the  removal  of  Count  Bernstorff  in  1770,  and  becamo 
prime  minister.  He  made  many  innovations  in  politica. 
affairs,  some  of  which  were  beneficial  ;  but  he  offended 
the  people  bv  his  preference  of  the  German  to  the  Danish 
language.  Prince  Frederick  and  others  formed  a  con- 
spiracy against  Struensee,  who  was  arrested,  tried,  and 
put  to  death  in  April,  1772. 

See  Falkenskiold,  "Memoirs  of  Struensee,"  (in  German,)  1788". 
J.  K.  H6sT,  "Struensee  op;  bans  Ministeriuni,"  3  vols.,  1824;  J. 
GiEssiNG,  "Struensee,"  1848;  Reveruil,  "Struensee  i  la  Gourde 
Copenhague,"  1858;  "Authentic  Elucidation  of  the  History  of 
Struensee  and  Brandt  ;"  Dr.  Munter,  "  Narrative  of  the  Conversion 
and  Peath  of  Count  Struensee  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1826,  article  "Danish  Revo- 
lutions under  Count  Struensee,"  (by  Sir  James  Mackintosh.) 

Struensee,  von,  (Karl  August,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Halle  in  1735.  He  became  in 
1757  professor  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  the 
military  academy  of  Liegnitz.  His  "Rudiments  of 
Artillery,"  published  in  1760,  obtained  for  him  the  notice 
and  patronage  of  Frederick  the  Great.  It  was  followed 
in  1771  by  "  Elements  of  Military  Architecture,"  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  the  subject  that  1  ad  then  appeared  in 
Germany.  After  the  publication  of  his  "Description  of 
the  Commerce  of  the  Principal  European  States,"  he 
was  ennobled  and  made  minister  of  stafe  and  president 
of  the  board  of  excise.     Died  in  1804. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland ;"  Hirsching,  "His- 
torisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  VoN  Held,  "  Struensee,  Skizze 
fiir  Diejenigen,"  etc.,  1805. 

Striith'eis,  (John,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Lanark- 
shire in  1776,  worked  at  the  trade  of  shoemaker  in  his 
youth.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Poor  Man's  Sabbath," 
(1804.)     Died  in  1853. 

Strutt,  (Edmtard.)     See  Helper. 

Strutt,  (Joseph,)  an  English  antiquary  and  engraver, 
born  in  Essex  in  1742.  He  was  the  author  of  "The 
Regal  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  England,"  etc., 
"  Horda  .'Vngel  Cynnan  ;  or.  View  of  the  Manners,  Cus- 
toms, etc.  of  the  Inhabitants  of  England  from  the  Arrival 
of  the  Saxons,"  (3  vols.,  1776,)  a  "Biographical  Diction- 
ary of  Engravers  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  Present 
Time,"  (2  vols.,  1786,)  and  "Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the 
People  of  England,"  etc.,  (1801.)  Among  his  engravings 
are  a  series  of  illustrations  of  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress." 
He  died  in  1802,  leaving  several  works  in  manuscript, 
one  of  which,  a  romance,  entitled  "  Queen-Hoo  Hall," 
was  completed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1775,  and  June,  1802. 

Struve,  stroo'veh,  (Burkhard  Gotthelf,)  a  jurist, 
«  son  of  Georg  Adam,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Weimar  in  1671.  He  studied  law  and  history  at  Jena 
and  Helmstedt,  became  professor  of  history  at  Jena  in 
1704,  and  in  1730  of  public  and  feudal  law.  Among  his 
voluminous  works  we  may  name  his  "Syntagma  Juris 
Publici,"  (1711,)  "Body  of  German  History,"  ("Corpus 
Historiae  Germanicae,"  1730,)  and  "Introduction  to  the 
History  of  the  German  Empire,"  (in  German.)  He 
also  puolished  an  edition  of  the  "  Illustres  Veteres  Scrip- 
tores"  of  Pistorius,  and  of  Freher's  "  Rerum  Germani- 
carum  Scriptores."     Died  in  1738. 

See  Hirsching,  "  Historisch-Iiterarisches  Handbuch  :"  Lipenius, 
"  Biblioilieca  Jundica." 

Struve,  (pRiEDRiCH  Georg  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent 
German  astronomer,  born  at  Altona  in  April,  1793.  He 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Observatory  of  Dorpat 
about  1818.  In  1839  he  became  director  of  a  new  and 
magnificent  observatory  erected  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment at  Pulkr)va,  near  Saint  Petersburg.     He  acquired 


distinction  by  his  observations  on  double  and  multiple 
stars,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Astronom- 
ical Observations,"  ("  Observationes  Astronomicae,"  8 
vols.,  1820-40,)  "Micrometric  Measurements  of  the 
Double  Stars,"  ("  Stellarum  duplicium  Mensurae  micro- 
metricae,"  1827,)  and  "  Studies  of  Sidereal  Astronomy 
on  the  Milky  Way,"  ("  fitudes  d'Astronomie  stellaire 
sur  la  Voie  lactee,"  etc.,  1847.)     Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  Brockhaus,  "  Conversa- 
tions-Lexikon." 

Struve,  (Georg  Adam,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at 
Magdeburg  in  1619.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Jena 
in  1646,  and  in  1667  was  appointed  privy  councillor  to 
the  Duke  of  Weimar.  Among  his  numerous  legal  works, 
which  had  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  we  may  name 
his  "  Jurisprudentia  Romano-Germanica  forensis,"  and 
"Syntagma  Juris  Feudalis."     Died  in  1692. 

Struve,  (GusTAVUs,)  a  German  political  writer  and 
revolutionist,  born  in  Livonia  about  1805.  He  took  a 
proininent  part  in  the  insurrection  in  Baden  in  1848,  and 
became  an  exile  in  1849.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  System  of  Political  Science,"  (4  vols.,  1847.) 
Died  in  1870. 

Struve,  (Otto  Wilhelm,)  an  astronomer,  a  son  of 
Friedrich  Georg  Wilhelm,  was  born  at  Dorpat  in  1819. 
He  obtained  the  position  of  second  astronomer  at  Pul- 
kowa.  He  discovered  many  double  stars,  and  computed 
the  movement  of  translation  of  the  solar  system. 

Struve,  von,  fon  stRoo'veh,  (Heinrich  Chris- 
TOPH  Gottfried,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born  at  Ratis- 
bon  in  1772,  was  employed  in  embassies  to  Hamburg, 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  other  European  courts.  Died 
in  1S51. 

Struys,  stRois,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  traveller,  who  visited 
several  countries  of  Asia,  and  published  a  narrative  in 
1677.     Died  in  1694. 

Stry,  van,  vtn  stRi,  (Abraham,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  in  1753,  imitated  A.  Cuyp.  He 
painted  landscapes,  cattle,  etc.     Died  in  1826. 

Stry,  van,  (Jacob,)  a  skilful  painter  of  landscapes  and 
cattle,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dort  in 
1756.  "Many  of  his  imitations  of  Albert  Cuyp,"  says 
Bryan,  "have  passed  as  originals  of  that  master."  Died 
in  1815. 

Stryk,  stRik,  [Lat.  Stryk'ius,]  (Samuel,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Lenzen  in  1640.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1672,  and  obtained 
a  chair  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg  in  1691.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  writings  on  law 
Died  in  1710. 

Strykius.     See  Stryk. 

Strype,  strip,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  biogra- 
pher, born  in  London  in  1643.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "  Memorials  of  the  Most  Renowned  Father 
in  God,  Thomas  Cranmer,"  etc.,  (1694,)  "Historical 
Collections  relating  to  the  Life  and  Acts  of  Bishop 
Aylmer,"  (1701,)  "  Life  and  Acts  of  Archbishop  Parker," 
(171 1,)  "Ecclesiastical  Memorials,  relating  chiefly  to 
Religion  and  the  Reformation  of  it,"  etc.,  and  "Annals 
of  the  Reformation  and  Establishment  of  Religion,"  (4 
vols.,  1731.)     Died  in  1737. 

Stu'art,  (Alexander  H.  H.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at'  Staunton,  Virginia,  in  1807.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  lawyer,  became  an  orator  of  the  Whig 
party,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1841.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  interior  from  September,  1850,  to  March, 
1853.  He  was  loyal  to  the  Union,  until  the  secession 
of  Virginia  induced  him  to  change.     Died  Feb.  13,  1891. 

Stu'art,  (Arabella,)  born  about  1575,  was  a  daughter 
of  Charles  Stuart,  Duke  of  Lennox,  (a  brother  of  Lord 
Darnley,)  and  was  a  cousin-german  to  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land. She  was  secretly  married  about  1609  to  William 
Seymour,  against  the  will  of  the  king,  who  imprisoned 
her  in  the  Tower.  She  was  so  harshly  treated  that  she 
became  insane,  and  died  in  the  Tower  in  September, 
1615.  William  Seymour  was  afterwards  made  Marquis 
of  Hertford.  Arabella  Stuart  was  a  woman  of  superior 
talents  and  high  spirit. 

See  "  Lifeand  Letters  of  Arabella  Stuart,"  by  Elizabeth  Coopbr, 
London,  1866;  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  i6i6," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  ;  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  LooisA 

S.   COSTELLO. 


€  as  ^,-  9  as  j;  I  hard;  g  a«  ;;  g,  h.  K.  s^uttural;  N,  nasal:  k,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( ^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  ^ 


STUART 


2260 


STUBBS 


Stuart,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1753,  was  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Bute,  the  prime  min- 
ister. He  fought  against  the  American  patriots,  (1776-82,) 
gained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1793,  and  com- 
manded in  Corsica  in  1794.  He  took  Minorca  in  1798. 
Died  in  1801. 

Stuart,  (Charles  Edward,)  the  Pretender.  See 
Charles  Edward. 

Stuart,  (Gilbert,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Edinburgh  about  1746. 
He  became  in  1773  associate  editor  of  "The  Edinburgh 
Magazine  and  Review,"  in  which  he  published  criti- 
cisms on  prominent  authors,  displaying  great  ability,  but 
disfigured  by  bitter  personalities.  He  was  afterwards 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Political  Herald"  and  "  English 
Review,"  London.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"Historical  Disquisition  concerning  the  Antiquity  of 
the  British  Constitution,"  (1767,)  "View  of  Society  in 
Europe  in  its  Progress  from  Rudeness  to  Refinement," 
etc.,  (1768,)  "History  of  the  Establishment  of  the  Re- 
formation of  Religion  in  Scotland,  1517-1561,"  (1780,) 
and  "  History  of  Scotland  from  the  Establishment  of 
the  Reformation  to  the  Death  of  Queen  Mary,"  (1782.) 
Died  in  1786. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  Sep- 
tember and  October,  1782. 

Stuart,  (Gilbert  Charles,)  an  eminent  American 
painter,  born  at  Narraganset,  Rhode  Island,  in  1756. 
He  studied  in  London  under  West,  and  subsequently 
executed  a  number  of  portraits,  which  obtained  for  him 
a  high  reputation.  Among  these  may  be  named  that  of 
George  IH.,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  John  Kemble. 
After  his  return  to  America  he  painted  a  portrait  of 
Washington,  which  is  esteemed  the  best  ever  taken  ; 
also  portraits  of  Mrs.  Washington,  John  Adams,  Jeffer- 
son, Madison,  and  other  distinguished  Americans.  Died 
in  1828. 

Stuart,  (Henry  Benedict,)  Cardinal  York,  born  in 
1725,  was  a  grandson  of  James  H.  of  England,  and  a 
brother  of  Charles  Edward  the  Pretender.  He  lived 
at  Rome,  and  became  a  cardinal  in  1747.     Died  in  1807. 

Stuart,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary  and  architect, 
commonly  known  as  "  Athenian  Stuart,"  was  born  in 
London  in  17 13.  He  resided  many  years  at  Rome, 
where  he  studied  antiquities  and  the  ancient  languages, 
and  in  1750  visited  Athens  in  company  with  Nicholas 
Revett,  also  an  artist.  In  1762  he  brought  out  the  first 
volume  of  the  "Antiquities  of  Athens,"  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Mr.  Revett.  It  was  received  with  great 
favour,  and  a  second  and  a  third  volume  were  published 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1788.  Among  his 
architectural  works  may  be  named  the  chapel  of  Green- 
wich Hospital. 

Stuart,  (James  E.  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Patrick  county,  Virginia,  about  1833,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1854.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the 
insurgents  in  September,  1861,  and  obtained  command 
of  a  body  of  cavalry.  In  August,  1862,  he  surprised 
General  Pope's  head-quarters  at  Catlett's  Station  and 
captured  some  of  his  private  papers.  In  October  of 
that  year  he  conducted  a  daring  and  successful  raid  to 
Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania.  His  cavalry  covered  the 
retreat  of  General  Lee  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July, 
1863.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  the 
Wilderness,  in  May,  1864,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  a 
battle  against  General  Sheridan,  at  Yellow  Tavern,  on 
the  1 2th  of  May  in  that  year. 

See  a  notice  uf  General  Stuart  in  "Southern  Generals,"  1865; 
Tenney's  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  779. 

Stuart,  (James  F.  E.,)  the  Pretender.  See  James 
Francis  Edward, 

Stuart,  (James,)  LL.D.,  a  British  scientist,  born  at 
Markinch,  Scotland,  January  2,  1843.  He  was  educated 
at  Saint  Andrew's,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
graduating  as  third  wrangler  in  1866.  In  1875  he  was 
made  professor  of  applied  mechanics  at  Cambridge.  He 
has  written  much  on  education  and  social  subjects. 

Stuart,  (John.)     See  Bute,  Lord. 

Stuart,  (John,)  a  Scottish  antiquary,  born  in  1751, 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Aberdeen.     Died  in  1827. 


Stuart,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at  Killin 
in  1743.  He  translated  the  Bible  into  Gaelic  Died  at 
Luss,  May  24,  1821. 

Stuart,  (Moses,)  an  American  theologian  and  Con- 
gregational divine,  born  at  Wilton,  Connecticut,  in  1780. 
He  was  appointed  in  1809  professor  of  sacred  literature 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  which  post  he  held 
for  more  than  thirty  years.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  without  Points," 
(1813,)  "  Letters  to  Dr.  Channing  on  Religious  Liberty," 
(1830,)  "Hints  on  the  Prophecies,"  (1842,)  "A  Scrip- 
tural View  of  the  Wine  Question,"  (1848,)  and  a  number 
of  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  He  published  in 
1827  a  "Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews," 
which,  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "continues  in  all  countries 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  noblest  examples  of  philo- 
logical theology  and  exegetical  criticism."  ("  Prose 
Writers  of  America.")     Died  in  1852. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Stu'art  or  Stew'art  Family,  a  famous  and  unfor- 
tunate royal  family  which  reigned  in  Scotland  several 
centuries  and  in  England  for  more  than  a  century.  The 
first  member  of  this  family  that  became  king  was  Robert 
II.,  whose  father  was  Walter,  high  steward  of  Scotland, 
and  whose  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Robert  Bruce.  (See 
Robert  II.)  The  last  king  of  this  dynasty  was  James  II., 
who  was  deposed  in  1688,  after  which  two  of  his  descend- 
ants, styled  Pretenders,  attempted  to  ascend  the  throne. 
(See  James  Francis  Edward,  and  Charles  Edward.) 

"The  name  of  the  family,"  says  Burton,  "was  Allan 
or  Fitz-Allan  ;  but  it  had  become  habitual  to  call  them 
by  the  name  of  the  feudal  office  held  by  them  in  Scot- 
land, and  hence  Robert  II.  was  the  first  of  the  Steward 
— or,  as  it  came  to  be  written,  the  Stewart — dynasty.* 
("  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxvi.) 

See  C.  D.  Voss,  "Geschichte  der  Stuarts  auf  dem  Englischen 
Throne,"  4  vols.,  1794-97. 

Stu'art  de  Rothe'say,  (roth'sa,)  (Charles  Stu- 
art,) Lord,  a  distinguished  British  diplomatist,  grandson 
of  Lord  Bute,  was  born  in  1779.  He  was  sent  in  1810 
as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Portugal,  and  for  his  ser- 
vices on  this  occasion  obtained  from  the  prince-regent  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath.  The  King  of  Por- 
tugal also  made  him  a  grandee  of  that  kingdom.  He  was 
afterwards  successively  minister  at  Paris,  the  Hague, 
and  Saint  Petersburg.  In  1828  he  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age, with  the  title  of  Stuart  de  Rothesay.    Died  in  1845. 

Stubbe,  stub,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer  and 
scholar,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  163 1.  He  joined  the 
party  of  Cromwell  during  the  civil  war,  and  wrote  "  A 
Vindication  of  Sir  Harry  Vane,"  "  Light  shining  out 
of  Darkness,  with  an  Apology  for  the  Quakers,"  and 
other  works.  After  the  restoration  he  went  over  to  the 
royalists,  and  published  numerous  attacks  on  his  former 
friends.     He  was  accidentally  drowned  in  1676. 

Stubbe,  (John.)     See  Stubbs,  (John.) 

Stubbs,  (George,)  an  English  painter,  born  at  Liver- 
pool in  1724,  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
anatomy.  He  excelled  in  delineating  animals,  par- 
ticularly horses.  He  published  in  1766  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Anatomy  of  the  Horse."  His  picture  of  "The 
Grosvenor  Hunt"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces. 
Died  in  1806. 

Stubbs  or  Stubbe,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
Puritan,  born  about  1540.  Having  written  a  pamphlet 
against  Queen  Elizabeth's  inarriage  with  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  entitled  "The  Discovery  of  a  Gaping  Gulph, 
wherein  England  is  like  to  be  swallowed  by  anothei 
French  Marriage,"  his  right  hand  was  amputated  by 
order  of  the  queen. 

Stubbs,  (William,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  English  his- 
torian, born  at  Knaresborough,  June  21,  1825.  He 
graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  became  a  Fellow 
of  Trinity,  was  ordained  in  1848,  became  regius  professor 
of  history  at  Oxford  in  1866,  curator  of  the  Bodleian 
Library  in  1869,  a  canon  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1879,  and 
Bishop  of  Chester  in  1884.  He  has  published  many  old 
Latin  and  other  texts  illustrating  English  history,  and 
IS  author  of  "The  Constitutional  History  of  England," 
(1874;  3d  vol.,  1878,)  etc. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit j  mfit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STUCK 


2261 


STURMER 


Stuck.    See  Battistin. 

Stuck,  stook,  [Lat.  Stuck'ius,]  (Johann  Wilhelm,) 
a  Swiss  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Zurich  about 
1550.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Feasts  of  the 
Ancients,  and  their  Sacrifices,"  (1591.)     Died  in  1607. 

Studer,  stoo'der,  (Ukknakd,)  a  Swiss  savant  and 
author,  born  at  ]5uren-on-the-Aar  in  1794,  became  pro- 
fessor of  geology  at  Ijerne.     Died  in  1887. 

Stud'ley,  (William  Sprague,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
clergyman,  born  in  Boston,  Massaciiusetts,  May  26,  1823. 
He  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1850,  and  held 
various  imj^ortant  pastorates.  His  principal  published 
work  is  a  l)iography  of  S.  W.  Paine,  (1865.) 

Stuerbout,stu''er-b6wt',(DiERiCK,)  one  of  the  earliest 
Dutch  painters,  sometimes  called  DiRK  VAN  Haarlem, 
was  born  in  that  town.  He  lived  about  1450-70.  There 
are  two  historical  pictures  by  him  in  the  royal  collection 
at  the  Hague,  re]iresenting  incidents  in  the  life  of  the 
emperor  Otho  HI.  and  his  empress.  Stuerbout  ranked 
imong  the  first  artists  of  his  time. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Stuermer.     See  Sturmer. 

Stuhr,  stooR,  (Peter  P~eddersen,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Flensborg  in  1787,  published  a  number  of  philo- 
sophical and  historical  works.     Died  in  1851. 

Stuke'ley,  (William,)  M.D.,  an  English  divine,  an- 
tiquary, and  physician,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1687. 
Having  practised  medicine  for  a  time  with  great  reputa- 
tion and  success,  he  took  holy  orders,  and  in  1747 
obtained  the  rectory  of  Saint  George  the  Martyr,  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  the  author  of  "  Itinerarium  Curiosum,  or 
an  Account  of  the  Antiquities,  etc.  observed  in  Travels 
through  Great  Britain,"  (1724,)  "  Palseographia  Britan- 
nica,  or  Discourses  on  Antiquities  in  Britain,"  (1743-54,) 
"  Some  Account  of  the  Medallic  Jlistory  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  Valerius  Carausius,  Emperor  of  Britain," 
(1757-59,)  and  other  valuable  antiquarian  works;  also 
a  collection  of  sermons,  entitled  "  Palaeographia  Sacra," 
(1760-63.)     Died  in  1765. 

Stiller  or  Stueler,  stii'ler,  (August,)  a  German 
architect,  born  in  Berlin  in  1800,  was  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  pupils  of  Schinkel.  Among  his  greatest 
works  are  the  new  museum  at  Berlin,  and  the  Exchange 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.     Died  March  18,  1865. 

Sturdza.     See  Stoordza. 

Sture,  stoo'reh,  (Sten,)  called  THE  Elder,  a  Swed- 
ish statesman,  related  to  the  royal  family  of  Sweden. 
On  the  death  of  Charles  VHL,  in  1470,  he  became  re- 
gent of  the  kingdom,  which  he  defended  with  signal 
ability  against  the  attempts  of  the  Danes  and  the  Rus- 
sians.    Died  in  1504. 

See  Geijer,  "  Areminne  ofv  ;r  S.  Sture,"  1803. 

Sture,  (Sten,)  the  Younger,  son  of  Svante  Sture, 
noticed  below,  succeeded  his  father  as  regent  in  1512. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  ability,  and 
for  a  time  successfully  resisted  the  encroachments  of 
Denmark,  but  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle 
near  Jonkoping,  in  1520. 

See  SiLFVERSTOLPE,  "  Areminne  bfver  S.  Sture,"  1791. 

Sture,  (Svante,)  became  Regent  of  Sweden  on  the 
/leath  of  Sten  Sture  the  Elder,  in  1504.     Died  in  1512. 

Sturge,  stiirj,  (Joseph,)  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Elberton,  Gloucestershire,  in  1793,  was  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  became  a  corn-factor 
at  Bewdley,  from  which  he  removed  to  Birmingham  in 
1822.  By  his  probity,  energy,  and  moral  courage  he 
acquired  much  influence.  He  was  one  of  the  first  in 
England  to  advocate  the  immediate  abolition  of  slavery, 
and  he  became  a  prominent  leader  of  the  anti-slavery 
movement.  \\\  1836  he  visited  the  West  Indies,  and 
collected  evidence  against  the  slaveholders.  He  per- 
formed an  anti-slavery  mission  to  the  United  States 
in  1841.  After  his  return  he  co-operated  actively  with 
Cobden  and  Bright  in  the  anti-corn-law  movement. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  Henry  Richard,  "Memoir  of  Joseph  Sturge,"  1864. 

Sturgeon,  (William,)  an  English  electrician,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1783.  He  learned  the  trade  of  shoe- 
maker, and  served  a  number  of  years  in  the  royal  artil- 
lery.    He   invented   or  improved  an   electro-magnetic 


machine,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on  electro-magnet* 
ism.     Died  at  Manchester  in  1850. 

Stur'^es,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  was  prebendary 
of  Winchester.  He  published  "  Discourses  on  the  Evi- 
dence of  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion,"  and  was  en- 
gaged in  a  controversy  with  Dr.  Milner.     Died  in  1807. 

Stur'gis,  (Samuel  D.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Shippensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1822,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  major  in  May, 
1861,  and  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  at 
Wilson's  Creek  when  General  Lyon  was  killed,  Aug^'asl 
10  of  that  year.  His  command  was  defeated  at  Gun- 
town,  Mississippi,  June  10,  1864.     Died  Sept.  28,  1889. 

Sturleson.     See  Snorri-Sturluson. 

Sturm,  stooRm,  or  Sturme,  first  abbot  of  Fulda, 
was  born  in  Bavaria  about  715  A.D.  He  founded  about 
744  the  monastery  of  Fulda,  which  became  a  famous 
seat  of  learning.     Died  in  780. 

Sturm,  stooRm,  (Christoph  Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man moralist  and  preacher,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1740, 
He  preached  at  Magdeburg  and  Hamburg,  and  wrote 
a  number  of  popular  religious  works,  among  which  was 
"  Meditations  on  the  Works  of  God  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Nature,"  (2  vols.,  1772-97.)     Died  in  1786. 

See  Feddersen,  "  Leben  und  Charakter  des  Hauptpastors  C. 
C.  Sturm,"  1786;  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Hand- 
buch." 

Sturm,  stooRm  or  stiiRm,  (Jacques  Charles  Fran- 
cois,) an  excellent  Swiss  mathematician,  born  at  Geneva 
in  September,  1803.  He  was  a  tutor  to  the  son  of 
Madame  de  Stael,  with  whom  he  visited  Paris  in  1823. 
In  1827  Sturm  and  his  friend  CoUadon  obtained  the 
grand  prize  of  mathematics  proposed  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Paris  for  the  best  memoir  on  the  compres- 
sion of  liquids.  He  discovered  in  1829  the  celebrated 
theorem  which  completes  the  resolution  of  numerical 
equations  by  determining  the  number  of  real  roots  which 
are  included  between  given  limits.  This  is  known  as 
"  Sturm's  theorem."  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  College  Rollin  in  1830,  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1836,  and  professor  of  analysis  at  the  Poly- 
technic School  in  1840.     Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sturm,  (Jakob,)  an  eminent  German  statesman  and 
Reformer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1489.  He  became  in 
early  life  a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  and  was 
chosen  mayor  or  chief  magistrate  of  Strasburg  in  1526. 
His  learning  and  wisdom  were  such  that  he  was  regarded 
as  an  oracle  by  his  fellow-citizens.  It  is  stated  that  he 
was  sent  ninety-one  times  on  missions  to  various  courts, 
between  1525  and  1552.     Died  in  1553. 

See  Ha  AG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Sturm,  [Lat.  Stur'mius.I  (Johann,)  an  eminent 
scholar  and  teacher,  surnamed  "the  German  Cicero," 
was  born  at  Schleiden  in  1507.  He  became  in  1538  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  at  Strasburg,  which,  under  his  direc- 
tion, attained  a  very  high  reputation.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Cicero,  (9  vols.,  1557  et  seq.,)  a  number  of 
translations  from  the  Latin,  and  several  original  works 
in  that  language  :  among  these  we  may  name  "On  the 
Proper  Opening  of  Schools  of  Learning,"  ("De  Litera- 
rum  Ludis  recte  Aperiendis,"  1538,)  and  "On  the  Uni- 
versal Method  of  Rhetorical  Elocution,"  ("De  universa 
Ratione  Elocutionis  Rhetoricae,"  1576.)     Died  in  1589. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^RONi 
"  M^moires  ;"  M.  Adam,  "Vita  Germanorum  Philosophorum '" 
"Nouvelle  Biograpbie  G^n^rale." 

Sturm,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  philosophei 
and  mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1635.  Having 
graduated  at  Jena,  he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Altdorf  in  "1669.  He  translated  into  Latin  Bockler's 
"  Hydraulic  Architecture,"  and  published  several  valua- 
ble works  on  mathematics  and  physical  science.  Died 
in  1703. 

Sturm,  (Leonhard  Christoph,)  an  architect,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Altdorf  in  1669.  He 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Military  Architecture,"  and  other 
similar  works.     Died  in  1719. 

Sturmer  or  Stuermer,  stiiR'mer,  (Bartholomaus,) 
Count,  son  of  Ignaz,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Con- 
stantinople in  1787,  and  was  educated  at  Vienna.     He 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  vi,^Mural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled-  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ|^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STURMER 


2262 


sue  MET 


was  consul-general  to  the  United  States  in  1818,  and  in 
1834  appointed  internuncio  at  Constantinople. 

Stiirmer  or  Stuermer,  (Ignaz,)  Baron,  a  German 
diplomatist  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Vienna  in  1752. 
He  was  appointed  in  1789  court  interpreter,  and  in  1802 
internuncio  at  the  Porte,  and  magnate  of  Hungary  in 
1820.     Died  in  1829. 

Sturmiu3.     See  Sturm,  (Johann.) 

Stvirt,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  explorer,  born  in 
India  in  1796.  Having  entered  the  army,  he  went  to 
Australia  in  1825,  in  the  interior  of  wliich  continent  he 
conducted  four  great  exploring  expeditions,  fruitful  in 
geographical  and  scientific  knowledge.  His  hardships 
brought  on  complete  blindness.  He  published  narra- 
tives of  his  principal  explorations.  Died  at  Cheltenham, 
England,  June  16,  1869. 

Sturt,  (John,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  London 
in  165S,  was  celebrated  for  his  exquisite  illustrations  of 
the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer."     Died  in  1730. 

Stur'te-vant,  (John  Merchant,)  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  at  Mattapoisett,  Massachusetts,  March  23, 
1825.  Though  blind,  he  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege in  1846,  and  at  the  Bridgewater  Normal  School. 
He  was  from  185 1  till  his  death  principal  of  the  Tennes- 
see School  for  the  Blind.  Died  at  Nashville,  December 
26,  1882. 

Sturtzenbecher,  stooRts'en-bSk'er,  (Oscar  Pat- 
rick,) a  Swedish  writer  and  liberal  politician,  born  at 
Stockholm  in  181 1.     Died  February  15,  1869, 

Sturz,  stooRts,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  near  Freiberg  in  1762,  published  editions 
of  Empedocles,  the  fragments  of  Hellanicus,  and  of  other 
Greek  writers.     Died  in  1832. 

Sturz,  (Helfreich  Peter,)  aGerman  writer,  born  at 
Darmstadt  in  1736,  was  a  friend  of  Klopstock,  and  was 
patronized  by  Count  Bernstorff.  His  principal  works 
are  "Recollections  of  the  Life  of  Bernstorff,"  and  "Let- 
ters of  a  Traveller."     Died  in  1779. 

Stiive  or  Stueve,  stii'veh, (Johann  Karl  Bertram,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1798,  filled  several 
offices  under  the  government,  and  wrote  a  number  of 
political  treatises.      Died  February  12,  1872. 

Stuven,  stoo'ven,  (Ernst,)  a  German  flower-painter, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1657  ;  died  in  1712. 

Stuyvesant,  sti've-sant,  (Peter,)  the  last  Dutch 
Governor  of  the  New  Netherlands,  (New  York,)  was 
born  about  1602.  He  was  appointed  governor  or  di- 
rector-general about  1645.  He  had  previously  served 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  lost  a  leg  in  battle.  In  1655 
he  conquered  a  Swedish  colony  on  the  Delaware  River, 
His  administration  was  vigorous  and  rather  arbitrary. 
New  Amsterdam  was  attacked  by  an  English  fleet,  to 
which  Governor  Stuyvesant  surrendered  in  September, 
1664.  He  died  at  New  York  in  1682.  Peter  Stuyvesant 
forms  a  conspicuous  character  in  Irving's  humorous 
work  entitled  "  History  of  New  York,  by  Diedrich 
Knickerbocker." 

Style,  (William,)  an  English  law-writer,  born  in 
1603,     He  published  "  Reports,"  (1658.)     Died  in  1679 

Stylites.     See  Simeon  Stylites. 

Styx,  [Gr.  Srif,]  a  personage  of  classic  mythology, 
was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  the 
wife  of  Pallas,  and  the  mother  of  Victory,  (Nice,)  Power, 
(Cratos,)  and  Zelus.  She  is  a  personification  of  a  cele- 
brated river  of  Hades.  The  poets  feigned  that  the  gods 
in  taking  a  solemn  oath  used  to  swear  by  Styx,  and  if 
they  violated  such  an  oath  they  were  deprived  of  nectar 
for  nine  years. 

Suabedissen,  soo'i-beh-dis'sen,  (David  Theodor 
August,)  a  German  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Mel- 
sungen  in  1773  ;  died  in  1835. 

Sualem,  (Renkin.)     See  Rannequin. 

Suard,  sii'tK',  (Jean  Baptiste  Antoine,)  a  French 
journalist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1734. 
He  was  successively  associate  editor  of  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  and  editor  of  the  political  journals  entitled 
"  Les  Independants"  and  "Le  Publiciste."  He  trans- 
lated into  French  Robertson's  "  History  of  Charles  V.," 
and  published,  among  other  works,  "Literary  Miscel- 
janies,"  (5  vols.,  1805,)  and  "  Lettres  de  I'Anonyme  de 
Vaugirard,"  a  witty  and  satirical  production,  which  ob- 


tained great  and  deserved  popularity.  He  also  made 
numerous  valuable  contributions  to  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1772,  and  afterwards  became  perpetual 
secretary  of  that  institution.     Died  in  1817. 

See  C.  NisARD,  "  M^moires  et  Correspondance  Lilt^raire  sur 
Suard,"  iSsg;  Garat,  "Historical  Memoirs  of  M.  Suard;"  PA- 
RENwis,  "  filoge  de  Suard,"  1841;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Suard,  Madame,  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
at  Lille  in  1750,  and  was  a  sister  of  Charles  J.  Panc- 
koucke  the  author.  She  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Memoirs  of  M.  Suard,"  ("  Essai  de  Memoires  sur  M. 
Suard,"  1820.)     Died  in  1830. 

Suares,  sii't'rSss',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Avignon  in  1599,  became  Bishop  of 
Vaison  in  1633.  He  wrote  numerous  antiquarian  works. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1677. 

Suaresius.     See  Suarez. 

Suarez,  swd'reth,  [Lat.  Suare'sius,]  (Francis,)  a 
learned  and  eloquent  Spanish  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Granada  in  1548.  He  became  successively  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Valladolid,  Rome,  Alcala,  and  Coim- 
bra.  Among  his  principal  works  is  his  "  Defensio  Fidei 
Catholicas,"  etc.,  (1613,)  being  designed  as  a  refutation 
of  the  oath  of  allegiance  exacted  by  James  I.  of  England 
from  his  subjects,  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Laws."  Died 
about  1615. 

See  Deschamps,  "  Vita  Fr.  Suaresii,"  1671 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Gdndrale." 

Suavius,  swi've-tis,  or  Suterman,  soo'ter-m4n', 
(Lambert,)  sometimes  called  Schwab,  a  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Liege,  flourished  about  1550.  He 
engraved  his  own  designs,  and  others.    Died  about  1565. 

Subervie,  sii'b&R've',  (Jacques  Gervais — zhgR'vi',) 
Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  Lectoure  in  1776.  He 
served  as  general  of  brigade  in  Spain,  (180S-11,)  and 
in  Russia  in  1812.  He  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1814,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  He  was  republican 
minister  of  war  from  February  25  to  March  19,  1848. 
Died  in  1856. 

See  Alexandrr  Thierry,  "  Le  General  Subervie,"  1856 ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Suben,  soo'ben,  an  ancient  goddess,  the  special 
patroness  of  Southern  Egypt,  and  the  goddess  of  ma- 
ternity.    The  vulture  was  her  symbol. 

Sublet,  sii'bli',  (Fkan^ois,)  a  French  minister  of 
state,  born  about  1580.  He  was  secretary  of  war  from 
1636  till  1643.     Died  in  1645. 

Subleyras,  sii'bli'ris',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Uzes  in  1699.  He  resided  many  years  in  Rome, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Basil  celebrating  Mass  in 
the  Presence  of  the  Emperor  Valens,"  and  "  Saint 
Benedict  restoring  a  Child  to  Life."     Died  in  1749. 

Subo'w.     See  Zoobof. 

Subternians.     See  Sustermans. 

Suchet,  sii'shy,  (Louis  Gabriel,)  Duke  of  Albutera, 
a  celebrated  French  marshal,  born  at  Lyons  in  March, 
1770.  He  served  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1796,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  for  his  distin- 
guished bravery  at  the  battle  of  Neumark,  (1797.)  Ap- 
pointed in  1799  general  of  division  under  Massena,  he 
successfully  opposed  the  Austrians  under  General  Melas, 
and  made  a  divers  on  in  favour  of  Massena,  then  besieged 
at  Genoa,  (1800.)  After  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  which 
he  took  a  prominent  part,  he  was  made  governor  of 
Genoa  and  commander  of  the  centre  of  the  army  of 
Italy.  He  successively  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Poz- 
zolo,  Borghetto,  Verona,  and  Montebello,  and  in  1805 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  Marshal  Lannes's  division 
or  corps  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  Having  been  created 
by  Napoleon  a  count  of  the  empire,  he  was  appointed 
in  1808  to  the  command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of 
Spain.  In  this  post,  by  his  brilliant  successes  at  Lerida, 
Mequinanza,  (1810,)  Tortosa,  (1811,)  and  Tarragona, 
(181 1,)  he  won  the  highest  reputation  as  a  brave  officer 
and  an  able  disciplinarian  and  tactician.  He  was  made 
a  marshal  of  France  in  181 1.  His  subsequent  victories 
at  Murviedro,  Valencia,  and  Albufera  were  rewarded 
by  Napoleon  with  a  large  domain,  and  the  title  of  Duke 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  Q,  obscure;  (Ir,  filll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SUCHTELEN 


2263 


SUFFREN 


Kit  Albufera.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
was  deprived  of  the  greater  part  of  his  honours  ;  but  the 
title  of  peer  was  restored  to  him  by  Louis  XVIII.  m 
1819.  He  died  in  1826,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  the  War 
in  Sjjain,"  (1829.)  It  is  stated  that  Napoleon  estimated 
his  ability  higher  than  that  of  any  other  of  his  marshals 
except  Massena. 

See  BoLO,  "  Notice  sur  le  Mar^chal  Sucliet,"  1826. 

Suchtelen,  suK'teh-l§n',  (Jan  Pieter,)  Count,  a 
Dutch  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Oberyssel  in 
1759,  entered  the  Russian  service,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  capture  of  Sweaborg,  (1789.)    Died  in  1836. 

Suck'ling,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Middlesex  about  1608.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and,  after  travelling  on  the  continent,  served 
for  a  time  in  the  army  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of 
Sweden.  He  subsequently  became  celebrated  as  a  wit 
at  the  court  of  Charles  I.  In  1640  he  was  elected  to  the 
Long  Parliament  for  Bramber,  but,  having  joined  in  the 
conspiracy  to  rescue  the  Earl  of  Strafford  from  the 
Tower,  in  1641,  he  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
France,  where  he  died  about  1642.  His  reputation  rests 
chiefly  on  his  lyric  poems  ;  but  he  also  wrote  several 
dramas  and  satires,  and  a  treatise  entitled  "  An  Account 
of  Religion  by  Reason."  "  His  style,"  says  Hazlitt,  "is 
almost  entirely  free  from  the  charge  of  pedantry  and 
affectation.  His  compositions  are  almost  all  of  them 
short  and  lively  effusions  of  wit  and  gallantry,  written 
in  a  familiar  but  spirited  style." 

See  Hazi.itt,  "  Comic  Writers  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
IX.,  (1824.) 

Suckow,  sook'ko,  (Kari.  Adolf,)  a  German  novelist, 
born  at  Miinsterberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1802,  has  written 
under  the  pseudonym  of  PoSGARU.     Died  in  1847. 

Sucre,  de,  di  soo'kRi,  (Antonio  Jos6,)  a  South 
American  patriot  and  general,  born  at  Cumana  in  1793, 
fought  under  Bolivar,  and  in  1819  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.  He  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Pichincha  in 
1822,  and  in  1824,  having  succeeded  Bolivar  as  com- 
mander-in-chief, gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  royal- 
ists at  Ayacucho,  by  which  the  country  was  delivered 
from  the  Spanish  yoke.  He  was  created  grand  marshal 
of  Ayacucho  by  Bolivar,  and  in  1825  chosen  President 
of  Bolivia.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Congress 
from  Quito  in  1830.  He  was  assassinated  soon  after,  at 
the  instigation,  it  is  supposed,  of  General  Ovando. 

Sudhodana,  s66-d'ho'da-na,  a  Hindoo  prince,  the 
father  of  Gautama,  (which  see.) 
Sudra  or  Suder.  See  Soodra. 
Sudre,  siidR,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  lithographer, 
born  at  Alby  in  1783.  He  produced  lithographs  of 
several  works  of  Raphael  and  Ingres.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1834.     Died  in  1866. 

Sue,  sii,  (Euc.ene,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1804,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph  Sue,  (1760- 
1830.)  He  was  named  in  honour  of  Eugene  de  Beau- 
harnais,  son  of  the  empress  Josephine,  who  was  his 
sponsor.  Having  studied  medicine,  he  accompanied 
the  French  army  into  Spain  in  1823  as  military  surgeon. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  from  whom  he  inherited  a 
large  fortune,  he  studied  painting  for  a  time  under 
Gudin  ;  but  he  soon  renounced  this  art  for  .Jterature, 
and  published  several  tales  of  sea-life,  entitled  "  Kernock 
le  Pirate,"  (1830,)  "  Plick  et  Plock,"  (1831,)  "  A  tar  Gull," 
"La  Salamandre,"  (1832,)  and  "La  Vigie  de  Koatven," 
(1833.)  Encouraged  by  th'-  success  of  tliese  productions, 
he  brought  out  in  the  Paris  feuilletons  a  series  of  his- 
torical romances,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Latreau- 
monte,"  "Jean  Cavalier,"  "  Le  Vicomte  de  Letorieres," 
and  "  Le  Commandeur  de  Malte."  He  next  published 
in  rapid  succession  his  "  Mathilde,"  "  Therese  Dunoyer," 
"Mysteres  de  Paris,"  (1842,)  and  "  Le  Juif  errant," 
("The  Wandering  Jew,"  1846.)  Theseromances,  in  which 
Sue  has  unveiled  the  most  revolting  forms  of  vice,  and 
for  the  most  part  represented  wickedness  triumphant, 
obtained  great  popularity,  and  were  translated  into  the 
principal  European  languages.  He  was  elected  in  1850 
a  member  of  the  Assemblee  Nationale.     Died  in  1857. 

See  G.  Planchk,  "  Portraits  Litt^raires  :"  Qu^rard,  "  La  France 
Litt^raire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  183S,  and  July.  1842. 


Sue,  (Jean,)  a  French  surgeon  and  writer,  born  in 
Var  in  1699.     He  practised  in  Paris.     Died  in  1762. 

Sue,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  writer  on  anatomy  and 
surgery,  born  in  1710,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  lectured  on  anatomy  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1792. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Sue,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  surgeon,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  He  wrote  "Physiological 
Researches  on  Vitality,"  (1798,)  and  other  works.  He 
became  consulting  physician  to  the  king  in  1824.  Died 
in  1830. 

Sue,  (Pierre,)  a  learned  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in 
1739,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Sue,  noticed  above.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  works  on  surgery  and  medicine,  which 
are  commended.     Died  in  1816. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Sueno.     See  Aagesen  and  Sweyn. 

Suenon,  the  French  for  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark 
(See  Sweyn.) 

Suetone.    See  Suetonius. 

Sue-to'ni-us,  [  Fr.  Su6tone,  su-i'ton',]  (Caiuk 
Tranquillus,)  an  eminent  Latin  historian,  born  about 
70  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  a  military  tribune.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Pliny  the  Younger,  who  wrote  to  Suetonius  several 
letters,  which  are  extant.  He  practised  law,  and  was 
versed  in  various  departments  of  learning.  In  the  reign 
of  Hadrian  he  obtained  the  office  oi  magister  epistolarum, 
or  secretary,  but  he  did  not  keep  it  long.  Pliny  thf; 
Younger  speaks  in  high  terms  of  his  integrity  and  learn- 
ing. .Suetonius  wrote,  besides  numerous  works  which 
are  lost,  "The  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  ("  Vitae 
Caesarum,"  which  is  highly  prized,  and  appears  to  be 
impartial.  The  subjects  of  this  work  are  the  twelve 
emperors  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Domitian  inclusive, 
whose  private  lives  and  vices  he  exposes,  with  copious 
details.  Saint  Jerome  says  pithily  of  Suetonius,  "that 
he  wrote  of  the  emperors  with  the  same  freedom  that 
they  themselves  lived,"  ("  pari  libertate  ac  ipsi  vixerunt.") 
His  work  is  rather  anecdotical  than  historical.  There 
are  extant  two  other  works  ascribed  to  him, — namely, 
"  On  Illustrious  Grammarians,"  ("  De  Grammaticis  il- 
lustribus,")  and  "  On  Celebrated  Orators,"  ("  De  Claris 
Rhetoribus.") 

See  A.  Krause,  "De  Suetonii  Fontibus,"  etc.,  1831 ;  D.  W. 
MoLLER,  "Disputatio  circularis  de  C.  Suetonio,"  1685;  Baylk, 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gfini- 
rale." 

Sue-to'ni-us  Pau-li'nus,  a  Roman  general,  served 
in  Mauritania  in  42  A.D.  He  was  appointed  commandei 
of  Nero's  annyin  Britain  in  59,  and  defeated  the  natives 
commanded  by  Boadicea.     Died  after  70  a.d. 

Su'ett,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  comedian, 
born  in  London  ;  died  in  1805. 

Sueur,  Le,  (Eustache.)     See  Le  Sueur. 

Sueur,  Le,  (Hubert.)     See  Sceur. 

Sueur,  Le,  (Jean  Francois.)     See  Le  Sueur. 

Suflfee,  (King  of  Persia.)     See  Sefi. 

Suf'field,  (Henry  Harbord,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1781,  was  elected  in  1820  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Shaftesbury.  He  was  an  advocate  of  the  abo- 
lition of  colonial  slavery,  and  of  other  important  reforms. 
Died  in  1835. 

Suffolk,  Duke  of.     See  Brandon,  (Charles.) 

Suffolk,  suf'fok,  (Michael  de  la  Pole,)  first  Eari 
OF,  an  English  statesman,  who  served  in  the  army  under 
Edward  III.  He  became  lord  chancellor  in  March,  1383, 
was  created  Earl  of  Suffolk  in  August,  1386,  and  removed 
in  October  of  that  year.     Died  in  1389. 

Suffolk,  (William  de  la  Pole,)  Duke  of,  was  lord 
high  admiral  of  England.  He  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  Orleans,  in  1429,  and  was  defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc. 
He  was  beheaded,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  in  1450. 

Suffren,  sUTrSn',  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
Provence  in  1565.  He  was  for  many  years  confessor  to 
the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He  wrote  "  The  Christian 
Year,"  ("  Annee  chretienne,"  1641.)     Died  in  1641. 

Suffren  Saint-Tropez,  de,  deh  sii'fRfiN'siN  tRo'pk',) 
(Pierre  Andr6,)  a  distinguished  French  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  Provence  in  1726.  Soon  after  his  en- 
tering the  naval  service  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Maltese   order,  from  which  he  received  the  honorary 


'^as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SUGDEN 


2264 


SULLA 


title  of  Bailli.  He  accompanied  Count  d'Estaing  to 
America  in  1778,  and,  being  subsequently  appointed  to 
a  command  under  Don  Luis  de  Cordova,  took  twelve 
merchant-ships  from  the  British,  (1780.)  In  1781  he 
defeated  the  British  commodore  Johnstone  near  the 
Cape  Verd  Islands.  He  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in 
1784.     Died  in  1788. 

See  Trublet,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  !es  Campagr.es 
du  Bailli  de  Suffren  ;"  Hhnnequin,  "  Ess-ii  histoiiciue  sur  la  Vie 
Et  les  Campaenes  du  Bailli  de  Suffren,"  1824;  Cunat,  "  Histoire  du 
Bailli  de  Suffren,"  1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Sugden.     See  .Saint  Leonard's. 

Suger,  sii'zhi'.  Abbe  of  Saint-Denis,  an  able  and 
powerful  French  statesman,  born  about  1085.  He  was 
chosen  Abbe  of  Saint-Denis  about  11 22,  and  became  the 
favourite  counsellor  and  chief  minister  of  Louis  VI. 
His  influence  was  equally  great  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
VII.,  and  his  administration  was  beneficent  to  the  peo- 
ple.    Died  in  11 52. 

See  Baudier,  "  Histoire  de  I'Administration  de  I'Abbi?  Suger," 
1645:  Gervaise,  "Histoire  de  Sui;er,"  3  vols.,  1721  :  A.  Nette- 
MENT,  "  Histoire  de  Suger,"  1S42 :  F.  Combes,  •'  Suger  et  sor 
Miiiist^re,"  1853;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sugny.     See  Servan  de  Sugny. 

Sugriva,  soo-gree'va,  \i.e.  "  handsome-necked,"  froni 
the  Sanscrit  sn,  "  handsome,"  and ^«W.  "neck,"]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  monkey  chief,  the  son 
of  S^rya,  (or  the  Sun,)  and  the  next  in  rank  among  the 
monkeys  to  Hanuman,  and,  like  the  last-named  hero,  a 
great  favourite  with  Rama.     (See  Hanuman.) 

Suhm,  soom,  (Peder  Frederik,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1728,  was  a  son  of  Ulrich  Friedrich,  noticed  below. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  philology.  Northern 
antiquities,  etc.,  and  published  "  On  the  Origin  of  the 
Northern  Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1 770,)  "Odin,  or  the  My- 
thology of  Northern  Paganism,"  (1771,)  "  History  of  the 
Migration  of  the  Northern  Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1773,) 
"  Critical  History  of  Denmark  in  the  Time  of  the  Pa- 
gans," (4  vols.,  1 78 1,)  and  "  History  of  Denmark  to  the 
Year  1319,"  (11  vols.,  1812.)  He  was  also  the  author  of 
"  Idyls,"  and  several  tales  and  romances,  which  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.     Died  in  1798. 

See  Rasmus  Nverup,  "Udsigt  over  P.  F.  Suhms  Levnet  og 
Skrifter,"  ijgS;  R.  Nyerup,  "Suhmiana,"  1799;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
grajiliie  Generale." 

Suhm,  von,  fon  soom  or  zoom,  (Ulrich  Friedrich,) 
an  intimate  friend  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  was 
born  at  Dresden  in  1691.  His  "Familiar  and  Friendly 
Correspondence  with  Frederick  II."  (in  French)  was 
published  after  the  king's  death.     Died  in  1740. 

Suicer,  swit'ser,  or  Sch-weitzer,  sh^Tt'ser,  (Jo- 
HANN  Caspar,)  a  Swiss  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1620,  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Ecclesiastical  Thesaurus  of  the  Writings 
of  the  Greek  Fathers,"  ("Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus  e 
Patribus  Graecis,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1682.)     Died  in  1684. 

Suicer,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Zurich  in  1644.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  chair  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  1683,  and  published 
a  "Compendium  of  the  Aristotelico-Cartesian  Philoso- 
phy," and  other  works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  1705- 

Su'I-das,  [Gr.  ^om!)a^,\  a  Greek  grammarian  and 
lexicographer,  sujiposed  to  have  flourished  about  the 
tenth  century.  Nothing  is  known  of  him,  except  that 
he  compiled  a  Lexicon  or  encyclopaedia  of  biography, 
literature,  geography,  etc.  This  work,  though  defective 
in  plan  and  not  accurately  executed,  is  highly  prized,  as 
a  contribution  to  the  literary  history  of  antiquity,  and 
contains  many  valuable  extracts  from  writers  whose 
works  are  lost.  A  good  edition  of  this  Lexicon  was 
published  by  T.  Gaisford,  Oxford,  (3  vols.,  1834.) 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Muller,  "Programma 
de  Suida,"  1796. 

Suidger.     See  Clement  II. 

Suintila,  swin'tT-la,  became  King  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain  in  621  a.d.     Died  about  630. 

Suleau,  sii'lo',  (FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  royalist 
and  pamphleteer,  born  in  1757.  He  was  massacred  by 
the  mob  of  Paris  in  August,  1792. 

Suleyman.     See  Solyman  and  Soliman. 


Sul'I-van,  (Sir  Richard  Joseph,)  an  Irish  writer, 
and  member  of  Parliament  for  Seaford,  published  "  A 
View  of  Nature,  in  Letters  to  a  Traveller  among  the 
Alps,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1806. 

Sulko-wski,  sool-kov'skee,  (Anton  Paul,)  Prince, 
a  Polish  general,  born  at  Lissa  in  1785,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Napoleon's  army,  and  was  made  a  general  of 
division  in  1812.     Died  in  1836. 

SulkoviTski,  (Josef,)  a  relaave  of  the  preceding, 
entered  the  French  service,  and,  having  accompanied 
Napoleon  to  Egypt  as  adjutant,  was  killed  in  the  insur- 
rection at  Cairo  in  1798.  He  wrote  "  Historical,  Political, 
and  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Polish  Revolutions,"  etc. 

Sul'la  or  Syl'la,  (Faustus  Cornelius,)  a  son  of 
the  dictator,  was  born  about  88  B.C.  He  served  under 
Pompey  in  Asia,  and  was  the  first  to  mount  the  wall  of 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  in  63.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
the  senate  in  the  civil  war,  fought  at  Pharsalia,  48  B.C., 
and  at  Thapsus,  in  46.  Having  been  taken  prisoner, 
he  was  murdered  by  the  soldiers  of  Caesar  in  46  B.C. 

Sulla  or  Sylla,  [It.  Silla,  sil'ia,]  (Lucius  Cor- 
nelius,)  surnamed  Felix,  (the  "  Fortunate,")  a  famous 
Roman  general,  born  in  138  B.C.,  was  of  a  patrician 
family.  Though  addicted  to  pleasure,  and  though  his 
favourite  companions  are  said  to  have  been  actors, 
buffoons,  and  mimics,  he  early  gave  indications  of  un- 
common powers,  and  was  particularly  distinguished  by 
the  art  he  possessed  of  reading  tlie  various  characters 
of  men.  He  obtained  the  office  of  quaestor  in  107  B.C., 
and  served  under  Marius  against  Jugurtha,  who  was  be- 
trayed by  Bocchus  into  the  power  of  the  Romans.  Sulla 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Jugurtha,  and 
shared  with  Marius  the  credit  of  that  achievement.  In 
104  he  was  employed  as  legate  of  Marius  in  the  war 
against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones.  He  joined  the  army 
of  L.  Catulus  in  102,  and  gave  proof  of  great  military 
talents.  His  personal  qualities  were  eminently  adapted 
to  render  a  general  popular  with  his  soldiers.  Having 
been  elected  praetor  in  93  B.C.,  he  was  sent  the  next 
year  to  Cilicia,  and  restored  Ariobarzanes  to  the  throne 
of  Cappadocia. 

In  the  year  91  began  the  Social  war,  in  which,  says 
Plutarch,  "  Sulla  performed  so  many  memorable  things 
that  the  citizens  looked  upon  him  as  a  great  general, 
his  friends  as  the  greatest  in  the  world,  and  his  enemies 
as  the  most  fortunate."  Sulla  became  the  leader  of  the 
aristocratic  party,  was  elected  consul  for  88  B.C.,  and 
obtained  from  the  senate  the  command  of  the  war 
against  Mithridates,  which  command  was  also  coveted 
by  his  rival  Marius.  A  violent  contest  arose  between 
these  two  leaders,  which  was  the  beginning  of  a  great 
civil  war.  Sulla  marched  with  an  army  against  Rome, 
and  Marius  escaped  to  Africa,  leaving  his  enemy  master 
of  the  capital'.  Sulla  departed  from  Rome  early  in  87  B.C., 
and  commenced  the  war  against  Mithridatesby  an  attack 
on  Athens,  which  he  took,  after  a  long  siege,  in  March, 
86  B.C.  The  Athenians  were  treated  with  great  cruelty 
by  the  victor  on  this  occasion.  Sulla  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  Archelaus,  a  general  of  Mithridates,  at  Chae- 
ronea,  and  again  at  Orchomenus,  in  85  B.C.,  after  which 
he  crossed  the  Hellespont.  In  the  mean  time  the  Marian 
party  had  recovered  possession  of  Rome,  and  had  mas- 
sacred many  partisans  of  Sulla.  He  concluded  a  peace 
with  Mithridates,  extorted  large  sums  of  money  from 
the  Orientals,  and  returned,  with  his  army  of  veterans, 
to  Italy,  where  he  arrived  in  the  spring  of  83,  and  re- 
newed the  civil  war.  The  popular  party  had  a  larger 
army  than  that  of  Sulla,  but  had  no  able  generals.  Sulla 
defeated  Norbanus  near  Capua  in  the  year  83,  and  young 
Marius  at  Sacriportus  in  82  B.C.  He  then  became  master 
of  Rome,  massacred  his  opponents  and  prisoners  by 
thousands,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Samnites  and 
Lucanians  near  Rome.  He  made  a  list  of  his  enemies, 
whom  he  outlawed,  and  called  this  list  a  Proscriptio. 
This  was  the  first  instance  of  a  proscription  among  the 
Romans.  Sulla  was  appointed  dictator  for  an  unlimited 
time,  and  made  important  changes  in  the  constitution, 
tending  to  increase  the  power  of  the  senate  and  aris- 
tocracy and  to  destroy  the  authority  of  the  tribunes  of 
the  people.  He  also  made  reforms  in  the  criminal  law, 
which  were  more  enduring  than  the  changes  just  men- 


i.  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  lonsr;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  <?,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  nSt;  good;  moon: 


SULLA 


2265 


SULPICL4 


tioiied.  He  resigned  the  dictatorship  in  79,  and  died 
in  78  B.C.  Byron  apostrophizes  Sulla  in  the  following 
striking  lines  : — 

"O  thou,  whose  chariot  roH'd  on  fortune's  wheel, 
Triumphant  Sylla!  thou  who  didst  subdue 
Thy  country's  foes  ere  thou  wouldst  pause  to  feel 
The  wrath  of  thy  own  wrongs,  or  reap  the  due 
Of  hoarded  vengeance  till  thine  eagles  flew 
O'er  prostrate  Asia ; — thou,  who  with  thy  frown 
Annihilated  Senates, — Roman,  too. 
With  all  thy  vices,  for  thou  didst  lay  down. 
With  an  atoning  smile,  a  more  than  earthly  crown." 

Chihie  Harold,  canto  iv.,  stanza  Ixxxiu. 
See  Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Sulla ;"  Dkumann,  "  Gescliichte  Roms," 
vol.  ii.  ;  J-  A.  Hartmann,  "  Dissertatio  de  Sulla,"  1727  ;  L.  Sachse, 
"  Lebendes  Dictators  Sulla,"  1791  ;  Zachari^e,  "  L.  Cornelius  Sulla 
als  Ordner  des  Romischen  Freistaates,"  1S34;  Appian,  "  Bellum 
Civile:"  Pliny,  "Natural  History,"  books  vii.,  xi.,  and  xxvi.  ; 
MoMMSEN,  "  Histoire  Romaine ;"  A.  Cvbulski,  "  De  Bello  Civih 
Sullano,"  1838. 

Sulla,  (PuBLius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  patrician, 
was  a  great-grandfather  of  the  dictator  Sulla.  He  was 
prjetor  urbanus  in  212  B.C.,  and  presided  over  the  Ludi 
Apollinares,  then  first  instituted.  His  son,  of  the  same 
names,  was  praetor  in  186  B.C. 

Sulla,  (PuBLius  Cornelius,)  a  nephew  of  the  dic- 
tator Sulla.  He  was  probably  an  accomplice  of  Catiline, 
but  after  a  trial,  in  which  he  was  defended  by  Cicero,  he 
was  acquitted.  He  fought  for  Caesar  in  the  civil  war, 
and  comiTianded  the  right  wing  at  Pharsalia,  48  B.C. 
Died  in  45  B.C. 

Sul'li-van,  (Sir  Arthur  Seymour,)  a  British  musi- 
cian, born  in  London,  May  13,  1842.  He  studied  music 
under  his  father,  and  also  under  the  Rev.  Thomas  Hel- 
more,  Sir  Sterndale  Bennett,  and  Sir  John  Goss.  Later 
he  was  a  pupil  in  the  Leipsic  Conservatory.  He  com- 
posed a  great  number  of  very  popular  o]:)eras  and  songs. 
Among  his  best-known  works  are  "Pinafore,"  (1878,) 
"  Patience,"  (1881,)  and  "  lolanthe,"  (1882.)  The  words 
for  these  comic  operas  were  generally  written  by  Mr. 
W.  S.  Gilbert. 

Sul'li-van,  (George,)  LL.D.,  son  of  General  Sulli- 
van, noticed  below,  was  born  at  Durham,  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  1774.  He  attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  jurist, 
and  rose  to  be  attorney-general  of  his  native  State  in 
1805.     Died  in  1838. 

Sullivan,  (James,)  a  brother  of  General  Sullivan,  vras 
born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1744.  He  became  attorney- 
general  of  Massachusetts  in  1790,  and  was  twice  elected 
Governor  of  that  State.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
District  of  Maine,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1808. 

See  a  "  Life  of  James  Sullivan,"  by  T.  C.  Amory,  1859. 

Sullivan,  (John,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, was  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1740.  He  was 
present  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  led 
the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  attorney-general  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  thrice  elected  President  of  that  State.  His  life  is 
included  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography."  Died  in 
1795- 

Sullivan,  (John  L.,)  an  engineer  and  physician,  born 
at  Saco,  in  Maine,  in  1777,  was  a  son  of  James,  noticed 
above.  He  invented  the  steam  tow-boat  about  1814.  It 
is  stated  that  he  made  discoveries  in  medicine  and 
surgery.     Died  February  9,  1865. 

Sullivan,  (William,)  LL.D.,  ason  of  James  Sullivan, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Saco,  Maine,  in  1774.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Familiar  Letters  on  Public  Characters 
and  Events  from  1783  to  1815,"  "The  Public  Men  of 
the  Revolution,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1839. 

Sul'll-vant,  (William  Starling,)  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can botani.st,  born  at  Franklinton,  (now  Columbus,)  Ohio, 
January  15,  1803.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1823.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  authority  on  the 
mosses  and  liverworts.  He  issued  "Musci  Alleghani- 
enses,"  (1845  J  "^w  edition,  1855,)  "  Musci  and  Hepaticae 
uf  the  United  States,"  (1856,)  "Musci  Boreali-Ameri- 
cani,"  (1856,  prepared  partly  by  L.  Lesquereux,)  "Icones 
Muscorum,"  (1864;  2d  vol.,  1874,)  and  other  works. 
Died  at  Columbus,  April  30,  1873. 

Sully,  sul'li,  [Fr.  pron.  sii'le',]  (Maximilien  de  B6- 
thune — deh  bi'tiin',)  Due  de,  and  Baron  de  Rosny,  a 
French  statesman  of  great  merit  and  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Rosny,  near  Mantes,  in  December,  1560.     He  was  a 


son  of  Francois,  Baron  de  Rosny,  who  was  a  Protestant, 
and  who  presented  Maximilien  to  Henry  of  Navarre  in 
1 571.  He  was  a  student  in  Paris  when  the  Massacre  of 
Saint  Bartholomew  occurred.  In  1575  he  entered  the 
service  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  whom  he  accompanied  in 
his  escape  from  Paris  and  his  perilous  enterprises  which 
followed.  By  his  courage,  prudence,  and  immutable 
fidelity  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Henry,  who  appointed 
him  a  councillor  of  Navarre  in  1580.  He  married  Anne 
de  Courtenay  in  1583.  In  1587  he  contributed  to  the 
victory  at  Coutras,  where  he  directed  the  artillery.  He 
received  several  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Ivry,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Chartres,  in  1591.  He 
advised  Henry  IV.  to  adopt  the  Roman  Catholic  reli- 
gion, being  convinced  that  by  this  policy  only  could 
peace  be  restored  on  a  permanent  basis.  Sully  himself, 
however,  constantly  adhered  to  the  Protestant  Church. 
Having  been  appointed  councillor  of  state  and  of 
finances  in  1596,  he  reformed  many  abuses  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  finances,  and  became  superintendent 
of  the  same  in  1599.  By  order  and  economy  he  greatly 
improved  the  financial  condition  of  France  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  people.  He  turned  his  attention  to 
other  departments  of  government,  and  soon  became 
virtually  prime  minister.  He  encouraged  agriculture 
more  than  manufactures  or  coinmerce,  and  projected  a 
system  of  canals  to  unite  all  the  large  rivers  of  France. 
In  1606  he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Sully.  His 
morals  were  austere,  compared  with  those  of  the  court 
and  the  king,  to  whom  he  acted  in  the  capacity  of  a 
faithful  Mentor.  He  even  ventured  to  tear,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  king,  a  paper  on  which  Henry  had  written  a 
promise  to  marry  the  Marquise  de  Verneuil.  Tlie  death 
of  Henry,  in  1610,  ended  Sully's  political  power.  He 
resigned  the  direction  of  the  finances,  and  retired  from 
court,  but  retained  the  position  of  grand  master  of  ar- 
tillery, and  some  other  oflSces.  In  1634  he  received  the 
baton  of  marshal  of  France.  He  employed  his  latter 
years  in  writing  memoirs  of  his  life  and  times,  entitled 
"  Memoires  des  sages  et  royales  Qiconomies  d'Estat  de 
Henri  le  Grand,"  (4  vols.,  1634-62.)  He  died  at  Ville- 
bon  in  December,  1641,  leaving  a  son  and  several 
daughters. 

See  Thomas,  "  filoge  de  Sully,"  1763  ;  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Francais;"  Michelet,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Hoff,  "  Biographic 
des  Herzogs  von  Sully,"  17S2:  Motley,  "United  Netherlands," 
vol.  iv.  ;  Sewrin,  "  Les  Amis  de  Henri  IV,"  3  vols.,  1S05;  D'Au- 
BiGN^,  "Histoire  universelle ;"  Baumstarck,  "Des  Herzogs  von 
Sully  Verdienste,"  etc.,  1S28;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;" 
"  Retrospective  Review,"  voL  vi.,  (1822  ;)  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  foi 
April  and  May,  1831. 

Sul'lj^,  (James,)  an  English  author,  born  at  Bridge- 
water  in  1842.  He  studied  in  the  colleges  at  Taunton, 
and  Regent's  Park,  and  at  the  University  of  Gottingeri, 
graduating  at  the  University  of  London  in  1866.  His 
principal  works  are  "Sensations  and  Intuition,"  (1874,) 
"Pessimism,"   (1877,)   and  "Outlines  of  Psychology," 

(1884.)  .  .        x- 

Sul'ly,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  painter,  born  in  Lm- 
colnshire,  England,  in  1783.  Having  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica  in  1792,  he  studied  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
and  afterwards  applied  himself  to  portrait-painting  suc- 
cessively at  Richmond,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia 
Among  his  best  works  are  full-length  portraits  of  Jeffer- 
son, La  Fayette,  Commodore  Decatur,  George  Frederick 
Cooke  as  "  Richard  III.,"  and  Queen  Victoria.  He  alsc 
produced  several  historical  pictures,  among  which  wt 
may  name  "  Washington  crossing  the  Delaware."  He 
died  November  5,  1872. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America." 

Sully,  de,  de  sii'le',  (Maurice,)  a  French  preacher, 
who  died  in  11 96.  His  sermons  present  the  oldest  un- 
doubted examples  of  pulpit  oratory  in  the  French  lan- 
guage.    He  was  Archbishop  of  Paris  from  1160  to  1 195. 

Sully-Prudhomme.     See  Prudhomme. 

Sulpice.     See  SuLPipius. 

Sulpice  Severe.     See  Severus,  (Sulpicius.) 

Sulpicia,  siil-pish'e-a,  a  Roman  poetess  under  the 
reign  of  Domitian.  llef  only  extant  work  is  a  satire 
against  that  emperor  on  his  condemnation  of  the  phi- 
losophers to  exile.  It  is  entitled  "  De  Edicto  Domitiani 
quo  Philosophos  Urbe  exegit." 


€  as  /i,-  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as  i;  G,  H,  vi,guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (gf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SULPICIA 


2266 


SUMNER 


Sulpicia  Gens,  an  ancient  Roman  gens,  originally 
patrician,  produced  many  distinguished  men.  Among 
the  names  of  the  families  into  which  this  gens  was 
divided  were  Galba,  Gallus,  Longus,  and  Rufus. 

Sulpicius.     See  Severus,  (Sulpicius.) 

Sulpicius,  siil-pish'e-us,  [Fr.  Sulpice,  sUl'piss',] 
(Lemonia  Rufus  Servius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist 
and  orator,  born  about  106  B.C.  He  was  elected  c(jnsul 
in  51  B.C.,  and  filled  other  high  offices.  After  his  death 
a  eulogy  was  pronounced  on  him  by  Cicero,  who  was 
his  intimate  friend.  His  legal  works  were  very  numerous 
and  highly  esteemed,  but  only  fragments  of  them  are 
extant.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Achaia  by  Caesar 
in  46  or  45  B.C.     Died  in  43  B.C. 

Sulpicius  Rufus,  (Publius,)  a  Roman  orator,  born 
in  124  B.C..  became  tribune  in  88  B.C.,  and  was  an  ad- 
herent of  Marius  in  the  civil  war  with  Sulla.  His  elo- 
quence is  commended  in  the  highest  terms  by  Ciceio, 
who  has  introduced  him  into  his  dialogue  "  De  Oratore." 
After  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Sulla,  Sulpicius  was  be- 
trayed into  his  hands  and  put  to  death,  87  B.C. 

Sulzer,  soolt'ser,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Swiss  philoso- 
pher and  Eesthetic  writer,  born  at  Winterthur  in  1720. 
He  became  in  1747  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  Berlin,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Euler  and  Maupertuis,  and  was  elected 
in  1750  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  professor  in  the  Ritter-Academie  at  Berlin. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  "A  Universal  Theory  of  the 
Fine  Arts,"  ("  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  Schonen-Kiinste,'' 
1794,)  a  cyclopaedia  of  art  and  literature,  which  has  a 
high  reputation.     Died  in  1779. 

See  Hans  Caspar  Hirzel,  "Ueber  Sulzer  deii  Weltweisen," 
1780;  "J.  G.  Sulzer's  Lebeusbeschreibung,  von  ihm  selbstaufgesetzt," 
etc.,  1S09. 

Sum-ma'nus,  an  ancient  Roman  or  Etruscan  divinity, 
whose  character  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Some  authors 
represent  him  as  equal  in  rank  to  Jupiter.  Nocturnal 
lightnings  were  supposed  to  be  manifestations  of  his 
power. 

Sum'mer-field,  (Johx,)  a  Methodist  divine  and 
distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Preston,  England. 
in  1798.  He  emigrated  in  1821  to  America,  where  his 
labours  as  a  preacher  were  eminently  successful.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Tract  Society. 
Died  in  1825. 

See  J.  Holland,  "Life  of  J.  Summerfield,"  1S29. 

Stlrn'meri,  (Thomas  Osmond,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Dorsetshire,  England,  in  1812,  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States,  and  became  in  1858  editor 
of  the  "  Methodist  Quarterly  Review."  He  published  a 
"  Treatise  on  Baptism,"  "  The  Golden  Censer,"  and  other 
religious  works.     Died  Mav  6,  1882. 

Summonte,  soom-mon'ti,  (Gian  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian historian,  born  at  Najjles.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  City  and  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  ("  Istoria  della  Citta 
e  Regno  di  Napoli,"  (4  vols.,  1601-43.)     Died  in  1602. 

Siiin'ner,  (Charles,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
Senator,  distinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  6th  of  January. 
181 1.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1830,  after 
which  he  was  a  pupil  of  Judge  Story  in  the  law-school 
of  Cambridge.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834. 
practised  law  in  Boston,  and  was  appointed  reporter  in 
the  circuit  court  of  the  United  States.  He  published 
three  volumes  entitled  "Sumner's  Reports,"  edited  the 
"American  Jurist,"  and,  in  the  absence  of  Judge  Story, 
lectured  to  the  students  of  the  law-school  at  Cambridge, 
(1834-37.)  He  passed  about  three  years  in  visits  to 
various  countries  of  Europe,  (1S37-40.)  On  the  4th 
of  July,  1845,  he  pronounced  in  Boston  an  oration  on 
"The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,"  which  attracted  much 
attention  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  The  de- 
sign of  this  argument  was  to  promote  the  cause  of  peace. 
He  ojiposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United 
States  in  1845.  About  this  time  he  separated  himself 
from  the  Whig  party  and  joined  that  of  the  Free-Soilers. 
He  supported  Martin  Van  Buren  for  the  Presidency  in 
1848.  He  delivered  numerous  orations  and  lectures  on 
various  subjects,  which  were  published  in  two  volumes, 
(1850.)     By  a  coaUtion  of  Democrats  and  Free-Soilers 


he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1850 
as  the  successor  of  Daniel  Webster.  He  opposed  the 
Fugitive  Slave  bill  by  a  speech  in  the  Senate,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  debate  on  the  Nebraska- Kansas 
bill  in  1854.  On  the  19th  and  20th  of  May,  1856,  he 
made  in  the  Senate  an  eloquent  speech  on  the  contest 
in  Kansas  and  on  the  aggressions  of  the  slave-power. 
Some  passages  of  this  speech  excited  the  anger  of  Pres- 
ton S.  Brooks,  a  Southern  member  of  Congress,  who,  on 
the  22d  of  May,  1856,  assaulted  Mr.  Sumner  while  he 
was  sitting  in  the  Senate-chamber,  and  beat  him  on  the 
head  with  a  cane  until  he  became  insensible.  Mr.  Sum- 
ner was  so  severely  injured  that  he  was  disabled  for  the 
public  service  for  several  years,  and  he  sailed  to  Europe 
in  March,  1857,  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  He  was 
re-elected  to  the  Senate  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  in 
January,  1857,  and  returned  home  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year,  but  made  another  voyage  to  Europe  in  the  spring 
of  1858.  He  remained  under  medical  treatment  in  Paris 
for  a  year  or  more,  and  resumed  his  seat  about  the  en<^ 
of  1859.  He  afterwards  denounced  the  peculiar  institu- 
tion of  the  Southern  States  in  a  sjseech  which  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  The  Barbarism  of  Slavery" 
and  produced  an  immense  effect.  In  i860  he  advocated 
the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency. 
During  the  session  of  1860-61  he  opposed  the  attempts 
to  propitiate  the  disunionists  by  concessions  which  would 
sacrifice  the  rights  of  the  oppressed  or  favour  the  in- 
terests of  slavery.  He  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  foreign  relations  in  March,  1861,  and  about 
the  end  of  1862  was  again  elected  a  Senator  fur  six 
years,  ending  March  4,  1869.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  admirable  resolutions  on  foreign  mediation  which 
were  passed  March  3,  1863,  by  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress. In  a  series  of  resolutions  which  he  offered  on  the 
8th  of  February,  1864,  he  affirmed  that  "any  system  of 
reconstruction  must  be  rejected  which  does  not  provide 
by  irreversible  guarantees  against  the  continued  exist- 
ence or  possible  revival  of  slavery."  After  the  close  of 
the  civil  war  he  advocated  the  reconstruction  of  the  se- 
ceded States  on  the  basis  of  impartial  suffrage.  During 
the  rebellion  he  was  a  confidential  adviser  of  President 
Lincoln,  who,  in  April,  1865,  said  to  Mr.  Sumner, 
"  There  is  no  person  with  whom  I  have  more  advised 
throughout  my  administration  than  yourself."  Amoiig 
his  important  services  was  the  production  of  the  Freed- 
man's  Bureau  bill.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  foreign  relations  from  1861  to  1870,  and  lived  to  wit- 
ness the  triumph  of  the  principles  for  which  he  so  long 
and  strenuously  contended.  In  April,  1869,  he  made  an 
elaborate  speech  on  the  Alabama  claims.  Died  March  1 1, 
1874.   His  complete  works  were  published  in  8  vols.,  1870. 

See  Charles  A.  Phelps,  "Life  of  Charles  Sumner,"  1870  ;  D. 
Harsha,  "Life  of  C.  Sumuer,"  1856;  Mrs.  Stowe,  "Men  of  Our 
Time,"  1S68. 

Siim'ner,  (Charles  Richard,)  an  English  prelate, 
brother  of  Archbishop  Sumner,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Kenilworth  in  1790.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
to  George  IV.,  made  Bishop  of  Llandaff  in  1826,  and  of 
Winchester  in  1827.  He  published  in  1825  a  translation 
from  the  Latin  of  Milton's  "Treatise  on  Christian  Doc- 
trine."    Died  August  15,  1874. 

Sumner,  (EDWI.^i  V.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Boston  in  1796.  He  served  as  captain  on  the  Western 
frontier  for  many  years,  obtained  the  rank  of  major  in 
1846,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  war, 
which  ended  in  1847.  He  became  a  colonel  in  1855, 
escorted  Abraham  Lincoln  from  Springfield  to  Washing- 
ton in  February,  1861,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier - 
general  in  the  regular  army  in  March  of  the  same  year. 
[le  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31-June  I,  1862,  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  September  17  of  that  year.  He 
directed  one  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  Burnside's 
army  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13, 
1862.     He  died  at  Syracuse,  New  York,  in  March,  1863. 

See  Tennev,  "Military  and  Naval  History  ot' the  Rebellion," 
P-  747- 

Sumner,  (Increase,)  an  American  judge  and  Gov- 
ernor, born  at   Roxbury,   Massachusetts,   in  1746.     He 


a,  e,  i,  o,  ii,  y, long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  Ci,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  ohsatre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  nSt;  good;  moon: 


SUMNER 


2267 


SURD  AS 


was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1782,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
in  1797  and  in  1798.  His  ability  and  merit  are  highly 
commended.     Died  at  Roxbury  in  1799. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  J.  Sumner,"'  by  his  son  William,  in  the 
"  New  England  Register"  for  April,  iS<54. 

Sumner,  (John  Bird,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Kenil worth  in  1780.  Having  studied  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  he  was  created  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1828, 
and  in  1848  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  published 
"Records  of  Creation,"  {1816,)  "Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity," (1824,)  an  essay  "On  Apostolical  Preaching," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1862. 

Sumner,  (William  Graham,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  October  30,  1840,  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1863,  studied  in  Geneva,  Gottin- 
gen,  and  Oxford,  took  orders  in  1867  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  in  1872  was  appointed  professor  of  political 
and  social  science  in  Yale  College.  His  principal  works 
are  a  translation  of  Lange's  Commentary  on  Second 
Kings,  (1872,)  "  History  of  American  Currency,"  (1874,) 
"History  of  Protection  in  the  United  States,"  (1876,) 
"Life  of  Andrew  Jackson, "(1882,)  "What  Social  Classes 
are  to  Each  Other,"  (1883,)  and  "Economic  Problems," 
(18S4.) 

Siim'ter,  (Thomas,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolutioii,  born  in  South  Carolina  about  1734,  was 
distinguished  for  his  skill  and  success  as  a  partisan 
leader,  and  obtained  several  important  advantages  over 
the  British.  He  was  afterwards  elected  to  Congress, 
was  appointed  minister  to  Brazil  in  1809,  and  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1811.     Died  in  1832. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
Tol.  iv. 

Sunalasepha-Divaxata,  soo-ni'se-pha  da-va-ri'ta, 
("  the  God-given,")  in  Hindoo  legend,  an  adopted  son 
of  ViswAMiTRA,  (q.  V.)  His  own  father,  a  Brahman, 
sold  him  for  one  hundred  cows,  to  be  a  sacrifice  to  Va- 
runa.  No  priest  except  his  father  would  slay  the  boy, 
and  the  latter,  when  bound  to  the  stake,  prayed  to  several 
of  the  gods,  and  especially  to  the  Dawn,  for  deliverance. 
At  last,  as  he  sang  the  praises  of  the  Dawn,  his  fetters 
fell  off.     He  then  was  adopted  by  Viswamitra. 

Siin'der-land,  (Charles  Spencer,)  third  Earl  of, 
an  English  statesman,  born  in  1674,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Robert,  the  second  Earl.  At  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother,  in  1690,  he  received  the  title  of  Lord  Spencer. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1695,  succeeded  his 
father  as  earl  in  1702,  and  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Vienna 
in  1705.  He  married  Anne  Churchill,  a  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  about  1700,  and  became  a  leader 
of  the  Whig  party.  He  was  secretary  of  state  from 
1707  to  June,  1710.  On  the  accession  of  George  I., 
September,  1714,  he  became  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
He  entered  the  cabinet  as  lord  privy  seal  in  1715,  and 
supplanted  his  rival,  Lord  Townshend,  in  the  favour  of 
the  king.  By  his  intrigues  or  influence  the  ministry  was 
changed  in  April,  1717,  when  Sunderland  and  his  friend 
Joseph  Addison  became  the  two  secretaries  of  state.  In 
1718  he  exchanged  his  office  for  that  of  first  lord  of  the 
treasury, — i.e.  prime  minister.  He  was  accused  in  1721 
of  having  received  a  bribe  from  the  South  Sea  Com- 
pany, but  was  acquitted  by  a  large  majority  of  his  judges. 
He  resigned  office  in  April,  1721,  although  the  king  de- 
sired to  retain  liim  in  power.  He  died  in  1722,  leaving 
three  sons,  Robert,  Charles,  and  John. 

See  Lord  Stanhope,  (Mahom,)  "  History  of  England." 

Sunderland,  (Henry  Spencer,)  first  Earl  of,  bom 
about  1622,  was  a  son  of  Lord  Spencer.  He  married 
Dorothy  Sidney,  a  sister  of  Algernon  Sidney,  a  lady 
whom  Waller  praised  under  the  name  of  "  Saccharissa." 
Although  he  disapproved  the  measures  of  the  court, 
he  joined  the  royal  army  in  the  civil  war,  assigning 
"the  punctilio  of  honour"  as  his  motive.  He  fought  at 
Edgehill,  (1642,)  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Sunderland 
in  1643,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Newbury,  in  the 
same  year. 

See  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 
Sunderland,  (Robert  Spencer,)  second  Earl  of. 


a  courtier  and  politician,  famous  for  his  talents  and  m- 
trigues,  was  born  about  1642,  and  was  the  only  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1672, 
and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  1679.  Having 
been  dismissed  in  the  spring  of  1681,  he  was  restored  to 
the  same  office  in  1682.  He  appears  to  have  been  totally 
destitute  of  any  fi.xed  principles,  and  had  great  facility  in 
changing  sides  in  the  game  of  politics.  He  insinuated 
himself  into  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who,  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  in  1685,  retained  Sunderland  in  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state.  About  this  time  he  received 
a  large  bribe  or  pension  from  Louis  XIV.  He  became 
president  of  the  council  in  December,  1685,  and  prime 
minister  in  1686.  "  It  was  only  in  private  conference," 
says  Macaulay,  "that  his  eminent  abilities  displayed 
themselves.  In  the  royal  closet,  or  in  a  very  small  circle, 
he  exercised  great  influence,  but  at  the  council-board  he 
was  taciturn,  and  in  the  House  of  Lords  he  never  opened 
his  lips."  ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.)  In  June, 
1688,  he  openly  avowed  his  conversion  to  the  Roman 
Cathulic  Church,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  made 
overtures  to  William  of  Orange,  to  whom  he  revealed' 
the  plans  of  James  II.  Sunderland  was  dismissed  from 
power  in  October,  1688,  on  suspicion  of  treason.  A  few 
weeks  later  he  fled  to  Holland  in  disguise,  and  changed 
his  religion.  "  He  had  rendered  to  the  cause  of  liberty 
and  the  Protestant  religion  services  of  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  overrate  either  the  wickedness  or  the  utility." 
("Macaulay's  History,"  vol.  iv.)  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land about  the  end  of  1690,  and  soon  regained  his  influ- 
ence at  court.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  chief  adviser 
of  William  III.  for  several  years,  although  he  held  no 
office  until  1695,  when  he  was  appointed  lord  chamber- 
lain. He  resigned  office  in  1697.  His  wife  was  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Bristol.  He  died  in  1 702,  leaving 
his  title  to  his  son  Charles.  "  His  tact,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  his  quick  eye  for  the  foibles  of  individuals,  his  caressing 
manners,  his  power  ot  insinuation,  and,  above  all,  his 
apparent  frankness,  made  him  irresistible  in  private 
conversation."     ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

See  also  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Time." 

Sundevall,  soon'deh-vil,  (Carl  Jakob,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist,  born  at  Hoegestad  in  1801.  He  became  di- 
rector of  the  museum  of  natural  history  at  Lund  in  1835. 
Died  February  6,  1875. 

Su'per-i,  [i.e.  those  "above"  or  "on  high,"  Irom 
y«/^«j, '"  high,"]  a  name  applied  by  the  Romans  to  the 
gods,  particularly  to  the  gods  of  the  celestial  regions. 

Superville,  de,  deh  sii'p^R'vfel',  (Daniel,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister,  born  at  Saumur  in  1657.  He  re- 
moved to  Rotterdam  about  1685,  and  preached  there 
until  his  death.     Died  in  1728. 

Sura.     See  Suradevi  and  Suras. 

Surabhi,  a  name  of  Kamadhenu,  (which  see.) 

Suradevi,  soo-ra-da'vee,  called  also  simply  Sura, 
soo'ra,  [from  the  Sanscrit  Surd,  "wine,"  and  Dk>t, 
"goddess,"]  the  Hindoo  goddess  of  wine,  was  suppo.sed 
to  have  been  produced  from  the  churning  of  the  ocean. 
(See  KOrma.) 

Surajah  Dowlah,  soo-ri'ja  dow'la,  a  Hindoo  prince, 
who  took  Calcutta  in  1756  and  confined  a  number  of 
English  prisoners  in  the  Black  Hole.  His  army  was 
defeated  by  Clive  at  the  famous  battle  of  Plassey,  June 
23,  1757;  and  he  was  taken  a  few  days  after  and  put  to 
death  by  the  order  of  Meer  Jaffier. 

See  Macaulay's  article  on  Lord  Clive,  (in  his  "  Essays.") 

Suras  or  Sooras,  soo'ras,  [from  the  Sanscrit  Surd, 
a  "god,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  class  of  inferior 
deities,  the  children  of  Kasyapa  and  Aditi.  They  appear 
to  be  the  same  as  the  Adityas,  (see  Aditya,)  and  are 
regarded  as  the  natural  enemies  or  opponents  of  the 
Asuras.     (See  Asura.) 

Surcouf,  siiR'koof ,  (Robert,)  a  French  corsair,  born 
at  Saint-Malo  in  1773.  He  captured  many  English 
merchant-vessels.     Died  in  1827. 

Sur-Das,  soor  dis,  a  Hindee  author,  probably  a 
Brahman,  who  lived  before  the  year  1600  A.D.  He  left 
a  prodigious  number  of  stanzas  in  honour  of  Vishnu, 
which  collectively  form  a  vast  poem  called  "  Sur  Sagar" 
and  are  very  popular. 


€  as  >i;  9  as  J.-  g  hard:  g  as>;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural:  n,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SURENA 


2268 


SUVEE 


Su-re'na  or  Su-re'nas,  a  Parthian  general  in  the 
service  of  King  Orodes.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Roman  general  Crassus  near  Carrhae  in  53  B.C. 
According  to  Plutarch,  "  he  was  superior  to  the  Parthians 
of  his  time  in  courage  and  capacity."  ("  Life  of  Crassus.") 
He  was  put  to  death  by  Orodes  about  52  B.C. 

See  Mfrivale,  "History  of  the  Romans;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Gen^rale." 

Surenhuis,  sii'ren-hois',  [Lat.  Surenhu'sius,]  (Wil- 
l.EM,)  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  lived  about  1700.  He  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Amsterdam,  and 
published  an  edition  of  the  Mishna,  (3  vols.,  1698-1703.) 

Surenhusius.     See  Surenhuis. 

Surin,  sii'riN',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
ascetic  writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1600.  He  went  in 
1634  to  Loudun  to  exorcise  some  persons  possessed 
with  demons,  and  became  himself,  as  we  are  told,  a  de- 
moniac, or  victim  of  the  demons.  So  much,  at  least,  is 
certain,  that  he  was  insane  for  many  years.   Died  in  1665. 

See  BouuoN,  "Vie  de  Surin,"  1689;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Su'ri-iis,  (Laurkntius,)  a  German  monk,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1522.  He  wrote  "Lives  of  the  Saints," 
{1570.)     Died  in  1578. 

Surlet  de  Chokier,  siiR'li'  deh  sho'ke-i',  (Erasme 
Louis,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  statesman,  born  at  Liege  in 
1769.  Having  previously  filled  several  high  offices,  he 
was  elected  Regent  of  Belgium  in  1831.     Died  in  1839. 

Suro-wiecki,  soo-ro-ve-6t'skee,  (L.  W.,)  a  Polish 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  near  Gnesen  in  1769,  pub- 
lished a  work  "On  the  Origin  of  the  Slavic  Nations," 
and  other  treatises.     Died  in  1827. 

Surrey.     See  Howard,  (Henry,)  Earl  of. 

Surt,  soort,  or  Surtur,  (Surtr,)  soor'ter,  [etymologic- 
ally  related  to  the  Danish  sort,  English  S7vart,  and  Ger- 
man schivarz,  "black,"  because  it  is  the  property  of  fire 
to  blacken  what  it  burns,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
god  of  fire,  who  rules  over  Muspellheim,  the  entrance 
to  which  he  guards  with  a  flaming  sword.  At  Ragna- 
rock  he  will  lead  the  formidable  band  of  Muspell's  sons, 
his  fire-sword  flashing  more  brightly  than  the  sun  itself. 
In  the  battle  with  the  yEsir  he  will  slay  Frey ;  and  after 
the  other  gods  have  fallen,  he  will  scatter  his  fire  over 
the  world  and  burn  it  up.  (Compare  Seneca's  descrip- 
tion of  the  destruction  of  the  world,  in  his  "  Hercules 
GEtasus,"  1.  1 102.) 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mytholo^,"  vol.  i.  :  Keyser,  "Reli- 
pion  of  the  Northmen  ;"  Mallet,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii. 
Fables  XXXI I.  and  XXXIII. ;  Petersen,  "  Noidisk  Mythologi." 

Sur'tees,  (Robert,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poet, 
born  at  Durham  in  1779.  He  published  a  "History  of 
Durham,"  (about  1820.)     Died  in  1834. 

Surus-wuttee.     See  SaraswatI. 

Surville,  sUr'v^K,  (Marguerite  EliSonore  Clo- 
TiLDE  de  Vallon-Chalis,)  a  French  poetess,  born 
about  1405,  was  the  author  of  a  heroic  poem  entitled 
"  Lygdamir."     Died  about  1480. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Surya,  soor'ya,  the  Sans:rit  name  of  the  Sun,  re- 
garded as  an  important  deity  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
though  much  more  so  in  the  primeval  ages  than  later, 
■when  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  claimed  nearly  all  the 
devotion  of  mankind.  In  the  earlier  Sanscrit  writings 
the  Sun  is  often  called  Mitra.  Surya  is  represented  in 
a  human  form,  (but  having  four  arms,)  surrounded  by 
radiating  flames  and  riding  in  a  car  drawn  by  seven 
horses. 

Su-sa'rI-on,  [Sonaaptwv,]  a  Greek  poet,  to  whom  the 
origin  of  the  Athenian  coinedy  is  attributed,  was  born 
in  Megara,  and  lived  about  575  B.C.  He  was  the  first 
who  employed  metrical  comj^osition  in  comedy. 

Susemihl,  soo'zeh-meel,  (Franz,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Laage,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  December  10, 
1826.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  at  Berlin,  and  in  1856 
became  a  professor  of  philology  in  Greifswalde  University. 
He  published  German  translations  of  a  part  of  the 
writings  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  Platonic  philosophy. 

Suso,  soo'zo,  (Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  mystic  and 
theologian,  surnamed  Amandus,  was  born  at  Constance, 
Switzerland,  about   1300.      He  entered  the  order  of  Do- 


minicans at  an  early  age,  and  subsequently  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Book  of  Eternal  Wisdom,"  ("  Horolo- 
gium  Sapientiae  Eternse,")  and  a  "Dialogue  on  Truth." 
They  were  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages, and  obtained  extensive  popularity.    Died  in  1365. 

Susruta,  sd6s'ro6-ta,  or  Sushruta,  sdosh'r66-ta,  a 
Hindoo  physician,  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the 
earliest  medical  writers  in  India.  The  date  and  the 
place  of  his  birth  are  unknown.  One  of  his  works  was 
published  in  1836  by  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Calcutta. 

Sussex,  Duke  of.     See  Augustus  Frederick. 

Siissmeyer,  siis'mi'er,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  1766,  became  chapel-master  at  the 
court  of  Vienna.  He  completed  the  parts  of  Mozart's 
Requiem  which  the  latter  left  unfinished.    Died  in  1803. 

Sussmilch,  soos'milK,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German 
Lutheran  minister,  born  about  1706.  He  wrote  on  sta- 
tistics and  population.     Died  in  1767. 

Siiss-Oppenheimer,  siis  op'pen-hi'mer,  a  German 
Jew,  who  rose  to  be  minister  of  finance  to  Karl  Alex- 
ander, Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  For  his  abuse  of  power 
and  many  acts  of  oppression  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  in  1738.  His  history  forms  the  subject  of 
one  of  HaufPs  popular  novels. 

Sustermans,  sus'ter-mins,  written  also  Subter- 
mans,  (Justus,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1597.  He  resided  in  Florence,  and  became  court  painter 
to  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  II.  de'  Medici.  His  works, 
which  include  portraits  and  historical  pictures,  are  eulo- 
gized by  Rubens.     Died  in  1681. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Sut'cliffe,  (Matthew,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Devonshire,  was  the  founder  of  a  college  at  Chelsea,  the 
Fellows  of  which  were  required  to  assail  the  errors  of 
Romanism,  Pelagianism,  etc.     Died  in  1629. 

Sutee  or  Suttee.    See  Sat!. 

Suterman.     See  Suavius. 

Sutli'er-land,  (Alexander  John,)  F.R.S.,  an  Eng- 
lish physician,  born  about  1810.  He  became  physician 
to  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  London,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  insanity.     Died  in  1867. 

Sutherland,  (George  Granville  Leveson  Gower,) 
DuKE  OF,  an  English  peer  and  Liberal,  born  in  1786, 
was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Sutherland.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  He  died  in  1861, 
leaving  his  title  to  his  son. 

Sutherland,  (Georgiana  Howard,)  Duchess  ok, 
the  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1806,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  She  was  distinguished 
for  beauty,  talents,  and  beneficence.  About  1846  she 
became  mistress  of  the  robes  to  the  queen.  She  era- 
ployed  her  influence  against  slavery.  Died  in  October, 
1868. 

See  an  article  m  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1869,  by 
Mrs.  Stowb. 

Suttee.     See  SatI. 

Sut'ton,  (Amos,)  an  English  missionary  to  Orlssa, 
India,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1798.  He  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  the  Oriya  language,  and  also  published 
a  dictionary,  grammar,  and  other  works  in  that  tongue. 
He  wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Mission  to  Orissa,"  and 
several  religious  treatises.     Died  in  1854. 

Sutton,  (Charles  Manners.)  See  Canterbury, 
Viscount. 

Sut'tpn,  (Charles  Manners,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  1755.  He  became  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1792, 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1805.  Died  in  1828. 
His  son  became  Viscount  Canterbury. 

Sutton,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  lawyer,  noted 
as  one  of  the  founders  and  benefactors  of  Brazennose 
College,  Oxford.     Died  about  1524. 

Sutton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  merchant,  born  in 
Lincolnshire  in  1532,  was  the  founder  of  a  hospital  for 
the  poor,  known  as  the  Charter-House,  and  which  was 
formerly  the  monastery  of  the  Chartreux  in  Suffolk. 
Died  in  1611. 

Sutzos.     See  SouTZo. 

Suvee,  sii'vi.',  (Joseph  BENotT,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Bruges  in  1743.  He  became  director  of  the 
French  School  of  Art  in  Rome.     Died  in  1807. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  nfit;  good;  nioonj 


SUWAROW 


2269 


SWARTZ 


Su-'war'oTV,  or,  more  properly,  Soo-vo'rof,  written 
also  Souvorof,  Suvorov,  Souvarof,  Su-woroAAr,  and 
Suwairow,  (Alexander  Vasilievitch,)  sumamed 
Rymnikski,  (rim-nik'skee,)  a  famous  Russian  general, 
born  in  Finland  in  1729,  was  of  Swedish  origin.  His 
father  was  a  general  of  high  rank.  He  served  as  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  1755-63,  and  became  a 
colonel  in  1763.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  a  general, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks 
in  1774.  He  commanded  in  a  war  against  the  Turks 
which  began  in  1787,  and  gained  a  victory  on  the  river 
Rymnik,  (1789,)  for  which  he  received  the  title  of  Count 
Rymnikski.  In  1794  he  conquered  the  revolted  Poles, 
whom  he  treated  with  great  barbarity,  and  for  this  ser- 
vice was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1799 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian 
and  Austrian  armies  which  opposed  the  French  in  Italy. 
He  defeated  Macdonald  on  the  Trebia  in  June,  and 
gained  a  victory  over  Joubert  at  the  great  battle  of 
Novi,  in  August,  1799.  Soon  after  this  event  the  army 
was  recalled,  and  Suwarow  lost  the  favour  of  Paul  I. 
He  died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  May,  1800.  He  was  a 
great  favourite  with  the  soldiers,  and  was  probably  the 
iiblest  of  all  the  Russian  generals. 

See  Anthing,  "Versuch  einer  Kriegsgeschichte  des  Grafen 
Suwarow,"  3  vols.,  1799,  (English  translation  of  the  same;)  De 
Laverne,  "  Histoire  de  Souvarow,"  1809 ;  Serge  Glinka,  "  Vie  de 
Souvarof,"  1819;  F.  von  Schmitt,  "  Suworow's  Leben  und  Heer- 
ziige,"  2  vols.,  1834;  Astafief,  "Souvenirs  de  Souvorof,"  1856; 
Major-Genkral  J.  Mitchell,  "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers 
of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865;  "  Sketch  of  Suwarrow  and  his 
Last  Campaign,"  by  E.  Nevil  Macreadv,  1851. 

Su-warro-w.     See  Suwarow. 

Suze,  de  la.     See  Coi.igni,  de,  (Henriette.) 

Svanberg  or  Svansberg.     See  Swanberg. 

Svantovit,  or  Swantowit,  s^Sn'tp-^it',  the  great 
divinity  of  the  Baltic  Wends.  Arkona,  on  the  isle  of 
Riigen,  was  a  great  seat  of  his  cultus.  Svantovit  had 
four  heads  and  a  double  body.  A  sacred  horse  of  pure 
white  was  kept  in  his  temple  and  was  consulted  as  an 
oracle. 

Svartalfar.     See  Elves. 

Svartz.     See  Swartz. 

Svedberg.    See  Swedberg. 

Svedenborg.     See  Swedenborg. 

Svetchine  or  Swetchine,  sv^tch-in',  (Sophia 
SOYMONOF,)  Madame,  a  Russian  lady  and  writer,  born 
at  Moscow  in  1782,  became  the  wife  of  General  Svetch- 
ine. She  removed  to  Paris  in  1818,  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  was  distinguished  for  her  piety 
and  talents.     Died  in  Paris  in  1857. 

See  M.  DE  Falloux,  "  Madame  de  Swetchine,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEu- 
vres,"  2  vols.,  1858;  Ernest  Naville,  "Madame  Svetchine,"  1863. 

S-wain,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer  and  engraver, 
known  as  "the  Manchester  poet,"  was  born  in  that 
city  in  1803.  He  published  "Metrical  Essays,"  (1828,) 
"  Beauties  of  the  Mind,"  etc.,  (1831,)  "  Rhymes  for  Child- 
hood," (1846,)  "English  Melodies,"  (1849,)  and  other 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  His  "  Dryburgh  Abbey,"  an 
elegy  on  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  particularly  admired.  Died 
September  22,  1874. 

Swain,  (David  Lowry,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Buncombe  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1801.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1832,  and  in  1835  be- 
came president  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 
Died  in  1868. 

Sw^ain'aon,  (William,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
voluminous  writer,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1789.  He  visited 
South  America  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  made  valuable  collections  of  objects  in  natural  his 
tory.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Zoological 
Illustrations,  or  Original  Figures  and  Descriptions  of 
New,  Rare,  or  Interesting  Animals,"  (6  vols.,  1820,) 
"Exotic  Conchology,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Malacology,"  (1840.)  He  also  contributed  to  Lardner's 
"Cabinet  Cyclopaedia"  numerous  treatises  on  natural 
history,  of  which  we  may  name  "  The  Natural  History 
and  Classification  of  Fishes,  Amphibians,"  etc.,  (2  vols., 
1838-39,)  and  "  On  the  Habits  and  Instincts  of  Animals," 
(1840.)  He  was  likewise  a  contributor  to  the  "Fauna 
Boreali-Americana"  of  Sir  John  Richardson.  Mr. 
Swainson  emigrated  in  1841  to  New  Zealand,  where  he 
died  in  1855 


Swammerdam,  swim'mer-dim',  (Jan,  or  John,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  naturalist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1637.  He  studied  medicine  at  Leyden,  but  not  with 
a  design  to  practise  as  a  physician.  He  also  passed  some 
years  at  Saumur  and  Paris  in  the  study  of  anatomy  and 
entomology.  In  1664  he  discovered  the  valves  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels.  He  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medi- 
cine in  1667,  and  published  in  1669  a  "General  History 
of  Insects,"  a  work  of  great  merit.  He  made  several 
discoveries  in  entomology,  and  was  very  skilful  in  the 
dissection  of  insects.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Natural 
History  of  Bees,"  (1673,)  ^"^  "The  Book  of  Nature,  or 
the  Natural  History  of  Insects,"  etc.,  ("  Biblia  Naturae, 
seu  Historia  Insectorum  in  certas  Classes  redacta,"  2 
vols.,  1737-38.)  He  destroyed  his  health  by  intense  ap- 
plication, became  melancholy,  and  diverted  his  attention 
from  science  to  religion.  He  entered  into  religious 
fellowship  with  Antoinette  Bourignon.  Died  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1680. 

See  BoKRHAAVE,  "  Lite  of  Swammerdam,  prefixed  to  the  "  Biblia 
NaturJE,"  1737-38;  CuviKR,   "Histoire  des   Sciences  naturelles." 

Swamy,  swi'mee,  (Sir  Mutu  Coomara,)  a  Cey- 
lonese  jurist,  born  at  Colombo  in  1834.  He  studied 
English  law,  became  a  barrister  in  1863,  was  knighted  in 
1874,  and  married  an  English  lady.  He  published  an 
ancient  history  of  the  holy  tooth  of  Booddha,  (in  Pali,) 
and  the  "  Sutta  Nipata"  in  the  original  Pali,  with  Eng- 
lish notes  and  a  translation.     Died  at  Colombo,  May  4, 

1879- 

S^wan,  (Joseph  Wilson,)  an  English  electrician,  born 
at  Sunderland,  October  31,  1828.  He  became  a  druggist 
of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  He  in  youth  began  to  experi- 
ment, at  first  with  the  arc  light,  and  later  very  success- 
fully with  various  means  of  producing  electric  light  by 
incandescence  in  vacuo.  He  was  also  the  inventor  of 
the  "  autotype"  process  of  photo-printing,  of  improved 
dry-plate  operations  in  photography,  and  of  an  improved 
mercurial  air-pump. 

Swanberg  or  Svanberg,  svSn'b^Rg,  written  also 
Svansberg,  (Jons,)  a  Swedish  mathematician,  born  in 
the  province  of  Westerbotten  in  1771.  In  1801,  in  con- 
junction with  Oefverbom,  he  measured  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  in  Lapland.  Of  this  enterprise  he  published 
an  account  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  French 
Institute.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Upsal  in  181 1,  and  published  a  "Theory  of  the  Planets 
and  Comets,"  and  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1851. 

Swanevelt,  van,  vtn  swi'neh-vSlt',  (Herman,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Woerden  about 
1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  and  subsequently  of 
Claude  Lorrain.  His  pictures  are  few  in  number,  but 
of  great  excellence.  He  died  about  1690,  at  Rome, 
where  he  had  long  resided.  He  also  executed  many 
admirable  etchings.  He  was  surnamed  the  Hermit, 
from  his  solitary  habits. 

Swar'ga,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  swur'ga  or  swurg,] 
written  also  Swerga,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the 
name  of  Indra's  heaven  or  paradise,  supposed  to  be 
situated  among  the  clouds  in  the  sky,  and  regarded  as 
the  abode  of  the  inferior  gods  and  deified  mortals.  (See 
Indra.) 

Swartz  or  Svartz,  s^^Rts,  (Olaus  or  Olof,)  a  Swed- 
ish botanist,  born  at  Norrkoping  in  1760.  He  studied  at 
Upsal,  and  subsequently  travelled  in  Finland,  Lapland, 
the  West  Indies,  and  the  western  part  of  America, 
bringing  with  him  on  his  return  a  rich  collection  of  plants. 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Institute  at  Stockholm.  He 
was  also  made  a  knight  of  the  Polar  Star,  and  received 
other  distinctions.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  his 
"  Icones  Plantarum  Incognitarura,"  illustrating  the  rare 
plants  of  the  West  Indies,  "  Flora  Indiae  Occidentalis," 
(1806,  3  vols.,  with  plates,)  and  "  Synopsis  of  the  Ferns," 
("Synopsis  Filicum,"  1806.)  He  also  wrote  the  text  of 
four  volumes  of  the  "  Botany  of  Sweden,"  ("  Svensk 
Botanik,")  and  contributed  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Linnsean  Society,  London,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
He  died  in  1818,  having  acquired  the  reputation  of  one 
of  the  first  botanists  of  his  time.  The  genus  Swartzia, 
of  the  order  Leguminosas,  was  named  in  his  honour. 

See  Wii.KSTROEM,  "  Biographie  iiber  den  Professor  O.  Swarti." 
1828. 


<^  as /6.- 9 as .f;  g //arrf;  gas/;  G,  H,K,^//V«ra/;  H,  nasal:  R,  trilled :  I  aaz;  thasin//^«.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SWAYAMBHU 


2270 


SIVEDENBORG 


S'wayambhu,  swl'am-b'hoo',  or  S'wayambhuva, 
swi'am-b'iioo'va,  [from  the  Sanscrit  jwayaw?,  "self,"  and 
b h^,  to  "exist,"]  a  Sanscrit  term,  signifying  "self-exist- 
ent," and  used  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  as  an  epithet 
of  Brahm  (the  infinite  eternal  Being)  and  of  Brahma. 
It  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  first  Manu,  (or 
Menu,)  in  which  case  it  may,  perhaps,  mean  "born  (or 
son)  of  the  Self-existent,"  b''hu  signifying  to  "be  born" 
as  well  as  to  "exist."     (See  Manu.) 

Svrayne,  (Noah  Haynes,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
judge,  born  in  Culpeper  county,  Virginia,  December  27, 
1804.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1824,  and  was  one 
of  the  justices  of  the  United  States  supreme  court  from 
1861  to  1881.     Died  in  New  York,  June  8,  1884. 

Swreat'inan,  (Arthur,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  November  19, 1834.  He  studied  at  Univer- 
sity College,  London,  and  graduated  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge.  In  1865  he  became  head-master  of  Hell- 
muth  College,  London,  Ontario,  and  in  1879  was 
consecrated  Anglican  Bishop  of  Toronto. 

Swedberg,  s<^§d'blRg,  written  also  Svedberg,  (Jes- 
per,)  a  Swedish  theologian,  father  of  the  celebrated 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  was  born  near  Fahlun  in  1653. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Upsal  in  1692,  and 
in  1702  was  made  Bishop  of  Skara  by  Charles  XII.  His 
family  was  ennobled  in  1719,  under  the  name  of  Sweden- 
borg. He  died  in  1735,  leaving  a  number  of  religious 
and  miscellaneous  works. 

See  Fahlcra.vtz,  "Minneskrift  ofver  Biskopen  Dr.  Svedberg," 
«852. 

Swe'den-borg,  [Sw.  pron.  s^Wden-boRg',]  written 
also  Svedeuborg,  (originally  S^wed'berg,)  (Ema- 
nuel,) a  celebrated  Swedish  naturalist,  mathematician, 
and  theosophist,  was  born  at  Stockholm  on  the  29th  of 
January,  1688.  His  father,  Jesper  Swedberg,  at  that 
time  a  chaplain  of  the  army,  became  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Skara.  The  family  was  ennobled  by  Queen  Ulrica 
in  1719,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  Swedenborg. 
Even  in  early  childhood  Emanuel  appears  to  have  given 
indications  of  those  peculiar  powers  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  so  distinguished.  He  says,  in  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Beyer,  "  From  my  fourth  to  my  tenth  year  my  thoughts 
were  constantly  engrossed  by  reflections  on  God,  on 
salvation,  and  on  the  spiritual  affections  of  man.  I  often 
revealed  things  in  my  discourse  which  filled  my  parents 
with  astonishment,  and  made  them  declare  at  times  that 
certainly  the  angels  spoke  through  my  mouth."  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Upsal,  where,  in  his 
twenty-second  year,  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy.  On  leaving  the  university  he  set  out  on 
his  travels.  He  passed  about  a  year  in  England  ;  he 
then  visited  the  chief  cities  of  Holland,  spent  subse- 
quently a  year  in  Paris  and  Versailles,  and  returned  by 
Hamburg  and  Greifswalde  to  his  native  country,  after  an 
absence  of  more  than  four  years.  In  early  life  Sweden- 
borg's  favourite  pursuit  was  mathematics.  About  1715- 
16  he  edited  a  scientific  publication  entitled  "  Daedalus 
Hyperboreus."  The  distinction  which  he  had  acquired 
as  a  mathematician  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  Charles 
XII.,  who  employed  him  in  the  construction  of  some  of 
his  military  works.  In  the  siege  of  Fredericshall,  (i 718,) 
under  the  direction  of  Swedenborg,  rolling-machines 
were  made  by  means  of  which  two  galleys,  five  large 
boats,  and  a  sloop  were  carried  overland  a  distance  of 
fourteen  miles.  He  had  been  appointed  by  Charles 
XII.,  in  1716,  assessor  of  the  board  of  mines.  In  1717 
he  published  "An  Introduction  to  Algebra,"  and  "At- 
tempts to  find  the  Longitude  of  Places  by  Lunar  Obser- 
vations." .Soon  after  he  wrote  several  other  works  on 
kindred  subjects.  Some  of  these  have  not  been  published. 

In  1721  he  again  visited  Holland,  and  while  in  that 
country  published  (at  Amsterdam)  several  small  works, 
chiefly  on  subjects  connected  with  natural  philosophy. 
The  following  year  he  published  at  Leipsic  "Miscel- 
laneous (Observations  connected  with  the  Physical  Sci- 
ences." ("  Miscellanea  Observata  circa  Res  Naturales.") 
All  the  above  works  give  indications  of  a  profound  and 
most  original  intellect.  In  1733  he  published  at  Leipsic 
and  Dresden  his  "Opera  Philosophica  et  Mineralia," 
in  3  vols,  fdl.,  with  numerous  engravings.  This  work, 
as  its   title   indicates,   is  written    in    Latin.     The   first 


volume  in  particular,  entitled  "  Principia,  or  the  First 
Principles  of  Natural  Things,  being  a  New  Attempt 
towards  a  Philosophical  Explanation  of  the  Elementary 
World,"  has  attracted  great  attention.  It  is  claimed  by 
Swedenborg's  admirers  that  this  publication  anticipated 
several  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  modem 
science.  Gorres,  a  distinguished  German  writer  and 
journalist,  says  of  the  "  Principia,"  "  It  is  a  production 
indicative  of  profound  thought  in  all  its  parts,  and  not 
unworthy  of  being  placed  by  the  side  of  Newton's  '  Ma- 
thematical Principia  of  Natural  Philosophy.'"  Sweden- 
borg's father  died  in  1735.  The  next  year  he  again  set 
out  on  his  travels,  visiting  Holland  and  France,  and 
afterwards  Italy,  where  he  passed  rather  more  than  a 
year,  five  months  being  spent  at  Rome.  He  appears  to 
have  returned  to  Sweden  in  1740.  In  1740-41  he  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam  his  "  Economy  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom,"  ("  CEconomia  Regni  Animalis.")  The  "Ani- 
mal Kingdom,"  ("  Regnum  Animate,")  which  may  be 
said  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  preceding  work,  appeared 
in  1744-45,  parts  one  and  two  being  published  at  the 
Hague,  and  part  three  in  London.  Swedenborg,  refer- 
ring to  the  plan  pursued  in  the  foregoing  works,  says, 
"  The  reader  may  see  that  the  end  I  propose  to  myself  in 
the  work  is  a  knowledge  of  the  soid,  since  this  kno-u/ledge 
will  constitute  the  crown  of  my  studies."  In  one  of  his 
manuscripts,  also,  he  observes,  "  I  have  gone  through 
anatomy  with  the  single  end  of  investigating  the  soul." 
Of  the  "Animal  Kingdom,"  Emerson  remarks,  "  It  was 
an  anatomist's  account  of  the  human  body  in  the  highest 
style  of  poetry.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  bold  and  bril- 
liant treatment  of  a  subject  usually  so  dry  and  repulsive." 
When  Swedenborg  reached  the  age  of  fifty-seven,  his 
life  took  a  new  direction.  He  no  longer  occupied  himself 
with  the  pursuit  of  physical  science.  He  had,  it  appears, 
in  1747,  resigned  his  assessorship ;  but,  in  consideration 
of  his  long  and  faithful  services,  his  full  salary  was  con- 
tinued to  him  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Some  time  before 
he  had,  as  he  believed,  been  brought  into  intimate  com- 
munication with  the  spiritual  world,  and  "  the  Lord  him- 
self," as  Swedenborg  says  in  one  of  his  letters,  "granted 
me  the  privilege  of  conversing  with  spirits  and  angels 
which  I  enjoy  to  this  day."  No  candid  and  intelligent 
person  who  attentively  peruses  the  writings  of  the 
Swedish  sage  can  doubt  the  perfect  sincerity  of  his  own 
belief  in  his  divine  illumination.  Nor  can  the  random 
assertion  that  he  was  a  dreamer,  or  that  he  was  insane, 
be  accepted  as  any  satisfactory  refutation  of  his  claims. 
As  Tennemann  well  observes,  in  his  "  History  of  Phi- 
losophy," "If  he  must  needs  be  mad,  there  is  a  rare 
method  in  his  madness.  In  vain  will  you  ransack  the 
archives  of  his  family  or  his  personal  history  for  any 
trace  of  insanity."  As  probably  few  who  are  compe- 
tent to  form  an  intelligent  and  impartial  opinion  would 
be  disposed  to  deny  that  Swedenborg  was  gifted  with  a 
rare  insight  into  the  mysteries  of  external  nature,  so 
it  would  seem  almost  imjjossible  for  any  one,  who  will 
allow  unimpeachable  testimony  to  prevail  against  preju- 
dice or  skepticism,  to  doubt  that  he  was  endowed  with 
an  extraordinary  perception  of  some  things  not  discern- 
ible by  the  senses  or  mental  faculties  of  the  generality 
of  mankind.  On  Saturday,  the  19th  of  July,  1759,  Swe- 
denborg was  at  Gottenburg,  (which  is  about  three  hun- 
dred English  miles  from  Stockholm,)  having  recently 
arrived  from  England.  He  was  at  the  house  of  Mr. 
Castel,  with  a  party  of  fifteen  persons.  "At  about  six 
o'clock  P.M.,"  says  Kant,  the  celebrated  German  phi- 
losopher, "  Swedenborg  went  out,  and,  after  a  short 
interval,  teturned  to  the  company  quite  pale  and 
alarmed.  He  stated  that  a  dangerous  fire  had  broken 
out  in  Stockholm,  at  Sundermalm,  and  that  it  was 
spreading  very  fast.  He  was  restless,  and  went  out 
often.  He  said  that  the  house  of  one  of  his  friends, 
whom  he  named,  was  already  in  ashes,  and  that  his  own 
was  in  danger.  At  eight  o'clock,  after  he  had  been  out 
again,  he  joyfully  exclaimed,  'Thank  God!  the  fire  is 
extinguished  the  third  door  from  my  house.'  .  .  .  The 
next  morning  Swedenborg  was  sent  for  by  the  governor, 
who  questioned  him  concerning  the  disaster.  Sweden- 
borg described  the  fire  preciselv, — how  it  had  begun,  in 
what  manner  it  had  ceased,  and  how  long  it  had  con« 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  filll,  f^t;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SWEDENBORG 


2271 


SWETT 


tinued.  .  .  On  Monday  evening  a  messenger  arrived 
at  Gottenburg,  who  was  despatched  during  the  time  of 
the  fire.  In  the  letters  brought  by  him  the  fire  was  de- 
scribed precisely  in  the  manner  stated  by  Swedenborg." 
Kant  states  this  on  the  authority  of  a  friend  of  his,  who, 
he  says,  "has  examined  the  circumstances  of  this  extra- 
ordinary case,  not  only  at  Stockholm,  but  also  af  Gotten- 
burg, where  he  is  acquainted  with  the  most  respectable 
houses,  and  where  he  could  obtain  the  most  authentic 
and  complete  information,  as  the  greatest  part  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  are  still  alive,  were  witnesses  to  the 
memorable  occurrence."  It  is  proper  to  observe  that 
Kant  was  skeptically  inclined  respecting  the  extra- 
ordinary claims  of  Swedenborg;  those,  indeed,  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  character  of  that  philosopher  need 
not  be  told  that  he,  of  all  men,  was  one  of  the  least  likely 
to  give  credence  to  any  marvellous  statement,  unless  it 
were  supported  by  evidence  of  the  most  unimpeachable 
character.* 

The  first  volume  of  Swedenborg's  first  theological 
work,  entitled  the  "Secrets  or  Mysteries  of  Heaven," 
("Arcana  Ccelestia,")  appeared  in  1749.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  1756,  having  extended  to  eight  quarto  volumes. 
The  work  is  an  exposition  of  the  books  of  Genesis  and 
Exodus,  with  intervening  chapters  describing  the  won- 
ders of  the  future  world.  In  1758  Swedenborg  published 
in  London  the  following  works :  "An  Account  of  the 
Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction  of  Babylon;  show- 
ing that  all  the  Predictions  in  the  Apocalypse  are  at 
this  day  fulfilled,  being  a  Relation  of  Things  Heard  and 
Seen,"  "  Concerning  Heaven  and  its  Wonders,  and  Con- 
cerning Hell,  being  a  Relation  of  Things  Heard  and  Seen," 
"On  the  White  Horse  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse," 
"On  the  Planets  in  our  Solar  System,  and  on  those  in 
the  Starry  Heavens,  with  an  Account  of  their  Inhabitants 
and  of  their  Spirits  and  Angels,"  and  "  On  the  New 
Jerusalem  and  its  Heavenly  Doctrine  as  revealed  from 
Heaven."  In  1763  he  published  at  Amsterdam  "The 
Doctrine  of  the  New  Jerusalem  concerning  the  Lord," 
"The  Sacred  Scripture,"  "Faith,"  a  "Continuation  re- 
specting the  Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction  of 
Babylon,"  and  "  Angelic  Wisdom  concerning  the  Divine 
Love  and  Divine  Wisdom."  He  published  at  Amster- 
dam in  1766  an  explanation  of  the  book  of  Revelation, 
entitled  "The  Apocalypse  Revealed,"  ("  Apocalypsis 
Revelata ;")  a  much  more  extensive  work  on  the  same 
subject,  written  also  in  Latin,  was  published  after  his 
death,  in  1790;  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  pub- 
lished in  181 5  with  the  title  of  "  Apocalypse  Explained." 
In  1768  he  published  at  Amsterdam  his  treatise  on  "  Con- 
jugal (Conjugial)  Love,"  ("  Amor  Conjugialis,")  in  which 
he  teaches  that  the  marriage  relation  exists  in  heaven 
35  well  as  on  earth.  In  1769  appeared  at  Amsterdam  a 
small  work  entitled  a  "Brief  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  New  Church,"  and  in  the  same  year,  at  London, 
another  little  book, — "The  Intercourse  between  the 
Soul  and  the  Body."  He  published  in  1 771,  at  Amster- 
dam, the  last  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  his  works, 
— "The  True  Christian  Religion,"  ("Vera  Christiana 
Religio,")  which  is  in  fact  a  system  of  universal  theology 
of  the  "New  Church,"  {i.e.  the  Church  introduced  or  j 
revealed  by  Swedenborg.) 

Swedenborg  died  in  London,  from  the  effects  of  a 
paralytic  stroke,  the  29th  of  March,  1772,  in  the  eighty- 
fifth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  never  married.  In  person 
he  was  of  a  medium  height ;  his  manners  were  dignified 
and  somewhat  reserved  ;  his  countenance  mild  and 
pleasing.  He  had  a  slight  impediment  in  his  speech,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  talked  slowly  but  very  distinctly. 

The  views  entertained  of  the  theological  doctrines  of 
Swedenborg,  and  of  his  ideas  of  a  future  life,  will,  of 
course,  vary  according  to  the  preconceived  opinions  or 
the  habits  of  thought  of  his  readers  ;  but  of  his  merits 
as  a  writer  on  intellectual  and  moral  subjects,  several 
coniiietent  and  (as  we  have  reason  to  believe)  impartial 
critics  have  spoken  in  terms  of  the  highest  praise. 

"  I  have  often  thought,"  says  Coleridge,  "  of  writing  a 
work  to  be  entitled  'Vindication  of  Great  Men  unjustly 
branded  ;'  and  at  such  times  the  names  prominent  to  my 

•  See  Kant's  letter  on  this  subject  to  the  Frau  von  Knobloch. 


mind's  eye  have  been  Giordano  Bruno,  Bohmen,  Spi- 
noza, and  Swedenborg.  Grant  that  the  origin  of  the 
Swedenborgian  theology  is  a  problem ;  yet,  on  which- 
ever of  the  three  possible  hypotheses  (possible,  I  mean,  for 
gentlemen,  scholars,  and  Christians)  it  maybe  solved, — 
I,  Swedenborg's  own  assertion  and  constant  belief  in  the 
hypothesis  of  a  supernatural  illumination  ;  or,  2,  that 
the  great  and  excellent  man  was  led  into  this  belief  by 
becoming  the  subject  of  a  very  rare  but  not  (it  is  said) 
altogether  unique  conjunction  of  the  somniative  faculty 
with  the  voluntary  and  other  powers  of  the  waking  state  ; 
or,  3,  the  modest  suggestion  that  the  first  and  second  may 
not  be  so  incompatible  as  they  appear, — still  it  is  never 
to  be  forgotten  that  the  merit  and  value  of  Swedenborg's 
system  do  only  in  a  very  secondary  degree  depend  on  any 
one  of  the  three.  ...  So  much,  even  from  a  very  partial 
acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Swedenborg,  I  may  ven- 
ture to  assert,  that  as  a  moralist  he  is  above  all  praise, 
and  that  as  a  naturalist,  psychologist,  and  theologian  he 
has  strong  claims  on  the  gratitude  and  admiration  of  the 
professional  and  philosophical  student."  (See  "Notes 
on  Noble's  Appeal,"  in  Coleridge's  "  Literary  Remains.") 

"  There  is,"  says  Emerson,  "  an  invariable  method  and 
order  in  his  delivery  of  his  truth,  the  habitual  proceed- 
ing of  the  mind  from  inmost  to  outmost.  What  earnest- 
ness and  weightiness  ! — his  eye  never  roving,  without  one 
swell  of  vanity  or  one  look  to  self  in  any  common  form 
of  literary  pride  !  a  theoretic  or  speculative  man,  but 
whom  no  practical  man  in  the  universe  could  affect  to 
scorn."  In  another  place  he  says,  "  Not  every  man 
can  read  them,  [his  books,]  but  they  will  reward  him 
who  can.  .  .  .  The  grandeur  of  the  topics  makes  the 
grandeur  of  the  style.  .  .  .  His  writings  would  be  a 
sufficient  library  to  a  lonely  and  athletic  student ;  and 
the  '  Economy  of  the  Animal  Kingdom'  is  one  of  those 
books  which,  by  the  sustained  dignity  of  thinking,  is  an 
honour  to  the  human  race."  But  this  high  praise  is 
not  bestowed  without  important  qualifications.  (See 
"  Swedenborg,  or  the  Mystic,"  in  "  Representative  Men.") 

Professor  von  Gorres,  already  referred  to  in  this  article, 
says  of  Swedenborg,  "  He  was  guided  in  his  researches 
by  a  mind  clear,  acutely  analytic,  endowed  with  skill,  and 
well  disciplined  in  mathematics  and  logic." 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  attempt  even  an  out- 
line of  his  theosophic  system  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  what 
seems  to  be  the  great  central  idea  in  this  system  is  the 
doctrine  of  correspondences,  according  to  which  ever) 
thing  in  the  natural  world  is  a  correspondent  or  typf 
of  something  existing  in  the  supernatural  or  spiritua' 
world. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  Swedenborg's  theosophy  has 
exerted  an  important  influence  upon  many  gifted  minds 
who  are  far  from  accepting  all  the  details  of  his  extra- 
ordinary revelations.  This  need  surprise  us  the  less 
because  "  what  appears  as  Swedenborg's  crudities  and 
fantasies,"  to  adopt  the  words  of  the  Rev.  E.  H.  Sears, 
"are  extraneous  to  his  essential  system."  (See  "  Monthly 
Religious  Magazine"  for  March,  1865.) 

See  "  Emanuel  Swedenborg:  his  Life  and  Writings,"  byWiLLMM 
White,  2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1867,  (pronounced  by  Henry  James  "by 
tar  the  best  life  of  Swedenborg ;"  see  "  North  American  Review"  (or 
July,  1S67  ;)  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  "  E.  Swedenborg  ;  a  Biography,  1844  ; 
GoEKRES,  "  E.  Swedenborg,"  1827;  S.  Sandeus,  "  Aminnelse-Tal 
ofver  E.  Swedenborg,"  1772;  Carl  F.  Ranz,  "  E.  Swedenborg,  dcj 
Nnrdische  Seher,"  etc.,  1S41  ;  Edwin  P.  Hood,  "  Swedenborg  ;  a 
Hingraphy  and  Exposition,"  1854;  Elihu  Rich,  "  Biograi)hical 
Sketch  of  E.  Swedenborg,"  1849:  Barrett,  "  Life  of  E.  Sweden- 
borg," 1S42;  Tafel,  "  E.  Swedenborg  und  seine  Gegner,"  2  vols., 
1841  :  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1857,  and  June,  1868. 

Sweerts,  s<^aRts,  (Emmanukl,)  a  Belgian  botanist, 
born  near  Breda  about  1552,  published  "  Florilegium 
Amplissimum  et  Selectissinium,"  (1612.) 

Sw^eerts,  (Pierre  Francois,)  a  Belgian  historian, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1567  ;  died  in  1629. 

S'werga.     See  Swarga. 

Swetchine,  (Madame  Sophia.)     See  Svetchine. 

S-wett,  (John  Appleton,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  at  Boston  in  1808.  He  became  in  184c 
associate  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Journal  of  Medicine," 
and  in  1853  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Chest,"  (1852.) 
Died  in  1854. 


*  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  tiasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  «;  t:h  as  in  this.     (i^="See  Explanations,  \>.  2^.  \ 


SlVEYiV 


2272 


SWIFT 


Sweyn.swan,  [Lat.  Sue'no  ;  Fr.  Su^NON.sii-k'nANM 
King  of  Denmark,  obtained  the  throne  about  986  A.D. 
He  lK;gan  about  994  a  series  of  piratical  expeditions 
against  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  ravaged  the  coasts  of 
England.  King  Ethelred,  unable  to  protect  his  realm 
by  arms,  induced  Sweyn  to  retire  by  paying  him  a  large 
sum  of  money.  Sweyn  soon  returned,  and  obtained 
possession  of  a  great  part  of  England.  He  died  about 
1014,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Canute  the  Great. 

Sweyn  II.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1025,  and  becaijie  King  of  Denmark  in  1047. 
Died  in  1076. 

Sweynheym,  s<^ln'hlm,  (Conrad,)  a  German 
printer,  who,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Pannartz, 
first  introduced  printing  into  Italy.     Died  about  1476. 

Swieten,  van,  vtn  swee'ten,  (Geraard,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  physician,  born  at  Leyden  in  1700.  He  studied 
medicine  and  chemistry  under  Boerhaave,  and  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  his  native  city.  Having  been 
obliged  to  resign  this  professorship  on  account  of  his 
being  a  Catholic,  he  was  appointed  in  1745  first  phy- 
sician to  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  He  was  created  by 
the  empress  a  baron  of  the  empire,  superintendent  of 
the  Imperial  Library,  and  perpetual  president  of  the 
medical  faculty.  His  "Commentaries  on  the  Aphorisms 
of  Hermann  Boerhaave  on  the  Diagnosis  and  Cure  of 
Diseases"  ("  Commentaria  in  H.  Boerhaavii  Aphorismos 
de  Cognoscendis  et  Curandis  Morbis")  is  regarded  as  a 
standard  work.     Died  in  1772. 

S-wift,  (Deane,)  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  writer, 
noticed  below,  was  the  author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Life, 
Character,  and  Writings  of  Dr.  Jonathan  Swift,"  eta, 
(1755.)  He  published  in  1765  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Swift.     Died  in  1783. 

Swift,  (Jonathan,)  a  celebrated  humorist  and 
satirist,  born  in  Dublin  on  the  30th  of  November,  1667, 
was  a  son  of  Jonathan  Swift,  an  English  attorney,  who 
removed  to  Ireland,  and  died  before  the  birth  of  the 
subject  of  this  article.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  (which  he  entered  in  1682,)  at  the  expense 
of  his  uncle,  Godwin  Swift,  for  he  inherited  nothing  from 
his  father.  He  graduated  in  1685,  and  remained  at 
Trinity  College  until  1688.  About  this  date  he  entered 
into  the  service  of  Sir  William  Temple,  (a  distant  relative 
of  Swift's  mother,)  who  employed  him  as  secretary  and 
received  him  as  an  inmate  in  his  family  at  Moor  Park. 
His  salary  was  only  twenty  pounds  a  year.  He  obtained 
the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford  in  1692,  after  which  he 
took  holy  orders.  Aspiring  to  a  more  independent 
position,  he  left  the  service  of  Sir  William  Temple  in 
1694,  and  went  to  Ireland.  He  became  prebendary  of 
Kilroot,  but,  having  received  an  invitation  from  Sir 
William,  with  promise  of  patronage,  he  returned  to  Moor 
Park  in  1695.  He  was  treated  as  a  friend  by  Temple, 
who  died  in  1699  and  left  him  a  legacy.  At  Moor  Park 
he  became  acquainted  with  Esther  Johnson,  to  whom 
he  gave  the  poetical  name  of"  Stella."  In  1699  or  1700 
he  was  appointed  rector  of  Agher  and  vicar  of  Laracor 
in  Ireland.  At  his  invitation.  Miss  Johnson  went  in  1700 
to  reside  at  or  near  Laracor,  expecting  that  Swift  would 
make  her  an  offer  of  marriage.  It  appears  that  he  did 
not  wish  to  marry,  but  was  fond  of  her  society,  and 
generally  conversed  with  her  in  the  presence  of  some 
third  person. 

In  1701  he  published  a  political  tract,  entitled  "A 
Discourse  of  the  Contests  and  Dissensions  between  the 
Nobles  and  Commons  of  Athens  and  Rome,"  which 
procured  for  him  the  friendship  of  the  Whig  leaders, 
Somers,  Halifax,  and  Addison.  He  produced  in  1704 
his  humorous  and  satirical  "Tale  of  a  Tub,"  (anony- 
mous,) and  "The  Battle  of  the  Books."  "The  'Tale  of 
a  Tub,' "  says  Hallam,  "  is,  in  my  apprehension,  the  mas- 
ter-piece of  .Swift :  certainly  Rabelais  has  nothing  superior 
even  in  invention,  nor  anything  so  condensed,  so  pointed, 
so  full  of  real  meaning,  of  biting  satire,  of  felicitous 
analogy."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
Swift  was  often  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  prefer- 
ment, and  gradually  turned  from  the  Whig  to  the  Tory 
party.  About  1708  he  published  a  "Project  for  the 
Advancement  of  Religion,"  which  is  said  to  be  the  only 
work  to  which  he  ever  put  his  name.     During  a  visit  to 


London  he  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  Miss  Johnson, 
entitled  "Journal  to  Stella."  He  edited  the  "  Examiner." 
a  weekly  Tory  paper,  (from  November,  1710,  to  June 
14,  171 1,)  in  which  he  displayed  great  talents  for  satire 
and  raillery  in  personal  attacks  on  Godolphin,  Sunder 
land,  Marlborough,  and  others.  He  became  very  inti- 
mate w^fh  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford,  with  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
and  with  Pope,  the  poet.  He  advocated  the  cessation  of 
hostilities  against  Louis  XIV.,  in  an  able  tract  on  "The 
Conduct  of  the  Allies,"  (1712,)  which  had  great  success, 
and  efficiently  promoted  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  (17 13.) 
For  this  service  he  was  rewarded  with  the  place  of  Dean 
of  Saint  Patrick's,  Dublin,  in  1713.  He  would  probably 
have  obtained  a  bishopric  if  he  had  not  written  the  "  Tale 
of  a  Tub,"  in  which  he  exposed  religious  abuses,  and 
popery  especially,  with  great  freedom  and  even  levity. 
Though  ill  satisfied  with  his  recent  preferment,  he  went 
to  take  possession  of  the  deanery;  but  he  remained  only 
a  few  weeks  in  Dublin.  He  returned  to  London,  where 
his  presence  was  required  to  reconcile  Oxford  and  Boling- 
broke ;  but  he  failed  in  this  attempt. 

About  1 7 13  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Esther 
Vanhomrigh,  ("  Vanessa,")  who  became  fondly  attached 
to  him,  and  is  said  to  have  made  him  a  proposal  of  mar- 
riage, which  he  declined.  On  this  subject  he  wrote  a 
poem  entitled  "Cadenus  and  Vanessa."  In  1716  Swift 
and  Stella  were  privately  married ;  but  they  never  lived 
together  or  met  except  when  others  were  present.  She 
presided  at  his  table  on  public  days,  and  attended  him 
during  illness.  She  died  in  1728.  He  produced  in  1726 
or  1727  his  famous  "Travels  of  Lemuel  Gulliver,"  a 
satirical  romance,  displaying  great  originality  and  wit 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  became  morose,  misan- 
thropic, and  solitary.  His  memory  and  other  faculties 
failed  in  1741.     He'died  in  Dublin  in  October,  1745. 

There  was  much  paradox  and  inconsistency  in  Swift's 
character.  He  is  said  to  have  given  a  large  part  of  his 
income  to  the  poor,  and  he  acquired  great  popularity 
among  the  Irish,  although  he  regarded  them  as  aliens 
and  inferiors.  Swift's  style  is  remarkable  for  its  direct- 
ness, simplicity,  and  perspicuity.  In  description,  even 
of  the  most  commonplace  things,  his  power  is  often 
perfectly  marvellous ;  everything  is  presented  to  the 
mind  with  a  distinctness  and  vividness  which  remind 
one  of  the  works  of  the  old  Dutch  painters.  Macaulay 
describes  him  at  Moor  Park  as  a  "poor  scholar,  under 
whose  plain  garb  and  ungainly  deportment  were  con- 
cealed some  of  the  choicest  gifts  that  have  ever  been 
bestowed  on  any  of  the  children  of  men, — rare  powers  of 
observation,  brilliant  wit,  grotesque  invention,  humour 
of  the  most  austere  flavour,  yet  exquisitely  delicious, 
eloquence  singularly  pure,  manly,  and  perspicuous '' 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

See  J.  Hawkesworth,  "  Life  of  Jonathan  Swift,"  1755 ;  T. 
Sheridan,  "  Life  of  Swift,"  17S4;  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English 
Poets  ;"  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Biograpliies  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;" 
Thackeray,  "  English  Humorists  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  Sep- 
tember, 1816;  Deane  Swift,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Swift,"  1735  ;  QuiNTiN  Craukurd,  "  Essai  historiquesur  le  Docteuf 
Swift,"  180S;  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Lord 
Jeffrey,  "Essays;"  "  Swiftiana,"  London,  2  vols.,  1S04;  Carl 
Nyren,  "J.  Swift's  Lefverne,"  1760;  W.  Russell,  "Eccentric 
Personages,"  1864;  H.  Reynald,  "  Biographie  de  J.  Swift,"  i860; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

S'wift,  (Joseph  Gardner,)  an  American  general  and 
engineer,  born  in  Nantucket  in  1783.  He  graduated  at 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  and  was  sabse- 
quently  made  captain  of  engineers.  He  was  appointed 
in  1829  superintendent  of  the  harbour  improvements  on 
the  lakes.    Died  July  23,  1865. 

S'wift,  (Lewis,)  an  American  astronomer,  born  at 
Clarkson,  iVIonroe  county.  New  York,  February  29,  1S20. 
He  began  in  early  life  to  lecture  and  experiment  on  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism,  and  after  1855  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  astronomy,  and  especially  to  the  study  of  comets. 
He  became  director  of  the  Warner  Observatory,  at 
Rochester,  New  York.  His  observations  and  discov- 
eries won  for  him  inany  prizes,  and  several  medals  and 
other  distinctions,  both  American  and  foreign. 

S'wift,  (Theophilus,)  son  of  Deane  Swift,  noticed 
above,  was  the  author  of  poems  entitled  "  The  Gamblers" 
and  "The  Temple  of  Folly,"  an  "  Essay  on  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  Rhyme,"  ami  other  works.      Died  in  1815. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  lon^^:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  0,  fi,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure:  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


SWIFT 


2273 


SYDOIV 


Siwift,  (Zephaniah,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Wareham,  Massav,husetts,  in  1759,  was  secretary  of  the 
embassy  to  France  in  1800,  and  in  1806  chief  justice 
of  Connecticut.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Bills  of 
Exchange,"  and  other  legal  works.     Died  in  1823. 

Swinburne,  swin'biirn,  (Algernon  Charles,)  an 
English  poet,  born  near  Henley-on-Thames,  April  5, 
1837.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  without 
»  degree.  His  first  publications  were  the  following  poet- 
ical dramas:  "The  Queen  Mother  and  Rosamond," 
(i86i,)  "  Atalanta  in  Calydon,"  (1864,)  and  "  Chastelard," 
(1865.)  In  1866  appeared  his  "Poems  and  Ballads," 
vvhicli  were  fiercely  assailed  on  the  score  of  immorality. 
The  poet  published  a  vigorous  answer  to  his  critics  in 
a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Notes  on  Poems  and  Reviews," 
(1866.)  Among  his  other  works  are  "Songs  before  Sun- 
rise," (1871,)  "  Bothvvell,"  a  tragedy,  (1874,)  "  Essays  and 
Studies,"  (1875,)  "Erechtheus","  a  tragedy,  (1876,)  "A 
Note  on  Charlotte  Bronte,"  (1877,)  "Poems  and  Bal- 
lads," second  series,  (1878,)  "Tristram  of  Lyonesse," 
(1879,)  "Studies  in  Song,"  (1880,)  "  Mary  Stuart,"  {1882,) 
and  "  A  Century  of  Roundels,"  (1883.) 

Swinburne,  (Henry,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
1752,  published  "Travels  through  Spain  in  1775  and 
1776,"  "Travels  in  the  Two  Sicilies,"  and  a  correspond- 
ence entitled  "  The  Courts  of  Europe  at  the  Close  of  the 
Last  Century,"  (1841.)     Died  in  1803. 

Sw^inden,  van,  vtn  swin'den,  (Jan  Hendrik,)  a 
Dutch  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1746.  He  became  in  1785  professor  of  physics 
and  astronomy  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of  other  learned 
societies,  and  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "  Dis- 
sertation on  the  Analogy  between  Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism," and  a  "Treatise  on  Weights  and  Measures," 
(1802.)     Died  in  1823. 

See  G.  Moll,  "  Redevoering  over  J.  H.  van  Swinden,"  1824. 

Swing,  (David,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  in 
Cincinnati,  August  23,  1830,  graduated  at  Miami  Uni- 
versity, was  head-master  of  the  grammar-school  of  that 
institution,  1854-66,  and  in  1S66  became  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Chicago.  His  trial  on  the  charge  of  heresy 
made  his  name  famous.  His  published  works  include 
"The  Motives  of  Life,"  "Club  Essays,"  and  three  vol- 
umes of  "  Sermons." 

Swin'nock,  (George,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  at  Maidstone.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.     Died  in  1673. 

SAvin'ton,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1703.  He  became  keeper  of  the  archives 
at  Oxford,  and  published  several  treatises  on  Roman 
and  Phoenician  antiquities.  He  was  also  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Universal  History."     Died  in  1777. 

Sw^in'ton,  (William,)  a  historian  and  author,  born  at 
Saltoun,  Scotland,  April  23,  1833.  He  was  educated  at 
Amherst  College,  and  was  five  years  professor  of  litera- 
ture in  the  University  of  California.  He  for  some  time 
was  a  journalist  of  New  York.  His  principal  books  are 
"Rambles  among  Words,"  (1859,)  "The  Twelve  Deci- 
sive Battles  of  the  War,"  (1871,)  "  History  of  the  United 
States,"  (1878,)  "Campaigns  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac," (1882,)  and  a  series  of  school-books,  including 
English  grammars,  geographies,  histories,  etc. 

Sw^iss'helm,  (Mrs.  Jane  Grey  Cannon,)  an  Amer- 
ican reformer,  born  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  December 
6,  181 5.  For  many  years  prominent  as  an  editor,  she 
was  during  the  war  of  1861-65  a  nurse  in  the  military 
hospitals.  Her  princijial  books  are  "  Letters  to  Country 
Girls,"  (1853,)  and  "Half  a  Century,"  (1880,)  an  auto- 
biography. Died  at  Swissvale,  Pennsylvania,  July  22, 
1884. 

Swith'in,  Saint,  an  English  prelate,  was  chaplain 
to  King  Egbert,  and  preceptor  to  his  son  Ethelwolf.  He 
W.1S  afterwards  tutor  to  Prince  Alfred,  and  in  852  was 
made  Bishop  of  Winchester.     Died  in  862. 

Swoboda,  s<^o-bo'dil,  (Wenzel  Aloys,)  a  Bohemian 
litterateur,  born  in  1 781,  published  tales,  novels,  and 
treatises  on  music.  He  also  translated  Seneca's  dramas 
into  German.     Died  in  1849. 


Sw^ord,  sord,  (James  B.,)  an  American  artist,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  October  11,  1839.  He  graduated  at  thje 
Central  High  School  of  his  native  city,  studied  art,  and 
in  1881  was  chosen  president  of  the  Philadelphia  Society 
of  Artists. 

Swurg  or  Swurga.     See  Swarga. 

Sy-a'gri-u.s,  Saint,  an  influential  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Autun  (Augustodunum)  about  520  A.D.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Autun  about  560.     Died  in  600. 

Sybel,  von,  fon  see'bel,  (Heinrich,)  an  eminent 
German  historian,  born  at  Dusseldorf,  December  2,  1817. 
He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  was  made  extraordinary 
professor  of  history  at  Bonn  in  1844,  a'ltl  full  professor  at 
Marburg  in  1845  and  at  Bonn  in  1861.  In  1875  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Prussian  archives.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution," 
(■S53-57.)  He  also  wrote  "The  Origin  of  Royalty  in 
Germany,"  (1845,)  "The  Rising  of  Europe  against  Na- 
poleon," (i860,)  a  treatise  on  the  First  Crusade,  etc 

Sybrecht,  (Jan,)     See  Sibrf.cht. 

Sydenham,  s!d'en-am,  (Charles  Edward  Pouleti 
Thompson,)  Lord,  an  English  Whig  statesman,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1799,  was  a  merchant  in  his  youth.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Dover  in  1826,  and  again 
in  1830.  His  superior  talents  for  business  procured  for 
him  a  rapid  promotion.  He  became  president  of  the 
board  of  trade  in  June,  1834,  and  a  member  of  the  cabi- 
net in  1835.  He  represented  Manchester  in  Parliament 
from  1832  till  1839,  was  appointed  Governor-General 
of  Canada  in  1839,  and  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Sydenham,  in  1840.  Died  in  Canada  in  September,  1841. 

See  ScROPE,  "Life  of  Lord  Sydenham"  1843;  " WestrainstPr 
Review"  for  December,    i84.'5. 

Sydenham,  (Floyer,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
1710.  He  published  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
principal  part  of  the  works  of  Plato,  but,  having  be- 
come embarrassed,  he  was  imprisoned  for  debt,  and 
died  in  1787.  This  melancholy  event  gave  rise  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Literary  Fund  for  the  relief  of  in 
digent  and  deserving  writers.  Sydenham  also  published 
"Onomasticon  Theologicum ;  or.  An  Essay  on  the 
Divine  Names,  according  to  the  Platonic  Philosophy," 
and  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Doctrine  of  Heraclitus," 
etc.,  (I775-) 

Sydenham,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  physi- 
cian, sometimes  called  "the  English  Hippocrates,"  was 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1624.  He  entered  Magdalene 
Hall,  Oxford,  as  a  commoner  in  1642,  and  took  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  physic  in  1648.  Having  subse- 
quently graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  at  Cambridge, 
he  settled  in  L.ondon  about  1660.  In  1663  he  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  licentiate  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  the 
majority  of  whom,  it  is  said,  were  hostile  to  him.  He 
rose  rapidly  to  the  foremost  rank  in  his  profession,  and 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Locke  and  Boyle.  In  1666 
he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Fevers."  He  discovered 
the  efficacy  of  a  cool  regimen  in  smallpox,  by  which  dis- 
covery he  saved  many  thousand  lives.  He  wrote  several 
short  medical  treatises,  which  were  pul)lished  collectively 
with  the  title  of  "Opera  Omnia  Medica,"  (1685,)  and 
have  been  often  reprinted.  The  best  edition  is  that 
entitled  "Opera  Medica,"  published  at  Geneva,  (2  vols. 
4to,  1 7 16.)  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  suffered 
much  from  the  gout.  Died  in  December,  16S9.  "  His 
skill  in  physic,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "was  not  his  highest 
excellence  ;  his  whole  character  was  amiable :  his  chief 
view  was  the  benefit  of  mankind,  and  the  chief  motive 
of  his  actions,  the  will  of  God,  whom  he  mentions  with 
a  reverence  well  becoming  the  most  enlightened  and 
most  penetrating  mind." 

See  Johnson,  "  Life  of  Sydenham,"  1742;  Prunellh,  "  Notice 
siiT  la  Vie  de  Sydenham,"  1816;    F.  Jahn,  "Sydenham;    Beitraz 
ziir  wissenscliaflliclien   Medicin,"  1840;  GoEDEN,  "  T.  Sydenham, 
1827;    "Encyclopaedia    Hritaniiica ;"    "Lives  of  the    British    Phy- 
sicians," London,  1S57;  "  IJiographia  Britannica." 

Sydney,  (Sir  Philip.)     See  Sidney. 

Sydow,  see'do<^,  (Karl  Leopold  Adolf,)  a  German 
latitudinarian  divine,  born  at  Berlin,  November  23,  1800. 
For  many  years  pastor  of  the  Neue  Kirche  in  Berlin,  he 
was  fined  and  censured  for  heresy  in  1872,  but  was  not 
displaced.  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of  Channing's 
writings  into  the  German. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

14? 


(2[^"See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


SYKES 


2274 


SYNC  ELL  US 


Sykes,  slks,  (Arthur  Ashley,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  London  about  1684,  rose  througli  several  prefer- 
ments to  be  prebendary  of  Winchester.  He  was  the 
author  0/  an  "Essay  on  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion,'  etc.,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1756. 

Sykes,  (George,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Mary- 
land about  1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  lie 
commanded  a  division  of  the  Union  army  at  Gaines's 
Mill,  June  27,  1862,  and  a  corps  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3, 
1863.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  1865,  and 
became  colonel  in  1868.     Died  February  8,  1880. 

Sylburg,  sfl'booRc,  [Lat.  Sylbur'gius,]  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  scholar,  born  near  Marburg  in  1536. 
He  studied  Greek  at  Jena,  and  subsequently  entered 
into  a  connection  with  the  printer  Jerome  Commelin, 
at  Heidelberg,  as  director  of  the  printing  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  classics.  He  published  editions  of  Pausa- 
nias,  Aristotle,  Dionysius  of  ILalicarnassus,  Zosimus, 
Justin  Martyr,  and  other  ancient  writers.  He  also 
contributed  to  the  "  Thesaurus"  of  Henry  Stephens. 
Sylburg  was  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  his  editions  of  the  classics  have  perhaps  never  been 
surpassed  in  critical  accuracy.     Died  in  1596. 

See  J.  G.  JuN'G,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  F.  Sylbiirg's,"  1745:  M. 
Adam,  "Vita  Philosophorum;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grica." 

Sylburgius.    See  Sylburg. 

Sylla.     See  Sulla. 

Sylvanus.     See  Silvanus. 

Sylverius.     See  Silverius. 

Syl-ves'ter,  [Fr.  Silvestre,  sJI'vSsIr';  It.  Silves- 
TRO,  sfel-v5s'tRo,]  Saint,  was  elected  Pope  of  Rome 
in  314  a.d.  Under  his  pontificate  the  celebrated  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  was  assembled  (325)  and  the  Arian  heresy 
vas  first  promulgated.     Died  in  335. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art" 

Sylvester  H.  succeeded  Gregory  V.  as  Pope  of 
Rome  in  999  a.d.  His  original  name  was  Gerbert, 
and  he  was  a  native  of  Auvergne.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  attainments  in  mathematics  and  philosophy,  and 
made  several  valuable  discoveries.  He  died  in  1003, 
leaving  a  number  of  scientific  treatises. 

Sylvester  III.,  Anti-Pope,  was  raised  to  the  pon- 
tificate in  1013,  in  opposition  to  Benedict  IX.,  but  after 
a  short  time  he  was  deposed. 

Syl-ves'ter,  (James  Joseph,)  LL.D.,  an  English 
mathematician,  born  in  London,  of  Jewish  parents,  Sep- 
tember 3,  18 14.  He  graduated  at  Saint  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  as  second  wrangler,  held  professorships 
of  mathematics  in  University  College,  London,  in  the 
University  of  Virginia,  in  the  Royal  Military  Academy 
at  Woolwich,  and  at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more, (1876-S3,)  and  in  1S83  became  professor  of  geom- 
etry in  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  is  one  of  the 
profoundest  of  modern  students  of  the  higher  algebra, 
and  has  made  very  important  improvements  and  discov- 
eries in  various  branches  of  pure  and  applied  mathe- 
matics. He  is  the  author  of  many  valuable  scientific 
papers. 

Syl-ves'ter,  (Joshua,)  an  English  Puritan  writer, 
born  in  1563,  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "To- 
bacco Battered  and  the  Pipes  Shattered  by  a  Volley  of 
Holy  Shot  Thundered  from  Mount  Helicon."  He  made 
several  translations  from  the  French.     Died  in  1618. 

Sylvester,  (Matthew,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  was  ejected  about  1662,  after  which  he  preached 
in  London.  He  edited  Baxter's  "  History  of  his  Life 
and  Times."     Died  in  1708. 

Sylvius,  the  Latin  of  Dubois,  (which  see.) 

Sylvius,  (i^NEAS.)     See  Pius  II. 

Sylvius,  (Franz.)     See  Dubois  de  la  Boe. 

Sylvius,  s!Kve-us,  (Lambert,)  or  Van  den  Bosch, 
vtn  d6n  bosk,  a  Dutch  writer,  born  at  Dort  in  1610. 
He  wrote  histories,  poems,  etc.     Died  in  1688. 

_  Syme,  (James,)  an  eminent  Scottish  surgeon  and  phy- 
sician, born  in  Fifeshire  about  1800.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Robert  Liston,  at  Edinburgh.  He  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  an  operator  and  as  a  writer  on  surgery. 
About  1833  he  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh,  Among  his  works  are  a 
'Treatise  on  the  Excision  of  Diseased  Joints,"  (1831,) 


*  Principles  of  Surgery,"  (1832,)   and   a  "Treatise  o 
Diseases  of  the  Rectum,"  (1838-46.)     Died  in  1870. 

Symes,  simz,  (Michael,)  an  English  officer  a'ld  dl 
plomatist,  was  ambassador  to  the  Burmese  court  i  1 179J 
and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "  Embassy  to  th< 
Kingdom  of  Ava."     Died  in  1809. 

Sym'ing-ton,  (Andrew  James,)  a  Scottish  .uthor 
born  at  Paisley,  July  27,  1825.  Among  his  works  an 
"Harebell  Chimes,"  (1848,)  "Genevieve,  and  othe 
Poems,"  (1855,)  "The  Beautiful  in  Art,  Naturu,  ano 
Life,"  (1857,)  "Pen  and  Pencil  Sketches  in  Iceland  and 
Faroe,"  (1S62,)  "The  Reasonableness  of  Faith,"  (1870,) 
Lives  of  Chalmers,  Guthrie,  Lover,  Thomas  Moore,  Bry- 
ant, and  Wordsworth,  "Christmas  in  Picture,  Song-,  ano 
Story,"  (1878,)  "The  Four  Seasons,"  (1879,)  and  "Hints 
to  Our  Boys,"  (1S84.) 

S^m'ing-tpn,  (W.,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  bom  in 
1795.  He  was  a  professor  of  theology  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church,  and  lived  in  Glasgow.  He 
published  works  entitled  "The  Atonement  and  Inter  es- 
sion  of  Christ,"  and  "  Mediatorial  Dominion  of  Chrii»t" 
Died  in  Glasgow  in  January,  1862. 

Sytn'ma-ehus,  [Gr.  Ivyniaxoq;  Fr.  Symmaque,  a*'- 
mSk',]  surnamed  THE  Samaritan,  is  supposed  to  have 
flourished  about  200  A.D.  Having  been  converted  to 
Christianity,  he  made  a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  Greek,  which  has  been  highly  commended  for  the 
grace  and  perspicuity  of  its  style. 

Symmaclius,  (Ccelius,)  born  in  Sardinia,  succeeded 
Anastasius  II.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  498  A.D.  Died  in  514. 

Symmachus,  (Quintus  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  orator 
and  statesman.  He  became  successively  proconsul  of 
Africa,  prefect  of  Rome,  (384,)  and  consul,  (391  a.d.) 
He  was  a  zealous  defender  of  paganism,  and  laboured 
earnestly  to  prevent  its  downfall.  Died  about  410. 
Among  his  extant  works  are  ten  books  of  letters,  which 
contain  a  great  deal  of  interesting  and  valuable  infor- 
mation. He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  ability 
and  learning.  Fragments  of  his  orations  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Angelo  Mai. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina ;"  Angelo  Mai,  "Com- 
mentarii  Prsvii  de  Symmacho;"  E.  MoRiN,  "  fitude  sur  la  Vie  de 
Symmaque,"  1S47;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Symmaque.    See  Symmachus. 

Symmes,  simz,  (John  Cleves,)  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  New  Jersey  about  1780,  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
advocate  of  a  theory  representing  the  earth  as  hollow, 
open  at  the  poles,  and  habitable  within.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  the  subject,  but  made  very  few 
converts.     Died  in  1829. 

Sym'mons,  (Charles,)  M.D.,  born  at  Cardigan, 
Wales,  in  1749,  was  the  author  of  a  "Life  of  Milton," 
and  dramatic  poems  entitled  "Inez"  and  "  Constantia." 
Died  in  1826. 

Sy'monds,  (John  Addington,)  an  English  author, 
born  at  Bristol,  October  5,  1840.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  masterly  "  History  of  the  Renaissance  in 
Italy,"  (5  vols.,  1875-81,)  an  "Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Dante,"  a  "  Life  of  Shelley,"  and  other  works,  chiefly 
on  Italian  subjects.  He  h.as  also  published  several  vol- 
umes of  verse,  and  an  excellent  work  called  "Shake- 
speare's Predecessors  in  the  English  Drama,"  (1883.) 

Sy'mpnda,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  rear-admiral 
and  naval  architect,  born  in  1782.  He  made  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  ships,  and  was  surveyor  of 
the  navy  from  1832  to  1847.     Died  in  1856. 

Sy'mons,  (Jelinger  C.,)  an  English  writer  and  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  1809  or  1810.  He  wrote  on  educa- 
tion and  social  reform.     Died  in  i860. 

Syn,  s!n,  or  Synia,  s!n'e-a,  [perhaps  from  syn, 
'•'sight,"  and  so  named  on  account  of  her  watchfulness 
and  sagacity,]  a  goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
portress  of  the  hall  or  palace  of  Odin,  and  also  the 
patron  of  those  who  in  a  lawsuit  are  in  danger  of  being 
injured  by  false  testimony. 

Syn-celTus,  [Gr.  Svy/ct'^J'.of;  ;  Fr.  Le  Syncelle,  leh 
sJn'sSI',]  (George,)  a  Greek  monk  and  chronicler  of  the 
eighth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Chronography,"  or 
chronological  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  to 
the  time  of  Diocletian. 


a.  e,  I.  0,  u,  y,  hmg:  i,  k.  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  m?t;  nflt;  good;  moon: 


CYNES/US 


2275 


TACITO 


Synesius,  si-nee'she^s,  [Gr.  Sweatof,]  a  celebrated 
Neo- Platonic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Cyrene,  in  Africa, 
in  378  A.D.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Hypatia  at  Alexandria ; 
but  he  was  afterwards  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Ptolemais  in  410  a.d.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Dreams,"  "  Dion,  or  on  Self 
Discipline,"  a  large  collection  of  letters,  and  several 
hymns  and  epigrams.  His  works  are  admired  for  the 
style  aiid  other  merits.     Died  about  430. 

See  Clausrn,  "De  Synesio  Pliilosoplio,"  1831  ;  Drouon, 
"  fitude  sur  la  Vie  et  les  CEtivres  de  Synesius,"  1859:  B.  Kolbh, 
*'  Der  Bischof  Synesius  von  Cyreneals  Pliysiker,"  1850  :  Tillemont, 
■'  M^moires  eccl^siastiques  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Synesius,  a  Greek  writer  on  medicine,  the  date  of 
whose  birth  is  unknown.  His  "Treatise  on  Fevers,"  a 
translation  from  the  Arabic  of  Ibnu'l-Jezzar,  is  his  only 
extant  work. 

Synge,  s!nj,  (Edward,)  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in 
1659,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  Tuam.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1741. 

S^n'tl-pas,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  Sende- 
b&d,  sSn'deh-bid',  a  Hindoo  or  Persian  philosopher,  to 
whom  is  ascribed  a  collection  of  tales  and  apologues 
which  were  translated  into  Greek  by  Michael  Andreo- 
poulos.  These  tales  were  published  by  lioissonnade 
in  182S. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Sy'phax,  [Gr.  SiJ^a^,]  a  king  of  Numidia,  made  an 
alliance  with  the  Romans  in  213  H.c,  after  which  he 
waged  war  against  Masinissa.  About  the  year  204  he 
became  an  ally  of  Carthage  in  the  second  Punic  war. 
He  was  defeated  by  Scipio  in  203  B.C.,  and  was  taken 
as  a  prisoner  to  Rome.     Died  about  20i. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Syr-I-a'nu3,  [Gr.  Svpwvof,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of 
the  Neo-Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Alexandria  or 
Gaza.  He  succeeded  Plutarchus  as  the  head  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  school  at  Athens.  Among  his  disciples 
was  the  celebrated  Proclus,  who  expressed  a  very  high 
opinion  of  Syrianus.  He  wrote  several  works,  which 
are  lost,  and  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Metaphysics  of 
Aristotle,"  which  is  extant.     Died  about  450  a.d. 


S^r-o-pu'lus,  (Sylvester,)  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  resident  of  Constantinoi)le  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Council  of  Florence." 

Syrus.     See  Pudlius  Svrus. 

Szabo,  s.Vbo,  (David,)  a  Transylvanian  poet,  born 
in  1739,  made  a  translation  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost" 
and  of  Virgil's  "  ^^neid,"  and  published  a  poem  entitled 
a  "Description  of  Rural  Life."     Died  in  1819. 

Szalay,  soh'loi,  (Ladisi.aus,)  a  Hungarian  writer, 
born  at  Buda  in  1813,  succeeded  Kossuth  in  1844  ^^ 
editor  of  the  "  Pesti  Hirlap."  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "History  of  Hungary,"  "The  Book  of 
Statesmen,"  (1847,)  and  "Publicistic  Writings,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1864. 

Szalkai,  sol'kl,  (Anthony,)  a  Hungarian  dramatic 
poet  of  the  eighteenth  century.  His  "  Pikko  Hertzeg" 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  regular  drama  in  the  Hun- 
garian language.     Died  in  1804. 

Sz^chenyi,  sa'K5n-ye,  (Stephen,)  Count,  a  Hun- 
garian nobleman,  eminent  for  his  public  spirit,  was  born 
at  Vienna  in  1792.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  promoter  of  rural  economy.  He  was  a  pioneer  in 
the  navigation  of  the  Danube  by  steam.  In  politics  he 
opposed  the  measures  of  Kossuth  which  produced  or 
preceded  the  revolution  of  1848.     Died  in  i860. 

Szegedi,  sa'g§d-e,  (John  Baptist,)  a  Hungarian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Eisenstadt  in  1699.  He  published  seve- 
ral works  on  Hungarian  history  and  laws.    Died  in  1760 

Sze-ma-Kwang.     See  Sse-ma-ICwang. 

Sze-ma-Tsien.    See  Sse-ma-Tsien. 

Szemere,  sa'm6h-ri,  (Bartholomew,)  a  Hungarian 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Borsod  in 
1812.  Having  previously  filled  several  important  offices 
under  the  government,  he  became  in  1849  president  of 
the  new  ministry.  After  Gorgey  became  dictator,  Sze- 
mere took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  published 
a  number  of  political  treatises.     Died  in  1865. 

Szigligeti,  sig'le-gi-te,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished 
Hungarian  dramatist,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1814.  He 
published,  among  other  plays,  "The  Travelling  Actor," 
and  "Crown  and  Sword."     Died  January  19,  1878 


T. 


Tabaraud,  \.V\A.'xb',  (Mathieu  Mathurin,)  a 
French  Jansenist  priest  and  writer,  born  at  Limoges  in 
1744.  He  wrote  "Histoire  de  Pierre  de  Berulle,"  (2 
vols.,  181 7,)  and  many  controversial  works,  an^ong  which 
is  an  "Essay  on  the  State  of  the  Jesuits  in  France," 
(1828.)     Died  in  1832. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

Tabaree  or  Tabari,  (Aboo-  (Abfi-)  Jaafar-Mo- 
hammed,  i'boo  j3.'a-far  mo-hdm'med,)  an  eminent  Arab 
historian,  born  in  Tabaristan  in  839  A.D.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Universal  History  from  the  Creation  to  314 
A.D.,"  a  "Commentary  on  the  Koran,"  and  other  works. 

Tabart    See  Tabaree. 

Tabarin,  tt'bt'r^N',  the  assumed  name  of  the  un- 
known writer  of  a  mass  of  comic  dialogues  and  farcical 
adventures  in  rude  dramatic  form.  They  are  in  French, 
and  seem  to  date  from  about  1620.  Two  volumes  of 
Tabarin's  works  were  published  in  1858. 

Tabarrani,  ti-bir-rJ'nee,  (P.,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  near  Lucca  in  1702.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
'  at  Rome  and  Padua,  and  published  "  Observationes 
Anatomicas,"  (1753.)     Died  in  1779. 

Tabernaemontaniis,  ti-b^R'ni-mon-tS'niis,  (Jaco- 
bus Theodorus,)  a  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Berg-Zabern,  in  Alsace,  about  1520.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  a  "New  Complete  Herbal,"  ("Neue  volkom- 
men  Kr'auterbuch,")  which  was  highly  esteemed  in  his 
time.     Died  in  1590. 

Tabor,  tS'bor,  (Johann  Otho,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Bautzen  in  1604;  died  in  1674. 

Tabouet,  t$'boo-i',  [Lat.  Taboe'tius,]  (Julien,)  a 
French  jurist  and  historian,  born  near  Le  Mans  about 


1500.  He  was  banished  in  1556  for  an  alleged  official 
misdemeanour.     Died  in  1562. 

Tabouret,  tt'boo'ro',  (Stienne,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  humorous  writer,  called  the  "  Seigneur  des  Accords," 
was  born  at  Dijon  in  1547.  He  published  a  collection 
of  facetious  i)oems  entitled  "  Les  Bigarrures  et  Touches 
du  Seigneur  des  Accords,"  etc.,  (1572.)     Died  in  1590. 

Tabreezee  or  Tabrizi,  tS-bree'zee,  (Aboo-  (Abfi-) 
Zacharia-Yahia,  d'boo  za-K^-ree'^  yih'he-a,)  an  Arab 
grammarian  and  critical  writer,  was  professor  at  Bagdad. 

Tabrizi.     See  Tabreezee. 

Tacca,  tSk'kS,  (Pietro  Giacomo,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
was  a  pupil  of  John  of  Bologna.     Died  in  1640. 

Taccoli,  tSk'ko-lee,  (Niccol6,)  Count,  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Reggio  in  1690;  died  in  1768. 

Tac-fa-rx'nas,  a  Numidian,  who,  during  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,' took  arms  against  the  Romans,  about  18  a.d. 
He  gained  some  victories,  but  was  defeated  and  killed 
in  24  A.D. 

Tachard,  tt'shiR',  (Gui,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  mis- 
sionary to  Siam  in  1685,  published,  after  his  return,  an 
account  of  his  travels,  (2  vols.,  1689.)     Died  in  171 1. 

Taclie,  ti'sha',  (Ale.xandre,)  D.D.,  a  Canadian  prel- 
ate, born  at  Kamouraska  in  1822.  Educated  at  Saint 
Hyacinthe  College,  he  went  in  1843  to  Saint  Honiface, 
(now  in  Manitoba,)  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  became  a 
missionary  of  the  Order  of  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate. 
In  1851  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Arath  in partibus, 
succeeded  as  Bishop  of  Saint  Boniface  in  1853,  and  was 
promoted  to  be  archbishop  and  metropolitan  in  1871. 

Tacite.    See  Tacitus. 

Tacito.    See  Tacitus. 


cas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  Vi, ptttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (il!^°"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TACITUS 


2276 


TAILLANDIER 


Ta9l-tU3,  [Fr.  Tacite,  tt'sit';  It.  Tacito,  ti'che-to,] 
(Caius  Cornelius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian,  was 
born  about  55  a.d.  The  events  of  his  early  life  have 
not  been  recorded.  He  entered  the  public  service  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and  married  a  daughter  of  C. 
Julius  Agricola,  the  famous  general,  in  78  A.D.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  from  whose 
letters  we  derive  a  large  part  of  the  knowledge  which 
we  have  of  his  life.  In  the  year  88  he  obtained  the 
(jffice  of  praetor.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
orators  of  his  time.  In  the  reign  of  Nerva  he  became 
consul,  97  A.D.,  and  about  the  same  date  he  wrote  his 
work  on  Germany, — "On  the  Situation,  Customs,  etc, 
of  Germany,"  ("  De  Situ,  Moribus  et  Populis  Germanise.") 
Tacitus  and  Pliny  conducted  the  prosecution  against 
Marius  Priscus,  who  was  convicted  of  cruelty  and  other 
crimes  in  100  A.D. 

Among  his  earlier  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Agricola," 
which  is  much  admired.  After  the  death  of  Nerva,  he 
wrote  "The  Histories,"  ("Historiarum  Libri  XIV.,") 
which  treat  of  the  period  from  68  to  96  A.D.  This  work 
13  lost,  except  the  first  five  books.  His  reputation  is 
chiefly  founded  on  his  "  Annals,"  ("  Annales,")  in  sixteen 
books,  which  record  the  history  of  the  Roman  empire  from 
the  death  of  Augustus,  14  A.D.,  to  the  death  of  Nero,  68 
A.D.  This  excellent  work  is  extant,  except  the  seventh, 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  books,  and  parts  of  three  other 
books.  His  "  Annals"  were  completed  about  116  A.D. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.  He  was  a  Stoic  in 
])hilosophy,  and  probably  knew  nothing  of  Christianity. 
According  to  Gibbon,  "  he  was  the  first  historian  who 
applied  the  science  of  philosophy  to  the  study  of  facts." 
("  History,"  vol.  i.  225.)  He  displays  profound  insight 
into  the  motives  of  human  conduct  and  the  dark  recesses 
of  character.    His  style  is  eminently  concise  and  vigorous. 

"  Of  the  Latin  historians,"  says  Macaulay,  "  Tacitus 
was  certainly  the  greatest.  His  style,  indeed,  is  not  only 
faulty  in  itself,  but  is  in  some  respects  peculiarly  unfit 
for  historical  composition.  .  .  .  He  tells  a  fine  story 
finely,  but  he  cannot  tell  a  plain  story  plainly.  He  stim- 
ulates till  all  stimulants  lose  their  power.  ...  In  the 
delineation  of  character,  Tacitus  is  unrivalled  among 
historians,  and  has  very  few  superiors  among  dramatists 
and  novelists."  (Essay  on  "  History,"  published  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  1828.) 

"  Tacitus,"  says  F.  W.  P'arrar,  "  towered  like  a  giant 
above  all  his  contemporaries,  isolated  and  unapproach- 
able. .  .  .  The  little  we  know  of  his  private  life  is  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  noble  standard  of  his  re- 
corded sentiments."     ("Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

See  BoTTicHER,  "  De  Vita,  Scriptis  ac  Stilo  Taciti,"  1834;  Sik- 
VERS,  "J'acitus  und  Tiberius,"  1850;  Dubois-Guchan,  "Tacite  et 
son  Si^cle,"  2  vols.,  1857;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary;" D.  W.  MoLLER,  "Disputatio  de  C.  C.  Tacito,"  1686; 
Malvezzi,  "  Discorsi  sopra  Tacito,"  1622. 

Tacitus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  Emperor  of  Rome, 
was  elected  to  succeed  Aurelian  in  275  A.D.  He  was 
distinguished  for  the  wisdom  and  energy  of  his  admin- 
istration. He  defeated  the  Scythians,  who  had  invaded 
Pontus,  but  he  soon  after  died  (276)  of  a  fever,  (though 
one  account  says  he  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  and 
was  assassinated,)  having  reigned  about  eight  months. 

Taconnet,  tt'ko'ni',  ( Toussai.nt  Gaspard,)  a  French 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1730;  died 
in  1774. 

Tacquet,  tt'ki',  (Andrew,)  a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1611,  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
mathematical  works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  1660. 

Tadda,  deL    See  Fekrucci,  (Francesco.) 

Tadema,  (Alma.)     See  Alma-Tadema. 

Tadino,  t^-dee'no,  (Gabriel,)  an  Italian  general, 
born  near  Bergamo  about  1480.  He  fought  for  the  Ve- 
netians against  the  League  of  Cambray,  and  became 
grand  master  of  the  artillery  of  Charles  V.     Died  in  1 543. 

Tadoliiii,  td-do-lee'nee,  (.^DAMO,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Bologna  in  1789.  His  statue  of  Saint  Francis 
de  Sales  is  highly  praised.'     Died  in  1868. 

Tadoliui,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1793.  He  composed  "II  Tamerlano,"  "  Al- 
manzor,"  and  other  successful  operas.     Died  in  1S72. 

Tadrus,  King  of  Abyssinia.     See  THEODORE, 


Tafel,  ti'fel,  (Gottlieb  Lucas  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar  andantiquary,  born  in  1787  ;  died  at  Ulm  in  i860. 

Tafel,  (Johann  Friedrich  I.mmanuel,)  a  distin- 
guished German  Swedenborgian,  was  born  at  Sulzbach, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1796.  He  became  librarian  of  the 
University  at  Tubingen,  translated  several  of  Sweden- 
borg's  works  into  German,  and  wrote,  besides  many 
other  works,  "Swedenborg  and  his  Opponents,"  ("  Swe- 
denborg  und  seine  Gegner,"  2  vols.,  1841.)  Died  at 
Ragaz,  in  Switzerland,  in  1862. 

See  C.  DiJBERG,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  von  Dr.  J.  F.  Immanuel 
Tafel,"  Wismar,  1864. 

Taffi,  tSffee,  (.\ndrea,)  a  Florentine  artist,  born  in 
1213,  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  art  of  painting  in 
mosaic  into  Italy.     Died  in  1294. 

Tafuri,  tS-foo'ree,  (G.  B.,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Nardo  in  1695.  He  published,  besides  other  work.s,  an 
"Account  of  the  Writers  born  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,"  (9  vols.,  1744-70.)     Died  in  1760. 

Tafuri,  (Matteo,)  called  Matth>eus  Soleta'nus,  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  physician,  born  at  Soleto  in 
1492.  He  wrote  on  theology,  medicine,  astronomy,  etc. 
Died  about  1585. 

Ta'gei,  [Fr.  TAofes,  ti'zhSs',]  an  Etrurian  genius  or 
mythical  personage,  who  is  said  to  have  issued  from  a 
clod  of  earth,  and  is  represented  as  a  boy  with  the  wis- 
dom of  an  old  man.  He  is  said  to  have  taught  the  art 
of  predicting  the  future  by  the  inspection  of  the  entrails 
of  victims. 

Tageseu.     See  Taussen. 

Tagliacarne,  til-yi-kaR'ni,  (Benedetto,)  called 
Theocre'nus,  [Fr.  TiitocRENE,  ti'o'kRin',]  an  Italian 
litterateur  and  poet,  born  at  Sarzana  about  1480.  He 
removed  to  France,  obtained  the  favour  of  Francis  I., 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Grasse  in  1533.  Died 
in  1536. 

Tagliaco2do.     See  Tagliacozzi. 

Tagliacozzi,  tdl-yS-kot'see,  or  Tagliacozio,  tJl-yi- 
kot'se-o,  [Lat.  Taliaco'tius,]  (Gasparo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Bologna  in  1546.  He  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer  ;  but  his 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  skill  in  restoring  lost  features, 
particularly  noises.  He  published  several  surgical  works, 
in  Latin.  His  method  of  forming  the  nose  has  been 
called  the  "Taliacotian  process."     Died  in  1599. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale;"  Fantuzzi,  "'Scrittori  liolognesi." 

Taglioni,  til-yo'nee,  (Marie,)  a  celebrated  opera- 
dancer,  born  in  1804  at  Stockholm,  where  her  father, 
Filippo  Taglioni,  held  the  post  of  ballet-master.  She 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  Paris,  London,  and 
the  other  principal  cities  of  Europe.  In  1832  she  was 
married  to  Count  Gilbert  de  Voisins.  Having  amassed 
a  large  fortune,  in  1847  she  retired  from  the  stage,  but 
lost  her  property  in  the  Franco-German  war,  (1870,)  and 
afterwards  maintained  herself  in  London  by  giving  les- 
sons in  dancing.  She  died  in  1S84.  Her  brother  Paul, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1808,  became  ballet-master  in  London, 
and  composed  a  number  of  ballets.    He  died  Jan.  7,  1884. 

Tah-seen'-  (or  Tahsin-)  ood-Deen,  a  Mohammedan 
writer  of  India.  He  wrote  in  the  Oordoo  language  a 
celebrated  "  Story  of  Kamrup  and  Kala,"  which  much 
resembles  the  well-known  story  of  "  Sindbad  the  Sailor." 
Tahseen  lived  in  the  present  century. 

Tahureau,  tt'U'ro',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet,  bom 
at  Mans  in  1527  ;  died  in  1555. 

Taillandier,  tS'yftN'dej^i',  (Alphonse  Ho.nor6,)  a 
French  publicist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He 
was  a  Liberal  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  Philijipe.  He  published  several  works 
on  legislation  and  penal  laws,  and  contributed  to  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"    Died  in  1867. 

TaiDandier,  (Chari.es  Louis,)  a  learned  French 
Benedictine  monk  and  writer,  was  born  at  Arras  in  1705  ; 
died  in  1786. 

Taillandier,  (Ren6  Gaspard  Ernest,)  a  French 
[jhilosopher  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1817.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  at  Heidelberg,  and 
was  appointed  in  1843  professor  of  French  literature  at 
Montpellier.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  treat- 
ise "  On  Erigena  the  Scot,  and  the   Scholastic  Philos- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, /ow^.i,  h,b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  J^tr/;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  Qr,  fill,  fit;mlt;  ii6t;  good;  moon; 


TAILLASSON 


2277 


TALFOURD 


ophy,"  (1843,)  ^  "  History  of  Young  Germany,"  (1848,) 
and  "  Maurice  de  Saxe,"  (1865.)  He  was  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."     Died  Feb.  22,  1879. 

Taillasson,  tfyt'sAw',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  skilful 
French  historical  painter  and  litterateur,  born  near  Bor- 
deaux in  1746,  was  a  pupil  of  Vien.  Me  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Paintiiic;  in  1784.     Died  in  1809. 

Taillepied,  ttrpe-i'  or  tt'ye-pe^i',  (Noel,)  a  French 
biographer  and  antiquary,  born  near  Rouen  about  1540. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Luther," 
(1577,)  and  a  "History  of  the  State  and  Republic  of  the 
Druids."  etc.,  (1585-)     Died  in  1589. 

Taine,  tin,  (Hippolyte  Adolphe,)  a  French  litti- 
ratettr,  born  at  Vouziers  in  1828.  He  has  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  Titus  Livius,"  (1854,) 
"The  French  Philosophers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(1856,)  and  a  "  History  of  English  Literature,"  (4  vols., 
1864.)  In  1864  he  was  chosen  to  teach  aesthetics  and 
the  history  of  art  in  the  School  of  Fine  Arts.  Among 
his  later  works  are  "Nouvea^ix  Essais  de  Critique," 
and  "  Les  Origines  de  la  France  contemporaine." 

Tai-Ping-Wang.     See  Tien-Te. 

Taisand,  ti'z6N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1644.  He  wrote  "  The  Lives  of  the  Most  Cele- 
brated Jurists  of  all  Nations,"  (in  French,  1721.)  Died 
in  1 71 5. 

Tait,  (Archibald  Campbell,)  a  British  prelate,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  181 1.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
jv'here  he  opposed  the  Tractarian  principles  and  gradu- 
ated about  1836.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  as  head- 
master of  Rugby  School  in  1842,  was  appointed  Dean  of 
Carlisle  in  1850,  Bishop  of  London  in  1856,  and  Arch- 
Dishop  of  Canterbury  in  1868.  He  published  "  The  Dan- 
gers and  Safeguards  of  Theology,"  etc.  Died  Dec  3, 1882. 

Tait:,  (Peter  Guthrie,)  a  Scottish  mathematician, 
born  at  Dalkeith,  April  28,  183 1.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Peterhquse,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  a  Fellowship, 
having  graduated  as  senior  wrangler  in  1852.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  Queen's  College, 
Belfast,  in  1854,  and  in  1862  was  appointed  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  Edinburgh  University.  Among 
his  writings  are  "  An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Quater- 
nions" (1867)  and  "Thermodynamics,"  (1868.)  He  pre- 
pared (with  W.  J.  Steele)  a  "Treatise  on  the  Dynamics 
)i  a  Particle,"  (1856,)  with  Sir  W.  Thomson,  "An  Ele- 
mentary Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1S67,)  and 
with  Balfour  Stewart,  "The  Unseen  Universe," a  highly 
successful  work.  In  18S4  he  published  treatises  on 
"  Heat"  and  "  Light." 

Talachon.    See  Talochon. 

Talbert,  ttl'baiR',  (Fran(;ois  Xavier,)  a  French 
writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1728,  pub- 
lished eulogies  on  Bossuet,  Montaigne,  and  other  emi- 
nent men  ;  also  several  poems.     Died  in  1803. 

Tai'bpt,  (Catherine,)  an  English  writer,  grand- 
daughter of  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  was  born  in  1720. 
She  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Seven  Days 
of  the  Week,"  "  Letters  to  a  Friend  on  a  Future  State," 
"  Essays  on  Various  Subjects,"  "  Dialogues,"  "  Pas- 
torals," and  "  Poems."  She  is  also  said  to  have  con- 
tributed to  the  "Athenian  Letters,"  and  to  have  written 
the  thirtieth  number  of  "The  Rambler."  She  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Carter.     Died  in  1770. 

See  Pennington,  "Life  of  C.  Talbot;"  Drakb,  "Essays;" 
Mrs.  Ei.wood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from 
the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i. ;  "  Monthly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1772. 

Talbot,  (Charles.)     See  Shrewsbury,  Duke  of. 

Talbot,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  English  jurist,  born 
in  1684,  was  a  son  of  W.  Talbot,  Bishop  of  Durharrt 
He  practised  law  with  great  success,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  debater  in  Parliament. 
In  1733  he  became  lord  chancellor  of  England,  and  was 
created  Baron  Talbot.  According  to  Lord  Campbell, 
"he  was  without  an  accuser,  without  an  enemy,  without 
a  detractor,  without  any  one,  from  malice  or  mistake,  to 
cavil  at  any  part  of  his  character,  conduct,  or  demean- 
our."    Died  in  1737. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  voL  i». 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Talbot,  til'bo',  (Eur.feNE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 


at  Chartres  in  1814.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  College  Louis-le-Grand,  Paris.  He  produced  ver- 
sions of  the  works  of  Lucian  and  Xenophon,  (1857-58.) 

Talbot,  (John,)  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  a  celebrated 
military  commander,  born  in  Shropshire,  England,  in 
1373-  Appointed  in  1414  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he 
brought  the  insurgent  chiefs  into  subjection,  and  took 
prisoner  the  famous  Donald  McMurrough.  From  1419 
to  1422  he  served  in  the  French  campaigns  of  Henry 
v.,  and,  after  the  death  of  that  sovereign,  gained  a 
succession  of  signal  victories  over  the  French  armies. 
Having  laid  siege  to  Orleans,  he  was  compelled  to 
retire  before  the  forces  of  the  enemy,  led  on  by  Joan  of 
Arc,  (1429,)  and  after  the  battle  of  Patai,  in  the  same 
year,  was  made  prisoner.  He  was  created  commander- 
in-chief  after  his  release,  and  took  Le  Crotoy,  Harfleur, 
and  several  other  towns.  He  was  subsequently  mad? 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury  in  England,  Earl  of  Waterfcrd 
and  Wexford  in  Ireland,  and  in  1446  appointed  for  tl»c 
third  time  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  While  attempting 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Castellan,  in  France,  in  1453,  h' 
was  killed,  together  with  his  son.  Lord  de  I'lsle. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  "Nouvelle  IJinsraplii':  G^ne- 
rale  ;"  Monstrelet,  "Chronicle;"  Shakspeare's  "Henry  VI.,  ' 
part  i.  act  iv. 

Talbot,  (Joseph  Cruikshank,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  Septem- 
ber 5,  1816,  was  ordained  a  i)resbyter  of  the  Episcopa' 
Church  in  1848  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  and  was  made 
in  i860  Bishop  of  the  Northwest,  where  he  won  great 
success  as  a  missionary.  In  1865  he  was  translated  to 
Indiana  as  assistant  bishop,  and  in  1872  succeeded  as 
diocesan.     Died  in  1883. 

Talbot,  (Peter,)  a  learned  Jesuit  and  writer  on  the- 
ology, born  in  Ireland  in  1620.  He  was  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin  in  1669.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Nature  of  Faith,"  (1657,)  and  several  controver- 
sial works.  Accused  of  complicity  in  the  Popish  Plot, 
he  was  confined  in  prison  from  167S  until  his  death,  in 
1680.    He  was  a  brother  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel. 

Talbot,  (Richard.)     See  Tykconnel. 

Talbot,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  and  prebendary 
of  Wells  Cathedral,  was  a  native  of  Northamptonshire. 
He  published  a  commentary  and  notes  on  the  "  Itine- 
rary" of  Antoninus.     Died  in  1558. 

T^l'bot,  (Silas,)  an  American  Revolutionary  officer 
Dorn  in  Rhode  Island  about  1750,  distinguished  himself 
in  several  important  engagements  both  by  land  and  sea. 
Having  been  made  a  captain  in  the  nai^y,  he  was  ai>- 
pointed  to  the  command  of  the  frigate  Constitution  in 
1799.  Died  in  1813.  His  life  has  been  written  by  H.  T. 
Tuckerman. 

Talbot,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1659.  He  became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in 
1699,  and  of  Salisbury  in  1715.  He  was  transferred  to 
the  see  of  Durham  in  1722.  £:ied  in  1730,  His  son 
Charles  became  lord  chancelloi. 

Talbot,  (William  Hfnky  Fox,)  the  inventor  of 
photography  on  paper,  was  oorn  in  Wiltshire,  England, 
in  1800.  He  discovereo  l.ie  process  of  photography  in 
1833  or  1834,  but  he  did  not  announce  it  to  the  public 
until  1839.  Daguerre  aiiticipated  him  by  the  publication 
of  a  similar  discovery.  The  process  of  Talbot  was 
called  Calotype,  and  Talbotype.  He  published  "  The 
Pencil  of  Nature,"  (1844,)  etc.     Died  Sept.  17,  1877. 

Talfourd,  tawl'fprd,  (Thomas  Noon,)  called  Ser- 
geant Talkourd,  an  English  dramatist,  essayist,  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Doxey,  a  suburb  of  Stafford,  in  1 795.  1  [e 
was  a  pui)il  of  Dr.  Valpy,  and  studied  law  under  Mr. 
Chitty.  Ilaving  been  called  to  the  bar  in  1821,  he  married 
a  Miss  Rutt,  and  joined  the  Oxford  circuit.  In  1835  '^^ 
became  a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  he 
procured  the  passage  of  an  important  law  of  copy- 
right. He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
and  other  periodicals.  In  1835  he  produced  "Ion,"  a 
tragedy,  which  was  very  successful.  He  wrote  several 
other  dramas,  and  "  Memorials  of  Charles  Lamb,"  (184S./ 
He  was  appointed  a  judge  in  1849.     Died  in  1854. 

See  R.  H.  Horne,  "  New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844:  Allibonb, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1836; 
"North  British  Review"  for  May,  1856;  "  North  American  Review'' 
for  January,  1838. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  J.-  g  kurd;  g  ssj;  g,  h,  K,^tttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TALHOUET 


2278 


TALLEYRAND 


Talhouet,  de,  deh  tt'loo'i',  (Auguste  Fr6d6ric 
Bon  Amour,)  Marquis,  a  French  peer,  born  at  Rennes 
in  1788,  was  rich,  and  noted  for  his  liberality.  He 
founded  in  1819  a  society  for  the  amelioration  of  prisons. 
Died  in  1842. 

Taliacotius.     See  Tagliacozzi. 

Taliaferro,  tol'e-ver,  (John,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1768,  was  a  member  of  Congress 
more  than  twenty  years,  and  for  a  time  librarian  of  the 
treasury  department  at  Washington.     Died  in  1853. 

Tal'ie-siu,  a  British  poet  of  the  sixth  century,  said  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Henwg,  was  surnamed  Chief  of  the 
Bards.  Scarcely  anything  is  positively  known  of  his  life. 

Tallard  or  Tallart,  de.deh  tt'ltR',  (Camille  d'Hos- 
tun — dos'tuN',)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  Dau- 
phine  in  1652.  Having  previously  served  under  Conde 
and  Turenne,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary 
to  England  in  1697  to  negotiate  with  respect  to  the  Span- 
ish succession.  In  1703  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France, 
and  soon  after  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Imperial- 
ists, under  the  Prince  of  Hesse,  at  Spire  ;  but  he  was 
subsequently  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at 
Blenheim,  (1704,)  and  made  prisoner.  He  was  created 
in  1 712  Duke  of  Hostun,  and  afterwards  became  minister 
of  state  under  Louis  XV.     Died  in  1728. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoge  du  Marechal  de  Tallart ;"  Saint- 
Simon,  "Memoires;"  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gen^raux 
Fran^ais;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Tallart.     See  Tallard. 

Tallemant,ttl'm6N',(FRANgois,)  a  French  translator, 
born  near  Jonzac  in  1620.  He  translated  Plutarch's 
"Lives"  into  French.     Died  in  1693. 

Tallemant,  (Paul,)  a  French  priest  and  mediocre 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1642,  was  a  cousin  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1666.     Died  in  1712. 

Tallemant  des  Reaux,  ttl'mSN'  di  ri'o',  (G6d6on,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1619,  was  a 
brother  of  Francois,  noticed  above.  He  was  one  of  the 
wits  that  frequented  the  Hotel  Rambouillet,  and  wrote 
"  Historiettes,"  (6  vols.  1833-35,)  ^  gossiping  record  of 
what  he  had  heard  and  witnessed.  This  work  contains 
much  interesting  matter,  highly  seasoned  with  scandal 
and  anecdotes,  the  truth  of  many  of  which  may  reason- 
ably be  doubted.     Died  in  1692. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale ;"  Monmerqu^  "  Notice 
8ur  Talleman;  des  Reaux,"  1836. 

Talleyrand,  the  famous  diplomatist.  See  Talley- 
RAND-P6RIG0RD,  de,  (Charles  Maurice.) 

Talleyrand,  de,  deh  tt'li'r6N',  (Auguste  Louis,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1770,  was  a  nephew 
of  the  cardinal.  He  was  minister  to  Switzerland  from 
1814  to  1823.     Died  in  1832. 

Talleyrand,  de,(ELiE,)  Cardinal  de  Perigord,  a  French 
prelate,  eminent  for  his  learning,  was  born  at  Perigueux 
in  1301.  He  was  a  friend  of  Petrarch,  and  had  much 
Influence  both  in  the  church  and  state.     Died  in  1364. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Talleyrand,  de,  (Gabriel  Marie,)  Comte  de  Peri- 
gord, a  French  general,  born  in  1726,  was  an  uncle  of 
Talleyrand  the  famous  diplomatist.  He  served  with 
distinction  at  Hastenbeck  and  Crefeld.     Died  in  1795. 

Talleyrand,  de,  (Henri,)  Comte  de  Chalais,  a 
French  courtier,  born  in  1599,  was  a  friend  of  Gaston, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  with  whom  he  conspired  against  Riche- 
lieu.    He  was  convicted  of  treason  and  executed  in  1626. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale  ;"  Bassompierre,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  de,  deh  tt'lk'raN'  pi're'goR', 
(Alexandre  Ang6lique,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  in 
Paris  in  1736,  was  a  brother  of  Gabriel  Marie,  noticed 
above.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Rheims  in  1777,  and  a 
member  of  the  States-General  in  1789,  soon  after  which 
he  emigrated.  In  1817  he  obtained  the  dignity  of  cardi- 
nal.    Died  in  1821. 

See  De  Bausset,  "  Notice  historique  surle  Cardinal  de  Talleyrand- 
P^ngord,"  1821:  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  de,  deh  tS'li'rSN'  pi're'goR', 
(Charles  Maurice,)  Prince  of  Benevento,  (bi-ni-vgn'- 
to.)  [Fr.  Prince  de  B6n«vent,  pr4nss  deh  bi'ni'vSN',] 


commonly  known  as  simply  Tal'ley-rand,  a  celebrated 
French  diplomatist  and  wit,  born  in  Paris  on  the  13th  of 
February,  1754,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Daniel, 
Count  de  Talleyrand.  An  accident  which  occurred  in 
his  infancy  made  him  lame  for  lile.  In  consequence  of 
this  lameness,  he  was  required  to  renounce  his  birthright 
and  enter  the  Church,  although  the  clerical  profession 
was  very  distasteful  to  him.  In  his  youth  he  was  styled 
the  Abbe  de  Perigord.  He  was  apijointed  general  agenl 
of  the  clergy  of  France  in  1780,  and  held  this  important 
office  for  eight  years.  In  1788  he  became  Bishop  of 
Autun,  and  in  1789  a  member  of  the  States-General. 
Enlisting  in  the  service  of  liberty  and  equality,  he  joined 
the  Third  Estate,  and  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
appointed  by  the  National  Assembly  to  form  a  consti- 
tution. Among  the  important  measures  which  he  pro- 
posed was  the  confiscation  of  the  lands  of  the  Church, 
He  also  supported  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy, 
and  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Autun  about  the  end  of 
1790.  He  was  the  autljor  of  an  able  and  celebrated 
report  on  public  instruction  read  in  September,  1791. 
Early  in  1792  he  was  sent  to  London,  without  official 
character,  to  dissuade  the  British  ministry  from  joining 
the  allies  in  hostilities  against  France.  He  enjoyed  the 
society  of  his  friend  Madame  de  Stael,  who  was  then 
in  England,  but  was  treated  with  neglect  or  incivility  by 
the  English  aristocrats  and  ministers.  In  1793  he  was 
ordered  by  Pitt  to  quit  the  island  in  twenty-four  hours, 
and,  as  he  had  been  proscribed  by  Robespierre,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  By  the  agency  of  Chenier, 
he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  France  in  Septem- 
ber, 1795.  About  this  time  he  wrote  an  able  "Memoir 
on  the  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States  with 
England,"  and  was  admitted  into  the  Institute.  In 
July,  1797,  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  partly 
through  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Stael.  He  re- 
signed in  July,  1799,  co-operated  with  Bonaparte  in  the 
revolution  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  and  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  November,  1 799.  He 
was  grand  chamberlain  from  1804  to  1809. 

Talleyrand  was  distinguished  for  his  sarcastic  and 
subtle  wit,  his  exquisite  tact,  his  moderation  and  self- 
restraint,  and  his  finesse  and  dexterity  as  a  negotiator, 
"He  was  a  profound  thinker,"  says  the  "North  British 
Review,"  (November,  1853 ;)  "  he  had  strong  political 
opinions,  if  he  had  no  moral  principles ;  he  was  at  least 
as  bold,  daring,  and  decided  in  action  as  he  was  saga- 
cious in  council ;  his  political  and  social  tact — which  is 
wisdom  so  quick  and  piercing  as  to  seem  unreasoning — 
had  the  promptitude  and  certainty  of  an  instinct."  His 
coolness,  sobriety,  and  "  masterly  inactivity"  were  well 
adapted  to  temper  the  impetuosity  and  redundant  energy 
or  ambition  of  Napoleon.  He  received  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Benevento  in  1806.  lie  offended  the  emperor  by  the 
boldness  with  which  he  opposed  some  of  his  measures. 
In  August,  1807,  he  resigned  his  office.  Napoleon  in- 
vited him  to  resume  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs  in 

1813,  but  he  declined. 

Talleyrand  promoted  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII., 
and  insisted  on  the  "Charter,"  by  which  a  constitutional 
government  was  guaranteed.  He  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  the  first  cabinet  of  Louis  XVIII.,  repre- 
sented France  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  which  met  in 

1814,  and  obtained  favourable  terms  for  his  country  by 
sowing  dissension  among  the  allies.  He  resigned  in 
September,  1815,  because  he  would  not  sign  the  humili- 
ating treaty  which  was  concluded  with  the  allied  powers. 
He  became  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  opposition  in  the 
Chamber  of  Peers,  and  opposed  the  reactionary  policy 
of  the  government  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and 
Charles  X.  In  September,  1830,  he  was  sent  to  London 
as  ambassador  and  minister-plenipotentiary,  and  had  an 
opportunity  to  realize  what  had  long  been  with  him  a 
favourite  object, — the  formation  of  an  alliance  between 
France  and  England.  His  mission  ended  about  the  close 
of  1834.  He  died  in  Paris  in  May,  1838,  leaving  "Me- 
moires," which  he  ordered  should  not  be  published  until 
thirty  years  after  his  death.  Among  his  famous  sayings 
is,  "  Language  is  given  to  man  to  conceal  his  thoughts." 

See  Sall^,"  Vie  politique  du  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1834  :  Mignet, 
'  Notices  et  Portraits  ;"  Villkmarbst,  "  M.  de  Talleyrand,"  1833, 


a,  e,  1. 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon ; 


TALLIEN 


2279 


TAMBRONI 


DuFOUR  DK  LA  Thuilbrie,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Prince  de  Tal- 
eyrand,"  1S38;  L.  Ds  Lom^nie,  "  M.  Talleyrand,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1841;  G.  A.  Vogel,  "Talleyrand  der  grosste  Diplomat 
seiner  Zeit,"  1838;  Mignet,  "Notice  liistorique  sur  la  Vie  de  M. 
le  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1S39;  L.  G.  Michaud,  "  Histoire  politique 
et  priv^e  de  C.  M.  de  Talleyrand,"  1S53;  De  Barante,  "  filoge 
de  M.  le  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1S3S  ;  Lamaktine,  "  History  of  the 
Restoration;"  Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Em- 
pire;" Gi;izoT,  "M^moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G(lnerale;" 
"Historical  Characters,"  by  H.  L.  Bulwer,  186S;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April  and  October,  1S03,  (the  former  article  by  Brou- 
gham, the  latter  by  Jeffrey  ;)  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  Febrsary 
and  March,  1839. 

Tallien,  tt'le^N',  (Jean  Lamrert,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  published  in  1792  the  "Citi- 
zen's Friend,"  ("Ami  du  Citoyen,")  gained  distinction 
by  his  audacious  eloquence,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
violent  riot  of  the  loth  of  August,  1792,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  cornmuiie  of  Paris.  Having  been  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Convention,  he  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king,  and  was  an  active  persecutor  of  the 
Girondists.  In  1793  Tallien  and  Isabeau  were  sent  by 
the  Convention  to  Bordeaux,  where  they  established 
the  reign  of  terror  by  numerous  executions.  He  was 
induced  to  adopt  a  milder  policy  by  the  influence  of  Ma- 
dame de  Fontenay,  nee  Cabarrus,  who  became  Madame 
Tallien.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  April,  1794,  after  the 
death  of  his  friend  Danton,  and  formed  with  Fouche, 
Barras,  and  others  a  conspiracy  against  Robespierre, 
who  denounced  Tallien  in  the  Crnvention,  June  12, 
1794.  Tallien  was  the  boldest  or  most  prominent  leader 
of  the  party  or  coalition  of  parties  which  triumphed 
on  the  9th  Thermidor,  July,  1794.  It  is  stated  that  he 
drew  a  dagger  in  the  Convention  and  threatened  the 
life  of  Robespierre.  He  continued  to  oppose  the  reign 
of  terror,  and  used  his  influence  in  favour  of  humanity, 
excepting  in  the  case  of  the  royalists  captured  at  Qui- 
beron.  He  took  part  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
with  the  title  of  savant,  and  returned  in  1801,  after  which 
he  fell  into  neglect  and  obscurity.    Died  in  Paris  in  1820. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists;"  Thiers,  "  History 
of  the  French  Revolution;"  Duvai,  "Souvenirs  Thermidoriens ;" 
'Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Tallien,  Madame.     See  Chimay,  de. 

TaI'lis,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI., 
Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  He  held  the  ofiice  of  organist  of 
the  chapel  royal.  His  works  are  exclusively  of  a  religious 
character,  and  his  anthems  and  other  compositions  are 
esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind.     Died  in  1585. 

Tallniadge,  til'mij,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1754.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Connecticut.     Died  in  1835. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iiL 

Tallmadge,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1778. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  181 7,  and  in  1825  became 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York.  He  was  appointed 
president  of  the  American  Institute  in  1833,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  York  University.  While 
in  Congress  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition 
to  the  extension  of  slavery  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
Died  in  1853. 

Talma,  tal'mS',  (Charlotte  Vanhove,)  an  actress, 
the  wife  of  the  following,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1771. 
She  was  married  to  Talma  in  1802.  She  excelled  in 
comedy,  and  wrote  "  Studies  on  the  Theatrical  Art," 
(1835.)     Died  in  i860. 

Tal'ma,  [Fr,  pron.  til'mS',]  (Francois  Joseph,)  a 
celebrated  French  tragedian,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He 
manifested  at  an  early  age  an  extraordinary  predilection 
for  the  drama.  His  father,  who  was  a  dentist,  took 
him  to  London,  where  he  passed  several  years  in  his 
childhood.  Young  Talma  also  practised  dentistry  in 
early  life.  He  made  his  debut  at  the  Theatre  Fran9ais 
in  1787,  in  the  rdle  of  "  Seide"  in  "  Mahomet."  In  1789 
he  performed  Chenier's  "Charles  IX.,"  with  great  ap- 
plause. He  soon  became  the  most  popular  tragic  actor 
in  France,  and  received  from  Bonaparte  some  tokens  of 
special  favour.  He  excelled  in  the  expression  of  intense 
passion.  A  noble  countenance  and  a  powerful  voice 
contributed  to  his  success.     Among  the  rdles  which  he  | 


performed  were  those  of  "Sulla,"  "Orestes,"  "Leoni- 
das,"  "Hamlet,"  and  "Othello."  Died  in  Paris  in  1826. 
See  TissoT,  "Souvenirs  historiques  sur  Talma,"  1S26;  Moreao, 
"  Memoires  sur  Talma,"  1S26;  N.  Lemercier,  "Notice  sur  Tal- 
ma," 1827;  Regnault-Warin,  "  Memoires  historiques  sur  Talma," 
1827;  Alexandre  Dumas,  "Memoires  de  F.  J.  Talma,"  4  vols., 
1849-50;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate;"  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  September,  1825. 

Tal'mage,  (Thomas  De  Wiit,)  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Bound  Brook,  New  Jersey,  January 
7,  1832.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York  in  1S53,  and  at  the  Theological  School  at 
New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1856.  After  holding 
various  Dutch  Reformed  pastorates,  he  became  in  i86g 
pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Brooklyn,  in  connec- 
tion with  which  he  founded  in  1872  a  newspaper,  and  a 
"lay  college"  for  religious  and  general  education.  He 
won  great  popularity  as  an  extemporaneous  pulpit  orator 
and  lecturer.  Among  his  works  are  "  Sermons,"  in 
several  volumes,  "Almond-Tree  in  Blossom,"  (1870,) 
"Crumbs  Swept  Up,"  (1870,)  "Abominations  of  Modern 
Society,"  "Old  Wells  Dug  Out,"  (1874,)  "Sports  that 
Kill,"  (1875,)  "Every-Day  Religion,"  (1875,)  etc. 

Tai'mash,  (Thomas,)  an  English  general,  who  was 
second  to  Marlborough  in  command  of  the  English  troops 
in  Flanders  in  1689.  He  served  under  Ginkell  in  Ire- 
land in  169 1,  "  Since  the  disgrace  of  Marlborough,"  says 
Macaulay,  "he  [Talmash]  was  universally  allowed  to  be 
the  best  officer  in  the  army."  ("  History  of  England," 
vol.  iv.)  He  commanded  a  force  sent  in  1694  to  surprise 
Brest,  and  was  killed  in  the  attack  on  that  place. 

Talmont,  tMl'm6N',  (A.  P.  de  la  Trimoille— d?h 
li  tRe'mwSI'  or  tRe'mwd'ye,)  a  French  royalist  of  the 
Revolution,  distinguished  himself  in  the  principal  battles 
of  the  Vendean  war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general  of 
cavalry.  Being  made  prisoner,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Convention,  and  executed  in  1793. 

Talochon,  tt'lo'shiw',  (Marie  Vincent,)  a  French 
surgeon,  called  PfeRE  Elys6e,  born  near  Lagny  in  1753. 
He  served  Louis  XVIII.  as  surgeon,  before  and  after 
his  accession  to  the  throne.     Died  in  1817. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Talon,  tt'lAw',  (Antoine  Omer,)  a  French  lawyei, 
born  in  Paris  in  1760,  was  a  royalist  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1790.     Died  in  1811. 

Talon,  (Denis,)  a  French  judge,  born  in  Paris  in 
1628,  was  a  son  of  Omer,  noticed  below.  He  became 
president  h  mortier  in  1693.     Died  in  1698. 

Talou,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Moulins 
in  1605.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Histoire  sainte,"  (4 
vols.,  1640.)     Died  in  1691. 

Talon,  (Omer,)  a  French  humanist,  born  at  Amiens 
about  15 10,  published  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  (in  Latin, 
1544.)     Died  in  1562. 

Talon,  (Omer,)  an  eminent  French  advocate  and 
judge,  born  about  1595.  He  became  advocate-general  to 
the  Parliament  of  Parisin  1631,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  brave  and  eloquent  assertion  of  the  rights  of  the 
Parliament  and  the  interests  of  the  people.  He  died  in 
1652,  leaving  "Memoires,"  which  Voltaire  said  were  th» 
productions  of  "a  good  magistrate  and  good  citizen." 

See  Tallemant  des  RiAinc,  "  Historiettes;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio> 
p-aphie  G^n^rale." 

Talpino,  II.     See  Salmeggia. 

Tamasp.     See  Thamasp. 

Tamasp  Kouli  Khan.    See  NAdir  Shah. 

Tamberlick,  tJm-bSR-16k',  (Enrico,)  a  noted  tenoi 
singer,  born  in  Rome  in  1820;  died  in  1889. 

Tambroni,  tSm-bRo'nee,  (Clotilda,)  sister  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1758.  She  was  dis- 
tinguished for  her  attainments  in  the  classics,  and  was 
appointed  in  1794  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University 
of  Bologna.  She  also  published  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian.     Died  in  1817. 

Tambroni,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  UttSrateur,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1773.  He  filled  several  offices  under  the 
government,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  at  Vienna,  and  foreign  associate  of  the  French 
Institute.  Pie  published  a  "  Compendium  of  Polish 
History,"  (1807,)  and  a  number  of  poems  and  prose 
treatises.     Died  in  1824. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri" 


«*&k;  <i  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  c,  H,  K,gttttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  x;  th  as  in  this.     ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TAMBURINI 


2280 


TANN 


Tamburini,  tim-boo-ree'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
singer,  born  at  Faenza  in  1800.  He  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1855.      Died  at  Nice,  November  10,  1876. 

Tamburini,  (Piktro,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Brescia  in  1737.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  divinity  at  Pavia,  (1778,)  and  afterwards 
filled  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  and  the  law  of  na- 
ture and  of  nations,  in  the  same  university.  He  was 
made  a  chevalier  of  the  iron  crown  by  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  and  received  other  distinctions.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Moral  Philosophy,"  (1797,)  "  Elements  of  the  Law  of 
Nature,"  (in  Latin,  1815,)  and  an  "Idea  of  the  Holy 
See,"  ("  Idea  della  Santa  Sede.")     Died  in  1827. 

See  ZuRADELLi,  "  Elogio  del  Professore  P.  Tamburini,"  1827. 

Tam'?r-lane',  [Fr.  Tamerlan,  ti'mgR'lSN',]  (a  cor- 
ruption of  Taimoor-leng,  i.e.  "Taimoor  the  Lame,") 
called  also  Taimoor  or  Taimur,  (tl'moor',)  and  Timur 
or  Timour,  (tee'moor',)  Timoor  (Timour  or  Timur) 
Beg  or  Bee,  {i.e.  "  Lord  Timoor,")  a  celebrated  Asiatic 
conqueror,  born  at  Kesh,  in  Independent  Tartary,  in 
1336,  was  of  Mongol  extraction,  and  a  descendant  of 
Tengis  Khan.  About  1361  he  supported  the  cause  of 
Husein,  Khan  of  Northern  Khorassan,  against  several 
neighbouring  tribes,  and  in  this  war  received  a  wound 
in  the  thigh,  from  which  he  acquired  the  surname  of 
Leng,  (or  the  "Lame.")  He  afterwards  quarrelled  with 
Husein,  took  Balkh,  his  capital,  by  storm,  (1369,)  and 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Khan  of  Jagatai.  He 
then  successively  brought  into  subjection  Khorassan, 
the  principal  part  of  Persia,  and  Armenia,  and  in  1387 
turned  his  arms  against  Toktamish-Khan,  in  Western 
Tartary,  whom  he  defeated  at  Bashkiria,  destroying  his 
whole  army.  Tamerlane's  capital  was  Samarcand. 
Having  taken  Bagdad  and  Damascus,  subdued  Georgia, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Moscow,  he  next  invaded  India, 
where,  in  1398,  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  forces 
of  Mahmood,  then  Emperor  of  Delhi,  near  Delhi.  In 
1402  he  met  the  famous  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet,)  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  in  Angora,  and,  after  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
battles  on  record,  totally  routed  his  army,  and  took  the 
Sultan  prisoner.  He  was  preparing  for  the  invasion  of 
China,  when  he  died  on  his  march,  in  1405.  A  great 
part  of  his  acquisition  was  lost  by  his  successors  soon 
after  his  death. 

"Timour,"  says  Sir  J.  Malcolm,  "although  one  of  the 
greatest  warriors,  was  one  of  the  worst  monarchs.  He 
was  able,  brave,  and  generous,  but  ambitious,  cruel,  and 
oppressive.  He  considered  the  happiness  of  every  human 
being  as  a  feather  in  the  scale  when  weighed  against  the 
advancement  of  what  he  deemed  his  personal  glory;  and 
that  appears  to  have  been  measured  by  the  number  of 
kingdoms  he  laid  waste  and  the  people  he  destroyed." 
("History  of  Persia,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  xi.)  "The  fame 
of  Timour,"  observes  Gibbon,  "  has  pervaded  the  East 
and  the  West,  and  the  admiration  of  his  subjects,  who 
revered  him  almost  as  a  deity,  may  be  justified  in  some 
degree  by  the  praise  or  confessions  of  his  bitterest  ene- 
mies. He  might  boast  that,  at  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
Asia  was  the  prey  of  anarchy  and  rapine,  whilst,  under 
his  prosperous  monarchy,  a  child,  fearless  and  unhurt, 
might  carry  a  purse  of  gold  from  the  east  to  the  west. 
By  their  rapine,  cruelty,  and  discord,  the  petty  tyrants 
of  Persia  might  afHict  their  subjects,  but  whole  nations 
were  crushed  under  the  footsteps  of  the  reformer.  The 
ground  which  had  been  occupied  by  flourishing  cities  was 
often  marked  by  his  abominable  trophies,  by  columns 
or  pyramids  of  human  heads." 

See  Langl^s,  "  Instituts  politiques  et  militaires  de  Tamerlan;" 
Hammer-Purgstall,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs," 
vol.  i.  ;  "  Histoire  de  Timur- Bee,  connu  sous  le  Nom  du  grand 
Tamerlan,"  translated  from  the  Persian  of  Shereef-ed-deen  Alee 
by  P^Tis  de  la  Croix:  Gibuon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  chap.  Ixv.  ;  Argote  de  Molina,  "Historia  del  gran  Ta- 
merlan," 15S2  ;  Samuel  Clarke,  "  Life  of  Tamerlane  the  Great," 
1676:  Al-Hacem,  "History  of  the  Life  of  Tamerlane,"  translated 
from  the  Arabic  by  L.  Vane,  1753. 

Tan'a-quil,  the  wife  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  King  of 
Rome,  is  described  as  a  woman  of  high  spirit  and  energy. 
The  Latin  poets  used  her  name  to  indicate  an  imperious 
consort. 

Tanaquillua  Faber.    See  Lef^vre,  (Tannegui.) 


Tancred,  ting'kred,  |Fr.  TANCkfcuK,  tdN'kk.^d' , 
Ger.  TanckeI),  tiiig-kKal' ;  It.  Tanckkdi,  tan-kRa'dec 
Lat.  Tancre'dus,!  a  celebrated  hero  of  the  first  crusade, 
was  born  in  Normandy  in  1078,  and  was  a  nephew  ol 
Robert  Guiscard,  Duke  of  Apulia.  In  1096  he  joined 
the  crusading  army  in  company  with  his  cousin  Bohe- 
mond,  Prince  of  Tarentum.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his 
valour  at  the  battle  of  Dorylseum  and  the  siege  of  An- 
tioch,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  mount  the  walls  at  the 
cajjture  of  Jerusalem.  He  subsequently  had  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  battle  of  Ascalon,  took  Tiberias,  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Tiberias 
or  Galilee.  He  died  in  11 12,  having  previously  defeated 
the  Saracens  and  driven  them  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
Tancred's  achievements  are  highly  extolled  by  Tasso  in 
his  "Gerusaleinme  Liberata,"  and  they  are  also  cele- 
brated by  Raoul  de  Caen  in  "  Les  Gestes  de  Tancrede." 

See  Michaud,  "History  of  the  Crusades;"  Delbake,  "Histoire 
de  Tancrede,"  1822:  Schmekbauch,  "Tancred  Kiirst  von  Galilaa," 
1830;    "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Tancred,  King  of  .Sicily,  and  the  last  of  the  Norman 
rulers  in  that  country,  was  a  grandson  of  Roger  II.  He 
died  in  1194,  and  Henry  VI.  of  Germany  took  posses- 
sion of  Sicily. 

Tancrede.     See  Tancrf.d. 

Tancrede  de  Hauteville,  tSw'kRid'  deh  hot'vil',  a 
Norman  baron  of  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century, 
was  the  father  of  twelve  sons,  one  of  whom,  Robert 
Guiscard,  became  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria. 

Tancredi,  or  Tancredus.     See  Tancred. 

Tandy.     See  Napper  Tandy. 

Taney,  taw'ne,  (Roger  Brooke,)  a  distinguished 
American  jurist,  born  in  Calvert  county,  Maryland,  in 
March,  1777.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1795,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1799.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  Maryland  in 
1816,  and  became  a  resident  of  Baltimore  about  1822 
He  was  originally  a  Federalist ;  but  he  became  a  partisan 
of  General  Jackson,  who  appointed  him  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  in  1831.  About  September,  1833, 
he  was  nominated  secretary  of  the  treasury,  in  place  of 
W^illiam  J.  Duane,  (who  was  dismissed  from  the  cabinet 
because  he  refused  to  remove  the  public  deposits  from 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States,)  but  he  was  rejected 
by  the  Senate.  He  was  nominated  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  by  President  Jackson  in  1835  ;  but  this 
nomination  was  not  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  In  March, 
1836,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court, 
in  the  place  of  John  Marshall,  deceased.  In  1857,  Judge 
Taney,  yielding  to  the  ever-encroaching  and  aggressive 
spirit  of  slavery,  pronounced  an  important  decision  in 
the  case  of  Dred  Scott,  a  slave,  who  had  been  carried 
by  his  master  from  Missouri  into  Illinois,  thence  to  the 
territory  of  Wisconsin,  and  back  to  Missouri.  Dred 
Scott  brought  a  suit  for  his  freedom.  Judge  Taney 
affirmed  that  for  more  than  a  century  before  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence  the  negroes  "had  been  regarded 
as  beings  of  an  inferior  order,  and  altogether  unfit  to 
associate  with  the  white  race,  either  in  social  or  political 
relations,  and  so  far  inferior  that  they  had  no  rights 
which  the  white  man  was  bound  to  respect,  and  that  the 
negro  might  justly  and  lawfully  be  reduced  to  slavery  for 
his  benefit."  He  further  affirmed  that  the  Missouri 
Compromise  was  unconstitutional,  and  that  the  suit  must 
be  dismissed  for  want  of  jurisdiction.  Died  in  October, 
1864. 

Tangermann,  tang'er-min',  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,) 
D.D.,  a  German  theologian  of  the  "Old  Catholic"  re- 
ligion, was  born  at  Essen,  July  6,  181 5.  He  became  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest,  but  in  1870  followed  his  former 
preceptor,  Doliinger,  into  the  "  Old  Catholic"  movement, 
and  was  ap[)ointed  a  parish  priest  at  Cologne.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Wahrheit,  Schonheit  und  Liebe,"  (1867,) 
"  Diotima,"  (a  novel,  1873,)  "  Philosophic  und  Christen- 
thum,"  (1876,)  and  several  volumes  of  poems,  chiefly 
religious, 

Tann,  von  der,  fon  dgr  tin,  (Ludwig,)  Baron,  a 
Bavarian  general,  born  at  Tann,  June  18,  1815.  He 
entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  in  i860  was  made 
a  lieutenant-general.  In  the  war  of  1866  he  was  chief 
of  staff  to  Prince  Charles  of  Bavaria,  and  in  the  war  with 


a.  c, ',  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  ^, short;  a.  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


TANNAHILL 


2281 


TARDIEU 


France  he  commanded  the' first  Bavarian  corps.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  operations  attending  the 
siege  of  I'aris.     Died  at  Meran,  April  26,  1881. 

Tan'na-hill,  (Robert,)  a  Scottisr»  poet,  born  at 
Paisley  in  1774  His  songs  and  ballads  are  remarkable 
for  their  grace,  simplicity,  and  pathos ,  among  the  most 
admired  may  be  named  his  "  Song  of  the  Battle  of 
Vittoria,"  and  "Jessie  the  Flower  of  Dumblane."  He 
committed  suicide,  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity,  by  drown- 
ing, in  1810. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tanneguy.  See  Duchatel,  (Charles  Marie,)  and 
Chatel,  ui;. 

Tanner,  tSn'ner,  (Matthias,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
biographer,  born  at  Pilsen  about  1625.  He  wrote  notices 
of  many  eminent  Jesuits.     Died  about  1705. 

Tan  ner,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate  and  antiquary, 
Dorn  in  Wiltshire  in  1674.  He  was  the  author  of  "No- 
titia  Monastica,  or  an  Account  of  the  Religious  Houses 
in  England  and  Wales,"  and  "Bibliotheca  Britannico- 
Hibernica,"  (174S,)  a  biographical  and  bibliographical 
work  of  great  value.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph  in  1732.     Died  in  1735. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica."   . 

Tannevot,  tin'vo',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  at  Versailles  in  1692.  He  wrote  several  me- 
diocre tragedies,  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1773. 

Tansillo,  tin-sfel'lo,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Venosa,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  15 10.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "The  Tears  of  Saint  Peter," 
("Le  Lagrime  di  San  Pietro,"  1585.)  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  lyrics,  sonnets,  etc.,  which  had  a  high  repu- 
tation in  his  time.     Died  in  1568. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Stoiia  della  Lelteratura  Italiana;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires." 

Tanska.    See  Hoffmann,  (Clementina.) 

Tantale.     See  Tantalus. 

Tantalo.     See  Tantalus. 

Tan'ta-lus,  [Gr.  Taira^^f  ,•  Fr.  Tantale,  tSN'ttl'; 
It.  Tantalo,  tdn'td-lo,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Lydia  or 
Phrygia,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Ju]:>iter,  and  the 
father  of  Pelops  and  Niobe.  He  was  the  subject  of 
various  legends,  according  to  one  of  which,  having  been 
admitted  to  the  table  of  the  gods,  he  divulged  some 
secrets  which  he  heard  there.  For  this  offence  he  was 
condemned  to  suffer  perpetual  thirst,  standing  in  water 
which  receded  whenever  he  attempted  to  drink  it ;  he 
was,  moreover,  "tantalized"  by  the  sight  of  fruit  which 
hung  close  to  his  lips,  but  which  he  could  never  taste. 
According  to  some  writers,  this  penalty  was  inflicted  on 
him  because  he  killed  his  son  Pelops  and  offered  his 
flesh  as  food  to  the  gods  whom  he  once  entertained  at 
his  house. 

Tanucci,  di,  de  ti-noot'chee,  (Bernardo,)  Marquis, 
an  Italian  minister  of  state,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1698. 
He  became  prime  minister  at  Naples  about  1740,  and 
continued  in  power  until  1776.  During  this  period  he 
banished  the  Jesuits  and  resisted  some  papal  encroach- 
ments.    He  patronized  learning  liberally.     Died  in  1783. 

See  Coppi,  "Annali  d'ltalia  dal  1760;"  "  Nouvelle  Biocraphie 
G^n^rale." 

Taparelli.  See  Azeglio,  d',  (Massimo.) 
_  Tapia,  de,  dk  ta'pe-5,  (Don  Eugenio,)  a  Spanish 
litterateur  and  jurist,  born  at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile,  about 
1785,  published  "Poems,  Lyrical,  Satirical,  and  Dra- 
matic," (1821,)  "History  of  Spanish  Civilization,"  (4 
vols.,  1840,)  which  is  highly  commended,  "Elements  of 
Commercial  Law,"  (15  vols.,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
a  Liberal  in  politics.     Died  at  Madrid  in  i860. 

Tap'lin,  (William,)  an  English  veterinary  surgeon, 
who  made  improvements  in  his  art,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  farriery  and  the  treatment  of  lame  horses. 
Died  in  1807. 

Tap'p^n,  (Arthur,)  an  American  merchant,  dis- 
tinguished as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  at  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  in  1 786.  He  became  a  merchant 
of  New  York  City,  gave  money  liberally  to  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Oberlin 
College,  Ohio.     Died  in  1865. 

See  "Life  of  Arthur  Tappan,"  by  Lewis  Tappan,  1870. 


Tappan,  (Benjamin,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in 
1773.  J^s  became  a  judge  in  Ohio,  and  was  a  .Senator 
of  the  United  Stales  from  1839  to  1S45.  ^'^"^  ^'  ^^<^" 
benville  in  1857. 

Tappan,  (David,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Manchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1753.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Harvard  College  in  1792.  Died  in 
1803. 

Tappan,  (Henry  Philip,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Rhinebeck,  New 
York,  about  1806.  He  was  appointed  in  1832  pro- 
fessor of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  subsequently 
became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  published  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Will  applied  to 
Moral  Agency  and  Responsibility,"  (1S41,)  and  several 
other  works.      Died  November  15,  1881. 

Tappan,  (William  Bingham,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  1794,  became  gen- 
eral agent  of  the  American  Sunday-School  Union.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  poems.     Died  in  1849. 

Taraise.     See  Tarasius. 

Tarakanof.     See  Tarrakanof. 

Tarasius,  ta-ra'she-us,  [Fr.  Taraise,  tt'riz',]  Saint, 
born  about  745  A.D.,  became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  784.     Died  in  806. 

Taraval,  tt'rt'vSK,  (Hugues,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1728;  died 
in  1785. 

Tarayre,  tfr^R',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  general, 
distinguished  as  an  agriculturist,  was  born  at  Solsac 
(Aveyron)  in  1770.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  troops 
that  opposed  the  English  at  Walcheren  in  July,  1809. 
Died  in  1855. 

Tarbe,  ttR'bi',  (Charles,)  a  French  royalist,  born 
at  Sens  in  1756.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1791.     Died  in  1804. 

Tarbe,  (Louis  Hardouin,)  a  French  financier,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Sens  in  1753. 
He  was  minister  of  contributions  from  May,  1791,  to 
March,  1792.     Died  in  1806. 

Tarbe,  (Prosper,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  1809; 
died  January  3,  1871. 

Tarcagnota.     See  Marullo. 

Tarcagnota,  taR-kin-yo'tS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Gaeta.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  World,"  of  little  merit,  (4  vols.,  1562.)  Died 
in  1566. 

Tarchi,  taR'kee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Naples  in  1759,  produced  several  operas.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1814. 

Tar'-ehon,  a  hero  of  the  Etruscan  mythology,  was, 
according  to  some  authors,  aPelasgian  chief  who  founded 
a  colony  in  the  north  of  Italy.  Virgil  relates  that  Tar- 
chon  offered  the  crown  of  the  Etruscans  (Tyrrheni)  to 
Evander. 

See  "ilineid,"  book  viii.,  506. 

Tardieu,  ttR'de-uh',  (AmrroiseJ  a  French  en- 
graver, was  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  published  an 
"  Atlas  of  Ancient  Geography,"  and  other  similar  works, 
and  engraved  a  number  of  portraits  and  architectural 
pieces.     Died  in  1841. 

Tardieu,  (Antoine  Francois,)  a  French  map- 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1757,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  the 
maps  of  Choiseul-Gouffier's  "Voyage  pittoresque  de  la 
Grece,"  and  the  great  Chart  of  European  Russia.  Died 
in  1822. 

Tardieu,  (Auguste  Ambroise,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1818.     Died  January  12,  1879. 

Tardieu,  (Jacques  Nicolas,)  a  son  of  Nicolas 
Henri,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1716,  and 
attained  distinction  as  an  engraver.  He  executed 
numerous  portraits  and  landscapes.     Died  about  1792. 

Tardieu,  (Jean  Baptiste  Pierre,)  an  engraver,  a 
nephew  of  Nicolas  Henri,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1746. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  geographical  en- 
graver. Among  his  best  works  are  his  "Charts  of  the 
Netherlands,"  engraved  for  the  empress  Maria  Theresa. 
Died  in  1816. 


«  as  ^,-  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  ¥i,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  e;  th  as  in  this.     (iJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TARDJEU 


22S2 


TARRAKANOF 


Tardieu,  (Jean  Charles,)  an  artist,  a  son  of  Jacques 
Nicolas,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He 
•tudied  painting  under  Regnault,  and  executed  a  number 
jf  historical  pictures.     Died  in  1837. 

Tardieu,  (Nicolas  Henki,)  a  skilful  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1674,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard 
Audran.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Painting  in  1720.     Died  in  1749. 

Tardieu,  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1756,  and  studied  en- 
graving under  J.  G.  Wille.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Communion  of  Saint  Jerome,"  after  Domeni- 
chino,  and  "The  Archangel  Michael,"  after  Raphael. 
Died  in  1843  or  1844. 

Tardieu,  (Pierre  pRANgois,)  a  nephew  and  pupil 
of  Nicolas  Henri,  noticed  above,  was  distinguished  as 
an  engraver,  and  executed,  among  other  works,  "The 
Judgment  of  Paris,"  after  Rubens.     Died  about  1774. 

Tardif,  tlR'd^F,  (Ale.xandre,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  1801.  Among  his  works  are  "Dramatic  Essays," 
(1835,)  and  "Varietes  poetiques,"  (1841.) 

Tardif,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  litth'ateur,horn  about 
1440,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Rhetoricae  Artis 
Compendium,"  (about  1475.) 

Tareef  or  Tarif,  tS-reef',  (Aboo-  (or  Abu-)  Zarah, 
5'boo  zir'ah,)  a  freedman  of  Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  Mohammedan  officer  who  effected 
a  conquest  in  Spain.  About  the  beginning  of  Septem- 
ber, 710  A.D.,  he  took  possession  of  a  small  island  fifteen 
miles  west-southwest  of  Gibraltar,  since  called  Tarifa, 
from  his  name,  and  made  incursions  into  the  adjacent 
country,  carrying  off  much  booty. 

Tarello,  tS-rel'Io,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
agriculture,  published  in  1567  a  work  entitled  "Agri- 
cultural Instruction,"  ("Ricordo  d'Agricoltura,")  which 
is  commended. 

Tarente,  Due  de.     See  Macdonald. 

Targe,  ttR?h,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Orleans  about  1716.  He  published  a  "History 
of  Italy,"  (4  vols.,  1774,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1788. 

Target,  ttR'zhi',  (Gui  Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eloquent 
French  advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1790,  and 
favoured  the  popular  cause.  In  December,  1792,  Louis 
XVI.  selected  Target  as  one  of  his  defenders  in  his  trial, 
but  the  latter  declined  to  serve.     Died  in  1806. 

See  MuRAiRE,  "filoge  de  G.  J.  B.  Target,"  1807;  "NouvelJe 
Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Targioni-To22etti,taR-jo'neetot-set'tee,  (Giovanni,) 
an  Italian  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Florence  in 
1712.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Travels  in  Tus- 
cany for  the  Exploration  of  its  Natural  Productions,"  (6 
vols.,  1751-54,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  Advancement 
of  Physical  Science  in  Tuscany  during  Sixty  Years,"  (3 
vols.,  1780.)     Died  in  1783. 

See  M.  Lastri,  "  Elogio  storlco  di  G.  Targioni-Tozzetti,"  1783. 

Tarif.     See  Tareef. 

Tarik-Ibn-Zeyad,  ti'rik  Ib'n  zi'ySd',  written  also 
Tarik-Ben-Zeiad,  a  famous  Arab  chief,  was  the  leader 
of  the  Moors  who  invaded  Spain,  crossing  the  Straits 
and  landing  at  Gibraltar,  in  711  a.d.  He  defeated  King 
Roderick,  and  conquered  the  southern  part  of  Spain. 
The  name  Gibraltar  is  a  corruption  of  Gibel-Tdrik, 
<"  mountain  of  Tarik.") 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espafia  ;"  Al-Makkari,  "  Moham- 
sedan  Dynasties  in  Spain,"  (translated  by  Gavangos.) 

Teu-in,  tt'rdN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  near  Montargis  about  1700.  He  wrote  articles  on 
anatomy  and  physiology  for  the  "  Encyclopedie"  of 
Diderot,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1761. 

Tarleton,  tarl'tpn,  (Colonel  Bannastre,)  an  Eng- 
lish officer,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1754,  served  under 
Lord  Cornwallis  in  the  war  of  the  American  Revolution. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  and  bravery,  and 
gained  several  important  advantages  over  the  American 
troops ;  but  he  was  defeated  by  General  Morgan  at  the 
battle  of  Cowpens,  (1781.)  After  his  return  to  England, 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Liverpool  and  made  a 
baronet  and  K.C.B.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Cam- 
paigns of  1780-81  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  North 
America,"  (1787.)     Died  about  1833. 


Tarleton,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  actor  and 
dramatist,  was  a  native  of  Shropshire.  He  was  noted 
for  his  extempore  wit,  and  was  unrivalled  in  comic  parts. 
He  was  treated  with  distinguished  favour  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  appointed  him  a  groom  of  the  chamber 
at  Barn  Elms.  He  was  the  author  of  a  play  entitled 
"The  Seven  Deadly  Sins,"  which  is  not  extant.  Died 
in  1588. 

Tarnow,  taR'no,  (Fanny,)  a  German  novelist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  in 
1783.  Among  her  principal  works  are  "Natalie,"  a 
romance,  (1804,)  "Two  Years  in  Saint  Petersburg," 
(1833,)  and  a  collection  of  tales,  (4  vols.,  1840-42.)  Died 
in  1862. 

Tarnowski,  taR-nov'skee,  (John,)  a  famous  Polish 
military  commander,  born  in  1488,  was  appointed  by 
Emanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  leader  of  his  army  against 
the  Moors.  He  afterwards  C(3nmianded  in  the  Polish 
wars  with  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  and  was  charged 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  with  the  chief  command  of 
his  forces  against  the  Turks.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
military  treatise  entitled  "Concilium  Rationis  Bellicae." 
Died  in  1561. 

See  Orzechowski,  "Life  of  Tarnowski,"  (in  Polish,)  1830; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale.'"' 

Tar-pela  or  Tarpeja,  was  a  daughter  of  Spurius 
Tarpeius,  governor  of  one  of  the  citadels  of  Rome  during 
the  war  with  the  Sabines.  Allured  by  the  gold  orna- 
ments worn  by  the  enemy,  she  opened  to  them  the  gate 
of  the  fortress  ;  but  they,  in  passing,  threw  upon  her 
their  shields,  by  which  she  was  crushed  to  death.  The 
hill  where  she  was  buried  was  called  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

Tar'quin,  [Fr.  pron.  ttR'kiN';  Lat.  Tarquin'ius  ;  It. 
Tarquinio,  taR-kwee'ne-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Lu'cius 
Tarquin'ius  Pris'cu.s,  fifth  King  of  Rome,  was  a 
son  of  Demaratus,  a  merchant  of  Corinth.  His  original 
name  was  LucuMO.  Having  removed  to  Rome,  he 
was  patronized  by  Ancus  Martius,  who  appointed  him 
guardian  of  his  sons.  After  the  death  of  Ancus  Martius 
he  caused  himself  to  be  elected  king,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  rightful  heirs.  He  carried  on  successful  wars  against 
the  Sabines  and  Latins,  built  the  Circus  Maximus,  the 
immense  Cloacae,  or  sewers,  at  Rome,  and  promoted 
various  important  public  works.  He  was  assassinated, 
by  order  of  the  sons  of  Ancus,  in  578  B.C. 

See  NiEBUHK,  "History  of  Rome;"  Purrucker,  "  Programma 
de  Vita  Tarqiiinii  Prisci,"  1760;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Tarquin  the  Proud,  [Lat.  Lu'cius  Tarquin'ius 
Super'hus;  Fr,  Tarquin  le  Superbe,  t^R'kdN'  leh 
sii'paiRb',]  son  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  seventh  King 
of  Rome.  In  534  B.C.  he  succeeded  Servius  Tullius, 
whom  he  had  caused  to  be  assassinated,  and  whose 
daughter  Tullia  he  had  married.  He  put  to  death  the 
senators  who  had  favoured  the  reforms  of  Servius,  and, 
while  displaying  great  ability,  governed  with  despotic 
power.  He  conquered  several  neighbouring  cities,  built 
the  Capitol  and  other  public  edifices,  and  established 
colonies  at  Signia  and  Circeii. 

The  outrage  committed  by  his  son  Sextus  upon  Lu- 
cretia  roused  the  people,  already  exasperated  by  his 
tyranny,  to  throw  off  the  yoke,  and  Tarquin  was  deposed 
by  an  armed  force  led  by  Junius  Brutus.  After  several 
ineffectual  attempts  to  regain  his  power,  he  formed  an 
alliance  with  Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium,  in  conjunction 
with  whom  he  fought  the  battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  (496 
B.C.)  They  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Romans,  and 
Tarquin  escaped  to  Cumae,  where  he  died  in  495  B.C. 
He  was  the  last  of  the  Roman  kings. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  i.  and  ii.  ;  Niebuhr,  "  His- 
tory of  Rome;"  V.  Malvezzi,  "Tarquinio  Superbo,"  163s;  K.  O. 
MuLLER,  "  Etrusker ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  PuR- 
RUCKER,  "  Programmata  II.  de  Tarquinii  Superbi  Rebus  gestis," 
1764-66. 

Tarquinio.     See  Tarquin. 

Tarquinius.     See  Tarquin. 

Tarquinius  Collatinus.     See  Collatinus. 

Tarrakanof,  Tarakanof,  or  Tarrakano'w,  ti-rJ- 
kS'nof,  (Anna  Petrowna,)  a  Russian  princess,  born  in 
1755,  was  supposed  to  be  the  daughter  of  the  empress 
Elizabeth.  Having  been  imprisoned  by  Catherine  II.  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  she  was  drowned  in  prison  by  an  inun- 
dation in  1777. 


a,  e,  i.  o,  i-i,  y.  iotir;;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/ior/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  o/>scure;  fir,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  m66i.; 


TARRENTENUS 


2283 


TASSO 


Tar-ren-te'nus,  (Paternus,)  a  Roman  jurist  under 
the  reign  of  Commodus,  was  the  author  of  a  work  en- 
titled "  De  Re  militari,"  a  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Tarsia,  di,  de  taa-see'i,  (Galeazzo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
of  noble  family,  born  in  1476.  His  works  are  principally 
sonnets  in  the  style  of  Petrarch.     Died  about  1530. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tartaglia,  taR-tSKyJ,  [Lat.  Tarta'lea,]  (Niccol6,) 
an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Brescia  about  1500. 
His  family  name  is  not  known.  He  was  surnamed  Tar- 
taglia, (from  tartagliare,  to  "stammer,")  because  he 
had  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  caused  by  a  wound 
received  in  1512.  He  taught  mathematics  at  Verona, 
Brescia,  and  Venice,  edited  the  works  of  Archimedes, 
(1543,)  and  wrote  several  treatises  on  mathematics,  etc. 
He  discovered  a  method  of  resolving  cubic  equations. 
Cardan,  by  a  promise  of  secrecy,  obtained  this  method 
from  him,  but  published  it  in  his  "  Ars  Magna."  Died 
in  1559. 

See  CossALi,  "  Progressi  dell'AIgebra,"  1790;  Fantuzzi,  "  Scrit- 
tori  Bolognesi;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Tartagiii, taR-tin'yee,  [Lat.  Tariag'nus,]  (Alessan- 
DRO,)  called  Imolen'sis,  from  Imola,  his  native  place, 
was  an  eminent  Italian  jurist,  born  about  1424.  He 
wrote  on  the  Digest,  and  was  professor  of  law  at  Padua 
and  Bologna.     Died  in  1477. 

Tartagnus.     See  Tartagni. 

Tartalea.     See  Tartaglia. 

Tartare.     See  Tartarus. 

Tartaro.     See  Tartarus. 

Tartarotti,  taR-ti-rot'tee,  (Girolamo,)  a  learned 
Italian  litterateur  and  antiquary,  born  at  Roveredo  in 
1706.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Idea  of 
the  Logic  of  the  Scholastics  and  Moderns,"  (1731,)  and 
"Del  Congresso  notturno  delle  Lammie,"  ("On  the 
Nocturnal  Meeting  of  the  Witches,"  1749,)  which  is 
highly  commended.     Died  in  1761. 

See  C.  LoRENZi,  "  De  Vita  H.  Tartarotti  Libri  III.,"  1805; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Geii^rale." 

Tar'ta-rus,  [Gr.  Taprmpof  ;  Fr.  Le  Tartare,  leh  ttR'- 
ttR' ;  It.  Tartaro,  taR'ti-ro,]  in  classic  mythology,  was 
a  son  of  .^ther  and  Ge,  and  the  father  of  the  Gigantes, 
or  Giants.  The  name  was  also  applied  to  that  part  of 
the  infernal  regions  in  which  the  wicked  were  confined. 
(See  Pluto.) 

Tartas,  tiR't^',  (Emile,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Mezin  in  1796.  He  served  in  Algeria  from  1840  till 
1846.     Died  at  Paris,  February  25,  i860. 

Tartini,  taR-tee'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Pisano  in  1692.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  violinists  of  his  time,  and  presided 
over  a  school  in  Padua,  where  he  numbered  among  his 
pupils  Pugnani  and  Viotti.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Treatise  on  Music  according  to  the  True  Science  of 
Harmony,"  (1754,)  and  was  the  discoverer  of  the  so- 
called  grave  harmonics,  or  third  sounds.     Died  in  1770. 

See  Favolle,  "Notices  sur  Corelli,  Tartini,"  etc.,  1810;  Fan- 
ZAGo,  "Orazione  delle  Lodi  di  G.  Tartini,"  1762;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale. " 

TarufQ,  tS-roof'fee,  (Emilio,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1632 ; 
died  in  1694. 

Tarufli,  (Giuseppe  Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1722  ;  died  in  1786. 

Ta-ru'tius  or  Tarru'tius  (tar-roo'she-us)  Fir-ml- 
fi'nus,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  astrologer,  was  a  friend  of 
Cicero.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  work  on  astronomy,  and, 
at  the  request  of  Varro,  took  the  horoscope  of  Romulus. 

Tar'vfr,  (John  Charles,)  a  distinguished  writer,  of 
English  extraction,  born  at  Dieppe,  in  Normandy,  in 
1790.  He  published  a  "Phraseological  French-and- 
English  Dictionary,"  (1849,)  a  very  valuable  work,  also 
a  translation  of  Dante's  "  Inferno"  into  French  prose. 
Died  in  1851. 

TascLenberg,  tish'en-bSRo',  (Ernst  Ludwig,)  a 
German  entomologist,  born  at  Naumburg,  January  10, 
1818.  He  studied  at  Leipsis  and  Berlin,  and  in  1871 
became  professor  of  entomology  at  Halle.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  "  Die  Hymenopteren  Deutsch- 
lands,"  (1866,)  "  Entomologie  fiir  Gartner,"  (1871,)  "  Was 
da  kriecht  und  fliegt,"  (1878,)  etc. 


Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  tJ'shi'  deh  13  pSzh're', 
(Louis  Robert  Pierre  Claude,)  Comte,  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Martinique  in  1787,  was  a  cou.sin-german 
to  the  empress  Josephine.  He  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Eugene  de  Beauharnais  in  many  campaigns.  In  1852 
he  became  a  senator.  Died  in  i86i.  His  son,  Robert 
Charles  Emile,  born  in  1822,  received  the  title  of  duke 
in  1859,  and  was  chosen  a  senator  in  1861. 

Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  Mademoiselle.  See  Jose- 
phine. 

Taschereau,  tish'ro',  (Elz^ar  Alexandre,)  D.D., 
LL.D.,  a  Canadian  prelate,  born  in  Quebec  in  1818.  He 
was  made  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1842,  and  was 
afterwards  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Quebec  Semi- 
nary. In  1871  he  was  consecrated  Archbishop  of 
Quebec. 

Taschereau,  tSsh'ro',  (Jules  Antoine,)  a  French 
writer  of  biography,  etc.,  was  born  at  Tours  in  1801. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Moliere,"  (1825,)  a  "  History  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Corneille,"  (1829,)  and  "Revue 
Retrospective,"  (20  vols.,  1S33-37.)  He  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1837,  and  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  in  1848.  About  i8s8  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Imperial  Library.     Died  Nov.  10,  1874. 

See  QuiRARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Taschifellone.     See  Caffaro. 

Tas'ker,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Devonshire.  He  produced  translations  of  some 
of  the  odes  of  Pindar  and  Horace.     Died  in  1800. 

Tasman,  tSs'man,  (Abel  Janssen,)  a  Dutch  navi- 
gator of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  employed  by 
Van  Diemen,  Governor-General  of  Batavia,  in  making 
discoveries  in  the  South  Sea.  In  1642  he  discovered 
the  island  which  he  named  in  honour  of  his  patron. 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  also  Prince  William's  Islands,  and 
others  in  the  vicinity.  Van  Diemen's  Land  has  been 
named,  in  his  honour,  Tasmania. 

Tas'mit,  an  Assyrian  goddess,  the  wife  of  Nebo. 
She  inspired  the  gift  of  hearing  and  understanding  the 
utterances  of  her  consort. 

Tassaert,  tt'stk',  (Nicolas  Francois  Octave,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  painted 
history  and  portraits,  and  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1849.     Died  by  suicide,  April  24,  1874. 

Tasse,  Le,  the  French  for  Tasso,  which  see. 

Tassel,  tt'sSK,  (Richard,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Langres  about  1580;  died  in  1660. 

Tas'sie,  (James,)  a  Scottish  artist,  born  near  Glasgow 
about  1735.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  skil- 
ful imitation  of  engraved  gems  by  means  of  pastes,  or 
coloured  glass.     Died  in  1799. 

Tassiu,  tt'siN',  (Ren6  Prosper,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk  and  historian,  born  near  Domfront  in  Ib97, 
published  "New  Treatise  on  Diplomacy,"  ("  Nouveau 
Traite  de  Diplomatique,"  6  vols.,  1765.)     Died  in  1777. 

Tasso,  tis'so,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1493.  He  was  patronized  by  Sanseverino, 
Prince  of  Salerno,  whom  he  accompanied  in  1531  on  the 
expedition  of  Charles  V.  to  Tunis.  In  1537  he  was  sent 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Spain.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  heroic  poem,  entitled  "L'Amadigi,"  founded  on  the 
romance  of  Amadis  de  Gaul ;  also  numerous  sonnets, 
hymns,  eclogues,  lyrics,  etc.  He  died  in  1569,  leaving 
one  son,  the  celebrated  Torquato  Tasso. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rkv. 
Henry  Stebbing. 

Tas'so,  [It.  pron.  tSs'so;  Fr.  Le  Tasse,  leh  ttss,j 
(Torquato,)  [Lat.  Torqua'tus  Tas'sus,]  a  celebratea 
Italian  epic  poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Sorrento  on  the  nth  of  March,  1544.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome,  Bergamo,  Venice,  and  Padua.  To  the  last 
city  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  study  law,  which  he 
disliked  and  soon  renounced.  He  produced  in  1562  an 
epic  or  romantic  ]3oem,  entitled  "Rinaldo,"  which  he 
dedicated  to  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  cardinal  and  his  brother  Alfonso  II.,  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  at  whose  court  he  passed  many  years,  beginning 
with  1565.  The  court  of  the  Dukes  of  Este  was  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  in  Italy,  and  vied  with  that  of  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as ;;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


TASSO 


2284 


TATISHCHEF 


Medici  in  the  patronage  of  literature  and  art.  There 
Tasso  wrote  a  number  of  sonnets  and  amatory  verses, 
and  commenced  his  great  poem  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 
("Gerusalemme  Liberata.")  In  1571  he  accompanied 
Cardinal  d'Este  on  a  mission  to  Charles  IX.  of  France. 
He  returned  to  Ferrara  in  1572,  and  entered  the  service 
of  Alfonso,  who  gave  him  a  pension  of  sixteen  gold 
crowns  per  month  and  admitted  him  to  his  own  table. 
In  1573  he  produced  his  "  Aminta,"  a  pastoral  drama, 
which  was  received  with  great  favour.  He  completed 
in  1575  his  epic  poem,  entitled  "Gerusalemme  Libe- 
rata," which  is  his  chief  title  to  celebrity.  About  this 
time  his  jsrosi-ierity  and  ])eace  were  ruined  by  causes 
which  are  partly  involved  in  mystery.  He  cherished  a 
romantic  passion  for  Leonora,  a  sister  of  the  Duke  of 
Este,  and  addressed  to  her  a  number  of  sonnets  ex- 
pressive of  his  admiration.  It  is  not  known  whether 
she  had  any  feeling  for  him  beyond  that  of  simple 
friendship  ;  but  the  difference  in  their  rank  was  such 
that  he  could  not  hope  to  marry  a  princess  of  the  proud 
and  sovereign  house  of  Este.  Some  writers  ascribe  his 
misfortunes  and  imprisonment  to  this  love  for  Leonora  ; 
and  others  suppose  that  he  offended  Alfonso  by  his  irri- 
table temper,  or  that  he  was  actually  insane.  He  was 
confined  in  a  convent  in  1577  by  order  of  Alfonso,  who 
directed  that  he  should  be  treated  as  a  madman.  He 
soon  escaped,  and  fled  to  Sorrento,  where  his  sister 
Cornelia  lived,  and  remained  with  her  a  short  time. 
Tasso  solicited  permission  to  return  to  Ferrara  by  a 
letter  to  Alfonso,  who  consented  to  receive  him  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  submit  to  such  treatment  as  the 
physicians  might  prescribe.  He  accordingly  returned  in 
1578,  but  was  not  restored  to  the  favour  of  the  duke  nor 
permitted  to  associate  with  Leonora.  Before  the  end  of 
the  year  he  absconded,  and  began  to  wander  about  from 
city  to  city.  By  some  strange  infatuation,  he  was  again 
attracted  to  Ferrara  in  February,  1579,  and  was  treated 
with  a  coldness  or  neglect  which  provoked  him  to  utter 
offensive  language  against  the  duke.  He  was  then  con- 
fined in  a  hospital  for  lunatics,  where  he  remained  seven 
years,  during  which  he  wrote  several  dialogues  and  philo- 
sophical treatises.  In  1580  an  incomplete  or  incorrect 
edition  of  his  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  was  published  at 
Venice,  without  the  consent  of  the  author.  The  first 
complete  edition  appeared  in  1 581.  It  was  censured  by 
many  critics,  in  answer  to  whom  he  wrote  a  "  Defence 
of  the  Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  (1585.)  After  his  release 
from  the  hospital  (15S6)  he  passed  some  months  at 
Mantua,  as  the  guest  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  and  wrote 
the  tragedy  of  "  Torrismondo,"  (1587.)  About  1588  he 
removed  to  Naples,  where  he  was  befriended  by  Gio- 
vanni Battista  lilanso.  He  published  in  1593  a  poem 
called  "Jerusalem  Conquered,"  ("Gerusalemme  Con- 
quistata.") 

Influenced  by  Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  the  pope  invited 
Tasso  to  Rome,  to  be  crowned  with  laurel,  as  Petrarch 
had  been.  He  accordingly  went  to  Rome,  and  was 
lodged  in  the  pope's  palace,  but  before  the  day  of  coro- 
nation arrived  he  died,  in  April,  1595.  "Many  more 
Italian  poets,"  says  Hallam,  "ought,  ])ossibly,  to  be  com- 
memorated ;  but  we  must  hasten  forward  to  the  greatest 
of  them  all.  .  .  .  The  Jerusalem  is  the  great  epic  poem, 
in  the  strict  sense,  of  modern  times.  It  was  justly 
observed  by  Voltaire  that,  in  the  choice  of  his  subject, 
Tasso  is  superior  to  Homer.  Whatever  interest  tra- 
dition might  have  attached  among  the  Greeks  to  the 
wrath  of  Achilles  and  the  death  of  Hector,  was  slight 
to  those  genuine  recollections  which  were  associated 
with  the  first  crusade.  It  was  not  the  theme  of  a  single 
people,  but  of  Europe.  ...  In  the  delineation  of  char- 
acter, at  once  natural,  distinct,  and  original,  Tasso  must 
give  way  to  Homer,  perhaps  to  some  other  epic  and 
romantic  poets.  .  .  .  Yet  here,  also,  the  s.weetness  and 
nobleness  of  his  mind  and  his  fine  sense  of  moral  beauty 
are  displayed.  .  .  .  The  diction  of  Tasso  excites  per- 
petual admiration  ;  it  is  rarely  turgid  or  harsh,  and, 
though  more  figurative  than  that  of  Ariosto,  it  is  so 
much  less  than  that  of  most  of  our  own  or  the  ancient 
poets,  that  it  appears  simple  in  our  eyes.  Virgil,  to 
whom  we  most  readily  compare  him,  is  far  superior  in 
energy,  but  not  in  grace."     ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 


ture of  Europe.")  The  "  Gerusalemme  Liberata"  has 
bee'-;  translated  into  English  by  Carew,  Fairfax,  Hoole, 
and  Wiffen. 

See  G.  Rattista  Manso,  "Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1619;  Charnbs. 
"  Vie  du  Tasse,"  1690;  Serassi,  "  Vita  del  T.  Tasso,"  2  vols.,  1785  : 
Fabroni,  "  Elogio  del  Tasso,"  1800:  John  Black,  "Life  of  Tasso,' 
1810;  Ebbrt,  "T.  Tasso's  Lebeii,"  i8ig:  Zuccala,  "  Delia  Vita  di 
Tasso,"  1819;  R.  Wii.uE,  "Love  and  Madness  of  Tnsso,"  New 
York,  1842;  R.  Mii.MAN,  "Life  of  Tasso,"  2  vols.,  1850;  Aua 
Despi-aces,  "  VieduTasse:"  Leigh  Hunt,  "  Italian  Poets;"  Long- 
FELi,ow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Eurojie ;"  "Lives  of  the  ItaliaD 
Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing;  Vili.emain.  "  Cours  de  Lit- 
t^ratiire  ;"  N.  Morelli,  "  Delia  Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1834  ;  L.  Cibra- 
Rio,  "Degli  Amori  e  della  Prigione  di  Tasso,"  1862;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  "  Italian  Narrative  Poetry,"  in  the  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by  Prescott;)  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1825;)  "Horace  and  Tasso,"  in  th« 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1850 ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1821,  and  June,  1S26. 

Tassoni,  t Js-so'nee,  [Lat.TASSo'Nus,]  (Alessandro,) 
an  Italian  critic  and  satirist,  born  at  Modena  in  1565, 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Ascanio  Colonna  at  Rome. 
He  published  in  1609  "Considerations  on  Petrarch," 
a  rather  severe  criticism  upon  that  poet,  which  gave  rise 
to  a  bitter  controversy  with  several  of  the  admirers  of 
the  bard  of  Vaucluse.  Tassoni's  principal  work  is  a 
satirical  poem  entitled  "The  Rape  of  the  Bucket,"  ("La 
Secchia  rapita,")  which  is  greatly  adinired  for  its  humour. 
It  is  founded  on  an  incident  occurring  in  a  war  between 
Modena  and  Bologna, — the  carrying  off  of  a  wooden 
bucket  from  the  latter  city  by  the  Modenese.  Among 
his  other  productions  may  be  named  his  "  Pensieri 
Diversi,"  (161 2,)  or  observations  on  various  subjects, 
literary  and  scientific.     Died  in  1635. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  "  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing;  "Italian  Narrative 
Poetry,"  in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by 
Prescott  ;)  Muratori,  "  Vita  di  A.  Tassoni,"  1739  :  J.  C.  Walker, 
"Memoirs  of  A.  Tassoni."  iSij;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana  ;"  Dubois-Fontanelle,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Aretin  et 
d'A.  Tassoni,"  176S;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tassoni,  (.Klessandro  Maria,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Collalto  in  1749.  He  wrote  an  eloquent  work 
entitled  "La  Religione  dimostrata  e  difeso,"  ("Religion 
Explained  and  Defended,"  3  vols.,  1800-05.)  In  1802 
the  pope  appointed  him  auditor  di  rota.     Died  in  1818. 

See  LuiGl  Diondi,  "Vita  di  A.  M.  Tassoni,"  1822. 

Tassonus.    See  Tasso.m,  (Alessandro.) 

Tassus,  (Torquatus.)     See  Tasso.  ^ 

Tastii,  tts'tii',  (Sahlne  Casimire  Amaiu.e  Voiart,) 
a  French  authoress,  born  at  Metz  about  1798,  was  mar- 
ried in  1816  to  M.  Tastu.  She  wrote  a  number  of 
poetns  and  educational  works,  which  were  received  with 
great  favour.  "  Her  style,"  says  Longfellow,  "  frequently 
suggests  the  iinpassioned  manner  and  stately  diction  of 
Mrs.  Hemans." 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Fraser't 
Magazine"  for  January,  1832. 

Tate,  (Francis,)  an  English  lawyer  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1560.  He  wrote  sever  \1 
works  on  British  antiquities.     Died  in  1616. 

Tate,  (N.\HUM,)  a  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Dublin 
in  1652.  He  succeeded  Shadwell  as  poet-laureate  in 
1690.  He  was  the  author  of  "Miscellanea  .Sacra,  or 
Poems  on  Divine  and  Moral  Subjects,"  (1698,)  "Pana- 
cea, a  Poem  on  Tea,"  (1700,)  a  number  of  original  drama.<>, 
and  an  alteration  of  Shakspeare's  "  Lear."  He  mads 
a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  in  conjunction  with 
Nicholas  Brady,  which  superseded  that  of  Sternhold  and 
Hopkins.  Tate  also  assisted  Dryden  in  the  composition 
of  his  ".-Xbsalom  and  Achitophel."     Died  in  1715. 

Tatian,  ta'she-an,  (or  ta'she^n,)  |Lat.  Tatia'nus  , 
Fr.  T.niF.N,  tt'se^N',]  an  ancient  writer,  born  about 
120  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Syria,  and  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Justin  Martyr.  He  afterwards  adopted 
the  heresy  of  the  Marcionites,  and  founded  a  sect  called 
Tatianists.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Discourse  to  tht 
Heathen,"  and  a  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels."  The 
former  only  is  extant. 

See  Eusebhts,  "  Historia  Ecclestastica  ;"  Ritter,  "  History  <rf 
Christian  Philosophy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Tatien.     See  T.\tian. 

Tatishchef  or  Tatichtchef,  ti-tJsh-chSf,  written 
also  Tatischtschew  and  Tatischev,  (Dmitri  Pay- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  g66d;  moon; 


TATJSHCHEF 


2285 


TAVARONE 


LOVITCH,)  a  Russian  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  in 
1769,  was  successively  ambassador  to  Naples,  Madrid, 
and  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of  the  imperial  council 
of  Russia.     Died  in  1845. 

Tatishchef,  Tatischtchef,  or  Tatischtschew, 
(Vasilii  Nikititch,)  a  Russian  statesman,  and  Gov- 
ernor of  Orenburg,  born  in  1686,  was  the  author  of  the 
first  History  of  Russia,  published  in  1769.    Died  in  1750. 

Tatius.    See  Achilles  Tatius. 

Tatius,  ta'she^s,  (Titus,)  a  king  of  the  Sabines,  who 
«vas  provoked  by  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women  to  lead 
a  large  army  against  the  Romans.  After  a  great  but 
indecisive  battle,  peace  was  restored  through  the  me- 
diation of  the  Sabine  women,  and  Romulus  and  Tatius 
reigned  jointly  over  the  united  Romans  and  Sabines 
until  the  death  of  Tatius,  which  occurred  soon  after  the 
union. 

Tat'nall,  (Josiah,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
m  Georgia,  entered  the  navy  about  1812.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1850,  and  commanded  a  squadron  in  the 
East  Indies  from  1856  to  1859.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded  the  famous  iron-clad 
Merrimac,  (alias  Virginia,)  which  he  destroyed  by  fire 
on  the  nth  of  May,  1862,  near  Norfolk,  to  prevent  the 
Unionists  from  taking  the  vessel.     Died  in  1871. 

Tat'tam,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  archaeologist, 
born  in  "1788,  became  Archdeacon  of  Bedford  in  1845. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lexicon  Egyptiaco- 
Latinum,"  (1835,)  and  "  Prophetae  Majores  in  Dialecto 
Linguae  ^gyptiacae,"  (1852.)     Died  January  8,  1868. 

Tatti     See  Sansovino,  (Jacopo.) 

Taube,  tow'beh,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
historical  and  statistical  writer,  born  in  London  about 
1726.     He  practised  law  in  Vienna.     Died  in  1778. 

Taubert,  tow'b^Rt,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  composer 
and  pianist,  born  in  Berlin  about  1812.  Among  his 
works  is  an  opera  called  "  Blue-Beard,"    Died  in  1891. 

Taubmann,t6wp'min,[Lat.TAUBMAN'NUS,]  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  scholar  and  poet,  born  near  Baireuth, 
in  P'ranconia,  in  1565.  He  became  professor  of  poetry 
at  Wittenberg  in  1595,  wrote  elegant  Latin  poems,  and 
was  distinguished  for  his  wit.  Died  in  1613.  A  col- 
lection of  his  bon-mots,  entitled  "Taubmanniana,"  was 
published  in  1702.  He  published  editions  of  Virgil 
and  Plautus. 

See  Ebert,  "Leben  und  Verdienste  Taubmann's,"  1814; 

Taubmaunus.     See  Taubmann. 

Tauchnitz,  towK'nits,  (Christian  Bernhard,) 
Baron,  a  German  publisher,  a  nephew  of  K.  C.  T. 
Tauchnitz,  was  born  August  25,  1816,  and  established 
in  1837  a  celebrated  publishing-house  at  Leipsic,  where 
the  si)ecialty  has  been  the  reprinting  of  English  books. 

Tauchnitz,  (Karl  Christian  Philipp,)  a  German 
publisher,  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Leipsic, 
March  4,  1798.  He  inherited  and  enlarged  his  father's 
business,  which  he  conducted  with  great  success. 

Tauchnitz,  towK'nits,  (Karl  Christoph  Trau- 
gutt,)  a  celebrated  German  ])rinter  and  bookseller,  born 
near  Grimma  in  1761.  About  1796  he  founded  at  Leip- 
sic a  printing-establishment,  which  has  since  become  one 
of  the  most  important  in  Germany.  Among  the  mul- 
titudinous works  issued  from  his  press  are  splendid 
editions  of  Homer  and  other  Greek  classics,  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  and  the  Koran  in  the  original  tongue.  Died  in 
1836. 

Tauler  or  Thauler,  tow'ler,  [Lat.  Taule'rus,]  (Jo- 
HANN,)  an  eminent  German  theologian,  and  founder 
of  the  mystic  theology  in  Germany,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1290.  He  entered  at  an  early  age  the  order 
of  Dominicans,  and  subsequently  studied  theology  in 
Paris.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  an  earnest  reformer  of  the 
Church.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "Imitation 
of  the  Humble  Life  of  Christ,"  ("  Nachfolge  des  armen 
Lebens  Christi.")  As  a  prose  writer,  he  effected  a  great 
improvement  in  the  German  language.  Many  of  his 
writings  have  been  translated  into  Latin  and  other  lan- 
guages.    Died  in  1361. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Pliilndelphia,  1867; 
HsurRL,  "  Memoria  Tauleri,"  i688 ;  Arnd,  "  Die  Historic Tauleri," 
i68q;  C.  Schmidt,  "J.  Tauler  von  Strassburg,"  etc.,  1S41 ;  F.  W, 


Edei,  "J.  Tauler,  Prediger  zu  Strasburg,"  etc.,  1833;  Madamh 
WiNKWORTH,  "Life  of  J.  Tauler,"  London,  1857;  H.  SlvERur>, 
"  Taulers  Onivendelses  Historie,"  ij/i. 

Taulerus.     See  Tauler. 

Taulier,  to'le-i',  (Marc  Joseph  Fr^dAric,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  "Grenoble  in  1806,  ]5ublished  "Theorie 
raisonnee  du  Code  civil,"  (1840-44.)     Died  in  iSni. 

Taunay,  to'ni',  .(Augusts,)  a  French  statuary,  born 
m  Paris  in  1769.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Kf)me 
in  1792,  and  accompanied  his  brother  Nicolas  Antoine 
to  Brazil  in  1816.     Died  in  1824. 

Taunay,  (Nicolas  Antoine,)  a  skilful  French  his- 
torical painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1755.  He  became  a  meinber  of  the  Institute  in 
1795,  visited  Brazil  in  1816,  and  returned  to  Paris  in 
1819.     Died  in  1S30. 

Taunton,  Lord.     See  Labouchere,  (Henry.) 

Taun'tpn,  (Sir  W.  E.,)  an  English  jurist,  born  at 
O.xford,  was  appointed  in  1830  a  judge  of  the  court  of 
king's  bench.     Died  in  1835. 

Taurelius.     See  Torelll 

Taur'X-on,  [Gr.  'Yav[nuv^  a  Macedonian  general,  who 
had  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus during  the  minority  of  Philip  V.,  about  220  B.C. 
He  was  an  enemy  of  Aratus. 

Tau-ris'cus  of  Tkalles,  a  Greek  sculptor,  who,  with 
his  brother  Apollonius,  executed  a  celebrated  marble 
group,  called  "  Toro  Farnese,"  which  was  found  at 
Rome  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  is  now  in  Naples 
(See  Apollonius.) 

Tau'rus,  (Statilius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  com- 
manded Mark  Antony's  fleet  in  the  war  against  Sextus 
Pompey.  He  received  the  honour  of  a  triumph  in  34 
B.C.  for  his  success  in  Africa,  and  commanded  the  land- 
army  of  Augustus  at  the  battle  of  Actiuni,  31  B.C.  In 
the  year  26  he  was  elected  consul.     Died  after  16  B.C. 

Tausan.     See  Taussen. 

Tausig,  tow'zic,  (Karl,)  a  celebrated  pianist,  born  at 
Warsaw,  November  4,  1841.  In  1865  he  was  appointed 
court  pianist  at  Berlin.     Died  at  Leipsic,  July  17,  1871. 

Taussen,  tow'sen,  written  also  Tausan  and  Tagesen, 
(Johan,)  a  Danish  theologian  and  Reformer,  born  in  the 
island  of  Fiinen  in  1494.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg 
under  Luther,  and  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  pro- 
mulgating the  Reformed  religion  in  Denmark.  He  was 
appointed  by  Frederick  I.  preacher  to  the  church  of 
Saint  Nicholas  at  Copenhagen  in  1529,  and  in  154J 
made  Bishop  of  Ripen.  He  published  several  theo- 
logical and  controversial  works.     Died  in  1 561. 

Tauvry,  to'vRe',  (Daniel,)  a  French  anatomist  and 
writer,  born  at  Laval  in  1669  ;  died  in  1 701. 

Tavannes,  de,  deh  tS'vtn',  (Gaspard  de  SauLx— 
deh  so,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Dijon  in  1509.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia  in  1525,  and  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Cerisoles,  in  1544.  He  rendered  important 
services  in  the  war  against  Charles  V.,  and  in  the  civil 
war  he  fought  against  the  Huguenots  at  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour.  About  1570  he  obtained  the  rank  of  mar. 
shal  of  France.     Died  in  1573. 

Tavannes,  de,  (Guillaume  de  Saulx,)  Seigneur, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1553.  He  was  con- 
stantly loyal  to  Henry  HI.  and  Henry  IV.,  and  fought, 
with  the  rank  of  general,  against  the  League.  He  died 
in  1633,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  Events  from  1560  to 
1596." 

Tavannes,  de,  (Jean  de  Saulx,)  Vicomte,  a  French 
general,  born  in  1555,  was  a  son  of  Gaspard,  noticed 
above.  As  a  partisan  of  the  League,  he  fought  against 
Henry  IH.  and  Henry  IV.     Died  about  1630. 

Tavares-Bastos,  tS-vJ'r5s  bis't6s,  (Aureliano 
Candido,)  a  Brazilian  patriot,  born  in  1S40.  He  became 
a  lawyer  and  legislator,  and  was  eminent  as  an  advocate 
of  religious  freedom  and  of  the  abolition  of  slavery.  He 
publishctl  "Letters  of  a  Solitary  Man,"  "The  Valley  of 
the  Aniazon,"  "Studies  on  Reform,"  and  some  political 
pamphlets.     Died  at  Nice,  France,  December  3,  1874. 

Tavarone,  ti-vd-ro'ni,  (Lazaro,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  frescos  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1556.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Luca  Cambiaso,  with  whom  he  went  to 
Madrid.  He  painted  some  works  in  the  Escurial  for 
the  king.     Died  in  1641. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  s^Muval:  N,  /tasa!;  R,  trilled:  s  .is  z:  th  as  in  this.     ( J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TA  VERNE  R 


22S6 


TAYLOR 


Tav'9r-n?r,  (Richard,)  an  English  religious  writer, 
born  in  Norfolk  in  150J,  was  a  lawyer  and  preacher. 
He  wrote  several  works  to  promote  the  Reformation, 
and  published  a  revised  edition  of  the  Bible,  (1539,) 
also  "  Postils  on  the  Epistles  and  Gospels."     Died  in 

1575- 
Tavernier,   ti'vjR'ne-i',   (Jean    Baptiste,)   Baron 

d'Aubonne,  a  celebrated^rench  traveller  and  merchant, 
born  in  Paris  in  1605.  At  an  early  age  he  visited  the 
principal  parts  of  Europe,  and,  having  entered  the  Aus- 
trian army,  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Prague,  in  1620. 
He  set  out  about  1630  for  Palestine  and  Persia,  where 
he  applied  himself  to  merchandise  in  jewels,  etc  After 
having  made  six  journeys  to  the  East,  he  returned  to 
France  with  a  large  fortune,  and  was  ennobled  by  Louis 
XIV.  His  "Six  Voyages  en  Turquie,  en  Perse  et 
aux  In'es"  came  out  in  1677,  (3  vols.  4to.)  This  work 
obtained  a  wide  popularity,  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages.  Tavernier  died  at  Moscow  about 
1688,  while  on  his  seventh  journey  to  the  East  Indies 
by  way  of  Russia. 

See  Friedlaender,  "J.  B.  Tavernier  Kammerherr,"  etc.,  184^; 
Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Tavernier,  tt'v^R'ne-i',  (Melchior,)  a  Flemish  en- 
graver of  maps,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1544.  He 
worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1641. 

Tavernier,  (Melchior,)  an  engraver,  a  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1594;  died  in  1665. 

Tax'i-les,  [Gr.  Ta^t/.7?f,]  sometimes  called  Tax'i-lus, 
an  Indian  king,  who  reigned  over  the  tract  between  the 
Indus  and  Hydaspes  when  Alexander  the  Great  invaded 
India,  327  B.C.  He  was  an  ally  of  that  conqueror  in  the 
war  against  Porus. 

Taxilus.    See  Taxiles. 

Ta-yg'e-te,  [Gr.  Tavye-nj ;  Fr.  TAYGi:TE,  tt'e-zhit',] 
one  of  the  Pleiades,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Atlas, 
and  the  mother  of  Lacedaemon,  who  was  supposed  to 
be  a  son  of  Jupiter. 

Tay'ler,  (Frederick,)  an  English  painter  in  water- 
colours,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1804.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  "The  Vicar  of  Wakefield's 
Family  going  to  Church,"  "  Festival  of  the  Popinjay," 
and  "Weighing  the  Stag."  His  pictures  include  nu- 
merous hunting-scenes  and  views  in  the  Highlands,  and 
take  high  rank.     Died  June  20,  1S89. 

Tayler  or  Taylor,  (John  William,)  an  English 
mineralogist,  born  about  1822.  He  explored  the  mines 
of  Greenland  about  1850-56. 

Tay'lpr,  (Alfred  Swaine,)  an  English  physician 
and  chemist,  born  in  Kent  in  1806.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  medical  jurisprudence  and  chemistry  in  Guy's 
Hospital  about  1832.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  lecturer  and  writer  on  medical  jurisprudence  and 
toxicology.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of  Medical 
Jurisprudence,"  (1844.)     Died  May  27,  1880. 

Taylor,  (Ann,)  an  English  authoress,  was  the  wife 
of  Isaac  Taylor,  noticed  below.  She  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Maternal  Solicitude."     Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Memorials,  Biographical  and  Literary,  of  the  Taylor  Family." 

Tay'lor,  (Bayard,  bl'ard,)  a  distinguished  American 
traveller,  writer,  and  poet,  born  in  Chester  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1825.  Having  made  a  pedestrian  tour  in 
Europe,  he  published,  after  his  return,  "Views  Afoot; 
or,  Europe  seen  with  Knapsack  and  Staff,"  (1846.) 
In  1849  he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  New  York 
"  Tribune,"  to  which  he  soon  after  contributed  a  series  of 
letters  descriptive  of  his  European  travels.  He  brought 
out  in  1850  "El  Dorado;  or.  Adventures  in  the  Path  of 
Empire,"  ':>2ing  an  account  of  a  journey  to  California. 
He  spent  ths  three  ensuing  years  in  visiting  various 
parts  of  Europe,  Africa,  Syria,  China,  and  Japan,  and 
between  1853  and  1859  published  a  number  of  books  de- 
scriptive of  these  travels.  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  mentioned  his  novels  of"  Hannah  Thurston,"  (1863,) 
"John  Godfrey's  Fortunes,"  (1864,)  and  "The  Story  of 
tCennet,"  (1866  ;)  his  poems,  "  Book  of  Romances,  Lyrics, 
and  Songs,"  (1S51,)  "Poems  of  the  Orient,"  (1854,) 
"Poems  of  Home  and  Travel,"  (1855,)  "The  Poet's 
Journal, "  (1S62,)  "The  Masque  of  the  Gods,"  (1872,) 
"Lars,  a  Pastoral  of  Sweden,"  (1872,)  "The  Prophet," 


(1874,)  "Home  Pastorals,"  (l?75,)  and  "Prince  Deuka- 
lion,"  (1878,)  and  a  translation  of  Goethe's  "  Faust," 
(first  part,  1870;  second  part,  1871.)  In  February,  1878, 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Germany,  and  died  at 
Berlin,  December  19  of  the  same  year. 

Taylor,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American  poet, 
a  son  of  Stephen  W.  Taylor,  was  born  at  Lowville, 
New  York,  in  1822,  and  was  educated  at  Madison  Uni- 
versity. For  many  vears  he  was  connected  with  the 
Chicago  "Evening  Journal."  Among  his  works  are 
"Tiie  Attractions  of  Language,"  (1S45,)  "January  and 
June,"  (1853,)  "Pictures  in  Camp  and  Field,"  (1867,) 
"The  World  on  Wheels,"  (1873,)  "Old-Time  Pictures 
and  Sheaves  of  Rhyme,"  (1874,)  "  Songs  of  Yesterday," 
(1875,)  etc.     Died  February  14,  18S7. 

Taylor,  (Brook,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Edmonton  in  1685.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  inherited  a  competent  fortune  from 
his  father.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on 
Perspective,"  (I7i5,)and  "Method  of  Increments,"  etc., 
("Methodus  Incrementorum  directa  et  inversa,"  1715.) 
In  the  latter  work  he  announced  the  important  discovery 
of  a  theorem  in  the  differential  calculus,  which  is  called 
Tavlor's  theorem.     Died  in  173 1. 

Taylor,  (Charles,)  a  biblical  writer,  was  a  brother 
of  Isaac  Taylor  of  Ongar.  He  edited  Calmet's  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible."     Died  in  1821. 

Taylor,  (Chevalier  John,)  an  English  oculist,  who 
removed  to  the  continent  in  1733.  He  travelled  exten- 
sively, and  published  an  account  of  his  travels.  Died 
after  1767. 

Taylor,  (Edward  T.,)  an  American  preacher,  known 
as  '■  Father  Taylor,"  was  born  at  Richmond,  Virginia, 
December  25,  1793.  He  became  a  sailor,  and  was  for 
many  years  the  preacher  of  the  Seamen's  Bethel,  Boston. 
He  was  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  denomination.  Died 
at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  April  6,  1871. 

Taylor,  (George,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1716.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1776.  Died 
in  1781. 

Taylor,  (George  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Clinton,  Hunterdon  county.  New  Jersey,  in  1808.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
June  27,  1862,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  and  died  September  i  of  that  year. 

Taylor,  (Henry,)  an  English  clergyman,  bom  about 
1 7 10,  is  said  to  have  been  an  Arian.  He  wrote  an 
"Essay  on  the  Beauty  of  the  Divine  Economy."  Died 
in  1785. 

Taylor,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  about  1800,  published  "  Philip  Van  Artevelde," 
(1834,)  "Edwin  the  Fair,  an  Historical  Drama,"  (1842,) 
"The  Eve  of  the  Conquest,  and  other  Poems,"  (1847,)  ^'so 
several  prose  works,  among  which  may  be  named  "The 
Statesman,"  (1836,)  and  "Notes from  Life,  in  Six  Essays," 
(1848.)  His  "Philip  Van  Artevelde,"  a  drama,  in  blank 
verse,  has  won  for  him  a  very  high  reputation,  and  has 
been  translated  into  German.     Died  March  28,  1886. 

See  R.  H.  HoRNE,  "Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844:  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  April,  1849  :  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  tor  November,  1S51  ; 
"North  British  Review"  for  November,  1862,  and  December,  1S65. 

Taylor,  (Sir  Herbert,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1775.  He  was  private  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  York, 
and  to  George  HI.     Died  in  1839. 

Taylor,  (Isaac,)  Senior,  of  Ongar,  an  English  artist 
and  writer,  was  originally  an  engraver.  In  1796  he  became 
minister  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Colchester.  He 
published  a  number  of  religious  and  educational  works  ; 
among  the  latter  we  may  name  "  Beginnings  of  Biogra- 
phy," and  "  Scenes  for  Tarry-at-Home  Travellers."  He 
preached  at  Ongar  from  1810  to  1829.     Died  in  1829. 

Taylor,  (Isaac,)  Junior,  an  eminent  English  writer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1787.  He 
published  a  number  of  moral,  philosophical,  and  theo- 
logical works  of  a  high  character.  Among  the  most 
important  of  these  are  a  "  History  of  the  Transmission 
of  Ancient  Books  to  Modern  Times,"  (1827,)  "The 
Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm,"  (1829,)  "The  Natural 
History  of  Fanaticism,"  "Spiritual  Despotism,"  "The 
Physical  Theory  of  Another   Life,"   (1836,)   "Ancient 


&  e.  i.  6,  u,  y,  lott^;  i,  4, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  shoft;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


TAYLOR 


2287 


TAYLOR 


Christianity,"  (2  vols.,  1839-43,)  and  "  Loyola  and  Jesu- 
itism," (1849.)     Died  in  1865. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1840  ;  Ai.libonk.  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Taylor,  (Isaac,)  an  English  author,  a  son  of  Isaac 
Taylor,  Junior.  He  was  born  at  Stanford  Rivers,  in  Essex, 
about  1834,  was  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
graduated  in  1853  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In 
1857  he  took  orders  in  the  Established  Church.  He  is 
the  author  of  "  The  Burden  of  the  Poor,"  "  Words  and 
Places,"  (1864,)  "The  Family  Pen,"  (1867,)  "Etruscan 
Researches,"  (1874,)  "Greeks  and  Goths,"  (1879,)  "The 
Alphabet,"  (1883,)  and  other  works,  chiefly  philological. 

Taylor,  tl'lor,  ?  (Isidore  S^verin  Justin,)  a  Belgian 
traveller  and  amateur  artist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1789. 
He  visited  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  etc.,  and  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  works  of  art  for  the  galleries  and 
museums  of  Paris.  He  published  "  Picturesque  and 
Romantic  Journeys  in  Old  France,"  ("  Voyages  pitto- 
resques  et  romantiques  de  I'ancienne  France,"  24  vols., 
1820-63.)     Died  at  Paris,  September  6,  1879. 

See  "  Nouvede  Biographie  G^n(;rale." 

Taylor,  (James,)  a  Scottish  mechanician,  born  about 
1757.  He  gained  distinction  as  one  of  the  inventors  of 
steam  navigation.     Died  in  1825. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Taylor,  (Jane,)  a  meritorious  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1783,  was  a  sister  of  Isaac  Taylor,  Jr.,  noticed 
above.  In  conjunction  with  her  sister  Ann,  she  composed 
"  Original  Poems,"  which  were  very  popular,  and  "  Hymns 
for  Infant  Minds,"  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
She  also  published  "Display,"  a  tale,  (1814,)  a  series 
of  able  essays  entitled  "  Contributions  of  Q.  Q.,"  and 
"  Essays  in  Rhyme."     Died  in  1824. 

See  "  Memorials,  Biographical  and  Literary,  of  the  Taylor  Family," 
by  the  Rev.  I.  Taylor,  London,  1867;  Mks.  Eiavood,  "Memoirs 
of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Last  Century,    vol.  ii.,  1843. 

Taylor,  (Jeremy,)  an  English  bishop  and  author  of 
great  eminence,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in  1613,  and  was 
baptized  on  the  15th  of  August.  He  was  a  son  of  a 
barber,  and  was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  M.A.  about  1633.  Having  taken 
holy  orders,  he  obtained  the  patronage  of  Archbishop 
Laud,  through  whose  influence  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow 
of  All  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  in  1636.  He  became  rec- 
tor of  Uppingham,  in  Rutlandshire,  in  1638,  and  married 
Phebe  Landisdale  (or  Langsdale)  in  1639.  In  the  civil 
war  he  was  a  decided  adherent  of  Charles  I.,  whom  he 
served  as  chaplain.  He  published  in  1642  "  Episcopacy 
Asserted  against  the  Acephali  and  Aerians,  New  and 
Old."  His  rectory  of  Uppingham  was  sequestrated  by 
Parliament  in  1642,  after  which  he  supported  himself  by 
teaching  school  in  Carmarthenshire.  In  1647  he  pro- 
duced one  of  his  greatest  works,  "  The  Liberty  of  Pro- 
phesying," which,  says  Hallam,  "  was  the  first  famous 
plea,  in  this  country,  for  tolerance  in  religion  on  a  com- 
prehensive basis  and  on  deep-seated  foundations.  Taylor, 
therefore,  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  sapped 
and  shook  the  foundations  of  dogmatism  and  pretended 
orthodo.\y ;  the  first  who  taught  men  to  seek  peace  in 
unity  of  spirit  rather  than  of  belief,  and,  instead  of  ex- 
tinguishing dissent,  to  take  away  its  sting  by  charity  and 
by  a  sense  of  human  fallibility."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  He  afterwards  published  his 
"Holy  Living  and  Dying,"  (1651,)  "The  Great  Exem- 
plar, or  the  Life  of  Christ,"  (3  vols.,  1653,)  and  "The 
Golden  Grove,"  (1654,)  in  which  he  displayed  a  rich 
imagination  and  poetical  genius.  He  was  imprisoned 
several  times  by  the  partisans  of  the  Parliament  during 
the  civil  war.  In  1658,  at  the  invitation  of  Lord  Con- 
way, he  removed  to  Lisburn,  Ireland,  where  he  officiated 
as  a  clergyman.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Down  and 
Connor  in  1660.  Before  this  date  he  had  married  a 
second  wife,  who  was  a  natural  daughter  of  Charles  I. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  very  learned  treatise  on 
casuistry,  entitled  "  Ductor  Dubitantium,"  ("  Rule  of 
Conscience,"  1660.)  He  was  intrusted  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  small  see  of  Dromore  in  1661.  He  died 
at  Lisburn  in  August,  1667,  leaving  three  daughters. 

"  His  Sermons,"  says  Hallam,  "  are  far  above  any 


that  had  preceded  them  in  the  English  Church.  An 
imagination  essentially  poetical,  and  sparing  none  of 
the  decorations  which  by  critical  rules  are  deemed  almost 
peculiar  to  verse  ;  a  warm  tone  of  piety,  sweetness,  andj 
charity  ;  an  accumulation  of  circumstantial  accessories 
whenever  he  reasons,  or  persuades,  or  describes,  .  .  . 
distinguish  Taylor  from  his  contemporaries  by  their 
degree,  as  they  do  from  most  of  his  successors  by  their 
kind.  •  .  .  The  eloquence  of  Taylor  is  great,  but  it  is 
not  eloquence  of  the  highest  class ;  it  is  far  too  Asiatic, 
too  much  in  the  style  of  Chrysostom  and  other  declaimers 
of  the  fourth  century,  by  the  study  of  whom  he  had 
probably,  vitiated  his  taste;  his  learning  is  misplaced, 
and  his  arguments  often  as  much  so  ;  not  to  mention 
that  he  has  the  common  defect  of  alleging  nugatory 
proofs  ;  his  vehemence  loses  its  eff^ect  by  the  circuity  of 
his  pleonastic  language."  ("Introduction  to  the  Lite- 
rature of  Europe.") 

See  H.  K.  Bonnv,  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor,"  1815;  Reginald 
Heber,  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor,"  1824;  R.  Willmott,  "Bishop 
J.  Taylor,  his  Predecessors,"  etc.,  1846;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  ol 
Authors." 

Taylor,  (John,)  sumamed  the  Water  Poet,  born 
at  Gloucester,  in  England,  in  1580,  was  originally  a 
waterman  in  London.  His  verses  possess  but  little 
intrinsic  merit,  but  they  are  valuable  as  illustrations 
of  society  and  manners  at  that  time.     Died  in  1654. 

Taylor,  (John,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born 
in  Lancashire  about  1680.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Sketch  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  "The  Scripture  Doc 
trine  of  Original  Sin,"  a  "  Hebrew  Concordance,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1761. 

Taylor,  ([ohn,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  at  Shrewsbury  about  1 703.  He  became  a 
Fellow  of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  subse- 
quently was  made  registrar  of  the  university.  He  was 
profoundly  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  law,  and  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  "  Orations"  of  Lysias.  He  also 
edited  some  of  the  works  of  Demosthenes,  and  other 
Greek  classics.  He  also  wrote  "  Elements  of  Civil  Law," 
(1755.)  Having  entered  into  holy  orders,  Dr.  Taylor 
was  created  in  1757  canon-residentiary  of  Saint  Paul's. 
Died  in  1766. 

Taylor,  (John,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in  Grange 
county,  Virginia.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  1792,  in 
1803,  and  in  1822.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  agricul- 
turist.    Died  in  Caroline  county,  Virginia,  in  1824. 

Taylor,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  songs,  epigrams, 
humorous  tales,  etc.     Died  in  1832. 

Taylor,  (John,)  an  English  political  economist,  born 
in  1 781.  He  wrote  "The  Identity  of  Junius  with  a 
Distinguished  Living  Character  Established,"  (1818,) 
also  "  Essays  on  Currenc)',"  etc.     Died  in  1864. 

Taylor,  (Joh.n  W.,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Saratoga  county.  New  York,  in  1784.  He  studied  law, 
and  represented  a  district  of  New  York  in  Congress 
from  1813  to  1833.  He  made  an  eloquent  speech  against 
the  establishment  of  slavery  in  Missouri,  February,  1819. 
He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  the 
second  session  of  the  Sixteenth  Congress,  (1820-21,) 
during  the  passage  of  the  Missouri  Comi)romise.  He 
removed  about  1843  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  he  died 
in  1854. 

Taylor,  (Meadows,)  an  English  novelist  and  states- 
man, born  at  Liverpool  in  1808.  In  1S24  he  was  sent  out 
to  Bombay  as  a  clerk  in  a  merchant's  house,  but  on  his 
arrival  the  house  had  failed.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining 
a  commission  in  the  service  of  the  Nizam,  and  spent  his 
leisure  time  in  mastering  the  languages,  laws,  and  an- 
tiquities of  Southern  India.  Having  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1S40,  he  published  "  The  Confessions  of  a  Thug," 
a  novel  embodying  the  results  of  his  studies  and  obser- 
vations. This  was  followed  by  "  Tara,"  "  Ralph  Darvill," 
"Tippoo  Sultaun,"  and  "  Seetah."  In  1850  the  Nizam's 
government  appointed  him  to  administer  the  principality 
of  the  yf)nng  Rajah  of  Shorapore,  which  he  succeeded  in 
raising  to  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  Died  at  Mentone, 
May  13,  1876.  His  autobiography — "The  Story  of  my 
Life" — appeared  in  1877. 


c  a(?  *,•  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/.-  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TAYLOR 


22S8 


TAYLOR 


Taylor,  (Nathaniel  William,)  D.D.,  an  eminent 
American  divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  New  Milford, 
Connecticut,  in  1786.  In  1812  he  succeeded  Moses 
,  Stuart  as  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church  at 
New  Haven,  and  in  1822  became  Dwight  professor  of 
didactic  theology  at  Yale  College.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  theological  essays,  which  favour  the  views  of  Jonathan 
Edwards.     Died  in  1858. 

Taylor,  (Richard,)  an  English  printer  and  journalist, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1781,  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"Philosophical  Magazine,"  and  in  1838  founded  the 
"Annals  of  Natural  History."  He  published  editions 
of  Warton's  "  History  of  English  Poetry,"  and  of  other 
standard  works.     Died  in  1858. 

Taylor,  (Richard,)  an  American  general,  was  a  son 
of  President  Zachary  Taylor.  He  commanded  a  Con- 
federate army  which  defeated  General  Banks  near  Mans- 
field and  Pleasant  Hill,  Louisiana,  in  April,  1864.  He 
surrendered  to  General  Canby  on  the  4th  of  May,  1865, 
near  Mobile.     He  died  April  12,  1879. 

Taylor,  (Richard  Cowling,)  an  English  geologist, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1789.  Having  emigrated  to  America 
in  1830,  he  was  employed  in  geological  explorations  in 
Pennsylvania  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States.^  He 
published  in  1848  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Statistics 
of  Coal."     Died  in  1851. 

Taylor,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, born  in  1714-  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  after  his 
return  to  London  devoted  himself  principally  to  archi- 
tectural works.  Among  his  most  admired  structures 
we  mav  name  Lord  Grimstone's  mansion  at  Gorham- 
bury.  'He  died  in  17S8,  leaving  a  fortune  of  ;^  180,000, 
a  portion  of  which  he  bequeathed  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  towards  founding  an  institute  for  the  study  of 
modern  languages. 

Taylor,  (^Rowland,)  an  English  clergyman,  chaplain 
to  Archbishop  Cranmer,  was  condemned,  under  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary,  to  be  burnt  at  the  stake.  The 
sentence  was  executed  in  February,  1555. 

Taylor,  (Silas,)  sometimes  called  D'Omville,  an 
English  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1624.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  History  of  Gavel- 
kind," etc.,  and  prepared  a  "  History  of  Harwich,"  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1678. 

Taylor,  (Stephen  William,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
teacher,  born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in 
1791.  He  became  in  1838  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  in  Madison  University,  New  York, 
of  which  he  was  subsequently  president.     Died  in  1856. 

Taylor,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1576.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
published  several  volumes  of  sermons.     Died  in  1632. 

Taylor,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar,  sur- 
named  the  Platonist,  born  in  London  in  1758.  From 
early  youth  he  applied  himself  with  ardour  to  the  study 
of  the  Greek  philosophers,  and  about  1780  began  the 
])ublication  of  a  series  of  translations  from  the  classics, 
including  the  writings  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  Besides 
the  above,  Mr.  Taylor  translated  "  The  Hymns  of  Or- 
pheus," (1787,)  "Proclus  on  Euclid,"  (1792,)  Pausa- 
nias's  "Description  of  Greece,"  (1794,)  "  Five  Books  of 
Plotinir,,"  (1794,)  "The  Six  Books  of  Proclus  on  the 
Theology  of  Plato,"  (1816,)  "lamblichus  on  the  Mys- 
teries of  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,"  etc.,  (1821,)  "The 
Metamorphoses  and  Philoso|)hical  Works  of  Apuleius," 
(1822,)  "Select  Works  of  Porphyry,"  (1823,)  "Argu- 
ments of  Celsus  relative  to  the  Christians,  taken  from 
Origen,"etc.,  "Proclus  on  Providence  and  Evil,"  (1833,) 
and  other  classics.  He  also  published,  among  other 
original  treatises,  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Eleusinian  and 
Bacchic  Mysteries."  Died  in  1835.  Mr.  Taylor  was 
distinguished  for  his  great  conversational  powers  and 
attractive  social  qualities,  which  gained  for  him  the 
friendship  of  many  persons  of  wealth  and  influence,  by 
whose  assistance  he  was  enabled  to  publish  his  volumi- 
nous works.  Among  his  patrons  the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
and  Mr.  Meredith  deserve  especial  mention  for  their  mu- 
nificence. As  a  translator  from  the  Greek,  Mr.  Taylor 
does  not  hold  a  high  rank,  but  he  merits  the  gratitude 
of  the  admirers  of  Plato  for  having  done  so  much  to 
attract  attention  to  the  works  of  that  philosopher. 


Taylor,  (Tom,)  an  English  dramatist  and  miscella- 
neous writer,  was  born  in  IJurtiam  in  1817.  Among  his 
numerous  successful  dramas  may  be  mentioned  "  Still 
Waters  Run  Deep,"  (1855,)  "Victims,"  (1856,)  "Our 
American  Cousin,"  (1858,)  "The  Fool's  Revenge," 
(1S59,)  "The  Babes  in  the  Wood,"  (i860,)  "The  Over- 
land Route,"  (i86o,)  "The  Ticket-of-Leave  Man," 
(1863,)  "Twixt  Axe  and  Crown,"  (1870,)  and  "Anne 
Boleyn,"  (1876.)  He  also  edited  the  Autobiographies  of 
B.  R.  Haydon  and  C.  R.  Leslie,  and  wrote  "  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds."  He  was  a  frequent 
contributor  to  "  Punch,"  of  which  he  became  editor  in 
1874.     Died  July  12,  1880. 

Taylor,  (William,)  an  accomplished  Ensjlish  writer 
and  tr.TnsIator,  born  at  Norwich  in  1765.  He  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  the  French,  German,  and  Italian  lan- 
cuages  during  a  residence  on  the  continent,  and  pub- 
lished, after  his  return,  an  excellent  translation  of 
Biirger's  "  Lenore,"  and  other  German  poems.  His 
version  of  Lessing's  "  Nathan  der  Weise"  came  out  in 
1806,  and  a  collection  of  his  translations,  entitled  a 
"  .Survey  of  German  Poetry,"  was  published  in  1830. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  English  synonyms,  and  essays 
on  the  German  poets.     Died  in  1836. 

See    '  Memoir  of  William  Tayloi,"  by  T.  W.  Robberds. 

Taylor,  (William,)  an  American  bishop  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Rockbridge  county, 
Virginia,  May  2,  1821.  He  became  a  preacher  in  1842, 
was  very  successful  as  a  revivalist,  and  was  engaged  in 
labours  in  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  Ceylon,  1863-66. 
Later  he  laboured  in  Africa,  was  in  England  for  eleven 
months,  and  afterwards  founded  a  very  successful  self- 
supporting  mission  in  India.  He  subsequently  visited 
.South  America,  and  in  1884  was  chosen  a  bishop  and 
given  a  supervision  over  the  missions,  especially  those 
of  Africa. 

Taylor,  (William  Cooke,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  at 
Youghal  in  1800,  published  a  number  of  biographical 
and  historical  works.  Among  the  principal  we  may 
name  a  "  History  of  France  and  Normandy,"  (1830,) 
"  History  of  Popery,"  (1837,)  and  "Life  and  Times  of 
Sir  Robert  Peel,"  (3  vols.,  1846-51.)     Died  in  1849. 

Taylor,  (W^illiam  Mackergo,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  clergyman,  born  at  Kilmarnock,  .Scotland,  Oc- 
tober 23,  1829,  graduated  in  1849  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  He  studied  at  the  Seminary  of  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Edinburgh,  and  was  ordained  at  Kil- 
inaurs  in  1853.  In  1872  he  became  pastor  of  the  Broadway 
Tabernacle  Church  in  New  York.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "Life  Truths,"  (1862.)  "The  Miracles  Helps 
to  Faith,"  (1865,)  "  David,  King  of  Israel,"  ( 1S74,)  "  Elijah 
the  Prophet,"  ( 1S76,)  "  The  Ministry  of  the  Word,"  (1876,) 
"Moses  the  Law-Giver,"  (1879,)  "The  Gospel  Miracles," 
(1880,)  "  Limitations  of  Life,"  (1S80,)  "  Contrary  Winds," 
(18S3,)  etc. 

Taylor,  (Zachary,)  a  distinguished  American  gene- 
ral, and  the  twelfth  President  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  Orange  county,  Virginia,  in  1784.  He  was  a  son  of 
Colonel  Richard  Taylor.  He  svas  educated  in  Kentucky, 
his  father  having  removed  to  Louisville,  in  that  State, 
about  1785.  He  entered  the  army  in  1808,  and  married 
Margaret  Smith  in  1810.  In  the  war  which  began  in 
1 81 2  he  served  as  captain  against  the  Indians.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  colonel  in  1832,  and  was  employed  in 
the  war  against  Black  Hawk  the  same  year.  He  de- 
feated the  Seminoles  at  Okechobee  in  December,  1837, 
and  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Florida  in  April,  1838.  About  1840  he  purchased  an 
estate  near  Baton  Rouge,  on  which  he  settled.  He  com- 
manded an  army  which  was  sent  in  the  summer  of  1845 
to  Corpus  Christi,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nueces  River. 
"Mr.  Polk  and  his  cabinet  desired  General  Taylor  to 
debark  at,  occupy,  and  hold  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  though  they  shrank  from  the  responsibility 
of  giving  an  order  to  that  effect,  hoping  that  General 
T.aylor  would  take  a  hint.  .  .  .  Official  hints  and  innuen- 
does, that  he  was  expected  to  advance  to  the  Rio  Grande, 
continued  to  reach  him ;  but  he  disregarded  them  ; 
and  at  length,  about  the  1st  of  March,  1846,  he  received 
positive  orders  from  the  President  to  advance."  (Greeley, 
"American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.   p.   186.)     On  the  8th  of 


a, '  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moSn; 


TAZEWELL 


'289 


TEFNET 


May  he  was  attacked  at  Palo  Alto  by  the  Mexican  army, 
which  he  signally  defeated.  He  gained  another  victory 
at  Resaca  de  la  Palma  on  the  9th  of  May,  soon  after 
which  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 
On  the  22d  of  February,  1847,  he  defeated  Santa  Anna  in 
a  hard-fought  battle  at  Buena  Vista.  He  received  from 
his  soldiers  the  familiar  name  of  "  Rough  and  Ready." 
In  June,  1848,  he  was  nominated  as  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  by  the  Whig  National  Convention.  1  lis  com- 
petitors were  Lewis  Cass,  Democrat,  and  Martin  Van 
Buren,  Free-Soil.  General  Taylor  received  one  hundred 
and  si.xty-three  electoral  votes,  (cast  by  fifteen  States,  in- 
cluding New  York  and  Pennsylvania,)  and  was  elected. 
In  the  next  Congress,  which  met  in  December,  1849,  the 
Democrats  had  the  majority.  An  exciting  contest  en- 
sued about  the  organization  of  the  spacious  territories 
recently  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
admission  of  California,  which  had  formed  a  constitution 
excluding  slavery.  In  his  message  of  December,  1S49, 
the  President  recommended  the  admission  of  California, 
which  was  violently  opposed  by  the  Southern  members 
of  Congress,  who  threatened  to  dissolve  the  Union.  This 
difficulty  was  obviated  or  postponed  by  Mr.  Clay's  Com- 
promise bill,  which  gave  the  pro-slavery  party  some 
compensation  for  the  admission  of  California,  by  more 
effectual  enactments  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves 
to  their  masters.  According  to  this  bill.  New  Mexico 
and  Utah  were  to  be  organized  without  the  Wilmot 
proviso ;  that  is,  the  people  of  those  territories  were  i^er- 
mitted  to  decide  whether  slavery  should  be  admitted  or 
prohibited.  Before  the  passage  of  this  compromise  bill, 
President  Taylor  died,  on  the  9th  of  July,  1850,  and  the 
executive  power  devolved  on  the  Vice-President,  Millard 
iMllmore.  The  administration  of  President  Taylor  was 
generally  popular,  especially  in  the  Free  .States,  but  it 
gave  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  extreme  pro-slavery 
party  of  the  South. 

See  C.  F.  Powei.i.,  "Life  of  General  Taylor,"  1S46;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1851  ;  "  New  American  Cyclo- 
pjedia." 

Taze'well,  tiz'wel,  (Littleton  W.,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  Senator,  born  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  in 
1774.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1824  to  1832,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in 
1834      Died  at  Norfolk  in  i860. 

Tcheou-Kong.     See  Tchew-Kong. 

Teherniayef,  ch^R-ne-S'yef,  (Mikhail  Grigorie- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  general,  born  October  24,  1828,  served 
in  the  Crimean  war  and  in  Central  Asia,  where  he  won 
great  distinction.  He  fomented  the  troubles  in  the 
lialkan  peninsula  in  1S74-76,  and  commanded  the  Ser- 
vian armies  in  the  war  which  followed.  In  this  contest 
he  was  everywhere  beaten  by  the  Turks,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  service  in  disgrace. 

Tchernyshef,  chSR'ne-shSf,  written  also  Tscher- 
nysche-w  and  Tschernytsche-w,  (Alexander  Ivano- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1779, 
served  with  distinction  in  several  campaigns  against  the 
French,  and  was  ambassador  to  Paris  in  181 1.  He  was 
jiresent  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  soon  after  the 
accession  of  Nicholas  was  appointed  minister  of  war 
and  chief  of  the  imperial  staff  of  generals.  In  1848  he 
became  president  of  the  imj^erial  council,  having  been 
previously  made  a  prince  of  the  empire.     Died  in  1857. 

Tchernyshef  or  Tscheniyschew,  (Gregory,)  a 
Russian  general  in  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  was 
born  in  1672.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Livonia 
in  1726,  and  ennobled  by  the  empress  Elizabeth  in  1742. 
Died  in  1745. 

His  sons  Zakhar  (Sachar)  (died  in  17S4)  and  Ivan 
(died  in  1797)  rose  to  the  rank  (jf  field-marshal;  and  a 
third  son,  Count  Petek,  became  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  the  courts  of  Berlin  and  Paris. 

Tcheniyshevsky,  ch§R-ne-sh6v'ske,  (Nikolai  Ga- 
VRILOVITCH,)  a  Russian  novelist,  born  at  Saratov  in  1828. 
He  was  a  writer  for  a  journal  ("The  Contemporary") 
which,  from  being  a  literary  and  economistic  review,  be- 
came the  organ  of  the  Nihilists.  He  was  banished  to  the 
mines  in  1864,  and  after  fifteen  years'  hard  labour  was  sent 
to  Siberia.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  "  Ozto-dielat  .>"' 
("  What  is  to  be  Done  ?"  1S61.)     ]:)ied  October  31,  1889. 


Tche-w-Kong,  choo  kong,  or  Tcheou-Kong,  a  Chi- 

nese  legislator,  is  supposed"  to  have  lived  eleven  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era.  He  filled  several  high 
offices  under  the  government,  and  also  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  an  astronomer,  poet,  and  warrior. 

Tchihatchef,  von,  fon  che'hachif,  (Peter,)  a  Rus- 
sian geologist,  born  near  Saint  Petersburg  in  1812.  He 
spent  about  six  years  in  the  exploration  of  Asia  Minor. 
He  published  in  1846  an  account  of  his  exploration  of 
the  Altai  Mountains,  entitled  "Voyage  scientifique  dans 
I'Altai  et  dans  les  Contrees  adjacentes,"  and  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Asia  Minor,  a  Physical,  Statistical,  and 
Archjeological  Description  of  that  Country,"  (in  French, 
2  vols.,  1853-56.)     Died  October  13,  1890. 

Tching-Tching  Kong,  ching  ching  kong,  a  Chinese 
admiral,  sometimes  called  Koxinga,  fought  against  the 
Mantchoo  Tartars,  whom  he  besieged  in  the  city  of 
Nanking  about  1656.  He  subsequently  drove  the  Dutch 
from  the  island  of  PVjrmosa,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  English  for  the  jmrpose  of  obtaining  their  aid  against 
the  Mantchoos.     Died  about  1670. 

Tchitchagof,  Tchitchagov,  or  Tschitschago'wr, 
chitch'5-gof',  (Paul  Vasilievitch,)  a  Russian  admiral 
and  general,  was  born  in  1766.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  in  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  I., 
and  became  an  admiral  in  1807.  In  1S12  he  received 
command  of  an  army  destined  to  intercept  the  retreat 
of  Napoleon  from  Moscow,  but  he  failed  in  that  design. 
He  resigned  soon  after,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
foreign  countries.     Died  in  Paris  in  1849. 

Tchitchagof  or  Tschitschago-wr,  (Vasilii  Yakov- 
LEVITCH,)  a  Russian  admiral,  born  in  1726,  served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  in  1790  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Swedes  near  Viborg.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.     Died  in  1809. 

Tchoung-Ni.     See  Confucius. 

Tebaldeo,  ti-bai'di-o,  or  Tibaldeo,  te-bdl'di-o, 
(Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1456, 
published  numerous  lyrics  and  pastorals,  in  Italian,  also 
Latin  epigrams  and  other  poems,  which  were  esteemed 
by  his  contemporaries.     Died  in  1537. 

Tebaldus.     See  Theobaldus. 

Teck,  (Francis  Paul  Charles  Louis  Alexander,) 
Duke  of,  a  German  prince,  only  son  of  Alexander,  a 
cousin  of  the  King  of  Wlirtemberg.  He  was  born 
August  27,  1837.  His  mother  was  a  morganatic  wife, 
but  in  1863  the  duke  and  his  sisters,  by  a  decree  of  the 
king,  were  recognized  as  of  the  blood  royal,  and  in  1866 
he  married  the  princess  Mary  Adelaide,  a  sister  of  the 
Duke  of  Cambridge,  and  a  relative  of  Queen  Victoria. 
The  Duchess  of  Teck  was  born  November  27,  1833. 

Te-cum'seh,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief  of  the  Shawnee 
tribe,  was  born  near  the  Scioto  River,  Ohio,  about  1770. 
Having  effected  an  alliance  of  the  Western  Indians 
against  the  whites,  a  battle  was  fought  at  Tippecanoe 
in  1811,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated  by  General 
Harrison.  Tecumseh  joined  the  English  in  the  war  of 
1812,  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  in  1813,  where  he 
commanded  the  right  wing. 

Tedaldi-Fores,  ti-dil'dee  fo'r§s,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Cremona  in  1793.  Among  his  works  are 
tragedies  entitled  "  Bondelnionte"  and  "Beatrice  Ten- 
da,"  which  are  praised  by  Sismondi  in  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."     Died  in  1820. 

Tedeschi,  ti-d§s'kee,  (Niccol6,)  surnamed  Panor- 
mitano,  pd-noR-me-ta'no,  [Lat.  Panormita'nus  ;  Fr. 
Le  Panormitain,  leh  pS'noR'me'tSN',  i.e.  "the  Paler- 
mian,"]  an  Italian  canonist,  born  at  Catania  in  1386. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  Council  of  Bale,  sup- 
ported the  anti-pope  Felix  V.,  and  became  a  cardinal  in 
1440.     Died  in  1445. 

Tefft,  tgft,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Oneida  county, 
New  York,  in  1813.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew  in  the  Asbury  University,  Indiana, 
and  subsequently  became  president  of  Genesee  Col- 
lege, New  York.  He  published  several  theological 
works.     Died  September  16,  1S85. 

Tefnet,  tiie  ancient  Egyptian  goddess  of  light,  closely 
associated  with  Siiu,  (q.  v.) 


?  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K, guttttral :  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  Z\. ) 

144 


TEG  EL 


2290 


TELEPHUS 


Tegel,  tn'gel,  (Eric,)  a  Swedish  historian,  was  ap- 
pointed historiographer  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1614. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Gustavus  I.,"  (1622,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1638. 

Tegethoflf,  von,  fon  ta'glt-hof,  (Wii.helm,)  an  Aus- 
trian vice-admiral,  born  in  Styria  in  1827.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1857,  and  defeated  the  Danish  fleet  near 
Heligoland  in  May,  1864.  Having  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  the  Austrian  fleet,  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Italians 
at  Lissa,  in  the  Adriatic,  July  19,  1866.      Died  in  1871. 

Tegner,  tgng-nain'  or  tSng-niiR',  (Esaias,)  the  most 
celebrated  poet  of  Sweden,  was  born  in  Wermland  in 
17S2.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Lund,  and  in 
1812  became  professor  of  Greek  in  that  institution.  He 
had  previously  published  a  number  of  lyrics,  and  several 
larger  poems,  entitled  "  Svea,"  (iSii,)  which  obtained 
the  prize  from  the  Swedish  Academy,  "Children  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,"  (1820,)  and  "Axel,"  (1821.)  Having 
graduated  in  theology,  he  was  appointed  in  1824  Bishop 
of  Wexio.  His  "Frithiofssaga,"  published  in  1825,  is 
esteemed  his  best  production.  It  has  obtained  a  world- 
wide reputation,  and  been  translated  into  the  principal 
modern  languages,  four  different  versions  of  it  having 
appeared  in  German.  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  "  Schulreden"  and  "Orations,"  which  were 
greatly  admired,  and  were  translated  into  German  by 
Mohnike.  Tegner  died  in  November,  1846,  and  a 
colossal  statue,  admirably  executed  by  Svarnstrdm,  was 
raised  to  his  memory  at  Lund  in  1853.  Several  of  his 
poems  have  been  translated  by  Longfellow.  He  had 
married  Anna  Myrhman  in  i8o6,  and  left  six  children. 

"E.  Tegner,  the  greatest  poet  of  Sweden,  was  a 
native  of  Wermland.  His  '  Frithiof  Saga,'  though  not 
a  regular  epic, — for  it  is  rather  a  bundle  of  lyrical 
poems  woven  into  one  epic  cycle, — is  yet  a  complete 
and  great  poem.  .  .  .  We  have  had  five  or  six  transla- 
tions of  'Frithiof,'  none  of  which  give  any  concepticn 
of  the  e.xquisite  beauty  and  splendour  of  the  original." 
(See  article  on  "  Scandinavian  Literature"  in  the  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica.") 

See  Franz^n,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  K.  Tegner,"  1846;  E.  G 
Geijer,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  E.  Tegner,"  1846;  Boettigkr,  "E. 
Tegn^r's  Levnet,"  1847;  Achard  Kahl,  "  Tegner  och  bans  Somtida 
i  Lund,"  i8gi  ;  Hagberg,  "Minnetal  ofver  E.  Tegner,"  1847; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^ralc :"  Howitt,  "  Literature  and  Ro- 
mance of  Northen:  Europe ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe  :"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1828 ;  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828  ;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  July,  1837. 

Tegoborski,  ti-go-boR'skee,  (Lewis,)  a  Polish  econ- 
omist and  diplomatist,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1793.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Studies  on  the  Pro- 
ductive Forces  of  Russia,"  (4  vols.,  1852-54.)  He  was 
a  privy  councillor  of  Russia.     Died  in  1857. 

Tela,  tee'ya,  the  last  king  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy, 
began  to  reign  in  552  a.d.,  as  the  successor  of  Totila. 
He  was  killed  near  Vesuvius,  in  a  battle  against  Narses, 

i'l  553- 

Teichmeyer,  tiK'mi'er,  (Hermann  Friedrich,)  an  j 
eminent  German   physician,  born  at  Minden  in    1685. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy,  etc.  at  Jena  in  1727,  [ 
and  published  several  works.     Died  in  1746.  \ 

Teignmouth,  tin'miith,  (John   Shore,)   Lord,   an  i 
English  statesman  and  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  in  ! 
1 75 1.     He  was  appointed  in  1773  Persian  translator  and 
secretary  to  the  provincial  council   of  Moorshedabad, 
in  India,  and  subsequently  became  a  member  of  the 
supreme  council  under  Lord  Cornwallis.     He  was  made  \ 
a  baronet  in  1792,  and  in  1793  succeeded  Cornwallis  as  | 
Governor-General  of  India.     He  resigned  this  office  in  t 
1797,  and  was  soon  after  made  a  peer  of  Ireland,  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Teignmouth.     He  had  been  elected  in 
1794  president  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  and  in   1804  be- 
came first  president  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.     He  published  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings, 
and    Correspondence    of   Sir    William    Jones,"    (1804,) 
afterwards  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Jones's  works  which 
he  brought  out  in  1807  in  13  vols.  8vo.  Lord  Teignmouth 
also  wrote  "Considerations  on  Communicating  to  the 
Inhabitants  of  India  the   Knowledge  of  Christianity," 
(1811.)     He  died  in   1834,  having  been   previously  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  privy  council  of  India. 


Teil,  du,  dii  til  or  ti'ye,  (Jean  Pierre,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1722.  He  was 
commandant  of  the  school  of  artillery  at  Auxonne,  and 
rendered  some  services  to  Bonaparte,  who  was  a  lieuten- 
ant under  him.  Bonaparte  left  a  legacy  of  one  hundred 
thousand  francs  to  the  heirs  of  Du  Teil.     Died  in  1794. 

Teiresias.     See  Tiresias. 

Teisserenc,  tis'rS.v',  (Pierre  Edmond,)  a  French 
writer  on  railroads,  was  born  at  Chateauroux  in  1814. 

Teissier,  ti'se-i',  (Antoine,)  a  French  jurist  anu 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1632.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  afterwards  Frederick  I. 
of  Prussia,  who  made  him  a  councillor  of  state  and  his 
historiographer,  and  also  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his 
son.  He  made  translations  from  Saint  Chrysostom,  Saint 
Clement,  and  Calvin,  and  wrote  "  Eulogies  of  Learned 
Men,  taken  from  the  History  of  M.  de  Thou,"  (1683,) 
and  other  works.      Died  in  1715. 

See  NiCERON,  "  M^moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Teissier,  (Guillaume  Ferdinand,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Marly-la- Ville  in  1779.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Thionville,"  (1828.)  Died 
in  1834. 

Teissier,  (Jean  Antoine.)     See  MAROtiERiTTES. 

Tejada,  (Sebastian.)     See  Lerdo  de  Tejada. 

Tekeli.     See  Tokely. 

Tel'a-mon,  [Gr.  TeK^lLv  ;  Fr.  T^lamon,  ti'lf  m6N',] 
a  hero  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  king  of  Salamis,  a 
brother  of  Peleus,  and  the  father  of  Ajax  and  Teucer, 
whose  mother  was  Hesione,  a  daughter  of  Laomedon. 
He  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  fought 
for  Hercules  against  Laomedon  and  against  the  .\mazons. 

Tel-e-cli'des  or  Tel-e-clei'des,  [T7??Li7cM(577c,]  an 
Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  about 
444  B.C.     His  works  are  lost. 

Te-leg'o-nus,  [Gr.  "YiiUyovoq;  Fr,  T6l6gone,  ti'li'- 
gon',]  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe,  was,  according  to 
the  fable,  thrown  by  shipwreck  on  the  island  of  Ithaca. 
Being  urged  by  hunger,  he  began  to  pillage  from  the 
natives,  and  was  attacked  by  Ulysses,  whom  he  killed, 
not  knowing  who  he  was. 

Teleki  or  Teleky,  ta'leh-ke,  (Ladislaus,)  a  Hun- 
garian patriot,  orator,  and  writer,  born  at  Pesth  in  181 1. 
He  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  by  the 
Liberal  party  in  1848,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
movement  for  the  independence  of  Hungary.  During 
his  absence  on  a  mission  to  France,  he  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Austrians.  He  was  elected  in  i860  a 
member  of  the  Diet,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  radical 
party.     He  died,  probably  by  suicide,  in  May,  1861. 

Te-Iem'a-ehixs,  [Gr.  T7??i|Ua,Y0f;  F"r.  T^l^maque,  ti'- 
li'mSk',]  son  of  Ulysses  (King  of  Ithaca)  and  Penelope, 
was  induced  by  Minerva,  under  the  form  of  Mentes, 
(called  also  Mentor,)  King  of  the  Taphians,  to  undertake 
a  voyage  in  search  of  his  father,  who  had  engaged  with 
the  other  Grecian  princes  in  the  Trojan  war.  After 
his  return  home,  he  discovered  Ulysses  disguised  as  a 
beggar,  and,  with  his  assistance,  put  to  death  the  suitors 
of  Penelope.  The  fortunes  of  Telemachus  form  the 
subject  of  the  admirable  moral  romance  of  Fenelon. 
After  the  death  of  his  father  he  is  said  to  have  married 
Nausicaa,  or,  as  some  say,  Circe.    (See  the  "Odyssey.") 

Telemann,  ta'leh-min',  (Geokg  Philipp,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1681,  was  appointed 
director  of  music  at  Hamburg.  His  works  were  prin- 
cipally operas.     Died  in  1767. 

Telemaque.     See  Telemachus. 

Tel-e-phas'sa,  [Gr.  TT/Xe(?aaaa  ;  Fr.  Ti6i,:6phasse,  ti'- 
li'fts',]  the  wife  of  Agenor,  and  the  mother  of  Cadmus, 
Eurojja,  and  Phoenix. 

Telephe.     See  Telephus. 

Tfcl'e-phus,  [Gr.  T^Afci-of ;  Fr.  T6Li;PHE,  ti'lif.l  an 
ancient  hero,  the  son  of  Hercules  and  -Auge,  was  King 
of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  passed  many  years  in 
poverty  and  exile.  He  fought  against  the  Greeks  in 
the  beginning  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  wounded  by 
Achilles.  An  oracle  which  he  consulted  informed  him 
that  his  wound  could  only  be  cured  by  him  who  inflicted 
it.  Having  persuaded  Achilles  to  heal  his  wound,  he 
became  an  ally  of  the  Greeks.  Euripides  and  Sopho- 
cles each  wrote  a  tragedy  entitled  "Telephus." 


a,  e,  I,  o.  u,  y,  /""^f.'  i,  i,  i),  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  s/iori;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TELESILLA 


2291 


TEMMINCK 


Tel-e-sil'la,  [Gr.  lEkea'CKka;  Fr.  T6l6sille,  ti'li'- 
s4l',)  a  Greek  lyric  poetess,  born  at  Arp;os,  lived  about 
510  B.C.  She  is  said  to  have  served  in  the  army  against 
Sparta,  and  to  have  been  equally  celebrated  for  her 
courage  and  poetical  genius. 

Teiesio,  ti-la'se-o,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
scholar,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1482.  He  was  professor  of 
Latin,  etc.  at  Rome  and  Venice.     Died  in  1534. 

Telesio,  [Lat.  Tele'sius,]  (Bernaroino,)  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1508  or  1509,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
an  opponent  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  and  an 
asserter  of  mental  independence.  He  published  some 
new  ideas  in  his  book  "  On  the  Nature  of  Things  ac- 
cording to  Proper  Principles,"  ("  Ue  Natura  Rerum 
juxta  propria  Principia.")  He  was  persecuted  by  the 
clergy  for  his  opinions.     Died  in  1588. 

See  LoTTER,  "  De  Vita  et  Philosophia  B.  Telesii,"  i73'? ;  Rixner 
and  SiBER,  "  Bernardin.  Telesiiis."  1820:  Nic6ron,  "M^moires;" 
C.  Bartholom&ss,  "  Dissertatio  de  B.  Teiesio,"  1849;  Ginguen^, 
"  Histoire  Litl^ralre  d'llalie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Geni^rale." 

Telesius.     See  Tki.esio. 

Te-les'pho-rus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  elected  in  127.     Died  in  138  A.D. 

Te-les'tas  or  Te-les'tea,  [TEAfornf  or  TeXeotw,]  an 
Athenian  dithyrambic  poet,  flourished  about  400  B.C. 

Tel'fer,  (James,)  a  Scottish  balladist,  born  at  South- 
dean,  December  3,  1800.  His  "  Border  Ballads"  (1824) 
contain  pieces  of  merit.  He  also  wrote  "  Barbara  Gray," 
(a  tale,  1835.)     Died  January  18,  1862. 

Tel'ford,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Scottish  engineer, 
born  in  Dumfriesshire  in  1757.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
shepherd,  and  was  apprenticed  at  an  early  age  to  a 
Btone-mason.  Having  subsequently  removed  tc  London,^ 
he  was  employed  in  various  architectural  works,  and 
in  1796  completed  an  iron  bridge  over  the  Severn.  In 
1801  he  finished  the  Ellesmere  Canal,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  aqueduct  bridge  over  the  valley  of  the 
Dee,  and  the  Caledonian  Ship-Canal,  esteemed  one  of 
his  greatest  works.  His  improvement  of  the  harbours 
of  Aberdeen  and  Dundee,  the  construction  of  the  Saint 
Catherine  docks,  London,  and  the  Menai  suspension 
bridge,  are  also  monuments  of  engineering  skill.  Mr. 
Telford  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London 
and  Edinburgh,  and  was  for  many  years  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  to  which  he  bequeathed 
;f  2000  for  a  premium-fund.  He  contributed  a  number 
of  articles  on  architecture,  inland  navigation,  etc.  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia."     Died  in  1834. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;'' 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839;  "Quarterly  Review"  foi 
April,  1839. 

Teligny,  de,  deh  teh-l^n'ye',  (Charles,)  a  French 
Protestant  officer  and  able  negotiator.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  civil  wars,  and  was  employed  in  sev- 
eral treaties  between  his  party  and  the  court.  He  mar- 
ried in  1571  Louise  de  Coligny,  a  daughter  of  Admiral 
de  Coligny,  and  perished  in  the  massacre  of  August, 
1572,  at  Paris.  His  widow  afterwards  was  married  to 
William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Tell,  tSl,  (WiLHELM,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  hero  and 
patriot,  born  in  the  canton  of  Uri  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  1307  he  entered  into  a  league 
with  his  father-in-law,  Walter  FUrst,  Stauffacher  von 
Schwyz,  and  Arnold  von  Melchthal  to  resist  the  tyranny 
of  the  Austrian  governor,  Hermann  Gessler.  This  officer 
having  insolently  required  the  Swiss  to  make  obeisance 
to  his  hat,  which  was  hung  up  in  public.  Tell  refused  to 
comply,  upon  which  Gessler  commanded  him  to  shoot 
an  apple  from  the  head  of  his  son,  and,  if  he  failed  to 
hit  the  mark,  his  life  should  be  the  penalty.  Tell  struck 
the  apple,  but,  on  being  asked  what  he  intended  to  do 
with  a  second  arrow  which  he  carried,  replied  that  in  case 
he  had  killed  his  son  it  was  destined  for  Gessler.  For 
this  he  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  governor's  vessel  ;  but, 
a  violent  storm  arising,  he  was  required  to  steer  the  boat, 
and,  watching  his  chance,  sprang  on  shore.  Gessler, 
having  landed  soon  after,  was  shot,  by  Tell,  while  on  his 
way  to  Kussnacht.  These  incidents  form  the  subject 
of  Schiller's  most  popular  drama.     In  the  opinion  of 


some  of  the  best  modern  critics,  there  is  a  considerable 
infusion  of  the  mythic  element  in  the  history  of  Tell  as 
it  has  come  down  to  us.  According  to  tradition,  William 
Tell  was  drowned  about  1350,  while  attempting  to  save 
a  child, — an  event  which  tjhland  has  celebrated  in  one 
of  his  lyrics. 

See  Ideler,  "  Die  Sage  vom  Schusse  des  Tell,"  1836;  G.  E.  voN 
Haller,  "Rede  iiber  W.  Tell,"  1772;  "LesOrigines  de  la  Con- 
federation Suisse,"  by  A.  Rii,i,iet,  Geneva,  1868:  J.  von  MOllkr, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Suisse  ;"  Henning,  "  W.  Tell,"  1836  ;  J.  J.  Hisely, 
"  G.  Tell,  Mythe  et  Histoire,"  etc.,  1843 ;  Baring-Gould,  "  Curious 
Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  i86g. 

Teller,  tel'ler,  (Wilhelm  Abraham,)  a  German 
theologian,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Helmstedt,  was 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1734.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Manual 
of  Christian  Faith,"  "  Dictionary  of  the  New  Testament," 
and  other  religious  works.     Died  in  1804. 

Tellez.     See  Eleanor  of  Portugal. 

Tellez,  tel-lSz',  (Balthazar,)  a  learned  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1595.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  in  his  native  city,  having  previously  taught 
belles-lettres,  philosophy,  etc.  in  the  principal  colleges 
of  Portugal.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  "  History 
of  Ethiopia,"  including  an  account  of  the  Jesuit  missions 
in  that  country,  "  History  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Por- 
tugal," and  "Compendium  of  Universal  Philosophy," 
("  Summa  universas  Philosophias.")  He  was  appointed 
provincial  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  Portugal.  Died  in 
1675. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitano." 

Tellez,  tel-y§th',  (Gabriel,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
dramatist,  known  by  his  pseudonym  ofTlRSO  DeMoLINA, 
(t^K'so  di  mo-lee'ni,)  was  born  at  Madrid  about  1585. 
Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  became  prior  of  the  con- 
vent of  Soria  in  1645.  ^^'^  comedies  are  said  to  have 
amounted  to  three  hundred,  only  sixty-eight  of  which 
have  been  preserved.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  El 
Condenado  por  Desconfiado,"  "The  Woman  who  Com- 
mands at  Home,"  ("La  Muger  que  manda  en  Casa,") 
"  Prudence  in  Woman,"  ("  Prudencia  en  la  Muger,") 
"The  Country-Girl  of  La  Sagra,"  ("La  Villana  de  La 
Sagra,")  "The  Scoffer  of  Seville,"  ("El  Burlador  de 
Sevilla,")  which  was  imitated  by  Moliere  in  his  "  Festin 
de  Pierre,"  and  "  The  Bashful  Man  in  the  Palace,"  ("El 
Vergonzoso  en  Palacio.")  These  dramas  are  ranked 
among  the  master-pieces  of  the  Spanish  theatre,  being 
esteemed  second  only  to  those  of  Lope  de  Vega,  whom 
Tellez  made  his  model.     Died  in  1648. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  article  Tirso 
DE  Molina,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Tellez  da  Sylva,  tel-lSz'  di  sil'vi,  (Manoel,)  Mar- 
quis d'Alegrete  and  Count  de  Villamayor,  a  Portuguese 
litterateur,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1682;  died  in  1736. 

TelUer,  Le.     See  Le  Tellier  and  Louvois. 

Telluccini,  t^l-loot-chee'nee,  (Mario,)  called  Ber- 
nino,  an  Italian  poet,  lived  about  1560-90.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Artemidoro,"  a  poem,  (1566.) 

Tel'lus  or  Ter'ra,  [Gr.  F^  or  Tea,]  the  goddess  of 
the  earth,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  called  the  wife  of 
Uranus  or  Ccelus. 

Temanza,  ti-min'zi,  (Tommaso,)  a  Venetian  architect 
and  writer,  born  in  1705.  He  built  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maddalena  at  Venice,  the  bridge  of  Dolo  over 
the  Brenta,  and  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Margarita  at  Padua. 
His  "  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Venetian  Architects 
and  Sculptors  of  the  Sixteenth  Century"  (1777)  is 
esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  also  published  several 
treatises  on  architecture  and  antiquities.     Died  in  1789. 

See  Negri,  "Notizie  intomo  alia  Persona  ed  alle  Opere  di  T. 
Temanza,"  1S30. 

Temme,  tem'meh,  (JoDocus,  yo-do'kiis,)  a  German 
jurist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Lette,  Westphalia, 
in  1799.  He  was  elected  to  the  Prussian  National 
Assembly  in  1848.  He  wrote  treatises  on  the  Civil  Law 
and  Penal  Law  of  Prussia,  (1846-53,)  and  other  works. 
Died  November  14,  i88i. 

Temminck,  tem'mink,  (C.  J.,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
naturalist,  born  about  1770.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  in  French,  "  The  Natural  History  of  Pigeons  and 
Gallinaceous  Birds,"  (3  vols.,  1813-15,)  a  "Manual  of 
Ornithology,"  (4  vols.,  1820-39,)  and  a  "Monography 


*  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  Yi., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z.'  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TEMPELFWFF 


229; 


TENCIN 


of  Mammalogy,  or  Descriptions  of  Some  Genera  ot 
Mammifera  of  which  Species  have  been  observed  in  the 
Museums  of  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1825-41.)     Died  in  1858. 

Tempelhoff,  von,  fon  tSm'pel-hof,  (Georg  Frikd- 
RICH,)  a  Prussian  general  and  military  writer,  born  at 
Tranipe  in  1737.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  subsequently  under  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  in  1792.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "Bom- 
bardier Prussien,"  a  "  History  of  the  Seven  Years'  War," 
and  other  works.  He  was  appointed  teacher  of  military 
science  to  the  sons  of  Frederick  William  II.  Died  in 
1807. 

Tempesta,  tgm-p5s'td,  or  Tempesti,  t6m-p§s'tee, 
(Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Florence  in  1555.  He  studied  under  Strada, 
and  afterwards  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  executed  a 
number  of  admired  works  for  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  Car- 
dinal Farnese,  and  other  persons  of  rank.  He  painted 
landscapes,  animals,  hunting-scenes,  and  battles  with 
great  spirit  and  fidelity,  and  produced  more  than  fif- 
teen hundred  etchings.  Among  the  best  of  these  we 
may  name  "The  Life  of  Saint  Anthony,"  (in  24  plates,) 
"The  Victory  of  the  Jews  over  the  Amalekites,"  and 
"Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  Apostles."  Died  in  1630. 

Tempesta,  Cavaliere,  a  celebrated  painter,  some- 
times called  PiETRO  Mulier,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in 
1637.  His  original  name  was  Peter  Molyn,  but,  owing 
to  his  skill  in  delineating  storms  at  sea,  it  was  changed 
to  Tempesta.  After  residing  for  some  time  at  Rome, 
where  he  married  and  obtained  extensive  patronage,  he 
visited  Venice  and  Genoa.  He  soon  after  contrived  the 
murder  of  his  wife,  in  order  to  marry  a  Genoese  lady 
and,  being  convicted  of  the  crime,  was  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment.  He  was  liberated  at  the  end 
of  five  years,  according  to  one  statement,  while  other 
writers  assert  that  he  was  confined  much  longer.  On 
his  release  he  settled  at  Milan,  where  he  acquired  great 
wealth  by  the  sale  of  his  pictures.     Died  in  1701. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais." 

Tem'ple,  (Frederick,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
1821,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1842.  He  became  chaplain 
to  the  queen,  head-master  of  Rugby  School  in  1858,  and 
Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1869.  He  was  author  of  one  of  the 
well-known  "Essays  and  Reviews,"  (i860,)  and  of  the 
Bampton  Lecture  for  1884,  on  the  relation  of  science  to 
religion.     In  1885  he  became  Bishop  of  London. 

Temple,  (Henry.)    See  Palmerston,  Lord. 

Temple,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  in  London,  became  a  privy  councillor  in  Ire- 
land under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  in  1641."  Died 
in  1677. 

Temple,  (John,)  a  son  of  Sir  William,  (1628-99,) 
became  secretary  of  war  in  1689.  About  a  week  after 
his  appointment  he  committed  suicide.  He  left  a  note 
expressing  regret  for  undertaking  a  task  for  which  he 
was  incompetent. 

Temple,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  British  civil  officer,  born 
March  8,  1806.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Hailey- 
bury,  and  entered  the  India  service  in  1846.  He  rapidly 
rose  in  office,  and  was  at  the  head  of  the  Bengal  gov- 
ernment, 1874-77,  and  Governor  of  Bombay,  1877-80. 
He  wrote  "  Men  and  Events  in  India,"  (1882,)  "  Oriental 
Experience,"  (1883,)  etc. 

Temple,  (Richard  Grenville,)  Earl,  an  English 
politician,  born  about  171c,  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Lord  Chatham.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in 
1756,  and  became  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  about  1758. 
"  His  talents  for  administration  and  debate,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "were  of  no  high  order.  But  his  great  posses- 
sions, his  turbulent  and  unscrupulous  character,  and  his 
skill  in  the  most  ignoble  tactics  of  faction  made  him 
one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  that  a  ministry  could 
have."    (Essay  on  "Lord  Chatham.")    Died  in  1777. 

Temple,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  jurist,  was  sec- 
retary to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  subsequently  became  a 
master  of  chancery.  Died  in  1626.  He  was  grandfather 
of  the  famous  Sir  William  Temple. 

Temple,  (Sir  William,)  a  celebrated  English  states- 
man, diplomatist,  and  writer,  born  in  London  in  1628, 
was  the  eldest  son   of  Sir  John  Temple,  who  wrote  a 


history  of  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1641.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  Henry  Hammond  the  eminent  divine.  His 
early  education  was  directed  by  the  uncle  just  named. 
He  also  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  Cudworth  was  his 
tutor,  but  he  left  college  without  a  degree  about  1647, 
and  then  set  out  upon  his  travels  on  the  continent.  He 
professed  to  be  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war.  After  a  long 
courtship,  in  which  a  variety  of  obstacles  were  encoun- 
tered, he  married,  about  1654,  Dorothy  Osborne,  who 
preferred  him  to  Henry  Cromwell,  a  son  of  the  Pro- 
tector. He  was  a  member  of  the  Irish  Convention  of 
1660,  and  of  the  first  Irish  Parliament  that  met  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  In  1665  he  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  the  Bishop  of  MUnster,  and  acquitted  himself  so  well 
that  he  was  created  a  baronet  in  1666,  and  ajjpointed  resi- 
dent at  the  vice-regal  court  of  Brussels.  "  From  this  ex- 
cellent school,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  soon  came  forth  the 
most  accomplished  negotiator  of  his  age."  He  formed 
a  friendship  with  De  Witt,  then  chief  minister  of  Hol- 
land. Temple  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  negotiating 
with  the  Dutch  and  Swedes  the  triple  alliance  against 
the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1668.  "This  memo- 
rable negotiation  occupied  only  five  days."  (Macaulay.) 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  at  the  Hague  in  1668. 
In  October,  1670,  he  was  recalled  by  the  "Cabal,"  and 
the  foreign  policy  of  the  English  court  was  reversed. 
During  the  retirement  which  followed  he  wrote  an  "  Ac- 
count of  the  United  Provinces,"  (1672,)  and  other  works. 
The  members  of  the  Cabal  raised  against  themselves 
such  a  storm  of  popular  indignation  by  subservience  to 
the  French  king,  that  the  services  of  Temple  were  re- 
quired by  Charles  II.  in  1674  to  negotiate  a  peace  with 
Holland.  "  The  highest  honours  of  the  state  were  now 
within  Temple's  reach."  (Macaulay.)  He  declined  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state,  and  accepted  the  embassy  to 
the  Hague,  (1674.)  In  1677  he  was  earnestly  pressed 
by  the  king  to  accept  thi;  oSce  of  secretary;  but  he  was 
unwilling  to  take  the  responsibility,  for  he  perceived 
that  the  signs  of  the  times  were  very  portentous  of  evil, 
Bv  the  advice  of  Temple,  Charles  appointed,  in  April, 
1679,  a  new  privy  council  of  thirty  members,  fifteen  of 
whom  were  great  officers  of  state.  Sir  William  was  a 
member  of  this  council.  "  The  perfidious  levity  of  the 
king,  and  the  ambition  of  the  chiefs  of  parties,  produced 
the  instant,  entire,  and  irremediable  failure  of  this  plan." 
(Macaulay.)  He  took  no  part  in  the  violent  contests 
which  preceded  the  revolution  of  1688,  and  after  that 
event  refused  to  become  secretary  of  state,  in  spite  of  the 
pressing  solicitations  of  William  III.  He  passed  his 
latter  years  at  Moor  Park,  Surrey,  where  Swift,  the  great 
humorist,  acted  as  his  secretary.  He  wrote  in  this  re- 
treat his  "Memoirs  of  Events  from  1672  to  1679,"  and 
several  miscellaneous  treatises.  "  Next  to  Dryden," 
says  Hallam,  "  the  second  place  among  the  polite  writers 
of  the  period  from  the  restoration  to  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury has  commonly  been  given  to  Sir  William  Temple. 
,  .  .  If  his  thoughts  are  not  very  striking,  they  are  com- 
monly just.  He  has  the  merit  of  a  comprehensive  and 
candid  mind."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") He  died  in  January,  1699.  Macaulay  censures 
his  neutrality  in  politics,  and  his  habit  of  shrinking  from 
responsibility,  but  admits  "  that  he  won  the  esteem  of  a 
profligate  court  and  of  a  turbulent  people  without  being 
guilty  of  any  great  subserviency  to  either." 

See  Macaulay,  "  Essay  on  Sir  William  Temple  ;"  Thomas  P. 
CouRTENAY,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Sir  William  Tem- 
ple," 2  vols.,  1836;  Abel  Bover,  "Memoir  of  Sir  W.  Temple." 
1714;  "  Leven  von  der  Ridder  Temple,"  Leyden,  1736;  "Life 
of  Sir  W.  Temple,"  by  his  sister.  Lady  Giffard,  1731  ;  H. 
Luden,  "  Sir  W.  Temples  Biographie,"  1808;  Burnet,  "History 
of  his  Own  Times;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Temple,  (Sir  William,)  a  diplomatist,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  Lord  Palmerston.  He 
was  for  many  years  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Naples, 
Died  in  1856. 

Tem'ple-man,  (Peter,)  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Dorchester  in  171 1,  translated  Norden's  "Travels  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia"  from  the  Danish,  and  wrote  several 
medical  treatises.     Died  in  1769. 

Teiicin,  de,  deh  tftN'siN',  (Claudine  Alexandrine 
Gu6rin,)  a  French  courtesan,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1681. 
She    became    successively   the   mistress   of  the    Duke 


a.  e,  i,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  0,  li,  y,  sliort;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


TENCIN 


2293 


TENNYSON 


of  Orleans,  Chancellor  d'Argenson,  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
and  other  distinguished  men  of  the  time.  She  was 
the  mother  of  the  celebrated  D'Alembert,  whom  she 
abandoned  and  exposed.  She  subsequently  attained 
distinction  for  her  literary  tastes  and  acquirements,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  novels.  She  numbered  among 
her  friends  Fontenelle  and  Montesquieu.  Died  in  1749. 
See  L.  BarthiJlemv,  "  M^moires  secrets  de  Madame  de  Ten- 
cin,"  1790;  Saint-Simon,  "Mdmoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Tencin,  de,  (Pierre  Gu^rin,)  a  French  cardinal  and 
politician,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1680,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  a  creature  or  trusted  agent 
of  Dubois,  and  an  adversary  of  the  Jansenists.  In  1739 
he  became  a  cardinal,  and  in  1742  received  the  title  of 
minister  of  state.     Died  in  1758. 

See  "Menioires  pour  servir  i  I'Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Tencin," 
1758- 

Tenerani,  ti-ni-ri'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  near  Carrara  about  1790.  He  studied  under 
Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  and  subsequently  produced 
a  number  of  admirable  works  illustrating  Greek  and 
Roman  mythology.  Among  the  ]5rincipal  of  these  we 
may  name  his  "Cupid  extracting  a  Thorn  from  the  Foot 
of  Venus,"  a  "  Faun  playing  on  a  Flute,"  and  a  group 
of  "Psyche  and  Venus."  He  also  executed,  among 
other  religious  works,  a  "Christ  on  the  Cross"  and  the 
"Martyrdom  of  Eudorus."  His  monumental  statues 
and  portrait-busts  are  likewise  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of  other 
learned  societies,  and  became  ])rofessor  of  sculpture  in 
the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke  at  Rome.     Died  in  1869. 

Te'nes  or  Ten'nes,  [Gr.  IV/pm/c ;  Fr.  T^nes,  ti'ngss',] 
a  fabulous  personage,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Cycnus. 
His  step-mother,  by  a  calumnious  charge,  induced  Cycnus 
to  throw  him  into  the  sea,  and  he  was  cast  upon  an 
island  which  derived  from  hiin  the  name  of  Tenedos. 
He  was  killed  by  Achilles. 

Teniers,  t^n'e-erz,  [Fr,  pron.  ti'ne-aiR',]  (DAVID,) 
the  Elder,  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  surnamed 
IL  Bassano,  from  his  admirable  imitations  of  that  artist, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1582.  He  studied  under  Rubens, 
and  afterwards  resided  many  years  in  Rome.  His 
favourite  subjects  were  tavern-scenes,  and  boors  drink 
ing  and  smoking.     Died  in  1649. 

Teuiers,  (David,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1610.  He  was  instructed 
by  his  father,  whom  he  surpassed  in  genius,  and  was 
also  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Academy  at  Antwerp.  He  is  esteemed,  in  his  de- 
partment, one  of  the  greatest  artists  of  the  Flemish 
school.  He  produced  several  historical  pieces  of  supe- 
rior merit ;  but  his  master-pieces  are  delineations  of  low 
life.  He  also  excelled  in  marine  views  and  as  a  painter 
of  animals.     Died  in  1690. 

See  Dkscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands ;"  Lecarpen- 
TIER,  "David  Teniers,"  1804;  Nagler,  " AUgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Ten'i-son,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  prelate, 
born  at  Cottenham,  in  Cambridgeshire,  in  1636.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  rose  successively 
to  be  Archdeacon  of  London,  (1689,)  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
(1691,)  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (1694.)  He  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  learning  and  piety,  and  made 
numerous  bequests  for  charitable  and  educational  pur- 
poses. He  published  several  religious  and  controversial 
works.     Died  in  171 5. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Archbishop  Tenison,"  1716. 

Tenivelli,  ti-ne-vel'lee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  biogra- 
pher, born  at  Turin  in  1756.  He  published  "  Pied- 
montese  Biography,"  ("  Biografia  Piemontese,"  5  vols., 
1784-92.)  He  was  condemned  as  a  revolutionist  by  a 
court-martial  and  shot  in  1797. 

Ten  Kate.     See  Kate,  Ten. 

Ten'nant,  (James,)  F.G.S.,  an  English  geologist,  born 
in  1808,  held  for  some  years  the  professorship  of  geology 
at  King's  College,  London,  and  was  the  author  of  "A 
Treatise  on  Geology,"  etc.     Died  February  23,  1881. 

Ten'uant,  (Smithson,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist, 
born  in  1761,  became  professor  of  chemistry  a,t  Cam- 
bridge in  1813.     He  contributed  a  nmnber  of  valuable 


essays  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Philosophica  So- 
ciety.    Died  in  1815. 

Ten'nant,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  Oriental 
scholar,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1785.  He  was  appointed  in 
1835  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  in  Saint  Mary's 
College,  Saint  Andrew's.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
dramas,  a  humorous  poem  entitled  "  Anster  Fair,"  and 
other  poetical  pieces.  He  also  made  translations  from 
the  Greek,  Persian,  etc.,  and  compiled  grammars  of  the 
Chaldee  and  Syriac  languages.     Died  in  1848. 

See  Chambers,  "  Bioj^raphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supp)enient ;)  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1814. 

Tennecker,  von,  fon  ten'ngk-er,  (Christian  Sei- 
pert,)  a  German  veterinary  writer,  born  near  Freiberg 
in  1770,  published  several  works  on  the  diseases  and 
cure  of  horses.     Died  in  1839. 

Tennemann,  ten'neh-mSn',  (Wilhelm  Gottlieb,) 
an  eminent  German  philosopher,  born  near  Erfurt  in 
December,  1761,  was  an  adherent  of  the  doctrines  of 
Kant.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  in 
1798,  and  at  Marburg  in  1804.  He  translated  into  Ger- 
man Locke's  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding." 
His  chief  work  is  a  valuable  "  History  of  Philosophy," 
("Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  11  vols.,  1798-1811,) 
of  which  he  also  published  an  abridgment,  entitled 
"  Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophie,"  (1812.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  G.  F.  Creuzer,  "Rede  am  Grabe  Tennemann's,"  iSiq  ; 
Wagner,  "  Memoria  G.  T.  Tennemanni,"  i8ig;  Cousin,  "  Cours 
de  Philosophie." 

Teu'nent,  (Gilbert,)  an  eloquent  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, born  in  the  county  of  Armagh,  Ireland,  in  1703, 
emigrated  at  an  early  age  to  America,  and  became  in 
1743  pastor  of  a  church  in  Philadelphia.     Died  in  1764. 

His  brother  William,  born  in  1705,  settled  as  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Freehold,  New  Jersey.  During  an  attack 
of  fever,  he  lay  for  three  days  in  a  trance,  and  on  his 
recovery  gave  a  description  of  what  he  saw  in  the  celes- 
tial world.  A  full  account  of  this  extraordinary  event 
was  published  by  Elias  Boudinot.     Died  in  1777. 

See  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,''  i8f4. 

Ten'nent,  (Sir  James  Emerson,)  a  distinguished 
traveller  and  statesman,  born  at  Belfast,  Ireland  in 
1804.  He  published,  under  the  name  of  Emerson,  (his 
original  name,)  "Travels  in  Greece,"  (1S25,)  "Letters 
from  the  /Egean,"  (1829,)  and  "A  History  of  Modern 
Greece,"  (1830.)  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Bel- 
fast in  1832,  and  was  several  times  re-elected.  He  was 
appointed  civil  secretary  to  the  colonial  government  of 
Ceylon  in  1845,  having  previously  been  made  a  knight. 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  named  "  Christianity  in 
Ceylon,"  etc.,  (1850,)  "Wine:  its  Use  and  Taxation," 
etc.,  (1855,)  and  "Sketches  of  the  Natural  History  of 
Ceylon,"  etc.,  (1861.)     Died  in  March,  1869. 

Ten'ney,  (Sanborn,)  an  American  naturalist,  born  at 
Stoddard,  New  Hampshire,  January  13,  1827.  He  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  College  in  1853,  and  was  professor  of 
natural  history  at  Vassar  and  afterwards  at  Williams 
College.  He  published  treatises  on  Geology  and  Natural 
History,  a  "Manual  of  Zoology,"  "Elements  of  Zo- 
ology," etc.     Died  at  Buchanan,  Michigan,  July  9,  1877. 

Ten-niel',  (John,)  an  English  designer  and  artist^ 
born  in  London  in  1820.  Self-taught,  he  has  given 
special  attention  to  the  illustration  of  books  and  period- 
icals. Much  of  his  best-known  work  is  to  be  found  in 
"Punch." 

Ten'ny-son,  (Alfred,)  Lord,  D.C.L.  and  F.R.S., 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1883  as  Baron  Tennyson  d'Eyn- 
court  of  Aldworth,  the  poet-laureate  of  England.  The 
third  of  twelve  children,  he  was  born  in  1809  in  Somerby, 
Lincolnshire,  England.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  in  1829  he  obtained  the  chan- 
cellor's medal  for  a  poem  in  blank  verse  on  "Timbuc- 
too."  Two  years  previous  he  had  published,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  brother  Charles,  a  small  volume  entitled 
"  Poems  by  Two  Brothers,"  and  he  was  still  an  under- 
graduate when,  in  1830,  he  produced  his  "  Poems,  chiefly 
Lyrical."  A  revised  and  enlarged  edition  was  issued  in 
1832,  but,  though  it  contained  such  poems  as  "The 
Lady  of  Shalott,"  "The  May  Queen,"  "The  Lotus- 
Eaters,"  "A  Dream  of  Fair  Women,"  and  "The  Palace 


c  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, pittu7-al ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  s;  th  as  in  this,     (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  2^.1 


TENON 


2294 


TERENTIANUS 


of  Art,"  it  excited  comparatively  little  attention.  Not 
until  1842,  with  the  appearance  of  two  volumes  of  "Eng- 
lish Idylls,  and  other  Poems,"  containing  "  Locksley 
Hall,"  "  The  Talking  Oak,"  "  The  Two  Voices,"  "  Dora," 
"  Morte  d'Arthur,"  and  other  masterpieces,  did  Tennyson 
take  his  rightful  place  at  the  head  of  all  living  English 
poets.  "The  Princess,  a  Medley,"  appeared  in  1847, 
and  "In  Memoriam,"  a  tribute  to  the  memory  of  his 
friend  Arthur  II.  Hallam,  was  issued  anonymously  in 
1849.  Among  Tennyson's  other  works  the  following 
may  be  mentioned  in  the  order  of  their  issue:  "Maud, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1855,)  the  first  four  "Idylls  of  the 
King,"  ("Enid,"  "Vivien,"  "Elaine,"  "Guinevere," 
(1859,)  "Enoch  Arden,  and  other  Poems,"  (1864,)  "The 
Holy  Grail,  and  other  Poems,"  (1870,)  "Gareth  and 
Lynette,  and  other  Poems,"  (1872,)  "Idylls  of  the  King," 
complete,  comprising  seven  of  the  poems  included  in  the 
last  two  volumes,  together  with  the  poems  issued  in 
1855,  (1873,)  tlis  three  dramas  "Queen  Mary,"  (1875,) 
"Harold,"  (1876,)  and  "The  Promise  of  May,"  (1882,) 
and  "  Ballads,  and  other  Poems,"  (1882.)  In  1851  he  suc- 
ceeded Wordsworth  as  poet-laureate,  and  about  the 
same  time  he  married,  and  retired  to  Faringford,  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  resided  until  1869,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Petersfield,  Hampshire. 

"It  seems  to  me,"  says  Mr.  Stedman,  in  his  "Vic- 
torian Poets,"  "  that  the  only  just  estimate  of  Tennyson's 
position  is  that  which  declares  him  to  be,  by  eminence, 
the  representative  poet  of  the  recent  era  ;  not,  like  one 
or  another  of  his  compeers,  reiiresentative  of  the  melody, 
wisdom,  passion,  or  other  partial  phase  of  the  era,  but 
of  the  time  itself,  with  its  diverse  elements  in  harmonious 
conjunction.  In  his  verse  he  is  as  truly  the  'glass  of 
fashion  and  the  mould  of  form'  of  the  Victorian  genera- 
tion in  the  nineteenth  century  as  .Spenser  was  of  the 
Elizabethan  court,  Milton  of  the  Protectorate,  Pope  of  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne.  During  his  supremacy  there  have 
been  few  great  leaders,  at  the  head  of  different  schools, 
such  as  belonged  to  the  time  of  Byron,  Wordsworth, 
and  Keats.  His  poetry  has  gathered  all  the  elements 
which  find  vital  expression  in  the  complex  modern  art." 

Tenon,  teh-n6N',(TACQUES  Ren6,)  a  celebrated  French 
surgeon,  born  near  Joigny  in  1724.  He  studied  anatomy 
in  Paris  under  Winslow,  and  was  appointed  in  1744 
army  surgeon  of  the  first  class.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1759.  Among  his  most 
important  works  are  his  "  Memoirs  on  the  Exfoliation 
of  Bones"  and  "Researches  on  Capsulary  Cataracts." 
Died  in  1816. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Tenon  ;"  "  Biographie  Mddicale." 

Tenore,  ti-no'ri,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born 
at  Naples  in  1781.  He  founded  the  botanic  garden  of 
Naples,  of  which  he  was  director  for  many  years.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora  Neapolitana," 
(5  vols.)     Died  in  1861. 

Teuot,  ti'no',  (EuofeNE,)  a  French  journalist,  born  at 
Larreule,  May  2,  1839.  He  became  editor  of  the  "  Siecle," 
a  popular  and  liberal  daily  journal  of  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished an  able  and  impartial  work,  entitled  "  Paris  in 
December,  1851,  or  the  Coup-d'fitat  of  Napoleon  HI.," 
which  has  been  translated  into  English.    Died  in  1890. 

Ten  Rhyne.     See  Rhyne. 

Tenterden,  Lord.    See  Abbott,  (Charles.) 

Tentori,  tSn-to'ree,  (Cristoforo,)  a  distinguished 
historian,  of  Venetian  extraction,  born  in  Spain  in  1745. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Civil  and  Political  History  of 
the  Republic  of  Venice,"  etc.,  (12  vols.,  17S5,)  which 
was  followed  in  1799  by  an  account  of  the  destruction 
of  the  republic  in  1797.     Died  in  i8jO. 

Tentzel  or  Tenzel,  tent'sel,  (Wilhelm  Ernst,)  a 
German  antiquary  and  journalist,  born  in  Thuringia 
in  1659.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "Saxonia 
Numismatica,"  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation,"  and 
other  works  on  tlie  history  and  antiquities  of  Germany. 
In  1688  he  established  a  monthly  literary  review,  which 
was  the  first  journal  of  the  kind  that  had  appeared  in 
Germany.     Died  in  1707. 

Tenzel.     See  Ten  rzEL. 

Teobaldo,  the  Italian  for  Theobald,  which  see. 

Teocrito.     See  Theocritus. 

Teodoro.    See  Theodorus. 


Teodosio.     See  The(jdosius. 

Teofilo.     See  Theophilus. 

Teofrasto.     See  Theophrastus. 

Teplof  or  Teplow,  tSp'lof,  written  also  Teplov, 
(Gregory  Nikolaievitch,)  a  Russian  savant  and  sena- 
tor, born  about  1720.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  wrote  various  works.  Died 
in  1779. 

Teramo,  da,  dS  ta'ra-mo  or  tSr'i-mo,  (Jacopo  Pai- 
LADINO,)  an  Italian  prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Teramo 
in  1349.  He  wrote  "Trial  of  Lucifer  against  Jesus," 
("  Processus  Luciferi  contra  Jesum,")  and  the  "  Consola- 
tion of  Sinners,"  ("Consolatio  Peccatorum,"  1472.)  Died 
in  1417. 

Terburg,  ter'biirg  or  t^R'buRH,  (Geraart,)  a  cele- 
brated painter  of  the  Dutch  school,  born  near  Overyssel 
in  1608.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  subsequently  visited 
Madrid,  London,  and  Paris,  his  works  being  everywhere 
received  with  distinguished  favour.  His  most  admired 
productions  are  conversation-pieces,  which  department 
of  the  art  he  is  said  to  have  originated.  His  pictures 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  Dresden,  Amsterdam, 
Paris,  Munich,  and  Vienna,  also  a  number  in  England  , 
and  many  of  them  have  been  engraved  and  lithographed. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  picture  of  the  pleni- 
potentiaries at  the  Congress  of  Miinster,  and  portraits 
of  the  royal  family  of  Spain.     Died  in  1681. 

Terceira,  t6i<-sa/era,  DuKK  of,  and  Count  of  Villaflor, 
a  Portuguese  statesman  and  military  commander,  born 
about  1790.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  queen  Maria  da 
Gloria,  and  gained  several  advantages  over  Don  Miguel. 
Having  been  made  a  marshal,  he  was  appointed  in  1829 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  constitutional  army.  He 
became  minister  of  war  in  1842.     Died  in  i860. 

Tercier,  t^R'se-i',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  diplomatist  and 
linguist,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  was  employed  by 
Louis  XV.  to  direct  his  secret  correspondence.  Died 
in  1767. 

Terence,  tSr'Snss,  or  Terentius,  te-r§n'she-us,  [Ft. 
Terence,  ti'rSxss';  It.  Terenzio,  ti-rgn'ze-o,]  or,  more 
fully,  Pub'lius  Teren'tius  A'fer,  a  celebrated  Roman 
comic  poet,  born  at  Carthage  about  195  B.C.  At  an  early 
age  he  became  the  slave  of  a  Roman  senator,  named 
Terentius  Lucanus,  who  gave  him  a  good  education,  to 
which  he  added  the  gift  of  liberty.  Terence  was  on  in- 
timate terms  with  .Scipio  Africanus  Minor  and  Lailius, 
who  are  said  to  have  aided  him  in  the  composition  of  his 
plays.  His  first  work,  entitled  "  Andria,"  was  performed 
at  Rome  in  166  B.C.  He  produced  "  Hecyra"  in  165, 
and  "The  Self-Tormentor"  ("  Heauton-timorumenos") 
in  163.  Three  other  of  his  plays  have  come  down  to  us, 
viz.,  "  Adelphi,"  "  Phormio,"  and  "Eunnchus." 

After  he  had  written  these,  he  travelled  in  Greece,  and 
translated,  it  is  said,  one  hundred  and  eight  of  Menan- 
der's  comedies.  He  never  returned  to  Rome,  but  died 
in  159  or  158  B.C.  His  works  are  models  of  elegant 
diction  and  pure  Latinity.  They  were  praised  by  Ca;sar 
and  Cicero,  and  are  said  to  have  escaped  the  censures 
of  the  Church.  He  is  deficient  in  vis  comica,  ("comic 
power,"  or  "broad  humour,")  but,  according  to  Horace, 
excels  in  art.  (Epistle  II.  1.  59.)  The  kindly  human 
sympathy  manifested  by  Terence  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  popularity  of  his  dramas.     When  the  words 

"  Homo  sum;  humani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto,"* 
were  spoken  on  the  Roman  stage,  they  were  received 
by  all  classes  with  tumultuous  and  reiterated  applause. 
His  plays  have  been  translated  into  English  by  George 
Col  man. 

Terentia,  te-r?n'she-a,  a  Roman  lady,  who  became 
the  wife  of  Cicero  the  orator  about  80  B.C.  She  bore 
him  a  daughter  Tullia  and  a  son  Marcus.  In  the  year 
46  she  was  repudiated  by  her  husband,  for  reasons  that 
have  not  been  satisfactorily  explained ;  but  this  act  is 
generally  considered  to  have  left  a  stain  on  the  reputation 
of  Cicero.  Terentia  appears  to  have  been  a  woman  of 
£,ood  sense  and  great  firmness  of  character.  She  is  said 
to  have  attained  the  extraordinary  age  of  one  hundred 
and  three  years. 

Terentlanus.     See  Maurus  Terentianus. 


*  "  I  am  a  man  :  and  I  have  :in  interest  in  eveiythiiig  that  concerns 
Lumanity."     See  H eajiton-timonunenos,  Act  I.,  Scene  I. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 1'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far.  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TERENTIUS 


2295 


TERTULLIAN 


Terentiiis.     See  Terence. 

Terentius  (te-rei/she-us)  Cle'niens,  a  Roman  jurist, 
the  date  of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  was  the  author  of  a 
wor]<  entitled  "  Ad  Legem  Juliani  et  Papiam,"  in  twenty 
books.     Only  fragments  of  it  are  extant. 

Terentius  Varro.    See  Varro. 

Terenzio.     See  Terence. 

Teresa.     See  Theresa. 

Ter-hune',  (Mary  Virginia,)  an  American  author, 
known  by  the  pseudonym  of  Marion  IIarland,  was 
born  in  Amelia  county,  Virginia,  about  1837.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Hawes.  In  1856  she  married  the  Rev. 
E.  P.  Terhune,  and  she  has  resided  chiefly  in  Newark, 
New  Jersey,  and  Springfield,  Massachusetts.  Among 
her  numerous  and  very  popular  stories  are  "Alone," 
(1854,)  "Moss  Side,"  (1857,)  "  Sunnybank,"  (1866,)  "At 
Last,"  (1S70,)  "Jessamine,"  (1S73,)  "  Uandicajiped,"  etc. 
She  has  also  written  "  Eve's  Daughters,"  "  Loiterings  in 
Pleasant  Paths,"  "Our  Daughters,"  and  the  "Common 
Sense  Series"  of  books  on  domestic  economy. 

Terme.     See  Terminus. 

Ter'ml-nus,  [Fr.  Terme,  t?Rm,]  a  Roman  divinity, 
who  WIS  supposed  to  preside  over  the  boundaries  of 
nations  and  of  private  landed  property.  The  worship 
of  Terminus  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Numa. 

Ternauz,  t§R'no',  (Guili.aume  Louis,)  Baron,  a 
French  statesman  and  manufacturer,  born  at  Sedan  in 
1763.  He  represented  the  dejiartment  of  Seine  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1818  to  1823.  He  was  an 
earnest  supporter  of  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons,  but  took 
an  active  part  against  Charles  X.  in  the  revolution  of 
1830.  He  published  several  treatises  on  finance  and 
manufactures,  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  spinning- 
machines  for  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  the  improvement  of  the  national  industry. 
Died  in  1833. 

Ternaux,  (Henri,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  pub- 
lished "Voyages,  Relations,  and  Memoirs  relating  to 
the  Discovery  and  Conquest  of  America."  the  "  Biblio- 
th^que  Americaine,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1S64. 

Ter-pan'der,  [Gr.  TepTrawJ/rtof  ;  Fr.  Terpandre,  iSr'- 
pflNdR',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  musician,  born 
on  the  island  of  Lesbos  about  680  B.C.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  heptachord,  or  seven-stringed  lyre,  and  is 
said  to  have  founded  the  first  school  of  music  in  Greece. 
He  was  the  author  of  hymns  and  lyrics,  none  of  which 
are  e.xtant. 

See  K.  O.  MuLLER,  "  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece;"  Bode,  "  Poetas  lyrici  Graci." 

Terpandre.     See  Terpandf.r. 

Terp-si-eh'o-re,  [Gr.  TfpT/"T"P'?  or  Tf/r/)<Ywa,  i.e. 
"delighting  in  the  dance,"  from  Tepnu),  to  "delight,"  and 
Xofieia,  a  "dance,"]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
dancing  and  choral  song.  She  was  represented  with 
a  crown  of  laurel,  and  with  a  lyre  in  her  hand. 

Terquem,  t§R'k5N',  (Olry,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Metz  in  1782,  was  a  Jew.  He  published  several 
mathematical  works.     Died  in  Paris  in  1862. 

Ter'ra,  [Fr.  Terre,  taiR,]  a  name  given  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  and  identified  with 
the  Ge  [Gr.  Tea  or  T^]  of  the  Greek  mythology.  She 
was  the  mother  of  the  Titans,  Gigantes,  and  Oceanus. 
(See  Tellus.) 

Terrail,  du.     See  Bayard,  (Pierre.) 

Terrasson,  tJ'rt's^N',  (Antoine,)  a  French  lawyei 
and  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1705.  He  wrtne  a  "His- 
tory of  Roman  Jurisprudence,"  (1750.)     Died  in  1782. 

Terrasson,  (Gaspard,)  a  French  Jansenist  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1680.  His  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  4  vols.,  1749.     Died  in  1752. 

Terrasson,  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  French  scholai 
and  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1670,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Critical  Disserta- 
tion on  Homer's  Iliad,"  (1715,)  "Three  Letters  on  the 
New  System  of  Finance,"  (1720,)  in  defence  of  John 
Law's  projects,  a  philosophical  romance  entitled  "  Se- 
thos,"  on  the  model  of  Fenelon's  "Telemaque,"  and 
other  works.  In  1732  he  succeeded  Morville  in  the 
French  Academy.     Died  in  1750. 

See  D'Alembert,  "Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Acacl^mie  Fran- 
paise  ;"  Granojran  de  Fouchy,  "  filoge  de  Terrasson  ;"  "  Noiivelle 
Biographie  Generale :"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iii.,  (iSsi.) 


Terrasson,  (Mathieu,)  an  eloquent  French  lawyer 
and  jurist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1669,  was  the  father  of 
Antoine,  noticed  above.     Died  in  1734. 

Terray,  ti'ri',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Forez  in  17 15.  He  became  controller-general 
of  the  finances  in  1769,  and  was  removed  in  1774,  Died 
in  1778. 

See  "Noiivelle  Biographie  Gdii^rale." 

Terreros  y  Pando,  t6r-ra'r6s  e  p.1nMo,  (Estrban.) 
a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  grammarian,  born  in  Biscay  in 
1707.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Si^anish 
Language,  with  Definitions  in  Latin,  French,  and  Italian," 
("Diccionario  Castellano,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1785-93.)  Died 
at  Forli,  in  Italy,  in  1782. 

Ter'rill,  (William  R.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1832,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  -Shiloh,  (fighting 
for  the  Union,)  April,  1862,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Perryville,  October  8  of  that  year. 

Ter'ry,  (Alfred  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Hartfi^rd,  Connecticut,  in  1827,  was  a  lawyer  before  the 
civil  war.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the  ex])edition  against 
Port  Royal  in  November,  1861,  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  March,  1862,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  capture  of  Fort  Wagner,  in  September,  1863.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  the  James  River 
in  Virginia  in  the  summer  of  1864.  He  was  selected  by 
General  Grant  to  coinmand  an  expedition  against  Fort 
Fisher,  North  Carolina,  with  the  co-oi)eration  of  Admiral 
D.  D.  Porter.  On  the  15th  of  January,  1865,  he  assaulted 
that  fort,  which,  after  a  very  obstinate  defence,  was  cap- 
tured, with  its  entire  garrison  and  armament.  "Thus 
was  secured,"  says  General  Grant,  "  by  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  navy  and  army,  one  of  the  most  important 
successes  of  the  war."      Died  December  16,  1890. 

Ter'ry,  (Daniel,)  an  English  comedian,  born  at  Bath 
about  1780.  He  performed  with  success  at  Liverpool 
and  Edinburgh,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  and 
imtronage  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  was  subsequently 
for  a  time  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Adelphi  Theatre, 
London.     Died  in  1828. 

Terry,  (Edward.)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1590,  accompanied  the  embassy  to'  the  Great  Mogul  in 
1615,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "Travels  in 
the  East  Indies,"  etc.,  (1655.) 

Terry,  (Ellen,)  a  gifted  English  actress,  born  at 
Coventry,  February  27,  184S.  Her  sister.s,  Kate,  (Mrs. 
Lewis,)  Florence,  (Mrs.  Morris,)  and  Marion,  were 
also  successful  actresses.  She  first  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  a  child's  part  in  1856.  Among  her  best  parts 
are  Portia,  Pauline,  and  Ophelia,  which  latter  character 
she  has  chiefly  played  to  Mr.  Irving's  Hamlet.  She  is 
married  to  Mr.  Wardell,  known  on  the  stage  as  Mr. 
Charles  Kelly. 

Tersan,  de,  deh  tgR'sdw',  (Charles  Philippe  Ca.m- 
PION,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1736; 
died  in  1819. 

Tersteegen,  tgR-sti'cen,  (Gerhard,)  a  German 
hymn-writer,  born  at  Mors,  near  Dusseldorf,  November 
25,  1697.  He  published  "A  Spiritual  Flower-Garden," 
"  Spiritual  Crumbs,"  and  other  writings.  (See  his 
"  Works,"  8  vols.,  1846,  and  his  "  Life,"  translated  by 
S.  Jackson,  1832.)  Died  April  3,  1769.  Tersteegen  is 
considered  the  best  poet  among  the  German  mystics. 

Tertre,  du.     See  Dutertre. 

Ter-tul'li-an,  [Lat.  Tertullia'nus  ;  Fr.  Tertul- 
LIEN,  tgR'tii'le'-iN';  It.  Tertulliano,  teu-tool-le-il'no,] 
(QuiNTUS  Sepi'IMIUS  Florens.)  an  eminent  Latin  Father 
of  the  Church,  born  at  Carthage  about  160  a.d.,  was 
oriuinally  a  heathen.  He  adopted  the  profession  of 
advocate  or  lawyer.  The  date  of  his  conversion  to 
Christianity  is  not  preserved.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
was  ordained  a  presbyter  in  the  Church  of  Carthage. 
About  the  end  of  the  second  century  he  left  the  Catholic 
Church  and  joined  the  Montanists.  He  acquired  great 
inHiience  among  the  Christians  of  his  time.  He  was  a 
man  of  powerful  intellect,  ardent  temper,  austere  char- 
acter, and  great  erudition.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
unknown,  but  he  is  said  to  have  attained  a  great  age. 

Tertullian  wrote  numerous  works,  partly  devotional 
and  partly  controversial,  which  are  still  extant.     The 


•  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  /lan/:  g  asy.-  G,  h,  K.spUtnral;  N,  tiasal;  R,  trilU-d:  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TERTULLIANO 


2296 


TEUCER 


following  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  before  he 
became  a  Moiuanist:  "Letter  to  the  Martyrs,"  ("Ad 
Mai  tyres,")  "On  Prayer,"  {"  De  Oralione,")  "On  I'ap- 
lisni,"  ("De  15aplismo,")  "  Advice  to  his  Wife,"  ("  Ad 
Uxorem,")  "On  Public  Games  or  Shows,"  ("  De  Spec- 
taculis,"  about  198,)  and  "De  Pr:escriptione  HaereLi- 
corum,"  a  treatise  against  heretics.  After  he  joined  the 
Montanists,  he  wrote  (probably)  "Against  Marcion," 
("Adversus  Marcionem,")  "On  the  Body  of  Christ," 
("  De  Carne  Christi,")  "On  the  Resurrection  of  the 
Body,"  ("  De  Resurrectione  Carnis,")  "  On  the  Soldier's 
Crown,"  ("  De  Corona  Militis,")  and  several  others. 
Among  his  most  important  works  is  his  "Apology  to 
the  Nations  for  the  Christians,"  ("  Apologeticus  adversus 
Gentes  pro  Christianis,"  dated  198  a.d.)  This  is  an  elo- 
quent and  powerful  vindication  of  the  Christian  Church 
against  false  accusations. 

See  EusEBius,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Allix,  "  Dissertatio 
de  'I'eniilliani  Vita  et  Scriptis ;"  1680;  Nhander,  "  Antignosticus 
Geist  des 'rertulliamis,"  etc.,  1825;  A.  db  Makcf.rie,  "DeTertiil- 
liaiio,"  1853;  P.  Ekkkman,  "  Dissertatio  de  Tertulliano,"  1761  ;  Pho- 
Tius,  "  Bibliotheca:"  Hesselberg,  "Tertullian's  Lehre  aiis  seinem 
Schriften  entwickelt,"  1S48;  Baronius,  "Annales;"  "  Nouvelle 
BioRiapliie  Geiierale. " 

Tertulliano.     See  Tertullian. 

Tertiillianus.     See  Tertullian. 

Tertullien.     See  Tkrtullian. 

Terwesten,  ter-wgs'ten,  or  Ter-westyn,  (AuGus- 
rVN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1649.  He 
studied  in  Italy,  and  became  about  1690  court  painter 
to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  afterwards  Frederick 
William  of  Prussia.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin,  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  principal  founders.     Died  in  lyii. 

Terwesten,  (Elias,)  a  painter  of  flowers  and  fruits, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  165 1,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding.    Died  at  Rome  in  1724. 

Ter"westen,  (Matthew,)  a  Dutch  historical  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1670,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding.    Died  in  1735. 

Terzi.     See  Lana  Terzl 

Tesi,  ta'see,  (Mauko  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
also  called  IL  Maurino,  born  at  Montalbano  in  1730. 
He  was  patronized  by  Algarotti,  who  commends  his 
genius  in  very  high  terms.  He  excelled  particularly  in 
arcliitectural  ])ictures.     Died  in  1766. 

Tesse,  de,  deh  ti'si',  (Mans  Jean  Baptiste  Ren6 
de  Froulay — deh  fRoo'LV,)  Comte,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1651.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703, 
and  obtained  command  of  the  army  in  Spain  in  1704. 
Died  in  1725. 

Tessier,  ti'se-i',  (Alexandre  Henri,)  a  French 
writer  nn  agriculture,  born  near  fitampes  in  1741  ;  died 
in  1837. 

Tessin,  tSs-seen',  (KarlGustaf,)  Count,  a  Swedish 
diplomatist  and  statesman,  son  of  Nicodemus  Tessin, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1695.  He  was 
employed  in  embassies  to  Vienna,  Versailles,  and  Berlin, 
and  was  subsequently  appointed  governor  of  the  crown- 
prince,  afterwards  Gustavus  III.  He  wrote  for  his 
pupil  a  work  entitled  "  Letters  from  an  Old  Man  to  a 
Young  Prince."     Died  in  1770. 

See  HoRPicEN,  "  Aminiielse-Tal  bfver  C.  G.  Graf  Tessin,"  1771  ; 
Ehrenheim,  "Tessin  och  Tessiniana,"  i8iq;  Montgomery,  "  C. 
G.  Tessin's  Dagbok  med  liistorik  Inledning,"  1824. 

Tessin,  (Nicodemus  Valentinson.)  born  at  Stral- 
sund  in  1619,  was  appointed  royal  architect  by  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden.     Died  about  1688. 

His  son,  Count  Nicodemus,  born  in  1654,  studied 
under  Bernini  at  Rome.  Being  appointed  court  archi- 
tect, he  began  in  1697  the  erection  of  the  royal  palace 
at  Stockholm,  which  ranks  among  his  best  works.  He 
also  constructed  the  cathedral  at  Calmar,  and  Count 
Oxenstiern's  monument.    Died  in  1728. 

Tes'ta,  (CAms  Trebatius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  was  a 
correspondent  of  Cicero,  and  a  master  of  Labeo.  He 
wrote  on  civil  law.  He  was  a  pariisan  of  Cassar  in  the 
civil  war. 

Testa,  tgs'til,  (PiKTRo,)  called  II  Lucchesino,  (61 
Inok-ki-see'no.)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Lucca  in  161 7,  was  a  pupil  of  Domenichino.  He  worked 
in  Rome.     Among  his  best  pictures  are  "The  Death  of 


Beato  Angelo,"  and  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents." 
His  etchings  are  highly  prized.     Died  in  1650. 

Teste,  tSst,  (Alphonse,)  a  French  physician,  born 
about  1814,  He  has  written  in  defence  of  the  homoeo- 
pathic system. 

Teste,  (FRANgois  Antoine,)  a  French  general,  bom 
at  Bagnols  in  1775.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bor  >- 
dino  in  1812,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1813. 
Died  in  1862. 

Teste,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  jurist,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bagnols  in  1780.  After  the 
revolution  of  July,  1830,  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  became  minister  of  justice  in  1839,  and 
president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1843.  Being 
convicted  of  corruption  in  1847,  he  was  sentenced  to 
fine  and  imprisonment,  and  deprived  of  his  office.  Died 
in  1852. 

Testelin  or  Tettelin,  tgt'liN',  (Louis,)  an  eminent 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1615.  He  studied  under 
Vouet,  and  was  elected  in  1648  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture.  He 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  in  1650.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  Resurrection  of  Ta- 
bitha,  by  Saint  Paul,"  and  "The  Flagellation  of  Saint 
Paul  and  Silas,"  both  in  the  church  of  Notre-DaiTie, 
at  Paris.     Died  in  1655. 

His  brother  Henri,  born  in  1616,  also  became  prcj- 
fessor  of  painting  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Opinions  of  the  Most 
Skilful  Painters  on  the  Practice  of  Painting  and  Sculp- 
ture," etc.,  (1699.)     Died  in  1695. 

See  FoNTENAV,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Testi,  tSs'tee,  (Fulvio,)  Count,  an  eminent  Italian 
lyric  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1593.  He  published  a 
volume  of  poems  ("Rime")  in  1613.  He  became  secre- 
tary of  state  under  Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Modena,  who 
employed  him  in  important  missions  to  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  and  to  Venice.  In  1646  he  offended  the  Duke  of 
Modena  by  overtures  to  obtain  office  under  Cardinal 
Mazarin.     Died  in  1646. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Vita  del  Conte  F.  Testi,"  17S0;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Testu,  tSs'tii',  (Jacques,)  Abb6,  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1626.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy  in  1665.     Died  in  1706. 

Te'thys,  [Gr.  T7?(?wf  ;  Fr.  T6thys,  tk't^ss',]  in  classic 
mythology,  wasadaughterof  Uranus,  the  wifeof  Oceanus, 
and  the  mother  of  the  Oceanides. 

Tet'ri-ciis,  (Caius  Pesuvius,)  a  Roman  officer,  some- 
tiines  called  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He  assumed 
imperial  power  at  Burdig'ala  (Bordeaux)  in  267  A.D.  He 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Chalons  in  274  by 
Aurelian,  who  treated  him  kindly. 

Tettenborn,  tet'ten-boRn',  (Friedrich  Karl,)  Ba- 
ron, a  German  general,  born  in  the  county  of  Hohn- 
stein  in  177S,  served  in  the  Austrian  campaigns  of  1805 
and  1809,  and  subsequently  entered  the  Russian  army. 
In  1819  he  was  appointed  ambassador  from  Baden  to 
Vienna,  where  he  died  in  1845. 

Tetzel  or  Tezel,  t§t'sel,  [Lat.  Tetze'lius,]  origi- 
nally Diez,  deets,  or  Diezel,  deet'sel,  (Johann,)  a 
famous  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Leipsic,  was  appointed 
by  the  pope,  about  1502,  vendor  of  indulgences.  His 
scandalous  deception  of  the  people,  together  with  his 
loose  life,  attracted  the  attention  of  Luther,  and  was 
one  of  the  exciting  causes  of  the  Reformation.  (Sec 
Luther.)     Died  in  1519. 

See  P.  EivKRMAN,  "  Dissertatio  de  J.  Tetzelio,"  1761  ;  V.  Groene, 
"Tetzel  mid  Luther,"  1853;  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.," 
vol.  ii.  book  ii. 

Teu'ger,  [Gr.  Trfi/cpof,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Troy,  from 
whom  the  Trojans  derived  the  name  of  Teucri,  was 
supposed  to  be  a  son  of  the  river  Scamander  and  the 
nymph  Idaea.  His  daughter  Batea  or  Arisbe  was  mar- 
ried to  Dardanus. 

Teucer,  a  Greek  hero,  a  son  of  Telamon  and  He- 
sione,  was  a  half-brother  of  Ajax  the  Great,  and  was 
renowned  for  his  skill  as  an  archer.  Having  been  one 
of  the  suitors  of  Helen,  he  joined  the  expedition  against 
Troy,  and  signalized  his  valour  in  the  siege  of  that  city. 
After  the  capture  of  Troy,  he  was  banished  or  excluded 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  [irolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y, short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsciu-e:  far,  ilW,  fdt;  n\et;  n6t;  gofid;  moon; 


TEUFFEL 


2297 


THALES 


/roni  his  native  country  by  Telamon,  and  emigrated  to 
Cyprus,  in  which  he  reigned,  and  founded  Salamis. 

Teuffel,  toif'fel,  (Wilhelm  Sigismund,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Ludwigsburg,  September  27,  1820.  He 
was  educated  chiefly  at  Tubingen,  where  in  1849  'i^  be- 
came a  professor  of  classical  philology.  His  published 
works  relate  largely  to  particular  authors,  Greek  and 
Roman.  His  best  work  is  "  Geschichte  der  romischen 
Literatur,"  (1868-70.)     Died  March  8,  1878. 

Te-w'fik,  (Mohammed,)  a  Khedive  of  B'gypt,  born 
November  10,  1852.  On  the  deposition  of  his  father 
Ismail,  in  1879,  the  European  bond-holders'  representa- 
tives placed  Tevvfik  in  the  khedivial  seat.  The  attempted 
revolution  under  Arabi  Pasha  (q.  v.)  followed  soon  after, 
and  also  the  Soudanese  revolt  (1883-84)  of  El  Mahdi, 
"the  false  prophet." 

Texeira,  ti-sha^-ri,  or  Texera,  ti-sha'rS,  (Joz^,)  a 
learned  Portuguese  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1543,  became 
prior  of  the  convent  of  Santarem.  He  was  subsequently 
appointed  chaplain  to  Henry  HI.  of  France,  and  was 
retained  in  the  same  office  by  Henry  IV.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Genealogy  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Conde," 
"Oil  the  Origin  of  Portugal,"  etc.,  and  other  historical 
and  genealogical  works,  in  Latin.     Died  in  1604. 

See  Ravle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  M^inoires." 

Texeira,  (Pedro,)  a  Portuguese  traveller  and  Ori- 
ental scholar,  born  about  1570.  Having  spent  several 
years  in  Persia,  where  he  became  thoroughly  versed  in 
the  language  of  that  country,  he  visited  Italy,  France, 
and  Holland.  His  principal  work,  written  in  Spanish, 
is  entitled  "An  Account  of  the  Kings  of  Persia  and 
Ormuz,"  etc.,  (1610.)  The  date'of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Texera.     See  Texeira. 

Texier,  t§s'se-i',  (Charles  F6lix  Marie,)  a  French 
archaeologist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1802.  Having  re- 
ceived from  the  government  in  1833  a  mission  to  explore 
the  antiquities  of  Asia  Minor,  he  made  four  visits  to 
that  region  in  ten  years.  He  published  a  "  Description 
of  Asia  Minor:  Fine  Arts,  Monuments,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1839-48,)  and  a  "Description  of  Armenia,  Persia,"  etc., 
(2  vols.,  1842-45.)      Died  at  Paris,  July  i,  1871. 

Texier,  (Edmond,)  a  French  Utteratenr,  born  at 
Rambouillet  in  1816.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Siecle"  of  Paris,  and  published  several  political  and 
critical  works,  including  the  witty  "Portraits  de  Kel-Kun,' 
(1S75.)     \i\<t(\  in  1867. 

Textor.     See  Ravisius  Textor. 

Teyler  van  der  Hulst,  ti'ler  vtn  Alx  hiilst,  (Pieter,) 
a  Dutch  Anabaptist,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1702,  left  the 
greater  part  of  a  large  fortune  to  found  in  his  native 
town  a  learned  institution  called  by  his  name.  Died 
•'n  1778. 

Tezel.     See  Tetzel. 

Thaarup,  taw'rtip,  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  poet,  born 
at  Copenhagen  in  1749.  He  was  the  author  of  dramatic 
poems  entitled  "The  Harvest-Home"  and  "Peter's 
Wedding,"  and  of  numerous  lyrics,  which  enjoy  great 
popularity  among  his  countrymen.     Died  in  1821. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon  ;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe." 

Thabaud.     See  Latouche. 

Thabet,  tha'bet,  (Ben  Kor'rah  or  Ibn  (Ib'n)  Kor'- 
rah,)  a  celebrated  Oriental  physician  and  mathematician, 
born  at  Harran,  in  Mesopotamia,  in  835  a.D.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  caliph  Motadhed  Billah,  who  made 
him  one  of  his  astrologers.  He  was  the  author  of  nu- 
merous works  on  medicine,  mathematics,  and  natural 
histor}'.     Died  in  901. 

Thabet,  (Ben  SenSn,)  grandson  of  the  preceding,  ob- 
tained a  high  reputation  as  a  physician  and  philosopher, 
and  became  superintendent  of  the  hospital  at  Bagdad  in 
946  a.D.     He  wrote  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times." 

Thach'er,  (George,)  an  American  judge,  born  at 
Yarmouth,"  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He  was  a  member 
ot  Congress  from  1789  to  i8oi,and  was  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  from  1800  to  1824. 
He  was  noted  for  hi.^wit.     Died  in  1S24. 

Thacher,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Barnstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  Pie 
was  appointed  in  1778  chief  surgeon  of  the  first  Virginia 


regiment,  and  subsequently  of  a  New  England  regiment. 
He  published  the  "  American  New  Dispensatory,"  (1810,) 
"A  Military  Journal  during  the  Revolutionary  War,'" 
(1823,)  "American  Medical  Biography,"  (1828,)  and 
several  other  works.     Died  in  1844. 

Thacher,  (Peter,)  D.D.,  an  American  CalMJnistic 
divine  and  celebrated  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Milton, 
Massachusetts,  in  1752.  He  became  in  1785  pastor  of 
the  Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston.  He  was  the  author 
of  an  "Oration  against  Standing  Armies,"  "Observa- 
tions on  the  State  of  the  Clergy  in  New  England,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1802. 

His  son,  S/.MUEL  C.  Thacher,  born  at  Boston  in 
1785,  published  a  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  S. 
Buckminster."  He  was  ordained  a  minister  in  181 1,  and 
died  at  Moulins,  P'rance,  in  1818.  A  memoir  of  his  life 
was  published  in  1824. 

Thackeray,  thak'er-e,  (William  Makepeace,)  a 
popular  English  novelist  and  humorist,  was  born  in 
Calcutta  in  1811.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  which  he  left  without  taking  a  degree.  He 
inherited  from  his  father  a  considerable  fortune.  In 
the  choice  of  a  profession  or  pursuit,  he  first  inclined  to 
be  an  artist,  but  after  he  had  devoted  a  few  years  to  art 
he  adopted  a  literary  career.  He  contributed  to  the 
"  Times"  and  other  journals  of  London.  He  displayed 
superior  talent  for  humour  ^nd  irony,  in  a  series  of 
tales,  essays,  and  criticisms  which  appeared  in  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  under  the  assumed  name  of  Michael  Angelo 
Titmarsh.  The  progress  of  his  reputation  was  not  rapid. 
He  published  about  1840  "The  Paris  Sketch-Book," 
and  "The  Great  Hoggarty  Diamond,"  a  genial  satire, 
which  was  much  admired.  As  a  contributor  to  "Punch" 
he  gained  popularity. 

In  1846  he  began  to  publish,  under  his  proper  name, 
"  Vanity  Fair,  a  Novel  without  a  Hero,"  which  is  one  of 
his  best  and  most  popular  works.  He  afterwards  pro- 
duced works  of  fiction  entitled  "  Pendennis,"  (1849-50,) 
and  "The  History  of  Henry  Esmond,  Esq.,"  (3  vols., 
1S52.)  In  1851  he  delivered,  in  London,  a  course  of 
"  Lectures  on  the  English  Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  which  was  published  in  1853.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1852,  and  repeated  the  lectures  just 
named  in  several  great  cities  of  the  Union.  Among  his 
other  works  are  "  The  Snob  Papers,"  "  The  Newcomes," 
(3  vols.,  1854,)  "Miscellanies,"  (2  vols.,  1855-56,)  and 
"The  Virginians." 

About  1856  he  revisited  the  United  States,  where  he 
gave  "  Lectures  on  the  Four  Georges,"  (i.e.  Kings  of 
England,)  which  he  repeated  in  London,  Edinburgh, 
etc.  In  1857  he  offered  himself  as  Liberal  candidate  for 
Parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford,  but  was  defeated  by 
Mr.  Cardwell.  He  began  to  edit  the  "  Cornhill  Maga- 
zine" in  i860.  He  had  married  a  Miss  Shaw  about  1837. 
He  died  in  December,  1863,  leaving  several  daughters. 

See  Theodore  Taylor,  " Tliaclceray,  the  Humorist  and  Man 
of  Letters,"  1S64:  articleon  "Thackeray,"  in  the  "  Westminster  Re- 
view" for  April,  1.S53,  (reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age"  for  May  14, 
1853  ;)  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Jan\iarv,  1854,  (reprinted  in  the 
"  Livmg  A<;e"  for  March  11,  1854  ;)  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  Decem- 
ber, 1848,  and  January,  1854  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1853,  and  Jaiuiarv.  1855;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1848, 
January,  1851,  December,  1852.  and  April.  1864;  "North  British 
Review"  for  August,  1850.  and  February,  1864. 

Thaer.     See  Thar. 

Tha'is,  |0a(f,]  an  Athenian  courtesan,  mistress  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Asia. 
She  is  said  to  have  instigated  him  to  burn  the  royal 
palace  at  Persepolis.  She  was  married  after  his  death  to 
Ptolemv,  King  of  Egypt. 

Thalberg,  till'b^KG,  (Sigismund,)  a  celebrated  pianist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1812,  was  a  pupil  of  Sechter  and  Hum- 
mel at  Vienna.  He  visited  London,  Paris,  and  different 
parts  of  Germany,  his  performances  being  everywhere 
received  with  applause.  Among  his  compositions  are 
Studies  for  the  Piano,  and  the  opera  of  "Florinda." 
Died  in  1871. 

Thalebee  or  Thalebi,  Al,  il  thil'e-bee,  an  Arabian 
author,  born  at  Nishapoor,  in  Persia,  in  961  A.D.,  wrote 
a  "Historj  of  Illustrious  Poets."     Died  about  1038. 

Tha'les,  |Gr.  9aA^f,|  a  celebrated  Ionian  philosopher, 
and  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Mile- 
tus about  640  B.C.     He  is  styled  the  originator  of  philos- 


€  as  k;  q  as  s:  g  /lard;  g  vlsj:  G,  H.  K.  s^ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


5ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THALES 


2298 


THELLUSSON 


ophy.  He  travelled  in  Egypt  and  other  foreign  countries. 
According  to  Herodotus,  he  predicted  the  eclipse  of  the 
sun  which  occurred  during  a  battle  between  Cyaxares  the 
Made,  and  Alyattes,  King  of  Lydia,  about  609  B.C.  He 
was  distinguished  for  political  sagacity  and  sententious 
wisdom,  and  was  employed  in  public  affairs.  He  con- 
sidered water  to  be  the  origin  or  i)rinciple  of  all  things, 
fixed  the  length  of  the  year  at  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  days,  and  attributed  the  attractive  power  of  the 
magnet  to  a  soul  or  life  by  which  it  is  animated.  He  is 
said  to  have  invented  several  propositions  or  demon- 
strations of  geometry.  He  died  about  550  B.C.,  aged 
about  ninety. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  :"  Buddeus,  "  Dissertatio 
de  EthicaThaletis,"  1690;  Ploucquet,  "  Dissertatio  de  Dogniatibus 
Thaletis,"  1763;  Tiedemann,  "  Griechenlands  erste  Philosopheii, 
Oder  Leben  und  Systenie  des  Orpheus,  Thales,"  etc.,  1780  ;  Haklrs, 
"  Programmata  III.  de  Thaletis  Doctrina,"  1780-S4. 

Thales  or  Tha-le'tas,  [Gr.  GaA^rcf,]  a  Greek  musi- 
cian and  lyric  poet,  born  in  Crete.  He  probably  lived 
about  650  B.C.,  or  earlier.  It  is  said  that  he  instructed 
the  Spartans  in  some  new  principles  of  music,  and  paci- 
fied the  factions  of  Sparta  by  his  art,  or  by  the  sacred 
character  of  his  musical  productions.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  was  invited  to  Sparta  by  Lycurgus. 

Thaletas.     See  Thales. 

Tha-H'a  or  Tha-lei'a,  [Gr.  Qalda  or  Qaktia-  Fr. 
Th.^lie,  tt'le',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
comedy,  pastoral  poetry,  and  banquets.  Also,  one  of 
the  Graces. 

Thalie.     See  Thalia. 

Thamasp  (ti'mlspO  or  Tamisp  I.,  King  of  Persia, 
born  in  15 13,  succeeded  his  father,  Ismail,  in  1523. 
Died  in  1576. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia." 

Thamer,  tS'mer,  (Theobald,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  in  Alsace,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg 
in  1545.  He  controverted  some  doctrines  of  Luther, 
and  joined  the  Catholic  Church.     Died  in  1569. 

Tham'inuz,  [Fr.  Thammouz,  tt'mooz'',]  a  divinity  of 
the  Syrians  or  Assyrians,  identified  with  Adonis.  He 
was  said  to  have  been  put  to  death  by  a  wicked  king. 
The  festival  of  Thammuz  was  celebrated  by  the  idolatrous 
Jews.     (See  Ezekiel  viii.) 

Tham'y-ris  or  Thain'y-ras,  [Ga;/vp«f,]  a  Greek  mu- 
sician or  poet,  who  lived  before  Homer,  was  a  son  of 
Philammon,  and  a  native  of  Thrace.  According  to 
tradition,  he  pretended  to  surpass  the  Muses,  anr".  was 
punished  for  his  presumption  by  blindness. 

Than'a-tos,  [Gr.  QUvaroq  •  Lat.  Mors,]  a  personifica- 
tion of  Death,  in  classic  mythology,  was  represented  by 
Homer  as  the  brother  of  Sleep. 

Thar  or  Thaer,  taR,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  agricul- 
turist, born  at  Celie  in  1752,  was  the  author  of  an  "In- 
troduction to  the  Knowledge  of  English  Husbandry," 
(1816,)  and  "Principles  of  Rational  Agriculture."  The 
latter  was  translated  into  several  languages.  In  1807 
he  founded  an  Academy  of  Agriculture  at  Moglin.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  W.  KoRTE,  "A.  Thaer,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1839. 

Thatch'er,  (Be.vjamin  Russey,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Warren,  Maine,  in  1809.  He  published  a  "  Biog- 
raphy of  North  American  Indians  who  have  been  Dis- 
tinguished as  Orators,  Statesmen,"  etc.,  (1832,)  "Tales 
of  the  American  Revolution,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1848. 

Thatcher,  (Henry Knox,)  an  American  rear-admiral, 
born  in  Maine.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1823.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  commodore  in  July,  1S62,  and  com- 
manded the  Colorado  in  the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  in 
December,  1864,  ^"^^  January,  1865.  He  commanded 
the  fleet  which  co-operated  with  the  army  in  the  capture 
of  Mobile,  April  12,  1865.  He  was  commissioned  as 
rear-admiral  in  1866,  retired  in  1868,  and  died  in  1880. 

See  Hbadlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1S67. 

Thauler.     See  Tauler. 

Thaumaa  de  la  Thaumassiere,  to'mt'  deh  It  t5'- 
mt'se-aiu',  (Gaspard,)  a  French  jurist  and  historian, 
was  burn  about  1620 ;  died  in  1702. 

Thax'ter,  (Celia,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  June  29,  1835.     Her  maiden 


name  was  Celia  Laighton,  and  her  father  was  for  many 
years  a  well-known  resident  of  the  Isles  of  Shoals.  She 
was  married  in  185 1.  Her  principal  works  are  "Among 
the  Isles  of  Shoals,"  (1873,)  "Poems,"  (1874,)  "Drift- 
Wood,"  (1878,)  and  "Poems  for  Children,"  (1884.) 

Thay'^r,  (Sylvanus,)  an  American  ofiicer  and  mili- 
tary engineer,  born  at  Hraintree,  Massachusetts,  in  1785. 
Having  graduated  at  West  Point,  he  served  in  the  war  of 
1812.  He  was  appointed  in  1817  superintendent  of  the 
West  Point  Military  Academy,  and  was  made  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1838.     Died  September  7,  1872. 

Thesetetus,///e-e-tee'tus,|9£a/r;7TOf,]  an  Athenian  phi- 
losopher, and  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  lived  about  420  B.C. 

The-ag'e-nes,  |Gr.  Qea-)Evr)q ;  Fr.  TH6AGi;NE,  ti'3'- 
zhin',]  a  famous  Greek  athlete  of  Thasos,  gained  many 
victories  at  the  Olympian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian  games. 
He  lived  about  480  B.C. 

The-a'no,  [Gr.  Geavu,]  a  native  of  Crete,  was  the  wife 
of  Pythagoras,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author 
of  a  nuniber  of  "  Letters"  and  "  Maxims,"  which  have 
been  published  in  Wolfe's  "  Mulierum  Graecarum  Frag- 
menta."     She  was  distinguished  as  a  philosopher. 

Theaulon,  ti'o'l^N',  (Etienne,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Aigues-Mortes  in  1739  ;  died  in  1780. 

Theaulon  de  Lambert,  ti'o'liiN'  deh  IfiN'baiR', 
(Marie  Emmanuel  Guili.aume,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Aigues-Mortes  in  1787.  He  produced 
many  successful  comedies,  operas,  and  vaudevilles. 
Died  in  1841. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  N'ouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Thecla.     See  Thekla. 

Theden,  ta'den,  (Johann  Christian  Anton,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Meck- 
lenburg in  1714.  Owing  to  the  circumstances  of  his 
family,  he  encountered  many  difficulties  in  obtaining 
an  education  ;  but  he  was  at  length-  enabled  to  study  at 
Berlin,  where  he  acquired  the  patronage  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  made  him  his  chief  military  surgeon.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  surgical  works.    Died  in  1797. 

Theed,  (William,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  at 
Trentham,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1804.  His  father,  William 
Theed,  (died  1817,)  was  both  sculptor  and  painter.  The 
younger  Theed  enjoyed  a  large  amount  of  patronage 
from  the  government,  and  his  works  (monumental,  his- 
torical, allegorical,  etc.)  are  very  numerous,  and  usually 
possess  character  and  value.  ^ 

Theil,  til  or  ti'ye,  (Jean  Francois  Napoleon,) 
a  French  philologist,  born  at  Langon  (Gironde)  in 
1808.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Homer  and  the 
Homerides,"  (1842,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Latin 
Language,"  (3  vols.,  1855-65.) 

Theiner,  ti'ner,  (Augustin,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  and  priest  of  the  Oratory  at  Rome,  was 
born  at  Breslau  in  1804.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Pontificate  of  Clement  XIV.,"  (1833,)  and  other 
works.      Died  at  Rome,  August  10,  1874. 

Theiner,  (Johann  .A.-nton,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Breslau  in  1799.  He  published 
"The  Reformatory  Labours  of  the  Catholic  Church," 
(1845,)  and  other  treatises  in  favour  of  the  Reform 
party  in  Germany.     Died  in  i860. 

Th^is,  ti'iss',  (Alexandre  Stienne  Guillaume,) 
a  French  novelist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1765.  He  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  a  Spaniard,"  (1818,)  "Journey  of  Poly- 
cletes,"  ("Voyage  de  Polyclete,"  1821,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1842. 

Thek'la,  Saint,  a  saint  in  the  Catholic  Church,  was 
a  native  of  Isanria,  and  was  converted,  it  is  supposed, 
to  Christianity  by  the  Apostle  Paul  about  45  A.D.  The 
cathedral  of  Milan  bears  her  name  and  possesses  her 
relics.  Tiiere  is  an  extant  apocryphal  book  called  "The 
Acts  of  Paul  and  Thekla." 

Thellusson,  tel'lus-son  or  ti'lu's6N',  (Peter  Isaac,) 
a  wealthy  Swiss  merchant,  born  at  Geneva,  became  a 
resident  of  London,  where  he  died  in  179S.  He  left 
more  than  half  a  million  pounds  to  accumulate  during 
the  lives  of  his  sons  and  grandsons,  and  to  be  invested 
in  land  for  the  benefit  of  his  eldest  lineal  male  descend- 
ant. This  led  to  a  famous  lawsuit ;  but  the  will  was 
finally  established  by  the  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


THEL  WALL 


2299 


THEOCRITUS 


Thel'^wall,  (Iohn,)  an  English  litteralcnr  and  teacher 
of  elocution,  born  in  London  in  1764.  He  published  in 
1787  a  collection  of  poems.  Having  afterwards  become 
engaged  in  the  political  agitation  of  that  period,  he  was 
tried  with  Home  Tooke  and  Hardy  in  1794  for  high 
treason,  and  acquitted.  In  1801  he  began  a  series  of 
lectures  on  elocution,  which  were  highly  successful.  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Political  Miscellanies,"  a 
"Letter  to  Mr.  Cline  on  Stammering,"  "The  Peripa- 
tetic," and  "  The  Daughter  of  Adoption,"  a  novel.  Died 
in  1834. 

Themines,  de,  deh  ti'm^n',  (Pons  de  Lauzi^ires, 
p6n  deh  15'ze-aiR',)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born 
about  1553,  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1616.  He 
afterwards  commanded  against  the  Protestant  insur- 
gents.    Died  in  1627. 

The'mis,  [Gr.  6e/«f ;  Fr.  Th6mis,  ti'mJss',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  goddess  of  justice  and  law,  was  called  a 
daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  a  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  the 
mother  of  Astrasa,  Eirene,  (Peace,)  the  Parcse,  and  the 
Horse.  She  was  a  personification  of  justice  and  the 
order  of  things  sanctioned  by  custom  or  law.  According 
to  Homer,  she  appeared  among  the  inhabitants  of  Olym- 
pus, and  it  was  her  office  to  convene  the  assembly  of 
the  gods.  She  was  also  represented  as  a  prophetic 
divinity  who  presided  over  the  oracle  of  Delphi  before 
Apollo. 
Themiseul  or  Themiseuil.  See  Saint-Hyacinthe. 
Theni'i-son,  \Qe^lch^v,\  an  eminent  Greek  physician, 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Methodici,  was  born  at  Lao- 
dicea,  in  Syria.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Asclepiades,  and 
probably  lived  about  80-40  B.C.  His  works  are  not 
extant.  Some  critics  think  that  he  is  the  person  men- 
tioned by  Juvenal  in  the  following  line  : 

"  Quot  Themison  agros  autuinno  occiderit  uno."* — Sat.  x.  221. 
The-mis'ti-us,  [Gr.9f//(a«oc,]  a  celebrated  orator  and 
philosopher,  surnamed  liu'PHRADES,  {/.<?.  "eloquent,") 
born  in  Paphlagonia  about  315  A.D.  He  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  the  emperors  Constantius,  Julian,  and  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great,  who  appointed  him  tutor  to  his  son 
Arcadius.  In  religion  he  was  a  pagan.  Among  his 
extant  works  are  commentaries  on  portions  of  Aristotle, 
and  thirty-three  orations  in  Greek,  which  were  published 
by  Dindorf  in  1832.     Died  about  390  a.d. 

See  Socrates,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Grsca  ;"  E.  Baret,  "  De  Themistio  Sopliista,"  1853  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Themistocle.  _See  Themistocles. 

The-mis'to-cles,  [Gr.  QenLctoKkfiq ;  Fr.  Themisto- 
cle, ti'mis'tokl',]  an  Athenian  statesman,  orator,  and 
commander  of  great  celebrity,  born  about  514  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Neocles,  a  citizen  of  Athens.  His  mother  was 
a  foreigner.  According  to  'Nepos,  in  early  life  he  was 
addicted  to  pleasure,  but,  having  lost  his  patrimonial 
estate,  he  changed  his  entire  course  of  life.  Ambition 
became  his  ruling  passion.  He  is  said  to  have  spent  his 
hours  of  leis'ure  and  vacation  in  composing  declamations. 
Just  after  the  battle  of  Marathon,  his  friends  observed 
that  he  was  silent,  abstracted,  and  passed  the  night  in 
watching.  Having  been  questioned  as  to  the  cause  of 
this  change  in  his  habits,  he  said  the  "trophies  of  Mil- 
*iades  would  not  suffer  him  to  sleep."  Others  imagined 
that  the  victory  at  Marathon  had  ended  the  war  ;  but 
ne  regarded  it  as  the  beginning  of  a  great  conflict,  and 
advised  the  Athenians  to  increase  their  navy.  His 
principal  rival,  Aristides,  was  ostracized  in  483  B.C.,  after 
which  Themistocles  became  the  foremost  statesman  of 
Athens.  He  was  elected  archon  eponymus  in  481,  and 
when  Greece  was  invaded  by  Xerxes  he  was  chosen 
commander-in-chief.  The  oracle  of  Delphi  advised  the 
Athenians  to  defend  themselves  by  wooden  walls,  which 
Themistocles  interpreted  to  signify  ships.  He  induced 
the  people  of  Athens  to  abandon  that  city  and  embark 
in  the  fleet.  The  Greeks,  reduced  to  a  desperate 
extremity,  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  the  great  naval 
battle  of  Salamis,  480  B.C.  "This  success,"  says  Plu- 
tarch, "  was  owing  chieflv  to  the  sagacity  and  conduct 
of  Themistocles."     He  overreached  the  Spartans  when 

*  Literally,  "As  many  patients  as  Themison  has  killed  (or  shall 
Have  killed)  in  a  single  autumn." 


they  attempted  to  prevent  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of 
Athens,  about  476,  and  he  fortified  the  Piraeus  on  a  grand 
scale.  In  471  B.C.  he  was  banished  by  ostracism,  and 
retired  to  Argos.  Having  been  accused  of  treason  as  an 
accomplice  of  Pausanias,  he  sought  refuge  at  the  court 
of  Persia  in  465,  and  was  kindly  treated  by  Artaxerxes, 
over  whom  he  acquired  much  influence.  He  died,  or 
killed  himself,  in  Persia  about  449  B.C.  According  to 
Thucydides,  Themistocles  was  the  strongest  example  of 
the  power  of  natural  talent,  made  the  best  conjectures 
as  to  future  events,  and  had  an  excellent  foresight. 
Plutarch  relates  that  of  two  men  who  courted  his  daugh- 
ter he  preferred  the  less  wealthy,  saying,  "  I  would 
rather  she  should  have  a  man  without  money  than 
money  without  a  man."  When  Simonides  off"ered  to 
teach  him  the  art  of  memory,  he  said  he  would  rather 
learn  the  art  of  forgetting.  According  to  Mr.  Grote,  he 
was  "  alike  vast  in  his  abilities  and  unscrupulous  in  his 
morality." 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Tliemisiocles;"  Cornelius  Nepos, 
"  Themistocles  ;"  Kirchmaier,  "  Dissertatiode  Themistocle,"  1663  ; 
Theodor  FiNCK,  "  Commentatio  historico-philologica  de  Themis- 
toclis  yEtate,  Vita,  Ingenio  Rebusque  Gestis,"  1849;  Grote,  "His- 
tory of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Th^nard,  t^'ntk',  (Arnould  PaulEd.mond,)  Baron, 
a  French  chemist,  son  of  the  illustrious  Baron  L.  J.  Th(5- 
nard.  He  was  born  in  1820,  inherited  great  wealth,  and 
devoted  himself  to  agriculture.  His  principal  writings 
were  on  agricultural  chemistry,  on  which  subject  he  was 
a  high  authority.     Died  August  8,  1884. 

Thenard,  ti'ntR',  (Louis  Jacques,)  Baron,  an  emi- 
nent French  chemist,  born  at  Nogent-sur-Seine  in  1777 
He  studied  under  Vauquelin,  in  Paris,  and  became' suc- 
cessively demonstrator  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic 
School,  jirofessor  of  chemistry  in  the  College  of  France 
(1804)  and  in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1810.  He  was  also  made  a 
peer  of  France,  (1833,)  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour,  and  chancellor  of  the  university.  His  "  Ele- 
mentary Treatise  on  Theoretical  and  Practical  Chemis- 
try" (4  vols.,  1813)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  and 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  He  con- 
tributed a  great  number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the 
"  Annales  de  Chimie"  and  other  scientific  journals,  and 
published,  conjointly  with  Gay-Lussac,  "  Physico-Chemi- 
cal  Researches,"  made  with  the  voltaic  pile,  (2  vols., 
181 1.)  Died  in  1857.  Thenard  and  his  friend  Gay- 
Lussac,  whose  names  are  inseparably  associated  in 
science,  discovered  boron,  and  proved  that  oxymuriatic 
acid  is  a  simple  substance.  Thenard  discovered  the 
peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  a  translation  of  Flou 
RENs's  "  filoge  on  Thenard"  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1863, 
P'  373;  "  Biographie  Uuiverselle." 

Thenot,  ti'no',  (Jea.n  Pierre,)  a  French  painter 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  painted 
hunting-scenes,  landscapes,  etc.,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  perspective  and  lithography.     Died  in  1857. 

The'o-baicl,  [It.  Teobaldo,  ti-o-bdl'do,]  sometimes 
written  Thiebaut,  was  a  brother  of  Ladislaus  II.  of 
Bohemia.  He  served  with  distinction  as  a  general  under 
Frederick  Barbarossa  in  Italy,  about  1158-63. 

The'o-baid,  (Lewis,)  an  English  critic  and  commen- 
tator  on  Shakspeare,  was  a  native  of  Kent.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  dramas,  which  are  now  forgotten.  Having 
offended  Pope  by  exposing  the  errors  of  his  edition 
of  Shakspeare,  he  was  severely  satirized  by  that  poet 
in  the  "  Dunciad."  In  1733  Theobald  brought  out  an 
edition  of  Shakspeare,  (7  vols.  8vo,)  which  was  received 
with  great  favour,  and  is  still  highly  esteemed  for  the 
judgment  and  accuracy  it  displays.  He  also  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh."     Died  in  1744. 

Theobald  of  Canterbury.     See  Thibaud. 

The-o-bal'dus,  written  also  Tibaldus  and  Tebal- 
dus,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  supposed  to  have  flourished 
in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  en- 
titled "  Physiologus  de  Naturis  duodecim  Animalium," 
being  a  description  of  the  habits  of  twelve  animals,  with 
moral  reflections  drawn  from  each. 

Theocrewe  and  Theocrenus.     See  Tagliacarne, 

Theocrite.     See  Theocritus. 

The-oc'rI-tus,  [Gr.  Geo/cptrof ;  Fr.  Theocrite,  ti'o'- 


€as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  asy,'  G,  H,  K,pittic?-al;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z:  tli  as  in  ihis.     (£[^'^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THEOCRITUS 


2300 


THEODORIC 


knit',  I  one  of  the  most  celebrated  pastoral  poets  of 
antiquity,  was  a  pative  of  Syracuse,  and  flourished  about 
270  B.C.  lie  resided  for  a  time  at  Alexandria,  where 
he  enjoyed  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus.  Among  the  e.\tant  works  attributed  to  Theoc- 
ritus are  thirty  idyls  and  more  than  twenty  epigrams. 
His  bucolics  are  written  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  arc 
universally  regarded  as  master-pieces  of  their  kind.  He 
is  called  the  creator  of  bucolic  poetry.  His  idyls,  unlike 
most  modern  pastorals,  are  natural  and  free  from  affected 
sentimentality.  The  Eclogues  of  Virgil  are  imitations 
of  the  Bucolics  of  Theocritus,  and  are  generally  re- 
garded as  inferior  to  the  original  works,  which  are 
essentially  dramatic  and  mimetic  and  are  truthful  pic- 
tures of  the  real  life  of  the  common  people.  It  appears 
from  his  sixteenth  idyl  that  he  returned  to  Syracuse 
and  lived  there  in  the  reign  of  Hieron  II.,  who  be- 
came king  in  270  B.C.  He  was  intimate  with  the  poet 
Aratus.  Few  events  of  the  life  of  Theocritus  have  been 
preserved. 

See  FABRrcius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Naekh,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Theocrito,"  1828;  E.  Rouz,  "Dissertatio  de  Theocriti  Idylliis," 
1846;  .SuiDAS,  "Theocritus:"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale ;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1842  :  "  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  August  and  October,  1835  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1836,  article  "  Epigrams  of  Theocritus." 

The-oc'ri-tus  of  -Ghi'os,  a  Greek  orator  and  Sophist, 
famous  for  his  sarcastic  wit,  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great.  He  wrote  an  epigram  against  Aristotle. 
He  was  put  to  death  by  Antigonus  Gonatas. 

Theodat.    See  Theodatus. 

The-od'a-tus,  [Fr.  Thi^odat,  ti'o'dt',]  King  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy,  was  a  nephew  of  Theodoric.  He  began 
to  reign  about  534  A.D.,  was  defeated  by  Belisarius,  and 
was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers  in  536. 

The-od'e-bert  [Fr.  pron.  ti'o'deh-baiR' ;  Lat.  Theo- 
deiser'tus]  I.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  504  A.D., 
was  a  grandson  of  Clovis.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
good  and  able  prince.     Died  in  547  a.d. 

Theodecte.     See  Theodectes. 

The-o-dec'tes,  [Gr.  GfoJE/crj??;  Fr.  Theodecte, 
ti'o'dSkt',]  an  eminent  Greek  rhetorician  and  tragic 
poet,  born  at  Phaselis,  in  Pamphylia,  lived  about  350 
B.C.,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  friend  of  Aristotle,  who  expresses  a  high  opinion 
of  him  in  some  of  his  writings.  His  works  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments. 

See  Marckhr,  "  Commentatio  de  Theodectse  Vita  et  Scriptis," 
183s. 

The-od-e-lin'da,  [Fr.  Th^odelinde,  ti'o'deh-l^Nd' ; 
It.  TeodeliiNDA,  ti-o-di-l^n'di,l  a  Bavarian  princess, 
was  married  in  589  a.d.  to  Autharic,  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards, who  died  in  590.  She  afterwards  exercised  royal 
power.     Died  in  625  A.D. 

The-od'e-mir,  the  father  of  Theodoric  the  Great, 
was  chief  ruler  of  the  Ostrogoths.     Died  in  475  A.D. 

Theodemir,  a  chief  of  the  Visigoths,  and  a  native 
of  Spain.  He  served  under  Roderick  against  the  Moors 
in  711.     Died  after  713  a.d. 

Theoderic  or  Theoderich.     See  Theodoric. 

Theodericus.     See  Theodoric. 

The-o-do'ra,  Empress  of  the  East,  was  in  her  youth 
an  actress  and  courtesan  of  Constantinople.  She  retired 
,  from  the  stage,  reformed  her  conduct,  and  gained  the 
affection  of  Justinian,  who  married  her  in  525  A.D.  In 
527  he  proclaimed  her  as  empress  and  his  equal  col- 
league in  the  empire.     Died  in  548  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  J.  P. 
LuDwiG,  "Vita  Justiniani  et  Theodorae,"  1731. 

Theodora,  Empress  of  the  East,  born  about  810 
A.D.,  was  married  to  the  emperor  Theophilus  in  830. 
She  became  regent  at  his  death,  842,  and  governed  the 
empire  with  wisdom  for  fifteen  years.     Died  in  867  A.D. 

Theodore.     See  Theodorus. 

Theodore,  (King  of  Corsica.)     See  Neuhof. 

The'o-dore  [Lat.  Theodo'rus]  I.  succeeded  John 
IV.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  641  a.d.  In  a  council  at  Rome 
he  excommunicated  Paulus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
who  supported  the  heresy  of  the  Monothelites.  Died 
in  649  A.D. 

Theodore  (Theodorus)  II.  was  elected  pope  as  suc- 
cessor to  Romanus  in  897  a.d.,  and  died  the  same  year. 


Theodore  or  Theodorus,  a  native  of  Tarsus,  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  669  A.D.,  which 
office  he  filled  with  great  zeal  and  fidelity.  He  founded 
numerous  schools,  and  converted  Samt  Augustine's 
monastery  into  a  college,  where  Latin  and  Greek  were 
taught  with  great  jnirity.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "The  Penitential."     Died  in  690  A.D. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  chap.  iv. 

Theodore  or  Theodorus,  late  King  of  Abyssinia, 
was  born  about  1820.  His  original  name  was  Kassai. 
Having  raised  himself  from  a  humble  condition  by  his 
talents  and  success  as  a  soldier,  he  began  to  reign  about 
1855.  He  maltreated  some  subjects  of  Great  Britain, 
the  government  of  which  sent  an  army  to  Abyssinia  in 
1867.  Theodore  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by 
the  British  under  General  Napier  in  April,  1868.  The 
native  form  of  his  name  was  Tadkus. 

The'o-dore  An'ge-lus,  [Lat.  Theodo'rus  An'ge- 
Lus ;  Fr.  Theodore  l'Ange,  ti'o'doR'  Ift.szh,]  became 
Greek  Emperor  of  Thessalonica  in  1222.  He  waged 
war  against  the  Latins  and  the  Bulgarians,  who  defeated 
him  and  took  him  prisoner  in  1230. 

Theodore  l'Ange.     See  Theodore  Angelus. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.    See  Theodorus  Mop- 

SUESTENUS. 

The-od'o-ret  or  The-od-o-re'tus,  [Gr.  Qtuf^CipniTij^; 
Fr.  ThAodoret,  ti'o'do'ri',]  an  eminent  Christian 
writer  ard  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Antioch  about  390  a.d., 
was  a  pupil  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  He  was  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  Nestorius.  About  422  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Cyrus,  in  Syria.  He  was  moderate  and  liberal, 
and  equally  eminent  for  piety  and  learning.  He  em- 
ployed his  influence  against  the  intolerant  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  and  Dioscurus.  In  449  he  was  deposed  by 
the  Synod  of  Ephesus,  over  which  Dioscurus  presided. 
He  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Nestorius  at  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  in  451.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
valuable  "  History  of  the  Church"  from  325  to  429  a.d., 
and  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament  and  Epistles 
of  Paul.     Died  in  457. 

See  RiCHTER,  "Commentatio  de  Theodoreto,"  1822;  Schulze, 
"Dissertatio  de  Vita  B.  Theodoreti,"  1769:  Neander,  "History 
of  tlie  Church  ;"  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Theodoretus.     See  Theodoret. 

The-od'o-ric  or  The-od'e-ric  [Lat.  Theodori'cus] 
I.,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  and  a  son  of  the  famous 
Alaric,  was  elected  king  in  418  or  419  a.d.  He  defeated 
the  Romans  at  Toulouse  in  439,  and,  having  conquered 
a  large  part  of  Gaul,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Avitus.  Theodoric  and  the  Roman  general  Aetius  united 
their  forces  against  Attila  the  Hun,  who  invaded  Gaul 
in  450.  The  opposing  armies  met  at  Chalons,  where 
Attila  was  defeated  and  Theodoric  was  killed,  in  451  A.D. 
He  left  two  sons,  Thorismond  and  Theodoric. 

See  JoRNANDES,  "  De  Rebus  Geticis." 

Theodoric  II.,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  at  Tolosa  (Toulouse) 
in  452  A.D.,  and  became  an  ally  of  Avitus,  Emperor  of 
Rome.  He  invaded  Spain,  defeated  the  Suevi,  and 
made  extensive  conquests  in  the  peninsula.  He  was 
assassinated  by  his  brother  Euric  in  466  A.D. 

The-od'o-ric  or  The-od'e-ric  [Lat.  Theodori'cus 
or  Theoderi'cus  ;  Ger.  Theodorich,  ti-o'do-riK,  or 
Theoderich,  ti-o'der-iK,  which  was  afterwards  cor- 
rupted into  Dietrich,  dee'tRiK]  the  Great,  King 
of  the  Ostrogoths,  born  in  455  A.D.,  was  the  son  of 
King  Theodemir.  He  was  educated  at  Constantinople, 
whither  he  had  been  sent  as  a  hostage  at  an  early  age. 
Soon  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  (475)  he  was 
involved  in  a  war  with  Zeno,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
and  subsequently  turned  his  arms  against  Odoacer, 
who  had  usurped  the  chief  power  in  Italy.  The  latter, 
after  having  been  defeated  in  three  battles,  was  be- 
sieged in  Ravenna,  which  he  surrendered  at  the  end  of 
three  years.  Being  acknowledged  King  of  Italy  by  the 
emperor  Anastasius,  Theodoric  assumed  the  name  of 
Flavins,  celebrated  a  triumph  at  Rome,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  the  wisdom  and  liberality  of  his  rule.  He 
defeated  the  (iepidae,  assisted  the  Visigoths  against  the 
French  king  Clovis,  and  possessed  himself  of  Provence. 


a,  e,  i.  6.  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fdt;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


THE  on  OR  JC 


2301 


THE  ON 


He  died  in  526  a.d.,  his  death  being  hastened,  it  is  said, 
by  remorse  for  having  unjustly  condemned  to  death 
Symmachus  and  Boethius.  Gibbon  observes  of  Theodo- 
ric,  "  His  reputation  may  repose  on  the  visible  peace  and 
prosperity  of  a  reign  of  thirty-three  years,  the  unanimous 
esteem  of  his  own  times,  and  the  memory  of  his  wisdom 
and  courage,  his  justice  and  humanity,  which  was  deeply 
impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  Goths  and  the  Italians." 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap, 
xxxix.  ;  Ennodius,  "  PanegyricusTheodoricodictus;"  J.  CochL/KUS, 
"  Vita  Theodorici,"  1544  ;  Hurter,  "  Gescliichte  des  Konigs  Theo- 
dorich,"  1807  :  Du  Roure,  "  Histoire  de  Th^odoric  le  Grand,"  2 
vols.,  1S46;  Tii-LEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereiirs;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Theodoric,  [It.  Teodorico,  ti-o-do-ree'ko,]  an  Ital- 
ian surgeon  and  ecclesiastic,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Cer^ia. 
He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  his  skill  in  surgery, 
and  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "On  Surgery  according  t) 
the  System  of  Hugo  de  Lucca."     Died  in  1298. 

Theodorich.     See  Theodoric. 

Theodoricus.     See  Theodoric. 

The-o-do'rus  (or  The'o-dore)  [Gr.  Qeoiupog ;  l<i, 
Theodore,  tk'o'doR'J  of  Cyre'ne,  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher, belonged  to  the  Cyrenaic  school.  His  doctrines, 
which  resembled  those  of  Epicurus,  gave  so  much  offence 
that  he  was  banished  from  his  native  city  of  Gyrene. 
He  resided  at  Athens  about  3 12  B.C.  Cicero  and  Seneca 
admired  his  answer  to  Lysimachus,  who  threatened  to 
crucify  him.  He  professed  that  he  did  not  care  whether 
he  should  rot  on  the  ground  or  in  the  air, 

Theodo'rus  of  Heracle'a,  a  learned  bishop  and 
leader  of  the  Arian  party.  He  was  Bishop  of  Heraclea 
on  the  Propontis,  and  was  one  of  the  delegates  who 
presented  the  Confession  of  Antioch  to  Constans  in 
342  a.d.     Died  about  356  a.d. 

Theodo'rus  (or  The'odore)  of  Sa'mos,  an  eminent 
Greek  statuary  and  architect,  who  probably  flourished 
about  600  K.c.  He  was  one  of  the  first  artists  that  cast 
statues  in  bronze.  The  Theodorus  who  made  a  cele- 
brated ring  for  Polycrates  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
nephew  of  the  artist  above  noticed. 

Theodo'rus  of  Tar'sus,  sometimes  called  Diodo- 
Rus,  a  prelate  and  theologian,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Antioch.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Tar- 
sus in  378  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Arian 
heresy,  and  wrote  a  number  of  theological  works,  which 
are  not  extant. 

The-o-do'rus  An-ag-nos'tes,  (or  Lec'tor,)  (i.e. 
"Theodore  the  Reader,")  [Fr.  THEODORE  Lecteur, 
ti'o'doR'  l^k'tUR',]  a  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  He  was  reader  in  the 
church  of  Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Church  to  the  Time  of  Justinian  I." 

The-o-do'rus  As'91-das,  a  Cappadocian  monk,  who 
gained  the  favour  of  Justinian  I.,  and  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Czesarea  about  536  a.d.  He  favoured 
the  Origenists.     Died  about  558  A.D. 

Theodorus  Lasoaris.     See  La.scaris. 

The-o-do'rus  Mop-sues-te'nus  or  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  [Fr.  Theodore  de  Mopsueste,  ti'o'doa' 
deh  mop'sU'Sst',]  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia,  born  at  An- 
tioch about  350  A.D.,  was  a  pupil  of  Libanius  and  a 
friend  of  Chrysostom.  His  controversial  and  theological 
writings  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
but  very  few  of  them  are  extant.     Died  in  429  a.d. 

See  Neandhr,  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  ;"  Fritzsche, 
"  De  Theodori  Mopsuesteni  Vita,"  1837;  Sieffert,  "Theodorus 
Mopsvestenus,"  1S27. 

The-o-do'rus  Pris-cl-a'nus,  a  physician  and  medical 
writer  of  thi  fourth  century,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
at  Constantinople. 

The-o-do'rus  Prod'ro-mus,  [Fr.  Theodore  Pro- 
drome, ti'o'doR'  pRo'dRom',]  a  learned  monk  and  By- 
zantine writer  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  also  called 

HiLARION. 

The-o-do'rus  Stu-di'ta,  [Fr.  Theodore  Studite, 
ti'o'doR'  stU'dit',]  a  Greek  monk  and  writer,  born  at 
Constantinople  in  759  A.D.,  was  an  adversary  of  the 
Iconoclasts.  He  incited  the  people  to  sedition  and 
violent  resistance  to  the  decrees  against  the  worship  of 
images.     Died  in  826  a.d. 

Th^odose.    See  Theodosius. 


Theodosius,  an  able  Roman  general  under  the  reign 
of  Valentinian  I.,  served  with  distinction  against  the 
barbarians  of  Britain  and  Germany,  and  subsequently 
quelled  an  insurrection  in  Africa  in  373  A.D.  He  was 
beheaded  at  Carthage,  376  a.d.  The  cause  of  his  execu- 
tion is  not  known.     His  son  became  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Theodosius  (the-o-do'she-us)  |^Fr.  ThMiodose,  tiV- 
doz' ;  It.  Teodosio,  ti-o-do'se-o]  I.,  Flavius,  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  surnamed  the  Great,  was  the  son  of 
the  preceding,  and  was  born  in  Spain  in  346  A.D.  He 
accompanied  his  father  in  his  various  cainpaigns,  and 
acquired  at  an  early  age  great  proficiency  in  the  art  of 
war.  In  379  A.D.  the  emperor  Gratian  conferred  upon 
him  the  title  of  Augustus,  with  the  command  over  the 
Eastern  provinces.  Having  been  received  into  the 
Christian  Church,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
against  the  Arians,  and  in  380  ap])ointed  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen  Archbishop  of  Constantinople.  He  carried  on  a 
successful  war  with  the  Goths,  whom  he  induced  to 
become  the  allies  of  the  Romans.  After  the  death  of 
Gratian,  Maximus,  who  had  usurped  his  empire  and 
invaded  Italy,  was  defeated  by  Theodosius,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Huns  and  Goths,  in  388.  Theodosius 
reigned  at  Constantinople,  and  Valentinian  II.  was  em- 
peror at  Rome  until  his  death,  in  392.  After  this  event 
Theodosius  became  sole  emperor  of  the  Roman  world. 
Before  his  death  he  divided  his  dominions  between  his 
two  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  to  the  former  of 
whom  he  gave  the  Eastern  empire,  and  to  the  latter  the 
Western.  Died  in  395  a.d.  Although  he  was  guilty  ol 
several  acts  of  cruelty,  his  character  is  generally  eulo- 
gized by  historians. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall;"  Tiliemont 
"Histoire  des  Empereurs  ;"  Flechier,  "Histoire  de  Theodose  le 
Grand,"  1679;  Socrates,  "Historia  ecclesiastical"  Le  Heau 
"  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Theodosius  II.,  called  the  Younger,  born  in  401 
A.D.,  was  the  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  the  son  of 
Arcadius.  Being  but  seven  years  of  age  at  the  death  of 
his  father,  the  government  was  conducted  by  his  sister 
Pulcheria.  Among  the  most  important  events  of  his 
reign  was  the  collection  of  the  code  of  laws  known  as 
the  "Codex  Theodosianus."     Died  in  450  a.d. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Rnmao 
Empire;"  Gerlach,  "  De  Theodosio  Juniore,"  1751. 

Theodosius  III.,  surnamed  Adramytte'nus,  suc- 
ceeded Anastasius  II.  as  Emperor  of  Constantinople  \\\ 
715  A.D.  After  a  reign  of  about  a  year,  he  withdrew  to 
a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  III. 

Theodosius  of  Tripoli,  a  Greek  geometer,  born  in 
Bithynia,  lived  probably  between  100  B.C.  and  loo  a.d. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Spherics,"  (S^oi/jwcu,)  which 
is  extant. 

Theodotion,  the-o-do'she-pn,  [Gr.  Qeodoriuv,]  an 
early  Christian  writer  under  the  Roman  emperor  Corn- 
modus,  made  a  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
He  belonged  to  the  sect  of  Ebionites. 

The-od'o-tus,  [Gr.  Qcodorog ;  Fr.  TnioDOTE,  ti'o'- 
dot',]  an  able  Greek  general,  commanded  in  Ccele-Syria 
for  Ptolemy  Philopator  in  222  B.C.  About  three  years 
later  he  entered  the  service  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 

Theodotus  of  Samos,  a  rhetorician,  was  preceptor 
to  Ptolemy  XII.  of  Egypt.  He  was  responsible  for  the 
murder  of  Pompey  the  Great,  for  which  he  was  put  to 
death,  by  order  of  Brutus,  in  43  B.C. 

Theodulfe,  ti'o'diilf,  [Lat  Theodul'fus,J  a  learned 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Spain,  was  the  author  of  several 
works.  He  became  Bishop  of  Orleans  about  788.  Died 
about  820  a.d. 

The-og'nis,  [Geoyvtc,]  a  Greek  poet  and  philosopher, 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  540-500  B.C.,  was  a  native 
of  Megara.  His  works  were  principally  elegies  and 
didactic  poems,  of  which  fragments  only  are  extant.  He 
was  a  noble  or  aristocrat,  and  was  driven  into  exile  by 
the  democratic  party. 

See  Frerh,  "Theognis  Restitutus:  The  Personal  History  of 
the  Pnet  Theopnis,"  etc.,  1842;  K.  O.  Muller,  "  Historj;  of  th« 
Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

The'on,  [Gecji',]  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  in 
Samos,  lived  under  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great 
His  works  are  highly  commended  by  Pliny. 


c  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  H,  Vi,ptitural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     1  S^^See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


THE  ON 


2302 


THERAMENES 


Theon,  (^lius,)  a  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  about  315  A.D.  His  principal  extant 
work  is  entitled  "  Progymnasmata,"  or  rules  on  rhetoric. 

Theon  of  Alexandria,  called  the  Younger,  a 
Platonic  philosopher  and  mathematician,  lived  about 
350-400  A.D.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Almagest 
of  Ptolemy,  and  edited  the  works  of  Euclid.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  celebrated  Hypatia. 

Theon  of  Smyrna,  sometimes  called  the  Elder,  a 
Neo- Platonic  philosopher,  flourished  about  125  A.D.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  astronomy,  mathematics, 
music,  etc.,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  extant.  He  is 
called  a  Pythagorean. 

The-oph'a-ne,  [Gr.  OeocpavTi ;  Fr.  Th^ophane,  ti'o'- 
ftti',]  a  beautiful  woman,  who,  according  to  the  fable,  was 
beloved  by  Neptune,  was  changed  by  him  into  a  sheep, 
and  was  the  mother  of  the  golden-fleeced  ram  of  Colchis. 

Theophane.     See  Theophanes. 

The-oph'a-nes,  ( Gr.  eeo(pavr/c;  Fr.  Theophane, 
tiVftn',1  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Mitylene,  was 
patronized  by  Pompey  the  Great,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  his  military  expeditions.  His  principal  work  was  a 
history  of  the  achievements  of  Pompey,  of  which  only 
fragments  are  extant. 

Theophanes,  (George  or  Isaurus,)  a  Greek  histo- 
rian, born  in  758  a.d.,  was  a  native  of  Constantinople. 
He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  period  from  277  to  811  A.D. 
Died  in  818. 

Theophanes,  (Pkokopovitch.)  See  Prokopovitch. 

Theophile,  the  French  of  Theophilus,  which  see. 

Theophile  de  Viaud,  ti'o'f^K  deh  ve'o',  a  French 
satiric  p(jet,  born  in  1590.  He  wrote  elegies,  tragedies, 
etc.,  was  accused  of  atheism  and  condemned  to  death 
in  1623,  but  escaped.  The  sentence  was  afterwards 
annulled.     Died  in  1626. 

The-oph'i-lus,  [Gr.  Qeodilog;  Fr.  Theophile,  ti'o'- 
(kV;  It.  Teofilo,  ti-of'e-lo,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet 
of  unknown  period.     His  works  are  lost. 

Theophilus,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  a  son 
of  Michael  H.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  829  a.d.  He 
waged  a  long  war  against  the  Saracens  with  ill  success. 
He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast.     Died  in  842  a.d. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Theophilus,  a  theologian,  and  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
wrote  an  "Apology  for  the  Christian  Faith,"  which 
is  extant  and  is  a  work  of  considerable  merit.  Died 
about  182  A.D. 

.See  Grabener,   'De  Theophilo  Episcopo  Antiocheno,"  1744. 

Theophilus,  a  turbulent  ecclesiastic,  who  became 
Bishop  of  .Alexandria  in  385  A.D.  He  condemned  the 
writings  of  Origen  and  persecuted  the  Origenists.  He 
was  the  chief  agent  in  the  banishment  of  Chrysostom, 
(403.)     Died  in  412  A.D. 

Theophilus,  a  distinguished  jurist  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, was  employed  by  the  emperor  Justinian  to  assist 
in  compiling  the  Digest  and  the  Institutes. 

The-oph'i-lus  Prot-o-spa-tha'ri-us,  [Fr.  Theo- 
phile Protospathaire,  tiVf^l'  pRo'to'spt'tSR',]  a 
Greek  medical  writer,  the  place  and  date  of  whose  birth 
are  unknown.  The  most  important  of  his  extant  works 
is  an  anatomical  treatise,  which  has  been  translated  into 
Latin  under  the  title  of  "  De  Corporis  Humani  Fabrica," 
("On  the  .Structure  of  the  Human  Body.") 

Theophraste.     See  Theophrastus. 

The-o-phras'tus,|Gr.  £>to(pi>aaror ;  Fr.  Theophraste, 
ta'o'fKtst' ;  It.  Teokrasto,  til-o-fRds'to,]  an  eminent 
Greek  philosojiher,  born  at  Eresiis,  in  Lesbos,  about 
374  B.C.  His  original  name  was  Tyr'tamus.  He  studied 
at  Athens,  where  he  first  attached  himself  to  Plato,  and 
afterwards  became  a  favourite  pupil  of  Aristotle.  In 
accordance  with  the  last  will  of  that  master,  Theophras- 
tus succeeded  him  as  president  of  the  Lyceum  in  322 
B.C.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  eloquence, 
and  attracted  from  all  parts  of  Greece  a  multitude  of 
disciples,  among  whom  was  Menander  the  poet.  With 
a  de.sign  to  ex)ilain  the  system  of  Aristotle  and  su])- 
plement  his  works,  he  wrote  numerous  treatises  on 
philosophy  and  natural  history,  the  most  of  which  are 
not  extant.  Several  of  his  works  have  come  down  to 
us,  (though  perhaps  in  an  imperfect  state,)  viz.  :  "  Moral 
Characters,"  (^diKol  xapfiKTripE^ ,)   which    was    translated 


into  French  and  imitated  by  La  Bruyere,  a  "  History  of 
Plants,"  (in  ten  books,)  and  a  work  "On  the  Causes  of 
Plants,"  (TTEpl  (pvTuv  airiiJv.)  Died  about  286  B.C.  His 
"  Moral  Characters"  are  admired  for  subtlety  of  thought, 
Attic  wit,  (sf/,J  and  elegance  of  style. 

See  Max  Schmidt,  "  De  Theophrasto  Rhetore,"  1839:  Spk- 
RANZA,  "Teofrasto  primo  liotanlco,"  1841;  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
Botanica;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

The-oph'y-lact,  [Gr.  6eo<pv?iaKTog ;  Lat.  Theophy- 
i.ac'tus  ;  Fr.  ThEophylacte,  tiVfe'ltkt',]  a  Greek 
ecclesiastic,  became  Archbishop  of  Achris,  in  Bulgaria, 
about  1070.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Education  of  Princes,"  also  commentaries  on  the  twelve 
minor  prophets,  and  numerous  epistles.     Died  after  1 1 12. 

Theophy  1  actus.     .See  Theophylact. 

The-o-phy-lac'tus  Si-mo-cat'ta,  a  Greek  author, 
born  in  Locris,  of  Egyjjtian  race,  about  580  A.D.  He 
became  an  oftice-holder  at  Constantinople  in  610,  and 
died  about  630  a.d.  His  best-known  extant  works  are 
a  histoiy  of  the  Emperor  Maurice,  his  eighty-five  "  Let- 
ters, Moral,  Rural,  and  Amatory,"  and  his  "  Questions 
about  Nature,"  (AiTOplat  ^vacKai.) 

Theopompe.     .Sec  Theopompus. 

The-o-pom'pus,   [Gr.   QeunofiTTog ;  Fr.   THEoPOMri!., 
ti'o'p(!)Mp',]  a  king  of  Sparta,  who  reigned  about  750 
B.C.     The  power  of  the  Ephori  was  established  or  in 
creased  in  his  reign. 

Theopompus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  old 
and  of  the  middle  comedy,  flourished  probably  about 
400  B.C.     He  was  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes. 

Theopompus,  an  eminent  Greek  historian  and  orator, 
born  in  Chios  (.Scio)  about  378  B.C.,  was  a  brother  of 
Caucalus  the  rhetorician,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
He  was  one  of  the  aristocrats  who  were  banished  by  the 
popular  party,  when  he  was  a  young  man.  In  his  exile 
he  composed  a  number  of  orations  and  eulogiums,  which 
were  received  with  applause  in  many  cities  of  Greece. 
In  352  B.C.  he  contended  with  success  against  Isocrates 
and  others  for  a  prize  offered  by  Artemisia  for  an  oration 
in  honour  of  Mausolus.  He  was  restored  to  his  native 
state  at  the  age  of  forty-five,  (333  B.C.)  His  principal 
works  were  a  "  History  of  Greece  from  411  to  394  B.C.," 
{''E?J.7]viKai  iaropiai,  in  twelve  books,)  which  is  lost  except 
a  few  fragments,  and  a  "  History  of  Philip  of  Macedon," 
(•icXi-TTLKo.,  in  fifty-eight  books,)  of  which  many  fragments 
are  extant.  The  ancient  critics  say  that  he  was  apt  to 
err  by  the  extravagance  of  his  censure  and  his  praise; 
but  they  commend  his  accuracy.     He  died  after  305  B.C. 

See  Aschbach,  "  Dissertatio  de  Theoponipo,"  1823  ;  J.  E.  Pflugk 
"  De  Theopompi  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1827  ;  G.  F.  Koch,  "  Dissertatio 
de  Theopompe,"  1790 ;  Plutarch,  "  Vitae  decern  Oratorum ;"  A  thk- 
N>EUs,  pdssint. 

Theorell,tTi'o-r§l,  (Johan  Peter,)  a  Swedish  journal- 
ist, born  at  Halljunga  in  1791.  He  edited  a  democratic 
journal,  called  "  Aftonposten,"  and  published  several 
historical  essays.     Died  at  Stockholm,  March  9,  1861. 

Theorell,  (Sven  Lorens,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Halljunga  in  1784.  He  published  a  work 
"On  the  Influence  of  Manufactures  on  the  Wages  of 
Labourers,"  (1845.)     Died  at  Stockholm,  Dec.  15,  1861. 

Theotocopuli,  t&o-to-ko-poo'lee,  (Dominico,)  an 
eminent  painter  and  sculptor,  surnamed  EL  Greco,  was  a 
pupil  of  Titian.  He  resided  at  Toledo,  in  Spain,  where 
he  produced  a  number  of  his  finest  pictures.  Among 
these  may  be  named  "The  Parting  of  Christ's  Raiment 
before  the  Crucifixion,"  an  altar-piece  in  the  cathedral  of 
Toledo,  and  "The  Entombment  of  Count  Orgaz,"  in  the 
church  of  Santo  Tome.  His  monuments  and  sculptures 
are  highly  esteemed.  He  also  designed  the  church  of  the 
Augustines  at  Madrid,  and  other  architectural  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Theotocopuli,  (George  Manuel,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  sculptor  and 
architect,  and  built  a  considerable  part  of  the  cathedral 
of  Toledo.     Died  in  163 1. 

Theramene.     See  Theramenes. 

The-rani'e-nes,  |Gr.  Bripafisvtjc;  Fr.  ThEram^ne,  ti'- 
rt'mii)',|  an  Athenian  politician,  and  one  of  the  famous 
Thirty  Tyrants.  As  a  leader  of  the  oligarchic  party,  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of  41 1  B.C.,  and  was 
one  of  the  principal  members  of  the  new  government 
then  formed.     He  served  as  a  subordinate   ofiicer   at 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,lofig:k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  <?,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  nxht;  nflt;good;  nioon; 


THERASSE 


2303 


THETIS 


the  battle  of  Arginusae,  (406.)  Although  the  Athenians 
gained  the  victory  there,  the  six  commanding  generals 
were  put  to  death,  because  many  of  their  men  were 
drowned  and  they  were  unaJjle  even  to  recover  their 
bodies  for  burial.  Theramenes  was  one  of  the  principal 
accusers,  and  he  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  that  great  injustice.  He  negotiated  the  treaty 
which  opened  Athens  to  the  Spartan  general  Lysander 
in  405  B.C.,  and  was  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  who 
subverted  the  old  constitution  and  usurped  power  in  404. 
Having,  it  is  said,  from  motives  of  policy  rather  than 
humanity,  remonstrated  against  the  excessive  cruelty  of 
his  colleagues,  he  was  proscribed  by  Critias  and  con- 
demned to  death.  When  he  drank  the  cicuta,  he 
exclaimed,  "  This  to  the  health  of  the  lovely  Critias !" 
He  died  in  404  B.C. 

The  character  of  Theramenes  was  throughout  that  of 
an  intriguing,  unscrupulous  politician  ;  but  the  equa- 
nimity, or  rather  indifference,  which  he  displayed  at  his 
death,  commanded  the  admiration  of  Xenophon  and 
Cicero.  It  might  truly  be  said  of  him,  in  the  words  of 
the  great  dramatist, 

"  Nothing  in  his  life 

Became  him  like  the  leaving  it ;  he  died 

As  one  thathad  been  studied  in  his  death 

To  throw  away  the  dearest  thing  he  owed  [owned] 

As  'twas  a  careless  triHe." 

.     MachetJi,  Act  I.  Scene  IV. 
See    Grote,    "History   of  Greece;"  Suidas,  "Theramenes;" 
ScHNEiTHKR,   "  Dissertatio  de  Theramene,"  1821;  Smith,   "Dic- 
tionary of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. ;  Thirlwall,  "  His- 
tory of  Greece." 

Tlierasse,  ti'rts',  (Victor,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris,  March  25,  1796;  died  February  4,  1864. 

Theremin,  ta'reh-meen',  (Ludw^ig  Friedrich 
Franz,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  1783, 
became  in  18T5  court  preacher  at  Berlin.  He  published 
several  religious  and  miscellaneous  works,  and  made 
translations  from  Cervantes  and  Byron.     Died  in  1846. 

Theresa,  te-ree'sa  or  ti-ra'sS,  [Fr.  TH^RfesE,  ti'riz' ; 
[t.  and  Sp.  Teresa,  ti-ra'sS,]  commonly  called  Saint 
Theresa,  a  Spanish  nun,  celebrated  for  her  talents  and 
piety,  was  born  at  Avila  in  15 15.  She  entered  the  order 
of  Carmelites  at  an  early  age,  and  about  1562  founded, 
in  her  native  town,  a  reformed  society  of  Barefooted 
Carmelites.  She  died  in  1582,  leaving  a  number  of 
religious  works,  which  are  higiily  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  languages  of  Europe. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "  Thoughts  on  the  Love  of 
God,"  *'  The  Road  to  Perfection,"  "  The  Castle  of  the 
Soul,"  "  Life  of  Saint  Theresa,  written  by  Herself,"  and 
"  Letters  of  Saint  Theresa."  She  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Gregory  XV.  in  1621. 

See  RiBERA,  "Vida  de  la  Madre  Teresa,"  1601;  Collombet, 
"Vie  de  Sainte-Therfese,"  1836;  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish 
Literature;"  Alban  Butler,  "  Leben  derheiligen  Theresia,"  1825; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Thermes,  de,  deh  t§Rm,  (Paul  de  la  Barthe — deh 
It  bSat,)  Seigneur,  a  French  general,  born  at  Couse- 
rans  in  1482.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1557. 
Died  in  1562. 

Th^roigne  de  Mericourt,  ti'RwSfi'  deh  meh-re'- 
Icoor',  (or  Marcourt,  mjR'kooR',)  (Anne  josi:PHE,)  a 
Frenchwoman,  noted  for  her  courage  and  beauty,  was 
born  in  Luxeinburg  in  1762.  She  became  a  Girondist, 
and  harangued  the  people  of  Paris  during  the  Revolution. 
About  1793  she  was  maltreated  by  some  viragos  of  the 
[acobin  party,  and  lost  her  reason.     Died  in  181 7. 

See  Th.  Fuss,  "Thtfroigne  de  Mericourt  dite  la  belle  Liegoise," 
1854  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

The'ron,  [G^pwj^,]  a  Greek,  who  became  Tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  about  488  B.C.  As  an  ally  of 
Gelon  of  Syracuse,  he  fought  against  the  Carthaginians 
in  480.  His  reign  was  prosperous.  He  obtained  at 
the  Olympic  games  victories  which  were  celebrated  by 
Pindar.     Died  in  472  B.C. 

Ther-san'der,  [Gr.  Qepaavdpoc ;  Fr.  Thersandre, 
t§R's6NdR',j  a  mythical  king  of  Thebes,  and  a  son  of 
Polynices.  He  joined  the  expedition  against  Troy,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  killed  by  Telephus.  He  was  one 
of  the  Epigoni,  (which  see.)  According  to  Virgil,  Ther- 
sander  was  one  of  the  Greeks  who  were  concealed  in  the 
Wooden  horse. 


Thersite._  See  Thersites. 

Ther-si'tea,  [Gr.  Qepairrjc;  Fr.  Thersite,  tSR'sit',1 
a  Greek,  noted  for  his  personal  ugliness,  impudence,  and 
ill  nature,  was  publicly  chastised  by  Ulysses  for  having 
slandered  Agamemnon.  According  to  tradition,  he  was 
slain  by  Achilles. 

See  "'Iliad,"  book  ii. 

Th6ry,ti're',  (Augustin  FRANgois,)  a  French  littlra- 
tenr,  born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  College  of  Versailles,  and  afterwards  proviseiir. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "La  Renaissance,"  a 
poem,  (1822,)  and  a  "  History  of  Literary  Opinions,"  (2 
vols.,  1844.)     Died  March  14,  187S. 

Th6see.     See  Theseus. 

The'seus  or  Mee'se-us,  [Gr.  Qrjaevc  ;  Fr.  Th:^s6e,  ti'- 
zi' ;  It.  Tkseo,  ti-sa'o,]  the  great  national  hero  of  Attica, 
regarded  by  some  critics  as  a  mythical  personage.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  he  was  a  son  of  y^Lgeus,  King  of 
Athens,  and  a  cousin  of  Hercules,  whose  exploits  he 
emulated  by  the  destruction  of  monsters  and  robbers. 
The  Athenians  were  bound  to  pay  tribute  to  Minos  of 
Crete,  in  the  form  of  seven  young  men  and  seven  maidens, 
who  were  destined  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur  in  the 
Labyrinth.  Theseus  volunteered  to  go  as  one  of  these 
victims.  He  gained  the  affection  of  Ariadne,  a  daughter 
of  Minos,  killed  the  Minotaur,  and  readily  found  his  way 
out  of  the  Labyrinth  by  means  of  a  clue  (ball  of  thread) 
which  Ariadne  gave  him,  one  end  of  which  he  made  fast 
at  the  entrance  and  let  it  trail  after  him.  He  afterwards 
became  King  of  Athens,  defeated  the  Amazons,  who  in- 
vaded Attica,  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition, 
and  abducted  the  famous  Helen  from  Sparta  while  she 
was  a  girl.  He  married  Antiope,  the  Queen  of  the 
Amazons,  who  bore  him  a  son  named  Hippolytus,  and 
after  her  death  he  married  Phaedra,  a  daughter  of  Minos. 
He  was  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as  the  author  of  an 
important  "political  reform  in  Attica,  which  before  his 
tiiTie  was  divided  into  many  petty  states  or  demi,  claim- 
ing to  be  independent.  These  he  reduced  to  a  state  of 
unity  and  subjection  to  a  central  authority.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Pirithous,  whom  he  aided,  the  legend 
says,  in  an  audacious  attempt  to  abduct  Proserpine  from 
the  palace  of  Pluto.  They  failed,  and  Theseus  was  con- 
fined in  Tartarus,  but  was  finally  released  by  Hercules. 
Tradition  adds  that  he  was  treacherously  killed  by 
Lycomedes,  King  of  Scyros. 

See  ViRGii.,  "iEneid,"  book  vi.  393  and  618  ;  Plutarch,  L  fc 
of  Theseus." 

Thesiger.    See  Chelmsford. 

Thes'pis,  [Gfomf,]  a  Greek  dramatist,  born  at  Icarla, 
in  Attica,  flourished  about  540  B.C.  He  is  called  the 
inventor  of  tragedy.  His  works  have  perished,  the  titles 
only  of  four  dramas  being  preserved. 

See  J.  C.  Cramer,  "  Commentatio  de  Thespide,"  1754;  K.  O. 
MuLLER,  "Literature  of  Ancient  Greece." 

Thes'pi-us,  [Gr.  QeoTriog,]  a  son  of  Erechtheus,  and 
a  king  of  Thespise.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  had 
fifty  daughters,  who  were  the  wives  or  concubines  of 
Hercules,  to  whom  Thespius  gave  them  as  a  reward 
for  killing  a  lion. 

Thes'sa-lus,  [Gr.  GeaaaXof;  Fr.  Thessale,  ti'slK,] 
a  son  of  Jason  and  Medea,  was  supposed  to  be  the 
ancestor  of  the  Thessalian  people. 

Thessalus,  a  son  of  the  celebrated  physician  Hip- 
pocrates, lived  about  360  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  sect 
of  the  Dogmatici. 

Thessalus,  a  physician  who  lived  under  the  reign  of 
Nero,  was  a  native  of  Lydia,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Methodici. 

Thes'ti-us,  [Gr.  Oeotwc,]  a  fabulous  king  of  MtoWz, 
said  \,o  have  been  a  son  of  Mars  or  of  Agenor,  and 
the  father  of  Althaea,  Leda,  Iphiclus,  Plexippus,  and 
Eurypylus. 

The'tis,  [Gr.  eirig  ;  Fr.  Thetis,  ti'tfess',]  a  beautiful 
sea-nymph,  and  one  of  the  Nereids,  was  said  to  be  a 
granddaughter  of  Neptune,  and  a  daughter  of  Nereus  and 
Doris.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  was  courted  by  Ju- 
piter and  Apollo,  who  desisted  from  the  pursuit  because 
Themis  predicted  that  her  son  should  be  greater  than 
his  father  ;  that  she  was  married  to  Peleus,  and  became 
the  mother  of  Achilles ;  and  that  their  wedding  was  at- 


«  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  karti;  g  as  /.•  G,  H,  K,guttural   N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (^I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 1 


THEUDIS 


2304 


THJBAUT 


tended  by  all  the  gods  except  Eris,  (or  Discord,)  who 
threw  among  the  guests  the  golden  apple,  on  which  was 
written,  "  For  the  most  beautiful,"  and  which  Paris 
-.warded  to  Venus  as  the  prize  of  beauty.  (See  Achilles.) 

Theu'dis,  King  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  succeeded 
Amalaric  in  531  or  532  A.D.  He  waged  a  successful  war 
against  the  ?>ar.ks,  who  invaded  Spain  in  542.  He  was 
an  uncle  of  Totila.     Died  in  548  A.D. 

Theuriet,  tuh'rej;i',  (Andr6,)  a  French  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Marly-le-Roi  in  1833.  Among  his 
poems  are  "  Le  Cheniin  des  Bois,"  (1867,)  "  Le  Bleu  et  le 
Noir,"  (1873,)  '^^^-  His  novels  include  "  Mile.  Guignon," 
{1874,)  "  Raymnnde,"  (1S77,)  etc.  He  also  wrote  some 
plays  and  volumes  of  general  literature,  such  as  "Sous 
Bois,"  (1878,)  and  "Journal  de  Tristram,"  {1S84,)  a  de- 
lightful record  of  tb.e  impressions  of  travel. 

Theux  de  Meylandt,  de,  deh  tuh  deh  mi'ljint,  (or 
mi'IdNt',)  (Barth6lemy  Theodore,)  Comte,  a  Belgian 
minister  of  state,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Schabroek  in 
1794.  He  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Catholic 
party.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  in  1831-32, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  between  1835  and  1840,  and 
minister  of  the  interior  from  1846  to  1848.      Died  1874. 

Thevenard,  tev'ntR',  (Antoine  Jean  Marie,) 
Comte,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
1733.     He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1792.    Died  in  1815. 

Th^veneau,  tiv'nr/,  (Charles  Simon,)  a  French  poet 
and  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1759  ;  died  in  1821. 

Thevenin,  tiv'n^N',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1764,  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1825.  His  master-piece  is 
the  "Passage  of  Mont  Saint  Bernard."     Died  in  1838. 

Thevenin,  (Claude  Noel,)  a  French  historica' 
painter,  born  in  Isere  in  1800;  died  in  1849. 

Tbevenot.     See  Coulon  de  Th^venot. 

Thevenot,  tiv'no',  (Melchisedech,)  a  French  com- 
piler and  Oriental  scholar,  born  in  Paris  about  \bio. 
ile  was  sent  in  1652  on  an  important  mission  to  Rome, 
and  in  1684  appointed  librarian  of  the  Royal  Library. 
He  v/as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
His  principal  work  is  a  compilation  of  travels  and 
voyages,  entitled  an  "  Account  of  Many  Curious  Voyages 
hitherto  unpublished,"  etc.,  (2  vols,  fob,  1672.)  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  scientific  attainments,  as  well  as  his 
profound  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  tongues,  and  was 
the  inventor  of  an  air-level.  He  also  collected  many 
valuable  books  and  manuscripts  for  the  Royal  Library, 
of  which  he  published  a  catalogue,  entitled  "Bibliotheca 
Thevenotiana."     Died  in  1693. 

Thevenot,  de,  deh  tiv'no',  (Jean,)  a  traveller,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1633. 
He  studied  at  the  College  of  Navarre,  and,  having  pre- 
viously visited  England,  Germany,  and  Italy,  set  out  in 
1655  for  the  East.  He  spent  seven  years  in  Egypt  and 
different  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  1664  started  on  a  second 
journey,  during  which  he  visited  Persia  and  Lidia.  He 
died  of  a  fever  in  1667,  while  on  his  way  to  Tabreez, 
(Tabriz.)  His  principal  works,  which  have  a  high  repu- 
tation, are  "Travels  in  the  Levant,"  (1664,)  to  which 
were  added  a  description  of  Persia,  and  "  An  Account  of 
Hindostan,  the  Modern  Mongols,  and  other  Peoples  and 
Countries  of  India,"  ("Voyage  contenant  la  Relation  de 
I'Hindoustan,  des  nouveaux  Mogols,"  etc.,  1684.)  He 
was  well  versed  in  the  Arabic  and  Persian  languages. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle. " 

Thevet,  teh-vi',  (Andr^,)  a  French  traveller,  born 
at  Angouleme  in  1502.  He  visited  the  Levant,  and 
published  a  "  Universal  Cosmography,"  (1571,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1590. 

Thevr,  thu,  (Robert,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1758,  was  appointed  engraver  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  His  principal  works  are  nineteen  plates  ih  Boy- 
dell's  "Shakspeare  Gallery."     Died  in  1802. 

Thialfi     See  Thor. 

Thiard  or  Tyard,  de,  deh  te'SR',  (Pontus,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  1521.  He  was  patronized  by  Henry  HI., 
who  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1578. 
Died  in  1605. 

See  Martin,  "  Notice  sur  Pontus  de  Thiard,"  17S6. 

Thiard  de  Bissy,  de,  deh  te'tR'  deh  be'se',  (Au- 
xonne  Th^odose  Marie,)  Comte,  a  French  general. 


born  in  Paris  in  1772.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1820  to  1848.    Died  in  1852. 

Thiassi  or  Thjassi,  te-is'se,  [said  to  signify  "  im- 
petuous," "  violent,"!  a  famous  giant,  the  father  of  Skadi, 
mentioned  in  the  Eddaic  legends.  It  is  related  that, 
having  taken  the  form  of  an  eagle,  Thiassi  succeeded  in 
catching  the  subtle  Loki,  and  refused  to  release  him 
unless  he  would  swear  to  bring  Iduna,  with  her  apples 
of  immortality,  from  the  habitation  of  the  .^sir.  There- 
upon Loki  told  Iduna  that  he  had  found  some  beautiful 
apples  in  a  wood  just  without  the  walls  of  Asgard, 
urging  her  to  take  her  own  out  with  her  for  the  pur- 
pose of  comparing  them.  Iduna  fell  into  the  snare. 
No  sooner  had  she  left  the  fortress  of  the  gods  than 
Thiassi  came,  with  his  eagle's  plumage,  caught  her  up, 
and  carried  her  to  Thrymheim,  his  abode  among  the 
mountains.  But  the  gods  fared  i'.l  in  her  absence  ;  they 
grew  rapidly  old  and  gray.  At  length,  Loki,  terrified 
by  their  menaces,  was  prevailed  on  to  attempt  her 
restoration.  Having  himself  assumed  the  form  of  a 
falcon,  he  flew  to  Thrymheim  in  the  giant's  absence, 
transformed  Iduna  into  a  nut,  and  carried  her  in  his 
talons  to  Asgard.  But  Thiassi  pursued  and  had  nearly 
overtaken  Loki,  when  the  ^sir  came  out  to  his  assist- 
ance, and  Thiassi  was  caught  and  slain.  It  is  said  that 
the  gods,  in  order  to  appease  Skadi  for  the  death  of  her 
father,  cast  his  eyes  up  to  heaven,  where  they  became 
two  stars. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  43-45. 

Thibaud.     See  Thibaut. 

Tiiibaud,  te'bo',  or  The'o-b9.1d,  an  ecclesiastic, 
became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (England)  in  1139. 
He  quarrelled  with  King  Stephen.     Died  in  I161. 

Thibaud  (te'bo')  or  Thibaut  II.,  called  the  Great, 
Count  of  Champagne  and  Blois,  was  born  about  1090. 
His  mother  was  Adela,  a  daughter  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  He  was  a  brother  of  Stephen,  King  of 
England.     Died  in  1152. 

Thibaud  or  Thibaut,  sometimes  called  The'o-baid, 
[Lat.  Theobal'dus,]  Count  of  Champagne  and  King 
of  Navarre,  was  born  in  1201.  He  was  a  son  of  Tiii- 
baut.  Count  of  Champagne,  and  was  the  most  powerful 
feudatory  of  the  French  king.  On  the  death  of  his 
uncle,  Sancho,  King  of  Navarre,  in  1234,  he  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  that  country.  In  1239  he  conducted  an 
army  of  crusaders  to  the  Holy  Land;  but  he  proved 
himself  an  incompetent  general,  and  was  defeated  with 
great  loss  at  Ascalon  or  Gaza.  Died  in  1253.  He  was 
celebrated  as  a  troubadour,  and  left  many  songs,  which 
are  extant. 

See  Delbarrb,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Thibaut,  Cointe  de  Cham- 
pagne," 1850;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Thibaudeau,  te'bo'do',  (Adolphe  Narcisse,)  a 
French  journalist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Poitiers 
in  1795  ;  died  in  1856. 

Thibaudeau,  (Antoine  Claire,)  Count,  a  French 
revolutionist  and  historical  writer,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Poitiers  in  1765.  He  was  elected 
to  the  National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king  without  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Ir 
1796  he  became  president  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred, and  a  count  of  the  empire  in  1808.  He  was 
appointed  a  senator  by  Louis  Napoleon  in  1852.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Memoirs  of  the  Convention  and  the 
Directory,"  (1824,)  "General  History  of  Najjoleon," 
(1827,)  "  Memoirs  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire," 
(1835,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1854. 

See  TissKRON,  "  Le  Senat  de  I'Empire  Franfais;"  "NouvelU 
Biographie  Generale." 

Thibaut,  te'bo',  (Anton  Friedrich  Justus,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  born  at  Hameln,  in  Hanover,  in 
1774.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  Konigsberg,  and  Kiel, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  1802,  and  obtained 
in  1805  the  same  chair  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  taught 
with  distinguished  success  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  His  legal  works  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
ranked  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  appeared. 
Among  these  may  be  named  his  "  Juristic  Encyclopaedia 
and  Methodology,"  (1797,)  "Theory  of  the  Logical 
Interpretation  of  Roman   Law,"  "  On  Possession  and 


.a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  Ci,  y,  sitort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsatre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  goTxl;  moon; 


THIBA  UT 


THIERS 


Prescription,"  (1802,)  "System  des  Pandektenrechts," 
(1803,)  and  "On  the  Necessity  of  a  Common  Code  of 
Laws  for  Germany,"  (1814.)     Died  in  1840. 

Thibaut,  (Jean  Thomas,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Haute  Marne  in  1757;  died  in  1826. 

Thibouville,  de,  deh  te'boo'v^l',  (Henri  Lambert 
d'Herhigny,)  Marquis,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1710,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire.  He 
wrote  dramas,  novels,  etc.     Died  in  1784. 

Thick'nesse,  (Mrs.  Anne,)  aii  English  lady,  dis- 
tinguished for  her  talents  and  beauty,  was  born  in  1737. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Philip  Thicknesse,  noticed  below. 
She  wrote  "  Biographical  Sketches  of  Literary  Females 
of  the  French  Nation,"  "  The  School  of  Fashion,"  a 
novel,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1824. 

Thicknesse,  (Philip,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
about  1720.  Among  his  works  are  "Memoirs  and 
Anecdotes  of  Philip  Thicknesse,"  (3  vols.,  1788-91.) 
Died  in  1792. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1777. 

Thi6bault  or  Thi6baut,  te'i'bo',  (Dieudonn^,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  near  Remiremont  in  1733.  He 
became  professor  of  grammar  in  Berlin  in  1765,  and  was 
intimate  with  Frederick  the  Great.  He  published,  be- 
sides several  works  on  grammar,  "  Souvenirs  of  Twenty 
Years'  Residence  in  Berlin,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1804.)  Died 
in  1807. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Thi^bault,  (Paul  Charles  Francois,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Berlin  in  1769,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Austerlitz,  and 
became  a  general  of  division  in  1808.  He  wrote  several 
military  works.     Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Thi^baut    See  Theobald. 

Thi6baut  de  Berueaud,  te'i'bo'  deh  b§R'n6', 
(ARsfeNE,)  a  French  writer  on  rural  economy  and  biog- 
raphy, born  at  Sedan  in  1777,  was  a  republican.  He 
contributed  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle."  Died  in 
Paris  in  1850. 

Thiele,  tee'leh,  (Just  Matthias,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1795.  He  published,  besides 
othei  works,  a  "History  of  Thorwaldsen's  Youth,"  and 
"  Thorvvaldsen  and  his  Works,"   (1831-50.)    Died  1874. 

Thielen,  van,  vin  tee'len,  (Jan  Philip,)  a  Flemish 
flower-painter,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1618.  His  works  are 
esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind.     Died  in  1667. 

Thielmann,  von,  fon  teel'min,  (Johann  Adolf,) 
Freiherr,  a  German  general,  born  at  Dresden  in  1765. 
He  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1806  and  1809,  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1810,  and  fought  for  Napoleon  in 
Russia  in  18x2.  He  afterwards  entered  the  Prussian 
service,  and  obtained  command  of  a  corps  or  division 
of  the  army  of  Bliicher.  C)n  June  18  he  held  in  check 
the  corps  of  Grouchy  at  Wavre,  and  by  his  obstinate 
resistance  contributed  to  the  victory  of  the  allies  at 
Waterloo.     Died  in  1S24. 

See  Oberreit,  "  Beitrage  ziir  Biographie  des  Generals  von  Thiel- 
mann," 1829;  HoLZENDORFF,  "Beitrage  zur  Biographie  des  Gene- 
rals von  Thielmann,"  1830. 

Thieme,  tee'meh,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  philol- 
ogist, was  professor  at  Leipsic.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Xeiiophon,  (4  vols.,  1763-66.)     Died  in  1795. 

Thiemo,  tee'mo,  [Fr.  Thi^mon,  te'i'm6N',]  some- 
times called  Diethmar,  a  German  prelate,  distinguished 
as  a  sculptor  and  painter,  was  born  in  Bavaria  about 
1045.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  about  10S8. 
Died  in  Palestine  about  iioo. 

Tliienemann,  tee'neh-min',  (Friedrich  August 
LuDWiG,)  a  German  ornithologist,  born  near  Freiburg 
in  1793.  Having  graduated  at  Leipsic,  he  visited  North-, 
ern  Europe  and  Iceland,  of  which  he  published  an 
account  after  his  return.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Reproduction  of  Divers  Species  of  Birds,"  with 
one  hundred  coloured  plates,  (1845-53.)     Died  in  1858. 

ThierrL     See  Thierry. 

Thierry  or  Thierri,  te-Sr're,  [Fr.  pron.  te'i're',]  or 
Theodoric  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  486  A.n., 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Clovis.  He  began  to  reign  in 
tii.     Died  in  534. 


Thierry  or  Thierri  II.,  King  of  Austrasia  and  Bur- 
gundy, born  in  587  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  Childebert  IL, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  596.     Died  in  613  A.D. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  L  or  m..  King  of  Neustria  and 
Burgundy,  (or  France,)  a  son  of  Clovis  IL,  was  born 
about  654  A.D.  He  received  the  title  of  king,  but  the 
royal  power  was  exercised  by  Pepin,  mayor  of  the  palace. 
Died  in  691  a.d. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  II.  or  IV.,  born  in  713  a.d.,  was 
a  son  of  Dagobert  III.,  King  of  the  Franks.  He  was 
one  of  the  rois  fainiants,  or  nominal  kings.  The  king- 
dom was  governed  by  Charles  Martel,  under  the  name 
of  Thierri.     Died  in  737  a.d. 

Thierry,  te'i're',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  in  1803,  practised  in  Paris,  and  gained 
distinction  as  an  operator.  He  was  an  active  promoter 
of  the  revolution  of  1848.     Died  in  1858. 

Thierry,  (Am6d6e  Simon  Dominique,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Blois  in  1797.  He  was  appointed 
master  of  requests  in  the  council  of  state  under  Louis 
Philippe,  and  continued  in  the  same  office  by  Louis 
Napoleon.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Gaul  under 
the  Roman  Rule,"  (1826,)  "History  of  Attila  and  of  his 
Sons  and  Successors  in  Europe,"  etc.,  (1856,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Gauls  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the 
Subjection  of  Gaul,"  etc.,  (1857.)  He  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences  in  1841,  and 
was  made  senator  in  i860.     Died  March  27,  1873. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1832. 

Thierry,  (Edouard.)  a  French  litterateur,  born  m 
Paris  in  1813.  He  contributed  critiques  on  the  drama 
to  several  journals  of  Paris. 

Thierry,  (Jacques  Nicolas  Augustin,)  an  eminent 
French  historian,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Blois  in  1795.  Having  studied  in  the  College  of  Blois, 
he  repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  became  in  181 7  associate 
editor  of  the  "  Censeur  Europeen."  lie  brought  out  in 
1825  his  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans,"  which  met  with  brilliant  success  and  was 
translated  into  German  and  English.  Soon  after  this, 
his  sight,  which  had  been  gradually  failing,  was  entirely 
lost.  He  still,  however,  pursued  his  historical  researches, 
with  the  assistance  of  a  secretary,  Arniand  Carrel,  and 
published,  successively,  "Ten  Years  of  Historical  Stu- 
dies," (1834,)  "Narratives  of  the  Merovingian  Times, 
preceded  by  Considerations  on  the  History  of  France," 
(1840,)  and  an  "Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Formation 
and  Progress  of  the  Third  Estate,"  (1853.)  He  was 
recognized  as  the  master  of  the  modern  French  school 
of  historians.     Died  in  May,  1856. 

See  Gi;iGNiAUT,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  d'Aug.  Thierry, 
1863;  L.  DB  LoM^NiE,  "M.  A.  Thierry,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien, 
1841  ;  Robin,  "Galerie  des  Gens  de  I.ettres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biojiraphio 
Generale  ;"  "Biographie  Universelle;"  "Westminster  Review"  for 
October,  1841. 

Thierry,  (Jean,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1669,  worked  in  Spain  for  Philip  V.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1739. 

Thierry,  (Joseph  Francois  D6sir6,)  a  French 
painter  of  landscapes  and  decorations,  a  brother  of 
Edouard,  was  born  in  1812;  died  in  1866. 

Thierry,  (Julie  de  Querangal — deh  keh'r&N'gtl',) 
a  literary  French  lady,  became  in  183 1  the  wife  of 
Augustin  Thierry  the  historian.  She  aided  him  in  his 
literary  labours,  and  wrote  two  works,  entitled  "  Scenes 
of  Manners  and  Characters,"  (1835,)  and  "Adelaide: 
Memoirs  of  a  Young  Woman,"  (1839.)     Died  in  1844. 

Tliierry  (or  Theodoric)  of  Nie.m,  a  native  of  West- 
phalia, became  papal  secretary  at  Rome.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  Schism,"  ("  De  Schismate.")  Died 
in  141 7. 

Thiers,  te'aiR',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  theo- 
logian  of  great  erudition,  was  born  at  Chartres  in  1636. 
He  published  numerous  religious  and  controversial 
works,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Among  these  is  a 
"  Treatise  on  Superstitions  according  to  Holy  Scripture," 
("Traite  des  Superstitions  selon  I'ficriture  Sainte,'' 
1679.)     Died  in  1703. 

Thiers,  (Louis  Adolphe,)  an  eminent  French  his- 
torian and  minister  of  state,  was  born  at  Marseilles  on 
the  i6th  of  .\pril,  1797.     He  studied  law  at  Aix,  where 


€  as  k;  5  as  .f ;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h,  Vi, gitttiiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 

145 


(S^^See  Explaiiatiiins,  p.  23.) 


THIERSCH 


2306 


THIRTY 


M.  Mignet  was  his  fellow-student  and  his  friend.  In 
1818  he  was  received  as  advocate  at  the  bar  of  Aix,  from 
which  he  removed  to  Paris  in  1821  and  became  an  assist- 
ant editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  a  liberal  journal.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  finesse,  by  his  political  in- 
sight, and  by  the  vivacity  of  his  style.  In  1823  he  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,"  (10  vols.,  1823-27,)  which  enjoyed  much 
popularity,  especially  with  the  Liberal  party.  Thiers, 
Mignet,  and  Armand  Carrel  founded  in  January,  1830,  the 
"  National,"  with  an  agreement  that  each  should  be  alter- 
nately editor-in-chief  for  one  year.  Thiers  was  the  editor 
for  the  first  year,  and  contributed  to  the  revolution  of 
July,  1830.  He  is  said  to  be  the  author  of  the  phrase, 
"The  king  reigns,  and  does  not  govern."  He  employed 
his  influence  to  raise  Louis  Philippe  to  the  throne,  and 
was  rewarded  by  the  office  of  councillor  of  state  in  1830. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  the 
finances  during  the  short  ministry  of  Lafitte,  1830-31, 
and  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  October,  1832. 
He  acquired  eminence  as  a  parliamentary  debater.  His 
speeches  are  characterized  as  familiar,  amusing,  con- 
versational, and  incisive.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1834.  About  this  time  Thiers  and 
Guizot  became  rivals  and  competitors  for  the  place  of 
chief  minister,  the  former  being  the  leader  of  the  centre 
gauc/ie,  {"  \e(t  centre.")  He  was  president  of  the  council 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  February  to  August, 
1836,  when  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Count 
Mole.  In  March,  1840,  he  was  again  appointed  chief 
minister,  with  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  His  policy 
on  the  Eastern  question  was  counteracted  by  Palmerston, 
who,  by  a  concerted  action  with  Russia  and  Austria, 
isolated  France.  Thiers  resolved  to  support  Mehemet 
Ali,  at  the  risk  of  a  war  against  England  ;  but,  as  the  king 
would  not  assent  to  this  course,  he  resigned  in  October, 
1S40,  and  was  succeeded  by  Guizot. 

Among  his  chief  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Consulate 
and  the  Empire,"  {20  vols.,  1845-63.)  This,  as  well  as  his 
"  History  of  the  Revolution,"  stands  in  the  very  highest 
rank  among  historical  works  in  the  French  language. 
lie  was  one  of  the  orators  of  the  opposition  in  the  last 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  but  did  not  give  a 
hearty  support  to  the  republic  of  1848.  In  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  he  acted  with  the  droite.  He  voted 
for  Louis  Napoleon  as  president  in  December,  1848,  but 
after  that  president  became  emperor  he  ceased  to  oe 
his  partisan.  In  1863  Thiers  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lative body,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  opposition,  and 
to  which  he  was  re-elected  in  1869.  He  made  in  April, 
1867,  a  speech  against  Napoleon's  foreign  policy,  which 
excited  much  sensation.  He  avowed  his  enmity  to  Ital- 
ian nationality.  "  The  whole  drift  of  this  speech,"  says 
the  London  "Spectator,"  "is  that  selfishness  is  the  first 
of  national  duties."  In  July,  1870,  he  boldly  opposed 
the  war  against  Prussia,  in  a  speech  to  the  legislative 
body,  and  declared  that  Napoleon  had  committed  an- 
other blunder.  He  declined  to  serve  as  a  member  of  the 
provisional  government  formed  in  September,  1870,  but, 
on  the  organization  of  the  French  Republic,  he  accepted 
the  Presidency,  to  which  he  was  elected  in  February, 
1871,  and  served  in  that  capacity  until  his  resignation, 
May  24,  1873.     He  died  September  3,  1877. 

See  CoRMENiN,  "  Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  L.  Blanc,  "  Histoire  de 
dix  Ans  ;"  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1845  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  March,  1838  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
lS4s;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April  and  July,  1858,  and  October, 
1S61  :  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1845  ;  "  Westminster  Review" 
for  July,  1848  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  i860 ;  "  British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1863. 

Thiersch,  teensh,  (Bernard,)  a  German  philologist, 
became  director  of  the  College  of  Dortmund.  He  wrote, 
oesides  several  works  on  philology,  "  The  Epoch  and 
Native  Land  of  Homer,"  ("Das  Zeitalter  und  Vaterland 
des  Homer.")  He  was  a  brother  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 
noticed  below.     Died  in  1855. 

Thiersch,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Freiburg  in  1784.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  and  was  appointed  in  1809  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  literature  in  the  gymnasium  at  Munich. 
He  soon  after  founded  a  philological  institute,  which  was 


subsequently  united  to  the  university.  lie  visited  Greece 
in  1831,  and  published,  after  his  return,  a  treatise  "On 
the  Actual  Condition  of  Greece,  and  the  Means  of  Ac- 
complishing her  Restoration,"  (in  French,  1833.)  Among 
his  other  works  we  may  name  his  "  Greek  Grammar, 
especially  for  the  Homeric  Dialects,"  (1826,)  and  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Epochs  of  the  Plastic  Art  among  the 
Greeks,"  (1829.)  He  also  edited  Pindar's  "Odes,"  ac- 
companied with  notes  and  with  a  German  translation 
in  verse,  and  published  several  treatises  on  the  higher 
schools  of  Bavaria,  and  in  favour  of  classical  studies. 
Died  in  1860. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Thiersch,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm  Josias,)  a  nephew 
or  son  of  the  preceding,  has  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "  Grammatical  Manual  for  the  First  Instruc- 
tion in  the  Hebrew  Language,"  (1842.) 

Thiesse,  te'i'si',  (LioN,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1793.  He  wrote  political  pamphlets,  several 
poems,  and  "Manuel  des  Braves."     Died  in  1854. 

Thile,  von,  fon  tee'leh,  (Ludwig  Gustav,)  a  Prussian 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1787,  served  against  the 
French  in  the  campaigns  of  1806,  1813,  and  1815,  and 
v/as  appointed  minister  of  state  under  Frederick  William 
IV.  in  1840.     Died  in  1852. 

Thilo,  tee^o,  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1794.  He  published 
a  "  Codex  Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti,"  and  other 
learned  works.     Died  in  1853. 

Thiollet,  te'o'lV,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Poitiers  in  1782.  He  published  several  treatises 
on  Architecture.     Died  at  Paris,  October  26,  1859, 

Thion  de  la  Chaume,  te'oN'  deh  IS  shorn,  (Claude 
Esprit,)  a  French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris 
in  1750.  He  was  appointed  in  1778  physician  to  the 
military  hospital  at  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  and  soon  after 
to  the  army  destined  to  attack  Gibraltar.  While  in  this 
post  he  was  eminently  successful  in  his  treatment  of  an 
epidemic  fever  which  had  made  great  ravages  among 
the  troops.  After  his  return  to  France  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  physicians  of  the  Count  d'Artois,  afterwards 
Charles  X.     Died  in  1786. 

Thirion,  te're'oN',  (Didier,)  a  French  Jacobin,  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792.  He  opposed 
Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor.     Died  in  1814. 

Thiriot,  te're'o',  a  Frenchman,  born  about  1696,  wa* 
a  friend  of  Voltaire,  some  of  whose  works  he  edited. 
Died  in  1772. 

Thjrl'by,  (Styan,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic,  born 
at  Leicester  in  1692,  published  an  edition  of  Justin 
Martyr,  with  notes.     Died  in  1753. 

Thirl'^wall,  (Connop,)  an  eminent  English  historian, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1821.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1840. 
He  published,  conjointly  with  Julius  Charles  Hare,  a 
translation  from  the  German  of  two  volumes  of  Nie- 
buhr's  "History  of  Rome."  He  brought  out  in  1852 
his  "  History  of  Greece,"  (8  vols.  8vo,)  which  is  esteemed 
a  standard  work.  "  Having,"  says  Mr.  Grote,  "studied, 
of  course,  the  same  evidence  as  Dr.  Thirlwall,  I  am 
better  enabled  than  others  to  bear  testimony  to  the 
learning,  the  sagacity,  and  the  candour  which  pervade 
his  excellent  work."  (Preface  to  Grote's  "  History  of 
Greece.")     Died  July  27,  1875. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Thiroux  de  Crosne,  te'roo'  deh  kr6n,  (Louis,)  a 
French  magistrate,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  became  lieu- 
tenant-general of  the  police  in  1785.  He  was  guillotined 
in  1794. 

Thirty  Tyrants,  The,  [commonly  called  in  Greek 
simply  Oi  Tpiwiovra,  or  "The  Thirty,"]  the  name  of  a 
tyrannical  oligarchy  which  was  established  in  Athens, 
under  the  protectorate  of  Sparta,  continuing  about  a  year, 
at  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  All  the  Athenian 
citizens  supposed  to  be  favourable  to  liberty  were  espe- 
cially obnoxious  to  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  many  of  them 
were  put  to  death  without  regard  to  justice  or  even  the 
forms  of  law ;  and  great  wealth,  particularly  if  it  belonged 
to  those  who  were  not  citizens  of  Athens,  was  almost  sure 


a.  e.  T.  o,  u,  y,  /of/^:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  9,  j,  9,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  fit;  m8t;  n3t;  g56d;  moon; 


THISBE 


2307 


THOMAS 


to  bring  destruction  upon  its  possessor.  Among  the 
Thirty  the  most  conspicuous  were  Critias,  Theramenes, 
and  Eratosthenes.     See  Thrasybulus. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of 
Greece ;"  Xenophon,  Hellenica ;"  Lysias,  "  Oration  against 
Eratosthenes." 

Jl^"  The  name  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  [in  Latin, 
Trigin'ta  Tyran'ni]  was  also  sometimes  incorrectly 
applied  to  a  number  of  pretenders  or  usurpers  who 
arose  in  different  parts  of  the  Roman  empire  during  the 
reigns  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus.  Among  their  number 
vvere  Odenathus  and  the  famous  Zenobia. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decli"'e  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  Trebkllius  Pollio,  "Triginta  Tyranni." 

This'be,  [Gr.  eiaSri;  Fr.  Thisb6,  tes'bi',]  a  beautiful 
maiden  of  Babylon,  beloved  by  Pyramus.  They  lived 
in  adjoining  houses,  and  conversed  privately  through  a 
chink  of  the  wall.  They  agreed  to  meet  at  the  tomb  of 
Ninus,  under  a  mulberry-tree.  Thisbe,  who  first  came 
to  that  place,  was  driven  away  by  the  sight  of  a  lioness, 
and  dropped  her  veil,  which  the  lioness  stained  with 
blood.  This  veil  was  found  by  Pyramus,  who,  hastily 
concluding  that  Thisbe  had  been  killed,  destroyed  him- 
self. She  soon  returned,  saw  the  dead  body  of  Pyramus, 
and  followed  his  example.  The  poets  feigned  that  the 
mulberries,  in  sympathy  with  their  fate,  changed  colour 
from  white  to  red. 

See  Ovid,  "Metamorphoses." 

Thisted,  tis'ted,  (Waldemar  Adolf,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  romance-writer,  known  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Saint  Hermidad,  born  at  Aarhuus  in  181 5,  has 
published,  among  other  works,  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Heart  of  the  Wilderness,"  (1850.)     [Died  in  1887.] 

Thistlewood,  this'sl-wood,  (Arthur,)  an  English 
adventurer,  born  near  Lincoln  in  1772,  was  the  principal 
leader  in  the  so-called  Cato  Street  Conspiracy,  designed 
to  excite  an  insurrection  in  London.  Being  arrested, 
with  several  of  his  accomplices,  he  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  executed  in  1820. 

See  "The  Closing  Scene;  or,  Christianity  and  Infidelity  Con- 
trasted," by  the  Rev.  Erskine  Neale. 

Thjassi.     See  Thiassi. 

Tho-e'ris,  the  Egyptian  Ta-Ur,  or  Ta-Ouert,  an 
Egyptian  goddess,  who  with  the  monster  Set  lived  in 
Hades,  where  she  devoured  the  wicked.  She  had  the 
figure  of  a  hippopotamus,  and  gave  name  in  Egyptian 
astronomy  to  the  constellation  Ursa  Major. 

Thoghrul  Beg.     See  Togrul  Beg. 

Thograi.    See  Tograi. 

Thoiras.   See  Rapin,  de,  (Paul.) 

Thol,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  an  able  German  jurist, 
born  at  Lubeck,  June  6,  1807.  He  was  educated  at 
Leipsic  and  Heidelberg,  and  held  professorships  of  law  at 
Rostock  and  at  Gottingen,  where  he  died,  May  16,  1884. 
His  principal  writings  were  on  commercial  and  marine 
law. 

Tholuck,  to'luk,  [Ger.  pron.  to'look,]  (Friedrich 
August  Goitreu,)  an  eminent  German  theologian  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Breslau,  March  30,  1799.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  where  he  acquired 
much  proficiency  in  the  Oriental  languages,  and  was 
induced  by  Neander  to  devote  himself  to  theology.  In 
1823  he  produced  a  popular  work,  called  "  Wahre  Wei  he 
des  Zweiflers,"  which  was  reprinted  under  the  title  of 
"  The  Doctrine  of  the  Sinner  and  of  the  Mediator," 
(1851.)  He  became  extraordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Berlin  in  1824,  visited  England  and  Holland  in  1825, 
and  obtained  in  1826  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle.  Having  passed  about  two  years  as 
chaplain  to  the  Prussian  embassy  at  Rome,  where  he 
formed  a  friendship  with  Bunsen,  he  returned  to  Halle 
in  1829,  and  resumed  the  duties  of  his  professorship. 
He  opposed  the  rationalism  which  was  prevalent  among 
his  colleagues  at  Halle,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
influential  teachers  of  the  evangelical  doctrines.  Among 
his  numerous  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed,  are  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,"  (4th 
edition,  1842,)  "  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  John," 
(1826;  7th  edition,  1857,  of  which  an  excellent  English 
translation  has  been  made  by  Dr.  Krauth,  of  Philadelphia, 
1859,)  "  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews," 


(1836,)  "The  Authenticity  of  the  Gospel  History," 
('837,)  "  Hours  of  Devotion,"  ("  Stunden  der  Andacht," 
1840,)  and  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Most  of  his 
works  have  been  translated  into  English.  Died  June  9, 
1877. 

Thom,  tom,  (James,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  m 
Ayrshire  in  1799,  was  a  stone-mason  in  his  youth. 
Having  taught  himself  sculpture,  he  produced  sandstone 
statues  of  "  Tam  O'Shanter"  and  "  Souter  Johnnie," 
which  obtained  great  popularity,  and  were  reproduced 
by  several  copies.  Among  his  other  works  is  a  group 
of  "  Old  Mortality,"  in  sandstone,  which  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery,  near  Philadelj^hia. 
He  came  to  America  in  1836.  Died  at  New  York  in  1850. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Thom,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Aber- 
deen in  1799.  His  means  of  instruction  were  very 
scanty,  and  at  an  early  age  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
weaver.  He  published  in  1841  "  Rhymes  and  Recollec- 
tions of  a  Hand-Loom  Weaver."  He  died,  in  great 
destitution,    February  29,  1848. 

See  the  "  Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843. 

Thomander,  to-min'der,  (Johan  Henrik,)  a  Swed- 
ish theologian  and  distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  in 
the  province  of  Scania  in  1798,  was  appointed  in  1833 
professor  of  pastoral  theology  in  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Lund.  He  published  sermons  and  other  religious 
works,  and  translated  into  Swedish  several  of  Shak- 
speare's  works,  the  "  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  and 
Byron's  "Manfred."     Died  at  Lund,  July  9,  1865. 

Thom'aa,  (tom'as,)  [Fr.  pron.  to'mi';  Gr.  Qu/iui; 
It.  ToMMASO,  tom-md'so ;  Sp.  Tomas,  to-m5s',]  or 
Didymus,  [Gr.  Aidvfxoc,]  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Galilee.  He  is  first 
mentioned  in  John  xi.  16.  According  to  tradition,  he 
preached  the  gospel  in  India  and  suffered  martyrdom 
in  that  region. 

See  John  xx.  24-29. 

Thomas,  to'mi',  (Alexandre  Gerard,)  a  French 
littirateiir,  born  in  Paris  in  1818.  He  contributed  many 
able  articles  to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He 
removed  to  England  in  1852,  and  wrote  for  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review."     Died  at  Brussels  in  1857. 

Thomas,  (Annie.)     See  Cudlip. 

Thomas,  (Antoine  Leonard,)  a  celebrated  French 
writer,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1732.  He  studied 
in  Paris,  and  about  1754  obtained  a  professorship  in  the 
College  of  Beauvais.  He  published  in  1756  "Philoso- 
phical and  Literary  Reflections  on  the  Poem  of  Natural 
Religion."  His  "  Eulogy  on  Marshal  Saxe"  obtained 
the  prize  from  the  French  Academy  in  1759.  It  wa3 
followed  by  eulogies  on  Chancellor  d'Aguesseau  and 
Duguay-Trouin,  which  were  also  crowned  by  the  Acad- 
emy. Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  his  "  Epis- 
tle to  the  People,"  a  poem,  eulogies  on  Sully,  Descartes, 
and  Marcus  Aurelius,  "  E.ssay  on  the  Character,  Man- 
ners, and  Intellect  of  Women  in  all  Ages,"  (1772,)  and 
an  "Essay  on  Eulogies,  or  the  History  of  Literature 
and  Eloquence  applied  to  this  Kind  of  Writing,"  (1773.) 
In  1767  he  succeeded  Hardion  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.     Died  in  1785. 

Thomas,  (Charles  Louis  Ambroise,)  a  French  mu- 
sical composer,  born  at  Metz  in  1811.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  for  musical  composition  in  1832,  and  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Institute  in  1851.  He  produced,  as  early 
as  1837,  "  La  double  Echelle,"  following  which  appeared 
at  brief  intervals  numerous  successful  operas,  both 
comic  and  serious.  Among  his  well-known  works  are 
"Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  (1850,)  "Carnival  of 
Venice,"  (1857,)  "  Mignon,"  (1866,)  "  Hamlet,"  (1868,) 
and  "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  (1877.) 

Thomas,  (Christian.)    See  Thomasius. 

Thomas,  (Clement,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Li- 
bourne  in  1809.  He  was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  the 
national  guard  of  Paris  in  May,  1848,  but  was  removed 
in  the  next  month.  He  commanded  the  national  guards 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  1870.  He 
was  murdered  at  Paris,  March  18,  1871. 

Thomas,  tom'as,  (Cyrus,)  Ph.D.,  an  American  ento- 
mologist and  archaeologist,  born  at  Kingsoort,  Tennessee, 


cas  k;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ((J[^°See  Explanations,  11.  23.) 


THOMAS 


2  108 


THOMAS 


July  27,  1825.  He  was  entomologist  to  Hayden's  United 
States  survey,  1869-73.  professor  of  natural  science  at 
the  Southern  Illinois  Normal  University,  1873-76,  State 
entomologist  for  Illinois,  1875-82,  and  in  1882  became 
archaeologist  to  the  United  States  bureau  of  ethnology. 
His  publications  include  "  Aciidiidae  of  North  America," 
(1873,)  "  Illinois  Entomology,"  (6  vols.,  1877-82,)  and 
other  works  and  reports  on  entomology  ;  also  "  A  Study 
of  the  MS.  Troano,"  (1882,)  "  Notes  on  Maya  and  Mex- 
ican MSS.,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  (David,)  an  American  pomologist, 
florist,  and  writer  on  agriculture,  was  born  in  Montgomery 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1776.  He  was  educated  by 
his  parents  in  the  religious  principles  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  In  1805  he  removed  to  near  Aurora,  in  Cayuga 
county.  New  York.  In  1817  he  published  "Travels  in 
the  West,"  a  work  which  attracted  the  notice  of  De  Witt 
Clinton  and  led  to  Mr.  Thomas  being  appointed  chief 
engineer  on  the  Erie  Canal,  west  of  Rochester,  which 
position  he  held  until  the  canal  was  completed.  Subse- 
quently, on  the  recommendation  of  Governor  Clinton, 
he  was  employed  as  one  of  the  principal  engineers  on 
the  Welland  Canal  in  Canada.  As  a  florist  and  pomolo- 
gist Mr.  Thomas  had  few,  if  any,  superiors  in  the  United 
States.  By  his  contributions  to  "The  Genesee  Farmer" 
he  rendered  an  important  service  to  the  cause  of  agri- 
culture, particularly  in  refuting  an  error,  once  widely 
prevalent,  that  wheat  under  certain  circumstances  was 
liable  to  be  changed  into  "  chess,"  (Bromus  secalinus,) 
a  plant  of  quite  a  different  genus.  Mr.  Thomas  showed 
that  when  the  seed-wheat  was  perfectly  clean,  and 
when  the  soil  had  been  thoroughly  burnt,  so  as  to 
destroy  the  seeds  of  different  kinds  of  weeds,  including 
chess,  the  alleged  transmutation  never  took  place,  even 
under  the  circumstances  supposed  to  be  most  favour- 
able to  such  a  change.  His  writings,  supported  as  they 
were  by  carefully-conducted  experiments,  led  not  merely 
to  the  diffusion  of  more  enlightened  views,  but  to  a  great 
practical  improvement  in  this  department  of  agriculture. 
Died  in  1859. 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  1675,  was  the  author  of  letters  and  poems  which 
were  admired  by  Dryden,  who  gave  her  the  name  of 
Corinna.  Pope,  however,  has  introduced  her  into  his 
"Dunciad."     Died  in  1730. 

Thomas,  (F6lix,)  a  French  architect,  born  at  Nantes 
in  181 5.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1845  for  a  design 
for  a  cathedral.  He  performed  an  artistic  mission  to 
Pabylonia  about  1851.     Died  April  15,  1875. 

Thomas,  (Fr6d6ric,)  a  French  advocate  and  littera- 
teur, born  at  Toulouse  in  1814.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  in  1835,  wrote  for  the  "  Presse,"  and  published 
several  novels. 

Thomas,  (Frederick  William,)  an  American  novel- 
ist and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1808.  He  published  "Clinton  Bradshaw," 
"  East  and  West,"  "  Howard  Pinckney,"  "  The  Beechen 
Tree,  and  other  Poems,"  "  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke, 
and  other  Sketches  of  Character,"  and  "The  Emigrant," 
a  poem.     Died  September  30,  1866. 

Thomas,  (George  H.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  in  Southampton  county,  Virginia,  on  the 
31st  of  July,  1816.  He  entered  the  Academy  at  West 
Point  in  1836,  and  graduated  twelfth  in  a  class  of  forty- 
five,  in  1840.  Having  become  first  lieutenant  in  1843, 
he  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war  at  Mon- 
terey and  Buena  Vista,  (1847,)  and  gained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1853.  He  was  employed  in  Texas  from  1856 
to  November,  i860,  and  maintained  his  loyalty  to  the 
Union  amidst  the  general  defection  of  Southern-born 
officers.  In  May,  i86i,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
fifth  United  States  cavalry,  and  in  August  became  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was  ordered  to 
Kentucky  in  September,  obtained  command  of  a  di- 
vision of  the  army  of  Buell,  and  defeated  General  Zolli- 
koffer  near  Mill  Spring  about  the  i8th  of  January,  1862. 
In  April  of  that  year  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of^major- 
general,  and  in  the  next  month  he  obtained  command 
of  five  divisions,  forming  the  right  wing  of  Halleck's 
army  operating  against  Corinth.  He  became  in  Sep- 
tember, 1862,  second  in  command  of  the  army  of  the 


Ohio,  which  was  opposed  to  General  Bragg  in  Kentucky. 
He  rendered  important  services  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862,  to  January  2,  1863,  and  took 
part  in  the  movements  by  which  the  Union  army  gained 
possession  of  Chattanooga,  September  9.  His  reputa- 
tion was  increased  by  his  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Chick- 
amauga,  September  19  and  20.  There  his  corps  stood 
firm  after  the  rest  of  the  army  had  been  routed,  and 
repulsed  the  attacks  of  the  enemy  until  darkness  put  an 
end  to  the  battle.  He  succeeded  Rosecrans  as  com- 
mander in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  on  the 
19th  of  October,  1863,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  the  regular  army  in  the  same  month. 

General  Thomas  contributed  to  the  victory  which 
General  Grant  gained  near  Chattanooga,  November  25, 
1863.  He  served  under  Sherman  in  the  campaign 
against  Atlanta,  which  began  in  May,  1864,  and  took 
part  in  the  battles  at  Dallas  and  Kenesaw  Mountain,  and 
in  several  actions  fought  near  Atlanta  in  July.  When 
Sherman  was  about  to  abandon  Atlanta  and  march 
through  Georgia  to  the  sea,  he  sent  General  Thomas 
with  an  army  to  Middle  Tennessee  to  operate  against 
Hood,  who  invaded  Tennessee  about  the  end  of  Octo- 
ber. As  Hood  moved  north.  General  Thomas  fell  back 
slowly  towards  Nashville,  and  summoned  reinforcements 
to  join  him  at  that  city.  On  the  30th  of  November  the 
Union  army  was  attacked  at  Franklin  by  the  army  of 
Hood,  which  was  repulsed  with  severe  loss,  but  after- 
wards advanced  to  Nashville.  General  Thomas  attacked 
Hood  in  position  at  Nashville  on  the  15th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1864,  and,  in  a  battle  lasting  two  days,  defeated  and 
drove  him  from  the  field  in  the  utmost  confusion.  In 
this  battle  Hood  lost  about  6000  prisoners  and  sixty 
pieces  of  cannon.  Soon  after  this  victory  General 
Thomas  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  the  regular 
army.  After  the  end  of  the  war  he  commanded  the 
department  of  the  Cumberland,  comprising  the  States 
of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
modesty,  simplicity  of  character,  stability,  discretion,  and 
other  virtues.  President  Johnson  having  offered  him  the 
brevet  of  lieutenant-general  and  of  general  in  February, 
1868,  he  declined  the  compliment,  saying  he  had  done 
nothing  since  the  war  to  merit  such  promotion.  Died 
m  1870. 

Thomas,  (Isaiah,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
printer  and  journalist,  born  at  Boston  in  1749.  In  1770 
he  published  at  Boston  the  "  Massachusetts  Spy,"  in 
which  he  denounced  the  measures  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment. He  subsequently  carried  on  an  extensive 
business  as  a  bookseller  in  that  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "History  of  Printing  in  America,"  (1810.) 
Died  in  1831. 

Thomas,  to'mis,  (Jakob  Ernst,)  a  German  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Hagelstein  in  1588.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy.     Died  in  1653. 

Thomas,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  served  against  the  French  and  Indians 
in  1756.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  March, 
1776,  and  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Canada  on  the  death  of  General  Montgomery.  He 
raised  the  siege  of  Quebec,  and  began  to  retreat,  but 
died  at  Chambly  in  May,  1776. 

Thomas,  (John,)  an  able  English  sculptor,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1813.  He  executed  or  designed  the 
statues  and  carvings  which  adorn  the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament.     He  was  also  an  architect.     Died  in  1862. 

Thomas,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Carlisle 
in  1 712.  He  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1774.     Died  in  1793. 

Thomas,  (John  J.,)  an  American  pomologist  and 
writer  on  agriculture,  a  son  of  David  Thomas,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Cayuga  county.  New  York,  in  1810. 
Among  his  publications  may  be  named  the  "  American 
Fruit-Culturist,"  (ist  edition  in  1846;  last  edition, 
greatly  enlarged  and  improved,  1867,)  "  Farm  Ma- 
chinery,'" (last  edition,  1868,)  and  a  serial  entitled  "  Rural 
Affairs,"  (6  vols.,  1858-70.)  Mr.  Thomas  has  been  one 
of  the  editors  of  "  The  Country  Gentleman"  (issued 
at  Albany)  from  the  date  of  its  first  publication,  in 
1852. 

Thomas,  (Lorenzo,)  an  American  general,  born  in 


a.  e.  1, 6,  fi,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  S,  e,  1, 6,  u,  J?,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscune;  fSr,  All,  fitjvnSt;  n5t;  good ;  1 


7H0MAS 


2309 


THOMPSON 


Delaware  about  1804,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1823. 
He  became  adjutant-general  in  1861,  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  appointed  by  President  John- 
son secretary  of  war  ad  interim,  February  21,  1868,  in 
place  of  E.  M.  Stanton,  who,  however,  refused  to  give 
up  the  office.     He  retired  in  1869,  and  died  March  2, 

1875- 

Thomas,  (Philip  F.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Talbot  county,  Maryland,  in  1810.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Maryland  in  1847,  ^"d  appointed  secretary 
of  the  treasury  about  December  12,  i860.  He  resigned 
January  ir,  1861. 

Thomas,  (Pierre  Emile,)  a  French  publicist  and 
civil  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  National  \Vorkshops,'Y-^^<?^»Vrj,^(i848.) 

Thomas,  (Robert,)  an  able  English  physician,  born 
in  1743,  published  a  popular  work  entitled  "The  Modern 
Practice  of  Physic,"  and  other  medical  treatises.  Died 
in  1835. 

Thomas,  (Theodore,)  a  German-American  musician, 
born  in  East  Friesland,  Germany,  October  11,  1835. 
When  twelve  years  old,  he  was  taken  to  New  York.  He 
was  trained  as  a  violinist  by  his  father,  founded  a  suc- 
cessful orchestra  in  1861,  began  to  give  symphony-con- 
certs in  1864,  was  director  of  the  Cincinnati  College  of 
Music,  1877-80,  and  has  won  great  reputation  as  a  leader 
of  instrumental  concerts. 

Thomas,  (Theodore  Gaillard,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  on  Edisto  Island,  South  Carolina,  No- 
vember 21,  1831,  became  in  1862  professor  of  gynaecology 
in  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of 
Women"  (1868)  and  "A  Century  of  American  Medi- 
cine," (1876.) 

Thomas,  (William,)  a  historical  writer,  born  in 
Wales,  was  patronized  by  King  Edward  VI.  Under 
the  reign  of  Mary  he  was  executed  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  (1553.)  He  published  a  "History  of  Italy," 
and  other  works. 

Thomas,  (William,)  born  at  Bristol,  in  England,  in 
1613,  was  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  York  and  preceptor 
to  the  princess  (afterwards  queen)  Anne.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Worcester.     Died  in  1689. 

Thomas,  (William,)  a  learned  English  divine,  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1670.  He  became 
rector  of  Saint  Nicholas,  in  Worcester,  in  1723.  He 
published  a  "  Survey  of  Worcester  Cathedral,"  and 
other  antiquarian  works.     Died  in  1738. 

Thomas  Aquinas.     See  Aquinas. 

Thomas  d'Aquin.     See  Aquinas. 

Thom'as  Can-ti-pra-ten'sis,  I  Fr.  Thomas  dk  Can 
timpr6,  to'ma'  deh  kiN'tiN'pRi',]  a  Flemish  monk  and 
biographer,  born  near  Brussels  in  1201  ;  died  in  1263. 

Thom.as  Dufoss6,  (Pierre.)     See  Foss6,  du. 

Thomas  a  Kempis.     See  Kempis. 

Thomas  the  Rhymer.     See  Rhymer. 

Thomas  de  Villeneuve,  Saint,  or  Thomas  Gar- 
cias,  (gaR-/'/%ee'is,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  in  Leon  in 
1488.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Valencia  in  1545. 
Died  in  1555. 

.See  Dabert,  "Histoire  de  Saint  Thomas  de  Villeneuve,"  1853. 

Thomasen.    See  Thomasius. 

Thomasin,  tom'a-sin  or  to-m^-zeen',  written  also  To- 
masin,  Zerkler,  or  Tirkelare,  a  poet  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  born  at  Friuli,  in  Italy,  was  the  author  of  a 
didactic  poem  in  German,  entitled  "  The  Italian  Guest," 
("  Der  Welsche  Gast.")  Of  this  work,  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  productions  of  the  age,  only 
small  portions  have  been  printed. 

Thomasius,  to-ml'ze-Cis,  or  Thomasen,  to'mi-zen, 
(Christian,)  an  eminent  German  philosopher  and  re- 
former, born  at  Leipsic  in  1655.  Having  studied  law 
and  graduated  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  he  founded  in 
1688  a  monthly  review,  which  soon  became  noted  for  its 
bold  censures  of  prevailing  abuses.  In  1694  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  the  University 
of  Halle,  where  he  became  rector  in  17 10.  He  was  the 
first  to  introduce  the  practice  of  lecturing  and  writing  in 
German,  and,  by  his  denunciation  of  the  superstitions  of 
the  time,  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  abolishing  trials  for 
witchcraft.     Among  his  principal  works  are  an  "  Intro- 


duction to  the  Doctrine  of  Reason  or  Logic,"  (1691,) 
"  Introduction  to  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1692,)  and  "  His- 
tory of  Wisdom  and  Folly,"  (1693.)  Thomasius  was 
eulogized  by  Frederick  the  Great  as  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  philosophers  of  Germany.     Died  in  1728. 

See  LuDEN,  "  C.  Thomasius  nach  seinen  Schicksalen,"  etc.,  i8«s ; 
F.  Hoffmann,  "  Programma  inObituni  C.  Thomasii,"  i72g;  Zkd- 
LER,    "  Universal-Lexikon ;"    Saxk,   "Onomasticon." 

Thomasius,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  divine,  born  at 
Egenhausen  in  1802,  was  a  Lutheran  pastor  at  Nurem- 
berg, 1829-42,  and  professor  of  dogmatic  at  Erlangen, 
1842-75.  He  published  "  Origines,"  (1837,)  "Contribu- 
tions to  Ecclesiastical  Christology,"  (1845,)  "Christ's 
Person  and  Work,"  (1856 ;  3d  vol.,  1864,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1875. 

Thomasius  or  Thomasen,  (Jakob,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1622,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  and  phi- 
losophy at  Leipsic,  and  one  of  the  teachers  of  Leibnitz. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Origins  of  History, 
Philosophical  and  Ecclesiastical,"  ("  Origines  Historiae 
Philosophicae  et  Ecclesiasticae,"  1665.)     Died  in  1684. 

See  Saxe,  "  Onomasticon ;"  Zedler,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Thomassin,  to'mt's^N',  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic, born  at  Aix  in  1619,  became  professor  of  theology 
in  the  seminary  of  Sainte-Magloire,  at  Paris.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Ancient  and  Modern  Ecclesi- 
astical Discipline,"  "  Theological  Dogmas,"  and  other 
learned  works.     Died  in  1695. 

Thomassin,  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  French  engraver, 
born  at  Troyes  about  1550.  He  worked  mostly  at  Rome, 
and  engraved  many  antique  statues,  also  numerous  por- 
traits of  eminent  men.     He  died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Thomassin,  (Simon,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Troyes  about  1652,  is  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.     Died  in  1732. 

His  son  Henri  Simon,  born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  an 
able  engraver.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens 
and  Paul  Veronese.     Died  in  1741. 

Thomassy,  to'mt'se',  (Marie  Joseph  Raymond,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1810.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Morocco  and  its  Caravans," 
(1845.)     Died  at  New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  in  1863. 

Thomines.     See  Bosc,  du,  (Pierre.) 

Thomond,  to'mAN',  (Thomas,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1759.  He  removed  to  Saint  Peters- 
burg, where  he  was  employed  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment to  remodel  the  Great  Theatre  and  build  several 
splendid  public  edifices.  The  Imperial  Exchange,  com- 
pleted in  1810,  is  esteemed  one  of  his  finest  works.  Died 
in  1813. 

Thompson,  tom'son,  (Alfred  Wordsworth,)  an 
American  artist,  born  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  May  26, 
1840.  He  graduated  in  1856  at  Newton  University,  went 
to  Paris  in  1861,  and  studied  art  under  Charles  Gleyre  and 
Albert  Pasini  and  in  the  ficole  des  Beaux-Arts.  In  1868 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  New  York,  since  which  time 
he  has  travelled  extensively.  He  was  made  an  associate 
of  the  National  Academy  in  1873,  ^"^  ^  f""  Academician 
in  1875.  Among  his  pictures  are  "A  Review  of  the 
Continental  Army, — 1777,"  "Passing  the  Outpost," 
"Sabbath  Day  in  Troublous  Times,"  "Belated  Trav- 
ellers," "Moorish  Hunters,"  "  Welcome  in  the  Desert," 
"Journey  in  a  Weary  Land,"  "The  Hour  of  Prayer," 
"  Market  of  Biskra,"  etc.  His  works  are  chiefly  land- 
scapes, historical  pictures  of  a  distinctly  American  type, 
coast-views,  etc.  His  figures  and  horses  are  especially 
commendable.  Mr.  Thompson  is  one  of  the  best  and 
most  versatile  of  American  artists. 

Thompson,  tom'son,  (Augustus  Charles,)  D.D., 
an  American  Congregational  divine,  born  at  Goshen, 
Connecticut,  in  1812.  He  has  published  "  The  Young 
Martyrs,"  "  Last  Hours,  or  Words  and  Acts  of  the 
Dying,"  (1851,)  and  other  religious  works. 

Thompson,  (Benjamin.)     See  Rumford,  Count. 

Thompson,  (Cephas,)  an  American  portrait-painter, 
born  in  1776,  died  in  1858.  He  was  the  father  of  C.  G. 
and  Jerome  Thompson. 

Thompson,  (Cephas  Giovanni,)  an  American  artist, 
born  at  Middleborough,  Massachusetts,  August  3,  1809. 
He  was  a  son  of  Cephas  Thompson,  who  was  his  early 


€as/i;  9as  j;  gkard;  g asy,- G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  ti, nasal;  ^,  trilled;  sasz;  th  z.s\ntkis.     (Jjl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THOMPSON 


2310 


THOMS 


instructor.  His  early  life  was  chiefly  devoted  to  portrait- 
painting.  He  worked  seven  years  in  Rome,  and  spent 
some  time  in  Florence  and  Perugia.  Among  his  best 
works  are  "  Saint  Peter  delivered  from  Prison,"  "  Guar- 
dian Angels  of  Infancy,"  "  Christ  in  the  Garden,"  "  Chas- 
tity," "  Prospero  and  Miranda,"  "Ariel,"  "The  Marys 
at  the  Tomb,"  and  "  The  Circassian  Slave,"  besides  Ital- 
ian peasant-  and  costume-pictures,  and  many  portraits  of 
eminent  persons.     Died  January  5,  1888. 

Thompson,  (Daniel  Pierce,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  popular  novelist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1795.  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"May  Martin,  or  the  Money-Diggers,"  (1835,)  "The 
Green  Mountain  Boys,"  (1840,)  "Locke  Amsden,"(  1847,) 
an  admirable  tale,  descriptive  of  the  experience  of  a 
New  England  school-master,  "The  Rangers,  or  the 
Tory's  Daughter,"  (1851,)  and  "Gant  Gurley,  or  the 
Trappers  of  Lake  Umbagog,"  (1857.)  Died  in  May  or 
June,  1S6S. 

See  DuvcKiN'CK,  "Cyclopsdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Thompson,  tom'son,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Hull  about  1737.  He  served  in  the  royal  navy 
in  his  youth,  and  wrote  several  licentious  poems,  among 
which  is  "The  Demirep,"  (1766.)  He  also  published  a 
"  Sailor's  Letters,"  (autobiographic,  2  vols.,  1767.)  Died 
in  1786. 

Thompson,  (Hf.nry,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  about  1797.  He  became  vicar  of  Chard,  in 
-Somersetshire.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Hannah 
More."     Died  in  1878. 

Thompson,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  surgeon,  born  at 
Framlingham,  in  Suffolk,  August  6,  1820,  and  educated 
at  University  College,  London,  in  which  in  1866  he  be- 
came a  professor  of  clinical  surgery.  Among  his  writings 
are  "  Pathology  and  Treatment  of  Stricture  of  the  Ure- 
thra," (1853,)  "Healthy  and  Morbid  Anatomy  of  the 
Prostate,"  "Practical  Lithotomy  and  Lithotrity,"  (1863,) 
and  "Clinical  Lectures,"  (1868.)  He  has  won  some  dis- 
tinction as  a  painter. 

Thompson,  (Hugh  Miller,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born 
in  the  county  of  Derry,  Ireland,  June  5,  1830.  He  grad- 
uated B.D.  in  Nashotah  Seminary,  Wisconsin,  in  1852, 
entered  the  Episcopal  ministry,  was  professor  of  church 
history  at  Nashotah,  1860-70,  held  pastorates  in  Mil- 
waukee and  New  Orleans,  and  in  1883  was  consecrated 
Assistant  Bishop  of  Mississippi.  Among  his  writings  are 
"Unity  and  its  Restoration,"  (1859,)  "Eternal  Penalty," 
(1863,)  "  First  Principles,"  (1867,)  etc 

Thompson,  (Jacob,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Caswell  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1810.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  from  Mississippi  in  1839,  and  in  1857 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  interior  under  President 
Buchanan.  He  subsequently  joined  the  secessionists, 
and  in  1861  was  elected  Governor  of  Mississippi.  Died 
March  24,  1885. 

Thompson,  (Jerome,)  an  American  painter,  a  son 
of  Cephas  Thompson,  was  born  at  Middleborough,  Mas- 
sachusetts, January  30,  1S14.  He  became  a  resident  of 
New  York  in  1832.  Many  of  his  works  have  been  made 
familiar  by  engravings.  Aside  from  portraits,  his  prin- 
cipal pictures  are  purely  American  scenes.  Among  them 
are  "The  Apple-Gathering,"  "The  Old  Oaken  Bucket," 
"  The  Old  Stage,"  and  "  The  Lost  Lamb."     D.  in  1886. 

Thompson,  (John  R.,)  an  American  litterateur,  born 
at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1823,  long  the  editor  of  the 
"  S(.>uthern  Literary  Messenger."     Died  April  30,  1873. 

Thompson,  (Joseph  Parrish,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1819. 
He  became  pastor  of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  Church, 
New  York,  in  1845.  ^^  ^^^^  ^"^  ^^  ''^^  founders  of 
the  "  Independent"  at  Brooklyn,  and  also  of  the  "  New 
Englander,"  to  which  he  made  many  contributions.  He 
has  published  "  Lectures  to  Young  Men,"  "  Egypt,  Past 
and  Present,"  "  The  Christian  Graces,"  and  various 
other  works.  He  has  also  contributed  many  valuable 
articles  to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  Smith's  "  Dictionary 
of  Biblical  Geography  and  Antiquities,"  and  the  "  North 
American    Review."      Died   in    Berlin,    September   20, 

1879. 

Kiompson,  (Launt,)  an  eminent  sculptor,  born  in 
Queen's  county,    Ireland,    in    1833.      ^^    was    an    art- 


pupil  of  E.  D.  Palmer,  removed  to  New  York  in 
1858,  and  in  the  following  year  was  made  a  full  Acade- 
mician. After  achieving  great  success  as  a  portrait- 
sculptor,  he  took  up  his  permanent  residence  in  Italy. 

Thompson,  (Maurice,)  an  American  poet  and  nov- 
elist, born  at  Fairfield,  Indiana,  September  9,  1844,  was 
educated  on  his  father's  estates  in  Georgia,  but  returned 
afterwards  to  Crawfordsville,  Indiana,  where  he  has  since 
resided.  His  principal  works  are  "  Hoosier  Mosaics," 
(1875,)  "The  Witchery  of  Archery,"  (1878,)  "A  Talla- 
hassee Girl,"  (a  novel,  1S82,)  "  His  Second  Campaign," 
(a  novel,  1883,)  and  "Songs  of  Fair  Weather,"  (1883.) 

Thompson,  (Roberi  Anchor,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Durham  in  1821,  has  published,  among  other 
works,  "Christian  Theism,"  (1855,)  and  "Principles  of 
Natural  Theology,"  (1857.) 

Thompson,  (Robert  Ellis,)  Ph.D.,  an  American 
economist,  born  near  Waringtown,  county  of  Down,  Ire- 
land, in  1844,  came  to  America  in  1857,  and  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1865.  In  1867  he 
was  licensed,  and  in  1873  ordained  to  the  ministry  of 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1870  he  became 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  1874  professor  of  social  science,  and  in 
18S3  professor  of  history  and  English  literature.  He 
was  editor  of  the  "  Penn  Monthly,"  1870-80,  and  in  1880 
became  editor  of  "  The  American."  His  principal  works 
are  "Social  Science  and  Political  Economy,"  (1874,)  and 
"Elements  of  Political  Economy,"  (1882.)  He  was  also 
editor-in-chief  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (vol. 
i.,  1883,  vol.  ii.,  1884.) 

Thompson,  (Smith,)  an  American  judge,  born  prob- 
ably in  New  York  State  about  1767.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  New  York  in  1814,  was  secretary  of  the  navy 
from  November,  18x8,  to  December,  1823,  and  was  then 
appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States.     Died  at  Poughkeepsie  in  1843. 

Thompson,  (Tho.mas  Perronet,)  an  English  officer 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Hull  in  1783.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  and,  having 
entered  the  army,  served  with  distinction  in  South 
America,  Spain,  and  India,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
major  in  1825.  About  1830  he  became  associate  pro- 
prietor of  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  in  which  he  advo- 
cated the  abolition  of  slavery,  free  trade,  and  various 
other  reforms.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  from  Hull 
in  1835,  and  twice  re-elected  for  Bradford,  in  Yorkshire. 
He  was  made  a  major-general  in  1854.  He  published  the 
"  Corn-Law  Catechism,"  (1827,)  "  True  Theory  of  Rent," 
"Enharmonic  Theory  of  Music,"  etc.,  (1829,)  "Geometry 
without  Axioms,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1869. 

Thompson,  (Waddy,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  at  Pickensville,  South  Carolina,  in  1798. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Whig  party  in  1835, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  Calhoun 
and  the  State-Rights  party.  He  was  apjiointed  in  1842 
minister  to  Mexico,  and  published,  after  his  return,  "  Re- 
miniscences of  Mexico."     Died  November  23,  1868. 

Thompson,  (William,)  an  eminent  Irish  naturalist, 
born  at  Belfast  in  1805.  Having  previously  made  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  natural  history  of  Ireland,  he 
made  a  voyage  in  1841  to  the  Grecian  Archipelagi). 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "Catalogue  of  Birds 
new  to  the  Irish  Fauna,"  "  On  some  Vertebrata  new  to 
the  Irish  Fauna,"  and  "On  the  Natural  History  of  Ire- 
land," etc.,  (4  vols.,  1856.)  He  also  contributed  to  the 
"Annals  of  Natural  History."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  and  other  learned  societies. 
Died  in  1852. 

Thompson,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Westmoreland,  became  Dean  of  Raphoe,  in  Ireland. 
He  published  a  collection  of  poems.     Died  in  1766. 

Thompson,  (Zadoc,)  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Bridgewater,  Vermont,  in  1796.  He  became  about 
1842  professor  of  natural  history  and  chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Vermont,  and  in  1853  was  appointed  State 
naturalist.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "  Natural,  Civil, 
and  Political  History  of  Vermont,"  etc.,  a  "Gazetteer 
of  Vermont,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1856. 

Thorns,  tomz,  (William  John,)  an  English  writer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Westminster  in  1803.     He  pub- 


a.  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/iori:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fJll,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t>gd6d;  nnJon; 


THOMSEN 


2311 


THOMSON 


lished  a  "Collection  of  Early  Prose  Romances,"  (1828,) 
"Lays  and  Legends  of  Various  Nations,"  (1834,)  and 
editions  of  Stow's  "Survey  of  London"  and  Caxton's 
"Reynard  the  Fox."  He  was  also  the  principal  editor 
of  "  Notes  and  Queries,"  a  work  first  published  at  his 
suggestion.     Died  August  18,  1885. 

Thomsen,  tom'sen,  (Christian  Jurgensen, )  a 
Danish  antiquary,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1788.  He 
became  director  of  the  royal  cabinet  of  medals  in  1842. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Northern  Antiquities,"  (1831,) 
and  other  worlcs.     Died  May  2i,  1865. 

Thomsen,  (Wilhelm  Ludwig  Peter,)  a  Danish 
philologist,  born  at  Copenhagen,  January  25,  1842.  He 
Studied  at  Copenhagen  and  in  other  universities,  and  in 
1871  was  made  professor  of  comparative  philology  at 
Copenhagen.  Among  his  writings  are  "The  Lifluence 
of  the  Gothic  Languages  upon  the  Finnish,"  (1869,)  "The 
Relations  between  Ancient  Russia  and  Scandinavia," 
(1877,)  and  various  important  papers  upon  the  philology 
of  the  Romanic  languages. 

Thom'spn,  (tom'sgn,)  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  poet, 
was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  British  Par- 
nassus at  the  Close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1803. 

Thomson,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  in  Dumfriesshire  in  1779.  He  became  in 
1814  pastor  of  Saint  George's  Church,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  zeal  and  eloquence. 
Died  in  1831. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Thomson,  (Anthony  Todd,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
physician,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1778.  He  studied  in 
his  native  city,  attending  the  lectures  of  Munro,  Black, 
and  other  distinguished  men,  and  about  1800  began  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  London.  He  published  the 
"London  Dispensatory,"  (1811,)  which  met  with  great 
success  and  was  translated  into  several  languages,  a 
"Conspectus  of  the  Pharmacopoeias  of  London,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Dublin,"  etc.,  (1816,)  "  Lectures  on  Botany," 
"  Elements  of  Materia  Medica,"  (1832,)  and  other  works 
on  various  subjects.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  and  in  1828  became  professor 
of  materia  medica  in  the  London  University.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  medical  jurisprudence  in 
1832.     Died  in  1849. 

Thom'sou,  (toni'sgn,)  (Charles,)  a  patriot,  born  in 
Leland  in  1729  or  1730.  He  emigrated  to  America  in 
1 741,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  served  as  secretary  of  Congress  from  1774 
to  1789,  and  was  highly  respected  for  his  virtues  and 
learning.  He  produced  a  translation  of  the  Septuagint, 
which  was  published  in  4  vols.,  (1808.)     Died  in  1824. 

Thomson,  (Sir  Charles  Wyville,)  LL.D.,  a  Scot- 
tish biologist,  born  at  Bonsyde,  Linlithgowshire,  March 
5,  1830.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
was  an  instructor  at  Aberdeen,  1850-53,  professor  of 
natural  history  at  Queen's  College,  Cork,  1853-54,  pro- 
fessor of  mineralogy  and  geology  in  Queen's  College, 
Belfast,  1854-70,  and  in  1870  received  the  then  lucrative 
position  of  regius  professor  of  natural  history  at  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  at  the  head  of  the  famous  Challenger 
expedition  of  1872-76.  Among  his  works  are  "Depths 
of  the  Sea,"  ( 1 872,)  and  "  The  Voyage  of  the  Challenger," 
(1877.)     Died  March  10,  1882. 

Thom'son,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Portsea,  England,  in  1810,  emigrated  to  America, 
and  was  elected  in  1843  professor  of  mental  and  moral 
philosophy  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  He  subse- 
quently became  president  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity. In  1864  he  was  elected  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.     Died  in  1870. 

Thomson,  (James,)  a  celebrated  poet,  born  in  Rox- 
burghshire, Scotland,  in  1700.  He  studied  theology  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  ;  but  he  soon  renounced 
it  for  literary  pursuits,  and  published  in  1726  his  poem 
entitled  "Winter."  Its  success  at  first  was  moderate, 
but  it  subsequently  acquired  great  popularity,  and  was 
followed  in  a  few  years  by  his  "  Spring,"  "  Summer," 
and  "  Autumn,"  all  of  which  appeared  in  1730,  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Seasons."  His  tragedies  of  "  Sophonisba," 
"Agamemnon,"  and  "Edward  and  Eleonora,"  as  well 


as  his  poem  on  "  Liberty,"  were  received  with  little  fa- 
vour. Through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Sir  George — 
afterwards  Lord — Lyttleton,  he  was  appointed  about  1745 
surveyor-general  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  He  published 
in  1748  his  "Castle  of  Indolence,"  an  allegorical  poem 
in  the  Spenserian  measure,  which  is  generally  esteemed 
his  finest  production.  He  died  in  1748.  Translations  of 
his  "Seasons"  have  been  made  into  German,  and  both  a 
prose  and  poetical  version  of  it  have  appeared  in  French, 
while  among  all  classes  in  Great  Britain  it  is  still  one 
of  the  most  popular  poems  in  the  language.  Campbell 
observes,  "  The  unvaried  pomp  of  Thomson's  diction 
suggests  a  most  unfavourable  comparison  with  the  manly 
and  idiomatic  simplicity  of  Cowper ;  at  the  same  time, 
the  pervading  spirit  and  feeling  of  his  poetry  is  in  gen- 
eral more  bland  and  delightful  than  that  of  his  great 
rival  in  rural  description." 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  David,  Earl  of  Buchan, 
"  Essays  on  the  Lives  and  Writings  of  Fletcher  of  Sahoun  and  the 
Poet  Thomson,"  1792;  Chambbrs,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Thomson,  (James,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Port 
Greenock,  November  23,  1834.  He  enlisted  as  a  private 
soldier,  and  was  for  ten  years  a  regimental  schoolmaster. 
He  published  "  The  City  of  Dreadful  Night,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1880,)  "Vane's  Story,"  "Essays  and  Phan- 
tasies," etc.  He  wrote  with  much  technical  skill  and 
with  sincere  feeling.     Died  in  London,  June  8,  1SS2. 

Thomson,  (James,)  a  brother  of  Sir  William  Thom- 
son, was  born  at  Belfast  about  1815.  He  was  educated 
at  Glasgow  University,  and  became  a  civil  engineer,  was 
professor  of  engineering  in  Queen's  College,  Belfast, 
1857-72,  and  took  a  corresponding  chair  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow  in  1872.  He  is  distinguished  as  an 
inventor,  and  as  the  conductor  of  important  experiments 
in  physics,  etc. 

Thomson,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Scottish  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1778.  He  painted  stormy  seas  with 
success.     Died  in  1840. 

Thomson,  (John  Cockburn,)  a  son  of  Mrs.  Katha- 
rine Thomson  (q.  v.)  and  of  A.  T.  Thomson,  (q.  v.)  He 
was  born  about  1825,  and  assisted  his  mother  in  the 
writing  of  those  of  her  books  which  bear  the  names  of 
"Grace  and  Philip  Wharton."  He  was  also  a  good 
Sanscrit  scholar,  and  made  a  translation  of  the  "  Bhaga- 
vad-Gita,"  (1855.)     Died  at  Tenby,  in  Wales,  in  i860. 

Thomson,  (Joseph,)  a  Scottish  explorer,  born  in 
Dumfriesshire  in  1857.  He  went  to  Africa  in  1879  with 
Keith  Johnston  the  younger,  and  after  the  death  of  John- 
ston young  Thomson  took  charge  of  the  expedition, 
which  he  conducted  safely  and  successfully  to  its  end. 
He  published  an  important  narrative  of  his  journeys. 

Thomson,  (Katharine,  nSe  By'erley,)  an  English 
authoress,  born  at  Etruria,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1800. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Dr.  A.  T.  Thomson,  (q.  v.,)  and 
the  mother  of  J.  Cockburn  Thomson,  (q.  v.)  She  wrote 
many  books,  partly  in  conjunction  with  her  son.  These 
mostly  appeared  under  the  pseudonyms  of  "  Grace  and 
Philip  Wharton."     Died  at  Dover,  December  17,  1862. 

Thomson,  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1794,  lived  nviny  years  in  London.  He  pub  ished, 
besides  other  works,  "Chronicles  of  London  Bridge," 
{1827.)     Died  in  1865. 

Thomson,  (Robert  Dundas,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  about  1805.  He  resided  in 
London,  and  published  a  "  Cyclopjedia  of  Chemistry, 
Mineralogy,  and  Physiology."     Died  in  1864. 

Thomson,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Scottish  chemist 
and  physician,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1773.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  and  at  Edinburgh, 
where  about  1800  he  began  a  course  of  lectures  on 
chemistry.  In  1796  he  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  to  which  he  contributed 
the  articles  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  suggest  the  use  of  chemical  symbols.  In 
1813  he  edited  the  "  Annals  of  Philosophy"  in  London, 
and  in  1818  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  He  published  a  "  System  of 
Chemistry,"  (4  vols.,  1802,)  "Elements  of  Chemistry," 
(1810,)  "  Outline  of  the  Sciences  of  Heat  and  Electricity," 
"Travels  in  Sweden,"  (1813,)  "The  History  of  Chemis- 
try," (1830,)  "Outlines  of  Mineralogy,  Geology,"  etc.,  (2 


€as/5,-  fasj,  g^ard;  gusj;  G,H,K,gj(tiural;  N,ftasal;  v.,ti-ined:  sasz;  thasin//«j.     (JJi^^^See  Expbnations,  p.  23.) 


THOMSON 


2312 


THOREA  U 


vols.,  1835,)  and  other  similar  works,  which  enjoy  a  high 
reputation.     Died  in  1852. 

See  Chamhrks,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,' 
(Siipp'e'T'S"') 

Thomson,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  botanist,  was  born  at 
Glasgow,  December  4,  181 7,  and  studied  in  the  univer- 
sity of  that  town.  He  entered  the  medical  staff  of  the 
East  India  Company  in  1840,  travelled  extensively,  and 
was  professor  of  botany,  and  director  of  the  Calcutta 
Botanic  Garden,  1854-61.  His  "  Western  Himalayas 
and  Tibet"  won  a  gold  medal  from  the  London  Geo- 
graphical Society.  He  published,  at  his  own  cost,  a  "  Flora 
of  British  India."     Died  in  London,  April  18,  1878. 

Thomson,  (William,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1746,  was  editor  successively  of  the  "Eng- 
lish Review,"  "  Political  Magazine,"  and  other  journals, 
and  published  "  Memoirs  of  the  War  in  Asia,"  and  a 
number  of  compilations.     Died  in  i8l7- 

Thomson,  (William,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1819.  He  became  preacher  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  1858,  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in  1861, 
and  Archbishop  of  York  in  1862.  He  wrote  "  An  Out- 
line of  the  Laws  of  Thought."     Died  Dec.  26,  1890. 

Thomson,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  physicist,  born 
at  Belfast  in  June,  1824.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
University,  and  at  the  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  second  wrangler  in  1845.  In  1846  he  was 
chosen  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Glasgow.  He  made  exceedingly  important  observa- 
tions and  discoveries  in  physics,  electricity,  magnetism, 
etc.,  and  was  knighted  in  1866.  He  has  published 
"Mathematical  and  Physical  Papers,"  (1882,)  and  a  large 
number  of  extremely  valuable  memoirs. 

Thonissen,  to'ne'sftN',  (Georges  Francois,)  a  Bel- 
gian economist,  born  at  Hasselt  in  181 7.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  socialism  and  political  economy. 

Thor,  thor,  (or  toR,)  or  Thonr,  {i.e. "  thunder,")  [Norse, 
Thonar,  of  which  Thor  is,  in  all  probability,  a  con- 
traction ;  in  Anglo-Saxon  he  was  variously  called  Thur, 
Thor,  Thunder,  and  Thuner, — both  the  last-named 
terms  signifying  "  thunder."  Some  writers,  with  less  prob- 
ability, have  supposed  the  name  to  be  allied  to  the  Greek 
dovpog,  "impetuous,"  "resistless,"]  in  the  mythology  of 
the  North,  the  god  of  thunder,  and  also  the  god  of 
strength,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Odin.  His  mother  was 
Fjorgyn,  (or  the  Earth.)  He  is  sometimes  called  Oeku- 
Thor,  ("car  Thor,"  or  "driving  Thor,")  and  Hlorridi, 
"  fire  rider,")  and  sometimes  Ving-Thor,  ("  winged 
Thor.")  As  the  god  of  thunder,  he  is  sometimes  styled 
the  Northern  Jupiter  ;  and  hence  Thursday  (Thor's  day*) 
is  called,  in  the  Latin  of  the  middle  ages,  ^ovis  dies, 
("Jupiter's  day,")  which  the  French  have  corrupted  into 
Jeudi.  As  the  god  of  strength,  and  the  great  conqueror 
of  the  giants,  he  resembles  the  Hercules  of  classic  my- 
thology. His  only  daughter  was  named  Thrud,  {i.e. 
"strength,")  and  his  dwelling-place  is  Thrudheim,  (or 
Thrudheimr,)  the  "home  or  habitation  of  strength,"  or 
Thrudvangr,  the  "field"  or  "realm"  of  strength.  His 
vast  hall,  called  Bilskirnir,  has  five  hundred  and  forty 
floors. 

Thor  appears  to  have  been  regarded  in  Iceland  and 
in  some  portions  of  Norway  as  the  greatest  of  all  the 
gods,  Odin  not  excepted.  He  had  three  possessions  of 
inestimable  value, — the  hammer  Mjblnir,  (myol'nir,)  the 
terror  of  the  giants  and  of  all  powers  hostile  to  the 
j^sir,  his  Megin-gjorS,  (mSg'in-gybrth.t)  or  "strength- 
girdle,"  and  his  gloves  of  iron,  with  which  he  grasped 
the  handle  of  Mjolnir.  In  the  legends  of  the  North, 
Thor  is  represented  as  hot-tempered,  but  at  the  same 
time  very  frank  and  good-natured.  He  is  said  to  be  ac- 
companied by  the  light-footed  boy  Thialfi  (te-SKfe,  i.e. 
"diligent")  and  the  girl  Roskva,  ("quick,")  expressive 
of  the  rapidity  with  which  a  thunder-storm  flies  over  the 
earth.  His  chariot  is  said  to  be  drawn  by  goats, — proba- 
bly because  these  animals  inhabit  the  highest  mountain- 
tops.  Thor's  wife,  Sif,  (seef,)  with  golden  hair,  is  said 
to  denote  the  autumnal  earth,  with  its  fields  of  ripening 
corn.     The  ripening  of  the  grain  was  supposed  to  lie 


•  In  Anglo-Saxon,  Thunrcs  daeg  or  Thundres  daeg,  i.e.  "  Thu 
der's  day.  " 

t   Msn  wr  Uen  ^Tesmgjardar. 


promoted  by  the  lightning.  Thor  is  called  in  the  Edda 
"  Midgard's  defender,"  or  the  defender  of  the  habitation 
of  men.  Although  the  most  valiant  of  the  gods,  he  is, 
in  fact,  the  personification  of  defensive  war.J  whose  office 
it  is  to  protect  the  works  of  industry  and  the  arts  of 
peace.  Hence  he  is,  with  great  propriety,  represented 
as  the  husband  and  protector  of  Sif  or  Siva,  (the  "in- 
violate,") the  goddess  of  harvests.  (See  Sif.)  For 
some  curious  and  interesting  legends  respecting  Thor, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Mallet's  "  Northern  Antiquities," 
vol.  ii.  Fable  XI.,  also  Fables  XXIII.-XXVII.  At 
Ragnarock  (the  "  twilight  or  evening  of  the  gods")  Thor 
will  slay  the  World-Serpent,  (see  Midgard's  Serpent,) 
but  will  himself  perish  from  the  effects  of  its  venom. 

See  Thorpk.  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Petersen,  "  Nor- 
disk  Mythologi;"  "Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  bv  Runoi.PH 
Kevsrr,  translated  by  Barclay  Pennock.  New  York,  1S54;  also, 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  p.  31  et  seg. 

Thorbecke,  toR'bSk'keh,  (Jan  Rudolph,)  a  Dutch 
statesman,  born  at  Zwolle  in  1796.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  the  University  of  Leyden  about  1830.  He  was 
one  of  seven  persons  charged  in  1844  to  propose  a  new 
constitution,  which  the  king  rejected  as  too  liberal.  In 
1848  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission  to  revise 
the  constitution,  and  procured  the  adoption  of  reforms 
similar  to  those  which  were  rejected  in  1844.  He  was 
prime  minister  from  October,  1849,  to  April,  1853,  and 
was  restored  to  that  position  in  February,  1862.  He 
resigned  in  1866.     Died  June  4,  1872. 

Thor'burn,  (Grant,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  near 
Dalkeith  in  1773.  He  emigrated  to  New  York  in  1794, 
and  became  a  dealer  in  garden-seeds.  He  wrote  for  the 
newspapers  under  the  signature  of  Laurie  Todd.  Died 
at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1863. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1834;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1833 

Thorburn,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Dumfries  in  18x8.  He  settled  about  1836  in 
London,  where  he  produced  numerous  miniatures  of  great 
merit.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  miniature  portraits 
of  the  queen  and  several  members  of  the  royal  family. 
In  1848  he  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academv.     Died  Novemlier  i,  1SS5. 

Thordo,  toR'do,  or  Thord  Degen,  toR  da'gen,  a 
Danish  lawyer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  chief  judge 
of  the  province  of  Jutland.  He  made  a  collection  of 
Danish  laws,  including  the  earliest.  They  have  been 
translated  into  Latin  by  Ludewig. 

Thordson,  toRd'son,  (Sturla,)  a  Danish  historian, 
born  about  1218,  was  a  nephew  of  Snorri  Sturluson. 
He  filled  several  high  offices  under  the  government,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Snorri 
Sturluson.     Died  in  1288. 

Thore,  to'ri',  (Th^ophile,)  a  French  republican, 
journalist  and  critic,  born  about  1807.  He  founded  in 
Paris,  in  1848,  a  journal  called  "The  True  Republic,' 
and  became  an  exile  in  185 1.  He  wrote  critiques  on  art 
inserted  in  the  "Artiste"  and  the  "  Siecle,"  and  edited 
"L'Art  moderne."     Died  at  Paris,  April  30,  1869. 

Thoreau,  tho-xb'  or  tho'rb,  (Henry  David,)  an 
American  author  and  naturalist,  born  in  Concord,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1817,  was  descended  from  an  ancestor 
who  came  from  the  island  of  Guernsey.  His  father  was  a 
manufacturer  of  lead-pencils.  The  son  was  educated  at 
Harvard  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1837.  Besides 
being  a  classical  scholar,  he  was  well  versed  in  Oriental 
literature.  It  is  asserted  that  he  had  the  best  Oriental 
library  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  In  his  man- 
ners, dress,  and  way  of  life  he  was  eccentric.  He  was 
bred  to  no  profession  ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  never  went 
to  church,  never  voted,  and  never  paid  a  tax  to  the 
State.  He  lived  in  the  simplest  manner  ;  he  sometimes 
practised  the  business  of  land-surveyor.  In  1845  ^^ 
built  a  small  frame  house  on  the  shore  of  Walden  Pond, 
near  Concord,  where  he  lived  two  years  as  a  hermit,  in 
studious  retirement.  He  published  an  account  of  thi); 
portion  of  his  life,  in  a  small  book  entitled  "  Walden." 
He  was  intimate  with  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  and  Na- 


+  He  is  nowhere  represented  as  stirring  up  strife  among  men  ; 
on  the  contrary,  all  his  hostility  and  all  his  prowess  are  exerted 
aiiainst  the  Jbtuns,  who  are  the  aggressive,  irreconcilable  enemies  of 
mankind  and  of  all  thrift  and  improvement. 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  lo7i^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  ni§t;  n6t;^d6d;  moon; 


THORER 


2313 


THORPE 


thaniel  Hawthorne.  The  former  published  a  brief  me- 
moir of  Thoreau,  from  which  we  extract  the  following : 
"  Mr.  Thoreau  dedicated  his  genius  with  such  entire 
love  to  the  fields,  hills,  and  waters  of  his  native  town, 
that  he  made  them  known  and  interesting  to  all  reading 
Americans  and  to  people  over  the  sea.  .  .  .  He  grew  to 
be  revered  and  admired  by  his  townsmen,  who  had  at 
first  known  him  only  as  an  oddity.  ...  I  have  repeat 
edly  known  young  men  of  sensibility  converted  in  a 
moment  to  the  belief  that  this  was  the  man  they  were 
in  search  of, — the  man  of  men,  who  could  tell  them  all 
they  should  do.  .  .  .  Whilst  he  used  in  his  writings  a 
certain  petulance  of  remark  in  reference  to  churches 
and  churchmen,  he  was  a  person  of  rare,  tender,  and 
absolute  religion, — a  person  incapable  of  any  profana- 
tion." Thoreau  was  never  married.  He  died  in  1862. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  A  Week  on  the  Concord  and 
Merrimac  Rivers,"  "  Excursions,"  (1863,)  etc.  A  volume 
of  his  letters  was  published  in  1865. 

See  Channing,  "  Thoreau,  the  Poet- Naturalist ;"  Sanborn,  "  Life 
of  Thoreau  ;"  Japp,  "  Life  and  Aims  of  Thoreau." 

Thorer,  (Albin.)     See  Torinus. 

Thoresby,  thorz'be,  ?  (Ralph,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  born  at  Leeds  in  1658. 
His  principal  works  are  "  The  Topography  of  the  Town 
and  Parish  of  Leeds,"  ("  Ducatus  Leodiensis,")  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Church  of  Leeds,"  ("  Vicaria  Leodien- 
sis.") He  possessed  a  very  valuable  collection  of  coins, 
manuscripts,  etc.     Died  in  1725. 

Thorigny.     See  Beaufort  de  Thorigny. 

Thorild,  to'rild,  (Thomas,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Bohuslan  in  1759.  He 
published,  besides  poems  and  prose  essays  in  Swedish, 
"  Cromwell,"  an  epic  poem,  and  other  works,  in  English. 
Died  in  1819. 

Thorinus.    See  Torinus. 

Thorls-mond,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  the  eldest 
t,on  of  Theodoric  I.  He  fought  bravely  against  Attila 
at  Chalons  in  451  A.D.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
that  year.  He  was  killed  by  his  brother  Theodoric  in 
452  A.D. 

Tho'rI-us  [Fr.  pron.  to're'iis']  orTho'ris,  (Raphael,) 
a  French  physician,  who  practised  in  England.  Died 
in  1625. 

Thorkeliii,  toR'keh-leen',  (Grim  Johnsen,)  a  distin- 
guished scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  Iceland  in  1752. 
In  1786  he  visited  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  pub 
lished  in  1788  "  Fragments  of  English  and  Irish  Historj 
in  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  Century."  He  also  wrote 
several  works  in  illustration  of  Danish  and  Norwegian 
history.     Died  in  1829. 

Thorlacius,  tor-ia'se-As,  (SkuleThordsen,)  born  in 
Iceland  in  1741,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  treatises 
on  Northern  antiquities.     Died  in  181 5. 

His  son  Borge,  born  in  1775,  became  professor  of 
eloquence  at  Copenhagen,  and  published  several  classical 
and  antiquarian  works.     Died  in  1829. 

Thorlaksen,  toR'lJk'sen,  or  Thorlakson,  (Gud- 
brand,)  an  Icelandic  writer,  born  in  1542,  became  a 
bishop.  Died  in  1629.  According  to  one  authority,  he 
was  born  in  1642,  and  died  in  1729. 

Thorlaksson,  toR'lSks-son',  (John,)  an  Icelandic 
poet,  born  in  1744,  was  a  clergyman.  He  made  a 
translation  of  "  Paradise  Lost"  into  Icelandic,  which  is 
highly  commended.     Died  in  1819. 

Thorn'bur-y,  (George  Walter,)  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1828.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Buccaneers,"  (1855,)  "British  Artists  from  Hogarth  to 
Turner,"  (2  vols.,  1861,)  a  "Life  of  Joseph  M.  W. 
Turner,"  (1862,)  a  novel  called  "True  as  Steel,"  and 
other  works.     Died  June  ii,  1S76. 

Thorn'dike,  (Herbert,)  an  English  divine  and  able 
controversial  writer.  He  became  rector  of  Barley,  in 
Hertfordshire,  in  1642,  and  obtained  a  prebend  at  West- 
minster after  the  restoration.  He  was  a  learned  Orien- 
talist, and  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Discourse  of  Religious  Assem- 
blies and  the  Public  Service  of  God,"  a  "  Discourse  of 
the  Rights  of  the  Church  in  a  Christian  State,"  and  an 
"  Epilogue  to  the  Tragedy  of  the  Church  of  England." 
Died  in  1672. 


Thorn'hill,  (Sir  James,)  a  distinguished  English 
painter,  born  at  Weymouth  in  1676,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  celebrated  physician  Sydenham.  Having  travelled 
in  France,  Holland,  and  other  parts  of  the  continent,  he 
was  employed,  after  his  return,  in  the  decoration  of  the 
cupola  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  the  ceiling  of  the  hall  at 
Greenwich  Hospital,  the  palace  at  Kensington,  and  other 
edifices.  He  was  appointed  historical  painter  to  Queen 
Anne,  and  was  made  a  knight  by  George  I.  He  opened 
an  academy  for  drawing  in  his  house,  where  he  num- 
bered among  his  pupils  the  celebrated  Hogarth,  who 
subsequently  married  his  daughter.     Died  in  1734. 

Thorn'ton,  (Bonnell,)  an  English  Htteratettr  and 
humorous  writer,  born  in  London  in  1724.  He  was 
associated  wi^h  George  Colman  in  the  proprietorship 
of  the  "  Saint  James  Chronicle,"  and  wrote,  conjointly 
with  Colman,  the  periodical  essays  entitled  "The  Con- 
noisseur." He  also  translated  the  comedies  of  Plautus 
into  English  blank  verse,  in  conjunction  with  Colman 
and  Warner,  and  was  the  author  of  burlesque  poems, 
entitled  "  An  Ode  on  Saint  Cecilia's  Day,  adapted  to 
the  Antient  British  Music,"  etc.,  and  "The  Battle  of 
the  Wigs."     Died  in  1768. 

Thornton,  (John  Robert,)  an  English  physician 
and  botanist,  born  about  1758,  was  a  son  of  Thomas 
Thornton,  noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The 
Philosophy  of  Medicine,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,)  and  "Temple 
of  Flora,  or  Garden  of  the  Botanist,  Poet,  Painter,  and 
Philosopher."     Died  in  1837. 

Thornton,  (Matthew,)  a  patriot  of  the  American 
Revolution,  born  in  Ireland  in  1714.  He  was  elected  to 
the  General  Congress  by  the  people  of  New  Hampshire 
in  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Died  in  1803. 

Thornton,  (Samuel,)  of  Clapham  Park,  Surrey,  born 
in  1775,  was  a  director  of  the  Bank  of  England  for  fifty 
years.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for  nearly  forty 
years.     Died  in  1838. 

Thornton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer  on  field- 
sports,  published  "A  Sporting  Tour  through  France," 
and  "  A  Sporting  Tour  through  the  North  of  England 
and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland."     Died  in  1823. 

Thornton,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  general,  served 
in  the  United  States  in  1814-15.     Died  in  1840. 

Thornton,  (William,)  an  English  political  econo- 
mist, born  at  Burnham,  Bucks,  in  1813,  published  "  Over- 
Population  and  its  Remedy,"  (1846.)     Died  in  1880. 

Thorn'w^ell,  (James  I'Ienley,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  in  Marlborough  district,  South 
Carolina,  in  1811.  He  published  several  theological 
works,  and  was  a  man  of  fine  scholarship  and  great 
Strength  of  character.     Died  August  i,  1862. 

Thorn'y-croft  or  Thorn'ey-oroft,  (Mary  Fran 
CES,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  at  Thornham,  Norfolk, 
in  1814.  She  was  married  in  1840  to  Mr.  Thornycroft,  a 
sculptor.  She  was  patronized  by  Queen  Victoria,  for 
whom  she  executed  statues  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
Prince  Alfred,  and  Princess  Alice.  Among  her  noted 
works  are  a  "Sleeping  Child,"  "A  Girl  Skipping,"  etc. 

Thor'old,  (Anthony  Wilson,)  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Hougham,  June  13,  1825.  He  graduated  in 
1847  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  became  a  clergy- 
man of  London.  In  1S74  he  was  made  a  canon  residen- 
tiary of  York,  and  in  1877  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Rochester.  Dr.  Thorold  is  distinguished  for  his  labours 
in  the  temperance  cause,  both  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States. 

Thorpe,  thorp,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  philologist, 
distinguished  for  his  attainments  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
tongue,  was  born  about  1808.  Among  his  publications 
may  be  named  "The  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  the  Story 
of  Apollonius,"  (1834,)  the  collection  entitled  "Ancient 
Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,"  etc.,  "  Codex  Exoni- 
ensis,"  (1842,)  and  "Northern  Mythology,"  or  legends 
of  Scandinavia,  Northern  Germany,  and  Holland,  (3 
vols.,  1S52.)     Died  in  July,  1870. 

Thorpe,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Kent  in  1682,  practised  at  Rochester.     Died  in  1750. 

Thorpe,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1713,  wrote  an  account  of  the  city  of 
Rochester,  entitled  "Registrum  Roffense."  Died  in  1792. 


€  as  /■.•  c  as  s:  g  Jianl;  g  as  /;  G,  H  K., guttural :  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2.-  th  as  in  this.     (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


THORPE 


2314 


THOURET 


Thorpe,  thorp,  (Rosa  Hartwick,)  an  Anieiican 
poetess,  born  July  18,  1850,  at  Mishawaka,  Indiana. 
She  is  known  as  the  author  of  the  popular  ballad 
"Curfew  shall  not  ring  to-night,"  published  in  1870. 

Thorpe,  thorp,  (Thomas  Bangs,)  an  American  artist 
%r\d  litterateur,  born  at  Westfieki,  Massachusetts,  in  1815. 
Among  his  paintings  are  a  full-length  portrait  of  General 
Zachary  Taylor,  and  the  "  Bold  Dragoon,"  an  illustration 
of  Irving's  story  of  that  name.  He  has  published  "  Tom 
Owen  the  Bee-Hunter,"  being  sketches  of  Western  and 
Southern  life,  and  contributed  numerous  articles  to 
"  Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine."     Died  in  1878. 

Thortseu,  toRt'sen,  (Carl  Adolph,)  a  Danish  critic 
and  poet,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  1798.  He  wrote  a 
"  Historical  Notice  of  Danish  Literature,"  (3d  edition, 
185 1,)  and  other  works. 

Thorwaldsen,  tor'wald-sen  or  toR'^ll-sen,  (Ai.rert 
Bertel,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  sculptors, 
was  born  in  November,  1770,  on  the  sea  between  Ice- 
land and  Copenhagen,  and  was  the  son  of  a  Danish 
carver  in  wood.  He  studied  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Copenhagen,  where  he  obtained  two  gold  medals, 
and  soon  after  set  out  for  Rome.  He  there  employed 
himself  on  a  statue  of  Jason  of  natural  size ;  but,  as 
it  attracted  no  particular  regard,  he,  in  a  fit  of  despond- 
ency, destroyed  it.  He  next  attempted  a  colossal  statue 
of  the  same  subject,  which  obtained  the  admiration  of 
Canova,  and  being  seen  by  Mr.  Thomas  Hope,  a  wealthy 
English  amateur,  he  ordered  a  copy  of  it  in  marble  for 
eight  hundred  zechins.  From  this  time  Thorwaldsen 
produced  rapidly  works  which  raised  his  reputation  to 
the  highest  point.  Among  these  may  be  named  his 
"  Triumphal  March  of  Alexander,"  executed  for  the 
emperor  Napoleon,  and  the  bas-reliefs  of  "  Night"  and 
"  Day"  and  of  "  Priam  and  Achilles."  In  1819  he  visited 
Denmark,  where  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and 
subsequently  made  a  tour  through  Germany,  and  while 
at  Warsaw  executed  a  portrait-bust  of  Alexander  of 
Russia,  also  the  monuments  of  Copernicus  and  Prince 
Poniatowski.  One  of  his  most  remarkable  productions 
is  the  image  of  a  wounded  and  dying  lion,  of  colossal 
size,  near  Lucerne,  in  Switzerland,  designed  to  com- 
memorate the  heroic  fidelity  of  the  Swiss  guards  who 
fell  August  10,  1792.  About  1838  he  returned,  after 
many  years'  residence  at  Rome,  to  Denmark,  where  he 
continued  to  reside  till  his  death,  in  March,  1844.  He 
was  never  married.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Christ 
and  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  a  statue  of  Schiller,  and  a 
colossal  statue  of  Hercules. 

See  Hans  Christian  Andiirsen,  "B.  Thorwaldsen,"  1844;  J. 
M.  Thiele,  "Den  Danske  RlUedluigger  B.  Thorwaldsen,"  etc., 
2  vols.,  1831-32;  L,  i)E  LoM^-Niij,  "  M.  Thorwaldsen,  pariin  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1841:  Aifred  Rhumont,  "Thorwaldsen:  Gedachtniss- 
rede,"  1844;  Hillkrup,  "Thorwaldsen  og  hans  Vaerker,"  2  vols., 
I84I--42:  J.  M.  Thiei.e,  "Thorwaldsen's  Arbeiten  iind  Lebensver- 
haltnisse  im  Zeitraunie  182S-1844,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1854. 

Thoth,  Toth,  or  Tauut,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  sup- 
posed to  correspond  to  the  Greek  Hermes  and  the  Roman 
Mercury.  (See  Hermes  Trismegistus.)  He  is  the 
moon-god,  and  the  god  of  letters.  The  baboon  and  the 
ibis  were  sacred  to  him. 

Thoth'mes  I.,  a  king  of  Egypt,  who  belonged  to  the 
eighteenth  dynasty.  He  advanced  with  his  armies  to 
the  Euphrates,  and  greatly  adorned  the  vast  temple  of 
Amen-Ra  at  Thebes.  His  daughter  Hatshepu,  or  Ha- 
tasu,  was  his  associate  in  power.  On  his  death,  she 
married  her  brother,  Thothmes  II.  She  was  regent, 
and  claimed  the  title  of  king,  under  Thothmes  III.,  her 
second  brother.  She  held  the  power  with  great  efficiency 
for  twenty-one  years.  Thothmes  III.,  after  the  death 
of  Hatshepu,  came  into  full  power.  He  became  master 
of  Crete  and  Cyprus,  made  great  conquests  in  Syria  and 
Ethiopia,  marched  to  Nineveh,  and  built  a  fleet  on  the 
Euphrates.  He  reigned  fifty-four  years.  Egyptian  art 
was  at  its  highest  pitch  in  his  reign,  which  in  some 
respects  was  the  most  brilliant  period  in  Egyptian  annals. 
Thothmes  IV.  was  the  grandson  of  Thothmes  HI.,  and 
the  grandson  and  successor  of  Amenophis  II. 

Thott,  yon,  fon  tot,  (Otto,)  Count,  a  Danish  finan- 
cier, born  in  1703,  became  minister  of  state  in  1772.  He 
owned  a  library  of  121,945  volumes,  of  which  a  cata- 
logue was  published,  in  12  vols.,  (1789-95.)  Died  in  1785. 


Thou,  fl3,  deh  too,  (Christophe,)  an  eminent  French 
judge,  born  in  Paris  in  1508.  He  became  first  president 
of  the  Pailiament  of  Paris  about  1562.  He  pursued  a 
neutral  or  moderate  course  in  relation  to  the  civil  war" 
and  the  League.     Died  in  1582. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  DeThou,  "  M^moires." 

Thou,  de,  (Francois  Auguste.)  eldest  son  of  the 
celebrated  historian,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris 
about  1607.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  master  of  the 
Royal  Library,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  master  of 
requests  and  councillor  of  state.  Having  been  accused 
of  being  privy  to  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq-Mars,  he  was 
executed  in  1642.     (See  Cinq-Mars.) 

Thou,  de,  [Lat.  Thua'nus,]  (Jacques  Auguste,)  an 
eminent  French  historian  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris 
in  October,  1553,  was  a  son  of  Christophe  de  Thou,  first 
president  of  the  Parliament.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and 
subsequently  under  Cujas  (Cujacius)  at  Valence,  in  Dau- 
phine,  where  he  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  Joseph 
Scaliger.  Returning  to  Paris  in  1572,  he  was  present 
at  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  and  entered  the 
church  as  canon  of  Notre-Dame.  The  following  year 
he  accompanied  Paul  de  Foix  on  an  important  mission 
to  Italy,  and  after  the  accession  of  Henry  III.  he  was 
appointed  master  of  requests,  (1584,)  and  councillor  of 
state,  (1588.)  He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  promoting 
an  alliance  between  Henry  HI.  and  Henry  of  Navarre, 
and,  on  the  latter  being  crowned,  under  the  title  of  Henry 
IV.,  became  one  of  his  most  faithful  adherents.  In  1593 
he  was  appointed  by  Henry  grand  master  of  the  Royal 
Library,  and  soon  after  president  <J  mortier  in  the  Parlia 
ment  of  Paris.  He  had  a  prominent  part  in  fram'ng  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  (159S,)  assisted  at  the  Conference  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  in  1600,  and  was  employed  in  other  important 
transactions.  He  published  in  1604  the  first  eighteen 
books  of  his  "  History  of  his  Own  Time,"  ("  Historia  sui 
Temporis,")  of  which  a  complete  edition  first  appeared 
in  1620,  in  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  books.  This 
work,  which  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the  public, 
gave  offence  to  the  zealots  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
was  formally  condemned  by  being  placed  in  the  "  Index 
Expurgatorius."  It  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  of  its 
Btyle,  as  well  as  its  accuracy  and  impartiality,  and  has 
obtained  the  commendations  of  the  most  eminent  critics. 
De  Thou  also  wrote  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 
"Thuani  Commentarius  de  Vita  sua,"  and  several  Latin 
poems.  The  edition  of  his  "  History"  published  in  Lon- 
don in  1733  (7  vols,  fol.)  is  esteemed  the  best,  and  a 
French  translation  of  it,  by  Le  Mascrier,  Desfontaines, 
and  others,  appeared  in  1734,  (16  vols.  4to.)  He  died 
in  May,  1617.  "  De  Thou,"  says  Duplessis,  "showed 
himself  a  great  statesman,  with  a  profound  knowledge 
of  men  and  things,  equally  removed  from  the  fanaticism 
of  the  different  factions  which  divided  France.  A  faithful 
subject  of  the  prince,  but  devoted  also  to  the  interests 
of  his  country,  he  defended  at  the  same  time  the  rights 
of  the  crown  and  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom,  alternately 
menaced  by  enemies  from  within  and  without." 

See  De  Thou,  "  Memoires,"  (autobiographic,)  1711  ;  John  Col- 
I.IN.SON,  "Life  of  Tluianus,"  1807;  P.  Chasles,  "Discocirs  sur  la 
Vie  et  les  Oiivrages  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824  ;  Henri  Patin,  "  Dis- 
coiirs  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824 ;  Gu^rard,  "  Discours  sur 
la  Vie,  etc.  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824;  Dontzer,  "J.  A.  de  Thou's 
Leben,"  etc.,  1S37  ;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"    "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Tliouara.     See  Dupetit-Thouars. 

Thouin.     See  Lkclerc,  (Oscar.) 

Thoiiin,  too'^N',  (Andr6,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  chief  gardener  of  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  about  1765.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Lectures  on  the  Culture  and  Naturalization 
of  Plants,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)  "  Few  men,"  says  Cuvier, 
"exercised  a  more  useful  influence."     Died  in  1824. 

See  De  Silvestre,  "Notice  sur  A.  Thouin,"  1S25:  Cuvier, 
"filoge  de  M.  A.  Thouin,"  1825;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^neraie." 

Thouret,  too'rk',  (Antoine,)  a  French  republican 
writer,  born  at  Tarragona  (Spain)  in  1807.  He  was 
imprisoned  nearly  five  years  for  his  ])olitical  writings, 
(1831-35,)  wrote,  while  in  prison,  several  political  novels, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848. 
Having  opposed  the  policy  of  Napoleon,  he  was  banished 
in  January,  1852.     Died  in  1857. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  xi,  y.  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  gd6d;  moon. 


THOURET 


2315 


THUCYDIDhS 


Thouret,  (Jacques  Guillaume,)  an  able  French 
legislator  and  political  writer,  born  at  Pont-rfiveque  in 
1746.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  States-General 
in  1789,  and  was  a  member  of  the  committee  which 
formed  the  new  constitution  in  1790.  In  his  principles 
he  was  moderate  and  liberal.    He  was  guillotined  in  1794. 

See  Drssbaux,  "Notice  sur  Thouret,"  1845;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  G^n^rale." 

Tliouret,  (Michel  Augustin,)  a  French  physician,  a 
brother  of  the  i^receding,  was  born  at  Pont-l'Eveque  in 
1748.  He  studied  medicine  at  Caen  and  in  Paris,  and 
in  1776  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Medicine.  He  published  several  valuable 
medical  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Re- 
port on  the  Exhumations  of  the  Cemetery  of  the  Inno- 
cents."    Died  in  1810. 

Thouvenel,  toov'n&K,  (Edouard  Antoine,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Verdun  in  November,  1818.  He 
was  minister  at  Athens  in  1849  and  1850,  and  was 
charged  with  the  political  direction  of  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs  from  December,  1851,  to  1855.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople  in  1855,  and  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  January,  i860.  He 
resigned  office  in  October,  1862.  He  published  in  1840 
"  Hungary  and  Wallachia :  Souvenirs  of  Travel,"  etc. 
Died  October  18,  1866. 

Thouvenel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1745,  practised  in  Paris,  and  wrote  several 
professional  works.     Died  in  1S15. 

Thoyiiard.     See  Toinard. 

Thoyras.    See  Rapin,  de,  (Paul.) 

Thrale,  Mrs.     See  Piozzi. 

Thra'se-a,  (Py^rus,)  a  Roman  senator  and  Stoic 
philosopher,  eminent  for  his  virtue  and  integrity,  was  a 
native  of  Padua.  Having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Nero 
by  his  condemnation  of  that  emperor's  crimes,  he  was 
sentenced  to  death,  together  with  several  of  his  friends, 
in  66  a.d. 

Thrasybule.     See  Thrasybulus. 

Thras'y-bu'Ius  *  [Gr.  epcffiSoi'Xof;  Fr.  Thrasybule, 
tRt'ze'biil',]  an  eminent  Grecian  patriot  and  military 
commander,  was  a  native  of  Attica,  and  flourished  about 
400  B.C.  Being  appointed  general  by  the  democratic 
party  at  Athens,  conjointly  with  his  friend  Thrasyllus, 
he  procured,  by  a  decree,  the  recall  of  Alcibiades  from 
exile.  He  rendered  an  important  service  at  the  battle 
of  Cyzicus,  (410,)  and  was  a  subordinate  officer  at  the 
naval  victory  of  Arginusae,  (406.)  Soon  after  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  obtained  power  (404  B.C.)  he  was  banished,  and 
retired  to  Thebes.  Having  raised  a  small  band  of  sol- 
diers and  exiles,  he  seized  Phyle,  which  he  used  as  a 
base  of  operations  against  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He 
gained  some  advantages,  and  occupied  the  Piraeus.  Here 
he  was  besieged  by  the  Spartan  Lysander,  but  was  re- 
lieved from  his  perilous  position  by  the  intrigues  of 
Pausanias.  The  Thirty  having  been  deposed  by  their 
own  subjects,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  and  the 
exiles  were  restored  to  citizenship.  He  commanded  a 
fleet  sent  to  aid  the  democrats  of  Rhodes  in  390.  He 
was  killed  near  Aspendus  in  389  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Thra- 
sybulus:"  Thirlwali.,  "History  of  Greece;"  Xenophon.  '' Hel- 
lenica :"  Hinrichs,  "Commentatio  de  Theramenis,  Critise  el 
Thrasybuli  Rebus,"  etc.,  1820;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^neiale." 

Thrasybulus,  sometimes  called  the  Collytian, 
from  his  birthplace,  Collytus,  in  Attica,  was  contempo- 
rary with  the  preceding,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his 
exile  to  Phyle. 

Thras'y-bu'Ius,  [Gr.  GpaaiifiowAof,]  Tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
succeeded  his  brother,  Hiero  I.,  in  466  B.C.  Having  ex- 
asperated his  subjects  by  his  cruelty  and  oppression,  he 
collected  a  great  number  of  mercenaries,  at  the  head  of 
whom  he  attacked  the  Syracusans,  who  had  solicited  aid 
from  the  Greeks  in  Sicily.  Unable  to  maintain  himself 
against  these  forces,  he  was  compelled  to  go  into  exile, 
having  reigned  less  than  a  year. 

•  This  name  is  not  unfrequently  mispronounced  with  the  accent 
on  the  antepenultima.  The  following  couplet  from  Byron  exhibits 
the  true  accentuation : 

"  Spirit  of  Freedom  I  when  on  Phyle's  brow 
Thou  sat'st  with  Thrasybulus  and  his  train." 

Childt  Harold,  canto  ii.  stanza  bcxiv. 


Thrasylle.     See  Thrasyllus. 

Thra-syl'lus,  [Gr.  Qpaavlj^q ;  Fr.  Thrasylle,  tRi'- 
zh\',\  an  Athenian  general  and  democrat,  co-operated 
with  Thrasybulus  against  the  oligarchy  in  411  B.C.  He 
commanded  a  fleet  which,  in  409,  was  defeated  at  Ephe- 
sus,  and  gained  a  victory  over  a  Syracusan  squadron. 
He  was  one  of  the  six  generals  who  commanded  at 
Arginusas  in  406  B.C.  and  was  unjustly  put  to  death. 
See  Theramenes.) 

Threl'keld,  (Caleb,)  a  British  botanist,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1676.  He  practised  medicine  in  Dublin, 
and  published  "  Synopsis  of  Irish  Plants,"  ("  Synopsis 
Stirpium  Hibernicarum.")     Died  in  1728. 

Thriverus,  the  Latin  of  DrivAre,  which  see. 

Throc'mor-tpn  or  Throg'mor-ton,  (Sir  Nicho- 
las,) an  English  diplomatist,  born  about  1513.  He 
accompanied  Henry  VIII.  to  France  in  1544,  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Boulogne,  and  subsequently  served  in  the 
Scottish  campaign  of  1547.  Having  been  charged  in 
1554  with  being  implicated  in  Wyatt's  rebellion,  he 
defended  himself  on  his  trial  with  so  much  eloquence 
and  ability  that  he  was  acquitted.  Under  Queen  Eliza- 
beth he  became  chamberlain  of  the  exchequer,  and 
ambassador  to  France,  where  he  resided  four  years. 
He  was  afterwards  sent  on  important  missions  to  Scot- 
land. He  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.     Died  in  1571. 

Thros'by,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1746, 
published  "The  History  and  Topography  of  Leicester," 
and  other  similar  works.     Died  in  1803. 

Thrud,  a  daughter  of  Thor,  which  see. 

Thrudheim  and  Thrudvangr.     See  Thor. 

Thrymheim.     See  Skadl 

Thuanus.     See  Thou,  de. 

Thucydide.     See  Thucydides. 

Thu-gyd'i-dei,  [Gr.  3ovKv6i6ric;  Fr.  Thucydide, 
tii'se'did',]  an  Athenian  politician  ^and  general,  who 
became  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party  in  449  B.C. 
"  He  was  a  man  of  great  prudence,"  says  Plutarch,  "  and 
brother-in-law  to  Cimon.  He  had  not,  indeed,  Cimon's 
talents  for  war,  but  was  superior  to  him  in  forensic  and 
political  abilities."  (Plutarch,  "  Pericles.")  He  was 
the  chief  adversary  of  Pericles,  and  maintained  a  con- 
test against  him  until  444  B.C.,  when  Thucydides  was 
ostracized. 

Thucydides,  [Gr.  QovfcvdidTic ;  Fr.  Thucydide,]  an 
illustrious  Greek  historian  and  general,  born  of  a  noble 
family  in  the  demus  Halimus,  in  Attica,  in  471  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Olorus.  He  was  related  to  Miltiades  and  to 
Cimon,  and  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  informs  his 
readers  that  he  owned  gold-mines  in  Thrace,  near  the 
island  of  Thasos.  'according  to  a  current  tradition,  he 
heard  Herodotus  read  his  history  at  Olympia,  when  he 
was  a  boy,  and  was  so  deeply  affected  that  he  shed  tears. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Antiphon  in  oratory, 
and  of  Anaxagoras  in  philosophy.  He  was  one  of  the 
sufferers  attacked  by  the  plague  at  Athens  in  430  B.C., 
(of  which  he  afterwards  wrote  a  masterly  description,) 
which  was  the  second  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
In  424  he  commanded  a  squadron  of  seven  ships  neai 
Thasos,  when  the  Spartan  general  Brasidas  attacked 
Amphipolis.  He  hastened  to  the  defence  of  that  town, 
but  he  arrived  too  late,  and  found  that  it  had  just 
surrendered  to  the  Spartans.  For  this  failure  he  was 
banished,  or,  as  some  suppose,  went  into  exile  to  avoid 
the  penalty  of  death  to  which  unfortunate  generals  were 
liable.  He  informs  us  that  he  passed  twenty  years  in 
exile  after  this  event.  He  availed  himself  of  the  leisure 
and  opportunities  which  he  enjoyed  in  consequence  of 
his  exile,  to  collect  materials  for  a  history  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war,  which  lasted  about  twenty -seven  years,  (431 
-404.)  He  used  the  greatest  diligence  and  care  in  ascer- 
taining the  facts  by  visits  to  the  localities  of  the  war 
and  by  interviews  with  the  prominent  actors  of  that 
period.  It  is  supposed  that  he  returned  to  Athens  in 
403,  when  a  general  amnesty  was  granted  to  exiles.  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates  and  Euripides. 

His  celebrity  is  founded  on  his  "  History  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War,"  in  eight  books,  which,  however,  he 
did  not  live  to  finish.  It  ends  in  411  B.C.,  seven  yeara 
before  the  termination  of  the  war.     The  first  book  of 


€  as  ^:  9  as  s;  g  Aard:  g  as  ;V  G,  H,  Yi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.' 


THUEMMEL 


23 


16 


THURLOW 


this  work  consists  of  introductory  observations  on  the 
early  history  of  Greece.  Ancient  and  modern  critics  are 
unanimous  in  commending  the  accuracy,  veracity,  and 
impartiality  of  Thucydides.  His  history  combines  the 
merits  of  the  orator,  historian,  philosopher,  and  states- 
man, and  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  monuments  of 
political  wisdom. 

His  style  is  concise,  noble,  and  intensely  energetic 
It  is  stated  that  Demosthenes  transcribed  the  history 
of  Thucydides  eight  times,  in  order  to  improve  his  own 
style.  Cicero  described  Thucydides  as  "  a  faithful  and 
dignified  narrator  of  facts,"  ("  rerum  gestarum  pro- 
nunciator  sincerus  et  grandis.")  ("  Brutus,"  cap.  83.) 
The  same  critic  also  expresses  the  opinion  that  this 
historian  easily  surpasses  all  others  in  the  art  of  com- 
position:  "Thucydides  omnesdicendi  artificio, mea  sen- 
tentia,  facile  vicit."    ("  De  Oratore,"  ii.) 

"In  spite  of  this  great  fault,"  says  Macaulay,  (refer- 
ring to  his  fictitious  speeches,)  "  it  must  be  allowed  that 
Thucydides  has  surpassed  all  his  rivals  in  the  art  of  his- 
torical narration,  in  the  art  of  producing  an  effect  on  the 
imagination  by  skilful  selection  and  disposition  without 
indulging  in  the  license  of  invention.  .  .  .  His  book  is 
evidently  the  book  of  a  man  and  a  statesman,  and  in  this 
respect  presents  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  delightful 
childishness  of  Herodotus.  Throughout  it  there  is  an 
air  of  matured  power,  of  grave  and  melancholv  reflection, 
of  impartiality  and  habitual  self-command."  (Macaulay's 
Essay  on  "History,"  1828.)  He  died  about  401  B.C., 
leaving  one  son,  Timotheus.  Several  ancient  writers 
state  that  he  was  assassinated,  but  they  disagree  in 
respect  to  the  place  of  his  death.  His  "  History"  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Hobbes,  by  William 
Smith.  (1753,)  by  S.  T.  Bloomfield,  (1829,)  by  Thomas 
Dale,  and  by  Jowett,  (1881.) 

See  DoDWELL,  "  Annales  Thucydidei."  1702  ;  KrUger,  "Unter- 
suchuiigen  iiber  das  Leben  des  Tliucydides,"  1832  ;  Roscher,  "  Le- 
ben  des  Thucydides,"  1S42;  Gikarb,  "  Tliiicydide,"  i86o;  Grotk, 
"  History  of  Greece  ;"  Thiklwall,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  F.  Roth, 
"  Vergleicliende  Betraclitunp;en  iiber  Thucydides  und  Tacitus," 
1S12;  BoNNELL,  "  De  Tliucydide  et  Herodoto  Qujestionum  histori- 
carum  Specimen,"  1S51  ;  "  Nuuvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  Ulrich, 
"  Beitrage  zur  Erklarung  des  Thucydides,"  1S46. 

Tliuemmel.     See  Thummeu 

Thuermer.     See  Thurmer. 

Thugut,  too'goot,  (Franz  Maria,)  Baron,  an  Aus- 
trian diplomatist,  born  at  Linz  in  1734.  He  was  early 
distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Maria  Theresa,  and 
employed  on  missions  to  Paris,  Naples,  and  other  Euro- 
pean courts.  In  1794  he  succeeded  Prince  Kaunitz  as 
prime  minister.  lie  was  removed  in  1797,  restored 
in  1799,  and  tinally  driven  from  power  in  1801.  Died 
in  1818. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Thuillier,  tii'e'ye-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  was  born  at  Amiens  in  1799.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1839  at  Paris.     Died  in  1858. 

Thuillier,  (Vincent,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Laon  in  1685,  was  a  monk  of  Saint-Maur. 
He  published  a  version  of  the  "  History"  of  Polybius, 
(6  vols.,  1727-30.)     Died  in  1736. 

Thulden,  van,  vtn  tiil'den,  (Theodor,)  a  celebrated 
Flemish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in 
1607.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  whose  style  his  own 
greatly  resembles,  and  whom  he  assisted  in  the  series 
of  paintings  which  adorn  the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Martyrdom  of  Saint 
Andrew,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  Michael  at  Ghent,  and 
"The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  church  of  the 
Jesuits  at  Bruges.  He  also  excelled  in  delineating  mar- 
kets, fairs,  etc.,  and  produced  a  number  of  admirable 
etchings,  among  which  we  may  name  "The  Life  of  Saint 
John  de  Matha,"  (in  24  plates,)  and  "  The  History  of 
Ulysses,"  (58  plates.)     Died  in  1676. 

See  "  riographie  Universelle." 

Thulen,  van,  vtn  tii'len,  (John  Philip,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Malines  in  1618,  was  a  pupil  of  Seghers. 
He  painted  flowers,  insects,  etc.     Died  in  1667. 

Thiimmel  or  Thuemmel,  von,  fon  tum'mel,  (Mo- 
RITZ  August,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Leipsic 
in  1738.  His  principal  work  is  a  romance,  entitled  "A 
Journey  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  France,"  (9  vols., 


1791-18C3,)  which  is  commended  by  Schiller  and  enjoys 
great  popularity  in  Germany.  His  "  Wilhelmine,"  a 
comic  prose  poem,  is  also  highly  esteemed,  and  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  He  was  privy  coun- 
cillor and  minister  under  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg  from 
1768  to  1783.     Died  in  1817. 

See  J.  E.  VON  Gruner,  "Leben  M.  A.  von  Thummel's,"  1819: 
"  Biographie  Universelle." 

Thumniig,  toom'mic,  (Ludwig  Philipp,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Culmbach  in  1697,  published  seve- 
ral works.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Wolf.  Died  at  Cassel 
in  1728. 

Thunberg,  toon'bSRG,  (Karl  Peter,)  a  celebrated 
Swedish  botanist  and  physician,  born  in  the  province  of 
Smdland  in  1743.  He  studied  natural  history  at  the 
University  of  Upsal,  under  Linnaeus.  In  1772  he  visited 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1775  accompanied,  as 
physician,  the  embassy  of  the  East  India  Company  to 
Japan.  He  succeeded  the  younger  Linnaeus  as  professor 
of  botany  at  Upsal  in  1784.  He  was  instrumental  in 
founding  a  botanic  garden  in  that  city,  and  bestowed 
upon  the  university  his  valuable  collection  of  objects 
in  natural  history.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Flora  Japonica,"  "Flora  Capensis,"  "Icones  Planta- 
rum  Japonicarum,"  and  "Travels,"  (4  vols.,  1788,)  which 
were  translated  into  English  and  German.  A  genus  of 
beautiful  climbing  plants  has  been  named  in  his  honour, 
also  several  species  in  different  genera  of  insects.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  Billberg,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  C.  P.  Thunberg,"  1832 ; 
ScHROEDER,  "  Vita  C.  P.  Thunberg,"  1832:  Ghzelius,  "Biografiskt- 
Lexicon  ;"  Cuvier,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles  ;" 

Thunmann,  toon'min,  (John,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
born  in  Sudermania  in  1746.  He  wrote  "  Researches  on 
the  History  of  the  People  of  Eastern  Europe,"  (1774.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Thura,  too'rS,  (Lawrence,)  a  poet,  born  in  Laaland 
in  1656.  He  became  Bishop  of  Ribe  in  1714.  Died 
in  1731. 

Thuriot,  tii're-o',  (Jacques  Alexandre,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Convention,  in 
which  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  As  president 
of  that  body,  he  promoted  the  fall  of  Robespierre  on  the 
9th  Thermidor,  1794.     Died  in  1829. 

Thiir'loe,  (John,)  an  English  minister  of  state,  born 
at  Abbot's  Roding,  in  Essex,  in  1616.  He  studied  law, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1647,  and  obtained  several 
offices  by  the  favour  of  his  patron,  Oliver  Saint  John.  In 
1652  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  council  of  state. 
He  was  secretary  of  state  from  December,  1653,  until 
the  restoration,  1660.  During  a  part  of  this  period  he 
was  also  postmaster-general,  and  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment. He  rendered  important  services  to  Cromwell  by 
the  detection  of  plots  against  the  Commonwealth.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  talents  for  business,  and  his 
moderation.  After  the  restoration,  Charles  II.  invited 
him  to  take  ofiice,  which  he  declined.  Died  in  1668. 
His  "State  Papers,"  published  by  Dr.  Birch,  (7  vols., 
1742,)  are  considered  very  valuable. 

See  Dr.  Birch,  "  Life  of  J.  Thurloe,"  1742;  Burnkt,  "  History 
of  his  Own  Times." 

Thur'low,  (Edward,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English 
lawyer  and  politician,  born  in  Norfolk  or  near  Stow- 
market,  in  Suffolk,  in  1732,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Thomas 
Thurlow.  He  was  sent  to  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  was  compelled  to  leave  without  a  degree,  on 
account  of  his  turbulent  and  refractory  conduct.  He 
studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1754  or  1756,  (Lord  Campbell  says  1754,)  and  joined 
the  Western  circuit.  In  early  life  he  was  a  friend  of 
the  poet  Cowper.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  king's  counsel  in  1761.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  junior  counsel  in  the  great 
Douglas  cause,  tried  in  the  House  of  Lords,  (1769.)  In 
1768  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which 
he  supported  Lord  North's  administration.  He  became 
solicitor-general  in  1770,  and  attorney-general  in  1 771. 
Having  commended  himself  to  the  favour  of  George 
III.  by  his  zealous  support  of  Lord  North's  American 
policy,  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  in  June,  1778, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Thurlow.     In 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sliort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni§t;  n6t>gd6d;»moonj 


THURMANN 


2317 


TIBERIUS 


1782  the  ministry  was  changed,  but  Thurlow  was  re- 
tained as  chancellor,  although  he  was  opposed  to  the 
measures  of  the  new  prime  minister,  Rockingham. 
When  a  new  cabinet  was  formed  by  the  coalition  of 
Lord  North  and  Fox,  in  1783,  Thurlow  lost  his  office, 
but  he  was  again  appointed  lord  chancellor  by  Mr.  Pitt 
in  December,  1783.  He  soon  became  an  enemy  to  Pitt, 
and,  relying  on  the  personal  favour  of  the  king,  thought 
he  could  displace  or  circumvent  that  minister.  "  He 
espoused  the  cause  of  Warren  Hastings  with  indecorous 
violence."  (Macaulay.)  He  opposed  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  In  consequence  of  his  open  hostility 
to  Pitt  and  some  of  his  measures,  he  was  removed  from 
office  in  1792,  after  which  he  became  a  "  flaming  patriot." 
He  ceased  to  be  influential  or  prominent  in  political 
affairs  many  years  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
September,  1806. 

"  He  contrived,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "  to  persuade 
mankind  that  he  was  a  great  judge,  a  great  orator,  and 
^  great  statesman, — although  I  am  afraid  that  in  all 
these  capacities  he  was  considerably  overrated,  and  that 
he  owed  his  temporary  reputation  very  much  to  his  high 
pretensions  and  his  awe-inspiring  manners." 

See  LoRiJ  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Cliancellors,"  vol.  v. ; 
Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL  ;"  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1814. 

Thurmann,  tdoR'mJn,  (Jules,)  a  Swiss  or  German 
geologist  and  botanist,  born  at  Neufbrisach  in  1804. 
He  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Jurassic  Upheavals," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1855. 

Thiirmer  or  Thuermer,  tiiR'mer,  (Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Munich  in  1789.  He  spent  several 
years  at  Rome  and  Athens,  and  became  in  1832  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Architecture  at  Dresden.  He 
published  "  Views  of  Athens  and  its  Monuments,"  (1823,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1833. 

Thurn  und  Ta^s,  tooRn  oont  tdx'lss,  [Fr.  Tour- 
et-Taxis,]  a  family  of  Bavarian  and  Austrian  Catholic 
princes,  very  prominent  in  South  German  history. 

Thurneysser  or  Thurneisser  zum  Thuru,  tooR'- 
ni-ser  tsoom  tooRn,  (Leonard,)  a  Swiss  alchemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Bale  in  1531.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  archduke  Ferdinand,  brother  of  Maximilian  H., 
who  charged  him  with  the  administration  of  the  mines 
of  Tyrol.  In  1571  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune  by 
his  pretended  skill  in  astrology  and  alchemy,  but,  his 
deceptions  being  at  length  discovered,  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  Berlin,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1596.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  works,  which  are  now  forgotten. 

Thurot,  tii'ro',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  seaman,  born 
in  Burgundy  in  1727.  Having  previously  distinguished 
himself  as  captain  of  a  privateer,  he  entered  the  royal 
marine,  and  gained  several  important  victories  over  the 
English,  but  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement 
near  the  Isle  of  Man,  (1760.) 

Thurot,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  philosopher  and 
Hellenist,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1768.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  Greek  language  and  philosophy  in  the  College 
de  France  in  1814.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Understanding  and  the  Reason,"  ("  De  I'Entende- 
ment  et  de  la  Raison,"  1830.)     Died  in  1832. 

See  SiLVESTRE  DE  Sacy,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Thurot,'' 
1832;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Thurs'by,  (Emma,)  an  American  soprano-singer, 
born  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  1854.  Her  musical 
education  began  very  early,  under  Madame  Riidersdorf 
and  E.  i-ani.  She  first  attained  distinction  as  a  church- 
singer.  Mr.  Strakosch  in  1879  introduced  her  to  the 
concert-stage,  when  her  remarkable  talents  were  every- 
where recognized,  both  in  Europe  and  in  America. 

Thurs'ton,  (Robert  Henry,)  an  American  engineer 
and  physicist,  a  son  of  R.  L.  Thurston,  was  born  at  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island,  October  25,  1839.  He  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1859,  served  in  the  United  States 
navy,  1861-65,  and  became  assistant  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  United  States  naval  academy  in  1865, 
and  in  1871  professor  of  mechanical  engineering  in  the 
Stevens  Institute  at  Hoboken,  New  Jersey.  His  experi- 
ments and  inventions  have  proved  of  great  service  to  his 
profession.     Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the 


Growth  of  *e  Steam-Engine,"  (1878,)  "Friction  and 
Lubrication,"  "  Materials  of  Engineering,"  (3  vols.,  1883- 
84,)  and  a  large  number  of  valuable  professional  reports. 

Thurston,  (Robert  Lawton,)  an  American  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Portsmouth,  Rhode  Island,  December  13, 
1800.  In  1834  he  became  a  partner  in  the  business  of 
building  steam-engines  at  Providence.  Rhode  Island,  in 
which  he  won  great  distinction.  Died  at  Providence, 
January  13,  1873. 

Thury.     See  Cassini,  (C6sar  F.,)  and  Ulrica rt. 

Thwaites,  thwats,  (Edv^^ard,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  in  1667,  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford.  He 
published  several  Anglo-Saxon  works.     Died  in  171 1. 

Thy-gs'te§,  [Gr.  eveaTjjc;  Fr.  Thyeste,  te'Sst',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  a  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodami'a, 
a  brother  of  Atreus,  and  father  of  /Egisthus.  The  enmity 
between  Thyestes  and  Atreus  was  the  subject  of  several 
discordant  legends,  which  ascribe  to  each  a  number  of 
vindictive  crimes  and  atrocities.  (See  Atreus.)  This 
story  was  dramatized  by  Sophocles  and  Euripides  in 
tragedies  which  are  not  extant. 

Thymbraeus,  thim-bree'us,  [Gr.  OvfiSpcuoc ;  Pr. 
Thymrr6e,  tiN'bRi',]  a  surname  of  Apollo,  derived 
from  the  temple  of  Thymbra,  in  Troas. 

Thynne,  th?n,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
writer  on  heraldry.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  Dover  Castle  and  the  Cinque  Ports,"  (in  manuscript,) 
and  a  "  Discourse  of  the  Duty  and  Ofiice  of  an  Herald 
of  Arms."     Died  in  161 1. 

Thyonee.     See  Thyoneus. 

Thy-o'neus,  [Gr.  Qvijvevg ;  Fr.  Thyonee,  te'o'- 
ni' :  supposed  to  be  derived  from  6vu,  to  "  rush,"  to 
"be  excited,"]  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  whose  mother 
was  called  Thyone  (Qvuvtj)  after  she  was  translated  to 
Olympus. 

Thys,  tiss,  [Lat.  Thy'sius,]  a  Dutch  philologist,  bom 
at  Harderwyck  in  1603.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence 
and  law  at  Leyden,  edited  several  Latin  authors,  and 
wrote  a  few  works,  in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1665. 

Thysius.     See  Thys. 

Tiarini,  te-l-ree'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1577,  was  a  pupil  of 
Fontana  and  Passignano.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"  Saint  Peter  denying  Christ,"  a  "  Miracle  of  Saint 
Dominic,"  and  the  "  l3eposition  from  the  Cross."  His 
works  are  principally  oil-paintings,  and  his  style  resem- 
bles that  of  the  Caracci.     Died  in  1668. 

Tiarks,  tee'iRks,  (John  Lewls,)  a  German  astron- 
omer, born  at  Jever  in  1789,  removed  to  London,  where 
he  became  assistant  librarian  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
About  1 82 1  he  was  sent  on  an  expedition  to  various 
parts  of  Europe  in  order  to  determine  the  longitude  by 
means  of  chronometers.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.     Died  in  1837. 

Tibaldeo.     See  Tebaldeo. 

Tibaldi,  (Domenico.)     See  Pellegrini. 

Tibell,  tee'bSl,  (Gustavus  Wilhelm,)  a  Swedish 
general,  born  in  Sudermania  in  1772.  He  served  under 
Bonaparte  in  Italy,  (1795-1802.)     Died  in  1824. 

Tib6re.     See  Tiberius. 

Tib-e-ri'nus,  a  mythical  king  of  Alba,  was  said  to 
have  been  drowned  in  the  river  which  was  afterwards 
called  from  him  the  Tiber,  (Tiberis.) 

Tiberio.     See  Tiberius. 

Ti-be'ri-us,  [Fr.  Tib^re,  teTaaiR' ;  It.  Tiberio,  te- 
ba're-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Ti-be'ri-us  Clau'di-us  Ne'ro. 
a  celebrated  emperor  of  Rome,  born  in  42  B.C.  He  was 
a  son  of  Livia  Drusilla,  the  wife  of  Augustus,  by  her 
first  marriage,  and  belonged  to  the  patrician  pens  Clau- 
dia. His  father  was  T.  Claudius  Nero.  At  an  early 
age  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  military  affairs,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  Spain,  Asia  Minor,  and  Ger- 
many. His  talents  were  respectable,  if  not  superior.  He 
was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Latin  literature.  His  first 
wife  was  Vipsania  Agrippina,  a  daughter  of  Agrippa. 
About  12  B.C.  he  was  compelled  to  divorce  her,  and  to 
marry  Julia,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  He 
passed  seven  years  at  Rhodes  in  retirement,  and  returned 
to  Rome  in  2  A.D.  After  the  death  of  Caius  Caesar,  in  4 
A,D.,  Augustus  adopted  Tiberius  as  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor.    He  became  emperor  in  the  year  14,  and  at  first 


*'  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  asj;  G,  h,  k.  i^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     { Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TIBERIUS 


2318 


TIECK 


used  his  power  with  moderation.  He  had  a  suspicious 
temper,  and  was  a  most  artful  dissembler.  He  chose 
for  his  favourite  minister  and  adviser  the  infamous 
Sejanus,  to  whom  he  soon  abandoned  the  direction  of 
the  government.  Tiberius  was  suspected  of  being  acces- 
sory to  the  death  of  Germanicus,  (19  a.d.)  His  only 
son,  Drusus,  was  poisoned  by  Sejanus  in  23.  In  the  year 
26  he  left  Rome,  to  which  he  never  returned,  and  retired 
to  the  island  of  Capri,  (Capreas.)  Avoiding  publicity 
and  neglecting  affairs  of  state,  he  abandoned  himself  to 
debauchery.  In  31  a.d.  Sejanus  was  put  to  death  by  the 
order  or  permission  of  Tiberius,  and  Macro  became  the 
powerful  favourite.  Tiberius  died  in  37  A.n.,  without 
appointing  his  successor.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  suf- 
focated by  Macro,  by  whose  aid  Caligula  then  became 
emperor.  "  The  historian,"  says  Macaulay,  (referring  to 
Tacitus,)  "  undertook  to  make  us  intimately  acquainted 
with  a  man  singularly  dark  and  inscrutable, — with  a 
man  whose  real  disposition  long  remained  swathed  up 
in  intricate  folds  of  factitious  virtues,  and  over  whose 
actions  the  hypocrisy  of  his  youth  and  the  seclusion  of 
his  old  age  threw  a  singular  mystery.  ...  He  was  to 
exhilDit  the  old  sovereign  of  the  world  sinking  into  a 
dotage  which,  though  it  rendered  his  appetites  eccentric 
and  his  temper  savage,  never  impaired  the  powers  of 
his  stern  and  penetrating  mind,  conscious  of  failing 
strength,  raging  with  capricious  sensuality,  yet  to  the 
last  the  keenest  of  observers,  the  most  artful  of  dis- 
semblers, and  the  most  terrible  of  masters.  The  task 
was  one  of  extreme  difficulty.  The  execution  is  almost 
perfect."     (Essay  on  "  History.") 

See  Suetonius,  "Tiberius;"  Tacitus,  "  Annales  ;"  Sievers, 
"Tacitus  und  Tiberius,"  1850;  V.  DuRUY,  "  De  Tiberio  Impera- 
tore,"  1853. 

Tiberius  (ANig'ius  Fla'vius  Constanti  nus)  II., 
surnamed  Thrax,  (or  the  "Thracian,")  Emperor  of  the 
East,  a  native  of  Thrace,  was  born  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixth  century.  He  was  treated  with  great  distinction 
by  Justin  II.,  who  bestowed  upon  him  the  dignity  of 
Cajsar  in  574,  and  subsequently  abdicated  in  his  favour. 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  the  Persians 
under  Chosroes,  whom  he  signally  defeated  at  Melitene, 
(576  A.D.)  He  died  in  582  a.d.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son-in-law  Mauritius,  whom  he  had  previously 
created  Cassar. 

Tiberius,  a  Greek  philosopher  and  grammarian,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  fourth  century.  One  of  his 
rhetorical  works  is  extant,  and  a  number  of  fragments. 

Ti-be'ri-vis  Ab-sim'a-rus,  a  Greek  general  of  the 
seventh  century,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Em- 
peror of  Constantinople  in  opposition  to  Leontius,  (698 
a.d.)  He  was  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Justinian 
II.,  (705  a.d.) 

Tibe'rius  Alexan'der,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Nero  governor  of  Judea,  and 
subsequently  prefect  of  Egypt.  He  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  assisted  the 
latter  in  the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

TibuU,  the  German  for  TiBULLUS,  which  see. 

Tibulie.     See  Tibullus. 

Tibullo.     See  Tibullus. 

Ti-bul'lus,  [Fr.  Tibulle,  te'blil' ;  Ger.  Tibull, 
te-bo61';  It.  Tibullo,  te-bool'lo,]  (Albius,)  a  distin- 
guished Roman  elegiac  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  was 
born  in  Italy  about  55  B.C.  He  was  a  son  of  a  knight, 
(eques,)  from  whom  he  inherited  an  estate  between  Tibur 
and  Prasneste.  This  estate  was  confiscated  in  the  civil 
war,  but  he  recovered  a  part  of  it,  and  passed  much 
of  his  life  there,  enjoying  the  peaceful  pleasures  of  the 
country,  of  which  he  was  a  warm  admirer.  He  was 
patronized  by  Valerius  Messala,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  a  campaign  in  Gaul  in  31  B.C.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Horace,  who  addressed  to  him  an  epistle  and 
an  ode,  (^'  Carmina,"  i.  33.)  His  character  is  said  to  have 
been  amiable.  He  wrote  amatory  elegies  addressed  to 
Delia  and  Nemesis.  His  poems  are  models  of  graceful 
simplicity  and  genuine  tenderness.  The  best  editions 
of  Tibullus  are  those  published  by  Lachmann  (1829)  and 
by  Dissenus,  (or  Dissen,)  (1835.)     Died  about  18  B.C. 

See  Ayrmann,  "Vita  Tibulli,"  lyig;  Degkn,  "A.  Tibull," 
1780;  Gruhpb,  "  Die  Romische  Elegie,"  1838 


Tick'ell,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer  and  politician 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  published  a  pamphlet,  entitled 
"  .-Xnticipation,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1793. 

Tickell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  Cumberland  in  1686.  He  studied  at  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1710. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Addison,  who  made  him 
under-secretary  of  state  in  1717.  He  subsequently  be- 
came secretary  to  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland.  He  was 
the  author  of  poems  entitled  "The  Prospect  of  Peace" 
and  "The  Royal  Progress."  The  latter  is  character- 
ized by  Dr.  Johnson  as  "neither  high  nor  low."  His 
translation  of  the  first  book  of  the  "  Iliad"  is  highly 
commended  by  Addison,  but  it  is  regarded  by  other 
critics  as  greatly  inferior  to  Pope's.  Tickell  also  wrote  a 
number  of  prose  essays,  and  an  admired  "  Elegy  on 
the  Death  of  Addison."     Died  in  1740. 

Tick'nor,  (Caleb,)  a  skilful  American  physician, 
born  in  Salisbury,  Connecticut,  about  1804.  He  prac- 
tised in  New  York,  and  wrote  much  for  medical  journals. 
Died  about  1840. 

See  Williams,  "Medical  Biograpliy." 

Ticknor,  (Elisha,)  an  American  teacner,  born  about 
1760,  was  the  father  of  George  Ticknor.  He  taught  in 
Boston,  where  he  died  in  1821. 

Ticknor,  (George,)  a  distinguished  American  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1791.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  and  subsequently  spent  five  years 
in  visiting  various  parts  of  Europe.  He  was  appointed 
after  his  return  professor  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
languages  and  literature  at  Harvard  College.  He  brought 
out  in  1849  his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  (3  vols. 
8vo.)  It  immediately  established  the  reputation  of  the 
author,  and  has  obtained  the  highest  eulogy  from  emi- 
nent critics  of  all  countries,  having  been  translated  into 
Spanish  and  German.  In  1863  Mr.  Ticknor  published 
his  "Life  of  William  H.  Prescott,"  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting biographies  in  the  language.     Died  in  1871. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1850;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1850. 

Ticozzi,  te-kot'see,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  littSrateur, 
born  in  the  province  of  Como  in  1762.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  his  "  Dictionary  of  Architects,  Sculp- 
tors, Painters,  etc.  of  every  Age  and  Nation,"  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1830,)  "Historical  Memoirs,"  and  translations  of 
Sismondi's  "History  of  the  Italian  Republics"  and  Llo- 
rente's  "  History  of  the  Inquisition."  He  was  prefect 
of  the  department  of  the  Piave  under  the  French  empire. 
Died  in  1836. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

Tidemand,  tee'deh-mind',  (Adolph,)  a  Norwegian 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Mandal  in  1815.  He 
was  appointed  painter  to  the  king,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  a  painter  of  national  manners.  His  favourite 
subjects  are  scenes  of  domestic  life.     Died  in  1876. 

Tidemann,  tee'deh-min',  (Philipp,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1657,  was  a  pupil  of 
Lairesse  at  Amsterdam.  He  painted  mythological  sub- 
jects with  success.     Died  in  1715. 

Ti'dy,  (Charles  Meymott,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  London,  February  2,  1843.  In  1865  he  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and  in  1866  he  was 
appointed  joint  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University 
of  London,  afterwards  taking  the  professorship  of  forensic 
medicine.  Among  his  works  are  "  Gleanings  in  Toxi- 
cology," "  Forensic  Medicine  and  Toxicology,"  (with  W. 
B.  Woodman,  1877,)  "  Hand-Book  of  Chemistry,"  (1878,) 
and  many  reports  and  papers. 

Tieck,  teek,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
sculptor,  brother  of  the  celebrated  Ludwig  Tieck,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1776.  In  1805  he  visited  Rome,  and 
subsequently  repaired  to  Munich,  where  he  executed 
portrait-busts  of  Schelling,  Jacobi,  and  the  crown-prince 
Ludwig.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  a  life- 
size  statue  of  Necker,  and  busts  of  Lessing,  Grotius, 
Wallenstein,  and  William  of  Orange.     Died  in  1851. 

See  Nagler,  "AUgemeines  Kunsller-Lexikon." 

Tieck,  (Ludwig,)  a  distinguished  German  poet  and 
novelist,  born  in  Berlin  in  May,  1773,  was  a  brother  of 
t  he  preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Halle,  Gottingen,  and 


a,  e,  1, 6,  G,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  %  short;  a,  5,  j,  <?,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nftt^gdfjd;  moon; 


TIE  DE  MANN 


2319 


TIGHE 


Erlangen.  His  favourite  studies  were  history  and  liter- 
ature, ancient  and  modern.  He  produced  "  Abdallah," 
a  novel,  (1795,)  "  William  Love)!,"  {1795,)  and  "Travels 
of  Sternbald,"  {"  Sternbald's  Wanderungen,"  1798.)  He 
associated  at  Jena  with  the  Schlegels,  Novalis,  and 
Schelling.  About  1800  he  married  a  young  woman 
named  Alberti.  In  literature  he  belonged  to  the  ro- 
mantic school.  His  reputation  was  increased  by  dramas 
entitled  "Genoveva,  or  Genevieve  of  Brabant,"  (1800,) 
and  the  "  Emperor  Octavian,"  ("  Kaiser  Octavianus," 
1804.)  He  resided  a  few  years  at  Dresden,  (1800-04,) 
and  travelled  in  Italy  in  1805.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Phantasus,"  (3  vols.,  1812-15,)  "The  Revolt 
of  the  Cevennes,"  a  novel,  (1S26,)  and  "Poet-Life," 
("Dichterleben,"  1828.)  He  displayed  great  talent  for 
irony  and  humour  in  his  comedies  or  satires  entitled 
"  Puss  in  Boots,"  "  The  World  turned  Upside  Down," 
and  "  Prince  Zerbino,  or  Travels  in  Search  of  Good 
Taste,"  (2  vols.,  1 799-1800.)  After  a  visit  to  France 
and  England,  (1817,)  he  settled  at  Dresden  in  1819. 
He  produced  a  good  translation  of  "  Don  Quixote," 
(4  vols.,  1799-1801,)  and  assisted  Schlegel  in  the  trans- 
lation of  Shakspeare.  In  1840  the  King  of  Prussia 
invited  Tieck  to  Berlin,  appointed  him  a  privy  councillor, 
and  granted  him  a  pension.  After  that  date  he  resided 
at  Berlin  and  Potsdam.  Tieck  was  a  very  prolific  writer. 
His  versions  of  Shakspeare's  plays  are  among  the  best 
ever  made.     He  died  in  Berlin  in  April,  1853. 

See  "  L.  Tieck,"  Cassei,  1854 ;  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "  M.  Tieck,  par 
un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;" 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838,  and  July,  1839; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1831,  and  November,  1847. 

Tiedemann,  tee'deh-min',  (Dietrich,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  near  Bremen  in  1748.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Marburg,  and  was  an  adversary 
of  Kant.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  which  are 
highly  commended,  "The  Spirit  of  Speculative  Philoso- 
phy, from  Thales  to  Berkeley,"  (6  vols.,  1790-97.)  Died 
in  1803. 

Tiedemann,  (Friedrich,)  a  distinguished  German 
anatomist  and  physiologist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Cassei  in  1781.  He  graduated  at  Marburg  in 
1804,  and  in  1805  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
zoology  at  Landshut.  In  181 2  he  obtained  the  prize 
offered  by  the  French  Institute  for  the  best  work  on  the 
structure  of  the  Radiata,  and  at  the  same  time  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  that  body.  He  was 
called  in  1816  to  fill  the  chair  of  anatomy,  physiology, 
etc.  at  Heidelberg.  Among  his  numerous  works  we 
may  name  the  "Anatomy  and  Natural  History  of  Am- 
phibious Animals,"  (1817,)  "Arteries  of  the  Human 
Body,"  "  Nerves  of  the  Uterus,"  and  "  Physiology  of 
Man,"  (3  vols.,  1830-36.)     Died  in  1861. 

See  Flourens,  "  Elogeshistoriques  ;"  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches 
Schriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Tiedge,  teed'ceh,  (almost  teed'yeh,)  (Christoph  Au- 
gust,) a  German  poet  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at 
Gardelegen  in  1752.  While  filling  the  office  of  private 
tutor  at  Hohenstein,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Gleim 
and  the  Baroness  von  der  Recke,  and  in  1804  visited 
Italy  in  company  with  the  latter.  His  principal  poem, 
entitled  "  Urania,"  was  received  with  great  favour,  and 
was  followed  by  his  "  Mirror  for  Women,"  ("  Frauen- 
spiegel,")  "  Wanderings  through  the  Market  of  Life," 
"  Elegies,"  etc.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Tiedge 
resided  with  his  friend  Madame  von  der  Recke,  whom 
he  survived  about  eight  years,  dying  in  1841.  His  poetry 
is  characterized  by  great  moral  beauty  and  devotional 
feeling,  and  has  many  points  of  resemblance  to  that  of 
Cowper. 

See  Falkenstein,  "C.  A.  Tiedge's  Leben  und  Nachlass,"  4 
vols.,  1841  ;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ebbr- 
HARD,  "  Blicke  in  Tiedge's  und  in  Elisa's  Leben,"  1844. 

Tieftrunk,  teef'tRoonk,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  disciple  of  Kant,  born  near  Ros- 
tock in  1759,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle 
Died  in  1837. 

Tielemans,  tee'leh-mins',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  Bel- 
gian jurist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Brussels  in 
1799.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  about  one  month, 
March,  1831,  was  afterwards  governor  of  Antwerp,  and 
professor  of  law  in  Brussels. 


Tien-T6,  te-5n'  ti,  or  Tien-Tih,  te-Sn'  t!h,  called 
also  Tai-Ping-Wang,  a  Chinese  leader  of  insurgents, 
born  in  1813.  His  original  name  was  Phuh,  and  his 
literary  name  Hung-Siu-Tshuen.  He  was  educated 
for  the  class  of  literati,  but  at  the  final  examination  in 
Canton  he  failed  to  obtain  a  degree.  About  1833  he 
received  from  an  agent  of  the  London  Bible  Society 
some  tracts  or  a  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which 
he  read  with  great  interest.  He  professed  to  have 
received  a  divine  mission,  and  began  to  preach  against 
the  worship  of  idols.  He  was  successful  in  converting 
many  to  the  "foreign  righteousness,"  wrote  religious 
essays  and  poems,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new 
religion,  similar  to  Christianity  in  some  respects.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  he  joined  several  secret 
political  societies  formed  to  liberate  China  from  the 
domination  of  the  Mantchoos.  In  1850  he  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt.  His  followers  cut  off  their  pig-tails, 
which  is  accounted  an  act  of  high  treason  in  China. 
Tien-Te  marched  victoriously  through  several  provinces, 
and  captured  Nanking  in  1853,  after  he  had  defeated  the 
imperialist  armies  in  a  number  of  battles.  His  govern- 
ment, of  which  Nanking  was  the  capital,  was  a  military 
theocracy.  In  July,  1864,  Nanking  was  taken  by  the 
imperialists,  the  rebellion  was  suppressed,  and  Tien-Te 
killed  himself. 

See  "Life  of  Tai-Ping-Wang,"  by  J.  Milton  Mackie,  1857; 
"The  Taeping  Rebellion,"  in  the  "  Merchants'  Magazine"  for  Jan- 
uary, 1865. 

Tiepolo,  te-Sp'o-lo,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  Vene- 
tian painter,  born  in  1693,  was  patronized  by  Charles 
III.  of  Spain,  where  he  executed  several  works  of  great 
merit.  His  pictures  are  chiefly  frescos,  painted  in  the 
style  of  Paul  Veronese.  It  is  stated  that  his  oil-paint- 
ings are  to  be  found  in  all  the  galleries  of  Europe.  Died 
at  Madrid  about  1770. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizio- 
nario." 

Tiepolo,  (Jacopo,)  a  Venetian  jurist,  became  Dogf 
of  Venice  in  1229.     Died  in  1249. 

His  son  Lorenzo  became  Doge  in  1268.    Died  in  1275. 

Tiepolo,  (N1CC01.6,)  a  Venetian  poet  and  senator 
eminent  for  his  talents  and  learning.  He  was  employed 
in  several  diplomatic  missions.     Died  in  1551. 

Tierney,  teer'ne,  (George,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  at  Gibraltar  in  1761.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  South wark  in  1796  by  the  Whig  party,  and  distin- 
guished himself  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  opponents 
of  Mr.  Pitt,  with  whom  he  fought  a  duel.  He  was  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  navy  in  1802,  and  became  mas- 
ter of  the  mint  under  the  Canning  ministry,  (1827.)  He 
was  a  great  master  of  sarcasm  and  irony.    Died  in  1830. 

Tierney,  (Mark,)  an  English  antiquary  and  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  born  in  1785.  He  published  the  "His- 
tory and  Antiquities  of  Arundel."     Died  in  1862. 

Tietjens,  teet'yens,  (Therese,)  a  distinguished  singer, 
born  in  Hamburg,  of  a  family  of  Hungarian  origin,  July 
18,  1831.  She  very  early  became  known,  at  first  as  a 
church-singer,  and  later  in  concert  and  opera,  in  which 
she  acquired  a  world-wide  fame.  Died  in  London,  Oc- 
tober 3,  1877. 

Tifernas,te-f§R'nas,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  Hellenist, 
born  at  Citta  di  Castello  about  1415.  He  taught  Greek 
\n  Venice,  where  he  died  about  1465. 

Tiflf'a-ny,  (Louis  C.,)  an  American  artist,  born  in  New 
York  city,  February  17,  1848.  He  studied  art  in  New 
York  and  in  Paris,  and  spent  some  years  in  France,  Italy, 
and  North  Africa.  He  is  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy,  and  is  eminent  as  a  colourist,  both  in  landscape 
and  in  genre. 

Tigellin.    See  Tigellinus. 

Tig-el-li'nus,  [Fr.  Tigellin,  te'zhJ'l^NM  (Sopho- 
Nius,)  a  Roman  courtier,  notorious  for  his  crimes,  was 
born  at  Agrigentum.  In  63  a.d.  he  became  the  favourite 
minister  of  Nero,  with  the  title  of  praetorian  prefect.  He 
abused  by  cruelty  and  rapacity  the  power  which  he  had 
obtained  by  subservience  to  the  worst  passions  of  Nero. 
He  committed  suicide  in  70  a.d. 

Tighe,  ti,  (Mrs.  Mary,)  a  distinguished  poetess,  born 
in  Wicklow  county,  Ireland,  in  1773,  was  a  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  William  Blachford.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
poem  entitled  "  Psyche,"  which  is  greatly  admired,  also 


€  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  K.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (St^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  > 


TIGLA  TH-PILESER 


2320 


TILLOCH 


a  number  of  miscellaneous  and  devotional  pieces.  Died 
in  1810. 

See  tlie  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October,  181 1. 

Tig'lath-Pi-le'ser  I^  a  great  sovereign  of  Assyria, 
who  conquered  many  nations.  His  realms  bordered  on 
the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  Seas  and  reached  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  but  after  his  death  the  empire  fell  in  pieces. 
He  lived  in  the  twelfth  century  B.C. 

Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  a  usurping  king  of  Assyria, 
who  111  744  B.C.  seized  the  throne,  after  a  civil  war  of 
some  years'  duration.  He  conquered  Babylon  and 
founded  the  second  empire  of  Babylonia.  He  marched 
to  the  borders  of  India,  overwhelmed  the  kingdoms  of 
Damascus  and  Hamath,  took  tribute  from  Judah  and 
Israel,  and  reorganized  those  kingdoms.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  slain  by  Shalmaneser  in  727  B.C. 

Tigny,  de,  deh  tfen'ye',  (Marin  GROsrfeTE,)  a  French 
entomologist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1736.  His  wife  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Insects,"  a  work  of  merit,  which  was  pub- 
.ished  in  his  name,  (10  vols.,  1802.)     He  died  in  1799. 

Tigrane.     See  Tigranes. 

Ti-gra'nes,  [Gr.  Tiypavric ;  Fr.  Tigrane,  te'gRin'; 
Armenian,  Dikran,  de-krin',]  an  Armenian  prince  or 
hero,  flourished  about  550  B.C.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Cyrus  the  Great,  and,  according  to  some  authorities, 
aided  Cyrus  in  his  war  against  Astyages  the  Mede. 

Tigranes  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  began  to  reign  about 
96  B.C.,  and  married  a  daughter  of  Mithridates  the 
Great.  Having  extended  his  dominions  by  conquest,  he 
assumed  the  title  of  "King  of  kings."  In  the  year  83 
he  invaded  and  conquered  Syria.  He  afterwards  founded 
the  city  of  Tigranocerta,  which  became  his  capital.  As 
an  ally  of  his  son-in-law,  Mithridates,  he  declared  war 
against  the  Romans,  whose  army,  under  Lucullus,  in- 
vaded Armenia  in  69  B.C.  and  defeated  Tigranes  ;  but 
the  mutiny  of  the  Roman  soldiers  prevented  Lucullus 
from  terminating  the  war.  After  Pompey  had  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Mithridates,  (66  B.C.,)  Tigranes 
made  an  abject  submission  to  the  Roman  general,  who 
permitted  him  to  keep  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  proper. 
Died  in  55  B.C.  He  was  noted  for  his  pride  and  tyranny. 
It  is  said  that  he  kept  tributary  kings  in  his  palace  as 
servants. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Lucullus:"  DionCassius,  "  History  of  Rome;" 
Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  I'iography,"  etc. 

Til,  van,  vtn  til,  (Solomon,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
born  near  Amsterdam  in  1644.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden,  and  published  a  number  of  works 
on  that  subject.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Coccejus.  Died 
in  1713. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique,"  1759;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
eraphie  G^nerale." 

Tilborg.     See  Tilburgh. 

Tilburgh,  van,  vSn  til'biir'H,  written  also  Tilborg, 
(Giles,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Brussels  about  1625. 
He  painted  fairs,  rustic  dances,  interiors  of  taverns,  etc. 
Died  in  1678. 

Tilbury,  (Gervase  of.)     See  Gervase. 

Til'den,  (Samuel  Jones,)  an  American  governor,  born 
at  New  Lebanon,  New  York,  February  9,  1814.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  College  and  the  New  York  University, 
and  became  a  prominent  lawyer  and  Democratic  poli- 
tician of  New  York.  He  was  Governor  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  1875-76,  and  was  Democratic  candidate  for 
President  of  the  United  States  in  1876,  but  the  result 
of  the  election  becoming  a  matter  of  dispute,  and  being 
referred  to  a  commission  appointed  by  Congress,  the 
Presidency  was  given  to  Mr.  Hayes.    Died  Aug.  4,  1886. 

Tilenua,  te-la'nils,  or  Tilenius,  te-la'ne-iis,  (Daniel,) 
a  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1563.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Sedan,  France, 
in  1602,  and  became  preceptor  of  the  famous  Turenne. 
Having  adopted  Arminian  tenets,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  chair  at  Sedan  in  1619.  He  wrote  numerous  works 
on  theology.     Died  in  Paris  in  1633. 

See  BooiLLOT,  "  Notice  sur  D  Tileniis,"  1S06:  "  Nouvelle  I'.io- 
graphie  G^n^rale." 

TQesius.     See  Telesio. 

Tileaius  von  Tileuau,  von,  fon  te-la'ze-fls  fon  tee'- 
leh-now',  (Wilhki.m  GorrLiEB,)  a  German  naturalist. 


born  in  Thurmgia  in  1769.  He  accompanied  the  Russian 
navigator  Krusenstern  in  his  voyage  around  the  world 
in  1803,  and  published,  in  1813,  "Results  in  Natural 
History  of  the  First  Russian  Voyage  around  the  World, 
under  Captain  Krusenstern."     Died  in  1857. 

Tilghman,  til'man,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  a  relative  of  Chief-Justice  Tilghman,  noticed 
oelow,  was  born  at  Wye,  in  Maryland,  December  1 1, 1750. 
He  studied  in  Philadielphia,  and  at  the  Middle  Temple, 
in  London.  He  established  himself  in  Philadelphia,  and 
rose  to  the  first  place  at  the  bar  of  that  city,  which  was 
then  noted  for  its  eminent  lawyers.  "  Mr.  Tilghman  was 
an  advocate  of  great  power,"  says  Mr.  Binney,  "a  fault- 
less logician, — a  man  of  the  purest  integrity  and  brightest 
honour, — fluent,  without  the  least  volubility, — concise 
to  a  degree  that  left  every  one's  patience  and  attention 
unimpaired."     Died  in  1815. 

See  a  notice  of  Edward  Tilghman,  by  Horace  Binnev,  in  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Tilghman,  (Lloyd,)  an  .American  general,  born  in 
Maryland  about  1816,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1836. 
He  commanded  at  Fort  Henry,  in  Tennessee,  which  he 
surrendered  to  the  Union  navy  or  army  in  February 
1S62.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Champion  Hill, 
May  16,  1863. 

Tilghman,  (William,)  an  American  jurist  and  schol- 
ar, was  born  in  Talbot  county,  Maryland,  August  12, 
1756.  He  studied  law  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1783.  He  was  repeatedly  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  his  native  State.  In  1793  he  removed  to 
Philadelphia.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  chief  judge  of 
the  United  States  court  for  Pennsylvania.  In  1805  he 
was  made  president  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and 
in  1806  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State,  a 
position  which  he  filled  with  eminent  ability  until  his 
death,  in  1827.  It  has  been  justly  observed  that  Penn- 
sylvania owes  him  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  "the  incorpo- 
ration of  the  principles  of  scientific  equity  with  the  law 
of  the  State." 

See  "Encyclopedia  Americana." 

Til'le-mans,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp, resided  in  England,  where  he  produced  a  number 
of  admired  works.     Died  in  1734. 

Tillemont,  de,  deh  t^l'mdN'  or  te'ye-mAN',  (Sebas- 
TIEN  Lenain — leh-niN',)  a  French  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian, born  in  Paris  in  1637.  He  studied  at  Port-Royal, 
under  Nicole  and  other  distinguished  Jansenists,  and 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1676.  He  published  in  1693 
the  first  volume  of  his  "  Memoirs  towards  the  Eccle- 
siastical History  of  the  First  Si.x  Centuries,"  ("  Memoires 
pour  servir  k  THistoire  ecclesiastique,"  etc,)  which 
first  appeared  complete  in  1712,  (16  vols.  4to.)  His 
other  principal  work  is  entitled  a  "  History  of  the  Em- 
perors and  other  Princes  who  reigned  during  the  First 
Six  Centuries,"  etc.,  (4  vols.,  1690-97.)  Two  other 
volumes  were  published  in  1701-3S.  These  works  are 
highly  esteemed.  Tillemont  was  eminently  modest  and 
humble.     Died  in  Paris  in  1698. 

SeeTRONCKAV,  "ViedeM.  Lenain  de  Tillemont,"  1711  ;  S.-^intk- 
Beuve,  "  Histoire  He  Port-Royal:"  Perr.ault,  "Memoires  des 
Hommes  illustre.s :"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires:"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Tillet,  te'yi',  (Mathieu.)  a  French  writer  on  agri- 
culture, born  at  Bordeaux  about  1720.  He  co-operated 
with  Dnhaniel  du  Monceau.     Died  in  1791. 

Tillet,  du,  dii  te'yi',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  com- 
piler of  historical  documents,  born  in  Paris.  He  was 
secretary  (greffier)  of  the  Parliament.  Among  his  works 
is  "Collection  of  the  Kings  of  France,"  etc.,  ("  Recueil 
des  Rois  de  France,  leur  Couronne  et  Maison,"  1580.) 
Died  in  1570. 

Tilli,  teel'lee,  (Michelangelo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Castel-Fiorentino  in  1655.  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor at  Pisa,  and  published  a  "Catalogue  of  the  Plants 
in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Pisa,"  (1723.)     Died  in  1740. 

Tillier,  te'ye-i',  (Johann  Anton,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Berne  in  1792,  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Confederation  ( Eidgenossaischaft )  at  the  Epoch  of  the 
Restoration,"  (1848,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1854. 

Til'lp-eh,  (Alexa.nder,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  journalist 
and  miscellaneous   writer,  born    at   Glasgow  in   1759. 


i,  e.  T.  o.  ii,  y,  long:  i,  t.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  (?,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  nfltigSod;  moon. 


TILLOT 


2321 


TIM  OLE  ON 


Having  settled  in  London,  he  became  editor  of  "The 
Star"  in  1789,  and  subsequently  of  the  "Philosophical 
Magazine."  He  published  several  theological  essays. 
Died  in  1825. 

Tillot,  dti,  dii  te'yo',  (Guillaume  L6on,)  Marquis 
de  Felino,  was  born  at  Bayonne  in  171 1.  He  became 
about  1755  minister  of  finance  to  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
Died  in  1774. 

Til^ot-son,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  English  prel- 
ate, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1630.  He  studied  at  Clare 
Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1651. 
Though  educated  a  Calvinist,  he  subsequently  conformed 
to  the  Church  of  England,  and,  having  taken  holy  orders, 
he  was  appointed  in  1664  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn  and 
Saint  Lawrence's  Church  in  the  Jewry,  where  he  ac- 
quired a  very  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  Under 
the  reign  of  Charles  H.  he  became  successively  Dean  of 
Canterbury,  (1672,)  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  (1675,)  and 
canon-residentiary  of  that  cathedral,  (1677.)  He  was 
created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  William  HL  in 
1691.  He  had  married  Elizabeth  French,  a  niece  of 
Oliver  Cromwell.  In  theology  he  was  called  a  latitudi- 
narian.  The  nonjurors  lampooned  him  outrageously, 
denouncing  him  as  atheist,  Deist,  Arian,  thief,  etc.  Died 
in  1694.  Addison  considered  his  writings  as  models  of 
language. 

"  Of  all  the  members  of  the  Low-Church  party,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  Tillotson  stood  highest  in  the  general  esti- 
mation. As  a  preacher  he  was  thought  by  his  contem- 
poraries to  have  surpassed  all  rivals,  living  or  dead. 
Posterity  has  reversed  this  judgment.  Yet  Tillotson 
still  keeps  his  place  as  a  legitimate  English  classic  .  .  . 
His  reasoning  was  just  sufficiently  profound  and  suflS- 
ciently  refined  to  be  followed  by  a  popular  audience  with 
that  slight  degree  of  intellectual  exertion  which  is  a 
pleasure.  .  .  .  The  greatest  charm  of  his  compositions, 
however,  is  derived  from  the  benignity  and  candour 
which  appear  in  every  line,  and  which  shone  forth  not 
less  conspicuously  in  his  life  than  in  his  writings." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.) 

See  Birch,  "Life  of  Tillotson,"  prefixed  to  his  works;  Le 
Neve,  "  Lives  of  the  Protestant  Archbishops  of  England  ;"  Burnet, 
"  History  of  his  Own  Times." 

Tilly,  de,  deh  te'ye',  (Alexandre,)  Comte,  a  French 
royalist  and  political  writer,  born  at  Mans  in  1764.  He 
wrote  "Memoirs  towards  a  History  of  Manners  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1828,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  181 6. 

Tilly,  de,  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  Count,  a  French 
general  of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Normandy  in  1754, 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Vendeans,  and  became 
governor  of  Brussels  in  1796.     Died  in  1822. 

Tilly  or  Tilli,  von,  fon  til'Iee,  (Johann  Tzerklas,) 
Count,  a  celebrated  military  commander,  born  near 
Gembloux,  in  Brabant,  in  1559.  Having  served  for  a 
time  in  the  Netherlands  under  Alva,  Don  John  of 
Austria,  and  Alexander  Farnese,  he  entered  the  army  of 
Maximilian,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1609.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  League,  and  in 
1620  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Protestants,  and 
subsequently  defeated  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  near 
Lutter.  Having  been  made  a  field-marshal,  in  1630  he 
succeeded  Wallenstein  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Imj^erial  troops,  and  in  May,  163 1,  took  Magdeburg  by 
storm.  This  victory,  which  was  followed  by  the  most 
atrocious  cruelty  perpetrated  on  the  inhabitants,  was 
celebrated  by  Marshal  Tilly  by  Te  Deums  sung  in  the 
cathedral.  He  was  soon  after  defeated  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  near  Leipsic,  and  a  second  time  at  the  battle 
of  the  Lech,  in  1632,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

See  ViLLERMONT,  "Tilly,  ou  la  Giierre  de  Trente  Ans,"  2  vols., 
1859;  Schiller,  "Histor>'  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Til'ton,  (James,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Delaware  in  1745.  He  served  as  surgeon  of  the  army 
from  1776  to  1783,  and  was  appointed  physician-  and 
surgeon-general  of  the  army  of  the  United  States  in 
1812  or  1813.     Died  in  1822. 

Tilton,  (Theodore,)  an  American  journalist  and 
author,  born  in  New  York  city,  October  2,  1835.  He 
graduated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  in 


1854.  He  was  chief  editor  of  the  "  Independent,"  1863- 
71,  and  of  the  "Golden  Age,"  1871-74.  His  principal 
published  works  are  "The  Sexton's  Tale,"  etc.,  (poems, 
1867,) "  Sanctum  Sanctorum,"  (1869,)  "Tempest-Tossed," 
(a  romance,  1874,)  "Thou  and  I,"  (poems,  1880,)  "  Swa- 
bian  Stories,"  (poems,  1882.)  He  has  also  been  promi- 
nent as  a  public  lecturer. 

Timaeus,  ti-mee'us,  |Gr.  Tifiaioi  ;  Fr.  Tim^e,  te'mi',| 
a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  born  at  Locri,  in  Italy,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  teacher  of  Plato.  He  flourished  probably 
about  420-380  B.C.  A  work  "  On  the  Soul  of  the  Uni- 
verse," which  is  extant,  has  been  ascribed  to  him ;  but 
many  critics  doubt  that  he  was  the  author  of  it,  and 
regard  it  as  an  abridgment  of  Plato's  dialogue  of 
"Timaeus." 

Timaeus,  an  eminent  Greek  historian,  born  at  Tau- 
romenium,  in  Sicily,  about  352  B.C.  Having  been 
banished  from  his  native  island  by  Agathocles,  he  re- 
tired to  Athens,  where  he  resided  about  fifty  years. 
Died  about  256  B.C.  His  principal  work  was  a  "  His- 
tory of  Sicily  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  264  B.C.,"  of 
which  fragments  are  extant.  He  is  severely  criticised 
by  Polybius,  but  is  praised  by  Cicero,  who  says,  in  his 
treatise  "  De  Oratore,"  "  Timaeus,  quantum  judicare 
possim,  longe  eruditissimus,  et  rerum  copia  et  senten- 
tiarum  varietate  abundantissimus  .  .  .  magnam  elo- 
quentiam  ad  scribendum  attulit."* 

Timaeus,  [Fr,  Tim^e  le  Sophiste,  te'mV  leh  so' 
f^st',]  a  Greek  Sophist  and  grammarian,  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  third  century  after  Christ.  His  only 
extant  work  is  a  vocabulary  or  glossary  of  the  phrases 
of  Plato,  ("  Lexicon  Vocum  Platonicarum,")  edited, 
with  a  commentary,  by  Ruhnken,  (I754-) 

Timagene.     See  Timagenes. 

TJ-mag'e-nes,  [Gr.  TtftayivTis;  Fr.  Timagene,  te'mi'- 
.zhin',]  a  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  became  a  resident 
of  Rome  about  55  B.C.  He  wrote  several  works  on  his- 
tory, etc.,  and  gained  the  friendship  of  Augustus.  Some 
critics  identify  him  with  the  Timagenes  who  wrote  a 
"Periplus"  of  the  whole  sea. 

See  Schwab,  "  De  Livio  et  Timagene  Historiarum  Scriptoribus 
aemulis,"  1834, 

Ti-man'thes,  [Gr.  Tifiuvdrjg;  Fr.  Timanthe,  te'- 
mSNtM  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  at  Sicyon, 
flourished  about  400  B.C.  He  was  a  rival  of  Parrhasius, 
over  whom  he  gained  the  prize  at  Samos  for  his  "  Con- 
test of  A j ax  and  Ulysses  for  the  Arms  of  Achilles." 
Among  his  other  master-pieces  were  "The  Sacrifice 
of  Iphigeni'a"  and  "  The  Stoning  of  Palamedes."  He 
excelled  in  the  power  of  expression  and  suggestion. 

Ti-mar'-ehus,  [Tcftapxoc;,]  a  Greek  grammarian  of 
uncertain  date. 

Timbal,  t^N'bSK,  (Charles,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  about  1822.  He  painted  many  scriptural  sub- 
jects. 

Timbs,  t!mz,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  journalist, 
born  in  London  in  180L  He  became  editor  of  "The  Mir- 
ror" in  1827,  and  subsequently  associate  editor  of  "  The 
Illustrated  London  News."  He  published,  among  other 
popular  works,  "Laconics,"  (3  vols.,  1825-26,)  "The 
Year-Book  of  Facts,"  "Things  not  generally  known 
familiarly  Explained,"  (1856,)  "Curiosities  of  History," 
(1859,)  and  "A  Century  of  Anecdote,  1760  to  i860," 
(2  vols.,  1864.)     IMed  March  4,  1875. 

Timee.     See  Tim.^^us. 

Tim'o-cles,  [TifioKlm,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  ot 
the  middle  comedy,  lived  about  350-320  B.C.  His  style 
is  commended  for  its  purity.    His  works  are  not  extant 

Ti-mo'cre-on  [TiiioKpeuv]  of  Rhodes,  a  Greek  lyric 
poet,  lived  about  500-450  B.C.  He  wrote  bitter  satirical 
verses  against  Themistocles  and  Simonides.  Some  of 
his  verses  are  quoted  by  Plutarch  in  his  "  Life  of  The- 
mistocles." 

Ti-mo'le-on,  [TifioTiiuv,]  an  illustrious  Greek  states- 
man and  general,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Corinth 
about  400  B.C.     He  was  so  zealous  for  liberty  that  he 


•  The  following  is  a  nearly  literal  translation  :  "Timseus,  as  well 
as  I  am  able  to  jiidsje,  was  by  far  the  most  learned  of  all,  and  the  most 
rich  in  the  abundance  of  his  facts  and  variety  of  his  opinions;  he  dis- 
played, also,  great  eloquence  in  composition." 


€  as  k;  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as^;  o,  H,  vi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  tkis. 

14b 


(Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TIMOMACHUS 


2322 


TINDAL 


conspired  against  his  elder  brother  Titnophanes,  who 
had  usurped  supreme  power  and  was  killed.  Accord- 
ing to  Plutarch,  Timoleon  became  a  prey  to  sorrow  on 
account  of  the  death  of  his  brother,  and  withdrew 
from  public  affairs  for  many  years.  In  344  B.C.  the 
people  of  Syracuse  sent  ambassadors  to  Corinth  to 
implore  assistance  against  Dionysius  and  other  tyrants. 
The  Corinthians  granted  a  small  army,  and  appointed 
Tmioleon  to  command  it.  Three  parties  were  then  con- 
lending  for  mastery  in  the  Syracusan  state, — Dionysius, 
Hicetas,  and  the  popular  party.  Before  the  end  of  344 
Timoleon  defeated  Hicetas  and  occupied  part  of  Syra- 
cuse. In  the  next  year  Dionysius  surrendered  the  citadel 
to  Timoleon  and  retired  from  the  contest  Hicetas,  who 
still  held  two  quarters  of  the  capital,  obtained  aid  from 
the  Carthaginians  ;  but  Timoleon  soon  expelled  him  from 
Syracuse,  and  restored  democratic  institutions  in  that  city. 
In  339  he  defeated  the  Carthaginian  generals  Hasdrubal 
and  Hamilcar,  who  invaded  the  Syracusan  state  with 
an  army  five  times  larger  than  that  of  Timoleon.  He 
ascribed  all  his  successes  to  fortune,  or  to'  the  will  of  the 
gods.  He  restored  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  people 
of  Sicily,  who  honoured  him  as  a  great  benefactor.  Died 
at  Syracuse  in  337  B.C.  Plutarch  says  that "  he  performed 
greater  things  than  any  Grecian  of  his  time,  and  was  the 
only  man  that  realized  those  glorious  achievements  to 
which  the  orators  of  Greece  were  constantly  exhorting 
their  countrymen." 

See  Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Timoleon  ;"  C.  Nepos,  "  Life  of  Timo- 
leon ;"  Grote,  "History  of  Greece,"  Thirlwall,  "History  of 
Creece  ;"  Arnoldt,  "Timoleon  ;  biographische  Darstellung,"'  1850; 
"  Noin  elle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Ti-nioin'a-<;hus,  an  eminent  painter,  born  in  Byzan- 
tium, is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  His 
pictures  of  "  Medea  about  to  destroy  her  Children"  and 
"  Ajax  brooding  over  his  Misfortunes"  were  esteemed 
master-pieces  by  the  ancients,  and  were  purchased  by 
Julius  Caesar  for  an  immense  sum. 

K'mon  [Tf|Uwv]  the  Misanthrope,  a  native  of  At- 
tica, and  contemporary  of  Socrates,  was  notorious  for  his 
hatred  of  mankind,  from  whom  he  lived  secluded.  He 
has  been  introduced  into  the  works  of  Aristophanes, 
Lucian,  and  other  eminent  ancient  writers,  and  forms 
the  subject  of  one  of  Shakspeare's  dramas. 

See  CooPMAN,  "  Dissertatio  historica  de  Timone  Misanthropo," 
1841. 

Timon,  a  Greek  poet  and  skeptical  philosopher  of 
the  third  century  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Pyrrho.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  dramas,  and  satiric  poems 
entitled  "  Silli."     Fragments  of  the  latter  are  extant. 

Ti'mon,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  born  at  Conewago,  Pennsylvania,  February  12, 
1797.  He  entered  on  a  mercantile  life,  but  in  1822  began 
to  study  divinity  in  the  Seminary  at  the  Barrens,  Mis- 
souri. He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1825, 
became  one  of  the  Lazarist  fathers,  and  in  1840  was  made 
prefect  apostolic  of  Texas.  In  1847  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Buffalo,  New  York.     Died  April  16,  1867. 

Timon,  tee'mon,  (Samuel,)  a  Hungarian  historian, 
born  in  1675,  wrote  on  the  history  of  Hungary.  Died 
in  1736. 

Timoneda,  de,  di  te-mo-na'Di,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Valencia  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Patrafiuelo," 
("The'  Story-Teller,")  and  several  comedies. 

Timoteo,  the  Italian  for  Timothy,  which  see. 

Timoteo  da  Urbino,  te-mo-ta'o  di  ooR-bee'no, 
called  also  Delia  Vite,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ur- 
bino about  1475.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Raphael,  whom 
he  assisted  in  some  of  his  works  at  Rome.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  an  "  Annunciation  of  the 
Virgin,"  and  a  "  Noli-me-Tangere."     Died  about  1530. 

T^moth^e.    See  Timothy  and  Timotheus. 

Ti-mo'the-us,  [Gr.  Tifiodeoc;  Fr.  Timoth6e,  te'mo'- 
ti';  It.  Timoteo,  te-mo-ta'o,]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet 
and  musician  of  Miletus,  was  a  contemporary  of  Eurip- 
ides, and  flourished  about  390  B.C.  His  innovation  of 
the  lyre  with  eleven  strings  was  publicly  condemned  by 
the  Spartans.  His  lyrics  were  highly  esteemed  by  his 
countrymen,  but  a  few  fragments  only  are  extant  He 
is  said  to  have  died  in  357  B.C.,  aged  about  ninety. 


Timotheus,  a  Greek  statuary  of  high  reputation, 
flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  artists  who 
adorned  the  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum  with  bas-reliefs. 
Among  his  works  was  a  statue  of  Artemis,  (Diana.) 

Timotheus,  an  eminent  Athenian  commander,  was 
the  son  of  the  famous  Conon,  and  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
He  assisted  the  Thebans  to  repel  an  invasion  of  the 
Spartans,  whose  fleet  he  defeated  near  Leucas  in  376  or 
375  B.C.  He  entered  the  service  of  Artaxerxes,  King 
of  Persia,  in  372,  and  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
Athenian  army  in  Macedonia  in  364  n.c.  He  captured 
several  cities  from  the  Olynthians,  and  all  the  Chalcidian 
towns.  Timotheus,  Iphicrates,  and  Chares  commanded 
the  fleet  in  the  Social  war  which  began  in  357  B.C.,  and 
were  unsuccessful.  Timotheus  was  condemned  to  pay 
a  large  fine.     Died  in  354. 

See  Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Timotheus  ;"  Grotp.,  "  History  of 
Greece;"  Thirlwali^  "History  of  Greece." 

Timotheus,  (of  Scripture.)     See  Timothy. 

Timotheus,  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  the  date  of  whose 
birth  is  unknown,  was  a  resident  of  Athens.  None  of 
his  works  are  extant  He  was  a  poet  of  the  middle 
comedy. 

Tim'o-th^,  [Gr.  Ti/jodeoc;  Lat  Timo'theus;  Fr. 
TiMOTH^K,  te'mo'ti';  It  Timoteo,  te-mota'o,]  the 
friend  and  coadjutor  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  was  a  native 
of  Lycaonia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  carefully  educated 
in  the  Christian  faith  by  his  mother  Eunice,  a  converted 
Jewess.  He  was  ordained  at  an  early  age  by  .Saint  Paul, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  missions  to  Greece  and 
Macedonia.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  bishop 
of  the  Church  at  Ephesus,  and,  according  to  tradition, 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Domitian. 

Timour.     See  Tamerlane. 

Timour-Beg,  (or  -Bee.)     See  Tamerlane. 

Tim'rod,  (Henry,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  December  8,  1829.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Georgia,  and  afterwards  read  law. 
For  some  years  he  was  a  journalist  in  his  native  State. 
Died  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  October  6,  1867. 
A  volume  of  his  poems  was  published  in  i860,  (enlarged 
edition,  with  a  memoir  by  P.  H.  Hayne,  (1873.) 

Timur.     See  Tamerlane. 

Tinck'er,  (Mary  Agnes,)  an  American  novelist,  burn 
at  Ellsworth,  Maine,  July  18,  1833.  She  was  educated 
at  Ellsworth  High  School  and  Bluehill  (Maine)  Academy. 
When  twenty  years  old,  she  became  a  Roman  Catholic. 
During  the  civil  war  she  was  a  nurse  in  a  military  hos- 
pital in  Washington.  In  1873  ^^^  went  to  Europe  and 
became  a  resident  of  Italy.  Her  principal  works  are 
"The  House  of  Yorke,"  (1872,)  "A  W'inged  Word," 
('^73>)  "Grapes  and  Thorns,"  (1874,)  "Six  Sunny 
Months,"  (1878,)  "  Signor  Monaldini's  Niece,"  a  work 
which  greatly  enhanced  her  literary  reputation,  (1879,) 
"By  the  Tiber,"  (1881,)  "The  Jewel  in  the  Lotos," 
(1884,)  and  "Aurora,"  (1885.) 

Tinctor,  tink'tor,  or  Tinctoris,  tink-to'ris,  (Jan,)  a 
Flemish  musician,  born  at  Nivelle  about  1434,  or,  as  some 
say,  1450.  He  went  to  Naples,  and  was  patronized  by 
King  Ferdinand  I.  He  produced  a  musical  dictionary, — 
"Terminorum  Musicae  Definitorium,"  (without  date.) 
Died  about  1520. 

Tin'dal,  (Matthew,)  LL.D.,  an  English  jurist  and 
deistical  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  about  1657.  Soon 
after  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  einbraced  Roman 
Catholicism,  but  he  subsequently  returned  to  the  Church 
of  England.  He  published  in  1706  a  work  entitled 
"The  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church  Asserted,"  etc., 
being  an  attack  upon  hierarchical  power,  which  involved 
him  in  a  bitter  and  protracted  controversy  with  several 
clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  political  essays  ;  but  he  is  princi- 
pally known  by  his  "Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation, 
or  the  Gospel  a  Republication  of  the  Religion  of  Nature," 
(1730.)     Died  in  1733. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica  :"  Small,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  ol 
M.  Tindal,"  1733;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  GentJrale." 

Tindal,  (Rev.  Nicholas,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1687,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to 
be  rector  of  Alverstoke,  in  Hampshire.  He  translated 
from  the  French  Rapin's  "  History  of  England,"  of  which 


a,e, i,  d,\i,y,Io»^;k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,sAori;z,e,\,Q,  obscure ;  Olt ,  fill,  lit;  m§t;ndt;  good;  moon; 


TINDAL 


2323 


TIE /BATES 


he  wrote  a  continuation  brought  down  to  the  reign  of 
George  II.     Died  in  1774. 

Tindal,  (Sir  Nicholas  Conyngham,)  an  English 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  1777.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1827  represented 
that  university  in  Parliament.  He  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed lord  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
Died  in  1846. 

Tin'dale  or  Tyn'dale,  (William,)  an  eminent  Eng 
lish  Reformer  and  martyr,  was  born  in  Gloucestershire 
about  1480.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  subsequently  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree.  Having  been 
converted  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  by  which  he 
was  exposed  to  persecution  in  England,  he  repaired  to 
Germany,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Antwerp,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
into  English.  The  first  edition  came  out  about  1525, 
and  met  with  a  rapid  sale  both  in  England  and  on  the 
continent.  He  published  in  1534  a  new  and  improved 
edition.  His  translation  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale,  had  appeared  in  1530. 
In  1534  Tindale,  whose  writings  had  been  previously 
denounced  by  the  English  government,  was  seized  at 
Antwerp  through  the  interference  of  the  King  of  Eng- 
land, brought  to  trial  for  heresy,  and,  after  an  imprison- 
ment of  nearly  two  years,  strangled  and  burnt  at  the 
stake,  (1536.) 

See  Fox,  "Acts  and  Monuments;"  Wood,  "Athetiae  Oxoni- 
enses;"  Wordsworth,  "Ecclesiastical  Biography." 

Tin'dall,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  writer,  bom 
in  1754.  He  wrotQ  a  "History  of  Evesham,"  "Plain 
Truth  in  a  Plain  Dress,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1804. 

Tinelli,  te-nel'lee,  (Tiberio,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Venice  in  1586,  was  a 
pupil  of  L.  Bassano.  His  works  are  highly  praised. 
Died  in  1638. 

Tinne,  tin'neh,  (Alexandrine,)  a  rich  heiress  and 
traveller,  born  in  Holland,  October  17,  1835.  In  1863- 
64  she  explored  the  sources  of  the  Gazelle  River,  the 
western  branch  of  the  White  Nile.  She  was  murdered 
by  the  Tuariks  in  1869,  between  Moorzook  and  Ghat. 

Tintoret,  Le.    See  Tintoretto. 

Tintoretto,  tin-to-ret'to  or  t4n-to-ret'to,  [Fr.  Le 
Tintoret,  leh  tiN'to'ri',]  (Giacomo,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  painters  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at 
Venice  in  15 12.  His  original  name  was  RoBUSTi,  but 
he  assumed  that  of  Tintoretto  from  the  occupation  of 
his  father,  who  was  a  dyer,  (  Tintore.)  He  made  Titian 
his  model  in  colouring  and  Michael  Angelo  in  design. 
He  painted  with  great  rapidity,  and  his  works,  both  in 
oil  and  fresco,  are  very  numerous.  Among  his  master- 
pieces may  be  named  "The  Last  Judgment"  and  "The 
Worship  of  the  Golden  Calf,"  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  dell'  Orto,  "  The  Miracle  of  the  Slave,"  (some- 
times called  "The  Miracle  of  Saint  Mark,")  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Venice,  "The  Marriage  at  Cana,"  the  "Cruci- 
fixion," in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  and  a  "  Paradise,"  a 
colossal  picture  containing  more  than  a  hundred  figures. 
Died  in  1594.  His  son  Domenico  and  daughter  Mari- 
etta were  distinguished  as  painters ;  the  latter  excelled 
in  portraits.  "All  landscape  grandeur,"  says  Ruskin, 
"  vanishes  before  that  of  Titian  and  Tintoret ;  and  this 
is  true  of  whatever  these  two  giants  touched."  ("Mod- 
ern Painters.") 

See  Carlo  Ridolfi,  "Vitadi  G.  Robusti  detto  II  Tintoretto," 
1642;  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Vasari,  "Lives  of 
the  Painters  ;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirsof  Early  Italian  Painters;" 
TicoEzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Tipaldo,  te-pSKdo,  (Emilio  Amedeo,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Corfu  in  1798.  He  became 
in  1829  professor  of  history,  etc.  in  the  Marine  College 
of  Venice.  He  published  many  important  works,  among 
which  we  may  notice  a  "  History  of  Profane  Greek  Lite- 
rature," (9  vols.,  1824-30,)  and  "  Biography  of  Illustrious 
Italians  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  of  the  Present 
Age,"  ("Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri  del  Secolo 
XVIII.  e  de'  Contemporanei,"  10  vols.,  1834-46.) 

Tippoo  Sahib,  tip'poo'sih'Hib,  written  alsoTippoo 
Saib,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  born  in  1749,  was  the  son  of 
Hyder  Alee,  (or  Aly,)  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne 


in  1782.  He  prosecuted  the  war  which  he  had  pre- 
viously waged  against  the  English  until,  in  1784,  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  at  Mangalore.  In  1790  he  in- 
vaded the  territory  of  the  Rajah  of  Travancore,  an  ally 
of  the  British,  who  soon  after  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Mahrattas  and  took  the  fort  of  Bangalore,  (1791.) 
The  forces  of  General  Abercromby,  having  joined  those 
of  Lord  Cornwallis  in  1792,  advanced  against  Seringa- 
patam,  when  Tippoo  consented  to  renounce  one-half  of 
his  dominions  to  the  allies,  give  up  two  of  his  sons  as 
hostages,  and  pay  a  sum  of  more  than  ;^3,coo,ooo.  He 
nevertheless  endeavoured  in  secret  to  incite  the  native 
princes  against  the  English  government,  and  solicited 
aid  from  France.  In  1799  he  was  besieged  in  Seringa- 
patam  by  the  British  forces  under  General  Harris,  and  . 
was  killed  in  the  assault. 

See  Michaod,  "  Histoire  de  I'Empire  de  Mysore,"  2  vols.,  1801 ; 
R.  Mackenzie,  "Sketch  of  the  War  with  Tippoo  Sultaun,"  1793. 

Tip'toft,  (John,)  Earl  of  Worcester,  became  lord 
deputy  of  Ireland,  and  filled  other  high  offices.  He 
was  noted  for  his  patronage  of  literature  and  of  learned 
men,  particularly  Caxton.  He  was  executed  in  1470. 
on  a  charge  of  maladministration. 

Tiraboschi,  te-ri-bos'kee,  (Girolamo,)  a  learned 
Italian  Jesuit  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Bergamo  in 
1 73 1.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Milan  in 
1766,  and  in  1770  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  Duke 
of  Modena.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "  History  of 
Italian  Literature,"  ("  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana," 
13  vols.,  1772-83,)  enjoys  the  highest  reputation  for  ac- 
curacy and  impartiality.  Among  his  other  productions 
may  be  named  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  Modena,"  and 
"Life  of  Count  Fulvio  Testi."  Died  in  1794.  An  im- 
proved edition  of  his  great  work  was  published  at  Milan, 
in  16  vols.,  (1822-26.) 

See  A.  G.  LoMBARDi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  Tiraboschi,"  1796; 
Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italoriim  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Beltramelli, 
"Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  Tiraboschi,"  1812;  Ugoni,  "Della 
Letteratura  Italiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Tiraqueau,  te'rt'ko',  (Andr^,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Fontenoy-le-Comte  about  1480.  While  he  held  the 
office  of  judge  he  released  Rabelais,  whom  the  monks 
had  put  in  prison.     Died  in  1558. 

Ti-re'sl-as  (tl-ree'she-as)  or  Tei-re'si-as,  [Gr.  T««pe. 
fffof;  Fr.  Tir6sias,  te'ri'ze'is',]  a  famous  soothsayer 
of  classic  mythology,  lived  at  Thebes,  and  belonged 
to  the  race  of  Udaeus.  The  poets  and  mythographers 
relate  that  he  was  deprived  of  sight  by  the  gods,  be- 
cause he  divulged  some  of  their  secrets,  or  because  he 
had  seen  Minerva  bathing,  that  Jupiter  gave  him  the 
gift  of  prophecy  and  extended  his  life  to  seven  genera- 
tions, and  that  he  was  connected  with  many  important 
events  in  the  fabulous  history  of  Greece.  He  was  the 
father  of  Manto. 

Tir'ha-kah,  [Egyptian,  Tahraka,]  a  great  king  of 
Ethiopia,  who  appears  to  have  dispossessed  Sebichus, 
King  of  Egypt,  of  his  ancestral  rights  in  the  Upper  Nile 
Valley.  He  afterwards  joined  Sebichus  in  a  league 
against  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  and  was  aided  by 
Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah.  After  the  miraculous  destruc- 
tion of  Sennacherib's  host,  Tirhakah  conquered  Egypt 
and  put  Sebichus  to  death,  (B.C.  692.)  Twenty  years 
later,  Esarhaddon  vanquished  Tirhakah  and  conquered 
Egypt.  Tirhakah,  however,  regained  the  throne,  but 
was  soon  expelled  again  by  Assur-bani-pal,  (Sardana- 
palus.)  He  soon  made  head  again  and  reconquered  the 
country.  But  in  666  B.C.  Tirhakah  abandoned  Egypt 
and  retired  to  the  Upper  Nile  Valley,  whence  he  first 
came. 

Tir-i-ba'zus  or  T6r-I-ba'zus,  [Gr.  TtpiSoCof  or  Tj/pt- 
tfaCof,]  a  Persian  satrap  under  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  gov- 
erned Western  Armenia  in  401  B.C.  He  commanded  the 
Persian  fleet  which  defeated  Evagoras  of  Cyprus  in  386 
B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  conspired  with  Darius  against 
the  king.  He  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  officers  who  came 
to  arrest  him. 

Tir-i-da'tes  [Gr.  Tj?^«^u77yf ;  Fr.  Tiridate,  te're'dSt'] 
I.,  King  of  Armenia,  carried  on  a  war  against  the  Romans, 
who  defeated  him  at  Artaxata,  and  took  his  capital, 
Tigranocerta.  He  finally  became  tributary  to  Nero, 
(63  A.D.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G.  H.  K.  ^ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TIR /DATES 


2324 


TISZA 


Tiridates  IIX  of  Armenia  was  a  son  of  Chosroes, 
whom  the  King  of  Persia  conquered  and  dethroned.  Tiri- 
dates was  educated  at  Rome,  and  restored  to  the  throne 
by  Diocletian  in  286  A.D.     Died  about  314  a.d. 

TL'to,  [Fr.  TiRON,  te'rAN',]  (Marcus  Tullius,)  a 
Roman  author  and  scholar,  was  a  favourite  freedman  and 
amanuensis  of  Cicero.  He  wrote  a  life  of  his  famous 
patron,  and  other  works.  It  is  supposed  that  he  invented 
or  improved  the  art  of  short-hand  writing,  and  that  we 
are  indebted  to  him  for  the  collection  of  Cicero's  "  Let 
ters"  and  other  works. 

Tiron.    See  Tiro. 

Tiruvalluvar,  tee'roo-vSl'oo-viR',  a  Tamil  (South 
Indian)  poet,  who  lived  before  900  a.d.,  but  at  an  uncer- 
tain date.  He  was  a  pariah  by  birth,  but  won  the  highest 
place  in  Tamil  literature  by  his  noble  poem  "Kural," 
(i.e.,  "  Aphorisms,")  in  thirteen  hundred  and  thirty  beau- 
tiful distichs.     Many  fables  are  related  of 'this  author. 

Tirso  de  Molina.     See  Tellez,  (Gabriel.) 

Tischbein,  tish'bln,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  sur- 
named  the  Neapolitan,  born  at  Haina,  in  Hesse-Cas- 
sel,  in  1 751.  After  a  residence  of  six  years  at  Rome, 
he  settled  at  Naples,  where  he  was  appointed  in  1790 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He  excelled  in 
classical  subjects  and  in  delineations  of  animals.  Died 
in  1829. 

Tischbein,  (Johann  Friedrich  August,)  a  relative 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Maestricht  in  1750,  rose  to 
distinction  as  a  portrait-painter.     Died  in  1812. 

Tischbein,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  the  Elder,  a  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  born  in  Hesse  in  1722,  became 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Cassel.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Dying  Alcestis,"  "  Electra," 
"  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  "  The  Transfigura- 
tion," "  Resurrection  of  Christ,"  and  sixteen  illustrations 
of  the  life  of  Telemachus.     Died  in  1789. 

See  Engelschall,  "J.  H.  Tischbein,  als  Menscli  und  KUnstler," 
1797- 

Tischbein,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  the  Younger,  a 
painter,  a  brother  of  H.  W.  Tischbein,  was  born  at 
Haina  in  1742,  and  died  in  1808.  His  brother,  Hein- 
rich Jakob,  (died  1803,)  and  his  cousin,  LuDWiG 
Philipp,  (died  1808,)  attained  distinction  as  painters. 

Tischbein,  (Johann  Valentin,)  a  German  painter, 
brother  of  J.  H.  Tischbein  the  elder,  and  uncle  of  H.  W. 
Tischbein,  was  court  painter  at  Hildburghausen,  where 
he  died  in  1767.    He  was  the  father  of  J.  F.  A.  Tischbein. 

The  most  celebrated  members  of  this  gifted  family 
were  H.  W.  Tischbein  and  J.  H.  Tischbein  the  elder. 

Tischendorf,  tish'en-doRf',  (Lobegott  Friedrich 
Konstantin,)  an  eminent  German  philologist  and  bibli- 
cal critic,  born  at  Lengenfeld  in  January,  181 5.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  and  subsequently  visited  England, 
various  parts  of  the  continent,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor. 
Having  obtained  some  very  valuable  manuscripts,  he 
was  appointed,  after  his  return,  professor  of  theology  at 
Leipsic,  (1850.)  He  published  editions  of  the  "Codex 
Friderico-Augustanus,"  (1846,)  "  Evangelium  Palati- 
num,"  (1847,)  "Codex  Amiatianus,"  (1850,)  "  Fragmenta 
Sacra  Palimpsesta,"  "Anecdota  Sacra  et  Profana," 
"  Monumenta  Sacra  inedita,"  (4  vols.,  1846-60,)  "Travels 
in  the  East,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  and  "Bibliorum  Codex 
Sinaiticus,"  (1862,)  which  he  discovered  at  Mount  Sinai 
in  1859.  He  obtained  in  1859  a  chair  of  biblical  palaeog- 
raphy at  Leipsic.     Died  December  7,  1874. 

K-sic'ra-tes,  [T«at/cpaT?/f,]  a  distinguished  Greek 
statuary,  flourished  about  300  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  pupil  of  Lysippus.  His  works  are  praised 
by  Pliny. 

Tisio  or  Tisi,  (Benvenuto.)     See  Garofalo. 

Ti-siph'o-ue,  the  "Avenger  of  Murder,"  [Tlou^, 
from  riu,  to  "estimate,"  to  "judge,"  and,  hence,  to 
"punish"  or  "avenge,"  and  ^wof,  "murder,"]  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  name  of  one  of  the  three  Furies,  or 
Erinnyes. 

Tissapherne.    See  Tissaphernes. 

TLs-sa-pher'nei,  [Gr.  Tiaaa<pepv7i( ;  Fr.  Tissapherne, 
te'st'ftRn',]  a  fanious  Persian  general  and  crafty  nego- 
tiator, formed  an  alliance  with  the  Spartans  against  the 
Athenians  in  412  B.C.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Cyrus  the 
Persian  prince,  and  was  one  of  the  four  generals  who 


commanded  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  against  Cyrus  at 
Cunaxa,  in  401  B.C.  He  afterwards  married  a  daughter 
of  Artaxerxes,  and  was  appointed  satrap  or  viceroy  of 
the  maritime  part  of  Asia  Minor,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  Agesilaus.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the  King  of  Per- 
sia in  394  B.a 

See    Xknophon,    "Anabasis;"   Rollin,    "Ancient    History." 

Tissard,  te'stR',  (Francois,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
at  Amboise  about  1460,  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
the  University  of  Paris.  He  published  a  Hebrew  gram- 
mar, (1508.)     Died  in  1508. 

Tisserand,  tfes'rflN',  (Francois  F6lix,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  January  15,  1845,  ^^^  educated  in  the 
ficole  Normale.  In  1873  he  was  made  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Toulouse,  and  in  1878  he  was  chosen  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  is  the  author  of  many 
important  scientific  papers. 

Tissier,  te'se-i',  (Jean  Baptiste  Ange,)  a  French 
painter,  born  iri~?aris  in  1814  ;  died  in  1876. 

Tissot,  te'so',  (Alexandre  Pascal,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  1782,  published  several  works  on  public  law. 
Die^  in  1823. 

Ulssot,  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  French  archaeologist, 
born  in  Paris,  August  29,  1828.  He  held  many  consular 
and  diplomatic  positions,  and  attained  the  rank  of  min- 
ister to  Morocco  in  1871.  In  1876  he  was  sent  to  Athens 
as  minister,  in  1880  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
Turkey,  and  later  he  was  sent  to  London  in  a  like  ca- 
pacity. His  treatise  "  De  Tritonide  Lacu,"  (1863,)  and 
the  unfinished  "  Comparative  Geography  of  the  Roman 
Province  of  Africa,"  (vol.  i.,  1884,)  gave  him  a  high  repu- 
tation.    Died  at  Paris,  July  2,  1884. 

Tissot,  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  littirateur,  born 
about  1800.  He  practised  law  in  Paris  in  early  life,  and 
about  1837  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Dijon.  He 
wrote  "  Ethics,  or  the  Science  of  Morals,"  (1840,)  a  "  His- 
tory nf  Philosophy,"  (1840,)  etc.     Died  in  1876. 

Tissot,  (Pierre  Francois,)  a  French  journalist, 
litterateur,  ^^A  politician,  born  at  Versailles  in  1768.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  a  short  time 
before  the  i8th  Brumaire,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
imperial  censor  by  Napoleon.  In  1814  he  succeeded 
Delille  as  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in  the  College  of 
France,  and  in  1833  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  translated  Virgil's  "Bucolics"  into 
French,  and  published,  among  other  works,  "  Historical 
Memoirs  of  Carnot,"  (1824,)  "Studies  on  Virgil  com- 
pared with  all  the  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poets,"  (4  vols., 
1825-30,)  which  is  highly  commended,  "Complete 
History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (6  vols.,  1833,)  and 
"  Lessons  and  Models  of  Ancient  and  Modern  French 
Literature,"  (1835.)     Died  in  1854. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^ndrale." 

Tissot,  (Simon  Andr6,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  physi- 
cian, born  at  Grancy,  in  the  canton  de  Vaud,  in  1728. 
He  studied  at  Geneva  and  Montpellier,  and  subsequently 
resided  at  Lausanne,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  very  high 
reputation.  Having  filled  the  chair  of  medicine  in  that 
place  for  many  years,  he  became  in  1780  professor  of 
clinical  medicine  at  Pavia.  He  published  a  number  of 
works,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have  been  widely 
circulated.  Among  these  may  be  named  his  "  Advice 
to  Peo]5le  respecting  Health,"  ("  Avis  au  Peuple  sur  sa 
Sante,"  1761,)  which  was  translated  into  seven  languages, 
"  On  Diseases  caused  by  Masturbation,"  ("Tentanien  de 
Morbis  ex  Manustupratione  Ortis,")  and  "  On  the  Health 
of  Literary  Men,"  ("  De  Valetudine  Literatorum,"  1766.) 
Died  in  1797.  His  son  Clement  Joseph,  born  in  1750, 
was  the  author  of  several  medical  treatises. 

See  Eynard,  "  Vie  de  S.  A.  Tissot,"  1839  '•  Hallk,  "  Notice  sur 
Tissot,"  prefixed  to  Tissot's  works,  11  vols.,  1809-13;  "Biographie 
M^dicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  July,  1765. 

Tisza,  tee'soh,  (KAlmAn,)  also  called  Koloman  von 
Tisza,  and  Tisza  de  Borosjeno,  a  Hungarian  statesman, 
born  at  Geszt,  December  16,  1830.  He  succeeded  Teleki 
as  leader  of  the  left  centre  in  the  Hungarian  Diet  in 
1861,  and  in  1875  became  minister  of  the  interior  and 
president  of  the  Hungarian  ministry,  retaining  that 
position  for  many  years. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  iix,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


TITAN 


2325 


TITUS 


Ti'tan,  [Gr.  Ttrov,]  plural  Titans,  [Gr.  Tirdvef  ;  Lat. 
Tita'nes,]  the  name  of  mythical  beings  said  to  be  the 
offspring  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  (or  Ccelus  and  Terra.)  There 
were  six  sons,  Oceanus,  Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion,  lapetus, 
and  Cronus,  and  six  daughters,  Theia,  Rheia,  Themis, 
Mnemosyne,  Phoebe,  and  Tethys.  According  to  the 
fable,  the  Titans  rebelled  against  their  father,  who  was 
deposed  and  was  succeeded  by  Cronus,  (Saturn.)  After 
the  accession  of  Jupiter  to  the  sovereignty,  occurred  the 
celebrated  war  of  the  Titans  against  the  Olympian  gods, 
(called  the  "  Titanomachia,")  which  lasted  ten  years. 
The  Titans  were  finally  defeated  and  hurled  down  to 
Tartarus  by  the  thunderbolts  of  Jove. 

See  Virgil,  "^neid,"  book  vj.  580. 

Titara,  te-ti'ra,  (LadislAu  dos  Santos,)  a  Brazil- 
ian author,  born  at  Feira  de  Capuam,  May  24,  1801. 
His  name  was  originally  LadislAu  do  Espirito  Santo 
Mello.  He  entered  the  army  of  independence  in  1822, 
and  afterwards  served  in  the  regular  army.  He  published 
eight  volumes  of  poems,  a  "  History  of  the  Grand  Lib- 
erating Army,"  "  The  Brazilian  Auditor,"  (2  vols.,)  etc 
Died  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1861. 

Tite-Live,  the  French  for  LiVY,  (which  see.) 

Kte,  (William,)  an  English  architect,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1802.  His  principal  work  is  the  Royal  Ex- 
change of  London,  completed  in  1844.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Bath  in  1854,  and  re-elected  in  1857. 
He  is  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  president 
of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects.     Died  in  1873. 

Tithon.    See  Tithonus. 

Ti-tho'nus,  [Gr.  Tiduvoc;  Fr.  Tithon,  te'tdiN',]  a 
mythical  personage,  a  son  of  Laomedon,  was  beloved  by 
Aurora,  (Eos.)  The  poets  feigned  that  she  obtained  for 
him  the  privilege  of  immortality,  but  not  eternal  youth, 
and  that  he  became  a  decrepit  old  man.  He  was  the 
reputed  father  of  Memnon. 

Titi,  di,  de  tee'tee,  (Santi,)  an  Italian  artist,  born  in 
Tuscany  in  1538,  was  distinguished  both  as  a  painter 
and  architect.     Died  in  1603. 

Titi,  di,  (Tiberio,)  a  painter,  born  at  Florence  in 
1578,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1637. 

Titian,  tish'g^n,  [It.  Tiziano,  tfet-se-i'no ;  Fr.  Le 
Titien,  leh  te'se'SN' ;  Ger.  Tizian,  tit-se-^n',]  or,  more 
fully,  Tiziano  Vecellio,  (vi-chel'le-o,)  the  greatest 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at  Capo  del 
Cadore,  in  Venetia,  in  1477.  He  studied  for  a  short 
time  with  Sebastiano  Zuccati,  and  afterwards  became 
a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini.  He  was  intimate  with 
Giorgione,  his  fellow-pupil,  to  whose  example  or  influ- 
ence some  critics  ascribe  the  fact  that  Titian  acquired 
a  bolder  and  more  vigorous  style  than  that  of  Bellini 
and  other  Venetian  painters.  In  1512  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Venetian  government  to  paint  the  hall 
of  the  grand  council,  in  which  he  represented  the 
"  Homage  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  the  Pope." 
About  1514  he  was  invited  to  Ferrara  by  Alphonso  I., 
for  whom  he  painted  a  beautiful  oil-picture  of  "  Bacchus 
and  Ariadne,"  and  another  of  a  "  Pharisee  showing 
Tribute-Money  to  Christ,"  (now  at  Dresden.)  At  Fer- 
rara he  formed  a  friendship  with  the  poet  Ariosto,  whose 
portrait  he  painted.  Having  returned  to  Venice,  he 
painted  in  15 16  a  celebrated  picture  of  the  "  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin,"  which  is  one  of  his  best  works,  and  is 
now  in  the  Academy  of  Venice.  He  married  about 
1524,  and  had  several  children.  He  produced  about 
1528  an  admirable  picture  of  "  The  Death  of  Saint 
Peter."  "  Titian's  power,"  says  Ruskin,  "  culminates 
in  the  *  Assumption,'  the  '  Peter  Martyr,'  and  the  '  Pre- 
sentation of  the  Virgin.'  "  About  1530  he  was  invited 
to  Bologna  by  Charles  V.,  and  painted  a  portrait  of  that 
emperor,  whom  (according  to  some  accounts)  he  accom- 
panied to  Spain  in  1533.  He  visited  Rome  in  1545, 
painted  an  excellent  portrait  of  Paul  III.,  and  returned 
to  Venice  in  1546.  Titian  received  the  title  of  Count- 
Palatine  from  Charles  V.  He  painted  for  Philip  II,  of 
Spain  a  number  of  works,  among  which  are  "  The  Last 
Supper"  and  a  "  Sleeping  Venus."  His  subjects  were 
mostly  religious.  As  a  portrait-painter  he  has  never 
been  surpassed.  In  the  opinion  of  many  critics,  he  was 
the  greatest  colorist  that  ever  lived.  He  also  excelled 
in  landscape.     "  All  landscape  grandeur,"  says  Ruskin, 


"vanishes  before  that  of  Titian  and  Tintoret ;  and  this 
is  true  of  whatever  these  two  giants  touched.  .  .  .  The 
religion  of  Titian  is  like  that  of  Shakspeare, — occult 
behind  his  magnificent  equity.  .  ,  .  The  Venetian  mind, 
and  Titian's  especially,  as  the  central  type  of  it,  was 
wholly  realist,  universal,  and  manly."  ("  Modern  Paint- 
ers.") He  refused  the  invitations  of  several  sovereigns 
who  wished  to  attract  him  to  their  courts,  and  preferred 
to  reside  at  Venice.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were 
Pietro  Aretino,  and  Sansovino  the  architect.  He  con- 
tinued to  paint  until  he  was  ninety-eight  ^ears  old  ;  but 
his  last  woi  ks  are  not  equal  to  those  of  his  prime.  He 
died  at  Venice  in  August,  1576. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters:"  Ridolfi,  "Pittori  Ve; 
neti;"  Lanzi,  " History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Vite  dei 
Pittori  Vecelli,"  1817;  Northcotk,  "Lite  of  Titian,"  2  vols.,  1830, 
a  notice  of  Titian,  by  Cadorin,  in  Italian,  1833;  Mrs.  Jameson, 
"Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  Zondadella,  "Elogio  di 
Tiziano  Vecellio,"  1802. 

Titien,  Le.    See  Titian. 

Titius,  tit'se-ds,  (Gottlieb  Gerhard,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1661,  wrote  on  the  public 
law  of  Germany.     Died  in  1714. 

Titmarsh.     See  Thackeray. 

Titon  du  Tillet,  te'tAN'  dii  te'yi',  (Everard,)  a 
French  littirateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1677.  He  served  in 
the  army,  and  became  commissary  of  war.  He  projected 
or  designed  a  monument  to  Louis  XIV.  and  the  great 
men  of  his  reign.  This  monument,  which  he  called  the 
French  Parnassus,  represented  a  mountain,  on  the  sum- 
mit of  which  Louis  XIV.  sat  in  the  form  of  Apollo.  He 
could  not  raise  the  funds  requisite  to  execute  it  on  a 
grand  scale,  but  he  published  a  "Description  of  the 
French  Parnassus,"  ("  Description  du  Parnasse  Fran- 
9ais,"  1727.)     Died  in  1762. 

Titsingh,  tit'sino,  (Isaac,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist  and 
writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1740.  Having  entered 
the  East  Indian  service,  he  was  sent  as  supercargo  to 
Japan  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  in  1794,  by  the  Ba- 
tavian  government,  ambassador  to  Peking.  He  died  in 
1812,  leaving  several  valuable  works  in  manuscript; 
among  these  we  may  name  "Memoirs  and  Anecdotes 
of  the  Reigning  Dynasty  of  the  Djogouns,  Sovereigns 
of  Japan,"  etc.,  published  in  French  by  Abel  R^musat. 

Tittmann,  tit'min,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historical  writer,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1784.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  Know- 
ledge and  Art  in  History,"  (1817,)  "Exposition  of  the 
Greek  Constitutions,"(  1822,)  "  History  of  Henry  the  Illus- 
trious," (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "  Life  and  Matter,"  ("  Leben 
und  Stoff,"  1855.)     Died  at  Dresden,  May  23,  1864. 

Tittmann,  (  Johann  August  Heinrich,)  an  eminent 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Langensalza,  in  Germany, 
in  1773.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became  first 
professor  of  theology  in  1818.  He  published  a  "  Manual 
of  Homiletics,"  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Theological  Science," 
(1798,)  "Theocles,  a  Conversation  on  Belief  in  God," 
(1799,)  "Pragmatic  History  of  Theology  and  Religion 
in  the  Protestant  Church  during  the  Second  Half  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (1805,  unfinished,)  "On  Super- 
naturalism,  Rationalism,  and  Atheism,"  (1816,)  and 
other  standard  works  of  the  kind.  He  also  prepared 
editions  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  and  the  "  Libri 
Symbolici,"  and  a  Latin  treatise  "On  the  Synonyms 
of  the  New  Testament."     Died  in  1831. 

Tittmann,  (Karl  August,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1775.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Gottingen,  and  rose  to  distinction  as  a  jurist.  He 
published  a  "  Manual  of  the  Science  of  Criniinal  Law," 
etc.,  (1807,)  and  other  similar  works.     Died  in  1834. 

Ti'tus,  [Gr.  TtTOf ;  Fr.  TiTE,  tit,]  a  disciple  of  Saint 
Paul,  who  was  converted  by  him  to  Christianity,  and 
subsequently  accompanied  him  to  Corinth,  Ephesus,  and 
other  cities. 

See  Saint  Paui.,  "Epistle  to  Titus." 

Ti'tus,  [Fr.  TiTE,  tit;  It.  Tito,  tee'to,]  or,  more 
fully,  Ti'tus  ria'vl-us  Ves-pa-sl-a'nus,  Emperor  of 
Rome,  born  in  40  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  Vespasian,  and 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  Nero.  He  early  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  military  talents  in  Britain  and 
Germany,  and  assisted  his  father  in  quelling  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Tews,  (67  A.D.)     After  the  death  of  Vitellius, 


€as-4';  9asj;  ^hard;  gTisf;  G,n,vi,s:uttural;  N,fiasal;  Y:.,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin^/4/j.     (Ji:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TITYUS 


2326 


TODHUNTER 


Vespasian  was  proclaimed  emperor,  in  69  a.d.,  and  Titus, 
having  been  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  Judea, 
laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  which  was  taken  by  storm  in  70 
A.D.  On  the  death  of  Vespasian,  in  79  a.d.,  Titus  be- 
came emperor,  and,  by  the  wisdom  and  benignity  of 
his  rule,  acquired  the  affection  and  reverence  of  his  sub- 
jects, who  gave  him  the  name  of  "The  love  and  delight 
of  the  human  race."  Under  his  reign  a  great  part  of 
Rome  was  destroyed  by  a  conflagration,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  plague,  of  which  many  thousands  perished 
daily.  He  completed  the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  (Co- 
losseum,) which  had  been  commenced  by  his  father.  Il 
is  stated  that  at  the  end  of  a  day  in  which  he  had  per- 
formed rtt)  act  of  beneficence,  he  exclaimed,  "My  friends, 
I  have  lost  a  day !"     Died  in  81  A.D. 

See  Suetonius,  "Titus;"  Tacitus,  "History:"  Merivai-k, 
"  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire;"  Tillemont,  "  His- 
toire  des  Empereurs  ;"  J.  H.  Jung,  "  Dissertatio  de  Tito  Impera- 
tore."  1761  ;  Rolland,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs  Vespasien  et 
Titus,"  1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Tit'y-us,  [Gr.  Ttrvof;  Fr.  Titye,  te'te',]  a  giant  of 
classic  mythology,  was  called  a  son  of  Terra,  or  of 
Jupiter  and  Elara.  Having  offered  violence  to  Latona, 
he  was  killed  by  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  cast  down  to 
Tartarus.  According  to  Virgil,  his  body  extended  over 
nine  acres  of  ground.     (See  "^neid,"  book  vi.  595.) 

Tixier,  (John.)     See  Ravisius  Textor. 

Tizian  or  Tiziano.     See  Titian. 

Toaldo,  to-Jl'do,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  geographei, 
born  near  Vicenza  in  17 19,  became  professor  of  physical 
geography  and  astronomy  at  Padua  in  1762.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Gnomonics," 
"Meteorological  Essay  on  the  True  Influence  of  the 
Stars,"  (1770,)  and  "Compendium  of  Spherics  and 
Geography,"  (1773.)     Died  in  1798. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Tobar,  de,  di  to-baR',  (Alfonso  Miguel,)  a  Span- 
ish painter,  born  near  Aracena  in  1678,  produced  good 
copies  of  some  works  of  Murillo.     Died  in  1758. 

Tobiesen.     See  Duby. 

To'bin,  (George,)  an  English  admiral,  born  at  Salis- 
bury in  1768,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns 
of  1782  and  1804.     Died  in  1838. 

Tobin,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  at  Salis- 
bury in  1770,  was  the  author  of  several  comedies,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "The  Honeymoon,"  obtained  great 
popularity.     Died  in  1804. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  John  Tobin,"  by  Miss  Benger,  1820 ; 
'Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1820. 

Tobler,  to'bler,  (Titus,)  a  Swiss  traveller  and  lit- 
Uratetir,  born  at  Stein  in  1806,  visited  Palestine,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  "  Topography  of  Jerusalem 
and  its  Environs,"  (1853.) 

Tochon  d'Anuecy,  to'sh6N'  dtn'se',  (Joseph  Fran- 
(JOIS,)  a  French  numismatist,  born  near  Annecy  in  1772. 
Among  his  works  is  "Researches  on  the  Medals  of  the 
Nomes  or  Prefectures  of  Egypt,"  (1822.)    Died  in  1820. 

Tocque,  to'ki',  (Louis,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1696;   died  in  1772. 

Tocqueville,  de,  deh  tok'vil  or  tok'vfel',  (Alexis 
Charles  Henri  Clerel,)  an  eminent  French  states- 
man and  political  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  on  the  29th 
of  July,  1805.  He  studied  law,  (1823-26,)  and  became 
judge-auditor  at  the  tribunal  of  Versailles  in  1827.  In 
183 1  he  visited  the  United  States  in  company  with  his 
friend  Gustave  de  Beaumont,  having  received  a  mission 
to  examine  the  penitentiary  systems  of  that  republic. 
He  passed  a  year  in  the  United  States,  returned  home, 
resigned  his  office  in  1832,  and  published  in  1835  the  first 
volume  of  his  work  "  On  Democracy  in  America,"  ("  De 
la  Democratie  en  Amerique,"  4  vols.,  1835-40,)  the  suc- 
cess of  which  was  prodigious.  Royer-CoUard  affirmed 
that  since  Montesquieu  nothing  comparable  to  it  had 
appeared.  De  Tocqueville  predicted  the  progress  and 
predominance  of  democracy  in  the  world,  although  his 
own  predilections  were  in  the  opposite  direction.  He 
married  an  English  lady,  named  Mary  Mottley,  about 
1835,  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  in  1838,  and  was  elected  to  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  in  1839.  In  1841  he  was  admitted  into 
the  French  .Academy.  He  was  elected  in  1848  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  supported  the  cause 


of  order,  and  he  voted  for  Cavaignac  in  the  election  of 
president.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  June 
2  to  October  31,  1849.  and  was  driven  from  the  public 
service  by  the  cotip  d  Hat  of  December  2,  185 1.  In  1856 
he  published  "The  Old  Regime  and  the  Revolution," 
("  L'ancien  Regime  et  la  Revolution,")  a  work  of  much 
merit.  Died  at  Cannes  in  April,  1859.  Commenting  on 
his  "  Democracy  in  America,"  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
of  April,  1861,  says,  "Far  from  having  suffered  from 
the  lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a  century,  it  has  gained  in 
authority  and  interest,  from  the  inexhaustible  depth,  the 
unflinching  truth,  and  the  extraordinary  foresight  which 
are  its  characteristics." 

See  G.  DE  Beaumont,  notice  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  Works 
and  Letters,  i860;  Lacordaire,  "Discours  de  Reception  i  I'Aca- 
deniie  Franfaise,"  1861  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Nouvelles  Causeries  du 
Lundi ;"  Remusat's  article  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for 
August  I,  1856;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale  ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  September,  1836,  and  July,  1849;  "  Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1861  ;  "  North  British  Review"  lor  May,  i86i ;  "  Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  November,  1861. 

Tocqueville,  de,  (Herv6  Louis  Franqois  Joseph 
Clerel,)  Comte,  a  French  peer  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  1772,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
prefect  of  the  departments  of  Moselle,  Somme,  and 
Seine-et-Oise  between  1816  and  1827.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  Philosophic  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Louis  XV.,"  (2  vols.,  1846.)     Died  in  1856. 

Tod,  (Eli,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born  at 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  about  1768,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Insane  Retreat  at  Hartford,  of  which  he 
became  president.     Died  in  1833. 

Tod,  (Lieutenant-Colonel  Ja.mes,)  an  English  officer, 
born  in  1782,  entered  the  East  India  service,  and  was 
appointed  in  1817  political  agent.  He  was  the  authoi 
of  "Travels  in  Western  India,"  etc.,  and  "Annals  ot 
Raj^5than ;"  the  latter  contains  an  excellent  map  of 
Rajpootana.     Died  in  1835. 

Todd,  (Rev.  Henry  John,)  an  English  clergyman 
and  writer,  born  in  1763,  studied  at  Hertford  College, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be 
Archdeacon  of  Cleveland  in  1832.  He  published  a 
"Life  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,"  (1831,)  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Right  Reverend  Brian 
Walton,"  and  other  works ;  he  also  edited  Milton's 
"  Poems"  and  "The  Works  of  Edmund  Spenser."  Died 
in  1845. 

Todd,  (Rev.  Hugh,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Cum- 
berland in  1658,  lived  at  Carlisle.     Died  in  1728. 

Todd,  (James  Henthorne,)  a  clergyman  and  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1805.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Dublin,  and 
published  several  works  on  theology,  etc.    Died  in  1869. 

Todd,  (JoH.v,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Rutland,  Vermont,  in  1800,  settled  in 
1842  as  pastor  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Mount  Holyoke  Female  Semi- 
nary. Among  his  works  we  may  name  "  Lectures  to 
Children,"  (1834,)  also  translated  into  several  languages, 
"The  Student's  Manual,"  (1835,)  which  had  a  very 
extensive  sale  both  in  America  and  Europe,  and  was 
translated  into  French,  "The  Bible  Companion,"  "The 
Sabbath-School  Teacher,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Lost  Sister 
of  Wyoming,"  (1841.)     Died  August  24,  1873. 

Todd,  (Robert  Bentley,)  a  physician  and  writer  on 
physiology,  a  brother  of  James  H.  Todd,  noticed  above, 
was  born  about  i8ro.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  and 
subsequently  settled  in  London.  He  became  associate 
editor  of  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology" 
in  1836,  and  published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise 
"On  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,  Spinal  Cord,  and  Gan- 
glions," (1845,)  ^"d  "Physiological  Anatomy  and  Phy- 
siology of  Alan,"  (2  vols.,  1845-56.)  He  was  appointed 
physician  to  King's  College  Hospital.     Died  in  i860. 

Toderini,  to-di-ree'nee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1728,  published  a  work  "On 
Turkish  Literature,"  (3  vols.,  1787.)     Died  in  1799. 

Tod'huii-ter,  (Isaac,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Rye  in  1820.  He  was  educated  at  University  College, 
London,  and  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  graduated  as  senior  wrangler  in  1848,  becoming  a 
Fellow  of  his  college.     He  wrote  treatises  on  "  Differ- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TOD LE BEN 


2327 


TOLLIUS 


eiuial  Calculus,"  "Analytical  Statics,"  "Integral  Calcu- 
lus," "Algebra,"  "Trigonometry,"  •'  History  of  the  Cal- 
culus of  Variations,"  and  numerous  other  mathematical 
works.     Died  March  2,  1884. 

Todleben,  tot'14'ben,  (Francis  Edward,)  a  Russian 
general  and  engineer,  of  German  extraction,  born  at 
Mitau  in  1818.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Crimean 
war  of  1854,  and  was  afterwards  created  general  of  engi- 
neers. In  1878  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Russian  army  before  Constantinople.  Died  in 
1884. 

See  the  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1864. 

Todt,  tot,  (Karl  GoTTLOB,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at 
Auerbach  in  1803.  He  published  several  legai  works. 
Died  in  1852. 

Toepfer.    See  Topfer. 

Toepfifer.     See  Topffer. 

Tofino  de  San  Miguel,  to-fee'no  di  sin  me-g§l',  a 
Spanish  savant  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Cartagena  in 
1740,  published,  among  other  works,  "Astronomical 
Observations  made  at  Cadiz."     Died  in  1806. 

Togrzii,  to-grl',  or  Toghrai,  a  celebrated  Persian 
poet,  born  at  Ispahan  about  1060.  He  became  vizier  tc 
Masood,  Sultan  of  Mosul,  and,  after  the  defeat  of  that 
prince  by  his  brother  Mahmood  in  1120  a.d.,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  put  to  death.  His  principal  work  is  an 
elegiac  poem,  entitled  "  Lamiato  I'/Xjam,"  which  has 
passed  through  several  editions  and  been  translated  into 
Latin,  English,  French,  and  German. 

Togrul  or  Thogrul-Beg,*  (or  -Bek,)  to'grool  bSg, 
written  also  Tugrol,  the  founder  of  the  Seljookide 
dynasty  in  Persia,  was  a  grandson  of  Seljook,  (Seljfik.) 
He  became  king  or  chief  of  his  tribe  about  1038,  and 
conquered  Persia  by  victories  over  the  Sultan  Mahmood 
and  his  son  Masood.     Died  about  1065. 

Togrul  II.,  the  last  Sultan  of  the  Seljookide  dynasty, 
began  to  reign  in  1176 ;  died  in  1194. 

Togrul-Beg,  (or  -Bee.)    See  Togrul. 

Toinard  or  Thoy nard,  t wi'ntR',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
numismatist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1629;  died  in  1706. 

Toiras,  de,  deh  twS'ra',  (Jean  de  Saint-Bonnet — 
deh  siN'bo'ni',)  Seigneur,  a  French  general,  born  in 
Languedoc  in  1585.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots, 
and  in  1625  took  the  Isle  of  Rhe,  which  he  defended 
against  the  English  Duke  of  Buckingham  in  1627.  For 
his  defence  of  Casal  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France  in  1630.  He  was  killed  at  a  siege  in 
the  Milanese  in  1636. 

Tokely,  to'kil,  (Emmeric,)  a  Hungarian  patriot, 
born  in  1656.  Having  taken  up  arms  against  the  Aus- 
trian government,  he  solicited  aid  from  the  Sultan  Ma- 
homet IV.,  who  in  1682  declared  him  King  of  Hungary. 
Afte-  waging  war  many  years,  with  varying  success,  he 
was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Turkey,  where  he  died 
in  1705. 

Toktamish-Aglen,  tok'ti-mish  3g'len,  a  warlike 
Khan  of  Kaptchak,  in  Tartary,  was  a  descendant  of  Jengis 
Khan.  He  began  to  reign  in  1376,  invaded  Russia  in 
1382,  and  took  Moscow.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was 
involved  in  a  war  with  Tamerlane,  who  defeated  and 
deposed  him  about  1395.     Died  in  1406. 

To'land,  (John,)  a  deistical  and  controversial  writer, 
born  near  Londonderry,  in  Ireland,  in  1669.  He  studied 
at  the  Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  and  sub- 
sequently at  Leyden,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Leibnitz.  His  first  publication,  entitled  "  Christianity 
not  Mysterious,"  (1696,)  caused  a  great  sensation  and 
gave  rise  to  a  protracted  controversy.  He  afterwards 
produced  "  A  Life  of  Milton,"  (1698,)  "  Amyntor,  or  a 
Defence  of  Milton's  Life,"  (1699,)  "Anglia  Libera,  or 
the  Limitation  and  Succession  of  the  Crown  of  England 
Explained  and  Asserted,"  (1701,)  "  Socinianism  Truly 
Stated,"  etc.,  (1705,)  and  other  works.  He  was  patronized 
by  Harley,  secretary  of  state,  who  in  1707  sent  him  to 
the  continent  as  a  political  agent  or  spy.  Toland  was  a 
pedantic  and  mediocre  writer.     Died  in  1722. 

See  Dbs  Maizeaux,  "Life  of  John  Toland,"  1726;  Mosheim, 
"  De  Vita,  Fatis  et  Scriptis  J.  Tolandi,"  1722;  Leland,  "  Deistica) 
Writers;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires." 


See  Introduction,  p.  9,  §  ib. 


Toldy,  tol'de,  (almost  tolj,)  (F.  S.,)  a  Himganan 
critic  and  writer,  born  at  Buda  in  1805.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Hungarian  Lan- 
guage and  Literature,"  (3  vols.,  1851-55.)  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Pesth,  1838-44.     Died  in  1875. 

Toledo,  de,  di  to-la'oo,  [Lat.  Tole'tus  ;  Fr.  ToLti, 
to'li',]  (Francisco,)  a  learned  Spanish  cardinal,  born 
at  Cordova  in  1532.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology  at  Rome,  and  gained  distinction  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Casuistry,  (1602.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1596. 

Toledo,  de,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  neai 
Salamanca  in  1484,  was  a  son  of  Frederick  of  Toledo, 
Duke  of  Alba.  He  obtained  the  title  of  Marquis  of 
Villafranca  from  his  marriage  with  a  lady  of  that  house. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  who 
app  inted  him  in  1532  Viceroy  of  Naples.  He  died  ir, 
1553,  ^'^'^''  '^  [Jrosperous  rule  of  more  than  twenty  years, 
duruig  which  he  greatly  enlarged  and  improved  the  citj 
of  Naples  and  adorned  it  with  splendid  edifices. 

See  Giannone,  "  Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli ;"  Botta, 
"  Storia  d'ltalia." 

Toledo,  de,  (Roduigo,)  [Lat.  Roderi'cus  Toleta'- 
Nus,]  a  distinguished  prelate  and  historian,  born  in 
Navarre  about  11 70,  was  originally  named  Rodrigo 
XiMENES.  He  became  Bishop  of  Siguenza  in  1192, 
and  subsequently  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  History  of  Spain,  ("  Rerum  in  Hispania 
GestarumChronicon,"  1545,)  and  liistory  of  the  Western 
Arabs,  ("  Historia  Arabum,"  1603,)  both  of  which  are 
highly  esteemed. 

To'ler,  (John,)  Earl  of  Norbury,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1745.  He  was  successively 
appointed  solicitor-general,  (1789,)  attorney-general, 
(1798,)  and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  (1800.) 
He  afterwards  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Norbury  and 
Viscount  Glandine.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a 
jurist,  but  he  was  still  more  celebrated  for  his  brilliant 
wit  and  repartee.  He  presided  at  the  trial  of  Robert 
Emmet.     Died  in  183 1. 

See  "  Eccentric  Personages,"  by  Wm.  Russell,  1866. 

Tolet  or  Toletua.     See  Toledo,  de,  (Francisco.) 

Toletanus.     See  Toledo,  de,  (Rodkigo.) 

Tolken  or  Toelken,  toKken,  (Ernst  Heinrich,)  a 
German  archaeologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1785,  pub- 
lished a  number  of  treatises  on  ancient  art.  He  be- 
came professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1823,  and 
director  of  the  cabinet  of  antiques  in  1832.     Died  1864. 

Toll,  tol,  (Karl,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  born 
near  Hapsal,  Esthonia,  in  1778,  served  against  the 
French  in  the  campaign  of  1812,  and  subsequently  in 
the  Turkish  war  of  1829.     Died  in  1842. 

ToUens,  toKlens,  (Hendrik  Corneliszoon,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1780.  His 
poem  "On  the  Death  of  Egmont  and  Hoorn"  (1806) 
obtained  a  prize  from  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
National  Poetry,  and  was  followed  by  a  collection  of 
lyrics  which  became  widely  popular  and  are  esteemed 
master-pieces  of  their  kind  by  his  countrymen.  Among 
the  principal  we  may  name  the  "  Patriotic  War-Songs," 
("  Vaderlandisch  Krijgslied,"  1815,)  "The  Call  to 
Arms,"  ("  Wapenkreet,")  and  "  The  Wintering  of  the 
Hollanders  in  Nova  Zembla."  In  1850  the  King  of 
Holland  bestowed  upon  him  the  order  of  the  Dutch 
Lion.     Died  in  1856. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Van  Ek  h- 
STORFF,  "  H.  Tollens,  biographische  Schets  en  Proeve  en  Kritiken 
van  zijne  Dichtungen  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1854. 

Tol'let,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  scholar  and  poetess, 
born  in  1694,  was  a  friend  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Died 
in  1754. 

Her  nephew,  George  Tollet,  wrote  notes  on  Shak- 
speare.     Died  in  1779. 

ToUius,  tol'le-us,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Utrecht  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Vossius,  and 
afterwards  his  private  secretary.  He  published  editions 
of  several  of  the  classics.     Died  about  1652. 

Tollius,  (Hermann,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at 
Breda  in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Ley- 
den, where  he  died  in  1822. 

Tollius,  (Jacob,)  brother  of  Cornelis,  noticed  above. 


e  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy',-  g,  h,  K,pittiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  4h  as  in  this.     ( S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOLMACH 


2328 


TONE 


was  born  at  Utrecht  about  1630.  He  studied  under 
Vossius,  and  became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence 
at  Duisburg  in  1679.  He  was  the  author  of  several  phi- 
lological and  scientific  treatises.     Died  in  1696. 

Tolmach.    See  Talmash,  (Thomas.) 

Tolomei,  to-lo-ma'ee,  or  Tolomtnei,  (Claodio,)  an 
Italian  scholar  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1492. 
He  was  sent  in  1552  on  a  mission  to  the  French  court, 
on  which  occasion  he  delivered  an  eloquent  oration  in 
the  presence  of  Henry  W.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
poems  and  orations,  and  a  collection  of  letters  which 
rank  among  the  best  compositions  of  the  kind  in  the 
language.     Died  in  1554. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tolomei,  (Giovanni  Batfista,)  a  learned  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Florence  in  1653.  He  was  employed 
by  Clement  XI.  in  important  affairs.     Died  in  1726. 

Tolomeo,  the  Italian  of  Ptolemy,  which  see. 

Tolommei.    See  Tolomei. 

ToIstoL     See  Ostermann-Tolstoi. 

Tol'stoi,  (Alexis,)  Count,  a  Russian  author,  born 
September  5,  181 7.  His  tragedies  "  Ivan  the  Terrible," 
"  Czar  Feodor,"  and  "  Czar  Boris"  form  a  trilogy.  He 
was  also  noted  for  his  novels  and  poems.  Died  October 
10,  1875.  Count  Leo  Tolstoi,  of  the  same  family,  pub- 
lished two  powerful  novels,  "Anna  Karenina,"  (1875-76,) 
and  "  War  and  Peace." 

Tolstoi,  tol'stoi,  (Feodor  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian 
sculptor,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1783,  became 
professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  that  city. 

Tolstoi  or  Tolstoy,  (Peter,)  Count,  a  Russian 
diplomatist,  born  about  1650.  He  was  employed  by 
Peter  the  Great  on  missions  to  several  European  courts. 
Died  in  1728. 

Tolstoi,  (Peter  Alexandrovitch,)  a  Russian  diplo- 
matist and  soldier,  born  in  1769,  served  under  Suwarow 
against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Friedland  was  ambassador-extraordinary  to  Paris.  In 
183 1  the  emperor  Nicholas  appointed  him  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  leserve.     Died  in  1844. 

Tolstoy.    See  Tolstol 

To-lum'nl-us,  (Lar,)  was  King  of  the  Veientes  in 
438  B.C.,  and  persuaded  the  people  of  Fidenae  to  kill  four 
Roman  ambassadors.  He  was  killed  in  single  combat 
by  Cornelius  Cossus. 

Tomacelli    See  Boniface  TX. 

Tomaschek,  to'mi-skSk',  (Wenzel  Josef,)  a  Ger- 
man musician  and  composer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1774  ; 
died  in  1850. 

Tomaselli,  to-mi-§eKlee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  natu- 
ralist, born  near  Verona  in  1733  ;  died  in  1818. 

Tomasini,  to-m5-See'nee,  or  Tommasiui,  tom-mi- 
§ee'..ee,  (Jacopo  Filippo,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Padua  in  1597.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Life  of  Livy,"  (1630,)  a  "Life  of  Pe- 
trarch," ("  Petrarcha  Redivivus,"  1635,)  and  "Eulogies 
of  Illustrious  Men,"  (2  vols.,  1630-44.)     Died  in  1654. 

See  Nici*RON,  "Memoires." 

Tombes,  toomz,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1603.  He  became 
a  Baptist,  and  wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1676. 

Tomek,  to'm^k,  (WAclaw  Wladivi'OJ,)  a  Bohemian 
(Czech)  historian,  born  at  Koniggratz,  May  31,  1818.  In 
1850  he  became  a  professor  in  the  Prague  University. 
He  published  various  works,  including  histories  of  Bo- 
hemia and  of  Austria,  which  have  been  translated  into 
German. 

Tomitano,  to-me-ti'no,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1506;  died  in  1576. 

Tom'ko  or  Tom'kus,  (John,)  a  learned  Hungarian 
prelate,  born  at  Sebenico  about  1580;  died  at  Rome 
in  1639. 

Tom'llne,  (George,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1750,  was  originally  named  Pretyman,  but 
assumed  that  of  Tomline  in  compliance  with  the  wishes 
of  a  gentleman  who  left  him  a  large  fortune.  He  studied 
at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  was  elected  Fellow  of 
the  college  in  1773,  ''"d  subsequently  became  tutor  to 
Mr.  Pitt.  When  that  statesman  obtained  the  office  of 
first  lord  of  the   treasury,  Tomline  was   appointed   his 


secretary.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln  and  Dean 
of  Saint  Paul's  in  1787,  and  in  1820  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester. He  was  the  author  of  "The  Elements  of  Chris- 
tian Theology,"  (1799,)  a  "  Life  of  the  Right  Honourable 
William  Pitt,"  (1821,)  a  "  Refutation  of  Calvinism,"  and 
a  number  of  sermons.     Died  in  1827. 

Totn'lins,  (Elizabeth  Sophia,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1768,  published  a  number  of  poems, 
"  The  Victim  of  Fancy,"  and  other  novels,  and  made 
several  translations  from  the  French.     Died  in  1828. 

Tomlins,  (Frederick  Guest,)  an  English  journalist, 
born  about  1804.  He  edited  several  periodicals,  and 
originated  the  Shakspeare  Society,  (1840.)   Died  in  1867. 

Tomlin-spn,  (Charles,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  author, 
born  in  London,  November  27,  1808.  His  father  was  a 
common  soldier.  The  younger  Tomlinson  was  chiefly 
self-educated,  and  became  an  instructor  in  King's  Col- 
lege, London.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Nat- 
ural Philosophy,"  (1838,)  "Rudimentary  Mechanics," 
(1840,)  "Amusements  in  Chess,"  (1845,)  "Illustrations 
of  Useful  Arts,"  (in  several  series,)  "The  Thunder- 
storm," (1859,)  "The  Dew-Drop  and  the  Mist,"  (i860,) 
"  On  the  Sonnet,"  (1874,)  a  rhymed  translation  of  Dante's 
"Inferno,"  (1877,)  "Original  and  Translated  Sonnets," 
(1881,)  etc.  His  wife,  whose  maiden  name  was  Windsor, 
was  author  of  several  books.     She  died  in  1872. 

Tommaseo,  tom-mi-sa'o,  (NicaoL6,)  a  distinguished 
statesman  and  scholar,  born  in  Dalmatia  about  1804. 
He  was  educated  in  Italy,  and  resided  subsequently 
for  a  considerable  time  at  Venice.  After  the  revolution 
of  1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  instruction  and 
religious  affairs.  After  Venice  had  surrendered  to  the 
Austrians  in  1849,  he  took  refuge  in  Corfu,  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "On  Education,"  (1834,)  "New  Dic- 
tionary of  Synonyms,"  (1835,)  "Critical  Studies,"  (1843,) 
a  "  History  of  France  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  a 
historical  romance,  entitled  "The  Duke  of  Athens," 
(1837.)     Died  May  i,  1874. 

Tommasi,  tom-mi'see,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  a  learned 
Italian  cardinal,  born  in  Sicily  in  1649,  was  the  author 
of  a  number  of  valuable  works  illustrating  ecclesiastical 
history  and  antiquities  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  Roman 
Church.     Died  in  1713. 

See  Bbrnini,  "  Vita  del  Cardinale  Tommasi,"  1715;  Ughelli, 
"Italia  Sacra." 

Tommasini.     See  Tomasini. 

Tommaso,  the  Italian  of  Thomas,  which  see. 

Tommaso  d'Aquino.    See  Aquinas,  (Thomas.) 

Tomomi  Ivrakura,  to-mo'mee  ee-wS-koo'ri,  01 
Ivrakura  Tomomi,  a  Japanese  statesman,  born  at 
Kioto,  of  a  noble  family,  in  1825.  He  was  a  principal 
leader  in  the  revolution  of  1868,  in  which  the  shogunate 
was  overthrown.  He  became  foreign  minister  in  1871, 
was  chief  ambassador  to  the  United  States  and  the 
European  powers,  1871-73,  and  was  afterwards  junior 
prime  minister.     Died  at  Tokio,  July  20,  1883, 

Tomori,  to'mo-re,  [Fr.  Tomor^e,  to'mo'rS',]  (Paul,) 
a  Hungarian  prelate  and  general.  He  commanded  the 
army  of  Lewis  II.  against  the  Turks,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Mohacs,  in  1526. 

Tomp'kins,  (Daniel  D.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Westchester  county.  New  York,  in  1774.  He 
represented  the  city  of  New  York  in  Congress  in  1804, 
was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1807,  continuing 
in  that  office  till  181 7,  when  he  was  chosen  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  He  was  re-elected  Vice- 
President  in  1820.  While  Governor  of  New  York,  he 
was  instrumental  in  having  slavery  abolished  in  that 
State,  and  gave  an  efficient  support  to  the  war  waged 
against  England.     Died  in  New  York  in  June,  1825. 

Tomi'y-ris  [Gr.  To/^vptf]  was  Queen  of  the  Massa- 
getae  (Scythians)  when  Cyrus  the  Great  invaded  Scythia. 
According  to  Herodotus,  she  defeated  him  in  battle  in 
529  B.C. 

Tondi,  ton'dee,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  mineralogist 
and  geologist,  born  at  San  Severo  in  1762,  published 
several  works.     Died  about  1837. 

Tondu.    See  Lebrun,  (Pierre  Henri  Marie.) 

Tone,  (Theobald  Wolfe,)  an  Irish  politician  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1763,  was  the  founder 
of  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen.     In  1796  he  applied 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


TONNA 


2329 


TOPELWS 


to  the  French  Directory  to  send  an  expedition  against 
England,  which  soon  after  set  sail,  commanded  by  Gene- 
ral Hoche.  This  fleet  having  been  scattered  by  a  hurri- 
cane, Tone  made  another  attempt  with  a  small  armament, 
but  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  an  engagement  with  the 
English,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  committed 
suicide  in  prison,  (1798.) 

Ton'na,  (CHARLoriE  E.  Brown,)  an  English  author- 
ess, known  under  the  noni  de  flume  of  CHARLOTTE 
Elizabeth,  was  born  in  Norwich  in  1792.  She  was 
married  about  1840  to  a  Mr.  Tonna,  who  was  her  second 
husband.  She  wrote  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  "Judah's  Lion,"  "Judaea  Capta,"  "Personal  Recol- 
lections," (1841,)  "Chapters  on  Flowers,"  and  "Princi- 
palities and  Powers."     Died  in  London  in  1846. 

Tonnel^,  ton'li',  (Louis  Nicolas  Alfred,)  a  French 
litth-attur  znd  poet,  born  at  Tours  in  1831  ;  died  in  1858. 
Ton'son,  (Jacob,)  an  English  publisher,  born  in 
London  about  1656.  He  published  the  works  of  Dryden 
and  other  eminent  authors.  In  several  letters  to  Tonson, 
Dryden  complains  that  he  (Tonson)  sent  him  brass  shil- 
lings and  clipped  coins.     Died  in  1736. 

Tonstall,  pronounced  and  sometimes  written  Tun'- 
stall,  (CUTHBERT,)  a  learned  English  prelate  and  states- 
man, born  in  Yorkshire  about  1475.  He  finished  his 
studies  at  Padua,  and  in  1516  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
the  King  of  Spain,  afterwards  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
He  became  Bishop  of  London  in  1522,  in  the  following 
year  was  made  lord  privy  seal,  and  in  1530  Bishop  of 
Durham.  Under  the  reign  of  Edward  VL  he  was 
deprived  of  his  office  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  a 
charge  of  favouring  an  insurrection.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  was  restored  to  his  bishopric,  (1553,)  but,  having 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  after  Elizabeth 
was  proclaimed  queen,  he  was  again  deprived.  He  died 
in  1559,  leaving  several  theological  and  scientific  works, 
which  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  He  was  con- 
spicuous for  his  humanity  and  moderation  in  that  age  of 
intolerance,  and  permitted  no  burning  of  heretics  in  his 
diocese. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae   Oxonienses;"  "  P.iographia    Kritannica," 
Tonti,  ton'tee,   (Lorenzo,)   an   Italian   banker,  who 
settled  in   France,   and  originated  Tontines,  or   loans 
raised  on  life-annuities,  about  1653. 

His  son  served  under  La  Salle,  who,  in  1680,  ordered 
him  to  build  a  fort  on  the  Illinois  River.  He  afterwards 
descended  the  Mississippi  in  search  of  La  Salle.  Died 
after  1700. 

Tooke,  took,  (Andrew,)  an  English  writer  and 
teacher,  born  in  London  in  1673.  He  was  master  ol 
the  Charter-House  School,  and  published  a  "Synopsis 
of  the  Greek  Language,"  ("Synopsis  Grascae  Linguae.") 
Dier'  in  1731. 

Tooke,  (John  Horne,)  a  celebrated  English  philolo- 
gist and  politician,  born  in  London  in  June,  1736,  was  a 
son  of  John  Horne.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  took  his  degree  as  B.A.  in  1758,  and,  to  please  his 
father,  was  ordained  a  priest ;  but  he  preferred  the  pro- 
fession of  the  law.  He  became  an  active  politician,  an 
opponent  of  the  ministry,  and  a  friend  of  John  Wilkes. 
Having  been  adopted  by  William  Tooke,  of  Purley,  as 
his  heir,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Tooke.  He  studied 
law,  and  applied  about  1779  for  admission  to  the  bar, 
but  was  rejected  because  he  had  been  a  priest.  Before 
this  event  he  had  been  fined  ;^200  and  imprisoned  one 
year  for  libel.  His  offence  consisted  in  saying  that  cer- 
tain Americans  were  "murdered"  by  the  king's  troops 
at  Lexington.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his 
"'Evrea  nrepoevTa;  or.  Diversions  of  Purley,"  (1786,) 
which  treats  of  language,  and  displays  much  acuteness 
and  originality  of  thought  and  presents  many  good 
ideas.  He  was  tried  in  1794  on  a  charge  of  treason, 
made  an  able  speech  in  his  own  defence,  and  was 
acquitted.  In  1801  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Old  Sarum.  Died  in  1812.  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  conversational  powers. 

See  W.  Hamilton,  "Life  of  J.  Home  Tooke;"  "Memoirs  of 
John  Horne  Tooke,"  by  J.  A.  Graham,  1828;  "Life  of  J.  Horne 
Tooke,"  by  Alexander  Stephen,  1S13  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  August,  1833,  and  April,  1840;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January, 
1787,  and  December,  1806. 


Tooke,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  Rev.  William,  noticed 
below,  published  in  1838  a  "  History  of  Prices  and  of 
the  State  of  the  Circulation  from  1793  to  1837,"  etc.,  in 
2  vols.,  to  which  were  subsequently  added  four  more 
volumes.     Died  in  1858. 

Tooke,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Islington  in  1744,  became  minister  of  the  English  church 
at  Cronstadt.  He  was  appointed  in  1774  chaplam  to 
the  factory  of  the  Russia  Company  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  published  a  "Life  of  Catherine  II.,"  (3  vols.,  1797,) 
"  History  of  Russia  from  the  Foundation  of  the  Empire 
to  the  Accession  of  Catherine  II.,"  "Varieties  of  Lite- 
rature," and  other  works,  and  translated  ZoUikofer's 
"  Sermons"  from  the  German.     Died  in  1820. 

Tooke,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  younger  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1777.  He  waa 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  for  the  Diflfusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge.  He  edited  the  poetical  works  of 
Churchill,  and  published  "The  Monarchy  of  France: 
its  Rise,  Progress,  and  Fall,"  (1855.)     Died  in  1863. 

Toole,  tool,  (John  Lawrence,)  an  English  comedian, 
born  in  London,  March  12,  1830.  He  went  upon  the 
London  stage  in  1852,  and  soon  won  recognition  as  an 
actor  of  great  and  versatile  powers.  Since  1880  he  has 
been  a  highly-successful  theatrical  manager. 

Tooloon  or  Tulftn,  too'loon',  or,  more  fully,  Ahmed 
Ibn  Tooloon,  Sn'med  ib'n  too'loon',  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty  of  Tooloonites,  was  born  in  835.  He  had 
been  made  Governor  of  Egypt  in  873,  and  ruled  the 
country  with  great  ability,  wlien  an  attempt  was  made 
to  dispossess  him  ;  on  which  he  raised  an  army,  defeated 
the  troops  sent  against  him  by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
and  declared  himself  independent.  He  died  about  883. 
The  dynasty  which  he  founded  lasted  till  905,  when  the 
caliph  Al-Mooktafee  reduced  Egypt  and  put  to  death 
the  last  of  the  Tooloonite  princes. 

Toombs,  (Robert,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Wilkes  county,  Georgia,  in  1810.  He  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1853,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1859.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  secession  party  in 
Georgia,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  when  that 
State  withdrew  from  the  Union.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  Southern  Confederacy  in  1861,  was  elected 
a  Senator  about  P'ebruary,  1862,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  same  year.     Died  December  15,  1885. 

Toorgenef,  toor'geh-nSf  or  toor'neh-nif,  Turgenef, 
or  Turgenev,  written  also  Turgenew,  (Alexander 
IVANOVITCH,)  a  Russian  historian,  born  in  1784.  Having 
visited  England  and  various  parts  of  Europe  in  search 
of  documents,  he  published  in  1841  his  "Historical 
Monuments  of  Russia,"  (in  Latin.)     Died  in  1845. 

Toorgenef  or  Turgenieflf,  (Ivan,)  a  Russian  poet 
and  novelist  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Orel  in  1818. 
He  began  his  literary  career  in  1842  with  a  poem,  "Pa- 
rascha,"  but  his  first  important  work  was  "The  Memoirs 
of  a  Sportsman,"  (1852,)  a  collection  of  sketches  de- 
scribing the  evils  of  serfdom.  He  also  wrote  numerous 
short  stories,  poems,  and  dramatic  sketches,  besides  the 
following  novels,  which  constitute  his  highest  title  to 
fame:  "  Dimitri  Roudine,"  (1854,)  "A  Nest  of  Noble- 
men," (called  "  Liza"  in  the  American  translation,  1859,) 
"On  the  Eve,  or  Helene,"  (i86o,)  "Fathers  and  Sons," 
(1862,)  "Smoke,"  (1867,)  "Spring  Floqds,"  (1872,)  and 
"Virgin  Soil,"  (1877.)     He  died  September  3,  1883. 

Toorgenefi  Turgenef,  or  Turgenew,  (Nikolax 
Ivanovitch,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1790.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  abolition  of 
serfdom,  and,  having  been  connected  with  the  secret  soci- 
eties which  favoured  that  reform,  he  was,  in  1825,  con- 
demned to  death  during  his  absence  on  his  travels.  He 
took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  published  "La 
Russie  et  les  Russes,"  (1847.)     Died  in  1871. 

Topal-Osm^n,  to'pSl  os-mSn',  an  able  Turkish  gen- 
eral and  statesman.  He  became  grand  vizier  in  1731,  and 
defeated  Nadir  Shah  on  the  Tigris  in  July,  1733.  He 
was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Persians  in  the  same  year. 

Topelius,  to-pa'le-66s,  (Zacharias,)  a  Finnish  author, 
of  Swedish  descent  and  language,  was  born  at  Kuddnas, 
Finland,  January  14,  1818.  He  was  (1854- 78)  professor 
of  Russian  and  Scandinavian  history  in  the  University 
of  Helsingfors.     He  wrote  a  series  of  novels  illustrating 


eas^;  qass;  gAarel;  gasy;  G,  Yi,K,g^ittural;  ii,  nasal;  v.,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin//4;j.     (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  2'^.) 


TO  PETE 


2330 


TOR  NB  ERG 


Swedish  and  Finnish  history,  besides  some  collections 
of  poems  and  "  Tales  for  Children,"  which  are  full  of 
patriotic  and  religious  feeling. 

Topete,  to-pa'ti,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  admkal,  born  in 
1821.  He  joined  in  the  insurrection  against  Isabella  in 
September,  1868,  and  was  minister  of  the  marine  in 
1868,  1870,  and  1874. 

Tbpfer  or  Toepfer,  tbp'fer,  (Karl,)  a  German  drama- 
tist, born  at  Berlin  in  1792,  published  several  popular 
comedies,  among  which  we  may  name  "The  King's  Com- 
mand" and  "  Hermann  and  Dorothea."     Died  in  1871. 

Topffer  or  Toepffer,  top'fer,  (Rudolph,)  a  Gene- 
vese  artist  and  writer  of  rare  genius,  was  born  in  1799. 
Among  his  first  publications  was  his  "  Voyages  en 
Zigzag,"  a  series  of  humorous  sketches,  which  attracted 
general  admiration.  These  were  followed  by  the  "  Pres- 
bytere,"  (1839,)  "Genevese  Tales,"  ("Nouvelles  Gene- 
voises,"  1841,)  and  "Rosa  et  Gertrude,"  (1845,)  ^"  of 
which  were  received  with  great  favour.  His  other  prin- 
cipal works  are  the  comic  sketches  entitled  "  M.  Vieux- 
Bois"  and  "  Reflections  on  Art."  The  former  appeared 
in  the  United  States  in  1842,  under  the  title  of"  Adven- 
tures of  Mr.  Obadiah  Oldbuck,"  etc.     Died  in  1846. 

S^e  Sainth-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains  ;"  Clement  dr 
Ris,  "Portraits  4  la  Plume;"  "  Noiivelle  Biosjrapliie  Generale  ;" 
the  "Living  Age"  for  September,  1847;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for 
November,  1865. 

Topino-Lebrun,  to'pe'no'  leh-bruN',  (Franqois 
Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Marseilles 
m  1769,  was  a  republican  and  a  friend  of  Ceracchi  the 
sculptor.  He  was  accused  of  conspiring  with  Ceracchi 
against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and  was  executed  in  1801, 
although  his  guilt  was  not  proved. 

Top'la-dy,  (Augustus  Montague,)  an  English  Cal- 
vinistic  divine,  born  in  Surrey  in  1740.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  became  vicar  of  Broad 
Henbury,  Devonshire.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
controversial  works,  and  of  a  number  of  beautiful  and 
popular  hymns.     Died  in  1778. 

Toppi,  top'pee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  compiler,  born 
at  Chieta  about  1603,  published  a  work  on  the  history 
iif  Neapolitan  literature,  (1678.)     Died  in  1681. 

Toranus  or  Toranius.     See  Rufinus. 

Torbido,  toR'be-do,  or  Tiirbido,  tooR'be-do,  (Fran- 
cesco,) called  II  Moro,  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Verona  about  1500.  He  painted  frescos  and  portraits. 
Died  about  1581. 

Tor'bert,  (Alfred  T.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Delaware,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855.  He 
served  as  an  officer  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1862,  and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2-3,  1863,  and 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Sheridan 
at  Opequan  Creek,  September  19,  and  Cedar  Creek, 
Octi-oer  19,  1864.  At  the  end  of  1864  he  was  chief  of 
cavalry  in  the  Middle  military  division.  He  resigned  in 
October,  1866.     Drowned  at  sea,  August  28,  1880. 

Torcy.     See  Colbert,  (Jean  Baptiste.) 

Tordenskjold  or  Tordenskiold,  toR'den-ske-old', 
(Peter,)  a  celebrated  admiral  in  the  Danish  service, 
born  at  Drontheim,  in  Norway,  in  1691,  was  originally 
named  Wessel.  As  commander  of  a  privateer  in  the 
war  with  Sweden,  he  captured  numerous  merchant- 
vessels,  and  was  made  lieutenant  in  17 12.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  commodore  in  1715  for  his  services  in  de- 
stroying a  number  of  Swedish  ships  on  the  coast  of 
Norway.  In  1716  he  won  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Swedes,  under  Admiral  Wachtmeister,  for  which  the 
king  bestowed  upon  him  a  gold  medal.  He  was  soon 
after  ennobled  by  Frederick  IV.,  with  the  name  of  Tor- 
denskiold, ("Shield  against  Thunder,")  and  in  171 7 
captured  the  fortified  town  of  Marstrand.  After  the 
peace  of  Fredericksberg  he  visited  Germany,  and  was 
killed  in  a  duel  at  Hanover,  (1720  or  1721.) 

See  RoTHE,  "  Tordenskjold's  Liv  og  Levnet,"  3  vols.,  1747-50; 
Tharup,  "P.  Tordenskjold's  Liv  og  Levnet,"  1S38 ;  Bohr,  "P. 
Tordenskjold,"  etc.,  1838;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tordesillas.     See  Herrera  y  Tordesillas. 

Torelli,  to-rel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  mathematician,  born  at  Verona  in  1721.  He 
studied  at  Padua,  where  he  became  thoroughly  versed 
in  the  ancient  languages.  He  subsequently  prepared 
an   edition   of  all   the   works  of  Archimedes,   (both   in 


Greek  and  Latin,)  which  was  published  in  1792.  He  also 
translated  /Esop's  "Fables"  into  Latin.     Died  in  1781. 

See  SiiiiLiATo,  "Ue  Vita  J.  Torelli  Commentarius,"  1782. 

Torelli,  [Lat.  Taure'lius,]  (Lelio,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Fano  in  1489,  settled  at  Florence 
about  1528,  and  became  podesti  of  that  city.  He  was 
appointed  chancellor  and  chief  secretary  to  Cosimo  de' 
Medici  about  1546.  He  published  an  excellent  edition 
of  the  important  Florentine  manuscripts  of  the  Pandects, 
(3  vols,  fol,  1553.)     Died  in  1576. 

See  Manni,  "  Vita  di  L.  Torelli,"  1770. 

Torelli,  (Pomponio,)  Count  of  Monte-Chiarugola, 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma  in  1539.  He  wrote 
tragedies,  etc.     Died  in  1608. 

Torefio,  to-rin'yo,  (Don  Jos6  Maria  Queypo  de 
Llano  Ruiz  de  Saravia,)  a  Spanish  statesman  and 
historian,  born  at  Oviedo  in  1786.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  insurrection  against  the  French  in  1808,  and 
in  1810  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Cortes.  After  the 
return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1814,  he  left  Spain,  and 
resided  many  years  in  France,  England,  and  Germany. 
On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  he  returned  to  Madrid,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1834,  and  in  1835 
succeeded  Martinez  de  la  Rosa  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  and  president  of  the  council.  He  was  compelled, 
on  account  of  his  moderate  policy,  to  resign  the  same 
year;  and  he  lived  subsequently  in  Paris  and  London. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Insurrection, 
War,  and  Revolution  of  Spain,"  (5  vols.,  1835.)  Died 
in  1843. 

See  L.  DB  LoMi^NiE,  "M.  Toreno,  par  im  Homme  de  Rien," 
1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Torenvhit,  to'ren-vit',  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1631.  His  works  are  chiefly  his- 
torical pieces  and  portraits.     Died  in  1719. 

Torfaeus.     See  Torfaus. 

Torfaus,  Torfaeus,  tor-fa'Cis,  or  Tor'fes-en,  [Fr. 
Torf6e,  toR'fi',]  (Thormodr,)  an  Icelandic  scholar  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1740.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  in  1682  became  royal  historiographer.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Norway,"  (in  Latin,  4  vols., 
1711,)  "History  of  the  Orkney  Islands,"  ("  Historia 
Rerum  Orcadensium,"  1715,)  "  Series  Dynastarum  et 
Regum  Dania,"  etc.,  and  other  works  on  Scandinavian 
history.  His  Latin  style  is  remarkable  for  its  elegance, 
and  his  writings  exhibit  great  learning  and  research. 
Died  in  1719. 

See  J.  Erichsen,  "T.  Torfesens  Levnetsbeskrivelse,"  1788. 

Torfee.     See  Torfaus. 

Torfesen.     See  Torfaus. 

Toribio,  to-ree'Be-o,  (Alfonso  Mongrovejo — mon 
gRo-va'Ho,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  near  Valladolid  in 
1538.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Lima  in  1580.  Died 
in  1606. 

See  PtNELO,  "  Vida  de  Don  Toribio,"  1653. 

Toribio  de  Benavente,  to-re'ne-o  di  ai-ni-vSn'ti. 
a  Spanish  missionary  of  the  sixteenth  century,  resided 
many  years  in  Mexico,  and  was  guardian  of  a  convent  at 
Tezcuco.  He  wrote  a  history  of  New  Spain,  which  is 
still  in  manuscript. 

See  Pkescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii. 
book  iii. 

Torinus,  to-ree'nds,  (Albanus,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
originally  named  Alban  Thorer,  born  in  the  canton  of 
Zurich  in  1489,  became  professor  of  practical  medicine 
at  Bale.  He  translated  a  number  of  Greek  medical 
works  into  Latin,  and  published  editions  of  several  Latin 
treatises  on  medicine.     Died  in  1550. 

Torlonia,  toR-lo'ne-i,  (Alessandro,)  Duke  of  Cesi 
and  Marquis  of  Rotna- Vecchia,  an  opulent  Italian  banker, 
was  born  in  1800.  He  expended  his  fortune  liberally 
in  works  of  art  and  fine  buildings,  and  spent  over 
$6,000,000  in  draining  Lake  Fucino.     Died  in  1886. 

Torlonia,  (Giovanni,)  a  distinguished  Italian  banker, 
born  in  1754,  in  indigent  circumstances,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  acquired  a  large  fortune  by  his 
enterprise  and  financial  talent,  and  was  ennobled,  with 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Bracciano.     Died  in  1829. 

Tornberg,  toRn'b§Rg,  (Carl  Johan,)  a  Swedish  Ori- 
entalist, born  at  Linkoping  in  1807,  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Lunil  about  1844.  He  wrote  much 
on  Arabic  literature  and  antiquities.    Died  Sept.  6,  1877. 


I,  e.  T,  n,  il,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obsaire;  fdr,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TORNIELLI 


2331 


TORRIGIANO 


Tornielli,  toR-ne-el'Iee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  histo- 
rian, born  near  Novara  in  1543.  He  published  "Annals, 
Sacred  and  Profane,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Time  of 
Christ,"  {"  Annales  sacri  et  profani,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1610.) 
Died  in  1622. 

Tor'por-ley,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  mathema- 
tician and  divine,  born  about  1570,  was  amanuensis  to 
Francis  Vieta.  He  published  a  treatise  on  spherical 
trigonometry,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1632. 

Torquatus.     See  Manlius. 

Torquemada,  toR-ki-mS'oi,  a  Spanish  monk  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  Mexico, 
entitled  "  Monarchia  Indiana,"  published  at  Seville  in 
1611;  and  at  Madrid  in  1723. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  L 
book  i. 

Torquemada,  [Lat.  Turrecrema'ta,]  (Juan,)  a 
Spanish  theologian,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1388.  He 
became  a  cardinal  in  1439,  and  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1468. 

Torquemada,  de,d4  toR-ki-mi'ni,  (Tomas,)  a  Span- 
ish Dominican  monk,  infamous  for  his  cruelty,  was  born 
in  1420.  He  was  made  first  Inquisitor-General  in  1483, 
and  he  is  said  in  sixteen  years  to  have  condemned 
ninety  thousand  persons  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
and  more  than  eight  thousand  to  be  burned.  Died  in 
1498. 

See  Prbscott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part 
:  Llorente,  "  Histoire  de  I'lnquisition  d'Espa^ne;"  Mariana, 
"  Historia  de  Espana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Torre,  tor'ri,  (Flaminio,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna  in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido 
Reni.     Died  in  i66i. 

Torre,  del,  del  tor'rJl,  (Filippo,)  a  learned  Italian 
intiquary,  born  in  Friuli  in  1657,  was  made  Bishop  of 
Adria  by  Pope  Clement  XI.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  antiquarian  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  entitled  "Monuments  of  Ancient  Antium,"  ("Monu- 
menta  veteris  Antii.")     Died  in  1717. 

See  Facciolati,  "Vita  di  P.  Turn,"  1729;  NicAron,  "M^- 
moires. " 

Torre,  della,  del'lS  tor'ri,  (Filomarino,)  Duke,  an 
Italian  nobleman,  noted  for  his  scientific  attainments, 
was  born  in  Naples.  Having  been  unjustly  charged 
with  favouring  the  designs  of  the  French,  he  fell  a 
victim  to  the  fury  of  the  Neapolitan  mob,  which,  after 
destroying  his  property,  killed  him,  together  with  his 
brother,  (1799.) 

Torre,  della,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  at  Rome  about  1712,  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  mathematics  at  Venice  and  other  Italian  cities. 
He  published  a  "  Course  of  Physics,"  (Latin  and  Italian,) 
"Tbo  History  and  Phenomena  of  Vesuvius  Explained," 
(1755,)  and  other  scientific  works.  He  also  made  great 
improvements  in  the  microscope.  He  was  a  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and  of 
other  learned  institutions.     Died  in  1782. 

Torre,  della,  (Jacopo,)  or  Jacopo  da  Forli,  an 
Italian  medical  writer,  born  at  Fori);  died  in  1414. 

Torremuzza,  de,  di  toR-ri-moot'sS,  (Gabriel  Lan- 
cillotto  Castello — IJn-chfel-lot'to  kSs-tel'lo,)  Prince, 
an  Italian  numismatist,  born  at  Palermo  in  1727.  He 
published  several  antiquarian  treatises.     Died  in  1792. 

Tor'rens,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  distinguished  Irish  officer, 
born  at  Londonderry  in  1779.  Having  previously  served 
in  the  West  Indies  and  Holland,  he  accompanied  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  to  Portugal  as  his  secretary.  He 
was  made  adjutant-general  in  1820.  Died  August  23, 
1828. 

Torrens,  (Robert,)  F.R.S.,  M.P.,  an  economist 
and  writer,  born  in  Ireland  in  1780.  He  supported  the 
Reform  bill  of  183 1,  and  wrote  several  works  on  trade 
and  political  economy.     Died  in  1864. 

Torrens,  (William  Torrens  Maccullagh,)  an  Irish 
author,  born  near  Dublin  in  1813.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1834,  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1836,  entered  Parliament  in  1865,  and  became 
wiaely  known  as  an  advanced  Liberal.  He  published 
"  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  History,"  "  Life  of  R.  L. 
Shiel,"  "  Life  of  Sir  J.  Graham,"  "  Industrial  History  of 


Free  Nations,"  "  Empire  in  Asia,  How  we  Came  by  It," 
"Memoirs  of  William,  Second  Viscount  Melbourne," 
eta 

Torrentinus,  tor-ren-tee'niis,  a  German  grammarian, 
whose  proper  name  was  Hermann  von  Beek,  was  born 
at  Zwolle  about  1450.  He  wrote  "  Elucidarius  Carminum 
et  Historiarum,"  (1510.)     Died  about  1520. 

Tor-ren'ti-us,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1589;  died  in  1640. 

Tor-ren'ti-us,  (L>evinus,)  a  Flemish  scholar  and 
prelate,  originally  named  Van  der  Beken,  was  born  at 
Ghent  in  1525.  He  became  Bishopof  Antwerp,  and  sub- 
sequently was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  (1595.) 
He  died  the  same  year.  He  was  the  author  of  Latin 
poems  of  great  elegance,  and  commentaries  on  several 
Latin  classics,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge 
of  Roman  antiquities. 

Torres,  tor'rgs,  (Domingos  Maximiano,)  a  Portu- 
guese poet,  born  about  1750. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Torres,  (Luis  da  Motta,)  a  Portuguese  admiral, 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1769.  He  was  appointed  Captain- 
General  of  Angola  about  1815.     Died  in  1822. 

Torres-Caicedo,  tor'rSs  ki-e-si'do,  (Jos4  Marie,)  a 
poet,  born  at  Bogota,  United  States  of  Colombia,  March 
30,  1830.  For  many  years  he  was  employed  in  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  was,  when  at  home,  engaged  in  jour- 
nalism. His  works  include  "Religion,  Poetry,  and 
Love,"  (poems,)  and  "  Biographical  Essays  on  Eminent 
Latin-Americans,"  (1863.) 

Torres,  de,  di  tor'rSs,  (Clemente,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1665.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  best  painters  of  his  time.     Died  in  1730. 

Torres  Naharro.     See  Naharro. 

Tor'rey,  (John,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
botanist,  born  in  New  York  in  1798.  He  published 
in  1819  a  catalogue  of  the  plants  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  New  Yferk,  which  was  succeeded  in  1824  by  the  first 
volume  of  his  "  Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States." 
In  conjunction  with  Professor  Gray,  he  produced  a 
"Flora  of  North  America,"  (1838.)  He  was  appointed 
in  1827  professor  of  chemistry  and  botany  in  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York.  He  also  pre- 
pared the  botanical  reports  of  the  natural  history  survey 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  (1844.)    Died  March  10,  1873. 

Torricelli,  tor-re-sel'lee  or  tor-re-chel'lee,  (Evange- 
lista,)  an  eminent  Italian  natural  philosopher,  born  at 
Piancaldoli,  in  the  Romagna,  in  1608.  He  studied  mathe- 
matics at  Rome  under  Benedetto  Castelli,  discovered 
the  law  which  regulates  the  flowing  of  water  out  of  an 
orifice  of  a  vessel,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Motion.  This 
commended  him  to  the  favour  of  Galileo,  who  invited 
him  to  Florence.  Torricelli  went  thither  in  1641,  and 
remained  with  Galileo  until  the  death  of  the  latter.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Florence  by 
the  grand  duke  Ferdinand.  He  discovered  a  method  of 
ascertaining  the  area  of  a  cycloid.  His  chief  title  to 
celebrity  is  the  discovery  of  the  Torricellian  vacuum  and 
the  invention  of  the  barometer,  which  occurred  in  1643. 
He  filled  with  mercury  a  glass  tube  about  three  feet  long, 
closed  at  one  end,  and  inserted  the  open  end  in  a  quan- 
tity of  mercury.  He  thus  found  that  a  vacuum  was 
formed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tube,  and  that  the  column 
of  mercury  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmospheie 
remained  about  twenty-nine  or  thirty  inches  high.  He 
published  "Opera  Geometrica,"  (1644.)  Died  at  Flor- 
ence in  October,  1647. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  'Iira- 
BoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Torrigiano,  tor-re-ji'no,  (Pietro,)  a  celebrated  Ital- 
ian sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1472.  *  He  was  a 
fellow-student  of  Michael  Angelo,  of  whom  he  was  so 
jealous  that  he  once  assaulted  him  violently,  disfiguring 
iiis  face  for  life.  He  afterwards  resided  for  a  time  in 
England,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Henry  VIII.,  and 
executed  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  other  works.  Having  returned  to  Spain  in  1519, 
he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the  Inquisition  for  having 
broken  in  pieces  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  which  he  had 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi.guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     fJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


TORRIJOS 


2332 


TOULONGEON 


o^ade  for  a  nobleman,  who  refused  to  pay  the  price 
demanded,  (1522.) 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Ticozzi,  "  Dizio- 
naria" 

Torrijos,  tor-ree'nds,  (Jos6  Maria,)  a  Spanish  gene- 
lal,  born  at  Madrid  in  1791,  was  educated  among  the 
pages  of  Charles  IV.  He  served  in  the  campaigns  of 
1808  and  181 1,  and,  having  been  made  Captain-General 
of  Valencia,  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  the  constitution.  After  the  capture  of  Cadiz 
by  the  French,  he  left  Spain,  but  returned  in  1830,  soon 
after  which  he  was  betrayed,  with  fifty  of  his  companions, 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  they  were  all  shot, 
by  order  of  King  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  183 1. 

Tor'ring-tpn,  (Arthur  Herbert,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  admiral,  was  a  brother  of  Chief-Justice  Herbert. 
He  was  dismissed  from  all  his  places  by  James  II.  in 
1687,  because  he  would  not  vote  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  Act.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  fleet  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange  during  his  voyage  from  Holland  to  Torbay, 
(1688,)  and  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  by 
William  III.  "  He  was  utterly  inefiftcient,"  says  Mac- 
aulay.  In  1690  he  was  removed  from  that  office,  and 
obtained  command  of  the  fleet.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Beachy  Head,  in  June,  1690.  His  conduct  in 
that  battle  was  so  disgraceful  that  he  was  dismissed  from 
the  service.     Died  April  13,  1716. 

Torrington,  Viscount.     See  Bvng,  (George.) 

Torsellino.    See  Turselli.nus. 

Torstenson,  toR'sten-son,  or  Torstensson,  (Len- 
.NART,)  Count  of  Ortala,  a  Swedish  commander,  born  at 
Torstena  in  1603.  He  accompanied  Gustavus  Adolphus 
to  Germany  in  1630,  and  after  his  death  served  under 
Baner  in  various  campaigns  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in 
Germany  in  1641,  and  in  May,  1642,  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Imperial  troops  at  Schweidnitz,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  successes.  He  defeated  the  Imperialists 
at  Jankowitz  in  February,  1645.  Having  resigned  his 
command  in  1646,  he  was  created  a  count  by  Queen 
Christina,  and  obtained  other  distinctions.    Died  in  165 1. 

See  Geijer,  "  Histoirede  Suide;"  Casstroem,  "Areminne  ofver 
L.  Torstensson,"  1786 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Genirale  ;"  De  Peys- 
TKR,  "Life  of  Torstenson." 

Tortelli,  toR-tel'lee,  [Lat.  Tortel'lius,]  (Giovanni,) 
an  Italian  grammarian,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1400.  He 
wrote  "  On  the  Power  of  Letters,"  ("  De  Potestate  Lite- 
rarum.")     Died  about  1466. 

Tortellius.    See  Tortelli. 

Torti,  toR'tee,  (P'rancesco,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Modena  in  1658,  became  professor  of  medicine  at 
M6dena  about  1680.  He  composed  several  oratorios  in 
his  youth.  His  chief  work  is  a  Treatise  on  Pernicious 
Fevcrs,  entitled  "  Therapeutice  specialis  ad  Febres  quas- 
dam  perniciosas,"  etc.,  (i  709,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  died  in  1741. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Life  of  Torti." 

Tory,  to're',  (Geoffroi,)  a  French  engraver  and 
printer,  born  at  Bourges  about  1480.  He  learned  Greek 
and  Latin,  established  himself  as  a  printer  in  Paris,  and 
translated  several  classical  works.  He  also  illustrated 
numerous  books  with  engravings.     Died  in  1533. 

Toscanella,  di,  de  tos-ki-nel'li,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  in  the  Papal  States  about  1510;  died  about 
1580. 

Toscanelli,  tos-ki-nel'lee,  (Paolo  del  Pozzo,)  an 
Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Florence  in  1397.  He  formed 
a  project  to  shorten  the  route  to  China  by  navigating 
westward,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  Columbus  on  this  subject 
about  1474.  He  constructed  a  gnomon  on  the  cathedral 
of  Florence,     Died  in  1482. 

Toschi,  tos'kee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
cardinal,  born  near  Reggio  in  1535  ;  died  in  1620. 

Toschi,  (Paolo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver,  born 
at  Parma  in  1788,  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  best  works 
maybe  named  his  prints  after  Correggio's  "Madonna 
della  Scodella,"  and  the  •'  Venus  and  Adonis"  of  Albano. 
Died  in  1854. 

Tosetti,  to-set'tee,  (Urbano,)  an  Italian  philosopher, 
bom  at  Florence  ;  died  in  1768. 


Tostado  or  Tostatus.   See  Alphonsus  Abulensis. 

Tos'tl  or  Tos'tig,  P'.arl  of  Northumberland,  was  a 
brother  of  King  Harold  II.  In  1066  Tosti  and  the 
King  of  Norway  invaded  England,  and  were  defeated 
by  Harold.  Tosti  was  killed  in  this  battle,  September, 
1066. 

Totl-la,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  began  to  reign  in 
541  A.D.  He  invaded  Italy  and  captured  Rome  in  546, 
after  Belisarius  had  made  an  effort  to  raise  the  siege  of 
that  capital.  He  was  defeated  in  Tuscany  by  the  army 
of  Justinian,  under  Narses,  and  was  killed  in  the  retreat, 
m  552  A.D. 

Totleben  or  Todleben,  tot'liljen,  (Gottlob  Hein- 
RiCH,)  a  profligate  German  adventurer,  born  in  Saxony 
about  1 710.  Having  been  banished  for  his  crimes,  he 
Vent  to  Russia  about  1755,  entered  the  army,  and  be- 
came a  general.  He  took  Berlin  in  1760,  and  committed 
great  cruelties  on  the  Pru.ssians.      Died  in  1773. 

Totness,  Earl  of.     See  Carew,  (George.) 

Tott,  de,  d?h  tot,  (Francois,)  Baron,  a  French 
officer,  of  Hungarian  extraction,  born  in  1733,  held  an 
ofl5ce  in  the  French  embassy  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  appointed,  after  his  return,  consul  to  the  Crimea. 
(1767.)  He  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  Turkey, 
where  he  eff"ected  great  improvements  in  the  artillery 
and  military  fortifications.  He  was  the  author  ot 
"Memoirs  of  the  Turks  and  Tartars,"  (1784,)  which 
obtained  great  popularity  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages.     Died  in  1793. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  October,  1785. 

Tot'ten,  (George  Muirson,)  an  American  civil  en- 
gineer, born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1809.  He 
was  appointed  engineer-in-chief  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
in  1849.     Died  in  1884. 

Totten,  (Joseph  Gilbert,)  an  American  officer,  bom 
at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1788,  served  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was 
made  colonel  and  chief  engineer  in  1838,  and  in  the 
latter  capacity  accompanied  the  army  to  Mexico  in  1847, 
where  he  was  soon  after  appointed  a  brigadier-general. 
He  wrote  a  "  Report  on  the  Subject  of  National  De- 
fence."    Died  in  1864. 

Tottenham,  tot'ten-am,  (EDV*rARD,)  an  English 
divine  and  controversialist,  bom  in  1810  ;  died  in  1853. 

Toucey,  tow'se,  (Isaac,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1798.  He  was  chosen 
Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1846,  became  attorney 
general  of  the  United  States  in  June,  1848,  and  was  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1852  to  1857.  In 
March,  1857,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy. 
He  has  been  accused  of  dispersing  the  navy  to  remote 
parts  of  the  globe  in  i860,  with  a  design  to  favour  the 
movements  of  the  disunionists.     Died  in  1869. 

Touchard-Lafosse,  too'shtR'  It'foss',  (G.,)  a  me- 
diocre French  writer,  born  in  1780,  published  many 
historical  works  and  novels.     Died  in  1847. 

Touche-Tr^ville.    See  La  Touche. 

Tougard,  too'gtR',  (J6r6me  Franqois,)  a  French 
writer  on  law  and  horticulture,  born  at  Havre  in  1781; 
died  at  Rouen,  March  i,  i860. 

Toullier,  too'le-i',  (Charles  Bonaventure  Marie,) 
a  distinguished  French  jurist,  born  about  1760.  He  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Rennes,  and  published  an  im- 
portant work  entitled  "  The  French  Civil  Law  according 
to  the  Order  of  the  Code  Napoleon,"  (14  vols.,  1811-31  ) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition;)  C.  PAULMIBKt 
"  £loge  de  Toullier,"  1836. 

Toulmin,  (Camilla.)  See  Crosland,  (Mrs.) 
Toulmin,  tooKmin,  (Joshua,)  an  English  Unitarian 
divine,  born  in  London  in  1740,  became  one  of  the  pas- 
tors of  the  congregation  at  Birmingham.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Memoirs  of  Socinus,"  (1777,)  "Review  of 
the  Life,  Character,  and  Writings  of  John  Biddle," 
(1789,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1815. 
See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1816. 

Toulongeon,  de,  d?h  too16N'zhdN',  (Francois 
Emanuel,)  Viscount,  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1748.  Having  joined  the  popular 
party  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  a 
deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789.     He  published. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fjr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


TOULOUSE 


2333 


TOURVILLE 


among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  France  from  the 
Revolution  of  1789,"  (4  vols.,  1801-10,)  and  "Revolu- 
tionary Manual,"  etc. ;  also  a  translation  of  Caesar's 
"  Connnuentaries."    Died  in  1812. 

See  QuiRARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire ;"  Dupont  db  Nbmours, 
"Notice  sur  M.  de  Toulongeon,"  1818;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Toulouse,  de,  d?h  too'looz',  (Louis  Alexandre  de 
Bourbon — d?h  booR'bAN',)  Count,  a  French  admiral, 
born  in  1678,  was  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame 
de  Montespan.  He  received  command  of  a  fleet,  and 
opposed  with  success  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  near 
Malaga  in  1704.     Died  in  1737. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires." 

Toup,  toop,(JoNATHAN,)  an  English  divine  andscholar, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1713.  He  studied  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  and  subsequently  became  a  prebendary  of  Exe- 
ter Cathedral.  He  published  several  critical  works  of 
great  merit,  the  most  important  of  which  is  entitled 
"  Emendations  of  Suidas,"  ("  Emendationes  in  Suidam," 
4  vols.,  1760-75.)     Died  in  1785. 

Tour  d'Auvergne,  La.  See  Turenne,  Latour, 
and  Bouillon. 

Tour,  de  la,  (Baillet,)  Count.  See  La  Tour,  von. 

Tourg6e,  toor-zhi',  (Albion  Winegar,)  an  Americar 
novelist,  born  at  Williamsfield,  Ohio,  May  2,  1838.  He 
studied  at  Rochester  University,  1859-61,  served  in  the 
Union  army  in  the  war  of  1861-65,  and  then  settled  as  a 
lawyer,  editor,  and  farmer  at  Greensborough,  North 
Carolina.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Constitu- 
tional Conventions  of  1868  and  1875,  ^"<i  was  one  of  the 
commission  appointed  to  codify  and  revise  the  State  laws. 
He  was  judge  of  the  Superior  Court,  1868-73.  Besides 
his  legal  works.  Judge  Tourgee  published  "Toinette," 
(1874,)  "  Figs  and  Thistles,"  (1879,)  "  A  Fool's  Errand," 
(which  attracted  much  attention,)  (1879,)  "Bricks without 
Straw,"  (1880,)  "Hot  Plowshares,"  (1883,)  and  other 
novels.     He  edited  "The  Continent,"  (1882-84.) 

Tour,  Let    See  La  Tour. 

Tourette,  La.    See  Tourrette,  de  la. 

Tournefort,  de,  deh  tooR'n^h'foR'  or  tooRn'foR', 
(Joseph  Pitton,)  an  eminent  French  botanist,  born  at 
Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1656.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Montpellier,  and  subsequently  made  scientific  excursions 
in  Spain  and  the  Pyrenees.  He  was  appointed  in  1683 
assistant  professor  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  in  Paris,  where 
his  lectures  won  for  him  a  high  reputation.  He  set  out 
in  1700  on  a  journey  to  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  the 
adjacent  countries,  accompanied  by  Gundelsheimer.  On 
his  return  to  Paris  he  obtained  the  chair  of  medicine 
m  the  College  of  France.  He  died  in  1708.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  his  "  History  of  Plants  in  the  Environs 
of  Paris,"  ("  Histoire  des  Plantes  qui  naissent  aux  Envi- 
rons de  Paris,"  etc.,  1698,)  "Elements  of  Botany,"  ("  In- 
stitutiones  Rei  Herbariae,"  3  vols.  4to,  with  476  plates, 
1700,)  and  "Travels  in  the  Levant,"  (2  vols.,  1717.) 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoges  ;"  "  Biographie  Mddicale  ;"  Maury, 
"Histoire  de  rAcademie  des  Sciences;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Tournely,  tooR'ni'le',  (Honor6,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Antibes  in  1658  ;  died  in  1729. 

Tournemine,  tooR'neh'mfen'  or  tooRn'mfen',  (Ren^ 
Joseph,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1661.  Having  previously  filled  various  professorships, 
he  became  in  1701  editor  of  the  "Journal  de  Trevoux." 
Among  his  works  we  may  name  "  Reflections  on  Athe- 
ism," and  an  edition  of  Prideaux's  "  History  of  the  Jews." 
Died  in  1739. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Feller,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Tournemine,  de,  deh  tooR'neh'min',  (Charles,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Toulon  in  1814;  died  there, 
December  20,  1872. 

Tourneur,  (Charles  Louis  Francois.)     See  Le- 

TOURNEUR. 

Tourneur,  Le,  leh  tooR'nUR',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
translator,  born  at  Valognes  in  1736.  He  produced  in 
l''7o  a  translation  of  Young's  "Night  Thoughts,"  which 
was  praised  by  Diderot,  and  commenced  a  prose  version 
of  Shakspeare's  plays,  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared 
in  1776.  The  admiration  of  Shakspeare  which  he  ex- 
pressed provoked  the  hostility  of  Voltaire.     Le  Tour- 


neur's  version  of  Shakspeare  (20  vols.,  1776-82)  is 
considered  the  best  in  the  French  language.  It  was 
revised  and  republished  by  M.  Guizot  in  1824.  He  also 
translated  "  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  "  Ossian's  Poems,"  and 
other  English  books.     Died  in  1788. 

_  See  La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litl^rature ;"  Desessarts,  "Siicles 
Litt^raires." 

Tourneux,  Le,  l?h  tooR'nuh',  (Nicolas,)  an  eloquent 
French  preacher,  born  at  Rouen  in  1640.  He  preached 
in  Paris,  was  praised  by  Boileau,  and  received  a  pension 
fi-om  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  several  devotional  works. 
Died  in  1689. 

Tournon,  de,  deh  tooR'noN',  (Charles  Thomas 
Maillard,)  born  at  Turin  in  1668,  studied  at  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  and  was  appointed  by  the 
pope  apostolic  vicar  in  India.  In  1701  he  went  on  a 
mission  to  China,  where  his  indiscreet  zeal  caused  him 
to  be  imprisoned  by  the  emperor  in  1707.  Died  in 
prison  in  17 10. 

See  Cardinal  Passionei,  "Memorie  storiche  della  Legazione  e 
Morte  del  Cardinale  di  Tournon." 

Tournon,  de,  (Francois,)  a  French  cardinal  and 
statesman,  born  at  Tournon  in  1489,  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Francis  I.  In  1526  he  assisted  in  ne- 
gotiating for  the  deliverance  of  the  king,  who  had  been 
made  prisoner  by  Charles  V.,  and  in  1529  concluded  the 
peace  of  Cambray.  He  was  soon  after  made  a  cardinal 
and  Archbishop  of  Bourges.  He  was  instrumental  in 
effecting  the  marriage  of  the  son  of  Francis,  afterwards 
Henry  II.,  with  Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  in  1538  nego- 
tiated with  Charles  V.  the  ten  years'  truce  of  Nice.  He 
was  made  prime  minister  of  state  about  1542,  in  which 
post  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  cruel  persecution  of  the 
Protestants.     Died  in  1562. 

See  Flhurv-Ternal,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Tournon,"  1728; 
De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Teniporis;"  Sainte-Marthb,  "Gallia 
Christiana  Nova;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Tournon,  de,  (Philippe  Camille  Casimir  Marce- 
lin,)  Count,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Apt  in  1778. 
He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Rome  by  Napoleon,  and 
after  the  second  restoration  became  prefect  of  the 
department  of  the  Gironde.  He  wrote  "  Statistical 
Studies  of  Rome,"  etc.,  (1831.)     Died  in  1833. 

Touro,  too'ro,  (Judah,)  a  wealthy  and  benevolent 
American  Jew,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1776. 
He  settled  at  New  Orleans,  and  at  his  death  left  $80,000 
to  found  an  almshouse  in  that  city,  as  well  as  numerous 
munificent  bequests  for  various  charities  in  other  cities 
of  the  United  States,  and  for  the  relief  of  the  Jews  in 
Palestine.     Died  in  1854. 

Touron,  too'rAN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  biographer 
and  monk,  born  near  Castres  in  1686.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  in  French,  a  "Life  of  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas," (1737,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Charles  Borromeo,"  (1761.) 
Died  in  1775. 

Tourreil,  de,  deh  too'ril'  or  too'r^'ye,  (Jacques,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1656.  He  trans- 
lated some  orations  of  Demosthenes,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy  in  1692.     Died  in  1715. 

Tourret,  too'r|^  (Charles  Gilbert,)  a  French  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Montmarault  in  1795.  He  was 
minister  of  agriculture  from  June  to  December,  1848, 
and  founded  agricultural  schools,  (fermes  Scales.)  Died 
in  1857. 

Tourrette,  de  la,  deh  li  too'rSt',  (Marc  Antoink 
Louis  Claret,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1729,  was  a  friend  of  J.  J.  Rousseau.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Botany,"  (2  vols., 
1766,)  and  "Chloris  Lugdunensis,"  (1785.)  Died  in  1793. 

Totxrtelle,  tooR'tSl',  (Etienne,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1756.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  Philosophic  History  of  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1804.) 
Died  in  1801. 

Tourville,  de,  deh  tooR'vfel',  (Anne  Hilarion  de 
Cotentin — deh  ko'tfiN't^N',)  Count,  a  celebrated 
French  admiral,  born  at  Tourville  in  1642.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1667,  and  served  with  distinction  against 
the  Dutch  and  Spaniards.  In  1682  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1689  was  made  a  vice- 
admiral.  "Tourville,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  the  ablest 
maritime  commander  that  his  country  then  possessed." 


r.ask;  yasj;  ^hard;  gasy/G,  a,  K.,  guttural;  a, nasal:  k,  trilled ;  sasz;  ih  asm  this.     (2i^=.See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TO  us  SAIN 


2334 


TOWNS  END 


("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.)  He  defeated  the  Eng- 
lish admiral  Torrington  at  Beachy  Head  in  June,  1690. 
In  1692  he  was  ordered,  with  forty-four  ships,  to  protect 
the  descent  of  an  army  on  England.  The  English  and 
Dutch  fleets  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  him  at  La 
Hogue  the  same  year.  He  was  created  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1693.     Died  in  1701. 

See  "Memoires  de  Toiirville,"  3  vols.,  1742;  Richer,  "Viede 
Tourville."  17S3;  Sismondi,  "  Hisloire  des  Krangais ;"  Satnt- 
SlMON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^iierale." 

Toussain,  too'siw',  (Daniel,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Montbelliard  in  1541.  He  taught 
Hebrew  at  Orleans,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  also  was  professor  of  theology.  He 
wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1602. 

Toussain,  [Lat.  Tussa'nus,]  (Jacques,)  a  French 
Hellenist,  born  at  Troyes.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  Greek  at  the  College  Royal  by  Francis  I.  about  1532. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Turn^be  (Turnebus)  and  Henri 
Estienne.    Died  in  1547. 

Toussaiut,  too's^N',  (Anna  Luise  Gertrude,)  a 
Dutch  novelist,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1812.  She  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Almagro,"  (1837,)  "The 
English  in  Rome,"  (1840,)  and  "  Lauernesse  House," 
("  Het  Huis  Lauernesse,"  1841,)  which  had  a  great 
success;  also  a  popular  historical  novel,  entitled  "  Ley- 
cester  in  Nederland,"  (about  1851.)  She  was  married 
to  the  painter  Bosboom  in  1851. 

See  the  "Westminster  Review"  for  August,  1843. 

Toussaiut,  too's^N',  (Fran^^ois  Chkistophe  Ar- 
MAND,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1806,  was  a 
pupil  of  David  of  Angers.  Among  his  works  is  "Two 
Indian  Slaves  bearing  a  Torch."     Died  in  1862. 

Toussaiut,  (Francjois  Vincent,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1715.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
ethics,  entitled  "  Les  Moeurs  par  Panage,"  (1748.)  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1772. 

Toussaiut  L'Ouverture,  too'siN'  loo'v^R'tiiR',  a 
celebrated  negro  general  and  liberator,  born  near  Cap 
Francois,  in  Hayti,  in  1743,  was  descended  from  an 
African  prince.  His  parents  were  both  slaves  and  of 
pure  negro  blood.  He  learned  to  read  and  to  write, 
and  by  his  good  conduct  and  intelligence  gained  the 
confidence  of  his  master,  who  appointed  him  steward 
of  the  implements  employed  in  making  sugar.  In 
August,  1791,  began  a  general  insurrection  of  the  slaves 
of  Hayti,  who  massacred  many  of  the  whites.  Tous- 
saint,  however,  was  innocent  of  these  acts  of  cruelty, 
and  saved  the  lives  of  his  master's  family.  After  they 
had  escaped  from  the  island,  Toussaint  joined  the  army 
which  was  fighting  for  liberty.  The  insurgents  espoused 
the  cause  of  Louis  XVI.,  while  their  former  masters 
received  aid  from  the  English. 

T!.e  horrible  confusion  which  prevailed  in  the  island 
was  increased  by  dissensions  among  the  whites  and  by 
the  interference  of  the  Spaniards.  Toussaint  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  the  negroes,  and  after  the  French 
Convention  had  decreed  the  liberation  of  the  slaves 
(February,  1794)  he  fought  against  the  English  and 
Spaniards,  and  aided  the  French  general  Laveaux  to 
expel  those  invaders.  He  gained  a  number  of  victories. 
"His  energy  and  his  prowess,"  says  Beard,  "made  him 
the  idol  of  his  troops.  ...  In  his  deeds  and  warlike 
achievements  he  had  equalled  the  great  captains  of 
ancient  and  modern  times."  He  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief by  the  French  commissioner  in  1796, 
and  confirmed  as  such  by  Bonaparte  about  December, 
1799.  He  was  regarded  as  a  general  benefactor  by  all 
classes  and  colours.  He  restored  order  and  prosperity, 
and  governed  with  moderation  and  humanity.  Under 
his  auspices  a  liberal  constitution  was  formed,  and  he 
was  elected  president  for  life.  Toussaint  sent  this  con- 
stitution to  Bonaparte  for  his  approbation  in  July,  1800, 
but  the  French  Consul  exclaimed,  "He  is  a  revolted 
slave,  whom  we  must  punish  ;  the  honour  of  France  is 
outraged."  Having  resolved  to  reduce  the  negroes 
a^ain  to  slavery,  Bonaparte  sent  an  army  of  about 
35,000  men,  under  Leclerc,  to  subdue  Toussaint.  This 
army  arrived  at  Hayti  about  the  end  of  1801,  and,  though 
courageously  resisted  by  Toussaint,  occupied  the  sea- 
ports    Retiring  to  the  mountains,  Toussaint  maintained 


the  contest,  and  killed  thousands  of  the  French.  Le- 
clerc  resorted  to  negotiation,  and  offered  the  negroes 
their  liberty.  These  conditions  were  accepted  by  Tous- 
saint, who  concluded  a  peace  and  retired  to  his  estate. 
He  was  taken  by  treachery  in  June,  1802,  and  carried  to 
France,  and  confined  in  the  dungeon  in  the  castle  of 
Joux,  near  Besan^on,  where  he  died  in  April,  1803. 
According  to  some  authors,  he  was  starved  to  death. 

See  Saint-R^mv,  "Vie  de  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  1850;  John 
R.  Beard,  "Life  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  1853;  J.  Redpath, 
"Toussaint  L'Ouverture;  a  Biography."  1863;  Di'broca,  "Vie  de 
Toussaint  Louverture,"  1S02;  James  Stephen,  "  History  of  Tous- 
saint Louverture,"  1814;  "  Lecture  on  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  by 
Wendell  Phillips,  Boston,  1863. 

Toussenel,  toos'nSI',  (Alfhonse,)  a  French  naturalist 
and  journalist,  born  at  Montreuil-Bellay  in  1803.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Le  Monde  des  Oiseauz ; 
Ornithologie  passionnelle,"  (1852.) 

TSw'er,  (Zealous  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Massachusetts  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1 841.  He  became  a  captain  about  1855,  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30, 
1862. 

TSw'eri,  (Joseph,)  an  English  Unitarian  divine  and 
writer,  born  in  South wark  in  1737.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  and  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Frederick  the  Great,  King  of  Prussia,"  (2 
vols.,  1788,)  "Observations  on  the  Rights  and  Duties 
of  Juries,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1799. 

Tow'gt>od,  (MiCAJAH,)  an  English  dissenter,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1700,  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  book  entitled  "  High-Flown  Episcopal  and  Priestly 
Claims  freely  Examined."  He  preached  at  Exeter.  Died 
in  1792. 

Towiauski,  to-ve-in'skee,  a  Polish  mystic,  who  pre- 
tended to  have  divine  revelations,  was  born  in  Lithuania 
about  1800.  He  successively  visited  the  principal  cities 
of  Europe,  and  while  in  Paris  made  a  convert  of  the 
Polish  poet  Mickiewicz,  who  wrote  a  treatise  in  favour 
of  his  doctrines,  entitled  "The  Official  Church  and  Mes- 
sianism."  Being  soon  after  banished  from  France,  he 
retired  to  Switzerland.     Died  May  13,  1878. 

Towle,  (George  Makepeace,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Washington,  D.C.,  in  1840.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1861,  and  at  the  Cambridge  Law  School 
in  1863.  He  lived  in  England  and  France  as  a  United 
States  consul,  1866-70,  and  was  afterwards  a  journalist 
in  Boston.  His  works  include  "Glimpses  of  History," 
(1865,)  "Henry  the  Fifth,"  (1866,)  "Modern  France," 
"Certain  Men  of  Mark,"  etc. 

TS'wrn'ley,  (Charles,)  an  English  amateur,  born  in 
Lancashire  in  1737,  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  made  a 
large  and  choice  collection  of  statuary,  medals,  and  other 
remains  of  ancient  art,  which  are  now  in  the  British 
Museum  and  are  called  the  "Townley  marbles."  His 
collection  was  purchased  for  twenty-eight  thousand  two 
hundred  pounds.     Died  in  1805. 

To'wuley,  (James,)  an  English  divine  and  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1 71 5.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Hogarth,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  "  Analysis  of  Beauty." 
He  was  the  author  of  the  popular  farce  of  "  High  Life 
Below-Stairs,"  (1759,)  and  he  is  said  to  have  assisted 
Garrick  in  the  composition  of  his  dramas.  Died  in 
1778. 

Tow^nley,  (John,)  an  uncle  of  Charles,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1697.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
French  army,  and  made  a  good  French  translation  of 
"  Hudibras."     Died  in  1782. 

TS^w^u'send,  (Eliza,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Boston  about  1788,  was  the  author  of  an  admired  poem, 
entitled  "The  Incomprehensibility  of  God,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1854. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

T6wn'send,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  philan- 
thropist, born  in  London  in  1757.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at 
Bermondsey,  (1792.)  He  wrote  "  Hints  on  Sunday- 
Schools,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 

Townsend,  (Joseph,)  an  English  divine  and  physi- 
cian, born  about  1740,  was  chaplain  to  Lady  Huntingdon. 
He  published  "The  Physician's  Vade-Mecum,"  (1794,) 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  Q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


TOWNS  END 


2335 


TRADESCANT 


"The  Character  of  Moses  established  for  Veracity  as  an 
Historian,"  etc.,  (2  vols.  4to,  1813-15,)  which  is  highly 
commended,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1816. 

Townsend,  (Luther  Tracy,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Orono,  Maine,  September  27,  1838.  Me 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1859,  and  at  Andover 
Seminary  in  1862.  He  was  an  army-officer,  1863-64. 
He  entered  the  Methodist  ministry,  and  in  1869  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  practical  theology  in  Boston  Uni- 
versity. His  writings  include  "  Credo,"  "  Sword  and 
Garment,"  "The  Arena  and  the  Throne,"  "Outlines  of 
Theology,"  and  other  works. 

To^wnshend,  town'zend,  (Charles,)  Viscount  Town- 
shend,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1676,  was  the 
son  of  Horatio  Townshend,  tiie  first  viscount  of  that 
name.  He  succeeded  to  the  peerage  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  about  1686.  In  1709  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  Dutch  United  Provinces,  and  negotiated  the  Bar- 
rier treaty.  He  married  a  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  (1714)  he  became  secre- 
tary of  state  and  prime  minister.  He  and  the  other 
ministers  were  all  Whigs.  By  the  intrigues  or  agency  of 
Sunderland,  he  was  removed  in  17 16,  and  was  offered 
the  place  of  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  he  indig- 
nantly refused.  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  was  his  friend, 
resigned  office,  and  went  with  Townshend  into  the  op- 
position. In  1721  Townshend  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  in  a  new  ministry,  of  which  Walpole  was  the 
premier,  or  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He  resigned 
in  1730,  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  Walpole, 
"Townshend  retired,"  says  Macaulay,  "and,  with  rare 
moderation  and  public  spirit,  refused  to  take  any  part  in 
politics."  (Review  of  the  "Life  of  Lord  Chatham.") 
He  died  in  1738,  leaving  the  reputation  of  an  honest 
statesman. 

Townshend,  (Charles,)  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1725,  and  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
third  Viscount  Townshend.  He  entered  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1747,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an 
orator.  He  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the  chamber  in 
1756.  In  politics  he  was  a  Whig.  He  became  secretary 
at  war  under  Pitt  in  1761,  and  first  lord  of  trade  and 
plantations  in  1763.  He  supported  the  Stamp  Act,  so 
obnoxious  to  the  American  colonies,  (1765.)  In  the  new 
ministry  formed  by  Lord  Chatham  in  1766,  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  procured  the  passage  of  the  bill  which 
imposed  a  tax  on  tea  and  other  articles  imported  into 
ihe  American  colonies,  and  which  provoked  them  to 
revolt.  "Charles  Townshend,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  man 
of  splendid  talents,  of  lax  principles,  and  of  boundless 
vanity  and  presumption,  would  submit  to  no  control.  .  .  . 
He  had  always  quailed  before  the  genius  and  the  lofty 
character  of  Pitt ;  but,  now  that  Pitt  [Lord  Chatham] 
had  quitted  the  House  of  Commons  and  seemed  to  have 
abdicated  the  part  of  chief  minister,  Townshend  broke 
loose  from  all  restraint."  (Essay  on  the  "Earl  of  Chat- 
ham," in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1844.) 
He  died  in  September,  1767.  He  had  married  a  daughter 
of  John,  Duke  of  Argyle. 

Townshend,  (Chauncey  Hare,)  an  English  littSra- 
teiir,  born  in  1803,  graduated  at  Cambridge.  He  pub- 
lished "  Facts  in  Mesmerism,"  a  subject  in  which  he  was 
much  interested,  (1839,)  "  Sermons  in  Sonnets,  and  other 
Poems,"  (185 1,)  etc.  Died  February  25,  1868.  His 
Life  was  written  by  Charles  Dickens. 

Townshend,  (George,)  Marquis  Townshend,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1724.  He  became 
a  general,  was  sent  to  Canada,  and  succeeded  Wolfe  as 
commander-in-chief  when  the  latter  was  killed,  (1759.) 
He  was  afterwards  employed  in  Germany  and  Portugal, 
Died  in  1807. 

Tbwn'spn,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
in  Essex  in  1715.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Archdeacon  of  Richmond  in  1780.  He  published  several 
theological  works,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Discourses 
on  the  Four  Gospels,"  (1778,)  was  very  favourably  re- 
ceived, and  was  praised  by  Bishr.p  Lowth.  The  degree 
of  D.D.  was  bestowed  on  the  author  by  the  University 
of  Oxford.     Died  in  1792. 


T6w'son,  (Nathan,)  an  American  general,  born 
near  Baltimore  in  1784.  As  captain  of  the  second  regi- 
ment of  artillery,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  (afterwards  General)  Scott,  he  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  the  brig  Caledonia  from  the  British,  (October, 
1812.)  In  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814  he  won  a 
high  reputation  for  skill  and  bravery,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  actions  of  Chippewa,  Niagara,  and  Fort 
Erie.  He  became  successively  lieutenant-colonel,  (1816,) 
paymaster-general,  (1819,)  brigadier-general,  (1834,)  and 
major-general,  (1849.)     Died  in  1854. 

Toy,  (Cravv^ford  Howell,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can Hebraist,  born  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  March  23,  1836. 
He  graduated  as  M.A.  from  the  University  of  Virginia 
in  1856.  He  studied  at  the  Southern  Baptist  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  1859-60,  was  ordained  a  Baptist  minister 
in  i860,  was  professor  of  Greek  in  Richmond  College, 
1861,  served  in  the  Confederate  army,  1861-64,  studied 
at  Berlin,  1866-68,  held  professorships  in  Furnian  Uni- 
versity and  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary, 
1869-79,  <>nd  in  1880  became  professor  of  Semitic  lan- 
guages in  Harvard  University.  His  works  include  "  Old 
Testament  Quotations  in  the  New  Testament,"  "  History 
of  the  Religion  of  Israel,"  etc. 

To'zer,  (Henry,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
m  Devonshire  in  1602.  He  preached  at  Oxford,  and 
afterwards  at  Rotterdam,  where  he  died  in  1650.  H» 
had  published  several  sermons. 

TozzettL    See  Targionl 

Tozzi,  tot'see,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  near 
Aversa  in  1638,  succeeded  Malpighi  as  professor  at  Rome 
and  physician  to  the  pope  in  1695.     Died  in  1717. 

Tra'be-a,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  comic  poet,  who  lived 
about  130  B.C.  His  works  are  lost,  except  small  frag- 
ments. 

Tra'cy,  (Albert  H.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1793,  removed  to  the  State  of 
New  York  about  1812.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1819  to  1825.     Died  at  Buffalo  in  1859. 

Tracy,  (Uriah,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Franklin,  Connecticut,  in  1755.  He  represented  a  dis- 
trict of  Connecticut  in  Congress  from  1793  to  1796, 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  that  State  in  the  latter  year.  He  was 
an  able  speaker,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  wit  and 
humour.  He  remained  in  the  Senate  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  1807. 

Tracy,  de,  d?h  tRt'se',  (Alexandre  C^sar  Victor 
Charles  Destutt — di'tU',)  Marquis,  a  French  poli- 
tician, born  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  was  a  Liberal  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1827  to  1848,  and  was 
minister  of  the  marine  from  December,  1848,  to  October, 
1849.     Died  in  1864, 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gfo^rale." 

Tracy,  de,  (Antoine  Louis  Charles  Destutt,) 
Comte,  a  French  philosopher,  born  in  the  Bourbonnais 
in  1754,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  attained 
the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp  in  the  army  in  1792,  and 
was  imprisoned  for  ten  months  in  the  reign  of  terror. 
About  1800  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  senate. 
Having  acquired  distinction  by  several  works  on  logic, 
grammar,  etc.,  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1808.  His  chief  work  is  "  Elements  of  Ideology," 
("Elements  d'Ideologie,"  4  vols.,  181 7-18.)  His  phi- 
losophy is  the  sensualism  or  sensationalism  of  Condillac 
carried  to  the  extreme  issues.     Died  in  1836. 

See  Damiron,  "Essai  de  la  Philosophie  en  France;"  Mignet, 
"Notices  et  Portraits;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Tra'cy,  de,  (Sarah  Newton,)  Marquise,  born  at 
Stockport,  in  England,  in  1789,  was  married  in  i8l6  to 
the  Marquis  de  Tracy,  noticed  above.  She  died  in  1850, 
leaving  "  Essais  divers,  Lettres  et  Pensees,"  (3  vols.. 
1852-55.) 

See  Sainte-Bbuvb.  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Trad'es-cant,  (John,)  a  distinguished  traveller  and 
naturalist,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Holland, 
settled  in  England,  and  became  in  1629  gardener  to 
Charles  I.  He  had  previously  visited  Asia  and  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  he  made  a  collection 
of  plants.  Died  about  1640.  His  son,  of  the  same 
name,  born  in  1608,  went  on  a  scientific  expedition  to 


€as  ^;  9  as  J,"  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.     ( ffi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


TRAETTA 


2336 


TRA  YER 


Virginia.  He  published  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  his 
father's  Museum,  entitled  "Museum  Tradescantium," 
etc.,  (1656.)  He  died  in  1662,  and  the  collection,  which 
he  greatly  increased,  now  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford.  The  genus  Tradescantia 
was  named  in  honour  of  these  botanists. 

Traetta,  tRi-et'ti,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Bitonto  in  1727.  He  composed  a  number  of 
operas.     Died  in  1779. 

Tragus.    See  Bock,  (Hieronymus.) 

Traheron,  trih'er-on,  ?  (Bartholomew,)  an  English 
Protestant  minister,  born  after  1500.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  Royal  Library  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  at  whose 
death  (1553)  he  went  into  exile.  He  wrote  several  the- 
ological works. 

!&aill,  tral,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Calvinistic  divine, 
born  in  Fifeshire  in  1642,  was  imprisoned  under  the 
Conventicle  Act  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  religious  works.  His  grandson, 
James  Traill,  went  over  to  the  Church  of  England,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.     Died  in  1783. 

Traill,  (Thomas  Stewart,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  natural- 
ist and  physician,  born  in  Orkney  in  1781.  He  became 
professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  at  Edinburgh  about 
1832,  and  edited  the  eighth  edition  of  the  "Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica."     Died  in  1862. 

Tra'jan,  [Lat.  Traja'nus;  It  Trajano,  tRi-ya'no ; 
Fr.  Trajan,  tRt'zhfiN' ;  Ger.  Trajan,  tRi-yIn',]  or, 
more  fully,  Mar'cus  Ul'pl-us  Ner'va  Tra-ja'nus, 
Emperor  of  Rome,  born  near  Seville,  in  Spain,  about 
52  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Trajan,  an  Iberian  officer,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  campaigns  in  Asia  Minor.  He 
was  chosen  consul  in  91  a.d.,  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  legions  on  the  Lower  Rhine. 
His  eminent  virtues  and  ability  obtained  for  him  the 
favour  and  confidence  of  the  emperor  Nerva,  whc 
adopted  him  and  made  him  his  successor.  On  the 
death  of  Nerva,  in  98  a.d.,  Trajan  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror, and  soon  after  marched  against  Decebalus,  King 
of  the  Dacians,  whom  he  repeatedly  defeated.  In  106 
A.D.  Dacia  became  a  Roman  province,  and  a  column 
(which  is  still  extant)  was  erected  on  the  Forum  Trajani, 
in  commemoration  of  these  victories,  by  Apollodorus  of 
Damascus.  In  the  year  115  he  commanded  in  person  an 
army  which  invaded  Parthia,  and  defeated  the  Parthians 
in  several  battles.  He  took  Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of 
Parthia,  and  deposed  the  king  of  that  country.  In 
116  he  descended  the  Tigris  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  He 
was  returning  to  Rome,  when  he  died,  without  issue,  at 
Selinus,  in  Cilicia,  in  117  a.d.,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Hadrian.  Trajan  was  one  of  the  greatest  and  best  em- 
perors of  Rome.  He  is  commended  for  his  moderation, 
sound  judgment,  and  the  simplicity  of  his  mode  of  living. 
Yet  he  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  presided  as  judge 
at  the  tribunal  when  the  martyr  Ignatius  was  sentenced 
to  death.  Among  his  friends  was  Pliny  the  Younger, 
who  wrote  a  "  Panegyric  on  Trajan." 

SeeTiLLEMONT,  "  Histoiredes  Enipereurs;"  Ritter,  "Trajanuf 
in  Lucem  reproductus,"  176S;  H.  Francke,  "Zur  Geschichte  Tra- 
jan's," etc.,  1840;  Genersich,  "Trajan;  biographisches  Gemalde." 
i8ii  ;  Merivale,  "History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire;" 
Morales,  "  Heclios  y  Dichos  de  Trajano,"  1654;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gjneraie." 

Trajano  and  Trajanus.     See  Trajan. 

Trajanus,  a  Roman  general  under  the  emperor 
Valens.  In  373  a.d.  he  commanded  an  army  which 
defeated  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Adrianople,  in  378  A.D. 

Trail,  (Russell  Thacher,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can physician  of  the  hydropathic  school,  born  in  Tolland 
county,  Connecticut,  in  1812.  Having  removed  to  New 
York,  he  founded  in  1843  ^  water-cure  establishment, 
to  which  he  afterwards  joined  a  medical  school,  called 
the  "  New  York  Hygeio-Therapeutic  College,"  designed 
for  both  sexes.  He  edited  successively  the  "  Hydro- 
pathic Review,"  the  "Water-Cure  Journal,"  and  "Life 
Illustrated."  Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name 
the  "  Hydropathic  Encyclopaedia,"  (1852,)  "  Hydropathic 
Cook-Book,"  (1854,)  "Prize  Essay  on  Tobacco,"  "The 
Scientific  Basis  of  Vegetarianism,"  and  "  Diseases  of 
the  Throat  and  Lungs."     Died  September  23,  1877. 

Tralles,  tRil'l^s,  (Balthasar  Ludwig,)  a  German 


physician,  born  at  Breslau  in  1708.  He  practi^5ed  in  that 
city,  and  wrote  a  number  of  medical  works,  which  were 
esteemed.     Died  in  1797. 

Trallianus.    See  .A^lexander  Trallianus. 

Transtamare,  de,  (Henry.)  See  Henry  II.  of 
Castile. 

Trapp,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in  1601 
He  was  vicar  of  Weston-on-Avon,  and  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Bible.     Died  in  1669. 

Trapp,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1679.  He  became 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  1708,  and  was  subse- 
quently chapl^ain  to  Lord  Bolingbroke,  who  bestowed 
upon  him  the  living  of  Harlington,  in  Middlesex.  He 
published  "  Praelectiones  Poeticae,"  (3  vols.,  1711-19,) 
"Notes  upon  the  Gospels,"  (2  vols.,  1748,)  and  several 
political  treatises ;  also  a  translation  of  the  "  y^neid" 
into  blank  verse,  and  a  Latin  version  of  "  Paradise 
Lost."     Died  in  1747. 

Traun,  von,  fon  tRown,  (Otto  Ferdinand,)  Count, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1677.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  field-marshal  in  1740,  and  commanded  the  army 
which  under  Charles  of  Lorraine  opposed  Frederick 
the  Great  in  1745.  He  forced  the  Prussians  to  evacuate 
Bohemia.  Died  in  1748.  Frederick  compared  him  to 
Sertorius,  and  ascribed  to  him  the  success  of  the  Aus- 
trians  in  the  campaign  of  1745. 

Trautson,  von,  fon  tRowt'spn,  (Johann  Joseph,) 
Count,  a  liberal  German  prelate,  born  in  1704.  He 
promoted  reform  in  religion  and  morals.  In  1756  he 
became  a  cardinal.     Died  at  Vienna  in  1757. 

Trauttmansdorfi  tRowt'mins-doRf,  (Maximilian,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Gratz  in  1584.  He  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  in  16 19 
between  Ferdinand  II.  and  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  and 
subsequently  negotiated  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  He 
enjoyed  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand II.,  and  was  the  first  to  communicate  to  him  the 
treasonable  designs  of  Wallenstein.     Died  in  1650. 

Trautwrine,  trowt'win,  (John  Cresson,)  an  American 
civil  engineer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  March  30,  1810.  He 
was  prominent  in  early  railway  construction  in  the  United 
States,  and  made  surveys  of  the  various  proposed  canal- 
loutes  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  in  1850-51,  and  again 
in  1852.  He  also  surveyed  a  proposed  interoceanic  canal- 
route  in  Honduras,  1857-58.  His  principal  publications 
are  "  Field  Practice  of  Laying  out  Curves  for  Railroads," 
(1851,)  "Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-Book,"  (1872,)  and  a 
work  descriptive  of  the  Atrato  River  survey.  Died  in 
Philadelphia,  September  14,  1883. 

Travasa,  tRi-vS'si,  (Gaetano  Maria,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Bassano  in  1698,  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Heresiarchs  of  the  First  Four  Centuries," 
(6  vols.,  1752-62,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1774. 

Travers,  tRfvaiR',  (Gilles  Julien,)  a  French  scholar 
and  poet,  born  at  Valognes  (Manche)  in  1802.  He  was 
professor  of  Latin  at  Caen  from  1844  to  1856.  Pie  pro- 
duced poems  called  "Les  Algeriennes,"  (1827,)  and 
"Mourning,"  ("Deuil,"  1837.)  "Died  in  1888. 

Trav'ers,  (John,)  an  English  composer,  was  a  pupil 
of  Dr.  Greene,  and  was  appointed  organist  to  the  cha- 
pels royal  in  1737.     Died  in  1758. 

Travers,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Jansenist  priest  and 
writer,  born  at  Nantes  in  1674.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Nantes,"  (3  vols.,  1S36-41.)  Died 
in  1750. 

Traversari.     See  Ambrosius  of  Camaldoll 

Travies  de  Villiers,  tRS've-6s'  deh  ve'yi',  (Chaki.es 
Joseph,)  a  Swiss  painter  of  genre,  born  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich  in  1804.  He  painted  grotesque  scenes  with 
success,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Charivari" 
of  Paris.  Died  in  1859.  His  brother  Edouard  is  a 
skilful  painter  of  animals  and  still  life. 

Trav'is,  (George,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  m 
Lancashire,  became  Archdeacon  of  Chester.  He  wrote 
several  letters  to  Gibbon  on  the  authenticity  of  the  text 
I.  John  V.  7.     Died  in  1797. 

Travot,  tRS'vo',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Poligny  in  1767  ;  died  in  1836. 

Trayer,  tRS'yi',  (Jean  Baptiste  Jules,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1806. 


a,  «,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  Ci,  y,  short;^,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


TREADWELL 


2337 


TRENCHARD 


Trgad'T^rell,  (Oaniel,)  an  American  mechanician, 
born  at  Ipswich,  Massachusetts,  in  1791.  He  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Boston  Journal  of  Philosophy 
and  the  Arts"  in  1822,  and  in  1834  Riimford  professor 
of  technology  in  Harvard  College.  He  invented  a  ma- 
chine for  spinning  hemp  for  cordage,  and  a  cannon  called 
by  his  name.     Died  February  27,  1872. 

Trebatius.    See  Testa. 

Trebatti.     See  Ponzio. 

Tre-bel'll-us  Max'I-miis,  a  Roman  magistrate  under 
the  reign  of  Nero,  was  chosen  consul  with  Lucius  An 
nasus  Seneca  in  62  a.d. 

Trebellius  PoUio.     See  Pollio,  (Tkebellius.) 

Tre-bo'ni-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  politician,  became 
tribune  of  the  people  in  55  K.C.,  and  one  of  C:esar's  legates 
in  Gaul.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war, 
was  elected  city  praetor  in  48,  and  consul  in  45  B.C.  He 
performed  a  prominent  part  in  the  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  Cxsar.  In  43  B.C.  he  was  killed  at  Smyrna 
by  Dolabella. 

Tr^butien,  tR^'bii's^N',  (Guillaume  Stanislas,) 
a  French  antiquary  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Calvados 
in  1800.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "History  and 
Antiquities  of  Caen,"  (1847.)     Died  May  23,  1870. 

Treb'y,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1644,  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Plymp- 
ton  in  1678,  and  subsequently  rose  to  be  attorney-gen- 
eral and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  the  reign 
of  William  III.     Died  in  1702. 

Tred'gold,  (Thomas,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born 
at  Brandon,  in  Durham,  in  1788.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London,  and  published  in  1820  "Elementary  Prin- 
ciples of  Carpentry,"  which  is  a  valuable  work.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  treatises  on  joinery,  railroads,  the 
steam-engine,  etc.     Died  in  London  in  1829. 

Trediakovsky,  trk-de-S-kov'ske,  (Vasilii  Kirilo- 
viTCH,)  a  Russian  litterateur,  born  in  1 703,  studied  in 
Paris,  and  after  his  return  became  secretary  to  the  Saint 
Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences,  (1733.)  He  translated 
Rollin's  "Ancient  History,"  and  published  numerous 
original  poems.     Died  in  1769. 

Tre-gel'les,  (Samuel  Prideaux,)  a  distinguished 
English  Biblical  scholar,  born  at  Falmouth,  January  30, 
1813.  Educated  a  Quaker,  he  became  one  of  the  Plym- 
outh Brethren.  He  prepared  "  The  Englishman's  Greek 
Concordance  to  the  New  Testament,"  (1839,)  "The 
English  Hexapla,"  (1841,)  and  "The  Englishman's  He- 
brew and  Chaldee  Concordance,"  (1843,)  translated 
Gesenius's  "  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  edited  an  important 
text  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  (1857-72,)  and  wrote 
"The  Jansenists,"  (1851,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Plymouth,  April  24,  1875. 

Treilhard,  tRi'l^R',  or  Trelliard,  tRi'le-tR',  (Jean 
Baptiste,)  Count,  a  French  statesman  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Brives  in  1742.  He  was  a  republican 
member  of  the  Convention  of  1 792-95,  observed  a  cautious 
silence  during  the  reign  of  terror,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1795.  He  was  one  of  the 
directors  of  the  republic  from  May,  1798,  to  June,  1799. 
In  1802  he  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  state.  He  re 
ceived  the  title  of  minister  of  state  in  1809,  and  that  ot 
count  in  1810,  and  died  the  same  year. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Treitschke.  tritsh'keh,  (Karl  Georg,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1783.  He  published  several 
legal  works.     Died  September  5,  1855. 

Tr^lat,  tRi'lt',  (Ulysse,)  a  French  physician  and  re- 
publican, born  at  Montargis  in  1795.  He  was  minister 
of  public  works  in  May-June,  1848.     Died  in  1879. 

Tre-la'w'ney,  (Sir  John,)  Bishop  of  Bristol,  was  one 
of  the  seven  bishops  prosecuted  in  1688  for  refusing  to 
publish  King  James's  declaration  of  indulgence.  He  was 
acquitted,  was  translated  to  Exeter  in  16^,  and  to  Win- 
chester in  1707.     Died  July  19,  1721. 

See  Miss  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  Loudon, 
1866. 

Tre-la-w'n^,  (Edward  John,)  an  English  traveller 
and  author,  born  March  10,  1792.  He  led  for  manj?  years 
an  adventurous  and  wandering  life,  was  the  associate  of 
Shelley  and  Byron  in  Italy,  conducted  the  burning  of 


Shelley's  body,  and  served  afterwards  in  the  Greek 
patriot  army.  He  wrote  "  The  Adventures  of  a  Younger 
Son,"  (1834,)  and  "Recollections  of  the  Last  Days  of 
Shelley  and  Byron,"  (1858.)  Died  at  Sompting,  in 
Sussex,  England,  August  13,  1881. 

Trelliard.     See  Treilhard. 

Trellund,  trgl'liind,  (Johan  or  Hans,)  a  Danish 
bishop,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1669.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Viborg  about  1726,  and  published  several 
theological  works.     Died  in  1735. 

See  TvcHONius,  "  Ligpraediken  over  Biskop  H.  Trelhir.d,"  1735. 

Trembecki,  tr§m-b§ts'skee,  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  in  the  district  of  Cracow  about  1724,  was 
patronized  by  the  king  Stanislas  Augustus.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  descriptive  poem,  entitled  "Zofijowka," 
which  is  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  He  died 
in  1812,  leaving  a  "History  of  Poland,"  in  manuscript. 

Tremblay.     See  Joseph,  (Francois  Leclerc.) 

Trembley,  tKSN'bli',  (Abraham,)  a  Swiss  naturalist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1700,  published  "Memoirs  on  Fresh- 
Water  Polypes,"  (1744,)  "Instructions  on  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion,"  (1775,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1784. 

See  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  de  Trembley,"  1787. 

Tremellius,  tR&-mel'le-oos,  (Emmanuel,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1510.  He  was  con- 
verted to  the  Protestant  faith  by  Peter  Martyr,  (Vermigli,) 
with  whom  he  retired  for  safety  to  Germany.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  taught  Hebrew  at  Cambridge. 
He  was  afterwards  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Heidelberg, 
where  he  translated  the  New  Testament  from  Syriac 
into  Latin,  (1569.)  Aided  by  Francis  Junius,  he  pro- 
duced a  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1575-79,)  which 
was  highly  esteemed.     Died  at  Sedan  in  1580. 

See  M.  Adam,  " Vita  Theologoium  exterorum ;"  Teissier, 
•'filoges." 

Tremoille,  de  la,  deh  It  tRi'mwil'  or  tRi'mwi'ye, 
or  Trimouille,  tRe'mool',  (Louis,)  Prince  de  Talmont, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1460.  He  rendered  an  im- 
portant service  at  the  battle  of  Fornovo,  in  1495,  and 
commanded  the  army  which  Louis  XII.  sent  into  Italy 
about  1500.  He  conquered  Lombardy,  was  defeated  at 
Novara  in  1513,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Pavia, 
in  1525. 

See  J.  BoucHET,  "  Paii^gyrique  du  Chevalier  sans  repioche," 
etc.,  1527. 

TremoUi^re,  tRi'mo'le3iR',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a 
French  painter  of  history,  was  born  in  Anjou  in  1703  ;  died 
in  Paris  in  1739.     He  was  an  artist  of  fine  promise. 

Tremouille.     See  Tk^moille,  de  la. 

Trench,  (Francis,)  an  English  writer,  a  brother  of 
Archbishop  Trench,  was  born  in  1806.  He  became 
rector  of  Islip.  He  published  "Travels  in  France  and 
Spain,"  and  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1SS6. 

Trench,  (Rev.  Richard  Chenevix,)  an  eminent 
English  ecclesiastic  and  philologist,  born  in  1807.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
Hulsean  lecturer  in  1845.  ^^  ^^^^  appointed  theological 
professor  and  examiner  at  King's  College,  London,  in 
1847,  was  created  Dean  of  Westminster  in  1856,  and 
Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1863.  He  has  published  "The 
Story  of  Justin  Martyr,"  a  poem,  (1835,)  "  Poems  from 
Eastern  Sources,"  "Genoveva,"  (1842,)  "The  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  Illustrated  from  Saint  Augustine,"  (1844,) 
"Notes  on  the  Miracles,"  (1846,)  a  treatise  "On  the 
Study  of  Words,"  (1851,)  "Synonyms  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament," (1854,)  "Notes  on  the  Parables,"  (12th  ed., 
1874,)  and  "  Lectures  on  Mediaeval  History,"  (1878.)  He 
resigned  the  archbishopric  in  1884.      [Died  in  1886.] 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Trench'ard,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1650.  He  represented  Taunton  in 
Parliament  in  1679,  and  distinguished  himself  as  an 
active  member  of  the  opposition.  He  was  an  advocate 
for  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  in 
1683,  on  a  charge  of  being  implicated  in  the  Rye-House 
Plot.  After  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  took  refuge 
in  France,  but  he  returned  to  England  after  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1688,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
William  III.,  (1693.)     I^'^d  in  1695, 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

147 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23. 


TRENCHARD 


538 


TREVOR 


Trenchard,  (John,)  an  English  journalist  and  po- 
litical writer,  born  about  1662.  He  was  the  author  of 
"The  Natural  History  of  Superstition,"  (1709,)  "A 
Comparison  of  the  Proposals  of  the  Banli  and  South 
Sea  Company,"  "Thoughts  on  the  Peerage  Bill,"  and 
"Cato's  Letters,"  the  last-named  in  conjunction  with 
Mr.  T.  Gordon, — and  was  associated  with  that  gentleman 
as  editor  of  the  "  Independent  Whig."     Died  in  1723. 

Trenck,  von  der,  fon  d^K  ti<§nk,  (Franz,)  Baron,  a 
celebrated  military  commander,  born  at  Reggio,  in  Cala- 
bria, in  1 7 14,  was  the  son  of  a  Prussian  officer.  At  an 
early  age  he  entered  the  Russian  service,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  equally  by  his  reckless  courage  and 
his  ferocity.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Austrian  war 
of  succession,  he  offered  his  services  to  Maria  Theresa, 
and  at  the  head  of  his  pandours  made  himself  every- 
where formidable  by  his  barbarities  and  rapacity.  He 
was  at  length  imprisoned  at  Spielberg,  in  Moravia,  where 
he  died  in  1749.  His  autobiography,  called  "  Remarkable 
Life  and  Deeds  of  Baron  Trenck,"  appeared  in  1807. 

See,  also,  Hubner,  "  Franz  von  der  Trenck,"  3  vols.,  1788-89. 

Trenck,  von  der,  (Friedrich,)  Baron,  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1726.  He 
entered  the  Prussian  army  at  an  early  age,  and  for  a 
time  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Frederick  the  Great ;  but, 
having,  as  is  supposed,  offended  the  king  by  an  impru- 
dent attachment  to  his  sister  the  princess  Amelia,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Glatz.  Having  escaped 
from  his  prison  in  1747,  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  the  empress  and  made  a  captain  of 
hussars.  While  on  a  visit  to  his  family,  in  1754,  he  was 
arrested  by  order  of  Frederick,  confined  in  a  narrow  cell 
at  Magdeburg,  and,  after  several  attempts  at  escape, 
loaded  with  heavy  irons.  He  was  released  in  1763,  but 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  kingdom.  After  the  death 
of  Frederick,  Baron  Trenck  published  his  autobiographic 
"Memoirs,"  (3  vols.,  1787,)  which  acquired  great  popu- 
larity and  were  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages.  After  residing  for  a  time  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
and  other  cities  on  the  continent,  he  went  in  1792  to 
Paris,  where  he  joined  the  Jacobin  faction,  by  whom  he 
was  sentenced  to  the  guillotine  in  1794. 

See  Wahrmann,  "  F.  von  der  Trenck,  Leben,"  etc.,  1837; 
Erich,  "  Lcben  und  Scliicksale  des  .'Vbenteurers  F.  von  der  Trenck," 
1846  ;  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Trendlenburg,  tR^n'dlen-booRG',  written  also  Tren- 
delenburg, (Friedrich  Adolf,)  a  German  scholar  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  at  Eutin  in  1802,  published 
"Logical  Researches,"  ("  Logische  Untersuchungen," 
1840,)  and  other  works.  He  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Berlin  in  1833.     Died  January  24,  1872. 

Treneuil,  tReh-nuI'  or  tReh-nuh'ye,  (Joseph,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Cahors  in  1763.  Among  his  works 
is  "The  Tombs  of  Saint-Denis,"  ("  Les  Tombeaux  de 
Saint-Denis,"  1806.)     Died  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Tren'hplm,  (George  A.,)  of  South  Carolina,  an 
American  financier,  was  appointed  Confederate  secretary 
of  the  treasury  in  June,  1864.     Died  December  10,  1876. 

Trenta,  tRln't^,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  tragic  poet,  bom 
at  Ascoli  in  1731 ;  died  in  1795. 

Trento,  da,  dl  tR^n'to,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  wood- 
engraver,  originally  named  Fantuzzi,  (fin-toot'see,) 
born  at  Trent.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Parmigiano,  several 
of  whose  works  he  engraved.     Died  about  1545. 

Trento'wski,  tR^n-tov'skee,  (Ferdinand  B.,)  an 
eminent  Polish  philosopher,  born  near  Warsaw  in  1808. 
Being  compelled  to  leave  his  country  during  the  rebellion 
of  1830,  he  repaired  to  Germany,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  teaching  philosophy.  lie  published,  in  German, 
his  "Basis  of  Universal  Philosophy,"  (1837,)  "Prelimi- 
nary Studies  to  the  Science  of  Nature,"  (1840,)  and  a 
Latin  treatise  "  On  the  Eternal  Life  of  Man."  Among 
his  other  works,  which  are  written  in  Polish,  we  may 
name  "The  Relation  of  Philosophy  to  the  Science  of 
Government,"  "  Education  on  a  System  of  Pedagogics," 
and  "Logic."     Died  June  16,  1869. 

Treschov?-,  tRgsh'ov,  (Neils,)  a  Norwegian  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Drammen  in  1751.  He  studied  at 
Copenhagen,  and  was  appointed  in  1803  professor  of 
pnilosophy  in  the  university  of  that  city.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Principles  of  Legislation,"  "Spirit 


of  Christianity,"  "  Morality  for  the  State  and  People," 
and  "Philosophical  Testament,"  etc.     Died  in  1833. 

Tresham,  trgsh'am,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  artist  and 
poet,  studied  at  Rome,  and  was  chosen,  after  his  return, 
a  Royal  Ac.idemician.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Sea- 
Sick  Minstrel,"  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1814. 

Tressan,  de,  deh  tRi'sfiN',  (Louis  Elisabeth  de  la 
Vergne— deh  It  viRn,)  Count,  a  French  officer  and 
litth-ateur,  born  at  Mons  in  1705.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "Treatise  on  Electricity,"  (1749,)  and  other  original 
works,  and  made  translations  of  the  "Orlando  Furioso," 
"Amadis  de  Gaul,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind.  He 
was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1781,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Voltaire.  He  served  as  aide-d  -camp  to  the 
king  at  Fontenoy  in  1745,  and  became  lieutenant-general 
in  1747.     Died  in  1783. 

See  CoNDOKCET,  "  filoges  ;"  Voi.tairb,  "  Correspondance  ;" 
"Nouveile  Hiusraphie  G^nerale." 

Tre-vel'yan,  (Sir  Charles  Edward,)  Bart.,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1807,  was  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse  and  at  Haileybury  College,  and  entered 
the  Indian  civil  service.  He  was  Governor  of  Madras, 
1859-60,  finance  minister  in  India,  1862-65,  ^^c.  His 
chief  books  are  "  Education  of  the  People  of  India," 
"The  Irish  Crisis,"  and  "Christianity  and  Hinduism 
Contrasted,"  (1881.)     Died  June  20,  1886. 

Trevelyan,  (George  Otto,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  nephew  of  Lord  Macaulay,  was  born  at  Rothley- 
Temple,  Leicestershire,  July  20,  1838.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harrow,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  served  for  many  years  as  a  Liberal  in  Parliament. 
In  1882  he  became  chief  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland.  His  principal  works  are  "Life  and  Letters 
of  Lord  Macaulay,"  (1876,)  and  "  Early  History  of  C.  J. 
Fox."  (1880.) 

TrevigL    See  Trevisi, 

Treville.    See  La  Touche-Tr6ville. 

Treviranus,  tRi-ve-r^'nCis,  (Gottfried  Reinhold,) 
a  German  physiologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1776,  practised 
medicine  in  that  city.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Biology,  or  the  Philosophy  of  Living  Nature," 
etc.,  (6  vols.,  1802-22,)  which  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1837. 

Treviranus,  (Ludolph  Christian,)  a  botanist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bremen  in  1779. 
He  became  professor  of  Ijotany  at  Bonn,  and  published 
"  Physiology  of  Plants,"  (1835-39.)     Died  May  6,  1864. 

Trevisani,  tRi-ve-s4'nee,  (Angelo,)  a  Venetian 
painter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  distinguished  for 
the  excellence  of  his  portraits. 

Trevisani,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  some- 
times called  Roman  Trevisani,  was  born  near  Trieste 
in  1656.  He  studied  under  Zanchi  at  Venice,  and  after- 
wards visited  Rome,  where  he  executed  several  of  his 
best  works.  Among  these  may  be  named  a  "  Cruci- 
fixion," and  "The  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents."  Died 
in  1746. 

Trevise,  de,  Due.     See  Mortier. 

Trevisi,  cla,  di  tRi-vee'see,  or  Trevigi,  tri-vee'jee, 
(GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at 
Trevigi  about  1500,  resided  for  a  time  in  England, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Henry  VIII.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  a  "  Madonna  accompanied 
by  Saints."  His  portraits  also  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1544. 

Treviso,  (tRa-vee'so,)  Duke  of.     See  Mortier. 

Trev'i-thick,  (Richard,)  an  English  engineer,  born 
in  Cornwall  in  1771,  was  one  of  the  inventors  of  high- 
pressure  steam-engines.  He  obtained  in  1802  a  patent 
for  a  steam-carriige  to  run  on  common  roads.  In  1804 
he  constructed  a  locomotive  for  railways.    Died  in  1833. 

See  William  Walker,  "Memoirs  of  the  Distinguished  Men 
of  Science  of  Great  Britain,"  etc.,  London,  1864;  "All  the  Year 
Round"  for  August,  i860. 

Tre'vor,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  ai 
Bridgewater,  January  30,  1809.  He  graduated  at  Mag- 
dalen Hall,  Oxford,  in  1836,  was  a  chaplain  in  India, 
1836-45,  and  in  1847  became  a  canon  of  York.  He 
occupies  an  influential  place  as  a  "  High-Church"  author 
and  preacher.  Among  his  works  are  "Christ  and  His 
Passion,"  (1847,)  "India,  an  Historical  Sketch,"  (1858,) 
"Russia,  Ancient   and  Modern,"  (1862.)   "Types    and 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/io7-t;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


TREVOR 


2339 


TRIMURTI 


the  Anti-Type,"  (1864,)  "The  Catholic  Doctrine  of  the 
Sacrifice,"  (1S69,)  etc.     Died  in  188S. 

tre'vor,  (Sir  John,)  an  able  English  statesman,  born 
in  1626,  was  a  son-in-law  of  the  illustrious  Hamp- 
den. Early  in  1668  he  was  sent  as  an  envoy  to  France, 
and  negotiated  the  provisional  treaty  of  April  15,  1668. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  September  of 
that  year.  Having  opposed  without  success  the  foreign 
policy  which  Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of  York  adopted, 
he  was  turned  out  of  the  cabinet  in  1670;  but  he  con- 
tinued to  be  secretary  until  his  death,  in  1672. 

Trevor,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1633, 
was  a  cousin  and  parasite  of  the  infamous  Judge  Jef- 
freys. In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  solicitor- 
general.  He  became  master  of  the  rolls,  and  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  1685.  He  was  made  a  privy 
councillor  in  1688,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  first 
commissioner  of  the  great  seal.  Having  been  convicted 
of  bribery,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Speakership  in  1695, 
but  was  allowed  to  retain  the  mastership  of  the  rolls. 
Died  in  1717. 

Trevor,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  John  Trevor,  (1626-72,)  and  a  grandson 
of  John  Hampden.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
the  common  pleas  in  1701,  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Lord  Trevor,  in  171 1,  and  became  lord  privy  seal  in 
1726.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  council  in 
1730,  and  died  the  same  year,  leaving  a  son,  who  about 
1766  received  the  title  of  Viscount  Hampden. 

TreTW,  tRa,  (Christoph  Jakuh,)  a  celebrated  German 
botanist  and  anatomist,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1695. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  became  physician-in-ordinary 
to  the  Margrave  of  Anspach.  In  1746  he  was  made 
president  of  the  "  Academie  des  Curieux  de  la  Nature," 
with  the  titles  of  Count- Palatine  and  physician  to  the 
emperor.  He  published  "  Plantas  Selectae,"  etc.,  (1570- 
/3,)  a  magnificent  publication,  illustrated  by  Ehret,  and 
"  History  and  Botanical  Character  of  the  Cedars  of 
Lebanon,"  ("  Cedrorum  Libani  Historia  et  Character 
Botanicus,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1757-67;)  also  "  Osteological 
Plates  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  Tabulae  Osteologicae 
Corporis  Humani,"  1767,  with  coloured  plates,)  and 
other  anatomical  works.     Died  in  1769. 

See  Rumpel,  "Monumentum  Trewio   positum,"  1769. 

Tr6zel,  tRi'zSl',  (Camille  Alphonse,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1780 ;  died  in  i860. 

Trezel,  (Pierre  F6lix,)  a  French  painter  of  history 
and  allegory,  born  in  Paris  in  1782;  died  in  1855. 

Trianon,  tRe'i'niN',  (Henri,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  critic,  born  about  1810.  He  wrote  critiques  for  the 
"Artiste"  and  other  periodicals,  and  published  editions 
of  Homer's  Poems. 

Tribolo,  di,  de  tRee'bo-lo,  (Niccol6,)  an  eminent 
Italian  sculptor,  whose  family  name  was  Pericoli,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1500,  or,  as  some  say,  1485.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Sansovino,  and  was  patronized  by  Pope 
Clement  VII.,  who  employed  him  to  assist  Michael 
Angelo  in  sculptures  for  the  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo  at 
Florence.  Among  his  works  are  a  statue  of  Nature,  at 
Fontainebleau,  and  bas-reliefs,  representing  the  mar- 
riage of  the  Virgin,  at  Loretto.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  was  employed  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  to  adorn 
with  statues  and  fountains  the  gardens  of  the  Pitti  palace. 
Died  in  1550. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  Cicognara, 
"Storia  della  Scultura." 

Tri-bo'ni-an  or  TrI-bo-ni-a'nus,  [Fr.  Tribonien, 
tRe'bo'n54..N',']  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  born  in  Pam- 
phylia  about  475  A.D.,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour 
of  the  emperor  Justinian,  by  whom  he  was  successively 
appointed  quaestor,  master  of  the  imperial  household, 
praetorian  prefect,  and  consul.  He  was  charged  by 
the  emperor,  conjointly  with  nine  other  commissioners, 
to  prepare  the  first  Justinian  Code.     Died  in  545  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lude- 
WIG,  "  Vita  Justiniani  et  Triboniani,"  1731. 

Tribonianua.     See  Tribonian. 

Tribonien.    See  Tribonian. 

Tribuno,  tRe-boo'no,  (Pietro,)  was  elected  Doge  of 
Venice  in  888  A.D.,  and  defeated  the  Hungarians  in  906. 
Died  in  912. 


Tri-bu'nus,  [Gr.  TpcSiwoj-,]  an  eminent  physician, 
born  in  Palestine,  lived  about  530  A.D.,  and  was  noted 
for  his  benevolence.  He  attended  Chosroes,  King  of 
Persia,  whom  he  cured. 

Tricaud,  tRe'ko',  (Anthelme,)  a  French  writer  and 
priest,  born  at  Belley  in  167 1.  He  wrote  several  his- 
torical works.     Died  in  Paris  in  1739. 

Tricoupi.     See  Trikupis. 

Triest,  tReest,  (Antoine,)  a  Flemish  prelate,  born 
near  Audenarde  in  1576,  was  noted  for  his  charity.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Bruges  in  1616.     Died  in  1657. 

Triewald,  tRee'<\'aid,  or  Trivald,  (Martin,)  a  Swed- 
ish engineer  and  mechanician,  born  at  Stockholm  in 
1691.  He  visited  England  at  an  early  age,  and  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Having  applied 
himself  for  many  years  to  the  study  of  mechanics  and 
natural  philosophy,  he  returned  to  Sweden,  where  he 
constructed  a  steam-engine  and  made  a  number  of 
improvements  in  machinery.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Stockholm,  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.     Died  in  1741. 

Trigault,  tRe'g5',  (Nicolas,)  a  PVench  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Douay  in  1577.  He  was  employed 
in  China.     Died  at  Nanking  in  1628. 

Triginta  Tyranni.     See  Thirty  Tyrants. 

Triglav,  tr^'gliv,  the  triple-headed  god  of  the  old 
Slavic  peoples. 

Trigueros,  tRe-ga'r6s,  (Don  Candide  Maria,)  a 
Spanish  poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Orgaz,  in  Castile, 
in  1736.  Among  his  works  is  a  comedy  called  "  Los 
Mencstrales,"  (1784.)     Died  about  1800. 

Trikupis,  tRe-koo'pis,  or  Tricoupi,  tRe-koo'pee, 
(Spiridion,)  a  modern  Greek  historian  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Missolonghi  in  1791.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  Greek  revolution  which  began  in  1821.  He 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  England  in  1838,  in  1842, 
and  in  1850.  He  published,  in  Greek,  a  "  History  of 
the  Greek  Revolution,"  (4  vols.,  1853-57,)  a  work  of 
high  reputation.     He  died  at  Athens,  Feb.  24,  1873. 

Triller,  tRil'ler,  (Daniel  Wilhelm,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, poet,  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1695. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  became  in  1749  professor  of 
medicine  at  Wittenberg.  He  published  a  great  number 
jf  medical  treatises,  in  Latin,  also  Latin  poems  on  medi- 
cine.    Died  in  1782. 

Trflochana,  tri-lo'cha-na,  (/>.  "  three-eyed"  or 
"having  three  eyes,")  [from  the  Sanscrit  tri,  "three," 
and  I3chdnd,  an  "eye,"]  an  epithet  of  Siva,  which  see. 

Trim'ble,  (David,)  an  American  legislator,  born  in 
Frederick  count);,  Virginia,  about  1782,  removed  to 
Kentucky  about  1804.  He  represented  a  district  of 
Kentucky  in  Congress  from  181 7  to  1827,  and  was  highly 
esteemed.     Died  in  1842. 

Trimble,  (Isaac  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822.  He  took 
arms  against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  was  wounded  at  the 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  at  Gettysburg.  Died  at 
Baltimore,  January  2,  1S88. 

Trimble,  (William  A.,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
in  1786.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  war  of  1812, 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Ohio  in  1819.     Died  in  December,  1821, 

"Trim'mer,  (Sarah,)  an  English  writer,  whose  original 
name  was  Kirby,  born  at  Ipswich  in  1741,  was  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  juvenile  and  educational  works  of 
great  merit,  which  have  acquired  extensive  popularity. 
Among  these  we  may  name  an  "  Easy  Introduction  to 
the  Knowledge  of  Nature,"  (1780,)  "Sacred  History 
selected  from  the  Scriptures,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1782-85,) 
"The  Economy  of  Charity,"  (1786,)  and  the  "Guardian 
of  Education,"  (5  vols.,  1806.)     Died  in  1810. 

See  Mrs.  Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  LaSt  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843;  "Life 
and  Writings  of  Mrs.  Trimmer,"  London,  1816.    . 

Trimouille.     See   Tr^mouille,   de  la,  and  Tal- 

MONT. 

TrImfirtI,  tri-moor'tl,  (i.e.  "  triform,")  [from  the  San- 
scrit tri,  "  three,"  and  mdrtt,  "  form,"]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  given  to  the  united  form  of  Brahma, 
Vishnu,  and  Siva,  constituting  what  is  termed  the 
"  Hindoo  triad."    (See  note  t  under  ViSHNU.) 


€as  k;  5  as  s;  |  Aard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  t;  th  as  in  this.     (J^-See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TRINCA  VELLA 


2340 


TROBRIAND 


Trincavella,  tRfen-ki-vel'l  J,  written  also  Trincavela 
or  Trincavelli,  [Lat.  Trincavei/lius,]  (Victor,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Venice  in  1496, 
succeeded  Montanus  as  professor  of  medicine  at  Padua, 
(1551.)  He  published  a  number  of  medical  works,  in 
Latin.  He  was  an  excellent  Greek  scholar,  and  edited 
the  works  of  several  Greek  authors  which  had  never 
been  printed  in  the  original.  He  greatly  promoted  the 
introduction  of  Greek  writings  into  the  medical  schools 
of  Italy.     Died  at  Venice  in  1568. 

Trincavelli  or  Trincavellius.    See  Trincavella. 

Trionfetti,  tRe-on-fet'tee,  (Giovanni  Batiista,)  an 
Italian  botanist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1656,  published 
several  works  on  botany.  Died  at  Rome  in  1708.  His 
brother  Lelio,  born  in  1647,  was  also  a  botanist.  Died 
at  Bologna  in  1722. 

Trip,  trip,  (Hendrik  Rudolph,)  a  Dutch  general, 
born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1779.  He  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  war  in  1834,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general 
in  1840. 

Tripier,  tRe'pe^.',  (Nicolas  Jean  Baptiste,)  an  emi- 
nent French  advocate  and  judge,  born  at  Autim  in  1765. 
He  became  a  peer  of  PVance  about  1832.    Died  in  1840. 

See  JossEAU,  "  Eloge  de  Tripier,"  1841  ;  "  Biographie  Univer- 
«elle." 

Trippel,  tRip'pel,  (Alexander,)  a  Swiss  sculptor, 
born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1744.  In  1776  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  executed  the  monuments  of  Count  Tchernichef 
and  of  Gessner,  busts  of  Goethe  and  Herder,  and  other 
works,  which  gained  for  him  a  very  high  reputation.  His 
bust  of  Goethe  is  esteemed  a  master-piece.  Died  in  1793. 

Triptoleme.    See  Triptolemus. 

Trip-toFe-mus,  [Gr.  'VpuKToke^loz•,  Fr.  Triptoleme, 
trip'to'lim',]  a  mythical  person,  said  to  have  been  a  son 
of  King  Eleusis  or  of  Celeus,  King  of  Eleusis.  The 
Greeks  regarded  him  as  a  favourite  of  Ceres,  and  as  the 
inventor  of  the  plough  and  of  agriculture.  It  was  fabled 
that  Ceres  gave  him  a  chariot,  (drawn  by  dragons,)  in 
which  he  rode  all  over  the  earth,  distributing  corn,  and 
that  he  founded  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries. 

Triqueti,  de,  deh  tRe'keh-te',  (Henri,)  Baron,  a 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Conflans  (Loiret)  in  1802,  was 
also  a  painter  in  his  youth.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1839.  Among  his  works  (in  sculpture)  are 
"  The  Death  of  Charles  the  Bold,"  and  "  Petrarch  Read- 
ing to  Laura."      Died  at  Paris,  May  il,  1874. 

Trissin,  Le.     See  Trissino. 

Trissino,  tRis-see'no,  [Fr.  Le  Trissin,  leh  tRe'siN',] 
(Giovanni  Giorgio,)  an  Italian  litterateur  and  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Vicenza  in  1478.  He  was  patronized  by 
Leo  X.  and  Clement  VII.,  and  employed  by  them  in 
various  embassies.  He  was  the  author  of  a  critical  work 
entitled  "  La  Poetica,"  and  a  number  of  poems  in  Italian, 
also  several  Latin  compositions.  Died  in  1550.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Sofonisba"  (1524)  was  much  admired.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Italian  who  wrote  in  vent 
sciolti. 

See  Castelli,  "  Vitadi  G.  G.  Trissino,"  1753  ;  GinguknA,  "  His- 
toire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie ;"  NicAron,  "  Mdmoires ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  " Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets," 
by  Rev.  Henry  Steiibing. 

Tristam  (or  Tristao)  da  Cunha.     See  Cunha,  da. 

Tris'tan  or  Tris'tram,  the  hero  of  one  of  the  earliest 
traditions  of  Britain.  His  history  has  been  more  or  less 
blended  with  that  of  King  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table. 
His  adventures  have  formed  the  subject  of  numerous 
poems  in  the  principal  European  languages,  and  were 
dramatized  by  Hans  Sachs. 

See  "  Sir  Tristram,"  published  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  1806. 

Tristan,  tR^s-tin',  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
near  Toledo  in  1594,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1586.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "  Moses  Striking  the  Rock."  Died 
about  1645. 

Tristan  L'Hermite,  tR^s'tfiN'  l§R'm^t',  (Francois,) 
a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  in  La  Marche  in  i6oi,was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  His  tragedy  of 
"Mariamne"  was  very  successful.     Died  in  1655. 

Tristram.     See  Tristan. 

Tris'tram,  (Henry  Baker,)  LL.D.,  an  English  cler- 
gjrman,  born  May  11,  1822.  He  graduated  at  Lincoln 
College,  Oxford,  m  1844,  and  took  orders  in  1845.     In 


1874  he  was  made  Canon  of  Durham.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Great  Sahara,"  (i860,)  "The  Land  of  Israel," 
(1865,)  "Ornithology  of  Palestine,"  (1867,)  "Scenes  in 
the  East,"  (1870,)  "Daughters  of  Syria,"  "The  Seven 
Golden  Candlesticks,"  "Bible  Places,"  (1871,)  "Natural 
History  of  the  Bible,"  (1880,)  "  Land  of  Moab,"  "Path- 
ways of  Palestine,"  etc. 

Trisflla,  tri-soo'la,  or  Trl-shaTi,  [from  the  Sanscrit 
/rf,  "  three,"  and  sh^ild  or  s<lla,  a  "dart"  or  "spear- 
point,"]  the  name  of  Siva's  trident.     (See  Siva.) 

Tritheim,  tRit'him,  [Lat.  Trithe'mius  ;  Fr.  Tri- 
THiME,  tRe't^m',]  (Johannes,)  a  German  writer  and 
Benedictine  monk,  originally  named  Heidenbero,  was 
born  near  Treves  in  1462.  He  wrote,  besides  several  his- 
torical and  religious  works,  in  Latin,  "  On  the  Illustrious 
Men  of  Germany,"  ("  De  Luminaribus  Germaniae," 
1495.)     Died  in  15 16. 

See  Horn,  "J.  Trithemius ;  biosjraphische  Skizze,"  1843:  Nictf- 
RON,  "M^moires;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Tritheme  or  Trithemius.     See  Tritheim. 

Trithen,  tRee'ten,  (Frederick  Henry,)  a  distin- 
guished Swiss  linguist,  born  in  1820,  removed  at  an 
early  age  to  Odessa,  in  Russia,  where  he  became  versed 
in  the  modern  European  languages,  and  afterwards 
studied  Sanscrit  at  Berlin.  Having  visited  England  in 
1841,  he  was  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  in  1848  was  chosen  professor  of  modern  European 
languages  in  the  Taylor  Institution  at  Oxford.  He  made 
a  number  of  valuable  contributions  to  the  "  Biographical 
Dictionary"  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge.     Died  in  1854. 

Tri'to,  Tri-to'nis,  Trit-o-ge-nei'a,  or  Tri-to'ni-a, 
[Gr.  TpiTw,  TptT£.>wf,  or  Tpiroyevwa;  Fr.  Tritog6nie, 
tRe'to'zhi'ne',]  surnames  of  Athena  or  Minerva.  (See 
Minerva.) 

Tri'ton,  [Gr.  Tptrow,]  the  name  of  a  marine  deity, 
supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  described  as 
having  a  body  of  which  the  upper  part  was  human  and 
the  lower  part  like  a  fish.  Sometimes  the  term  occurs 
as  a  common  noun  and  in  the  plural  number,  (Tritons.) 
They  are  represented  as  blowing  a  trumpet  consisting; 
of  a  sea-shell,  (concha.) 

Tritonia  and  Tritouis.     See  Trito. 

Triv'et  or  Tryv'et,  written  also  Trev'eth,  [Lat. 
Trive'tus  or  Treve'tus,]  (Nicholas,)  an  English 
Dominican  monk,  born  in  Norfolk  about  1258,  was 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
His  principal  work  is  a  chronicle  of  England,  entitled 
"  Annales  sex  Regum  Angliae,"  which  has  passed  through 
several  editions.     Died  in  1328. 

Trivetus.     See  Trivet. 

Tri-vik'ra-ma,  {i.e.  the  "  three-step-taker,"  or  "  he 
who  takes  three  steps,")  [from  the  Sanscrit  trt,  "  three," 
and  vikrdtnd,  "going"  or  "stepping,"]  a  celebrated  sur- 
name of  Vishnu.     (See  VAmana.) 

Trivulce.     See  Trivulzi  and  Trivulzio. 

Trivulzi,  de',  da  tRe-vool'zee,  [Fr.  Trivulce,  tRe'- 
viilss',]  (AoosTiNO,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and  diplomatist. 
Died  in  1548. 

Trivulzi,  de',  or  Trivulce,  (Teodoro,)  an  Italian 
general,  born  about  1456,  was  a  cousin-german  of  the 
great  Trivulzio.  He  entered  the  French  service  in  1495, 
and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1526.  Died  in  1532. 

Trivulzio,  tRe-vool'ze-o,  surnamed  the  Great,  [Fr. 
Trivulce  le  Grand,  tRe'viilss'  leh  gR5N,]  (Gian  Gia- 
Como,)  an  Italian  military  commander,  born  in  1441. 
He  served  in  the  army  of  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples, 
and  in  1495  entered  the  service  of  Charles  VIII.  of 
France.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1499. 
After  the  accession  of  Louis  XII.  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Italian  army,  and  soon  after  de- 
feated the  Milanese  under  Ludovico  Sforza,  (1499,)  and 
again  at  Novara,  (1500.)  In  1513  he  was  compelled  to 
evacuate  Milan  by  Maximilian  Sforza,  and,  having  lost 
the  battle  of  Novara,  in  1514,  the  French  were  again 
driven  from  Italy.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  vic- 
tory of  the  French  at  Marignano  in  15 15.     Died  in  1518. 

See  RosMiNi,  "  Istoria  iiitomo  alle  militari  Innresi  ed  alia  Vita 
di  G.  G.  Trivulzio,"  2  vols.,  1815 ; 

Trobriand,  de,  deh  tRo'bRe-ftN',  (Philip  Regis,) 
Haron,  a  soldier,  born  at  Tours,  France,  June  4,  1816. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  5,  e,  1, 6,  u,  )^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


TROCHU 


5341 


TROMP 


He  was  educated  at  Orleans,  and  in  1841  removed  to 
New  York,  where  he  was  a  successful  journalist.  In 
1861  he  entered  the  United  States  volunteer  army,  in 
which  he  became  a  division  commander.  He  was  a 
colonel  in  the  regular  army  from  1865  to  1879,  when  he 
retired.  His  principal  published  work  is  "  Quatre  Ans 
de  Campagnes  ^  I'Armee  du  Potomac,"  {1867.) 

Trocnu,  tRo'shii',  (Louis  Jules,)  an  able  French 
general,  born  March  12,  181 5.  He  became  captain  in  1843, 
served  as  chief  of  the  general  staff  in  the  Crimean  war, 
md  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  in  1854. 
He  displayed  a  superior  genius  for  strategy.  In  1864 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  of  division,  and 
about  1866  was  directed  to  form  a  plan  to  reorganize 
the  army.  On  this  subject  he  wrote  a  very  popular 
work,  entitled  "L'Armee  Fran^aise,"  (1867.)  In  August, 
1870,  he  was  appointed  major-general  of  the  army  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris.  "  He  is  un- 
deniably," says  the  "Army  and  Navy  Journal"  for  July, 
1870,  "the  best  soldier  of  France."  On  the  formation 
of  the  republic,  September  4,  he  became  president  of 
the  executive  committee,  the  highest  office  in  the  pro- 
visional government.  He  commanded  the  forces  which 
defended  Paris  against  the  Germans  during  the  siege  of 
1870-71.  He  published  (1873)  "  Pour  la  Verite  et  pour 
la  Justice,"  and  "L'Armee  Fran9aise  en  1879,"  (1879.) 

Trogue  Pomp6e.    See  Trogus  Pompeius. 

Tro'gus  Pom-pe'ius,  [Fr.  Trogue  Pomp^e,  tRog 
p6N'pi',)  a  Roman  historian  under  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Universal  History  from  the  Time 
of  Ninus,  King  of  Assyria,  down  to  5  a.d.,"  which  is 
lost.     An  abridgment  of  it,  by  Justin,  is  extant. 

Troil,  tRo'!l,  [Lat.  Tro/lius,]  (Uno,)  a  Swedish 
savant  and  bishop,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1746.  He 
travelled  in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  In  1784  he 
became  Bishop  of  Linkoping,  and  in  1787  Archbishop 
of  Upsal.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "  History  of 
the  Church  and  the  Reformation  in  Sweden,"  (5  vols., 
1790.)     Died  in  1803. 

See  Adi.erbeth,  " Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  U.  von  Troil,"  1804; 
Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

TroiQe.     See  Troii.us. 

Troili,  tRo-eeHee,  (Placido,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
monk,  born  at  Montalbano  in  1687  ;  died  in  1757. 

Troilius.     See  Troil. 

Trol-lus,  [Gr.  TpwtAof;  Fr.  Troile,  tRo'6K,l  a  son 
ot  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was  distinguished  for  his  beauty. 
He  was  slain  in  battle  by  Achilles. 

Trolde.     See  Troll. 

TroU,  [Icelandic  and  Swedish,  Troll;  Danish, 
Trolde,  troKdeh,]  in  Northern  mythology,  a  being  who 
was  supposed  to  possess  magical  or  supernatural 
powers,  and  to  dwell  in  the  interior  of  hills  and  moun- 
tains. The  term  appears  to  be  used  with  some  loose- 
ness of  application  ;  it  is  often  applied  to  the  Dwarfs, 
(Dwergar,)  who  were  generally  believed  to  possess  rare 
skill  or  cunning  in  working  in  metals,  stone,  etc.,  and  to 
be  endowed  with  magic  powers.  (See  Elves.)  One 
class  of  Trolls,  dwelling  in  Norway,  were  called  Thusser 
or  Thurser,  (doubtless  of  the  same  etymology  as  the 
Norse  Thursar,  signifying  "giants.")  They  are  de 
scribed  not  as  dwarfs,  but  as  large  as  men,  well  formed, 
and  of  a  ijale-bkie  colour.  It  is  a  popular  belief  in  the 
North  that  when  the  rebellious  angels  were  cast  out  of 
heaven,  some  fell  into  hell,  while  others,  who  had  not 
sinned  so  deeply,  were  scattered  through  the  air,  under 
the  earth,  and  in  the  waters,  and  that  these  became 
elves,  dwarfs,  or  trolls. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  i  and  2,  also  56 
dnd  57. 

Trolle,  tRoKleh,  (Gustavus,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  was 
a  partisan  of  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  on  whose  head 
he  placed  the  crown  of  Sweden  in  1510  or  1520.  He  was 
Archbishop  of  Upsal.     He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1535. 

Trolle,  tRol'leh,  (Herluf,)  a  Danish  admiral,  born 
in  1516.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Swedes  in  1564, 
but  was  afterwards  mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement 
with  the  Swedish  admiral  Horn,  (1565.) 

Trolley,  tRo'li',  (FRA.wgois  Alfred,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Nederzwallen  in  i8o8.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Administrative  Hierarchy,"  (1844-54.)    Died  1869. 


TrolTppe,  (Anthony,)  an  English  novelist,  a  son  of 
F"rances  TroUope,  was  born  in  1815.  He  wrote  "The 
Warden,"  (1855,)  "  Barchester  Towers,"  (1857,)  "  Doctor 
Thome,"  (1858,)  "  Framley  Parsonage,"  (1861,)  "  Orley 
Farm,"  (1862,)  "The  Belton  Estate,"  (1864,)  "  Phineas 
Finn,  the  Irish  Member,"  (1869,)  "The  Vicar  of  Bull- 
hampton,"  (1870,)  "  Sir  Harry  Hotspur  of  Humble- 
thwaite,"  (1871,)  "The  Eustace  Diamonds,"  (1873,) 
"Phineas  Redux,"  (1874,)  "The  Way  We  Live  Now," 
(1875,)  *"d  "The  American  Senator,"  (1877  ;)  also  works 
entitled  "North  America,"  (1862,)  "South  Africa," 
(1878,)  and  "  Life  of  Cicero,"  (1881.)    Died  Dec.  6,  1882. 

TroUope,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born  April 
15,  1817,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  became  rector  of  Leasingham  in  1843,  Arch- 
deacon of  Stow  in  1867,  and  bishop  suffragan  of  Not- 
tingham in  1877.  He  published,  besides  many  archi- 
tectural and  antiquarian  works,  a  "  Life  of  Adrian  IV.," 
(1856,)  and  "Little  Saint  Hugh  of  Lincoln,"  (1880.) 

TroUope,  (Frances,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  in  1790.  Having  spent  three  years  in  the  United 
States,  she  published,  in  1832,  "Domestic  Life  of  the 
Americans."  This  was  followed  in  rapid  succession  by 
a  great  number  of  tales,  sketches,  and  novels,  among 
which  may  be  named  "  Belgium  and  Western  Germany," 
(1833,)  "Paris  and  the  Parisians  in  1835,"  (1836,)  "The 
Life  and  Adventures  of  Jonathan  Jefferson  Whitlaw," 
etc.,  (1836,)  "Vienna  and  the  Austrians,"  etc.,  (1838,) 
"  The  Vicar  of  Wrexhill,"  and  "  The  Widow  Barnaby," 
(1839.)  She  was  married  in  1809  to  Anthony  TroUope, 
a  barrister.     Died  in  1863. 

TroUope,  (Thomas  Adolphus,)  an  English  writer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1810.  He  resided 
many  years  at  Florence.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Summer  in  Brittany,"  (1840,)  "Beppo  the  Con- 
script," (1864,)  "Lindesfarn  Chase,"  (1864,)  "History 
of  the  Commonwealth  of  Florence,"  (1865,)  "Gemma," 
(1866,)  "  Life  of  Filippo  Strozzi,"  (1869,)  and  "  Story  of 
the  Life  of  Pius  IX.,"  (1877.) 

Trommen,  van  der,  vtn  der  tRom'men,  [Lat.  Trom'- 
Mius,]  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Groningen  in  1633. 
He  preached  at  Groningen  about  forty-eight  years.  He 
published  a  "  Concordance  of  the  Bible"  in  the  Flemish 
language,  (1685-92.)     Died  in  1719. 

Trommius.     See  Trommen. 

Trommsdorff,  tRoms'doRf,  (Johann  Bartholo- 
MAUS,)  a  German  chemist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1770,  be- 
came professor  of  chemistry  and  physics  in  the  univer 
sity  of  his  native  city.  He  published  several  scientific 
works.     Died  in  1837. 

Tromp,  tRomp,  (Marten  Harpertzoon — haR'pSRj- 
zon',)  a  celebrated  naval  commander,  born  at  Briel,  in 
Holland,  in  1597.  At  an  early  age  he  accompanied  Ad- 
miral Peter  Heijn  in  his  engagements  with  the  Spaniards 
off  Flanders,  and  in  1639  was  made  Admiral  of  Holland. 
In  October  of  the  same  year  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  fleet  under  Ocquendo. 
For  this  action  he  was  ennobled  by  the  King  of  France. 
In  3652  Admiral  Tromp,  having  been  defeated  by  the 
English  under  Blake,  was  for  a  time  superseded  by  De 
Ruyter.  He  was  soon  after  reinstated,  and  in  November, 
1652,  again  encountered  Blake,  taking  two  of  his  ships 
and  sinking  several  others.  In  August,  1653,  the  last 
engagement  took  place  between  the  English  and  Dutch 
admirals,  in  which  the  latter  was  mortally  wounded. 
Tromp  was  one  of  the  ablest  seamen  of  his  time,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  victor  in  more  than  thirty  battles. 

See    Richer,    "Vie  de    I'Amiral    Tromp,"    1784. 

Tromp,  van,  vin  tRomp,  (Cornelis,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1629.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  engagements  with  the  pirates 
of  the  Mediterranean,  but  in  1665  he  was  defeated  by 
the  English  at  Solebay  under  the  Duke  of  York.  In 
1666,  in  conjunction  with  De  Ruyter,  he  gained  a  victory 
over  the  English,  after  a  contest  of  four  successive  days. 
The  King  of  Denmark  subsequently  bestowed  on  him 
the  title  of  count,  and  other  distinctions,  as  a  reward 
for  services  rendered  him  in  his  war  with  Sweden. 
After  the  death  of  De  Ruyter,  Van  Tromp  succeeded 
him  as  lieutenant-admiral-general  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces.    Died  in  1691. 


€  as  -4;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  33.) 


TRONCHET 


2342 


TROWBRIDGE 


Tronchet,  tR6N'sViA',  (Francois  Dknis,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  was  elected  to  the 
States-General  in  1789,  and  was  a  member  of  the  consti- 
tutional party.  In  December,  1792,  he  was  employed 
by  Louis  XVI.  to  defend  him  in  his  trial.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Elders  from  1795  to  1799, 
became  president  of  the  court  of  cassation  about  1800, 
and  had  a  prominent  ])art  in  the  redaction  of  the  Code 
Napoleon.     Died  in  1806. 

See  Lavali.^e,  "Notice  historiqiie  sur  F.  D.  Trnncliet,"  if?o6; 
Andr^  Dupin,  "Tronchet,  Ferey,  Poirier,"  1810;  "  Noiivelle  Hio- 
graphie  G^nerale." 

Tronchin,  tRdN'shiN',  (Jean  Robert,)  a  Swiss  jurist 
of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1710.  He 
became  procureur-general.  Lord  Mansfield  once  said, 
"In  our  country  he  [Tronchin]  would  be  chancellor." 
He  defended  the  action  of  the  Swiss  government  in  re- 
lation to  Rousseau's  "  Emile,"  by  "  Letters  written  from 
the  Country,"  ("Lettres  ecrites  de  la  Campagne,"  1763.) 
Died  in  1793. 

See  Shnebikr,  "Histoire  littdraire  de  Geneve;"  Haag,  "La 
France  jirotestante." 

Tronchin,  (Theodore,)  a  Genevese  theologian,  born 
in  1582,  was  professor  and  rector  in  the  Academy  of  his 
native  city.  He  was  an  earnest  opponent  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Arminius.     Died  in  1657. 

Tronchin,  (Theodore,)  an  eminent  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1709.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  in 
England,  and  subsequently  under  Boerhaave  at  Leyden. 
He  practised  at  Amsterdam  nearly  twenty  years,  became 
honorary  professor  of  medicine  at  Geneva  in  1750,  and 
soon  acquired  a  high  reputation,  particularly  for  his 
efforts  to  promote  the  practice  of  inoculation.  He  was 
appointed  in  1765  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire  and 
Rousseau. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  gdn^rale ;"  Condorcet, 
"filoges;"  "Biographic  Medicale ;"  Haag,  "La  France  protes- 
tante." 

Tronson,  tR6N's6N',  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1622.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Forma  Cleri,"  (3  vols.,  1669.)  Died  in 
1700. 

Tronson  du  Coudray,  tR6N's6N'du  koo'dRi',(GuiL- 
LAUME  Alexandre,)  a  French  advocate  and  royalist, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1750.  He  volunteered  his  services 
as  counsel  of  Louis  XVI.  in  December,  1792;  but  he 
was  not  permitted  to  speak  in  that  case.  He  made  a 
speech  in  defence  of  the  queen  Marie  Antoinette  in 
1793.  As  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Elders,  he  op- 
posed the  Directory  in  1797,  and  was  transported  to 
Guiana,  where  he  died  in  1798. 

See  Blondeau,  "  Notice  sur  Tronson  du  Coudray,"  1825 ;  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Troost,  tRost,  (CoRNELis,)  an  able  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1697.  He  painted  portraits,  familiar 
scenes,  conversations,  etc.  His  drawings  in  colours  are 
highly  commended.     Died  in  1750. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Troost,  (Gerard,)  a  distinguished  chemist  and  geol- 
ogist, born  at  Bois-le-Duc,  Holland,  in  1776,  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  and  was  appointed  in  1828  pro- 
fessor of  cheinistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  at  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee.  He  became  State  geologist  in  183 1. 
Died  in  1850. 

Tro-pho'ni-us,  [Gr.  Tpo^uvwf,]  a  celebrated  archi- 
tect, called  a  son  of  Erginus,  King  of  Orchomenos,  (or, 
according  to  some,  of  Apollo.)  He  and  his  brother 
Agamedes  built  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  the 
treasury  of  King  Hyrieus.  His  name  was  connected 
with  a  cave  and  oracle  at  Lebadea,  in  Bceotia,  which  is 
described  by  Pausanias.  A  visit  to  this  cave  was  sup- 
posed to  render  people  serious  or  melancholy. 

See  Addison's  paper,  entitled  "The  Cave  of  Trophonius,"  in 
the  "Spectator,"  No.  599. 

_  Troplong,  tRo'l6N',  (Raymond  Theodore,)  a  French 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Saint-Gaudens  in  1795. 
He  became  in  1835  ^  counsellor  in  the  court  of  cassa- 
tion \%  Paris,  first  president  of  the  court  of  appeal  in 
1848,  first  president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1852, 
and  first  president  of  the  senate  in  1854.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sci- 


ences in  1840.  His  chief  work  is  "The  Civil  Law  Ex- 
pounded," ("  Le  Droit  civil  explique,"  27  vols.  8vo, 
1834-56.)     Died  in  February,  1869. 

.See  "  Nouvelle  Eiographie  Gendrale." 

Tros,  [Gr.  Tpwf,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Phrygia,  was  a 
grandson  of  Dardanus,  and  a  son  of  Erichthonius.  He 
was  the  father  of  Ilus,  Asaracus,  and  Ganymedes,  (Gany- 
mede.)    The  Trojans  derived  their  name  from  him. 

Troschel,  tRosh'el,  (Johann,)  a  skilful  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Nuremberg  about  1592.  He  worked  at 
Rome.     Died  in  1633. 

Trot'ter,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Roxburghshire,  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
and  became  in  1793  physician  to  the  Royal  Hospital 
at  Portsmouth.  He  published,  aiuong  other  works,  a 
"  Review  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  British 
Navy,"  (1790,)  "Medical  and  Chemical  Essays,"  (1795,) 
and  an  "  Essay  on  the  Diseases  of  Seamen,"  (3  vols., 
1797-1803.)     Died  in  1832. 

Trotti,  tRot'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  IL  Malosso,  was  born  at  Cremona 
in  1555,  and  was  a  pupil  of  B.  Campi.  The  graceful- 
ness of  his  heads  is  praised  by  several  critics.  Died 
after  1607. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Troughton,  trow'ton,  ?  (Edward,)  F.R.S.,  an  ex- 
cellent English  mechanician  and  maker  of  astronomical 
instruments,  was  born  in  Cumberland  in  1753.  He 
became  a  resident  of  London,  made  telescopes  for  seve- 
ral observatories,  and  invented  improvements  in  astro- 
nomical instruments,  in  the  fabrication  of  which  he  is 
said  to  have  surpassed  all  of  his  contemporaries.  Died 
in  1835. 

Troup,  troop,  (George  M.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  on  the  Tombigbee  River  in  1780.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  for  Georgia  from  1807  to  181 5,  was  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1816  to  1818,  and 
Governor  of  Georgia  from  1823  to  1827  He  also  repre- 
sented Georgia  in  the  Federal  Senate  from  1829  to  1834. 
He  was  a  champion  of  State  sovereignty.    Died  in  1856. 

Trousseau,  tRoo'so',  (Armand,)  an  eminent  French 
physician,  born  at  Tours  in  1801.  He  publislied  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "Treatise  on  Therapeutics  and 
Materia  Medica,"  ("Traite  de  Therapeutique  et  de  Ma- 
ti^re  medicale,"  3  vols.,  1836-39.)  He  became  professor 
of  therapeutics  at  Paris  in  1839.  He  had  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  professor  and  a  writer.    Died  in  June,  1867. 

See  Sachaile,  "  M^decins  de  Paris;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Trouvain,  tRoo'v^N',  (Antoine,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Montdidier  in  1656,  was  a  pupil  of  G.  Edelinck. 
Died  in  1708. 

Trouve  -  Chauvel,  tRoo'vi'  sho'vIK,  (Ariste,)  a 
French  republican  minister  of  state,  born  at  Suze  (Sarthe) 
in  1805.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly 
in  1848,  and  was  minister  of  finance  from  October  to 
December  of  that  year. 

Trow'bridge,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1709,  became 
attorney-general  of  the  State  in  1749,  and  was  afterwards 
justice  of  the  supreme  court.     Died  in  1793. 

Trovrbridge,  (John,)  an  American  physicist,  born  in 
Boston  in  1843.  He  was  educated  at  the  Boston  Latin 
School  and  in  the  scientific  department  of  Harvard 
University,  was  assistant  professor  of  phj'sics  in  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  and  in  Harvard 
University,  and  in  1879  became  professor  of  experimental 
pliysics  in  the  last-named  institution,  and  won  special 
distinction  as  an  electrician.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
New  Physics,"  (1885.) 

Trowbridge,  (JohnTownsend,)  an  American  novel- 
ist, born  in  Monroe  county,  New  York,  in  1827.  He 
contributed  to  the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  Among  his 
works  are  "Neighbour  Jackwood,"  (1857,)  "The  Old 
Battle -Ground,"  (1859,)  "The  Vagabonds,"  (1863,) 
"Cudjo's  Cave,"  (1864,)  "Lucy  Arlyn,"  (1866,)  and 
"Coupon  Bonds,"  (1866.) 

Tro'w'bridge  or  Troubridge,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  London,  served  with  great 
distinction  under  Lord  Howe,  and,  as  commander  of 


\,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long; i,  i,  6, same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, shoit;  a,  e,  i,  <?,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f4t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


TROWBRIDGE 


2343 


TRUMBULL 


the  CuUoden,  was  sent  to  the  assistance  of  Nelson  in 
the  Mediterranean  in  1798.  He  served  at  the  battle 
of  the  Nile.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1799,  and  an 
admiral  in  1804.  As  commander  of  the  Blenheim,  he 
sailed  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1807,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  perished  by  shipwreck  off  the  coast  of 
Madagascar. 

Tro-wbridge,  (Sir  Thomas  Saint  Vincent  Hope 
Cochrane,)  an  English  officer,  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1817.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the 
Crimean  war,  and  lost  a  leg  at  Inkerman,  (1854.)  Died 
in  1867. 

Trowbridge,  (William  Petit,)  an  American  engi- 
neer, born  in  Oakland  county,  Michigan,  May  25,  1828. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1848,  and  for  many  years 
was  engaged  on  the  United  .States  coast  survey.  He 
held  professorships  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  and 
in  Yale  and  Columbia  Colleges.  He  published  many 
professional  treatises,  papers,  and  reports. 

Troxler,  tRoks'ler,  (Ignaz  Paul  Vital,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  in  the  canton  of  Lucerne  in  1780,  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Bale  in  1830.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  philosophical  works. 

Troy,  de,  deh  tKwS,  (pRANgois,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Toulouse  about  1645,  became  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris.  He  painted  portraits 
with  success,  and  some  historical  pieces.     Died  in  1730. 

Troy,  de,  (Jean  Fran<;ois,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1676.  He  was  appointed  by  Louis 
XIV.  director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome  about 
^738.     Died  in  1752. 

Troya,  tRo'yi,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Naples  in  1785.  He  was  exiled  in  1823  for  his  liberal- 
ism. He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  Apparato  preliminale  alia  Storia 
dal  medio  Evo,"  1839  et  seq.)     Died  in  1858. 

Troyen,  van,  vtn  tRoi'en,  (Rombout,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1600.  He  painted  ruins 
and  other  objects  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome.    Died  in  1650. 

Troyon,  tRw^'ydN',  (Constant,)  an  eminent  French 
painter  of  animals  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Sevres 
in  1813.  He  gained  medals  of  the  first  class  in  1846 
and  1848.  His  works  are  admired  for  variety  of  effects, 
fidelity  to  nature,  and  brilliant  colouring.  He  painted 
numerous  pictures  of  French  scenery.     Died  in  1865. 

Trublet,  tRii'bli',  (Nicolas  Charles  Joseph,) 
Abb6,  a  French  essayist,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1697. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Literary  and 
Moral  Essays,"  (2  vols.,  1735.)  D'Alembert  said  this 
might  be  made  an  excellent  book  by  erasing  some  parts 
of  it.  Trublet  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1761.     Died  in  1770. 

.See  D'Alembhrt,  "  Histoire  de  rAcadeinie  FraiiQaise." 

Truchet,  tRii'shy,  (Jean,)  a  French  Carmelite  monk, 
sometimes  called  Father  Sebastian,  born  at  Lyons 
m  1657,  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics and  mechanics.  He  invented  several  useful 
machines.     Died  in  1729. 

Truchse.ss,  (Gebhard.)     See  Gebhard. 

Trudaine  de  Montigny,  tRii'din'  deh  m6N'tin'ye', 
(Jean  Charles  Philibert,)  a  French  financier,  born 
at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1733  ;  died  in  1777. 

Trueba  y  Cosio,  de,  di  tRoo-a'Bl  e  ko'se-o,  (Teles- 
FORO,)  a  distinguished  writer,  born  at  Santander,  in 
Spain,  in  1805,  was  educated  in  England,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  number  of  romances,  dramas,  and  historical 
works,  in  English.  Among  these  may  be  named  "The 
Castilian,"  "  Salvador  the  Guerrilla,"  and  a  farce  entitled 
"  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pringle."     Died  in  1835. 

Truguet,  tRu'gk',  (Laurent  Jsan  FRANgoiS;)  a 
French  admiral,  born  at  Toulon  in  1752.  He  was  min- 
ister of  marine  from  November,  1795,  to  July,  1797.  In 
1802  he  took  command  of  the  combined  fleets  of  Fran  ••» 
and  Spain.  He  was  disgraced  in  1804,  on  suspicion  of 
his  being  averse  to  Napoleon's  elevation  to  the  imperial 
power.     Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Eiographie  G^n^rale." 

Tru'man,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1631,  was  the  author  of  several  theological  works,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "  A  Discourse  of  Natural  and  Moral 
Impotency,"  obtained  great  popularity.     He  became  a 


nonconformist,  and  was  deprived  of  his  living  in  1662. 
Died  in  1671. 

Trumball.    See  Trump.ui.l,  (Sir  William.) 

Triim'bull,  (Benjamin,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Hebron, 
Connecticut,  in  1735.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  Connecticut,"  (2  vols.,  1797-1818,)  "History  of  the 
United  States,"  (1810,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1820. 
_  Trumbull,  (Henry  Clay,)  an  American  Congrega- 
tionalist  clergyman,  a  brother  of  J.  Hammond  Trumbull, 
was  born  at  Stonington,  Connecticut,  June  8,  1830.  He 
was  a  chaplain  in  the  Federal  army,  1S62-65,  norma!  sec- 
retary of  the  American  Sunday-School  Union,  Philadel- 
phia, 1872-75,  and  in  1875 'became  editor  of  "The 
Sunday-School  Times."  Among  his  works  are  several 
religious  and  military  biographies,  and  technical  Sunday- 
school  works.  His  "  Kadesh-Barnea"  (1884)  gives  the 
important  results  of  his  explorations  in  Arabia  Petraea. 
"  The  Blood  Covenant,"  (1885,)  a  work  of  great  merit, 
throws  new  light  on  the  terminology  of  Scripture. 

Trumbull,  (James  Hammond,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
American  philologist,  born  at  Stonington,  Connecticut, 
December  20,  1821,  studied  at  Yale  College,  was  sec- 
retary of  state  of  Connecticut,  1861-65,  and  in  1863 
was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Watkinson  Library  of 
Reference,  at  Hartford.  His  numerous  writings  \ix\w- 
cipally  refer  to  the  Indian  languages,  and  especially 
to  those  of  the  Algonkin  stock,  to  which  he  has  given 
much  study. 

Trumbull,  (John,)  an  American  satirical  poet  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Waterbury,  Connecticut,  on  the  24th  of 
April,  1750.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1767, 
after  which  he  was  a  tutor  in  that  institution  for  several 
years.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Dwight.  In 
1772  he  produced  "The  Progress  of  Dulness,"  a  poem. 
Having  studied  law  under  John  Adams,  at  Boston,  he 
began  to  practise  at  New  Haven.  He  became  a  dis- 
tinguished and  ])opular  lawyer,  and  in  1781  settled  at 
Hartford.  In  1782  he  published  "  McFingal,"  a  satirical 
poem,  which  passed  through  thirty  editions  and  was 
serviceable  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  "  It  is  much  the 
best  imitation  of  the  great  satire  of  Butler,"  says  R.  W. 
Grisvvold,  "that  has  been  written."  He  was  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  errors  (or  superior  court)  from 
1808  to  1819.     Died  at  Detroit  in  May,  1831. 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  41; 
DuvCKiN'CK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Trumbull,  (John,)  an  eminent  painter,  born  at  Leba- 
non, Connecticut,  in  1756.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Revolution,  he  entered  the  army,  and  was  appointed  in 
1775  aide-de-camp  to  Washington.  In  1780  he  visited 
London,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  West.  Returning 
to  America,  he  produced,  in  1796,  his  "  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,"  a  master-piece  of  its  kind,  which  was  followed  by 
the  "  Death  of  Montgomery,"  and  "  Sortie  of  the  Garri- 
son from  Gibraltar."  His  most  important  works  are  the 
pictures  in  the  rotunda  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "  The  Surrender  of  Corn- 
wallis,"  the  "  Resignation  of  General  Washington  at 
Annapolis,"  "Declaration  of  Independence,"  and  the 
"Surrender  of  Burgoyne."  He  presented  fifty-five  of 
his  works  to  Yale  College.     Died  in  1843. 

Sec  his  "  Autobiography." 

Trumbull,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  17 10,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1 769, 
continuing  in  that  office  fourteen  years.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Washington  for  his  talents  and  integrity. 
Died  in  1785. 

Trumbull,  (Jonathan,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1 740.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  appointed 
paymaster  to  the  Northern  department  of  the  army,  and 
was  afterwards  secretary  and  first  aide-de-camp  to  Wash- 
ington. He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1 789,  was  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1791  to  1793,  and 
became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1795.  He 
enjoyed  the  friendship  and  confidence  of  General  Wash- 
ington. In  1798  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  Connecticut. 
He  held  the  office  of  Governor  eleven  years.  Died  in 
1809. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  ha7-d:  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,gtMural;  N,  nasal;  R,  h-illed:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TRUMBULL 


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TUCKER 


Trumbull,  (Lyman,)  an  American  judge  and  Senator, 
born  at  Colchester,  Connecticut,  in  1813.  He  removed 
to  Illinois  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  that  State  in  1848.  Having  joined  the  Repub- 
lican party,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  Illinois  in  1854,  and  was  re-elected 
in  i860  and  in  1866.  He  served  as  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  the  judiciary  for  many  years. 

Trum'buU  or  Trtim'ball,  (Sir  William,)  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1636.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  and  was  successively  appointed  to  several 
important  offices  under  the  government.  He  was  envoy- 
extraordinary  to  France  in  1685,  and  after  the  accession 
of  James  II.  was  ambassador  to  Constantinople.  Having 
returned  to  England  in  1691,  he  was  appointed  in  1695 
secretary  of  state.  He  died  in  17 16.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  his  literary  tastes,  and  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Pope  and  Dryden. 

See  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Owii  Times." 

Trii'ro,  (Thomas  Wilde,)  Lord,  an  English  Whig 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  1782.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Newark  in  i83i,and  in  1841  represented 
Worcester,  being  made  attorney-general  the  same  year. 
He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  in  1846,  and  lord  high  chancellor  in  1850.  He  re- 
signed in  February,  1852.     Died  in  1855. 

Trus'ler,  (Joh.n,)  an  English  bookseller  and  compiler, 
born  in  London  in  1735;  died  in  1820. 

Trutzschler,  von,  fon  tRoots'shler,  (Friedrich 
Karl  Adolf,)  a  German  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born 
near  Weida  in  1751  ;  died  in  1831. 

Trtix'toii  or  Triix'tttu,  (Thomas,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1755.  As  captain  of 
a  privateer,  he  took  several  valuable  prizes  during  the 
Revolution.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  navy 
in  1795,  with  the  command  of  the  frigate  Constellation, 
thirty-eight  guns,  and  captured  in  February,  1799,  the 
French  frigate  LTnsurgente.  He  received  from  Congress 
a  gold  medal  for  his  victory  over  the  French  frigate  La 
Vengeance,  fifty-four  guns,  February,  1800.    Died  in  1822. 

Truxtun.     See  Truxton. 

Tryphiodore.     See  Tryphiodorus. 

Tryph-i-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  Tpu^wdwpof;  Fr.  Tryphio- 
dore, tRe'fe'o'doR',]  a  Greek  poet  and  grammarian,  born 
in  Egypt  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  or  early  part  of 
the  si.xth  century,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  several  editions  of  which  have 
been  publishecU 

Try'phon,  [Gr.  Tpii^uf,]  an  eminent  engraver  of 
gems,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  n.c.  Among 
his  extant  works  is  a  gem  representing  the  reconciliation 
of  Eros  and  Psyche. 

Try'phon,  (Diod'otus.)  King  of  Syria,  usurped 
the  throne  in  142  B.C.,  after  he  had  murdered  Antiochus, 
the  infant  son  of  Alexander  Balas.  He  was  defeated 
and  put  to  death  by  Antiochus  Sidetes  in  139  B.C. 

Tryph-o-ni'nus,  (Claudius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  under  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  legal  works,  fragments  of  which 
are  extant. 

Tscharner,  tshaR'ner,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  Swiss 
statesman,  l)orn  in  1751  ;  died  in  1835. 

Tscheruing,  tsh§R'ning,  (A.vdreas,)  a  German  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Bunzlau  in  161 1,  became  professor  of  poetry 
at  Rostock.     Died  in  1659. 

Tscherning,  (Anton  Friedrich,)  a  Danish  states- 
man, born  at  Frederiksvark  in  1795.  ^^  was  appointed 
minister  of  war  in  1848,  and  in  1854  a  member  of  the 
im|3erial  council.     Died  at  Copenhagen,  June  28,  1874. 

Tschirner,  (Heinrich  Gottlieb.)  SeeTzscHiRNER. 

Tschirnhausen,  von,  fon  tshd€Rn'h6w'zen,  (Ehren- 
KKiED  Walter,)  an  eminent  German  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  born  near  Gorlitz,  in  Upper  Lusatia, 
in  1651.  He  travelled  in  various  countries  of  Europe, 
and  after  his  return  established  in  Saxony  several  man- 
ufactories of  glass.  He  made  burning  lenses  and 
mirrors  of  enormous  size.  One  of  these  was  three  feet 
in  diameter,  with  a  focal  distance  of  twelve  feet.  About 
1867  he  published  a  jihilosophical  work  called  "  Medicine 
of  the  Mind,"  ("  Medicina  Mentis.")     Died  in  1708. 

See  "  Leben  Tschirnliausens,"   1709;  Fonteneli.e,  "  filoges.  " 


T3chudi,  tshoo'dee,  (Lat.  Tschu'dius,]  (^^gidius,) 
one  of  the  earliest  Swiss  historians,  was  born  at  Glarus 
in  1505.  He  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government,  and  in  1559  was  ambassador  at  the  court 
of  Vienna.  His  voluminous  works  are  chiefly  in  manu- 
script. The  most  important  of  those  published  is 
his  "Chronicle  of  Switzerland  froni  ioooa.d.  to  1470," 
(in  German,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  authority  in 
Swiss  history.     Died  in  1572. 

See  FucHS,  "  yE.  Tschudi's  Leben  und  Schriften,"  3  vols.,  1805 : 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Tschudi,  von,  fon  tshoo'dee,  (Friedrich,)  a  Swiss 
author,  brother  of  J.  J.  von  Tschudi,  was  born  at  Glarus 
in  1820.  He  was  at  first  a  clergyman,  and  after  1846 
entered  upon  political  life.  His  chief  work  is  "The 
Zoology  of  the  Alps,"  (Das  Thierlebe4i  der  Alpenwek, 
1852  ;  often  reprinted.)  He  also  published  a  work  on 
the  relations  of  birds  and  insects  to  agriculture,  and  a 
volume  of  agricultural  lectures  for  young  readers.  In 
1884  he  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the  Swiss  Poly- 
technic School.     Died  January  25,  1886. 

Tschudi,  von,  von  tshoo'dee,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a 
Swiss  naturalist,  of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Glarus  in  1818.  He  visited  Peru  in  1838,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  "  Sketches  of  Travel  in  Peru," 
"  Antiquities  of  Peru,"  prepared  in  conjunction  with  Don 
Mariano  de  Rivera,  and  other  works. 

Tsohudius.    See  Tschudi,  (jSgidius.) 

Tsong-kha-pa,  tsong-K^-pS,  (also  written  bTsong- 
kha-pa,  and  sometimes  called  bLo-b  Sang-graggs-pa, 
the  "  P'amous  Sage,")  a  great  Thibetan  reformer,  born  at 
Kooboom  (Kunbum,  or  ssKu'bum)  about  1357.  He 
became  a  monk,  and  then  a  hermit,  began  to  preach  as 
a  reformer  at  Lhassa  about  1390,  and  died  in  1419.  He 
first  organized  the  Lamaist  hierarchy  in  its  present  form. 
He  wrote  many  voluminous  works,  of  which  those  called 
"  Sumbun"  and  "  Lam  Nimch  Hen  Po"  ("  The  Great 
Step-Road  towards  Perfection")  are  best  known.  A 
vast  number  of  absurd  legends  regarding  him  are  pre- 
served by  his  followers. 

Tu'bal-Cain,  a  son  of  Lamech,  is  regarded  as  tha 
inventor  of  the  art  of  working  in  metals. 

See  Genesis  iv.  22. 

Tu'be-ro,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  orator  and  jurist,  and 
friend  of  Cicero.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  senate  and 
of  Pompey  in  the  civil  war. 

Tubi,  too'bee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  [Fr.  Tuby  lk 
Roma  in,  tii'be'  leh  ro'miN',]  a  sculptor,  born  at  Rome 
in  1635.  He  worked  at  Versailles  and  Paris.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1700. 

Tutv.     See  TuBi. 

Tuch,  tooK,  (Johann  Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in 
1806.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Leipsic  about  1842.  He  published  a  "Com- 
mentary on  Genesis,"  (1838.)     Died  April  12,  1867. 

Tuck'er,  (Abraham,)  an  English  metaphysician,  born 
in  London  in  1705,  was  a  son  of  a  merchant,  who  left 
him  a  large  fortune.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  pur- 
chased Betch worth  Castle,  near  Dorking,  in  1727,  and 
married  a  Miss  Barker  in  1736.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "The  Light  of  Nature  Pursued,"  by  Edward 
Search,  (4  vols.,  1765.)  "He  was  naturally  endowed," 
says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "  not,  indeed,  witn  more  than 
ordinary  acuteness  or  sensibility,  nor  with  a  high  degree 
of  reach  and  range  of  mind,  but  with  a  singular  capacity 
for  careful  observation  and  original  reflection,  and  with 
a  fancy  perhaps  unmatched  in  producing  various  and 
happy  illustration.  It  is  in  mixed,  not  in  pure,  philoso- 
phy, that  his  superiority  consists.  In  the  part  of  his 
work  which  relates  to  the  intellect,  he  has  adopted  much 
from  Hartley."  (See  "  View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical 
Philosophy.")  "  I  have  found  in  this  writer,"  says  Paley, 
"more  original  thinking  and  observation  upon  the  seve- 
ral subjects  that  he  has  taken  in  hand  than  in  any  other, 
not  to  say  than  in  all  others  put  together."  (Preface  to 
"  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy.")     Died  in  1774. 

See  Sir  Henry  Mildmay,  notice  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the 
"  Light  of  Nature  Pursued,"  7  vols.,  1852. 

Tuck'er,  (Beverly,)  son  of  Saint  George  Tucker, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Matoax,  Virginia,  in  1784. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good ;  moon ; 


TUCKER 


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TULLIN 


He  became  in  1834  professor  of  law  in  William  and 
Mary  College.  He  published  legal  works  and  several 
novels,  one  of  which,  entitled  "The  Partisan  Leader," 
dated  in  1837,  foretold  the  secession  of  the  Southern 
States,  which  took  place  in  1861.     Died  in  1851. 

Tucker,  (George,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1775.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1819, 
1821,  and  1823,  and  became  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1825.  He  published  a  "  Life 
cf  Thomas  Jefferson"  and  a  "  History  of  the  United 
States,"  (4  vols.,  1856,  1858.)     Died  in  1861. 

Tucker,  (Henry  Saint  George,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1779,  was  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Virginia.  He  published  "  Lectures  on 
Natural  Law  and  Government,"  and  other  legal  works, 
which  were  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1848. 

Tucker,  (Josiah,)  an  English  political  writer  and 
clergyman,  born  in  Carmarthenshire  in  171 1,  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  He  became  curate  of  Saint  Stephen's, 
Bristol,  and  obtained  the  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Bishop  Butler,  who  appointed  him  rector  of  .Saint  Ste- 
phen's in  1749.  In  175S  he  became  Dean  of  Gloucester. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  commerce,  ta.xes,  monop- 
olies, etc.,  among  which  we  notice  "  Reflections  on  the 
Present  Matters  in  Dispute  between  Great  Britain  and  j 
Ireland,"  (1785.)  In  this  work  he  advocated  greater  free- 1 
dom  of  trade.  He  also  published  a  "  Treatise  concerning 
Civil  Government,"  (1781.)     Died  in  1799. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
October  and  November,  17S1. 

Tucker,  (Luther,)  an  American  journalist,  born  at 
Biand<m,  Vermont,  in  1802.  He  became  a  printer,  ajid 
in  1826  established  at  Rochester,  in  New  York,  "The 
Rochester  Daily  Advertiser,"  the  first  daily  paper  west 
of  Albany.  In  January,  1831,  he  began  to  issue,  at  Roch- 
ester, "  The  Genesee  Farmer,"  which  was  afterwards  con- 
solidated with"The  Albany  Cultivator."  In  1852  he  com- 
menced the  publication  of"  The  Country  Gentleman,"  an 
agricultural  paper  of  high  character.  To  Mr.  Tucker 
belongs  the  credit  of  the  first  successful  introduction  of 
agricultural  periodical  literature  among  the  people  in  the 
United  States.     Died  January  26,  1873. 

Tucker,  (Saint  George,)  an  American  jurist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  on  the  island  of  Bermuda  in 
1752.  Having  settled  in  Virginia,  he  married  in  1778 
Mrs.  Randolph,  mother  of  the  celebrated  John  Ran- 
dolph. He  rose  through  several  offices  tr)  be  judge  of 
the  district  court  of  the  United  States.  He  published 
numerous  works,  in  prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1827. 

Tucker,  (Samuel,)  an  American  commodore,  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  captain 
m  the  navy  by  General  Washington,  and  commanded 
with  success  in  several  actions.     Died  in  1833. 

Tuck'er-man,  (Henry  Theodore,)  an  American 
critic  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1813. 
Having  visited  Italy,  he  published  in  1835  "The  Italian 
Sketch-Book,"  which  was  followed  by  "  Sicily,  a  Pilgrim- 
age," (1839,)  "  Thoughts  on  the  Poets,"  (1846,  translated 
into  German,)  "  Artist  Life,  or  Sketches  of  American 
Painters,"  (1847,)  "Characteristics  of  Literature,"  (1849,) 
"Memorial  of  Horatio  Greenough,"  (1853,)  "  Biographi- 
-;al  Essays,"  (1857,)  "Book  of  the  Artists,"  (1867,)  and 
a  number  of  poems.  Mr.  Tuckerman  occupied  a  high 
lank  among  the  art  critics  of  America.    Died  in  1871. 

See  DuvCKiNCK,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
Allibonk,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Tuckerman,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1778.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Seamen's  Fiiend  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions. 
He  afterwards  assisted  in  organizing  the  Benevolent 
Fraternity  of  Churches,  for  the  support  of  a  city  mission 
called  the  Ministry  at  Large,  of  which  he  became  a  min- 
ister.    Died  in  1840 

See  "Discourse  on  the  Life,  etc.  of  Rev.  Joseph  Tuckerman," 
by  W.  E.  Channing. 

Tuck'ey,  (James  Hingston,)  an  Irish  writer  and 
naval  officer,  born  in  the  county  of  Cork  in  1778,  was 
employed  in  the  survey  of  the  coast  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  published  a  work  entitled  "Maritime  Geog- 
raphy."    Died  in  1816. 


Tuck'ney,  (Anthony,)  a  learned  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1599.  He  preached 
at  Boston  and  in  London.  Died  in  1670.  His  Sermons 
were  published  about  1676. 

Tudela.     See  Benjamin  of  Tudela. 

Tu-dl-ta'nus,  (P.  Sempronius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  served  as  tribune  at  Cannae  in  216  B.C.,  became 
praetor  in  213,  and  censor  in  209.  Having  been  elected 
consul  for  the  year  204,  he  obtained  Bruttii  as  his  prov- 
ince, with  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Hannibal, 
whom  he  defeated. 

Tu'dor,  (Owen,)  a  Welsh  gentleman,  who  married 
Catherine  of  France  after  the  death  of  her  first  husband, 
Henry  V.  of  England.  He  supported  the  Lancastrian 
party  in  the  war  of  the  Roses.  Died  in  1461.  He  had 
a  son,  Edmond  Tudor,  who  was  created  Earl  of  Rich- 
mond about  1452  and  died  in  1456.  Henry,  the  son  of 
Edmond,  became  King  of  England. 

Tu'dpr,  (WiLLiA.M,)  an  American  litterateur,  born  at 
Boston  in  1779,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Athe- 
naeum in  that  city.  He  became  in  1815  the  first  editor 
of  the  "North  American  Review."  Besides  his  numerous 
contributions  to  this  journal,  he  published  "Letters  on 
the  Eastern  States,"  (1819,)  a  "Life  of  James  Otis," 
(1823,)  and  a  work  entitled  "Gebel-Teir."  He  was 
appointed  in  1823  United  States  consul  at  Lima.  Died 
in  1830. 

Tudor  Family,  the  name  of  a  royal  family  of  Eng- 
land, which  exercised  power  during  a  period  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years,  (1485-1605.)  Henry  VII, 
was  the  first  and  Queen  Elizabeth  the  last  monarch  of 
this  house.  The  father  of  Henry  VII.  was  Edmona 
Tudor,  and  his  mother  was  the  heiress  of  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster. 

Tud'vyay,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, lived  about  1670-1700,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Dr. 
Blow.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  organist  to  Queen  Anne.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Lord  Oxford,  whom  he  assisted  in  forming  his  valu- 
able collection  of  books. 

Tuerlinckx,  tU'er-links,  (Joseph,)  a  Belgian  statuary, 
born  at  Malines  in  1820. 

Tuet,  tii^i',  (Jean  Charles  FRANgois,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Ham  in  1742  ;  died  in  1797. 

Tugrol.     See  Togrul. 

Tukaram,  too-kSr'ram,  an  East  Indian  author,  of  the 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  of  our  era.  He 
lived  near  Pooiiah,  and  was  a  half-insane  devotee.  His 
religious  verses  (called  Al'kangns,  or  "  Unbroken")  are  in 
the  Mahratta  language,  and  form  the  principal  literary 
monument  of  that  tongue.  Tliey  are  of  small  literary 
merit,  but  are  exceedingly  popular  in  India. 

Tulasne,  tu'lin',  (Louis  Ren6,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Azay-le-Rideau  in  1815.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Studies  on  Vegetable  Embryogany," 
(1849,)  and  "  Fungi  hypogaei,"  (1851.)  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1854.     Died  in  1885. 

Tulden.     See  Thulden. 

Tull,  (Jethro,)  an  English  agriculturist,  born  in  Ox- 
fordshire about  1680,  was  the  originator  of  what  is  called 
the  "horse-hoeing  system"  of  husbandry.  He  published 
in  1 73 1  a  number  of  essays  on  this  subject,  which  were 
subsequently  edited  by  Mr.  Cobbett,  with  an  introduc- 
tion.    Died  in  1740. 

Tul'li-a,  a  daughter  of  Servius  Tullius,  and  the  wife 
of  Tarquii'i  the  Proud.  She  was  accessory  to  the  murder 
of  her  father. 

Tul'li-a,  [Fr.  Tullie,  tii'le',]  a  Roman  lady,  the 
daughter  of  Cicero  the  orator,  was  born  in  78  B.C. 
She" was  married  to  Calpurnius  Piso  Frugi  in  the  year 
63,  and  to  Furius  Crassipes  about  56.  Having  been 
divorced  from  him,  she  became  the  wife  of  Dolabella  in 
50  B.C.     Died  in  45  B.C. 

See  Sagittarius,  "  Historia  Vitae  et  Mortis  Tullie,"  1679;  Ma- 
dame DE  Lassav,  "  Histoire  de  Tullie,"  1726. 

Tullie.     See  Tullia. 

Tullin,  tool'lin,  (Christian  Braunman  or  Brau- 
M.\x,)  a  Danish  poet,  born  at  Christiania,  in  Norway,  in 
1728,  was  also  a  judge.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  poem  on  navigation,  and  another  on  the  creation.  He 
is  called  the  first  classic  Danish  poet     Died  in  1765. 


€as^.-  casj.-  gha?-d;  gas  ;';  G,H,K,,^7ittural;  N,misal;  "Si,  trilled;  sass;  thasin/-4<j.     (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TULLIUS 


2346 


TURENNE 


Tul'll-us,  (Arrius,)  vas  King  of  the  Volscians  when 
Coriolanus  was  banished  from  Rome.  He  induced  the 
Volscians  to  send  an  army  against  Rome,  and  gave  the 
command  of  it  to  Coriolanus. 

Tullius,  (Servius.)     See  Servius  Tullius. 

Tul'lp-eh,  (John,)  a  Scottish  theologian  and  minister 
of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  was  born  in  Perth- 
shire in  1823.  He  became  principal  of  Saint  Mary's 
College,  Saint  Andrew's,  in  1854.  Among  his  works  are 
"  The  Being  and  Attributes  of  God,"  (1855,)  for  which  he 
received  a  prize  of  ;^6oo,  "  The  Leaders  of  the  Reforma- 
tion," (1859,)  and  "Rational  Theology  and  Christian 
Philosophy  in  the  17th  Century,"  (1872.)    Died  in  1886. 

Tul'lus  Hos-til'I-us,  third  King  of  Rome,  succeeded 
Numa  Pompilius  in  673  B.C.  He  carried  on  a  war  against 
the  Albans,  in  which  occurred  the  celebrated  combat 
between  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii,  and  which  ended  in 
the  conquest  of  Alba.  He  was  a  very  warlike  king. 
According  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by  lightning  about 
640  B.C. 

See  Gebauer,  "Tullus  Hostilius,"  1720  ;  Schoemann,  "  Dis- 
•ertatio  critica  de  Tullo  Hostilio,"  1847. 

Tally,  (the  Roman  orator.)     See  Cicero. 

Tul'ly,  (George,)  an  English  divine,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Government  of  the  Thoughts," 
and  other  religious  works.     Died  in  1697. 

Tully,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Carlisle 
in  1620,  published  several  controversial  works.  Died 
in  1676. 

Tul'ly,  (William,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
physician,  born  at  Saybrook.  Connecticut,  in  1785.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  became,  in  1830,  profes- 
sor of  materia  niedica  in  the  medical  department  of  that 
institution.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Dr.  Thomas 
Miner,  essays,  entitled  "  Miner  and  Tully  on  Fever." 
Died  in  1859. 

Tulp,  tiilp,  (NiKOLAAS,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  ma- 
gistrate, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1593.  He  was  elected 
burgomaster  of  his  native  city  four  times,  and  gave  proof 
of  courage  and  energy  when  Holland  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1672.  He  published  a  medical  treatise,  called 
"  Observationes  Medicee,"  (1641.)     Died  in  1674. 

See  WiTTWER,  "  N.  Tulp,"  1785;  Van  Bochove,  "Dissertaiio 
de  N.  Tulpio,"  1845. 

Tulsi  Das,  tool'see  dis,  a  very  popular  Brahman 
poet,  who  lived  at  Benares,  and  died  in  1624.  He  wrote 
in  Hindee  a  great  poem  called  "  Ramayan,"  besides  six 
other  poems  on  Rama  and  his  deeds,  based  upon,  but  in 
no  way  much  resembling,  Vaimiki's  great  "  Ramayana." 

Tunstall,  (Cuthbert.)     See  Tonstall. 

Tun'stall,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
writer,  born  about  17 10.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  vicar  of  Roch- 
dale, in  Lancashire.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Discourses  upon  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion,"  "A 
Vindication  of  the  Power  of  the  State  to  Prohibit  Clan- 
destine Marriages,"  and  "  Observations  on  the  Present 
Collection  of  Epistles  between  Cicero  and  Brutus" 
Died  in  1772. 

Tuomey,  two'me,  (Michael,)  a  distinguished  scien- 
tist, born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  September  29,  1805.  He  came 
to  America  when  young,  graduated  in  1835  at  the  Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic  Institute,  and  became  State  geologist 
of  South  Carolina  in  1844,  and  of  Alabama  in  1848.  After 
1847  he  was  professor  of  geology  in  the  University  of 
Alabama.  Died  at  Tuscaloosa,  Alabama,  March  20, 
1857.  He  was  author  of  several  voltimes  of  valuable 
reports  on  scientific  subjects. 

Tupac  Amaru,  too'pik  i-mS'Roo,  the  name  assumed 
by  Jos6  Gabriel  Conoorcanqui,  a  Spanish-Peruvian 
adventurer,  born  in  1740,  whose  mother  was  the  daughter 
of  Tupac  Amaru,  the  last  of  the  Incas.  He  headed  a 
revolt  of  the  native  Peruvians  against  their  Spanish 
masters,  but  was  easily  defeated,  and  put  to  death  on 
September  10,  1780. 

Tup'per,  (Martin  Farquhar,)  a  popular  English 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  London  in  1810.  He  pub- 
lished in  1839  his  "  Proverbial  Philosophy,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour  both  in  England  and  America 
and  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  editions.  Among 
his  other  works  we  may  name  the  "Dirge  on  Welling- 


ton," "  Ballads  for  the  Times  on  White  Slavery,"'  novels 
entitled  "The  Twins"  and  " Tlje  Crock  of  Gold,"' and 
the  poems  of  Alfred  the  Great,  translated  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  into  English  verse.     Died  November  29,  18S9. 

See  "  I'lackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1838. 

Tura,  too'rd,  or  Turra,  toor'ri,  (CosiMO,)  sometimes 
called  CosiMO  da  Ferrara,  (di  fer-rd'rS,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1406.  He  painted  in  the 
dry,  Gothic  style.     Died  in  1469,  or  after  that  date. 

Turamini,  too-ri-mee'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Sienna  about  1558.  He  lectured  at  Sienna 
and  Ferrara,  and  published  several  legal  works. 

Tur'ber-ville,  (George,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1530,  went  to  Russia  as  secretary  to  Randolph,  the 
ambassador  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Songs  and  Sonnets,"  and  translated  Ovid's  '  He- 
roical  Epistles."     Died  after  1594. 

Turbido.     See  Torbido. 

Turchi,  tooR'kee,( Alessandro,)  surnamed  Orbetto, 
'>R-bet'to,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1582. 
He  worked  at  Verona  and  Rome,  and  attempted  to 
combine  the  Roman  style  of  design  with  the  Venetian 
colouring.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Death  of 
Forty  Martyrs."     Died  at  Rome  in  1648. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  It.ily;"  Ticozzi,  "  Duio- 
nario." 

Turchin,  toor'chin,  (John  Basil,)  a  general,  born  m 
the  valley  of  the  Don,  in  Russia,  about  1822.  He  served 
as  a  Russian  officer  in  the  Crimean  war,  (1855,)  soon 
after  which  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He 
fought  for  the  Union  in  the  civil  war. 

Turck,  tiiRk,  (Louis,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Nancy  in  1798.  He  was  a  republican  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  184S. 

Tureuna.     See  Turenne. 

Tii-renue',  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  tii'rSn' ;  Lat.  Tu- 
ren'nius;  It.  Turenna,  too-r^n'nl,]  (Henri  de  la 
Tour  d'Auvergne — deh  It  tooR  do'viRn',)  Vicomte, 
a  famous  French  general,  born  at  Sedan,  September  11, 
1611,  was  the  second  son  of  Henri,  Due  de  Bouillon. 
His  mother  was  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  William  the 
Silent,  Prince  of  Orange.  His  father  was  an  able  gene- 
ral, and  a  leader  of  the  French  Protestants.  Young 
Turenne  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion  by 
Daniel  Tilenns,  a  tolerant  Calvinist.  He  served,  in  his 
early  youth,  under  his  uncles  Maurice  of  Nassau  and 
Henrj'  Frederick,  (1625-30.)  During  this  period  of  five 
or  six  years  he  fought  against  the  Spaniards,  and  acquired 
much  practical  knowledge  of  the  art  of  war.  In  1630 
he  returned  to  France,  and  received  command  of  a  regi- 
ment. He  obtained  the  high  rank  of  marechal-de-camp 
in  1635,  and  was  sent  in  the  same  year,  under  La  Vallette, 
to  defend  Mentz  against  the  Imperialists.  In  1637  he 
took  Landrecies,  and  gained  some  successes  in  Flanders. 
As  second  in  command  under  Harcourt,  he  had  the 
principal  part  in  the  capture  of  Turin  in  1640.  His 
promotion  was  retarded  by  the  political  course  of  his 
brother,  the  Due  de  Bouillon.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1643,  and  ordered  to  Ger- 
many, where  he  was  second  in  command  under  the 
Prince  of  Conde.  The  success  of  the  French  at  Nord- 
lingen  in  1645  was  attributed  to  Turenne  by  Conde 
himself.  In  1646,  by  judicious  plans  and  skilful  man- 
oeuvres, he  gained  important  advantages  without  much 
loss  of  life.  He  effected  a  junction  with  the  Swedish 
army,  invaded  Bavaria,  and  compelled  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria  to  sue  for  peace.  The  long  war  was  terminated 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1648,)  and  the  civil  war  of 
the  Fronde  began  in  1649.  Turenne,  probably,  felt  little 
zeal  for  either  party  in  this  contest.  He  declined  to 
fight  for  Mazarin,  and  retired  to  Holland  after  he  had 
been  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  army.  The 
Prince  of  Conde  having  been  imprisoned  by  Mazarin,  in 
January,  1650,  Turenne  declared  himself  in  favour  of  the 
captive  prince,  and  took  arms  at  Stenay  against  the 
court.  He  was  defeated  near  Rethel  by  the  royal  army 
in  December,  1650,  soon  after  which  Conde  was  liberated 
from  prison. 

In  165 1  he  went  to  Paris,  and  married  Charlotte  de 
Caumont,  a  daughter  of  Armand,  Due  de  La  Force. 
He  accepted  in  March,  1652,  the  chief  command  of  the 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  i,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nftt;  good;  moon 


rURENNIUS 


2347 


TURNER 


"oyal  army,  and  was  o;  posed  to  the  Prince  of  Cond^, 
who,  in  alliance  with  the  Spaniards,  had  renewed  the 
war.  Turenne  defeated  his  adversary  at  Paris  in  1652, 
and  at  Arras  in  1654,  after  which  the  seat  of  war  was 
transferred  to  Flanders.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  Conde  and  the  Spaniards  at  the  battle  of.  the 
Dunes,  near  Dunkirk,  in  1658.  Peace  was  concluded  in 
1659.  After  the  death  of  Mazarin,  Turenne  had  much 
influence  in  the  direction  of  the  foreign  policy  of  France. 
He  was  persuaded  to  become  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1668. 
He  commanded  a  large  army  which  invaded  Holland  in 
1672,  and  conquered  several  provinces  of  that  country. 
Unable  to  resist  this  army  in  battle,  the  Dutch  opened 
the  dykes,  flooded  the  country,  and  thus  checked  the  in- 
vaders. In  1674  he  defeated  the  Imperialists  in  several 
actions  near  the  Rhine,  and  ravaged  the  Palatinate  with 
excessive  cruelty, — which  is  perhaps  the  only  stain  on 
his  memory.  He  was  opposed  in  the  next  campaign  to 
Montecuculi,  an  Austrian  general  of  great  skill,  and  was 
killed  at  Salzbach  in  July,  1675.  Turenne  was  distin- 
guished fo^  his  modesty,  sobriety,  sound  judgment,  and 
impassible  composure  in  action. 

See  BossUET,  "  Oraison  fmiebre  du  Vicomte  de  Turenne,"  1676; 
Pauletti,  "Vita  di  Turenna."  1677;  G.  ue  Courtilz,  "Vie  de 
Turenne,"  1685;  Ramsay,  "  Histoire  de  Turenne,"  2  vols.,  1733; 
Raguenet,  "  Histoire  de  Turenne,"  173S;  Fl^chier,  "Oraisoc 
fun^bre  de  Turenne,"  1675;  Sismondi,  "Histoire  de  France;" 
MiCHELET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Voltaire,  "  Si^cle  de  Louia 
XIV  ;"  De  Retz,  "  M^moires  ;"  "  Leven  van  den  Marschalk  van 
Turenne,"  Amsterdam,  1676;  "  Lettres  et  M^moires  du  Marecha 
de  Turenne,"  edited  by  Comte  de  Grimoard,  2  vols.,  1782. 

Turenniu.'s.     See  Turenne. 

Turgenef,  Turgenev,  or  Turgenew.     See  Toor- 

GENEF. 

Tur'got,  an  Anglo-Saxon  historian.  He  became 
Bishop  of  .Saint  Andrew's  and  Primate  of  Scotland  in 
1 107,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of  Durham 
from  635  to  1096."     Died  in  11 15. 

Turgot,  tiiR'go',  (Anne  Robert  Jacques,)  Baron  de 
L'Aulne,  (deh  Ion,)  an  eminent  French  economist  and 
financier,  born  in  Paris  in  May,  1727.  He  studied  law, 
became  a  counsellor  to  the  Parliament  in  1752,  and  mas- 
ter of  requests  in  1753.  In  1761  he  was  appointed  in- 
tendant  of  Limoges.  Before  the  last  date  he  had  pro- 
duced treatises  on  various  subjects.  He  was  versed  in  the 
ancient  languages  and  many  sciences.  In  the  perform- 
ance of  his  administrative  duties  as  intendant,  he  made 
several  reforms  and  experiments  in  political  economy. 
He  suppressed  the  corvks,  opened  new  roads,  introduced 
the  use  of  potatoes,  and  distributed  the  burden  of  taxation 
more  equitably.  *  Having  formed  friendly  relations  with 
the  philosophic  party,  of  which  Voltaire  and  D'Alem- 
bert  were  leaders,  he  contributed  to  the  "  Encyclopedic" 
articles  on  "Existence,"  "Expansibilite,"  "Fairs  and 
Markets,"  ("Foires  et  Marches,")  etc. 

He  was  appointed  in  August,  1774,  to  the  office  of 
controller-general  of  finance,  then  the  most  important 
office  of  the  government.  Among  his  first  acts  was  the 
restoration  of  free  trade  in  grain  between  the  provinces, 
lie  abolished  several  oppressive  laws  and  feudal  privi- 
leges, reformed  abuses,  and  began  to  improve,  by  econ- 
omy, the  public  finances.  His  policy  was  expressed  by 
the  phrase,  "  No  bankruptcy,  no  increase  of  taxes,  no 
loans."  The  courtiers,  nobles,  politicians,  and  privileged 
classes  combined  against  him.  He  was  removed  in  May, 
1776.  His  friend  Malesherbes  said  that  Turgot  had 
"the  heart  of  L'Hopital  with  the  head  of  Bacon." 
Voltaire  was  a  warm  admirer  of  Turgot,  whom  he  char- 
acterized as  the  best  minister  that  France  ever  had. 
Turgot  corresponded  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  wrote 
a  Memoir  on  the  American  war.     Died  in  March,  1781. 

"There  are  crises,"  says  the  "Fortnightly  Review" 
for  August,  1870,  "when  a  character  tells  far  more  than 
an  idea,  and  is  at  once  a  saving  opportunity  and  a  de- 
cisive force.  Such  a  character  was  Turgot.  The  further 
we  recede  from  the  French  Revolution,  the  more  pre- 
eminent does  this  firm  and  exalted  figure  shine  forth, — 
the  one  legislator  who  might  have  saved  France." 

See  DupoNT  de  Nemours,  "  M^inoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Turgot,"  2 
»ois.,  1782;  CoNDORCET,  "Vie  de  Turgot,"  1786;  Droz,  "Histoire 
du  Rfegne  de  Louis  XVI  ;"  M.  J.  TissoT,  "  Turgot,  sa  Vie,  son 
.\dniinislration,"  etc.,  1862;  Marmontel,  "Memoires;"  Dupuv, 
"  £loge  historique  de  Turgot,"  1781  ;  Blanqui,  "  Histoire  de 
I'Economie  politique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 


Turgot,  (Etienne  Francois,)  Marquis,  a  rural 
economist,  born  in  Paris  in  1721,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.     Died  in  1789. 

Turgot,  de,  deh  tiiR'go',  (Louis  F^lix  Etienne,) 
Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist  and  senator,  born  in 
i'796.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  Decem- 
ber, 185 1,  to  July,  1852,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Spain  in  1853.     Died  October  i,  1866. 

Turk,tooRk,  (Daniel  Gottlob,)  a  German  musician, 
born  near  Chemnitz  in  1751,  was  organist  at  Halle.  He 
wrote  several  treatises  on  music.     Died  in  1813. 

Turk,  von,  fon  tooRk,  (Karl  Christian  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  philanthropist,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1774, 
was  active  in  promoting  common-school  education, 
and  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  silk-manufacture  into 
Germany.     Died  in  1846. 

Tiirkheim,  von,  fon  ttiRk'him',  (Johannes,)  a  po- 
litical and  historical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1746 
died  in  1824. 

Turlupin.     See  Belleville. 

Tiirn'bull,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  bom  in 
Linlithgowshire,  Scotland,  in  1809,  emigrated  to  America, 
and  settled  in  1845  ^s  pastor  of  a  church  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut.  He  published  "  Christ  in  History,  or  the 
Central  Power,"  (1856,)  and  several  other  works,  and 
translated  from  the  French  Vinet's  "  Vital  Christianity.'' 
Died  November  20,  1877. 

Tiirn'bull,  (Robert  James,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Florida  in  1775.  He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises 
in  defence  of  the  State-Rights  party  in  South  Carolina. 
Died  in  1833. 

Turnebe.     See  Turnebus. 

Tur'ne-bus,  [Fr.  Turn*:be,  tilR'nib',]  (Adrien,)  an 
eminent  French  scholar,  originally  named  TournebcEuf, 
born  in  Normandy  in  1512.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  that  city  in  1547.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  as  a  classical  scholar, 
translated  into  Latin  a  number  of  Greek  authors,  among 
whom  were  Plutarch  and  Theophrastus,  and  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  Cicero's  works.  According  to  a  French 
biographer,  he  was  unrivalled  as  a  professor  in  clearness, 
accuracy,  and  profundity.  Among  his  works  is  "Ad- 
versaria," (3  parts,  1564-73,)  in  which  he  corrects  and 
explains  many  passages  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1565.  He  was  eulogized  by  L'H6pital, 
Scaliger,  and  Montaigne,  the  last  of  whom  called  him 
"Fame  la  plus  polie  du  monde,"("the  most  polished 
(or  polite)  soul  in  the  world.")  He  had  a  son  Adrien, 
who  wrote  Latin  verses.     Died  in  1594. 

See  Passerat,  "  In  Tumebi  Obitum  Naenia,"  1651 ;  Db  Thou  et 
Teissier,  " filoges ;"  Nic^ron  "Memoires," 

Tur'n?r,  (Charles  Tennyson,)  an  English  divine 
and  poet,  brother  of  Alfred  Tennyson,  was  born  in  1808, 
at  Somersby,  Lincolnshire.  With  Alfred  he  put  forward 
in  1827  "Poems  by  Two  Brothers."  In  later  years  he 
assumed  his  grandmother's  name  of  Turner. 

Tur'ner,  (Dawson,)  an  English  botanist  and  writer, 
born  at  Great  Yarmouth  in  1775.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "■  Fuci,  or  Coloured  Figures  and  Descrip 
tions  of  the  Plants  of  the  Genus  Fucus,"  (3  vols,  fol., 
1808,)  "A  Tour  in  Normandy,"  (1820,)  and  "The 
Botanist's  Guide  through  England  and  Wales,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  the  last-named  conjointly  with  Mr.  L.  W.  Dill- 
wyn.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of 
other  learned  institutions.     Died  in  1858. 

Tur'ner,  (Edward,)  a  distinguished  chemist  and 
physician,  born  in  Jamaica  in  1797.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1828  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  London  University,  where 
his  lectures  gained  for  him  a  high  reputation.  His 
"Elements  of  Chemistry,"  (1827,)  often  reprinted,  is 
"steemed  a  standard  work.     Died  in  1839. 

Turner,  (Francis,)  Bishop  of  Ely,  was  one  of  the 
seven  English  prelates  who  were  prosecuted  for  resisting 
the  authority  of  James  II.  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Vindication  of  Archbishop  San- 
croft,"  etc.,  and  "Animadversions  on  Naked  Truth." 
Died  in  1700. 

See  Miss  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1S66. 

Turner,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  officer,  who  lived  in 


*■  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     0^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


TURNER 


2348 


TURR 


the  reign  of  Charles  II.  and  was  notorious  for  his  cruel 
treatment  of  the  Scottish  Covenanters.  He  left  an  auto- 
biograpLy. 

riimer,  (Joseph  Mallord  William,)  an  eminent 
English  landscape-painter,  born  in  London  in  April, 
1775,  was  a  son  of  a  hair-dresser.  He  received  only  an 
ordinary  education,  and  passed  his  boyhood  mostly  in 
London.  "At  last,"  says  Ruskin,  "fortune  wills  that 
the  lad's  true  life  shall  begin  ;  and  one  summei  evening 
he  finds  himself  sitting  alone  among  the  Yorkshire  hills. 
For  the  first  time  the  silence  of  Nature  around  him,  her 
freedom  sealed  to  him,  her  glory  opened  to  him."  He 
was  admitted  as  a  student  in  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1789.  "So  taught  and  prepared  for  his  life's  labour, 
sat  the  boy  at  last  alone  among  his  fair  English  hills, 
and  began  to  paint,  with  cautious  toil,  the  rocks  and 
fields,  and  trickling  brooks,  and  soft  white  clouds  of 
heaven."  ("  Modern  Painters,"  vol.  v.)  For  many 
vears  he  used  water-colours  almost  exclusively.  He 
exhibited  a  "View  of  Lambeth  Palace"  in  1790.  His 
early  pictures  represented  mostly  English  or  Welsh 
scenery.  In  1799  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  exhibited  an  oil-painting  of  "The 
Battle  of  the  Nile."  He  became  a  Royal  Academician 
in  1S02,  after  which  he  travelled  in  France,  Switzerland, 
and  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Fall  of  Schaffhausen,"  (1805,)  "The  Sun 
Rising  through  Vapour,"  (1806,)  "Narcissus  and  Echo," 
(1814,)  "Apollo  and  Python,"  and  "Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage,"  (1832.)  In  1807  or  1808  he  commenced 
the  publication  of  his  famous  "  Liber  Studiorum,"  a 
series  of  prints  or  drawings.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819, 
1829,  and  1840.  According  to  Ruskin,  he  surpassed 
all  former  artists  in  "the  expression  of  the  infinite  re- 
dundance of  natural  landscape.  .  .  .  This  work,  done  by 
Turner  among  the  hills,  joining  the  most  intense  appre- 
ciation of  all  tenderness  with  delight  in  all  magnitude 
and  memory  for  all  detail,  is  never  to  be  rivalled  or 
looked  upon  in  similitude  again."  ("  Modern  Painters," 
vol.  iv.  chap,  xvii.)  Turner  was  never  married.  His 
disposition  was  reserved  and  unsociable,  and  he  is  repre- 
sented as  having  been  extremely  parsimonious.  He 
died  in  London  in  December,  185 1,  having  bequeathed 
to  the  nation  a  large  number  of  oil-paintings,  w-hich  are 
exhibited  in  the  National  Gallery. 

See  Burnett,  "Turner  and  his  Works,"  1852;  W.  Thorn- 
bury,  "Lite  of  \V.  Turner,"  2  vols.,  1862;  Ruskin,  "Modem 
Painters,"  passitn  ;  "  Nouvelie    Biographie  Generale  ;" 

Turner,  (Robert,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  at  Barnstable,  lived  at  Rome,  Ingolstadt, 
and  Gratz.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Bible.  Died 
in  1599. 

Turner,  (Samuel,)  an  English  diplomatist,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  about  1759,  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Thibet  in  1783,  and  afterwards  to  the  Sultan  of  Mysore. 
He  published  an  "  Account  of  an  Embassy  to  the  Court 
of  the  Teshoo  Lama  in  Tibet,"  (1800.)  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.     Died  in  1802. 

Tiu-'n§r,  (Samuel  Hulbeakt,)  D.D.,'  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1790.  He 
became  in  1821  professor  of  biblical  learning  in  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  and  in  1831 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  Columbia  College.  He  pub- 
lished "Thoughts  on  Scriptural  Prophecy,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1861. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Turner,  (Sharon,)  an  English  historian,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1768,  followed  the  profession  of  attorney.  His 
reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "  History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,"  (4  vols.,  1 799-1805,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  also  published  a  "  History  of  England 
from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth," 
(5  vols.,  1814-29,)  a  "Sacred  History  of  the  World  as 
displayed  in  the  Creation  and  Subsequent  Events  to  the 
Deluge,"  (3  vols.,  1832-39,)  and  several  poems.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  William  Jerdan-,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1835  :  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March, 
1S03,  February,  1807,  and  November,  1824. 

Turner.  (Rev.  Sydney,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and 


chaplain  of  the  Reformatory  School  at  Red  Hill,  pre- 
pared a  new  edition  of  his  father's  "  Sacred  History  of 
the  World,"  and  published  a  treatise  on  "  Reformatory 
Schools."     Died  June  26,  1879. 

Turner,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Reading  in  159 1.  He  became  Dean  of  Canterbury. 
Died  in  1672. 

Turner,  (Thomas  Hudson,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1815.  He  published  in  1851  "Some 
Account  of  Domestic  Architecture  in  England  from 
the  Conquest  to  the  End  of  the  Thirteenth  Century," 
(illustrated,)  a  work  which  displays  great  learning  and 
research.     Died  in  1852. 

Turner,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  physician, 
born  in  Northumberland  about  1520.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  Dean  of  Wells. 
He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  medicine,  theology, 
zoology,  and  botany  ;  among  the  last-named  we  may  cite 
his  "  Herball,  or  History  of  Plants,"  said  to  have  been 
the  first  work  of  the  kind  published  in  England.  Died 
in  1568. 

Turner,  (William  Wadden,)  born  in  London  in 
1810,  emigrated  at  an  early  age  to  America,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  as  an  Oriental  scholar.  He  be- 
came "in  1842  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  Died  in  1859. 

Tur'nus,  [Gr.  Tvpvof,]  King  of  the  Rutulians,  was  a 
suitor  for  the  hand  of  Lavinia,  and  an  adversary  of 
^neas,  against  whom  he  waged  war.  He  was  killed  by 
/Eneas  in  single  combat. 

See  Virgil,  "/Eneid,"  books  vii.,  ix.,  x.,  xi.,  xii. 

Tur'nus,  a  Roman  satiric  poet,  who  probably  flour- 
ished in  the  second  half  of  the  first  century.  His  works, 
which  are  praised  by  Martial,  are  not  extant. 

Tur'pin  orTil'pin,  [Lat.  Turpi'nus,]  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rheims  by 
Charlemagne.  He  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  author 
of  a  chronicle  celebrating  the  deeds  of  Charlemagne,  but 
in  point  of  fact  its  authorship  is  very  doubtful.  The 
chronicle  itself  is  of  high  value,  but  on  internal  evidence 
it  is  now  generally  assigned  to  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century.     Died  about  812. 

Turpin,  tiiR'piN',  (Francois  Henri,)  a  French  Htti- 
rateur,  born  at  Caen  in  1709,  wrote  a  "History  of  Ma- 
homet," (2  vols.,  1773,)  "France  Illustrated,  or  the 
French  Plutarch,"  (5  vols.,  1777-90,)  and  other  historical 
and  biographical  works.     Died  in  1799. 

-SeeQuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Turpin,  (Pierre  Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  botanist 
and  designer,  born  at  Vire  in  1775.  He  visited  the 
West  Indies  in  his  youth,  returned  to  France  in  1802, 
and  was  employed  to  illustrate  with  his  designs  the 
works  of  Humboldt.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Vegetable  Iconography,"  (1841.)  Died  in  184a 

See  AcHiLLE  Richard,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Turpin,"  1840. 

Turpin  de  Crisse,  tiiR'piN'  deh  kRe'si',  (Lancelot,) 
Count,  a  French  officer  and  military  writer,  born  in  la 
Beauce  about  1715,  served  with  distinction  in  Italy  and 
Germany,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 
His  principal  work,  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Art  of 
War,"  (3  vols.,  1754,)  obtained  extensive  popularity  and 
was  translated  into  English,  German,  and  Russian.  He 
also  published  "  Commentaries  on  Caesar,"  and  other 
similar  treatises.  He  was  created  a  commander  of  the 
order  of  Saint  Louis  in  1771,  and  lieutenant-general  in 
1780.     Died  about  1795. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gen^raux  Frangais. 

Turpin  de  Crisse,  (Lancelot  Theodore,)  Count, 
a  French  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  17S2.  He  painted 
landscapes,  published  a  "Voyage  to  Naples,"  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute.     Died  in  1859. 

Turqiiet.     See  Mayerne. 

Turquety,  tiiK'keh-te',  (Edouard,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1801,  wrote  "  Poetical  Sketches," 
("  Esquisses  poetiques,"  1S29,)  "  Love  and  Faith," 
(1833,)  "  Primavera,"  (1840,)  etc.     Died  in  1867. 

Tiirr,  tiiR,  (Stephen,)  a  Hungarian  patriot  and  gene- 
ral, born  at  Baja  about  1820.  He  joined  the  Italian 
army  in  1849,  and  fought  against  Austria.  In  the  Cri- 
mean war  he  served  in  the  allied  army  against  Russia. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  (!>,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  ingt;  n6t;  good;  indon; 


TURRANIUS 


2349 


T  WES  TEN 


He  enlisted,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  in  the  army 
of  Garibaldi  in  1859,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
liberation  of  Sicily  in  i860.  He  became  a  general  of 
division  in  the  Italian  service,  and  married  a  grand- 
daughter of  Lucien  Bonaparte. 

Turranius.     See  Rufinus. 

Turreau,  tii'ro',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  ai 
Orbec  about  1760.  He  was  a  violent  member  of  the 
Convention,  1792-95.     Died  in  1796. 

Turreau  de  Lini^res,  tii'ro'  deh  le'ne-aiR',  (Louis 
Marie,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  fivreux  in 
1756.  He  commanded  an  army  which  defeated  the  Ven- 
dean  insurgents  in  1793,  and  was  ambassador  to  the 
United  States  from  1804  to  1811.     Died  in  1816. 

Turrecremata,  the  Latin  of  Torquemada,  which 
see. 

Turrell  or  Turrel,  tii'r§l',[Lat.  Turel'lus,]  (Pierre,) 
a  French  astrologer,  and  rector  of  the  College  of  Dijon, 
wrote  "  The  Period  of  the  World,"  ("  La  Periode  du 
Monde,"  1531.)     Died  about  1547. 

Turretin.     See  Turretini. 

Turretini,  toor-r^-tee'nee,  [Fr.  Turretin,  tU'ren-^ 
tiN'  or  tiiR'tiN,]  (Benedict,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born' 
at  Zurich  in  1588,  was  eminent  for  his  learning  and 
talents.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Geneva  in 
1612,  and  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  163 1. 

Turretini  or  Turretin,  [Lat.  Turreti'nus,]  (Fran- 
cois,) an  eminent  Swiss  theologian,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Geneva  in  1623.  He  studied  under 
Spanheim  and  Diodati,  became  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Geneva  in 
1653.  He  had  great  influence  in  the  Church.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  "Theological  and  Controversial  Institutes," 
("Institutiones  Theologiae  Elencticse,"  3  vols.,  1679-85,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.     Died  at  Geneva  in  1687. 

See  PiCTHT,  "Memoria  F.  Turretini  celebrata,"  1688. 

Turretini  or  Turretin,  [Lat.  Turreti'nus,]  (Je.\n 
Alphonse,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  the  most  cele- 
brated member  of  the  family,  was  born  at  Geneva  in 
1671.  He  studied  at  Leyden  and  in  England,  gained 
distinction  as  a  preacher,  and  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Geneva  in  1705.  He  was  a  liberal  theologian, 
who  endeavoured  to  promote  union  among  the  different 
Protestant  sects.  He  opposed  with  success  the  regula- 
tion that  candidates  for  the  ministry  should  be  required 
to  sign  the  Consensus.  His  chief  works  are  "  Cloud  of 
Witnesses  in  favour  of  Moderate  and  Pacific  Judgment 
concerning  Theological  Affairs,"  ("  Nubes  Testium  pro 
moderate  et  pacifico  de  Rebus  Theologicis  Judicio," 
1719,)  and  "Theological  Cogitations  and  Dissertations," 
("  Cogitationes  et  Dissertationes  theologicas,"  2  vols., 
1737.)     Died  in  1737. 

See  SfeNEBiER,  "  Histoire  littdraire  de  Gen&ve;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
«raphie  Geii^rale." 

Turretinus.    See  Turretini. 

Turrian,  toor-re-in',  [Fr.  Turrien,  tii're-iN' ;  Lat. 
Turria'nus,]  or  Torres,  tor'rgs,  (Francisco,)  a  Span- 
ish Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Herrera  about  1504.  He 
wrote  many  works  of  little  merit.  In  1562  he  was  sent 
by  the  pope  to  the  Council  of  Trent.     Died  in  1584. 

Turrianus.    See  Turrian. 

Turrien.     See  Turrian. 

Tur-sel-li'nus,  (Horatius,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  ori- 
ginally named  Torsellino,  (toR-s§l-lee'no,)  born  at  Rome 
in  1545,  became  rector  of  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  in  his 
native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  use 
of  the  Latin  particles,  "  De  Usu  Particularum  Latini 
Sermonis,"  (1598,)  which  ranks  among  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind;  also  an  "Epitome  of  Universal  His- 
tory," (in  Italian,)  and  "  Life  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier," 
(in  Latin,  1594.)     Died  in  1599. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Tfir'ton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
about  1780.  He  became  Dean  of  Peterborough  in  1830, 
and  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1845.     Died  in  1864. 

Turton,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  before  1800.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  a  conchological  dictionary  of  the  British 
Islands,  (1819,)  "  Conchylia  Insularum  Britannicarum," 
or  "Shells  of  the  British  Islands,"  systematically  ar- 


ranged, (1822,  illustrated,)  and  "Manual  of  the  Land 
and  Fresh- Water  Shells  of  the  British  Islands,"  (1831.) 

Tussanus.     See  Toussain. 

Tus's^r,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  writer  on 
agriculture,  was  born  in  Essex  about  1520.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Hus- 
bandry united  to  as  many  of  Good  Housewifery,"  (1573,) 
and  was  dedicated  to  his  patron.  Lord  Paget.  It  is 
written  in  verse,  and  accompanied  by  an  interesting 
memoir  of  the  author.     Died  about  1580. 

Ttltcll'in,  (John,)  an  English  political  writer  under 
the  reign  of  James  II.,  was  a  partisan  of  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth.     Died  in  1707. 

Tuthill,  tut'il,  (Louisa  Caroline  HuggiNs,)  an 
American  writer,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in 
1799,  was  married  in  1817.  She  published  "James 
Somers,  the  Pilgrim's  Son,"  (1827,)  "  My  Wife,"  a  novel, 
"The  History  of  Architecture,"  (1848,)  "The  Nursery 
Book,"  (1849,)  ^"d  other  works,  besides  a  compilation 
entitled  "The  Young  Ladies'  Reader."     Died  in  1879. 

Tutilo,  too'te-lo,  or  Tuotilo,  too-o'te-lo,  a  learned 
Swiss  monk,  was  distinguished  for  his  proficiency  in 
music,  eloquence,  and  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture. 
Died  about  896. 

Tut'tle,  (Daniel  Sylvester,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Windham,  New  York,  January  26,  1837, 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1857,  and  at  the  Gen- 
eral Theological  Seminary  (New  York)  in  1862.  He  en- 
tered the  priesthood  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  of  which 
in  1867  he  was  consecrated  a  missionary  bishop,  having 
his  episcopal  seat  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

Tuttle,  (Herbert,)  an  American  historian,  born  at 
Bennington,  Vermont,  November  29,  1S46.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1869,  and  in  1881 
became  an  associate  professor  of  history  in  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. He  published  "German  Political  Leaders," 
(1876,)  and  a  "  History  of  Prussia,"  (1884.) 

Tut'tle,  (James  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Monroe  county,  Ohio,  about  1823.  He  served  as  colonel 
at  Shiloh,  April,  1862,  and  commanded  a  Federal  brigade 
at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  in  May  and  June,  1863. 

Twed'dell,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Northumberland  in  1 769.  Having  studied  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College  in  1792,  and 
in  1795  set  out  on  a  tour  to  the  continent.  While  en- 
gaged in  examining  the  remains  of  art  at  Athens,  he 
died,  after  a  few  days'  illness,  (1799,)  leaving  a  collection 
of  manuscripts  and  drawings,  which  were  unfortunately 
lost  on  the  voyage  to  England.  A  selection  from  his 
letters  was  published  in  181 5  by  his  brother  Robert, 
with  a  memoir  of  the  author. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  jSis- 

Tweed,  (William  Marcy,)  an  American  demagogue, 
born  in  New  York  city,  April  3,  1823.  Bred  a  chair- 
maker,  he  became  an  official  in  the  New  York  city  gov- 
ernment, was  in  Congress,  1853-55,  was  a  deputy  of  the 
street-commissioner,  1861-70,  and  was  several  times  sent 
to  the  State  Senate.  In  1870  he  was  made  commissioner 
of  public  works  in  the  city  government.  In  1871  he  was 
arrested  for  having  appropriated  great  sums  of  money  to 
his  own  private  use  and  that  of  his  friends.  He  was 
brought  to  trial  in  1S73,  ^^^  '^^'^  sentenced  on  no  less 
than  twelve  charges  of  fraud,  disbarred  and  heavily  fined 
and  sent  to  a  penitentiary.  A  reversal  of  his  sentences 
having  been  obtained,  he  was  again  imprisoned  for  lack 
of  bail  on  a  series  of  civil  suits.  He  broke  jail  and 
escaped  to  Spain,  but  was  sent  back  to  New  York,  and 
there  died  in  prison,  April  12,  1878. 

T-weed'dale,  (George  Hay,)  Marquis  of,  a  British 
general,  born  in  1787.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
(1808-14,)  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  in  1854. 
He  was  a  representative  peer  of  Scotland.     Died  1876. 

T-wells,  (Leonard,)  an  English  clergyman,  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1704.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
wrote  on  theology.     Died  in  1742. 

T-w63't§n,  (August  Detlev  Christian,)  professor 
of  theology  at  Kiel  in  1819,  was  born  at  Gliickstadt  in 
1789.  He  succeeded  Schleiermacher  in  1835  in  the 
chair  of  theology  at  Berlin.  He  published  several  philo- 
sophical and  religious  works.  Died  at  Berlin,  January 
8,  1876. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H.  K.  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


TWESTEN 


2350 


TYLER 


Twesten,  (Kakl,)  a  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
at  Kiel,  April  22,  1S20.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Hei- 
delberg, entered  the  Prussian  civil  service,  and  became 
one  of  the  founders  and  chiefs  of  the  National-Liberal 
party.  His  works  include  "Schiller  in  his  Relations  to 
Science,"  (1863,)  "  Macchiavelli,"  (1S6S,)  and  "  Religious, 
Political,  and  Social  Ideas  of  the  Asiatic  Civilized  l^Laces 
and  the  Egyptians,"  (1S73.)     l^'^d  October  14,  1870. 

Twiggs,  twigz,  (David  Emanuel,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Georgia  in  1 790.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1847. 
He  joined  the  secession  party  in  1861.  He  was  deprived 
of  his  rank  in  the  United  States  army.  Died  at  Augusta, 
Georgia,  in  September,  1862. 

Twiggs,  (Levi,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  bcirn 
at  Richmond  City,  Georgia,  in  1793.  He  served  under 
General  Scott  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  mortally 
wounded  in  the  assault  upon  Chapultepec,  1847. 

Twinger,  (James.)     See  Konigshoven. 

Twi'ning,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1734, 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  became  rector  of  White  Not- 
ley,  in  Essex,  in  1768.  He  published  an  excellent 
translation  of  Aristotle's  "Poetics,"  accompanied  with 
notes  and  with  two  dissertations  on  poetical  and  musical 
imitation,  (1789.)     Died  in  1804. 

Twining,  (William,)  a  distinguished  physician  and 
surgeon,  born  in  Nova  Scotia,  studied  in  London,  where 
he  afterwards  became  a  member  of  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons. He  was  appointed  in  1830  one  of  the  surgeons 
to  the  Civil  Hospital  at  Calcutta.  He  published  "Clin- 
ical Illustrations  of  the  More  Important  Diseases  of 
Bengal,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1832.)     Died  in  1835. 

Twiss,  (IToRACE,)  an  English  politician  and  writer, 
born  in  1786  or  1787.  He  became  a  member  of  Par- 
liament, and  published  a  "Life  of  Lord  Eldon."  Died 
in  1849. 

Twiss,  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in  1747, 
published  "Travels  through  Portugal  and  Spain  in  1772 
and  1773-4,"  "  A  Tour  in  Ireland  in  1775-8,"  "  Miscel- 
lanies," and  other  works.     Died  in  1821. 

TvT-iss,  (Sir  Travers,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  about  18 10.  He  became  professor 
of  political  economy  at  Oxford  about  1842,  and  obtained 
a  chair  of  civil  law  there  in  1855.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  law  of  nations,  etc. 

Twiss,  (William,)  a  learned  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  Berkshire  about  1575,  was  a  Calvinist. 
He  was  prolocutor  to  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
Divines,  in  1643,  and  wrote  several  controversial  works, 
among  which  is  "Defence  of  Grace,"  ("  Vindiciae 
Gratiae,"  1632,)  against  Arminianism.  He  was  curate 
of  Newbury  for  many  years.     Died  in  1646. 

Twyne,  (Brian,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1579, 
became  keeper  of  the  archives  at  Oxford,  and  wrote  on 
the  antiquities  of  that  place.     Died  in  1644. 

Twyne,  (John,)  an  antiquary,  born  in  Hampshire, 
was  a  grandfather  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  British 
antiquities.     Died  in  1581. 

Twys'den,  (Sir  Roger,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Kent  in  1597,  was  the  author  of  "  The  Historical 
Defence  of  the  Church  of  England,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1672. 

Ty.     See  Tyr. 

Tyard,  de,  deh  i^'Ir',  (Pontus,)  a  French  poet,  one 
of  the  members  of  the  celebrated  "  Pleiade,"  was  born 
at  Bissy  (whence  he  is  called  SiEUR  de  Bissy)  in  1521. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Chalons,  and  died  September  23, 
1605.  He  published  "  Erreurs  amoureuses,"  (1549-55-) 
and  "  Douze  Fables  de  Fleuves  et  Fontaines,"  (1586.) 
He  was  an  excellent  sonneteer. 

Tych'bprn,  (Chidiock,)  an  English  poet,  who  shared 
in  Babington's  conspiracy  and  was  executed  with  him  in 
1586.  He  was  a  very  young  man  at  the  time.  His 
"  Lines  written  by  one  in  the  Tower"  are  the  best-known 
of  his  extant  productions. 

Ty'che,  [Gr.  Tvxii^  in  Greek  mythologv,  the  personi- 
fication of  chance  or  luck,  corresponded  with  the  Roman 
Fortuna.  She  was  represented  sometimes  with  a  ball, 
and  sometimes  with  the  horn  of  Amalthea. 

Tycho  Brahe.    See  Brake. 

Tyclisen,  ttik'sen  or  tiK'sen,  (Olaus  Gerhard,)  an 


eminent  Orientalist,  born  at  Tondern,  in  Sleswick,  in 
1734.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1763  became  profes- 
sor of  the  Oriental  languages  at  Biitzow,  where  he  soon 
acquired  the  highest  reputation  as  a  teacher.  He  died 
in  1815,  leaving  a  very  valuable  library,  which  was  pur- 
chased by  the  University  of  Rostock.  He  was  author 
of  treatises  on  the  Phoenician  and  Arabic  languages, 
and  a  work  entitled  "  Leisure  Hours  of  Biitzow,"  (1769.) 

See  Hartmann,  "  O.  Tychsen,"  etc.,  s  vols.,  1818-20  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Tychsen,  (Thomas  Christian,)  a  philologist,  born 
.n  Sleswick  in  1758.  Having  studied  at  Gdttingen,  he 
visited  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  after 
his  return  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Jews,"  (1789,)  an 
"  Arabic  Grammar,"  an  edition  of  Smyrnseus,  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1834. 

Tydee.     See  Tydeus. 

Tydeman,  tl'deh-mSn',  (Minard,)  a  Dutch  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Zwolle  in  1741.  He  was  professor 
of  law  at  Utrecht,  and  removed  to  Leyden  about  1801. 
Died  in  1825. 

■  Ty'deus,  [Gr.  TwJeiif  ,•  Fr.  Tyd6e,  te'di',]  a  mythical 
hero,  was  a  son  of  OEneus,  King  of  Calydon,  and  a 
brother  of  Meleager.  He  married  Dei'pyle,  (sometimes 
written  Deiphyle,)  a  daughter  of  Adrastus,  and  was  the 
father  of  Diomede.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  chiefs  that 
led  the  famous  expedition  against  Thebes,  in  order  to 
restore  Polynices.  In  this  war  he  was  mortally  wounded 
;y  Melanippus. 

Tydide.     See  Tydides. 

Ty-di'des,  [Gr.  'Yv&Mn^ ;  Fr.  Tydide,  te'did',]  a 
patronymic  of  Diomede,  the  son  of  Tydeus. 

Tye,  ti,  (Christopher,)  an  eminent  English  musi- 
cian, born  in  Westminster,  was  patronized  by  Henry 
VIII.,  who  appointed  him  musical  teacher  to  Prince 
Edward.  He  became  organist  to  the  chapel  royal  under 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  His  compositions  are 
chiefly  anthems  and  church  music. 

Ty'ers,  (Thomas,)  an  English  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  in  1726,  was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  Vauxhall, 
London.  Among  his  works  is  "  Biographical  Sketches 
of  Dr.  Johnson," '(1784.)     Died  in  1787. 

Ty'ler,  (Bennet,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Middlebury,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
elected  in  1822  president  of  Dartmouth  College.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  New  Haven  Theology,"  (1837,) 
and  a  number  of  religious  and  controversial  works. 
Died  in  1858. 

Tyler,  (Daniel,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Con- 
necticut in  1799,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1819.  He 
was  a  civil  engineer  before  the  rebellion.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21, 
1 86 1.     Died  November  30,  1882. 

Tyler,  (Erastus  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ontario  county,  New  York,  about  1822,  became  a 
resident  of  Ohio  in  his  youth.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  the  battles  of  Port  Re- 
public (June,  1862)  and  of  Fredericksburg,  December 
13,  1862.     Died  January  9,  1891. 

Tyler,  (John,)  the  tenth  President  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Charles-City  county,  Virginia,  in  March, 
1790,  was  a  son  of  John  Tyler,  Governor  of  Virginia. 
He  studied  law,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1816,  and  served  in  that  body  about  five  years,  during 
which  he  opposed  a  protective  tariff  and  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  originally  a  republican  of  the 
Virginia  school,  and  supported  W.  H.  Crawford  for  the 
Presidency  in  1824.  In  1825  he  became  Governor  of 
Virginia,  and  in  March,  1827,  was  elected  a  .Senator  of 
the  United  States  in  place  of  John  Randolph  of  Roan- 
oke. He  voted  against  the  tariff  bill  of  1828,  and 
against  all  measures  of  internal  improvement,  and  was  a 
partisan  of  General  Jackson  in  the  election  of  that  year. 
He  sympathized  with  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina  in 
1832,  became  an  opponent  of  Jackson's  administration, 
and  voted  alone  in  the  Senate  against  the  "  Force  Bill" 
which  was  passed  against  the  nullifiers  in  February,  1833. 
He  was  re-elected  for  a  term  of  six  years,  commencing 
December,  1833,  soon  after  which  date  he  opposed  the 
removal  of  the   public  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohscurc;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  nftt;  gdrnl;  moon; 


TYLER 


2351 


TYNG 


United  States,  and  supported  Mr.  Clay's  resolution 
which  censured  the  President  for  the  removal  of  the 
same.  The  legislature  of  Virginia,  about  February, 
1836,  instructed  the  Virginia  Senators  to  vote  for  ex- 
punging the  resolution  of  censure  just  mentioned,  but 
Mr.  Tyler  preferred  to  resign  his  seat,  and  refused  to 
obey  their  instructions.  He  became  identified  with  the 
Whig  party,  and  in  the  National  Convention  which  met 
in  December,  1839,  he  zealously  supported  Mr.  Clay 
for  the  Presidency.  He  was  then  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  General  Harrison  being  the  PresidentiaJ 
candidate,  and  was  elected  in  November,  1840. 

In  consequence  of  the  death  of  President  Harrison, 
(April  4,  1841,)  Mr.  Tyler  became  President  of  the 
United  States.  He  retained  in  office  the  cabinet  min- 
isters appointed  by  General  Harrison.  He  soon  after 
began  to  quarrel  with  Mr.  Clay  and  the  majority  of  those 
who  had  elected  himself  to  the  Vice-Presidency.  He 
vetoed  a  national  bank  bill  which  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress about  the  6th  of  August,  1841,  although  the  prin- 
cipal provisions  of  that  bill  had  been  suggested  by  Mr. 
Ewing,  secretary  of  the  treasury.  "Congress  having 
passed  another  bank  bill,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "based 
entirely  on  his  own  suggestions,  and  conforming  in  all 
points  to  his  requirements,  he  vetoed  that  also,"  (about 
September  10,  1841.)  This  veto  provoked  the  indig- 
nation of  the  Whigs,  who  denounced  the  President  for 
betraying  their  confidence.  It  caused  the  resignation 
of  all  the  members  of  the  cabinet  except  Daniel  Webster, 
who  was  secretary  of  state,  and  who  remained  in  office 
in  order  to  complete  important  negotiations  with  the 
British  government.  Having  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Lord  Ashburton  on  the  subject  of  the  northeastern 
boundary,  Webster  resigned  in  May,  1843.  ^"  J"'y> 
1843,  the  President  reorganized  his  cabinet,  to  which  he 
appointed  several  Democrats.  The  department  of  state 
was  then  given  to  Abel  P.  Upshur,  who  was  accidentally 
killed  in  February,  1844,  a"d  was  succeeded  by  John  C. 
Calhoun.  He  concluded  in  April,  1S44,  a  treaty  of 
annexation  with  the  republic  of  Texas,  which  was  rejected 
by  the  Senate.  Mr.  Tyler  continued  to  promote  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  which,  by  the  aid  of  the  Democrats, 
he  effected  March  i,  1845.  His  intrigues  to  obtain  a 
nomination  for  the  Presidency  were  not  successful,  and 
he  retired  to  private  life  on  the  4th  of  March,  1845. 

He  was  president  of  the  Peace  Conference  or  Conven- 
tion which  met  in  Washington  in  February,  1861.  Having 
joined  the  disunion  movement,  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Confederate  Congress  about  March,  1861.  Died 
in  Richmond  in  January,  1862. 

See  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  154-156;  "Demo- 
cratic Review"  for  November,  1S42,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Tyler,  (Moses  Con,)  LL.D.,  L.ri.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Griswold,  Connecticut,  August  2,  1835, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1857,  studied  theology  at 
Andover,  was  professor  of  English  literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  1867-81,  and  in  the  latter  year  was 
appointed  professor  of  American  history  in  Cornell 
University.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Brawnville 
Papers,"  (1869,)  and  "  A  History  of  American  Litera- 
ture," (1878.)  He  is  a  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal 
Church. 

Tyler,  (Royall,)  an  American  jurist  and  humorous 
writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1756.  His  comedy  entitled 
"The  Contrast"  was  performed  in  New  York  in  1786 
with  brilliant  success.  His  other  principal  works  are 
"  The  Algerine  Captive,"  a  novel,  and  the  comedies  of 
"May-Day,  or  New  York  in  an  Uproar,"  and  "The 
Georgia  Spec,  or  Land  in  the  Moon."     Died  in  1826, 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopadia  of  American  Literature." 

Tyler,  (Samuel,)  an  American  lawyer  and  philo- 
sophical writer,  born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Mary- 
land, in  1809.  He  published  a  "  Discourse  of  the  Ba- 
conian Philosophy,"  (1844,)  "  The  Progress  of  Philosophy 
in  the  Past  and  in  the  Future,"  (1859,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Chie_f-Justice  Taney,"  (1872.)     He  died  in  1878. 

Ty'ler,  (Wat,)  an  English  rebel,  was  a  leader  of  a 
large  number  of  men  who  revolted  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  England  in  1381  in  consequence  of  a  capitation 
tax.  They  massacred  several  persons  of  the  higher 
classes,   committed    much    devastation,   and    marched 


towards  London.  Tyler  was  killed  by  the  mayor  of 
London  in  1381. 

Tyler,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop,  Ubrn 
at  Derby,  Vermont,  June  5,  1806,  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  his  youth,  entered  the  priesthood  in  1828, 
and  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Bos- 
ton. In  1844  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Hartford,  the 
first  of  that  title.  Died  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
June  18,  1849. 

Tyler,  (William  Seymour,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine  and  scholar,  born  in  Susquehanna 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1810.  He  became  prcfc-isor 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  at  Amherst  College 
about  1836.  He  also  published  editions  of  the  "Ger- 
mania"  and  "Agricola"  of  Tacitus,  the  "Histories"  of 
Tacitus,  and  Plato's  "Apology"  and  "Crito,"  and  a 
number  of  theological-  treatises. 

Ty'lor,  (Edward  Burnett,)  an  English  anthropolo- 
gist, born  at  Camberwell  Grove,  October  2,  1832.  He 
was  educated  at  a  Friends'  school.  His  principal  works 
are  "Anahuac,  or  Mexico  and  the  Mexicans,"  (1861,) 
"Early  History  of  Mankind,"  (1865,)  "Primitive  Cul- 
ture," (1871,)  "Anthropology,"  (1881,)  etc. 

Tyndale.     See  Tindale. 

Tyn'dall,  (John,)  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
physicist,  born  in  Ireland  about  182c,  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution, 
London,  in  1853.  Among  his  works  are  "  Peaks,  Passes, 
and  Glaciers,"  (i860,)  and  a  treatise  entitled  "  Heat  Con- 
sidered as  a  Mode  of  Motion,"  (1862,)  which  enjoys  a 
high  reputation.  Professor  Tyndall  has  probably  done 
more  than  any  other  English  writer  to  make  known  and 
popularize  the  great  scientific  truth  of  the  mutual  con- 
vertibility of  heat  and  motion.  He  contributed  to  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions"  several  memoirs  on  ra- 
diant heat,  and  published  "Lectures  on  Sound,"  (1867,) 
"Notes  on  Electricity,"  (1870,)  "Faraday  as  a  Discov- 
erer," (1870,)  "Fragments  of  Science,"  (1870,)  "Notes 
on  Light,"  (1871,)  "Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps," 
(1871,)  "  The  Forms  of  Water  in  Clouds  and  Rivers,  Ice 
and  Glaciers,"  (1872,)  "Fragments  of  Science,"  (1876,) 
and  "  Floating  Matter  of  the  Air,"  (1881.) 

Tyndare  or  Tyndaree.     See  Tyndarus. 

Tyn'da-rus  or  Tyn-da're-us,  [Gr.  Tw(!apEof  or 
Twdapfwf,  rarely,  if  ever,  '\vv6apoq  ;*  Fr.  Tyndar^ie, 
tJN'dt'ri',  or  Tyndare,  t^N'dlR',]  a  fabulous  king  of 
Sparta,  married  Leda,  and  had  a  number  of  children, 
among  whom  were  Castor,  Pollux,  and  Helen,  The 
poets  relate  that  he  exacted  from  the  numerous  suitors 
of  Helen  an  oath  that  they  would  defend  her  and  the 
husband  whom  she  should  choose  against  all  their  ene- 
mies.    (See  Helen.) 

Tyng,  (Dudley  Atkins,)  a  gifted  Episcopalian  cler- 
gyman, the  son  of  the  Rev.  Stephen  H.  Tyng,  D.D.,  was 
born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Maryland,  January  12, 
1825.  He  graduated  with  distinguished  honour  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1843,  studied  for  three 
years  at  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Virginia,  was  or- 
dained at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  by  Bishop  Meade,  in  1S46, 
served  as  rector  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  Charlestown,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  from  1854  to  1856  was 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Epiphany  in  Philadelphia. 
In  the  latter  year  considerations  growing  out  of  his  un- 
compromising hostility  to  slavery  caused  him  to  resign 
the  rectorship  of  this  church,  when  with  a  large  numlier 
of  his  parishioners  he  established  in  the  same  city  the 
Church  of  the  Covenant.  Two  years  later,  while  at  his 
rural  residence  near  Philadelphia,  his  arm  was  accident- 
ally caught  in  the  wheels  of  an  agricultural  machine  and 
so  lacerated  as  to  render  amputation  necessary.  His 
death  speedily  followed,  April  19,  1858. 

T^ng,  (Stephen  Higginson,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1800.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  became 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  Philadelphia,  in 
1833,  and  in  1845  of  Saint  George's  Church,  New  YorK. 
He  published  "  Lectures  on  the  Law  and  the  Gospel," 
{1848,)   "  Family   Commentary   on   the    Four   Gospels," 

•  See  LmDELL  and  ScoTT,  "  Greek- English  Lexicon." 


«  as  ^;  9  as  j,-  g  hard;  g  as>;  G,  h,  Yi,guitural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2!^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.  \ 


TYNG 


235^ 


TYSON 


(1849,)  "The  Child  of  Prayer,"  (a  memoir  of  Dudley  A. 
Tyng,)  and  other  religious  works.  Died  Sept.  3,  1885. 
Tyng,  (Stephen  Higginson,)  Jr.,  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  a  son  of  the  jjreceding,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, June  28,  1839.  He  graduated  in  185S  at  Wil- 
liams College,  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
1861,  and  became  a  very  popular  "  Low-Church"  pulpit 
orator  and  editor  of  New  York.  In  1882  he  retired  from 
active  work  in  his  profession  and  entered  upon  a  business 
life.  ' 

Typhaon.  >ee  Tvphon. 
Typhee  or  Typhoee.  See  Typhon. 
Ty'phon,  Ty-pha'on,  or  Tj^-pho'eils,  [Gr.  Tv^wjv, 
Tu^ufiV,  Ti^pwf  ;  Fr.  Typhon,  te'fix',  TYP^ro^E,  or  Ty- 
PH]*E,  te'fi',]  in  classic  mythology,  was  a  giant  and  fire- 
breathing  monster,  the  father  of  Chimaera,  Cerberus,  and 
the  Sphinx.  According  to  the  fable,  he  rebelled  against 
the  gods,  some  of  whom  fled  to  Egypt  and  concealed 
themselves  under  the  forms  of  different  animals.  He 
was  finally  vanquished  by  Jupiter  and  buried  under 
Mount  Etna.  Typhon  came  to  be  identified  with  Set, 
(q.  V.,)  an  abhorred  and  monstrous  divinity  of  Egypt. 

Typot,  te'po',  written  also  Typoest,  [Lat.  Typo'- 
Trus,|  (James,)  a  Flemish  jurist  and  writer,  born  at 
Bruges  about  1550.  At  the  invitation  of  King  John  III. 
he  went  to  Sweden,  where  he  was  imprisoned  from  1582 
to  1594.  Soon  after  the  latter  date  he  went  to  the  court 
of  the  emperor  Rudolph,  who  gave  him  the  title  of 
historiographer.  He  wrote  "  On  Fame,"  ("De  Fama,") 
"On  Fortune."  ("De  Fortuna,")  and  a  "History  of 
Sweden."  (1605.)  Died  at  Prague  in  1601  or  1602. 
Typotius.     See  Typot. 

Tyr,  teer,  (or  tegR,)  or  Ty,  tee,  [supposed  to  be  allied  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  tir,  signifying  "glorious,"  "mighty,"*] 
the  most  fearless  of  all  the  gods  of  the  Northmen,  was  a 
son  of  Odin,  but  his  mother  was  of  the  race  of  giants, 
(Jotuns.)  He  is  called  "  the  one-handed,"  an  epithet 
which  is  explained  by  the  following  legend.  The  most 
terrible  of  all  the  enemies  of  the  gods  was  the  wolf 
Fenrir,  destined  by  the  appointment  of  the  Nomas  to  be 
the  destroyer  of  Odin.  When  young,  he  was  brought  up 
among  the  ^sir,  but  Tyr  alone  had  the  courage  to  give 
him  food.  As  he  increased  in  strength,  the  gods,  anx- 
iously calling  to  mind  the  predictions  that  he  was  fated 
to  be  their  destruction,  resolved,  if  possible,  to  bind  him. 
After  various  unsuccessful  attempts,  they  at  last  caused 
to  be  constructed  a  magic  chain,  which,  though  soft  and 
slender  as  a  silken  cord,  was  of  inconceivable  strength. 
But  the  difficulty  was  to  fasten  it  on  him.  He  had  readily 
allowed  the  R,%\x  to  bind  him  with  other  chains,  which 
he  had  broken  without  much  difficulty;  but  now  his  sus- 
picions were  excited  by  the  seeming  frailty  of  the  new- 
made  band.  The  gods  assured  him  that  he  could  easily 
break  it,  but  even  if  he  did  not  they  promised  they  would 
instantly  release  him  after  he  had  once  tried  his  strength 
upon  it.  The  wolf  replied,  "If  I  cannot  free  myself,  I 
am  well  convinced  I  shall  wait  long  to  be  released  by 
you  ;  but,  rather  than  you  shall  charge  me  with  a  want 
of  courage,  let  one  of  you  place  his  hand  in  my  mouth 
as  a  pledge  of  your  sincerity,  and  I  will  consent  to  be 
bound."  The  gods  now  looked  at  one  another,  but  no 
one  had  the  hardihood  to  offer  his  hand.  At  length 
Tyr  stretched  forth  his  right  hand  and  placed  it  within 
the  jaws  of  the  wolf.  The  monster  now  began  to  strug- 
gle, but  the  more  he  strove  the  more  tightly  he  was 
bound  by  the  magic  chain.  Hereupon  all  the  gods  be- 
gan to  laugh,  except  Tyr,  who  had  good  reason  to  be 
serious,  since  he  had  through  his  rashness  lost  his  right 
hand.  It  is  a  proverbial  saying  of  a  man  of  surpassing 
courage  that  he  is  as  brave  as  Tyr.  Being  the  bravest 
of  the  gods,  he  was  the  deity  especially  worshipped  by 
brave  men.  On  account  of  his  courage,  Tyr  may  be 
styled  "  the  Northern  Mars  ;"  Tuesday  (that  is,  "  Tyr's- 
day"  or  "Ty'sday")  is  called  in  modern  Latin  dies  Martis, 
("  Mars-day,")  whence  the  French  Mardi.  At  the  de- 
struction of  the  world  Tyr  will  be  slain  by  the  dog 
Garm. 


It  would  seem  to  be  a  probable  conjecture  that  it  might  be  de- 
rived directly  from  tyr,  a  "bull,"  of  which  the  inconsiderate  reckless 
danng  not  a  little  resembles  that  of  the  god  Tjt,  although  some  of 
the  Norse  wnters  say,  strangely  enougli,  that  Tyr  was  remarkable 
tor  the  union  of  pruience  (or  discretion)  with  courage. 


T^-ran'nl-o  or  T^-ran'nl-on,  [Gr.  Tvpawfuv,]  a 
Greek  grammarian,  born  in  Pontus,  was  made  prisoner 
by  the  Romans,  and  taken  in  72  B.C.  to  Rome,  where  he 
resided  as  a  teacher.  His  learning  and  abilities  are  highly 
commended  by  Cicero,  who  employed  him  to  arrange  his 
library  and  to  instruct  his  nephew  Quintus,  56  B.C. 

Tyrannion.    See  Tyranmo. 

Tyrannius.     See  Rufin'us. 

Tyrants,  Thirty.     See  Thirty  Tyrants,  The. 

Tyr-con'nel,  (Richard  Talbot,)  Earl  of,  an  Irish 
royalist,  of  Norman  descent.  "  In  his  youth  he  had 
been  one  of  the  most  noted  sharpers  and  bullies  of 
London.  He  had  been  introduced  to  Charles  and  James 
when  they  were  exiles  in  Flanders,  as  a  man  fit  and 
ready  for  the  infamous  service  of  assassinating  the  Pro- 
tector." (Macaulay,  "  History  of  England.")  In  1687 
he  was  appointed  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  the  Protestant 
population  of  which  he  resolved  to  exterminate.  He 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  against  William 
III.,  and  was  defeated,  (1690.)  In  the  campaign  of  1691 
he  assumed  authority  over  the  army,  and  interfered 
with  Saint  Ruth,  who  had  a  commission  as  commander- 
in-chief.     Died  in  1691. 

"Under  an  outward  show  of  levity,  profusion,  and 
eccentric  impudence,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  was  in  truth 
one  of  the  most  mercenary  and  crafty  of  mankind." 
("  History  of  England.") 

Tyrone,  Earl  of.     See  O'Neill, 

T^r'rell,  James,)  an  English  political  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1642,  was  a  grandson,  on  the  mother's  side, 
of  Archbishop  Usher.  After  the  revolution  of  1688  he 
published  a  collection  of  political  dialogues,  entitled 
"  Bibliotheca  Politica,  or  an  Enquiry  into  the  Antient 
Constitution  of  the  English  Government,"  etc.,  (1718.) 
His  most  important  work  is  his  "  General  History  of 
England,  both  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil,"  (3  vols,  fol., 
1700.)     Died  in  1718. 

Tyrtaeus,  tir-tee'us,  [Gr.  Tvprcuof;  Fr.  Tyrt^e, 
t^R'ti';  Ger.  Tyrtaus,  teSR-ta'Cis,]  a  celebrated  Greek 
elegiac  poet  and  musician,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Miletus,  flourished  about  685  B.C.  According 
to  tradition,  the  Spartans,  instructed  by  the  Delphic 
oracle,  requested  the  Athenians  to  send  them  a  leader. 
The  Athenians,  in  derision,  sent  Tyrtaeus,  a  lame  school- 
master. He  composed  martial  songs  by  which  the 
Spartans  were  aniitiated  to  victory  in  their  war  against 
the  Messenians.  His  war-songs  had  a  great  and  lasting 
influence  over  the  Spartans,  who  continued  to  sing  them 
for  several  centuries.  To  remove  dissensions  among 
the  Spartans,  he  wrote  a  political  elegy,  called  "  Euno- 
mia,"  some  fragments  of  which  are  extant. 

See  A.  Matthi.«,  "  De  Tyrtai  Carminibus,"  1S20. 

Tyrtaus.     See  Tykt^^us. 

Tyrtee.     See  Tyrtaeus. 

Tyrwhitt,  ter'it,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  phi- 
lolo2;ist  and  antiquary,  born  in  London  in  1730.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1762  was  ap- 
pointed clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  also 
curator  of  the  British  Museum,  and  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  and  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  his 
"Dissertation  on  Babrius,"  (1776,)  "Conjectures  upon 
Strabo,"  (1783,) — both  in  Latin, — an  excellent  edition 
of  Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  "Poems  supposed 
to  have  been  written  at  Bristol  in  the  Tenth  Century 
by  Rowley,"  etc.,  in  which  he  exposes  the  fraud  of 
Chatterton,  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Poetics"  of  Aristotle. 
He  died  in  1786.  His  "Conjectures  upon  .lEschylus, 
Euripides,  and  Aristophanes"  came  out  in  1822. 

Ty'son,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician  and  anato- 
mist, born  in  Somersetshire  in  1649.  He  took  his  degree 
at  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  physician  to  the 
Bridewell  and  Bethlem  Hospitals.  He  was  also  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
He  published  several  excellent  treatises  on  comparative 
anatomy,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Orang-Outang, 
sive  Homo  Sylvestris;  or,  The  Anatomy  of  a  Pygmie, 
compared  with  that  of  a  Monkey,"  etc. ;  and  "  Phoccena ; 
or.  The  Anatomy  of  a  Porpesse,"  etc.,  (1680.)  He 
also  contributed  several  valuable  essays  to  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Transactions."     Died  in  1708. 


'i,  e.  T.  n.  ■-,  y,  :cti;T:  i,  J,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  short:  a,  e.  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m?t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


TYSON 


2353 


UDINE 


Tyson,  (Michael,)  an  English  clergyman  and  en- 
graver, born  about  1740.  He  etched  several  portraits. 
Died  in  1780. 

Tyssens,  tl'sens,  (Augustin,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
landscapes  and  animals,  born  about  1662,  was  a  son  of 
Peter,  noticed  below.  He  worked  at  Antwerp.  Died 
about  1722. 

Tyssens,  (Nikolaas,)  an  able  Flemish  painter  of 
birds,  flowers,  etc.,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1719. 

Tyssens,  (Peter,)  a  distinguished  Flemish  painter, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1625.  He  excelled  both  in 
portraits  and  historical  painting.  Among  his  works  in 
the  latter  department  we  may  name  "The  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  James,  at  Antwerp. 
Died  in  1692.  His  sons  Nich(5Las  and  Augustine  were 
also  celebrated  artists.  The  former  painted  chiefly  birds 
and  flowers,  and  the  latter  landscapes  of  great  merit. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flaraands,"  etc. 

Tyt'ler,  (Alexander  Fraser,)  Lord  Woodhouselee, 
a  distinguished  Scottish  historian  and  jurist,  son  of 
William,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1747. 
He  studied  law  in  his  native  city,  and  was  admitted  an 
advocate  in  1770.  He  became  professor  of  universal 
history  and  Roman  antiquities  at  Edinburgh  in  1786, 
and  in  1802  was  made  judge  of  the  court  of  session, 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Woodhouselee.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Translation," 
(1791,)  "Elements  of  General  History,"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
j8oi,)  "Treatise  upon  Martial  Law,"  and  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  and  Writings  of  Henry  Home,  Lord  Kames," 
(2  vols.,  1807-10.)  He  died  in  1813,  having  been  pre- 
viously appointed  a  lord  of  justiciary. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tytler,  (James,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Brechin 
in  1747.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Geographical,  His- 
torical, and  Commercial  Grammar,"  and  other  works. 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  Encyclopasdia  Britan- 
nica,"  second  edition.  He  died  at  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
about  1804. 


Tytler,  (Patrick  Eraser,)  a  historian,  a  son  of 
Alexander  F.,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1791.  He  was  educated  at  the  High  School  and  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Admi- 
rable Crichton,"  (1819,)  a  "Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh," 
(1833,)  a  "Life  of  Henry  VIIL,"  (1837,)  and  other 
biographies.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  Scot- 
land," (9  vols.,  1828-43,)  which  has  a  high  reputation. 
He  was  an  Episcopalian,  and  not  disposed  to  estimate 
the  Scottish  Reformers  so  favourably  as  some  other 
historians.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  in  December,  1849, 
leaving  several  children. 

See  BURGON,  "Life  of  P.  F.  Tytler;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  March, 
1841,  and  July,  1859  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1859. 

Tjrtler,  (William,)  a  Scottish  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  171 1.  He  published  an  "  Inquiry, 
Historical  and  Critical,  into  the  Evidence  against  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,"  (1759,)  "The  Poetical  Remains  of 
James  I.  of  Scotland,"  (1783,)  "A  Dissertation  on 
Scottish  Music,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1792. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tzetzes,  ts§t'ziz,  (Joannes,)  a  Greek  poet  and 
grammarian  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century, 
was  a  native  of  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Iliaca,"  comprising  three  ])oems,  "Ante- 
Homerica,"  "  Homerica,"  and  "  Post-Homerica,"  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  extant,  and  was  published  in 
1793  by  F.  W.  Jacobs.  He  also  wrote  commentaries 
on  several  Greek  classics. 

His  brother  Isaac  was  also  distinguished  for  his 
learning. 

See  Fabrich;s,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Tzschirner,  tshd^R'ner,  (Heinrich  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1778.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  professor  of  theology  in  1809.  Among  his 
numerous  works  we  may  name  "  Protestantism  and 
Catholicism  regarded  from  the  Stand-Point  of  Politics," 
and  "The  System  of  Reaction."    Died  in  1828. 


U. 


Ubaldi,  (GuiDO.)     See  Guido,  (Ubaldo.) 

Ubaldini,  oo-bJl-dee'nee,  (Petruccio,)  an  Italian 
artist  and  writer,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1524.  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  early  life,  and  an  illu- 
minator on  vellum.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Life  of  Charlemagne,"  ("Vita  di  Carlo  Magno,"  1581,) 
"Moral  and  Political  Precepts,"  (1592,)  and  "Poems," 
("Rime,"  1596.)     Died  about  1600. 

Uberti,  degli,  dil'yee  oo-b§R'tee,  (Farinata,)  a 
Florentine  leader  of  the  Ghibeline  faction,  was  expelled 
from  Florence  in  1250.  Having  defeated  his  opponents 
in  battle  in  1260,  he  recovered  possession  of  Florence. 
His  magnanimity  is  praised  by  Sismondi,  who  says  he 
saved  Florence  from  being  razed  to  the  ground  by  his 
own  party. 

Uberti,  degli,  (Fazio  or  Bonifacio,)  a  poet,  born 
at  Florence,  vvas  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
driven  into  exile  by  the  Guelphs.  He  wrote  an  unfinished 
descriptive  poem  called  "The  News  of  the  World,"  ("II 
Dittamondo,")  which  is  said  to  be  interesting.  Died 
about  1367. 

Ubicini,  U'be'se'ne',  (Jean  Henri  Abdolonyme,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1818.  He  published 
"Letters  on  Turkey,"  (2  vols.,  1849-51,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Paris,  October  29,  1884. 

Uccello,  oot-chel'lo,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Florentine 
painter,  born  about  1395.  His  proper  name  was  Paolo 
DI  DoNO.  He  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  perspective,  and 
for  his  admirable  delineations  of  birds,  from  which  he 
received  the  name  of  Uccello,  ("bird.")  Died  about  1472. 

Uchanski,  00-Kin'skee,  (James,)  a  Polish  prelate, 
born  in  1505,  became  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate 
of  Poland  in  1562.  He  favoured  or  tolerated  the  Prot- 
estant doctrines.     Died  in  1581. 


Uchtritz  or  Uechtritz,  von,  fon  BK'tRlts,  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Gorlitz  in 
1800,  published,  among  other  works,  a  tragedy,  entitled 
"  Alexander  and  Darius,"  and  "  The  Babylonians  in  Jeru- 
salem," a  dramatic  poem.     Died  February  15,  1875. 

U'dal,  (Ephraim,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  who 
preached  in  London,  became  an  Episcopalian,  and  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Sacrilege."     Died  in  1647. 

Udal,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  imprisoned  on  account  of  his  Puritan 
principles,  and  died  in  1592.  His  "Key  to  the  Holy 
Tongue"  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Hebrew  grammar 
published  in  England. 

Udal  or  Udall,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  scholar  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Hampshire  in  1506.  Having  studied 
at  Oxford,  he  became  master  of  Eton  School,  and  sub- 
sequently of  Westminster  School.  He  published  a 
selection  from  Terence's  comedies,  with  an  English 
translation,  entitled  "  Flovres  for  Latyne  Spekynge,"  and 
wrote  several  original  comedies,  which  have  been  lost, 
with  the  exception  of  one,  called  "  Ralph  Royster  Doys- 
ter."  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  English  play  of 
the  kind  divided  into  acts  and  scenes.     Died  in  1564. 

Uden,  van,  vSn  U'den,  (Lucas,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1596.  He 
executed  the  backgrounds  for  several  of  Rubens's  pic- 
tures, who  in  return  painted  the  figures  in  his.  Among 
his  master-pieces  may  be  named  a  "  Landscape  by 
Moonlight,"  in  the  Lichtenstein  gallery  at  Vienna.  His 
engravings  are  numerous  and  highly  prized.  Died 
about  1662. 

Udine,  da,daoo'de-ni,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  1489,  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  grotesque 
subjects.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  whom  he  assisted 


€  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  o,  H,  K.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

148 


(S^°*See  Explanati 


p.  23.) 


UEBERWEG 


2354 


ULFILAS 


in  painting  the  Loggie  in  the  Vatican.  He  excelled  as  a 
painter  of  animals,  birds,  etc.     Died  about  1562. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Ueberweg,  ii'ber-Mc',  (Friedrich,)  a  German  phi- 
losoplier,  born  near  Solingen,  January  22,  1826.  He 
studied  at  Berlin  and  Gottingen,  was  an  instructor  at 
Bonn,  1852-62,  and  afterwards  a  professor  of  philo.sophy 
at  Konigsberg  University.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"System  of  Logic,"  and  "Outline  of  the  History  of 
Philosophy,"  (1862  ;  3d  vol.,  1866  ;  in  English,  by  G.  S. 
Morris,  1872-74.)     Died  at  Konigsberg,  June  7,  1871. 

UfFenbach,  von,  fon  oof'fen-biK',  (Johann  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  poet  and  musician,  born  at  Frankfort 
in  1687,  was  a  brother  of  the  following.     Died  in  1769. 

Ufifenbach,  von,  (Zacharias  Conrad,)  a  distin- 
guished German  scholar,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
in  1683.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  afterwards  visited 
England.  He  was  made  a  senator  of  his  native  city  in 
1721,  and  subsequently  became  chief  justice.  He  col- 
lected a  very  large  and  valuable  library,  of  which  he 
published  a  catalogue,  entitled  "  Bibliotheca  Uffenbach- 
iana,"  etc.  He  was  the  author  of  "  German  Glossary  of 
the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  Glossarium  Germanicum  Medii 
j^vi,")  an  autobiography,  entitled  "  Commentarius  de 
Vita  propria,"  and  several  bibliographical  works,  (un- 
finished.)    Died  in  1734. 

See  Hermann,  "  Uffenbach's  Leben,"  1753. 

Uggione  or  Uglone.     See  Oggione. 

Ughelli,  oo-gel'lee,  (Ferdinando,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Florence  about  1595,  was  the  author  of  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "  Italia  Sacra,"  (9  vols.,  1642,) 
bemg  a  history  ot  the  Italian  sees,  etc.,  also  an  account 
of  the  Colonna  family,  called  "  Imagines  Columnensis 
Familiae  Cardinalium,"  (1650.)  Died  in  1670. 
•    XJgolino.     See  Gherardesca. 

Ugoni,  00-go'nee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Brescia  in  1 784.  He  translated  some  works  of  Horace, 
and  Caesar's  "  Commentaries."  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  his  "  History  of  Italian  Literature  in  the  Second  Half 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1820-22.)  He  was 
exiled  for  liberalism  from  1821  to  1838.     Died  in  1856. 

Ugoni,  [Lat.  Ugo'nius,]  (Matthias,)  an  Italian  prel- 
ate and  writer  on  councils,  flourished  about  15 10.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Famagosta,  in  Cyprus.  He  asserted 
»he  supremacy  of  councils  over  the  pope. 

Ugonius.     See  Ugoni. 

Uhl,  ool,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  novelist,  born  at 
Teschen,  in  Austrian  Silesia,  May  14,  1825.  He  was 
educated  at  Vienna,  where  he  became  a  very  successful 
journalist.  Among  his  books  are  "  Aus  dem  Banat," 
(1848,)  "An  der  Theiss,"  (1851,)  "Die  Theater-Prinzes- 
sin,"  (a  novel,  1863,)  and  several  romances  of  great 
merit. 

Uhland,  oo'lint,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  celebrated 
German  lyric  poet,  born  at  Tiibingen  in  1 787.  He  studied 
law  in  his  native  town,  and  took  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
in  1810.  He  was  a  member  for  Tubingen  in  the  repre- 
sentative assembly  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1819,  and  in  1830 
was  appointed  professor-extraordinary  of  the  German 
language  and  literature  at  Tiibingen.  Having  been 
chosen  a  deputy  to  the  Diet  in  1833,  he  was  conspicuous 
as  an  able  and  earnest  advocate  of  the  constitutional 
opposition.  He  had  published  in  181 5  a  collection  of 
patriotic  songs,  which  became  widely  jiopular.  This  was 
followed  by  an  e.ssay  "  On  Walthervon  der  Vogelweide," 
0822,)  "  On  the  Myth  of  the  Northern  Legend  of  Thor," 
("Ueber  den  Mythus  der  Nordische  Sagenlehre  vom 
Thor,"  1836,)  and  "  Ancient  High  and  Low  Dutch  Popu- 
lar Songs,"  ("  Alter  hoch-  und  niederdeutscher  Volks- 
licder,"  1844-45.)  ^^  ^'^^  composed  two  tragedies, 
"Duke  Ernest  of  Suabia,"  (1817,)  and  "Louis  the  Bava- 
rian," (1819.)  Died  at  Tubingen  in  November,  1862.  As 
a  poet,  Uhland  is  characterized  by  simplicity  and  ten- 
derness joined  with  deep  religious  feeling. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  February,  1827 ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1837;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1864:  L.  DE  LoM^NlE. 
"  M.  Uhland,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841  ;  F.  Notter,  "  Uhland. 
sein  Leben  und  seine  Dichtungen,"  1863;  Pfizer,  "Uhland  und 
KUckert,"  1837;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gin&ale;"  "  Jahrbuch  rum 
Conversations- Lexicon,"  1863. 


Dhle,  oo'leh,  (Albrecht  Bernharu,)  an  artist,  born 
at  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony,  October  15,  1847.  He  came  in 
early  youth  to  the  United  States,  studied  art  in  Philadel- 
phia and  afterwards  in  Munich  and  Paris,  and  became 
one  of  the  most  successful  portrait-painters  in  the  United 
States. 

Uhlefeld  or  Ulefeld,  oo'leh-fgld',  written  also  Ul- 
feld  or  Ulfeldt,  (Cornifex,  Corfito,  or  Corfitz,) 
Count,  a  Danish  courtier,  became  the  chief  favourite  of 
Christian  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Viceroy  of  Norway, 
and  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  France  in  1647.  After 
the  death  of  that  king  he  fell  into  disgrace,  and  entered 
the  service  of  Christina  of  Sweden.  He  is  censured 
for  his  hostility  to  his  native  country.  Having  been 
accused  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  King  of  Denmark, 
he  was  condemned  to  death  in  1663,  but  he  was  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  law.     Died  in  1664. 

See  Rousseau  de  la  Valettk,  "Histoire  du  Conite  d'Uhle- 
feld,"  1678  ;  Hans  Paus,  "C.  Ulfeldt's  Levnet,"  1747. 

Uhlich,  oo'liK,  (Leberecht,)  a  German  theologian 
of  the  rationalistic  school,  was  born  at  Kothen  in  1799. 
He  preached  at  Magdeburg,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Ten  Years  at  Magdeburg,  1845-55," 
(1856.)     Died  March  23,  1872. 

Uhrich,  oo'riK  or  ii'rik',  (Jean  Jacques  Alexis,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Phalsbourg  in  1802,  became 
brigadier-general  in  1852,  and  general  of  division  in 
1856.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859.  In  1862  he  received  the  grand  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honour.  About  1867  he  retired  from 
the  service,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Prussia 
he  asked  and  obtained  command  of  Strasbourg,  which 
post  he  held  until  its  surrender,  September  28,  1870. 
Died  October  23,  1881. 

Uilkens,  oil'kens,  (Jacob  Albert,)  a  Dutch  natu- 
ralist and  minister,  born  near  Groningen  in  1732.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Manual  of  Rural 
Economy,"  (1819,)  and  was  professor  of  rural  econ- 
omy at  Groningen.     Died  in  1825. 

TJitenbogaard,  oi'ten-bo'giRt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  Re- 
monstrant minister,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1557,  was  a 
chaplain  of  Maurice  the  Stadtholder.  He  became  a 
friend  of  Arminius,  was  persecuted  by  the  Calvinistic 
party,  and  banished  in  1618.     Died  in  165c. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1639,  and  his  "  Life,"  by  G.  Brandt, 
(in  Latin,)  1720. 

Ujfalvy,  de,  deh  oo'ee-folv',  (Charles  Eugene,)  a 
Hungarian  linguist,  born  about  1842.  In  1871  he  became 
professor  of  German  in  the  Lycee  Henri  IV,  at  Paris. 
Among  his  works  (in  French)  are  volumes  on  Hungary, 
the  Magyar  language,  etc.,  including  a  good  "Magyar 
Grammar,"  (1875,)  '''^o  a  "  Finnish  Grammar,"  (1876,) 
and  several  volumes  descriptive  of  his  explorations  in 
Toorkestan  and  the  adjacent  countries. 

Ukert,  oo'k^Rt,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Eutin  in  1780,  published  a  valuable  work 
on  "  The  Geography  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1816  ;) 
also  a  "  Picture  of  Greece,"  and  "On  the  Geography  of 
Homer."  He  likewise  assisted  TIeeren  in  his  "  History 
of  the  European  -States."     Died  in  1851. 

Uladislaus  of  Poland.     See  Vladislaus. 

Ulbach,  urbtk',  (Louis,)  a  French  poet  and  political 
writer,  born  at  Troyes  (Aube)  in  1822,  became  editor  of 
the  "  Revue  de  Paris"  in  1853.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  entitled  "Gloriana,"  several  tales,  and  some 
remarkable  political  letters.     Died  April  16,  1889. 

Ulfeld  or  Ulfeldt.     See  Uhlefeld. 

Ulfila.     See  Ulfilas. 

Ul'fi-las,  written  also  Ulfila,  Ulphilas,  and  Vulfila 
or  Wulfila,  a  celebrated  Gothic  scholar  and  writer, 
born  about  318  A.n.,  became  bishop  of  the  Arian  Goths 
living  between  Mount  Ilasmus  and  the  Danube.  He 
made  a  Gothic  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  which,  hav- 
ing been  lost  for  a  time,  was  partially  discovered  in  the 
sixteenth  century  in  a  monastery  near  Cologne.  Died 
about  388  a.d.  a  fragment  of  his  version  was  discovered 
by  Angelo  Mai  at  Milan  about  1820.  The  version  of 
Ulfilas  is  regarded  as  a  great  treasure  by  philologists. 

See  Georg  Waits  or  Waiz,  "  Ueber  das  Leben  und  die  Lehre 
des  Ulfilas,"  1840;  Ihrh  et  Sotberg,  "Ulphilas  illustratus,"  n52- 
Bessel,    "Ueber   das    Leben    des  Ulfilas,"  1S60. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  4,  d»,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ULFT 


2355 


ULYSSES 


Ulft,  van  der,  vSn  der  ulft,  (Jacob,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1627.  He  painted 
views  of  architecture,  ruins,  and  temples,  in  which  he 
introduced  groups  of  figures.  He  was  a  good  colorist. 
Died  after  1688. 

Ulisse,  the  French  and  Italian  of  Ulysses,  which  see. 

Ullmann,  ool'mdn,  (Kari.,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Epfenbach,  in  the  Palatinate,  in  1796.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Tiibingen,  and  became  in  182 1 
professor-extraordinary  of  theology  in  the  former  uni- 
versity. In  1828  he  associated  with  Umbreit  as  editor 
of  the  journal  entitled  "  Theologischen  Studien  und 
Kritiken,"  and  in  1829  was  appointed  professor  at  Halle. 
Having  returned  to  Heidelberg  in  1836,  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Upper  Church  Council,  and  an  evan- 
gelical prelate  in  1853.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Reformers  before  the  Reformation,  particularly  in  Ger- 
many and  the  Netherlands,"  (2  vols.,  1841,)  "On  the 
Future  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany,"  (1846,) 
"On  the  Value  of  a  Majority  in  the  Church,"  {1850,) 
and  "On  the  Nature  of  Christianity,"  (1855.)  His 
writings  enjoy  a  very  high  reputation,  and  have  been 
translated  into  several  languages.     Died  Jan.  12,  1865. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo'a,  [Sp.  pron.  ool-yo'J,]  (Alphonso,)  a 
Spanish  historian  and  translator,  settled  at  Venice,  and 
wrote,  in  Italian,  a  "  Life  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.," 
(1560,)  and  other  works.  He  also  translated  into  elegant 
Italian  several  Spanish  histories.     Died  about  1580. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo'a  or  ool-yo'S,  (Don  Antonio,)  a  cele- 
brated mathematician  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Seville, 
in  Spain,  in  17 16.  In  1735  he  accompanied  La  Conda- 
mine,  Godin,  and  other  French  savants  to  South  America, 
to  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the  equator.  On 
his  voyage  home,  in  1744,  he  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
English,  and,  after  a  detention  of  two  years,  returned  to 
.Spain,  where  he  was  created  a  commander  of  the  order 
of  Santiago.  He  published  in  1748  a  "  Historical  Ac- 
count of  the  Voyage  to  South  America,"  ("  Relacion 
historica  del  Viage  a  la  America  Meridional,")  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  his  friend  and  fellow-traveller,  Jorge 
Juan,  "American  Notes  on  Southern  and  Northeastern 
America,"  ("  Noticias  Americanas  sobre  la  America 
Meridional  y  la  Septentrional-oriental,"  1772,)  and  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Marine  or  the  Naval  Forces  of  Europe 
and  Africa,"  (1778.)  Soon  after  the  cession  of  Louisiana 
to  Spain,  he  was  made  governor  of  that  province;  but 
be  was  subsequently  superseded  by  O'Reilly,  and  on 
his  return  was  appointed  minister  of  the  marine.  Ulloa 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Observatory  at  Cadiz,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  the  advancement  of  learning  and 
the  arts  and  the  improvement  of  domestic  manufactures 
in  Spain.     Died  in  1795. 

See  Francisco  Hovos,  "  Vida  de  D.  A.  de  Ulloa,"  1847;  Madoz, 
"  Diccionario  geografico-historico  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Hiograpliie  G(5n^- 
rale  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  1828. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo'a,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Naples  in  1810,  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of 
Venice  against  the  Austrians  in  1849.  After  that  year  he 
resided  in  Paws.     He  published  several  military  works. 

Ulloa,  de,  di  ool-yo'i,  (Martin,)  a  Spanish  critic, 
born  at  Seville  in  1730,  was  a  nephew  of  Antonio  Ulloa. 
He  published  several  works.     Died  in  1800. 

Ulloa  y  Pereiia,  de,  di  ool-yo'i  e  pi-ra'e-ri,  (Luis,) 
a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Toro  about  1590.  He  wrote 
elegant  lyric  poems,  sonnets,  and  a  poem  entitled  "  Ra- 
quel,"  ("  Rachel.")     Died  in  1660. 

Ullur,  ool'liir,  (Ullr,)  or  Ull,  661,  [signifying  "  wool- 
like" or  "  white,"  (Sw.  till,  "  wool,")  so  called  because  he 
is  the  god  of  winter  or  snow,]  the  god  who,  according  to 
the  Norse  mythology,  presides  over  winter  and  winter- 
sports,  is  represented  as  the  son  of  Sif  and  step-son  of 
Thor.  In  running  on  snow-shoes  he  has  no  equal ;  he 
is  also  an  excellent  archer.  His  dwelling  is  Ydalir, 
(e-dd'lir,)  i.e.  the  "place  (or  dale)  of  dampness  and  cold." 

Ulphilas.     See  Ulfilas. 

Ul'pi-an,  [Lat.  Ulpia'nus  ;  Fr.  Ulpien,  Ul'pe-iN',] 
(DoMiTiiJs,)  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Tyre,  was  born  about  170  a.d.  He  was 
distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Alexander  Severus,  who 
made  him  his  secretary,  and  praetorian  j^refect.  He  was 
killed  in  a  mutiny  of  the  praetorian  soldiers  in  228  a.d. 


He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Ad  Edictum," 
and  other  legal  treatises,  which  were  highly  esteemed  ; 
but  most  of  them  are  now  lost.  Several  editions  of  the 
fragments  have  been  published. 

See  A.  Stegkr,  "  Dissertatio  de  D.  Ulpiano,"  1725;  Grotius, 
"Vitje  Jurisconsultoruni ;"  Clodius,  "Apologia  Ulpiani,"  1811. 

Ulpiatnis.     See  Ulpian. 

Ul-pi-a'nus  of  Antioch,  a  rhetorician  in  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
author  of  "  Commentaries  on  the  Orations  of  Demos- 
thenes called  Symbuleutici,"  also  "  Prolegomena,"  and 
other  works.  Ulpian  of  Emesa  was  the  author  of  an 
"Art  of  Rhetoric." 

Ulpien.     See  Ui.pian. 

Ulric  or  Ulrick,  fil'rik,  (Ger,,  Ulrich,  66KriK,j 
(Anton,)  Duke  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel,  a  German 
poet,  born  in  1633.  He  wrote  several  very  successful 
poems,  a  number  of  melodramas,  and  novels  entitled 
"  Aramena,  the  Illustrious  Syrian  Lady,"  (1678,)  and 
"  Octavia,  a  Roman  Story,"  (in  German,  6  vols.,  1685- 
1707.)     Died  in  1714. 

Ulrica  (ool-ree'kl)  El-e-o-no'ra,  [Fr.  Ulrique 
£l6onore,  iil'r^k'  k'li'o'noR',]  Queen  of  Sweden,  born 
in  1656,  became  the  wife  of  Charles  XL  and  the  mother 
of  Charles  XII.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Frederick  HI. 
of  Denmark.     Died  in  1693. 

See  BoECLER,  "Vita  Ulrica  Eleonorje,"  1697. 

Ulrica  Eleonora,  Queen  of  Sweden,  a  daughter  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1688.  She  married  Prince 
Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel  about  17 15.  She  was  a 
sister  of  Charles  XII.  In  1719  she  was  elected  as  his 
successor;  but  she  transferred  the  royal  power  to  her 
husband.     Died  in  1744. 

Ulrich,  ul'rik,  (Charles  Frederick,)  an  American 
painter,  born  in  New  York  city,  October  18,  1858.  He 
studied  art  in  New  York,  and  at  Munich,  under  Loeftz, 
Lindenschmit,  and  Leibl.  He  won  a  bronze  medal  at 
Munich  in  1876,  and  the  first  Clarke  Prize  at  the  National 
Academy,  New  York,  in  1884.  Among  his  pictures  are 
"The  Wood-Engraver,"  (1882,)  "The  Glass-Blowers," 
(1883,)  "The  Glass-Engraver,"  (1883,)  "The  Carpenter," 
(1883,)  "A  Symphony,"  (1883,)  "The  Etcher,"  (1883,) 
"The  Land  of  Promise,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Ulrich,  661'riK,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  Swiss  theologian 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  1705;  died  at  Zurich  in  1768. 

Ulrich,  (Johann  Rudolph,)  a  Swiss  preacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1728.  He  became  first  pastor 
of  Zurich  in  1769.     Died  in  1795. 

Ulrich,  661'riK,  (Philipp  Adam,)  a  German  philan- 
thropist, born  in  1692.  He  was  eminent  for  various 
forms  of  practical  charity. 

See  Oberthur,  "Life  of  P.  A.  Ulrich,"  (in  German,)  1783. 

Ulrich,  661'riK,  Saint,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the 
German  Church,  was  born  at  Augsburg  about  890  a.d. 
He  came  of  a  very  eminent  family.  He  was  educated  at 
Saint  Gall,  became  a  secular  priest,  and  in  923  was  con- 
secrated as  Bishop  of  Augsburg.  He  was  one  of  the 
wisest  political  counsellors  of  Henry  I.  and  Otho.  Died 
in  973.  His  anonymous  Life  ("  Vita  S.  Oudalrici")  is 
of  high  importance  as  a  source  of  German  history. 

Ulrich,  (Titus,)  a  German  poet,  born  in  the  county 
of  Glatz,  Prussia,  in  1813.  He  produced  in  1845  "The 
Canticle  of  Canticles,"  ("  Das  Hohe  Lied,")  which  is 
highly  praised,  and  in  1848  a  poem  called  "Victor," 
which  was  very  popular. 

Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein.     See  Lichtenstein. 

Ulrici,  661-reet'see,  (Hermann,)  a  German  schola. 
and  critic,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1806.  He  studied 
law  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  but  subsequently  devoted  him- 
self to  literature,  and  published  in  1833  '^'S  "Character- 
istics of  Antique  Historiography."  This  was  followed 
by  his  "  History  of  the  Poetic  Art  in  Greece,"  (2  vols., 
1835,)  and  a  treatise  "On  Shakspeare's  Dramatic  Art," 
(1839,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour.  He  also 
wrote  several  ]ihilosophical  works,  among  which  are  "On 
the  Principle  and  Method  of  the  Philosophy  of  Hegel," 
(1841,)  and  "  Gott  und  die  Natur,"  (1862.)    Died  in  1884. 

Ulrike.     See  Louise  Ulrike. 

Ulugh  or  Ulug  Beg.    See  Olug  Beg. 

U-lys'ses,  [Gr.  'O^aaevq,  (Odysseus;)  Fr.  Ulisse, 
ii'l6ss';  It  Ulisse,  oo-lis'si,]  called  also  XTlyx'es  and 


€as^;  9asj;  %hard;  ^^%j;(^,YL,Vi,  guttural;  a,  nasal;  Vi,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin/ziw.     (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


UMa 


2356 


UPFOLD 


Ith'acus,  King  of  Ithaca,  a  Grecian  chief,  renowned 
for  his  eloquence,  subtlety,  sagacity,  and  wisdom,  was  the 
son  of  Laertes,  (or,  as  some  say,  of  Sisyphus,)  and  hus- 
band of  Penelope.  He  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen. 
He  was  the  most  politic  of  all  the  commanders  who 
conducted  the  siege  of  Troy,  to  the  capture  of  which  he 
greatly  contributed  by  his  stratagems  and  exploits.  The 
invention  of  the  wooaen  horse  is  ascribed  to  him  by  some 
writers.  After  the  death  of  Achilles  he  contended  for 
his  armour  with  success  against  Ajax.  His  wanderings, 
navigations,  and  adventures  after  the  destruction  of  Troy 
form  the  subject  of  the  "  Odyssey"  of  Homer,  who  relates 
that  he  sailed  from  Troy  with  twelve  ships,  and  was 
driven  by  the  wind  to  the  coast  of  Africa  ;  that  he  visited 
the  island  of  ^olns,  who  gave  him  a  number  of  winds 
confined  in  a  bag ;  that  he  passed  a  year  in  the  island  of 
Circe  the  magician ;  that,  after  many  of  his  companions 
had  been  devoured  by  the  Cyclops  and  Scylla,  he  was 
driven  to  the  island  of  Calypso,  who  gave  him  a  warm 
reception,  detained  him  for  eight  years,  and  tempted  him 
to  marry  her,  with  the  promise  of  immortality,  which  he 
declined,  "vetulam  suam  prastulit  immortalitati ;"  that 
after  an  absence  of  twenty  years  he  returned  to  Ithaca 
alone  and  disguised  as  a  beggar,  and  found  his  palace 
occupied  by  numerous  suitors,  whom,  with  the  aid  of  his 
«on  Telemachus,  he  killed.     Horace  says, 

"  Rursus  quid  Virtus  et  quid  Sapientia  possit 
Utile  proposuit  nobis  exemplar  Ulixen."* 

Epistles,  book  i.,  2. 

Uma,  a  name  of  Parvati,  or  YJkiX,  (q.  v.,)  the  sakta, 
or  wife,  of  the  Hindoo  god  Siva. 

Umbreit,  oom'bRit,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm  Karl,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Saxe-Gotha  in 
1795.  He  studied  the  Oriental  languages  at  Gottingen, 
and  became  successively  professor  of  philosophy  and 
of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  published  several  valu- 
able exegetical  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Philological, 
Critical,  and  Philosophical  Commentary  on  Solomon's 
Proverbs,"  {1826,)  "Christian  Edification  from  the  Psal- 
ter," etc.,  and  "  Practical  Commentary  on  the  Prophets 
of  the  Old  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1841.)  He  also  wrote 
a  "Translation  and  Interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Job," 
and  "New  Poetry  from  the  Old  Testament,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  i860. 

Umeau,  ii'mo',  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Poi- 
tiers in  1598  ;  died  in  1682. 

Umeyade.     See  Omevyade. 

Umeyyali.     See  Omeyyah. 

Uminski,  00-mfen'skee,  (Jan  Nepomuk,)  a  Polish  gen- 
eral, born  in  Posen  in  1780,  served  in  the  French  cam- 
paigns in  Poland  in  1807  and  1809,  and  in  1831  defeated 
General  Diebitsch  in  the  battle  of  Grochow.  Died  in  1851. 

Uncas,  iing'kass,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Mohegans  in 
Connecticut,  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1637 
he  joined  the  English  in  their  war  against  the  Pequots. 
Died  about  1680. 

Un''der-wood,  (Francis  Henry,)  an  American 
author,  born  at  Enfield,  Massachusetts,  January  12,  1825. 
He  was  educated  at  Amherst  College,  and  became  a 
lawyer.  He  wrote  "  Hand-Book  of  English  Literature," 
(1871,)  "  Hand-Book  of  American  Literature,"  (1872,) 
"Cloud-Pictures,"  (1872,)  "Lord  of  Himself,"  (a  novel,) 
"  Man  Proposes,"  (a  novel,)  and  Lives  of  Longfellow, 
Lowell,  and  Whittier. 

Un'der-wood,  (Joseph  R.,)  an  American  Senator 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Goochland  county,  Virginia,  in  1791. 
He  removed  to  Bowling  Green,  Kentucky,  about  1823, 
and  represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1835  to  1845.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  1847.     I^ied  August  23,  1876. 

Underwood,  (Lucien  Marcus,)  Ph.D.,  an  American 
botanist,  born  at  New  Woodstock,  New  York,  October 
26,  1853.  He  graduated  at  Syracuse  University  in  1877, 
was  professor  of  botany  and  geology  in  the  Illinois  Wes- 
leyan  University,  1880-83,  ^"d  became  an  adjunct  profes- 
sor of  botany  in  his  alma  mater.  He  has  published  a 
"Systematic  Plant  Record,"  (1881,)  "Our  Native  Ferns, 
and  How  to  Study  them,"  (1881,)  "  Our  Native  Ferns  and 


•  "  Again  to  show  what  courage  and  what  wisdom  can  accomplish, 
be  [Homer]  has  set  before  us  Ulysses  as  a  useful  example." 


their  Allies,"  (1882,)  "Descriptive  Catalogue  of  North 
American  Hepaticae,"  (1884,)  etc, 

Un'der-'wood,  (T.  R.,)  an  English  artist  and  writer, 
published  a  "  Narrative  of  Memorable  Events  in  Pari* 
during  the  Capitulation  in  1814."     Died  in  1835. 

Unger,  oong'er,  (Franz,)  an  Austrian  geologist  and 
botanist,  born  in  Styria  in  1800,  graduated  in  medicine 
at  Vienna  in  1827,  was  professor  of  botany  at  Gratz, 
1836-50,  and  was  after  that  a  professor  at  Vienna.  He 
wrote  upon  vegetable  anatomy  and  physiology,  on  geo- 
logical botany,  etc.     Died  at  Gratz,  February  13,  1870. 

Unger,  o^ing'er,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  printer  and  wood-engraver,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1750,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Georg,  noticed  below.  He 
became  professor  of  wood-engraving  in  the  Academy  of 
Plastic  Arts  at  Berlin,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of 
types  called  "  Ungerian  Types,"  ("  Ungerische  Schrift.") 
He  died  in  1804.  His  wife,  Frede^ke  Helene,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1751,  was  distinguished  for  her  talents  and 
accomplishments,  and  published  several  popular  novels, 
one  of  which,  entitled  "Julia  Grlinthal,  the  History  of 
a  Boarding-School  Girl,"  ("  Julchen  Griinthal,  eine  Pen- 
sionsgeschichte,"  1784,)  is  particularly  admired.  Her 
"  Confessions  of  a  I3eautiful  Soul"  ("  Bekentnisse  einer 
schonen  Seele,"  1806)  also  deserves  especial  mention. 
Died  in  1813. 

Unger,  (Johann  Georo,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
near  Pirna  in  1715,  was  celeljrated  for  his  improvements 
in  wood-cutting  and  typography.  Several  of  his  land- 
scapes engraved  on  wood  are  esteemed  master-pieces 
of  the  kind.     Died  in  1788. 

Unger,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  engraver,  born  at 
Gottingen  in  1837.  He  has  executed  many  fine  etchings, 
and  has  lived  chiefly  in  Vienna,  where  his  fame  is  very 
high. 

Union,  de  la,  di  IS  oo-ne-6n',  (Don  Luis  Firmin  de 
Carvajal  y  Vargas — dk  kaR-vS-H^l'  e  vaR'gis,)  Count, 
a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Lima  in  1752.  He  gained 
the  rank  of  general  by  his  services  against  the  French 
invaders  in  1793,  and  became  commander  of  an  army  in 
Catalonia  in  1794.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  near 
Figueras  the  same  year. 

Unterberger,  66n'ter-b§R'ger,  (Ignaz,)  a  Tyrolese 
painter,  born  at  Karales  in  1744,  worked  at  Vienna. 
Among  his  works  are  pictures  of  IBacchus,  Minerva,  and 
Hebe,  which  are  highly  praised.     Died  in  1797. 

Unterhol2aier,  66n'ter-holts'ner,  (Karl  August  Do- 
MiNicus,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Freising  in  1787, 
wrote  several  treatises  on  Roman  law.     Died  in  1838. 

Unzelmann,  66nt'sel-mSn',  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a 
German  wood-engraver,  born  about  1798,  was  a  pupil 
of  Gubitz,  and  obtained  the  title  of  royal  professor  at 
the  Academy  of  Berlin.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Napoleon,  and  a  large  print 
of  the  "Death  of  Franz  von  Sickingen."     Died  in  1854. 

Unzelmann,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand,)  a  Ger- 
man comic  actor,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1753;  died  in 
1832.  His  son  Karl  was  also  a  popular  actor.  He  was 
born  in  1786;  died  in  1843.  * 

Unzer,  dont'ser,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Halle  in  1727,  was  editor  of  a  medical 
journal  entitled  "  Der  Arzt."  He  was  the  author  of 
"  First  Principles  of  the  Physiology,  etc.  of  Animated 
Bodies,"  (1771,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1799. 
His  wife,  Joanna  Charlotte,  published  a  number  of 
popular  poems.     She  was  born  in  1724;  died  in  1782. 

See  "Biographie  M^dicale;"  Hirsching,  "  Historisch-litera- 
risches  Handbuch." 

Upanishad,  written  also  Upenished,  [modern  Hin- 
doo pron.  o6-pun'i-shud,]  a  Sanscrit  term,  denoting 
what  is  most  essential  in  the  religious  writings  of  the 
Hindoos,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  theological  and  argu- 
mentative portions  of  the  Vedas,  (which  see.) 

See  WiL-iON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary ;"  Co[.ebrooke,  article  in 
"Asiatic  Researches,"  pp.  472-3. 

Up'cott,  (William,)  an  English  bibliographer  and 
collector  of  autographs,  born  in  London  in  1779;  died 
in  1845. 

Up'fold,  (George,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop,  born  at 
Sheniley    Green,   .Surrey,    England,   May    7,    1796,   was 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y, long;  4, 4,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fS^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon ; 


UPHAM 


2357 


URFE 


brought  to  the  United  States  in  childhood,  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1814,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  New 
York  in  1816,  and  in  1820  was  ordained  a  presbyter  of 
the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1849  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Indiana,  the  first  of  that  title.  Died  at  Indianapolis, 
August  26,  1872. 

Upham,  up'am,  (Charles  Wf.ntworth.)  a  Unita- 
rian divine  and  writer,  born  at  Saint  John,  New  Bruns- 
wick, in  1802,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1854.  He 
has  published  "Lectures  on  Witchcraft,"  etc.,  (1831,) 
"Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,"  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography,"  and  made  numerous  contributions  to  the 
"North  American  Review,"  "Christian  Examiner,"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  began  to  preach  at  Salem,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1824,  and  quitted  the  ministry  in  1844. 
Died  at  Salem,  June  15,  1875. 

Upham,  (Samuel  Foster,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  May  19,  1834. 
He  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1856.  He  held 
various  pastorates,  1856-81,  and  in  1881  became  pro- 
fessor of  practical  theology  in  Drew  Theological  Semi- 
nary. 

Upham,  (Thomas  Cogswell,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine  and  able  writer,  was  born  at 
Deerfield,  New  Hampshire,  in  1799.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  and  became  in  1825  professor  of 
mental  and  moral  philosophy  in  Bowdoin  College. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Philosophical  and  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Will,"  (1834,)  "Life,  Religious  Opinions, 
etc.  of  Madame  Guyon,"  (1847,)  "  Principles  of  the  In- 
terior or  Hidden  Life,"  (1848,)  "Life  of  Madame 
Catharine  Adorna,"  (1856,)  and  "Letters,  ^Esthetic, 
Social,  and  Moral,  written  from  Europe,  Egypt,  and 
Palestine,"  (1857.)  He  likewise  published  a  translation 
of  Jahn's  "Biblical  Archaeology,"  (fifth  edition,  1849.) 
Died  at  New  York,  August  2,  1872. 

Up'shur,  (Abel  Parker,)  an  American  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  Northampton  county,  Virginia.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy  by  President  Tyler 
in  September,  1841,  and  succeeded  Webster  as  secretary 
of  state  in  May,  1843.  -^^  ^'^^  killed  by  the  explo- 
sion of  a  cannon  on  board  the  steamer  Princeton,  in 
February,  1844,  aged  about  fifty-three.  He  belonged  to 
the  extreme  State-Rights  and  pro-slavery  school  of  the 
South. 

Up'ton,  (James,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
born  in  Cheshire  in  1670.  He  published  an  edition  of 
Aristotle's  "Poetics,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1749. 
His  son,  of  the  same  name,  edited  Spenser's  "  Faerie 
Queene,"  and  was  the  author  of  "  Observations  on  Shak- 
speare."     Died  in  1760. 

U-ra'nI-a,  [Gr.  Ovfjavia,  (from  ovpavog,  "  heaven ;") 
Fr.  U RAN' IE,  u'rt'ne',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses  of  the 
Greek  mythology,  the  Muse  of  Astronomy,  was  supposed 
to  be  a  daughter  of  Zeus. 

U'ra-nus,  [Gr.  Ovpavo^,  i.e.  the  "  sky"  or  "  heaven,"] 
a  divinity  of  classic  mythology,  identified  with  the  Roman 
Coeius,  was  considered  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  gods. 
He  was  represented  as  the  husband  of  Terra,  and  the 
father  of  Oceanus,  Cronus,  (Saturn,)  Themis,  Hyperion, 
and  the  other  Titans,  whom  he  confined  in  Tartarus. 
According  to  the  legend,  he  was  dethroned  by  Cronus. 

Urbain.     See  Urkan. 

Ur'bau  [Lat.  Urba'nus;  Fr.  Urbain,  iiR'b^N']  I. 
succeeded  Calixtus  I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome  in  224  a.d. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under  Alex- 
ander Severus,  (230  A.D.) 

Urban  II.,  born  in  France,  succeeded  Victor  III. 
as  Pope  of  Rome  in  1088.  He  excommunicated  Henry 
IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  supported  Clement  III. 
as  anti-pope,  having  previously  incited  Conrad,  son  of 
the  emperor,  to  revolt  against  him.  In  a  council  at 
Piacenza  in  1095  he  proclaimed  the  first  crusade.  His 
successor  was  Paschal  II.     Died  in  1099. 

Urban  III.  succeeded  Lucius  II.  in  1185.  He  died 
in  1 187. 

Urban  IV.,  born  at  Troyes,  in  France,  succeeded 
Alexander  IV.  in  1261.  He  carried  on  a  war  against 
Manfred,  Prince  of  Sicily,  and  made  an  alliance  with 
Charles  of  Anjou,  on  whom  he  bestowed  the  crown  of 


Sicily  and  Apulia  in  fief  of  the  Roman  see,  (1263.)  From 
this  treaty  arose  the  subsequent  wars  between  France 
and  Italy  during  several  centuries.  He  died  in  1264, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  IV. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban  V.,  originally  named  Guillaume  de  Gri- 
moEird,  (gRe'mo-aR',)  was  a  native  of  France,  and  suc- 
ceeded Innocent  VI.  as  pope  in  1362.  He  was  the  last 
of  the  pontiffs  who  resided  at  Avignon,  and  in  1367  he 
removed  his  court  to  Rome.  He  died  in  1370,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  XI. 

Urban  [Lat.  Urba'nus  ;  It.  Urbano,  ooR-bS'no]  VI., 
originally  named  Bartolommeo  Prignano,  (pRfen-yi'- 
no,)  succeeded  Gregory  XI.  in  1378.  He  gave  great  offence 
by  his  severity  to  the  cardinals,  who  elected  an  anti-pope 
in  opposition  to  him,  under  the  title  of  Clement  VI. 
In  1385  he  had  six  cardinals  put  to  death  on  a  charge  of 
conspiring  against  him.  He  died  in  1389,  as  some  writers 
assert,  by  poison,  and  was  succeeded  by  Boniface  IX. 

See  Artaud  db  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban  VII.,  a  native  of  Rome,  originally  named 
GiAMBATTisrA  Castagna,  (kis-tin'yS,)  was  chosen  suc- 
cessor to  Sixtus  V.  in  1 590.  He  survived  his  election  thir 
teen  days,  and  Gregory  XIV.  was  elected  to  succeed  him. 

Urban  VIII.,  originally  named  Maffeo  Barberini, 
(baR-bi-ree'nee,)  born  at  Florence  in  1568,  succeeded 
Gregory  XV.  in  1623.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
learning  and  his  liberal  patronage  of  science  and  art. 
He  founded  the  College  de  Propaganda  Fide,  finished 
the  aqueduct  of  Acqua  Felice,  increased  the  Vatican 
Library,  and  improved  the  "  Breviarium  Romanum." 
Under  his  rule  Italy  was  disturbed  by  contests  between 
the  French  and  Spaniards  for  supremacy  in  that  country. 
The  duchy  of  Urbino  was  made  a  fief  of  the  Roman  see 
in  1626.  Urban  died  in  1644,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Innocent  X. 

See  SiMONiNi,  "  Sylvas  Urbanianje,  seu  Gesta  Urbani  VIII.," 
1657  ;  Artaud  de  Montok,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban.     See  Fortia  d'Urban. 

Urban,  de  Saint,  deh  siwt  iiR'biN',  (Ferdinand,) 
a  French  architect,  born  at  Nancy  in  1654.  He  was 
patronized  by  Pope  Innocent  XL,  who  appointed  him 
his  first  architect  and  director  of  medals.    Died  in  1738. 

Urbanus.     See  Urban. 

Urbino.     See  Timoteo  da  Urbino. 

Urceo,  ooR'chi-o,  [Lat.  Ur'ceus,]  (Antonio,)  sur- 
named  CoDRUS,  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at 
Rubiera  in  1446.  He  taught  Greek  and  Latin  for  many 
years  at  Bologna,  whither  he  removed  in  1482.  He 
wrote  orations,  letters,  and  poems.     Died  in  1500. 

See  BlANCHlNl,  "Vita  A.  Codri  Urcei;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires." 

Urceus.     See  Urceo. 

Ure,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  Scottish  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1778.  He  took  his  medi- 
cal degree  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  became  in 
1802  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  in 
the  Andersonian  Institution  in  that  city.  Among  his 
principal  publications  are  his  "  New  Experimental  Re- 
searches on  some  of  the  Leading  Doctrines  of  Caloric," 
etc.,  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (1821,)  "On  the  Ulti- 
mate Analysis  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances," 
(1822,)  "System  of  Geology,"  (1829,)  "Philosophy  of 
Manufactures,"  (1835,)  and  "Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manu- 
factures, and  Mines,"  (1839,) — one  of  the  most  valuable 
woiks  of  the  kind.  Dr.  Ure  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  other  learned  institutions,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Observatory  at  Glasgow.     Died  in  1857. 

Urfe,  d',  diiR'fi',  (Anne,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Forez  in  1555.  He  became  a  privy  councillor,  and  after- 
wards a  priest.  He  married  a  rich  heiress,  named  Diane 
de  Chateau-Morand.     Died  in  1621. 

Urfe,  d',  (Honor6,)  a  P'rench  writer  of  romance, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1567  or  1568,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  a  soldier  by  profession,  and  fought 
in  the  civil  war  for  the  League.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  romance  called  "  Astree,"  (1610-19,)  \^  ;;ich  was 
once  very  celebrated.     Died  in  1625. 

See  N.  BoNAFOus,  "  fitudes  sur  1' Astree  et  sur  Honort?  d'UrftJ," 
1847;  A.  Bernard,  "  Les  Urf^,"  1839:  Nic^ron,  "Memoires;" 
DuNLOP,  "  History  of  Fiction  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 


€  as  /4;  9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  asj;  G,  H,  vi^ptttural;  n,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (5^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


URKHAN 


2358 


USHER 


Urkhan.     See  Oorkhan. 

Urquhart,  urk'hart,  (David,)  an  able  British  writer 
and  politician,  born  at  Cromarty  in  1805.  He  went  to 
Greece  with  Lord  Cochrane  in  1827,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Turkey  and  its  Resources," 
(1833,)  and  "Travels  in  Spain  and  Morocco,"  (1^49-) 
He  maintained  the  opinion  that  the  Ottoman  empire 
has  elements  of  vitality  and  progress.  He  became 
an  uncompromising  adversary  of  Palmerston's  foreign 
policy,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Conservative 
in  1847.     Died  at  Naples,  May  16,  1877. 

Urquhart,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  Scottish  mathematician 
under  the  reign  of  Charles  H.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"  Logopandecteision,  or  an  Introduction  to  the  Universal 
Language,"  and  a  treatise  "On  Trigonometry." 

See  Chambers,  "  Hiographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Urquhart.  (William  Pollard,)  a  political  econo- 
mist, born  in  the  county  of  Westmeath,  Ireland,  in  1814. 
He  publijJied  "Essays  on  Political  Economy." 

Urquijo,  de,  di  ooR-kee'Ho,  (Mariano  Luis,)  a 
Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Bilbao  in  1768.  He  was 
secretary  for  foreign  affairs  about  two  years,  (1798-1800,) 
after  which  he  was  imprisoned  through  the  influence  of 
the  Inquisition,  which  he  had  opposed.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  state  by  King  Joseph  about  1809. 
Died  in  Paris  in  181 7. 

See  A.  DH  Reraza,  "  Elogio  de  M.  L.  de  Urquijo,"  1S20;  "  Nou- 
relle  Hiographie  Generale. " 

Urquiza,  de,  di  ooR-kee'sl  or  ooR-kee'thS,  (Don 
Juste  Jos6,)  a  South  American  statesman  and  military 
commander,  born  in  the  province  of  Entre-Rios  in  1800. 
He  fought  in  his  early  life  for  Rosas,  but  in  1851  he  took 
arms  against  him  and  formed  an  alliance  with  the  gov- 
ernments of  Brazil  and  Uruguay.  In  February,  1852, 
he  gained  at  Santos  Lugares  a  decisive  victory  over 
Rosas,  who  then  ceased  to  reign.  Urquiza  became 
general-in-chief  and  foreign  secretary  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.     Died  in  1870. 

Urraca,  oor-ri'ki,  Queen  of  Leon  and  Castile,  born 
about  1080,  was  the  only  legitimate  child  of  Alfonso  VI. 
She  was  married  to  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon,  with  whom 
she  quarrelled,  and  against  whom  she  waged  a  long  civil 
war.     Died  in  1126. 

Urrea,  de,  dk  oor-ra'i,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  writer 
and  commander,  born  in  Aragon  about  15 15.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  army  of  Charles  V.  He  trans- 
lated Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso"  into  Spanish,  (1556,) 
and  wrote  a  "  Dialogue  on  True  Military  Honour,"  (1566.) 

Ursatus.     See  Orsato. 

Urseolo.     See  Orseolo. 

Ursins,  des,  di  zuR'si.v',  or  Orsini,  (Anne  Marie 
de  la  Tremouille — deh  It  tRi'mooI'  or  tRi'moo'ye.) 
Princess,  a  French  lady  and  courtier,  famous  for  her 
political  influence  and  insinuating  qualities,  was  born 
about  1642.  She  was  married  in  1659  to  Adrien  de  Tal- 
leyrand, Prince  de  Chalais,  and  in  1675  ^^  Flavio  Orsini, 
Duke  of  Bracciano.  She  resided  many  years  at  Rome. 
In  1701  she  was  selected  by  the  French  court  for  the 
place  of  first  lady  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  Queen  of 
Spain,  of  whom  she  became  the  chief  favourite.  "She 
aspired,"  says  Macaulay,  "to  play  in  Spain  the  part 
which  Madame  de  Maintenon  had  played  in  France. 
.  .  .  She  became  so  powerful  that  neither  minister  of 
Spain  nor  ambassador  from  France  could  stand  against 
her."  (Review  of  Lord  Mahon's  "  War  of  the  Succes- 
sion.") Her  influence  ceased  on  the  death  of  the  queen, 
in  1714,  and  the  marriage  of  Philip  V.  with  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  who  dismissed  the  Princess  des  Ursins  from 
court.     She  died  at  Rome  in  1722. 

See  her  "  Correspondence  with  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  4  vols., 
1826;  F.  Combes,  "La  Princesse  des  Ursins,  Essai,"  1858;  Saint- 
Simon,  "  Menicires;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ursins,  des,  (Jean,  Jouvenel,  (zhoov'n^l',)  or  Ju- 
venal,) a  French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1388.  He 
wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  Charles  VI.,"  and  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  about  1450.     Died  in  1473. 

Ur-si'nus,  [Ger.  pron.  ooR-see'nCis,]  (Benjamin,)  a 
German  mathematician,  born  in  Silesia  in  1587.  His 
German  name  was  Behr,  (baiR.)  He  taught  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder.     Died  in  1633. 

Ursinus,  (Benjamin,)   a   German    Lutheran  divine, 


was  a  relative  of  Zacharias,  noticed  below.  He  was 
made  a  bishop  and  ennobled  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia. 
Died  about  171 7. 

Ur-si'nus,  [It.  Orsini,  oR-see'nee,]  (Fulvius.)  a 
celebrated  Italian  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Rome 
in  1529,  held  the  post  of  librarian  to  Cardinal  Alexander 
Farnese.  He  published  commentaries  on  the  principal 
Roman  historians,  editions  of  several  Greek  classics, 
and  a  number  of  original  works  which  display  profound 
learning.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  Portraits 
and  Eulogies  of  Illustrious  Men  exhibited  by  Marbles, 
Medals,  and  Gems,"  ("  Imagines  et  Elogia  Virorum  illus- 
trium  e  Marmoribus,  Nummis  et  Gemmis  expressae.") 
Died  in  1600. 

See  Castiglione,  "G.  Orsini  Vita,"  1657;  Nic^ron.  "Me- 
moires  ;"  "  Life  of  Ursinus,"  by  Castalio. 

Ursinus,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Spire  in  1647  ;  died  at  Ratisbon  in  1707. 

Ursinus,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  divine, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1608.  He  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Churches 
of  Germany,"  (1668,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1667. 

See  "  J.  H.  Ursinus  Lebenslauf,"  1666. 

Ursinus,  (Z.acharias,)  a  learned  German  divine, 
born  at  Breslau  in  1534,  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of 
Melanchthon.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  engaged 
in  controversies  with  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  the 
time,  and  was  the  author  of  several  theological  and  po- 
lemical works,  (1563.)  He  also  prepared  the  Calvinis- 
tic  creed,  entitled  the  "  Heidelberg  Catechism."  Died 
in  1583. 

Ur'su-la,  [Fr.  Ursule,  Ur'sUI',]  Saint,  a  legendary 
personage,  of  whom  scarcely  anything  is  positively 
known.  She  is  said  to  have  been  a  daughter  of  a  British 
prince,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at  Cologne  in 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Ursula.    See  Ursula. 

Ursus,  oor'sCis,  (Nikolaus  Raymarus,)  a  Danish 
mathematician  of  the  sixteenth  century;  died  in  1600. 

Uruguay,  de,  di  oo-roo-gwi',  (Paulino  Jos6  Scares 
de  Souza,)  Viscount,  a  Brazilian  statesman,  bt)rn  in 
Paris  in  1S07.  He  was  educated  at  Coimbra,  and  in 
1841  became  minister  of  justice.  In  1855  he  was  sent  to 
France  as  envoy.  He  published  four  volumes  of  legal 
essays.     Died  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  July  15,  1866. 

Urville.     See  Dumont  d'URViLLE. 

Ushas,  66'shas,  (allied  to  the  Sanscrit  root  ush,  to 
"  burn  or  shine,")  a  goddess  of  the  ancient  Vedic  religion, 
corresponding  to  Aurora,  or  the  Dawn.  She  was  the 
sister  of  Varuna,  and  the  associate  of  Indra  and  Agni. 
Her  name  is  very  prominent  in  the  religious  writings  of 
very  early  times,  such  as  the  Rigveda,  but  in  the  later 
centuries  her  cultus  seems  to  have  become  obsolete. 

Ush'er  or  Ussh'er,  (Henry,)  a  prelate,  born  in 
Dublin,  was  an  uncle  of  James,  noticed  below.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ireland 
in  1595.     Died  in  1613. 

Usher  or  Ussher,  [Lat.  Usse'rius,]  (James,)  an  emi- 
nent prelate  and  scholar,  born  in  Dublin  on  the  4th  of 
January,  1580.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Richard  Stany- 
hurst  the  poet.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1600.  He  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1601,  began  to  preach  in  Dublin, 
and  became  professor  of  divinity  in  Trinity  College  in 
1607.  In  1613  he  married  Phebe  Challoner.  He  pub- 
lished in  1614  a  Latin  work  "On  the  Succession  and 
State  of  the  Christian  Churches,"  in  which  he  opposed 
the  pretensions  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  made  fre- 
quent visits  to  England,  where  he  formed  an  acquaint- 
ance with  Selden  and  other  eminent  men.  In  doctrine 
he  was  a  Calvinist,  and  a  zealous  opponent  of  popery. 
In  1620  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Meath  by  James  I. 
He  became  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ire- 
land in  1624.  In  1638  he  published  his  "  Emanuel,  or  a 
Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,"  which 
is  accounted  one  of  his  greatest  works.  In  1640  he 
quitted  Ireland,  to  which  he  never  returned,  and  came 
to  England.     Th£  Irish  rebels  attacked  his  house  it 


i,  e,  1,  5,  u,  y,  long:  i,  i,  6,  same,  iess  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  tar,  till,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


USSERIUS 


2359 


VADIAN 


Armagh  in  1641,  and  seized  or  destroyed  his  property. 
He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war  between  Charles  I. 
and  the  Parliament.  The  king  gave  him  the  bishopric 
of  Carlisle,  to  be  held  in  comniendam,  (about  1641,)  but 
he  derived  little  revenue  from  it.  He  officiated  as 
preacher  to  the  Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  from  1647  to 
1655.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Antiquities  of 
the  liritish  Churches,"  (in  Latin,  1639,)  "Annals  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  ("  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi 
Testamenti,"  2  vols.,  1650-54,)  in  which  he  displays 
great  learning,  and  "  Sacred  Chronology,"  ("  Chronologia 
Sacra,"  1660,)  a  work  of  high  reputation.  He  died  at 
Reigate  in  March,  1656,  leaving  one  child,  named 
Elizabeth. 

See  Elrington,  "Life  of  Archbisliop  James  Usher,"  1848  ;  R. 
Parr,  "  Life  of  James  Usher,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his  Letters, 
1686;  T.  liERNAKi),  "Life  and  Death  of  James  Usher,"  1656; 
AiKiN,  "  Lives  of  J  Selden  and  J.  Usher,"  181 1;  Nic^kon,  "NU 
moires;"  "  Biugraphica  Brilannica." 

Usserius.     See  Usher. 

Ussher.     See  Usher. 

Ussieux,  d',  dii'se-uh',  (Louis,)  a  French  romance- 
writer  and  rural  economist,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1747  ; 
died  in  1805. 

Ussing,  oos'sing,  (JOHAN  LuDWiG,)  a  Danish  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1820.  He  became  professor 
of  philology  in  that  city  in  1849,  and  published  several 
works. 

Ussing,  (Tage  Algreen,)  a  Danish  statesman  and 
jurist,  born  in  Seeland  in  1797.  He  became  procurer- 
general  in  1841,  councillor  of  state  in  1846,  and  a  deputy 
to  the  Diet  in  1848.  He  opposed  the  separation  of 
Sleswick  and  Holstein  from  the  Danish  monarchy.  He 
published  a  "  Manual  of  Danish  Penal  Law."    Died  1872. 

Ustariz,  oos-tJ-rith',  (Jerome,)  a  Spanish  political 
economist,  born  in  Navarre  about  1695.  He  published 
in  1724  "The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Commerce  and 
of  the  Marine,"  which  was  translated  into  English  and 
French.     Died  about  1750. 

Usteri,  oos'ta-ree,  (Johann  Martin,)  a  Swiss  poet, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1763  ;  died  in  1827. 

Usteri,  (Leonard,)  a  Swiss  educational  writer,  born 
a(  Zurich  in  1741  ;  died  in  1789. 

Usteri,  (Paulus,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Zurich  in  1768.  He  studied  medicine  at  Gottingen,  and 
afterwards  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government.  He  published  a  number  of  medical  and 
political  treatises.     Died  in  183 1. 

Usuard,  ii'zu'aR',  or  U-su-ar'dus,  a  French  monk, 
who,  under  the  patronage  of  Charles  the  Bald,  composed 
a  "  Martyrologv."     Died  about  877  A.D. 

U-teu-ho'vi-us,|Fr.UaENHOVE,ii'ti'nov'](CHARLES,) 


a  Flemish  scholar  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ghent  about 
1536.  He  lived  in  Paris,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1600. 
He  was  a  Protestant  minister. 

Utgard.     See  Jotun. 

Utrecht.     See  Van  Utrecht. 

Uttoxeter,  Lord.     See  Gardiner. 

Uvedale,  yoov'dil,  (Robert,)  an  English  scholar 
and  botanist,  born  in  London  in  1642,  assisted  Dryden 
in  the  translation  of  Plutarch's  "Lives." 

U'-wini,  (David,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1780.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  18 15 
became  physician  to  the  City  Dispensary,  London.  He 
was  subsequently  editor  of  the  "  Medical  Repository,' 
and  published,  among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  In- 
sanity and  Madhouses,"  which  was  very  well  received. 
Died  in  1837. 

Uvrins,  (Thomas,)  an  English  painter,  a  brother  of 
the  iJreceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1783.  Having 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  he  visited  Italy  in  1826, 
and  produced  a  number  of  pictures  illustrating  peasant- 
life.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  Neapolitan  Peasantry 
Returning  from  a  Festa,"  and  "  Children  Asleep  in  a 
Vineyard."  He  became  a  Royal  Academician  in  1836, 
and  in  1847  keeper  of  the  National  Gallery.     Died  in 

1857. 

Uxelles,  d',  dUk'sSl',  (Nicolas  de  Ble— deh  bli,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  at  Chalons  in  1652.  He 
defended  Mentz  with  ability  against  the  Imperialists  in 
1689,  but  was  forced  by  want  of  powder  to  surrender. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703,  and  president 
of  the  council  of  foreign  affairs  at  the  death  of  Louis 
XIV.     Died  in  1730. 

Uz,  oots,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Anspach  in  1720.  He  published  in  1729  a  collection 
entitled  "  Lyrische  Gedichte,"  which  was  followed  bv 
"  Theodicea,"  and  "  The  Art  of  being  always  cheerful," 
("Die  Kunst  stets  frohlich  zu  sein,"  1760,)  a  didactic 
poem  in  Alexandrines,  which  is  greatly  esteemed.  He 
was  made  a  counsellor  of  justice  in  1796,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Uzzano,  oot-sS'no,  (Niccol6,)  a  Florentine  states- 
man of  the  Guelph  party.  He  became  chief  magistrate 
of  the  republic  in  141 7,  and  waged  a  war  against  Vis- 
conti,  Duke  of  Milan,  from  1423  to  1428.  His  prudence 
and  moderation  are  praised  by  Sismondi.    Died  in  1432. 

Uz-zi'ah,  [Heb.  TT^',]  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of 
Amaziah,  began  to  reign  about  808  B.C.  He  defeated 
the  Philistines  and  Arabians.  Having  usurped  the 
priest's  office,  he  was  smitten  with  leprosy.  He  reigned 
fifty-two  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jotham. 
(See  II.  Chronicles  x.wi.) 


V. 


Vaart,  van  der,  vtn  der  vlRt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  still  life,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1647. 
He  removed  to  England  in  1674.  Died  in  London  in 
1721. 

Vaca,  de,  (CABEgA.)    See  NufJEz,  (Alvarez.) 

Va-ca'ri-us,  a  jurist  of  the  twelfth  century,  born  in 
Lombardy,  was  teacher  of  Roman  law  at  Oxford.  He 
compiled  an  abstract  of  the  Code  and  Digests,  which 
is  still  extant  in  manuscript.  He  was  the  first  teacher 
of  Roman  law  in  England. 

Vacca.     See  Berlinghierl 

Vacca,  vSk'kd,  (Flaminio,)  an  Italian  sculptor  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  patronized  by  Sixtus  V. 

Vaccaro,  vik'ki-ro,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Naples  in  1598.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Holy 
Family."     Died  in  1670. 

Vaccaro,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  engraver  and 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  about  1636  ;  died  about  1687. 

Vacher.     See  LeVacher. 

Vacherot,  vSsh'ro',  (Etienne,)  a  French  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Langres  in  1809.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  studies  at  the  Normal  School  about  1838, 
and  acted  as  substitute  of  M.  Cousin  in  the  Sorbonne 
in  1839.     He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Criti- 


cal History  of  the  Alexandrian  School,"  (3  vols.,  i84t>- 
50,)  "The  Democracy,"  (1859,)  "La  Religion,"  (1868,) 
and  "Science  and  Conscience,"  (1870.) 

Vachet,  du,  dii  vt'shi',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Beaune  ;  died  about  1655. 

VaChet,  Le,  leh  vt'shV,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  benevo- 
lent French  priest  and  writer,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1603  ; 
died  in  1681. 

Vacquerie,  vt'kk're',  (  Auguste,)  a  French  litterateuf, 
born  in  Paris  about  1818.  He  was  associated  with  Vic- 
tor Hugo  in  the  editorship  of  the  "  Evenement,"  a  journal 
founded  in  1848.  He  also  produced  poems  entitled 
"Demi-Tints,"  (1845,)  and  other  works. 

Va-cu'na,  a  goddess  worshipped  by  the  Sabines,  and 
afterwards  by  the  Romans,  was  variously  regarded  as 
identical  with  Victoria,  Minerva,  Ceres,  or  Diana. 

Vadder,  de,  deh  vjd'der,  (Louis,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Brussels  in  1560.  His  pictures 
were  highly  prized.     Died  in  1623. 

Vade,  vt'di',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Picardy  in  1 7 19,  was  the  author  of  comic  operas, 
farces,  and  songs,  which  obtained  great  popularity.  Died 
in  1757. 

Vadian,  vS'de-dn,  fLat.  Vadia'nus,]  (Joachim,)  nn 


€  as  k;  ?  as  .f  ,•  g  hard:  g  asy.-  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VADFANUS 


2360 


VAKHTANG 


eminent  Swiss  scholar,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1484.  TTis 
family  name  was  VoN  Watt.  He  became  professor  of 
belles-lettres  at  Vienna.  About  1520  he  returned  to 
Saint  Gall,  where  he  practised  medicine  and  became  a 
disciple  of  Zwingle.  He  was  ranked  by  Joseph  Scaliger 
among  the  most  learned  men  of  Germany.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Commentary  on  Pomponius 
Mela,"  (1518,)  and  "Scholia  on  Pliny's  Natural  History," 
(1531.)     Died  in  1551. 

Vadianus.     See  Vadian. 

Vadier,  vt'de-i',  (Marc  Guillaume  Alexis,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  in  1736,  was  a  violent  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95.)  He  joined  the  enemies  of 
Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  In  1795  he 
was  denounced  as  a  terrorist,  and  condemned  to  de- 
portation, but  he  avoided  that  penalty  by  concealment. 
Died  in  1828. 

Vasnius.     See  Van  Veen. 

Vaga.     See  Perino  del  Vaga. 

VShan,*  vil'han,  [from  vdh,  (written  also  v^h,)  to 
'■carry,"  cognate  with  the  Latin  veh-o,\  a  Sanscrit  word, 
signifying  almost  the  same  as  the  German  Wagen,  (i.e. 
"vehicle,"  "carriage,")  with  which  it  nearly  corresponds 
in  sound.  In  the  Hindoo  mythology  it  is  applied  to 
those  fabulous  creatures  which  were  supposed  to  bear 
the  gods  in  their  journeys.  Thus,  the  white  bull  Nandi 
is  said  to  be  the  valian  of  Siva ;  Garuda,  the  vahan  of 
Vishnu  ;  and  so  on. 

Vahl,  vil,  (Martin,)  a  Norwegian  naturalist,  born  at 
Bergen  in  1749,  studied  at  Copenhagen,  and  subse- 
quently at  Upsal  under  Linnaeus.  Having  visited  Eng- 
land and  various  parts  of  the  continent,  where  he  made 
valuable  collections  of  plants,  he  was  appointed  in  1785 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen. He  published  "  Symbolae  Botanicas,"  "Eclogae 
Americanas,"  and  a  continuation  of  Order's  "  Flora 
Danica,"  (1810:)  he  also  contributed  to  the  "Zoologia 
Danica."  He  died  in  1804,  leaving  a  valuable  herbarium, 
library,  and  manuscripts,  which  were  bought  by  the  King 
of  Denmark.  A  genus  of  plants  has  been  named  Vahlia 
in  his  honour. 

Vail,  (Thomas  Hubbard,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  October  21,  1812, 
but  brought  up  in  Norwich,  Connecticut.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Washington  (now  Trinity)  College,  Hartford,  in 
1831,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  1835, 
was  ordained  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
1837,  held  rectorships  in  New  England  and  in  Iowa, 
and  in  1864  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Kansas.  His 
principal  published  work  is  "The  Comprehensive 
Church,"  (1841 ;  3d  edition,  1883.)      Died  Oct.  6,  1889. 

Vaillant,  vt'ySN',  (Jean  Baptiste  Philibert,)  a 
French  marshal,  born  at  Dijon  in  1790,  served  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  accompanied  the  expedition 
to  Algiers  in  1830,  and  attained  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
1833.  Having  become  a  lieutenant-general  in  1845,  he 
directed  the  operations  of  the  siege  of  Rome  in  1849, 
and  obtained  the  baton  of  marshal  in  1851.  He  was 
minister  of  war  from  March,  1854,  to  May,  1859.  Died 
June  4,  1872. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vaillant,  (Jean  Foy,)  a  French  antiquary,  celebrated 
for  his  knowledge  of  numismatics,  was  born  at  Beauvais 
in  1632.  Having  been  charged  by  Colbert  to  make  a 
collection  of  ancient  medals  for  the  royal  cabinet,  he 
visited  Italy,  Greece,  and  part  of  Asia,  and  returned  in 
1680  with  a  great  number  of  rare  and  beautiful  coins. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  a  treatise  on  the  coins  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  entitled  "  Numismata  Imperatorum 
Romanorum  prsestantiora,"  etc.,  (1674,)  and  "  Seleuci- 
darum  Imperium,  sen  Historia  Regum  Syria,"  etc.,  or 
"  History  of  the  Syrian  Kings  derived  from  Coins." 
Vaillant  was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions in  1702.     Died  in  1706. 

See  C  DK  Lafeuille,  "D.  J.  F.  Vaillant  Doctoris  Medici  Vita,'* 
174s;  NiciRON,  "Mdmoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Vaillant,  (Jean  FRANgois  Foy,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Rome  in  1665.     He  was  a  member 


•  The  more  correct  but  less  common  form  is  Vahana. 


of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  contributed  to 
the  "  Memoirs"  of  that  institution  several  treatises  on 
numismatics.     Died  in  1708. 

Vaillant,  |Lat.  Vaillan'tius,]  (S^bastien,)  an  emi- 
nent French  botanist,  born  near  Pontoise  in  1669.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  an  early  age  by  his  proficiency 
in  music,  but  subsequently  studied  medicine,  and  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  royal  fusileers.  Having  visited 
Paris  in  1691,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort, 
and  devoted  himself  henceforth  to  botanical  studies. 
In  1708  he  succeeded  Fagon  as  professor  of  botany  and 
sub-demonstrator  of  plants  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1716. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  works,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  his  "  Botanicon  Parisiense,"  or 
history  of  plants  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  (1727.)  It  was 
illustrated  by  Aubriet,  and  published  by  Boerhaave  after 
the  death  of  Vaillant,  which  occurred  in  1722.  The  genus 
Vaillantia  was  named  by  De  Candolle  in  his  honour. 

See  Boerhaave,  "  Vita  Vaillantii,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Botanicon 
Parisiense,"  1727;  "  Biographie  M^dicale ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Vaillant,  (Wallerant,)  a  Flemish  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Lille  in  1623.  He  was  also  a  mezzotint  engraver, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  artist  who  executed 
works  in  that  department.  His  engraved  portrait  of 
Prince  Rupert  is  one  of  his  best  productions.  Died 
in  1677. 

Vaillant  de  Gueslis,  vi'yfiN'  deh  g^'liss',  or  Guelle, 
g§l,  (Germain,)  a  French  bishop  and  poet,  born  at  Or- 
leans. He  was  patronized  by  Francis  I.,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1586.  He  wrote  an  able  com- 
mentary on  Virgil,  (1575,)  and  a  Latin  poem  at  the  age 
of  seventy.     Died  in  1587. 

Vaillant,  Le,  leh  vt'yfiN',  (FRANgois,)  a  celebrated 
traveller  and  naturalist,  born  at  Paramaribo,  in  Dutch 
Guiana,  in  1753.  He  was  taken  to  Europe  about  1764, 
and  passed  many  years  in  France  and  Germany,  where 
he  studied  the  habits  of  birds.  In  1780  he  sailed 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  undertook  to  explore 
Southern  Africa.  He  made  excursions  among  the  Caf- 
fres  and  other  tribes,  extended  his  researches  northward 
beyond  the  Orange  River,  and  remained  in  Africa  until 
July,  1784.  He  returned  to  France  with  a  large  collec- 
tion of  birds,  and  published  an  interesting  and  graphic 
narrative  of  his  travels,  "Journey  in  the  Interior  of 
Africa,"  ("  Voyage  dans  I'lnterieur  de  I'Afrique,"  2 
vols.,  1790-96,)  which  has  a  high  reputation  for  veracity. 
He  was  a  diligent  observer  and  an  enthusiastic  votary 
of  natural  history.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1793,  and 
only  saved  from  death  by  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  He 
published  a  "  Natural  History  of  the  Birds  of  Africa," 
(6  vols.,  1796-1812,)  and  several  minor  works  on  birds. 
Died  near  Sezanne  in  November,  1824.  "His  works 
on  birds,"  says  Eyries,  "  are  placed  in  the  first  rank." 
("Biographie  Universelle.") 

Vair,  du.     See  Du  Vair. 

Vaishnava,  vish'na-va,  (English  plural,  Vaish- 
navas,)  the  name  given  by  the  Hindoos  to  the  worship- 
pers of  Vishnu,  (which  see.) 

Vaissette  or  Vaissete,  vi's^t',  (Dom  Joseph,)  a 
French  Benedictine  and  historian,  born  at  Gaillac  in 
1685.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of 
Languedoc,"  (5  vols,,  1730-45,)  which  is  said  to  be  very 
exact,  judicious,  and  well  written.     Died  in  1756. 

Vaj'ra,  (pronounced  by  the  modern  Hindoos  vtij'ra 
or  biij'ra,)  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "adamant,"  but 
used  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  designate  the  "  ada- 
mantine thunderbolt"  of  Indra.     (See  Indra.) 

Vakh'tang  I.,  King  of  Georgia  in  the  fifth  century, 
was  descended  from  the  Persian  king  Sapor  (Shapoor)  I. 
Fie  was  engaged  in  numerous  wars,  and  greatly  enlarged 
his  dominions. 

Vakhtang  VI.  became  ruler  over  the  province  of 
Kartli,  in  Georgia,  in  1703.  Having  refused  to  embrace 
Mohammedanism,  he  was  deposed  by  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
but  he  was  afterwards  restored  to  power.  While  out- 
wardly conforming  to  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  he  was 
active  in  jjromoting  Christianity,  and,  having  established 
a  printing-press,  printed  a  Georgian  version  of  a  portion 
of  the  Bible.     Being  compelled  at  length  to  resign  in 


a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  ])r<)longed;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a.  e,  i,  o,  obsan-e;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


V/1L 


2361 


VALENCE 


favour  of  his  brother,  he  took  refuge  in  Russia.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  history  of  his  country,  entitled  the 
"Chronicle  of  Vakhtang  the  Sixth,"  (in  manuscript.) 
He  died  in  1734.  His  sons  Bakar  and  Vakhusta  com- 
pleted the  Georgian  Bible  in  1743. 

Val,  du,  dii  vtl,  [Lat.  Vai/la,1  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
jurist  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  secretary  to 
the  king  about  1542,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work  "  On 
Doubtful  Causes  and  Questions  Disputed  in  Law,"  ("  De 
Rebus  dubiis  et  Quaestionibus  in  Jure  controversis,"  4th 
edition,  1583.) 

Valadares  Gamboa,  de,  di  vj-lj-di'r§s  gSm-bo'S, 
(JoAQUiM  FoRTUNATO,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Valade,  vS'ltd',  (L60N,)  a  French  poet  of  the  cinach 
known  as  the  "  Parnasse."  His  first  volume  of  verse, 
"A  nii-c6te,"  was  crowned  by  the  Academy.  His  play 
"  Les  Papillotes"  (1883)  was  very  successful.  "  Tableaux 
venitiens"  (poems)  was  his  other  principal  work.  Died 
June  18,  1884. 

Valadon,  vt'lt'd6N',  (Zacharie,)  a  French  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Auxonne  about  1680.  He  laboured  in 
Palestine,  Syria,  etc.     Died  at  Dijon  in  1746. 

Valart,  vl'ltR',  (Joseph,)  a  French  scholar  and  critic, 
born  near  Hesdin,  in  Artois,  in  1698.  He  became  a 
priest,  and  was  employed  as  a  school-teacher  at  various 
places.  He  wrote  several  works  on  grammar,  and  pub- 
lished editions  of  Horace,  Ovid,  and  other  Latin  authors. 
His  character  is  represented  as  bizarre.     Died  in  1781. 

Valaze,  de,  deh  vt'li'zi',  (Charles  El^onore  du 
Friche — dii  fR(^sh,)  a  French  Girondist,  born  at  Alen9on 
in  1 75 1,  became  an  advocate.  He  published  an  able 
work  "On  Penal  Laws,"  (1784,)  and  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
and  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Having  been  condemned 
to  death  in  October,  1793,  he  killed  himself. 

See  Lours  Dubois,  "Notice  sur  Valaz^,"  1802;  Lamartinb 
"  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Valbonnais.     See  Bourchenu,  de. 

Valcarcel,  vSl-kaR-thel',  (Jos6  Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
agriculturist,  born  at  Valencia  about  1720.  He  rendered 
an  important  service  to  his  countrymen  by  the  publica- 
tion of  his  "General  Agriculture  and  Rural  Economy," 
(7  vols.  4to,  1765-86.)     Died  after  1790. 

Valcarcel,  (Don  Pio  Antonio,)  Count  de  Lunares, 
a  Spanish  antiquary,  born  in  1740,  published  several 
treatises  on  the  inscriptions  of  Saguntum  and  other  cities 
of  Spain.     Died  in  1800. 

Valckenaer,  vil'keh-nSR,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  diploma- 
tist and  lawyer,  born  at  Franeker  or  Leyden  in  1759. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Utrecht  in  1787,  and 
joined  the  party  of  patriots,  i.e.  those  who  sympathized 
with  the  French  republicans.  He  was  Dutch  ambassa- 
dor at  Madrid  from  1796  till  1801,  and  was  sent  by  King 
Louis  to  Paris  in  1810  to  prevent  the  annexation  of 
Holland  to  France.     Died  in  1821. 

Valckenaer,  (Lodewijck  Caspar,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1 715,  was  the 
father  of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Franeker  in  1741,  and  was  professor  of  Greek  and 
archaeology  at  Leyden  from  1766  until  his  death.  He 
edited,  besides  other  classic  works,  the  "  Phoenissae" 
and  the  "  Hippolytus"  of  Euripides,  and  the  "  Idyls"  of 
Theocritus,  {1773,)  on  which  he  wrote  excellent  com- 
mentaries. Among  his  works  is  "Observationes  Aca- 
demicae,"  (1790,)  which  is  highly  prized.     Died  in  1785. 

See  Saxe,  "  Onomasticoii." 

Valdegamas.     See  Donoso-Cortes. 

Valdemar.     See  Waldemar. 

Vald6s,  vSl-d§s',  (Don  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  minister 
of  state,  born  in  the  Asturias  about  1735.  He  became 
minister  of  the  marine  in  1781,  and  greatly  increased  the 
naval  force  of  Spain.  His  ability  and  success  were  so 
conspicuous  that  the  king  in  1787  placed  him  at  the  head 
of  the  departments  of  finance,  commerce,  and  war.  In 
1792  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  chief  admiral  or  cap- 
tain-general of  the  navy.  By  the  agency  of  Godoy,  he 
was  removed  in  1795.     Died  about  1811. 

Vald^s,  (Caietano,)  a  Spanish  naval  officer,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding.     He  commanded  a  ship  at 


Trafalgar  in  1805,  after  which  he  became  a  lieutenant- 
general.  Having  revolted  against  Ferdinand  VII.,  he 
was  imprisoned  from  1815  to  1820.     Died  after  1826. 

Vald6s,  (Diego  or  Jago,)  a  Spanish  author  and 
professor  of  law,  born  in  the  Asturias  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  published  a  work  "  On  the  Dignity  of 
Spanish  Kings,"  (in  Latin,  1602.) 

Vald^s,  [It.  Valdesso,  vil-dSs'so,]  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
jurist  and  reformer,  born  probably  in  Leon.  He  be- 
came a  chamberlain  of  Pope  Adrian  VI.  in  1522,  and 
returned  to  Spain  soon  after  the  death  of  that  pope. 
He  removed  to  Naples  about  1530,  and,  it  is  said,  was 
employed  there  as  secretary  to  the  Spanish  viceroy. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works,  in  some  of  which  he 
attacked  the  corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church.  He 
died  at  Naples,  about  middle  age,  in  1540.  He  adopted 
the  chief  doctrines  of  the  Protestant  creed,  but  never 
formally  separated  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  Among 
his  works  of  a  religious  character  is  one  entitled  "One 
Hundred  and  Ten  Considerations,"  etc.,  (1550.) 

"Valdes  as  a  reformer,"  says  Wiffen,  "entered  less 
than  almost  any  thoughtful  man  of  his  time  into  the 
battle  of  hierarchies.  He  was  less  a  destroyer  of  error 
and  evil  than  a  builder-up  of  truth  and  goodness." 

See  B.  B.  Wikfen,  "Life  of  Juan  Valdes,"  1865;  Hodgson, 
"  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  Ticknor,  "  History 
of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Valdes  Leal,  de,  di  vSl-dSs'  li-^K,  (Juan,)  an  emi- 
nent Spanish  painter,  born  at  C6rdova  in  1630.  He 
worked  at  Seville,  and  was  intimate  with  Murillo,  after 
whose  death  he  was  considered  as  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession. Among  his  works  are  several  pictures  of  the 
history  of  the  prophet  Elijah.  He  died  in  1691.  His 
son  Lucas,  born  in  1661,  was  a  painter  and  engraver. 
Died  in  1724. 

Valdesso.     See  Vald6s,  (Juan.) 

Valdez.     See  Melendez  Valdez. 

Valdivia,  de,  di  vdl-dee've-S,  (Don  Pedro,)  a  Span- 
ish officer,  who  distinguished  himself  by  the  conquest 
of  Chili,  was  born  about  1510.  He  accompanied  Pizarro 
in  his  expedition  against  Peru  in  1532.  About  1540, 
under  the  orders  of  Pizarro,  he  invaded  Chili  with  a 
small  force,  founded  Santiago,  and  gained  victories 
over  the  natives.  He  returned  to  Peru  in  1547  or  1548, 
and  fought  under  La  Gasca  against  Gonzalo  Pizarro. 
He  was  captured  by  the  Aiaucanians,  and  put  to  death, 
in  1559. 

See  Claudio  Gay,  "  Historia  de  Chile  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gdn^rale." 

Val'do  or  Wal'do,  [Fr.  pron.  vtl'do',]  (Peter  or 
Pierre,)  a  French  Reformer  of  the  twelfth  century, 
born  at  Vaux,  in  Dauphine,  became  a  chief  of  the  sect 
of  Waldenses,  (or  Vaudois.)  He  maintained  the  equal 
right  of  the  laity  with  the  clergy  to  conduct  the  offices 
of  religion,  and  denounced  the  vices  and  ignorance  of  the 
priests.  His  doctrine  was  condemned  by  the  Roman 
Church  in  1 179,  and  his  followers  cruelly  persecuted. 
He  is  said  to  have  translated  the  Scriptures  into  Vaudois. 
Many  suppose  that  the  name  Waldenses  was  derived 
from  Valdo  or  Waldo;  but  it  seems  more  probable 
that  he  took  his  name  Valdo  as  a  surname  because  his 
views  corresponded  with  those  of  the  Waldenses,  who, 
it  appears,  were  in  existence  before  his  time,  and  among 
whom  he  afterwards  became  a  leader. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867 
LiicFR,  "Histoire  g^n^rale  des  Vaudois;"  A.  Muston,  "  Histoire 
des  Vaudois,"  4  vols.,  1851. 

Valee,  vS'Ii',  (Sylvain  Charles,)  Count,  a  French 
marshal,  born  at  IBrienne-le-Chateau  in  1773.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  Austria  and  Spain,  and  was  made  gen- 
eral of  division  in  1811.  He  was  appointed  inspector-gen- 
eral of  artillery  by  Louis  XVIII.,  and  made  iinprovements 
in  the  artillery.  He  succeeded  to  the  chief  command  in 
Algeria  on  the  death  of  Danremont,  and  took  Constan- 
tina  in  October,  1837.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France 
the  same  year.     Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Valence,  de,  deh  vs'ISnss',  (Cyrus  Marie  Alex- 
andre de  Timbrune — deh  tiN'bRiin',)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Agen  in  1757.  He  was  ap- 
pointed general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Ardennes  in  Oc- 


;  as  /6;  (pas  s:  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  Vi., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VALENCIA 


2362 


VALERE 


tober,  1792,  and  gained  some  advantages  over  the  allies 
in  Flanders.  He  followed  Dumouriez  in  his  defection 
and  flight,  (1793.)  Having  returned  to  France  about 
1800,  he  served  as  general  in  Spain,  (1808,)  and  in 
Russia,  (1812.)  Died  in  1822. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Valencia,  Duke  of.    See  Narvaez. 

Valenciennes,  vt'16N'se-§ii',  (Achille,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  the  Normal  School  in  1830,  and  after- 
wards professor  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Natural  History  of 
Fishes,"  (11  vols.,  1829-49.)     Died  \\W\\  14,  1865. 

Valenciennes,  (Pierre  Henri,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1750.  He  was  the  chief 
of  a  school  to  which  many  eminent  painters  belonged. 
According  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  he  was 
the  ablest  landscape-painter  of  his  time.     Died  in  1819. 

Va'lens,  (Aburnus,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  the  time  of 
Antoninus  Pius.  There  are  only  fragments  of  his 
writings  extant. 

Valens,  (Fabius,)  a  Roman  general,  notorious  foi 
cruelty  and  other  crimes.  He  revolted  against  Galba, 
became  a  partisan  of  Vitellius,  and  defeated  Otho  at 
Bedriacum  in  69  a.d.  Having  been  captured  by  the  troops 
of  Vespasian,  he  was  put  to  death  the  same  year. 

Valens,  (Flavius,)  Emperor  of  the  East,  born  about 
328  A.D.,  was  a  brother  of  Valentinian  I.,  to  whom  he 
was  indebted  for  the  imperial  power.  He  began  to  reign, 
in  364,  over  Thrace,  Asia,  and  Egypt.  In  366  he  sup- 
pressed a  rebellion  of  Procopius.  He  was  an  Arian,  and 
persecuted  the  orthodox.  He  defeated  the  Goths  in  369, 
after  which  he  waged  war  against  Sapor,  (Shapoor,)  King 
of  Persia.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Goths, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  a  great  battle 
near  Adrianople  in  378  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Til 
LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ne- 
rale." 

Valentia,  de,  di  vi-l§n'te-a,  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  theologian,  born  at  Medina  del  Campo  about 
1550.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Ingolstadt  and 
at  Rome.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works.  Died 
in  1603. 

Valentia,  de,  (Pedro,)  an  eminent  Spanish  jurist, 
born  in  1554.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for  learning. 
He  wrote  an  excellent  commentary  on  t^he  "Academics" 
of  Cicero,  (1596.)     Died  in  1620. 

Valenti-Gonzaga,  vilSn'tee  gon-zS'gS,  (Silvio,)  an 
Italian  cardinal,  born  at  Mantua  in  1690,  was  a  patron 
of  learning.  He  became  chief  minister  of  Benedict  XIV. 
soon  after  his  election  to  the  papacy.     Died  in  1756. 

Valentin.    See  Valentine  and  Valentin  us. 

Valentin,  vi-len-teen'  or  fi-len-teen',  (Gabriel  Gus- 
tav,)  a  German  physician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at 
Breslau  in  1810.  He  became  professor  of  physiology 
at  Berne  in  1846.  He  published  a  "Manual  of  the  His- 
tory of  Development,"  (1835,)  ^""^  other  physiological 
works.     Died  May  28,  1S83. 

Valentin  or  Valentini,  vi-l§n-tee'nee,  (Michael 
Bernard,)  a  German  medical  writer  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Giessen  in  1657.  He  was  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Giessen,  and  wrote  numerous  works.  Died 
in  1726. 

Valentin,  vt'16N'ti\N',(MoisE,)  called  also  Valentin 
de  Boulongnk,  (va'lfiN'tiN'  deh  boo'16Nn',)  and  Le 
Valentin,  (leh  vi'ldN'tiN',)  a  distinguished  French 
painter,  born  at  Coulommiers  in  1600.  He  studied  in 
Italy,  and  made  Caravaggio  his  model.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "  The  Death  of  John  the 
Baptist,"  and  "  The  Denial  by  Peter."  His  delineations 
of  common  life  are  also  greatly  admired.     Died  in  1632. 

Valentin  de  Boulongne.   See  Valentin,  (Moise.) 

Valentin-Smith,  vt'16N'tiN'  smit,  (Joannes  Er- 
HARD,)  a  French  lawyer  and  writer  on  political  economy, 
born  at  Trevoux  in  1796.  Among  his  works  are  "  Men- 
dicity and  Labour,"  (1848,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of 
Statistics,"  (1854.) 

Val'en-tine  or  Val-eu-ti'nus,  [Fr.  Valentin,  vf - 
IdN'tiN',]  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  Sep- 
tember, 827.     He  died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 


Valentine,  (Basil.)     See  Basil- Valentine. 

Val'§n-tine,  Saint,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under  the 
emperor  Claudius,  (270  a.d.) 

Valentine  de  Milan,  vt'lfiN'tfen'  deh  me'lSN',  fit 
Valentina  da  Milano,  vi-lSn-tee'nd  di  me-li'no,]  a 
daughter  of  Galeazzo  Visconti,  was  married  in  1389  to 
Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  brother  of  Charles  VI.  of 
France.  She  is  represented  as  amiable  and  accom- 
plished. .She  had  several  sons.  Louis  XII.  and  Francis 
I.  were  her  grandsons.     Died  in  140S. 

See  Froissart,  "  Chronicles  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Valentini,  vi-l^n-tee'nee,  (Georg  Wilhelm,) 
Baron,  a  German  general,  born  at  Berlin  in  1775, 
served  against  the  French  in  the  principal  campaigns 
between  1811  and  1815,  and  was  appointed  in  i828"in- 
spector-general  of  military  instruction  in  the  Prussian 
army.     He  wrote  several  military  works.     Died  in  1834. 

Val-eu-tin'i-an  [Lat.  Valentinia'nus  ;  Fr.  Valen- 
tinien,  vt'16N'te'ne-iN']  I.,  (Flavius,)  born  in  Panno- 
nia  in  321  a.d.,  succeeded  Jovian  as  Emperor  of  Rome 
in  364,  and,  having  made  his  brother  Valens  his  colleague, 
reserved  for  himself  the  western  part  of  the  empire.  He 
carried  on  wars  with  the  P'ranks,  Allemanni,  and  other 
German  tribes,  over  whom  he  gained  several  important 
victories.  The  Picts  and  Scots  were  also  defeated,  and 
a  rebellion  in  Africa  was  suppressed  by  his  general 
Theodosius.  While  marching  against  the  Quadi  and 
Sarmatas,  who  had  invaded  Pannonia,  Valentinian  died 
suddenly,  (375  a.d.)  He  was  a  Catholic,  but  tolerated 
the  Arians. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  TiL- 
LEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Baronius,  "Annales;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Valentinian  (Valentinianus)  II.,  (Flavius,)  called 
THE  Younger,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  was 
made  by  his  brother  Gratian,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  375  A.D.,  his  colleague,  and  ruler  over  the 
western  part  of  the  empire.  After  the  murder  of  Gra- 
tian by  Maximus,  in  383,  he  sought  the  protection  of 
Theodosius,  who  defeated  Maximus  and  restored  the 
throne  to  Valentinian.  He  was  assassinated  in  392,  by 
order  of  Arbogastes,  one  of  his  generals,  who  aimed  at 
the  supreme  power. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Valentinian  (Valentinianus)  HI.,  (Placidius,) 
son  of  Constantius,  born  in  419,  was  made  ruler  over  the 
Western  empire  by  his  uncle,  Theodosius  II.,  (425  a.d.,) 
but  the  government  was  conducted  by  his  mother,  Pla- 
cidia.  During  this  period  Africa  was  conquered  from 
the  Romans  by  Genseric,  in  consequence  of  the  discord 
between  the  Roman  generals  Aetius  and  Bonifacius. 
Aetius,  having  previously  defeated  the  Huns  under 
Attila,  was  murdered  by  Valentinian,  who  was  jealous 
of  his  superior  ability,  (454.)  The  emperor  perished 
himself,  in  455,  by  the  hand  of  Petronius  Maximus, 
whose  wife  he  h?d  dishonoured. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Tillb- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Valentinianus.     See  Valentinian. 

Valentinien.     See  Valentinian. 

Val-en-ti'uus,  [Fr.  Valentin,  vt'16.\'tiN',]  a  cele- 
brated Gnostic,  was  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  the  founder 
of  a  sect  called  Valentinians.  He  went  to  Rome  about 
140  A.D.,  and  was  excommunicated  soon  after  that  date. 
He  invented  an  obscure  and  fanciful  system  of  theology 
in  which  Platonic  ideas  were  mingled  with  the  mystic 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel  of  John.      Died  about  160. 

Valentyn,  va'len-tin',  (Francis,)  a  Dutch  preacher 
and  traveller,  born  at  Dort  about  1660.  He  preached 
several  years  at  Amboyna,  and  published  a  descriptive 
work  entitled  "  Ancient  and  Modern  East  Indies,"  (8 
vols.,  1724-26.)     Died  about  1725. 

Valera,  de,  di  vi-la'ra,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Cuenca  about  1412.  He  was  major-domo  to 
Isabella  of  Castile,  and  received  the  title  of  histo- 
riographer fiom  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  He  wrote  an 
"Abridged  History  of  Spain,"  ("  Cronica  de  Espana 
abreviada,"  1482.)     Died  after  1481. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Valere.    See  Valerius,  (Lucas.) 


a,  e.  T.  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  fi,  y, shoj-t;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  n>gt;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


VALERIA 


2363 


VALIERI 


Va-le'rl-a  Ga-le'rI-a,  a  Roman  lady,  was  a  daughter 
of  Diocletian  and  Prisca.  She  was  married  in  292  A.D. 
to  the  emperor  Galerius,  after  whose  death  she  was 
persecuted  by  Maximinus  because  she  refused  to  be  his 
wife.     She  was  put  to  death  by  Licinius  in  315  a.d. 

Valeria  Gens,  an  ancient  patrician  tribe  or  family 
of  Rome,  supposed  to  be  descended  from  Volesus,  or 
Volusus,  a  Sabine.  This  gens  was  represented  by  a 
succession  of  eminent  men  for  many  centuries,  and 
enjoyed  peculiar  honours  and  privileges.  Among  the 
names  of  the  families  into  which  it  was  divided  were 
Flaccus,  Maximus,  Messala,  Publicola,  and  Volusus. 

Va-le'ri-an  |  Lat.  Valeria'nus,  (Publius  Licinius  ;) 
Fr.  Val^rien,  vt'li're^N']  succeeded  ^milianus  as 
Emperor  of  Rome  in  253  a.d.,  and  appointed  his  son 
Gallienus  his  colleague.  The  empire  was  soon  after 
invaded  by  the  Goths  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  and 
by  Sapor,  (Shapoor,)  King  of  Persia,  who  defeated  the 
Romans  near  Edessa  in  260  and  took  Valerian  prisoner. 
He  was  treated  in  the  most  insulting  manner  by  his 
captor,  who  is  said  to  have  placed  his  foot  upon  him 
when  he  mounted  his  horse.  He  died  in  Persia  about 
268  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gallienus. 

See  AuRELius  Victor,  "  De  Ca:sanbus;"  Tillemont,  "  His- 
toire  des  Empereurs." 

Valerian!  Molinari,  vS-li-re-^'nee  mo-le-ni'ree, 
(LuiGi,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  1758;  died  in  1828. 

See  MoNTANARi,  "  Hiografia  del  Professore  L.  Valeriaiii  Moli- 
eari,"  1833. 

Valerianos  Apostolos.     See  Fuca,  de,  (Juan.) 

Valerianus.     See  Valerian. 

Va-le-rl-a'nus,  (Joannes  Pierius,)  or  Valeriano, 
vi-li-re-S'nn,  (Giovanni  Pierio,)  an  Italian  author, 
born  at  Belluno  in  1477.  His  family  name  was  BoL- 
ZANI.  He  became  apostolic  prothonotary  and  professor 
of  eloquence  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  are  Latin 
poems,  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Ancient  Symbols,"  ("  Hie- 
roglyphica,  sive  de  Sacris  y^Lgyptiorum,  aliarumque 
Gentium  Literis,"  1556.)     Died  at  Padua  in  1558. 

See  De  Thou  and  Teissier,  "filoges;"  Nic^ron,  "M^moires." 

Valerien.    See  Valerian. 

Valeric,  vl-la're-o  or  vt'li're'o',  (Theodore,)  a 
French  painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Longwy  (Mo- 
selle) in  1 819.  He  accompanied  the  Turkish  army  about 
1853,  and  took  sketches  of  various  scenes  and  peoples 
in  Hungary,  Bosnia,  etc.     Died  September  14,  1879. 

Va-le'ri-us,  (Antias  Quintus,)  a  Roman  historian, 
wrote  Annals  of  the  city  from  its  foundation  to  the  time 
of  Sulla. 

Valerius,  (Julius,)  a  translator,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  fifth  century.  He  produced  a  Latin 
version  of  a  "  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  by 
iEsopus. 

Valerius,  [Fr.  Val^re,  vt'laiR',]  (Lucas,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  was  professor  of  geometry  in  the  College 
of  Rome.  He  published  a  work  "On  the  Centre  of 
Gravity  of  Solids."  Galileo  called  him  the  Archimedes 
of  his  time.     Died  about  1618. 

Valerius,  (Probus  Marcus,)  a  noted  grammarian 
under  the  reign  of  Nero,  was  a  native  of  Syria. 

Valerius,  (Publius,)  surnamed  Asiat'icus,  a  Roman, 
who  was  consul  in  46  A.D.  He  was  very  rich.  Messa- 
lina.  who  coveted  his  garden,  induced  Claudius  to  put 
him  to  death  in  47  a.d. 

Valerius  Corvus,  (Marcus.)     See  Corvus. 

Valerius  Flaccvis.     See  Flaccus,  (Caius.) 

Va-le'ri-us  Max'i-mus,  [Fr.  Val^re  Maxime,  vS'- 
laiR'  mak's^m',]  a  Roman  historical  writer  under  the 
reign  of  Tiberius.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Fac- 
torum  Dictorumque  Memorabilium  Libri  IX.,"  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  historical  anecdotes.  Numerous  editions 
of  it  have  been  published,  and  it  has  been  translated  into 
the  principal  modern  languages.  This  work  is  very 
defective  in  style  and  other  qualities. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Latina." 

Valerius  Publicola.    See  Publicola. 

Valesio,  (Francisco.)     See  Valles. 

Valesio,  vJ-la'se-o,  (Giovanni  Luigi,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1561.  He 
worked  in  Rome. 


Valesius,  the  Latin  of  Valois  and  Valles,  which  sec. 

Va-le'si-us,  (Adrianus,)  [Fr.  Adrien  de  Valois, 
t'dR^N'  deh  vt'lwi',1  brother  of  Henri,  noticed  below, 
born  m  Paris  in  1607,  was  the  author  of  a  history  of 
France,  entitled  "Gesta  veterum  Francorum,"  etc.,  (3 
vols.,  1658,)  and  "  Notitia  Galliarum  Ordine  alphabetico 
digesta,"  being  an  account  of  ancient  Gaul.  In  1660 
he  received  a  pension  from  the  king,  and  the  title  of 
royal  historiographer.  He  also  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Henry 
de  Valois,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1692. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires. " 

Valesius  or  De  Vcilois,  (Henri,)  an  eminent  French 
scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1603.  He  studied  in  his  native 
city,  and  subsequently  at  Bourges.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  editions  of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
and  other  Greek  ecclesiastical  historians,  also  an  edition 
of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and  "Excerpta  Polybii,  Dio' 
dori,  Nicolai  Damasceni,"  etc.  He  was  appointed  royal 
historiographer  in  1660.     Died  in  1676. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Valette,  vt'lSt',  (Auguste,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Salins  (Jura)  in  1805.  He  became  professor  of  civil 
law  in  the  Ecole  de  Droit,  Paris,  in  1837,  and  occupied 
that  chair  more  than  twenty  years.  He  published  several 
legal  works.      Died  May  10,  1878. 

Valette,  de  la,  deh  It  vt'l^t',  (Jean  Parisot — pt'- 
re'zo',)  sometimes  called  Valette-Parisot,  the  founder 
of  Valetta,  and  grand  master  of  Malta,  was  born  of 
French  parents  in  1494.  He  was  elected  grand  master 
in  1557,  having  previously  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  general.  In  1565  the  Sultan  Solyman  attacked 
Malta  with  a  powerful  armament,  (one  hundred  and 
fifty-nine  ships  of  war,)  against  which  La  Valette  made 
a  successful  defence.  After  a  siege  of  four  months,  the 
Turks  retired.     Died  in  1568. 

See  Mermet,  "  filoge  de  J.  de  la  Valette-Parisot,"  1803  ;  Ppaff, 
"Philippe  Villiers  de  I'lsle-.A-dam  und  J.  de  la  Valette,"  1851 ; 
Prescott,  "History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii. ;  Watson,  "Life  of 
Philip  II.:"  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  Vektot, 
"  Histoire  des  Chevaliers  de  Make;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Valette,  de  la,  (Louis  de  Nogaret — deh  no'gi'ri',) 
Cardinal,  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1593,  was  a  son  of 
the  Due  d'Epernon.  He  was  an  adherent  of  Richelieu, 
who  in  1635  gave  him  command  of  an  army  sent  to  aid 
the  German  Protestants  and  fight  against  the  Spaniards. 
Turenne  was  second  in  command  under  him.  In  1638 
he  commanded  the  army  of  Italy.     Died  at  Rivoli  in 

1639- 

See  J.  Talon,  "MemoiredeL.  de  Nogaret,  Cardinal  de  la  Valette," 
etc.,  2  vols.,  1772. 

Valette,  de  la,  (Louis  de  Thomas,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Toulon  in  1678.  He  became  general  of 
the  congregation  of  the  Oratory.     Died  in  1772. 

Valette,  La.    See  La  Valette. 

Val'gi-us  Ru'fus,  a  Roman  poet  and  critic  of  the 
Augustan  age,  favourably  mentioned  by  Horace  in  his 
Tenth  Satire,  book  i.  Little  is  known  respecting  him 
or  his  works. 

Valhalla,  (the  "hall  of  the  fallen  or  slain.")  See 
Odin  and  Valkyria. 

Valhubert,  vt'lii'baiR',  (Jean  Marie  Melon  Ro- 
ger,) a  French  general,  born  at  Avranches  in  1764, 
distinguished  himself  at  Marengo,  and  was  killed  at 
Austerlitz  in  1805. 

Vali,  vi'le,  [etymology  uncertain  ;  possibly  related  to 
the  Sanscrit  bald,  "strength,"  (which  is  cognate  with  the 
Latin  val-eo,  to  "be  strong,")  or  the  Sanscrit  bdld,  an 
"infant,"  because  as  an  infant  he  performed  his  greatest 
achievement,]  one  of  the  principal  gods  in  the  Norse 
mythology,  was  the  son  of  Odin  and  Rinda.  When 
only  one  day  old,  he  avenged  Balder's  death  by  slaying 
Hoder.  He  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  archer.  He  and 
Vidar  are  the  only  ones  among  the  principal  gods  who 
will  survive  the  destruction  of  the  world  at  Ragnarock. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol  i.  ;  Kevser,  "Religion 
of  the  Northmen;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Valieri,  vS-le-a'ree,  or  Valiero,  vS-le-a'ro,  (Silves- 
TRO,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1694.  He  waged  war 
with  success  against  the  Turks,  and  compelled  them  to 
cede  the  Morea  to  Venice  in  1699.     Died  in  1700. 


fas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (S^T'SeG  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VALIERO 


2364 


VALLEE 


Valiero,  va-le-a'ro,  or  Valerio,  vaia're-o,  [Lat.  Va- 
Le'rius,]  (Agostino,)  a  learned  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Venice  in  1531.  He  became  Bishop  of  Verona  in  1565, 
and  a  cardinal  in  1583.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Ecclesiastical  Rhetoric,"  ("  Rhetorica  Ecclesiastica," 
1574,)  and  a  "Life  of  Carlo  Borromeo,"  {1586.)  Died 
in  1606. 

See  UcHEi.Li,  "Italia  Sacra:"  NicAron,  "M^moires;"  G. 
Ventura,  "Vita  Cardinalis  A.  Valerii,"  1741. 

Valignant  vJ-lin-yi'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
fesuit  and  missionary,  born  at  Chieti  in  1537.  Having 
been  sent  to  the  East  Indies  in  1573,  he  preached  in 
Japan  and  China.     Died  at  Macao  in  1606. 

Valin,  vS'I^n',  (Ren6  Josut,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  La  Rochelle  in  1695,  acquired  a  high  reputation  by 
his  works  on  law.     Died  in  1765. 

See  Lepkllhtier,  "  filoge  de  R.  J.  Valin,"  1844. 

Valincourt  or  Valincour,  de,  deh  vi'l^N'kooR', 
(Jean  Baptiste  Henri  du  Trousaet — dii  tRoo'si',) 
SiEUR,  a  French  writer  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1653. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Fran9ois,  Due  de  Guise,"  (1681,) 
and  other  works.  He  succeeded  his  friend  Racine  as  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  in  1699,  and  as  his- 
toriographer to  the  king.     Died  in  1730. 

See  FoNTRNELLE,  "  filoges ;"  NiciKON,  "  Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nerale." 

Valkenbvirgh,  vSKken-burg  or  vil'ken-buRH,  (Theo- 
dore or  DiRCK,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and  still 
life,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1675.  He  worked  for  some 
time  at  Vienna,  from  which  he  returned  to  his  native 
city.     Died  in  1721. 

Valkyria,  (or  Valkyrja,)  vSl-k!r'e-i  or  vai-Wr^yS; 
the  common  English  plural  is  Valkyries,*  val-k!r'iz, 
[Norse  plural,  Valkyrjur  or  Valkyriur,  v5.1-kir'yur, 
derived  from  valr,  "  fallen"  or  "slain  in  battle,"  and  kjora, 
cognate  with  the  old  German  kiiren  and  Anglo-Saxon 
ceosan,  to  "  choose,"  signifying  the  "  choosers  of  the  slain,"] 
the  name  applied  in  the  Edda  to  certain  mythical  beings, 
attendants  of  Odin,  by  whom  they  are  sent  to  every 
battle-field  to  select  such  as  are  doomed  to  fall,  and  to 
bring  them  to  Valhalla.  They  are  described  as  white 
maidens  who  ride  through  the  air,  from  the  manes  of 
whose  horses  dew  falls  in  the  valleys  and  hail  on  the 
high  mountains.  Skuld,  the  youngest  of  the  Norns, 
is  numbered  among  the  Valkyries.  They  are  some- 
times called  Valmeyar,  ("battle-maids,")  Skialdnieyar  or 
Skjaldmeyar,  ("shield-maids,")  and  Oskmeyar,  ("the 
maids  of  Odin,")  Oski  being  one  of  the  names  of  the 
war-god.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Valkyries,  in  addition 
to  their  other  offices,  to  wait  upon  the  chosen  heroes 
( Einheriar)  who  are  admitted  to  Valhalla,  to  fill  their 
cups  with  mead,  and  to  have  charge  of  everything  be- 
longing to  the  table. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Keyser,  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen  ;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Valkyries.    See  Valkyria. 

Valla.    See  Val,  du,  (Nicolas.) 

Valla,  viKli,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  phy- 
isician,  born  at  Piacenza  about  1430,  was  a  cousin  of 
Lorenzo,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence at  Venice.  He  wrote  several  medical  treatises, 
and  a  work  entitled  "  On  Things  to  be  Sought  and  to 
be  Avoided,"  ("  De  Expetendis  et  Fugiendis  Rebus," 
2  vols.,  1 501.)     Died  at  Venice  in  1499. 

See  Baylb,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Valla,  (Lorenzo,)  an  eminent  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Rome  about  141 5.  He  was  successively  professor 
(if  rhetoric  at  Pavia,  Milan,  and  Naples,  where  he  ac- 
quired the  friendship  and  patronage  of  King  Alfonso 
I.  He  was,  it  is  said,  persecuted  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Naples,  but  he  effected  his  escape  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  who 
made  him  his  secretary  and  conferred  on  him  other 
distinctions.  His  principal  works  are  entitled  "  Notes 
on  the  New  Testament,"  ("  Annotationes  in  Novum 
Testamentum,"  1505,)  "  Elegantiae  Sermonis  Latini," 
commentaries  on  Livy  and  Sallust,  and  translations  of 

*  The  English  singular  Valkyry  or  Valkyrie  is  rarely  used. 


Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  Valla  was  one  of  the  first 
critics  and  scholars  of  his  time ;  but  his  controversial 
writings  are  disfigured  by  bitter  invective  and  person- 
alities.    Died  about  1460. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis ;"  Bayle,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  Poggiali,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  L. 
Valla;"  Wildschut,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  L.  ValUe," 
1830;  P.  Giovio,  "Elogia;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Vallabha,  val'lah-b'hi',  a  Hindoo  religionist,  born  in 
1479,  in  the  forest  of  Champaranya,  where  his  mother, 
being  on  a  pilgrimage,  deserted  her  infant.  After  many 
adventures,  he  settled  at  Beii^res,  near  which  town  he 
died  about  1532.  He  was  the  father  of  Vithalnathji,  and 
founder  of  the  Vishnuvite  sect  called  Maharajahs,  (from 
the  title  assumed  by  their  priests,)  notorious  as  the  most 
debased  and  immoral  sect  in  all  India. 

Valladier,  v4'lt'de-i',  (Andr6,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  was  born  about  1565.  He  became 
preacher  or  chaplain  to  Henry  IV.  in  1608,  and  abb^  of 
Saint- Arnoul  in  1611.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Royal 
Labyrinth  of  the  Gallic  Hercules,"  ("  Le  Labyrinthe 
royal  de  I'Hercule  Gaulois,"  1600.)     Died  in  1638. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Nic^ron,  "  Me- 
moires." 

VaUance,  vflfiNss',  or  Valiancy,  vt'lfiN'se', 
(Charles,)  an  antiquarian  writer,  born  in  1721,  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "  Collectanea  de  Rebus  Hiber- 
nicis,"  etc.,  and  a  "Grainmar"  and  "Dictionary"  of  the 
Irish  language.     Died  in  181 2. 

Vallaudigham,  va-lan'de-gam,  (Clement  L.,)  an 
American  politician,  born  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio,  about 
1822.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat,  in 
1856,  by  the  voters  of  the  third  district  of  Ohio,  which 
he  continued  to  represent  until  1863.  While  in  Con- 
gress he  opposed  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  sup- 
press the  rebellion,  and  manifested  his  sympathy  with 
the  insurgents  in  many  a  virulent  harangue.  In  May, 
1863,  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  having  "declared 
disloyal  sentiments  and  opinions,"  etc.,  and  was  sen- 
tenced by  a  military  court  to  close  confinement  till  the 
end  of  the  war ;  but  the  President  modified  this  sen- 
tence and  directed  that  he  should  be  banished  or  sent 
southward  beyond  our  military  lines.  Mr.  Vallan- 
digham  embarked  at  a  Southern  port  and  afterwards 
went  to  Canada.  The  Democratic  Convention  which 
met  in  Ohio  in  June,  1863,  denounced  his  banishment 
as  a  violation  of  the  Constitution,  and  nominated  him 
as  their  candidate  for  Governor.  He  was,  however, 
defeated  in  the  ensuing  election,  (October,  1863,)  his 
opponent,  Mr.  Brough,  having  received  the  unprece- 
dented majority  of  101,099  votes.    Died  in  1871. 

Vallarsi,  vSl-laR'see,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Verona  in  1702,  was  versed  in  Hebrew 
and  Greek.  He  edited  the  works  of  Saint  Jerome,  (12 
vols.,  1734.)     Died  in  1771. 

Vallart.     See  Valart. 

Vallauri,  vil-low'ree,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  literary  historian,  born  at  Chiusa  di  Cuneo  in  1805. 
He  became  professor  of  Latin  eloquence  at  Turin  in 
1843.  He  published  "History  of  Poetry  in  Piedmont," 
(1841,)  "History  of  the  Royal  House  and  Monarchy  of 
Savoy,"  (1845,)  "Critical  History  of  Latin  Literature," 
(in  Latin,  1849,)  a  "  Latin-Italian  Dictionary,"  (1852,) 
and  editions  of  several  Latin  classics. 

Vaile,  della,  del'li  val'li,  (Guglielmo,)  an  Italian 
iTionk  and  writer,  born  at  Sienna  about  1740.  He  wrote 
"Letters  on  the  Fine  Arts,"  (3  vols.,  17S2-86.)  Died 
in  1794. 

Valle,  della,  (Pietro,)  a  celebrated  Italian  traveller, 
born  at  Rome  in  1586,  was  surnamed  IL  Pellegrino, 
("  the  Pilgrim.")  Having  assumed  the  dress  of  a  pilgrim, 
he  set  out  in  1614  for  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries. He  returned  in  1626,  having  spent  six  years  in 
Persia.  He  died  in  1652.  His  Travels  in  India  and 
Persia  were  published  in  1662,  (4  vols.)  They  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages. 

Vallee,  vf  li',  (Geoffroi,)  a  French  Deist,  born  at 
Orleans,  published  "  The  Beatitude  of  Christians,"  ("  La 
Beatitude  des  Chretiens,")  for  which  he  was  executed 
in  1574. 

Valine,  (Louis  L^ger,)  a  French  civil  engineer,  bom 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo}ig;  i,  k.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VALLEE 


2365 


VALSAL  VA 


m  1794,  was  appointed  inspector-general  in  1848.  He 
published  several  professional  works.     Died  in  1864. 

Valine,  La.     See  La  Vall6e. 

Valleix,  vt'li',  (FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  med- 
ical writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1820.  He  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Neuralgia,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1855. 

Vallemont,  de,  deh  vtl'mAN',  (Pierre  Le  Lorrain 
— leh  lo'riN',)  Abb6,  a  French  priest,  naturalist,  and 
writer,  born  at  Pont-Audemer  in  1649.  He  compiled 
several  mediocre  works,  among  which  is  "  The  Elements 
of  History,"  (2  vols.,  1696.)     Died  in  1721. 

Valleriole,  vil're'ol',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  about  1504;  died  in  1580. 

Valles,  vil'ygs,  or  Valesio,  vi-la'se-o,  [Lat.  Valle'- 
sius,]  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer,  born  in 
Old  Castile,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was 
physician  to  Philip  IL,  and  author  of  several  esteemed 
works. 

Vallet  or  Valet,  vS'li',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  about  1634.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Raphael,  Titian,  and  Poussin.     Died  about  1704. 

Vallet  de  Viriville,  vt'li'  deh  ve're'vfeK,  (  AugusteJ 
a  French  antfquary  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1815.  He 
contributed  to  periodicals,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Historical  Iconography  of  France,"  (1853,)  and 
"  Researches  on  Jeanne  Dare,"  (1855.)     Died  in  1868. 

Valletta,  vil-let'ti,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Arienza  (Campania)  in  1738,  (or,  as  some  say,  1750.) 
He  became  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Naples, 
and  published  numerous  legal  works.  Died  November 
21,  1814. 

See  Rosa,  "  Elogio  storico  di  N.  Valletta,"  1815. 

Valid,  vSKlee,  (Eusebio,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Pistoia  in  1762,  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  the  yellow 
fever,  of  which  disease  he  died  in  1816. 

Vil1J-a  or  "Wal'll-a,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  began 
to  reign  in  415  A.D.,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Hono- 
rius,  Emperor  of  Rome,  in  416,  after  which  he  gained 
victories  over  the  Vandals  in  Spain.  Toulouse  was  his 
capital.     Died  about  420  a.d. 

Valliere,  de,  deh  vS'le-aiR',  (Jean  Florent,)  a 
French  general  of  artillery,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1667. 
He  reorganized  the  artillery,  and  rendered  ^mpc.rtant 
services  in  several  campaigns.     Died  in  1759. 

Valliere,  de,  (Joseph  Florent,)  Marquis,  an  able 
French  general,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  171 7.  He  became  director-general  of  the  artil- 
lery and  engineers  in  1755,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Hastenbeck.     Died  in  1776. 

Valliere,  de  la,  deh  It  vt'l^^iR',  (Louis  C6sar  La 
Baume  Le  Blanc,)  Duke,  a  French  bibliophile,  born 
in  Paris  in  1708,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  the  following. 
His  library  is  stated  to  have  been  the  richest  that  any 
private  person  ever  had  in  France.     Died  in  1780. 

Valliere,  de  la,  (Louise  Franqoise  de  la  Baume 
Le  Blanc,)  a  beautiful  and  fascinating  Frenchwoman, 
born  in  Touraine  in  1644.  She  became  a  maid  of 
honour  to  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  and  about  1661  the 
mistress  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  her  the  title  of  duchess. 
She  had  by  him  four  children,  one  of  whom,  the  Count 
of  Vermandois,  was  legitimated.  In  1674  she  retired  to 
a  convent.  Her  virtues  and  piety  are  highly  extolled. 
Died  in  17 10. 

See  QuATREMiRK  DK  Roissv,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de  la  Va.- 
lifere,"  1823;  W.  H.  D.  Adams,  "Famous  Beauties  and  Historic 
Women,"  vol.  ii.,  1865. 

Vallisneri,  vil-lJs-na'ree,  or  Vallisnieri,  vil-lis-ne- 
a'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian  naturalist,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  M6dena  in  May,  1661,  was  a  pupil  of  Mal- 
pighi  at  Bologna.  He  began  to  practise  medicine  at 
Reggio  about  1688,  and  married  in  1692.  Having  ac- 
quired distinction  by  his  researches  in  entomology  and 
the  generation  of  insects,  he  became  professor  of  practi- 
cal medicine  at  Padua  in  1700.  He  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  spontaneous  generation.  About  1710  he  obtained  the 
first  chair  of  the  theory  of  medicine  at  Padua.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Generation  of 
Men  and  Animals,"  ("  Istoria  della  Generazione  dell' 
Uomoe  degli  Animali,"  etc.,  1721.)  Buflfon  regarded  him 
as  an  exact  and  profound  investigator.     Died  at  Padua 


in  1730.    Vallisneria,  a  genus  of  plants,  was  named  in  his 
honour  by  Micheli. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  vii.  ; 
Nic^RON,  "M^moires;"  Tipaldo,  "  Hiografia  degli  Italian!  illus- 
tri  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Vallongue.    See  Pascal- Valloncue. 

Vallot,  vt'lo',  (Antoine,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Rheims  or  at  Montpellier  in  1594.  He  became  first 
physician  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1652,  and  cured  him  of  a 
serious  illness  in  1658.     Died  in  167 1. 

Vallotti,  vSl-lot'tee,  (Francesco  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian composer  of  sacred  music,  born  at  Vercelli  in  1697 ; 
died  at  Padua  in  1780. 

Vaimiki,v3l'mi-ki,  orVaimikI,vil-mee'kT,  aHindoo 
poet,  of  unknown  date,  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  author- 
ship of  the  "  Ramayana,"  one  of  the  two  great  Hindoo 
epics.     (See  Ramayana.) 

See  Wilson,  "Sanscrit-and- English  Dictionary;"  "New  Ameri- 
can Cyclopaedia." 

Valmont  de  Bomare,  vtl'mAN'  deh  bo'mtR',  (J.  C.,) 
a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1731.  He  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  including  Lapland,  and  returned 
with  a  large  collection  of  objects  in  natural  history.  He 
published  in  1758  his  "  Catalogue  of  a  Cabinet  of  Natural 
History,"  which  was  followed  by  a  "  New  Exposition  of 
the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (2  vols.,  1762,)  and  "  Univer.eal 
Raisonne  Dictionary  of  Natural  History,"  a  work  of 
great  merit,  which  has  obtained  extensive  popularity. 
Died  in  1807. 

Valmore,  (Marceline.)     See  Desbordes. 

Valmy,  Duke  of.    See  Kellermann. 

Valois,  vt'lwi',  (Yves,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  writer 
on  religion,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1694 ;  died  after  1760. 

Valois,  de,  (Adrien.)    See  Valesius. 

Valois,  de,  (Charles.)    See  AngoulSme. 

Valois,  de,  deh  vt'lwi',  [Lat.  Vale'sius,]  (Charles,) 
a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1671,  was  a  son  of 
Adrien  de  Valois  or  Valesius.  He  published  a  curious 
work,  entitled  "  Valesiana,"  {1694,)  which  is  composed 
partly  of  his  father's  writings  and  sayings.  Died  in  1747. 

Valori,  vS-lo'ree,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian 
statesman,  born  at  Florence  in  1439.  He  filled  the 
highest  offices  in  the  Florentine  republic,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Savonarola  and  Macchiavelli.  He  was  killed 
by  the  populace  during  the  excitement  caused  by  the 
reforms  of  Savonarola,  in  1498. 

Valori,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  writer,  who  was  prior 
of  the  republic  of  Florence.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Life 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,"  (1492.) 

Valperga  di  Caluso,  vil-p^R'gS  de  ki-loo'so,  or 
simply  Valpe.rga-Caluso,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  lit- 
tirateur  2l\\A  mathematician,  born  in  Turin  in  1737,  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Alfieri.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  literature  in  Turin,  and  director  of  an  observa- 
tory in  that  city.  He  wrote  poems,  and  numerous  treat- 
ises on  mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  Gallery  of  Italian  Poets,"  (1814.)     Died  in  1815. 

See  L.  DK  Bremk,  "  Vita  di  T.  Valperga-Caluso,"  iSij ;  P.  Balbo, 
"  Vita  dell'Abate  Valperga,"  1816  ;  Boucheron,  "  Vita  T.  Valpergse- 
Calusii,"  1836;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgememe  Encyklopaedie," 
article  "Caluso;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Val'py,  (Edward,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
brother  of  Richard,  noticed  below,  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  vicar  of 
Saint  Mary,  at  Walsham,  Norfolk.  He  was  the  author 
of  "  Elegantiae  Latinae,"  (translated,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1832. 

Valpy,  (Richard,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  divine,  born  in  the  island  of  Jersey  in  1754.  Having 
previously  studied  at  the  College  of  Valognes,  in  Nor- 
mandy, he  entered  the  University  of  Oxford,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.,  and  in  1781  was  chosen  head- 
master of  the  grammar-school  at  Reading,  Berkshire. 
He  became  rector  of  Stradishall,  in  Suffolk,  in  1787.  He 
published  "Elements  of  the  Latin  Language,"  (1784,) 
and  a  "Greek  Grammar,"  (1805,)  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1836.  His  son  Abraham  John, 
born  in  1786,  published  excellent  editions  of  several  of 
the  Latin  classics.     Died  in  1854. 

Valsalva,  v51-siKv5,  (Antonio  Maria,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Imola  in  1666. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /,•  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


VALSECCHI 


2366 


VAN  BUR  EN 


He  studied  under  Malpighi  at  Bologna,  and  in  1697 
became  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  university  of  that 
city.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
and  of  other  similar  institutions.  He  made  improve- 
ments in  practical  surgery,  and  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  an  anatomist  by  his  discoveries  in  the  structure 
of  the  ear,  on  which  he  wrote  a  work,  "De  Aure  Hu- 
mana," (1704.)  He  was  a  skilful  physician,  and  invented 
a  method  of  treating  aneurisms.     Died  in  1723. 

See  FaiskciNI,  "  Vitje  Italoruni  doctrina  excelleiitium  ;"  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Valsecchi,  vdl-sek'kee,  (Virginio,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Brescia  in  1681  ;  died  in  1739. 

Valstain.    See  Wallenstein. 

Valturio,  vSl-too're-o,  (Roberto,)  an  Italian  writer 
en  the  military  art,  born  at  Rimini,  was  author  of  a 
work  "  De  Re  militari,"  (1472.)    He  lived  about  1450-80. 

Valvasone,  di,  de  vil-vS-so'ni,  (Erasmo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Friuli  in  1523,  was  proprietor  of  an  estate 
and  a  castle.  He  wrote  the  "  Angeleida,"  a  poem  on 
the  war  among  the  angels,  (1590,)  and  "The  Chase," 
("  Caccia,")  an  admired  didactic  poem  on  hunting, 
(1591.)     Died  in  1593. 

See  TlRABosCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana.' 

Vaman.     See  Vamana. 

Vimana,  vi'ma-na,  called  also  Vaman,  v^man, 
\i.e.  a  "dwarf,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
the  fifth  avatar  of  Vishnu,  when  this  god,  to  humble  the 
arrogance  of  Bali,  (see  Bali,)  took  the  form  of  a  pitiful 
dwarf,  and,  when  the  tyrant  promised  him  as  much  land 
or  space  as  he  could  pass  over  in  three  steps,  revealed 
himself  in  his  real  character,  and  with  the  first  step 
deprived  Bali  of  earth,  with  the  second,  of  heaven,  but 
(in  consideration  of  Bali's  good  qualities)  he  generously 
forbore  to  take  the  third  step,  (which  would  have  left 
that  ruler  no  foothold  in  the  universe,)  and  allowed  h.m 
the  dominion  of  Patala,  or  the  lower  world.  From 
Vishnu's  exploit  on  that  occasion  he  has  received  one 
of  his  proudest  titles, — that  of  Trivik'rama,  or  the 
"Three-Step-Taker."     (See  Vishnu.) 

Vdmbery,  vIm'ba-Re,  (Arminius,)  a  Jewish  traveller, 
born  at  Duna-Szerdahely,  in  Hungary,  (on  an  island  in 
the  Danube,)  in  1832.  A  soldier  in  the  revolution  of 
1848,  he  was  seriously  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Comorn, 
and  after  the  war  had  to  escape  to  Turkey,  whence  he 
travelled  over  a  large  part  of  Central  Asia.  After  his 
return  he  became  a  professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the 
University  of  Pesth.  His  principal  works  are  "Travels 
and  Adventures  in  Central  Asia,"  (1864,)  "  Wanderings 
and  Adventures  in  Persia,"  (1S67,)  "  Sketches  of  Central 
Asia,"  (1868,)  "History  of  Bokhara,"  (1873,)  ^"^  other 
works,  including  a  very  readable  account  of  his  own 
"Life  and  Adventures,"  (1883.)  The  accuracy  of  M. 
Vambery's  narratives  has  been  much  questioned,  but  in 
England  especially  his  writings  are  highly  esteemed. 

Vamuna.     Sec  Vamana. 

Van  or  Vana.     See  Vanik. 

Van  Achen.     See  Achen. 

Van'a-dis,  [Norse  pron.  vS'nS-d^ss',  i.e.  the  "  Vana 
goddess,"  so  called  on  account  of  her  descent  from  the 
Vanir,]  one  of  the  many  names  of  Freyia,  which  see. 

Van  Aelst.     See  Aelst. 

Van  Amburgh,  van  am'burg,  (Isaac,)  called  "the 
Lion-Tamer,"  was  born  at  Fishkill,  New  York,  about 
1815.  He  was  a  partner  of  a  company  that  exhibited  a 
travelling  menagerie,  and  was  very  successful  in  the 
taming  of  lions.     Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1865. 

Van  Beek.     See  Torrentinus. 

Vanbrugh,  van-broo',  (Sir  John,)  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish dramatist  and  architect,  of  Flemish  extraction,  born 
in  1666,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  London. 
He  was  educated  in  France,  and,  after  his  return,  pub- 
lished, in  1697,  his  comedy  of  "  The  Relapse,"  which  was 
followed  by  "  The  Confederacy"  and  "  The  Provoked 
Wife."  These  plays  were  highly  popular  at  the  time; 
but,  owing  to  their  profanity  and  licentiousness,  they  have 
been  long  banished  from  the  stage.  Among  his  principal 
architectural  works  we  may  name  Castle  Howard,  the 
seat  of  Charles,  Earl  of  Carlisle,  Duncombe  Hall,  Grims- 
thorpe,  in  Yorkshire,  and    Blenheim,  the  magnificent 


residence  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1703  Clarencieux  king-at-arms.     Died  in  1726. 

See  CiMiiBR,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Bakrr,  "  Ciographia  Dra- 
matica;"  "  Lives  of  the  British  Dramalisls,"  by  Campbkll,  Lkiuh 
Hunt,  etc. 

Van  Bu'ren,  (John,)  an  American  politician,  born  at 
Hudson,  New  York,  in  1810,  was  a  son  of  Martin,  noticed 
below.  He  was  elected  attorney-general  of  New  York 
early  in  1845,  joined  the  Free-Soil  i^arty,  and  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  political  orator  in  1848.  After  that  time 
he  practised  law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  acted 
with  the  Democratic  party.  He  died  at  sea  during  his 
homeward  passage  from  Europe,  in  October,  1866. 

Van  Buren,  (Martin,)  an  American  statesman,  the 
eighth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Kin- 
derhook,  Columbia  county,  New  York,  on  the  5th  of 
December,  1782.  He  was  educated  at  the  academy  of 
his  native  village,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1803.  He  began  at  an  early  age  to  take  an  active 
part  in  politics,  as  a  member  of  the  Democratic  party, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  New  York  in  1812. 
He  advocated  the  war  against  England  in  1812,  became 
attorney-general  of  New  York  in  1815,  and  was  again 
«lected  to  the  Senate  in  1816.  About  this  time  he  became 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Albany  Regency,  an  organization 
which  was  formed  to  oppose  De  Witt  Clinton,  and  which 
controlled  the  politics  of  New  York  for  many  years.  He 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1821,  sup 
ported  William  H.  Crawford  for  the  Presidency  of  the 
United  States  in  1824,  and  was  again  elected  a  Senatot 
in  1827.  He  voted  for  the  protective  tariff  of  1828.  The 
same  year  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  New  York  for  two 
years,  but  before  the  expiration  of  his  term  he  resigned 
and  entered  the  cabinet  of  President  Jackson  as  secre- 
tary of  state.  He  resigned  that  office  in  April,  1831, 
probably  because  General  Jackson  had  expressed  his 
opinion  that  cabinet  ministers  should  not  be  aspirants 
for  the  Presidency,  or  should  not  obtain  that  office  through 
his  influence.  He  was  nominated  as  minister  to  Eng- 
land, whither  he  went  about  September,  1831,  but  his 
nomination  was  rejected  by  the  Senate,  in  which  the 
Whigs  had  then  a  majority.  To  compensate  him  for 
this  repulse,  the  friends  of  General  Jackson  elected  Mr. 
Van  Buren  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  No- 
vember, 1832.  He  was  General  Jackson's  favourite  candi- 
date for  the  Presidency,  and  was  nominated  as  such  by 
the  Democratic  Convention  at  Baltimore  in  May,  1835. 
His  Whig  competitor  was  General  W.  H.  Harrison. 
Mr.  Van  Buren  was  elected  President  in  November,  1836, 
receiving  one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes  out 
of  two  hundred  and  ninety-four,  which  was  the  whole 
number.  His  election  was  soon  followed  by  a  great 
financial  panic  and  a  general  prostration  of  business. 
About  May,  1837,  all  the  banks  suspended  specie  pay- 
ments. In  his  message  to  Congress  he  recommended 
the  establishment  of  an  independent  treasury,  which 
measure  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
in  the  session  of  1837-38,  but  afterwards  passed  both 
houses  of  Congress  and  became  a  law  about  June,  1840. 
In  the  session  of  1838-39  an  attempt  was  made  to  sup- 
press the  agitation  against  slavery,  by  a  resolution  that 
Congress  would  not  receive  or  read  any  petitions  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery.  All  the  political  friends  of  the 
President  voted  for  this  resolution,  which  was  adopted. 

He  was  again  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
Democratic  Convention  in  May,  1840,  but,  after  a  very 
exciting  canvass,  in  which  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Whigs 
was  stimulated  by  mass-meetings,  processions,  songs, 
etc.,  he  was  defeated  by  General  Harrison,  who  received 
two  hundred  and  thirty-four  electoral  votes  against  sixty 
for  Mr.  Van  Buren.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1841,  he  re- 
tired from  the  public  service  to  his  estate  called  Linden- 
wald,  near  Kinderhook,  New  York.  In  the  Democratic 
National  Convention  which  met  in  May,  1844,  a  majority 
of  the  delegates  were  pledged  or  instructed  to  vote  for 
Mr.  Van  Buren ;  but  the  Southern  politicians  opposed 
his  nomination,  because  he  had  written  a  letter  against 
the  annexation  of  Texas.  They  therefore  insisted  that 
the  Convention  should  adopt  a  rule  under  which  two- 
thirds  of  the  votes  were  necessary  to  a  choice.  Mr. 
Van   Buren  had  only  one  hundred  and  forty-six  votes 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f3r,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


VANCE 


2367 


VANDER 


out  of  two  hundred  and  sixty-two,  and  therefore  failed 
to  obtain  the  nomination. 

According  to  Mr.  Greeley,  his  renomination  was 
defeated  by  the  "slave-traders,  and  the  closely  affiliated 
class  of  gamblers  and  blacklegs."  ("  American  Conflict," 
vol.  i.  p.  69.)  He  afterwards  separated  himself  from  the 
Democratic  party  because  it  was  committed  to  the  ex- 
tension of  slavery.  A  convention  of  the  Free-Soil  party 
which  met  at  Buffalo  in  August,  1848,  nominated  Martin 
Van  Buren  and  Charles  Francis  Adams  as  candidates 
for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-President.  They 
received  a  popular  vote  of  291,342,  but  not  any  electoraj 
vote.  It  is  stated  that  he  voted  for  Mr.  Pierce  and  Mr. 
Buchanan  in  the  Presidential  elections  of  1852  and  1856. 
He  had  married  a  lady  named  Hoes  about  1804,  and  had 
several  sons.     Died  at  or  near  Kinderhook  in  July,  1862. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans." 
vol.  lii. 

Vance,  (Zebulon  B.,)  an  American  Senator,  was 
born  in  Buncombe  county.  North  Carolina,  May  13,  1830. 
He  was  educated  at  Washington  College,  (in  Tennessee,) 
and  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  and  in  1852 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  in  Congress,  1858-61, 
and  was  Governor  of  North  Carolina,  1862-66  and 
1877-79.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  to  the  United 
States  Senate. 

Van  Ceulen.     See  Keulen,  van. 

Van  Cleemputte,  vtn  kli'6N'put',(LuciEN  Tykt6e,) 
a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  obtained 
the  grand  prize  in  1816.      Died  August  18,  1871. 

Van  Cleve,  vtn  kliv,  (Corneille  or  Joseph,)  a 
French  sculptor,  born  in  1644,  worked  in  Paris.     Died 

in  1733- 

Van  Cleve,  (Horatio  P.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  about  1810,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1831.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  about  March,  1862,  and  commanded  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20, 
1863. 

Vancouver,  vin-koo'ver,  (George,)  a  English  navi- 
gator, born  about  1755,  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age, 
and  accompanied  Captain  Cook,  as  midshipman,  on  his 
second  and  third  voyages.  In  1791  he  sailed  as  com- 
mander of  the  Discovery  to  the  northwest  coast  of 
America,  to  receive  the  surrender  of  Nootka  from  the 
Spaniards,  who  were  instructed  by  their  government  to 
give  up  that  island  to  the  British.  He  was  also  charged 
to  make  a  survey  of  the  coast  northwards  from  latitude 
30°  north.  He  returned  in  1795,  and  applied  himself 
to  the  preparation  of  his  narrative,  which  was  not  quite 
completed  at  his  death,  in  1798.  It  was  published  soon 
after  by  his  brother,  under  the  title  of  "  Voyage  of  Dis- 
covery to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  round  the 
World,"  (3  vols.  4to.)  Vancouver  gave  his  name  to  an 
island  off  the  coast  of  America  between  48°  20'  and  51° 
north  latitude. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1799. 

Van  Dale,  vtn  dS'leh,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  Mennonite  preacher,  born  in  1638,  was  the  author 
of  several  learned  works  on  theology  and  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquities.  Among  these  we  may  name  his 
treatise  "  On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Idolatry  and 
Superstition,"  (in  Latin,)  and  "On  the  Oracles  of  the 
Heathen,"  ("  Dissertationes  duae  de  Oraculis,"  etc., 
1700.)     IDied  in  1708. 

Van  Dalen.     See  Dalen,  van. 

Vaudamme,  vdN'dtm',  (Dominique  Ren6,)  Count 
d'Unebourg,  a  French  general,  born  at  Cassel  in  1770. 
He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1799,  after  he  had 
rendered  important  services  in  Flanders  and  Germany. 
For  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  he  received  from  Napoleon 
a  gift  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  He  took  part  in  several 
actions  against  the  Prussians  in  1806,  and  commanded 
a  corps  in  the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809.  In  the  spring 
of  1813  he  captured  Hamburg.  He  commanded  a  sepa- 
rate army  which  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  a  superior 
force  near  Kulm,  in  August,  1813.  Having  joined  the 
army  of  Napoleon  in  1815,  he  had  a  high  command  at 
the  battle  of  I.igny.     Died  in  1830. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  Jomini,  "Vie 
politique  et  militaire  de  Napoleon." 


Vandelli,  vSn-del'lee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  naturalist,  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  became  superintendent  of  the  botanic 
garden  at  Lisbon.  He  published  a  treatise  on  marine 
zoophytes,  etc.,  and  several  botanical  works.  He  was  a 
correspondent  of  Linnaeus,  who  named  the  genus  of 
plants  Vandellia  in  his  honour.     Died  in  1815. 

Van  den  Eckhout.     See  Eeckhout. 

Van'd§n-hoff,  (John,)  an  English  tragic  actor,  born 
at  Salisbury  in  1790.  He  performed  "King  Lear"  and 
"Coriolanus"  with  success.     Died  in  1861. 

Vanderanus.     See  Aa,  van  der. 

Van'd?r-bilt,  (Cornelius,)  Commodore^  an  enter- 
prising American  navigator,  born  on  Staten  Island,  New 
York,  in  May,  1794.  He  was  originally  a  poor  boy,  and 
commenced  business  as  master  of  a  small  sail-boat.  He 
became  captain  of  a  steamboat  in  1817,  after  which  he 
made  improvements  in  the  construction  of  steamers. 
He  built  many  steamboats  and  steamships,  and  in  1851 
established  a  line  from  New  York  to  California  by  way 
of  Nicaragua.  In  1855  he  built  several  steamships  to  ply 
between  New  York  and  Havre.  In  1862  he  presented 
as  a  gift  to  the  Federal  government  his  new  steamer 
called  the  Vanderbilt,  which  cost  $800,000,  and  for  which 
Congress  passed  a  resolution  of  thanks.  In  1857  he 
became  president  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad, 
which  in  1868  he  consolidated  with  the  Hudson  River 
road.  He  died  January  4,  1877,  leaving  an  estate  valued 
at  many  millions. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  C.  Vanderbilt,"  in  the  "  Merchants'  Magazine" 
for  January,  1S65. 

Vanderbourg,  de,  deh  v5N'd&R'booR',  (Martin 
Makie  Charles  de  Boudens — deh  boo'dSN',)  \'i- 
comte,  a  French  litteralair,  born  at  Saintes  in  1765^ 
was  also  a  philologist.  He  was  the  first  editor  of  tlie 
poems  of  Clotilde  de  Surville,  (1803,)  of  which  some 
critics  suspect  him  to  have  been  the  author.    Died  in  1827. 

Vanderburch,  vfiN'd^R'biiRk',  (Emile  Louis,)  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1794,  wrote  many 
successful  comedies  and  vaudevilles.     Died  in  1862. 

Vanderburch,  de,  deh  vtn'der-biiRK,  (Francis,)  a 
Flemish  prelate,  born  at  Ghent  in  1567.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Cambray.     Died  in  1644. 

Van  der  Cabel.     See  Cabel,  van  der. 

Van  der  Does.     See  Does,  van  der. 

Van  der  Goes.     See  Goes. 

Vander  Heist,  vtn'der-h61st',  (Bartholomew,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  about 
1610.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  picture  in  the  town- 
house  of  Amsterdam,  containing  twenty-four  full-length 
portraits.  It  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  productions 
of  the  kind,  and  was  highly  commended  by  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds.     Died  about  1670. 

Van  der  Heyden,  (or  Heyde.)  See  Heyden,  van 
der. 

Van  der  Linden.     See  Linden,  van  der. 

Van'der-lyn,  (John,)  a  noted  American  painter,  born 
at  Kingston,  Ulster  county.  New  York,  in  1776.  Having 
studied  law  for  a  lime  under  Gilbert  Stuart,  he  visited 
Europe,  where  he  spent  several  years,  and  produced  his 
"  Ariadne"  and  "  Marius  sitting  among  the  Ruins  of  Car- 
thage," which  are  esteemed  his  master-pieces.  Among 
his  portraits  we  may  name  those  of  Washington,  Mon- 
roe, and  Calhoun.     Died  in  1852. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  Amer- 
ica," vol.  iii.  ;  "Recollections  of  John  Vanderlyn,"  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  B'ebruary,  1867  ;  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Vander  Maelen,  vtn  der  mi'len,  (Philippe  Marie 
Guillaume,)  a  Belgian  geographer,  born  in  Brussels 
in  1795.  He  published  a  "Universal  Atlas,"  (6  vols., 
1825-27,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1869. 

Vander  Meer  or  Van  der  Meer,  vtn  der  maiR, 
(Jan,)  the  Elder,  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  marine 
views  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1627. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  made 
him  a  councillor  in  1674.     Died  about  1690. 

Vander  Meer,  (Jan,)  the  Younger,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1656.  His  landscapes  with  sheep 
are  greatly  admired ;  he  also  produced  a  number  of 
admirable  etchings.  His  works  are  rare  and  highly 
prized.     Died  in  1706. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  h.  k.  i^uttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


FAN  DER  MERSCH 


2368 


VANE 


Van  der  Mersch.     See  Mersch,  van  den. 

Van  der  Monde,  vtn  d$R  m6Nd  or  vftN'dSR'mANd', 
(Charles  Augustin,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Macao,  China,  in  1727.  He  published  a  "Dictionary 
of  Health,"  (Paris,  1759.)     Died  in  1762. 

Vander  Monde  or  Vaudermonde,  vflN'd§R'm6Nd', 
(N.,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1735.  He 
became  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  ficole  Nor- 
male  in  1795.  He  published  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  two  "Memoires,"  in  which  he  advanced  the  theory 
that  music  might  be  composed  by  mathematical  pro- 
cesses. The  musicians,  it  is  said,  found  in  his  method 
too  much  mathematics,  and  the  mathematicians  too 
much  music.     Died  in  1796. 

Van  der  Neer.  (Arnold.)     See  Neer,  van  der. 

Van  der  PsQm.     See  Palm. 

Van  der  Ulft.     See  Ulft,  van  der. 

Vandervelde,  vSn'der-vSl'deh,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1639, 
was  a  pupil  of  Wynants,  and  a  son  of  Willem  the  Elder. 
His  favourite  subjects  were  landscapes  with  cattle,  in 
which  he  excelled  ;  he  also  frequently  painted  the  figures 
in  the  pictures  of  Ruysdael,  Van  cjer  Heyden,  and  others. 
Died  in  1672. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Van  der  Velde,  (Isaiah.)     See  Velde,  van  der. 

Van  der  Velde  or  Vandervelde,  (Willem,)  some- 
times written  also  Vandevelde,  called  the  Elder,  a 
celebrated  marine  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  i5io.  He 
entered  the  naval  service  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1666 
accompanied  Admiral  De  Ruyter  for  the  purpose  of 
making  drawings  of  the  engagements  between  the  Dutch 
and  English  fleets.  Having  acquired  a  very  high  repu- 
tation by  his  designs,  he  was  invited  to  England  by 
Charles  II.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  painter  of  sea- 
fights  to  the  king,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  pension.  His 
designs  were,  for  the  most  part,  executed  with  a  pen 
upon  paper  or  prepared  canvas,  and  some  of  them  were 
painted  in  oil  by  his  son.     Died  in  1693. 

See  H.  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Van  der  Velde  or  Vandervelde,  (Willem,)  the 
Younger,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1633.  lie  was  instructed  by  his  father,  whom  he  ex- 
celled in  sea-views.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  m.ay 
name  his  "View  of  the  Texel,"  "A  Fresh  Breeze,"  "The 
Rising  of  the  Gale,"  and  "  A  Calm."  He  is  regarded 
by  many  connoisseurs  as  superior  to  any  other  artist  in 
his  department.     Died  in  1707. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Van  der  Werf  or  Vanderwerflf,  vtn'der-w5Rf, 
(Adriaan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and 
historical  works,  born  near  Rotterdam  in  1659.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Elector- Palatine  John  William,  who 
conferred  on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood  and  pur- 
chased his  pictures  at  very  high  prices.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "  Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  "  Magdalene 
in  the  Wilderness,"  and  an  "  Ecce  Homo."  Died  in  1722. 

Van  der  Werf  or  Vander'werff,  (Pieter,)  a  painter, 
born  near  Rotterdam  in  1665,  was  a  brother  of  Adriaan, 
whom  he  imitated.     Died  in  1718. 

Van  der  Weyde,  vtn'der-wT'deh,  (Roger,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  introduced  great 
improvements  into  the  style  of  the  Flemish  school,  both 
in  respect  to  design  and  expression.  Among  his  bes\ 
works  is  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross."     Died  in  1529. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Van  de  Velde,  vJn  de  vgl'de,  (James  Oliver,)  D.D., 
a  bishop,  born  near  Termonde,  Belgium,  April  3,  1795, 
studied  at  Mechlin,  where  he  was  also  a  professor.  In 
1817  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and  became  a  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  at  Georgetown  College,  and  in 
1827  was  ordained  a  Catholic  priest.  In  later  years  he 
was  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Saint 
Louis,  and  in  1840  became  its  president.  He  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1837.  In  1849  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Chicago,  and  in  1853  he  was  translated  to  the 
see  of  Natchez.     Died  at  Natchez,  November  13,  1855. 

Van  de  Weyer,  v3n  deh  w'er,  (Sylvanus  or  Syl- 
VAIN,)  a  Belgian  diplomatist  and  lawyer,  born  at  Lou- 
vain  about  1802.     He  was  a  member  of  the  provisional 


government  formed  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
represented  Belgium  at  the  Conference  of  London, 
(1831.)  On  his  return  he  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  was  prime  minister  for  a  short  time  ir 
1845-46.     Died  at  London,  Mav  23,  1874. 

Van  Diemen.     See  Diemen,  van. 

Van  Dorn,  (Earl,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Mis- 
sissippi about  1823,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1855,  and  resigned  his  commis- 
sion early  in  1861.  He  commanded  the  insurgents  at 
the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March  7  and  8,  1862.  He  at- 
tacked General  Rosecrans  at  Corinth,  October  3  and  4, 
1862,  and  was  defeated  with  great  loss.  General  Rose- 
crans reported  that  his  army  killed  and  buried  1423,  and 
took  2268  prisoners.  General  Van  Dorn  was  killed  in 
a  private  quarrel  by  Dr.  Peters  in  Maury  county,  Ten- 
nessee, in  May,  1863. 

Vandyck.     See  Vandyke. 

Van  Dyck,  (Philippe.)     .See  Dyck. 

Van  Dyk,  vin  dik,  (Harry  Stoe,)  an  English  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  born  in  London  in  1798.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Gondola,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1828. 

Vandyke,  Van  Dyck,  or  Vandyck,  vtn-dlk',  (Sh 
Anthony,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter  of  portraits, 
born  at  Antwerp,  March  22,  1599,  was  a  son  of  a  rich 
merchant.  He  began  to  study  painting  under  Van  Balen 
in  1610,  and  afterwards  became  a  pupil  of  Rubens  about 
1615.  According  to  a  doubtful  report,  Rubens,  incited 
by  jealousy,  advised  Vandyke  to  confine  himself  to 
portraits.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Antwerp.  He  visited  Italy  about  1622, 
passed  several  years  at  Venice,  Genoa,  Rome,  and  Flor- 
ence, and  painted  a  number  of  portraits  in  those  cities. 
Having  returned  to  Antwerp  about  1627,  he  painted  a 
picture  of  "  Saint  Augustine  in  Ecstasy,"  a  picture  of  the 
"Crucifixion,"  and  other  historical  works.  Comment- 
ing on  his  "  Crucifixion,"  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  said, 
"This  picture,  upon  the  whole,  may  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  finest  (or  first)  pictures  in  the  world,  jnd  gives 
the  highest  idea  of  Vandyke's  powers."  Having  been 
invited  by  Charles  I.,  he  went  to  England  about  1632, 
and  painted  portraits  of  that  king,  who  gave  him  an  an- 
nual pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  in  1633,  and  the 
title  of  painter  to  his  majesty.  Vandyke  passed  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  England,  and  married  Mary,  a  daughter  of 
Lord  Ruthven,  Earl  of  Gowrie.  His  habits  were  luxu- 
rious, and  his  style  of  living  was  magnificent.  He  painted 
with  such  rapidity  and  facility  that  his  works  are  very 
numerous,  although  his  life  was  short.  He  is  generally 
considered  the  greatest  portrait-painter  of  modern  times 
except  Titian  ;  and  some  critics  prefer  him  even  to  that 
artist.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Erection  of 
the  Cross,"  a  portrait  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  and  his 
secretary,  (at  Wentworth  House,)  and  a  series  of  por- 
traits of  eminent  artists  of  his  time,  which  he  painted 
before  he  left  Antwerp.  Engravings  of  these,  about  one 
hundred  in  number,  have  been  published.  He  died  in 
London  in  December,  1641,  leaving  one  child,  Justiniana. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England;"  Descamp.s 
"Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  Carpenter,  "  Memoir  of  Sir 
Anthony  Van  Dycl; ;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1847;  G. 
Vallardi,  "  Cenni  storico-artistici  sul  A.  Van  Dyck,"  1844  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Vane,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  in  1589.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament 
about  161 5,  and  was  appointed  cofferer  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  by  James  I.  At  the  accession  of  Charles  L  he 
became  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  In  1631  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Denmark  and  .Sweden.  He  was 
appointed  principal  secretary  of  state  in  1640  or  1639. 
In  consequence  of  his  hostility  to  the  Earl  of  Strafford, 
he  was  removed,  and  became  an  adherent  of  the  Parlia- 
ment.    Died  in  1654- 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 
Vane,  (Sir  Henry,)  the  Younger,  often  called  Sir 
Harry  Vane,  a  republican  statesman,  born  in  1612,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  for  a  short 
time  at  Oxford,  from  which  he  went  to  Geneva,  and 
returned  borne  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  liturgy  and 
government  of  the  Church  of  England.  By  the  pro- 
fession of  such  opinions  he  incurred  the  displeasure 
of   his  father.     For    the    sake    of   religious   liberty,   he 


a.  e,  f,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  9,  obsnire:  fdr,  f&ll,  fAt;  niSt;  ndt;  goTjil;  nioonj 


VAN  EFFEISr 


2369 


VANLOO 


emigrated  in  1635  to  Massachusetts.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  the  colony  in  1636,  and  "  manifested,"  says 
Forster,  "a  firmness,  energy,  and  wisdom  truly  remark- 
able in  one  of  his  early  age  and  previous  history."  He 
offended  the  majority  of  the  colony  by  his  advocacy 
of  universal  toleration,  and  returned  to  England  in 
1637,  soon  after  which  he  married  Frances  Wray.  In 
November,  1640,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  in  which  he  efficiently  promoted  the  con- 
demnation of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  by  evidence  which 
he  furnished.  He  found  in  his  father's  cabinet  a  memo- 
randum of  a  council  at  which  Strafford  had  proposed  to 
employ  the  Irish  army  to  reduce  England  to  obedience. 

Vane  was  a  leader  of  the  Independents,  and  a  friend 
of  Milton.  On  the  death  of  Pym  (1643)  the  chief  direc- 
tion of  civil  affairs  devolved  on  Vane.  He  disapproved 
the  policy  of  the  execution  of  the  king,  but  e.xpressed 
no  opinion  of  its  abstract  justice.  In  February,  1649, 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  state, 
and  in  the  next  month  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
naval  department.  The  efficiency  and  victories  of  the 
navy  arc  ascribed  partly  to  his  administrative  talents. 
He  opposed  the  usurpation  of  Cromwell,  who,  as  his 
soldiers  were  dissolving  the  Parliament,  in  April,  1653, 
exclaimed,  "  The  Lord  deliver  me  from  Sir  Harry  Vane  !" 
Vane  afterwards  passed  several  years  in  retirement,  and 
wrote  works  entitled  "The  Retired  Man's  Meditation," 
(1655,)  and  a  "Healing  Question  Propounded  and  Re- 
solved," (1656.)  At  the  restoration  he  was  excepted 
from  the  indemnity  or  act  of  amnesty.  Having  been 
confined  in  prison  about  two  years,  he  was  tried  for 
treason  in  June,  1662,  and  convicted,  after  an  able  speech 
in  his  own  defence.  Charles  II.  wrote  to  Clarendon 
that  Vane  "was  too  dangerous  a  man  to  let  live."  He 
met  death  with  the  most  intrepid  courage  and  firmness. 
"He  was,"  says  Clarendon,  "a  man  of  extraordinary 
parts,  a  pleasant  wit,  a  great  understanding,  which 
pierced  into  and  discerned  the  purposes  of  other  men 
with  wonderful  sagacity.  ...  If  he  were  not  superior 
to  Mr.  Hampden,  he  was  inferior  to  no  other  man  in  all 
mysterious  artifices." 

See  Clarendon,*"  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  John  Forster, 
"Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane  tlie  Younger;"  Whithlockb,  "Trial  of 
Sir  H.  Vane;"  Hume,  "  Histoiy  of  England;"  "The  Life  and 
Death  of  Sir  H.  Vane,"  1662. 

Van  Elfen.     See  Effen,  van. 

Van  El'ten,  (Hendrik  Dirk  Kruseman,)  a  Dutch- 
American  painter,  born  at  Alkmaar,  in  the  Netherlands, 
November  14,  1829..  He  studied  art  in  Haarlem  under 
C.  Lieste,  and  in  1865  removed  to  New  York.  In  1883 
he  was  made  a  full  member  of  the  National  Academy. 
He  has  won  many  American  and  foreign  honours  and 
distinctions  for  his  pictures  and  etchings. 

Van  Erpen.    See  Erpenius. 

Vanetti.     See  Vannetti. 

Van  Eyck.    See  Eyck,  (Hubert  and  John.) 

Van  Geilen.    See  Galen,  van, 

Vangerow,  von,  fon  fSng'eh-ro',  (Karl  Adolf,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  near  Marburg  in  1808.  He  suc- 
ceeded Thibaut  as  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1840,  and  in  1849  was  made  a  privy  councillor. 
He  published  a  "  Manual  of  the  Pandects,"  and  other 
legal  works.     Died  in  November,  1870. 

Van  Goyen.    See  Goven,  van. 

Van  Helmont.    See  Helmont,  van. 

Van  Helt-Stoccade.     See  Stoccade. 

Van  Hoek.     See  Hoek,  van. 

Van  Huevel,  vtn  hii'vel,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian 
physician,  born  at  Brussels  in  1802.  He  invented  a 
pelvimeter  and  a  forceps  saw. 

Van  Huysum.     See  Huysum,  van. 

Vaniere,  vfue^in',  [Lat.  Vanie'rus,]  (Jacques,)  a 
French  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Beziers,  in 
Languedoc,  in  1664.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
his  Latin  poems,  the  most  important  of  which  is  his 
"Rural  Estate,"  ("  Prsedium  Rusticum,"  1707.)  In  this 
poem  he  imitated  Virgil  with  considerable  success.  He 
was  professor  of  humanities  in  several  colleges.  Died 
at  Toulouse  in  1739. 

See  PftRB  Lombard,  "Vie  du  P4re  Vanifere,"  1739;    Mor4ki 

Dictionnaire  Historiqiie." 

Vanicrus.    See  VaniAre. 


Vanini,  vi-nee^nee,  [Lat  Vani'nus,]  (Lucn.io,)  an 
Italian  philosopher  ana  skeptic,  born  at  Taurisano  in 
1585.  According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  a  priest 
in  his  youth.  He  travelled  in  Germany,  France,  and 
England,  and  taught  philosophy  for  a  short  time  at 
Genoa.  His  enemies  admit  that  he  was  eloquent  and 
learned.  In  1616  he  published  at  Paris  a  pantheistic 
work,  entitled  "On  the  Admirable  Secrets  of  Nature, 
the  Queen  and  Goddess  of  Mortals,"  etc.,  ("  De  admi- 
randis  Naturae  Reginas  Deaeque  Mortalium  Arcanis,") 
which  the  Sorbonne  condemned  to  be  burned.  He 
removed  to  Toulouse  in  161 7,  was  accused  of  atheism, 
and  put  to  death  in  1619. 

See  J.  G.  Olearius,  "De  Vita  Vanini,"  170S;  P.  F.  Arpk, 
"Apologia  pro  Vanino,"  1712:  Durand,  "  La  Vie  et  les  Sentimetus 
de  Vanini,"  1717;  "Life  of  Vanini,"  Lcncinn,  1730;  Fuhrmann, 
"  Leben  des  Vanini."  iSoo;  Nic^ron,  "M^moires;"  "  Nouvella 
Biographic  G^nirale." 

Vaninus.    See  Vaninl 

Vanir,  vj'njr,  the  plural  of  Van  or  Vana,  [from 
vanr,  "  empty,"  cognate  with  the  Latin  vaniis,  the  pri- 
mary meaning  of  which  is  the  same,]  in  the  Norse 
mythology,  a  peculiar  class  of  beings,  whose  habitation 
and  empire  is  "  the  empty,  vast,  and  wandering  air." 
They  rule  over  the  atmosphere,  the  weather,  and  the 
sea.  Their  dwelling-place  or  kingdom  is  termed  Vana- 
heim,  (i.e.  the  "  home  of  the  Vanir.")  The  principal  per- 
sonage among  them  is  Njord,  the  god  of  the  winds,  who, 
though  born  and  bred  in  Vanaheim,  was  given  by  the 
Vanir  as  a  hostage  to  the  i^sir,  among  whom  he  is  now 
numbered.  The  Vanir  are  said  to  have  been  originally 
hostile  to  the  gods  of  Asgard,  but  were  subsequently 
reconciled  to  them.  This  statement  may  be  thus  ex- 
plained. The  capricious  and  uncertain  movements  of 
the  atmosphere  seem  naturally  hostile  to  the  regularity 
and  order  which  are  the  especial  attributes  of  the  gods 
or  i'Esir.  But  when,  inspired  by  the  gods,  men,  by 
superior  skill  in  navigation,  were  enabled  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  winds,  notwithstanding  their  irregularity,  the 
Vanir,  the  types  of  uncertainty,  were  said  to  be  recon- 
ciled with  the  ^sir,  the  representatives  of  order  and 
skill.  (See  J£.siK  and  Jotuns.)  That  Freyia  (the  goddess 
of  love)  was  the  daughter  of  a  Vana  prince,  would  seem 
to  allude  to  the  aerial  character  of  those  charms  which 
inspire  the  passion  of  love,  as  well  as  to  the  well-known 
caprice  and  inconstancy  of  lovers. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Kkvser,  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen  ;"  Petersen,  "  NorUisk  Mythologi." 

Van  Lennep.  See  Lennep,  van. 

Vanloo,  vtn-lo',  (Abraham  Louis,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  about  1641,  was  the  father  of  Charles 
and  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.    Died  at  Aix  in  17 13. 

Vanloo,  v6n'16',  (Charles  Andr6,  or  Carle,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Nice  in  1705,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
where  he  painted  his  "Apotheosis  of  Saint  Isidore." 
After  his  return  he  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  (1751,)  and  first  painter  to  the  king,  (1762.) 
Died  in  1765. 

See  Dandri*-P>ardon,  "Viede  Carle  Vanloo,"  1765:  Fontaink- 
Malherbe,  "filoge  de  C.  Vanloo,"  1767;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vanloo,  (Francois,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Aix 
in  171 1,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.  He 
was  a  promising  artist,  when  he  was  killed  by  accident 
near  Turin  in  1733. 

Vanloo,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Ecluse  in 
1614,  was  the  father  of  Abraham  Louis,  noticed  above. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1670. 

Vanloo,  (Tean  Baptiste,)  a  celebrated  French 
painter,  of  Flemish  extraction,  was  born  at  Aix,  in 
Provence,  in  1684.  He  resided  many  years  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of"^  Orleans.  He 
acquired  the  highest  reputation  by  his  portraits,  and  was 
appointed  in  1735  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  In 
173S  he  visited  London,  where,  according  to  Horace 
Walpole,  "he  soon  bore  away  the  chief  business  of 
London  from  every  other  painter."  He  also  executed 
several  historical  pictures  of  great  meriL     Died  in  1746. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Vanloo,  (Jules  C6sar  Denis,)  a  landscape-painter. 


€  as  k;  9as  s:  g  hurd:  g  asy;  G,  H,  K, ptttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  tri'led:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 

149 


'S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VANLOO 


2370 


VAN  VEEN 


born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was  a  son  of  Charles  Andr^, 
noticed  above.     Died  in  1821. 

Veinloo,  (Louis  Michel,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1707,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Baptiste, 
noticed  above.  Invited  by  the  king,  Philip  V.,  he  went 
to  Madrid  in  1736,  and  was  appointed  court  painter. 
He  returned  to  Paris  about  1748.     Died  in  1771. 

Van  Loon,  vtn  Ion,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Leyden  in  1683.  He  jjublished, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Netherlands  from 
1555  to  1716,"  (4  vols.,  1723,)  which  is  commended. 

Van  Loon,  (Theodore.)     See  Loon. 

Van  Mander.     See  Mander,  van. 

Van  Mil'dert,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1765.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he 
afterwards  became  regius  professor  of  theology.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  LlandaiT  in  1819,  and  of  Durham 
in  1826.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Life  of  VVaterland," 
and  several  other  works.     Died  in  1836. 

Van  Moer,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  about  181 5. 

Van  Mons.     See  Mons. 

Van  Ness,  (Cornelius  P.,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Vermont 
in  1781,  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  in  1822, 
and  was  twice  re-elected.  He  was  minister  to  Spain 
under  President  Jackson  from  1829  to  1838.  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  1852. 

Van  Ness,  (William  W.,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
at  Claverack,  New  York,  in  1775.  He  was  a  judge  of 
ihe  supreme  court  of  New  York  from  1807  to  1822. 
Died  in  1823. 

Vannetti,  vSn-net'tee,  or  Vanettd,  vl-net'tee,  (Cle- 
mentino,)  an  Italian  author,  born  at  Roveredo  in  1754, 
was  a  son  of  a  poet  named  Giuseppe  Valeriano  Van- 
netti. He  wrote  numerous  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
among  which  are  poetical  epistles  and  biographies.  His 
poetry  was  admired  by  some  critics.     Died  in  1795. 

Van  Neve,  vSn  na'veh,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1627,  studied  at  Rome. 
He  painted  history  and  landscapes,  and  produced  good 
etchings  of  his  own  designs. 

Vanni,  vSn'nee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Sienna,  flourished  about  1370-1410. 

Vanni,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1565.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  imi- 
tated the  style  of  Baroccio  so  successfully  that  his  works 
are  often  mistaken  for  those  of  that  artist.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  the  "  Death  of  Saint  Ce- 
cilia," "  Simon  Magus  rebuked  by  Peter,"  and  "  Saint 
Raimond  walking  on  the  Sea."     Died  in  1609. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  " Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Geuerale. " 

Vanni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  1599,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Flor- 
ence. He  made  admirable  copies  of  the  works  of 
Titian,  Correggio,  and  others,  and  was  also  skilled  in 
engraving.     Died  in  1660. 

Vanni,  (Michael  Angelo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Sienna  in  1583,  was  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed 
above.     He  was  not  equal  to  his  father.     Died  in  167 1. 

Vanni,  (Raphael,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1596,  was  a  son  of  Francesco,  and  a  pupil  of 
Annibal  Caracci. -  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Sienna. 
Died  in  1673. 

VannuocL    See  Perugino. 

Vannucci,  vjn-noot'chee,  (Atto,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  December  i,  1808.  He  was  a  Latin  professor  at 
Florence,  and  afterwards  was  a  member  of  the  Italian 
Senate.  Besides  classical  text-books,  he  published 
"  Studii  storici  e  morali,"  (1834,)  "Early  Ages  of  Flor- 
entine Liberty,"  (1853-61,)  "  Martyrs  of  Italian  Liberty," 
"  Ancient  History  of  Italy,"  and  a  "  Life  of  S.  B.  Nicco- 
lini,"  (1866.)     Died  in  18S3. 

Van  Obstal,  vtn  op'stil,  or  Van  Opstal.  (Gerard,) 
a  Flemish  sculptor,  born  at  .\ntwerp  in  1597;  died  in 
Paris  in  1663. 

Van  Oort.    See  Noort. 

Van  Oost,  (Jacob.)     See  Oost,  van. 

Van  Os,  (Jan.)     See  Os,  van. 

Van  Ostade.     See  Osiade,  van. 

Van  Praet     See  Praet,  van. 


Van  Rensselaer,  v&n  rSn'sel-ler,  (C5rt'land,)  D.D., 
an  American  Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Albany  in  1808, 
was  a  son  of  General  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  noticed 
below.  He  died  in  i860,  leaving  a  collection  of"  Essays 
and  Discourses,"  etc.,  (1861.) 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Henry  K.,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  probably  in  New  York  State  about  1 744.  He  served 
as  colonel  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  became  general 
of  militia.     Died  at  Albany  in  1816. 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Philip  S.,)  an  American  magis 
trate,  distinguished  for  his  benevolence,  was  born  abou! 
1766.  He  was  mayor  of  Albany  for  twenty-three  years, 
and  the  principal  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Albany. 
Died  in  1824. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans." 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Solomon,)  an  American  officer, 
son  of  Henry  K.,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Albany  in 
1764  or  1774.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1812.  He  wa.s 
elected  to  Congress  in  1819.     Died  at  Albany  in  1852. 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Stephen,)  LL.D.,  called  "the 
Patroon,"  a  distinguished  American  Statesman  and 
soldier,  born  in  New  York  in  1764.  Having  for  six 
years  filled  the  office  of  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  State, 
he  was  appointed  to  command  the  New  York  militia  in 
the  war  of  1812.  He  co-operated  with  De  Witt  Clinton 
in  the  work  of  the  Erie  Canal,  being  president  of  the 
board  of  commissioners  for  fifteen  years.  He  founded 
in  1824  the  Rensselaer  Institute  (now  the  Polytechnic 
School)  at  Troy,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  science.  He  was  also  chancellor  of  the 
State  University.     Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Discourse  on  the  Life,  etc.  of  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,"  by 
D.  D.  Bernard. 

Van  Santen.    See  Santen,  van. 

Van  Sant'voord,  (George,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Belleville,  New  Jersey,  in  1819, 
has  published  a  "Life  of  Algernon  Sidney,"  (1851,) 
"Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  the  United  States," 
(1854,)  and  several  legal  works.     Died  March  6,  1863. 

Van  Schendel,  vSn  sK§n'del,  (Petrus,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Belgian  painter,  born  at  Br^da  in  1806.  His 
market-scenes,  and  interiors  illuminated  with  fire,  moon- 
light, or  lamps,  are  master-pieces.     Died  in  1870. 

Van-sit'tart,  (Nicholas,)  Lord  Bexley,  an  English 
politician,  born  in  London  in  1766,  was  distinguished  as 
a  financier.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from 
1812  to  1823,  and  was  made  a  baron  in  the  latter  year. 
Deed  in  1851. 

Vansomer,  vin'so'mer,  (Paul,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1575,  settled 
in  England,  where  he  was  liberally  patronized  by  the 
nobility.  Among  his  principal  works  are  portraits  of 
James  I.,  Lord  Bacon,  and  William,  Earl  of  Pembroke. 
Died  in  162 1. 

Vanstabel,  v6N'stt'b§l',  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  1746.  He  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  1793  by  convoying  one  hundr'id 
and  seventy  merchant-vessels  from  the  United  States  »o 
Brest.     Died  in  1797. 

Van  Stork.    See  Stork,  van. 

Van  Swanevelt     See  Swanevelt,  van. 

Van  Swieten.     Sec  Swieten,  van. 

Van  Thulden.     See  Thulden,  van. 

Van  Tromp.     See  Tromp,  van. 

Vanucchi.     See  Sario,  del. 

Vanucci.     See  Perugino. 

Vanuden,  vi-nii'den,  (Lucas,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1595,  was  sometimes  em- 
ployed by  Rubens  to  paint  the  backgrounds  to  his 
pictures.  He  also  produced  a  number  of  admirable 
etchings.     Died  about  1672. 

Van  Utrecht,  vtn  ii'tR§Kt,  (Adriaan,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  still  life,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1599.  His 
delineations  of  flowers,  fruit,  game,  etc.  were  unsur- 
passed, and  command  very  high  prices.     Died  in  1651. 

Van  Veen,  (Martin.)     See  Heemskekk. 

Van  Veen,  vSn  van,  [Lat.  VAE'Niusor  Ottove'nius,] 
(Otho,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  about  1550, 
studied  at  Rome  under  Zucchero.  1  le  afterwards  founded 
an  Academy  at  Antwerp,  and  numbered  Rubens  among 
his  pujjils.     He  painted  several  historical  pieces,  and  a 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAffrt;z,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f4t;  mkv,  n6t;  good;  moon, 


VANVITELLI 


2371 


VARIGNON 


full-length  portrait  of  Alexander  Farnese,  Duke  of 
Parma,  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works.  He  also  wrote 
a  "History  of  the  War  of  the  Batavians,"  from  Tacitus, 
illustrated  with  his  own  designs.     Died  about  1630. 

Vzinvitelli,  vin-ve-tel'iee,  (Gastaro,)  the  Italianized 
name  of  Caspar  van  Witel,  (wee'tel,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Utrecht  about  1650.  He  went  to  Italy  in  early 
youth,  worked  many  years  at  Rome  and  Naples,  and 
gained  distinction  as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  archi- 
tecture.    Died  in  1736. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Vanvitelli,  (LuiGi,)  a  celebrated  architect,  born  at 
Naples  in  1700,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  pupil 
of  Ivara.  He  was  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's, 
at  Rome,  in  1725,  and  encircled  the  dome  of  that  edifice 
with  iron  bands.  He  designed  the  large  convent  of  Sant' 
Agostino  at  Rome.  His  caj^ital  work  is  the  magnificent 
royal  palace  at  Caserta,  which  he  built  for  Charles,  King 
of  Naples,  and  commenced  in  1752.  It  is  about  seven 
hundred  and  thirty  feet  long.  This  palace  is  highly 
praised  by  Quatrem^re  de  Quincy,  who  says  it  exhibits 
unity  in  every  part,  is  simple,  with  variety,  and  complete 
in  all  respects.     Died  at  Caserta  in  1773. 

See  L.  Vanvitelli,  "Vita  di  Luigi  Vanvitelli,"  1823;  Milizia, 
"  Memorie  degli  Architetti ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ni£rale." 

Van  Vleck,  (Henry  Jacob,)  an  American  (Mora- 
vian) bishop,  born  in  Philadelphia,  January  29,  1822. 
His  father  and  grandfather  were  also  Moravian  bishops. 
He  was  educated  at  Nazareth  and  Bethlehem,  Pennsyl- 
vania, graduating  at  the  Moravian  Theological  Seminary 
in  1841,  was  a  teacher,  1841-66,  took  orders  as  a  Mo- 
ravian presbyter  in  1867,  and  in  1881  was  consecrated  a 
bishop,  having  his  episcopal  seat  at  Gnadenhiitten,  Ohio. 

Van  Wart,  (Isaac,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Westchester  county.  New  York,  in  1748,  was  one  of  the 
three  captors  of  Major  Andre.     Died  in  1828. 

Vapereau,  vt'peh-ro'  or  vip'ro',  (Louis  Gustave,) 
a  French  biographer,  born  at  Orleans  in  1819.  He 
published  in  1844  a  work  "On  the  Liberal,  Moral,  and 
Religious  Character  of  Modern  Philosophy."  Having 
studied  law,  he  was  admitted  as  an  advocate  in  1854. 
He  was  the  chief  editor  of  a  "General  Dictionary  of 
Contemporary  Biography,"  ("Dictionnaire  universel  des 
Contemporains,"  (first  edition,  1858;  fifth  edition,  1880,) 
and  of  a  "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Literature." 

Vaqueiras,  de,  deh  vS'ki'rds',  ( Ra mk a ur,)  a  trouba- 
dour, born  (probably  before  l  iSo)  near  Orange,  in  France. 
He  was  a  favourite  of  Boniface  II.,  Marquis  of  Mont- 
ferrat,  whom  he  accompanied  on  a  crusade.  He  was 
probably  killed  in  a  war  against  the  Bulgarians,  about 
1207. 

VarahS,  va-ri'ha,  \i.e.  in  Sanscrit,  a  "hog"  or 
"boar,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the 
third  avatar  of  Vishnu.  A  mighty  monster  or  giant 
named  Hiranyaksha  (he-ran-yik'sha*)  is  said  to  have 
seized  the  earth  and  carried  it  into  the  depths  of  the 
ocean.  Vishnu,  assuming  the  form  of  a  boar,  (the  sym- 
bol of  strength,)  dived  into  the  ocean,  and,  after  a  ter- 
rible contest  of  one  thousand  years,  slew  the  monster 
and  restored  the  earth,  bearing  it  above  the  waters  on 
the  point  of  his  tusks.  This  fable  not  improbably  has 
reference  to  some  geological  change  in  the  earth's  surface. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Varanda,  vt'rSN'dt',  (Jean,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Nimes,  graduated  at  Montpellier  in  1587. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  where 
he  died  in  1617. 

Va-ra'nes  [Gr.  Oi'apcii'Tyfl  or  Bahram  I.,  King  of 
Persia,  was  a  son  of  Hormisdas  I.  He  reigned  from 
274  to  277  A.D.,  and  waged  war  against  Queen  Zenobia. 

Varanes  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  began  to  reign 
in  277  A.D.  He  was  involved  in  war  with  the  Roman 
emperor  Carus,  who  took  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon.  Died 
in  294. 

His  son,  Varanes  III.,  reigned  only  eight  months, 
and  died  in  294. 

Varanes  IV.,  a  brother  of  Sapor  III.,  began  to  reign 
in  390  AD.    Died  about  404  a.d. 


•  Given  in  a  strangely  corrupted  form  (F.rmaccasen)  in  Southev's 
"Ciir'^e  of  Keli^ma."  vol  i.,  x. 


Varanes  or  Bahram  (or  Baharam)  V.  was  a  son 

of  Yezdegerd  I.  He  becatne  King  of  Persia  in  420  or 
421.  He  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  waged  war 
against  Theodosius  II.     Died  in  448  A.D. 

Varano,  di,  de  vd-ri'no,  (Alfonso,)  an  Italian  poet, 
borii  at  Ferrara  in  1705.  He  contributed  to  the  refor- 
mation of  Italian  poetry,  to  which  "  he  restored,"  says 
Ugoni,  "that  manly  accent  and  elevation  which  Dante 
had  given  it."  Among  his  works  are  "Sacred  and  Moral 
Visions,"  ("Visioni  sacre  e  morali.")     Died  in  1788. 

See  Pannelli,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Alfonso  Varano,"  1826. 

Varchi,  vaR'kee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
poet,  and  historian,  born  at  Florence  in  1502.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  I.,  who  made  him 
one  of  the  directors  of  his  New  Florentine  Academy 
His  principal  work  is  his  "  History  of  Florence  from 
1527  to  1538,"  ("Storia  Fiorentina,"  etc.,  1721.)  He 
also  made  translations  from  Seneca  and  Boethius,  wrote 
a  dialogue  or  treatise  on  the  Tuscan  language,  entitled 
"  L'Ercolano,"  (1570,)  and  composed  "  Sonetti,"  (2  vols., 
1557.)     Died  in  1565. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  Tiraboscm\. 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  Ginguene,  "  Histoiie  litt^raire 
d'ltalie;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Vardan.     See  Vartan. 

Vardes,  de,  deh  viRd,  (Francois  Ren6  du  Beo- 
Crespin — dii  b^k'kR^s'piN',)  Marquis,  a  French  cour- 
tier, famous  for  his  intrigues,  was  born  about  1620.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  afterwards  offended 
him,  and  was  e.xiled  from  court  in  1664.     Died  in  16SS. 

Varela  y  Ulloa,  vS-ra'li  e  ool-yo'i,  (Don  Jos6,)  a 
learned  Spanish  naval  officer,  born  in  Galicia  in  1748; 
died  in  1794. 

Varen,  vS'ren,  or  Varenius,  vJ-ra'ne-us,  (Bern- 
hard,)  an  eminent  Dutch  geographer  and  physician, 
born  at  Amsterdam  about  1610.  He  is  called  the 
founder  of  scientific  geography.  In  1642  he  produced 
a  thesis  entitled  "  First-Fruits  of  the  Philosophic  Muses," 
("Musarum  Philosophicarum  Primitise,")  and  in  1649  a 
"  Descriptioi  of  Japan."  His  chief  work  is  a  systematic 
treatise  on  geography,  "Geographia  generalis,"  (1650,) 
which  effected  a  revolution  in  the  science.  An  improved 
edition  of  it  wa  published  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  1672, 
and  another  in  /681.  This  work  of  Varen  was  the  first 
or  best  that  had  appeared  on  physical  geography.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  1660  to  16S0. 

Varenius.     See  Varen, 

Varenius,  f5-ra'ne-tis,  (August,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Liineburg  in  1620.  He 
was  a  good  Hebrew  scholar,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Isaiah,  (1708.)     Died  in  1684. 

Varenne  de  Fenille,  vt'r^n'  deh  feh-n^l',  (Phili- 
bert  Charles,)  a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  was 
born  at  Dijon.  He  published  several  useful  works.  He 
was  executed  at  Lyons  by  the  terrorists  in  1794- 

Vargas  or  Vargas-Mexia,  van'gjis  mi-Hee'i,  (Fran- 
cisco,) a  Spanish  jurist  and  diplomatist  of  high  reputa- 
tion. He  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent  by  Charles 
V.  in  1550  to  congratulate  the  Council  on  its  return  to 
that  place.  After  his  return  to  Spain  he  was  a  coun- 
cillor of  state.     Died  about  1560. 

Vargas,  de,  di  vaR'gJs,  (Luis,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1502.  In  1527  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  studied  under  Perino  del  Vaga.  _  His 
works  are  principally  religious  pieces,  and  are  painted 
both  in  oil  and  fresco.  He  ranks  among  the  best  Span- 
ish artists  of  the  time,  and  was  equally  admirable  in 
portrait  and  historical  painting.     Died  in  1568. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon;"  Quillikt 
"Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnoles. " 

Vargas-Macciucca,  vaR'gJs  mdk-chook'kil,  (Fran- 
cesco,) Marquis  of  Vatolla,  an  Italian  linguist  and  judge, 
born  at  Teramo,  in  Abruzzo,  in  1699.  He  was  a  patron 
of  literary  men,  and  wrote  several  e.'^says.    Died  in  1785. 

Vargas  y  Ponce,  vaR'gJs  e  pSn'thi.  (Jos6,)  a  Span- 
ish geographer  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Cadiz  about 
1755,  wrote  a  "Description  of  the  Balearic  Isles,"  (1787.) 
Died  in  1S21. 

Varignon,  vt'rin'y6N',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French 
mr.tlicmatician.bnrn  at  Caen  in  1654.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Paris  in  1686,  and  published  in  16S7  an  able 


cas*;  <^7ts,s:  ghard;  gasy;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  Vi,  trilled;  sass.*  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. 1 


VARILLAS 


2372 


VARRO 


work  on  statics,  called  "  Plan  of  a  New  System  of  Me- 
chanics," ("  Projet  d'une  nouvelle  Mecanique,")  in  which 
for  the  first  time  all  the  science  of  statics  was  deduced 
from  the  elementary  principle  of  the  composition  of 
forces.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
I  he  College  Mazarin  in  1688,  and  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  France  in  1704.  Among 
his  works  is  "New  Mechanics  or  Statics,"  ("Nouvelle 
Mecanique  ou  Statique,"  2  vols.,  1725.)     Died  in  1722. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoge  de  Varignon ;"  Nic^ron,  "  M^- 
moires  ;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire  des  Matheinatiques  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^iierale." 

Varillas,  vt're'yils',  (Antoine,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Gueret  in  1624,  was  a  prolific  writer.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  France  from 
the  Reign  of  Louis  XI.  to  that  of  Henry  HI.,  inclusive," 
(14  vols.  4to,  1683-94,)  and  "  History  of  the  Revolutions 
which  have  occurred  in  Europe  on  Account  of  Religion," 
(6  vols.,  1686-89.)  J^'s  reputation  for  accuracy  and 
veracity  is  not  good.     Died  in  Paris  in  1696. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique  ;"  I'.osCHERO.N,  "  Varillasiana,"  1734;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale. " 

Varin,  vt'rdN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
near  Rouen  in  1740;  died  in  1808. 

Varin,  vfr^.s',  or  Warin,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  en- 
graver and  sculptor,  born  at  Liege  in  1604,  He  was 
a  skilful  engraver  of  medals,  and  worked  mostly  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works  was  the  seal  of  the  French 
Academy,  (1635,)  and  a  marble  statue  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  1672. 

See  F^LiBiEN,  "Entretiens  sur  les  Peintres." 

Varin,  (Joseph,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  1 740,  worked  in  Paris.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  engraver  of  topography  and  architec- 
ture. He  engraved  illustrations  for  several  books.  Died 
in  1800.  Charles  Nicolas  Varin,  born  in  1745,  was 
a  brother  and  assistant  of  Joseph.     Died  in  1805. 

Va'ri-us,  (Lucius  Rufus,)  an  eminent  Roman  epic 
and  dramatic  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  of  whose  life 
little  is  known.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Maecenas, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Horace  and  Virgil,  the 
latter  of  whom  appointed  him  one  of  his  literary  ex- 
ecutors. He  was,  consequently,  living  in  19  B.C.,  the 
date  of  Virgil's  death.  He  wrote  an  epic  poem,  "  De 
Morte,"  (probably  on  the  death  of  Caesar,)  and  a  cele- 
brated tragedy  of  "  Thyestes,"  which,  according  to  Quin- 
tilian,  would  bear  a  comparison  with  any  Greek  tragedy. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  Weichert,  "  De  Vario  Poeta,"  1829,  and  "De  L.  Varii  e 
Cassii  Parmensis  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1836. 

Varlet,  v3r'14',  (Dominmque  Marie,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  Paris  in  1678.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Babylon  about  17 19,  but  on  his  arrival  at  the  Caspian 
Sea  he  learned  that  he  was  deposed  or  suspended  by 
the  pope  for  Jansenism.     He  died  in  Holland  in  1742. 

Var'ley,  (John,)  an  English  painter  in  water-colours, 
born  in  -London  about  1777.  His  works  are  chiefly 
landscapes,  which  are  ranked  among  the  finest  produc- 
tions in  that  department  of  the  art.  He  was  a  believer 
in  astrology,  to  which  he  devoted  a  great  deal  of  his 
time.      Died  in  1842. 

Varnhagen  von  Ense,  faRn'hi'gen  fon  In'seh, 
(Karl  August  Ludwig  Philipp,)  an  eminent  German 
author,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  February,  1785.  He  began 
to  study  medicine  in  Berlin  in  1800,  but  soon  renounced 
that  science,  and  applied  himself  to  philosophy,  etc.  at 
Halle,  Berlin,  and  Tiibingen.  He  entered  the  .Austrian 
army  in  1809,  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Wagram, 
and  became  aide-de-camp  of  Prince  Bentheim.  In  1813 
he  enli?ted  as  captain  in  the  Russian  army.  He  passed 
into  the  Prussian  diplomatic  service  in  1814,  attended 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  with  Prince  Hardenberg,  and 
married  Rahel  Levin  the  same  year.  He  became  in 
1819  a  resident  of  Berlin,  where  he  passed  nearly  all  of 
his  subsequent  life.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  writer  of  biography  and  history,  and  excelled  in  the 
art  of  revivifying  the  great  figures  of  the  past.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Biographic  Memorials,"  ("  Biographische 
Denkmale,"  5  vols.,  1824-30,)  "Memoirs  and  Miscel- 
lanies,"   ("Denkwiirdigkeiten    und    vermischte    Schrif- 


ten,"  7  vols.,  1837-46,)  a  "  Life  of  Field-Marshal  Keith," 
(1844,)  and  a  "Life  of  Karl  Miiller,"  (1847.)  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt.  Died 
in  Berlin  in  October,  1858. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  January,  1841. 

Varnhagen  von  Ense,  (Rahel  Antonie  Frie- 
derike  Levin — li-veen',)  wife  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parents,  in  Berlin,  in  1 77 1.  She  was 
a  woman  of  superior  intellect,  and  celebrated  for  her 
conversational  powers.  ■  Her  ialon  was  frequented  by 
the  Schlegels,  the  Humboldts,  Tieck,  and  other  eminent 
authors.  She  became  a  professor  of  Christianity  a  short 
time  before  her  marriage,  which  occurred  in  1814.  Died 
in  1833.  Her  husband  published  a  work  called  "Rahel, 
a  Book  of  Remembrance  for  her  Friends,"  (3  vols., 
1834,)  which  contains  some  of  her  writings. 

See  De  Custine,  "Madame  Varnhagen  d'Ense,"  1S38 ;  KuNZ, 
"Rahel :  Geistes-  und  Charnkter-Gemaldediesergrossen  Frau,"  1835; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1S41. 

Varnier,  vSR'ne-i',  a  French  writer  on  medicine  and 
chemistry,  was  born  at  Vitry-on-the-Marne  in  1 709.  He 
died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Var'num,  (James  Mitcheli.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Dracut,  Massachusetts,  in  1749.  He  was  twice 
elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1787  was  appointed  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  Northwest  territory.     Died  in  1789. 

Varuum,  (Joseph  Bradley,)  an  American  Senator, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1755,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1795 
to  1811,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives from  1807  to  1811.  He  was  a  political  friend  of 
Jefferson,  and  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1811  to  1817.     Died  in  1821. 

Varoli,  v5-ro'lee,  [Lat.  Varo'lius,]  (Constant  or 
CosTANZO,)  an  Italian  anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1542  or  1543.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
lithotomist,  and  discovered  a  part  of  the  brain  called 
Pons  Varolii.  About  1572  he  became  physician  to  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "The  Optic 
Nerves,"  etc.,  ("  De  Nervis  Opticis,"  1573.)  Died  in  1575. 

Varoliua.     See  Varoli. 

Varotari,  vi-ro-tS'ree,  (  Alessandro,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  Padovanino,  born  at  Padua  in  1590, 
was  a  son  of  Dario,  noticed  below.  He  studied  at 
Venice,  and  adopted  the  style  of  Titian.  He  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  successful  imitators  of  that  master. 
His  "Marriage  at  Cana"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master- 
pieces. He  excelled  in  painting  women  and  children. 
Died  in  1650. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "  Pittori 
Veneti." 

Varotari,  (Chiara,)  an  Italian  portrait-painter,  born 
in  1582,  was  a  sister  of  the  preceding.     Died  in  1639. 

Varotari,  (Dakio,)  surnamed  Padovani.no  or  Pa- 
DUANINO,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1539. 
He  worked  at  Padua,  where  he  became  the  chief  of  a 
school.     Died  in  1596. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Var'ro,  [Fr.  Varron,  vfr6N',]  (Caius  Terentius,) 
a  Roman  general,  noted  for  his  temerity.  He  was  a 
leader  of  the  plebeians  or  popular  party,  and  was  elected 
consul  for  216  B.C.  Against  the  advice  of  the  other 
consul,  i^milius  Paulus,  Varro  offered  battle  to  Hanni- 
bal, and  was  defeated  with  great  loss  at  Cannae,  (216  B.C.) 
He  was  one  of  the  few  Romans  that  escaped  from  that 
disastrous  battle,  and  he  made  such  resolute  and  vigorous 
efforts  for  the  defence  of  the  capital  that  he  received  the 
thanks  of  the  senate.     Died  after  200  B.C. 

See  LivY,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Mommsen,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Varro,  [Fr.  Varron,]  (Marcus  Terentius,)  a  cele- 
brated Latin  author,  styled  "  the  most  learned  of  the 
Romans,"  was  born  in  116  B.C.,  probably  in  Rome.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  L.  j^lius  Stilo  and  of  Antiochus  of  .\sca- 
lon,  an  Academic  philosopher.  He  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cicero.  About  the  year  67  B.C.  he  had  a  high 
command  under  Pompey  in  the  war  against  the  pirates. 
He  fought  for  the  senate  against  Cresar  in  the  civil  war 
which  began  in  49  B.C.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  he  retired  from  public  life  and  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits.     He  was  profoundly  versed  in  nearly 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same.  le.ss  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,6,  li.y,  short;  a,  e.  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VARRO 


2373 


VASTAN 


every  department  of  literature,  and  wrote  a  great  num- 
ber of  works  on  various  subjects.  His  capital  work  was 
"Antiquitatum  Libri,"  consisting  of  twenty-five  books 
on  Human  Antiquities  and  sixteen  liooks  on  Divine 
•Antiquities,  wliich  is  not  extant.  Saint  Augustine  de- 
rived from  this  book  materials  for  his  work  "  De  Civi- 
tate  Dei."  Nearly  all  of  Varro's  works  are  lost,  except 
a  part  of  his  treatise  on  the  Latin  language,  ("  De  Lingua 
Latina,")  and  his  excellent  work  on  agriculture,"  De  Re 
Rustica  Libri  tres,")  which  is  preserved  entire.  In  43 
B.C.  he  was  proscribed  by  Mark  Antony  ;  but  he  escaped 
death  by  concealment,  and  survived  till  28  or  27  B.C. 

See  E.  Berwick,  "Life  of  Pollio,  Varro,  and  C.  Gallus,"  1815; 
Papk,  "  De  Varrone,"  1835  ;  G.  Boissier,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  lei 
Ouvrages  de  Varron,"  1861 ;  Orelli,  "  Onomasticon  Tullianurn  ;" 
Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio^raphie  Gen^rale." 

Varro,  (Publius  Terentius,)  a  Roman  poet,  sur- 
named  Ataci'nus,  from  Atax,  in  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
where  he  was  born  about  82  B.C.  He  was  the  author 
of  elegies,  epigrams,  and  epic  poems,  which  have  been 
lost,  with  the  exception  of  fragments.     Died  in  37  B.C. 

Varron.     See  Varro. 

Varst  or  Vaerst,  von,  fon  v^Rst,  (Friedrich  Chris- 
tian EuGEN,)  Baron,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Wesel  in  1792,  published  works  entitled  "Cavalier 
Perspective,"  {1836,)  "The  Pyrenees,"  (4  vols.,  1847,) 
and  "Gastrosophie,"  (1852,)  which  were  received  with 
favour.     He  lived  at  Breslau.     Died  in  1855. 

Vartan,  var'tjn',  an  Armenian  prince,  who  became 
a  professor  of  Christianity.  He  defended  the  liberty  of 
his  country  against  the  King  of  Persia,  who  attempted 
to  impose  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  by  force  on  the  Ar- 
menians. Vartan  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Persians, 
in  451  A.D, 

Vartan  or  Vardan,  a  learned  Armenian  doctor  and 
author,  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  History  of  Armenia  to  the  Year 
1267,"  and  numerous  Fables. 

Var-to-ma'nus,  the  Latin  name  of  LuiGi  Barthema 
(baR-ta'mi)  or  Varthema,  (vaR-ta'mi,)  an  Italian  trav- 
eller, born  at  Bologna  about  1480.  He  travelled  through 
Arabia  and  Persia  to  the  East  Indies,  where  he  passed 
several  years.  He  published  in  1508  a  Narrative  of  his 
travels. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Varuna,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  viir'oo-na ;  from  the 
Sanscrit  verb  vri,  to  "enclose"  or  "surround,"  and 
etymologically  related  to  the  Greek  ovpavo^,  "heaven,"] 
a  name  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  originally  applied  to 
the  sky  or  heaven,  as  enclosing  or  surrounding  the  earth, 
but  used  by  later  writers  to  designate  both  the  ocean 
(which  also  encompasses  the  earth)  and  the  regent  of 
the  sea,  or  the  deity  who  presides  over  the  waters  of 
the  ocean. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Va'rus,  a  Roman  of  the  Augustan  age,  o.  whom  little 
is  known  except  that  he  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  Vir- 
gil, who,  in  his  sixth  eclogue,  ofTers  a  graceful  homage  to 
his  merit.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Q.  Varus, 
who  fought  with  the  rank  of  general  for  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war. 

Varus,  (Publius  Atius,)  a  Roman  general  and  par- 
tisan of  Pompey  in  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  in 
Africa  in  49  B.C.,  and,  aided  by  King  Juba,  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  Curio.     He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Munda. 

Varus,  (Publius  Quintilius,)  a  Roman  general,  who 
became  consul  in  13  B.C.  and  Governor  of  Germany  about 
6  A.D.  He  had  not  the  energy  or  talents  requisite  to  man- 
age the  warlike  German  tribes,  who  were  provoked  to 
revolt  by  taxation  and  innovations  which  Varus  initiated. 
His  army  was  attacked  and  defeated  in  9  a.d.  by  a  large 
army  of  insurgents,  led  by  the  famous  chief  Arminius. 
Varus,  with  nearly  all  his  men,  perished  in  this  action, 
which  was  fought  near  the  Weser. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Suetonius,  "Augustus"  and  "Tibe- 
rius;" Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome;"  Merivale,  "History 
of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire  ;"  Essellen,  "  Nachtrag  zu  der 
Abhindlung,  iiber  den  Ort  der  Niederlage  der  Romer  unter  Varus," 

Varus,  (Quintilius,)  of  Cremona,  a  Roman  poet, 
was  a  friend  of  Horace  and  Virgil.  He  died  in  24  B.C. 
His  death  was  lamented  by  Horace  in  an  ode,  bonk  i.  24. 


Varus  Alfenus.     See  Alfenus. 

Vasa.     See  Gustavus  I. 

Vasanta,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  vus-iin'ta ;  often 
called  biis'iint  in  the  common  dialect,]  the  Sanscrit  word 
for  "spring,"  applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  a  per- 
sonification of  spring,  said  to  be  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  god  of  love.     (See  Kamadeva.) 

Vasari,  vi-sS'ree,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  painter,  ar- 
chitect, and  writer  upon  art,  was  born  at  Arezzo  in  1512. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  and  was  patronized  by  Pope  Clement  VII.,  the 
grand  duke  Cosimo  I.,  and  other  eminent  men.  His 
reputation  rests  on  his  "Lives  of  the  Most  Excellent 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1550,) 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the  kind 
that  has  appeared  in  any  language.  It  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English  and  German.  He  was  a  very  success- 
ful artist,  was  skilful  in  design,  and  painted  many  frescos 
at  Rome  and  Florence.  As  architect,  he  restored  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio  at  Florence,  and  built  other  fine  edifices 
for  the  grand  duke  Cosimo.     Died  in  1574. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Hottari,  "Giunte 
al  Vasari  ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario;"  Milizia,  "  Meniorie  degli  Ar- 
chitetti ;"  Nagler,  "  Allgeineines  Kiinsller-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  G^n^rale." 

Vasco  da  Gania,  (or  de  Gama.)     See  Gama,  da. 

Vasconcellos,  vds-kon-sel'lAs,  (Antonio,)  a  Portu- 
guese Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  about  1555. 

Vasconcellos,  (Simon,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born  in 
1599,  lived  many  years  in  Brazil.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Jesuit  Mission  in  Brazil,  (1663.)     Died  in  1670. 

Vasconcellos,  de,  di  vls-kon-sel'16s,  (Agostinho 
Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at  Evora  in  1583. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Juan  II.  of  Portugal,"  in  Spanish, 
(1639,)  and  other  works.  Having  been  implicated  in  a 
conspiracy  against  John  IV.,  he  was  put  to  death  in  1641. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires." 

Vasconcellos,  de,  (Antonio  Augusto  Texeira— 
ti-sha'e-r^,)  a  Portuguese  journalist  and  litthatettryhoxw 
at  Oi^ofto  in  1816,  published  several  political  and  his- 
torical works.     Died  Julv  29,  1878. 

Vasconcellos,  de,  (Miguel,)  a  Portuguese  states- 
man, was  a  son  of  the  jurist  Pedro  Barbosa.  He  became, 
about  1635,  secretary  of  state  and  the  inost  powerful 
minister  in  Portugal,  which  was  then  subject  to  the  King 
of  Spain.  His  tyranny  and  cruelty  excited  much  odium 
against  him.  In  December,  1640,  he  was  assassinated 
by  the  conspirators  who  raised  the  Duke  of  Braganza  to 
the  throne. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana ;"  La  Cu4db. 
"  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Vasconcellos-Coutinho,  de,  di  vas-kon-sel'lAs  ko- 
teen'yo,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Funchal, 
in  Madeira,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 

Vascosan,  de,  deh  vts'ko'zfiN',  (Michel,)  an  emi- 
nent and  learned  French  printer,  born  at  Amiens  about 
1500,  became  a  citizen  of  Paris.  He  was  connected  by 
marriage  with  Robert  Estienne.  He  published  correct 
and  elegant  editions  of  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  authors. 
Died  in  1576. 

Vaseef  or  Vasif,  vi-seef,  written  also  Vassif,* 
(Ahmed,  ^n'med,)  a  Turkish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Bagdad  about  1740.  He  collected  the  works  of  several 
Furkish  historians,  and  published  them  under  the  title 
of  "Annals  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (1804-)  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Reign  of  Selim  III.   Died  in  1806. 

Va'sey,  (George,)  M. I).,  a  botanist,  born  in  York- 
shire, England,  February  23,  1822.  He  graduated  at  a 
medical  college  in  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1847,  and 
in  1848  removed  to  Illinois.  In  1872  he  became  botanist 
to  the  United  States  department  of  agriculture.  Among 
his  publications  are  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Trees  of  the 
United  States,"  (1875,)  ^"<i  '""^  special  reports  on  the 
Grasses  of  the  United  States,  (1S83-84.) 

Vasi,  vi'see,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  designer  and  en- 
graver, born  in  Sicily  in  1710,  worked  in  Rome.  He 
published  a  collection  of  engravings  of  the  monuments, 
churches,  etc.  of  that  city.     Died  in  1782. 

Vasiau,  vi'se-Sn',  written  also  Vassian  and  Was- 


•  See  Introduction,  Section  L,  14,  (p.  9.) 


€  as  k:  9  as  j;  g  hiirJ:  g  asy  .•  g,  h,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  «;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=°See  Explanations,  \\  2^.  \ 


VASIF 


2374 


VATTEVILLh 


sian,  Archbishop  of  Rostow,  a  Russian  prelate,  noted 
for  his  courage  and  patriotism.     Died  in  1481. 

Vasifl     See  Vaseef. 

Vasili,  vi-see'lee,  or  Vasilii,  vA-seel'yee,  written  also 
VassiliandWasilei,  (or  Basil,)  I.,  Grand  Prince  of  Rus- 
sia, born  in  1236,  began  to  reign  in  1272.     Died  in  1276. 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  II.,  a  son  of  Dmitri  Donskoi,  was 
born  in  1372,  and  became  grand  prince  in  1389.  He  was  a 
tributary  of  the  grand  horde  of  Tartars.     Died  in  1425. 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  III.,  born  in  141 5,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  In  his  reign  Russia  was  afflicted  with 
civil  war  and  other  calamities.     Died  in  1462. 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  IV.,  a  son  of  Ivan  III.,  was  born  in 
1479,  and  became  grand  prince  in  1 505.  He  obtained 
Smolensk  by  conquest  from  the  Lithuanians  in  1514. 
and  increased  the  power  of  Russia.  He  died  in  1533, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Ivan  IV. 

See  Karamzin,  "  Histoire  de  Russie. " 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  V.,  (Ivanovitch  Shooiskoi  or 
SCHUisKOi,)  born  in  1553,  began  to  reign  in  1606.  He 
was  deposed  by  the  boyards,  who  confined  him  in  a 
convent  in  1610.     Died  in  1612. 

Vasishtha,  vi-slsht'ha,  a  legendary  sage  and  hero  of 
India,  the  reputed  author  of  many  of  the  Vedic  hymns. 
He  was  the  great  rival  of  Viswamitra,  (q.  v.,)  and  had  a 
cow  which  protected  him  from  all  dangers  and  gave  him 
everything  he  wished. 

Vasoky.     See  S£sha. 

Vasquez,  vas-k§th',  or  Vasques,  vSs'kSs,  (Alfonso,) 
a  painter,  born  of  Spanish  parents  at  Rome  about  1575, 
removed  to  Seville  in  his  childhood,  and  worked  there 
with  success.     Died  about  1645. 

Vasquez  or  Vasques,  (Gabriel,)  a  Spanish  casuist 
and  Jesuit,  born  in  New  Castile  in  1551 ;  died  in  1604. 

Vasquez  de  Corouado,  vds-kSth'  di  ko-ro-ni'Do, 
(FR.A.XCISCO,)  a  Spanish  explorer,  born  at  Salamanca 
about  1 5 10.  He  emigrated  to  Mexico,  and  in  1540  re- 
ceived the  command  of  a  party  which  the  viceroy  sent 
to  explore  the  interior,  from  which  expedition  he  returned 
insane.     Died  probably  in  1542. 

Vassal,  de,  deh  vt'siK,  (Fortanier,)  a  French  car- 
dinal and  negotiator,  born  at  Vailhac;  died  in  1361. 

Va.ssal,  de,  (Jacque.s,)  Marquis  de  Montviel,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1659;  died  in  1744. 

Vassali-Eandi,  v^s-si'lee  i-an'dee,  (Antonio  Ma- 
ria,) an  Italian  savant,  born  at  Turin  in  1761.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Turin  from  1792  to  1809."     Died  in  1825. 

Vas'sar,  (Mati  hew,)  born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk, 
England,  in  1792,  emigrated  to  America,  and  settled  at 
Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  where  he  amassed  a  large 
fortune.  In  1861  he  gave  the  sum  of  $408,000  to  found 
the  Vassar  Female  College,  near  Poughkeepsie.  He 
died  June  23,  1868,  while  reading  an  address  to  the 
trustees  of  the  college.  Besides  the  gift  above  men- 
tioned, he  left  the  college  a  large  sum  in  his  will,  in- 
cluding the  following  bequests:  $50,000  as  a  Lecture 
Fund,  $50,000  as  a  Library,  Art,  and  Cabinet  Fund,  and 
$50,000  as  an  Auxiliary  Fund  for  aiding  students  unuble 
to  pay  the  full  college  expenses. 

Vasselier,  vts'le^',  (Joseph,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Rocroy  in  1735,  was  a  correspondent  of  Voltaire.  He 
wrote  tales,  songs,  etc.     Died  at  Lyons  in  1798. 

Vasselin,  vfe'l^N',  (Georges  Victor,)  a  French 
publicist  and  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1767 ;  died  in  1801. 

Vasseur,  (Jacques.)     See  Le  Vasseur. 

Vassif.     See  Vaseef. 

Vassor,  Le.     See  Le  Vassor. 

Vasto,  del.     See  Avalos,  (Alfonso  II.) 

VasudSva,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  vus-oo-da'va,]  in 
the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the  father  of  Krishna, 
and  sometimes  used  as  an  appellation  of  that  god. 

Vasuki.     See  Sesha. 

Vatable,  vS'tSbl',  originally  written  TVatebled  or 
Gastelbled,  [Lat.  Vata'blus,]  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
priest,  born  in  Picardy.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  College  Royal  at  Paris.  He  translated  Aristotle's 
"  Parva  Naturalia"  into  Latin.     Died  in  1547. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Eruditorum  ;"  Saintb-Marthk,  "  Elogia." 

Vatablus.     See  Vatable. 


Vatace.     See  Vataces. 

Vataces,  (accentuation  doubtful,)  [Fr.  Vatace,  vf- 
tSss',]  (John  Ducas,)  Emperor  of  Nicrea,  born  in  Thrace 
in  H93,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Theodore  Lascaris,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1222.  He  waged  war  against  the  Latin 
prince  Robert  de  Courtenay,  and  several  other  princes. 
Died  in  1255. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Vater,  fl'ter,  (Abraham,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1684.  He  was  professor  of  botany 
and  anatomy  at  Wittenberg.     Died  in  1751. 

Vater,  (Johann  Severin,)  a  German  theologian  and 
philologist,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1771.  He  studied  at 
Jena  and  Halle,  and  in  1800  became  professor  of  theology 
and  Oriental  literature  at  the  latter  university.  He  was 
professor  of  history  at  Konigsberg  from  1 8 10  to  1820, 
and  returned  to  Halle  in  the  latter  year.  He  j^ublished 
(1809-17)  two  volumes  to  complete  the  "  Mithridates"  of 
Adelung,  who  had  left  his  work  unfinished.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,"  (3  vols., 
1802,)  and  a  "  Universal  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
since  the  Reformation,"  (3  vols.,  1818-23.)  Died  in  1826. 

See  NlEMEVER,  "  Uebersiclit  des  Lebeiis  Vater's,"  in  llie  fifth 
edition  of  Vater's  "  Synchronische  Tafeln  der  Kirchengescliichte." 

Vathek.     See  Wathek. 

Vatia,  va'she-a,  (PuiiLius  Servilius,)  surnamed  Isau- 
ricus,  a  Roman  commander,  whose  name  first  appears 
in  100  B.C.  He  became  consul  in  79,  and  commanded  a 
fleet  and  army  sent  in  78  B.C.  against  the  pirates,  whom 
he  defeated,  and  also  the  Isauri.     Died  in  44  B.C. 

Vatimesnil,  de,  deh  vS'te'mi'niK,  (Antoine  Fran- 
cois Henri  Lefekvre,)  a  French  advocate  and  politician, 
born  at  Rouen  in  17S9,  was  a  moderate  royalist.  He  be- 
came advocate-general  to  the  court  of  cassation  at  Paris 
in  1824,  and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  Feb- 
ruary, 1828,  to  August,  1829.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1834,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849.     Died  in  1S60. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale." 

V^-tin'i-us,  (PuBLius,)  a  Roman  demagogue,  noto- 
rious for  his  >'ices,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  59  B.C., 
by  the  aid  of  Caesar,  of  whom  he  was  a  violent  partisan. 
He  was  denounced  by  Cicero  in  a  public  speech  about 
56  B.C.  In  the  year  54  or  55  he  competed  with  Catofor 
the  office  of  praetor,  and  was  elected  by  bribery.  During 
the  civil  war  he  commanded  one  of  Caesar's  armies,  and 
gained  a  victory  in  Illyricum  in  46  B.C.   Died  after  43  B.C. 

Vatke,  f^t'keh,  (Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  near  Magdeburg  in  1806.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1837, 
and  published  several  works. 

Vatout,  vM'too',  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Villefranche  (Rhone)  in  1792.  He  became  first  libra- 
rian to  Louis  Philippe  in  1832,  and  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1848.  He  published,  besides  several 
novels,  "Historical  Souvenirs  of  the  Royal  Residences 
of  France,"  (7  vols.,  1837-46.)    Died  in  England  in  1848. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^n^rale." 

Vattel,  von,  fon  vtt'tgK  or  vSt'tel,  (Emrich,)  a  cele- 
brated Swiss  jurist  and  writer,  born  in  the  principality 
of  Neufchatel  in  1714.  He  studied  at  the  Universities 
of  Bale  and  Geneva,  and  in  1741  visited  Berlin,  where 
he  published  his  "Defence  of  the  System  of  Leibnitz," 
(in  French,  1742,)  dedicated  to  Frederick  the  Great.  In 
1746  he  was  sent  as  Polish  minister  to  Berne  by  Augustus, 
Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland.  He  published 
in  1758  his  principal  work,  entitled  "The  Right  of  Na- 
tions, or  the  Principles  of  Natural  Law  applied  to  the 
Conduct  and  Aff"airs  of  Nations  and  Sovereigns,"  which 
has  passed  through  numerous  editions  and  been  trans- 
lated into  the  princii:)al  European  languages.  He  was 
the  author  of  other  works  on  various  subjects,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  entitled  "Questions  of  Natural 
Law,  and  Observations  on  WolfTs  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Nature,"  (1762.)     Died  in  1767. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
Aiij;iist,  1760. 

Vatteville,   de,    deh    vtt'vil',   (Jean,)   a    Roman 


i.e, 


e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short:  a.  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VA  TTIER 


2375 


VA  UGH  AN 


Catholic  priest,  notorious  for  his  adventures  and  criminal 
intrigues,  was  born  at  Besancon  about  1613.  He  entered 
the  Turkish  service,  after  he  had  committed  several 
homicides,  and  obtained  the  command  of  an  army,  which 
he  betrayed  to  the  Austrians.  For  this  service  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  rich  abbey  of  Baume,  in  Franche- 
Comte,  in  1659.  He  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  intrigues 
by  which  Franche-Comte  was  annexed  to  France  about 
1666.     Died  in  1702. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Vattier,  vi'te-i',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  physi- 
cian, was  born  near  Lisieux,  in  Normandy,  in  1623.  He 
translated  several  works  from  the  Arabic,  including 
Avicenna's  "Treatise  on  Mental  Diseases."  Vattier  was 
physician  to  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans.     Died  in  1667. 

Vauban,  de,  deh  vo'bfiN',  (Antoine  le  Prestre — 
leh  pRitR,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  1659,  was 
a  cousin  of  the  famous  Vauban.  He  was  an  engineer, 
and  distinguished  himself  at   several  sieges.     Died  in 

1731- 

Vauban,  de,  (S6bastien  le  Prestre,)  Seigneur,  a 
famous  French  military  engineer,  born  at  Saint-Leger  de 
Fougeret  (Nievre)  in  May,  1633.  Having  acquired  some 
skill  in  mathematics,  he  entered  in  165 1  the  army  of  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  then  waging  a  civil  war  against  the 
French  court.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French 
in  1653,  and  persuaded  by  Cardinal  Mazarin  to  join  the 
royal  army.  He  gained  early  distinction  by  his  courage 
and  his  skill  in  conducting  sieges,  and  received  the 
brevet  of  royal  engineer  in  1655.  Under  the  orders  of 
Turenne,  he  directed  the  sieges  of  Landrecies,  Conde, 
and  Saint-Ghislain,  (1655,)  and  rendered  important  ser- 
vices at  Gravelines,  Audenarde,  and  Ypres  in  1658.  He 
married  Jeanne  d'Aulnay  in  1660.  After  several  years 
of  peace,  the  war  was  renewed  in  1667.  Under  Louis 
XIV.,  commanding  in  person,  Vauban  took  Tournay, 
Douai,  and  Lille.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  con- 
structing fortifications  at  Lille,  Arras,  and  other  places 
in  Flanders,  and  made  important  improvements  in  the 
art  (if  fortification.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  mare- 
chal -de-camp  in  1676,  after  which  he  improved  and 
fortified  the  ports  of  Dunkirk,  Toulon,  etc.  Among  his 
greatest  achievements  was  the  capture  of  the  strong 
fortress  of  Namur,  where,  says  Macaulay,  "  the  two  great 
masters  of  the  art  of  fortification  were  opposed  to  each 
other,  Vauban  had,  during  many  years,  been  regarded 
as  the  first  of  engineers  ;  but  a  formidable  rival  had  lately 
arisen,  Menno,  Baron  of  Cohorn."  {"  History  of  Eng- 
land," vol.  iv.)  Namur  was  taken  in  June,  1692.  Vauban 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Attack  of  Places,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Defence  of  Places,"  (1737.)  He  had 
the  courage  to  advise  the  king  to  re-establish  the  edict 
of  Nantes  in  favour  of  religious  liberty.  He  died  in  1707, 
leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  probity  and  other  virtues. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoge  de  Vauban  ;"  Carnot,  "  £loge  de 
Vauban,"  1784  ;  Amanton,  "  Notice  sur  Vauban,"  1829  ;  De  Cham- 
BRAV,  "Notice  historique  sur  Vauban,"  1845;  Saint  Simon,  "Me- 
moires;" Noel,  "  filoge  de  Vauban,"  1790;  D'Antillv,  "  Eloge 
de  Vauban,"  1788:  De  Sauviac,  "  filoge  de  Vauban,"  1790;  Vol- 
taire, "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  De  Courcelles,  "Dictionnaire 
des  Generaux  Frangais;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Vaublanc,  de,  deh  v5'bl6N',  (Vincent  Marie 
Vienot — ve'i'no',)  Count,  a  French  politician,  born 
in  Saint  Domingo  in  1756,  was  a  royalist  in  the  Revo- 
lution. He  was  detected  in  several  plots  against  the 
republic,  was  proscribed  in  1797,  but  saved  himself  by 
flight,  and  held  several  high  offices  under  Napoleon. 
He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  September,  1815, 
to  May,  1816.  He  died  in  1845,  leaving  autobiographic 
"Memoires  et  Souvenirs,"  (2  vols.,  1839.) 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Vaucanson,  de,  deh  v6'kflN's6N',  (Jacques,)  a  cele- 
brated French  mechanician,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1709. 
His  inventive  genius  and  his  love  for  mechanical  arts 
were  displayed  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1738  he  exhibited 
in  Paris  his  Automaton  Flute-Player,  which  caused  a 
great  sensation.  Among  several  works  of  this  kind,  the 
most  wonderful  and  ingenious,  perhaps,  is  his  Automaton 
Duck,  which  swam,  quacked,  dressed  its  feathers  with 


its  bill,  and  swallowed  barley.  He  was  appointed  in- 
spector of  the  silk-manufactories,  and  invented  some 
machines  which  were  very  useful  jn  the  fabrication  of  silk 
stuffs.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  CoNuiiRCET,  "Eloges;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Vauchelet,  voshli',  (Auguste  Th6ophilf.,)  a 
French  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Passy, 
near  Paris,  in  1802.      Died  April  22,  1873. 

Vaucher,  vo'shaik',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  bota- 
nist and  theologian,  born  at  Geneva  about  1763.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  or  ecclesiastical  history  at  Geneva. 
In  1803  he  published  a  "History  of  Fresh-Water  Con- 
fervae,"  which  was  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  is  a  treatise  on  the  Physiology  of  European 
Plants,  "  Histoire  physiologique  des  Plantes  d'Eu- 
rope,"  (4  vols.,  1841,)  on  which  he  expended  the  labour 
of  many  years.  A  genus  of  Algae  was  named  Vaucheria 
in  honour  of  him  by  De  Candolle.     Died  in  1841. 

Vaudemont,  de,  deh  vod'mAN',  Prince,  a  Dutch 
general,  who  commanded  an  army  in  Flanders,  and  was 
opposed  to  Villeroy,  in  1695.  According  to  Macaulay, 
he  was  "  one  of  the  ablest  commanders  in  the  Dutch 
service."     ("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

Vaudemont,  de,  deh  vod'miN',  (Antoine  de  Lor- 
raine— deh  lo'rin',)  Count,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  died  in  1431.  The  succession  to 
this  duchy  was  disputed  by  Rene  of  Anjou  and  the 
Count  de  Vaudemont.  The  latter  defeated  Ren^  in 
battle,  and  the  contest  was  settled  by  a  marriage  of  a 
son  of  the  Count  de  Vaudemont  with  a  daughter  of 
Rene,  (1444)     Died  in  1447. 

See  D.  Calmet,  "  Histoire  de  Lorraine." 

Vaudoncourt,  de,  deh  vo'd^N'kooR',  (Fr£d6ric 
Franqois  Guillaume,)  Baron,  a  French  general  and 
writer,  born  at  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1772.  He  obtained 
command  of  the  artillery  of  the  right  wing  of  the  army 
in  Italy  in  1800,  was  employed  to  organize  the  Italian 
artillery  in  1803,  and  became  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1809.  In  1815  he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Bourbons,  and  became  an  exile.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  military  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Campaigns  of 
1814  and  1815  in  France,"  (5  vols.,  1826,)  and  "  Fifteen 
Years  of  an  Exile,"  ("Quinze  Annees  d'un  Proscrit," 
4  vols.,  1835.)     Died  in  1845. 

See  F.  Thierry,  "  Le  General  Baron  F.  F.  G.  de  Vaudoncourt," 
etc.,  1846;  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Vaudoyer,  vo'dwd'yi',  (L60N,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1826.  His  plan  for  the  new  cathedral  of  Marseilles  was 
adopted  in  1854.     Died  February  9,  1872. 

Vaudreuil,  de,  deh  v5'dRul'  or  v5'druh'ye,  (Louis 
Philippe  de  Rigaud — deh  re'go',)  Comte,  a  brave 
French  naval  officer,  born  at  Quebec  in  1691  ;  died  in 
1763.  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  at  Rochefort  in 
1724,  served  with  distinction  in  the  navy,  and  became  a 
lieutenant-general.     Died  in  1802. 

Vaudrey,  v5'dRi',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Dijon  in  1784.  He  was  a  colonel  in  the 
army  at  Strasburg  when  Louis  Napoleon  attempted  to 
initiate  an  insurrection  there.  He  aided  and  abetted 
that  attempt,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  general 
of  brigade  in  1852.     Died  in  1857. 

Vaugelas,  de,  deh  vozh'ld',  (Claude  Favre,)  an 
eminent  French  grammarian,  born  nearTrevoux  in  1585, 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  Dic- 
tionary of  that  Academy,  and  published  "Remarks  on 
the  French  Language,"  (1647.)  He  was  very  fastidious 
in  respect  to  purity  of  language,  and  was  regarded  as  an 
oracle  in  questions  of  grammar  and  style.  He  spent 
many  years  on  a  translation  of  Quintus  Curtius,  (1653.) 
Died  in  1650. 

See  Pellisson,  "  Histoire  de  I'Acad^mie  ;"  NicArom,  "  M^ 
moires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Vaughan,  vau'an,  (almost  vawn,)  (Alfred,)  an  Eng- 
lish poet  and  reviewer,  born  in  1823,  was  a  son  of 
Robert,  noticed  below.  He  became  a  dissenting  min- 
ister at  Birmingham,  contributed  to  the  "  British  Quar- 
terly Review,"  and  published  "  Hours  with  the  Mystics." 
Died  in  1857. 


!,•  5asj;  ^hard;  gasy/G,  \i,Yi,  guttural;  a, nasal;  v^,trilleJ;  sass;  thasin//«.f.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VAUGHAN 


2376 


VE 


Vaughan,  (Charles  John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
born  in  1816.  lie  was  educated  at  Rugby,  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  graduating  in  1838.  He  was  head- 
master of  Harrow  School  from  1847  to  1859.  In  1869 
he  was  mrde  Master  of  the  Temple,  and  in  1879  Dean 
of  Llandaff.  He  published  many  volumes  of  sermons, 
besides  other  works,  chiefly  religious.  He  is  regarded 
as  a  "Broad-Church"  leader. 

Vaughan,  (Henry,)  a  British  poet  and  physician, 
born  in  Brecknockshire,  Wales,  in  1621,  is  called  the 
SiLURiST,  because  a  native  of  Siluria,  or  South  Wales. 
He  was  the  author  of  devotional  poems,  entitled  "Silex 
Scintillans,"  (1650,)  "Thalia  Rediviva,  the  Pastimes  and 
Diversions  of  a  Country  Muse,"  (1678,)  "The  Mount  of 
Olives,"  (in  prose,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1695.  His 
twin  brother  Thomas,  a  clergyman,  wrote  treatises  on  al- 
chemy, under  the  pseudonym  of  Eugenius  Philalethes. 
He  was  born  in  i62i,and  died  at  Albury  in  1665.  Both 
were  Oxford  bred,  and  both  were  loyalists. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  iii.,  1821. 

Vaughan,  (Sir  John,)  a  distinguished  jurist,  born  in 
Cardiganshire  in  1608.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  rose 
to  be  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1668.  Died 
in  1674. 

Vaughan,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1772.  He  became  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas  in  1834. 
Died  in  1839. 

Vaughan,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  English  Congrega 
tional  divine,  born  in  1795,  became  professor  of  history 
in  London  University,  (University  College,)  and  subse- 
quently president  of  the  Independent  College  at  Man- 
chester. In  1844  he  began  to  edit  the  "  British  Quarterly 
Review,"  of  w-hich  he  was  the  founder.  He  published 
"  Memorials  of  the  Stuart  Dynasty,"  etc.,  "  Causes  of 
the  Corruption  of  Christianity,"  (1834,)  "The  Protector- 
ate of  Oliver  Cromwell,"  (1838,)  "History  of  England 
under  the  House  of  Stuart,"  (1840,)  "John  de  Wycliffe, 
D.D.,  a  Monograph,  with  some  Account  of  the  Wycliffe 
Manuscripts,"  (1853,)  and  various  other  works.  Died  in 
1868. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Vaughan,  (Sir  William,)  a  poet,  born  in  Caermar- 
thenshire,  in  Wales,  in  1577,  was  the  author  of  "The 
Golden  Fleece,"  (a  very  curious  book,  written  at  Cam- 
brial  Colchos,  in  Newfoundland,)  and  other  works  in 
prose  and  verse.     Died  in  1640. 

Vaugiraud,  de,  deh  vo'zhe'rS',  (Pierre  RENfi 
Marie,)  a  French  vice-admiral,  born  at  Sables  d'Olonne 
in  1 741.  He  emigrated  as  a  royalist  about  1790,  and 
became  Governor  of  Martinique  in  1814.     Died  in  1819. 

Vaugondy.    See  Robert  de  Vaugondy. 

Vauguyon,  de  la,  deh  It  vo'ge'AN',  (Antoine  Paul 
JACQUES  de  Quelen — deh  ki'lSN',)  Due,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Tonneins  in  1706.  He  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Fonteiioy,  (i745-)  He  was  afterwards 
governor  of  the  sons  of  the  dauphin,  who  became  Louis 
XVL,  Louis  XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.     Died  in  1772. 

Vaulabelle,  de,  deh  v6'lS'b§l',  (AcHiLLETenaille — 
teh-nSI'  or  teh-nt'ye,)  a  French  journalist  and  statesman, 
born  in  the  department  of  Yonne  in  1799.  He  became 
in  1838  associate  editor  of  "  Le  National,"  a  repub- 
lican or  advanced  liberal  daily  paper.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  the  Two  Restorations  to  the  Fall  of 
Charles  X.,"  (6  vols.,  1844  et  seq.)  He  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  from  July  to  October,  1848.  Died 
March  27,  1879. 

Vaulabelle,  de,  (Mathieu  Tenaille,)  called  El6- 
ONORE,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  1801,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  many  vaudevilles.  Died 
in  1859. 

Vauquelin,  vok'liN',  (Jean,)  Sieur  de  La  Fresnaye, 
a  French  poet,  born  near  Falaise  in  1535.  He  became 
president  of  a  court,  called  presidial,  at  Caen,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  He  wrote  agreeable  idyls,  and 
other  short  poems.     Died  in  1607. 

His  son  Nicolas  was  a  poet.    (See  Des  Yveteaux.) 

See  V.  Choisy,  "Jean  Vauquehn  de  La  Fresnaye,"  •S41. 

Vauquelin,  (Louis  Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French 
chemist,  born  near  Pont-l'fiveque  (Calvados)  in  May, 
1 763.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Fourcroy,  of  whom  he  became 


an  intimate  friend  and  coadjutor.  He  was  appointed 
assistant  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
about  1795,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  In  1801  he 
succeeded  Darcet  as  professor  at  the  College  de  France, 
and  in  1804  obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  applied  to 
the  arts,  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  He  improved 
the  methods  of  chemical  analysis,  and  discovered  two 
elementary  substances, — chromium  and  glucina.  He 
wrote  many  "Memoires,"  inserted  in  the  "  Annales  de 
Chimie"  and  other  periodicals.  Died  in  November, 
1829. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Vauquelin;"  Chevallier.  "  Inaugura- 
tion d'un  Monument  i  la  Memoire  de  L.  N.  Vauquelin:  Notice 
bic^aphique  de  ce  Chimiste,"  1850;  Dr.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Chimie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vauthier-Galle,  vo'te-i'  gil,  (Andr^,)  a  French 
sculptor  and  medal-engraver,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Vautier,  vo'te-i',  (Benjamin,)  a  Swiss  genre  painter 
born  at  Morges,  April  24,  1829.  He  studied  chiefly  in 
Dusseldorf.  Most  of  his  very  numerous  works  illustrate 
Swiss  and  South  German  peasant-life. 

Vauvenarguea,  de,  deh  vov'njRg',  (Luc  de  Cla- 
piers — deh  kll'pe^',)  Marquis,  a  French  moral  philos- 
opher, born  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1715,  was  a  friend  of 
Voltaire.  He  entered  the  army  about  1733,  and  left  the 
service  with  ruined  health  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven. 
He  published  in  1746  an  "Introduction  to  the  Know- 
ledge of  the  Human  Mind,  followed  by  Reflections  and 
Maxims,"  which  was  praised  by  Voltaire.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1747.     His  reputation  increased  after  his  death. 

See  SuARD,  "Notice  sur  Vauvenargues ;"  Gilbert,  "  Eloge  de 
Vauvenargues  ;"  Sainte-Bruve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  vols.  iii. 
and  xiv. ;  Voltaire,  "Correspondance ;"  Marmontei,  "  M^ 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vauvilliers,  v6'v4'ye-i',  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French 
scholar,  was  born  at  Noyers  in  1737.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  the  College  of  France  in  1766,  and  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Essays  on  Pindar,"  (1772.) 
In  1790  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  municipality 
of  Paris,  and  lieutenant  to  the  mayor  of  that  city.  He 
entered  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1797.  Having 
been  proscribed  in  the  same  year,  he  took  refuge  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1801.  He  had  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Sophocles,  with  notes,  (2  vols.,  1781.) 

See  Qu^RAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gdn^rale." 

Vaux,  vawx,  (Nicholas,)  Lord,  an  English  officer, 
was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Henry  VIII.,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  French  campaign.    Died  in  1530. 

Vaux,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  15 10,  was 
a  son  of  the  i:)receding.  He  was  one  of  the  attendants 
of  Henry  VIII.  in  his  expedition  to  France  in  1532. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Assault  of  Cupid."  Died 
about  1557. 

Vaux.  (William  Sandys  Wright,)  an  English 
scholar,  born  at  Romsey  in  1818.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  gradu- 
ating in  1840.  He  was  employed  in  the  British  Museum, 
1841-70.  He  published  "Nineveh  and  Persepolis," 
"  HandBook  to  the  Antiquities  in  the  British  Museum," 
"Ancient  History  from  the  Monuments,"  (1875,)  "  Persia 
from  the  Earliest  Period,"  (1877,)  "Greek  Cities  and 
Islands  of  Asia  Minor,"  etc      Died  in  1885. 

Vaux,  de,  deh  v6,  (Noel  de  Jourda,  no'SK  deh 
zhooR'dt',)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  near  Puy- 
en-Velayin  1705.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Prague  (1743)  and  Fontenoy,  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1759,  and  displayed  much  ability 
by  the  conquest  of  Corsica  in  1769.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1783.     Died  in  1788. 

Vauzelles,  de,  deh  vo'z^l',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest 
and  writer  on  religion,  was  born  at  Lyons  ;  died  in  1557. 

Vavasseur,  vI'vI'sur',  (Franqois,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Paray  in  1605.  He  produced, 
besides  several  prose  works,  Latin  odes,  elegies,  etc., 
which  are  said  to  be  elegant.     Died  in  Paris  in  1681. 

Vayu,  vi'66,  or  Vayus,  vi'oos,  [from  the  Sanscrit 
vay,  to  "  go,"  or  "  move,"]  one  of  the  names  of  the  wind, 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology.    (See  Marut  and  Pavana.) 

Ve,  va  or  v^h,  \i.e.  "holiness;"  allied  to  the  German 
weihen,  to  "consecrate,"]  in  the  Norse  mvthology,  a  god 
who  was  associated  with  his  brothers  Odin  and  Vili  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  4,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  ^, short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mf  t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


VECCHI 


2377 


VELA 


creating  the  world.  (See  Odin.)  It  appears  to  have  been 
his  office  to  banish  from  the  new  creation  whatever  was 
impure  or  evil.  By  some  he  is  identified  with  Lodur, 
which  see. 

Vecclii,  de,  da  vek'kee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italiai 
painter,  born  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro  in  1536;  died  iii 
1614. 

Vecchia,  vek'ke-S,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
originally  named  Mattoni,  born  in  1605,  was  a  pupil 
of  Varotari.  He  imitated  with  great  skill  the  works  of 
Titian  and  Giorgione.     Died  in  1678. 

Vecchietta,  vSk-ke-et'tS,  (Lorenzo  di  Piero,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Sienna  in  14S2.  He  worked  in 
bronze.     Died  in  1540. 

Vecchio  di  San  Bernardo,  H,  h\  vek'ke-o  de  sJn 
b^R-naR'do,  (Francesco  Menzocchi — m§n-zok'kee,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Forll  about  1510  ;  died  in  1547. 

Vecelli6.     See  Titian. 

Vecellio,  vi-chel'le-o,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cadore  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  and  cousin  of 
Titian.  He  published  a  collection  entitled  "On  Ancient 
and  Modern  Costumes,"  ("  Degli  Abiti  antichi  e  mo- 
derni,"  1590.)     Died  in  1606. 

Vecellio,  (Francesco,)  a  brother  of  Titian,  born  at 
Cadore  in  1483,  was  a  painter  of  superior  genius,  but 
renounced  the  profession  for  that  of  merchant  or  soldier. 
Died  in  1590. 

Vecellio,  (Marco,)  or  Marco  di  Tiziano — de  tet- 
se-S'no,  an  able  painter,  born  in  Venice  in  1545,  was  a 
nephew  and  pupil  of  Titian.  He  accompanied  Titian 
in  his  journeys,  and  imitated  his  style  with  great  success. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit" 
and  the  "Marriage  of  the  Virgin  Mary."    Died  in  161 1. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Ridolfi,  "  Pittori  Veneti ;" 
Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Vecellio,  (Orazio,)  a  skilful  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Venice  in  15 15,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  Titian.  He 
assisted  his  father  in  many  of  his  works.     Died  in  1576. 

Vechte  or  Wechte,  vgkt,  (Antoine,)  a  French 
sculptor  and  goldsmith,  born  in  the  department  of  C6te- 
d'Or  about  1820.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  de- 
signer of  ornamental  works  in  gold  and  silver.  Among 
his  works  is  an  allegorical  vase  in  silver  repoussL  Died 
in  October,  1868. 

V§da,  va'da,  (English  plural  Vedas,)  i.e.  "know- 
ledge," [from  the  Sanscrit  vld,  to  "know,"  cognate  with 
the  old  English  wit,  having  the  same  signification,  and 
the  Latin  vid-eo,  to  "see"  or  "perceive,"]  the  name  of 
the  sacred  books  or  scriptures  of  the  Brahmans,  sup- 
posed to  contain  the  fountain  and  sum  of  all  essential 
knowledge.  They  consist  of  four  parts,  the  Rig- Veda, 
Sama-Veda,  Yajur-Veda,  and  Atharva-Veda.  Of  these 
the  Rig- Veda  is  the  most  important.  It  is  composed  of 
religious  lyrics  or  hymns,  and  is  confessedly  the  oldest 
extant  portion  of  Sanscrit  literature,  dating  perhaps 
from  1400  to  1800  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

See  Professor  Wilson's  translations  of  the  "  Rig- Veda,"  and 
the  different  Introductions  to  those  translations;  Colebrooke  on 
the  "Vedas,"  in  vol.  viii.  of  the  "Asiatic  Researches;"  article 
"Veda"  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopsdia,"  (by  Professor  W. 
D.  Whitney.) 

VSdanta,  (Philosophy.)     See  VyAsa. 

Vddavyasa.     See  VyAsa. 

Ved'dfr,  (David,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Burness 
parish,  Orkney,  in  1790.  He  was  a  sailor  in  early  life, 
and  later  a  revenue-officer.  He  published  a  number  of 
volumes  of  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  Edinburgh,  Feb- 
ruary II,  1854. 

Vedder,  (Elihu,)  an  American  genre  painter,  born  in 
New  York  in  February,  1836.  For  a  long  time  a  student 
in  Italy,  he  finally  made  it  his  permanent  residence. 
His  best  works  are  highly  suggestive,  and  are  full  of  a 
mystical  and  poetic  quality.  His  best  pictures  are  "The 
Lair  of  the  Sea-Serpent,"  "  A  Venetian  Dancing-Girl," 
"The  Death  of  Abel,"  and  "  An  Arab  Listening  to  the 
Sphinx."  His  illustrations  to  Fitzgerald's  translation  of 
the  "  Rubaiyat"  (i.e.  "  quatrains")  of  Omar  Khayyam  were 
published  in  1884,  and  won  much  praise. 

Vedriani,  vi-dRe-3'nee,  (Lodovico,)  a  mediocre  Ital- 
ian historian,  born  at  Modena  in  1601,  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Modeiia,"  (1664,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1670. 


Veen.     See  Van  Veen  and  Heemskerk. 

Veenix.     See  Weenix. 

Vega.     See  Garci lasso  de  la  Vega. 

Vega,  de.     See  Lope  de  Vega. 

Vega,  von,  fon  va'gS,  (Georg,)  Baron,  a  Gerinan 
officer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Carniola  in  1754,  was 
originally  natned  Veha.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
several  cainpaigns  against  the  French  and  Turks,  at- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Imperial  artillery.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Tables  of  Logarithms,"  (Logarith- 
mentafeln,  1783,)  "Lectures  on  Mathematics,"  (4  vols., 
1786-90,)  "Complete  Treasury  of  Logarithms,"  (1794,) 
and  other  valuable  works.  Vega  was  murdered  in  1802 
by  a  miller,  who  despoiled  him  of  his  money  and  watch. 

Vegece.    See  Vegetius. 

Vegetius.ve-jee'she^us,  [Fr.V^cfeCE,  vi'zhis',]  (Fla- 
vius  Renatus,)  a  Roman  military  writer  of  the  fourth 
century,  is  believed  to  have  been  a  Christian.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "Epitome  Institutionum  Rei 
militaris,"  (in  five  books,)  and  is  dedicated  to  Valentinian 
II.  It  treats  of  the  organization  of  armies,  training 
of  soldiers,  etc.,  and  is  written  in  a  clear  and  graceful 
style.  Translations  of  it  have  been  published  in  English, 
French,  and  German. 

Vehrli  or  Wehrli,  vaR'lee,  (Jakob,)  a  Swiss  teacher, 
born  in  1790,  was  for  many  years  an  assistant  of  Fellen- 
berg  at  Hofwyl.  He  became  in  1833  superintendent  of 
the  Normal  School  at  Kruitzlingen,  on  Lake  Constance. 
Died  in  1855. 

Vehse,  fa'zeh,  (Karl  Eduard,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Freiberg  in  1802,  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gotting- 
ei),  and  afterwards  visited  the  United  States,  London, 
and  Paris.  He  published  several  works,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  his  "  History  of  the  German  Courts 
since  the  Reformation,"  ("Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Hofe  seit  der  Reformation,"  48  vols.,  1858.)  He  also 
wrote  two  volumes  on  Shakspeare.     Died  in  1S70. 

Veil,  vil,  or  Viel,  (Charles  Marie,)  a  commentator 
on  Scripture,  born  at  Metz,  was  originally  a  Jew.  He  he- 
came  a  Protestant,  and  preached  in  England  about  16S0. 

Veil,  de,  deh  v<\l,  (Louis  de  Compiegne — deh  kAN'- 
pe-kh',)  a  converted  Jew,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Metz,  went  to  England  about  16S0,  and  pub- 
lished Latin  versions  of  some  works  of  Maimonides. 

Veimars.     See  Loeve. 

Veit,  vlt  or  fit,  (Philipp,)  a  celebrated  German 
painter,  born  at  Berlin  in  1793,  was  a  grandson,  on  his 
mother's  side,  of  Moses  Mendelssohn.  He  studied  at 
Rome  in  company  with  Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  other 
young  artists,  who  aimed  at  reviving  the  mystical  style 
of  the  middle  ages.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may 
name  his  "Triumph  of  Religion,"  in  the  Vatican  gallery, 
"Scenes  from  Dante's  Paradiso,"  in  the  Villa  Massimi, 
"Christianity  bringing  the  Fine  Arts  into  Germany,"  a 
large  fresco  in  the  Stadel  Art  Institute  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  and  the  "  Seven  Years  of  Plenty," — one  of 
the  frescos  of  the  history  of  Joseph,  at  the  Villa  Bartholdy, 
Rome.     Died  December  18,  1877. 

Veitch,  veetch,  (John,)  a  Scottish  professor,  born  at 
Peebles  about  1830.  About  i860  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of  Saint 
Andrew's.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Sir  Williain  Hamilton," 
(1869,)  "  The  Tweed,  and  other  Poems,"  (1875,)  "  Lucre- 
tius and  the  Atomic  Theory,"  (1875,)  ^"^  "  The  History 
and  Poetry  of  the  Scottish  Border,"  (1877.) 

Veitch,  (William,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  Hellenist,  born 
at  Spittal,  Roxburghshire,  about  1795.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  University.  He  published  "Greek  Verbs, 
Irregulaj-  and  Defective,"  (1848,)  a  work  of  high  value, 
and  was  one  of  the  revisers  of  Liddell  and  Scott's  Lex- 
icon.     Died  July  8,  18S5. 

Vela,  va'li,  (Blasco  NuSez,)  a  Spaniard,  was  sent 
by  Charles  V.  to  Peru  in  1543  as  viceroy.  His  authority 
was  resisted  by  the  rebels  under  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  by 
whom  Vela  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1546, 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Vela,  va'ld,  (Vincent,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  of  Swiss 
origin,  born  in  the  canton  of  Tessin  (Ticino)  in  1822 
Among  his  works  is  a  statue  of  Spartacus. 


€  as  ^,-  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  m, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VELASCO 


2378 


VENABLE 


Velasco.     See  Palomino  V  Velasco. 

Velasco,  de,  di  vi-Ids'ko,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
writer  of  sacred  poems,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

See  LoNCFHLLow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Velasco,  de,  (Gregorio  Hernandez,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Toledo  about  1550.  He  produced  a  good 
version  of  Virgil's  "  iEneid,"  and  other  translations. 

Velasquez,  vi-lds'k§th,  (Alexandro  Gonzalez,)  a 
Spanish  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Madrid  in  17 19. 
He  designed  the  palace  of  Aranjuez.     Died  in  1772. 

His  brother  Antonio,  born  in  1729,  was  an  able 
painter.  He  became  court  painter  to  Charles  III.  in 
1757.     He  excelled  in  frescos.     Died  in  1793. 

Veleisquez,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  commander,  born  in 
Old  Castile  about  1460.  He  was  sent  by  Diego  Colum- 
bus to  Cuba,  which  he  conquered  in  1511.  He  was 
afterwards  Governor  of  Cuba,  and  despatched  an  ex- 
ploring party  which  discovered  Mexico.  About  1520 
he  sent  a  small  army  to  Mexico  under  Narvaez  to 
operate  against  Cortez,  who  defeated  Narvaez  and  took 
him  prisoner.     Died  in  1523. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico;"  Orbi,- 
LANA,  "Varonesdel  nuevo  Mundo. " 

Velasquez  (or  Velazquez)  de  Silva,  vi-lds'kSth 
di  stl'vi,  (Don  Diego  Rodriguez,)  a  celebrated  Span- 
ish portrait-painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1599.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  llerrera  el  Viejo,  and  afterwards  of  Francisco 
Pacheco,  whose  daughter  Juana  he  married.  He  did 
not  adopt  the  style  of  either  of  these  masters,  but 
formed  for  himself  an  original  style  by  the  study  of 
nature.  Having  removed  to  Madrid  in  1622  and  painted 
a  portrait  of  the  Duke  of  Olivares  in  1623,  he  was  ap- 
pointed court  painter  to  Philip  IV.,  and  rose  rapidly  to 
fame  and  prosperity.  He  was  a  friend  of  Rubens,  whom 
he  met  at  Madrid  in  1628.  He  visited  Italy  in  1629, 
admired  the  works  of  Titian  at  Venice,  and  passed 
about  a  year  at  Rome,  where  he  painted  a  picture  of 
"Jacob  and  the  Bloody  Garment  of  Joseph,"  and 
"  Apollo  at  the  Forge  of  Vulcan."  He  returned  to 
Madrid  in  1631,  after  which  he  produced  an  admirable 
equestrian  portrait  of  Philip  IV.  In  1648  he  was  sent 
to  Italy  by  the  king  to  purchase  pictures  and  models  of 
antique  statues.  He  painted  at  Rome  an  excellent  por- 
trait of  Pope  Innocent  X.,  and  returned  home  in  1615. 
In  1656  he  obtained  the  cross  of  Santiago,  which  is 
rarely  given  to  any  except  men  of  high  rank.  He  was 
also  appointed  to  the  office  of  apo.sentador  mayor,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  provide  lodgings  for  the  king  in  his  journeys. 
Died  in  August,  1660.  Velasquez  is  regarded  by  many 
critics  as  the  greatest  painter  that  Spain  has  produced. 
He  is  considered  to  have  surpassed  other  Spanish  artists 
not  only  in  portraits  but  in  history  and  landscapes.  He 
neglected  the  ideal  and  poetical,  and  seems  to  have  been 
deficient  in  invention  ;  but  he  reproduced  the  real  with 
marvellous  fidelity.  His  best  works  are  mostly  at 
Madrid.  Among  his  best  historical  pieces  is  a  "  Cruci- 
fixion," (1639.)  Commenting  on  his  picture  of  "The 
Spinners,"  ("Las  Hilanderas,")  Mr.  Stanley  says,  "For 
truth  of  character,  perspective  arrangement,  and  delusion 
of  light  and  shadow,  it  is  considered  marvellous." 
(Bryan  and  Stanley's  "  Dictionary.") 

See  William  Stirling,  "Velasquez  and  his  Works,"  1855; 
Cean-Bermudez.    '•  Diccionario   de   las   bellas   Artes:"  _  N  angler 


Q ,     „.- 

"  Histoire  des  Peintres  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biogrnphie  GiSnerale.' 

Velasquez  de  Velasco,  vi-lSs'k^th  di  vi-lis'ko 
(Luis  Jos6,)  Marquis  de  Valdeflores,  a  Spanish  anti- 
quary, born  at  Malaga  in  1722.  He  published  several 
works  on  Spanish  antiquities.     Died  in  1772. 

Velde,  van  den,  v4n  dgn  vSKdeh,  or  Vandervelde, 
(Isaiah,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  about  1595, 
was  also  an  etcher.  He  painted  landscapes,  rustic  scenes, 
and  battles.     Died  about  1650. 

Velde,  van  den,  (Jan,)  a  painter  and  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Leyden  about  1598,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  painted  landscapes  and  rustic  scenes,  and 
engraved  i^ortraits,  etc.     Died  after  1677. 

Velde,  van  der,  (Adriaan  and  Willem.)  See  Van 
DER  Velde. 


Velde,  van  der,  vin  d?r  fel'd?h  or  vel'd^h,  (Franz 
Karl,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Breslau  in  1779,  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  novels,  tales,  and  dramatic  works, 
which  were  very  popular  at  the  time.     Died  in  1824. 

Veldeke,  von,  fon  v^l'deh-keh,  (Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man minnesinger  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  the  author 
of  an  epic  poem  entitled  "Eneit." 

Vel'?-da.  or  Vel'le-da,  a  German  prophetess,  who 
lived  near  the  river  Luppia  (Lippe)  in  the  reign  of  Ves- 
pasian, and  was  regarded  with  great  veneration.  Having 
prophesied  in  favour  of  Civilis,  who  revolted  against  the 
Romans,  she  was  carried  captive  to  Rome  about  85  a.d. 

Velez  de  Guevara.     See  Guevara. 

Vella,  vel'ia,  (Giuseppe,)  a  literary  impostor,  born  at 
Malta  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  pre- 
tended to  have  discovered  an  Arabic  manuscript  ot 
several  of  the  lost  books  of  Livy,  and  other  important 
documents  in  the  Arabic  language.  His  frauds  were 
exposed  by  Tychsen  and  Hager. 

Velleius  Paterculus.     See  Paterculus. 

Vellejus,  v^l-la'yds,  (Andreas  Severinus  or  SoE- 
RENSEN,)  a  learned  Danish  historian  and  theologian, 
born  at  Veile,  in  Jutland,  in  1542.  He  became  court 
preacher  at  Copenhagen  about  1568.  He  published 
"The  Lives  of  the  Popes,  in  verse,"  (1571,)  a  "  History 
of  Canute,"  several  biographies,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1616. 

Velleron.    See  Cambis-Velleron. 

Velluti,  v^l-loo'tee,  (Donato,)  an  Italian  chroniclei, 
born  at  Florence  in  1313  ;  died  in  1370. 

Velly,  vi'le',  (Paul  Francois,)  a  French  historian, 
born  near  Rheimsin  1709.  He  published  a  "History of 
France,"  (8  vols.,  1759,)  which  was  favourably  received 
at  the  time.  He  also  translated  Swift's  "  History  of  John 
Bull."     Died  in  1759. 

Velpeau,  vSrpo',  (Alfred  Armand  Louis  Marie,) 
a  celebrated  French  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  neai 
Tours  (Indre-et-Loire)  in  1795.  He  graduated  in  Paris 
in  1823,  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  to  the 
Faculte  de  Medecine  in  1834  or  1835,  and  chief  surgeon 
of  the  hospital  La  Charite  in  1841.  He  succeeded  Dr. 
Larrey  in  the  Institute  about  1842.  As  professor  of 
clinic,  he  acquired  a  European  reputation.  Among  his 
numerous  works  we  notice  a  "Treatise  on  Surgical 
Anatomy,"  (2  vols.,  1825-26,)  which  is  said  to  be  very 
complete,  an  e.xcellent  treatise  on  Obstetrics,  entitled 
"Traitede  I'Art  des  Accouchements,"  (1829,)  which  was 
translated  by  Dr.  Charles  Meigs,  of  Philadelphia,  (1831,) 
and  "Traite  des  Maladies  du  Sein,"  (1838.)  An  en- 
larged edition  of  the  latter  was  issued  in  1854.  Died 
in  August,  1867. 

See  Sachaile,  "  Les  Medecins  de  Paris  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Velser,  flKser,  or  Velserus,  fll-sa'riis,  (Marcus,)  a 
German  civilian,  born  at  Augsburgin  1558.  He  became 
a  senator  about  1592.  Among  his  works  is  "Rerum 
Boicarum  Libri  V.,"  (1602.)     Died  in  1614. 

Veltheim,  felt'him,  (August  Ferdinand,)  Count, 
a  German  antiquary  and  scientific  writer,  born  near 
Ilelmstedt  in  1741.  He  ])ublished  a  treatise  "On  the 
Formation  of  Basalt,"  (1786,)  "On  the  Statue  of  Mem- 
non,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1801. 

Veltheim  or  Velthem,  written  also  Velten,  a  Ger- 
man actor  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  was  the  first 
to  introduce  the  plays  of  Moliere  on  the  German  stage. 

Velthusius.     See  Velthuysen. 

Velthuysen,v§lt'hoi'zen,  [Lat.  Velthu'sius,]  (Lam- 
bert,) a  Dutch  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1622.  He  wrote  several  works  on  moral 
philosophy  and  religion,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  toleration.  Died  in  1685. 

Ven'a-ble,  (Charles  S.,)  LL.D.,  an  American  math- 
ematician, horn  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Virginia,  April 
19,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College  in 
1842,  and  at  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1848.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  Hampden-Sidney  College, 
1848-56,  professor  of  jihysics  and  chemistry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia  in  1856,  and  professor  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy  in  the  University  of  South  Carolina,  1S57- 
61.  He  served  in  the  Confederate  army  as  captain  of  engi- 
neers, and  afterwards  as  lieutenant-colonel  and  aide-de- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y, /^«f ;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,'^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,obsatre;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  n5t;goocl;  moc 


oon; 


VENANCE 


2379 


VENTADOUR 


camp  to  General  R.  E.  Lee.  In  1865  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Virginia. 
He  has  published  a  series  of  mathematical  text-books, 
{1868-82.) 

Venance.    See  Dougados. 

Venantius.    See  Fortunatus. 

Vence,  de,  deh  v6nss,  (Henri  FRANgois,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  in  Barrois  about 
1675.  He  wrote  dissertations  or  commentaries  on  the 
Bible,  which  were  inserted  in  the  Bible  of  Calmet,  {174^ 
50.)     Died  at  Nancy  in  1749. 

Venddme,  de,  deh  vftN'dom',  (Alexandre,)  Due, 
a  brother  of  Cesar,  noticed  below,  born  in  1598,  was 
legitimated  the  following  year,  and  created  Uuke  of 
\'cnd6me.  He  was  made  grand  prior  of  the  knights  of 
Malta  in  France.  Suspected  of  conspiring  against  Riche- 
lieu, he  was  arrested,  (1626,)  and  died  in  prison  in  1629. 

Venddme,  de,  (C6sar,)  Due,  a  natural  son  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France  and  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  was  born  in  1594. 
He  was  soon  after  legitimated  and  made  Duke  of  Ven- 
dome.  Having  been  charged  with  taking  part  in  the 
conspiracy  against  Richelieu  in  1626,  he  was  imprisoned 
four  years.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Burgundy 
in  1650.     Died  in  1665. 

See  Cardinal  Retz,  "  Mdmoires;"  Bazin,  "  Histoire  de  Louis 
XIII." 

Venddme,  de,  (Louis,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1612,  served  Iti  the  campaigns  of  Louis  XIII., 
and  rose  to  be  viceroy  and  commander  of  the  French 
troops  in  Catalonia  in  1649.  He  married  in  1651  Laura 
Mancini,  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  after  her  death, 
having  been  ordained  a  priest,  was  made  a  cardinal  in 
1669.     Died  in  1669. 

Vendome,  de,  (Louis  Joseph,)  Due,  an  able  gene- 
ral, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1654. 
He  served  under  Turenne,  and  in  the  campaign  of 
Flanders  under  Marshal  de  Crequi,  and  was  appointed 
in  168 1  Governor  of  Provence.  He  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  in  1688,  and  took  an  active  ])art  in  the  siege  of 
Namur  and  the  battles  of  Steenkerke  and  Marsaglia. 
Having  succeeded  Noailles  as  commander  of  the  army 
of  Catalonia  in  1695,  he  besieged  Barcelona,  which  he 
com])elled  to  surrender,  (1697.)  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  became  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  Italy,  and  in  1702  fought  the 
battle  of  Luzzara  with  the  army  of  Prince  Eugene.  He 
was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
at  Oudenarde  in  1708.  Being  sent  in  17 10  by  Louis 
XIV.  to  the  assistance  of  Philip  V.  in  Spain,  he  restored 
that  sovereign  to  his  capital,  and  soon  after  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  the  Austrian  forces  under  Starhem- 
berg  at  Villa  Viciosa.     Died  in  1712. 

See  ViLi.ENEuvE,  "  £loge  du  Due  de  Vendome,"  1 783 :  Voltaire, 
"Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires." 

Vendome,  de,  (Philippe,)  Due,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1655.  He  served  under  his  uncle, 
the  Duke  of  Beaufort,  in  1669,  and  took  part  in  the 
principal  campaigns  of  his  brother.  He  was  grand  prior 
of  the  knights  of  the  order  of  Malta.     Died  in  1727. 

Vendramini,  v8n-dKi-mee'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  able 
Italian  engraver,  borri  near  Bassano  in  1769,  worked 
in  England,  and  engraved  the  works  of  several  Italian 
masters.     Died  in  London  in  1839. 

Venedey,  fa'neh-dl,  (Jakob,)  a  German  jurist  and 
politician,  born  at  Cologne  in  1805.  He  was  arrested 
in  1832  on  a  charge  of  being  connected  with  secret  so- 
cieties, but  effected  his  escape  to  France.  Returning  in 
1848,  he  was  soon  after  elected  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly, He  subsequently  became  professor  of  history  at 
Zurich.  He  published  several  works  on  various  subjects, 
among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  German  People,"  (4 
vols.,  1854-58.)     Died  February  8,  1871. 

Venel,  veh-ngl',  (Gabriel  Franqois,)  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Combes  in  1723.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  where  he 
died  in  1775. 

Venerio.     See  Veniero. 

Veneroni,  vi-ni-ro'nee,  a  French  scholar  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  originally  named  Jean  Vigneron, 
(vfen'yeh-rAN',)  published  an  Italian  Grammar  and  Dic- 
tionary. 


Venette,  veh-nSt',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1633  ;  died  in  1698. 

Veneziano.     See  Domenico  Veneziano. 

Veneziano,  vi-n5t-se-J'no,  (Agostino,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  engraver,  born  at  Venice,  is  sometimes  called 
Augustinus  de  Musis.  He  studied  under  Marcantonio 
Raimondi,  and  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  Ra- 
phael and  Giulio  Romano.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  portraits  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  Francis  L 
of  France,  and  "  The  Skeletons,  or  Burying-Place,"  after 
Baccio  Bandinelli.  Veneziano  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  practise  stipple  engraving.  He  lived  about 
1510-40. 

See  Strutt,  "  Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Veneziano,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Venetian  painter, 
born  about  1309,  was  a  pupil  of  Angelo  Gaddi.  His 
frescos  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa  are  ranked  amonj; 
his  master-pieces.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine,  and 
died  of  the  plague  at  Florence,  in  1384,  while  attending 
the  sick. 

Veniero,  vi-ne-a'ro,  or  Venier,  vi-ne-aiR',  (Anto- 
nio,) a  Venetian  statesman,  was  elected  doge  in  1382. 
He  extended  the  domain  of  Venice  by  the  acquisition 
of  Corfu,  Argos,  and  Treviso.     Died  in  1400. 

Veniero,  (Domenico,)  a  Venetian  poet  and  trans- 
lator, born  in  15 1 7,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Venetian  Academy.  He  was  intimate  with  Cardinal 
Bembo  and  other  distinguished  men  of  the  time.  His 
brothers,  LoRENZOand  Maffeo,  were  also  poets.  Died 
in  1582. 

Veniero  or  Venier,  (Francesco,)  a  Venetian  phi- 
losopher and  statesman,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1505  ;  died  in  1581. 

Veniero,  (Lorenzo,)  a  poet,  born  at  Venice  about 
1510,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  sa- 
tirical and  immoral  poems.     Died  in  1550. 

Veniero  or  Venerio,  vi-na're-o,  (Sebastiano,)  a 
Venetian  admiral,  commanded  the  fleet  of  the  republic 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  in  1572,  He  was  elected  doge 
in  1576.     Died  in  1578. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  IL,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Ve-nil'i-a,  [Fr.  V^nilie,  vi'ne'le',]  a  Roman  divinity 
or  nymph,  was  called  a  sister  of  Amata,  the  wife  of  Fau- 
nus,  and  the  mother  of  Tiirnus  and  Juturna. 

Venilie,    See  Venilia. 

Venino,  vi-nee'no,  (lGNAZio,)an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
at  Como  in  171 1,  is  said  to  have  been  the  greatest 
preacher  of  Italy  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Died  at 
Milan  in  1778. 

Venius.     See  Van  Veen. 

Venn,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  theologian,  born 
at  Barnes,  Surrey,  in  1725,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Richard 
Venn.  He  graduated  as  A.M.  at  Cambridge  in  1749, 
became  vicar  of  Huddersfield  about  1760,  and  rector  of 
Yelling,  in  Huntingdonshire,  in  1770.  He  published, 
besides  Sermons,  "The  Complete  Duty  of  Man,  or  a 
System  of  Doctrinal  and  Practical  Christianity,"  and 
"Mistakes  in  Religion  Exposed."     Died  in  1797. 

See  Henry  Venn,  "Life  and  Letters  of  Rev.  Henry  Venn," 
1849. 

Venn,  (John,)  a  clergyman,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Clapham  in  1759.  He  became  rector  of 
Clapham  in  1792,  and  died  there  in  1813.  Two  volumes 
of  his  sermons  have  been  published, 

Venn,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
was  the  father  of  Henry,  noticed  above.  He  was  rector 
of  Saint  Antholin's,  London.     Died  in  1740. 

Ven'ner,  (Tobias,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1577.  He  practised  at  Bath  with  suc- 
cess, and  published  a  treatise  on  diet  and  regimen,  en- 
titled "The  Right  Way  to  Long  Life,"  ("Via  recta  ad 
Vitam  longam,"  about  1622,)  which  was  very  popular. 
Died  in  1660. 

Ven'ning,  (Ralph,)  an  English  nonconformist  min- 
ister, born  about  1620,  was  noted  both  for  his  eloquence 
and  his  piety.  He  became  lecturer  or  preacher  at  Saint 
Olave,  Southwark,  from  which  he  was  ejected  for  non- 
conformity in  1662.  He  wrote,  besides  other  religious 
works,  "Things  Worth  Thinking  on,  or  Helps  to  Piety," 
Died  in  1673. 

Ventadour,    See  Bernard  de  Ventadour. 


€  as  k:  9  as  j;  g  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,pittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2!^°="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VENTENAT 


2380 


VER  CINGE  TOE  IX 


Ventenat,  vftNt'nt',  (Etienne  Pierre,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Limoges  in  1757.  He  published  a 
"Tableau  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  (4  vols.,  1799,) 
"The  Garden  of  Malmaison,"  (2  vols.,  1803,  with  plates 
by  Redoute,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1808. 

See  Cl'Vier,  "Elopes  historiques." 

Veu-tid'I-us  Bas'sus,  (Publius,)  a  Roman  general, 
born  in  Picenum,  was  brought  to  Rome  in  89  B.C.,  being 
then  a  child.  He  became  a  favourite  officer  of  Caesar, 
whom  he  supported  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  49 
B.C.,  and  was  chosen  consul  in  43.  As  the  legate  of 
Mark  Antony,  he  commanded  in  Syria  in  the  year  39, 
and  defeated  Labienus  and  the  Parthian  prince  Pacorus, 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Ventignano,  vSn-tfeii-yi'no,  (Cesare  della  Valle— 
del'ld  vdl'li,)  Duke  OF,  an  Italian  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Naples  in  1777.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  tragedies  of  "The  Siege  of  Corinth"  and 
"  Medea,"  an  "  Essay  on  the  Education  of  the  Aris- 
tocracy and  the  Labouring  Classes,"  (1848,)  and  "Phi- 
losophic View  of  the  History  of  the  Human  Race," 
(1853.)     Died  in  1S60. 

Ventimiglia,  vgn-te-mil'yi,  (Giuseppe,)  Prince  of 
Belmont,  a  liberal  Sicilian  statesman,  born  in  1761,  was 
distinguished  for  munificence  and  taste.  Died  in  1814. 
•  Ventura,  v§n-too'rd,  (Gio.a.cchino  or  Joachim,)  an 
eloquent  Italian  preacher  and  theologian,  born  at  Pa- 
lermo in  1792.  He  gained  such  distinction  as  a  preachei 
of  funeral  orations  that  he  was  called  "the  Italian  Bos- 
suet."  About  1S24  he  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and 
acquired  much  influence  with  the  pope.  He  published 
"  C3n  the  Method  of  Philosophizing,"  ("  De  Methodo 
Philosophandi,"  1828,)  and  "The  Beauties  of  the  Faith," 
(1839.)  He  was  liberal  in  politics,  and,  after  the  election 
of  Pius  IX.,  (1847,)  h^<J  great  popularity  as  a  leader  of 
the  moderate  party  of  reformers  at  Rome.  He  advised 
the  pope  to  give  his  subjects  a  constitution.  His  efforts 
having  been  defeated,  he  quitted  Rome  in  1849,  and  set- 
tled in  Paris  in  1851.  He  preached  at  the  church  of  the 
Madeleine  and  at  the  Tuileries,  (1857,)  and  published, 
in  French,  several  works,  among  which  is  "The  Philo- 
sophic Reason  and  the  Catholic  Reason,"  ("  La  Raison 
philosophique  et  la  Raison  catholique,"  1852.)  Died 
at  Versailles  in  August,  1861. 

See  E.  Vavasseitr,  "Ventura,"  Paris,  1851 ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic  G^n^rale." 

Venturi,  v^n-too'ree,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Ital- 
ian natural  philosopher,  born  at  Bibiano  in  1746.  He 
became  professor  of  physics  at  Pavia  about  1800.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Phy- 
sico-Mathematical  Works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,"  (1797,) 
and  a  "Treatise  on  Optics,"  (1814.)     Died  in  1822. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1805. 

Venturi,  (Pcmpeo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1693.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  Dante,  (3  vols., 
1732.)     Died  in  1752. 

Ve'nus,  [Gr.  'A9p<«5/r^,  (Aphrodite;)  Fr.  V6nus,  vi'- 
nils';  It.  Venere,  va'ni-ri,]  the  goddess  of  love  and 
beauty,  in  classic  mythology,,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter 
of  Jupiter  (or  Uranus)  and  Dione,  the  wife  of  Vulcan, 
and  the  mother  of  Cupid,  Ilarmonia,  Hymen,  the  Graces, 
Priapus,  and  itneas.  None  of  these,  however,  were  the 
offspring  of  Vulcan.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  origi- 
nated in  the  foam  of  the  sea,  (hence  her  surname  Ana- 
DYOMENE,)  and  landed  first  on  the  island  of  Cythera, 
from  which  she  passed  to  Cyprus,  where  flowers  sjirang 
up  under  her  feet ;  that  Love  and  Desire  attended  her  to 
the  assembly  of  the  celestial  gods;  that  Juno,  Minerva, 
and  Venus  were  competitors  for  the  prize  of  beauty,  (the 
ai)ple  of  discord,)  and  that  Paris  decided  in  favour  of 
Venus.  She  thus  became  the  object  of  Juno's  jealousy 
and  lasting  enmity.  In  the  war  between  the  Greeks  and 
the  Trojans  she  was  an  ardent  and  active  partisan  jf  the 
latter,  and  was  wounded  by  Diomede.  According  to 
popular  legends,  she  possessed  a  magical  girdle,  which 
had  the  property  to  inspire  love  and  desire  for  the  per- 
son who  wore  it.  Among  her  favoured  paramours  were 
Mars,  Bacchus,  Apollo,  Adonis,  Mercury,  and  Anchises. 
The   principal  places  of  her  worship  were  Cythera,  Cy 


were  supposed  to  be  sacred  to  her.  She  was  variously 
styled  Cypria,  (from  Cyprus,)  Cythera  and  Cytheraea, 
(from  the  island  of  Cythera,  where  she  first  appeared, 
and  of  which  she  became  the  principal  deity,)  Venus  Gen- 
etrix,  Venus  Hortensis,  Venus  Victrix,  Venus  Verticordia, 
Venus  Alma,  Venus  Erycina,  (from  Eryx,  in  Sicily, 
where  she  had  a  temple,)  Aphrodite  Pandemos,  and 
Ajihrodite  Urania.  Venus  was  regarded  by  some  ancient 
authors  as  a  personification  of  the  generative  power  of 
nature.  She  does  not  a|>pear  to  have  been  an  original 
deity  of  Rome,  nor  to  have  been  worshipped  by  the 
Romans  while  they  were  ruled  by  kings.  Her  worship 
was  probably  of  Oriental  origin. 

Veuusti,  vi-noos'tee,  (Marcello,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Mantua,  was  a  pupil  of  Perino  del  Vaga.  He 
was  employed  by  Michael  Angelo  to  copy  a  number  of 
his  works.  Among  these  we  may  name  his  "Last  Judg- 
ment," (painted  in  oil,)  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  Naples. 
Died  about  iq8o. 

Venuti,  vi-noo'tee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Cortona  in  1709,  was  a  brother  of  the  following. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1769. 

Venuti,  (Niccol6  Marcello,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Cortona  in  1700.  He  discovered  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  and  the  theatre  of  Herculaneum,  and  wrote  a 
"Description  of  the  First  Discoveries  at  Herculaneum," 
(1749.)     Died  in  1755. 

See  CoLTELLlNi,  "Elogium  N.  M.  Venuti,"  1753. 

Venuti,  (Ridolfino,)  an  eminent  antiquary,  born  at 
Cortona  in  1705,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  director  of  the  Museum  Albani  at  Rome.  He 
published  a  "Topographical  Description  of  the  Antiqui- 
ties of  Rome,"  (2  vols.,  1763,)  and  other  works  on  Roman 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.,  which  are  highly  commended. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1763. 

Vera,  (Augusto,)  an  Italian  philosopher,  born  at 
Amelia  in  1817.  He  was  educated  at  Paris,  in  which,  as 
in  other  French  cities,  he  held  professorships  of  philos- 
ophy. Afterwards  he  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  Milan,  and  later  in  Naples. 
He  was  the  leader  of  the  Italian  Hegelians,  and  has 
written  much  on  philosophical  subjects,  chiefly  in 
French  and  Italian.  He  also  translated  several  of 
Heuel's  treatises.      [Died  in  1885.] 

Veranzio,  vi-rjnt'se-o,  (Anton,)  a  Dalmatian  prelate 
and  diplomatist,  born  at  Sebenico  in  1504.  His  name 
in  Dalmatian  was  Wranczy,  (vRdnt'se.)  He  was  em- 
ployed in  missions  by  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria.     Died 

in  I'syS- 

Verard,  vi'riR',  (Antoine,)  one  of  the  earliest  French 
printers,  founded  in  14S0  an  establishment  in  Paris,  where 
he  published  "The  Prophecies  of  Merlin,"  "The  Chroni- 
cles of  France,"  and  "The  Sea  of  Histories." 

Verbieat,  ver-beest',  (FERDi.\AND,)a  Flemish  astron- 
omer and  missionary,  born  at  Pitthem  in  1623.  He  went 
to  China  about  1658,  and  was  employed  as  astronomer 
by  the  emperor  of  that  country.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  astronomy.     Died  at  Peking  in  1688. 

See  Carton.  "  Notice  sur  le  P6re  Verbiest,"  1S39. 

Verboecknoven,  ver-book'ho'ven,  (Eug4:ne  Jo- 
seph,) a  Belgian  painter  of  animals,  born  in  West  Flan- 
ders in  179S.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named 
his  "  Horses  Fighting  with  Wolves,"  and  a  "  View  in  the 
Campagna  of  Rome  with  a  Herd  of  Cattle."  Died  Janu- 
ary 19,  1881.  His  brother  Louis,  born  in  1S02,  acquired 
distinction  as  a  marine  painter. 

Verci,  vgR'chee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Bassano  in  1739.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  March  of  Treviso,"  (20  vols.,  1786-90,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1795. 

Ver-cin-get'o-rix,  an  able  Gaulish  commander  and 
chief  of  the  Arverni.  He  was  general-in-chief  of  the 
tribes  of  Celtic  Gaul  wliich  waged  war  against  Julius 
Caesar  in  52  B.C.  He  defended  Gergovia  with  success, 
and  compelled  Csesar  to  raise  the  siege.  The  Gauls 
having  been  defeated  at  Alesia,  Vercingetorix,  to  spare 
the  effusion  of  blood,  gave  himself  up  to  the  victor.  He 
was  taken  to  Rome,  and  put  to  death  about  45  B.C. 

See  CjKsar,  "  Commentaries,"  book  vii.  ;  Dion  Cassius,  "  His- 


prus,  Paphos   and   Idalimii.      Her  favourite  plants  were    .or^'of  Rtme";'"    H.  Mart.n.  "Vercingetorix,"  .864;  "Nouvelle 
the  rose   and  myrtle.     The  dove,  sparrow,  and   swan    Biographic  G^n^rale." 

a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  ihort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m5t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


VERDI 


2381 


VERGIL 


Verdi,  vSR'dee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian  com- 
poser, born  in  the  duchy  of  Parma  in  1814.  He  studied 
under  Lavigna  at  La  Scala,  at  Milan,  and  in  1842  brought 
out  his  opera  of  "Nabucodonosor,"  which  was  very  suc- 
cessful. It  was  followed  by  "  I  Lombard!,"  "Ernani," 
"  I  due  Foscari,"  "  Giovanna  d'Arco,"  "  Macbeth,"  "  Ri- 
goletto,"  "  II  Trovatore,"  "  La  Traviata,"  "  Un  Ballo  in 
Maschera,"  and  other  works,  which  enjoy  great  popu- 
larity. He  was  created  an  Italian  senator  in  1874,  and 
in  1875  a  commander  of  the  legion  of  honour. 

Verdi,  (Tullio  S.,)  M.D.,  (originally  Tullio  de 
Suzzara-Verdi,)  a  distinguished  homoeopathist,  born 
at  Mantua,  Italy,  February  10,  1829.  He  was  trained 
in  the  Mantua  gymnasium,  and  was  an  officer  of  the 
Austrian  army,  1S47-48,  and  of  the  Sardinian  army, 
1S48-49.  Expelled  from  Italy  by  the  Austrians,  he  came 
to  the  United  States,  became  in  1852  professor  of  modern 
languages  in  Brown  University,  graduated  in  1856  at  the 
Hahnemann  College  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1857  re- 
moved to  Washington,  B.C.  His  principal  works  are 
"Maternity"  (1870)  and  "Mothers  and  Daughters," 
(1877.)  In  1879  he  became  a  member  of  the  National 
Board  of  Health. 

Verdier,  v^R'de-i',  (Aymar,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  1819  at  Tours  ;  died  February  20,  1880. 

Verdier,  (C^sar,)  a  French  anatomist,  born  neai 
Avignon  in  1685.  He  lectured  in  Paris  for  many  years, 
and  wrote  on  anatomy.     Died  in  1759. 

Verdier,  (Henri,)  Count  de  Lacoste,  a  French  poli- 
tician, born  at  Nimes  in  1770,  was  outlawed  as  a  Girond- 
ist in  1793.  He  held  several  offices  under  the  Directory 
and  the  empire,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Alfred  le 
Grand,"  (2  vols.,  1817.)     Died  in  1821. 

Verdier,  (Marcel,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1817;  died  in  1856. 

Verdier,  du,  (Antoine.)     See  Duverdier. 

Verdugo,  viR-doo'go,  (Franco,)  a  Spanish  general, 
who  served  in  the  Netherlands  under  Don  John  of 
Austria  and  Alexander  Farnese,  and  became  Governor 
of  Friesland  and  Groningen.     Died  in  1595. 

Vere,  veer,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1554.  He  served  with  great  distinction  against  the  Span- 
iards in  Holland  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1585  to 
1602,  his  last  achievement  being  the  defence  of  Ostend 
against  Albert,  Archduke  of  Austria.  He  died  in  1608, 
leaving,  in  manuscript,  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 
"The  Commentaries  of  Sir  Francis  Vere,"  etc. 

Vere,  (Horace,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Essex  in  1565.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
of  Holland  under  Prince  Maurice,  and,  after  the  death 
of  Sir  Francis,  was  appointed  general  of  the  English 
army  in  the  Netherlands.  In  1620  he  was  sent  by  James 
I.  to  assist  the  Elector- Palatine  Frederick  V.  in  securing 
Bohemia.  He  was  made  a  peer  by  Charles  I.  in  1625, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Vere  of  Tilbury.     Died  in  1635. 

Vere,  de,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family  of 
England,  descended  from  a  Norman  knight  who  had  a 
high  command  at  the  battle  of  Hastings.  His  son  be- 
came Earl  of  Oxford,  and  a  minister  of  King  Henry  I. 
The  third  earl  was  one  of  the  barons  who  extorted  the 
Magna  Charta  from  King  John.  John  de  Vere,  seventh 
Earl  of  Oxford,  was  a  famous  commander,  and  fought 
at  Cressy  and  Poitiers,  (1356.)  The  thirteenth  earl  was 
a  leader  of  the  Lancastrian  party  in  the  war  of  the 
Roses,  and  commanded  the  van  of  the  army  of  Henry 
VII.  at  Bosworth,  (1485.)  Edward  de  Vere,  the  seven- 
teenth earl,  was  an  eminent  poet.  (See  separate  article.) 
The  twentieth  earl  was  Aubrey  de  Vere,  whom  Mac- 
aulay  describes  as  "  the  noblest  subject  in  England." 
He  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  and  after  the 
restoration  became  lord  lieutenant  of  Essex.  In  1687 
he  was  dismissed  from  office  because  he  refused  to  aid 
James  II.  in  packing  a  Parliament.  He  was  the  last 
earl  of  that  family.     (See,  also,  De  Vere.) 

See  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii. 

Vere,  de,  (Edward,)  seventeenth  Earl  of  Oxford,  an 
English  poet  and  courtier,  born  about  1540,  was  one  of 
the  ornaments  of  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He 
was  lord  high  chamberlain  in  1588,  and  had  a  command 
in  the  fleet  which  opposed  the  Spanish  Armada.  Died 
in  1604.  " 


Ve-re'll-us,  [Sw.  pron.  v&-rTi'le-fls,|  (Olaus,)  an 
eminent  .Swedish  antiquary,  whose  original  name  was 
Olaf  V7erl,  (^5r1,)  was  born  in  the  diocese  of  Lin- 
koping  in  1618.  He  studied  at  Dorpat  and  Upsal,  and 
became  successively  professor  of  Swedish  antiquities  at 
Upsal,  (1662,)  antiquary  to  King  Charles  XL,  (1666,) 
and  chief  librarian  in  the  library  of  Upsal,  (1679.)  He 
published  several  valuable  wori<s  on  Scandinavian  his- 
tory and  antiquities.     Died  in  1682. 

Verelst,  va'rSlst,  (Simon,)  a  Flemish  flower-  and 
fruit-painter;  died  in  1710. 

Vereshagiii,  vi-ri-shi-geen',  (Vasili,)  a  Russian 
painter,  was  born  in  the  Novgorod  government,  October 
26,  1842.  He  was  a  soldier  in  Turkestan  in  1867,  and 
was  wounded  in  the  Russo-Turkish  war.  He  travelled 
extensively.  Of  his  very  numerous  pictures,  many  are 
East  Indian  scenes,  and  others  are  war-sketches. 

Vergara,  vSR-gJ'ri,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1726;  died  in  1799. 

Vergara,  de,  dk  v^R-g^'rJ,  (Nicolas,)  a  Spanish 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Toledo  about  1510;  died 
in  1574. 

Vergara,  de,  (Nicolas,)  a  painter  and  sculptor,  born 
at  Toledo  about  1540,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding ;  died 
in  1606. 

Vergelmer  or  Vergelmir.     See  Nidhogg. 

Vergenne3,  de,  deh  v§R'zh?n',  (sometimes  Anglicized 
as  ver-j§nz',)  (Charles  Gravier — gRS've-i',)  Count, 
a  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1 71 7.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  the  electoral  court 
of  Treves  in  1750,  and  in  1755  was  ambassador  to  Con- 
stantinople. After  his  return  he  was  sent,  in  1771,  on  a 
mission  to  Stockholm,  where  he  assisted  Gustavus  HI, 
in  his  revolution  against  the  nobles.  He  became  min- 
ister for  foreign  affairs  under  Louis  XVI.  in  1774,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive, 
with  the  United  States,  in  February,  1778,  which  involved 
France  in  a  war  against  England.  This  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  which  he  signed  in  September, 
1783.  He  remained  in  office  until  his  death,  in  1787.  He 
had  a  fair  reputation  for  integrity  as  well  as  diplomatic 
skill. 

See  Mayer,  "  Vie  du  Comte  de  Vergennes,"  lySg  ;  Vicq-d'Azvr, 
"filoge  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Vergennes,"  17SS:  Droz,  "  Histoire  du 
Rigne  de  Louis  XVI  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Kiographie  Gen^rale." 

Vergerio,  v§R-ja're-o,  (Pietro  Paolo,)  the  Elder, 
an  Italian  reviver  of  learning,  born  at  Capo  d'lstria  about 
1349.  He  was  professor  of  di.ilectics  at  Padua  from  1393 
to  1400.  He  published  a  work  "On  Noble  Manners," 
("  De  ingenuis  Moribus,")  and  a  Life  of  Petrarch.  Died 
about  1420. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Paolo  Giovio, 
"  Elogia." 

Vergerio,  (Pietro  Paolo,)  the  Younger,  a  relative 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Capo  d'lstria  about  I49S- 
He  became  papal  nuncio  to  Germany  in  1530,  Bishop 
of  Capo  d'lstria  in  1536,  and  a  convert  to  the  Protestant 
religion  about  1544.  He  took  refuge  in  the  Orisons, 
from  which  he  removed  in  1553  to  Tubingen,  where  he 
was  employed  as  a  minister.  He  wrote  several  works 
against  popery.     Died  in  1565. 

See  Carli,  "Vita  di  P.  P.  Vergerio;"  Bavle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^n^rale." 

Vergers,  dea.    See  Noel  des  Vergers. 

Vergers,  des,  di  vSR'zhi',  (Marin  Noel,)  a  French 
judge,  born  at  Ervy  in  1759.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1831.     Died  m  1836. 

Vergier,  v^R'zhe^',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1655,  wrote  tales  and  songs  which  were  once 
admired      He  was  killed  by  robbers  at  Paris  in  1720. 

Vergier  de  Hauraune.     See  Duvergier  de  Hau- 

RANNE.  ,  ,        ,T  / 

Ver'gil  Pory-dora,  [Lat.  Virgil'ius  (or  Vergil'- 
lus)  Polydo'rus  ;  It.  Vkrgilio  Polidoro,  v?R-jee'le-o 
po-le-do'ro,l  a  celebrated  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Urbino,  in  Italy,  about  1470.  He  was  sent  about 
1502  to  England  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  to  collect  the 
tax  called  ""Peter's  pence,"  and  continued  to  reside  m 
that  country  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  was 
successively  created  Archdeacon  of  Wells,  and   preb- 

cas>6;  9asj;  %hard;  g3iS,j;G,H.V..s^itural;  ^,  nasal;  K,/rii7c\/:  sas:.-  lhasin///«.     (^[^^.See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VERGFLIO 


23S2 


VERNE 


endary  in  the  cathedrals  of  Hereford,  Lincoln,  and 
Saint  Paul's.  Ills  principal  works  are  his  "  History  of 
Inventions,"  ("De  Rerum  Inventoribus,")  "  Ilistoria 
Anglica,"  a  history  of  England  brought  down  to  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  VH.,  and  a  treatise  against  divina- 
tion, entitled  "  I)e  Prodigiis."  Died  about  1550. 
Vergilio  Polidoro.  See  Vergil  Polydore. 
Vergilius  Polydorus.  See  Vergii,  Polydore. 
Vergne,  La.  See  La  Vekgne  and  Tressan. 
Vergniaud,  v^Rn'ye-o',  (Pierre  Victurnien,)  a 
celebrated  French  orator  and  Girondist,  was  born  at 
Limoges,  May  31,  1759.  He  was  educated  at  the  Col- 
lege du  Plessis  at  Paris,  studied  law  under  Dupaty,  and 
began  to  practise  as  an  advocate  at  Bordeaux  in  1781. 
His  habits  were  rather  indolent,  meditative,  and  non- 
chalant. "  His  language,"  says  Lamartine,  "  had  the 
images  and  harmony  of  the  most  beautiful  verses."  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 
September,  1791.  In  July,  1792,  he  declaimed  against 
the  conduct  of  the  king,  in  a  speech  which  made  a  pro- 
found impression,  and  demanded  that  the  Assembly 
should  declare  that  the  country  was  in  danger.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  National  Convention  which  met  in 
September,  1792.  In  the  trial  of  the  king  he  voted  for 
the  appeal  to  the  people,  but  after  the  defeat  of  that 
measure  he  voted  for  his  death,  and,  as  president  of  the 
Convention,  projiounced  the  sentence,  January,  1793. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  moderate  of  the  Girondists. 
In  April,  1793,  he  defended  himself  against  Robespierre, 
«vho  had  attacked  him  in  a  speech.  He  was  one  of  the 
twenty-two  Girondists  who  were  arrested  by  the  order 
of  the  Convention,  June  2,  1793.  According  to  Lamar- 
tine, he  was  the  most  impassible  of  his  companions  in 
prison,  because  he  was  the  greatest.  Arraigned  before 
the  tribunal  in  October,  he  spoke  thus  in  his  defence: 
"  What  ought  to  have  been  done  to  assure  the  triumph 
of  the  republic'  I  have  done  it.  What  is  now  requi- 
site to  confirm  the  republic  by  the  example  of  its  devoted 
friends?  To  die.'  I  will  do  that."  He  was  executed 
in  October,  1793.  He  was  of  middle  stature,  and  was 
physically  well  developed.  In  repose,  his  face  was  not 
very  expressive,  but  in  the  act  of  speaking  it  became 
illumined  and  transfigured  with  genius.  "  Such,"  says 
Lamartine,  "  was  the  man  whom  nature  had  given  to 
the  Girondists  for  their  chief.  He  did  not  condescend 
to  be  that ;  too  indiflferent  ( inscniciant )  for  a  leader  of  a 
party,  too  great  for  a  secondary  position.  He  was  Ver- 
gniaud. Rather  glorious  than  useful  to  his  friends,  he 
was  not  willing  to  lead  them,  but  he  immortalized  them." 
"  In  parliamentary  eloquence,"  says  Macaulay,  "  no 
Frenchman  of  that  time  can  be  considered  equal  to 
Vergniaud.  In  a  foreign  country,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
half  a  century,  some  parts  of  his  speeches  are  still  read 
with  mournful  admiration.  No  man,  we  are  inclined  to 
believe,  ever  rose  so  rapidly  to  such  a  height  of  ora- 
torical excellence.  His  whole  public  life  lasted  barely 
two  years."  (Review  of  Barere's  "Memoirs,"  1844.) 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  Genty  dh 
LA  BoRDERiE,  "  Eloge  de  Vergniaud,"  i8oq;  Thiers,  "  History  of 
the  Revolution;"  Touchard-Lafosse,  "  Histoire  parlementaire  et 
Vie  intime  de  Vergniaud,"  184S;  Madame  Roland,  "  M^moires  ;" 
BiiCHEZ  et  Roux,  "Histoire  parlementaire;"  Michelet,  "His- 
toire de  la  Revolution  Frangaise ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nif- 
rale." 

Verhaegen,  ver-hl'gen  or  ver-h  J'Hen,  (Pierre  The- 
odore,) a  Belgian  politician,  born  in  Brussels  about 
1800.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  which  he  entered  in  1837,  and  acted 
with  the  Lilieral  party.      Died  in  1862. 

Verheyden,  ver-hi'den,  (Frans  Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1657  ;  died 
^n  1 71 1. 

Verheyen,  ver-hl'en,  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
anatotnist,  born  in  East  Flanders  in  1648.  He  studied 
medicine,_etc.  at  Louvain,  where  he  obtained  a  chair  of 
anatomy  in  1689,  and  became  highly  distinguished  as  a 
teacher.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  besides  other  professional 
works,  "The  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  (1693,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1710. 

See  V.  J.  Fran(;ois,  "  filoge  de  Verheyen,"  1847  ;  V.  J.  Francois, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  P.  Verheyen,"  1842  ;  Nic^kon,  "  M^moires." 

Verhuell,  ver-hii'Sl,  or  Verhuel,  (Carel  Hendrik,) 


Count  de  Sevenaar,  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  in  Gelder- 
land  in  1760,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1764.  As  rear-admiral, 
he  fought  against  the  English,  near  Flushing,  in  1804. 
He  received  the  chief  command  of  the  army  destined  to 
operate  against  the  coasts  of  England,  (1805,)  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal  by  King  Louis  in  1806. 
He  entered  the  French  service  in  1810,  and  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  in  1819.     Died  in  1845. 

See  Grandpierre,  "  Notice  sur  le  Vice-Amiral  C.  H.  Verhuel," 
1845  ;  Q.  M.  R.  Vkrhurll,  "  Het  Levenen  Karakter  van  C.  H.  Ver- 
huell," 2  vols.,  1847  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdndrale." 

Verjus,  vSR'zhiis',  (Louis,)  Count  de  Crecy,  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1629.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  was  at  the  diet  of  Ratisbon 
in  1679,  and  at  Ryswick  in  1697.     Died  in  1709. 

His  brother  Antoine,  born  in  1632,  was  a  Jesuit,  and 
author  of  several  works  of  biography,  etc.  Died  in  1706. 

Verkolie,  ver-ko'lee,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1650  ;  died  in  1693. 

His  son  Nicholas,  born  in  1673,  was  a  painter  of 
history  and  nocturnal  scenes.     Died  in  1 746. 

Verlat,  vSr'II',  (Charles,)  a  Belgian  painter  of  his- 
tory and  genre,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1S24.  He  removed 
to  Paris  in  1847. 

Vermandois,  de,  deh  vgR'm5N'dvvi',  (Louis  de 
Bourbon — deh  booR'bAN',)  Count,  bom  in  Paris  in 
1667,  was  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  La 
Valliere.  He  was  legitimated,  and  appointed  admiral 
of  France.     Died  in  1683. 

Verme,  del,  d^l  v§R'm^,  (Jacopo,)  an  able  Italian 
general  or  condottiere,  commanded  the  armies  of  Gian 
Galeazzo  Visconti.  He  passed  into  the  service  of 
Venice  in  1404. 

Vermeulen,  ver-muh'len,  (Cornelis,)  a  Flemish 
engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1644.  He 
engraved  portraits  with  skill.     Died  in  1702. 

Vermeulen,  [Lat.  Mola'nus,]  (Jan,)  a  Flemish 
writer  on  theology  and  antiquities,  was  born  at  Lille  in 
1533.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  one  "On 
Sacred  Pictures  and  Images,"  ("De  Picturis  et  Imagi- 
nibus  sacris,"  1570,)  and"  De  Canonicis,"  (1587.)  Died 
at  Louvain  in  1585. 

Vernieyen,  von,  fon  ver-mi'en,  or  Vermeyn,  ver- 
min', (Johann,)  a  Dutch  historical  painter,  surnamed 
Hans  mix  dem  Barte,  ("  Hans  with  the  Beard,")  was 
born  near  Haarlem  in  1500.  He  was  a  favourite  of 
Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  whom  he  accom 
panied  on  his  expeditions.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  ten  large  cartoons  at  Vienna,  representing  the  march 
of  the  emperor  to  Tunis.     Died  in  1559. 

Vermigli.     See  Peter  Martyr. 

Vermond,  de,  deh  v§R'm6N',  (Matthieu  Jacques,) 
L'AbbE,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  French  teacher  of 
Marie  Antoinette  at  Vienna  before  her  marriage.  After 
she  became  Queen  of  France,  he  remained  in  her  ser- 
vice as  reader,  enjoyed  her  confidence,  and  exercised 
great  influence  at  court.  He  is  censured  for  his  political 
intrigues.     Died  after  1789. 

Vermuyden,  ver-moi'den,  (Sir  Cornelius,)  a  Dutch 
engineer,  born  in  Zeeland.  He  removed  to  England 
about  1622,  was  employed  by  Charles  I.,  and  rendered 
valuable  services  by  draining  part  of  the  Bedford  Level. 
Died  about  1665. 

Vernage,  v^R'ntzh',  (Michel  Louis,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris  in  1697;  died  in  1773. 

Vernazza,  v^R-n.^t'sil,  (Giuseppe,)  Baron  de  Freney, 
an  Italian  antiquary  and  writer,  born  at  Alba,  in  Pied- 
mont, in  1745.  He  resided  at  Turin,  and  held  several 
high  offices.  He  wrote  biographies,  treatises  on  Italian 
antiquities,  etc.     Died  in  1822. 

Verne,  v§Rn,  (Jules,)  a  French  author,  born  at 
Nantes,  February  8,  1828.  He  studied  law  in  Paris, 
and  produced  some  comedies  and  comic  operas,  including 
"  Les  Pailles  rompues,"  (1850,)  and  "  Onze  Jours  de 
Siege."  His  mock-scientific  romances,  however,  have 
given  him  his  principal  fame.  Most  of  them  have  been 
translated  into  English,  aiuong  them  "Five  Weeks  in  a 
Balloon,"  (1870,)  "Journey  to  the  Centre  of  the  Earth," 
(1872,)  "Twenty  Thousand  Leagues  under  the  Sea," 
(1873,)  "Round  the  World  in  Eighty  Days,"  (1874,) 
"The  Green  Ray,"  (18S2,)  and  many  others. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  loui^;  4,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  ohsiure:  (Sr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


VERNES 


2383 


VERPLANCK 


Vernes,  v?Rn,  (Jacob,)  a  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1728,  wrote  "  Letters  on  the  Christianity  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1791. 

Vernet,  v§R'ni',  (  Antoine  Charles  Horace,)  some- 
times called  Carle  Vernet,  a  son  of  Claude  Joseph, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1758.  He  was 
instructed  by  his  father,  and  afterwards  studied  at  the 
French  Academy  of  Arts,  and  in  1782  gained  the  grand 
prize  offered  by  that  institution.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  battle-scenes  and  animals,  particularly  horses. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Bombardment  of 
Madrid,"  "The  Battle  of  Wagram,"  and  "The  Entrance 
of  Napoleon  into  Milan."     Died  in  1836. 

See  Durance,  "Joseph,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865;  L. 
Lagrange,  "  Les  Vernet,  (Carle  et  Horace,")  1864;  C.  Blanc, 
"  Histoire  des  Peiiitres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Vernet,  (Claude  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  at  Avignon  in  1714.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
devoting  himself  principally  to  marine  landscapes,  in 
which  department  he  soon  attained  rare  excellence.  He 
resided  nearly  twenty  years  in  Italy,  during  the  early 
part  of  which  time  he  was  so  reduced  as  to  be  obliged 
to  paint  coach-panels,  which  were  afterwards  taken  out 
and  framed.  He  was  invited  to  France  in  1752  by  Louis 
XV.,  who  commissioned  him  to  paint  the  principal  sea- 
ports of  France.  These  views — fifteen  in  number — are 
in  the  Louvre,  where  many  of  his  best  works  are  to  be 
seen.  Among  his  other  master-pieces  we  may  name  the 
pictures  in  the  Borghese  and  Rondanini  palaces  at  Rome, 
and  a  "  Seaport  at  Sunset,"  in  the  Louvre.  He  had  been 
elected  in  1753  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Arts,  Died 
in  1789. 

See  DuRANDE,  "Joseph,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865;  L. 
Lagrange,  "J.  Vernet  et  la  Peinture  au  dix-huitifeme  Sifecle," 
1S64:  C.  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Vernet,  (Horace,)  a  celebrated  French  painter  of 
battles,  son  of  Antoine  Charles,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  T789.  He  studied  under  his  father,  and  in  1809 
exhibited  his  "  Capture  of  a  Redoubt."  This  was  soon 
followed  by  "The  Trumpeters,"  "The  Barriere  de 
Clichy,"  "Battle  of  Tolosa,"  "Soldier  of  Waterloo," 
and  other  military  pictures,  which  won  for  him  the 
highest  reputation  in  that  department  of  the  art.  He 
was  created  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  by 
Napoleon  in  1814,  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour 
by  Charles  X.,  (1825,)  a  member  of  the  Institute,  (1826,) 
and  director  of  the  Academy  at  Rome,  (1828.)  He  was 
also  patronized  by  Louis  Philippe,  for  whom  he  painted 
a  series  of  battles  in  the  Constantine  gallery  at  Versailles. 
His  pictures  are  of  large  dimensions.  lie  worked  at 
Rome  about  eight  years, — 1828-35, — ^"'^  painted  there  a 
picture  of  a  "  Meeting  of  Raphael  with  Michael  Angelo." 
Among  his  chief  works  are  the  "  Siege  of  Constantine" 
and  the  "Battle  of  Isly."  At  the  Exposition  of  1855  a 
jury  of  painters  from  various  nations  awarded  him  the 
grand  medal  of  honour.     Died  in  1863. 

See  A.  Durandk,  "  Josepli,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865; 
L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "M.  H.  Vernet,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841 , 
L.  Lagrange,  "Les  Vernet,  (Carle  et  Horace,")  1864;  C.  Blanc, 
"Histoire  des  Peintres;"  T.  Sylvestre,  "Histoire  des  Aitiste* 
vivants,"  1857  :  De  Mirecourt,  "  H.  Vernet,"  1855;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gdn^rale ;"  "Jalirbuch  zura  Conversations-Lexikon," 
1S63. 

Vernet,  vfR'n.V,  (jACon,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1698.  He  became  pastor  at  Geneva  in  1734, 
rector  of  the  Academy  in  1737,  and  professor  of  the- 
ology there  in  1756.  He  wrote,  besides  many  other 
works,  "Socratic  Dialogues  on  Moral  Subjects,"  (1746,) 
and  "Christian  Instruction,"  (4  vols.,  1752.)  Died  in 
1789. 

Verneuil,  de,  deh  vSr'huI'  or  v?R'nuh'ye,  (Philippe 
Edouard  Poulletier,)  a  French  naturalist,  distin- 
guished as  a  geologist  and  paljeontologist,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1805.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in 
1854.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Memoir  on  the  Geology 
of  the  Crimea,"  (1837.)      Died  at  Paris,  May  29,  i«73. 

Verney,  du,  (Joseph.)     See  Duverney. 

Vernier,  v§R'ne-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Ornans,  in  Franche-Comte,  about  15S0, 
invented  a  graduated  scale  or  quadrant.     Died  in  1637. 

Vernier,  (Theodore,)  a  French  advocate  and  mor- 
alist, born  at  Lons-le-Saulnier  in  173T.   He  was  a  member 


of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  against  the  death 
of  the  king,  (1793.)  He  wrote  several  works  on  the 
passions,  etc.     Died  in  1818. 

Verniquet,  v?R'ne'ki',  (Edme,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-.Seine  in  1727.  He  built  many 
chateaus  and  bridges  in  the  provinces.  His  chief  work 
was  the  plan  of  Paris  and  its  faubourgs,  at  which  he 
worked  twenty-eight  years.     Died  in  1804. 

Ver'non,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated  English  admiral, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1684.  He  served  in  the  early 
campaigns  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  in 
1727  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Penryn,  being  re- 
turned for  Portsmouth  in  1734.  In  1739  he  was  sent, 
with  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  to  the  West 
Indies,  to  take  Porto  Bello  from  the  Spaniards,  which 
exploit  he  accomplished  with  only  six  ships.  After  his 
return  he  was  several  times  re-elected  to  Parliament. 
Died  in  1757. 

See  a  "Life  of  Admiral  Vernon,"  London,  1758;  Charnock, 
"  Biographia  Navalis  ;"  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Vernon,  (John  Richard,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Louth  (Lincolnshire)  in  1833.  He  graduated  at 
Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  in  1859,  and  in  1861  took  priest's 
orders  in  the  English  Church.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "The  Church  of  England  the  Guide  for  her 
Children,"  "The  Harvest  of  a  Quiet  Eye,"  "Poppies  in 
the  Corn,"  etc. 

Vernon,  (Robert,)  an  English  amateur,  born  in 
1774,  devoted  a  large  fortune  to  the  purchase  of  pictures 
by  British  artists.  In  1847  he  presented  this  collection, 
containing  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  paintings,  to  the 
British  National  Gallery.  The  Vernon  pictures  are, 
with  two  exceptions,  the  work  of  native  artists.  They 
have  been  placed  in  Marlborough  House.  Died  in  1849. 

Vernon,  de.    See  Gay  de  Vernon. 

Ver'non-Har'cotirt,  (Sir  William  George,)  an 
English  lawyer,  born  in  1827.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  185 1,  where  he  became  professor  of  interna- 
tional law.  He  was  solicitor-general,  1873-74,  and  was 
appointed  home  secretary  in  1880.  He  married,  in  1876, 
a  daughter  of  the  historian  Motley. 

Vernon-Smith,  (Robert.)     See  Lyveden. 

Vernulz,  de,  deh  ver-nulz',  [  Lat.  Vernul^e'its,  ( 
(Nicolas,)  a  Flemish  poet  and  orator,  born  at  Robel- 
mont  in  1583,  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  Latin 
at  Louvain.  He  published  numerous  Latin  orations  and 
poems.     Died  in  1649. 

Verny,  v§R'ne',  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Besan9on  in  1753;  died  in  1811. 

Verocchio,  del,  del  vi-rok'ke-o,  or  Verroccbio, 
(Andrea,)  an  eminent  Italian  statuary  and  painter,  born 
at  Florence  in  1432.  Among  his  works  are  a  bronze 
bust  of  David  the  Psalmist,  and  paintings  of  "The 
Holy  Family"  and  "The  Incredulity  of  Saint  Thomas." 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  his  pupil.     Died  in  1488. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Veron.    See  Forbon.nais,  de. 

Veron,  vi'rAw',  (Eugene,)  a  French  author,  born  in 
Paris,  May  25,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ecole 
Normale,  and  became  a  teacher  and  journalist  at  Lyons. 
He  published  "Du  Progres  intellectuel  dans  I'Huma- 
nite,"  (1862,)  "  Histoire  de  la  Prusse,"  (1867,)  "  Histoire 
de  I'Allemagne  depuis  Sadowa,"  (1874,)  "La  troisieme 
Invasion,"  (1876-77,)  "  L'Esthetique,"  (1878,)  etc. 

V6ron,  vi'r6N',  (Francois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
controversial  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1575.  He  had 
a  public  dispute  with  Samuel  Bochart,  at  Caen,  in  1628. 
Died  in  1649. 

V^ron,  (Louis  D6sir^,)  a  French  journalist  and 
physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  founded  in  1829 
the  "  Revue  de  Paris,"  which  was  very  successful,  and 
became  director  of  the  Opera  in  1831.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  1836,  became  proprietor  of  the  "Consti- 
tutionnel"  in  1844,  and  supported  Louis  Napoleon  as 
president  and  as  emperor.  He  published  "Memoirs 
of  a  Citizen  of  Paris,"  ("Memoires  d'un  Bourgeois  de 
Paris,"  (autobiographic,)  (6  vols.,  1854.)     Died  in  1867. 

Veronese,  (Paul.)     See  Cagliarl 

Ver-planck',  (Gulian  Crommelin,)  a  distinguished 
.American  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  17S6. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s:  s  ^arj;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^,pdtiiral;  N,  tiasa!;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^="See  Explanations,  p.  2.^.^ 


VERRAZZAyO 


23S4 


VERTUMNE 


lie  published  in  1819,  anonymously,  a  brilliant  satirical 
work,  entitled  "The  State  Triumvirate,  a  Political  Tale." 
fie  was  soon  after  ajipointed  professor  of  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Seminary, 
New  York,  and  in  1825  was  elected  to  Congress.  In  1827 
he  published  conjointly  with  W.  C.  Bryant  and  Robert  C. 
Sands  a  miscellany  entitled  "  The  Talisman,"  to  which  he 
contributed  nearly  one-half  of  the  articles.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  his  address  before  the  New 
York  Historical  Society,  entitled  "The  Early  European 
Friends  of  America,"  (1818,)  "Essays  on  the  Nature  and 
Uses  of  the  Various  Evidences  of  Revealed  Religion," 
(1824,)  and  "Discourses  and  Addresses  on  Subjects  of 
American  History,  Art,  and  Literature,"  (1833.)  He 
brought  out  in  1846  his  superb  edition  of  Shakspeare, 
with  notes,  esteemed  one  of  the  best  that  had  ever  ap- 
peared.    Died  in  March,  1870. 

Verrazzano,  da,  di  vgr-rit-sd'no,  or  Verrazani, 
(Giovanni,)  aji  Italian  navigator,  born  of  a  Tuscan 
family  about  i486.  He  served  in  French  vessels,  and  is 
believed  to  have  visited  the  North  American  seas  in 
1508  or  earlier.  He  became  a  privateer  or  pirate,  cap- 
turing many  Spanish  and  Portuguese  ships,  but  was 
himself  taken  and  put  to  death  at  Pico,  Spain,  in  No- 
vember, 1527.  A  celebrated  letter  ascribed  to  Verraz- 
zano, and  giving  an  account  of  one  of  his  voyages  to 
America,  (1524,)  has  latterly,  after  much  discussion,  been 
generally  rejected  as  unauthentic,  and  by  some  his 
brother,  Geronimo  Verrazzano,  is  believed  to  have 
forged  the  narrative  of  the  voyages  in  question. 

Ver'res,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  governor,  notorious  for 
his  rapacity  and  cruelty,  was  born  about  112  H.c.  He 
was  quaestor  in  82,  and  city  praetor  at  Rome  in  74  B.C. 
When  his  term  of  office  as  praetor  had  ended,  in  73,  he 
became  governor  of  the  rich  and  important  province  of 
Sicily,  which  he  almost  ruined  by  his  extortions,  out- 
rages, and  vexatious  measures.  He  was  accused  by  the 
people  of  Sicily,  who  engaged  Cicero  to  conduct  the 
prosecution  before  the  senate.  Hortensius  was  the 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  this  trial,  which  was  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  in  the  history  of  Rome,  and  was 
one  of  the  great  eras  in  the  life  of  Cicero,  who  gained 
his  cause  ;  but  Verres  had  absconded  before  the  end  of 
the  trial,  and  retired  to  Marseilles.  He  passed  twenty- 
seven  years  in  exile,  and  died  about  42  B.C. 

See  Cicero's  Verrine  Orations,  including  jie  oration  "  In  Q. 
Cscilium;"  Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms." 

Verri,  vgr'ree,  (Alessandro,)  Count,  an  Italian 
lawyer  and  eloquent  writer,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1741. 
He  contributed  many  able  essays  to  a  literary  journal 
called  "The  Coffee-House,"  ("II  CafTe.")  About  1767 
he  became  a  resident  of  Rome.  He  published  a  suc- 
cessful novel,  "The  Adventures  of  Sappho,"  (1780,)  and 
a  series  of  dialogues  of  the  dead,  entitled  "The  Roman 
Nights,"  ("  Le  Notti  Romane,"  1792,)  which  were  much 
admired.     Died  at  Rome  in  1816. 

See  A.  Lev  ATI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  A.  Verri,"  1808:  G.  Maggi, 
■'Vita  di  A.  Verri,"  1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Verri,  (Carlo,)  an  agriculturist,  born  at  Milan  in  1 743, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  council  of  state  in  1805,  and  a  senator  at  Milan  in 
1809.  He  wrote  on  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  other 
subjects.     Died  in  1823. 

Verri,  (Gabriele,)  Count,  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Milan  in  1696,  was  the  father  of  Alessandro,  noticed 
above.  He  published  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1782. 
-  Verri,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  author  and  political  econ- 
omist, born  at  Milan  in  1728,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  his  youth,  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  economy  at  Milan  in  1765,  and 
president  of  the  chamber  of  accounts  in  1780.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  political  economy,  ("  Meditazioni  sull' 
Economia  politica,"  1771,)  which  has  a  high  reputation, 
a  "History  of  Milan,"  (2  vols.,  1 783-98,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Milan  in  1797. 

See  IsiDORC  Bianchi,  "Elogio  storico  di  P.  Verri,"  1803;  A. 
Rossi,  "Orazio  in  Lode  di  P.  Verri,"  1818;  Custodi,  "  Notizie 
sulla  Vita  di  P.  Verri,"  1843;  Nessi,  "Elogio  di  P.  Verri,"  1S44: 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Re\'iew"  for  June,  182S. 

Ver'rill,  (Addison  Emery,)  an  American  naturalist, 
born  at  Greenwood,  Maine,  February  9,  1839.     He  was 


educated  in  tlie  scientific  department  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1864  became  professor  of  zoology  in  Yale 
College.  His  publications  are  mostly  in  the  form  of 
scientific  papers.  He  has  given  much  attention  to  deep- 
sea  dredging  for  scientific  purposes. 

Verrio,  v§r're-o,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
about  1639,  was  invited  to  England  by  Charles  II.,  who 
employed  him  to  paint  a  series,  of  frescos  in  Windsor 
Castle.  He  was  also  patronized  by  James  II.  His 
works,  executed  for  Lord  Exeter  at  Rurleigh  House,  are 
esteemed  his  best  performances ;  he  is  said  by  Dr. 
Waagen  to  have  received  more  money  for  these  alone 
than  Michael  Angelo  or  Raphael  ever  obtained  for  all 
their  paintings.  His  works  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
bad  taste  and  absurdity.     Died  in  England  in  1707. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Ver'rl-U3  Flac'cus,  (Marcus,)  a  distinguished  Ro- 
man grammarian,  who  was  ajipointed  by  Augustus  in- 
structor to  his  grandsons  Caius  and  Lucius.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  valuable  works,  one  of  which  was 
a  Roman  calendar,  entitled  "Fasti  Praenestini,"  frag- 
ments of  which  were  published  by  Foggini  in  1779. 

Verrocchio,  del,  (Andrea.)    See  Vekocchio,  del. 

Verscliaffelt,  de,  deh  ver-sKdf'felt,  (Pierre,)  a  Flem- 
ish sculptor,  called  by  the  Italians  Pietro  Fiammingo, 
was  born  at  Ghent  in  17 10.  He  worked  in  Rome  and 
Mannheim,  where  he  died  in  1793. 

Verschuring,  v^r-sKii'ring,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  whose  works  are  principally  battle-pieces,  was 
born  at  Gorcum  in  1627;  died  in  1690. 

Ver-ste'gan,  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary,  of 
Dutch  extraction,  was  born  in  London.  He  removed 
to  Antwerp,  where  he  published  his  principal  work, 
entitled  "A  Restitution  of  Decayed  Intelligence  con- 
cerning the  Most  Noble  and  Renowned  English  Nation," 
(1605.)     Died  about  1635. 

Verstolk  van  Soelen,  ver-stolk'  vtn  soo'len,  (Jan 
Gijsbert — gTs'b§Rt,)  Baron,  a  Dutch  statesman,  born 
at  Rotterdam  in  1777.  He  was  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1815,  and  in  1825  was  appointed  minister 
of  foreign  affairs.     Died  in  1845. 

Vert,  de,  deh  vaiR,  (Claude,)  a  French  Benedictine 
and  liturgist,  born  in  Paris  in  1645.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  religious  ceremonies.     Died  in  1708. 

Verteillac.    See  La  Brousse. 

Ver'tin,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  born  in  Carniola, 
Austria,  July  17,  1844,  graduated  in  1866  at  Saint  Francis 
Seminary,  Milwaukee,  v^^as  a  Roman  Catholic  missionary 
in  Northern  Michigan,  and  in  1879  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Marquette. 

Vertot,  de,  deh  vSR'to',  (Ren6  Aubert,)  an  eminent 
French  ecclesiastic  and  historian,  born  in  Normandy  in 
1655.  He  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Rouen,  and 
subsequently  entered  the  order  of  the  Premonstrants  a( 
Valsery.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Reva 
lutions  of  Portugal,"  (1689,)  "  History  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Sweden,"  (1696,)  "  Complete  History  of  the  Estab 
lishment  of  the  Britons  in  Gaul,"  (1710,)  "History  of 
the  Revolutions  of  the  Roman  Rej^ublic,"  (3  vols.,  1719,) 
and  "  History  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,"  (4  vols.,  1726.) 
His  works  were  very  popular,  owing  partly  to  the  style, 
which  is  very  agreeable.     Died  in  Paris  in  1735. 

See  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  I'AbW  Vertot,"  1795  ;  Mor^ri,  "  E  c- 
tionnaire  Historiqiie ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Ver'tue,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  16S4.  He  acquired  the  friendship 
and  patronage  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and,  on  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  London,  in 
171 1,  became  one  of  its  members.  In  1717  he  was  ap- 
pointed engraver  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  by  the 
Earl  of  Winchelsea,  president  of  that  body.  He  en- 
graved the  portraits  of  many  eminent  men  of  his  own 
time,  and  illustrated  several  works  for  the  booksellers 
He  collected  materials  for  a  history  of  painting  and  en- 
graving in  England,  which  he  left  in  manuscript.  These 
were  purchased  by  Horace  Walpole,  and  published  in 
his  "Anecdotes  of  Painting."    Died  in  1756. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers;"  "  Mor.thly  Review" 
for  February  and  March,  1781. 

Vertumiie.    See  Vertumnus. 


a,  e,i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  t1,  }f,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure  'Ax,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


VERTUMNUS 


2385 


VESTA 


Ver-tum'nua  or  Vor-tum'nus,  [Fr.  Vertumne, 
vSF'tomn',]  an  Etruscan  and  Roman  divinity,  supposed 
to  preside  over  the  changes  of  the  seasons  and  the  trans- 
formation of  plants,  lie  was  regarded  by  some  writers 
as  the  god  of  gardens,  of  orchards,  and  of  autumn.  The 
poets  relate  that  he  loved  Pomona,  who  was  so  coy  that 
he  did  not  succeed  until  he  had  metamorphosed  himself 
into  many  forms. 
Verulam,  Lord.  See  Bacon,  (Francis.) 
Ve'rus,  (Lucius  v^lius),  son  of  /lilius  Verus,  who 
had  been  adopted  and  made  Caesar  by  the  emperor 
Hadrian.  In  161  A.D.  he  became  the  colleague  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  as  Emperor  of  Rome.  He  was  a  weak  and 
profligate  prince.     Died  in  169  a.d.     His  original  name 

was   L.  COMMODUS. 

Verville,  de.     See  BitROALDE  de  Verville. 

Ver'j^,  (Jones,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He  published  "Essays  and 
Poems,"  (1839,)  and  wrote  some  of  the  best  sonnets  in 
the  language.  He  was  also  an  able  critic.  He  was  a 
Unitarian  of  a  devout  and  mystical  turn  of  mind.  Died 
May  8,  1880. 

Vesale.     See  Vesalius. 

Vesalio.     See  Vesalius. 

Ve-sa'li-us,  [Fr.  Vesale,  veh-ztK;  It.  Vesalio,  vi- 
§d'le-o,l  (Andreas,)  the  most  eminent  anatomist  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  December, 
1 5 14.  His  father,  Andrew,  was  apothecary  to  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany.  He  studied  languages  at  Louvain, 
and  medicine  at  Montpellier  and  Paris.  About  1535  he 
served  in  the  Imperial  army,  probably  as  surgeon.  He 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Padua  or  Pavia  about 
1538,  and  published  a  Latin  work  in  1539  in  which  he 
taught  that  blood  should  be  drawn  from  the  right  arm. 
In  1543  he  produced  his  great  work  on  anatomy,  "  Seven 
Books  on  the  Structure  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  De  Cor- 
poris humani  Fabrica  Libri  septem,")  which  operated 
immense  improvements  in  the  science.  Senac  compared 
it  to  the  discovery  of  a  new  world.  Having  in  this  work 
controverted  some  doctrines  of  Galen,  he  was  rewarded 
for  his  services  by  violent  hostility  and  reproaches  from 
several  eminent  anatomists  of  his  time.  About  1544 
he  quitted  Italy,  and  became  physician  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  at  whose  court  he  remained  until  the  abdi- 
cation of  the  emperor,  in  1555.  Soon  after  this  event 
he  went  to  Madrid  to  attend  Philip  II.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  physician.  According  to  a  doubtful  re- 
port, he  incurred  the  censure  of  the  Inquisition.  For 
some  reason  not  well  explained,  he  left  Madrid  in  1563 
or  1564,  and  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  While 
he  was  at  Jerusalem,  he  was  invited  by  the  senate  of 
Venice  to  occupy  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Padua.  He 
resolved  to  accept  this  offer  ;  but,  in  his  voyage  to  Italy, 
he  was  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Zante,  where  he  died 
of  exposure  in  October,  1564.  His  collected  works,  with 
his  "Life,"  were  published  by  Boerhaave  and  Albinus,  (2 
vols.,  1725.) 

See  I'URGGRAEVE,  "  fitiides  siir  Vesale."  1841,  and  "  £loge  de 
Vesale,"  1848;  Mersseman,  "  filoge  de  Vesale,"  1845;  Haller, 
"  liibliotlieca  Anatomica  ;"  L.  Schoonen,  "  Hommage  i  Vesale,"  (in 
verse,)  1847;  Portal.  "  Histoire  de  I'Anatomie,"  tome  i. ;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Vesling,  f§s'ling,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Minden  in  1598,  became  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Padua.  He  visited  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and 
published  several  botanical  works.     Died  in  1649. 

Vespasian,  v6s-pa'zhe-an,  [Lat.  Vespasia'nus;  Fr. 
Vespasie.n,  vSs'pt'ze-is' ;  It.  Vespasiano,  vSs-pd-Se- 
J'no,]  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tiis  Fla'vius  Vespasia'nus, 
Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  near  Reate  in  9  a.d.  He 
served  as  military  tribune  in  Thrace,  and  held  the  offices 
of  quxstor  of  Crete  and  Cyrene,  under  Caligula.  He 
was  afterwards  made  ])rDetor  ;  and,  having  distinguished 
himself  by  several  important  victories  in  Britain,  he  was 
apixjinted  proconsul  of  Africa  about  60  a.d.  As  com- 
mander of  the  forces  against  the  revolted  Jews  in  66 
A.D.,  he  subjected  nearly  the  whole  of  Judea  in  less  than 
two  years.  In  69  a.d.  Vespasian  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror by  Tiberius  Alexander,  prefect  of  Egypt,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Vitellius,  who  was  soon  after  put  to  death  by 
the  Roman  soldiers.  The  princii)al  events  of  the  reign 
of  Vespasian  were  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 


in  70  A.D.,  the  victories  of  Agricola  in  Britain,  and  of 
Petilius  Cerealisover  the  Batavi,  commanded  byCivilis. 
Under  his  wise  and  beneficent  rule  Rome  enjoyed  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity ;  he  patronized  learning  and  the 
arts,  introduced  important  reforms  into  the  army  and 
courts  of  justice,  and  repaired  the  ravages  caused  by 
civil  war.  He  also  restored  the  Capitol,  built  the  mag- 
nificent Temple  of  Peace,  and  began  the  erection  of  the 
amphitheatre,  afterwards  called  the  Colosseum,  and  also 
the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  from  his  name  Flavius.  He 
died  in  79  A.D. 

See  Suetonius,  "  Vespasianns;"  A.  W.  Cramer,  "Flavius  Ves- 
pasianus,"  1785;  Tacitus,  "History  of  Rome;"  Uernegger,  "Vita 
Iniperatoris  Vespasiani,"  1625;  Heimbrod,  "  Flavii  Vespasiani  Im- 
peratoris  Vita,"  1833;  Tillemont,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs ;" 
Mrrivale,  "  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire  ;"  "Nouvella 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Vespasiano.    See  Vespasian. 

Vespasianus.     See  Vespasian. 

Vespasien.    See  Vespasian. 

Vespucci,  v5s-poot'chee,  (Amerigo,  i-mi-ree'go,) 
[Latin,  Amkr'icus  (or  Ameri'cus)  Vespu'cius  ;  Fr. 
Am6ric  Vespuce,  t'mi'rfek'  vSs'pUs',]  a  famous  Italian 
navigator,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  New  World,  was 
born  at  Florence  on  the  9th  of  March,  1451.  He 
was  educated  by  his  uncle,  Giorgio  Antonio  Vespucci, 
an  eminent  scholar,  and  applied  himself  especially  to 
astronomy  and  cosmography.  In  his  early  life  he  was 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  About  149c  he  removed 
to  Spain,  where,  it  is  said,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Columbus  in  1492.  In  a  letter  dated  February,  1505, 
Columbus  mentions  Vespucci  as  a  person  whom  he 
knew  and  esteemed.  Vespucci  was  employed  as  a  mer- 
chant at  Seville  for  several  years.  He  accompanied  an 
expedition  which  Ojeda  conducted  to  America  in  1499. 
It  is  probable  that  he  served  as  astronomer  in  this 
and  several  subsequent  voyages.  According  to  a  letter 
written  by  Vespucci,  he  took  part  in  an  expedition 
which  was  sent  by  the  King  of  Spain  in  1497,  and  dis- 
covered new  islands  and  lands.  Humboldt  and  others 
argue  that  1499  is  the  true  date  of  his  first  voyage.  It 
is  admitted  that  he  made  four  voyages  to  the  New 
World,  but  he  had  not  the  chief  command  of  any  one 
of  the  expeditions.  The  part  of  the  continent  discov- 
ered by  him  was  near  the  equator.  In  his  letter  dated 
July  18,  1500,  he  says,  "We  discovered  a  very  large 
country  of  Asia."  Having  entered  the  service  of  the 
King  of  Portugal,  he  sailed  in  1501  on  an  exploring  ex- 
pedition to  Brazil,  on  his  return  from  which,  September, 
1502,  he  was  received  at  Lisbon  with  great  honour  and 
rejoicing.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  astro- 
nomical discoveries.  About  1505  he  returned  to  Spain. 
He  died  poor  at  Seville  in  1512. 

See  A.M.  Bandini,  "Vitae  Lettere  di  Amerigo  Vespucci,"  1745, 
Canovai,  "  Elogio  di  A.  Vespucci,"  1788;  Santarem,  "  Recherche* 
historiques  sur  Aineric  Vespuce,"  1842,  (translated  into  English 
by  E.  V.  Childe,  1850  :)  C.  Eowards  Lester,  "  Life  of  Arnericus 
Vespucius,"  1846;  Ad.  Varnhagen,  "Vespuce  et  son  premier  Vo- 
yage," 1858 ;  A. Varnhagen,  "  A.  Vespucci,  son  Caractere,  ses  Ecrits, 
sa  Vie,"  etc.,  1865  ;  Napionb,  "  Esame  critico  del  primo  Viaggio  di 
A.Vespucci,"  1811  ;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1821. 

Vespuce  and  Vespucius.     See  Vespucci. 

Ves'ta,  one  of  the  principal  Roman  divinities,  was 
identical  'with  the  Greek  Hestia,  ('Effria,)  and  was  re- 
garded as  the  goddess  of  chastity,  virginity,  fire,  the 
domestic  hearth,  and  domestic  happiness.  She  was, 
according  to  Hesiod,  a  daughter  of  Saturn  (Cronus)  and 
Rhea,  and  was  bound  by  a  vow  of  perpetual  virginity. 
Her  symbol  was  the  eternal  fire  burning  on  the  hearth 
or  altar,  and  vigilantly  kept  alive  by  her  priestesses,  the 
vestal  virgins.  If  this  fire  ever  became  extinguished,  it 
was  renewed  by  friction  or  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  col- 
lected by  a  burning-glass.  Every  repast  in  which  a 
family  joined  was  considered  as  a  sacrifice  to  Vesta  and 
the  Penates.  Each  city  had  its  sacred  hearth  or  sanc- 
tuary of  Vesta,  usually  located  in  a  public  edifice  called 
the  Prytaneum.  She  was  supposed  to  preside  at  all 
sacrifices,  and  had  a  share  of  the  sacrifices  offered  in  all 
the  temples.  The  Romans  celebrated  in  her  honour  an 
annual  festival,  called  I'estalin,  which  occurred  in  the 
month  of  June.  Vesta  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
chief  Penates  of  Troy,  and  the  vestal  fire  is  said  to  have 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

150 


2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


VESTRIS 


2386 


VICHNOU 


been  brought  to  Italy  by  ^neas.  The  vestal  virgins, 
whose  office  is  supposed  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Numa,  were  six  in  number,  and  were  required  to  de- 
vote thirty  years  to  the  service  of  the  goddess.  If  any 
one  of  them  violated  her  vow  of  chastity,  she  was  buried 
alive. 

Vestris,  vSs'tRtss,  or  Vestri,  vSs'tRee,  (Angiolo 
Maria  Gasi'AKO,)  an  Italian  dancer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1730,  was  a  brother  of  Gaetano  Apolline,  noticed 
below.     Died  in  1809. 

Vestris  or  Vestri,  (Gaetano  Apolline  Baldas- 
sare,)  a  famous  Italian  dancer,  born  at  Florence  in 
1729.  He  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1748,  and  was 
received  with  enthusiastic  applause.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  ballet-master  at  the  Grand  Opera.  His  per- 
formances were  unrivalled  in  their  kind,  and  he  was 
popularly  styled  "the  God  of  Dancing."  His  vanity 
was  excessive  and  amusing;  and  he  once  observed  that 
Frederick,  King  of  Prussia,  M.  Voltaire,  and  himself, 
were  the  only  great  men  of  the  century.     Died  in  1808. 

Vestris  or  Vestris- Allard,  vSs'tRfess'  S'IIr',  (Marie 
AuGUSTE,)  a  dancer,  born  in  Paris  in  1760,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.     Died  in  1842. 

Vestris,(MARiE  RosEGourgaud-Dugason — gooR'- 
go'  dii'gt'z6N',)  a  French  actress,  especially  celebrated 
for  her  skill  in  tragic  parts,  a  sister-in-law  of  Gaetano 
Apolline,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1746; 
died  in  1804- 

Vestricius  Spurinna.     See  Spurinna. 

Ve-tra'ni-o,  a  Roman  general,  who  was  persuaded 
by  his  troops  to  assume  the  title  of  emperor  in  350  a.d. 
About  the  end  of  that  year  he  abdicated  in  favour  of 
Constantius.     Died  in  356. 

Vetromile,  v4-tRo-mee'li,  (Eugenio,)  an  Italian 
priest  and  author,  born  at  Gallipoli.  February  22,  1819. 
He  became  a  Jesuit  priest  at  Port  Tobacco,  Maryland, 
and  was  for  a  time  a  professor  in  Washington.  In  1858 
he  went  as  a  missionary  to  the  Indians  of  Maine,  and 
was  for  some  time  parish  priest  at  Machias,  Maine. 
He  prepared  a  prayer-book,  a  hymnal,  and  other  religious 
books  in  the  Abnaki  language.  He  wrote  "  The  Abnakis 
and  their  History,"  (i866,)  "Travels  in  the  Holy  Land," 
etc.     Died  at  Gallipoli,  Italy,  August  23,  1880. 

Vettori,  v§t-to'ree,  or  Vittori,  v6t-to'ree,  (Bene- 
detto,) an  Italian  medical  writer,  born  at  Faenza  in 
1481  ;  died  in  1561. 

Vettori,  [Lat.  Victo'rius,]  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Rome  about  1710.  He  wrote  numer- 
ous dissertations.     Died  in  177S. 

Vettori,  (Pietro,)  an  accomplished  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Florence  in  1499,  was  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  literature  in  that  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  Latin  commentaries  on  the  works  of  Aristotle, 
and  he  published  editions  of  Sallust,  Cicero,  and  other 
Latin  classics;  also  the  "  Electra"  of  Euripides,  and 
various  Greek  works.  He  likewise  wrote  a  number  of 
letters,  poems,  and  orations  in  Italian.     Died  in  1585. 

See  A.  M.  Bandini,  "Vita  di  P.  Vettori,"  1756:  Benivieni, 
"Vila  di  P.  Vettori,"  1585. 

Ve-tu'ri-a,  [Fr.V^ruRiE,  vi'tli're',]  a  Roman  matron, 
the  mother  of  Coriolanus,  (which  see.)  When  Rome 
was  attacked  by  an  army  of  Volscians  commanded  by 
her  son,  she  headed  a  procession  of  women  who  went  to 
his  camp  and  entreated  him  to  spare  the  city.  He  finally 
relented,  and  exclaimed,  "O  mother,  thou  hast  saved 
Rome,  but  destroyed  thy  son  !" 

Veturie.     See  Veturia. 

Veuillot,  vuh'yo',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist,  born  in  the  department  of  Loiret  in  1813. 
He  became  successively  editor  of  the  "Charte  de  1830," 
"  La  Paix,"  and  the  "  Univers  Religieux,"  in  Paris,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous  support  of  the  ultra- 
montane party  and  violent  abuse  of  his  opponents.  His 
"Univers"  was  suppressed  in  i860.  He  published  sev- 
eral novels.     Died  April  7,  1883. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Veyssiere  de  La  Croze.     See  La  Croze. 

Veytiei,  de,  di  vi-e-tee'5,  ?  (Mariano,)  a  Mexican 
historian,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at  Puebla  in  1718, 
wrote  an  account  of  the  early  history  of  Mexico,  en- 
titled "  Historia  Antigua,"  (Mexico,  1836.) 


Viani,  ve-i'nee,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  numismatist, 
born  in  1762  ;  died  in  1816. 

Viani,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1636,  is  said  to  have  been  a  skilful  artist.  Died 
in  1700.  I  lis  son  Domenico,  born  in  1668,  was  also  a 
painter.     Died  in  171 1. 

Viardot,  ve'^R'do',  (L60N,)  1  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1804. 

Viardot,  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  a  brother  d 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1800.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Museums  of  Italy,"  (1842,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Arabs  and  Moors  of  Spain,"  (2 
vols.,  185 1.)  He  married  Pauline  Garcia,  the  vocalist,  ip 
1840.  He  translated  "Don  Quixote"  and  other  Spanish 
works  into  French.     Died  May  6,  1S83. 

Viardot,  (Pauline  Garcia,)  a  popular  French  ac 
tress  and  singer,  a  daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1821.  She  made  her  dehit  in  London  in 
1839,  and  was  married  to  L.  Viardot  in  1840.  She 
excels  in  the  rdles  of  "  Desdemona,"  "  \'alentine,"  (ii 
"The  Huguenots,")  and  "Fides,"  (in  "The  Prophet"  of 
Meyerbeer.) 

Vias,  de,  deh  ve'ts',  (Balthasar)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1587,  was  a  friend  of  Peiresc.  He  was 
appointed  a  councillor  of  state  by  Louis  XIII.  \U 
wrote  numerous  poems.  Died  in  1667. 
Viassolo.  See  Federici,  (Camillo.) 
Viaud  or  Viau,  de,  deh  ve'6',  (Th^ophile,)  a  French 
poet.     (See  Th^ophile.) 

Vibert,  v^'biR',  (Jehan  Georges,)  a  French  portrait 
and  genre  painter,  born  at  Paris,  September  30,  1840 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Picot  and  Barrias.  In  1870  he  be- 
came a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour.  Among  his 
many  noteworthy  pieces  are  "The  Christian  Martyrs 
among  the  Lions,"  "The  Dead  Sheep,"  "  Daphnis  and 
Chloe,"  "The  Fairy-Tale,"  "The  Comedy,"  "Gulliver 
among  the  Liliputians,"  etc.  He  takes  a  high  rank  as  an 
aquarellist. 

Viborg,  vee'boRG,  (Erich  Nissen,)  an  eminent  Dan 
ish  naturalist  and  veterinary  surgeon,  born  in  Sleswick 
in  1759.  He  wrote  numerous  works.  Died  in  1822. 
Vibulanus.  See  Fabius  Vibulanus. 
Vic,  de,  deh  v^k,  (Dominique,)  a  French  commandei 
and  constant  adherent  of  Henry  IV.  He  rendered 
important  services  at  the  battle  of  Ivry.  In  1602 
he  became  governor  of  Calais  and  vice-admiral.  Died 
in  1610. 

Vicari,  von,  fon  vee'ki-ree,  (Herma.nn,)  a  German 
Catholic  prelate,  born  at  Aulendorf,  in  Upper  Suabia,  in 
1773,  became  Archbishop  of  Freiburg  in  1842.  Died  1868. 
Vic'ars,  (Hedley  Shafto  Johnstone,)  a  British 
soldier,  born  on  the  island  of  Mauritius,  December  7, 
1826.  His  father  was  of  a  prominent  Irish  family. 
Hedley  Vicars  entered  the  army  in  1844,  and  rose  to  be 
a  captain  in  the  Ninety-Seventh  Foot.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  faithfulness  as  an  officer,  and  was  of  a  sin- 
cerely religious  character.  He  was  killed  in  a  sortie 
before  Sebastopol,  March  22,  1855.  (His  "  Life,"  anony- 
mously published,  had  a  great  currency  both  in  England 
and  America.) 

Vic'ars,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  writer  in  the 
time  of  Cromwell,  was  born  in  London  in  1582.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "The  Burning  Bush  not 
Consumed,"  and  "God's  Ark  Overtopping  the  World's 
Waves."     Died  in  1652. 

Vic'a-ry,  (Thomas,)  an  English  anatomist,  born  in 
London,  was  surgeon  to  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 
He  published  a  treatise  on  anatomy,  (about  1548.) 

Vicat,  ve'kt',  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French  civil  engineer, 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1786.     He  distinguished  himself  by 
the  discovery  of  hydraulic  cement,  and  made  an  improve- 
ment in  the  foundation  of  bridges.     Died  in  1861. 
Vicence,  Due  de.     See  Caulaincourt, 
Vicente,  (Gil.)     See  Gil  Vicente. 
Vicenza,  Duke  of.     .See  Caulaincouri. 
Vichard.     See  Saint- R6al. 

Vichmann,  viK'mdn,  (Burkhard,)  a  Russian  his* 
torian,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Riga  in  1786.    He 
wrote  (in  German)  several  works   on   Russian  history. 
Died  in  1822. 
Vichnou.    See  Vishnu. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y, /o«^;  i,  i,  6,  same,  ess  prolonged;  3L,e,\,o,\\,'^, short;  z^e,\,q,ol>scure;  {^r,ih\\,  fAt;  mil;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


VJCI 


2387 


VICTOR 


Vici,  vee'chee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  architect,  born 
at  Arcevia  in  1744,  was  appointed  in  1787  hydraulic 
architect  and  engineer  for  the  work  of  draining  the  Pon- 
tine marshes.  Among  the  principal  structures  he  has 
built  may  be  named  the  cathedral  of  Caniarino,  and  the 
church  of  San  Francesco  at  Foligno.     Died  in  1S17. 

Vico,  vee'ko,  (Enea,)  an  Italian  engraver  and  numis- 
matist, born  at  Parma  about  1520.  He  worked  at  Flor- 
ence and  Ferrara,  and  engraved  some  pictures  of  Michael 
Angelo  and  Raphael.  lie  published  several  works  on 
numismatics,  among  which  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Medals 
of  the  Ancients,"  ("  Discorsi  sopre  le  Medaglie  degli 
Antichi,"  1555.)     Died  about  1570. 

Vico,  (Giovanni  Baitista,)  an  eminent  Italian  phi- 
/osopher,  called  the  creator  of  the  philosophy  of  history, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1668.  He  studied  languages, 
philosophy,  and  law,  and,  after  he  left  college,  passed 
nine  years  as  preceptor  in  the  family  of  the  Bishop  of 
Ischia.  In  1697  he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  University  of  Naples,  with  a  salary  of  one  hun- 
dred scudi  (or  ducats)  per  annum.  He  published  in 
1720  a  work  on  law,  entitled  "On  the  One  Principle  and 
End  of  all  Law,"  ("  De  universi  Juris  uno  Principio  et 
Fine  uno.")  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Principles 
of  a  New  Science  of  the  Common  Nature  of  Nations," 
("  Principj  di  una  Scienza  nuova  intorno  alia  commune 
Natura  della  Nazione,"  1725,)  in  which  he  attempts  to 
prove  that  the  events  of  history  are  determined  by  cer- 
tain and  immutable  laws.  It  presents  original  thoughts, 
out  in  some  parts  is  rather  obscure.  In  1735  he  became 
historiographer  to  the  King  of  Naples.  He  was  author 
of  other  works.     Died  at  Najjles  in  January,  1 743  or  1 744. 

See  liis  Autobiography,  prefixed  to  liis  "  Scienza  nuova,"  1821  ; 
M.  Parma,  "Stucij  IV.  sopra  Vico,"  183S  :  J.  Ferrari,  "Vico  et 
I'ltalie,"  1839;  Rocco,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Vico,"  1844;  A.  Mana- 
viT,  "  filoge  du  P4re  de  Vico,"  1848  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nd- 
rale ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  forjaiuiary,  1845. 

Vico,  di,  de  vee'ko,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Macerata  in  1805,  became  di- 
rector of  the  Observatory  at  Rome.     Died  in  1848. 

Vicq-d'Azyr  or  Vicq-d'Azir,  v^k'dt'z^R',  (F6lix,) 
a  distinguished  French  anatomist,  born  at  Valogne,  in 
Normandy,  in  1748.  He  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1774.  He  became  in  1776  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Medicine,  of  which  he  was  appointed 
perpetual  secretary,  and  in  1788  succeeded  Buffon  in 
the  French  Academy.  He  was  made  first  physician  to 
the  queen  in  1789.  His  wife  was  a  niece  of  Daubenton. 
He  died  in  1794.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable 
works  we  may  name  "Observations  on  the  Means  of 
Preserving  Animals  from  Contagion,"  (1774,)  "  Medicine 
for  Horned  Cattle,"  (1781,)  "Treatise  on  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,"  (with  coloured  plates,  1786,)  and  "  Eulogies 
on  Members  of  the  Royal  Society,"  (1778-88.) 

See  CuviRR,  "  Eloge  de  Vicq-d'Azyr :"  Moreai;  de  la  Sarthr, 
"  Cloge  de  F.  Vicq-d'Azir,"  1797:  P.  E.  Lkmontev,  "  filoge  his- 
torique  de  Vicq-d'.\/.ir,"  1825  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  G^nerale." 

Vicramiditya.     See  Vikramaditya. 

Victoire  de  France,  vik'twiR'  deh  fRflNss,  (Louise 
Marie  Th^r^se,)  a  daughter  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1733.  She  emigrated  in  1791,  after  which 
she  lived  at  Rome  and  Naples.     Died  in  1799. 

Victor,  (Aurelius.)     See  Aurelius  Victor. 

Vic'tor  I.,  a  native  of  Africa,  became  Bishop  of  Rome 
about  185  a.d.  He  died  about  198  A.D.,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Zephyrinus. 

Victor  II.,  originally  Gerhard,  Bishop  of  Eichstadt, 
succeeded  Leo  IX.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  1055.  He  died 
in  1057,  and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  IX. 

Victor  III.,  (Desiderius,)  Abbot  of  Monte  Casino, 
succeeded  Gregory  VII.  in  1086.  After  a  contest  with 
the  adherents  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  he  retired  to 
Beneventum,  where  he  anathematized  the  anti-pope 
Guibert.  He  died  in  10S7,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Urban  H. 

Victor  rV.  was  supported  as  anti-pope  by  Frederick 
I.  of  Germany,  in  opposition  to  Alexander  III.,  in  1159. 
Died  in  1164. 

Victor,  vik'toR',  (Claude  Perrin,)  Duke  of  Belluno, 
a  celebrated  French  marshal,  born  in  the  department 
of  the  Vosges  in  1764,    He  served  in  Spain  in  1794,  and 


in  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Italian  campaigns 
from  1795  to  1799,  having  been  made  general  of  division 
m  1797.  He  commanded  part  of  the  vanguard  at  the 
battle  of  Marengo,  (1800,)  and  had  a  prominent  share  in 
the  victory  of  that  day.  He  was  ambassador  to  Copen- 
hagen in  1805.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Prussian 
campaign  of  1806,  and  was  created  marshal  of  France 
after  the  battle  of  Friedland,  (1807,)  for  his  signal  ser- 
vices on  that  occasion.  Appointed  in  1808  commander 
of  the  first  corps  of  the  army  of  Spain,  he  gained  several 
important  victories  over  the  Spaniards,  but  he  was  de- 
feated by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  at  Talavera,  (1809.) 
In  the  Russian  campaign  of  181 2  he  was  conspicuous 
for  his  skill  and  bravery,  as  well  as  for  his  humanity  to 
the  wounded  soldiers  during  the  disastrous  retreat.  He 
rendered  important  services  at  Dresden  and  Leipsic, 
(1813.)  Having  entered  the  service  of  Louis  XVIII. 
in  1814,  he  adhered  to  him  in  the  Hundred  Days,  and 
denounced  Napoleon  as  "  the  man  who  has  tyrannized 
and  betrayed  France."  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
December,  1821,  to  October,  1823.     Died  in  1841. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Fran^ais ;" 
Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Victor,  Saint,  of  Marseilles,  served  in  the  Roman 
army.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under 
Diocletian,  he  suffered  martyrdom,  in  303  A.D. 

Vic'tor  Am-a-de'us  [Fr.  Victor  Am6d6e,  vfek'. 
toR'  t'mi'dy;  It."  ViTTORio  Amedeo,  vit-to're-o  i-mi- 
da'o]  I.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  born  at  Turin  in  1587.  In 
1635  he  was  the  ally  of  France  in  the  war  with  Spain. 
He  married  Christine  de  France,  a  sister  of  Louis  XIII. 
Died  in  1637,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles 
Emmanuel  II. 

Victor  Amadeus  IL,  first  King  of  Sardinia,  born  in 
1666,  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  Emmanuel,  in  1675, 
the  government  being  conducted  by  his  mother  as  regent. 
Soon  after  his  accession  to  the  sovereignty,  he  was  urged 
by  Louis  XIV.  to  the  persecution  of  the  Waldenses ; 
but  in  1690,  having  formed  an  alliance  with  Spain  and 
Austria,  he  restored  them  to  their  homes,  and  declared 
war  against  France.  He  joined  the  Austrians  in  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  in  1706  assisted  his  rela- 
tive Prince  Eugene  in  defeating  the  French,  who  had 
besieged  Turin.  After  the  peace  of  Utrecht  he  obtained 
Lomellina  and  other  territories,  and  the  island  of  Sicily, 
with  the  title  of  king.  He  subsequently  gave  up  Sicily 
to  the  Austrian  emperor,  receiving  in  exchange  the  island 
of  Sardinia.  He  abdicated  in  1730,  died  in  1732,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  HI. 

See  Carutti,  "  Storia  di  Vittorio  .Amedeo  11  ,"  1S56;  Lamberti, 
"  Histoire  de  I'Abdication  de  Victor  Aniedee,"  1734;  Botta, 
"  Histoire  d'ltalie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Victor  Amadeus  III.,  son  of  Charles  Emmanuel 
HI.,  was  born  in  1726,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1773. 
He  was  deprived  of  Savoy  and  Nice  by  the  French 
during  the  Revolution.  He  died  in  1796,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  IV. 

See  J.  de  Maistrb,  "  flloge  de  Victor  Am^d^e  III,"  1775. 

Vic'tor  Em-man'u-el  [It.  Vittorio  Emanuele. 
vit-to're-o  i-mi-noo-a'l4]  I.,  King  of  Sardinia,  second  son 
of  Victor  Amadeus  HI.,  was  born  in  1759,  and  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  his  brother,  Charles  Em- 
manuel IV.,  in  1802.  His  subjects  having  demanded  a 
more  liberal  constitution,  to  which  he  refused  to  accede, 
he  resigned  in  1821  in  favour  of  his  brother,  Charles 
Felix.     Died  in  1824. 

Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  (of  Sardinia,)  and  the  first 
King  of  Italy,  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Albert  and  Maria 
Theresaof  Austria,  was  born  at  Turin  in  1S20.  He  married 
his  cousin-german,  Maria  Adelaide  of  Austria,  in  1842, 
and  succeeded  his  father,  who  abdicated,  in  March,  1849 
His  kingdom,  which  then  included  only  Piedmont,  Savoy, 
and  Sardinia,  was  not  in  a  prosperous  condition  ;  but  he 
was  fortunate  in  obtaining  the  services  of  an  able  states- 
man, Count  Cavour,  who  became  prime  minister  in  1852. 
The  wise  and  liberal  policy  of  Cavour  increased  the 
power  of  the  Sardinian  states  and  induced  the  friends 
of  Italian  unity  to  regard  Victor  Emmanuel  with  favour. 
By  joining  the  French  and  English  in  the  Crimean  war, 
(1854,)   he   gained    admission   into  the  conventions  of 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  H,  V.,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     [T^^'Sct  Exi)lanations,  p.  23. ) 


VICTOKIA 


23SS 


VICTORIA 


Europenn  powers.  In  Ajiril,  1859,  his  dominions  were 
invaded  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  who  was  offended 
by  the  growing  spirit  of  liberty  and  nationality  in  the 
peninsula.  By  an  alliance  with  France,  Cavour  was 
|)repared  for  the  contest.  The  Austrians  were  defeated 
at  the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferinoin  June,  1859,  soon 
a/ter  which  peace  was  concluded,  and  Lombardy  was 
added  to  the  dominions  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  In  the 
mean  time  the  people  of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Modena 
had  deposed  their  petty  sovereigns,  and  had  taken  steps 
to  unite  themselves  with  the  other  Italian  states.  The 
])eo]'>le  of  the  Romagna  were  also  nearly  unanimous  in 
favour  of  annexation  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  The 
cause  was  rapidly  advanced,  in  i860,  by  the  brilliant 
operations  of  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  the  libera- 
tion of  which  was  completed  by  the  capture  of  Gaeta 
in  March,  1861.  The  result  of  these  transactions  was 
the  union  of  all  Italy,  except  Venetia  and  a  small  part 
of  the  papal  states  adjacent  to  Rome.  Victor  Emmanuel 
was  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  in  March,  1861,  and  was 
recognized  as  such  by  the  French  government  in  June 
of  that  year.  Me  compensated  Napoleon  III.  for  his 
aid  by  the  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice.  The  King  of 
Italy  and  his  subjects  ardently  desired  the  possession 
of  Rome,  the  position  of  which  rendered  it  the  most  eligi- 
ble place  for  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  but  it  was  under 
the  domination  of  the  pope,  supported  by  a  French  army, 
which  had  occupied  the  city  since  1849. 

In  1865  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  from 
Turin  to  Florence.  Victor  Emmanuel  was  the  ally  of 
Prussia  in  the  short  but  momentous  war  of  1866.  'J'he 
Italian  army,  having,  entered  Venetia,  was  repulsed  at 
Custozza  ;  but  the  victory  of  the  Prussians  at  Sadovva, 
July  3,  com|)elled  the  Emperor  of  .Austria  to  sue  for 
l)eace  and  to  give  up  Venetia.  This  province,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  nearly  unanimous  vote  of  its  people, 
was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  about  the  end  of 
1S66, — an  event  which  was  a  source  of  great  exultation 
to  the  Italian  patriots.  In  fulfilment  of  a  treaty  nego- 
tiated in  1S64,  Napoleon  withdrew  his  army  from  Rome 
in  December,  1866,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  pope  to 
retain  that  last  bulwark  of  his  temporal  power.  Italy 
was  then  free  from  the  presence  of  foreign  soldiers  for 
the  first  time  probably  in  a  thousand  years.  The  recent 
changes  have  been  most  favourable  to  religious  liberty 
in  Italy,  the  government  of  which  has  adopted  the 
motto  of  "a  free  church  in  a  free  state." 

To  secure  the  neutrality  or  friendship  of  Italy,  Napo- 
leon III.,  in  August,  1870,  withdrew  his  army  from 
Rome.  In  September  of  that  year  Victor  Emmanuel 
sent  an  army  to  occupy  Rome,  and  wrote  to  the  pope 
that  republicanism  was  so  rampant  in  Italy  that  if  he 
had  not  taken  that  course  a  republic  would  have  been 
proclaimed  in  every  Italian  city.  His  army  obtained 
possession  of  Rome,  without  serious  resistance,  Septem- 
ber 20,  1870,  and  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  then 
came  to  an  end.  On  December  31  Victor  Emmanuel 
made  a  formal  entry  into  the  city  as  the  capital  of  United 
Italy,  where  he  died  January  8,  187S,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Humbert. 

Vic-to'rI-a,  [Gr.  Kinri,  (Nike  or  Nice;)  It.  Vitto- 
RIA,  v6t-to're*-i  ;  Fr.  ViCTOIRK,  v6k'twilR',|  in  classic 
mytliology,  the  goddess  or  personification  of  victory. 

Victoria.     See  VicroRiNA. 

Victoria,  Duke  of.     See  Espartf.ro. 

Victoria,  vik-to're-S,  or  Vitoria,  (Francisco,)  an 
eminent  Spanish  the<.)logian,  born  in  Navarre.  He  be- 
came a  professor  in  the  University  of  Salamanca,  and 
produced  "Theological  Relections,"  ("  Relectiones  The- 
ologicae  XIII.,"  1557.)  The  most  important  parts  of 
this  scarce  work  are  those  which  treat  of  the  Indians 
and  of  the  laws  of  war,  ("  De  Indis,"  and  "  De  Jure 
Helli.")  Nicolas  Antonio  and  other  Spanish  writers 
bestow  the  highest  eulogy  on  Victoria.  Commenting  on 
his  "  De  Jure  Belli,"  Hallam  observes,  "The  whole 
relection,  as  well  as  that  on  the  Indians,  displays  an 
intrepid  spirit  of  justice  and  humanity."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Eurojie.")     Died  about  1550. 

Victoria,  (Don  Vincknte,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1658.  He  worked  with  success  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1712. 


Vic-to'ri-a  Al-ex-an-dri'na,  Queen  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  and  Empress  of  India,  was  born  at 
Kensington  Palace,  May  24,  1819.  She  was  the  only  child 
of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  (a  son  of  George  III.,)  and 
Maria  Louisa  Victoria  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  was  a  sister 
of  Leopold  I.  of  Belgium.  Her  education  was  directed 
by  the  Duchess  of  Northumberland.  She  received  in- 
struction in  political  affairs  and  principles  from  Lord 
Melbourne.  On  the  death  of  her  uncle,  William  IV., 
she  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  20th  of  June,  1837, 
and  was  crowned  June  28,  1838.  Lord  Melbourne,  who 
was  prime  minister  when  she  became  queen,  resigned 
in  May,  1839,  and  Victoria  then  requested  Sir  Robert 
Peel  to  form  a  new  ministry.  He  consented  to  take 
office,  but  insisted  that  she  should  dismiss  the  ladies  of 
her  bed-chamber,  (who  were  Whigs,)  which  she  refused 
to  do.  The  result  of  this  affair  was  that  Lord  Melbourne 
returned  to  power.  In  February,  1840,  she  was  married 
to  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  with  whom  she 
lived  hapi>ily  and  in  whom  she  found  a  prudent  coun- 
sellor. (See  Albert.)  The  Whig  ministry,  having  been 
defeated  in  Parliament,  resigned  in  August,  1841,  and 
Sir  Robert  Peel  became  prime  minister.  Among  the 
events  of  1841  was  the  birth  of  her  son  Albert  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales.  Between  1840  and  1843  three  several 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  her,  by  persons 
named  Oxford,  Francis,  and  Bean.  Victoria  visited 
Louis  Philippe  in  France  in  1843,  ^"^  travelled  with 
Prince  Albert  in  Germany  in  1845. 

The  year  1846  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  repeal 
of  the  corn  laws  after  a  long  and  exciting  contest.  (See 
CoBDEN,  Richard,  and  Peel,  Sir  Robert.)  Lord  John 
Russell  was  prime  minister  from  July,  1846,  to  February, 
1852,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Derby,  a  conservative. 
Lord  Derby  having  resigned,  a  coalition  ministry  was 
formed  by  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  in  December,  1852.  To 
maintain  the  integrity  of  Turkey  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  Russia,  the  British  ministry  formed  an  alliance 
with  France,  and  waged  war  in  the  Crimea  and  Baltic 
against  the  Czar  in  1854  and  1855.  Lord  Palmerston 
became  prime  minister  in  February,  1855,  the  queen 
visited  Napoleon  III.  at  Paris  in  August,  and  the  allies 
took  Sebastopol  in  September  of  that  year.  The  Crimean 
war  was  ended  by  a  treaty  in  the  spring  of  1856.  A 
great  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  broke  out  in  India  in  1857. 
Lord  Palmerston  resigned  office  in  February,  1858,  to 
the  Earl  of  Derby,  who  remained  in  power  until  June, 
1859,  and  vvas  succeeded  by  Lord  Palmerston.  In  De- 
cember, 1861,  occurred  the  death  of  Prince  Albert,  by 
which  the  queen  was  deej^ly  affected,  and  subsequently 
she  lived  a  life  of  comparative  retirement,  although  she 
has  not  neglected  tlie  actual  duties  of  her  position.  Her 
character  as  a  daughter,  wife,  and  mother  has  always 
been  a  model  to  her  subjects,  and  during  the  life  of  the 
prince-consort  she  co-operated  zealously  in  his  en- 
deavours to  advance  the  British  people  in  social,  artistic, 
and  intellectual  life.  .Among  the  more  important  events 
of  the  recent  years  of  her  reign  were  the  passage  of  Mr. 
Disraeli's  Reforna  Bill  of  1867,  the  Gladstone  minis- 
try's great  measures,  including  the  disestablishment  of 
the  Irish  Church,  (1868-74,)  ''^e  passage  of  the  Irish 
Land  Acts,  the  Ballot  Act,  the  Elementary  Education 
Act,  and  the  abolition  of  purchase  in  the  army,  the 
ministry  of  Beaconsfield,  (1874-80,)  during  which  the 
queen  was  proclaimed  Empress  of  India,  (January  1, 
1877,)  and  the  Home  Rule  movement  in  Ireland,  during 
the  premiership  of  Mr.  Gladstone.  In  the  more  recent 
years  of  her  reign  occurred  several  minor  foreign  wars, 
as  in  Ashantee,  Afghanistan,  Ziiluland,  the  Transvaal, 
and  Egypt.  A  work  entitled  "  The  Early  Days  of  His 
Royal  Highness  the  Prince-Consort,"  (1867,)  by  General 
C.  Grey,  was  prepared  under  the  supervision  of  the 
queen.  The  "Leaves  from  the  Journal  of  our  Life  in 
the  Highlands,"  (1869,)  and  "More  Leaves  from  the 
Journal  of  our  Life  in  the  Highlands,  from  1862  to 
18S2,"  (1884,)  were  from  the  queen's  pen.  The  "Life 
of  the  Prince-Consort,"  by  Sir  T.  Martin,  (5  vols.,  1874- 
80,)  was  prepared  under  her  direction. 

Queen  Victoria  is  the  mother  of  nine  children, — the 
Prince  of  Wales,  the  Dukes  of  Edinburgh,  Connaught, 
and    Albany,    the    Princess-Royal    of   Prussia,    the    late 


a,  e.  T,  o,  u,  y, //?//o-.  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  pruKmged,  a,  c,  i,  o,  u,  y,  j/^t;;-.',- a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  ni5t;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


VICTORINUS 


2389 


VIEN 


Princess  of  Hesse,  the  Princess  of  Schleswig-Holstein, 
the  Marchioness  of  Lome,  and  the  Princess  Beatrice. 

Victorinus,  {Ca[Us  or  Faiuus  Marius,)  an  African 
grammarian  and  theologian,  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome, 
was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  grammar  and  theology.     Died  about  380  a.d. 

Victorinus,  [Fr.  Victorin,  vfek'to'riN',]  (Marcus 
PlAUVONlUS,)  a  Roman  general,  called  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  He  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  in  Gaul  in 
267  A.D.,  and  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  officers 
in  268. 

Victorlus.     See  Vettori. 

Vida,  vee'di,  (Marco  Girolamo  or  Marcus  Hiero- 
NYMUS,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Latin  poets  of  modern 
times,  was  born  at  Cremona,  in  Italy,  about  1485.  He 
studied  the  classics  and  theology  at  Mantua,  Padua,  and 
Bologna,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  Leo  X.,  who  made  him  prior  of  San  Sil- 
vestro,  at  Frascati.  Under  Clement  VH.  he  became 
apostolic  prothonotary  and  Bishop  of  Alba,  (1532.)  He 
was  the  author  of  "Christias,"  (1535,)  a  poem  on  the 
life  of  Christ  and  written  in  the  style  of  Virgil,  "  I)e 
Arte  Poetica,"  a  didactic  treatise,  (in  verse,)  and  "  Game 
of  Chess,"  ("  Scacchiae  Ludus,")  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Goldsmith,  and  into  German  by 
Hoffmann.  He  also  wrote  several  Latin  orations,  and  the 
dialogues  entitled  "  De  Dignitate  Reipublicas,"  (1556.) 
Died  in  1566.* 

See  Tadisi,  "Vita  di  Vida,"  17S8:  Lanxetti,  "Delia  Vita  e 
degli  Scritti  di  Vida,"  1840;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratiira 
Italiana  ;"  F.  Mansueti,  "Orazione  in  Lode  di  M.  G.  Vida,"  1S46; 
Nic^RON,  "  M^niiiires:"  Ughelli,  "Italia  Sacra;"  "  Noiivelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale  :"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1835. 

Vidal,  ve'dtl',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  writer  on  social- 
ism and  political  economy,  born  in  the  department 
of  Gironde  in  1S14,  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Divis- 
ion of  Wealth,  or  Distributive  Justice  in  Social  Econ- 
omy," (1846,)  and  other  works.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  by  the  voters  of  Paris  in 
l8so.     Died  at  Bordeaux  in  1872. 

Vidal,  ve-dil',  (Jago,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Valmaseda  in  1602,  worked  at  Seville.     Died  in  1648. 

Vidal,  (Pierre,)  a  French  troubadour,  born  about 
1 175,  accompanied  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  in  the  crusade 
to  the  Holy  Land,  and  died  about  1215.  He  had  splendid 
talents,  but  wasted  them  in  a  life  of  most  extravagant 
and  mad  excess. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Vidal  de  Cassis,  ve'dil'  deh  kt'siss',  (Auguste 
Theodore,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Cassis  in  1803. 
He  became  surgeon  of  the  hospital  du  Midi,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  by  his  "  Treatise  on  External  Pathol- 
ogy and  Operative  Medicine,"  ("Traite  de  Pathologic 
externe  et  de  Medecine  operatoire,"  5  vols.,  1838-44.) 
Died  in  1856. 

Vidar,  vee'dar,  or  VitJarr,  vee'thar,  [etymology  ex- 
tremely doubtful ;  Keyser  supposes  it  may  be  changed 
from  vinttar,  the  "conqueror,"  (from  mnna,  to  "over- 
come,")] in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  god  of  silence, 
the  son  of  Odin  and  the  Jotun  woman  Grida.  Next  to 
Thor  he  is  the  strongest  of  all  the  /lisir.  Among  his 
possessions  is  an  iron  shoe  of  jjrodigious  strength  and 
size,  which  at  Ragnarock  he  will  place  on  the  nether 
jaw  of  Fenrir  ;  then  with  his  hand  he  will  seize  the  upper 
jaw  and  tear  him  asunder.  He,  as  well  as  Vali,  will 
survive  the  destruction  of  the  world.    Vidar  is  supposed 


•  Vida's  fame  appears  to  have  been  much  liigher  a  century  or  two 
ago  (when  the  language  in  which  he  wrote  was  far  more  j;enarally 
cultivated)  than  it  is  at  present.  Pope  speaks  of  him  as  the  crown- 
ing glory  of  Leo's  reign  ; 

"  But  see  I  each  muse,  :n  Leo's  golden  days, 

Starts  from  her  trance,  and  trims  her  wither'd  bays, 

Rome's  ancient  genius  o'er  its  ruins  spread 

Shakes  off  the  dust,  and  rears  his  reverend  head. 

Then  Sculpture  and  her  sister  arts  revive  ; 

Stones  leap'd  to  form  and  rocks  began  to  live; 

With  sweeter  notes  each  rising  temple  rung  ; 

A  Raphael  painted,  and  a  Vida  sung. 

Immortal  Vida!  on  whose  honoured  brow 

The  poet's  bays  and  critic's  ivy  grow: 

Cremona  now  shall  ever  boast  thy  name. 

As  next  in  place  to  Mantua,  next  in  fame  !" 

See  "  Essay  on  Criticism,"  Part  HI. 


to  be  a  type  of  the  imperishability  of  the  powers  ol 
nature. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Kbvsrr,  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Vidaurri,  ve-d6wr'ree,  (Santiago,)  a  Mexican  sol- 
dier and  politician,  born  about  1810.  He  aided  to  drive 
Santa  Anna  from  power  in  1855,  and  proclaimed  himself 
Governor  of  Coahuila  and  New  Leon  in  February,  1856. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  ministers  of  Maximilian  during 
the  empire,  and  was  shot  as  a  traitor  in  1867. 

Vid'I-us,  [It.  GuiDO,  gwee'do,]  (Guini,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Florence  about  1500.  lie  became  a 
professor  in  the  College  Royal  of  Paris  in  1542,  and 
removed  to  Pisa  about  1547.  He  wrote  several  pro- 
fessional works.     Died  at  Pisa  in  1569. 

Vidocq,  ve'dok',  (Eugene  Fkancjois,)  a  French 
adventurer  and  famous  chief  of  the  detective  police,  was 
born  in  1775.  He  was  successively  a  thief,  soldier, 
deserter,  and  gambler  before  he  entered  the  public 
service,  and  was  often  imprisoned  for  his  offences. 
About  1810  he  enlisted  in  the  police  at  Paris.  His 
success  as  a  detective  has  scarcely  been  paralleled  in 
history.     Died  in  1850. 

See  his  interesting  "  Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  and  the  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Vieilh  de  Boisjolin.    See  Boisjolin,  de. 

Vieille,  ve'.\I'  or  ve-4'ye,  (Jules,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, entered  the  Normal  School  about  1833.  He 
published  a  "General  Theory  of  Numerical  Approxi- 
mations," (2d  edition,  1854,)  and  other  works. 

Vieilleville,  de,  deh  ve'il'viK  or  ve'.Vye-vil',  (Fran- 
cois de  Scepaux— deh  si'po',)  Sire,  Count  de  Dure- 
tal,  a  French  general,  born  in  1510.  He  was  employed 
in  foreign  mis.sions  by  Henry  II.  and  Charles  IX.,  and 
was  a  moderate  opponent  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil 
wars.     In  1562  he  became  marshal  of  France.     Died  in 

1571- 

Vieira  or  Vieyra,  ve-a^-ri,  (Antonio,)  an  emi- 
nent Portuguese  missionary  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1608.  He  performed  diplomatic  missions  to  Paris, 
(1646,)  to  London,  and  to  Rome,  (1650.)  He  afterwards 
preached  to  the  Indians  in  Brazil,  and  advocated  the 
cafase  of  the  slaves  in  that  country.  He  published  Ser- 
mons, (16  vols.,  1683-1754,)  "History  of  the  Future," 
("  Historia  do  Futuro,"  1718,)  and  "  Letters,"  ("Cartas," 
3  vols.,  1735-46.)     Died  at  Bahia  in  1697. 

See  F.  DB  Fonseca,  "Vida  de  Vieira,"  1734;  A.  de  nARROS, 
"Vida  do  P.  A.  Vieira,"  1746;  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

VieL     See  Veil, 

Viel,  ve'51',  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1745.  He  designed  several  hospitals  in 
Paris,  and  wrote  books  on  architecture.     Died  in  1819. 

Viel,  (Jean  Marie  Vicior,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  the  architect  of  the  Palais  de 
rindustrie,  built  for  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1S55. 
Died  in  Paris,  March  6,  1S63. 

Viel-Castel,  de,  deh  ve'^1'  kis't^l',  (Charles  Louis 
Gaspard  Gauriel  de  Salviac,)  Baron,  a  French  his- 
torian, brother  of  Horace,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris,  October  14,  1800.  His  early  life  was  spent  in  the 
public  service.  His  jjrincipal  works  are  "  Histoire  de  la 
Restauration,"  (20  vols.,  1860-78,)  and  "  Essai  sur  les 
deux  Pitt,"  (1846.)     Died  in  1S87. 

Viel-Castel,  de,  deh  ve'SK  kis'tSK,  (Horace,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  littSrateur,ho\x\  about  1797.  He  pub- 
lished several  tales  and  poems.      Died  October  i,  1864. 

Viele,  vee'li,  (Egbert  L.,)  an  American  engineer  and 
general,  born  in  Saratoga  county.  New  York,  about 
1825,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  He  was  ap- 
pointed engineer-in-chief  of  the  Central  Park,  New  York, 
about  1856.  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  1861 
and  1862,  and  resigned  in  October,  1863. 

Vien,  ve'iN',  (Joseph  Marie,)  an  eminent  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1716.  He 
studied  under  Natoire  in  Paris,  and  in  1743  obtained  the 
grand  prize  of  the  .\cademy  of  .A.rts  by  his  picture  of 
"The  Plague  .of  the  Israelites  in  the  Time  of  David." 
He  afterwards  spent  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he 
executed  a  number  of  admirable  works.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  1754,  appointed  director  of 


easji;  ^asj;  gkard;  gasy;  G,  H,  K.,gultural;  ti, nasal;  v.,trilled;  sasr;  thasinM/j.     (23p=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VIEN 


2390 


VIGNIER 


the  French  Academy  at  Rome  in  1775,  and  principal 
painter  to  Louis  XVI.  in  1789.  Under  Napoleon  he 
became  successively  a  senator,  count  of  the  empire,  and 
commander  of  the  legion  of  honour.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces may  be  named  "  Saint  Denis  preaching  to  the 
Gauls,"  "  Saint  Louis  intrusting  the  Regency  to  Blanche 
of  Castile,"  "The  Parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache," 
"Julius  Ca;sar  contemplating  the  Statue  of  Alexander 
at  Cadiz,"  and  the  "  Virgin  attended  by  Angels."  He 
excelled  as  a  teacher  of  art,  and  was  the  master  of  David 
and  other  famous  painters.     Died  in  1809. 

See  J.  Lebreton,  "  Notice  liistorique  siir  la  Vie  de  J.  M.  Vien," 
1809;  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^nerale." 

Vien,  (Joseph  Marie,)  the  Younger,  a  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1 761,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding.    He  died  in  iSog. 

Vien,  (Marie  Reboul,)  a  French  painter  of  flowers, 
birds,  and  still  life,  born  in  Paris  in  1728,  was  the  wife 
of  Tose])h  Marie  the  Elder,  noticed  above.    Died  in  1805. 

Vienne,  de,  deh  ve'Sn',  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French 
warrior,  born  about  1342.  He  defended  Calais  against 
Edward  IH.  in  a  long  and  memorable  siege,  (1347.)  He 
afterwards  became  Admiral  of  France,  and  displayed 
courage  and  skill  in  war  against  the  English.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Nicopolis,  where  he  fought  against 
the  Turks,  in  1396. 

Viennet,  ve'i'ni',  (Jean  Pons  (pAn)  Guillaume,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  politician,  born  at  Beziers  in 
1777.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
from  the  department  of  Herault  in  1827,  voted  with  the 
gauche  or  liberal  party,  and  was  active  in  promoting 
the  revolution  of  1830.  He  was  made  a  peer  by  Loui."! 
Philippe  in  1839.  He  published  a  number  of  poems, 
dramas,  fables,  and  satires,  in  prose  and  verse  ;  also  an 
"  Epistle  to  the  Muses  on  the  Romanticists,"  an  attack 
on  the  romantic  school  in  literature.  He  had  been 
elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1830  or  183 1.  After 
1848  he  took  no  part  in  politics.     Died  in  July,  1868. 

See  E.  DE  MiRECOURT,  "Viennet,"  1856;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
pMe  G^n^rale." 

Viera  y  Clavijo,  de,  di  ve-a'rj  e  klJ-vee'no,  (Jost,) 
a  Spanish  historian,  born  in  the  Canaries  about  1738. 
He  published  a  "History  of  the  Canary  Islands,"  (4 
vols.,  1772-83,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1799. 

Vieta,  ve-a'id,  (Francis,)  [in  PVench,  Francois 
VifeTE,  ve'it',  or  ViETTE,  ve'fit',  or  Viet,  ve'i',]  a  cele- 
brated French  mathematician,  born  at  Fontenay,  Poitou, 
in  1540,  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion.  He 
obtained  the  office  of  master  of  requests  about  1580,  and 
])assed  the  most  of  his  mature  life  in  the  public  service. 
He  was  a  friend  of  De  Thou.  During  the  war  between 
Henry  IV.  and  the  Spaniards,  Vieta  rendered  an  impor- 
tant service  to  the  former  by  explaining  intercepted 
despatches  of  the  enemy,  whicli  were  written  in  a  cipher 
of  five  hundred  characters.  He  published  several  works 
on  mathematics,  etc.,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the  per- 
fection of  algebra.  He  rendered  algebra  a  purely  sym- 
bolical science  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
re])resented  the  known  quantities  by  symbols.  He  also 
made  im]>rovements  or  discoveries  in  trigonometry. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1603.  His  works  were  published  by 
F.  van  Schooten  in  1646. 

See  De  Thoit,  "  Histnria  siii  Temporis ;"  Mon'ti;cla,  "  Histoire 
Jes  Matliematiques;"  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
IJiographie  Gen^rale." 

Viete.     See  Vieta. 

Vieussens,  de,  deh  ve-uh'sftN',  (Raimond,)  a  French 
anatomist,  born  in  Rouergtie  in  1641.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Montpellier,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Neurologia  Universalis,"  (1685,)  a  treatise  on 
the  nerves  and  brain.     Died  in  171 5. 

Vieusseux,  ve-uh'suh',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  learned 
bookseller,  of  a  Genevese  family,  was  born  at  Oneglia,  in 
Italy,  in  1779.  He  settled  at  Florence,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  celebrated  critical  journal,  entitled  "Antologia 
Italiana,"  (1821-32,)  and  other  periodicals.    Died  in  1863. 

Vieuville,  de  la,  deh  IS  ve-uh'viK,  (Charles,) 
Marquis,  a  French  financier,  born  in  Paris  about  1582. 
He  became  minister  of  finance  in  1623,  and  was  removed 
in  1624.     Died  in  1653. 


Vieuxtempa,  ve-uh'tdN',  (Henri,)  a  Belgian  musi- 
cian, born  at  Verviers  about  1820,  attained  a  very  high 
reputation  as  a  violinist.     Died  June  5,  1881. 

Vieweg,  fee'wac,  (Hans  F"riedrich,)  a  German 
bookseller  and  publisher,  born  at  Halle  in  1761,  founded 
in  1 786  an  establishment  at  Berlin,  from  which  he  issued 
superior  editions  of  the  German  classics.  He  numbered 
among  his  friends  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Wieland.  Died 
in  1835. 

Vieyra.     See  Vieira. 

Vigand.     See  Wigand. 

Vigee,  ve'zhi',  (Louis  Jean  BArnsiE  £tienne,)  a 
mediocre  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1758,  was  a 
brother  of  the  artiste  Madame  Le  Brun.  He  wrote 
numerous  poems  and  dramas.     Died  in  1820. 

Vig6e,  Madam R.     See  Le  Brun. 

Viger,  ve'zhi',  [  Lat.  Vige'rius,]  (Francois,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Rouen.  He  published  an  able  work 
"On  the  Principal  Idioms  of  the  Greek  Language," 
("  De  Idiotismis  praecipuis  Linguae  Grjecae,"  1632.) 
"  It  contains  many  valuable  criticisms,"  says  Ilallam. 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died 
in  1647. 

Viger  van  Zuichm.    See  Ayta. 

Vigerie,  de  let    See  Allemand-Lavigerie. 

Vigerius.     See  Viger. 

Vigfusson,  vig'fiisson,  (Gudbrand,)  an  Icelandic 
scholar,  born  near  the  Broad  Fjord,  in  the  West  of 
Iceland,  about  1827.  He  was  educated  at  Reykiavik  and 
Copenhagen,  and  published  many  ancient  Icelandic 
books  from  the  manuscripts.  His  "  Prolegomena  to 
the  Sturlunga  Saga"  (187S)  is  a  work  of  high  value,  and 
his  great  "Icelandic-English  Dictionary"  (1869-75)  is  a 
monumental  work  of  high  rank.     Died  Jan.  31,  1889. 

Vigilance.     See  Vigii.antius. 

Vigilantius,  vije-lan'she^s,  [Fr.  Vigilance,  ve'- 
zhe'lSNss',]  a  liberal  Christian  writer  of  Spain  or  Gaul, 
flourished  about  400  a.d.  He  opj^osed  the  worship  of 
relics,  the  celibacy  of  priests,  and  several  ascetic  prac- 
tices of  the  Catholics.  Saint  Jerome  wrote  a  book  against 
his  doctrines. 

Vigilantius,  vij-e-lan'she-us,  |  Fr.  Vigilance,  ve'zhe'- 
IAnss',)  (Puklu;s,)  a  scholar  and  jjoet,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg.  He  became  professor  of  ])oetry  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  where  he  also  taught  Greek.  He  visited 
Italy  and  other  countries  in  search  of  ancient  manu- 
scripts, and  on  his  return  was  murdered  in  Suabia  in 
1 5 12. 

Vl-gil'I-us,  [Fr.  ViGiLE,  ve'zhil',1  an  orthodox  African 
bishop  of  Thapsus,  was  deprived  of  his  see  in  484  A.D. 
by  Iluneric,  the  Vandal  king.  He  afterwards  lived  in 
Europe,  and  wrote  several  works  which  he  endeavoured 
to  make  pass  for  the  productions  of  .Athanasius,  Augus- 
tine, and  other  eminent  Fathers. 

Vigilius,  (Fr.  Vigile,]  a  native  of  Rome,  became 
pope  in  537  A.D.,  in  opposition  to  Sylverius,  whom  Beli- 
sarius  had  banished.  He  died  in  554  A.D.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Pelagius  I. 

Vigiu,  da.     See  Lunghi,  (Silla.) 

Viglius.     See  A  via. 

Vigne,  de,  deh  vifi,  (FAlix,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
in  Ghent  in  1806;  died  December  7,  1862. 

Vigne,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  Belgian  sculptor,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ghent  in  1812.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  (1837-41.) 

Vigne,  de  la,  deh  It  v^fi,  (AndriJ,)  a  French  historian 
and  mediocre  poet,  born  about  1450.  He  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  the  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.  to  Naples,  in 
a  work  called  "  Le  Vergier  d'Honneur."  Died  about 
1527. 

Vigne,  delle,  (Pietko.)     See  Vineis. 

Vigne,  La.     See  La  Vigne. 

Vignenere,  de,  deh  v^n'yeh-naiR',  (Blaise,)  a  French 
writer  and  translator,  born  in  Bourbonnais  in  1523,  be- 
came private  secretary  to  Henry  HI.  His  works  have 
fallen  into  oblivion  which  is  said  to  be  merited.  Died 
in  1596. 

Vigneron.     See  Veneroni. 

Vigneul-Marville.     See  Argonne,  d'. 

Vignier,  vin'ye-i',  (Jerome,)  a  French  numismatist 
and  scholar,  was  born  at  Blois  in  1606;  died  in  1661. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u.  y,  lottg:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  J?,  s/iort:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  n6t;  go6<l;  moon; 


VIGNIER 


2391 


VILLANT 


Vignier,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  historian  and  physician, 
born  at  Bar-sur-Seine  in  1530.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Historical  Library,"  ("La  Bibliotheque 
historiale,"  3  vols.,  1588.)     Died  in  1596. 

His  son  Nicolas,  born  about  1575,  was  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  wrote  against  popery.  Died  at  Blois  about 
164s. 

Vignola,  da,  da  v6n'yo-ia,  [Fr.  Vignole,  vin'yol',) 
(GiACOMo  Barozzio,  bd-rot'seo,  or  Baroccio,)  an 
eminent  Italian  architect,  born  at  Vignola  in  1507.  After 
having  studied  at  Rome,  he  visited  France  in  company 
with  Primaticcio,  and  was  employed  after  his  return  in 
various  public  works  at  Bologna,  Piacenza,  and  other 
towns.  He  was  suljsequently  patronized  by  Pope  Julius 
H.,  who  made  him  his  architect  and  employed  him  to 
construct  the  Villa  Giulia.  The  palace  at  Caprarola, 
near  Rome,  built  for  the  cardinal  Ale.xander  Farnese, 
is  regarded  as  his  master-piece.  In  1564  Vignola  suc- 
ceeded Michael  Angelo  as  architect  of  Saint  Peter's. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  five  orders  of 
architecture,  entitled  "  Regole  delle  cinque  Ordini 
d'Architettura,"  (1563,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work,  and  "Rules  of  Practical  Perspective,"  (1583.) 
Died  in  1573. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Milizia,  "  Vite  degli 
Architetti  ;"  QoATREMfeRE  de  Quincv,  "  Histoire  des  plus  calibres 
Arcliitectes." 

Vignole.     See  Vignola. 

Vignoles.     See  Lahire,  (Etienne.) 

Vignoles,  des,  di  v^n'yol',  (Alphonse,)  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1649,  became 
minister  of  the  church  at  Copenick,  near  Berlin,  about 
1702.  His  most  important  work  is  a  "  Chronology  of 
Sacred  History,  and  other  Histories,  from  the  Departure 
out  of  Egypt  to  the  Captivity  of  Babylon,"  (in  French, 
1738.)  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Berlin.     Died  in  1744. 

Vignoli,  vin'yo-lee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  numismatist,  born  in  Tuscany  about  i6So.  He 
became  librarian  of  the  Vatican  in  1720.     Died  in  1753. 

VignoUe,  de,  deh  vin'yol',  (Martin,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  Languedoc  in  1763.  He  became  a  general 
of  division  in  1803,  and  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  army  of 
Italy  in  1809.     Died  in  1824. 

Vignon,  (Claude.)     See  Rouvier. 

Vigny,  de,  deh  vfen'ye',  (Alfred  Victor,)  Comte, 
a  French  writer  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Loches, 
in  the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire,  in  March,  1799. 
lie  published  in  1828  his  "Ancient  and  Modern  Poems," 
("  Poemes  antiques  et  modernes,")  a  collection  of  pieces 
which  had  previously  appeared  in  Parisian  periodicals. 
His  other  principal  works  are  a  historical  romance  en- 
titled "Cinq-Mars,  or  a  Conspiracy  under  Louis  XIII.," 
(1826,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour  and  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages,  "  Stella,  or  the 
Blue  Devils,"  a  prose  narrative,  and  the  tragedy  of 
"Chatterton,"  (1835,)  which  met  with  brilliant  success. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845. 
In  early  life  he  married  a  rich  English  lady,  Lydia  Bun- 
bury.     Died  in  1863. 

See  G.  Planche,  "Portraits  litt^raires;"  L.  DE  Lom^nie,  "M. 
A.  de  Vigny,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841  ;  Sainte-Beuve. 
"Portraits    contemporains ;"     "Nouvelle    Biographie     G^n^rale." 

Vigo,  di,  dee  vee'go,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Genoa,  lived  about  15 10,  practised  at 
Rome,  and  wrote  on  surgery. 

Vigor,  ve'gok',  (Simon,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at 
Evreux  about  151 5.  He  was  court  preacher  to  Charles 
LK.,  and  Archbishop  of  Narbonne.     Died  in  1575, 

Vig'prs,  (Nicholas  Avl'ward,)  a  naturalist,  born 
in  the  county  of  Carlow,  Ireland,  in  1787,  was  the  first 
secretary  of  the  Zoological  Society,  to  the  "  Transac- 
tions" of  which  he  contributed  a  number  of  treatises. 
Died  in  1840. 

Viguier,  ve'ge-i',  (Adrien,)  a  F"rench  novelist  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1793. 

Viguier,  (Pierre  Francjois,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Besan^on  in  1745  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1821. 

Viguier,  de,  deh  ve'ge-i',  (Paule,)  a  French  lady, 
celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  virtue,  was  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1 5 18.  She  was  married  to  the  Baron  de  Fonte- 
nille.     Died  in  1610. 


Vikr5madltya  (vlk-ra-mi'dlt-ya)  I.,  a  celebrated 
Hindoo  sovereign,  who,  about  the  year  56  li.C,  as  is 
supposed,  defeated  the  Tartar  hc^rdes  who  had  taken 
possession  of  Northern  Hindostan  and  drove  them 
beyond  the  Indus.  There  is  good  ground  to  believe 
that  the  reign  of  this  prince  was  equal  in  splendour  10 
that  of  any  other  monarch  that  ever  lived.  His  dominion 
extended  over  the  whole  of  Northern  Hindostan.  The 
capital  of  his  vast  empire  was  Ujjayini,  (now  Oojein.) 
He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature  and  science.  Nine 
illustrious  men  of  genius,  called  in  Oriental  phrase  tlie 
"nine  gems,"  adorned  his  court  and  were  supported  by 
his  bounty.  Among  these,  according  to  a  somewhat 
doubtful  tradition,  was  the  immortal  Kaiidasa,  who  has 
been  styled  "  the  Shakspeare  of  India."  (See  Kalidasa.) 
Tlie  reign  of  Vikramaditya  is  commonly  considered  to 
mark  an  important  era  in  the  history  of  India;  but  there 
is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  actual  time  in  which  he 
lived.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  there  were  several 
Hindoo  monarchs  who  bore  the  name  or  title  of  Vikra- 
maditya, which  signifies  "sun  of  strength." 

See  the  Introduction  to  Professor  Williams's  translation  o* 
"  Sakoontala,"  Hertford,  1856. 

Vilain  (vc'I^n')  XIIII.,  (Charles  Ghislain  Guil- 
LAUME,)  Vicomte,  a  Belgian  politician,  born  at  Brus- 
sels in  1803,  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from 
March,  1855,  to  1857,  having  previously  been  ambassador 
to  different  courts  of  Italy.     Died  November  16,  1878. 

Vilaiu  XIIII.,  (Jean  Jacques  Philippe,)  Vi- 
comte, a  Belgian  financier,  born  at  Alost  iii  1712,  He 
originated  the  penitentiary  system  of  Belgium,  Died 
in  1777. 

Vilate,  ve'ltt',  (Joachim,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in 
1768,  was  imprisoned  in  1794,  and  executed  in  1795, 

Vili,  vil'e,  \i.e.  "will,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a 
brother  of  Odin,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  creation  of  the 
world.  By  some  he  is  identified  with  Hoenir,  (which 
see.) 

Villa,  vfel'lS,  (Angelo  Teodoro,)  an  Italian  Hel- 
inist,  born  near  Pavia  about  1720.  He  was  professor 
of  Greek  at  Pavia,  and  translated  several  Greek  works. 
Died  in  1794. 

VUla,  di,  de  \hY\\  or  Ville,  v61,  (G.  Francesco,) 
Marquis,  an  Italian  general,  commanded  the  Venetian 
army  at  tlie  siege  of  Candia,  (1666.)     Died  about  1668. 

Villalobos,  de,  di  vil-yi-lo'iiAs,  (Francisco,)  a 
Spanish  physician  and  poet,  born  at  Toledo  about  1480. 
He  wrote  a  medical  treatise  in  verse,  called  "Summary 
of  Medicine,"  ("  Sumario  de  la  Medicina,"  1498,)  and 
other  works.  He  was  employed  as  physician  to  Charles 
V.  while  that  monarch  resided  in  .Spain.  It  is  stated 
that  he  retired  from  court  a  poor  man  about  1540.  Died 
about  1560. 

Villalpandi,  vil-y51-pin'dee,  or  Villalpando,  vil- 
yil-pin'do,  or,  more  fully,  de  Torreblanca  (di  toR-ri- 
blin'ki)  y  Villalpandi,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  jurist, 
born  at  Cordova;  died  about  1645. 

Villalpandi,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and 
mathematician,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Cordova  in  1552,  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  Ezekiel. 
Died  in  1608. 

Villamediana,  de,  di  v61-y5mi-De-l'ni,  Count,  a 
Si)anish  courtier  and  poet,  distinguished  for  his  ac- 
complishments and  wit.  He  was  assassinated  in  the 
street  of  Madrid  in  1621  by  an  unknown  hand.  His 
death  was  ascribed  by  some  to  the  jealousy  of  the  king. 
Villamediana  had  expressed  admiration  of  the  queen, 
Elizabeth  of  France. 

Villamene,  vil-li-ma'ni,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Assisi  about  1588.  He  died  at  Rom^ 
at  the  age  of  sixty. 

Villandon.     See  L'H^ritier. 

Villain,  v61-li'nee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
biographer,  son  of  Matteo,  noticed  below,  was  the  author 
of  lives  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  other  eminent  Floren- 
tines, (in  Latin,)  also  a  work  on  the  origin  of  the  French 
kings,  ("De  Origine  Regum  Fraucorum.")  Died  about 
1404. 

Villani,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Florence  about  1280.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Florence  from  its  Origin  down  to  his  Own 


........  ....IVU     III      IU>,_>.  J -■ "       «..),...      — •- — 

«  as  /6/  9  as  s;  f  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h.  k,  sp*ttural;  N.  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23, ) 


VILLANI 


2392 


VILLA  VrCIOSA 


Time,"  (12  books,  1554,  in  Italian.)  It  is  highly  es- 
teemed for  the  simi)licity  and  elegance  of  its  style.  He 
was  elected  to  the  high  office  of  prior  in  13 16  and  in 
132 1.     Died  in  1348. 

Villaiii,  (Matteo,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  con- 
tinued the  "  History  of  Florence"  down  to  1363,  in  which 
year  he  died.  His  work  is  commended  for  accuracy  and 
truthfulness. 

Villa  Nova  or  Villanovanus.     See  Arnaldus. 

Villanueva,  de,  di  vil-yi-nwa'vd,  (Joaquin  Lo- 
renzo,) a  Spanish  statesman  and  patriot,  l)orn  in  the 
province  of  Valencia  in  1757.  Having  been  ordained  a 
priest,  he  was  appointed  court  preacher  at  Madrid  and 
confessor  at  the  royal  chapel.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Cortes  in  1810,  and  published,  soon  after,  a  defence  of 
constitutionalism  from  the  philosophy  of  Aquinas,  en- 
titled "Angelicas  Fuentes,  6  el  Tomista  en  las  Cortes." 
After  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  he  was  confined 
several  years  in  a  monastery.  The  constitutional  gov- 
ernment having  been  overthrown  in  1823,  he  removed 
to  Ireland,  where  he  died  in  1837.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  "Spanish  Christian  Year,"  (19  vols.,)  being  an 
account  of  the  Spanish  church  festivals,  etc.,  a  treatise 
in  favour  of  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  common  lan- 
guages, entitled  "  De  la  Leccion  de  la  sagrada  Escritura 
en  Lenguas  vulgares,"  and  a  Latin  dissertation  on  the 
Phoenician  colonization  of  Ireland,  etc.  He  also  trans- 
lated Paley's  "Natural  Theology,"  and  other  English 
works,  into  Spanish.  His  brother  Jaime,  born  in  1765, 
was  the  author  of  a  "Literary  Tour  to  the  Churches  of 
Spain,"  (unfinished.)     Jaime  died  in  London  in  1824. 

See  Joaquin  Lorknzo's  Avitobiography,  entitled  "  Vida  literaria 
de  J.  L.  Villanueva,"  2  vols.,  1S25. 

Villar,  vil'ytR',  (Noel  Gabriel  Luce,)  a  French 
bishop,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1748.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95,)  he  promoted  education  and  liter- 
ary interests.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1826. 

Villareal.     See  Fernandez  Villareal. 

Villaret,  vi'yi'r^',  (Claude,)  a  French  litteratait, 
born  in  Paris  about  1720,  was  the  author  of  several 
dramas  and  fictitious  works,  and  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Velly's  "History  of  France."  He  treated  of  the  period 
from  1329  to  1469.     Died  in  1766. 

Villaret,  de,  deh  ve'yt'ri',  (Foulques,)  a  French 
commander,  was  chosen  grand  master  of  the  order  of 
Malta  in  1307.  He  captured  Rhodes  in  13 10,  and  re- 
signed his  office  in  1319.     Died  in  1327. 

Villaret  de  Joyeuse,  ve'yJ'rJ^'  deh  zhwd'yuz', 
(Louis  Thomas,)  Count,  a  French  vice-admiral,  born 
at  Auch  in  1750.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1766,  and  be- 
came rear-admiral  in  1793.  He  gave  proof  of  skill  and 
courage  in  a  battle  against  the  British  admiral  Howe, 
which  began  May  29  and  ended  Jime  i,  1794.  Villaret, 
who  commanded  in  this  action,  lost  about  seven  ships. 
In  June,  1795,  he  was  defeated  by  Lord  Bridport,  who 
had  a  superior  force.  He  commanded  the  naval  forces 
sent  to  conquer  Saint  Domingo  in  1801,  and  was  captain- 
general  of  Martinique  from  1802  to  1809,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  English.     Died  in  1812. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Lacroix, 
"filoge  de  I'Aniiral  Villaret  de  Joyeuse,"  1824  ;  Kf.rcuei.en,  "  His- 
toire  des  Guerres  niaritimes  entrela  France  et  I'Aiigleterre  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographle  Gen^rale." 

Villari,  vil-li'ree,  (Pasquale,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  in  Naples  in  1S27.  Educated  in  the  University  of 
Naples,  he  became  in  1S59  a  professor  of  history  at  Pisa. 
His  works  include  "Savonarola  and  his  Times,"  (1859- 
61,)  "Modern  Painting  in  Italy  and  France,"  (1S69,) 
"  Machiavelli  and  his  Times,"  (1877,)  "  Art,  History,  and 
Philosophy,"  and  other  excellent  writings. 

ViUars,  ve'ySR'  or  vil'ySR',  (Dominique,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1745,  studied  medicine, 
and  took  his  degree  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  in  1805 
jirofessor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Strasbourg.  He 
published  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Plants  of  Dau- 
phine," (with  65  plates,  4  vols.,  1786,)  and  other  botanical 
works,  also  "  Principles  of  Medicine  and  Surgery." 
The  genus  Villarsia  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  Ladoucette.  "Notice  de  M.  Villars."  1818. 


Villars,  de,  deh  ve'ytR'  or  v^KySk',  (Claude  Louis 
IlECroR,)  Due,  a  famous  French  general,  born  at  Mou- 
lins  in  1653,  was  a  son  of  General  Pierre  de  Villars, 
noticed  below.  He  had  a  handsome  form,  and  persunal 
advantages  which,  with  his  courage  and  high  spirit,  early 
attracted  the  notice  of  Louis  XIV.  For  his  conduct  at 
Senef,  in  1674,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  He 
served  in  Flanders  and  Alsace  from  that  year  until  the 
peace  of  1678,  after  which  he  was  employed  in  diplo- 
matic missions  to  Vienna  and  Munich.  Having  returned 
to  Paris  about  1688,  he  obtained  the  favour  of  Madame 
de  Maintenon  and  Louvois,  who  appointed  him  com- 
missary-general of  cavalry  in  1689.  He  became  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1693,  and  served  several  camjjaigns 
near  the  Rhine  in  the  war  which  was  ended  by  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  In  1698  he  was  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Vienna,  where  he  displayed  much  finesse,  and 
adroitly  counteracted  the  intrigues  of  the  Austrian 
court  in  relation  to  the  Spanish  succession.  The  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession  began  in  1701,  and  Villars  re- 
turned to  Paris.  He  married  Mademoiselle  de  Varange- 
ville  in  1702.  Having  been  appointed  commander  of 
m  army  sent  to  aid  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  he  gained  a 
victory  on  the  Rhine  in  October,  1702,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  the  same  year.  In 
1704  he  subdued  the  Camisards,  Protestants  of  Cevennes, 
who  had  revolted.  For  this  service  he  received  the 
title  of  duke  in  1705.  He  is  praised  by  several  English 
writers  for  his  humanity  to  the  Camisards.  He  obtained 
in  April,  1705,  command  of  the  army  of  the  Moselle, 
with  which  he  took  Lauterburg  and  Ilaguenau  in  1706, 
and  invaded  Wiirtemberg  in  1707.  In  January,  1709, 
he  took  command  of  the  army  in  Flanders,  where  he 
was  opposed  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Prince 
Eugene.  He  was  defeated  by  them  at  the  great  battle 
of  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  having  in  the  early  part  of  the 
action  received  a  wound  which  disabled  him  for  some 
months.  This  victory  was  dearly  bought  to  the  allies, 
who  lost  about  20,000  men.  Villars  was  compelled,  by 
want  of  men  and  money,  to  remain  on  the  defensive 
in  171 1.  He  commanded  with  success  against  Prince 
Eugene,  who  invaded  France  in  1712.  The  French 
gained  a  victory  at  Denain,  took  Douai  and  Bouchain, 
and  compelled  the  enemy  to  retreat  to  Brussels.  After 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  ensued  along  peace.  Villars 
had  great  influence  at  court  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XV.  He  was  one  of  the  most  fortunate,  as 
well  as  most  able,  French  generals  of  his  time.  Died  at 
Turin  in  1734. 

See  "M^moires  de  Villars,"  (partly  written  by  himself,)  3 
vols.,  1734;  Pevssonnel,  "  iSloge  de  Villars,"  1734;  Anquetil, 
"Vie  du  Marechal  de  Villars,"  4  vols.,  17S4  ;  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de 
Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Dangeau,  "Journal;" 
Sainte-Beuvh,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;"  "Nouvelle  Biogi.iphie 
G^n^rale." 

Villars,  de,  (HonorA  Arm  and,)  Prince  de  Martigues, 
born  in  1702,  was  a  son  of  Marshal  Villars.  He  became 
governor  of  Provence,  and  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1734.  His  talents  were  only  ordinary. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.     Died  in  1770. 

Villars,  de,  (Montfaucon,  m6N'fb'k6N',)  Abb4,  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1635,  settled 
in  Paris,  where  he  became  celebrated  as  a  jjulpit  orator. 
He  published  in  1670  a  satirical  work,  entitled  "Con- 
versations of  the  Count  de  Gabalis,"  ("  Entretiens  du 
Comte  de  Gabalis,")  for  which  he  was  forbidden  the 
pulpit.     He  was  killed  by  robbers  in  1673. 

Villars,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  general  and  diplo- 
matist, born  in  1623,  was  the  father  of  Marshal  Villars. 
He  served  in  Italy  under  the  Prince  of  Conti.  On  ac- 
count of  the  enmity  of  Louvois,  he  left  the  army  and 
became  a  dijilomatist.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
S]5ain  in  1672,  and  to  Denmark  in  1683.  Died  in  1698. 
His  wife,  Marie  Gigault  de  Bellefonds,  (ge'gc/ deh 
b^l'fAN',)  born  in  1624,  was  distinguished  for  intelligence 
and  wit.  She  wrote  Letters,  which  were  published  in 
1759.     Died  in  1706. 

Villars-Braiicas.     See  Brancas,  (Andr6.) 

Villaviciosa,  de,  di  vfel-yi-ve-/-4e-o'sS,  (Josl,)  h 
Spanish  poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Siguenza  in  1 589, 
was   appointed   in    1628    Inquisitor  of   the  kingdom  of 


a,  e,  T,  6j  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  iS,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m8t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VILLE 


2393 


VILLENA 


Murcia.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Battle  of  the  Flies," 
("La  Mosquea,")  a  mock-heroic  poem.     Died  \\\  1658. 

Ville,  de,  deh  vfel,  (Antoine,)  a  French  military  en- 
gineer and  writer  on  fortification,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1596;  died  in  1656. 

Villedieu,  de,  deh  vfel'de-uh',  (Marie  Catheuine 
HORTENSE  Desjardins — di'zhtR'diN',)  Madame,  a 
French  authoress,  born  near  Fougeres  in  1631.  She 
wrote  verses  and  novels  which  were  once  popular.  Died 
in  1683. 

Villefore,  de,  deh  vil'foR',  (Joseph  Francois  Bour- 
GOIN,)  a  French  biographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1652.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Bernard,"  (1704,)  and  lives  of 
other  saints.     Died  in  1737. 

Villefosse.    See  H6ron  de  Villefosse. 

Villefroy,  de.deh  vfel'fRwi',  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1690.  He  founded  in  1744 
a  society  of  linguists,  called  Capucins  hebraisants,  who 
sought  to  explain  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  by  a  double 
literal  sense.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Paris 
in  1752.     Died  in  1777. 

Villegagnon,  de,  deh  vil'gin'ydN',  (Nicolas  Du- 
RAND,)  Chevalier,  a  French  admiral,  born  at  or  near 
Provins  in  15 10,  was  a  nephew  of  Villiers  de  I'lsle  Adam, 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  Malta.  He  commanded 
the  vessel  which  conveyed  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  to 
France  in  1548.  He  proj^osed  to  found  in  Brazil  a 
French  colony  where  the  Protestants  could  enjoy  re- 
ligious liberty,  and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Admiral 
Coligny  for  that  enterprise.  In  1555  he  conducted  a 
party  of  emigrants  in  two  vessels  to  Brazil.  He  did 
not  succeed  in  forming  a  permanent  colony,  and  he 
returned  to  France,  where  he  was  censured  for  his 
mismanagement.     Died  in  157 1. 

See  "  Navigation  de  Villegagnon  en  1555,"  ISS7  :  Nic^RON,"  M^ 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Villegas,  de,  di  vil-ya'gis,  (Alonso,)  a  Spanish 
writer  of  romance,  born  at  Toledo,  flourished  about 
1550.  He  wrote  "  Selvaggia,"  which  is  an  imitation  of 
the  "  Celestina." 

Villegas,  de,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  poet,  lived  about 
1550.     A  volume  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1565. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Villegas,  de,  (Estevan  Manuel,)  a  celebrated  lyric 
poet  of  Spain,  born  in  Old  Castile  in  1596,  published  a 
collection  of  |3oems  entitled  "  Amatorias,"  (1620.)  He 
also  translated  Horace  and  Anacreon  into  Spanish  verse, 
and  made  a  prose  translation  of  Boethius.  Died  in  1669. 

"The  graceful  luxuriance  of  the  poetry  of  Villegas," 
says  Bouterwek,  "  has  no  parallel  in  modern  literature  ; 
and,  generally  speaking,  no  modern  writer  has  so  well 
succeeded  in  blending  the  spirit  of  ancient  poetry  with 
the  modern." 

See  TiCKNOR.  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Villegas,  de  (Fernando  Ruiz,)  a  Spanish  writer  of 
Latin  verse,  born  at  Burgos,  lived  about  1500- 1530.  He 
became  governor  of  Burgos,  and  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus. 
He  left  many  elegant  Latin  poems,  which  remained  in 
manuscript  until  1743. 

See  Vicente  de  los  Rios,  "  Memorias  de  la  Vida  de  F.  Ruiz  de 
Villegas,"  1774. 

Villegas,  de,  (Francisco.)     See  Quevedo. 

Villegas,  de,  (Pero  Fernandez,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  1453,  became  Archdeacon  of  Burgos.  He  trans- 
lated Dante's  "  Inferno"  into  Spanish  verse,  (1515.) 
Died  in  1525. 

Villehardouin,  de,  deh  vil'tR'doo-iN',  (Geoffroy,) 
a  French  diplomatist  and  historian,  born  at  Arcis-sur- 
Aube  about  1 165.  He  was  sent  in  1201,  by  Thibault, 
Count  of  Champagne,  to  solicit  aid  from  the  Venetians 
in  fitting  out  a  crusade,  in  which  mission  he  was  suc- 
cessful. In  1204  he  assisted  in  the  siege  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  afterwards  wrote  an  interesting  account  of  it, 
entitled  "  The  History  of  the  Capture  of  Constantinople 
by  the  French  and  Venetians."  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  oldest  prose  history  in  the  French  language,  and  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  records  of  the  time. 
Died  about  1213. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  History  of  the  Crusades." 

Villele,  de,  deh  ve'liK,  (Joseph,)  Count,  a  French 


statesman,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1773.  In  1815  he  repre- 
sented the  department  of  Haute-Garonne  in  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  where  he  was  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  ultra-royalist  party.  After  the  fall  of  the  Decazes 
ministry,  he  became  minister  of  state  in  1820,  and  of 
finance  in  1821.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the 
council  (prime  minister)  in  September,  1822.  His  talents 
for  administration  were  respectable,  but  he  was  not 
capable  of  grand  views  and  genuine  statesmanship.  He 
rendered  himself  unpopular  by  illiberal  and  reactionary 
measures,  and  was  removed  from  office  in  January,  1828. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  De  Neuville,  "Notice  sur  M.  de  ViUfele,"  1855:  L.  db 
LoM^NiE,  "  M.  de  Villfele,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1S41  ;  La- 
MARTiNE,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Villemain,  vtl'miN',  (Abel  Francois,)  a  celebrated 
French  critic,  orator,  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris 
on  the  9th  of  June,  1790.  He  was  educated  at  the  Im- 
perial Lyceum,  (College  Louis-le-Graiid,)  and  was  a 
pupil  in  rhetoric  of  Luce  de  Lancival.  About  1810 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  Lycee 
Charlemagne  by  M.  de  Fontanes.  He  gained  a  prize 
offered  by  the  Institute,  in  1812,  for  his  "  Eloge  de  Mon- 
taigne," m  which  he  displayed  a  great  power  of  general- 
ization and  an  excellent  gift  of  harmonious  language. 
He  produced,  in  18x4,  a  "Discourse  on  the  Advantages 
and  Inconveniences  of  Criticism,"  which  was  crowned 
by  the  French  Academy.  In  1816  he  became  professor 
of  French  eloquence  at  the  University  of.  Paris,  and 
wrote  an  "  filoge  de  Montesquieu."  He  acquired  a  high 
rei^utation  as  a  professor  and  critic.  Blending  in  his 
lectures  literary  analysis,  biography,  spicy  anecdotes, 
mgenious  judgments  in  detail,  and  profound  generalities, 
he  gave  to  them  the  form  of  eloquent  conversation.  As 
a  critic,  he  was  liberal,  impartial,  and  disposed  to  appre- 
ciate merit,  in  whatever  nation  or  school  it  appeared. 
He  was  appointed  master  of  requests  to  the  council  of 
state  in  1818,  published  a  "History  of  Cromwell,"  (2 
vols.,  1819,)  and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1821.  Having  avowed  liberal  political  opinions,  he 
was  deprived  of  the  ofiice  of  master  of  requests  in  1827. 
Under  the  new  regime  he  became  a  peer  of  France  in 
1832,  president  of  the  royal  council  of  public  instruction 
in  1834,  and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  French  Academy 
in  the  same  year.  He  published  his  "  Lectures  on  French 
Literature,"  ("Cours  de  Litterature  Fran9aise,"  5  vols., 
1828-38,)  which  is  considered  his  principal  work.  He 
was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  May,  1839,  to 
March,  1840,  and  held  the  same  ofiice  in  the  cabinet  of 
Guizot  from  October,  1840,  to  December,  1844.  Aftei 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  took  no  part  in  politics,  lie 
contributed  many  admirable  articles  to  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle"  and  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 
Among  his  numerous  works  we  notice  "Discours  et 
Melanges  litteraires,"  (1823,)  and  "Studies  of  Ancient 
and  Foreign  Literature,"  (1846.)     Died  in  May.  1870. 

M.  Villemain  is  generally  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  writers  of  his  time.  His  style  is 
admirable,  and  his  works  present  a  happy  union  of  mod- 
eration with  independence,  while  they  preserve  a  due 
equilibrium  between  reason  and  imagination. 

See  L.  DE  LomSnie,  "M.  Villemain,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains,"  and  "Causeries 
du  Lundi;"  F.  Z.  Collombet,  "  M.  Villemain,  de  ses  Opinions 
religieuses,"  etc.,  1844;    "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villemessant,  vfel'mi'sftN',  (Jean  Hippolyte  Car- 
tier,)  a  French  journalist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1812.  He 
supported  the  Legitimist  party,  and  began  to  publish 
the  "  Figaro"  in  Paris  in  1854.     Died  April  11,  1879. 

Villemot,  vil'mo',  (Philippe,)  a  French  astronomer 
and  priest,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1651.  He 
published  in  1707  a  "New  System  or  Explanation  of 
the  Movements  of  the  Planets."     Died  in  1713. 

Villeiia,  de,  di  vil-ya'ni,  (Don  Enrique,)  Marquis, 
a  celebrated  Spanish  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  1384, 
was  related  to  the  royal  families  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
His  extraordinary  attainments  in  science  procured  for 
him  among  his  contemporaries  the  reputation  of  a  necro- 
mancer. He  translated  Virgil's  "ACneid"  and  Dante's 
poems  into  Spanish,  and  wrote  several  original  works, 
among  which  is  "Gaya  Sciencia."     Died  in  1434. 


€as  k:  9  as s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,gvUural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VILLENA 


2394 


VILLETERQUE 


Villena,  de,  (JuANPacheco — pi-cha'ko,)  Marquis, 
a  Spanish  courtier,  became  the  favourite  and  chief 
minister  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile  about  1454.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  abilities  and  ambition,  and  acquired  an 
entire  ascendency  over  the  imbecile  king.  After  the 
malcontent  nobles  formed  a  league  against  Henry  IV., 
(1460,)  Villena  was  supplanted  in  the  royal  favour  by 
Bertrand  de  la  Cueva ;  but  he  retained  his  power  by 
joining  the  nobles  who  had  revolted,  and  who  deposed 
Henry  in  1464.     Died  in  1474. 

ViUenave,  v^Kntv',  (Mathieu  Guillaume  Tnfi- 
RfesE,)  a  French  littiratettr  and  journalist,  born  in  Lan- 
guedoc  in  1762.  He  practised  as  an  advocate  during 
the  Revolution,  and  was  imprisoned  in  1793-94  on  sus- 
picion of  moderantisme.  He  edited  several  journals  of 
Paris  under  the  republic  and  restoration,  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  and  produced 
a  translation  of  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  (4  vols.,  1807 
-22,)  which  was  received  with  favour,  and  various  other 
works.     Died  in  Paris  in  1846. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Villenave,  (Theodore,)  a  French  litterateur,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1798.  He  pro- 
duced, besides  other  works,  a  drama,  called  "  Walstein," 
(1828,)  and  "Constantine,"  a  poem,  {1837.)     Died  1866. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Arnaud.)  See  Arnaldus  Villa- 
nova  n  us. 

Villeneuve,  de,  deh  vil'nuv',  (Christophe,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  1541,  served  with  distinction 
under  Henry  III.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Louis  XIII.  Died 
in  1615. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Gabrielle  Susanne  Barbot — 
btR'bo',)  a  French  novelist,  born  about  1695.  She  died 
in  1755. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  soldier  and 
writer  of  the  fifteenth  century,  accompanied  Charle.<s 
VIII.  in  his  Italian  campaign,  and  was  the  author  of 
"Memoirs  of  the  Conquest  of  Naples,"  (1497.) 

Villeneuve,  de,  (H6lion  or  £hon,  i'le'^N',)  was 
born  in  1270.  Having  entered  the  order  of  Saint  John 
of  Jerusalem,  he  was  elected  grand  master  of  Rhodes 
in  1319.     Died  in  1346. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Huon,  ;^u'6n',)  a  French  poet 
under  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus,  was  the  author  of 
"  Les  quatre  Fils  d'Aymon,"  and  other  works. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Louis,)  a  French  general,  born 
about  1450,  was  appointed  by  Charles  VIII.  commander 
of  the  army  sent  against  Naples.  He  was  subsequently 
employed  on  important  missions  to  Rome,  and  in  1505 
was  created  a  marquis  by  Louis  XII.,  being  the  first  who 
received  that  title  in  France.     Died  in  1516. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Pierre  Charles  Jean  Baptiste 
.SiLVESTKE,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Valensoles 
(Basses-Alpes)  in  1763.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  American  war,  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1796,  and 
commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  fleet  which  was 
defeated  by  Nelson  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  in  1798. 
With  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  he  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  Sir  Robert  Calder,  near  Cape  Finisterre, 
in  July,  1805.  He  commanded  about  thirty-three  ships 
of  the  line  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  where  the  French 
were  defeated  with  great  loss  and  Villeneuve  was  taken 
prisoner,  (October,  1805.)  He  was  blamed  by  Napoleon 
for  this  defeat,  and  committed  suicide  at  Rennes  in 
April,  1806. 

See  J.  J.  Magendie,  "  Memoire  necrologique  sur  le  Vice-Amiral 
de  Villeneuve,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Rom6e,)  an  eminent  French  states- 
man and  general,  born  about  11 70.  He  was  employed 
in  the  service  of  Berenger,  Count  of  Provence,  and  was 
regent  of  Provence  after  the  death  of  Berenger,  in  1245. 
Died  after  1250. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Rosaline,)  a  French  nun,  noted 
for  her  ascetic  piety,  born  about  1263,  was  canonized. 
Died  in  1329. 

Villeueuve-Bargemon,  de,  deh  vfel'nuv'  btRzh'- 
m6N',  (Jean  Paul  Alban — trbSx',)  Vicomte,  a  French 
economist,  born  near  Grasse  (Provence)  in  1784.  He 
received  the  Montyon  prize  for  his  "  Christian  Political 
Economy,  or  Researches  into  the  Causes  of  Pauperism," 
etc.,  (3  vols.,  1834.)     Died  in  1850. 


Villeneuve-Trans,  de.  deh  vfel'nuv'  tRflN,  (Louis 
Francois,)  Marquis,  a  historical  writer,  born  in  1784, 
was  a  twin-brother  of  the  preceding.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  Saint  Louis,  King  of  France,"  (3  vols., 
1836.)     Died  in  1850. 

Villerm^,  ve'ySR'mi',  (Louis,)  a  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1819.  He  wrote  on  agriculture 
and  economy. 

Villerm^,  (Louis  Ren6,)  a  French  economist  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1782.  He  advocated 
reform  in  the  treatment  of  prisoners,  founded  the  "  An- 
nales  d'Hygiene,"  (1829,)  and  was  the  first,  it  is  said, 
to  apply  statistics  to  questions  of  hygiene.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "Tableau  of  the  Moral  and  Physical  State 
of  Operatives  employed  in  the  Manufacture  of  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Silk,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)     Died  in  1S63. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villeroi  or  Villeroy,  de,  deh  vil'Rvvi',  (Charles 
de  Neufville — deh  nuh'vfel',)  ^IARQUIS,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  about  1560,  was  called  Marquis  d'Alincourl 
in  his  youth.  He  fought  for  the  League,  and  was  a 
rival  of  Sully.     Died  in  1642. 

Villeroi,  de,  (Francois  de  Neufville,)  Due,  a 
marshal  of  France,  born  in  Paris  in  1644,  was  a  son 
of  Nicolas,  noticed  below.  He  was  better  Cjualified  to 
be  a  courtier  than  a  general.  He  became  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1674,  lieutenant-general  in  1677,  and  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1693.  Through  royal  favouritism 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Flanders  in  1695.  He  failed  to  relieve  Namur,  which 
A'as  besieged  and  taken  by  William  HI.  of  England. 
He  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Ramillies,  (1706,)  where 
he  was  defeated  by  Marlborough ;  but  he  retained  the 
favour  of  Louis  XIV.  even  after  this  disaster.  He 
was  noted  for  his  presumption  and  self-esteem.  Died 
in  1730. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires  ;"  Voltaire,  "Sifecle  de  Louis 
XIV;"  De  CouRCELLES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Franjais  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villeroi,  de,  (Nicolas  de  Neufville,)  Due,  a 
courtier  and  general,  born  in  1598,  was  a  son  of  Charles, 
noticed  above.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France,  and 
governor  of  the  young  king  Louis  XIV.,  about  1646. 
Died  in  1685. 

Villeroi  or  Villeroy,  de,  (NieoLAS  de  Neufville,) 
Seigneur,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  1542, 
was  the  father  of  Charles,  noticed  above.  He  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  in  1567,  after  which  he  was  a 
trusted  counsellor  of  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.  He 
became  a  partisan  of  the  Catholic  League,  and  was  the 
agent  of  the  negotiations  opened  in  1589  between  the 
Duke  de  Mayenne  and  Henry  IV.  In  1594  he  entered 
the  service  of  Henry  IV.  as  secretary  of  state.  He  was 
a  rival  or  enemy  of  Sully.     Died  in  1617. 

See  p.  Mathieu,  "  Remarques  surla  ViedeM.  de  Villeroy,"  1618. 

Villeroy.     See  Villerol 

Villers,  ve'yV,  (Francois  Toussaint,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist, born  at  Rennes  in  1 749.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Convention  of  1792-95,  and  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred.     Died  in  1807. 

Villers,  de,  deh  ve'yi',  (Charles  Francois  Domi- 
nique,)  a  French  philosopher  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1764.  Soon  after  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Revolution,  he  published  a  treatise  "On  Liberty," 
by  which  he  exjjosed  himself  to  the  persecution  of  the 
Jacobins,  and  was  obligeil  to  take  refuge  in  Germany, 
lie  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Heeren,  Jacobi,  and 
other  eminent  writers,  and  became  thoroughly  versed 
in  German  literature,  which  he  greatly  contributed  to 
render  popular  in  France.  He  was  appointed  in  181 1 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Spirit  and  Influence  of 
Luther's  Reformation,"  which  was  crowned  by  the 
French  Institute  and  was  translated  into  English,  Ger- 
man, Dutch,  and  Swedish,  "  Report  on  the  State  of 
.\ncient  Literature  and  History  in  Germany,"  and 
"  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  etc.  He  also  translated  a  num- 
berofstandard  German  works  into  French.   Died  in  1S15. 

See  Michel  Bekr,  "Notice  sur  M.  C.  Villers,"  1S15:  Emilb 
A.  Begin,  "Villers,  Madame  de  Rodde  et  Madame  de  Stael,"  1840. 

Villeterque,  de,  deh  vil'tiRk',  (Alexandre  Louis.) 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  i.  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


VILLETl'E 


2395 


VINCENT 


a  French  writer,  born  at  Ligny  in  1759.  He  was  an 
editor  of  the  "Journal  de  Paris,"  and  published  "Dra- 
matic Essays,"  (1793,)  and  "Essays  on  Morals  and  Physi- 
cal Science,"  (2  vols.,  1795.)     Died  in  iSii. 

Villette,  de,  deh  ve'lSt',  (Charles,)  Marquis,  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  friend  of 
Voltaire.  He  wrote  verses,  eloges,  etc.  In  1792  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Convention.     Died  in  1793. 

Villiaum^,  ve'le-o'mi',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  historian, 
advocate,  and  political  economist,  born  at  Pont-i-Mous- 
son  in  1814.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1850,)  and  a  "Treatise 
on  Political  Economy,"  (1857.)     Died  in  1877. 

Villiers.    See  Buckingham,  Duke  of. 

Villier3.    See  Clarendon. 

Villiers,  vil'yerz,  (Charles  Pelham,)  an  English 
politician,  a  brother  of  Lord  Clarendon,  was  born  in 
London  in  1802.  He  became  a  Liberal  member  of 
Parliament  in  1835,  and  made  annually  a  motion  to  re- 
duce or  repeal  the  duty  on  grain.  He  was  appointed 
judge-advocate-general  in  1853,  and  president  of  the 
poor-law  board  in  1859  ;  resigned  in  1866. 

Villiers,  (Henry  Montague,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1813.  He  became  Bishop  of  Durham 
in  1856.     Died  in  1861. 

Villiers,  de,  deh  ve'ye-i',  (Jean,)  a  French  general, 
born  about  1384.  He  was  an  enemy  of  the  Armagnac 
faction,  and  fought  for  the  English  against  the  King  of 
France.     Died  in  1437. 

Villiers,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer  and  preacher, 
born  at  Cognac  in  1648.  He  published  a  poem  on  the 
'Art-of  Preaching,"  ("  L'Art  de  precher,"  1682,)  often 
reprinted,  and  several  religious  and  moral  essays.  Died 
in  Paris  in  172S. 

Villiers  de  L'Isle  Adam,  de,  deh  ve'ye-i'  deh  1^; 
t'dfiN',  (Philippe,)  a  French  commander,  born  at  Beau- 
vais  in  1464.  He  was  elected  grand  master  of  the  order 
of  Saint  John  at  Rhodes  in  1521.  The  Turks  having 
taken  Rhodes  in  1522,  he  removed  the  order  to  Malta 
in  1530.     Died  in  1534. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  des  Chevaliers  de  Make." 

Villipigue,  vil'le-p^g',  ?  or  Villepigue,  (John  B.,) 
an  American  general,  born  in  South  Carolina  about 
1834,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854.  He  fought 
against  the  Union  at  Corinth,  October,  1862.  Died  at 
Port  Hudson,  Louisiana,  in  November,  1S62. 

Villoison,  de,  deh  ve'lwi'z6N',  (Jean  Baptiste  Gas 
pard  d'Ansse — dfiNss,)  an  eminent  French  Hellenist, 
born  at  Corbeil-sur-Seine  about  1750.  He  studied  at 
the  College  of  Beauvais,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  had 
read  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek  classics.  He  pub- 
lished in  1773  the  first  edition  of  Apollonius's  "Lexicon 
of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,"  with  valuable  scholia,  from 
a  manuscript  at  Saint-Germain.  He  was  soon  after 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  although  by  the 
rules  of  the  society  too  young  to  receive  that  honour. 
Having  been  sent  by  tlie  government  in  1778  to  examine 
the  Library  of  Saint  Mark,  Venice,  he  discovered  nu- 
merous fragments  of  Greek  works  hitherto  unpublished, 
which  appeared  in  1781  under  the  title  of  "  Anecdota 
Graeca,"  etc.  He  also  brought  to  light  a  manuscript 
"  Iliad"  of  the  tenth  century,  with  ancient  scholia,  (since 
called  "Scholia  Veneta,")  published,  with  learned  pro- 
legomena, in  1788.  This  was  considered  an  important 
discovery.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  his 
"  Epistolae  Vimarienses,"  (1783,)  being  the  result  of  his 
icsearches  in  the  Library  of  Weimar,  and  an  edition  of 
tiie  "  Pastoralia"  of  Longus.  He  travelled  in  Greece 
about  three  years,  (17S5-88.)  He  died  in  April,  1805, 
just  after  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
College  de  France. 

See  Bon  Joseph  Dacier,  "  filoge  de  J.  B.  d'Ansse  de  Villoison," 
1806  ;  article  "  Dansse"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Villon,  ve'y6N',  (Francjois,)  an  early  French  poet, 
whose  original  name  was  CoRBUElL,  (koR'buF  or  koR'- 
buh'ye,)  born  in  Paris  in  143 1.  He  was  author  of  a 
humorous  poem  called  "The  Great  Testament,"  ("  Le 
grand  Testament,")  and  is  reckoned  one  of  the  national 
poets.     Died  about  14S5. 

See  Profilet,  "  De  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Villon,"  1856; 
Campaux,  "Villon,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1859. 


Villotte,  ve'yot',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1656.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  Armenia  and  at  Ispahan.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Turkey,  Persia,  Armenia,"  etc.,  (1730.) 
Died  in  1743. 

Vilmar,  fil'mjR,  (August  Friedrich  Christian,) 
a  German  politician  and  writer,  born  at  Solz,  in  Hesse, 
in  1800.  He  became  intendant-general  of  the  affairs  of 
the  Church  at  Cassel  in  1851.  He  wrote  "Lectures  on 
the  History  of  the  National  Literature  of  Germany," 
(1845,)  and  other  works.    Died  at  Marburg,  July  30,  1868. 

Vimont,  ve'miw',  (Joseph,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Caen  in  1795.  ^^^  published  a  "Treatise  on  Human 
and  Comparative  Phrenology,"  (1833-36.)    Died  in  1857. 

Vinateya,  one  of  the  names  of  Garuda,  (which 
see.) 

Vince,  (Samuel,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  in  Suffolk.  He  became  professor 
of  astronomy  and  experimental  philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambrid2;e  in  1796,  and  contributed  several 
treatises  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Complete  System  of  Astronomy,"  (3 
vols.,  1797-1808.)  He  was  also  Archdeacon  of  Bedford, 
Died  in  1821. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1809. 

Vincent,  v4n's3n',  (Alexandre  Joseph  Hidulphe 
— ^e'diilf',)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Hesdin  in 
1797,  published  a  "Course  of  Elementary  Geometry," 
"Treatise  on  the  Solving  of  Numerical  Equations,"  and 
other  works  on  various  subjects.  He  became  in  1831 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  of  Louis  le 
Grand,     Died  at  Paris,  November  26,  1868. 

Vincent,  (Francois  Andr6,)  an  able  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1747,  was  a  pupil  of  Vien. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1768,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1782.  A  picture 
of  "  President  Mole  seized  by  Factious  Persons"  is  called 
his  master-piece.     Died  in  1816. 

See  QuATREMftRE  DE  QuiNCV,  "  Notice  sur  Vincent,"  1817. 

Vincent,  (John  H.,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  clergyman, 
especially  distinguished  from  his  connection  with  the 
Chautauqua  educational  enterprise,  was  born  in  Tusca- 
loosa, Alabama,  in  1832.  In  1868  he  became  editor  of 
the  "Sunday-School  Journal"  of  New  York,  which 
under  his  management  attained  a  circulation  of  more 
than  100,000.  In  1874  he  established  the  "  Chautauqua 
Assembly,"  and  in  1S78  the  "Chautauqua  Literary  and 
Scientific  Circle,"  now  so  widely  known, 

Vincent,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
who  was  conspicuous  for  his  humanity  to  the  sufferers 
from  the  plague  in  London  in  1665.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "God's  Terrible  Voice  in  the  Citv 
by  Plague  and  Fire."     Died  in  1671. 

Vincent,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  English  scholar  and 
divine,  born  in  London  in  1739.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  appointed  head-master  of 
Westminster  School  in  1788,  and,  after  several  other  pre- 
ferments in  the  Church,  became  Dean  of  Westminster  in 
1802.  He  published  "The  History  of  the  Commerce 
and  Navigation  of  the  Antients  in  the  Indian  Ocean," 
(2  vols.,  1807,)  a  "  Defence  of  Public  Education,  in  a 
Letter  to  the  Lord  Bishop  of  Meath,"  "The  Origination 
of  the  Greek  Verb,  an  Hypothesis,"  and  a  number  of 
sermons.  The  first  named  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  British  Critic"  anH 
"The  Classical  Journal."     Died  in  181 5. 

Vincent  of  Lerins.     See  Vincentius  Lirinensis. 

Vincent  de  Beauvais,  vAn's6n'  deh  bo'v^'.  [Lat. 
Vincen'tius  Bellovacen'sis,]  a  learned  French  Do- 
minican monk,  was  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Louis  IX.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  encyclop.nedia,  entitled  "Speculum 
Quadruplex"  or  "Speculum  Majus."     Died  about  1260. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  (or  Depaul.)  v^n'sent  (or  v^n'sSn') 
deh  pol,  [Ger.  Vincenz  von  Paula,  vin-s§nts'  fon  pow'- 
Id,]  Saint,  a  benefactor  and  reformer,  born  near  Dax,  in 
the  southwest  of  France,  in  1576.  He  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  1600,  and  was  captured  in  1605  by  corsairs,  who 
took  him  to  Tunis  and  sold  him  as  a  slave.  Having 
escaj^ed  in  1607,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  became  curate 
of  Ciichy  in  161 1.     About  1613  he  was  employed  as  pre- 


€a.s.f;  9asj,- g/^rtr*/;  gas/;G,  H,  K,.^7<//«rrt/;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled ;  I zsz;  i\\  3is\n  this.     (2[^=See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


VINCENT 


2396 


VINDING 


ceptor  of  the  sons  of  Philippe  Emmanuel  de  Gondi, 
Count  de  Joigny.  One  of  these  pupils  was  the  famous 
Cardinal  de  Retz.  Vincent  distinguished  himself  by  iiis 
zeal  to  improve  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  tiic 
poor  and  the  sick.  About  1617  he  founded  a  charitable 
institution,  called  Confrerie  de  Cliarite,  in  which  he 
made  a  successful  innovation  by  employing  the  laic  ele- 
ment. He  afterwards  spent  some  time  in  reforming  and 
relieving  the  prisoners  in  the  galleys  at  Marseilles.  In 
1624  he  began  to  organize  the  Congregation  of  the  Mis- 
sions, designed  to  train  teachers  and  preachers  for  the 
provinces  of  France.  The  j^riests  of  this  society  were 
called  Lazaristes.  lie  established  a  foundling-hos|jital 
in  Paris  about  1638.  Among  the  most  useful  and  widely- 
extended  institutions  of  Vincent  de  Paul  was  the  Sisters 
of  Charity,  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  sick.  During 
the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde  his  inexhaustible  charity 
was  employed  in  relieving  the  miseries  of  famine.  Mis 
services  on  this  occasion  procured  for  him  the  title  of 
Pere  de  la  Patrie,  ("  Father  of  the  Country.")  He  died 
in  Paris  in  1660.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Clement 
XII.  in  1737. 

See  .\nELLV,  "Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1664:  P.  Collet, 
"Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Panl,"  2  vols.,  174S:  Gauira,  "  Vincen? 
von  I'avila,"  1807  ;  Leopold  dk  Stolberg,  "  Leben  des  Vincenz  vor 
Paiil.1,"  1818;  Lemaike,  "Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1825- 
ArbS  Maukv,  "  Paniijyriqiie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1827- 
Capkfigije,  "Vie  de  .Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1827;  Th.  Nisakd, 
"Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1844;  A.  Challamhl,  "Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,"  1841 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Vincent  Ferrer.     See  Ferrer. 

Vin-cen'ti-u3  (vin-s§n'she-us)  Llr-I-nen'sia,  [Fr. 
Vincent  de  Lerins,  v^N'sftN^deh  leh-r4N',]  a  monk 
and  writer,  born  in  Gaul.  He  wrote  a  short  treatise 
entitled  "Commonitorium"  against  heretics,  which  is  a 
work  of  some  merit.     Died  about  450  a.d. 

Vincenz  von  Paula.    See  Vincent  de  Paul. 

Vinchou,  viN'shAN',  (Auguste  Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1789.  He  obtained  the 
grand  prize  from  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  1814,  and  sub- 
sequently studied  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  may  be 
named  "Joan  of  Arc  under  the  Walls  of  Orleans,"  and 
the  "Death  of  Coriolanus."     Died  in  1855. 

Vinci,  da,  di  vin'chee,  (or  v!n'chee,)  (Leonardo,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  born 
at  Vinci,  near  Florence,  in  1452,  was  a  natural  son  of 
Pietro  da  Vinci,  a  notary.  He  became  in  early  youth  a 
pupil  of  Andrea  Verocchio,  a  painter  of  Florence,  whom 
he  soon  surpassed.  He  was  well  versed  in  anatomy, 
astronomy,  botany,  mathematics,  engineering,  and  music. 
In  his  youth,  before  he  left  Florence,  he  produced  a 
cartoon  of  Adam  and  Eve,  a  Madoima,  a  picture  of  the 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and  other  works.  About  1481 
he  removed  to  Milan,  and  entered  the  service  of  Ludovico 
il  Moro,  Duke  of  Milan.  He  was  director  of  an  Academy 
of  sciences  and  arts  founded  by  the  duke  about  1485.  In 
1493  he  made  a  model  for  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
Francesco  Sforza.  The  statue  was  never  cast,  because 
he  could  not  procure  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bronze. 
About  1499  he  completed  at  Milan  his  master-piece, — 
the  picture  of  the  "  Last  Supper,"  ("Cenacolo,")  which 
was  i)ainted  on  a  wall  of  the  convent  of  Santa  Maria 
delle  Grazie.  This  celebrated  work  exists  now  only  in 
co])ies  made  by  Marco  Oggioni  and  other  painters,  and 
in  the  engraving  of  Raphael  Morghen.  Inconsequence 
of  the  expulsion  of  Ludovico  il  Moro  from  Milan  by 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  Leonardo  returned  to  Florence 
in  1500.  He  painted  at  Florence  a  portrait  of  Madonna 
Lisa  del  Giocondo  and  "The  Virgin  on  the  Knees  of 
Saint  Anne."  Having  been  commissioned  to  ])aint 
one  end  of  the  council -hall  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  he 
commenced  there  a  picture  of  the  battle  of  Anghiari, 
which  he  left  unfinished.  He  worked  at  Milan  in  1507 
and  1512.  He  visited  Rome  in  1514,  but  soon  came 
away  in  disgust,  which  is  ascribed  to  Pope  Leo's  want 
of  courtesy,  or  to  the  disagreement  of  Da  Vinci  with 
Michael  Angelo,  who  was  then  at  Rome.  Da  Vinci  en- 
tered the  service  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  whom  he  met 
in  Italy,  and  whom  he  accompanied  to  France  in  1516. 
He  received  from  Francis  an  annual  salary  of  seven 
hundred  crowns.  His  health  was  so  infirm  that  he  exe- 
cuted no  great  work  after  he  left  Italy.     He  was  the 


author  of  an  excellent  treatise  on  painting,  "Trattato 
della  Pittura,"  which  has  been  translated  into  English, 
and  various  other  treatises,  which  have  not  been  pub- 
lished. The  genuine  paintings  of  Da  Vinci  which  are 
now  extant  are  not  very  numerous.  Among  them  is  a 
|)ortrait  of  himself  in  the  Uffizi  gallery  at  Florence.  He 
surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  the  art  of  chiaroscuro. 
I  le  was  never  married.  He  died  near  Amboise,  or  at 
Fontainebleau,  in  May,  1519,  leaving  his  manuscripts, 
library,  and  other  personal  proj^erty  to  his  pupil  Fran- 
cesco Melzi.  Among  his  eminent  pupils  were  Bernar- 
dino Luini  and  Marco  Oggioni. 

"  The  discoveries,"  says  Hallam,  "  which  made  Galileo 
and  Kepler  and  Maestlin  and  Maurolicus  and  Castelli 
and  other  names  illustrious,  the  system  of  Copernicus, 
the  very  theories  of  recent  geologers,  are  anticipated 
by  Da  Vinci  within  the  compass  of  a  few  pages, — not 
perhaps  in  the  most  precise  language  or  on  the  most  con- 
clusive reasoning,  but  so  as  to  strike  us  with  some- 
thing like  the  awe  of  preternatural  knowledge.  ...  If 
any  doubt  could  be  harboured,  not  as  to  the  right  of  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci  to  stand  as  the  first  name  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  which  is  beyond  all  doubt,  but  as  to  his  origi- 
nality in  so  many  discoveries,  which  probably  no  one 
man,  especially  in  such  circumstances,  has  ever  made,  it 
must  be  on  an  hypothesis,  not  very  untenable,  that  some 
parts  of  physical  science  had  already  attained  a  height 
which  mere  books  do  not  record."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Amoretti,  "  Memorie  storiche  snlla  Vita  di  L.  da  Vinci," 
1784;  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Gaut.t  dr  Saint-Gek- 
main,  "Vie  de  Leonard  de  Vinci,"  1S03;  G.  lio.ssi,  "Vita  di  L.  da 
Vinci,"  1S14;  I'raun,  "  L.  da  Vinci's  Leben,"  1819:  J.  W.  Brown, 
"  Life  of  L.  da  Vinci,"  1828;  A.  Dumesnil,  "Leonard  de  Vinci," 
Paris,  1S50:  Gallen'Herg,  "Leon,  da  Vinci,"  1834:  Ch.  Clement, 
"  Michel  Ange,  L.  de  Vinci,  Raphael,"  1S61  ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Me- 
moirs of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  J.  S.  Hawkins,  "Life  of"  L.  da 
Vinci,"  1802;  E.  J.  DELilcurzE,  "  Essai  sur  L.  da  Vinci,"  1844; 
Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  F.  Rio,  "  L.  da  Vinci  et 
son  Ecole,"  1S55  :  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario ;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie  ;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1850. 

Vinci,  da,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian  musical  composer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1690;  died  about  1732. 

Vinciguerra,  vin-che-gw§r'rS,  (Marco  Antonio,) 
an  Italian  poet,  who  flourished  about  1470-1490.  He 
was  for  a  long  time  secretary  of  the  republic  of  Venice. 
He  is  called  the  creator  of  satire  in  Italy.  His  works 
are  said  to  be  remarkable  for  energy,  originality,  and 
pathos. 

Vincke,  fink'keh,  (Friedrich  Ludwig  Wilhelm 
Philipp,)  a  Prussian  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Min- 
den  in  1774,  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government,  and  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Admin 
istration  of  Great  Britain."     Died  in  1844. 

Vincke,  von,  fon  ffnk'keh,  (Ernst  Friedrich 
Georg,)  Baron,  a  distinguished  Prussian  orator  and 
statesman,  son  of  Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born 
near  Hagen,  in  the  county  of  Mark,  in  181 1.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Diet  in  1847,  and  in  1849  became  a 
member  of  the  second  Prussian  Chamber,  being  several 
times  re-elected.  He  was  one  of  the  ])rincipal  leaders 
of  the  constitutional  party,  and  was  conspicuous  as  an 
able  and  brilliant  debater.     Died  June  3,  1875. 

Vinckelbooms,  v!nk'el-b6ms',  or  Vinkenbooms, 
vink'en-boms',  (David,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Mech- 
lin in  1578.  His  favourite  subjects  were  landscapes, 
festivals,  hunting-scenes,  etc.,  which  he  delineated  with 
great  skill  and  fidelity.     Died  in  1629. 

Vin'dex,  (Caius  Julius,)  a  Roman  general,  born  in 
Aquitania.  He  was  governor  or  pro-praetor  of  Gallia 
Celtica  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  In  68  a.d.  he  revolted 
against  Nero,  and  proclaimed  Galba  emperor.  He  was 
killed,  or  killed  himself,  at  Vesontio  (Besan9on)  in  the 
same  year. 

Vindicianua,  vin-dish-e-a'nus,  an  eminent  physician 
and  Christian,  lived  about  370  a.d.  He  was  physician 
to  the  emperor  Valentinian.  His  skill  and  wisdom  arc 
highly  commended  by  Saint  Augustine. 

Vinding,  vin'ding,  (Erasmus,)  a  Danish  scholar  and 
jurist,  born  at  Vinding,  in  Zealand,  in  1615.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  assessor  of  the  supreme  court 
of  justice.  He  had  the  principal  part  in  the  reformation 
or  revision  of  the  laws  of  Denmark.     Died  in  1684. 

Vinding,  (Paul,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  i,  e,  1, 6,  li,  j?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


VINEIS 


2397 


VIRAJ 


about  1658.  lie  was  professor  of  Greek,  and  author  of 
several  works  on  classical  subjects.     Died  in  1712. 

Vineis,  vin'e-is,  (Petrus,)  originally  Pietro  delle 
Vigne,  (del'li  v^n'yi,)  an  Italian  jurist,  rose  to  be  chan- 
cellor to  Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  whose 
cause  he  defended  against  the  popes.     Died  in  1249. 

Vi'ner,  (Charles,)  an  English  lavN-yer  and  compiler, 
born  about  1680,  publislied  in  1751  "A  General  and 
Complete  Abridgment  of  Law  and  Equity,"  (24  vols. 
fol.,)  a  work  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  emi)loyed  half 
a  century.  He  died  in  1756,  bequeathing  twelve  thou- 
sand pounds  to  establish  a  professorship  of  common  law 
at  Oxford,  which  was  first  filled  by  Klackstone. 

Vines,  vinz,  (Richard,)  an  English  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Leicestershire.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
As.sembly  of  Divines  in  1644,  minister  of  Saint  Clement 
Dane's,  and  vicar  of  Saint  Lawrence  Jewry,  London. 
Died  in  1655. 

Vinet,  ve'nV,  (Ai.F.XANnRE  Rodolphe,)  an  eminent 
.Swiss  author  and  theologian,  born  at  or  near  Lausanne 
in  June,  1797.  He  became  jirofessor  of  the  French  lan- 
guage and  literature  at  Bale  in  181 7,  and  retained  that 
chair  twenty  years.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
an  eloquent  jjreacher,  advocated  liberty  of  conscience, 
and  opposed  the  union  of  church  and  state.  In  1837  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  practical  theology  at  Lau- 
sanne. He  published,  besides  other  works,  "An  Argu- 
ment for  Liberty  of  Worship,"  (1826,)  "  Chrestomathie 
Franijaise,"  (3  vols.,  1829-30,)  "  Discours  sur  quelques 
.Sujets  religieux,"  (1835,)  an  English  version  of  which 
was  entitled  "  Vital  Christianity,"  "Studies  on  French 
Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1849,) 
and  "  P.astoral  Theology,"  (1850.)  His  works  are  highly 
esteemed,  and  are  remarkable  for  elegance  of  style. 
He  seceded  from  the  national  Church  in  1840.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  E.  ScH^RER,  "  A.  Vinet,  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  i8s3 :  Saivte- 
Rkuvr,  "  Portraits  contemporains  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale  ;"  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1854. 

Vinet  or  Vinette,  ve'nSt',  (Elie,)  a  French  scholar 
and  critic  of  great  learning,  was  born  near  Barbezieux 
(Saintonge)  in  1509.  He  was  for  some  years  professor 
at  the  College  of  Guienne,  Bordeaux,  of  which  he  was 
rector  or  president  from  1558  till  1583.  He  published 
good  editions,  with  notes,  of  Eutropius,  (1553,)  Sueto- 
nius "  De  Rhetoribus,"  (1556,)  Florus,  (1563,)  Ausonius, 
11575,)  and  other  classics.  He  also  wrote  several  original 
works.     Died  in  1587. 

See  JoANNET,  "  filoge  d'Clie  Vinet,"  1816;  Nic4ron,  "  M^- 
moires." 

Vinette.    See  Vinet,  (Cue.) 

Vingtrinier,  v4N'tRe'ne-i',  (."Krtus  Barth6lemy,) 
a  French  physician  and  economist,  born  in  1796.  He 
practised  in  Rouen,  and  treated  the  subject  of  prison- 
reform  in  "  Des  Prisons  et  des  Prisonniers,"  {1840.)  He 
wrote  other  works.     Died  July  11,  1872. 

Vinje,  vin'yi,  (Aasmund  Olafsen,)  a  Norwegian 
poet  of  peasant  birth,  was  born  in  1818,  and  %vas  promi- 
nent in  the  movement  to  create  a  new  national  language 
and  literature  based  on  the  folk-speech  of  the  country. 
His  lyrics  (1864)  and  "The  Big  Lad"  (a  novel  in  verse, 
1866)  were  in  this  new  language.     Died  in  1870. 

Vinnen.     See  Vinnmus. 

Vin'nl-U9  or  VIn'n§n,  (.\RNOT.r>,)  .-in  eminent  Dutch 
jurist,  born  near  the  Hague  in  1588.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  the  University  of  Leyden  in  1633.  He 
published  "Select  Questions  of  Law,"  "Commentaries 
on  Four  Books  of  the  Imperial  Institutes,"  ("Com- 
mentarius  in  Libros  IV.  Institutionum  Imperialium," 
1642,)  and  other  works.     Died  at  Leyden  in  1657. 

Vintimille,  de,  deh  viN'te'mfel'  or  viN'te'me'ye, 
(Jacques,)  Comte,  a  scholar  and  translator,  born  about 
1512.  He  lived  mostly  in  France,  and  became  a  coun- 
sellor to  the  parliament  of  Burgundy  in  1549.  He  wrote 
several  Latin  poems,  and  translated  into  P'rench  the 
"  Cyropxdia"  of  Xenophon  and  the  works  of  Herodian. 
Died  in  1582. 

Vintimille  du  Luc,  de,  deh  viN'te'mil'  dii  liik, 
(Charles  Gaspard  Guillaume,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  near  Frejus  in  1655.  He  becatne  Archbishop  of 
Paris  in  1729,  and  op])osed  Jansenism.      Died  in  174'^. 


Vin'tpn,  (Alexander  Hamilton,)  D.D.,  an  Epis- 
copalian divine,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1807.  He  became  successively  rector  of  Saint  Paul's 
Church  in  Boston,  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in 
Philadelphia,  and  Saint  Mark's  Church  in  New  York, 
(1 86 1.)     Died  April  26,  1881. 

Vinton,  (Francis,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1809.  He 
graduated  at  the  Military  Academy  of  West  Point,  served 
in  the  Creek  war  in  1836,  and,  having  afterwards  studied 
theology,  was  ordained  in  1839.  He  became  rector  of 
Grace  Church,  Brooklyn,  in  1847,  and  assistant  minister 
of  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  in  1855.     Died  in  1872. 

Vinton,  (Francis  Laurens,)  an  American -general, 
a  nephew  of  the  Rev.  Francis  Vinton,  was  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  in  1835.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1856,  became  a  brigadier-general  about  September,  1862, 
and  resigned  May "5,  1863.     Died  October  6,  1879. 

Vinton,  (Justus  Hatch,)  an  American  missionary, 
born  at  Willington,  Connecticut,  in  1806,  sailed  in  1834 
for  Burmah,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  instruction 
of  the  Karens.     Died  in  1858. 

Vinton,  (Samuel  F.,)  an  American  legislator,  born  at 
South  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He  removed  to 
Ohio  about  1816,  practised  law  with'  distinction,  and  as  a 
Whig  represented  a  district  of  Ohio  in  Congress  about 
twenty-two  years,  (1823-37  and  1843-51.)    Died  in  1863. 

Vio,  de.     See  Cajetan. 

Violante  do  Ceo.     See  Ceo,  do. 

Viollet-Leduc,  (or  Le  Duo,)  ve'o'li'  leh  diik,  (Eu- 
gene EMMANUTiL,)  an  eminent  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1814,  was  a  pupil  of  A.  Leclerc.  He  devoted 
himself  to  Gothic  and  mediaeval  architecture,  and  was 
employed  by  the  government  in  the  restoration  of 
several  ancient  churches,  among  which  were  that  of 
Notre-Dame,  in  Paris,  and  the  cathedral  of  Amiens. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  I'Ar- 
chitecture  Francaise  du  Xle  au  XVIe  Siecle,"  "  Me- 
moires  sur  la  Defense  de  Paris,"  (1871,)  and  "  The  Habita- 
tions of  Man  in  All  Ages,"  (1876.)     Died  Sept.  17,  i87q. 

Viom^nil,  de,  deh  ve'o'mi'nil',  (An toine  Charles 
du  Houx — dii  Aoo,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  born 
in  Vosges  in  1728.  He  was  second  in  command  of  the 
army  of  Rochambeau  in  the  United  States,  to  which  he 
was  sent  in  1780.  While  defending  the  king  against  the 
populace  of  Paris,  in  August,  1792,  he  received  a  severe 
wound.     Died  in  November,  1 792. 

Viom^nil,  de,  (Charles  Joseph  Hyacinthe  du 
IIoux,)  Marquis,  a  general,  born  in  1734,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  served  in  the  United  States, 
(1780-82,)  emigrated  as  a  royalist  in  1791,  and  fought 
against  France,  under  Conde,  until  1797.  He  returiied 
in  1814,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1816.  Died 
in  1827. 

Viotti,  ve-ot'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  violinist,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1755.  He  studied 
under  Pugnani,  and  was  appointed,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
first  violinist  at  the  court  of  Turin.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  repaired  to  London, 
where  he  was  for  a  time  leader  of  the  band  at  the  King's 
Theatre.  One  of  his  principal  works  is  entitled  "  Vingt- 
neuf  Concertos  de  Violons."     Died  in  1824. 

See  Baillot,  "Notice  sur  J.  B.  Viotti,"  1825;  Miel,  "Notice 
sur  Viotti,"  1S27. 

Viperano,  ve-pi-r5'no,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Messina  in  1535. 
He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Giovenazzo  by  Pope  Sixtus 
V.  He  wrote  various  works,  among  which  are  "On 
Writing  History,"  ("  De  Scribenda  Historia,"  1569,)  and 
"On  the  Chief  Good,"  ("De  Summo  Bono,"  1575.) 
Died  in  1610. 

Vipsanius.     See  Agrippa. 

Virabhadra,  |  modern  Hindoo  pron.  vee'ra-b'hud'ra,] 
[from  the  Sanscrit  vira,  a  "strong  or  valiant  person," 
a  "  hero,"  (perhaps  cognate  with  the  Latin  vir,  a  "  man," 
also  a  "  hero,")  and  b/uh/rd,  "  prosperous,"  "  excellent,") 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  son,  or,  accord- 
ing to  some,  of  an  avatar,  of  Siva. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Paiulieon,"  p.  177. 

Vlrftj,  vi-r5j',  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
n  mysterious    being,   who  was   said    to   he    the    son    of 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,^tUu?-a/;  N,  nasii/;  r,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( JQ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VIRCHOW 


2398 


VIRGIL 


Brahma  and  the  father  of  the  first  Manu.  By  dividing 
himself  into  male  and  female,  he  became  the  parent  of 
many  creatures.  The  fable  of  Vlraj  seems  to  have  sug- 
gested the  idea  of  Ardha-nari,  (ar'dha  ni'ree,  from 
drdhd,  "half,"  and  n&ri,  "woman,"  a  being  combining 
the  two  sexes,)  one  of  the  forms  of  Siva,  and  perhaps 
also  of  the  Hermaphrodite  of  the  Greeks. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  pp.  83-85. 

Virchow,  (^r'ko,  (Rudolf,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man pathologist,  born  at  Koslin,  in  Pomerania,  in  182 1. 
He  became  in  1846  prosector  at  Berlin,  and  in  1S56 
professor  of  pathological  anatomy  in  that  city.  Perhaps 
the  mqst  important  of  his  professional  works — all  of 
which  enjoy  a  high  reputation — is  his  "Cellular  Pa- 
thology as  based  upon  Physiological  and  Pathological 
Histology,"  (1858;  2cl  edition,  1859,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English,  and  is  regarded  as  the  highest 
authority  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.  He  has  also 
given  especial  attention  to  investigating  the  diseases 
caused  by  trichina.  In  regard  to  political  and  social 
questions  Dr.  Virchow  is  progressive  and  liberal. 

Viret,  ve'r.V,  [Lat.  Vire'tus,]  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  Reformer,  born  at  Orbe  in  151 1,  was  a  friend  of 
Farel.  He  began  about  1531  to  preach  the  Reformed 
doctrines  at  Orbe  and  Payerne.  In  1536  he  preached 
at  Lausanne,  where  he  made  many  converts,  and  where 
he  was  employed  as  pastor  several  years.  His  health  is 
said  to  have  been  ruined  by  poison  given  to  him  by 
some  priests  at  Geneva.  For  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
he  removed  about  1561  to  the  south  of  France.  He 
afterwards  preached  at  Lyons,  from  which  he  was  driven 
by  persecution  in  1565,  and  took  refuge  in  Navarre.  He 
wrote  many  works,  among  which  are  an  "  Exposition  of 
the  Doctrines  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1543,)  and 
"Papal  Physics,"  ("La  Physique  papale,"  1552.)  Died 
at  Orthez  in  1571. 

See  CHENEvifeRE,  "  Farel,  Froment,  Viret,  R^formateurs,"  1835  ; 
Jaquemot,  "Viret,  Reformateur  de  Lausanne,"  1836. 

Viretus.     See  Viret. 

Virey,  ve'ri',  (Julien'  Joseph,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Haute-Marne  in  1775.  He 
was  appointed  in  1812  chief  pharmaceutist  at  the  hos- 
pital of  Val  de  Grace  in  Paris.  He  published  a  "Theo- 
retical and  Practical  Treatise  on  Pharmacy,"  (181 1,) 
,  'Ephemerides  of  Human  Life,"  (1814,)  "On  Vital 
Power,"  (1822,)  "Philosophical  Hygiene,"  (2  vols., 
1828.)  and  other  valuable  works.  He  was  also  one  of 
the  principal  contributors  to  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sci- 
ences naturelles"  and  the  "Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
medicales."     Died  in  1846. 

Vir'gil,  [Ital.  Virgilio,  v^R-jee'le-o ;  Fr.  Virgile, 
v^R'zh^l',]  or,  more  fully,  Pub'll-us  Vir-gill-us  (or 
Ver-gil'I-us)  Ma'ro,  the  must  illustrious  of  Latin  poets, 
was  born  of  humble  parents  at  Andes,  a  small  village 
near  Mantua,  on  the  15th  of  October,  70  n.c,  during  the 
consulship  of  Pompeyand  Crassus.  His  mother's  name 
was  Maia.  He  studied  at  Cremona,  Milan,  and  Neapo- 
lis,  (Naples.)  It  is  evident  from  his  writings  that  he  re- 
ceived a  liberal  education,  and  was  well  versed  in  Greek 
literature,  philosophy,  medicine,  and  mathematics.  He 
inherited  from  his  father,  Maro,  a  small  farm  near  Man- 
tua, which  was  included  in  the  tract  assigned  by  Octavian 
(Augustus)  to  his  soldiers  as  a  reward  for  their  services 
at  Philippi  in  42  B.C.  Virgil  was  thus  deprived  of  his 
patrimony;  but  he  recovered  it  by  a  personal  appeal  to 
Augustus.  He  expressed  his  gratitude  for  this  favour 
in  his  first  eclogue,  which  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  his 
earliest  productions.  He  became  an  intimate  friend  of 
Pollio  and  Horace,  and  found  a  liberal  patron  in  Maecenas, 
to  whom  he  was  introduced  about  40  n.C.  He  displayed 
a  remarkable  mastery  over  the  Latin  language  in  his 
ten  eclogues,  "  I'ucolica,"  or  pastoral  poems,  which  are 
mostly  imitations  of  Theocritus.  In  these  poems,  de- 
scriptions of  nature  are  admirably  blended  with  human 
feelings  and  sympathies. 

About  the  age  of  thirty-three,  Virgil  became  a  resident 
of  Rome,  and  a  recipient  of  the  bounty  of  Augustus  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  could  devote  himself  entirely  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  owned  a  house  on  the  PLsquiHne 
Hill.     It  appears  that  after  he  had  remained  a  few  years 


at  Rome  he  removed  to  Naples,  at  that  time  a  favourite 
abode  of  literary  men.  He  expended  seven  years  in  the 
composition  of  a  didactic  poem  on  rural  economy, 
entitled  "Georgioa,"  in  four  books,  which  is  considered 
his  most  original  and  finished  production.  It  presents  a 
marvellous  union  of  didactic  precept  with  graphic  de- 
scription and  ingenious  illustration,  expressed  with  great 
variety  and  magnificence  of  diction.  "  In  sustained 
majesty,  in  melody  that  ever  satisfies  but  never  cloys 
the  ear,  in  variety  of  modulation,  in  stateliness  but  free- 
dom of  march,  it  stands  unapproached  by  any  other 
Roman  poet."  ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

About  30  B.C.  he  began  to  compose  a  great  nation;*, 
epic  poem,  which  he  had  long  meditated,  and  which  was 
designed  to  celebrate  the  origin  of  the  Roman  empirt. 
He  had  written  or  sketched  the  last  book  of  this  poem, 
the  "  .^neid,"  ("^neis,")  which  constitutes  a  perennial 
monument  of  his  genius,  when  he  departed  on  a  visit  to 
Athens  in  19  B.C.  He  intended  to  i-)ass  several  years  in 
Greece,  in  polishing  and  revising  the  "  /^Lneid,"  but  his 
health  failed.  During  the  homeward  voyage  he  died 
at  Brundusium,  in  September,  19  k.c.  According  to  his 
own  request,  he  was  buried  near  Naples.  There  is  a 
current  tradition  that  shortly  before  his  death  he  re- 
quested his  friends  to  burn  the  "  yEneid,"  which  he 
regarded  as  imperfect ;  but,  as  they  refused  to  comply, 
he  committed  the  publication  of  it  to  Tucca  and  Varius. 

Virgil  is  represented  as  a  person  of  tall  stature, 
swarthy  complexion,  and  delicate  constitution.  He  was 
generally  beloved  as  well  as  admired  by  his  contempo- 
raries. Among  his  virtues  modesty  was  conspicuous. 
Of  his  more  private  life  nothing  is  known.  It  does  not 
appear  that  he  was  ever  married.  He  had  two  brothers, 
who  died  before  him,  and  a  half-ljrother,  Valerius  Pro- 
culus.  The  "/Eneid"  has  ever  been  ranked  among  the 
poems  which  are  destined  to  immortality.  Nearly  nine- 
teen hundred  years  of  uninterrupted  popularity  attest 
the  broad  and  elevated  and  diversified  character  of  his 
poetical  merit.  In  comparison  with  Homer,  it  is  usual 
to  represent  Virgil  as  deficient  in  originality  and  sub- 
limit)'. Some  critics  also  depreciate  the  "  ^neid"as  an 
imitation  of  Homer's  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssev."  On  this 
subject  we  cannot,  perhaps,  do  better  than  to  quote  some 
remarks  of  Addison.  "One  great  genius  often  catches 
the  flame  from  another,  and  writes  in  his  spirit  without 
copying  servilely  after  him.  There  are  a  thousand 
shining  passages  in  Virgil  which  have  been  lighted  up 
by  Homer.  Virgil  falls  infinitely  short  of  Homer  in  the 
characters  of  his  poem,  both  as  to  their  variety  and 
novelty.  .-I'jieas  is  indeed  a  perfect  character,  .  .  .  and 
that  of  Dido  cannot  be  sufficiently  admired.  .  .  .  Virgil 
has  excelled  all  others  in  the  propriety  of  his  sentiments. 
Everything  is  just  and  natural.  His  sentiments  show 
that  he  had  a  perfect  insight  into  human  nature,  and 
that  he  knew  everj'thing  that  was  most  proper  to  affect 
it."  (Critique  on  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  in  the 
"Spectator.")  He  is  considered  by  good  judges  supe- 
rior to  all  ancient  poets  in  beauty  and  harmony  of 
versification.  Dante  admired  Virgil,  and  adopted  him 
as  his  model. 

Wordsworth  pronounced  Virgil  the  greatest  master 
of  language  that  ever  existed,  and  extolled  his  lofty  moral 
tone  and  frequent  strokes  of  tenderness  and  imagina- 
tion.    ("  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1853.) 

Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  "  /Eneid"  "  is 
the  most  beautiful  monument  which  remains  to  us  of  all 
antiquity." 

Commenting  on  J.  C.  Scaliger's  preference  of  Virgi' 
to  Homer,  Hallam  observes,  "  It  would  be  a  sort  of 
prejudice  almost  as  tasteless  as  that  of  Scaliger,  to  refuse 
the  praise  of  real  superiority  to  many  passages  of  Virgil, 
even  as  compared  with  the  '  Iliad,'  and  far  more  with 
the  'Odyssey.'  If  the  similes  of  the  older  poet  are 
more  picturesque  and  animated,  those  of  his  imitator 
are  more  appropriate  and  parallel  to  the  subject." 

The  best  or  most  popular  English  translation  of  Vir- 
gil is  that  of  Dryden,  which  has  a  high  reputation. 
Sotheby's  version  of  the  "  Georgics"  and  Pitt's  version 
of  the  "/Eneid"  are  highly  commended.  The  "Eclogues" 
and  "  Georgics"  w^ere  also  translated  into  verse  by  Jo- 
seph Warton.     "  We  may  congratulate  ourselves,"  says 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long,  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mhl;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VIRGIL 


2399 


VISCONTI 


the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1861,  "  on  the  posses 
sion  of  a  splendid  English  epic,  in  which  most  of  the 
thoughts  are  Virgil's  and  most  of  the  language  Dry- 
den's.  He  was  constantly  adding  to  the  original,  and 
that  in  the  most  wilful  and  reckless  manner.  There 
were  elements  in  his  nature  peculiarly  repugnant  to  the 
Virgilian  ideal.  ...  It  is  idle  to  discuss  who  has  come 
nearest  to  the  style  and  language  of  Virgil,  when  no  one 
has  come  within  any  appreciable  distance."  His  works 
became  school-books  before  the  end  of  the  Augustan 
age.  Virgil  composed,  says  Donatus,  his  own  epitaph, 
in  these  terms : 

"  Mantua  me  gennit,  Calabri  rapuere,  teuet  nunc 
Parthenope.  Cecini  pasciia,  rura,  ducesT"* 
See  Donatus,  "  P.  Virgilii  Maronis  Vita ;"  Lauter,  "  De  Vir- 
gilio  Imitatore  Homeri,"  I7q6:  TissoT,  "  fitudes  sur  Virgile,"  4 
vols.,  1825-30;  Sainte  IjEUVe,  "  Virgile,"  2  vols.,  1857;  Servius, 
"  Commentarius  ad  Virgiliiun  ;"  J.  \V.  Hergfr,  "  De  Virgilio  Ora- 
tore,"  1703:  O.  Arrhenius,  "  I'al  oni  P.  Virfciliiis  Maro,"  1841  ; 
Fabricius,  *' Ribliotheca  Latina ;"  Carl  G.  Krancke,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  P.  Virgilio  Marcme,"  etc.,  1776;  Bahr,  "Oeschiclite  der 
Romischen  Literatiir  ;"  Michael  Barth,  "  Vita  P.  Virgilii  Maronis 
Carmine  descripta,"  1676. 

Virgil,  (PoLYPORE.)     See  Vergil,  (Polvdore.) 

Virgile.    See  Virgil. 

Virgilio.     See  Virgil. 

Virgiliua.     See  Virgil. 

Virgilius,  (Polydorus.)     See  Vergil,  (Polydore.) 

Vir-gill-us,  Sai.n't,  a  native  of  Ireland,  became 
Bishop  of  Saltzburg,  (Juvavum,)  in  Austria.  He  is  said 
to  have  converted  many  Slavonians  and  Huns  to  Chris- 
tianity.   Died  about  782. 

Virgin,  v!r-geen',  ?  (Christian  Adolph,)  a  Swedish 
navigator,  bern  at  Gothenburg  in  1797.  He  performed 
a  voyage  round  the  globe  in  1851-53,  after  which  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.      Died  in  1S70. 

Vir-ginl-a,  fFr.  Virginie,  vfeR'zhe'ne',]  a  Roman 
maiden,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  tragical  fate,  was  a 
daughter  of  Lucius  Virginius,  an  officer  of  the  army.  She 
was  betrothed  to  L.  Icilius,  a  tribune  of  the  people, 
from  whom  the  decemvir  Appius  Claudius  wished  to 
ravish  her.  She  was  seized  by  M.  Claudius,  one  of  his 
agents,  who  pretended  that  she  was  his  slave,  and  who, 
in  order  to  prove  his  claim,  took  her  before  the  tribunal 
of  Appius  Claudius.  Virginius  arrived  at  the  forum 
just  after  the  decemvir  had  decided  that  she  was  the 
slave  of  Claudius.  He  immediately  killed  her,  to  deliver 
her  from  slavery  and  dishonour,  (449  B.C.)  The  people 
revolted  against  the  decemvirs,  and  dragged  Appius 
Claudius  to  prison,  where  he  killed  himself. 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. ; 
Macai;lav,  "  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome." 

Virginie.    See  Virginia. 

Virginius,  (Lucius.)     See  Virginia. 

Vir-gin'I-U3  Ro-ma'nus,  a  Latin  comic  poet  of  the 
Augustan  age,  had  a  high  reputation.  He  is  said  to 
have  contributed  to  improve  the  public  taste,  and  to 
have  merited  a  place  beside  Plautus  and  Terence.  His 
style  was  noble  and  elegant.     His  works  are  lost. 

Vir-gin'I-us  (or  Vergin'ius)  Ru'fus,  (Lucius,)  a 
Roman  general,  born  at  Como  in  14  a.d.,  was  consul  in 
the  year  63.  After  he  had  defeated  Vindex,  his  army 
proclaimed  him  as  emperor,  (69  a.d.,)  but  he  refused 
the  crown.  He  became  a  third  time  consul  in  97  a.d., 
as  an  associate  of  the  emperor  Nerva.  He  was  eulogized 
by  Tacitus  and  Pliny  the  Younger. 

Viriathe  or  Viriath.     See  Viriathus. 

Vl-ri'a-thus,  [Gr.  OvLpiadog;  Fr.  Viriathe,  ve're'tt'; 
Ger.  Viriath,  ve-re-it',]  a  brave  Lusitanian  chief,  who 
carried  on  for  many  years  a  successful  war  against  the 
Romans ;  but  he  was  at  length  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  consul,  L.  Servilius  Caepio,  by  whom  he  was  put 
to  death,  (140  is.c.) 

See  Becker,  "Viriath  und  die  Lusitanier,"  1S26. 

Virieu,  de,  deh  ve're-uh',  (FkANgois  Henri,)  Comte, 
H  French  officer,  borii~at  Grenoble  in  1754.  He  was 
elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  one  of 
the  members  of  the  noblesse  that  joined  the  Tiers-Etat. 


•  "  Mantua  bore  me,  Calabria  [next]  received  me,  Naples  now 
holds  me.  I  have  sung  of  pastures,  [or  shepherds,]  of  farms,  and 
of  leaders  in  war." 


He  was  a  royalist,  and  a  leader  of  the  insurgents  ot 
Lyons  who  revolted  against  the  Convention  in  May, 
1793.  He  was  killed  at  the  capture  of  Lyons,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1793. 

See  "  Notice  sur  )e  Comte  de  Virieu,"  1863. 

Virues,  de,  di  ve-roo-Ss',  ?  (Cristoval,)  a  Spanish 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Valencia  about  1550,  was 
the  author  of  five  tragedies,  an  epic  poem,  and  a  number 
of  lyrics.     Died  in  1610. 

Viscaino,  vfes-ki-ee'no,  (Sebastian,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  born  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  commanded  an  expedition  sent  from  Aca- 
pulco  in  1602,  and  explored  the  coast  of  California,  of 
which  he  made  an  accurate  chart. 

Vis-9eI-Ii'nus,  (Spurius  Cassius,)  a  Roman  general, 
distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  first  agrarian  law, 
was  consul  in  502  B.C.  He  defeated  the  Sabines,  was 
chosen  consul  again  in  493,  and  formed  an  important 
league  with  the  Latins.  Ilaving  become  consul  in  4S6, 
he  proposed  an  agrarian  law.  He  was  charged  with 
aspiring  to  royal  power,  and  was  put  to  death  in  485  B.C. 

Visch,  de,  deh  visK,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  monk 
and  biographer,  born  near  Furnes  about  1596;  died  in 
1666. 

Vischer,  (Cornelis.)     See  Visscher. 

Vischer,  fish'er,  (Friedrich  Theodor,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1807,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  TUbingen  in  1844.  He  published  "  /Es- 
thetics, or  the  Science  of  the  Beautiful."     Died  in  1887. 

Vischer,  (Peter,)  an  eminent  German  sculptor  and 
founder,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1460.  Among  his 
best  works  may  be  named  the  monument  of  the  Arch- 
bishop Ernst  at  Magdeburg  and  the  tomb  of  Saint  Se- 
bald  at  Nuremberg,  both  in  bronze.  The  latter  is  of 
rare  excellence.  Died  in  1530.  Vischer  had  five  sons 
who  were  sculptors,  and  Hermann,  the  eldest,  was 
esteemed  nearly  equal  to  him  in  genius.    Died  in  1540. 

Vischnou  or  Vischnu.     See  Vishnu. 

Visconti,  vfes-kon'tee,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
family  of  Lombardy,  which  acquired  sovereign  power 
at  Milan  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  founder  of  their 
grandeur  was  Oitone  Visconti,  who  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Milan  in  1262.  He  was  violently  opposed  by 
a  party  of  the  Milanese,  the  Torriani,  whom  he  defeated 
in  battle  in  1277.  He  died  in  1295.  His  nephew. 
Matteo  Visconti  the  Great,  born  in  1250,  wai 
chosen  in  1288  "captain  of  the  people"  for  five  years. 
He  obtained  sovereign  power,  and  waged  war  against 
the  Torriani,  who  drove  him  out  of  Milan  in  1302  ;  but 
he  was  restored  in  13 11.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
Ghibelines,  and  was  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Pope 
John  XXII.,  who  excommunicated  him  in  1322.  He 
died  in  the  same  year.  According  to  Sismondi,  "  he 
raised  himself  aljove  all  the  princes  of  his  time  by  his 
political  talents,"  etc.  His  son,  Galeazzo  I.,  born  in 
1277,  became  in  1322  lord  of  Milan,  which  was  then 
under  the  papal  interdict.  His  capital  was  attacked  in 
1323  by  an  army  of  crusaders,  who  were  incited  by  the 
pope.  "  He  was  aided  by  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  defeated 
the  crusaders  in  1324.  Died  in  132S.  Azzo  Visconti, 
born  in  1302,  was  a  son  of  Galeazzo,  and  became  sove- 
reign of  Milan  and  Lombardy  in  1329.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  able,  liberal,  and  just  prince.  He  was  the 
first  lord  of  Milan  who  coined  money  in  his  own  name. 
Died  in  1339,  without  issue.  LuccHiNO  (or  Luchino) 
Visconti,  an  uncle  of  Azzo  and  son  of  Matteo,  was  born 
in  12S7.  He  became  lord  of  Milan  in  1339,  and  eiilarged 
his  dominions  by  the  annexation  of  Parma,  Pavia,  and 
other  towns.  He  died  in  1349,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Giovanni,  who  was  born  in  1290.  He  had 
been  appointed  Archbishop  of  Milan  about  13 1 7.  He 
acquired  Bologna  by  purchase  in  1350,  and  died  in  1354. 
His  power  was  inherited  by  three  nephews,  Matteu, 
Galeazzo,  and  Barnabi,  the  first  of  whom  died  in  1355. 
Barnab6,  born  in  13 19,  became  master  of  Bergamo, 
Brescia,  Crema,  and  Cremona.  He  also  ruled  Milan 
jointly  with  Galeazzo.  He  was  notorious  for  his  cruelty 
and  audacity,  and  defied  the  power  of  the  pope,  who 
excommunicated  him.  Urban  V.  preached  a  crusade 
against  him,  and  united  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  with 
other  monarchs  in  a  league  against  him  about  1363. 


t  as  i;  9 as  s;  g  Aard;  g  asy',-  G,  H,  K,£iiff!a\i/;  N,  nasaf;  R,  tri:ied;  s  as  2 .  th  as  in  thif.     ( Q^^See  Fxplanations,  p.  23.) 


VISCONTI 


2400 


VISHNU 


Harnab6  resisted  them  with  success.  Died  m  13^5. 
Galeazzo  II.,  born  about  1320,  became  lord  of  Como, 
Pavia,  Novara,  Vercelli,  Asti,  and  Tortona,  in  1354.  He 
was  cruel  and  tyrannical.  He  died  in  1378,  leaving  a 
son,  GiA.N  Galeazzo,  the  first  Duke  of  Milan,  who  was 
born  in  1347.  He  was  ambitious  and  perfidious.  Hav- 
ing deposed  his  uncle  Barnab6  in  13S5,  he  obtained  his 
dominions.  By  force  or  fraud  he  made  himself  master 
of  Verona,  Vicenza,  Bologna,  and  Padua.  In  1395  he 
purchased  the  title  of  Duke  of  Milan  from  the  empe- 
ror. He  aspired  to  be  King  of  Italy,  when  he  died  in 
the  midst  of  his  victorious  career,  in  1402.  Giovanni 
Maria,  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  13S9, 
became  duke  in  1402.  He  was  feeble  and  depraved. 
During  his  reign  the  limits  of  the  duchy  were  greatly 
reduced.  He  was  assassinated  in  1412.  FiLirPO  Maria 
ViscoNTi,  born  in  1391,  was  a  brother  of  Giovanni 
Maria,  whom  he  succeeded.  His  army,  commanded 
by  the  famous  General  Carmagnola,  reconquered 
Lombardy.  He  was  cruel,  cowardly,  and  suspicious. 
He  put  to  death  his  own  wife.  About  1426  Venice, 
Florence,  and  Alfonzo  of  Aragon  formed  a  league 
against  him.  He  waged  war  for  many  years  against 
tliese  powers  and  the  pope  Eugene  IV.  He  died  in 
1447,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law,  Francesco 
Sforza. 

See   BoTTA,  "  Sioria  d'ltalia;"    Cant<;,  "Storia  universale; 
Vekri,  "  Storia  di  Milano;"  Volpi,   "  Dell'Istoria  de'  Visconti,"  a 
vols.,  1737-48;  SiCKEL,  "Die  Visconti  von  Milan,"  1859. 

Visconti,  (Ennio  Quiring,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Rome  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1751.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father,  who 
was  ])refect  of  antiquities  at  Rome.  He  displayed  such 
precocity  of  intellect,  that  he  translated  the  "Hecuba' 
of  Euripides  into  Italian  verse  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  whom  he  assisted  in 
editing  the  first,  he  edited  the  six  remaining  volumes 
of  the  "  Museo  Pio-Clementino,"  (1807.)  He  had  been 
appointed  in  1787  conservator  of  the  Capitoline  Mu- 
seum. On  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  the  French,  in 
1798,  Visconti  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  provisional 
government,  and  soon  after  became  one  of  the  five  con- 
suls of  the  republic.  Having  removed  to  France,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  archjeology  and  overseer  of 
the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  published,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Napoleon,  a  series  of  portraits  of  the  eminent 
men  of  Greece  and  Rome,  entitled  "  Iconographie 
Grecque"  (3  vols.  4to,  1808)  and  "Iconographie  Ro- 
maine,"  (3  vols.,  1818.)  Besides  tnis  magnificent  work, 
he  wrote  a  description  of  the  monuments  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Gabii,  and  various  other  treatises  on  ancient 
art.     Died  in  1818. 

See  QiTATREMftRE  DB  QuiNCV,  "  Notice  surlaVieetlesOuvrages 
de  Visconti,"  1818  :  Giovanni  Labus,  "  Notizie  biografiche  intomo 
la  Vita  di  E.  Q.  Visconti,"  1818;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani 
illustri ;"  Dacier,  "  Jlloge  d'E.  Q.  Visconti;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
t^iie  Gendrale." 

Visconti,  (Filippo  Aurelio,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, became  superintendent  of  the  antiquities  of 
Rome  after  the  death  of  his  father.  He  published  several 
antiquarian  treatises,  and  edited  the  "Museo  Chiara- 
monti,"  a  sequel  to  the  "Museo  Pio-Clementino."  Died 
in  1830. 

Visconti,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan 
in  1461,  became  a  senator.  He  published  "Rhymes," 
{"  Rithmi,"  1493,)  '^"'J  ^  "  Boem  on  the  Lovers  Paul  and 
Daria,"  ("  Poenia  di  Paolo  e  Daria  Amanti,"  1495.) 
Died  in  1499. 

Visconti,  (Giovanni  Battista  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian antiquary,  the  father  of  Ennio  Quirino,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Vernazza  in  1722.  He  became  pre- 
fect of  antiquities  at  Rome  in  1768,  and  was  employed 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  to  form  a  collection  of  ancient 
marbles,  which  is  called  "Museo  Pio-Clementino." 
Died  in  1784. 

See  "  Biografia  di  G.  B.  Visconti,"  Rome. 

Visconti,  (Louis  Tullius  Joachim,)  an  architect, 
a  son  of  Ennio  Quirino,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1797, 
and  studied  architecture  in  Paris  under  Percier.  He  was 
appointed  in  1S25  architect  of  the  Bibliotheque  Royale. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  tomb  of  Napoleon  I., 


the  monuments  of  Marshals  Souk  and  Suchet,  and  the 
completion  of  the  Louvre  and  its  junction  with  the 
Puileries.  The  last,  which  was  finished  in  1857,  is  a 
grand  and  admirable  structure.     Died  in  1853. 

Visconti,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian  commander,  was 
a  son  of  Matteo  the  Great,  (mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
notice  of  the  Visconti  family,)  and  a  leader  of  the  Ghibe- 
lines.  He  commanded  the  forces  of  his  brother  Gale- 
azzo I.  when  Milan  was  attacked  by  an  army  of  crusaders, 
whom  he  defeated  in  1322.  He  was  assassinated,  by 
order  of  his  nephew  Azzo,  in  1329. 

Visdelou,  de,  deh  ve'deh-loo'  or  vid'loo',  (Claude,) 
a  learned  French  missionary,  born  in  Brittany  in  1656. 
He  was  one  of  the  Jesuits  sent  to  China  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  1685.  Pie  laboured  about  twenty  years  in  China, 
received  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Claudiopolis  in  1708, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  Chinese  history,  etc  Died 
at  Pondicherry  in  1737. 

Vise  or  Vize.     See  Donneau. 

Vishnu,  vish'noo,  written  in  French  Vichnou  or 
Vischnou,  and  in  German  Wischnu  or  Vischnu, 
sometimes  improperly  spelled  in  English  Veeshnoo,* 
i.e.  the  "  Pervader,"  [from  the  Sanscrit  vish,  to  "enter" 
or  "pervade,"]  the  name  of  the  preserving  deity,  ono 
of  the  great  gods  of  the  Hindoo  Triad.t  The  Vaishna- 
vas,  (pronounced  vish'na-vaz,)  or  especial  worshippers 
of  Vishnu,  claim  that  Brahma  (or  the  Self-Existent) 
sprung  from  Vishnu  in  his  character  of  Narayana,  (or 
the  priineval  spirit  which  moved  upon  the  waters, — see 
Narayana  :)  thus  they  exalt  Vishnu  above  the  Creator 
(Brahma)  and  the  Destroyer,  (Siva.)  The  Saivas,  or 
worshippers  of  Siva,  on  the  other  hand,  place  their 
favourite  deity  far  above  Vishnu  or  Brahma,  (see  SiVA,) 
calling  him  Alahadeva,  or  the  "Great  God." 

The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  the  preserving  deity 
are  his  numerous  avatars,  alluding  to  which  Southey 
says, — 

"When  .  .  .  tyrants  in  theii  might 
Usurped  dominion  o'er  the  earth, 
[Then]  Veeshnoo  took  a  human  birth. 
Deliverer  of  the  sons  of  men." 

Curse  0/  Kekatnn,  vol.  1.,  x. 
On  these  occasions  his  parents  were  usually  Kasyapa 
and  Diti.l 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  avatars  of  Vishnu  : 
I.  Matsya,  or  the  Fish  ;  2.  Kiirma,  the  Tortoise ;  3. 
Varfiha,  the  Boar;  4.  Narasingha,  the  Man-Lion;  5. 
Vamana,  the  Dwarf;  6.  Parasu-Rama;  7.  Rama-Chan- 
dra; 8.  Krishna;  9.  Buddha,  (Booddha ;)  10.  Kalki,  or 
the  Horse.  For  an  explanation  of  these,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  their  respective  heads.  Vishnu,  as  his  name 
implies,  represents  Spirit,  while  in  the  same  general 
relation  Brahma  represents  Matter,  and  Siva,  Time. 
Again,  as  the  Earth  is  the  type  or  symbol  of  Brahma, 
and  Fire  of  Siva,  so  Water  is  the  symbol  of  Vishnu. 
The  reason  is  sufficiently  obvious :  in  a  country  like 
India,  where  everything  is  exposed  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  year  to  a  burning  sun, — one  of  the  many  forms 
of  Siva, — it  is  the  water,  coming  in  the  periodical  rains, 
which  alone  saves  the  plants  and  animals  (whose  life  is 
dependent  upon  that  of  plants)  from  utter  destruction. 
As  a  personification  of  water,  (or  the  sea,)  Vishnu  is  in 
pictures  usually  represented  of  a  dark-blue  colour.  The 
air,  as  the  symbol  of  spirit,  and  perhaps,  also,  as  the 
vehicle  of  the  preserving  rains,  is  considered  to  belong 
peculiarly  to  Vishnu.  The  sun  likewise,  though  com- 
monly regarded  as  a  type  of  Siva,  is  one  of  the  many 
representations  of  Vishnu.     For  if  cold  is  one  of  the 


•  Improperly,  because  the  ee  in  the  first  syllable  does  not  represent 
correctly  the  pronunciation.    (See  Preface,  p.  vi.) 

t  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  tliat  the  Hindoo  Triad  (unlike  the 
Trinity  of  the  Western  nations)  is  not  considered  to  constitute  the 
godhead  of  the  infinite  eternal  Bein.2  ;  for  none  of  the  gods  of  the 
Triad  is  supposed  to  be  eternal  in  the  strictest  sense.  They  are,  in 
fact,  personifications  of  the  powers  of  nature.  They  had  a  beginning, 
and  they  will  come  to  an  end.  Brahm,  of  whom  they  are  but  tem- 
porary emanations,  is  the  only  eternal  Being  in  the  Brahmanical 
SYStem  of  theology. 

t  In  the  celebrated  drama  of  "  SakoonfalS"  (translated  by  Pro- 
fessor Williams,  of  Oxford)  the  following  passage  occurs: 
"That  immortal  pair 
Whom  Vishnu,  greater  than  the  Self-Existent, 
Chose  for  his  parents,  when,  to  save  mankind. 
He  took  upon  himself  the  shape  of  mortals." — Act  viL 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  ^, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fiLll,  f4t;  x\\l\;  nSt;  good;  moon ; 


VISIN 


2401 


VITRE 


numerous  forms  of  Siva,  (the  Destroyer,)  the  warmth 
of  the  sun  may  very  naturally,  in  a  temperate  climate, 
or  in  winter,  be  considered  as  a  manifestation  of  the 
preserving  Power. 

Among  the  possessions  peculiar  to  Vishnu  are  the 
Chakra,  (called  by  the  modern  Hindoos  chuk'ra  or 
chiik'ur,)  a  sort  of  wheel  or  discus,  with  a  hole  in  the 
centre,  which  the  god  hurled  at  his  foes,  and  the  Shankh 
or  Chank,  (modern  pron.  shiinkh,*)  a  kind  of  shell,  having 
allusion,  doubtless,  to  the  sea  as  personified  in  Vishnu. 

Vishnu,  like  Siva,  is  said  to  have  had  a  thousand 
different  names,  among  which  we  may  mention  that  of 
Trivikrama,  or  "three-step-taker,"  (see  Vamana,)  and 
Ilari,  (or  Heri,)  ».^.  "Green,"  in  allusion,  in  all  prob- 
ability, to  the  colour  of  the  sea,  (the  type  of  Vishnu ;) 
so  Krishna,  the  name  of  that  one  of  the  avatars  which 
is  regarded  as  Vishnu  himself,  signifies  "dark  blue," 
and  it  was  doubtless  applied  to  him  for  the  same  reason, 
the  colour  of  the  sea  varying  with  varying  circumstances 
from  green  to  a  deep  blue. 

The  preserving  deity  is  usually  represented  with  four 
arms.  He  is  pictured  in  various  positions,  some- 
times as  Narayana  reclining  on  Sesha, — a  thousand- 
headed  serpent, — meditating  on  the  universe  to  which 
he  is  about  to  give  being ;  from  his  navel  proceeds  a 
lotus,  in  the  opening  flower  of  which  Brahma,  known  by 
his  four  heads,  is  seen  sitting ;  while  Lakshmi  (Nara- 
yani)  sits  reverently  at  the  feet  of  her  lord.  At  other 
times  he  is  represented  as  standing  with  the  Shankh  and 
Chakra  in  his  hands.  Sometimes  he  is  pictured  sitting 
with  Lakshmi  by  his  side,  and  holding  a  bow  and  mace, 
as  he  rides  on  his  Vahan  Garuda,  (which  see.)  The 
Shankh  and  Chakra  are  his  usual  insignia,  whether 
he  is  represented  in  his  own  proper  person  or  in  the 
characters  of  his  various  avatars. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon ;"  Guigniaut,_  "  Religions  de 
I'Antiquite,"  vol.  i.,  book  i.  chap.  iii. ;  "  Biographie  Universelle," 
(Partie  mythologique ;)  Coleman,  "Mythology  of  the  Hindus." 

Visin.     See  ViziN. 

Visinet,  ve'ze'ni',  (Auguste  Theodore,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  edited  the  "Jour- 
nal de  Rouen"  from  1828  to  1848.     Died  in  1857. 

Visscher  or  Vischer,  vis'Ker,  (Anne  Roemer — 
roo'mer,)  a  Dutch  poetess  and  artist,  born  in  1587,  was 
a  daughter  of  Roemer,  noticed  below.     Died  in  1651. 

Her  sister,  Maria  Tesselschade,  (tes'sel-sKi'deh,) 
born  in  1597,  was  also  a  poetess.  Her  talents  and  beauty 
were  highly  extolled  by  the  historian  Hooft.  Died  in 
1649. 

See  ScHKLTF.MA,  "Anna  en  Maria  Tesselschade  Visscher,"  1809; 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  March,  1854. 

Visscher  or  Vischer,  (Cornelis,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
engraver,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Sout- 
man.  He  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  his  own 
designs,  as  well  as  from  other  artists.  His  works  are 
ranked  among  the  finest  specimens  of  the  art,  and  com- 
mand enormous  prices.  He  engraved  many  admirable 
portraits,  among  which  is  that  of  A.  D.  Winius,  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  1660  to  1670. 

Visscher,  (Jan,)  a  skilful  Dutch  engraver,  born  in 
1636,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  engraved 
after  Berghem  and  Ostade.     Died  after  1692. 

Visscher,  (Roemer  or  Romerus,)  a  poet,  styled  "  the 
Dutch  Martial,"  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1547,  published 
a  book  of  emblems,  entitled  "Zinnepoppen,"  (1614,)  and 
a  collection  of  Epigrams.     Died  in  1620. 

Viswacarma    or    Viswacarman.      See    Viswa- 

KARM.\. 

Vis-wakarma  or  Vlshwakarma,  [modern  Hindoo 
pron.  vis'wa-kur'ma ;  from  the  Sanscrit  vls/twd,  "  all," 
and  karnid,  "  work,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name 
of  the  Artificer  of  the  Universe,  corresponding  in  some 
respects  to  the  Vulcan  of  classic  mythology.  He  was 
married  to  Prithu,  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  which  he  is 
supposed  to  have  moulded  into  its  present  shape. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Viswamltra,  v!s-wS'nu-tra,  or  Vish-wamitra,  [from 
the  Sanscrit  vishwd,  "  all,"  and  mltrd,  a  "  friend,"  called 


f  Etymologically  related  to  the  Greek  icoyxi.  (Latin,  concha,) 
havirj;  the  same  signification. 


"  the  friend  of  all,"  perhaps  on  account  of  his  being  the 
counsellor  and  friend  of  Rama,  who  was  the  general 
friend  of  mankind,)  a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage,  who, 
though  originally  a  Kshatriya,  became,  by  long  and 
painful  austerities,  a  Brahman,  or  rather  a  Brahmarshi, 
(/.if,  '^ Brakman-rishi"  or  "Brahman  saint")  one  of  a 
particular  class  of  rishis,  in  which  character  he  was  the 
preceptor  and  counsellor  of  Rama. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit-and- Eng- 
lish Dictionary." 

Vital,  (Orderic.)     See  Ordericus  Vitalis. 

Vital  de  Blois,  ve'ttl'  deh  blwi,  [Lat.  Vita'lis 
Ble'sius,]  a  Latin  poet  of  the  twelfth  century,  com- 
posed in  1 186  a  poem,  "  De  Querulo,"  which  was  printed 
in  1830. 

Vi-ta-le-a'nus,  [Fr.  Vitalien,  ve'tt'le-^N',]  Pope  of 
Rome,  succeeded  Eugenius  I.  in  657  a.d.  He  died  in  672 
A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Deodatus  XL 

Vitalis.     See  Sjoberg. 

Vitalis  Ordericus.    See  Ordericus  Vitalis. 

Vite,  della,  del'lS  vee'ti,  (Timoteo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Urbino  about  1470.  He  worked  with 
Raphael  at  Rome.     Died  about  1524. 

Vitelli,  ve-tgl'lee,  (Ciapino,  chi-pee'no,)  an  Italian 
general,  born  at  Citta  di  Castello  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  entered  the  service  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
and  was  employed  under  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  the  Low 
Countries.     Died  in  1576. 

See  MoTLKY,  "  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Vitelli  or  Vl-tel'll-us,  (Cornelio,)  an  Italian  teacher 
o)  Greek,  came  to  Oxford  about  1488,  in  order,  as  Hal- 
lam  says,  "  to  give  that  most  barbarous  university  some 
notion  of  what  was  going  forward  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Alps."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
He  returned  to  Paris  in  1489. 

Vi-tel'll-us,  (AULUS,)  Emperor  of  Rome,  born  about 
15  A.D.  He  was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Caligula, 
Claudius,  and  Nero,  and  was  appointed  by  Galba  to 
command  the  German  legions.  lie  was  soon  after  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  his  army,  and,  Galba  having  been 
put  to  death  by  the  partisans  of  Otho,  the  empire  was 
now  disputed  between  the  latter  and  Vitellius.  Otho 
was  defeated,  and  Vitellius  recognized  as  emperor  ;  but, 
Vespasian  having  been  meanwhile  proclaimed  at  Alex- 
andria, his  general  Antonius  Primus  marched  against 
Rome,  subdued  the  adherents  of  Vitellius,  and  put  him 
to  death,  (69  a.d.) 

See  SuKTONius,  "  Vitellius  ;"  Tacitus,  "  History ;"  Tillkmont, 
"  Histoire  des  Kmpereurs  ;"  Franz  Horn,  "Historische  Gemalde: 
Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,"  1812. 

Vitellius,  (C0RNEI.10.)     See  Vitelll 

Vitello,  ve-tel'lo,  or  Vitellio,  ve-tel'le-o,  a  Polish 
mathematician  and  philosopher  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, was  the  author  of  several  works,  the  principal  of 
which  is  a  treatise  on  optics  and  geometry,  entitled 
"Vitellionis  Perspectiva:  Libri  decem." 

Vitet,  ve'ti',  (LuDOVic,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was  appointed 
in  1830  inspector-general  of  French  antiquities,  and  in 
1834  represented  the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure  in 
the  Chatnber  of  Deputies.  He  published  historical  and 
dramatical  sketches,  entitled  "  Les  Barricades,"  (1S26,) 
"Les  Etats  de  Blois,"  (1827,)  and  "La  Mort  de  Henri 
III.,"  (1829,)  also  an  essay  on  "  Eustache  Le  Sueur,  his 
Life  and  his  Works,"  (1843.)  ^^  ^^^^  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1845.     Died  June  5,  1873. 

Vithalnathji,  vee-thal-n3.th'jee,  a  Hindoo  religionist, 
a  son  of  Vallabha,  (q.  v.,)  was  born  at  Parnat  in  1516, 
and  died  in  1583.  lie  left  seven  sons,  all  famous  goo- 
roos,  or  teachers,  of  the  Vishnuvite  religion.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  family  founded  the  so-called  Maharajah  sect, 
notorious  for  the  scandalous  teachings  and  conduct  of  its 
priests. 

Vitl-^ei  became  King  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  536  A.i». 
He  fought  in  Italy  against  Belisarius,  who  took  him 
prisoner  in  539  and  carried  him  to  Constantinople.  He 
died  about  three  years  later. 

Vitikind.     See  Witikind. 

Vitiza.     See  Witiza. 

Vitre,  ve'tRi',  (Antoine,)  a  French  printer,  born  in 
Paris  about  1595.     He  was  appointed  director  of  the 


€  as  j^/  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

»5i 


(23^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VITRINGA 


2402 


VIVIEN 


royal  printing-office  by  Colbert.  Among  the  works  which 
he  printed  was  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Le  Jay,  (10  vols., 
1628-45,)  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  the  characters. 
Died  in  1674. 

See  Aug.  Bernard,  "A.  Vitrd  et  les  Caractires  Orientaux," 
:tc.,  1850. 

Vitringa,  ve-tRing'gi  or  ve-tRing'nJ,  (Campegius,) 

a  learned  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in 
1659,  became  successively  professor  of  Oriental  litera- 
ture, theology,  and  sacred  history  at  Franeker.  He 
was  the  author  of  Latin  commentaries  on  various  books 
of  the  Scriptures,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  The 
Commentary  on  Isaiah  ranks  among  the  best  works  of 
the  kind.     Died  in  1722. 

Vitringa,  (Campegius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Franeker  in  1693.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Franeker  in  17 16,  and  had  a  high  reputation. 
He  wrote  several  theological  treatises.     Died  in  1723. 

VitroUes,  de,  deh  ve'tRol',  (Eugene  Franqois 
AuGUSTE  d'Arnaud — dti^'no',)  Baron,  a  French  poli- 
tician, born  near  Aix  in  1774.  He  was  a  royalist,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  intrigues  which  preceded  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  18 14.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  January,  1830.     Died  in  1854. 

Vitruve.     See  Vitruvius. 

Vitruvio.     See  Vitruvius. 

Vl-tru'vl-us,  [Fr.  Vitruve,  ve'tRiiv';  It.  Vitruvio, 
ve-tRoo've-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Mar'cus  Vi-tru'vi-us 
Pol'll-O,  a  celebrated  Roman  architect  and  writer,  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  served  as  a  military  engineer 
in  his  youth,  and  was  employed  under  Julius  Caesar  in 
Africa  in  46  B.C.  He  designed  a  basilica  or  temple  at 
Fanum.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  he  was  inspector  of 
military  engines.  He  wrote  in  old  age  a  work  on  archi- 
tecture, in  ten  books,  ("De  Architectura,")  which  is 
highly  esteemed  as  a  text-book,  and  is  the  only  ancient 
treatise  on  the  subject  that  has  come  down  to  us.  His 
work  has  been  translated  into  English  by  R.  Castell, 
(1730,)  and  by  W.  Newton,  (1771-91.) 

See  B.  Balde,  "  Vita  Vitruvii,"  1612;  Poleni,  "  Exercitationes 
Vitruviana;,"  1739-41;  QuATKKMfeRE  de  Quincv,  "  Dictionnaire 
des  Arcliitec'es  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vitry.     See  James  de  Vitry. 

Vitry,  de,  deh  ve'tRe',  (Edouard,)  a  French  philolo- 
gist and  numismatist,  born  about  1670.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  dissertations.     He  visited  Rome  in  1724. 

Vitry,  de,  (Louis  de  THospital — deh  lo'pe'tiK,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general,  was  a  partisan  of  the  League 
after  the  death  of  Henry  HI.     Died  in  161 1. 

Vitry,  de,  (Nicolas  de  l'IIospital,)  Marquis,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1581.  He  was  one  of 
those  who  assassinated  Concini  in  161 7,  and  was  re- 
warded for  that  act  with  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France. 
Died  in  1644. 

Vittorelli,  vfet-to-reKIee,  or  Vettorelli,  v?t-to-rel']ee, 
(Andrea,)  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  born  at  Bassano 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  as  a  writer.     Died  after  1632. 

Vittoria  Colonna.     See  Colonna. 

Vittorino  da  Feltre,  vit-to-ree'no  da  fSl'tRi,  [Fr. 
Victorin  de  Feltre,  vik'to'riN'  deh  fiJtK,]  a  cele- 
brated Italian  teacher,  born  at  Feltre  in  1379,  became 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  Padua.  He 
afterwards  presided  over  a  school  at  Mantua,  where  he 
numbered  among  his  pupils  George  of  Trebizond,  Theo- 
dore Gaza,  and  other  eminent  men.  His  system  of 
education,  which  included  gymnastics,  is  highly  com- 
mended by  contemporary  writers.     Died  in  1447. 

See  Racheli,  "  Intomo  a  Vittorino  da  Feltre,"  1832;  BenoJt, 
"Victorin  de  Feltre,"  1853  ;  Carlo  de  Rosmini,  "  Idea  deU'ottimo 
Precettore  nella  Vita  di  Vittorino  da  Feltre,"  1801. 

Vittorio  Amedeo.    See  Victor  Amadeus. 

Vi'tus,  [Fr.  Gui,  ge ;  Eng.  Guv,  gi ;  Lat  Gui'do  ; 
Ger.  Veit,  fit,]  Saint,  a  Sicilian  child-martyr  of  the  early 
part  of  the  fourth  century.  His  parents  were  heathens, 
but  he  was  instructed  in  Christianity  by  his  nurse  Cres- 
cenlia  and  her  husband  Modestus.  His  father,  Hylas, 
having  given  him  up  to  the  magistrate  for  punishment  as  a 
Christian,  he  escaped  with  his  nurse  and  her  husband  to 
Lucania,  but  while  there  was  put  to  death  under  Dio- 
cletian.   He,  with  Crescentia  and  Modestus,  is  honoured 


on  June  15  in  the  Latin  Church.  This  saint  was  believea 
to  grant  relief  to  his  devotees  from  the  dancing  malady, 
or  tarantism,  of  the  middle  ages:  hence  our  term  "  Saint 
Vitus's  dance." 

Vivaldi,  ve-vSl'dee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  composer 
and  eminent  violinist,  born  at  Venice  in  the  seventeenth 
century;  died  in  1743. 

Vivant,  vc'vSn',  (FRANq:ois,)  a  French  priest,  born 
in  Paris  in  1663,  became  canon  of  Notre-Dame  at  Paris, 
grand  vicar,  and  grand  chorister  or  precentor,  in  1730. 
lie  wrote  several  works  on  theology.     Died  in  1739. 

Vivares,  ve'vtR',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  near  Montpellier  in  1712.  He  studied  landscape- 
engraving  in  England,  and  executed  a  number  of  prints, 
after  Claude  Lorrain,  which  are  esteemed  master-pieces 
of  the  kind.     Died  in  1782. 

Vivarini,  ve-vd-ree'nee,(ANTONio,)an  Italian  painter, 
of  Murano,  near  Venice.  He  was  a  brother  of  Barto- 
lommeo,  and  worked  about  1450.  His  works  are  richly 
coloured. 

Vivarini,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  Venetian  painter  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  one  of  the  first  artists  in  Venice 
who  employed  oil-colours. 

Vivarini,  (Luigi,)  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
attained  a  high  re]5iitation  as  a  painter.  There  are  several 
of  his  works  in  the  Venetian  Academy.  He  worked  as 
late  as  1490. 

Vivens,  de,  deh  vc'vSn',  (pRANgois,)  a  French  sa- 
vant and  writer,  born  near  Clairac  in  1697.  He  wrote 
on  agriculture,  physics,  etc.     Died  in  1780. 

Vive.s,  vee'vSs,  (John  Louis,)  [called  in  Latin  LuDO- 
Vl'cus  Vi'vus,]  a  .Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Valencia  in 
1492.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  where 
he  afterwards  became  professor  of  the  Latin  language. 
He  was  suljsequently  invited  to  England  by  Henry  VIII., 
who  appointed  him  tutor  to  the  princess  Alary.  Having 
opposed  the  divorce  of  Catherine  of  Aragon,  he  was 
imprisoned  several  months,  and  on  his  release  settled  at 
Bruges,  in  the  Netherlands.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Erasmus  and  Budoeus,  and  the  three  have  been  called 
a  triumvirate  in  the  republic  of  letters,  equally  eminent 
for  talents  and  learning.  Among  the  principal  works  of 
Vives  are  Latin  treatises  "  On  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Faith,"  "On  the  Soul  and  Life,"  and  "On  the  Causes 
of  the  Arts  being  Corrupted,"  ("  De  Causis  Corrupta- 
rum  Artium.')     Died  in  1540. 

Soe  Bosch-Kemper,  "J.  L.  Vives  Reschetst  als  christelijk  Phi- 
lantroop,"  i.Sji  ;  Nameche,  "Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de 
J.  L.  Vives  ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova  ;"  Nic^ron, 
"Memoires:"  DuPiN,  "  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques;"  "  Xouvelle  Bio- 
gr.iphie  Generale." 

Viv'i-an,  (Richard   Hussey   Vivian,)    Lord,  an 

English  general,  bnrn  in  1775.  He  served  under  Moore 
at  Corunna  in  1S08,  became  a  colonel  in  1812,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Peninsular  war  in  1813.  With 
the  rank  of  major-general,  he  commanded  a  brigade  of 
cavalry  at  Waterloo.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1841.     Died  in  1842. 

Viviani,  ve-ve-i'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
mathematician  and  engineer,  born  at  Florence  in  April, 
1622.  He  was  a  pujjil  of  Galileo,  after  whose  death 
(1642)  he  studied  under  Torricelli.  About  1662  he  was 
appointed  chief  engineer  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany. He  acquired  a  wide  reputation  by  his  attempt  to 
restore  the  fifth  book  of  ApoUonius  on  Conic  Sections,  in 
his  "Geometrical  Conjectures  concerning  Maximums 
and  Minimums,"  ("  De  Maxiniis  et  Minimis  geometrica 
Divinatio,"  1659.)  In  1674  he  published  "The  Fifth 
Book  of  the  Elements  of  Euclid,  or  the  Universal  Sci- 
ence of  Proportion  explained  according  to  the  Doctrine 
of  Galileo."     Died  at  Florence  in  1703. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vita»  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  L; 
Fontenei.le,  "  filoge  de  Viviani ;"  NicSron,  "  Memoires  ;"  Tira- 
BosCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vivien,  ve'vg-i.N',  (Alexandre  Fran<;ois  Auguste,) 
an  able  French  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1799. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from 
1S33  to  1848,  and  was  minister  of  justice  from  March  to 
October,  1840.  In  1845  he  published  "  Administrative 
Studies,"  which  procured  his  admission  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.     Died  in  1854. 


a,  e,  T.  6,  u,  y,  lon<:;:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;^.,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VIVIEN 


2403 


VOGEL 


Vivien,  (Joseph,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1657.  He  painted  mostly  in  pastel,  (crayon,) 
and  gained  a  high  reputation.  He  received  the  title  of 
first  painter  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  at  whose  court 
he  worked  many  years.     Died  at  Bonn  in  1735. 

Vivien  de  Saint-Martin,  ve've^A^N'  deh  s4n  mlR'- 
tiw',  (Louis,)  a  French  geographer  and  historian,  born 
at  Saint-Martin-de-Fontenay,  May  17,  1S02.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  several  works  of  geography,  a  "  History 
of  the  French  Revolution,"  (4  vols.,  1841,)  a  "History 
of  the  Geographical  Discoveries  of  European  Nations," 
(2  or  3  vols.,  1845-46,)  and  a  "  New  Dictionary  of  Geog- 
raphy," {i8jg  e(  seg.) 

Vivonne,  ve'von',  (Louis  Victor  de  Rochechou- 
art — deh  rosh'shoo'iR',)  Due  de  Montemart  et  de  Vi- 
vonne, a  French  general  and  courtier,  born  in  1636, 
was  a  brother  of  Madame  de  Montespan.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1675  Viceroy  of  Sicily,  which  was  then  the 
seat  of  war  between  the  French  and  Spaniards.  He 
gained  a  decisive  naval  victory  near  Palermo  in  1676. 
Died  in  1688. 

See  CoMTK  DE  RocHECHOUART,  "  Hlstoire  de  la  Maison  de  Roche 
thouart,"  1859  ;  Saint-Simon,  "  M^moires;"  Dangeau,  "Journal." 

ViySsa.     See  Vyasa. 

Vizin,  von,  fon  or  von  vee'zin.  written  also  Visin, 
and  "Wisin,  (and  sometimes  Von-Vezin,)  (Denis 
IVANOVITCH,)  a  celebrated  Russian  dramatist,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1745,  was  the  author  of  comedies  entitled 
"The  Brigadier"  and  "The  Spoiled  Youth,"  which 
obtained  great  popularity.  He  also  translated  Voltaire's 
"  Alzire,"  and  made  other  versions  from  the  French  and 
German.     Died  in  1792. 

Vizzani,  vfet-si'nee,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1540.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Bologna,"  (1596.)     Died  in  1607, 

Vlaccus.    See  Vlacq. 

Vlacq,  viak,  [Lat.  Vlac'cus,]  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch 
mathematician  and  printer,  flourished  about  1620-40. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  computation  of  loga- 
rithms, and  published  "Tables  of  Sines,  Tangents, 
Logarithms,"  etc. 

Vladimir  or  Wladimir,  vlid'e-meer,  [Polish  and 
Russian  pron.  vli-dee'mir,]  surnamed  the  Great,  Grand 
Duke  of  Russia,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Svatoslaf, 
who,  on  dividing  his  dominions,  gave  him  Novgorod 
for  his  share,  about  972.  He  afterwards  made  war  on 
his  brother  Yaropolk,  whom  he  defeated  and  put  to 
death,  thus  becoming  sole  monarch  of  the  empire.  He 
was  a  warlike  and  powerful  prince,  and  the  first  Chris- 
tian sovereign  of  Russia.  In  988  he  demanded  in  mar- 
riage the  Greek  princess  Anna,  (a  sister  of  the  emperors 
Basil  and  Constantine,)  and  sent  an  army  to  the  Crimea 
to  support  his  demand.  He  obtained  the  princess,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  adopted  the  religion  of  the  Greek 
Church,  which  he  established  in  Russia.  He  zealously 
opposed  idolatry,  and  built  churches  and  schools.  Died 
in  1015. 

See  Karamzin,  "  History  of  Russia." 

Vlad'imir  or  "Wladimir,  (Andreiowitch,)  a  brave 
Russian  prince,  was  a  nephew  of  Ivan  II.  At  the  death 
of  Ivan,  in  1364,  he  might  have  succeeded,  but  he  yielded 
the  throne  to  Dmitri.  He  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Tartars  at  Koolikof  (Kulikow)  in  1380.    Died  in  1410. 

Vladimir  Mo-nom'a-ehos,  [Fr.  Vladimir  Mono- 
MAQUE,  flt'de'm^R'  mo'no'mtk',]  a  celebrated  monarch 
of  Russia,  born  about  1052,  was  a  great-grandson  of 
Vladimir  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  at  Kief  about 
I II 2.  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Harold,  King  of 
England.  He  was  renowned  for  his  martial  exploits  and 
his  wisdom  and  goodness.  His  reign  was  very  pros- 
perous.    Died  in  1 1 26. 

See  Karamzin,  "  Histoiy  of  Russia." 

Vladislas  of  Hungary.     See  Ladtslaus. 

Vlad'is-laus,  written  also  Vladislas  and  Ladislas 
or  Ladislaus,  [Polish,  Wladislaw,  vli'de-slJf,|  L,  King 
of  Poland,  born  about  1044,  succeeded  his  brother  Bo- 
leslaus  in  1082.     Died  in  1 102  or  1 103. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  IL  was  a  son  of  Boleslaw 
or  Boleslaus  III.  He  began  to  reign  in  1139,  and  was 
deposed  by  the  Diet  in  1146.     Died  about  1 162. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  IIL  or  IV.,  King  of  Po- 


land, began  to  reign  in  1296,  was  deposed  in  1300,  and 
restored  in  1305.  He  defeated  the  Teutonic  knights.  He 
died  in  1333,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Casimir  the 
Great. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  IV.  or  V.,  King  of  Po- 
land, was  Jagellon,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania.  He 
obtained  the  crown  of  Poland  in  1386  by  marriage  with 
Hedwig,  the  heiress  of  the  former  king.  At  the  same 
time  he  renounced  j^aganism  and  joined  the  Catholic 
Church.  He  waged  war  against  the  Teutonic  knights. 
Died  in  1434. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  V.  or  VI.,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1423,  or,  as  some  say,  1400. 
He  was  a  famous  warrior,  and  became  King  of  Hungary. 
(See  Ladislas  IV.  or  V.) 

Vladislav.     See  Vladislaus. 

Vlaniiug,  vli'ming,  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1686.  He  produced  a  poetical  version 
of  Sannazaro's  "  Arcadia,"  and  some  original  poems. 
Died  in  1733. 

Vlerick,  vla'rik,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Courtrai  in  1539.  He  studied  under  Tintoretto  in 
Venice,  and  worked  at  Rome.  In  1569  he  settled  at 
Tournay,     Died  in  1581. 

Vliet,  van,  vSn  vleet,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
history,  landscajjes,  and  portraits,  lived  about  1650-1700. 

Vlitius,  vlee'se-us,  or  Van  Vliet,  (John,)  a  Dutch 
philologist  and  poet,  lived  at  the  Hague  and  at  Breda. 
He  was  appointed  recorder  or  registrar  of  Breda  in 
165 1.  He  wrote  Latin  poems,  and  other  works,  among 
which  is  "  Old  and  New  Hunting  of  J.  Vlitius,"  ("  Jani 
Vlitii  Venatio  novantiqua,"  1645.)     Died  in  1666. 

Vocht,  (Karl.)     See  Vogt. 

Voeroesmarty.    See  Vokosmarty. 

Voet,  voot,  (Daniel,)  a  son  of  Gisbert,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Heusden  in  1629.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Utrecht,  and  wrote  "  Meletemata 
Philosophica  et  Physiologica,"  (1661.)     Died  in  1660. 

Voet,  [Lat.  Voe'tius,|  (Gisbert,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Heusden  in  1589  or 
1588.  Having  studied  at  Leyden,  he  became  professor 
of  theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Utrecht  in  1634. 
He  was  engaged  in  frequent  and  violent  controversies 
with  the  Arminians,  the  Catholics,  and  the  Cartesian 
philosophers,  and  advocated  the  doctrines  set  forth  by 
the  Synod  of  Dort.     Died  in  1676. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Voet,  (John,)  son  of  Paul,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1647.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Leyden,  and  was  the  author  of  a  commentary  on  the 
Pandects,  and  other  legal  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  17 14. 

Voet,  (John  Eusebius,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  physician, 
resided  at  the  Hague.     Died  in  1778. 

Voet,  (Paul,)  son  of  Gisbert,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Heusden  in  1619.  He  became  professor  of 
logic,  Greek,  and  civil  law  at  Utrecht.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  valuable  legal  works,  among  which 
we  may  name  "  On  Laws  and  their  Harmony,"  ("  De 
Statutis  eorumque  Concursu.")     Died  in  1677. 

Voetiua.     See  Voet. 

Vogel,  vo'zhSK  or  fo'gel,  (Adolphe,)  a  French  mu- 
sical composer,  a  grandson  of  Christoph  Vogel,  was 
Ijorn  at  Lil-le  in  1806.  He  produced  an  opera  entitled 
"The  Siege  of  Leyden,"  which  was  performed  with 
applause  in  1847. 

Vogel,  fo'gel,  (Christian  Leberecht,)  a  German 
historical  painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1759,  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  his  native  city.     Died  in  1816. 

Vogel,  (Christoph,)  a  German  composer  of  operatic 
music,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1756.  Among  his  works 
is  "Demophon."     Died  in  1788. 

Vogel,  (Eduard,)  son  of  Johann  Karl,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Crefeld  in  1829.  Being  sent  in  1853  by  the 
English  government  to  assist  Barth,  Richardson,  and 
Overweg  in  their  researches  in  Central  Africa,  he  was 
put  to  death,  by  order  of  the  Sultan  of  Wadai,  in  1856. 

Vogel,  (Johann  Karl  Christoph,)  a  distinguished 
German  teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  1795- 
He  became  director  of  the  Biirgerschule  at  Leipsic  in 
1832.  He  published  a  "School  Dictionary  of  the  Ger- 
man Language,"  a  "  German  Reader   for    the  Higher 


eas  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aard:  g  as/.-  o,  H,  -K^giifturn!;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


VOGEL 


2404 


VOITURE 


Classes,"  etc.  Uietl  in  1862.  His  daughter  Elise,  born 
in  1823,  published  "  Musikalischen  Mahrclien,"  (1852,) 
and  other  popular  tales. 

Vogel,  (JoHANN  WiLHELM,)  a  German  mineralogist, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Coburg  in  1657.  He  published 
"Travels  in  the  East  Indies,"  (1690,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1723. 

Vogel,  (Theodor,)  a  German  botanist,  who  in  1841 
accompanied  the  expedition  sent  out  to  Africa  by  the 
English  government.  He  died  at  Fernando  Po  about 
six  months  after. 

Vogel  von  Vogelstein,  fo'gel  fon  fo'gel-stin',  (Karl 
Christian,)  a  German  painter,  son  of  Christian  Lebe- 
recht  Vogel,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  VVildenfels  in 
1788.  He  studied  at  Dresden,  and  afterwards  visited 
Rome  and  Florence.  He  became  professor  of  painting 
at  the  Academy  of  Dresden  in  1820,  and  in  1824  court 
painter.  Among  his  principal  works  are  portraits  of 
Thorwaldsen  and  Pope  Pius  VII.,  and  illustrations  of 
ioethe's  "Faust."      Died  at  Munich,  March  4,  1868. 

Vogelin,  fd'geh-leen',  (Ernst,)  a  Swiss  painter,  born 
at  Constance  in  1528,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Valentine 
Papa,  a  noted  publisher  of  Leipsic.  Among  the  publi- 
cations of  Vogelin  were  excellent  editions  of  Isocrates 
and  other  classics.     Died  in  1590. 

Voght,  von,  fon  foot,  (Kaspar,)  Baron,  a  German 
philanthropist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1752,  was  the  founder 
of  several  benevolent  and  educational  institutions  for  the 
poor  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises 
on  agriculture  and  rural  economy.     Died  in  1839. 

Vogl,  foGl,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  an  Austrian  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1802,  published  "Ballads  and 
Romances,"  ''  Soldier  Songs,"  "  Lyric  Poems,"  and  other 
works.     Died  November  16,  1860. 

Vogler,  foG'ler,  (Georg  Joseph,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1749.  He  was 
appointed  chapel-master  at  Stockholm  in  1786.  He 
published  several  musical  treatises,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Meyerbeer  and  Weber.  His  com- 
positions include  masses,  symphonies,  etc.    Died  in  1814. 

Vogler,  (Valentin  Heinrich,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Ilelmstedt  in  1622  ;  died  in  1677. 

Vogli,  v61'yee,  (Giovanni  Giacinto,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  near  Bologna  in  1697.  He  published 
a  work  "On  the  Generation  of  Man,"  ("De  Anthropo- 
gonia,"  1718.)     Died  in  1762. 

Vogorides.   See  Alexander  Vogorides,  and  Ados- 

>IDES. 

Vogt,  foGt,  sometimes  written  Vocht,  (Karl,)  a 
German  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Giessen  in 
1817.  He  studied  anatomy  and  medicine,  and  subse- 
quently accompanied  Agassiz  in  his  expedition  to  the 
glaciers.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  at 
Geneva  in  1852.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"  Physiological  Letters,"  (1845,)  "  Pictures  from  Animal 
Life,"  (1852,)  "Outlines  of  Geology,"  (i860,)  and  "Lec- 
tures on  Man,  his  Position  in  the  Creation  and  in  the 
History  of  the  Earth,"  (1863.)  He  also  contributed  to 
Agassiz's  "  Natural  History  of  Fresh-water  Fish."  He 
favours  the  Darwinian  theory.  "All  the  German  writers 
we  have  quoted,"  says  the  "  North  American  Review" 
for  April,  1S70, — "Vogt,  Buchner,  Haeckel,  and  others, 
^-dwell  with  more  or  less  concealed  elation  on  one  great 
service,  as  they  suppose,  of  the  Darwinian  theory, — 
that  it  has  removed  the  necessity  of  an  intelligent  Creator 
from  the  theory  of  the  universe." 

Vogiie,  vo'gwi',  (Charles  Jean  Melchior,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  archaeologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1829.  He 
travelled  in  the  East.  In  1871  he  was  made  ambassador 
to  Turkey,  and  from  1875  'o  1S79  was  ambassador  to  Aus- 
tria. Among  his  works  are  "  Les  figlises  de  la  Terre- 
Sainte,"  (1859,)  "  Les  Evenements  de  Syrie,"  (i860,)  "  Le 
Temple  de  Jerusalem,  (1864-65,)  "  Melanges  d'Archeolo- 
gie  orientale,"(i869,)  "Inscriptions  semitiques,"  (1869- 
77.)  etc 

Voiart,  vwi'iR',  (Anne  Ellsabeth  Petitpain— 
peh-te'piN',)  a  French  authoress,  born  at  Nancy  in  1786. 
She  was  married  to  M.  Voiart.  She  wrote  novels  and 
educational  works,  among  which  is  "  Woman,  or  the 
Six  Loves,"  ("La  Femme,  ou  les  Six  Amours,"  6  vols., 
1828.)     This  gained  the  Montyon  prize.     Died  in  1866. 


Voigt,  foiKt,  (Gottfried,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1644.  He  became  rector  of  an  academy 
at  Hamburg  about  1680.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Physical  Curiosities,"  ("  Curiositates  Physi- 
CDe,"  1668,)  and  a  treatise  on  the  altars  of  the  early 
Christians,  called  "  Thysiasteriologia,  sive  de  Altaribus 
veterum,"  etc.,  (1709.)     Died  in  1682. 

Voigt,  (Johann, )  a  German  Protestant  minister,  born 
in  Hanover  in  1695.  He  published  a  "  Critical  Cata- 
logue of  Rare  Books,"  (1732.)     Died  in  1765. 

Voigt,  (Johannes,)  a  German  historian,  born  in  Saxe- 
Meiningen  in  1786.  He  became  professor  of  historical 
sciences  at  Konigsberg  in  1817,  and  afterwards  filled  the 
chair  of  mediaeval  and  modern  history  in  the  same  uni- 
versity. He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Lombard  Con- 
federacy," ("Geschichte  des  Lombardenbundes,"  1818,) 
a  "  History  of  Prussia  from  the  Earliest  Times  down  to 
the  Destruction  of  the  Power  of  the  German  Order,"  (9 
vols.,  1827-39,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1863. 

Voigt,  von,  fon  foiKt,  (Christian  Gottlou,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Allstadt  in  1743,  rose  to  be  minister 
of  state  for  Saxe- Weimar.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Schiller,  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Wieland.   Died  in  1819. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1774,  filled  several 
offices  under  the  government,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1801.     Died  in  1813. 

Voisenon,  de,  deh  vwJz'nAN',  (Claude  Henri 
Fus£e,)  Abb6,  a  French  wit  and  dramatic  writer,  born 
near  Melun  in  1708.  Having  taken  orders,  he  was  ap- 
pointed grand  vicar  of  Boulogne,  and  subsequently 
obtained  the  abbey  of  Jard.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1762.  He  wrote  a  number  of  pop- 
ular comedies  ;  also  poems,  tales,  literary  anecdotes, 
and  historical  sketches.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Voltaire.     Died  in  1775. 

See  G.  Dksnoiresterrrs,  "  Les  Originaux  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  G^ii^rale  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1831. 

Voisin,  (Daniel.)     See  Voysin. 

Voisin,  vwS'z^n',  (F6lix,)  born  at  Mans  in  1794, 
studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed,  in  1831, 
physician  to  the  Bicetre  Asylum.  He  published  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Moral  and  Physical  Causes  of  Mental 
Maladies,"  (1826,)  "On  Idiocy  in  Children,"  (1843,)  and 
other  similar  works.     Died  November  23,  1872. 

Voisin,  de,  deh  vwS'ziN',  (Joseph,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Bordeaux  about  1610. 
He  was  chaplain  to  the  Prince  of  Conti.  He  published 
the  "Theology  of  the  Jews,"  ("Theologia  Judseorum," 
1647,)  a  "Treatise  on  the  Jubilee,"  (1655,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1685. 

Voiture,  vwi'tiiR',  (Vincent,)  a  famous  French  poet 
and  wit,  born  at  Amiens  in  1598,  was  a  son  of  a  rich  wine- 
merchant.  He  was  admitted  about  1625  into  the  Hotel 
Rambouillet,  where  he  acquired  great  favour  and  admira- 
tion by  his  wit,  his  talent  for  raillery,  and  his  agreeable 
manners.  In  his  early  life  he  was  in  the  service  of  Gas- 
ton, Duke  of  Orleans,  who,  having  revolted  against  the 
king,  sent  Voiture  to  Spain  about  1632  to  solicit  the  aid 
of  the  Count  of  Olivares.  He  described  his  travels  in 
Spain  in  letters,  which  are  among  his  best  works.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy, 
into  which  he  was  admitted  in  1634.  In  1639  he  became 
nnxitre-iT hotel  (steward)  to  the  king.  He  obtained  in 
1642  the  office  of  chief  clerk  to  the  controller-general  of 
finances,  a  lucrative  sinecure.  Died  in  1648.  He  wrote 
many  letters  and  poems,  which  the  critics  of  his  own 
time  extolled  as  models  of  grace,  but  which  are  marred 
by  affectation.  His  style  was  greatly  admired  by  Boileau. 
"If  the  bad  taste  of  others,"  says  Hallam,  "had  not 
perverted  his  own,  Voiture  would  have  been  a  good 
writer.  His  letters,  especially  those  written  from  Spain, 
are  sometimes  truly  witty,  and  always  vivacious.  .  .  . 
Pope,  in  addressing  ladies,  was  nearly  the  ape  of  Voi- 
ture." ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe." 
Two  English  translations  of  Voiture's  letters  were  made, 
one  by  J.  Davies,  (1657,)  and  one  by  Dryden  and  others, 
(3d  edition,  1736.) 

See  Alphen,  "  fitude  sur  Voiture,"  etc.,  1S53  ;  Taixemant  des 
R^AUX,  "  Historiettes :"  A.  Dauphin,  "Discours  sur  Voiture," 
1847  ;  Peli.isson,  "  Histoire  de  I'Acad^mie  Franjaise ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nirale." 


i.  e. ),  o,  u,  y,  loti^:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  s/iaj/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f.^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  gSod;  moon: 


VOLANUS 


2405 


VOLT  A 


Volanus,  vo-lj'niis,  (Andreas,)  a  Polish  writer  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  the  province  of  Posen  in 
1530,  published  numerous  controversial  works  against 
the  Jesuits  and  Socinians;  also  a  Latin  treatise  "On 
Political  Liberty,"  (1582.)     Died  in  1610. 

Volfius,  vorfe'iis',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1734.  He  became  constitutional  Bishop 
of  Cote-d'Or  in  1791.     Died  in  1822. 

See  Amanton,  "  Notice  sur  J.  B.  Volfius,"  1823. 

Volger,  fol'ger,  (Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  a  German 
teacher,  born  near  Liineburg  in  1794,  published  several 
geographical  and  historical  works.    Died  March  6,  1879. 

Volk,  folk,  (Wilhelm,)  a  Prussian  writer,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1804.  He  published  "The  Ecstatic  Virgins 
of  the  Tyrol,"  and  other  works  on  mysticism  ;  also  a 
"  Manual  of  Italian  Literature,"  and  "  Sweden,  Ancient 
and  Modern."     Died  in  1882. 

Vol-ke'll-us,  [Ger.  pron.  fol-ka'le-As,]  (Johann,)  a 
German  Socinian  minister,  born  in  Misnia,  flourished  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On  True 
Religion,"  ("  De  vera  Religione,"  1630.) 

Volkhardt,  folk'h^Rt,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Herdecke,  on  the  Ruhr,  in  1815. 
He  worked  at  Dusseldorf.     Died  March  14,  1876. 

Volkmann,  folk'mSn,  (Alfred  Wilhelm)  a  distin- 
guished German  physiologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1801. 
He  studied  medicine  and  natural  history  at  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  city,  and  in  1837  became  professor  of 
physiology  at  Dorpat.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  physiology  and  anatomy  at  Halle.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  "Anatomy  of  Animals," 
("  Anatomia  Animalium,"  1831-33,)  "  New  Contributions 
to  the  Physiology  of  Vision,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Doctrine 
of  the  Corporeal  Life  of  Man,"  (1837.)     Died  in  1877. 

Volkmann,  (Julius,)  a  jurist,  bom  at  Leipsic  in 
1804,  is  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  practised  law 
at  Chemnitz,  and  published  legal  works.     Died  in  1873. 

Volkof,  Volkov,  or  Wolkow,  vol-kof,  (Feodor 
Grigorievitch,)  born  at  Kostroma,  in  Russia,  in  1729, 
was  the  founder  of  the  first  theatre  in  his  native  country. 
It  was  erected  at  Yaroslaf  about  1750.  He  officiated  as 
architect,  scene-painter,  manager,  actor,  and  poet,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  various  departments.  About 
1756  he  was  ordered  by  the  empress  to  establish  a 
theatre  at  Moscow.     Died  in  1763. 

Volkonski,  vol-kon'ske,  (Peter  Mikhailovitch,) 
Prince,  a  Russian  field-marshal  general,  born  in  1776. 
He  was  the  creator  of  the  general  staff  {itatniajor)  of  the 
Russian  service,  was  distinguished  at  Austerlitz  and  Leip- 
sic, and  for  many  years  took  an  influential  part  in  Russian 
military  and  political  affairs.     Died  in  1852. 

Vollenhove,  vol'len-ho'veh,  (Jan,)  a  i3utch  poet  and 
Protestant  minister  of  the  seventeenth  century,  preached 
at  the  Hague.  His  chief  work  is  "The  Triumph  of 
the  Cross." 

Volney,  voKne,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  vol'ni',]  (CoN- 
stantin  FRAN'gois,)  Count,  a  distinguished  French 
philosopher,  author,  and  traveller,  was  born  at  Craon 
(Mayenne)  in  February,  1757.  His  family  name  was 
Chassebceuk,  (sh2tss'buf',)  for  which  his  father  substi- 
tuted BoiSGlRAlS.  The  name  Volney  was  adopted  by  the 
subject  of  this  article,  who  inherited  an  independent 
fortune.  Having  travelled  in  Egypt  and  Syria  (1783- 
85)  and  learned  the  Arabic  language,  he  published  in 
1787  his  "Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,"  ("  Voyage  en 
£gypte  et  en  Syrie,"  2  vols.,)  which  is  a  work  of  high 
reputation.  It  was  esteemed  the  best  description  of 
those  countries  that  had  yet  appeared.  In  1789  he  wars 
elected  a  deputy  to  the  States-General.  He  favoured 
rational  liberty  and  reform,  but  opposed  the  excesses  of 
the  Revolution,  and  was  identified  with  the  Girondists 
The  weakness  of  his  voice  hindered  his  success  as  an 
orator.  In  1791  he  produced  a  popular  and  eloquent 
work,  entitled  "  Ruins,  or  Meditations  on  the  Revolu- 
tions of  Empires."  He  was  imprisoned  by  the  dominant 
party  in  1793,  and  saved  from  death  by  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  (July,  1794.)  He  crossed  the  Atlantic  in 
1795,  and  passed  two  years  or  more  in  the  United 
States.  He  complained  that  he  was  ill  treated  by  the 
government  or  by  President  Adams.  In  his  absence  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute.     He  supported 


Bonaparte  on  the  iSth  Brumaire,  1799,  but  declined  the 
place  of  minister  of  the  interior,  which  the  First  Consul 
offered  him,  and  soon  became  alienated  from  his  service. 
In  1803  he  published  a  "  Description  of  the  Climate  and 
Soil  of  the  United  States  of  Aineiica,"  ("Tableau  du 
Climat  et  du  Sol  des  £tat-Unis  d'Amerique,"  2  vols. 
8vo,)  which  was  received  with  favour.  He  married  his 
cousin.  Mademoiselle  de  Chassebceuf,  in  1810.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Natural  Law,  or  Physical  Principles 
of  Morality,"  {1793,)  and  "Researches  on  Ancient  His- 
tory," (3  vols.,  1814.)    Died  in  April,  1S20. 

See  A.  BossANGE,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Volney,"  1821 ;  Ei;GftNK 
Berges,  "  fitudes  sur  Volney,"  1S52  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries 
du  Lundi,"  vol.  vii. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Vo-lo^'e-ses  [Fr.  VoLOotse,  vo'lo'zh<\z']  I.,  King  of 
Parthia,  ascended  the  throne  in  50  a.d.  He  waged  war 
against  the  Romans,  who  in  the  reign  of  Nero  invaded 
Armenia.     Died  about  81  A.D. 

Vologeses  II.  was  a  son  of  Chosroes,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  122  A.D.  His  reign  was  pacific,  lie  died 
about  148,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Vologeses  III. 
He  attempted  about  162  to  conquer  Armenia  from  the 
Romans,  but  was  defeated. 

Volpato,  vol-pi'to,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Bassano  about  1735.  He  studied  at  Venice  under 
Bartolozzi,  and  afterwards  executed  a  number  of  prints, 
after  the  works  of  Raphael  in  the  Vatican,  and  other 
eminent  artists.  His  engravings  are  numerous,  and  are 
ranked  among  the  master-pieces  of  the  time.  Raphael 
Morghen  was  the  pupil  and  son-in-law  of  Volpato.  Died 
in  1803. 

Volpi,  vol'pee,  (Gian  Antonio,)  an  Italian  printer 
and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Padua  in  1686.  In  con- 
junction with  the  printer  Coinino,  he  established  a  press, 
called  "  Libreria  Volpi-Cominiana,"  from  which  were 
issued  excellent  editions  of  the  classics,  including  Ca- 
tullus. Volpi  was  for  many  years  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  philosophy  at  Padua,  and  was  the  author  of  Latin 
poems  and  other  works.     Died  in  1766. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Volpi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  near 
Bari  in  1680.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  Visconti,  (2  vols., 
1737-48.)     Died  in  1756. 

Volta,  vol'tS,  (Alessandro,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
electrician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Como, 
February  19,  1745.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  At- 
tractive Force  of  Electric  Fire,"  ("  De  Vi  attractiva  Ignis 
electrici,"  1769,)  and  invented  an  electrophorus  in  1775. 
About  1776  he  became  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Pavia.  He  travelled  in  Germany, 
France,  and  England  in  1782.  He  invented  an  electrical 
condenser  and  a  eudiometer.  His  celebrity  is  derived 
chiefly  froin  the  discovery  of  the  Voltaic  pile,  an  appa- 
ratus which  excites  a  continuous  current  of  electricity  by 
the  contact  of  different  substances.  He  published  this 
discovery  about  1792,  and  received  the  Copley  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1794.  He  generalized 
the  phenomena  which  Galvani  had  observed,  and  recti- 
fied an  error  in  the  theory  by  which  that  philosopher 
had  explained  them.  "It  was  thus,"  says  Sir  J.  F.  W. 
Herschel,  "  that  he  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  a  gene- 
ral fact,  that  of  the  disturbance  of  electrical  equilibrium 
by  the  mere  contact  of  different  bodies,  and  the  circula- 
tion of  a  current  of  electricity  in  one  constant  direction 
through  a  circuit  composed  of  three  different  conductors. 
To  increase  the  intensity  of  the  very  minute  and  delicate 
effect  thus  observed,  became  his  next  aim  ;  nor  did  his 
inquiry  terminate  till  it  had  placed  him  in  possession  of 
that  most  wonderful  of  all  human  inventions,  the  pile 
which  bears  his  name,  through  the  medium  of  a  series 
of  well-conducted  and  logically-combined  experiments, 
which  has  rarely,  if  ever,  been  surpassed  in  the  annals 
of  physical  research."  ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the 
Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.")  Volta  inarried  Teresa 
de'  Peregrini  in  1794,  and  had  three  sons.  Invited  by 
Bonaparte,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1801,  and  performed  ex- 
periments with  his  pile  before  the  Institute,  of  which  he 
was  chosen  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  in  1802. 
He  retained  his  professorship  at  Pavia  about  thirty 
years.  In  1810  he  received  the  title  of  count  from  Na- 
poleon, who  also  appointed  him  a  senator  of  the  king- 


cas/4;  fasj;  ^hard;  ga.sj;  G,H,K,^Uura/;  n, nasal;  ¥.,  trilled;  sass;  thasin//4/j.     ({Jj^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOLTAIRE 


2406 


VOLTAIRE 


dom  of  Italy.  He  wrote  a  immlier  of  treatises  on  elec- 
tricity, etc.,  which  were  collected  and  published  in  5  vols., 
(1S16,)  under  the  title  of  "  Opere  di  Volta."  He  died  at 
Como  in  April,  1827. 

See  Arago,  "  filoRe  de  Volta,"  1834  ;  Zuccala,  "  Elogio  storico 
di  A.  Volta,"  1827  ;  Mocchetti,  "Vita  f!el  Conte  Volta,"  1S33  ;  A. 
Seebeck,  "Getlachtnissrede  auf  A.  Volta,"  184(1;  Tipaldo,  "  Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  "  Xouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdii^rale." 

Voltaire,  de,  deh  voI'iSr',  (FRAxgois  Marie 
Arouet — il'roo'i',)  the  most  remarkable  name  in  the 
history  of  French  literature,  was  born  at  Chatenay,  near 
Sceaux,  the  20th  of  February,  1694.  His  father  was 
F"ran9ois  Arouet,  formerly  a  notary,  then  a  treasurer  in 
the  chamber  of  accounts  ;  his  mother,  who  belonged  to 
a  noble  family  of  Poitou,  was  Marie  Marguerite  Dau- 
niart.  The  name  Voltaire,  according  to  some  authorities, 
was  derived  from  an  estate  which  belonged  to  his  mother, 
though  others  have  maintained  that  it  was  an  anagram 
of  Arouet  I.  i.,  (i.e.  Arouet  le  ien7ie,  (jenne,)  or  "  Arouet 
the  Younger.")  Madame  Arouet  is  said  to  have  been  an 
intelligent,  witty,  and  attractive  woman.  She  died  before 
her  distinguished  son  had  reached  his  twentieth  year. 
The  godfather  and  first  teacher  of  young  Arouet  was  the 
Abbe  de  ChSteauneuf,  whose  morals,  like  his  religious 
principles,  were  anything  but  strict :  so  that  it  was  whis- 
pered and  believed  by  many  that  Voltaire  might  justly 
have  claimed  with  him  a  more  direct  relationship  than 
that  of  godson.  So  much,  at  least,  may  be  considered 
certain,  that  the  abbe  early  indoctrinated  his  pupil  in 
the  skeptical  literature  which  was  then  becoining  all  the 
fashion  in  France.  At  the  age  of  eleven  years  Voltaire 
wrote  a  poetical  petition  for  an  invalid  soldier,  which 
e.xcited  the  admiration  of  the  celebrated  beauty  Ninon 
de  Lenclos,  then  far  advanced  in  years  ;  and,  at  her  re- 
quest, he  was  presented  to  her  by  the  Abbe  Chateauneuf, 
who  had  the  reputation  of  being  her  latest  lover.  Her 
death  occurred  shortly  after  this  interview,  and  by  her 
will  she  left  Voltaire  two  thousand  livres  for  the  purpose 
of  purchasing  books.  He  had  been  placed  when  he  was 
ten  years  old  at  the  Jesuit  college  Louis-le-Grand,  where 
one  of  his  instructors,  Pere  Le  Jay,  is  said  to  have  pre- 
dicted that  he  would  some  day  be  the  Coryphasus  of 
deisiTi  in  France.  Even  at  that  early  age  the  wit  and 
genius  of  the  young  Arouet  appear  to  have  excited 
general  admiration.  In  17 10  the  poet  Jean  Baptiste 
Rousseau,  then  in  the  acme  of  his  fame,  assisted  in  the 
distribution  of  the  honours  at  the  college.  As  one 
prize  after  another  was  awarded  to  Voltaire,  the  atten- 
tion of  Rousseau  was  arrested  ;  he  desired  to  have  the 
boy  presented  to  him,  and  predicted  for  him,  we  are 
told,  a  brilliant  literary  destiny. 

On  leaving  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  he  was  sent  by 
his  father  to  a  law-school,  where  he  says  he  was  dis- 
gusted with  the  unphilosophical  method  of  pursuing  the 
study  of  jurisprudence,  and  he  therefore  resolved  to 
abandon  the  law  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  his  taste  for  light 
literature  contributed  quite  as  much  towards  leading 
him  to  that  resolution  as  the  philosophical  considera- 
tions to  which  he  refers.  The  Abbe  Chateauneuf  had 
already  introduced  him  into  a  circle  at  once  brilliajit 
and  licentious.  To  withdraw  him  from  this  corrupt  but 
fascinating  influence,  his  father  sent  him  as  secretary  to 
the  Marquis  Chateauneuf,  who  was  setting  Out  as  am- 
bassador to  the  United  Provinces.  While  there,  he  se- 
duced the  daughter  of  Madame  du  Noyer,  an  intriguing 
woman,  who  passed  for  being  a  Protestant.  She  was 
even  suspected  by  some  of  conniving  at,  if  not  directly 
encouraging,  the  fault  of  the  youthful  lovers,  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  money  from  Voltaire's  relations.  She 
complained  loudly  to  the  Marquis  of  Chateauneuf,  froin 
whom,  soon  after,  Voltaire  received  an  (jrder  to  quit  the 
Hague  and  return  to  France.  Mademoiselle  du  Noyer's 
father  was  in  Paris,  and  Voltaire  dfcl  not  hesitate  to  ad- 
vise his  inamorata  to  feign  a  conversion  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  in  which  case  she  might  hope  to  have  the  powerful 
a.ssistance  of  the  Church  in  rescuing  her  from  the  tyranny 
of  her  mother.  But  this  ingenious  plot  was  not  success- 
ful, and  the  correspondence  between  the  lovers  soon  after 
ceased,  at  least  for  a  time. 

At  the  house  of  M.  de  Caumartin,  (a  friend  of  the 
family,)   with  whom  Voltaire   sought   refuge  from  the 


frowns  and  reproaches  of  his  father,*  he  had  an  opi>or- 
tunity  of  hearing  the  father  of  that  gentleman  talk  of 
the  glorious  days  of  Henry  IV.,  with  some  of  whose 
contemporaries  the  old  man  had  conversed  in  his  youth. 
Young  Arouet's  enthusiasm  was  strongly  excited.  It 
was  then  that  he  formed  the  design  of  his  great  epic,  the 
"  I  lenriade,"  and  of  his  history  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
About  this  time  Louis  XIV.  died  ;  a  witty  and  satirical 
pamphlet,  in  which  the  decease  of  the  king  was  treated 
as  a  national  deliverance,  and  in  which  the  new  govern- 
ment was  not  spared,  was  suspected  to  have  been  written, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  by  Voltaire.  He  was  accordingly 
arrested,  and  confined  in  the  Bastille.  This,  however, 
proved  a  blessing  to  him,  rather  than  a  calamity.  Freed 
during  his  imprisonment  from  the  seductions  of  pleasure 
and  the  dissipations  of  society,  he  composed  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  "  Henriade,"  and  completed  his  tragedy 
of  "  CEdipe,"  which  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  the 
regent,  and  procured  his  liberation.  He  was  presented 
soon  after  by  M.  Noce  to  the  regent,  who  gave  him  one 
thousand  crowns.  Voltaire  is  reported  to  have  said  on  that 
occasion,  "  I  thank  your  royal  highness  that  you  are  thus 
careful  for  my  board  ;  but  no  more  of  your  lodgings,  I  be- 
seech you."  He  was  twenty-four  years  of  age  when  he 
was  released  from  the  Bastille,  after  an  imprisonment  of 
almost  a  year.  It  was  soon  after  this  event  that  he  changed 
his  name  from  Arouet  to  Voltaire.  "I  have  been,"  he  wrote 
to  Mademoiselle  du  Noyer,  "very  unfortunate  under  my 
first  name.  I  wish  to  try  if  this  new  one  will  serve  me 
any  better."  The  brilliant  success  of  his  "  CEdipe"  (which 
was  represented  with  great  applause  for  thirty  successive 
nights)  appears,  however,  to  have  completely  reconciled 
him  to  the  ways  of  the  blind  goddess.  Rank  and  beauty 
were  now  eager  to  pay  him  homage.  He  became  the 
favoured  guest  and  companion  of  the  great.  The  Prince 
of  Conti  addressed  to  him,  as  a  brother  poet,  some  pretty, 
complimentary  verses,  and  he  was  very  graciously  re- 
ceived by  the  beautiful  Marechale  de  Villars,  with  whom, 
it  is  said,  he  fell  desperately  in  love,  ( eperdwnent  amou- 
reux;)  but  she  does  not  appear  to  have  given  him  the. 
slightest  encouragement.   ("  Biographie  Universelle.") 

But  the  cup  of  prosperity  presented  to  his  lips  was 
not  unmixed  with  bitter  ingredients.  The  Abbe  Desfon- 
taines  had  obtained  fraudulently  an  imperfect  copy  of  the 
"Henriade,"  and  had  it  published,  under  the  naine  of' 
"The  League,"  ("La  Ligue,"  etc.)  The  poem,  even  in 
this  imperfect  form,  was  very  favourably  received.  Vol- 
taire hastened  to  prepare  for  the  public  a  more  ])erfect 
edition  ;  but  certain  passages  in  the  work  which  gave 
offence  to  the  priesthood  prevented  him  from  obtaining 
permission  to  publish  it. 

His  vanity  and  self-esteem  were  destined  to  receive 
some  severe  rebuffs  from  that  haughty  aristocracy  which 
could  never  wholly  divest  itself  of  the  idea  that  rank 
was  something  essentially  superior  even  to  genius  of  the 
highest  order,  which  it  might  indeed  condescend  to 
patronize  and  perhaps  applaud,  but  with  which  it  could 
never  associate  on  equal  terms.  In  December,  1725, 
Voltaire,  while  at  the  table  of  his  friend  the  Duke  of 
Sully,  happened  to  express  himself  on  some  subject  with 
great  animation  and  self-confidence.  One  of  the  guests, 
the  Chevalier  de  Rohan,  son  of  the  Duke  de  Rohan- 
Chabot,  asked,  "Who  is  this  young  man  that  speaks  so 
loud?"  "He  is,"  replied  Voltaire,  "one  who  does  not 
carry  a  great  name,  but  can  do  credit  to  the  one  he  has." 
A  few  days  after,  the  chevalier  sent  word  to  Voltaire  that 
the  Duke  of  Sully  expected  him  to  dinner.  He  went 
accordingly.  While  he  was  dining,  one  of  the  servants 
announced  that  some  one  wished  particularly  to  see 
him.  He  descended,  and  was  met  by  three  men,  who 
immediately  fell  on  him  and  beat  him  unmercifully 
with  their  canes.  It  was  noticed  as  an  act  of  great  gen- 
erosity on  the  part  of  the  Chevalier  de  Rohan  that  he 
directed  his  men  not  to  beat  their  victim  on  his  head. 
When  Voltaire  complained  of  the  outrage  to  the  Duke 
of  SuHv,  the  latter  admitted  that  it  w-as  a  rude  and  "un- 


*  His  father  appears  to  have  been  quite  as  much  displeased  with 
Voltaire's  writing  poetry  as  with  his  more  culpable  irregularities.  He 
was  not  less  disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  his  eldest  son,  because  he 
had  become  a  Jansenist.  He  said,  bitterly,  "I  have  for  sons  two 
fools, — the  one  in  prose,  the  other  in  verse." 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  till,  f4t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  niooa; 


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2407 


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civil"  act  on  the  part  of  Rohan,  but  declined  to  aid  him 
in  any  way  to  obtain  satisfaction.  Thereupon  Voltaire 
practised  fencing  diligently  for  some  weeks,  and  at  the 
end  of  that  time  challenged  Rohan  to  a  duel.  The 
challenge  was  accepted,  but,  before  the  parties  met,  Vol- 
taire was  arrested  and  sent  to  prison.  We  are  not  told 
whether  or  not  the  chevalier  gave  notice  to  the  police ; 
but  a  chivalrous  knight  who  could  employ  three  men  to 
attack  another  who  was  unarmed  might  reasonably  be 
supposed  capable  of  such  an  act.  This  proceeding  had, 
in  all  probability,  an  important  influence  on  the  destinies 
of  Europe.  It  seems  for  a  time  to  have  completely 
disgusted  Voltaire  with  the  society  and  government  of 
France,  and  it  determined  him  to  accept  an  invitation, 
received  from  Lord  Bolingbroke,  that  he  should  visit 
England.  This  visit,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  event  of  his  life,  dates  from  August, 
1726.  While  in  that  country,  he  was  particularly  struck 
with  the  absolute  freedom  of  thought  enjoyed  by  all  the 
people  ;  his  own  views,  in  the  society  of  Bolingbroke  and 
his  deistical  friends,  appear  to  have  been  developed  and 
matured.  In  England,  also,  he  acquired  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  the  knowledge  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  among  the  first  to  introduce 
among  his  countrymen  in  France.  After  nearly  three 
years'  absence,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1729.  At  first  he 
lived  retired,  and  finished  his  tragedy  of  "  Brutus,"  which 
he  had  begun  in  England.  According  to  some  critics, 
the  influence  of  Shakspeare  is  clearly  visible  in  this 
piece,  and  perhaps  still  more  in  his  next  tragedy,  "  Zaire,"' 
(1730,)  although  Voltaire  afterwards  affected  to  despise 
the  great  English  dramatist,  perhaps  the  better  to  con- 
ceal how  much  he  was  indebted  to  him.  About  this 
time,  also,  he  finished  his  "History  of  Charles  XII.," 
for  which  he  had  procured  some  very  valuable  materials 
during  his  sojourn  in  London. 

His  "  Brutus"  was  by  some  considered  a  complete 
failure,  and  Fontenelle  indeed  advised  him  to  aban- 
don tragedy,  as  unsuited  to  his  genius  ;  but  his  next 
drama,  "Zaire,"  proved  a  brilliant  success.  It  is  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  finest  of  all  Voltaire's  tragedies, 
and  as  fully  equal  to  the  best  in  the  language.  His 
"  Lettres  Philosophiques,"  otherwise  called  "  Lettres  sur 
les  Anglais,"  {"  Letters  on  the  English,")  appeared  about 
1732.  The  freedom  of  some  of  his  ideas  gave  offence  to 
the  clergy.  The  "  Lettres"  were  condemned  to  be  pub- 
licly burned,  tl?e  publisher  was  imprisoned,  and  an  order 
was  issued  to  arrest  the  author,  so  that  to  escape  the 
officers  of  the  law  he  was  fain  to  make  a  speedy  retreat 
to  Cirey,  (on  the  borders  of  Lorraine,)  an  estate  belong- 
ing to  the  celebrated  Madame  Chatelet,  (or  Chastelet,) 
with  whom  he  formed  a  liaison  which  continued  until 
the  death  of  that  lady.  (See  Chastelet,  Gabrielle.) 
While  in  this  retreat  he  wrote  his  "  Siemens  de  la  Phi- 
losophic de  Newton,"  (published  at  Amsterdam  in  1738,) 
designed  to  set  forth  and  elucidate  the  theories  and  dis- 
coveries of  the  great  English  philosopher.  He  also 
composed  his  "Alzire,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  acted  at 
Paris  with  great  applause  in  1736.  His  "Mahomet," 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  pope,  was  first  acted  in  1741. 
His  holiness  accepted  the  dedication  very  graciously, 
unable,  or  perhaps  unwilling,  to  perceive  that  the  shafts 
which  the  author  seemed  to  aim  at  the  false  pretences 
of  the  prophet  were  in  reality  directed  against  those  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  His  "  Merope,"  brought  out  in 
1743,  was  received  with  an  enthusiastic  and  tumultuous 
applause  such  as  had  never  before  been  exhibited  in 
any  theatre  in  Europe. 

Several  years  before  the  last-named  date,  Frederick, 
the  Prince-Royal  of  Prussia,  had  written  to  Voltaire  and 
expressed  his  admiration  of  the  genius  which  was  then 
dazzling  Europe  :  this  led  to  an  intimacy  between  the 
prince  and  the  poet,  which  was  kept  up  by  a  constant 
exchange  of  letters  and  flattering  compliments  from  both 
the  parties.  When,  in  1740,  Frederick  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  he  invited  his  friend  to  visit  him  at  Berlin.  But 
Voltaire  was  unwilling  to  separate  himself  from  Madame 
Chatelet.  He  accepted,  however,  in  1743,  a  mission 
from  the  government  to  visit  Frederick  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  Prussia's  alliance  with  France,  in  which 
Undertaking  he  was  successful.     Through  the  influence 


of  Madame  Pompadour,  with  whom  Voltaire  was  ac- 
quainted, as  he  tells  us,  before  she  became  the  favourite 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  he  was  chosen  (May  9,  1746)  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  to  succeed  Bouhier, 
and  appointed  historiographer  of  France.  He  had  de- 
clined the  flattering  offers  of  Frederick,  that  he  might 
not  be  deprived  of  the  society  of  Madame  Chatelet. 
But  the  mistress  to  whom  he  was  so  fondly  attached  no 
longer  felt  for  him  the  affection  of  former  years,  but  had 
(about  1748)  given  her  heart  to  another  and  younger 
lover,  Saint-Lambert. 

Madame  Chatelet  died  in  childbed,  in  August,  1749.* 
After  her  death,  although  he  knew  she  had  been  un- 
faithful to  him,  Voltaire  said  of  her,  "  I  have  not  lost  a 
mistress  ;  I  have  lost  the  half  of  myself  ...  I  love  to 
find  everywhere  something  that  can  recall  the  though* 
of  her."  A  short  time  afterwards,  as  her  husband,  M. 
du  Chatelet,  was  on  the  point  of  opening  a  locket  which 
had  been  carried  by  Madame  du  Chatelet,  Voltaire  con- 
fidently expected  to  see  his  own  portrait :  it  proved  to  be 
that  of  Saint-Lambert ;  he  said  to  M.  du  Chatelet,  "  Be- 
lieve me,  monsieur,  neither  of  us  has  here  any  cause  ta 
boast."  On  a  previous  occasion  he  spoke  to  Saint- 
Lambert  (with  whom,  it  appears,  he  had  at  first  beenr 
offended)  with  a  kindness  and  magnanimity  which  would 
have  been  sublime,  could  they  have  had  existence  in  a 
pure  and  elevated  mind.  "It  is  I,"  said  he,  "who  have 
been  to  blame ;  you  are  at  the  age  when  one  loves  and 
inspires  love  ;  ...  an  old  man,  infirm  as  I  am,  is  not 
made  for  pleasure." 

Having  nothing  now  to  detain  him  in  France,  he  ac- 
cepted the  invitation,  recently  renewed,  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  arrived  in  Berlin  in  July,  1750.  He  was 
received  by  Frederick  with  the  most  flattering  demon- 
strations of  regard.  No  lovers  in  a  romance  could  have 
met,  after  a  long  absence,  with  greater  transports  of  joy. 
Voltaire  had  at  last  found  an  earthly  paradise.  A  thou- 
sand louis-d'or  had  been  sent  him  for  the  expenses  of 
the  journey.  In  addition  to  the  splendid  apartments 
assigned  him  under  the  royal  roof,  he  was  to  receive  a 
pension  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  He  and  Frederick 
studied  together  two  hours  every  day,  and  in  the  evening 
he  was  entertained  at  the  king's  own  table.  But  this 
charming  life  was  destined  to  be  of  short  duration. 
"Never,"  says  Macaulay,  "had  there  met  two  persons 
so  exquisitely  fitted  to  plague  each  other.  Each  of  them 
had  exactly  the  fault  of  which  the  other  was  most  irnpa- 
tient,  and  they  were,  in  different  ways,  the  most  impatient 
of  mankind."  (See  Essay  on  "  Frederick  the  Great," 
originally  published  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
April,  1842.) 

The  king  wrote  verses,  which  Voltaire  was  to  criticise 
and  correct, — a  delicate  and  perilous  position  for  any 
man,  but  peculiarly  so  for  one  who  was  so  fastidious,  so 
irritable,  and  so  prone  to  ridicule  as  Voltaire.  It  was 
quite  impossible  for  him  to  correct  his  majesty's  verses 
—which  might  well  have  provoked  the  ridicule  of  a  more 
indulgent  critic — without  laughing  at  them.  "  Behold," 
said  he,  "  what  a  quantity  of  dirty  linen  the  king  has 
sent  me  to  wash  !"  And,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  there 
was  always  some  well-intentioned  person  ready  to  carry 
such  remarks  to  the  ear  of  the  king.  It  would  be  long 
to  tell  of  the  irritation,  the  increasing  disgust,  the  quar- 
rels, the  ingenious  schemes  devised  by  each  to  annoy  or 
torment  the  other.  Suflice  it  to  say  that,  after  a  stay  of 
about  three  years,  the  poet  parted  from  the  king,  with  a 
promise  to  return,  but  with  a  firm  determination,  as  he 


•"Every  one  knows,"  says  Carlyle,  "  the  earthly  termination  of 
Madame  la  Marquise,  and  how,  by  a  strange  and  almost  satirical 
Nemesis,  she  was  taken  in  her  own  nets,  and  her  worst  sin  became 
her  final  punishment."  A  few  days  after  her  death,  Voltaire  com- 
posed the  following  quatrain : 

"  L'univers  a  perdu  la  sublime  fimilie. 
Elle  aima  les  plaisirs,  les  arts,  la  verity  ; 
Les  dieux,  en  lui  donnant  leur  dme  et  leur  gdnie, 
N'avaient  gardi^  pour  eux  que  rimmortalite." 

("The  universe  has  lost  the  sublime  Emilia. 

She  loved  pleasure,  the  arts,  and  truth ;  [knowledge  ?] 
The  gods,  m  giving  her  their  soul  and  their  genius. 
Had  reserved  for  themselves  immortality  only.") 

"After  which,"  says  Carlyle,  "he,  like  the  bereaved  universe, 
consoled  himself,  and  went  on  his  way." 


€  as  ^,-  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     ( Jg^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOLTAIRE 


2408 


VOLTAIRE 


tells  us,  never  to  see  him  again.  At  Frankfort  he  was 
arrested  by  an  order  from  Berlin,  and  required  to  give 
up  some  of  the  king's  poetry,  copies  of  which  liad  been 
printed  for  private  circulation  and  presented  to  Voltaire 
and  other  of  the  royal  favourites.  But  P'rederick,  now 
fearing  that  the  arch  wit  and  scoffer  might  perhaps  use 
the  poetry  to  turn  its  author  into  ridicule,  resolved  to 
get  possession  of  it  again.  It  so  happened  that  he  had 
left  the  poetry  behind  at  Leipsic,  and  some  days  elapsed 
before  he  could  send  for  and  receive  it.  Meanwhile  he 
was  kept  in  strict  custody  ;  and  even  after  the  precious 
packet  had  arrived  he  was  still  detained.  "  The  Prus- 
sian agents,"  says  M.icaulay,  "had,  no  doubt,  been  in- 
structed not  to  let  Voltaire  off  without  some  gross  indig- 
nity. He  was  confined  twelve  days  in  a  wretched  hovel. 
Sentinels  with  fixed  bayonets  ke[)t  guard  over  him.  His 
niece  was  dragged  through  the  mire  by  the  soldiers. 
Sixteen  hundred  dollars  were  extorted  from  him  by  his 
insolent  jailers.  It  is  absurd  to  say  that  this  outrage 
was  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  king."  (Essay  on  "  Frede- 
rick the  Great.") 

Voltaire  returned  to  France  thoroughly  divested  of 
all  his  illusions  resjjecting  that  great  prince  whom  he 
had  once  delighted  to  call  the  Solomon  and  Alexander 
of  the  North,  the  Marcus  Aurelius  of  Potsdam,  the 
Trajan  and  Pliny  combined,  etc. 

In  1755  ^^  established  himself  at  Ferney,  near  Ge- 
neva, in  Switzerland.  Here  he  spent  perhaps  the  most 
tranquil,  as  well  as  the  most  creditable  and  useful, 
portion  of  his  life.  He  is  admitted  to  have  been  a 
benefactor  to  the  inhabitants  of  Ferney  and  the  vicinity. 
The  village  or  town  was  greatly  improved  and  enlarged 
under  his  auspices  ;  new  houses  were  built,  and  a  small 
theatre  established.  He  even  erected  a  church,  in  which 
he  had  the  hardihood  to  preach.  To  silence  the  com- 
plaints of  those  who  were  scandalized  at  his  irregular 
proceedings,  he  went  through,  in  due  form,  the  ceremony 
of  taking  the  communion. 

The  one  aspect  of  Voltaire's  character  which  can  be 
viewed  with  unmingled  approbation  was  the  deep, 
heartfelt  pity  and  indignation  with  which  he  regarded 
every  flagrant  act  of  cruelty  or  oppression,  whether  it 
was  enacted  in  his  own  country  or  in  the  remotest  part 
of  Europe.  He  signalized  his  philanthropy  in  the 
earnest  zeal  with  which  he  tO(5k  up  the  cause  of  Jean 
Calas,  who  had  been  condemned  at  Toulouse  and 
broken  on  the  wheel  for  a  crime  of  which  he  was  inno- 
cent, and  his  family  had  been  driven  from  the  country. 
Through  Voltaire's  generous  exertions  and  untiring  zeal, 
the  sentence  was  annulled  and  the  family  partially  indem- 
nified. I  lis  sympathy  in  the  case  of  Admiral  Byng  was  no 
less  real  or  less  earnest ;  but  he  exerted  himself  in  vain 
to  prevent  the  consummation  of  that  judicial  murder, 
which  has  left  an  indelible  stain  upon  the  character  of 
the  miiiistry  under  whose  auspices  it  was  committed.* 
Another  act  of  his,  though  of  a  different  kind,  reflects 
no  less  credit  on  his  character.  Having  learned  that  a 
young  girl,  a  near  relative  of  the  great  Corneille,  (she 
was  then  believed  to  be  the  grand-daughter  of  that 
poet,)  was  living  in  extreme  poverty,  he  sent  for  her 
and  had  her  brought  to  Ferney,  where  he  gave  her  an 
education,  and  settled  on  her,  out  of  his  own  means,  a 
life-annuity  of  fourteen  hundred  francs. 

During  his  residence  at  Ferney  he  composed  or 
finished  some  of  his  greatest  works,  among  which  the 
most  valuable  and  perhaps  the  most  original  of  all  was 
his  "  Essay  on  the  Manners  of  Nations,"  etc.,  ("  Essai 
sur  les  Moeurs  et  I'Esprit  des  Nations,"  1756,)  which 
might,  says  Brougham,  be  justly  designated  the  "  Phi- 
losophy of  History."  It  has  unquestionably  exerted 
throughout  Europe  a  great  and  beneficent  influence 
upon  the  mode  of  writing  history.  No  inconsiderable 
portion  of  this  work  had  been  composed  during  his 
residence  at  Cirey.  His  "Candide,"  the  most  remark- 
able of  his  prose  fictions,  appeared  in  I7i;8.  "Dr. 
Johnson,"  says  Brougham,  "never  spoke  of  it  without 


unstinted  admiration,  professing  that  had  he  seen  it  he 
should  not  have  written  •  Rasselas.'  "  Among  his  other 
romances  may  be  named  "  Zadig,"  (about  1758,)  and 
"  L'Ingenu,"  (1767.)  Of  his  tragedies,  besides  those 
already  named,  the  most  deserving  of  notice  are  per- 
haps the  following  :  "  Artemise,"  (about  1721,)  "  Mari- 
amne,"  (1724,)  "  Eriphile,"  (1732,)  "  La  Mort  de  Cesar," 
('735')  "Semiramis,"  (1748,)  "Oreste,"  (1750,)  "Rome 
Sauvee,"  otherwise  called  "  Catiline,"  (1752,)  which  Vol- 
taire is  said  to  have  preferred  to  all  his  tragedies,  but 
the  critics  and  the  public  decided  differently,  and 
"  Tancrede,"  (1760,)  which  had  a  brilliant  success.  His 
powers  had  confessedly  begun  to  fail  when,  in  1778,  on 
his  visit  to  Paris,  his  "  Irene,"  the  last  of  his  dramatic 
l^roductions,  was  acted  with  great  applause,  which,  how- 
ever, was  bestowed  rather  on  its  illustrious  author  than 
upon  the  piece  itself.  He  also  attempted  comedy,  and 
composed  "  L'Indiscret,"  which  had  but  an  indifferent 
success.  The  "  Enfant  Prodigue,"  another  comedy, 
brought  out  anonymously,  was  much  more  popular,  but 
it  was  not  known  to  be  Voltaire's  until  he  claimed  it 
several  years  afterwards. 

He  wrote  a  satirical  poem,  "  Le  Temple  du  Gout," 
('733>)  ^"d  a  mock-heroic  poem,  entitled  "  La  Pucelle," 
(1755,)  of  which  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc  forms  the 
subject.  This,  according  to  Brougham,  (than  whom 
Voltaire  has  probably  no  more  indulgent  critic,)  is  "the 
great  master-piece  of  Voltaire's  poetic  genius."  He 
adds,  however,  "The  'Pucelle'  is  one  continued  sneer 
at  all  that  men  do  hold  and  all  that  they  ought  to  hold 
sacred.  .  .  ,  Religion,  virtue,  ...  all  are  made  the 
constant  subjects  of  sneering  contempt  and  ribald 
laughter  ;"t  and  he  might  have  added  that  many  parts 
are  disfigured  by  gross  obscenities.  We  must  not  omit 
to  notice  Voltaire's  connection  with  the  famous  "  Encyclo- 
pedic" founded  by  Diderot  and  Alembert.  The  success 
of  this  publication  was  due  in  no  small  measure  to 
the  name  and  influence  of  Voltaire,  who  contributed  to 
it  many  articles  on  various  subjects,  among  which  will 
be  found  some  of  his  most  reckless  and  violent  attacks 
upon  Christianity. 

Of  his  histories,  "Charles  XII"  (1731)  is  admitted 
to  be  the  best.  It  is,  indeed,  a  chef-J'xuvre  of  clear, 
elegant,  animated,  and  rapid  narration.  His  "Siecle 
de  Louis  XIV"  (1752)  holds  the  second  place.  The 
"  Histoire  de  Russie  sous  Pierre  I"  (1759)  is  considered 
to  be  the  least  successful  of  his  productions  in  this 
department. 

In  1778,  being  then  in  his  eighty-fifth  year,  Voltaire 
visited  Paris,  where  his  sojourn  was  one  continued  ova- 
tion. "The  homage  of  every  class,"  says  Brougham, 
"and  of  every  rank  was  tendered  to  him  ;  and  it  seemed 
as  if  one  universal  feeling  prevailed, — the  desire  of 
having  it  hereafter  to  say,  '  I  saw  Voltaire.'  His  car- 
riage was  drawn  by  the  populace,  who  were  inspired 
with  the  wildest  enthusiasm.  At  the  theatre  his  bust 
was  crowned  with  laurels  and  garlands  of  roses,  amid 
the  shouts  and  tears  of  the  audience.  He  exclaimed, 
'  You  will  make  me  die  with  pleasure  ;  you  will  stifle  me 
with  roses.' " 

The  exhaustion  produced  by  this  great  excitement 
appears  to  have  been  the  cause  of  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  the  30th  of  May,  1778.  Some  time  before  his 
death,  while  he  was  supposed  to  be  very  iiear  his  end, 
he  was  induced,  from  his  desire  of  obtaining  a  Christian 
burial,  to  subscribe  to  a  confession  and  undergo  absolu- 
tion, which,  says  Condorcet,  gave  less  edification  to  the 
devout  than  scandal  to  the  free-thinkers.| 


*  However  deeplvhis  feelings  might  be  touched,  he  never  failed  to 
give  free  scope  to  his  wit.  He  remarked,  after  the  execmion  of 
Byng,  that  it  was  the  policy  of  the  English  now  and  then  to  put  to 
death  an  admiral,  in  order  to  encourage  the  rest,  ("  pour  encourager 
les  autres.") 


+  See  Brougham's  "  Lives  of  Men  of  Letters  and  Science," 
London,  1845. 

t  Very  contradictory  accounts  are  given  of  his  last  hours.  It  has 
been  well  observed  that  it  is  of  far  more  consequence  how  one  spends 
his  life  than  how  he  passes  the  few  fleeting  moments  at  its  close.  Cir- 
cumstances which  have  nothing  to  do  with  one's  faith  or  one's  con- 
science may  sometimes  give  the  appearance  of  great  tranquillity,  or 
the  contrary,  to  the  deathbed  scene.  Hut,  as  much  has  been  said 
about  the  death  of  Voltaire,  it  may  not  be  without  interest  to  cite 
briefly  the  testimony  of  Trouchin,  who  was  his  friend,  and  who  was 
constantly  with  him  (much  of  the  time  alone)  during  his  last  hours. 
"  If  the  bond  of  my  principles,"  says  he,  "  had  needed  to  be  strength- 
ened, the  man  whom  I  have  seen  agonize  and  die  under  my  eyes 
would  have  made  of  them  a  Gordian  knot ;  and  in  comparing  the 
death  of  a  good  man,  which  is  only  the  close  of  a  beautiful  day.with 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  lons^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  \\,  y,  s/io}-t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  ni&t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


VOLTAIRE 


2409 


VOLTAIRE 


Voltaire  is  confessedly  the  foremost  name,  the  acknow- 
ledged head,  of  European  literature  in  his  time  ;*  whence 
he  was  often  styled  "  King  Voltaire,"  ("  le  Roi  Voltaire.") 
His  writings  contributed  powerfully  to  give  a  fresh 
impulse  to  almost  every  department  of  human  thought. 
There  was,  indeed,  no  branch  of  literature  which  he  him- 
self did  not  cultivate  with  distinguished  success.  His  his- 
torical works  mark  an  era  in  this  department  of  writing. 
If  his  histories  are  inferior  to  those  of  some  other  emi- 
nent writers  in  depth  of  thought  or  in  a  philosophic 
treatment  of  the  subject,  they  are  remarkable  for  the 
clearness,  simplicity,  animation,  and  rapidity  of  the 
narrative.  If  they  are  not  calculated  in  an  especial 
manner  to  make  philosophic  historians,  they  are  pre- 
eminently fitted  to  interest  and  instruct  the  generality 
of  readers  ;  and  they  have  perhaps  done  more  to  make 
history  popular  among  all  classes  than  the  works  of  any 
other  writer  of  modern  times.  Though  not  the  first 
French  author  who  wrote  on  the  wonderful  discoveries 
of  Newton,  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
make  them  extensively  known  on  the  continent.  As  a 
wit,  he  probably  never  had  an  equal  either  in  ancient  or 
modern  times.t  As  a  poet,  Voltaire  is  by  some  critics 
ranked  at  the  very  head  of  the  great  masters  of  the  art 
in  France.  His  "Zaire"  is  called  the  chcf-d^<xuvre  of 
French  tragedy,  and  his  "  Henriade"  may  be  said  to  be 
the  only  successful  epic  in  the  French  language. 

But  several  eminent  critics,  while  admitting  that  Vol- 
taire was  a  genius  of  the  rarest  order,  deny  that  he  was 
a  great  poet  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word.  "  It  is 
certain,"  says  Brougham,  "  that  the  tragedies  of  Voltaire 
are  the  works  of  an  e.vtraordinary  genius,  and  that  only 
a  great  poet  could  have  produced  them  ;  but  it  is  equally 
certain  that  they  are  deficient  for  the  most  part  in  that 
which  makes  the  drama  powerful  over  the  feelings, — 
real  pathos,  real  passion,  whether  of  tenderness,  of 
terror,  or  of  horror.  The  plots  of  some  are  admirably 
contrived  ;  the  diction  of  all  is  pure  and  animated  ;  in 
most  cases  it  is  pointed,  and  in  many  it  is  striking, 
grand,  impressive  ;  the  characters  are  frequently  well 
imagined  and  portrayed,  though  without  sufficient  dis- 
crimination, and  thus  often  running  one  into  another 
from  the  uniformity  of  the  language,  terse,  epigrammatic, 
powerful,  which  all  alike  speak.  Nor  are  there  wanting 
situations  of  great  effect  and  sin^;!e  passages  of  thrilling 
force  ;  but,  after  all,  the  heart  is  not  there  ;  the  deep  feel- 
ing which  is  the  parent  of  all  true  eloquence,  as  well  as 
all  true  poetry,  ...  is  rarely  perceived."  (See  "  Lives  of 
Men  of  Letters,"  etc.,  where  also  (pp.  36-42)  will  be 
found  an  elaborate  critique  on  the  "  Henriade.") 

As  a  critic  his  claims,  though  unquestionably  of  a  high 
order,  are  open  to  great  exceptions.  He  appears,  indeed, 
to  have  been  wanting  in  no  natural  gift  necessary  to  rank 
him  with  the  very  greatest  critics  that  ever  lived.  He 
possessed,  in  a  degree  that  has  probably  never  been  sur- 
passed, a  clear,  incisive  intellect,!  a  vivid  sense  of  pro- 
priety, a  quick  perception  of  the  true  relations  of  things, 
combined  with  an  intense  susceptibility  to  all  those  feel- 
ings or  sentiments  which  go  to  make  the  orator  and  the 
poet.  But  he  was  wholly  wanting  in  that  earnest  love 
of  truth  without  which  no  critical  verdict  can  command 
Dur  respect,  much  less  be  accepted  as  authority.  He 
often  pronounced  judgment  on  books  that  he  had  not 
read,  or  had  read  so  imperfectly  that  he  failed  to  com- 
prehend their  real  scope  and  character.     In  the  desire 


that  of  Voltaire,  I  could  see  clearly  the  difference  there  is  between  a 
beautiful  day  and  a  tempest.  .  .  .  You  remember  the  Furies  of 
Orestes, — Furiis  a^itattts  obiit."  (See  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  vol.  xlvi.  p.  442,  where  Tronchin's  letter  is  given  in  lull.) 

*  Goethe  goes  still  further,  and  calls  him  "  the  greatest  literary 
man  of  all  time,  the  most  astonishing  creation  of  the  Author  of 
Nature."     (See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  vol.  xlvi.  p.  445.) 

t  Mackintosh  speaks  of  Voltaire  as  one  who  embodied  in  his  own 
person  all  the  wit  and  quickness  and  versatile  ingenuity  of  a  people 
which  surpasses  other  nations  in  these  brilliant  qualities.  (See 
"  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy.")  It  is  related  that  Voltaire  once 
expressed  to  an  Englishman  a  very  high  opinion  of  Haller.  His  com- 
panion, with  more  frankness  than  good  breeding,  informed  him  that 
his  high  regard  for  the  Swiss  philosopher  was  not  reciprocated. 
"  Ah  I"  said  he,  after  scarcely  a  moment's  pause,  "  no  doubt  both  of 
us  are  very  much  mistaken  in  each  other." 

X  "  He  has,"  says  Carlyle,  "  the  eye  of  a  lynx ;  sees  deeper  at  the 
first  glance  than  any  other  man ;  but  no  second  glance  is  given." 
I"  Essays,  vol.  ii.") 


to.  display  his  wit,  he  constantly  lost  sight  of  truth. § 
This  last  fault  was  most  conspicuously  exhibited  when- 
ever he  had  occasion  to  assail  Christianity.  His  ribald 
jests  on  all  sacred  subjects  are  but  too  well  known  ;  but 
it  is  not  so  generally  known  that  he  was  guilty  of  the 
most  reckless,  unblushing  falsehoods,  which  he  uttered 
with  a  confident  assurance  that  often  led  inexperienced 
readers  to  suppose  that  from  his  sentence  there  could  be 
no  appeal. II 

Yet  although  his  talents  were  confessedly  of  the  most 
diversified  and  rarest  order,  and  though,  in  the  words 
of  Macaulay,  "of  all  the  intellectual  weapons  ever  used 
by  man,  the  most  terrible  was  the  mockery  of  Voltaire," 
we  cannot  regard  him  as  a  very  formidable  enemy  of 
Christianity.  In  discussing  such  questions  his  state- 
ments were  so  rash,  and  the  spirit  with  which  he  was 
animated  so  manifest,  that  he  could  deceive  only  the 
ignorant,  or  those  who  were  willing  or  anxious  to  be 
deceived.  Men  much  inferior  to  hiin  in  genius  (as  Hume, 
Gibbon,  and  Strauss)  have  proved  themselves  far  more 
dangerous  adversaries  to  revealed  religion,  because  their 
positions  have  been  more  cautiously  taken,  and  their 
attacks,  if  less  violent,  have  been  made  with  far  greater 
skill,  so  that  the  fallacy  of  their  arguments,  unlike  those 
of  Voltaire,  can  sometimes  be  detected  by  those  only 
who  are  accustomed  to  think  closely,  and  who  are,  at 
the  same  time,  capable  of  earnest,  impartial,  and  labo- 
rious research. 

It  is  proper  to  observe  that  the  charge  of  atheism 
which  has  often  been  brought  against  Voltaire,  is  wholly 
without  foundation.  On  the  one  point  of  belief  in  a 
God  he  was  consistent  and  unwavering,  though  so  fickle 
in  almost  everything  else.  In  fact,  there  are  to  be  found 
in  his  works  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  admirable 
arguments  in  favour  of  the  e.xistence  of  a  God  that  have 
ever  been  written.  The  young  wits  of  France,  whom  he 
had  taught  to  ridicule  almost  everything  sacred,  turned 
against  him,  in  his  later  years,  the  same  ridicule,  because 
he  still  adhered  to  that  delusion  of  his  early  education. 

In  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  Voltaire's  extraordinary 
influence  upon  the  mind  of  Europe,  we  ought  not  to  be 
guilty  of  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  his  intellectual 
gifts  constituted  the  whole  or  even  the  principal  part  of 
his  marvellous  power.  However  much  we  may  attribute 
to  his  versatile  and  transcendent  intellect,  we  ought, 
perhaps,  to  ascribe  still  more  to  the  intensity  as  well  as 
extreme  susceptibility  of  his  emotional  nature.  It  has 
been  justly  remarked  that  the  same  general  law  holds 
good  in  the  moral  or  the  social,  as  in  the  material,  world, 
— that  every  body  is  attracted  in  the  same  proportion  that 
it  attracts  others.  If  Voltaire  e.xercised  a  greater  attract- 
ive influence  on  the  mind  of  Europe  than  any  other  man 
of  his  age,  it  was  because  he  felt  more  than  any  other 
the  influence  of  the  age  upon  himself.  This  explains 
why  he  not  merely  instructed  or  dazzled  the  minds  of 
his  contemporaries,  but  won  their  sympathy  and  affec- 
tion as  no  literary  man  or  poet  had  ever  done  before. 
The  influence  of  his  intellect  and  heart  was  all  the 
more  powerful,  because  in  his  sentiments  and  ideas  he 
was  so  little  elevated  above  the  mass  of  his  readers,  that 
he  could  e.\ert  to  the  fullest  extent  all  that  attractive 
power  which,  as  every  one  knows,  is  greatest  when  near- 

§  Of  this  his  reckless  observations  and  slurs  upon  Shakspeare 
furnish  a  striking  illustration.  In  one  place  he  says  that  Shakspeare 
"was  but  an  ugly  ape,"  ("«V/rt:V  qu'un  vilain  si'ng-e.")  On  another 
occasion  he  calls  the  English  dramatist  "  the  Comeille  of  London, 
but  a  great  fool  anywhere  else,"  ("  ?<«  grand/ou  cCailUurs.")  But 
perhayis  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  his  absurdities  is  his  complaint 
against  the  indecencies  of  Shakspeare,  (see  his  letter  to  La  Harpe, 
August  IS,  1776,) — and  this,  too,  from  the  author  of  "La  Pucelle"  I 
II  "  Many  of  his  statements,"  says  the  "  Encyclopa5dia  Britannica," 
"astonish  us  for  their  temerity,  whether  we  attribute  them  to  igno- 
rance or  effronterv.  Thus,  he  says,  for  example,  '  It  is  a  decided 
truth,  whatever  Abbadie  may  say  to  the  contrary,  that  none  of  the 
first  Fathers  of  the  Church  down  to  Irenaeus  inclusive  have  quoted 
any  passage  from  the  four  Gospels,  with  which  we  are  acquainted.' 
Again  he  says  (in  the  "  Encyclopaedia,"  under  the  head  of  "  Christi- 
anity") that  among  the  early  Christians  "  fifty-four  societies  had  fifty- 
four  different  gospels,  all  secret,  like  their  mysteries."  (!)  He  appears, 
indeed,  to  have  thrown  out  his  falsehoods  with  utter  recklessne.ss 
whenever  lie  thought  they  could  serve  his  turn,  trusting  that  his  great 
name  in  literature,  and  the  confident  assurance  with  which  they  were 
uttered,  would  induce  tlie  vast  majority  of  readers  to  accept  thera 
without  examination,  in  which  method  of  proceeding  he  has  been 
followed  by  other  assailants  of  Christianity. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi,  f^ttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOLTAIRE 


2410 


VORHERR 


est  the  object  to  be  attracted.  That  marvellous  suscep- 
tibility of  heart,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  not  only 
prompted  him  to  those  generous  acts  of  benevolence 
which  constitute  his  one  claim  to  true  glory,  but  also 
caused  him  to  adopt  with  facility,  or  rather  to  embrace 
with  eagerness,  the  prevailing  foibles  and  vices  of  his 
age,  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  represented  in  all  its 
strength  and  in  all  its  weakness.  While  the  influence  of 
his  writings  doubtless  contributed  powerfully  to  accel- 
erate the  denouement  of  that  mighty  tragedy  in  France, 
the  first  acts  of  which  may  be  said  to  date  from  the 
commencement  of  the  century,  if  not  earlier,  it  did  not, 
we  believe,  very  materially  modify  the  direction  or 
character  of  the  great  movement  of  which  he  appeared 
to  be  the  leader,  but  of  which  he  was  in  reality  scarcely 
more  than  its  most  striking  manifestation.  He  was,  it 
may  be  said,  but  the  foremost  wave  in  a  mighty  deluge, 
urged  on  by,  as  well  as  leading,  those  behind.  Had  he 
been  as  great  morally  as  he  was  intellectually,  he  might 
probably' have  impressed  a  very  different  character  upon 
the  French  Revolution.  He  might  have  fostered  and 
developed  the  spirit  of  liberty,  without  at  the  same  time 
letting  loose  upon  society  the  demons  of  licentiousness, 
oi persiflage,  and  of  blasphemy.*  But,  with  his  vain  and 
fickle  character,!  it  would  have  been  as  impossible  for 
him  to  direct  such  a  movement  steadily,  wisely,  and 
beneficently,  as  it  would  have  been  to  support  the  earth 
upon  his  shoulders.  His  was  no  Atlantean  strength, 
capable  of  sustaining  any  great  cause  steadily  and  firmly  ; 
it  was  rather  the  fitful  and  uncertain  strength  of  the 
wind,  which,  moved  by  forces  not  residing  in  itself,  may 
at  one  moment  refresh  and  revive  the  fainting  traveller, 
and  the  next,  heap  the  burning  sands  of  the  desert  upon 
a  perishing  caravan, — may  at  one  time  carry  prosper- 
ously across  the  main  a  vessel  laden  with  precious 
treasure,  and  at  another,  overwhelm  this  same  vessel  in 
the  depths  of  the  ocean. 

See,  besides  the  works  already  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  article, 
Frederick  the  Great,  "  filoge  de  Voltaire,"  1778;  Condorckt, 
"Vie  de  Vohaire,  suivie  des  Memoires  de  Voltaire,  Merits  par  lui- 
meme,"  1787:  Jeam  Francois  de  La  Harpk,  "  £loge  de  Voltaire," 
17S0;  C.  Palissot,  "filos^e  de  Voltaire,"  1778;  Louis  Simon  Au- 
ger, "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Voltaire,"  1827  :  j.  F.  Gili-et,  "Voltaire 
der  Reformator,"  1772;  Durdent,  "  Histoire  littdraire  et  philoso- 
pliique  de  Voltaire,"  1818;  Standish,  "  Life  of  yoltaire,"  i8ig; 
La  Roche  du  Maine  de  Luchet,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Voltaire," 
etc.,  6  vols.,  1782;  Mazure,  "Vie  de  Voltaire,"  1821 ;  Saint-Albin 
Berville,  "Notice  historique  sur  Voltaire,"  1S27;  Paillet  dk 
Warcv,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Voltaire,"  2  vols., 
1823;  Bungener,  "Voltaire  et  son  Temps,"  2  vols.,  1S50;  VoN 
Zabuessnig,  "  Historische  und  kritische  Nachrichten  von  dem 
Leben  und  den  Schriften  des  Herrn  Voltaire,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1777: 
Pastoret,  "  Eloge  de  Voltaire,"  1779  ;  "  Leven  van  F.  M.  Arouet 
van  Voltaire,"  Utrecht,  1779;  Maria  Julia  Young,  "Voltairiana," 
4  vols.,  1805:  Ellis';kn,  "Voltaire  als  politischer  Dichter,"  etc., 
1852  ;  LoNGCHAMP  et  WAGNifeRE,  "  Memoires  sur  Voltaire,"  2  vols., 
i82'5 ;  J.  Venedev,  "  Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  Voltaire,"  1859;  A. 
HoussAVE,  "  Le  Roi  Voltaire,"  1861;  P.  Duprat,  "Voltaire  et 
I'Encyclop^die,"  1865;  F.  A.  Harel,  "  Discours  sur  Voltaire," 
1844:  Charles  Nisard,  "  Les  Ennemis  de  Voltaire,"  1853  :  Gabe- 
rel,  "  Voltaire  et  les  Genevois,"  i860;  Sainte-Beuve,  '•Causeries 
du  Lundi,"  tomes  ii.  and  xiii.  ;  Lepan,  "  Vie  politique,  llueraire  et 
morale  de  Voltaire,"  1817:  Qu^rard,  "  Bibliographie  Voltairienne," 
1844;  O.  Honor^,  "Voltaire  &  Lausanne,"  1S53  ;  Villemain, 
"  Tableau  de  la  Litt^rature  du  dix-huitifeme  Si^cle :"  Cousin  d' Aval- 
LON,  "  Voltairians,"  iSo[  :  "  Biographic  Universelle;"  and  the  elabo- 
rate article  on  "Voltaire,"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 


*  Lord  Brougham  defends  Voltaire  against  the  charge  of  blasphemy, 
on  the  ground  that  one  cannot  be  guilty  of  blasphemy  against  any 
being  in  whom  the  offender  has  no  Ijelief.  One  might  utter  all  hor- 
rible slanders  against  the  character  of  Christ,  and  yet,  according  to 
this  view,  it  would  not  be  blasphemy  if  the  speaker  or  writer  did  not 
believe  in  the  divinity  of  Christ.  In  reply  to  this  argujnent,  it  may 
suffice  to  say  that  it  has  no  support  in  the  original  signification  of 
the  verb  to  "blaspheme,"  which  is  simply  to  "slander"  or  "  vilify;" 
and  it  appears  to  have  no  sanction  in  the  usage  of  any  European 
language. 

t  Byron  has  most  aptly  portrayed  the  character  of  Voltaire  when, 
contrasting  him  with  Gibbon,  he  says, — 

"  The  one  was  fire  and  ficklenes.s,  a  child. 
Most  mutable  in  wishes,  but  in  mind 
A  wit  as  various, — gay,  grave,  sage,  or  wild, — 
Historian,  bard,  philosopher  combined  ; 
He  multiplied  himself  among  mankind. 
The  Proteus  of  their  talents;  but  his  own 
Breathed  most  in  ridicule, — which,  as  the  wind, 
Blew  where  it  listed,  laying  all  things  prone, — 
Now  to  o'erthrow  a  fool,  and  now  to  shake  a  throne." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iii.  stanza  cvi. 
For  some  very  curious  and  interesting  notices  of  the  fickleness, 
as  well  as  intensity,  of  Voltaire's  feelings,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Marmontel's  "Memoires," 


Volterrano.    See  Maffei,  {Raffaello  and  Fran- 

CESCHINI.) 

Voltolina,  vol-to-lee'nJ,  (Giuseppe  Milio,)  a  writer 
of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Salo,  on  the  Lake  of  Garda, 
flourished  about  1570.  He  wrote  a  fine  poem  on  Horti- 
culture, (1 574-) 

Vo-lum'nl-a,  a  Roman  matron,  was  the  wife  of  Cori- 
olanus.  She,  and  her  mother-in-law,  persuaded  that 
general  to  desist  from  his  purpose  of  attacking  Rome. 
(See  Veturia.) 

Vonck,  vonk,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  jurist,  born  near 
Brussels  in  1735.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
party  which  attempted  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Austria 
about  1789.     Died  in  1792. 

Vondel,  van  den,  vSn  den  von'del,  [Lat.  Vonde'- 
Lius,]  (JoosT,)  an  eminent  Dutch  ])oet,  born  at  Cologne 
in  1587,  was  a  son  of  Protestant  parents,  who  fled  from 
Antwerp  to  escape  persecution.  He  resided  mostly  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits, 
and  married  about  1610.  lie  produced  in  1620a  tragedy 
of  the  "Sack  of  Jerusalem,"  and  in  1625  a  more  famous 
drama,  called  "Palamedes,"  in  which  he  alluded  to  the 
execution  of  Barneveldt  in  such  indignant  terms  that  he 
was  fined.  His  drama  of  "  Gisbert  van  Amstel"  (1637) 
was  received  with  great  applause.  It  is  stated  that  he 
joined  the  Catholic  Church  about  1640.  Among  his 
remarkable  works  is  the  tragedy  of  "Lucifer,"  (1654,) 
which  is  said  to  resemble  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  He 
was  also  a  great  lyric  poet.  The  choruses  of  his  trage- 
dies are  sublime  lyrical  compositions.  He  was  the 
author  of  satires  and  many  other  poems,  and  is  regarded 
as  the  great  national  poet  of  Holland.     Died  in  1679. 

See  L.  V.  Ollefen,  "Leven  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  1783; 
Sijbrandi,  "  Vondel  and  Shakspeare,"  (in  Dutch,)  1841  ;  Pieter 
Camper,  "Dissertatio  de  J.  Vondelio,  Poeta  tragico,"  i8ig;  Hbn- 
DRiK  Zeeman,  "  Leven  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  1831  ;  C.  Loots, 
"Hulde  aan  de  Nagedachtenis  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  1817; 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine" 
for  May,  1854. 

Vondelius.    See  Vondel. 

Von  der_Hardt.     See  Hardt,  von  der. 

Vo-no'nes,  King  of  Parthia,  was  a  son  of  Phraates 
IV.  He  passed  some  of  his  early  years  at  Rome  as  a 
hostage,  and  began  to  reign  in  14  a.d.  Having  been 
deposed  by  his  subjects,  he  was  killed  in  19  a.d. 

Von-Visin.     See  Vizin,  von. 

Voorst,  van,  vtn  voRst,  (Adolph,)  a  Dutch  physi- 
cian and  botanist,  born  at  Delft  in  1597.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  professor  of  botany  at  Leyden.  Died  in 
1663. 

Voorst,  van,  [Lat.  Vor'stius,]  (Everard,)  a  Dutch 
physician,  born  at  Ruremonde  in  1565,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor  at  Leyden 
in  1598.  He  wrote  several  medical  works.  Died  in 
1624. 

Vopad§va,  vo-pa-da'va,  a  celebrated  Sanscrit  gram- 
marian, who  lived  perhaps  in  the  twelfth,  but  probably 
in  the  thirteenth,  century  A.D.  He  wrote  grammars  and 
commentaries,  inferior  to  the  grammar  of  Panini,  but 
valuable  for  the  later  Sanscrit  forms.  Many  other  books 
— including  even  the  great  "  Bhagavata-Purana" — are 
ascribed  to  him  by  Hindoo  authorities. 

Vo-pis'cus,  (Flavius,)  a  Latin  historian,  born  at 
Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  lived  about  300-320  A.D.  He  was 
one  of  the  writers  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta,"  to  which 
he  contributed  the  lives  of  Aurelian,  Tacitus,  Florianus, 
Probus,  etc.  He  is  regarded  by  some  critics  as  the  ablest 
of  the  writers  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta." 

See  D.  W.  MoLLER,  "  Disputatio  de  F.  Vopisco,"  1687. 

Vor,  voR,  or  Vo'ra,  written  also  Vara,  [probably 
from  vor  or  for,  (Ger.  vor,)  "  before"  or  "  beforehand," 
so  named  on  account  of  her  prudence  and  foresight,]' a 
goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  distinguished  for  her 
wisdom  and  sagacity.  It  is  her  office  to  search  out  and 
punish  broken  oaths  and  promises,  particularly  those 
of  lovers.  Nothing  can  escape  her  penetration,  and  no 
vows,  however  secret,  can  be  hidden  from  her. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythologi',"  vol.  i.  pp.  35  and  36. 

Voragine,  (Giacomo.)   See  James  (or  Giacomo)  de 

VORAGINE. 

Vorherr,  foR^hSR,   (Johann  Michael  Christian 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lotig;  i,  h,  i>,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obsatre;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  ni§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VORONIKHIN 


2411 


voss 


GusTAV,)  a  German  architect,  born  at  Freudenbach  in 
1778,  studied  at  Berlin  and  Paris,  and  was  subsequently 
employed  to  construct  a  number  of  public  buildings  in 
the  vicinity  of  Munich.     Died  in  1847. 

Voronikhin  or  "Woronichin,  vo-ro-ne-K^n',  (An- 
drei NiKiFOROViTCH,)  a  Russian  architect,  born  in  1760, 
was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  was  patronized  by  Count 
Alexander  Stroganol.  He  studied  at  Moscow,  and 
subsequently  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed,  after  his  re- 
turn, professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  In  181 1  he 
comi^leted  the  superb  cathedral  of  "Our  Lady  of 
Kazan,"  in  the  Nevskii  Prospect,  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  structures  in  the 
city.     Died  in  1814. 

Vorontsof,  v5r-flnt-sof',  Vorontzov,  or  Woron- 
zo'w,  (Alexander,)  Count,  a  Russian  statesman  under 
tiie  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  was  a  brother  of  the  Princess 
Dashkof,  the  intimate  friend  of  that  empress.  He  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Alexander  chancellor  of  the 
empire  in  1S02.     Died  in  1806. 

Vorontsof,  Vorontzov,  or  VSToronzow,  (Mikhau 
Ilarionovitch,)  Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist  and 
statesman,  born  in  17 10,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour 
of  the  empress  Elizabeth,  and  rose  to  be  chancellor  of 
the  empire.  He  negotiated  the  treaty  of  alliance  be- 
tween Russia  and  Sweden  in  1745.     Died  in  1767. 

Vorontsof,  Vorontzov,  or  Woronzow,  (Mikhail 
Semenovitch,)  Prince,  a  Russian  general  and  states- 
man, born  at  Moscow  in  1782.  He  was  educated  in 
England,  where  his  father.  Semen  Woronzow,  resided 
as  Russian  ambassador.  Having  entered  the  Russian 
army,  he  served  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  Napoleon  from  1812  to  1815.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  governor  of  New  Russia  and 
Bessarabia,  and  in  1844  of  the  Caucasian  provinces. 
Died  in  1856. 

Vorontzov  or  VorontzofF.     See  Vorontsof. 

Vorosmarty  or  Voeroesmarty,  vo'rbsh-morty, 
(almost  -moRtch,)  (MihAly,)  a  celebrated  Hungarian 
writer  and  patriot,  born  in  the  county  of  Fejervar  in 
1800.  He  published,  while  a  student  at  Pesth,  his  drama 
of  "King  Solomon,"  (1821,)  which  was  followed  by  a 
poem  entitled  "The  Triumph  of  Fidelity,"  (1822,)  "King 
Sigismund,"  (1824,)  a  drama,  "The  Flight  of  Zalan,"  an 
epic  poem,  and  the  tragedy  of  "Kont,"  (1825.)  His 
narrative  poems  entitled  "Cserhalom"  and  "  Tlie  En- 
chanted Valley"  ("Tiindervolgy,"  1827)  established  his 
reputation  as  the  first  Hungarian  poet  of  his  time.  He 
was  a  contributor  to  Kisfaludy's  "Aurora,"  and  was  for 
several  years  editor  of  a  journal  called  "The  Repository 
of  Science."  In  1830  he  published  a  patriotic  lyric  entitled 
"  The  Appeal,"  ("  Szozat,")  which  at  once  became  widely 
popular,  and  the  author  received  from  the  Hungarian 
Academy  a  ducat  for  every  line.  He  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1848,  and  was  a  deputy  to  the  National 
Assembly  for  the  county  of  Bacska,  and  after  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarians  was  imprisoned  a  short  time.  He 
died  in  1856,  while  engaged  on  a  translation  of  Shak- 
speare. 

Vorst,  foRst,  or  Vorstius,  foR'ste-Cis,  (Johann,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Wesselburg  in  1623.  He 
settled  in  Berlin  in  1660,  and  became  rector  or  president 
of  the  college  of  that  city.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Sacred  Philology,"  etc.,  ("Philologia  Sacra,  sen 
de  Hebraismis  Novi  Testamenti  Liber,"  1658.)  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1676. 

Vorsterman,  voR'ster-min',  (Lucas,)  a  skilful  Flem- 
ish engraver  and  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1580, 
was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Rubens,  among  which  are  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
and  the  "  Descent  from  the  Cross."  He  worked  in 
London  about  nine  years,  (1624-32,)  during  which  he 
engraved  a  number  of  portraits  after  Van  Dyck.  Died 
about  1645.  His  son  Lucas  was  an  engraver,  but  not 
equal  to  the  father. 

See  Nagler,  "AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Vorstius.     See  Vorst  and  Voorst. 

Vorstius,  foR'ste-iis,  or  Vorst,  foRst,  (Conrad,)  a 
German  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Cologne  in  1569. 
Having  taken  the  degree  of  D.D.  at  Heidelberg,  he  be- 
came professor  of  theology  at  Geneva,  and  afterwards 


filled  the  same  chair  in  the  school  of  divinity  at  Stein- 
furt.  In  1610  he  succeeded  Arminius  in  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Leyden.  His  appointment  to  this  post  was 
strongly  opposed  by  the  Calvinists  in  Holland,  on  account 
of  the  heresies  contained  in  his  "  Disputations  on  the 
Nature  and  Attributes  of  God,"  ("De  Deo,  seu  Dis 
putationes  decern  de  Natura  et  Attributis  Dei,"  etc. 
The  book  was  condemned  to  be  publicly  burned  by  James 
I.  of  England,  who  also  wrote  a  tract  against  the  author. 
In  1619  he  was  denounced  by  the  Synod  of  Dort  as  un- 
worthy of  his  office,  and  exiled  from  the  country.  He 
died  at  Tonningen  in  1622.  He  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral religious  and  controversial  works,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  piety. 

Vor'ti-gern,  a  British  chief,  who  was  elected  king 
about  445  A.D.  To  defend  Britain  against  the  Picts  and 
Scots,  he  invited  the  aid  of  the  Saxons.  Hengist  and 
Horsa  led  an  army  of  Saxons  into  Britain,  and  soon 
turned  their  arms  against  Vortigern,  who  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  485  A.D. 

Vos,  vos,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  dramatist.  His  "  Aaron  and 
Titus"  (1641)  was  a  brilliantly-successful  tragedy.  The 
"Oeiie"  (1641)  is  an  obscene  farce.  Other  works  of  his 
are  poems,  (1662,)  and  "  Medea,"  a  good  tragedy,  (1665.) 
Died  in  1667. 

Vos,  de,  deh  vos,  (Cornelis,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Hulst  about  1585.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  and 
painted  several  historical  pieces.  Died  at  Antwerp  in 
1651. 

Vos,  de,  (Martin.)     See  Devos. 

Vos,  de,  (Paul,)  a  painter  of  animals  and  hunting- 
scenes,  born  at  Hulst  (or  Aelst)  about  1590,  was  a  bro- 
ther of  Cornelis,  noticed  above.     Died  in  1654. 

Vos,  de,  (Simon,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1603  ;  died  about  1675. 

Vos,  van,  v^n  vos,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  writer  on 
theology  and  moral  philosophy,  born  about  1740.  He 
was  employed  as  pastor  at  Amsterdam.     Died  in  1823. 

Voss,  (Gerard.)     See  Vossius. 

Voss,  fos,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  scholar,  was  a  son 
of  the  following.  He  became  a  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Heidelberg.  He  translated  /Eschylus  into  Ger- 
man, and  aided  his  father  in  a  translation  of  Shakspeare. 
Died  in  1822. 

Voss,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  an  eminent  German  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Sommersdorf,  (Mecklenburg,)  Febru- 
ary 20,  1751,  was  the  son  of  poor  parents.  After  he  left 
the  public  school  of  New  Brandenburg,  he  became  a 
tutor  in  a  family  (1769)  near  Penzlin.  Some  verses  which 
he  contributed  to  the  "  Musenalmanach"  of  Gbttingen 
attracted  the  notice  of  Boie,  the  editor,  who  invited  him 
to  Gbttingen.  He  went  thither  in  1772,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  philology  under  Ileyne,  with 
whom  he  soon  quarrelled.  He  became  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal members  of  the  literary  society  called  Hainbund, 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Klopstock,  and  married 
about  1777  a  sister  of  Boie,  above  mentioned.  He  quitted 
Gbttingen  in  1775  with  a  profound  knowledge  of  classical 
literature  and  philology,  and  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
public  school  at  Ottendorf  in  1778.  In  1781  he  produced 
an  excellent  translation  of  Homer's  "Odyssey,"  in  hex- 
ameter verse,  which  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the 
best  judges.  In  his  version  the  ideas  and  details  of  the 
original  are  reproduced  with  great  fidelity.  He  removed 
in  1782  to  Eutin,  in  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  where  he 
was  employed  about  twenty  years  as  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasium. In  1789  he  published  a  translation  of  Virgil's 
"Georgics,"  with  a  commentary.  His  admirable  trans- 
lation of  the  "  Iliad"  appeared  in  1793.  As  a  translator 
of  the  classics,  he  is  generally  considered  to  be  un- 
rivalled. He  contributed  much  to  the  improvement  of 
the  German  language  and  metre.  Between  1774  and 
1800  he  composed  eighteen  beautiful  idyls,  which  were 
published  collectivelyin  4  vols.,  1802.  His  pastoral  or 
idyllic  poem  "  Luise"  (1795)  is  considered  the  most 
charming  poem  of  that  kind  in  the  language. 

Voss  and  Heyne  were  involved  in  several  literary  con- 
troversies, and  indulged  in  violent  personalities.  In  1799 
he  published  a  translation  of  the  complete  works  of  Vir- 
gil. He  removed  from  Eutin  to  Jena  in  1802,  and  was 
called  in  1805  to  Heidelberg  by  the  Elector  of  Baden, 


€as;4;  fasj;  gkard;  gas;;  G,  H,  Yi,giiUural;  N,nasa^;  ^,trilled;  sass;  th  as  mthis.     (2;^='See  Explanations, p.  23.) 


FOSS 


2412 


VRIHASPA  Tl 


who  offered  him  a  pension  of  about  one  thousand  florins. 
He  afterwards  published  translations  of  Horace,  (1806,) 
Hesiod,  (1808,)  Theocritus,  Bion  and  Moschus,  (1808,) 
and  Aristophanes,  (1821.)  Voss  manifested  his  devo- 
tion to  the  Protestant  religion  and  liberal  principles  in 
a  work  entitled  "  How  F.  Stolberg  became  illiberal," 
("  Wie  ward  Fritz  Stolberg  ein  Unfreier,"  1819,)  and 
published  in  1823  his  "  Antisymbolik,"  in  answer  to 
Creuzer's  "  Symbolik,"  in  which  the  opinions  of  Heyne 
had  been  maintained.  He  had  two  sons,  Henry  and 
Abraham,  who  were  his  coadjutors  in  a  translation  of 
Shakspeare,  published  in  1818-26.  He  died  at  Heidel- 
berg in  March,  1826. 

See  Paulus,  "  Lebens-  und  Todeskunden  iiber  J.  H.  Voss,"  1826; 
Th.  ScHMro,  "'Lebeii  des  Dichters  J.  H.  Voss,"  1835;  J.  H.  Voss, 
"  Abriss  meines  Lebens,"  1S18;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe;"  Heinrich  DdRiNO,  "J.  H.  Voss  nach  seinem  Leben 
und  Wirken  dargestellt,"  1834;  J.  J.  Goerres,  "J.  H.  Voss  und 
seine  Todtenfeier  in  Heidelberg,"  1826 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale  ;"and  the  article  on  "German  Poetry" in  "  Fraser's  Maga- 
line"  for  April,  1832. 

Voss,  von,  fon  fos,  (Julius,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  in  Brandenburg  in  1768,  was  the  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  drarnas  and  romances.     Died  in  1832. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us,  (Dionysius,)  a  Dutch  Oriental- 
ist, born  at  Dort  about  1609,  was  a  son  of  the  following. 
He  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  learned 
several  modern  languages.  He  translated  into  Latin 
Maimonides  "  On  Idolatry,"  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1633. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us,  or  Voss,  vos,  (Gerard,)  a  Ger- 
man or  Flemish  theologian  and  priest,  born  near  Liege, 
lived  at  Rome.  He  edited  some  works  of  Chrysostom, 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  other  Greek  Fathers,  (1575- 
1604.)     Died  at  Liege  in  1609. 

Vossius,  (Gerard,)  a  classical  scholar,  a  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1620.  Jle  edited  Vel- 
leius  Paterculus,  (1639.)  His  death  is  variously  dated 
from  1640  to  1650. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us  or  fos'se-iis,  or  Voss,  fos,  (Ge- 
rard Jan,)  a  celebrated  German  scholar,  born  near 
Heidelberg  in  1577.  He  removed  to  Dort,  in  Holland, 
studied  theology,  history,  and  antiquities  at  Leyden,  and 
became  master  of  the  public  school  at  Dort  in  1600. 
He  was  appointed,  in  1614,  rector  of  the  theological 
school  at  Leyden,  in  which  he  soon  after  filled  the  chair 
of  eloquence.  He  visited  England  in  1629,  and  was 
installed  as  a  prebendary  of  Canterbury,  through  the 
influence  of  Archbishop  Laud.  About  1632  he  became 
professor  of  history  in  a  new  college  at  Amsterdam.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1649.  Among  his  principal  works 
may  be  named  "Aristarchus,  or  Seven  Books  on  the 
Dramatic  Art,"  ("Aristarchus,  sive  de  Arte  Dramatica 
Libri  VH.,")  "  Historia  Pelagiana,"  (1618,)  "The  Rhe- 
torical Art,"  ("Ars  Rhetorica,"  1623,)  "  On  the  Greek 
Historians,"  ("De  Historicis  Graecis  Libri  ties,"  1624,) 
"On  the  Latin  Historians,"  ("  De  Historicis  Latinis 
Libri  tres,"  1627,)  and  "  Commentariorum  Rhetori- 
corum  (sive  Oratoriarum  Institutionum)  Libri  VI." 

He  was  a  friend  of  Grotius,  and  was  a  man  of 
commendable  piety  and  modesty.  "  Gerard  Vossius," 
says  Hallam, — "a  far  greater  name  in  general  literature 
than  Scioppius, — contributed  more  essentially  to  these 
grammatical  rules ;  and  to  him  perhaps,  rather  than 
to  any  other  one  man,  we  may  refer  the  establishment 
of  as  much  correctness  of  writing  as  is  attainable  in  a 
dead  language."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  C.  ToLLius,  "Oratin  in  Obitum  G.  J.  Vossii,"  1649;  Meur- 
sius.  "  Athenae  Batavse  ;"  NicSron,  "  M^moires  :"  Val^re  AndrS, 
"Bibliotheca  Belgica :"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Vossius,  (Isaac,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Leyden  in  1618.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father, 
and  subsequently  travelled  in  France  and  Italy.  In 
1648  he  was  invited  by  Queen  Christina  to  Sweden, 
where  he  resided  nearly  ten  years.  He  visited  England 
in  1670,  and  was  made  a  canon  of  Windsor  by  Charles 
II.  He  published  editions  of  Scylax,  Pomponius  Mela, 
and  other  classics,  "Dissertations  on  the  Seventy  Inter- 
preters, and  their  Translation  and  Chronology,"  ("  De 
Septuaginta  Interpretibus,  eorumque  Translatione  et 
Chronologia  Dissertationes,"  1663,)  "On  the  Chanting 
of  Poems  and  the  Power  of  Rhythm,"  ("  De  Poematum 


Cantu  et  Viribus  Rhythmi,"  1673,)  and  "A  Book  of 
Various  Observations,"  ("Variarum  Observationum 
Liber.")  He  died  in  1688,  leaving  a  large  and  very 
valuable  library,  which  was  purchased  by  the  University 
of  Leyden.  His  learning  was  profound,  but  he  was  dis- 
solute in  character  and  skeptical  in  religion,  though  so 
credulous  in  ot'-er  things  that  Charles  II.  said  of  him 
"This  learned  divine  will  believe  anything  except  the 
Bible." 

See  FoppFNs,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica;"  Nic^RON,  "M^nioires;" 
•'  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vossius,  (Mattheus,)  a  historical  writer,  born  at 
Dort,  was  a  brother  of  Isaac  Vossius.  He  became  li- 
brarian of  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  and  published,  in 
Latin,  "Annals  of  Holland  and  Zealand,"  (1645-46.) 
Died  in  1646. 

Vosterman,  vos'ter-man',  (John,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Bommel  in  1643.  lie  worked  in  Eng- 
land, and  was  patronized  by  Charles  II.  He  is  said  to 
have  excelled  in  delicacy  of  finish.     Died  in  1699. 

Vouet,  voo'i',  (Simon,)  a  celebrated  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1582,  (or  1590,  according  to  the  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale.")  He  studied  at  Venice 
and  Rome,  and,  after  his  return,  was  appointed,  in  1627, 
painter  to  Louis  XIII.  He  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
French  school  of  painting,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  Mignard,  Le  Brun,  Le  Sueur,  and  other  distin- 
guished artists.  He  adorned  many  churches  of  Paris 
with  his  works,  which  are  defective  in  colour  and  design. 
Died  in  1649,  (or,  as  some  say,  1641.) 

See  F^libien,  "  Les  Artistes  Fran^ais  ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Voullawd,  voo'ISn',  (Henri,)  a  violent  French  Jaco- 
bin, born  at  Uzes  in  1750,  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention of  1792-95.     Died  in  1802. 

Vouloun,  voo'Ioon',  (Antoine,)  a  French  (Provencal) 
poet,  born  at  Aries,  July  24,  1S24,  He  became  a  railway- 
station-master  at  Cannes,  and  published  a  number  of 
brochures  filled  with  simple  rhymes. 

Voyer.     See  Argenson,  d'. 

Voys,  vols,  (Ary  or  Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1641.  He  painted  history  and  land- 
scaoes. 

Voy'sey,  (Charles,)  an  English  preacher,  born  in 
London,  March  18,  1S28.  He  graduated  at  Saint  Ed- 
mund Hall,  Oxford,  in  1851,  and  took  orders  in  the  Es- 
tablished Church,  but  was  deprived  for  heresy  in  1871. 
He  has  published  various  works  setting  forth  rationalistic 
views  of  religion. 

Voysiii'or  Voisin,  vwd'ziN',  (Daniel  FRANgois,) 
a  French  lawyer  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  about  1654. 
He  was  patronized  by  Madame  de  Maintenon,  through 
whose  influence  he  became  secretary  of  war  in  1709,  and 
chancellor  of  France  in  1714.  He  wrote  the  last  will  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  a  few  days  after  the  king's  death  pro- 
nounced it  null.     Died  in  171 7. 

Vre'tos  or  Vre'to,  (Andrew  Papadopoulos,)  a 
modern  Greek  writer,  born  at  Theaki  (Ithaca)  in  1800. 
He  published  many  works,  among  which  is  a  "  Life  of 
President  Capo  d'Istria,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1837-38,) 
and    "The    Literature   of    Modern    Greece,"    (2   vols., 

1854-57-) 

Vriemoet,  vRee'moot,  (Emo  Lucius,)  a  Dutch  phi- 
lologist and  minister,  born  at  Emden  in  1699.  Me  be- 
came professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Franeker  in 
1730.     Died  in  1760. 

Vriend.     See  Floris,  (Frans.) 

Vries,  vRees,  (Martin  Gerritzoon — geR'rit-zon,)  a 
Dutch  navigator,  was  sent  in  1643,  by  Van  Diemen, 
governor  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  India,  on  a  voyage 
to  explore  the  countries  north  of  Japan.  An  account 
of  the  expedition  appeared  in  1646. 

Vries,  de,  deh  vRees,  (Hans  Fredeman — fRa'deh- 
niSn',)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter  of  perspective  and 
architectural  pieces,  was  born  at  Leeu warden  in  1527. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Perspective,"  and 
produced  a  great  number  of  architectural  designs.  His 
sons  Paul  and  Solomon  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  same  department.     Hans  Fredeman  died  after  1604. 

Vrihaspatd,  vree-has'pa-tee,  or  Brihaspati,  in  the 
Hindoo    mythology,    the    guardian    of  the    hymns   and 


a,  e.  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sltort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VUEZ 


241, 


WA  CHLER 


prayers  which  are  addressed  to  the  gods,  lie  was  also 
the  preceptor  and  priest  of  the  gods,  and  the  regent  of 
the  planet  Jupiter.  He  had  seven  faces,  and  is  some- 
times identified  with  Agni. 

Vuez,  de.     See  Devuez. 

Vuillefroy,  or  Vuillefroy-Cassini,  de,  deh  vu'ySf- 
fRwS'  kts'see'nee',  (Dominique  F^lix,)  a  distinguished 
French  painter  of  landscape,  genre,  and  animals,  born 
in  Paris,  March  2,  1841.  Among  his  best  pictures  are 
"  Deer  in  the  Snow,"  "  Stags  in  Springtime,"  •'  November 
in  the  Forest  of  Fontainebleau,"  "  A  Market  in  Picardy," 
"  Steers  and  Cows,"  "  A  Herd  of  Cows  in  the  Bernese 
Oberland,"  etc. 

Vukassovich,  von,  fon  voo-kds'so-vik,  (Philip,) 
Baron,  a  general,  born  in  Slavonia  in  1755.  He  served 
as  a  general  of  the  Austrian  army  in  Italy  against  the 
French.     Died  in  1809. 

Vulcain.     See  Vulcan. 

Viil'can,  |Gr.  ')A<^aiaToq,  ( Hephaistos;)  Lat.  Vulca'- 
NUS ;  Fr.  VuLCAiN.vUrkiN';  It.  Volcano,  vol-ki'no,]  the 
Roman  god  of  fire,  celebrated  as  a  worker  in  metals  and 
a  fabricator  of  armour,  corresponds  to  the  Hephaestus 
(or  Hephaistos)  of  the  Greek  mythology.  According  to 
Homer,  he  was  a  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Hera,  (Juno,) 
and  was  weak  and  deformed  from  his  birth.  Other 
writers  reported  that  he  was  a  son  of  Juno,  and  had  no 
father  ;  that,  in  a  quarrel  between  Jupiter  and  Juno,  he 
took  the  part  of  his  mother,  and  was  hurled  down  from 
Olympus  by  Jupiter ;  that,  after  falling  a  whole  day,  he 
lighted  on  the  island  of  l^emnos ;  that  his  fall  rendered 
him  lame ;  that  he  forged  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter, 
and  fabricated  the  shield  of  Hercules,  the  armour  of 
Achilles  and  other  heroes,  and  other  famous  pieces  of 
exquisite  workmanship.  The  island  of  Leinnos  was  his 
favourite  residence  on  the  earth,  and  he  had  also  a  palace 
in  Olympus,  to  which  he  returned  after  his  fall.  He 
married  Venus,  whom  he  once  detected  in  the  embrace 
of  Mars.  The  story  of  this  affair  may  be  found  in  the 
"  Odyssey,"  book  viii.  According  to  popular  tradition, 
Mount  Etna  was  a  forge  of  Vulcan,  who  had  also  work- 
shops in  several  volcanic  islands,  and  the  Cyclopes 
worked  in  his  service.  (See  Virgil's  "yEneid,"  book 
viii.  370-448.)  The  ancients  ascribed  to  Minerva  and 
Vulcan  jointly  the  invention  or  the  introduction  of  the 
arts  which  embellish  life  and  distinguish  civilized  society 
from  the  savage  state.  He  was  represented  with  ham- 
mer and  tongs  at  the  anvil,  and  with  his  right  arm  bare. 
He  was  also  called  Mulciber,  which  is  perhaps  a  cor- 
ruption o{ mnlcifer,  (from  mtdceo,  to  "soften"  or  "render 
tractable,"  and  ferrum,  "  iron.")  The  name  Vulcanus 
seems  analogous  to  that  of  Balkan,  the  Assyrian  fire-god. 

Vulcanius,  vul-ki'ne-us,  (Bonaventura,)  a  Flemish 


classical  scholar,  born  at  Bruges  in  1538.  He  became  sec- 
retary to  Cardinal  Francisco  de  Mendoza  in  Spain  about 
1560,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Leyden  in  1578. 
He  edited  several  ancient  authors,  and  translated  some 
Greek  works  into  Latin.     Died  at  Leyden  in  1614. 

Vulliemin,  v^i'ye'miN^  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Yverdun  in  1797.  He  became  a  Protestant 
pastor,  and  professor  of  history  in  the  Lausanne  Acad- 
emy. His  works  include  "  Chillon,  £tude  historique," 
and  a  "History  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,"  (1876.) 
Died  August  10,  1879. 

Vul-Nirari  I.,  a  great  king  and  warrior  of  Assyria. 
He  died  about  1300  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Shalma- 
neser  I.  Vul-Nirari  II.  was  also  a  great  soldier,  who 
reigned  about  913-891  B.C.  Vul-Nirari  III.,  son  and 
successor  of  Samsi-Vul  HI.,  King  of  Assyria,  ascended 
the  throne  about  812  B.C.  He  made  twenty-five  cam- 
paigns in  Syria,  and  conquered  Damascus  and  the  coast- 
region  of  Palestine.  He  was  a  builder  of  great  palaces. 
He  reigned  twenty-nine  years,  and  died  B.C.  783,  leaving 
the  throne  to  his  son,  Shalmaneser  III. 

Vul'pl-U3,  [Ger.  pron.  fool'pe-iis,]  (Christian  Au- 
gust,) a  German  writer,  born  at  Weimar  in  1762.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Erlangen,  and  afterwards  became 
secretary  of  the  court  theatre  at  Weimar,  under  the 
direction  of  Goethe,  who  was  his  brother-in-law.  He 
published  "  Rinaldo  Rinaldini,"  ( 1 799,)  a  robber  romance, 
which  was  received  with  great  favour  ;  also  "  Romantic 
Histories  of  Former  Times,"  and  a  number  of  dramatic 
works.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  first  librarian 
and  overseer  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  at  Weimar.  Died 
in  1827. 

Vulson,  de,  deh  viil'sdN',  (Marc,)  a  French  writer  on 
heraldry.  He  fought  for  Henry  IV.  in  his  youth,  and 
became  a  gentleman  of  the  chamber  of  the  king.  He 
published  several  works.     Died  in  1658. 

Vy^sa,  ve-J'sa  or  vy^'sa,  [etymology  doubtful  ;  sup- 
posed by  some  to  signify  "  compiler"  or  "  arranger,"] 
called  also  Vfidavylsa,  va'da-vya'sa,  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  Hindoo  sage  or  saint,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  original  compiler  of  the  Vedas  and  Pura- 
nas,  and  the  founder  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy.* 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life,  and  by  some 
he  is  regarded  as  a  myth. 


*  The  Vedanta  philosophy,  called  also  simply  the  VedSntS,  (».«. 
the  "end  or  scope  of  [allj  knowledge,"  from  vidA,  "knowledge," 
and  anti,  "end"  or  "scope,")  is  a  sort  of  ide.il  system,  which 
has  been  derived  or  developed  from  portions  of  the  Vedas,  called  tha 
Upanishads,  (which  see.)  It  teaches,  amon§  other  things,  that 
Brahm,  the  infinite  eternal  Spirit,  is  the  only  being  really  existing  in 
the  universe.  All  creatures  are  merely  emanations  (or  we  might  say 
exhalations)  from  Him,  having  an  apparent  rather  than  a  real  exist- 
ence, and  wLU  at  last  be  absorbed  or  extinguished  in  his  essence. 


w. 


Waagen,  ^i'g?n,  (Gustav  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  amateur  and  art-critic,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1794.  He  studied  at  Breslau,  Dresden,  and  Munich, 
and  in  1823  was  appointed  director  of  the  Royal  Gallery 
of  Paintings  at  Berlin.  He  published  "  Works  of  Art 
and  Artists  in  England  and  France,"  ("  Kunstwerke  und 
Kiinstler  in  England  und  Frankreich,"  3  vols.,  1837,) 
"  Works  of  Art  and  Artists  in  Germany,"  ("  Kunstwerke 
und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland,"  2  vols.,  1843,)  "The 
Treasures  of  Art  in  Great  Britain,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1854, 
in  English,)  a  "  Life  of  Rubens,"  and  other  svorks,  which 
enjoy  the  highest  reputation.  He  was  appointed  in  1844 
professor  in  the  Royal  University  for  the  department  of 
art  history.     Died  at  Copenhagen  in  August,  1S6S. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1833. 

"WaaL     See  Wael. 

Waast.     See  Wast. 

Wace,  vis  or  vis,  (Robert,)  an  Anglo-Norman  poet, 
a  native  of  the  island  of  Jersey,  resided  at  the  court  of 
Henry  II.  at  Caen,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  "  Roman 
du  Rou,"  (ii6o.)  He  was  afterwards  made  a  canon  in 
the  cathedral  of  Bayeux.     His  "Roman  du  Rou  [Rollo] 


et  des  Dues  de  Normandie"  is  a  history  (inverse)  of  the 
Dukes  of  Normandy  from  the  invasion  of  Rollo  to  the 
time  of  Henry  I.,  and  is  highly  valued  as  a  historical 
record.  He  was  the  author  of  other  poems,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  entitled  "The  English  Brutus,"  ("  Le 
Brut  d'Angleterre.")     Died  about  1 184. 

See  Pluquet,  "  Not=  -e  sar  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  Robert  Wace," 
1S24:  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
February,  1S47,  article  "Anglo-Norman  Poets  of  the  Twelfth  Cen- 
tury;" "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Wach,  <^Ik,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  painter,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1787,  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  was 
elected,  after  his  return,  to  the  Royal  .'\cademy  of  Arts. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  new  school  of  paint- 
ing at  Berlin.  Ainong  his  best  works  is  the  altar-piece 
in  the  church  of  Peter  and  Paul  at  Moscow.     Died  in 

1845. 

Wachler,  <VaK'Ier,  (Johann  Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a 
German  writer,  borii  at  Gotha  in  1767.  Having  studied 
at  Jena,  he  becatne  professor  of  philosophy  at  Marburg 
in  "1801,  and  of  history  at  Breslau  in  1815,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  chief  librarian  of  the   University  al 


€38 /iv  <;asj;  g/tard;  g2isj;  G,H.V.,i^it{ural;  s, nasal;  v..triiL-d:  sasj;  tii  as  in //^w.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WACHSMUTH 


2414 


WADHAMS 


Breslau.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Manual  of  the  Uni- 
versal History  of  Literary  Culture,"  (1804,)  "Manual  of 
History,"  ("  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte,")  "Lectures  on 
the  History  of  German  National  Literature,"  (1818,)  and 
other  works,  which  have  a  high  reputation.   Died  in  1838. 

Wachsmutli,  tX-dks'moot,  (Ernst  Wilhelm  Goit- 
LiEB,)  a  German  historical  writer,  born  at  Hildesheim 
in  1784,  studied  at  Halle,  and  became  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Leipsic  in  1825.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  European  Manners,"  (Sittenge- 
schichte,)  (5  vols.,  1831,)  and  "Universal  History  of 
Culture,"  (1850.)     Died  at  Leipsic,  January  23,  1866. 

"Wachsmuth,  vSks'miit',  (Ferdinand,)  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  battles,  born  at  Mulhouse,  near 
the  Rhine,  in  1802.  Among  his  subjects  are  several 
French  victories  in  Algiers.     Died  November  11,  1869. 

Wachsmuth,  (Kurt,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Naumburg,  April  27,  1S37.  He  studied  at  Jena,  Bonn, 
Berlin,  and  Athens,  and  held  successive  professorships 
in  Marburg,  1864-68,  Goltingen,  1868-77,  ^"d  Heidel- 
berg. Besides  various  editions  of  Greek  texts,  he  wrote 
"Das  alte  Griechenland  in  neuen,"  (1864,)  "Die  Stadt 
Athen  im  Alterthum,"  (vol.  i.,  1874,)  etc. 

Wachter,  •fi'iK'ter,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  writer, 
born  in  1794,  published  several  treatises  on  Scandinavian 
legends  and  antiquities  ;  also  a  number  of  dramatic  works. 
Died  in  1861. 

Wachter  or  Waechter,  ^SK'ter,  (Georg  Philipp 
LuDWiG  Leonhard,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in  1762, 
was  the  author  of  "  Legends  of  Ancient  Times,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1837. 

Wachter,  (Johann  Georg,)  an  eminent  German 
linguist  and  archaeologist,  born  at  Memmingen  in  1673. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Ber- 
lin, and  became  first  librarian  and  director  of  the  Museum 
of  Antiquities  at  Leipsic.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Glos- 
Barium  Germanicum,"  etc.,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind,  "  Archaeologia  Nummaria,"  (1740,) 
and  other  treatises  on  numismatics  and  etymology.  Died 
in  1757. 

Wachter  or  Waechter,  von,  fon  <^§K'ter,  (Karl 
Georg,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Marbach,  on  the 
Neckar,  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Heidel- 
berg, and  became  in  1822  professor  of  law  in  the  former 
university,  of  which  he  was  made  chancellor  in  1836.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  civil  law  at  Leipsic  in  1852, 
and  published  several  legal  works.    Died  Jan.  15,  1880. 

Wachtler  or  Waechtler,  <^§Kt'ler,  (Christfried,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Grimme  in  1652.  He  published 
numerous  legal  works.     Died  in  1731. 

Wachtler  or  Waechtler,  (Jakob,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant minister  and  writer  on  tiieology,  born  at  Grimme 
in  1638;  died  at  Beltzig  in  1702. 

Wackenroder,  <^dVken-ro'der,  (Wilhelm  Heix- 
RICH,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1772.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Ludwig  Tieck,  in  conjunction  witii  whom 
he  published  "  Herzensergiessungen  eines  Kiinstlieben- 
den  Klosterbruders."     Died  in  1798. 

See  J.  G.  Ki-EIN,  "  Erinnerungen  an  Wackenroder,"  1809. 

Wackerbarth,  ^X-dk'ker-baRt',  (August  Chris 
toph,)  Count,  a  German  military  commander,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  Saxe-Lauenburg  in  1662.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  against  the  French  and  Turks,  and 
was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1712.     Died  in  1734. 

See  Frigander,  "  Leben  des  A.  C.  Grafen  von  Wackerbarth," 
2  vols.,  1739. 

Wackernagel,  <^ak'ker-nl'gel,  (Karl  Heinrich 
Wilhelm,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1806, 
became  professor  of  the  German  language  and  literature 
at  Bale  in  1835.  He  published  a  "German  Reader," 
(1S35,)  a  treatise  "On  Dramatic  Poetry,"  (1838,)  "His- 
tory of  German  Literature,"  (1848,)  and  other  works,  of 
great  merit,  on  similar  subjects.     Died  in  1869. 

wad-del',  (John  Newton,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Willington,  South  Caro- 
lina, April  2,  1S12.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Georgia  in  1829,  was  professor  of  ancient  languages  in 
the  University  of  Mississippi,  1848-57,  and  in  La  Grange 
College,  1857-60,  was  president  of  La  Grange  College, 
1860-62,  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Mississippi, 
1865-74,  secretary  of  education  for  the  Southern  Pres- 


]  byterian  Church.  1874-79,  and  in  1879  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  Soutliwestern  Presbyterian  University. 

wad-dell',  (James,)  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divme, 
celebrated  for  his  eloquence,  born  in  Ireland  in  1739, 
came  at  an  early  age  to  Americ.i,  and  settled  as  a  pastor 
in  Louisa  county,  Virginia.  He  was  the  original  of 
William  Wirt's  beautiful  sketch  of  the  "  Blind  Preacher." 
Died  in  1805. 

Wadding,  wSd'ding,  or  Wading,  (Luke,)  an  Irish 
scholar  and  Catholic  priest,  born  at  Waterford  in  1588. 
He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  in  Lisbon,  and  in 
1618  accompanied  Anthony  a  Trejo  on  a  mission  to 
Rome,  where  he  continued  to  reside,  and  founded  in 
1625  the  College  of  Saint  Isidore.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Annales  Ordinis  Minorum,"  etc.,  (8  vols., 
1628-54,)  being  a  history  of  the  order  of  Franciscans. 
Died  in  1657. 

Waddington,  wftd'ding-ton,  (George,)  an  English 
writer,  born  about  1793.  He  published  a  "History  of 
the  Church  from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Reformation," 
(3  vols.,  1835,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation  on 
the  Continent,"  (3  vols.,  1841.)  He  became  Dean  of 
Durham  in  1840.      Died  July  20,  1869. 

Waddington,  vt'diN't6N',  (William  Henry,)  a 
French  statesman,  of  English  extraction,  was  born  at 
Saint-Remi-sur-l'Avre,  December  11,  1826.  He  was 
educated  at  Rugby,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  in  1849.  In  1865  his  archaeological, 
historical,  and  numismatic  writings  procured  him  an 
election  to  the  Institute.  In  1871  he  entered  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  was  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
1873  and  in  1876-77,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  1877-79, 
and  in  1883  was  appointed  ambassador  to  England.  His 
principal  writings  are  a  "  Voyage  en  Asie  mineure," 
(1852,)  "Voyage  archeologique  en  Grece,"  (1864,)  and 
"  L'Edit  de  Diocletien,"  (with  notes,  1864.) 

Waddington  -  Kastus,  vt '  diN '  t6N'  kts'tiis', 
(Charle-S,)  a  French  Protestant  philosopher,  born 
about  1819.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Ramus,"  (1855,) 
and  "Essays  on  Logic,"  (1858.)  He  became  a  professur 
at  Strasburg  in  1856. 

Wade,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American  Sena- 
tor, distinguished  as  a  zealous  opponent  of  slavery,  borit 
at  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  October  27,  1800,  was  a 
son  of  ])oor  parents.  He  removed  to  Ohio  about  1821, 
was  employed  as  a  school-teacher  for  several  years,  and 
Studied  law.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1825,  and 
subsequently  resided  in  Ashtabula  county,  Ohio.  In 
1837  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Ohio, 
and  in  1847  he  was  chosen  presiding  judge  of  the  third 
judicial  district  of  that  State.  He  was  elected  a  Sena- 
tor of  the  United  States  by  the  Whigs  of  Ohio  in  1851. 
He  advocated  the  Homestead  bill,  voted  for  the  repeal 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  opposed  the  Nebraska 
Kansas  bill  of  1854.  He  was  re-elected  a  Senator  for 
six  years  in  1857,  and  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  territories.  In  December,  i860,  he  made 
a  speech  in  which  he  opposed  any  new  concessions  to 
the  slave-power,  and  declared  to  the  Southern  Senators, 
"  We  hold  to  no  doctrine  that  can  possibly  work  you 
any  inconvenience,  any  wrong,  any  disaster."  In  the 
session  of  1S61-62  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
joint  committee  on  the  conduct  of  the  war.  On  the 
question  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  States 
after  the  end  of  the  civil  war  he  was  a  decided  radical. 
He  was  elected  President  of  the  Senate  about  March, 
1S67,  having  been  selected  for  that  ofSce  on  account  of 
his  resolute  character  and  inflexible  fidelity  to  the  cause 
of  liberty.  At  the  Chicago  National  Convention,  May 
21,  1868,  he  received  on  the  first  four  ballots  more  votes 
than  any  other  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency,  but 
failed  to  obtain  the  nomination.     Died  March  2,  1878. 

Wadhani,  wSd'am,  (Nicholas,)  born  in  Somerset- 
shire in  1536,  was  the  founder  of  the  college  at  Oxford 
called  by  his  name.     Died  in  1610. 

Wadhams,  wod'amz,  (Edgar  P.,)  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Lewis,  New  York,  May  21,  1817,  gradu- 
ated at  Middlebury  College,  Vermont,  in  1838,  and  at 
the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  1847,  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  but  became  a  convert 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  1851,  studied  four  vears 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  filr,  Hill,  fdt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WADING 


2415 


WAGNER 


in  the  Sulpitian  Seminary,  Baltimore,  took  priest's 
orders,  and  in  1872  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Ogdens- 
burg. 

Wading,  wSd'ing,  ?  (Peter,)  an  Irish  Jesuit,  bom  at 
Waterford,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  Latin  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  and  became  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Gratz,  in  Styria.     Died  in  1644. 

Wadstrom  or  Wadstroem,  <^^d'stR6m,  (Carl 
Berns.)  a  Swedish  philanthro|5ist,  horn  at  Stockholm 
in  1746.  He  visited  Africa  in  1787,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  "Observations  on  the  Slave-Trade,  and  a 
Description  of  Some  Part  of  the  Coast  of  Guinea,"  etc., 
(1789,  in  English.)  This  work  first  suggested  to  the 
British  government  the  establishment  of  the  colonies  of 
Sierra  Leone  and  Bulema.     Died  in  1799. 

Wadsworth,  wSdz'worth,  (Benjamin,)  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Milton,  Massachusetts,  about  1670. 
He  preached  in  Boston  for  many  years,  and  became 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1725.    Died  in  1737. 

WadsTVOrth,  (James,)  a  wealthy  American  land- 
holder, born  at  Durham,  Connecticut,  in  1768.  He  re- 
moved at  an  early  age  to  Western  New  York,  where  he 
purchased  a  large  tract  near  the  Genesee  River.  He 
was  instrumental  in  founding  the  State  Normal  School, 
and  was  a  generous  patron  of  the  cause  of  education. 
Died  in  1844. 

Wadsworth,  (James  Samuel,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Geneseo,  Livingston  county.  New  York,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1807,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  and  Yale  Colleges,  studied  law  under 
Daniel  Webster,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833. 
He  inherited  an  immense  landed  estate  situated  in 
Western  New  York,  and,  like  his  father,  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  the  cause  of  education.  He  enlisted  as  a 
volunteer  early  in  1S61,  was  appointed  a  brigadier-gene- 
ral in  August,  and  became  military  governor  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  in  March,  1862.  In  November,  1862, 
he  was  the  Republican  candidate  for  Governor  of  New 
York,  but  was  not  elected.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862,  and 
at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  6,  1864. 

"The  country's  salvation,"  says  H.  Greeley,  "claimed 
no  nobler  sacrifice  than  that  of  James  S.  Wadsworth, 
of  New  York.  .  .  .  No  one  surrendered  more  for  his 
country's  sake,  or  gave  his  life  more  joyfully  for  her 
deliverance." 

See  Greeley,  "  American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  568,  s6g. 

Wadsworth,  (Peleg,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1748.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  represented  a 
district  of  Massachusetts  in  Congress  from  1792  to  1806. 
Died  in  0.\ford  county,  Maine,  in  1829. 

Waechter,  (Johann  Georg.)    See  Wachter. 

Waechtler.     See  Wachtler. 

Wael  or  Waal,  de,  deh  wSl  or  vll,  (Cornelius,)  a 
Flemish  battle-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1594,  was  a 
son  of  John  de  Wael,  noticed  below.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Genoa,  where  he  executed  a  number  of  excel- 
lent pictures,  consisting  chiefly  of  sea-fights  and  other 
battles.     Died  in  1662. 

Wael,  de,  (John,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1558,  attained  distinction  in  the  departments  of 
portr.iJt  and  historical  painting.     Died  in  1633. 

Wael,  de,  (Lucas,)  born  at  Antwerp  in  1591,  was  a 
brother  of  Cornelius,  noticed  above,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Genoa.  He  painted  landscapes  both  in  oil- 
colours  and  fresco,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died 
in  i67_6. 

Wa'fer,  (Lionel,)  an  English  surgeon,  who  accom- 
panied Dampier  on  one  of  his  voyages,  and,  having 
quarrelled  with  him,  was  left  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 
He  published  after  his  return  an  account  of  his  adven- 
tures among  the  Indians,  (1690.) 

Wafllard,  vt'fijR',  (Alexis  Jacques  Marie,)  9 
French  dramatist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1787.  Among 
his  works  are  "A  Moment  of  Imprudence,"  (1819,)  and 
a  "Voyage  to  Dieppe,"  (1821.)     Died  in  1824. 

Waga,  vS'gS,  (Theodore,)  a  Polish  historian,  born 
in  Mazovia  in  1739.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Poland," 
(1770.)     Died  in  1801. 


Wagenaar,  w5'geh-ntr'  or  wi'Heh-nir',  (Jan,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  historian,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1 709. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  Netherlands, 
entitled  "  De  Vaderlandsche  Historie  vervattende  de 
Geschiedenissen  der  vereenigde  Nederlanden,"  etc., 
(21  vols.,  1749-59,)  and  other  historical  works.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  P.  HuisiNGA  Barker,  "  Het  Leven  van  J.  Wagenaar,"  1776 

Wagenseil,  <^a'gen-zTl',  [Lat.  Wagenseil'ius,]  (Jo- 
hann Christoph,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1633.  He  became  professor  of  history  at  Altdorf 
in  1667,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  tutor  to  the 
counts-palatine.  He  published  a  number  of  critical, 
antiquarian,  and  controversial  treatises,  in  Latin,  among 
which  we  may  name  his  "  Tela  Ignea  Satanae,"  in  refu- 
tation of  the  Jewish  writers  against  Christianity.  Died 
in  1705. 

See  F.  RoTH-ScHOLTZ,  "Vita  J.  C.  Wagenseilii,"  i8ig;  Nic4- 
RON,  "  Menioires." 

Wagenseilius.     See  Wagenseil. 

Wa'ger,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1666,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  In 
1708,  with  four  ships,  he  defeated  seventeen  Spanish 
galleons  near  Carthagena,  South  America.  For  this 
exploit  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral.  He  afterwards 
commanded  a  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  till  the  peace 
of  1713.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the  mii>- 
istry  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  from  1732  to  1742.  About 
1 73 1  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral.    Died  in  1743. 

Wag'horn,  (Lieutenant  Thomas,)  R.N.,  an  English 
naval  officer,  born  in  Kent  in  1800.  He  served  in  India 
in  the  Arracan  war,  and  in  1827  applied  to  the  govern- 
ment for  assistance  in  carrying  out  a  project  he  had 
conceived  of  opening  communication  by  steam  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  East  Indies.  He  expended  much 
time  and  energy  in  this  useful  enterprise,  and  was  at 
length  successful.  The  result  of  his  labours  is  the  Over- 
land mail-route  through  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea.  Died 
in  1850. 

Wagner,  ^Jo'ner,  (Christian,)  a  German  scholar 
and  preacher,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1663.  He  wrote  a 
"Thesis  on  the  Number  of  Worlds,"  ("Thesis  de  Nu- 
mero  Mundorum.")     Died  in  1693. 

Wagner,  (Ernst,)  a  German  novelist  and  poet,  born 
in  1769,  published  "  Wilibald's  Views  of  Life,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  "The  Travelling  Painter,"  (2  vols.,  1806,)  "  Isi- 
dora,"  (3  vols.,  i8i2,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  181 2. 

See  F.  MosENGEiL,  "  Briefe  iiber  E.  Wagiier,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1826. 

Wagner,  (Georg  Philipp  Eberhard,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Schonbrunn,  in  Saxony,  in  1794, 
published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  on  "The 
Greek  Tragedy  and  the  Theatre  at  Athens,"  (1844.) 

Wagner,  (Gottlob  Heinrich  Adolf,)  a  German 
writer  and  translator,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1774.  He  pub- 
lished "Two  Epochs  of  Modern  Poetry,"  etc.,  (1806,) 
and  other  original  works,  and  translated  into  German 
Byron's  "  Manfred,"  and  Coxe's  "  History  of  the  House 
of  Austria,"  the  latter  in  conjunction  with  Dippold. 
Died  in  1835. 

"Wagner,  (Hermann,)  a  German  geographer,  born  at 
Erlangen,  June  23,  1840.  He  was  educated  at  Gottingen 
and  Erlangen,  and  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"  Almanach  de  Gotha  ."  He  acquired  fame  as  one  of  the 
editors  (with  Dr.  Behm)  of  the  celebrated  "  Die  Bevol- 
kerung  der  Erde"  ("The  Population  of  the  Earth")  and 
of  a  "Geographische  Jahrbuch,"  ("Geographical  Year- 
Book.")  In  1876  he  became  professor  of  geography  in 
the  University  of  Konigsberg. 

Wagner,  ^So'ner,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  natural- 
ist, born  near  Zurich  in  1641.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  a 
"Natural  History  of  Switzerland,"  (16S0.)    Died  in  1695. 

Wagner,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1775,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Wurzburg.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "On 
the  Nature  of  Things,"  (1803,)  a  "System  of  Ideal  Phi- 
los'-phy,"  (1S04,)  "Theodicee,"  (1809,)  and  "Organon 
der  menschlichen  Erkenntniss,"  (1830.)     Died  in  1841. 

See  P.  L.  Adam  and  A.  Koelle,  "J.  J.  Wagner,  Lebensnach- 
richten  iind  Briefe,"  184S. 

Wagner,  (Ludwig  Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary 
and  jurist,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1700;  died  in  1789. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zs,j;  G,  H,  K,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WAGNER 


2416 


WAKE 


Wagner,  (Moritz,)  a  German  traveller,  born  at 
Baireuth  in  1813,  published  "Travels  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Algiers,"  etc.,  (1841,)  "The  Caucasus  and  the 
Land  of  the  Cossacks,"  (1848,)  "Journey  to  Persia  and 
Kurdistan,"  (1852,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1887. 

Wagner,  (RiCHARn,)  a  distinguished  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Leipsic  in  1813.  He  was  appointed  chapel- 
master  at  Dresden  in  1843.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  the  operas  of  "  Rienzi,"  (1842,)  "  Tanhiiuser,"  (1845,) 
"Lohengrin,"  (1851,)  and  "Rheingold,"  (1869.)  In  1876 
he  brought  out  at  Baireuth  his  "  tetralogy,"  composed 
of  "Rheingold,"  "  Valkyria,"  "Siegfried,"  and  "The 
Twilight  of  the  Gods."  In  1882  appeared  his  opera  of 
"  Parseval."     Died  February  13,  1883. 

Wagner,  (Rudolf,)  a  German  physician  and  anato- 
mist, brother  of  Moritz,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
I5aireuth  in  1805.  He  succeeded  I'lunienbach  as  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  at  Gottingen  in  1840.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Comparative 
Physiology  of  the  Blood,"  (1833,)  a  "Manual  of  Com- 
parative Anatomy,"  (1834,)  and  "Icones  Physiologicae," 
(1839.)     Died  in '1864. 

Wagner,  (Rudolf  Johannes,)  a  German  chemist 
and  technologist,  born  at  Leipsic,  February  13,  1823. 
He  studied  chemistry  in  Leijjsic  and  in  Paris,  and  held 
professorships  in  Nuremberg  and  WUrzburg,  becoming 
in  i858inspectorof  technical  studies  for  Bavaria.  Among 
his  writings  are  "  Lehrbuch  der  Chemie,"  (1850,)  "  Lehr- 
buch  der  chemischen  Technologie,"  (1850,)  "  Geschichte 
der  Chemie,"  (1854,)  "  Handbuch  der  Technologie," 
(1856  ;  5th  vol.,  1863,)  and  "  Die  chemische  Fabrikindus- 
trie."  (1867.)     Died  in  1880, 

Wagner,  (Tobias,)  a  German  theologian  and  writer, 
born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1598.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Tiibingen.     Died  in  1680. 

Wagner,  (Wilhf.lm,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Steinau,  May  11,  1843.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn, 
and  was  a  teacher  in  England  and  at  Hamburg.  He 
published,  mainly  with  English  notes,  many  ancient  and 
mediaeval  Greek  texts,  and  also  issued  several  books 
on  Shakspeare,  including  his  works,  with  critical  notes. 
He  also  published  other  annotated  editions  of  English 
authors,  partly  with  German  notes.  Died  at  Naples, 
April  15,  1880.  His  special  field  of  study  was  mediaeval 
Greek  literature.  Plato,  Terence,  and  Plautus  were  also 
auth(^rs  whose  writings  were  in  part  annotated  by  him. 

Wagner,  von,  fon  ^iG'ner,  (Johann  Martin,)  s 
German  sculptor,  born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1777;  died  in 
1858. 

Wagniere,  vtn'ye-aiR',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss  litti- 
ratatr,  born  in  1739.  He  L)ecame  secretary  to  Voltaire 
about  1756,  and  gained  his  confidence.  In  conjunction 
with  Longchamp,  he  wrote  "Memoirs  on  Voltaire  and 
his  Works,"  (2  vols.,  1825.)     Died  after  1787. 

Wagram,  Prince  of.     See  Berthier. 

Wag'staff,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician 
and  humorous  writer,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1685  ; 
died  in  1725. 

Wagstaffe,  wJg'stif,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1645.  He  published  a  "  Vin- 
dication of  King  Charles  I.,"  etc.,  and  a  number  of  ser- 
mons.    Died  in  1712. 

Wahhab  or  Wahab,  (Abdul.)     See  Aud-el-Wa- 

HAB. 

Wahl,  <^il,  (Christian  Albrecht,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Dresden  in  1773.  He  published  a 
"  Historical  and  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Biblical 
Writings,"  (1820,)  and  other  similar  works.   Died  in  1855. 

Wahl,  von,  fon  <^ll,  (Joachim  Christian,)  Count, 
a  German  general,  distinguished  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  in  which  he  fought  for  the  Catholics  or  Imperialists. 
He  commanded  with  success  in  the  Upper  Palatinate  in 


botanist,  born  in  the  province  of  Wermland  in  1780.  He 
visited  Lapland  and  other  northern  regions  of  Europe, 
and  subsequently  became  professor  of  botany  and  medi- 
cine at  Upsal.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Flora  Lapponica,"  "Flora  Carpatorum,"  and  "Flora 
Suecica."     Died  in  1851. 

Waiblinger,  <\I'bling-er,  (Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  a 
German  lilierateur,  born  at  Reutlingen  in  1804  ;  died 
in  1830. 

Waifer,  wT'fer,  fFr.  pron.  viTaiR',]  Duke  of  Aqui- 
taine,  born  about  725  A.D.,  began  to  reign  in  745.  His 
dominions  were  invaded  in  760  by  Pepin  le  Bref,  against 
whom  he  fought  without  success.  He  was  assassinated 
by  order  of  Pepin  le  Bref  in  768  a.d. 

Wailly,  de,  deh  vi'ye',  (Arm and  Francois  LAon,) 
a  French  litterolettr  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1804,  was 
a  grandson  of  Charles,  noticed  below.  He  wrote  a 
novel,  entitled  "  Stella  and  Vanessa,"  (1846,)  and  trans- 
lated the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  other  English 
authors.     Died  in  1863. 

Wailly,  de,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  French  ar- 
chitect, born  in  Paris  in  1729.  He  gained  the  grand 
prize  of  Rome  in  1752,  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Painting  as  a  designer  in  1771,  and  was  the  chief 
founder  of  the  Society  of  "  Amis  des  Arts."     Died  in 

1798. 

See  Lavall^k,  "  Notice  sur  Charles  de  Wailly,"  1799. 

Wailly,  de,  (Etienne  Augustin,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Paris  in  1770,  was  a  son  of  Noel  Fran^jis, 
noticed  below.  He  became /rt^z'Wrt^r  of  the  Lycee  Napo- 
leon.    Died  in  1821. 

His  son,  Alfred  Barth^lemi,  born  in  Paris  in  iSou, 
published  a  Latin-French  Dictionary,  (1829,)  and  a 
French-Latin  Dictionary,  (1832.)      Died  in  1869. 

Wailly,  de,  (Joseph  Noel,)  a  French  scholar,  a 
brother  of  Armand  Francois  Leon,  was  born  at  Mezierea 
in  1805.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Elements 
of  Palaeography,"  (2  vols.,  1838.)      Died  in  1886. 

Wailly,  de,  (Noel  Francois,)  a  French  scholar  and 
writer,  the  father  of  Etienne  Augustin,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Amiens  in  1724.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "General  and  Particular  Principles  of  the 
French  Language,"  "Abridgment  of  the  Dictionary  of 
the  Academy,"  "Principles  of  the  Latin  Language," 
"  Dictionary  of  Rhymes,"  and  "  Select  Histories  from 
the  New  Testament."     Died  in  1801. 

Wainw^right,  wan'rit,  (Jonathan  Mayhew,)  D.D., 
born  at  Liverpool,  England,  in  1 792,  emigrated  to 
America,  and  graduated  in  1812  at  Harvard  College. 
He  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  in  1834, 
assistant  minister  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  in  1837, 
and  in  1852  provisional  Bishop  of  the  diocese  of  New 
York.     Died  in  1854. 

Waite,  wat,  (Morrison  Remich,)  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  at  Lyme,  Connecticut,  November  29, 
1816.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1837,  and  be- 
came a  prominent  lawyer  of  Ohio.  In  1874  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
Died  March  23,  1888. 

Waith'nian,  an  English  magistrate,  born  near  Wrex- 
ham in  1765,  was  elected  lord  mayor  of  London,  and 
was  several  times  sent  to  Parliament.     Died  in  1833. 

Waitz,  <^ts,  (Georg,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  1813, 
published  several  historical  works,  among  which  is  a 
"  History  of  the  German  Constitution."      Died  in  18S6 

Waitz,  (Theodor,)  a  German  philosophical  writer, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1821.  He  published  a  "Manual  of 
Psychology  as  a  Natural  Science,"  (1849,)  and  other 
works.     Died  at  Marburg,  May  21,  1864. 

Wa'jeed'  Al'ee,  called  Akh'tar,  ("  eunuch,")  the 
last  king  of  Oude,  succeeded  his  father,  Umjud  Alee 
Shah,  in  1842,  and  in  1856  was  deprived  of  his  throne  by 


1634,  after  which  he  took  Baireuth,  .Augsburg,  and  other  \  the  East  India  Company  on  account  of  his  profligacy  and 
places.     Died  in  1644.  |  wretched  misgovernment.     After  his  dethronement   he 

W^ahlberg,  <Vll'b^RG,  (Peter  Frederik.)  a  Swedish   lived  at  Calcutta  on  a  large  pension.     He  wrote  much 


naturalist,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1800.  He  wrote  on 
botany,  and  succeeded  Berzelius  as  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences.      Died  in  1877. 

Wahlbom,  Cvil'bom,  ([ohann  Wilhelm  Carl,)  a 
Swedish  painter,  born  at  Calmar  in  iSio;  died  in  1858. 

Wahlenberg,   <^:i'len-b^RG',    (Georg,)    a    Swedish 


verse  in  the  rustic  dialect  of  Oude.     Died  in  18S7. 

Wake,  (Sir  Isaac,)  an  English  writer  and  diplo 
matist,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1575,  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "Rex  Platonicus."     Died  in  1632. 

Wake,  (William,)  an  English  prelate  and  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1657.     He  was  successively 


a,  e, I,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  S,  e, T,  o,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9, obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  nSt;  good;  m66n, 


WAKEDI 


2417 


WALDBURG 


created  Dean  of  Exeter,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  (1716.)  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England," 
"An  P'nglish  Version  of  the  Genuine  Epistles  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers,"  and  a  number  of  sermons  and  con- 
troversial works.     Died  in  1737. 

Wakedi,  Al,  (Mohammed.)     See  Wakidee. 

Wakefield,  wak'f^ld,  (Edward  Gibhon,)  an  Eng- 
lish writer  on  colonization  and  political  economy,  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "  England  and  America  :  a 
Comparison  of  the  Social  and  Political  State  of  Both 
Nations,"  (1833,)  and  "  View  of  the  Art  of  Colonization." 
He  became  in  1837  the  founder  of  the  New  Zealand 
Association.     Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849, 

Wakefield,  (Gilhert,)  an  English  scholar  and  theo- 
logian, born  at  Nottingham  in  1756.  He  studied  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  the  degree  of  H. .\. 
in  1776.  He  became  master  of  the  Dissenting  Academy 
at  Warrington  in  1779,  and  published  soon  after  "A 
Plain  and  .Short  Account  of  the  Nature  of  Baptism,"  ana 
a  "New  Translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew," 
(1782.)  These  works  were  followed  by  "Remarks  on 
the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1789,) 
and  "  Philological  Commentary  on  the  Sacred  and  Profane 
Authors,"  ("  Silva  Critica,  sive  in  Auctores  sacros  pro- 
fanosque  Conimentarius  Philologus,")  a  fifth  part  of 
which  appeared  in  1795.  ^^^  published  in  1791  his 
"Translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with  Notes,"  and 
"An  Inquiry  into  the  E.xpediency  and  Propriety  of 
Public  or  Social  Worship."  The  latter  caused  consid- 
erable sensation,  and  elicited  several  replies.  His  "Re- 
ply to  Some  Parts  of  the  Bishop  of  LlandatTs  Address" 
caused  him  to  be  imprisoned  two  years,  during  which 
time  he  wrote  his  critical  essays  entitled  "Noctes  Car- 
cerariae,"  ("Prison  Nights.")  He  died  in  1801,  leaving 
among  his  numerous  works  an  edition  of  Lucretius, 
which  is  still  esteemed. 

See  his  "  Autobiographic  Memoirs  of  the  First  Thirty-Six  Years 
of  the  Life  of  G.  Wakefield,"  1792;  "Monthly  Review"  for  October, 
«8os. 

Wake'field,  (Nancy  Amelia  Woodbury  Priest,) 
an  American  poetess,  born  at  Hinsdale,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1837.  Her  maiden  name  was  Priest.  Her  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  the  poem  "  Over  the  River,"  published 
in  1857.  She  was  married  in  1865,  and  died  at  Win- 
chendon,  Massachusetts,  September  20,  1870. 

Wakefield,  (Mrs.  Priscilla,)  an  English  educational 
writer,  born  in  1750.  She  was  the  author  of  an  "  Intro- 
duction to  Botany,"  (1796,)  "Reflections  on  the  Present 
Condition  of  the  Female  Sex,  with  Hints  for  its  Im- 
provement," (1798,)  "Juvenile  Traveller,"  (1801,)  "  Do- 
mestic Recreation,"  (1805,)  "The  Traveller  in  Africa," 
and  various  other  works.     Died  in  1832. 

Wakefield,  (Robert,)  an  English  linguist  and  priest, 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford.  He  wrote  a  para- 
phrase of  Ecclesiastes,  and  other  works.     Died  in  1537. 

wakidee  or  Wakidi,  wa'kT-dee',  written  also  W'a- 
qidy,  an  Arabian  writer,  born  at  Medina  in  748  a.D.  ; 
died  at  Bagdad  in  823.  He  made  a  collection  of  the 
traditions  concerning  iNIohammed  and  those  of  his  fol- 
lowers who  fought  at  Bedr,  called  "Tabakat-Kebeer,"  (or 
"-Kebir,")  the  "great  series"  or  "order  of  events."  It 
consists  of  biographies  arranged  in  chronological  order. 
His  life  of  the  prophet  has  been  pronounced  by  compe- 
tent critics  to  be  the  best  by  far  tliat  has  been  written. 

See  Sprenger,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  70  et  seq. 

Wakidi.     See  Wakidee. 

Wak'ley,  (Thomas,)  M.P.,  an  English  surgeon,  born 
i*^  ^795'  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the  "Lancet." 
He  represented  Finsbury  in  Parliament  from  1835  to 
1852.     Died  in  1862. 

Walaeus,  w.\-ia'Cis,  or  "Wale,  wil'leh,  (Antoon,)  a 
Dutch  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Ghent  in  1573.  He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden.     Died  in  1639. 

Walaeus,  (Jan,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1604.  He  is  said  to  have  made  some 
discoveries  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Died  at 
Leyden  in  1649. 

Walafridua,   w6l-a-free'dus    or    Ml'a-free'das,    or  | 


Walafried,  <va'ia-fReet',  written   also  Walhafredua, 

a  learned  German  monk,  surnamed  Stra'kus,  or 
"  .Squint-eyed,"  was  the  author  of  a  theological  essay, 
entitled  "  De  Officiis  Divinis,"etc.,  "  Hortulus,"  a  treat- 
ise on  botany,  (in  Latin  verse,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  849. 

Walbaum,  <VSl'b6wm,  (Johann  Julius,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  in' 1724; 
died  in  1799. 

Walch,  <^illK,  [Lat.  Wal'chius,]  (Christian  Wil- 
HELM  Franz,)  second  son  of  Johann  Georg,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1726.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  valuable  works  on  ecclesiastical  history,  theology, 
and  ancient  literature  ;  among  the  most  important  of 
these  are  his  "  History  of  the  Jewish  Patriarchs  men- 
tioned in  Books  of  Roman  Law,"  "  Compendium  of  the 
most  Modern  Ecclesiastical  History,"  (both  in  Latin,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Heresies,  Schisms,  and  Religious 
Controversies  down  to  the  Reformation,"  (in  German. 
II  vols.,  1762.)     Died  in  1784. 

See  C.  G.  Hev.\r,  "  Elogium  C.  G.  F.  Walchii,"  1784. 

Walch,  (Johann  Ernst  Immanuel,)  son  of  Johann 
Georg,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1725.  He  be- 
came professor  of  theology  in  his  native  city,  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  critical  and  theological  works,  also 
several  valuable  treatises  on  mineralogy.     Died  in  1778. 

See  Hennings,  "Leben  des  Professors  J.  E.  L  Walch,"  1780. 

Walch,  [Lat.  Wal'chius,]  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1693, 
became  successively  professor  of  philosophy,  eloquence, 
and  theology  at  Jena.  He  published  a  "  Pliilosophical 
Lexicon,"  (1726,)  "Introduction  to  the  Theological  Sci- 
ences," (1747,)  "  Theologia  Patristica,"  (1770,)  and  cthei 
works.     Died  in  1775. 

His  son  Karl  Friedrich  became  professor  of  law  at 
Jena,  and  was  the  author  of  several  legal  treatises.  He 
was  born  in  1734,  and  died  in  1799. 

Walcher,  (^ilK'er,  (Joseph,)  an  Austrian  Jesuit, 
noted  for  his  skill  in  hydraulics  and  mechanics,  was 
born  at  Linz  in  17 18.  He  was  professor  of  mechanics 
in  a  college  of  Vienna,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1803. 

■Walchiua.     See  Walch. 

Walckeiiaer,  v^l'keh-ndR',  (Charles  Athanase— 
t'ti'ntz',)  Baron,  an  eminent  French  writer  and  savant, 
born  in  Paris  in  1771.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Insti- 
tute in  1813,  and  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1840.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de 
J.  de  La  Fontaine,"  (1820,)  "  Histoire  generale  des  Vo- 
yages," (21  vols.,  1826-31,  unfinished,)  "  Natural  History 
of  Insects,"  (3  vols.,  1836-44,)  "Ancient  Geography, 
Historical  and  Comparative,  of  the  Gauls,"  (3  vols., 
1839,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  "  History  of  the  Life 
and  Poems  of  Horace,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  and  "  Memoires 
touchant  la  Vie  et  les  Ecrits  de  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
(5  vols.,  1842-52.)  He  contriouted  many  able  articles 
to  tlie  "  Biographie  Universelle."  In  his  youth  he  had 
inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  was  appointed  prefect 
of  Nievre  in  1826,  and  held  other  high  offices.  Died 
in  1S52. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire  ;"  Naudet,  "  Notice  hfs- 
torique  sur  Walckenaer,"  1H52;  Sainte-Beuvb,  "  Causeries  du 
Lundi ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Walckendorf,  <>ilk'en-doRf',  (Christoph,)  a  Dan- 
ish statesman,  born  at  Copenhagen  about  1525.  He 
rendered  important  services  as  minister  of  finance  in 
the  reign  of  Frederick  II.,  (1558-88.)     Died  in  1601. 

Walcott,  wol'kQt,  (Mackenzie  Edward  Charles,) 
an  English  divine  and  antiquarian,  born  at  Bath  in  1822. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Rlemorials  of  Westminster," 
"Cathedrals  of  the  United  Kingdom,"  "  Sacred  Archae- 
ology, a  Dictionary  of  Ecclesiastical  Art,"  etc.  Died  in 
London,  December  22,  1880. 

Waldarfer,  <^dl'daR'fer,  sometimes  written  Valdar- 
fer  or  Baldorfer,  (Christoph,)  a  German  printer,  who 
established  a  press  in  Venice  about  1470,  and  at  Milan  in 
1474.  His  edition  of  Boccaccio  was  greatly  admired  for 
its  correctness  and  elegance. 

Waldau,  (Max.)     See  Hauenschild,  voN. 

Waldburg,  (^ilt'booKG,    (Friedrich    Ludwic.)    a 


€  as  k;  9  as  x;  g  hard;  g  as/V  O,  n,  Vi,gtittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  %h  as  in  this.     ( JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

152 


WALDECK 


2418 


WALKER 


Prussian  general  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Tangermiinde 
in  1776  ;  died  in  1844. 

Waldeck,  <^ai'dek,  (Christian  August,)  Prince 
OF,  a  German  general,  born  in  1744.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Austria,  and  fought  against  the  French  in 
1792.  He  distinguished  iiimself  by  directing  the  army 
in  its  passage  of  the  Rhine,  and  afterwards  had  a  high 
command  in  Flanders.     Died  in  1798. 

Waldeck,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  Prince  of,  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  1620.  He  entered  the  Austrian 
army,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the  Turks  at 
Vienna  in  1683.  He  was  defeated  by  the  French  at 
Fleurus  in  1690.     Dieil  in  1692. 

Waldegrave,  wSld'griv,  (James,)  second  Earl,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1715.  He  filled  several  im- 
portant offices  under  George  H.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Memoirs  from  1754  to  1758,"  (published  in  1821.) 
Died  in  1763. 

"Waldemar  (w51'de-mJr)  or  Val'de-mar  I.,  the 
Great,  King  of  Denmark,  born  in  1131,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1157.  He  subjugated  the  southern  part  of 
Norway,  and  the  territory  of  the  Wends  in  Northern 
Germany.  He  died  in  1181,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son.  Canute  VI. 

Waldenaar  (or  Valdemar)  11^  second  son  of  Wal- 
demar I.,  was  surnamed  Seier,  (the  "Victorious.")  On 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Canute  VI.,  he  became  king,  in 
1203.  He  conquered  Livonia,  Courland,  Esthonia,  and 
other  provinces,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  ability  as 
a  ruler.  He  died  in  1241,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Eric  VI. 

Waldemar  (or  Valdemar)  TIL  or  IV.,  called  At- 
TERDAG,  was  the  last  king  of  the  first  Danish  dynasty, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1340.  He  sold  Livonia,  and 
other  conquests  of  Waldemar  II.,  to  the  grand  master 
of  the  Teutonic  order  in  Prussia.  He  died  in  1373  or 
1375,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter  Margaret  as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Olaus. 

See  " Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Waldemar,  ■fi-dl'deh-maR',  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  prince,  nephew  of  Frederick  William  III., 
King  of  Prussia,  was  born  in  1817;  died  in  1849. 

Wai-deu'sis  or  Wol-den'sis,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
Carmelite  monk,  originally  named  Netter,  was  born  at 
Wolden,  in  Essex,  about  1365.  He  was  patronized  by 
Henry  V.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  France.  Died  in  1430. 

W'aldhauser,  Mlt'how'zer,  (Conrad,)  a  German 
ru/ormer  and  Augustinian  monk,  who  began  to  preach 
ii.  Vienna  about  1345.  He  exposed  the  vices  and  im- 
postures of  the  monks,  and  acquired  much  influence  as 
a  preacher.     Died  about  1368. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

warden,  (John  M.,)  D.D.,  LL.I).,  an  American 
Methodist  bishop,  born  at  Lebanon,  Ohio,  February  11, 
1831.  He  graduated  at  Farmer's  College,  near  Cincin- 
nati, in  1852,  became  a  preacher  in  1S54,  in  1S68  was 
chosen  one  of  the  Western  book-agents  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  and  in  1884  was  elected  a  bishop. 
For  many  years  he  has  been  active  in  humanitarian  and 
benevolent  work. 

Waldis,  <v'Jl'd!s,  (Burckhard,)  a  German  fabulist, 
born  at  Allendorf  about  1500.  He  was  a  chaplain  of 
Margaret,  wife  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  He  imitated 
yEsop  with  success.     Died  in  1554. 

Waldkirch,  de,  deh  <^ait'kggRK,  (Jean  Rodolph,) 
a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Bale  in  1678.  He  wrote,  besides 
several  legal  works,  a  "  History  of  Switzerland,"  (2  vols., 
1721.)     Died  in  1757. 

His  daughter  Esther  Elizabeth,  though  blind,  was 
well  versed  in  mathematics. 

Waldmann,  <Vdlt'inin,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  magistrate, 
born  in  the  canton  of  Zug  about  1426.  He  was  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Swiss  army  that  fought  at  Morat,  and 
he  gained  a  victory  at  Nancy  for  the  Duke  of  Lorraine. 
In  1483  he  became  burgomaster  of  Zurich,  where  he  made 
several  reforms.  The  peasants  and  populace  having 
revolted  against  him,  he  was  put  to  death  about  1490. 

See  J.  H.  FuEwiu,  "Vie  de  Waldmann,"  1780;  Coremans, 
"  Waldmann,  le  Vainqueur  du  Tem^raire,"  1843. 

Waldo.     See  Valdo. 

Waldo,  wfll'do,  (Daniel,)  an  American  Congrega- 


tional divine,  born  at  Windham,  Connecticut,  in  1762. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  subsequently  became 
pastor  at  Exeter,  Connecticut.  At  the  age  of  ninety-six 
he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Congress,  serving  in  that 
capacity  two  years.     Died  in  1864. 

Waldor,  vil'doR',  (M^lanie  Villenave,)  Madame, 
a  French  authoress,  born  at  Nantes  about  1796,  was  a 
sister  of  Theodore  Villenave.  She  published  numerous 
novels,  among  which  are  "The  Chateau  de  Ramsberg," 
(1844,)  and  "Charles  Mandel,"  (1846.)     Died  in  1871. 

Waldrada.     See  Waldrade. 

Waldrade,  vtl'dRtd',  [Lat.  Waldra'da,]  an  am- 
bitious Frenchwoman,  who  became  about  860  a.d.  the 
concubine  of  Lothaire  II.  She  was  excommunicated  by 
the  pope. 

See  Ernouf,  "  Histoire  de  Waldrade,"  1858. 

Waldschmidt,  <l-51t'shmit,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Ger 
man  medical  writer,  born  in  1644.  He  died  at  Marburg 
in  16S9. 

Waldseemiiller,  {Nrait'zi-mtil'ler,  [Lat.  Hylacom'y 
LUS,]  (Martin,)  a  German  compiler,  born  at  Friburg 
about  1470.  He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  Cos- 
mography, with  the  Four  Voyages  of  Americus  Vespu- 
cius,"  (1507,)  in  which  he  advocated  the  application  of 
the  name  America  to  the  New  World.    Died  after  1522. 

Waldsteinius  or  Waldstein.    See  Wallenstein. 

Wale.     See  Walrus. 

Wale,  (Samuel,)  an  English  painter  and  designer, 
lived  in  London,  and  made  designs  for  the  booksellers. 
Died  in  1786. 

Waleed  or  Walid.     See  Al  Walked. 

"Waleed  or  Walid  H.,  born  in  703  a.d.,  was  a  son 
of  Vezeed  (Yezid)  II.,  and  became  caliph  in  743.  He 
was  very  licentious.     He  was  assassinated  in  744. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xv. 

Walef  or  Waleff,  de,  deh  vt'lgf,  (Blaise  Henri 
de  Corte — deh  koRt,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  poet,  born  at 
Liege  in  1652.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  armies  of 
France,  England,  and  Spain.  He  wrote  several  French 
poems.     Died  in  1734. 

Wales,  Prince  of.     See  Albert  Edward. 

Wales,  (William,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  about  1734.  He  was  sent  in  1768 
to  Hudson  Bay,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  and 
subsequently  accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  second 
and  third  voyages.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1776,  and  was  afterwards  made  secre- 
tary to  the  Board  of  Longitude.  He  published  "  General 
Observations  made  at  Hudson's  Bay," etc.,  (1772,)  "The 
Method  of  Finding  the  Longitude  by  Time-Keepers," 
(1794,)  "  Observations  on  a  Voyage  with  Captain  Cook," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1798. 

Walevrski,  wi-l§v'skee,  [Fr.  pron.  vt'lSv'ske',] 
(Florian  Ale.xandre  Joseph  Colonna,)  Count,  an 
able  statesman  and  writer,  a  natural  son  of  Napoleon 
I.  and  the  Countess  Walewska,  a  Polish  lady,  was  born 
in  Walewice  in  1810.  Under  Louis  Napoleon  he  was 
sent  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Florence  (1849)  and 
Naples,  and  was  ambassador  to  London  about  1852.  In 
1855  he  succeeded  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  as  minister  ol 
foreign  affairs.  He  was  removed  in  January,  i860,  be- 
came minister  of  state  at  that  date,  and  president  of  the 
corps  legislatif  in  August,  1865.     Died  in  1868. 

Walferdin,  vtl'flR'dlN',  (Henri,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Langres  in  1795.  He  was  as- 
sociated with  Arago  in  some  scientific  labours.  He 
invented  a  hydro-barometer  and  several  kinds  of  ther- 
mometers.    Died  January  25,  1880. 

Wai'fprd,  (Cornelius,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
London  in  1827.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Mid- 
dle Temple  in  i860.  He  has  published  "Decimal 
Coinage  Explained,"  "The  Insurance  Guide,"  "Insu- 
rance Year-Book,"  (1S70,)  "Insurance  Cyclopa£dia," 
(1871  et  seq.,)  "History  of  Famines,"  (1879,)  "History 
of  Guilds,"  (1880,)  "Fairs,  Past  and  Present,"  (1883,) 
etc.     [Died  in  1885.] 

Walid.    See  Waleed  and  Al  Walked. 

Walker,  waw'ker,  (.\dam,)  an  English  writer  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1 73 1,  was  the 
author  of  a  "System  of  Familiar  Philosophy,  in  Lee- 


a,  e,  T.  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WALKER 


2419 


WALKER 


tures,"  "Treatise  on  Geography,"  and  otlier  works.  He 
was  also  the  inventor  of  several  ingenious  instruments. 
Died  in  1821. 

Walker,  waw'ker,  (Amasa,)  an  American  publicist, 
born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  May  4,  1799,  was  a  mer- 
chant of  Boston,  1825-40,  professor  of  political  economy 
at  Oberlin  College,  1842-49,  lecturer  at  Amherst  College, 
1861-75,  ^"d  a  member  of  Congress,  1862-63.  His  prin- 
cipal works  were  "Nature  and  Uses  of  Money,"  (1857,) 
and  "  Science  of  Wealth,"  (1866.)  Died  at  North  Brook- 
6eld,  Massachusetts,  October  29,  1875. 

Walker,  (Sir  Baldwin  Wake,)  an  English  naval 
officer,  born  in  1803.  He  was  surveyor-general  of  the 
navy  from  1847  to  i860.     Died  February  12,  1876. 

Walker,  (Clement,)  an  English  Presbyterian  and 
political  writer,  born  in  Dorsetshire.  He  represented 
the  city  of  Wells  in  Parliament  in  1640,  and  wrote  "  The 
History  of  Independence,"  (1648,)  afterwards  enlarged 
and  published  under  the  title  of  "The  High  Court  of 
Justice,  or  Cromwell's  New  Slaughter-House,"  (1651.) 
For  this  offence  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  where 
he  died  in  1651. 

Walker,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  writer,  and  Garter 
king-at-arms,  born  in  Somersetshire.  He  was  appointed 
by  Charles  I.  his  secretary  at  war,  and  clerk-extraor- 
dinary of  the  privy  council.  He  wrote  "  Historical 
Discourses,"  (1705,)  "Military  Discoveries,"  and  "  Iter 
Carolinum,"  an  account  of  the  marches,  etc.  of  Charles 
I.  from  1641  to  the  time  of  his  death.     Died  in  1677. 

Walker,  (Francis  Amasa,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
publicist,  a  son  of  Amasa  Walker,  was  born  at  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  July  2,  1S40.  He  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  i860,  was  chief  of  the  United  States  bureau  of 
statistics,  1869-70,  superintendent  of  the  United  States 
census,  1870-72  and  1879-81,  commissioner  of  Indian 
affairs,  1871-72,  professor  of  political  economy  at  Yale 
College,  1873-79,  and  in  18S1  became  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Indian  Question,"  (1874.)  "  Wages  and 
the  Wage  Class,"  (1876,)  "Money,"  (1878,)  "Money, 
Trade,  and  Industry,"  (1879,)  "Political  Economy," 
(1882,)  and  "Land  and  its  Rent,"  (1883,)  besides  great 
numbers  of  official  reports. 

Walker,  (Frederick  A.,)  R.A.,  an  English  artist, 
born  in  London  in  1840.  He  was  engaged  in  drawing 
on  wood  for  the  "Cornhill"  and  "Once  a  Week,"  but  he 
abandoned  this  class  of  work  to  devote  himself  to  painting 
in  water-colours  and  oil.  In  1871  he  was  elected  an 
Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.     Died  June  4,  1875. 

Walker,  (Rev.  George,)  a  Protestant  divine,  of 
English  extraction,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Tyrone, 
Ireland.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  brave  defence  of  Lon- 
donderry against  the  forces  of  James  II.,  (1689.)  He 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  in  1690,  having 
been  previously  created  Bishop  of  Derry  by  William 
III.  He  published  "A  True  Account  of  the  Siege  of 
Londonderry." 

Walker,  (George,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
dissenting  minister,  born  at  Newcastle  about  1734.  He 
lived  at  Durham,  Nottingham,  and  Manchester,  and  wrote 
several  able  works  on  geometry,  etc.     Died  in  1807. 

Walker,  (James,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born 
about  1780.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  an  en- 
gineer of  docks,  harbours,  etc.  He  was  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.     Died  about  1862. 

Walker,  waw'ker,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Unitarian  divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Burlington,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1794.  He  became  editor  of  the  "Chris- 
tian Examiner"  in  1831,  and  in  1839  Alford  professor  of 
moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  at  Harvard.  He  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  in  1853,  a  position  which  he 
filled  with  eminent  ability  for  seven  years.  He  resigned 
in  i860,  on  account  of  his  feeble  health.  He  delivered 
a  course  of  "Lowell  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion  ;"  also  "  Lectures  on  Natural  Religion."  Dr. 
Walker  was  a  clear  and  profound  thinker  and  a  finished 
writer.     Died  December  23,  1874. 

Walker,  (James  Barr,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1805.  Having  previously 
edited  several  religious  journals  in  the  West,  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Sandusky,  Ohio.    He  published, 


besides  other  religious  works,  "  Philosophy  of  the  Plan 
of  Salvation,"  (1855,)  wliich  has  been  translated  into  sev- 
eral languages.     Died  March  6,  18S7. 

Walker,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Devonshire,  became  rector  of  a  parish  at  Exeter.  He 
published  in  1714  an  "Account  of  the  Numbers  and 
Sufferings  of  the  Clergy  who  were  Sequestered  in  the 
Grand  Rebellion."     Died  about  1730. 

Walker,  (John,)  an  English  lexicographer  and  elo- 
cutionist, born  in  Middlesex  in  1732.  He  published 
"A  Rhyming  Dictionary,"  "Elements  of  Elocution," 
(1781,)  "Rhetorical  Grammar,"  (1785,)  and  "Critical 
Pronouncing  Dictionary  and  Expositor  of  the  English 
Language,"  (1791,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour 
and  has  passed  through  more  than  thirty  editions.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  Allibonk,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  August  and  September,  1781. 

Walker,  (John,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
bii'n  in  Cumberland  in  1759.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Universal  Gazetteer,"  "Elements  of  Geography,"  and 
several  medical  treatises.     Died  in  1830. 

Walker,  (Joseph  Cooper,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in 
Dublin  about  1766.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Historical  Memoirs  of  the  Irish  Bards,"  (1786.)  Died 
in  1810. 

Walker,  (Leroy  Pope,)  of  Alabama,  was  a  judge  in 
one  of  the  State  courts,  1850-53,  was  one  of  the  most 
ardent  advocates  of  the  secession  movement,  and 
served  as  Confederate  secretary  of  war,  1861-62,  and 
afterwards  as  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
service.     Died  at  Huntsville,  Alabama,  August  22,  1884. 

Walker,  (Obadiah,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  York- 
shire about  1616.  He  studied  at  University  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  was  elected  master  in  1676.  Having 
openly  professed  Catholicism,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office,  and  imprisoned  for  a  time  after  the  revolution  of 
1688.  He  wrote  "  A  Brief  Account  of  Ancient  Church 
Government,"  (1662,)  "The  Greek  and  Roman  History 
Illustrated  by  Coins  and  Medals,"  (1692,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1692. 

Walker,  (Robert,)  an  English  portrait-painter. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  several  portraits  of 
Cromwell,  one  of  Admiral  Blake,  and  one  of  General 
Monk.     Died  about  1660. 

Walker,  (Robert  J.,)  a  distinguished  Americar; 
writer  on  political  economy,  born  at  Northumberland, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1801,  graduated  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1819.  He  studied  law,  and  removed  in 
1826  to  Natchez,  Mississippi,  where  he  practised  with 
success.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  Mississippi  in  1835  or  1836,  and 
acted  with  the  Democratic  party.  He  was  a  zealous 
and  efficient  supporter  of  the  project  for  the  annexation 
of  Texas  to  the  United  States.  In  March,  1845,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  by  President  Polk. 
He  produced  a  report  in  favour  of  free  trade  which 
attracted  much  attention.  He  retired  to  private  life  in 
March,  1849,  and  was  appointed  by  President  Buchanan 
Governor  of  Kansas  about  April,  1857.  He  resigned 
that  office  in  February,  1858,  on  account  of  dissatisfaction 
with  the  course  or  policy  of  the  national  government 
Died  in  November,  1869. 

"Walker,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Exeter  in  1714,  became  curate  of  Truro,  and  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons.     Died  in  1761. 

Walker,  (Sears  Cook,)  an  American  astronomer, 
born  at  Wilmington,  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts, 
in  1805,  gradua"ted  at  Harvard  College  about  1824. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where 
he  taught  school.  He  contributed  many  observations 
to  the  "American  Journal  of  Science"  and  the  "Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Philosophical  Society."  He 
was  attached  to  the  Washington  Observatory  in  1S45, 
and  discovered  in  1847  the  identity  of  the  planet  Nep- 
tune with  a  star  observed  by  Lalande  in  1795.  He  ren- 
dered a  service  to  science  by  his  computations  of  the 
orbit  of  Neptune.     Died  in  Cincinnati  in  1853. 

"Walker,  (Thomas,)  an  English  lawyer  and  humor- 
ous writer,  born  in  1784.  He  published  a  periodical 
called  "The  Original."     Died  in  1836. 


«  as  ii;  c  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  o,  h.  k.  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p. 


WALKER 


2420 


WALLACE 


"Walker,  (Thomas.j  an  English  actor,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1698  ;  died  in  1743. 

Walker,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lin- 
colnshire in  1623.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  English  Particles,"  and  "  Idioniatologia 
Anglo-Latina."     Died  in  1684. 

Walker,  (William,)  an  American  filibuster,  born  at 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  in  1824.  He  emigrated  to  Cali 
fornia  about  1850,  and  became  editor  of  a  paper.  In 
1855  he  conducted  a  party  of  about  sixty  adventurers 
to  Nicaragua,  which  he  entered  ostensibly  as  an  ally  of 
nne  of  the  factions  then  engaged  in  civil  war.  He  cap- 
tured the  city  of  Granada,  assumed  the  title  of  President 
of  Nicaragua,  and  re-established  slavery,  which  had  been 
abolished.  He  was  driven  from  power  in  May,  1857,  and 
escaped  to  New  Orleans.  In  June,  1S60,  he  led  an  ex- 
jjcdition  against  Honduras.  He  was  captured  and  shot 
ai  Truxillo  in  .September,  i860. 

"Walker,  (William  David,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  New  York  city,  June  29,  1 839.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1859,  and  at  the  Gen- 
eral Seminary  (Episcopalian)  in  1862.  He  took  priest's 
orders  in  1863,  and  in  1883  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
North  Dakota,  the  first  of  that  title. 

Walker,  (William  H.  T.,)  of  Georgia,  an  American 
general,  who  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Lee  in  the 
early  part  of  1S63,  served  at  Chickamauga  in  September 
of  that  year,  and  was  killed  near  Atlanta  in  July,  1864. 
Walkyriea.     See  Valkyria. 

Walker,  (William  Sidney,)  a  British  poet,  born  at 
Pembroke,  December  4,  1795.  ^^^  published  "Gustavus 
Vasa,"  a  poem,  (incomplete,)  in  1813,  went  to  Eton,  and 
became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Died 
October  15,  1846.  His  "Poetical  Remains,"  (1852,) 
with  a  "Life,"  by  John  Moultrie,  his  excellent  "Shake- 
speare's Versification,"  (1S54,)  and  "Notes  on  Shake- 
speare," (i860,)  were  posthumous.  During  his  life  he 
published  "Poems  from  the  Danish,"  and  other  works. 

wail,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Worcestershire  in  1708,  was  the  first  w'ho  drew  public 
attention  to  the  virtues  of  the  Malvern  waters.  Died 
in  1776. 

Wall,  (Martin,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1744, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  physician,  and  in  1785 
became  clinical  professor  at  Oxford.     Died  in  1824. 

Wall  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1646, 
published  a  "  History  of  Infant  Baptism,"  and  "Critical 
Notes  on  the  Old  Te'stament."     Died  in  1728. 

Wallace,  wSl'lis,  (.Alexander,)  D.D.,  a  United 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  in  1818. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Universities  of  Glasgow, 
Edinburgh,  Berlin,  and  Halle,  and  was  ordained  in 
1846.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Gloaming  of  Life," 
(1853,)  "Poems  and  Sketches,"  (1S64,)  "  r)esert  and 
Holy  Land,"  (1866,)  "The  Model  Life,"  (1878,)  etc 

Wallace,  w5l'lis,  (Alfred  Russel,)  D.C.L.,  an  emi- 
nent English  naturalist  and  biologist,  born  at  Usk,  in  Mon- 
mouthshire, January  8,  1822.  He  was  bred  an  architect 
and  surveyor,  was  in  Brazil  with  H.  W.  Bates  on  an 
exploring  expedition,  184S-52,  was  in  the  Malay  Islands, 
1854-62,  and  has  made  other  scientific  tours.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  "Travels  on  the  Amazon  and  Rio 
Negro,"  (1853,)  "Palm-Trees  of  the  Amazon,"  (1853,) 
"The  Malay  Archipelago,"  (1869,)  "Contributions  to 
the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection,"  (1870,)  "Miracles  and 
Modern  Spiritualism,"  (1875,)  "  Geographical  Distribu- 
tion of  Animals,"  (1876,)  "Tropical  Nature."  (1878,) 
"Island  Life,"  (18S0,)  and  "Land  Nationalization," 
(1882.)  He  has  also  edited  a  work  on  "Australasia," 
chiefly  written  by  himself.  Almost  at  the  same  time 
with  the  first  publication  of  Darwin's  theory  of  evolu- 
tion, Mr.  Wallace  announced  a  similar  theory.  He  is 
prominent  as  a  defender  of  modern  spiritualism. 

Wallace,  (Donald  Mackenzie,)  a  Scottish  author, 
born  at  Paisley,  November  11,  1S41.  He  studied  at 
Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  (where  he  jwssed  as  M..\.  in  1859,) 
Paris,  Berlin,  and  Heidelberg,  where  he  graduated  as 
doctor  of  laws.  In  1870  he  went  to  Russia,  and  remained 
there  six  years.  His  principal  work,  "Russia,"  (1877,) 
had  a  great  success. 


Wallace,  wftl'lis,  (Horace  Binney,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  writer  of  rare  talents,  a  nephew  of  Horace 
Binney,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  February  26,  1817. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  and  subsequently 
visited  Europe.  He  committed  suicide  in  Paris,  (i8s2,) 
— as  is  supposed,  in  a  fit  of  tem))orary  insanity.  He 
wrote  "Literary  Criticisms,  and  other  Papers,"  "Art 
and  Scenery  in  Europe,"  (1855,)  and  edited  several  legal 
works  conjointly  with  Judge  Hare.  While  in  Paris  he 
became  acquainted  with  Auguste  Comte,  who  said  of 
him,  "  I  do  not  e.xaggerate  his  merits  in  ranking  him  as 
the  equal  of  the  greatest  American  statesmen." 

Wallace,  (Lew,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of 
David  Wallace,  formerly  Governor  of  Indiana,  was  born 
in  Fountain  county,  Indiana,  about  1828.  He  was  a 
lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  .Shiloh,  April  6  and 
7.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  March,  1862. 
In  1881  he  went  to  Constantinople  as  United  States 
minister,  and  in  1882  was  made  envoy  extraordinary  and 
minister  plenipotentiary  at  the  same  capital.  He  is  a 
successful  author,  the  best  known  among  his  works 
being  "The  Fair  God"  (1873)  ^"d  "Ben-Hur,"  (1880.) 

Wallace,  wSl'lis,  (Sir  William,)  a  celebrated  Scot- 
tish hero  and  patriot,  supposed  to  have  been  born  about 
1270.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir  Malcolm  Wallace  of  F^llerslie, 
in  Renfrewshire.  While  attending  school  at  Dundee,  he 
killed  the  son  of  the  English  governor  of  Dundee  Castle 
in  revenge  for  an  insult  received,  and  was  compelled  to 
take  refuge  among  the  mountains.  Having  gathered 
around  him  a  band  of  devoted  followers,  he  carried  on 
for  several  years  a  successful  partisan  warfare  against 
the  English  forces.  After  the  capture  of  the  garrisons 
of  Aberdeen,  Forfar,  and  other  towns,  he  was  engaged 
in  the  siege  of  Dundee,  when  news  came  of  the  advance 
of  a  large  English  army  towards  Stirling.  He  immedi- 
ately marched  to  meet  the  enemy,  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  them  at  Stirling  Bridge,  (1297,)  and,  entering  Eng- 
land, ravaged  the  northern  part  of  the  country.  He  was 
soon  after  defeated  with  great  loss  near  Falkirk  by  the 
English,  led  by  Edward  I.  in  person,  (1298.)  The  oflace 
of  guardian  of  the  kingd')m,  which  he  had  held  for  a 
short  time,  was  now  taken  from  him,  and,  after  several 
years  spent  in  border  warfare,  he  was  betrayed  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  condemned  as  a  traitor,  and  exe- 
cuted, (1305.)  His  achievements  have  been  a  favourite 
theme  with  Scottish  poets  and  writers  of  romance,  and 
have  been  especially  celebrated  by  Harry  the  Minstrel, 
sometimes  called  Blind  Harry. 

Set  P.URTON.  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xx.,  xxi.,  and 
xxii.  ;  J.  S.  Watson,  "The  Story  of  William  Wallace,"  1862; 
Scott,  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather;"  Hume,  "  History  of  England;" 
J.  D.  Carrick,  "  Life  of  Sir  Wiliinm  Wallace,"  2  vols.,  1830; 
Chambers,  "  15iograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wallace,  (Willia.m,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  mathemati- 
cian, born  in  Fifeshire  in  1768.  He  was  appointed  in 
1S03  one  of  the  teachers  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal 
Military  College,  Buckinghamshire,  and  in  1819  became 
professor  of  that  science  at  Edinburgh.  Among  his 
])nncipal  works  we  may  name  his  "New  Series  for  the 
Quadrature  of  the  Conic  Sections  and  the  Computation 
of  Logarithms,"  (180S,)  ".Account  of  the  Invention  of 
the  Pantograph,  and  Description  of  the  Eidograph," 
(183 1,)  and  the  article  on  "  Porism,"  in  the  "  Encyclo- 
pxdia  Britannica."  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
.Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  member  of  other  learned 
institutions.     Died  in  1S43. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wallace,  (W^illiam  H.  L.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Urbana,  Ohio,  in  1821.  He  practised  law  in 
Illinois  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862,  and  a 
division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  where  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  April  6  of  that  year.  "This  day's  work, 
says  Horace  Greeley,  "had  won  for  him  the  admiration 
of  all  beholders."  ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.) 

Wallace,  (William  Ross,)  an  American  poet,  born 
at  Lexington,  Kentucky,  about  1819.  Among  his  works 
may  be  named  "  Alban  the  Pirate,"  (1848,)  and  "Medita- 
tions in  .America,  and  other  Poems,"  (1851.)   Died  1881 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a.  e.  i,6,  vwy,  short;  a,  e,  |,  9,  obscure;  tar,  till,  lit;  mgt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WALLACE 


242  r 


WALLERICrS 


Wallace,  (William  Vincent,)  a  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Waterford,  in  Ireland,  about  181 5.  lie 
composed  several  successful  operas,  among  which  are 
"Maritana"  and  "Lurline."     Died  in  1865. 

Wallack,  v\61'lak,  (James  William,)  an  English 
actor,  born  in  London  in  1795,  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion in  his  art,  both  in  England  and  America.  Havmg 
settled  in  New  York  City  in  1851,  he  founded  the  theatre 
on  Broadway  called  by  his  name.     Died  in  1864. 

His  son,  John  Lester,  also  an  actor,  published  sev- 
eral comedies.     Died  September  6,  1888. 

Wallenbourg.     See  Wallenuurg. 

Wallenburch,  van,  vin  w41'len-buRk',  (Adriaan 
and  PiKTEK, )  Roman  Catholic  theologians,  born  at 
Rotterdam,  were  brothers.  They  lived  at  Cologne,  and 
wrote  several  works  against  the  Protestants.  Adriaan 
died  in  1669,  and  Pieter  in  1675. 

Wallenburg,  von,  fon  ^il'len-booRc/,  written  also 
"Wallenbourg,  (Jacob,)  an  Austrian  Orientalist,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1763.  He  passed  twenty  years  in  Turkey. 
He  translated  the  Persian  poem  "  Mesnevi"  into  French. 
Died  in  1806. 

Wallenstein,  wdKlen-stln',  [Ger.  pron.  <^il'len-stin',| 
or  WEildstein,  Mlt'stin,  [Lat.  Wallenstei'nius  or 
Waldstei'nius;  It.  Valstain,  vai'stln,]  (Albrecht 
Wenzel  Eusebius,)  Count  of,  and  Duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg, P'riedland,  and  Sagau,  a  celebrated  German 
general,  born  at  the  castle  of  Hermanic,  in  Bohemia, 
in  September,  1583,  was  a  son  of  Wilhelm,  Baron  von 
Waldstein.  After  the  death  of  his  parents,  who  were 
Protestants,  he  was  sent  to  the  Jesuit  College  at  Olmiitz, 
and  was  converted  into  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  also 
studied  several  sciences  and  languages  at  Padua  and 
Bologna.  About  1606  he  fought  against  the  Turks  at 
the  siege  of  Gran.  He  married  a  rich  widow  in  1610, 
and  at  her  death,  in  16 14,  inherited  a  large  estate. 
Having  raised  a  troop  of  horse  in  1617,  he  fought  with 
distinction  for  the  Austrian  archduke  Ferdinand  against 
the  Venetians.  In  16 19,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  war,  he  joined  the  Imperial  or  Roman  Catholic 
army,  and  was  appointed  quartermaster-general.  He 
defeated  Bethlen  Gabor,  in  Hungary,  in  1621,  and  was 
created  Duke  of  Friedland  and  a  prince  of  the  Holy 
Empire  in  1624.  In  1625  he  raised,  at  his  own  expense, 
a  large  army,  which  he  resolved  to  support  by  pillage 
and  exactions  from  the  enemy.  His  high  reputation 
attracted  mercenaries  from  various  parts  of  Europe.  He 
defeated  Count  Mansfeld  in  1626,  and  invaded  Denmark, 
in  which  he  encountered  no  effectual  resistance.  To  re- 
ward him  for  his  services,  the  emperor  gave  Wallenstein 
the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg  in  1628,  and  added  the  title 
of  admiral.  His  pride,  rapacity,  and  cruelty  rendered 
him  so  odious  that  Ferdinand  dismissed  him  from  com- 
mand in  1630,  at  the  same  time  that  Gustavus  Adol|)hus 
entered  Germany  to  fight  for  the  Protestant  cause.  The 
victories  of  Gustavus,  and  the  death  of  General  Tilly, 
reduced  Ferdinand  to  such  a  critical  situation  that  he 
implored  the  aid  of  Wallenstein  as  the  only  man  who 
was  able  to  save  the  empire.  He  consented  to  serve 
nim  again,  on  condition  that  he  should  have  exclusive 
control  of  the  army,  and  should  govern  or  reign  over 
the  countries  which  he  might  conquer.  He  displayed 
great  skill  in  defence  of  the  lines  near  Nuremberg,  which 
were  attacked  by  the  Swedes  in  September,  1632.  In 
November  of  that  year  he  was  defeated  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  at  the  great  battle  of  Lutzen.  He  afterwards 
gained  victories  in  Silesia,  but  refused  to  march  to  the 
relief  of  Bavaria,  which  was  overrun  by  tlie  Swedes. 
According  to  some  authorities,  he  aspired  to  be  sovereign 
of  Bohemia.  The  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  other  enemies 
of  Wallenstein,  persuaded  the  emperor  to  distrust  his 
loyalty.  In  January,  1634,  he  was  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand, and  secret  orders  were  given  to  Gallasand  Picco- 
lomini  to  arrest  or  assassinate  him.  He  attempted  to 
secure  himself  by  negotiations  with  the  Swedes,  but  his 
overtures  were  rejected,  and  he  retired  to  the  castle  of 
Eger  or  Egra,  where  he  was  assassinated  in  February, 
1634.  The  story  of  Wallenstein  forms  the  subject  of 
Schiller's  greatest  though  not  his  most  popular  tragedy. 

See  Schiller,  "History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  Murr, 
"Die  Ermordung  Herzogsvon  Friedland,"  1806;  Heller,  "  Leben 


dcs  Grafen  von  Wallenstein,"  1814;  F.  Forster,  "  Walleii.slein. 
Herzog  zu  Mccklrnbjrg,"  etc.,  1S34 :  J.  Mitchell,  "  Life  of  Wal- 
lenstein," 1837:  Mhhold,  "  Giistav  Adolf  und  Wallenstein,"  2  vols., 
1835-40;  Helbig,  "Wallenstein  und  Armin,"  1850;  Gualdo-Pri- 
OKATo,  "  Istoria  della  Vita  d'A.  Valstain,"  1643;  Carl  Maria  von 
Aretim,  "Wallenstein,"  1846;  Sir  Kdward  Cust,  "The  Thirty 
Years'  War,"  2  vols.,  1865  ;  Malmstroem,  "  De  Wallensteinio  Com- 
mentarius,"  1815;  "Nouvelle  Uiographie  Generale;"  "  Bl.ickwood's 
Magazine"  for  January,  183S. 

Wallensteinius.     See  Wallenstein. 

Waller,  wftl'ler,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  English  poet, 
born  at  Coleshill,  in  Hertfordshire,  in  1605,  was  a  cousin- 
german  of  the  celebrated  John  Hampden.  He  studied 
at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  represented  Amers- 
ham  in  the  Long  Parliament  in  1640,  having  been  pre- 
viously several  times  elected  for  that  borough.  He  was 
for  a  time  a  moderate  partisan  of  the  popular  cause  ;  but 
he  subsecjuently  went  over  to  the  royalists.  He  was 
arrested  in  1643  O"  ^  charge  by  the  Parliament  of  having 
formed  a  "  popish  plot  for  the  subversion  of  the  Prot- 
estant religion,"  etc.  Several  of  his  accomplices  were 
punished  with  fines  and  imprisonment,  and  two  were  exe- 
cuted, while  Waller,  the  leader  of  the  conspiracy,  saved 
his  life  by  a  most  abject  and  pusillanimous  speech.  He 
was  released,  after  a  year's  confinement,  on  condition  of 
his  leaving  the  country,  and,  after  a  residence  of  about 
ten  years  in  France,  was  permitted  to  return  to  England 
in  1653.  He  died  in  1687.  Waller  was  twice  married, 
and  had  by  his  second  wife  five  sons  and  eight  daughters. 
Among  his  earliest  productions  are  the  verses  addressed 
to  the  Lady  Dcnothea  Sidney,  under  the  name  of  Saccha- 
rissa.  His  other  principal  poems  are  a  "  Panegyiic  on 
Cromwell,"  "On  a  War  with  Spain,"  "  On  the  Death 
of  the  Lord  Protector,"  and  an  ode  to  Charles  II.,  en- 
titled "To  the  King  upon  his  Majesty's  Most  Happy 
Return."  It  is  said  that  when  Charles  remarked  to 
Waller  the  greater  poetical  merit  of  his  panegyric  on 
Cromwell,  he  replied,  "  Poets,  sire,  succeed  better  in  fic- 
tion than  in  truth."  After  the  restoration  he  was  several 
times  returned  to  Parliament,  where,  according  to  Bur- 
net, "he  was  the  delight  of  the  House,  and,  though  old, 
said  the  liveliest  things  of  any  among  them."  Johnson 
observes,  "  The  general  character  of  his  poetry  is  ele- 
gance and  gaiety.  He  is  never  pathetic,  and  very  rarely 
sublime  ;  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  added  some- 
thing to  our  elegance  of  diction  and  something  to  our 
propriety  of  thought." 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,"  vol.  i.  ;  Wood, 
"Athenae  Oxonienses ;"  Hallam,  "  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Euroyie  ;"  Cami-bbll,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Waller,  wdl'ler,  (John  Francis,)  an  Irish  poet  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Limerick  in  1810.  He  was  for  many 
years  editor  of  the  "  Dublin  University  Magazine,"  to 
which  he  contributed  pa])ers  under  the  signature  oi  Jona- 
than Freke  Slinc.sby.  These  papers  were  collected 
and  published  in  book-form,  under  the  title  of  "The 
Slingsby  Papers,"  in  1852.  In  1854  he  published  a  vol- 
ume of  "  Poems." 

Waller,  wfil'ler,  (John  Lightfoot,)  LL.D.,  an 
American  Baptist  divine  and  journalist,  born  in  Wood- 
ford county,  Kentucky,  in  1809.  He  became  editor  in 
1845  of  the  "  Western  Baptist  Review,"  and  published 
several  controversial  works.    Died  at  Louisville  in  1854. 

Waller,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  statesman  and 
general  of  the  Parliamentary  army,  born  in. Kent  in 
1597,  was  a  distant  relative  of  the  poet,  Edmund  Wal- 
ler. Having  served  for  a  time  in  the  Protestant  army 
in  Germany,  he  was  elected  to  the  Long  Parliament 
for  Andover  in  1640,  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
second  in  command  of  the  forces  under  the  Earl  of 
Essex.  He  was  removed  from  the  service  by  the  self 
denying  ordinance  of  1645,  and  in  1647  he  was  one  ot 
the  eleven  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  im 
peached  by  the  army.  He  afterwards  resumed  his  seat 
in  Parliament,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  council  of 
state  in  1660.  He  died  in  166S,  leaving  a  "Vindication 
of  Sir  William  Waller,"  etc.,  and  "Divine  Meditations 
upon  Several  Occasions,"  (1680.) 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Great   Rebellion. " 

Wal-le'ri-US,  [Swedish  pron.  vdl-lIT're-Cis,]  (JoHANN 
Gottschalk,)  a  Swedish  savant,  was  the  author  of 
several  valuable  works  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy. 
Died  in  1785. 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^='See  Explanations,  j).  23. ) 


WALLERIUS 


2422 


WALPOLE 


Wallerius,  (Nicholas,)  a  Swedish  pliilosopher,  born 
at  Nerika  in  1706.  He  became  professor  of  tiieology  at 
Upsal,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Rational  Psy- 
chology," {"  Psychologia  Rationalis.")     Died  in  1764. 

"Wallia.     See  Vallia,  King  of  the  Visigoths. 

Wallich,  vtl'liK,  (Nathaniel,)  a  Danish  botanist, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  17S7.  Having  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Comjiany,  he  was  appointed  in 
1S15  superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Calcutta. 
lie  visited  Nepaul  and  other  parts  of  India,  and  made  a 
large  and  valuable  collection  of  ])lants.  He  published 
"  A  Description  of  the  Tree  which  produces  the  Nipal 
Camphor- Wood,"  etc.,  (1823,)  "  Tentamen  Florse  Nepa- 
lensis,"  (1824,)  "Plantas  Asiaticae  Rariores,"  (3  vols,  fob, 
1829,  with  300  plates,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1S54. 

Wallin,  vSl-leen',  (George,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
in  Nordland  in  1686.  He  published  several  works,  and 
was  api^ointed  Bishop  of  Gothenburg.     Died  in  1760. 

Wallin,  (JoHAN  Oloe,)  an  eminent  Swedish  prelate 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  1779.  He 
studied  at  Upsal,  and  became  in  1810  a  member  of 
the  Swedish  Academy.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
theological  tutor  to  Prince  Oscar,  and  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Upsal  in  1833. 
His  hymns  are  ranked  among  the  finest  productions 
of  the  kind  in  the  language,  and  Have  been  adopted 
into  the  authorized  Swedish  Hymn-Book.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  number  of  sermons  of  great  excellence.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  E.  G.  Geijer,  "Minnes-Tal  ofver  Dr.  J.  O.  Wallin,"  1840; 
J.  H.  ScHROEDER,  "J.  O.  Wallin,  Svea  Rikes  Erkebiskop,"  1846; 
J.  E.  RvDQUiST,  "J.   O.  Wallin;    Minnesteckning,"  1839. 

Wallingford,  wSl'ling-fQrd,  (Richard,)  an  English 
mechanic  and  astronomer  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
made  a  clock  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
that  was  regulated  by  a  fly-wheel. 

Wallis,  wSl'lis,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  mathe- 
matician and  theologian,  born  at  Ashford,  Kent,  on  the 
23d  of  November,  1616.  He  entered  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1632,  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1640, 
and  was  ordained  a  priest  the  same  year.  He  favoured 
the  party  of  the  Parliament  in  the  civil  war,  and  ren- 
dered valuable  services  by  deciphering  intercepted 
despatches  written  in  cipher.  In  1644  he  was  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westmin- 
ster. He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at 
Oxford  in  1649.  In  1655  he  published  an  important 
work,  entitled  "Arithmetic  of  Infinites,"  ("  Arithmetica 
Tnfinitorum,")  preceded  by  a  treatise  on  conic  sections. 
He  treated  of  the  fundamental  points  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry  in  his  "  Universal  Science  or 
Learning,"  ("  Mathesis  Universalis,"  1657.)  He  made 
important  discoveries  in  mathematical  theories,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  sagacity  and  talent  for  gen- 
eralization. Having  promoted  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  he  retained  his  professorship.  Besides  the  above- 
named  works,  he  wrote  several  books  on  theology,  and 
a  treatise  on  logic,  which  had  a  high  reputation.  He 
edited  Ptolemy's  "  Harmonics,"  (1680,)  and  Aristarchus 
of  Samos.     Died  in  October,  1703. 

See  Thomson,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  Nic^ron,  "M^- 
nioires;"  "  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Gdnerale." 

Wallis,  (Samuel,)  an  tlnglish  navigator,  who,  as 
commander  of  the  Dolphin,  made  a  voyage  in  the  Pacific 
and  discovered  Easter  Island  in  1767,  and  Tahiti,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  King  George's  Island.  The 
latter  is  supposed  to  have  been  previously  discovered  by 
Quiros.     Died  in  1795. 

Wallis,  von,  fon  <^51'liss,  (Georg  Oliver,)  Count, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1671.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  and  the  chief  command  of  an  army 
in  Hungary.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  in  1739. 
Died  in  1743. 

Wallis,  von,  (Joseph,)  Count,  an  Austrian  financier, 
born  in  1768.  He  was  minister  of  finance  from  i8ic 
to  1816.     Died  in  1818. 

Walliser,  <\iKle-zer,  (Christoph  Thoma;;,)  a  Ger- 
man comi)oser  and  writer  upon  music,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Died 
in  1648. 


Wallius,  wai'le-iis,  or  Van  de  Walle,  vtn  deh  wai'- 
leh,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Courtrai  in  1599.     Died  about  1680. 

Wallon,  vS'16n',  (Henri  Alexandre,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1812.  He  published 
many  historical  and  critical  works,  and  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1850.  After  1870  he  became 
a  leading  statesman  of  the  republic,  belonging  to  the 
group  of  constitutional  monarchists. 

Wallet,  <^aKlot  or  vt'lo',  (Jean  Guillaume,)  a  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  at  Pauers,  in  the  Palatinate,  in 
1743.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Paris.  He 
was  executed  by  the  Jacobins  in  July,  1794. 

Wallraf,  <^al''raf,  (Ferdinand  Franz,)  a  German 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Cologne  in  1748.  He 
made  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  objects  in  natu- 
ral history  and  art,  which  he  presented  to  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1824. 

"Walmesley,  wSmz'le,  (Charles,)  an  English  mathe- 
matician and  Benedictine  monk,  born  in  1721,  became 
ajjostolical  vicar  of  the  western  district  in  England.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  "Analysis  of  the  Measures  of  Pro- 
portions and  of  Angles,"  etc.,  and  other  works,  in  French 
and  Latin.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1797. 

Wain,  wawl,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
about  1740,  practised  with  distinction  in  Philadelphia. 
He  afterwards  became  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  noted  for  his  wit  and  humour. 
Died  in  1813. 

Wain,  (Robert,)  Jr.,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1794.  lie  wrote  "The  Hermit  in  Phila- 
delphia," a  satire,  (1819,)  "The  American  Bards,"  and 
other  poems,  also  a  "  Life  of  La  Fayette,"  (1824.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Walpole,  wSl'pol,  (Horace,)  fourth  Earl  of  Orford, 
a  famous  literary  gossip,  amateur,  and  wit,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  October,  1717,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  and  Catherine  Shorter.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1739  he  began 
a  tour  on  the  continent,  in  company  with  his  friend 
Thomas  Gray  the  poet,  from  whom,  in  consequence  of 
a  disagreement,  he  parted  in  1741.  He  returned  home, 
and  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  same  year. 
In  March,  1742,  he  made  a  speech  in  defence  of  his 
father,  which  was  commended  by  William  Pitt.  He 
continued  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  many 
years,  but  seldom  spoke  there.  He  called  himself  a 
Whig,  but  cared  little  for  any  political  principle.  He 
held  lucrative  sinecure  offices. 

In  1747  he  purchased  the  villa  of  Strawberry  Hill,  at 
Twickenham,  on  the  improvement  and  decoration  of 
which  he  expended  much  time  and  money.  He  collected 
there  many  prints,  pictures,  books,  curiosities,  and 
objects  of  virtu.  He  published  in  1758  a  "Catalogue 
\>i  Royal  and  Noble  Authors,"  and  commenced  in  1761 
his  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England,"  the  last  volume 
of  which  appeared  in  1771.  The  materials  for  this  work 
were  furnished  by  Vertue  the  engraver.  In  1764  he 
produced  a  novel  entitled  "The  Castle  of  Otranto," 
which  was  very  successful.  Among  his  other  works  are 
"The  Mysterious  Mother,"  a  tragedy,  (176S,)  "  Historic 
Doubts  on  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  HI.,"  (176S,) 
"  Reminiscences  of  the  Courts  of  George  I.  and  George 
II.,"  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  HI.  from  1771 
to  1783,"  and  his  "Letters,"  (9  vols.,  1857-59,)  which 
are  greatly  admired.  He  affected  a  great  dislike  to 
be  considered  a  literary  man.  Macaul.ty  expresses  the 
opinion  that  "  he  was  the  most  eccentric,  the  most  arti- 
ficial, the  most  fastidious,  the  most  capricious  of  men. 
.  .  .  Serious  business  was  a  trifle  to  him,  and  trifles 
were  his  serious  business.  .  .  What,  then,"  asks  the 
same  critic,  "is  the  irresistible  charm  of  Walpole's 
writings?  It  consists,  we  think,  in  the  art  of  amusing 
without  exciting.  .  .  .  His  style  is  one  of  those  peculiar 
styles  by  which  everybody  is  attracted,  and  which  nobody 
can  safely  venture  to  imitate."  (Review  of  Wali>ole's 
"  Letters  to  Sir  Horace  Mann,"  in  Macaulay's  Essay 
published  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  1833.)  His 
Letters  are  considered  his  best  productions.  In  1791 
he  succeeded   his  nephew  George  as  Earl  of  Orford, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  shoi't;  a,  ^,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t:  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WALPOLE 


2423 


WALSH 


but  he  never  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
seldom  used  his  title.     Died  in  March,  1797. 

See  "  Walpoliana,"  by  J.  Pinkerton,  1792:  Lord  Dover, 
"Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Horace  Walpole,"  prefixed  to  "Letters  to 
Horace  Mann,"  1833;  Eliot  Warbukton,  "Memoirs  of  Horace 
Walpole  and  his  Contemporaries,"  2  vols.,  1851;  "Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1823;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September.  October, 
and  November.  1798:  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1843,  article 
"  Walpole  and  his  Jifiends." 

Walpole,  (Horatio,)  Lord,  an  English  diplomatist 
and  writer,  born  in  1678,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Robert, 
the  premier.  He  was  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1723  to 
1727,  became  treasurer  of  the  king's  household  in  1730, 
and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Holland  about  1733. 
His  talents  and  character  are  praised  by  the  historian 
Coxe.     He  wrote  political  treatises.     Died  in  1757. 

Walpole,  (Sir  Robert,)  Earl  of  Orford,  a  celebrated 
English  statesman,  born  at  Houghton  on  the  26th  of 
August,  1676,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Walpole,  Esq.,  M.P. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1700  he  married  Catherine  Shorter,  and 
entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Castle  Rising  and  a 
supporter  of  the  Whig  party.  He  became  an  able  de- 
bater, a  skilful  parliamentary  tactician,  and  an  excellent 
man  of  business.  In  1708  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  war,  and  the  management  of  the  House  of  Commons 
was  committed  to  him  by  his  party.  He  resigned  with 
the  other  Whig  ministers  in  17 10,  and  declined  the  place 
which  Harley  offered  him  in  the  new  cabinet.  The  Tory 
majority  expelled  him  from  the  House  in  1712,  and  im- 
prisoned him  in  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  corruption. 
He  was  released  at  the  end  of  the  session. 

On  the  accession  of  George  I.,  (1714,)  Walpole  ac- 
quired great  influence  at  court,  and  was  appointed  pay- 
master-general of  the  forces.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  impeachment  of  the  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Lord 
Bolingbroke.  In  October,  17 15,  he  became  first  lord  of 
the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  His 
brother-in-law,  Lord  Townshend,  was  the  chief  minister 
of  this  administration.  Townshend  having  been  re- 
moved by  the  intrigues  of  Lord  Sutherland,  Sir  Robert 
resigned  in  April,  1717,  although  the  king  urged  him  to 
remain  in  office.  He  opposed  the  South  Sea  act,  and 
was  preserved  by  his  good  sense  from  the  general  in- 
fatuation during  the  inflation  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble. 
"  When  the  crash  came, — when  ten  thousand  families 
were  reduced  to  beggary  in  a  day, —  .  .  .  Walpole  was 
the  man  on  whom  all  parties  turned  their  eyes."  (Mac- 
aulay.)  He  becaine  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime 
minister)  in  April,  1721,  and  restored  the  public  credit. 
Supported  by  a  large  majority  of  Parliament,  he  en- 
countered at  first  no  serious  opposition,  until  he  created 
an  opposition  by  proscribing  the  eminent  men  of  his 
own  party  and  indulging  his  propensity  to  engross  the 
power.  Pulteney,  who  had  strong  claims  to  a  place  in 
the  cabinet,  was  neglected  and  turned  into  a  formidable 
adversary.  The  highly-gifted  Loid  Carteret,  who  was 
secretary  of  state,  was  removed  in  1724,  and  a  few  years- 
later  a  violent  quarrel  occurred  between  Walpole  and 
Lord  Townshend,  who  had  long  been  personal  friends. 

At  the  death  of  George  I.,  (1727,)  Queen  Caroline 
exerted  her  influence  in  favour  of  Sir  Robert,  who  was 
reappointed  prime  minister  and  gained  the  confidence 
of  George  II.  According  to  Macaulay,  Walpole  first 
gave  to  the  English  government  that  character  of  lenity 
which  it  has  since  generally  preserved.  The  same 
author  remarks,  that  "though  he  was  at  the  head  of 
affairs  during  more  than  twenty  years,  not  one  great 
measure,  not  one  important  change  for  the  better  or  the 
worse  in  any  part  of  our  institutions,  marks  the  period 
of  his  supremacy.  .  .  .  The  praise  to  which  he  is  fairly 
entitled  is  this,  that  he  understood  the  true  interest 
of  his  country  better  than  any  of  his  contemporaries, 
and  that  he  pursued  that  interest  whenever  it  was  not 
incompatible  with  the  interests  of  his  own  intense  and 
grasping  ambition."  (Review  of  "  Walpole's  Letters  to 
Sir  Horace  Mann.") 

Among  the  errors  of  his  administration  was  the  war 
against  Spain,  (1739,)  into  which  he  was  driven  by  the 
popular  clamour,  while  his  own  judgment  condemned  it 
as  impolitic  and  unjust.  When  he  heard  the  bells  ring- 
ing on  account  of  the  declaration  of  war,  he  muttered. 


"Before  long  they  will  be  wringing  their  hands."  It  is 
admitted  that  he  practised  corruption  or  bribery  on  a 
large  scale,  for  which  some  writers  apologize  by  the  plea 
that  it  was  impossible  to  govern  without  corruption.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  official  career  he  was  attacked  by 
a  powerful  combination  of  Tories,  disaffected  Whigs 
called  patriots,  and  wits,  including  Pulteney,  Carteret, 
Chesterfield,  Swift,  Pope,  and  Pitt.  The  Prince  of 
Wales  also,  having  become  estranged  from  the  king, 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposition.  After  a  long 
and  spirited  contest,  he  resigned  office,  and  passed  into 
the  House  of  Lords,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Orford, 
in  February,  1742.  He  died  in  March,  1745,  leaving 
three  sons. 

"Without  being  a  genius  of  the  first  class,"  say* 
Burke,  "he  was  an  intelligent,  prudent,  and  safe  minis- 
ter. .  .  .  The  prudence,  steadiness,  and  vigilance  of 
that  man,  joined  to  the  .greatest  possible  lenity  in  his 
character  and  his  politics,  preserved  the  crown  to  this 
royal  family,  and  with  it  their  laws  and  liberties  to  this 
country."  ("  Appeal  from  the  New  to  the  Old  Whigs.") 

See  W.  MusGRAVE,  "  Brief  and  True  History  of  Sir  R.  Walpole 
and  his  P'amily,"  1738;  "  Histoire  du  Minist^re  du  Chevalier  Wal- 
pole," Amsterdam,  1755;  "Walpoliana,"  London,  1783;  Coxe, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Administration  of  Sir  R.  Walpole,"  3 
vols.,  1798;  Lord  Mahon,  (Stanhope,)  "History  of  England;" 
Macaulay,  Essay  on  the  "  Earl  of  Chatham,"  reprinted  from  tha 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1834  :  "  Historical  Sketches  of  tlie  Reign 
of  George  H.,"  in  "  Dlackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1868. 

"Walpole,  (Spencer  Horatio,)  an  English  conser- 
vative statesman,  born  in  1806.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Midhurst  in  1846,  and  in  March,  1S52, 
became  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department. 
He  resigned  about  December,  1852.  In  1856  he  repre- 
sented the  University  of  Cambridge  in  Parliament,  He 
was  secretary  for  the  home  department  about  a  year, 
(1858-59,)  and  obtained  the  same  office  in  July,  1866. 
lie  resigned  in  May,  1867. 

Walpurga,  •(^dl-pooR'ga,Walburga,  or  Walpurgis, 
\Vdl-p66R'gis,  Saint,  a  princess  of  Wessex,  in  England, 
who,  with  her  brothers.  Saints  Wunnibald  and  Wilibald, 
went  to  Germany  to  convert  the  heathen.  She  became 
Abbess  of  Heidenheim  about  763,  and  died  in  778.  The 
most  marvellous  stories  were  told  regarding  the  miracles 
wrought  by  her  relics.  Her  festival  falls  on  February  25, 
but  popularly  the  night  between  April  30  and  May  i 
was  consecrated  to  her  honour,  as  Walpurgis-night. 
This  saint  was  specially  invoked  as  a  protectress  against 
dogs  and  wild  beasts. 

Walsh,  w61sh,  (Benjamin  D.,)  an  eminent  entomol- 
ogist, born  in  Great  Britain  in  1808,  removed  to  America 
when  very  young.  He  enjoyed  a  national  reputation 
among  scientific  men  for  excellence  in  his  special  study. 
Died  at  Rock  Island,  Illinois,  in  1869. 

Walsh,  wftlsh,  (Edward,)  M.D.,  an  Irish  physician 
born  at  Waterford,  served  as  army  surgeon  in  Holland 
and  America.  He  published  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Expe- 
dition to  Holland."     Died  in  1832. 

Walsh,  vtlsh,  (Joseph  Alexis,)  Vicomte,  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Anjou  in  17S2,  was  a  legitimist  in 
politics.  He  wrote  several  novels,  a  book  entitled 
"  Memorable  Days  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (5  vols., 
1840,)  and  other  works.     Died  at  Paris,  Feb.  II,  i860. 

Walsh,  (Peter,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  the 
county  of  Kildare,  Ireland,  in  1610.  He  wrote  against 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  (1674.)     Died  in  i688s 

Walsh,  w61sh,  (Robert,)  an  American  author,  born 
in  Baltimore  in  1784,  was  the  son  of  an  Irishman.  He 
studied  law,  travelled  in  Europe,  returned  home  about 
1808,  and  became  a  resident  of  Philadelphia.  He 
wrote  (December,  1809)  a  "Letter  on  the  Genius  and 
Disposition  of  the  French  Government,"  etc.,  which 
was  highly  commended  by  the  "  Edinburgh  Review." 
"  Perhaps  nothing  from  the  American  press,"  says  R. 
W.  Griswold,  "  had  ever  produced  a  greater  sensation." 
In  January,  181 1,  he  began  to  publish  "The  American 
Review  of  History  and  Politics,"  which  was  the  first 
American  quarterly,  and  was  discontinued  about  the 
end  of  1812  for  want  of  patronage.  In  1813  he  produced 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Future  State  of  Europe."  He  edited 
the  "American  Register"  for  a  short  time,  (1817-18,) 
and  published  in  1819  an  "Appeal  from  the  Judgments 


«  as  /i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  K,gultural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jii^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WALSH 


2424 


WALTHER 


of  Great  Britain  respecting  the  United  States,"  etc.  He 
founded,  in  1821,  the  "National  Gazette,"  an  able  and 
influential  daily  paper  of  Philadelphia,  which  he  edited 
for  fifteen  years.  He  published  "  Didactics,  Social, 
Literary,  and  Political,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)  In  1845  he  was 
appointed  American  consul  at  Paris,  where  he  passed 
the  subsequent  part  of  his  life.     Died  in  Paris  in  1858. 

See  R.  W.  Gkiswoi.I),  "Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  197: 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1820;  "North  American  Review" 
for  April,  1S20. 

Walsh,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire in  1663,  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the  friend  of 
Dryden  and  the  patron  of  Pope.  He  was  several  times 
elected  to  Parliament  for  his  native  county.  His  poems 
are  principally  amatory.  He  also  published  a  prose 
essay  entitled  "  Eugenia,  a  Defence  of  Women,"  for 
which  Dryden  wrote  a  preface.     Died  in  1709. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  En<;lish  Poets,"  vol.  i. 

Walsingham  or  Walsyngham,  w5/sing-am,  (Sir 
Francis,)  an  English  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born 
in  Kent  in  1536.  He  studied  at  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  at  an  early  age  acquired  the  favour  and 
patronage  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  appointed  him  her 
representative  at  the  French  court  in  1570.  After  his 
return,  in  1573,  he  became  a  member  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil, and  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  He  was  after- 
wards sent  on  important  missions  to  the  Netherlands, 
France,  and  Scotland.  He  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
detection  of  Babington's  conspiracy,  and  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  in  the  trial  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 
As  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  he  rendered  the  greatest 
services  to  England  and  the  Protestant  cause  by  his 
vigilance  and  skilful  diplomacy  ;  he  is  said  to  have  over- 
reached the  Jesuits  in  their  own  game  of  equivocation 
and  mental  reservation,  and  to  have  maintained  fifty- 
three  agents  and  eighteen  spies  in  foreign  courts.  In 
private  life  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  integrity.  He 
died  in  1590,  leaving  one  daughter,  who  was  successively 
married  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  and  the 
Earl  of  Clanricarde.  An  account  of  Walsingham's 
French  embassy  appeared  in  Sir  Dudley  Digges's 
"  Complete  Ambassador,"  (1655.) 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Fkoudk,  "History  of  Eng- 
land;"  "  Biographia  bntanuica;"  Lodge,  "Portraits  of  Illustrious 
Personages." 

Walsingham,  [Lat.  Walsingha'mus,]  (Thomas,) 
an  English  historian  and  Benedictine  monk,  a  native  of 
Norfolk,  lived  about  1430.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Time  of  Edward  I.  to 
Henry  V.,"  (in  Latin.) 

Walsyngham.    See  Walsingham. 

Walter,  <\-il'ter,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Wetzlar  in  1794,  published  a  "Manual  of  Ecclesi- 
astical Law,"  (1822,)  which  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages,  also  other  legal  works.    Died  in  1879. 

Walter,  (Fkiedrich  Auousr,)  son  of  Johann  Gott- 
lieb, noticed  below,  was  born  in  1764.  He  was  appointed' 
first  medical  councillor  at  Berlin.     Died  in  1826. 

Walter,  (Hukert,)  an  English  prelate,  was  a  nephew 
of  Ranulph  de  Glanville.  As  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  he 
accompanied  the  crusaders  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1193,  and  afterwards 
became  justiciary  of  England. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  ch.  xi. 

Walter,  (Johann  Gottlieh,)  a  celebrated  German 
physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Kdnigsberg  about 
1735.  ^Je  finished  his  studies  at  Berlin  under  Meckel, 
whom  in  1774  he  succeeded  as  first  professor  of  anatomy 
and  mitlvvifery.  His  valuable  anatomical  museum  was 
purchased  by  the  King  of  Prussia  for  100,000  dollars. 
Among  his  works  may  be  named  "  A  Treatise  on  the 
Bones  of  the  Human  Body"  and  a  "  Manual  of  Myology." 
Died  in  181S. 

Wai'tfr,  (John,)  an  English  journalist,  and  founder 
of  the  London  "Times,"  was  born  in  1739.  The  first 
number  of  "The  Times"  appeared  in  17S8.  He  vvas 
the  inventor  of  logography,  or  the  art  of  printing  with 
entire  words  or  syllables.  Died  in  1S12.  His  son, 
of  the  same  name,  born  in  London  in  1784,  became  in 
1803  exclusive  manager  of  "The  Times,"  which,  under 


his  direction,  soon  became  the  most  able  and  influential 
journal  of  Europe.  In  1S14  "The  Times"  was  printed 
tor  the  first  time  by  Kouig's  steam-power  machines. 
(See  KoNlG.)  Mr.  Walter  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Berkshire  in  1832,  and  in  1841  was  returned  for  the 
borough  of  Nottingham.  Died  in  1847.  His  son  John, 
born  in  1818,  succeeded  to  the  proprietorship  of  "The 
Times,"  .served  in  Parliament  from  1847  to  1859,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1868,  in  1874,  and  in  1880. 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1848. 

Wal'ter,  (Thomas  U.,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
architect,  born  in  Philadelphia,  September  4,  1804.  He 
received  a  good,  though  not  a  collegiate,  education.  He 
studied  architecture  under  Mr.  William  Strickland,  and 
afterwards  mathematics  under  David  McCUire,  (then 
distinguished  as  a  teacher  of  that  science.)  He  applied 
himself  assiduously  to  study  for  many  years  before  he 
commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  designed 
in  183 1,  and  superintended  the  erection  of,  the  Philadel- 
phia County  Prison.  His  designs  for  the  Girard  College 
for  Orphans  were  adopted  by  the  City  Councils  in  1833, 
and  that  magnificent  building,  perhaps  the  finest  speci- 
men of  classic  architecture  on  the  American  continent, 
was  constructed  throughout  from  his  designs  and  under 
his  immediate  supervision.  This  work  occupied  him 
fourteen  years.  In  1851  his  plans  for  the  extension  of 
the  Capitol  at  Washington  were  adopted,  and  he  was 
appointed  architect  of  the  work  by  President  Fillmore, 
a  position  which  he  held  for  fourteen  years.  In  addition 
to  the  works  of  the  Capitol  extension,  he  planned  and 
e.xecuted  the  new  iron  dome  of  the  Capitol,  the  east 
and  west  wings  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  the  extension 
of  the  General  Post-Office.  He  also  designed  the  new 
Treasury  Building,  and  the  Government  Hospital  for 
the  Insane.  In  1853  he  received  the  title  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  from  the  University  of  Lewisburg,  and 
in  1857  that  of  doctor  of  laws  from  Harvard  University, 
He  held  for  many  years  a  professorship  of  architecture 
in  the  Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Philosophical  .Society,  and 
of  many  other  literary  and  scientific  institutions,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects.     Died  October  30,  1887. 

Walther,  Ml'ter,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  German 
anatomist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1688,  was  a  son  of 
Michael,  noticed  below,  (1638-92.)  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Leipsic  in  1723,  and  wrote  many 
treatises  on  anatomy.     Died  in  1746. 

Walther,  [Lat.  Gualte'rus  or  Walthe'rus,]  (Bal- 
thasar,)  a  German  scholar  and  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  born  in  Thuringia  before  1600.  He  became 
professor  oi  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Jena.  He  wrote 
several  learned  works  in  Latin  and  German.  Died  in 
1640. 

Walther,  (Bernard,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  in 
1430,  was  a  pupil  of  l\egiomontanus.  He  is  said  to 
have  first  discovered  the  effect  of  atmospheric  refrac- 
tion.    Died  in  1504. 

Walther,  (Christian,)  a  German  Protestant  divine. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Wittenberg  edition  of 
Luther's  works,  and  published  a  number  of  controver- 
sial treatises.     Died  about  1572. 

Walther,  (Christian,)  a  German  divine,  born  near 
Konigsberg  in  1655.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  that  city  in  1703,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  rector 
of  the  university.  He  wrote  several  theological  and  an- 
tiquarian treatises.     Died  in  1717. 

Walther,  (Christoph  Theodosius,)  a  German  di- 
vine, born  in  Brandenburg  in  1699.  He  was  one  of  the 
missionaries  sent  by  the  Danish  government  in  1705  to 
the  coast  of  Coromandel  and  the  other  Danish  posses- 
sions in  India.  He  founded  the  missionary  establishment 
of  Majubaram,  and  published  "An  Abridgment  of  Ec- 
clesi.-xstical  History,"  and  other  works,  in  the  Tamul 
language.     He  died  at  Dresden  in  1741. 

Walther,  (Geokg  Christoph,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Rothenburg  in  1601,  became  president  of  the  chancery 
of  justice  in  his  native  town.  He  published  several  legal 
works  in  Latin.     Died  in  1656. 

VTalther,  (Heinrich  Andreas,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant divine,  born  at  Konigsberg,  in  Hesse,  in  1696, 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  11,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  9,  obsatre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


IVAL  7  HER 


2425 


IVANLEY 


wrote  several  religious  and  theological  works,  in  Latin 
and  German.     Died  in  1748. 

Walther,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  writer, 
born  about  1684,  published  a  "Musical  Dictionary,  His- 
torical and  Biographical."     Died  in  1748. 

Walther,  (Johann  Ludolph,)  a  German,  who  lived 
about  1740,  and  published  "Lexicon  Diplomaticum," 
(1745,)  in  which  he  explained  the  modes  of  writing  and 
tlie  abbreviations  used  in  the  middle  ages. 

Walther,  (Michael,)  a  German  divine  and  theo- 
Ijgical  writer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1593.  He  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Helmstedt  in  1622,  and  in  1642 
was  appointed  general  superintendent  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick-Luneberg.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Manna,"  ("Tractatus  de  Manna,"  1633.) 
a  learned  treatise,  entitled  "  Officina  Biblica,"  (1636,) 
"Exercitationes  Biblicae,"  (1638,)  and  other  works,  in 
Latin;  also  "The  Golden  Key  of  the  Ancients,"  etc., 
in  German.     Died  in  1662. 

Walther,  (Michael,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  163S.  He  was  professor  at  Wittenberg,  and 
published  several  valuable  works  on  theology  and 
mathematics.     Died  in  1692. 

Walther,  [Lat.  Gualte'rus,]  (Rudolph,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Zurich  in  1 5 19,  was  a  friend 
of  Melanchthon,  Zuinglius,  and  other  eminent  Reformers 
of  the  time.  He  published  an  "Apology  for  Zuinglius," 
Homilies  on  the  twelve  min(jr  propliets  and  on  the  New 
Testament,  and  other  prose  works,  in  Latin ;  also  sev- 
eral 1-atin  poems.     Died  in  1586. 

Walther,  von,  fon  <vil'ter,  (Philipp  Franz,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon  and  oculist,  born  at  Buxweiler, 
in  Bavaria,  in  1781,  became  professor  of  surgery  at  Bonn 
in  1819.  He  published  several  medical  and  surgical 
works,  among  which  are  "Human  Physiology,"  ("  Phy- 
siologie  des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1807-08,)  and  a  "Sys- 
tem of  Surgery,"  (4  vols.,  1833-40.)     Died  in  1849. 

See  J.  N.  VON  RiNGSEis,  "  Rede  zum  Andenken  an  den  Dr.  von 
Walther,"  1851. 

Walther  von  der  Vogel-weide,  <^iKter  fon  dcR 
foG'el-<^i'deii,  ("  Waiter  of  the  Bird-Meadow,")  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  German  minnesingers,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  in  Franconia  about  11 70.  He  was  of  a 
noble  family,  and  was  patronized  by  the  duke  Frederick 
of  Vienna  and  his  brother  Leopold  VII.  His  works  are 
amatory  and  patriotic  songs,  and  display  genius  of  a  high 
order.  Two  editions  of  them  have  been  published  by 
Lachmann,  and  an  account  of  Walther's  life  and  poetry, 
by  Uhland,  appeared  in  1S22.  Died  about  1230. 
See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 
Wai'ton,  (Brian,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
In  Yorkshire  in  i6co.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  appointed  about  1638  chaplain  to  the  king,  and 
prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's.  When  the  party  of  the 
Parliament  came  into  power,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office,  and  retired  to  Oxford,  where  he  began  to  collect 
the  materials  for  his  Polyglot  Bible.  This  great  work 
was  completed  in  1657  (in  6  vols,  fol.)  Walton  died  in 
166 1,  having  a  short  time  previously  been  created  Bishop 
of  Chester. 

See  Todd,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Right  Rev 
Brian  Walton,  D.D.,"  etc. 

Walton,  (Elijah,)  an  English  landscape-painter,  born 
at  Manchester  in  1836.  He  made  frequent  tours  through 
portions  of  Europe  and  the  East,  making  sketches  and 
p.iiiitiiigs  of  the  scenery,  and  for  the  last  twenty  years  of 
his  life  held  an  annual  exhibition  of  his  works,  which 
formed  a  feature  of  the  London  season.  Died  August 
25,  1S80. 

"Wai'ton,  (George,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Frederick 
county,  Virginia,  about  1740.  He  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress from  Georgia  in  1776.  being  four  times  re-elected, 
and  was  twice  chosen  Governor  of  Georgia.  He  became, 
chief  justice  of  that  State  in  1783.     Died  in  1804. 

Walton,  (IzAAK,)  a  celebrated  English  writer,  born 
at  Stafford  in  1593.  His  first  publication  was  an  elegv 
on  his  friend  Dr.  Donne,  which  was  followed  by  a  Lite 
of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his  let- 
ters, etc.,  and  entitled  "Reliquiae  Wottonianae,"  (1651.) 
In  early  life  he  was  a  hosier  or  linen-draper  in  London. 


His  principal  work,  "The  Complete  Angler,  or  Con- 
templative Man's  Recreation,"  came  out  in  1653.  It 
was  received  with  great  favour,  and  has  passed  through 
numerous  editions.  Among  his  other  productions  are 
ijood  biographies  of  Richard  Hooker,  George  Herbert, 
(1670,)  and  Bishop  Sanderson,  (1678.)  Walton  was 
twice  married,  his  first  wife  being  Rachael  Floud,  a 
descendant  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  the  second  a 
half-sister  of  Bishop  Ken.  He  died  in  1683,  leaving  one 
son  and  one  daughter.  Hazlitt  expressed  the  ojjinion 
that  his  "  Complete  .'\ngler"  is  perhaps  the  best  pastoral 
in  the  English  language. 

See  Sir  J.  Hawkins,  "  Life  of  Izaak  Walton,"  1760;  T.  ZoL'CH, 
"Life  of  \.  Walton,"  1823;  "Life  of  Izaak  Walton,"  by  Sir  N. 
Harris  Nicolas,  1836. 

Wal^^^orth,  wSl'worth,  (Reuhen  Hyde,)  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  American  jurist,  born  at  Bozrah,  in  Connecticut, 
in  1789.  He  removed  at  an  early  age  to  Hoosick,  New 
York,  where  he  studied  law,  and  was  api)oiiited  in  1811 
one  of  the  county  judges.  He  served  in  the  war  of 
1812,  and  was  present  in  1814  at  the  siege  of  Platts- 
burg,  as  adjutant-general  of  the  United  States  forces.  In 
1 82 1  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1828  appointed 
chancellor,  being  the  last  who  held  that  office  in  this 
country.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  religious 
and  benevolent  associations  of  the  day,  and  was  presi- 
dent for  a  time  of  the  American  Temperance  Union. 
Died  in  1867. 

See  Livingston,  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Wal-wrorth,  wSl'worth,  (Sir  William,)  was  lord 
mayor  of  London  when  an  army  of  insurgents  under 
Wat  Tyler  marched  to  that  city  in  1381.  He  killed 
Tyler  while  he  was  speaking  to  the  king.     Died  about 

1385- 

Waman  or  Wamana.     See  Vamana. 

Wamba,  w6m'ba  or  wini'bi.  King  of  the  Visigoths 
of  Spain,  began  to  reign  in  672  a.d.     Died  in  683. 

Wamese.  w^'mi-zeh,  or  Wamesius,  wi-nia'ze-us, 
(John,)  a  Flemish  jurist,  born  near  Liege  in  1524;  died 
in  1590- 

Waiidelaincourt,  vftNd'liN'kooR',  (Antofne  Hu- 
bert,) a  French  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Verdun  in  1731.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention  of  1792,  and  voted  against  the  death  of  the 
king.     Died  in  1819. 

Wand'?l-bert  or  Wand'al-bert,  a  learned  monk 
and  poet,  born  about  813  a.d.,  lived  at  Prum,  in  Flan- 
ders.   He  wrote  a  Martyrology,  in  verse.   Died  after  870. 

Wandesforde,  wfin'des-ford  or  wSnz'ford,  (Chris- 
topher,) Viscount  Castlecomer,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1592.  He  entered  Parliament, 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  inanagers  in  the  impeachment 
of  Buckingham.  Ho  succeeded  Strafford  as  lord  deputy 
of  Ireland  in  1640.     Died  in  December  of  that  year. 

Wangenheim,  ^ing'en  -  him',  (Karl  .'Vugust,  ) 
Baron,  a  German  statesman,  born  at  Gotha  in  1773. 
About  1806  he  was  called  to  Stuttgart,  where  he  became 
president  of  the  department  of  finance.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  president  of  the  superior  court  at  Tu- 
bingen, and  curator  of  the  university.  He  wrote  several 
works  in  relation  to  government.     Died  in  1850. 

Wang-Mang,  a  Chinese  usurper,  who,  having  put 
to  death  the  infant  heir  to  the  throne,  took  the  title  of 
emperor  about  9  A.D.     He  was  assassinated  in  23  a.d. 

Wan-Koolee,  (or  -Kouli,)  (Mohammed  Ibn  Mu3- 
tafa^  mo-him'med  ib'n  moos'tS  fa,)  a  Turkish  lexicog- 
rapher of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  translated  into 
Turkish  the  Arabic  Dictionary  of  Jevhery. 

Wan-Lee  or  Wan-Ly,  win-lee,  called  also  Y-Kiun, 
an  emperor  of  China,  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  began  to 
reign  in  1572.  He  waged  war  against  the  Mantchoos 
who  invaded  China.     Died  in  1619  or  1620. 

Wanley,  w6n'le,  (Humphrey,)  an  English  antiquary, 
was  bom  at  Coventry  in  1672.  He  employed  himself 
in  collecting  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts  for  Dr.  Hickes's 
"Thesaurus,"  and  prepared  a  descriptive  catalogue  of 
those  contained  in  the  libraries  of  the  kingdom.  He 
afterwards  became  librarian  to  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  Died 
in  1726. 

Wanley,  (Rev.  Nathaniel,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leicester 


*  as  -4;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     (gl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


WANSLEBEN 


2426 


WARD 


in  1633.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "Vox  Dei,  or 
the  Great  Duty  of  Self- Reflection  upon  a  Man's  Own 
Ways,"  and  a  popular  compilation  called  "Wonders  of 
the  Little  World."     Died  in  1680. 

Wansleben,  (^ins'li'ben,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1635.  He 
was  sent  in  1670  by  the  French  government  to  Egypt, 
where  he  made  a  collection  of  manuscripts.  He  pub- 
lished, in  Italian,  "'An  Account  of  the  Present  State  of 
Egy]5t,"  and  several  antiquarian  works  in  Latin.  Died 
in  1679. 

See  VocKERODT, "  Programmade  J.  M.  Wansleben,"  1718;  Nici- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Wappaus,  <tip-pa'Cis,  (Johann  Eduard,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  in  1812;  died  in  1879.  His 
writings  are  very  voluminous. 

Wappers,  wip'pers,  (Gustave,)  Baron,  a  Belgian 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1803. 
He  studied  in  his  native  city  and  in  Paris,  painted  his- 
torical and  religious  pictures,  and  obtained  the  title  of 
first  painter  to  the  King  of  Belgium.  In  1846  he  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Antwerp.     Died  in  1874. 

War'beck,  (Perkin,)  an  adventurer,  who  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  pretended  to  be  the  younger  son 
of  Edward  IV.,  supposed  to  have  been  murdered  by 
order  of  his  uncle,  Richard  HI.  At  the  head  of  several 
thousand  insurgents,  he  besieged  Exeter  ;  but  he  re- 
treated on  the  approach  of  the  royal  army,  and,  being 
made  prisoner,  was  executed  in  1499. 

War'bur-tpn,  (Eliot  Bartholomew  George,)  a 
distinguished  writer,  born  in  county  Galway,  Ireland,  in 
1810.  He  took  his  degree  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  published  in  1845  ^'^  work  entitled  "The 
Crescent  and  the  Cross,"  which  met  with  great  favour 
and  passed  through  numerous  editions.  It  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  history  of  "  Prince  Rupert  and  the  Cava- 
liers," (1S49,)  ^"d  "Memoirs  of  Horace  Walpole  and 
his  Contemporaries."  He  perished  in  the  ship  Amazon, 
lost  off  Land's  End  in  1852.  His  tale  entitled  "  Darien, 
or  the  Merchant  Prince,"  came  out  after  his  death. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionai-y  of  Authors  ;"  "  Quarterly  Review" 
for  March,  1845. 

War'bur-tpn,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1682,  published  a  work  entitled  "  Vallum  Romanum." 
Died  in  1759. 

Warburton,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  writer 
ind  prelate,  born  at  Newark  on  the  24th  of  December, 
1698,  was  a  son  of  George  Warburton,  an  attorney.  He 
was  educated  for  the  profession  of  law,  and  passed  five 
years  in  the  office  of  an  attorney,  (1715-19.)  Having 
resolved  to  enter  the  Church,  he  studied  theology  pri- 
vately, was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1723,  and  published 
"  Miscellaneous  Translations,  in  Prose  and  Verse,  from 
Roman  Authors,"  (1723.)  He  obtained  the  vicarage  of 
Gryesley  in  1726,  through  the  patronage  of  Sir  Robert 
Sutton,  by  whom  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Brant-Broughton,  near  Newark,  in  172S.  He  resided  at 
this  place  about  eighteen  years.  In  1727  he  published 
a  "(Critical  and  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Causes 
of  Prodigies  and  Miracles  as  related  by  Historians." 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  an  able  work  entitled 
"The  Alliance  between  Church  and  State,  or  the  Ne- 
cessity and  Equity  of  an  Established  Religion  and  a 
Test  Law,"  etc.,  (1736,)  which  was  commended  by  Bishop 
Horsley  as  an  excellent  "specimen  of  scientific  reason- 
ing applied  to  a  political  subject." 

His  principal  work  is  "The  Divine  Legation  of  Moses 
demonstrated,  on  the  Principles  of  a  Religious  Deist, 
from  the  Omission  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  State  of 
Rewards  and  Punishments  in  the  Jewish  Dispensation," 
(2  vols.,  1738-41,)  in  which  he  displayed  immense  erudi- 
tion in  the  support  of  novel  and  paradoxical  opinions. 
This  work  excited  much  controversy.  About  1740  he 
became  intimate  with  Pope,  after  he  had  written  several 
letters  in  defence  of  that  poet's  "  Essay  on  Man."  When 
Pope  died,  (1744,)  he  left  half  of  his  library,  and  othei 
valuable  property,  to  Warburton,  who  married,  in  1745. 
Gertrude  Tucker,  a  niece  of  Mr.  Ralph  Allen,  of  Prior 
Park,  near  Bath.  Warburton  resided  mostly  at  Prior 
Park  after  his  marriage.  He  was  elected  preacher  to 
the  society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1746,  edited  Shakspeare's 


works   in  1747,  and   published  a  complete  edition  of 
Pope's  works,  with  notes,  (9  vols.,)  in  1750. 

In  1754  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  king's  chaplains- 
in-ordinary,  and  in  1755  he  obtained  a  prebend  of  Dur- 
ham. He  became  Dean  of  Bristol  in  1757,  and  Bishop 
of  Gloucester  in  1759.  Among  his  other  works  we 
notice  "  A  View  of  Lord  Bolingbroke's  Philosophy,  in 
Four  Letters  to  a  Friend,"  (1754-55,)  and  two  volumes 
of  Sermons  preached  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  (1754.)  His  dis- 
position was  rather  haughty.  "  Warburton,"  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  "was  a  man  of  vigorous  faculties,  a  mind  fer- 
vid and  vehement,  supplied  by  incessant  and  unlimited 
inquiry,  with  a  wonderful  extent  and  variety  of  know- 
ledge, which  yet  had  not  oppressed  his  imagination  or 
clouded  his  perspicacity.  To  every  work  he  brought  a 
memory  full  fraught,  together  with  a  fancy  fertile  of 
original  combinations,  and  at  once  exerted  the  powers 
of  the  scholar,  the  reasoner,  and  the  wit.  .  .  .  His 
abilities  gave  him  a  haughty  confidence,  which  he  dis- 
dained to  conceal  or  mollify."  ("Life  of  Alexander 
Pope,"  in  the  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets.")  He  died 
at  Gloucester  in  June,  1779.  He  had  only  one  child,  a 
son,  who  died  young. 

See  Bishop  Hurd,  "  Notice  of  Warburton,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  his  works,  1794;  J.  S.  Watson,  "Life  of  Warburton,"  1863; 
Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary:"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  :"  Alliuone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1809;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Decem- 
ber, 1820. 

ward,  (Artemas,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Shrewsbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1727.  He 
served  under  Abercronibie  against  the  French  and 
Indians,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  of  the 
Revolution  was  appointed  second  in  command  to 
Washington.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  April, 
1776.  He  was  afterwards  elected  to  Congress,  in  which 
he  served  from  1791  to  1795.     Died  in  1800. 

Ward,  (Artemas,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1763,  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1813,  and  became  chief  justice  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1821.     Died  in 

1847- 

W&rd,  (Edward,)  an  English  humorous  writer,  born 
about  1667.  He  made  a  version  of  "  Don  Quixote" 
into  Hudibrastic  rhymes,  and  was  the  author  of  "The 
London  Spy,"  a  poem.     Died  in  1731. 

Ward,  (Edward  Matthew,)  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1816.  He  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  afterwards  at  Rome  and  Munich.  He 
was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician  in  1855.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  may  be  named  "  The  Last  Sleep 
of  Argyle,"  "The  South -Sea  Bubble,  a  Scene  in  Change 
Alley,"  "  Daniel  Defoe  and  the  Manuscript  of  Robinson 
Crusoe,"  and  "  Izaak  Walton  Angling."     Died  in  1879. 

Ward,  (He.n'ry  Augustus,)  an  American  palaeon- 
tologist, born  at  Rochester,  New  York,  March  9,  1S34. 
He  studied  at  Williams  College,  (graduating  in  1855,)  at 
Cambridge,  (under  Agassiz,)  and  at  Freiberg  and  Paris. 
After  travelling  extensively  in  tropical  regions,  he  was 
professor  of  natural  science  in  Rochester  University  from 
1861  to  1 866.  His  great  collections  of  objects  of  natural 
history  are  of  high  interest,  and  he  has  won  a  wide  repu- 
tation by  his  artificial  reproductions  of  rare  fossil  speci- 
mens. 

Ward,  (Sir  Henry  George,)  an  English  statesman, 
a  son  of  Robert  Plumer,  noticed  below,  was  born  about 
1798.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Saint  Alban's  and  Sheffield,  and  in  1846  became  secre- 
tary to  the  admiralty.  In  1849  he  was  appointed^ Gov- 
ernor of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  in  1856  of  the  island 
of  Ceylon.     Died  in  i860. 

Ward,  (James,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  London 
in  1770,  executed  a  number  of  admirable  works  in  the 
style  of  Morland.  Among  the  best  of  these  may  be 
named  his  "  Horse  and  Serpent,"  "  Bulls  Fighting 
across  a  Tree,"  and  a  "  Landscape  with  Cattle."  He 
was  appointed  painter  and  engraver  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales  in  1794,  and  in  181 1  was  elected  Royal  Acade- 
mician.    Died  in  1859. 

Ward,  (Captain  James  Harman,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1806.  He 
published  several  professional  works,  and  "  Steam  for 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,lofig;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  shori;  gi,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mil;  iiflt;  good;  moon; 


WARD 


2427 


WARE 


the  Million,"  (new  edition,  i860.)  He  was  appointed 
comniander  of  the  Potomac  flotilla  in  May,  1861,  and 
was  killed  in  a  fight  against  a  battery  at  Matthias  Point, 
Virginia,  in  June  of  that  year. 

Ward,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  English  scholar  and  writer, 
bf)rn  in  London  in  1679.  He  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Gresham  College  in  1720.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Maximus  Tyrius,  "  Lives  of  the  Professors 
of  (iresham  College,"  (1740,)  "Four  Essays  upon  the 
English  Language,"  (1758,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.     Died  in  1758. 

See  Thomas  Birch,  "Life  of  John  Ward,"  1766. 

Ward,  (John  Quincy  Adams,)  an  eminent  American 
sculptor,  born  at  Urbana,  Ohio,  June  29,  1830.  After 
studying  medicine  for  a  time,  he  became  a  pupil  of  H. 
K.  Browne,  the  sculptor.  His  "  Shakspeare,"  in  Central 
Park,  New  York,  the  equestrian  statue  of  General 
Thomas,  at  Washington,  and  the  statue  of  General 
Washington,  at  Newburyport,  are  among  the  finest 
works  of  plastic  art  that  America  has  produced. 

Ward,  (John  William.)     See  Dudlky,  Earl  of. 

Ward,  (Lester  Frank,)  an  American  scientist,  born 
at  Joliet,  Illinois,  June  18,  1841.  He  graduated  in  1869 
at  the  Columbian  College,  VVashington,  D.C.,  served 
as  geologist  in  the  United  States  national  survey,  1879 
-80,  and  was  afterwards  made  one  of  the  curators  of  the 
National  Museum.  His  principal  works  are  a  translation 
of  Haeckel's  "  Genesis  of  Man,"  (1880,)  a  "  Guide  to  the 
Flora  of  Washington,"  (1881,)  and  "Dynamic  Sociology," 
(1883.) 

Ward,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  was 
born  at  Haverhill  about  1570.  In  1634  he  visited  New 
England,  where  he  assisted  in  forming  a  settlement  at 
Haverhill.  After  his  return  to  England  he  published 
a  satirical  w^ork  entitled  "  Mercurius  Antimecharius, 
or  the  Simple  Cobbler's  Boy,"  etc.     Died  in  1653. 

Ward,  (Robert  Plumer,)  an  English  statesman  and 
writer,  born  in  1765.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
O.xford,  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  uf  the  admiralty 
in  1807,  and  was  subsequently  a  member  of  Parliament. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations 
in  Europe  from  the  Time  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
the  Age  of  Grotius,"  (1795,)  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Con- 
duct of  European  Wars,"  (1803,)  three  novels,  entitled 
"Tremaine,"  "  De  Vere,"  and  "  De  Clifford,"  and  other 
works  on  various  subjects.     Died  in  1S46. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Political  and  Literary  Life  of  Robert  Plumer 
Ward,"  by  Hon.  Edmund  Phipps,  2  vols.,  1850. 

Ward,  (Samuel,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Durham.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  Taunton  in  1615, 
and  afterwards  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  O.xford. 
Died  in  1643. 

Ward,  (Seth,)  an  English  bishop  and  distinguished 
astronomer,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1617.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  became  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Oxford.  He  was  also  chosen  president  of 
Trinity  College  ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  resign  this 
office  at  the  restoration.  Under  Charles  II.  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1662.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  first  members  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  An  Essay  on  the  Being 
and  Attributes  of  God,"  etc.,  (1652,)  a  treatise  on  the 
nature  of  comets,  entitled  "  Praelectio  de  Cometis,"  etc., 
(1653,)  and  "Astronumia  Geometria,"  (1656.)  Died 
in  1689. 

See  Walter  Pope,  "  Life  of  Seth  Ward,"  1698. 

Ward,  (Thomas,)  a  Roman  Catholic  controversialist 
and  poet,  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1652 ;  died  in 
1708. 

Ward,  (William,)  an  English  missionary,  born  at 
Derby  in  1769.  He  sailed  for  India  in  1799,  and,  having 
settled  at  Serampore,  printed  the  Bengalee  New  Testa- 
ment and  other  translations.  He  also  published  "An 
Account  of  the  Writings,  Religion,  and  Manners  of  the 
Hindoos,"  (i8ii,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1823. 

Ward,  (William  George,)  D.D.,  an  English  phi- 
losopher and  controversialist,  born  in  London  in  1812. 
He  graduated  at  Oxford  with  high  honours  in  1831,  and 
associated  himself  with  Newman  in  the  Tractarian  con- 


troversy. He  published  "The  Ideal  of  a  Christian 
Church"  in  1844,  a  book  which  was  censured  by  con- 
vocation on  account  of  its  leaning  towards  Romanism. 
Shortly  after  its  condemnation  he  seceded  from  the 
Anglican  Church  to  join  the  Roman  Catholics.  He  was 
a  professor  in  a  college  at  Ware.  In  1863  he  undertook 
the  editorship  of  the  "  Dublin  Review,"  a  position  which 
he  held  until  1878.  Many  of  his  contributions  to  this 
periodical  were  republished  in  book -form.  Died  at 
Hampstead,  July  6,  1882. 

Ward,  (William  Hayes,)  D.D.,an  American  divine 
and  distinguished  Assyriologist,  born  at  Abington,  Massa- 
chusetts, June  25,  1835.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege in  1856,  and  at  Andover  Seminary  in  1859.  He  was 
ordained  a  Congregationalist  pastor  in  i860,  was  Latin 
professor  in  Ripon  College,  1865-67,  and  later  became 
editor  of"  The  Independent,"  a  newspaper  of  New  York. 
He  has  written  much  for  periodical  literature,  largely  on 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  antiquities  and  kindred  topics. 

Ward'fr,  (John  Aston,)  M.D.,  an  American  pomolo- 
gist,  born  near  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  January  19, 
18 1 2.  He  removed  to  Ohio  in  1830,  graduated  at  the  Jef- 
ferson Medical  College  in  1836,  and  settled  as  a  physician 
in  Cincinnati  in  1837.  He  discovered  in  1853  '^^  Catalpa 
speciosa,  a  tree  unrecognized  up  to  that  time.  He  was 
author  of  a  United  States  "  Report  on  Flax  and  Hemp," 
(1865,)  "  Hedges  and  Evergreens,"  (1858,)  and  "Ameri- 
can Pomology:  Apples,"  (1867,)  besides  many  important 
papers  on  practical  science,  especially  on  forestry  and 
fruit-trees.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 

Sd  exercised  a  wide  and  exceedingly  useful  influence 
roughout  the  West.     Died  July  14,  1883. 
WSrd'law,   (Henry,)  a    Scottish  ecclesiastic,  who 
became    Bishop  of  Saint   Andrew's,  and   founded   the 
university  in  that  place.     Died  in  1440. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsme 

Wardlaw,  (Ralph,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Dalkeith  in  1779. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1803 
became  pastor  of  a  church  of  the  Scottish  Independents 
in  that  city.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  systematic 
theology  in  the  Academy  of  the  Independents  at  Glas- 
gow in  181 1.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an  essay 
"On  the  Assurance  of  Faith,"  (1830,)  "Christian  Ethics, 
or  Moral  Philosophy  on  the  Principles  of  Divine  Reve- 
lation," (1833,)  "The  Divine  Dissuasive  to  the  Young 
against  the  Enticements  of  Sinners,"  and  a  "Treatise 
on  Miracles,"  (1852.)     Died  in  1853. 

See  W.  L.  Alexander,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  o 
Ralph  Wardlaw,  D.D.  ;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;' 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup- 
plement.) 

W^are,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian  divine, 
bom  at  Sherburne,  Massachusetts,  in  1764.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  where  he  became  in  1805  Hollis 
professor  of  divinity.  He  published  "Letters  to  Trini- 
tarians and  Calvinists,"  and  other  controversial  works. 
His  second  wife  was  a  daughter  of  James  Otis.  Died 
in  1845. 

Ware,  (Henry,)  Jr.,  D.D.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1794.  He  became 
minister  of  the  Second  Unitarian  Church,  Boston,  m 
1817,  and  was  appointed  in  1829  professor  of  pulpit  elo- 
quence and  the  pastoral  care  in  the  theological  school, 
Cambridge.  He  was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  "Christian 
Disciple,"  since  become  the  "Christian  Examiner,"  and 
published  a  number  of  religious  essays  and  poems,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "  To  the  Ursa  Major,"  has  been  greatly 
admired.     Died  in  1843. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Henry  Ware,  Jr.,"  by  his  brother  John,  1845. 

Ware,  (Sir  James,)  an  Irish  antiquary,  born  at  Dublin 
in  1594.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  auditor-general  of 
the  kingdom  in  1632,  and  afterwards  became  a  member 
of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  and  of  the  privy  council. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Ire- 
land, entitled  "  De  Praesulibus  Hiberniae  Commentarius," 
and  of  other  treatises  on  history  and  antiquities.  Died 
in  1666. 

Ware,  (James,)  an  English  surgeon  and  oculist,  born 
at  Portsmouth  about  1756,  became  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  at  Cambridge.    He  wrote  "  Remarks  on  Fistula 


«  as  ii,*  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  a;  %h  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WARE 


2428 


WARNER 


I.achrymalis,"  (1798,)  and  "Chirurgical  Observations." 
Died  in  1815. 

Ware,  (John,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Henry  Ware,  (1794- 
1S43,)  was  born  at  Mingliam,  Massachusetts,  in  1795. 
He  was  appointed  in  1832  professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  in  the  medical  department  of  Har- 
vard College.  He  published  treatises  "On  Croup," 
"On  Hasmciptysis,"  etc.     Died  April  29,  1864. 

Ware,  (William,)  a  distinguished  American  author, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hingham,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1797.  He  was  successively  pastor  of 
a  church  in  New  York,  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts, 
and  at  West  Cambridge.  His  "Letters  from  Palmyra," 
originally  published  in  the  "Knickerbocker  Magazine," 
appeared  afterwards  under  the  title  of  "  Zenobia,"  (1836,) 
and  was  succeeded  in  1838  by  "Aurelian,"  otherwise 
called  "  Probus,"  a  continuation  of  the  same  subject. 
These  classical  romances  have  won  for  their  author  a 
high  reputation  both  in  America  and  Europe,  and  have 
been  translated  into  German.  Mr.  Ware  was  for  a  time 
editor  of  the  "Christian  Examiner."  He  also  published 
"Lectures  on  the  Works  and  Genius  of  Washington 
Allston,"  and  "Sketches  of  European  Capitals,"  (1851.^ 
He  died  at  Cambridge  in  February,  1S52. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duvckinck, 
"  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Shrague,  "  Annals  of 
the  American  Pulpit,"  vol.  viii.  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January 
183S  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1837. 

War'field,  (Catharine  Ann,)  an  American  novelist 
and  poetess,  born  near  Natchez,  Mississippi,  June  14, 
181 5.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Mr.  N.  A.  Ware.  In 
1833  she  married  Elisha  Warfield,  of  Lexington,  Ke^^ 
tucky.  She  published,  with  her  sister,  Mrs.  Eleanor 
Lee,  (q.  v.,)  a  volume  of  poems  in  1843.  Mrs.  Warfield 
wrote  "The  Household  of  Bouverie,"  (a  romance,  i860,) 
and  several  other  works  of  fiction.     Died  May  23,  1S78. 

Wargentin,  vaR'gen-teen',  (Peter  Wilhelm,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  astronomer,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1717. 
He  was  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy 
of  Stockholm  in  1749;  and  he  subsequently  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  chevalier 
of  the  Polar  Star.     Died  in  1783. 

See  Franz^n,  "  Minne  af  P.  W.  Wargentin,"  1S47. 

W^r'ham,  (William,)  an  English  prelate  and  states- 
man, born"  in  Hampshire.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
was  successively  created  by  Henry  VHL  keeper  of  the 
great  seal,  (1502,)  lord  chancellor,  (1503,)  Bishop  of 
London  the  same  year,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
(1504.)  He  was  obliged  to  resign  the  chancellorship  in 
1516  in  favour  of  Wolsey,  who  had  become  the  favourite 
of  the  king.  He  died  in  1532,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Cranmer  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Warham  was 
a  patron  of  learning,  and  a  warm  friend  of  Erasmus,  who 
mentions  him  in  his  letters  with  high  commendation. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,'' 
vol.  i.,  new  series,  chap.  ii. 

Warm.     See  Varin,  (Jean.) 

Wa'ring,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician, boj-n  near  Shrewsbury  in  1736.  He  studied  at 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  Lu 
casian  professor  of  mathematics  in  1760.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1763.  He  publisheu 
"  Analytical  Miscellanies  on  Algebraic  Equations," 
("Miscellanea  analytica  de  yEquationibus  aigebraicis," 
etc.,  1762,)  "  Properties  of  Algebraic  Curves,"  ("  Propri- 
etates  Algebraicarum  Curvarum,"  etc.,  1772,)  and  other 
valuable  works.      Died  in  1798. 

Waring,  wSr'ing,  (George  E.,)  Jr.,  an  American 
engineer  and  author,  born  in  Westchester  county.  New 
York,  July  4,  1833,  was  one  of  the  engineers  of  tl.e 
Central  Park,  New  York,  1857-61,  served  in  the  Fed- 
eral army,  1861-65,  becoming  a  colonel  of  cavalry  and 
division  commander,  and  afterwards  attained  distinction 
as  a  sanitary,  agricultural,  and  drainage  engineer.  In 
1880  he  executed  the  new  sewerage  works  of  Memphis, 
Tennessee.  Among  his  books  are  "  Elements  of  Agri- 
culture," (1854,)  "Drainage  for  Profit  and  for  Health," 
(1867,)  "A  Farmer's  Vacation,"  (1874,)  "Whip  and 
Spur,"  (1875,)  "Sanitary  Drainage,"  (1875,)  "The  Bride 
of  the  Rhine,"  (1876,)  "Village  Improvements  and  Farm 
Villages,"  (1877,)  "Tyrol   and  the    Skirt  of  the  Alps," 


(1878,)  etc.  He  edited  (1868-81)  the  Herd-Books  of 
the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  of  which  he  was  the 
founder. 

Warmholtz,  <^aRm'holts,  (Carl  Gustaf,)  a  Swedish 
bii)liographer,  born  in  1710.  He  published  a  "  Swedish- 
Gothic  Ilistorical  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  historica 
Sueco-Gothica,"  3  vols.,  1782.)     Died  in  1784. 

War'ming,  (Johannes  Eugenius  BiJLow,)  a  Danish 
botanist,  born  on  the  island  of  Manoe,  November  3, 
1 84 1.  In  1876  he  became  professor  of  pharmaceutical 
botany  at  Copenhagen.  His  activity  and  ability  as  a 
botanical  author  are  very  remarkable,  and  numerous 
papers  show  his  fine  attainments  in  science.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "  Hand-Book  of  Systematic  Botany," 

(1879.) 

Warnachaire,  vtR'nt'shiR',  [Lat.  Warnacha'rius,] 
became  mayor  of  the  jialace  under  Thierry  II.  of  Bur- 
gundy about  612  A.D.  He  aided  Clotaire  II.  to  defeat 
Queen  Brunehaut,  and  acquired  great  power.  Died 
in  626. 

Warneford,  warn'fgrd,  (Rev.  Samuel  Wilson,)  an 
English  clergyman  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Wiltshire 
in  1758.  He  studied  at  University  College,  Oxford,  and 
in  1810  became  rector  of  Bourton-on-the-Hill,  in  Glou- 
cestershire. He  founded  a  hospital  at  Leamington,  and 
a  lunatic-asylum  near  Oxford.     Died  in  1855. 

War'ner,  (Anna  B.,)  si.ster  of  Su.san  Warner,  noticed 
below,  has  published  "  Dollars  and  Cents,  by  Amy 
Lothrop,"  (1853,)  "My  Brother's  Keeper,"  (1855,) 
"Stories  of  Vinegar  Hill,"  (1871,)  "The  Blue  Flag  and 
Cloth  of  Gold,"  (1879,)  etc.,  and,  in  conjunction  with  her 
sister,  "Say  and  Seal,"  (i860,)  "  Wych  Hazel,"  (1876,) 
and  "The  Gold  of  Chickaree,"  (1876.) 

Warner,  (Charles  Dudley,)  an  American  author, 
born  in  Plainfield,  Massachusetts,  September  12,  1829, 
graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  in 
1851,  studied  law,  and  in  1857  was  admitted  to  the  Phila- 
delphia bar.  He  was  afterwards  a  journalist  of  Hartford, 
Connecticut.  His  principal  books  (most  of  them  written 
in  a  humorous  vein)  are  "  My  Summer  in  a  Garden," 
(1871,)  "  Saunterings,"  (1872,)  "Back-Log  Studies," 
(1872,)  "My  Winter  on  the  Nile,"  "In  the  Levant," 
"  Washington  Irving,"  "  A  Roundabout  Journey,"  a 
"Life  of  Captain  John  Smith,"  "The  American  News- 
paper," and  "Mmnmies  and  Moslems."  With  S.  L, 
Clemens,  (Mark  Twain,)  he  also  produced  "The  Gilded 
Age,"  a  novel  and  play. 

War'ner,  (Ferdinando,)  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  1703,  became  rector  of 
Barnes,  in  Surrey.  Among  his  numerous  publications 
we  may  naine  "The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (1756,)  a  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas 
More,"  (1758,)  and  "History  of  the  Rebellion  and  Civil 
War  in  Ireland,"  (1767.)     Died  about  1768. 

Warner,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1585,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Rochester. 
Died  in  1666. 

Weirner,  (John,)  D.D.,  son  of  Ferdinando,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1736.  He  became  rector  of  Stourton, 
in  Wiltshire,  and  wrote  a  political  work,  entitled  "  Me- 
tronariston."     Died  in  1800. 

Warner,  (Joseph,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished  surgeon, 
born  in  the  island  of  Antigua  in  1717,  was  a  pupil  of 
Samuel  Sharpe.  He  was  surgeon  to  Guy's  Hospital, 
London,  about  forty-four  years,  and  published  several 
professional  works.     Died  in  1801. 

Warner,  (Richard,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in 
1711,  published  a  work  entitled  "  Plantae  Woodford- 
ienses."  The  genus  Warneria  was  named  in  his  honour. 
He  died  in  1775,  leaving  his  library  to  Wadham  College. 

Warner,  (Susan,)  a  popular  American  writer,  burn 
in  New  York  in  1818.  She  jHiblished  in  1850,  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Emzabeih  Wetherell,  her  novel  of 
"The  Wide,  Wide  World,"  which  had  an  extraordinary 
success.  It  was  followed  by  "  Queechy,"  (1852,)  "The 
Hills  of  the  Shatemuc,"  (1856,)  "The  Old  Helmet," 
(1863,)  "Melbourne  House,"  (1864,)  "Pine  Needles," 
(1877,)  "Diana,"  (1877,)  "My  Desire,"  (1879,)  "The 
End  of  a  Coil,"  (1880,)  "Nobody,"  (1882,)  "Stephsn, 
M.D.,"  (1883,)  etc.,  besides  the  three  novels  writter.  in 
connection  with  her  sister  Anna.    Died  March  17,  1885. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  f ,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


WARNER 


2429 


WARREN 


"Warner,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Ox- 
fordshire about  1558.  He  was  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  ballads,  entitled  "Albion's  England,"  which  acquired 
great  popularity;  also  "Syrinx,  a  Seavenfold  Historie," 
consisting  of  prose  narratives.     Died  in  1609. 

Warnkonig  or  "Warnkoenig,  <^3Rn'ko'niG,  (Leo- 
pold August,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Bruchsal  in 
1794,  became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Louvain, 
Ghent,  Freiburg,  and  Tubingen.  Me  was  the  author  of 
a  "  History  of  the  Jurisprudence  and  .State  of  Flanders," 
(1834,)  and  other  similar  works.     Died  August  19, 1866. 

Warren,  wftr'ren,  (Charles,)  an  English  engraver 
on  steel,  born  in  London  about  1762,  had  a  high  reputa- 
tion.    Died  in  1823. 

Warren,  wSr'ren,  (Gouverneur  K.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  New  York  about  1830,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1850.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the 
Union  army  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  at  Malvern 
Hill,  July  I,  1862.  He  served  at  Anlietam,  September 
17,  1862,  at  ChancellorsviJle,  May  3,  1863,  and  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  2  and  3.  He  commanded  the  fifth  corjjs  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilder- 
ness, May  5  and  6,  1864,  at  .Spottsylvania  Court-House, 
May  8-12,  and  at  Cold  Harbour,  June  3.  On  the  31st 
of  March,  1865,  his  corps,  advancing  to  seize  the  White 
Oak  Road,  was  attacked  by  the  enemy,  whom  he  re- 
pulsed. He  then  reinforced  General  Sheridan,  under 
whom  he  served  at  the  battle  of  Five  Forks,  April  i. 
He  was  deprived  of  his  command  by  General  Sheridan 
about  the  close  of  this  battle.     Died  August  8,  1882. 

Weirren,  (Henry,)  a  British  painter  and  author,  born 
in  London,  September  24,  1798.  He  did  much  for  water- 
colour  painting.  His  "  Happy  Valley,"  and  his  numer- 
ous Eastern  and  .Scripture  scenes,  are  much  praised. 
Among  his  writings  are  "Artistic  Anatomy,"  "  Water- 
Colour  Painting,"  "Notes  upon  Notes,"  "Hints  upon 
Hints,"  and  "On  the  River  Kavensbourne." 

Warren,  (Henry  White,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1835.  He  graduated 
at  Wesleyan  University  in  1853,  became  a  preacher  in 
1855,  and  in  iSSo  was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  with  his  episcopal  residence  at  At- 
lanta, Georgia.  His  principal  works  are  "  Sights  and 
Insights,"  (travels,  1869,)  "  Studies  of  the  Stars,"  (1876,) 
and  "Recreations  in  Astronomy,"  (1879.)  He  also 
prepared  "The  Lesser  Hymnal,"  (1875.) 

Warren,  (James,)  an  American  patriot  and  revo- 
lutionist, born  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1726, 
was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  that 
State,  and  a  zealous  defe.ider  of  the  colonists.  Died 
in  1S08. 

Warren,  (John,)  M.D.,  brother  of  General  Joseph 
Warren,  was  born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1753. 
He  was  physician  to  the  military  hospitals  of  Boston  in 
the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical  department  of  Har- 
vard College.  He  published  a  number  of  medical  works. 
Died  in  1815. 

Warren,  (Sir  John  Borlase,)  G.C.B.,  an  English 
naval  commander,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1754.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Marlovv  in  1774,  and  again 
in  1780.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  with  P'rance 
in  1793,  and,  as  commander  of  the  Canada,  in  1798,  cap- 
tured the  French  squadron,  consisting  of  a  ship  of  tiie 
line  and  three  frigates,  sent  for  the  invasion  of  Ireland. 
Soon  after  this  service  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral  of 
the  blue.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Notting- 
ham in  1793,  being  re-elected  in  1802,  and  was  subse- 
quently ambassador-extraordinary  to  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of  "  A  View  of 
the  Naval  Force  of  Great  Britain,"  (1791.)    Died  in  1822. 

Warren,  (John  Collins,)  M.D.,  a  son  of  John, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1778.  He  studied 
medicine  in  London,  Edinburgii,  and  Paris,  and,  after  his 
return,  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Harvard,  (1S15.)  He  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Boston  Medical  and  .Surgical  Journal,"  and  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  the  leading  scientific  and  medical 
journals.  He  published  "  Surgical  Operations  on  Tu- 
mours," a  treatise  on  "Diseases  of  the  Heart,"  (1809,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1S56. 


Warren,  (Jonathan  Mason,)  M.D.,  an  American 
surgeon,  a  son  of  J.  C.  Warren,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
181 1.  He  graduated  as  M.D.  at  the  Massachusetts  Medi- 
cal College  in  1832,  studied  in  Europe,  and  became  a 
practitioner  of  his  native  city.  He  published  "Surgical 
Observations,"  (1S67,)  etc.  Died  in  Boston,  August  19, 
1S67. 

W'arren,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  American  general 
and  patriot,  born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1741, 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1759.  He  studied 
medicine,  which  he  began  to  practise  in  Boston  at  the 
age  of  twenty-three,  and  he  became  in  a  few  years  one 
of  the  most  eminent  physicians  of  that  city.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  political  affairs,  was  a  decided  asserter 
of  liberal  principles,  and  was  eminently  qualified  by 
his  superior  talents  and  ardent  temperament  to  be  a 
popular  leader  in  critical  times.  He  possessed  in  high 
perfection  the  gift  of  eloquence.  In  March,  1772,  he 
delivered  an  oration  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Boston 
Massacre.  According  to  Alexander  II.  Everett,  "the 
commanding  genius  of  Warren  carried  him  at  once  to 
the  helm,  and  rendered  him,  for  the  brief  period  of  his 
subsequent  life,  both  in  civil  and  military  affairs,  the 
most  prominent  man  in  New  England." 

In  1774  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Provincial 
Congress,  and  chairman  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  which  exercised  the  chief  executive  power  in 
Massachusetts.  Having  obtained  information  of  the 
British  expedition  against  Concord,  he  despatched  a 
messenger  on  the  night  of  April  18,  1775,  to  warn  his 
friends,  and  thus  contributed  to  the  success  gained  at 
Lexington  on  the  ensuing  day.  He  was  elected  a  m.ajor- 
general  by  Congress  on  the  14th  of  June,  1775.  He 
opposed  the  plan  of  fortifying  the  heights  of  Charles- 
town  ;  but  the  majority  of  the  council  of  war  decided  to 
fortify  those  heights,  and  tlius  brought  on  the  battle  of 
Bunker's  Hill  before  the  Americans  were  fully  prepared 
for  it.  While  both  the  armies  were  awaiting  the  signal 
for  action,  on  the  17th  of  June,  General  Warren  joined 
the  ranks  as  a  volunteer,  and  declined  to  take  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  which  was  offered  to  him  by  General 
Putnam.  He  was  about  to  retire  from  the  redoubt  after 
the  ammunition  of  the  Americans  had  been  exhausted, 
when  he  was  shot  in  the  forehead,  and  instantly  killed. 
He  left  two  sons,  who  both  died  young,  and  two  daughters. 
His  loss  was  deeply  and  universally  lamented.  "The 
name  of  Joseph  Warren,"  says  A.  H.  Everett,  "is  one  of 
the  most  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  the  Revolution. 
His  memory  is  cherished  with  even  warmer  regard  than 
that  of  some  others,  who,  from  the  greater  length  of  their 
career,  and  the  wider  sphere  in  which  they  acted,  may 
be  supposed  to  have  rendered  more  important  services 
to  the  country.  This  distinction  in  his  favour  is  owing, 
in  part,  to  the  chivalrous  beauty  of  his  character,  which 
naturally  excites  a  sympathetic  glow  in  every  feeling 
mind,  and  in  part  to  that  untimely  but  glorious  fate 
which  consecrated  him  as  the  first  distinguished  martyr 
in  the  cause  of  indejiendence  and  liberty." 

See  "The  Life  of  Joseph  Warren, "by  Alexander  H.  Everkt;., 
in  Sparks's  "  Amei  icaii  liiography,"  vol.  x. ;  "National  Ponrait- 
Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Wan  en,  (Mercy,)  the  wife  of  James  Warren,  and 
sister  of  James  Otis,  was  born  at  Barnstable,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1728.  She  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the 
American  Revolution,"  (3  vols.,  1805,)  which  was  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time,  tragedies  entitled  "The  Sack  of 
Rome"  and  "The  Ladies  of  Castile,"  and  a  number  of 
poems.     Died  in  1814. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Warren,  (Sir  Peter,)  an  Irish  admiral,  born  in  170J. 
As  commander  of  a  squadron,  he  captured  Louisbourg 
from  the  French  in  1745,  and  in  1747  assisted  Anson 
in  defeating  a  French  squadron.  He  was  subsequently 
created  vice-admiral  of  the  red,  and  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Westminster.  He  died  in  1752.  A  monument 
to  him,  by  Roubiliac,  was  placed  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Warren,  (Sa  kiel,)  a  popular  English  novelist  and 
legal  writer,  born  in  Denbighshire  in  1807.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  but  subsequently  devoted  him- 
self to  the  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837. 
His  "Passages  from  the   Dinry  of  a   Late   Physician" 


eaSii;  9as^.°  '%hiird;  ^asy;  G,  H,  Vi,pUtm\il;  n,  nasal;  u,  I  rilled;  sass;  th  as  in  this.     ( fl^^Sec  lCxi)laiialions,  p.  23.) 


WARREN 


2430 


WARWICK 


(New  York,  1S31)  came  out  \\\  "Blackwood's  Magazine," 
and  obtained  an  extensive  popularity;  and  his  novel  of 
"Ten  Thousand  a  Year"  (1841)  appeared  soon  after  in 
the  same  journal.  Both  works  were  afterwards  published 
separately,  and  the  latter  has  been  translated  into  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe.  Mr.  Warren  also  wrote 
"A  Popular  and  Practical  Introduction  to  Law  Studies," 
etc.,  (1845,)  "Now  and  Then,"  a  novel,  (1847,)  "Moral, 
Social,  and  Professional  Duties  of  Attorneys  and  Solici- 
tors," (1848,)  and  other  works,  principally  legal  treatises. 
He  was  chosen  to  represent  Midhurst  in  Parliament  in 
1856  and  1857.     Died  July  29,  1877. 

See  Alubone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Blackwood's  Macca- 
tine"  for  February,  1848;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May, 
184S. 

Warren,  (William,)  an  American  comedian,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  November  17,  1812.  He  went  upon  the 
stage  at  the  Arch  Street  Theatre  in  1832.  In  1847  he 
became  connected  with  the  Boston  Museum,  where  he 
remained  throughout  the  rest  of  his  professional  life. 
His  specialty  was  legitimate  comedy  of  the  old  school, 
in  which  he  was  extremely  popular.     Died  in  1888. 

Warren,  (William  Fairfield,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  educator,  born  at  Williamsburg,  Massachu- 
setts, March  13,  1833.  He  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan 
University,  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1S53,  became  a 
Methodist  preacher  in  1855,  and  studied  divinity  at 
Andoverand  the  German  universities,  becoming  in  1861 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  a  Methodist  institu- 
tion at  Bremen,  in  Germany.  He  was  in  1866  called  to 
a  similar  chair  in  the  theological  school  afterwards  con- 
nected with  Boston  University,  and  in  1873  became  presi- 
dent of  that  university. 

Warrington,  war'ring-ton,  (Lewis,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  in  1782. 
He  fought  with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  com- 
manded the  Peacock,  which  captured  the  British  brig 
Epervier  in  April,  1814.  He  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography  in  1842.  He  had 
been  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  18 14.   Died  in  1851. 

Wartenberg,  von,  fon  <^aR'ten-b§RG',  (Franz  Wil- 
HELM,)  Count,  a  German  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1593. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  and  Osnabriick,  and 
cardinal  in  i66r.     He  died  the  same  year. 

Wartensleben,  MR'tens-li'ben,  (Ale.xander  Her- 
mann,) a  German  general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1650. 
He  served  in  the  armies  of  Hesse,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 
with  the  rank  of  field-marshal.     Died  in  1734. 

Wartensleben,  von,  fon  <^iR'tens-li'ben,  (Wil- 
HELM  LuDWiG  Gaston,)  an  Austrian  general,  born 
in  1728.  He  obtained  command  in  1796  of  a  corps 
d'armee  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and  was  defeated 
by  Jourdan  at  Friedberg,  from  which  he  retreated  to 
Wiirzburg.  Having  effected  a  junction  with  the  arch- 
duke, he  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the  French  near 
Wiirzburg,  in  September,  1796.     Died  soon  after  1797. 

War'tpn,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  English  critic  and 
scholar,  born  in  Surrey  in  1722.  He  studied  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  and,  having  taken  his  degree  of  B.A., 
was  ordained  curate  of  Basingstoke.  He  published  in 
1746  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled  "Odes  on  Various 
Subjects,"  and  in  1753  ^"  edition  of  Virgil,  with  a  new 
poetical  version  of  the  "Eclogues"  and  "  Georgics."  His 
I' Essay  on  the  Writings  and  Genius  of  Pope"  appeared 
in  1782,  and,  although  not  favourably  received  at  the 
time,  is  now  generally  regarded  as  one  of  his  best  works. 
Warton  became  head-master  of  Winchester  School  in 
1766,  and  he  was  afterwards  successively  created  preb- 
endary of  Saint  Paul's  and  of  Winchester  Cathedral,  and 
rector  of  Clapham.  In  1797  he  published  an  edition  of 
Pope's  works,  with  notes,  (9  vols.  8vo.)     Died  in  1800. 

See  "  Biographical  Memoirs  of  the  Late  Rev.  Joseph  Warton, 
D.D.,"  by  the  Rf.v.  John  Wooll  ;  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets, 
from  Johnson  to  Kirke  White,"  by  Carv. 

Warton,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  critic  and 
poet,  born  at  Basingstoke  in  1728,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1751.  He  was  elected 
professor  of  poetry  in  1757,  and  subsequently  Camden 
professor  of  history,  at  Oxford.  His  "  Histcjry  of  Eng- 
lish Poetry,"  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  works 
of  the  kind,  came  out  in  1781,  in  3  vols.     Among  his 


other  productions  we  may  name  "The  Triumph  of 
Isis,"  a  poem,  written  in  reply  to  Mason's  "  Isis,"  "  The 
Progress  of  Discontent,"  and  "The  Oxford  Sausage, 
or  Select  Pieces  written  by  the  Most  Celebrated  Wits  of 
the  University  of  Oxford,"  all  of  which  display  great 
powers  of  humour  and  satire.  His  "  Observations  on 
the  Faerie  Queene  of  Spenser"  (1754)  was  also  received 
with  great  favour.  Warton  made  several  contributions 
to  Dr.  Johnson's  "  Idler,"  and  published  an  edition  of 
Milton's  minor  poems,  and  an  excellent  edition  of  The- 
ocritus, to  which  was  prefixed  a  Latin  dissertation  or. 
the  bucolic  poetry  of  the  Greeks.  In  1785  he  succeeded 
Whitehead  as  poet-laureate.     Died  in  1790. 

See  R.  Manx,  "Life  of  Warton,"  1802;  Camhbhll,  "  Specimens 
of  the  British  Poets;"  Carv,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  White  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1838  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  November,  177S,  et set}. 

Warton,  (Thomas,)  Rev.,  an  English  scholar,  born 
in  1687,  was  the  father  of  Joseph  Warton,  noticed  above. 
He  was  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.     Died  in  1745. 

WarvT-ick,  wSr'rik,  Earls  of.  This  title  was  given 
to  one  of  the  family  of  Newburgh  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  was  inherited  by  William  de  Beauchamp  in 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  earldom 
remained  in  the  family  of  Beauchamp  until  1449,  when 
Richard  Nevil  became  Earl  of  Warwick.  (See  separate 
article,  given  below.)  The  title  became  extinct  about 
1500,  and  was  revived  in  favour  of  John  Dudley  in  1547. 
In  1618  it  was  obtained  by  Robert  Rich,  and  was  given 
to  Lord  Brooke  in  1759. 

Warvrick,  Earl  of.  "  See  Dudley,  (John.) 

Warwick,  (Edward,)  Earl  of.  See  Edward 
Plantagenet. 

Warwick,  (Guy,)  Earl  of,  an  English  hero,  whose 
history  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  tenth  century.  The  "  Romance  of 
Sir  Guy"  was  probably  written  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  was  printed  by  William  Cop- 
land in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Warwick,  (Henry  de  Beauchamp,)  Earl  and 
Duke  of,  was  created  by  Henry  VI.  Premier  Earl  of 
England,  Duke  of  Warwick,  and  King  of  the  Islands 
of  Wight,  Jersey,  and  Guernsey.  He  was  the  son  of 
Richard  de  Beauchamp,  noticed  below.     Died  in  1445. 

Warwick,  (Sir  Philip,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1608.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament  of  1640,  and  a  partisan  of  the  king  in  the 
civil  war.  He  officiated  as  clerk  to  the  signet  or  as 
secretary  to  Charles  I.,  and  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  his  Own 
Time,"  (1701,)  a  work  of  some  interest.     Died  in  1683. 

See  "  Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  GuizoT,  London,  1864. 

Warwick,  (Richard  de  Beauchamp,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman  and  military  commander,  who  served 
in  France  under  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  during  whose 
absence  he  acted  as  regent  of  that  kingdom.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  was  appointed  governor  to  the 
young  prince,  afterwards  Henry  VI.  In  1437  he  be- 
came again  Regent  of  France,  where  he  died  in  1439. 

See  Shakspeare,  "  Henry  VI.,"  Parts  II.  and  III. 

Warwick,  (Richard  Nevil,)  Earl  of,  (called 
"Warwick  the  King-Maker,")  son  of  the  Earl  of  Salis- 
bury, and  son-in-law  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Warwick,  no- 
ticed above,  was  born  about  1420.  By  his  marriage  with 
Anne,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  he  acquired 
the  immense  estates  of  that  family,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Earl  of  Warwick.  He  was  also  nephew  of  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  and  was  first-cousin  to  Edward  IV.,  be- 
sides being  allied  to  other  noble  families  of  the  kingdom. 
Having  joined  the  party  of  the  Duke  of  York  in  the  civil 
war  of  the  Roses,  in  1455,  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in 
gaining  the  victory  of  Saint  Alban's,  and  was  soon  after 
made  governor  of  Calais.  After  the  defeat  of  the  York- 
ists at  Ludiford,  Warwick  collected  a  large  army,  and 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  enemy  at  NorthamjJton, 
(1460,)  and  took  King  Henry  prisoner.  He  defeated  the 
Lancastrians,  in  1461,  at  the  battle  of  Towton,  which 
secured  the  throne  to  Edward  IV.  He  was  liberally  re- 
warded for  his  services,  and  became  the  most  powerful 
subject  of  England.  Having  quarrelled  with  the  king, 
Warwick  passed  over  to  France,  (1470,)  formed  an 
alliance  with   Queen    Margaret,   and  returned   with    an 


i,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  3?,  s/iori;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fdt-  mhl-  nfit;  goodj  moon; 


WARWICK 


2431 


WASHINGTON 


aniiy  to   EngJand,  wliere  he   proclaimed    Henry  VI.  as    five  surviving  children.     The  subject  of  this  article  in- 


king. Edward  IV.  was  driven  out  of  the  kingclom,  and 
retired  to  Holland,  but  returned  in  March,  147 1,  with  a 
body  of  troops,  and  defeated  the  enemy  at  Barnet  in 
April,  1471.  The  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  commanded 
the  Lancastrians,  was  killed  in  this  action.  He  had  two 
daughters, — Isabella,  who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  and  Anne,  who  was  married  first  to  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales,  (a  son  of  Henry  VI.,)  and  again  to 
Richard  HI. 

See  Hume.  "History  of  EriRland  ;"  Cominbs,  "  M^moires ;" 
Habington,  "  Histrry  of  Edward  IV.  ;"  Lingard,  "  History  of 
Kngland  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Warwick,  (Robert  Rich,)  Earl  ok,  was  a  de- 
scendant of  Lord-Chancellor  Rich.  He  became  Earl  of 
Warw^'ck  in  1618.  In  the  civil  war  he  adhered  to  the 
Parliament,  by  which  h»  was  appointed  admiral  of  the 
fleet  in  1642.  He  acquired  great  authority  and  credit 
with  the  popular  party,  and  supported  Cromwell  after 
he  became  Protector.  According  to  Clarendon,  "he 
lived  in  entire  confidence  and  friendship  with  Cromwell." 
("  History  of  the  Rebellion.")     Died  in  1658. 

Waser,  (^S'zer,  (Anna,)  a  Swiss  miniature-painter, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1679  ;  died  in  1713. 

Waser,  (Caspar,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist,  born  at  Zurich 
in  1565.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Zurich  in 
1596.     Died  in  1625. 

Washburn,  wSsh'burn,  (Cadwalader  C.,)  an  Ameri- 
can general  and  lawyer,  born  at  Livermore,  Maine,  in 
1818.  He  removed  to  Wisconsin,  and  represented  a 
district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from  1855  to  1861. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  about  July,  1862.  In  the 
spring  of  1863  he  moved  a  division  from  Memphis  to  rein- 
force General  Grant  at  Vicksburg.     Died  May  14,  1882, 

Washburn,  (Elihu  B.,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1S16.  He  studied 
law,  and  settled  at  Galena,  Illinois.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1852,  and  successively  re-elected 
seven  times, — voted  with  the  Republican  party,  and  be- 
came a  personal  friend  of  General  Grant.  He  served  as 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  commerce  for  many  years, 
and  distinguished  himself  as  an  advocate  of  economy 
and  retrenchment.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  by  General  Grant,  but  soon  resigned,  and  wag 
appointed  minister  to  Paris,  where,  during  the  siege  of 
1870  and  the  rule  of  the  commune  which  followed,  he 
administered  his  office  with  great  discretion.  Died 
October  22,  1887. 

Washburn,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  American  mission- 
ary, born  at  Middieborough,  Massachusetts,  March  i, 
1833.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1855,  studied 
theology  at  Andover,  went  to  Turkey  as  a  missionary  in 
1863,  and  became  a  professor  in  Robert  College,  near 
Constantinople,  in  1869,  and  its  president  in  1S77.  ^^ 
published  "Woman,  her  Work  in  the  Church,"  "The 
Deaconesses  of  Kaiserswerth,"  etc. 

Washburn,  (Israel,)  an  American  Governor,  a 
brother  of  E.  B.  Washburn,  was  born  at  Livermore, 
Maine,  in  1813.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1 85 1  to  1S60,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  Maine  in  the 
latter  vear.       Died  May  12,  1883. 

Washington,  wdsh'ing-tpn,  (Bushrod,)  a  judge, 
born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  1759,  was  a 
nephew  of  General  George  Washington,  and  a  son  of 
John  Augustine  Washington.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Virginia  Convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  in  1788,  and  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  .September, 
1798.  By  the  will  of  his  illustrious  uncle  he  became 
the  possessor  of  the  estate  of  Mount  Vernon,  (1799.) 
He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  November,  1829,  leaving  a 
good  reputation. 

Washington,  (George,)  an  illustrious  American 
general,  statesman,  and  patriot,  the  first  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  on  the  Potomac  River,  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  on  the  22d  of  February, 
1732.  He  was  a  son  of  Augustine  Washington,  a  planter, 
and  his  second  wife,  Mary  Ball.  His  great-grandfather, 
John  Washington,  emigrated  with  his  brother  Lawrence 
from  England  to  Virginia  about  1657.  Augustine  dying 
in  1743  left  a  large  estate  in  land  to  his  widow  and  his 


herited  a  large  farm  on  the  Rappahannock  River,  (neai 
Fredericksburg,)  on  which  farm  was  the  house  occupied 
by  Augustine  Washington  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
George  attended  several  schools  in  the  vicinity  of  his 
home,  but  was  never  sent  to  college,  and  never  studied 
the  ancient  languages.  His  manuscript  school-books 
are  still  e.vtant,  and  are  models  of  neatness  and  accuracy. 
In  his  early  youth  he  was  distinguished  for  his  probity 
and  veracity.  Favoured  with  superior  physical  strength, 
he  excelled  in  athletic  exercises  and  in  horsemanship. 
His  moral  character  was  moulded  by  the  influence  of 
his  high-spirited  and  intelligent  mother. 

After  he  left  school  (1747)  he  passed  much  time  with 
his  elder  brother  Lawrence,  who  resided  at  Mount 
Vernon,  on  the  Potomac  River.  He  was  also  a  frequent 
guest  at  Greenway  Court,  the  seat  of  Thomas,  Lord 
Fairfax,  an  eccentric  nobleman,  who  owned  an  immense 
tract  of  land  in  that  part  of  Virginia.  Young  Washing- 
ton gained  the  favour  of  Lord  Fairfax  and  of  his  cousin 
Sir  William  Fairfax,  who  lived  at  Belvoir.  In  the  spring 
of  1748  he  was  employed  by  Lord  Fairfax  to  survey  a 
portion  of  his  land  which  was  situated  beyond  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  had  not  yet  been  settled  by  white  people. 
In  fhe  hardships  and  privations  of  this  enterprise  he 
passed  nearly  three  years,  during  which  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  sleep  in  the  open  air.  He  kept  a  journal  of 
these  surveying  expeditions,  as  well  as  of  the  subsequent 
events  of  his  life.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  ap- 
pointed adjutant-general  (with  the  rank  of  major)  of  one 
of  the  districts  into  which  Virginia  was  divided  when 
hostilities  between  the  English  and  French  became  im- 
minent. In  November,  1753,  he  was  sent  by  Governor 
Dinwiddle  on  a  mission  to  the  P'rench  commander,  and 
performed  a  perilous  journey  of  five  hundred  miles  or 
more  through  the  wilderness.  The  prudence,  sagacity, 
resolution,  and  fortitude  which  he  manifested  in  this 
mission  pointed  him  out  as  one  fitted  for  more  impor- 
tant public  services.  "  It  is  an  expedition,"  says  Irving, 
"  that  may  be  considered  the  foundation  of  his  fortunes. 
From  that  moment  he  was  the  rising  hope  of  Virginia." 

Hostilities  between  the  Virginians  and  the  French 
began  in  the  spring  of  1754,  when,  as  lieutenant-colonel, 
Washington  led  a  small  force  to  the  frontier.  He  de- 
feated the  enemy  in  May  of  that  year,  at  the  Great 
Meadows.  In  a  letter  relating  to  this  action,  (which 
was  the  first  of  the  Seven  Years'  war,)  he  wrote,  "  I 
heard  the  bullets  whistle  ;  and,  believe  me,  there  is  some- 
thing charming  in  the  sound."  About  this  time  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  served  as  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Braddock  in  his  disastrous  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne.  This  imprudent  general,  de- 
spising both  the  Indians  and  the  Virginia  militia,  and 
obstinately  adhering  to  the  tactics  of  regular  war, 
rejected  the  advice  of  Washington,  and  was  defeated 
with  great  loss,  and  mortally  wounded,  by  the  French 
and  their  savage  allies,  who  attacked  him  in  the  fores* 
about  seven  miles  from  Fort  Duquesne,  July  9,  1755. 
In  this  battle  four  bullets  passed  through  the  coat  of 
Colonel  Washington,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his 
courage  and  presence  of  mind  amidst  the  general  panic 
and  total  rout  of  the  English  army. 

In  a  letter  written  soon  after  this  battle.  Colonel  Wash- 
ington said,  "  We  have  been  most  scandalously  beaten 
by°a  trifling  body  of  men.  ,  .  .  The  dastardly  behaviour 
of  those  they  called  regulars  exposed  all  others  to  almost 
certain  death,  and  at  last  they  ran  as  sheep  pursued  by 
dogs."  In  the  summer  of  1755  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  forces  (about  two  thousand  men) 
which  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  ordered  to  be  raised 
for  the  defence  of  the  province.  He  commanded  a  part 
of  the  army  which,  under  General  Forbes,  took  Fort 
Duquesne  in  Novetnber,  1758.  In  January,  1759,  he 
married  Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  whose  maiden  name  w.rs 
Dandridge,  and  whose  first  husband  was  John  Parke 
Custis.  He  now  resigned  his  commission,  retired  from 
the  service,  and  settled  at  Mount  Vernon  as  a  planter. 
In  1758  he  had  been  elected  to  the  House  of  Burgesses, 
the  Speaker  of  which,  on  the  first  appearance  of  Wash- 
ington in  that  body,  tendered  to  him  a  compliment  for 
his   military   services.      "  Washington    rose   to   reply," 


^  as  -6;  9  as  j;  g  kard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trUled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JH^^'See  Explanations,  \>.  23.) 


WASHINGTON 


2432 


WASHINGTON 


says  Irving,  "blushed,  stammered,  trembled,  and  could 
not  utter  a  word."  "Sit  down,  Mr.  Washington,"  said 
the  Speaker :  "  yout  modesty  equals  your  valour,  and 
that  surpasses  the  power  of  any  language  I  possess." 

By  his  marriage  he  added  about  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars  to  his  fortune,  which  was  before  considerable. 
He  was  partial  to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  and  carried 
into  his  rural  affairs  the  same  methodical  habits  and  dili- 
gent attention  which  distinguished  him  in  military  opera- 
tions, lie  kept  his  own  accounts,  posted  his  books  and 
balanced  them  with  mercantile  exactness.  By  the  pur- 
chase of  adjacent  plantations  he  enlarged  the  Mount 
Vernon  estate  until  it  amounted  finally  to  eight  thousand 
acres.  He  continued  for  many  years  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses,  but  never  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  of  that  or  any  other  public  assembly.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  which  met  at  Wil- 
liamsburg on  the  1st  of  August,  1773,  and,  asserting  the 
right  of  the  colonies  to  self-government,  resolved  that 
taxation  and  representation  were  inseparable.  This 
convention  chose  Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and  five 
others,  to  represent  Virginia  in  the  General  Congress 
which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  September,  1774.  Patrick 
Henry  being  asked,  after  the  end  of  the  first  session, 
whoni  he  considered  the  greatest  man  in  Congress, 
replied,  "If  you  speak  of  solid  information  and  sound 
judgment.  Colonel  Washington  is  unquestionably  the 
greatest  man  on  that  floor." 

Hitherto,  Washington  and  the  other  leading  patriots 
had  not  aimed  at  independence  or  separation  from  the 
mother-country  ;  but  the  battle  or  massacre  of  Lexington, 
April  19,  1775,  became  the  signal  of  a  general  deter- 
mination to  resist  by  arms  the  tyranny  of  the  British 
government. 

On  the  15th  of  Tune,  1775,  he  was  unanimously  elected 
by  the  Continental  Congress  commander-in-chief  of  all 
the  forces.  Before  he  could  take  command  of  the  army, 
occurred  the  important  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  17, 
1775,  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  British  remained 
masters  of  the  field,  but  lost  about  1050  men,  while  the 
Americans  lost  only  449  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 
On  the  2d  of  Julv,  General  Washington  assumed  com- 
mand of  the  army' at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  amount- 
ing to  about  15,000  men,  and  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Boston,  which  was  occupied  by  11,000  British  veterans. 
General  Washington  applied  himself  to  the  organization 
of  his  troops,  whom  he  found  undisciplined  and  nearly 
destitute  of  powder  and  other  materials  of  war.  The 
difficulty  of  his  situation  wa^  increased  by  the  fact  that 
the  Continental  Congress  was  very  deficient  in  all  the 
attributes  of  an  efficient  government,  and  was  almost 
destitute  of  money  and  credit.  While  the  main  army 
was  besieging  Boston,  Generals  Montgomery  and  Arnold, 
about  the  end  of  1775,  invaded  Canada,  and  attacked 
Quebec,  but  were  not  successful.  On  the  17th  or  i8th 
of  March,  1776,  the  British  army  evacuated  Boston,  and 
escaped  on  their  fleet,  which  sailed  thence  to  Halifax. 
Congress  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  commander-in- 
chief  for  his  service^  and  success  in  this  siege.  General 
Washington  moved  liis  army  from  Boston  to  New  York, 
where  he  arrived  in  April,  and  awaited  the  approach  of 
the  enemy,  who  were  moving  by  the  sea  towards  that 
objective  point.  In  the  mean  time  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  was  signed  by  Congress,  July  4,  1776. 

The  opposing  forces  next  met  at  the  battle  of  Long 
Island,  where  the  Americans  were  defeated  by  General 
Howe,  .August  27,  and  lost  nearly  2000  men.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  victory,  the  British  took  the  city  of  New 
Vork,  and  General  Washington  was  compelled  to  retreat 
through  New  Jersey  to  the  west  side  of  the  Delaware 
River.  During  this  retreat  his  army  was  reducol  to 
4000  men  or  less,  and  the  cause  for  which  he  fought 
seemed  almost  desperate;  but  General  Howe  was  too 
indolent  or  incapable  to  follow  up  his  successes  with 
vigour.  General  Washington,  having  been  reinforced, 
crossed  the  Delaware  in  open  boats  on  the  night  of 
December  25,  1776,  attacked  a  British  force  at  Trenton, 
and  captured  nearly  1000  prisoners,  (Hessian  merce- 
naries.) On  the  3d  of  January,  1777,  he  gained  another 
victory  at  Princeton,  where  he  took  about  300  prisoners. 
Soon    after    these  successes,  which   greatly  revived   the 


spirits  of  the  Americans,  General  Washington  was  in- 
vested with  almost  dictatorial  powers  by  Congress.  In 
the  summer  of  1777  a  British  army,  under  General  Bi.r- 
goyne,  moved  from  Canada  towards  Albany,  and  another 
army,  of  about  16,000  men,  under  General  Howe,  sailed 
up  the  Chesapeake  Bay  to  take  Philadelphia.  To  defend 
this  city,  then  the  seat  of  government.  General  Wash- 
ington interposed  his  army  of  about  11,000  men,  and 
encountered  the  enemy  on  the  Brandywine  on  the  Itth 
of  September.  Overpowered  by  superior  numbers,  the 
Americans  retreated,  having  lost  about  900  killed  and 
wounded.  Among  the  wounded  of  this  day  was  the 
Marquis  de  La  Fayette.  A  few  days  after  this  battle 
the  British  army  occupied  Philadelphia.  On  the  4th  of 
October  the  Americans  attacked  the  British  army  at 
Germantown,  abotit  six  miles  from  Philadel)ihia  ;  but 
they  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  of  about  800  killed  and 
wounded.  In  the  mean  time  General  Burgoyne  and 
General  Gates  had  fought  an  indecisive  battle  at  Still- 
water, New  York,  September  19,  and  General  Stark  had 
gained  a  victory  at  Bennington.  On  the  7th  of  October, 
1777'  General  Gates,  at  the  second  battle  of  Stillwater, 
defeated  General  Burgoyne,  who,  on  the  17th  of  that 
month,  surrendered  his  army  of  about  6000  men,  at 
Saratoga.  This  victory  was  one  of  the  important  events 
of  the  war,  as  it  not  only  inspired  the  people  with  con- 
fidence, but  induced  the  French  government  to  become 
the  ally  of  the  United  States  against  Great  Britain. 

In  December,  1777,  General  Vashington  went  into 
winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  on  tlie  Schuylkill  River, 
where  his  men  suffered  great  hardships  and  distress 
for  want  of  clothing,  etc.  General  Henry  Clinton,  who 
had  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  place 
of  General  Howe,  evacuated  Philadelphia  in  June,  and 
moved  his  army  through  New  Jersey  towards  New  York. 
General  Washington  pursued  and  attacked  him  on  the 
28th  of  June,  1778,  at  Monmouth  Court-House.  After  an 
indecisive  battle,  in  which  the  Americans  lost  69  killed 
and  about  160  wounded.  General  Clinton  continued  his 
march  to  New  York.  Congress  expressed  their  satisfac- 
tion with  General  Washington's  conduct  in  this  action 
by  a  unanimous  vote  of  thanks.  Hitherto  the  opera- 
tions of  the  British  armies  had  been  directed  against 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States ;  but  in  1779  no  great 
battle  was  fought  in  this  portion  of  the  republic.  About 
the  end  of  1778,  General  Sir  Henry  Clinton  sent  to 
Georgia  a  body  of  troops,  who  captured  Savannah  in 
December  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  prov- 
ince. The  chief  command  of  the  Southern  American 
army  was  given  to  General  Lincoln,  who,  aided  by  the 
French  fleet,  attacked  Savannah  in  September,  1779, 
but  was  repulsed. 

The  army  of  General  Washington  passed  the  winter 
of  1779-S0  near  Morristown,  New  Jersey.  Early  in 
17S0  .Sir  Henry  Clinton  transferred  his  main  army,  by 
sea,  from  New  York  to  South  Carolina,  and  besieged 
Charleston,  which  General  Lincoln  defended  for  several 
weeks,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  in  May.  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  leaving  Lord  Cornwallis  in  command 
in  the  Carolinas,  returned  to  New  York  in  June,  1780. 
In  the  same  month  Congress  appointed  General  Gates 
commander  of  the  Southern  department.  This  general 
was  signally  defeated  by  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Camden, 
August  16,  and  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  North  Caro- 
lina. During  the  year  17S0  the  commander-in-chief  was 
obliged  to  remain  on  the  defensive,  in  consequence  of 
the  weakness  and  destitution  of  his  army.  The  exhaus- 
tion of  the  public  treasury,  and  the  depreciation  of  the 
currency,  were  such  that  he  found  great  difficulty  ui 
obtaining  food  or  clothing  for  his  soldiers.  In  July,  17S0, 
a  French  fleet  arrived  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  with 
an  army  of  6000  men,  which  the  French  government 
had  sent  to  aid  the  Americans.  While  the  people  were 
anticipating  great  advantages  from  the  combined  effcirts 
of  the  French  and  American  armies,  treason  was  in  the 
camp  and  plotting  the  ruin  of  the  cause  of  freedom. 
Benedict  Arnold,  who  commanded  the  important  fortress 
of  West  Point,  made  arrangements  to  betray  that  place 
into  the  power  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  In  consequence 
of  the  capture  of  Major  Andre,  in  September,  the  plot 
was  detected  and  frustrated.    (See  Andr6,  John.) 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, /<»«f ;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,\,  short;  a,  e,  \,o,obsan-e;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


WASHINGTON 


2433 


WASHINGTON 


In  a  letter  addressed  by  General  Washington  to  Con- 
gress in  August,  1780,  he  urged  the  necessity  of  forming 
an  army  by  drafting  men  for  three  years  or  during  the 
war,  and  added,  "Had  we  formed  a  permanent  army  in 
the  beginning,  which,  by  the  continuance  of  the  same 
men  in  service,  had  been  capable  of  discipline,  we  never 
should  have  had  to  retreat  with  a  handful  of  men  across 
the  Delaware  in  1776,  trembling  for  the  fate  of  America, 
which  nothing  but  the  infatuation  of  the  enemy  coulil 
have  saved ;  ...  we  should  not  have  been  under  the 
necessity  of  fighting  at  Brandywine  with  an  unequal 
number  of  raw  troops,  and  afterwards  of  seeing  Phila- 
delphia fall  a  prey  to  a  victorious  army;  we  should  not 
have  been  at  Valley  Forge  with  less  than  half  the  force 
of  the  enemy, — destitute  of  everything, — in  a  situation 
neither  to  resist  nor  to  retire."  In  November,  1780, 
General  Gates  was  removed  from  the  command  of  the 
Southern  army  by  Congress,  which  requested  Wash- 
ington to  appoint  a  general  in  his  place.  He  selected 
General  Greene,  whom  he  commended  to  Congress 
as  "an  officer  in  whose  abilities,  fortitude,  and  integ- 
rity he  had  the  most  entire  confidence."  The  army 
of  which  Greene  took  command  at  Charlotte,  North 
Carolina,  did  not  much  exceed  2200  men,  more  than 
half  of  whom  were  militia.  In  December,  1780,  the 
army  which  General  Washington  commanded  in  person 
retired  into  winter  quarters,  the  Pennsylvania  troops 
being  stationed  at  Morristown,  and  another  part  of  the 
army  on  the  Hudson  River,  near  West  Point.  In  Ja"- 
yuary,  1 781,  a  thousand  or  more  of  the  Pennsylvanians 
mutinied,  and  marched  towards  Philadelphia  to  demand 
a  redress  of  their  grievances  from  Congress.  This 
mutiny  was  suppressed  by  mild  measures,  and  by  satis- 
fying the  claims — which  were  not  unreasonable — of  the 
mutineers.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  between  the 
States  were  ratified  in  February,  1781. 

The  principal  military  operations  of  1 781  were  con- 
fined to  the  Southern  States.  On  the  17th  of  January 
General  Morgan  gained  at  Cowpens,  South  Carolina,  a 
complete  victory  over  Colonel  Tarleton,  who  lost  about 
900  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  The  whole  loss 
of  the  victors  was  not  more  than  80.  Compelled  to 
retire  before  superior  numbers.  General  Greene  made 
a  rapid  retreat  from  the  Catawba  to  the  Dan  River,  and 
was  closely  pursued  by  Lord  Cornwallis.  His  force 
having  been  increased  to  about  4500  men.  General 
Greene  resolved  to  risk  a  battle,  and  met  the  enemy 
on  the  15th  of  March  at  Guilford  Court-House,  North 
Carolina.  In  this  battle  the  British  gained  some  ad- 
vantage, but  their  loss  was  severe,  and  the  retiring 
Americans  were  not  pursued.  In  April,  1781,  Lord 
Cornwallis  began  to  march  to  Virginia,  and  General 
Gieene  moved  his  force  into  South  Carolina.  On  the 
8th  of  September  General  Greene  defeated  the  enemy  at 
Eutaw  Springs,  and  took  500  prisoners.  In  the  spring 
of  1781  a  force  of  about  3000  men,  under  General  La 
Fayette,  was  sent  to  defend  Virginia.  He  conducted  a 
campaign  against  Lord  Cornwallis,  but  neither  of  these 
commanders  gained  any  decisive  advantage.  Lord 
Cornwallis  collected  his  troops  at  Yorktown,  Virginia, 
where  he  constructed  fortifications.  Early  in  September 
a  French  fleet  of  twenty-eight  ships,  commanded  by 
Count  De  Grasse,  arrived  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  about 
the  same  time  General  Washington  moved  the  combined 
American  and  French  armies  from  New  York  to  Vir- 
ginia. He  began  the  siege  of  Yorktown  on  the  28th  of 
September,  with  an  army  estimated  at  15,000  men,  and 
Lord  Cornwallis,  on  the  19th  of  October,  surrendered 
his  whole  army  of  7000  men.  This  victory  was  one  of 
the  most  important  events  of  the  war,  and  was  the  sub 
ject  of  enthusiastic  rejoicing  among  the  Americans. 

In  consequence  of  a  general  persuasion  that  peace 
was  at  hand,  there  was  no  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war  in  17S2.  On  the  3d  of  .SejUember,  17S3,  a  definitive 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  Paris,  by  which  the  British 
government  recognized  the  independence  of  the  United 
States.  General  Washington  resigned  his  commission 
to  Congress,  December  23,  1783,  and  retired  to  private 
life,  followed  by  the  fnthusiastic  love  and  admiration  of 
his  countrymen.  He  passed  the  ensuing  years  at  Mount 
Vernon,  and  resumed  his  former  pursuits  of  agriculture, 


etc.  Meanwhile,  the  form  of  confederation  which  had 
been  adopted  by  the  States  in  1781  was  found  to  be 
more  and  more  inefficient  and  impotent.  In  a  letter  to 
James  Warren,  of  Massachusetts,  General  Washington 
wrote,  "The  Confederation  appears  to  me  to  be  little 
more  than  a  shadow  without  the  substance,  and  Con- 
gress a  nugatory  body.  ,  .  .  From  the  high  ground  on 
which  we  stood,  we  are  descending  into  the  vale  of  con- 
fusion and  darkness."  To  rescue  the  nation  from  this 
state  of  anarchy  and  degradation,  a  National  Convention 
met  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787.  General  Washington 
was  unanimously  elected  president  of  this  Convention, 
which,  after  a  session  of  several  months,  adopted  a  new 
Constitution,  that  greatly  increased  the  power  of  the 
Federal  government.  He  was  elected,  without  opposi- 
tion. President  of  the  United  States  for  four  years  from 
the  4th  of  March,  1789.  Before  the  election  he  wrote 
to  Alexander  Hamilton,  "If  I  should  be  prevailed  upon 
to  accept  it,  [the  Presidency,]  the  acceptance  would  be 
attended  with  more  diffidence  and  reluctance  than  ever 
I  experienced  before  in  my  life."  He  was  inaugurated 
on  the  30th  of  April,  in  New  York,  and  delivered  in  the 
Senate-chamber  an  inaugural  address  to  both  Houses 
of  Congress.  In  this  address  he  affirmed  that  "  the 
preservation  of  the  sacred  fire  of  liberty  and  the  destiny 
of  the  republican  model  of  government  are  justly  con- 
sidered as  deeply,  perhaps  as  finally,  staked  on  the 
experiment  intrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  American 
people."  He  appointed  Thomas  Jefferson  secretary  of 
state,  Alexander  Hamilton  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
General  Henry  Knox  secretary  of  war,  and  Edmund 
Randolph  attorney-general.  Among  the  difficulties 
encountered  by  the  President  were  the  deplorable  con- 
dition of  the  finances  and  the  opposition  of  a  powerful 
party  which  disapproved  the  Federal  Constitution  and 
asserted  the  sovereignty  of  the  States.  In  January,  1790, 
Hamilton  presented  to  Congress  an  able  report  on  the 
public  credit  and  a  plan  for  the  support  of  the  same. 
The  results  of  this  financial  policy  were  the  speedy 
restoration  of  the  public  credit  and  the -revival  of  trade 
and  other  departments  of  industry.  The  people  became 
divided  into  two  great  parties,  called  Federalists  and 
Republicans,  (or  Democrats,)  the  latter  of  which  insisted 
on  State  rights  and  wished  to  reduce  the  power  of  the 
Federal  government.  Although  Washington  was  not 
formally  committed  to  either  party,  his  principles  and 
measures  were  such  as  necessarily  connected  him  with 
the  Federalists.  A  great  excitement  was  caused  by  the 
French  Revolution,  in  relation  to  which  the  Federalists 
and  Democrats  differed  widely.  The  latter  party,  of 
which  Jefferson  was  the  leader,  desired  that  the  United 
States  should  aid  the  French  in  the  war  against  Great 
Britain,  while  the  Federalists  advocated  the  policy  of 
strict  neutrality. 

In  1792  Washington  was  again  unanimously  elected 
President,  and  John  Adams,  a  Federalist,  was  re-elected 
Vice-President,  receiving  seventy-seven  electoral  votes, 
while  his  opponent,  George  Clinton,  a  Democrat,  re- 
ceived fifty  votes.  During  his  second  term  of  office 
the  President  resided  at  Philadelphia,  which  was  then 
the  seat  of  government.  In  April,  1793,  he  issued  a 
proclamation  of  neutrality,  (between  the  British  and  the 
French,)  which  gave  great  offence  to  the  Republicans. 
"  The  proclamation,"  says  Irving,  "  was  stigmatized  as  a 
royal  edict  and  a  daring  assumption  of  power." 

M.  Genet,  the  ambassador  of  the  French  republic, 
arrived  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  April,  and 
issued  commissions  for  privateers,  which  captured  seve- 
ral British  vessels.  The  official  communications  of 
Genet  became  so  offensive  and  insulting  to  the  Presi' 
dent  that  the  American  minister  to  France  was  in- 
structed to  desire  his  recall.  Jefferson,  having  failed  in 
his  efforts  to  eject  his  rival  Hamilton  from  the  cabinet, 
resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  in  December, 
1793,  and  was  succeeded  by  Edmund  Randolph,  the 
former  attorney-general.  When  the  new  Congress  met, 
in  December,  1793,  it  was  found  that  the  opponents 
of  the  administration  had  a  majority  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  perplexity  of  the  President  was 
increased  by  the  fact  that  American  vessels  had  been 
captured  by  British  cruisers,  which  inflamed  the  popular 


c  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi,g7ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  (/lis. 

153 


(S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


WASHINGTON 


2434 


WASHINGTON 


heart  and  reinforced  the  party  which  opposed  neutrality. 
Resolving  to  prevent  a  war,  if  possible,  by  negotia- 
tions, the  President  sent  John  Jay  as  a  special  envoy  to 
England,  (April,  1794.)  "Scarcely  has  any  public  act 
of  the  President,"  says  Marshall,  "drawn  upon  his  ad- 
ministration a  greater  degree  of  censure  than  this."  In 
January,  1794,  the  office  of  secretary  of  the  treasury  was 
resigned  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  "  who  had  wasted  in  the  public 
service  a  great  part  of  the  property  acquired  by  his 
previous  labours."  (Marshall.)  General  Knox  having 
also  resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  Timothy  Picker- 
ing was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  Oliver  Wolcott 
secretary  of  the  treasury.  Mr.  Jay  negotiated  a  treaty, 
which  was  signed  November  19,  1794.  and  presented  to 
the  United  States  Senate  for  ratification  in  June,  1795. 
This  treaty  was  vehemently  opposed  and  denounced  by 
the  Democrats  and  those  who  were  most  partial  to  the 
French  revolutionists;  but  it  was  finally  approved  by 
the  Senate,  and  signed  by  the  President,  August  18, 
1795.  After  the  question  had  been  decided,  the  voice 
of  faction  continued  to  assail  the  President.  "  Mis 
military  and  political  character,"  says  Marshall,  "was 
attacked  with  equal  violence,  and  it  was  averred  that 
he  was  totally  destitute  of  merit  either  as  a  soldier  or 
a  statesman." 

In  1795,  Timothy  Pickering  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state,  in  the  place  of  Edmund  Randolph,  who  had 
resigned.  In  March,  1796,  the  House  of  Rej^resentatives 
passed  a  resolution  requesting  the  President  to  lay 
before  that  House  a  copy  of  the  instructions  given  to 
Mr.  Jay,  together  with  the  documents  relative  to  the 
treaty  with  Great  Britain.  He  declined  to  comply  with 
their  request,  affirming  that  it  would  establish  a  dan- 
gerous precedent  to  admit  the  right  of  the  House  to 
demand  the  papers  respecting  a  foreign  negotiation. 
When  La  Fayette  was  confined  in  the  dungeon  of 
Olmiitz,  General  Washington  wrote  a  private  letter  to 
the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  entreated  him  to  release 
that  captive. 

Although  the  people  generally  wished  to  elect  Gene- 
ral Washington  for  a  third  term,  he  announced  his 
determination  to  retire  from  public  life  at  the  end  of  his 
second  term.  He  also  issued  a  "  Farewell  Address  to 
the  People  of  the  United  States,"  which,  having  been 
revised  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  appeared  in  Septem- 
ber, 1796,  and  produced  a  deep  impression.  In  this 
address  he  insisted  on  the  vast  importance  of  union  as 
"a  main  pillar  in  the  edifice  of  your  real  independence  ; 
the  support  of  your  tranquillity  at  home  ;  your  peace 
abroad  ;  of  your  safety  ;  of  your  prosperity ;  of  that 
very  liberty  which  you  so  highly  prize.  But,  as  it  is 
easy  to  foresee  that  much  pains  will  be  taken,  many 
artifices  employed,  to  weaken  in  your  minds  the  convic- 
tion of  this  truth  ;  as  this  is  the  point  in  your  political 
fortress  against  which  the  batteries  of  internal  and  ex- 
ternal enemies  will  be  most  constantly  and  actively 
(though  often  covertly  and  insidiously)  directed,  it  is  of 
infinite  moment  that  you  should  properly  estimate  the 
immense  value  of  your  national  union  to  your  collect- 
ive and  individual  happiness."  He  also  advised  the 
people  to  have  as  little  political  connection  as  possible 
with  foreign  nations,  and  to  "  steer  clear  of  permanent 
alliances  with  any  portion  of  the  foreign  world." 

On  the  7th  of  December,  1796,  the  President  met  for 
the  last  time  the  Houses  of  Congress,  to  which  he  made 
a  dignified  address.  His  official  career  terminated  March 
4,  1797,  and  he  then  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  leaving 
the  nation  in  a  state  of  great  ])rosperity.  The  capture 
of  American  yessels  by  French  cruisers  led  to  hostilities 
between  the  United  States  and  France,  although  there 
was  no  formal  declaration  of  war.  In  this  emergency, 
the  government  of  the  United  States  raised  an  army  of 
about  10,000  men,  of  which  General  Washington  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief,  July,  1798.  He  accepted 
this  appointment  on  the  condition  that  Colonel  Hamil- 
ton should  be  the  second  in  command.  The  selection 
of  Hamilton  as  second  in  command  was  also  desired  by 
the  public,  but  was  not  in  accordance  with  the  will  of 
President  Adams,  who,  however,  finally  assented.  Be- 
fore the  question  of  war  or  peace  had  been  decided, 
Washington  died,  without  issue,  at  Mount  Vernon,  after 


a  short  illness,  on  the  r4th  of  December,  1799.  A  few 
hours  before  his  death,  he  said,  "  I  look  to  the  event  with 
perfect  resignation."     His  disease  was  acute  laryngitis. 

On  learning  the  death  of  Washington,  the  House  of 
Representatives  resolved,  "That  a  committee  be  ap- 
pointed to  consider  the  most  suitable  manner  of  paying 
honour  to  the  memory  of  the  Man  first  in  war,  first  in 
peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."* 

General  Washington  had  inherited  a  number  of  slaves, 
whom  he  emancipated  by  his  last  will.  In  a  letter  to 
Mr.  Morris,  in  1786,  he  said,  "There  is  not  a  man  living 
who  wishes  more  sincerely  than  I  do,  to  see  a  plan 
adopted  for  the  abolition  of  slavery." 

In  stature  General  Washington  was  six  feet  and  two 
inches  high,  with  a  frame  well  proportioned  and  firmly 
knit.  His  hair  was  brown,  his  eyes  blue  and  far  apart. 
He  was  remarkable  from  boyhood  for  his  great  physical 
strength.  It  is  related  that  in  his  youth  he  threw  a 
stone  across  the  Rappahannock  opposite  his  father's 
house, — a  feat  which  has  never,  it  is  said,  been  performed 
by  any  one  since  that  time.  When  young,  he  was  ever 
foremost  among  his  companions  in  all  athletic  sports, 
and  was  especially  distinguished  as  a  skilful  and  fearless 
horseman. t  He  was  scrupulously  attentive  to  his  dress 
and  personal  appearance.  His  manner,  though  gentle 
and  gracious,  was  in  public  characterized  by  a  certain 
military  dignity  and  reserve.  He  was  proverbial  for 
punctuality  as  well  as  for  truthfulness. 

In  the  whole  history  of  mankind,  few,  if  any,  great 
men  will  be  found  more  worthy  of  our  heartfelt  esteem^ 
and  admiration  than  Washington.  Without  any  of  the 
dazzling  gifts  of  genius,  without  perhaps  possessing 
talents  of  the  very  highest  order,  yet  his  various  powers 
were  so  admirably  proportioned  and  adjusted  to  each 
other,  so  under  the  control  of  lofty  moral  principle  and 
a  high  heroic  will,  which  neither  the  e.xtremity  of  peril 
or  disaster,  the  fiercest  blasts  of  obloquy,  nor  the  seduc- 
tions of  ambition  had  power  to  shake,  that,  though  he 
may  have  been  surpassed  by  many  in  some  single  point, 
if  we  consider  his  character  as  a  whole,  we  shall  scarcely 
find  his  equal,  and  shall  search  in  vain  for  his  superior. 
One  result  of  the  admirable  equipoise  and  harmony  of 
his  powers  was  a  wisdom  of  the  rarest  order.  It  is  well 
known  that  wisdom  is  not  the  product  of  one  or  two 
faculties,  but  the  combined  result  of  many,  including 
the  moral  as  well  as  intellectual.  Napoleon,  with  all 
his  transcendent  genius,  was  in  wisdom  far  inferior  to 
Washington.  No  man  of  his  day  more  clearly  foresaw 
the  future  dangers  to  which  our  country  would  be  ex- 
posed, or  showed  more  distinctly  and  forcibly  how  they 
were  to  be  avoided,  than  Washington.  And  of  all  men 
that  ever  lived,  he  may  be  said  to  have  most  truly  and 
fully  merited  the  glorious  title  of  "  Pater  Patriae,"  the 
"Father  of  his  Country." 

His  great  rival  Jefferson,  who  differed  from  him  widely 
on  questions  of  state  policy  and  other  points,  bears  the 
following  testimony  to  his  character:  "His  integrity 
was  the  most  pure,  his  justice  the  most  inflexible,  I  have 
ever  known, — no  motives  of  interest  or  consanguinity, 
of  friendship  or  hatred,  being  able  to  bias  his  decision. 
He  was  indeed,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  a  wise, 
a  good,  and  a  great  man.  His  temper  was  naturally 
irritable  and  high-toned ;  but  reflection  and  resolution 
had  obtained  a  firm  and  habitual  ascendency  over  it." 
(Tucker's  "  Life  of  Jefferson.") 

"  In  him,"  says  Marshall,  "  that  innate  and  unassuming 
modesty  which  adulation  would  have  offended,  which  the 
voluntary  plaudits  of  millions  could  not  betray  into  in- 
discretion, was  happily  blended  with  a  high  and  correct 
sense  of  personal  dignity,  and  with  a  just  consciousness 
of  that  respect  which  is  due  to  station." 

"How  grateful,"  says  Lord   Brougham,  "the  relief 


•  The  original  form  of  this  celebrated  expression  was,  "  first  in 
war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  liearts  of  his  fellow-citizens."  In 
the  funeral  oration  pronounced  by  General  Lee,  the  word  "  country- 
men" was  substituted  for  "  fellow-citizens,"  as  being  both  shorter 
and  more  euphonious;  and  with  this  change  the  pass.ige  is  commonly 
quoted. 

t  "His  person,"  says  Jefferson,  "was  fine,  his  stature  exactly 
what  one  would  wish,  nis  deportnient  easy,  erect,  and  noble;  the 
best  liorseman  of  his  age,  and  the  most  graceful  figure  that  could  be 
seen,  on  horseback."    (Tucker's  "  Life  of  Jefferson.") 


a,  e,T,  6,  u,y,/^«f;i,i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  J-4c;r/;  a,  e,  j,  o,  o^j<r;/;v,-  fAi,  fill,  fAt;  mSt;  u6t;good;  nioSii; 


WASHINGTON 


2435 


WATHEK 


which  the  friend  of  mankind,  the  lover  of  virtue,  experi- 
ences, when,  turning  from  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
character,  [Napoleon  I.,]  his  eye  rests  upon  the  greatest 
man  of  our  own  or  of  any  age  I  ...  It  will  be  the  duty 
of  the  historian  and  the  sage,  in  all  ages,  to  omit  no 
occasion  of  commemorating  this  illustrious  man  ;  and 
until  time  shall  be  no  more  will  a  test  of  the  progress 
which  our  race  has  made  in  wisdom  and  virtue  be  de- 
rived from  the  veneration  paid  to  the  immortal  name  of 
Washington."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1838.) 

See  John  Marshall,  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  s  vols., 
1804-07;  Washington  Ifving,  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  j 
vols.,  1855-59:  Jared  Sparks,  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  George 
Washington:  being  his  Correspondence,  ^Tessages,"  etc.,  12  vols. 
8vo,  183,^-40;  J.  K.  Paulding,  "  Life  of  G.  Washington,"  2  vols., 
183s  :  F.  GuizoT,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  du  General  Washington,"  1830  ; 
Louis  db  Fontanes,  "  Slloge  de  Washington,"  1800 ;  A.  Bancroft, 
"Essay  on  the  Life  of  G.  Washington."  1807;  James  Madison, 
"Discourse  on  the  Death  of  General  Washington,"  1800;  Fisher 
Ames,  "Oration  on  the  Sublime  Virtues  of  Washington,"  1800; 
Weems,  "  Life  of  G.  Washington,"  1805  ;  D.  Ramsav,  "  Life  of  G. 
Washington,"  1807;  Eduard  Ghhe,  "  Leben  Washington's,"  1S38; 
F.  GuizoT,  "Washington:  Fondation  de  la  Ri?publiqne  des  fitats- 
Unis,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1850:  J.  T.  Hkadley,  "Washington  and  his 
Generals,"  2  vols.,  1S47;  Peter  Parley,  "  Life  of  Washington," 
1837  :  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States;"  Gosch,  "  Wash- 
ington und  die  Uefreiung  der  Nordanierikanischen  Freistaaten,"  3 
vols.,  1815.  See,  also,  the  interesting  article  on  Washington  in  the 
"New  American  Cyclopjedia,"  (by  Edward  Everett.) 

Washington,  wosh'ing-tgn,  (Captain  John,)  R.N., 
an  English  officer  and  hydrographer.  He  served  in 
the  American  war  of  1812,  and  rose  through  several 
promotions  to  the  rank  of  coinmander  in  1833.  Being 
appointed  in  1841  to  continue  the  survey  of  the  North 
Sea,  he  examined  that  part  of  it  lying  between  lati- 
tude 52°  10'  and  the  coast  of  the  Netherlands.  He  was 
made  post-captain  in  1842,  and  hydrographer  to  the 
admiralty  in  1855.  He  was  also  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  published  a  "  Geograjihical  Notice 
of  the  Empire  of  Marocco,"  and  other  treatises,  in  the 
"Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society."  Died  in 
1863. 

Washington,  (John  A.,)  proprietor  of  Mount  Ver- 
non, Virginia.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  Captain  John 
Brown  near  Harper's  Ferry,  October  16,  1859.  He 
took  arms  against  the  Union,  became  a  colonel,  and 
was  killed  on  Cheat  Mountain  in  September,  1861. 

■Washington,  (William  Augustine,)  an  American 
officer  of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Stafford  county,  Vir- 
ginia, in  1752,  was  a  relative  of  General  Washington. 
He  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton, 
commanded  the  cavalry  at  Cowpens,  and  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  in  1798.     Died  in  1810. 

Wasmuth,  Ms'moot,  (Maithias,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Kiel  in  1625.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Kiel,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  Arabic  Grammar,  (1654.)     Died  in  1688. 

VTasse,  wdss,  (Joseph,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1672,  became  rector  of  Aynhoe.  He  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Sallust,  (1710,)  and  wrote  several 
essays  on  various  subjects.  Bentley  is  reported  to  have 
said,  "When  I  am  dead,  Wasse  will  be  the  most  learned 
man  in  England."     Died  in  1738. 

Wassenaer,  van,  vtn  wds'seh-nSa',  (Gerard,)  a 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1585 ;  died  in  1664. 

Wassenaer,  van,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born 
about  1610.  He  succeeded  Van  Tromp  as  commander 
of  the  fleet  in  1653,  and  was  killed  in  a  battle  against 
the  English  in  1665. 

Wassenberg  or  Wassenbergh,  von,  fon  <^is'sen- 
bSRG,  (Everard,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Emme- 
rich in  1610.  He  published  "  Florus  Germanicus,'' 
(1640,)  which  treats  of  the  wars  waged  by  Ferdinand  H. 
and  Ferdinand  HL  from  1627  to  1640.    I)ied  after  1672. 

See  Crane,  "Vita  E.  van  Wassenbergh,"  1S2S. 

Wassian.    See  Vasian. 

Wasson,  wos'son,  (David  Atwood,)  an  American 
author,  born  at  BrooksviJle,  Maine,  May  14,  1823.  He 
studied  at  Bowdoin  College,  and  then  read  law  and 
theology.  He  became  minister  of  an  Independent 
church  at  Groveland,  Massachusetts,  and  in  1865-66 
was  minister  of  Theodore  Parker's  society  in  Boston. 
He  contriljuted  largely  in  prose  and  verse  to  periodical 
literature.     Died  January  21,  1887. 


Wast  or  Waast,  w6st  or  vist,  [Lat,  Vedas'tus, 
Saint,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  who  became  Bishop  0/ 
Arras  about  500  a.d.     Died  in  540. 

See  Alcuin,  "  Vita  Vedasti ;"  Gazet,  "  Vie  de  Saint- Wast." 
1622. 

Wastel,  wos'tel,  (Simon,)  an  English  poet  and  school- 
master of  Northampton,  born  in  Westmoreland  about 
1566.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  "True  Chris- 
tian's Daily  Delight,"  (1623,)  afterwards  enlarged  and 
reprinted  as  "  Microbiblion,"  (1629.) 

Wastelain,  vis'tehlAN',  ?  (Charles,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torian and  Jesuit,  born  in  Hainaiilt  in  1695.  lie  pub- 
lished a  "  Description  of  Belgian  Gaul  in  Three  Ages  of 
History,"  (1761.)     Died  in  1782. 

Wateau.     See  Watteau. 

"Watelet,  vtt'li',  (Claude  Henri,)  a  French  ama- 
teur artist  and  writer  upon  art,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1 718.  He  was  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem,  entitled 
"The  Art  of  Painting,'"  ("  L'Art  de  Peindre,"  1760,) 
"Essay  on  Gardens,"  (1774,)  and  "Dictionary  of  the 
Arts  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Engraving,"  (5  vols., 
1792.)  The  last-named  work  was  completed  by  M. 
Levesque.  Watelet  etched  a  number  of  portraits  and 
other  pieces  of  great  excellence.  In  1760  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy.  He  was  identified 
with  the  philosophic  party,  and  contributed  to  the  "En- 
cyclopedie"  of  Diderot.     Died  in  1786. 

See  Marmontel,  "  M^moires  ;"  Morellet,  "M^moires." 

Watelet,  (Louis  Etienne,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He  painted  French, 
Italian,  and  Belgian  scenery.  He  gained  a  first  medal 
in  1819.     Died  June  19,  1866. 

Wa'ter-house,  (Benjamin,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1754, 
studied  at  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  graduated  at 
Leyden.  After  his  return  he  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  physic  in  the  medical  school  of 
Harvard  College,  continuing  to  fill  this  post  for  thirty 
years.     Died  at  Cambridge  in  1846. 

WA'ter-house,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1619.  He  published  "An  Apology  for  Learning  and 
Learned  Men,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1670. 

Wa'ter-land,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  an  English  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1683.  He  studied  at  Mag 
dalene  College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became 
one  of  the  chaplains-in-ordinary  to  George  I.  He  was 
engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Dr.  Clarke  and  other 
champions  of  the  Arian  party,  and  published  "  A  Vin- 
dication of  Christ's  Divinity,"  "  Critical  History  of  the 
Athanasian  Creed,"  "  Scripture  Vindicated,"  etc.,  and 
other  works.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  Middlesex  in 
1730.     Died  in  1740. 

See  Bishop  Van  Mildhrt,  "Life  of  Waterland, "  prefixed  to  his 
works. 

Waterloo,  waw'ter-loo',  [Dutch  pron.  wJ'ter-lo',] 
(Antoni,)  an  eminent  Dutch  landscape-painter  and 
engraver,  born  near  Utrecht  about  1618.  His  etchings 
are  numerous,  and  are  ranked  among  the  best  works 
of  the  kind.     Died  in  1662. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Wa'tfrs,  (Clara  Erskine  Clement,)  an  American 
author,  born  at  Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  August  28,  1834. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Clement.  She  was  brought  up, 
and  has  for  the  most  part  resided,  in  Boston.  Her  books 
are  "  Legendary  and  Mythological  Art,"  "  Painters, 
Sculptors,  Architects,  Engravers,  and  their  Works," 
"Artists  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  "History  of 
PIgypt,"  "Life  of  Charlotte  Cushman,"  "Eleanor  Mait- 
laiid,"  a  novel,  "Outline  History  of  Painting,"  etc. 

"Wa'ter-ton,  (Charles,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
traveller,'  born  about  1782.  He  visited  South  America 
in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  and  published  in  1825 
"  Wanderings  in  South  America,  the  Northwest  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  Antilles."  He  also  wrote 
"Essays  on  Natural  History."     Died  in  1865. 

See  "Charles  Waterton,  his  Home,  Habits."  etc.,  London,  1866; 
"  Edinburgh  Revievi^"  for  February,  1826,  (by  Sydney  Smith  ;) 
"  London  Magazine"  for  March,  1826;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1857. 

Wathek-Billah,  Al,  \\  wi'thek  bil'lJh,  written  also 
Vathek  and  Wathik,  (Aboo  Jaafar  Haroon,  (or 
Harfln,)  .^'boo  jS'a-far  hj'roon',)  an  Abbasside  Caliph 


€  as  k;  9  as  J,-  g  hard:  g  asy.-  g,  H,  K,gu(tural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2;^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JF^  THIEZ 


2436 


WA  TSON 


i\i  Bagdad,  was  bnrn  in  8n  a.o.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Motassem,  in  842,  and  endeavoured  to  maintaiii 
the  literary  splendour  whicli  had  distinguished  the  reigns 
of  his  predecessors;  but  he  is  censured  for  cruelty  and 
intolerance.     Died  in  847  a.d. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Challfen. " 

Wathiez,  vt'te^',  (FKAxgois  Isidork,)  Vicomte,  a 
Frencli  general,  born  at  Versailles  in  1777.  He  served 
as  captain  at  Austerlitz  (1805)  and  Jena,  (1806.)  and 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1813.     Died  in  1855. 

Watkins,  wSt'kinz,  (Charlks  Frederick,)  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman,  born  in  Wiltshire  about  1795.  He  pub- 
lished several  poems,  an  "  Introduction  to  Geology," 
r.nd  other  works.     Died  July  15,  1873. 

Watkinsoii,  w6t'kin-son,  (David,)  born  in  Suffolk, 
England,  in  1778,  emigrated  to  .'\merica,  and  acquired  a 
large  fortune  by  merchandise  at  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
He  died  in  1857,  leaving  $40,000  to  found  a  juvenile 
asylum  and  farm-school  for  neglected  children,  $100,000 
for  a  library  in  connection  with  the  Historical  Society 
of  Connecticut,  and  other  munificent  bequests. 

"Wats,  wfits,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  translator,  born 
in  Yorkshire  about  1600,  became  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln 
College,  Oxford.  He  translated  Davila's  "History  of 
the  Civil  Wars  of  France"  and  Lord  Bacon's  "  De 
A-ugmentis  Scientiarum."     Died  in  1657. 

Watson,  \v6t'son,  (Alfred  Augustin,)  D.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  in  New  York  city,  August  21, 
1818.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York  in  1S37,  and  became  a  lawyer.  In  1845  he 
took  priest's  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church.  After 
holding  various  pastorates  in  North  Carolina,  he  was  in 
1884  consecrated  Bishoj)  of  East  Carolina,  a  new  diocese, 
in  the  eastern  part  of  North  Carolina. 

Watsoii,  wftt'spn,  (Caroline,)  a  skilful  English  en- 
graver, born  in  London  about  1760.  She  engraved 
many  portraits.     Died  about  1812. 

Watson,  (Charles,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1714.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the  Spaniards 
in  the  campaigns  of  1744  and  1747,  and  was  made  rear- 
admiral  of  the  blue  in  1748.  He  accompanied  Colonel 
Clive  to  India  in  1754,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
capture  of  Chandernagore,  in  1757.    Died  the  same  year. 

Watson,  wSt'son,  (David,)  a  Scottish  classical 
scholar,  born  in  1710.  He  produced  a  prose  transla- 
tion of  Horace.     Died  in  1756. 

Watson,  wSt'sQn,  (Elkanah,)  a  merchant,  born  at 
Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1758.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Albany,  and  distinguished  himself  by  promoting 
various  public  works,  and  by  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of 
education.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  first  agricultural 
society  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He  wrote  memoirs 
entitled  "Men  and  Times  of  the  Revolution,"  (1856.) 
Died  in  1842. 

"Watson,  (Henry,)  Colonel,  a  British  military 
engineer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1737.  He  accompanied  Lord  Clive  to  India,  and  gained 
distinction  as  chief  engineer  in  Bengal  and  Orissa.  He 
died  in  England  in  1786,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1780. 

Watson,  (Hevveit  C.,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1804.  He  gained  distinction  as  a 
writer  on  botany,  etc.  Among  his  works  is  an  able 
treatise  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  plants,  en- 
titled "Cybele  Britannica,"  (1847-55.)     Died  in  1881. 

Watson,  (James,)  a  Scottish  printer,  born  at  Aber- 
deen about  1675.  He  published  a  newspaper  in  Edin- 
l)urgh,  a  "  History  of  the  Art  of  Printing,"  and  a  Bible, 
(1715,)  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  the  typography. 
Died  in  1722. 

Watson,  (James  Craig,)  LL.D.,  an  American  astron- 
omer, born  in  Elgin  county,  in  Canada  West,  January 
28,  1838.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  ^iichigan 
in  1857,  and  in  1859  became  professor  of  astronomy  in 
that  institution.  In  i860  he  was  chosen  to  the  chair  of 
physics  and  mathematics,  and  in  1863  was  made  director 
ot  the  observatory.  He  discovered  twenty-two  asteroids. 
He  wrote  a  "  Popular  Treatise  on  Comets,"  (i86o,)  and 
"Theoretical  Astronomy,"  besides  many  papers  on  sci- 
entific suDJccts.  Died  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  November 
23,  iSSo. 

Watson.  (John,)  Rev.,  an  English  historian,  born  in 


Cheshire  in  1724,  became  rector  of  Stockport.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  Halifax,"  (1775.)     Died  in  1783. 

Watson,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  physician, 
born  at  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1807.  Having  emigrated 
to  America,  he  became  in  1833  one  of  the  physicians  of 
the  New  York  Dispensary.  lie  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  and  of  the  New 
York  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  published  a  number  of 
medical  works.     Died  June  3,  1863 

Watson,  (John  Fanning,)  an  American  antiquary 
and  historical  writer,  born  in  Burlington  county.  New 
Jersey,  in  1780.  He  published  "Annals  of  Philadelphia," 
(1830,)  "Historic  Tales  of  the  Olden  Times  in  New 
York,"  (1832,)  and  other  similar  works.  He  resided  for 
many  years  in  Philadelphia.     Died  in  i860. 

Watson,  (Richard,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1737. 
He  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  as  a  sizar  in 
1754,  and  in  1767  was  appointed  one  of  the  head  tutors. 
Having  taken  his  degree  of  M.A.,  he  was  chosen  in  1764 
to  succeed  Dr.  Hadley  as  professor  of  chemistry,  and 
in  1 77 1  became  regius  professor  of  theology.  He  rose 
through  various  minor  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Llandaff  in  1782.  He  had  already  published  several 
works  of  a  political  nature,  one  of  which  was  entitled 
"The  Principles  of  the  Revolution  Vindicated."  His 
"Letter  to  Archbishop  Cornwallis  on  the  Church  Reve- 
nues" came  out  in  1783.  Among  his  other  writings 
may  be  named  his  "Apology  for  Christianity,  in  a  Series 
of  Letters  addressed  to  Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.,"  (1776,) 
"  An  Apology  for  the  Bible,"  (1796,)  in  answer  to  Thomas 
Paine,  "Chemical  Essays,"  and  "Miscellaneous  Tracts 
on  Religious,  Political,  and  Agricultural  Subjects,"  (1S15.) 
Died  in  1816. 

See  "  Anecdotes  of  the  Life  of  Richard  W.itson,  Bishop  of 
Llandaflf,"  by  himself:  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Ediii- 
biirgli  Review"  for  June,  1818:  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October. 
1S17;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1818. 

Watson,  (Richard,)  an  English  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Barton-upon-Humber  in  17S1,  was  appointed  in 
1817  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Missionary  Society. 
He  published  "  A  Defence  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missions  in  the  West  Indies,"  "Theological  Institutes," 
etc.,  "Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Life  of  Richard  Watson,"  by  T.  Jackson. 

Watson,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  historian,  born  at 
Saint  Andrew's  in  1730.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh,  and  became  in  1777  principal  of  the  united 
colleges  of  Saint  Leonard  and  Saint  Salvador  at  Saint 
Andrew's.  He  published  the  same  year  a  good  "  His- 
tory of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  which  enjoyed  considerable 
popularity  for  a  time  ;  but  it  has  been  eclipsed  by  the 
more  elaborate  works  of  Motley  and  Prescott.  He  died 
in  1780,  leaving  an  unfinished  "History  of  Philip  III." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  April, 
•777-  ,  .        , 

"Watson,  (Sereno,)  an  American  botanist,  born  at 
East  Windsor  Hill,  Connecticut,  December  i,  1826.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1847.  He  published  a  vol- 
ume of  government  botanical  reports,  (1S71,)  and  "  Bib- 
liographical Index  of  North  American  Botany,"  (1876,) 
and  was  principal  author  of  two  volumes  (1876,  1880)  of 
the  "  Botany  of  California." 

Watson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  min- 
ister, became  rector  of  Saint  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  Lon- 
don, in  1646.  He  was  ejected  about  1662,  after  which 
he  preached  occasionally.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Bodv  of  Divini'ty,"  (1692.)     Died  about  1690. 

Watson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  bishop  and  Roman 
Catholic.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1557, 
but  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  imprisoned. 
He  died  in  prison  in  1582. 

V^atson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London, 
probably  about  1557.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
studied  law.  He  published  five  small  volumes  of  Latin 
verse,  and  three  of  English.  Among  his  writings  are  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  "  Antigone"  of  Sophocles,  (15S1,) 
"The  llecatoinpalhia,  or  Passionate  Centurie  of  Love>" 
(1582,)  "Melibceus,"  in  Latin,  with  a  translation  into 
English  verse,  and  "The  Teares  of  Fancy,  or  Love  Dis- 


ii.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  saine,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  ^,  6,  u,  y,  s'n'r/:  a,  e,  j,  o,  oOsiine;  fir,  llll,  f;\t;  mft;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WATSON 


2437 


WA  TT 


dained,"  in  English  sonnets.  His  verse  is  mostly  amatory 
in  character,  but  pure  in  tone.  Died  in  1592.  Watson 
was  greatly  admired  in  his  own  day,  but  has  ever  since 
been  singularly  neglected.  He  may  be  regarded  as  the 
best  example  in  English  literature  of  the  "amorettist," 
or  writer  of  love-poetry  of  which  the  object  is  purely 
imaginary  or  non-existent. 

Watson,  (Sir  Thomas,)  Bart.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  an 
English  physician  and  writer  on  medical  sulijects,  born 
at  Kentisbeare,  Devonshire,  in  1792.  He  graduated  with 
honours  at  Cambridge,  studied  medicine,  and  rose  to 
great  distinction  as  a  practitioner.  He  published  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Physic,"  (5th 
edition,  1S71,)  "The  Abolition  of  Zymotic  Diseases," 
(1S79,)  etc.     Died  December  11,  1882. 

Watson,  (Sir  William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  in  London  in  1715.  He  ob- 
tained the  Copley  medal  in  1745  for  his  discoveries  in 
electricity.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions."   Died  in  1787. 

Watson,  (William,)  an  English  Catholic  priest, 
who  formed  a  conspiracy  against  James  L  in  the  early 
part  of  his  reign.  He  was  convicted  of  high  treason 
and  executed  in  1603. 

See  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i 
chap.  ii. 

Watson,  (W^illiam  R.,)  an  American  political  writer, 
born  in  Rhode  Island  in  1799.  He  was  an  active  Whig 
politician.     Died  at  Providence  in  1864. 

Watt,  w5t,  (Gregory,)  a  British  geologist,  born  in 
1777,  was  a  son  of  the  celebrated  James  Watt.  He  be- 
came a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Boulton  &  Watt  in  1794, 
after  which  he  studied  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
Having  been  advised  by  a  physician  to  pass  the  winter 
in  the  west  of  England  for  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
he  repaired  in  1797  to  Penzance,  where  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Humphry  Davy.  He  wrote,  in  1804, 
"Observations  on  Basalt,  and  on  the  Transition  from 
the  Vitreous  to  the  Stony  Texture  which  occurs  in 
the  Gradual  Refrigeration  of  Melted  Basalt."  Died  in 
October,  1804. 

Watt,  (James,)  a  Scottish  engineer,  philosopher,  and 
inventor  of  great  merit  and  celebrity,  was  born  at  Green- 
ock, on  the  Clyde,  on  the  19th  of  January,  1736.  He 
was  a  son  of  James  Watt,  merchant,  builder,  and  ship- 
chandler.  His  mother's  name  was  Agnes  Muirhead  or 
Muirheid.  Being  a  child  of  delicate  constitution,  he  was 
educated  mostly  at  home.  His  favourite  studies  and 
pursuits  were  the  experimental  sciences  and  practical 
mechanics.  Having  adopted  the  trade  of  maker  of 
mathematical  instruments,  he  went  to  London  in  1755 
and  served  an  apprenticeship  of  one  year  with  John 
Morgan.  In  1756  he  returned  to  Scotland,  with  the 
intention  to  settle  at  Glasgow  ;  but,  as  he  was  not  a  bur- 
gess, the  corporation  of  arts  and  trades  would  not  permit 
him  to  open  a  workshop  in  that  city.  The  professors  of 
the  University  of  Glasgow  then  offered  him  a  place  of 
business  within  their  precincts,  and  gave  him  the  title 
of  mathematical  instrument  maker  to  the  University. 
He  employed  his  evenings  in  the  profound  study  of 
various  sciences,  learned  most  of  the  modern  languages 
of  Europe,  and  formed  intimate  friendships  with  Robi- 
son.  Black,  and  other  professors  at  Glasgow.  In  1764 
he  married  his  cousin.  Miss  Miller,  and,  as  his  wife  was 
the  daughter  of  a  burgess,  he  was  then  permitted  to  open 
a  shop  in  Glasgow. 

About  1764  he  was  employed  to  repair  a  model  of 
Newcomen's  steam-engine  which  was  used  in  the  class- 
room of  the  university,  and  perceived  defects  in  it  which 
induced  him  to  make  experiments  on  the  application  of 
steam-power.  He  discovered  that  water,  when  converted 
into  steam,  is  expanded  to  eighteen  hundred  times  its 
bulk.  He  ascertained  that  in  the  "  atmospheric"  engine 
of  Newcomen  there  was  a  great  waste  of  the  steam  which 
was  condensed  by  the  injection  of  cold  water  into  the 
cylinder,  and  that  to  prevent  this  waste  the  cylinder 
must  be  continually  kept  as  hot  as  the  steam  which  enters 
it.  In  1765  the  fortunate  idea  occurred  to  him  of  con- 
densing the  steam  in  a  separate  vessel,  which  should  be 
exhausted  of  air  and  always  kept  cool.  "This  capital 
improvement,"  says  Dr.  Black,  "  flashed  on  his  mind  at 


once,  and  filled  him  with  rapture."  ("  History  of  Mr. 
Watt's  Improvement  of  the  Steam-Engine.")  Another 
improvement  which  he  invented  about  this  time  was  the 
use  of  the  expansive  force  of  steam  to  depress  the  piston, 
instead  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

He  ceased  to  make  mathematical  instruments  in  1768. 
after  which  he  pursued  the  business  of  land-surveyor  and 
civil  engineer.  He  obtained  a  jjatent  for  his  invention  in 
January,  1769,  and  was  supplied  with  some  capital  requi- 
site to  reduce  his  improvements  to  practice,  by  Dr.  John 
Roebuck,  who  had  a  share  in  the  patent.  Before  Watt 
could  realize  any  profit  from  his  new  engine,  Dr.  Roe- 
buck became  insolvent,  or  so  embarrassed  that  he  could 
not  advance  any  more  funds.     In  a  letter  dated  August, 

1772,  Watt  writes,  "I  pursued  my  experiments  till  I 
found  that  the  expense  and  loss  of  time  lying  wholly 
upon  me,  through  the  distress  of  Dr.  Roebuck's  situa- 
tion, turned  out  to  be  a  greater  burthen  than  I  could 
support,  and  I  was  obliged  for  a  time  to  abandon  my 
project.  Notwithstanding  my  natural  despondence,  I  am 
convinced  that  the  machine  may  be  made  to  answer  in  a 
very  considerable  degree,  and  m  more  forms  than  one, 
but  that  I  am  by  no  means  the  proper  person  to  carry  it 
into  execution." 

Watt  was  employed  as  surveyor  or  engineer  in  the 
construction  of  several  canals,  bridges,  and  other  works 
in  Scotland  during  the  period  from  1769  to  1773.  Roe 
buck,  who  had  advanced  _;^iooo  to  the  inventor,  trans- 
ferred in  1774  his  share  in  the  patent  (i.e.  two-thirds)  to 
Matthew  Boulton,  of  Soho,  an  enterprising  man  of  busi- 
ness, who  entered  into  partnership  with  Watt  for  the 
manufacture  of  steam-engines  at  Soho,  near  Birmingham. 
Boulton  and  W^itt  applied  to  Parliament  for  an  ex- 
tension of  the  term  of  their  patent,  and  obtained  the 
exclusive  right  to  make  and  vend  the  new  engine  for  a 
term  of  twenty-five  years,  (i  775-1800.)  A  great  saving 
of  fuel  was  effected  by  the  improvements  of  Watt,  whose 
engines  were  soon  extensively  used  to  pump  water  out 
of  the  mines  of  Cornwall.  In  1782  he  took  out  a  patent 
for  the  invention  of  the  double-acting  engine,  in  which 
the  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  was  converted  into 
rotatory  motion. 

He  afterwards  invented  several  improvements,  among 
which  are  the  governor  or  "regulator  by  centrifugal 
force,"  the  mechanism  of  parallel  motion,  the  throttle- 
valve,  and  the  steam  barometer  or  float.  The  manufac- 
tory of  engines  at  Soho  was  successful,  and  enriched 
both  of  the  partners. 

In  1783  Watt  made  an  important  chemical  discovery, 
— the  composition  of  water;  but  the  honour  of  this  dis- 
covery is  claimed  for  Cavendish  by  some  writers.  To 
the  substances  which  unite  to  form  water.  Watt  applied 
the  terms  "phlogiston"  and  "dephlogisticated  air."  Dr. 
Dalton,  in  his  "New  System  of  Chemical  Philosophy," 
(1810,)  says,  "The  composition  and  decomposition  of 
water  were  ascertained,  the  former  by  Watt  and  Caven- 
dish, and  the  latter  by  Lavoisier  and  Meusnier."  An- 
other eminent  chemist.  Dr.  Henry,  wrote  to  James 
Watt,  Junior,  "There  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  your 
father's  priority."  The  honour  of  this  discovery  was 
also  ascribed  to  Watt  by  Sir  D.  Brewster,  Lord  Jefi'rey, 
and  M.  Dumas.  (See  a  review  of  this  controversy  in 
an  article  entitled  "  Watt  or  Cavendish,"  by  Lord  Jeffrey, 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1S4S.)  Watt 
was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  iu 
1785.  He  remained  in  partnership  with  Boulton  until 
1800,  and  then  resigned  his  business  to  his  t\vo  sons.  In 
1814  he  was  elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates 
of  the    French   Institute.     Having  lost  his  first  wife  in 

1773,  he  married  a  Miss  MacGregor  a  few  years  later. 
He  died  at  Heathfield,  near  Birmingham,  in  August, 
1819.  In  the  same  year  Lord  Jeffrey  composed  a  eulogy 
on  Watt,  from  which  we  quote  as  follows  :  "  By  his 
admirable  contrivances,  it  [the  steam-engine]  has  become 
a  thing  stupendous  alike  for  its  force  and  its  flexibility, 
for  the  prodigious  power  which  it  can  exert,  and  the 
ease  and  precision  and  ductility  with  which  it  can  be 
varied,  distributed,  and  applied.  The  trunk  of  an 
elephant,  that  can  pick  up  a  pin  or  rend  an  oak,  is  as 
nothing  to  it.  It  can  draw  out,  without  breaking,  a 
thread  as  fine  as  gossamer,  and  lift  a  ship  of  war  like  a 


€  as  k;  5  a3  s;  g  hard  g  zsj;  c-  h.  k.  ^tttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JVA  TT 


2438 


WAUTERS 


bauljle  in  tlie  air.  .  .  .  He  had  infinite  quickness  of 
apprehension,  a  prodigious  memory,  and  a  certain  recti- 
fying and  methodizing  power  of  understanding,  vviiich 
extracted  something  precious  out  of  all  that  was  pre- 
sented to  it.  His  stores  of  miscellaneous  knowledge 
were  immense,  and  yet  less  astonishing  than  the  com- 
mand he  had  at  all  times  over  them."  "  I  look  upon 
him,"  says  the  poet  Wordsworth,  "considering  both  the 
magnitude  and  the  universality  of  his  genius,  as  per- 
haps the  most  extraordinary  man  that  this  country  eve» 
produced."* 

See  J.  p.  MuiRHEAD,  "Life  of  Jarnes  Watt,"  185S,  and  "Tlie 
Oriaiin  ant)  Progress  of  the  Mechanical  Inventions  of  J.  Watt,  illus- 
trated by  his  Correspondence,"  3  vols.,  1S54:  F.  Arago,  "  Vie  de 
Watt,"  183S:  Chambkrs,  "  riographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen  ;"  Samukl  Smiles  "  Brief  Biocraphies:"  Lord  Jeffrey, 
article  on  Watt  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  foriSig:  Dr.  Hoepbr, 
article  in  the  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  J.  Korbes,  "  Dis- 
sertation" in  the  8th  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ;" 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biosraphie  Generale  ;"  J.  Forbes,  "Dis- 
sertation" in  the  8th  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Watt,  (James,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  February,  1769.  He  studied  natural  philosophy, 
chemistry,  and  mineralogy,  and  learned  to  speak  the 
French  language  fluently.  About  1790  he  went  to 
Paris,  became  inflamed  with  enthusiasm  for  liberty  and 
equality,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  Revolution.  "  He 
was  for  some  time,"  says  Muirhead,  "in  company  with 
Thomas  Cooper  and  Wordsworth  the  poet,  in  the  habit 
of  associating  with  many  of  those  men  who  afterwards 
attained  a  dreadful  celebrity,  and,  as  Southey  has  men- 
tioned, was  at  that  time  the  means  of  preventing  a  duel 
between  Danton  and  Robespierre."  ("Life  of  James 
Watt.")  Robespierre  having  in  1792  insinuated  that 
Watt  was  an  emissary  of  Pitt,  Watt  sprang  on  the 
tribune  of  the  Jacobin  Club  and  defended  himself  in  a 
brief  and  impassioned  speech,  after  which  he  instantly 
quitted  Paris.  In  1800  he  became  a  partner  of  Boulton 
the  younger  in  the  manufacture  of  engines  at  Soho.  He 
rendered  some  services  to  the  cause  of  steam-navigation 
by  experiments  on  marine  engines.  In  181 7  he  made  a 
voyage  to  Holland  in  the  steamboat  Caledonia,  which 
he  owned,  and  which  was  the  first  that  crossed  the 
Channel.     He  died,  unmarried,  at  Aston  Hall,  in  1848. 

"Watt,  (James  Henry,)  an  eininent  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1799,  was  a  pupil  of  Charles  Heath. 
Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  High- 
land Drover's  Departure"  and  "  Horses  at  the  Fountain," 
after  Landseer,  and  "Christ  Blessing  Little  Children," 
after  Eastlake.     Died  in  1867. 

"Watt,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Jihysician  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Ayrshire  in  1774.  He  was  president  of 
the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  at  Glasgow, 
and  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the 
History,  Nature,  and  Treatment  of  Chin-Cough."  He 
also  compiled  the  "  Bibliotheca  Britannica,  or  a  General 
Index  to  British  and  Foreign  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1820.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Watteau  or  Wateau,  vt'to',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1684.  He  studied  under 
Gillot  and  Audran,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  in  his 
peculiar  department  of  the  art.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  rural  festivals,  balls,  masquerades,  and  military 
encampments,  and  in  these  he  was  perhaps  unsurpassed. 
Horace  Walpole  observes,  "  Watteau's  shepherdesses 
— nay,  his  very  sheep — are  coquet ;  yet,  though  he  fell 
short  of  the  dignified  grace  of  the  Italians,  there  is  an 
easy  air  in  his  figures,  and  that  more  familiar  species  of 
the  graceful  which  we  call  genteel."  His  works  are  very 
nutnerous,  and  the  greater  part  have  been  engraved. 
They  were  greatly  admired  by  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia,  and  many  of  the  best  are  to  be  seen  at  Berlin. 
Died  in  1721. 

See  Walpoi.e,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting;"  L^ON  Dltmont,  "An- 
toine Watteau,"  1866  ;  A.  Din'aux,  "  Notice  sur  A.  Watteau,"  1834  ; 
Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biugrapliie 
Generale." 

Watteville,  de,  deh  vlt'vfel',  (  Adolphe  du  Grabe — 
dii  grtb,)  Baron,  a  French  economist,  born  in  Paris  in 

•  Quoted  in  Mnirhead's  "  Life  of  Watt." 


1801.  lie  wrote  several  works  on  charitable  institutions, 
etc     Died  November  18,  1866. 

Wattier,  vi'te-i',  (Chaki.es  Emile,)  a  French  paint- 
er, was  born  in  Paris  in  1800  ;  died  November  22,  1868. 

Watts,  w6ts,  (Alaric  Alexander,)  an  English 
journalist  and  litterateur,  born  in  London  in  1799.  He 
edited  successively  the  "Leeds  Intelligencer,"  "Man- 
chester Courier,"  "The  Literary  Souvenir,"  and  "The 
United  Service  Gazette."  He  also  published  "Lyrics 
of  the  Heart,  and  other  Poems,"  (i85l)  His  wife,  the 
sister  of  J.  H.  Wiffen,  has  published  "The  Juvenile 
Poetical  Library,"  and  contributed  the  letter-press  to 
"  Hogarth's  Tableaux,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died 
in  1S64. 

Watts,  (George  Fuederick,)  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1820.  Among  his  princij^al  works 
we  may  name  his  "Orlando  pursuing  the  Fata  Mor- 
gana," "Alfred  inciting  the  Saxons  to  Maritime  Enter- 
prise," and  "The  School  of  Legislation,"  a  fresco,  in 
Lincoln's  Inn. 

Watts,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist,  born 
about  1824.  He  translated  Gmelin's  "  Hand-Book  of 
Chemistry,"  (18  vols.,  1849-71,)  but  is  best  known  for 
his  great  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (8  vols.,  1861-81.) 
Died  June  30,  1884. 

Watts,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and  sacred 
poet,  born  at  Southampton  in  1674.  He  was  educated 
at  an  Independent  academy  in  London,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  attainments  in  theology,  Hebrew, 
logic,  and  Latin  poetry.  In  1696  he  became  tutor  to  the 
son  of  Sir  John  Hartopp,  at  Stoke  Newington,  and  in 
1702  succeeded  Dr.  Chauncy  as  pastor  of  the  Inde- 
pendent Church  in  Mark  Lane,  London.  Having  l)een 
attacked  with  a  severe  illness  in  1712,  he  was  compelled 
to  retire  for  a  time  from  his  office,  and,  on  the  invitation 
of  Sir  Thomas  Abney,  went  to  reside  in  his  family  at 
Theobalds,  where  he  remained  till  his  death,  a  period 
of  nearly  forty  years.  He  died  in  1748,  and  a  monument 
was  erected  over  his  grave  by  his  devoted  friends  Sir 
John  Hartopp  and  Lady  Abney.  Among  his  principal 
works  we  may  name  "  Divine  Songs  attempted  in  Easy 
Language  for  the  Use  of  Children,"  (1720,)  "Logic,  or 
the  Right  Use  of  Reason  in  the  Inquiry  after  Truth," 
etc.,"  (1725,)  "The  Improvement  of  the  Mind,"  (1741,) 
"Three  Dissertations  relating  to  the  Christian  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,"  "The  Art  of  Reading  and  Writing  Eng- 
lish," and  "  Horse  Lyricse."  His  "Psalms  and  Hymns" 
give  him  the  first  rank  among  English  hymn-writers. 

See  Robert  Southev,  "Memoir  of  Isaac  Watts:"  Thomas 
Gibbons,  "  Memoirs  of  Isaac  Watts  ;"  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Eng- 
lish Poets,"  vol.  i. ;  Drake,  "Essays;"  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1851. 

Watts,  (Thomas,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  London, 
was  employed  many  years  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
caused  one  hundred  thousand  volumee  of  American 
books  to  be  added  to  the  library.  He  was  ajjpointed 
keeper  of  the  printed  books  of  that  museum  in  1866. 
Died  in  1869. 

Wat  Tyler.    See  Tyler. 

Waugh,  waw,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  minister  of 
the  United  Secession  Church,  born  in  Berwickshire  in 
1754.  He  settled  in  London  in  1782,  became  an  elo- 
quent and  popular  minister,  and  preached  in  that  city 
forty-four  years.     Died  in  1827. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Waugh,  waw,  (Beverly,)  D.D.,  an  American  Meth- 
odist bishop,  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  October 
25,  17S9.  He  became  a  preacher  in  1809,  and  in  1S36 
was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Died  at  Baltimore,  February  9,  1858. 

Waugh,  waw,  (Edwln,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Rochdale,  January  29,  1818.  He  became  a  printer  and 
bookseller,  and  was  author  of  "Lancashire  Sketches," 
"Poems  and  Lancashire  Songs,"  "Tufts  of  Heather," 
(tales,)  "  Rambles  in  the  Lake  Country,"  "  Rambles  and 
Reveries,"  and  other  volumes.     Died  April  30,  TS90. 

Wauters,  wow'ters,  ?  (Charles  Augustin,)  a  Bel- 
gian painter  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Boom  in 
iSu.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea,"  and  "Peter  the  Hermit  preaching  a  Crusade."  He 
became  a  resident  of  Brussels.      Died  November  4,  1869 


a.  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mhv,  nSt;  good;  moon; 


WAUTERS 


2439 


WEBBER 


"Wauters,  (Emile  Charles,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
in  Brussels,  November  29,  1846.  At  an  early  age  he 
took  a  prominent  place  as  a  painter  of  historical  pictures. 

Wa'wrzecki,  vav-zh6ts'kee,  (Thomas,)  Count,  a 
Polish  general,  succeeded  Kosciusko  as  commander  of 
the  army  in  1794.  On  the  capture  of  Warsaw  by  Su- 
warow,  November,  1794,  he  retired  to  Sandomir,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was  liberated  in  1797.  Died 
in  1816. 

■Way,  (Albert,)  an  English  archaeologist,  born  at 
Bath,  June  23,  1805.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  "Ar- 
chaeological Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  and 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  antiquarian  and  other  peri- 
odicals.    Died  at  Cannes,  March  22,  1S74. 

"Way'land,  or  Wayland  the  Smith,  (Ger.  Wie- 
LAND,  <^ee'lint ;  Anglo-Saxon  Veland,  vi'ldnt ;  Fr. 
Gallans,  gti'lSN' ;  Norse  Volundr,  i.e.,  "skilful," 
from  the  root  oi  wile  liXxd  giiile,)  in  the  Norse,  German, 
and  English  folk-lore,  a  celebrated  blacksmith  and 
wizard,  whose  myth  assumes  many  forms.  He  is  even 
one  of  the  characters  of  Scott's  "Kenilworth."  The 
Norse  sagas  make  him  of  the  race  of  the  sea-jotuns. 
Wayland,  like  Vulcan,  was  lame,  and,  like  Daedalus,  he 
made  wings  and  could  fly.  The  story  assumes  a  thou- 
sand forms,  and  in  its  varied  aspects  seems  to  be  the 
common  property  of  the  whole  Aryan  race. 

Way'land,  (Francis,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  March,  1796.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Union  College  in  1813,  and  subsequently  studied 
at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  In  1826  he  was 
chosen  president  of  Brown  University  at  Providence, 
Rhode  Island.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Ele- 
ments of  Moral  Science,"  (1835,)  "Elements  of  Political 
Economy,"  (1837,)  "Limitations  of  Human  Responsi- 
bility," (1840,)  a  correspondence  with  Dr.  Fuller  on  the 
subject  of  slavery,  entitled  "Christianity  and  Slavery," 
(1845,)  and  "Intellectual  Philosophy,"  (1854.)  Died  in 
1865.  "I  think,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "that  his 
'Treatise  on  Human  Responsibility'  will  be  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  great  guiding  monuments  of  human 
thought  in  the  department  to  which  it  refers." 

See  Griswoi-D,  "Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  364:  Ali-Ibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Memoirs  of  Francis  Wayland,"  by  his 
sons,  1867. 

Wayne,  (Anthony,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  January,  I745.  He 
followed  the  business  of  a  surveyor  in  his  youth,  formed 
a  friendship  with  Dr.  Franklin,  and  married  about  1767 
a  Miss  Penrose,  of  Philadelphia.  He  afterwards  lived 
on  a  farm  in  his  native  county,  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  in  1774,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  of  safety  in  1775.  In  this  year  he  raised 
and  disciplined  a  regiment,  and  entered  the  army  as  a 
colonel.  He  served  at  the  battle  of  Three  Rivers,  Canada, 
in  June,  1776,  soon  after  which  he  took  command  of  Fort 
Ticonderoga,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general. 
About  May,  1777,  he  joined  the  army  of  Washington  in 
New  Jersey.  lie  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle 
of  Brandywine,  where  he  distinguished  himself,  Sep- 
tember, 1777,  and  led  the  right  wing  at  the  b.Tttle  of 
Germantown,  in  October  of  that  year.  His  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Monmouth  (June,  1778)  was  commended 
by  General  Washington.  His  most  brilliant  achieve- 
ment was  the  capture  of  the  strong  fortification  of  Stony 
Point,  on  the  Hudson  River,  which  he  surprised  and  took 
by  assault  on  the  night  of  July  15,  1779,  fur  which  exploit 
Congress  gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks.  He  was  wounded 
in  the  head  in  this  action.  He  served  at  the  battle  of 
Green  Springs,  Virginia,  in  July,  1780,  and  took  part  in 
the  capture  of  the  British  army  at  Yorktown,  October 
19,  1781.  After  tliis  event  he  commanded  in  Georgia, 
and  defeated  the  Indians.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  in  December,  1787.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  major-general,  and  was  appointed  in  1792  commander 
of  the  army  sent  against  the  Indians.  In  August,  1794, 
he  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Miamis  in  West- 
ern Ohio.  Although  he  was  sometimes  called  "  Mad 
Anthony,"  on  account  of  his  daring  and  impetuous 
valour,  he  was  not  deficient  in  prudence  and  judgment. 
He  died  at  Presque  Isle,  on  Lake  Erie,  in  December, 


1796,  leaving  a  son  Isaac,  who    became  a  colonel  and 
Senator. 

See  John  Armstrong,  "  Life  of  General  Anthony  Wayne,"  in 
Sparks's  "American  Hinsraphy,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "National  Ponrait- 
Gallery  of  DistinRuished  Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Wayn'flete,  (William,)  w.-is  created  Bishop  of 
Winchester  in  1447,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1456.  He 
founded  Magdalene  College,  Oxford.     Died  in  14S6. 

See  "The  Three  Chancellors,  or  Lives  of  William  of  Wykehara, 
William  of  Waynflete,  and  Thomas  More." 

Weale,  weel,  (John,)  an  English  publisher,  born 
about  1792,  lived  in  London.  He  edited  several  useful 
scientific  works.     Died  in  December,  1862. 

Wea'v?r,  (George  Sumner,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Universalist  minister,  born  at  Rockingham,  Vermont, 
December  24,  1818.  He  became  a  lawyer,  but  wa.s 
ordained  about  1848.  His  principal  works  are  "Mental 
Science,"  (1851,)  "Hopes  and  Helps  for  the  Young," 
(1852,)  "Aims  and  Aids  for  Girls,"  (1854,)  "Ways  of 
Life,"  "The  Christian  Household,"  (1855,)  "The  Open 
Way,"  (1873,)  "Moses  and  Modern  Science,"  (1874,) 
"The  Heart  of  the  World,"  (1883,)  and  "Lives  and 
Graves  of  our  Presidents,"  (1884.)  Several  of  the.s«» 
works  have  had  very  extensive  currency. 

Wea'vfr  or  Wee'v^r,  (John,)  an  English  anti- 
quary, was  born  in  1576,  probably  in  Lancashire.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "Ancient  Funeral  Monuments 
in  Great  Britain."     Died  in  1632. 

Weaver,  (Thomas,)  an  English  geologist,  born  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  studied  under  the  celebraterl 
Werner  at  Freiberg.  He  published  "  Memoirs  on  the 
Geology  of  the  East  and  South  of  Ireland,"  and  other 
works  of  the  kind.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  a  member  of  the  Geological  Society.  Died 
in  1855. 

Webb,  (Alexander  S.,)  an  American  general,  a  son 
of  James  Watson  Webb,  was  born  about  1834.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855,  was  wounded  at  Get- 
tysburg, July  1-3,  1863,  served  at  the  battle  of  the  Wil- 
derness, May  ^  and  6,  1864,  and  was  disabled  by  a 
wound  at  the  battle  of  Spottsylvania,  May  8-12.  In 
1 87 1  he  became  president  of  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  published  "  The  Peninsula,"  a  historical 
work,  etc. 

"Webb,  (Daniel,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in  the  county 
of  Limerick.  He  published  "  Remarks  on  the  Beauties 
of  Poetry,"  (1762,)  and  other  works,  which  are  com- 
mended.    Died  in  1798. 

Webb,  (James  Watson,)  an  American  journalist, 
born  at  Claverack,  New  York,  in  1802.  He  became  in 
1829  editor  of  the  "Morning  Courier  and  New  York 
Enquirer,"  a  leading  journal  of  the  Whig  party.  He 
was  appointed  in  1861  minister  to  Brazil  by  President 
Lincoln.    Died  June  7,  1884. 

Webb,  (Philip  Barker,)  an  English  botanist  and 
scholar,  was  born  in  Surrey  about  1793.  He  inherited 
an  ample  fortune,  and  travelled  extensively  in  Euro])e 
and  Asia.  With  M.  Berthelot,  he  published  a  "Natural 
History  of  the  Canaries,"  with  plates,  (3  vols.)  Among 
his  works  is  "Iter  Hispaniense,  or  a  Synopsis  of  Span- 
ish Plants."    Died  in  Paris  in  1854. 

Webb,  (Philip  Carteret,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  1700;  died  in  1770. 

Webbe,  w§b,  (George,)  a  learned  English  theolo- 
giafi,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1581.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Limerick  in  1634.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Practice  of  Quietness."     Died  in  1641. 

Webbe,  (Samuel,)  an  English  composer,  born  in 
1740.  His  works  include  anthems,  masses,  songs,  and 
glees.  The  last-named  compositions  are  esteemed  mas- 
ter-pieces of  the  kind.     Died  in  1817. 

Web'ber,  (Charles  Wilkins,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Russellville,  Kentucky,  in  1819.  He  published 
"The  Hunter  Naturalist,"  (1851,)  "Tales  of  the  Southern 
Border,"  (1853,)  and  "Gold-Mines  of  the  Gila."  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  American  Review"  and 
the  "  Democratic  Review."  He  was  killed  in  Nicaragua 
in  1856,  while  serving  under  the  filibuster  Walker. 

Web'ber,  (John,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  London 
in  1751,  accompanied  Captain  Cook's  last  expedition  as 
draughtsman.     Died  in  1793. 


■easi;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( 2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEBBER 


2440 


WEBSTER 


Webber,  (Samuel.)  an  American  mathematician, 
born  at  Byfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  became 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at 
Harvard  College  in  1789,  and  in  1804  succeeded  Wil- 
lard  as  president  of  that  institution  He  published  a 
"System  of  Mathematics,"  (1801.)     Died  July  17,  1810. 

"Weber,  ^a'ber,  (Albrecht  Frikdrich,)  a  German 
Sanscrit  scholar,  born  at  Breslau,  February  17,  1825. 
He  studied  in  Breslau,  Bonn,  and  Berlin,  and  in  the  last- 
named  university  was  made  extraordinary  professor  of 
Safnscrit  in  1856,  and  full  professor  in  1S67.  He  was 
author  of  "  Indische  Studien,"  (1849;  vol.  xv.,  1878,) 
and  edited  the  "White  Yajur-Veda,"  {1849-59,)  and 
many  minor  treatises  on  Sanscrit  subjects. 

"Weber,  <Va'ber,  (Beda,)  a  Tyrolese  writer,  born  in 
1798,  published  "Songs  from  the  Tyrol,"  (1842,)  "Andrew 
Hofer  and  the  Year  1809,"  etc.     Died  in  1858. 

"Weber,  <ta'ber,  (Bernhard  Anselm,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1766,  became  chapel- 
master  at  Berlin.     Died  in  1821. 

Web'^r,  (C.  PhiIlipp,)  a  German-American  artist  of 
rare  skill,  born  in  Hesse-Darmstadt,  June  23,  1849.  ^^^ 
was  brought  to  Philadelphia  in  1852,  and  studied  art  in 
Munich,  Nuremberg,  etc.,  1S67-73.  His  pictures  have 
won  prizes,  (Sydney,  1880,  Melbourne,  1881,)  and  a 
medal  in  London,  1873. 

"Weber,  (Ernst  Heinrich,)  a  German  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  son  of  Michael  Weber,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1795.  He  became  professor 
of  human  anatomy  and  of  physiology  at  Leipsic  in  1840. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "Comparative  Anat- 
omy of  the  Sympathetic  Nerve,"  (1817,)  and  "  Anatomical 
and  Physiological  Annotations,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  Janu- 
ary 26,  1878.  His  brother  Eduard  Friedrich  (born 
1S06,  died  1871)  published  several  physiological  treatises. 

"Weber,  -(Va'ber  or  vi'baiR',  (Fr6d6ric,)  a  Swiss  en- 
graver, born  at  Bale  in  1813.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Paris,  and  engraved  many  portraits.     Died  in  1882. 

"Weber,  (Georg,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Berg- 
zabern,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria,  February  lo,  1808.  He 
was  educated  at  Erlangen,  and  became  a  professor  and 
director  in  the  Superior  Communal  School  at  Heidel- 
berg. He  published  two  well-known  works  on  "  Uni- 
versal History,"  (the  larger  in  13  vols.,)  also  a  "  History 
of  German  Literature,"  a  "  History  of  the  Israelites," 
etc.     Died  in  1888. 

"Weber,  (Goitfried,)  a  German  composer  and  writer 
upon  music,  born  at  Freinsheim  in  1779;  died  in  1839. 

"Weber,  (Henry  William,)  an  antiquarian  writer,  of 
German  extraction,  was  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1783. 
He  settled  in  Scotland,  where  he  published  a  poem 
entitled  "  The  Battle  of  Flodden  Field,"  and  "  Metrical 
Romances  of  the  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,  and  Fifteenth 
Centuries."     Died  in  1818. 

"Weber,  (Karl  Julius,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Langenburg  in  1767.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "Letters 
of  Germans  Travelling  in  Germany."     Died  in  1832. 

"Weber,  (Michael,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
born  near  Weissenfels  in  1754,  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Wittenberg.  He  wrote  several  exegetical  and 
theological  works.     Died  in  1833. 

"Web'fr,  [Ger.  pron.  M'ber,]  (Paul,)  a  distinguished 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Germany  about  1820.  In 
early  life  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  practised 
his  art  for  many  years  in  Philadelphia.  Mr.  Weber's 
landscapes  are  remarkable  for  a  certain  aerial  softness 
which  imparts  to  them  an  indescribable  charm.  Several 
years  since  he  returned  to  Germany  and  established 
himself  at  Darmstadt. 

"Weber,  (Theodor,)  a  German  marine  painter,  born 
at  Leipsic,  May  11,  1838.  He  has  painted  many  ship- 
wrecks, and  is  distinguished  by  realism  and  by  smooth 
and  solid  technic  and  correct  drawing. 

"Weber,  (Vkit,)  a  German  poet  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
battle-songs,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "The  Battle  of 
Murten." 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

"Weber,  (Wilhelm  Eduard,)  a  German  physiologist 
and  scientific  writer,  brother  of  Ernst  Heinrich,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1804.     He  studied  at 


Halle,  and  was  appointed,  in  1831,  professor  of  physics 
at  Gottingen.  He  published,  conjointly  with  his  brother 
Ernst,  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Wave  Theory  grounded 
on  Experiments,"  etc.,  (1825,)  "On  the  Magnetism  of 
the  Earth,"  (in  conjunction  with  Gauss,)  and  several 
other  works.     Died  June  24,  1891. 

"Weber,  (Wilhelm  Eknsi,)  a  German  scholar  and 
teacher,  born  at  Weimar  in  1790.  He  published  editions 
of  Herodian  and  other  classics,  and  several  original 
works.     Died  in  1850. 

"Weber,  von,  fon  <ta'ber,  (Emmanuel,)  Count,  a 
German  jurist,  born  near  Leipsic  in  1659.  He  became 
professor  of  history  at  Giessen  in  1698,  and  published 
many  legal  works.     Died  in  1726. 

"Weber,  von,  (Karl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst,) 
Baron,  an  eminent  German  composer  and  musician,  born 
at  Eutin,  in  Holstein,  in  1786.  He  was  successively  in- 
structed in  music  by  Michael  Haydn,  Valesi,  and  Kalcher, 
and,  after  the  composition  of  several  works  of  minor  im- 
portance, he  brought  out,  in  iSoo,  his  oj^era  of  "The 
Forest  Girl,"  ("  Das  Waldm"adchen.")  He  soon  after 
visited  Vienna,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Joseph  Haydn  and  the  Abbe  Vogler.  In  1807  he  made 
a  professional  tour  through  Germany,  taking  up  his 
residence  for  a  time  with  Duke  Lewis  of  Wiirtemberg, 
where  he  remodelled  his  opera  of  "  Das  Waldmiidchen," 
under  the  title  of  "Sylvana;"  it  was  performed  with 
brilliant  success  in  1810.  He  was  appointed,  in  1813, 
director  of  the  Opera  at  Prague,  and  in  181 7  became 
chapel-master  and  manager  of  the  German  Opera  at 
Dresden.  He  married  the  same  year  the  celebrated 
actress  Lina  Brandt.  His  opera  of  "  Der  Freischiitz," 
which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  came  out  in  1822, 
and  was  received  with  the  greatest  applause  at  Berlin 
and  London.  His  "  Euryanthe,"  performed  at  Vienna 
in  1823,  was  less  generally  admired.  Having  been  com- 
missioned to  compose  an  opera  for  the  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  London,  he  brought  out,  in  1S26,  his  "  Oberon," 
which  was  eminently  successful,  being  rejiresentcd 
twenty-seven  times.  He  died  the  same  year,  of  pulmo- 
nary disease.  His  remains  were  removed  in  1S44 
from  the  Catholic  chapel  at  Moorfields  to  the  family 
vault  at  Dresden. 

See  Victor  Magnien,  "  fitude  biograpliiqiie  sur  C.  M.  Haron 
de  Weber,"  ■»848 ;  Barbedette,  "Weber,  Essai  de  Critique  niusi- 
cale,"  1862;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Uiiiverselle  des  Musiciens ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gdn^rale  ;"  "  Koreign  Qiianeily  Review"  for 
January,  1831. 

"Weber,  von,  (Philipp  Karl  Max  Maria,)  Baron, 
a  German  engineer  and  author,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  IJresden  in  1822.  He  published  "  Roland's 
Quest  for  the  Graai,"  a  Life  of  his  father,  and  many 
other  works.  His  treatises  on  railway-construction  are 
very  important.     Died  in  1881. 

"Web'ster,  (Alexander,)  a  ])opular  and  eloquent 
Scottish  minister,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1707.  He 
preached  at  the  Tolbooth  Church  of  that  city,  and  be- 
came an  influential  citizen.  He  founded  a  useful  insti- 
tution to  grant  annuities  to  the  widows  of  the  Scottish 
clergy.     Died  in  1784. 

"Web'ster,  (Augusta,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Poole, 
in  Dorset,  in  1840.  Her  maiden  name  was  Da  vies.  In 
1863  she  married  Mr.  Thomas  Webster,  law  lecturer 
and  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Among 
her  writings  are  "  Prometheus  Bound,"  (1866,)  after  ^-Es- 
chylus,  "Medea,"  (1868,)  after  Eurijjides,  "Dramatic 
Studies,"  (1866,)  "A  Woman  Sold,"  etc.,  (1867,)  "  Por- 
traits," (1870,)  "A  Book  of  Rhymes,"  (1881,)  "In  a 
Day,"  (18S2,)  and  other  volumes  of  verse,  besides  "Les- 
ley's Guardians,"  (a  novel,  1864,)  and  other  prose  writ- 
ings. Some  of  her  books  are  published  under  the  name 
of  Cecil  Home.  She  is  one  of  the  most  thoughtful 
writers  of  the  modern  school  of  poetry. 

Web'ster,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  comedian,  born 
at  Bath  in  1800,  became  manager  of  the  Haymarket 
Theatre  in  1837,  and  subsequently  of  the  Adelphi. 
Died  July  8,  1882. 

"Web'ster,  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  American  states- 
man, jurist,  and  orator,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  New 
Hampshire,  January  18,  1782.  He  was  a  younger  son 
of  Ebenezer  Webster,  a  farmer,  and  Abigail  Eastman 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  j?, short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


WEBSTER 


2441 


WEBSTER 


both  persons  of  vigorous  intellect  and  high-toned  mo- 
rality. On  account  of  the  deikacy  of  his  constitution, 
he  was  permitted  to  pass  a  large  part  of  his  childhood 
in  play,  which  he  dearly  loved.  lie  also  loved  books, 
among  which  Addison's  "  Spectator"  was  an  especial 
favourite  with  him.  Having  learned  the  rudiments  of 
education  at  home,  and  in  the  common  schools  of  the 
vicinity,  he  was  sent,  in  May,  1796,  to  Phillips  Exeter 
Academy,  of  which  Benjamin  Abbot  was  the  principal. 
Young  Webster  was  at  that  time  so  diffident,  as  he  him- 
self tells  us,  that  he  could  not  be  induced  to  declaim 
before  the  school.  "The  kind  and  excellent  Buck- 
minster,"  says  he,  in  his  autobiography,  "  sought  to 
persuade  me  to  perform  the  exercise  of  declamation  like 
other  boys,  but  I  could  not  do  it."  In  February,  1797, 
he  quitted  the  academy  of  Exeter,  and  pursued  his 
studies  under  the  tuition  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Wood, 
of  Boscawen.  His  father,  although  burdened  with  a 
large  family  and  hardly  able  to  defray  the  expense,  had 
resolved  to  send  Daniel  to  college.  Having  read  six 
books  of  Virgil's  "^neid"  and  some  of  Cicero's  ora- 
tions, and  obtained  a  little  knowledge  of  Greek  grammar, 
he  entered  Dartmouth  College  as  a  freshman  in  August, 
1797.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  "  misera- 
bly prepared  botii  in  Latin  and  Greek,"  and  he  had  little 
taste  or  genius  for  mathematics.  His  habits  at  college 
were  studious  and  regular.  "  By  the  close  of  his  first 
year,"  says  Edward  Everett,  "  young  Webster  had  shown 
himself  decidedly  the  foremost  man  of  his  class  ;  and  that 
position  he  held  through  his  whole  college  course."  He 
was  also  the  best  writer  and  public  speaker  in  the  college. 
By  teaching  school  during  vacations  he  earned  money, 
which  he  gave  to  aid  his  elder  brother  Ezekiel,  whom 
the  family  sent  to  college,  not  without  great  sacrifices 
and  privations.  This  brother,  who  was  called  by  some 
the  handsomest  man  in  the  United  States,  became  a 
prominent  lawyer,  and  died  in  1829.  Daniel  graduated 
in  August,  1801,  and  began  to  study  law  in  the  office  of 
Thomas  W.  Thompson,  of  Salisbury,  who  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1814.  In  order  to 
earn  a  supply  of  money  for  his  brother  who  was  at 
college,  he  took  charge  of  an  academy  at  Fryeburg,  in 
Maine,  with  a  salary  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars 
per  annum.  Here  he  remained  about  eight  months,  and 
returned  to  Mr.  Thompson's  office  in  the  autumn  of 
1802.  Upon  coming  of  age  he  joined  the  Congrega- 
tional (Orthodox)  Church.  In  politics  he  was  a  zealous 
Federalist.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  hunting  and 
fishing,  both  in  his  youth  and  his  mature  life. 

To  i^erfect  his  legal  education,  he  went  to  Boston  in 
July,  1804,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  received  as  a 
clerk  in  the  office  of  Christopher  Gore,  an  eminent  law- 
yer and  statesman.  Here  he  read  Vattel  and  Puffendorf, 
but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  common 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  March,  1805.  He 
practised  nearly  two  years  at  Boscawen,  and  in  1807 
removed  to  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Before  this 
date  he  had  delivered  several  Fourth-of-July  orations. 
In  June,  1808,  he  married  Grace  Fletcher,  of  Hopkinton, 
New  Hampshire.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession, 
and  was  soon  regarded  as  a  fit  antagonist  for  Jeremiah 
Mason,  who  was  the  greatest  lawyer  in  the  State,  and 
was  many  years  older  than  Webster.  In  November, 
1812,  he  was  elected  as  a  Federalist  to  the  National 
House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  took  his  seat  in 
May,  1813.  He  opposed  the  war  against  Great  Britain, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  debates  which  that  war  oc- 
casioned, and  advocated  an  increase  of  the  navy.  His 
speeches  on  these  subjects  placed  him  in  the  first  rank 
as  a  debater.  He  was  re-elected  to  the  fourteenth  Con- 
gress, which  met  in  December,  1815,  when  the  violence 
of  party  spirit  had  greatly  abated,  and  the  return  of 
peace  had  directed  the  attention  of  the  national  legis- 
lature to  new  and  important  questions.  Among  these 
was  a  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  to  which 
he  moved  an  amendment  requiring  the  bank  to  pay  de- 
posits in  specie.  He  also  rendered  an  important  service 
by  a  resolution  presented  April  26,  1816,  requiring  that 
all  payments  to  the  public  treasury  must  be  made  in 
specie  or  its  equivalents, — which  resolution  was  adopted, 
and  greatly  improved  the  currency  of  the  country. 


Having  resolved  to  retire  from  public  life  and  devote 
himself  to  his  profession,  he  removed,  in  1816,  from 
Portsmouth  to  Boston.  On  this  wider  arena  his  profes- 
sional reputation  was  greatly  increased,  and  he  became 
in  a  few  years  the  foremost  lawyer  in  New  England. 
His  argument  before  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  in  the  Dartmouth  College  case,  in  1818,  raised 
him  to  the  highest  rank  as  a  constitutional  lawyer.  The 
case  was  decided  in  favour  of  his  clients,  and  by  this 
decision  the  law  of  the  land  in  reference  to  collegiate 
charters  was  firmly  established.  Thenceforth  he  was 
retained  in  nearly  all  important  cases  that  were  argued 
before  the  supreme  court  at  Washington.  He  also 
exhibited  great  skill  as  a  criminal  lawyer,  in  cross-exam- 
ining witnesses,  and  in  baffiing  the  deepest  plans  of  per- 
jury and  fraud.  The  effect  of  his  arguments  was  enhanced 
by  a  deep-toned,  musical,  and  powerful  voice,  and  by 
the  magnetism  of  his  imposing  presence  and  personal 
qualities.  "  His  influence  over  juries,"  says  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1870,  "was  due  chiefly  to  the 
combination  of  a  power  of  lucid  statement  with  his 
extraordinary  oratorical  force.  .  .  .  His  power  of  setting 
forth  truth  was  magnificent." 

Mr.  Webster  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
met  in  1820  to  revise  the  Constitution  of  Massachusetts. 
Of  his  services  in  this  Convention,  Judge  Story  expressed 
a  high  opinion  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  saying,  "  The  whole 
force  of  his  great  mind  was  brought  out,  and  in  several 
speeches  he  commanded  universal  admiration."  In  De- 
cember, 1820,  he  pronounced  at  Plymouth  a  celebrated 
oration  on  the  anniversary  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim 
fathers.  "  This,"  says  Everett,  "  was  the  first  of  a  series 
of  performances,  aside  from  the  efforts  of  the  senate  and 
the  bar,  by  which  Mr.  Webster  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  American  orators."  In  1822  he  was  elected  by 
the  voters  of  Boston  a  member  of  the  Congress  which 
met  in  December,  1823.  On  the  subject  of  the  Greek 
Revolution  he  made  (January,  1824)  a  famous  speech,  in 
which  he  denounced  the  principles  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
with  powerful  effect. 

As  chairman  of  the  judiciary  committee,  he  reported 
a  complete  revision  of  the  criminal  law  of  the  United 
.States,  which  was  approved  by  the  House.  He  was  re- 
elected, in  the  autumn  of  1824,  by  a  nearly  unanimous 
vote,  and  supported  John  Q.  Adams  in  the  ensuing  elec- 
tion of  President.  In  June,  1825,  he  delivered  an  oration 
on  laying  the  corner-stone  of  the  Bunker  Hill  Monu- 
ment. To  the  same  class  of  orations  belongs  his  admi- 
rable eulogy  on  Adams  and  Jefferson,  pronounced  in 
Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  in  August,  1826.  "  His  consum- 
mate skill  of  composition  and  delivery,"  says  Mr,  G.  T. 
Curtis,  "gave  to  a  supposititious  speech  of  John  Adams 
all  the  effect  of  a  real  utterance  of  that  patriot."  George 
Ticknor,  who  heard  this  eulogy,  says,  "  His  bearing,  as 
he  stood  before  the  vast  multitude,  was  that  of  absolute 
dignity  and  power."  He  continued  to  serve  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  until  1828,  when  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  As  a  Senator  he 
voted  for  the  Tariff  bill  of  1828.  Though  not  deeply 
interested  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1828,  he  sup- 
ported John  Q.  Adams  in  preference  to  General  Jackson, 
Having  lost  his  fiist  wife,  (who  died  in  January,  1828,', 
he  married  Caroline  Le  Roy,  of  New  York  City,  in  De 
cember,  1829. 

His  most  memorable  parliamentary  effort  was  his  tri- 
umphant reply  to  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  who  had 
affirmed  the  right  of  a  State  to  nullify  the  acts  of  Con- 
gress, had  assailed  New  England,  and  had  provoked 
Mr.  Webster  by  caustic  personalities.  It  was  on  the 
26th  of  January,  1830,  that  Webster  began  this  great 
argument  in  defence  of  the  Union  and  the  Constitution, 
ivhich  was  probably  the  most  remarkable  speech  ever 
made  in  the  American  Congress.  His  peroration  ends 
with  the  following  magnificent  passage :  "  When  my 
eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the  sun 
in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and 
dishonoured  fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union  ;  on 
States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent;  on  a  land 
rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  maybe,  in  fraternal 
blood  !  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance  rather 
behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known 


cas  k;  9  as  .f  ,•  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  %;  th  as  in  this.     (£[^^See  Explanations,  p.  2'v.) 


WEBSTER 


2442 


WEBSTER 


and  honoured  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  ad- 
vanced, its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in  their  original 
lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star 
obscured — bearing  for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  in- 
terrogatory as  What  is  all  this  worth  ?  nor  those  other 
words  of  delusion  and  folly,  Liberty  first, and  Union  after- 
wards— but  everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of 
living  light,  blaznig  on  all  its  ample  folds,  as  they  float 
over  the  sea  and  over  the  land,  that  other  sentiment, 
dear  to  every  true  American  heart — Liberty  and  Union, 
now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable  1"  "  Webster 
had,"  says  Mr.  Curtis,  "but  a  single  night  in  which  to 
make  preparation  to  answer  the  really  important  parts 
of  the  preceding  speech  of  his  opponent." 

In  May,  1832,  he  made  an  important  speech  for  the 
renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States. 
This  bill  passed  both  houses  of  Congress,  but  was 
vetoed  by  President  Jackson.  About  this  date  he  pur- 
chased an  estate  at  Marshfield,  on  the  sea-shore,  which 
was  his  usual  summer  residence.  He  supported  Mr. 
Clay  for  President  in  the  election  of  1832,  but  in  the 
great  crisis  of  the  Nullification  question,  in  1833,  he  op- 
posed Clay's  Compromise  Tariff  bill,  and  voted  for  the 
"  Force  Bill"  of  the  Administration.  On  these  subjects 
Webster  and  Calhoun  were  adversaries  in  debate.  Mr. 
Webster  became  one  of  the  most  popular  leaders  of 
the  Whig  party,  which  was  organized  about  1834,  and 
he  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the  Whigs  of 
Massachusetts. 

In  September,  1837,  as  a  member  of  the  Senate,  he 
opposed  the  Sub-Treasury  bill  in  an  elaborate  speech, 
said  to  have  been  the  most  effective  of  all  his  arguments 
on  the  subjects  of  currency  and  finance.  He  visited 
England,  Scotland,  and  France  in  1839,  attracting  the 
admiration  of  Carlyle,  who  met  him  at  table,  and  thus 
estimated  him  :  "He  is  a  magnificent  specimen.  As  a 
logic-fencer,  advocate,  or  parliamentary  Hercules,  one 
would  incline  to  back  him,  at  first  sight,  against  all  the 
extant  world."  He  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in 
January,  1839,  and  actively  promoted  the  election  of 
General  Harrison  to  the  Presidency  in  1840,  by  public 
speeches  at  Saratoga,  Richmond,  Virginia,  etc.  In 
March,  1841,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
President  Harrison,  after  whose  death  he  was  retained 
in  that  office  by  Tyler.  He  negotiated  with  the  English 
ambassador.  Lord  Ashburton,  a  treaty  which  settled 
the  long  and  serious  dispute  about  the  Northeastern 
boundary  of  the  United  States.  This  important  treaty 
was  signed  August  9,  1842.  In  compliance  with  the 
general  desire  of  the  Whigs,  (whose  interests  President 
Tyler  had  betrayed,)  he  resigned  office  in  May,  1843. 
He  was  urged  to  return  to  the  national  Senate  ;  but  his 
private  interest  and  duties  dissuaded  him.  In  a  letter 
dated  February  5,  1844,  he  says,  "I  am  now  earning 
and  receiving  fifteen  thousand  dollars  a  year  from  my 
profession,  which  must  be  almost  entirely  sacrificed  by 
a  return  to  the  Senate." 

In  the  campaign  of  1844  he  earnestly  advocated  the 
election  of  Mr.  Clay,  who  was  his  chief  rival  in  the  favour 
and  leadership  of  the  Whig  party.  He  opposed  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  for  the  reason  that  it  would  involve 
the  extension  of  slavery. 

He  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
in  the  winter  of  1844-45,  ^s  the  successor  of  Mr.  Choate. 
In  December,  1845,  he  made  a  speech  in  the  Senate 
against  the  admission  of  Texas  as  a  slave  State,  and  in 
February,  1847,  he  declared  that  he  opposed  the  prose- 
cution of  the  Mexican  war  for  the  conquest  of  territory 
to  form  new  States  of  our  Union.  Although  Mr.  Web- 
ster and  his  friends  were  disappointed  by  the  nomination 
of  General  Taylor  in  1848,  he  voted  for  him  in  prefer- 
ence to  General  Cass.  In  consequence  of  the  acquisition 
of  Mexican  territory  by  conquest,  the  sectional  conflict 
relative  to  slavery  became  more  and  more  violent  and 
irrepressible,  with  an  alarming  proclivity  towards  dis- 
union. The  houses  of  Congress  became  in  1850  the 
scene  of  intense  excitement  about  the  admission  of 
California  and  the  organization  of  the  new  territories. 
The  imminent  danger  of  this  crisis  was  averted  or  post- 
poned by  Mr.  Clay's  "Compromise  Measures,"  which 
Mr.  Webster  supported  in  an  elaborate  speech  on  the 


7th  of  March,  1850.  This  compromise  consisted  of  a 
number  of  resolutions,  one  of  which  declared  that  the 
new  territories  should  be  organized  without  the  adoption 
of  any  restriction  or  condition  on  the  subject  of  slavery  ; 
and  another,  that  more  effectual  provision  ought  to  be 
made  by  law  for  the  restitution  of  fugitive  slaves.  On 
the  first  of  these  points  he  argued  that  he  would  not  re- 
enact  by  human  law  what  was  already  settleil  by  a  law 
of  God  ;  that  slavery  could  not  be  introduced  into  those 
territories,  by  reason  of  their  natural  unfitness  for  slave 
labour.  His  support  of  these  measures  gave  great 
offence  to  many  of  his  admirers,  and  to  the  opponents 
of  slavery,  who  accused  him  of  sacrificing  an  important 
principle  to  a  supposed  political  expediency.* 

In  July,  1850,  before  the  final  vote  on  the  Comjiromise 
bill.  President  Taylor  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Vice- 
President  Fillmore,  who  appointed  Mr.  Webster  secre- 
tary of  state.  On  the  17th  of  July  he  addressed  the 
Senate  on  the  subjects  connected  with  the  Compromise 
bill  and  Wilmot  proviso.  This  was  his  last  speech  in 
the  Senate.  He  delivered  an  eloquent  address  on  the 
4th  of  July,  1851,  at  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of 
the  extension  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington.  His  last 
important  forensic  argument  was  on  the  Indian  Rubber 
Patent  cause,  at  Trenton,  in  January,  1852.  Among  his 
later  official  acts  was  a  celebrated  despatch  to  lltilse- 
mann,  the  Austrian  charge-d'affaires,  occasioned  by  the 
revolt  of  the  Hungarian  patriots.  This  document  was 
dated  in  December,  1851.  In  May,  1852,  he  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage,  and  seriously  injured,  near  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts;  but  he  was  afterwards  able  to  revisit 
Washington.  After  all  his  sacrifices  and  concessions  to 
the  pro-slavery  party,  he  received  in  the  National  Whig 
Convention  of  1852  only  thirty-two  votes,  and  those 
from  Northern  men,  although  it  was  known  that  he 
wished  to  be  nominated  for  the  Presidency.  He  died 
at  Marshfield,  October  24,  1852,  leaving  one  son, 
Fletcher,  noticed  below.  His  other  sons  and  daughters 
died  before  their  father. 

In  stature  he  was  tall,  his  head  and  brain  of  great 
size,  his  eyes  large,  black,  and  lustrous.  He  was 
greatly  distinguished  for  his  conversational  powers  and 
genial  temper  in  society.  "To  those,"  says  Curtis, 
"who  have  known  Mr.  Webster  only  in  public,  it  is 
difficult  to  give  an  idea  of  the  genial  affections  which 
at  every  period  of  his  life  flowed  out  from  him  in  the 
domestic  circle,  and  still  more  difficult  to  paint  the 
abounding  gayety  and  humour  and  fascination  of  his 
early  days."  "He  was,"  says  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
August,  1870,  "the  greatest  orator  that  has  ever  lived 
in  the  Western  hemisphere.  Less  vehement  than  Cal- 
houn, less  persuasive  than  Clay,  he  was  yet  more  grand 
and  |)owerful  than  either." 

"  Mr.  Webster,"  says  Hallam,  the  great  historian, 
"  approaches  as  nearly  to  the  beau-idhil  of  a  republican 
senator  as  any  man  that  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  course 
of  my  life;  worthy  of  Rome  or  Venice,  rather  than  of 
our  noisy  and  wrangling  generation."  (Letter  to  Mrs. 
Ticknor,  dated  January  21,  1840.) 

See  George  T.  Curtis,  "  Life  of  Daniel  Webster,"  2  vols.,  1870 ; 
Charles  Lanman,  "Private  Life  of  Daniel  Webster,"  1853;  S.  1* 
Knai'P,  "Life  of]).  Webster,"  1851  ;  MXrcker,  "  D.  Webster,  der 
Anierikanische  Staatsniann,"  Berlin,  1853:  Euward  Evefett, 
"  Memoir  of  D.  Webster,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Webster's 
Collective  Works,  6  vols.  8vo,  1851  ;  and  his  article  on  Daniel 
Webster  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia. " 

Webster,  (Ebenezer,)  an  American  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  born  at  Kingston,  New  Hampshire,  in  1739, 
was  the  father  of  Daniel  Webster.  He  served  in  the 
war  against  the  French,  and  in  the  subsequent  cam- 
paigns of  the  Revolutionary  war.     Died  in  1806. 

Webster,  (Ezekikl,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1780,  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  lawyer.     Died  in  1829. 

Webster,  (Fletcher,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1812,  was  a  son  of  the 


•  It  was  not  the  ultra  abolitionists  only  tliat  condemned  his  course. 
Mr.  Seward  in  1S5S  spoke  of  Webster  as  "a  great  statesman,  who 
for  a  large  portion  of  his  life  led  the  vanguard  of  the  army  of  freedom, 
.  .  .  and  who,  on  the  great  day  when  the  contest  came  to  a  decisive 
issue,  surrendered  that  great  cause  then  in  his  place,  and  derided  the 
proviso  of  freedom,  the  principle  of  the  ordinance  of  1787  " 


a.e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


WEBSTER 


2443 


WEDEKIND 


celebrated  Daniel  Webster.  He  served  as  assistant 
secretary  of  state  in  1841  and  1842.  He  enlisted  as 
cnlonel  in  the  Union  army  in  i86i,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Gainesville,  or  Bull  Run,  in  August,  1862. 

Webster,  (John,)  an  able  English  dramatist  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  His  principal  works  are  "The 
White  Devil,"  "The  Duchess  of  Malfi,"  (1623,)  and 
"Appius  and  Virginia,"  (1624.)  He  occupies  a  high 
rank  among  the  immediate  successors  of  Shakspeare. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  (1823 ;)  Campbell,  "  Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets." 

■Webster,  (Joseph  D.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  Hampshire  about  181 1,  became  a  civil  engineer. 
He  served  as  colonel  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Dunelson, 
February,  1862,  and  was  chief  of  staff  to  General  Grant 
at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7.  He  directed  the 
artillery  with  skill  in  this  action,  and  was  promoted  to 
be  a  brigadier-general.     Died  March  12,  1876. 

Webster,  (Noah,)  a  distinguished  American  phi- 
lologist and  lexicographer,  born  at  West  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  October,  1758.  He  graduated  at  Vale 
College  in  1778,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1781,  soon  after  which  he  became  a  school- 
teacher. He  published  "Sketches  of  American  Policy," 
(1785,)  and  "Dissertations  on  the  English  Language," 
(1789.)  In  1793  he  began  to  issue,  in  New  York,  a 
daily  paper  called  "The  Minerva,"  the  name  of  which 
was  soon  changed  to  "Commercial  Advertiser."  In  this 
journal  he  defended  the  policy  of  the  Federal  adminis- 
tration. About  1798  he  removed  to  New  Haven.  He 
expended  the  labour  of  many  years  on  a  "  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language,"  which  was  published  in  1828 
and  was  highly  esteemed.  An  enlarged  edition  of  this 
dictionary  was  published  in  1840,  and  a  quarto  edition, 
revised  by  C.  A.  Goodrich,  appeared  in  1859.  Another 
and  greatly  improved  edition  of  Webster's  Dictionary, 
with  numerous  pictorial  illustrations  incorporated  in  the 
body  of  the  work,  appeared  in  1864.  He  died  at  New 
Haven  in  May,  1843. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. :  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopsdla  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. ; 
"  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1829. 

Webster,  (Thomas,)  a  British  geologist,  born  in  the 
Orkney  Islands  about  1773.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
"Fresh-Water  Beds  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,"  and  became 
professor  of  geology  in  the  London  University.  Died 
in  1844. 

Webster,  (Thomas,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  in  1800,  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  of  which 
he  was  elected  an  associate  in  1841.  His  favourite  sub- 
jects are  children,  and  his  best  works  represent  school- 
boys and  their  sports.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  The 
Slide,"  "A  Farm-House  Kitchen,"  "A  See-Saw,"  "A 
School  Play-Ground,"  "The  Internal  Economy  of  Do- 
theboys  Hall,"  "  Peasant  Children,"  "  Hide  and  Seek," 
"The  Wreck  Ashore,"  (1874,)  "A  Birthday  Tea-Party," 
(1876,)  and  "The  Letter,"  (1877.)  H^  was  chosen  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1846,  and  resigned  his  member- 
ship in  1876.     Died  in  18S6. 

Webster,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
polemical  writer,  born  in  1689.  He  became  curate  of 
Saint  Dunstan,  in  West  London,  in  1715,  and  rector  of 
Depden  in  1733.     Died  in  1758. 

Wechel,  vA'shSl'  or  <t§K'el,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent 
printer,  born  in  Paris  about  1510,  was  a  son  of  Christian, 
and  was  a  Protestant.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1554, 
and  purchased  the  stock  of  Henri  Estienne  in  1560.  lie 
carried  on  business  in  Paris  until  the  massacre  of  1572, 
and  then  removed  his  presses  to  Frankfort.  Died  in  15S1. 

Wechel,  <^5K'el,  (Christian,)  a  celebrated  German 
printer,  established  a  printing-office  in  Paris  about  1527, 
from  which  he  issued  many  excellent  editions  of  the 
classics.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  where  his  business  was  carried  on  with  equal 
reputation  and  success  by  his  son  Andrew.  Died  in 
1554      • 

Weckerlin,  von,  fon  <^Sk'ker-leen',  (August,)  a 
German  agriculturist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1794,  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "On  English  Agriculture,"  and  other 
similar  works.     Died  December  21,  1868. 

"Weckherlin,<^gk'ker-leen',  (Georc,  Rudolf,)  a  Ger- 


man poet,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1584.  Having  travelled 
in  various  parts  of  Europe,  he  settled  eventually  in 
London,  and  was  employed  Ijy  James  I.  and  Charles  1 
in  several  important  missions.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  reformers  of  German  poetry,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  first  introduced  into  the  language  the  ode,  sonnet, 
and  epigram.  Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name 
his  heroic  poem  on  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphas. 
Died  about  1651. 

See  Carl  P.  CoNZ,  "  Nachrichten  von  dem  Leben  G.  R.  Weck- 
herlin's,"  1803. 

Weckherlin,  (Wilhelm  Ludwig,)  a  German  writer, 
born  near  Wurtemberg  in  1739,  was  the  author  of  seve- 
ral satirical  and  political  works.     Died  in  1792. 

Wed'd?r-burn,  (Alexander,)  Lord  Lotighborough 
and  Earl  of  Rosslyn,  an  eminent  British  jurist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  East  Lothian  in  1733.  He  was  in  early 
life  an  advocate  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  eloquence  and  the  fierceness  of  his  in- 
vective. Having  quarrelled  with  the  court,  he  removed 
to  London  in  1753,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  a  few  years 
later.  He  took  great  pains  to  eradicate  his  Northern 
accent.  He  became  king's  counsel  in  1763,  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  about  the  same  time,  and  joined 
the  Northern  circuit.  "  He  was  far  from  being  a  pro- 
found lawyer,"  says  Lord  Brougham.  "  His  strength 
lay  in  dealing  with  facts  ;  and  here  all  his  contemporaries 
represent  his  powers  to  have  been  unrivalled.  It  was 
probably  this  genius  for  narrative,  for  arguing  upon 
probabilities,  for  marshalling  and  sifting  evidence,  that 
shone  so  brilliantly  in  his  great  speech  at  the  bar  of  the 
House  of  Lords  upon  the  celebrated  Douglas  cause,  and 
which  no  less  a  judge  than  Mr.  Fox  pronounced  to  be 
the  very  finest  he  ever  heard  on  any  subject."  ("His- 
torical Sketches  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George 
HI.")  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  by  Lord 
North  in  i77i,soon  after  which  he  and  Thurlow  became 
the  two  main  supporters  of  the  prime  minister  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  a  famous  speech  agairst  the 
Americans  before  the  privy  council,  he  indulged  in  offen- 
sive personalities  against  Franklin,  calling  him  a  man 
of  three  letters, — the  old  Roman  joke  for  a  thief,  (fur.) 
In  1778  he  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and  in  17S0 
obtained  the  office  of  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Loughborough.  On  the 
bench  he  continued  to  be  an  unscrupulous  partisan,  and 
during  the  short  ministry  formed  by  a  coalition  of  Fox 
and  Lord  North  (1783)  he  was  chief  commissioner  of 
the  great  seal.  In  the  first  years  of  Pitt's  administration 
Wedderburn  was  the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  When  the  king  became  deranged, 
(1789,)  he  advised  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  proclaim 
himself  regent;  but  his  desperate  counsels  were  not 
followed.  He  was  oneof  the  members  that  seceded  from 
the  Whig  or  opposition  party  on  questions  connected 
with  the  French  Revolution,  and  was  appoi  ited  lord 
chancellor  in  1793.  He  retained  this  office  until  the  for- 
mation of  a  new  ministry,  April,  1801,  and  was  then 
created  Earl  of  Rosslyn.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1805.  According  to  Lord  Brougham,  "his  j  rosperous 
career,  supported  by  no  fixed  principles,  illustrated  by 
no  sacrifices  to  public  virtue,  ...  at  length  closed  in 
the  disappointment  of  mean,  unworthy  desires,  and  ended 
amidst  universal  neglect." 

See  "  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George 
III.,"  vol.  i.  ;  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;" 
Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionai-y  of  Eminent  Sco'imen." 

Wedderburn,  (David,)  a  Scottish  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  born  about  1570.  He  taught  school  at  Aberdeen, 
and  wrote  numerous  poems.     Died  about  i6fo. 

Wedderkopf,  von,  fon  <^ed'der-kopr,  (Magnus,)  a 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Husum,  in  Holstein,  in 
163S.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Kiel,  and  prime 
minister  of  the  Duke  of  Holstein  in  1705.  He  published 
several  legal  works.  Died  in  1 72 1.  His  brother  Ga- 
briel, born  in  1644,  was  a  writer  on  theology,  pastor  at 
Kiel,  and  court  preacher.     Died  in  1696. 

Wedekind,  <^a'deh-kTnt',  (Anton  Christian,)  a 
German  historical  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Verden 
in  1763.  He  published  a  "Chronological  Manual  of 
Modern  History,"  (181 6,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1845. 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v:., guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i!^P°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IVEDEKIND 


2444 


WEICKARD 


Wedekind,  (Georc,  Christian  GoxruEn,)  Baron, 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1761,  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Mentz.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  medical  and  miscellaneous  works.     Died  in  1831. 

Wedekind,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  Baron,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1796.  He 
published  an  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Forest  Science,"  (1847,) 
and  other  similar  works.     Died  January  22,  1856. 

Wedel,  <Va'del,  (Ernst  Heinrich,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Gotha  in  1671,  was  a  son  of  Georg  Wolf- 
gang, noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "On  the  Diseases  of  Public  Speakers,"  ("De 
Morbis  Concionatorum.")  Died  in  1708.  His  brother 
Juhann  Adolf  published  several  medical  treatises. 

Wedel,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  a  learned  German 
physician,  born  at  Golzen,  in  Lusatia,  in  1645.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  where  he  became  professor  of  medicine 
in  1673.  He  was  also  first  physician  to  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  was  created  in  1694  a  count-palatine 
and  imperial  councillor.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
mathematician  and  Orientalist,  as  well  as  for  his  know- 
ledge of  medical  science,  and  was  one  of  the  most  vo- 
luminous writers  of  his  time.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "  Opiologia,"  etc.,  (1674.)  "  Exercitationes 
Pathologicaj,"  (1675,)  and  "Pharmacy  reduced  to  the 
Form  of  an  Art,"  (in  Latin.)     Died  in  1721. 

Wedel,  (Johann  Adolf,)  a  medical  writer,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Jena  in  1675,  became  professor 
in  the  University  of  Jena  in  1709.     Died  after  1746. 

Wedel,  (Johann  Wolfgang,)  a  German  botanist, 
born  in  1 708,  practised  medicine  at  Jena.  He  wrote 
"Botanical  Essay,"  ("Tentamen  Botanicum,"  1747.) 
Died  in  1757. 

Wedel,  von,  fon  <^a'de1,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  Prus- 
sian general,  born  in  the  Uckermark  in  1712.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  The  victory 
of  the  Prussians  at  Leuthen  (1757)  was  attributed  to 
Wedel  by  Frederick  the  Great.     Died  in  1782. 

Wedel-Jarlsberg,  <^a'del  yaRls'b^KG,  (Johann  Kas- 
PAR  Hermann,)  a  Danish  statesman,  was  born  at  Mont- 
pellier,  in  France,  in  1779.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  rose  through  several  offices  to  be  minister  of  finance 
in  1822.     Died  in  1840. 

Wedg'wood,  (Josiah,)  a  celebrated  English  artisan, 
born  in  Burslem,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1730.  His  oppor- 
tunities for  education  were  very  limited,  and  in  his  early 
youth  he  worked  in  the  pottery  of  an  elder  brother  at 
Burslem.  In  1759  he  established  in  that  place  a  manu- 
factory of  ornamental  pottery,  where  he  soon  after  pro- 
duced the  beautiful  cream-coloured  ware  since  called  by 
his  name.  A  table-service  of  this  kind  was  ordered  by 
Queen  Charlotte,  who  appointed  Wedgwood  her  potter. 
He  subsequently  opened  a  warehouse  in  London,  where 
he  executed  copies  of  antique  vases,  cameos,  and  sculp- 
ture, remarkable  for  their  accuracy  and  exquisite  work- 
manship. Among  his  works  in  this  department  were 
fifty  copies  of  the  celebrated  Portland  vase,  which  were 
sold  for  fifty  guineas  each.  Some  of  his  compositions 
were  of  such  hardness  and  indestructibility  as  to  render 
them  invaluable  for  chemical  vessels.  His  works  were 
not  only  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  manufactures  and 
commercial  prosperity  of  his  country,  but  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  in  refining  the  national  taste.  Wedg- 
wood was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  contributed 
several  treatises  to  the  "Transactions"  of  that  body. 
Died  in  1795. 

See  Elka  Metevard,  "Life  of  J.  Wedcwood,  from  his  Private 
Correspondence,"  1864;  L.  Jewett,  "The  Wedgwncids,"  1S65:  J. 
Marryatt,  "Collection  towards  a  History  of  Pottery,"  etc.,  1850; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July 
and  October,  1867. 

Wed'more,  (Frederick,)  an  English  art-critic,  born 
at  Clifton,  July,  1844.  He  became  a  journalist  and  mag- 
azinist,  and  studied  pictorial  and  dramatic  art.  He  wrote 
"A  Snapt  Gold  Ring,"  (a  novel,  1871,)  "Two  Girls," 
(1874,)  "Studies  in  English  Art,"  (1876,)  "Pastorals  of 
France,"  (1877,)  "Masters  of  Genre  Painting,"  (18S0,) 
"  Four  Masters  of  Etching,"  (1883,)  etc. 

Weed,  (Stephen  H.,)  an  American  brigadier-general, 
born  in  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854.  He 
was  a  skilful  officer  of  artillery.  He  was  killed  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  2,  1863,  aged  about  thirty. 


Weed,  (Thurlow,)  an  American  journalist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Greene  county.  New  York,  in  1797.  He 
learned  the  trade  of  printer,  and  edited  several  news- 
papers. He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Anti-Masonic 
party,  and  in  1830  became  the  editor  of  the  "  Albany 
Evening  Journal,"  which  opi^osed  the  Albany  Regency 
and  was  an  able  organ  of  the  Whig  party.  He  acquired 
distinction  and  great  influence  as  a  party  manager  for 
the  Whigs  and  the  Republicans.  He  was  an  intimate 
associate  and  adherent  of  William  H.  Seward.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  civil  war  he  ceased  to  be  in  unity 
with  the  Republican  party.  He  favoured  the  policy  of 
President  Johnson  in  relation  to  reconstruction  in  1866- 
67,  but  supported  General  Grant  for  the  Presidency 
in  1868.     Died  November  22,  1882. 

Weekes,  weeks,  (Henry,)  an  English  sculptor,  born 
at  Canterbury  in  1807,  was  a  pupil  of  Chantrey,  whom  he 
assisted  for  several  years.  Among  his  works  are  statues 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Lord  Bacon,  and  a  monu- 
ment to  Shelley.     Died  May  28,  1877. 

Weeks,  (Robert  Kelly,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  New  York  city  in  1840,  published  "  Poems,"  (1866,) 
and  "Episodes  and  Lyric  Pieces,"  (1870.) 

Weemi,  (Mason  L.,)  an  American  biographical 
writer,  was  rector  of  Mount  Vernon  parish,  Virginia. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  A  History  of  the  Life  and  Death, 
Virtues  and  Exploits,  of  General  George  Washington," 
etc.,  (1800,)  "Life  of  General  Francis  Marion,"  (4th 
edition,  1816,)  and  biographies  of  Franklin  (1817)  and  of 
William  Penn,  (1829.)  They  are  written  in  a  lively, 
entertaining  style,  but  are  not  to  be  relied  upon  as 
biographies  or  histories.     Died  in  1825. 

Weeninx,  wa'ninks,  or  "Weenix,  wa'niks,  (Jan  Bap- 
risr,)  the  Old,  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Am 
sterdam  in  1621.  He  studied  under  Abraham  Bloemaert, 
and  afterwards  spent  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he 
was  extensively  patronized.  His  works  include  portraits, 
historical  pictures,  animals,  and  inarine  views,  in  all  of 
which  he  acquired  a  very  high  reputation.   Died  in  1660. 

His  son  Jan,  surnamed  the  Young,  was  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1644.  He  was  instructed  in  painting 
by  his  father,  whose  style  and  favourite  subjects  he 
adopted.  As  a  colorist,  he  was  esteemed  superior  to  his 
father,  and  his  hunting-scenes  and  birds  are  regarded 
as  master-pieces.     Died  in  1719. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,'  etc.  ; 
Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Weerdt,  de,  deh  waiRt,  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Brussels,  lived  about  1550. 

Weert.     See  Werth. 

"Weever.    See  Weaver,  (John.) 

Wegelin,  <^a'geh-leen',  (Jacques,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1721.  He  became  professor  of 
history  at  Berlin  in  1765,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  on  the  Philosophy  of  History,"  (4 
vols.,  1772-79,)  and  "Universal  History,"  (6  vols.,  1776 
-80.)     Died  in  Berlin  in  1791. 

See  Fels,  "Biographie  Wegelins,"  1792. 

Wegener,  <^a'geh-ner,  (Caspar  Frederik,)  a  Danish 
historian  and  publicist,  born  in  Fiinen  in  1802.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  by  several  works  on  Danish 
history.  He  became  director  of  the  national  archives 
in  1848. 

Wegner,  <t5G'ner,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Silesia  in  1644.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Kbnigsberg,  and  court  preacher.  Died 
in  1709. 

Wegscheider,  <^aG'shI'der,  (Julius  August  Lud- 
WIG,)  a  German  theologian  of  the  rationalistic  school, 
was  born  at  KUbbelingen,  in  Brunswick,  in  1771.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1810.  Hi? 
princijial  work  is  entitled  "  Institutes  of  Dogmatic  Chris- 
tian Theology,"  (in  Latin,  1818.)     Died  in  1849. 

Wehrli.     See  Vehrll 

Weichert,  <^I'Kert,  (Jonathan  August,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Saxony  in  1788,  published  editions  of 
Pomponius  Mela  and  other  classics.     Died  in  1844. 

Weickard,  (tl'kiRt,  (Melchior  Adam,)  a  German 
physician,  was  a  warm  advocate  of  the  Brunonian 
system,  and  published,  among  other  works,  "The  Philo- 
sophical Physician."     Died  in  1803. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  A,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  o,  ohscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


WEIDEN 


2445 


WEISE 


Weideu,  von,  fon  <^i'den,  "Weda,  VVa'di,  or  Wied, 
\>eet,  (Hermann,)  Count,  a  German  prelate,  born 
in  Nassau  in  1472.  He  was  elected  Archbishop  and 
Elector  of  Cologne  in  1515,  and  persecuted  the  Prot- 
estants for  a  number  of  years.  About  1540  he  changed 
his  course,  and  patronized  Bucer  and  other  Reformers. 
Having  been  excommunicated  by  the  pope  in  1546,  he 
resigned  in  1547,  and  died  in  1552. 

Weidler,  <Vi'dler,  (Johann  Fkiedrich,)  a  German 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1691,  He  became  in  1721  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Wittenberg.  He  published  a  number  of  valuable  works, 
in  Latin,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Mathematical 
Institutes,"  "History  of  Astronomy,"  "Astronomical 
Bibliography,"  and  "Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Machines." 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died 
in  1755. 

Weigel,  <^G'eI  or<^i'gel,  (Erhard,)  a  German  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  born  at  Weida  in  1625,  became 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Jena.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  several  astronomical  instruments,  and  published, 
among  other  works,  one  entitled  "The  Mirror  of  the 
Heavens,"  ("  Himmels-spiegel.")     Died  in  1699. 

Weigel,  (Johann  August  GorrLOB,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1773;  died  in  1846. 

Weigel,  (Karl  Christian  Leberecht — la'beh- 
rSKt,)  a  German  physician  and  scholar,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1769.  He  published  a 
"  Modern  Greek-German-Italian  Dictionary,"  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1845. 

Weigel,  (Valentin,)  a  German  theologian,  founder 
of  a  sect  of  mystics  called  by  his  name,  was  born  at 
Grossenhain,  in  Saxony,  in  1533.  His  leading  doctrines 
are  said  to  resemble  those  of  Tauler ;  and  Jacob  Bohme 
was  one  of  his  most  noted  disciples.  His  works  were 
published  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1588. 

See  HrLLiGER,  "Vita  V.  Weigelii,"  1721. 

Weigel,  von,  fon  <^TG'el  or  <^T'gel,  (Christian 
Ehrenfried — a'ren-fReet,)  a  German  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Stralsund  in  174S,  wrote  "  Observa- 
tiones  Botanicre,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1831. 

Weigl,  <^iGl,  (Joseph,)  a  musical  composer,  born  at 
Eisenstadt,  in  Hungary,  in  1766,  became  chapel-master 
of  the  Italian  Opera  at  Vienna.  His  opera  of  "The 
Swiss  Family"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works.  Died 
in  1846. 

Weil,  <^1,  (GusTAV,)  a  distinguished  German  Orien- 
talist, of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  at  Sulzburg  in  1808. 
He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  visited  Egypt  about  1830,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Arabic,  Persic,  and 
Turkish  languages.  He  was  appointed,  after  his  return, 
assistant  librarian,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages, 
in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  in  1845.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "The  Poetical  Literature  of  the 
Arabs,"  "Mohammed  the  Prophet,"  "History  of  the 
Caliphs,"  and  "  History  of  the  Mussulman  Peoples  from 
Mohammed  to  Selim."     Died  August  29,  18S9. 

Weil,  <^T1,  (Henri,)  a  Franco-German  philologist, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  August  26,  1818.  He 
studied  at  Bonn,  Berlin,  Leipsic,  and  Paris,  and  became 
a  French  citizen.  He  held  professorships  at  Strasburg 
and  Besan9on,  and  in  1876  became  Greek  professor  in 
the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure  and  the  Ecole  des  Hautes- 
Etudes,  in  Paris.  Most  of  his  publications  are  on  the 
Greek  tragedians  and  on  Demosthenes. 

Weilen,  ^Tl'en,  (Joseph,)  (originally  named  Joseph 
Weil,)  an  Austrian  poet,  born  at  Tetin,  Bohemia,  De- 
cember 28,  1828.  He  became  a  soldier,  and  most  of  his 
life  was  a  professor  in  the  imperial  military  schools. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Phantasien  und  Lieder,"  (1853,) 
"Manner  vom  Schwerte,"  etc.  His  tragedies  are  note- 
worthy. Among  them  are  "Tristan,"  "  Edda,"  "  Graf 
Hoorn,"  and  "Dolores." 

Weill,  wll,  IFr.  pron.  vjl.j  (Alexandre,)  a  litterateur 
and  journalist,  of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  in  Alsace 
in  1813.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  and  published  a  work  entitled  "  Republic  and 
Monarchy,"  (1848,)  an  "Essay  on  Schiller,"  and  "  The 
French  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (1872.) 

Weiller,  von,  fon  <^il'ler,  (Kajetan,)  a  German 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Munich  in  1762. 


He  became  secretary  general  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1823.     Died  in  1826. 

Weimar,  Di:chess  of.     See  Amelia. 

Weimar,  (Bernard,)  Duke  of.  See  Bernhard 
OF  Saxe-Weimar. 

Weinbrenner,  <^Tn'bR5n'ner,  (Friedrich,)  a  cele- 
brated German  architect,  born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1766.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1791,  and  spent  several  years  in  study- 
ing the  remains  of  ancient  art.  On  his  return,  in  1798, 
he  was  appointed  inspector  of  buildings  at  Carlsruhe. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  theatre  at  Leipsic, 
and  the  Standeshaus  theatre,  the  Lutheran  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  and  Hochberg  palace,  at  Carlsruhe. 
He  also  founded  in  the  latter  place  an  institution  for  the 
study  of  architecture  and  the  kindred  arts.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Manual  of  Architecture,"  (iSio,)  a  treatise 
"On  Form  and  Beauty,"  (1819,)  and  other  similai 
works.     Died  in  1826. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "  DenkwiirdigUeiten  aiis  Wein- 
brenner's  Lebeii,"  1S29;  A.  VV.  Schreiber,  "  F.  Weinbrenner, 
Denkmal,"  etc.,  1826. 

Weinlig,  ^Tn'liG,  (Christian  Theodor,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Dresden  in  17S0;  died 
in  1842. 

His  son,  Christian  Albrecht,  born  in  1812,  became 
professor  of  national  economy  at  Erlangen,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Manual  of  Theoretical  Chemistry,"  (1S40,) 
and  other  works.      Died  at  Dresden,  January  18,  1S73. 

Weinreich,  <Vin'rlK,  or  Weinrich,  x^in'riK,  (Valen- 
tin,) a  German  philologist  and  i)oet,  born  near  llartz 
in  1553,  became  rector  at  Eisenach.     Died  in  1622. 

Weinrich,  <^In'r?K,  (Georg,)  a  learned  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Silesia  in  1554.  He  preached  at  Leijisic, 
and  published  a  number  of  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1617. 

Weinrich,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German  writer 
and  Lutheran  minister,  born  in  16S3,  lived  at  Mei- 
nungen.     Died  in  1727. 

Weir,  weer,  (Harrison  William,)  an  English  artist, 
born  at  Lewes,  May  5,  1824.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
wood-engraver,  and  afterwards  won  distinction  as  a  water- 
colour  painter  and  book-ilhistrator.  His  birds  and  ani- 
mals are  especially  noteworthy. 

Weir,  weer,  (John  F.,)  an  American  artist,  born  at 
West  Point,  New  York,  August  28,  1841.  He  was 
chosen  to  the  National  Academy  in  1866.  Among  his 
paintings  are  "The  Gun-Foundry"  and  "Forging  the 
Shaft,"  besides  many  landscajjes,  portraits,  and  genre 
pictures.  He  also  modelled  a  bronze  statue  of  Benjamin 
Silliman,  and  another  of  T.  D.  Woolsey, 

Weir,  (Julian  Alden,)  an  American  painter,  a  son 
of  R.  W.  Weir,  was  born  at  West  Point,  New  York, 
August  30,  1852.  He  studied  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  Paris,  and  afterwards  established  himself  as  a 
painter  in  New  York.  In  portraiture  and  figure-painting 
he  is  one  of  the  most  successful  of  the  younger  American 
artists. 

Weir,  weer,  (Robert  W.,)an  American  painter,  born 
at  New  Rochelle,  in  New  York,  in  1803.  .Among  his 
best  works  are  "The  Landing  of  Henry  Hudson,"  "The 
Embarkation  of  the  Pilgrims,"  and  "The  Antiquary 
introducing  Lovell  to  his  Womankind."     Died  in  1889. 

See  DuNLAP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  lu 
America  ;"  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Weir,  weer,  (William,)  a  Scottish  journalist,  born 
in  Edinburgh  abotit  1802.  He  edited  successively  the 
Edinburgh  "Literary  Journal,"  the  Glasgow  "Argus/ 
and  the  "  Daily  News,"  a  Liberal  paper  of  London. 
Died  in  185S. 

Weisbach,  <\is'biK,  (Julius,)  a  German  savant, 
born  near  Annaberg  in  1806,  published  a  "Manual  for 
the  Engineer  and  Machinist,"  and  several  treatises 
on  hydraulics.     Died  in  1871. 

Weise,  (Vi'zeh,  |Lat.  Wei'sius,]  (Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Zittau  in  1642,  became  rector  of  the 
gymnasium  in  his  native  town.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
satirical  romance,  entitled  "Die  drci  Hauptverderber," 
and  a  number  of  dramas,  also  several  educational  works. 
Died  in  1708. 

See  Hermann  Pai.m,  "  C.  Weise,  eine  literar-historische  Ab- 
hnndlnng,"  1854;  S.  Grosser,  "Vita  C  Weisii,"  1710. 


eas^.-  9asj;  g/tun/;  g^sj;  G,H,K,^(fti(r<u':  'S,tiasal:  \\,trilU-d;  sass;  th  as  in ////.f.     (JJ^^See  Explanation.s,  p.  23.) 


WE  IS  FLOG 


2446 


WELD 


Weisflog,  <^iss'fl6r.,  (Karl,)  a  German  litUratair, 
born  at  Sagan  in  1770,  published  a  number  of  humorous 
tales.     Died  in  1828. 

Weishaupt,  <^iss'howpt,  (Adam,)  a  German  jurist 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Ingolstadt  in  1748,  is  chiefly 
celebrated  as  the  founder  of  the  order  of  the  Illuminati. 
He  became  professor  of  canon  and  natural  law  in  his 
native  city  in  1775.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an 
"Apology  for  the  Illuminati,"  (1786,)  and  "  Pythagoras  ; 
or,  The  Secret  Art  of  Governing  the  World,"  (1790.) 
Died  in  1830. 

See  GoTTscHLiNG,  "  Weishaupt's  Schicksale,"  17S9;  "  Noiivolle 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 

"Weisius.     See  Weise. 

"Weiss.  See  Alrinus,  (Bernard,)  Albinus,  (Pe- 
TRUS,)  and  Albinus,  (Johann  Georg.) 

"Weiss,  wTss,  [Fr.  pron.  viss, |  (Charles,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1779.  He  contributed  a 
great  number  of  articles  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,'" 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  editors.     Died  Feb.  i  r,  1866. 

"Weiss,  (Charles,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  18 12,  became  professor  of  history  at  the  Lycee 
Bonaparte.  He  published  "Spain  from  Philip  H.  to 
the  Accession  of  the  Bourbons,"  {2  vols.,  1844,)  ^•''d  ^ 
"  History  of  the  French  Protestant  Refugees  since  the 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,"  (1853.)    Died  1864. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1853. 

"Weiss,  <^Iss,  (Christian  Samuel,)  a  German  min- 
eralogist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1780.  He  studied  under 
Werner  at  Freiberg,  and  in  1810  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise 
"On  the  Natural  Divisions  of  the  System  of  Crystalliza- 
tion," (1813.)     Died  in  1856. 

"Weiss,  WIS,  (John,)  an  American  Unitarian  minister, 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  June  28,  1818.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1837.  He  was  an  ex- 
treme rationalist,  and  was  prominent  as  an  anti-slavery 
writer.  He  wrote  "  ./Esthetic  Prose,"  "  Life  of  Theodore 
Parker,"  "  American  Religion,"  "  Lectures  on  Shak- 
speare,"  etc.     Died  at  Boston,  March  9,  1879. 

"Weiss,  (Siegfried,)  a  German  publicist,  born  at 
Dantzic  in  1822.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Code 
of  Maritime  International  Law,"  (2  vols.,  1S5S.) 

"Weisse,  <v-i'seh,  (Christian  Ernst,)  a  German 
jurist,  son  of  Christian  Felix,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1766.  He  became  in  1813  professor  of 
criminal  law  in  that  city,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
"Manual  of  Saxon  Civil  Law,"  which  is  esteemed  a 
standard  work.     Died  in  1832. 

"Weisse,  (Christian  Felix,)  a  popular  German 
writer,  born  at  Annaberg  in  1726.  He  studied  at  Leip- 
sic, where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lessing,  and 
soon  after  produced  several  tragedies,  which,  however, 
met  with  little  favour.  His  "  Merry  Songs,"  ("  Scherz- 
haften  Lieder,")  which  appeared  in  1758,  were  very 
successful,  and  were  followed  by  a  number  of  comedies, 
which  were  also  well  received.  In  1775  he  became 
editor  of  a  juvenile  periodical  called  "The  Children's 
Friend,"  ("Der  Kinderfreund,")  which  obtained  almost 
unprecedented  popularity,  and  was  afterwards  imitated 
by  Berquin  in  his  "Ami  des  Enfans."  His  "Songs  for 
Children,"  "ABC  Book,"  and  "Dramas  for  Chil- 
dren" were  received  with  equal  favour,  and  they  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  European  languages. 
Besides  these  juvenile  productions,  on  which  his  reputa- 
tion mainly  rests,  Weisse  published  "Lyric  Poems"  and 
"Comic  Operas."  He  was  for  several  years  editor  of 
a  literary  journal  of  high  character,  entitled  "Bibliothek 
der  Schonen-Wissenschaften  und  Freien-KUnste."  He 
died  in  1804. 

See  C.  G.  Bauer,  "  Ueber  C.  F.  Weisse,"  1805  ;  Weisse,  "  Auto- 
biography," 1806;  H.  C.  Iphofen,  "  Lebeiisgeschichte  C.  F. 
Weisse's,"  etc.,  1806 ;  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Dichtung." 

"Weisse,  (Christian  Hermann,)  a  son  of  Christian 
Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1801,  and 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  the  Present  Stand-Point  of 
Philosophical  Science,"  (1829,)  "  System  of  ^tsthetics, 
or  Science  of  the  Idea  of  Beauty,"  (1830,)  and  essays, 
which  have  a  high  reputation.     Died  Sept.  19,  1866. 


"Welssenthurn,  von,  fon  <^)'sen-t6oRn',  (Johanna 
Franul  Veronica,)  a  German  actress  and  dramatic 
writer,  originally  named  GRyNBERG,  was  born  at  Coblentz 
in  1773.  Her  works  are  numerous,  and  once  enjoyed 
considerable  popularity.     Died  in  1847. 

"Weitenaver,  <^I'ten-a'ver,  (Ignatius,)  a  German 
linguist  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Ingolstadt  in  1705.  He 
published  several  works  on  language.     Died  in  1783. 

Weitling,  <^Tt'ling,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  commun- 
ist, born  at  Magdeburg  in  1808,  published  "Guarantees 
of  Harmony  and  Freedom,"  "  Humanity  as  it  is  and  as  it 
should  be,"  (1845,)  etc.    Died  in  New  York,  Jan.  25,  187 1. 

"Weitzel,  wTt'sel,  (Godfrey,)  an  American  major- 
general  and  engineer,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  about 
1835,  graduated  at  West  Point,  second  in  his  class,  in 
1855.  He  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Butler  in  the 
expedition  to  New  Orleans,  April,  1862,  and  rendered 
important  services  as  chief  engineer  of  Butler's  army. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  under  General  Banks  in 
Louisiana  in  1863,  and  a  division  in  the  operations 
against  Petersburg,  Virginia,  in  the  summer  of  1864. 
He  was  designated  by  General  Grant  to  command  the 
land-forces'  of  an  expedition  against  Wilmington  in 
December,  1864,  but  he  actually  served  as  second  in 
command  under  General  Butler,  and  decided  that  it 
would  be  a  rash  sacrifice  of  life  to  assault  the  fort  with 
6000  men.  His  command  was  foremost  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  Richmond,  April  3,  1865.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  a  lieiitenant-colonel  of  engineers  in  the  regular 
army  in  1882.     Died  March  19,  1884. 

"Weitzel,  wTt'sel,  (Johannes,)  a  German  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Johannisberg  in  1771.  He  published 
a  "History  of  Political  Science,"  "Letters  from  the 
Rhine,"  and  other  works,  on  various  subjects.     Died  in 

'837.  „ 

"Wel'by,  (Amelia  B.,)  an  American  poetess,  born  at 
Saint  Michael's,  Maryland,  in  1821.  She  subsequently 
removed  to  Louisville,  Kentucky,  where  she  contributed 
numerous  poems  to  the  "  Louisville  Journal,"  under  the 
signature  of  "Amelia."     Died  in  1852. 

See  Griswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

"Welch,  (John,)  a  Scottish  minister,  born  about  1570 
married  a  daughter  of  John  Knox.  1  le  preached  at 
Ayr,  was  banished  in  1606  or  1616,  and  went  to  France. 
Died  about  1622. 

"Welch'man,  (Edward,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Banbury  about  1665.  He  became  Archdeacon  of 
Cardigan,  and  published  "The  Thirty-Nine  Articles 
illustrated  with  Notes."     Died  in  1739. 

"Welcker,  <^§l'ker,  (Fkiedrich  Gottlieb,)  an  emi- 
nent philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Griinberg  in  1784. 
Having  studied  at  Giessen,  he  resided  two  years  at 
Rome,  and,  after  his  return,  became  successively  pro- 
fessor of  archaeology  and  Greek  literature  at  Giessen 
and  Gottingen,  and  professor  of  philology  at  Bonn, 
being  also  appointed  chief  librarian  in  the  last-named 
university.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  works 
we  may  name  "Die  Aeschyleische  Trilogie  Prometheus," 
etc.,  "On  a  Cretan  Colony  in  Thebes,  the  Goddess 
Europa  and  Cadmus,"  (1824,)  "The  Epic  Cyclus ;  or. 
The  Homeric  Poets,"  (1835,)  and  "Short  E.ssays  on 
Grecian  Literary  History,"  (1S44.)  He  also  wrote  "The 
Life  of  Zoega,  with  a  Collection  of  his  Letters,"  eta 
Died  in  186S. 

See  I'ROCKiiAtis.  "  Coiiversations-Lexikon." 

"Welcker,  (Karl  Theodor.)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Upper  Hesse  in  1790.  He  studied 
at  Giessen  and  Heidelberg,  and  subsequently  became 
professor  of  law  at  Kiel.  He  was  elected  to  the  Upper 
Chamber  of  Baden  in  183 1,  and  soon  after  assisted  in 
founding  the  Liberal  journal  entitled  "Der  Freisinnige." 
For  the  political  opinions  expressed  in  this  gazette  he 
was  arrested,  but  released  after  a  short  imprisonment. 
He  was  a  deputy  to  the  German  National  Assembly  in 
1848.  He  wrote  several  able  political  treatises,  and 
assisted  Rotteck  in  the  "Staatslexikon."     Died  in  1869. 

"Weld,  (Angelina  Emily  Grimk^,)  a  sister  of  S.  M. 
Grimke,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  Feb- 
ruary 20,  1S05.  In  1828  she  joined  the  Society  of  Friends, 
in  1836  emancipated  her  slaves,  and  in  183S  married  Mr. 
T.  D.  Weld.     She  won  distinction  as  an  eloquent  ami- 


a.  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  Qr,  fill,  f4t;  nxki;  nSt;  good;  m66n; 


WELD 


2447 


WELLINGTON 


slavery  speaker,  and  published  an  "  Appeal  to  the 
Christian  Women  of  the  South,"  (1836.) 

■Weld,  (Charles  Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born 
at  Windsor  in  1813.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Royal 
Society,"  (1847,)  and  other  works.      Died  Jan,  15,  1869. 

Weld,  (Horatio  Hastings,)  D.I).,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1811.  He  was 
bred  a  printer,  became  a  journalist,  and  in  1845  took 
orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  lie  published  "  Cor- 
rected Proofs,"  (1837,)  a  "Life  of  Christ,"  (1851,)  and 
other  works,  and  compiled  and  edited  various  books, 
chiefly  religious.     Died  August  27,  1888. 

Weld,  (Rev.  Lewis,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Hampton,  Connecticut,  about  1796.  He  was  principal 
of  the  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Hartford. 
Died  in  1853. 

Weld,  (Theodore  Dwight,)  an  American  reformer, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hampton,  Con- 
necticut, November  23,  1803.  He  studied  at  Hamilton 
College,  and  at  Lane  and  Oberlin  Theological  Semi- 
naries. He  was  early  distinguished  as  an  anti-slavery 
agitator.  He  published  "The  Bible  against  Slavery," 
"  American  Slavery  as  it  is,"  and  other  anti-slavery 
books  and  pamphlets,  etc. 

Weld,  (Thomas,)  an  English  cardinal,  born  in  Dor- 
setshire in  1773  ;  died  in  1837. 

Welden,  von,  fon  -^Sl'den,  (Ludwig,)  Baron,  a 
German  officer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1782.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1813-15, 
and  was  made  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1836.  He  died 
in  1852,  having  been  previously  appointed  master  of 
the  ordnance. 

Wel'don,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  was  born  at  Chichester  about  1670.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Henry  Purcell,  and  in  1708  became 
organist  of  the  chapel  royal.  His  anthems  are  regarded 
as  master-pieces ;  he  also  produced  several  songs,  and 
other  works  of  great  merit.     Died  in  1736. 

Welee-ed-Deen  or  Weli-Eddin,  w^l'ee  ed-deen', 
(Ahmed,  In'med,)  a  famous  Turkish  poet,  born  about 
1438.  He  obtained  the  office  of  vizier  under  Mahomet 
H.     Died  in  1495. 

Welhaven,  <^$l'ha'ven,  (Johann  Sebastian,)  a 
Norwegian  poet,  born  at  Bergen  in  1807,  has  published 
"Half  a  Hundred  Poems,"  ("  Halvhundret  Digte," 
1848,)  "Pictures  of  Travel  and  Poems,"  ("  Reisebilleder 
og  Digte,"  1851,)  and  a  criticism  on  the  poet  Wergeland, 
entitled  "  Henrik  Wergeland's  Poetry  and  Polemics." 
He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Christiania  in 
1846.     Died  October  24,  1873. 

Wellekens,  wel'leh-kens,  (John  Baptist,)  a  Dutch 
pastoral  poet,  born  at  Alost  in  1658,  passed  eleven  years 
\\\  Italy,  whither  he  went  about  1676.  His  idyls  are 
praised  as  natural  and  true.    Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1726. 

Wellens,  wtl'lens,  (Jacques  Thomas  Joseph,)  a 
learned  and  benevolent  Flemish  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1726,  became  bishop  of  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1784. 

Weller,  <^el'ler,  [Lat.  Welle'rus,]  (Jakop,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  theologian,  born  in  1602,  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Wittenberg,  and  in 
:646  first  court  preacher  at  Dresden.  His  "New  Greek 
Grammar"  ("Grammatica  Graeca  Nova")  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.     Died  in  1664. 

See  Reichmann,  "Memoria  J.  Welleri,"  1664. 

Weller,  <tel'ler,  [Lat.  Welle'rus,]  (Jerome  or 
IIieronymus,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Freyberg, 
in  Misnia,  in  1499.  He  was  in  early  youth  a  favourite 
disciple  of  Luther,  in  whose  house  he  lived  eight  years. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Freyberg,  and 
propagated  the  doctrines  of  Luther  by  his  sermons  and 
writings,  which  had  a  high  reputation.     Died  in  1572. 

See  Lemmel,  "  Wellerusredii-ivus;"  Hempel,  "  Lifeof  \V»ller," 
in  Lalin  verse. 

Wellerua.    See  Weller. 

Welles,  wfilz,  (Edward  Randolph,)  D.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  at  Waterloo,  New  York,  January 
10,  1830,  graduated  in  1850  at  Geneva  College,  New 
York,  and  was  ordained  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  1858.  In  1874  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Wisconsin.     Died  October  20,  1888. 


■Welles,  wSlz,  (Gideon,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  in  1802.  He  studied 
law,  and  became  about  1826  editor  of  the  "Hartford 
Times,"  a  Democratic  journal.  He  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  Connecticut  in  1827,  and  was  appointed 
chief  of  one  of  the  bureaus  of  the  navy  department  in 
1846.  About  1854  he  separated  from  the  Democratic 
party  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  slavery,  and  joined 
the  Republicans.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
navy  in  March,  1861,  and,  after  the  death  of  President 
Lincoln,  was  retained  in  office  by  Johnson  until  the  close 
of  his  administration  in  March,  1869.    Died  Feb,  11,  1S78. 

Wellesley,    See  Welling  ion  and  Mornington. 

Wellesley,  w§lz'Ie,  (Lord  Charles,)  the  second  son 
of  the  first  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  born  in  Dublin  in 
t8oS.  He  entered  the  army,  and  became  a  colonel  about 
185 1.  He  was  elected  in  1842  a  Conservative  member 
of  the  House  of  Commons.     Died  in  1858. 

Wellesley,  (Richard  Colley,)  Marquis  Wellesley. 
an  able  statesman,  born  in  Dublin  in  1760,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Garret,  first  Earl  of  Mornington,  and  was  a 
brother  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  studied 
at  Eton,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  classical  scholar. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1781,  he  became  Earl  of 
Mornington,  and  entered  the  Irish  House  of  Lords.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  George  HI.  by  his  course  on  the 
subject  of  the  regency  in  1789,  and  at  the  next  general 
election  was  returned  to  the  English  House  of  Commons 
for  Windsor.  In  1793  he  was  sworn  in  a  member  of  the 
British  privy  council.  He  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  India  in  October,  1797,  and  raised  to  the 
British  peerage,  as  Baron  Mornington.  In  1798  he 
declared  war  against  Tippoo  Sahib,  Sultan  of  Mysore, 
who  had  given  offence  by  intrigues  or  negotiations  with 
the  French.  The  British  army  gained  victories  at  Mal- 
lavelly  and  Seringapatam,  and  Tippoo  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1799.  Lord  Mornington  was  created  Marquis. 
Wellesley  in  December,  1799.  About  1803  he  waged 
war  against  the  Mahrattas,  from  whom  he  conquered 
the  region  between  the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  lie  resigned 
in  1805,  became  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in 
December,  1809,  and  retired  from  that  office  in  January, 
1812.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Perceval,  (1812,)  the  Marquis 
Wellesley,  at  the  request  of  the  prince-regent,  made  an 
unsuccessful  effort  to  form  a  coalition  ministry.  He  was 
appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  December,  1821. 
Being  a  zealous  friend  of  Catholic  emancipation,  he 
resigned  when  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
became  prime  minister,  in  1S28,  because  the  duke 
opposed  the  Catholic  claims.  He  served  as  lord  lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland  for  a  short  time  in  1833-34.  He  died 
in  September,  1842,  leaving  no  children,  although  he 
was  twice  married. 

See  R.  R.  Pearce,  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Marquis 
Wellesley,"  3  vols.,  1846. 

Wellhausen,  Ml'how'zen,  (Julius,)  D.D.,  a  distin- 
guished German  Biblical  critic,  of  the  most  advanced  or 
radical  school.  He  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Greifswalde,  and  published  a  well-known 
"History  of  Israel,"  ("  Geschichte  Israels,"  1878.) 

Wel'ling-tpn,  (Arthur  Wellesley,)  first  Duke 
OF,  a  celebrated  British  general  and  statesman,  born  in 
Dublin  or  at  Dangan  Castle,  in  the  county  of  Meath, 
Ireland,  on  the  ist  of  May,  1769.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  Garret  Wesley,  first  Earl  of  Mornington,  and  Anne 
Hill  Trevor,  a  daughter  of  Viscount  Dungannon.  The 
original  name  of  the  family  was  exchanged  for  Wellesley 
about  1797  by  the  subject  of  this  article  or  by  his  eldest 
bi other.  Pie  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  a  military 
academy  of  Angers,  in  France.  He  received  in  March, 
1787,  a  commission  as  ensign  in  the  seventy-third  regi- 
ment of  foot,  became  a  lieutenant  in  December  of  tha< 
year,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  June,  1 791. 
Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  major  in  April,  1793, 
he  acquired  by  purchase  that  of  lieutenant-colonel  of 
the  thirty-third  regiment  of  foot  in  September  of  the 
same  year.  In  1794  he  served  in  the  Low  Countries 
under  the  Duke  of  York,  whom  the  French  general 
Pichegru  compelled  to  retreat  to  Bremen,  During  this 
disastrous  retreat  Colonel  Wesley  commanded  a  brigade, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  and  intrepiditv. 


€  as  k:  9  as  j;  g  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,f^itturai;  N,  'usal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tliis.     ( J[^^.See  Exi)lanations,  p.  23. ) 


WELLINGTON 


2448 


WELLINGTON 


Having  been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1796, 
he  was  ordered  to  India,  where  he  arrived  in  February, 
1797.  In  1798  his  eldest  brother,  Lord  Mornington, 
became  Governor-General  of  India,  and  declared  war 
against  Tippoo  Sahib.  Colonel  Wellesley  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Mallavelly  and  the  capture  of  Seringa- 
patam,  of  which  he  was  appointed  governor  in  July, 
1799.  "During  several  years  that  he  held  the  command 
in  Mysore,"  says  C.  MacFarland,  "  he  was  fully  occupied 
in  organizing  the  civil  and  military  administration  of 
the  country ;  and  in  the  execution  of  this  task  he  im- 
proved his  natural  talents  for  business,  and  displayed 
that  quickness  of  perception  and  that  sagacity  and  self- 
command  which  have  characterized  liim  throughout  the 
whole  course  of  his  military  career." 

He  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  April,  1802, 
was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  all  the  British 
and  allied  troops  serving  in  the  territories  of  the  Peishwa 
and  the  Nizam  in  1803,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Mahrattas  at  Assaye  in  September  of  that  year. 
In  this  battle  he  had  two  horses  killed  under  him. 
Having  obtained  in  February,  1805,  leave  to  return  to 
England,  he  arrived  there  in  the  ensuing  September. 
In  the  next  November  he  was  sent  to  Holland  with 
an  army  which  was  commanded  by  Lord  Cathcart,  and 
which  returned  to  England  in  February,  1806,  without 
having  encountered  the  enemy. 

In  April,  1806,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  married  Lady 
Catherine  Pakenham,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Long- 
ford. He  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for 
the  borough  of  Rye  in  1806,  and  was  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland  in  April,  1807.  In  August  of  that 
year  he  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  which  in- 
vaded Denmark,  and  defeated  the  Danes  at  Kioge.  He 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  April, 
1808,  and  in  the  ensuing  June  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  an  army  of  about  10,000  men  which 
was  sent  to  Spain  to  fight  against  the  French.  He 
reached  Corunna  in  July;  but,  as  the  Spanish  Junta 
declined  the  assistance  of  a  British  auxiliary  force,  he 
landed  at  Mondego  Bay,  in  Portugal,  which  country  was 
then  occupied  by  a  French  army  under  Junot.  The 
British  forces,  marching  towards  Lisbon,  defeated  a  divi- 
sion of  the  French  army  at  Roli9a  in  August,  1808.  A 
few  days  after  this  affair  his  army  was  largely  reinforced, 
but  he  was  superseded  in  the  command.  The  ministers 
appointed  Sir  Hew  Dalrymple  commander-in-chief.  Sir 
Harry  Burrard  second  in  command,  and  Sir  John  Moore 
third.  Sir  Arthur  was  thus  reduced  from  first  to  fourth 
in  command.  He  repulsed  the  French  who  attacked 
him  at  Vimeira,  August  21.  The  French  having  evacu- 
ated Portugal,  in  accordance  with  the  Convention  of 
Ciutra,  in  September,  1S08,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  re- 
turned to  England,  and  resumed  the  place  of  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland.  In  January,  1809,  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Parliament  for  his  services  in  Portugal. 

The  victorious  march  of  Napoleon  to  Madrid  and  the 
defeat  of  Sir  John  Moore  at  Corunna  induced  the  British 
government  to  increase  their  forces  in  the  Peninsula 
and  to  aid  both  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards.  General 
Wellesley,  having  been  ajjpointed  commander-in-chief, 
arrived  at  Lisbon  in  April,  1809,  and  found  himself  at 
the  head  of  an  army  of  about  25,000  men.  On  the  12th 
of  May  he  defeated  Soult  at  Oporto.  The  passage  of 
the  river  Douro  at  this  time,  in  the  presence  of  10.000 
Frenchmen,  is  considered  one  of  his  most  brilliant 
achievements.  About  the  end  of  June,  1S09,  he  marched 
into  Spain,  which  was  occupied  by  several  French 
armies,  widely  separated,  and  commanded  by  Soult, 
Victor,  Suchet,  and  others.  A  Spanish  army  under 
General  Cuesta  took  the  field  against  the  French  and 
joined  the  army  of  General  Wellesley,  who  encountered 
Marslial  Victor  on  the  22d  of  July  at  Talavera.  In  the 
battle  which  ensued  at  this  place,  the  British  claimed 
the  victory,  but  they  did  not  pursue  the  retiring  enemy. 
Sir  Arthur  wrote,  on  the  24th  of  July,  "  I  am  not  able 
to  follow  the  enemy  as  I  could  wish,  .  .  .  owing  to  my 
having  found  it  impossible  to  procure  even  one  mule  or 
cart  in  Spain.  My  troops  have  been  in  actual  want  of 
provisions  for  the  last  two  days."  Victor,  having  been 
reinforced,  attacked  the  British  at  Talavera  on  the  27th 


of  July,  renewed  the  fight  on  the  28th,  and  was  repulsed 
with  iieavy  loss.  The  approach  of  several  French  armies, 
superior  in  number  to  iiis  own,  induced  Sir  Arthur  to 
retreat  by  way  of  Badajoz  towards  Portugal.  He  after- 
wards pursued  a  cautious  Fabian  policy.  In  September, 
1809,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  titles  of 
Baron  Douro  of  Wellesley  and  Viscount  Wellington  of 
Talavera. 

The  battle  of  Talavera  was  the  last  action  of  the 
British  army  in  the  campaign  of  1809.  A  large  Spanish 
army  was  routed,  with  great  loss,  at  Ocafia  in  Novem- 
ber, and  about  the  same  time  the  French  defeated 
another  army  of  20,000  Spaniards.  On  learning  these 
events,  Lord  Wellington  wrote,  "  I  lament  that  a  cause 
which  promised  so  well  a  few  weeks  ago  should  have 
been  so  completely  lost  by  the  ignorance,  presumption, 
and  mismanagement  of  those  to  whose  direction  it  was 
intrusted."  He  prepared  for  the  campaign  of  181C 
by  the  construction  of  the  celebrated  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  near  Lisbon,  and  fixed  his  head-quarters  at 
Viseu  in  January.  His  army,  including  the  Portuguese, 
amounted  to  about  54,000  men.  A  large  French  ariny, 
commanded  by  Massena,  approached  Portugal  from  the 
northeast  in  the  summer  of  1810.  The  French  having 
taken  Almeida  in  August,  after  a  short  siege.  Lord  Wel- 
lington fell  back  to  the  valley  of  the  Mondego,  and  took 
a  strong  position  near  Coimbra,  along  the  ridge  of 
Busaco.  Here  he  was  attacked  on  the  27th  of  Septem- 
ber by  the  French,  who  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  which 
the  English  writers  estimate  at  4000  killed  and  wounded. 
A  few  days  after  this  battle,  Lord  Wellington  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat  towards  Lisbon.  His  army  entered 
the  strong  defences  of  Torres  Vedras  about  the  8th  of 
October.  Massena  made  several  unsuccessful  attacks 
on  these  lines,  lost  many  men  by  disease,  and  retired  in 
November  to  Santarem,  where  he  passed  the  winter. 
Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1810.  Lord  Wellington 
complained  that  he  was  not  efficiently  supported  by  the 
Portuguese  regency,  some  members  of  which  perversely 
endeavoured  to  thwart  his  plans.  In  a  letter  dated 
October  6,  addressed  to  Mr.  Stuart,  he  says,  "  As  for 
Principal  Souza,  I  beg  you  to  tell  him,  from  me,  that  I 
have  had  no  satisfaction  in  transacting  the  business  of 
his  country  since  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  govern- 
ment. .  .  .  Either  he  must  quit  the  country,  or  I  will." 

During  the  months  of  January  and  February  the 
hostile  armies  in  Portugal  remained  stationary.  Mar- 
shal Soult,  who  commanded  in  Andalusia,  was  ordered 
to  act  in  concert  with  Massena  by  attacking  Portugal 
south  of  the  Tagus.  Massena,  whose  position  was  ren- 
dered untenable  by  want  of  provisions,  began  about  the 
4th  of  March  to  move  his  army  northward,  and  was 
followed  by  the  British.  On  the  nth  of  March  the 
strong  fortress  of  Badajoz  was  taken  by  Marshal  Soult 
The  British  army  defeated  that  of  Massena  on  the  3d 
of  April,  at  the  battle  of  Sabugal,  which  Lord  Welling- 
ton described  as  "  one  of  the  most  glorious  actions  that 
British  troops  were  ever  engaged  in."  On  the  6th  the 
French  crossed  the  Agueda  into  Spain,  and  thus  ter- 
minated their  invasion  of  Portugal.  They  left  a  garrison 
in  Almeida,  which  was  blockaded  by  the  British.  In 
order  to  relieve  this  garrison,  Massena  marched  back 
from  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  attacked  the  enemy  at  P'uentes 
de  Onoro.  After  a  pitched  battle,  which  ended  on  the 
5th  of  May,  the  French  were  repulsed,  and  abandoned 
Almeida. 

In  the  mean  time  an  allied  army  under  General 
Beresford  invested  Badajoz  about  the  4th  of  May,  and 
Marshal  Soult  moved,  with  inferior  numbers,  to  relieve 
that  place.  The  armies  met  at  Albuera  on  the  i6th  of 
Mav,  and  a  severe  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  allies 
claimed  the  victory,  but  admitted  that  they  lost  about 
7000  men  killed  and  wounded.  Soult  retired  to  Seville 
and  Lord  Wellington,  who  arrived  at  Albuera  about  the 
2oih  of  May,  ortlered  the  siege  of  Badajoz  to  be  re- 
sumed. Having  failed  in  several  attempts  to  take  that 
place  by  assault  in  Tune,  he  retired  towards  the  north 
of  Portugal,  and  remained  on  the  defensive,  in  a  position 
on  the  Coa,  during  the  autumn  of  iSii.  "Wellington 
was  aware,"  says  Jules  Maurel,  "  that  Fortune  could  not 
change  sides  at  a  leap,  and  that  it  was  only  after  rej^eated 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, /<w/^.- i,  6,  A,  satiie,  less  prolonged;  i.,h,\,o,K\,^, short:  ■&,  e,  i.  n^oii.-nm;  lAr,  fill,  fAt;  \\\lx\  nftt;  good;  nimm; 


WELLINGTON 


2449 


WELLINGTON 


trials  that  you  could  win  her  favours  ;  .  .  •  and  that 
before  acquiring  the  art  of  gaining  great  victories  it  was 
necessary  to  begin  by  learning  to  avoid  defeats,  and  for  a 
time  to  decline  all  engagements."  Having  gained  the 
confidence  of  his  troops  by  his  extraordinary  success 
while  acting  on  the  defensive,  he  at  length  assumed 
the  offensive,  and  showed,  when  those  qualities  were 
demanded,  that  his  enterprise  and  promptitude  were 
not  infcior  to  his  prudence. 

In  January,  1812,  he  made  a  rapid  march  to  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  which  he  took  by  storm  on  the  19th  of  that 
month.  He  also  took  Badajoz  in  April,  before  the 
French  army  could  come  to  relieve  that  place.  In  the 
assault  of  Badajoz  the  allies  lost  1000  killed  and  3786 
wounded.  On  the  22d  of  July  Lord  Wellington  gained 
an  important  victory  over  Marshal  Marmont  at  Sala- 
manca. He  entered  Madrid  in  triumph  on  the  12th  of 
August,  soon  after  which  .Souit  raised  the  blockade  of 
Cadiz  and  concentrated  his  forces  at  Granada.  Leaving 
two  divisions  at  Madrid,  Wellington  moved  his  army 
northward,  entered  Valladolid  on  the  7th  of  September, 
and  marched  thence  to  Burgos,  the  castle  of  which  was 
defended  by  a  garrison  of  2000  Frenchmen.  He  spent 
nearly  five  weeks  in  the  siege  of  this  place,  which  he 
could  not'take,  and  about  the  2ist  of  October  he  began 
to  retreat  towards  Portugal  through  Salamanca,  closely 
pursued  by  General  Souham.  The  campaign  of  1812 
closed  without  any  other  battles.  The  British  general 
was  rewarded  for  his  victory  at  Salamanca  by  the  title  of 
Marquis  of  Wellington.  About  the  end  of  1812  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  armies  by 
the  regency  of  Spain. 

The  campaign  of  1813  opened  in  May,  by  the  march 
of  the  allies  across  the  Douro  to  Valladolid.  The 
French  army,  abandoning  Burgos  on  the  12th  of  June, 
retired  across  the  Ebro,  and  were  overtaken  at  Vitoria, 
where  Wellington  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Mar- 
shal Jourdan  on  the  21st  of  June.  The  allies  took  here 
an  immense  quantity  of  booty. 

When  Napoleon  received  tidings  of  the  disaster  at 
Vitoria,  he  sent  Soult  to  Spain  as  commander-in-chief. 
Soult  attacked  the  allies  near  Pampeluna  on  the  28th 
and  30th  of  July,  but  was  repulsed.  These  actions  are 
sometimes  called  "The  Battles  of  the  Pyrenees."  Thus 
was  terminated  the  French  occupation  of  Spain. 

Wellington's  success  in  the  wars  of  the  peninsula 
must  be  ascribed  in  no  small  measure  to  the  character 
which  he  established  for  probity  and  truthfulness.  With 
true  moral  heroism,  he  refused  to  indulge  in  the  slightest 
misrepresentation,  even  to  save  his  own  fame.  In  this 
respect  his  character  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  that 
of  his  great  antagonist.  Napoleon.  In  one  of  his  de- 
spatches he  says,  "I  see  a  disposition  exists  to  blame 
the  government  for  the  failure  of  the  siege  of  Burgos. 
The  government  had  nothing  to  say  to  the  siege  ;  it 
was  entirely  my  own  act."  When  his  allies  in  Portugal 
and  Spain  became  at  length  acquainted  with  his  charac- 
ter, they  believed  with  implicit  confidence  whatever  he 
told  them,  and  he  thus  acquired  a  moral  power  equal  to 
the  force  of  mighty  armies.  Afterwards,  in  carrying  out 
a  policy  as  wise  as  it  was  humane,  he  refused  even  in  an 
enemy's  country  (in  France)  to  allow  his  own  troops,  or 
those  of  his  Spanish  allies,  to  support  themselves  by 
plunder,  for  his  object  was  not  merely  to  maintain  his 
army,  but  to  conciliate  the  people.  He  had  been  among 
the  first  to  perceive  how  an  opposite  policy  towards  the 
nations  he  had  conquered  was  gradually,  but  surely,  un- 
dermining the  colossal  power  of  Napoleon  ;  the  plainest 
dictates  of  common  sense,  as  well  as  motives  of  a  higher 
character,  preserved  Wellington  from  the  commission  of 
a  similar  error. 

About  the  loth  of  November  Lord  Wellington  marched 
across  the  frontier  into  France.  He  fought  with  success 
several  battles  near  Bayonne  between  the  9th  and  13th 
of  December,  1813.  On  the  27th  of  February,  1S14,  he 
defeated  Soult  at  Orthez,  from  which  the  French  retreated 
to  Toulouse.  The  allies  gained  another  victory  at  Tou- 
louse on  the  loth  of  April,  but  they  lost  in  this  battle 
about  4600  men.  The  report  of  the  abdication  of  Na- 
poleon arrived  at  Toulouse  on  the  12th,  and  hostilities 
were  suspended  on  the  i8th  of  April.     Wellington  was 


rewarded  with  the  title  of  duke  on  the  3d  of  May,  and, 
after  visits  to  Paris  and  Madrid,  took  leave  of  his  army 
on  the  14th  of  June.  Having  returned  to  England,  he 
took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  on  the  28th  of  June. 
The  House  of  Conmions  voted  ;^400,ooo  for  the  support 
of  his  dignity.  In  August,  1814,  he  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador-extraordinary to  the  court  of  France.  With  sev- 
eral colleagues,  he  represented  England  at  the  Congress 
of  Vienna,  which  assembled  in  January,  1815.  He  was 
at  Vienna  when  he  received  intelligence  that  Napoleon 
had  returned  to  France. 

In  April  Wellington  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  in  Flanders,  consisting  of  about  76,000 
men,  mostly  British  and  Dutch.  A  Prussian  army  under 
General  BlUcher,  who  had  about  80,000  men,  was  ready  to 
act  in  concert  with  Wellington.  To  oppose  these  armies 
Napoleon  raised  about  115,000  men.  On  the  nth  of 
f  une  the  French  emperor  quitted  Paris  to  open  the  cam- 
paign, and  exclaimed,  "  I  go  to  measure  myself  with  this 
Wellington,"  ("  Je  vais  me  mesurer  avec  ce  Villainton.") 
Wellington  attended  a  ball  at  Brussels  on  the  evening  of 
the  15th  of  June,  and  his  army  began  to  march  on  the 
morning  of  the  i6th.  The  Prussians  were  defeated  with 
severe  loss  at  Ligny  on  the  afternoon  of  the  l6th,  and 
about  the  same  time  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought 
between  Marshal  Ney  and  the  allies  at  Quatre-Bras.  BlU- 
cher is  said  to  have  lost  about  12,000  killed  and  wounded 
at  Ligny.  On  the  morning  of  the  17th,  Wellington  made 
a  retrograde  movement  on  Waterloo,  where  he  was  at- 
tacked by  the  French  about  ten  a.m.  on  the  i8th  of  June. 
According  to  J.  Maurel,  Wellington  had  then  70,000 
men,  of  whom  37,890  were  British ;  and  Napoleon  had 
75,000,  excluding  the  detachment  of  Grouchy.  It  was 
the  object  of  Napoleon  to  drive  the  enemy  from  his 
position  before  the  arrival  of  the  Prussian  army.  He 
had  made  several  obstinat*  attacks,  without  success,  when 
General  Biilow  reached  the  field  with  16,000  Prussians, 
at  four  P.M.,  and  decided  the  victory.  Blucher  arrived 
about  seven  o'clock,  and  pursued  the  retreating  French. 
The  loss  of  the  victors  on  this  day  was  immense.  The 
British  and  Hanoverians  alone  lost  2432  killed  and 
9528  wounded. 

Wellington  and  the  allied  armies  entered  Paris  with- 
out resistance  about  the  7th  of  July.  He  restrained  the 
excesses  of  BlUcher,  who  was  about  to  blow  up  the  bridge 
of  Jena  and  to  commit  other  "acts  of  vengeance.  His 
first  thought  after  the  victory  of  June  18  was  to  favour 
the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  to  oppose  the  dis- 
memberment of  France.  The  allied  powers  resolved  to 
maintain  an  army  of  occupation  in  France  for  five  years, 
and  gave  the  command  of  that  army  to  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  By  his  advice,  the  period  was  shortened, 
and  the  allied  army  evacuated  France  about  the  end  of 
1818.  He  became  master-general  of  the  ordnance  and 
A  member  of  the  cabinet  in  January,  1819,  represented 
England  at  the  Congress  of  Verona  in  1822,  and  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Russia  in  1826.  He  succeeded  the 
Duke  of  York  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in 
January,  1827. 

In  politics  Wellington  was  a  staunch  Tory.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  long  contest  which  he  maintained  in 
order  to  preserve  Europe  from  the  revolutionary  or  in- 
novating spirit  of  the  French  may  have  contributed  to 
strengthen  those  principles  of  rigid  conservatism  by 
which  his  political  career  was  distinguished.  When 
Canning  became  premier,  in  April,  1827,  Wellington 
resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  and  succeeded  Lord 
Goderich  as  prime  minister  in  January,  1828.  The  new 
ministry  opposed  the  motion  of  Lord  John  Russell  to 
repeal  the  test  and  corporation  acts,  but  were  defeated 
by  a  majority  of  forty-four  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Wellington  then  yielded,  and  procured  its  passage  in  th« 
House  of  Lords.  He  was  an  opponent  of  free  trade 
and  electoral  reform,  both  of  which  were  demanded  by 
an  ever-growing  majority  of  the  nation.  He  at  first 
resisted  the  effort  to  emancipate  the  Roman  Catholics 
from  civil  and  political  disabilities,  but  at  length  deemed 
it  expedient  to  yield  to  the  popular  will.  The  bill  for 
the  relief  of  Roman  Catholics  was  passed  by  large 
majorities  in  both  houses  in  March  and  April,  1S29. 

The  strength  of  the  Tory  party  was  impaired  by  the 


€  as  k;  5  as  s:  g  hmd:  g  as/.-  g,  H,  K,  spitturiil:  n,  ttastil;  R,  trilled;  i  as  2;  th  as  in  t/tis. 


(2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


WELLS 


2450 


WELSH 


death  of  George  IV.,  June,  1830,  and  the  French  revo- 
lution of  the  ensuing  month  gave  an  impetus  to  the  cause 
of  reform  in  England.  In  the  new  Parliament,  which 
met  in  October,  1830,  the  friends  of  reform  had  a 
majority,  but  the  duke  assumed  an  attitude  of  obstinate 
resistance  to  the  movement.  He  declared  that  "the 
country  already  possessed  a  legislature  which  answered 
all  the  good  purposes  of  legislation  ;  that  the  system  of 
representation  possessed  the  full  and  entire  confidence 
of  the  country."  Having  provoked  a  violent  excitement 
by  such  language,  and  rendered  himself  extremely 
unpopular,  he  resigned  in  November,  1830.  He  was 
hooted  by  the  populace  of  London  on  the  i8th  of  June, 
1832.  In  December,  1834,  Sir  Robert  Peel  became 
prime  minister,  and  the  Uuke  of  Wellington  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs.  They  resigned  in  April,  1835.  He 
had  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  formed  by  Peel  in  1841,  but 
was  not  charged  with  official  functions.  Although  he 
had  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  his  influence 
decided  the  House  of  Lords  to  consent  to  the  repeal 
after  it  had  passed  the  House  of  Commons  in  May,  1846. 
He  died  at  Walmer  Castle  on  the  14th  of  September, 
1852,  leaving  his  title  to  his  eldest  son,  Arthur  Richard, 
who  was  born  February  2,  1809,  and  died  August  13, 
18S4.  The  third  duke  is  Henry,  a  grandson  of  the  first 
duke,  and  a  nephew  of  the  second  of  the  title.  He  was 
born  April  5,  1846. 

Comparing  the  Duke  of  Wellington  with  Napoleon, 
General  William  F.  P.  Napier  says,  "  Firm,  tranquil, 
and  stubborn  in  resistance,  vehement  and  obstinate  in 
attack  ;  bold,  when  there  was  a  call  for  daring ;  more 
inclined  to  operate  by  a  flank  than  by  a  front  attack — ir. 
all  these  things  they  resembled  and  matched  each  other; 
but  in  the  art  of  following  up  his  point  and  of  making 
the  most  of  victory,  the  English  general  was 'far  behind 
Napoleon.  The  battle  of  Wellington  was  like  the  heavy 
blow  of  the  battering-ram,  that  strikes  straight  and  hard 
and  makes  a  great  hole  in  the  wall.  The  battle  of  Na- 
poleon was  like  the  rush  and  irruption  of  a  gigantic  sea, 
which,  descending  from  a  mighty  height,  bursts  through 
all  obstacles  and  inundates  the  whole  country  to  a  great 
distance." 

See  Jules  Maurel,  "Wellington:  liis  Character,  his  Actions, 
and  his  Writings,"  1853:  W.  H.  Maxwell,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,"  3  vols.,  1839;  Charles  MacFarlane,  "  Life  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,"  1851  ;  Southev,  "  Life  of  Wellington,"  1821  ; 
Sherer,  "  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols., 
1832:  Wilson,  "  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols.,  1853-53; 
De  Brialmont,  "  Viedu  Due  de  Wellington,"  3  vols.,  185S;  Glbig, 
"Life  of  Wellington,"  1862;  Charles  D.  Yonge,  "  Life  of  Welling- 
ton," i860;  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "  Lord  Wellington,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1842;  George  Elliot,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington," 
1814;  Geokge  Soane,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols., 
:839-4o;  A.  Cooper,  "Life  of  Arthur,  Duke  of  WelTington,"  1850; 
W.  F.  P.  Napier,  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula;"  "De- 
S]iatches  and  Correspondence  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  published 
by  Colonel  Gurwood,  12  vols.,  1852. 

"Wells,  (Charles  William,)  a  distinguished  physi- 
cian, of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1757.  Having  studied  at  Edinburgh,  he 
settled  in  London,  and  was  appointed  in  1800  physician 
to  Saint  Thomas's  Hosjiital.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  contributed  to  their  "Transactions" 
"  Experiments  on  the  Colour  of  the  Blood,"  and  other 
/realises.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Essay  upon  Dew,' 
(1814,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1S17. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1821. 

Wells,  (David  Ames,)  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  Oxon.,  an 
American  publicist,  born  at  Springfield,  Massachusetts, 
June  17,  1828,  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1847, 
and  at  the  scientific  school  of  Harvard  College  in  185 1, 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the  Pittsfield  College 
in  1863,  was  United  States  special  commissioner  of  reve- 
nue, 1866-70,  a  commissioner  on  tax-legislation  for  New 
York,  1870-73,  and  from  that  time  till  1881  was  employed 
on  questions  of  railroad  arbitration.  He  edited  fifteen 
volumes  of  the  "  Annual  of  Scientific  Discovery,"  (1S50- 
65,)  published  "Sketches  of  College  Life,"  (1847,)  "  Year- 
Book  of  Agriculture,"  (1856,)  "  Familiar  Science,"  (1856,) 
•'  Science  of  Common  Things,"  (1857,)  elementary  works 
on  "Natural  Philosophy,"  (1857,)  "Chemistry,"  (1858,) 
and  "Geology,"  (1S61,)  and  a  vast  number  of  pamphlets 
and  reports  on  public  and  economic  subjects.  Originally 
a  protectionist,  Mr.  Wells  finally  became  an  ardent  advo- 


cate of  free  trade.  Among  his  more  recent  writings  are 
"Our  Revenue  System,"  (1873,)  "The  Creed  of  Free 
Trade,"  (1875,)  "The  Silver  Question,"  (1877,)  "Why 
we  Trade  and  How  we  Trade,"  (1878,)  "Our  Merchant 
Marine,"  (1882,)  etc 

■Weill,  (EnwARD,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wilt- 
shire about  1665,  published  "The  Geography  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1727. 

Wells,  (Horace,)  M.D.,  born  at  Hartford,  Vermont, 
January  21,  1815,  studied  and  practised  dentistry  in 
Boston.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  employ 
anaesthetics  successfully,  by  means  of  inhalation,  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  pain  in  dental  operations.  On 
the  nth  of  December,  1844,  Dr.  Wells,  then  residing  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  was  placed,  at  his  own  request, 
under  the  influence  of  nitrous  oxide  gas,  and  a  large 
molar  tooth  was  extracted  by  Mr.  Riggs,  causing  scarcely 
any  perceptible  pain.  After  that  date,  Dr.  Wells,  and 
other  dentists  of  Hartford,  continued  with  great  success 
to  employ  the  nitrous  oxide  gas  as  an  anaesthetic  for 
nearly  two  years,  when,  attention  having  been  directed — 
chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Dr.  William  T.  G. 
Morton,  of  Boston — to  the  anassthetic  properties  of  sul- 
phuric ether,  this  agent,  as  being  more  easily  procured 
or  applied,  was  generally  substituted  for  th'e  nitrous 
oxide  gas.  Dr.  Wells,  while  investigating  with  his 
usual  ardour  the  relative  value  of  these  different  anaes- 
thetics, seriously  injured  himself,  as  it  would  appear,  by 
the  inhalation  of  chloroform,  so  that,  his  reason  being 
unhinged,  he  committed  suicide  in  New  York  in  January, 
1848.  In  weighing  the  respective  claims  of  Dr.  Wells 
and  Dr.  Morton,  we  feel  bound,  after  a  careful  examina- 
tion, to  award  to  the  former  the  credit  of  having  been 
the  first  to  conceive  of,  and  to  carry  to  a  successful  issue, 
the  use  of  anaesthetic  inhalation  in  surgical  operations, 
while  to  the  latter  belongs  the  distinguished  merit  of 
having  done  more  than  any  other,  or  all  others,  to  make 
this  invaluable  discovery  known  to  people  of  all  classes 
and  in  both  hemispheres. 

See  "  Testimonial  of  the  Members  of  the  Medical  Profession  of 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston  in  behalf  of  W.  T.  G.  Morton, 
M.D.,"  i860;  and  an  "Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Modern  Anaes- 
thesia," by  the  Hon.  Truman  Smith,  1S67,  including  a  "Life  of 
Horacs  Wells,  RLD.,"  by  Dr.  P.  W.  Ellsworth. 

Wells,  (John  Doane,)  an  American  physician,  emi- 
nent as  a  lecturer  on  anatomy,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1799.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical 
school  of  Maine,     Died  in  Boston  in  1830. 

Wells,  (Sir  Thomas  Spencer,)  Bart.,  M.D.,  an 
English  surgeon,  born  at  Saint  Alban's  in  1S18.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  at  the  Leeds  School 
of  Medicine,  and  in  the  Dublin  hospitals.  He  served  in 
the  navy  during  the  Crimean  war,  and  after  his  return 
acquired  great  fame  as  a  surgeon,  chiefly  as  an  ovarioto- 
mist. 

Well-wood,  (Sir  Henry  Moncrieff.)  See  Mon- 
creiff,  (Henry.) 

Well'wood,  (James  or  Thomas,)  a  Scottish  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  near  Edinburgh  in  1652,  pub- 
lished "Memoirs  of  English  Affairs  from  1588  to  the 
Revolution  of  1688."     Died  in  1716. 

Welscho-w,  v^Ksho,  (Johann  Matthias,)  a  Danish 
historian,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  1796.  He  wrote  on 
Danish  history.     Died  July  8,  1862. 

Welser,  <^§l'ser,  or  Velser,  (Bartholomaus,)  a 
German  nobleman  of  great  wealth,  was  a  native  of 
Augsburg.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  who  made  him  a  privy  councillor. 

Welser,  [Lat.  Velse'rus,]  (Marcus,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1558.  He  wrote  several 
historical  and  philological  treatises,  in  Latin,  and  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Galileo,  who  dedicated  to  him  one  of 
his  works.     Died  in  1614. 

Welser,  (Philippine,)  a  niece  of  Bartholomaus,  no- 
ticed above,  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  talents, 
and  was  privately  married  in  1550  to  the  archduke 
Ferdinand,  son  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  After  her 
father-in-law  became  reconciled  to  the  marriage,  he 
created  her  Margravine  of  Burgau.     Died  in  1580. 

Welsh,  (Alfred  Hix,)  an  American  educator,  born 
at  Fostoria,  Ohio,  September  7.  1850,  graduated  at  Bald- 


a,  e,  i,  o,  il,  y,  long:  4,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  Jr,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  filll,  fit;  m$t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WELSH 


2451 


WERDUM 


win  University,  Berea,  Ohio,  in  1872,  and  held  professor- 
ships in  Buchtel  College,  1S72-75.  His  principal  works 
are  "The  Conflict  of  Ages,"  (1877,)  "  Rhetorical  Figures," 
(1880,)  "The  Development  of  English  Literature  and 
Language,"  a  work  of  much  merit,  (1882,)  "The  Es- 
sentials of  Geometry,"  (1883,)  "Essentials  of  English 
Idiom,"  "  Essentials  of  Rhetoric,"  etc. 

Welsh,  (David,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  near 
Moffat,  December  11,  1793.  He  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  ordained  in  1821.  In  1831  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  in  the  Edinburgh  University. 
In  1843,  ^s  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly,  he  led 
in  the  act  of  disruption  and  in  the  formation  of  the  Free 
Church.  His  principal  work  is  "  Elements  of  Church 
History,"  (1844)     Died  April  24,  1845. 

"WSl'sted,  (Leonard,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1689.  His  principal  poem  is  en- 
titled "The  Triumvirate,"  (1718,)  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  intended  for  a  satire  on  Pope,  who  retaliated 
by  his  allusions  to  Welsted  in  the  second  and  third 
books  of  the  "  Dunciad."     Died  in  1749. 

Welvritsch,  wSl'wItch,  (Frederik,)  a  Dutch  botanist, 
born  in  the  Netherlands  about  1810.  He  lived  for  eighteen 
years  in  Portuguese  West  Africa,  and  published  various 
treatises  on  the  plants  and  animals  of  that  region.  The 
very  singular  plant  Welwitschia  mirabilis  was  discovered 
by  him,  and  named  in  his  honour.  Died  in  London, 
October  20,  1872. 

"Wenceslaus,  w5n'ses-laus  or  <^§nt'ses-16wss',  [Fr. 
Wenceslas,  vflN'sSs'lis',]  or  Wenzel,  <^lnt'sel,  son  of 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.  of  Germany,  was  born  in  1361. 
He  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Romans  in  1376,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1378.  He  displayed  the  weakness 
and  cruelty  of  his  character  by  cancelling  the  debts  owed 
by  the  nobles  to  the  Jews,  and  confiscating  the  projierty 
of  three  thousand  of  that  sect  who  had  been  murdered 
by  a  mob  at  Prague.  He  also  caused  John  Nepomuk 
to  be  drowned  in  the  Moldau.  Having  made  many 
powerful  enemies  by  forsaking  the  cause  of  Pope  Boni- 
face IX.,  whom  he  had  formerly  supported  against  the 
anti-pope  Benedict  XIII.,  he  was  deposed  in  a  Diet  at 
Frankfort,  (1400,)  and  the  Elector-Palatine  Rupert  was 
chosen  in  his  stead.  He  died  in  1419,  having  previously 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  brother  Sigismund,  who  had 
been  chosen  emperor  on  the  death  of  Rupert. 

See  F.  M.  Pelzrl,  "  Lebensgeschichte  des  Romischen  und 
Bohmischen  Konigs  Wenceslaus,"  1788-90. 

Wen'9es-laus  or  Wen'ses-las  I.,  King  of  Bohemia, 
born  in  1205,  began  to  reign  in  1 230.  He  was  a  patron 
of  arts  and  learning,  and  exerted  much  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  Germany.     Died  in  1253. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  II.,  King  of  Bohemia 
and  Poland,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1271.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1278,  and  was  chosen 
King  of  Poland  in  1300.      Died  in  1305. 

"Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  III.,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1289.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1306. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  IV.  of  Bohemia.  Sec 
Wenceslaus,  Emi^eror  of  Germany. 

Wenceslaus, <^gnt'ses-l6vvss',  [Fr.  Wenceslas,  vSn'- 
sSs'lis',]  or  Wenzel,  <\*^nt'sel.  Saint,  Duke  of  Bohemia, 
born  about  908,  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  his 
paternal  grandmother  Ludinila.  He  was  distinguished 
for  the  sanctity  of  his  life,  and  refused  the  crown  of 
Bohemia,  which  was  offered  him  by  the  emperor  Otho  I. 
He  was  assassinated  in  936,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
mother  Drahomira  and  his  brother  Bolesiaw. 

See  F.  X.    Schuldes,  "  Der  heilige  Wenzel   dargestellt,"  etc 
1848. 

Wendelin,  wSn'de-leen',  [Fr.  Vendelin,  vSN'deh- 
liN',|  (Godekroi,)  a  Flemish  astronomer  and  scholar, 
born  at  La  Lampine  in  1580.  He  became  canon  of 
Tournay,  and  published  various  works,  among  which  is 
"Lunar  Eclipses  observed  from  1573  to  1640."  It  is 
stated  that  he  determined  the  parallax  of  the  sun.  Died 
in  1660. 

Wendover.     See  Roger  of  Wendover. 

Wendt,  <^§nt,  (Johann  Amadeus,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1783,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at    Gbttingen.       He    published    "  Rossini's    Life    and 


Works,"  (1824,)   and  was   a  contributor  to  various   lit- 
erary periodicals  of  the  time.     Died  in  1836. 

Wengierski,  wSng-ge-Sit'skee,  (Andrew,)  a  So- 
cinian  minister,  born  in  Silesia  in  1600.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Slavonian  Churches,"  (1652.)  Died 
in  1649. 

Wens'ley-dale,  (James  Parke,)  Baron,  an  English 
jurist,  born  near  Liverpool  in  1782.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed  a  baron 
of  the  court  of  exchequer  in  1834.  On  retiring  from  the 
bench,  in  1856,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Wensleydale.     Died  February  25,  1868. 

■Went'-worth,  (Benning,)  son  of  John  Wentworth, 
was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1696.  He  was  Governor  of 
New  Hampshire  for  more  thai\  twenty  years.  The  town 
of  Bennington,  in  Vermont,  was  named  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1770. 

Wentworth,  (Charles  W.)     See  Rockingham. 

Wentworth,  (Sir  John,)  a  nephew  of  Benning  Went 
worth,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1736. 
He  became  Governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  1768,  and 
gave  its  charter. to  Dartmouth  College.     Died  in  1820. 

Wentworth,  (Colonel  John,)  born  at  Dover,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1719,  was  appointed  in  1776  one  of  the 
superior  judges  of  New  Hampshire.  Died  in  1781.  His 
son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1745,  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1778,  and  twice  re-elected. 
Died  in  1787. 

Went'worth,  (John,)  an  American  journalist,  born 
at  Sandwich,  New  Hampshire,  in  181 5,  removed  to  Illi- 
nois, and  became  editor  of  the  "Chicago  Democrat." 
He  was  several  times  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1S57 
became  mayor  of  Chicago,  and  again  in  i860.     D.  1888. 

Wentw^orth,  (Thomas.)   See  Strafford,  Earl  of. 

Wentworth,  (William,)  born  in  England  about 
1610,  was  one  of  the  early  settlers  of  New  Hampshire. 
Died  in  1697.  His  grandeon  John,  born  in  1671,  be- 
came Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  1717. 
Died  in  1730. 

Wentzel  or  Wenzel,  ♦Int'sel,  (Johann  Chris- 
TOPH,)  a  German  poet  and  physician,  born  in  Eisenach 
in  1659.  He  became  principal  of  the  Academy  of  Zittau 
in  1713,  and  published  several  poems.     Died  in  1723. 

"Wen- Wang,  the  founder  of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of 
Chow  or  Cheou,  was  born  about  1230  p.c.  He  gained 
great  distinction  as  a  general  and  as  a  writer,  and  was 
governor  of  Chow  (Cheou)  for  many  years.  He  died 
aged  ninety-seven.  His  son  Woo-  (or  Wou-)  Wang 
became  Emperor  of  China. 

"Wenzel,  (Emperor  of  Germany.)    See  Wenceslaus. 

"Wenzel,  Saint.     See  Wenceslaus. 

W"epfer,  <^§p'ier,  (John  James,)  a  Swiss  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1620,  was  the 
author  of  several  medical  works.     Died  in  1695. 

"Weppen,  <^ep'pen,  (Johann  August,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Nordheim  in  1742.  He  published  between 
1778  and  1796  a  number  of  poems,  which  are  com- 
mended. 

"Werdenhagen,  <\'5R'den-ha'gen,  (Johann  Ange,)  a 
learned  German  jurist  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Helm- 
stedt  in  1581,  published  several  works.     Died  in  1652. 

"Werder,  w^R'der,  (Karl,)  a  German  philosophical 
writer,  of  the  school  of  Hegel,  was  born  at  Berlin  in 
1806.  He  became  assistant  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  Berlin  in  1838. 

"Werder,  von,  fon  MR'der,  (Dietrich,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Werdershausen,  in  Hesse,  in  1584.  Hu 
became  a  privy  councillor  at  the  court  of  Cassel.  In 
1626  he  produced  a  German  version  of  Tasso's  "Je- 
rusalem Delivered."  He  also  translated  Ariosto's 
"Orlando  Furioso,"  (1632.)  These  translations  are 
praised  by  several  writers.     Died  in  1657. 

"Werdin  or  "Weredin.  See  Pauhnus,  (Johann 
Philipp.) 

"WerdmuUer,  <^§Rt'mool'ler,  (Johann  Rudolph,)  a 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Zurich  in  1639.  He  painted 
mostly  landscapes  and  portraits.  Having  commenced 
a  journey  to  Paris,  he  was  drowned  in  the  Silh  in  1068. 

"Werdum,  van,  vtn  w^R'drim,  (Ulrich,)  a  Dutch 
historian,  born  at  Werdum,  in  Friesland,  in  1632.  He 
was  privy  councillor  of  East  Friesland.     He  wrote  sev- 


ens k:  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  Y.,^ittHral;  N,  misal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEREMBERT 


2452 


WERNER 


eial  useful  works  on  the  history  of  Friesland.  Died 
in  1681. 

Wer'em-bert  or  Werimbert,  [Lat.  Werember'- 
TUS, ]  a  learned  German  monk,  born  at  Curia,  (Coire,) 
was  a  brother  of  Adalbert,  a  famous  general  of  Charle- 
magne, lie  wrote  commentaries  on  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  other  works,  and  taught  at  Saint  Gall.  Died 
in  884  A.D. 

"Werenfels,  <^a'ren-f?ls',  (Peter,)  a  Swiss  Protestant 
minister,  born  in  1627,  became  professor  of  theology  at 
I5ale  about  1675.  He  wrote  several  theological  works. 
Died  in  1703. 

Werenfels,  [Lat.  Werenfel'sius,]  (Samuel,)  a 
Swiss  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1657, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  obtained  the  chair 
uf  eloquence  in  1687  at  Bale,  where  he  afterwards 
became  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  besides 
other  able  works,  "  On  the  Controversies  of  Learned 
Men,"  ("  De  Logomachiis  Eruditorum,"  1692.)  Died 
'n  1740. 

See  P.  RvHiNKR,  "Vita  S.  Werenfelsii,"  1741. 

Werenfelsius.     See  Werenfels. 

"Werf  or  Werff,  van  der,  vSn  der  wSRf,  (Peter,)  a 
Dutch  patriot,  born  at  Leyden  in  1529.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  William  the  Silent  in  confidential  missions. 
As  burgomaster  of  Leyden,  he  displayed  great  firmness 
and  constancy  when  that  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1573-74. 

Werff  or  Werf,  (Adriaan.)     See  Van  der  Werf. 

Wergeland,  \v§K'geh-lint',  (Henrik  Arnold,)  a 
celebrated  Norwegian  poet,  born  at  Christiansand  in 
1808.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Christiania,  where 
he  was  appointed,  in  1836,  keeper  of  the  library,  and,  in 
1840,  archivist  of  the  kingdom.  His  first  publication 
was  a  satirical  farce,  entitled  "Ah!"  which  appeared 
under  the  pseudonym  of  SiFUL  Sifadda.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  number  of  similar  works,  distinguished  by 
their  intensely  sectional  spirit  and  political  personalities. 
Among  his  most  admired  productions  are  the  opera 
of  "The  Campbells,"  (1838,)  tragedies  entitled  "The 
Venetians"  (1840)  and  "The  Child-Murderess,"  and 
poems  entitled  "Jan  van  Huysum's  Flower-Piece,"  and 
"The  Spaniards."     Died  in  1845. 

Werkmeister,  <^6Rk'mis'ter,  (Andreas,)  a  German 
composer  and  writer,  born  in  1645,  was  author  of  "  Har- 
monologia  Musica,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1706. 

Werl,  (Olaf.)     See  Verelius. 

Werlauff,  <^gR'16wf,  (Erik  Christian,)  a  Danish 
antiquary  and  historian,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1781, 
was  appointed  first  librarian  in  the  Royal  Library  of 
that  city  about  1828.  He  made  numerous  contributions 
to  the  "  Antiquariske  Annaler"  and  other  literary  peri- 
odicals, assisted  Thorlacius  in  editing  the  history  of 
the  kings  of  Norway,  and  published  various  learned 
works  on  Scandinavian  antiquities.     Died  June  5,  1871. 

Werlhof,  <^6Rl'hof,  (Juhann,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Helmstedt  in  1660.  He  became  aulic  councillor  to 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  wrote  several  legal  works. 
Died  in  171 1. 

Werlhof,  (Paul  Gottlieb,)  a  skilful  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Helmstedt  in  1699.  Me  settled  at  Han- 
over in  1725,  and  became  first  physician  to  George  II. 
of  England.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Fevers,"  (1745,) 
and  other  medical  works,  (3  vols.,  1775.)     Died  in  1767. 

Werloschnid,  von,  fon  \^eR'lo-shnit',  (Johann  Bap- 
tist,) a  German  physician,  lived  about  1710.  He  pub- 
lished an  "  Account  of  the  Plague  which  prevailed  in 
Austria,  Hungary,  etc.  in  1708-1710." 

Werneck,  von,  fon  <^eK'n5k,  (Franz,)  Baron,  an 
eminent  Austrian  general,  born  at  Ludwigsberg,  in  Wur- 
temberg,  in  1748.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service 
about  1765,  became  general-major  in  1789,  and  com- 
manded a  corps  d'armee  in  the  campaign  of  1793  against 
the  FVench.  He  contri'outed  to  the  victory  at  Wiirz- 
burg  in  September,  1796,  and  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Lower  Rhine  in  1797,  but  was  soon  removed  for  his 
ill  success.  He  was  captured,  with  a  division,  in  1805. 
Died  in  1806. 

Wer'n^r,  [Ger.  pron.<^gR'ner,]  (Abraham  Gottlob,) 
an  eminent  German  geologist  and  mineralogist,  was  born 
at  Wehrau,  on  the  Queiss,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  September 


25,  1750.  He  was  educated  in  the  school  of  mines  at  Frey- 
berg,  in  Saxony,  and  studied  law  for  three  years  at  Leipsic 
In  1774  he  published  a  short  "Treatise  on  the  Charac- 
ters of  Minerals,"  in  which  he  proposed  a  methodical 
and  precise  language,  the  varied  terms  of  which  sufiSoe 
to  express  all  the  sensiljle  qualities  of  minerals.  "This 
little  essay,"  says  Cuvier,  "  has  made  a  revolution  in 
mineralogy,  to  which  the  author  rendered  a  service  analo- 
gous to  that  which  Linnaeus  had  rendered  to  botanical 
science  by  the  terminology  explained  in  his  '  Philosophia 
Botanica.' "  ("  Biographic  Universelle.")  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1775  professor  of  mineralogy  at  Freyberg,  and 
inspector  of  the  cabinet  of  minerals  belonging  to  that 
school.  In  1780  he  produced  a  translation  of  Cronstedt's 
"Mineralogy."  His  doctrines  were  propagated  by  sev- 
eral of  his  pupils,  among  whom  were  Karsten,  Wiede- 
mann, Jameson,  and  Napione.  He  applied  the  term 
Geognosy  to  the  science  which  treats  of  the  respective 
positions  of  minerals  in  the  crust  of  the  globe,  and  of 
the  epochs  of  their  origin.  He  presented  the  liases  of 
this  science  in  his  "Classification  and  Description  of 
Mountains,"  (1787.)  "  He  was  the  first,"  says  Cuvier, 
"  that  raised  the  theory  of  the  earth  to  the  rank  of  a 
positive  science  by  divesting  it  of  the  fantastic  systems 
of  which  it  was  for  a  long  time  composed."  He  cla.ssi- 
fied  rocks,  according  to  their  relative  antiquity,  into  four 
classes  or  formations  :  i,  the  primitive,  which  contain  no 
organic  remains  ;  2,  the  transition  ;  3,  the  stratified;  and 
4,  the  alluvial  beds  formed  recently.  He  divined  the  order 
of  superposition  which  has  been  found  almost  general 
all  over  the  earth,  although  his  sphere  of  observation 
was  quite  limited.  In  1791  he  published  a  "New Theory 
of  the  Formation  of  Veins."  Werner  was  the  author 
of  the  theory  known  as  the  Neptunian  or  Wernerian, 
that  the  primitive  and  other  rocks  were  formed  by 
precipitation  from  water  or  some  liquid.  This  theory 
was  controverted  by  Mutton  and  others,  who  attributed 
to  the  primitive  rocks  an  igneous  origin,  and  were  called 
Vulcanians.  He  passed  nearly  all  of  his  mature  life  at 
Freyberg.  In  1802  he  visited  Paris,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  was  a  very  accomplished  and  popular 
lecturer;  but  he  was  not  a  voluminous  writer,  having  a 
peculiar  aversion  to  the  act  of  writing.  He  was  never 
married.     Died  at  Dresden  in  June,  181 7. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Werner  ;"  Fri'^ch,  "  Lebensbeschreibung 
A.  G.  Werners,"  1825;  Hasse,  "  Denkschrift  zur  Eriniieruug  an  A. 
G.  Werner,"  1848. 

Werner,  (Friedrtch  Ludwig  Zacharias,)  an  emi- 
nent German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Konigsberg  in 
1768.  He  studied  law  and  finance  in  the  university  of 
his  native  town,  where  he  also  attended  the  lectures  of 
Kant.  His  first  drama,  entitled  "The  Sons  of  the  Valley," 
came  out  in  1800,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  "Twenty- 
fourth  of  February,"  ("  Der  Vierundzwanzigster  Fe- 
bruar,")  a  tragedy  of  great  power,  and  esteemed  one  of 
his  best  works.  His  other  principal  productions  are  the 
dramas  entitled  "The  Cross  on  the  Baltic,"  "  Martin 
Luther,  or  the  Consecration  of  Strength,"  "  Kunegunde," 
"  The  Mother  of  the  Maccabees,"  and  "  Attila,  King  of 
the  Huns."  In  181 1  Werner  became  a  Catholic,  and, 
having  been  ordained  a  priest  in  1 8 1 4,  set  tied  as  a  preacher 
at  Vienna,  where  he  died  in  January,  1823. 

See  J.  E.  HiTZiG,  "  F.  L.  Z.  Werner's  Lebensabriss,"  1823, 
SciiiJTZ,  "Z.  Werner's  Biographic  und  Charakteristik,"  3  vols., 
:84i  ;  Madame  de  Stakl,  "Germany,"  vol.  ii. 

Werner  or  Wer-ne'rus,  (Joannes,)  a  German  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Nuremberg  in  1468.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "The  Movement  of  the  Eighth  Sphere,"  and 
"Annotations  on  the  First  Book  of  Ptolemy's  Geog- 
raphy," also  several  mathematical  works.    Died  in  1528. 

Werner,  ^^R'ner,  (Joseph,)  a  Swiss  painter,  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Berne  in  1637.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
and  was  subsequently  patronized  at  the  court  of  Louis 
XIV.  He  excelled  in  miniatures  and  in  historical  pieces 
of  small  size.  Among  the  latter  may  be  named  "  The 
Muses  on  Parnassus"  and  "The  Death  of  Dido."  Died 
in  1710. 

Werner,  (Karl,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Weimar, 
October  4,  1808.  He  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  aquarelle- 
painting,  in  which  he  acquired  great  eminence. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fdll,  fit;  ni^t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


WERNER 


2453 


WESLEY 


Werner,  (Karl,)  an  Austrian  theologian,  born  at  Haf- 
nerbach  in  1821.  He  was  educated  at  Saint  Polten  and 
Vienna.  Among  his  worl<s,  which  are  strongly  Catholic 
and  philosophical,  are  a  "System  of  Christian  Ethics," 
(1850-52,)  treatises  on  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas  (1858)  and 
Suarez,  (i86i,)  "History  of  the  Apologetic  and  Polemic 
Literature  of  Christian  Theology,"  5  vols.,  (1861-67,) 
"History  of  Catholic  Theology  in  Germany,"  (1866,) 
"Speculative  Anthropology,"  (1870,)  etc.    Died  in  188S. 

Werner,  von,  fon  <^^K'ner,  (Anton  Andreas,)  a 
German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  May  9, 
1843.  In  1873  he  became  a  professor,  and  in  1878  di- 
rector, of  the  Fine  Arts  Academy  of  Berlin.  His  pictures 
are  mostly  historical. 

Werner,  von,  fon  <^6R'ner,  (Paul,)  a  celebrated 
general,  born  at  Raab,  in  Hungary,  in  1707,  served  with 
distinction  in  Austria,  and  subsequently  in  the  Prussian 
army  during  the  principal  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years' 
war.  In  1760  he  delivered  Coburg,  which  was  besieged 
by  the  Russians,  for  which  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  by  Frederick  II.,  who  also  caused  a  medal  to  be 
struck  in  his  honour.     Died  in  1785. 

Wernher,  ^SRn'her,  (Johann  Balthasar,)  a  Ger- 
man publicist  and  jurist,  born  at  Rotlienburg ;  died  at 
Vienna  in  1742. 

Wernike,  <^SR'ne-keh,  or  Wernigk,  <v'§R'nik,  written 
also  Wernack  or  Warneck,  (Chuistian,)  a  German 
epigrammatic  poet,  born  in  Prussia  about  1670.  He  was 
appointed  by  the  King  of  Denmark  his  resident  minister 
at  the  French  court,  and  died  in  Paris  about  1720.  His 
works  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time,  and  he  is 
ranked  among  the  reformers  of  German  poetry. 

Wernsdorf,  ^^Rns'doRf,  [Lat.  Wernsdor'fius,] 
(GoiTLiEB,)  a  German  theologian  and  philologist,  born 
in  Sa.xony  in  1668.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Wittenberg  in  1698,  and  superintendent  or  Bishop  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  1719.     Died  in  1729. 

See  CoLER,  "De  Wernsdorfii  Vita." 

Wernsdorf,  (Gottlieb,)  a  philologist,  born  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1710,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
professor  of  eloquence  and  history  at  Dantzic,  and 
published  several  learned  works.     Died  in  1774. 

His  brother,  Ernst  Friedrich,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1718,  was  a  learned  writer.  He  became  a  preacher  and 
professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  Queen  Zenobia,"  (1742.)    Died  in  1782. 

Wernsdorf,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1723.  He  obtained  the  chair  of 
eloquence  at  Helmstedt  in  1752,  and  published  a  good 
edition  of  "  Poetae  Latini  minores,"  (6  vols.,  1780-99.) 
Died  in  1793. 

Wernsdorfius.     See  Wernsdorf. 

Werp,  <^^Rp,  (Charles,)  a  benevolent  Flemish  priest 
and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Huy  in  1592;  died  in  1666. 

Werth,  von,  fon  <^aiRt,  Wert,  or  Werdt,  (Johann,) 
sometimes  called  Jean  de  Weert,  a  celebrated  general, 
born  at  Weert,  in  Brabant,  in  1594.  He  served  under 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Nordlingen  ;  but 
he  was  defeated  in  1638  and  made  prisoner  by  Bernard, 
Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  near  Rheinfelden.  After  his 
release  he  entered  the  Austrian  service.     Died  in  1652. 

See  Barthold,  "Johann  von  Werth  in  Zusammenhange  mit 
seiner  Zeit;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Wesenbeck,  wa'zen-bgk',  (Matthew,)  a  Flemish 
jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1531.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Jena,  and  removed  thence  to  Wittenberg  in 
1569.  He  wrote  several  legal  works,  which  were  highly 
esteemed.     Died  in  1586. 

See  .A..  Rauchbar,  "  Wesenbeck's  Leben."  I 

Wesenbeck,  (Peter,)  a  jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  ' 
1546,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  lectured  on  '■ 
law  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg,  and  died  at  Coburg  in  1603.  I 

Wei'Iey,  (Charles,)  an  English  preacher  and  writer 
of  hymns,  born  at  Epworth  in  December,  1708,  was  a 
son  of  Samuel,  and  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  John 
Wesley.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxfcrd, 
where  his  strictness  in  religion  procured  for  him  the 
name  of  Methodist  and  other  names  given  in  derision. 
Having  taken  orders,  he  sailed  for  Georgia  with  his 
brother  John  in  1735,  and  served  as  secretary  to  General 


Oglethorpe.  They  returned  to  England  about  the  end 
of  1736.  Charles  became  an  able  preacher,  and  co- 
operated with  John  in  many  of  his  religious  enterprises. 
He  married  Sarah  Gwynne  in  1749,  after  which  he 
preached  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places,  and 
propagated  the  Methodist  doctrines.  He  also  gained 
great  distinction  as  a  writer  of  hymns,  and  composed 
many  of  those  used  in  the  Methodist  Church,  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Jackson,  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley;"  "Journal  of 
the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley,"  2  vols.,  1849. 

Wesley,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  musician,  born 
in  1757,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  skilful 
performer  on  the  organ  and  harpsichord.    Died  in  1815. 

Wesley,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  about  1636,  was  the  father  of  Samuel 
Wesley,  noticed  below.  He  was  ejected  in  1662,  after 
which  he  preached  at  Preston  and  other  places,  and 
was  persecuted  by  imprisonment.     Died  about  1670. 

Wesley,  (John,)  a  distinguished  religious  reformer, 
the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Methodists,  was  born  at 
Epworth,  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  on  the  17th  of  June, 
1703.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Samuel  Wesley,  noticed 
below,  and  Susannah  Annesley.  At  an  early  age  he 
was  sent  to  the  Charter-House,  from  which  he  j^assed 
in  1720  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  distinguished 
at  college  for  his  attainments,  and  especially  for  his  skill 
in  logic.  His  mother,  who  was  a  very  intelligent  woman, 
and  understood  Greek  and  Latin,  advised  him  to  make 
religion  the  business  of  his  life.  He  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  religion,  began  to  change  the  form  of  his 
conversation,  and  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  perusal 
of  Jeremy  Taylor's  "Holy  Living  and  Dying."  He  was 
ordained  a  deacon  in  1725,  graduated  as  M.A.  in  1726, 
and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College  about  that 
date.  He  began  about  1726  to  record  his  actions, 
thoughts,  and  experience  in  a  diary,  which  he  continued 
to  the  end  of  his  life.  Eight  months  after  his  election 
to  a  fellowship  he  was  appointed  Greek  lecturer  and 
moderator  of  the  classes.  He  was  employed  as  curate 
of  his  father  at  Wroote  about  two  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  was  summoned  to  return  to  Lincoln  College. 
While  he  held  the  curacy  at  Wroote,  he  was  ordained  a 
priest  of  the  established  Church,  (1728.)  On  his  return 
to  Oxford  he  found  that  his  brother  Charles  and  several 
other  students  had  associated  together  for  religious 
improvement,  and  by  their  strict  and  methodical  habits 
had  obtained  the  name  of  Methodists.  They  were  also 
called,  in  derision,  Bible  Moths,  the  Godly  Club,  and 
Bible  Bigots.  James  Hervey,  author  of  the  "Medi- 
tations," and  George  Whitefield  were  members  of  this 
society,  which  recognized  John  Wesley  as  its  directing 
Hfead.  "The  good  intentions  of  Wesley  and  his  assc^ 
dates,"  says  Southey,  "could  not  be  questioned;  but 
they  were  now  running  fast  into  fanaticism."  By  hard 
study,  fasting,  and  habits  of  austerity,  he  had  reducec" 
himself  to  an  alarming  physical  condition  ;  but,  having 
put  himself  under  the  direction  of  medical  men,  he  soon 
recovered  his  health. 

In  October,  1735,  John  and  Charles  Wesley  accepted 
an  invitation  to  go  to  Georgia,  to  preach  to  the  Indians 
and  the  settlers  of  a  colony  which  General  Oglethorpe 
had  planted  there.  Among  their  fellow-passengers  in 
the  voyage  to  Georgia  were  twenty-six  Moravians,  whose 
simplicity  and  piety  made  a  favourable  impression  on 
Wesley.  They  arrived  at  Savannah  in  February,  1736. 
As  a  preacher,  John  Wesley  was  not  very  popular 
at  Savannah.  "He  drenched  his  parishioners,"  says 
Southey,  "with  the  physic  of  an  intolerant  discipline." 
He  became  intimate  at  Savannah  with  Sophia  Causton, 
the  daughter  of  a  magistrate  at  that  place,  and  was  in- 
clined to  marry  her,  but  he  was  dissuaded  by  the  elders 
of  the  Moravian  Church,  with  whom  he  was  on  intimate 
terms.  She  afterwards  married  a  Mr.  Williamson,  and 
Wesley  excluded  her  from  the  communion.  For  this  act 
her  husband  prosecuted  him,  and  numerous  persons 
conspired  to  drive  him  from  the  colony.  He  departed 
from  Savannah  in  December,  1737,  and  arrived  in  Eng- 
land in  February,  1738.  About  this  date  he  recorded 
his  conviction  that  "  I,  who  went  to  America  to  convert 
others,  was  never  myself  converted  to  God." 


K  as  k:  9  as  .f ;  g  hard;  g  asy ;  o,  H,  K, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJI^^See  Explanations,  1  >.  23. ) 


WESLEY 


2454 


WESSELY 


Soon  after  his  return  he  met  with  Peter  Boehler,  a 
Moravian,  who,  according  to  Southey,  "became  Wes- 
ley's teacher."  "By  him,"  says  Wesley,  "in  the  hands 
of  the  great  God,  I  was  clearly  convinced  of  unbelief, — 
of  the  want  of  that  faith  whereby  alone  we  are  saved." 
He  dated  his  conversion  on  the  24th  of  May,  1738.  In 
the  summer  of  that  year  he  visited  the  Moravian  brethren 
at  Herrnhut,  and  became  acquainted  with  Count  Zinzen- 
dorf.  Having  returned  to  England,  he  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  Whitefield  (who  was  then  his  fellow-labourer) 
by  preaching  in  the  open  air  at  Bristol,  where  the  foun- 
dations of  the  society  of  Methodists,  as  an  independent 
sect,  were  laid.  He  continued  to  profess  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  of  England  after  he  ceased  to  conform  to 
its  discipline.  A  difference  between  Wesley  and  the 
Moravians  resulted  in  a  formal  separation  in  1 740. 
About  1 741  he  ceased  to  have  fellowship  with  White- 
field,  in  consequence  of  a  disagreement  on  the  doctrine 
of  predestination,  which  Wesley  rejected  with  great 
earnestness.  They  exchanged  a  number  of  letters  on 
this  fertile  topic  of  dispute.  The  respective  followers 
of  Wesley  and  Whitefield  then  formed  themselves  into 
separate  organizations.  "  No  founder  of  a  sect  or  order, 
no  legislator,  ever  understood  the  art  of  preserving  his 
authority  more  jierfectly  than  Wesley."  (.Southey,  "Life 
of  Wesley.")  "  His  restless  spirit,"  says  Southey,  "had 
now  founil  its  proper  sphere,  where  it  might  move  un- 
controlled and  enjoy  a  ]jrospect  boundless  as  his  desire 
of  doing  good,  the  ambition  which  possessed  him."  He 
became  an  itinerant  preacher,  and  adopted  the  system 
of  itinerancy.  By  this  practice,  combined  with  that  of 
field-preaching,  he  and  his  fellow-workers  obtained  free 
access  to  the  lower  classes.  Another  innovation  of 
Wesley  was  the  employment  of  laymen  as  preachers. 
Applicants  for  membership  were  not  required  to  sub- 
scribe any  creed  or  formula. 

Wesley  performed  his  mission  with  the  greatest  zeal, 
and  with  entire  devotion  to  the  cause  which  formed  the 
great  object  of  his  life.  He  usually  travelled  on  horse- 
back, and  very  often  preached  several  sermons  in  a  day. 
His  biographers.  Coke  and  Moore,  express  the  belief 
that  "there  could  not  be  an  instance  found,  during  the 
space  of  fifty  years,  wherein  the  severest  weather  hin- 
dered him  even  for  one  day."  Field-preaching  was  at 
that  time  a  dangerous  service,  and,  in  certain  districts, 
was  frequently  interrupted  by  mobs,  which  some  of 
the  clergy  encouraged  and  the  magistrates  did  not 
restrain.  In  a  few  instances  Wesley  himself  barely 
escaped  being  killed.  But  these  persecutions,  far  from 
daunting  his  courage  or  abating  his  zeal,  seemed  only 
to  confirm  him  in  the  great  work  to  which  he  had  con- 
secrated his  life. 

About  1750  he  married  a  widow  named  Vizelle,  wHI) 
possessed  an  independent  fortune,  but  he  took  care  that 
it  should  be  settled  on  herself.  But  the  marriage  was 
not  happy.  She  annoyed  him  by  her  jealousy,  opened 
his  letters,  revealed  his  secrets,  and  ran  away  from  him 
several  times.  A  final  separation  between  him  and  his 
wife  took  place  in  1771. 

Wesley  published,  besides  many  religious  tracts,  a 
work  called  "  Primitive  Physic,  or  an  Easy  and  Natural 
Method  of  Curing  most  Diseases,"  and  a  "  History  of 
England."  His  collected  works  were  published,  in  32 
vols.  8vo,  in  1774.  He  was  favoured  with  a  vigorous 
constitution  and  a  rare  activity  of  spirit,  which  was  not 
impaired  by  old  age.  "Ten  thousand  cares,"  he  said, 
"were  no  more  burden  to  his  mind  than  ten  thousand 
hairs  were  to  his  head."  He  had  no  children.  He  died 
in  London  in  March,  1791. 

Since  the  days  of  the  apostles  to  the  present  time, 
probably  few,  if  any,  religious  teachers  have  been  instru- 
mental in  effecting  more  good  than  John  Wesley.  As 
no  hardships  or  dangers  were  too  great  for  him  to  under- 
take in  the  cause  of  Christ,  so  no  portion  of  humanity, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  was  beyond  the  scope  of 
his  all-embracing  Christian  zeal  and  svmpathy.  He  not 
only  sought  with  particular  care  to  gather  into  the  fold 
of  Christ  the  lowest  classes  of  the  poor,  but  he  was 
among  the  first  to  see  and  feel  the  iniquity  of  African 
slavery  and  to  labour  for  its  overthrow.  The  society 
which  he  founded,  and  which  owes  in  a  great  measure 


its  efficiency  and  its  influence  to  the  system  which  he 
organized,  embraces  at  present,  in  Europe  and  America, 
nearly  three  millions  of  souls. 

See  Dr.  Cokr  and  Mr.  Moore,  "  Life  of  John  Wesley,"  1792, 
J.  Hamp.son,  "  Memoirs  of  J.  Wesley,"  1791  ;  John  Whitehead, 
"Life  of  John  Wesley,"  2  vols.,  1S05;  Robert  Southey,  "Life 
of  Wesley,  and  the  Rise  and  Prof^re.'is  of  Methodism,"  1820;  Adam 
Clarke,  "Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family;"  Schmidt,  "Des  J. 
Wesley  Leben,"  1849.  For  an  interesting  notice  of  Wesley  as  a 
"Reformer,"  see  "  Blackwood's  Mai;azine"  for  October.  1868. 

Wesley,  (Rev.  Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  at  Preston  about  1664,  was  the  father  of  John 
Wesley,  the  founder  of  Methodism.  He  was  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  a  curate  in  London. 
In  1688  he  preached  a  sermon  against  King  James's 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  According  to  some  writers, 
he  wrote  a  book  in  defence  of  the  revolution  of  1688,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  living  of  Epworth,  in  Lincoln- 
shire. He  published,  besides  other  poems,  "Elegies  on 
Queen  Mary  and  Archbishop  Tillotson,"  (1695,)  and 
"The  History  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  Verse,"  (1704.) 
He  also  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  Job,"  (1735.)     l^i^d 

in  1735- 

See  Clarke,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family,"  1823. 

Wesley,  (Samuel,)  a  teacher  and  poet,  born  about 
1692,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  took  holy  orders,  and  was  usher  of  Westminster 
School  for  many  years.  His  preferment  in  the  Church 
was  probably  hindered  by  his  zealous  support  of  the 
Tory  party,  or  his  intimacy  with  Atterbury  and  other 
Jacobites.  He  became  head-master  of  Tiverton  School 
in  1732.  He  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  which  have 
some  merit.     Died  in  1739. 

See  Clarke,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family,"  1S23. 

Wesley,  (Samuel,)  a  composer  of  music,  born  in 
1766,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley,  noticed 
above.  He  began  to  compose  when  he  was  about  eight 
years  old,  and  was  considered  a  great  prodigy.  He 
acquired  celebrity  as  an  extemporaneous  performer  on 
the  organ,  and  composed  sacred  music,  oratorios,  etc. 
Died  in  1837. 

"Wessel,  ■fi'Ss'sel,  or  Wesselus,  <^§s-sa'lijs,  (John,) 
sometimes  called  Gansefort  or  Goesevort,  a  Dutch 
theologian  and  Reformer,  born  at  Groningen  about  1420. 
He  studied  at  Louvain,  Heidelberg,  and  Paris,  where 
he  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  knowledge  of 
philosophy  and  divinity.  He  was  also  surnamed  Ma 
GISTER  CONTRADTCTIONUM,  ("  Master  of  Contradic- 
tion,") from  his  skill  in  dialectics.  He  attacked  with 
great  boldness  the  prevailing  abuses  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  Reformers  before 
the  time  of  Luther.  He  died  in  1489,  leaving  a  number 
of  treatises  in  Latin,  some  of  which  were  burnt  as 
heretical. 

See  Carl  Ullmann,  "  Johann  Wessel,  ein  Vorpianger  Luthers,' 
1834;  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867; 
MuURi.iNG,  "Commentatio  de  J.  Wesseli  Gansfortii  Vita,"  1831; 
B.  Bahring,  "J.  Wessel,"  1850. 

Wesselenyi,  wesh'shS-lan'yee,  (MiKLOS,)  a  Hunga- 
rian patriot  and  statesman,  born  about  1795  ;  died  in  1850. 

Wesseling,<V6s'seh-ling',  (Peter,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Steinfurt  in  1692.  He  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence at  Franeker,  (1723,)  and  of  ancient  literature  at 
Utrecht,  (1735.)  ^^  published  several  critical  treatises 
on  the  classics,  and  valuable  editions  of  Herodotus,  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  and  "Vetera  Romanorum  Itineraria." 
He  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time.     Died  in  1764. 

See  HiRsCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  Saxe, 
"Onomasticon." 

Wes'sells,  (Henry  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  about  1809,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1833.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  about 
April,  1862.  He  commanded  at  Plymouth,  North  Caro- 
lina, which  was  taken  by  the  Confederates,  after  a  brave 
defence,  April  20,  1864. 

Wesselus.     See  Wessel. 

Wessely,  Ms'seh-le,  (NaI'htali  H  artwig,)  a  Jewish 
writer  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1723. 
His  iTiost  important  work  is  a  poem,  the  subject  of  which 
is  the  vocation  or  mission  of  Moses.     Died  in  1805. 

See  Meisel,  "Leben  und,Wirken  N.  H.  Wessely's,"  1841. 


a.  e.  T.  o,  i"t,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6, 11,  y, sAort:  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsatre;  fir,  fill,  f4t;.m$t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WESSENBERG 


2455 


WESTERMANN 


Wessenberg,  <^^s'sen-b5RG',  (Ignaz  Heinrich 
Karl,)  Baron,  a  German  Catholic  theologian,  born  at 
Dresden  in  1774.  He  was  api)ointed  in  1802  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese  of  Constance,  and  was  active  in 
promoting  the  use  of  the  German  language  at  mass, 
and  various  other  reforms  in  the  Church.  Having  been 
nominated  in  1814  by  Archbishop  Dalberg  his  coad- 
jutor in  the  see  of  Constance,  he  was  rejected  by  the 
pope,  who  also  wished  him  to  resign  his  office  of  vicar- 
general.  This,  however,  he  declined,  being  supported 
by  his  sovereign,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Elementary  Education 
of  the  People,"  and  other  prose  works  ;  also  a  number 
■)f  poems.     Died  in  i860. 

See  "  I.  H.  von  Wessenburg,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  by  Dr.  J. 
Beck  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1848. 

■Wessenberg-Ampringen,  <^5s'sen-bSRG'  Jm'pRing- 
en,  (JoHANN  Philipp,)  a  German  statesman,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1773.  He  was  employed  on 
missions  to  Munich,  Paris,  and  the  Hague.  Died  in 
1S58. 

W6st,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  American  painter, 
born  at  Springfield,  Delaware  county,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  loth  of  October,  1738,  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  His  talent  and  predilection  for  the  art  were 
manifested  at  an  early  age,  and,  when  seventeen,  he  began 
portrait-painting  at  Philadelphia.  He  visited  Rome  in 
1 760,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Raphael  Mengs. 
He  soon  after  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  and,  some 
of  his  works  having  attracted  the  notice  of  George  HI., 
he  was  th 
His  "De 

good  taste  to  depart  from  the  custom  of  clothing  the 
figures  in  classical  costume,  was  greatly  admired.  His 
next  important  work  was  "Christ  Healing  the  Sick," 
now  in  the  British  National  Gallery :  a  copy  of  it  was 
presented  by  the  artist  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
Philadelphia.  He  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1792.  Among  his 
other  pictures  may  be  named  the  "  Departure  of  Regu- 
Uis,"  the  "  Battle  of  La  Hogue,"  and  "  Death  on  the 
Pale  Horse,"  now  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Phila- 
delphia.    Died  in  London  in  1820. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists  ;"  Dunlap,  "  History  of 
the  Arts  of  Design  in  America;"  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters 
and  Sculptors." 


Washington  Irving,  and  made  illustrations  of  his  "  Pride 
of  the  Village"  and  "Annette  Delarbre."    Died  in  1857. 
See  TucKRRMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  Dunlap,  "Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America." 

"Weat'all,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  painter 
in  water-colours,  was  born  at  Hertford  in  1765.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1794.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind, 
may  be  named  "The  Storm  in  Harvest,"  "Sappho  in 
the  Lesbian  Shades,"  and  "Jubal,  the  First  Voice  of 
the  Lyre."  He  also  illustrated  Moore's  "Loves  of  the 
Angels,"  and  furnished  designs  for  Boydell's  "  Shak- 
speare  Gallery."  He  was  appointed,  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  teacher  of  drawing  and  painting  to  the  Princess 
Victoria.     Died  in  1836. 

Westall,  (William,)  a  landscape-painter,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hertford  in  1781.  He 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  subsequently  visited 
India,  China,  and  Australia.  He  was  elected  an  Asso- 
ciate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1812.  Among  his  most 
admired  works  are  a  "  View  of  Seaforth's  Isle,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria,"  and  a  series  of  engraved  designs 
representing  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmore- 
land. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth  and 
Southey.     Died  in  1850. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  April,  1850. 

Westbury,  Lord.     See  Bethell,  (Richard.) 
West'cott,  (Brooke  Foss,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  Biblical  critic,  was  born  near  Birmingham  in 


r      , -,.,        ,,  •     J  .     ..  -         1      January,  1825.     He  graduated  in  1848  at  Trinity  College, 

enceforth    iberally  patronized  by  that  monarch     (:a,T,bridge,  and  in  1851  took  orders  in  the  Established 
.''^'!°^^.^.'''^f'" '"J''!V-^]'.^_?1^  *]r^  -?_"".^!  ^.?.^   Church.     He  was  made  a  canon  of  Peterborough  in  1869, 

regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1870,  and 
canon  of  Westminster  in  1883.  He  published  "  Elements 
of  Gospel  Harmony,"  (1851,)  "  History  of  the  Canon  of 
the  New  Testament,"  (1855,)  "  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Gospels,"  (i860,)  "History  of  the  English  Bible," 
(1869,)  and  various  other  learned  works. 

Westenrieder,  von,  fon  ^gs'ten-ree'der,  (Lorenz,) 
a  German  educational  writer,  born  at  Munich  in  1748, 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  in  his  native  city.  He 
published  a  "History  of  Bavaria  for  Youth  and  the 
People,"  and  other  historical  and  geographical  works. 
Died  in  1829. 
Westerbaen,  w^s'ter-bln',  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  poet, 
West,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  writer,  born  about  of  a  noble  family,  was  born  in  1599.  He  was  the  author 
1705.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  subse-  of  songs  and_  other  poerns,  and  niade^  translations  from 
quently  held  several  offices  under  the  government.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Observations  on  the  Resurrection," 
which  won  for  him  a  high  reputation,  also  a  poetical 
version  of  the  Odes  of  Pindar,  and  several  other 
translations  from  the  Greek.     He  was  a  relative  of  Pitt, 


Virgil  and  other  Latin  classics.     Died  in  1670. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Westergaard,    v5s'ter-goRd',   (N1EL3   Ludwig,)   a 

distinguished  Danish  Orientalist,  born  at  Copenhagen 

in  1S15.     Having  studied  at  Bonn  and  visited  London 

Earl  of  Chatham,  and  of  Lord  George  Lyttleton,  who  |  ^nd  Paris,  he  made  a  tour  to  India  and  Persia.     After 


dedicated  to  him  his  "Dissertation  on  the  Conversion 
of  Saint  Paul."     Died  in  1756. 

West,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  probably 
in  Warwickshire.  He  took  his  degree  at  Oxford  in 
1726.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1738.  He  made  a  rich  collection  of  manuscripts, 
prints,  medals,  etc.     Died  in  1772. 

West,  (Richard,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  became  chancellor  of  Ireland  in 
1 71 5.  He  published  several  legal  and  miscellaneous 
works.     Died  in  1726. 

West,  (Samuel.)  an  American  theologian,  born  in 
Yarmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1730.  He  preached  at 
New  Bedford,  was  an  active  Whig  politician,  and  wrote 
on  theology  and  politics.     Died  in  1807. 

West,  (Stephen,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Tolland,  Connecticut,  in  1735,  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Stockbridge  in  1759.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  Moral  Agency,"  "An  Essay  on 
the  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement,"  (1785,)  "Life 
of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins,"  and  other  theological 
works.     Died  at  Stockbridge  in  1819. 

West,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire, published  "A  Guide  to  the  Lakes,"  and  other 
topographical  works.     Died  in  1779. 

West,  (W.  E.,)  an  American  painter,  distinguished 
for  the  excellence  of  his  portraits.     He  was  a  friend  of 


his  return  he  was  appointed,  in  1845,  professor  of  Ori- 
ental philology  at  Copenhagen.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "  Radices  Sanscritae,"  (1841,)  and  a  critical  edition 
of  the  "Zendavest.a,"  (1852.)     Died  Sept.  10,  1878. 

Westerhof,  <^gs'ter-hof',  (Arnold  Heinrich,)  a 
German  scholar,  who  gained  distinction  by  a  good  edi- 
tion of  Terence,  (2  vols.,  1729.) 

Westermann,  wgs'ter-min',  (Anton,)  a  Germati 
scholar,  born  at  Leipsic'in  1806,  became  professor  of 
antiquities  in  his  native  city  in  1834.  He  published  a 
"History  of  Eloquence  in  Greece  and  Rome,"  (2  vols., 
1833-35,)  also  editions  of  the  Orations  of  Lysias,  the 
works  of  Philostratus,  and  other  classics.   Died  in  1870. 

Wes'ter-mann,  [Fr.  pron.  vgs't^u'mtn',]  (Francois 
Joseph,)  a  French  Jacobin  and  general,  born  in  Alsace 
about  1760.  He  became  a  violent  revolutionist,  and  a 
friend  of  Danton.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  riot 
in  Paris  of  the  loth  of  August.  1792.  In  September  of 
that  year  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general,  and  sent  to 
the  army  of  Dumouriez.  He  became  a  general  of  brigade 
in  May,  1793,  obtained  command  of  the  vanguard  of  the 
army  in  Vendee,  and  defeated  the  royalists  near  Chatil- 
lon.  He  attacked  and  routed  the  Vendeans  at  Mans  and 
Savenay  in  December,  1793.  He  was  executed  with 
Danton  in  April,  1794- 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  Thiers,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution." 


*  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,^ttiural;  N.  tiasal:  k,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jiy  See  Explanations,  [>.  23.^ 


WESTFIELD 


2456 


WE7TE 


"West'field,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Ely  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  the  reign  of 
Tames  I.,  and  was  noted  as  a  pathetic  preacher.  Died 
in  1644.     Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 

West'ma-cott,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  eminent  English 
sculptor,  born  in  London  in  1775.  He  studied  at  Rome 
under  Canova,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Florence  in  1795.  After  his  return  he 
executed  a  number  of  works  which  established  his 
reputation  as  one  of  the  first  English  sculptors  of  the 
time.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  his  "  Eu- 
phrosyne,"  "Psyche,"  "Nymph  Unclasping  her  Zone," 
a  "  Peasant  Maiden,"  and  "The  Distressed  Mother;" 
statues  of  Pitt  and  Addison,  monuments  of  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  of  the  Duke 
of  York  on  the  column  at  Waterloo  Place,  and  the  bronze 
statue  of  George  IH.  at  Windsor.  In  1816  he  was 
elected  a  Royal  Academician,  and  in  1827  succeeded 
Flaxman  as  professor  of  sculpture  at  the  Royal 
Academy.     Died  in  1856. 

Westmacott,  (Richard,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1799.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
father,  and  afterwards  spent  six  years  in  Italy.  He  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1837,  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1849,  and  in  1857  became  professor  of 
sculpture  in  the  Royal  Academy.  His  works  are  prin- 
cipally of  a  devotional  and  classical  character.  Among 
these  are  "  Prayer  and  Resignation,"  "  David  as  the 
Slayer  of  Goliath,"  the  "  Angel  Watching,"  the  statue 
of  "The  Cymbal -Player,"  "Venus  Instructing  Cupid," 
and  "  Paolo  and  Francesca."  He  also  executed  a  number 
of  portrait-busts  of  great  merit.  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  writer  of  works  on  art,  among  which  is  a  "  Hand- 
Book  on  the  Schools  of  Sculpture."    Died  in  1872. 

West'more-land,  (John  Fane,)  eleventh  Earl  of, 
in  English  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1784.  He 
served  in  Egypt  and  Sicily,  and  was  aide-de-camp  to 
the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Peninsular  war.  He 
was  sent  as  ambassador  in  1841  to  the  court  of  Berlin, 
where  he  remained  till  1851,  and  was  then  sent  on  an 
important  mission  to  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  privy  council,  knight  grand  cross  of  the  Bath,  and 
obtained  the  order  of  Maria  Theresa.  He  was  noted 
as  a  musician  and  composer,  and  published  several 
military  treatises.     Died  in  1859. 

Westmoreland,  (Mildmay  Fane,)  second  Earl 
OF,  an  English  statesman  and  i>oet,  born  about  1600. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled 
"Otia  Sacra."     Died  in  1665. 

Wes'ton,  (Elizabeth  Jane,)  a  learned  English  lady, 
born  about  1586,  removed  in  early  life  to  Prague.  She 
wrote  several  elegant  Latin  poems.  She  was  married  to 
John  Leon.     Died  after  1605. 

Wes'ton,  (Henry  Griggs,)  D.D.,  an  American  Bap- 
tist clergyman,  born  at  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  September 
II,  1S20,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1840,  held 
pastorates  in  New  York  city,  and  in  1868  became  presi- 
dent of  Crozer  Theological  Seminary. 

Weston,  (Richard,)  Earl  of  Portland,  an  English 
politician,  who  became  grand  treasurer  of  the  kingdom 
about  1625,  and  was  created  Earl  of  Portland  in  1633. 
Died  in  1635. 

Weston,  (Stephen,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1747.  He  published  a  number  of 
translations  from  the  Persian  and  Chinese,  and  several 
philological  and  antiquarian  essays.     Died  in  1830. 

Weston,  (Thomas,)  a  popular  English  comedian. 
Died  in  1776. 

Weston,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  and  resident 
o^  Gloucestershire,  was  the  author  of  "  Dissertations  on 
some  of  the  Most  Remarkable  Wonders  of  Antiquity." 
Died  in  1760. 

Westphal,  ^Sst'fai,  (Ernst  Christian,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1737,  became  professor 
of  law  at  Halle.  He  published  several  works  on  Roman 
law,  and  a  treatise  "  On  the  l.aw  of  the  German  Em- 
pire," (1784.)     Died  in  1792. 

Westreenen  van  Tiellandt,  wgs'tRa'ngn  vtn  teel'- 
IJnt,  (WiLLEM  Hendrik  Jacob, )  Baron,  a  Dutch  his- 
torical and  antiquarian  writer,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1783. 
He   published    "  Researches    concerning    the    Ancient 


Forum  of  Hadrian  and  its  Vestiges  near  the  Hague," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1848. 

WSst'wood,  (John  Ohadiaii,)  an  English  entomolo- 
gist, born  at  Sheffield  about  1805.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  zoology  at  Oxford  in  1861. 

Westwood,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
1S14.  He  has  published  "  Beads  from  a  Rosary,"  (1843,) 
"The  Burden  of  the  Bell,"  (1850,)  "Berries  and  Blos- 
soms," (1855,)  and  "The  Quest  of  the  Sancgreall," 
(1868.)     [Died  March  13,  1888.] 

Wetherell.     See  Warner,  (Susan.) 

Weth'er-ell,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  lawyer,  born 
in  1770,  was  a  son  of  the  Dean  of  Hereford.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1794,  and  acquired  extensive  prac- 
tice in  the  court  of  chancery.  Though  he  was  an  ultra 
Tory  and  was  king's  counsel,  he  defended  the  Spafield 
rioters,  who  were  t-ried  for  treason  in  1817.  In  182c 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Oxford.  He  became 
solicitor-general  in  1824,  and  attorney-general  in  1826. 
Having  resigned  in  1827,  he  was  reappointed  in  1828, 
but  retired  from  office  in  1829,  because  he  was  opposed 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  By  his  hostility 
to  the  Reform  bill  he  rendered  himself  so  unpopular 
that  he  was  attacked  by  a  mob  at  Bristol  in  183 1,  and 
narrowly  escaped  death.     Died  in  1846. 

Wetstein,  wSt'stIn  or  ^St'stln,  (John  Henry,)  a 
distinguished  printer,  born  at  Bale  in  1649,  founded  at 
Amsterdam  a  publishing-house,  which  became  celebrated 
for  the  excellent  editions  of  the  classics  issued  from  it. 
Died  in  1726. 

Wetstein,  (John  James,)  an  eminent  Swiss  scholar 
and  theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1693,  was  a  son  of  John 
Rudolph,  (1647-1711,)  noticed  below.  He  studied  He- 
brew and  theology  in  the  university  of  his  native  town, 
and,  having  visited  England  and  various  parts  of  the 
continent  for  the  purpose  of  examining  manuscripts,  he 
published  in  1730  his  "Prolegomena  ad  Novi  Testa- 
menti  Graeci  Editionem  accuratissimam."  His  liberal 
doctrines  having  excited  great  opposition  among  the 
clergy,  he  was  deposed  from  his  office,  and  about  1733 
removed  to  Amsteidam,  where  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Arminians  professor  of  philosophy  and  ecclesiastical 
history.  He  brought  out  in  1752  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament,  (2  vols,  fol.)     Died  in  1754. 

Wetstein  or  Wettstein,  (tet'stln,  (John  Rudolph,) 
a  Swiss  diplomatist,  born  at  Bale  in  1594.  He  rendered 
important  services  to  his  country  at  the  congress  which 
negotiated  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1647,)  and  received 
the  surname  of  the  Pacificator.     Died  in  1666. 

Wetstein,  (John  Rudolph,)  son  of  John  James, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Bale  in  1614.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  his  native  town,  and  assisted  Suicer 
in  his  "Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus."     Died  in  16S3. 

Wetstein,  (John  Rudolph,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Bale  in  1647.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
in  that  town,  and  edited  some  of  the  works  of  Origen. 
Died  in  1711. 

Wetstein,  wSt'stln,  (Karel  Anton,)  a  Dutch  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1743,  was  a  lawyer 
in  his  early  life.  He  translated  Hesiod  and  Theocritus 
into  Latin  verse,  and  wrote  several  original  Latin  poems, 
which  were  admired.     Died  in  1797. 

Wette,  de,  deh  wet'teh  or  <^et'teh,  (Wilhelm  Mar- 
tin Lebrecht,)  an  eminent  German  scholar,  theologian, 
and  biblical  critic,  born  near  Weimar  in  1780.  He  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in 
1810,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  both  as  a  preacher 
and  writer.  Among  his  most  important  works  are  the 
following:  "Contributions  to  an  Introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament,"  (2  vols.,  1806-7,)  "A  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms,"  (1811,)  "Manual  of  Jewish  Archaeology," 
(1814,)  "Christian  Dogmatics,"  (2  vols.,  1813-16,)  "On 
Religion  and  Theology,"  (1815,)  and  "Critical  and  His- 
torical Introduction  to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments," 
(1817-26.)  The  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  was 
translated  and  enlarged  by  Theodore  Parker,  (1S43,) 
and  that  to  the  New  by  Frederick  Frothingham,  (1858.) 
He  produced,  in  conjunction  with  Augusti,  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible.  In  1819  he  was  dismissed  from  his 
professorship  because  he  wrote  a  letter  of  consolation 
to  the  mother  of  Sand,  who  killed  Kotzebue.     He  ob- 


5,  e,  i  6,  u,  y,  lon^.  i.  h.  A.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y, short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  ni6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WETZEL 


2457 


WHARTON 


tained  a  chair  of  divinity  at  Rile  in  1821.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Lessons  on  Morality,"  (3  vols.,  1834.)  Died 
at  Bale  in  1849. 

See  ScHENKEL,  "  De  Wette  und  die  Bedeutung  seiner  Tlieologie 
fiir  unsere  Zeit,"  1849;  Lucke,  "Dr.  W.  M.  L.  de  Wette,"  1850; 
Hagenbach,  "W.  M.  L.  de  Wette,"  1849;  "North  British  Re- 
view" for  August,  1S47. 

Wetzel,  <^§t'sel,  (Friedrich  Gottlob,)  a  German 
Uttirateiir,  born  at  Bautzen  in  1780,  was  the  author  of 
dramas,  war-lyrics,  and  other  poems  and  prose  essays. 
Died  in  1819. 

Wetzel  or  Wezel,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  German 
writer  and  preacher,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1691.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Sacred  Hymnology," 
("  Hymnologia  Sacra,"  1728.)     Died  in  1755. 

Wetzel  or  Wezel,  (Johann  Christian  Friedrich,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  in  1762  ;  died  in  1810. 

We'witzer,  wa'wit-ser,  ?  (Ralph,)  an  English  come- 
dian, born  in  London  before  1800 ;  died  in  1824. 

W"ey,  vi,  (FRAwgois  Alphonse,)  a  French  litti- 
rateur,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1812.  He  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  the  national  archives  in  1852.  He 
wrote  several  novels,  but  his  principal  works  are  "Re- 
marks on  the  French  Language  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury," (1845,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Revolutions  of 
Language  in  France,"  (1848.)     Died  March  12,  1882. 

Weyde,  van  der.     See  Van  der  Weyde. 

Weyden,  van  der,  vSn  der  wi'den,  (Roger,)  a  cele- 
brated Flemish  painter,  called  Roger  of  Bruges,  was 
born  at  Brussels  about  1390,  and  was  a  pupil  of  John 
van  Eyck.  He  went  to  Italy  about  1450,  and  worked 
several  years  at  Rome.  He  painted  in  oil.  Having 
returned  to  Brussels,  he  died  there  in  1464. 

See  A.  Wauters,  "  Notice  sur  R.  van  der  Weyden,"  1846,  and 
"Roger  van  der  Weyden,  ses  OEuvres,"  etc.,  1855. 

Weyer.    See  Van  de  Weyer. 

Weyerman,  wi'er-mJn',  (Jacob  Kampo,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  fruit-  and  flower-pieces,  was  born  at  Breda 
in  1679.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lives  of  the  Dutch 
Painters,"  a  work  characterized  by  Descamps  and  others 
as  full  of  calumnies.  He  was  condemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment  for  a  libel  on  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  died  in  prison  in  1747. 

Weyprecht,  <^T'pkSkt,  (Karl,)  an  Austrian  Arctic 
explorer,  born  in  1838.  He  entered  the  navy,  and  was 
one  of  the  commanding  officers  of  the  expedition  in  the 
steamer  Tegethoff,  which  discovered  Franz  Josef  Land 
in  1873.     Died  in  1881. 

Weyse,  ^I'zeh,  (Christian  Ernst  Friedrich,)  a 
Danish  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Altona  in  1774; 
died  in  1842. 

Wezel.    See  Wetzeu 

Wezel,  <^St'sel,  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German  littera- 
teur, born  at  Sondershausen  in  1747,  wrote  a  number 
of  romances,  comedies,  and  prose  essays.  Died  in 
1819. 

Whalley,  hw5Kle,  (Peter,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  born  in  Warwickshire  in  1722,  was  the  author 
of  an  "Inquiry  into  the  Learning  of  Shakspeare."  Died 
in  1791. 

Whalley,  (Thomas  Sedgwick,)  D.D.,  an  English 
divine  and  writer,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1746.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  and  correspondent  of  Mrs.  Siddons 
and  Miss  Seward,  and  published  a  poetic  tale  entitled 
"  Edwy  and  Eldild."     Died  about  1826. 

See  "Journal  and  Correspondence  of  T.  S.  Whalley,"  1863. 

Wharton,  hwar'ton,  (Francis,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  jurist  and  divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1820. 
He  became  in  1856  professor  of  logic  and  rhetoric  at 
Kenyon  College,  Ohio.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Criminal  Law  of  the  United  States,"  a  "  Treatise  on 
Medical  Jurisprudence,"  "  The  Conflict  of  Laws,"  (1872,) 
and  other  works.  In  1866  he  became  a  professor  in  the 
Episcopal  Divinity  School  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1885  was  appointed  Government  solicitor  for  the 
Department  of  State.     Died  February  21,  1889. 

WTiarton,  hwar'ton,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  as- 
tronomer and  astrologer,  born  at  Kirby-Kendal  in  1617. 
He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil  war,  and  afterwards 
compiled  almanacs,  in  which  he  inserted  predictions 
against  the  dominant  party.     Died  in  1681. 


Wharton,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary 
and  divine,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1664.  He  studied  at 
Caius  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A. 
in  1687,  being  ordained  a  priest  in  1688.  Among  his 
numerous  works  the  most  important  is  his  "  Anglii 
Sacra,"  (2  vols,  fol.,  1691,)  being  a  collection  of  biogra- 
phies of  English  bishops  and  archbishops  from  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  to  1540.  He  also  published 
"A  Treatise  of  the  Celibacy  of  the  Clergy,"  etc.,  and 
"  The  History  of  the  Troubles  and  Trials  of  Archbishop 
Laud,"  and  assisted  Dr.  William  Cave  in  his  "  Scriptorum 
Ecclesiasticorum  Historia  Literaria."     Died  in  1695. 

Wharton.  (Philip,)  Lord,  an  English  peer,  who 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in 
1642,  and  commanded  a  regiment  for  Parliament  at  the 
battle  of  Edgehill.  He  was  a  zealous  Presbyterian.  He 
died  in  1696.  He  was  the  father  of  Thomas,  Marqui.s 
of  Wharton. 

Wharton,  (Philip,)  Duke  of  Wharton,  an  eloquent 
and  profligate  English  peer,  born  in  169S,  was  the  son 
of  Thomas,  Marquis  of  Wharton,  noticed  below.  About 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  married  privately  a  daughter  of 
General  Holmes.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1715,  he 
became  heir  to  an  estate  of  ;^i6,ooo  a  year,  and  entered 
upon  a  course  of  reckless  dissipation  and  vice.  In  1716 
he  began  a  tour  on  the  continent.  Having  arrived  at 
Lyons,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Pretender,  who  then 
resided  at  Avignon,  and  who  received  Wharton  in  a 
flattering  manner  when  he  came  to  that  city.  He  took 
his  seat  in  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  about  1717,  sup- 
ported the  ministry  with  zeal,  and  was  raised  to  the 
English  peerage,  as  Duke  of  Wharton,  in  1718.  He 
entered  the  English  House  of  Peers  in  1719  or  1720,  and 
denounced  the  South  Sea  bill  in  a  speech  remarkable 
for  bitter  invective.  On  other  questions  also  he  opposed 
the  ministers  with  great  eloquence. 

He  involved  himself  in  debt  by  his  boundless  prodi- 
gality, retired  to  the  continent  in  1724,  avowed  himself 
an  adherent  of  the  Pretender,  and  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  1726  he  married  a  Miss  O'Byrne, 
a  daughter  of  an  Irish  colonel.  He  served  as  a  volun- 
teer in  the  Spanish  army  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar,  in 
1727.  For  this  offence  he  was  indicted  for  treason,  and 
convicted.  He  lost  his  peerage  and  his  estate,  and  was 
reduced  to  poverty.  He  died  at  Tarragona,  Spain,  ir 
1 73 1.  His  character  is  portrayed  by  Pope  in  his  "Mora' 
Essays." 

See  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Wharton,"  » 
vols.,  1732;  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Wharton,  (Thomas,)  Marquis  of,  an  English  Whi^ 
politician,  born  about  1645,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip, 
Lord  Wharton.  He  entered  Parliament  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  constantly  opposed  the  court,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  dexterity  and  turbulence  as 
a  politician.  In  November,  1688,  he  joined  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  who  appointed  him  comptroller  of 
the  household  in  1689.  He  received  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Wharton  in  1 706,  and  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland 
from  1708  to  1710.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lillibuilero," 
a  famous  satirical  ballad.  In  September,  1714,  he  was 
appointed  lord  privy  seal  by  George  I.,  and  in  1715  he 
was  created  Marquis  of  Wharton.  He  died  in  1715, 
leaving  a  son,  Philip.  He  was  characterized  by  Swift  as 
"the  most  universal  villain  that  I  ever  knew."  "Those 
who  hated  him  most  heartily,"  says  Macaulay,  "admitted 
that  his  natural  parts  were  excellent,  and  that  he  was 
equally  qualified  for  debate  and  for  action.  .  .  .  He  early 
acquired,  and  retained  to  the  last,  the  reputation  of  being 
the  greatest  rake  in  England.  .  .  .  His  mendacity  and 
his  effrontery  passed  into  proverbs.  ...  As  a  canvassei 
he  was  irresistible.  .  .  .  Had  he  not  been  a  man  of  im- 
perturbable temper,  dauntless  courage,  and  consummate 
skill  in  fence,  his  life  would  have  been  a  short  one.  But 
neither  anger  nor  danger  ever  deprived  him  of  his 
presence  of  mind  ;  and  he  had  a  peculiar  way  of  dis- 
arming his  opponents  that  moved  the  envy  of  all  the 
duellists  of  his  time."  (Macaulay's  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  iv.  pp.  136-37.) 

See,  also,  Swift's  satire  on  Wharton  in  his  "Four  Last  Years 
of  Queen  Anne ;"  and  (anonymous)  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Thomas, 
Marquis  of  Wharton,"  1715. 


€  as  >&,•  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  /;  G,  H,  v., guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHARTON 


2458 


WHEDON 


"Wharton,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Winston,  in  Durham,  about 
1610.  He  took  his  degree  as  M.D.  at  Oxford  in  1647, 
after  which  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1650.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  glands,  entitled  "Adenography,  or 
Description  of  the  Glands,"  ("  Adenographia,  sive  Glan- 
dularum  Descriptio,"  1656.)  He  first  discovered  the 
excretory  duct  in  the  submaxillary  gland,  which  bears 
his  name.     Died  in  1673. 

What'coat,  (Richard,)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Quinton,  England,  Feb- 
ruary 23,  1736.  In  1763  he  became  a  Wesleyan  preacher, 
in  1784  he  was  ordained  by  John  Wesley,  and  in  the  same 
year  came  to  the  United  States  and  became  an  itinerant 
minister.  In  1800  he  was  chosen  a  bishop.  Died  at 
Dover,  Delaware,  July  5,  1806. 

Whately,  hwat'le,  (Richard,)  Archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, an  eminent  English  thinker  and  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1787,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Whately,  prebendary 
of  Bristol.  As  a  child,  he  was  nervous  and  shy,  and,  like 
De  Quincey,  appears  to  have  preferred  the  society  of  his 
sisters  to  that  of  his  brothers.  He  delighted  in  arith- 
metical calculations,  which  he  carried  on  in  his  mind. 
In  childhood,  as  well  as  in  after-life,  whatever  occupied 
his  thoughts  appears  to  have  completely  absorbed  him 
for  the  time.  The  passion  for  arithmetic  soon  left  him  ; 
he  then  devoted  himself  to  "castle-building,"  which, 
however,  took  a  philosophical  or  metaphysical,  rather 
than  a  romantic,  direction.  In  1805  he  entered  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  181 1, 
and  in  which  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1812. 
While  at  Oxford,  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Dr.  Arnold,  which  continued  unchanged  till  the  death 
of  the  latter.  In  1810  he  gained  the  prize  for  the  English 
Essay,  the  subject  being  "The  Comparative  Excellence 
of  the  Ancients  and  Moderns."  In  1819  he  published 
"  Historic  Doubts  relative  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,"  an 
ingenious  attempt  to  show  the  absurdity  of  skeptical 
criticism.  He  married  a  lady  named  Pope  in  1821. 
He  was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  at  Oxford  in  1822, 
and  the  same  year  obtained  the  rectory  of  Halesworth, 
in  Suffolk.  His  Bampton  lectures  "On  the  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Party  Feeling  in  Religion"  were  published  in 
1822.  In  1825  he  was  chosen  principal  of  Saint  Alban's 
Hall,  Oxford.  He  extended  his  reputation  by  his 
"  Essays  on  some  of  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian 
Religion,"  (1825,)  his  "Elements  of  Logic,"  (1826,) 
often  reprinted,  and  highly  esteemed,  his  "  Essays  on 
some  of  the  Ditliculties  in  the  Writings  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,"  and  his  "  Errors  of  Romanism  traced  to  their 
Origin  in  Human  Nature,"  (1830.)  He  was  elected 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Oxford  in  1830,  and 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1831.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the  national  system  of 
education  in  Ireland.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
*'  Elements  of  Rhetoric,"  (1828,)  "  Introduction  to  Politi- 
cal Economy,"  (1831,)  "  Sermons  on  Various  Subjects," 
(1835,)  "  Essays  on  some  of  the  Dangers  to  Christian 
Faith  which  may  arise  from  the  Teaching  or  the  Conduct 
of  its  Professors,"  (1839,)  and  "The  Kingdom  of  Christ 
Delineated,  in  Two  Essays  on  our  Lord's  Own  Account 
of  His  Person,"  etc.,  (1841.)  He  also  wrote  several 
valuable  articles  for  the  leading  reviews.  His  style  is 
luminous  and  aphoristic.  As  a  theologian,  he  was  char- 
acterized by  the  liberality  of  his  views  and  by  the  free- 
dom and  independence  of  his  thoughts.  He  is  justly 
considered  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  profound  and 
original  thinkers  of  his  time.  As  a  man,  he  was  distin- 
guished for  moral  courage,  and  was  singularly  sincere, 
generous,  and  disinterested.     Died  in  October,  1863. 

See  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Richard  Whately,  D.D.,  Late 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,"  by  his  daughter,  E.  Jane  Whately,  3 
vols  ,  London.  1866;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1822;  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  October.  1S64 ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1867.  For  some  strictures  on  Whately's  "Logic,"  see  Sir 
William  Hamilton's  "  Logic." 

Whately,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
born  at  Banbury,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1583.  He  became 
vicar  of  Banbury  about  1610,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Prototypes,  or  the  Primary  Piecedent 
out  of  the  Book  of  Genesis."     Died  in  163Q. 


"Wheare,  hwair,  ?  (Degory,)  an  English  historian, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1573.  He  was  the  first  reader  of 
the  lecture  which  Camden  founded  at  Oxford,  and  wrote 
several  works.     Died  in  1647. 

Wheat'ley,  (Charles,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1686,  published  a  "  Rational  Illustration  of  the  Com- 
mon Prayer."     Died  in  1742. 

Wheatley,  (Francis,)  an  English  landscape-painter 
in  oil- and  water-colours,  born  in  London  in  1747.  He 
became  a  Royal  Academician  in  1791.     Died  in  1801. 

Wheat'ley,  (Phillis,)  a  negro  poetess,  born  in  Africa 
about  1753,  was  brought  to  America  in  1761.  She  was 
instructed  by  her  mistress,  Mrs.  Wheatley,  a  resident 
of  Boston,  and  published,  at  an  early  age,  "  Poems  on 
Various  .Subjects,  Religious  and  Moral."  She  was 
afterwards  married  to  a  man  named  Peters,  and  died  in 
Boston  in  1794. 

See  DUYCKINCK,  " Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  1.; 
Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wheat'pn,  (Henry,)  an  American  jurist,  civilian, 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
November,  1785.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1802,  after  which  he  pursued  the  study  of  law  at 
Poitiers,  France,  and  in  London.  On  his  return  he 
became  a  resident  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  in  1812 
began  to  edit  the  "  National  Advocate,"  a  daily  jour- 
nal. He  published  in  181 5  a  "  Digest  of  the  Law  of 
Maritime  Captures  and  Prizes,"  which  was  received 
with  favour.  In  1816  he  became  a  reporter  of  the 
decisions  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  "North  American 
Review."  He  was  ajipointed  charge-d'afTaires  to  the 
court  of  Denmark  in  1826  or  1827,  and  minister  resident 
at  Berlin  in  1835.  He  published  in  1836  his  most  im- 
portant work,  "Elements  of  International  Law,"  which 
is  highly  esteemed  as  a  standard  authority.  In  1837  he 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  minister-plenipotentiary 
at  Berlin,  where  he  remained  until  1846.  He  wrote  an 
able  work  entitled  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations 
in  Europe  and  America,  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
Treaty  of  Washington,"  which  originally  appeared  in 
French  at  Leipsic  in  1841.  It  was  enlarged  and  pub- 
lished in  English  in  1845.  "Of  its  great  merit,"  says 
R.  W.  Griswold,  "  all  competent  critics  have  given  the 
same  testimony."  Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Northmen,  or  Danes  and  Normans,"  (1S31.)  He 
published  "Reports  of  Cases  argued  and  determined  in 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  .States,"  (12  vols., 
1827.)  He  was  elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
French  Institute  about  1843.  Died  near  Boston,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  March,  1848. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  i6g;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  North  American  Review"  for  October, 
1832,  and  January,  1S37;  "Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1847. 

"Wheaton,  (Robert,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1826.  He  wrote  historical  and 
literary  articles  for  several  reviews,  and  acquired  dis- 
tinction as  a  writer.     Died  in  October,  185 1. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Robert  Wheaton,"  1854. 

Wheat'stone,  (Charles,)  F.R.S.,  professor  of  ex- 
perimental philosophy  in  King's  College,  London,  was 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1S02.  In  early  life  he  was  a  manu- 
facturer of  musical  instruments,  and  made  researches 
on  the  science  of  acoustics.  He  displayed  much  me- 
chanical ingenuity  in  the  construction  of  instruments 
and  apparatus.  He  published  in  1834  an  "Account  of 
Experiments  to  Measure  the  Velocity  of  Electricity  and 
the  Duration  of  Electric  Light."  In  the  same  year  he 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  King's  College,  Lon- 
don. He  invented  the  stereoscope,  which  he  described 
in  his  "Contributions  to  the  Physiology  of  Vision,"  (1838.) 
He  was  one  of  several  persons  who,  in  1837,  claimed 
the  honour  of  the  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph. 
Wheatstone  and  his  partner  Cooke  obtained  in  1837  a 
patent  for  apparatus  which  they  invented  for  conveying 
signals  by  means  of  electric  currents.  They  were  suc- 
cessful in  the  practical  application  of  their  invention, 
which  soon  came  into  extensive  use.  Wheatstone  after- 
wards invented  several  improvements,  among  which  is 
the  magneto-alphabetical  telegraph.    Died  Oct.  20,  1875. 

Whe'don,  (Daniel  Denison.)  D.D.,  an  American 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  mo3n; 


WHEELER 


2459 


WHIPPLE 


Methodist  divine,  born  in  Onondaga  county,  New  York, 
in  1808.  He  became  in  1856  editor  of  tlie  "Methodist 
Quarterly  Review.  He  publi.siied  a  "Commentary  on 
the  Gospels,"  and  other  works.     Died  June  8,  18S5. 

Whee'ler,  (Daniel,)  an  able  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  was  born  in  London  in  1771.  He  enlisted 
in  the  British  army  about  1791,  and  served  in  Holland 
in  1794.  Before  this  time  his  moral  character  had  be- 
come, it  is  said,  very  depraved.  Having  passed  through 
much  suffering  and  danger,  and  repented  of  his  sins,  he 
quitted  the  army  in  1796,  and  was  approved  as  a  minis- 
ter by  the  Friends  in  1816.  He  was  employed  by  the 
Russian  government  to  superintend  agricultural  improve- 
ments near  Saint  Petersburg,  for  many  years,  (1817-32.) 
About  the  end  of  1833  he  sailed  on  a  religious  mission 
\o  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  which  he  spent 
nearly  four  years.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1839 
as  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  and  died  in  the  city  of  New 
York  in  1840. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Daniel  Wheeler,"  (partly  autobiographic,)  1842. 

Wheeler  or  Wheler,  (Sir  George,)  an  English 
divine,  born  in  Kent  or  Holland  in  1650,  became  rector 
of  Houghton-le-Spring.  He  published  a  "Journey  into 
Greece,"  and  "  An  Account  of  the  Churches  of  the 
Primitive  Christians."     Died  about  1723. 

Whee'ler,(GEORGE  Montague,)  an  American  soldier, 
born  at  Grafton,  Massachusetts,  October  9,  1842.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1866,  and  entered  the  engi- 
neer service.  In  1869  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  a 
survey  in  Nevada,  and  in  1872  was  made  superintending 
engineer  of  the  United  States  geographical  and  military 
surveys.  He  has  published  various  reports  (1872  et  seq.) 
and  atlases  of  the  surveys  under  his  charge. 

Whee'ler,  (William  A.,)  an  American  editor  and 
author,  born  at  Leicester,  Massachusetts,  November  14, 
1833,  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1853.  In  1856 
he  went  to  Cambridge  to  assist  Dr,  Worcester  in  the 
preparation  of  his  quarto  Dictionary,  on  which  he  was 
engaged  several  years.  In  1861  he  was  employed  by 
Messrs.  G.  &  C.  Merriam  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
new  edition  of  Webster's  quarto  Dictionary,  which  passed 
through  the  press  under  his  supervision.  Among  his 
various  publications  we  may  name  a  "  Dictionary  of 
the  Noted  Names  of  Fiction,"  (i  vol.  i2mo,  1865,)  a 
work  original  in  its  conception,  as  well  as  of  great 
practical  value  as  a  book  of  reference.  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  assistant  superintendent  in  the  Boston  Public 
Library.     Died  October  28,  1875. 

Whee'lock,  (Eleazar,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine,  born  at  Windham,  Connecticut,  in  171 1. 
He  was  the  founder  and  first  president  of  Dartmouth 
College,  which  grew  originally  out  of  an  Indian  mission- 
ary school.     Died  in  1779. 

Wheelock,  (John,)  LL.D.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1754.  He  served 
for  a  time  in  the  Continental  army,  and  was  made  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel. On  the  death  of  his  father  he  became 
president  of  Dartmouth  College.     Died  in  181 7. 

Wheel'virright,  (John,)  a  Puritan  divine,  born  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1594,  was  a  classmate  and 
friend  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  He  emigrated  in  1636  to 
New  England,  where  he  soon  after  founded  the  town  of 
Exeter,  in  Massachusetts.  He  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Mrs.  Ann  Hutchinson,  whose  religious  views  he  shared. 
Died  in  1679. 

Wheth'am-stede,  (John,)  an  English  monk  and 
chronicler,  was  Abbot  of  Saint  Alban's,  and  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1382.  He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  period 
from  1441  to  1461.     Died  in  1464. 

Whet'stpne,  (George,)  an  English  miscellaneous 
writer,  who  lived  about  1575.  His  principal  work  is  a 
comedy,  entitled  "Promos  and  Cassandra,"  (1578.) 

Wlle^well,  hu'el,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
English  philosopher  and  scholar,  born  at  Lancaster  in 
1795.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  1816,  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
and  became  an  eminent  tutor  in  the  same.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  mineralogy  in  1828,  obtained  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  or  moral  theology  in  1838, 
and  became  master  of  Trinity  College  in  1841.  Before 
the  last  date  he  had  gained  distinction  as  a  writer  by  the 


production  of  his  "  Astronomy  and  Physics  considered 
with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology,"  (1833,)  which  is 
one  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises,  "  The  History  of  the 
Inductive  Sciences,"  (3  vols.,  1837,)  and  "The  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Inductive  Sciences  founded  upon  their 
History,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)  Referring  to  these  two  works, 
Professor  James  D.  Forbes  says,  "One  attempt — a  bold 
and  successful  one — has  been  made,  in  our  own  day,  to 
unite  two  of  the  three  departments  :  I  mean  the  His- 
tory and  Philosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences.  An 
English  philosopher,  of  wonderful  versatility,  industry, 
and  power,  has  erected  a  permanent  monument  to  his 
reputation,  in  a  voluminous  work  bearing  the  preceding 
title."  ("  Preliminary  Dissertation"  in  the  eighth  edition 
of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  An  anonymous 
work  called  "The  Plurality  of  Worlds"  (1853)  is  gen- 
erally understood  to  be  the  production  of  Dr.  Whewell. 
The  author  of  this  work  doubts  or  denies  the  existenr^ 
of  a  plurality  of  worlds.  He  became  vice-chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1855.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  "Elements  of  Morality,"  (1855,) 
and  several  valuable  treatises  on  tides,  published  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions."     Died  in  1866. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1S34,  and  October,  1837. 

Which'cote,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  1610,  studied  at  Emanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  appointed  one  of  the  university  preachers 
about  1636,  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1649,  and  after- 
wards became  rector  of  Milton,  in  Cambridgeshire. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  appointed  vicar  of  Saint 
Lawrence,  Jewry.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Observations 
and  Apophthegms,"  "Moral  and  Religious  Aphorisms," 
and  numerous  sermons.  He  has  been  called  one  of  the 
principal  founders  of  the  latitudinarian  school  of  divines 
in  England,     Died  in  1683. 

Whip'ple,  (hwip'p'l,)  (Abraham,)  an  American  com- 
modore of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1733.  He  captured  many  rich  prizes  and  per- 
formed several  daring  exploits  between  1775  and  1781. 
Died  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  in  1819. 

See  HiLDRETH,  "  Life  of  A.  Whipple." 

Whipple,  (Amiel  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  m 
Massachusetts,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He 
became  a  captain  of  topographical  engineers  in  1855, 
and  chief  engineer  on  the  staff  of  General  McDowell  in 
the  spring  of  1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chan- 
cellorsville.  May,  1S63,  aged  about  forty-six. 

Whipple,  (Edwin  Percy,)  a  distinguished  American 
critic  and  essayist,  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in 
1819.  He  published  in  1843  in  the  "  Boston  Miscellany" 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Macaulay," 
which  attracted  much  attention.  He  became  a  contrib- 
utor to  the  "American  Review,"  "Christian  Examiner," 
"  Methodist  Quarterly  Review,"  "  North  American 
Review,"  and  the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  A  collection 
of  his  writings,  entitled  "Essays  and  Reviews,"  was 
published  in  2  vols,  in  1849.  He  is  also  the  author 
of  "  Lectures  on  Subjects  connected  with  Literature  and 
Life,"  (1849,)  and  "Character  and  Characteristic  Men," 
(1867.)  Mr.  Whipple  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
lecturer,  and  in  1859  he  delivered  before  the  Lowell  In- 
stitute, Boston,  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  "Literature 
of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth  :"  these  were  jiublished  in  a 
small  volume  in  1869.     Died  June  16,  1886. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

"Whipple,  (Henry  Benjamin,)  D.D.,  an  eminent 
American  bishop,  born  in  Adams,  New  York,  February 
15,  1822,  engaged  successfully  in  business  and  in  poli- 
tics, in  1850  was  ordained  a  presbyter  of  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  in  1859  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Minne- 
sota, the  first  of  that  title. 

Whipple,  (William,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  born  at  Kittery,  Maine,  in  1 730,  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  elected  to  Congress  in  1776,  was  appointed  briga- 
dier-general in  1777,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Stillwater  and  Saratoga  and  in  the  siege  of  Newport. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  Sanderson,  "Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 


€  as yt;  9 as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  ;;  t^,  H,  Y,, pittural :  N,  niml;  R,  trilled;  s as s;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WIIISTLj^K 


2460 


WHITE 


"Whistler,  (hwiss'ler,)  (George  Washington,)  an 
American  engineer,  born  at  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  in 
1800,  graduated  at  the  West  Point  Military  Academy 
in  1819.  Having  been  previously  employed  in  the 
construction  of  several  railroads  in  the  United  States,  he 
was  invited  to  Russia  in  1842  by  the  emperor  Nicholas 
to  superintend  the  internal  improvements  in  that  country. 
Died  in  1849. 

"Whistler,  (James  Abbott  MacNeill,)  an  American 
etcher  and  painter,  born  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  in 
1834.  He  was  a  son  of  George  Washington  Whistler, 
and  was  educated  at  West  Point.  He  studied  art  in 
Paris,  and  in  1855  went  to  England  and  settled  there 
permanently.  His  paintings  attracted  great  attention 
and  found  eager  admirers  and  severe  critics,  but  his 
etchings  are  universally  praised.  He  is  specially  noted 
as  a  colourist. 

"Whis'tpn,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  philoso- 
pher and  theologian,  born  at  Norton,  in  Leicestershire, 
on  the  9th  of  December,  1667.  He  was  educated  at 
Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  gave  special  attention 
to  mathematics  and  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  and  took 
his  degree  in  1690.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  his 
college  in  the  same  year,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1693.  About  this  time  he  became  acquainted  with  Sir 
Isaac  Newton.  In  1696  he  published  a  "New  Theory 
of  the  Earth,  from  its  Original  to  the  Consummation  of 
all  Things,"  in  which  he  attributed  the  great  Deluge  to 
the  collision  of  a  comet  with  the  earth.  This  work  ran 
through  six  editions.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Lowes- 
toft, in  Suffolk,  in  1698,  soon  after  which  he  married  a 
Miss  Ajitrobus.  In  1701  Newton  nominated  him  as 
his  deputy  in  the  Lucasian  professorship  at  Cambridge. 
Through  the  influence  of  Newton,  Whiston  obtained 
the  chair  of  mathematics,  which  the  former  resigned  in 
1703.  He  then  gave  up  his  living  at  Lowestoft,  and 
removed  to  Cambridge,  where  he  also  officiated  as  a 
clergyman,  having  been  appointed  lecturer  of  Saint  Clem- 
ent's. In  1707  he  was  appointed  preacher  of  the  Eoyle 
lecture,  and  published  "  Praelectiones  Astronomicae." 
He  was  gradually  converted  to  Arian  doctrines,  which 
he  advocated  in  a  volume  of  sermons  and  essays  pub- 
lished in  1709,  and  in  other  writings.  In  1710  he  was 
deprived  of  his  professorship  and  expelled  from  the 
university.  He  then  settled  in  London,  and  published 
a  "  Historical  Preface  to  Primitive  Christianity,"  (1710,) 
which  was  followed  by  "  Primitive  Christianity  Revived," 
(4  vols.,  171 1.)  The  clergy  prosecuted  him  for  heresy  in 
the  spiritual  courts ;  but,  after  many  evasive  delays,  the 
prosecution  was  ended  in  17 15,  by  an  act  of  grace  by 
which  ail  heretics  were  pardoned.  Whiston  was  an 
unflinching  and  courageous  asserter  of  religious  liberty, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  shrewd  and  pithy  retorts 
in  conversation.  He  was  once  in  company  with  Addison, 
Pope,  Walpole,  and  Secretary  Craggs,  who  raised  the 
question  whether  a  secretary  of  state  could  be  an  honest 
man.  Whiston  having  expressed  his  opinion  in  the  af- 
firmative, Craggs  said,  "  It  might  answer  for  a  fortnight, 
but  no  longer."  Whiston  then  asked,  "  Mr.  Secretary, 
did  you  ever  try  it  for  a  fortnight?"  to  which  Craggs 
made  no  answer.  He  published  in  1737  a  translation 
of  Josephus,  often  reprinted,  and  in  1749-50  his  enter- 
taining "Memoirs  of  his  own  Life,"  (3  vols.)  Died  in 
1752. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Whit'a-ker,  (Edward,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
born  in  1750,  published  "An  Abridgment  of  Universal 
Historv',"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1S18. 

"Whitaker,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Man- 
chester about  1735.  ^^  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became 
rector  of  Ruan-Langhorne,  in  Cornwall,  in  1778.  He 
published,  atnong  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Man- 
chester," (1771-75,)  "Genuine  History  of  the  Britons 
Asserted,"  "Mary  Queen  of  Scots  Vindicated,"  (17S8,) 
"The  Origin  of  Arianism  Disclosed,"  and  "Sermons 
upon  Death,  Judgment,  Heaven,  and  Hell."  Died  in 
1808. 

See  Ali.ibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors:"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  April,  1783,  and  October,  1795. 

"Whitaker,  (Thomas  Dunham,)  LL.D.,  an  English 
divine  and  writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1759.     He  studied 


law  at  Cambridge,  but  subsequently  entered  holy  orders, 
and  became  vicar  of  Blackburn  in  1818.  He  published 
"The  Life  and  Original  Correspondence  of  Sir  George 
Radcliffe,"  "  History  of  the  Deanery  of  Craven,"  and 
other  antiquarian  works.     Died  in  182 1. 

"Whitaker,  (William,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  at  Holme,  in  Lancashire,  in  1547.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1579,  and  master  of 
Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  translated  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  and  Nowell's  Catechisms  into 
Greek,  and  wrote  numerous  controversial  works  against 
popery.     Died  in  1595. 

"Whit'bread,  (Samuel,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  London  in  1758,  was  the  son  of  an  opulent  brewer  of 
that  city.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Steyning  in  1790,  and  was  afterwards  returned  for  the 
town  of  Bedford.  He  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
Whig  party,  and  a  warm  personal  friend  of  Mr.  Fox. 
He  conducted  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Melville,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the  oppo- 
sition after  the  death  of  Fox.  His  wife  was  a  daughter 
of  the  first  Earl  Grey.  He  committed  suicide  in  1815, 
during  an  attack  of  temporary  insanity. 

"Whitney,  (Daniel,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1638.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to 
be  rector  of  Saint  Edmund's,  Salisbury,  having  been 
previously  created  D.D.  His  controversial  works  are 
numerous,  and  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time  ; 
among  the  most  important  of  these  may  be  named  "  A 
Discourse  concerning  the  Idolatry  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,"  (1674,)  "The  Absurdity  and  Idolatry  of  Host- 
Worship  Proven,"  (1679,)  and  "The  Fallibility  of  the 
Roman  Church  Demonstrated,"  (1687.)  In  1683  he 
published  a  plea  for  the  toleration  of  dissenters,  entitled 
"The  Protestant  Reconciler,"  etc.,  which  encountered 
violent  opposition  and  was  condemned  to  be  burned.  His 
"  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament," 
(1703,)  a  defence  of  Arminianism,  is  regarded  as  his 
best  production,  and  was  followed  by  several  other 
works  of  a  similar  nature.  Dr.  Whitby  subsequently 
professed  Arianism,  in  defence  of  which  he  wrote  a 
number  of  tracts,  and  also  defended  Bishop  Hoadly  in 
the  Bangorian  controversy.     Died  in  1726. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

"White,  (Andrew  Dickson,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Homer,  New  York,  November  7,  1832. 
He  studied  in  Geneva  (New  York)  College,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1853.  He  was  professor  of  his- 
tory in  the  University  of  Michigan,  1857-63,  a  State 
senator  in  New  York,  1863-67,  and  in  1867  became 
president  of  Cornell  University.  In  1S72  he  was  sent 
as  United  States  commissioner  to  Santo  Domingo,  and 
was  United  States  minister  to  Germany,  1879-81.  .Among 
his  works  are  "Outline  of  Lectures  on  History,"  (i860  ; 
5th  edition,  1883,)  "Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  Modern 
History,"  "The  Warfare  of  Science,"  (1876,)  "Paper- 
Money  Inflation  in  France,"  (1876,)  "The  New  Ger- 
many," (1882,)  and  numerous  pamphlets  and  renorts. 

"White,  (Charles,)  an  English  officer  ana  writer, 
born  in  Shropshire  in  1793,  served  under  Wellington 
in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  afterwards  in  Hanover  as 
adjutant  of  the  Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  published 
"Almacks  Revisited,"  "The  King's  Page,"  "Arthur 
Beverly,"  and  other  popular  romances;  also,  "The 
Belgic  Revolution  in  1830,"  (1835,)  and  "Three  Years 
in  Constantinople,"  (1846.)     Died  in  t86l. 

"White,  (Daniel  Appleton,)  a  distinguished  jurist 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  in  what  is  now 
the  city  of  Lawrence,  June  7,  1776.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1797,  sharing  the  highest  honours  of  the 
class  with  Horace  Binney,  of  Philadelphia.  In  1799  he 
accepted  the  position  of  Latin  tutor  at  Harvard,  where 
he  remained  nearly  four  years.  He  began  the  study  of 
law  at  Cambridge,  and  was  there  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1804.  His  success  in  his  profession  was  remarkable. 
From  1810  to  1815  he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Senate. 
In  November,  1814,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  from  the 
Essex  district  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote;  but  before 
taking  his  seat  in  the  national  legislature  he  resigned 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  \\\h\;  iiflt;  gootl;  moon; 


WHITE 


2461 


WHITE 


his  position  as  representative  and  accepted  that  of  judge 
of  probate  for  the  county  of  Essex,  which  in  the  mean 
time  had  been  tendered  to  him.  He  filled  this  office, 
with  the  highest  credit  to  himself  and  advantage  to  the 
Commonwealth,  for  thirty-eight  years. 

Judge  White  was  distinguished  for  his  generosity  and 
public  spirit,  and  gave  liberally  of  his  time  and  means 
to  promote  the  cause  of  education  and  other  important 
public  interests.  He  was  an  active  member  of  many 
philanthropic  and  literary  associations,  and  took  a  deep 
interest  in  the  cause  of  temperance.  Besides  frequent 
smaller  gifts,  he  gave  in  all  to  the  Essex  Institute  at 
Salem  more  than  8000  volumes,  including  the  3000  left 
in  his  will.  He  closed  his  long  and  useful  life  on  the 
30th  of  March,  1861. 

See  the  interesting  "  Memoir  of  Daniel  Appleton  White,"  by  G. 
W.  Hriggs,  Salem,  1S64 ;  and  the  "Memoir  of  Judge  White,"  by 
Dr.  Walker,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society. 

"White,  (George,)  an  English  mezzotint  engravei, 
son  of  Robert,  noticed  below,  executed  a  number  of 
excellent  portraits,  among  which  we  may  name  those 
of  Lord  Clarendon  and  Sir  Richard  Blackmore.  Died 
about  1735. 

"White,  (Gilbert,)  an  eminent  English  naturalist  and 
divine,  born  at  Selborne,  in  Hainpshire,  in  1720.  He 
studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  took  the  degree 
of  M.A.  in  1746.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "  Natural 
History  of  Selborne,"  appeared  in  1789.  Its  graceful 
and  attractive  style,  as  well  as  its  other  merits,  have 
given  it  a  high  rank  among  English  classics.  After  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1793,  a  selection  from  his  jour- 
nal was  published  by  Dr.  Aikin,  under  the  title  of  "A 
Naturalist's  Calendar,"  etc.  His  "  Antiquities  of  Sel- 
borne" was  published  in  1813,  in  the  same  volume  with 
the  two  above-named'works. 

See  Allibonb,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

"White,  (Henry,)  an  English  clergyman,  of  consider- 
able literary  attainments,  was  a  resident  of  Lichfield, 
and  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson  and  other  celebrated  writers 
of  the  time.     Died  in  1836. 

"White,  (Henry  Kirke,)  often  called  Kirke  "White, 
an  English  poet,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1785.  As  a 
child,  he  was  remarkable  for  precocity  of  intellect,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  ancient 
and  modern  languages,  music,  and  natural  science. 
Elaving  previously  made  several  contributions  to  the 
"Monthly  Mirror"  and  other  literary  journals,  he  pub- 
lished about  1803  a  collection  of  poems,  which  were 
severely  criticised  by  the  reviewers.  The  volume,  how- 
evei,  attracted  the  notice  of  Southey,  who  subsequently 
became  his  warm  friend  and  generous  patron.  Having 
about  this  time  experienced  deep  religious  impressions, 
it  became  his  earnest  desire  to  educate  himself  for  the 
ministry.  Through  the  assistance  of  several  friends,  he 
was  enabled  to  enter  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1804.  His  severe  application  to  study  and  the  excite- 
ment of  preparing  for  examination  were  too  much  for 
his  originally  frail  constitution,  and  he  fell  into  a  rapid 
decline,  dying  in  October,  1806.  His  works,  in  prose 
and  verse,  were  published  in  1807  by  Southey,  with  a 
very  interesting  biography. 

See,  also,  Sommermeyer,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
H  Kirke  White,"  1847 j  Carv,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  White;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  January,  iSio. 

"White,  (Hugh  Lawson,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Iredell  county.  North  Carolina,  in  October, 
1773.  He  removed  to  Knox  county,  Tennessee,  in  1786, 
and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  that 
State  in  1801.  In  1825  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  Tennessee.  He  received  twenty-six 
electoral  votes  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1836, 
and  was  re-elected  a  Senator  in  the  same  year,  but  he 
resigned  his  seat  in  1839.     Died  at  Knoxville  in  1840. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

"White,  (James,)  an  Irish  novelist  and  poet,  wrote 
romances  entitled  "  Adventures  of  John  of  Gaunt," 
"Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,"  and  "Conway  Castle,  and 
other  Poems."     Died  in  1 799. 


"White,  (Rev.  James,)  an  English  dramatist  and  his- 
torian, born  in  1785.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries,"  (1858,)  "Land- 
marks of  the  History  of  Greece,"  and  a  "  History  of 
England,"  (1861.)     Died  in  1862. 

"White,  (Jeremy,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Restoration  of  All  Things,"  in 
support  of  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation.  Died 
in  1707. 

"White  or  "Whyte,  (John,)  an  English  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Surrey  in  151 1,  was  made  liishop  of  Winchester 
under  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.     Died  in  1560. 

"White,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  popular 
preacher,  sometimes  called  "  the  Patriarch  of  Dorches- 
ter," was  born  in  1574  ;  died  in  1648. 

"White,  (John,)  called  Century  White,  an  English 
lawyer  and  nonconformist,  born  in  Peml)rokeshire  in 
1590.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  in  1640, 
and  sat  as  a  lay  assessor  in  the  Assembly  of  Divines 
at  Westminster.  He  published  "The  P'irst  Century  of 
Scandalous  Malignant  Priests  made  and  adtnitted  into 
Benefices  by  the  Prelates,"  etc.     Died  in  1645. 

"White,  (John,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  1S05. 
He  represented  a  district  of  Kentucky  in  Congress 
from  1835  to  1845,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  December,  1841,  to  March,  1843. 
Died  in  1845. 

"White,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,an  English  divine  and  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Gloucestershire  about  1746.  He  studied 
at  Wadhain  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1775  became  Laudian 
professor  of  Arabic  in  the  university.  In  1783  he  de- 
livered the  Bampton  lectures,  which  were  afterwards 
published  under  the  title  of  "  A  View  of  Christianity  and 
Mahometanism,  in  their  History,  their  Evidence,  and 
their  Effects."  They  won  for  him  a  high  reputation  and 
the  office  of  prebendary  in  the  cathedral  of  Gloucester. 
It  was  soon  after  discovered,  however,  that  they  were  in 
great  part  the  composition  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Badcock 
and  Dr.  Samuel  Parr,  who  had  been  emjjloyed  by  Dr. 
White  to  assist  him.  He  published,  in  1800,  his  "  Dia- 
tessaron,"  which  was  followed  by  his  "  /Egyptiaca,  or 
Observations  on  Certain  Antiquities  of  Egypt,"  and 
a  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

"White,  (Joseph  Blanco,)  often  called  Blanco 
White,  a  distinguished  writer,  born  at  Seville,  in  Spain, 
in  1775,  was  descended  from  an  Irish  Catholic  familj 
settled  in  that  country.  In  Spain  he  was  called  Blanco, 
which  he  afterwards  exchanged  for  its  English  equiva- 
lent. He  was  educated  for  the  Church,  but  he  soon 
abandoned  that  profession,  and,  having  settled  in  Eng- 
land, devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  had  been  for 
several  years  editor  of  a  Spanish  journal,  entitled  "  El 
Esjiafiol,"  and,  in  1822,  edited  "  Las  Variedades,"  an- 
other Spanish  periodical.  He  was  also  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Quarterly"  and  "  Westminster"  Reviews,  the 
"Dublin  University  Review,"  and  other  literary  journals. 
Among  his  i^rincipal  works  may  be  named  "  The  Poor 
Man's  Preservative  against  Popery,"  (1825,)  "Second 
Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion," 
(1833,)  and  a  sonnet  entitled  "Night,"  which  is  highl) 
commended  by  Coleridge.     Died  in  1841. 

See  "  The  Life  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Blanco  White,  written  by  Him- 
self," London,  1845;  J.  H.  Thom,  "  Life  of  J.  B.  White,"  3  vols., 
1845;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July.  1825;  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  June,  1845;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1845;  "  British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846, 

"White,  (Julius,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Madi- 
son county,  New  York,  about  1816.  He  served  at  the 
battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  was  second  in 
command  at  Harper's  Ferry  when  Stonewall  Jackson 
captured  that  ))lace,  September  15  of  the  same  year. 

"White  or  Vi'tus,  (Richard,)  an  English  historian 
and  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  Ilainpshire,  became 
a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1557.  He  taught 
law  at  Douai.     Died  in  i6l2. 

"White,  (Richard  Grant,)  an  American  littemteuf, 
born  in  New  York  in  1822,  was  for  a  time  associate 
editor  of  the  "  Courier  and  Enquirer."  He  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  the  leading  literary  periodicals,  and 


■  a.>-  /•;  9  a.s  s;  g  hard:  g  as/.'  G,  H.  K.  ^ittural;  N,  nasal;  K,  CrilUd;  s  as  2/  th  as  in  this.     (J^^.Sec  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


WHITE 


J462 


WHITELOCKE 


published  a  volume  of  critical  essays,  entitled  "  Shake- 
sjjeare's  Scholar,"  (1854,)  an  "  Essay  on  the  Authorship 
of  Henry  VI.,"  and  a  "Life  of  William  Shakespeare," 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Shakespeare's  collected  works 
ill  12  vols.,  (1857-64,)  a  political  satire  entitled  "  The 
New  Gospel  of  Peace,"  (1863,)  "  Words  and  their  Uses," 
(1S70,)  and  "  Every  Day  English,"  (1880.)  A  new  edition 
of  his  Shakspeare,  in  3  vols.,  was  published  in  1883. 
Died  in  New  York,  April  8,  1885. 

White,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  wealthy  citizen  of  London, 
born  in  1492,  became  lord  mayor  of  that  city  in  1553. 
He  was  the  founder  of  Saint  John's  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1566. 

White,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Bristol.  He  became  vicar  of  Saint  Dunstan's,  Fleet 
Street,  London,  in  1575.  He  founded  Sion  College,  in 
London,  and  a  hospital.     Died  in  1623. 

White,  (Thomas,)  [in  Latin,  Thomas  Al'hus  or 
An'glus,]  an  English  philosopher  and  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  1582.  He  lived  mostly  on  the  continent, 
and  published  several  works  on  philosophy,  etc.  Died 
in  1676. 

White,  (Thomas,)  an  English  philosopher,  was  a 
friend  and  correspondent  of  Descartes.     Died  in  1696. 

White,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Kent 
in  1630,  was  made  liishop  of  Peterborough  in  1685.  He 
was  one  of  the  seven  bishops  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
in  1688.     Died  in  1698.  * 

See  Miss  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1866. 

■White,  (Walter,)  an  English  author,  born  about 
1805.  He  was  for  many  years  a  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Society.  He  wrote  many  pleasant  books,  including 
"Mont  Blanc  and  Back,"  (1854,)  "  A  Londoner's  Walk  to 
the  Land's  End,"  (1855,)  "On  Foot  through  the  Tyrol," 
(1856,)  "A  Holiday  in  Saxony,"  (1S57,)  "A  Month  in 
Yorkshire,"  (1S58,)  "Northumberland  and  the  Border," 
(1859,)  "All  Round  the  Wrekin,"  (i860,)  "Eastern  Eng- 
land." (1865,)  etc. 

White,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
bishop,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1748.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1772,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of  Christ 
Church  and  Saint  Peter's  Church,  Philadelphia.  He 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Pennsylvania  in  17S6.  He  pub- 
lished "Comparative  Views  of  the  Controversy  between 
the  Calvinists  and  Arminians,"  and  other  theological 
works.     Died  in  1836. 

See  Bird  Wilson,  "Life  of  Bishop  White,"  1839;  Duvckinck, 
"Cyclopadia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

White'field,  (hwh'f^ld,)  (George,)  an  eminent  and 
eloquent  English  preacher,  and  the  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Calvinistic  Methodists,  was  born  at  Gloucester  in 
December,  1714.  He  was  a  son  of  an  inn-keeper,  from 
whom  he  inherited  little  or  nothing.  His  mother,  who 
became  a  widow  about  1716,  sent  him  to  a  grammar- 
school.  In  1733  ^^  entered  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
as  a  servitor.  He  had  received  from  nature  a  good  voice 
and  remarkable  rhetorical  talents.  At  college  he  became 
an  intimate  friend  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  with 
whom  he  entered  into  religious  fellowship.  He  was  or- 
dained a  deacon  in  1736,  and  began  soon  after  to  preach 
with  great  eloquence  and  power.  In  1737  he  preached 
in  London,  and  other  places,  to  crowded  congregations, 
who  listened  to  him  with  enthusiastic  admiration.  He 
performed  a  voyage  to  Georgia  in  the  early  part  of  1738, 
instituted  an  orphan-house  at  Savannah,  and  returned 
to  England  in  September  of  that  year.  In  1739  he 
was  ordained  a  priest  by  Bishop  Benson.  Having  been 
excluded  from  the  churches  of  Bristol,  he  adopted  the 
practice  of  preaching  in  the  open  air,  for  which  his 
powerful  voice  was  well  adapted.  He  propagated  the 
Methodist  religion  at  various  places  with  great  success. 
In  the  autumn  of  1739  he  again  crossed  the  Atlantic  to 
America,  where  he  spent  more  than  a  year  in  zealous 
ministerial  labours.  Having  traversed  the  provinces 
from  New  York  to  Georgia,  he  returned  to  England 
in  1741.  Soon  after  this  date  Whitefield  and  Wesley 
ceased  to  co-operate,  in  consequence  of  their  disagree- 
ment in  doctrines.  They  differed  especially  in  the  doc- 
trine of  predestination,  which  Whitefield  accepted,  as  a 
disciple  of  Calvin.     (See  Wesley,  John.)     About  1742 


he  married  a  Welsh  widow  named  Mrs.  James.  They 
had  one  child,  who  died  in  infancy.  He  revisited  the 
American  colonies  in  1744,  and  laboured  among  them 
several  years.  In  1748  he  became  acquainted  with 
Selina,  Countess  of  Huntingdon,  who  appointed  him 
her  chaplain.  Among  the  persons  who  are  said  to  have 
heard  and  admired  his  sermons  were  Hume,  Lord 
Chesterfield,  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  published  a 
journal  of  his  life,  (2d  edition,  1756.)  He  sailed  from 
England  in  1769  on  his  seventh  visit  to  America,  and 
died  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  September,  1770. 
A  collection  of  his  letters,  sermons,  etc.  was  published 
in  six  volumes,  (1771.) 

"  Hume  pronounced  him,"  says  Robert  Southey,  "the 
most  ingenious  preacher  he  had  ever  heard,  and  said  it 
was  worth  while  to  go  twenty  miles  to  hear  him.  But 
perhaps  the  greatest  proof  of  his  persuasive  powers  was 
when  he  drew  from  Benjamin  Franklin's  pocket  the 
money  which  that  clear,  cool  reasoner  had  determined 
not  to  give."*   ("Life  of  John  Wesley.") 

See  J.  Gillies,  "Life  of  George  Whitefield,"  1772:  "Genuine 
and  Secret  Memoirs  relating  to  that  Arch- Methodist,  G.  Whitefield," 
Oxford,  1742;  ScHAFFSHAUSEN,  "  Historia  Methodistarum  et  Vita 
Whitefield,"  1743;  Robert  Philip,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  the 
Rev.  George  Whitefield,"  1838:  R.  Southey,  "Life  of  John  Wes- 
ley ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1838. 

White'hgad,    (Cortlandt,)    D.D.,    an    American 

bishop,  born  in  New  York  city,  October  30,  1842,  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1863,  and  at  the  Philadelphia 
Divinity  School  (Episcopalian)  in  1867,  was  ordained  a 
deacon  in  1867  and  a  priest  in  1868,  was  a  missionary  in 
Colorado,  1867-70,  and  rector  at  South  Bethlehem,  Penn- 
sylvania, 1870-82,  and  in  1882  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Pittsburgh. 

White'hSad,  (David,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Hampshire,  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne  Boleyn. 
He  was  appointed  Archbishop  o^ Armagh  in  1552,  went 
into  exile  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  and  preached 
at  Frankfort  In  1558  he  returned  to  England.  Died 
in  1571. 

Whitehead,  (George,)  an  English  Quaker  preacher, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1636,  procured  for  the  society 
of  which  he  was  a  member  the  allowance  of  an  affirm- 
ation in  the  courts  of  law,  instead  of  the  customary  oath. 
He  was  a  personal  friend  of  George  Fox.    Died  in  1725. 

Whitehead,  (John,)  a  Methodist  divine  and  phy- 
sician, who  preached  John  Wesley's  funeral  sermon, 
and  afterwards  published  Memoirs  of  his  life.  Died 
in  1804. 

Whitehead,  (Paul,)  an  English  satiric  poet,  born 
in  London  in  1710.  His  political  satire  entitled  "The 
State  Dunces"  was  dedicated  to  Pope,  and  was  followed 
by  "Manners,"  (1739,)  "The  Gymnasiad,"  (1744,)  and 
"Honour,"  all  of  which  were  conspicuous  for  their 
virulence  and  daring  personalities.  He  was  an  associate 
of  Wilkes,  Sir  Francis  Dashwood,  and  other  profligate 
wits  of  the  time.     Died  in  1774. 

Whitehead,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  drama- 
tist, born  at  Cambridge  in  1715.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1757  succeeded  Colley  Cibber  as  poet- 
laureate.  He  published  tragedies  entitled  "  The  Roman 
Father"  and  "Creusa,  Queen  of  Athens,"  "The  School 
for  Lovers,"  a  comedy,  and  numerous  odes,  epistles 
etc     Died  in  178S. 

White'house,  (Henry  John,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  bishop,  born  in  New  York  city,  August  19, 
1803,  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1821,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  in  1824.  In  1827  he 
entered  the  priesthood  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He 
was  consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of  Illinois  in  1 851,  and 
in  1852  succeeded  Bishop  Chase  as  diocesan.  Died 
August  10,  1S74.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious 
works. 

White'hurst,  (John,)  an  English  mechanician  of  dis- 
tinguished talents,  born  in  Cheshire  in  1713  ;  died  in  1788. 

"VVhlte'locke,  (hwh'lpk,)  (Bulstrode,)  an  eminent 
English  statesman  and  lawyer,  born  in  London  in  1605, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  James,  noticed  below.  His  mother 
was  Elizabeth  Bulstrode.  About  1620  he  entered  Saint 
John's  College,  Oxford,  which    he  quitted,  without  a 


•  See  Franklin's  own  account  of  this,  in  his  "  Autobiography." 


e,  i,  6,  fl,  y,  lon^r;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mlv,  nflt;  good;  moon; 


WHITELOCKE 


2463 


WHITNEY 


degree,  to  study  law  in  the  Middle  Temple.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament  for  Great 
Marlow  in  November.  1640,  and  opposed  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  Charles  I.  He  was  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee which  managed  the  impeachment  of  the  Earl  of 
Strafford,  but  was  more  moderate  and  conservative  than 
most  of  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  During  the 
civil  war  he  preferred  the  part  of  mediator  to  that  of  a 
zealous  partisan.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
appointed  to  treat  with  the  king  at  Oxford  in  January, 
1642-43.  About  1648  he  was  nominated  one  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  great  seal.  He  declined  to  take 
any  part  in  the  trial  of  Charles  I.,  which  he  character- 
ized as  a  "bad  business;"  but  he  accepted  office  undei 
Cromwell,  who  had  much  confidence  in  his  integrity 
and  judgment.  In  1653  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Sweden,  negotiated  a  treaty  with  that  power,  and  re- 
turned in  1654.  He  was  a  member  of  Cromwell's 
second  Parliament,  and  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1656,  soon  after  which  he  urged 
Cromwell  to  assume  the  title  of  king,  and  obtained  a 
seat  in  the  new  House  of  Peers  created  by  the  Pro- 
tector. He  was  created  a  viscount  in  August,  165S,  but 
he  would  not  accept  the  title.  After  the  death  of  Oliver 
be  became  president  of  the  council  of  state,  in  1659, 
and  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  which  he  resigned  about 
December,  1659.  At  the  restoration  of  1660  his  name 
was  included  in  the  Act  of  Oblivion.  He  died  in  1676, 
leaving  a  valuable  contribution  to  history,  entitled  "  Me- 
morials of  English  Affairs  from  the  Beginning  of  the 
Reign  of  Charles  I.  to  the  Restoration  of  Charles  H.," 
(1682,)  also  "Memorials  of  English  Affairs  from  the 
Supposed  Expedition  of  Brute  to  this  Island  to  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  James  I.,"  which  was  published  in  1709 
by  William  Penn,  who  prefixed  a  notice  of  the  author's 
life.  An  Account  of  his  Swedish  Embassy  was  pub- 
lished in  1772. 

See  GuizoT,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre ;"  Hume, 
"  History  of  England ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Whitelocke,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  in  1570,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1620,  and  afterwards  be- 
came a  judge  of  the  common  pleas.  He  had  a  good 
reputation  for  fidelity  to  the  duties  of  his  office.  Died 
in  1632. 

"White'side,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  Irish  jurist  and 
conservative  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Wicklow 
about  1806.  Pie  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
subsequently  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer 
and  orator.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  counsel  in  the 
defence  of  O'Connell  in  1843,  ^"^  ^'^o  defended  Meagher 
and  Smith  O'Brien  in  the  trials  of  1848.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Enniskillen  in  1851,  and  in  1859  was 
returned  for  the  University  of  Dublin.  He  became 
ibout  1866  lord  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  queen's 
bench  in  Ireland.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Italy 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (1849.)    Died  Nov.  25,  1876. 

Whit'field,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  Anglo-American  arch- 
bishop, born  in  Liverpool,  England,  November  3,  1770, 
studied  divinity  at  Lyons,  and  in  1809  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest.  In  1817  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  1828  he  was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Balti- 
more.    Died  October  19,  1834. 

Whit'gift,  (John,)  an  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and 
learned  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Great  Grimsby, 
Lincolnshire,  in  1530.  He  entered  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge,  about  1548,  and  afterwards  removed  to 
Pembroke  Hall.  In  1554  he  took  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts.  He  adopted  the  Protestant  doctrines 
at  an  early  age,  and,  after  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary,  he  was  protected  from  persecution  by  his  friend 
Andrew  Perne.  Having  entered  into  holy  orders  in 
1560,  he  gained  distinction  as  a  preacher  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  resided  many  years  after  the  date  just  n^med. 
He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  in  1563, 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall  in  1567,  and  chaplain  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  same  year.  About  1568  he  was 
Appointed  master  of  Trinity  College  and  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity.  He  appeared  as  a  champion  of  the 
Established  Church  and  its  liturgy  in  a  controversy 
against  Cartwright,  who  was  a  Puritan.    In  1571  he  was 


appointed  Dean  of  Lincoln.  The  constitution  and  lit- 
urgy of  the  Church  of  England  having  been  attacked 
in  a  Puritan  work  called  "An  Admonition  to  Parlia- 
ment," VVhitgift  defended  the  Church  with  much  ability 
in  his  "  Answer  to  the  Admonition  to  Parliament," 
(1572.)  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Worcester  in 
1576,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  queen  by  his  zeal  and 
severity  against  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Puritans.  He 
succeeded  Grindal  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1583, 
and  initiated  vigorous  measures  to  enforce  conformity  to 
all  the  doctrines,  forms,  and  discipline  of  the  Church. 
He  required  all  clergymen  to  subscribe  to  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles,  and  to  recognize  the  queen  as  the 
supreme  head  of  the  Church.  His  intolerance  and  per- 
secuting spirit  are  said  to  have  driven  many  persons 
into  dissent.  "  Honest  and  well-intentioned,"  says  Gar- 
diner, "  but  narrow-minded  to  an  almost  incredible 
degree,  the  one  thought  which  filled  his  mind  was  the 
hope  of  bringing  the  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land at  least  to  an  outward  conformity."  Lord  Burghley 
remonstrated  against  his  intolerant  conduct,  without 
effect.  Whitgift  declined  the  office  of  lord  chancellor 
in  1587.  He  founded  a  hospital  at  Croydon.  On  the 
death  of  Elizabeth  (1602)  he  sent  Dr.  Nevil  to  Scotland 
to  court  the  favour  of  James  I.  He  took  part  in  the 
conference  at  Hampton  Court  in  January,  1604.  Died 
in  February,  1604. 

See  Strvpb,  "Life  and  Acts  of  John  Whitgift,"  1718;  Sir 
George  Paule,  "Life  of  Whitgift,"  1699:  Gardiner,  "History 
of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i.  ch.  iii. ;  "  Retrospective  Re- 
view," vol.  xiii.,  (1826.) 

Whi'ting,  (Henry,)  an  American  general  of  the 
United  States  army,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  in  Massa- 
chusetts. He  wrote  various  articles  for  the  "  North 
American  Review."  Died  at  an  advanced  age  in  Saint 
Louis,  Missouri,  in  1851. 

Whiting,  (William,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Concord,  Massachusetts,  March  3,  1S13.  He  gradu- 
ated in  1833  at  Harvard  College,  and  at  the  Dane  Law 
School  in  1838.  He  was  solicitor  to  the  United  States 
war  department,  1863-65,  and  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1872.  Died  at  Boston,  June  29,  1873.  His  principal 
work  is  "  The  War  Powers  of  the  President,  and  the 
Legislative  Powers  of  Congress,"  (1862.) 

Whiting,  (William  li.  C.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1825,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861, 
and  became  a  major-general  in  1863.  He  commanded 
at  Fort  Fisher  in  December,  1864,  and  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  the  capture  of  that  fort,  in  January,  1865.  He 
died  in  prison,  March,  1865. 

Whit'lock,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  actress,  born 
in  1761,  was  a  sister  of  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Siddons. 
She  was  married  in  1785  to  Mr.  Whitlock,  manager  of 
the  Newcastle  Theatre.     Died  in  1836. 

Whit'man,  (Sarah  Helen  Power,)  an  American 
poetess,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1S13,  pub- 
lished "  Hours  of  Life,  and  other  Poems,"  (1853,)  and 
a  work  entitled  "Edgar  Poe  and  his  Critics,"^  (i860.) 
With  her  sister,  Anna  M.  Power,  she  wrote  "  Fairy  Bal- 
lads."    She  died  [une  27,  1878. 

Whitman,  (Walt,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  West 
Hills,  Long  Island,  May  31,  1819.  Educated  in  public 
schools,  he  learned  first  the  printer's  and  then  the  car- 
penter's trade,  and  for  some  tiine  was  a  journalist  of 
New  York.  He  published  "Leaves  of  Grass,"  (1855  ; 
much  enlarged,  18S1,)  "Drum-Taps,"  (1865,)  "Two 
Rivulets,"  (1873,)  and  "Specimen  Days  and  Collect," 
(1883.) 

Whit'more,  (William  Henry,)  an  American  anti- 
quary, born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  September  6, 
1836.  Among  his  works  are  "  Hand-Book  of  American 
Genealogy,"  (1862,)  "The  Cavalier  Dismounted,"  (1865,) 
"Elements  of  Heraldry,"  (1866,)  "The  American  Gene- 
alogist," (1866,)  and  many  genealogical  lists,  etc. 

Whit'ney,  (Adeline  D.  Train,)  a  popular  American 
writer,  born  in  Boston  in  1824.  Among  her  works  are 
"Mother  Goose  for  Grown  Folks,"  (i860,)  "Faith  Gart- 
ney's  Girlhood,"  (1863,)  "The  Gayworthys,"  (1865,) 
"  Patience  Strong's  Outings,"  (1868,)  and  "Hitherto:  a 
Story  of  Yesterday,"  (1869.) 

Whitney,  (Eli,)  the  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin,  \vas 


€  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g asyV  G,  H,  K,gntttiral:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  «.•  th  as  in  this.     ( J[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHITNEY 


2464 


WHITTINGHAM 


born  at  Westborough,  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts, 
December  8,  1765.  He  displayed  great  mechanical  in- 
genuity in  his  early  youth,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1792,  and  went  to  Georgia  to  teach  school.  He  became 
an  inmate  in  the  household  of  General  Greene's  widow, 
near  Savannah,  where,  about  the  end  of  1792,  he  invented 
the  cotton-gin  for  separating  the  cotton  from  the  seed. 
In  May,  1793,  he  formed  with  Phineas  Miller  a  partner- 
ship for  the  manufacture  of  the  gins.  Before  he  had 
obtained  a  patent  for  his  invention,  some  persons  broke 
open  his  premises  by  night  and  carried  off  his  model 
machine.  He  was  thus  defrauded  of  his  just  reward, 
and  was  involved  in  much  trouble  by  the  infringements 
of  his  patent.  "The  South,"  says  Horace  Greeley, 
"fairly  swarmed  with  pirates  on  the  invention,  of  all 
kinds  and  degrees."  When  he  prosecuted  those  who 
infringed  his  patent,  the  juries  of  Georgia  decided  for 
the  defendants.  The  legislature  of  South  Carolina  paid 
him  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  his  patent-right  about 
1804.  Despairing  of  gaining  a  competence  by  this  in- 
vention, he  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms  near 
New  Haven  in  1798.  He  made  great  improvements  in 
the  construction  of  fire-arms,  and  acquired  an  inde 
pendent  fortune  in  that  business.  He  married  in  1817 
a  daughter  of  Judge  Pierpont  Edwards.  "  We  cannot 
express,"  says  Judge  Johnson,  (in  1807,)  "the  weight  of 
the  obligation  which  the  country  owes  to  this  invention," 
(the  cotton-gin.)  Robert  Fulton  expressed  the  opinion 
that  "  Arkwright,  Watt,  and  Whitney  were  the  three 
men  that  did  most  for  mankind  of  any  of  their  contem- 
poraries."    He  died  at  New  Haven  in  January,  1825. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Eli  Whitney,"  in  "  Silliman's  Journal,"  Jan- 
uary, 1S32,  by  Professor  Olmsted;  Henrv  Howe,  "Lives  of 
Eminent  American  Mechanics,"  1847;  Greklev,  "American  Con- 
flict," vol.  iL  pp.  58-66. 

Whitney,  (Josiah  Dwight,)  an  American  scientist, 
was  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  November 
23,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1839.  In 
1842-3,  and  1846,  he  studied  in  Europe  under  Elie  de 
Beaumont,  Rammelsberg,  Heinrich  Rose,  Liebig,  and 
others.  He  was  employed,  as  assistant,  on  the  geo- 
logical survey  of  New  Hampshire  in  1840;  in  1847-50, 
on  that  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  as  assistant  and 
principal ;  in  1855-60,  partly  on  that  of  Iowa  and  Wis- 
consin;  and  in  i860  he  was  appointed  State  geologist 
of  California,  which  ofiSce  he  still  holds:  being  at  the 
same  time  (since  1865)  professor  of  practical  geology  in 
Harvard  College  and  head  of  its  mining  school.  Apart 
from  the  reports  of  the  surveys  in  which  he  has  been 
engaged,  he  has  published  a  translation  of  "Berzelius 
on  the  Blowpipe,"  (Boston,  1845,)  a  work  "On  the 
Metallic  Wealth  of  the  United  States,  described  and 
compared  with  that  of  other  Countries,"  (Philadelphia, 
1854,)  and  many  scientific  papers  in  "Silliman's  Jour- 
nal," the  "  North  American  Review,"  etc.  He  is  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  established  by  Congress  in  1863.  He  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Yale  College  in  1870. 

Whitney,  (William  Dwight,)  a  distinguished  phi- 
lologist and  Oriental  scholar,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  February  9,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Williams 
College  in  1845.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Tiibingen 
in  1850-53,  and  published,  (Berlin,  1856,)  in  conjunction 
with  Professor  R.  Roth,  the  Sanscrit  text  of  the  Atharva- 
Veda,  from  a  collation  of  all  the  known  manuscripts  in 
Europe.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  professor  of  San- 
scrit and  comparative  philology  at  Yale  College.  Since 
1857  he  has  been  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Oriental  Society,  and  a  principal  editor  of  its  Journal, 
to  which  his  most  miportant  contributions  have  been  a 
trai^slation,  with  notes,  of  the  "  Sfirya-Siddhanta,"  fully 
iliust.-ated  editions  of  two  of  the  "  Prati^akhyas,"  criti- 
cisms on  the  Standard  Alphabet  of  Lepsius,  and  on 
the  views  of  Biot,  Weber,  and  Miiller  on  the  Hindoo 
and  Chinese  Asterisms,  etc.  He  has  also  furnished 
many  articles  to  other  periodicals,  as  the  "  North  Amer- 
ican Review,"  "New  Englander,"  "Nation,"  and  to  the 
"  New'  American  Cyclopaedia."  He  contributed  valuable 
material  to  the  great  Sanscrit  Dictionary  of  Bohtlingk 
and  Roth.  His  other  published  works  have  been  a  vol- 
ume of  "  L-ectures  on  Language  and  the  Study  of  Lan- 


guage," (1867,)  a  "Compendious  German  Grammar," 
(1869,)  and  a  "German  Reader,"  (1870.)  He  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  Ph.D.  from  the  University  of 
Breslau  in  1861,  and  that  of  LL.D.  from  Williams  College 
in  1868,  and  from  William  and  Mary  College,  Virginia, 
in  1869.  In  1869  he  was  chosen  first  president  of  the 
American  Philological  Association.  In  1870  his  "  Tait- 
tiriya-Prati9akhya"  received  the  Bopp  prize  from  the 
Berlin  Academy.  As  a  critic  and  writer  on  subjects 
connected  with  philology,  Professor  Whitney  is  no  less 
distinguished  for  his  clear  insight  and  sound  judgment 
than  fjr  his  accurate,  profound,  and  varied  learning. 

Whi'ton,  (James  Morris,)  Ph.D.,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  in  Boston,  April  n,  1833,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1853,  entered  the  Congregational  ministry, 
was  at  the  head  of  important  schools  in  New  Haven, 
(1854-64.)  and  in  Easthampton,  Massachusetts,  (1876-78,) 
and  held  pastorates  in  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  (1865-75,) 
and  in  Newark,  New  Jersey.  He  has  published  "The 
Gospel  of  the  Resurrection."  "  Is  Eternal  Punishment 
Endless  V  "  From  Seers  to  Prophets,"  etc.,  and  prepared 
several  Greek  and  Latin  textbooks,  and  an  edition  of 
the  Orations  of  Lysias. 

Whit'ta-ker,  (Frkderick,)  a  writer,  born  in  London, 
England,  December  12,  1S38.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1850,  and  served  as  a  soldier  and  cavalry  officer 
in  the  war  of  1861-65.  He  has  published  a  "  Life  of  Gen- 
eral Custer,"  (1876,)''"  Cadet  Button,"  (1878,)  and  many 
popular  tales. 

Whittaker,  (Ozi  William,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  New  Salem,  Massachusetts,  May  10,  1830, 
graduated  at  Middlebury  College  in  1856,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  in  1863,  in  which  year  he 
was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1869 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Nevada. 

Whittemore,  hw!t'mor,  (Amos,)  a  mechanician, 
born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1759,  was  the  in- 
ventor of  a  machine  for  sticking  cards.     Died  in  1828. 

"Whittemore,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  an  American  Uni- 
versalist  divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1800,  was  for  many 
years  editor  of  "  The  Trumpet,"  a  religious  journal. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  Universalism,"  "  Songs  of 
Zion,"  and  a  "Life  of  Hosea  Ballou,"  (3  vols.,  1854-55.) 
Died  in  1861. 

Whittier,  hwit'te-er,  (John  Greenleaf,)  a  distin- 
guished American  poet,  was  born  at  Haverhill,  Massa- 
chusetts, December  17,  1807.  He  was  educated  by 
his  parents  in  the  principles  of  the  Friends  or  Quakers, 
with  which  denomination  he  has  always  remained  in 
connection.  He  had  not  the  advantage  of  a  classical 
education.  In  1830  he  became  editor  of  the  "New  Eng- 
land Weekly  Review,"  and  in  1831  published  his  "Le- 
gends of  New  England,"  a  collection  of  Indian  traditions. 
Having  early  identified  himself  with  the  anti-slavery 
party,  he  assumed  about  1838  the  editorship  of  the 
"  Pennsylvania  Freeman,"  one  of  the  organs  of  the 
Ame'ican  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  in  which  many  of 
his  finest  lyrics  first  appeared.  He  was  for  a  time  cor- 
responding editor  of  the  "National  Era,"  published  at 
Washington.  In  addition  to  the  above-named  works,  he 
has  published  ".Songs  of  Labour,  and  other  Poems," 
(1851,)  "The  Chapel  of  the  Hermits,"  etc.,  (1853,) 
"Home  Ballads  and  Poems,"  (1859,)  "In  War-Tinie, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1S63,)  "National  Lyrics,"  (1S65,) 
"Snow-Bound;  a  Winter  Idyl,"  (1866,)  "The  Teuton 
the  Beach,"  (1867,)  "Among  the  Hills,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1868,)  "Ballads  of  New  England,"  (1869,) 
"Miriam,  and  other  Poems,"  (1870,)  "The  Pennsylvania 
Pilgrim,  and  other  Poems,"  (1872,)  "  Ilnzel  Blossoms," 
(1S74,)  "Mabel  Martin,"  (1875,)  "The  Vision  of  Echard, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1878,)  "The  King's  Missive,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1881,)  and  "The  Bay  of  Seven  Island.s," 
(1SS3.)  Nearly  all  the  ])roductions  of  Whittier  in  his 
happier  hours  are  characterized  by  intense  feeling,  and 
by  all  the  spirit  of  the  true  lyric  poet.  (For  some  excel- 
lent remarks  on  the  characteristics  of  Whittier,  see  the 
"  Fable  for  Critics,"  by  Lowell,  whose  sketch,  though 
"  drawn  from  a  Mephistophelian  stand-point,"  is  none 
the  less  just  or  the  less  complimentary  on  that  account.) 

Whittingham,  hwit'ing-am,  (Sir  Samuel  Ford,)  a 
British    general,    who  served   in    the    Peninsular    war. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long:  i.  t.  6, .same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,y, short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fhr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  -iSt;  good;  moon; 


WHITTINGHAM 


2465 


WICKLIFFE 


(1809-13.)     He  became  in  1839  commander-in-chief  at 
Madras,  where  he  died  in  1840  or  1841. 

Whittingham,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  min- 
ister, born  at  Chester  in  1524.  He  visited  France  in 
1550,  married  a  sister  of  Calvin  at  Orleans,  and  returned 
home  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  After  the  accession 
of  Mary  he  went  into  exile,  and  succeeded  John  Knox 
as  pastor  at  Geneva,  where  he  assisted  in  an  English 
translation  of  the  Bible.  He  became  Dean  of  Durham 
in  1563.  Dr.  Sandys,  Archbishop  of  York,  in  1577 
brought  against  him  a  charge  of  thirty-five  articles,  one 
of  which  was  that  he  was  ordained  at  Geneva  only. 
Whittingham  appealed  to  the  queen,  who  appointed  a 
commission  to  try  the  case.  Before  the  case  was  decided, 
^e  died,  in  1589. 

Whittingham,  hwit'ing-am,  (William  Rollinson,) 
D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1805, 
was  elected  in  1840  Bishop  of  Maryland.  He  published 
a  number  of  sermons,  etc.     Died  October  16,  1879. 

Whit'ting-tpn,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  famous  citizen  of 
London,  was  thrice  elected  lord  mayor  of  the  city.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  benefactor  to  the  public.  Died 
in  1423. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  R.  Whittington,"  London,  1811. 

Whittington,  (Robert,)  an  English  grammarian  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Lichfield  about  14S0.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Epigrammata,"  and  other  Latin  verses  of 
great  elegance,  and  of  several  grammatical  works. 

"Whittle,  hwTt't'l,  (Francis  McNeece,)  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  bishop,  born  in  Mecklenburg  county,  Vir- 
ginia, July  7,  1823,  graduated  in  1847  at  the  Theological 
School  near  Alexandria,  and  in  1848  was  ordained  a 
presbyter  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  186S  he  was 
consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of  Virginia,  becoming 
diocesan  bishop  in  1876. 

Whit'tle-sey,  (  Fredfrick,  )  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Washington,  Connecticut,  in  1799.  He  settled 
at  Rochester,  New  York,  in  1822,  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1831,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  New  York.     Died  at  Rochester  in  1851. 

Whit'trfdge,  (Worthington,)  an  American  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Springfield,  Ohio,  May  22,  1820. 
He  began  to  study  art  in  Cincinnati,  went  to  Paris  in 
1849,  and  remained  in  Europe  from  1849  to  1859,  work- 
ing in  Paris,  Dusseldorf,  the  Low  Countries,  and  Rome. 
He  first  exhibited  in  New  York  in  1845,  ^"<^  '"  '859 
was  chosen  to  the  National  Academy.  Among  his  best- 
known  works  are  "The  Old  Hunting-Grounds,"  "  Lake 
Shawangunk, — Twilight,"  "The  Pilgrimage  to  Saint- 
Roche,"  "  Tlie  Rocky  Mountains,  from  the  Platte  River," 
and  "The  Old  House  by  the  Sea." 

Whit'ty,  (Edward  Michael,)  an  English  journalist, 
born  at  Liverpool  in  1827,  has  been  associate  editor  of 
"The  Times,"  the  "Daily  News,"  and  other  prominent 
journals. 

Whit'worth,  (Charles,)  an  English  diplomatist, 
born  in  Staffordshire  in  1670.  He  was  ambassador  to 
Russia  in  1710,  and  was  afterwards  employed  in  im- 
portant missions  to  Prussia  and  the  Hague.  He  was 
minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of  Cambray  in 
1722.  He  died  in  1725,  having  been  created  Baron 
VVhitworthof  Galway  in  1721.  His  "Account  of  Russia 
as  it  was  in  the  Year  1710"  was  published  after  hia 
death,  by  Horace  Walpole. 

Whitworth,  (Charles,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Kent  in  1754.  He  was  sent  in  1788  as  envoy- 
extraordinary  and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Russia, 
remaining  in  that  country  until  1800,  when  he  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Copenhagen.  He  was  ambassador-extra- 
ordinary to  the  French  court  in  1802,  appointed  Viceroy 
of  Ireland  in  1813,  and  in  1815  created  Baron  Aldbaston 
and  Earl  Whitworth.     Died  in  1825. 

WhitTworth,  (Joseph,)  an  English  engineer  and 
mechanician,  born  at  Manchester  about  1805,  invented 
the  rifle  called  by  his  name.  He  also  made  great 
improvements  in  cannon  and  other  ordnance.     D.  1887. 

Whym'p^r,  (Edward,)  an  English  traveller  and 
artist,  born  in  London,  April  27,  1840.  His  father  was 
an  able  engraver  and  painter.  Edward  Whymper  won 
early  distinction  as  a  mountain-climber.  He  was  the 
first  to  ascend  the  Matterhorn  (1865)  and  Chiniborazo, 


(1879.)  He  travelled  in  Greenland  and  in  South  America, 
and  made  valuable  collections  of  zoological  and  geologi- 
cal material.  He  published  "  Scrambles  amongst  the 
Alps,"  (1871.) 

Whymper,  (Frederick,)  an  English  traveller,  author 
of  "Travel  and  Adventure  in  Alaska,"  (1868,)  "  Heroes 
of  the  Arctic,"  (1875,)  and  "The  Fisheries  of  the  World," 
(1884.) 

Whytt,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1714.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1746,  first 
physician  to  the  king  in  Scotland  in  1 761,  and  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1764.  He  pul> 
lished  several  medical  works  and  Physiological  Essays. 
Died  in  1766. 

Wiarda,  we-anMi,  (Tilemann  Dothias,)  a  Dutch 
historical  writer,  born  at  Emden  in  1746,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  East  Friesland,"  and  other  similar 
works.     Died  in  1826. 

Wibald,  <^ee'bait,  or  Wibold,  <^ee'bolt,  written  also 
Guibald,  [in  Latin,  Wibol'dus,  Wibal'dus,  or  Gui- 
hal'dus, ]  a  celebrated  monk,  born  at  or  near  Liege 
about  1097.  He  was  employed  in  important  affairs  by 
the  emperor  Lothaire  and  his  successor  Conrad.  He 
was  elected  Abbot  of  Corvey  or  Corbie,  in  Westphalia, 
in  1147.     Died  in  1158. 

Wibaldus.     See  Wibald. 

Wiberg,vee'bgRg,(ANDREAS,)D.D.,  a  Swedish  divine, 
born  in  Helsingland  in  1816,  was  originally  a  Lutheran, 
but  joined  the  Baptists  in  1852.  Having  resided  thjee 
years  in  the  United  States  of  America,  he  became,  after 
his  return,  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Stockholm, 
and  editor  of  "The  Evangelist." 

Wibold  or  Wiboldus.  See  Wibald. 
Wicar,  ve'kSit',  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Lille  in  1762,  was  a  pupil  of 
David.  He  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life 
in  Italy,  and  made  a  valuable  collection  of  the  designs 
of  Italian  masters.  These  are  now  in  the  Museum  of 
Lille.     He  died  at  Rome  in  1834. 

See  DUFAV,  "  Notice  de  Wicar,"  1844. 

Wicherly.    See  Wycherly. 

Wichern,  <^!K'eRn.  (Johann  Heinrich,)  D.D.,  an 
eminent  German  philanchropist  and  divine,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1808.  He  founded  near  that  city,  in  1833, 
a  Rauhes-Haus,  or  reformatory  school  for  destitute  and 
vagrant  children,  and  soon  after  established  the  Insti- 
tute of  Brothers,  for  the  gratuitous  training  of  teachers 
for  such  schools.  He  was  also  chiefly  instrumental  in 
organizing  the  association  known  as  tlie  Inner  Mission 
of  the  German  Evangelical  Church,  of  which  he  published 
an  account  in  1849.     Died  April  7,  1881. 

Wichmann,  MK'min,  (Johann  Ernst,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Hanover  in  1740.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  and,  after  having  visited  London  and  Paris,  was 
appointed  court  physician  at  Hanover.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  work,  entitled  "  Ideas  on  Diagnosis,"  and  other 
medical  treatises.     Died  in  1804. 

Wichmann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  at  Potsdam  in  1775,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow,  and 
afterwards  studied  in  Italy.  He  executed  a  number  of 
portrait-busts  and  statues;  among  the  latter,  that  of  the 
Russian  empress  Alexandra  is  especially  admired.  Died 
in  1836. 

Wichmann,  (Ludwio  Wilhelm,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1785.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  the  same  department  of  sculpture.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  busts  of  Korner,  Schleiermacher, 
Hegel,  and  Henrietta  Sontag.  Wichmann  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Berlin.     Died  in  1859. 

Wick'^r-shani,  (James  Pyle,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Newlin,  Pennsylvania,  March  5,  1S25, 
was  principal  of  various  important  schools,  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  for  Pennsylvania,  1866-81,  and  in 
1882  was  appointed  United  States  minister  to  Denmark. 
Among  his  writings  are  "School  Economy,"  "Methods 
of  Instruction,"  "  History  of  Education  in  Pennsylvania," 
and  some  twenty-five  volumes  of  official  reports  on 
education.  Died  March  25,  1891. 
Wickham.  See  Wykeham. 
WickUff  or  Wickliffe.     See  Wycliffe. 


€  as  /(;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Y.,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  s;  tli  as  in  this. 


][^^See  ICxplanations,  p.  33.) 


VVICLEF 


2466 


WIELAND 


"Wiclef.     See  Wyclifke. 

Wicquefort,  de,  d^h  wik'fort,  (or  vik'foR',)  (Abra- 
ham,) a  Dutch  diplomatist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1598. 
He  was  appointed  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  his 
resident  at  the  French  court,  which  post  he  occupied 
for  upwards  of  thirty  years.  He  was  arrested  in  1658 
by  order  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastille  on  a  charge  of  conveying  secret  intelligence 
to  the  States-General.  Being  released  after  a  year's 
confinement,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country,  and 
on  his  return  to  Holland  was  made  historiographer  to 
the  States,  and  appointed  minister  to  the  Hague  by 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick-LUneburg.  In  1676  he  was 
sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment  on  a  charge  of 
unlawful  correspondence  with  the  enemies  of  his  country. 
He  effected  his  escape  in  1679,  and  died  about  1682. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Ambassador  and  his 
Functions,"  (1681,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces," etc.,  (both  in  French.) 

See  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires ;"  Paquot,  "  M^raoires." 

"Wicquefort,  de,  (Joachim,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  employed  in  divers  negotiations  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  by  Bernard,  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar. 
Died  in  1670. 

"Wida.     See  Weiden. 

Widmanstadt,  (Vit'mdn-stlt',  (Johann  Albrecht,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Neltingen,  near  Ulm,  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  He  studied  languages  in  Italy 
ancj  Spain,  and  returned  to  Germany  in  1541.  He  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  1552.  He  produced  a  New  Testament  in 
Syriac,  (1555.)     Died  before  1559. 

See  Waldau.  "J.  A.  Widmanstadt,"  1796. 

Widmer,  ^it'mer,  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  inventor  and  \ 
manufacturer,  born  in  the  canton  of  Aargau  in  1767, 
was  a  nephew  of  Oberkampf.  He  had  a  manufactory  of 
calico  or  painted  muslins  at  Jouy,  and  invented  the  art 
of  printing  muslins  with  engraved  cylinders  of  copper. 
He  also  invented  a  machine  to  engrave  the  cylinders. 
Died  in  1821. 

"Widnniann,  <^1dn'min,  (Max,)  a  Bavarian  sculptor, 
born  at  Eichstadt  in  i8i2,  studied  at  Munich  under 
Schwanthaler.  He  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he 
executed  his  "  Shield  of  Hercules,"  which  is  ranked 
among  his  master-pieces.  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  statues  of  Rauch  and  of  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
and  the  group  of  "A  Hunter  Defending  his  Family  from 
a  Panther."  In  1848  he  succeeded  Schwanthaler  as 
professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Munich. 

Widukind.     See  Wittekind. 

"Wiebeking,  <^ee'beh-king',  (Karl  Friedrtch,)  a 
celebrated  German  engineer  and  scientific  writer,  born 
at  Wollin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1762.  He  rose  through 
several  offices  to  be  general  inspector  of  roads  and 
canals  in  Bavaria  in  1805.  He  published  several  works 
of  great  merit,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "Theo- 
retical and  Practical  Naval  Architecture,"  ( JVasser- 
bauktmst,)  (5  vols.,  1805,)  "Theoretical  and  Practical 
Civil  Architecture,"  (4  vols.,  1821,  with  109  plates,)  and 
"  Historical  Analysis  of  the  Monuments  of  Antiquity," 
etc..  (1840,)  the  last-named  in  French.     Died  in  1S42. 

"Wied,  Prince  of.     See  Maximilian. 

Wiedemann,  ^ee'deh-m3.n',  (Ludwig,)  a  German 
statuary  and  founder,  born  at  Nordlingen  in  1690;  died 
in  1754. 

"Wieden  or  Wida.     See  Weiden. 

Wiegleb,  <VeeG'lSp,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man chemist,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1732.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Progress  and 
Discoveries  in  Chemistry  among  the  Ancients,"  (1791.) 
Died  in  1800. 

Wiegmann,  <^eeG'miln,  (Arend  Friedrich  Au- 
gust,) a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1S02, 
published,  conjointly  with  Ruthe,  a  "Manual  of  Zoology," 
(1832,)  and  founded  in  1835  a  journal  entitled  "Archives 
for  Natural  History."     Died  in  1841. 

Wieland,  wee'land,  [Ger.  pron.  ^^ee'lint ;  Lat.  Wie- 
lan'dius,]  (CHRisroPH  Martin,)  a  celebrated  German 
poet,  born  at  Oberholzheim,  near  Biberach,  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  September  5,  1733,  was  a  son  of  a  Protestant 


clergyman.  About  the  age  of  twelve  he  began  to 
write  verses  in  German  and  in  Latin.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Academy  of  Klosterbergen,  near  Magdeburg,  in  his 
fourteenth  year,  and  became  a  good  classical  scholar. 
Having  returned  to  his  father's  house  at  Biberach  in 
1750,  he  fell  in  love  with  his  cousin,  Sophia  von  Gutcr- 
niann,  who  was  afterwards  known  as  an  authoress  under 
the  name  of  Madame  de  Laroche.  Inspired  by  this 
passion,  he  wrote  a  didactic  poem  "  On  the  Nature 
of  Things,  or  the  Most  Perfect  World,"  (1751.)  He 
entered  the  University  of  Tubingen  as  a  student  of  law 
about  the  end  of  1750;  but  he  gave  his  attention  more 
to  classical  literature  and  philosophy.  He  produced  in 
1752  "Ten  Moral  Epistles"  in  verse,  which  present  the 
first  indication  of  that  Socratic  and  Horatian  irony  in 
which  he  afterwards  excelled.  His  poem  "  Arminius" 
or  "Hermann"  (1752)  procured  for  him  the  friendship 
of  Bodmer,  who  invited  him  to  Zurich.  He  accepted 
the  invitation,  and  passed  several  years  in  the  house  of 
Bodmer,  wiio  exercised  a  temporary  influence  over  his 
literary  character.  Under  this  influence  Wieland  wrote 
"  The  Trial  of  Abraham,"  ("  Der  gepriifte  Abraham," 
1753,)  and  "Letters  from  the  Dead  to  their  Living 
Friends,"  (i753-) 

The  religious  enthusiasm  of  his  youth  was  followed 
by  a  reaction,  and  his  imagination  became  more  sober 
as  his  reason  was  more  developed.  In  1754  he  ceased 
to  reside  in  the  house  of  Bodmer;  but  he  remained  at 
Zurich  about  four  years  longer,  as  tutor  in  private 
families.  In  1757  he  produced  five  cantos  of  "Cyrus," 
an  epic  poem,  which  he  never  finished.  He  afterwards 
wrote  a  beautiful  poem  entitled  "  Araspesand  Panthea," 
(1758.)  He  resided  a  short  time  at  Berne,  from  which 
he  removed  in  1760  to  Biberach,  where  he  became  inti- 
mate with  Count  Stadion,  and  renewed  his  intimacy  with 
his  cousin  Sophie,  who  had  been  married  to  M.  de  La- 
roche. Wieland  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  Biberach,  or  director  of  the  chancery.  He  produced 
a  translation  of  Shakspeare's  dramas,  (8  vols.,  1762-66.) 
This  was  the  first  version  of  Shakspeare  that  had 
appeared  in  the  German  language.  Wieland  was  not 
specially  qualified  for  this  task,  his  genius  being  by  no 
means  Shakspearian. 

In  1765  he  married  a  lady  of  Augsburg,  with  whom 
he  lived  happily  for  many  years.  His  works  written 
after  1760  are,  unhappily,  tainted  with  sensuality  and 
epicureanism.  He  published  in  1766  his  best  novel, 
"  Agathon,"  which,  said  Lessing,  "is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  books  of  our  age,"  His  poem  entitled 
"  Musarion"  (1768)  was  admired  for  its  graceful  style 
and  ingenious  irony.  In  1769  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Erfurt.  He  produced  numerous  works  in 
rapid  succession,  and  was  much  censured  by  the  critics 
because  the  tone  of  his  later  works  was  not  so  religious 
as  that  of  his  first.  He  defended  himself  with  the 
weapons  of  satire  and  humorous  invective,  in  "Love 
Accused,"  ("  Der  verklagte  Amor,")  and  "  The  Manu- 
script of  Diogenes  of  Sinope,"  (1770.)  On  account 
of  his  wit,  combined  with  a  certain  levity,  Wieland  has 
often  been  called  "the  German  Voltaire." 

Having  been  invited  by  the  Duchess  Amelia  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  to  direct  the  education  of  her  sons,  he  removed 
to  Weimar  in  1772.  He  produced,  in  1773,  "Alceste," 
an  opera,  which  had  great  success.  About  the  saiue 
date  he  founded  the  "  Deutscher  Mercur,"  a  monthly 
literary  periodical,  of  which  he  was  the  chief  or  sole 
editor  until  1790,  after  which  it  was  edited  by  Wieland 
and  Bottiger  about  fifteen  years.  He  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Goethe  about  1775.  In  1773  he  published  a 
humorous  work  called  "The  People  of  Abdera,"  ("  Die 
Abderiten,")  and  in  1780  the  romantic  poem  of  "  Obe- 
ron,"  which  is  his  most  celebrated  poetical  production, 
and  which  was  praised  by  Goethe  as  a  master-piece.  It 
combines  a  variety  of  merits, — originality  of  personages, 
]3urity  of  language,  refinement  of  irony,  and  profound- 
ness of  sentiment. 

He  afterwards  produced  a  free  translation  of  the 
Epistles  and  Satires  of  Horace,  (1782-86,)  to  which  he 
added  valuable  commentaries.  lie  also  translated  Lu- 
cian,  (1788-91.)  Among  his  later  works  is  "  Peregrinus 
Proteus,"  (1791.)     He  published  an  edition  of  his  com- 


a,  e,  i, p,  n,  y,  long:\i.,k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  v.,  y,  short; ^.,  e,  i,  o,  obscife:  tHr,  fill,  fSt;  ni^t;  n5t;good;  moon: 


WIELING 


2467 


WILBER  FORCE 


plete  works,  (36  vols.  410,  1794-1802.)  Wieland  was 
the  father  of  fourteen  children.  In  1798  he  purchased  a 
farm  or  country-seat  at  Osmanstadt,  near  Weimar.  He 
enjoyed  in  his  later  years  a  competent  fortune,  and  the 
society  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Herder.  Died  near 
Weimar  in  January,  1813. 

See  Grobhr,  "  C.  M.  Wieland,"  4  vols.,  i8i8:  H.  Doring,  "C. 
M.  Wieland;  biographisches  Denkmal,"  1840:  CANri;,  "Wieland 
ed  i  suoi  Contemporanei,"  1844:  H.  D8ring,  "  C.  M.  Wieland's 
Biographie,"  1853;  Carl  P.  Conz,  "  Laudatio  Wielaiidii,"  1S20; 
Gbrvinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung  ;"  Ladoucktte, 
"  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Wieland,"  1820;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^- 
rale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828. 

Wieling,  ^ee'ling,  (Abraham,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  Westphalia  in  1693.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Utrecht  in  1739.     Died  in  1746. 

Wienbarg,  ^een'b^RG,  (Ludolf,)  a  German  litt^- 
ratiur  and  journalist,  born  in  1803,  was  successively 
associate  editor  of  the  "Deutschen  Revue,"  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  the  "Hamburger  Neue  Zeitung,"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  also  published  "  Holland  in  the 
V'ear  183 1  and  1832,"  and  other  works,  on  various  sub- 
ject.s.     Died  January  2,  1872. 

WieniaTWski,  ^e-ne-Sv'ske,  (Henri,)  a  Polish  vio- 
linist, born  at  Lublin,  June  10,  1835,  was  educated  in  the 
Paris  Conservatory.  He  early  won  eminence  as  a  concert- 
player  and  composer.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1872,  and  was  afterwards  a  professor  in  the  Brussels 
Conservatory.     Died  at  Moscow,  March  31,  1880 

Wier,  van,  vtn  wscr,  written  also  Weier,  (John,) 
a  distinguished  physician,  born  in  North  Brabant  in  1515, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  oppose  the  belief  in 
witchcraft,  in  condemnation  of  which  he  published  a 
work  entitled  "  De  Prasstigiis  Daemonum  et  Incanta- 
tionibus  ac  Veneficiis,"  (1563.)     Died  in  1558. 

See  FopPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica. " 

Wiertz,  weerts  or  veeRts,  (Antoine,)  an  eminent 
Belgian  painter,  born  at  Dinant  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of 
Van  Bree.  He  painted  large  historical  and  religious 
pictures,  among  which  are  "The  Revolt  of  the  Angels" 
and  "  The  Triumph  of  Christ."  The  government  built 
for  him  a  large  atelier,  always  open  to  the  public.  He 
invented  a  new  and  secret  method  of  painting,  which,  it 
is  said,  unites  the  advantages  of  fresco-  and  oil-painting. 
Died  in  1865. 

Wieselgren,  vee'sel-guSn',  (Pkter,)  a  distinguished 
Swedish  writer  and  philanthropist,  born  near  Wexio  in 
1800.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Lund,  and  in 
1834  settled  as  pastor  at  Westerstad,  in  Scania.  He 
became  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  temperance  reform 
and  of  the  Inner  Mission,  and  published,  besides  several 
religious  works,  a  history  of  Swedish  literature,  entitled 
"  Sveriges  Skona  Litteratur,"  (3  vols.,  1833.)  He  was  a 
principal  contributor  to  Palmblad's  "Biographical  Lexi- 
con of  Celebrated  Swedes."     Died  October  11,  1877. 

Wietersheim,  von,  fon  ^ee'tcRs-him',  (Eduakd,)  a 
German  statesman,  born  in  1789,  filled  several  offices 
under  the  Saxon  government,  and  was  appointed  in  1840 
minister  of  public  instruction.     Died  April  16,  1865. 

"Wif'f^n,  (Benjamin  Barron,)  an  English  Quaker 
poet,  a  brother  of  J.  H.  Wiffen,  was  born  near  Woburn 
in  1794.  He  was  a  good  Spanish  scholar,  and  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "  Reformistas  antiguas  espanoies." 
His  published  works  include  a  posthumous  volume  of 
"Poems,"  also  a  "Life  of  Juan  Valdez,"  etc.  Died 
March  3,  1867. 

"Wiffen,  (Jeremiah  Holmes,)  an  English  writer  and 
translator,  born  at  Woburn  in  1792.  Among  his  original 
works  are  poems  entitled  "  Aonian  Hours,"  "The  Luck 
of  Eden  Hall,"  a  ballad,  "Julia  Aiiiinula,  the  Captive 
of  Stamboul,"  and  other  poems,  and  "  Historical  Memoirs 
of  the  House  of  Russell,"  etc.  His  translation  in  the 
Spenserian  stanza  of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered" 
came  out  in  1830.  He  also  translated  the  poems  of 
Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  from  the  Spanish.  He  held  for 
many  years  the  office  of  private  secretary  and  librarian 
to  the  Duke  of  Bedford.     Died  in  1836. 

See  Ali.ibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors:"  "Westminster  Re- 
view" for  1827;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1821. 

"Wig'an,  (Alfred,)  a  popular  English  actor,  born  in 
Kent  in  1S18.     Died  November  29,  1878. 
Wigand,  (^ee'gint,  written  also  Vigand,  (Joilann,) 


a  German  Lutheran  minister,  born  at  Mansfeld  in  1523. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1587. 

Wigand,  (Justus  Heinrich,)  a  German  physician, 
but  more  particularly  distinguished  as  an  accoucheur 
and  writer  on  obstetrics,  was  born  in  1769;  died  at 
Mannheim  in  1817. 

Wigand,  (Otto  Friedrich,)  a  German  publisher, 
born  at  Gottingen  in  1795.  Among  his  ])ul)lications 
was  a  "  Conversations-Lexikon"  for  the  people,  begun 
in  1845. 

Wigand,  (Paul,)  a  German  jurist  and  historian,  born 
at  Cassel  in  1786.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Secret  Tribunal  of  Westphalia,"  and  various  other 
works  on  German  history,  law,  and  antiquities.  Died 
in  1866. 

Wigard,  <^ee'giRt,  (Franz,)  born  at  Mannheim,  in 
Germany,  in  1807,  studied  law  and  forest-science,  and 
various  other  branches,  at  Munich,  and  afterwards 
became  principal  of  the  Stenographic  Institute  at  Dres- 
den. In  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the  National  As- 
sembly at  Frankfort,  where  he  sat  on  the  left.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  Stenography,"  (1852,)  and 
other  works. 

Wigbode,  <^iG'bo-deh,  a  German  poet  of  the  eighth 
century,  enjoyed  great  consideration  at  the  court  of 
Charlemagne. 

Wight,  wit,  (Orlando  Williams,)  an  American  lit- 
terateur, born  in  Alleghany  county.  New  York,  in  1824. 
He  translated  from  the  French  Cousin's  "  History  ot 
Modern  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1852,)  and  Pascal's 
"Thoughts,"  (1859,)  and  wrote  several  original  works, 
among  which  is  a  "  Life  of  Abelard  and  Heloise,"  (1853.) 
Died  October  19,  1888. 

Wight,  wit,  (Robert,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  botanist,  born 
about  1796.  He  went  to  India  about  1820  as  a  surgeon 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  pub- 
lished "  Illustrations  of  Indian  Botany,"  (2  vols.,  1838- 
50,)  and  "  Figures  of  East  Indian  Plants,"  ("  Icones 
Plantarum  Indiae  Orientalis,"  6  vols.,  1838-56.) 

TATightman,  wTl'man,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  judge, 
born  in  Scotland  about  1784.  He  practised  law  with 
some  distinction,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  queen's  bench  in  1841.     Died  in  186^. 

Wightman.  wit'man,  (William  May,)  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  bishop,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
January  29,  1808.  He  graduated  at  Charleston  College 
in  1827,  and  became  a  Methodist  preacher  in  that  year. 
In  1837  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in  Randolph  Macon 
College,  Virginia.  In  1854  he  became  president  of  Wof- 
ford  College,  Spartanburg,  South  Carolina,  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  Southern  University,  Greensborough,  Ala- 
bama, in  1859.  In  1866  he  was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  He  published  a 
"Life  of  Bishop  Capers,"  (1858.)      Died  in  1882. 

Wignerod  or  Vignerod,  de,  deh  vfen'yeh-rod', 
(FRANgoiS,)  a  French  general,  a  nephew  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  defeated  a  Spanish  fleet  near  Genoa  in  1638. 
He  died  in  1646,  aged  thirty-seven.  He  was  grand- 
father of  Marshal  Richelieu. 

Wikstrom  or  Wikstroem,  vik'stRom,  (Johan 
Emanuel,)  a  Swedish  botanist,  born  at  Wenersborg  in 
1789.  He  became  professor  of  botany  at  Stockholm  in 
1822,  and  wrote  several  botanical  works.     Died  in  1856. 

Wil'ber-force,  (Edward,)  a  writer,  a  son  of  the 
following,' was  born  about  1836.  He  published  "Brazil 
viewed  through  a  Naval  Telescope,"  "Social  Life  in 
Munich,"  a  "  Life  of  Schubert,"  various  novels,  etc. 

Wilberforce,  (Ernest  Roland,)  D.D.,  a  son  of 
Samuel  Wilberforce,  was  born  at  Brixton,  Isle  of  Wight, 
January  22,  1S40,  graduated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford, 
in  1864,  became  in  1878  a  canon  of  Winchester,  and  in 
1882  was  consecrated  as  bishop  of  the  new  diocese  of 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Wilberforce,  (Rohert  Isaac,)  an  English  divine 
and  writer,  son  of  the  celebrated  William  Wilberforce, 
was  born  at  Clapham  Common  in  1802.  He  studied  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  was  made  Archdeacon  of  the 
East  Riding  of  Yorkshire  in  1840.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  historical  compendium,  entitled  "The  Five 
Empires,"  (1840,)  "  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,"  (1848,) 
and  a  "History  of  Erastianism,"  (1S51.)     In   1854  he 


easffe;  fasr  %hard:  gasj:  CH.K.s^tttural;  N, nasal;  K,trilled;  sas«,-  th  as  in /i/>.     (JQ^See  Explanations,  p.  33,> 


WILDERFORCE 


2468 


WILBERFORCE 


resigned  his  office,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.     Died  in  Italy  in  1857. 

Wilberforce,  (Samuel,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1805,  studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and 
subsequently  rose  through  various  preferments  to  l>e 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  (1845,)  lord  high  almoner  of  the  queen, 
(1847,)  and  Bishop  of  Winchester,  (1869.)  He  published 
"Sermons  at  Oxford,"  (1839,)  "Eucharistica,"  (1S39,) 
" Rocky  Island,  and  other  Parables,"  (1840,)  "History 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  America,"  (1844,)  and,  in 
conjunction  with  his  brother,  the  "  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  William  Wilberforce,"  {1838.)     Died  July  19, 

1873- 

Wilberforce,  (William,)  an  illustrious  English  phi- 
lanthropist and  statesman,  born  at  Hull  on  the  24th  of 
August,  1759,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Wilberforce,  a  mer- 
chant, who  died  in  1768.  When  he  was  about  twelve 
years  old,  he  felt  deep  religious  impressions,  which, 
according  to  his  own  account,  his  friends  spared  no  pains 
to  stifle.  He  entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  October,  1776,  and  became  a  general  favourite  among 
the  students.  "There  was  no  one,"  says  T.  Gisborne, 
"at  all  like  him  for  powers  of  entertainment."  Wil- 
berforce informs  us  that  he  was  a  good  classic,  but  he 
neglected  mathematics  almost  entirely.  Before  he  was 
twenty  years  old  he  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He 
formed  at  Cambridge  a  slight  acquaintance  with  William 
Pitt,  of  whom  he  became  an  intimate  friend  soon  after 
he  left  college.  Having  resolved  to  enter  public  life,  he 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  and  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Hull  in  1780.  This  election  cost 
him  over  ;^8ooo.  He  entered  Parliament  as  an  opponent 
of  the  American  war  and  of  Lord  North's  administra- 
tion ;  but  he  was  rather  an  independent  member  than  a 
partisan.  After  Pitt  became  a  cabinet  minister,  in  1 782, 
he  often  lodged  in  Wilberforce's  villa  at  Wimbledon. 
"  With  talents  of  the  highest  order,  and  eloquence  sur- 
passed by  few,  he  entered  upon  public  life  possessed  of 
the  best  personal  connections  in  his  intimate  friendship 
with  Mr.  Pitt."  ("Life  of  Wilberforce,"  by  his  sons.) 
In  1783  he  visited  France,  in  company  with  Mr.  Pitt. 
He  made  a  famous  speech  against  the  coalition  of  Lord 
North  and  Mr.  Fox,  at  York,  in  March,  1784,  and,  as  a 
supporter  of  Pitt,  was  elected  a  member  for  Yorkshire. 
He  passed  part  of  the  years  1784  and  1785  in  a  conti- 
nental tour  with  Isaac  Milner,  during  which  he  became 
deeply  interested  in  vital  religion.  "On  his  return  he 
commenced,  in  November,  1785,  a  private  journal,  in 
which  he  kept  a  record  of  his  spiritual  conflicts  and 
devotional  exercises.  "  He  now  began,"  say  his  sons, 
"to  open  to  his  friends  the  change  which  had  passed 
upon  him."  In  a  letter  to  Mr.  Pitt,  he  wrote,  "I  can  no 
more  be  so  much  of  a  party  man  as  I  have  been  before." 
"  Pitt's  answer  was  full  of  kindness,"  but  "  he  tried  to 
reason  me  out  of  my  convictions." 

Among  the  results  of  his  conversion  was  the  devotion 
of  his  life  to  the  arduous  enterprise  of  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  In  1787  Thomas  Clarkson,  Granville 
Sharp,  and  ten  others  formed  a  committee  to  promote 
the  suppression  of  the  trade,  in  co-operation  with  Wil- 
berforce, who  also  received  from  Mr.  Pitt  a  promise 
of  assistance.  In  May,  1788,  Pitt  moved  a  resolution 
binding  the  House  to  consider  the  subject  of  the  slave- 
trade  early  in  the  ensuing  session.  Wilberforce  made  a 
long  and  able  speech  on  the  subject  in  May,  1789.  "He 
was  supported  in  the  noblest  manner  by  Mr.  Pitt,  Mr. 
Burke,  and  Mr.  Fox."  The  movement,  however,  en- 
countered long  and  bitter  opposition.  He  opened  the 
campaign  in  1790  by  a  motion,  which  was  carried  on  the 
27th  of  January,  for  referring  to  a  special  committee  the 
examinatiori  of  witnesses.  After  the  end  of  the  session 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  vast  mass  of  evidence 
which  had  been  collected  on  the  subject.  In  April, 
1791,  the  motion  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was 
rejected,  eighty-eight  members  voting  for  it,  and  one 
hundred  and  sixty-three  against  it. 

The  war  against  France,  which  he  opposed,  in  1792, 
caused  the  first  decided  political  separation  between  him 
and  Pitt.  He  had  the  courage  to  withstand  the  popular 
current,  and  offended  many  of  his  friends  by  moving 
an  amendment  to  the  address  on  the  war  about  the  end 


of  1794.  In  February,  1796,  he  again  brought  in  an 
abolition  bill,  which  was  defeated  by  a  small  majority, 
seventy-four  to  seventy. 

He  was  re-elected  a  member  for  the  county  of  York 
in  1796.  In  1797  he  married  Barbara  Ann  Spooner, 
and  published  a  work  entitled  a  "Practical  View  of  the 
Prevailing  Religious  System  of  Professed  Christians 
contrasted  with  Real  Christianity,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour..  It  ran  through  five  editions  before 
the  end  of  the  year.  In  1826  fifteen  editions  had  been 
issued  in  England,  besides  twenty-five  editions  in  the 
United  States.  In  April,  1798,  he  renewed  his  motion 
for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  was  defeated  by 
a  majority  of  four  votes.  In  March,  1799,  he  made  a 
speech  in  favour  of  immediate  abolition,  which  was 
rejected  by  a  vote  of  eighty-four  against  fifty-four.  He 
was  a  liberal  contributor  to  various  charitable  institu- 
tions, and  gave  privately  much  money  to  the  poor.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  foundation  of  the  Bible 
Society  in  1803.  In  1804  he  procured  the  assent  of  the 
House  of  Commons  to  the  first  reading  of  his  abolition 
bill.  Pitt  pressed  earnestly  for  a  postponement  of  the 
abolition  question,  but  Wilberforce  said  he  would  never 
"make  that  holy  cause  subservient  to  the  interests  of 
party."  On  the  second  reading  he  was  defeated  by 
seventy-seven  to  seventy.  The  royal  family  opposed 
abolition,  but  the  ministers  Fox  and  Grenville,  who  came 
into  power  in  1806,  cordially  supported  the  measure, 
which  triumphed  at  last  in  February,  1807.  On  the 
final  passage  of  the  bill  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
two  hundred  and  eighty-three  voted  for  it,  and  sixteen 
against  it.  "The  whole  House,  surprised  into  a  for- 
getfulness  of  its  ordinary  habits,  burst  forth  into 
acclamations  of  applause." 

He  continued  to  represent  Yorkshire  until  1812, 
having  been  elected  five  times  without  a  contest,  and 
he  was  chosen  a  member  for  Bramber  in  that  year.  He 
supported  the  motion  for  the  emancipation  of  Roman 
Catholics  in  1813,  though  "all  the  religious  people  were 
on  the  other  side."  In  1814  he  dined  in  London  with 
Madame  de  Stael,  who  afterwards  said,  "  Mr.  Wilber- 
force is  the  best  converser  I  have  met  with  in  this 
country.  I  have  always  heard  that  he  was  the  most 
religious,  but  I  now  find  that  he  is  the  wittiest,  man  in 
England."  About  1818  he  began  to  agitate  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  West  Indian  slaves,  on  which  he  wrote 
an  Appeal  to  the  Nation  in  1823.  On  account  of  his 
declining  health,  he  intrusted  the  management  of  the 
cause  in  the  House  of  Commons  to  T.  Fowell  Buxton. 
He  retired  from  Parliament  in  1825,  and  survived  until 
the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  read  a  second 
time.  Three  days  after  this  event,  he  died,  in  London, 
in  July,  1833. 

Wilberforce  was,  according  to  Sir  James  Mackintosh, 
"the  very  model  of  a  reformer.  Ardent  without  turbu- 
lence, mild  without  timidity  or  coldness  ;  neither  yielding 
to  difficulties,  nor  disturbed  or  exasperated  by  them  ; 
.  .  .  just  and  charitable  even  to  his  most  malignant 
enemies,  unwearied  in  every  experiment  to  disarm  the 
prejudices  of  his  more  rational  and  disinterested  oppo- 
nents, and  supporting  the  zeal  without  dangerously  ex- 
citing the  passions  of  his  adherents."  Again  he  says, 
alluding  to  Wilberforce's  universal  sympathies,  "I  never 
saw  one  who  touched  life  at  so  many  points."  "The 
basis  of  Mr.  Wilberforce's  natural  character,"  says  Sir 
James  Stephen,  "  was  an  intense  fellow-feeling  with  other 
men.  No  one  more  readily  adopted  the  interests,  sym- 
pathized wiih  the  affections,  or  caught  even  the  transient 
emotions  of  those  with  whom  he  associated.  .  .  .  The 
most  somnolent  company  was  aroused  and  gladdened 
by  his  presence."  "Contemporary  with  Lord  Grenville 
and  Mr.  Pitt,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "appeared  a  man 
in  some  respects  more  illustrious  than  either, — one  who, 
among  the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  human  race,  holds 
an  exalted  station, — one  whose  genius  was  elevated  by 
his  virtues  and  exalted  by  his  piety.  .  .  .  His  eloquence 
was  of  a  very  high  order.  It  was  persuasive  and  pathetic 
in  an  eminent  degree ;  but  it  was  occasionally  bold  and 
Impassioned,  animated  with  the  inspiration  which  deep 
feeling  alone  can  breathe  into  spoken  thought."  ("States- 
men of  the  Time  of  George  III.") 


a,  e,  T, 0,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u.  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsmre;  f^r,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  mo5n; 


WILBORD 


2469 


WILEY 


See  "The  Life  of  Wiliiam  Wiiberforce,"  by  his  sons,  Robert  I. 
•nd  Samuel  Wilberforce,  1838;  "Correspondence  of  William 
Wiiberforce,"  2  vols.,  1S40;  J.  Coi.quhoun,  "\V.  Wilberforce,"  1866; 
Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  vol.  ii.  :  J.  S. 
Karkord,  "  Recol lections  of  William  Wilberforce,"  1865;  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1807,  and  April,  1838;  "Fraser's  Maga- 
liue"  for  September,  1838  ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wilbord.     See  Willebrod. 

Wilbraudt,  <til'bRint,  (Adolf,)  a  German  novelist 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Rostock,  August  24,  1837.  He 
was  educated  at  Rostock,  Berlin,  and  Munich.  His. 
chief  reputation  has  been  won  by  his  dramatic  pieces. 

Wil'bur,  (Hervev  B.\ckus,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Wendell,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1820,  was  the  founder  of  schools  for  idiots 
in  the  United  States.  On  the  establishment  in  1854  of 
the  New  York  State  Asylum  for  Idiots  at  Syracuse,  he 
was  appointed  its  superintendent     Died  May  i,  1883. 

■WillDur,  (John,)  a  minister  of  the  society  of  Friends, 
or  Quakers,  born  in  Hopkinton,  Rhode  Island,  in  1774. 
lie  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  Joseph 
John  Gurney,  a  celebrated  minister  of  the  same  society, 
who  visited  New  England  in  1838,  and  whom  he  charged 
with  unsound  doctrines.  He  attached  a  party  to  him- 
self, but,  being  in  a  small  minority,  he  was  dis(jwned  or 
excommunicated  by  the  New  England  Yearly  Meeting 
in  1843.  ^^'S  adherents  in  New  England,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  United  States,  are  popularly  designated  as 
"  Wilburites."     Died  in  1846. 

See  "Journal,  etc.  of  John  Wilbur,"  Providence,  1859. 

Wilbye,  wil'be,  ?  (John,)  an  eminent  English  com 
poser,  lived  about  1570.  His  works  are  jjrincipally 
madrigals,  which  are  ranked  among  the  most  exquisite 
compositions  of  the  kind. 

Wil'cocks,  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1723,  was  a  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Rochester.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Roman  Conversations." 
Died  in  1791. 

Wil'cox,  (C.A.RLOS,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  New- 
port, New  Hampshire,  in  October,  1794.  He  studied 
theology  at  Andover,  began  to  preach  in  1819,  and  pub- 
lished in  1822  the  first  book  of  a  poem  called  "The 
Age  of  Benevolence."  He  was  ordained  minister  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1824,  and  soon  obtained  a 
high  reputation  for  eloquence.  He  produced  in  1824 
"The  Religion  of  Taste,"  a  poem.     Died  in  1827. 

See   "Remains   of   Carlos   Wilcox,"  1828;    R.   W.    Griswold, 

'  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

"Wilcox  or  Willcos;  (Orlando  B.,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  Detroit  about  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1847.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861,  was  taken  prisoner  in  that  battle,  and 
detained  a  year  or  more.  He  afterwards  served  at 
South  Mountain,  September,  1862. 

Wild,  <t!lt,  (Franz,)  a  German  opera-singer  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Hollabrunn,  in  Lower  Austria,  in 
1792  ;  died  January  i,  i860. 

Wild,  (Henry,)  sometimes  called  "the  Learned 
Tailor,"  was  born  in  Norwich,  England,  about  1684. 
He  studied  Latin  and  Greek  at  the  grammar-school  of 
his  native  town,  and  afterwards,  while  working  at  his 
trade,  mastered  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  other 
Oriental  tongues.  He  subsequently  obtained  an  office 
in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford.  He  translated  from 
the  Arabic  the  legend  entitled  "  Mohammed's  Journey 
to  Heaven."     Died  about  1730. 

See  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

WUd,  [Lat.  Fe'rus.]  (Johann,)  a  German  monk  and 
writer,  born  near  Mentz  about  1485.  He  published 
"  Commentaries  on  Scripture,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  l!;!;4. 

Wild,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet  and  dissenting  min- 
ister, born  in  1609.  He  became  rector  of  Aynhoe  about 
1648,  and  was  ejected  in  1662.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Northern  Tour,"  ("  Iter  Boreale.")     Died  in  1679. 

Wildji,  <til'dA,  (WrLHELM  Eduard,)  a  distinguished 
German  jurist,  born  at  Altona  in  1800,  became  in  1854 
professor  of  German  lasv  at  Kiel.  He  published  sev- 
eral legal  works.     Died  in  1856. 

Wild'bore,  (Charles,)  an  ingenious  English  mathe- 
matician, born  in  Nottinghamshire,  became  curate  of 
Sulney.     He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1802  or  1803. 


Wilde,  vil'd^h,  (Jakob,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  m 
Courland  in  1679.  He  published,  besides  other  useful 
works,  "  Pragmatic  History  of  Sweden,"  ("  Sueciae  His- 
toria  pragmatica,"  1731.)     Died  in  1755. 

Wilde,  wild,  (Oscar  O'Flahertie  Fingal  Wills,) 
an  Irish  poet,  a  son  of  Sir  William  Wilde,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Dublin,  October  16,  1856.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1878.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Ruskin,  and  the  friend  and  travelling  companion  of 
Professor  Mahaffy,  with  whom  he  visited  Greece.  After 
his  college  days  he  became  noted  as  an  apostle  of 
aestheticism  in  dress,  manners,  and  literature.  Among 
his  writings  are  "  Poems,"  and  a  drama  called  "  Vera." 

Wilde,  wild,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  author  and  law- 
yer, born  in  Dublin  in  1789,  was  a  child  when  his  parents 
emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  Georgia  bar  in  1809,  and  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  181 5.  He  also  represented  a  district  of  Georgia 
in  Congress  from  1828  to  1835,  and  acquired  distinction 
as  an  orator.  In  1835  he  visited  Europe,  where  he 
passed  about  five  years.  He  published  in  1842  "Con- 
jectures and  Researches  concerning  the  Love,  Madness, 
and  Imprisonment  of  Torquato  Tasso,"  which,  says  R. 
W.  Griswold,  "is  a  work  of  extraordinary  merit  and  of 
great  interest  to  all  lovers  of  literary  history."  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  popular  lyrics.  He  became  professor 
of  common  law  in  the  University  of  Louisiana  in  1844. 
Died  in  New  Orleans  in  1847. 

See  Griswoi-d's  "Prose  Writers  of  America"  and  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  America." 

Wilde,  (Thom.\s.)     See  Truro,  Lord. 

Wilde,  (Sir  William  Robert  Wills,)  an  eminent 
Irish  surgeon,  born  at  Castljjf'ea  about  1810.  He  became 
surgeon-oculist  to  the  queen,  and  was  knighted  in  1864. 
His  writings  include  "  Voyage  along  the  Shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,"  (1840,)  a  work  on  "Austria,"  (1843,) 
"  Irish  Popular  Superstitions,"  (1852,)  "  Aural  Surgery," 
(1853,)  "Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Sight,"  (1862,)  etc. 
He  was  the  father  of  Oscar  Wilde.     Died  April  19,  1876. 

Wildeucw.     See  Willdenow. 

Wildens,  w!l'dens,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp.  He  was  einployed  by  Rubens 
to  paint  backgrounds  for  his  pictures.     Died  in  1644. 

Wilder,  wild'er,  (Burt  Green,)  M.D.,  an  American 
naturalist,  born  in  Boston,  August  11, 1841.  He  graduated 
at  the  Scientific  School  of  Harvard  University  in  1862, 
and  at  its  Medical  School  in  1866,  having served(i862-65) 
in  the  medical  department  of  the  army.  In  186S  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  comparative  anatomy,  physiology, 
and  zoology  in  Cornell  University.  Among  his  works  are 
"What  Young  People  should  Know,"  (1875,)  "Emer- 
gencies," (1S79,)  "Anatomical  Technology  as  applied 
to  the  Domestic  Cat,"  (1883  ;  prepared  in  part  by  S.  H. 
Gage,)  "Health  Notes  for  Students,"  (1883,)  "Methods 
of  Studying  the  Brain,"  (1884,)  etc. 

Wild'er,  (Marshall  Pinckney,)  an  American  mer- 
chant and  eminent  horticulturist,  born  at  Rindge,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1798,  became  in  1825  a  re-ident  of  Bos- 
ton. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massachusetts 
Horticultural  Society,  of  which  he  was  for  many  years 
president.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  United 
States  Agricultural  Society,  and  also  for  many  years 
president  of  the  American  Pomological  Society.  Died 
December  16,  1886. 

Wl'ley,  (Calvin  Henderson,)  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Guilford  county.  North  Carolina,  February 
3,  1819.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina in  1840,  became  a  lawyer,  was  State  superintendent 
of  schools  f<ir  many  years,  and  in  1866  was  ordained 
to  the  Presbyterian  ministry.  Among  his  works  are 
the  novels  "Alamance"  (1847)  and  "Roanoke,"  (1S50,) 
"Life  in  the  South,"  (1S52,)  various  school-books,  and 
some  pamphlets.     Died  January  11,  1887. 

Wiley,  (Isaac  William,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  at  Lewistown,  Pennsylvania,  March  29,  1825.  He 
graduated  as  M.D.  from  the  University  of  New  York  in 
1846,  and  studied  in  the  arts  department  of  the  same 
institution.  He  was  a  medical  missionary  in  China, 
1850-54,  and  was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1872.     He  published  "The  Fallen 


€  as  ii;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /,■  G,  H,  Vi,guttural:  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  t;  th  as  in  this.     ( Ji'^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILFORD 


2470 


[VILKIE 


Missionaries  of  Foo-Chow,"  (1858,)  "The  Religion  of 
the  Family,"  etc.     Died  in  1884. 

Wil'fprd,  (Francis,)  a  distinguished  officer  and 
Oriental  scholar,  born  in  Hanover,  was  sent  in  1781  as 
lieutenant  of  reinforcements  to  the  British  troops  in 
India,  where  he  acquired  the  language  of  the  country, 
and  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Asiatic  So- 
ciety. He  was  the  author  of  numerous  contributions  to 
the  "  Asiatic  Researches."     Died  in  1822. 

"Wil'fred,  [Lat.  Wilfrf.'dus,]  Saint,  a  celebrated 
Saxon  prelate,  of  noble  birth,  was  born  in  Bernicia  in 
634  A.D,  He  visited  Rome  at  an  early  age  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  information  on  disputed  theological 
points,  and,  after  his  return,  received  from  the  King  of 
Northumbria  a  grant  of  land  and  a  monastery  at  Ripon. 
Having  been  ordained  a  ])riest  in  664,  he  attended  the 
conference  at  Whitby  the  same  year,  when  the  con- 
troversy between  the  .Scottish  clergy  and  the  rest  of 
Christendom  on  the  observance  of  Easter  was  decided 
against  the  former.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  Bishop 
of  York  by  Alchfred,  King  of  Northumbria,  whose  suc- 
cessor, Egfred,  fearing  the  ambition  of  Wilfred,  divided 
the  bishopric  into  three.  He  was  involved  in  a  pro- 
tracted contest  for  the  see  of  York,  but  eventually 
retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  709  a.d. 

See  "  Life  of  S.  Wilfrid."  by  F.  W.  Faber. 

Wilfredus.    See  Wilfred. 

Wilfrid.    See  Wilfred. 

Wilhelm,  the  German  of  William,  (which  see.) 

Wilhelm,  ■^!KhSlm,  (Janus,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1554.  He  published  a  work  "On 
the  Magistrates  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (1577,)  "  Veri- 
similium  Libri  tres,"  (1582,)  and  other  works,  which 
evince  much  critical  sagacity*.     Died  at  Bourges  in  1584. 

Wilhelmj,  <^il-hel'me,  (August,)  a  German  violinist, 
the  son  of  a  wealthy  lawyer  and  wine-grower,  was  born  at 
Usingen,  September  21,  1845.  His  mother  was  a  once 
famous  singer  and  pianist.  He  was  z. proUgi oi  Liszt,  and 
a  pupil  of  Ferdinand  David.  Even  in  childhood  he  was 
distinguished  on  the  concert  stage,  and  since  1865  he 
has  won  applause  in  every  quarter  of  the  civilized  world. 
He  is  also  a  successful  composer  of  violin-music. 

Wilhem,  vS'lem',  (Guillaume  Louis  Bocquillon 
— bo'ke'yAw',)  a  French  composer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1781.  He  became  professor  of  harmony  at  the  Lycee 
Napoleon  in  1810,  and  applied  Lancaster's  method  of 
mutual  instruction  to  teach  singing  in  schools.  He  com- 
posed music  for  some  songs  of  Beranger.     Died  in  1842. 

See  JoMARD,  "  Discours  siir  la  Vie  de  G.  L.  B.  Wilhem,"  1842  ; 
A.  DE  Lafage,  "Notice  sur Wilhem,"  1844. 

"Wilken,  ^IKken,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  historian 
and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Natzeburg  in  1777.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  became  professor  of  history  at 
Heidelberg  in  1805,  and  was  appointed  chief  librarian 
and  professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1817.  He 
Ijublished  a  "History  of  the  Crusades  according  to 
Oriental  and  Western  Accounts,"  (7  vols.,  1807-32,)  and 
several  other  works.     Died  in  1840. 

"Wilkes,  w!lks,  (Charles,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1801,  entered  the  navy 
in  i8i6,  and  became  a  lieutenant  in  1826.  He  com- 
manded an  exploring  expedition  which  was  sent  out  by 
the  United  States  government  to  the  Antarctic  regions 
in  1838.  He  discovered  the  Antarctic  Continent,  ex- 
plored many  islands  and  coasts,  completed  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  and  returned  in  June,  1842.  He  pub- 
lished a  narrative  of  this  expedition,  in  5  vols.,  (1845.) 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1855.  In  November, 
1861,  he  captured  J.  M.  Mason  and  J.  Slidell  from  the 
British  steam-packet  Trent.  For  this  act  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress  ;  but  his  conduct  was  not  ap- 
proved by  the  President.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a 
commodore  in  1862,  after  which  he  commanded  a  squad- 
ron in  the  West  Indies.  In  July,  t866,  he  was  made  a 
rear-admiral.     Died  February  8,  1877. 

Wilkes,  w!lks,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  politician, 
born  in  London  in  1727,  was  educated  at  Leyden,  and 
l)ecame  a  good  classical  scholar.  His  manners  were 
fascinating,  and  his  habits  dissolute.  In  1740  he  married 
a  Miss  Mead,  a  rich  heiress,  ten  years  older  than  himself 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Aylesbury  in 


1757,  and  re-elected  in  1761.  In  1762  he  founded  the 
"North  Briton,"  a  journal  which  assailed  I^ord  Bute's 
administration  with  great  animosity  and  rendered  Bute 
so  unpopular  that  he  resigned  office.  "Wilkes  had," 
says  Macaulay,  "the  requisites  for  the  character  of 
demagogue.  He  was  clever,  courageous,  unscrupulous. 
He  was  a  good  scholar,  expert  in  resource,  humorous, 
witty,  and  a  ready  master  of  the  arts  of  conversation. 
Me  could  'abate  and  dissolve  a  pompous  gentleman' 
with  singular  felicity."  (Review  of  the"  Works  of  Charles 
Churchill,"_i845.)  In  No.  xlv.  of  the  "North  Briton," 
published  in  April,  1763,  he  accused  the  king  of  an 
"infamous  fallacy"  which  appeared  in  the  speech  from 
the  throne.  For  this  offence  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  general  warrant  issued  by  Lord  Halifax, 
secretary  of  state.  Having  been  brought  into  the  court 
of  common  pleas  by  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  he  was 
discharged  in  May,  1763.  He  was  convicted  of  libel  by 
the  House  of  Commons,  expelled  in  January,  1764,  and, 
having  absented  himself  from  the  island,  was  outlawed. 
He  returned  in  1768,  and  was  elected  member  for  Mid- 
dlesex, but  was  arrested,  and  punished  by  fines  and 
imprisonment.  This  persecution  rendered  him  a  great 
favourite  with  the  peo])le.  He  was  re-elected  by  the 
voters  of  Middlesex  in  February,  1769;  but  the  House 
of  Commons  declared  that  he  was  incapable  of  sitting 
in  that  Parliament.  In  1769  he  obtained  a  verdict  of  four 
thousand  pounds  against  Lord  Halifax  for  false  imprison- 
ment. Great  excitement  was  produced  by  the  repeated 
expulsion  or  exclusion  of  the  popular  champion  from 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  chosen  lord  mayor 
of  London  in  1774,  and  a  member  for  Middlesex  in  the 
same  year.  The  ministry  then  ceased  to  defy  the  people, 
and  permitted  him  to  take  his  seat.  He  was  afterwards 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  many  years,  and  was  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  American  war.  Died  in 
1797. 

"  His  name,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  has  been  sounded 
from  pole  to  pole  as  the  phoenix  of  convivial  felicity." 
Among  the  anecdotes  related  of  him  is  the  following : 
George  HI.  once  inquired  of  him,  "  How  is  your  friend 
Serjeant  Glynn  ?"  and  received  this  answer  :  "  He  is  not 
my  friend;  he  is  a  Wilkesite,  which  I  never  was." 

See  Ckadock,  "Life  of  John  Wilkes,"  1773;  J.  Almon,  "Life  of 
John  Wilkes,"  1S05;  "Wilkes's  Correspondence  with  his  Friends," 
2  vols.,  1805  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  November,  1777;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1805. 

Wilkie,  wil'ke,  (Sir  David,)  a  celebrated  Scottish 
painter,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1805.  He  studied  for  a  time 
in  the  Trustees'  Academy  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1805 
entered  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  having  previously 
executed  several  works  of  great  merit.  Ilis  "Village 
Politicians,"  exhibited  in  1806,  met  with  enthusiastic  ad- 
miration, and  at  once  established  the  reputation  of  the 
artist.  This  picture,  which  was  sold  to  the  Earl  of  Mans- 
field, was  succeeded  by  "The  Blind  Fiddler,"  "The 
Rent-Day,"  "The  Card-Plaver,"  "The  Cut  Finger," 
"The  Jews-Harp,"  "The  Village  Festival,"  (which 
brought  eight  hundred  guineas,  and  is  now  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,)  "The  Wardrobe  Ransacked,"  and  other 
works  of  a  similar  character.  He  was  elected  a  Royal 
Academician  in  i8ii,and  in  1813  exhibited  his  "Blind- 
man's  Buff,"  painted  for  the  prince-regent.  In  1814  he 
visited  Paris,  and  after  his  return  produced  his  "  Dis- 
training for  Rent,"  "  The  Sheep- Washing,"  "  The  Penny 
Wedding,"  "  The  Reading  of  the  Will,"  (for  the  King  of 
Bavaria,)  "  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  his  Family,"  and  "  Chel- 
sea Pensioners  listening  to  the  News  of  Waterloo," 
which  ranks  among  his  master-pieces.  In  1825  he  visited 
the  continent,  and  spent  three  years  in  studying  the 
works  of  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  German  artists.  He 
succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  as  painter-in-ordinary 
to  the  king,  in  1830,  and  in  1832  ])roduced  his  "John 
Knox  preaching  the  Reformation  in  Saint  Andrew's," 
"  Benvenuto  Cellini  presenting  a  Silver  Vase  of  his  Own 
Workmanship  to  Pope  Paul  III.,"  and  various  other 
pictures,  showing  the  results  of  his  foreign  studies,  but 
which  are  esteemed  much  inferior  to  his  earlier  works. 
In  1840  he  set  out  on  a  tour  to  Egypt  and  Palestine; 
but  his  health,  which  had  been  long  declining,  grew 
worse,  and  he  died  on  the  voyage  home,  off  Gibraltar,  in 
June,  1841. 


a,e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  hmg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/i(;ri,  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  niodn. 


WILKIE 


2471 


WILLARD 


See  Allan  Cunningham,  "Life  of  Sir  David  Wilkie,"  3  vols., 
1843:  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Diclionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London, 
1866;  "Quarterly  Review  '  for  September,  1843;  •'  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  October,  1841,  and  September,  1S42. 

"Wilkie,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
divine,  born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  1721,  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  at  Saint  Andrew's.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  Epigoniad," 
(on  the  sacking  of  Thebes  by  the  Epigoni,)  which  en- 
joyed for  a  time  great  popularity  among  some  of  the 
Scottish  literati,  who,  somewhat  absurdly,  styled  Wilkie 
"  the  Scottish  Homer."  It  has  since  fallen  into  utter 
neglect.     Died  in  1772. 

Wil'kins,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  distinguished  English 
Orientalist,  born  at  Frome,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1749. 
He  went  to  India  in  1770  as  a  writer  on  the  Bengal 
establishment,  and  learned  Arabic,  Persian,  and  other 
languages  used  in  the  East  Indies.  He  applied  himself 
to  the  study  of  Sanscrit  with  great  success.  In  1784, 
in  conjunction  with  Sir  William  Jones,  he  founded  the 
Literary  Society  of  Calcutta.  He  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  European  who  made  translations  from  the 
original  Sanscrit.  He  published  in  17S5  an  English 
translation  of  the  "  Bhagavat  Gita,"  jjerhaps  the  most 
interesting  part  of  the  great  Hindoo  epic  entitled 
"  Mahabharata,"  and  two  years  afterwards  gave  to  the 
world  a  translation  of  the  "  Hitopadesa."  He  returned 
to  England  about  1786,  became  librarian  to  the  East 
India  Company  in  1801,  and  published  a  "  Sanscrit 
Grammar,"  (1808.)     Died  in  1836. 

Wilkins,  (David,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1685, 
became  Archdeacon  of  Suffolk.  He  published  "  Leges 
Saxonicie,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1745. 

Wilkins,  (John,)  a  learned  English  bishop,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1614.  He  studied  at  Magdalene 
Hall,  Oxford,  and,  having  taken  orders,  was  chosen  in 
1648  warden  of  Wadham  College.  He  married  about 
1656  Robina,  a  sister  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1659  master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  lost  this  office  at  the  restoration,  but  he  was  made 
rector  of  Saint  Lawrence,  Jewry,  by  Charles  II.  in  1662. 
He  soon  after  became  one  of  the  council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  then  lately  formed,  and  of  which  he  had  been 
one  of  the  originators.  He  was  created  Bishop  of 
Chester  in  1668.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"Discourse  concerning  a  New  Planet,"  etc.,  (1640,) 
"  Mercury,  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger,"  "Mathe- 
matical Magic,"  etc.,  (1648,)  and  "Discourse  concerning 
the  Beauty  of  Providence  in  All  the  Rugged  Passages 
of  it,"  (1649.)  He  died  in  1672.  A  collection  of  his 
sermons  was  published  in  1682  by  Archbishop  Tillotson, 
who  had  married  his  step-daughter. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  Niceron,  "  Mimoires." 

Wilkins,  (William,)  a  distinguished  English  archi- 
tect, born  at  Norwich  in  1778.  He  visited  Italy  and 
Greece  in  1801,  and  jjublished,  after  his  return,  his 
"  Antiquities  of  Magna  Grascia."  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  facade  of  London  University,  now  called  Uni- 
versity College,  Saint  George's  Hospital,  Hyde  Park 
Corner,  and  the  alterations  of  Corpus  Christi,  Trinity, 
and  King's  Colleges,  Cambridge.  He  also  publislied 
*' Atheniensia,  or  Remarks  on  the  Buildings  and  An- 
tiquities of  Athens."     Died  in  1839. 

Wil'kins,  (William,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1779.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  in  1831,  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Russia  in  1834,  and  was  secretary  of  war  from  February, 
1844,  to  March,  1845.  He  resided  in  or  near  Pittsburg, 
where  he  died,  June,  1865. 

Wil'kin-spn,  (James,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  was  born  in  Maryland  in  1757.  He  enlisted 
in  the  army  as  captain  in  1775,  ^^^^  served  under  Gates 
in  1777.  In  1792  he  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  in  1796  he  became  general-in-chief.  He 
afterwards  commanded  at  New  Orleans,  and  opposed 
the  designs  of  Aaron  Burr.  In  the  summer  of  1813  he 
commanded  on  the  Northern  frontier  with  ill  success. 
He  was  removed  from  the  command  about  February, 
1814.  Died  in  Mexico  in  1825.  He  published  "Me- 
moirs of  My  Own  Time,"  (3  vols.,  1816.) 

Wil'kiu-spn,   (James   John   Garth,)   an    English 


writer  on  law,  medicine,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  about 
1 8 12.  He  edited  several  works  of  Swedenborg,  and 
wrote,  besides  treatises  on  law, "Emanuel  Swedenborg: 
a  Biography,"  (1849,)  which  was  long  regarded  as  the 
best  memoir  of  Swedenborg  that  had  appeared,  "The 
Human  Body  and  its  Connection  with  Man,"  (1851.) 
"  The  Ministry  of  Health,"  (1856,)  "  Improvisations  from 
the  Spirit,"  (1857,)  "On  tlie  Cure,  Arrest,  and  Isola- 
tion of  Small-Pox,"  (1864,)  and  "On  Social  Health," 
(1865.) 

Wilkinson,  (Jemima,)  an  American  fanatic  and  re- 
ligious impostor,  born  at  Cumberland,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1753,  removed  to  Western  New  York  early  in  the  present 
century.  She  professed  to  be  endowed  with  the  power 
of  Christ,  and  attempted  to  work  miracles.  She  died  in 
1819,  and  her  sect  was  soon  dispersed. 

Wilkinson,  (Sir  John  Gardner,)  a  learned  Eng- 
lish archaeologist,  born  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  and  subsequently  spent  twelve  years  in 
Egypt  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  language,  cus- 
toms, and  antiquities  of  that  country.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Materia  Hieroglyphica,"  (1828,) 
the  "Topography  of  Thebes,"  etc.,  (1835,)  "The  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  including 
their  Private  Life,  Government,  Laws,"  etc.,  (5  vols.  8vo, 
1840,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  "Modern 
Egypt  and  Thebes,"  (1843,)  intended  as  a  handbook 
for  travellers,  "The  Architecture  of  Ancient  Egypt," 
etc.,  (1850,)  and  "The  Egyptians  in  the  Time  of  the 
Pharaohs,"  (1857,)  which  rank  among  the  most  valu- 
able and  interesting  compositions  of  the  kind.  He  was 
made  a  knight  in  1840,  and  soon  after  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  member  of  other  learned 
institutions.     Died  October  29,  1875. 

See  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1839 ;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  February,  i860. 

Wilkinson,  (William  Cleaver,)  D.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman,  born  at  Westford,  Vermont,  October  19, 
1833,  graduated  in  1857  at  the  University  of  Rochester, 
and  in  1859  at  the  Rochester  Theological  School.  In 
1859  he  was  ordained  a  Baptist  minister,  and  in  1S72 
was  appointed  professor  of  homilelics  in  the  theological 
department  of  Rochester  University.  Among  his  books 
are  "The  Dance  of  Modern  Society,"  (1869,)  "A  Free 
Lance  in  the  Field  of  Life  and  Letters,"  (1874,)  "Web- 
ster :  an  Ode,"  (1882,)  and  text-books  in  Greek  and  Latin 
for  schools. 

Wilkinson,  (William  Crawford,)  F.R.S.,  an  Eng- 
lish naturalist,  born  at  Scarborough  in  November,  1816. 
In  youth  he  attained  a  reputation  as  a  zoologist  and 
geologist.  He  studied  at  University  College,  London, 
and  became  a  medical  practitioner  at  Manchester.  In 
185 1  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Owens  College,  afterwards  taking  the  chair  of  botany, 
fossil  botany  being  his  specialty.  He  has  published  "On 
Recent  Foraminifera,"  (1858,)  and  many  scientific  me- 
moirs. 

Willaert,  wil'llRt,  (Adriano,)  a  Flemish  composer, 
born  about  1490,  was  a  native  of  Bruges.  He  became 
chapel-master  of  Saint  Mark's,  at  Venice,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Zarlino  and  Costanza  Porta.     Died  in 

156V 

Willamov,  <^il'ia-mof ,  (Johann  GorrLiEB,)a  Prus- 
sian poet,  born  at  Morungen  in  1736,  was  the  author 
of  a  collection  of  poems  entitled  "  Dithyrambics,"  ant* 
"  Fables  in  Dialogues."     Died  in  1777. 

WilTan,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  English  physician, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1757.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
where  he  took  his  medical  degree  in  1780,  and  in  1783 
became  physician  to  the  Public  Dispensary  in  Carey 
Street,  London.  He  published  in  1801  his  "Description 
and  Treatment  of  Cutaneous  Diseases,"  (unfinished,) 
esteemed  the  most  valuable  work  that  had  appeared  on 
the  subject  at  that  time.  Dr.  Willan  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies.     Died  in  1812. 

See  "Memoir  of  Dr.  Willan,"  by  Dr.  Bateman,  in  the  "  Edin- 
bursh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,"  No.  xxxii. 

Wil'lard,  (Emma  Hart,)  an  American  teacher  and 
educational  writer,  born  at  Berlin,  Connecticut,  in  1787, 
became  in  182 1  principal  of  a  female  seminary  at  Troy, 
New  York.     She  published  a  "  History  of  the  United 


«  as ii;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( g^^i^ee  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


WILLARD 


2472 


WILLIAM 


States,"  (1828,)  "Universal  History  in  Perspective," 
{1837,)  "Chronographer  of  English  History,"  (1845,) 
"  Astronography,  or  Astronomical  Geography,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1870. 

Willard,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  di- 
vine, born  at  Biddeford,  Maine,  in  1738,  was  chosen 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1781.  Died  in  1804. 
His  son  Sidney,  born  in  1780,  was  for  more  than  twenty 
years  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Harvard.  Died 
in  1856. 

Willard,  (Josiah,)  born  in  Massachusetts  about  1680, 
was  a  son  of  Samuel  Willard,  noticed  below.  He  was 
secretary  of  that  colony  thirty-nine  years.    Died  in  1756. 

Willard,  (Samuel,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  at 
Concord  in  1640.  He  preached  in  Boston,  and  published 
several  works  on  theology.     Died  in  1707. 

Willard,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Petersham,  Massachusetts,  in  1775.  He  preached  at 
Deerfield,  Massachusetts.     Died  in  1859. 

Willaumez,  ve'yo'mi',  (Jean  Baptiste  Philiisert,) 
Count,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Belle-Ile-en- 
Mer  in  1763.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the 
English,  became  rear-admiral  in  1804,  and  vice-admiral 
in  1819.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Marine," 
(1820.)     Died  in  1845. 

Will'de-now,  [Ger.  pron.  <^il'deh-no',]  (Karl  Lud- 
\VIG,)  a  celebrated  German  naturalist,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1765.  He  studied  medicine  at  Halle,  and  settled  as  a 
physician  in  his  native  city,  where  he  became  in  1798 
professor  of  natural  history  and  superintendent  of  the 
Botanic  Garden.  His  most  important  publication  is  his 
new  edition  of  the  "  Species  Plantarum"  of  Linnasus, 
with  descrijjtions  of  all  the  species  discovered  since  the 
original  work  appeared,  and  arranged  according  to  the 
Linnaean  system.  This  work,  owing  to  his  failing  health, 
he  left  unfinished  ;  but  it  was  completed  by  Link  and 
Schwagricher  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1812. 
He  also  published  "Elements  of  Botany,"  ("Grundriss 
der  Krauter-Kunde,"  1792,)  "  Prodromus  Flora  Beroli- 
nensis,"  "Catalogue  of  Butterflies  in  the  Mark  of  Bran- 
denburg," and  other  treatises. 

See  SCHLECHTENDAHL,  "  Leben  Willdenow's ;"  "  Edinburgli  Re- 
view" for  October  and  July,  1807. 

Wille,  <^il'Ieh,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  near  Giessen  in  1715.  He  studied 
in  Paris,  where  he  acquired  the  highest  reputation  for 
his  prints  after  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters.  He 
was  made  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  by  Napo- 
leon, and  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  August,  1806.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces may  be  named  Schalken's"  Family  Concert," 
"The  Satin  Gown,"  after  Terburg,  and  portraits  of  the 
Marquis  de  Marigny  and  Marshal  Saxe.  He  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Bervic  and  J.  G.  von  Miiller.  His  son 
Peter  Alexander  rose  to  be  a  general  in  the  Parisian 
national  guard. 

See  "Memoires  et  Journal  de  J.  G.  Wille,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1857. 

Wil'le-brod  or  Wil'le-brord,  sometimes  written 
Willibrod  and  Wilbrord,  [Lat.  Willebror'dus,] 
Saint,  the  apostle  of  the  Frisians,  was  born  in  the  Saxon 
kingdom  of  Northumbria  about  657.  Having  spent 
many  years  in  Ireland  in  preaching  the  gospel,  he  visited 
Friesland,  where  he  was  successful  in  making  many  con- 
verts to  Christianity.  He  was  made  a  bishop  by  Pojje 
Sergius  I.,  under  the  name  of  Clemens,  and  founded  a 
number  of  churches  in  that  country,  and  a  monastery  at 
Echternach,  near  Treves,  where  he  was  buried,  having 
died  in  738  a.d. 

Willebrord.     See  Bosschaert. 

Wil'le-had,  an  Anglo-Saxon  missionary,  who  con- 
verted many  Frieslanders  and  Saxons,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Bremen  in  787  A.D.     Died  in  789. 

Willemet,  vil'mi',  (Pierre  R6mi,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Norroy-sur-Moselle  in  1735.  He  resided 
at  Nancy,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora 
of  Lorraine,"  (3  vols.,  1805.)     Died  in  1807. 

See  J.  Lamourkux,  "  Notice  sur  Willemet,"  180S. 

W^illemet,  (Pierre  R6mi  Franqois  de  Paule— 
deh  pol,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Nancy  in  1762; 
died  at  Seringapatam  iu  1790. 


Willemin,  vil'miw',  (Nicolas  Xavier,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  engraver,  Ijorn  at  Nancy  in  1763.  He 
rendered  a  useful  service  to  the  arts  by  a  large  illus- 
trated work  called  "  Unpublished  French  Monuments 
illustrating  the  History  of  Arts,  Costumes,"  etc., 
("  Monuments  Fran9ais  inedits  pour  servir  ^  I'Histoire 
des  Arts,  des  Costumes,"  etc.,  1806-39.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1833. 

Willems,  wil'lems  or  ve'lims',  (FLORENT,)a  Belgian 
painter,  born  at  Liege  about  1812.  He  settled  in  Paris 
about  1839,  and  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 
He  excels  as  a  painter  of  costume,  especially  of  silk 
gowns.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Musical  Party,"  and 
"The  Coquette." 

Willems,  (Jan  Frans,)  a  distinguished  Belgian 
writer  and  philologist,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1793.  In 
1811  he  won  the  prize  offered  for  the  best  poem  on  the 
battle  of  Friedland  and  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  in  1818 
published  a  poetic  address  to  the  Belgians,  entitled 
"  Aen  de  Belgen,"  calling  on  his  countrymen  to  main- 
tain the  Flemish  language  and  nationality.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Dutch 
Language  and  Literature  in  Connection  with  the  South- 
ern Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,"  (2  vols.,  1819-24,) 
and  a  Flemish  version  of  the  poem  entitled  "  Reynard 
the  Fox."  He  was  also  editor  of  the  "  Belgisch  Mu- 
seum," the  organ  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Flemish  Literature.     Died  in  1S46. 

See  P.  DE  Decker,  "Notice  sur  J.  F.  Willems,"  1847;  Snbl- 
LAERT,  "  Korte  Levensschets  van  J.  F.  Willems,"  1847. 

W^illerani,  ^iKlehrSm,  or  "Walram,  wSI'rSm,  a 
German  monk,  born  in  Franconia,  became  Abbot  of 
Ebersberg.  He  wrote  a  paraphrase  of  Solomon's  Song, 
in  Latin  verse.     Died  in  1085. 

Wil'let,  (Andrew,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
at  Ely  in  1562.  He  obtained  a  prebend  at  Ely  about 
1598.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Synopsis  of 
Popery,"  ("  Synopsis  Papismi,")  which  was  reputed  the 
most  able  reftitation  of  popery  which  had  then  appeared. 
Died  in  162 1. 

Wil'ley,  (Henry,)  an  American  botanist,  born  at 
Geneseo,  New  York,  July  19,  1824.  He  was  educated 
at  Geneseo  Academy,  and  at  the  Normal  School  in 
Bridgewater,  Massachusetts,  and  in  1856  became  editor 
of  a  daily  newspaper  in  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts. 
He  has  published  a  "  List  of  North  American  Lichens," 
(1872,)  and  a  large  number  of  papers  on  lichenography. 

William  (vvtl'yam)  I.,  surnanied  the  Conqueror, 
[Lat.  Guliel'mus  Conques'tor;  Fr.  Guii.laume  le 
CoNQufiRANT,  ge'yom'  leh  kAN'ki'rSN',]  King  of  Eng- 
land, born  at  Falaise  in  1025,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  1035,  as  William  II.  of  Normandy,  and  during  his 
minority  gave  proof  of  his  energy  and  courage  by  re- 
ducing to  submission  the  rebellious  Norinan  barons.  He 
gained  the  favourof  his  kinsman  Edward  the  Confessor, 
King  of  England,  who,  having  no  issue,  formed  a  secret 
intention  to  adopt  William  as  his  heir.  His  chief  com- 
petitor was  Harold,  a  Saxon  prince,  whom  a  majority 
of  the  people  of  England  preferred  to  the  Duke  of 
Normandy.  On  the  death  of  Edward  (January,  1066) 
Harold  ascended  the  throne,  without  opposition.  (See 
Harold.) 

"  Williain,"  says  Hume,  "by  his  power,  his  courage, 
and  his  abilities,  had  long  maintained  a  ]5re-eniinencc 
among  the  haughty  chieftains"  of  Western  Europe. 
Having  resolved  to  invade  England,  he  soon  assembled 
a  fleet  of  3000  vessels  and  an  army  of  60,000  men. 
Several  powerful  barons  of  adjoining  countries,  with 
their  retainers,  were  attracted  to  his  standard  by  the 
grandeur  and  audacity  of  the  enterprise.  The  Norman 
army  landed  at  Pevensey,  in  Sussex,  about  the  28th  of 
.September,  and  defeated  the  English,  commanded  by 
Harold,  at  Senlac,  near  Hastings,  on  the  14th  of  October, 
1066.  Harold  was  killed  in  this  battle,  which  was  one 
of  the  most  decisive  and  important  that  occurred  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  According  to  Huine,  William  lost  nearly 
15,000  men.  He  followed  up  his  victory  with  celerity 
and  vigour,  encountered  little  op))ositi^n  in  his  march 
to  London,  and  was  crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey  on 
the  2';th  of  December.     Edgar  Atheling,  who  had  been 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long; i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  J, short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure ^  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  mSonj 


WILLIAM 


2473 


WILLIAM 


Eroclaimed   king   at   the   death  of  Harold,  renounced 
is  claim  and  submitted  to  William. 

The  Conqueror  appeared  at  first  willing  to  conciliate 
his  new  subjects  by  mildness;  but  he  confiscated  the 
estates  of  those  partisans  of  Harold  who  had  been  killed 
at  Hastings,  and  took  care  to  place  all  real  power  in  the 
hands  of  the  Normans.  While  he  was  absent  on  a 
visit  to  Normandy,  in  1067,  cons]5iiacies  were  formed 
against  him,  and  hostilities  began  in  many  places.  Huine 
expresses  a  suspicion  that  he  left  England  in  order  that 
the  revolts  provoked  by  his  licentious  soldiery  might 
furnish  him  with  a  pretext  for  severe  and  tyrannical 
measures.  According  to  the  same  writer,  "  this  measure 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  all  the  calamities  which 
England  endured  during  this  and  the  subsequent  reigns." 
William  returned  about  the  end  of  ro67,  and  maintained 
his  power  by  acts  of  excessive  cruelty.  He  ordered  his 
army  to  lay  waste  by  fire  the  extensive  tract  between  the 
Humber  and  the  Tees.  The  majority  of  the  proprietors 
of  land  were  deprived  of  their  estates  by  confiscation, 
and  all  the  natives  were  reduced  to  a  state  not  much 
better  than  slavery.  During  a  visit  of  William  to  the 
continent,  in  1074,  several  Norman  barons  revolted 
against  him,  and  were  defeated. 

He  had  become  the  most  jiowerful  sovereign  of  Europe, 
when  Pope  Gregory  VH.  wrote  him  a  letter,  requiring 
him  to  do  homage  for  the  kingdom  of  England  to  the 
see  of  Rome,  and  to  send  the  tribute  which  his  prede- 
cessors had  been  accustomed  to  pay  to  the  pope.  By 
the  tribute  he  meant  Peter's  pence.  William  replied 
that  the  money  should  be  remitted  as  usual,  but  he 
refused  to  pay  homage.  About  1078  his  son  Robert 
levied  war  against  William  in  Normandy.  During  this 
wai  Robert  happened  to  encounter  the  king,  whom  he 
wounded  and  unhorsed.  Struck  with  remorse  on  dis- 
covering that  he  had  wounded  his  father,  Robert  asked 
his  pardon,  and  made  peace  with  him.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  he  ordered  a  general  survey  of  all  the 
lands  in  the  kingdom,  their  extent  in  each  district,  their 
proprietors,  tenure,  and  value.  "This  monument,  called 
'Domesday  Book,'"  says  Hume,  "is  the  most  valuable 
piece  of  antiquity  possessed  by  any  nation."  He  had 
married  Matilda,  a  daughter  of  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flan- 
ders. On  the  approach  of  death,  he  discovered  the 
vanity  of  all  human  grandeur,  and  was  filled  with  re- 
morse for  his  cruelties.  He  died  at  Rouen  in  1087. 
eaving  three  sons,  Robert,  William,  and  Henry. 

See  HoMK,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  cli.ips.  ill.  and  iv.  . 
Aug.  Thiekrv,  "  Hl.stoire  de  la  Conqiiele  de  I'Ansleterre  :"  John 
Havward,  "  Lives  of  the  Three  Norman  Kin<;s  of  Enjiland,  William 
I.,"  etc.,  1613;  Freeman,  "History  of  the  Norman  Conquest," 
vol.  ill.  chaps,  xii.-xvi.  ;  Samuel  Clarke,  "Life  and  Death  of 
William  tlie  Conqueror,"  1660;  Thomas  Roscoe,  "Life  of  William 
the  Conqueror,"  184S:  Andrew  Hender.son,  "Lite  of  William  the 
Conqueror,"  1764;  P.  M.  Saunier,  "Vie  de  Guillaume,  Due  de 
Normandie,"  1804. 

William  II.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Ru'fus, 
[Fr.  Guillaume  le  Roux,  ge'yom'  leh  roo,]  from  the 
colour  of  his  hair,  was  born  in  Normandy  in  1056.  He 
was  the  second  of  the  surviving  sons  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  His  education  was  directed  by  the  famous 
Lanfranc,  According  to  some  historians,  William  I., 
just  before  his  death,  wrote  a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  desiring 
him  to  crown  his  son  William  as  King  of  England,  and 
at  the  same  time  he  left  Normandy  and  Maine  to  Rt^bert. 
William  was  crowned  in  September,  1087.  The  Anglo- 
Norman  barons,  who  owned  estates  both  in  England 
and  Normandy  and  would  be  required  to  pay  allegiance 
to  two  masters,  favoured  the  claim  of  Robert  to  both 
thrones.  They  took  arms  against  William,  but  were 
soon  reduced  to  submission.  In  1091  he  invaded  Nor- 
mandy with  an  ariny  to  wage  war  against  Robert,  who 
prevented  hostilities  by  a  treaty,  according  to  which 
William  obtained  the  towns  of  Aumale,  Fescamp,  etc. 
He  afterwards  instigated  the  Norman  barons  to  rebel 
against  Robert,  and  passed  over  to  Normandy  in  1094 
to  support  his  partisans.  He  was  prevented  from  push- 
ing his  advantages  by  an  incursion  of  the  Welsh,  which 
obliged  him  to  return  to  England.  Robert,  having 
enlisted  in  the  first  crusade,  sold  or  mortgaged  his 
dominions  to  William  for  the  small  sum  of  10,000  marks, 
(1096.)  William  did  not  partake  of  the  getieral  enthu- 
siasm for  the  crtisade.    "  Tt  is  likelv."  savs  Hume,  "that 


he  made  the  romantic  chivalry  of  the  crusaders  the  objec 
of  his  perpetual  raillery."  He  was  found  dead  in  the 
New  Forest  in  August,  iioo.  Hume  adopts  the  jjopular 
account  that  Walter  Tyrrel,  while  hunting  with  the 
king,  discharged  an  arrow  which  glanced  from  a  tree 
and  killed  William.  He  had  never  married,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry.  "He  seems,"  says 
Hume,  "to  have  been  a  violent  and  tyrannical  prince  ; 
a  perfidious,  encroaching,  and  dangerous  neighbor  ;  an 
unkind  and  ungenerous  relation." 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. :  Miss  Strick- 
land, "Lives  of  the  Bachelor  Kings  of  England,"  1861  ;  John 
Havward,  "  Life  of  William  IL,"  1613. 

William  IIL,  or  William  Henry,  King  of  England 
and  Stadtholder  of  Holland,  was  born  at  the  Hague  on 
the  14th  of  November,  1650.  He  was  the  eldest  or 
only  son  of  William  II.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary 
Stuart,  a  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  was 
styled  Prince  of  Orange  before  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Great  Britain.  At  the  death  of  his  father 
(1650)  the  party  opposed  to  the  house  of  Orange  deter- 
mined that  there  should  never  be  another  Stadtholder. 
On  the  death  of  De  Witt,  in  1672,  the  young  prince 
became  the  chief  of  the  government,  and  took  strenuous 
measures  to  defend  the  state  against  the  French  armies 
which  had  invaded  it.  He  opened  the  dikes  and  inun- 
dated the  seat  of  war,  exclaiming  that  he  would  die  in  the 
last  ditch  rather  than  witness  the  ruin  of  the  republic. 
The  invaders  were  forced  to  save  themselves  by  a  hasty 
retreat.  In  1674  he  was  defeated  at  Senef  by  the  Prince 
of  Conde.  The  war  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Nymwe- 
gen,  in  1678.  He  married  in  1677  Mary,  a  daughter  of 
James,  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  of  England. 
Besides  his  native  Dutch,  he  spoke  and  wrote  the 
French,  English,  and  German  languages  fluently,  though 
not  elegantly  nor  exactly.  "The  tenet  of  predestina- 
tion," says  Macaulay,  "  was  the  keystone  of  his  religion." 
From  a  child  he  had  been  weak  and  sickly,  and  in  man- 
hood he  was  subject  to  painful  and  depressing  maladies. 

Before  he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  was 
renowned  throughout  Europe  as  a  soldier  and  diplo- 
matist, and  was  the  master-spirit  of  a  powerful  coalition 
against  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  He  became  about  1686 
the  head  of  the  English  opposition  which  the  perverse 
and  infatuated  course  of  James  II.  had  provoked.  In  the 
summer  of  1688  he  was  invited  by  Russell,  Sidney,  ana 
other  conspirators  to  come  with  an  army  for  the  defence 
of  liberty  and  the  Protestant  religion  in  England. 
William  issued  a  declaration,  in  which  he  abjured  all 
thought  of  conquest,  and  pledged  himself  to  leave  all 
questions  to  the  decision  of  a  free  Parliament.  In 
November,  1688,  he  landed  at  Torbay  with  an  army  of 
about  14,000  men.  He  was  joined  by  numerous  peers, 
and  was  favoured  by  a  general  defection  in  the  army 
of  King  James,  who  threw  the  great  seal  into  the 
Thames  and  absconded  on  the  nth  of  December,  1688. 
The  revolution  was  thus  accomplished  without  much 
bloodshed.  He  called  a  convention,  composed  of  peers 
and  the  surviving  members  of  the  former  House  of 
Commons,  which  in  February,  1689,  voted  that  James 
had  abdicated,  and  that  William  and  Mary  should  be 
declared  King  and  Queen  of  England.  Amidst  the  gen- 
eral joy,  the  ill  humour  of  the  clergy  and  the  army  was 
very  conspicuous.  The  position  of  William  was  beset 
with  great  diiiliculties.  The  deposed  king  had  many 
adherents  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  who  supported  his 
cause  by  arms,  and  he  was  assisted  by  Louis  XIV. 
William  selected  for  his  ministers  members  of  both  the 
great  parties,  the  Whigs  and  Tories,  and  reserved  to 
himself  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was  not 
popular  with  his  new  subjects.  His  cold  manners, 
which  presented  a  great  contrast  to  the  strength  of  his 
emotions,  gave  almost  universal  offence. 

In  May,  16S9,  he  declared  war  against  the  King  of 
France,  by  whose  aid  James  II.  was  enabled  to  take 
the  field  in  Ireland  with  a  considerable  army.  William 
passed  over  to  Ireland  in  June,  1690,  and  took  command 
of  his  land-forces.  About  this  time  his  fleet  was  defeated 
by  the  French  near  Beachy  Head.  On  the  ist  of  July, 
1690,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  French  and 
Irish  at  the  famous  battle  of  the  Boyne,  after  which 
James  gave  up  the  contest  and  fled  to  France.     The 


f  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  mthis.     ([[[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


WILLIAM 


2474 


WILLIAM 


allied  English  and  Dutch  fleets  defeated  the  French  at 
La  Hogue  in  May,  1692.  The  war  between  the  allies 
and  the  French  continued  in  Flanders,  where  William 
commanded  in  person.  He  was  defeated  at  Steenkerke, 
by  Marshal  Luxemburg,  in  August,  1692.  Hostilities 
were  suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Rysvvick,  in  1697. 

The  reign  of  William  HI.  was  much  disturbed  by  fac- 
tious intrigues  and  Jacobite  conspiracies.  He  removed 
from  command  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  was  sus- 
pected of  being  in  a  plot  to  restore  one  of  the  Stuarts 
to  the  throne,  in  1692.  Soon  after  the  peace  of  Kys- 
wick,  William  HI.  and  Louis  XIV.  became  parties  to  a 
treaty  to  partition  the  Spanish  dominions,  and  stipulated 
that  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  should  succeed  to  Spain  and 
the  Indies,  while  the  French  dauphin  should  reign  over 
the  two  Sicilies.  In  November,  1700,  Charles  II.  of  Spain 
died,  and  bequeathed  the  throne  to  Philip  of  Anjou.  Re- 
gardless of  the  obligations  of  the  partition  treaty,  Louis 
XIV.  accepted  for  his  grandson  the  splendid  legacy. 
William  then  formed  with  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
and  other  powers  a  coalition  against  the  Bourbons,  and 
took  the  first  steps  towards  the  great  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession.  Before  hostilities  commenced,  he  died,  with- 
out issue,  in  London,  in  March,  1702,  in  consequence  of 
a  fall  from  his  horse.  He  was  succeeded  by  Queen 
Anne. 

"  His  name,"  says  Macaulay,  "  at  once  calls  up  before 
us  a  slender  and  feeble  frame,  a  lofty  and  ample  fore- 
head, a  nose  curved  like  the  beak  of  an  eagle,  an  eye 
rivalling  that  of  an  eagle  in  brightness  and  keenness.  .  .  . 
Nature  had  largely  endowed  William  with  the  qualities 
of  a  great  ruler,  and  education  had  developed  those 
qualities  in  no  common  degree.  ...  If  his  battles  were 
not  those  of  a  great  tactician,  they  entitled  him  to  be 
called  a  great  man.  .  .  .  His  defeats  were  repaired  with 
such  marvellous  celerity  that  before  his  enemies  had 
sung  the  '  Te  Deum'  he  was  again  ready  for  conflict. 
.  .  .  He  was  born  with  violent  passions  and  quick 
sensibilities,  but  the  strength  of  his  emotions  was  not 
suspected  by  the  world.  From  the  multitude  his  joy 
and  his  grief,  his  affection  and  his  resentment,  were 
hidden  by  a  phlegmatic  serenity  which  made  him  pass 
for  the  most  cold-blooded  of  mankind." 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England;"  Burnet,  "  History  of 
Ms  Own  Times;"  A.  Montanus,  "  Leven  van  Willem  III.,"  1703; 
W.  Harris,  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  William  Henry," 
etc.,  1749;  Trevor,  "  Life  and  Times  of  William  III.,"  1839:  Ahkl 
BoYER,  "  Histoire  de  Guillaume  III,"  3  vols.,  1702;  Sir  Jame.s 
Mackintosh,  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  England  in  16SS;" 
F.  DE  Bkuine,  "Leven  en  Dood  van  Willem  III,"  1702;  James 
Vernon,  "Court  and  Times  of  William  III.,"  3  vols.,  1S41 ;  Vol- 
taire. "Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

William  IV.,  King  of  England,  the  third  son  of 
George  III.,  was  born  in  London  on  the  21st  of  Au- 
gust, 1765.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  as  midshipman 
in  1779,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1786. 
Having  in  several  cases  disobeyed  the  orders  of  his 
superiors  or  violated  the  rules  of  discipline,  he  was  not 
permitted  to  command  in  active  service  ;  but  he  was 
promoted  by  successive  steps  until  he  received  the  title  of 
admiral  of  the  fleet,  in  1801.  He  had  been  created  Duke 
of  Clarence  and  Saint  Andrew's  and  Earl  of  Munster  in 
1789.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he  generally  acted  with 
the  Whig  party;  but  he  suj^ported  Pitt  after  1793.  He 
married  in  July,  1818,  Adelaide,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Meiningen.  They  had  two  children,  who  died 
in  infancy.  On  the  death  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
York,  in  1827,  William  became  heir-presumptive  to  the 
throne.  He  succeeded  George  IV.  on  the  26th  of  June, 
1830,  which  was  a  critical  time  in  the  politics  of  Europe. 
The  French  revolution  of  July,  1830,  had  great  influence 
in  England.  The  friends  of  electoral  reform  had  a  ma- 
jority in  the  new  Parliament  which  met  in  October,  but 
the  13uke  of  Wellington,  who  was  prime  minister,  op- 
posed reform,  in  terms  which  produced  a  violent  e.xcite- 
ment.  The  ministry,  having  been  outvoted  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  resigned  in  November,  1 830,  and  were 
succeeded  by  a  Liberal  ministry,  of  which  Earl  Grey 
and  Lord  John  Rus.sell  were  the  chiefs.  The  Reform 
bill  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  large  majority 
in  September,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords  on  the 
3d  of  October,    18^1.     A   long  and  violent    crisis   fol 


lowed.  In  May,  1832,  Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues 
resigned,  and  the  king  requested  Wellington  and  Lynd- 
hurst  to  form  a  ministry ;  but  they  failed,  or  quailed 
before  the  storm,  for  the  people  were  determined  to 
have  reform,  if  they  had  to  fight  for  it.  Earl  Grey 
resumed  the  office  of  premier  about  the  i8th  of  May, 
and,  the  king  having  induced  many  of  the  Tory  peers  to 
absent  themselves  and  refrain  from  voting,  the  Reform 
bill  finally  became  a  law  in  June,  1832.  The  king  him- 
self was  no  friend  to  reform,  and  was  partial  to  the  Con- 
servatives, or  Tories.  After  Earl  Grey  and  several  other 
ministers  had  resigned,  William  IV.,  in  November,  1834, 
sent  for  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  constructed  a 
new  ministry,  in  which  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  premier. 
Peel  and  Wellington,  however,  could  not  command  a 
majority  in  the  new  Parliament  which  met  in  February, 
1835.  They  resigned  in  April,  and  gave  place  to  the 
Whig  ministry  of  Lord  Melbourne.  William  died  on 
the  20th  of  June,  1837,  leaving  no  lawful  issue,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  niece,  Victoria. 

Wil'liam,  [Dutch,  Willem,  wil'lem  ;  Ger.  Wilhelm, 
^il'helm,]  (Frederick,)  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  and  Prince  of  Orange 
Nassau,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  August,  1 772.  He 
was  a  son  of  WMlliam  V.,  Prince  of  Orange  Nassau 
and  hereditary  Stadtholder.  He  married,  in  1791,  Fre- 
derica  Louisa,  a  daughter  of  Frederick  William,  King 
of  Prussia.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  army  which 
resisted  the  French  invaders  in  1793  and  1794.  Hol- 
land was  conquered  in  1795,  and  William  Frederick 
retired  to  Germany.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  gene- 
ral in  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  between  1806 
and  1813.  A  revolution  restored  him  to  royal  power  in 
Holland  about  the  end  of  1813,  after  which  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  decided  that  Belgium  should  be  annexed  to 
the  United  Provinces,  and  that  he  should  reign  over  the 
whole.  He  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Netherlands  in 
March,  1815.  The  Belgians,  who  regarded  the  Dutch 
with  invincible  antipathy,  revolted  in  September,  1830, 
and,  after  several  battles,  by  the  aid  of  France  and  Eng- 
land, became  a  separate  nation.  In  October,  1840,  he 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  William,  and  died  in 
Berlin  in  1 843. 

"William  (or  Willem)  II.,  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  December,  1792.  As  aide-de-camp  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  he  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Peninsula.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  troops  at  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  where  he  was  wounded.  About 
1816  he  married  Anna  Paulovvna,  a  sister  of  Alexander, 
Czar  of  Russia.  He  gained  some  victories  over  the 
Belgian  insurgents  in  1831 ;  but  the  intervention  of  a 
French  army  compelled  him  to  retire  from  that  contest. 
He  began  to  reign  in  October,  1840.  He  died  in  March, 
1849,  leaving  two  sons,  Williain  and  Henry. 

William  (or  Willem)  III.,  King  of  Holland,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  February,  1817.  He  mar- 
ried Sophia,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Wiirtemberg,  in 
1839,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  March,  1849.  Queen 
Sophia  died  in  1877.  His  second  wife,  Emma,  (born  in 
1858,  married  in  1879,)  was  a  daughter  of  the  Prince  of 
Waldeck.  The  king  was  also  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lu.x- 
emburg.     Died  November  23,  1890. 

WilUam  (or  Wilhelm,  ^'ll'hSlm)  I.,  King  of  Prus- 
sia,  born  on  the  22d  of  March,  1797,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Frederick  William  HI.  He  married,  in  1829,  Maria 
Louisa  Augusta,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar. 
During  the  violent  commotions  of  1848  he  retired  for 
safety  to  England,  from  which  he  soon  returned.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  suppressed  the  insurrection 
in  Baden  in  1849.  He  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  brother,  Frederick  William  IV.,  January,  1861, 
and,  soon  after  his  accession,  appointed  Count  von  Bis- 
marck minister  of  foreign  affairs.  To  the  superior  states- 
manship of  this  mhustei  is  chiefly  attributed  the  great 
and  sudden  increase  of  Prussia  in  extent  and  power. 
(See  Bismarck,  von,  Karl  Otto.) 

In  1864  he  united  with  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  an 
aggressive  war  against  Denmark,  who  was  compelled  to 
cede  to  the  victors  .Sleswick  and  Holstein. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  the  Prussian  policy  seems  to 


a,  e,  I,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  sante,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WILLIAM 


2475 


WILLIAMS 


be  the  union  of  all  the  German  peoples  into  one  nation 
or  federation,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  empire  of 
Austria  from  the  same.  Invoking  the  potent  and  in- 
vincible spirit  of  nationality  and  devotion  to  the  Father- 
land, he  declared  war  against  Austria  about  the  i8th  of 
June,  1866,  having  previously  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  King  of  Italy.  The  reigning  princes  of  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Hanover,  Hesse,  (Electoral,)  and  some  other 
states,  took  side  with  Austria,  which  had  controlled  a 
majority  of  votes  in  the  Diet.  The  Prussian  armies, 
whose  movements  were  planned  by  General  von  Moltke, 
advanced  rapidly  into  Bohemia,  and,  after  several  minor 
victories,  defeated  the  Austrians  at  the  great  and  de- 
cisive battle  of  Sadowa,  near  Koniggratz,  on  the  3d  of 
July,  1866.  The  victors  are  said  to  have  taken  at  Sadowa 
21,471  prisoners,  (including  about  7400  wounded.)  This 
campaign  is  called  the  Seven  Weeks'  war.  Peace  was 
restored  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Prague  in  August,  1866, 
in  accordance  with  which  the  Emperor  of  Austria  re- 
nounced his  claim  to  be  the  head,  or  even  a  member,  of 
the  new  German  Bund,  called  the  North  German  Con- 
federation, which  was  composed  of  all  the  states  situated 
north  of  the  river  Main.  The  area  and  population  of 
Prussia  were  considerably  increased  by  the  annexation 
of  several  conquered  states,  among  which  were  Hanover. 
Holstein,  and  Electoral  Hesse.  By  the  terms  of  the 
new  Bund  the  King  of  Prussia  directs  the  foreign  policy 
and  controls  the  military  power  of  the  states  which 
compose  it.  A  secret  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and 
defensive,  was  negotiated  by  Prussia  with  Bavaria  and 
Baden  in  August,  1866,  and  made  public  in  April,  1867. 

On  a  frivolous  pretext,  the  emperor  Napoleon  HI.  de- 
clared war  against  Prussia,  July  16,  1870.  The  German 
armies,  commanded  by  King  William  in  person,  and  by 
his  son,  Frederick  William,  having  crossed  the  frontier 
early  in  August,  defeated  Marshal  McMahon  at  Worth 
(August  6)  and  Marshal  Bazaine  in  a  great  battle  near 
Metz,  (August  14-18.)  Bazaine,  having  shut  himself  up  in 
Metz,  was  besieged  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prus- 
sia, while  the  king  and  his  son,  the  crown-prince,  pur- 
sued Marshal  McMahon,  who  had  retreated  to  Chalons, 
and,  after  he  had  collected  there  a  laige  army,  movea 
northward  to  the  valley  of  the  Meuse.  The  German 
army,  amounting  to  about  240,000  men,  attacked  Mar- 
shal McMahon  near  Sedan,  and  a  great  battle  ensued, 
which  lasted  several  days,  and  resulted  in  one  of  the 
r.iost  decisive  and  momentous  victories  in  universal  his- 
tory. On  the  2d  of  September  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
and  his  army  of  100,000  men,  or  more,  surrendered  at 
Sedan  as  prisoners  of  war.  A  few  days  later,  King  Wil- 
liam and  the  crown-prince  marched  against  Paris,  which 
by  strenuous  exertions  had  been  prepared  for  a  siege, 
and  was  now  controlled  by  the  republicans  under  a  new 
regime.  The  siege  or  investment  of  Paris  began  about 
September  15.  Marshal  Bazaine  surrendered  Metz  and 
his  army,  the  number  of  which  was  stated  at  i5C',ooo 
men,  or  more,  to  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  on  the  27th 
of  October,  1870.  In  the  great  battles  of  this  war  the 
French  were  outnumbered,  as  well  as  outgeneralled,  by 
the  Germans,  whose  movements  were  directed  by  Gen- 
eral von  Moltke.  Count  von  Bismarck  was  present  with 
the  army  at  Sedan  and  at  Paris,  and,  soon  after  the  sur- 
render of  Napoleon,  had  an  interview  with  Jules  Favre, 
the  French  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  who  made  over- 
tures of  peace.  Bismarck  demanded  the  cession  of  Alsace 
and  part  of  Lorraine,  which  the  French  ministers  refused 
to  give  up.  In  October,  1870,  the  princes  Frederick 
William  and  Frederick  Charles  were  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal. 

The  civilized  world  was  kept  in  painful  suspense  by  a 
tear  that  the  most  beautiful  and  polished  city  on  the 
globe  would  be  bombarded  and  destroyed ;  but  the 
Germans  delayed  their  assault,  in  the  confident  hope 
that  famine  would  soon  reduce  Paris  to  submission. 
They  also  expected  that  the  French  forces  within  the  city 
would  be  paralyzed  by  riots  and  the  violent  contests  be- 
tween opposing  factions.  This  hope  proved  to  be  delu- 
sive. The  citizens  of  Paris  maintained  good  order,  and 
defended  their  cause  with  heroic  constancy.  On  the  9th 
of  November  the  army  of  the  Loire,  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Palladines,  defeated  the  Bavarian  general  Von  der 


Tann  near  Orleans,  and  took  about  2000  prisoners.  But 
the  army  of  the  Loire  was  afterwards  defeated  in  several 
actions.  After  a  long  and  obstinate  resistance,  Paris  was 
forced  to  capitulate.  As  results  of  this  war,  Germany 
achieved  a  recognition  as  holding,  instead  of  France, 
tiie  military  primacy  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  and 
King  William  was  invested  with  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  Germany.  He  was  proclaimed  Emperor  from  the 
palace  of  the  French  kings,  at  Versailles,  January  18, 
187 1.     Died  March  9,  1S8S. 

"WiUiam  CWillem  or  Wilhelm,)  of  Holland,  son 
of  Count  Florent  of  Holland,  was  made  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  1247.  through  the  influence  of  Pope  Inno- 
cent IV.,  in  opposition  to  Frederick  II.  He  was  unable, 
however,  to  assert  his  authority  until  after  the  death  of 
Conrad  IV.,  the  son  of  Frederick,  in  1254.  He  was 
killed  in  a  war  against  the  West  Frisians  in  1256. 

William  the  Lion,  King  of  Scotland,  was  a  brother 
of  Malcolm  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1165.  He  in- 
vaded England  in  1174,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  could 
not  obtain  his  liberty  until  he  j^romised  to  be  the  vassal 
or  liegeman  of  Henry  II.  About  1190,  Richard  I.,  for  a 
pecuniary  consideration,  released  Scotland  from  alle- 
giance to  himself  and  his  successors.  William  died  in 
1214,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  II. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xiii. 

"William  (or  Wilhelm)  I.,  King  of  WUrtemberg, 
born  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  Frederick  I.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  October,  1816.  He  granted  a  new  constitu- 
tion in  1819.  In  1848  he  made  further  concessions  to 
the  growing  desire  of  reform.  He  opposed  the  attempts 
of  the  King  of  Prussia  to  acquire  supremacy  in  Ger- 
many in  1850.     Died  in  1S64. 

William  II.,  (Stadtholder.)  See  Orange,  (William, 
Prince  of.) 

William  III.,  (Stadtholder.)  See  William  TIL, 
(King  of  England.) 

W^illiam  I.,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  a  son  of  Duke  Fred- 
erick William,  was  born  April  25,  1S06.  After  the  expul- 
sion of  his  brother  Charles,  in  1830,  William  succeeded 
as  reigning  duke.  He  never  married,  and  on  his  death 
(October  18,  1884)  the  ancient  and  once  illustrious  ducal 
line  of  Brunswick  became  extinct.  The  royal  family  of 
Great  Britain  is,  however,  descended  from  the  house  ot 
Brunswick.  The  late  duke  was  possessed  of  enormous 
wealth.  The  question  of  the  inheritance  of  the  honours 
and  estates  of  the  Brunswick  dukes  is  still  unsettled, 
(1885.) 

William,  an  Anglo-Norman  prince,  born  in  1102,  was 
the  only  legitimate  son  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  He 
was  drowned,  with  his  sister  Adele,  in  the  passage  from 
Normandy  to  England,  in  1120. 

William  of  Champeaux.    See  Champeaux,  de. 

William  of  Hesse-CasseL  See  Hesse,  Land- 
grave  OF. 

William  of  Malmesbury.     See  Malmesbury. 

William  de  Nangis.     See  Nangis,  de. 

William  of  Nassau.  See  Orange,  (William, 
Prince  of.) 

Willianx  of  Newburg  or  Newbury.  See  New- 
borough. 

William  the  Silent    See  Orange,  (William  of.) 

William  of  Tyre,  a  prelate  and  historian,  born 
about  1 130.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Tyre  in  11 74. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of  Palestine  or  the 
Crusaders  from  1095  to  1184."     Died  before  1 193. 

William  of  Wykeham.     See  Wykeham. 

Wil'liams,  (wil'yamz,)  (Alpheus  S.,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  about  1810, 
was  a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Chancellorsville,  May  3,  1863,  and  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  1-3  of  that  year.  He  served  under  General 
Sherman  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta,  1864,  and 
commanded  a  corps  of  the  army.  He  was  in  Congress 
from  Missouri  in  1875-78.     Died  December  21,  1878. 

VSTil'liams,  (Anna,)  an  English  writer,  who,  having 
become  blind,  was  taken  by  Dr.  Johnson  into  his  house 
and  supported  for  the  remainder  of  her  life.  She  died 
in  1783. 

See  BoswELL,  "  Life  of  Johnson." 


€  as  >i,-  9  as s;  g hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  2 v ^ 


WILLIAMS 


2476 


WILLIAMS 


"Williams,  (Sir  Charles  Hanbury,)  a  distinguished 
English  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1709,  was  the 
son  of  John  Hanbury,  Esq.,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Williams  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  his  godfather, 
Charles  Williams.  Having  travelled  on  the  continent, 
he  was  elected,  after  his  return,  member  of  Parliament 
for  the  county  of  Monmouth,  (1733,)  and  in  1749  was 
minister-plenipotentiary  to  Berlin,  having  been  previ- 
ously made  a  knight  of  the  Bath.  He  was  afterwards 
employed  on  an  important  embassy  to  Russia.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  collection  of  odes,  also  political  ballads 
and  satires  in  verse,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Horace  Walpole,  and  a 
supporter  of  the  measures  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  to 
whom  he  rendered  effective  service  by  his  satirical  verses. 
Died  in  1759. 

See  "George  SeKvyn  and  his  Contemporaries,"  by  J.  H.  Jessk, 

Williams,  (Charles  Kilborn,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1782,  was  a  son 
of  Samuel  Williams,  noticed  below.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Vermont  in  1851.     Died  in  1853. 

Williams,  (Channing  Moore,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  July  18,  1829,  grad- 
uated at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1S53,  went  as  an 
Episcopalian  missionary  to  China,  was  consecrated  a 
bishop  in  1S66,  and  in  1874  was  transferred  to  Japan  as 
Bishop  of  Yeddo. 

Williams,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Wrexham,  in  Denbighshire,  in  1644.  He 
wrote  "Gospel  Truth  Stated  and  Vindicated,"  and  a 
number  of  religious  and  controversial  treatises.  He 
died  in  1716,  leaving  numerous  bequests  for  chari- 
table and  educational  purposes.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  was  one  for  the  establishment  of  a 
public  library  in  Red-Cross  Street,  London,  opened 
in  1729. 

Williams,  (David,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Cardi- 
ganshire, Wales,  in  1738,  was  the.  founder  of  the  Literary 
Fund  Society.  He  published  "  Lectures  on  Political 
Principles,"  (1789,)  a  "History  of  Monmouthshire," 
(1796,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1816. 

Williams,  (Edward,)  a  Welsh  poet,  also  called  loLO 
MoRGANWG,  (mor-gS'noog,)  born  in  Glamorganshire 
about  1747,  was  a  stone-mason  by  trade.  He  published 
a  collection  of  hymns  in  Welsh,  and  two  volumes  of 
lyric  and  pastoral  poems  in  English,  (1794.)  He  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  *'  Myvyrian  Archaiology." 
Died  in  1826. 

Williams,  (Eleazar,)  born  at  Caughnawaga,  New 
York,  about  1787,  resided  as  a  missionary  among  the 
Indians  in  the  vicinity  of  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  He 
pretended  to  be  the  dauphin,  son  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  his 
claims  were  su|)ported  by  J.  H.  Hanson,  of  New  York, 
in  a  work  entitled  "The  Lost  Prince."  A  series  of 
articles  also  appeared  in  "  Putnam's  Magazine"  for  Feb- 
ruary, April,  and  July,  1853,  and  February,  1854,  main- 
taining with  much  ability  and  zeal  his  title  to  be  regarded 
as  the  heir  of  the  Bourbons.     Died  in  1858. 

Williams,  (Ephraim,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1715,  was  mortally  wounded 
n  an  engagement  near  Lake  George  with  the  French 
and  Indians  in  1755.  He  had  bequeathed  the  princi- 
pal part  of  his  property  towards  founding  a  free  school 
m  Massachusetts,  which  afterwards  became  Williams 
College. 

Williams,  (Frederick  Sims,)  an  English  barrister, 
oorn  in  1812.  He  published  several  legal  works,  and 
'•The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens,"  (1S61.)    Died  in  1863. 

Williams,  (George,)  an  English  divine  and  historian, 
born  in  1814.  He  published  "  History  of  the  Holy  City," 
"Notices  of  Jerusalem,"  (1845,)  and  "The  Orthodox 
Church  of  the  East  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (1868.) 
Died  January  26,  1878. 

Williams,  (GRiFKirn,)  born  in  Wales  in  1589,  rose 
through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of  Ossory  in 
1641.  He  published,  among  other  works,  one  entitled 
"Seven  Golden  Candlesticks,  holding  the  Seven  Lights 
of  Christian  Religion."     Died  in  1672. 

■Williams,  (Helen  Maria.)  a  writer  and  translatoi. 
born  in  London  in  1762.  While  residing  in  Paris,  in 
1790,  she  published  her"  Letters  from  France."  favouring 


the  doctrines  of  the  Girondists,  in  consequence  of  which 
she  was  imprisoned  for  a  time.  Among  her  other  works 
are  two  poems,  entitled  "Peru"  (1784)  and  "The  Slave- 
Trade,"  (1788,)  "Julia,  a  Romance,"  (1790,)  "Narrative 
of  Events  in  France,"  (1815,)  and  a  translation  of  the 
"  Personal  Narrative"  of  Humboldt  and  Bonjjland.  Died 
in  1827. 

Williams,  (Isaac,)  a  British  theologian,  born  in  Wales 
in  1802.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in 
1826,  and  became  an  associate  of  Newman  and  the  early 
tractarians.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Hymns," 
(1839,)  "Harmony  and  Commentary  on  the  Gospels," 
(8  vols.,  1842-45,)  "The  Psalms  interpreted  of  Christ," 
(3  vols.,  1864-65,)  etc.     Died  May  i,  1865. 

W^illiams,  (John,)  a  distinguished  prelate  and  states- 
man, born  in  Carnarvonshire,  Wales,  in  1582.  He  studied 
at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and,  having  taken 
orders,  became  in  i6ii  chaplain  to  the  lord  chancellor 
Egerton.  He  soon  after  acquired  the  favour  of  King 
James  I.,  who  made  him  successively  one  of  his  chap- 
lains-in-ordinary. Dean  of  Salisbury,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
and  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  (1621.)  He  was  de- 
prived of  the  last-named  office  on  the  accession  of 
Charles,  and,  having  been  charged  by  his  enemy  Laud 
with  betraying  the  king's  secrets,  was  condemned  to 
several  years'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  ;^  10,000.  He 
was  released  in  1640,  and  soon  after  created  Archbishop 
of  York.     Died  in  1650. 

See  Phillips,  "  Life  of  Jnhn  Williams,"  and  "  Memorial  offere<f 
to  the  Great  Deservings  of  John  Williams,"  by  Jchn  Hackkt. 

Williams,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1634,  became  successively  chaplain  to  William  and 
Mary,  prebendary  of  Canterbury,  and  Bishop  of  Chi- 
chester, (1696.)     Died  in  1709. 

Williams,  (John,)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1644,  was  made  prisoner, 
together  with  his  wife  and  six  children,  by  a  party  of 
French  and  Indians  in  1704.  He  was  afterwards  re- 
deemed, and  published  an  account  of  his  adventures, 
entitled  "The  Redeemed  Captive."     Died  in  1729. 

"Williams,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Welsh  dissenter,  born  at 
Lampeter  about  1726.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament."  Died 
in  1798. 

Williams,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Welsh  scholar  and  archae- 
ologist, born  in  Denbighshire  in  i8ll.  He  wrote  on 
Welsh  antiquities,  etc.     Died  in  1862. 

Williams,  (Rev.  John,)  a  celebrated  English  mis- 
sionary and  dissenter,  sometimes  called  "the  Apostle  of 
Polynesia,"  was  born  at  Tottenham  in  1796.  Being  sent 
in  1816  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  the  Society 
Islands,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
Tahitian  language,  and  to  the  instruction  of  the  natives 
in  the  arts  of  civilized  life,  as  well  as  in  the  duties  ot 
religion.  In  1823  he  visited  the  Hervey  Islands,  and 
discovered  Rarotonga,  an  island  of  that  group,  in  which 
he  established  a  mission.  To  convey  himself  from 
Rarotonga  to  Raiatea  and  Tahiti,  he  built  a  vessel  about 
1828,  although  he  was  destitute  of  proper  tools.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1834,  and  published  a  "  Narra- 
tive of  Missionary  Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea  Islands," 
(1837.)  In  1838  he  sailed  on  another  voyage  to  the 
South  Sea,  with  many  other  missionaries.  He  was  killed 
by  the  natives  of  Erromanga,  one  of  the  New  Hebrides 
in  November,  1839. 

See  Prout,  "Memoirs  of  John  Williams,"  1843;  J.  Campbel», 
"  The  Martyr  of  Erromanga,"  1842. 

Williams,  (John,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  in  Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  August  30,  181 7,  grad- 
uated in  1835  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  where  he  be- 
came a  professor,  and  of  which  he  was  president,  184S-53. 
He  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
1841,  and  in  1851  was  consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of 
Connecticut,  becoming  diocesan  bishop  in  1865.  Among 
his  works  is  "The  World's  Testimony  to  Jesus  Christ," 
(vol.  i.  of  the  Bedell  Lectures.) 

Williams,  (Monier,)  an  Oriental  scholar,  born  at 
Bombay,  of  English  parentage,  in  1819.  He  studied 
ill  England,  and,  having  taken  his  degree  at  University 
College,  Oxford,  became  in  1844  professor  of  Sanscrit 
at  Ilaiicybury  College,  and  in  i860  Boden  Sanscrit  pro- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6, 1'l,  J,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WILLIAMS 


2477 


WILLIS 


fessor  at  Oxford,  as  successor  to  H.  H.  Wilson.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Practical  Grammar 
of  the  Sanscrit  Language,"  etc.,  (1846,)  an  "  English- 
and-Sanscrit  Dictionary,"  (1851,)  an  English  translation 
of  "Sakoontala,"  (1855,)  "  Indian  Epic  Poetry,"  (1862,) 
a  Sanscrit-and-English  Dictionary,  (1872,)  "Hinduism," 
(1877,)  and  "  Modern  India  and  the  Indians,"  (1878.) 

Williams,  (Otho  Holland,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Maryland,  in  1748,  was 
adjutant-genera!  to  General  Gates  in  1780,  and  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Camden.    Died  in  1794. 

See  (lie  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Williams,  (Roger,)  an  English  officer  and  writer, 
horn  in  Monmouthshire.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
F'landers,  and  wrote  works  entitled  "  Actions  of  the 
Low   Countries,"   and   "  Advice   from    France."     Died 

'"  '595- 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i. 

Williams,  (Rugek,)  the  founder  of  Rhode  Island, 
was  born  probably  in  London  about  1599.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  became  master  of  several  ancieni 
languages,  and  was  ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England.  In  1631  he  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in 
search  of  religious  liberty,  and  preached  for  a  short  time 
at  Salem  ;  but  he  was  banished  from  the  colony  in  1635 
on  account  of  his  doctrines.  He  was  censured  by  the 
court  because  he  taught  that  magistrates  should  not 
punish  the  breach  of  the  Sabbath  or  dictate  on  the  sub- 
ject of  worship.  He  founded  the  city  of  Providence, 
(1636,)  and  there  opened  an  asylum  in  which  men  of  all 
creeds  might  enjoy  full  religious  liberty.  It  is  stated 
that  he  became  a  Baptist  in  1639,  but  that  he  soon 
began  to  doubt  the  validity  of  baptism,  and  that  he 
continued  to  "neglect  the  ordinances  of  the  gospel." 
He  made  a  voyage  to  England  in  1643,  obtained  a 
charter  for  the  new  colony,  and  returned  in  1644.  After 
a  second  voyage  to  England,  he  was  elected  President 
of  Rhode  Island  in  1654.  He  lived  in  peace  and  amity 
with  the  Indians,  over  whom  he  acquired  much  in- 
huence.  In  1657  he  ceased  to  be  president  of  the 
colony.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise 
against  persecution,  (1644,)  "The  Hireling  Ministry 
none  of  Christ's,"  and  "Experiments  of  Spiritual  Life 
snd  Health  and  their  Preservatives,"  (1652.)  Died  at 
Providence  in  1683. 

See  Jamrs  D.  Knowles,  "  Life  of  Roger  Williams,"  1833  :  Wil- 
liam Gammei.l,  "Life  of  Roger  Williams,"  1846;  Romeo  Elton, 
"  Life  of  Roger  Williams,"  London,  1852. 

Williams,  (Rowland,)  a  Welsh  clergyman,  born  in 
Flintshire  about  181 7.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Christianity  and  Hinduism,"  and  a  "  Review 
^)(  Biinsen."     Died  in  1870. 

Williams,  (Samuel,)  LL.D.,  a  New  England  divine, 
Sorn  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  in  1743,  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Harvard  College,  and  the  author  of  a 
'  Natural  and  Civil  History  of  Vermont,"  (1794.)  Died 
:n  1817. 

Williams,  (Samuel,)  an  English  designer  and  wood- 
ingraver,  born  at  Colchester  in  1788.  Among  his  best 
A'orks  are  his  illustrations  of  Thomson's  "Seasons"  and 
)f  Scrope's  "Days  of  Salmon-Fishing."     Died  in  1853. 

Williams,  (Samuel  Wells,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
philologist,  born  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1812.  He 
visited  China  in  1833,  and  in  1841  published  "Easy 
Lessons  in  Chinese,"  followed  by  an  "  English-and- 
Chinese  Vocabulary,"  (1843.)  ^^^  ^'^o  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  Tonic  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese," 
(1856,)  a  "Syllabic  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese,"  (1874,) 
and  "The  Middle  Kingdom,"  (1848;  new  edition,  1883.) 
He  was  lecturer  on  Chinese  at  Vale  College,  1876-84. 
Died  February  16,  1884. 

Williams,  (Seth,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Augusta,  Maine,  about  1822.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  seived  as  adjutant-general  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862,  and  as  acting  inspector- 
general  of  the  same  in  1S64  and  1865.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  in  many  actions 
in  Virginia.     Died  in  March,  1866. 

Williams.  (Thomas,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Greensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1S06.     He  settleil  in  Pitts- 


burg, and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1862. 
He  also  represented  the  twenty-third  district  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  Congress  for  two  subsequent  terms,  and  was 
one  of  the  managers  to  conduct  the  impeachment  of 
President  Johnson,  March,  1868. 

Williams,  (Thomas,)  an  able  American  general, 
born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1818,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837.  He  attacked  Vicksburg  in  June, 
1862,  and  commanded  a  small  force  which  was  attacked 
by  General  Breckinridge  at  Baton  Rouge,  August  5  of 
that  year.  He  was  killed  in  this  action,  but  his  army 
gained  the  victory. 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  732. 

Williams,  (Thomas  Scorr,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1777,  was  noted 
for  his  beneficence.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1817  to  1819,  and  was  chief  justice  of  Connecticut 
from  1834  to  1847.  He  resided  at  Hartford,  where  he 
died  in  December,  1861. 

Williams,  (William,)  an  American  patriot  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  1731.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775.     Died  in  1811. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,"  1S48. 

.  Williams  of  Kars,  (Sir  William  Fenwick,) 
K.C.B.,  a  distinguished  general,  born  at  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  in  1800.  He  was  educated  at  the  Woolwich 
Military  Academy,  in  England,  and  afterwards  served 
in  Ceylon  and  Turkey,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonel in  1847.  He  was  appointed  in  1854  British 
commissioner  with  the  Turkish  army  in  the  East,  and 
soon  after  was  created  a  brigadier-general,  having  his 
head-quarters  at  Kars.  In  September,  1855,  he  severely 
repulsed  the  Russian  general  Mooravief,  (Mouravieff,) 
who  had  besieged  that  city,  but,  owing  to  the  suffering 
of  his  troops  by  famine,  was  obliged  to  capitulate  in 
November  of  that  year.  After  his  return  to  England 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Calne,  was  made  a 
baronet,  and  obtained  other  distinctions.  In  i860  he 
became  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  British 
America.     Died  July  26,  1883. 

Williams,  (William  R.,)  D.D.,an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1804.  He  published  "Mis- 
cellaneous Addresses,"  (1850,)  "Lectures  on  the  Lord's 
Prayer,"  (1851,)  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in 
New  York,  April  I,  18S5. 

Wil'liam-spn,  (Alexander  William,)  an  English 
chemist,  born  at  Wandsworth,  May  i,  1824.  He  studied 
at  Dijon,  Wiesbaden,  Heidelberg,  Giessen,  and  Paris, 
and  in  1849  was  appointed  professor  of  practical  chemistry 
in  University  College,  London,  and  in  1855  full  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry.  He  has  made  important  discoveries 
in  chemistry,  and  contributed  largely  to  scientific  litera- 
ture, chiefly  in  reports  and  professional  papers. 

Wil'liam-son,  (Hugh,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
physician,' born  at  West  Nottingham,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1735,  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  in  Holland,  and  was 
appointed  after  his  return  a  surgeon  in  the  Revolutionary 
army.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  Congress  from 
Edenton,  North  Carolina.  He  published  "Observations 
on  the  Climate  of  America,"  (181 1,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1819. 

Wil'liam-son,  (Sir  Joseph,)  an  English  statesman, 
who  held'  several  important  offices  under  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  1674  succeeded  Lord  Arlington  as  secretary 
of  state.  He  died  in  1701,  leaving  ;,{;'6ooo  and  a  large 
collection  of  manuscripts  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  had  been  educated  ;  also  a  bequest  for  founding 
a  mathematical  school  at  Rochester.  I  le  had  been  chosen 
in  1678  president  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Willibrod.     See  Willebrod. 

"Wil'lis,  (Browne,)  LL.D.,  an  English  archaeologist, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1682,  was  a  grandson  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Willis,  noticed  below.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  the  author  of  a  "Survey  of 
the  Cathedrals  of  England,"  (3  vols.  4to,  with  plates, 
1733,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1760. 

Willis,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1720.  He  studied  at  Brazen- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1740  entered  holy  orders  ; 


€as/('.  qass;  gAard;  gAsj;  G,\l,K,^iUur<i/;  ii,ttasijl;\<.,t>ilUii;  5as2,-  th  as  in ////j.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILLIS 


2478 


WILMOT 


but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
medicine, — particularly  mental  diseases.  He  attended 
King  George  III.  during  his  attack  of  insanity,  and 
his  successful  treatment  of  his  case  procured  for  him  a 
high  reputation.  He  founded  an  establishment  for  the 
insane  at  Greatford,  in  Lincolnshire,  where  his  labours 
were  attended  with  extraordinary  success.  His  personal 
influence  over  his  patients  is  said  to  have  been  wonder- 
ful.    Died  in  1807. 

Wil'lis,  (Natha.niel  Parker,)  a  distinguished 
American  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  in  1807.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1827,  and  was  soon  after  employed  by  S.  C.  Goodrich, 
since  widely  known  as  Peter  Parley,  to  edit  "The  Le- 
gendary" and  "The  Token."  He  founded  in  1828  the 
"American  Monthly  Magazine,"  subsequently  merged 
in  the  "New  York  Mirror."  About  1831  he  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  as  one  of  the  attaches  of  Mr. 
Rives,  American  minister  at  Paris.  He  published  in 
England  "  Pencillings  by  the  Way,"  (1835,)  and  "  Ink- 
lings of  Adventure,"  (1836,)  both  republished  in  Amer- 
ica. These  works  were  followed  by  "  Loiterings  of 
Travel,"  (1839,)  "Letters  from  under  a  Bridge,"  (1840,) 
"  Dashes  at  Life  with  a  Free  Pencil,"  (1845,)  "  People  I 
have  met,"  (1850,)  "A  Health  Trip  to  the  Tropics," 
(1853,)  "  Famous  Persons  and  Places,"  (1854,)  and  "  Out- 
Doors  at  Idlewild,"  (1854.)  Mr.  Willis  became  in  1846 
associated  with  G.  P.  Morris  as  editor  of  the  "  Home 
Journal,"  a  literary  periodical,  published  in  New  York. 
Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  Allibo.ve,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  DuvckincIs,  "  Cyclo- 
psedia  of  American  Literatare,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Griswold,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  America;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1836; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  Fe.bruary,  1836;  "North  American  Re- 
view" for  October,  1836,  and  July,  1840,  (by  C.  C.  Felton.) 

"Willis,  (Robert,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  experimental 
ohilosopher  and  mechanician,  born  in  London  in  1800, 
was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1826.  He  became  Jrck- 
sonian  professor  of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy 
at  Cambridge  in  1837,  and  lectured  on  dynamics,  statics, 
applied  mechanics,  etc.  He  applied  himself  to  acoustics, 
the  philosophy  of  mechanism,  the  history  and  philosophy 
of  architecture,  etc.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  Remarks  on  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
of  Italy,"  (1835,)  and  "The  Principles  of  Mechanism," 
(1841.)     Died  February  28,  1875. 

Willis,  (Thomas,)  F.R.S.,an  eminent  English  anato- 
mist and  physician,  born  at  Great  Bedwin,  in  Wiltshire, 
in  162 1,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  began  to  prac- 
tise medicine  at  Oxford  about  1646,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  there  in  1660,  He  pub- 
lished in  1664  an  able  work  on  the  "Anatomy  of  the 
Brain,"  ("  Cerebri  Anatome,")  in  which  he  suggested  or 
affirmed  that  the  several  portions  of  the  brain  are  organs 
of  different  faculties.  In  1666  he  removed  to  London, 
and  became  physician  to  the  king.     Died  in  1675. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenje  Oxonienses;"  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Williseu,  von,  fon  <Vil'le-zen,  (WiLHELM,)a  Prus- 
sian general  and  military  writer,  born  near  Magdeburg 
in  1790,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of 
1814  and  1815.  He  became  a  general  in  1835,  and 
commanded  the  army  of  Sleswick-Holstein  against 
Denmark  in  1849.     Died  February  25,  1879. 

Wil'lis-tpn,  (Samuel,)  a  wealthy  American  manu- 
facturer, born  at  Easthampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1793. 
He  founded  in  his  native  town  the  Williston  Seminary, 
endowed  two  professorships  at  Amherst  College,  and 
gave  large  sums  for  other  educational  and  charitable 
purposes.     Died  July  18,  1874. 

Willmar,  wil'mir  or  vil'mtR',  (Jean  Pierre Chrfs- 
tine,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  general,  born  at  Luxemburg 
in  1790,  was  minister  of  war  from  1836  to  1840,  and 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Hague  in  1845.  Died 
in  1858. 

Will'more,  (James  Tibbits,)  an  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  iSoo.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
for  his  admirable  landscapes,  particularly  his  prints, 
after  Turner.  Among  these  we  may  name  "The  Golden 
Bough,"  "  .\ncient  Italy,"  and  "Bellini's  Picture  con- 
veyed to  the  Church  of  the  Redentore."     His  "  Harvest 


in  the  Highlands,"  after  Landseer,  and  "  Wind  against 
Tide,"  after  Stanfield,  are  also  esteemed  master-pieces. 
He  became,  in  1843,  associate  engraver  in  the  Royal 
Academy.     Died  in  1863. 

"Will^mptt,  (Rev.  Robert  Aris,)  of  Bearwood,  an 
English  writer  and  man  of  science,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor."    Died  in  1863. 

Wil'lpck,  WU'lox,  or  WiPlocks,  (Joh.n,)  a  Scot- 
tish Protestant  reformer,  was  a  native  of  Ayrshire.  He 
was  in  England  in  1541.     Died  after  1568. 

Willot,  ve'yo',  (Am6d6e,)  a  French  general,  born  ai 
Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  1757.  He  became  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1793,  and  gained  some  successes  in  the 
north  of  Spain  in  1795.  Having  joined  the  royalist 
party,  he  was  transported  to  Guiana  in  September,  1797, 
as  an  accomplice  of  Pichegru  in  the  Clichian  conspiracy. 
He  returned  to  France  about  1814.     Died  in  1823. 

Willoughby,  wil'lg-be,  (Fra.ncis,)  an  English  natu- 
ralist, born  in  1635.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  John 
Ray,  in  company  with  whom  he  afterwards  made  a  sci- 
entific tour  on  the  continent.  He  died  in  1672,  leaving 
his  valuable  works,  entitled  "  Ornithologise  Libri  tres" 
and  "  Historias  Piscium  Libri  quatuor,"  to  be  published 
by  Ray,  who  also  translated  the  former  into  English. 
His  merits  as  a  naturalist  are  highly  commended  by 
Cuvier. 

See  J.  F.  Denham,  "  Memoir  of  F.  Willoughby,"  1846. 

■Willoughby,  (Sir  Hugh,)  an  English  navigator,  was 
commander  of  an  expedition  fitted  out  by  the  merchants 
of  London  in  1553  for  the  purpose  of  making  dis- 
coveries in  the  Arctic  seas.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
perished,  with  nearly  all  his  company,  in  1554. 

Wills,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  litterateur, 
born  at  Plymouth  in  1810,  became  successively  asso- 
ciate editor  of  "Chambers's  Journal,"  "  Puncii,"  the 
"Daily  News,"  "Household  Words,"  and  "All  the 
Year  Round."     Died  September  i,  1880. 

Will'shire,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  general,  born 
at  Halifax,  North  America,  about  179c.  He  served  in 
the  Afghan  war.     Died  in  1862. 

Wiil'son,  (Byron  Force\the,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Little  Genesee,  New  York,  April  10,  1837.  He 
studied  at  Antioch  College  and  Harvard  University,  and 
became  a  resident  of  Indiana.  His  poem  of  "The  Old 
Sergeant,"  written  in  1S63,  has  attained  deserved  popu- 
larity. In  1S66  a  collection  of  his  poems  was  published 
in  Boston.    Died  at  Alfred,  New  York,  February  2,  1867. 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  March,  1875. 

Willson,  (Elizabeth  Conwell,  nee  Smith,)  the 
wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Laurel,  Indiana,  June 
26,  1842.  She  was  married  in  1S63,  and  died  October 
13,1864.  .\  volume  of  her  verses  has  been  printed.  She 
possessed  pure  and  genuine,  though  undeveloped,  poetic 
gifts. 

Wil'marth,  (Lemuel Everett,)  an  American  painter, 
born  at  Attleborough,  Massachusetts,  November  1 1, 1S35. 
He  studied  art  in  the  National  Academy,  New  York,  in 
the  Munich  Academy,  under  Kaulbach,  and  in  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris,  under  Gerome.  In  1S70  he  was 
chosen  professor  of  drawing  in  the  National  Academy, 
in  1 87 1  he  became  an  associate,  and  in  1873  a  full  Acade- 
mician. Most  of -his  pictures  are  scenes  of  domestic  life, 
of  which  "  Jack's  Return"  and  "  The  Pick  of  the  Orchard" 
are  the  most  popular. 

Wil'mer,  (Joseph  Pere  Bell,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Swedesborough,  New  Jersey,  February 
II,  1S12.  In  183S  he  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church.  He  held  rectorships  in  Yirginia  and  in 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1866  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Louisiana.     Died  December  2,  1878. 

Wilmer,  (Richard  Hooker,)  D.D.,  an  American 
bishop,  brother  of  Bishop  J.  P.  B.  Wilmer,  was  born  in 
Alexandria,  Virginia,  March  15,  1816,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1836,  and  in  1840  was  ordained  a  presbyter 
of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  held  various  pastorates 
in  Yirginia,  and  in  1862  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Ala- 
bama. 

Wil'nipt,  (David,)  an  American  legislator,  distin- 
guished as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  at  Bethany, 
Wayne    county,    Pennsylvania,   in   January,   1S14.      lie 


i,  e,  T,  o,  n,  y.  lottf^;  i,  k,  f>  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T.  o,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a.  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  fSr,  fail,  fSl;  niSt;  nAt;  good;  moon; 


WILMOT 


2479 


WILSON 


was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834,  and  practised  law  at 
Towanda.  He  began  his  political  life  as  a  Democrat, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1844.  While 
a  bill  was  pending  to  appropriate  $2,000,000  for  the 
purchase  of  a  part  of  Mexico,  in  August,  1846,  he  moved 
to  add  an  amendment,  "That,  as  an  express  and  fun- 
damental condition  to  the  acquisition  of  any  territory 
from  the  republic  of  Mexico  by  the  United  States,  .  .  . 
neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  shall  ever 
exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory."  This  amendment, 
known  as  the  "  Wilmot  Proviso,"  produced  a  great  ex- 
citement, both  in  Congress  and  in  the  country  at  large. 
It  was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  but 
failed  in  the  Senate.  Mr.  Wilmot  was  re-elected  in  1846 
and  1848,  and  in  the  latter  year  supported  Martin  Van 
Buren  for  the  Presidency.  In  185 1  he  was  elected 
president  judge  of  the  thirteenth  judicial  district  of 
Pennsylvania.  Having  joined  the  Republican  party, 
he  advocated  the  election  of  John  C.  Fremont  to  the 
Presidency,  in  1856.  He  was  temporary  chairman  of  the 
National  Convention  which  nominated  Mr.  Lincoln  in 
i860,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
in  March,  1861,  to  fill  a  vacancy  for  two  years.  Died  at 
Towanda  in  March,  1868. 

Wilmot,  (John.)     See  Rochester,  Earl  of. 

Wil'mpt,  (John  Eardley,)  an  English  jurist,  born 
at  Derby  in  1709,  rose  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas  in  1776,  and  published  a  work  entitled  "Notes  of 
Opinions."     Died  in  1792. 

Wilmot,  (John  Eardley,)  a  lawyer,  born  at  Derby 
m  1748,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Laws  and  Customs  of  England,"  and 
"Memoirs  of  his  Father."     Died  in  1815. 

Wilmsen,  Ml'm'zen,  (Fkiedrich  Philipp,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1770.  He  published 
the  "  Deutscher  Kinderfreund,"  "  Manual  of  Natural 
History,"  and  other  educational  works.     Died  in  1831. 

Wil'spn,  (Alexander,)  a  distinguished  ornithologist, 
born  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  in  1766.  He  emigrated  in 
1794  to  America,  where  he  employed  himself  for  a  time 
at  his  trade  of  weaving,  and  subsequently  taught  a  school 
at  Kingsessing,  Pennsylvania.  Having  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  birds  from  William  Bartram  the  naturalist, 
he  resolved  to  make  a  collection  of  American  birds,  and 
in  1804  set  out  on  a  pedestrian  tour  through  Western 
New  York,  then  a  wilderness.  He  gave  a  lively  and 
graphic  account  of  this  excursion,  in  a  poem  entitled 
"The  Foresters."  He  brought  out  in  1808  the  first 
volume  of  his  "Ornithology,"  and  in  1813  had  completed 
seven  volumes.  For  this  admirable  work  he  had  himself 
drawn  with  great  care  and  exactness  the  pictures  of  the 
birds  from  original  specimens;  and  his  publication  may 
be  said  to  mark  an  era  in  ornithological  science.  It 
was,  in  fact,  the  pioneer  of  the  magnificent  works  of 
Charles  Bonaparte  and  Audubon,  which  have  left  nothing 
to  be  desired  in  this  department  of  ornithology.  Wilson 
died  in  1813,  worn  out  with  his  excessive  labour  in  pre- 
paring his  work  for  publication.  Two  more  volumes 
were  edited  after  his  death,  and  a  continuation  by  C.  L. 
Bonaparte  came  out  in  1833,  (4  vols.  4to.) 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June  and  August,  1826 ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1827;  Duyckinck,  "Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors." 

WU'spn,  (Alpheus  Waters,)  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  born  in  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  in  1834,  was  educated  at  Columbian  College, 
Washington,  D.C.,  became  a  preacher  in  1853,  and  in 
1882  was  made  a  bishop. 

Wil'son,  (Andrew,)  an  English  traveller  and  author, 
eldest  son  of  Dr.  John  Wilson,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  1831.  His  best-known  book  is  "  The  Abode  of  Snow," 
the  record  of  a  journey  through  the  upper  valleys  of  the 
Himalayas.     Died  June  8,  1S81. 

Wil'spn,  (Sir  Archdale,)  an  English  general,  born 
in  1803.  He  was  chief  in  command  at  the  siege  of 
Delhi,  which  he  took  in  September,  1857.  For  this  ser- 
vice he  was  made  a  baronet.     Died  May  9,  1874. 

Wilson,  (Arthur,)  an  English  writer,  was  secre- 
tary to  Robert,  Earl  of  Essex.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  "  Life  and  Reign  of  James  I."     Died  in  1642. 

Wilson,  (Augusta  J.  Evans,)  an  American  novelist, 


born  near  Columbus,  Georgia,  May  8,  1835.  Her  inaiden 
name  was  Evans.  After  residing  for  some  years  in  Texas, 
she  removed  to  Mobile,  Alabaina,  and  became  in  1868 
the  wife  of  Mr.  L.  M.  Wilson.  Her  principal  books  are 
"Inez,"  (1856,)  "Beulah,"  (1859,)  "  Macaria,"  (1864,) 
"  Saint  Elmo,"  (1866,)  "  Vashti,"  (1869,)  and  "  Infelice." 

Wilson,  (Bird,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman,  a  son 
of  James  Wilson,  the  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, was  born  at  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  January 
8,  1777.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1792,  became  a  lawyer  in  1797,  and  a  judge  of  a  com- 
mon pleas  court.  In  1819  he  took  orders  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church.  He  was  a  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
General  Seminary,  New  York,  1821-50.  Besides  legal 
works,  he  published  a  "Life  of  Bishop  White,"  (1839.) 
Died  in  New  York,  April  14,  1859.  (See  his  "  Life."  by 
W.  W.  Bronson.)  ' 

Wilson,  (Daniel,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
London  in  1778.  He  studied  at  Saint  Edmund's  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  sf  Calcutta  and  metropolitan  of  India  in  1832. 
He  published  "Sermons  on  Christian  Doctrine,"  (1818,) 
"Lectures  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (2  vols., 
1828-30,)  "The  Christian's  Struggle  against  Sin  and 
Death,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  Calcutta  in  1858. 

Wil'son,  (Daniel,)  a  Scottish  writer  and  antiquaiy, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1816.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Archaeology  and  Prehistoric  Annals  of 
Scotland,"  C1851,)  "  Prehistoric  Man  :  Researches  into 
the  Origin  of  Civilization  in  the  Old  and  the  New 
World,"  (2  vols.,  1863,)  and  "Reminiscences  of  Old 
Edinburgh,"  (1873.)  He  became  professor  of  history 
at  Toronto,  in  Canada,  about  1853,  and  president  of  the 
University  of  Toronto  in  1881. 

Wilson,  (Sir  Erasmus,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  in 
1809.  He  practised  in  London,  and  published  a  '•'  Sys- 
tem of  Human  Anatomy,"  (1842,)  which  has  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  other  professional  works, 
largely  upon  skin-diseases.     Died  August  9,  1884. 

Wilson,  (Florence,)  [Lat.  Floren'tius  Voluse'- 
Nus,]  a  Scottish  philosopher  and  scholar,  born  in  the 
county  of  Moray,  studied  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  be- 
came teacher  of  a  grammar-school  at  Carpentras.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  Dialogue  on  Tranquillity  of 
Mind,"  ("De  Animi  Tranquillitate  Dialogus.")  Died 
in  1547. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary'  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

W^ilson,  (George,)  a  Scottish  chemist  and  physician, 
a  brother  of  Daniel,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1818.  He  was  successively  appointed  chemical 
lecturer  in  the  School  of  Arts,  director  of  the  Industrial 
Museum  of  Scotland,  and  regius  professor  of  technology 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  (1855.)  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  an  "  Elementary  Treatise 
on  Chemistry,"  (1850,)  "Researches  on  Coloiir-Blind- 
ness,"  (1855,)  and  "The  Five  Gateways  of  Knowledge," 
(1856.)     Died  in  1859. 

See  "Memoirs  of  George  Wilson,"  by  his  sister,  Jessie  A.  Wil- 
son, 1S60;  "  Nortli  British  Review"  for  February,  i860. 

Wilson,  (Henry,)  an  English  mariner,  was  captain 
of  a  vessel  which  was  wrecked  on  one  of  the  I'elew 
Islands  in  1783.  He  was  kindly  treated  by  the  chief 
of  the  island,  Abba  Thulle,  whose  son  Le  Boo  went  to 
England  with  Wilson.     Died  in  18 10. 

"Wilson,  (Henry,)  a  distinguished  American  Senator 
born  at  Farmington,  New  Hampshire,  February  16 
1812,  was  a  son  of  poor  parents.  His  education  wa 
very  defective.  After  he  had  worked  on  a  farm  many 
years,  he  removed  to  Natick,  Massachusetts,  about  1832, 
and  learned  the  trade  of  shoemaker.  In  1840  lie  was 
elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Massachu- 
setts by  the  Whigs.  He  afterwards  served  four  years  in 
the  Massachusetts  Senate,  of  which  he  was  twice  elected 
president,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  zealous  and 
resolute  opponent  of  slavery.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  organization  of  the  Free-Soil  party  in  1848, 
and  in  that  year  began  to  edit  the  "  Boston  Republican." 
He  was  president  of  the  Free-Soil  National  Convention 
at  Pittsburg  in  1852,  was  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1853,  and  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate 
f'lr  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in   1853  and  1854.     In 


€  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy,'  G,  H,  V..pittur,il:  .n,  nasal;  K,  tri  led;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.      ( J[^^.'^ee  IC.vplanations,  p.  23. ) 


WILSON 


2480 


WILSON 


1855  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  to 
succeed  Edward  Everett.  He  advocated  the  repeal  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  became  in  1855  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Republican  party,  then  just  organized. 
In  May,  1856,  he  was  challenged  by  Preston  S.  Hrooks 
because  he  denounced  his  assault  on  Mr.  Sumner  as 
"murderous,  brutal,  and  cowardly."  He  declined  to 
accept  the  challenge,  on  the  ground  that  duelling  was 
forbidden  by  the  laws  of  his  country  ;  at  the  same  time 
he  notified  his  challenger  that,  if  attacked,  his  conscien- 
tious scruples  would  not  prevent  him  from  defending 
himself.  He  was  reelected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  about  January,  1S59,  and  in  March  of  that  year 
made  a  speech  in  defence  of  free  labour,  which  attracted 
nmch  attention.  He  rendered  great  service  to  the 
country  during  the  civil  war,  as  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  military  affairs.  General  Scott  declared  that 
he  performed  in  one  session  more  work  than  all  the 
chairmen  of  the  military  committees  had  done  in  twenty 
years.  In  1861  he  raised  a  regiment,  and  received  a 
commission  as  colonel ;  but  his  duties  in  the  Senate 
prevented  him  from  remaining  long  in  the  field.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  bill  by  which  slavery  was  abolished  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  April,  1862.  During  the  civil 
war  he  introduced  many  important  measures  to  organize 
and  develop  the  military  resources  of  the  nation,  and 
delivered  about  one  hundred  speeches  at  various  places 
in  support  of  the  cause  of  liberty  and  union.  "No 
public  man,"  says  Headley,  "ever  brought  to  the  high 
duties  of  a  great  occasion  more  sympathy  for  the  toiling 
and  the  oppressed,  or  more  faith  in  the  people  and  the 
democratic  institutions  of  his  country."  In  1S65  he  was 
again  elected  to  the  Senate  for  six  years,  and  in  1872 
was  chosen  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  in  which 
oflice  he  died,  November  22,  1875. 

Wilson,  (Horace  Hayman,)  an  eminent  English 
Orientalist,  born  in  London  in  1786.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, and  went  to  Bengal  as  a  surgeon  in  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company  about  1808.  Having  learned 
Sanscrit,  he  published  in  1819  a  valuable  "  Sanscrit  Dic- 
tionary." He  translated  several  ancient  Sanscrit  dramas 
into  English,  (3  vols.,  1826-27,)  ^"d  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  an  Orientalist.  In  1833  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Sanscrit  at  O.xford.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"History  of  Cashmere,"  printed  in  the  "Asiatic  Re- 
searches," (1825,)  "Ancient  Ariana,"  ("  Ariana  Antiqua," 
1841,)  a  "History  of  British  India  from  1805  to  1835," 
(2  vols.,  1846,)  and  a  translation  of  the  "  Rigveda,"  (vol. 
i.,  1850.)     Died  in  May,  i860. 

See  Allidone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1S45. 

"Wilson,  (James,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  near  Saint  Andrew's, 
Scotland,  in  1742.  He  emigrated  to  the  United  States, 
and  was  elected  in  1775  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  by  Washington  one  of  the 
first  judges  of  the  United  States  supreme  court.  Died 
in  1798. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1848. 

Wilson,  (James,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  scientific 
writer  of  great  merit,  born  at  Paisley  in  1795,  was  a 
brother  of  Professor  John  Wilson,  noticed  below.  He 
was  the  author  of  "A  Voyage  round  the  Coasts  of 
Scotland  and  the  Isles,"  and  contributed  to  the  "  En 
cyclopasdia  Britannica"  articles  on  natural  history.  Died 
in  1856. 

See  "Memoirs  of  James  Wilson,"  by  James  Hamilton,  1859; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1828. 

Wilson,  (James,)  a  journalist  and  statesman,  born  in 
Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  in  1805.  He  became  in  1843 
editor  of  "Ihe  Economist,"  an  organ  of  free  trade,  was 
chosen  to  represent  Westbury  in  Parliament  in  1847, 
was  re-elected  in  1852,  and  was  soon  after  ap])ointed 
financial  secretary  to  the  treasury.  He  wrote  a  treat- 
ise "On  the  Influences  of  the  Corn-Laws  as  affecting 
all  Classes  of  the  Community,"  etc.,  (1839,)  and  "  Eluc- 
tuations  of  Currency,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures, 
referable  to  the  Corn-Laws,"  (1840.)  Died  in  i860. 
Wilson,  (James   F.,)  an  American   lawyer,  born  at 


Newark,  Ohio,  in  1828,  removed  to  Iowa  about  1S53. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  Iowa  in  1859,  and  was 
chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1861.  He  represented 
the  first  district  of  Iowa  in  three  subsequent  terms, 
(1863-69,)  and  served  as  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  the  judiciary.  He  was  one  of  the  managers  to  con- 
duct the  trial  of  President  Johnson,  in  1868.  In  1882 
he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator. 

Wilson,  (General  James  Grant,)  an  American  author, 
born  at  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  April  28,  1835.  He 
was  of  Scottish  parentage.  His  father,  William  Wilson, 
was  known  as  a  poet.  J.  G.  Wilson  served  in  the  war 
of  1861-65  with  distinction  as  colonel  of  cavaliy,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Memoirs  of  Illustrious  Soldiers,"  "  Life  and  Cam- 
paigns of  General  U.  S.  Grant,"  "  Life  of  Htz-Greere 
Halleck,"  and  a  "Memoir  of  W.  C.  Bryant."  He  also 
compiled  the  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Scotland,"  (2  vols., 
1876.) 

Wilson,  (James  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Illinois,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  i860.  He  com- 
manded a  corps  of  cavalry  at  the  great  battle  of  I^ash- 
ville,  December  15  and  16,  1864,  before  which  event  he 
had  served  under  General  Grant  in  Mississippi,  and 
under  Sheridan  in  Virginia.  In  March,  1865,  he  led  an 
army  of  about  15,000  men,  mostly  cavalry,  on  an  expe- 
dition against  Alabama,  which  he  entered  froin  the  north 
He  defeated  General  Forrest,  and  captured  .Selma, 
Montgomery,  Columbus,  and  Macon,  in  April,  1865. 
Jefferson  Davis  was  taken  prisoner  by  a  detachment 
of  his  men.  He  became  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
regular  army  in  1866. 

Wilson,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Windsor  in  1588.  He  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in 
1629,  and  was  the  first  minister  of  Boston.  Died  in  1667. 

Wilson,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  in  Kent  in  1594,  was  celebrated  /or  his  perform- 
ance on  the  lute,  and  was  a  great  favourite  of  Charles  I. 
He  became  professor  of  music  at  Ox'.ord  in  1656,  and 
after  the  restoration  was  patronized  by  Charles  II. 
Died  in  1673. 

Wilson,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1782.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14.) 
Died  in  1856. 

Wilson,  (John,)  otherwise  known  as  Christopher 
North,  a  celebrated  Scottish  writer,  critic,  and  poet, 
was  born  at  Paisley  on  the  19th  of  May,  1785.  His 
father  was  a  manufacturer.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  which  he  entered  about  the  age 
of  thirteen,  and  at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
gained  distinction  as  a  scholar  and  as  an  athlete.  He 
won  the  Newdigate  prize  for  English  poetry,  and  ex- 
celled in  the  knowledge  of  Greek.  He  was  remarkable 
for  physical  strength,  beauty,  and  agility.  He  graduated 
as  B.A.  in  1807.  Having  inherited  an  easy  fortune,  (about 
;^30,ooo,)  he  purchased  a  beautiful  place,  called  Elleray, 
which  is  situated  on  Lake  Windermere.  Here  he  enjoyed 
the  society  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  Southey.  In 
1810  or  181 1  he  married  an  English  lady  named  Jane 
Penny.  He  published  in  1812  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Isle  of  Palms."  About  1815  he  lost  jxirt  of  his  fortune, 
which  had  been  unsafely  invested,  and,  having  adopted 
the  profession  of  law,  he  removed  to  Edinburgh.  He 
produced  in  1816  "The  City  of  the  Plague,"  a  poem. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  contributors  to  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  which  was  founded  in  1817,  and  derived  its 
popularity  chiefly  from  the  brilliant  articles  which  he 
continued  to  furnish  for  many  years  under  the  name  of 
"  Christopher  North." 

Commenting  on  "The  City  of  the  Plague,"  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  June,  1816,  says,  "  We  take  our 
leave  of  it  with  unfeigned  regret  and  very  sincere  ad- 
miration of  the  author's  talents.  He  has,  undoubtedly, 
the  heart  and  fancy  of  a  ]3oet,  and,  with  these  great 
requisites,  is  almost  sure  of  attaining  the  higher  honours 
of  his  art,  if  he  continues  to  cultivate  it  with  the  docility 
and  diligence  of  which  he  has  already  given  i)roof." 

In  1820,  Wilson  and  Sir  William  Hamilton  were 
competitors  for  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  which  the  former  obtained. 
His  success  is  attributed  partly  to  his  political  principles, 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u, )?, /t'Mjj';  i,  4,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,^,  short:  a,  e,  \,q,Qh  iure:  f3r.  fill,  fit;  ni^t;  nfti;  good;  moon; 


WILSON 


24S1 


WILTS 


which  were  Tory.  His  lectures  are  said  to  have  been 
attractive  as  well  as  suggestive.  He  published  a  series 
of  tales  in  prose,  entitled  "  Lights  and  Shadows  of 
Scottish  Life,"  (1822,)  and  "The  Foresters,"  which 
were  highly  popular.  Among  his  most  celebrated  pro- 
ductions are  the  "  Noctes  AmbrosianK,"  contributed  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  between  1822  and  1835,  and 
consisting  of  familiar  dialogues  on  men,  books,  and  the 
principal  topics  of  the  day.  "They  contain,"  says  R, 
Caruthers,  "passages  of  'admirable  fooling,'  shrewd 
observation,  description,  and  criticism.  .  .  .  There  was 
originality  with  fervour  and  boldness  in  all  he  wrote.  It 
was  mixed  with  baser  matter,  in  the  shape  of  invitations 
to  coarse  jollity,  and  fierce  political  and  personal  satire ; 
but  the  frank,  genial,  literary  spirit  predominated." 
("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  In  1842  he  published  a 
selection  of  his  contributions  to  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine," under  the  title  of  "  Recreations  of  Christopher 
North."  He  continued  to  occupy  the  chair  of  moral 
philosophy  for  thirty  years  or  more.  He  died  in  Edin- 
burgh in  April,  1854. 

See  a  "Life  of  John  Wilson,"  by  Mrs.  Gordon,  his  daughtei, 
1862;  Lord  Jeffrey,  critique  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
February,  1812,  vol.  xix. ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1843, 
vol.  Ixxvii. ;  Ch.'^mhers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men." (Supplement:)  "Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1863  ;  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  May,  1854,  and  December,  1862  :  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  lor  October,  1855  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Revievr"  for  April, 
1863;  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1863. 

Wilson,  (John,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  missionary 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  Berwickshire  in  1804.  Having 
been  ordained  a  missionary  in  1828,  he  was  sent  to  Bom- 
bay. Here  he  devoted  him.self  to  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guage and  the  religion  of  the  Parsees.  In  1843  he  pub- 
lished "  The  Parsee  Religion  as  contained  in  the  Zend 
Avesta,  and  propounded  and  defended  by  the  Zoroastri- 
ans  of  India  and  Persia,  unfolded,  refuted,  and  contrasted 
with  Christianity."  In  the  same  year  Dr.  Wilson  paid 
a  visit  to  Scotland,  and  joined  the  ranks  o^  the  Free 
Church.  He  then  travelled  through  the  Holy  Land, 
and  in  1847  produced  "The  Lands  of  the  Bible."  Died 
at  Bombay,  December  i,  1875. 

"Wilson,  (John  Allston,)  an  American  civil  engineer, 
born  at  Phcenixville,  Pennsylvania,.  April  24,  1837.  He 
graduated  in  1856  at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Troy,  New  York,  and  served  on  a  railway  in  Honduras, 
1857-58.  From  185S  to  1876  he  was  one  of  the  engi- 
neers of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  holding  from  1870 
to  1876  the  position  of  chief  engineer.  After  that  date 
he  conducted  the  business  of  engineering  and  building, 
'n  company  with  his  brother,  J.  M.  Wilson. 

Wilson,  (Joseph  Miller,)  an  American  engineer 
and  architect,  a  brother  of  J.  A.  Wilson,  was  born  at 
Phcenixville,  Pennsylvania,  June  30,  1838.  He  graduated 
at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  in  1858,  became 
assistant  engineer  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  in  i860, 
principal  assistant  in  1865,  and  afterwards  full  engineer 
of  bridges  and  buildings  to  that  corporation  and  its  allied 
lines.  He,  with  Mr.  J.  MacArthur,  designed  the  Phila- 
delphia Centennial  buildings  of  1876.  Mr.  Wilson  is 
author  of  many  professional  papers  and  reports.  His 
family  is  one  of  great  distinction  in  the  history  of  American 
engineering. 

Wilson,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Montgomeryshire  in  1713.  He  devoted 
himself  at  hist  to  portrait-painting;  but,  having  visited 
Rome,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Joseph 
Vernet  and  other  celebrated  artists,  he  was  induced  to 
relinquish  that  branch  of  the  art  for  landscape-painting. 
Having  spent  six  years  in  Italy,  where  he  executed 
several  admirable  works,  he  returned  in  1755  to  London. 
He  exhibited  in  1760  a  celebrated  ])icture  of  the  "De- 
struction of  Niobe's  Children."  He  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Villa  of  Maecenas  at  Tivoli,"  a  "View 
of  Baiae,"  "The  Temple  of  Bacchus  near  Rome,"  "Car- 
narvon Castle,"  and  "Pembroke  Castle."  Died  in  1782. 

See  Thomas  Wright,  "  Account  of  the  Life  of  R.  Wilson," 
1824  :  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Wilson,  (Sir  Robert  Thomas,)  an  English  general 
and  military  writer,  born  in  1777.  He  served  in  Flanders 
and  Holland,  and  subsequently  under  Sir  Arthur  Wei- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,g]tttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

I  JO 


lesley  in  Spain.  In  1816  he  aided  Lavallette  to  escape 
from  Paris.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  South- 
wark  in  1818.  In  1841  he  was  made  a  general,  and  in 
1842  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  Gibraltar. 
He  published  an  "  Historical  Account  of  the  British 
Expedition  to  Egypt,"  (1802,)  a  "Narrative  of  Events 
which  occurred  in  1812  during  the  Invasion  of  Russia," 
(i860,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1849. 

Wilson,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  statesman  and 
writer,  left  his  country  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
was  arrested  at  Rome,  and  imprisoned  for  a  time  in 
the  Inquisition.  After  his  return  to  England  he  became 
private  secretary  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Netherlands  in  1576.  He  was  appointed 
in  1577  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  He  wrote  two 
critical  works  of  great  merit,  entitled  "  The  Rule  of 
Reason,  containing  the  Art  of  Logic,"  (1551,)  and  "The 
Art  of  Rhetoric,"  (1553.)     Died  in  1581. 

Wilson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  in  Kent.  He  preached  at  Canterbury,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Complete  Christian  Dictionary." 
Died  in  1621. 

Wilson,  (Thomas,)  a  pious  English  theologian,  born 
at  Burton,  in  Cheshire,  in  1663.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Sodor  and  Man  in  1697,  and  many  years  later  declined 
the  more  lucrative  place  of  Bishop  of  Exeter,  which  the 
king  offered  him.  He  published  "  Religious  Tracts"  and 
Sermons.     Died  in  1755. 

See  Crutwell,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Wilson,"  17S0 ;  Hugh  Stow- 
ELL,  "Life  of  Bishop  Wilson,"  1819. 

Wilson,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1703.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Ornaments 
of  Churches  Considered."     Died  in  1784. 

Wilson,  (William  Dexter,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  L.H.D., 
an  American  philosopher,  born  at  Stoddard,  New  Hamp- 
shire, February  28,  x8i6,  graduated  in  1838  at  the  Cam- 
bridge Divinity  School,  and  became  a  Unitarian  minister, 
but  in  1842  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1850 
he  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  Hobart  College, 
Geneva,  New  York,  and  in  1868  was  called  to  the  corre- 
sponding chair  in  Cornell  University.  His  principal 
works  are  "The  Church  Identified,"  (1848,)  "Logic," 
(1856,)  "Lectures  on  Psychology,"  (1871;  enlarged, 
1880,)  "Text-Book  of  Logic,"  (1872,)  "Introduction  to 
Metaphysics,"  (1872,)  "  Live  Questions  in  Psychology  and 
Metaphysics,"  (1877,)  "  Foundations  of  Religious  Belief," 
(1883,)  etc.  He  has  also  published  numerous  papers  on 
mathematics,  and  on  religious  subjects. 

Wilson,  (William  Lyne,)  LL.D.,  an  American  edu- 
cator, was  born  in  Jefferson  county.  West  Virginia,  (then 
in  Virginia,)  May  3,  1843,  graduated  at  Columbian  Col- 
lege, Washington,  D.C.,  in  i860,  and  afterwards  studied 
in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He  served  in  the  Con- 
federate cavalry,  1861-65.  I"  l^^  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Latin  in  Columbian  College,  and  in  1882 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  West  Virginia  University, 
at  Morgantown.  In  1883  he  entered  Congress,  and  was 
appointed  one  of  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. 

Wilson,  (William  Rae,)  a  British  traveller,  born  at 
Paisley  about  1773.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,"  and  "Travels  in  Russia." 
Died  in  1849. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionai-y  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Wil'tpn,  (Joseph,)  an  English  sculptor,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Royal  Academy,  was  born  in  London 
in  1722.  He  studied  in  Paris  and  at  Rome,  where  he 
resided  many  years.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
monument  to  General  Wolfe,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  busts  of  Newton,  Bacon,  Chatham,  and  Swift.  Died 
in  1803. 

See  Allan  Cunningham,  "  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British 

Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects." 

Wilton,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Doncaster,  IDecember  25,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Saint 
Catherine's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1 85 1,  and  took  priest's 
orders  in  the  English  Church  in  1852.  His  principal 
works  are  "  Wood-Notes  and  Church-Bells,"  (1873,)  '^"'^ 
"Lyrics,  Sylvan  and  Sacred,"  (1878.) 

Wilts,  (William  Gorman,)  an  Irish  dramatist  and 

e  Explanations,  ]>.  23.) 


WIMPFELING 


2482 


WINDHAM 


novelist,  born  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny  in  1828.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  a  suc- 
cessful portrait-painter.  Among  his  many  dramas  are 
"Charles  the  First,"  {1872,)  "Mary  Queen  of  Scots," 
(1874,)  "Jane  Shore,"  (1876,)  etc.  His  novels  include 
"The  Wife's  Evidence"  and  "Notice  to  Quit." 

Wimpfeling,  <^imp'feh-ling',  or  Wimpheling,  [Lat. 
Wimphp;lin'{;ius,]  (Jakob,)  an  eminent  German  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Alsace  in  1450.  He  became  a  priest, 
preached  for  some  time  at  Spire,  and  afterwards  lived 
at  Strasburg,  Bale,  and  other  towns.  It  appears  that  he 
never  remained  long  at  one  place.  He  wrote  many  and 
various  works,  among  which  are  "  Youth,"  ("  Adoles- 
centia,"  1492,)  and  one  "On  Integrity,"  ("De  Integri- 
tate,"  1505.)     Died  in  1528. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Mdmoires  ;"  Schwalb,  "Notice  sur  Wimphe- 
ling," 1851. 

Wimpffen,  de,  deh  <^imp'fen,  (EmmIanuel  F6lix,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Laon,  of  a  family  of  German 
descent,  September  13, 181 1.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  Algeria  and  in  the  Crimea,  and  became  a  general  of 
division  in  1855.  In  1870  he  suppressed  the  troubles  on 
the  Morocco  frontier  with  singular  skill  and  celerity.  He 
was  a  corps-commander  in  the  early  part  of  the  German 
war  of  1870-71.  He  commanded  at  Sedan  after  the 
wounding  of  MacMahon,  and  by  command  of  Napoleon 
III.  capitulated  to  the  Germans.  For  the  misfortunes  of 
that  day  some  French  authorities  hold  Wimpffen  largely 
responsible.  He  published  "Sedan,"  {1871,)  "  Reponse 
au  General  Ducrot,"  (1871,)  "  La  Situation  de  la  France," 
(1S73,)  and  "La  Nation  armee,"  (1876.)  Died  in  1884. 
Wimpffen,  von,  fon  ^imp'fen,  (Franz  Emil  Lo- 
RENZ  Hermann,)  a  German  military  commander,  born 
at  Prague  in  1797,  served  against  the  French  in  the 
campaigns  of  1813-14,  and  in  the  revolution  of  1848. 
He  was  made  master  of  ordnance  in  1849,  ^"'^  '^'^•S  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Trieste.  Died  November  26,  1870. 
"Wimpffen-Berneburg,  ^!mp'fen  b^R'neh-booRo', 
(Felix,)  Baron,  a  distinguished  general,  born  at  Zwei- 
briicken,  (Deux- Fonts,)  in  Germany,  in  1745.  Having 
entered  the  French  service,  he  fought  in  1769  against 
Paoli  in  Corsica,  and  in  1789  was  a  deputy  from  Nor- 
mandy to  the  States-General.  He  defended  Thionville 
against  the  Prussians  in  1792;  but  he  was  afterwards 
defeated  by  the  royalists  near  Vernon,  and  was  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  England.  He  was  made  a  general  of 
division  by  Napoleon  in  1799.     Died  in  1814. 

"Winipjffen-Berneburg,  (Franz  Ludwig,)  Baron, 
born  at  Zweibriicken  (Deux- Fonts)  in  1732,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  French  army  during  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  and  rose  to  be  a  general  of  division.  He  published 
"Memoirs  of  his  Life,"  (1788.)     Died  in  1800. 

■Wimpina,  1^im'pe-na,  (Conrad,)  was  born  in  Fran- 
conia,  in  Germany,  in  1460.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  about  1506.  In  1530 
he  was  one  of  three  Catholic  theologians  appointed  to 
dispute  with  the  Lutherans  at  Augsburg.  Died  in  1531. 
Winch' ell,  (Alexander,)  LL.D.,  a  geologist,  was 
born  at  North  East,  New  York,  December  31,  1824,  grad- 
uated in  1847  at  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Con- 
necticut, was  professor  of  physics  and  civil  engineering 
in  the  University  of  Michigan,  1853-55,  and  professor 
of  geology  and  natural  sciences,  1855-72,  holding  also 
(1866-69)  a  similar  chair  in  the  Kentucky  University. 
He  was  chancellor  of  Syracuse  University,  (New  York,) 
1872-74,  and  became  professor  of  geology  and  zoology 
there  in  1877.  In  1879  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
geology  and  palaeontology  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  also  served  as  State  geologist  of  Michigan,  1859-62 
and  1869-71.  Among  his  works  are  volumes  of  official 
reports,  "Sketches  of  Creation,"  (1870,)  "Geology  of 
the  Stars,"  (1872,)  "Doctrine  of  Evolution,"  (1874,) 
"  Lay  Theology,"  (1876,)  "  Reconciliation  of  Science  and 
Religion,"  (1877,)  "  Preadamites,"  (1880,)  "Sparks  from 
a  Geologist's  Hammer,"  (1S81,)  "World-Life,"  (1883,) 
"Geological  Excursions,"  (1884,)  etc.     Died  in  1891. 

Winch'ell,  (James  Manning,)  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1791, 
became  in  1814  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in 
Boston.  He  published  a  compilation  of  psalms  and 
hymns,  and  several  original  works.     Died  in  1820. 


Win'chel-sea,  (Anne,)  Countess,  an  English  poet- 
ess, born  about  1660.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Sir 
Richard  Kingsmill,  and  wife  of  Heneage,  Earl  of  Win- 
chelsea.  Her  poems  (published  in  1713)  have  been  highly 
praised  by  Wordsworth,  Leigh  Hunt,  and  Pope.  Died 
in  1720. 

Win'ches-ter,  (Elhanan,)  an  American  divine,  born 
At  lirookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1751,  was  originally  a 
Baptist,  but  was  afterwards  converted  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Restorationists.  He  published  "Four  Dialogues 
on  Universal  Restoration,"  and  numerous  other  theo- 
logical works.     Died  in  1797. 

See  ViDLER,  "Life  of  E.  Winchester;"  E.  M.  Stone,  "Life  of 
E.  Winchester,"  1836. 

"Winchester,  Marquis  of.     See  Paulet. 

Win'ches-ter,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer  on 
theology,  born  in  Berkshire.  He  became  rector  of  Ap- 
pleton  in  1761.     Died  in  1780. 

Winckell,  ^fnk'kel,  (Georg  Franz  Dietrich,)  a 
German  writer,  born  in  1762,  published  a  "Manual  for 
Sportsmen  and  Amateurs,"  (1820.)     Died  in  1839. 

Winckelmann,  wink'el-man,  [Ger.  pron.  i^ink'kel- 
mdn',]  (JoHANN  Joachim,)  an  eminent  German  critic 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Stendal,  in  Prussia,  in 
1717.  His  father  was  a  poor  mechanic,  unable  to  afford 
him  any  opportunities  of  instruction  ;  but  his  eager  de- 
sire for  knowledge  procured  for  him  the  friendship  and 
patronage  of  several  gentlemen  of  rank  and  fortune, 
and  in  1738  he  entered  the  University  of  Halle.  He 
became  in  1748  private  librarian  to  Count  Biinau,  near 
Dresden.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Archinto, 
the  pope's  nuncio,  who  offered  him  a  situation  at  Rome 
on  condition  of  his  becoming  a  Catholic.  He  accepted 
this  offer,  after  some  hesitation,  and  in  1755  set  out  for 
Rome,  having  previously  published  his  "  Reflections 
upon  the  Imitation  of  the  Antique."  He  soon  acquired 
the  friendship  of  the  principal  artists  and  literati  of 
Rome,  particularly  of  Raphael  Mengs,  whose  counsels 
exercised  great  influence  over  him.  He  was  appointed 
in  1759,  by  Cardinal  Albani,  librarian  and  keeper  of  his 
gallery  of  antiquities,  and  became  in  1763  antiquary  of 
the  apostolic  chamber.  His  great  work  entitled  "  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Art"  ("Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Aiter- 
thums")  came  out  in  1764,  and  was  soon  followed  by  his 
"  Account  of  the  Latest  Discoveries  at  Herculaneum." 
In  June,  1768,  while  returning  from  a  visit  to  Vienna, 
— where  he  had  been  received  with  great  distinction, — 
he  was  assassinated  at  Trieste  by  Arcangeli,  an  Italian, 
who  had  gained  his  confidence,  and  whose  cupidity  was 
excited  by  some  gold  coins  which  Winckelmann  had 
shown  him. 

See  C.  G.  Hevne,  "  Lobschrift  auf  Winckelmann,"  1778; 
Goethe,  "Winckelmann  und  sein  Jahrhundert,"  1S05;  Morgen- 
STERN,  "J.  Winckehnann ;  Rede,"  1805;  D.  DE  RossETTi,  "J.  J. 
Winckelmann's  letzte  Lebensepoche,"  1S18;  Otto  Jahn,  "  J.  J. 
Winckelmann;  eine  Rede,"  1S44;  C.  Petersen,  "  Erinnerung  an 
J.J.  Winckelmann's  Einfliiss,"  etc.,  1842;  Madame  de  Stajsl, 
"Germany;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Winckelmann,  (Johann  Justus,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Giessen  in  1620.  He  published  several 
works  in  Latin.     Died  in  1697. 

"Winckler,  ^ink'ler,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1703,  became 
professor  of  physics  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "  Thoughts 
on  the  Properties  and  Effects  of  Electricity,"  and  other 
similar  works.  Franklin  is  supposed  to  have  been  bene- 
fited by  his  suggestions.     Died  in  1770. 

Win'der,  (William  H.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
officer,  born  in  Somerset  county,  Maryland,  in  1775, 
served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  in  1814.     Died  in  1824. 

"Windham,  wind'am,  (Charles  Ash,)  an  English 
general,  born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk  in  1810,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  1S55  suc- 
ceeded General  Barnard  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the 
Eastern  army.  He  was  made  commander  of  the  Bath 
the  same  year.  In  1857  he  fought  against  the  mutineers 
in  India.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
celebrated  William  Windham.     Died  in  1870. 

"Windham,  (Joseph,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Twickenham  in  1739.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Observa- 
tions on  a  Passage  in  Pliny's  Natural  History  relative 


i,  e,  T,  G.  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  sho7-i;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon 


WINDHAM 


2483 


WIN  LOCK 


to  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,"  and  wrote  the 
principal  part  of  the  "  Ionian  Antiquities."  Died  in  1810. 

Windham,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  orator 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  May,  1750,  was  the 
only  son  of  Colonel  William  Windham,  of  Norfolk. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton,  Glasgow,  and  University 
College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  in  1771.  In  1778  he 
censured  the  policy  of  the  government  on  the  subject 
of  the  American  war,  in  a  public  speech.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  Norwich  in  1783,  and  was 
appointed  one  of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of 
Warren  Hastings.  He  began  public  life  as  a  Whig 
and  political  friend  and  follower  of  Burke,  to  whom  he 
adhered  after  the  Whig  party  had  been  divided  by  the 
issues  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  1790  he  was  again 
elected  a  member  for  Norwich.  He  was  secretary  at 
war  in  the  cabinet  of  Pitt  from  1794  until  1801,  and  he 
then  resigned  with  his  colleagues.  About  1798  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Forrest.  He  inade  a 
celebrated  speech  against  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802, 
and  moved  an  address  to  the  king,  which  was  rejected. 
He  opposed  the  administration  of  Addington  and  thai 
of  Pitt,  (1804-06.)  On  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  Lord 
Grenville  and  Fox  came  into  power  at  the  head  of  the 
"ministry  of  all  the  talents,"  in  which  Mr.  Windham 
was  secretary  at  war  and  for  the  colonies.  He  procured 
the  passage  of  acts  to  increase  the  pay  and  pensions  of 
soldiers  and  to  limit  their  term  of  service.  He  and  his 
colleagues  ceased  to  hold  office  in  March,  1807.  He  was 
regarded  as  the  model  of  an  English  gentleman.  Died 
in  June,  i8io.  Respecting  his  style  of  speaking,  Lord 
Brougham  says,  "  It  was  in  the  easy  tone  of  familiar 
conversation  ;  but  it  was  full  of  nice  observation  and 
profound  remark  ;  it  was  instinct  with  classical  allusion  ; 
it  was  even  over-informed  with  philosophic  and  with 
learned  reflection  ;  it  sparkled  with  the  finest  wit." 

See  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  vol. 
ii  ;  Thomas  Amyot,  "  Life  of  Windham ;"  "  Diary  of  William 
Windham,"  1S66;  E.  Malone,  "Biographical  Memoir  of  William 
Windham,"  i8io  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  iSii. 

Windheim,  <^lnt'him,  (Christian  Ernst,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  writer,  born  at  Wernigerode  in 
1722.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Er- 
]angen.     Died  in  1766. 

Windthorst,  Mnt'horst,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  states- 
man, born  January  17,  i8i2.  He  studied  at  Gottingen 
and  Heidelberg,  and  was  minister  of  justice  for  the  king- 
dom of  Hanover,  1863-65.  After  the  union  with  Prus- 
sia he  became  a  member  of  the  Reichstag  and  of  the 
Prussian  House  of  Deputies,  in  which  he  was  the  prin- 
cipal leader  of  the  Catholic  party.     Died  March  14,  1891. 

Windisch,  ^in'dish,  (Karl  Gottlieb,)  a  Hungarian 
historian,  born  at  Presburg  in  1725.  He  wrote  on  the 
history  and  geography  of  Hungary.     Died  in  1793. 

Windischgratz,  <^in'dish  -  grits',  (  Alfred  zu,  ) 
Prince,  a  distinguished  field-marshal,  born  at  Brussels 
in  1787.  Having  entered  the  Austrian  army,  he  served 
in  the  campaign  of  1814,  and  was  made  general  of  di- 
vision in  1833.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  defeated 
the  Hungarian  insurgents,  and  took  Vienna  by  storm, 
(October  31.)  He  afterwards  led  a  large  army  into 
Hungary,  where  he  remained  inactive,  and  was  censured 
for  hesitation  or  dilatory  conduct.  He  was  removed  in 
April,  1849.     Died  in  1862. 

Windischmann,  <^in'dish-mdn',  (Karl  Joseph 
Hieronymlts,)  a  German  physician  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Mentz  in  1775.  He  became  Catholic  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and  published  a  number 
of  treatises  on  medicine  and  animal  magnetism,  also 
"Philosophy  in  the  Progress  of  the  History  of  the 
World,"  (1827-34,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in 
1839.  His  son  Friedrich  has  ])ublished  several  works 
on  theology  and  Oriental  literature. 

Win'doin,  (William,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Belmont  county,  Ohio,  May  10,  1827,  of  Quaker 
parents.  He  studied  law,  and  in  1855  removed  to  Min- 
nesota. He  was  in  Congress  from  1858  to  1868,  was  a 
United  States  Senator,  1870-81,  was  secretary  of  the 
treasury  in  1881,  under  Garfield,  was  again  Senator  1881- 
83,  and  in  1889  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury 
by  Mr.  Harrison.      Died  Jan.  29,  1891. 


Wine'bren-ner,  (John,)  a  preacher,  born  in  Fred- 
erick county,  Maryland,  March  25,  1797,  became  in  1821 
pastor  of  a  German  Reformed  church  at  Harrisburg, 
Pennsylvania.  He  founded  a  sect  in  1830,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  the  "Church  of  God."  Died  at  Har 
risburg,  September  12,  i860. 

Winer,  <^ee'ner,  (Georg  Benedict,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1789.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
and  in  1823  became  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen. 
In  1832  he  filled  the  same  chair  at  Leipsic.  He 
published  a  "  Biblical  Dictionary,"  ("  Biblische  Real- 
worterbuch,"  1820,)  "Greek  Testament  Grammar," 
("Grammatik  des  Neutestamentlichen  Sprachidioms," 
1822,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  standard  work,  and 
"Chaldean  Reader,"  (1825,)  also  a  "  Manual  of  Theo- 
logical Literature,  principally  that  of  Protestant  Ger- 
many," (1825,)  and  other  critical  and  theological  essays 
of  great  merit.     Died  in  1858. 

See  the  "  Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1845,  article 
"German  Theology;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1870. 

Wines,  (Enoch  Cobb,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  educational  writer,  born  at  Hanover,  New  Jersey, 
in  1806,  became  professor  of  languages  in  the  Central 
High  School  of  Philadelphia  in  1838.  He  published 
"Hints  on  a  System  of  Popular  Education,"  (1837,) 
"  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews," 
(1852,)  and  other  works.     Died  December  10,  1879. 

Wing,  (Vincent,)  an  English  astronomer,  was  the 
author  of  "Harmonicon  Celeste,  or  the  Harmony  of 
the  Visible  World,"  (1651,)  "  Astronomia  Britannica," 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1668. 

Win'gate,  (Edmund,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
statesman,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1593.  He  studied  law, 
and  subsequently  resided  for  a  time  in  France,  where 
he  instructed  the  Princess  Henrietta  Maria  in  English. 
After  his  return  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the 
county  of  Bedford.  He  was  the  author  of  "Natural 
and  Artificial  Arithmetic,"  "Ludus  Mathematicus,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1656. 

Wing'field,  (John  Henry  Ducachet,)  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  bishop,  born  at  Portsmouth,  Virginia,  Sep- 
tember 24,  1833,  graduated  at  Saint  Timothy's  College, 
Maryland,  in  1850,  and  at  William  and  Mary  College  in 
1853.  In  1859  he  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Episcopal 
Church.  In  1874  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Northern 
California,  and  in  the  same  year  became  president  of 
Saint  Augustine  College,  Benicia,  California. 

Winghen,  van,  vtn  wing'gen  or  wing'Hen,  (Joseph,) 
a  Flemish  historical  painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1544; 
died  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1603. 

Win'i-fred,  Saint,  a  saint  and  virgin  of  the  old 
British  race.  She  was,  according  to  the  old  story,  be- 
headed by  Caradoc,  a  man  whose  love  she  had  persist- 
ently refused.  From  the  spot  on  which  her  head  was 
placed  there  began  at  once  to  flow  the  great  spring  from 
which  the  town  of  Holywell,  in  Wales,  takes  its  name. 
She  was  a  baker  by  occupation,  and  in  former  days  was 
regarded  as  the  patroness  of  bakers. 

Winkelried,  von.  See  Arnold  von  Winkelried. 

Winkler,  <^!nk'ler,  (Karl  Goitfried  Theodor.)  a 
German  littirateur,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Theodor  Hell,  born  in  1775.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  poems  and  dramatic  works,  and  made  trans- 
lations from  the  French,  English,  and  Portuguese.  Died 
in  1856. 

Wink'^vorth,  (Catherine,)  an  English  translator 
and  poetess,  born  in  London,  September  13,  1829.  Her 
publications  include  "Lyra  Germanica,"  (1855  ;  2d  vol., 
1868,)  containing  hymns  from  the  German,  "  The  Chorale- 
Book  for  England,"  (1862,)  "Life  of  A.  W.  Sieveking," 
(1863,)  "Christian  Singers  of  Germany,"  (1869,)  and 
"  Palm-Leaves,"  translated  from  Paul  Gerok.  Died  in 
1878. 

Win'lock,  (Joseph,)  an  American  astronomer,  born 
at  Shelbyville,  Kentucky,  February  6,  1826,  graduated  at 
Shelby  College  in  1825,  was  professor  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy  in  that  school,  1845-52,  professor  in  the 
United  States  navy,  1857-65,  professor  of  astronomy  in 
Harvard  College,  1865-75,  and  at  the  same  time  director 
of  the  observatory.     He  made  important  improvements 


cas  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WINMARLEIGH 


2484 


WINTERFELD 


in  astronomical  appliances.    Died  at  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, June  II,  1875. 
"Winmarleigh,  win'mar-le,  (John  'Wilson-Patten,) 

Lord,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1S02.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and 
in  1830  entered  Parliament  as  a  Tory,  and  held  important 
government  positions.     In  1874  he  was  made  a  peer. 

"Win'ram,  (John,)  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  was  sub- 
prior  of  the  monastery  of  Saint  Andrew's.  He  afterwards 
professed  the  Reformed  religion.     Died  in  1582. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Winaem,  win'sem,  or  Winsemius,  win-sa'me-us, 
(Me.nelaus,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Leeuwarden 
about  1590.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  and  botany 
at  Franeker.     Died  in  1639. 

Winsem  or  "Winsemius,  (Pieter,)  a  historian  and 
poet,  born  at  Leeuwarden  about  1586,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of 
the  Netherlands  in  the  Reign  of  Philip  IL,"  (2  vols., 
1629-33,)  which  was  esteemed  by  the  Protestants;  also 
other  works.     Died  in  1644. 

Winsemius.     See  Winsem. 

Wins'lo"W,  (Edward,)  born  in  Worcestershire,  Eng- 
land, in  1595,  came  in  the  Mayflower  to  New  England 
in  1620.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Plymouth  colony 
in  1633,  1636,  and  1644.  He  was  the  author  of  "  A  Brief 
Narrative  of  the  True  Grounds  or  Cause  of  the  First 
Planting  of  New  England,"  "  Hypocrisie  Unmasked," 
and  other  works.     Died  at  sea  in  1655. 

Winslcw,  (Forbes,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1810.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  .Surgeons  in  1835,  and  president  of  the  Lon- 
don Medical  Society  in  1853.  In  1848  he  became  editor 
of  the  "  Quarterly  Journal  of  Psychological  Medicine  and 
Mental  Pathology."  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  Manual  of  Osteology,"  "  Anatomy  of  Suicide,"  (1840,) 
and  "  On  Obscure  Diseases  of  the  Brain  and  Disorders 
of  the  Mind,"  (i860.)     Died  March  3,  1874- 

Wlns'lo'w,  (Hubbard,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine,  born  at  Williston,  Vermont,  in  1800. 
He  published  "Christianity  applied  to  our  Civil  and 
Social  Relations,"  (1835,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  in  1864. 

Winslo-w,  vins'lo,  (Jakob  Benig'nus,)  an  emi- 
nent anatomist  and  physician,  born  at  Odense,  in  the 
island  of  Fiinen,  in  1669.  He  studied  in  Holland,  and 
subsequently  in  Paris  under  Duverney.  He  soon  after 
entered  the  Catholic  Church,  having  been  converted 
by  the  eloquence  and  the  arguments  of  Bossuet.  In 
1743  he  succeeded  Hunault  as  professor  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  in  Paris.  His 
"  Anatomical  Exposition  of  the  Structure  of  the  Human 
Body"  (in  French,  1732)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work, 
and  has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  Died 
in  1760. 

See    Kraft    og    Nyerup,    "Litteraturlexicon." 

Winslow,  (John  A.,)  an  American  naval  ofHcer, 
descended  from  a  brother  of  Governor  Edward  Wins- 
low,  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Wilmington,  North 
Carolina,  in  181 1.  He  entered  the  navy  about  1827, 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1839,  and  commander  in  1855. 
In  1862  he  served  under  Captain  Foote  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  He  obtained  command  of  the  steamer 
Kearsarge,  of  seven  guns,  and  was  ordered  to  the  coast 
of  Europe,  to  watch  rebel  cruisers,  in  the  early  part  of 
1863.  On  the  19th  of  June,  1864,  he  met  the  Alabama, 
Captain  Semmes,  near  Cherbourg.  When  the  vessels 
were  about  one  mile  apart,  the  Alabama  began  to  fire 
rapidly  and  wildly,  but  the  guns  of  the  Kearsarge  were 
directed  with  coolness  and  precision.  "The  two  ves- 
sels," says  Headley,  "  were  now  steaming  at  the  rate  of 
seven  or  eight  miles  an  hour, — and  every  few  minutes 
sheering,  so  as  to  bring  their  broadsides  to  bear,  they 
were  forced  to  fight  in  circles,  swinging  steadily  around 
an  ever-changing  centre."  After  they  had  described 
seven  circles  and  had  diminished  their  distance  to  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile,  the  Alabama  began  to  sink,  and 
raised  a  white  flag.  Captain  Winslow  lost  only  three 
killed  and  wounded  out  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-three 
officers  and  men.     He  took  sixty-five  prisoners.     He 


was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commodore  in  1866,  and  to 
that  of  rear-admiral  in  1870.  Died  September  29,  1873. 
See  J.  T.  Headley,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders," 
pp.  288-319:  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  647-648 ; 
Tenney,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  648. 

Winslcw,  (JosiAH,)  a  son  of  Governor  Winslow, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  1629.  He  was  Governor  of 
Plymouth  colony  from  1673  until  1680.    Died  in  1680. 

Winslow,  (Miron,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  Rev. 
Hubbard  Winslow,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Willis- 
ton,  Vermont,  in  1789.  He  sailed  in  1819  as  a  missionary 
to  India,  became  president  of  the  college  connected  with 
the  mission  at  Madras,  and  published  in  1862  a  "  Com- 
prehensive Tamil-and-English  Dictionary,"  which  enjoys 
a  high  reputation.  He  died  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  October,  1864. 

Win'ipr,  (Frederick  Albert,)  an  English  projector, 
who  first  introduced  gas-light  into  London.  He  began 
his  experiments  on  gas-light  in  1803.     Died  in  1830. 

Win'spr,  (Justin,)  an  American  author,  born  in 
Boston,  January  2,  183 1.  He  studied  in  Harvard  Col- 
lege, and  at  Paris  and  Heidelberg,  was  superintendent 
of  Boston  Public  Library,  1868-77,  and  after  that  was 
librarian  of  Harvard  University.  He  has  published  a 
"  History  of  Duxbury,"  "  Memorial  History  of  Boston," 
and  other  works,  including  valuable  library  catalogues. 

Wtn'stan-ley,  (William,)  an  English  biographical 
writer,  published  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  "  Historical 
Rarities,"  and  other  works.     Died  about  1690. 

Win'stpn,  (Charles,)  an  English  barrister,  born  in 
1814,  noted  also  as  an  antiquary  and  artist.  He  published 
several  treatises  on  glass-painting.  Died  in  London, 
October  3,  1864. 

Win'ston,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  bom  m 
1575.  He  studied  medicine  in  Switzerland,  and  at 
Padua,  where  he  took  his  degree.  He  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1613,  and  in  1615  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Gresham  College.  His  "  Lectures 
on  Anatomy"  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  Died 
in  1655. 

WInt,  de,  (Peter,)  an  English  painter  in  water- 
colours,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1784.  His  works 
are  chiefly  English  landscapes,  views  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreland,  Wales,  etc.     Died  in  1849. 

Winter,  \Vin'ter,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  German  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Baden  in  1778  ;  died  in  1838. 

Win't?r,  (William,)  an  American  poet  and  critic, 
born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  July  15,  1836.  He 
graduated  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1857,  removed 
to  New  York  in  1859,  and  became  a  dramatic  critic  for 
various  journals.  His  works  include  "Poems,"  (1854; 
enlarged  edition,  1881,)  "The  Queen's  Domain,"  (1858,) 
"My  Witness,"  (1871,)  "Life  of  E.  Booth,"  (1872,) 
"Thistledown,"  (1878,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Jeffersons," 
(1881,)  and  "English  Rambles,"  (1883-84.)  He  has  also 
edited  the  works  of  several  of  the  minor  poets. 

Winter,  van,  vtn  win'ter,  (Jan  Willem,)  a  Dutch 
naval  commander  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Kampen  in 
1 761.  He  served  fbr  a  time  in  France  under  Dumouriez 
and  Pichegru,  and  rose  to  be  general  of  brigade.  He 
was  created  vice-admiral  after  his  return,  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  Texel  fleet,  and  in  1797  was  defeated  by 
the  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Duncan.  He  was  sent 
as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  France  in  1798,  and  was 
afterwards  made  a  marshal  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland 
by  Louis  Bonaparte.  After  the  union  of  Holland  with 
France,  he  was  created  by  Napoleon  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour.     Died  in  1812. 

Winter,  von,  fon  <^in'ter,  (Peter,)  a  German  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1754-  He 
studied  at  Vienna  under  Salieri,  and  in  1782  brought 
out  at  Munich  his  opera  of  "  Helena  and  Paris."  His 
compositions  are  very  numerous,  including  masses, 
symphonies,  cantatas,  and  operas.  Among  the  most 
admired  of  the  last-named  are  his  "Calypso,"  "  Zaira," 
"Tamerlane,"  "The  Interrupted  Sacrifice,"  and  "The 
Rape  of  Proserpine."     Died  in  1825. 

Winterburger,  <Wn'ter-b66R'ger  or^n'ter-booRo'er, 
(Johann,)  a  German  printer,  born  in  the  Palatinate 
about  1450,  settled  at  Vienna  about  1492.    Died  in  1519. 

Winterfeld,   ^in't?r-tglt',  (Karl   Georg  August 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon 


WINTERFELD 


2485 


WIRT 


ViRiGENS,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1794  ;  died  in  1852. 

Wiuterfeld,  von,  fon  ^in'ter-fSlt',  (Hans  Karl,) 
a  celebrated  Prussian  general  and  favourite  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Vanselow  in  1709.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement  in  Silesia  in  1757. 
A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Berlin  by 
Frederick. 

See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Leben  deS  Winterfeld,"  1836;  M. 
A.  DR  Winterfeld,  "Leben  des  Generals  von  Winterfeld,"  1809. 

"Winterhalter,  ^in'ter-hJl'ter,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a 
German  painter,  born  in  Baden  in  1803.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  royal  families  of  England  and  France, 
and  executed  numerous  portraits  of  Queen  Victoria 
and  Prince  Albert,  also  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and 
other  English  noblemen.  Among  his  best  works  we 
may  name  "  The  Empress  Eugenie  and  the  Ladies  of 
her  Court,"  and  "  I)  Decamerone."     Died  July  8,  1873. 

V/in'ter-ton,  (Ralph,)  an  English  philologist,  born 
in  Leicestershire,  was  noted  as  a  Hellenist.  He  pub- 
lished "  Minor  Greek  Poets,"  ("  Poetae  Grasci  minores," 
1635.)     Died  in  1636. 

Winther,  vin'ter,  (Rasmus  Villads  Christian 
Ferdinand,)  a  celebrated  Danish  poet,  born  in  the 
island  of  Seeland  in  1796.  He  visited  Italy  in  1830, 
and  published,  after  his  return,  several  volumes  of 
poems,  which  established  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  first 
lyric  poets  of  his  country.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of 
popular  novels,  and  "  Five-and-Twenty  Fables,"  ("Fern 
og  tvve  Fabler,"  1845.)  etc.     Died  at  Paris,  Dec.  30,  1876. 

Win'thrpp,  (John,)  born  in  Suffolk,  England,  in 
1588,  was  elected  in  1629  Governor  of  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts,  and  set  sail  in  1630  for  New  England. 
He  was  re-elected  nine  or  ten  times.  His  journal, 
giving  an  account  of  the  transactions  in  the  colony,  was 
published  in  1825.  He  is  said  to  have  been  eminent  for 
wisdom,  magnanimity,  and  other  virtues.     Died  in  1649. 

See  "Life  of  John  Winthrop,"  by  Robert  C.  Winthrop. 

Winthrop,  (John,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  England  in  1606,  and  sailed  for  America  in  1631. 
He  was  twice  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut,  and  was 
sent  to  England  in  1661  to  procure  a  charter  for  that 
colony.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.     Died  in  Boston  in  1676. 

Win'throp,  (John,)  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1 715.  He  was  appointed  in  1738  Hollis 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in 
Harvard  College.  He  published  several  astronomical 
works.     Died  in  1779. 

Winthrop,  (Robert  C.,)  an  American  statesman 
and  orator,  a  descendant  of  Governor  Winthrop,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  May  12,  1809.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1828,  studied  law  in 
the  ofiice  of  Daniel  Webster,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1831.  He  served  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  Massachusetts  from  1835  to  1840,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which 
he  acted  with  the  Whig  party.  Having  been  re-elected, 
he  continued  in  Congress  for  ten  years,  and  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  December, 
1847.  Hs  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  Speaker  in  1849  j 
but  his  opponent,  Mr.  Cobb,  was  elected  by  a  plurality 
of  two  or  three  votes,  after  a  contest  which  lasted  three 
weeks.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  a  part  of  the  unexpired  term  of  Mr. 
Webster,  who  resigned  his  seat.  He  was  the  Whig 
candidate  for  the  office  of  Senator  in  1851,  but  was 
defeated  by  Charles  Sunmer.  A  volume  of  his  "Ad- 
dresses and  Speeches"  was  published  in  1852. 

"Winthrop,  (Theodore,)  an  American  writer  and 
soldier,  born  at  New  Haven  in  1828.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1848,  and  subsequently  visited  Europe. 
Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  war  in  1S61,  he 
joined  the  volunteers  of  the  New  York  Seventh  Regi- 
ment, gained  the  rank  of  major,  and,  having  accom- 
panied General  Butler's  expedition  to  Great  Bethel,  was 
killed  in  that  engagement,  (June,  1861.)  He  was  the 
author  of  novels  entitled  "Cecil  Dreeme,"  (1861,)  "John 
Brent,"  (1861,)  and  "Edwin  Brothertoft,"  (1862.) 


Wintoun  or  Wyntoun,  wln'tpn,  (Andre\v,)  a  Scot- 
tish chronicler,  who  lived  about  1410-20,  was  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  Saint  Serfs  Island,  on  Loch  Lomond. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Orygynale  Cronykil  of 
Scotland,"  in  verse,  containing  valuable  histoncal  in- 
formation of  those  times. 

"Wintoun,  (George  Seton,)  Earl  of,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite,  born  in  1690.  He  fought  for  the  Pretender  ia 
1715.     Died  in  1749. 

Win'tring-ham,  (Clifton,)  the  Elder,  an  English 
surgeon  and  physiologist,  born  before  1695,  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Endemic  Diseases,"  (1718,)  and  other 
medical  works,  in  Latin  and  English,  which  have  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1748. 

.  'Wintringham.  (Clifton,)  the  Younger,  bom  at 
York  in  17 10,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
physician  to  George  III.  in  1762,  and  subsequently  phy- 
•ician-general  to  the  army.  He  published  several 
medical  treatises.     Died  in  1794. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  fon  <^int'sing-eh-ro'deh,  (Fer- 
dinand,) Baron,  a  German  officer,  born  at  Bodenstein 
in  1770.  He  entered  the  Russian  army,  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  1809  and  1812,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battles  of  Lutzen,  Leipsic,  and  Saint- 
Dizier.  He  was  made  general  of  cavalry  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  1812.     Died  in  1818. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  (Georg  Ernst  Levin,) 
Count,  a  German  statesman,  born  in  1752.  He  was 
appointed  in  i8oi  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  king- 
dom of  Wiirtemberg.     Died  in  1834, 

Wintzingerode,  von,  (Heinrich  Karl  Friedrich 
Levin,)  Count,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1778. 
He  was  ambassador  from  Wiirtemberg  to  Paris,  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  Vienna.     Died  in  1856. 

Win'^wood,  (Sir  Ralph,)  an  English  diplomatist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about  1564. 
He  was  employed  on  several  important  missions  to 
Holland,  and  became  secretary  of  state  in  1614.  He 
died  in  161 7,  leaving  a  valuable  work,  published  in 
1725  under  the  title  of  "Memorials  of  Affairs  o*'  State 
in  the  Reigns  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  King  James  I.," 
(3  vols.) 

"Win'zet  or  Winget,  (Ninian,)  a  Scottish  ecclesi- 
astic, born  in  Renfrewshire  in  1518.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  controversial  works  in  opposition  to  the  Prot- 
estant reformers.     Died  in  1592. 

Wion,  vc'An',  (Arnould,)  a  learned  French  monk, 
born  at  Douai  in  1554;  died  about  1610. 

Wirs^n,  af,  M  <^d€r-siin',  (Karl  David,)  a  Swedish 
poet,  born  at  Bellsta,  December  9,  1842.  He  studied  at 
Upsala,  and  later  in  France  and  Italy.  Besides  works 
of  criticism,  biography,  and  literary  history,  he  published 
"  Dikter,"  ("  Poems,"  1876,)  which  gave  him  a  prominent 
place  among  Swedish  authors.  They  are  characterized 
by  earnestness,  a  genuine  religious  quality,  deep  patriot- 
ism, careful  finish,  and  complete  knowledge  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  .Swedish  language. 

Wirsung,  <^^R'sd6ng,  (Christoph,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Augsburg  in  1500.  He  wrote  a  "New 
Book  of  Medicine,"  (1568.)     Died  in  1571. 

Wirsung  or  Wirsiingus,  ^dgR-soong'Cis,  (Johann 
Georg,)  a  German  anatomist,  born  at  Augsburg,  was 
the  discoverer  of  the  pancreatic  duct.     Died  in  1643. 

"Wirt,  (William,)  an  eloquent  American  lawyer  and 
author,  born  at  Bladensburg,  Maryland,  in  November, 
1772,  was  of  Swiss  extraction.  He  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1792,  and  married  a  Miss  Gilmer, 
of  Virginia,  about  1795.  He  practised  law  at  Richmond 
and  Norfolk,  and  published  in  1803  "  Letters  of  a  British 
Spy,"  which  obtained  a  great  popularity.  About  1806 
he  settled  at  Richmond,  Virginia.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  as  one  of  the  counsel 
for  the  prosecution,  (1807.)  In  1817  he  published  a 
"  Life  of  Patrick  Henry,"  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  from  181 7 
to  March,  1829,  having  been  appointed  first  by  President 
Monroe  and  retained  by  President  Adams.  He  removed 
to  Baltimore  in  1829  or  1830,  and  was  nominated  for 
the  Presidency  in  1832  by  the  Anti-Masonic  party.  He 
died  in  Washington  in  February,  1834. 


€  as  ^;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h,  K, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     [  JH^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  > 


WIRTH 


2486 


VVISTER 


"  He  was  master,"  says  Griswold,  "of  all  the  arts  by 
which  attention  is  secured  and  retained.  ...  It  is  agreed 
on  all  hands  that  he  was  a  very  ready,  pleasing,  and 
effective  speaker,  inferior  perhaps  to  no  one  among  his 
contemporaries  at  the  bar  in  this  country." 

See  J.  P.  Kennedy,  "  Life  of  William  Wirt,"  1849;  R.  W.  Gris- 
wold, "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duyckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin- 
guished Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Wirth,  v^e^Rt,  (Johann  Georg  August,)  a  German 
journalist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1799; 
died  in  1848. 

Wirth,  (Johann  Ulrich,)  a  German  divine  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  in  Wurtemberg  in  1810. 
He  became  in  1852  associate  editor  of  the  "Journal  of 
Philosophy  and  Philosophic  Criticism,"  ("Zeitschrift 
fUr  Philosophic  und  philosophische  Kritik.")  He  pub- 
lished a  "Theory  of  Somnambulism,"  (1836,)  "System 
of  Speculative  Ethics,"  (1841,)  etc.     Died  in  1878. 

Wirtz  or  Wirz,  ^^Rts,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Zurich  in  1640 ;  died  in  1709- 

Wischuu.     See  Vishnu. 

"Wise,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  England,  in  1813,  emigrated  to  America, 
where  he  edited  successively  several  religious  journals. 
He  has  published  "The  Young  Man's  Counsellor," 
"Life  of  Ulric  Zvvingli,"  and  other  works. 

Wise,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Oxford  in  1695.  He  wrote  several  works  on  English 
antiquities.     Died  in  1762. 

Wise,  (Henry  A.,)  a  distinguished  American  poli- 
tician, born  in  Accomac  county,  Virginia,  in  December, 
1806.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1828.  He  represented  a  district  of  Virginia  in  Congress 
from  1833  to  1843,  having  been  elected  as  an  adherent 
of  General  Jackson,  but  he  soon  joined  the  opposition. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  President  Tyler,  who  appointed 
him  minister  to  Brazil  in  1844.  In  1855  ^^  ^^^  elected 
by  the  Democrats  Governor  of  Virginia  for  three  years. 
A  convention  of  Southern  Governors  was  held  at 
Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  in  October,  1856,  at  the  invi- 
tation of  Governor  Wise,  who  afterwards  declared  that 
if  Fremont  had  been  elected  President  he  would  have 
marched  with  20,000  men  and  taken  Washington.  In 
1861  he  joined  the  insurgent  army  as  brigadier-general, 
and  commanded  a  force  in  the  Kanawha  Valley  with  ill 
success.      Died  September  12,  1876. 

Wise,  (Henry  Augustus,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
a  relative  of  the  preceding,  vvas  born  at  Brooklyn,  New 
York,  in  1819.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Edward 
Everett,  of  Boston.  In  1862  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander,  and  appointed  assistant  chief  of 
the  bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography.  He  published 
"Los  Gringos,"  (1849,)  ^  series  of  sketches  of  Mexico, 
California,  Peru,  etc.,  "Tales  for  the  Marines,"  (1855,) 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1869. 

Wise,  wiz,  or  ^ee'zeh,  (Isaac  Mayer,)  a  Jewish  di- 
vine, born  at  Steingrub,  Bohemia,  April  3,  18 19.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1843.  In  1846 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  went  to  Cincinnati  in 
1854,  where  he  became  president  of  the  Hebrew  Union 
College.  He  published  "  History  of  the  Israelitish 
Nation,"  (1854,)  "The  Cosmic  God,"  "History  of  the 
Hebrews'  Second  Commonwealth,"  etc. 

Wise,  (Michael,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  was  born  in  Wiltshire.  He  was  patron- 
ized by  Charles  II.,  and  became  in  1686  almoner  of 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  and  master  of  the  choristers.  He 
was  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  a  watchman,  in  1687. 

Wiselius,  we-sa'le-us,  (Samuel  Iperuszoon,)  a 
Dutch  poet,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1769,  studied  in  his 
native  city  and  in  Germany,  and  subsequently  filled 
several  high  offices  in  Holland.  He  published  tragedies 
entitled  "  Polydorus"  and  "Ion,"  also  a  collection  of 
odes  and  other  poems.     Died  in  1845. 

Wiseman,  wlz'man,  (Nicholas,)  a  distinguished 
scholar,  of  English  extraction,  was  born  at  Seville,  in 
Spain,  in  1802.  He  finished  his  studies  at  the  Eng- 
lish College  in  Rome,  where  he  subsequently  became 
professor  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and  in  1829  was 
appointed  rector.     After  his  return  to  England  he  rose 


through  various  promotions  in  the  Catholic  Church  to 
be  Archbishop  of  Westminster,  (1850,)  and  cardinal. 
The  assumption  of  the  title  of  archbishop  met  with 
great  opposition  from  the  Protestants  in  England,  and 
an  act  was  [lassed  making  such  titles  penal.  It  appears, 
however,  that  his  learning,  talents,  and  general  popu- 
larity did  much  to  allay  the  hostility  of  his  opponents. 
Cardinal  Wiseman  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  the 
Connection  between  Science  and  Revealed  Religion," 
(2  vols.,  1836,)  a  ';  Treatise  on  the  Holy  Eucharist," 
(1836,)  "Letters  on  Catholic  Unity,"  (1842,)  and  other 
works.  He  was  for  many  years  associate  editor  of  the 
"Dublin  (Catholic)  Review."     Died  in  February,  1865. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale:"  Brockhaus,  "  Conversa- 
tions Lexikon  ;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  185S. 

Wiseman,  (Richard,)  an  English  surgeon  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  patronized  by  King  Charles 
II.  His  treatises  on  surgery  were  highly  esteemed  in 
his  time. 

Wish'art,  written  also  Wysshart,  "Wischart,  and 
in  other  modes,  (George,)  the  Martyr,  a  Scottish 
Protestant  reformer  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  After  preaching  the  Reformed  doctrines  in 
several  Scottish  towns,  he  was  arrested  and  tried  before 
Cardinal  Beatoun,  who  condemned  him  to  the  stake 
in  1546. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxxvi.  ; 
Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xxii.  ;  Cunningham, 
"Church  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  :  "  Biographie  Universelle  ;" 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wishart,  written  also  Wiseheart,  (George,)  a  Scot- 
tish divine  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Haddington- 
shire in  1609.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  Marquis  of 
Montrose,  and  subsequently  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
James  I.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Edinburgh  in  1662. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  the  wars  of  Montrose,  in  Latin 
It  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  elegance.     Died  in  1671. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wishart  or  Wischart,  (William,)  a  Scottish  divine, 
born  at  Dalkeith  about  1657,  preached  in  Edinburgh, 
and  wrote  a  Calvinistic  work  entitled  "Theology," 
("Theologia.")     Died  in  1727. 

Wislicenus,  ^is-lit-sa'nus,  (Gustav  Adolf,)  a  Ger- 
man rationalistic  theologian,  was  born  near  Eilenburg, 
in  Prussia,  in  1803.  He  became  minister  at  Halle  in 
1841,  but  was  soon  after  deposed  on  account  of  hi.<« 
opinions.     Died  October  14,  1875. 

Wislicenus,  (Johannes,)  an  eminent  German  chem- 
ist, a  son  of  G.  A.  Wislicenus,  was  born  at  Klein-Eich- 
stadt,  June  24,  1838.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1873 
was  for  a  time  an  assistant  in  chemistry  in  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, and  later  taught  chemistry  in  New  York.  He 
afterwards  studied  in  Zurich  and  Halle,  held  profes- 
sorships at  Zurich  and  Wurzburg,  and  won  especial  dis- 
tinction in  theoretical  and  in  organic  chemistry. 

Wissenbach,  iWs'sen-bSK',  (Johann  Jakob,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  born  in  Nassau  in  1607.  He 
became  professor  of  law  at  Franeker,  and  published 
several  legal  works.     Died  in  1665. 

Wissing,  wis'sing,  (William,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1656.  He  worked  in 
England,  and  painted  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  Died 
in  1687. 

Wissowatzi,  -(^is-so-Mt'see,  [Lat.  Wissowa'tius.] 
(Andrew,)  a  Socinian  writer,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1608, 
was  a  grandson  of  Faustus  Socinus.  He  was  persecuted, 
and,  after  several  removals,  found  refuge  in  Holland, 
where  he  died  in  1678. 

Wis'tar,  (Caspar,)  a  distinguished  American  phy- 
sician, born  at  Philadelphia  in  1761.  He  graduated  at 
Edinburgh,  and,  after  his  return,  was  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  physiology  in  the  College  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  subsequently  succeeded  Dr.  Shippen  in  the 
chair  of  anatomy  and  surgery.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"System  of  Anatomy,"  (1812.)     Died  in  1818. 

Wis'ter,  (Mrs.  Annis  Lee,)  a  well-known  writer,  the 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Furness,  D.D.,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  October  9,  1830.  She  was  educated  prin- 
cipally at  home,  and  became  the  wife  of  Dr.  Casper 
Wister,  of  Philadelphia.     She  is  especially  noted  for  her 


e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  lon^-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


WISTER 


2487 


WITTMACK 


translations  into  English  of  numerous  novels  from  tlie 
German  of  E.  Marlitt  and  others,  which  have  attained 
a  wide  popularity-. 

Wister,  (Sarah  Butler,)  an  American  author,  a 
daughter  of  Fanny  Kemble,  was  born  at  Branch  town,  in 
Philadelphia,  May  28,  1835,  and  became  the  wife  of  Dr. 
Owen  Wister.  She  published  translations  from  Alfred 
de  Musset.  Her  best-known  original  work  is  "A  Boat 
of  Glass,"  a  poem. 

"Wiszniewski,  vish-ne-§v'skee,  (Michael,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  in  Galicia  in  1794.  He  became  in  1830 
professor  of  history  at  Cracow.  He  published  several 
critical  and  philosophical  works.     Died  in  i866. 

"Wit,  <^It,  (Ferdinand  Johannes,)  a  German  poli- 
tician, liorn  at  Altona  in  1800.  Having  joined  a  secret 
society,  he  was  banished  in  1819.  He  afterwards  joined 
the  ultramontane  party,  and  published  "  Fragments  of 
my  Life  and  my  Epoch,"  (4  vols.,  1827-30.)  Died  in 
1863. 

Witch'ell,  (George,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  in  1728;  died  in  1785. 

Wither.     See  Withers. 

With'er-ing,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and 
botanist,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1741.  He  published  "A 
Systematic  Arrangement  of  British  Plants,"  (1776  ;)  also 
a  number  of  treatises  on  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
medicine.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died 
in  1799. 

"With'er-ing-tpn,  (William  Frederick,)  an  Eng- 
lish painter,  born  in  London  in  1786.  He  was  elected 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1840.  Among  his  works,  which 
are  principally  landscapes,  we  may  name  "  The  Hop 
Garland,"  "  The  Stepping-Stones,"  "  Making  Hay,"  and 
"  Returning  from  the  Village."     Died  in  1865. 

■Withers.with'erz,  written  also  Wither  and  Wyther, 
'George,)  an  English  poet,  satirist,  and  political  writer, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1588.  He  published  in  1613  a 
collection  of  satires  in  verse,  entitled  "  Abuses  Stript 
and  Whipt,"  for  which  he  was  sentenced  to  several 
months'  imprisonment.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war,  he  served  in  the  royalist  army,  in  1639;  but 
he  afterwards  went  over  to  the  party  of  the  Parliament, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general.  Soon  after 
the  restoration  he  was  imprisoned  several  years  in  the 
Tower  for  having  published  a  seditious  libel,  entitled 
"Vox  Vulgi."  He  died  in  1667.  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  and  consist  chiefly  of  lyrics  and  devotional 
pieces.  His  poems  were  little  esteemed  by  his  con- 
temporaries, and  he  is  mentioned  with  contempt  by 
Pope  and  Swift;  but  eminent  critics  of  later  times  have 
assigned  him  a  high  rank  among  English  poets. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Sir  Egerton 
Brydghs,  "  Censura  Literaria;"  Hazlitt,  "Lectures  on  English 
Poetry;"  Ellis,  "Specimens  of  Early  English  Poetry;"  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  vii.,  (1823.) 

"With'er-spoon,  (John,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distin- 
guished divine,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Haddingtonshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1722.  In  1766  he  was  offered  the  presidency 
of  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  which  in  1768  he 
accepted,  and  also  filled  the  chair  of  divinity  in  that 
institution.  He  was  elected  in  1776  to  the  Continental 
Congress,  and  was  active  in  promoting  the  cause  of 
independence.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ecclesiastical 
Characteristics,  or  the  Arcana  of  Church  Policy,"  (1753,) 
a  "  Serious  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Effects  of  the 
Stage,"  (1757,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1794. 

See  Cleveland,  "  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Withof,  ■^it'hof,  (Johann  Philipp  Lorenz,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  writer,  born  at  Duisburg  in  1725. 
He  studied  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  in  1770  became 
professor  of  eloquence  and  Greek  literature  at  Duisburg. 
He  published  in  1782  a  collection  of  didactic  poems, 
entitled  "  Academische  Gedichte,"  which  have  a  hif h 
reputation.     Died  in  1789. 

Witikind.     See  Wittekind. 

Witl-kiud  or  Wife-kind,  a  Saxon  historian  and 
monk,  lived  at  the  abbey  of  Corvey,  (Corbeia  nova.) 
He  wrote  "  Annales  de  Gestis  Othonum."     Died  after 

973- 

Witiza,  we-tee'z5,  [Sp.  pron.  ve-tee'thS,]  King  of  the 


Visigoths  in  Spain,  began  to  reign  about  701  A.D.  He 
was  dejDosed  in  708,  and  was  succeeded  by  Roderick 
who  had  revolted  against  him.     Died  about  709. 

Wit'old  or  Wifwald,  (Alexander,)  Grand  Duke 
of  Lithuania,  was  a  warlike  and  powerful  prince.  He 
waged  war  against  the  Tartars.  Died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  1430. 

Wits,  wits,  Witsen,  wit'sen,  or  Witsius,  wit'se-Qs, 
(Herman,)  a  learned  Dutch  theologian,  born  in  North 
Holland  in  1636.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Utrecht  from  1680  to  1698,  and  succeeded  F.  Spanheini 
at  Leyden  in  the  latter  year.  He  published  several  works 
on  theology.     Died  in  1708. 

Witsen,  (Nicholas,)  a  patriotic  Dutch  magistrate, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1640,  was  noted  for  his  liberal 
public  spirit.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  Construction 
of  Ships,"  (1671.)  He  was  employed  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  with  England  in  1689. 

See  BoDEL,  "  Notice  of  N.  Witsen,"  1855. 

Witt,  de.     See  De  Witt. 

Witte,  <^it'teh,  or  Witten,  ^it'ten,  (Henning,)  a 
German  divine  and  biographer,  born  at  Riga  in  1634. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  biographies  of  eminent  men  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  in  5  vols.     Died  in  1696. 

Witte,  (Karl,)  a  German  jurist,  born  near  Halle  in 
1800.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Heidelberg,  and  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Halle  in  1834.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works,  and  made  translations  fiom  tho 
Italian  of  Dante  and  Boccaccio.     Died  March  5,  1883. 

Witte,  de,  (Emanuel.)     See  De  Witt. 

Witte,  de,  deh  wit'teh,  (Gaspard,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Antwerp  in  1621.  He  worked  in 
Italy  and  France. 

■Witte,  de,  (Giles,)  an  eminent  Jansenist  theologian, 
born  at  Ghent  in  1648.  He  preached  at  Mechlin  (Ma- 
lines)  from  1684  to  1 69 1,  wrote  several  controversial 
works  m  defence  of  Jansenism,  and  produced  a  Flemish 
version  of  the  Bible.     Died  in  1721. 

Witte,  de,  (Lievin,)  a  Flemish  painter  and  archi- 
tect, born  at  Ghent  about  1 5 10.  He  excelled  in  painting 
perspective  and  architecture.     Died  at  Munich. 

Witte,  de,  (Pieter.)     See  Candido,  (Pietro.) 

Wit'te-kind  or  "Wit'I-kind,  written  also  Witti- 
chind,  [Lat.  Wittekin'dus,]  surnamed  the  Great, 
a  celebrated  warrior,  was  the  principal  commander  of 
the  Saxons  against  Charlemagne.  The  latter  having  in- 
vaded the  Saxon  territory,  Wittekind  sought  the  alliance 
of  the  King  of  Denmark,  whose  sister  he  had  married 
After  several  battles,  fought  with  varying  success,  the 
Saxons  were  defeated  near  the  Hase  in  783,  and  the 
leaders,  Wittekind  and  Alboin,  were  reinstated  in  their 
possessions,  on  condition  of  their  embracing  Christianity 
and  submitting  to  the  authority  of  Charlemagne.  Wit- 
tekind died  in  807. 

See  J.  A.  Crusius,  "  Wittekindus  Magnus,"  1679;  Drei.')<  db 
Radier,  "Vie  de  Wittekind  le  Grand,"  1757;  Genssler.  "Witte- 
kind," etc.,  1817:  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdni^rale." 

Wittekind,  <^il'teh-k!nt,  or  Widukind,  <^id'o6-k!nt, 
a  German  chronicler  and  monk  of  the  tenth  century, 
was  a  native  of  Saxony.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Res 
gestae  Saxonicae,"  being  a  history  of  King  Henry  I.  and 
of  the  emperor  Otho  I. 

Wittekindus.     See  Wittekind. 

Wittgenstein,  von,  fon  ^it'gen-stln,  (Ludwig 
Adolf,)  Count,  a  German  military  commander,  some- 
times called  Sayn-Wittgenstein,  was  born  in  1769. 
Having  entered  the  Russian  army,  he  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  1807  and  1812,  and  was  appointed  in  1813 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  Russian  and  Prussian  forces, 
which,  however,  he  retained  but  a  short  time.  He  was 
defeated  by  Napoleon  near  Paris  in  1814.  Having  been 
created  a  field-marshal  in  1826,  he  fought  against  the 
Turks  in  1828.     Died  in  1843. 

Wittichius,  <^it-tiK'e-<ls,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1625.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Nymwegen  for  sixteen  years, 
and  removed  to  Leyden  in  1671.  He  wrote  several 
works.     Died  at  Leyden  in  1687. 

Wittnaack,  (^it'mSk,  (Marx  Karl  Ludwig,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  Hamburg,  September  26,  1839. 
He  was  educated  at  Jena,  Berlin,  Gottingen,  and  Paris, 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as_/;  G,  H,  Vi, gjitlural ;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  > 


WITZLEBEN 


2488 


WOLF 


and  in  1880  was  called  to  a  professorship  in  the  Berlin 
University.  He  was  prominent  in  connection  with  various 
industrial  exhibitions,  and  made  several  official  reports, 
having  long  been  custos  for  the  government  collections 
at  Berlin. 

Witzleben,  von,  fon  ^its'li'ben,  (Job  Wilhelm 
Karl  Ernst,)  a  Prussian  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1783.  He  served  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  the  French  from  1806  to  1813,  and 
%v?s  made  lieutenant-general  in  183 1,  and  minister  of  war 
in  1833.     ^'^^  '"  1^37- 

Witzleben,  von,  (Karl  August  Friedrich,)  a 
popular  German  novelist,  known  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Von  Tromlitz,  was  born  near  Weimar  in  1773.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  Prussian  and  subse- 
quently in  the  Russian  army,  where  he  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel.  He  produced  historical  romances, 
entitled  "  Franz  von  Sickingen,"  "  Die  Pappenheimer," 
and  other  similar  works.     Died  in  1839. 

"Wi'vell,  (Abraham,)    an    English    portrait-painter, 
born  in  1786.    He  invented  the  fire-escape.  Died  in  1849. 
Wladimir.     See  Vladimir. 
Wladislas.     See  Vladislaus  and  Ladislaus. 
Wodehouse.    See  Kimberley. 
"Woden.     See  Odin. 

WodhuU,  wood'ul,  ?  (Michael,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1 740.  He  translated 
Euripides  into  English,  and  wrote  some  original  poems. 
Died  in  1816. 

Wod^row,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1679,  became 
minister  of  Eastwood,  in  Renfrewshire.     His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution,"  (2 
vols.,  1722.)     He  also  wrote  a  diary  and  collection  of 
anecdotes,  entitled  "  Wodrow's  Analecta."  Died  in  1734. 
See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Woehler.     See  Wohler. 
"Woehner.    See  Wohner. 
Woelffl.     See  Wolffl. 
Woellner.     See  Wollner. 
Woepcke.     See  Wopcke. 

Woeriot,  vo'i're-o',  or  Woeiriot,  (Pierre,)  an  able 
engraver,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1532.  He  settled  at 
Lyons  about  1555.     Died  after  1576. 

"Wof  fing-ton,  (Margaret,)  a  celebrated  Irish  actress, 
born  at  Dublin  about  1718;  died  in  1760. 

Wohler  or  Woehler,  <^o'ler,  (Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man chemist  of  high  reputation,  was  born  near  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  in  1800.  He  studied  medicine  and 
chemistry  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  and  subsequently 
became  professor  of  technology  and  chemistry  in  the 
Polytechnic  School  at  Cassel.  He  also  assisted  in  found- 
ing a  nickel-manufactory  in  that  town.  In  1836  he  be- 
came professor  of  medicine  and  director  of  the  Chemical 
Institute  at  Gottingen.  He  was  associated  in  1838  with 
his  friend  Liebig  as  editor  of  the  "  Annalen  der  Chemie 
und  Pharmacie."  Among  his  most  important  works  are 
his  "Principles  of  Chemistry,"  (1840,)  and  "Practical 
Exercises  of  Chemical  Analysis,"  (1854.)  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and  of  other 
similar  institutions.     Died  in  1882. 

Wohlgemuth, <^ol'geh-mo6t',  (Michael,)  an  eminent 
German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1434.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Last  Judgment," 
in  the  Town-House  of  Nuremberg,  and  a  "  Votive  Offer- 
ing with  Saint  Jerome,"  in  the  Belvedere  gallery  at 
Vienna.  His  engravings  on  copper  and  wood  are  very 
rare,  and  are  highly  esteemed.  He  numbered  among 
his  pupils  Albert  Diirer,  who  painted  his  portrait.  Died 
in  1 5 19. 

See  Makgguaff,  "  Erinnerungen  an  Albrecht  Diirer  und  seinen 
Lehrer  M.  Wohlgemuth,"  1840;  Nagler,  "  AUgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Wohner  or  Woehner,  ^o'ner,  (Andreas  Georg,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  in  Hoya  (Hanover)  in  1693. 
He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Gottin- 
gen in  1739.  He  published  a  Hebrew  grammar,  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1762. 

Woide,  woid,  "i  (Charles  Godfrey,)  an  eminent 
Orientalist  and  divine,  born  in  1725,  is  supposed  to  have 


been  a  native  of  Poland.  Having  been  invited  to  Eng 
land  in  1770,  he  became  preacher  of  the  German  Royal 
Chapel,  and  assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  published  La  Croze's  "Dictionary  of  the  Coptic 
Language,"  with  additions  and  an  index,  and  other 
learned  works.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1790. 

Woirol,  vwi'roK,  (Th6ophile,)  a  Swiss  officer,  born 
at  Tavanne,  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  in  1781.  He  served 
in  the  French  army,  and  especially  distinguished  him- 
self during  the  Hundred  Days.  In  i8i9hewas  made 
marechal-de-camp,  and  in  1836  became  a  peer  of  France. 
Died  in  1853. 

Wolcott,  wooKkpt,  (Erastus,)  a  son  of  Roger  Wol- 
cott,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1723.  He  joined 
the  army  in  1776,  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1777, 
and  afterwards  a  member  of  Congress  and  a  judge  of 
the  superior  court  of  Connecticut.     Died  in  1793. 

Wolcott,  wool'kot,  (John,)  an  English  physician 
and  satiric  poet,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  Peter 
Pindar,  was  born  in  Devonshire  in  1738.  Having 
taken  his  medical  degree  at  Aberdeen,  he  accompanied 
Sir  William  Trelawney,  Governor  of  Jamaica,  to  that 
island  in  1767,  but,  failing  to  obtain  extensive  practice, 
returned  to  England,  where  he  published  in  1782  his 
"Lyric  Odes  to  the  Royal  Academicians  for  1782,  by 
Peter  Pindar,  Esq.,"  etc.  This  satire  was  very  suc- 
cessful, and  was  soon  followed  by  similar  attacks  on  the 
king,  ministers,  and  prominent  writers  of  the  time, 
Wolcott's  satires  are  remarkable  for  coarseness  and 
vulgarity,  as  well  as  for  wit ;  and  his  character  as  a 
man  appears  not  to  have  been  a  whit  more  elevated  than 
his  writings.     Died  in  181 9. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "Autobiography  of 
William  Jerdan,"  vol.  ii.  ch.  xix. 

Wolcott,  (Oliver,)  an  American  patriot  and  states- 
man, son  of  Roger  Wolcott,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1726.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1776,  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
became  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1796.   Died  in  1797. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Wolcott,  (Oliver,)  a  statesman,  born  at  Litchfield.. 
Connecticut,  in  1760,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  cabinets  of  Wash- 
ington and  Adams,  from  February,  1795,  to  December, 
1800.  After  1800  he  was  engaged  for  about  fourteen 
years  in  trade  in  the  city  of  New  York.  He  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Connecticut  from  181 7  to  1827.  Died  in  New 
York  in  1833. 

Wolcott,  (Roger,)  an  American  statesman  and 
soldier,  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1679,  served 
against  the  French  in  Canada,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut 
in  1 75 1.  He  wrote  an  account  of  the  Pequot  war,  in 
verse.     Died  in  1767. 

Wolf,  (Christian.)     See  Lupus. 

Wolf,  <^olf,  (Ernst  Wilhelm,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Gross  Behringen  in  1735.  He 
lived  many  years  at  Weimar.     Died  in  1792. 

Wolf,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Vienna 
in  1796.  He  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Imperial 
Library,  and  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
his  native  city.  He  published  "Contributions  to  the 
History  of  the  National  Literature  of  Castile,"  (1832,) 
a  work  "  On  the  Romantic  Poetry  of  the  Spaniards," 
(1847,)  and  other  similar  works.     Died  Feb.  18,  1866. 

Wolf,  woolf,  [Ger.  pron.  -^olf;  Lat.  Wol'fius,] 
(Friedrich  August,)  a  celebrated  German  scholar 
and  critic,  was  born  at  Hainrode,  near  Nordhausen,  in 
Prussia,  on  the  15th  of  February,  1759.  He  studied  at 
Nordhausen,  and  had  become  a  good  classical  scholar 
when  he  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  in  1777. 
He  acquired  in  early  life  a  habit  of  independent  judg- 
ment, and  devoted  himself  at  Gottingen  to  the  study 
of  philology.  He  incurred  the  ill  will  of  Heyne,  who 
refused  to  admit  him  to  one  of  his  lectures.  In  1779  he 
was  employed  as  teacher  at  Ilfeld.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Plato's  "Symposium"  in  1782,  enriched  with 
notes  and  an  introduction,  in  which  he  gave  proof  of 
critical  sagacity.     Having  married  about  1782,   he  was 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 1'l,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good ;  nuTon; 


WOLF 


5489 


WOLFE 


appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle  in  1783,  and 
director  of  the  Pedagogic  Institute,  which  he  trans- 
formed into  a  philological  seminary  or  normal  school. 
He  had  formed  an  exalted  idea  of  the  vocation  of 
teacher,  which  he  pursued  with  much  zeal  and  success. 
During  the  twenty-three  years  in  which  he  occupied 
the  chair  at  Halle,  he  gave  more  than  fifty  courses  of 
lectures  on  different  authors  and  subjects,  besides  his 
labours  in  the  philological  seminary.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Homer's  poems  in  1784  and  1785,  and  an 
edition  of  Demosthenes'  oration  against  Leptines,  about 
1790.  The  latter  opened  a  new  era  in  the  study  of 
the  Greek  orators.  His  celebrity  was  increased  by  his 
"  Prolegomena  ad  Homerum,"  (1795,)  in  which  he  sup- 
ported with  much  ingenuity  the  novel  and  paradoxical 
theory  that  the  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssey"  were  not  written 
by  Homer  or  any  single  poet,  but  that  they  were 
formed  by  the  junction  of  several  poems,  composed  by 
different  rhapsodists.  This  work  produced  a  great 
sensation  among  the  learned  throughout  Europe ;  but 
his  theory  was  accepted  in  full  by  a  very  few  only. 
Wolfs  claim  to  priority  in  this  discovery  was  disputed 
by  Heyne,  and  was  defended  by  the  former  in  "  Letters 
to  Heyne,"  (1797,)  which  are  regarded  as  models  of 
controversy  and  refined  irony.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Suetonius,  (1802,)  and  an  edition  of  Homer,  ("  Ho- 
meri  et  Homeridarum  Opera,"  4  vols.,  1804-07.) 

In  consequence  of  the  war,  the  University  of  Halle 
was  closed  in  1806,  soon  after  which  Wolf  removed  to 
Berlin,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the 
university  of  that  city.  He  received  the  title  of  privy 
councillor  at  Berlin.  Wolf  and  Buttmann  published 
the  "Museum  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,"  (1807-10.) 
In  a  remarkable  treatise,  entitled  "Exhibition  of  Archae- 
ology," ("  Darstellung  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,")  he 
gave  a  programme  of  the  studies  of  antiquity  and  phi- 
lology which  he  wished  to  be  pursued.  He  published 
an  excellent  philological  journal,  called  "  Literarische 
Analekten,"  (1817-20.)  To  improve  his  health,  he  visited 
the  south  of  France  in  the  spring  of  1824.  He  died  at 
Marseilles  in  August  of  that  year. 

See  Hanhart,  "  Erinnerungen  an  F.  A.  Wolf,"  1825:  W. 
KoERTE,  "  Leben  and  Studien  Wolfs,"  2  vols.,  1833;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  "North  British  Review"  for  June,  :S&5. 

"Wolf,  [Lat.  Wol'fius,]  (Hieronymus,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Dettingen  in  1516.  He  studied  at  Wit- 
tenberg, and  became  in  1557  professor  of  Greek,  and 
rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Augsburg.  He  was  one 
of  the  best  Greek  scholars  of  his  time,  and  published 
editions  of  the  works  of  Isocrates,  of  Nicephorus  Grego- 
ras,  of  ^schines  and  Demosthenes,  and  other  classics. 
Died  in  1580. 

See  Gerlach,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  H.  Wolfii,"  1743 ;  M.  Adam, 
"Vitas  Germanorum  Philosophorum." 

"Wolf,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  in 
Zweibriicken  (Deux-Ponts)  in  1537,  was  professor  at 
Marburg.     Died  in  1616. 

"Wolf,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  jurist,  said  to  have  been 
a  twin  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  "A 
Key  to  History,"  ("Clavis  Historiarum,")  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1606. 

"Wolf,  (JoHANN  Christian,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Wernigerode  in  1689.  He  became  professor  of 
physics  and  poetry  at  Hamburg  in  1725,  and  edited  the 
extant  fragments  of  Sappho  and  other  Greek  poetesses. 
Died  in  1770. 

Wolf,  [Lat.  Wol'fius,]  (Johann  Christoph.)  a 
German  divine  and  scholar,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Wernigerode  in  1683.  He  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  and  rector  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Hamburg.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Hebrew 
Lexicons,"  (in  Latin,)  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica,"  and  other 
learned  works,  also  editions  of  the  Letters  of  Libanius, 
and  other  classics.     Died  in  1739. 

See  J.  H.  VON  Seelen,  "  Commentatio  de  Vita  J.  C.  Wolfii," 
1717;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Wolf,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at 
Zurich  about  1525,  was  a  friend  of  C.  Gesner.  He  was 
professor  of  physics  and  Greek  at  Zurich.    Died  in  i6oi. 

Wolf,  (Kaspar  Friedrich,)  a  German  anatomist, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1735  ;  died  in  1794. 

Wolf  or  Wolff,  von,  fon  ^olf,  [Lat.  Wol'fius,! 


(Johann  Christian,)  Freiherr,  a  celebrated  German 
philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  Breslau,  January 
24, 1679,  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  1674.)  After 
he  had  studied  for  some  years  in  the  College  of  Breslau, 
he  entered  the  University  of  Jena  in  1699.  ^^  devoted 
himself  to  the  exact  sciences,  and  began  at  an  early  age 
to  meditate  the  reform  of  practical  philosophy  by  the 
application  of  mathematical  methods.  About  1701  he 
passed  from  Jena  to  Leipsic,  where  he  took  his  degree 
in  philosophy,  and  delivered  lectures.  He  became  ac- 
quainted with  Leibnitz,  who  exercised  considerable 
influence  over  him.  In  1707  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  Halle.  He  published 
"Thoughts  on  the  Powers  of  the  Human  Mind,"  (1712,) 
and  "  Elements  of  Universal  Science,"  ("  Elementa 
Matheseos  universae,"  1713-15.) 

His  peace  was  disturbed  by  the  intrigues  of  the 
professors  of  theology,  who  censured  his  doctrines  as 
dangerous  to  religion  and  morality.  Instigated  by  these 
adversaries,  among  whom  Joachim  Lange  was  especially 
violent,  the  King  of  Prussia  removed  Wolf  from  his  chair 
in  1723,  and  banished  him  from  the  kingdom.  Before 
that  year  he  had  published  "  Rational  Thoughts  on  God, 
the  World,  and  the  Human  Soul,"  (1720,)  "Thoughts 
on  the  Search  after  Happiness,"  (1720,)  and  other  works 
He  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at 
Marburg  for  eighteen  years,  (1723-41.)  During  this 
period  he  published  a  number  of  works,  among  which 
are  a  celebrated  "  Treatise  on  Logic,"  ("  Philosophia 
Rationalis,  sive  Logica  methodo  Scientifica  pertractata," 
1728,)  "  Primitive  Philosophy,  or  Ontology,"  ("  Philoso- 
phia prima,  sive  Ontologia,"  1730,)  "Moral  Philosophy, 
or  Ethics,"  ("Philosophia  moralis,  sive  Ethica,"  1732,) 
"  Rational  Psychology,"  ("  Psychologia  rationalis,"  1734,) 
and  "  Universal  Practical  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia 
practica  universalis,"  2  vols.,  1738-39.)  About  1733 
he  was  invited  by  the  king  to  return  to  Halle.  He 
declined  to  change  his  position  until  the  accession  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  (1740,)  when  he  resumed  his  pro- 
fessorship at  Halle.  He  was  appointed  privy  councillor 
and  professor  of  international  law.  Among  his  later 
works  were  "The  Law  of  Nature,"  ("Jus  Naturae,"  8 
vols.,  1740-49,)  and  "The  Law  of  Nations,"  ("Jus 
Gentium,"  1749.)  He  had  married  Catherine  Marie 
Brandisin  in  17 16,  and  had  several  children.  As  a  phi- 
losopher, he  developed  and  popularized  the  doctrines 
of  Leibnitz,  his  mind  being  methodizing  rather  than 
creative.     Died  in  April,  1754. 

See  Stiebritz,  "  Nachricht  von  Wolfs  Leben  und  Ende,"  1754; 
GoTTSCHED,  "  HistorischeLobschrift  auf  C.  Wolf,"  1755  :  Wuttkk, 
"C.  Wolt"'s  eigene  Lebensbeschreibung,"  1841  ;  C.  F.  Baumeistbr, 
"Vita,  Fata  et  Scripta  C.  Wolfii,"  1739;  Fontenkllk,  "  filoges." 

Wolfart,  <Vol'fSRt,  (Peter,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Hanan  in  1675  ;  died  in  1726. 

"Wolfe,  woolf,  (Charles,)  an  Irish  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  at  Dublin  in  1791.  He  studied  in  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city,  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1814,  and  in  1817  was  ordained.  He  died  in  1823,  of 
consumption,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-one.  His  works 
were  published  in  1825,  under  the  title  of  "Remains 
of  the  Late  Rev.  Charles  Wolfe,"  etc. :  they  consist  of 
sermons,  prose  sketches,  and  lyric  poems  of  great 
beauty.  Among  the  last-named  is  his  "Burial  of  Sir 
John  Moore,"  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest 
productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 

Wolfe,  (James,)  a  celebrated  English  officer,  born  in 
Kent  in  1726.  He  served  with  great  distinction  in  Ger- 
many in  the  early  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Louisburg 
from  the  French  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  in  1759  to 
command  the  land-forces  in  the  expedition  against  the 
French  in  Canada,  having  been  previously  made  major- 
general.  After  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  drive  the 
French  army  from  their  position  near  Quebec,  he  at 
length  succeeded  in  ascending  the  Heights  of  Abraham, 
commanding  that  city,  and,  in  the  battle  which  ensued, 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  enemy.  He  was, 
however,  mortally  wounded  in  the  action,  dying  on  the 
field  of  battle  immediately  after  he  was  informed  of  the 
result.  His  opponent.  General  Montcalm,  also  fell  in 
this  engagement,  and  the  French  lost  their  possessions 
in  Canada. 


^zsk:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Y.,gnttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. > 


WOLFF 


2490 


WOLOWSKI 


"Wolff.    See  Wolf. 

Wolff,  ^olf,  (Albert,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Neu-Strelitz,  November  14,  1814.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Rauch,  and  in  1856  was  made  a  professor  in  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin.  His  best  works  are  regarded  as 
model  examples  of  the  classic  style. 

"Wolff,  <^olf,  (Emil,)  a  German  sculptor  of  high  repu- 
tation, born  in  Berlin  in  1802,  resided  many  years  in 
Rome.  He  executed  a  number  of  portrait-busts  and 
mythological  subjects.  Among  the  former  are  those  of 
Niebuhr  and  Prince  Albert.     Died  September  29,  1879. 

"Wolff,  woolf,  (Joseph,)  a  converted  Jew  and  traveller, 
born  about  1795.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the 
Anglican  Church  about  1838.  He  performed  a  journey 
to  Bokhara,  of  which  he  published  a  narrative.  He 
wrote  other  works.     Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1861. 

"Wolff,  (OsKAR  LtiDWiG  Bernhard,)  a  popular 
German  writer,  born  at  Altona  in  1799,  was  the  author 
of  numerous  tales,  romances,  and  satirical  sketches. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "The  Natural  History  of 
German  Students,"  and  "  Poetical  Home  Treasure  of 
the  German  People."     Died  in  185 1. 

Wolff,  (Pius  Alexander,)  a  celebrated  German  actor 
and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1782.  He 
excelled  particularly  as  a  tragedian,  and  his  representa- 
tions of  Hamlet,  Orestes,  Max  Piccolomini,  and  Tasso 
were  unsurpassed.  He  was  the  author  of  "Caesareo," 
and  other  comedies,  and  a  drama  entitled  "  Preciosa," 
which  forms  the  text  of  one  of  Von  Weber's  operas. 
Died  in  1828. 

"Wolff,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  sculptor,  known  also 
as  Thierwolff,  (ter'<tolf,)  was  born  at  Fehrbellin,  in 
Brandenburg,  April  6,  1S16.  He  is  noted  for  his  animal- 
sculptures. 

"Wolffhart.     See  Lycosthenes. 

Wolffl  or  "Woelffl,  <^oIf'l,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent 
German  composer  and  pianist,  born  at  Salzburg  in  1772, 
was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Haydn  and  Leopold  Mozart. 
In  1795  he  visited  Vienna,  where  he  was  received  with 
enthusiasm,  and  subsequently  resided  for  a  time  in  Paris 
as  music-teacher  to  the  empress  Josephine.  He  died 
in  London  about  1812.  His  compositions  are  chiefly 
operas,  and  pieces  for  the  piano.  As  a  pianist,  he  was 
regarded  as  scarcely  inferior  to  Beethoven. 

"Wolfgang,  woolf'gang,  [Ger.  pron.  <^olf'ging,]  Prince 
of  Anhalt,  a  German  Reformer  and  adherent  of  Luther, 
was  born  in  1492.  Having  taken  up  arms  against  the 
Imperialists,  he  was  outlawed  by  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
in  1547.     Died  in  1566. 

"Wolfius.     See  Wolf. 

■Wolfram  von  Esclienbach.  See  Eschenbach, 
vo.\. 

"Wolfter,  Wolf'ter,  (Peter,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Mannheim  in  1758.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  the 
German  empire.     Died  in  1805. 

Wolgemuth.     See  Wohlgemuth. 

"Wolke^  <^ol''keh,  (Christian  Heinrich,)  a  German 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Jever  in  1741  ; 
died  in  1825. 

"Wollaston,  wool'las-ton,  (William,)  an  English 
writer  on  ethics  and  theology,  was  born  in  Staffordshire 
in  1659.  He  studied  at  Sidney  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1681.  His  principal 
work,  entitled  "The  Religion  of  Nature  Delineated," 
(1724,)  obtained  extensive  popularity,  and  was  translated 
into  French.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  critical,  philo- 
sophical, and  theological  treatises.     Died  in  1724. 

See  "  Bios^raphia  Britannica:"  Clarke,  "  Life  of  Wollaston," 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  "The  Religion  of  Nature." 

"Wollaston,  (William  Hyde,)  an  eminent  English 
chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  London  in  1766. 
He  was  a  son  of  Francis  Wollaston,  an  astronomer, 
who  was  a  grandson  of  William,  noticed  above.  Having 
been  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  studied  medicine,  and 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1793;  but  he  soon  re- 
nounced the  practice  of  medicine,  and  devoted  himself 
to  scientific  researches.  He  was  chosen  secretary  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1806,  and  president  of  the  same 
in  1820.      He   invented  the    reflecting    goniometer,  by 


which  the  angles  of  crystals  are  measured  and  the 
camera  lucida,  (1812.)  About  1802  he  verified  the  laws 
of  double  refraction  in  Iceland  spar,  announced  by 
Huyghens,  and  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Oblique  Re- 
fraction of  Iceland  Crystal."  He  acquired  wealth  by 
the  manufacture  of  platinum  by  an  improved  method, 
having  been  the  first  who  reduced  that  metal  into  ingots 
in  a  state  of  purity.  About  1805  he  discovered  the 
metals  palladium  and  rhodium.  He  contributed  thirty- 
eight  memoirs  to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions." 
The  identity  of  galvanism  with  common  electricity  was 
first  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Wollaston.  He  was  a  very 
skilful  experimenter  and  accurate  observer.  Among  his 
valuable  inventions  is  a  chemical  sliding-rule,  by  which 
the  equivalents  of  substances  are  readily  ascertained, 
and  an  ingenious  method  of  rendering  platinum  malle- 
able. The  latter  was  published  just  before  his  death. 
Died  in  December,  1828. 

See  G.  Moll,  "  De  Dood  van  Dr.  W.  H.  Wollaston  ;"  Thomson, 
"History  of  Chemistry;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846. 

"Wolle,  ■fi'ol'leh,  (Christoph,)  a  German  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1700,  was  well  versed  in  the 
Oriental  languages.     Died  in  1761. 

"Wol'le,  (f.'ETER,)  a  bishop,  born  in  Saint  Jolwi,  Dan- 
ish West  Indies,  January  5,  1792.  He  was  educated  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  about  1830  became  a  bishop  of  the 
Moravian  Church.  Died  at  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania, 
November  14,  1871. 

"Wolleb,  <^ol'lSp,  [Lat.  Wolle'bius,]  (Johann,)  a 
.Swiss  divine,  born  at  Bile  in  1536.  He  was  professor 
in  the  University  of  Bale,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Summary  of  Theology,"  ("Compendium  Theologize,") 
which  is  highly  commended.     Died  in  1626. 

"WoUebius.     See  Wolleb. 

"Wollner  or  "Woellner,  von,  fon  <^ol'ner,  (Johann 
Christian,)  a  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Dovritz  about 
1730.  He  was  ennobled  by  Frederick  William  II.  in 
17S6,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  state  and  justice, 
and  director  of  ecclesiastic  affairs,  in  178S.  He  insisted 
on  rigid  orthodo.xy  in  the  clergy.     Died  in  1800. 

"Wollstonecraft.wool'ston-krlft,  (Mary,)  afterwards 
Mrs.  Godwin,  a  celebrated  English  authoress,  born  in 
1759.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  place  of  her  birth  ; 
but  her  parents  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  London  when 
she  was  about  sixteen  years  old.  Owing  to  the  poverty 
of  her  family,  and  the  violent  temper  of  her  father,  her 
early  training,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  was  very 
defective.  Having  by  her  own  exertions  fitted  herself  to 
be  a  teacher,  she  opened  a  school  at  Islington  in  1783, 
in  which  she  was  assisted  by  two  sisters  and  an  intimate 
friend.  In  1786  she  published  her  first  work,  entitled 
"Thoughts  on  the  Education  of  Daughters."  She  next 
translated  into  English  Salzmann's  "Elements  of  Mo- 
ralit}',"  and  Lavater's  "Physiognomy."  In  1791  she 
wrote  an  answer  to  Burke's  "  Reflections  on  the  French 
Revolution,"  which  was  soon  followed  by  her  "Vindi- 
cation of  the  Rights  of  Woman."  In  1792  she  visited 
Paris,  where  she  wrote  "  A  Moral  and  Historical  View  of 
the  French  Revolution."  About  this  time  she  formed  an 
unfortunate  attachment  to  an  American  named  Iralay, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  desertion,  twice  attempted  to 
destroy  herself.  In  1795,  having  business  in  Norway, 
she  travelled  in  that  country  and  in  Sweden,  and,  on 
her  return,  published  "  Letters  from  Norway."  This 
work  shows  great  shrewdness  and  powers  of  observation, 
and  contains  many  fine  descriptive  passages.  Mary 
Wollstonecraft  was  married  to  Godwin,  the  celebrated 
novelist,  in  1796,  and  died  in  1797,  after  giving  birth 
to  a  daughter,  who  became  the  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley. 

See  William  Godwin,  "Life  of  Mary  Godwin  :"  Mrs.  Elwood, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commence- 
ment of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  (1843;)  "  Monthly  Review"  foi 
June,  1792,  April,  179s,  and  July,  1796. 

"Wolmar,  <^ol'm3.R,  or  "Volkmar,  volk'mSR,  (Mel- 
CHIOR,)  a  Swiss  jurist  and  Hellenist,  born  at  Rothweil 
about  1497.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Tiibingen,  and 
taught  Greek  to  Calvin.     Died  in  1561. 

"Wolowski,  vo-lov'skee,  (Lewis  Francis  Michael 
Raymond,)  a  political  economist,  born  at  Warsaw  in 
1810;  died  at  Gisors,  August  14,  1876. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  il,  y,  long:  i,  fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  0,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  <?,  obsaire;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WOLSELE V 


2491 


WOOD 


Wolseley,  woolz'le,  (Sir  Garnei"  Joseph,)  Lord,  a 
British  general,  was  born  at  Golden  Bridge  House,  near 
Dublin,  Ireland,  June  4,  1S33.  He  entered  the  army  as 
an  ensign  in  1852,  and  served  with  great  distinction  in 
Burmah,  the  Crimea,  at  Lucknovv,  in  China,  and  in  the 
Manitoba  rebellion  of  1867,  which  last  he  suppressed. 
He  was  knighted  in  1870.  He  had  the  chief  command  in 
the  Ashantee  war  of  1873,  commanded  the  troops  in  the 
Cape  Colony,  1875-76,  was  administrator  and  chief  com- 
mandant in  Cyprus,  1S78-79,  governor  of  Natal  and  the 
Transvaal,  1879-80,  quartermaster-general,  1S80-82, 
adjutant-general,  1S82,  and  commander-in-chief  in  Egypt, 
1882,  in  which  year  he  won  the  victory  of  Tell-el-Kebir, 
for  which  he  was  gazetted  full  general  and  made  a  peer. 
He  has  written  "  Narrative  of  the  War  with  China  in 
1S60,"  (1862,)  "The  Soldier's  Pocket-Book,"  "  Marley 
Castle,"  (a  novel,  1S77,)  etc. 

Wolsey,  wSol'ze,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English 
courtier  and  cardinal,  born  at  Ipswich  in  1471.  His 
origin  was  rather  obscure.  According  to  a  doubtful 
tradition,  he  was  the  son  of  a  butcher.  He  was  educated 
at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  the 
degree  of  B.  A.  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  his  college,  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Lymington  in  1500.  Soon 
after  that  date  he  became  chaplain  to  Henry  VII.,  and 
was  sent  on  a  delicate  mission  to  the  emperor  Maxi- 
milian, which  he  performed  with  great  celerity  and  suc- 
cess. He  obtained  in  1508  the  lucrative  place  of  Dean 
of  Lincoln.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII., 
Wolsey's  patron  Bishop  Fox  procured  his  appointment 
as  royal  almoner.  Having  excellent  qualifications  for  a 
courtier,  he  gained  the  special  favour  of  the  young  king, 
and  was  rapidly  promoted.  He  became  Canon  of  Wind- 
sor in  151 1,  Dean  of  York  and  Bishop  of  Tournay  in 
1515,  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  March,  1514,  Archbishop  of 
York  in  September,  15 14,  and  cardinal  in  151 5.  About 
the  end  of  the  last-named  year  he  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor. He  was  now  the  prime  favourite  and  chief 
minister  of  Henry  VIII.  In  his  style  of  living  he  dis- 
played a  princely  magnificence.  He  had  superior  talents 
for  business,  and  understood  the  public  interests,  which 
he  seems  to  have  promoted  except  when  they  interfered 
with  his  ambition.  His  favour  and  influence  were  courted 
by  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  when  they  became  (1519) 
competitors  for  the  imperial  crown.  Wolsey  aspired  to 
the  papacy,  and  was  a  candidate  for  it  at  the  death  of  Leo 
X.,  in  1522.  When  he  was  defeated,  he  showed  his  re- 
sentment against  Charles  V.  because  that  monarch  failed 
to  support  his  pretensions.  He  built  a  grand  palace  at 
Hampton  Court,  which  he  presented  to  Henry  VIII. 

"The  numerous  enemies,"  says  Hume,  "  whom  Wol- 
sey's sudden  elevation,  his  aspiring  character,  and  his 
haughty  deportment  had  raised  him,  served  only  to 
rivet  him  faster  in  Henry's  confidence.  .  .  .  That  artful 
prelate  likewise,  well  acquainted  with  the  king's  impe- 
rious temper,  concealed  from  him  the  absolute  ascendant 
which  he  had  acquired,  and,  while  he  secretly  directed 
all  public  councils,  he  ever  pretended  a  blind  submission 
to  the  will  and  authority  of  his  master."  ("  History  of 
England,"  vol.  iii.)  In  1523  he  was  appointed  legate  of 
the  pope  for  life.  Wolsey  fortified  the  king's  scruples 
in  relation  to  his  marriage  with  Queen  Catherine,  partly 
with  a  view  of  promoting  a  breach  with  Charles  V.  ;  but 
he  lost  the  favour  of  Henry,  probably  because  he  failed 
to  gain  the  pope's  consent  to  the  divorce  of  Catherine. 
The  enmity  of  Anne  Boleyn  also  contributed  to  his  fall. 
In  October,  1529,  the  great  seal  was  taken  from  him. 
An  indictment  was  laid  against  him  that  he  had  pro- 
cured bulls  from  Rome,  contrary  to  a  statute  of  Richard 
II.  The  court  pronounced  against  him  a  sentence  by 
which  his  lands  and  goods  were  forfeited  ;  but  Henry 
granted  him  a  pardon  for  all  offences.  He  was  soon  after 
again  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason  ;  but  before  his  trial 
began  he  died,  at  Leicester  Abbey,  in  November,  1530. 

See  T.  Stoker,  "Life  of  Thomas  Wolsey,"  1599;  G.  Caven- 
dish, "  Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  1641  ;  Fiddes,  "  Life  of  Cardinal 
Wolsey,"  1724:  J.  Grove,  "  History  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  4  vols., 
1742-44;  J.  Galt,  "Life  and  Administration  of  Wolsey,"  1812; 
Froudb,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland," 
vol.  iii.,  particularly  pp.  279,  2S0:  "Lives  of  Eminent  British  States- 
men."in  Lardner's  "Cyclopjedia  :"  Shakspeare,  "Henry  VIIL" 


"Woltmann,  von,  fon  ^olt'man,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1770.  He  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  Great  Britain,"  (1799,)  a  "History 
of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1809,)  a  continuation  of 
Schiller's  "Thirty  Years'  War,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1817. 

His  wife,  Caroline  von  Woltmann,  originally 
named  Stosch,  (stosh,)  was  the  author  of  several  his- 
torical and  fictitious  compositions.     Died  in  1847. 

Wolzogen,  <^olt-so'gen,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  Ger 
man  Socinian  writer,  born  in  Austria  in  1596;  died  near 
Breslau  in  1658. 

"Wolzogen,  van,  vtn  wol-zo'gen  or  wol-zo'H^, 
(Louis,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Amersfort  in  1632. 
He  preached  at  Amsterdam  in  the  Walloon  church,  and 
wrote  several  theological  works.     Died  in  1690. 

Wolzogen,  von,  fon  <^olt-so'gen,  (Justus  Lud^^ig,) 
Baron,  a  Prussian  general,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1773, 
was  a  step-son  of  Karoline  von  Wolzogen,  noticed 
below.  He  served  against  the  French  in  the  principal 
campaigns  from  1807  to  1815,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
general  of  infantry.     Died  in  1845. 

"Wolzogen,  von,  (Karoline,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Rudolstadt  in  1763.  Her  original  name  was  Lengs- 
feld,  and  she  was  a  sister-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Schiller.  She  published  in  1798  a  romance  entitled 
"  Agnes  von  Lilien,"  which  was  received  with  great 
favour.  Her  "  Life  of  Schiller,  drawn  from  the  Recol- 
lections of  his  Family,"  etc.,  came  out  in  1830,  in  2 
vols.  It  gives  a  highly  interesting  and  truthful  delinea- 
tion of  the  life  and  character  of  that  great  poet.  Died 
in  1847. 

"Womock,  woo'mok,  or  "Wo'mack,  (Lawrence,) 
an  English  theologian,  born  in  Norfolk  in  161 2.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  controversies  of  the  time, 
and  wrote  against  the  Puritans  and  the  nonconformists. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1683.  Died  in 
1685. 

"Wood,  (Alphonso,)  an  American  botanist,  born  at 
Chesterfield,  New  Hampshire,  September  17,  1810.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1834,  was  president 
of  the  Ohio  Female  College,  1851-57,  and  held  professor- 
ships in  Terre  Haute,  Indiana,  and  elsewhere.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  botany,  of  which  the  principal 
was  a  very  popular  "  Class-Book  of  Botany,"  (1845.) 
Died  January  4,  1881. 

"Wood,  (Sir  Andrew,)  an  able  Scottish  admiral, 
born  about  1455.  He  fought  against  the  English.  Died 
about  1540. 

See  Chambers,  "  BiographicalDictionaryof  Eminent  Scotsmen,' 
(Supplement.) 

"Wood,  (Anthony  A,)  an  English  antiquarian  writer, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1632.  He  studied  at  Merton  College, 
and  attained  great  proficiency  in  music  and  the  science 
of  heraldry.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Oxford,"  translated  into  Latin  by  Dr. 
Fell,  (1674,)  and  "Athenae  Oxonienses,  an  Exact  His- 
tory of  all  the  Writers  and  Bishops  who  have  had  their 
Education  in  the  University  of  Oxford  from  1500  to 
1695,"  etc.     Died  in  1695. 

See  R.  R.'^WLiNSON,  "Life  of  Anthony  k  Wood,"  171 1. 

"Wood,  (Sir  Charles,)  G.C.B.,  an  English  states- 
man, born  at  Pontefract  in  1800.  He  studied  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Great 
Grimsby  in  1826,  and  returned  for  Wareham  in  183 1. 
He  was  afterwards  successively  secretary  to  the  treasury 
and  to  the  admiralty,  and  in  1846  became  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer.  He  resigned  in  1852.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  India  in  1859,  and  in  1866  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Viscount  Halifax.    Died  in  1S85. 

"Wood,  (De  Volson,)  an  American  engineer  and 
physicist,  born  at  Smyrna,  New  York,  June  i,  1832,  was 
educated  at  the  Albany  Normal  School  and  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute,  graduating  in  1857.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  engineering  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
1857-72,  and  in  1872  became  professor  of  mathematics 
and  mechanics  at  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Ho- 
boken.  New  Jersey.  Among  his  works  are  "  Resistance 
of  Materials,"  (1871,)  "On  Bridges  and  Roofs,"  (1873,) 
"Analytical  Mechanics,"  (1876,)  "Elementary  Mechan- 
ics," (187S,)  and  "Co-ordinate  Geometry,"  {1879.) 


fz.sk:  9as  j:  ghard:  gas;';  G,  H,  Vi, guttural :  N,  nasal:  v.,  trilled:  sasz;  %h  as  in  this.     (JJ^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WOOD 


2492 


WOOD 


Wood,  (Ellen,)  (known  as  Mrs.  Henry  Wood,)  an 
English  novelist,  born  near  Worcester  about  1820.  Her 
maiden  name  was  Price.  Among  her  works  are  "  Dane- 
bury House,"  (i860,)  "East  Lynne,"  (i86i,)  "A  Life's 
Secret,"  (1867,)  "Johnny  Ludlow,"  (1880,)  "About  Our- 
selves," (1883,)  etc.  She  also  edited  "The  Argosy,"  a 
monthly  magazine.  Some  of  her  books  appeared  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Johnny  Ludlow.     Died  in  1887. 

Wood,  (Fernando,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Philadelphia  about  1812.  He  became  a  merchant  of 
New  York  City,  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Demo- 
crats in  1841,  and  was  chosen  mayor  of  New  York  in 
1854.  He  was  re-elected  mayor,  and  in  January,  1861, 
recommended  that  New  York  should  secede  and  become 
a  free  city.  He  was  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1868,  and 
was  continued  a  member  until  his  death,  Feb.  13,  1881. 

"V^ood,  (George  B.,)  M.D.,  LL.I).,  an  eminent 
American  physician  and  medical  writer,  was  born  in 
Greenwich,  Cumberland  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1797. 
His  parents  were  Friends  ;  his  great-grandfather,  Richard 
Wood,  was  a  county  judge  in  1748.  The  education  of 
Dr.  Wood  was  begun  in  the  city  of  New  York.  In 
1815  he  graduated  with  the  first  honours  in  the  aca- 
demical department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  studied  medicine  in  the  office  of  Dr.  Joseph  Parrish, 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1818.  He  delivered  in  1820  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  chemistry,  and  was  appointed  in  1822  to  the 
chair  of  chemistry,  and  in  183 1  to  that  of  materia  medica, 
in  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy.  In  1835  he 
was  elected  professor  of  materia  medica  and  pharmacy 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  a  position  which  he 
filled  with  great  distinction  for  fifteen  years.  In  1850 
he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  medicine  in  the  same  institution.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  i860.  As  a  lecturer.  Dr.  Wood  was 
eminently  successful.  While  filling  the  chair  of  materia 
medica  at  the  university,  he  procured  and  exhibited  to 
the  students,  at  great  expense,  many  living  specimens 
of  rare  tropical  and  other  exotic  plants  which  he  had 
occasion  to  treat  of  in  his  lectures  ;  and  he  doubt- 
less did  more  than  any  other  individual  of  his  time  to 
advance  the  interests  and  reputation  of  the  institution 
with  which  he  was  connected.  In  1865  he  endowed  an 
auxiliary  faculty  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, composed  of  five  chairs  :  namely, — i.  Zoology 
and  Comparative  Anatomy ;  2.  Botany  ;  3.  Mineralogy 
and  Geology;  4.  Hygiene  ;  5.  Medical  Jurisprudence  and 
Toxicology  ;  the  incumbent  of  each  chair  being  required 
to  deliver,  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June, 
not  less  than  thirty-four  lectures  every  year. 

Among  Dr.  Wood's  various  publications  we  may  name 
a  "History  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,"  (1827,) 
a  "  Treatise  on  the  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1847,) 
which  has  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  has 
been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the  medical  department 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Therapeutics  and  Pharmacology,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1856.) 
In  addition  to  the  above,  he  prepared,  conjointly  with 
Dr.  Franklin  Bache,  in  1830,  a  "  Pharmacopceia,"  which 
ivas  adopted,  with  slight  alterations  made  under  the 
Superintendence  of  its  authors,  by  the  national  convention 
of  physicians  assembled  for  that  purpose,  and  which 
became  the  basis  of  the  present  "  United  States  Phar- 
macopceia ;"  and  the  "  United  States  Dispensatory,"  (first 
published  in  1833.)  Of  the  latter  admirable  work  the 
first  idea  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Wood,  who  also  wrote 
about  two-thirds  of  the  original  edition,  and  he  had  the 
entire  superintendence  of  an  edition  published  subsequent 
to  the  death  of  Dr.  Bache.  Nearly  150,000  copies  of  this 
book  were  sold  during  the  lifetime  of  Dr.  Wood.  In 
1859  Dr.  Wood  was  elected  president  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society.      Died  March  30,  1879. 

W'ood,  (Sir  Henry  Evelyn,)  a  British  soldier,  born 
at  Cressing,  in  Essex,  in  1838.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1852,  and  was  badly  wounded  in  the  Crimean  war,  during 
which  he  joined  the  army.  He  afterwards  served  with 
great  distinction  in  India,  in  Ashantee,  and  in  Zululand, 
and  in  1879  was  made  a  brigadier.  In  the  Transvaal  and 
in  Egypt  he  was  also  distinguished.  In  1882  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Egyptian  army. 


Wood,  (Horatio  C.,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  January  13,  1841.  He  graduated  as 
M.D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1862,  and  was 
appointed  to  professorships  of  medical  botany  and  of 
nervous  diseases  in  that  institution.  His  writings  in- 
clude an  "  Essay  on  Thermic  Fever,  or  Sunstroke," 
(1872,)  "The  Fresh- Water  Algae  of  North  America," 
(1873,)  "  A  Study  of  Fever,"  (1875,)  and  "  A  Treatise  on 
Therapeutics,  comprising  Materia  Medica  and  Toxicol- 
ogy," (1875;  5'h  ^^•>  1884,)  besides  many  papers  on 
physiology,  therapeutics,  pathology,  botany,  and  other 
branches  of  science. 

Wood,  (James,)  an  American  soldier  and  statesman, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1740.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Vir- 
ginia Convention  of  1776,  and  the  same  year  was  ap- 
pointed a  colonel  in  the  Virginia  militia.  He  was  gov- 
ernor of  the  State  from  1796  to  1799.     Died  in  1813. 

"Wood,  (James,)  an  English  millionaire  and  miser, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1756,  became  proprietor  of  the 
Old  Gloucester  Bank.  He  also  at  the  same  time  kept 
a  small  shop,  which  he  attended  diligently.  He  died  in 
1836,  leaving  his  fortune  to  his  four  executors. 

Wood,  (James  Frederic,)  D.D.,  an  American  arch- 
bishop, born  in  Philadelphia,  April  27,  1813,  of  English 
Quaker  parents.  He  was  educated  in  England,  but  re- 
turned to  America,  entered  a  business  life,  and  became 
a  bank-cashier  in  Cincinnati.  In  1836  he  was  converted 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  He  studied  seven  years 
at  Rome,  and  became  a  priest.  In  1857  he  was  raised 
to  the  episcopate,  as  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Neumann  of 
Philadelphia,  becoming  the  diocesan  in  i860.  In  1875 
his  see  was  made  archiepiscopal.     Died  June  20,  1883. 

Wood,  (Jethro,)  distinguished  as  the  inventor  of  a 
greatly-improved  form  of  the  cast-iron  plough,  was  born 
in  Washington  county,  New  York,  in  1774.  He  is  said 
to  have  commenced  forming  models  of  ploughs  when 
he  was  a  boy.  In  1819  he  completed  his  great  inven- 
tion, which,  by  its  simple  construction,  its  cheapness,  and 
its  efficiency,  soon  superseded  the  old  style  of  ploughs 
throughout  the  United  States.  Mr.  Wood  resided  in 
Cayuga  county,  New  York,  where  he  died  in  1834. 

"Wood,  (John,)  an  English  architect,  commonly  called 
Wood  of  Bath.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "Origin 
of  Building,"  etc.,  and  an  "  Essay  towards  a  Description  of 
Bath,"  which  city  he  greatly  improved.     Died  in  1754. 

"Wood,  (Rev.  John  George,)  an  English  naturalist,* 
born  in  London  in  1827.  He  published,  besides  other 
v/orks,  "Common  Objects  of  the  Sea-Shore,"  (1857,) 
"  The  Illustrated  Natural  History,"  (1859-63,)  "  Popular 
Natural  History,"  "  Man  and  Beast  Here  and  Hereafter," 
and  "Insects  Abroad."     Died  March  3,  1889. 

Wood,  (John  Turtle,)  an  English  explorer,  born  at 
Hackney,  February  13,  1821.  He  was  bred  an  architect, 
and  for  a  time  was  employed  in  building  railways  in  Asia 
Minor.  He  laboured  from  1863  to  1874  in  exploring 
the  ruins  of  Ephesus.  His  principal  published  work  is 
"  Ephesus,"  (1875.)     Died  March  25,  1890. 

Wood,  (Sir  Matthew,)  M.P.,  an  English  magistrate, 
born  at  Tiverton  in  1768.  He  became  lord  mayor  of 
London  in  1815,  and  again  in  1816.  He  saved  the  lives 
of  three  men  unjustly  condemned  on  false  evidence. 
Died  in  1843. 

Wood,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  archaeologist,  known 
also  as  Palmyra  Wood,  was  born  in  the  countv  of 
Meath,  Ireland,  in  1716.  Having  studied  at  Oxford,  he 
visited  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  the  "Ruins  of  Palmyra,"  (1753,  with  57 
plates,)  and  "Ruins  of  Balbeck,"  (1757,  with  47  plates.) 
He  also  wrote  "  An  Essay  on  the  Original  Genius  and 
Writings  of  Homer,"  etc.,  which  was  translated  into 
several  languages.     Died  in  1771. 

Wood,  (Thomas  Jkfkerson.)  .-in  American  general, 
born  in  Kentucky  about  1825,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1845.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  Union 
volunteers  about  October,  1861.  He  commanded  a  di- 
vision at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  January 
2,  1863,  and  at  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20  of 
the  same  year.  He  served  under  General  Sherman  in  the 
campaign  against  Atlanta,  May-August,  and  commanded 
a  corps  at  the  great  battle  of  Nashville,  December  15  and 
16,  1864.   Retired,  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  in  1S68. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lotig-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit:  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WOOD 


2493 


WOODWARD 


Wood,  (Thomas  Waterman,)  an  American  genre 
painter,  born  in  Montpelier,  Vermont,  November  12, 
1823.  He  studied  his  profession  in  Boston,  New  York, 
and  various  European  art  centres.  He  has  attained  suc- 
cess in  water-colours  as  well  as  in  oil-painting,  and  is 
president  of  the  American  Water-Colour  Society,  and 
vice-president  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design. 
Among  his  more  noted  works  are  "  Contraband  Recruit 
and  Veteran,"  (1865,)  "The  Village  Post-Office,"  (1874,) 
"The  Quack  Doctor,"  (1879,)  and  "Uncle  Ned  and  I," 
(1882.) 

Wood,  (William  Maxwell,)  M.D.,  an  American 
author,  born  in  Baltimore,  May  27,  1809.  He  graduated 
from  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of  Mary- 
land in  1829,  and  became  a  navy-surgeon,  rising  to  be 
surgeon-general,  1871-72,  after  which  he  was  retired. 
He  published  "Wanderings  and  Sketches,"  (1849,)  "A 
Shoulder  to  the  Wheel  of  Progress,"  and  "  Fankwei," 
(1859.)     Died  March  i,  1880. 

Wood,  (Sir  William  Page,)  Lord  Hatherley,  an 
English  lawyer,  born  probably  in  London  in  1801.  He 
graduated  with  honour  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1827.  About  1847  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford  as  a  Lib- 
eral. He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1851,  and 
a  vice-chancellor  in  December,  1852.  He  had  been  for 
some  time  lord  justice  of  appeal  when  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  in  December,  186S. 
Died  July  10,  1881. 

Wood'ali,  (wdod'al,)  (John,)  an  English  surgeon, 
born  about  1556,  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Plague," 
"The  Surgeon's  Mate,"  a  description  of  the  diseases  of 
sailors,  and  other  works.  He  became  surgeon  to  Saint 
Bartholomew's  Hospital. 

Wood'ber-r^,  (George  Edward,)  an  American  au- 
thor, born  at  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  May  12,  1855.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1877,  and  was  professor 
of  English  in  the  State  University  of  Nebraska,  1877-78 
and  1880-82.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Wood-En- 
graving," (1883,)  "The  North  Shore  Watch,  a  Threnody," 
(1883,)  and  a  "Life  of  E.  A.  Poe,"  (1884.) 

Wood'bridge,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  1622,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1642. 
He  preached  at  Newbury,  (England,)  from  which  he 
was  ejected  in  1662.  He  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1684. 

Wood 'bridge,  (Timothy,)  a  blind  American 
preacher,  born  at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1784, 
was  a  grandson  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  was  minister 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Spencertown,  Columbia 
county.  New  York,  from  1818  to  1851.  Died  in  Decem- 
ber, 1862. 

Woodbridge,  (William  Channing,)  an  American 
educational  writer,  born  at  Medford,  Massachusetts,  in 
1794.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Mrs.  Willard,  a 
."Universal  Geography,"  "Letters  from  Hofwyl,"  de- 
scribing Pestalozzi's  system  of  school  instruction,  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1845. 

Woodbury,  wo6d'ber-e,  (Daniel  P.,)  an  American 
general  and  engineer,  born  in  New  Hampshire,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1836.  He  became  a  captain  of 
engineers  in  1853,  and  commanded  the  engineer  brigade 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862.  He  died  of  fever, 
at  Key  West,  in  August,  1864,  aged  fifty-one.  His 
"  Theory  of  Arches"  is  a  standard  treatise  of  high  value. 

Woodbury,  (Levi,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  at  Francestown,  New  Hampshire,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1789.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1809, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812.  He 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  in  181 7, 
settled  at  Portsmouth  in  1819,  and  was  elected  Governor 
of  New  Hampshire  in  1823.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  from  1825  to  1831,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  about  April  of  that  year.  In  June 
or  July,  1834,  he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Jackson.  He  continued  to  fill  that 
office  under  Mr.  Van  Buren  until  March,  1841 ;  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  New  Hamp- 
shire in  that  year.  He  voted  against  the  repeal  of  the 
Sub-Treasury  act,  and  for  the  annexation  of  Texas  to 
the  Union,  (1844.)     About  the  end  of  1845  he  was  ap- 


pointed a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  in  place  of  Joseph  Story.  He  died  at  Ports- 
mouth in  September,  1851.  A  collection  of  his  "Po- 
litical, Judicial,  and  Literary  Writings"  was  published 
in  3  vols.,  (1852.) 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Woodd,  wood,  (Basil,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1760,  was  rector  of  Saint  Peter's,  Cornhill. 
He  published  "Advice  to  Youth,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1831. 

Wood'd?-son,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1745.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  where  he  succeeded  Sir  Robert  Chambers  as 
Vinerian  professor  of  law.  He  published  "Elements  of 
Jurisprudence,"  etc.,  (1783,)  "A  Systematical  View  of 
the  Laws  of  England,"  etc.,  (1792,)  and  a  "Brief  Vin- 
dication of  the  Rights  of  the  British  Legislature,"  (1799,) 
which  are  esteemed  standard  works.     Died  in  1822. 

Wood'fail,  (Henry  Sampson,)  an  English  journalist, 
was  editor  of  the  "  Public  Advertiser"  at  the  time  the 
"Letters  of  Junius"  appeared  in  its  columns.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  retentive  memory  and  his  extra- 
ordinary talents  as  a  reporter,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
written  "sixteen  columns  after  having  sat  in  a  crowded 
gallery  for  as  many  hours  without  an  interval  of  rest." 
Died  in  1803.  His  brother  William  was  editor  suc- 
cessively of  "The  London  Packet,"  "The  Morning 
Chronicle,"  and  "The  Diary." 

Wood'ford,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  in  London  in  1636.  He  obtained  a  prebend 
at  Winchester  in  1680.     Died  in  1700. 

Wood'head,  (Abraham,)  an  English  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Yorkshire  about  1608.  He  wrote  several  con- 
troversial works  against  the  Protestants.     Died  in  1678. 

Wood'house,  (Robert,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  at  Norwich  in  1773.  He  became 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge  in  1820, 
and  Plumian  professor  of  astronomy  in  1822.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Principles  of  Analytical 
Calculation,"  (1803,)  a  "Treatise  on  Isoperimetrical 
Problems,"  (1810,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Physical  As- 
tronomy," (2  vols.,  1812-18,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Observatory 
in  1824.     Died  in  1827. 

Woodhouselee,  Lord.  See  Tytler,  (Alexan- 
der F.) 

Woods,  (Leonard,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Princeton,  Massachusetts,  in  1774.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College,  and  was  appointed  in  1808  professor 
of  theology  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  which 
post  he  occupied  for  nearly  forty  years.  He  was  an 
active  member  of  the  American  Tract  Society,  the 
Temperance  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions. 
Died  in  1854.  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  (born  1807, 
died  1878,)  became  in  1839  president  of  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, and  translated  from  the  German  Knapp's  "  Lectures 
on  Christian  Theology." 

Woods,  (William  B.,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Newark,  Ohio,  August  25,  1824.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1845,  was  Speaker  of  the  Ohio  House 
of  Representatives,  1858-59,  entered  the  United  States 
volunteer  service  in  1861,  and  attained  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Ala- 
bama, 1868-69,  a  United  States  circuit-court  judge  in 
Alabama,  1869-80,  and  in  1880  was  made  a  justice  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  He  is  the  author  of 
"Woods'  Reports,"  (4  vols.)     Died  May  14,  1887. 

Woodville,  (Anthony.)     See  Rivers,  Earl  of. 

Woodville  or  Wydeville,  (Elizabeth.)  See 
Elizabeth  Woodville. 

Woodville,  wood'vil,  (William,)  an  English  physi- 
cian, born  at  Cockermouth  in  1752.  He  took  his  degree 
at  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  settled  in  London,  where 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Smallpox  Hospital. 
He  published  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Medical  Botany," 
(4  vols.  4to,  1790.)  He  also  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Smallpox  in  Great  Britain,"  (unfinished.)    Died  in  1805. 

Wood'^ward,  (Aubertine,)  an  American  translator 
and  authoress,  born  in  Montgomery  county,  Pennsylvania, 
September  27,  1841.     She  translated  novels  from  Cher- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  h,  k.  iruttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     { jJl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WOODWARD 


2494 


WOOLbTON 


buliez,  Robert  Bayer,  Kristofifer  Jansen,  etc.,  and  pub- 
lished "Echoes  from  Mistland,"  (1877,)  from  the  Nibe- 
lungen  Lied.     Her  pseudonym  is  Auuhr  Forksiifr. 

"Wood'w^ard,  (Bernard  Bolingbroke,)  an  English 
historian,  born  at  Norwich  in  1816.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Wales,"  (1851,)  a  "History  of  America,"  and 
other  works.  In  1816  he  became  librarian  to  the  queen 
at  Windsor.     Died  October  12,  1869. 

Woodward,  (Henry,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in 
London  in  1717.  He  published  several  dramatic  pieces. 
Died  in  1777. 

Woodward,  (John,)  an  English  geologist,  physician, 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1665.  He  pub- 
lished in  1695  "A  Natural  History  of  the  Earth,"  con- 
taining the  results  of  his  observations  during  a  scientific 
tour  in  England.  This  work,  which  presented  new  and 
important  truths  in  relation  to  geology,  was  received 
with  great  favour,  though  the  errors  it  contains  excited 
considerable  opposition.  Dr.  Woodward  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Gresham  College.  He  was  also  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  College  of 
Physicians.  His  other  principal  works  are  "  An  Account 
of  Roman  Urns  and  other  Antiquities  lately  dug  up 
near  Bishopsgate,"  (1707,)  and  an  "Attempt  towards 
a  Natural  History  of  the  Fossils  of  England."  The 
latter  came  out  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1728. 

Wood'Tward,  (Joseph  Janvier,)  M.D.,  an  American 
scientist,  born  in  Pliiladelphia,  Pennsylvania,  in  1833. 
He  graduated  at  the  Philadelphia  High  School  in  1850, 
and  at  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1S53.  He  entered  the  United  States 
army  as  assistant  surgeon  in  1861,  and  rose  to  be  surgeon 
and  brevet  lieutenant-colonel.  He  became  distinguished 
as  a  microscopist  and  histologist,  prepared  the  "  Medical 
History  of  the  Rebellion,"  and  had  charge  of  the  records 
and  pension  division  of  the  surgeon-general's  office,  and 
of  the  microscopical  and  comparative  anatomy  sections 
in  the  Army  Medical  Museum,  Died  near  Philadelphia, 
August  18,  1S84. 

Wood'ward,  (Samuel  Bayard,)  M.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can physician,  born  at  Torrington,  Connecticut,  in  1787, 
became  in  1832  superintendent  of  the  State  Lunatic 
Asylum  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts.     Died  in  1850. 

Woodward,  (Samuel  P.,)  an  English  geologist,  a 
brother  of  Bernard  B.  Woodward,  noticed  above,  born 
at  Norwich  in  1821,  was  a  son  of  Samuel  Woodward, 
anthor.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  and 
geology  in  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  in  1845.  He 
contributed  to  several  scientific  periodicals,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Manual  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells,"  (1851- 
56.)     Died  in  1865. 

Wood'Aworth,  (Samuel,)  an  American  journalist 
and  poet,  born  at  Scituate,  Massachusetts,  in  1785.  In 
1823  he  founded,  conjointly  with  George  P.  Morris,  the 
"  New  York  Mirror."  He  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  lyrics,  one  of  which,  entitled  "The  Old  Oaken 
Bucket,"  has  been  very  popular.     Died  in  1842. 

Wool,  (John  E.,)  an  American  general,  born  at  New- 
burg,  New  York,  in  1789.  He  entered  the  army  in 
April,  1812,  and  served  as  captain  at  Queenstown  in  Oc- 
tober of  that  year.  He  became  inspector-general  of  the 
army  in  1821,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general 
in  1841.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of 
Buena  Vista,  February,  1847.  I"  1^54  ^^  was  api.)ointed 
commander  of  the  department  of  the  Pacific.  He  took 
command  of  Fortress  Monroe  and  the  department  of 
Virginia,  August  16,  1861,  and  occupied  Norfolk,  May 
10,  1862.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  major-general  of 
the  regular  army,  May  16,  1862.     Died  in  1869. 

Wool'house,  (John  Thomas,)  an  English  surgeon 
and  oculist.  He  resided  for  a  time  in  Paris,  where  he 
published,  in  French,  several  treatises  on  diseases  ot 
the  eye.     Died  in  1730. 

Wool'lett,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  in  Kent  in  1735.  His  landscajjes,  both  etched  and 
engraved,  are  ranked  among  the  most  exquisite  works 
of  the  kind  ;  his  engravings  of  the  "  Death  of  General 
Wolfe"  and  the  "  Battle  of  the  Hogue,"  after  West,  are 
also  esteemed  master-pieces.  Among  his  best  land- 
scapes we  may  name  "  Jacob  and  Laban"  and  "  Roman 
Ruins."  after  Claude  Lorrain,  and  "  Cicero  at  his  Villa," 


"  Apollo  and  the  Seasons,"  and  "  Phaeton,"  after  Wilson. 
He  died  in  1785,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

.See  Strutt,  "  Dictionary  of  Engravers.' 

Wool'man,  (John,)  an  American  Quaker  preacher 
and  eminent  ])hilanthropist,  born  in  Northampton,  near 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1720.  The  cruelties  insepa- 
rable from  negro  slavery  e<irly  made  a  deep  impression 
on  his  mind,  and  he  laboured  long  and  zealously  to 
convince  the  people  of  the  colonies,  and  especially 
those  of  his  own  religious  persuasion,  of  the  iniquity  of 
holding  their  fellow-beings  in  bondage  ;  and  his  influ- 
ence doubtless  contributed  far  more  than  that  of  any 
other  individual  towards  inducing  the  Society  of  Friends 
to  pass  regulations  forbidding  their  members  either  to 
hold  slaves  themselves  or  in  any  way  to  encourage  that 
iniquitous  practice  in  others.  Wool  man  worked  at  the 
trade  of  a  tailor,  and  was  a  rare  example  of  conscien- 
tiousness, self-denial,  humility,  and  benevolence.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "  Some  Considerations  on  the 
Keeping  of  Negroes,"  (1754,)  "Considerations  on  the 
True  Harmony  of  Mankind,"  (1770,)  "The  Journal  of 
the  Life  and  Travels  of  John  Woolman  in  the  Service 
of  the  Gospel,"  (1774-75,)  and  "A  Word  of  Remem- 
brance and  Caution  to  the  Rich,"  (Dublin,  1793.)  Died 
at  York,  in  England,  in  1772.  The  sensibility,  the 
loving  spirit,  and  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  character 
evinced  in  the  writings  of  Woolman  have  often  attracted 
the  admiration  of  those  who  were  far  from  endorsing 
the  peculiar  views  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Charles 
Lamb  says,  "Get  the  writings  of  John  Woolman  by 
heart,  and  love  the  early  Quakers."   ("Essays  of  Elia.") 

See,  also,  "H.  C.  Robinson's  Diary,"  vol.  ii. 

Wool'ner,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  sculptor, 
born  at  Hadleigh,  in  Suffolk,  December  17,  1825.  He 
began  to  work  at  sculpture  when  a  boy.  He  executed  a 
large  number  of  fine  classical  and  other  groups  and 
figures  ;  but  his  greatest  fame  has  been  won  by  his  admi- 
rable and  very  numerous  portrait-busts.  His  collection 
of  poems,  called  "My  Beautiful  Lady,"  (1863,)  has  been 
several  times  reprinted. 

Woolsey,  wool'se,  (Melancthon  Tavlor,)  a  naval 
officer,  born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1782,  became 
commander  of  the  Constellation  in  1825.     Died  in  1838. 

Woolsey,  (Theodore  Dwight,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  American  scholar,  a  nephew  of  President 
Dwight,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  the  31st  of 
October,  1801.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1820. 
He  afterwards  studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  the 
Greek  language  in  Germany.  He  was  appointed  in 
183 1  professor  of  Greek  in  Yale  College,  of  which 
he  was  elected  president  in  1846,  as  successor  to 
Dr.  Day,  and  filled  this  high  position  with  distinguished 
ability  until  his  resignation  in  1871.  He  prepared  as 
text-books  the  following  Greek  classics,  to  which  he 
added  valuable  notes:  "The  Alcestis  of  Euripides," 
(first  published  in  1833,)  "The  Antigone  of  Sophocles." 
(1835,)  "The  Electra  of  Sophocles,"  (1837,)  "The  Pro- 
metheus of  i^schylus,"  (1837,)  and  "The  Gorgias  of 
Plato,"  (1842.)  He  also  jjublished  an  excellent  "  Intro- 
ducti(m  Ij  the  Study  of  International  Law,"  a  volume 
entitled  '  Essays  on  Divorce,"  etc.,  "  The  Religion  of  the 
Past  and  the  Future,"  and  many  sermons,  discourses, 
and  occasional  jjapers.  In  1874  he  reedited  a  part  of 
the  writings  of  Dr.  Francis  Lieber.     Died  July  i,  1889. 

Wool'spn,  (Abba  Goold,)  an  American  poetess  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Windham,  Maine,  in  1838, 
She  has  published  "  Woman  in  American  Society," 
"  Dress  Reform,"  and  "  Browsings  among  Books,"  and 
has  contributed  articles  in  prose  and  verse  to  the  leading 
periodicals. 

Woolson,  (Constance  Fenimore,)  an  American 
ncjvelist,  born  at  Claremont,  New  Hampshire,  about 
1848.  She  removed  in  childhood  to  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
lived  in  the  Southern  States,  1873-79,  and  in  1879  re- 
moved to  England.  Her  principal  books  are  "Castle 
Nowhere,"  (1875,)  "Rodman  the  Keeper,"  {1880,) 
"Anne,"  (1882,)  and  "  For  the  Major,"  (1883.) 

Wool'ston,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Northampton  in  1669.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
subsequently  entered  into  holy  orders.  He  published  in 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y./ono;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fJll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  nicon- 


WOOSTER 


2495 


WORDSWORTH 


1705  "  The  Old  Apology  for  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion  against  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  Revived,"  which 
was  followed  by  several  other  works  in  favour  of  an  alle- 
gorical interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  For  his  "  Six 
Discourses  on  the  Miracles  of  Christ,"  he  was  sentenced 
to  a  year's  imprisonment.     Died  in  1733. 

Woos'tfr,  (wS&s'ter,)  (David,)  an  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Stratford,  Connecticut,  in 
1 710.  He  served  against  the  French,  and  subsequently 
rose  to  be  major-general  in  the  Continental  army.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  in  battle  near  Ridgefield  in  1777. 

"Woot'ton  or  Wooton,  (John,)  an  English  painter 
of  animals,  landscapes,  etc.,  born  about  1720  or  earlier. 
He  painted  horses  and  sporting-scenes.     Died  in  1765. 

Woo- Wang  or  Wou-TATang,  woo'wjng',  the  founder 
of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Chow,  (or  Tcheou,)  was  born 
about  1 169  B.C.  He  obtained  the  throne  about  1122  by 
a  victory  over  the  army  of  the  reigning  emperor.  He  is 
represented  as  a  great  reformer  and  lawgiver.  Died  in 
1 116  B.C. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Wopcke  or  "Woepcke,  <^6p'keh,  (Franz,)  a  Ger- 
man mathematician  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Dessau  in 
1826.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject  of 
mathematics  among  the  Orientals,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  same.     He  died  in  Paris  in  1864. 

See  Narducci,  "  Intorno  alia  Vita  cli  Fr.  Woepcke,"  Rome,  1864; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Worboise,  (Emma  Jane,)  an  English  novelist,  born 
in  1825.  She  wrote  many  works  of  fiction,  including 
"Helen  Bury,"  (1850,)  "  Kingsdown  Lodge,"  (1858,) 
"Labour  and  Wait,"  (1864,)  and  "The  House  of  Bond- 
age," (1873.)     l^ied  in  1S87. 

Worcester,  Earl  ok.     See  Tiptoft. 

Worcester,  woos'ter,  (Edward  Somerset,)  Mar- 
quis OF,  an  English  peer,  distinguished  as  one  of  the 
inventors  of  the  steam-engine,  was  born  in  1601.  He 
was  styled  I/ORD  Herbert  during  the  life  of  his  father. 
He  was  an  active  partisan  of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil 
war,  raised  troops  at  his  own  expense,  and  spent  in  the 
cause  a  great  sum  of  money,  which  was  never  repaid.  He 
nad  an  inventive  genius  and  superior  mechanical  talents. 
He  resided  at  Raglan  Castle,  in  Monmouthshire.  After 
the  restoration  of  1660  he  impoverished  himself  by  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  in  scientific  experiments.  In 
1663  Parliament  passed  an  act  to  enable  the  marquis  to 
receive  the  benefit  and  profit  of  "a  water-commanding 
engine"  invented  by  him.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
published  a  curious  work,  entitled  a  "Century  of  the 
Names  and  Scantlings  of  Inventions,"  and  constructtd 
at  Vauxhall  a  machine  which  he  called  a  water-engine. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  first  steam-engine  ever 
made.  He  was  regarded  as  a  visionary  projector  by  his 
contemporaries.     Died  in  1667. 

See  Henry  Dircks.  "  Life,  Times,  and  Scientific  Labours  of  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester,"  1S65. 

"Worcester,  woos'ter,  (Joseph  Emerson,)  a  distin- 
guished American  lexicographer,  born  at  Bedford,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1784.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  i8il.  He  published  a  "Universal  Gazetteer,"  (2 
vols.,  1817,)  a  "Gazetteer  of  the  United  States,"  (1818,) 
"Elements  of  Geography,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1819,) 
and  other  works  on  geography.  He  removed  to  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  about  1820.  In  1830  he  pro- 
duced a  "Comprehensive  Pronouncing  and  Explanatory 
Dictionary,"  and  in  1846  a  "Universal  and  Critical 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (i  vol.  4to,) 
which  ranks  with  the  very  best  works  of  the  kind  in 
our  language.     Died  in  1865. 

See  Ai.LlBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1847. 

Worcester,  (Noah,)  D.D.,  a  learned  American  Con- 
gregational divine,  and  one  of  the  most  prominent  of 
the  early  advocates  of  Unitarianism  in  New  England, 
was  born  at  Hollis,  New  Hampshire,  in  1758.  One  of 
his  first  publications,  entitled  "  Bible  News  of  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  was  strongly  condemned  by  the 
orthodox  clergy.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name 
"A  Solemn  Review  of  the  Custom  of  War,"  which  had 
a  great  popularity  and  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, "The  Causes  and  Evils  of  Contention  among 


Christians,"  {1831,)  and  "  Last  Thoughts  on  Important 
Subjects,"  (1833.)  He  was  for  many  years  editor  of  the 
"Friend  of  Peace."     Died  in  1837. 

Worcester,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  a  broither  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Hollis,  New  Hampshire,  in  1 770.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Tabernacle  Church,  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts. Died  in  1821.  His  son  Samuel  Melanc- 
THON  (1801-66)  was  a  professor  at  Amherst  College. 

Worde,  de,  deh  waurd,  ?  (Wvnkin,)  an  eminent 
printer,  who  assisted  Caxton  in  London,  printed  many 
works  after  the  death  of  Caxton.     Died  about  1534. 

Wor'den,  (John  Lorimer,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Westchester  county,  New  York, 
March  12,  181 8.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1834,  and  be- 
came a  lieutenant  in  1840.  In  April,  1861,  he  was  sent 
as  a  bearer  of  despatches  to  Fort  Pickens  or  Pensacola. 
He  was  arrested  as  he  was  returning  by  land,  and  kept 
in  prison  seven  months.  He  commanded  the  floating 
battery  Monitor,  which  was  armed  with  two  1 1 -inch 
smooth-bore  Dahlgren  guns,  carrying  a  shot  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  pounds,  and  which  left  New 
York  March  6,  1862.  He  arrived  at  Hampton  Roads 
on  the  evening  of  the  8th,  after  the  iron-clad  Merrimac 
had  destroyed  the  wooden  frigates  Cumberland  and 
Congress.  On  the  morning  of  the  9th  a  memorable 
and  indecisive  battle  was  fought  by  the  Merrimac  and 
Monitor,  the  former  of  which  was  partly  disabled  and 
abandoned  the  fight,  after  several  violent  collisions  with 
the  Monitor.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander 
in  the  summer  of  1862,  became  a  captain  in  February, 
1863,  and  commanded  the  iron-clad  Montauk  in  the 
operations  against  Fort  Sumter  in  April  of  that  year. 
In  June,  i868,  he  was  appointed  a  commodore. 

See  Headley,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Wordsworth,  wurdz'wprth,  (Charles,)  an  English 
bishop,  a  nephew  of  the  poet  William  Wordsworth,  was 
born  in  1S06.  He  published  a  "Greek  Grammar," 
(1839,)  "Christian  Boyhood  at  a  Public  School,"  and 
other  works,  mostly  religious.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Saint  Andrew's,  Dunkeld,  and  Dunblane,  in  1852. 

Words-worth,  (Christopher,)  D.D.,  born  at  Cock- 
ermouth,  in  Cumberland,  in  1774,  was  father  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  poet,  noticed 
below.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1799.  He  was 
successively  appointed  chaplain  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, master  of  Trinity  College,  and  rector  of  Buxted 
and  Uckfield,  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ecclesiastical 
Biography,  or  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Men  connected  with 
the  History  of  Religion  in  England,"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1809,) 
"Christian  Institutes,"  (4  vols.  8vo,  1837,)  a  collection 
of  sermons,  and  two  works  on  the  authorship  of  "Icon 
Basilike."     Died  in  1846. 

WordsTworth,  (Christopher,)  D.D.,  youngest  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  180S.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree 
of  M.A.,  and  soon  after  entered  into  holy  orders.  He 
became  head-master  of  Harrow  School  in  1835,  and  in 
1850  vicar  of  Stanford-in-the-Vale,  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln 
in  1869.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Athens  and 
Attica:  Journal  of  a  Residence  there,"  (1836,)  "Theo- 
philus  Anglicanus,  or  Instruction  for  the  Young  Student 
concerning  the  Church,"  etc.,  (1843,)  "On  the  Canon  of 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  on  the 
Apocrypha,"  (1848,)  and  "Memoirs  of  William  Words- 
worth, Poet-Laureate,"  (2  vols.,  1851.)     Died  in  1885. 

Words-worth,  (William,)  an  illustrious  English 
poet,  born  at  Cockermouth,  in  Cumberland,  on  the  7th 
of  April,  1770,  was  a  son  of  John  Wordsworth,  attorney- 
at-law,  and  Anne  Cookson.  About  1778  he  was  sent 
with  his  elder  brother  to  the  school  of  Hawkshead,  Lan- 
cashire, where  he  remained  until  his  eighteenvh  year. 
Here,  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  wrote,  as  a  task  or 
school-exercise,  "The  Summer  Vacation,"  in  verse.  In 
October,  1787,  he  entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  impatient  of  control,  and,  like  Milton, 
was  averse  to  the  studies  and  discipline  of  his  college. 
According  to  his  own  account,  he  "got  into  rather  an 
idle  way,  reading  nothing  but  classic  authors  according 
to  my  fancy,  and  Italian  poetry."  "  He  did  not  tread 
in  the  beaten  path   prescribed   by  academic  authority 


€  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/-  g,  h,  V.,guttural:  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled:  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^=See  ExplaJiations,  p.  23. ' 


WORDSWORTH 


2496 


WORM 


and  leading  to  academic  distinctions."  ("Memoirs  of 
Wordsworth,"  by  his  nephew.)  In  the  summer  and 
autumn  of  1790  he  spent  his  vacation  in  a  pedestrian  tour 
through  France  and  among  the  Alps.  "At  the  Lake  of 
Como,"  he  writes,  "my  mind  ran  through  a  thousand 
dreams  of  happiness  which  might  be  enjoyed  upon  its 
banks,  if  heightened  by  conversation  and  the  exercise 
of  the  social  affections."  He  took  his  degree  of  B.A. 
in  January,  1791. 

Wordsworth  hailed  the  French  Revolution,  at  first, 
with  enthusiasm,  and  felt  a  strong  impulse  to  take  an 
active  part  in  it.  He  went  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of 
1791,  and  afterwards  passed  several  months  at  Orleans, 
where  he  learned  to  speak  French.  In  October,  1792, 
he  was  again  in  Paris,  and  was  intimately  connected 
with  the  Girondists.  "  He  longed  to  remain  at  Paris," 
says  his  nephew,  "but,  happily  for  him,  circumstances 
obliged  him  to  return  to  England,"  where  he  arrived 
about  the  end  of  1792.  Although  he  was  disappointed 
by  the  course  of  events  in  France,  he  still  clung  with 
tenacity  to  his  republican  principles,  which  he  avowed 
in  letters  written  after  his  return  from  France.  Some 
of  his  friends  advised  him  to  take  holy  orders ;  but  he 
had  insuperable  objections  to  the  clerical  profession. 
"As  for  the  law,"  said  he,  "I  have  neither  strength  of 
mind,  purse,  nor  constitution  to  engage  in  that  pursuit." 

He  opened  his  literary  career  by  the  publication  of 
two  poems,  "The  Evening  Walk,  addressed  to  a  Young 
Lady,"  (1793,)  ^"d  "Descriptive  Sketches  taken  during 
a  Pedestrian  Tour  among  the  Alps,"  (1793.)  His  pecu- 
niary circumstances  at  this  period  were  distressing.  In 
November,  1794,  he  requested  a  friend  to  procure  him 
employment  as  a  contributor  to  a  London  paper,  and 
insisted  that  it  must  be  an  organ  of  the  opposition. 
He  was  relieved  from  the  pressure  of  poverty,  in  1795, 
by  a  legacy  of  ;^900  from  his  friend  R.  Calvert.  In 
1795  o''  1796  he  settled  at  Racedown,  Dorsetshire,  with 
his  sister  Dorothy,  who  exercised  a  great  and  salu- 
tary influence  over  him.  She  cheered  his  spirits,  and 
counteracted  his  morbid  tendencies.  He  tells  us  in 
his  "Prelude"  that  she  "maintained  for  me  a  saving 
intercourse  with  mv  true  self."  His  next  production 
was  "Salisbury  Plain;  or,  Guilt  and  Sorrow,"  {1796.) 
In  June,  1797,  S.  T.  Coleridge  visited  Wordsworth  at 
Racedown.  To  enjoy  the  society  of  Coleridge,  Words- 
worth and  his  sister  removed  to  Alfoxden  in  August, 
1797.  He  wrote  there  a  number  of  short  poems,  which 
were  published  under  the  title  of  "Lyrical  Ballads," 
(1798,)  and  were  but  coldly  received.  He  passed  the 
winter  of  1798-99  in  Germany,  whither  he  went  in 
company  with  Coleridge.  On  his  return  he  settled  at 
Grasmere,  where  he  resided  until  1808.  He  married 
Mary  Hutchinson  in  1802,  and  about  the  same  time 
inherited  nearly  ;^i8oo  of  his  father's  estate. 

In  1805  he  finished  a  long  autobiographical  poem, 
called  "The  Prelude,"  containing  an  account  of  the 
cultivation  and  development  of  his  own  mind,  in  four- 
teen books,  which  remained  in  manuscript  until  his 
death.  "  I  began  this  work,"  says  the  author,  "  because 
I  was  unprepared  to  treat  any  more  arduous  subjects." 
Henceforth  he  resolved  to  devote  his  energies  to  a  phi- 
losophical poem,  entitled  "The  Recluse." 

He  published  in  1807  two  volumes  of  poetry,  contain- 
ing numerous  odes,  sonnets,  etc.  His  poetical  reputa- 
tion was  not  of  rapid  growth.  He  had  some  ardent 
admirers,  but  he  was  severely  criticised  by  Lord  Jeffrey 
and  other  critics,  who  designated  Wordsworth,  Cole- 
ridge, and  Southey  as  the  Lake  School  of  poets,  because 
they  lived  in  the  lake  district  of  Cumberland  and  West- 
moreland and  described  the  scenery  of  that  beautiful 
region.  Wordsworth  resided  several  years  at  Allan 
Bank,  near  Grasmere.  He  wrote  the  letter-press  of  an 
illustrated  work,  entitled  "  Select  Views  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreland,  and  Lancashire,"  published  in  1810  by 
J.  Wilkinson. 

In  1813  he  removed,  with  his  wife,  sister,  and  three 
surviving  children,  to  Rydal  Mount,  on  Lake  Winder- 
mere, and  about  two  miles  distant  from  Grasmere.  Here 
he  continued  to  reside  until  his  death.  He  published  in 
1814  a  didactic  poem  entitled  "The  Excursion,"  which 
is  a  portion  of  "The  Recluse,"  and  contains  episodes 


of  great  beauty,  pathos,  and  grandeur.  It  was  con- 
demned by  the  reviewers,  and  not  appreciated  by  the 
public,  who  purchased  only  five  hundred  copies  m  six 
years.  His  literary  efforts  brought  him  no  remunera- 
tion; but  his  appointment  to  the  oflSce  of  distributor  of 
stamps,  in  1813,  raised  his  income  to  an  easy  compe- 
tence. It  was  worth  about  five  hundred  pounds  a  year. 
In  1815  he  produced  "The  White  Doe  of  Rylstone." 
Among  his  other  works  are  "Peter  Bell,"  (1819,)  "P2c- 
clesiastical  Sonnets,"  and  "  Yarrow  Revisited,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1835.) 

His  poetry  is  remarkable  as  evincing  an  exquisite  sen- 
sibility to  the  beauties  of  nature  under  every  form;  and 
one  result  of  this  mental  peculiarity  was  that  nearly  all 
his  poems  were,  as  he  tells  us,  composed  in  the  open  air. 

He  received  a  pension  of  ;C300  per  annum  in  1842,  and 
was  recognized  as  the  greatest  living  poet  of-  England 
when  he  succeeded  Southey  as  poet-laureate,  in  1843. 
In  his  mature  age  he  was  conservative  in  politics,  and 
a  devout  member  of  the  Anglican  Church.  He  died 
at  Rydal  Mount  on  the  23d  of  April,  1850. 

"  Wordsworth,"  says  Robert  Caruthers,  "  was  more 
original  and  philosophical  than  any  of  his  great  con- 
temporaries, and  he  has  sent  forth  strains  that  recall  the 
divine  genius  of  Milton.  .  .  .  His  taste  was  not  equal  to 
his  genius ;  the  power  or  will  to  discriminate,  reject, 
and  condense  was  wanting.  .  .  .  Some  of  his  odes  and 
minor  poems  have  never  been  excelled."  (See  "  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,"  article  "  Wordsworth.")  Robert 
Southey,  who  was  his  intimate  friend,  wrote  in  a  letter 
to  B.  Barton,  December  19,  1814,  "  His  life  does  not 
belie  his  writings ;  for  in  every  relation  of  life  and  every 
point  of  view  he  is  a  truly  exemplary  and  admirable 
man.  In  conversation  he  is  powerful  beyond  any  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  as  a  poet  ...  I  declare  my 
full  conviction  that  posterity  will  rank  him  with  Milton." 

"  The  fame  of  Wordsworth,"  says  Ralph  W.  Emer- 
son, "is  a  leading  fact  in  modern  literature,  when  it  is 
considered  how  hostile  his  genius  at  first  seemed  to 
the  reigning  taste,  and  with  what  feeble  talent  his  great 
and  growing  dominion  has  been  established.  .  .  .  '  The 
Excursion'  awakened  in  every  lover  of  Nature  the  right 
feeling."     (See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1868.) 

"  Whatever  influence,"  says  the  "  Quarterly  Review," 
"  Wordsworth  may  have  exercised  on  poetic  style,  be  it 
great  or  small,  was  by  deviating  in  practice  from  the 
principles  of  composition  for  which  he  contended.  .  .  . 
In  spite  of  the  cloudy  and  unsubstantial  philosoph}',  and 
its  unsuitability  to  the  condition  of  the  principal  speaker, 
in  spite,  too,  of  long  and  frequent  paragraphs  of  dreary 
prosing,  '  The  Excursion'  was  yet  a  noble  addition  to 
the  English  library.  It  owes  its  now  universal  recogni- 
tion, as  such,  to  the  beauty  of  the  pictures  of  rustic  life 
and  rural  scenes,  with  their  exquisite  accompaniment  of 
natural  feeling.  .  .  .  He  has  some  of  the  most  magical 
lines  and  stanzas  which  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  whole 
body  of  literature  ;  and  ideas  which  seemed  almost  to 
defy  expression  are  not  unfi-equently  conveyed  in  the 
simplest,  clearest,  and  happiest  phrases." 

See  "Memoirs  nf  William  Wordsworth,"  by  his  nephew,  Chris- 
topher Wordsworth,  2  vols.,  1851  ;  article  in  tlie  "Quarterly 
Review"  f ;  r  January,  1853,  entitled  "  Memoirs  of  William  Words- 
worth;" January  Searle,  "Memoirs  of  William  Wordsworth," 
1852 :  De  Quincev,  "  Literary  Reminiscences,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ; 
Lord  Jeffrey,  "Miscellanies;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1814,  and  October,  1815;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
i860;  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1864. 

Worlidge,  wurl'ij,  (Thomas,)  an  English  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1700.  He 
executed  a  great  number  of  etchings  in  the  style  of 
Rembrandt,  which  are  particularly  admired.  His  draw- 
ings in  Indian  ink  are  also  highly  esteemed.   Died  in  1766. 

Worm,  voRm,  [Lat.  Wor'mius,]  (OLAirs,)  a  Danish 
physician,  antiquary,  and  historian,  born  in  Jutland 
in  1588.  He  studied  medicine  at  Padua  and  several 
JGerman  universities,  and  became  in  1613  professor  of 
nunianities  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  where  he 
also  held  the  office  of  rector.  He  was  likewise  physician 
to  Christian  IV.  and  his  successor  Frederick  III.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  his  "Fasti  Danici,"  (1626.) 
"The  Most  Ancient  Danish  Literature,"  ("Literatura 
Danica  antiquissima,"  etc,  1636,)  "  Runic  Lexicon  and 


a, e, T,  6,  ii,  y, /<7«^;  \k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  ii,  y,  jAt^r/,"  a,  e,  \,o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WORM 


2497 


WOUVERMAN 


Appendix  to  the  Danish  Monuments,"  ("Lexicon  Ru- 
nicum  et  Appendix  ad  Monumenta  Danica,"  1650,)  arid 
a  "History  of  Norway,"  (in  Latin.)  He  also  wrote 
valuable  treatises  on  medicine  and  natural  history.  He 
was  the  first  to  describe  minutely  the  bones  of  the  skull 
called  Ossa  Wormiana.     Died  in  1654. 

See  Nic^KON,  "Memoires  ;"  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteratur- 
lexicon." 

Worm  or  Wormius,  (VVilhklm,)  a  Danish  physi- 
cian, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1633.  He  described  the  specimens  of  his  father's  cabinet 
n  a  work  called  "Musaeum  Wormianum,"  (1655.)  Died 
in  1704. 

Wormius.     See  Worm. 

Worms,  de,  deh  <^orms,  (Henry,)  known  by  his 
Austrian  title  of  Baron  de  Worms,  was  born  in  London, 
England,  of  Jewish  parents,  in  1S40.  He  was  educated 
at  King's  College,  London,  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1863,  and  afterwards  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Conservative.  He  published  "The  Earth 
and  its  Mechanism,"  "The  Austro- Hungarian  Empire," 
(1877,)  etc. 

Wor'num,  (Ralph  Nicholson,)  an  English  painter 
and  art-critic,  born  in  North  Durham  in  181 2.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  may  be  named  his 
"  History  of  Painting,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  a  "  De- 
scriptive and  Historical  Catalogue  of  the  National 
Pictures  of  the  British  School,"  (1857,)  and  a  "  Life  of 
Holbein,"  (1866.)  He  also  contributed  the  article  on 
"  Painting"  to  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities."  He  was  appointed  keeper  and  secretary 
to  the  National  Gallery,  London,  in  1857.    Died  in  1877. 

Woronichin.     See  Voronikhin. 

Woronicz,  vo-ro'nitch,  (John  Paul,)  an  eminent 
Polish  writer  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Volhynia  in 
1757.  He  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  at  Ostrog, 
and  was  created  Bishop  of  Cracow  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  1815.  He  subsequently  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Warsaw  and  Primate  of  Poland.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  historical  poem  entitled  "  Sibylla,"  esteemed 
the  finest  production  of  the  kind  in  the  language.  His 
sermons  are  also  greatly  admired :  the  one  on  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Alexander  is  regarded  as  a  master-piece 
?f  pulpit  eloquence.     Died  in  1829. 

Worring,  <^or'ring,  (Andreas,)  a  German  mechani- 
cian, born  at  Vienna  about  1806,  became  manager  of  the 
imperial  printing-office  in  that  city.  He  was  the  first 
to  apply  the  lately  discovered  art  of  nature-printing  to 
botanical  uses,  by  the  transfer  of  leaves  and  flowers. 

Worsaae,  voR'saw'eh,  (Jens  Jacob  Asmussen,)  a 
Danish  antiquary  of  great  merit,  born  in  Jutland  in 
1821.  He  visited  England,  Sweden,  and  various  parts 
of  the  continent,  and  was  appointed  in  1847  inspector 
of  antiquarian  monuments  in  the  Danish  States.  Among 
his  principal  works  may  be  named  his  "Denmark's  Old 
Time  illustrated  by  Old  Things,"  ("  Danmark's  Oldtid," 
etc.,  1843,)  "  Blekingske  Mindesmarker  fra  Hedenold," 
and  "An  Account  of  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,"  ("  Minder  om  de 
Danske  og  Nordmande  i  England,  Skotland  og  Irland," 
1852.)     Died  August  15,  1885. 

Wors'dale,  (James,)  an  English  painter  and  drama- 
tist, was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and  married  his 
niece.     Died  in  1767. 

Wprs'ley,  (Philip  Stanhope,)  an  English  poet,  born 
in  Kent  about  1830.  He  graduated  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  and  became  a  clergyman.  He  published 
a  translation  in  verse  of  Homer's  "Iliad"  (1865)  and 
"Odyssey,"  (1861-62,)  besides  a  volume  of"  Poems  and 
Translations,"  (1863.)  Died  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  May 
8,  1866. 

Wprs'ley,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  statesman  and 
antiquary,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1751.  He  was 
for  many  years  a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  borough 
of  Newport,  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  He  published  "  Musaeum  Worsleianum ;  or, 
A  Collection  of  Antique  Basso-Relievos,"  etc.,  (2  vols, 
fol.,  1794,)  also  a  "History  of  the  Isle  of  Wight." 
Died  in  1805. 

W^prth,  (William  Jenkin.s.)  an  American  general, 
born   in    Columbia   county.  New  York,  in    1794.     He 


-f  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard:  g  asy;  c; 


n,Vi,!^uttiiral;  s,  nasal;  \i.^trilUd:  sas; 
•57 


served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  subsequently  in  the 
Florida  campaigns  of  1841  and  1842,  and  was  made  a 
brigadier-general.  For  his  services  in  the  Mexican  war 
(1846-47)  he  obtained  the  rank  or  brevet  of  major- 
general.  Died  in  Texas  in  1849.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  New  York. 

Wpr'thing-ton,  (John,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Manchester  in  1618,  preached  in  London  and  at  Hack- 
ney, and  wrote  several  religious  works.     Died  in  1671. 

Wpr'thing-tpn,  (Thomas,)  born  in  Jefferson  county 
Virginia,  in  1773.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  Ohio  in  1803  and  1810,  and  became  Gov- 
ernor of  that  State  in  1815.     Died  in  1827. 

Worthington,  (William,)  a  British  divine,  born  in 
Merionethshire  in  1703,  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Scheme 
of  Redemption,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1778. 

Wot'ton,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Oxford  in  1492.  He  studied  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  took  his  medical  degree  in  1525.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  On  the  Differences  among  Ani- 
mals," ("  De  Differentiis  Animalium,")  which  was  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time.  He  became  physician  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  Died 
•»  1555- 

Wotton,  [Lat.  Wotto'nus,]  (Sir  Henry,)  an  Eng- 
lish diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in  Kent  in  1568.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  by  his  proficiency  in  law,  mathe- 
matics, languages,  and  the  natural  sciences.  He  subse- 
quently travelled  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  residing 
abroad  nearly  nine  years,  during  which  time  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Isaac  Casaubon  and  other  learned 
men  of  the  time.  After  his  return  to  England  he  be- 
came secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Essex,  whom  he  accom- 
panied on  his  expeditions  to  Spain  and  Ireland.  When 
Essex  was  arrested,  in  1601,  Wotton  fled  to  the  conti- 
nent. Having  learned  at  Florence  that  some  persons 
had  conspired  to  assassinate  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  he 
carried  information  of  the  plot  to  that  king,  and  thus 
gained  his  favour.  In  1604  Sir  Henry  was  sent  as  Eng- 
lish ambassador  to  Venice,  where  he  remained  several 
years.  He  performed  missions  to  other  foreign  courts, 
and  became  provost  of  Eton  about  1625.  He  wrote 
several  short  and  beautiful  poems,  and  prose  works, 
among  which  are  "  The  State  of  Christendom,"  "  The 
Elements  of  Architecture,"  and  "Characters  of  some 
of  the  English  Kings."     Died  in  1639. 

See  IzAAK  Walton,  "Life  of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,"  prefixed  to 
"Reliquiae  Wottoniana,"  1651. 

^Wotton,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  about  1497,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  employed  in  several  embassies,  and  was  secretary 
of  state  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.     Died  in  1566. 

Wotton,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1666.  He  possessed  extra- 
ordinary powers  of  memory,  and,  having  entered  Cathe- 
rine I  lall,  Cambridge,  before  the  age  of  ten,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Oriental  languages.  He  took  the  degree  of  M..\.  in 
1683,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of  Middleton 
Keynes,  in  Buckinghamshire.  His  principal  works  are 
entitled  "  Reflections  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning," 
in  reply  to  Sir  William  Temple's  essay  in  defence  of 
modern  literature,  and  "  View  of  Hickes's  Archaeo- 
logical Treasure  of  the  Ancient  Northern  Languages," 
(1708.)  The  former  treatise  gave  rise  to  the  famous 
controversy  between  Bentley  and  Sir  William  Temple 
concerning  the  "Epistles  of  Phalaris."     Died  in  1726. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Wottonus.     See  Woiton. 

Woulfe,  woolf,  (Peter,)  an  English  chemist,  was  a 
resident  of  London  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  contributed  to  the  "Transactions"  of  that  body 
"  Experiments  on  the  Distillation  of  Acids,"  etc,  and 
other  chemical  treatises.     Died  in  1806. 

Wouters,  wow'ters,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  painter 
of  history  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Lierre  in  1614, 
and  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  went  to  England  in 
1637,  and  afterwards  worked  at  Antwerp.  He  was 
killed  by  an  unknown  hand  in  1659. 

'Wouverman,   w6w'ver-min',    or   "Wouvermans, 

til  as  in  M«.      tJl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WOUVERMAN 


2498 


WREN 


Ueber  die  Composirion  in  Philipp 
Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres." 


w6w'ver-mins',  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Haarlem  about  1625,  was  a  pupil  of  his  brother  Philip, 
whose  style  he  imitated.  He  painted  horses,  hunting- 
scenes,  etc.     Died  in  1683. 

His  younger  brother  John  was  a  skilful  landscape- 
painter.     Died  in  1666. 

"Wouverman,  "Wouvermans,  or  Wowerman, 
(Philip,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1620,  and  was  a  pupil 
of  Wynants.  His  works  are  chiefly  landscapes,  battle- 
pieces,  hunting-scenes,  and  horse-markets,  all  of  which 
he  represented  with  admirable  skill  and  fidelity, — his 
horses,  particularly,  being  unsurpassed.  The  galleries 
of  Dresden  and  Paris  possess  numerous  master-pieces 
by  this  artist.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in  poverty, 
though  his  pictures  were  sold  for  high  prices  by  his 
patrons.  His  designs  and  etchings  are  also  highly 
esteemed  and  very  rare.     Died  in  1668. 

See   KXmmerer's  treatise 
Wowemian's  Gemalden,"  etc. 

Wou-Wang.     See  Woo-Wang. 

Woveren.     See  Wower. 

Wcwer,  ^o'^er,  sometimes  called  De  Woweren, 
deh  <^o'<^eh-ren,  (John,)  a  learned  German  writer,  born 
at  Hamburg  in  1574.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"De  Polymathia  Tractatio  integri  Operis  de  Studiis 
veterum,"  (1603,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1612. 

Wower,  wow'er,  or  Wo'ver-en,  (John,)  a  Flemish 
jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1576,  was  a  friend  of  Justus 
Lipsius.  He  edited  Tacitus  and  Seneca,  and  wrote 
several  works.     Died  in  1635. 

Wraugel,  vRang'gel,  (Hermann,)  a  Swedish  gen- 
eral, born  in  1587,  was  the  father  of  Karl  Gustaf, 
noticed  below.  He  obtained  from  Gustavus  Adolphus 
the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1621,  and  commanded 
against  the  Poles.  In  1636  he  took  several  places  in 
Pomerania.     Died  in  1644. 

Wrangel,  von,  fon  vRing'gel,  (Karl  Gustaf,) 
Count,  an  eminent  Swedish  admiral  and  general,  born 
at  Skokloster  in  1613.  He  served  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  Germany,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in 
the  victory  of  Lutzen,  after  the  death  of  that  illustrious 
commander.  Appointed  subsequently  to  the  command 
of  the  Swedish  forces  in  Germany,  he  carried  on  the 
war  with  energy  and  success,  until  it  was  concluded  by 
the  peace  of  Westphalia.  He  afterwards  gained  several 
decisive  victories  over  the  Danes  and  their  Dutch  allies, 
and  in  1660  was  made  grand  marshal  of  Sweden.  Died 
in  1675. 

See  Geijer,  "Histoire  de  Suide." 

"Wrangel,  von,  fon  <^Rang'gel,  (Friedrich  Hein- 
RICH  Ernst,)  Baron,  a  Prussian  general,  born  at 
Stettin  in  1784.  He  served  against  the  French  in  the 
campaigns  from  1811  to  1815,  and  had  a  high  command 
in  the  Danish  war  of  1848.  He  was  made  general  of 
cavalry  in  1849.     Died  at  Berlin,  November  i,  1877. 

See  "  Leben  F.  von  Wrangel's,"  Berlin,  1849. 

Wrangell  or  Wrangel,  von,  fon  vR^ng'gel,  (Fer- 
dinand Petrovitch,)  Baron,  a  Russian  adiniral  and 
celebrated  navigator,  of  Swedish  extraction,  was  born 
in  Esthonia  in  1795.  Appointed  in  1820  commander  of 
an  exploring  expedition  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  he  travelled 
on  the  ice  in  sledges  as  far  north  as  72°  2'.  After  his 
return  he  became  in  1829  governor  of  the  Russian  pos- 
sessions in  the  northwestern  part  of  America.  In  1847 
he  was  created  vice-admiral.  His  principal  works  are 
a  "  Sketch  of  a  Journey  froin  Sitka  to  Saint  Petersburg," 
(1836,)  "  Statistical  and.  Ethnographical  Notices  on  the 
Russian  Possessions  in  America,"  (1839,)  and  "Journey 
on  the  Northern  Coasts  of  Siberia  and  the  Icy  Sea," 
(1841,)  which  was  translated  into  French  and  German. 
He  died  at  Dorpat,  June  10,  1870. 

Wranitzki,  <^Ra-n!ts'kee,  (Paul,)  a  German  opera- 
composer,  born  in  1756,  became  director  of  the  orchestra 
at  the  Imperial  Theatre  at  Vienna.     Died  in  1808. 

Wratislaus,  vRa'tis-lowss',  or  Wratislaw,  vRi'tis- 
lif,  the  first  King  of  Bohemia,  inherited  the  title  of  duke 
in  1061.  He  afterwards  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
was  an  ally  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.     Died  in  1092. 

Wrat'is-law,  (Albert  Henry,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, of    Bohemian    descent,   born    in    1821.       He    was 


educated  at  Rugby,  and  at  Christ  College,  Cambridge, 
graduating  in  1844,  His  works  include  "Lyra  Czecho- 
Slavonska,"  (1849,")  "Adventures  of  Baron  Wratislaw," 
(a  translation,)  a  "  Life  of  Saint  John  Nepomucene," 
(1S73,)  a  "Life  of  Huss,"  {1882,)  etc 

Wraxall,  rik'sal,  (Frederick  Charles  Lascelles,) 
an  English  writer,  born  at  Boulogne  in  1828.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Wild  Oats,"  (1857,)  and 
''  Armies  of  the  Great  Powers,"  (1859.)  Died  in  London 
in  1865. 

Wraxall,  (Sir  Nathaniel  William,)  an  English 
statesman  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1751. 
He  travelled  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and 
published  in  1775  "Cursory  Remarks  made  in  a  Tour 
through  some  of  the  Northern  Parts  of  Europe,"  etc., 
which  was  very  well  received.  He  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament in  1780.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named 
"The  History  of  France  from  the  Accession  of  Henry 
III.  to  the  Death  of  Louis  XIV.,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1795,) 
and  "Historical  Memoirs  of  My  Own  Time,"  (1815.) 
The  latter  publication  contained  a  libel  on  the  Russian 
ambassador,  Count  Woronzow,  for  which  Wraxall  was 
fined  and  imprisoned  for  a  short  time.     Died  in  1831. 

_  See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1815  :  "  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  iSis,  and  December,  1836;  Allibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors  " 

Wray,  ra,  (Daniel,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1 701,  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Athenian 
Letters."     (See  Yorke,  Charles.)     Died  in  1783. 

Wray,  (John.)     See  Ray. 

Wray,  (Robert  Bateman,)  an  eminent  English 
gem-engraver,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1715.  Among  his 
best  works  are  heads  of  Milton,  Sliakspeare,  Pope, 
Cicero,  a  Madonna,  Dying  Cleopatra,  and  Antinous. 
Died  in  1770. 

Wrbna  und  Freudenthal,  uRb'ni  dont  froi'den- 
tSl',  (Rudolf,)  Count,  an  Austrian  statesman,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1761  ;  died  in  1823. 

Wrede,vKa'deh,(FABiAN  Jakob  Fabianson,)  Baron, 
a  Swedish  general  and  writer  on  physical  science,  was 
born  in  1802. 

Wrede,  <^Ra'deh,  (Karl  Philipp,)  Prince,  a  cele- 
brated German  field-marshal,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1767. 
He  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  campaigns  of  1799 
and  1800,  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1804,  and  in 
1805  succeeded  General  Deroy  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Bavarian  forces,  then  forming  a  part  of  Napoleon's 
"grand  army."  He  soon  after  obtained  a  series  of  bril- 
liant successes  over  the  Austrians,  including  tiie  capture 
of  Innspruck,  and  in  1809  was  created  a  field-marshal 
and  count  of  the  French  empire  for  his  distinguished 
bravery  at  the  battle  of  Wagram.  As  commander  of 
the  Bavarian  cavalry  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812, 
he  was  defeated  by  Wittgenstein  at  Polotsk  ;  but  he 
skilfully  covered  the  retreat  of  the  scattered  army  on  that 
disastrous  day.  By  the  treaty  of  Reid,  in  1813,  Bavaria 
joined  the  allies,  and  Wrede  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  united  forces  of  Austria  and  Bavaria. 
On  the  30th  of  October,  1813,  he  endeavoured  to  inter- 
cept the  army  of  Napoleon,  then  retreating  after  the 
defeat  of  Leipsic  ;  but,  after  a  fiercely-contested  battle 
at  Hainau,  the  French  troops  forced  a  passage,  and  the 
allies  withdrew.  Marshal  Wrede  having  been  severely 
wounded.     Died  in  December,  1838. 

See  W.  RiEDEU,  "C.  P.  von  Wrede  nach  seinera  Leben  und 
Wirken,"  1839;  "  Nouvel'e  Biographic  Generale." 

Wree,  de,  deh  vRa,  (Olivier,)  a  Belgian  historian, 
born  at  Bruges  in  1596.  He  wrote  "History  of  the 
Counts  of  Flanders,"  ("  Historia  Comitum  Flandriae," 
1650.)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1652. 

Wren,  rin,  (Sir  Christopher,)  a  celebrated  English 
architect,  born  at  East  Knoyle,  in  Wiltshire,  on  the 
20th  of  October,  1632,  was  a  nephew  of  Bishop  Mat- 
thew Wren.  His  father  was  Dean  of  Windsor  and 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.  He  invented  several  ingenious 
instruments  about  the  age  of  fourteen.  In  1646  he 
entered  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  as  a  gentleman  com- 
moner. He  was  early  distinguished  for  his  proficiency 
in  mathematics  and  anatomy,  and  was  regarded  as  3 
prodigy  at  college.  In  1653  he  was  elected  Fellow  of 
All  Souls'  College,  Oxford.     lie  became  professor  of 


a,  e,  1,0,  u,  y,long;k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  idi,  idil,  idi;  niei;  not;  good;  mouOj 


WREN 


2499 


WRIGHT 


astronomy  at  Gresham  College,  London,  in  1657,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  Society,  In 
1661  he  was  appointed  assistant  to  Sir  John  Denham, 
surveyor-general,  and  began  to  turn  his  attention  to 
architecture.  To  extend  his  knowledge  of  that  art,  he 
visited  Paris  in  1665.  The  great  fire  in  London  in  1666 
afforded  him  a  favourable  opportunity  and  ample  space 
for  the  exercise  of  his  talents.  He  proposed  to  rebuild 
the  city  on  a  more  regular  and  commodious  plan,  which, 
however,  was  not  adopted.  About  1667  he  succeeded 
Denham  as  surveyor-general  and  chief  architect.  He 
erected  in  London  a  number  of  churches,  the  Royal 
Exchange,  the  Monument,  Temple  Bar,  the  Observatory 
at  Greenwich,  and  other  fine  public  edifices.  His  master- 
piece is  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  which  was  commenced 
in  1675  and  finished  in  1710.  It  is  about  four  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet  long,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  noble 
cupola,  which  is  greatly  admired.  Saint  Paul's  is  prob- 
ably the  most  beautiful  cathedral  ever  built  in  England 
for  Protestant  worship.  The  original  and  favourite  plan 
which  Wren  formed  for  this  work,  and  which  was  re- 
jected by  the  authorities,  differed  greatly  from  the  plan 
that  was  adopted. 

He  married  a  daughter  of  .Sir  John  Coghill  in  1674. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  idSo. 
About  1690  he  built  an  addition  to  Hampton  Court  for 
William  HI.  Among  his  other  works  were  additions 
to  Windsor  Castle,  and  two  towers  added  to  the  west 
end  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  greatest  of  English  architects.  He  contributed 
several  treatises  on  astronomy  and  other  sciences  to  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions."  He  died  in  London  in 
February,  1723,  aged  about  ninety-one,  and  was  buried 
in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral. 

"  The  austere  beauty  of  the  Athenian  portico,  the 
gloomy  sublimity  of  the  Gothic  arcade,  he  was,  like 
almost  all  his  contemporaries,  incapable  of  emulating  ; 
.  .  .  but  no  man  born  on  our  side  of  the  Alps  has 
imitated  with  so  much  success  the  magnificence  of  the 
palace-like  churches  of  Italy."  (Macaulay,  "  History  of 
England,"  vol.  i.) 

See  "  Parentalia,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Fsmily  of  the  Wrens,"  by 
his  son  Christoj'Uhr  .iiid  his  grandson  Stkphen,  1750:  James 
Elmes,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  C.  Wren,"  182^,  and  "'  Sir  C 
Wren  and  liis  Times,"  1852  ;  Quatrem&rb  ds  Quincv,  "  Histoire 
des  Architectes  celibres." 

Wren,  (Christopher,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1675.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  antiquary, 
and  wrote  memoirs  of  his  family,  entitled  "  Parentalia," 
(1750.)     Died  in  1747. 

Wren,  (MAiTHEvr,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1585.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  prince,  after- 
wards Charles  I.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Spain  in 
1623,  and  was  successively  created  Bishop  of  Hereford, 
Norwich,  and  Ely.  He  was  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Star  Chamber,  and  assisted  in  drawing  up  the  Scottish 
Liturgy,  which  gave  rise  to  the  riots  in  Edinburgh  in 
1637.  He  was  impeached  by  the  Commons  in  1640, 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  nearly  twenty  years.  Sir 
Christo])her  Wren  was  his  nephew.      Died  in  1667. 

Wren,  (Matthew,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Cambriclge  in  1629.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament, 
and  became  successively  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Clar- 
endon and  the  Duke  of  V'ork.  He  published  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Revolutions  in  Eiig- 
land,"  and  other  works.      Died  in  1672. 

Wright,  rlt,  (Abraham,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London  in  i6ii.  He  became  vicar  of  Okeham,  in 
Rutlandshire.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Parnassus  with  Two  Tops,"  ("  Parnassus  biceps," 
1656.)     Died  in  1690. 

Wright,  rit,  (Arthur  Williams,)  Ph.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can scientist,A3orn  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  September 
8,  1836,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1859,  was  a  tutor 
there,  1863-68,  was  professor  of  physics  and  chemistry  in 
Williams  College,  1868-72,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  molecular  physics  and  chemistry  in  Yale  College  in 
1872.  He  has  published  numerous  ])apers  on  physics, 
astronomy,  etc.,  and  is  a  member  of  various  learned 
societies,  American  and  foreign. 

"Wright,  (Edward,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Garveston,  in   Norfolk.     He    became  a    Fellow  of 


Caius  College,  Cambridge.  He  constructed  for  Prince 
Henry  a  large  sphere  which  represented  the  motions  of 
the  planets,  moon,  etc.,  and  predicted  the  eclipses  for 
17,100  years.  About  1590  he  accompanied  the  Earl  of 
Cumberland  in  a  sea-voyage.  He  published  in  1599  a 
valuable  "Treatise  on  Navigation."  He  is  said  to  have 
discovered  the  mod  of  constructing  the  chart  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Mercator's  Projection.  Died  in 
1615,  or,  as  some  say,  1618. 

"Wright,  rlt,  (Elizur,)  an  American  journalist  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut, 
in  1804.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1829 
became  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy in  Western  Reserve  College,  Ohio.  He  was 
successively  editor  of  the  "  Quarterly  Anti-Slavery 
Magazine,"  the  "Massachusetts  Abolitionist,"  and  the 
'•  Clironotype."  He  also  translated  La  Fontaine's 
'"Fables"  into  verse.      Died  November  22,  1885. 

"Wright,  rlt,  afterwards  Darusmont,  dS'rU'mAN', 
(Fanny,)  a  social  reformer  or  innovator,  born  at  Dun- 
dee, Scotland,  about  1796.  She  visited  the  United  States 
about  1818,  and  wrote  "  Views  on  Society  and  Manners 
in  America."  Her  opinions  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  atheistical  French  philosophers.  She  lectured  in 
the  Northern  United  States,  and  attacked  slavery  and 
other  social  institutions.  About  1838  she  was  married 
to  M.  Darusmont,  a  Frenchman.  Died  in  Cincinnati 
in  1853. 

"Wright,  (George  Frederick,)  an  American  clergy- 
man and  geologist,  born  at  Whitehall,  New  York,  Janu- 
ary 22,  1838.  He  graduated  in  arts  at  Oberlin  College 
in  1859,  and  in  theology  in  1862,  held  Congregational 
pastorates  in  New  England,  1862-S1,  and  in  1882  became 
professor  of  New  Testament  literature  in  the  Oberlin 
Theological  Seminary.  His  principal  works  are  "Logic 
of  Christian  Evidences,"  (1880,)  "  Studies  in  Science  and 
Religion,"  (1882,)  "The  Relation  of  Death  to  Probation," 
(1882,)  "The  Glacial  Boundary  in  Indiana  and  Ohio," 
(1S84,)  and  "  Divine  Authority  of  the  Bible,"  (1884.)  Prof. 
Wright  is  an  "orthodox  evolutionist,"  and  an  active  ex- 
plorer in  the  field  of  glacial  geology.  In  18S4  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra." 

"Wright,  (George  Newnham,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  about  1812.  He  graduated  in  1835  at  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "  Life 
of  William  III.,"  (1837,)  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Welling 
ton,"  (1839-41,)  "  Life  of  Louis  Philippe,"  etc. 

"Wright,  (Horatio  Gates,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Connecticut  about  1822,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1841.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers about  September,  1861,  and  took  command  of 
the  department  of  Ohio  in  August,  1862.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May 
5  and  6,  1864,  and  a  corps  at  Spottsylvania  Court-  House, 
May  9-12,  and  Cold  Harbour,  June  3.  He  served  as 
major-general  at  the  battle  of  Opequan  Creek,  Septem- 
ber 19,  1864,  and  contributed  to  the  decisive  victory  at 
Cedar  Creek,  October  19  of  that  year.  He  received 
the  brevet  of  major-general  in  the  United  States  army 
for  his  services  at  the  capture  of  Petersburg,  April,  1S65. 

Wright,  (Ichabod  Charles,)  an  English  author  and 
banker,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1795.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  His  best- 
known  works  are  translations  into  English  verse  of  the 
"Divina  Commedia"  of  Dante  and  of  Homer's  "Iliad." 
Died  at  Nottingham,  October  14,  1871. 

"Wright,  rit,  (John  Wesley,)  an  Irish  naval  officer, 
born  at  Cork  iii  1769.  He  became  a  captain  in  the 
navy,  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  French  coast  in  1804, 
and  was  confined  in  the  Temple  at  Paris.  In  1805  he 
was  found  dead  in  prison,  and  it  was  suspected  that  he 
had  been  murdered. 

"Wright,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  English  painter,  com- 
monly known  as  Wright  of  Derby,  was  born  in  that 
town  in  1734.  He  studied  portrait-painting  in  Londoii. 
under  Hudson,  and  subsequently  visited  Rome.  His 
works  are  chiefly  landscapes  and  historical  pictures  ; 
among  the  most  adinired  we  may  name  "The  Lady  in 
Comus,"  "  Belshazzar's  Feast,"  "  "View  of  UHswater,  in 
Westmoreland,"  "  Eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,"  and 
"Cicero's  Villa."     Died  in  1797. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /",  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  Musa/;  K,  trilled;  s  as  t;  th  as  in  this.     { 


ee  Kxpiauaiiuns,  p.  23.) 


WRIGHT 


WUNDT 


Wright,  (Sir  Nathan,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1653,  was  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  from  1700  to 
1705.  In  politics  he  was  a  Tory.  "  To  his  obscurity," 
says  Lord  Campbell,  "  he  owed  his  promotion."  Died 
in  1721. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,''  vol.  iv. 

Wright,  (Sir  Rodert,)  an  English  judge,  was  chief 
justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  16S7.  "  He  was  ignorant 
to  a  proverb,"  says  Macaulay:  "yet  ignorance  was  not 
his  worst  fault.  His  vices  had  ruined  him."  ("History 
of  England.")  He  and  two  others  were  appointed  to 
exercise  visitorial  jurisdiction  over  Magdalen  College 
Oxford,  from  which  they  removed  President  Hough. 
Died  in  1689. 

Wright,  (Samuel,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Retford  in  1683.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  New  Birth."  Died  in  1746. 

Wright,  (Silas,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Amherst,  Massachusetts,  May  24,  1795.  He  graduated 
at  Middlebury  College  in  1815,  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1819,  and  settled  at  Canton,  Saint  Lawrence 
county.  New  York.  He  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of 
New  York  in  1823,  became  a  political  opponent  of  De 
Witt  Clinton,  and  served  in  the  Senate  until  1S27.  In 
1826  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which 
he  acted  with  the  Democrats.  He  was  comi)troIler 
of  New  York  for  about  four  years,  (1829-32,)  and  was 
elected  to  the  .Senate  of  the  United  States  in  January, 
1833.  He  opposed  the  United  States  Bank,  and  sup- 
ported Mr.  Clay's  Compromise  bill  of  1833.  In  1837  he 
was  re-elected  a  Senator  for  six  years.  He  voted  for 
tht  tariff  of  1842,  and  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas 
to  the  Union,  (1844.)  He  was  nominated  as  candidate 
for  the  Vice-Presidency  by  the  National  Democratic 
Convention  in  May,  1844;  but  he  declined  the  honour. 
He  had  been  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  February,  1843,  ^'i*^  ^^^^  chosen  Governor  of 
New  York  in  November,  1844.  He  declined  to  serve 
under  President  Polk  as  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
1845,  and  is  said  to  have  refused  the  offer  of  a  foreign 
mission.  In  1846  he  was  a  candidate  for  Governor,  but 
was  not  elected.  He  died  at  Canton  in  August,  1847, 
leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity. 

See  J.  D.  Hammond,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Silas  Wright,"  1S48 
Wright,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary, 
born  in  1810,  took  his  degree  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  published  numerous  works  on  early  English 
history  and  literature,  among  which  we  may  name  his 
"  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria."  (1846,)  "Essays  on 
the  Literature,  Superstitions,  and  History  of  England  in 
the  Middle  Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  "  Narratives  of  Sorcery 
and  Magic,"  (1851,)  "The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the 
Saxon,"  (1852,)  "Wanderings  of  an  Antiquary,"  etc., 
(1854,)  and  "History  of  Ireland,"  (3  vols.,  1857.)  He 
also  edited  Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  (1855,)  "  Po- 
litical Songs  of  England  from  the  Reign  of  John  to 
that  of  Edward  II.,"  "The  Chester  Miracle  Plays,"  and 
other  productions  of  the  middle  ages.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Camden  Society  and  of  the  British 
Archaeological  Association,  and  was  elected  a  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Inscriptions, 
and  other  learned  societies  in  Europe.    Died  December 

23.  i«77- 

Wright,  (Thomas,)  "  the  Prison  Philanthropist,"  an 
English  reformer,  born  in  1788,  devoted  himself  to  visit- 
ing prisons.     Died  April  14,  1875. 

Wright,  (Thomas,)  a  British  naturalist,  born  at  Pais- 
ley, in  .Scotland,  November  9,  1809.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  Dublin,  was  licensed 
by  the  College  of  Surgeons,  London,  in  1832,  and  grad- 
uated at  Saint  Andrew's  University  in  1846.  He  has 
published  a  great  number  of  papers,  chiefly  upon  oolitic 
and  cretaceous  geology  and  palaeontology. 

Wright,  (Walter  Rodwell,)  an  English  lawyer, 
who  wrote  a  description  of  the  isles  of  Greece,  entitled 
"  Horae  lonicae."     He  died  at  Malta  in  1826. 

Wright,  (William,)  LL.D.,  a  British  scholar,  born 
in  Bengal,  January  17,  1830.  He  was  educated  at  Saint 
Andrew's  and  at  Halle,  and  was  made  professor  of  Arabic 
in  University  College,  London,  in  1S55,  '"  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  in   1856,  and   in  the  University  ^-^^   Cam 


bridge  in  1870.  Besides  ])reparing  an  Arabic  Grammar, 
he  edited  many  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  other  Semitic  texts. 
Died  May  22,  1889. 

Wriothesley,  (Henry.)     See  Southampton. 

Wriothesley,  rots'le  or  rot'es-le,  (Thomas,)  fourth 
Earl  of  Southampton,  an  English  statesman,  became  a 
member  of  the  i>rivy  council  under  Charles  II.,  and 
subsequently  lord  high  treasurer.  He  had  superior 
abilities,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his  integrity  and  virtue 
in  a  time  of  general  corruption.      Died  in  1667. 

Wrisberg,  <^Ris'b?RG,  (H.'unkich  August,)  a  Ger 
man  anatomist,  born  in  the  Harz  in  1739.  He  became 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Gottingen,  and  wrote  numerous 
professional  works.     Died  in  1808. 

Wroniecki,  vao-ne-^tsHtee,  (Antony,)  a  Polish 
officer  and  military  writei,  born  at  Posen  in  1790.  He 
served  against  the  Russians  in  1830,  and  ros^  (o  be 
general  of  brigade.     Died  in  1838. 

Wrottesley,  rots'le,  (John,)  Lord,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  in  1798.  He  received  in  1839  a  gold 
medal  from  the  Astronomical  Society  for  his  catalogue 
of  stars.  He  entered  the  House  of  Lords  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1841,  and  was  elected  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1855.  About  1842  he  erected  an  obser- 
vatory near  his  residence,  Wrottesley  Hall.   Died  in  1867. 

Wuk.     See  Kakajitch. 

Wulfen,  <vd61'ren,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist and  mathematician,  born  at  Belgrade  in  172S.  He 
wrote  on  botany,  zoology,  etc.  Died  at  Klagenfurth  in 
1805. 

Wulffer,  <^oolf'fer,  (Johann,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1651.  He  was  employed  as  min- 
ister of  the  gosjjel  in  his  native  city.     Died  in  1724. 

Wulfhelm,  <\oolf'h&lm,  an  Anglo-Saxon  prelate,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  923  A.D.   Died  in  942. 

"Wulfstan.     See  Wulstan. 

Wullenweber,  <^o6Klen-M'ber,  written  also  "Wul- 
lenwever,  (Geokg  or  Jurgen,)  a  German  statesman 
of  the  sixteenth  centurv.  was  a  native  of  LnlK^rl-^  Mri.»re 
he  was  elected  burgomaster  about  1534.  tie  was  con- 
demned to  death  on  a  charge  of  Anabaptism  and  politi- 
cal offences,  and  executed  in  1537. 

Wiillerstorf  or  Wuellerstorf,  von,  fon  <^ul'lers- 
torf,  (Bernhard,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  admiral  and 
minister  of  state,  born  at  Trieste  in  1816.  He  conducted 
an  exploring  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment in  1857,  and  returned  in  1859.  An  account  of  this 
expedition  appeared  in  3  vols.,  in  i86l  About  1865  he 
became  minister  of  commerce.  He  published  several 
scientific  works.      Died  August  17,. 1883. 

Wulstan,  an  English  monk,  born  about  1008,  be- 
came in  1062  Bishop  of  Worcester.  He  was  patronized 
by  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  successor  William 
Rufus.     Died  in  1095. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Wulstan,"  in  Wharton's  "  Anc;Iia  Sacra." 

■Wulstan,  written  also  Wolstan  and  Wulfstan,  an 
English  monk  of  the  tenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a 
Latin  poem  on  the  miracles  of  .Saint  Swithin,  and  a 
"  Life  of  Bishop  Ethelwold,"  (in  Latin.) 

Wunder,  <^56n'der,  (Eduard,)  a  German  critic  and 
scholar,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1800.  He  became 
director  of  the  College  of  Grimina  in  1842.  His  chief 
publication  is  an  edition  of  Sophocles,  (183  I.)    Died  1869. 

Wunderlich,  <^6on'der-liK',  (Johann,)  a  German 
jurist,  boin  at  Hamburg  in  1708.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  in  that  city  in  1761,  and  published  several 
legal  works.     Died  in  1778. 

Wunderlich,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  physician, 
l)orn  at  Sulz,  on  the  Neckar,  in  181 5,  became  professor 
of  clinics  at  Leipsic  in  1850.  He  published  a  "Manual 
ot  Pathology  and  Therapeutics,"  (1846,)  etc.    Died  1877. 

Wundt,  <^()6nt,  (Daniel  Ludwig,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Kreutznach  in  1741,  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  the 
r.ilatinate.     Died  in  1805. 

His  brother,  Friedrich  Peter,  born  in  1748,  pub- 
lished several  works  on  the  history  and  topography  of 
the  Palatinate.     Died  in  1808. 

"Wundt,  (Wilhelm  Maximilian,)  a  German  physi- 
ologist, born  at  Neckarau,  in  Baden,  August  16.  i8'?2. 
lie  was  educated   at  Tiihingen,  Heidelberg,  and   Berlin, 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  i,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fjr,  fill,  fit;  mJt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WUNSCH 


2501 


WYATT 


and  held  professorships  of  physiology  at  Heidelberg, 
Zurich,  and  Leipsic.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  A  Theory  of  Sense-Perception,"  "  Human  Physiology," 
"  Spiritism,"  ("  Uer  Spiritismus,")  etc. 

Wunsch,  <^o6nsh,  (Christian  Ernst.)  a  German 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Hohenstein  about  1730.  He 
died  after  1800. 

Wunsch,  von,  fon  <^o6nsh,  (Johann  Jakoi},)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  171 7.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
General  Brentano  in  October,  1759.     Died  in  1788. 

"Wuotan.     See  Odin. 

Wurdt^wein  or  Wuerdtnvein,  MRt'^in,  (Stephan 
Alexander,)  a  German  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Amerbach 
in  1 7 19,  became  Bishop  of  Worms.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  treatises  on  diplomacy  and  ecclesiastical  law, 
(in  Latin.)     Died  in  1796. 

Wurm,  <to6Rm,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
divine  and  astronomer,  born  at  Niirtingen  in  1760, 
published  a  "  History  of  the  New  Planet  Uranus,"  and 
»ther  works.     Died  in  1833. 

His  son  Julius  Friedrich  wrote  several  treatises  on 
heology,  mathematics,  and  philology.     Died  in  1839. 

Another  son,  Christian  Friedrich,  bom  in  1803, 
published  a  number  of  commercial  and  political  works. 
He  became  professor  in  a  college  at  Hamburg  in  1833. 
Died  in  1859. 

Wurm'ser,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon<*ooRm'zer,]  (Dago- 
BERT  Sigismond,)  Cou.nt,  an  eminent  Austrian  general, 
born  in  Alsace  in  1724.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service 
in  1750,  and  fought  against  the  Prussians  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62.)  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1778,  he  defeated  the  Prussians 
at  Kubelschwerd  in  1779.  In  1793  he  commanded  an 
army  which  operated  against  the  French,  and  drove 
them  across  the  frontier  into  Alsace  ;  but  he  was  aefeated 
in  December,  at  Frischweiler.  He  gained  a  victory  on 
the  banks  of  the  Neckar  in  October,  1794,  and  occupied 
Mannheim.  In  the  summer  of  1796  he  was  sent  as 
commander-in-chief  to  Italy,  where  the  Austrian  general 
Beaulieu  had  been  defeated  by  Bonaparte.  Advancing 
towards  Mantua,  Wurmser  was  attacked  and  defeated 
by  Bonaparte,  at  Lonato,  on  the  3d  of  August.  The 
Corsican  general  also  gained  victories  over  Wurmser 
at  Castiglione  on  the  5th  of  August,  and  at  Roveredo. 
Wurmser  retreated  to  Mantua,  which  he  defended  with 
vigour,  but  he  was  forced  to  surrender  in  February,  1797. 
He  died  at  Vienna  in  June  the  same  year. 

See  Schiller,  "Gallerie  interessanter  Persoiien." 

Wursteisen,  (tooR'stT'zeu,  [Lat.  Wursticj'ius  or 
Ursticj'ius,]  a  mathematician,  born  at  Bale  in  1544, 
was  also  a  historian.  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Bale,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  history 
called  "Chronicon  Majus,"  (1580.)     Died  in  1588. 

Wurstdcius.     See  Wursteisen. 

Wiirtemberg,  wur'tem-berg,  [Ger.  pron.  <^tiR'tem- 
bSRc',!  (Eberhard,)  Duke  of,  a  son  of  Louis  II.,  was 
born  in  1445,  and  began  to  reign  in  1459.  He  was 
a  just  and  beneficent  ruler,  patronized  learning,  and 
founded  the  University  of  Tubingen.     Died  in  1496. 

Wiirtemberg,  von,  fon  wur'tem-berg,  (or  vtSn'tem- 
b^Ro',)  (Christian  Friedrich  Ale.xander,)  Count, 
son  of  Duke  William  of  Wiirtemberg,  was  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  iSoi.  He  published  a  collection  of  lyric 
poems,  (1837,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Musen- 
almanach"  of  Chamisso  and  Schwab.     Died  in  1844. 

Wiirtemberg,  von,  (Ulric,)  an  able  commander, 
born  in  1617,  was  a  younger  son  of  Frederick  I.  of 
Wiirtemberg.  He  commanded  the  Imperial  army  which 
opposed  Turenne  in  Hesse  in  1648.     Died  in  167 1. 

Wtirtz,  viiKts,  (Charles  Adolphe,)  a  French  chem- 
ist, born  at  Strasburg,  November  26,  181 7.  He  gradu- 
ated in  1S43  at  the  university  of  his  native  town.  He 
went  to  Paris,  and  in  1851  became  a  professor  in  the 
Agronomic  Institute  of  Versailles.  In  1875  ^e  was  ap- 
pointed professor  in  the  faculty  of  sciences  at  Paris. 
He  made  many  important  discoveries  in  chemistry,  and 
contributed  much  to  theoretic  chemistry.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Le9ons  de  Philosophie  chimique,"  (1864,) 
"  Traite  elementaire  de  Chimie  medicale,"  (1864-65,  3 
vols.,)  "  Lemons  elementaires  de  Chimie  moderne,"  (1866,) 


•' Dictionnaire  de  Chimie,"  (1868-78,  3  vols.,)  "  Histoire 
des  Doctrines  chimiques,"  (1868,)  "La  Theorie  ato- 
nnque,"  (187S,)  "Traite  de  Chimie  biologique,"  (1880,) 
etc.      Died  May  11,  1884. 

Wnrtz,  (^ooRts,  (Felix,)  a  skilful  Swiss  surgeon, 
born  at  Zurich,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Wurtz,  (Henry,)  an  American  chemist,  born  at 
Easton,  Pennsylvania,  June  5,  1828.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1848,  and  held  professorships  of 
chemistry  in  colleges  at  Kingston,  Canada,  and  at  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  He  published  a  large  number  of  papers, 
chiefly  upon  theoretical  chemistry. 

Wurtz,  von,  fon  voorts  or  <Vo6Rts,  (Paul.,)  Baron, 
a  Danish  or  German  general,  born  in  Husum.  He 
served  under  Gustavus  Adulphus  until  his  death,  (1632,) 
and  afterwards  had  a  high  command  in  the  army  of  the 
United  Provinces.     Died  in  1676. 

Wurtzburg  or  Wurzburg.  See  Conrad  ok 
Wurtzbukg. 

Wurzbach,  wooRts'biK,  (Constant,)  a  German 
pof.t  and  savant,  born  at  Laybach  in  1818.  Among 
his  writings  is  a  humorous  work  entitled  "  Parallels," 
("  Parallelen,"  1849  )  Among  his  many  other  works  is 
a  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Austrians,"  (1879.) 

Wurzelbau,  von,  fon  <t66Rt'sel-b6w',  (Johann 
PlllLiPP,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1651.  He  invented  or  improved  several  astronomical 
instruments,  and  made  a  series  of  observations  in  his 
observatory  at  Spitzenberg.  He  corresponded  with 
Leibnitz  and  other  astronomers.     Died  in  1725. 

Wutgeuau,  von,  fon  <voot'geh-n6w',  (Gottfried 
Ernst.)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  Silesia. in 
1673;  died  in  1736. 

Wuttke,  <vo6t'keh,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  nistorian, 
born  at  Brieg,  in  Silesia,  February  12,  1818,  was  edu- 
cated at  Breslau.  In  184S  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  history  at  Leipsic,  and  was  afterwards  a  leading  poli- 
tician. He  wrote"  Polen  und  Deutsche,"  (1847,)  "  Ueber 
die  Gewissheit  der  Geschichte,"  (1865,)  "Geschichte  der 
Schrift,"  (1872  et  seq.,)  etc.     Died  June  14,  1876. 

Wy'att,  (Ja.mes,)  an  English  architect,  of  high  repu- 
tation, was  born  in  Staffordshire  about  1745.  He 
studied  several  years  at  Rome  and  Venice,  and  after 
his  return  built  the  Pantheon,  in  Oxford  Street,  London, 
(1772.)  He  was  appointed  surveyor-general  to  the  board 
of  works  in  1796.  Among  his  other  structures  we  may 
name  Fonthill  Abbey,  the  Military  Academy  at  Wool 
wich,  and  the  Library  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1813. 

Wyatt,  (Matthew  Cotes,)  an  English  sculptor, 
born  in  1778.  He  was  patronized  by  George  HI.,  and 
adorned  Windsor  Castle  with  his  works,  among  which 
was  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 
Died  in  London  in  January,  1862. 

Wyatt,  (Sir  Matthew  Digby,)  an  English  architect 
and  author,  born  at  Bowie,  Wilts,  in  1S20.  His  public 
life  was  one  of  great  activity  and  many  honours.  He 
was  knighted  in  1S69,  and  was  professor  of  fine  arts  at 
Cambridge,  1869-72.  He  published  "Geometrical  Mo- 
saics of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1848,)  "Industrial  Arts  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (1851,)  "Art-Treasures  in  the 
United  Kingdom,"  (1857,)  "Architect's  Note-Book  in 
Spain  "  and  many  other  works.     Died  May  22,  1877. 

Wyatt,  (Richard  J.,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in 
London  in  1795.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently 
under  Canova  at  Rome,  where  he  resided  till  his  death, 
in  1850.  His  works  are  principally  classical  subjects, 
and  are  remarkable  for  their  elegance  and  exquisite 
finish.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  Penelope," 
"  Nymph  entering  the  Bath,"  "  .Shepherd  Boy,"  "  Nymph 
Eucharis  and  Cupid,"  and  "  Bacchus." 

Wyatt,  (Sir  Thomas,)  the  Elder,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  poet,  born  in  Kent  in  1503.  He 
studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  M..\.  in  1520.  He  was  a  favourite 
at  the  court  of  Henry  VHI.,  who  made  him  a  gentleman 
of  the  bed-chamber  and  conferred  on  him  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  (15^6.)  lie  was  afterwards  employed  on 
important  missions  to  .Spain  and  the  Netherlands.  He 
died  in  1542,  with  the  reputation  of  an  able  diplomatist 
and  one  of  the  most  accomplished  gentlemen  of  his  time. 


eas^;  9as  j;  %hard;  gasy;  g,  h,  K,jpiCtu>al:  K,niisiiJ;  v.JrilUd;  sass;  th  as  in  Mm.     {JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WYA7T 


WYLIE 


His  poems  are  chiefly  amatory  and  satirical;  he  also 
published  letters  and  other  prose  works  of  superior 
merit. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  Campbell,  "Spe- 
cimens of  the  British  Poets." 

Wyatt,  (Sir  Thomas,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1520  or  1521.  He  inherited  Uis 
father's  estate  in  1542,  and  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  against  the  French  between  1544  and  1550. 
Wyatt  and  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  became  in  1554  the 
leaders  of  an  insurrection,  the  design  of  which  was  to 
dethrone  Queen  Mary  or  to  prevent  her  marriage  with 
Philip  II.  Wyatt  gained  some  successes  over  the 
royalist  forces,  and  entered  Southwark.  He  was  cap- 
tured in  London  and  executed  in  April,  1554. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  J.  Proctok,  "  History  of 
Wyatt's  Rebellion,"  1555. 

Wy'at-ville,  (Sir  Jeffry,)  an  English  architect, 
originally  named  Wyatt,  was  a  nephew  of  James 
Wyatt,  noticed  above.  He  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in 
1766,  and  was  instructed  by  his  uncle  in  architecture. 
In  1824  he  was  employed  by  George  IV.  to  remodel 
Windsor  Castle,  in  which  work  he  was  occupied  for  the 
greater  part  of  his  life.  He  died  in  1840.  His  designs 
for  Windsor  Castle  were  published  in  1 841,  in  2  folio  vols. 

Wybicki,  vi-bfets'kee  or  ve-bit'skee,  (Joseph,)  a 
Polish  patriot  and  political  writer,  born  in  1747;  died 
in  1822. 

W^ch'?r-ly  or  Wych'er-ley,  (William,)  a  pop- 
ular English  dramatist,  was  born  in  Shropshire  about 
1640.  He  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  France,  where  he 
spent  considerable  time  at  the  court  of  the  Duke  of 
Montausier,  Governor  of  Aiigouleme.  After  his  return 
he  studied  for  a  time  at  Oxford,  and  again  made  pro- 
fession of  the  Protestant  faith,  which  he  had  abjured  in 
France.  He  subsequently  acquired  great  favour  with 
Charles  II.,  and  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  and  other  profligate  wits  of  the  time. 
He  produced  in  1669  his  comedy  entitled  "Love  in  a 
Wood,  or  Saint  James's  Park,"  which  was  followed  by 
"The  Gentleman  Dancing-Master,"  (1671,)  "The  Plain 
Dealer,"  (1674,)  and  "The  Country  Wife,"  (1675.)  He 
married  the  Countess  of  Drogheda  about  1680.  Died 
in  1715. 

See  Major  Pack,  "Memoirs  of  William  Wycherly ;"  Mac- 
AULAY,  Essay  on  the  "  Comic  Dramatists  of  the  Restoration ;" 
Leigh  Hunt,  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  Wycherley,  Congreve,  etc., 
with  Biographical  Notices,"  1810 ;  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica  ;" 
"Lives  of  British  Dramatists,"  by  Campbell,  Leigh  Hunt,  etc. ; 
Allibonk,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wyck,  wik,  (John,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1645,  worked  in  London.  He  painted  hunting- 
scenes,  landscapes,  and  horses.  Died  in  London  in  1702. 

Wyck,  (Thomas,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter  and  en- 
graver, the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Haarlem 
in  i6i6.  He  painted  sea-ports,  public  places,  interiors, 
etc.     His  etchings  were  highly  prized.     Died  in  1686. 

Wyc'liffe,  Wic'lif,  or  WickTiff,  written  also  Wic- 
lef,  de,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  Reformer,  born  in 
Yorkshire,  near  Richmond,  about  1324.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  proficiency 
in  divinity  and  scholastic  philosophy.  According  to 
several  biograjihers,  he  began  to  write  against  the  men- 
dicant monks  in  1360.  He  became  master  or  warder 
of  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  I36i,and  rector  of  Fyling- 
ham,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  the  same  year.  In  1365  he 
(or,  according  to  some  writers,  another  of  the  same 
name)  was  appointed  master  of  Canterbury  Hall,  from 
which  he  was  ejected  in  1366.  He  exchanged  the  rec- 
tory of  Fylingham  for  that  of  Ludgershall  in  1368.  It  is 
commonly  stated  that  he  took  his  degree  of  D.D.  in 
1372,  and  then  began  to  read  lectures  on  divinity  at 
Oxford  with  great  applause.  This  date  is  questioned 
by  some  writers.  About  this  time  he  began  to  censure 
openly  the  doctrines  and  corruptions  of  the  Romish 
Church  and  to  advocate  religious  liberty. 

Wycliflfe  was  a  member  of  a  legation  sent  by  Edward 
HI.  to  Pope  Gregory  XI.  in  1374,  to  treat  with  him 
about  the  practice  of  papal  provision  or  reservation  of 
benefices,  and  other  abuses.  Soon  after  his  return  to 
England  he  denounced  the  pope  as  "Antichrist,  the 
proud  worldly  priest  of  Rome."     In  1375  the  king  gave 


him  the  prebend  of  Aust  in  the  church  of  Westbury 
He  was  prosecuted  for  heresy  before  the  Bishop  of 
London  in  1377,  but  was  protected  by  his  friend,  John  of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  whose  favour  he  had  gained, 
probably  by  defending  the  royal  authority  against  papal 
encroachments.  In  May,  1377,  Pope  Gregory  addressed 
a  bull  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  directing 
him  to  summon  WyclifTe  before  him.  The  Reformer 
appeared  before  a  synod  assembled  at  Lambeth  in  1378, 
but,  before  the  case  was  decided,  the  Londoners,  who 
sympathized  with  him,  broke  into  the  court  and  fright- 
ened the  bishops,  who  were  also  checked  by  a  message 
from  the  queen,  or  the  mother  of  Richard  II.  The 
schism  caused  by  the  election  of  two  popes  in  1378 
tended  to  weaken  the  papal  domination,  and  promoted 
the  safety  of  WyclifTe,  who  wrote  a  tract  *'■  On  the  Pope 
of  Rome,  or  the  Papal  Schism,"  ("  De  Papa  Romano," 
or  "Schisma  Papse.") 

He  attacked  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in  a 
series  of  lectures  read  at  Oxford  in  1381.  The  Arch 
bishop  of  Canterbury  summoned  a  council  or  synoa, 
which  met  in  1382,  declared  his  opinions  to  be  heretical, 
and  ordered  vigorous  measures  to  be  emj^loyed  for  theii 
suppression.  Before  this  period  the  principles  of  Wye- 
liffe  had  been  adopted  by  numerous  disciples,  some  of 
whom  projjagated  them  by  preaching.  Ilis  disciples 
were  called  Lollards.  He  was  summoned  to  appear  at 
a  convocation  of  clergy  at  Oxford,  and,  according  to 
some  authorities,  made  a  confession  or  concession  to 
his  adversaries,  and  admitted  the  doctrine  of  the  real 
presence.  It  ajjpears  that  the  only  penalty  inflicted  on 
him  was  expulsion  from  the  University  of  Oxford.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  produced  an  English  version 
of  the  Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  This  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  first  complete  English  translation  that 
was  ever  made.  It  became  an  engine  of  wonderful 
power  against  Romanism.  To  translate  the  Bible  was 
regarded  as  an  act  of  heresy;  and  his  version  continued 
to  be  a  proscribed  book  until  the  Reformation  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  WyclifTe,  who  may  be  considered  the 
father  of  English  prose,  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
works,  some  of  which  remain  in  manuscript. 

"He  clearly  anticipated,"  says  David  Irving,  "the 
most  distinguishing  doctrines  of  the  Protestants,  and 
his  opinions  on  certain  points  present  an  obvious  co- 
incidence with  those  of  Calvin.  Of  the  simplicity  of 
primitive  times  he  was  too  devoted  an  admirer  to 
secure  the  approbation  of  modern  churchmen."  ("  En- 
cyclopasdia  Britannica.")  He  opposed  episcopacy,  or  at 
least  did  not  consider  the  episcopal  order  essential  to 
the  legitimate  constitution  of  the  Church.  He  died  at 
Lutterworth  in  December,  1384. 

See  Rev.  John  Lewis,  "Life  of  Jolm  Wycliffe,"  1719;  Dr 
Robert  Vaughan,  "Life  of  John  WyclifTe,"  1828,  (revised  edition, 
■  851;)  Webb  Le  Bas,  "Life  of  John  Wycliffe,"  1832;  Hodgson, 
"Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  William  Gilpin, 
"Lives  of  J.  Wiclef  and  of  the  Most  Eminent  of  his  Disciples,"  etc., 
1763;  TiscHER,  "J.  WiciePs  Leben,"  1800:  F.  Vinckns,  "Wiclef: 
Thfese  historiqiie,"  1848  ;  Maimboukg,  "  Histoiredu  Wiclefianisme," 
1683  ;  Wordsworth,  "  Biographia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  "  Four  Ecclesi- 
astical Biographies,"  by  J  H.  Gurney  ;  "  Quartep'y  Review"  lor 
July.  1858;  Allibonk.  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wydeville,  (Anthony.)     See  Rivers,  Earl  of. 

Wyerman.     See  Weyerman. 

Wykeham,  de,  de  wik'am,  (William,)  an  eminent 
English  ecclesiastic  and  statesman,  born  in  Hampshire 
in  1324.  His  talents  early  gained  for  him  the  notice 
and  patronage  of  Edward  HI.,  who  appointed  him  in 
1356  surveyor  of  the  works  at  Windsor.  He  afterwards 
became  successively  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  secretary 
to  the  king,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  lord  high  chan- 
cellor of  England,  (1367.)  Among  his  numerous  and 
munificent  works  were  the  erection  of  the  New  College, 
Oxford,  finished  in  1386,  and  the  college  at  Winchester. 
He  also  rebuilt  a  great  part  of  the  cathedral  of  Win- 
chester.    Died  in  1404. 

See  Bishop  Lowth,  "  Life  of  William  de  Wykeham,"  175S  ;  Lord 
Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors." 

Wy'lie,  (Andrew,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  of  the 
Episcopal  Church,  born  in  Washington  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1789.  He  became  president  of  the  University 
of  Indiana  in  1829.  He  published  an  English  Grammar, 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1851. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  fi,  y,  j/c;  /.  a,  e,  j,  o,  oi>satre;  far,  fill,  fit;  nifit;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


JVVA/AiY 


2503 


WYTTENBA  CHI  US 


■Wy'man,  (Jeffries,)  an  American  anatomist,  born 
at  Chelmsford,  Massacliusetts,  in  1814.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1847  Hersey  professor  of  anatomy  at  Har- 
vard, and  professor  of  comparative  anatomy  in  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School.  He  published  "Twelve 
Lectures  on  Comparative  Physiology,"  and  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "American  Journal  of  Science"  and  other 
periodicals.     Died  September  4,  1874. 

Wy'iiantg  or  Wy'iiantz,  (Jan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1600.  His  pic- 
tures are  generally  of  small  size  and  great  excellence. 
He  numbered  among  his  pupils  Wouwerman  and 
Adriaan  van  der  Velde,  who  frequently  painted,  it  is 
said,  the  figures  in  his  landscapes.     Died  about  1678. 

Wyndham,  wind'am,  (Sir  Charles,)  Earl  of  Egre- 
mont,  an  English  politician,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
William  Wyndham.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Somerset.  He  died  in  1763,  and  left  his  title 
to  his  son  George.     (See  Egremont.) 

"Wyndham,  (George  O'Brien.)  See  Egremont, 
Earl  of. 

Wyndham,  (Sir  William.)  an  able  English  states- 
man, born  in  1687,  belonged  to  an  ancient  family  of 
Somersetshire.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Somerset,  joined  the  Tory  party,  and  became  a  powerful 
debater  in  Parliament.  He  was  appointed  secretary  at 
war  in  1710  or  1711,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in 
1713.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
to  whose  interest  he  adhered  after  the  quarrel  between 
that  leader  and  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  On  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne  he  was  removed  from  office,  (1714.)  He 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  in  1715,  on  suspicion  of 
complicity  in  a  Jacobite  conspiracy;  but  he  was  soon 
liberated,  without  a  trial.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  opposition  to  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole,  and  had  great  influence  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  1734  he  made  a  celebrated  speech  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Septennial  act.  "  His  eloquence,"  says  Speaker 
Onslow,  "improved  by  use,  was  strong,  full,  and  with- 
out affectation,  arising  chiefly  from  his  clearness,  pro- 
priety, and  argumentation  ;  in  the  method  of  which  last, 
by  a  sort  of  induction  almost  peculiar  to  himself,  he 
had  a  force  beyond  any  man  I  ever  heard  in  public 
debates."     Died  in  1740. 

.  W^nn,  (Charles  Watkins  William,)  M.P.,  an 
English  politician,  born  in  1775.  He  was  secretary 
at  war  from  November,  1830,  to  April,  183 1.  Died  in 
1850. 

Wynne,  win,  (Edward,)  an  English  lawyer,  born 
in  1734.  He  published  several  legal  works,  which  are 
commended.     Died  in  1784. 

Wynne,  (John  Huddlestone,)  a  British  writer, 
born  in  Wales  in  1743,  published  "Fables  for  the 
Female  Sex,"  "A  General  History  of  Ireland,"  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1788. 

Wyntoun.    See  Wintoun. 

Wy'pn,  (William,)  an  English  engraver  of  coins 
and  medals,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1795.  He  became 
second  engraver  at  the  Mint  in  London,  and  in  1838  a 
Royal  Academician,  being  the  first  artist  in  his  depart- 
ment who  had  won  that  distinction.  His  works  com- 
prise a  great  variety  of  subjects,  scientific,  artistic,  and 
war  medals,  and  are  ranked  among  the  most  admirable 
productions  of  the  kind.     Died  in  185 1. 

Wyrsch,  ^^Rsh,  (Johann  Melchior,)  a  Swiss 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  in  Unterwalden  in 
1732.  He  worked  for  many  years  at  Besanfon.  Died 
in  1798. 

See  F.  Why,  "Wyrsch  et  les  Peintres  bisontins,"  i?6i. 

"Wyae,  veez,  or  wTz,  (I,uctEN  Napoleon  Bonaparte,) 


a  French  engineer,  a  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyse,  and  a 
grandson  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1844.  He  studied  in  the  ficole  Navale,  entered  the  navy, 
made  extensive  hydrographical  and  other  scientific  ex- 
plorations, and  in  1875  undertook  the  survey  of  the 
Panama  isthmus.  His  "Rapport"  (1876-7S)  on  this 
survey  was  followed  by  the  operations  of  M.  de  Lesseps 
on  the  Panama  Ship-Canal.  He  has  published  "  Li 
Parpaionus  blu,"  ("  Blue  Butterflies,")  a  volume  of  Pro- 
ven9al  poems,  which  has  given  him  a  high  place  among 
\!t\Qfelibres. 

Wyse,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  writer  and  diplo- 
matist, born  about  1800.  In  1821  he  married  Letitia 
Bonaparte,  a  niece  of  Napoleon  I.  He  was  minister 
at  Athens  from  1849  to  1862.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Walks  in  Rome,"  and  an  "  Excursion  in  the 
Peloponnesus  in  1858,"  (2  vols.,  1865,)  which  is  praised 
by  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  in  an  article  entitled  "  Sir 
Thomas  Wyse's  Peloponnesus,"  (October,  1865.)  Died 
in  1862. 

Wyshart.     See  Wishart. 

Wysocki,  vi-sots'kee,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish  patriot  and 
soldier,  born  in  Podolia  in  1809.  He  fought  in  the 
revolution  of  1830,  and  in  1848  entered  the  Hungarian 
service.  After  the  defeat  at  Temesvar  he  took  refuge  in 
France.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  "  The  Art 
of  War."     Died  at  Paris,  December  31,  1874. 

Wysocki,  (Peter,)  a  Polish  patriot,  and  prominent 
leader  in  the  revolution  of  1 830,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in 
1799.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Russians  in  1S31, 
and  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  1837. 

Wyss,  <^!ss,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born 
at  Berne  in  1781,  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  his 
native  town.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Idyls, 
Traditions,  Legends,  and  Tales  of  Switzerland,"  (1815.) 
Died  in  1830. 

Wysshart.     See  Wishart. 

Wythe,  yi\th,  (George,)  an  American  jurist  and 
patriot,  was  born  in  Elizabeth  City  county,  Virginia,  in 
1726.  He  was  an  ardent  promoter  of  the  independence 
of  the  colonies,  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress 
in  1775,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in 
July,  1776.  In  this  year  Wythe,  Jefferson,  and  Pendleton 
were  appointed  a  committee  to  revise  the  laws  of  Vir- 
ginia. He  became  in  1777  a  judge  of  the  high  court 
of  chancery,  and  served  as  chancellor  of  Virginia  for 
twenty  years.  He  emancipated  his  slaves.  Died  at 
Richmond  in  1806. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Wyther.     See  Withers. 

Wyttenbach,<^it'ten-biK',  [Lat.  Wvttenba'chius,] 
(Daniel,)  an  eminent  Swiss  critic  and  scholar,  born  at 
Berne  in  1746.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  subse- 
quently at  Leyden  under  Professor  Ruhnken,  and  be- 
came in  1771  professor  of  Greek  and  philosophy  in  the 
Athenaeum  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  appointed  in  1779 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Leyden.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  and  his  compositions, 
which  are  all  written  in  Latin,  are  esteemed  standard 
works.  Among  these  his  "Life  of  Ruhnken"  (1799)  is 
particularly  admired  for  the  elegance  of  its  style.  He 
was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "  Bibiiotheca  Critica,"  and 
published  editions  of  the  "Opera  Moralia"  of  Plutarch, 
the  "  Phaedon"  of  Plato,  (1810,)  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1820.  His  wife,  Johanna  Gallien,  was  distinguished 
for  her  learning,  and  was  made  doctor  of  philosophy  bv 
the  University  of  Marburg. 

See  W.  L.  Mahne,  "Vita  D.  Wyttenbachii,"  1823. 

Wyttenbachius.     See  Wyttenbach. 


€as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  g,  H,  Y., g^dtural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


XAINTRAILLES 


2504 


XENOPHANES 


X. 


Xaiutrailles,  de.    See  Saintrailles,  de. 

Xanthippe.     See  Xantippe  and  Xanthippus. 

Xanthippus,  zan-thip'pus,  [Gr.  Havf'iTrTrof ;  Fr.  Xan- 
thippe, gzdN'tfep',]  an  Athenian  general,  was  the  father 
of  Pericles.  He  succeeded  Themistocles  as  commander 
of  the  fleet  in  479  B.C.,  and  acted  a  prominent  part  in 
the  naval  victory  over  the  Persians  at  Mycale,  (479.)  He 
captured  Sestos  in  478. 

Xanthippus,  a  Spartan  general,  an  ally  of  the  Car- 
thaginians in  the  first  Punic  war,  defeated  the  Romans 
under  Reguius,  whom  he  took  prisonec,  (B.C.  255.) 

Xanthus,  zan'thus,  [Havtof,]  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  who 
flourished  probably  about  650  B.C.  No  fragments  of  his 
poetry  are  extant. 

Xanthus,  a  Greek  historian  and  native  of  Lydia, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Herod- 
otus. He  was  the  author  of  a  description  of  Lydia, 
entitled  "Lydiaca,"  which  is  highly  commended  by 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  There  are  only  fragments 
of  it  extant. 

Xantippe,  zan-tip'pe,  or,  more  correctly,  Xan- 
thip'pe,  [Gr.  Zavd'n:i:Ti ;  Fr.  Xantippe  or  Xanthippe, 
gzdN'tip',]  the  wife  of  Socrates,  was  notorious  for  her 
ill  temper.  Being  asked  by  Alcibiades  how  he  could 
live  with  such  a  woman,  he  is  said  to  have  replied,  "She 
exercises  my  patience,  and  enables  me  to  bear  with  all 
the  injustice  I  experience  from  others."  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  Xantippe's  faults  have  been  much  exag- 
gerated. Socrates  evidently  entertained  a  sincere  regard 
for  her,  and  gave  her  credit  for  many  domestic  virtues. 
(See  Socrates.) 

Xaupi,  gzo'pe',  (Joseph,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1688;  died  in  1778. 

Xaverius.     See  Xavier. 

Xav'I-er,  [Ger.  Xaver,  ksi-vaiR',]  (Francis,)  second 
son  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  (who  was  afterwards 
Augustus  IH.,  King  of  Poland,)  was  born  in  1730.  He 
was  appointed  in  1763  administrator  of  Saxony  during 
the  minority  of  his  nephew.     Died  in  1806. 

Xavier,  zav'e-er,  ]Sp.  pron.  ni-ve-aiR';  Fr.  pron. 
gzt've-i';  Lat.  Xave'rius;  Ger.  Xaver,  ksi-vaiR';  It. 
SaveIuo,  sd-va're-o,]  (Francis,)  Saint,  a  celebrated 
Jesuit  missionary,  called  "the  Apostle  of  the  Indies," 
was  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  near  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees,  in  April,  1506.  He  was  educated  in  Paris, 
and  there  formed  a  friendship  with  his  fellow-student 
Ignatius  Loyola.  He  was  one  of  those  who  associated 
themselves  with  Loyola  in  the  formation  of  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  about  1534.  In  1538  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
began  to  preach  in  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Da- 
maso.  Under  the  auspices  of  John,  King  of  Portugal, 
Xavier  visited  the  East  Indies  as  a  missionary  in  1541, 
arriving  at  Goa  in  May,  1542.  Ringing  a  bell  through 
the  streets  of  Goa,  he  summoned  parents  to  send  their 
children  and  slaves  to  him  in  order  to  be  instructed  in 
the  catechism.  He  endeavoured  to  reform  the  vicious 
professors  of  religion  as  well  as  to  convert  the  heathen, 
whose  temples  he  caused  to  be  destroyed  and  replaced 
by  churches.  Having  laboured  amt)ng  the  ignorant 
population  employed  in  the  pearl-fishery  on  the  coast, 
he  afterwards  passed  to  Travancore,  where,  it  is  said,  he 
baptized  ten  thousand  idolaters  in  nine  months.  In  1545 
he  visited  Malacca,  and  converted  numerous  idolaters, 
Jews,  and  Mohammedans.  With  several  other  mission- 
aries, whom  Loyola  sent  to  aid  him,  he  pursued  his 
course  to  the  Banda  Isles  in  1546.  He  baptized  many 
in  Amboyna,  founded  a  mission  at  Ternate,  and  returned 
to  Malacca  in  1547.  Having  converted  a  Japanese  exile, 
named  Auger,  he  resolved  to  extend  his  labours  to 
Japan.  He  took  Auger  with  him,  and  in  1549  reached 
Canguxima,  where  he  studied  the  Japanese  language, 
and  was  kindly  received  by  the  King  of  Saxuma.  He 
went  thence  to  Firanda,  in  which  he  was  permitted  to 
preach,  and  made  many  converts.  Encouraged  by  this 
success,  he  proceeded  to  Meaco,  the  capital  of  the  em- 


pire, where  he  arrived  in  1551.  He  obtained  from  the 
king  permission  to  preach,  and  converted  about  three 
thousand  there.  His  success  was  hindered  by  his  im 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  language.  He  ardently  desired 
to  carry  the  gospel  to  China,  and  was  not  deterred  by 
the  severe  penalty  under  which  foreigners  were  forbid- 
den to  enter  that  country.  Before  he  could  reach  this 
new  scene  of  labour,  he  died,  on  the  isle  of  Sancian, 
near  the  Chinese  coast,  in  December,  1552.  He  was 
canonized  in  1622. 

See  TuRSELLiNOs,  "Vita  F.  Xaverii,"  1594;  Bartoli,  "Vita  K. 
Xaverii,"  1666;  Sandoval,  "Vida  de  S.  P'rancisco  Xavier,"  1619; 
I.  TosCANo,  "Vita  di  F.  Saverio,"  1658;  H.  Venn,  "Missionary 
Life  of  Francis  Xavier:"  Bouhouks,  "Vie  de  S.  Fraiigois  Xavier," 
1682,  (Drvden's  Eiigilsh  translation  of  the  same,  1688 ;)  Ravhois, 
"Vie  de  S.  F.  Xavier,"  1838;  Reithmeier,  "  Leben  des  heiligen 
Franz  Xaver,"  1846. 

Xavier,  (Jerome,  or  Geronimo,)  a  Jesuit  missionary, 
born  in  Navarre,  was  a  relative  of  the  preceding.  He 
went  to  Goa  in  1571,  after  which  he  preached  at  the  court 
of  the  Mogul  emperor,  where  he  is  said  to  have  made 
many  converts.  He  wrote  several  religious  treatises,  in 
Latin  and  in  Persian.     Died  at  Goa  in  161 7. 

Xenarchus,  ze-nar'kus,  YEevapxoi,]  an  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy,  flourished  about  350- 
330  B.C.     Fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Xenocles,  z§n'o-kliz,  [Hei^o/cA^f,]  an  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  was  a  son  of  Carcinus  the  Elder,  and  flourished 
about  420  B.C.  He  gained  a  victory  over  Euripides  in 
415  B.C.  He  had  a  son  Carcinus,  and  a  grandson 
Xenocles,  who  were  likewise  tragic  poets. 

Xenocles,  an  Athenian  architect,  lived  in  the  age 
of  Pericles. 

Xenocrate.    See  Xenocrates. 

Xenocrates,  ze-nok'ra-tfez,  [Gr.  AevoKpariic :  Fr.  Xe- 
nocrate, gzi'no'kRtt',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher, 
born  at  Chalcedon  in  396  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Plato 
and  a  fellow-student  of  Aristotle.  He  accompanied 
Plato  to  Syracuse,  and  after  the  death  of  his  master  was 
sent  on  embassies  to  Philip  of  Macedon.  About  339 
B.C.  he  became  the  head  of  the  Platonic  Academy  at 
Athens,  over  which  he  presided  twenty-five  years.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  probity,  modesty,  and  moral 
purity.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  philosophy,  which 
are  not  extant,  taught  that  the  soul  is  a  self-moving 
number,  and  regarded  unity  and  duality  as  two  deities, 
the  former  of  which  rules  in  heaven  and  the  latter  in  the 
mutable  worici.  In  his  philosophy  the  doctrines  of  Plato 
are  modified  by  the  Pythagorean  doctrines  of  number. 
His  eloquence  converted  the  dissolute  Polemon  into 
a  temperate  man  and  an  eminent  philosopher.  Died  in 
314  B.C. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Van  db  Wijnperssk,  "Diatribe  de 
Xenocrate  Chalcedonio,"  1823. 

Xenocrates,  a  Greek  statuary  of  the  school  of  Ly- 
sippus,  flourished  about  260  B.C. 

Xenocrates,  a  Greek  physician,  who  resided  at 
Aphrodisias,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  37  a.d. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  "On  the  Nutriment  de- 
rived from  Animals,"  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Xenomedes,  z5n-o-mee'diz,  [^evofii/drn,]  of  Chios, 
a  Greek  historian,  lived  before  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
(which  began  431  B.C.) 

Xenon,  zee'non,  or  Xe'no,  [Ht'i'cjv,]  a  Greek  painter 
of  Sicyon,  was  a  pupil  of  Neocles. 

Xenophane.    See  Xenoi'Hanes. 

Xenophanes,  ze-nof'a-n^z,  [Gr.  Ae»o(t>av7jc;  Fr.  X6 
nophane,  gzi'no'fSn',]  a  celebrated  Greek  i^hilosopher 
and  poet,  born  at  Coloi^hon,  in  Ionia,  about  600  B.C. 
Diogenes  states  that  he  flourished  in  the  60th  Olympiad, 
(about  538  B.C.)  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic 
school,  and  probably  lived  for  some  time  at  Elea,  in 
Italy.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  foundation  of  Elea,  and 
a  number  of  elegiac  poems  of  much  merit.  "The  work 
which  contained  his  philosophic  system,"  says  Victor 
Cousin,  "and  which  has  immortalized  his  name,  was  a 


i,e,i,o,u,y,  hng;  k,h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  \\,y,  short;  a,  e,  \,  q,  oliscmr ;  fdi,  fill,  fil;  ni6t;  ii6t;  good;  moon; 


XENOPHILE 


2505 


XERXES 


poem  on  Nature,  in  hexameter  verse."  Several  frag- 
ments of  this  poem  have  been  preserved.  He  was  con- 
sidered by  the  ancients  as  the  originator  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  oneness  of  the  universe.  He  censured  Hesiod 
and  Homer  because  tliey  attributed  to  the  gods  human 
vices  and  defects,  and  is  said  to  have  maintained  the 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  Deity.  According  to  Aris- 
totle, Xenophanes,  directing  his  view  over  the  universe, 
declared,  "  God  is  the  One."  Saint  Clement  also  affirms 
that  he  taught  pure  monotheism.  Victor  Cousin  de- 
fends him  from  the  charge  of  pantheism  which  some 
writers  had  brought  against  him.  ("Biographic  Uni- 
verselle.")  Xenophanes  also  insisted  on  the  antagonism 
between  sensuous  appearances  and  the  pure  truth  or 
reality.  He  was  about  one  hundred  years  old  when  he 
died. 

See  RiTTEK,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lkwks,  " Bio- 
Kraphical  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Aristotle,  "  De  Xenopliane, 
Georgia  et  Melisso;"  Simon  Karstf.n,  "  Xenoplianis  Carminum 
Reliquiae;  de  Vita  ejus,"  etc.,  1S30;  Diogenes  Laertius,  "Xeno- 
phanes ;"  FiJLLEBORN,  "  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Philosophie." 

Xenophile.     See  Xenophilus. 

Xenophilus,  ze-nof'e-lus,  [Gr.  SeKo^i/lof ;  Fr.  Xeno- 
phile, gzi'no'ffel',1  a  Greek  sculptor,  who,  aided  by 
Straton,  made  a  statue  of  ^sculapius  at  Argos. 

Xenophon,  zfin'o-fon,  [Gr.  s-evoi^Civ;  Fr.  XEnophon, 
gzi'no'fAN';  It.  Zenofo.nte,  dzi-no-fon'ti,]  a  celebrated 
Athenian  historian  and  general,  was  a  son  of  Gryllus, 
and  a  native  of  the  demus  Ercheia.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  445  B.C.  According  to  Diogenes 
Laertius,  from  whose  writings  we  derive  nearly  all  that 
is  known  of  his  life,  Xenophon  fell  from  his  horse  at  the 
battle  of  Delium,  in  424  B.C.,  and  would  probably  have 
been  killed,  if  he  had  not  been  rescued  by  Socrates. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  Socrates  at  an  early  age,  and, 
according  to  Photius,  was  also  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life  which  occurred 
between  the  battle  of  Delium  and  the  year  401  B.C. 
Diogenes  Laertius  states  that  "Xenophon  edited  or 
made  known  the  History  of  Thucydides,  although  it 
was  in  his  power  to  pass  it  off  as  his  own  work  ;"  but 
the  truth  of  this  statement  is  doubted  by  some  critics. 
In  401  B.C.  he  went  to  Sardis,  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  Persian  prince  Cyrus  the  Younger,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  an  expedition  against  Artaxerxes  Mnemon, 
King  of  Persia.  Xenophon  and  the  other  Greeks  who 
engaged  in  this  expedition  were  deceived  as  to  its  real 
object.  Cyrus  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Cunaxa,  near 
Babylon,  and  the  Greek  general  Clearchus  was  treach- 
erously slain.  Xenophon  was  one  of  the  generals  who 
conducted  the  Greek  army  of  10,000  in  its  memorable 
retreat  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Black  Sea.  He  displayed 
great  firmness,  courage,  and  military  skill  in  this  opera- 
tion. This  expedition  and  retreat  form  the  subject  of 
his  most  celebrated  work,  the  "  Anabasis,  or  History 
of  the  Expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger,"  which  is  a 
very  interesting  narrative  and  is  written  in  a  natural, 
agreeable  style. 

According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  banished  from 
Athens  about  399  B.C.,  perhaps  because  he  was  a  friend 
of  Socrates.  Diogenes  Laertius  says  he  was  banished 
for  Laconism.  He  took  part  in  an  expedition  which 
the  Spartan  king  Agesilaus  conducted  against  the  Per- 
sians in  396,  and  he  fought  in  the  Spartan  army  against 
the  Athenians  at  the  battle  of  Coroneia,  (394  B.C.)  Soon 
after  this  date  he  settled,  with  his  wife  Philesia  and  his 
children,  at  Scillus,  near  Olympia,  where  he  resided 
many  years  and  employed  his  time  in  hunting  and 
writing.  During  his  residence  at  Scillus  he  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Hunting,"  his  "Anabasis,"  and  perhaps 
other  works.  The  decree  by  which  he  was  banished 
from  Athens  was  repealed  a  few  years  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  about  355  B.C.  He  had  two  sons,  named 
Gryllus  and  Diodorus.  It  is  supposed  that  all  of  his 
writings  have  come  down  to  us.  Under  the  title  of 
"  Helienica,"  he  wrote  a  history  of  Greece  from  411  to 
362  B.C.  His  "Cyropjedia"  (Ky/«)7Ta((Sf('a)  is  commonly 
regarded  as  a  political  romance  founded  on  the  exploits 
of  Cyrus  the  Great,  and  has  no  authority  as  a  history. 
Among  his  other  works  are  a  "Life  of  Agesilaus,"  "The 
Symposium,  or  Banquet,"  in  which  he  explains  the 
ideas  of  Socrates   in    relation  to   love   and   friendship, 


and  delineates  the  character  of  Socrates,  a  Dialogue 
between  Socrates  and  Critobulus,  entitled  OiiiovofMUiiji, 
which  treats  of  domestic  and  moral  economy,  and  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  a  philosophic  work  called  "The 
Memorabilia  of  Socrates,"  ('A7zo/j.vr]iwvfVfjxiTa  I^OKfjaTovg,) 
which  purports  to  be  an  exposition  of  the  doctrines  and 
character  of  his  illustrious  master.  It  is  highly  prized 
as  a  memorial  of  the  practical  part  of  the  Socratic  phi- 
losophy. "  Xenophon,"  says  Macaulay,  "  is  commonly 
placed,  but,  we  think,  without  much  reason,  in  the  same 
rank  with  Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  He  resembles 
them,  indeed,  in  the  purity  and  sweetness  of  his  style  ; 
but  in  spirit  he  rather  resembles  that  later  school  of 
historians,  whose  works  seem  to  be  fables  composed 
for  a  moral,  and  who  in  their  eagerness  to  give  us  warn- 
ings and  example  forget  to  give  us  men  and  women," 
(Essay  on  "History,"  1828.)  Xenophon's  "Memora- 
bilia" has  been  translated  into  English  by  Sarah  Fielding, 
his  "Symposium"  by  J.  Wellwood,  his  "  Cyrojiaedia" 
by  M.  A.  Cowper,  and  his  "  CEconomicus"  by  Robert 
Bradley. 

See  FoRTiA  d'Urban,  "Vie  de  Xdnoplion,"  1795;  Crbuzer, 
"  De  Xenophonte  hisiorico,"  1799:  Hacken,  "Xenophon,"  1805; 
Krucer,  "  De  Xenophontis  Vita,"  1823;  Nodbe,  "Vita  Xeno- 
phontis,"  1825;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Hoffmann, 
"  Lexicon  Bibliographlcurn  ;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Thirl- 
WALl^  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ndrale." 

Xenophon,  an  Athenian  sculptor,  who  lived  about 
300  B.C.  In  conjunction  with  Cephisodotus,  he  made  a 
statue  of  Jupiter. 

Xenophon,  a  Greek  physician,  a  native  of  Cos,  lived 
at  Rome,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Claudius. 
At  the  instigation  of  Agrippina,  he  poisoned  Claudius, 
by  introducing  a  poisoned  feather  into  his  mouth  under 
pretence  of  making  him  vomit. 

Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  a  Greek  writer  of  unknown 
period,  was  the  author  of  a  romance  called  "  Ephesiaca, 
or  the  Loves  of  Anthia  and  Abrocomas,"  the  style  of 
which  is  simple  and  elegant.  He  probably  lived  in 
the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ.  His  romance 
has  been  translated  into  German  by  Biirger,  and  into 
English  by  Rooke. 

Xerces.     See  Xerxes. 

Xeres,  de,  di  na'r^s,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  histo- 
rian, was  secretary  to  Pizarro,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Peru  about  1530.  He  published  in  1547  a  history  of  the 
expedition,  entitled  "  A  True  Account  of  the  Conquest 
of  Peru,"  etc. 

Xerxes,  zerk's^z,  [Gr.  Asp^rjc;  Fr.  XERcfes,  gz^R'sSs',] 
I.,  sometimes  called  Xerxes  the  Great,  a  famous  king 
of  Persia,  and  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time, 
was  a  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  His  mother  was  Atossa, 
a  daughter  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  succeeded  Darius 
in  485  B.C.,  and  began  to  raise  an  immense  army  for  the 
invasion  of  Greece.  Several  years  were  expended  in 
cutting  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Mount  Athos, 
and  in  building  a  bridge  of  boats  or  ships  across  the 
Hellespont,  over  which  Xerxes  and  his  army  passed  in 
the  spring  of  480  H.c.  His  army  was  composed  of  many 
nations  tributary  to  the  Persian  empire,  and,  according 
to  Heiodotus,  amounted  to  2,317,610  men,  besides  slaves 
and  non-combatants.  Niebuhr  and  Grote  consider 
this  number  incredible  and  impossible.  The  number 
of  slaves  and  other  camp-followers  was  equal  to  that 
of  the  soldiers.  He  is  said  to  have  shed  tears  when 
he  reflected  that  in  a  century,  or  less,  none  of  these 
myriads  of  men  would  survive.  Having  reviewed  his 
army  at  Doriscus,  he  marched  through  Thrace  and 
Thessaly.  The  Greeks  attempted  to  defend  the  pa.ss 
of  Thermopylae,  but  the  Persians  turned  that  position, 
(see  Leon  I  DAS,)  and  captured  Athens,  from  which  the 
whole  population  had  been  removed.  The  Athenians, 
who  were  directed  by  Themistocles,  relied  chiefly  on 
their  naval  power  for  defence  against  the  invaders.  An 
indecisive  naval  action  was  fought  by  the  two  fleets  at 
Artemisium,  where  the  Persian  fleet  was  much  damaged 
by  a  storm.  Xerxes  was  still  able  after  this  loss  to 
muster  a  fleet  of  twelve  hundred  vessels,  which  in  the 
autumn  of  480  B.C.  was  defeated  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  Sahimis.  (See  The.mistocles.)  Xerxes,  placed  on  a 
lofty  position  on  the  adjacent  shore,  witnessed  this  dis- 
astrous defeat  of  his  vainglorious  project.     He  retreated 


«  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  Aard;  g  as  ;;  g,  h,  Vi,o-uttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( JQ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


XERXES 


2:;o6 


XYSUTHRUS 


hastily  by  land  to  the  Hellespont,  and  crossed  over  tc 
Asia,  leaving  an  army  under  Mardonius,  who  was  de- 
feated at  Plataea  in  479  B.C.  Xerxes  was  murdered  in 
465  by  Artabanus,  an  officer  of  his  court.  He  appears 
to  have  been  by  nature  not  without  amiable  and  noble 
qualities ;  but  his  heart  was  corrupted  by  the  posses- 
sion of  unlimited  power,  and  by  the  abject  adulation 
commonly  bestowed  on  Eastern  sovereigns.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Arta.xerxes  Longimanus. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History  of  Greece;"  Grote,  "History  o 
Greece;"  Rollin,  "Ancient  History;"  Rosenberg,  "De  Cam- 
byse,  Dario  Hystaspe  et  Xerxe,"  1690;  Hussel,  "  Xerxes  des  Gros- 
sen  Leben,  Thaten  und  Ende."  1816. 

Xerxes  II.,  King  of  Persia,  was  a  son  of  Artaxerxes 
I.,  (Longimanus,)  whom  he  succeeded  in  425  B.C.  After 
a  reign  of  a  few  months,  he  was  assassinated  by  Sog- 
dianus,  his  half-brother. 

Xiiaenes  or  Jimenes,  He-ma'n5s,  (Fkancisco,)  a 
Spanish  friar,  who  was  employed  as  a  missionary  in 
Mexico.  He  translated  into  Spanish  a  Latin  work  on 
the  plants  of  Mexico,  by  Hernandez.     Died  about  1620. 

Ximenes  or  Jimenes,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1598.  He  studied  in 
Rome,  adopted  an  Italian  style,  and  returned  to  Sara- 
gossa.    His  works  are  highly  praised.     Died  in  1666. 

Ximenes,  He-ma'nSs,  (Leo.nardo,)  a  Sicilian  astron- 
omer and  geometer,  born  at  Trapani  in  17 16,  became 
a  Jesuit.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  geography  at 
Florence,  and  by  his  skill  in  hydraulics  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  averting  the  damages  caused  by 
overflowing  rivers.  He  wrote  a  number  of  able  works 
on  astronomy  and  hydraulics,  among  which  is  "Collec- 
tion of  Hydraulic  Pamphlets,"  etc.,  ("  Raccolta  di  Peri- 
zie  ed  Opuscoli  idraulici,"2  vols.,  1781-86.)  He  founded 
an  observatory  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1786. 

Ximenes,  she-ma'nSs,  (Peter,)  a  theologian,  born 
of  Portuguese  parents  at  Middelburg,  in  Holland,  in 
15 14.  I  le  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work  called  "  Demonstration 
of  the  Catholic  Truth."     Died  in  1595. 

Ximenes,  (Rodrigo,)  a  Spanish  prelate  and  his- 
torian, became  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  cardinal. 
Me  rendered  important  military  services  in  the  war 
against  the  Moors,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Spain." 
Died  in  1247. 

Ximenes,  de,  deh  ze'mi'nSs',  (Augustin  Louis,) 
Marquis,  a  French  poet,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  in 
Paris  in  1726,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire.  He 
was  the  author  of "  Don  Carlos,"  and  other  tragedies,  a 
poem  entitled  "Ciesar  in  the  Senate,"  and  several  criti- 
cal essays,  which  were  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1815. 

Ximenes  (or  Jimenes)  de  Carmona,  He-ma'nSs 
di  kiR-mo'ni,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer, 
born  at  Cordova  near  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cei>tury. 

Ximenes,  [English  pron.  ze-mee'nfez,]  or,  more  fully, 
Jimenes  (or  Ximenes)  de  Cisneros,  He-ma'nSs  di 
/■yiis-na'rds,  (Francisco,)  called  Cardinal  Ximenes,  a 
celebrated  Spanish  statesman  and  patron  of  literature, 
was  born  at  Torrelaguna,  in  New  Castile,  in  1436.  He 
was  educated  at  Salamanca  and  at  Rome,  where  he 
studied  theology,  philosophy,  and  Oriental  languages. 
He  became  grand  vicar  of  Cardinal  Mendoza  at  Siguenza. 
About  1482  he  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at  Toledo, 
where  he  acquired  distinction  as  a  preacher.  He  was 
appointed  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella  in  1492,  and 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1495.  His  modesty  prompted 
him  to  decline  this  honour  ;  but  he  submitted  to  the 
positive  command  of  the  pope.  He  was  distinguished 
by  his  simplicity  of  life,  his  charity  to  the  poor,  and  his 
aversion  to  luxury  and  pomp.  About  149S  he  founded 
the  University  of  Alcala  de  Henares.  He  exerted  his 
influence  to  reform  the  Fikinciscan  order  of  monks. 
Under  his  auspices  a  number  of  eminent  scholars  began 
in  1502  to  prepare  a  Polyglot  Bible,  called  the  Complu- 
tensian,  which  became  the  model  of  all  the  subsequent 
versions  of  the  Bible  in  divers  languages,  and  was  the 
greatest  literary  enterprise  of  that  age.  On  the  death 
of  Queen  Isabella  (1504)  he  acted  as  mediator  between 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and  the  archduke  Philip,  each 
of  whom  claimed  the  regency  of  Castile.  After  the 
death  of  Philip  (1506)  Ximenes  was  appointed  regent 
or  guardian  of  Queen  Joanna,  who  was  disqualified  by 


mental  imbecility.  He  authorized  the  citizens  of  the 
towns  to  form  themselves  into  a  militia,  and  by  this 
bold  and  politic  measure  promoted  the  power  of  the 
crown,  while  he  reduced  the  importance  of  the  unruly 
nobles. 

In  1507  he  received  the  title  of  cardinal.  He  fitted 
out  at  his  own  expense  a  fleet  and  an  army,  which  he 
conducted  in  person  to  Africa  in  1509,  and  captured  the 
city  of  Oran  by  storm.  "  His  talents,  energy,  and  re- 
puted sanctity  of  character,"  says  Prescott,  "  combined 
with  the  authority  of  his  station,  gave  him  unbounded 
influence  with  all  classes  of  the  Castilians."  During  his 
expedition  against  Oran,  King  Ferdinand  wrote  a  letter 
to  Count  Navarro  and  requested  him  to  find  some 
pretence  for  detaining  Ximenes  in  Africa.  The  car- 
dinal was  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  this  letter,  and 
naturally  put  the  worst  construction  on  the  same.  On 
one  occasion  the  king,  who  wished  the  archbishopric  of 
Toledo  for  his  natural  son  Alfonso,  importuned  Ximenes 
to  resign  his  see  and  take  another  in  exchange ;  but  he 
replied,  with  indignation,  "that  he  would  never  consent 
to  barter  away  the  dignities  of  the  Church."  In  1517 
his  "  Polyglot  Bible"  was  completed.  According  to 
Prescott,  this  was  "a  noble  monument  of  piety,  learn- 
ing, and  munificence,  which  entitles  its  author  to  the 
gratitude  of  the  whole  Christian  world."  ("  History  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.") 

By  the  testament  of  Ferdinand,  who  died  in  January, 
1516,  Cardinal  Ximenes  was  appointed  sole  regent  of 
Castile  during  the  absence  of  the  young  king  Charles. 
His  right  to  this  office  was  disputed  by  Adrian,  Dean 
of  Louvain,  who  produced  powers  of  similar  purport 
from  Charles.  Ximenes  and  Adrian  administered  the 
government  jointly  for  some  time,  but  the  former  soon 
assumed  sole  power.  In  September,  1517,  Charles  V. 
arrived  in  Spain,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  Ximenes,  which 
"is  unmatched,  even  in  court  annals,  for  cool  and  base 
ingratitude."  (Prescott.)  It  announced  his  dismissal 
from  office.     He  died  on  the  8th  of  November,  15 17. 

"  Such,"  says  Prescott,  "  was  the  end  of  this  remark- 
able man, — the  most  remarkable,  in  many  respects,  of 
his  time.  His  character  was  of  that  stern  and  lofty 
cast  which  seems  to  rise  above  the  ordinary  wants  and 
weaknesses  of  humanity.  His  genius,  of  the  severest 
order,  like  Dante's  or  Michael  Angelo's  in  the  regions 
of  fancy,  impresses  us  with  ideas  of  i)ower  that  excite 
admiration  akin  to  terror.  .  .  .  His  regency  was  con- 
ducted on  the  principles  of  a  military  despotism.  His 
whole  policy,  indeed,  was  to  exalt  the  royal  prerogative 
at  the  expense  of  the  inferior  orders  of  the  state.  .  .  . 
He  had  a  full  measure  of  the  religious  bigotry  which 
belonged  to  the  age."  ("  History  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,"  vol.  iii.) 

See  RoBLES,  "  Vida  del  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1604:  Fl^chier, 
"  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1693:  Castro,  "De  Vita  F. 
Ximenii,"  1581;  Meni>oza,  "Vida  de  Ximenes,"  1653;  Marsol- 
lier,  "Histoire  du  Ministere  de  Ximenes,"  1694:  "  Don  F.  Xime- 
nes," Leipsic,  1796:  Barkrt,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1813; 
Hefele,  "  Der  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1844;  Havemann,  "  F.  Xime- 
nes," 1848;   Robertson,    "History  of  Charles  V.  " 

Ximenes  de  Quesadei,  (di  kisi'oi,)  (Gonzalo,)  a 
Spanish  explorer  and  captain,  born  at  Granada  about 
1495.  He  commanded  a  party  which  about  1532  began 
to  explore  the  region  since  called  New  Granada,  and 
founded  in  1538  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.     Died  in  1546. 

Ximeuo  or  Jimeno,  He-ma'no,  (Vincente,)  a 
Spanish  biographer,  born  at  Valencia  about  1700.  He 
published  a  literary  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia, 
"Escritores  del  Regno  de  Valencia,"  (2  vols.,  1747-49.) 

Xiphilin.     See  Xiphilinus. 

Xiphilinus,  zif-e-ll'nus,  [Gr.  s-K^M-voq;  Fr.  Xiphilin, 
gze'fe'liw',]  (Joannes,)  became  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople in  1066.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious 
and  ecclesiastical  works.     Died  in  1075. 

Xiphilinus,  (Joannes,)  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
wrote  an  epitome  of  the  "  History"  of  Dion  Cassius, 
which  was  first  published  in  1551. 

Xuares  or  Juares,  Hoo-i'r5s,  (Caspar,)  a  Jesuit  and 
botanist, born  in  Paraguayin  1731  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1804. 

Xuares  or  Juares,  hoo  i'rSs,  written  also  Suares 
(Roderick,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Salamanca,  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

Xysuthrus,  or  Xysythrus,  a  king  of  Babylon,  who 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  yi  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


XUTHUS 


2507 


YANCEY 


at  the  time  of  the  great  deluge  is  said  to  have  saved 
himself  and  some  of  his  people  in  a  ship. 

Xuthus,  zu'thus,  [Gr.  Swtfof,]  a  mythical  king  of 
Peloponnesus,  was  called  a  son  of  Helen,  a  brother  of 
Dorus  and  ^Eolus,  and  the  father  of  Achaeus  and  Ion. 

Xylander,  kse-lin'd^r,  (Gulielmus,  or  William,) 
a  German  scholar,  originally  named  Holzmann,  (i.e. 
"  wood-man,"  of  which  Xylander  is  the  Greek  equivalent,) 
was  born  at  Augsburg  in  1532.  He  studied  in  his  native 
town  and  at  Tubingen,  and  in  1558  became  professor 
of  Greek  at  Heidelberg.  He  made  numerous  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  among  which  we  may 


name  the  works  of  Strabo  and  Plutarch,  the  "  History" 
of  Dion  Cassius,  and  the  mathematical  works  of  Dio- 
phantus.  He  also  edited  some  of  the  works  of  Marcus 
Antoninus,  Phlegon  Trallianus,  and  Antigonus  Carys- 
tius.  His  learning  was  profound,  and  his  translations 
are  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1576. 

Xylander,  von,  fon  kse-lan'der,  (Joseph  Karl 
August,)  a  German  officer  and  military  writer,  born  at 
Munich  in  1794,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  entitled 
"Strategy  and  its  Application,"  (1818,)  a  "Manual  of 
Tactics,"  and  numerous  other  works,  on  various  sub- 
jects.    Died  in  1854. 


Y. 


Tahya,*  (or  Yahia.)  yi'Me-i,  a  Moorish  captain, 
tailed  by  the  Spaniards  Ben-Gama  or  Ben-Gamia.  He 
was  commander  of  the  armies  of  the  Almoravides  in 
Spain,  whose  power  was  opposed  by  the  Almohades. 
He  was  killed  in  1148. 

Yahya-  (or  Yahia-)  al-Barmekee,  (or  -Barmaki,) 
yi'ne-i  il  bar'ma-kee',  (Aboo-Alee  or  Abfl-Ali, 
i'boo  a'lee,)  a  Persian  minister  of  state,  belonged  to  the 
family  of  Barmecides,  (or  Barmekides.)  He  became 
vizier  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  in  786  a.d.  He  was  a 
man  of  superior  talents,  and  had  great  influence  for 
many  years.  He  was  disgraced  about  803,  and  died 
in  807  A.D. 

Y&jnavalkya,  a  Sanscrit  author  of  whom  very  little 
is  known.  He  was  the  reputed  author  of  several  books 
which  are  still  extant. 

Yakoobt-al-Mansoor-Billah,  Yakoub-al-Man- 
sour-Billah^or  Yakub-  (or  Jakub-)  al-Mansur- 
Billah,  yd'koob''  M  mSn'soor'  biKlah,  a  king  of  Morocco, 
born  about  12 10,  was  an  able  and  powerful  monarch. 
He  began  to  reign  in  1258.  In  1275  he  invaded  Spain, 
and  waged  war  against  the  Christians  with  some  suc- 
cess.    Died  in  1286. 

Yakoob  Bey,  or  Yakoob  Ooshbegee,  oosh-ba'- 
gee,  a  Toorkoman  or  Uzbeck  soldier,  surnamed  Atalik 
Ghazee,  was  born  at  Tashkent  in  1820.  He  fought  the 
Russians  with  considerable  distinction.  In  1865  he  was 
sent  against  Cashgar,  in  Chinese  Toorkistan,  in  aid  of 
the  Mohammedan  insurgents.  Yakoob  fought  with  great 
ability  and  perseverance,  and  made  himself  master  of 
the  whole  country.  He  ruled  Cashgar  with  remarkable 
success,  built  a  handsome  college,  mosque,  monastery, 
and  palace,  and  kept  two  hundred  ladies  in  his  harem. 
He  was  assassinated  by  his  household  officers,  May  31, 
1877.  The  Chinese  then  reconquered  the  country,  and 
soon  after  murdered  in  cold  blood  many  thousands  of 
Yakoob's  former  subjects. 

Yakoob-  (Yakoub-  or  Yakftb-)  Ibn-Lais  or 
-Laith,{  yi'kdob'  ib'n  Us,  surnamed  AlSoffar  or  Al- 
Suffar,  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Soffarides 
in  Persia.  By  conquest  he  made  himself  master  of  Se'is- 
tan  about  862  a.d.,  and  of  Farsistan  a  few  years  later. 
Died  about  878  a.d. 

Yaksha,  [perhaps  from  the  Sanscrit/a-^j-^,  to  "eat,"] 
a  name  of  certain  spirits  in  the  Hindoo  and  Booddhist 
mythology,  described  in  the  Vishnu-Purana  as  hideous 
beings,  always  hungry  and  emaciated,  but  gentle  and 
inoffensive  in  character.  Other  books  describe  them  as 
most  cruel  and  repulsive  demons,  still  others  as  happy 
spirits.  Some  Booddhists  believe  that  they  may  enter 
Nirvana,  like  human  beings.  They  resemble  the  Jinu, 
or  genii,  of  Arabian  stories.  They  have  wives,  called 
Yakshi,  (Yakshee.) 

Yai'den,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  divine, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1671.  He  studied  at  Magdalene 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of 
Addison  and  Sacheverell.  He  succeeded  Atterbury  as 
lecturer   at   Bridewell    Hospital    in    1698,  and   became 

•  It  may  be  remarked  that  Va/iyn  is  tlie  Arabic  form  of  John. 
There  have  been  many  princes,  leaders,  and  writers  of  this  name, 
both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  but  none  of  any  great  note. 

t  Vatoo/>  (in  German,  jfakuh)  is  the  Arabic  of  Jacob  and  Jame.s. 

t  See  "  Introduction."  p.  viii.  section  i.,  4. 


professor  or  reader  of  moral  philosophy  at  Oxford  ai^o... 
1702.  He  was  also  rector  of  Chalton  and  Clean ville,  in 
Hertfordshire.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "The 
Temple  of  Fame,"  (1700,)  ".^sop  at  Court,"  (1702,)  a 
"  Hymn  to  Light,"  and  a  "  Hymn  to  Darkness,"  which 
was  praised  by  Dr.  Johnson.     Died  in  1736. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Yale,  (Elihu,)  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  m 
1648,  was  the  principal  patron  of  the  college  ceiled  by 
his  name.  He  became  in  1687  governor  of  Fort  Saint 
George  at  Madras.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety.    Died  in  1721. 

Yam'a  or  Yam'a-na,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  yum'a 
or yam'a-na,]  called  also  Yam'an  or  Yam'en,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  god  of  Patala,  (or  Naraka,§)  or 
the  lower  world,  and  the  god  of  death  and  the  judge  of 
departed  spirits.  His  residence  or  capital  is  called  Yama- 
pura,  or  "  city  of  Yama."  After  having  inquired  into  and 
pronounced  upon  the  merits  of  those  who  are  brought 
before  his  judgment-seat,  he  sends  the  good  to  Swarga, 
(Indra's  paradise,)  and  the  wicked  to  appropriate  places 
of  punishment,  corresponding  to  the  Tartarus  of  classic 
mythology.  Yama  is  known  by  a  great  multitude  of 
names,  as  Dharma-Raja,  ("King  of  Justice,")  Mrityu, 
[i.e.  "  Death,")  etc.  He  is  said  to  have  a  servant, 
named  Karmala,  (or  Carmala,)  who  brings  before  him 
the  righteous  on  celestial  self-moving  cars.  He  has  two 
faces, — the  one  full  of  mildness  and  benevolence,  seen 
only  by  the  virtuous;  the  other  is  hideous,  exhibiting 
great  and  terrible  teeth  :  this  only  is  visible  to  the 
wicked.  Yama  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same 
as  Bali,  (or  Baly,)  to  whom,  as  we  are  informed  in  the 
legend  of  Vamana,  (which  see,)  Vishnu  conceded  the 
kingdom  of  Patala  ;  but  Southey  makes  them  two  dis- 
tinct personages,!!  Yamen  being  the  king,  and  "  Baly" 
(Kali)  the  judge,  of  "  Padalon,"  (a  corruption  of  Patala.) 

See  "The  Curse  of  Kehama,"  vol.  ii.,  v.,  also  ix.-xii. ;  Moor, 
"  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Yamana.     See  Yama. 

Vanieii.     .See  Yama. 

Yami,  yum'ee  or  yam'ee,  in  Hindoo  mythology,  th« 
twin-sister  of  Yama,  who  on  account  of  this  close  rela- 
tionship refused  to  marry  her. 

Yamuna,  yam'00-na  or  yum'00-na,  in  Hindoo  my- 
thology, a  goddess  who  represents  the  river  Jumna,  just 
as  Ganga  stands  for  the  Ganges.  She  was  a  sister  of 
Yama. 

Yanaka.     See  Nanek. 

Yan'cey,  (William  L.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  about  1815.  He 
studied  law,  and  settled  in  Alabama  about  1837.  He 
represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1844  to  1847  inclusive.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  most 
extreine  partisans  of  State  sovereignty  and  disunion, 
(called  fire-eaters,)  and  was  the  reputed  author  of  the 

§  The  words  Naralsa  and  Patala  appear  to  be  sometimes  used  as 
nearly  synonymous:  but  Patala  is  more  correctly  applied  to  the 
whole  extent  of  the  lower  world,  while  Naraka  properly  denotes  ■ 
place  of  torment. 

U  "He  [Yamen]  sat  upon  a  marbie  sepulchre, 

Massive  and  huge,  where  at  the  monarch's  feet 
The  righteous  Baly  had  his  judgment-seat." 

Curse  0/  Kehatna,  vol.  ii.,  xL 


«  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,gitttiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  triiled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^p^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


YANG-TEE 


2508 


YEN-HOEI 


phrase  "fire  the  Southern  heart"  In  the  Convention 
of  Alabama  he  reported  the  ordinance  of  secession, 
which  was  passed  in  January,  1861.  He  was  sent  early 
in  1861  to  Europe  as  a  commissioner  to  obtain  the 
recognition  of  the  new  confederacy.  Having  returned 
in  February,  1862,  he  entered  the  Congress  at  Richmond 
as  Senator' for  Alaljama.     Died  in  August,  1863. 

Yang-Tee  or  Yang-Ti,  ying'tee',  Emperor  of  China, 
began  to  reign  in  605  A.D.  He  caused  several  great 
canals  to  be  made  for  navigation.     Died  in  617. 

Yao,  yi'o,  or  Yaou,  yi'oo,  almost  yow,  an  ancient 
Chinese  sage  and  ruler,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  According 
to  Pauthier,  he  ascended  the  imperial  throne  2357  B.C., 
and  reigned  seventy-two  years,  after  which  Shun  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  government.  His  reign  is 
considered  by  some  to  mark  the  commencement  ol  au- 
thentic history  among  the  Chinese.  The  most  ancient 
historical  books  of  China,  if  we  may  trust  the  statements 
of  the  Chinese  critics,  date  from  the  time  of  Yao ;  in 
other  words,  the  events  of  his  reign  were  chronicled  by 
contemporary  historians,  and  not  written  afterwards 
from  tradition,  as  is  the  case  with  the  early  history  of 
nearly  all  other  nations.  Be  this  as  it  may,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  the  early  history  of  China  to  be  more 
trustworthy  than  that  of  most  other  countries.  Yao  is 
represented  as  having  been  one  of  the  most  enlightened, 
virtuous,  and  prosperous  of  rulers.  He  introduced 
into  the  state  many  important  regulations.  He  gave 
especial  encouragement  to  the  study  of  astronomy  and  to 
works  of  public  improvement.  "  Great  indeed,"  says 
Confucius,  "was  Yaou  as  a  sovereign.  How  majestic 
was  he  !  It  is  only  Heaven  that  is  grand,  and  only  Yaou 
corresponded  to  it.  How  vast  was  his  virtue  !  The 
people  could  find  no  name  for  it.  How  majestic  was  he 
in  the  works  which  he  accomplished  !  how  glorious  in 
the  admirable  regulations  which  he  instituted  !"  (See  the 
"Confucian  Analects,"  book  viii.  chap,  xix.)  Yao  was 
succeeded  by  Shun,  who  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior 
to  him  in  wisdom  and  virtue. 

Yaroslaf  or  Yaroslav,  Jaroslaw  or  Jaroslav, 
yS'ro-slif,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  a  son  of  Vladimir  I., 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  In 
1016  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  his  brother, 
Sviatopok,  and  was  crowned  sovereign  of  all  the  Russias. 
His  reign  is  distinguished  by  the  wise  laws  which  he 
enacted  for  the  benefit  of  his  sulijects,  the  liberal  encou- 
ragement which  he  gave  to  learning,  and  the  introduction 
of  painting  from  Greece.  His  sister  Mary  was  married 
to  Casimir,  King  of  Poland,  and  one  of  his  daughters 
became  the  queen  of  Henry  I.  of  France.     Died  in  1054. 

Yaroslaf  (or  Jaroslaw)  IL  became  Grand  Duke  of 
Russia  in  1238.  During  his  reign  the  Mongol  Tartars 
overran  his  dominions  and  reduced  him  to  vassalage. 
Died  in  1246. 

Yar'rau-ton,  (Andrew,)  an  English  soldier  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1616,  served  for 
a  time  in  the  Parliamentary  army.  He  devoted  himself 
to  the  improvement  of  inland  navigation  and  agricul- 
ture, and  wrote  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  England's 
Improvement  by  Sea  and  Land,"  (1677.) 

See  Samuel  Smiles,  "  Industrial  Biography." 

Yar'rell,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1784.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Linnaean  and  Zoological  Societies,  and  contributed  a 
number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the  Journal  and  Trans- 
actions of  those  institutions.  He  published  in  1836  his 
"  History  of  British  Fishes."  (2  vols.  8vo,)  which  was 
followed  in  1843  by  his  "  History  of  British  Birds,"  (2 
vols.)  They  are  beautifully  illustrated  with  wood-cuts, 
and  are  ranked  among  the  most  admirable  works  of 
their  kind.  Yarrell  was  the  first  to  prove  that  the  white 
bait  is  a  distinct  species  offish,  and  not  the  young  of  other 
species,  as  was  previously  supposed.     Died  in  1S56. 

See  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1837. 

Yart,  yia  or  e-^R,  (Antoinf.,)  a  French  litterateitr, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1710,  became  a  priest  and  curate  of 
Saussay,  in  Vexin.  He  published,  under  the  title  of 
"  Idee  de  la  Poesie  Anglaise,"  (8  vols.,  1749-56,)  prose 
translations  of  several  English  poems.     Died  in  1791. 


Yates,  (Anna  Maria,)  a  celebrated  English  actress, 
excelled  particularly  in  tragic  parts.  She  was  the  wife 
of  Richard  Yates.    Died  in  1787. 

Yates,  (Edmund  Hodgson,)  an  English  novelist,  a 
son  of  the  following,  was  born  in  1831.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "Temple  Bar  Magazine"  for  some  years  ending 
in  1867.  Among  his  works  are  "  Broken  to  Harness," 
(1864,)  "The  Business  of  Pleasure,"  (1865,)  "  Land  at 
Last:  a  Novel,"  (1866,)  "Black  Sheep,"  (1867.)  "The 
Rock  Ahead,"  (i868,)"  Wrecked  in  Port,"  (1869,)  "Doc- 
tor Wainwright's  Patient"  and  "Nobodv's  Fortune," 
(1871,)  "The  Yellow  Flag,"  (1873,)  and  "The  Impend- 
ing Sword,"  (1874.) 

Yates,  (Jamks,)  an  English  antiquary  and  economist, 
born  at  Highgate,  near  London,  in  1789,  became  a  dis- 
senting minister.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Textrinum  Opus,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Art  of  Weav- 
ing among  the  Ancients,"  (1845.)      Died  May  7,  1871. 

Yates,  (Robert,)  an  American  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  in  1738,  became  chief 
justice  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1790.    Died  in  1801. 

Yates,  (William,)  an  English  Baptist  divine  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  1792.  In  1815  he  went  as  a  mission- 
ary to  Calcutta,  where  he  translated  the  Bible  into 
Bengalee,  and  the  New  Testament,  Pentateuch,  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  Isaiah,  and  Daniel  into  Sanscrit.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  Sanscrit  grammar,  and  a  Sanscrit-and-English 
dictionary.    He  died  on  the  voyage  to  England,  in  1845 

Yazeed  or  Yazid.     See  Yezeed. 

Yazikof  or  Jasikow^,  yS'ze-kof,  a  Russian  lyric 
poet,  distinguished  for  the  exquisite  sweetness  and  melody 
of  his  verse,  was  born  at  Simbirsk  in  1805.  From  the 
character  of  his  early  songs,  he  was  called  "  the  Russian 
Anacreon,"  but  his  later  productions  were  of  a  more 
serious  character.     Died  in  1846. 

Yberville.     See  Iberville. 

Yeames,  yeemz,  (William  Frederick,)  an  English 
painter,  born  at  Taganrog,  in  Russia,  in  1835.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Sir  Thomas  More  taken  to  the  Tower," 
(1863.)  He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  London  in  1866,  and  Academician  in  1878. 

Yearsley,  yeerz'le,  (Mrs.  Anne,)  an  English  writer, 
born  at  Bristol  about  1756,  was  originally  a  milkwoman. 
She  was  patronized  by  Hannah  More,  under  whose  aus- 
pices she  published  "The  Royal  Captives,"  a  romaHce, 
and  a  collection  of  poems. 

Yeates,  vats, .'  (Thomas,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1768.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  a 
Hebrew  Grammar  and  a  Syriac  Grammar,  both  of  which 
are  commended.     Died  in  1839. 

Yeats,  (Thomas  Pattinson,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
naturalist  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  the  author  of 
an  elementary  work  on  entomology.     Died  in  1782. 

Yefremof  or  JefremoAV,  yJh-fra'mof,  a  Russian 
traveller,  born  about  1744,  published  "  Travels  in  Persia 
and  India,"  (1786.)     Died  after  1809. 

Yeliu,  von,  fon  yeh-leen',  (Julius  Conrad,)  a  Ger- 
man mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1771,  wrote 
several  scientific  works.     Died  in  1826. 

Yeliu-Thsoo-Thsai,  y§l'le-oo'  tsoo  tsl,  a  celebrated 
Chinese  or  Tartar  minister,  born  in  1190.  He  was  a 
councillor  of  Jengis  Khan  and  of  his  son  Ogoda'i.  He 
was  noted  for  his  wisdom  and  virtue.  Died  in  1244. 
.\ccording  to  .Abel  Remusat,  "  Millions  of  men  owed 
their  lives  and  liberty  to  this  great  minister,  who  spent 
his  life  in  pleading  the  cause  of  law,  order,  and  hu- 
manitv." 

Yel'ver-ton,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  1566,  was  the  author  of  "  Reports  of 
Special  Cases."     Died  in  1630. 

Yendis  or  Yendys.     See  Dobelu 

Yen-Hoei,  ySnho-a'  or  -ho-I',  or  Yen-Hwuy,  called 
also  Yen-Yuen,  (yoo'en',)  the  favourite  and  most  gifted 
disciple  of  Confucius,  was  born  towards  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  Not  only  his  master  but  his 
fellow-pupils  admitted  his  decided  superiority  over  all 
the  rest.  Confucius  asked  one  of  them,  (Tsze-Kung,) 
"  Which  do  you  consider  superior,  yourself  or  Hwuy  ?" 
He  replied,  "How  dare  I  compare  myself  with  Hwuy? 
Hvvuy  hears  one  point  and  knozus  all  about  a  subject,  I 
hear  one  point  and  know  a  second  [only]."  (See  "Ana- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  Ti,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  iir,  fill,  (ki;  mh;  n6t;  good:  mdon; 


YEN- YUEN 


2509 


YONGE 


lects  of  Confucius,"  book  v.)  Confucius  said  of  him, 
"There  was  Yen-Hwuy;  HE  loved  to  learn;  ...  he 
did  not  repeat  a  fault.  Unfortunately,  his  appointed 
time  was  short:  he  died,  and  now  there  is  not  such 
another."  ("  Analects,"  book  vi.)  Even  Menciu?  was 
considered  to  be  inferior  to  Yen-Hwuy,  who  was  "all 
round  and  complete."  (See  Legge's  "Chinese  Classics," 
vol.  ii.  p.  43.)  When  Yen-Hwuy  died,  Confucius  was 
inconsolable,  both  for  his  own  loss  and  the  loss  of  man- 
kind. (See  Confucius.)  His  disciples  said  to  the  sage, 
"Your  grief  is  excessive  !"  "  Is  it  excessive.'"  said  he. 
"If  I  am  not  to  mourn  bitterly  for  this  man,  for  whom 
should  I  mourn?"  ("  Analects,"  book  xf.)  On  another 
occasion  he  said,  "  Admirable  indeed  is  the  virtue  of 
Hwuy."  And  again,  "  He  has  nearly  attained  to  perfect 
virtue."  The  following  may  serve  to  show  Yen-Hoei's 
devotion  to  his  master.  Once,  while  travelling,  they 
were  in  danger  from  the  hostility  of  the  people  of  the 
place  through  which  they  were  passing.  Yen-Hoei 
happened  to  fall  behind  the  rest.  When  he  came  up, 
Confucius  said,  "I  thought  you  had  died."  Yen-Hoei 
replied,  "  While  you  were  alive,  how  should  I  presume 
to  die  ?" 

See  Legge,  "Analects  of  Confucius," /(««>«  ;  also  the  notice  of 
Confucius  in  Pauthier's  "Chine,"  pp.  145,  146,  and  176. 

Yen- Yuen.    See  Yen-Hoei. 

Yepez,  de,  di  yi-pSth',  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  in  the  sixteenth  century,  lived  at 
Valladolid.  He  wrote  "Chronicles  of  the  Benedictine 
Order,"  (7  vols.,  1609-15.)     Died  in  1621. 

Yepez,  de,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  monk  and  historical 
writer,  born  near  Toledo  in  1559.  He  became  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  the  Escurial.  Philip  II.  is  said  to  have 
intrusted  to  him  the  direction  of  his  conscience.  Yepez 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Persecution  in  England  since 
1570."     Died  in  1613. 

Yeregui,  de,  di  yi'ri-gee,  (Jos6,)  a  pious  and  liberal 
Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Vergara  in  1734.  He 
founded  several  schools,  and  became  preceptor  of  the 
children  of  Charles  III.     Died  in  1805. 

Yermak  or  lermak,  y§r'm5k,  a  Cossack  chief,  who 
conquered  Siberia,  was  born  near  the  banks  of  the  Don. 
He  invaded  Siberia  with  5000  men,  and,  after  several 
victories  over  the  native  tribes,  took  Siber,  the  capital, 
in  1580,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Russian  dominion 
in  that  region.     Died  in  1583. 

See  Mii.t.E«,  "Opisanie  Sibirskago  tzarstra,"  1750. 

Ye'well,  (George  Henry,)  an  American  artist,  born 
at  Havre-de-Grace,  Maryland,  January  20,  1830.  He 
studied  in  New  York  under  Thomas  Hicks,  and  at  the 
National  Academy,  1851-53,  also  under  Couture  in  Paris, 
1856  et  seq.,  returning  in  1861  to  New  York.  From  1867 
to  187S  he  lived  in  Italy,  and  chiefly  in  Rome,  visiting 
Cairo  and  the  Levant,  1875-76.  His  earlier  jiaintings 
(before  1S67)  include  portraits  and  genre  subjects  ;  later 
he  worked  on  street-scenes  with  figures,  as  well  as  on 
interiors,  portraits,  etc.  In  1862  he  was  made  an  asso- 
ciate, and  in  1880  he  became  a  full  Academician.  Among 
his  pictures  are  "  .Senate-Chamber  in  the  Doge's  Palace," 
"Interiors  of  Saint  Mark's,  Venice,"  "Mosque  of  Kait- 
Bey,"  "Entrance  to  the  Old  Slave-Market,  Cairo,"  "A 
Street-Scene  in  Cairo,"  etc. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  (yez'de-jerd')  I.,  King  of 
Persia,  of  the  dynasty  of  Snssanidae,  succeeded  his  brother 
Varanes  (Bahram)  IV.  in  399  A.D.  He  maintained  peace 
and  friendship  with  the  Roman  empire,  and  gave  tolera- 
tion to  the  christians,  who  became  numerous  in  Persia. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  however,  a  perse'^ution 
was  provoked  by  the  rash  zeal  of  Abdas,  Bishop  of  Susa, 
who  destroyed  a  temple  of  the  fire-worshippers.  Died 
in  419. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  II.,  surnamed  the 
Gentle,  was  the  son  of  Varanes  (Bahram)  V.,  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Persia  in  439  a.d.  He 
was  attached  to  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster,  and  wished 
his  subjects  to  conform.  His  chief  minister  urged  him 
to  use  severe  measures  against  the  Christians,  who  were 
numerous,  especially  in  Armenia,  and  in  442  an  army 
was  sent  to  enforce  the  worship  of  fire  in  that  province. 
.\\\  Armenian  prince  named  Vartan  raised  a  large  army 
and  defeated    that  of  Persia;    but  finally,  through  the 


treachery  of  several  .Armenian  leaders,  Vartan  was  de- 
feated and  killed,  and  the  province  was  subdued  in 
451.  He  died  in  457,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Hormisdas. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  III.,  King  of  Persia,  was 
the  son  of  Sheheriar,  and  the  last  of  the  race  of  Sas- 
sanidae.  He  began  to  reign  on  the  death  of  his  uncle 
Ferrookh-zad,  in  632  a.  a,  and  found  the  empire  weak- 
ened by  intestine  dissensions  and  verging  to  dissolution. 
He  reformed  the  calendar,  changed  "the  old  names  of 
months  and  days  for  others  representing  physical  objects 
or  properties,  and  ordained  that  time  should  be  com- 
puted from  a  new  era,  (June  16,  632,)  which  is  still  ob- 
served by  the  followers  of  Zoroaster.  In  634  Irak  was 
invaded  by  a  Moslem  arm)',  against  which  he  sent  a 
general  named  Roostam,  who  addressed  the  invaders 
in  terms  like  these  :  "  Retire  from  the  Persian  soil,  if 
you  would  avoid  the  wrath  of  the  king  of  kings.  Who 
is  your  sovereign  ?  what  are  his  antecedents,  his  titles, 
and  his  dominions?  Why  do  you  quit  your  deserts, 
and  what  do  you  seek  in  Persia?"  To  this  the  un- 
terrified  zealots  replied,  "  We  covet  nothing  that  Persia 
contains.  The  vicegerent  of  God  has  charged  us  to 
announce  his  law  to  the  nations  of  the  earth.  If  the 
Persians  and  their  king  will  receive  these  sublime  truths, 
they  shall  be  our  brothers  ;  if  not,  our  swords  shall  sub- 
vert the  throne  of  Yezdejerd."  In  the  battle  that  en- 
sued, the  Arabs  fought  with  all  the  courage  of  fanaticism, 
and  appeared  invincible  until  they  were  broken  and 
routed  by  the  charge  of  the  Persian  elephants.  The 
caliph  Omar  raised  another  army,  and  in  636  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Roostam,  who  was  killed  in  the 
retreat.  This  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  victories  wliich 
about  645  had  effected  the  conquest  of  all  Persia,  except 
a  part  of  Khorassan,  in  which  the  Persian  king  took 
refuge.     He  was  killed  in  652  A.D. 

Yezeed,  Yezid,  or  Jesid  (y5h-zeed')  I.,  written 
also  Yazid  and  Yazeed,  the  second  of  the  Omeyyade 
caliphs,  was  a  son  of  Moaweeyah,  (whence  his  Arali 
surname,  Ibn-Moaweeyah,)  and  began  to  reign  a< 
Damascus  in  680  a.d.  He  was  recognized  in  Persia. 
Syria,  and  Egypt.  Mecca  and  Medina,  having  revoltec 
against  him,  were  pillaged  and  almost  destroyed  bj 
his  armies.     Died  in  683  A.D.,  aged  thirty-nine. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  ChaHfen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vi. 

Yezeed,  Yezid,  or  Jesid  II.,  a  grandson  of  th< 
preceding,  and  a  son  of  Abd-el-Malek,  became  caliph  ir 
720  A.D.     He  persecuted  the  Christians.     Died  in  724. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xiii. 

Yezeed  or  Yazid,  (Ibn-Mahleb,  Tb'n  mSh'leb,)  ar 
able  Persian  warrior,  who  gained  several  victories  foi 
the  caliph  Soliman.  Having  revolted  against  Yezeed 
H.,  he  was  killed  in  battle  about  720  A.D. 

Yggdrasil.     See  Odin. 

Y  Kiun.     See  Wan-Lee. 

Yniir,  ee'mjr,  or  Ymer,  [supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  liorse ymia,  to  "rush,"  to  "roar,"  expressive 
of  confusion,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  first  of  tha 
giants  produced  from  Ginnunga-gap  (the  "abyss  of 
abysses")  by  the  union  of  heat  and  frost,  and  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  Frost-Giants.  He  was  also  called  Aur- 
gelmir,  (the  "  primeval  mass,"  or  chaos.)  He  was  slain 
by  Odin  and  his  brothers,  who  made  the  earth  of  his 
flesh  and  bones,  the  sea  of  his  blood,  and  the  heavens 
of  his  skull.     He  was  a  personification  of  Chaos. 

YoUand,  (William,)  an  English  engineer-officer, 
born  in  iSio.  He  entered  the  royal  engineers  in  1828, 
and  was  long  employed  on  the  ordnance  survey  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  He  published  "  Astronomical  Obser- 
vations" and  a  "Treatise  on  Geodesy."     Died  in  1885. 

Yonge,  yiing,  (Ch.arles  Duke,)  an  English  author, 
born  in  181 2.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1835.  He  published  an  "  English 
and  Greek  Lexicon,"  (1849;  abridged,  1864,)  a  "Latin 
Dictionary,"  (1855-56,)  "History  of  England,"  (1857,) 
"Life  of  Wellington,"  (i860,)  "History  of  France," 
(1866,)  etc. 

Yonge,  (Charlotte  Mary,)  an  English  novelist 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1823,  published  a  number  of  tales, 
among  the  most  popular  of  which  are  "The  Heir  of 
Redclyffe,"  (1853,)  "Heartsease,"  (1S54,)  "The   Daisy 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as/;  o,  h.  k.  ^ttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  tr-illed;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     '  ^^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


YONI 


2510 


YOUNG 


Chain,"  (1856,)  "The  Clever  Woman  of  the  Family," 
(1865,)  "The  Dove  in  the  Eagle's  Nest,"  (1866,)  and 
"The  Chaplet  of  Pearls,"  (1868.)  She  has  also  written 
"Landmarks  of  History,"  (1852-57,)  and  other  educa- 
tional works,  a  "History  of  Christian  Names,"  (1863,) 
a  "  Life  of  John  Coleridge  Patteson,"  (1873,)  and  numer- 
ous volumes  of  hi.story  for  young  people,  (1874-83.) 

Y6nl,  yo'ni,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  symbol 
of  Parvati  and  of  femineity  in  general,  and,  as  such, 
associated  with  the  worship  of  Siva.  (See  Siva,  and 
also  Juno.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  pp.  382-398. 

Yoosuf,  Yousouf,  Yusuf,  or  Jusuf  (yoo'soof)  I.,  a 
Moorish  king  of  Granada,  began  to  reign  in  1333  ;  died 
in  1354. 

Yoosuf-  (or  Yusuf-)  Aboo-Amroo-Ibn-Abdi-l 
Barr,  (i'boo  im'roo  Ib'n  Sbd-il  bjR,)  written  also  You- 
souf-Amrou-Ben-Abd-Alberr,  a  learned  Moorish 
writer,  born  at  Cordova,  Spain,  in  979  ;  died  in  1070. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a  treatise  on  Mo- 
hammedan history  and  traditions,  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Opinions  of  the  Mussulman  Doctors,"  etc.  A  history 
entitled  the  "  Pearls  of  Sacred  Wars"  is  also  attributed 
to  him. 

Yoosuf-  (orYusuf-)  Ibn-Abdi-r-Rahman-al-Peh- 
ree,  (or-Pehri,)  (ib'n  ibd-ir  rSn'man  al  f?h'r'ee,)  a  Sara- 
cen or  Moor,  who  was  chosen  Emir  or  Governor  of 
Spain  in  746  A.D.  He  was  defeated  by  Abd-er-Rahman, 
near  C6rdova,  in  756,  and  was  killed  in  759  A.D. 

Yoosuf-Ibn-Tashefeen,  (or -Tashefin.)  (Tb'n  t5'- 
sh?h-feen',)  written  also  Ben-Taschefyn,  an  Almo 
ravide  prince  of  Northern  Africa,  distinguished  for  his 
bravery  and  skill  in  war.  He  made  extensive  conquests, 
and  in  1072  founded  the  city  of  Morocco  as  the  capital 
of  his  dominions.  Invited  in  1086  by  the  Moslem 
princes  of  Spain  to  assist  them  against  the  Christians, 
he  equipped  a  powerful  armament,  landed  in  Spain,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory,  near  Badajoz,  over  Alfonso, 
King  of  Castile.  He  afterwards  reduced  nearly  all  of 
the  Moorish  princes  of  that  country  to  vassalage.  Died 
in  1 106. 

Yorck  (or  York)  von  "Wartenburg,  yoRk  fon 
(^dk'ten-booRG',  (Hans  David  Ludwig,)  Count,  a 
Prussian  general,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1 759.  Having 
served  for  a  time  against  the  French,  under  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Weimar,  he  entered  Napoleon's  army,  and  com- 
manded the  Prussian  corps  in  the  campaign  of  1812. 
After  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian  arm)',  and  their 
withdrawal  from  the  French  cause,  he  successively  de- 
feated Eugene,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  at  Dannekow,  Sebastian! 
at  Weissig,  and  General  Bertrand  at  Wartenburg,  (1813.) 
He  gained  a  victory  over  Marmont,  at  Mockern,  in 
October  the  same  year,  and  in  1814  was  made  general 
of  infantry.  After  the  surrender  of  Paris,  he  was  created 
a  count,  commander  of  the  forces  in  Silesia  and  Posen, 
and  in  1821  a  field-marshal.     He  died  in  1830. 

York,  Cardinal.    See  Stuart,  (Henry  Benkdict.) 

York,  Duke  of.  This  title  is  appropriated  exclu- 
sively to  members  of  the  royal  family  of  England,  and 
has  often  been  given  to  a  younger  son  of  the  king.  The 
first  Duke  of  York  was  Edmund  of  Langley,  the  fifth 
son  of  Edward  HI.  He  was  born  in  1341,  and  obtained 
the  title  about  1385.  He  had  superior  abilities,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reign  of  Richard  H.  Died  in 
1402.  His  son  Edward,  second  Duke  of  York,  was 
distinguished  as  a  warrior.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Agincourt,  in  141 5,  and  left  no  issue.  The  dukedom 
then  passed  to  his  nephew,  Richard  Pi.antagenet,  a 
son  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge,  who  was  a  younger 
son  of  the  first  Duke  of  York.  R^ichard,  the  third  dulce, 
became  a  claimant  of  the  throne,  the  right  to  which 
descended  through  his  mother,  Anne  Mortimer,  who 
was  a  great-granddaughter  of  Lionel,  the  third  son  of 
Edward  HI.  He  was  appointed  Regent  of  France  in 
1435'  a'ld  recalled  in  1447.  I"  '454  he  received  the 
title  of  Protector  of  the  Kingdom  during  the  illness  of 
Henry  VL  In  1455  '^^  took  arms  to  enforce  his  claim 
to  the  throne.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  long  civil 
war  of  the  Roses.  His  party  gained  a  victory  at  Saint 
Alban's  in  1455,  and  another  at  Northampton  in  1459  or 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  A,  same,  less  prc^longed;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  ihort:  a,  e.  i,  '•,  obsan 


1460.  The  Duke  of  York  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Wakefield  in  December,  1460.  His  son  became  King 
Edward  IV.  Richard,  the  second  son  of  Edward  IV., 
became  Duke  of  York  in  1474.  He  was  murdered  in 
the  Tower  by  Richard  HI.  in  1483.  Henry  Tudor, 
the  second  son  of  Henry  VII.,  was  created  Duke  of 
York  in  1491.  He  ascended  the  throne,  as  Henry  VIIL, 
in  1509.  The  title  was  also  borne  by  Charles  I.  and 
James  II.  before  their  accession  to  the  throne.  Erne.st 
Augustus,  a  brother  of  George  I.,  was  created  Duke  of 
York  and  Albany  in  17 16.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1728.  Edward  Augustus,  a  brother  of  George  III., 
was  created  Duke  of  York  and  Albany  in  1760,  and  died, 
without  issue,  in  1767. 

See  Mrss  Roberts,  "Memoirs  of  the  Rival  Houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster,"  1827. 

York,  (Frederick,)  Duke  of,  born  in  1763,  was  the 
second  son  of  George  IH.  He  served  for  a  time  in  the 
Prussian  army,  and  was  created  in  1 784  Duke  of  York 
and  Albany.  He  married  in  1791  Frederica,  daughter 
of  Frederick  William  IL  of  Prussia.  He  commanded 
a  British  corps  in  the  French  campaigns  of  1793-94,  was 
made  a  field-marshal  in  1795,  and  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  in  1798.  He  was  defeated  near  Bergen,  in 
Holland,  in  1799,  and  compelled  to  sign  the  disadvan- 
tageous convention  of  Alkmaar.     Died  in  1827. 

Yorke,  (Charles,)  Lord  Morden,  an  English  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  December,  1722,  was 
a  younger  son  of  the  first  Lord  Hardwicke.  He  was 
educated  at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge.  He  and  his 
brother  Philip  were,  while  at  college,  the  principal 
authors  of  the  "Athenian  Letters;  or.  The  Correspond- 
ence of  an  Agent  of  the  King  of  Persia  residing  at 
Athens,"  (i  741,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit.  He  pub- 
lished an  ingenious  "Treatise  on  Forfeiture  for  Treason," 
{1744.)  In  1747  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Rye- 
gate.  He  became  solicitor-general  in  1756,  and  attorney 
general  in  1762.  He  was  attached  to  the  Whig  party. 
Having  resigned  in  December,  1763,  he  was  reappointed 
in  August,  1765,  on  the  formation  of  the  ministry  of 
Rockingham.  He  refused  the  offer  of  the  great  seal 
several  times,  but,  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  king,  he 
accepted  the  same  in  January,  1770,  and  succeeded  Lord 
Camden.  By  this  act  he  deserted  his  Whig  friends  and 
destroyed  his  own  peace.  He  died  a  few  days  after  he 
became  chancellor,  probably  by  suicide.  He  left  several 
children,  one  of  whom  was  Sir  Joseph  Yorke,  a  naval 
officer.  Charles  Yorke  was  a  friend  and  correspondent 
of  Montesquieu. 

"  He  was  possessed,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "of  the 
finest  talents,  of  the  most  varied  accomplishments,  of 
every  virtue  in  public  and  private  life ;  but  when  he 
seemed  to  have  reached  the  summit  of  his  lofty  am- 
bition, he  committed  a  fatal  error.  .  .  ,  His  acceptance 
of  the  great  seal  was  wrong,  but  did  not  proceed  froa". 
sordid  motives.  He  was  overpowered  by  royal  blandish 
ments,  and  a  momentary  mistake  as  to  the  duty  of  a  good 
subject." 

See  Lord  Campbeli,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  v. 

Yorke,  (Charles  Philip.)     See  Hardwicke. 

Yorke,  (Sir  Joseph  Sidney,)  K.C.B.,  an  English 
admiral,  entered  the  navy  in  1780.  He  served  under 
Lord  Rodney  in  1782,  and  rose  through  various  promo- 
tions to  be  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1830.  He  perished 
by  shipwreck  in  Stokes  Bay  in  183 1. 

Yorke,  (Philip.)     See  Hardwicke,  Earl  of. 

Youatt,  yoo'at,  (William,)  an  English  veterinary 
surgeon,  born  in  1777,  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise 
on  Cattle,"  a  "Treatise  on  the  Horse,"  "The  Com- 
plete Grazier,"  and  otlier  similar  works.  He  was  also 
editor  of  a  journal  entitled  "The  Veterinarian."  Died 
in  1847. 

Youmans,  yoo'manz,  (Edward  Livingston,)  an 
American  chemist  and  scientific  writer,  born  in  Albany 
county,  New  York,  in  1821.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Class-Book  of  Chemistry,"  (1S52,)  and 
"  Hand-Book  of  Household  .Science,"  (1S57.)  In  1S64  he 
edited  "  The  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces,'" 
and  fnincled,  and  edited  until  his  death,  "  The  Popular 
Science  Monthly  "     Died  January  18,  18S7. 

Youug,   yiing,   (Alexander,)    D.D.,  an   American 


<-,■  far,  '^ill.  fit;  nigt;  nflt;good;  moon; 


YOUNG 


YOUNG 


Congregational  divine,  bora  at  Boston  in  1800,  was  the 
author  of  "Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  the 
Colony  of  Plymouth,"  (1841,)  "Library  of  Old  English 
Prose  Writers,"  and  other  works.     Died  in  1854- 

Young,  yiing,  (Sir  Aretas  William,)  an  English 
officer,  served  successively  against  the  PVench  in  Egypt, 
Sicily,  and  Spain,  and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1813.  He  became  lieutenant-governor  of  Prince  Ed- 
ward's Island  in  1831,  and  was  knighted  in  1834.  Died 
in  1835. 

Young,  (Arthur,)  an  eminent  English  agriculturist 
and  writer  on  economy,  was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1741. 
He  was  a  merchant's  clerk  in  his  youth  at  Lynn.  Having 
an  aversion  to  mercantile  business,  he  began  to  make 
experiments  in  agriculture,  which  at  first  were  not  suc- 
cessful. He  leased  a  farm  of  three  hundred  acres  at 
Samford  Hall,  Essex,  about  1765,  and  cultivated  it  for 
five  years.  He  published  a  "  Tour  through  the  Southern 
Counties  of  England  and  Wales,"  (1768,)  which  was 
successful,  and  a  "  Course  of  Ex]>erimental  Agriculture," 
(1770.)  He  performed  several  exploring  tours  in  differerjl 
parts  of  England,  and  published  the  results  of  his  inves- 
tigations in  works  which  contributed  much  to  improve 
the  methods  of  cultivation.  His  "  Farmer's  Calendar" 
(1 771)  was  a  very  popular  work.  In  1774  he  published 
his  "  Political  Arithmetic."  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  writings  on  agriculture.  In  1784  he 
began  to  publish  the  "  Annals  of  Agriculture,"  (45  vols.,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  travelled  in  France  in 
1787  and  1789,  to  explore  the  agricultural  resources  of 
that  country,  on  which  subject  he  published,  about  1791, 
an  interesting  work.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary to  the  board  of  agriculture,  with  a  salary  of  four 
hundred  pounds  or  more.  He  had  married  in  early  life, 
and  had  several  children.  Died  in  1820.  By  his  experi- 
ments and  writings  he  rendered  an  important  service  to 
British  agriculture;  and  even  the  French  acknowledge 
that  France  rests  under  obligations  to  him.  His  works 
on  agriculture  were  translated  into  French  by  order  of 
the  Directory,  and  published  under  the  title  of  "Cultiva- 
teur  Anglais"'  (18  vols.,  1801.) 

See  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1820;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  July,  August,  and  September,  17S0,  et  seq.  ;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Young,  (Augustus,)  an  American  naturalist  and 
geologist,  born  at  Arlington,  Vermont,  in  1785.  He 
studied  law,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1841, 
and  after  the  end  of  his  term  (1843)  devoted  himself  to 
scientific  pursuits.  He  wrote  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  was  appointed  State  naturalist  (for  Vermont)  in 
1856.     Died  in  1857. 

Young,  (Brigham,)  high-priest  of  the  Mormons, 
was  born  at  Whitingham,  Vermont,  in  June,  1801.  He 
joined  the  Mormons  in  1832  at  Kirtland,  Ohio,  and 
soon  acquired  much  influence  by  his  shrewdness  and 
energy.  He  was  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  sent  out 
in  1835  to  make  proselytes.  On  the  death  of  Joseph 
Smith,  June,  1844,  he  was  chosen  president  and  prophet. 
As  the  people  of  Illinois  seemed  determined  to  expel 
the  Mormons  from  the  State,  Young  resolved  to  remove 
to  some  region  in  the  far  West,  and,  accompanied  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  Mormons,  abandoned  Nauvoo 
early  in  1846.  He  persuaded  his  followers  that  the  valley 
of  Great  Salt  Lake  was  the  Promised  Land,  and,  having 
arrived  at  that  lake  about  July,  1847,  he  founded  Salt 
Lake  City.  The  Mormons  increased  rapidly  by  emi- 
gration. In  the  spring  of  1849  they  held  a  convention 
at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  organized  a  State,  which  they 
called  Deseret ;  but  Congress  refused  to  admit  it  into 
the  Union,  and  organized  the  Territory  of  Utah,  of 
which  Brigham  Young  was  appointed  Governor,  (1850.) 
The  Mormons  afterwards  defied  the  laws  and  officers  of 
the  federal  government,  and  Brigham  Young  ruled  over 
Utah  with  absolute  authority.  In  1857  President  Buch- 
anan appointed  Alfred  Gumming  Governor  of  Utah,  and 
sent  an  army  of  about  2500  men  to  enforce  his  authority. 
Governor  Gumming  proclaimed,  about  November,  1857, 
;hat  the  Mormons  were  in  a  state  of  rebellion  ;  but  in 
(858  hostilities  were  suspended  by  a  compromise. 
Brigham  Young  was  married,  according  to  the  rites  of 
die  Mormon  faith,  to  about  twelve  actual  wives,  beside.*^ 


having  many  women  "sealed  to  him"  as  his  spiritual 
wives.  By  the  energy  and  prudence  of  his  character,  he 
maintained  until  his  death  an  almost  unlimited  authority 
over  a  body  of  nearly  100,000  souls.  He  died  of  cholera 
morbus,  August  29,  1877. 

See  "  Mormonism,"  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopsdia  ;"  "  New 
America,"  by  Hf.pworth  Dixon,  1867;  "Mormonism:  its  Leaders 
and  Designs,"  by  John  Hyde,  Jr.,  1857;  "The  Mormons,  or 
Latter-Day  Saints,"  by  Lieutenant  J.  W.  Gunnison,  1852  ;  15. 
G.  Ferris,  "  Utah  and  the  Mormons,"  1856. 

Young,   (Charles  Augustus,)   Ph.D.,   LL.D.,  an 

American  astronomer,  born  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire, 
December  15,  1S34,  graduated  at  Dartmouth  CoUegt  in 
1853,  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Western  Reserve 
College,  Hudson,  Ohio,  1857-66,  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  astronomy  in  Dartmouth  College,  1866- 
77,  and  in  1877  was  chosen  professor  of  astronomy  in 
Princeton  College.  Prof.  Young  has  made  very  impor- 
tant spectroscopic  studies  and  discoveries  in  solar  phys- 
ics and  chemistry.  His  principal  work  is  "  The  Sun," 
(1882.)     He  is  also  author  of  many  scientific  papers. 

Young,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  poet,  born  at 
Upham,  in  Hampshire,  in  1684,  was  a  son,  of  Edward 
Young,  rector  of  that  p.irish,  and  subsequently  Dean 
of  Salisbury.  He  studied  at  Winchester,  entered  New 
College,  Oxford,  in  1703,  and  a  few  months  later  removed 
to  Corpus  Christi  College.  In  1708  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College.  He  published  in  1713 
poems  entitled  "The  Last  Day,"  and  "The  Force  of 
Religion,  or  Vanquished  Love."  In  1719  he  took  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.,  and  produced  the  same  year  the 
tragedy  of  "Busiris."  lie  was  patronized  by  the  Duke 
of  Wharton,  who  granted  him  an  annuity.  His  next  work 
was  "The  Revenge,"  a  tragedy,  (1721,)  which,  like  most 
of  his  writings,  is  marred  by  false  taste  and  bombastic 
style.  About  1725  he  began  to  publish,  under  the  title 
of  "The  Love  of  Fame,  the  Universal  Passion,"  a  col- 
lection of  satires,  which  was  very  successful.  It  is  stated 
that  he  received  ;{j'3000  for  this  work.  His  several 
works  were  dedicated  to  various  patrons,  in  terms  of 
fulsome  adulation.  Having  taken  holy  orders  in  1727, 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  royal  chaplains,  and  ob- 
tained in  1730  the  rectory  of  Welwyn,  in  Hertfordshire 
where  he  resided  many  years.  In  1731  he  married 
Lady  Elizabeth  Lee,  widow  of  Colonel  Lee,  and  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lichfield.  They  had  a  son 
Frederick.  Colonel  Lee  and  Lady  Lee  had  a  daughter, 
who  was  married  to  a  Mr.  Temple,  and  who  died  at 
Lyons  in  1736.  This  Mr.  Temple  and  his  wife  are  the 
"Philander"  and  "  Narcissa"  of  the  "Night  Thoughts," 
(1742-46,)  the  poem  on  which  the  reputation  of  ^oung 
is  chiefly  founded.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity,  and 
found  admirers  and  imitators  in  Germany  and  France. 
The  form  and  conception  of  this  poem  are  somewhat 
original  and  bold  ;  it  is  profusely  adorned  with  brilliant 
imagery,  pompous  hyperbole,  and  striking  antithesis  ; 
but  he  seldom  attains  the  true  subliinity.  "In  his 
'  Night  Thoughts,' "  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  he  has  ex- 
hibited a  very  wide  display  of  original  poetry,  varie- 
gated with  deep  reflections  and  striking  allusions, — a 
wilderness  of  thought,  in  which  the  fertility  of  fancy 
scatters  flowers  of  every  hue  and  every  odour. "  ("  Lives 
of  the  English  Poets.")  "  Young,"  says  Villemain,  "  is 
not  a  good  model ;  he  has  too  much  artifice.  .  .  .  He 
fatigues  the  imagination  more  than  he  touches  the 
heart;  he  fills  the  reader  with  a  sort  of  satiety  of  sym- 
pathy for  his  sorrow."  ("  Biographie  Universelle.") 
Among  his  later  works  is  "  Resignation,"  a  poem, 
(1762.)  In  1761  he  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  closet 
to  the  Princess-Dowager  of  Wales.  After  he  was 
seventy  years  old  he  continued  to  solicit  preferment,  but 
without  success.     He  died  at  Welwyn  in  April,  1765. 

See  H.  Croft,  "  Life  of  Edward  Young,"  in  Johnson's  "Lives 
of  the  English  Poets;"  "  Biographica  Britannica ;"  J._  Mitford, 
"Life  of  Voung  ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  English  Poets;" 
Drake,  "Essays;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1857; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Young,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  civil  officer,  born  in 
1807.  He  was  secretary  of  the  tre.isury  from  1844  to 
1846,  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  from  1S52  to  1855,  Gov- 
ernor of  New  South  Wales  from  i860  to  1868,  Governor 
of  Canada  from  1868  10  1872.  In  1S70  he  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Lisgar.     Died  October  6,  1876. 


tAsk;  935  j;  ghard;  gasj;  G,  H,  \i,gttttiiriil;  N,  tuisal;  ^,trilUd;  sass."  th  as  in  this.     '^^^Ste  l'".\i)lanalions.  p.  23.) 


YOUNG 


YPEY 


Young,  (John  Clark,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presby. 
terian  divine,  born  at  Greencastle,  Pennsylvania,  in  1803, 
became  president  of  Centre  College,  Danville,  Kentucky, 
in  1S30.     Died  in  1857. 

Young,  (John  Fkeeman,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
born  at  Pittston,  Maine,  October  30,  1820,  was  a  student 
of  the  Wesleyan  University,  Middletovvn,  Connecticut, 
graduated  at  the  Theological  Seminary  near  Alexandria, 
Virginia,  in  1845,  and  in  1846  became  a  priest  of  the 
Episcopal  Church.  In  1867  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
o{  Florida.      Died  November  15,  1885. 

Young,  (John  Radford,)  an  English  mathema- 
tician, born  in  London  about  1800.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  General  Theory  and  Solution  of  Algebraic 
Equations,"  (1842,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Navigation  and 
Nautical  Astronomy,"  (1856.) 

Young,  (JosuE  Maria,)  D.D.,  an  American  bishop, 
originally  named  Joshua  Moody  Young.  He  was  born 
in  what  is  now  Acton,  Maine,  October  29,  1808,  and  be- 
came a  printer  and  editor.  In  1828  he  renounced  the 
Universalist  religion  and  became  a  Catholic,  studied  in 
the  college  at  Emmittsburg,  and  in  1837  was  ordained  a 
priest.  In  1854  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Erie, 
Pennsylvania,  the  first  of  that  title.  Died  at  Erie,  Sep- 
tember 18,  1S66. 

Young,  (Matthew,)  an  eminent  Irish  mathematician 
and  writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Roscommon  in  1 750. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  of  which  he  be- 
came a  Fellow  in  1775,  and  in  1786  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  natural  philosophy.  lie  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers and  first  members  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  to 
the  "Transactions"  of  which  he  contributed  several 
valuable  articles.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "An 
Essay  on  the  Phenomena  of  Sounds  and  Musical  Strings," 
(1784,)  "Method  of  Prime  and  Ultimate  Ratios,"  and 
"Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1800.)  He  died 
in  1800,  having  been  previously  created  Bishop  of  Clon- 
fert  and  Kilmacduach. 

Young,  (Patrick,)  [Lat.  PATRig'ius  Ju'nius,]  a 
distinguished  classical  scholar,  born  in  East  Lothian, 
Scotland,  in  1584,  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  royal 
library  in  London.  He  translated  into  Latin  some  of 
the  works  of  King  James  I.,  and  edited  the  epistles  of 
Clemens  Romanus.     Died  in  1652. 

Young,  (Sir  Peter,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Ju'nius,]  a  Scot- 
tish diplomatist,  born  in  1544.  He  was  associated  with 
Buchanan  as  tutor  of  the  young  prince,  afterwards  James' 
I.  of  England,  and  subsequently  became  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  and  was  employed  in  various  missions. 
He  \«is  the  author  of  a  vindication  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots.     Died  in  1628. 

Young,  (Robert  Alexander,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  in  Knox  county,  Tennessee,  January  23, 
1824.  He  graduated  at  Washington  College,  entered 
the  Methodist  ministry,  and  for  three  years  was  president 
of  Florence  University  in  Alabama. 

Young,  (Samuel,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Lenox,  Massachusetts,  about  1780,  removed  to  the  State 
of  New  York  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  board  of  canal  commissioners  in  1817,  was  for  many 
years  a  Senator  of  New  York,  and  held  other  high 
offices  in  that  State.  He  acted  with  the  Democratic 
party,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  delegation  of  Free- 
Soilers,  alias  "  Barnburners,"  which  went  from  New  York 
to  the  Baltimore  Convention  in  1848.  He  died  at  Ball- 
ston.  New  York,  in  1850. 

Young,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
about  1587.  He  became  mnster  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  a  tutor  of  the  poet  Milton.  Died 
in  1655. 

Young,  (Thomas,)  an  English  philosopher  and  scholar 
of  great  eminence,  was  born  at  Milverton,  in  Somer- 
setshire, on  the  13th  of  June,  1773.  His  parents  were 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  studied  for 
sever.-il  years  at  Compton  School,  Dorsetshire,  and  after- 
wards at  home.  1  le  was  well  versed  in  the  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  and  Italian  languages,  and  in  mathematics.  He 
also  studied  Hebrew,  Arabic,  etc  From  1787  to  1792 
he  was  employed  as  tutor  to  Hudson  Gurney,  in  the 
family  of  David   Barclay  of  Youngsbury,   in    Hertford- 


shire. During  this  period  he  studied  natural  philosophy, 
and  the  "Principia"  of  Newton.  He  became  a  student 
of  medicine  in  London  in  1792,  attended  the  lectures  of 
John  Hunter,  and  continued  his  studies  in  Edinburgh, 
whither  he  went  in  1794.  About  this  date  he  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  the  autumn  of  1795 
he  went  to  Gottingen,  where  he  studied  several  months 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  He  visited  various  cities 
of  Germany  in  1796,  and  entered  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1797.  His  uncle,  Dr.  Brocklesby,  who 
died  in  1797,  left  him  a  legacy  of  about  ;^  10,000. 

He  began  to  practise  medicine  in  London  in  1800,  and 
was  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution from  1801  to  1804.  Between  1800  and  1804  he 
contributed  to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  several 
memoirs  "On  the  Theory  of  Light  and  Colours,"  in 
which  he  advocated  the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  He 
married  .Miss  Eliza  Maxwell  in  1804.  In  1807  he  pub- 
lished an  excellent  work  entitled  a  "Course  of  Lectures 
on  Natural  Philosophy  and  Mechanical  Arts,"  (2  vols. 
4to,)  which  presents  a  complete  system  of  elementary 
physics  and  mechanical  philosophy.  Among  his  chief 
discoveries  was  the  interference  of  the  rays  of  light,  on 
which  subject  we  quote  the  comments  of  Sir  John  F.  W. 
Herschel :  "The  first  year  of  the  present  century,  our 
illustrious  countryman,  the  late  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  had 
established  a  principle  in  optics  which,  regarded  as  a 
physical  law,  has  hardly  its  equal,  for  beauty,  simplicity, 
and  extent  of  application,  in  the  whole  circle  of  science. 
.  .  .  Nothing  was  now  wanting  to  a  rational  theory  of 
double  refraction,  but  to  frame  an  hypothesis  of  some 
mode  in  which  light  might  be  conceived  to  be  propagated, 
through  the  elastic  medium  supposed  to  convey  it,  in 
such  a  way  as  not  to  be  contradictory  to  any  of  the  facts 
nor  to  the  general  laws  of  dynamics.  This  essential 
idea,  without  which  everything  that  had  been  done  be- 
fore would  have  been  incomplete,  was  also  furnished  by 
Dr.  Young,  who,  with  a  sagacity  which  would  have  done 
honour  to  Newton  himself,  had  declared  that  to  accom- 
modate the  doctrine  of  Huygens  to  the  phenomena  of 
polarized  light  it  is  necessary  to  conceive  the  mode  of 
propagation  of  a  luminous  impulse  through  the  ether, 
differently  from  that  of  a  sonorous  one  through  the  air 
In  the  latter,  the  particles  of  the  air  advance  and  recede; 
in  the  former,  those  of  the  ether  must  be  supposed  to 
tremble  laterally."  ("Preliminary  Discourse  on  the 
Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.") 

In  181 1  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  physicians  of 
Saint  George's  Hospital.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  numerous  articles,  mostly  scientific.  He 
published  in  1813  "  .^n  Introduction  to  Medical  Litera- 
ture, including  a  System  of  Practical  Nosology."  In 
1818  he  became  secretary  to  the  board  of  longitude.  He 
was  afterwards  the  editor  or  conductor  of  the  "  Nautical 
Almanac."  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject 
of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  in  which  he  made  some  dis- 
coveries, that  he  published  in  1819.  He  was  more  suc- 
cessful in  explaining  the  symbols  of  ancient  Egypt  than 
any  person  except  Champollion.  He  wrote  about  sixty 
articles  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  including 
the  article  "Egypt"  and  more  than  forty  biographical 
notices.  In  1827  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  eight  foreign 
associates  of  the  French  Institute.  He  died,  without 
issue,  in  London,  in  May,  1829. 

See  George  Peacock,  D.D.,  "Life  of  Dr.  Thomas  Young," 
i8y ;  GuRNEV,  "Memoir  of  Thomas  Young,"  1S31  :  Araco, 
"  Eloge  de  Thomas  Yoimg;"  Ai.libone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;" 
"North  British  Review"  for  August,  1855. 

Young,  (Thomas  John.)  an  American  Episcopalian 
divine,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1803,  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College,  and  in  1847  became  assistant  rector 
of  Saint  Michael's  Church,  Charleston.     Died  in  1852. 

Young,  (Sir  William.)  an  English  writer,  born  near 
Canterbury  in  1750.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Saint  Mawes  in  1783,  and  w;is  afterwards  Governor  of 
Tobago.  He  published  "The  West  India  Common- 
place Book,"  "The  History  of  Athens,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1815. 

Youaouf-Ben-Taschefin.  See  Yoosuf-Ibn-Tashe- 
keen. 

Ypey,  i'pi,  .'  (Ann^us,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  bom 
in  Friesland  in  1760,  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical 


a;e,  i,  o,  u,  y, /^m^v 4,  i.  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \),y,s/inrl;  a,  e,  j,  o,o/>scii>r;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  nilt;  not;  good;  moon; 


YPRES 


8513 


ZACAGNI 


history  at  Groningen  in  1813.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century,"  and  a  "Compendious  History 
of  the  Reformation,"  ("  Beknopte  Geschiedenis  de  Her- 
vorming,"  1817.)     Died  about  1834. 

Ypres,  d',  d6pR,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  painter  and 
designer,  born  at  Ypres  about  15 10,  studied  in  Italy. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Last  Judgment."  He  died 
in  1563  or  1564. 

Ypsilanti,  ip-se-lin'tee,  or  Ypsilan'tis,  (Alexan- 
der,) a  Greek  statesman  and  soldier,  was  appointed 
Hospodar  of  Wallachia  in  1774.  He  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Turks  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  executed 
in  1792.  His  son  Constantine  became  interpreter  to 
the  Forte,  and  was  afterwards  successively  Hospodar 
of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  He  died  in  1816,  having 
made  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  achieve  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country. 

Ypsilanti,  (Alexander,)  a  celebrated  Greek  patriot, 
a  son  of  Constantine,  and  grandson  of  Alexander,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1792.  He  entered 
the  Russian  service  at  an  early  age,  fought  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  campaigns  of  1812-13,  and  was  made 
a  major-general  in  1817.  He  became  leader  in  1820  of 
the  Hetaeria,  (Hetairia,)  an  association  for  the  promotion 
of  Grecian  independence ;  but  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Greeks  at  Dragashan,  in  1821,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the 
Austrians,  by  whom  he  was  imprisoned  six  years.  He 
was  released  in  1827,  on  the  intercession  of  the  Czai 
Nicholas,  but  he  died  the  following  year. 

Ypsilanti,  (Dimitrius,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1793.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  in  1821,  he  took  Tripo- 
litza  by  storm,  and  subsequently  distinguished  himself 
by  his  bold  defence  of  the  citadel  of  Argos,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  Turkish  army  was  destroyed  in  its 
passage  between  Argos  and  Corinth.  He  was  made 
commander  of  the  forces  in  Eastern  Greece  by  the  presi- 
dent, Capodistria,  in  1828,  and  after  the  assassination  of 
that  magistrate,  in  1832,  became  one  of  the  members  of 
the  executive  commission.     He  died  the  same  year. 

Ypsilanti,  (Gregorios,)  Prince,  a  Greek  diplomatist, 
born  September  17,  1835.  In  1867  he  became  Greek 
minister  at  the  Austro- Hungarian  court.  He  is  the 
head  of  a  family  having  great  estates  in  Greece,  Rou- 
maiiia,  and  Russia. 

Ypsilantis.    See  Ypsilanti. 

Yrala  or  Irala,  de,  di  e-rS'lJ,  (Domingo  Martinez 
— maR-tee'nfith,)  a  Spanish  captain  and  explorer,  born 
at  Vergara  about  i486.  He  explored  the  region  near 
the  Paraguay  River,  and  was  chosen  governor  of  the 
colony  at  Assumption  about  1538.     Died  in  1557. 

Yriarte.     See  Iriarte. 

Ysabeau,  e'zt'bo',  (Clement  Alexandre,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  at  Gien  in  1754.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  king,  and  acted  with  the  enemies  of  Robespierre  on 
the  9th  Thermidor.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council 
of  Elders  in  1795.  Died  in  1823,  (or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  183 1.) 


Ysabeau,  (Victor  Fr6d6ric  Alexandre,)  a  French 
writer  on  rural  economy,  born  at  Rouen  in  1793,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  published  a  number  of 
works.     Died  in  1873. 

Yu,  yoo,  the  last  of  the  three  ancient  Chinese  em- 
perors* who  stand  pre-eminent  for  their  wisdom  and 
virtue  among  all  the  rulers  of  the  Celestial  empire, 
began  to  reign,  according  to  Pauthier,  in  2205  B.C.  He 
constructed  extensive  dikes  along  the  banks  of  such  of 
the  great  rivers  as  were  subject  to  inundations,  and 
executed  other  important  public  works.  He  is  said 
to  have  introduced  great  improvements  in  agriculture. 
Some  writers  date  the  commencement  of  authentic  his- 
tory in  China  (see  Yao)  from  the  reign  of  Yu,  who  was 
the  founder  of  the  first  dynasty— commonly  called  the 
Ilia  (hee'S)  dynasty — of  Chinese  emperors. 

See  Pauthier,  "Chine,"  pp.  39-54. 

Yule,  (Henry,)  a  British  geographer,  born  in  1820. 
He  entered  the  Bengal  army,  and  attained  the  local  rank 
of  major-general,  but  was  finally  retired  as  a  colonel. 
For  some  time  he  was  minister  of  Indian  public  works. 
Among  his  works  are  "A  Narrative  of  the  Mission  to 
the  Court  of  Ava,"  (1858,)  "Cathay  and  the  Way  Thither," 
(1866,)  a  new  translation  of  "  The  Book  of  Marco  Polo," 
(1875,)  ^"d  a  very  great  number  of  learned  papers, 
chiefly  on  Asiatic  geography.     Died  December  30,  1889. 

Yusuf.    See  Yoosuf. 

Yvan,  4'vdN',  (Melchior,)  Baron,  a  French  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  in  Basses-Alpes  in  1803.  He 
went  to  China  in  1843  as  physician  to  a  mission  or 
embassy  conducted  by  M.  Lagrenee,  and  he  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Travels  in  China  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula,"  (1850.)     Died  near  Nice,  April  15,  1873. 

Yver,  i'vaiR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  author,  born  at  Ni- 
ort  in  1520,  wrote  "  Le  Printemps  d'Yver."   Died  in  1572. 

Yveinois.    See  Ivernois. 

Yves,  Saint.     See  Ives. 

Yves,  Saint.    See  Saint-Ives. 

Yves,  Saint,  or  Yves  de  Ker-Martin,  kv  deh  k§R'- 
mtR't^N',  a  learned.  French  monk  and  jurist,  born  in 
Bretagne  in  1253,  was  sometimes  called  Vves-H6lori, 
(iv  i'lo're'.)     Died  in  1303. 

See  I.  FAvi,  "  Histoire  de  Saint  Yves,"  1851. 

Yves  de  Ker-Martin.    See  Yves,  Saint. 

Yveteaux,  Des.    See  Des  Yveteaux. 

Yvon,  e'viw',  Abb6,  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born 
in  Normandy  about  1720.  He  aided  Diderot  in  the 
redaction  of  the  "  Encyclopedie,"  and  published  other 
works.     Died  about  1790. 

Yvon,  (Adolphe,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
in  the  department  of  Moselle  in  1817,  was  a  pupil  of 
Paul  Delaroche.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be 
named  "  Marshal  Ney  supporting  the  Rear-Guard  in 
Russia,"  "  The  Seven  Deadly  Sins,"  and  "  The  Capture 
of  the  Malakoff." 

Yvon,  (Pierre  Christophe,)  born  near  Mans  in 
1719,  was  for  many  years  physician  of  the  Abbey  Royal 
of  Poissi,  near  Paris,     Died  in  1814. 


•  Yao,  Shun,  Yu. 


Z. 


Zabaglia,  dz5-bSKyi,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect  and  mechanician,  born  at  Rome  in  1674,  was  the 
inventor  of  several  ingenious  machines,  among  which 
was  one  for  transferring  frescos  from  the  jjlaster.  He 
was  appointed  architect  of  the  basilicon  of  Saint  Peter's. 
Died  in  1750. 

Zabarella,  dzS-bi-rel'li,  (Francesco,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  sometimes  called  the  Cardinal  of 
Florence,  was  born  at  Padua  in  1339.  He  was  pro- 
foundly versed  in  canon  law,  and  rose  through  several 
preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Florence  in  1410,  and 
a  cardinal  in  1411.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was  the  author 
of  numerous  treatises  relating  to  theology  and  ecclesias- 
tical matters.     Died  in  1417. 


Zabarella,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  philosopher,  born 
at  Padua  in  1533,  pub'ished  "Commentaries  on  the 
Physics  of  Aristotle,"  and  several  treatises  on  logic  and 
philosophy.     Died  in  1589. 

Zaboro'wa,  zd-bS-ro'va,  (James,)  a  Polish  publicist, 
flourished  about  1500.  He  published  a  collection  of  the 
laws  and  constitutions  of  Poland,  (1506.) 

Zaborcwski,  zd-bi-rov'skee,  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish 
jurist,  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1506.  He 
wrote  on  law  and  grammar.     Died  in  1549. 

Zabulon,  the  French  for  Zebulun,  which  see. 

Zacagni,  dzS-kin'yee,  or  Zaccagni,  (Lorenzo  Ales- 
sandro,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  antiquary,  became  keeper 
of  the  library  of  the  Vatican.  He  published  an  impor- 
tant work  entitled  "A  Collection  of  Ancient  Memorials 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  O,  H,  V.,gutCural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  ?;  th  as  in  this. 

158 


(By"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZACCARIA 


2514 


ZAHRTMANN 


of  the  Church,"  ("Collectanea  Monumentorum  veterum 
Ecclesiae,"  etc.,  1698.)     Died  at  Rome  in  1712. 

Zaccaria,  dzi-ki-ree'i,  (Francesco  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  scholar,  born  at  Venice  in  17 14,  be- 
came professor  of  ecclesiastical  histoiy  at  the  College 
of  Wisdom,  Rome.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Literary  History  of  Italy,"  (14  vols.  8vo,  1751,) 
"  Literary  Annals  of  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1762,)  and  "Numis- 
matic Institutes."     Died  in  1795. 

Zac'che-us,  [Fr.  Zach6e,  zS'shi',]  a  rich  publican 
of  Jericho,  who  became  a  disciple  of  Christ. 

See  Luke  •ax. 

Zacchias,  dz?lk-kee'is,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Rome  in  1584,  became 
physician  to  Pope  Innocent  X.  He  published  a  number 
of  works  on  medical  jurisprudence,  which  were  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time.     Died  in  1659. 

Zaccone,  zt'kon',  (Pierre,)  a  popular  French  novel- 
ist, born  at  Douai,  April  2,  1817.  Among  his  tales  are 
"  Le  dernier  Rendezvous," (1852,)"  Le  Roi  de  la  Bazoche," 
(1853,)  "Le  nouveau  Paris,"  (1856,)  "  Le  Condamne  i 
Mort,"  (1866,)  "Les  Nuits  de  Boulevard,"  (a  drama, 
1876,)  "Le  Fer  rouge,"  etc.  He  also  published  a  num- 
ber of  plays,  a  "History  of  Secret  Societies,"  (1847,) 
"fipoques  historiques  de  la  Bretagne,"  (1845,)  ^'*^' 

Zach,  von,  fon  zak,  [Ger.  pron.  tsiK,|  (Anton,) 
Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Pesth  in  1747.  He 
became  a  colonel  in  1795,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Marengo,  where  he  was  made  prisoner,  (1800.)  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal-lieutenant.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  the  military  art  and  on  mathematics 
Died  in  1826. 

Zach,  von,  fon  zak  or  ts^K,  (Franz  Xaver,)  Baron, 
an  eminent  astronomer,  born  at  Presburg  in  June,  1754, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  passed  several 
of  his  early  years  in  England  after  he  had  left  college. 
About  1786  he  entered  the  service  of  Ernest,  Duke 
of  Saxe-Gotha,  and  was  appointed  director  of  an  obser- 
vatory which  that  prince  had  erected  at  Seeberg.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  as  an  observer  and  a  writer  on 
astronomy.  He  published  a  valuable  periodical,  entitled 
"  Monatliche  Correspondenz,"  (28  vols.,  1800-13,)  a 
"Catalogue  of  Fixed  Stars,"  (1804,)  "Tables  of  Aberra- 
tion and  Nutation  for  1404  Stars,"  (1812,)  and  a  work 
called  "The  Attraction  of  Mountains  and  its  Effects  on 
a  Plumb-Line,"  (2  vols.,  1814.)  He  passed  several  of  his 
latter  years  in  Italy,  whither  he  went  as  an  attendant  or 
grand  marshal  of  the  Duchess  of  Saxe-Gotha.  He  died 
of  cholera  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Zacharia  or  Zachariae,  tsSK-S-ree'i,  (Gotthilf 
Traugoit,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1729;  died  at  Kiel  in  1777. 

Zacharia,  (Just  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
poet  and  satirist,  born  at  Frankenhausen  in  1726.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  and  became  in  1761  professor  of 
belles-lettres  in  the  Carolinum  at  Brunswick.  His 
burlesque  heroic  poem  entitled  "The  Brawler"  ("Der 
Renommist,"  1744)  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  that 
had  appeared  in  German,  and  was  received  with  great 
favour.  It  was  followed  by  other  similar  poems,  en- 
titled "Phaeton,"  "The  Handkerchief,"  ("  Das  Schnupf- 
tuch,")  and  "  Murner  in  Hell,"  ("Murnerin  der  Ilolle,") 
which  were  also  very  successful.  He  likewise  published 
"  Fables  and  Tales,"  which  are  highly  esteemed,  and 
translated  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost"  into  German  hex- 
ameter verse.     Died  in  1777. 

See  EscHENBURG,  "  Leben  F.  W.  Zachariae's,"  1781  ;  Gervinus, 
"Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung." 

Zacharia  von  Lingenthal,  tsiK-S-ree'i  fon  ling'- 
en-thSl,  (Karl  Salomo,)  an  eminent  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Meissen  in  1769.  Having  studied  at 
Leipsic,  he  became  in  1802  professor  of  law  at  Witten- 
berg, and  in  1807  filled  the  same  chair  at  Heidelberg. 
He  was  ennobled  in  1842,  with  the  title  of  Baron  von 
Lingenthal.  He  published  a  number  of  valuable  legal 
and  philosophical  works,  among  which  may  be  named  a 
"  Manual  of  French  Civil  Law,"  and  "  The  Unity  of 
State  and  Church."     Died  in  1843. 

Zach-a-ri'ah,  [Fr.  Zacharie,  zt'kt're';  Ileb.  nn^T,] 
King  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Jeroboam  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  793  B.C.     Died  about  770  B.C. 


Zaeh-a-ri'as,  [Fr.  Zacharie,   zi'kt're',]   a  Jewish 
priest,  who  was  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  to 
whom  the  angel  Gabriel  predicted  the  birth  of  that  son. 
See  Luke  L 

Zacharias,  [Gr.  T^axapiaq  ;  Fr.  Zacharie,]  sumamed 
Scholas'ticus,  a  Christian  writer,  who  was  Bishop  of 
Milylene  and  lived  about  530  a.d.  He  wrote,  in  Greek, 
a  work  entitled  "  Ammonius,"  designed  to  refute  the 
doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  the  universe. 

Zacharias,  [Fr.  Zacharie,]  a  Greek  ecclesiastic, 
succeeded  Gregory  III.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  741  a.d. 
He  compelled  Luitprand,  King  of  the  Longobards,  to 
restore  the  territories  which  he  had  taken  from  the 
exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  supported  Pepin  in  his  claim 
to  the  throne  of  France  in  opposition  to  Childeric,  (750.) 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Benedict,"  and  other  works, 
and  founded  numerous  churches.     Died  in  752. 

Zachariasiewicz,  tsi'Kdre-is'ya-vitch,  (J  oh  an,)  an 
Austrian  author,  born  at  Radymno,  East  Galicia,  in  1825. 
He  became  a  journalist,  and  published  many  political 
novels,  which  have  helped  to  revolutionize  the  public 
spirit  of  the  Slavic  parts  of  Austria-Hungary.  He  advo- 
cated harmony  between  the  Poles  and  the  Rutlienians, 
and  opposed  espionage  and  police  despotism  with  much 
spirit  and  efiSciency. 
Zacharie.  See  Zachariah  and  Zacharias. 
Zacharie  de  Lisieuz,  zi'ki'te'  deh  le'ze-uh',  a 
French  monk,  born  at  Lisieux  in  1582.  He  produced, 
Desides  other  books,  a  fanciful  work  called  "  Gyges  the 
Gaul,"  ("Gyges  Gallus,"  1659.)  He  wrote  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Petrus  Firmianus,  or  Firmian. 
Died  in  1660. 

Zachau,  tsSs'ow,  written  also  Zachaw,  (Fried- 
rich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1663.  He  was  a  skilful  performer  on 
the  organ,  lived  at  Halle,  and  was  one  of  the  masters  of 
Handel.  Died  in  1721. 
Zach^e.    See  Zaccheus. 

Zacher,  tsi'Ker,  (Ernst  Julius  August,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Obernigk,  in  Silesia,  February  15,  1816. 
He  studied  at  Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  held  a  professor- 
ship at  Halle  and  afterwards  at  Konigsberg,  whence  he 
was  recalled  to  Halle  in  1863  as  professor  of  German 
philology.    He  published  "  The  Gothic  and  Runic  Alpha- 
bets," (1855,)  "  History  of  Genovefa,  Countess  Palatine," 
(1S60,)  and  various  minor  treatises  of  merit. 
Zachtleven  or  Zachtleevin.    See  Sachtleven. 
Zacuth,  (Abraham.)     See  Abraham  Zacuth. 
Zacuto  liUsitano,  zd-koo'to  loo-se-ti'no,  [Lat.  Za 
cu'tus  Lusita'nus,]  a  Portuguese  physician  and  phi- 
losopher, of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1575. 
He  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  Amsterdam,  where 
he  published  several  medical  works.     Died  in  1642. 
Zacutus.     See  Zacuto. 
•  Za'dok  or   Za'doc,   [Ileb.  pHV,]    a  Jewish   chief 
priest,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  David.     Zadok  and  the 
prophet  Nathan  anointed  Solomon  as  king. 
See  I.  Kings  i.  45,  ii.  35  ;  H.  Samuel  xv.  29,  35. 
Zagoskin,  tsS'gos-kin,  (Mikhail,)  a  prolific  Russian 
novelist,  essayist,  and  dramatist,  born  in  1789.     His  best- 
known  work  is  the  novel  "  Yoori  Miloslavsky,"  (1829,) 
known  to  English  readers  as  "  The  Young  Muscovite." 
Died  at  Moscow,  June  23,  1S52. 

Zahn,  tsSn,  (Johann,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
in  Franconia  in  1641,  published  "Physico-Mathematico- 
Historical  Mirrors  of  Remarkable  and  Wonderful 
Things  to  be  Known,"  ("  Specula  Physico-Mathematico 
Historica  Notabilium  ac  Mirabilium  sciendorum,"  1696.) 
Died  in  1707. 

Zahn,  (Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  artist, 
born  at  Rodenberg  in  1800,  spent  many  years  in  Italy, 
and  published  in  1828  a  work  entitled  "The  Finest 
Ornaments  and  Most  Remarkable  Pictures  from  Pom- 
peii, Herculaneum,  and  Stahiae."  He  became  professor 
in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Berlin  in  1829.  Died  in  1871. 
Zahrtmann,  tsJRt'mdn,  (Christian  CHRisTorHER,) 
a  Danish  ofiicer  and  hydrographer,  born  before  1800. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign  of  1815. 
and  subsequently  examined  the  coasts  of  iJenmark,  01 
■vhich  he  published  valuable  charts.  One  of  these, 
entitled  "The  Danish  Pilot,"  has  been  translated  into 


I 


a.  e,  T,  o,  n,  y,  lou^; i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  sAot; a,  c,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6l;  gooil;  moon; 


Z  A  wo  ON 


2515 


ZAMORA 


English  and  French.  He  was  appointed  hydrographer 
to  the  Danish  admiralty,  created  knight  grand  cross  of 
the  order  of  Dannebrog,  and  obtained  various  other 
distinctions.     Died  in  1853. 

Zaidoon,  Zaidoun,  or  Zaiddn,  Ibn,  Tb'n  zl'doon', 
(Abool-Waleed-  (or  Walid-)  Ahmed,  i'bool  wS-leed 
jn'med,)  an  Arabian  poet,  born  at  Cordova  in  1003. 
He  lived  at  Seville,  and  was  vizier  to  King  Motadhed. 
Died  in  1070. 

Zainer  or  Zeiner,  tsT'ner,  written  also  Tzainer, 
(GUNTHER,)  a  celebrated  German  printer,  born  at  Reut- 
Imgen  about  1430,  was  the  first  to  establish  a  press 
at  Augsburg.  He  also  introduced  the  Roman  type 
into  Germany.  Died  in  1478.  His  brother  Johann 
founded  a  printing-establishment  at  Ulm. 

Zajonczek,  zi-yon'ch§k,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish  general, 
born  at  Kamieniec  in  1752.  He  served  under  Kos- 
ciusko against  the  Russians,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
French  army,  fought  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1802.  He  lost  a  leg  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  was  soon  after  made 
prisoner.  In  1815  he  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Poland 
by  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  made  him  a  prince  in 
1818.  He  published,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Polish 
Revolution  in  1794,"  (1797-)     Died  in  1826. 

Zakrzew^ska,  zJkR-zh6v'ski,  (Maria  Elizabeth,) 
M.D.,  a  distinguished  physician,  born  in  Berlin,  Prussia, 
September  6,  1829.  She  was  of  Polish  descent,  the 
daughter  of  a  midwife.  She  studied  medicine  in  Ger- 
many, but  had  to  come  to  the  United  States  to  receive 
her  degree,  which  she  took  at  the  Cleveland  Medical 
College.  In  1863  she  founded  the  Woman's  Hospital 
at  Boston. 

Zakrzevrski,  zikR-zhSv'skee,  a  Polish  patriot,  born 
about  1744,  became  president  of  the  National  Council 
at  Warsaw  in  1794.  After  the  capture  of  that  city  by 
Suwarow,  he  was  arrested,  by  order  of  the  Russian 
government,  with  Potocki  and  others,  and  imprisoned 
at  Saint  Petersburg  till  the  accession  of  the  emperor 
Paul.     Died  in  1802. 

Zed,  zll,or  Zalzer, ziKzar,  [i.e.  "golden-haired,"]  the 
name  of  an  ancient  Persian  warrior,  who  was  distin- 
guished for  his  heroic  achievements,  and  still  more  as 
the  father  of  the  famous  Roostam,  (which  see.)  He  is 
said  to  have  greatly  aided  Kai-Kobad  (the  first  of  the 
Kaianian  kings)  in  repelling  the  invasion  of  the  Tartars 
and  in  establishing  that  king  securely  on  the  throne  of 
Persia. 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  Sir  William 
Jones's  Works ;  Atkinson's  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nimeh  of 
Firdaiisi." 

Zaleski,  zS-l§s'skee,  (Bohdan,)  a  Polish  poet,  born 
In  the  Ukraine  in  1802.  His  chief  works  are  "  The  Spirit 
'>f  the  Steppes,"  and  "The  Holy  Family."     D.  in  1886. 

Za-leu'cus,  [ZuAn;/cof,]  an  eminent  Greek  legislator, 
supposed  to  have  been  born  about  700  B.C.  According 
to  tradition,  he  was  the  first  of  the  Greeks  who  pre- 
pared a  code  of  written  laws.  This  code — which,  he 
declared,  was  revealed  to  him  by  Minerva — was  made 
for  the  Epizephyrian  Locrians,  in  Southern  Italy.  He 
is  said  by  some  writers  to  have  been  killed  in  battle ; 
while  others  assert  that  he  committed  suicide  for  having 
thoughtlessly  violated  one  of  his  own  laws. 

See  RiTTERSHUSius,  "  Oratio  de  Zaieuco  et  Charonda,"  etc., 
isqi ;  B.  PoRTOGHESE,  "  Framinenti  della  Legislazione  de  Zaieuco," 
etc.,  i!<42. 

Zallinger,  tsil'ling-er,  (Franz  Seraphin,)  aTyrolese 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Botzen  in  1743,  published 
several  works.     Died  after  1800. 

Zallinger,  (Jakob  Anton,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at 
Botzen,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1735.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  in  Latin,  "The  Interpretation  of  Nature, 
or  the  Newtonian  Philosophy  Expounded,"  (3  vols., 
1773-75.)     Died  about  1802. 

Zall-weiii,  tsaK<^Tn,  (Georg,)  a  German  canonist, 
born  in  the  Upper  Palatinate  in  17 12.  He  was  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Salzburg,  and  wrote  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1766. 

Zalmoxis.    See  Zamolxis. 

Zaluski,  zi-loos'.skee,  (Andrew  Chrysostom,)  a 
Polish  statesman  and  pulpit  orator,  born  about  1650, 
rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Ermeland  and  grand  chancellor  of 


Poland  under  Augustus  II.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
valuable  and  interesting  work  entitled  "  Historical  Epis- 
tles," ("Epistolae  historico-familiares.")     Died  in  171 1. 

Zaluski,  (Andrew  Stanislas,)  nei)hew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  created  Bishop  of  Plock  by  Augustus  II., 
and  appointed  grand  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  (1735.) 
He  became  Bishop  of  Cracow  in  1746.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  his  patronage  of  literaturej 
Died  in  1758. 

Zaluski,  (Joseph  Andrew,)  a  bibliophile,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1701.  Having  visited 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  he  became  after  his  return 
Bishop  of  Kief.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  the 
Bishop  of  Cracow,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of 
forming  a  library,  which  in  1748  amounted  to  230,000 
volumes  and  was  opened  to  the  public  at  Warsaw  the 
same  year.  In  1766  he  was  imprisoned,  by  order  of 
the  Russian  government,  for  having  denounced  the  Dis- 
sidents protected  by  that  country,  and  was  not  released  till 

1773.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  an  account,  in  verse,  of 
the  Polish  histories  contained  in  his  library.    He  died  in 

1774,  and  his  magnificent  collection  was,  on  the  partition 
of  Poland,  in  1795,  seized  by  the  Russian  government 
and  carried  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  it  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  Imperial  Library.  Many  books  were 
lost  on  the  way,  but  the  number  which  arrived  safely 
amounted  to  262,640  volumes,  of  which  the  greater  part 
were  French,  German,  and  English.  It  also  contained 
about  25,000  engravings. 

Zamacois,  thi'mS-ko'ees,  (Eduardo,  )  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Bilbao  in  1S37.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Meissonier,  and  attained  a  marvellous  popularity  as  a 
genre  painter.     Died  at  Madrid  in  1871. 

Zatnagna,  dzJ-min'yi,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ragusa  in  1735.  He  translated 
the  poems  of  Hesiod  and  Theocritus,  and  the  "  Odyssey" 
of  Homer,  into  Latin  verse.     Died  in  1820. 

Zambeccari,  dzim-b5k-kyree,(FRANCESCO,)  Count, 
a  distinguished  Italian  aeronaut,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1756.  He  maintained  the  theory  that  a  balloon  could 
be  managed  by  the  use  of  oars  and  by  increasing  or 
diminishing  the  gas,  and,  while  making  the  experiment, 
perished  by  his  balloon  being  caught  in  a  tree  and 
taking  fire,  (1812.) 

Zambeccari,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a  native 
of  Florence,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Pisa. 

Zam-be'li-os,  (John,)  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  one 
of  the  Ionian  Isles  in  1787.  He  wrote  lyric  poems, 
and  several  tragedies,  which  were  successful.  Died 
in  1856. 

Zambelli,  dz5m-beKlee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian, born  at  Lonato  in  1794.  He  became  professor 
of  history  at  Pavia  in  1825,  and  president  of  the  Institute 
of  Milan  in  1845.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
War."     Died  September  30,  1S62. 

Zamboni,  dzim-bo'nee,  (Baldassare,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Brescia  about  1730 ;  died  in  1797. 

Zamet,  zt'mi',  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  military  officer, 
born  in  France,  was  a  son  of  the  following.  He  fought 
for  the  King  of  France  against  the  Huguenots,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  model  Christian  soldier.  He  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Montpellier,  about  1621. 

Zamet,  dzi-met'  or  zi'mk',  (Sebastian,)  an  Italian 
financier  and  courtier,  born  at  Lucca  about  1549,  came 
to  Paris  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  confidential  agent 
of  Henry  IV.,  who  borrowed  money  of  him  and  em- 
ployed him  in  negotiations  and  intrigues.    Died  in  1614, 

Zamet,  (S6bastien,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  became  Bishop  of  Langres 
in  1615.  About  1630  he  founded  an  order  of  nuns  for 
the  adoration  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  which  was  gov- 
erned by  Angelique  Arnauld.     Died  in  1655- 

Za-mol'ads  [Gr.  ZdimT^ig]  or  Zal-mox'is  [Gr.  Zak- 
IM^ii\  was  regarded  as  a  deity  by  the  ancient  Getse  or 
Thracians.  According  to  a  Greek  tradition,  he  was  a 
slave  and  pupil  of  Pythagoras,  and  he  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  to  the  Getae. 

Zamora,  thi-mo'rd,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  physician, 
born  at  Salamanca  about  1570;  died  about  1640. 


Pas  k:  q  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,^ittural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZAMORA 


2q  i6 


ZANNONI 


Zamora,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  theologian  and  poet, 
born  at  Ocafia  about  1550.  He  wrote  a  poem  ("La 
Sapnntina")  on  the  siege  of  Saguntum.     Died  in  1614. 

Zamora,  de,  di  thi-mo'ra,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
dramatist,  who  lived  about  1710-50,  was  patronized  by 
Philip  V.  His  tragedy  entitled  "  Mazariegos  y  Mon- 
salves"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works. 

Zamora,  de,  (Bernardo,)  a  learned  Spanish  monk, 
born  in  Leon  about  1720.  He  was  professor  of  Greek 
at  Salamanca,  and  wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1785. 

Zamori,  dz3-mo'ree,  or  Zamoreo,  dzi-mo'ri-o,  (Ga- 
BRIO,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Parma 
about  1320.  He  was  highly  praised  by  Petrarch,  who 
was  his  friend.     Died  about  1400. 

Zamosc.     See  Zamoyski. 

Zamoscius.    See  Zamoyski. 

Zamoyski,  zS-moi'skee,  written  also  Zamojski  and 
Zamosc,  (Andrew,)  a  Polish  statesman  and  philan- 
thropist,  born  in  1716.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Saxon  army,  attained  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
in  1764  became  grand  chancellor  under  Stanislas  Au- 
gustus. He  published  in  1778  a  code  of  laws,  prepared 
at  the  request  of  the  Diet,  which,  on  account  of  its  pro- 
vision for  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  encountered 
general  opposition,  and  was  not  even  permitted  to  be 
read.  It  was,  however,  adopted  by  the  Diet  of  1791. 
He  died  in  1792.  His  wife,  originally  a  princess  Czar- 
toryska,  was  also  distinguished  for  the  benevolence  of 
her  character  and  her  numerous  charities. 

Zamoyski,  (John,)  grandson  of  the  following,  was 
born  in  1626.  He  fought  against  the  Cossacks  in  1651, 
and  was  afterwards  appointed  Palatine  of  Sandomir  by 
John  Casimir.  He  also  distinguished  himself  in  the 
subsequent  wars  with  Sweden  and  Russia.  Died  in 
1665.  His  widow  was  afterwards  married  to  the  cele- 
brated Sobieski. 

Zamoyski  or  Zamosc,  [Lat.  Zamos'cius,]  (John 
Sarius,)  an  eminent  Polish  statesman,  general,  and 
scholar,  born  in  1541.  He  was  educated  at  Paris  and 
at  Padua,  where  he  studied  law.  In  1563  he  published 
at  Padua  or  Venice  an  able  treatise  "  On  the  Roman 
Senate,"  ("  De  Senatu  Romano,")  which  Graevius  praised 
and  inserted  in  his  "Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Roma- 
narum."  He  returned  to  Poland  about  1565,  and  found 
abountiful  patron  in  King  Sigismund  Augustus,  who 
died  in  1572.  In  the  election  of  a  new  king,  Zamoyski, 
who  was  recognized  as  chief  of  the  equestrian  order, 
supported  Henry  of  Anjou,  who  was  elected,  and  ap- 
pointed Zamoyski  grand  chamberlain.  After  the  flight 
or  abdication  of  Henry,  (1574,)  Zamoyski  favoured  the 
election  of  Stephen  Bathori,  and  was  rewarded  with  the 
office  of  grand  chancellor.  He  was  the  most  influential 
Polish  statesman  in  the  reign  of  Bathori.  During  the  war 
against  the  Muscovites  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  1580,  and  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1582, 
by  which  Livonia  and  Novogorod  were  ceded  to  Poland. 
He  marrieda  niece  of  the  king  about  1582.  The  Swedish 
prince  Sigismund,  who  succeeded  Bathori  in  1586,  owed 
his  election  to  Zamoyski.  Maximilian  of  Austria,  who 
was  a  candidate  for  the  Polish  throne,  having  invaded 
Poland  with  an  army,  Zamoyski  defeated  him  and  took 
him  prisoner  about  the  end  of  1586.  He  commanded 
the  army  in  a  successful  campaign  against  the  Turks  in 
1595'  a'ld  gained  some  victories  over  Charles,  Duke  of 
Sudermania,  in  Courland,  about  1597.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Logica  Stoica,  seu  Dialectica  Chrysippea."  Died 
in  1605. 

See  BuRsius,  "Vita  J.  Zamoscii,"  1619;  T.  Mostowski,  "Life 
of  J.  Zamoyski,"  (in  Polish,  1805;)  Bentkowski,  "Defense  de  J. 
Zamoyski,"  1811. 

Zamoyski,  (Stanislas  Kostka  Francis  Rein- 
hold,)  a  Polish  politician,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1775,  was 
a  son  of  Andrew,  noticed  above.  He  became  a  privy 
councillor  at  Vienna  in  1795,  ^  senator-palatine  about 
1809,  and  president  of  the  senate  of  Poland  in  1822. 
Died  in  1856. 

Zamoyski,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  John  Sarius  Zamoy- 
ski, was  born  in  1595.  He  inherited  in  some  degree 
the  qualities  of  his  father,  and  was  appointed  grand 
chancellor  in  1635.     Died  in  1638. 

Zampi,  dzSm'pee,  (Felice  Maria,)  a  famous  Italian 


preacher  and  poet,  born  at  Ascoli  about  1700.  His 
sermons  were  sometimes  rather  facetious,  or  deficient 
in  gravity.     Died  in  1774. 

Zampieri.     See  Domenichino. 

Zampieri,  dzam-pe-a'ree,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Imola  in  1701,  was  a  good  classical  scholar.  He 
became  a  senator  at  Bologna,  where  he  lived  many  years. 
He  produced  several  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  which  are 
commended.     Died  in  1784. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Zanardelli,  dza-nSR-del'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
statesman,  born  at  Brescia  in  1826.  He  was  educated  in 
his  native  city,  graduating  as  Doctor  of  Laws  in  1848,  in 
which  year  he  was  banished  as  a  revolutionist.  He  was 
minister  of  public  works  for  Italy  in  1876-77,  and  became 
home-secretary  in  1878. 

Zanchi,  dzin'kee,  [Lat.  Zan'chius,]  (Basilio,)  an 
Italian  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Bergamo  about 
1 501,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  elegant  Latin  poems, 
one  of  which  was  entitled  "  On  the  Garden  of  Wisdom," 
("  De  Horto  Sophiae.")  He  was  imprisoned  in  1558 
for  some  act  of  disobedience  to  the  pope,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Zanchi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  history,  in  Latin,  of  one  of 
the  wars  of  the  Venetians  against  Maximilian,  King  of 
the  Romans. 

Zanchi,  (Gian  Crisostomo,)  brother  of  Basilio, 
noticed  above,  published  a  historical  work,  entitled 
"  On  the  Origin  of  the  Orobii  or  Cenomani,"  ?  ("  De  Oro- 
biorum,  sive  Cenomanorum  Origine.")     Died  in  1566. 

Zanchi,  (Girolamo,)  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1516.  He  studied  divinity,  and  at  an 
early  age  became  one  of  the  canons  of  the  Lateran.  While 
at  Rome,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  the  Protestant 
reformer  Peter  ^Iartyr,  and,  having  been  converted  to 
his  doctrines,  repaired  to  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  controversial  and  theological 
works.     Died  in  1590. 

Zane,  dzi'ni,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  lyric  poet  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Venice  in  1529;  died  in  1560. 

Zanetti,  dzi-net'tee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  Count,  a 
Veni^tian  engraver  and  amateur,  born  about  1680,  made 
a  choice  collection  of  antique  gems  and  other  works 
of  art.  He  also  published  several  treatises  on  art  and 
antiquities.     Died  in  1766. 

Zanetti,  (Antonio  Maria,)  a  relative  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Venice  in  1716.  He  became  libra- 
rian of  Saint  Mark,  and  was  the  author  of  a  valuable 
work  on  Venetian  painting,  ("  Delia  Pittura  Veneziana.") 
Died  in  1778. 

Zanetti,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  historian,  born 
near  Treviso  in  1690.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Lombards,"  {"  Del  Regno  de'  Longobardi  in  Italia,"  2 
vols.,  1753.)     Died  in  1762. 

Zanetti,  (Girolamo  Francesco,)  brother  of  Antonio 
Maria,  (the  second  of  the  name,)  was  born  at  Venice  in 
1 713.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Padua,  and  wrote 
several  antiquarian  works.     Died  in  1782. 

Zanetti,  (GuiDO,)  an  eminent  Italian  numismatist, 
born  in  the  province  of  Bologna  in  1741.  He  published 
a  work  on  Italian  coins,  entitled  "Nuova  Raccolta  delle 
Monete  e  Zecche  d'ltalia,"  (5  vols.,  1775-89.)     Died  in 

1791. 

Zangiacomi,  zftN'zha'ko'me',  (Joseph,)  Baron,  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Nancy  in  1766.  He  was  a  mod- 
erate member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  became 
a  judge  in  1800.  In  1831  he  was  api)ointed  president  of 
the  chamber  of  requests.     Died  in  1846. 

See  Paillart,  "filoge  de  Zangiacomi,"  1854. 

Zanichelli,  dzi-ne-kel'lee,  or  Zannichelli,  (Gian 
Girolamo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Modena  in  1662,  was  the  author  of  several  scientific 
treatises.  A  genus  of  ])lants  has  been  named  Zanni- 
(hellia  in  his  honour.     Died  in  1729. 

Zannichelli.     See  Zanichelll 

Zannini,  dzi-nee'nee,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  in  1781,  lived  at  Venice.     Died  in  1843. 

Zannoni,    dzi-no'nee,    (Giovanni    BArrisTA,)  an 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lorn-:  i,  ^,  5,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  >?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsatre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ZANOBI 


2517 


ZAWADOWSKl 


Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  1774,  was  a  pupil 
of  Lanzi,  and  became  in  1817  secretary  of  the  Academy 
della  Crusca.  He  published  a  history  of  that  academy, 
and  several  treatises  on  numismatics  and  ancient  art. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  C.  Cavedoni,  "  Blografia  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Zannoni," 
1835:  F.  Becchi,  "  Elogio  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Zannoni,"  1838. 

Zanobi  da  Strata,  dzi-no'bee  di  stRi'ti,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Strata,  near  Florence,  in  13 12.  He  was 
crowned  with  laurel  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1355. 
Died  in  1361. 

Zanolini,  dz5-no-lee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  Orientalist,  born  at  Padua  in  1693.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Syriac  at  Padua,  and  published 
lexicons  and  grammars  of  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac  lan- 
guages.    Died  in  1762. 

Zanoni,  dz5-no'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  agricul- 
turist, born  at  Udine  in  1696.  He  made  experiments  in 
rural  economy,  and  published  several  works  on  that 
subject.     Died  in  1770. 

Zanoni,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  in 
Lombardy  in  1615.  He  was  keeper  of  the  botanic  gar- 
den of  Bologna,  and  published  a  botanical  work  entitled 
"  Botanical  History  of  Rare  Plants,"  etc.,  ("  Storia  bo- 
tanica  delle  Piante  piu  rare,"  etc.,  1675.)     Died  in  1682. 

Zanotti,  dzS-not'tee,  (Eustachio,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  son  of  Giampietro,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1709.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  in  his  native  city,  and  published 
several  scientific  works  in  Latin  and  Italian.  Died  in 
1782. 

See  Vannetti,  "  Commentarius  de  Vita  E.  Zanotti,"  1786. 

Zanotti,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Bologna  in  1692.  He  became  suc- 
cessively professor  of  philosophy,  librarian,  and  president 
of  the  university  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author 
of  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian,  and  several  treatises  on 
physics,  mathematics,  and  art.     Died  in  1777. 

Zanotti,  (Giampietro  Cavazzoni,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  art-critic,  born  in  1674,  was  a  pupil  of  Lorenzo 
Pasinelli  at  Bologna.  He  published  "  Hints  to  a  Young 
Painter,"  a  "  Life  of  Pasinelli,"  "  History  of  the  Clemen- 
tine Academy  of  Bologna,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1765. 

Zanten,  van,  vtn  zJn'ten,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  translator,  born  about  1650.  He  became  minister 
of  the  Mennonite  church  at  Haarlem  in  1707.  He 
translated  into  Dutch  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  Died 
after  1729. 

Zanzalus.     See  Barad^us. 

Zapata,  thi-pi'tJ,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  cardinal, 
born  at  Madrid  about  1550.  He  was  appointed  Viceroy 
of  Naples  in  1620,  but  was  soon  removed.     Died  in  1635. 

Zapata,  (Antonio  or  Lupian,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Segorbe  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Zapata,  dzd-pi'ti,  (Giovanni  Baitista,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  probably  at  Rome  about  1520.  He 
published  a  work  called  "Wonderful  Secrets  of  Medi- 
cine," ("  Maravigliosi  Secreti  di  Medicina,"  2d  edition, 
1586.)     Died  after  1586. 

Zapf,  tsdpf,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  learned  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Nordlingen  in  1747.  He  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Bibliography 
of  Ancient  and  Modern  History,"  (1781,)  "History  of 
Printing  at  Augsburg,"  (2  vols.,  1788-91,)  and  "Lives 
of  Celebrated  Savants  and  Artists  of  All  Time,"  (1806.) 
Died  in  1810. 

Zapf,  (NiKOLAUS,)  a  German  Lutheran  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Milvvitz  in  1600,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Erfurt  in  1633,  and  court  preacher  to 
the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  in  1642.  He  was  eminent 
for  learning  and  other  merits.     Died  in  1672. 

Zapolya,  zi-pol'yi,  or  Zapoly,  zS'pol,  (John,)  sou 
of  Stephen,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  14S7,  and  was 
])roclainied  King  of  Hungary  in  1526,  in  opposition 
to  Ferdinand  of  Austria.  After  a  protracted  contest, 
Zapolya  was  forced  to  give  up  his  claim  to  all  except 
Transylvania  and  a  few  other  territories.     Died  in  1540. 

Zapolya  or  Zapoly,  (JoH^f  II.,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1540.  He  inherited  the  principality 
of  Transylvania.     Died  in  1570  or  1571. 


Zapolya,  (Stephen,)  a  distinguished  military  com- 
mander under  Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary, 
was  appointed  by  that  sovereign  Governor  of  Austria. 
His  daughter  Barbara  was  married  to  Sigismund  I., 
King  of  Poland.     Died  in  1499. 

Zappi,  dzip'pee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
moralist,  born  at  Imola  about  1 540.  He  published  a 
work  entitled  "The  Field  of  Spiritual  Philosophy," 
("  Prato  della  Filosofia  spirituale,"  1577.)     Died  after 

1585- 

Zappi,  (Giovanni  Battista  Felice,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  jurist,  born  at  Imola  in  1667.  He  was  the 
author  of  sonnets,  eclogues,  and  other  poems,  which 
are  greatly  admired  for  the  grace  and  purity  of  their 
style.  Died  in  1719.  His  wife  Faustina,  daughter  of 
Carlo  Maratta,  was  also  distinguished  for  her  accom- 
plishments and  poetic  talents. 

Zara,  dzS'ri,  (Antonio,)  Bishop  of  Pedena,  was 
born  at  Aquiieia  in  1574.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Anatomy  of  Inventions  and  Sciences,"  ("  Anatomia 
Ingeniorum  et  Scientiarum,"  161 5.) 

Zarate,  (Antonio.)     See  Gil  y  Zarate. 

Zarate  or  Qarate,  de,  di  thS-rd'ti,  (Augustin,)  a 
Spanish  historian,  who  in  1543  accompanied  Blasco 
Nunez  de  Vela,  Viceroy  of  Peru,  to  South  America.  He 
held  the  office  of  master-general  of  accounts  in  Peru 
and  Terra  Firma,  and,  after  the  deposition  of  Vela, 
was  sent  on  an  important  embassy  to  Gonzalo  Pizarro. 
He  published  in  1555  his  "History  of  the  Discovery 
and  Conquest  of  Peru,"  which  has  been  translated 
into  French  and  Italian.  It  is  esteemed  a  judicious  and 
reliable  work.     Died  about  1560. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  voL  ii 
book  V. 

Zarate,  de,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish  dramatist  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  "El  Maestro  de 
Alejandro,"  and  several  other  comedies,  also  a  collection 
of  poems. 

Zarate,  de,  (Francisco  Lopez,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born 
at  Logrono  about  1580.  He  was  the  author  of  lyric 
poems  entitled  "Silvas"  and  "Eclogues,"  which  have  a 
high  reputation.     Died  in  1658. 

Zarathustra.    See  Zoroaster. 

Zar'co,  (Joao  Gonzalez,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
discovered  in  141 7  the  island  of  Porto  Santo,  near  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  in  1419  the  island  of  Madeira,  to 
which  he  gave  this  name  on  account  of  the  dense  forests 
with  which  it  was  covered.  Zarco  founded  the  town  of 
Funchal,  and  was  made  governor  of  the  island  con- 
jointly with  his  companion,  Tristao  Vaz. 

Zareniba,  tsS-rlm'bS,  (Michael  Constantine,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1711;  died  in 
1786. 

Zarlino,  dziR-lee'no,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Chioggia  about  1520, 
was  chapel-master  at  Saint  Mark's,  Venice.  He  com- 
posed music  for  churches,  and  published  "  Instituzione 
armoniche,"  (1558.)     Died  in  1590. 

SeeRAVAGNAN,  "  Elogio  di  G.  Zarlino,"  1819  ;  F.  Caffi,  "  Nar- 
razione  della  Vita  di  G.  Zarlino,"  1836. 

Za'si-us,  [Ger.  pron.  tsS'ze-fls,]  written  also  Zazius, 
[Fr.  Zase,  zIz,]  (Ulric,)  an  eminent  Swiss  or  German 
jurist,  born  at  Constance  in  1461,  was  a  friend  of  Eras- 
mus. He  became  professor  of  law  at  Friburg,  and  was 
regarded  as  an  oracle  in  that  science.  He  published  a 
number  of  legal  works,  among  which  is  "  Method  of 
Law,"  ("Methodus  Juris.")     Died  in  1535. 

See  RiECGER,  "  Life  of  Zasius,"  Ulm,  1774. 

Zauner,  tsow'ner,  (Franz,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
in  1746,  was  patronized  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa. 
Among  his  best  works  may  be  named  the  monument  of 
Leopold  II.,  and  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Joseph 
II.  He  was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Vienna, 
Died  in  1822. 

Zavarroni,  dzJ-var-ro'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian 
antiquary  and  biographer,  born  at  Montalto  in  17 ID. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Calabrian  Library," 
("Bibliotheca  Calabra,"  1753,)  which  consists  of  the 
lives  of  Calabrian  authors.     Died  in  1 767. 

Zawadowski,  zi-vi-dov'skee,  (Peter,)  Count,  a 
Russian  minister  of  state,  born  in  1738.     He  rendered 


€  as  -J;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy,  G,  H,  Y.,ptttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZA  WISZA 


2518 


ZELLER 


important  services  by  promoting  order  and  education  in 
Russia,  and  became  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
1802.     Died  in  1812. 

ZaT^isza,  zd-vee'shS,  surnamed  the  Black,  a  Polish 
soldier,  served  under  the  emperor  Sigismund,  and  was 
killed  in  the  Turkish  campaign  of  1420. 

Zayas  y  Sotomayor,  de,  di  thi'yis  e  so-to-ni5- 
ydR',  (Dona  Maria,)  a  Spanish  poetess,  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Madrid.  Slie  published  "Moral  and  Amorous 
Tales,"  ("Novelas  exemplares  y  amorosas,"  1634,)  which 
are  commended. 

Zbarav^ski.    See  Zborowski. 

Zborowski,  zbo-rov'skee,  written  also  Zbarawski, 
(John,)  Prince  of,  a  Polish  general,  who  distinguished 
himself  in  war  against  the  Muscovites  and  Tartars  in 
the  reigns  of  Stephen  Bathori  and  Sigismund  III. 
Died  in  1608. 

Zea,  sa'J  or  tha'i,  (Don  Francisco  Antonio,)  a 
distinguished  South  American  statesman  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Medellin,  in  New  Granada,  in  1770.  Having 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Spanish  government  by 
his  liberal  sentiments,  he  was  imprisoned  two  years  in 
Spain.  He  was  appointed  in  1805  professor  of  natural 
sciences  and  director  of  the  Royal  Botanical  Garden  at 
Madrid.  Under  Joseph  Bonaparte  he  became  minister 
of  the  interior  and  Governor  of  Malaga.  He  sailed  in 
1814  for  South  America,  where  he  joined  Bolivar  against 
the  Spaniards,  was  made  intendant-general  of  the  armies 
of  the  republic  of  Colombia,  and  elected  Vice-President 
in  1819.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  England  in  1820, 
and  died  at  Bath  in  1822. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Zea-Bermudez,  tha'i  b^R-moo'D^th,  (Don  Fran- 
cisco,) a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Malaga  in  1772, 
was  employed  on  embassies  to  Saint  Petersburg,  Con- 
stantinople, and  London,  and  in  1824  succeeded  Count 
de  Ofalia  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1850.  ,  , 

Zeb'u-lun,  [Heb.  1p1-\  or  pnt ;  Fr.  Zabulon,  zt'bu'- 
'An',]  a  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch  Jacob,  was  the  head 
of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

Zecchi,  dzSk'kee,  [Lat.  Zec'chius,]  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Bologna  in  1533.  He  prac- 
tised in  Rome,  and  was  employed  by  several  popes. 
He  published  a  number  of  professional  works.  Died 
in  1601. 

Zecchini,  dz?k-kee'nee,  (Petronio,)  an  Italian  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1739;  died  in  1793. 

Zecchius.    See  Zecchi. 

Zecli,  tseK,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  Jesuit,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  canonist,  was  born  in  Franconia  in  1692. 
He  published  four  works  which  form  a  complete  course 
of  canon  law.     Died  at  Munich  in  1772. 

Ze-eh-a-ri'ah,  [Heb.  nnDl;  Fr.  Zacharie,  zt'kt're',] 
one  of  the  twelve  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  was  the  son 
of  Berechiah,  and  began  to  prophesy  about  520  B.C. 

Zed-e-ki'ah,  [Heb.  H'pi:/  or  IH^piV,]  son  of  Josiah, 
King  of  Judah,  began  to  reign  about  600  B.C.  Having 
joined  Pharaoh-Hophra,  King  of  Egypt,  in  a  rebellion 
against  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  latter  laid  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem, which  he  took  after  nineteen  months,  (586  B.C.) 
Zedekiah's  sons  were  slain  before  his  eyes,  by  order  of 
the  king,  and  he  himself  imprisoned  for  life  at  Babylon, 
having  previously  been  made  blind. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  10;  Jeremiah  xxxii. 

Zedler,  tsSd'ler,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German 
Dookseller,  born  at  Breslau  in  1706,  was  the  publisher 
of  the  "  Universal  Lexicon  of  Science  and  Arts,"  (64 
vols.,  1731-50.)     Died  in  1760. 

Zedlitz,  tsSd'lits,  (Joseph  Christian,)  Baron,  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Johannesberg  in  1790,  published 
a  number  of  lyrics  and  tragedies,  and  translated  Byron's 
"Childe  Harold"  into  German.     Died  in  1862, 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Zedlitz,  von,  fon  tsgd'lits,  (Karl  Abraham,)  Baron, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  near  Landshut,  in  Silesia,  in 
1731.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  in  1770, 
and  the  next  year  the  king  confided  to  him  the  de- 
partment of  ecclesiastic  affairs  and  public  instruction. 
He  promoted  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  reform  in  the 
prisons.     He  resigned  office  in  1789.     Died  in  1793. 


Zeenian,za'mSn,(REMiGius,)  a  Dutch  marine  pamter, 
whose  original  name  was  NooMS,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
16 1 2. 

Zegabene.     See  Zegabenus. 

Zeg-a-be'nu3,  [Fr.  Z^GAFfeNE,  zi'g5'b|n',]  (Geor- 
Gius,)  a  Byzantine  writer  of  unknown  period.  He  wrote, 
in  verse,  a  work  on  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

Zeg'e'din',  (Stephen  of,)  a  Hungarian  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Zegedin  in  1505,  was  a  pupil  of 
Luther  at  Wittenberg.  He  was  often  persecuted  and 
driven  from  place  to  place.     Died  in  1572. 

Zegera  or  Segers,  za'gers  or  za'ners,  (Hercules,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter  and  engraver  of  great  merit, 
was  born  about  1625.  Notwithstanding  the  excellence 
of  his  works,  he  was  very  unsuccessful  in  disposing  of 
them,  and,  discouraged  by  his  bad  fortune,  gave  himself 
up  to  intemperance.  He  died  in  consequence  of  a  fall 
when  intoxicated.  His  prints,  after  his  death,  were  sold 
for  very  high  prices. 

Zegers,  za'gers  or  zi'zhaiR',  (Tacite  Nicolas,)  a 
Flemish  theologian,  born  at  Brussels  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Latin,  (1559.)  According  to 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  he  was  one  of  the  best 
critics  of  his  time.     Died  in  1559. 

Zeiad.     See  Zeyad. 

Zeibich,  tsI'biK,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  writer 
on  theology,  born  at  Edemburg  in  171 7,  was  professor 
at  Wittenberg.     Died  in  1763. 

Zeid.     See  Zeyd. 

Zeidoun  or  Zeidxin.     See  Zaidoon. 

Zeiler,  tsT'ler,  or  Zeiller,  (Martin,)  a  German  geog- 
rapher and  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  in 
Styria  in  1589.  He  published  some  useful  works  on  the 
geography  and  topography  of  Germany.     Died  in  1661. 

Zeisberger,  tsIs'beRG-er,  (David,)  a  German  mission- 
ary among  the  American  Indians,  was  born  in  Moravia 
in  1 721.  Having  been  educated  by  the  Society  of  Mo- 
ravians, he  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  where  he  assisted 
in  founding  the  town  of  Bethlehem.  He  afterwards 
established  missions  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan, 
and  Canada.  He  published  several  religious  and  educa- 
tional works  in  the  Delaware  language.     Died  in  1808. 

See  EliMUNd  de  Schweinitz,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  David 
Zeisberger:"    "Weekly  New  York  Tribune"  for  November  23,  1S70. 

Zelada,  dzi-li'di,  (Francesco  Saverio,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  and  liberal  patron  of  learning,  was  born  about 
1717.  He  became  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  Vatican. 
Died  in  1801. 

Zelich,  za'lik  or  dza'lik,  (G.,)  a  Dalmatian  scholar 
and  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1752,  visited  Germany  and 
Russia,  and  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  entitled 
"Life,  Adventures,  etc.  ofG.  Zelich,"  (Buda,  1823,)  said 
to  have  been  the  first  prose  work  in  the  Servian  language. 
Died  about  1822. 

Zell,  ts&l,  (Karl,)  a  German  scholar  and  critic,  born 
at  Mannheim  in  1793,  studied  at  Heidelberg  under 
Creuzer.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  edition 
of  Aristotle's  "Ethica  Nicomachea,"  "  Ferienschriften," 
(3  vols.,  1826-33,)  ^  series  of  treatises,  and  a  "  Manual 
of  Roman  Epigraphy,"  (1850.)  He  became  professor  at 
Heidelberg  in  1847.     Died  January  24,  1873. 

Zell,  ts§l  or  zh\,  (Ulrich,)  the  first  printer  of  Cologne, 
established  a  press  in  that  city  about  1462,  and  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "  Augustinus  de  Vita  Chris- 
tiana," and  "  Biblia  Latina." 

Zeiler,  zSl'laiR',  (Berthold.)  a  French  historian,  a 
son  of  J.  S.  Zeiler,  was  born  September  25,  1848,  studied 
(1869-72)  at  the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure,  and  held 
professorships  of  history  successively  at  Bourges,  Amiens, 
and  several  of  the  Parisian  colleges.  Besides  "  Richelieu 
et  les  Ministres  de  Louis  XIII,"  he  has  published  an  ex- 
cellent work  entitled  "  Henri  IV  et  Marie  de  Medicis," 
(1876.) 

Zeiler,  tsSl'ler,  (Eduard,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Wiirtemberg  in  1814,  published,  among  other  works, 
"Platonic  Stuclies,"  (1S39,)  "The  Theological  System 
of  Zwingle,"  (1853,)  and  "State  and  Church,"  (1S73.) 

Zeiler,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  learned  German  phy- 
sician, born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1656.  He  was  professor 
of  medicine  at  Tubingen,  where  he  died  in  1734. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZELLER 


2519 


ZEJSO 


Zeller,  (Jules  Sylvain,)  an  able  French  historian, 
born  in  Paris,  April  23,  1820.  After  a  brilliant  course 
of  study  at  the  College  Charlemagne  and  in  Germany, 
he  held  professorships  successively  at  Bordeaux,  Rennes, 
Strasburg,  Aix,  the  Sorbonne,  and  the  ficole  Polytech- 
nique.  He  was  afterwards  rector  of  the  academy  at 
Strasburg,  and  in  1876  was  made  inspector-general  of 
superior  instruction.  In  1874  he  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Moral  Sciences.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Ulrich  de  Hutten,"  (1849,) "  Histoire  de  I'ltalie,"  (1852,) 
"Les  Empereurs  romains,"  (1863,)  "  Entretiens  sur 
I'Histoire,"  (1865,)  "Italic  et  Renaissance,"  (1869,) 
"Les  Tribunes  et  les  Revolutions  en  Italic,"  (1874,) 
"  Histoire  d'AIlemagne,"  etc. 

Zelotti,  dzi-lot'tee,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Verona  in  1532,  was  contemporary  with  Paul 
Veronese,  to  whom  in  some  respects  he  is  esteemed 
superior.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  series  of 
frescos  at  Cataio,  representing  the  achievements  of  the 
Obizzi  family.     Died  in  1592. 

Zelter,  ts^l'ter,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  distinguished 
German  composer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1758.  He  was 
nstructed  in  music  by  Fasch,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1800  as  teacher  of  the  Academy  of  Singing,  called  by 
his  name.  In  1809  he  was  appointed,  by  the  King  of 
Prussia,  professor  of  music  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  at  Berlin.  He  numbered  among  his  pupils  the 
celebrated  Mendelssohn,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Goethe.  He  died  in  1832,  leaving  his  "  Correspondence 
with  Goethe,"  which  appeared  in  1833. 

Zeltner,  ts^lt'ner,  (Gustav  Georg,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man philologist  and  writer,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1672. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  and  Oriental  languages 
at  Altdorf  for  twenty-four  years.     Died  in  1738. 

Zenale,  dzi-ni'lS,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  born  about  1450.  He  worked  at  Milan, 
where  he  was  often  consulted  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Zend  Avesta.     See  Zoroaster. 

Zendrini,  dz5n-dree'nee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  in  1679,  resided  at  Venice, 
where  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer  to  the  republic. 
He  was  also  employed  in  various  important  works  by 
the  Austrian  government,  and  published  several  valuable 
treatises  on  hydraulics,  astronomy,  etc.     Died  in  1747. 

Zenner,  tsln'ner,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  at  Altenburg.  He  was  for  twenty  years 
secretary  to  the  Prince  of  Anhalt.  According  to  the 
"Biographic  Universelle,"  he  was  born  in  1596  and 
died  in  1721. 

Ze'no  or  Ze'non,  [Gr.  X'qvuv ;  Fr.  Z^non,  zk'nAN'; 
It.  Zenone,  dzi-no'ni.)  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher, 
the  founder  of  the  school  of  Stoics,  was  born  at  Citium, 
in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  about  355  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Crates  the  Cynic,  and  afterwards  received  instruction 
from  Stilpo  and  Polemon  at  Athens.  He  settled  at 
Athens  at  an  early  age,  and,  having  formed  a  new  sys- 
tem by  selections  from  different  philosophers,  he  opened 
a  school  in  the  Athenian  porch,  called  oroii  noiKiXTj,  (Stoa 
Poicilc,)  "painted  Porch,  (or  Portico.")  His  disciples 
were  at  first  called  Zenonians,  but  afterwards  they  were 
styled  the  philosophers  of  the  Porch,  (or  Portico,)  or, 
more  briefly,  "  those  of  the  Porch,"  ol  Ik  ttj^  arodg,  or  oi 
OTuiKoi,  (in  Latin,  Sto'ici,  English  "  Stoics.")  He  is  said  to 
have  taught  philosophy  at  Athens  for  fifty-eight  years. 
His  discipline  was  severe.  He  was  distinguished  by 
his  gravity,  modesty,  austere  morality,  and  firmness  of 
character.  In  the  use  of  words  he  aimed  at  sententious 
brevity.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  which  are  not  ex- 
tant. Our  information  about  the  principles  of  his  system 
is  very  scanty.  He  is  said  to  have  taught,  among  other 
things,  that  virtue  is  the  summum  bonum,  and  that  the 
accordance  of  individual  reason  with  the  universal  Reason 
{i.e.  the  Divine  Law)  is  virtue;  and  to  have  originated 
the  fourfold  division  of  the  affections,  desire  and  fear, 
pleasure  and  pain.  The  doctrine  of  the  Stoics  that  pain 
is  not  an  evil  has  excited  much  wonder  and  some  ridi- 
cule, both  in  ancient  and  modern  times ;  but  essentially 
the  same  doctrine  has  been  held  by  great  and  heroic 
men  in  all  ages.  Zeno  meant  nothing  more  than  that 
pain,  (including  sickness,  toil,  grief  for  the  loss  of  one's 
property,  etc.,)  causing  a  mere  temporary  inconvenience 


to  the  body,*  was  not  to  be  classed  in  t^e  same  category 
with  such  evils  as  crime,  cowardice,  or  dishonour, — evils 
which  stamp  themselves  indelibly  upon  the  soul.  In 
comparing  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics  with  those  of 
Epicurus,  it  is  a  triumphant  recommendation  of  the 
former  that,  after  the  introduction  of  Grecian  letters  and 
philosophy  among  the  Romans,  those  who  were  the  most 
eminent  of  all  for  public  and  jirivate  virtue — such  as 
Cato  the  Younger,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  many  others- 
were  among  the  disciples  of  the  Porch,  while  scarcely 
one  man  of  distinguished  virtue  can  be  pointed  to  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Epicureans.!  It  was  a  glorious  testimony 
to  the  character  of  Zeno  both  as  a  man  and  as  a  teacher 
of  virtue  that,  though  a  stranger,  the  Athenians  reposed 
in  him  the  most  unbounded  confidence  while  he  was 
alive,  and  after  his  death  they  decreed  him  a  golden 
crown  and  a  public  burial,  because,  during  his  long 
residence  at  Athens,  he  had,  both  by  precept  and  by  a 
consistent  example,  led  the  young  men  who  attended  his 
school  to  the  practice  of  wisdom  and  virtue.  Zeno  died 
about  the  age  of  ninety-eight,  and  was  succeeded  by  Cle- 
anthes  as  the  head  of  the  school.  The  Stoic  philosophy 
appears  to  have  been  somewhat  modified  by  several  of 
the  disciples  and  successors  of  Zeno.  Some  of  the  Stoics 
maintained  that  the  wise  man  is  perfect ;  that  he  only  is 
rich,  free,  noble,  and  beautiful :  "  Solos  sapientes  esse, 
si  distortissimi  sint,  formosos  ;  si  mendicissimi,  divites  ; 
si  servitutem  serviant,  reges."  (Cicero,  "Pro  Murena.'") 
According  to  Cicero,  they  taught  that  all  sins  were 
equal,  that  a  wise  man  is  never  mistaken,  never  changes 
his  mind,  and  is  never  moved  by  compassion. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius,  "Life  of  Zeno;"  Ritter,  "  Historj 
of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "  Biographical  History  of  Pliiloso- 
phy  ;"  Cicero,  "  De  Finibus"  and  "  Academica  ;"  Forelius,  "  Zeno 
Philosophus,"  1700:  Jenichen,  "De  Zenone  Cittico,"  1724;  Tiedb- 
MANN,  "System  der  Stoischen  Philosophie."  3  vols.,  1776;  Smith, 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Ze'no  or  Ze'non  [Gr.  TJqvuvX  of  Elea,  [Lat.  Ze'no 
Elea'tes  ;  Fr.  Z6non  d'El^E,  zi  niSN'di'Ii',]  an  eminent 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Elca,  in  Southern  Italy,  about 
495  B.C.  He  was  the  favourite  disciple  of  Parmenides, 
in  company  with  whom  he  visited  Athens  when  Socrates 
was  very  young.  Plato,  in  his  dialogue  entitled  "  Par- 
menides," states  that  Zeno  was  about  forty  years  old 
when  he  came  to  Athens.  According  to  Plutarch,  Zeno 
was  one  of  the  masters  of  Pericles.  It  is  probable  that 
he  remained  at  Athens  for  several  years  ;  but  the  events 
of  his  life  are  mostly  involved  in  obscurity.  According 
to  a  tradition  current  among  the  ancients,  Zeno  took  an 
active  part  in  the  public  affairs  of  Elea,  and  lost  his  life 
in  an  attempt  to  liberate  that  city  from  a  tyrant.  His 
doctrines  were  the  same  as  those  of  Parmenides.  Their 
doctrine  of  absolute  unity  produced  a  great  effect  at 
Athens.  Zeno  was  distinguished  by  his  subtle  and  bold 
dialectic.  "What  is,"  says  Victor  Cousin,  "the  most 
original  and  ])rominent  trait  of  Zeno  as  a  philosopher? 
It  is  evidently  the  invention  of  dialectic,  considered  as 
a  system  and  an  art."  Diogenes  Laertius  reports,  on  the 
authority  of  Aristotle,  "  that  Zeno  was  the  inventor  of  dia- 
lectic." He  was  the  first  Eleatic  philosopher  that  wrote 
in  prose.  His  works,  which  were  mostly  polemical  and 
refutations  of  attacks  on  the  system  of  Parmenides,  have 
not  come  down  to  us.  He  attempted  to  disprove  the 
possibility  or  reality  of  absolute  motion  by  several  argu- 
ments founded  on  the  infinite  divisibility  of  space  and 
time.  He  also  showed  the  absurd  consequences  which 
result  from  the  hypothesis  of  those  who  deny  the  prin- 
ciple of  absolute  unity  and  maintain  the  plurality  of  the 
existent. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius,  "Life  of  Zeno  of  Elea;"  Lundblad, 
'  Dissertalio  de  Zenone  Eleate,"  1805 ;  Ritter,  "  History  of  Phi- 


*  The  same  general  idea  was  carried  still  farther  by  the  early 
Christians.  Thus,  Saint  Paul  says,  "We  glory  in  tribulations," 
(Romans  v.  3,)  and  James,  "  My  brethren,  count  it  all  jov  when  ye 
fall  into  various  trials,"  (jreipaaMOis  Troi/ciAot?.^  (Epistle  of  James,  i. 
2.)  Nor  is  this  view  limited  to  the  early  Christians.  "  I  am  fully  con- 
vinced," says  Zscliokke,  "that  there  is  no  evil  in  tub  world 
but  sin."  In  another  place  he  says,  "Though  some  may  shake 
their  heads  incredulously,  it  is  a  fact  that  worldly  suffering  has 
often  not  been  disagreeable  to  me."  (See  Zschokke's  "Auto- 
biography.") 

t  Tlie  only  exception  that  we  can  call  to  mind  is  Pomponius  At- 
ticus,  an  amiable  and  most  estimable  man  in  private  life,  but  without 
any  just  claims  to  public  virtue. 


«  as  >t;  5  as  i;  |  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H.  K.  s^ttiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. 1 


ZENO 


2520 


ZENOBIA 


.osophy;"  G.  H.  Lewbs,  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy;" 
TiUDEMANN,  "Geist  der  speculative  Philosophic  ;"  Victor  Cousin, 
article  "Zenon"  in  the  "  Bioi^raphie  Universelle;"  Crell,  "  De 
Zenone,"  1724;  V.  Cousin,  "  Nouveaux  Fragmens  philosophiques. " 

Zeno  OF  SiDON,  a  Greek  philosopher,  mentioned  by 
Suidas  as  a  disciple  of  Diodorus  Cronus  and  a  teacher 
of  Zeno  the  celebrated  Stoic  He  wrote  a  defence  of 
Socrates. 

Zeno  OF  Tarsus,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  was  a  son 
of  Dioscorides,  and  a  pupil  of  Chrysippus,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  the  head  of  the  school  of  the  Portico. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  physician,  mentioned  by  Galen,  was 
an  eminent  disciple  of  Herophilus.  He  lived  probably 
about  200  B.C. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Rhodes,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Polybius.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of 
Rhodes. 

Zeno,  an  eminent  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  born 
at  Sidon,  flourished  about  60  B.C.  Cicero,  who  heard 
him  at  Athens,  speaks  favourably  of  his  abilities. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  at  Aphrodisias,  in 
Caria,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  some  part  of 
the  period  between  50  and  150  A.D.  Several  of  his  works 
are  extant. 

Zeno,  [Fr.  Z^non,  zi'nAN',]  Emperor  of  the  East,  was 
a  native  of  Isauria,  and  a  son-in-law  of  Leo  I.,  upon 
whose  death,  in  474  a.d.,  he  usurped  the  throne.  Leo 
L  had  appointed  as  his  successor  his  infant  grandson 
Leo,  who  was  a  son  of  Zeno,  and  who  died  a  few  months 
after  the  death  of  Leo  L  Zeno  is  represented  as  de- 
praved, cruel,  and  incapable.  His  reign  was  disturbed 
by  revolts  and  foreign  wars.  He  was  driven  out  of  his 
capital  by  Basiliscus  in  475,  but  was  restored  in  477 
A.D.  Theodoric  the  Great  invaded  the  dominions  of 
Zeno,  and  was  about  to  take  his  capital,  when  Zeno  per- 
suaded him  to  conquer  Italy,  and  thus  saved  himself^ 
Died,  without  issue,  in  491  a.d. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Le  Beai;,  "His- 
toire  du  Bas- Empire." 

Zeno,  dza'no,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  navigator,  born 
between  1330  and  1340,  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of 
Zeni  or  Zena,  and  was  a  brother  of  Niccolo,  noticed 
below.  About  1391  he  performed  a  voyage  to  Frisland, 
and  joined  Niccolo.  (See  Zeno,  Niccol6.)  Died  about 
1405. 

Zeno,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  scholar,  a  relative  of 
the  preceding,  lived  about  1570-90. 

Zeno,  (Apostolo,)  an  Italian  litterateur  and  drama- 
tist, born  at  Venice  in  December,  1668.  He  became 
editor  in  1710  of  the  "Giornale  de'  Letterati  d'ltalia,"  a 
literary  periodical  of  a  high  character,  and  about  1717 
repaired  to  Vienna  on  the  invitation  of  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  court  poet  and 
historiographer.  He  published  numerous  operas  or 
melodramas  of  superior  merit,  and  contributed  greatly 
to  the  improvement  of  that  species  of  composition. 
Among  his  other  principal  works  are  his  "  Historical, 
Critical,  and  Literary  Dissertations  on  the  Italian  His- 
torians," biographies  of  Davila  and  Guarini,  and  a 
collection  of  Letters.  In  1729  he  quitted  Vienna,  and 
returned  to  Venice,  where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life. 
He  published  twenty  volumes  of  the  "Giornale  de'  Let- 
terati," (1710-18.)  He  was  eminent  as  a  critic,  and  was 
well  versed  in  antiquities.  "Zeno  was  regarded,"  says 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "  as  the  greatest  lyric  poet 
that  Italy  had  produced  when  Metastasio  appeared  on 
the  scene.  .  .  .  He  delights  us  by  his  invention,  by  his 
fecundity,  by  the  truth  of  his  pictures,  and  by  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  dramatic  art."  His  treatises  on  antiquities, 
entitled  "  Dissertazioni  Vossiani,"  (2  vols.,  1752,)  are 
highly  esteemed.     Died  in  November,  1750. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excelleiitiiim,"  vol.  ix. ; 
Francesco  Nrgri,  "Vita  di  Apostolo  Zeno,"  1816;  Tipaloo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Zeno,  (Carlo,)  an  able  Venetian  admiral,  born  about 
1334,  was  a  brother  of  Niccol6,  noticed  below.  He 
conducted  at  Constantinople  the  negotiations  by  which 
Venice  acquired  Tenedos  in  1376.  About  that  date  the 
Venetians  were  involved  in  the  war  of  Chiozza  against 
the  Genoese  and  their  allies.  Zeno  served  on  land  until 
1379,  when  he  obtained  command  of  a  fleet,  captur^.d 
several  vessels,  and  sailed   to  Beyroot  to  convoy  some 


rich  cargoes  from  the  Levant  to  Venice.  When  he 
returned,  in  January,  1380,  he  found  the  republic  in  a 
critical  position,  the  Genoese  having  taken  Chiozza  and 
entered  the  lagoons.  He  was  received  as  the  liberator 
of  his  country,  was  appointed  commander  of  the  land- 
army,  and  retook  Chiozza.  On  the  death  of  Pisani, 
August,  1380,  he  became  grand  admiral.  Several  years 
later  he  was  procurator  of  Saint  Mark.  In  1403  he 
defeated  the  Genoese  admiral  Boucicaut  near  Modon. 
He  is  represented  by  Sismondi  as  "the  most  virtuous 
citizen  and  greatest  man  of  Venice"  of  that  age,  ("  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle.")     Died  in  1418. 

See  "Life  of  Carlo  Zeno,"  (in  Latin,)  by  his  grandson,  Jacofo 
Zeno,  1544;  Diviaco,  "Compendio  della  Vita  di  C.  Zeno,"  1591; 
Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques 
Italiennes." 

Zeno,  (Caterino,)  grandson  of  Antonio,  (the  first  of 
the  name,)  was  Venetian  ambassador  to  the  Persian 
court  in  1472.  He  published  after  his  return  an  account 
of  his  travels,  which  is  no  longer  extant. 

Zeno,  (Jacopo,)  grandson  of  Carlo,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  141 7.  He  rose  through  various  preferments  to 
be  Bishop  of  Padua  in  1459.  He  wrote  a  life  of  his 
grandfather.  Carlo  Zeno,  in  Latin,  and  "Lives  of  the 
Pontiffs,"  ("  Vitae  Summorum  Pontificum.")  He  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.     Died  in  1481. 

Zeno,  (Niccol6,)  a  Venetian  navigator,  born  about 
133O1  was  a  brother  of  the  great  admiral  Carlo  Zeno. 
He  commanded  a  galley  in  the  war  against  the  Genoese 
in  1379,  and  was  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  richest  pa- 
tricians of  Venice  in  1381.  About  1388  he  fitted  out  a 
ship  at  his  own  expense  and  sailed  towards  Engbnd  on 
a  voyage  of  exploration.  Before  he  had  reached  Eng- 
land he  was  driven  by  a  storm  and  wrecked  on  an  island 
which  he  calls  Frisland.  He  then  entered  the  service 
of  a  prince  named  Zichm.ini,  who  employed  him  in  mari- 
time and  warlike  enterprises,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
discovered  the  islands  of  Estland,  Grisland,  and  Engrone- 
land.  After  he  had  lived  four  years  in  Frisland,  he 
invited  his  brother  Antonio  to  join  him.  Antonio  went 
there  and  passed  many  years  in  the  service  of  Zichmini. 
Niccol6  died  about  1396.  Geographers  disagree  about 
the  position  or  identity  of  the  islands  which  he  dis- 
covered. Walckenaer  thinks  that  one  of  them  was 
Iceland.  The  narrative  of  the  voyages  of  the  Zeni  (the 
plural  of  Zeno)  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1558. 

Zeno,  (N1CCOL6,)  a  Venetian  writer,  born  in  1515. 
He  published  in  1558  an  account  of  the  travels  of 
Caterino  Zeno  in  Persia  and  the  East,  compiled  from 
his  letters  to  his  friends.     Died  in  1565. 

Zeno,  (PiETRO  Catering,)  a  brother  of  Apostolo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1666.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city,  and  was  asso- 
ciated with  his  brother  as  editor  of  the  "  Giornale  de' 
Letterati,"  which  he  continued  to  edit  alone  from  1718 
to  1728.     Died  in  1732. 

Ze'no,  I  Fr.  Z6non,  zi'nAN',]  Saint,  a  native  of  Africa, 
became  Bishop  of  Verona  about  362  A.D.  He  is  com- 
mended for  his  charity  to  the  poor.  He  died  in  380, 
leaving  many  sermons,  which  were  printed  in  1508. 

Ze-no'bl-a,  [Gr.  Zevofia  or  Zjjvo^'ia;  Fr.  Z^NOBIE, 
zi'no'be',j  (Septimia.)  a  famous  and  ambitious  queen 
of  Palmyra,  was  a  daughter  of  Amroo,  an  Arab  chief. 
She  was  renowned  for  her  beauty,  learning,  and  martial 
und  political  abilities.  She  was  mistress  of  the  Greek, 
Latin,  Syriac,  and  Egyptian  languages.  Her  husband, 
Odenathus,  King  of  Palmyra,  died  about  266  A.D., 
leaving  two  minor  sons,  Herennius  and  Timolaus, 
She  assumed  the  royal  diadem,  with  the  title  of  Queen 
of  the  East,  performed  the  active  duties  of  sovereign, 
and  continued  the  conquests  which  Odenathus  had 
begun.  Palmyra  was  then  a  magnificent  city,  adorned 
with  Grecian  porticos  of  marble  and  porphyry  and 
enriched  by  an  extensive  commerce.  Her  dominion 
extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
over  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was  acknowledged 
by  subjects  of  various  races.  The  eminent  Greek  critic 
and  writer  Longinus  served  her  as  secretary  and  coun- 
sellor. She  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  liberal 
ruler.  She  sometimes  marched  on  foot  at  the  head  of 
her  army,  the  toils  of  which  she  shared.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  the  emperor  Aurelian,   in  270  A.D.,  she 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  i"i,  f,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fjt;  mft;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZENOBIA 


ZETES 


wrote  a  letter  to  him,  asserting  her  independence  and 
refusing  allegiance  to  the  Roman  empire. 

Aurelian  conducted  in  person  an  army  against  the 
Queen  of  Palmyra,  and  defeated  her  forces  in  two  battles, 
rear  Antioch  and  near  Emesa.  He  then  besieged  Pal- 
myra, which  she  defended  for  along  time  with  heroic 
courage,  but  it  was  taken  in  272  or  273,  and  she  was 
carried  to  Rome  fettered  with  golden  chains.  She  was 
paraded  as  a  captive  before  the  imperial  chariot  in  the 
triumphal  procession  of  Aurelian,  who  in  other  respects 
treated  her  with  clemency,  and  gave  her  a  villa  at  Tibur, 
where  she  passed  the  rest  of  her  life  with  her  children. 

See  Trehellius  Pollio,  "Triginta  Tyraiini ;"  Zosimus,  "His- 
tory of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire;"  E.  F.  Wernsdorf,  "  De  Septimia  Zenobia," 
J742;  JouvE  DR  Hauteville,  "  Histoire  de  Zenobie,"  1758:  Cap- 
PELi.E,  "  De  Zenobia,"  1817.  See,  also,  "Letters  from  Pahnyra," 
by  William  Ware,  1836-38. 

Zenobia,  the  wife  of  Rhadamistus,  King  of  Ar- 
menia, lived  about  50  a.d.  Her  husband,  pursued  by 
liis  victorious  enemies,  threw  her  into  a  river,  intending 
lo  save  her  from  capture  by  death,  but  she  was  found  by 
Bome  shepherds,  and  restored  to  life. 

Zenobie.     See  Zenobia. 

Ze-no'bi-us,  [Z??v6(SiOf,]  a  Greek  writer,  who  lived  at 
Rome  about  100-130  a.d.  He  compiled  a  collection  of 
proverbs,  wliich  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1487  or  1497. 

Ze-no'bi-us,  [Fr.  Z^nobe,  zi'nob',]  Saint,  an  Italian 
prelate,  born  at  Florence  about  334  A.D.,  was  a  zealous 
opponent  of  Arianism.  He  became  Bishop  of  Florence. 
Died  about  405. 

Zenodore.     See  Zenodorus. 

Zen-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  Zr/voJupof  ;  Fr.  Zj^nodore,  zi'no'- 
doR',]  an  eminent  Greek  statuary,  flourished  about  50 
A.D.  After  he  had  worked  ten  years  in  Gaul  on  a  statue 
of  Mercury,  he  went  to  Rome,  whither  he  was  invited 
by  the  emperor  Nero.  He  made  a  colossal  bronze  statue 
of  Nero,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  in  height.  He  was 
also  a  skilful  silver-chaser. 

Zenodorus,  a  tyrant,  who  reigned  over  Trachonitis 
and  some  adjoining  territory.  He  annoyed  neighbouring 
people  by  predatory  practices,  or  connivance  at  robbery. 
For  this  reason  Augustus  deprived  him  of  nearly  all  his 
possessions,  in  24  B.C.     Died  in  20  B.C. 

Z^nodote.    See  Zenodotus. 

Ze-nod'o-tus  of  Alexandria,  a  grammarian,  lived 
after  the  time  of  Aristarchus,  whom  he  criticised  for 
his  recension  of  the  Homeric  poems. 

Zenodotus  [ZT/wJorofj  of  Ephesus,  [Fr.  Z6no- 
DOTE  D'EpHfesE,  zi'no'dot'  di'f^z',]  a  celebrated  Greek 
grammarian,  flourished  about  280  B.C.  He  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Philetas,  and  was  the  first  librarian  of  the  great 
library  of  Alexandria.  He  and  two  other  critics  were 
employed  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  to  revise  or  edit 
all  the  Greek  poets.  Zenodotus  devoted  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  works  of  Homer,  in  which  he  made  con- 
siderable changes  and  inserted  various  readings.  His 
edition  or  recension  of  Homer  was  highly  esteemed  by 
ancient  critics.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Glossary,  and  a 
"  Dictionary  of  Foreign  Phrases." 

See  Heffter,  "Programma  de  Zenodoto,"  etc.,  1839. 

Zenofonte.    See  Xenophon. 

Z^non.    See  Zeno. 

Zenone.    See  Zeno. 

Zentuer,  ts6nt'ner,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  Baron,  a 
German  statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Strassenheim  in 
1752,  became  professor  of  civil  law  at  Heidelberg  in  1779, 
and  in  1823  minister  of  justice  in  Bavaria.    Died  in  1835. 

Zepernic.    See  Copernicus. 

Zepernick,  tsa'pcR-nik',  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Halle  in  1751,  published  several 
legal  works.     Died  in  180 1. 

Zeph-a-ni'ah  [Heb.  ri'JSY  ;  Fr.  Sophonie,  so'fo'ne', 
called  Sophoni'as  in  the  Septuagint]  was  one  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets,  and  flourished  under  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  King  of  Judah.  He  foretold  the  fall  of  Nin- 
eveh, the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  subsequent 
captivity  of  the  Jews. 

Zephiriu.     See  ZEPm'RiNUS. 

Zeph'yr,  [Gr.  Z£(j)vpog ;  Lat.  Zeph'yrus  ;  Fr.  Z4- 
PHYRE,   zi'ffeR';    Sp.  Zefiro   or   Cefiro,  tha'fe-ro  or 


th§f'e-ro  ;  It.  Zeffiro,  dz§f'fe-ro,]  in  classic  mythology, 
was  a  personification  of  the  west  wind,  and  was  called  a 
son  of  Astraeus  and  Aurora.  The  poets  feigned  that 
he  married  Chloris  or  Flora,  and  had  a  son  named 
Carpus,  (fruit.) 

Z^phyre  and  Zephyrus.     See  Zephyr. 

Zeph-y-ri'nus,  [Fr.  Z6phirin,  zi'fe'rflN' ,]  Saint,  a 
native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  about  202  a.d.  During 
his  pontificate  the  fifth  persecution  of  the  Christians 
took  place,  under  Septimius  Severus.  He  died  about 
217  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Calixtus  I. 

Zeplichal,  tsSp'liK-dl,  (Anton  Michael,)  a  German 
Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in  Moravia  in  1737.  He  pub- 
lished many  scientific  works,  which  were  extensively 
used  in  schools.     Died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Ze'rah,  called  in  Egyptian  annals  Azech  Amen,  a 
king  of  Ethiopia,  whose  capital  was  Napata,  in  Southern 
Egypt.  He  conquered  Egypt,  and  invaded  Palestine, 
where  Asa,  King  of  Judah,  completely  defeated  him  at 
Zephath.  In  consequence  of  this  defeat,  Zerah  aban- 
doned not  only  Palestine  but  Egypt  also. 

Zerbi,  dzlR'bee,  [Lat.  de  Zer'bis,]  (Gabriel,)  an 
eminent  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Verona.  He  had 
lectured  several  years  at  Rome,  when  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Padua  about  1495.  His  chief  work 
is  "  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  Liber  AnatomiiC 
Corporis  humani,"  about  1490,)  which  contains  the 
germ  of  several  discoveries  i.i  anatomy.     Died  in  1505. 

Zerbis,  de.     See  Zerbl 

Zerboni  di  Sposetti,  ts^R-bo'nee  de  spo-zet'tee, 
(Joseph,)  a  German,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at 
Breslau  in  1766.  Having  written,  in  1796,  a  letter  to 
the  Governor  of  Silesia,  showing  the  unreasonableness 
of  attaching  an  unlimited  importance  to  the  right  of 
birth  in  the  nobility,  he  was,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason, 
imprisoned  three  years  by  order  of  Frederick  William 
III.  His  case  having  at  last  been  brought  to  trial,  he 
was  liberated,  and  subsequently  employed  in  several 
public  offices.     Died  in  183 1. 

See  PiERER,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Zerdusht.     See  Zoroaster. 

Zernitz,  ts^R'nits,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man didactic  poet,  born  at  Tangermiinde  in  1 71 7.  His 
"  Didactic  Essays"  are  highly  commended.  All  of  his 
works  are  posthumous.     Died  in  1744. 

Zerola,  dzi-ro'lS,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
boin  at  Benevento  in  1548,  became  Bishop  of  Minori  in 
1597.  He  published  "  Episcopal  Duties  or  Business," 
("  Praxis  Episcopalis,"  1597.)     Died  in  1603. 

Zerrenner,  ts§r-ren'ner,  (Heinrich  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  educational  writer,  born  at  Wernigerode  in 
1750,  published,  among  other  works,  the  "  Deutsche! 
Schulfreund,"  (46  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Manual  of  the 
Christian  Religion,"  (1799.)     Died  in  1811. 

His  son,  Karl  Christoph  Gottlieb,  was  the  author 
of  several  works  for  the  use  of  children  and  of  schools. 

Ze-rub'ba-bel  or  Zo-rob'a-bel,  (Heb.  Sp^^r.l  a 
Jewish  chief  or  prince,  was  a  son  of  Salathiel.  He 
conducted  from  Babylon  to  Judea  the  Jewish  captives 
who  were  liberated  by  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  about  536 
B.C.  To  him,  also,  was  confided  the  mission  to  rebuild 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 

See  Ezra  ii.  2,  iv.  2,  and  v.  2 ;  Zechariah  iv.  6;  Matthew  i.  12. 

Zeschau,  von,  fon  tsSsh'ow,  (Heinrich  Anton,)  a 
Saxon  statesman,  born  in  1789,  rose  through  various 
offices  to  be  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1835.  He  was 
removed  in  1848.     Died  at  Dresden  in  1868. 

Zeschau,  von,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Saxon 
officer,  born  in  1760,  served  against  the  French  in  the 
principal  campaigns  from  1793  to  i8i3,and  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Dresden  in  1823.     Died  in  1832. 

Zese.     See  Zeskn,  von. 

Zesen,  von,  fon  tsa'zen,  or  Zese,  tsa'zeh,  [Lat.  C/ef' 
sius,]  (Philipp,)  a  German  writer,  was  born  near  De'ssau 
in  1619.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems  and 
prose  works  having  for  their  object  the  improvement  of 
the  German  language.     Died  in  1689. 

Ze'teS  or  Ze'thes,  [Gr.  Z^tj?c;  Fr.  Z^THis,  zYils',] 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of  Boreas,  King  of  Thrace, 


«  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2/  th  as  in  this.     (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZETHUS 


2522 


ZIANI 


and  a  twin  brother  of  Calais.  He  is  mentioned  among 
the  Argonauts.  The  poets  feigned  that  Zetes  and  Calais 
had  wings,  and  that  they  delivered  Phineus  from  the 
Harpies  that  plagued  him. 

Ze'thus  [Gr.  Z//tof]  was  a  reputed  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Antiope,  and  a  twin  brother  of  Amphion,  King  of 
Thebes.  These  brothers,  sometimes  called  Uioscuri, 
("sons  of  Jove,")  were  exposed  together  in  infancy,  and 
eventually  reigned  together  at  Thebes. 

Zetterstedt,  zSt'ter-stgt',  (Johan  Wilhelm,)  a 
Swedish  naturalist,  born  in  the  province  of  East  Goth- 
land in  1785.  He  studied  at  Lund,  and  subsequently 
made  a  scientific  tour  in  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Southern 
Lapland.  He  became  in  1839  professor  of  botany  and 
agriculture  at  Lund,  and  in  1846  rector  of  that  university. 
Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named  his  "  Orthop- 
tera  Sueciae,"  (182 1,)  "  Fauna  Insectorum  Lapponica," 
(1828,)  and  "Diptera  Scandinaviae,"  (40  vols.,  1842-52.) 
The  last  work  obtained  the  great  Linnaean  medal  from 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm.  Died  in  1874. 
Zeuue,  tsoi'neh,  (August,)  a  German  teacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1778,  published  several 
geographical  works  and  treatises  on  the  education  of  the 
blind.     Died  in  1853. 

Zeune,  [Lat.  Zeu'nius,]  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Saxony  in  1 736.  He  edited  several 
works  of  Xenophon,  and  was  professor  at  Wittenberg. 
Died  in  1788. 

Zeus,  [Gr.  Zcvf,  genitive  Zz/vof,  and  Aiof,]  the  chief 
divinity  of  the  Greek  mythology,  corresponding  to  the 
Jupiter  of  the  Romans.  He  was  represented  as  the  son 
of  Cronos  and  Rhea,  and  the  father  of  Mars,  Minerva, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Apollo,  and  other  gods.  According 
to  Homer,  he  held  his  court  on  Mount  Olympus,  was 
styled  the  father  of  gods  and  men,  and  was  the  most 
powerful  among  the  immortals,  so  that  even  Fate  was 
subordinate  to  his  will.  He  married  his  sister  Hera, 
(Juno.)  His  attributes  and  symbols  were  the  sceptre, 
the  eagle,  and  the  thunderbolt.  (See  Jupiter.)  The 
poets  feigned  that  he  and  the  other  gods  occupied  a 
palace  or  city  built  by  Vulcan  on  the  summit  of  Mount 
Olympus,  (in  Thessaly,)  which  rises  above  the  clouds. 
The  actual  height  of  Olympus  is  about  six  thousand 
feet.  The  Greeks  erected  to  Zeus  a  magnificent  temple 
at  Olympia,  near  Elis,  where  the  Olymj^ic  games  were 
celebrated.  This  place  was  profusely  adorned  with  the 
most  splendid  monuments  of  architecture  and  sculpture, 
among  which  was  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeus,  executed  by 
Phidias,  and  generally  regarded  as  the  most  admirable 
as  well  as  greatest  of  all  his  works. 

Zeuss,  tsoiss,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist and  historical  writer,  born  in  Upper  Franconia  in 
1806,  became  professor  of  history  at  Bamberg  in  1847.  He 
wrote  "Granimatica  Celtica,"  (1853,)  etc.  Died  in  1856. 
Zeux-i'a-des,  [Zfrftddj/f,]  a  Greek  statuary  of  the 
school  of  Lysippus,  flourished  about  350  B.C. 

Zeux'is,  [Zn'ftf,^  a  Greek  painter  of  great  celebrity 
and  almost  unrivalled  skill,  was  born  at  Heraclea  about 
450  B.C.  It  is  not  known  which  of  the  cities  named 
Heraclea  was  his  birthplace.  According  to  several 
ancient  authorities,  he  lived  about  425-400  B.C.  Plutarch 
states  that  he  flourished  when  Pericles  erected  the  great 
monuments  of  Athens,  and  Pliny  tells  us  that  "the  doors 
of  the  art,  which  were  opened  by  Apollodorus,  were 
entered  by  Zeuxis  in  the  95th  Olympiad,"  (about  400  B.C.) 
The  name  of  his  master  is  not  certainly  known.  Accord- 
ing to  Pliny,  he  was  a  pupil  of  Demophilus  of  Himera 
or  of  Neseas  of  Thasos.  He  belonged  to  the  Asiatic 
or  Ionian  school  of  art,  which  excelled  in  the  reproduc- 
tion of  sensual  charms.  He  appears  to  have  studied  or 
worked  at  Athens  during  the  life  of  Apollodorus,  wh>j 
was  older  than  Zeuxis,  and  who  complained  that  Zeuxis 
had  robbed  him  of  his  art.  This  is  understood  to  signify 
that  Zeuxis  surpassed  him  in  light  and  shade  or  in 
colouring,  the  parts  of  the  art  in  which  Apollodorus 
especially  excelled.  Zeuxis  was  renowned  for  his  accu- 
rate imitation  of  the  human  form,  and  for  the  noble  style 
of  his  design,  in  which  he  combined  energy  with  gran- 
deur. He  succeeded  better  in  the  imitation  of  form  than 
in  the  expression  of  character.  He  executed  an  exten- 
sive work  in  the  palace  of  Archelaus,  King  of  Macedonia, 


who  reigned  from  413  to  399  B.C.  He  also  worked  in 
Southern  Italy,  and  probably  at  Ephesus.  After  he  had 
amassed  a  fortune  by  his  art,  he  often  gave  his  pictures 
as  presents.  Pliny  relates  a  story  of  a  trial  of  skill  be- 
tween Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius,  the  former  of  whom  painted 
a  bunch  of  grapes  so  naturally  that  a  bird  flew  at  the 
picture  to  eat  the  fruit.  (See  Parrhasius.)  Among  his 
master-pieces  were  a  "Female  Centaur,"  "The  Infant 
Hercules  strangling  the  Serpent,"  "  Penelope  lamenting 
the  Absence  of  Ulysses,"  and  "Jupiter  in  the  Assembly 
of  Gods."  His  most  celebrated  work  was  a  picture  of 
Helen,  which  he  painted  for  the  city  of  Croton,  on  which 
he  inscribed  several  lines  of  Homer's  "Iliad,"  (iii.  156:) 
"  No  wonder  such  celestial  charms 
For  nine  long  years  have  set  the  world  in  arms." — Pope. 

Cicero  informs  us  that  Zeuxis  selected  five  of  the  most 
beautiful  virgins  of  Croton  as  models  for  this  picture. 
"He  deserves,"  says  Enieric-David,  "by  the  choice  of 
his  models  and  the  grandeur  of  his  style,  to  be  compared 
to  the  prince  of  sculptors,  (Phidias;)  and  if  he  was 
defective  in  some  quality,  Greece  pardoned  him  for  the 
sake  of  the  merit  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  art, — 
that  is,  precision  of  design  and  nobleness  of  form." 
("Biographie  Universelle.") 

See  Pliny,  "  Natural  History,"  xxxv.  ;  Cicero,  "De  Inventis;" 
LuciAN,  "Zeuxis  :"  Carlo  Dati,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori  anticlii,"  1667; 
QUINTILIAN,  xii.  10. 

Zeuxis,  a  Greek  physician,  often  quoted  by  Galen, 
lived  probably  about  250  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  school 
of  Empirici,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Hipjjocrates. 

Zevallos  or  Cevallos,  thi-viKyds,  (  Pedro  Or. 
DONES,)  a  Spanish  voyager,  born  in  Andalusia  between 
1550  and  1590.  He  wrote  an  "Account  of  his  Travels 
in  America,  East  India,"  etc.,  (1614.) 

Zevecot,  za'veh-kot',  (James,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Ghent  in  1604.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Hardervvyck.  He  wrote  elegies,  epigrams,  tragedies, 
etc.,  which  were  admired.     Died  in  1646. 

Zey&d  or  Zei^d,  zi'yid',  a  famous  Arabian  warrior, 
born  about  625  a.d.,  was  a  brother  of  the  caliph 
Moaweeyah  I.  He  was  highly  distinguished  by  his 
eloquence.  He  became  governor  of  Bassorah  and  of 
the  eastern  provinces  of  the  empire.     Died  in  673  a.d. 

Zeyd  or  Zeid,  zad  or  zid,  a  servant  of  Mohammed, 
distinguished  for  his  fidelity  and  devotion  to  the  prophet 
(See  Mohammed.) 

Zhookofisky,  Zhukofsky,  or  Joukovski,  zhoo- 
kofskee  or  zhoo-kov'skee,  written  also  Shuko'wski, 
(Vasilii  Andreevitch,)  a  celebrated  Russian  poet, 
born  near  Bielev,  in  the  government  of  Penza,  in  1783, 
began  his  literary  career  at  an  early  age  by  several 
contributions  of  great  merit  to  a  journal  of  Moscow.  In 
1802  he  published  a  translation  of  Gray's  "Elegy  in  a 
Country  Church-Yard,"  which  established  his  reputation 
and  ranks  among  the  best  of  the  numerous  versions  of 
that  popular  poem.  He  succeeded  Karamzin  in  1808 
as  editor  of  the  literary  periodical  entitled  "  Viestnik 
Evropui."  In  the  campaign  of  1812  he  joined  the  Mos- 
cow volunteers,  and  rendered  most  eff'ective  service  to 
his  country's  cause  by  his  spirited  ballads  entitled  "The 
Minstrel  in  the  Russian  Camp."  These  songs,  which 
obtained  the  greatest  popularity  with  all  classes  and 
won  for  him  the  especial  favour  of  the  emperor  and 
empress,  were  followed  by  his  "Ziudmilia,"  an  imitation 
of  Burger's  "  Lenore,"  and  "  Svietlana,"  a  poem,  which 
is  esteemed  his  finest  production.  On  the  marriage  of 
the  grand  duke  Nicholas,  Zhookofsky  was  appointed 
teacher  of  the  Russian  language  to  his  wife,  and  after- 
wards became  preceptor  of  the  young  prince,  since 
Alexander  II.  Besides  the  above-named  works,  he  pub- 
lished a  number  of  prose  essays  and  tales,  one  of  which, 
entitled  "  Mary's  Grove,"  is  especially  admired.  He  also 
made  numerous  excellent  translations  from  the  English, 
German,  and  other  languages.  He  died  in  1852,  and  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  by  the  emperor 
Nicholas. 

Ziani,  dze-5'nee,  (Sebastiano,)  was  elected  Doge  of 
Venice  in  1172.  He  instituted  the  annual  ceremony  of 
the  inarriage  of  Venice  with  the  sea.  In  his  reign  the 
church  of  Saint  Mark  was  built.     Died  in  1179. 

His  son  PiETRO  succeeded  the  famous  Dandolo  as  doge 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZIEBLAND 


2523 


ZIMMERMANN 


in  1205.  During  his  reign  tlie  Venetians  completed  the 
conquest  of  the  Greek  empire.     Died  in  1229. 

Ziebland,  tseep'lSnt,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  architect,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  i8oo,  was  a 
pupil  of  Quaglio.  He  was  patronized  by  King  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  at  whose  expense  he  visited  Italy.  He  de- 
signed several  public  edifices  of  Munich.  His  capital 
work  is  the  large  and  splendid  basilica  or  church  of 
Saint  Boniface,  at  Munich.    Died  July  24,  1873. 

Ziegelbauer,  tsee'gel-bow'er,  (M.,)  a  learned  German 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Elwangen,  in  Suabia,  in  1696. 
He  wrote  a  "  Literary  History  of  the  Benedictine  Order," 
(4  vols.,  1754,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1750. 

Ziegenbalg,  tsee'gen-bilc',  (Bartholomew,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  and  missionary,  born  in  Lusatia  in  1683, 
was  sent  out  by  the  King  of  Denmark  to  India  in  1706, 
remaining  in  that  country  till  1714.  He  sailed  a  second 
time  in  1716,  and  died  at  Tranquebar  in  1719.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Tamul  Grammar,"  ("  Grammatica  Damulica,") 
a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Tamul  language, 
("  Biblia  Damulica,")  and  other  works, 

Ziegler,  tseeo'ler,  (Bernard,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  in  Misnia  in  1496.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Leipsic,  and  published  several 
sermons.  He  was  acquainted  with  Luther,  who  highly 
esteemed  him.     Died  in  1566. 

Ziegler,  jLat.  Ziegle'rus,]  (Caspar,)  an  able  Ger- 
man jurist  and  Protestant  canonist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1621.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Wittenberg  in 
1654.  Besides  several  treatises  on  civil  law,  he  pub- 
lished a  work  "On  Bishops  and  their  Laws  or  Rights," 
("  De  Episcopis  eorumque  Juribus,"  1685.)  Died  in 
1690. 

Ziegler,  ze'i'glaiR',  (Claude  Louis,)  a  skilful  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Langres  in 
1804,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Ingres.  He  was  employed  by 
Louis  Philippe  to  decorate  the  cupola  of  the  church 
of  Madeleine,  in  which  he  painted  religious  allegorical 
scenes.  Among  his  works  are  *'  The  Death  of  Foscari," 
"  Jacob's  Dream,"  and  "  Daniel  in  the  Den  of  Lions." 
Died  in  December,  1856. 

Ziegler,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1760. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  and 
performed  at  the  court  theatre  for  nearly  forty  years 
with  great  reputation  and  success.  His  tragedies  and 
comedies  were  also  highly  popular :  one  of  the  latter, 
entitled  "The  Four  Temperaments,"  ("  Die  vier  Tem- 
peramente,")  still  keeps  its  place  on  the  stage.  He 
likewise  wrote  several  critical  treatises  on  the  drama. 
Died  in  1827. 

Ziegler,  (Hieronymus,)  a  German  poet  and  biog- 
rapher, born  at  Rotenburg  about  1520.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Cyrus  Major,"  ("  Cyrus  the  Great,")  a  drama, 
(1547.)     Died  after  1562. 

Ziegler,  [Lat.  Ziegle'rus,]  (Jakob,)  an  eminent 
German  theologian  and  mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria 
about  1480.  In  pursuit  of  knowledge  he  visited  Italy, 
became  secretary  of  General  George  Frondsberg,  and 
witnessed  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1526.  He  afterwards 
passed  many  years  at  Passau,  the  bishop  of  which 
furnished  him  with  means  to  pursue  literature.  He 
published,  besides  other  books,  a  work  (in  Latin)  on 
the  geography  of  Palestine,  Arabia,  etc.,  (1532.)  Died 
in  1549. 

Ziegler,  (Werner  Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German  writer 
on  theology,  etc.,  was  born  near  Liineburg  in  1763.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock,     Died  in  1809. 

Ziegler,  von,  fon  tseeo'ler,  (Franz,)  a  Swiss  medical 
writer,  born  at  Schaffhausen  ijefore  1700.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Rinteln,  and  published  several 
treatises.     Died  in  1761. 

Ziegler  uud  Klipphauseu,  von,  fon  tseeo'ler  oont 
klip'how'zen,  (Heinrich  Anselm,)  a  German  writer,, 
born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1653,  produced,  conjointly  with 
J.  G.  Hamann,  a  romance  entitled  "The  Asiatic  Banise," 
(1688,)  which  enjoyed  great  popularity.     Died  in  1697. 

Zieglerus.     See  Ziegler. 

Ziem,  ze'Sm',  (F6lix,)  an  eminent  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Beaune  about  1822.  He  visited  Italy 
and  the  East  in  i84<;-48,  and   obtained  a  medal  of  the 


first  class  in  1852.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Grand 
Canal  of  Venice,"  a  "View  of  Antwerp,"  "Constanti- 
nople," and  "  Evening  at  Venice." 

Zier,  zeer,  (Victor  Casimir,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Warsaw,  September  26,  1822.  Among  his  pictures 
are  "Saint  Magdalene  in  the  Wilderness,"  "  Daniel  in 
the  Lions'  Den,"  "The  Blessed  Virgin  and  Saint  Mary 
Magdalene  with  the  Crown  of  Thorns,"  "Saint  Peter 
healing  a  Lame  Man,"  "The  Transfiguration  of  Saint 
Leonhard,"  and  "The  Flight  into  Egypt." 

Ziethen,  von,  fon  tsee'ten,  (Hans  Ernst  Karl,) 
Count,  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  1770,  served  in 
the  campaigns  of  1813  and  181 5,  and  had  a  prominent 
part  in  the  victory  of  Waterloo.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  occupation  in 
France,  and  in  1835  was  made  a  field-marshal.  Died 
in  1848. 

Ziethen,  von,  (Hans  Joachim,)  a  Prussian  general 
and  distinguished  favourite  of  Frederick  the  Great,  was 
born  in  1699.  He  served  in  the  Silesian  campaigns  of 
1742  and  1745,  and  subsequently  in  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  being  conspicuous  for  his  skill  and  bravery  at 
Reichenberg,  Prague,  Kolin,  and  Torgau.  He  was 
soon  after  made  a  general  of  cavalry  by  the  king,  who 
also  loaded  him  with  other  distinctions.  He  died  in 
1786,  and  a  statue,  by  Schadow,  was  erected  to  his 
memory,  by  order  of  Frederick  William  II.,  in  the 
Wilhelmsplatz,  Berlin,  (1794.) 

See  LuisE  J.  L.  von  Blumknthal,  "  Leben  des  Generals  von 
Ziethen,"  1797,  (and  English  translation  of  the  same,  London,  1S02;) 
Werner  Hahn,  "  H.  J.  von  Ziethen,  Preussischer  General,"  etc., 
1850. 

Zigliara,  tseel-yJ'Ri,  (Tommaso,)  a  Corsican  cardinal, 
born  at  Bonifacio,  October  29,  1833,  was  made  in  1879  a 
cardinal-deacon.  His  edition  of  the  "Complete  Works 
of  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas"  is  one  of  the  best  ever  pub- 
lished. 

Zilioli,  dze-le-o'lee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian and  lawyer,  born  at  Venice  before  1600.  He 
published  in  1642  a  history  of  the  period  from  1600  to 
1640,  entitled  "  Storie  memorabili  de'  nostri  Tempi" 
Died  in  1650, 

Zille,  tsil'leh,  (Moritz  Alexander,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  near  Zittau  in  1814.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  The  Kingdom  of  God,"  ("  Das  Reich 
Gottes,"  1850.) 

Zimara,  dze-mi'ri,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, born  at  Galatina  about  1460  ;  died  at  Padua  in  1532. 

Zimisces.    See  John  I.,  Empekor  of  the  East. 

Zimmerl,  von,  fon  tsim'mSRl,  (Johann  Michael,) 
an  Austrian,  born  at  Ernstbrunn  in  1757,  became  a 
member  of  the  imperial  commission  for  commerce,  and 
published  several  works  relating  to  the  laws  of  trade 
and  exchange. 

Zinimermann,  tsim'mer-mjn',  (Alf.ert,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Zittau  in  1809.  He  is  noted  for  his 
mountain-,  forest-,  and  lake-pictures. 

Zimmermann,  tsim'mer-mSn',  (Ernst,)  a  German 
theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  17S6. 
He  studied  at  Giessen,  and  was  appointed  in  1816  court 
preacher  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
"  Allgemeine  Kirchenzeitung,"  and  other  religious  and 
literary  journals,  and  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Homiletic  Hand-Book  for  Thinking  Preachers,"  (1812.) 
Died  in  1832. 

Zimmermann,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  German  writer  on 
logic  and  philosophy,  born  near  Freiburg  in  1795;  died 
in  1833. 

Zimmermann,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  voyager,  born 
in  the  Palatinate.  He  served  as  a  sailor  in  the  third 
voyage  of  Captain  Cook,  (1776,)  and  published  "A 
Voyage  around  the  World  with  Captain  Cook,"  (1782.) 

Zimmermann,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  enthu- 
siast, called  by  some  a  fanatic,  was  born  in  WUrtemberg 
in  1644.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior 
talents,  and  to  have  adopted  the  opinions  of  Jacob 
Bohme.  He  preached  at  various  places  in  Germany. 
Died  in  1693. 

Zimmermann,  tsim'meR-mSn',  (Johann  Jakob,)  a 
Swiss  writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1685.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  law  at  Zurich  in  1731,  and  professor  of 


c  a.s  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /';  G,  H,  Vi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZIMMERMANISr 


2524 


ZINKEN 


theology  in  1737.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  J.  B.  Cramer," 
and  several  works  on  theology.     Diecl  in  1756. 

Zinimermaiiu,  (Johann  Karl,)  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  surgery,  was  born  in  Si'.esia  in  1803.  He 
practised  surgery  in  Leipsic. 

Zimmerniann,  (Karl,)  a  German  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  brother  of  Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1803.  He  became  court  preacher  at  Darmstadt,  and 
published  a  number  of  sermons  and  religious  works, 
and  a  life  of  his  brother  Ernst.     Died  June  12,  1887. 

Zimmermann,  (  Karl  Ferdinand,  )  a  German 
painter  of  history,  portraits,  and  genre,  was  born  in 
Berlin  in  1796. 

Zinimermann,  (Matthias,)  a  Protestant  theologian, 
born  at  Eperies,  in  Hungary,  in  1625.  He  preached  at 
Eperies  from  1652  to  1660,  after  which  he  became  minister 
and  superintendent  at  Meissen.  He  was  skilful  in  the 
exposition  of  Scripture,  and  was  author  of  several  works. 
Died  in  1689. 

Zimmertuann,  von,  fon  tsim'mer-min',  (Clemens,) 
a  German  painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1789.  He  studied 
at  Munich,  and,  having  visited  Italy,  was  appointed,  after 
his  return,  professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy  of  that 
city,  (1825.)  Among  his  best  works  may  be  named  a 
series  of  illustrations  of  Anacreon  in  the  dining-hall  of 
the  royal  palace  at  Munich,  and  a  colossal  "Ascension 
of  the  Virgin,"  in  a  church  in  Australia.     Died  in  1869. 

Zimtnermann,  von,  (Eberhard  August  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Uelzen,  in  Hanover, 
in  1743,  became  professor  of  physics  in  the  Caroline 
College  at  Brunswick  in  1766.  He  published  a  number 
of  geographical,  political,  and  scientific  works,  among 
which  we  may  name  a  treatise  "On  the  Compressi- 
bility and  Elasticity  of  Water,"  (1779,)  "France  and 
the  Republics  of  North  America,"  (1795,)  and  "The 
Geographical  Pocket-Book."  An  abridgment  of  the 
last  work,  entitled  "The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants," 
came  out  in  1810,  in  5  vols.     Died  in  1815. 

Zim'mer-mann,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  tsim'mer- 
min',]  (Johann  Georg,)  an  eminent  Swiss  philosopher 
and  physician,  born  at  Brugg,  near  Berne,  December  8, 
1728.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  studied  medicine 
under  Haller  at  Gottingen,  where  he  graduated  as  M.D. 
in  175 1.  On  this  occasion  he  wrote  an  able  thesis  on 
Irritability.  He  began  to  practise  medicine  at  Berne 
about  1752,  and  married  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  Hal- 
ler, who  was  his  friend.  About  1754  he  became  public 
physician  (Stadt-physicus)  at  Brugg,  where  he  acquired 
a  wide  reputation  as  a  practitioner  and  as  a  writer,  but 
he  suflfered  from  ill  health,  hypochondria,  and  the  want 
of  congenial  society.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Haller," 
(1755,)  and  ^  worit"On  National  Pride,"  ("  Vom  Na- 
tionalstolze,"  1758,)  which  had  great  popularity  and  was 
translated  into  various  languages.  His  next  important 
work  was  "  On  Experience  in  Medicine,"  ("  Von  der 
Erfahrung  in  der  Arzneikunst,"  2  vols.,  1763,)  which  was 
highly  esteemed,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics,  is 
his  chief  title  to  celebrity. 

In  1768  he  obtained  the  place  of  physician  to  his 
Britannic  majesty  at  Hanover,  with  the  title  of  aulic 
councillor.  He  had  a  very  extensive  practice  at  Hano- 
ver, but  he  continued  to  be  a  victim  of  melancholy,  and 
regretted  his  separation  from  the  Swiss  mountains.  He 
also  lost  his  wife  in  1770,  and  his  son  became  insane. 
His  spirits  were  somewhat  revived  by  a  second  marriage 
in  1782.  He  published  in  1784  and  1785  his  celebrated 
work  "On  Solitude,"  ("Von  der  Einsamkeit,"  4  vols.,) 
which  was  translated  into  r.ll  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia  expressed  her  approbation  of 
this  work  by  the  present  of  a  diamond  ring,  and  an 
invitation  to  come  to  Saint  Petersburg  and  serve  her  as 
phj'sician,  but  he  declined  that  honour.  He  went  to 
Potsdam  to  attend  Frederick  the  Great  in  his  last  illness 
in  1786,  and  published  a  book  entitled  "Fragments  on 
Frederick  the  Great,"  (3  vols.,  1790,)  which,  by  intem- 
perate attacks  on  several  eminent  German  savants,  gave 
much  offence  and  impaired  the  author's  popularity.  He 
was  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
became  involved  in  political  controversy  to  an  extent 
that  was  fatal  to  his  peace  of  mind.  A  victim  to  painful 
hallucinations,  he  imagined  that  the  French  army  was 


marching  to  Hanover  on  purpose  to  kill  or  persecute 
him.     He  died  at  Hanover  in  October,  1795, 

"His  conversation,"  says  Goethe,  "was  varied  and 
highly  instructive,  and,  for  one  who  could  pardon  his 
active  sense  of  his  own  personality  and  merits,  no  more 
desirable  companion  could  be  found.  .  .  .  Every  one 
who  reads  his  writings,  especially  his  excellent  work 
on  Experience,  will  perceive  more  definitely  what  was 
discussed  between  him  and  me.  His  influence  was  the 
more  powerful  over  me  from  the  twenty  years  that  he 
wis  my  senior.  .  .  .  His  severity  towards  his  children 
was  a  hypochondria,  a  partial  insanity,  a  continuous 
moral  homicide,  which,  after  having  sacrificed  his  chil- 
dren, he  at  last  directed  against  himself."  ("Truth  and 
Poetry  from  my  Own  Life,"  book  xv.) 

See  TissoT,  "Vie  de  Zimmermann,"  1797;  Wichmann,  "Zim- 
mermann," (in  German,)  1796;  Marcard,  "  Biographie  des  J.  C 
von  Zinimermann,"  1796;  "Zimmermanns  eigcne  Lebensbeschrei- 
bung,"  (autobiographic,)  1791  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du 
Lundi""  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Zimmern,  tsim'mern,  (Helen,)  a  German-English 
author,  born  at  Hamburg,  March  25,  1846.  In  1850  she 
was  taken  to  England,  and  has  resided  in  Nottingham 
and  in  London.  Her  principal  works  are  "  Stories  in 
Precious  Stones,"  (1873,)  "Told  by  the  Waves,"  (1874,) 
"Schopenhauer,  his  Life  and  Writings,"  (1876,)  " G.  E. 
Lessing,  his  Life  and  his  Works,"  (1878,)  "Half-Houra 
with  Foreign  Novelists,"  (18S0,)  "Tales  from  the  Edda," 
(1882,)  "The  Epic  of  Kings,"  (1882,  paraphrased  from 
the  Persian  of  Firdousee,)  etc.  She  has  published  trans- 
lations from  the  German,  and  is  a  large  contributor  to 
German  and  English  periodical  literature. 

Zim'ri,  [Heb.  "'IDI,]  King  of  Israel,  assassinated  King 
Elah,  and  usurped  the  throne,  in  929  B.C.  He  was  at- 
tacked by  Omri,  and,  unable  to  resist  him,  committed 
suicide  in  the  same  year. 

ZincgrefF.    See  Zinkgref. 

Zincke,  ts!nk'keh,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man painter  in  enamel,  born  at  Dresden  about  1684. 
He  resided  many  years  in  England,  where  he  obtained 
the  patronage  of  llie  royal  family.     Died  in  1767. 

Ziiigarelii,  dzfen-gS-rel'lee,  (N1CCOL6,)  an  eminent 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1752.  He  studied 
at  the  Conservatory  of  Loretto,  and  in  1806  succeeded 
Guglielmi  as  chapel-master  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 
He  was  successively  appointed  by  Napoleon  director 
of  the  Conservatory  at  Rome,  chapel-master  of  Saint 
Peter's,  and  director  of  the  new  Conservatory  at  Naples. 
He  produced  a  number  of  operas,  which  enjoyed  a  tem- 
porary popularity;  but  his  reputation  rests  principally 
on  his  sacred  music,  including  the  grand  oratorios  of 
"LaGerusalemme  liberata"  and  "IlTrionfodi  Davide." 
Died  in  1837. 

See  R.  Guarini,  "Cenni  storici  di  N.  Zingarelli,"  1837;  Mar- 
chess Dl  ViLLAROSA,  "  Elogio  storico  di  N.  Zingarelli,"  1S37. 

Zingaro,  II.     See  Solar  10,  da. 

Zingg,  ts!ng  or  tsink,  (Adrian,)  a  Swiss  engraver 
and  designer,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1734,  studied  under 
Aberli  and  Wille.  He  was  appointed  in  1766  professor 
of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  Dresden.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  prints  after  Ruysdael,  Dietrich, 
and  Van  der  Neer.     Died  in  i8i6. 

Zingis.    See  Jengis  Khan. 

Zini,  dzee'nee,  (Pietro  Francesco,)  an  Italian  Hel- 
lenist, born  at  Verona  about  1520,  translated  into  Latin 
the  works  of  several  Greek  Fathers.     Died  after  1575. 

Zink,  von,  fon  ts!nk,  (Friedrich,)  Baron,  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Thuriiigia  in  1753.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  short  poems,  which  are  highly  commended.  He  lived 
at  Emmendingen.     Died  in  1802. 

Zinkeisen,  tsink'i'zen,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1803.  He  edited 
at  Berlin  the  "  Ofticial  Gazette"  ("  Staats-Zeitung") 
from  1840  to  1 85 1.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe,"  (7  vols., 
1840-62,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  (2 
vols.,  1840.)     Died  in  1863. 

Zinken,  ts5nk'en,  (Georg  FIeinrich,)  a  German 
financier  and  writer,  born  near  Naumburg  in  1692.  He 
published,  besides  other  works  on  political  economy 
and  finance^  "Cameralistenbibliothek,"  (1751.)  Died 
in  1769. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


ZINKGREF 


2525 


ZIZKA 


Ziukgref  or  Zincgreff,  ts!nk'gi6f,  (Julius  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  lyric  poet,  born  at  Heidelberj,  in  1591. 
His  principal  work  is  "Deutschen  Apophthegmata," 
(2  vols.,  1626-31,)  a  collection  of  epigrams,  anecdotes, 
etc.     Died  in  1635. 

Zinn,  ts?n,  (JoHANN  Gottfried,)  a  German  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  near  Anspach  in  1727.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  in  1753,  and  wrote 
several  able  treatises  on  anatomy.     Died  in  1759. 

Zin'zen-dorf,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  ts!nt'sen-doRr,] 
(NICOLAUS  LuDWiG,)  CoUN T,  a  German  theologian,  dis- 
tinguished as  the  founder  or  restorer  of  the  sect  of  Mora- 
vians or  Herrnhuters,  was  born  at  Dresden  on  the  26th 
of  May,  1700.  He  was  a  son  of  Georg  Ludwig,  cham- 
berlain and  minister  of  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
who  died  while  this  son  was  an  infant.  He  was  educated 
under  the  care  of  his  grandmother,  the  Baroness  von 
Gersdorf,  a  friend  of  JaUob  Spener.  In  1710  he  was 
sent  to  the  Seminary  of  Halle,  where  he  became  a  pupil 
of  Francke  and  a  convert  to  pietism.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  religious  studies  and  duties,  and  formed  at  Halle 
a  mystical  society  called  the  "Order  of  the  Grain  of 
Mustard."  About  1716  he  removed  from  Halle  to  the 
University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he  studied  law  and 
remained  three  years.  He  had  received  from  nature  a 
lively  imagination,  the  faculty  of  eloquence,  and  great 
personal  beauty  and  dignity.  His  religious  tenets  were 
similar  to  those  of  the  Lutherans. 

In  1 7 19  he  travelled  in  Holland  and  France,  to  obtam 
information  about  the  state  of  the  churches,  and  perhaps 
to  exchange  ideas  with  persons  eminent  for  piety.  During 
this  tour  he  preached  at  various  places,  and  was  in  the 
habit  of  advocating  the  truths  of  the  gospel  in  private 
houses  and  in  worldly  society.  He  would  have  entered 
into  holy  orders  if  his  relatives  had  not  interposed.  In 
1722  he  married  the  countess  Erdmuth  Dorothea  Reuss, 
and  went  to  reside  at  Bertholdsdorf,  in  Lusatia.  A  few 
members  of  the  Moravian  Church,  driven  by  persecution 
from  their  native  country,  sought  refuge  with  him  in  1722, 
and  were  permitted  to  form  a  settlement  on  his  estate. 
This  settlement  received  the  name  of  Herrnhut,  the 
"  Lord's  guard,"  or  the  "  Watch  of  the  Lord,"  and  was 
joined  by  many  other  emigrants,  Zinzendorf  entered 
into  fellowship  with  them,  became  their  patron,  and 
acquired  great  influence  over  them.  They  professed  a 
conformity  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
To  propagate  his  princij^les,  he  published  a  religious 
periodical,  called  the  "  German  Socrates,"  and  numerous 
other  works.  Missionaries  were  sent  out  from  Herrnhut 
to  America  in  1732,  and  colonies  were  planted  in  various 
parts  of  Europe. 

"Although  his  own  conduct,"  says  Southey,  "was 
more  uniformly  discreet  than  that  of  any  other  founder 
of  a  Christian  community,  (it  would  be  wronging  the 
Moravian  Brethren  to  designate  them  as  a  sect,)  he  was 
involved  in  difficulties  by  the  indiscretion  of  others  and 
the  jealousy  of  the  government  under  which  he  lived. 
He  was  therefore  ordered  to  sell  his  estates,  and  after- 
wards banished."  ("  Life  of  John  Wesley,"  vol.  i.)  About 
1734  he  became  a  tutor  in  a  family  at  Stralsund,  that 
he  might  pass  through  the  regular  examination  as  a 
candidate  in  divinity,  and  was  ordained  at  Tubingen  as 
a  minister  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  He  was  banished 
from  Saxony  in  1736,  after  which  he  travelled  exten- 
sively. He  gained  the  favour  of  Frederick  William  I. 
of  Prussia,  who  caused  him  to  be  ordained  a  bishop  in 
1737  W  ^'s  own  chaplain.  In  173S  he  met  John  Wesley 
in  Germany.  "They  parted,"  says  Southey,  "with  a 
less  favourable  opinion  of  each  other  than  each  had 
entertained  before  the  meeting." 

Zinzendorf  visited  Pennsylvania  in  1742,  preached  for 
some  time  at  Germantown,  and  established  congrega- 
tions of  his  disciples  at  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth.  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  1743,  and  was  permitted  in  1747 
to  become  a  resident  of  llerrnhut.  In  1749  he  visited 
England,  and  obtained  an  act  of  Parliament  authorizing 
the  establishment  of  Moravian  missions  in  North  Amer- 
ica. He  wrote  numerous  hymns,  which  are  used  in  the 
Moravian  churches.  In  his  early  writings  he  gave  offence 
by  expressions  which  seemed  to  border  on  indecency, 
and  which  he  afterwards  condemned.     On  this  subject 


Southey  remarks,  "  Seeing  the  offensiveness,  if  not  the 
danger,  of  the  loathsome  and  impious  extravagances 
into  which  they  had  been  betrayed,  they  corrected  their 
books  and  their  language  ;  and  from  that  time  they  have 
continued  to  live  without  reproach." 

"The  Moravian  doctrine,"  says  Goethe,  "had  some- 
thing magical,  in  that  it  appeared  to  continue,  or  rather 
to  perpetuate,  the  condition  of  those  first  times,  \i.e.  the 
apostolic  times.]  It  connected  its  origin  with  them,  and 
had  never  perished,  but  had  only  wound  its  way  through 
the  world  by  unnoticed  shoots  and  tendrils,  until  a  single 
germ  took  root  under  the  protection  of  a  pious  and 
eminent  man,  once  more  to  expand  wide  over  the  world." 
("  Autobiography,"  book  xv.)  Zinzendorf  died  at  Herrn- 
hut in  May,  1760.  Among  his  works  is  an  account  of  his 
early  travels,  entitled  "  The  Journey  of  Atticus  through 
the  World."     He  had  several  children. 

See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von  Zinzendorf," 
in  his  "  Denkmale,"  vol.  v.  ;  Spangenkerg,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von 
Zinzendorf,"  1775  ;  (S.  Jackson's  English  version  of  the  same,"  1838;) 
J.  G.  MOller,  "  Leben  des  N.  von  Zinzendorf:"  Vrrbeck,  "  Leben 
des  Grafen  von  Zinzendorf,"  184s  ;  F.  Bovet,  "  Le  Comte  de  Zinzen- 
dorf," 1865. 

Zinzendorf,  von,  (Philipp  Ludwig,)  Count,  an 
Austrian  diplomatist  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  1671. 
He  obtained  the  title  of  first  chancellor  of  the  court 
in  1705,  and  represented  Austria  at  the  conference  of 
Utrecht,  (1712.)  A  few  years  later  he  succeeded  Prince 
Eugene  as  chief  minister.  He  is  said  to  have  been  re- 
sponsible for  the  war  against  France  and  the  quadruple 
alliance.     He  resigned  in  1740,  and  died  in  1742. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  Paris  in  1699,  be- 
came a  cardinal  in  1727,  and  Bishop  of  Breslau  in  1732. 
Died  in  1747. 

Zinzerling,  ts!nt'seR-ling',  (Johann,)  [called  in  Latin 
JODo'cus  Since'rus,]  a  German  philologist,  born  in 
Thuringia  about  1590.  He  settled  at  Lyons,  and  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  A  Guide  to  Travellers 
in  France,"  ("Itinerarium  Galliae,"  1612.)  Died  about 
1618. 

Zirardini,  dze-raR-dee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Ravenna  in  1725  ;  died  in  1784. 

Ziska,  zls'ka,  or  Zizka  of  Tkocznow,  (tRotch'nov,) 
(John,)  a  famous  Bohemian  general  and  leader  of  the 
Hussites,  was  born  near  Trocznow  about  1360,  (or,  as 
some  say,  about  1380.)  He  fought  in  the  Polish  army 
against  the  Teutonic  knights,  and  against  the  Turks 
in  Hungary.  Having  entered  the  English  service,  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt, 
in  1415.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was  appointed  cham- 
berlain to  Wenceslaus,  King  of  Bohemia.  Ziska  was  a 
disciple  of  John  Huss,  who  was  burned  at  the  stake  at 
Constance  in  1415.  He  urged  the  king  to  revenge  "the 
bloody  affront  that  the  Bohemians  had  sufT«-red  at  Con- 
stance," and  is  said  to  have  received  permission  from 
Wenceslaus  to  vindicate  the  rights  of  the  Hussites  by 
arms.  Ziska  raised  an  army  in  1419,  and  took  the  chief 
command.  Just  after  the  war  began,  Wenceslaus  died, 
and  the  throne  was  claimed  by  Sigismund,  Emperor 
of  Germany;  but  the  Hussites  refused  to  recognize  him. 
In  August,  1420,  Ziska  defeated  the  Imperial  army  near 
Prague.  In  1421  he  lost  his  only  remaining  eye  at  a 
siege  ;  but  he  continued  to  command  the  army  in  person. 
Sigismund  raised  a  new  army,  and  invaded  Bohemia, 
but  was  routed  by  the  Hussites  in  January,  1422.  Ziska 
also  defeated  in  the  same  year  an  army  of  Saxons,  who 
were  allies  of  Sigismund.  He  is  said  to  have  been  vic- 
torious in  thirteen  pitched  battles.  The  Hussites  having 
been  divided  into  two  parties,  Ziska  became  the  leader 
of  that  party  which  was  called  Taborites.  Sigismund 
at  last  made  overtures  for  peace,  but,  before  the  treaty 
was  concluded,  Ziska  died,  in  October,  1424,  after  which 
the  war  was  continued  for  many  years.  He  left  a  high 
reputation  as  a  patriot  and  champion  of  liberty  and 
equality. 

See  G.  Gilpin,  "Life  of  J.  Ziska,"  in  "The  Lives  of  John 
Wickliffe  and  the  Most  Eminent  of  his  Disciples,"  etc.,  1764; 
Lemfant,  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  des  Hussites:"  Palacky, 
"  History  of  Bohemia  ;"  Arnold,  "  History  of  the  Hussites,"  (in 
Boliemian,)  1848;  Major-General  J.  Mitchell,  "Biographies  of 
Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865. 

Zizim.    See  Jem. 
Zizka.    See  Ziska. 


€38 /t;  9asj;  ^hard;  gas/.G,  n,Vi,gittlural;  H, nasal;  }k,trilUd;  sass;  thasin///«.     (JJl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZOBAIDAH 


2526 


ZOLLNER 


Zobaidah  or  Zobaydah.     See  Zobeidah. 

Zobeidah,  zo-ba'dah  or  zo-bI'c!ah,  written  also  Zo- 
beydah,  Zobaidah,  and  Zobaydah,  [Fr.  Zob^idk, 
zo'bi'W,]  a  celebrated  Persian  princess,  distinguished 
by  her  wisdom,  virtue,  and  beneficence,  born  about  765 
A.D.,  was  the  cousin-german  and  wife  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  She  had  a  son  Ameen,  (Amin,)  who  became 
caliph.  After  the  death  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  she  resided 
at  Bagdad.     Died  in  831  a.d. 

Zobeide.    See  Zobeidah. 

Zobel,  tso'bel,  (Bknjamin,)  a  German  artist,  born  at 
Memmingen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1762,  resided  many  years  in 
England,  where  he  was  patronized  by  George  III.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  painting  on  gold  and 
silver  grounds,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a  method  of 
painting  called  marmotinto.     Died  in  1831. 

Zobeydah.    See  Zobeidah. 

Zoboli,  dzo'bo-lee,  (Alfonso,)  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  at  Reggio  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  died  about 
1640. 

Zoccoli,  dzok'ko-lee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Naples  in  1718  ;  died  in  1 771. 

Zo'e  [Gr.  Zw^]  I.,  called  Carronopsina,  Empress  of 
the  East,  was  the  wife  of  Leo  VI.,  whom  she  survived. 
She  had  a  son,  Constantino  VII.,  (Porphyrogenitus.)  She 
died  about  919  a.d. 

Zee  II.,  Empress  of  the  East,  a  daughter  of  Constan- 
tine  IX.,  was  married  to  Romanus  Argyrus,  who  became 
emperor  in  1028.  She  caused  him  to  be  murdered  in 
1034,  and  took  in  his  place  Michael  IV.  After  his 
death,  in  1041,  she  was  married  twice, — to  Michael  V. 
and  Constantine  X.     Died  in  1050. 

Zoega,  tso-a'gi,  (Georg,)  an  eminent  Danish  archae- 
ologist, of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in  the  county 
of  Schackenburg,  Jutland,  in  1755.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  and  in  1776  made  the  tour  of  Switzerland  and 
Italy.  In  1783  he  made  his  third  visit  to  Rome,  where 
he  continued  to  reside  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life. 
He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Pius  VI.  and  Cardinal 
Borgia,  and  was  appointed,  through  the  influence 
of  the  latter,  interpreter  of  modern  languages  to  the 
Propaganda  College.  He  published  in  1787  his  "Numi 
/Egyptii  Iniperatorii  prostantes  in  Museo  Borgiano 
Velitris,"  etc.,  being  a  catalogue  of  the  Egyptian  coins 
struck  by  the  Roman  emperors,  contained  in  the  Borgian 
Museum.  This  work  was  received  with  great  favour, 
and  was  followed  by  his  treatise  on  obelisks,  entitled 
*' De  Origine  et  Usu  Obeliscorum,"  (1797,)  which  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the 
kind.  Besides  the  above  works,  he  published  a  cata- 
logue of  the  Coptic  manuscripts  in  the  library  of  Car- 
dinal Borgia,  ("Catalogus  Codicum  Copticorum,"  etc.,) 
and  an  account  of  the  antique  bas-reliefs  at  Rome, 
entitled  "Bassi-Rilievi  antichi  di  Roma,"  (2  vols.,  1808.) 
The  latter,  written  conjointly  with  Piranesi,  was  left 
unfinished.  Zoega  was  appointed  in  1802  professor  in 
the  University  of  Kiel  ;  but  he  was  exempted  from  the 
duties  of  the  office,  and  permitted  to  remain  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1809. 

See  Welcker,  "  Zoega's  Leben,  Sammliing  seiner  Briefe,"  etc., 
3  vols.,  i8ig;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Zoellner.    See  Zollner. 

Zoes,  zoos,  [Lat.  Zoe'sius,]  (Henry,)  a  Flemish  jurist, 
born  at  Amersfort  in  1571.  He  became  professor  of  law 
at  Louvain  about  1607,  and  wrote  several  works  on  law. 
Died  in  1627. 

Zoest.     See  SosT. 

Zoffani  or  Zoffany,  zof'fa-ne  or  tsof'fS-nee,  ( Johann,) 
a  German  painter,  born  in  1 735,  settled  in  England,  where 
he  acquired  the  friendshi])  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and 
was  patronized  by  the  royal  family.  He  became  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Royal  .A.cademy  in  1768.  Among 
his  princi])al  works  are  an  "Indian  Tiger-Hunt"  and 
"The  Embassy  of  Hyder  Alee  to  Calcutta."  Died  in 
1810. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Zogoskin  or  Zagoskin,  zS-gos'kin  or  zo-gos'kin, 
(Mikhail  Nikolaivitch,)  written  also  Zogoskiue, 
a  Russian  novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  of  Tartar  ex- 
traction, was  born  in  the  government  of  Penza  in  1789. 
Having  published  several  popular  comedies,  he  brought 


out  in  1829  his  romance  entitled  "George  Miloslavsky, 
or  the  Russians  in  1612,"  which  met  with  enthusiastic 
favour  from  all  classes  in  Russia,  as  a  faithful  picture 
of  the  national  character  and  manners.  Besides  the 
above,  he  wrote  several  other  novels,  and  a  number  of 
prose  essays.     Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1833. 

Zo'gra-phos,  (Constantine,)  a  Greek  orator  and 
politician,  born  in  the  Morea  about  1798.  He  became  the 
head  of  the  ministry  in  1837,  and  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1850.     Died  in  1856. 

Zoheir,  zo'hir',  an  Arabian  poet,  contemporary  with 
Mohammed.  He  was  the  author  of  one  of  the  seven  poems 
of  the  "  Moallakat,"  which  Sir  W.  Jones  published,  with 
an  English  version,  in  1782.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
poet  Kaab. 

ZoQe.     See  ZoiLus. 

Zol-lus,  [Gr.  ZwZ?u)f;  Fr.  Zoile,  zo'6K,]  a  Greek 
critic  and  grammarian  ot  uncertain  period.  According 
to  Vitruvius,  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  (285-247  B.C.  ;)  others  think  that  he  flourished 
about  360-330  B.C.  He  was  notorious  for  the  malignity 
of  his  criticism  of  Homer,  whom  he  censured  for  intro- 
ducing fabulous  and  incredible  stories  into  his  poems. 

Zoilus,  a  Greek  physician  and  oculist,  mentioned  by 
Galen. 

Zola,  zo'll',  (It.  pron.  dzo'lS),  (Emile,)  a  French 
author,  the  son  of  a  noted  Italian  engineer,  was  born  in 
Paris,  April  2,  1840.  He  was  educated  at  the  Lycee  Saint- 
Louis,  and  for  some  years  was  employed  in  a  publishing 
house.  His  works  of  fiction,  marked  by  a  coarse  and 
unattractive  naturalism,  are  very  numerous.  Among 
them  are  "Contes  a  Ninon,"  (1863,)  "La  Confession  de 
Claude,"  (1865,)  "  L'Assommoir,"  (1877,  which  had  an 
immense  currency,)  "  Une  Page  d'Amour,"  (187S,) 
"Nana,"  (1880,)  "Pot  bouille,"  (18S2,)  etc. 

Zola,  dzo'lj,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born 
near  Brescia  in  1739.  He  was  professor  of  history  at 
Pavia,  and  favoured  the  reforms  of  the  emperor  Joseph 
II.     Died  in  1806. 

Zolkiewski,  zol-ke-ev'skee,  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1547.  He  became  general-in-chief  of 
the  army  of  Sigismund  HI.  about  1609.  He  invaded 
Russia  and  captured  Moscow  in  1610.  In  1620  he 
conducted  an  army  against  the  Turks.  Having  been 
deserted  by  some  mutinous  officers  and  men,  he  was 
overpowered  by  the  Turks  and  killed  the  same  year. 

Zoll,  tsol,  (IIermann,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  1643. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Marburg  in  1674,  and 
published  a  number  of  able  legal  works.     Died  in  1725. 

ZoPli-cof'fer  or  Zollikoffer,  (Felix,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Maury  county,  Tennessee,  in  1812.  He 
became  editor  of  the  "  Nashville  Banner,"  a  Whig  paper 
and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1852.  Having  taken 
arms  against  the  Union,  he  commanded  the  force  which 
was  defeated  at  Mill  Spring,  where  he  was  killed  on  the 
19th  of  January,  1862. 

Zollikofer,  tsoKle-ko'fer,  (Georg  Joachim,)  an  emi- 
nent Swiss  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Saint 
Gall  in  1730.  He  finished  his  studies  at  Utrecht,  and 
in  1758  became  pastor  of  the  Calvinistic  congregation  at 
Leipsic,  where  he  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence 
by  his  eloquence  and  the  excellence  of  his  character. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  religious  treatises  and 
hymns  of  great  merit,  and  numerous  sermons,  a  com- 
plete collection  of  which  appeared,  in  15  vols.,  in  1789. 
Died  in  1788. 

See  Garve.  "  Ueber  den  Cliarakter  Zollikofer's,"  1788;  Scheit- 
LIN,  "  Ueber  G.  J.  Zollikofer,"  1832. 

Zolling,  tsol'Iing,  (Theophil,)  a  German  poet  and 
author,  born  at  Scafati,  near  Naples,  December  30,  1S49. 
He  was  brought  up  in  Switzerland,  and  studied  at  Vienna, 
Heidelberg,  and  Bonn.  He  lived  for  some  time  in  Paris, 
and  tiien  in  Berlin.  He  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  German 
feuilletonists,  having  a  style  at  once  elegant,  spirited, 
piquant,  and  richly  varied. 

Zollner  or  Zoellner,  tsol'ner,  (Johann  Friedrich,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Ncudamm  in  1753.  '^^  ^^'^^ 
minister  of  the  church  of  Saint  Nicholas,  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1804. 

Zollner.   ([ohann    Karl    Friedkich,)   a   German 


a,  e,  i,  o,  11,  y,  loit^^-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohaitL-;  fSr,  f&ll,  filj  m&l;  ii6t;  good;  moon; 


ZOLLOGOOB 


252? 


Z OR  TAN 


physicist  and  astronomer,  born  in  Berlin,  November  8, 
1834.  He  studied  in  the  Universities  of  Berlin  and  Bale. 
In  1872  he  became  full  professor  of  astronomical  physics 
at  Leipsic.  He  wrote  much  on  photometry,  comets, 
the  electro-dynamic  theory  of  matter,  etc.,  and  made 
improvements  in  the  spectroscope.     Died  in  1882. 

ZoUogoob  or  ZoUogub,  zoKlo-goob,  written  also 
SoUogub  and  ZoUohub,  (Vladimir  Alexandro- 
VITCH,)  a  popular  Russian  writer,  born  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg about  1815,  published  a  novel  entitled  "Tarantas," 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  and  German, 
also  poems,  essays,  and  dramas.     Died  June  16,  1882. 

Zon'a-ras,  [Gr.  Zwvapdf,]  (Joannes,)  a  Byzantine 
theologian  and  historian  of  the  twelfth  century,  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Ale.xius  Comnenus,  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  to  several  high  offices.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Chronicon,"  or  annals  from  the  creation  down  to 
1 1 18,  which  was  continued  by  Nicetas  Acominatus,  also 
"Commentaries  on  the  Sacred  Canons,"  etc. 

Zonca,  dzon'ki,  (Victor,)  an  Italian  mathematician 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  New  Theatre  of  Machines,"  giving  an  account 
of  various  mechanical  inventions. 

Zoobof  or  Zoubof,  zoo'bof,  written  also  Zoubov 
and  Subow,  (Platon,)  a  Russian  courtier,  born  in 
1767.  He  became  in  1791  the  favourite  of  the  empress 
Catherine  II.,  who  appointed  him  grand  master  of  the 
artillery.  He  was  the  most  powerful  Russian  subject 
until  the  death  of  Catherine,  (1796,)  after  which  he  was 
disgraced.  He  was  one  of  the  conspirators  that  killed 
Paul  I.,  in  1801.     Died  in  1822. 

Zooiski,  Zuiski,  or  Zoulski,  (pronounced  almost 
zwis'kee,)  (Vasilii,)  a  Russian  prince  and  general,  was 
a  descendant  of  Vladimir  the  Great.  He  was  the  head 
of  the  government  during  the  minority  of  Ivan  IV.,  by 
whose  order  he  was  executed  in  1544- 

Zooiski,  Zuiski,  or  Zouiski,  (Vasilii,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  distinguished  himself  by  his  successful  de- 
fence of  Pleskow  against  the  Polish  general  Zamoyski 
in  1582.     He  was  murdered  by  Boris  Godoonof  in  1587. 

Zopelli,  dzo-pel'lee,  (Giacomo,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1639  ;  died  in  1718. 

Zopf,  tsopf,  (Johann  IIeinrich,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Gera  in  169 1.  He  published  in  1729  a  "  Uni- 
versal History."    Died  in  1774. 

Zopfl,  tsopfl,  (Heinkich  MATfHAUS,)  a  German 
jurist,  and  professor  of  civil  law  at  Heidelberg,  was  born 
at  Bamberg  in  1807.  He  published  a  number  of  legal 
»nd  political  works.     Died  July  4,  1877. 

Zoppio,  dzop'pe-o,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Bologna  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  translated 
the  first  four  books  of  Virgil's  ".^neid"  into  verse,  and 
wrote  original  poems,  "Rime,"  (1567.)     Died  in  1591. 

His  son  Melchior,  born  at  Bologna  about  1544,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  that  city  about  fifty  years. 
He  wrote  four  tragedies  and  two  comedies.  Died  in 
1634. 

Zoppo,  dzop'po,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  145 1,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Mantegna. 
Died  in  1517. 

Zoppo,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  painter,  noted  for  the 
fineness  of  his  touch,  was  born  at  Brescia;  died  in  15 15. 

Zoppo  di  Lugano.     See  Discepoli. 

Zopyre.     See  Zopyrus. 

Zop'^-rus,  (Gr.  ZuTrvpog ;  Fr.  Zopyre,  zo'p^r',]  a 
Persian  officer  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  When  that  king  was 
besieging  the  revolted  city  of  Babylon,  Zopyrus  gained 
admission  into  the  city  by  the  following  stratagem.  He 
cut  ofT  his  nose  and  ears,  and  presented  himself  to  the 
enemy  as  a  deserter  who  wished  to  revenge  the  cruel 
treatment  he  had  received  from  Darius.  His  story  was 
credited,  and  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  troops 
in  Babylon,  which  he  delivered  to  Darius. 

Zopyrus,  a  Greek  physician  or  surgeon  of  Alexan- 
dria, flourished  about  100  B.C.  or  80  B.C.  He  invented 
an  antidote  for  Ptolemy  Auletes,  and  also  one  for  Mith- 
ridates.  Galen  mentions  a  letter  from  Zopyrus  to  Mith- 
ridates  on  the  subject  of  his  antidote. 

Zorgh,  zoRG,  written  also  Sorgh,  (Hendrik,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  fairs,  markets,  etc.,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of  Teniers.     Died  in  1684. 


Zorilla,  i^o-rhVyA,  (Manuel  Ruiz,)  a  Spanish  poli- 
tician, born  at  Burgo-de-Osma,  in  Castile,  in  1834.  He 
became  a  lawyer  and  liberal  statesman,  and  took  part  in 
certain  insurrectionary  movements.  In  1S68  he  was 
appointed  minister  of  public  works.  He  was  minister 
of  justice,  1869-70,  and  was  afterwards  president  of  the 
Cortes.  After  the  accession  of  King  Alphonso  to  the 
throne,  Zorilla  was  compelled  to  leave  the  country. 

Zorn,  tsoRn,  (Peter,)  a  learned  German  theologian 
and  philologist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1682.  He  was  well 
versed  in  the  Greek  language  and  antiquities,  on  which 
he  wrote  several  treatises.  He  often  changed  his  place 
)f  residence.  From  171 5  to  1720  he  was  rector  at  Plon. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Stettin 
in  1725.     Died  at  Thorn  in  1746. 

Zor-o-as'ter,  [Gr.  Zupouarprig;  Lat.  Zoroas'tres  ; 
Persian,  Zerdoosht  or  Zerdusht,  zer'doosht ;  Fr. 
ZoROASTRE,  zo'ro'istR',]  a  Bactrian  or  Persian  philos- 
o])her,  celebrated  as  the  founder  or  reformer  of  the 
Magian  religion.  The  time  in  which  he  lived  is  not 
ascertained.  According  to  the  "  Zendavesta,"  (in  which 
his  name  is  written  Zarathustra,)  he  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Vita9pa,  whom  the  Persians  call  Gushtasp,  and 
whom  some  writers  identify  with  Hystaspes,  the  father 
of  Darius  I.  Firdousee,  (Firdausi,)  in  his  great  poem 
the  "  Shah  Namah,"  likewise  makes  him  contemporary 
with  Gushtasp.  Some  authors  conjecture  that  he  lived 
more  than  1500  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
first  Greek  writer  that  mentions  him  is  Plato.  Ac- 
cording to  Aristotle,  Eudoxus,  Hermippus,  and  other 
ancients,  Zoroaster  lived  5000  years  or  more  before 
the  time  of  Plato.  Niebuhr  regards  him  as  a  mythical 
personage.  Tradition  presents  him  in  the  characters 
of  legislator,  prophet,  pontiff,  and  philosopher.  The 
doctrines  usually  ascribed  to  him  are  contained  in  the 
"Zend  Avesta,"  which  may  be  termed  the  Zoroastrian 
Scriptures.  These  are  written  in  the  language  of  ancient 
Persia,  and  profess  to  give  the  revelations  made  by  Or- 
muzd  to  his  servant  and  prophet  Zarathustra,  (Zoroaster.) 

The  Zoroastrian  system  of  religion  teaches  that  the 
world  or  universe  is  the  scene  of  a  conflict  between  two 
principles, — the  good,  called  Ormuzd,  and  the  evil,  called 
Ahriman  ;  that  each  of  these  possesses  creative  power, 
but  that  the  good  principle  is  eternal,  and  will  finally 
prevail  over  Ahriman,  who  will  sink  with  his  followers 
into  darkness,  which  is  their  native  element.  According 
to  some  authorities,  he  also  believed  in  an  infinite  Deity 
or  Being,  called  "Time  without  bounds."  His  religion 
gradually  degenerated  into  an  idolatrous  worship  of  fire 
and  the  sun.  (See  Ormuzd.) 

See  Anquetil-Duperron,  "Zendavesta,"  3  vols.,  1771 ;  Hyde, 
"  Veterum  Persarum  et  Magorum  Religionis  Historia,"  1760: 
Rhode,  "  Der  heilige  Sage  der  alten  Baktren,  Meden  und  Persen  ; 
De  Pastoret,  "Zoroastre,  Confucius  et  Mahomet,"  1787;  H.  G. 
Schneider,  "De  Noinine  et  Vita  Zoroastris,"  1708;  Db  Bock, 
"  M^moires  sur  Zoroastre  et  Confucius,"  1787  ;  Holtv,  "Zoroaster 
und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1836;  M^nant,  "Zoroastre,  Essai  sur  la  Phi- 
Insophie  religieuse  de  la  Perse,"  1848;  Mii.man,  "  History  of  Chris- 
tianity;" Rev.  J.  Wilson,  "Religion  of  the  Parsees."  See,  also, 
the  article  on  "Zend  Avesta,"  in  tjie  "  New  American  Cyclopxdia  " 
by  Professor  Whitney. 

Zoroastre  or  Zoroastres.     See  Zoroaster. 

Zorobabel.     See  Zekubbabel. 

Zorrilla  y  Moral,  thor-r^Kyi  e  mo-rSK,  (Don  Josi,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Valla- 
dolid  in  181 7.  Being  destined  by  his  father  for  the  legal 
profession,  he  was  sent  to  the  beminario  de  los  Nobles 
at  Madrid  in  1827,  but,  instead  of  the  study  of  law,  he 
devoted  himself  to  poetry  and  literary  pursuits,  and 
became  a  contributor  to  the  journal  "  El  Artista."  His 
elegy  on  the  death  of  the  poet  Larra(iS37)  was  received 
with  enthusiastic  admiration,  and  raised  the  highest 
hopes  of  his  future  excellence.  In  1841  he  published 
his  "  Songs  of  the  Troubadour,"  ("Cantos  del  Trova- 
dor,")  which  were  equally  successful.  His  other  prin- 
cipal works  are  the  comedies  of  "The  Shoemaker  and 
the  King"  ("El  Zapatero  y  el  Rey,"  1840)  and  "Don 
Juan  Tenario,"  a  "Collection  of  Historical  Legends  and 
Traditions,"  (1840,)  and  "Granada,  an  Oriental  Poem, 
with  the  Legend  of  Al-Hamar,"  (1853.) 

Zor'tan,  (Petratsch,)  a  Hungarian  peasant,  born 
near  Teniesvar  in  1537  ;  died  in  1724,  at  the  age  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty-five  years. 


€  as  ^.-  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi^pittitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilldd;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (JJl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ' 


ZORZI 


2528 


ZUCCHI 


Zorzi,  dzoRt'see,  [Lat.  Geor'gius,]  (  Alessandro,)  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  metaphysician,  born  at  Venice  in  1747. 
He  published  a  "  Prospectus  of  a  New  Italian  Ency- 
clopaedia," (1775,)  but  only  lived  long  enough  to  give 
a  small  specimen  of  it.     Died  in  1779. 

Zositne.     See  Zosimus. 

Zos'I-mus,  [Gr.  Zwm/iof;  PV.  ZosiME,  zo'zim',]  a 
Greek  historian  of  the  fifth  century,  lived  under  Theo- 
dosius  II.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Roman  Empire  down  to  410  A.D.,"  in  six  books,  all  of 
which  is  extant.  He  was  a  pagan,  and  is  accused  of 
partiality  by  some  orthodox  writers.  His  style  is  neat 
and  pure. 

Zosimus,  a  Greek  ecclesiastic,  succeeded  Innocent 
I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome  in  417  a.d.  He  confirmed  the 
sentence  of  heresy  pronounced  against  the  Pelagians, 
and  was  the  author  of  letters  and  controversial  treatises. 
Died  in  December,  418. 

Zoubof  or  Zoobov.     See  Zoohof. 

Zouch,  zootch,  (Richard,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Wiltshire  about  1590,  became  regius  professor  of  law  at 
Oxford  in  1620.  He  afterwards  rose  through  several 
offices  to  be  judge  of  the  high  court  of  admiralty.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  legal  works,  in  Latin. 
Died  about  1660. 

Zouch,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  writer,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1737,  became  rector  of  Scrayingham 
in  1793,  and  subsequently  a  prebendary  of  Durham. 
He  published  "An  Attempt  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
Prophecies  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (1800,) 
"Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney," (1808,)  and  other  works.     Died  in  1815. 

Zouiski.     See  ZooisKl. 

Zoust.     See  SosT. 

Zrinyi,  zR^n'yee,  written  also  Zriny,  (Nicholas,)  a 
celebrated  Hungarian  general,  born  in  1518,  was  Ban 
of  Croatia,  which  he  defended  twelve  years  against  the 
Turks.  In  1566  he  was  besieged  in  the  town  of  Szigeth 
by  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  at  the  head  of  65,000  men, 
while  his  own  forces  were  but  3000.  After  a  resistance 
of  a  month,  the  city  was  taken,  and  Zrinyi,  with  his  few 
remaining  followers,  defended  themselves  for  a  time  in 
the  citadel,  and,  in  the  final  assault,  rushed  forth  and 
fell  fighting.  His  heroic  achievements  have  been  immor- 
talized in  one  of  Korner's  dramas. 

Zrinyi,  (Nicholas,)  a  Hungarian  warrior  and  poet, 
a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1616,  became 
Ban  of  Croatia,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  war 
against  the  Turks.     Died  in  1664. 

Zschack-witz,  tshik'<V!ts,  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  near  Naumbuig  in  1669,  lectured  on  law  at  Halle, 
and  wrote  on  history  and  public  law.     Died  in  1744. 

Zschokke,  tshok'keh,  (Johann  Heinrich  Daniel,) 
a  popular  German  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  on  the  22d 
of  March,  1771.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  produced  in  1793  a  drama 
called  "  Abiillino  the  Bandit,"  which  was  successful.  His 
next  work  was  "Julius  von  Sassen,"  a  drama,  (1796.) 
About  1796  he  left  Frankfort,  and  travelled  through 
Germany  and  France.  He  settled  in  Switzerland,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  that  country 
(between  1798  and  1803)  as  a  civil  officer  of  the  republic. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  Swiss  history,  among  which 
is  a  "History  of  the  Combats  and  Fall  of  the  Swiss 
Mountain  and  Forest-Cantons,"  (i8oi.)  In  1803  or 
1804  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  mines 
and  forests.  He  resided  many  years  at  Aarau,  whither 
he  removed  about  1808.  From  1807  to  1813  he  edited 
a  popular  periodical  called  "Miscellany  of  the  Most  Re- 
cent Events,"  ("Miscellen  fiir  die  neueste  Weltkunde.") 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  of  novels,  tales,  poems,  and 
histories.  His  novels  are  commended  for  their  good 
moral  tone,  and  are  remarkable  for  humour.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  Bavaria,"  (4  vols.,  1813-1S,)  and  a  "His- 
tory of  Switzerland  for  the  Swiss  People,"  (1822,)  which 
is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are 
"Hours  of  Devotion,"  ("Stunden  der  Andacht,")  an 
eloquent  exposition  of  modern  rationalism,  and  "The 
Goldmaker's  Village,"  a  tale.  He  died  in  January,  1848. 
See  liis  autobiogr.Tpliy,  entitled  "  Selbstsclinii,"  1841  ;  E.  Fkens- 
DORF,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Zschokke,"  1844:  Baer,  "Zschokke, 


sein  Leben  und  seiii  Werken,"  1849;  Muench,  "Zschokke  geschil- 
dert  nach  seiiien  vorziiglichsten  Lebensniomenlen,"  1830;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  tor  April,  1S44. 

Zuallart,  zii't'ltR',  (Jean,)  a  Belgian  traveller,  visited 
the  Holy  Land  in  1586,  and  published  a  "Journey  to 
Jerusalem,"  (1587.)     Died  after  1632. 

Zuazo,  tJiQoA'tho,  almost  thwVtho,  (Alfonso,)  a 
Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Olmedo  about  1466.  He  was 
sent  by  Cardinal  Ximenes  to  America  in  i5i6to  protect 
the  natives  from  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards.  He  re- 
ceived from  Ximenes  full  power  to  govern  the  colonies, 
and  he  used  his  power  in  favour  of  justice  and  humanity. 
In  1522  he  became  Governor  of  Cuba,  where  he  reformed 
the  courts  of  justice.  Died  in  Saint  Domingo  in  1527. 
Zuber,  tsoo'ber,  (Matthaus,)  a  German  writer  of 
Latin  poetry,  born  at  Neuburg,  on  the  Danube,  in  1570. 
He  published  "Various  Poems,"  ("  Poemata  varia," 
1598,)  and  "Epigrammata,"  (1605.)     Died  in  1623. 

Zuccardi,  dzook-kaR'dee,  (Ubertino,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Correggio  about  1480 ;  died  in  154T. 

Zuccarelli,  dzook-ki-rel'lee,  or  Zuccherelli,  dzook- 
ki-rel'lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  landscape-painter, 
born  near  Florence  in  1702.  He  visited  England  in 
1752,  and  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  After  a  residence  of  more  than  twenty  years 
in  England,  where  he  was  extensively  patronized,  he 
returned  to  Florence,  and  died  in  1788. 

Zuccarini,  tsook-kd-ree'nee,  (Joseph  Gerard,)  an 
eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Munich  in  1798.  He 
was  professor  of  botany  at  that  city,  and  described  the 
plants  collected  by  Siebold,  in  the  "Flora  Japonica," 
(1835.)  Among  his  works  is  "Instruction  in  Botany," 
(1834.)     Died  in  1848. 

Zuccaro,  dzook'ki-ro,  or  Zucchero,  dzook'ki-ro, 
(Federigo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sant'  Angelo,  in 
the  duchy  of  Urbino,  in  1543.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
elder  brother  Taddeo,  several  of  whose  unfinished  pic- 
tures he  completed.  Having  executed  some  important 
works  at  Florence  and  Rome,  he  visited  the  Netherlands 
and  England,  where  he  painted  portraits  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Sir  Francis  Walsingham, 
and  other  eminent  persons.  After  his  return  to  Rome 
he  completed  the  frescos  of  the  Pauline  Chapel,  in  the 
Vatican,  which  he  had  previously  begun  at  the  request 
of  Gregory  XIII.  On  the  invitation  of  Philip  II.,  he 
repaired  to  Spain  about  1585,  and  was  employed  to  paint 
the  Escurial.  In  1595  he  became  the  founder  and  the 
first  president  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke,  at  Rome. 
He  was  also  skilled  in  sculpture  and  architecture,  and 
published  a  work  entitled  "  L'Idea  de'  Pittori,  Scultori 
ed  Architetti."  Zuccaro  was  one  of  the  most  admired 
artists  of  his  time  ;  but  later  critics  have  not  assigned 
him  so  high  a  rank.     Died  in  1609. 

See  Walpole,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting  ;"  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the 
Painters." 

Zuccaro,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  born 
in  the  sixteenth  century  at  Naples,  where  he  became 
professor  of  medicine.     Died  in  1634. 

Zuccaro,  (Taddeo,)  a  brother  of  Federigo,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1529.  At  an  early  age  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  lived  for  a  time  in  great  destitution  and 
was  employed  as  a  colour-grinder.  He  was  afterwards 
patronized  by  the  popes  Julius  III.  and  Paul  IV.,  and 
Cardinal  Alexander  Farnese,  for  whom  he  painted  a 
series  of  frescos  in  the  palace  at  Caprarola,  illustrating 
the  glories  of  the  Farnese  family,  since  engraved  by 
Prenner.     Died  in  1566. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Zucchelli,  dzook-kel'lee,  (Antonio,)  of  Gradisca,  a 
Capuchin  monk,  who  went  as  a  missionary  to  Congo  in 
1697.  In  1712  he  published  an  interesting  "Account  of 
his  Travels,  with  a  Description  of  Angola  and  Congo." 

Zuccherelli.     See  Zuccarelll 

Zucchero.    See  Zuccaro,  (Federigo.) 

Zucchi,  dzook'kee,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  in  1726,  resided  several  years  in  England,  where 
he  executed  a  number  of  frescos,  and  became  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy.     Died  at  Rome  in  1795. 

Zucchi,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Monza  about  1560,  became  a  priest.  He  wrote  several 
biographies  and  historical  works.     Died  in  1631. 


i,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6l;  good;  moon; 


ZUCCHI 


2529 


ZWELFER 


Zucchi,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Flor- 
ence,  was  a  pupil  of  Vasari.  He  went  to  Rome  about 
1572,  and  worked  there  with  success.     Died  about  1590. 

Zucchi,  (Marco  Antonio,)  a  famous  Italian  im- 
provisatore,  born  at  Verona.  He  composed  verses 
extempore  in  public.     Died  in  1764. 

Zuccolo,  dzook'ko-lo,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Faenza  about  1570.  He  published  several  works 
on  moral  philosophy  and  other  subjects. 

Zuccolo,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  1599. 
He  wrote  "  De  Ratione  Statfls,"  (1663.)     Died  in  1668. 

Zucconi,  dzook-ko'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  in  1721,  was  appointed 
censor  of  books.     He  died  prematurely  in  1754. 

Zuckert,  tsook'kcRt,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer,  born  at  Kerlin  in  1737.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  diet  and  regimen,  which  are  com- 
mended.    Died  in  1778. 

Zuichem  or  Zuichemus,  (Viglius.)     See  Ayta. 

ZuinglL     See  Zwingle. 

Zuinglius.     See  Zwingle. 

Zukertort,  tsd6k'er-toiU',(J.  H.,)  a  noted  chess-player, 
born  at  Riga,  Russia,  of  a  German  family,  September 
7,  1S42.  He  was  educated  at  Breslau,  and  in  1867-71 
edited  a  chess-journal  at  Berlin.  In  1S72  he  removed  to 
England.  He  has  often  played  eight  or  ten  simultaneous 
games  while  blindfolded.     Died  in  1888. 

Zumala-Carreguy,  thoo-mS'lS  kir-ra'gee,  (Don  To- 
MAS,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  commander  in  the  service 
of  Don  Carlos,  was  born  near  Villareal  in  1788.  He 
served  under  General  Mina  in  1813,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel  in  1825,  being  appointed  at  the  same 
time  governor  of  Ferrol.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  he  became  leader  of  a  band  of  insurgents  in  the 
Basque  provinces,  with  whom  he  defeated  General  Rodil 
in  the  valley  of  Amescoas  in  1834,  which  was  followed 
by  several  other  signal  victories  over  the  forces  of  Queen 
Christina.  He  was  mortally  wounded  while  preparing 
to  besiege  Bilbao,  in  1835. 

See  Hennincsen,  "Twelve  Months  of  Campai";!!  with  Zumala- 
Carreguy,"  2  vols.,  1S36;  Madrazo,  "  Historia  niilitar  y  politica  de 
Zumalacarreguy,"    1844. 

Zumbo,  dzoom'bo,  or  Zummo,  azoom'mo,  (Gae- 
TANO  Giulio,)  a  Sicilian  artist,  born  at  Syracuse  in 
1656,  was  celebrated  as  a  modeller  of  figures  in  coloured 
wax.  He  was  a  skilful  anatomist,  and  his  anatomical 
preparations  in  wax  were  greatly  admired.   Died  in  1701. 

Zunibusch,  tsoom'boosh,  (Kaspar  Clement,)  a 
German  sculptor,  born  at  Herzebrock,  Westj^halia, 
November  23,  1830.  In  1873  he  was  called  to  Vienna 
as  professor  of  sculpture.  His  medallions,  portrait-busts, 
and  statues  are  numerous. 

Zumpt,  tsoompt,  (August  Wilhelm,)  nephew  of  Karl 
Gottlob,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  181 5. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Commentationes 
epigraphicae  ad  Antiquitates  Romanas  pertinentes,"  (2 
vols.,  1850-54.)     Died  at  Berlin,  April  23,  1877. 

Zumpt,  (Karl  Goitlob,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1792.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  under  Creu- 
zer,  and  in  1828  became  professor  of  Roman  literature 
in  the  University  of  Berlin.  His  "  Latin  Grammar," 
published  in  1818,  enjoys  a  very  high  reputation,  and 
has  been  translated  into  English.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  several  valuable  essays  on  Roman  customs 
and  antiquities,  among  which  we  may  name  "On  the 
Architecture  of  the  Roman  Dwelling-House,"  (1844,) 
and  "On  the  Religion  of  the  Romans,"  (1845.)  He 
likewise  prepared  editions  of  Quintilian's  "  Institutiones 
Oratoriae,"  and  other  Latin  classics.     Died  in  1849. 

Zumsteeg,  tsoSm'staG,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  1760.  His  songs  and  ballads  are 
particularly  admired.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Schiller,  several  of  whose  lyrics  he  set  to  musia  Died 
m  1802. 

Zuniga,  de,  di  thoon-ye'gi,  (Don  DiEoo  Ortiz.)  a 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Seville.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Seville,"  (1677.)     Died  in  1680. 

Zunz,  tsoonts,  (Leopold,)  a  learned  German  Jew, 
born  at  Detmold  in  1794,  became  principal  of  the  Jewish 
Seminary  at  Berlin.  He  published  "The  .Synagocal 
Poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  etc.     Died  in  1880. 


Zurbano,  thooR-bS'no,  (Martin,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  about  1780,  served  in  the  army  of  Queen  Christina, 
and,  when  she  was  compelled  to  leave  Spain,  attaclied 
himself  to  Espartero.  He  was  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy  in  1845,  ^"<^'  shot. 

Zurbaran,  thooR-bS-rSn',  (Francisco,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  painter,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1598.  He 
studied  under  Juan  de  Roelas  at  Seville,  where  he 
produced  a  great  number  of  his  best  works.  Among 
these  may  be  named  his  "  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas,"  an 
altar-piece  in  the  church  of  the  College  of  Saint  Thomas 
Aquinas,  esteemed  one  of  the  most  admirable  pictures 
ever  executed  in  Spain,  and  the  altar-pieces  in  the 
churches  of  San  Lorenzo  and  Sant'  Antonio  Abad.  A 
few  of  his  works  are  to  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  Paris, 
Berlin,  and  Dresden  ;  and  at  Munich,  a  "  Virgin  and 
Saint  John  returning  from  the  Sepulchre  of  Christ." 
Zurbaran  received  the  title  of  painter  to  King  Philip  HI., 
and  was  patronized  by  his  successor,  Philip  IV.  He  is 
sometimes  called  "  the  Spanish  Caravaggio,"  from  the 
resemblance  of  his  style  to  that  of  the  Italian  master ; 
but  he  is  thought  in  some  respects  to  have  surpassed 
him.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  fidelity  to  nature, 
richness  of  colouring,  chiaroscuro,  and  exquisite  repre- 
sentation of  velvets,  brocades,  and  white  draperies. 
The  Spanish  friar  was  a  favourite  subject,  in  the  treat- 
ment of  which  he  was  eminently  successful.  Died  in  1662. 

Zurita,  thoo-ree'ti,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Saragossa  in  1512.  He  studied  at  Alcala,  and 
rose  through  several  important  offices  to  be  a  member 
of  the  supreme  council  of  Castile,  in  1543.  He  was 
afterwards  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Germany,  and  in  1549 
appointed  historiographer  of  the  kingdom.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  entitled  "  Annals  of  the  Crown  of  Aragon," 
("Anales  de  la  Corona  de  Aragon,"  4  vols.,  1580,) 
enjoys  a  high  reputation.  His  candour  and  impartiality 
are  praised  by  Prescott  in  his  "  History  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,"  (vol.  ii.  part  ii.)     Died  in  1581. 

Zurla,  dzooR'li,  (Placido,)  a  learned  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  the  Venetian  States  in  1769,  became  vicar-general 
to  Pope  Leo  XII.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  Marco 
Polo  and  other  Venetian  Travellers,"  and  "  On  the 
Voyages  and  Discoveries  of  Cadamosto."  Died  in  1834. 

Zurlauben,  ziiR'l5'b6N'  or  tsooR'low'ben,  (B^at 
Jacques,)  a  Swiss  general  in  the  service  of  France,  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Steenkerke,  (1692,)  and  at  Neeiwin- 
den.     He  died  of  wounds  received  at  Blenheim,  in  1704. 

Zurlauben,  de,  d?h  ziiR'lo'bdN',  (B6at  Fiddle  An- 
toine  Jean  Dominique,)  Baron  de  la  Tour-Chaiillon, 
a  Swiss  general  and  writer,  born  at  Zug  in  1720,  served 
in  the  French  army  many  years.  He  wrote,  besides 
many  historical  and  antiquarian  treatises,  "  A  Military 
History  of  the  Swiss  in  the  French  Service,"  (8 
vols.,  1751-53,)  and  a  "Description  of  Switzerland," 
("Tableaux  topographiques,  pittoresques,  physiques," 
etc.,  4  vols.,  1780-86.)     Died  in  1795. 

Zurlo,  dzooR'lo,  (Giuseppe,)  Count,  an  able  Italian 
minister  of  state,  born  at  Naples  in  1759.  He  became 
minister  of  finance  in  1798.  He  followed  the  court  to 
Palermo  in  1806,  when  the  French  regime  was  es- 
tablished at  Naples;  but  he  returned  in  1809,  and  was 
appointed  minister  of  justice  and  of  the  interior  by 
Murat.  He  reformed  the  administration,  and  protected 
learning,  commerce,  and  agriculture.  In  1815  he  retired 
from  office.     Died  in  1828. 

Zurner,  tso&R'n?r,  (Adam  Friedrich,)  a  German 
geographer,  born  near  Oelsnitz  about  1680,  produced 
several  maps  of  Saxony  and  other  parts  of  Germany. 
Died  in  1742. 

Zuylichem.     See  Huygens. 

Zuzzeri,  dzoot-sa'ree,  (Giovanni  Luca,)  an  Italian 
antiquary  and  numismatist,  born  at  Ragusa  in  1716: 
died  at  Rome  in  1746. 

Z'wanziger,  tsi^in'sic-er,  (Joseph  Christian,)  a 
German  writer,  born  in  Hungary  in  1732.  He  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  and  wrote  against 
the  philosophy  of  Kant.     Died  in  1808, 

Zweers,  zwairs,  (Philip,)  a  Dutch  poet,  lived  at 
Amsterdam.  He  wrote  "  Semiramis,"  a  tragedy,  and 
other  poems,  which  were  admired.     Died  in  1774. 

Zwelfer,  tsMl'fer,  (Johann,)  a  German  chemist  and 


€  as  /fc;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;  o,  H,  Yi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

^59 


( Ji;^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZWICKER 


2530 


ZWINGLI 


physician,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in  1618.  He  practised 
in  Vienna,  and  wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1668. 

Zwicker,  ts<^ik'ker,  (Daniel,)  a  German  religionist, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1612.  He  was  once  a  Socinian,  and 
afterwards  an  Arminian.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Irenicon  Irenicorum,"  (1658,)  the  aim  of  which  was  to 
promote  union  among  Christian  sects.     Died  in  1678. 

Z^winger,  tsi^ino'er,  (Jakcjis,)  a  Swiss  physician  and 
l)hilologist,  born  at  Bale  in  1569,  was  a  son  of  Theodore. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Bale,  and  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Lucian,"  (1602,)  and  "  Examination  of  Chemi- 
cal Principles,"  ("  Principiorum  Chymicorum  Examen," 
1606.)     Died  in  1610. 

Zwinger,  [Lat.  Zwinge'rus,]  (Johann  Rudolph,) 
a  Swiss  physician,  born  at  Bale  in  1692,  was  a  son  of 
Theodore  the  Younger.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
at  Bale  for  fifty-two  years.  Among  his  pupils  was  the 
famous  Haller.     Died  in  1777. 

See  BuxTORF,  "Vita  J.  R.  Zwingeri,"  1778. 

Zwinger,  [Lat.  Zwinge'rus,]  (Theodore,)  the 
Elder,  an  eminent  Swiss  physician  and  scholar,  born 
at  Bale  in  1533,  was  the  father  of  Jakob.  He  studied 
at  Paris  and  Padua.  In  1565  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
Greek  at  Bale.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  collection  of  anecdotes,  etc.,  entitled  "Theatre  of 
Human  Life,"  ("Theatrum  Vitae  humanse,"  1565,)  and 
"On  the  Rural  or  Agricultural  Method  of  Cato  and 
Varro,"  ("  Methodus  Rustica  Catonis  et  Varronis," 
1576.)     Died  at  Bale  in  1588. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Zwinger"  in  "  Athenas  Raurlcs." 

Zvvringer,  (Theodore,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Bale  in  1597,  was  a  son  of  Jakob.  He  became 
first  pastor  and  superintendent  of  the  churches  of  Bale 
in  1630.  He  was  also  professor  of  divinity  in  that  city 
for  twenty-four  years.     Died  in  1654. 

Zwinger,  (Theodore,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  bot 
anist,  born  at  Bale  in  1658,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  a  son  of  Johann  Zwinger,  (1634-96,) 
professor  of  Greek  and  theology  at  Bale.  He  became 
in  1687  professor  of  physics  in  his  native  city,  where  he 
also  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  practitioner  of  med 
cine.  In  1703  he  exchanged  the  chair  of  physics  for 
that  of  anatomy.  He  wrote  several  works  on  medicine 
and  botany.     Died  in  1724. 

See  "  Athenae  Raiirica." 

Z"winger\i8.     See  Zwinger. 

Z-wingle,  zw!ng'g'l,  Zwingli,  or  Zuingli,  zwing'- 
glee,  [Lat.  Zwin'glius  or  Zuin'glius;  Fr.  Zwingle, 
zv^Ng'l ;  Ger.  Ulrich  or  Huldreich  Zwingli,  hoolt'riK 
ts<^ing'lee,]  a  Swiss  Reformer  of  great  eminence,  was 
born  at  Wildhaus,  in  the  canton  or  valley  of  Toggen- 
burg,  on  the  ist  of  January,  1484.  He  was  liberally 
educated  at  Bale  and  Vienna,  at  the  former  of  which 
places  he  studied  theology  under  Thomas  Wyttenbach. 
He  was  a  diligent  reader  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  Horace, 
and  Seneca.  In  1506  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  at 
Bale,  and  was  appointed  priest  of  Glarus.  About  this 
time  he  acquired  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  original 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  began  to  test  the  sound- 
ness of  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Church  by  the 
standard  of  the  gospel.  "  The  Holy  Scriptures,"  says 
Hottinger,  "had  been  his  daily  and  nightly  study,  and 
he  knew  the  greater  part  of  them  literally  by  heart." 
He  performed  a  journey  to  Bale  to  become  personally 
acquainted  with  Erasmus,  whose  writings  he  admired. 
He  served  as  chaplain  to  a  body  of  Swiss  troops  em- 
ployed in  Lombardy  in  1515,  and  witnessed  the  great 
battle  of  Marignano.  He  afterwards  raised  his  voice  to 
dissuade  the  Swiss  from  the  practice  of  enlisting  as 
mercenaries  in  foreign  armies. 

In  1 5 16  he  removed  from  Glarus  to  Einsiedeln,  the 
monastery  of  which  was  in  high  repute  as  a  sanctuary 
and  was  visited  by  numerous  pilgrims  and  devotees,  who 
came  to  buy  indulgences  for  their  sins.  Zwingle  was 
employed  there  as  preacher  to  the  monastery.  He  had 
previously  been  convinced  that  several  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  Roman  Church  were  not  consistent  with 
the  pure  religion  of  the  gospel ;  but  he  had  hitherto 
refrained  from  the  public  avowal  of  his  convictions. 
Zwingle  and  Luther  began  about  the  same  time  to  con- 


demn the  sale  of  indulgences,  and  other  corruptions  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  He  was  supported  by  Theobald 
of  Geroldseck,  administrator  of  the  abbey,  and  found  at 
Einsiedeln  another  coadjutor,  Leo  Juda.  In  his  sermons 
he  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  practical  virtue  and  new- 
ness of  life,  instead  of  exterior  observances,  ceremonies, 
and  superstitious  practices.  He  also  urged  the  bishops 
and  other  high  functionaries  to  undertake  the  refor- 
mation of  the  Church  by  removing  the  impostures 
and  ignorance  and  depravity  of  the  priests.  He  corre- 
sponded with  Erasmus,  Capito,  and  Beatus  Rhenanus. 
In  December,  1518,  he  was  appointed  preacher  to  the 
collegiate  church  or  great  MUnster  of  Zurich,  where  he 
found  the  priests  and  the  people  in  a  benighted  spiritual 
condition.  He  insisted  that  the  people  should  read  and 
understand  the  Holy  Scriptures.  His  bold  and  novel 
mode  of  preaching  produced,  of  course,  much  agitation. 

In  1523  the  Great  Council  of  Zurich,  at  the  request 
of  Zwingle,  summoned  the  clergy  of  that  diocese  to 
attend  a  conference  for  the  discussion  of  the  new  doc- 
trines, and  proposed  that  the  Holy  Scripture  should  be 
recognized  as  the  standard  by  which  doctrines  must  be 
judged.  To  this  conference  the  Bishop  of  Constance 
sent  John  Faber,  his  vicar-general.  Zwingle  defended 
his  course,  having  previously  published  a  list  of  articles 
to  be  discussed,  among  which  were  the  following :  the 
power  arrogated  to  themselves  by  the  pope  and  bishops 
is  not  sanctioned  by  Scripture  ;  the  marriage  of  priests 
ought  not  to  be  forbidden  ;  and  no  one  ought  to  be  mo- 
lested for  his  opinions.  The  result  of  the  conference  was 
a  decision  of  the  council  that  Zwingle  should  continue 
to  preach  the  gospel  as  he  had  done  heretofore.  "  His 
simplicity,  firmness,  and  gentleness,"  says  Hess,  "in- 
spired his  audience  with  great  veneration;  his  eloquence 
and  knowledge  carried  away  those  who  were  hesitating 
between  the  two  parties."  ("Life  of  Zwingle.")  In  1524 
he  married  Anna  Reinhart.  He  published  in  1525  a 
work  entitled  "  A  Discourse  on  True  and  False  Religion." 
The  mass  was  abolished  at  Zurich  in  1525.  About  the 
same  time  the  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  their 
property  was  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  education 
and  charity. 

Zwingle  took  part  in  a  conference  (between  the  Re- 
formers and  the  Roman  Catholics)  which  met  at  Berne 
in  1528,  soon  after  which  the  Reformed  religion  was 
established  in  the  canton  of  Berne.  In  1529  he  met 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  in  conference  at  Marburg.  He 
agreed  with  them  in  relation  to  fourteen  articles  of  faith, 
to  which  they  all  subscribed,  but  he  differed  from  them 
on  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist,  and  rejected  the  doctrine 
of  the  real  presence.  For  this  reason  Luther  refused 
to  give  him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship.  The  Swiss 
Reformer  was  the  less  dogmatical  of  the  two,  and  was 
disposed  to  tolerate  a  difference  of  opinion  on  that  point. 
The  Roman  Catholic  party  continued  to  predominate  in 
most  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  except  Zurich,  Glarus,  and 
Berne,  and  they  persecuted  those  Protestants  who  lived 
in  Lucerne,  Uri,  Schwyz,  etc.  Zwingle  had  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  wisdom,  and  was  often  consulted  by 
the  council  of  Zurich  in  relation  to  public  affairs.  His 
adversaries  having  accused  him  of  being  the  chief  cause 
of  the  dissensions  which  destroyed  the  peace  of  the 
country,  he  offered  to  resign ;  but  the  senate  refused  to 
accept  his  resignation.  In  1531  the  five  cantons  of  Lu- 
cerne, Zug,  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden  declared  war 
against  Berne  and  Zurich,  which  were  not  well  prepared 
for  the  conflict.  Zwingle  was  one  of  a  small  band  that 
marched  out  to  meet  the  enemy,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Cappel,  in  October,  1531.  He  left,  besides 
other  works,  an  "Exposition  of  the  Christian  Faith,"  in 
Latin,  (1536.)  His  followers  were  called  "  Evangelicals." 

See  MvcoNius,  "  De  Vita  et  Obitu  Zwinglii,"  1536;  Ziuglbr, 
"Zwingli's  Leben,"  1719;  Tischer,  "Zvvingli's  Leben,"  1800;  J.  G. 
Hess,  "Vie  de  Zwingle,"  1810,  which  was  translated  into  English 
by  Lucy  AiKiN,  1812;  Pkstalozzi,  "  Bilder  aus  dein  Leben  Zwin- 
gli's,"  1819;  M.  Richard,  "Zwingli  biographisch  geschildert," 
1819;  RoTEKMUNDT,  "Leben  des  Reformator  U.  Zwingli,"  iSig; 
MUller,  "Ulrich  Zwingli,"  1819;  Roeder,  "  Erzahlungen  aus 
Zwingli's  Leben,"  1834;  J.  J.  Hottinger,  "Zwingli  und  seine 
Zeit,"  1842;  an  English  version  of  Hottinger's  work,  by  Profbssob 
T.  C.  Porter,  1856;  N.  Christoffel,  "Zwingli's  Leben,"  1847; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1828. 

Zwingli  or  Zvringlius.    See  Zwingle. 


a.  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  i,  h,  h,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  fi,  j?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mooiv 


ZWIRNER 


2531 


ZYPE 


Zwirner,  ts<^^R'n?r,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  architect,  born  at  Jacobswald,  in  Silesia, 
in  February,  1802.  He  completed  his  studies  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Architecture  and  the  University  of 
Berlin.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  architect  of  the  ancient 
Cologne  Cathedral,  and  undertook  the  completion  and 
restoration  of  that  grand  Gothic  or  mediaeval  edifice, 
which  had  never  been  finished.  He  expended  many 
years  on  this  work,  which  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  successful  and  admirable  specimens  of  restoration 
which  have  ever  appeared.  Zwirner  designed  the  castle 
of  Count  von  Furstenberg  at  Herdringen,  and  several 
castles  on  the  Rhine.     Died  in  1861. 


Zylius.     See  Zyll. 

Zyll,  van,  vtn  zil,  [Lat.  Zy'lius,]  (Otho,)  a  Dutch 
Jesuit,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1588.  He  gained  some  dis- 
tinction as  a  Latin  poet.     Died  in  1656. 

Zypaeua,  zl-pa'us,  or  Van  den  Zype,  vin  den  zi'p^h, 
(Francis,)  a  Flemish  jurist  and  canonist,  born  at  Ma- 
lines  in  1578.  He  published  several  legal  works.  Died 
in  1650. 

His  brother  Henry,  born  in  1577,  was  abbot  of  Saint- 
Andre,  and  wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1659. 

See  Hendrik  Feye,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  F.  Zypseus,"  1853; 
P.  VAN  DEN  Broeck,  "  De  F.  Zypaei  Vita,"  etc.,  iSsa. 

Zype,  van  den.    See  Zyp^bus. 


«  as  «i;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.  i^uttural;  N,  nasai;  R,  trilled;  s  as  «;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  o.  23. ) 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN   NAMES. 


It  is  perhaps  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  following  Vocabulary  of  Christian  (or  first)  Names  is  not  intended 
to  be  exhaustive,  having  been  prepared  simply  to  meet  the  most  obvious  demands  of  a  work  like  the  present,  in 
the  body  of  which  the  pronunciation  of  names  of  the  class  referred  to  has  rarely  been  given.  In  numerous 
Instances  names  which  are  properly  surnames  (such,  for  example,  as  Fisher  Ames,  Washington  Irving,  etc) 
are  used  as  Christian  names.  These  are  not  included  in  the  present  Vocabulary,  as  they  can  readily  be  found  in 
their  alphabetical  place  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

g^r*  The  orier  of  arrangement  in  the  Vocabulary  is  as  follows :  first  the  English,  then  the  other  names  ac  cording 
to  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  languages  to  which  they  belong,  as,  Arabic,  Danish,  Dutch,  French,  etc  To 
avoid  multiplying  the  references,  (which  must  in  any  case  be  pretty  numerous,)  we  have  generally  given  them 
only  when  the  name  would  be  separated  by  some  other  name  or  names  from  the  alphabetical  place  of  the  English 
name  under  which  it  is  noticed.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  when  the  name  referred  from  is  so 
different  from  the  one  referred  to,  that  ordinary  readers  would  not  be  likely  to  suspect  the  identity,  as  in  the  case  of 
Alonzo  and  Alphonso,  etc 


Aaron,  a'rpn;  Arabic,  I Iaroon  or  'tIarOn,  hS-roon'; 
Fr.  Aaron,  i'rAN';  Ger.  Aaron  or  AkON,  i'ron  ;  Heb. 
jnnX;  It,  Aronne,  a-ron'ni ;  Lat.  Aa'ron,  (genitive, 
Aaro'nis  ;)  Port.  AarXo,  i-rowN';  Sp.  Aron,  i-rdn'. 

Abel,  a'b?l ;  Arabic,  Habeel  or  HABtt,  hi'beel'; 
Fr.  Abel,  i'bSK; 'Heb.  S:in ;  LaL  A'bel,  (genitive, 
Abe'lis.) 

Abraham,  a'bra-ham  ;  Arabic,  Ibraheem  or  Ibra- 
hIm,  ib-ri-heem' ;  Danish,  Abraham,  tb'Ri-htm ; 
Dutch,  Abraham,  a'bRi-ham;  Fr.  Abraham,  fbRf- 
/»im';  Ger.  Abraham,  ^'bRa-him;  Heb.  DHIDX;  It. 
Abramo,  i-bRi'nio ;  Lat.  Abraha'mus,  (genitive  in  -I  ;*) 
Russ.  AvRAAM,  i-vRi-im',  or  Abramh,  i-vRi'mee; 
Sp.  Abrahan,  Jl-bRi-in';  Sw.  Abraham,  i'bRi-him. 

Absalom,  ab'sa-lo\n  ;  Fr.  Absalon,  tb'st'l6N';  Heb. 

Achilles,  a-kil'lfez ;  Fr.  Achille,  t'shil';  Gr.  'A;t''^- 
levc,  (Achillcus;)  It.  ACHILLE,  i-kil'li  ;  Lat.  Achil'les, 
(genitive,  Achil'lis  ;)  Sp.  Aquiles,  i-kee'16s. 

Adalbert.    See  Ethelbert. 

Adam,  ad'am ;  Arabic,  Adam,  id'im  ;  Danish,  Adam, 
4'dSm  ;  Dutch,  Adam,  i'dim  ;  Fr.  Adam,  i'dftN';  Ger. 
Adam,  a'dim ;  Heb.  Dnx ;  It.  Adamo,  i-dJ'mo ;  Lat. 
Ada'mus,  (genitive  in  -I  ;*)  Port  AdAo,  S-dowN';  Sp. 
Adan,  a-din'. 

Adeline,  ad'e-line ;  Danish,  Adeline,  i-deh-lee'neh ; 
Dutch,  Adelina,  i-deh-lee'ni ;  Fr.  Adeline,  td'lin'; 
Ger.  Adeline,  S-deh-lee'n^h  ;  It.  Adelina,  i-di-lee'ni ; 
Lat  Adeli'na,  (genitive  in  -iE.*) 

A-dol'phus,  ("noble  wolf:"  see  note  under  Ralph;) 
Danish,  Adolf,  i'dolf;  Dutch,  Adolf,  5'dolf;  Fr. 
Adolphe,  t'dolf;  Ger.  Adolf  or  Adolph,  i'dolf;  It. 
Adolfo,  S-dol'fo;  Lat.  Adol'phus;  Sp.  Adolfo, 
l-doKfo ;  Sw.  Adolf,  i'dolt 


•  Latin  names  ending  in  ui  usually  have  the  genitive  in  i;  those 
ending  in  a  or  <u  take  the  genitive  in  a :  of  those  names  in  this  table 
not  included  under  the  foregoing  rules,  the  genitive  will  alwayt  be 
added. 


Adrian,  a'dre-an,  or  Hadrian,  ha'dre-an ;  Danish, 
Adrian,  i'dRe-in ;  Dutch,  Adriaan,  JMRe-in ;  Fr. 
Adrien,  t'dRe-4N';  It.  Adriano,  S-dRe-i'no ;  Lat 
Adria'nus  or  Hadria'nus  ;  Port  Adriano,  i-dRe- 
a'no,  or  AdriAo,  S-dRe-owN';  Sp.  Adrian,  i-dRe-in'. 

iEoiDius.     See  Giles. 

^LiAN,  ee'le-an ;  Fr.  £lien,  ile'iN';  Lat  /Elia'nus, 
(genitive  in  -I.) 

Affonso.     See  Alphonso. 

Agatha,  ag'a-tha,  ("  good  ;")  Danish,  Agathe,  i-gi'- 
teh ;  Dutch,  Agatha,  i-gi'ti ;  Fr.  Agathe,  t'gtt';  Ger. 
Agathe,  I-gi'teh;  Gr.  'kyadi),  (Agathe;)  It.  Agata, 
a'gi-ta;  Lat  Ag'atha;  Sp.  Agata,  a^gi-ti;  Sw.  Agata, 

a-ga'ta. 

Agnes,  ag'nfez,  ("  chaste  ;")  Danish,  Agnes,  tg'nSs,  or 
Agnete,  tg-na'teh  ;  Dutch,  Agnes,  ag'nSs ;  Fr.  AcNfes, 
tn'ySs';  Ger.  Agnes,  ag'nSs ;  It  Agnese,  an-ya'S4 ; 
Lat  Ag'nes,  (genitive,  Agne'tis.) 

Agostinho.    See  Augustine. 

Aim6e.     See  Amy. 

Alaric,  al'a-rik,  ("  noble  ruler  ;")  Danish,  AlaricK, 
a'la-rik ;  Fr.  Alaric,  t'lt'rik';  Ger.  Alarich,  a'la-riK ; 
It.  Alarico,  a-ia-ree'ko ;  Lat.  Alari'cus  ;  Sp.  ALARica 
a-ia-ree'ko. 

Alban,  awl'ban,  ("  white ;")  Danish,  Albanus,  tl-ba'- 
n6s ;  Dutch,  Albanus,  ai-ba'nfis  ;  It  Albano,  ai-ba'no ; 
Lat  Alba'nus. 

Alberic,  al'ber-ic,  ("elf-king"?)  Danish,  Alberik, 
il'beh-rik  ;  Fr.  AlbAric,  Sl'bi'rik';  Ger,  Alberich,  ai'- 
beh-riK';  It  Alberico,  ai-bi-ree'ko;  Lat  Alberi'cus. 

Al'bert,  ("  all  bright ;")  Danish,  Albrecht,  tl'bRfikt ; 
Dutch,  Albertus,  ai-b?R'tus,  or  Albert,  ai'bSRt;  Fr. 
Albert,  llTDaiR';  Ger.  Albrecht,  ai'bRSKt;  It  Al- 
berto, ai-b5R'to ;  Lat.  Alber''tus;  Sp.  Alberto,  ai- 
bJR'to;  Sw.  Albert,  ai'bSRt 

Alcibiades,  ai-se-bl'a-dfez,  ("strong  compeller;")  Fr. 
Alcibiades,  tl'se'be'td';  Gr.  'khuSiadri^,  ( Alkibiadis.) 


i,  e,  1, 6, 5,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  J?,  short;  9, 5,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  gd&d;  moon; 


aS33 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN-  NAMES. 


Alexander,  al-ex-an'd?r,(a  "  helper  of  men  ;")  Dutch, 
Alexander,  a-15k-s5n'd?r ;  Fr.  Alexandre,  i'lSk'- 
bSncIr';  Ger.  Alexander,  aifik'sin'd^r ;  Gr,  'Ale^av- 
ipof,  (Alexandras ;)  It.  Alessandro,  S-lSs-sin'dRo ; 
Lat.  Alexan'der,  (gen.  Alexan'dri;)  Sp.  Alejandro 
or  Alexakdro,  a-li-Hin'dRo. 

Alewijn.     See  Alvin. 

A-LEX'is,  ("help,"  "defence  ;")  Fr.  Alexis,  3'lSk'se'; 
Gr.  'AXfftf,  (Alexis ;)  Russian,  Alexei,  i-I5k-sa'e. 

Alfonso.    See  Alphonso. 

Al'fred,  ("all  peace;")  Danish,  Alfred,  il'fRSd; 
Ditch,  Alfred,  ai'fR^t;  Fr.  Alfred,  Sl'fRSd';  Ger. 
Alfred,  dl'fRSt ;  It.  Alfredo,  il-fRa'do ;  Lat.  Alfre'- 
dus;  Sp.  Alfredo,  ai-fRa'Do. 

Alice,  iKiss,  ("noble  ;")  Danish,  Else,  SKseh  ;  Dutch, 
Elsje,  ils'yeh ;  Fr.  Alice,  S'liss';  Lat,  Alkj'ia,  (a-lish'- 
e-a;)  Sw.  Elba,  SKsS. 

Alonzo  or  Alonso.     See  Alphonso. 

Al-phon'so  or  A-lon'zo;  Danish,  Alfons,  tl'fons; 
Fr.  Alphonse,  tl'fdNs';  It.  Alfonso,  ai-fon'so;  Lat. 
Alphon'sus;  Port.  Affonso,  if-fon'soj  Sp.  Alfonso, 
ll-fon'so,  or  Alonso,  i-lon'so. 

Alvin,  4Kvin,  or  Al'win,  ("winning  all;")  Dutch, 
Alewijn,  a'l?h-win';  Fr.  Aluin,  i'lu-iN';  Ger.  Alwin, 
iKAin ;  It.  Alvino,  il-vee'no ;  Lat.  Alwi'nus  ;  Sp. 
Aluino,  ^-loo-ee'no. 

Amadeus,  am-a-de'us,  (a  "lover  of  God;")  Fr.  Am6- 
d6e,  S'mi'di';  Ger.  Amadeus,  i-md-da'Cis ;  It.  Amedeo, 
J-mi-da'o,  or  Amadeo,  Jl-mi-da'o;  Lat.  Amade'us  ; 
Sp.  Amadeo,  i-mJ-Da'o. 

Amalie.    See  Amelia. 

Am  ATA.     See  Amy. 

Am'brose,  ("immortal ;")  Danish,  Ambrosius,  tm- 
bRo'se-as ;  Dutch,  Ambrosius,  dm-bRo'se-us ;  Fr. 
Ambroise,  ftN'bRwiz';  Ger.  Ambrosius,  Jm-bRo'ze-Cis, 
or  Ambros,  im'bRos ;  It.  Ambrogio,  Sm-bRo'jo;  Lat. 
Ambro'sius;  Sp.  Ambrosio,  dm-bRo'se-o. 

Am^dSe  or  Amedeo.     See  Amadeus. 

Amelia,  a-mee'le-a;  Danish,  Amalie,  i-md'le-eh ; 
Fr.  AmAlie,  i'mi'le';  Ger.  Amalie,  i-md'le-eh  ;  Sp. 
Amelia,  S-ma'le-S. 

Amos,  a'mgs,  (a  "burden  ;")  Fr.  Amos,  t'mos';  Heb. 

oiD;r. 

Amy,  a'me,  (a  "beloved;")  Danish,  Amalie,  i-mi'- 
le-eh  ;  Fr.  Aim6e,  i'mi';  It.  Amata,  d-mi'ta. 

Anastasius,  an-a-sta'she-us,  ("rising  up  ;")  Fr.  Ana- 
STASE,  i'nt'stSz';  Gr.  ' kvaaTuaiog,  (Anastasios ;)  It.  Ana- 
STASio,  a-ni-std'se-o  ;  Lat.  Anasta'sius. 

An'drew,  {"  manly,"  "  courageous  ;")  Danish,  An- 
dreas, in-dRas' ;  Dutch,  Andries,  iN-dRees';  Fr.  An- 
dr6,  SN'dRy;  Ger.  Andreas,  Sn-dRa'is ;  Gr.  'Av(5pfaf, 
(Andreas;)  It.  Andrea,  Jn-dRa'd;  Lat.  An'dreas  ; 
Port.  Andr^,  3n-dRa';  Sp.  Andres,  In-dR^s'. 

AndroNICUS,  an-dro-ni'kus,*  (a  "  conqueror  of  men  ;") 
Fr.  Andronic  or  Andronique,  flN'dRo'nik';  Gr.  'Ar- 
(Jpovwof,  ( Andronikos ; )  It.  Andronico,  in-dRo-nee'ko  ; 
Lat.  Androni'cus. 

Angelica,  an-jSl'e-ka,  ("angelic;")  Fr.  AngAlique, 
flN'zhd'lik';  Ger.  Angelica,  an-ga'le-ka ;  It.  Angelica, 
Sn-ja'le-ki. 


•  Pronounced  A  ndron'icus  in  Sliakspeare. 


Angeluccio,  (It.)  an-j4-loot'cho,  (a  derivative  from 
Angelo.) 

Anna,  4n'na,  or  Anne,  in,  ("grace"  or  "gracious," 
the  same  as  the  Hebrew  Hannah,  which  see  ;)  Danish, 
Anna,  in'nd ;  Dutch,  Anna,  dn'na ;  Fr.  Anne,  in  ;  Ger. 
Anne,  Sn'n^h;  It.  Anna,  an'nd;  Lat.  An'na. 

Annibale.     See  Hannibal. 

Anselm,  in'sSlm,  (a  "defender;")  Dutch,  Anselmus, 
an-s51'miis;  Fr.  Anselme,  fiN'sSlm';  Ger.  Anselm, 
in'sSlm;  It.  Anselmo,  in-sSKmo;  Lat.  Ansel'mus; 
Sp.  Anselmo,  Sn-sfiKmo. 

Antony  or  Anthony,  pronounced  alike  4n'to-ne; 
Danish,  Anton,  in'ton  ;  Dutch,  Anton,  in'ton,  or  An- 
TOON,  in' ton,  or  Antonius,  in-to'ne-us;  Fr.  Antoine, 
flN'twin';  Ger.  Anton,  in'ton ;  It.  Antonio,  ia-to'ne-o ; 
Lat.  Anto'nius  ;  Port.  Antonio,  in-to'ne-o ;  Sp.  An- 
tonio, in-to'ne-o ;  Sw.  Anton,  in'ton. 

Aquiles.    See  Achilles. 

Arabel'la,  (a  "fair  altar" .>)  Dutch,  Arabella,  i-ri- 
bel'li ;  Fr.  Arabelle,  t'ri'bSl';  Ger.  Arabelle,  4-ri 
bel'leh  ;  It.  Arabella,  i-ri-bel'li ;  Lat.  Arabel'iji, 

Archibald,  ar'che-bauld ;  Fr.  Archambaud,  Ir'- 
shftN'bo';  Lat.  Archibal'dus. 

Aristarchus,  ir-is-tar'kus,  ("best  prince;")  Fr. 
Aristarque,  i'ris'ttRk';  Ger.  Aristarchus,  i-ris-taR'- 
Kus ;  Gr.  'Apiarapxoi,  (Aristarchos;)  Lat,  Aristar'chus. 

A-RIS-to-bu'lus,  ("excellent  counsellor  ;")  Fr.  Aris- 
TOBULE,  i'ris'to'biil';  Gr.  'kpiaroSov'^,  (Arisloboulos ;) 
It.  Aristobulo,  i-rfes-to-boo'Io ;  Lat.  Aristobu'lus. 

Armand  or  Armant.    See  Hermann. 

Arnold,  ar'nQld ;  Fr.  ARNAUD.tR'no';  Ger.  Arnold, 
aR'nolt;  It.  Arnaldo,  aR-nil'do;  Lat.  Arnol'dus  or 
Arnal'dus. 

Ar'thur  ;  Fr.  Arthur,  iR'tiiR',  or  Artus,  tR'tiis'; 
It.  Arturo,  aR-too'ro ;  Lat.  Arthu'rus. 

Athanasius,  ith-a-na'sh^s,  ("  immortal ;")  Fr, 
Athanase,  t'tt'ntz';  Gr.  'kdavaoLog,  (Ai/ianastos;)  It 
Atanasio,  i-ti-ni'se-o  ;  Lat.  Athana'sius. 

Au-gus'ta,  ("venerable;")  Danish,  Augusts,  6w- 
gd6s'teh;  Dutch,  Augusts,  ow-Giis'teh;  Fr.  Auguste, 
6'giist';  Ger.  Auguste,  ow-go6s'teh,  or  Augusta,  6w- 
gSos'ti;  It.  Augusta,  6w-goos'ti;  Lat.  Augus'ta. 

Augustine,  aw'gus-tin,  or  aw-gus'tin,t  ("  venerable;") 
Dutch,  Augustinus,  6w-Giis-tee'Dus,  or  Augustijn, 
ow'Gus-tIn';  Fr.  Augustin,  6'gus'liN';  It,  AUGUSTINO, 
6w-goos-tee'no  ;  Lat,  Augusti'nus  ;  Port,  Agostinho, 
i-gos-tin'yo  ;  Sp.  AuGUSTiN,  6w-goos-tin'. 

Au-gus'tus  ;  Danish.  August,  ow'gilst ;  Dutch,  Ai;- 
GUSTUS,  ow-Giis'tus;  Fr.  Auguste,  6'giist';  Ger.  Au- 
gust, ow'gjist ;  It.  AuGUSTO,  ow-goos'to  ;  Lat.  AUGUs'- 
tus  ;  Sw.  August,  ow'giist. 

Aurelius,  aw-ree'le-us  ;  Fr.  Aur^le,  o'r^K;  Ger.  Au- 
RELius,  6w-ra'le-<is ;  It.  Aurelio,  6w-ra'le-o. 

Avraam.    See  Abraham. 

Baldassark     See  Balthasar. 

Baldwin,  (a  "  bold  winner ;")  Danish,  Balduin,  bJld'- 
o6-een'or  bild'ween  ;  Dutch,  BouDEWijN,b6w'deh-wIn'; 
Fr.  Baudouin,  bo'doo-iN';  Ger.  Balduin,  bil'doo-een'; 
It.  Baldovino,  bil-do-vee'no;  Lat.  Baldui'nus. 

*  See  Disputed  or  Doubtful  Pronunciations,  p.  2344. 


€aaJi;  quss;  %hard;  gasy/G,  H,Vi, guttural;  ti,  nasal;  R,trilled;  sas«/  thasin//5w.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2533 


VOCABULARY  OP   CHRIS TI Ay  NAMES. 


Balthasar,  bil'tiz-ar,  ("without  treasure"?)  Dutch, 
Balthasar,  bil'ti'sar ;  Fr.  Balthazar  or  Balthasar, 
bil'ti'ztR';  It  Baldassare,  bai-dis-si'ri ;  Lat.  Bal- 
tha'sar,  (genitive,  Balthas'aris;)  Sp.  Baltasar,  b51- 
ti-saR'. 

Bap'tist,  (a  "baptizer;")  Fr.  Baptiste,  bip'tist'; 
Ger.  Baptist,  bip'tist ;  It.  Battista,  bit-tis'ti ;  Lat. 
Baptis'ta  ;  Port  Baptista,  bip-tis'ti ;  Sp.  Bautista, 
bow-tis'ti. 

Barbara,  bar'ba-ra,  ("foreign,"  "stranger,")  Dutch, 
Barbara,  baR'bi-ri ;  Fr.  Barbe,  btRb ;  Ger.  Barbara, 
baR'ba-ri ;  It  Barbara,  baR'bi-ri ;  Lat  Bar'bara. 

Bar'dulph,  (a  "  famous  helper"  ?)  Fr.  Bardolphe, 
bSR'dolf;  It  BARDOLFO.baR-dol'fo;  Lat  Bardul'phus. 

Barend.    See  Bernard. 

Barnabas,  bar'na-bas,  or  Barnaby,  bar'ngi-be,  (a 
"  son  of  consolation  ;")  Danish,  Barnabas,  baR'nJ-bts  ; 
Dutch,  Barnabas,  baR'ni-bis ;  Fr.  Barnab6,  bjR'- 
ni'by;  Ger.  Barnabas,  baR'ni-bis ;  It  Barnaba,  baR'- 
na-bi ;  Lat  Bar'nabas,  (genitive,  Bar'nab/B  ;)  Sp.  Ber- 
NAB£,  bSR-nJ-ba'. 

Bar-thol'o-mew,  ("  warlike  son"  ?)  Danish,  Bar- 
THOLOMiEUS,  baR-to-lo-ma'»is  ;  Dutch,  Bartholomeus, 
baR-tol-o-ma'iis ;  Fr.  BarthAlemi,  btR'til'me';  Ger. 
Bartholomaus,  baR-to-lo-ma'tis ;  It  Bartolommeo, 
baR-to-lom-ma'o ;  Lat  BARTHOLOMiE'us ;  Port  Bar- 
tholomeu,  baR-to-lo-m5'oo  ;  Russ.  Varfolomei,  vaR- 
fol-o-ma'e  ;  Sp.  Bartolom^,  baR-to-lo-ma';  Sw.  Bar- 
tholomaus, baR-to-lo-ma'is. 

Basil,  ba'zil,  ("kingly;")  Danish,  Basilius,  bi-See'- 
le-6s ;  Dutch,  Basilius,  ba-See'le-ias ;  Fr.  Basile,  bS'- 
zhV;  Ger.  Basilius,  bi-zee'le-4s  ;  Gr.  Baai'XfWf,  (Bast- 
leios,)  or  'RaailuK,  (Basilios;)  It  Basilio,  bi-see'le-o ; 
Lat  Basil'ius  ;  Russ.  Vasilii,  vi-see'lee  or  vi-siKye  ; 
Sw.  Basilius,  bd-su'le-as. 

Bauuouin.    See  Baldwin. 

Beatrice,  bee'a-tnss,  ("making  happy;")  Danish, 
Beatrix,  bi-S'tRiks  ;  Dutch,  Beatrix,  bk-i'tRiks  ;  Fr. 
Beatrice,  bi'S'tRfess';  Ger.  Beatrix,  bi-i'tRiks,  or 
Beatrice,  bi-i-tReet'seh  ;  It.  Beatrice,  bi-d-tree'chi ; 
Lat.  Rea'trix,  (genitive,  Beatri'cis  ;)  Sp.  Beatriz, 
hk-ii-ixhth' ;  Sw.  Beatrix,  bi-d'tRiks. 

Benedetta.     See  Benedicta. 

Ben'e-dict  or  Ben'net,  ("blessed;")  Danish,  Bene- 
dict, ba'n?h-d!kt';  Dutch,  Benedictus,  bi-n?h-dik'tus  ; 
Fr.  BENotT,  .beh-nw.V;  Ger.  Benedict,  ba'neh-dlkt'; 
It  Benedetto,  bk-ni-det'to ;  Lat  Benedic'tus  ;  Sp. 
Benito,  bi-nee'to,  or  Benedicto,  bi-ni-dtk'to ;  Sw. 
Bengt,  bSngt 

Benedicta,  ben-e-dik'ta,  ("blessed,"  feminine;)  Fr. 
BenoTte,  beh-nwit';  It  Benedetta,  bi-ni-det'ti ;  Lat. 
Benedic'ta  ;  Sp.  Benita,  bi-nee'ti. 

Bengt.     See  Benedict. 

Benjamin,  (the  "son  of  a  right  hand  ;")  Danish,  Ben- 
jamin, b?n'ya-meen';  Fr.  Benjamin,  bSN'zht'miN'; 
Ger.  Benjamin,  bSn'yi-meen';  It  Beniamino,  b5n-y5- 
mee'no ;  Lat  Benjami'nus. 

Bennet.     See  Benedict. 

BenoIt.     See  Benedict. 

BenoIte.     See  Benedicta. 

Berenice,  b§r-e-m'se,orBERNiCE,b?r'n!ss,  ("bringing 
irictorv ;")  Fr.  B^R^NICE,  bi'ri'nfess';  Gr.  Bepms;?,  (Bert- 


ntki;)  It  Berenice,  bi-ri-nee'chi ;  Lat  Bereni'** 
(genitive,  Bereni'ces.) 

BernabA.    See  Barnabas. 

Bernard,  b^r'nard,  ("  strong  or  hardy  bear  ;"♦)  Da- 
nish, Bernhard,  bSRn'hjR*/;  Dutch,  Bern-har'dus  or 
Barend,  bi'rSnt ;  Fr,  Bernard,  bjR'niR';  Ger.  Bern- 
hard,  bSRn'hlRt ;  It  Bernardo,  bSR-naR'do ;  Lat 
Bernar'dus;  Sw.  Bernhard,  bfiRn'hiRd. 

Bernice.    See  Berenice. 

Bertha,  ber'tha,  ("bright"  or  "famous;")  Dutch, 
Bertha,  bSR'ti;  Fr.  Berthe,  bSRt;  Ger.  Bertha, 
b^R'ti ;  It  Berta,  bSR'ta ;  Lat  Ber'tha  ;  Sw.  Bertha, 
biR'tL 

Bertram,  b^r'tram,  ("  fair,"  "  illustrious ;")  Fr.  Bee- 
trand,  bftR'tRftN';  Ger.  Bertram,  bftR'tRim. 

Biagio.    See  Blase. 

BiANCA.    See  Blanch. 

Birgitte.    See  Bridget. 

Blanch,  blintch,  ("white  ;")  Danish,  Blanca,  bling'- 
ki ;  Dutch,  Blanca,  bldng'ki ;  Fr.  Blanche,  blflNsh  ; 
Ger.  Blanca  or  Blanka,  bling'ki ;  It  Bianca,  be-in'- 
ki;  Lat  Blan'cha;  Sp.  Blanca,  bling'ki;  Sw. 
Blanka,  bling'ki. 

Blase,  blaz,  ("sprouting  forth;")  Danish,  Blasius, 
bli'se-fts;  Dutch,  Blasius,  bli'Se-iis;  Fr.  Blaise,  bl^; 
Ger.  Blasius,  bli'ze-Os  ;  It  Biagio,  be-i'jo ;  Lat  Bla'- 
sius,  (bla'she-us ;)  Sp.  Blas,  blis ;  Sw.  Blasius,  bli'- 
se-fts. 

Bona,  bo'na,  ("good;")  Fr.  Bonne,  bon  ;  Lat  Bo'NA. 

Bonaventure,  bon'a-ven'tur,  ("  good  fortune ;")  Fr. 
Bonaventure,  bo'nt'vSN'tiiR';  It  Bonaventura,  bo- 
ni-vSn-too'ri ;  Lat  Bonaventu'ra. 

Boniface,  bon'e-fSss,  (a  "  well-doer  ;")  Danish,  Boni- 
FACius,  bo-ne-fS'se-Cis ;  Dutch,  Bonifacius,  bo-ne-fJ'- 
se-iis  ;  Fr.  Boniface,  bo'ne'ftss';  Ger.  Bonifaz,  bo-ne- 
flts',  or  Bonifacius,  bo-ne-fSt'se-As ;  It  Bonifacio, 
bo-ne-fa'cho ;  Lat  Bonifa'cius,  (bon-e-fa'she-ijs  ;)  Sw 
Bonifacius,  bo-ne-fS'se-tts. 

Bonne.    See  Bona. 

BouDEWijN.    See  Baldwin. 

Bridget  or  Brigit,  br!j''it,  ("shining  bright;")  Da- 
nish, Birgitte,  b^R-git't?h  ;  Dutch,  Brigitta,  bRe-H!t'- 
ti;  Fr.  Brigitte,  bRe'zhit';  Ger.  Brigitte,  bRe-git'tfh ; 
It  Brigida,  bRee'je-dS,  or  Brigita,  bRee'je-ti ;  Lat 
Brig'ida  ;  Sp.  Brigida,  bRee'He-ni. 

C>ECiLiA.    See  Cecilia. 

Ci«ciLius.     See  Cecil. 

C>ESAR,  see'zar,  ("adorned  with  hair;")  Danisn, 
CitSAR,  sa'sar;  Fr.  C6sar,  si'ziR';  Ger.  Casar  or 
Caesar,  tsa'ziR ;  It  Cesake,  cha's3-ri;  Lat.  dt'sAR, 
(genitive,  C<es'aris  ;)  Sp.  Cesar,  tha'saR. 

Camilla,  ka-mil'la;  Fr.  Camille,  kt'niM'  or  kf- 
me'ye;  It  Camilla,  kl-mtKld;  Lat  Camil'la. 

•  a  name  naturally  applied,  in  rude  times,  to  a  hero  in  a  country 
where  the  bear  was  the  most  remarkable  type  of  strength,  courage, 
and  endurance.  In  the  case  of  AIp-Arsl5n  (/>.  "strong  lion")  we 
have  a  similar  epithet  appropriate  to  an  Oriental  country  where  lioni 
abound,  but  applied  to  a  single  individual,  and  not,  like  Bernard,  em- 
ployed as  a  common  name.  Some  writers  give  "  bear's  heart"  as  th« 
true  signiiication  of  Bernard,  (Bemhart,)  an  expression  similar  to 
the  surname  (Coeur  de  Lion)  by  which  Richard  I.  of  England  wai 
so  widely  known. 


a,  e,T,  o,  u,  y, /(JW^;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;^,&,  i,  q,  obscure;  ii,r,  fdll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Ca-MIl'lus  ;  Fr.  Camille,  kt'mfel'  or  kt'me'y?. 

Carl.     See  Charles. 

Carlo.    See  Charles. 

Carlotta  or  Carlota.     See  Charlotte. 

Caroline,  kir'o-lln ;  Danish,  Caroline,  ki-ro-lee'- 
neh ;  Dutch,  Carolina,  kJ-ro-lee'na ;  Fr.  Caroline, 
kS'ro'Iin';  Ger.  Caroline  or  Karoline,  ki-ro-lee'neh  ; 
It.  Carolina,  kS-ro-lee'iii ;  Lat.  Caroli'na  ;  Sw. 
Karolina,  kS-ro-lee'iiL 

Caspar.     See  Jasper. 

Cassandra,  kas-san'dra  ;  Fr.  Cassandre,  ki'sfiNdR'; 
It.  Cassandra,  kis-sii/dRi;  Lat  Cassan'dra. 

Catalina.     See  Catherine. 

Catherine  or  Catharine,  kith'a-rin,  ("pure;") 
Danish,  Catharine,  k3-ti-ree'neh ;  Dutch,  Catha- 
RINA,  ki-ta-ree'n  J ;  Fr.  Catherine,  ktt'rin';  Ger. 
Katharine,  ki-tJ-ree'neh  ;  Gr.  KaSaptv??,  (Katharine  ;) 
It.  Caterina,  kJ-ti-ree'n J  ;  Lat.  Cathari'na  ;  Russ. 
Ekaterina,  i-ka-ti-ree'ni,  or  Yekaterina,  yi-kd-ti- 
ree'ni;  Sp.  Catalina,  kS-ti-lee'ni;  Sw.  Katarina, 
ki-tS-ree'ni. 

CEg'iL,  ("dim-sighted;")  Dutch,  Cecilius,  si-see'- 
le-us;  Fr.  C6ciLE,  si'sil',  (rare;)  Lat.  C^ecil'ius. 

Cecilia,  se-siKe-a;  Dutch,  Cecilia,  si-see'ie-S  ;  Fr. 
CtciLE,  si'sil';  It.  Cecilia,  chi-chee'le-i;  Lat.  CiE- 
cil'ia. 

C6sAR.     See  CiESAR. 

Cesare.     See  Caesar. 

Charles,  charlz,  ("manly"  or  "  noble-spirited  ;")  Da- 
nish, Carl,  kaRl ;  Dutch,  Karel,  ka'rel ;  Fr.  Charles, 
shiRl ;  Ger.  Karl,  kaRi ;  It.  Carlo,  kaR'lo ;  Lat. 
Car'olus;  Sp.  Carlos,  kaR'lis;  Sw.  Karl,  kaRl. 

Charlotte,  shar'lgt,  ("noble-spirited;")  Danish, 
Charlotte,  shaR-lot'teh ;  Dutch,  Charlotta,  shaR- 
lot'ti;  Fr.  Charlotte,  shSR'lot';  Ger.  Charlotte, 
shaR-lot't^h  ;  It.  Carlotta,  kaR-lot'ti;  Lat.  Carolet'- 
TA  ;  Sp.  Carlota,  kaR-lo'ti ;  Sw.  Charlotta,  shaR- 
lot'tL 

Chloe,  klo'e,  (a  "  young  shoot,"  a  "green  herb;") 
Fr.  CHLoi,  klo'i';  Gr.  X2o^,  (C/iloe;)  Lat.  Chlo'e, 
(genitive,  Chlo'es.) 

Christina,  kr!s-ti'na  or  kris-tee'na ;  Dutch,  Chris- 
tina, kR!s-tee'n3. ;  Fr.  Christine,  kR^s'tin';  Ger. 
Christiana,  kRls-te-^nS ;  It.  Cristina,  kR^s-tee'ni. 

Christopher,  kr!s'to-fer,  ("bearing  Christ;"*)  Da- 
nish, Christoffer,  kRis'tof-fer ;  Dutch,  Christopho- 
RUS,  kRis-to'fo-riis ;  Fr.  Christophe,  kR^s'tof;  Ger. 
Christoph,  kRis'tof ;  Gr.  XpiaTO<^6poi,(  Ckristophoros  ;*) 
It.  Cristoforo,  kR^s-tof  o-ro ;  Lat.  Christoph'orus; 
Port.  ChristovXo,  kRfes-to-v6wN';  Sp.  Ckistoval, 
kR^s-to'vSl ;  Sw.  Kristofer,  kRis'to-fer. 

Chrysostom,  krls'ps-tom,  (  "  golden  -  mouthed  ;" ) 
Dutch,  Chrysostomus,  kRe-sos'to-mus ;  Fr.  Chryso- 
STOME,  kRe'zo'stom';  Gr.  XpvaoaTofiog,  ( Chrysostomos ; ) 
It.  Crisostomo,  kRe-sos'to-mo  ;  Lat.  Chrysos'tomus. 

CiPRiANO.     See  Cyprian. 

CiRiLLO.    See  Cyril. 


•  According  to  an  old  legend,  he  was  called  Christophoros  (from 
XpicTot,  "  Christ,"  and  <frfpu),  to  "  bear")  because  he  bore  the  infant 
Saviour  across  a  raging  stream.  (See  Mrs.  Jameson's  "  Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art.") 


CiRO.     See  Cyrus. 

Clara,  klar'a,  or  Claire,  kl$r,  ("clear,"  "  oright,'- 
"illustrious;")  Danish,  Clara,  kli'ri;  Dutch,  Clara, 
kia'r5;  Fr.  Clara,  klS'r^';  Ger.  Klara,  kli'ri;  It. 
Clara,  kia'rd;  Lat.  Cla'ra  ;  Sw.  Klara,  kia'ri 

Claudia,  klaw'de-a ;  Dutch,  Claudia,  kl6w'de-i  j 
Fr.  Claudie,  kl5'de';  It.  Claudia,  klowMe-S;  Lat 
Clau'dia;  Sw.  Klaudia,  kl6w'de-a. 

Claudius,  klaw'de-us  ;  Danish,  Claudius,  klow'de- 
fis;  Dutch,  Claudius,  klow'de-us  ;  Fr.  Claude,  klod  ; 
It  Claudio,  klow'de-o ;  Lat  Clau'dius  ;  Sw.  Klau- 
dius,  klowMe-tls. 

Clem'ent,  ("  mild-tempered  ;")  Danish,  Clemens, 
kla'mSns ;  Fr.  Clement,  kli'mftN';  Ger.  Clemens, 
klfim'ens;  It  Clemente,  kli-m§n'tk;  Lat.  Cle'mens, 
(genitive,  Clemen'tis  ;)  Sp.  Clemente,  kli-m^n'ti. 

Con'rad,  ("  able  counsel ;")  Danish,  Conrad,  kon'- 
rt(/;  Dutch,  Koenraad,  koon'rSt ;  Fr.  Conrad,  k6N'- 
rSd';  Ger.  Conrad,  kon'rdt ;  It.  Corrado,  kor-ri'do, 
or  Curado,  koo-rd'do;  Lat  Conra'dus  ;  Sw.  Konrad, 
kon'rid. 

Constance,  kon'stanss,  ("  constant ;")  Dutch,  Con- 
STANTIA,  kon-stin'se-J,  (almost  kon-stin'she-S ;)  Fr. 
Constance,  k6N'stflNss';  It  Ccstanza,  ko-stdn'zi; 
Lat  Constan'tia,  (kon-stan'she-a ;)  Sp.  Constancia, 
kon-stin'/>5e-i. 

Constantine,  kon'stan-tin,  ("resolute;")  Danish, 
Constantin,  kon'sttn-teen';  Dutch,  Konstantijn, 
kon'stin-tin';  Fr.  CoNSTANTiN,  kiN'stfiN'tix' ;  Gr. 
KwvomvTti'Of,  ( Konstantinos ; )  It.  CONSTANTINO,  kon- 
stin-tee'no;  Lat  Const anti'nus. 

Cordelia,  kor-dee'le-a ;  Fr.  Cord6lie,  koR'di'le'. 

Cornelius,  kor-nee'le-us ;  Danish,  Cornelius,  koR- 
na'le-fis ;  Dutch,  Kornelis  or  Cornelis,  koR-na'lis ; 
Fr.  Corneille,  koR'nil'  or  koR'ni'ye;  It.  CoRNELlO, 
koR-na'le-o;  Lat  Corne'lius;  Sp.  Cornelio,  koR-na'- 
le-o. 

Corrado.     See  Conrad. 

Costanza.     See  Constance. 

Crisostomo.     See  Chrysostom. 

Cris'pin;  Dutch,  Krispijn,  kRls'pin;  Fr.  Cr6pin, 
kRi'piN';  It  Crispino,  kR^s-pee'no;  Sw.  Krispin, 
kRis-peen'. 

Cristina.     See  Christina. 

Cristoforo.     See  Christopher. 

Cristoval.     See  Christopher. 

Curado.     See  Conrad. 

Cyprian,  sip're-an  ;  Dutch,  Cypriaan,  see'pRein; 
Fr.  Cyprien,  se'pRe'^N';  Ger.  Cyprian,  tsee'pRe-dn ; 
It  CiPRlANO,  che-pRe-S'no;  Lat  Cypria'nus;  Port 
Cypriano,  sc-pRe-i'no;  Sp.  CiPRiANO, /'/ie-pRe-i'no. 

Cyril,  sir'il,  ("little  Cyrus;")  Danish,  Cyrillus, 
se-ril'Ms;  Dutch,  Cyrillus,  se-ril'lus;  Fr.  Cyrille, 
se'riK;  It  Cirillo,  che-riKlo;  Lat  Cyril'lus. 

Cyrus,  sT'rus;  Fr.  Cyrus,  se'riis';  Ger.  Cyrus, 
tsee'riis;  Gr.  Kt'^f,  (Kuros;)  It  CiRO,  chee'ro  ;  Lat 
Cy'rus;  Sp.  CiRO,  />5ee'ro. 

Daniel,  din'yel,  ("  God  is  judge  ;")  D.-inish,  Daniel, 
da'ne-gl ;  Dutch,  Daniel,  d^'ne-Sl ;  Fr.   Daniel,  df 


cas/J;  ?asj;  %hard;  gzs  j;  G,\{,Vi,  guttural;  a, nasal;  v.,trilled;  sasz;  thasin/>4tf.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


ne'^l';  Ger.  Daniel,  cia'ne-dl ;  Heb.  ^X'Jl;  It.  Daniele, 
dd-ne-a'li;  Lat.  Dan'iel,  (genitive,  Uanie'lis  ;)  Sp. 
Daniel,  di-ne-§l', 

David,  da'vid,  ("beloved;")  Danish,  David,  di'vi</; 
Dutch,  David,  di'vit ;  Fr.  David,  dt'vid';  Ger.  David, 
da'vit;  Heb.  nn  or  TH;  It.  Davide,  dl've-di,  or 
Daviude,  di-vid'di  ;  Lat.  Da'vid,  (genitive,  Dav'idis.) 

Deborah,  d§b'o-ra,  (a  "bee;")  Dutch,  Derora,  di- 
bo'ri  ;  Fr.  D6hora,  di'bo'rS';  Ileb.  m:3T  ;  It.  Dehora, 
da'bo-ri;    Lat.  Dei/ora. 

Demetrius,  de-niee'tre-us,  ("sprung  from  the  earth" 
or  "from  Ceres;")  Fr.  D6m]£trius,  di'mi'tRe'ii.s';  Gr. 
dtTjfir/Tpioc,  (Dhnetrios;)  It.  Demetrio,  di-ma'lRe-o ; 
Lat.  Deme'trius  ;  Russ.  Dmitri,  dmee'tree. 

Den'is  or  Dionvsius,  dl-o-nish'e^s ;  Danish,  Dio- 
Nvsius,  de-o-nee'se-fis  ;  Dutch,  Dionvsius,  de-o-nee'- 
Se-Qs  ;  Fr.  Denis  or  Denys,  deh-ne';  Ger.  DioNVS, 
de-o-nees';  Gr.  A/owawf,  ( Dionttsios ; )  It.  Dionigio, 
de-o-nee'jo;  Lat.  DiONVs'lus,  (di-o-nish'c-us  ;)  Sp.  Dig- 
NISID,  de-o-nee'se-o. 

De'o-date,  ("given  by  God;")  Fr.  Dieudonn6, 
de-uh'do'ny;    It.   Deodato,    di-o-di'to ;    Lat.   Deod'- 

ATUS. 

Derrik  or  Diederik.     See  Theoderick. 

Diana,  di-an'a,  or  Dian,  di'an  ;  Danish,  Diana,  de- 
a'ni;  Fr.  Diane,  de'tn';  Ger.  Diana,  de-^'ni ;  Gr. 
'ApTE/iic,  (Artemis;)  It.  DiANA,  de-^'ni ;  Lat.  Dia'na. 

Dido,  di'do;  Fr.  Didon,  de'ddN';  It.  Didone,  de- 
do'ni ;  Lat.  Di'do,  (genitive,  Dido'nis.) 

DiDYMUS,  did'e-mus,  (a  "twin;")  Fr.  Didyme,  de'- 
dfem';  Gr.  Ai(5v//of,  ( Didiimos  ;)  Lat.  Did'ymus. 

Diego.    See  James. 

Dietrich.     See  Theoderick. 

DieudonnA.     See  Deodate. 

DioGO.     See  James. 

Dionigio  or  Dionisio.     See  Denis. 

Dirk  or  Dirck,  (the  same  as  Diederick.)  See 
Theoderick. 

Dmitri.     See  Demetrius. 

Dominic,  dom'e-nik  ;  Danish,  Dominicus,  do-mee'- 
ne-kfts  ;  Dutch,  DoMiNicus,  do-mee'ne-kus ;  Fr.  Do- 
minique, do'me'nik';  It.  Domenico,  do-mi'ne-ko; 
Lat.  Domin'icus;  Port.  Domingos,  do-mtng'gAs ;  Sp. 
Domingo,  do-m4ng'go;  Sw.  Dominicus,  do-mee'ne- 
kOs. 

Dorothy,  dor'o-/^e,  (the  "  gift  of  God ;")  Danish, 
Dorothea,  do-ro-ta'd  ;  Dutch,  Dorothea,  do-ro-ta'3  ; 
Fr.  DorothAe,  do'ro'ti';  Ger.  Dorothea,  do-ro-ta'5 ; 
Gr.  Aijpodia,  (Dorothea  ;)  It.  Dorotea,  do-ro-ta'd  ;  Lat. 
Dorothe'a;  Sp.  Dorotea,  do-ro-ta'd ;  Sw.  Dorothea, 
do-ro-tn'i. 

Drusilla,  dru-sil'la,  (" dewy  eyes;")  Fr.  Drusille, 
dRii'zil';  Ger.  Drusille,  dRoo-zil'leh ;  Gr.  ApovaiXXri, 
( DrmtsilU ; )  It.  Drusilla,  dRoo-sil'ld ;  Lat.  Drusil'la. 

Duarte.     See  Edward. 

Eberhard.     See  Everard. 
Ed'gar,  ("happy  honour"?)  Lat.  Edga'rus. 
Ed'mund,  ("happy  protection"  or  "happy  peace;") 
Danish,  Edmund,  Sd'moon^;    Fr.  Edmond,  Sd'm^N'; 


Ger.  Edmund,  St'moont;  It.  Edmondo,  §d-mon'do ; 
Lat.  Edmun'dus;  Sp.  Edmondo,  §d-mon'do,  or  Ed- 
mundo,  ed-moon'do. 

Edward,  §d'ward,("happy  keeper;")  Danish, Eduard, 
a'doo-aR</;  Dutch,  Eduard,  a'doo-aRt ;  Fr.  Edouard, 
i'doo'lK' ;  Ger.  Eduard,  a'doo-iRt ;  It.  Eduardo, 
i-doo-aR'do,  or  Edoardo,  i-do-aR'do  ;  Lat.  Edvar'dus 
or  Edoar'dus  ;  Port.  Duarte,  doo-aR'ti ;  Sp.  Eduar- 
do, i-Doo-aR'do  ;  Sw.  Eduard,  a'doo-aRd. 

Ed'vvin,  (a  "happy  conqueror;")  Danish,  Edwin, 
Sd'vin ;  Lat.  Edwi'nus. 

Eg'bert,  ("ever  bright"?)  Lat.  Egbeh'tus. 

Ehrenfried,  (Ger.)  a'ren-freet'. 

Eirene.     See  Irene. 

Ekaterina.     See  Catherine. 

Eleanor,  el'e-npr ;  Danish,  Eleonore,  i-li-o-no'r^h; 
Dutch,  Leonora,  li-o-no'rS;  Fr.  El6onore,  i'14'o'- 
noR';  Ger.  Eleonore,  i-li-o-no'reh ;  It.  Eleonora, 
i-li-o-no'ri ;  Lat.  Eleano'ra  ;  Sp.  Leanor,  li-i-noR'. 

El'dred,  {i.e.  "all  dread,"  hence  "terrible;")  Lat, 
Eldre'dus. 

El-e-a'zar,  (the  "help  of  God  ;")  Lat.  Elea'zar,  (gen- 
itive, Eleaz'aris.) 

Elena.     See  Helen. 

Elias,  e-li'as,  or  Elijah,  e-Ii'ja,  ("  God  the  Lord  ;") 
Danish,  Elias,  i-lee'is ;  Fr.  £lie,  i'le';  Ger.  Elias, 
i-lee'ds;  Heb.  1iTh»X  or  T\'^^;  It.  Elia,  i-lee'^;  Lat 
Eli'as. 

Elijah.    See  Elias. 

Elisa  or  Elise.    See  Eliza. 

Elisabeth.    See  Elizabeth. 

Elisabetta.    See  Elizabeth. 

Elisha,  e-li'sha,  (the  "  salvation  of  God ;")  Fr,  fiLisftE, 
i'le'zV;  Heb.  ;?ty''7N ;  It.  Eliseo,  i-le-§a'o;  Lat. 
ELiSiE'us;  Port.  Eliseu,  i-le-sa'oo?  Sp.  Eliseo,  i-le- 
sa'o. 

Eliza,  e-li'za;  Danish,  Elisa,  i-Iee'§i  ;  Dutch,  Elisa, 
&-lee'si;  Fr.  Elise,  i'16z';  Ger.  Elisa,  i-lee'zS;  Lat 
Eli'za  or  Eli'sa. 

Elizabeth,  e-liz'a-beth,  (the  "oath  of  God  ;")  Danish, 
Elisabeth,  i-lee'sd-bet ;  Dutch,  Elizabeth,  i-lee'zJ- 
b§t;  Fr.  Elisabeth,  i'le'zi'bSt';  Ger.  Elisabeth,  i-lee'- 
zJ-bSt';  It  Elisabetta,  i-le-Si-bet'ti ;  Lat  Elizabe'- 
tha  ;  Sp.  Isabel,  e-si-bSK. 

Ellen.     See  Helen. 

Else  or  Elsa.    See  Alice. 

Elsje.    See  Alice. 

Emanuel.     See  Emmanuei. 

Em'er-ic  or  Emery,  em'?r-e,  ("  always  rich;")  Danisfi, 
Almerik,  3l'meh-r!k';  Dutch,  Almerik,  ill'm?h-rlk; 
Fr.  Emeric,  im'rik',  or  Emeri,  im're';  Lat  Almeri'- 
cus;  Sw.  Em'mer-ik. 

Emilia,  e-mil'e-a,  or  Emily,  em'e-le ;  Fr.  Emilie 
i'me'le';  Ger.  Emilie,  i-mee'le-?h,  or  Emilia,  i-mee' 
le-.^;  It  Emilia,  i-mee'le-S. 

Em'ma,  (a  "nurse;")  Fr.  Emma,  |'mi';  It.  Emma 
Sm'mJ;  Lat  Em'ma. 

Em-man'u-el  or  E-man'u-el,  ("God  with  us;")  Fr 
Emmanuel,  i'mt'nii'Sl';  Ger.  Emanuel,  &-mi'noo-Jl 


a,  e,  \,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y, short;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 
2536 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


01  Immanuel,  im-mi'noo-Sl ;  It.  Emanuele,  i-mi-noo- 
a'li  ;  Lat.  Emman'uel  ;  Port.  Manoel,  mi-no-fiK;  Sp. 
Manuel,  mi-noo-Sl'. 

Em  It  ERIK.     See  Emeric. 

Enoch,  ee'npk,  ("  instructed  ;")  Fr.  Enoch  or  He- 
noch, i'nok';  Heb.  "I^n  ;  Lat.  Eno'chus  or  Heno'- 
chus. 

Enrichetta  or  Enriqueta.     See  Harriet. 
Enrico.     See  Henry. 

E'phra-IM,  ("fruitful;")  Fr.  fipHRAiM,  WifA'hm' ; 
IJeb.  D"1£3X;  Lat.  Ephrai'mus. 

E-ras'mus,  ("lovely  ;")  Danish,  Erasmus,  i-rSs'mfts  ; 
Fr.  Srasme,  i'rtsm';  Ger.  ERASMUS,  i-rls'mCis  ;  Gr. 
'Epna/iof,  ( Erasmos ;J  It.  Ekasmo,  i-rds'ino;  Lat.  Ekas'- 
MUS  ;  Sp.  Erasmo,  i-ris'mo. 

E-ras'tus,  ("beloved;")  Fr.  Erastk,  i'ltst';  Gr. 
'Epaaroc,  ( Erastos  ;)  Lat.  Eras'tus. 

Ercole.     See  Hercules. 

Er'nest,  ("earnest ;")  Danish,  IiIrnst,  ?Rnst ;  Dutch, 
Ei'.NESTUs,  jR-nSs'tiis ;  Fr.  Ernest,  SR'nSst';  Ger. 
Ernst,  ^Rnst ;  It.  Ernesto,  §R-n^s'to ;  Lat.  Ernes'- 
Tus  ;  Sw.  Ernst,  5Rnst. 

Errico.     See  Henry. 

Esaias.     See  Isaiah. 

E'SAU,  ("  completed  ;")  Fr.  £sau,  i'zS'u';  Heb.  W};  ; 
Lat.  Esa'vus. 

EsHRAS.     See  Ezra. 

Esther,  Ss'ter,  ("secret;")  Dutch,  Hester,  hSs'ter; 
Vr.  Esther,  ?s'taiR';  Ger.  Esther,  Js'ter ;  Heb.  ir\DX  ; 
[t.  Ester,  fs-taiR';  Lat.  Esthe'ra  ;  Sp.  Ester,  8s-taiR'. 

EsitiiAN.     See  Stephen. 

EsTEvAo.     See  Stephen. 

Estienne.    See  Stephen. 

Eth'el-bAld,  ("nobly  bold  ;")  Lat.  Ethelbal'dus. 

Ethelbert,  eth'el-bert,  ("  nobly  bright ;")  Danish, 
Adelbert,  a'del-b§Rt';  Dutch,  Adelbert,  i'del-b^Rt'; 
Fr.  Adalbert,  t'dtl'baiR',  or  Adelbert,  a'ddl'baiR'; 
Ger.  Adelbert,  a'd§l-b§Rt';  Lat.  Ethelber'tus  or 
Adalber'tus. 

Etienne.     See  Stephen. 

Ettore.     See  Hector. 

Eugene, u-jeen',  ("nobly  descended  ;")  Dutch,  Euge- 
Hius,  uh-Ha'ne-us  ;  Fr.  Eugene,  uh'zhin';  Ger.  Eugen, 
oi-gan';  Gr.  Fvymof,  ( Eugenics  ;)  It.  Eugenio,  2-oo-ja'- 
ne-o,  Lat.  Euge'nius  ;  Sp.  Eugento,  €-oo-Ha'ne-o  ;  Sw. 
EuGENius,  i-oo-gti'ne-fts. 

EUGI NIA,  u-jee'ne-a  ;  Fr.  Eugenie,  uh'zhi'ne';  Gr. 
EhyivLQ,  (Eugenia.) 

Eugen  TO  or  Eugenius.     See  Eugene. 

Eunice,  u'niss,  ("fair  victory;")  Gr,  Evv'ikt},  ( Eu- 
nike;)  Lat.  Euni'ce. 

Eusebius, u-see'be-us,  ("religious;")  Fr.  EusfeBE,uh'- 
z\W;  Gr.  EiiffcSiof,  (Eusebios  ;)  It.  Eusebio,  fi-oo-sa'be-o ; 
Lat.  Euse'bius;  Sp.  Eusebio,  S-oo-sa'se-o. 

Eustace,  u'stass,  ("standing  firm  ;")  Dutch,  Eusta- 
Tius,  uh-sti'se-us,  (almost  uh-stS'she-ias ;)  Fr.  Eu- 
stache,  uh'sttsh' ;  It.  Eustachio,  5-oo-stil'ke-o  ;  Lat. 
Eusta'chius  ;  Sp.  Eustaquio,  ?^o-stJ'ke-o. 


Eve,  eev,  ("life"  or  "causing  life;")  Arabic,  Hawa, 
H^'wa  or  HS'vi,  or  Heva,  HSv'i ;  Danish,  Eva,  a'vS  ; 
Dutch,  Eva,  a'vd ;  Fr.  £ve,  ^v  ;  Ger.  Eva,  a'vi ;  Gr. 
E.va,(Eua  or  Eva;)  Heb.  Hm  ;  It.  Eva,  a'vi ;  Lat 
E'va  ;  Sp.  Eva,  a'vd ;  Sw.  Eva,  u'vl 

EVERARD,  ev'er-ard  ;  Danish,  Eberhard,  a'ber-har</, 
Dutch,  Everard,  a'v?h-raRt';  Ger.  Eberhard,  a'b^r- 
haRt'. 

Ezechias  or  EzAcHiAS.    See  Hezekiah. 

EzEKiEL,  e-zee'ke-el,  (the  "strength  of  God ;")  Dutch, 
Ezechiel,  i-za'Ke-gl';  Fr.  EzAchiel,  i'zi'she-fil'. 

Ezra,  gz'ra,  or  Esdras,  ez'dras,  (a  "helper;")  Fr 
EsDRAS,  SsMrSs';  Lat.  Ez'ra  or  Es'dras. 

Fabian,  fa'be-an;  Danish,  Fabian,  fii'be-in  ;  Dutch, 
Fabiaan,  a'be-Jn';  Fr.  Fabien,  it'he'kn';  It,  Fabiano. 
fl-be-i'no;  Lat.  Fabia'nuS. 

Febe.     See  Phcebe. 

Federigo.    See  Frederick. 

Felice.     See  Felix. 

Felipe.     See  Philip. 

Fe'lix,  ("  happy ;")  Danish,  Felix,  fa'liks  ;  Dutcn, 
Felix,  fa'liks ;  Fr.  Fi:Lix,  fi'liks^  Ger.  Felix,  fa'liks ; 
It,  Felice,  fi-lee'chi;  Lat.  Fe'lix,  (genitive,  Feli'cis;) 
Sp.  Felix,  fi-liks'. 

Feodor.     See  Theodore. 

Ferdinand,  fer'de-nand,  ("  pure  peace ;")  Dutch, 
Ferdinand,  f^R'de-nSnt';  Fr.  Ferdinand,  f^R'de'nflN'; 
Ger,  Ferdinand,  f^R^de-nSnt' ;  It,  Perdinando,  fjR- 
de-nin'do ;  Lat.  Ferdinan'dus  ;  Port,  Fernando,  fhvL- 
Tilxx'do,  or  FernAo,  fjR-nowN' ;  Sp,  Fernando,  fBn- 
nin'do. 

Filiberto,    See  Philibert. 

Filide.     See  Phyllis. 

Filippa  or  FiLippiNA.    See  Philippa. 

FiLiPPO,     See  Philip. 

Fined.     See  Phineas, 

FiORENZA,     See  Florence, 

Flora,  flo'ra,  (the  "  goddess  of  flowers ;")  Dutch, 
Flora,  flo'rJ ;  Fr.  Flore,  floR ;  It,  Flora,  flo'rS ;  Lat 
Flo'ra, 

Flor'ence,  ("flourishing;")  Danish,  Florenz,  flo- 
rSnts';  Dutch,  Florentia,  flo-r?n'se-i;  Fr,  Florence, 
flo'rflNss';  Ger,  Florenz,  flo-rSnts';  It  Fiorenza. 
fc-o-r5n'z3  ;  Lat  Floren'tia,  (flo-r5n'she-a  ;)  Sp.  Flo 
RENCiA,  flo-rSn'Me-J  ;  Sw,  Florenz,  flo-rSns'. 

For-tu-NS'tus,  ("happy,"  "fortunate;")  Fr.  For 
TUn6,  foR'tii'ni';  Ger.  FORTUNATUS,  foR-too-nS'tfls ;  It 
Fortunato,  for-too-ni'to  ;  Lat,  Fortuna'tus, 

Frances,  fran's?s,  (the  feminine  of  Francis  ;)  Danish, 
Francisca,  fRtn-sis'ki;  Dutch,  Francisca,  fRjn-sis' 
ki ;  Fr,  Francjoise,  frflN'swJz' ;  Ger.  Francisca,  fRint- 
sis'ki;  It.  FrancesCA,  fR5n-ch?s'k3;  Lat  FrancES'ca 
or  Francis'ca  ;  Sw,  Franciska,  fRin-sis'kJL 

Fran'cis,  ("free  ;")  Danish,  Frants,  frints,  or  Fran- 
ciscus,  fRtn-sis'kis ;  Dutch,  Franciscus,  fRdn-sis'kiis ; 
Fr.  Francois,  fRfiN'swi';  Ger,  Franz,  fRjnts ;  It 
Francesco,  fRin-chSs'ko ;  Lat,  Francis'cus  ;  Port 
Francisco,  fRin-s4s'ko;  Sp,  Francisco,  fRin-Mfes'ko; 
Sw.  Frans,  frSnss. 


e  as  >(;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p,  23,) 

2537 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Fred'er-ick,  ("rich  in  peace;")  Danish,  Pkederik, 
fRa'd?r-ik ;  Dutch,  Frederik,  fKa'deh-rik  ;  Kr.  FR6n6- 
RIC,  fRi'di'rik';  Ger.  Friedrich,  fRced'rJK ;  It.  Frede- 
Rico,  fRi-d4-ree'ko,  or  Federigo,  I'i-di-ree'go ;  Lat. 
Frederi'cus  ;  Port.  Frederico,  fRi-di-ree'ko ;  Sp. 
Frederico,  fRi-Di-ree'ko  ;  Sw.  Fredrick,  fR^d'rik. 

Gabriel,  ga'bre-el,  (the  "strength  of  God,"  or,  ac- 
cording to  some,  the  "hero  of  God  ;")  Arabic,  Jabreel 
or  JabrIl,  ji-breeK;*  Fr.  Gabriel,  gt'bRe'Si';  Ger. 
Gabriel,  gS'bRe-Sl ;  It.  Gabriele,  gi-bRc-a'li ;  Lat. 
Ga'briel,  (genitive,  Gabrie'lis  ;)  Sw.  Gabriel,  gd'- 
bRe-51 

Galfred  and  Galfridus.     See  Geoffrey. 

Gaspard  or  Gaspar.     See  Jasper. 

Gautier.     See  Walter. 

G6d6on.     See  Gideon. 

Geoffrey,  j^f'fre,  or  Gef'frey,  ("joyful  peace" ^f) 
Danish,  Galfred,  gil'fR?^;  Dutch,  Godfried,  got'- 
fReet  or  Hot'fReet ;  Fr.  Geoffroy,  zho'fRwi';  It.  GlOF- 
freddo,  jof-fR^d'do  ;  Lat.  Galfri'dus. 

George,  jorj,  (a  "  farmer  ;")  Danish,  Georg,  ga'oRG ; 
Dutch,  Georg,  ga'oRH,  (sometimes  pronounced  nearly 
like  the  French  zhorzh  or  shorsh;)  Fr.  George  or 
Georges,  zhoRzh  ;  Ger.  Georg,  ga'oRG ;  Gr.  Ttupyio^, 
(Georgios  ;)  It.  Giorgio,  jor'jo;  Lat.  Geor'gius;  Port. 
Jorge,  zhoR'zhi;  Sp.  Jorge,  HoR'Hi;  Sw.  Georg, 
ga'org. 

Gerard,  je-rard',  sometimes  corrupted  to  Gar'ret 
and  Ger'rit,  {i.e.  "  firm  spear  ;"t)  Danish,  Gerhard, 
g^R^har^/;  Dutch,  Gerard,  Ha'rtRt ;  Fr.  Gerard, 
r.hi'rtR';  Ger.  Gerhard,  g^R'h^Rt ;  It.  Gerardo,  ji- 
raR'do  ;  Lat.  Gerar'dus;  Sw.  Gerhard,  gSR'hjRd. 

Geremia.     See  Jeremiah. 

Geronimo.     See  Jerome. 

Gertrude,  ger'trud  or  jer'trud,  (perhaps  "true 
Bpear;"§)  Dutch,  Geertruida,  HaR-tRoi'dS  ;  Fr.  Ger- 
trude, zhJR'tRiid';  Ger.  Gertraud,  g^R'tRowt,  or 
Gertrud,  g^R'tRoot';  It.  Gertruda,  j^R-tRoo'di  ;  Lat. 
Gertru'da;  Sw.  Gertrud,  g§R'tRood. 

Gervase,  jer'vas,  or  Jer'vis  ;  Dutch,  Gervaas,  hSR'- 
vSs;  Fr.  Gervais,  zhgR'vi' ;  Lat.  Gerva'sius. 

GiACOMiNA  or  GiACOEBA.     See  Jacqueline. 

GiACOMO.     See  James. 

Gideon,  gid'e-Qn,  (a  "breaker;")  Fr.  G6d6on,  zhi'- 
di'6N';  It.  Gedeone,  ji-di-o'ni  ;  Lat.  Gid'eon. 

Gil.     See  Giles. 


•  Pronounced  in  some  Arabic  dialects  g3-breel'. 

t  Some  suppose  that  Geoffrey  has  the  same  origin  as  Godfrey, 
•ignifying  "God's  peace  ;"  but,  if  this  be  so,  it  seems  strange  that  in 
the  English,  French,  Italian,  and  Danish  there  should  be  two  forms 
so  entirely  different.  In  the  Danish,  Geoffrey  is  Gal/red,  which  can 
scarcely  by  any  possibility  come  from  "God's  peace,"  {Guds/red.) 
It  would  rather  seem  to  be  "joyful  peace,"  from  a  root  cognate  with 
the  Angli)- Saxon ^a/,  "wanton,"  "merry,"  and  allied  to  the  Danish 
(^ah  and  Swedish  gala,  to  "crow"  or  "sing  for  joy,"  and  also  to 
the  prefix  gala  in  our  "  gala-day." 

\  From  a  root  cognate  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  gar,  a  "  dart"  or 
"javelin,"  and  hard,  "  firni." 

§  And  hence  "  true,"  "  faithful,"  because  one  who  was  true  in 
war  was  true  in  the  most  important  sense.  Miss  C.  M.  Yoncf,  in 
her  "History  of  Christian  Names,"  gives  "spear-maid"  as  the 
■etymological  signification  of  Gertrude. 


Gilbert,  gil'b^rt,  ("bright  as  gold"?)  Danish,  GiL' 
BERT,  gil'b^Rt ;  Dutch,  Gilbert,  Hil'b^Rt ;  Fr.  Gilbert 
zhil'baiR';  Ger.  Gilbert,  gil'bJRt ;  Lat.  Gilbek'tus, 
Sw.  Gilbertus,  gil-b^R'tCis. 

Giles,  jTlz,  (a  "  little  goat"  ?)  Fr.  Gilles,  zhil ; 
Ger.  Aegidius,  i-gee'de->'is ;  It.  Egidio,  i-jee'de-o; 
Lat.  .^gid'ius  ;  Sp.  Gil,  h^I. 

Giobbe.     See  Job. 

Giorgio.     See  Georgf, 

Giosiade.     See  Josiah. 

GiosuL     See  Joshua. 

Giovanna.     See  Jane. 

GiovANNL     See  John. 

Girolamo.     See  Jerome. 

Giuda.     See  Judah. 

GiUDiTTA.     See  Judith. 

Giulia.     See  Julia. 

GiULiANA.     See  Juliana. 

Giuliano.    See  Julian. 

GiusEPPA  or  GiusEPPiNA.     See  Josephine. 

Giuseppe.     See  Joseph. 

GoDARD,  god'ard,  ("  firm  or  true  to  God  ;")  Ger.  GoTT- 
hard,  got'hdRt ;  Lat.  Godar'dus. 

GoDEFROi.     See  Godfrey. 

GoDEWijN.     See  Godwin. 

God'frey,  ("God's  peace;")  Danish,  Gottfried, 
got'free^;  Dutch,  Godfried,  Hot'fReet ;  Fr.  Godefroi, 
go'deh-fRwa'  or  god'fRwl';  Ger.  Gottfried,  got'fReet ; 
It.  Goffredo,  gof-fRa'do  ;  Lat.  Godfri'dus. 

God'win,  ("  victorious  in  God  ;")  Dutch,  Godewijn, 
Ho'deh-wln';  Lat.  Godwi'nus. 

Goffredo.     See  Godfrey. 

Gottfried.     See  Godfrey. 

Gotthard.     See  Godard. 

GorrLiEB.     See  Theophilus. 

Grace,  ("  favour ;")  Dutch,  Gratia,  gr5'se-5 ;  Fr. 
Grace,  gRtss ;  It.  Grazia,  gRit'se-S  ;  Lat.  Gra'tia. 

Gregory,  gr5g'o-re,  ("  watchful ;")  Danish,  Gregor, 
gRi-goR';  Dutch,  Gregorius,  gRi-Go're-us ;  Fr.  Gr6- 
goire,  gRi'gw^R' ;  Ger.  Gregor,  gRi-goR';  Gr.  Tprryo- 
l)ioc,  (  Gregorios  ; )  It.  Gregorio,  gRi-go're-o  ;  Lat.  Gre- 
go'rius  ;  Sp.  Gregorio,  gRi-go're-o ;  Sw.  Gregorius, 
gRi-go're-us. 

Grif'fith;  Danish,  Griffith,  gRif'fit ;  Dutch,  Ru- 
FiNUS,  rii-fee'niis ;  Lat.  Griffith'ius;  Sw.  RuFi.«i, 
roo-feen'. 

Gualterus.     See  Walter. 

GuGLiELMO.     See  William. 

GuiDO.     See  Guy. 

Guillaume.     See  William. 

GuLiELMUs.     See  William. 

Gus-ta'vus;  Dutch,  GusTAVUS,  Hiis-tS'vus  ;  Fr.  Gu»- 
TAVE,  gus'tiv';  Ger.  Gust  a  V,  goos'tif ;  Lat.  Gusta'vus; 
Sw.  Gustaf,  goos'tif. 

Guy,  gl,  ("  wit,"  "  sense"  ?)  Danish,  GuiDO,  gwee'do ; 
Dutch,  GuiDO,  gwee'do  or  Hwee'do  ;  Fr.  GuY,  ge  ;  Ger 
Veit,  fit;  It.  GuiDO,  gwee'do;  Lat.  Gui'no ;  Sw. 
GuiDO,  gwee'do. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  it,  y, /(?«^;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  p,  j//^r/;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;gd6d;  moon; 
2538 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Hadrian.     See  Adrian. 

Hagar,  ha'gar,  (a  "stranger;")  Arabic,  HXjAR,  hi'- 
jar,  or  Hagar;  Fr.  Agar,  t'giR';  Heb.  "IJH;  Lat. 
Ha'gar,  (genitive,  Ha'garis.) 

Hannah,  ("gracious;")  Danish,  Hanne,  htn'neh,  or 
Hanna,  hSn'na;  Dutch,  Hanna,  hin'ni ;  Fr.  Anna, 
fnt';  Heb.  Hjn ;  Lat.  Han'na  ;  Sw.  Hanna,  hJn'ni. 

Hannibal,  han'ne-bal,  (a  "gracious  lord;")  Fr. 
Hannibal,  fne'biK;  It  Annibale,  in-ne-bi'li ;  Lat. 
Han'nipal,  (genitive,  Han'nibalis.) 

Hans.     See  John. 

Harman.     See  Herman. 

Harold,  h&r'Qld,  (a  "champion  ;")  Danish,  Harald, 
hS'rtld;  Dutch,  Herold,  ha'rolt;  Fr.  Harold,  ht'rold'; 
It.  Araldo,  d-ril'do  ;  Lat.  Harol'dus. 

Harriet,  hir're-et ;  Danish,  Henriette,  h5n-re-et'- 
t?h  ;  Dutch,  Henrietta,  h5n-re-et'ti ;  Fr.  Henriette, 
AflN're-5t';  Ger.  Henrieite,  h5n-re-et't?h  ;  It.  Enri- 
chetta,  5n-re-ket'ti;  Sp.  Enriqueta,  Sn-re-ka'ti;  Sw. 
Henrietta,  hSn-re-et'ti. 

Hector,  (a  "defender;")  Fr.  Hector,  Sk'toR';  Gr. 
•E/crwp,  (Hektor;)  It.  Ettore,  5t-to'ri;  Lat  Hec'tor, 
(genitive,  Hec'toris.) 

Heinrich.    See  Henry. 

Hel'en  or  Helena,  hgKe-na,  ("brightness;")  Da- 
nish, Helena,  heh-la'nj;  Dutch,  Helena,  heh-la'ni; 
Fr.  H^LfeNE,  i'lin';  Ger.  Helene,  heh-la'neh ;  Gr. 
'EAevT?,  (Helene;)  It  Elena,  i-la'nJ ;  Lat  Hei/ena; 
Sp.  Elena,  i-la'ni. 

Hendrik.    See  Henry. 

Henri.     See  Henry. 

Henricus.     See  Henry. 

Henrietta.     See  Harriet. 

Hen'ry,  ("rich  lord  ;")  Danish,  Hendrik,  hSnMRik; 
Dutch,  Hendrik,  hSn'dRik ;  Fr.  Henri,  hflN're';  Ger. 
Heinrich,  hin'riK ;  It  Enrico,  Sn-ree'ko,  or  Errico, 
Br-ree'ko ;  Lat  Henri'cus  ;  Port  Henrique,  Sn-ree'ki ; 
Sp.  Enrique,  ftn-ree'ki;  Sw.  Hen'rik. 

Herbert,  h^r'bert  ("  bright  lord ;")  Lat  Herber'- 
TUS ;  Sw.  Herbert,  h^R'bSRt 

Hercules,  her'ku-14z,  (the  "glory  of  Hera;")  Fr. 
Hercule,  ^R'kiiK;  Ger.  Hercules,  hlR'koo-lSs;  Gr. 
'lipaK7Jii,(He7-akles ;)  It  Ercole,  5R'ko-li  ;  Lat  Her'- 
CULES,  (genitive,  Her'culis.) 

Herman,  her'man,  (the  "leader  of  an  army;")  Da- 
nish, Hermann,  h§R'min  ;  Dutch,  Herman,  hSR'min  ; 
Fr.  Armand  or  Armant,  tR'mfiN';  Ger.  Hermann, 
h?R'min ;  Lat  Herman'nus  or  Harman'nus  ;  Sw, 
Herman,  h?R'min. 

Hermogenes,  her-moj'e-niz,  ("  descended  from  Her- 
mes ;")  Fr.  HERMOcfeNE,  ?R'mo'zhin';  Gr.  'Ep/ioyevijc, 
( Hemiogenis  :)  Lat  Hermog'enes,  (genitive,  Hermog'- 
ENIS.) 

Herold.     See  Harold. 

Hester.     See  Esther. 

Hezekiah,  hez-e-ki'a,  ("cleaving  to  the  Lord;") 
Dutch,  Hiskia,  his-kee'i ;  Fr.  fiz6cHiAS,  i'zi'she'ts'; 
Heb.  irrpin  or  rrprn  ;  Lat.  Hezeki'as. 

HiEROM.    See  Jerome. 

Hieronvmus.     See  Jerome. 


Hilary,  hil'a-re,  ("  merry,"  "  cheerful ;")  Danish, 
HiLARius,  he-li're-As ;  Dutch,  HiLARius,  he-U'rs-us; 
Fr.  HiLAiRE,  e'liR';  It  Ilario,  e-ia're-o ;  Lat.  Hila'- 
RIUS;  Sw.  HiLARius,  he-ia're-Cis. 

High.    See  Job. 

Hiskia.     See  Hezekiah. 

HoMFROL     See  Humphrey. 

Hor'ace  or  Horatio,  ho-ra'she-o,  ("  worthy  to  be 
beheld"  ?)  Danish,  Horats,  ho-rtts' ;  Dutch,  Horatius, 
ho-ri'se-us  ;  Fr.  Horace,  o'rtss';  Ger.  Horaz,  ho-rits', 
It  Orazio,  o-rit'se-o;  Lat  Hora'tius;  Port  Horacio, 
o-r4'se-o ;  Sp.  Horacio,  o-xiftht-o. 

Horatio.    See  Horace. 

Horatius.    See  Horace. 

Horats  or  Horaz.    See  Horace. 

Humbert,  ("  bright  in  mind"  ?)  Danish,  Hubertus, 
hoo-bSR't4s;  Dutch,  Hubertus,  hii-bSR'tus;  Fr.  Hu- 
bert, Aii'baiR';  Lat.  Huber'tus;  Sw.  Hubertus, 
hoo-bSR't6s. 

Hugh  ;  Danish,  Hugo,  hoo'go ;  Dutch,  Hugo,  hii'go ; 
Fr.  HuGUES,  hiig;  It  Ugo,  oo'go;  Lat.  Hu'go,  (geni- 
tive,  Hugo'nis;)  Sw.  Hugo,  hoo'go, 

Hum'phrey,  ("support  of  peace"?)  Dutch,  Hum- 
fried,  hiim'fReet;  Fr.  Homfroi,  ^6N'fRwa';  It  Om- 
fredo,  om-fRa'do ;  Lat  HuMPHRE'DUSorONu'PHRius; 
Sw.  Humfrid,  hoom'fRid. 

IbrAheem.    See  Abraham. 

Igna'tius,  (ig-na'she-us ;)  Dutch,  Ignatius,  ig-ni'- 
se-us ;  Fr.  Ignace,  in'ySss';  Ger.  Ignaz,  ig-nits',  or 
Ignatius,  ig-n5t'se-Cis ;  Gr.  'lyvdrtof,  ( Igttatios;)  It 
Ignacio,  hn-ylfcho  ;  Lat.  Igna'tius  ;  Sp.  Ignacio,  hg- 
nS'//5e-o,  or  Inigo,  6n-yee'go. 

Ilario.     See  Hilary. 

ISiGO.     See  Ignatius. 

In'no-cent  ;  Dutch,  Innocentius,  in-no-s8n'se-us ; 
Fr.  Innocent,  e'no'sSN';  Ger.  Innocenz,  in-not-s5nts', 
or  Innocentius,  in-not-sSnt'se-tis ;  It  Innocente, 
fen-no-ch?n'ti ;  Lat  Innocen'tius,  (in-no-sen'she-us  ;) 
Sp.  Inocencio,  e-no-M5n'//ie-o. 

I-re'ne,  ("  peace ;")  Fr.  Ir^ne,  e'rin';  Ger.  Irene, 
e-ra'neh  ;  Gr.  'Elpf/vTi,  (Eirette;)  It  Irenea,  e-ri-na'S. 

Isaac,  I'zak,  ("  laughter ;")  Arabic,  IshXk,  is-hik''; 
Danish,  Isak,  ee'sik  ;  Dutch,  Izaak,  ee'zik  ;  Fr.  Isaac, 
e'zS'tk';  Ger.  Isaak,  ee'zik;  Heb.  ^r\T  or  pPiy ; 
Hungarian,  IzsAk,  ee'sik ;  It.  Isacco,  e-§ilk'ko ;  Lat. 
Isa'acus  ;  Polish,  Izaak,  ee'zik  ;  Sw.  Isak,  ee'sik. 

Isabel,  iz'a-bel,  or  Isabella,  iz-a-bel'la,  (originally 
the  same  as  Elizabeth,  which  see  ;)  Dutch,  Isabelle, 
e-s5-bel'leh ;  Fr.  Isabelle,  e'zS'bSl';  Ger.  Isabelle, 
e-zi-bel'leh  ;  It  Isabella,  e-si-bel'li  ;  Lat  Isabel'la; 
Sp.  Isabel,  e-s3-b51';  Sw.  Isabella,  e-si-bel'li. 

Isacco.    See  Isaac. 

Isaiah,  I-za'ya  or  T-zi'e-ya  ;  Danish,  Esaias,  i-sT'ts  ; 
Dutch,  Jezajas,  yi-zi'yis ;  Fr.  Isaie,  e'zt'e';  Ger. 
Esaias,  i-zi'e-is,  or  i-zi'is ;  Heb.  iri'^'K''' ;  It  Isaia, 
e-§i'i ;  Lat  Esai'as  ;  Port  ISAIAS,  e-si-ee'is ;  Sp. 
Isaias,  e-si-ee'is. 

IsAK.    See  Isaac. 

IshXk.     See  Isaac. 

Ish'ma-el,  ("  God  hath  heard  ;")  Arabic,   Ismaeei 


cas  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g as/;  G,  H,  K^giitturai;  N,  fuual;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (([[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2539 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


or  Ismail,  is'iiii-eel';  Fr.  Ismaei^  is'mS'Sl';  Heb. 
'7N;'Dty"' ;  It.  IsMAELE,  is-mi-a'li  ;  Lat.  Ish'mael. 

Isidore,  iz'e-dor;  Dutch,  Isidorus,  e-se-do'rus; 
Fr.  Isidore,  e'ze'doR';  Gr.  'laMupof,  (Isodoros;)  It.  Isi- 
DORO,  e-§e-do'ro  ;  Lat.  Isido'rus. 

ISMAEL,  Ismaele,  or  IsmaIl.     See  Ishmael. 

Israel,  iz'ri-el,  ("  prevailing  with  God  ;")  Fr.  Israel, 
is'rt-gl';  Ger.  Israel,  is'ra-al';  Heb.  ^^-^W^ ;  Lat.  Is'- 
rael,  (genitive,  Israe'lis.) 

IstvAn.    See  Stephen. 

Ivan.    See  John. 

IzAAK,  IzAK,  or  IzsAk.    See  Isaac 

Jabreel.    See  Gabriel. 

Jacob,  ja'k^b,  (a  "supplanter;")  Arabic,  Yakoob  or 
YakOb,  yi'koob';  Danish,  Jakob,  ya'l<ob  ;  Dutch,  Jacob 
or  Jakob,  yd'kob  ;  Fr.  Jacob,  zhi'kob';  Ger.  Jakob, 
yi'kop  ;  Heb.  3'7>»' ;  Hungarian,  JAkob,  yj'kob ;  It, 
Jacob,  yj'kob,  or  Jacopo,  yS'ko-po  ;  Lat.  Jaco'bus  or 
Ja'cob  ;  Polish,  Jakob,  yi'kob  ;  Sw.  Jakob,  yd'kob. 

Jacqueline,  jak'keh-leen',  (the  feminine  of  James  ;) 
Fr.  Jacqueline,  zhtk'keh-14n';  Ger.  Jakobine,  yd-ko- 
bee'n^h  ;  It.  GlACOMiNA,  jS-ko-mee'nS,  or  Giacobba, 
ja-kob'bi. 

James,  jamz,  (in  its  origin  the  same  as  Jacob  ;)  Da- 
nish, Jakob,  yi'kob ;  Dutch,  Jacobus,  yj-ko'bus ;  Fr. 
Jacques,  zhtk  ;  Ger.  Jakob,  yS'kop ;  Hungarian,  Ja- 
kab,  yok'6b ;  It.  Giacomo,  jd'ko-mo ;  Lat.  Jaco'bus  ; 
Polish,  Jakub,  yi'koob;  Port.  DioGO,  de-o'go,  or 
Jacobo,  zh5-ko'bo ;  Russ.  Yakof,  yi'kof;  Sp.  Jaime, 
Hi'mi,  (Saint  James  is  called  Santiago,  sin-te-i'go ;) 
Sw.  Jakob,  yS'kob. 

Jan.    See  John. 

JXne  and  Joan,  or  Joanna,  jo-an'na,  (the  feminine  of 
John  ;)  Danish,  Johanne,  yo-hin'neh  ;  Dutch,  Hanna, 
hin'nJ  ;  Fr.  Jeanne,  zhin  ;  Ger.  Johanna,  yo-hin'ni; 
It.  GIOVANNA,  jo-vJn'ni ;  Lat.  Ja'na  or  Jo-han'na  ; 
Sp.  JuaSa,  Hoo-in'yi;  Sw.  Johanna,  yo-hdn'ni. 

JAnos.     See  John. 

Jas'per,  ("treasure-master"?)  Danish,  Jesper,  ySs'- 
p^r ;  Dutch,  Jasper,  yds'per,  or  Kasper,  kds'per ;  Fr. 
Gaspard,  gts'piR';  Ger.  Caspar  or  Kaspar,  kds'piR; 
It.  Gasparo,  gSs'pi-ro ;  Lat.  Gas'par,  (genitive,  Gas'- 
paris  ;)  Port.  Gaspar,  gds-piR';  Sp.  Gaspar,  gis-piR'; 
Sw.  Kasper,  kds'p^r. 

Jean.     See  John. 

Jeanne.     See  Jane. 

Jeannette.     See  Jenet. 

Jeffrey  or  Jeffery.     See  Geoffrey. 

Jen'et,  (the  diminutive  of  Jane  ;)  Fr.  Jeannette, 
zhJ'nSt';  It.  Giovannetta,  jo-vdn-net'ti ;  Lat.  JoA- 
net'ta. 

Jf.ph'thah,  (a  "discoverer;")  Fr.  Jepht6,  zhSf'ti'; 
Heb.  nn£3' ;  Lat.  Jeph'tha. 

Jeremiah,  jSr-e-mi'a,  or  Jeremy,  j5r'e-me  ;  Danish, 
Jeremias,  yi-reh-mee'ts ;  Dutch,  Jeremias,  yi-reh- 
mee'ds;  Fr.  J£r6mie,  zhi'ri'me';  Ger.  Jeremias,  yi- 
r^h-mee'is;  Heb.  ri'DT  ;  It.  Geremia,  j.\-ri-mee''i ; 
Lat.  Jeremi'as;  Sw.  Jeremias,  yi-reh-mee'is. 

Jerome,  jSr'pm  or  je-rom',  or  Hierom,  hee'er-om, 
("sacred  name;")  Danish,  Jeronymus,  yi-ro'ne-m(is ; 


Dutch,  Hieronymus,  he-?h-ro'ne-niiis ;  Fr.  J6r8me, 
zhi'rSm';  Ger.  Hieronymus,  he-^h-ro'ne-miis ;  It.  Ge- 
RONiMO,  jiron'e-mo,  or  Girolamo,  je-rol'd-mo;  Lat. 
Hieron'ymus;  Port.  Hieronimo,  e-i-ro'ne-mo ;  Sp. 
Geronimo,  Hi-ro'ne-mo;  Sw.  Hieronymus,  he-eh-rr/- 
ne-mis. 

Jesper.     See  Jasper. 

Jezajas.    See  Isaiah. 

Joan,  (the  same  in  its  origin  as  Jane,  which  see.) 

JOANETTA.     See  Jenet. 

Joanna.     See  Jane. 

Joannes.     See  John. 

JoAo.    See  John. 

Job,  j5b,  ("sorrowing;")  Arabic,  AiYOOB  or  AyvOb, 
T'yoob';  Fr.  JoB,  zhob;  Ger.  HiOB,  hee'op ;  Gr. 'litf, 
(lob;)  Heb.  3VN;  It.  Giobbe,  job'bi  or  j6b'bi;  Lat 
Job  (genitive,  Jo'bis)  or  Jo'aus ;  Sw.  Job,  yob. 

Jo'el,  ("  acquiescing ;")  Fr.  Jolt,  zho'SK;  Heb.  Sw » 
Lat.  Jo'el,  (genitive,  Joe'lis.) 

Johanna.    See  Jane. 

John,  (the  "grace  of  the  Lord;")  Danish,  Johann, 
yo'hin,  or  Hans,  hSns ;  Dutch,  Jan,  yJn  ;  Fr.  Jean, 
zhfiN ;  Ger.  Johann,  yo'hin,  (familiarly  Hans,  hdnss,  a 
contraction  of  Johannes;)  Gr.  'Jwaww,  (Joannes;) 
Heb.  njnV  ;  Hungarian,  JAnos,  yi'nosh  ;  It.  Giovan- 
ni, jo-vin'nee ;  Lat.  Joan'nes  or  Johan'nes;  Polish, 
Jan,  yin ;  Port.  JoAo,  zho-owN';  Russ.  Ivan,  i-vin'; 
Sp.  Juan,  Hoo-Jn';  Sw.  Johan,  yo'hin,  or  Hans,  bins. 

Jo'nah  or  Jo'nas,  (a  "  dove  ;")  Fr.  Jonas,  zho'nis'; 
Ger.  Jonas,  yo'nis  ;  Heb.  HiV  ;  Lat.  Jo'nas. 

Jonathan,  jon'a-than,  (the  "  gift  of  the  Lord  ;")  Fr. 
Jonathan,  zho'ni'tSN';  Heb.  jfijin' ;  Lat.  Jon'athan, 
(genitive  in  -is.) 

Joost.     See  Joscelin. 

Jorge.    See  George. 

Jos'cE-LiN  or  Jog'E-LiN,  ("just ;")  Dutch,  JoosT 
y5st ;  Lat.  Josceli'nus. 

Joseph,  jo'zef,  ("addition;")  Fr.  Joseph,  zho'zSf  j 
Ger.  Joseph,  yo'z?f;  Heb.  ^OV  ;  Hungarian,  Jozsef, 
yo'sSf ;  It.  Giuseppe,  joo-Sep'pi ;  Lat.  Jose'phus  or 
Jo'seph;  Polish,  JozEF,  yo'zSf;  Port.  Joz^,  zho-za'; 
Sp.  Jos6,  Ho-sa'. 

Josephine,*  jo'zeh-feen',  (the  feminine  of  Joseph  ;) 
Fr.  JosfePHE,  zho'zSf,  or  Josephine,  zho'zi'fin';  Ger. 
Josephe,  yo'z5f-eh,  or  Josephine,  yo-zeh-fee'neh  ;  It. 
Giuseppa,  joo-sep'pi,  or  Giuseppina,  joo-s5p-pee'ni; 
Lat.  Jose'pha. 

Joshua,  josh'u-a,  (a  "  saviour  ;")  Dutch,  J^^sua,  yo'- 
sii-i ;  Fr.  Josu6,  zho'zu'i';  Ger.  JosuA,  yo'zoo-i ;  Heb. 
^'lyin' ;  It.  Giosufe,  jo-Soo-a';  Lat.  Jos'UA ;  Sw.  JosUA 
yo'soo-i. 

Jo-si'ah  (jo-sl'a,)  or  Jo-si'as  ;  Danish,  JosiAS,  yo- 
§ee'ts ;  Dutch,  JoziAS,  yo-zee'is ;  Fr.  Josias,  zho'- 
ze'is';  Heb.  IH'iyX' ;  It.  GiosiADF.,  jo-See'i-di;  Lat. 
Josi'as. 

JosuA.     See  Joshua. 

Joz6.     See  Joseph. 

Jozsef.     See  Joseph. 


•  Josephine  (or  Josephine)  and  Giuseppina  are,  strictly  speak* 
ing,  diminutives  from  JosiPHB  (or  Josbpha)  and  Giuseppa. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  pruiongeci;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  gi,  ?,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 
2540 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Juan.     See  John. 

JuaSa.     See  Jane. 

Ju'dah,  Ju'das,  Jude,  jud,  {"  confession ;")  Fr.  Juda, 
xhii'dt'  or  JuDE,  zhiid  ;  Ger.  Judas,  yoo'dJs ;  HeVi. 
rmrr  ;  Hungarian,  JUDA,  yoo'dd ;  It.  Giuda,  joo'dJ; 
Lat.  Ju'das  ;  Polish,  JuDAS,  yoo'dis ;  Sw.  Judas,  yoo'- 
das. 

Ju'dith,  ("praising;")  Heb.  rimn' ;  It.  GlUDlTTA, 
joo-dit'ta ;  LaL  Judi'tha. 

Julia,  ju'le-a,  (the  feminine  of  Julius  ;)  Dutch,  Julia, 
yU'le-5 ;  Fr.  Julie,  zhii'le';  Ger.  Julie,  yoo'le-^h ;  It. 
Giulia,  joo'le-S ;  Lat.  Ju'lia  ;  Sp.  Julia,  hoo'Ic-S  ;  Sw. 
Julia,  yoo'le-i 

Julian,  ju'le-an,  ("related  to  Julius;")  Dutch,  Ju- 
LIANUS,  yii-le-a'nus ;  Fr.  Julien,  zhii'le-iN' ;  Ger. 
Julian,  yoo'le-dn ;  It.  Giuliano,  joo-le-d'no ;  Lat. 
Julia'nus;  Port.  JuLiXo,  zhoo-le-6wN';  Sp.  Julian, 
Hoo-le-in',  or  JULIANO,  Hoo-le-S'no;  Sw.  Julian,  yoo'- 
le-Sn. 

Juliana,  ju-le-tn'a,  (the  feminine  of  Julian  ;)  Dutch, 
Juliana,  yii-le-a'nR;  Fr.  Julienne,  zhii'le-Sn';  Ger. 
JULIANE,  yoo-Ie-i'n?h  ;  It.  Giuliana,  joo-le-S'ni  ;  Lat. 
Julia'na;  Port.  Juliana,  zhoo-le-S'ni;  Sp.  Juliana, 
Hoo-le-a'nJl;  Sw.  Juliana,  yoo-le-i'ni 

JuLiANo.    See  Julian. 

Julie.    See  Julia. 

Julien.    See  Julian. 

Julienne.    See  Julia. 

Julius,  ju'le-us,  ('•  sprung  from  lulus ;")  Dutch,  Ju- 
lius, yii'le-us  ;  Fr,  Jules,  zhiil ;  Ger.  Julius,  yoo'le-fis  ; 
It.  GiuLio,  joo'le-o;  Lat.  Ju'lius;  Port.  Julio,  zhoo'- 
le-o ;  Sp.  Julio,  Hoo'Ie-o. 

Karl  or  Karel.     See  Charles. 

Kaspar.     See  Jasper. 

Katharine  or  Katarina.    See  Catherine. 

Klaas.    See  Nicholas. 

Klara.    See  Clara. 

Klaudia.    See  Claudia. 

Klaudius.    See  Claudius. 

Koenraad.    See  Conrad. 

KoNRAD.    See  Conrad. 

KoNSTANTijN.     See  Constantine. 

KoRNELis.     See  Cornelius. 

Krispin  or  Krispijn.    See  Crispin. 

Kristofer.     See  Christopher. 

L/ETiTiA.     See  Lettice. 

Lam'bert,  ("  brightness  or  glory  of  the  country"  ?) 
Dutch,  Lambert,  ldm'b§Rt,  or  Lambertus,  IJm-bSR'- 
tus  ;  Fr.  Lambert,  IflN'baiR';  Ger.  Lambert,  lim'bSRt ; 
Lat.  Lamber'tus. 

Lan'ce-lot,  (a  "  little  lance  ;")  Fr.  Lancelot,  ISnss'- 
lo';  Lat.  Lancelot'tus. 

Laura,  law'ra,  ("laurel;")  Fr.  Laure,  16r  ;  Ger. 
Laura,  lovv'rJ;  It.  Laura,  low'r.^. 

Lau'rence,  ("crowned  with  laurel;")  Danish,  Lo- 
RENZ,  lo'rSnts  ;  Dutch,  Laurens,  low'rSns ;  Fr.  Lau- 
rent, lo'rftN';  Ger.  Laurenz,  16w'r5nts,  Lorenz,  lo'- 
rints,  and  Laurentius,  !5w-r5nt'se-fis ;  It.  Lorenzo, 


lo-r?n'zo ;  Lat.  Lauren'tius  ;    Sp.  LORENZO,  lo-rftn' 
tho  ;  Sw.  Lars,  laRs. 

Lazarus,  laz'a-rus,  ("destitute  of  help  ;")  Fr.  Lazare. 
It'ztr';  Gr.  Au^apoc,  (Lazaros ;)  It.  Lazzaro,  lit'sS-ro ; 
Lat.  Laz'arus. 

Le'o  or  Le'on,  (a  "  lion ;")  Fr.  L4oN,  li'6N';  It. 
Leone,  li-o'ni;  Lat.  Le'o,  (genitive,  Leo'nis.) 

Leolinus.     See  Lewellin. 

Leonard,  I5n'ard,  ("  strong  as  a  lion  ;")  Dutch,  Le- 
onard, la'o-naRt';  Fr.  Leonard,  liVntk';  Ger.  Leon- 
hard,  la'on-haRt';  It.  Leonardo,  li-o-naR'do,  or  Lio- 
NAkdo,  le-o-naR'do  ;  Lat.  Leonar'dus. 

Leonellus.     See  Lioneu 

Leonora.     See  Eleanor. 

Le'o-pold,  ("bold  for  the  people,"  and,  hence,  "de- 
fending the  people ;")  Fr.  Leopold,  liVpold';  Ger. 
Leopold,  la'o-polt' ;  It.  Leopoldo,  li-o-pol'do ;  Lat 
Leopol'dus. 

Lettice,  let'tiss,  or  Letitia,  le-tish'e-a,  ("joy ;") 
Danish,  L^ETITIA,  li-tee'te-S ;  Dutch,  Laetitia,  li-tee'- 
se-i,  (almost  li-tee'she-5;)  Old  Fr.  L6tice,  li'tfcss';  Lat. 
L.'ETIt'ia,  (le-tish'e-a.) 

Le-\vel'lin,  ("  like  a  lion  ;")  Lat.  Leoli'nus. 

Lewis,  lu'iss,  or  Louis,  loo'is,  (the  "  fortress  or  de- 
fence of  the  people  ;")  Dutch,  Lodewijk,  lo'deh-wik' ; 
Fr.  Louis,  looV;  Ger.  Ludwig,  lood'<^iG ;  It.  LuiGl, 
loo-ee'jee,  or  LoDOVico,  lo-do-vee'ko,  or  LuDovico, 
loo-do-vee'ko ;  Lat.  LuDOVi'cus ;  Sp.  Luis,  loo-iss'; 
Sw.  LuDWiG,  lood'vig. 

Lidia.     See  Lydia. 

LiONARDO.    See  Leonard. 

Lionel,  (a  "  little  lion ;")  Lat.  Leonel'lus. 

LiviA,  liv'e-a;  Fr.  LiviE,  le've';  It.  LiviA,  lee've-i; 
Lat.  Liv'iA. 

Lodewijk.     See  Lewis. 

LoDovico  or  LoDOVic.     See  Lewis. 

LoRENz  or  Lorenzo.    See  Laurence. 

Louis.     See  Lewis. 

Louisa,  loo-ee'za,  (the  feminine  of  Lewis  or  Louis ;) 
Fr.  Louise,  loo'iz';  Ger.  Luise,  loo-ee'zeh ;  It  Lui- 
GiA,  loo-ee'ji ;  Lat.  Lui'sa  ;  Sp.  Luisa,  loo-ee'si ;  Sw. 
LuDOViKA,  loo-do-vee'ki. 

Luc  or  LucA.     See  Luke. 

Lu'CAN  ;  Fr.  Lucain,  lii'klN';  Lat  Luca'nus. 

Lucas.     See  Luke. 

Luce.     See  Lucius. 

LuciAN,  lu'she-an  ;  Fr.  LuciEN,  lii'se-iN';  It  Lu- 
ciano, loo-chi'no;  Lat  Lucia'nus. 

Lucie.    See  Lucy. 

Lucius,  lu'she-us,  ("shining;")  Fr.  Luce,  luss,  oi 
Lucius,  lU'se-iis';  Ger.  Lucius,  loot'se-6s;  It  Lucio, 
loo'cho ;  Lat  Lu'cius. 

Lucretia,  lu-kree'she-a,  or  Lu'CRECE ;  Fr.  LuCRftCE, 
lu'kRis';  Ger.  Lucretia,  loo-krat'se-i ;  It  Lucrezia, 
loo-krgt'se-i;  Lat  Lucre'tia  ;  Sp.  Lucrecia,  loo-kRa'- 
Me-L 

Lucy  or  Lucie,  lu'se,  (the  feminine  of  Lucius;) 
Dutch,  Lucie,  lii'se-?h  ;  Fr.  LuciE,  lii'se';  Ger.  Lucie, 
loot'se-?h ;  It.  LuciA,  loo-chee'S ;  Lat  Lu'cia;  Sp. 
Lucia,  loo-///ee'J. 


€  as  /J;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 


(2ljr"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


LuDOViKA.     SeeLcuiSA. 

LuDOVico  or  LuDovicus.     See  Lewis. 

LuDWiG.     See  Lewis. 

LuiGi.    See  Lewis. 

LuiGiA.     See  Louisa. 

LuiSA.     See  Louisa. 

LuiSE,    See  Louisa. 

Luke,  (a  "  light"  ?)  Danish,  Lucas,  loo'kis ;  Dutch, 
Lucas,  lU'kis ;  Fr.  Luc,  lUk ;  Ger.  Lucas,  loo'kSs ; 
Hungarian,  LucAxs,  loo'kStch ;  It.  LUCA,  loo'ki ;  Lat. 
Lu'cas  ;  Sw.  Lu'cAS. 

Lydia,  lid'e-a.;  Danish,  Lydia,  lee'de-i;  Dutch, 
Lydia,  lee'de-i ;  Fr.  Lydie,  le'de';  Gr.  Avdt'a,  (Ludia;) 
It.  LiDiA,  leeMe-i ;  Lat.  Lyd'ia. 

MA'bel,  (a  corruption  of  the  French  aimable,  (origi- 
nally a»»a^<r/,)  "lovely;")  Lat.  Mabil'ia  or  Amab'ilis. 

Magdalen,  mag'da-len,  or  Magdalene,  {"of  Mag- 
dala,"  a  place  in  Palestine ;)  Dutch,  Magdalena,  m^G- 
da-la'n4 ;  Fr.  Madeleine  or  Madeline,  mtd'l^n';  Ger, 
Magdalena,  mdg-da-la'na ;  It.  Maddalena,  mid-da- 
la'na,  or  Madalena,  mi-di  la'ni  ;  Lat.  Magdale'na  ; 
Sp.  Magdalena,  mig-di-in'na. 

Marc     See  Mark. 

Mar-cel'lus  ;  Fr.  Marcellus,  maR'sI'lus';  It.  Mar- 
cello,  maR-chel'lo ;  Lat.  Marcel'lus. 

Marcus.     See  Mark. 

Margaret,  mar'ga-ret,  (a  "  pearl ;")  Dutch,  Mar- 
GARETUA,  maR-ga-ra't5,  or  maR-Hi-ra'tS ;  Fr.  Mar- 
guerite, mtR'gR^t';  Ger.  Margarethe,  maR-gi-ra'- 
teh;  Gr.  Mapyapj'rT/f,  ( Margarites ; )  It.  Margarita, 
maR-gl-ree'ta ;  Lat.  Margari'ta  or  Margare'ta. 

Maria.    See  Mary. 

Marie.    See  Mary. 

Mark,  (a  "hammer"?)  Danish,  Marcus,  maR'kCis ; 
Dutch,  Marcus,  maR'kus ;  Fr.  Marc,  mtRk  ;  Ger.  Mar- 
cus, maR'kCis ;  Gr.  MdpKOf,  (Markos  ;)  Hungarian,  MArk, 
maRk  ;  It.  Marco,  maR'ko ;  Lat.  Mar'cus  ;  Sp.  Mar- 
cos, maR'kAs  ;  Sw.  Markus,  maR'kfis. 

Martha,  mar' tha,  ("  bitterness"  ?)  Dutch,  Martha, 
maR't^;  Fr.  Marthe,  mjRt ;  Ger.  Martha,  maR'tS; 
Gr.  Map0a,  (Martha  ;)  It.  Marta,  maR'ti ;  Lat.  Mar'- 
tha;  Sp.  Marta,  maR'tS;  Sw.  Martha,  maR'ti. 

Mar'tin,  ("  martial ;")  Dutch,  Martin  us,  maR-tee'- 
nus ;  Fr.  Martin,  milR'tclN';  Ger.  Martin,  maR'tin  ; 
It.  Martino,  maR-tee'no  ;  Lat.  Marti'nus  ;  Sp.  Mar- 
tin, maR-tfen';  Sw.  Martin,  maR-teen'. 

Martinez,  (Sp.,)  maR-tee'nSth,  (the  "son  of  Martin.") 

Mary,  ma're,  ("  bitter  ;")  Danish,  Marie,  mS-ree'eh  ; 
Dutch,  Maria,  m4-ree'a;  Fr.  Marie,  niS're';  Ger. 
Maria,  mi-ree'i,  or  Marie,  md-ree'eh ;  Gr.  Mapta, 
(Maria;)  Hungarian,  MAria,  mi're-i;  It.  Maria,  mi- 
ree'S;  Lat.  Mari'a;  Polish,  Marya,  miR'yi;  Port. 
Maria,  mi-ree'i;  Sp.  Maria,  m^ree'^;  Sw.  Maria, 
mi-ree'i. 

Massimiliano.     See  Maximilian. 

Massimino.    See  Maximin. 

Massimo.     See  Maximus. 

Mateo.    See  Matthew. 

Mathieu.     See  Matthew. 


Mathusalem.    See  Methuselah. 

Matias.     See  Mathias. 

Matilda,  ma-til'da,  or  Maud;  Danish,  Mathilde, 
mi-tiKd^h ;  Dutch,  Mathilda,  mi-tiKda ;  Fr.  Ma- 
thilde, mS'tild';  It.  Matilda,  mi.-\.hVdl;  Lat.  Ma- 
thil'da;  Sp.  Matilde,  mi.-ih.Vdk;  Sw.  Matilda, 
md-tiKdi 

Matthew,  ma///u,  (a  "  gift"  or  "  present"  ?)  Danish, 
Matth^eus,  mSt-ta'iis ;  Dutch,  Mattheus,  mit-ta'us ; 
Fr.  Mathieu,  mt'te-uh';  Gr.  Mar0aZof,  (Matthaios ;) 
Hungarian,  MAt6,  mi'ti;  It.  Matteo,  mit-ta'o;  Lat 
Matth.e'us;  Polish,  MATEUSz,mi'te;9osh;  Sp.  Matso. 
mS-ta'o  ;  Sw.  Matthaus,  mSt-ta'Cis. 

Matthias,  ma-thl'as,  (originally  the  same  as  Matth- 
ew;) Dutch,  Matthijs,  mit-tis';  Fr.  Matthias,  mf- 
te'Ss';  Ger.  Mathias,  mi-tee'is ;  It.  Mattia,  mit-tee'i; 
Lat.  Matthi'as  ;  Sp.  Matias,  ma-tee'is. 

Maud.    See  Matilda. 

Maurice,  maw'riss ;  Danish,  Moritz,  mo'rits ; 
Dutch,  Maurits,  mow'rits,  or  Mauritius,  mow-ree'- 
se-us,  (almost  mow-ree'she-iis ;)  Fr.  Maurice,  mo'riss'; 
Ger.  Moritz,  mo'rits ;  It.  Maurizio,  mow-rit'se-o,  or 
Maurisio,  mow-ree'se-o ;  Lat.  Maurit'ius  or  Mau. 
Rig'ius,  (maw-rish'^s;)  Sp.  Mauricio,  m6w-ree'//5e-o ; 
Sw.  Moritz,  mo'rits. 

Maximilian,  mik-se-mil'e-an ;  Dutch,  Maximili- 
anus,  mlk-se-me-le-^'niis ;  Fr.  Maximilien,  mtk'se'- 
me'le'iN';  Ger.  Maximilian,  m5k-se-mee'le-in  ;*  It. 
Massimiliano,  mis-se-me-le-i'no ;  Lat.  Maximilia'- 
Nus ;  Sp.  Maximiliano,  mik-se-me-le-i'no ;  Sw.  Max- 
imilian, mSk-se-mil'e-in. 

Maximin,  mlk'se-min  ;  Fr.  Maximin,  mtk'se'miN'; 
It.  Massimino,  mis-se-mee'no ;  Lat.  Maximi'nus. 

Maximus,  mak'se-mus,  ("greatest;")  Fr.  Maximk, 
mtk'sim';  It.  Massimo,  mis'se-mo;  Lat.  Max'imus; 
Sp.  Maximo,  mik'se-mo. 

Me-thu'se-lah,  ("  driving  away  death"  ?)  Fr.  Ma- 
thusalem, mt-tii'zt'lSm';    Lat.    Methu'sela  ;    Heb. 

Michael,  mi'ki-51,  ("who  is  like  God ;")  Fr.  Michel, 
me'shSl' ;  Ger.  Michael,  mlK'i-Sl,  (almost  min'd-Sl ;) 
Heb.  '7X3' 0 ;  Hungarian,  MihAly,  mee'hil;  It.  Ml- 
chele,  me-ka'li ;  Lat.  Mi'cHAEL,(genitive,  Michae'lis;) 
Polish,  MiCHAL,  mee'Kil ;  Port.  Miguel,  me-gSK;  Russ. 
Mikhail,  me-Ki-feK,  (almost  me-ni-iK,)  or  me-Ki'41; 
Sp.  Miguel,  me-gSl'. 

Miklos.     See  Nicholas. 

Mil'dred,  ("speaking  mildly;")  Lat.  Mildre'oa. 

MoisE.     See  Moses. 

MoosA.     See  Moses. 

Moritz.     See  Maurice. 

Moses,  mo'ziz  or  nio'zlz,  ("  drawn  out ;")  AraDt«^ 
MoosA  or  MOsa,  moo'si;  Dutch,  MozES,  mo'zSs ;  Fr. 
MoiSE,  mo'iz';  Heb.  711^0;  Gr.  Mwffw,  (Moses;)  Hun- 
garian, MozES,  mo'zesh ;  It,  Moisfe,  mo-e-sa';  Lat. 
Mo'sES,  (genitive,  Mo'sis ;)  Polish,  Moyzesz,  moi'zhish; 
Sp.  MoYSES,  mo-e-sSs';  Sw.  MosES,  mo'sSs. 

NAR-gis'sus,  (a  "  daffodil ;")  Fr.  Narcisse,  niR'siss'; 
It.  Narcisso,  niR-chis'so;  Lat.  Narcis'sus. 


*  Generally  a'sbreviated,  except  in  formal  discourse,  as  Max* 
(mlks.) 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ^,  j,  9,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 
2542 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Natalis.    See  Noel. 

Natanael.     See  Nathanael. 

Nathan,  na'Man,  (a  "gift;")  Fr.  Nathan,  ni'tflw'; 
Ger.  Nathan,  ni'tin  ;  Heb.  jHJ ;  Lat.  Na'than  ;  Sp. 
Natan,  ni-tin'. 

Nathanael  or  Nathaniel,  na-/>4an'yel,  (the  "gift  of 
God ;")  Dutch,  Nathaniel,  ni-tH'ne-Sl ;  Fr.  Nathaniel, 
ni'tt'ne-61';  Ger.  Nathaniel,  ni-ti'ne-Sl;  Lat.  Na- 
than'ael,  (genitive,  Nathanae'lis  ;)  Sp.  Natanael, 
ai-ta-ni-SK. 

Nehfmiah,  ne-he-mi'a,  (the  "  rest  of  the  Lord ;") 
Danish,  Nehemias,  n4-h?h-mee'is ;  Dutch,  Nehemia, 
ni-h^h-mee'd;  Fr,  N6h6mie,  ni'i'me';  Ger.  Nehe- 
mias, ni-h?h-mee'Ss ;  Heb.  PI'Dnj  ;  It.  Neemia,  ni-i- 
uiee'i;  Lat.  Nehemi'as;  Sp.  Nehemias,  ni-i-mee'is. 

Nicholas,  nik'o-las,  (the  "  people's  victory  ;")  Dutch, 
Nicolaas,  nee'ko-lis',  (more  frequently  Klaas,  klis  ;) 
Fr.  Nicolas,  ne'ko'li';  Ger.  Nicolaus,  nee'ko-lowss'; 
Gr.  HiKoXaoQ,  (Nikolaos ;)  Hungarian,  MiKLOS,  mee'- 
klosh ;  It.  Niccol6  or  Nicol6,  nfek-ko-lo';  Lat.  Nico- 
la'us  ;  Port  NicoLAO,  ne-ko-lS'o ;  Russ.  Nikolai, 
ne-ko-ld'e,  or  Nikolas,  ne-ko-lis';  Sp.  Nicolas,  ne- 
ko-lis';  Sw.  Nils,  n!ls. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  ("  victory  of  the  people"  or  the  "  con- 
queror of  the  people ;")  Fr.  Nicod^me,  ne'ko'd^m';  Gr. 
Nwc6J7?(UOf,  (Nikod'emos;)  Lat.  Nicode'mus. 

Nicolas.     See  Nicholas. 

Nils.     See  Nicholas. 

No'ah,  (no'^  ;)  Arabic,  NooH  or  NOh,  nooH  ;  Dutch, 
NoACH,  no'in  or  no'iK ;  Fr.  No6,  no'V;  Ger.  Noah, 
no'a  ;  Gr.  Nwe,  (Noe;)  Heb.  HJ;  Sw.  NoA,  no'i 

No'el,  ("  Christmas  ;"*)  Fr.  Noel,  no'SK;  Lat.  Na- 
ta'lis  or  Noe'lius. 

NooH.    See  Noah. 

Norma**,  nor'man,  ("  born  in  Normandy"  or  "  of 
Norman  extraction  ;")  Lat.  Norman'nus. 

Nouh  or  NOh.    See  Noah. 

Obadiait,  ob-?-dI'a,  (the  "servant  of  the  Lord;") 
Heb.  nn3;?;  Lat.  Obadi'as. 

Octave.    See  Octavius. 

OCTAVIA,  ok-ta've-ai ;  Fr.  Octavie,  ok'ti've';  It.  Ot- 
tavia,  ot-ti've-S ;  Lat.  Octa'via. 

Octavius,  ok-ta've-us ;  Fr.  Octave,  ok'ttv';  It.  Ot- 
tavio,  ot-td've-o ;  Lat.  OcfA'vius ;  Sp.  Octavio,  ok- 
ti've-o. 

Odusseus  or  Odysseus.     See  Ulysses. 

Oliver,  ol'e-v^r,  ("an  olive,"  or  "bearing  the  olive;") 
Dutch,  Olivier,  o-le-veeR';t  Fr.  Olivier,  o'le've-i'; 
It.  Oliviere,  o-le-ve-i'ri,  or  Uliviere,  oo-le-ve-a'ri ; 
Lat.  Oliva'rus  or  Oliva'rius;  Sp.  Oliverio,  o-le-va'- 
re-o ;  Sw.  Olivier,  o-le-veeR'. 

Olivia,  o-liv'e-?,  (the  feminine  of  Oliver;)  Danish, 


•  Given  as  a  name  to  children  born  on  Christmas-day. 
1   Olivier  (pronounced  ol-e-veeiO  appears  also  to  have  been  an 
Old  English  form.     Scott  says, 

"When  Roland  brave,  and  Olivier, 
And  every  paladin  and  peer, 
On  Roncesvalles  died." — 

Mannion,  canto  vi.  stanza  33. 


Olivia,  o-Iee've-i;  Dutch,  Olivia,  o-lee've-a;  Fr,  Oli- 
VIE,  o'le've';  Ger.  Olivia,  o-lee've-i;  Sw.  Olivia. 
o-Iiv'e-i. 

Olivier.     See  Oliver. 

Olympia,  o-llm'pe-a,  or  Olympias,  o-lim'pe-^,  ("be- 
longing to  Olympus,"  "divine  ;")  Fr.  Olympe,  o'ldMp'; 
Gr.  'OAv/zmdf,  (Olumpias;)  Lat.  Olym'pias  or  Olym'- 

PIA. 

Omfredo.     See  Humphrey. 

Onesimus,  o-n5s'e-mus,  ("  profitable ;")  Fr.  ONlftsiME. 
o'wWzhm';  Gr.  'Ov^CTi/wf,  (On'esimos;)  It.  Onesimo,  o-ni'- 
se-mo;  Lat.  Ones'imos. 

Onuphrius.     See  Humphrey. 

Ophelia,  o-fee'le-a,  ("help,"  "usefulness;")  Fr. 
OphAlie,  o'fi'le';  Gr.  'Q.^t}la,  (Ophelia;)  Lat.  Ophe'- 

LIA. 

Orazio.    See  Horace. 

Origen,  or'e-jen,  ("descended  from  Horus,"an  Egyp- 
tian deity  ;J)  Fr.  Origi^ne,  o're'zh4n';  Gr.  'Qptycv^f, 
(Origenes ;)  Lat.  Orig'enes,  (genitive,  Orig'enis.) 

Orlando,  (a  form  of  Roland,  which  see  ;)  It.  Or- 
lando, oR-lin'do ;  Lat.  Orlan'dus. 

O'tho,  ("spirited"  ?§)  Dutch,  Ot'to;  Fr.  Othon, 
o'tAw' ;  Ger.  Ot'to  ;  It.  Ottone,  ot-to'ni;  Lat.  O'tho  ; 
Sp.  Otonio,  o-to'ne-o  ;  Sw.  Ot'to. 

Ottavia.     See  Octavia. 

Ottavio.     See  Octavius. 

Otto.     See  Otho. 

OnoNE.     See  Otho. 

Ov'id  ;  Dutch,  OviDius,  o-vee'de-tis ;  Fr.  OviDE, 
o'vid';  Ger,  OviDius,  o-vee'de-iis ;  It,  OviDio,  o-vcp'- 
de-o ;  Lat.  Ovid'ius. 

Pablo.    See  Paul. 

PAl.     See  Paul. 

Paolina.    See  Paulina. 

Paolo.    See  Paul. 

Paschal,  pds'kal,  ("  belonging  to  Easter,"  or  "  born 
at  Easter  ;"1|)  Fr.  Pascal,  pSs'kSl';  It.  Pasquale,  pis- 
kvvi'14  ;  Lat.  Pascha'lis  ;  Sp.  Pascual,  pis-kwil'. 

Pat'rick,  ("patrician,"  "noble;")  Dutch,  Patri- 
cius,  pi-tRee'se-us ;  Fr.  Patrice,  pt'tR^ss';  It.  Patri- 
zio,  pS-tR^t'se-o ;  Lat.  PATRig'ius;  Sp.  Patricio,  pi- 
tRee'//5e-o. 

Paul,  ("  little ;")  Danish,  Paul,  powl,  or  Paulus, 
pow'lCis ;  Dutch,  Paulus,  pow'liis ;  Fr.  Paul,  pol ;  Ger. 
Paul,  powl ;  Gr.  Hav/lof,  ( Paulos;)  Hungarian,  PAl, 
pSl ;  It.  Paolo,  pS'o-lo  or  pow'lo ;  Lat.  Pau'lus  ;  Polish, 
Pawel,  pS'vSl ;  Port.  Paulo,  pow'lo ;  Russ.  Pavel, 
pi'v^l ;  Sp.  Pablo,  pS'Blo  ;  Sw.  Paul,  powl. 

Paulina,  paw-li'ni,  (the  feminine  of  Paul  ;)  Fr.  Pau- 
line, po'lin';  Ger.  Pauline,  p6w-lee'n?h  ;  It.  Paouna, 
pS-o-lee'nS  or  pow-lee'nS;  Lat.  Pauli'na, 

Pavel.    See  Paul. 

Pawel.     See  Paul, 

Peder.     See  Peter. 

Pedro.     See  Peter. 


t  Called  Orus  ^tlpo^)  by  the  Greeks. 
§  See  Odin  in  tlie  body  of  this  work. 
II  From  Pascha,  the  "passover,"  or  "  Easter.' 


€  as  /i;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  Ihis.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 

2543 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Pe-nel'o-pe,  (a  "  weaver"  ?)  Fr,  PAn6lope,  pi'ni'- 
.op';  Gr.  UtjvtXoTzri,  (Penelope;)  Lat.  Penel'ope,  (geni- 
tive, Penel'opes.) 

Peregrine,  pSr'e-gr!n,  ("foreign,"  "pilgrim;")  Da- 
nish, Peregrinus,  pi-reh-gRee'niis ;  Dutch,  Peregri- 
NUS,  pi-reh-gree'nus  ;  It.  Peregrino,  pi-ri-gRee'no ; 
Lat  Peregri'nus  ;  Sw.  Peregrinus,  pSr-eh-gRee'niis. 

Pe'ter,  (a  "  rock"  or  "stone  ;")  Danish,  Peder,  pa'- 
D?r  ;  Dutch,  Pieter,  pee'ter  ;  Fr.  Pierre,  pe^iR';  Ger. 
Peter,  pa'ter  ;  Gr.  Ilerpof,  (Petros ;)  Hungarian,  P6ter, 
pa'tSr ;  It.  Pietro,  pe-a'tRO ;  Lat.  Pe'trus  ;  Polisli, 
PlOTR,  pyot'r  ;  Port.  Pedro,  pa'dRo ;  Russ.  Piotr,  pyot'r 
or  pe-ot'r';  Sp.  Pedro,  pa'DRo ;  Sw.  Peter,  pii't^r. 

Phebe.     See  Phcebe. 

Philemon,  phi-le'mon,  ("saluting;")  Fr.  Philemon, 
fe'li'miN';  Gr.  ^iTaiftuv,  (Philemdn;)  It.  Filemone, 
fe-li-mo'ni;  Lat.  Phile'mon,  (genitive,  Philemo'nis.) 

PhI-le'ius,  ("beloved;")  Gr.  *tAj?-6f,  (Philetos;) 
It.  FiLETO,  fe-la'to ;  Lat.  Phile'i  us. 

Philtkert,  flKe-bert,  or  Philebert,  ("famously 
bright"?)  Danish,  Philibert,  fil'e-bSRt';  Fr.  Philibert, 
fe'le'baiR';  It.  FiLiBERTO,  fe-le-bSR'to ;  Lat.  Phileiser'- 
TUS. 

Phil'ip,  ("loving  horses;")  Dutch,  Philippus,  fe- 
lip'pus;  Fr.  Philippe,  fe'lip';  Ger.  Philipp,  f!l'ip; 
Gr.  4'iAi7rn-oc,  (Philippos ;)  Hungarian,  Filep,  fee'lSp  ;  It. 
FiLlPPO,  fe-lip'po;  Lat.  Philip'pus;  Polish,  FiLiP, 
fee'lip;  Port.  Felippe,  fi-16p'pi ;  Russ.  Philipp  or 
FiLiP,  fe-lip';  Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lee'p4;  Sw.  Filip,  fll'ip. 

Philippa,  fe-lip'p^,  (the  feminine  of  Philip;)  Dutch, 
Philippa,  fe-lip'pi;  Ger.  Philippine,  fe-Hp-pee'neh ; 
Gr.  *i'At;r7ro,  (Philippa;)  It.  Filippa,  fe-lip'pi ;  Lat. 
Philip'pa  ;  Sp,  Felipa,  fii-lee'pi ;  Sw.  Filippina,  fil- 
ip-pee'nL 

Phin'e-as  ;  Fr.  Phin^as,  fe'ni'ts';  It.  FiNEO,  fe-na'o  ; 
Lat.  Phin'eas  ;  Sp.  Phinees,  fe-ni-5s'. 

Phcebe,  fee'be,  ("bright,"  "shining;")  Fr.  V\\tv.±, 
ft'bJi';  Gr.  ^otfij?,  (Phoib'e;)  It.  Febe,  fa'bi ;  Lat. 
Phce'be,  (genitive,  Phce'bes.) 

Phyl'lis  or  Phil'lis,  (a  "green  bough  ;")  Gr.  *i'7Jlof, 
(Phullos;)  It.  Filide,  fee'le-dk ;  Lat.  Phyl'lis,  (geni- 
tive, Phvl'lidis.) 

Pie.    See  Pius. 

Pierre.    See  Peter. 

PiETER-     See  Peter. 

Pietro.     See  Peter. 

Pio.     See  Pius. 

Piotr.    See  Peter. 

Pi'us,  ("  pious  ;")  Fr.  PiE,  pee  ;  Ger.  Pius,  pee'4s ; 
It.  Pio,  pee'o ;  Lat.  Pi'us. 

Pliny,  plln'e ;  Fr.  Pline,  pl^n  ;  Ger.  Plinius,  plee'- 
ne-fts ;  It.  Plinio,  plee'ne-o  ;  Lat.  Plin'ius. 

Polycarp,  pol'e-kirp,  ("abounding  in  fruit;")  Fr. 
Polycarpe,  po'le'ktRp';  Gr.  no/.v/ca/jTrof,  ( Pohikarpos ;) 
It.  Policarpo,  po-le-kaR'po  ;  Lat.  Polycar'pus. 

Pom'pey;  Danish,  Pompejus,  pom-pa'yus  ;  Dutch, 
POMPEJUS,  pom-pa'yus  ;  Fr.  Pomp6e,  piN'pi';  It.  PoM- 
PEO,  pom-pa'o  ;  Lat.  Pompe'ius. 

Priscilla,  pris-sil'la,  ("ancient ;")  Dutch,  Priscilla, 


pRis-sil'ld;  Fr.  Priscille,  pRe'sil';  It.  Priscili-a,  pRC 
shil'li;  Lat.  Priscil'la. 

Ptolemy,  tol'e-me,  ("warlike"  or  "mighty  in  war  ;" 
Dutch,  Ptolemeus,  pto-l^h-ma'Cis ;  Fr.  PtolAm^r 
pto'li'mi';  Ger.  PtolemXus,  pto-leh-ma'Cis  ;  Gr.  FItoA*- 
ytaloq,    ( PtoUmaios ; )    It.   ToLOMEO,    to-lo-ma'o ;    Lat 

PrOLEMit'US. 

RA'chel,  (a  "  sheep"  or  "  lamb  ;")  Fr.  Rachel,  rt'- 
shgl';  Ger.  Rahel,  ri'hgl,  or  Rachei.,  riK'Sl  ;  Heb. 
'7m  ;  It.  Rachele,  ri-ka'li ;  Lat.  Ra'chel,  (genitive, 
IOv.che'lis  ;)  Sp.  Raquel,  ra-kSl';  Sw.  Rachel,  ri'kSl. 

Radulphus.     See  Ralph. 

Rafaeu    See  Raphael. 

Rafaele  or  Rafkaelle.     See  Raphael. 

Rahel.    See  Rachel. 

Raimond.     See  Raymond. 

Raimundo.     See  Raymund. 

Ralph,  rilf,  ("warrior-wolf"?*)  Dutch,  Rudolf,  ru'« 
dolf;  Fr.  Raoul,  rt'ool';  It.  Raolfo,  rJ-ol'fo;  Lat 
Radul'phus  ;  Sp.  Rodolfo,  ro-dol'fo ;  Sw.  RuDOLF 
roo'dolf. 

Ramon.     See  Raymond. 

Randal,  rin'dal,  or  Ran'ulph,  (perhaps  the  same 
as  Ralph;)  Fr.  Randolphe,  ri.N'dolf;  Lat.  Ra.nul'- 
phus  ;  Sp.  Randolfo,  ran-dol'fo. 

Raolfo.     See  Ralpil 

Raoul.     See  Ralph. 

Raphael,  ra'fi-el  or  rS'fl-el,  (the  "  healing  or  medi- 
cine of  God ;")  Fr.  Raphael,  rt'fS'51';  Ger.  Raphael, 
ri'fl-gl ;  It.  Rafaele,  ri-fi-a'li,  or  Raffaelle,  rif-fi- 
el'li ;  Lat.  Ra'phael,  (genitive,  Raphae'lis  ;)  Sp. 
Rafael,  ra-fl-Sl'. 

Raquel.    See  Racheu 

Ray'mond,  ("  wise  protection"  ?)  Fr.  Raymond,  r^'- 
mAN';  It.  Raimondo,  ri-mon'do ;  Lat  Raymun'dus; 
Sp.  Raymundo,  rl-moon'do,  or  Ramon,  ri-m6n', 

Rebecca  or  Rebekah,  re-bek'ka  ;  Fr.  Rebecca,  reh'- 
bi'kS';  It  Rebecca,  ri-bek'ki;  Lat  Rekec'ca  ;  So. 
Rebeca,  ri-Ba'ki. 

Regi.naldus.     See  Reynold. 

Reichard.     See  Richard. 

Reinhold.     See  Reynold. 

Reinold.    See  Reynold. 

Renaud.    See  Reynold. 

Ren6,  (not  used  in  English,)  ("born  again,"  "  regen- 
erate ;")  Fr.  Ren6,  reh-ni' ;  It.  Renato,  ri-nd'to  ;  Lat 
Rena'tus. 


•  If,  as  seems  to  be  generally  assumed,  Ralph  in  its  origin  is  the 
same  as  Rudolph  or  Rodolf,  it  probably  signifies  "red  wolf,"  (com- 
pare the  Saxon  rud  and  our  ruddy  with  the  Danish  and  Swedish 
r'dd,  Dutch  rood,  and  the  Ger.-nan  roth,  all  signifying  "  red, "J  having 
been  applied  in  the  first  place,  perhaps,  to  some  red-haired  warrior, 
for  it  is  common  among  all  rude  nations  to  compare  a  warrior  to  some 
animal  distinguished  for  strength,  courage,  or  fierceness.  Cut  Ralph 
may  not  improbably — as  its  English  spelling  and  still  more  that  oi 
its  Latin  equivalent  (Radulphus)  might  seem  to  indicate — be  derived 
from  Radulf  or  Radulph,  meaning  "  waiTior-wolf:"  the  prefix  ra 
(cognate  with  the  English  ride  or  rode)  being  applied  to  the  bettet 
class  of  warriors,  who  were  usually  on  horseback:  thus,  rad-CHihi,  io 
Anglo-Saxon, — literally,  a  "riding  youth," — signifies  a  "  soldier"  01 
"  warrior-knight" 


a,  6, 1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  uSt;  good;  moon; 
2544 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Ren6e,  sometimes  Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
rgn'ne,  (the  feminine  of  Ren6  ;)  Fr.  Ren^e,  r?h-ni' ; 
It.  Renata,  ri-ni'ta  ;  Lat.  Rena'ta. 

Reuben,  ru'ben,  ("behold  a  son;")  Fr.  Ruben,  rii'- 
Mn';  Heb.  piNI ;  Lat.  Reube'nus. 

Reynold,  rSn'pld ;  Danish,  Reinhold,  rln'hoW; 
Dutch,  Reinold,  rl'nolt ;  Fr.  Renaud,  reh-no';  Ger. 
Reinhoi.d,  rin'holt ;  Lat.  Reynal'dus  or  Reginai/dus  ; 
Sp.  Reynaldo,  ra-nSKdo ;  Sw.  Reinhold,  rin'hold. 

Rhoda,  ro'da,  or  Rho'de,  (a  "  rose  ;")  Gr.  'Pot??;, 
(Rhode;)  Lat.  Rho'da. 

Rich'ard,  ("  firm  or  strong  king  ;")  Dutch,  Richard^ 
lee'shiRt ;  Fr.  Richard,  re'shtk';  Ger.  Richard,  riK^- 
iRt,  or  Reichard,  rl'KjRt ;  It.  Ricardo,  re-kaR'do ; 
Lat.  Richar'dus;  Port.  Ricardo,  re-kaR'do;  Sp.  Ri- 
cardo, re-kaR'do. 

RiDOLFO.    See  Rudolph. 

Rob'ert,  ("  bright  fame"  ?)  Danish,  Robert,  ro'b^Rt ; 
Dutch,  Robert,  rflb'^Rt;  Fr.  Robert,  ro'baiR';  Ger. 
Robert,  ro'bSRt ;  It.  Roberto,  ro-bSR'to ;  Lat.  Ro- 
ber'tus  ;  Sp.  Roberto,  ro-b^R'to ;  Sw.  Robert,  rob'- 

SRt. 

Rod'er-ICK,  ("rich  in  fame"?)  Fr.  Rodrigue,  ro'- 
dR^g';  Ger.  Roderich,  ro'deh-riK';  It.  Rodrigo,  ro- 
dRee'go ;  Lat.  Roderi'cus  ;  Russ.  Ru'rik  ;  Sp.  Ro- 
DRIGO,  roDRee'go,  Roderigo,  ro-Di-ree'go,  or  RuY, 
roo-ee'  or  Rwee. 

RoDOLFo.     See  Rudolph. 

RoDOLPHF..     See  Rudolph. 

Rodrigo.    See  Roderick. 

Rodrigue.    See  Roderick. 

Rodriguez,  (Sp.,)  ro-ORee'gSth,  (the  "son  of  Rode- 
rick.") 

RoELAND.    See  Roland. 

Roger,  roj'er,  ("  famous  spear"  ?)  Dutch,  Rutger, 
rut'ger  or  riit'Her ;  Fr.  Roger,  ro'zhi' ;  It.  Rugiero, 
roo-ja'ro;  Lat.  Roge'rus;  Sp.  Rogerio,  ro-Ha're-o. 

Roland  or  Rowland,  ro'land,  (the  "  fame  or  glory 
of  the  land"  ?)  Danish,  Roland,  xo'Mnd ;  Dutch,  Roe- 
land,  roo'lint;  Fr.  Roland,  ro'iflN';  Ger.  Roland, 
ro'Iint ;  It.  Orlan'do,  oR-15n'do,  or  Rolando,  ro-lJn'- 
do ;  Lat.  Rolan'dus  ;  Port.  Rolando,  ro-lin'do ;  Sp. 
Rolando,  ro-lin'do. 

Rosa.    See  Rose. 

Rosamond,  roz'a-mQnd,  ("  rose  of  peace ;")  Dutch, 
Rozamond,  ro'zi-mflnt';  Fr.  Rosemonde,  ro'zeh-mANd' 
or  roz'mANd';  It.  Rosmonda,  ros-mon'd5  ;  Lat.  RosA- 
mun'da. 

Rose,  roz;  Danish,  Rosa,  ro'zi ;  Dutch,  Rosa,  ro'- 
$i  ;  Fr.  Rose,  roz  ;  Ger.  Rose,  ro'zeh  ;  It.  Rosa,  ro'sS ; 
.^at.  Ro'sa  ;  Sp.  Rosa,  ro'sS;  Sw.  Rosa,  roo'si,  or 
Rosina,  roo-see'nS. 

Rowland.    See  Roland. 

Rozamond.     Pee  Rosamond. 

Ruben.     See  Reuben, 

Ru'dolph,  (see  note  under  Ralph  ;)  Dutch,  Rudolf, 
rii'dolf;  Fr.  Rodolphe,  ro'dolf;  Ger.  Rudolf,  roo'- 
dolf ;  It.  Ro-dol'fo  or  RiDOLFO,  re-dol'fo ;  Lat.  Ru- 
dol'phus. 

RuFiN  or  RuFiNus.    See  Griffith. 


Ru'fus,  ("  reddish,"  "  having  red  hair ;")  Lat  Ru'rui. 
Rugiero.     See  Roger. 

Ru'PERT,  ("bright  fame"?)  Ger,  Ruprecht,  r<»'«' 
pR?Kt ;  Lat.  Ruper'tus.  ' 

RuRiK.    See  Roderick. 
Rutger.     See  Roger. 
Ruth,  rooth  ;  Fr.  Ruth,  riit ;  Lat.  Ruth. 
RuY.     See  Roderick. 

Sabina,  sa-bT'na ;  Dutch,  Sabine,  si-bee'n^h  ;  Fr- 
Sabine,  sS'bin';  It.  Sabina,  si-bee'nJ  ;  Lat.  Sabi'na  { 
Sp.  Sabina,  si-Bee'ni  ;  Sw.  Sabina,  sJ-bee'ni. 

Salamon.     See  Solomon. 

Salomao.     See  Solomon.  ''■ 

Salomon.     See  Solomon. 

Samson,  sim'spn  ;  Danish,  Samson,  sim'son  ;  Dutch, 
Samson,  sim'son  ;  Fr.  Samson,  s5n's6n';  Heb.  jljyoty ; 
Lat.  Sam'son,  (genitive,  Samso'nis;)  Port.  SansAo, 
sin-sowN';  Sp.  Sanson,  sSn-sdn';  Sw.  Sim'son. 

Sam'u-el,  ("  heard  by  God  ;")  Danish,  Samuel,  sI'- 
moo-61 ;  Dutch,  Samuel,  si'mii-Sl,  (almost  sS'moo-Sl ;) 
Fr.  Samuel,  si'mii'SK;  Heb.  7X105? ;  Hungarian,  SAm- 
UEL,  shi'moo-§l ;  It.  Samuele,  si-moo-i'li ;  Lat.  Sam'- 
UEL,  (genitive,  Samue'lis  ;)  Sp.  Samuel,  si-moo-£l'. 

Sanson  or  SansXo.     See  Samson. 

Sarah  or  Sara,  sa'ra,  (a  "  princess  ;")  Dutch,  Sara, 
si'ri;  Fr,  Sara,  si'ri';  Ger.  Sara,  si'ri;  Heb.  r\^'^ ; 
It.  Sara,  si'ri ;  Lat.  Sa'ra  ;  Port.  Sara,  si'ri ;  Sp. 
Sara,  si'ri ;  Sw.  Sarah,  si'ri. 

Saul,  ("desired;")  Fr.  Saul,  si'ul';  Heb,  "71Nt7; 
Lat.  Sau'lus.  -,..  ^ 

SczEPAN.     See  Stephen,  ■> 

Sebastian,  se-bist'yan,  (perhaps  "  inclined  tc 
reverence  ; ")  Dutch,  Sebastiaan,  si-bis'te-5n  ;  Fr» 
S6bastien,  si'bts'teJiN';  It.  Sebastiano,  si-bis-te- 
i'no;  Lat.  Sebastia'nus  ;  Port.  SebastiAo,  si-bis-te- 
own';  Russ.  Sevastian,  sivis-te-in';  Sp.  Sebastian, 
si-Bis-te-in';  Sw.  Sebastian,  si-bis'te-in. 

Sibyl,  sib'il ;  Dutch,  Sibylla,  se-bil'li;  Fr.  Sibyllk, 
se'bM';  Gr.  lievXka,  ( Sibulla  ; )  Lat.  Sibyl'la. 

SiGlSMUND,  sij'is-mund,  ("victorious  protection,"  or 
"  he  who  affords  protection  by  victory ;")  Dutch,  SiGls- 
MUNDUS,  se-gis-mun'diis  or  se-His-mun'diis ;  Fr.  SiGls- 
MOND,  se'zhiss'mAN';  Ger.  SiGlSMUND,  see'gis-md6nt', 
or  SiGMUND,  seec'moont;  Lat.  Sigismun'dus;  Sp. 
SiGlSMUNDO,  se-His-moon'do ;  Sw.  SiGlSMUND,  sig'is- 
moond. 

Sil-Va'nus,  ("belonging  to  the  woods,"  or  "inhabit 
ing  the  woods;")  Dutch,  Silvanus,  sil-vi'nus;  Fr. 
Sylvain  or  Silvain,  sil'viN';  It.  Silvano,  sil-vi'noj 
Lat.  Silva'nus;  Sp.  SiLVANO,  sfcl-vi'no. 

Silvester  or  Sylvester,  sil-vSs'ter,  ("belonging  to 
the  woods  ;")  Fr.  Silvestre,  sil'vSsta';  It.  Silvestro, 
sil-v5s'tRo;  Lat.  Silves'ter,  (genitive,  Silves'tris  ;) 
Sp.  Silvestre,  sil-vSs'tRi. 

Silvia,     See  Sylvia, 

Sim'e-on,  ("  hearing  with  acceptance;")  Fr.  Simeon, 
se'mi'AN';  Ger.  Simeon,  see'mi-on  ;  Heb.  p;^Oiy;  It 
SiMEONE,  se-mi-o'ni;  Lat.  Sim'eon,  (genitive,  SiMEo'- 
Nis;)  Port  Simeao,  se-miowN';  Sp.  Simeon,  se-mi-6n'. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( 


i6o 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 
2545 


1 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Simon,  sI'mQn,  (originally  the  same  as  Simeon  ;) 
Dutch,  Simon,  see'mon;  Fr.  Simon,  se'miN';  Ger. 
Simon,  see'mon ;  Hungarian,  Simon,  shee'mon ;  It. 
Simone,  se-mo'ni;  Lat.  Si'mon,  (genitive,  Simo'nis;) 
Sp.  Simon,  se-m6n';  Sw.  Simon,  see'mon. 

SiMSON.     See  Samson. 

Sofia.    See  Sophia. 

Sol'o-MON,  ("  peaceable  ;")  Arabic,  SoLiMAN,  so-le- 
min',  or  Suleyman,  soo'la-mln';  Dutch,  Salomo,  %V- 
lo-mo;  Fr.  Salomon,  st'lo'miN';  Ger.  Salomon,  sS'lo- 
mon  ;  Gr.  "LoTmiiuv,  (Solomon;)  Heb.  noSty  ;  Hungarian, 
Salamon,  shol'o-mon ;  It.  Salomone,  si-lo-mo'ni ;  Lat. 
Sai.'omon,  (genitive,  Salomo'nis;)  Polish,  Salomon, 
s5-lo'mon ;  Port.  SalomAo,  si-lo-mowN';  Sp.  Salo- 
mon, si-lo-m6n'. 

Sophia,  so-f I'a,  ("  wisdom ;")  Danish,  Sophie,  so- 
fee'^h ;  Dutch,  Sophie,  so-fee'eh ;  Fr.  Sophie,  so'fe'; 
Ger.  Sophie,  so-fee'eh  ;  Gr.  So^ta,  (Sophia  ;)  It.  Sofia, 
so-fee'S;  Lat.  So'phia;  Russ.  Sofia,  so-fee'i  or  so'- 
fe-i ;  Sp.  Sofia,  so-fee'i ;  Sw.  Sofia,  so-fee'3. 

Sophronia,  so-fro'ne-S,  ("of  a  sound  mind;")  Fr. 
SoPHRONiE,  so'fRo'ne';  Lat.  Sophro'nia. 

Sosthenes,  sos'/^e-niz,  ("of  sound  strength;")  Fr, 
SoSTHfeNE,  sos't^n';  Gr.  l^uadivijg,  (Sosthenes;)  Lat. 
Sos'thenes. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  (a  "crown"  or  "garland;")  Da- 
nish, Stephan,  stgf'Sn ;  Dutch,  Steven,  sta'v^n,  or 
Stephanos,  sta'fS-nus ;  Fr.  Etienne,  i'te'Sn';  Ger. 
Stephan,  stSf'in ;  Gr.  'ZTe<^avoQ,( Stephanos;)  Hungarian, 
IstvAn,  isht'vin  ;  Lat.  Steph'anus  ;  Polish,  Sczepan, 
s'cha'pin ;  Port.  Estevao,  5s-ti-v6wN';  Russ.  Stepan, 
sti-pin',  or  Stefan,  sti-fin';  Sp.  EstAban,  Ss-ta'Bin, 
(almost  gs-ta'vSn ;)  Sw.  Stefan,  stSfin. 

SuleymAn.    See  Solomon. 

Susan,  soo'zan,  or  Susanna,  soo-zan'na,  (a  "lily;") 
Danish,  Susank-v  soo-§in'ni;  Dutch,  Susanna,  su- 
ftin'ni ;  Fr.  SusANNE,  sU'zin';  Ger.  Susanne,  soo-zSn'- 
neh;  It.  Susanna,  soo-Sin'nS;  Lat.  Susan'na;  Sp. 
SusANA,  soo-s^'ni ;  Sw.  SuSANNA,  soo-sin'nL 

Sylvain.     See  Silvanus. 

Sylvanus.    See  Silvanus. 

Sylvester.    See  Silvester. 

Sylvia  or  Silvia,  sil've-a,"  ("of  the  woods,"  or 
"  delighting  in  the  woods ;")  Fr.  Silvie,  sil've';  It. 
Silvia,  sil've-i ;  Sp.  Silvia,  sfel've-i 

Tabitha,  tab'e-tha,  (often  incorrectly  pronounced 
ta-bi'tha.)  (a  "roe  ;")  Lat.  Tab'itha. 

Taddeo  or  Tadeo.     See  Thaddeus. 

TamAs.     See  Thomas. 

Teobaldo.    See  Theobald. 

Teodorico.     See  Theodoric. 

Teodoro.     See  Theodore. 

Teodosio.     See  Theodosius. 

Teofilo.     See  Theophilus. 

Teresa.     See  Theresa. 

Thaddeus,  thad'de-us  or  thad-dee'us,  ("praise"?) 
It  Taddeo,  tid-da'o;  Lat.  Thadde'us;  Sp.  Tadeo, 
ta-Da'o. 

The'o-bXld,  ("bold  for  the  people"?)  Danish,  Theo- 


bald, ta'o-btW;  Dutch,  Tiebout,  tee'bowt;  Fr.  Thi- 
baut,  te'bo';  Ger.  Theobald,  ta'o-balt';  It.  Teobaldo, 
ti-o-bai'do  ;  Lat.  Theobal'dus  ;  Sp.  Teobaldo,  ti-o- 
Bll'do ;  Sw.  Theobald,  tu'ojbild'. 

The-od'er-ick  or  The-od'o-ric  ;  Dutch,  Dieder- 
ICK,  dee'der-ik,  commonly  contracted  to  Dirk  or  DiRCK, 
degRk  ;  Fr.  Th^odoric,  ti'o'do'rik';  Ger.  Theodorich, 
ti-od'o-riK',  or  Dietrich,  dee'tRiK  ;  It.  Teodorico,  ti- 
o-do-ree'ko;  Lat.  Theodori'cus  ;  Sp.  Teodorico,  ti- 
o-Do're-ko. 

Theodore,  Mee'o-dor,  (the  "  gift  of  God  ;")  Danish, 
Theodor,  ta'o-doR;  Dutch,  Theodorus,  ti-o-do'rus ; 
Fr.  Theodore,  ti'o'doR',  Gr.  GeofJwpof,  (Tluoddros;) 
It.  Teodoro,  ti-o-do'ro ,  Lat.  Theodo'rus  ;  Port.  Theo- 
DORO,  ti-o-do'ro ;  Russ.  Feodor,  fi-o-doR';  Sp.  Tko- 
DORio,  ti-o-Do're-o ;  Sw.  Theodor,  tli'o-doR. 

Theodosia,  //5e-o-do'she-a,  (the  feminine  of  Theo- 
dosius ;)  Fr.  Th^odosie,  tiVdo'ze';  IL  Teodosia,  ti- 
o-do'se-4 ;  Lat.  Theodo'sia. 

Theodosius,  Me-o-do'shcMis,  ("  given  by  God ;")  Fr. 
Th^odose,  ti'o'doz';  It.  Teodosio,  ti-o-do'Se-o  ;  Lat. 
Theodo'sius  ;  Sp.  Teodosio,  ti-o-Do'se-o. 

Theophilus,  ^/5e-of  e-lus,  (a  "  lover  of  God  ;")  Da- 
nish, Gottlieb,  got'leep;  Dutch,  Theophilus,  ti-o'- 
fe-lus  ;  Fr.  Th6ophile,  ti'o'ftK;  Ger.  Gottlieb,  got'- 
leep ;  Gr.  Gfo^tAof,  (  Theophilos ;)  It.  Teofilo,  t4«of'e-lo ; 
Lat.  Theoph'ilus  ;  Port.  Theophilo,  ti-o'fe-lo ;  Sp. 
Teofilo,  ti-o'fe-lo. 

Theresa,  te-ree'sa ;  Dutch,  Theresia,  ti-ra'§e-i ; 
Fr.  Th^r^se,  ti'riz';  Ger.  Therese,  ti-ra'zeh ;  It 
Teresa,  ti-ra'sS ;  Lat.  There'sa  ;  Sp.  Teresa,  ti-ra'si ; 
Sw.  Theresa,  ti-rn'sL 

Thibacit.     See  Theobald. 

Thomas,  tom'ass  or  tom'us,  (a  "  twin ;")  Danish, 
Thomas,  tom'ts  ;  Dutch,  Thomas,  to'mSs  ;  Fr.  Tho- 
mas, to'mi';  Ger.  Thomas,  to'mSs  ;  Gr.  Qufmg,  (Tho- 
mas;) Hungarian,  TamXs,  tom'ish ;  It  Tommaso, 
tom-mi'So ;  Lat  Tho'mas  ;  Polish,  ToMASZ,  to'mish  ; 
Port  Thomas,  to-mis',  or  Thomar,  to-mjR';  Sp 
ToMAS,  to-mis';  Sw.  Thomas,  tom'is. 

Tiberius,  tl-bee're-us ;  Fr.  TibAre,  te'baiR';  It  Ti- 
BERio,  te-ba're-o  ;  Lat  Tibe'rius. 

Tiebout.    See  Theobald. 

Timothy,  tim'o-//le,  ("fearing  God;")  Danish, 
TiMOTHEUS,  te-mo '  ti-(ks ;  Dutch,  Timotheus,  te- 
mo'ti-us ;  Fr.  Timoth^e,  te'mo'ti';  Ger.  Timotheus, 
te-mo'ti-As  ;  Gr.  Tifwdm,  ( Timotkeos ;)  It  Timoteo, 
te-mo-ta'o ;  Lat.  Timo'theus  ;  Port  Timotheo,  te- 
mo-ta'o ;  Sp.  Timoteo,  te-mo-ta'o ;  Sw.  Timotheus, 
te-mo'te-ds. 

Titus,  tl'tus  ;  Fr.  Tite,  tit ;  Ger.  Tnus,  tee'tds  ;  It 
Tito,  tee'to ;  Lat  Ti'tus  ;  Sp.  Tito,  tee'to. 

Tobias,  to-bl'ass,  or  Toby,  to'be,  (the  "goodness  of 
the  Lord  ;")  Danish,  Tobias,  to-bee'3s ;  Dutch,  Tobias, 
to-bee'a,s  ;  Fr.  Tobie,  to'be';  Ger.  Tobias,  to-bee'Ss  ; 
It  Tobia,  to-bee'S;  Lat  Tobi'as;  Sp.  Tobias,  to 
bee'Ss. 

ToLOMEO.     See  Ptolemy. 

Tomas.     See  Thomas. 

ToMASz.     See  Thomas. 

Tommaso.    See  Thomas. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  fi,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  skort:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  till,  lit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon 
2546 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Tristram,  tris'tr^m,  ("  sorrowful ;")  Lat.  Tristra'- 
MUS ;  Port  TristAo,  tRis-towN'. 

Ugo.     See  Hugh. 

Uliviere.    See  Oliver. 

Ulysses,  yoo-lis's4z ;  Fr.  Ulysse,  ii'liss';  Gr.  'Oiva- 
eevc,  (Odtisseiis;)  It.  Ulisse,  oo-lis's&;  Lat.  Ulys'ses 
or  Ulyx'es,  (genitive,  Ulys'sis.) 

Urban,  ur'ban,  ("courteous  ;")  Danish,  Urban,  oor'- 
otn  ;  Dutch,  Urbanus,  uR-bi'nus,  or  Urbaan,  iiR'bSn  ; 
Fr.  Urbain,  uR'b^N';  Ger.  Urban,  ooR'bin;  It.  Ur- 
BANO,  ooR-bd'no;  Lat.  Urba'nus;  Sp.  Urbano,  oor- 
ba'no;  Sw.  Urban,  ooR'bdn. 

Uriah,  yoo-ri'a,  (the  "fire  of  the  Lord ;")  Fr.  Urie, 
U're';  Ger.  Urias,  oo-ree'is ;  It.  Uria,  oo-ree'i ;  Lat. 
Uri'as. 

Ursula,  ur'su-la,  (a  "  female  bear  ;")  Dutch,  Ursula, 
uR'sU-li;  Fr.  Ursule,  ur'sUK;  Ger.  Ursula,  oor'- 
soo-li;  It.  Ursula,  oor'soo-IS;  Lat.  Ur'sula;  Sp. 
Ursula,  ooR'soo-li ;  Sw.  Ursula,  oor'soo-IL 

Uzziah,  uz-zl'a,  (the  "  strength  of  the  Lord  ;")  Heb. 
ri'i;; ;  Lat.  Uzzi'as. 

Valentine,  vaK^n-tln,  ("strong"  or  "healthy;") 
Danish,  Valentin,  fl'l^n-teen';  Dutch,  Valentijn, 
vyien-tin';  Fr.  Valentin,  vt'16N'tiN';  Ger.  Valentin, 
fil'len-teen'  or  vS'len-teen';  It.  Valentino,  vd-lSn-tee'- 
no ;  Lat.  Valenti'nus  ;  Port.  Valentim,  vS-lSn-tiN'; 
Sp.  Valentin,  vS-lSn-tin';  Sw.  Valentin,  vj'l^n-teen'. 

VALtRE.     See  Valerius. 

Valeria,  v^-lee're-a,  (the  feminine  of  Valerius  ;) 
Fr.  Valerie,  vS'li're';  It.  Valeria,  vi-la're-i;  Lat. 
Vale'ria. 

Valerian,  va-lee're-an  ;  Dutch,  Valerianus,  vi-li- 
re-d'nus ;  Fr.  ValArien,  vt'li're^N';  It.  Valeriano, 
vi-li-re-d'no ;  Lat.  Valeria'nus. 

Valerie.     See  Valeria. 

Valerius,  va-lee're-us ;  Fr.  Val^re,  vS'laiR';  It. 
Valerio,  vd-la're-o ;  Lat.  Vale'rius. 

Varfolomei.    See  Bartholomew. 

Vasili  or  Vasilil     See  Basil. 

Veit.    See  Guy. 

Veronica,  v5r-o-nI'ka ;  Fr.  V6ronique,  vi'ro'nik'; 
It.  Veronica,  vi-ro-nee'ki. 

Vicente.    See  Vincent. 

Victoria,  vik-to're-a,  ("victory;")  Fr.  Vicfoire, 
vik'twiR';  It.  ViTTORiA,  v6t-to're-i ;  Lat.  Victo'ria  ; 
bp.  Vitoria,  ve-to're-5. 

Vin'cent,  (an  "  overcomer ;")  Dutch,  Vincentius, 
v!n-s5n'se-us ;  Fr.  Vincent,  vAn'sSn';  It.  Vincente, 
v4n-chSn'ti ;  Lat.  Vincen'tius  ;  Port.  Vicente,  ve- 
sSn'ti ;    Sp.  Vicente,  ve-Men'ti,  or  Vincente,  vin- 


Virginia,  vjr-jin'e-a;  Dutch,  Virginie,  vIr-hcc' 
ne-eh ;  Fr.  Virginie,  v^R'zhfe'ne';  Ger.  Virginia,  fSga- 
gee'ne-i;  It.  Virginia,  vir-jee'ne-i ;  Lat.  Virgin'ia. 

Vittoria  or  Vitoria.     See  Victoria. 

Vivian,  viv'e-an,  ("living;")  Fr.  Vivien,  ve'v^^N'; 
Lat.  Vivia'nus. 

Walter,  waul't^r,  (a  "  wood-master ;")  Dutch,  Wou- 
ter,  wow'ter ;  Fr.  Gautier,  go'te-i';  Ger.  Walter, 
(^ai't^r ;  It.  Gualterio,  gwil-ta're-o ;  Lat.  Gualte'- 
Rus;  Port.  Gualter,  gwdl-taiR';  Sp.  Gualterio, 
gwil-ta're-o ;  Sw.  Walter,  vSl't^r. 

WiLHELM.     See  William. 

Wilhelmine,  wfl'h61-meen',  (the  feminine  of  Wil- 
liam ;)  Ger.  Wilhelmine,  <tll-hSl-mee'neh ;  It  Gu- 
glielma,  gool-ySKmi. 

William,  wil'yam ;  Danish,  Wilhelm,  vlKhSlm ; 
Dutch,  WiLLE.M,  wil'lem ;  Fr.  Guillaume,  ge'yom'; 
Ger.  Wilhelm,  <^il'h$lm  ;  It.  Guglielmo,  gool-ySl'mo; 
Lat.  Guliel'mus,  Wilhel'mus,  or  Williel'mus  ;  Sp. 
Guillermo,  ge-y5R'mo ;  Sw.  Wilhelm,  vil'hglm. 

Winifred,  win'e-fred,  or  Win'ifrid,  ("winning 
peace;")  Dutch,  Winfried,  wIn'fReet;  Fr.  Winifred, 
ve'ne'fRSd';  Lat  Winfre'da  ;  Sw.  WiNFRiD,  v!n'fRid. 

Wouter.     See  Walter. 

Yakof,    See  James. 
Yekaterina.    See  Catherine. 

Zabulon.     See  Zebulon. 

Zacarias.    See  Zachariah. 

Zaccaria.    See  Zachariah. 

Zaccheus, zak-kee'us,  ("pure,"  "just;")  Fr. Zach4b; 
zS'shi';  It  Zacheo,  dzi-ka'o ;  Lat  Zacche'us. 

Zachariah,  zak-a-ri'a,  ("  remembering  the  Lord ;") 
Danish,  Zacharias,  zd-ki-ree'ts ;  Dutch,  Zacharias, 
zJ-Ki-ree'is  ;  Fr.  Zacharie,  zt'kt're';  Ger.  Zacharias, 
tsSK-i-ree'Ss ;  Heb.  TT'IJI ;  It  Zaccaria,  dzik-kd-ree'l ; 
Lat  Zachari'as;  Sp.  Zacarias,  //4d-kS-ree'is ;  Sw. 
Zacharias,  zi-ki-ree'is. 

Zadok,  za'dQk,  ("righteous;")  Fr.  Zadoc,  zfdok', 
Heb.  pn^f ;  Lat.  Zado'cus. 

Zeb'u-lon  or  Zeb'u-lun  ;  Fr.  Zabulon,  zi'bu16N' 
Heb.  JiSdI  orjSur;  Lat.  Zab'ulon,  (genitive,  Zabu- 
lo'nis.) 

Zedekiah,  zed-e-ki'a,  (the  "justice  of  the  Lord;") 
Heb.  rv^Ti  or  in'pni*. 

Ze'no  ;  Fr.  Z^non,  zi'ndN';  Gr.  Zr/vuv,  (Zinon  ;)  It, 
Zenone,  dzi-no'ni. 

Zenobia,  ze-no'be-d;  Fr.  ZAnobie,  zi'no'be';  Gr. 
Zr)voSia,  (Zenobia  ;)  It.  Zenobia,  dzi-no'be-i ;  Lat.  Ze> 
no'bia. 


t  as  ;4;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K.  ptttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2S47 


DISPUTED  OR  DOUBTFUL  PRONUNCIATIONS. 


Preliminary  Remarks, 

Language  may  be  said  to  be  a  mixed  product  of  cer- 
tain accidental  elements  and  the  generalizing  faculty  of 
the  human  mind.  Each  nation,  from  some  peculiarity, 
as  it  would  seem,  in  its  original  or  acquired  character, 
tends  to  develop  its  language  in  a  particular  manner, 
and  while  this  tendency  operates  without  the  interfer- 
ence of  foreign  influence,  a  language  will  generally  be 
found  to  grow  more  and  more  regular  so  long  as  the 
nation  speaking  it  exists.  But  if  foreign  words,  or  new 
habits  of  thought,  be  introduced  by  the  prevalence  of 
some  new  philosophical  or  religious  system,  irregularity 
in  language,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  is  the  inevitable 
result.  Accordingly,  we  occasionally  see  even  among 
the  Germans  (who,  of  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  appear 
to  have  been  most  successful  in  preserving  their  lan- 
guage pure  from  the  admixture  of  foreign  elements) 
such  irregularities  as  the  following,  "Z?(W  Leiden  Christi" 
("  the  suffering  of  Christ,")  with  a  Latin  gettitive,  instead 
of  the  more  regular  form,  "Z)aJ  Leiden  des  Christus.'''' 

But  the  most  common,  as  well  as  most  powerful, 
cause  of  irregularity  in  language,  is  military  conquest 
and  occupation,  as  in  this  case  the  conquerors  invariably 
introduce  new  words  and  phrases,  which  often  form  a 
most  incongruous  mixture  with  the  native  dialects.  If 
the  conquest  be  religious  as  well  as  military,  the  effect  is 
still  more  striking.  This  was  remarkably  exemplified  in 
the  conquest  of  Persia*  and  Hindostan  by  the  followers 
of  Mohammed.  The  ail-but  unparalleled  irregularity  of 
the  English  language  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  succes- 
sive conquests  of  Britain  (originally  inhabited  by  Celtst) 
by  the  Romans,  the  Saxons,  the  Danes,  and  the  Nor- 
mans, the  conquest  in  each  instance  being  not  a  mere 
overrunning  of  the  country,  but  followed  by  a  permanent 
military  occupation. 

To  the  same  cause,  though  operating  in  a  less  degree, 
must  likewise  be  ascribed  the  irregularity  of  the  French 
tongue;  though  other  influences  have  also  contributed 
to  the  same  result.  The  central  situation  of  France,  and 
the  various  attractions  which  the  country  and  people 
present  to  strangers,  have  induced  multitudes  of  almost 
every  nation  to  make  it  their  residence ;  so  that  proba- 
bly no  European  country  in  recent  times  has  had  so 
mixed  and  multifarious  a  population.  To  this  cause, 
more  than  to  any  other,  must  be  attributed  the  exceeding 
irregularity  which  prevails  in  the  pronunciation  of  French 
proper  names,  ' 


•  See,  in  connection  with  this  subject,  our  remarks  on  the  Persian 
language,  with  accompanying  note,  in  the  Introduction,  p.  19. 

t  At  least,  the  Celts  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  island  known 
10  history. 


The  comparative  regularity  of  the  Italian  language  ii 
to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  though  Italy  has 
often  been  overrun  by  foreign  armies  it  has  seldom 
been  subjected  to  permanent  military  occupation.!  And 
in  the  comparatively  few  instances  in  which  this  has 
occurred,  the  great  and  acknowledged  superiority  of  the 
Italians  in  literature  and  the  arts  has  led  the  conquerors 
rather  to  adopt  the  customs  and  language  of  the  con- 
quered than  attempt  to  introduce  their  own.  In  the 
sound  of  the  Italian  letters,  whether  simple  or  in  com- 
bination, there  is  scarcely  any  difficulty,  when  the  rules 
of  pronunciation  are  once  known.  The  only  irregu- 
larities that  occur  in  the  language  may  be  said  to  be 
limited  to  diversity  of  spelling  and  variation  of  accent ; 
so  that,  if  the  orthography  of  the  word  or  name  and 
the  proper  accentuation  are  ascertained,  one  cannot 
easily  err  in  the  pronunciation. 

In  Spain  we  find  a  language  of  the  most  heterogeneous 
elements,  because  in  early  times  it  was  often  overrun 
and  some  portions  permanently  occupied  by  nations  of 
the  most  diverse  and  even  opposite  characters, — Car- 
thaginians, Romans,  Goths,  Arabs,  etc.  ;  but,  having 
been  for  nearly  six  hundred  years  unsubjected,  except 
for  a  short  time  only,  to  any  foreign  power,  it  has  so 
assimilated  its  originally  heterogeneous  and  incongruous 
elements,  and  been  so  successful  (if  we  may  use  the 
expression)  in  bringing  light  and  order  out  of  the  chaos 
of  its  rude  and  multifarious  dialects,  that  it  may  now 
justly  boast  of  being,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the  most 
regular  as  well  as  one  of  the  finest  among  all  the  Ian 
guages  of  Europe.  As  regards  pronunciation,  the  most 
striking  irregularities  in  the  Spanish  tongue  will  be 
found  in  words  or  names  of  Moorish  origin,  such  as 
Alcacer,  (Arabic,  al-Kasr,  "  the  castle"  or  "  palace,") 
Alcala,  (al-qild,  "the  fort,)  Almod6var,  (al-Modhafer, 
"  the  victorious,")  and  so  on. 

Below  will  be  given  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
discrepancies  in  the  pronunciation  and  spelling  of  the 
principal  European  languages. 

L 

English. 

Notwithstanding  the  extreme  irregularity  of  our  lan- 
guage, we  find  comparatively  few  instances  of  discrep- 
ancy in  the  pronunciation  of  celebrated  names,  whether 
these  be  of  English  origin  or  the  Anglicized  forms  of 
foreign  names. 


X  It  should  be  borne  distinctly  in  mind  that  when  this  phrase  is 
used  it  always  has  reference  to  military  occupation  by  the  troops  of 
a  nation  essentially  differing  in  language  from  the  conqaered  people. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  vi,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  iis,  fill,  fit j  ni^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 
2548 


DISPUTED    OR  DOUBTFUL   PRONUNCIATIONS. 


The  following  are  among  the  most  important  : 

Augustine,  aw'gus-tin  or  avv-gus'tin.* 
Bellarmin,  beKlar-min  or  bel-lar'min.t 
Cowper,  kow'per  or  koo'per.J 
Derby,  der'be  or  dar'be.§ 
Gifford,  gif'fQrd  or  jif'fgrd.ll 
Raphael,  ra'fi-Sl  or  ra'A-Sl. 

Variations  in  spelling  are  still  more  rare. 

a 

Noted  French  Names  of  Doubtful  Spelling. If 

Angeli,  Angeli. 

Cecille,  Cecille, 

Chateaubriand,  Chateaubriand. 

F^nelon,  Fenelon. 

Niceron,  Niceron. 

Petion,  Petion. 

Remusat,  Remusat. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  diversities  in  spel'ing  like 
the  above  would  necessarily  be  followed  by  diversity  of 
pronunciation.  But  this  is  not  always  the  case.  For 
example.  Vice- Admiral  Cecille  informs  us  that  although 
he  never  writes  the  first  syllable  of  his  name  with  an 
accent,  it  is  always  pronounced  as  if  it  had  an  accent. 
Petion,  the  famous  mayor  of  Paris  in  the  early  part  of 
the  French  Revolution,  always  omitted  the  accent  on  the 
t  in  his  name,  which  was  nevertheless  always  pronounced 
Petion.  But  though  the  unaccented  letter  may  in  many 
cases  still  be  pronounced  as  if  it  had  the  accent,  the 
omission  can  scarcely  fail,  sooner  or  later,  to  produce  a 
permanent  change  in  the  pronunciation  itself. 

Noted  French  Names  of  Doubtful  or  Disputed 
Pronunciation. 

Barras,  bt'rts'  or  bi'ri'. 
Biot,  be'o'  or  be'ot'.** 


•  In  favour  of  the  first  we  have  not  only  the  analogy  of  other 
languages,  cognate  with  ours,  e.g.  the  German  Augustin'  or' 
Au'gustin,  and  the  Dutch  Au'gustijn,  but  also  the  authority  of  some 
of  our  best  poets,  including  Scott  and  Longfellow.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  best  modem  usage,  at  least  in 
this  country,  is  in  favour  of  Augus'tine. 

t  The  first  pronunciation  of  this  name  appears  to  have  been  for- 
merly very  general  among  the  best  speakers ;  but  modern  usage  seems 
to  have  decided  for  the  second. 

X  The  first  pronunciation  is  pure  Saxon ;  the  other  (a  more  aris- 
tocratic pronunciation)  is  intended  to  give  the  Norman  sound  of  ou, 
(or  ow^  u  and  w  being  formerly  often  interchanged.  (See  note  to 
Gifford.) 

§  The  chief  reason  for  adopting  the  second  pronunciation  of  this 
name,  so  contrary  to  the  general  usage  of  our  language,  would  seem 
to  be  the  consideration  that  an  antiquated  pronunciation  is  appro- 
priate to  the  name  of  a  very  ancient  family. 

I  Propel  ly  speaking,  these  may  be  regarded  as  two  different 
names :  the  one  aristocratic,  taking  the  soft  sound  of  g  from  the 
Norman  French ;  the  other  plebeian,  adopting  the  common  Saxon 
pronunciation  of  that  letter. 

H  The  French  language  at  the  present  time  would  appear  to  be 
u  a  transition  state  in  regard  to  placing  the  accent,  which  is  now 
omitted  from  many  names  on  which  it  was  formerly  invariably 
placed.  The  omission  was  probably  due  in  the  first  place  to  haste  or 
tarelessness ;  but  what  was  originally  an  error  resulting  from  sheer 
aegligence,  if  committed  by  some  eminent  author  in  regard  to  his 
own  name,  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  preferable  mode  of 
writing  such  name. 

••  We  have  been  assured,  on  respectable  authority,  that  in  the 
name  of  the  celebrated  Uossuet  the  final  /  was  pronounced  in  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century. 


Chateaubriand  or  Chateaubriand,  shd'to'bRe'SN 
or  sht'to'bRe'fiN'. 

Dumas,  dii'mi'  or  dii'mis'. 

Genlis,  zhftN'liss'  or  zhSw'le'. 

Guise,  gwiz  (gii-fez')  or  ghz. 

Guizot,tt  gwe'zo'  (gU-e'zo')  or  ge'zo'. 

Laennec,  li'nSk't}  or  l^'n^k'. 

Sieyis,  se'4'ySss'  or  se'Sss'. 
This  list  might  be  much  extended,  including  a  muhi* 
tude  of  names  in  which  the  pronunciation  of  the  final 
consonant  is  undetermined,  as  Audoul,  6'dool'  or  6'dco', 
Bastoul,  bSs'tool'  or  bSs'too',  Destutt,  variously  pro- 
nounced d^'tiit',  di'tU',  and  dSs'tiit',  etc.  etc.,  and  many 
others,  such  as  Remilly,  Silly,  Villers,  Villette,  Wailly, 
Willot,  etc.,  in  which  it  is  somewhat  uncertain  whether 
the  //  should  or  should  not  be  made  liquid.  To  which 
may  be  added  almost  every  name  of  recent  introduction 
from  foreign  countries,  as  Bianchi,  Brown-Sequard, 
Weiss,  Wiihem,  Zurlauben,  etc.  In  regard  to  such 
names  many  French  speakers  will  seek  to  approximate 
the  foreign  pronunciation,  while  others  will  try  to  make 
them  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  orthoepical 
principles  of  their  own  language.  The  best  usage  ap- 
pears to  make  a  marked  difference  in  the  pronunciation 
of  names  of  foreign  and  those  of  French  origin.  (See 
Section  V.,  30,  Obs.  2,  in  the  Introduction.) 

III. 
German. 

There  are  among  the  educated  classes  of  Germany 
no  diversities  in  German  pronunciation  of  any  great 
importance.  It  may,  however,  be  observed  that  the 
names  of  families  of  French  extraction  are  usually  pro- 
nounced according  to  the  principles  of  the  French  lan- 
guage. 

IV. 

Italian   Names  of  Doubtful  or  Disputed 

Pronunciation. 
In  tne   pronunciation  of  Italian  names,  almost  the 
only  discrepancy  of  any  importance,  as   already  inti- 
mated, relates  to  the  accentuation.     But  doubtful  names 
of  the  last-named  class  are  pretty  numerous. 

Alcamo,  iKki-mo  or  il-kj'mo. 

Argoli,  aR-go'lee  or  aR'go-lee. 

Bagnolo,  bin'yo-lo  or  bdn-yo'lo. 

Baila,  blHi  or  bS-ee'li 

Benoli,  bk-no'lee  or  ba'no-lee, 

Bertola,  bfR'to-lJ  or  bSR-to'll 

Caffaro,  kSffl-ro  or  kif-fl'ro. 

Calici,  kS'le-chee  or  k5-lee'chee. 

Campolo,  kim'po-lo  or  kSm-po'lo. 

Caracciolo,  kS-rSt-cho'Io  or  kJ-rit'cho-lo, 

Cerasola,  chi-ri-so'll  or  chi-ri'&o-li. 

Clarici,  kli-ree'chee  or  kli're-chee. 

Guiccioli,  gwfet-cho'lee  or  gwit'cho-lee.§§ 


ft  See  the  pronunciation  of  this  name  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

tt  This  pronunciation,  which  has  been  given  in  the  body  of  the 
work,  has  the  sanction  of  M.  Bescherelle  himself,  than  whom  there 
is  no  higher  authority. 

§§  We  gave  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  on  what  *e  consid- 
ered good  authority,  the  antepenultimate  accentuation  of  this  name 
under  the  article  Guiccioli  :  but  we  have  since  met  with  an  educated 
and  highly  intelligent  Italian  gentleman,  Signor  Ponti,  who  assures 
us  that  he  was  personally  acquainted  with  several  Italians  named 
Guiccioli,  and  that  the  name  was  invariably  accentuated  on  the  pennl- 
tima.     We  have  now  no  doubt  tnat  this  is  the  correct  pronunciatior. 


c  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  asyV  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  :;  th  as  in  this. 


(Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 
2549 


DISPUTED    OR  DOUBTFUL  PRONUNCIATIONS, 


Maroli,  mS'ro-lee  or  mi-ro'lee. 
Ongaro,  on-gi'ro  or  on'gi-ro. 
Vaccaro,  vik'ki-ro  or  vJk-ki'ro. 

It  may  be  proper  to  state  that  in  the  attempt  to  ascer- 
tain the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  foregoing  names 
we  have  had  the  assistance  of  several  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished professors  of  the  Italian  language  in  Italy. 
No  doubt  the  same  name  is  often  pronounced  differently 
in  different  sections :  we  have  therefore  generally  pre- 
ferred to  adopt  the  opinion  of  that  professor  who  lived 
nearest  to  the  birthplace  of  the  person  whose  name  was 
the  subject  of  dispute. 

The  diversity  in  the  spelling  of  Italian  names  appears 
to  be  for  the  most  part  limited  to  such  comparatively 
unimportant  variations  as  the  doubling  of  a  consonant, 
or  the  interchange  of  the  vowels  a  and  e  in  an  unaccented 
syllable.  The  following  are  among  the  most  important 
exceptions  to  the  foregoing  remark : 

Caliari  or  Cagliari,  (pronounced  alike  kil'yi-ree.) 

Leonardo  (or  Lionardo)  da  Vinci. 


Michelangelo,  (Michael  Angelo,)  me-kSl-in'ji-lo,  or 
Michelagnolo,*  me-k51-in'yo-lo. 

V. 

Spanish. 

The  rules  for  writing  and  printing  Spanish  are  bo 
admirablet  that  among  the  educated  classes  there  is 
scarcely  any  considerable  diversity  either  in  spelling  or 
pronunciation.  The  chief  exceptions  to  this  remark 
occur  in  proper  names,  some  writers  adopting  the  mod- 
ern spelling  ofy  for  x,  (in  XiMENES,  for  example,)  while 
others  prefer  the  old  form. 

•  This  spelling  seems  like  a  strange  anomaly  wlien  we  oonsidei 
that  the  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  Michael  Ancelus  ;  but  the 
name  of  the  great  artist  is  so  spelled  on  the  base  of  his  statue  at  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio  in  Florence,  and  the  name  of  the  street  in  which  he 
lived  is  spelled  in  the  same  manner:  so,  likewise,  Roscoe  alway> 
gives  the  name  in  his  "Pontificate  of  Leo  X." 

t  See  Section  XIX.,  20,  Obs.  i,  in  the  Introduction. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  3^,  short;  ^  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m5t;  n6t;  g66d;  moon; 

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